[illustration: frontispiece. "come forth into the light of things, let nature be your teacher." --wordsworth.] studies of trees by j.j. levison, m.f. lecturer on ornamental and shade trees, yale university forest school; forester to the department of parks, brooklyn, n.y. first edition first thousand preface in presenting this volume, the author is aware that there are several excellent books, dealing with one phase or another of tree life, already before the public. it is believed, however, that there is still need for an all-round book, adapted to the beginner, which gives in a brief and not too technical way the most important facts concerning the identification, structure and uses of our more common trees, and which considers their habits, enemies and care both when growing alone and when growing in groups or forests. in the chapters on the identification of trees, the aim has been to bring before the student only such characters and facts as shall help him to distinguish the tree readily during all seasons of the year. special stress is laid in each case on the most striking peculiarities. possible confusion with other trees of similar appearance is prevented as far as possible through comparisons with trees of like form or habit. only such information is given concerning the structure and requirements of trees as will enable the reader better to understand the subsequent chapters. in the second half of the book, practical application is made of the student's general knowledge thus acquired, and he is acquainted with the fundamental principles of planting, care, forestry, wood identification and nature study. the author recognizes the vastness of the field he is attempting to cover and the impossibility of even touching, in a small hand-book of this character, on every phase of tree study. he presumes no further; yet he hopes that by adhering to what is salient and by eliminating the less important, though possibly interesting, facts, he is able to offer a general and elementary _résumé_ of the whole subject of value to students, private owners, farmers and teachers. in the preparation of chapter viii on "our common woods: their identification, properties and uses," considerable aid has been received from prof. samuel j. record, author of "economic woods of the united states." acknowledgment is also due to the u.s. forest service for the photographs used in figs. , to inclusive and ; to dr. george b. sudworth, dendrologist of the u.s. forest service, for checking up the nomenclature in the lists of trees under chapter v; to dr. e.p. felt, entomologist of the state of new york, for suggestions in the preparation of the section of the book relating to insects; to dr. w.a. murrill, assistant director of the new york botanical gardens, for fig. ; and to mr. hermann w. merkel, chief forester of the new york zoological park, for figs. , and . j.j. levison. brooklyn, n.y. june, . contents chapter i how to identify trees the pines the spruce and hemlock the red cedar and arbor-vitae chapter ii how to identify trees (continued) the larch and cypress the horsechestnut, ash, and maple trees told by their form trees told by their bark or trunk the oaks and chestnut chapter iii how to identify trees (continued) the hickories, walnut, and butternut tulip tree, sweet gum, linden, magnolia, locust, catalpa, dogwood, mulberry, and osage orange chapter iv the structure and requirements of trees chapter v what trees to plant and how trees for the lawn trees for the street trees for woodland trees for screening chapter vi the care of trees insects injurious to trees and how to combat them important insects tree diseases pruning trees tree repair chapter vii forestry what forestry is and what it does care of the woodland chapter viii our common woods: their identification, properties and uses woods without pores (soft woods) woods with pores (hard woods) chapter ix an outdoor lesson on trees introduction a good many popular books on trees have been published in the united states in recent years. the continually increasing demand for books of this character indicates the growing public interest not only in the trees that we pass in our daily walks, but also in the forest considered as a community of trees, because of its aesthetic and protective value and its usefulness as a source of important economic products. as a nation, we are thinking more about trees and woods than we were wont to do in the years gone by. we are growing to love the trees and forests as we turn more and more to outdoor life for recreation and sport. in our ramblings along shady streets, through grassy parks, over wooded valleys, and in mountain wildernesses we find that much more than formerly we are asking ourselves what are these trees, what are the leaf, flower, twig, wood and habit characteristics which distinguish them from other trees; how large do they grow; under what conditions of soil and climate do they thrive best; what are their enemies and how can they be overcome; what is their value for wood and other useful products; what is their protective value; are they useful for planting along streets and in parks and in regenerating forests; how can the trees of our streets and lawns be preserved and repaired as they begin to fail from old age or other causes? all these questions and many more relating to the important native and exotic trees commonly found in the states east of the great lakes and north of maryland mr. levison has briefly answered in this book. the author's training as a forester and his experience as a professional arboriculturist has peculiarly fitted him to speak in an authoritative and interesting way about trees and woods. the value of this book is not in new knowledge, but in the simple statement of the most important facts relating to some of our common trees, individually and collectively considered. a knowledge of trees and forests adds vastly to the pleasures of outdoor life. the more we study trees and the more intimate our knowledge of the forest as a unit of vegetation in which each tree, each flower, each animal and insect has its part to play in the complete structure, the greater will be our admiration of the wonderful beauty and variety exhibited in the trees and woods about us. j.w. toumey, director, yale university forest school. new haven, conn., june, . studies of trees chapter i how to identify trees there are many ways in which the problem of identifying trees may be approached. the majority attempt to recognize trees by their leaf characters. leaf characters, however, do not differentiate the trees during the other half of the year when they are bare. in this chapter the characterizations are based, as far as possible, on peculiarities that are evident all year round. in almost every tree there is some one trait that marks its individuality and separates it, at a glance, from all other trees. it may be the general form of the tree, its mode of branching, bark, bud or fruit. it may be some variation in color, or, in case of the evergreen trees, it may be the number and position of the needles or leaves. the species included in the following pages have thus been arranged in groups based on these permanent characters. the individual species are further described by a distinguishing paragraph in which the main character of the tree is emphasized in heavy type. the last paragraph under each species is also important because it classifies all related species and distinguishes those that are liable to be confused with the particular tree under consideration. group i. the pines [illustration: fig. .--twig of the austrian pine.] how to tell them from other trees: the pines belong to the _coniferous_ class of trees; that is, trees which bear cones. the pines may be told from the other coniferous trees by their leaves, which are in the form of _needles_ two inches or more in length. these needles keep green throughout the entire year. this is characteristic of all coniferous trees, except the larch and cypress, which shed their leaves in winter. [illustration: fig. .--twig of the white pine.] the pines are widely distributed throughout the northern hemisphere, and include about distinct species with over varieties. the species enumerated here are especially common in the eastern part of the united states, growing either native in the forest or under cultivation in the parks. the pines form a very important class of timber trees, and produce beautiful effects when planted in groups in the parks. how to tell them from each other: the pine needles are arranged in _clusters_; see fig. . each species has a certain characteristic number of needles to the cluster and this fact generally provides the simplest and most direct way of distinguishing the different pines. in the white pine there are _five_ needles to each cluster, in the pitch pine _three_, and in the scotch pine _two_. the austrian pine also has two needles to the cluster, but the difference in size and character of the needles will distinguish this species from the scotch pine. the white pine (_pinus strobus_) distinguishing characters: the tree can be told at close range by the number of needles to each cluster, fig. . there are *five* needles to each cluster of the white pine. they are bluish green, slender, and about four inches in length. at a distance the tree may be told by the *right angles* which the branches form with the main trunk, fig. . no other pine shows this character. form and size: a tall tree, the stateliest of the evergreens. range: eastern north america. soil and location: prefers a deep, sandy soil, but will grow in almost any soil. enemies: sucking insects forming white downy patches on the bark and twigs, the _white pine weevil_, a boring insect, and the _white pine blister rust_, a fungus, are among its principal enemies. [illustration: fig. .--the white pine.] value for planting: aside from its value as an ornamental tree, the white pine is an excellent tree to plant on abandoned farms and for woodlands and windbreaks throughout the new england states, new york, pennsylvania, and the lake states. commercial value: the wood is easily worked, light, durable, and will not warp. it is used for naval construction, lumber, shingles, laths, interior finish, wooden ware, etc. other characters: the _fruit_ is a cone, four to six inches long. comparisons: the tree is apt to be confused with the _bhotan pine_ (_pinus excelsa_), which is commonly grown as an ornamental tree. the bhotan pine, however, has needles much longer and more drooping in appearance. the pitch pine (_pinus rigida_) distinguishing characters: here there are *three* needles to each cluster, fig. . they are dark, yellowish-green needles about four inches long. the rough-looking _branches_ of the tree may be seen _studded with cones_ throughout the year, and _clusters of leaves_ may be seen _sprouting directly from the trunk_ of the tree; see fig. . the last two are very characteristic and will distinguish the tree at a glance. form and size: it is a low tree of uncertain habit and extremely rough looking at every stage of its life. it is constantly full of dead branches and old cones which persist on the tree throughout the year. range: eastern united states. soil and location: grows in the poorest and sandiest soils where few other trees will grow. in new jersey and on long island where it is native, it proves so hardy and persistent that it often forms pure stands excluding other trees. [illustration: fig. .--twig of the pitch pine.] enemies: none of importance. value for planting: well adapted for the sea coast and other exposed places. it is of extremely uncertain habit and is subject to the loss of the lower limbs. it frequently presents a certain picturesqueness of outline, but it could not be used as a specimen tree on the lawn. [illustration: fig. .--the pitch pine.] commercial value: the wood is coarse grained and is used for rough lumber, fuel, and charcoal. other characters: the _fruit_ is a cone one to three inches long, persistent on the tree for several years. the scotch pine (_pinus sylvestris_) distinguishing characters: there are *two* needles to each cluster, and these are _short_ compared with those of the white pine, and _slightly twisted_; see fig. . the _bark_, especially along the upper portion of the trunk, _is reddish_ in color. form and size: a medium-sized tree with a short crown. range: europe, asia, and eastern united states. soil and location: will do best on a deep, rich, sandy soil, but will also grow on a dry, porous soil. enemies: in europe the scotch pine has several insect enemies, but in america it appears to be free from injury. value for planting: suitable for windbreaks and woodland planting. many excellent specimens may also be found in our parks. commercial value: in the united states, the wood is chiefly used for fuel, though slightly used for barrels, boxes, and carpentry. in europe, the scotch pine is an important timber tree. comparisons: the scotch pine is apt to be confused with the _austrian pine_ (_pinus austriaca_), because they both have two needles to each cluster. the needles of the austrian pine, however, are much longer, coarser, straighter, and darker than those of the scotch pine; fig. . the form of the austrian pine, too, is more symmetrical and compact. [illustration: fig. .--twig of the scotch pine.] the _red pine_ (_pinus resinosa_) is another tree that has two needles to each cluster, but these are much longer than those of the scotch pine (five to six inches) and are straighter. the bark, which is reddish in color, also differentiates the red pine from the austrian pine. the position of the cones on the red pine, which point outward and downward at maturity, will also help to distinguish this tree from the scotch and the austrian varieties. group ii. the spruce and hemlock how to tell them from other trees: the spruce and hemlock belong to the evergreen class and may be told from the other trees by their _leaves_. the characteristic leaves of the spruce are shown in fig. ; those of the hemlock in fig. . these are much shorter than the needles of the pines but are longer than the leaves of the red cedar or arbor vitae. they are neither arranged in clusters like those of the larch, nor in feathery layers like those of the cypress. they adhere to the tree throughout the year, while the leaves of the larch and cypress shed in the fall. the spruces are pyramidal-shaped trees, with tall and tapering trunks, thickly covered with branches, forming a compact crown. they are widely distributed throughout the cold and temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, where they often form thick forests over extended areas. there are eighteen recognized species of spruce. the norway spruce has been chosen as a type for this group because it is so commonly planted in the northeastern part of the united states. the hemlock is represented by seven species, confined to temperate north america, japan, and central and western china. [illustration: fig. .--the norway spruce.] how to tell them from each other: the needles and branches of the spruce are _coarse_; those of the hemlock are _flat and graceful_. the individual leaves of the spruce, fig. , are four-sided and green or blue on the under side, while those of the hemlock, fig. , are flat and are _marked by two white lines_ on the under side. the norway spruce (_picea excelsa_) distinguishing characters: the characteristic appearance of the full-grown tree is due to the *drooping branchlets* carried on *main branches which bend upward* (fig. ). leaf: the leaves are dark green in color and are _arranged spirally_, thus making the twigs coarser to the touch than the twigs of the hemlock or fir. in cross-section, the individual leaflet is quadrilateral, while that of the pine is triangular. form and size: a large tree with a straight, undivided trunk and a well-shaped, conical crown (fig. ). range: northern europe, asia, northern north america. soil and location: grows in cool, moist situations. enemies: the foliage of the spruce is sometimes affected by _red spider_, but is apt to be more seriously injured by drought, wind, and late frosts. value for planting: commonly planted as an ornamental tree and for hedges. it does well for this purpose in a cool northern climate, but in the vicinity of new york city and further south it does not do as well, losing its lower branches at an early age, and becoming generally scraggly in appearance. [illustration: fig. .--a group of hemlock.] commercial value: the wood is light and soft and is used for construction timber, paper pulp, and fuel. other characters: the _fruit_ is a large slender cone, four to seven inches long. comparisons: the _white spruce_ (_picea canadensis_) may be told from the norway spruce by the whitish color on the under side of its leaves and the unpleasant, pungent odor emitted from the needles when bruised. the cones of the white spruce, about two inches long, are shorter than these of the norway spruce, but are longer than those of the black spruce. it is essentially a northern tree growing in all sorts of locations along the streams and on rocky mountain slopes as far north as the arctic sea and alaska. it often appears as an ornamental tree as far south as new york and pennsylvania. the _black spruce_ (_picea mariana_) may be told from the other spruces by its small cone, which is usually only about one inch in length. in new england it seldom grows to as large a size as the other spruce trees. it covers large areas in various parts of northern north america and grows to its largest size in manitoba. the black spruce has little value as an ornamental tree. the _colorado blue spruce_ (_picea parryana_ or _picea pungens_) which is commonly used as an ornamental tree on lawns and in parks, can be told from the other spruces by its pale-blue or sage-green color and its sharp-pointed, coarse-feeling twigs. its small size and sharp-pointed conical form are also characteristic. it grows to a large size in colorado and the middle west. in the eastern states and in northern europe where it is planted as an ornamental tree, it is usually much smaller. [illustration: fig. .--twig of the norway spruce.] hemlock (_tsuga canadensis_) distinguishing characters: its leaves are arranged in *flat layers*, giving a flat, horizontal and graceful appearance to the whole branch (fig. ). the individual leaves are dark green above, lighter colored below, and are *marked by two white lines on the under side* (fig. ). the leaves are arranged on little stalks, a characteristic that does not appear in the other evergreen trees. form and size: a large tree with a broad-based pyramidal head, and a trunk conspicuously tapering toward the apex. the branches extend almost to the ground. range: the hemlock is a northern tree, growing in canada and the united states. soil and location: grows on all sorts of soils, in the deepest woods as well as on high mountain slopes. enemies: none of importance. value for planting: the hemlock makes an excellent hedge because it retains its lowest branches and will stand shearing. in this respect it is preferable to the spruce. it makes a fair tree for the lawn and is especially desirable for underplanting in woodlands, where the shade from the surrounding trees is heavy. in this respect it is like the beech. commercial value: the wood is soft, brittle, and coarse-grained, and is therefore used mainly for coarse lumber. its bark is so rich in tannin that it forms one of the chief commercial products of the tree. other characters: the _fruit_ is a small cone about ¾ of an inch long, which generally hangs on the tree all winter. [illustration: fig. .--twig of the hemlock.] group iii. the red cedar and arbor-vitae how to tell them from other trees: the red cedar (juniper) and arbor-vitae may be told from other trees by their _leaves_, which remain on the tree and keep green throughout the entire year. these leaves differ from those of the other evergreens in being much shorter and of a distinctive shape as shown in figs. and . the trees themselves are much smaller than the other evergreens enumerated in this book. altogether, there are thirty-five species of juniper recognized and four of arbor-vitae. the junipers are widely distributed over the northern hemisphere, from the arctic region down to mexico in the new world, and in northern africa, china, and japan in the old world. the arbor-vitae is found in northeastern and northwestern america, china, and japan. the species mentioned here are those commonly found in america. how to tell them from each other: the _twigs_ of the arbor-vitae are _flat and fan-like_ as in fig. ; the twigs of the red cedar are _needle-shaped or scale-like_ as in fig. . the foliage of the arbor-vitae is of a lighter color than that of the red cedar, which is sombre green. the arbor-vitae will generally be found growing in moist locations, while the red cedar will grow in dry places as well. the arbor-vitae generally retains its lower branches in open places, while the branches of the red cedar start at some distance from the ground. red cedar (_juniperus virginiana_) [illustration: fig. .--the red cedar.] distinguishing characters: the tree can best be told at a glance by its general form, size and leaves. it is a medium-sized tree with a _symmetrical, cone-like form_, fig. , which, however, broadens out somewhat when the tree grows old. its color throughout the year is dull green with a tinge of brownish red, and its bark peels in thin strips. [illustration: fig. (a).--twig of young cedar. fig. (b).--twig of cedar (older tree).] leaf: in young trees the leaf is needle-shaped, pointed, and marked by a white line on its under side, fig. (a). in older trees it is scale-like, fig. (b), and the white line on its under side is indistinct. range: widely distributed over nearly all of eastern and central north america. soil and location: grows on poor, gravelly soils as well as in rich bottom lands. enemies: the "_cedar apple_," commonly found on this tree, represents a stage of the apple rust, and for that reason it is not desirable to plant such trees near orchards. its wood is also sometimes attacked by small _boring insects_. value for planting: its characteristic slender form gives the red cedar an important place as an ornamental tree, but its chief value lies in its commercial use. commercial value: the wood is durable, light, smooth and fragrant, and is therefore used for making lead-pencils, cabinets, boxes, moth-proof chests, shingles, posts, and telegraph poles. other characters: the _fruit_ is small, round and berry-like, about the size of a pea, of dark blue color, and carries from one to four bony seeds. other common names: the red cedar is also often called _juniper_ and _red juniper_. comparisons: the red cedar is apt to be confused with the _low juniper_ (_juniperus communis_) which grows in open fields all over the world. the latter, however, is generally of a low form with a flat top. its leaves are pointed and prickly, never scale-like, and they are whitish above and green below. its bark shreds and its fruit is a small round berry of agreeable aromatic odor. arbor-vitae; northern white cedar (_thuja occidentalis_) distinguishing characters: the *branchlets* are extremely *flat and fan-like*, fig. , and have an agreeable _aromatic odor_ when bruised. the tree is an evergreen with a _narrow conical form_. [illustration: fig. .--twig of the arbor-vitae.] leaf: leaves of two kinds, one scale-like and flat, the other keeled, all tightly pressed to the twig (see fig. ). form and size: a close, conical head with dense foliage near the base. usually a small tree, but in some parts of the northeastern states it grows to medium size with a diameter of two feet. range: northern part of north america. soil and location: inhabits low, swampy lands; in the state of maine often forming thick forests. enemies: very seldom affected by insects. value for planting: is hardy in new england, where it is especially used for hedges. it is also frequently used as a specimen tree on the lawn. commercial value: the wood is durable for posts, ties, and shingles. the bark contains considerable tannin and the juices from the tree have a medicinal value. other characters: the _fruit_ is a cone about ½ inch long. other common names: arbor-vitae is sometimes called _white cedar_ and _cedar_. comparisons: the arbor-vitae is apt to be confused with the true _white cedar_ (_chamaecyparis thyoides_) but the leaves of the latter are sharp-pointed and not flattened or fan-shaped. chapter ii how to identify trees--(continued) group iv. the larch and cypress how to tell them from other trees: in summer the larch and cypress may easily be told from other trees by their _leaves_. these are needle-shaped and arranged in clusters with numerous leaves to each cluster in the case of the larch, and feathery and flat in the case of the cypress. in winter, when their leaves have dropped off, the trees can be told by their cones, which adhere to the branches. there are nine recognized species of larch and two of bald cypress. the larch is characteristically a northern tree, growing in the northern and mountainous regions of the northern hemisphere from the arctic circle to pennsylvania in the new world, and in central europe, asia, and japan in the old world. it forms large forests in the alps of switzerland and france. the european larch and not the american is the principal species considered here, because it is being planted extensively in this country and in most respects is preferable to the american species. the bald cypress is a southern tree of ancient origin, the well-known cypress of montezuma in the gardens of chepultepec having been a species of taxodium. the tree is now confined to the swamps and river banks of the south atlantic and gulf states, where it often forms extensive forests to the exclusion of all other trees. in those regions along the river swamps, the trees are often submerged for several months of the year. how to tell them from each other: in summer the larch may be told from the cypress by its leaves (compare figs. and ). in winter the two can be distinguished by their characteristic forms. the larch is a broader tree as compared with the cypress and its form is more conical. the cypress is more slender and it is taller. the two have been grouped together in this study because they are both coniferous trees and, unlike the other conifers, are both deciduous, their leaves falling in october. [illustration: fig. .--twig of the larch in summer.] the european larch (_larix europaea_) distinguishing characters: its leaves, which are needle-shaped and about an inch long, are borne in *clusters* close to the twig, fig. . there are many leaves to each cluster. this characteristic together with the *spire-like* form of the crown will distinguish the tree at a glance. leaf: the leaves are of a light-green color but become darker in the spring and in october turn yellow and drop off. the cypress, which is described below, is another cone-bearing tree which sheds its leaves in winter. [illustration: fig. .--twig of the larch in winter.] form and size: a medium-sized tree with a conical head and a straight and tapering trunk. (see fig. .) range: central europe and eastern and central united states. soil and location: requires a deep, fresh, well-drained soil and needs plenty of light. it flourishes in places where our native species would die. grows very rapidly. enemies: the larch is subject to the attacks of a _sawfly_, which has killed many trees of the american species. a _fungus_ (_trametes pini_) which causes the tree to break down with ease is another of its enemies. value for planting: a well-formed tree for the lawn. it is also useful for group planting in the forest. commercial value: because its wood is strong and durable the larch is valuable for poles, posts, railroad ties, and in shipbuilding. [illustration: fig. .--twig of the cypress.] other characters: the _fruit_ is a small cone about one inch long, adhering to the tree throughout the winter. [illustration: fig. .--the bald cypress.] comparisons: the tree is apt to be confused with the _american larch_, also known as _tamarack_ and _hackmatack_, but differs from it in having longer leaves, cones twice as large and more abundant and branches which are more pendulous. the larch differs from the bald cypress in the broader form of its crown and the cluster-like arrangement of its leaves. the twigs of the bald cypress are flat and feathery. the larch and bald cypress have the common characteristics of both shedding their leaves in winter and preferring to grow in moist or swampy soils. the larch, especially the native species, forms the well-known tamarack swamps of the north. the bald cypress grows in a similar way in groups in the southern swamps. bald cypress (_taxodium distichum_) distinguishing characters: the *feathery character* of the *twigs*, fig. , and the *spire-like form* of the tree, fig. , which is taller and more slender than the larch, will distinguish this species from others. [illustration: fig. .--cypress "knees."] leaf: the leaves drop off in october, though the tree is of the cone-bearing kind. in this respect it is like the larch. form and size: tall and pyramidal. range: the cypress is a southern tree, but is found under cultivation in parks and on lawns in northern united states. soil and location: grows naturally in swamps, but will also do well in ordinary well-drained, good soil. in its natural habitat it sends out special roots above water. these are known as "_cypress knees_" (fig. ) and serve to provide air to the submerged roots of the tree. enemies: none of importance. value for planting: an excellent tree for park and lawn planting. commercial value: the wood is light, soft, and easily worked. it is used for general construction, interior finish, railroad ties, posts and cooperage. other characters: the _bark_ is thin and scaly. the _fruit_ is a cone about an inch in diameter. the general _color_ of the tree is a dull, deep green which, however, turns orange brown in the fall. comparisons: the cypress and the larch are apt to be confused, especially in the winter, when the leaves of both have dropped. the cypress is more slender and is taller in form. the leaves of each are very different, as will be seen from the accompanying illustrations. group v. the horsechestnut, ash and maple how to tell them from other trees: the horsechestnut, ash, and maple have their branches and buds arranged on their stems *opposite* each other as shown in figs. , and . in other trees, this arrangement is *alternate*, as shown in fig. . how to tell these three from each other. if the bud is large--an inch to an inch and a half long--dark brown, and _sticky_, it is a _horsechestnut_. if the bud is _not sticky_, much smaller, and _rusty brown to black_ in color, and the ultimate twigs, of an olive green color, are _flattened_ at points below the buds, it is an _ash_. [illustration: fig. .--alternate branching (beech.)] if it is not a horsechestnut nor an ash and its small buds have many scales covering them, the specimen with branches and buds opposite must then be a _maple_. each of the maples has one character which distinguishes it from all the other maples. for the sugar maple, this distinguishing character is the _sharp point of the bud_. for the silver maple it is the _bend in the terminal twig_. for the red maple it is the _smooth gray-colored bark_. for the norway maple it is the _reddish brown color of the full, round bud_, and for the box elder it is the _greenish color of its terminal twig_. the form of the tree and the leaves are also characteristic in each of the maples, but for the beginner who does not wish to be burdened with too many of these facts at one time, those just enumerated will be found most certain and most easily followed. [illustration: fig. .--opposite branching (horsechestnut.)] the horsechestnut (_aesculus hippocastanum_) distinguishing characters: the *sticky* nature of the *terminal bud* and its *large size* (about an inch long). the bud is dark brown in color. see fig. . leaf: five to seven leaflets, usually seven. fig. . form and size: medium-sized tree, pyramidal head and coarse twigs. range: europe and eastern united states. soil and location: prefers a deep, rich soil. enemies: the leaves are the favorite food of caterpillars and are subject to a blight which turns them brown prematurely. the trunk is often attacked by a disease which causes the flow of a slimy substance. value for planting: on account of its showy flowers, the horsechestnut is a favorite for the park and lawn. commercial value: the wood is not durable and is not used commercially. other characters: the _flowers_ appear in large white clusters in may and june. the _fruit_ is large, round, and prickly. [illustration: fig. .--leaf of the horsechestnut.] comparisons: the _red horsechestnut_ differs from this tree in having red flowers. the _buckeye_ is similar to the horsechestnut, but its bud is not sticky and is of a lighter gray color, while the leaf generally has only five leaflets. the white ash (_fraxinus americana_) distinguishing characters: the terminal *twigs* of glossy olive green color are *flattened* below the bud. fig. . the bud is rusty-brown. [illustration: fig. .--twig of white ash.] leaf: five to nine leaflets. fig. . form and size: a large tree with a straight trunk. range: eastern north america. soil and location: rich, moist soil. enemies: in cities it is very often attacked by sucking insects. value for planting: the white ash grows rapidly. on account of its insect enemies in cities, it should be used more for forest planting and only occasionally for ornament. commercial value: it has a heavy, tough, and strong wood, which is valuable in the manufacture of cooperage stock, agricultural implements, and carriages. it is superior in value to the black ash. other characters: the _bark_ is gray. the _flowers_ appear in may. comparisons: the white ash is apt to be confused with the _black ash_ (_fraxinus nigra_), but differs from the latter in having a lighter-colored bud. the bud of the black ash is black. the bark of the white ash is darker in color and the terminal twigs are more flattened than those of the black ash. [illustration: fig. .--leaf of white ash.] sugar maple (_acer saccharum_) distinguishing characters: the *bud is sharp-pointed*, scaly, and reddish brown. fig. . [illustration: fig. .--twig of the sugar maple.] leaf: has sharp points and round sinus. fig. . form and size: the crown is oval when the tree is young and round in old age. fig. . range: eastern united states. soil and location: moist and deep soil, and cool, shady positions. enemies: subject to drouth, especially in cities. is attacked by the _sugar maple borer_ and the _maple phenacoccus_, a sucking insect. value for planting: its rich and yellow color in the fall, and the fine spread of its crown make it a desirable tree for the lawn, especially in the country. commercial value: its wood is hard and takes a good polish; used for interior finish and furniture. the tree is also the source of maple sugar. fig. . other characters: the _bark_ is smooth in young trees and in old trees it shags in large plates. the _flowers_ appear in the early part of april. other common names: the sugar maple is sometimes called _rock maple_ or _hard maple_. silver maple (_acer saccharinum_) distinguishing characters: the tips of the *twigs curve upwards* (fig. ), the bark is scaly, and the leaves are very deeply cleft and are silvery on the under side. [illustration: fig. .--leaf of sugar maple.] leaf: deeply cleft and silvery under side. fig. . form and size: a large tree with the main branches separating from the trunk a few feet from the ground. the terminal twigs are long, slender, and drooping. range: eastern united states. soil and location: moist places. enemies: the _leopard moth_, a wood-boring insect, and the _cottony-maple scale_, a sucking insect. [illustration: fig. .--the sugar maple.] value for planting: grows too rapidly and is too short-lived to be durable. commercial value: its wood is soft, weak, and little used. other characters: the _bark_ is light gray, smooth at first and scaly later on. the scales are free at each end and attached in the center. the _flowers_ appear before the leaves in the latter part of march or early april. [illustration: fig. .--tapping the sugar maple.] other common names: the silver maple is sometimes known as _soft maple_ or _white maple_. red maple (_acer rubrum_) [illustration: fig. .--terminal twig of silver maple.] distinguishing characters: the *bark is smooth and light gray*, like that of the beech, on the upper branches in older trees, and in young trees over the whole trunk. fig. . the buds are in clusters, and the terminal twigs, fig. , are quite red. [illustration: fig. .--leaf of the silver maple.] leaf: whitish underneath with three-pointed lobes. fig. . form and size: a medium-sized tree with a narrow, round head. range: eastern north america. soil and location: prefers moist places. enemies: leaf blotches (_rhytisma acerinum_) which, however, are not very injurious. value for planting: suitable as a shade tree for suburban streets. its rich red leaves in the fall make it attractive for the lawn. [illustration: fig. .--bark of the red maple.] commercial value: its wood is heavy, close-grained, and takes a good polish. used for furniture and fuel. other characters: the _bud_ is small, round, and red. the _flowers_ appear before the leaves are out in the early part of april. [illustration: fig. .--twig of the red maple.] [illustration: fig. .--leaf of the red maple.] other common names: the red maple is sometimes known as _swamp maple_. [illustration: fig. .--twig of norway maple.] comparisons: the red maple is apt to be confused with the silver maple, but the latter can be distinguished by its turned-up twigs and scaly bark over the whole trunk of the tree, which presents a sharp contrast to the straight twig and smooth bark of the red maple. the latter has a bark similar to the beech, but its branches are _opposite_, while those of the beech are _alternate_. norway maple (_acer platanoides_) distinguishing characters: the bud, fig. , is *oval and reddish-brown* in color; when taken off, a *milky juice exudes*. the bark is close. fig. [illustration: fig. .--bark of norway maple.] leaf: like the leaf of the sugar maple but thicker in texture and darker in color. fig. . form and size: a tall tree with a broad, round head. range: europe and the united states. soil and location: will grow in poor soil. enemies: very few. value for planting: one of the best shade trees. commercial value: none. other characters: the _bark_ is close like that of the mockernut hickory. comparisons: the norway maple is apt to be confused with the _sycamore maple_ (_acer pseudoplatanus_), but differs from the latter in having a reddish bud instead of a green bud, and a close bark instead of a scaly bark. box elder (_acer negundo_) distinguishing characters: the terminal *twigs are green*, and the buds are round and small. fig. . leaf: has three to seven leaflets. [illustration: fig. .--leaf of norway maple.] form and size: a medium-sized tree with a short trunk and wide-spreading top. range: eastern united states to the rocky mountains. soil and location: grows rapidly in deep, moist soil and river valleys, but accommodates itself to the dry and poor soil conditions of the city. [illustration: figure .--twig of the box elder.] enemies: few. value for planting: used as a shade tree in the middle west, but the tree is so ill formed and so short-lived that it is not to be recommended. commercial value: none. the wood is soft. other characters: the _bark_ of the trunk is smooth and yellowish-green in young trees and grayish brown in older specimens. the _flowers_ appear in the early part of april. the _fruit_ takes the form of yellowish-green keys which hang on the tree till late fall. other common names: the box elder is also commonly known as the _ash-leaf maple_. group vi. trees told by their form: elm, poplar, gingko and willow how to tell them from other trees: the trees described in this group are so distinctive in their general _form_ that they may, for the purpose of study, be grouped together, and distinguished from all other trees by this characteristic. how to tell them from each other: the american elm is _vase-like_ in shape; the lombardy poplar is narrow and _spire-like_; the gingko, or maidenhair tree, is _odd_ in its mode of _branching_; and the weeping willow is extremely _pendulous_. american elm (_ulmus americana_) distinguishing characters: the tree can be told at a glance by its general branching habit. the limbs arch out into a wide-spreading *fan or vase-like crown* which loses itself in numerous fine drooping branchlets. see fig. . [illustration: fig. .--american elm.] leaf: the leaves are simple, alternate, and from to inches long. [illustration: fig. .--english elm in winter.] form and size: it is a tall tree with a trunk that divides a short distance above ground. its general contour, together with the numerous branches that interlace its massive crown, give the elm an interesting and stately appearance which is unequaled by any other tree. [illustration: fig. .--lombardy poplar.] range: eastern north america. soil and location: the elm prefers a deep, rich and moist soil, but will adapt itself even to the poor soil of the city street. enemies: _the leopard moth_, a wood-boring insect, and the _elm leaf beetle_, a leaf-eating insect, are the two most important enemies of the tree. their ravages are very extensive. value for planting: the tree has a character of its own which cannot be duplicated for avenue or lawn planting. commercial value: the wood is strong and tough and therefore has a special value for cooperage, agricultural implements, carriages, and shipbuilding. other characters: the _buds_ are small, brown, and smooth, while those of the european elms are covered with down. the _small side twigs_ come out at almost right angles to the larger terminal twigs, which is not the case in other species of elm. [illustration: fig. .--leaf of carolina poplar.] other common names: _white elm_. comparisons: the _english elm_ (_ulmus campestris_) is also a tall, dignified tree commonly seen under cultivation in america, but may be told from the american species by the difference in their general contour. the branches of the english species spread out but do not arch like those of the american elm, and the bark of the english elm is darker and coarser, fig. . little tufts of dead twigs along the main branches and trunk of the tree are characteristic of the english elm and will frequently help to distinguish it from the american elm. the _camperdown elm_ may be recognized readily by its dwarf size and its low drooping umbrella-shaped crown. lombardy or italian poplar (_populus nigra, var. italica_) distinguishing characters: its *tall, slender, spire-like form* and rigidly *erect branches*, which commence low on the trunk, make this tree very distinct at all seasons of the year. see fig. . leaf: triangular in shape, similar to that of the carolina poplar but smaller, see fig. . range: asia, europe, and north america. soil and location: the poplar is easily grown in poor soil, in any location, and is very hardy. value for planting: the tree has a distinctive form which makes it valuable for special landscape effects. it is also used for shelter belts and screening. like all poplars it is short lived and will stand pruning well. commercial value: none. [illustration: fig. .--carolina poplar.] comparisons: the _carolina poplar_, or cottonwood (_populus deltoides_) can be told from the lombardy poplar by its wider crown and its more open branching, fig. . it may be recognized by its big terminal twigs, which are light yellow in color and coarser than those of the lombardy poplar, fig. . its bark is smooth, light and yellowish-green in young trees, and dark gray and fissured in older specimens. its large, conical, glossy, chestnut-brown bud is also characteristic, fig. . its flowers, in the form of large catkins, a peculiarity of all poplars, appear in the early spring. the carolina poplar is commonly planted in cities because it grows rapidly and is able to withstand the smoke and drouth conditions of the city. where other trees, however, can be substituted with success, the poplar should be avoided. its very fast growth is really a point against the tree, because it grows so fast that it becomes too tall for surrounding property, and its wood being extremely soft and brittle, the tree frequently breaks in windstorms. in many cases it is entirely uprooted, because it is not a deep-rooted tree. its larger roots, which spread near the surface, upset the sidewalk or prevent the growth of other vegetation on the lawn, while its finer rootlets, in their eager search for moisture, penetrate and clog the joints of neighboring water and sewer pipes. the tree is commonly attacked by the _oyster-shell scale_, an insect which sucks the sap from its bark and which readily spreads to other more valuable trees like the elm. the female form of this tree is even more objectionable than the male, because in the early spring the former produces an abundance of cotton from its seeds which litters the ground and often makes walking dangerous. the only justification for planting the carolina poplar is in places where the conditions for tree growth are so poor that nothing else will grow, and in those cases the tree should be cut back periodically in order to keep it from becoming too tall and scraggly. it is also desirable for screening in factory districts and similar situations. [illustration: fig. .--bud of the carolina poplar.] the _silver_ or _white poplar_ (_populus alba_) may be told from the other poplars by its characteristic smooth, _whitish-green bark_, often spotted with dark blotches, fig. . the _leaves are silvery-white_ and downy on the under side. the twigs are dark green in color and densely covered with a white down. it grows to very large size and forms an irregular, wide-spreading, broad head, which is characteristically different from that of any of the other poplars. [illustration: fig. .--bark of the silver poplar.] the _quaking aspen_ (_populus tremuloides_), the _large-toothed aspen_ (_populus grandidentata_) and the _balsam poplar_ or _balm of gilead_ (_populus balsamifera_) are other common members of the poplar group. the quaking aspen may be told by its reddish-brown twigs, narrow sharp-pointed buds, and by its small finely toothed leaves. the large-toothed aspen has thicker and rather downy buds and broader and more widely toothed leaves. the balsam poplar has a large bud thickly covered with a sticky, pungent, gelatinous substance. gingko or maidenhair tree (_gingko biloba_) [illustration: fig. .--gingko trees.] distinguishing characters: the *peculiar branches* of this tree *emerge upward* from a straight tapering trunk *at an angle of about °* and give to the whole tree a striking, oriental appearance, which is quite different from that of any other tree, fig. . leaf: like that of a leaflet of maidenhair fern, fig. . range: a native of northern china and introduced into eastern north america. soil and location: the gingko will grow in poor soils. enemies: practically free from insects and disease. [illustration: fig. .--leaves of the gingko tree.] value for planting: it makes a valuable tree for the street where heavy shade is not the object and forms an excellent wide-spreading specimen tree on the lawn. other characters: the _fruit_ consists of a stone covered by sweet, ill-smelling flesh. the tree is dioecious, there being separate male and female trees. the male tree is preferable for planting in order to avoid the disagreeable odor of the fruit which appears on the female trees when about thirty years old. the male tree has a narrower crown than the female tree. the buds (fig. ) are very odd and are conspicuous on the tree throughout the winter. the leaves of the gingko shed in the winter. in this respect the tree is like the larch and the bald cypress. [illustration: fig. .--bud of the gingko tree.] the gingko belongs to the yew family, which is akin to the pine family. it is therefore a very old tree, the remains of the forests of the ancient world. the gingko in its early life is tall and slender with its few branches close to the stem. but after a time the branches loosen up and form a wide-spreading crown. in the orient it attains enormous proportions and in this country it also grows to a fairly large size when planted on the open lawn or in groups far apart from other trees so that it can have plenty of room to spread. it then produces a picturesque effect of unusual interest. weeping willow (_salix babylonica_) distinguishing characters: all the willows have a single cap-like scale to the bud, and this species has an unusually *drooping mass of slender branchlets* which characterizes the tree from all others, fig. . [illustration: fig. .--weeping willow.] form and size: it grows to large size. range: asia and europe and naturalized in eastern united states. soil and location: prefers moist places near streams and ponds. enemies: none of importance. value for planting: the weeping willow has a special ornamental effect in cemeteries and along lakes and river banks in parks. commercial value: it is used in the united states for charcoal and for fuel. comparisons: the _pussy willow_ (_salix discolor_) may easily be told from the other willows by its small size; it is often no higher than a tall shrub. its branches are _reddish green_ and the buds are dark red, smooth and glossy. the predominating color of the twigs and buds in the pussy willow is therefore a shade of _red_, while in the weeping willow it is _yellowish green_. group vii. trees told by their bark or trunk: sycamore, birch, beech, blue beech, ironwood, and hackberry how to tell them from other trees: the _color of the bark or the form of the trunk_ of each of the trees in this group is distinct from that of any other tree. how to tell them from each other: in the sycamore, the bark is _mottled_; in the white birch, it is _dull white_; in the beech, it is _smooth and gray_; in the hackberry, it is covered with numerous _corky warts_; in the blue beech, the trunk of the tree is _fluted_, as in fig. , and in the ironwood, the bark _peels_ in thin perpendicular strips. [illustration: fig. .--bark of the sycamore tree.] the sycamore or plane tree (_platanus occidentalis_) distinguishing characters: the peculiar *mottled appearance* of the *bark* (fig. ) in the trunk and large branches is the striking character here. the bark produces this effect by shedding in large, thin, brittle plates. the newly exposed bark is of a yellowish green color which often turns nearly white later on. *round seed balls*, about an inch in diameter, may be seen hanging on the tree all winter. in this species, the seed balls are usually solitary, while in the oriental sycamore, a european tree similar to the native one, they appear in clusters of two, or occasionally of three or four. see fig. . [illustration: fig. .--seed-balls of the oriental sycamore. note one seed-ball cut in half.] [illustration: fig. .--gray or white birch trees.] leaf: the stem of the leaf completely covers the bud. this is a characteristic peculiar to sycamores. form and size: a large tree with massive trunk and branches and a broad head. range: eastern and southern united states. soil and location: prefers a deep rich soil, but will adapt itself even to the poor soil of the city street. enemies: the sycamore is frequently attacked by a fungus (_gloeosporium nervisequum_), which curls up the young leaves and kills the tips of the branches. late frosts also often injure its young twigs. the oriental sycamore, which is the european species, is more hardy in these respects than the native one and is therefore often chosen as a substitute. value for planting: the occidental sycamore is now planted very little, but the oriental sycamore is used quite extensively in its place, especially as a shade tree. the oriental sycamore is superior to the native species in many ways. it is more shapely, faster growing, and hardier than the native one. both sycamores will bear transplanting and pruning well. [illustration: fig. .--bark of the black or sweet birch.] commercial value: the wood of the sycamore is coarse-grained and hard to work; used occasionally for inside finishing in buildings. other names: _buttonball_, _buttonwood_. comparisons: the _oriental sycamore_ (_platanus orientalis_) an introduced species, is apt to be confused with the occidental sycamore, but may be told from the latter by the number of seed balls suspended from the tree. in the case of the oriental species, the seed balls hang in _pairs_ or (rarely) three or four together. in the occidental, the seed balls are generally _solitary_ and very rarely in pairs. gray or white birch (_betula populifolia_) distinguishing characters: the *dull-white color of the bark* on the trunk and the _dark triangular patches below the insertion of the branches_ distinguish this tree; see fig. . the bark of the young trunks and branches is reddish-brown in color and glossy. the bark adheres closely to the trunk of the tree and does not peel in loose, shaggy strips, as in the case of the yellow or golden birch. it is marked by small raised horizontal lines which are the lenticels or breathing pores. these lenticels are characteristic of all birch and cherry trees. in addition to the distinction in the color of the bark, an important character which distinguishes the gray birch from all other species of birch, is found in the *terminal twigs*, which are *rough* to the touch. form and size: a small tree. frequently grows in clumps. range: eastern united states. soil and location: the gray birch does best in a deep, rich soil, but will also grow in poor soils. enemies: the _bronze-birch borer_, a wood-destroying insect, and _polyporus betulinus_, a fungus, are its chief enemies. value for planting: its graceful habit and attractive bark gives the tree an important place in ornamental planting. it may be used to advantage with evergreens, and produces a charming effect when planted by itself in clumps. [illustration: fig. .--bark of the beech.] [illustration: fig. .--buds of the beech tree.] commercial value: the wood is soft and not durable. it is used in the manufacture of small articles and for wood pulp. other characters: the _fruit is a catkin_. comparisons: the _paper birch_ (_betula papyrifera_) is apt to be confused with the gray birch, because both have a white bark. the bark of the paper birch, however, is a clear white and peels off in thin papery layers instead of being close. it very seldom shows any dark triangular markings on the trunk. its terminal twigs are not rough and its trunk is usually straighter and freer from branches. the _black_ or _sweet birch_ (_betula lenta_) has a bark similar to the gray birch, except that its color is dark gray. see fig. . the twigs have an aromatic taste. [illustration: fig. .--trunk of blue beech.] [illustration: fig. .--bark of the ironwood.] the _yellow birch_ (_betula lutea_) has a yellowish or golden bark which constantly peels in thin, ragged, horizontal films. the _european white birch_ (_betula alba_) has a dull-white bark like the native white birch, but has smooth terminal twigs instead of rough ones. it is commonly seen in the united states on lawns and in parks. american beech (_fagus americana_) distinguishing characters: the *close-fitting, smooth, gray bark* will tell this tree from all others except the red maple and yellow-wood. see fig. . the red maple may then be easily eliminated by noting whether the branches are alternate or opposite. they are alternate in the beech and opposite in the maple. the yellow-wood may be eliminated by noting the size of the bud. the *bud* in the yellow-wood is hardly noticeable and of a golden yellow color, while that of the beech is very *long, slender, and sharp-pointed*, and chestnut brown in color. see fig. . form and size: it grows tall in the woods, but on the open lawn spreads out into a massive, round-headed tree. range: eastern canada and united states. soil and location: prefers a rich, well-drained soil, but will grow in any good soil. enemies: _aphides_ or plant lice that suck the sap from the leaves in spring and early summer are the chief enemies of the tree. value for planting: the pleasing color of its bark, its fine spread of branches, which gracefully droop down to the ground, and its autumnal coloring, make the beech a favorite for lawn and park planting. the several european species of beech are equally charming. [illustration: fig. .--bark of the hackberry.] commercial value: the wood is strong, close-grained, and tough. it is used mainly for cooperage, tool handles, shoe lasts, chairs, etc., and for fuel. other characters: the _fruit_ is a prickly burr encasing a sharply triangular nut which is sweet and edible. comparisons: the _european beech_ (_fagus sylvatica_), and its weeping, purple-leaved, and fern-leaved varieties, are frequently met with in parks and may be told from the native species by its darker bark. the weeping form may, of course, be told readily by its drooping branches. the leaves of the european beeches are broader and less serrated than those of the american beech. blue beech or hornbeam (_carpinus caroliniana_) distinguishing characters: the *fluted* or muscular effect of its *trunk* will distinguish the tree at a glance, fig. . leaf: doubly serrated; otherwise the same as that of ironwood. form and size: a low-spreading tree with branches arching out at various angles, forming a flattened head with a fine, slender spray. range: very common in the eastern united states. soil and location: grows in low wet woods. enemies: none of importance. value for planting: its artistic branching and curious trunk give the tree an important place in park planting. commercial value: none. other characters: the bark is smooth and bluish gray in color. comparisons: the blue beech or hornbeam is often confused with the _ironwood_ or _hop hornbeam_ (_ostrya virginiana_). the ironwood, however, has a characteristic bark that peels in perpendicular, short, thin segments, often loose at the ends. see fig. . this is entirely different from the close, smooth, and fluted bark of the blue beech. the color of the bark in the ironwood is brownish, while that of the blue beech is bluish-gray. the buds of the ironwood are greenish with brown tips, while the bud of the blue beech shows no green whatever. hackberry (_celtis occidentalis_) distinguishing characters: the tree may be told readily from other trees by the *corky tubercles* on the bark of the lower portion of the trunk. see fig. . leaf: has three predominating veins and is a bit more developed on one side than on the other. form and size: a small or medium-sized tree with a single stem and broad conical crown. range: united states and canada. soil and location: grows naturally in fertile soils, but will adapt itself to almost sterile soils as well. enemies: the hackberry is usually free from disease, though often its leaves are covered with insect galls. value for planting: it is extensively planted as a shade tree in the middle west, and is frequently seen as an ornamental tree in the east. commercial value: it has little economic value except for fuel. other characters: the _fruit_ is berry-like, with a hard pit. the fleshy outer part is sweet. other common names: _nettle tree_; _sugarberry_. group viii. the oaks and chestnut how to tell them from other trees: the oaks are rather difficult to identify and, in studying them it will often be necessary to look for more than one distinguishing character. the oaks differ from other trees in bearing _acorns_. their _leaves_ have many lobes and their upper lateral _buds_ cluster at the top of the twigs. the general contour of each oak presents a characteristic branching and sturdiness uncommon in other trees. the chestnut differs from other trees in bearing _burs_ and its _bark_ is also distinctly characteristic. how to tell them from each other: there are two groups of oaks, the _white oak_ and the _black oak_. the white oaks mature their acorns in one year and, therefore, only acorns of the same year can be found on trees of this group. the black oaks take two years in which to mature their acorns and, therefore, young acorns of the present year and mature acorns of the previous year may be found on the same tree at one time. the _leaves_ of the white oaks have rounded margins and rounded lobes as in fig. , while those of the black oaks have pointed margins and sharp pointed lobes as shown in figs. , and . the _bark_ of the white oaks is light colored and breaks up in loose flakes as in fig. , while that of the black oaks is darker and deeply ridged or tight as in figs. and . the white oak is the type of the white oak group and the black, red and pin oaks are types of the other. for the characterization of the individual species, the reader is referred to the following pages. [illustration: fig. .--leaf and fruit of white oak. (quercus alba.)] white oak (_quercus alba_) distinguishing characters: the massive ramification of its branches is characteristic of this species and often an easy clue to its identification. the *bark* has a *light gray color*--lighter than that of the other oaks--and breaks into soft, loose flakes as in fig. . the *leaves are deeply lobed* as in fig. . the *buds are small, round and congested* at the end of the year's growth. the acorns usually have no stalks and are set in shallow, rough cups. the kernels of the acorns are white and palatable. form and size: the white oak grows into a large tree with a wide-spreading, massive crown, dissolving into long, heavy, twisted branches. when grown in the open it possesses a short sturdy trunk; in the forest its trunk is tall and stout. range: eastern north america. [illustration: fig. .--bark of white oak. (quercus alba.)] soil and location: the white oak thrives in almost any well-drained, good, deep soil except in a very cold and wet soil. it requires plenty of light and attains great age. enemies: the tree is comparatively free from insects and disease except in districts where the gipsy moth is common, in which case the leaves of the white oak are a favorite food of its caterpillars. [illustration: fig. .--bark of black oak. (quercus velutina).] value for planting: the white oak is one of the most stately trees. its massive form and its longevity make the tree suitable for both lawn and woodland planting but it is not used much because it is difficult to transplant and grows rather slowly. commercial value: the wood is of great economic importance. it is heavy, hard, strong and durable and is used in cooperage, construction work, interior finish of buildings and for railroad ties, furniture, agricultural implements and fuel. comparisons: the _swamp white oak_ (_quercus platanoides_) is similar to the white oak in general appearance of the bark and form and is therefore liable to be confused with it. it differs from the white oak, however, in possessing a more straggly habit and in the fact that the bark on the under side of its branches shags in loose, large scales. its buds are smaller, lighter colored and more downy and its acorns are more pointed and with cups more shallow than those of the white oak. the tree also grows in moister ground, generally bordering swamps. [illustration: fig. .--leaf and fruit of black oak. (quercus velutina).] black oak (_quercus velutina_) distinguishing characters: the *bark* is black, rough and cut up into firm *ridges* especially at the base of the tree, see fig. . the _inner bark_ has a _bright yellow color_: the *leaves* have _sharp points_ and are wider at the base than at the tip as shown in fig. . the buds are _large, downy_ and _sharp pointed_. the acorns are small and have deep, scaly cups the inner margins of which are downy. the kernels are yellow and bitter. form and size: the tree grows in an irregular form to large size, with its branches rather slender as compared with the white oak and with a more open and narrow crown. range: eastern north america. soil and location: it will grow in poor soils but does best where the soil is rich and well drained. enemies: none of importance. value for planting: the black oak is the poorest of the oaks for planting and is rarely offered by nurserymen. commercial value: the wood is heavy, hard and strong, but checks readily and is coarse grained. it is of little value except for fuel. the bark is used for tannin. other common names: _yellow oak_. comparisons: the black oak might sometimes be confused with the _red_ and _scarlet oaks_. the yellow, bitter inner bark will distinguish the black oak from the other two. the light-colored, smooth bark of the red oak and the dark, ridged bark of the black oak will distinguish the two, while the bark of the scarlet oak has an appearance intermediate between the two. the buds of the three species also show marked differences. the buds of the black oak are covered with hairs, those of the scarlet oak have fewer hairs and those of the red are practically free from hairs. the leaves of each of the three species are distinct and the growth habits are different. red oak (_quercus rubra_) distinguishing characters: the *bark* is perpendicularly fissured into long, _smooth, light gray strips_ giving the trunk a characteristic *pillar effect* as in figs. and . it has the straightest trunk of all the oaks. the leaves possess _more lobes_ than the leaves of any of the other species of the black oak group, see fig. . the acorns, the largest among the oaks, are semispherical with the cups extremely shallow. the buds are large and sharp pointed, but not as large as those of the black oak. they also have a few fine hairs on their scales, but are not nearly as downy as those of the black oak. [illustration: fig. --bark of red oak.] form and size: the red oak is the largest of the oaks and among the largest of the trees in the northern forests. it has a straight trunk, free from branches to a higher point than in the white oak, see fig. . the branches are less twisted and emerge at sharper angles than do those of the white oak. range: it grows all over eastern north america and reaches north farther than any of the other oaks. soil and location: it is less fastidious in its soil and moisture requirements than the other oaks and therefore grows in a great variety of soils. it requires plenty of light. [illustration: fig. .--leaf and fruit of red oak.] enemies: like most of the other oaks, this species is comparatively free from insects and disease. value for planting: the red oak grows faster and adapts itself better to poor soil conditions than any of the other oaks and is therefore easy to plant and easy to find in the nurseries. it makes an excellent street tree, is equally desirable for the lawn and is hardly surpassed for woodland planting. commercial value: the wood is hard and strong but coarse grained, and is used for construction timber, interior finish and furniture. it is inferior to white oak where strength and durability are required. pin oak (_quercus palustris_) distinguishing characters: its method of *branching* will characterize the tree at a glance. it develops a well-defined _main_ ascending _stem_ with numerous _drooping_ side _branches_ as in fig. . the buds are very small and sharp pointed and the leaves are small as in fig. . the bark is dark, firm, smooth and in close ridges. the acorn is small and carries a light brown, striped nut, wider than long and bitter. the cup is shallow, enclosing only the base of the nut. [illustration: fig. .--pin oaks in winter.] form and size: the pin oak is a medium-sized tree in comparison with other oaks. it develops a tall, straight trunk that tapers continuously through a pyramidal crown of low, drooping tender, branches. range: eastern north america. soil and location: it requires a deep, rich, moist soil and grows naturally near swamps. its roots are deep and spreading. the tree grows rapidly and is easily transplanted. enemies: none of importance. value for planting: the pin oak is an extremely graceful tree and is therefore extensively used for planting on lawns and on certain streets where the tree can find plenty of water and where conditions will permit its branches to droop low. commercial value: the wood is heavy and hard but coarse grained and liable to check and warp. its principal use is in the construction of houses and for shingles. [illustration: fig. .--leaf and fruit of pin oak.] chestnut (_castanea dentata_) distinguishing characters: the *bark* in young trees is smooth and of a marked reddish-bronze color, but when the tree grows older, the bark breaks up into *diamond-shaped ridges*, sufficiently characteristic to distinguish the tree at a glance, see fig. . a close examination of the _terminal twig_ will show _three ridges_ and _two grooves_ running down along the stem from the base of each leaf or leaf-scar. the twig has no true terminal bud. the fruit, a large, round *bur*, prickly without and hairy within and enclosing the familiar dark brown, sweet edible nuts is also a distinguishing mark of the tree. leaf: the leaves are distinctly long and narrow. they are from to inches long. form and size: the chestnut is a large tree with a massive trunk and broad spreading crown. the chestnut tree when cut, sprouts readily from the stump and therefore in places where the trees have once been cut, a group of two to six trees may be seen emerging from the old stump. [illustration: fig. .--trunk of chestnut tree.] range: eastern united states. soil and location: it will grow on rocky as well as on fertile soils and requires plenty of light. enemies: during the past nine years nearly all the chestnut trees in the united states have been attacked by a fungus disease (_diaporthe parasitica_, mur.) which still threatens the entire extinction of the chestnut trees in this country. no remedy has been discovered and all affected trees should be cut down and the wood utilized before it decays and becomes worthless. no species of chestnut tree is entirely immune from this disease, though some species are highly resistant. value for planting: the chestnut is one of the most rapidly growing hardwood trees but, on account of its disease, which is now prevalent everywhere, it is not wise to plant chestnut trees for the present. commercial value: the wood is light, not very strong and liable to warp. it is durable when brought in contact with the soil and is therefore used for railroad ties, fence-posts, poles, and mine timbers. it is also valuable for interior finish in houses and for fuel. its bark is used in the manufacture of tanning extracts and the nuts are sold in cities in large quantities. chapter iii how to identify trees--(continued) group ix. the hickories, walnut and butternut how to tell them from other trees and from each other: the hickory trees, though symmetrical, have a rugged _appearance_ and the _branches_ are so sturdy and black as to give a special distinction to this group. the _buds_ are different from the buds of all other trees and sufficiently characteristic to distinguish the various species of the group. the _bark_ is also a distinguishing character. the walnut and butternut have _chambered piths_ which distinguish them from all other trees and from each other. shagbark hickory (_hicoria ovata_) distinguishing characters: the yellowish brown *buds* nearly as large as those of the mockernut hickory, _are each provided with two long, dark, outer scales_ which stand out very conspicuously as shown in fig. . the *bark* in older specimens *shags* off in rough strips, sometimes more than a foot long, as shown in fig. . these two characters will readily distinguish the tree at all seasons of the year. [illustration: fig. .--a shagbark hickory tree.] leaf: the leaf is compound, consisting of or leaflets, the terminal one generally larger. form and size: a tall, stately tree--the tallest of the hickories--of rugged form and fine symmetry, see fig. . range: eastern north america. soil and location: the shagbark hickory grows in a great variety of soils, but prefers a deep and rather moist soil. enemies: the _hickory bark borer_ (_scolytus quadrispinosus_) is its principal enemy. the insect is now killing thousands of hickory trees in the vicinity of new york city and on several occasions has made its appearance in large numbers in other parts of the country. value for planting: it is difficult to transplant, grows slowly and is seldom found in nurseries. [illustration: fig. .--bud of the shagbark hickory.] commercial value: the wood is extremely tough and hard and is used for agricultural implements and for the manufacture of wagons. it is excellent for fuel and the nuts are of great value as a food. other characters: the fruit is a nut covered by a thick husk that separates into or segments. the kernel is sweet. other common names: _shellbark hickory_. mockernut hickory (_hicoria alba_) [illustration: fig. .--bark of the shagbark hickory.] distinguishing characters: the *bud* is the largest among the hickories--nearly half an inch long--is hard and oval and covered with _yellowish brown_ downy _scales_ which _do not project_ like those of the shagbark hickory, see fig. . the twigs are extremely coarse. the *bark* is very tight on the trunk and branches and has a _close_, hard, _wavy_ appearance as in fig. . leaf: the leaf consists of , or leaflets all of which are large and pubescent and possess a distinct resinous odor. form and size: a tall tree with a broad spreading head. range: eastern north america. soil and location: the mockernut hickory grows on a great variety of soils, but prefers one which is rich and well-drained. enemies: the same as for the shagbark hickory. value for planting: it is not commonly planted. commercial value: the wood is similar to that of the shagbark hickory and is put to the same uses. other characters: the fruit is a nut, larger and covered with a shell thicker than that of the shagbark. the husk is also thicker and separates into four segments nearly to the base. the kernel is small and sweet. other common names: _bigbud hickory_; _whiteheart hickory_. comparisons: the _pignut hickory_ (_hicoria glabra_), sometimes called broom hickory or brown hickory, often has a shaggy bark, but differs from both the shagbark and the mockernut hickory in possessing buds very much smaller, twigs more slender and leaflets fewer. the nut has a thinner husk which does not separate into four or five segments. the tree prefers drier ground than the other hickories. [illustration: fig. .--bud of the mockernut hickory.] the _bitternut_ (_hicoria minima_) can be told from the mockernut and other species of hickory by its bud, which has no scales at all. the color of its bud is a characteristic orange yellow. the bark is of a lighter shade than the bark of the mockernut hickory and the leaflets are more numerous than in any of the hickories, varying from to . its nuts are bitter. black walnut (_juglans nigra_) distinguishing characters: by cutting a twig lengthwise, it will be seen that its *pith* is divided into little _chambers_ as shown in fig. . the bud is dark gray and satiny. the bark is dark brown and deeply ridged and the fruit is the familiar round walnut. [illustration: fig. .--bark of the mockernut hickory.] form and size: a tall tree with a spreading crown composed of stout branches. in the open it grows very symmetrically. range: eastern united states. soil and location: the black walnut prefers a deep, rich, fertile soil and requires a great deal of light. enemies: the tree is a favorite of many caterpillars. value for planting: it forms a beautiful spreading tree on open ground, but is not planted to any extent because it is hard to transplant. it grows slowly unless the soil is very deep and rich, develops its leaves late in the spring and sheds them early in the fall and produces its fruit in great profusion. commercial value: the wood is heavy, strong, of chocolate brown color and capable of taking a fine polish. it is used for cabinet making and interior finish of houses. the older the tree, usually, the better the wood, and the consumption of the species in the past has been so heavy that it is becoming rare. the european varieties which are frequently planted in america as substitutes for the native species yield better nuts, but the american species produces better wood. [illustration: fig. .--twig of the black walnut. note the large chambers in the pith.] [illustration: fig. .--twig of the butternut. note the small chambers in the pith.] other characters: the _fruit_ is a large round nut about two inches in diameter, covered with a smooth husk which at first is dull green in color and later turns brown. the husk does not separate into sections. the kernel is edible and produces an oil of commercial value. the _leaves_ are compound and alternate with to leaflets to each. comparisons: the _butternut_ (_juglans cinerea_) is another tree that has the pith divided into little chambers, but the little chambers here are shorter than in the black walnut, as may be seen from a comparison of figs. and . the bark of the butternut is light gray while that of the black walnut is dark. the buds in the butternut are longer than those of the black walnut and are light brown instead of gray in color. the form of the tree is low and spreading as compared with the black walnut. the fruit in the butternut is elongated while that of the black walnut is round. the leaves of the butternut have fewer leaflets and these are lighter in color. group x. tulip tree, sweet gum, linden, magnolia, locust, catalpa, dogwood, mulberry and osage orange tulip tree (_liriodendron tulipifera_) distinguishing characters: there are four characters that stand out conspicuously in the tulip tree--the *bud*, the *trunk*, the persistent *fruit cups* and the wedged *leaf*. the bud, fig. , about three-quarters of an inch long, is covered by two purplish scales which lend special significance to its whole appearance. the trunk is extremely individual because it rises stout and shaft-like, away above the ground without a branch as shown in fig. . the tree flowers in the latter part of may but the cup that holds the fruit persists throughout the winter. the leaf, fig. , has four lobes, is nearly as broad as it is long and so notched at the upper end that it looks different from any other leaf. [illustration: fig. .--the tulip tree.] [illustration: fig. .--bud of the tulip tree.] form and size: the tulip tree is one of the largest, stateliest and tallest of our trees. range: eastern united states. soil and location: requires a deep, moist soil. enemies: comparatively free from insects and disease. value for planting: the tree has great value as a specimen on the lawn but is undesirable as a street tree because it requires considerable moisture and transplants with difficulty. it should be planted while young and where it can obtain plenty of light. it grows rapidly. commercial value: the wood is commercially known as _whitewood_ and _yellow poplar_. it is light, soft, not strong and easily worked. it is used in construction, for interior finish of houses, woodenware and shingles. it has a medicinal value. other characters: the _flower_, shown in fig. , is greenish yellow in color, appears in may and resembles a tulip; hence the name tulip tree. the _fruit_ is a cone. other common names: _whitewood_; _yellow poplar_; _poplar_ and _tulip poplar_. sweet gum (_liquidambar styraciflua_) [illustration: fig. .--leaf and flower of the tulip tree.] distinguishing characters: the _persistent, spiny_, long-stemmed round *fruit*; _the corky growths on the_ *twigs*, the characteristic _star-shaped_ *leaves* (fig. ) and the very shiny greenish brown buds and the perfect symmetry of the tree are the chief characters by which to identify the species. form and size: the sweet gum has a beautiful symmetrical shape, forming a true monopodium. [illustration: fig. .--leaf and fruit of the sweet gum. note the corky ridges along the twig.] range: from connecticut to florida and west to missouri. soil and location: grows in any good soil but prefers low wet ground. it grows rapidly and needs plenty of light. enemies: is very often a favorite of leaf-eating caterpillars. value for planting: the tree is sought for the brilliant color of its foliage in the fall, and is suitable for planting both on the lawn and street. in growing the tree for ornamental purposes it is important that it should be frequently transplanted in the nursery and that it be transported with burlap wrapping around its roots. commercial value: the wood is reddish brown in color, tends to splinter and is inclined to warp in drying. it is used in cooperage, veneer work and for interior finish. other characters: on the smaller branches there are irregular developments of cork as shown in fig. , projecting in some cases to half an inch in thickness. other common names: _red gum_. comparisons: the _cork elm_ is another tree that possesses corky ridges along its twigs, but this differs from the sweet gum in wanting the spiny fruit and its other distinctive traits. american linden (_tilia americana_) [illustration: fig. .--bud of the linden tree.] distinguishing characters: the great distinguishing feature of any linden is the *one-sided* character of its *bud* and *leaf*. the bud, dark red and conical, carries a sort of protuberance which makes it extremely one sided as shown in fig. . the leaf, fig. , is heart-shaped with the side nearest the branch largest. [illustration: fig. .--leaves and flowers of the european linden.] form and size: the american linden is a medium-sized tree with a broad round head. range: eastern north america and more common in the north than in the south. soil and location: requires a rich, moist soil. [illustration: fig. .--european linden tree.] [illustration: fig. .--bud of the umbrella tree.] enemies: its leaves are a favorite food of caterpillars and its wood is frequently attacked by a boring insect known as the _linden borer_ (_saperda vestita_). value for planting: the linden is easily transplanted and grows rapidly. it is used for lawn and street planting but is less desirable for these purposes than the european species. commercial value: the wood is light and soft and used for paper pulp, woodenware, cooperage and furniture. the tree is a favorite with bee keepers on account of the large quantities of nectar contained in its flowers. other characters: the _fruit_ is like a pea, gray and woody. the _flowers_ appear in early july, are greenish-yellow and very fragrant. other common names: _bass-wood_; _lime-tree_; _whitewood_. comparisons: the _european lindens_, fig. , of which there are several species under cultivation, differ from the native species in having buds and leaves smaller in size, more numerous and darker in color. the magnolias the various species of magnolia trees are readily distinguished by their buds. they all prefer moist, rich soil and have their principal value as decorative trees on the lawn. they are distinctly southern trees; some species under cultivation in the united states come from asia, but the two most commonly grown in the eastern states are the cucumber tree and the umbrella tree. [illustration: fig. .--bark of the black locust.] cucumber tree (_magnolia acuminata_) distinguishing characters: the *buds* are _small_ and _slender_ compared with those of the other magnolia trees and are _covered_ with small silvery silky _hairs_. the *habit* of the tree is to form a straight axis of great height with a symmetrical mass of branches, producing a perfect monopodial crown. the tree is sometimes known as _mountain magnolia_. umbrella tree (_magnolia tripetala_) distinguishing characters: the _buds_, fig. , are extremely _long_, often one and a half inches, have a _purple color_ and _are smooth_. the tree does not grow to large size and produces an open spreading head. its leaves, twelve to eighteen inches long, are larger than those of the other magnolia trees. the tree is sometimes called _elkwood_. black locust (_robinia pseudacacia_) distinguishing characters: the *bark* of the trunk is _rough_ and _deeply ridged_, as shown in fig. . the *buds* are _hardly noticeable_; the twigs sometimes bear small spines on one side. the leaves are large, compound, and fern-like. the individual leaflets are small and delicate. form and size: the locust is a medium-sized tree developing a slender straight trunk when grown alongside of others; see fig. . range: canada and united states. soil and location: the locust will grow on almost any soil except a wet, heavy one. it requires plenty of light. enemies: the _locust borer_ has done serious damage to this tree. the grubs of this insect burrow in the sapwood and kill the tree or make it unfit for commercial use. the _locust miner_ is a beetle which is now annually defoliating trees of this species in large numbers. value for planting: it has little value for ornamental planting. commercial value: though short-lived, the locust grows very rapidly. it is extremely durable in contact with the soil and possesses great strength. it is therefore extensively grown for fence-posts and railroad ties. locust posts will last from fifteen to twenty years. the wood is valuable for fuel. [illustration: fig. .--black locust trees.] other characters: the _flowers_ are showy pea-shaped panicles appearing in may and june. the _fruit_ is a small pod. other common names: _yellow locust_; _common locust_; _locust_. comparisons: the _honey locust_ (_gleditsia triacanthos_) can be told from the black locust by the differences in their bark. in the honey locust the bark is not ridged, has a sort of dark iron-gray color and is often covered with clusters of stout, sharp-pointed thorns as in fig. . the fruit is a large pod often remaining on the tree through the winter. this tree has an ornamental, but no commercial value. [illustration: fig. .--bark of the honey locust.] hardy catalpa (_catalpa speciosa_) distinguishing characters: the tree may be told by its *fruit*, which hang in long slender pods all winter. the leaf-scars appear on the stem in whorls of three and rarely opposite each other. form and size: the catalpa has a short, thick and twisted trunk with an irregular head. range: central and eastern united states. [illustration: fig. .--hardy catalpa trees.] [illustration: fig. .--bark of the flowering dogwood.] soil and location: it grows naturally on low bottom-lands but will also do well in poor, dry soils. enemies: practically free from disease and insects. value for planting: the catalpa grows very rapidly and is cultivated in parks for ornament and in groves for commercial purposes. the _hardy catalpa_ is preferable to the _common catalpa_ for planting. commercial value: the wood is extremely durable in contact with the soil and is consequently used for posts and railroad ties. other characters: the _flowers_, which appear in late june and early july, are large, white and very showy. other common names: _indian bean_; _western catalpa_. comparisons: the _white flowering dogwood_ (_cornus florida_) is a small tree which also has its leaves in whorls of three or sometimes opposite. it can be readily told from other trees, however, by the small square plates into which the outer bark on the trunk divides itself, see fig. , and by the characteristic drooping character of its branches. it is one of the most common plants in our eastern deciduous forests. it is extremely beautiful both in the spring and in the fall and is frequently planted for ornament. there are many varieties of dogwood in common use. white mulberry (_morus alba_) a small tree recognized by its _small round reddish brown buds_ and _light brown, finely furrowed_ (wavy looking) _bark_. the tree, probably a native of china, is grown under cultivation in eastern canada and united states. it grows rapidly in moist soil and is not fastidious in its light requirements. its chief value is for screening and for underplanting in woodlands. the _red mulberry_ (_morus rubra_) is apt to be confused with the white mulberry, but differs in the following characters: the leaves of the red mulberry are rough on the upper side and downy on the under side, whereas the leaves of the white mulberry are smooth and shiny. the buds in the red are larger and more shiny than those of the white. the _osage orange_ (_toxylon pomiferum_) is similar to the mulberry in the light, golden color of its bark, but differs from it in possessing conspicuous spines along the twigs and branches and a more ridged bark. chapter iv the structure and requirements of trees to be able fully to appreciate trees, their mode of life, their enemies and their care, one must know something of their structure and life requirements. structure of trees: among the lower forms of plants there is very little distinction between the various parts--no differentiation into root, stem, or crown. often the lower forms of animal and vegetable life are so similar that one cannot discriminate between them. but as we ascend in the scale, the various plant forms become more and more complex until we reach the tree, which is the largest and highest form of all plants. the tree is a living organism composed of cells like any other living organism. it has many parts, every one of which has a definite purpose. the three principal parts are: the stem, the crown, and the root. the stem: if we examine the cross-section of a tree, fig. , we will notice that it is made up of numerous rings arranged in sections of different color and structure. the central part is known as the _pith_. around the pith comes a dark, close-grained series of rings known as the _heartwood_, and outside the heartwood comes a lighter layer, the _sapwood_. the _cambium layer_ surrounds the sapwood and the _bark_ covers all. the cambium layer is the most important tissue of the tree and, together with part of the sapwood, transports the water and food of the tree. it is for this reason that a tree may be hollow, without heart and sapwood, and still produce foliage and fruit. [illustration: fig. .--the cross-section of a tree.] the crown: the crown varies in form in different species and is developed by the growth of new shoots from buds. the bud grows out to a certain length and forms the branch. afterwards it thickens only and does not increase in length. new branches will then form from other buds on the same branch. this explains in part the characteristic branching of trees, fig. . [illustration: fig. .--characteristic form and branching of trees. the trees in the photograph are pin oaks.] the leaves are the stomach and lungs of the tree. their broad blades are a device to catch the sunlight which is needed in the process of digesting the food of the tree. the leaves are arranged on the twigs in such a way as to catch the most sunlight. the leaves take up the carbonic acid gas from the air, decompose it under the influence of light and combine it with the minerals and water brought up by the roots from the soil. the resulting chemical combinations are the sugars and starches used by the cambium layer in building up the body of the tree. a green pigment, _chlorophyll_, in the leaf is the medium by which, with the aid of sunlight, the sugars are manufactured. [illustration: fig. .--roots of a hemlock tree in their search for water.] the chlorophyll gives the leaf its green color, and this explains why a tree pales when it is in a dying condition or when its life processes are interfered with. the other colors of the leaf--the reds, browns and yellows of the fall or spring--are due to other pigments. these are angular crystals of different hues, which at certain times of the year become more conspicuous than at others, a phenomenon which explains the variation in the colors of the leaves during the different seasons. it is evident that a tree is greatly dependent upon its leaves for the manufacture of food and one can, therefore, readily see why it is important to prevent destruction of the leaves by insects or through over-trimming. the root: the root develops in much the same manner as the crown. its depth and spread will vary with the species but will also depend somewhat upon the condition of the soil around it. a deep or a dry soil will tend to develop a deep root, while a shallow or moist soil will produce a shallow root, fig. . the numerous fine hairs which cover the roots serve the purpose of taking up food and water from the soil, while the heavy roots help to support the tree. the root-hairs are extremely tender, are easily dried out when exposed to the sun and wind, and are apt to become overheated when permitted to remain tightly packed for any length of time. these considerations are of practical importance in the planting of trees and in the application of fertilizers. it is these fine rootlets far away from the trunk of the tree that have to be fed, and all fertilizers must, therefore, be applied at points some distance from the trunk and not close to it, where merely the large, supporting roots are located. in the cultivation of trees the same principle holds true. requirements of trees: trees are dependent upon certain soil and atmospheric conditions which influence their growth and development. ( ) influence of moisture: the form of the tree and its growth and structure depend greatly upon the supply of moisture. botanists have taken the moisture factor as the basis of classification and have subdivided trees into those that grow in moist places (_hydrophytes_), those that grow in medium soils (_mesophytes_), and those that grow in dry places (_xerophytes_). water is taken up by the roots of the tree from the soil. the liquid absorbed by the roots carries in solution the mineral salts--the food of the tree--and no food can be taken up unless it is in solution. much of the water is used by the tree and an enormous amount is given off in the process of evaporation. [illustration: fig. .--dead branches at the top caused by insufficient water.] these facts will explain some of the fundamental principles in the care of trees. to a tree growing on a city street or on a lawn where nature fails to supply the requisite amount of water, the latter must be supplied artificially, especially during the hot summer months, or else dead branches may result as seen in fig. . too much thinning out of the crown causes excessive evaporation, and too much cutting out in woodlands causes the soil to dry and the trees to suffer for the want of moisture. this also explains why it is essential, in wooded areas, to retain on the ground the fallen leaves. in decomposing and mixing with the soil, the fallen leaves not only supply the trees with food material, but also tend to conserve moisture in the ground and to prevent the drying out of the soil. raking off the leaves from wooded areas, a practice common in parks and on private estates--hurts the trees seriously. some soils may have plenty of moisture, but may also be so heavily saturated with acids or salts that the tree cannot utilize the moisture, and it suffers from drought just the same as if there had been no moisture at all in the soil. such soils are said to be "physiologically dry" and need treatment. in the development of disease, moisture is a contributing factor and, therefore, in cavities or underneath bandages where there is likely to be an accumulation of moisture, decay will do more damage than in places that are dry and exposed to the sun. ( ) influence of soil: soil is made up of fine particles of sand and rock and of vegetable matter called _humus_. a tree will require a certain soil, and unsuitable soils can be very often modified to suit the needs of the tree. a deep, moderately loose, sandy loam, however, which is sufficiently aerated and well supplied with water, will support almost any tree. too much of any one constituent will make a soil unfit for the production of trees. if too much clay is present the soil becomes "stiff." if too much vegetable matter is present, the soil becomes "sour." the physical character of the soil is also important. by physical character is meant the porosity which results from breaking up the soil. this is accomplished by ploughing or cultivation. in nature, worms help to do this for the soil, but on streets an occasional digging up of the soil about the base of the tree is essential. humus or the organic matter in the soil is composed of litter, leaves and animal ingredients that have decayed under the influence of bacteria. the more vegetable matter in the humus, the darker the soil; and therefore a good soil such as one finds on the upper surface of a well-tilled farm has quite a dark color. when, however, a soil contains an unusual quantity of humus, it is known as "muck," and when there is still more humus present we find _peat_. neither of these two soils is suitable for proper tree growth. [illustration: fig. .--a tree in the open. note the full development of the wide crown with branches starting near the ground. the tree is the european larch.] ( ) influence of light: light is required by the leaves in the process of assimilation. cutting off some of the light from a tree affects its form. this is why trees grown in the open have wide-spreading crowns with branches starting near the ground as in fig. , while the same species growing in the forest produces tall, lanky trees, free from branches to but a few feet from the top as in fig. . some trees can endure more shade than others, but all will grow in full light. this explains why trees like the beech, hemlock, sugar maple, spruce, holly and dogwood can grow in the shade, while the poplar, birch and willow require light. it also explains why, in the forest, the lower branches die and fall off--a process known in forestry as "natural pruning," the influence of light on the form of trees should be well understood by all those who plant trees and by those designing landscape effects. [illustration: fig. .--a tree in the forest. note the tall stem free from branches and the small, narrow crown.] ( ) influence of heat: trees require a certain amount of heat. they receive it partly from the sun and partly from the soil. evaporation prevents the overheating of the crown. the main stem of the tree is heated by water from the soil; therefore trees in the open begin growth in the spring earlier than trees in the forest because the soil in the open is warmer. shrubs begin their growth earlier than trees because of the nearness of their crowns to their root systems. this also explains why a warm rain will start vegetation quickly. too much heat will naturally cause excessive drying of the roots or excessive evaporation from the leaves and therefore more water is needed by the tree in summer than in winter. ( ) influence of season and frost: the life processes of a tree are checked when the temperature sinks below a certain point. the tree is thus, during the winter, in a period of rest and only a few chemical changes take place which lead up to the starting of vegetation. in eastern united states, growth starts in april and ceases during the latter part of august or in early september. the different parts of a tree may freeze solid during the winter without injury, provided the tree is a native one. exotic trees may suffer greatly from extreme cold. this is one of the main reasons why it is always advisable to plant native trees rather than those that are imported and have not yet been acclimatized. frosts during mid-winter are not quite as injurious as early and late frosts and, therefore, if one is going to protect plants from the winter's cold, it is well to apply the covering early enough and to keep it on late enough to overcome this difficulty. the mechanical injuries from frost are also important. snow and sleet will weigh down branches but rarely break them, while frost will cause them to become brittle and to break easily. those who climb and prune trees should be especially cautious on frosty days. ( ) influence of air: on the under side of leaves and on other surfaces of a tree little pores known as _stomata_ may be found. in the bark of birch and cherry trees these openings are very conspicuous and are there known as _lenticels_. these pores are necessary for the breathing of the tree (respiration), whereby carbonic acid gas is taken in from the air and oxygen given out. the process of assimilation depends upon this breathing process and it is therefore evident that when the stomata are clogged as may occur where a tree is subjected to smoke or dust, the life processes of the tree will be interfered with. the same injurious effect results when the stomata of the roots are interfered with. such interference may occur in cases where a heavy layer of soil is piled around the base of a tree, where the soil about the base of a tree is allowed to become compact, where a tree is planted too deep, or where the roots are submerged under water for any length of time. in any case the air cannot get to the roots and the tree suffers. nature takes special cognizance of this important requirement in the case of cypress trees, which habitually grow under water. here the trees are provided with special woody protuberances known as "cypress knees," which emerge above water and take the necessary air. see fig. . conclusions: from the foregoing it will be seen that trees have certain needs that nature or man must supply. these requirements differ with the different species, and in all work of planting and care as well as in the natural distribution of trees it is both interesting and necessary to observe these individual wants, to select species in accordance with local conditions and to care for trees in conformity with their natural needs. chapter v what trees to plant and how the following classification will show the value of the more important trees for different kinds of planting. the species are arranged in the order of their merit for the particular object under consideration and the comments accompanying each tree are intended to bring out its special qualifications for that purpose. conditions for tree growth in one part of the country differ from those of another and these lists, especially applicable to the eastern states, may not at all fit some other locality. trees best for the lawn deciduous . american elm (_ulmus americana_) one of the noblest of trees. possesses a majestic, wide-spreading, umbrella-shaped crown; is easily transplanted, and is suited to a variety of soils. . pin oak (_quercus palustris_) has a symmetrical crown with low-drooping branches; requires a moist situation. . european linden (_tilia microphylla_) possesses a beautiful shade-bearing crown; grows well in ordinary soil. . red maple (_acer rubrum_) shows pleasing colors at all seasons; grows best in a fairly rich, moist soil. . copper beech (_fagus sylvatica_, _alropurpurea_) exceedingly beautiful in form, bark, and foliage and possesses great longevity and sturdiness. it is difficult to transplant and therefore only small trees from to feet in height should be used. . coffee tree (_gymnocladus dioicus_) a unique and interesting effect is produced by its coarse branches and leaves. it is free from insects and disease; requires plenty of light; will grow in poor soils. . european white birch (_belula alba_) a graceful tree and very effective as a single specimen on the lawn, or in a group among evergreens; should be planted in early spring, and special care taken to protect its tender rootlets. . gingko or maiden-hair tree (_gingko biloba_) where there is plenty of room for the spread of its odd branches, the gingko makes a picturesque specimen tree. it is hardy and free from insect pests and disease. . horsechestnut (_aesculus hippocastanum_) carries beautiful, showy flowers, and has a compact, symmetrical low-branched crown; is frequently subject to insects and disease. the red flowering horsechestnut (_a. rubicunda_) is equally attractive. [illustration: fig. .--a lawn tree. european weeping beech.] . sugar maple (_acer saccharum_) has a symmetrical crown and colors beautifully in the fall; requires a rich soil and considerable moisture. . soulange's magnolia (_magnolia soulangeana_) extremely hard and flowers in early spring before the leaves appear. . flowering dogwood (_cornus florida_) popular for its beautiful white flowers in the early spring and the rich coloring of its leaves in the fall; does not grow to large size. the red-flowering variety of this tree, though sometimes not quite as hardy, is extremely beautiful. . japanese maple (_acer polymorphum_) it has several varieties of different hues and it colors beautifully in the fall; it does not grow to large size. coniferous . oriental spruce (_picea orientalis_) forms a dignified, large tree with a compact crown and low branches; is hardy. . austrian pine (_pinus austriaca_) is very hardy; possesses a compact crown; will grow in soils of medium quality. . bhotan pine (_pinus excelsa_) grows luxuriantly; is dignified and beautiful; requires a good soil, and in youth needs some protection from extreme cold. . white pine (_pinus strobus_) branches gracefully and forms a large, dignified tree; will thrive on a variety of soils. . european larch (_larix europaea_) has a beautiful appearance; thrives best in moist situations. . blue spruce (_picea pungens_) extremely hardy; forms a perfect specimen plant for the lawn. . japanese umbrella pine (_sciadopitys verlicillata_) very hardy; retains a compact crown. an excellent specimen plant when grouped with other evergreens on the lawn. does not grow to large size. . mugho pine (_pinus mughus_) a low-growing evergreen; hardy; important in group planting. . obtuse leaf japanese cypress (_retinospora obtusa_) beautiful evergreen of small size; hardy; desirable for group planting. . english yew (_taxus baccata_) an excellent evergreen usually of low form; suitable for the lawn, massed with others or as a specimen plant; will grow in the shade of other trees. there are various forms of this species of distinctive value. trees best for the street . oriental sycamore (_platanus orientalis_) very hardy; will adapt itself to city conditions; grows fairly fast and is highly resistant to insects and disease. . norway maple (_acer platanoides_) very hardy; possesses a straight trunk and symmetrical crown; is comparatively free from insects and disease and will withstand the average city conditions. . red oak (_quercus rubra_) fastest growing of the oaks; very durable and highly resistant to insects and disease; will grow in the average soil of the city street. [illustration: fig. .--street trees. norway maples.] . gingko (_gingko biloba_) hardy and absolutely free from insects and disease; suited for narrow streets, and will permit of close planting. . european linden (_tilia microphylla_) beautiful shade-bearing crown; is very responsive to good soil and plenty of moisture. . american elm (_ulmus americana_) when planted in rows along an avenue, it forms a tall majestic archway of great beauty. it is best suited for wide streets and should be planted further apart than the other trees listed above. requires a fairly good soil and plenty of moisture, and is therefore not suited for planting in the heart of a large city. . pin oak (_quercus palustris_) this tree exhibits its greatest beauty when its branches are allowed to droop fairly low. it, moreover, needs plenty of moisture to thrive and the tree is therefore best suited for streets in suburban sections, where these conditions can be more readily met. . red maple (_acer rubrum_) beautiful in all seasons of the year; requires a rich soil and considerable moisture. trees best for woodland for open places . red oak (_quercus rubra_) grows rapidly to large size and produces valuable wood; will grow in poor soil. . white pine (_pinus strobus_) rapid grower; endures but little shade; wood valuable; will do well on large range of soils. . red pine (_pinus resinosa_) very hardy; fairly rapid growing tree. . tulip tree (_liriodendron tulipifera_) grows rapidly into a stately forest tree with a clear tall trunk; wood valuable; requires a fairly moist soil. use a small tree, plant in the spring, and pay special attention to the protection of the roots in planting. . black locust (_robinia pseudacacia_) grows rapidly; adapts itself to poor, sandy soils. the wood is suitable for posts and ties. . white ash (_fraxinus americana_) grows rapidly; prefers moist situations. wood valuable. . american elm (_ulmus americana_) grows rapidly to great height; will not endure too much shade; does best in a deep fertile soil. wood valuable. . european larch (_larix europaea_) grows rapidly; prefers moist situations. [illustration: fig. .--woodland trees. red oaks.] for planting under the shade of other trees . beech (_fagus_) will stand heavy shade; holds the soil well along banks and steep slopes. both the american and the english species are desirable. . hemlock (_tsuga canadensis_) will stand heavy shade and look effective in winter as well as in summer. . dogwood (_cornus florida_) will grow under other trees; flowers beautifully in the spring and colors richly in the fall. . blue beech (_carpinus caroliniana_) native to the woodlands of the eastern states; looks well in spring and fall. trees best for screening . hemlock (_tsuga canadensis_) will stand shearing and will screen in winter as well as in summer. plant from to feet apart to form a hedge. . osage orange (_toxylon pomiferum_) very hardy. plant close. . english hawthorn (_crataegus oxyacantha_) flowers beautifully and grows in compact masses. plant close. . lombardy poplar (_populus nigra var. italica_) forms a tall screen and grows under the most unfavorable conditions. plant to feet apart. quality of trees: trees grown in a nursery are preferable for transplanting to trees grown in the forest. nursery-grown trees possess a well-developed root system with numerous fibrous rootlets, a straight stem, a symmetrical crown, and a well-defined leader. trees grown in neighboring nurseries are preferable to those grown at great distances, because they will be better adapted to local climatic and soil conditions. the short distances over which they must be transported also will entail less danger to the roots through drying. for lawn planting, the branches should reach low to the ground, while for street purposes the branches should start at about seven feet from the ground. for street planting, it is also important that the stem should be perfectly straight and about two inches in diameter. for woodland planting, the form of the tree is of minor consideration, though it is well to have the leader well defined here as well as in the other cases. see fig. . when and how to procure the trees: the trees should be selected in the nursery personally. some persons prefer to seal the more valuable specimens with leaden seals. fall is the best time to make the selection, because at that time one can have a wider choice of material. selecting thus early will also prevent delay in delivery at the time when it is desired to plant. when to plant: the best time to plant trees is early spring, just before growth begins, and after the frost is out of the ground. from the latter part of march to the early part of may is generally the planting period in the eastern states. where one has to plant both coniferous and deciduous trees, it is best to get the deciduous in first, and then the conifers. how to plant: the location of the trees with relation to each other should be carefully considered. on the lawn, they should be separated far enough to allow for the full spread of the tree. on streets, trees should be planted thirty to thirty-five feet apart and in case of the elm, forty to fifty feet. in woodlands, it is well to plant as close as six feet apart where small seedlings are used and about twelve feet apart in the case of trees an inch or more in diameter. an abundance of good soil (one to two cubic yards) is essential with each tree where the specimens used are an inch or two in diameter. a rich mellow loam, such as one finds on the surface of a well-tilled farm, is the ideal soil. manure should never be placed in direct contact with the roots or stem of the tree. protection of the roots from drying is the chief precaution to be observed during the planting process, and for this reason a cloudy day is preferable to a sunny day for planting. in case of evergreens, the least exposure of the roots is liable to result disastrously, even more so than in case of deciduous trees. this is why evergreens are lifted from the nursery with a ball of soil around the roots. all bruised roots should be cut off before the tree is planted, and the crown of the tree of the deciduous species should be slightly trimmed in order to equalize the loss of roots by a corresponding decrease in leaf surface. the tree should be set into the tree hole at the same depth that it stood in the nursery. its roots, where there is no ball of soil around them, should be carefully spread out and good soil should be worked in carefully with the fingers among the fine rootlets. every root fibre is thus brought into close contact with the soil. more good soil should be added (in layers) and firmly packed about the roots. the last layer should remain loose so that it may act as a mulch or as an absorbent of moisture. the tree should then be thoroughly watered. [illustration: fig. .--specifications for a street tree.] after care: during the first season the tree should be watered and the soil around its base slightly loosened at least once a week, especially on hot summer days. where trees are planted on streets, near the curb, they should also be fastened to stakes and protected with a wire guard six feet high. see fig. . wire netting of ½-inch mesh and gauge is the most desirable material. [illustration: fig. .--a home nursery. (austrian pines in front.)] suggestions for a home or school nursery: schools, farms, and private estates may conveniently start a tree nursery on the premises and raise their own trees. two-year seedling trees or four-year transplants are best suited for this purpose. these may be obtained from several reliable nurseries in various parts of the country that make a specialty of raising small trees for such purposes. the cost of such trees should be from three to fifteen dollars per thousand. the little trees, which range from one to two feet in height, will be shipped in bundles. immediately upon arrival, the bundles should be untied and the trees immersed in a pail containing water mixed with soil. the bundles should then be placed in the ground temporarily, until they can be set out in their proper places. in this process, the individual bundles should be slanted with their tops toward the south, and the spot chosen should be cool and shady. at no time should the roots of these plants be exposed, even for a moment, to sun and wind, and they should always be kept moist. the little trees may remain in this trench for two weeks without injury. they should then be planted out in rows, each row one foot apart for conifers and two feet for broadleaf trees. the individual trees should be set ten inches apart in the row. careful weeding and watering is the necessary attention later on. chapter vi the care of trees study i. insects injurious to trees and how to combat them in a general way, trees are attacked by three classes of insects, and the remedy to be employed in each case depends upon the class to which the insect belongs. the three classes of insects are: . those that *chew* and swallow some portion of the leaf; as, for example, the elm leaf beetle, and the tussock, gipsy, and brown-tail moths. . those that *suck* the plant juices from the leaf or bark; such as the san josé scale, oyster-shell, and scurfy scales, the cottony maple scale, the maple phenacoccus on the sugar maples, and the various aphides on beech, norway maple, etc. . those that *bore* inside of the wood or inner bark. the principal members of this class are the leopard moth, the hickory-bark borer, the sugar-maple borer, the elm borer, and the bronze-birch borer. the chewing insects are destroyed by spraying the leaves with arsenate of lead or paris green. the insects feed upon the poisoned foliage and thus are themselves poisoned. the sucking insects are killed by a contact poison: that is, by spraying or washing the affected parts of the tree with a solution which acts externally on the bodies of the insects, smothering or stifling them. the standard solutions for this purpose are kerosene emulsion, soap and water, tobacco extract, or lime-sulfur wash. [illustration: fig. .--a gas-power spraying apparatus.] the boring insects are eliminated by cutting out the insect with a knife, by injecting carbon bisulphide into the burrow and clogging the orifice immediately after injection with putty or soap, or in some cases where the tree is hopelessly infested, by cutting down and burning the entire tree. [illustration: fig. .--a barrel hand-pump spraying outfit.] for information regarding the one of these three classes to which any particular insect belongs, and for specific instructions on the application of a remedy, the reader is advised to write to his state entomologist or to the u.s. bureau of entomology at washington, d.c. the letter should state the name of the tree affected, together with the character of the injury, and should be accompanied by a specimen of the insect, or by a piece of the affected leaf or bark, preferably by both. the advice received will be authentic and will be given without charge. [illustration: fig. .--egg-masses of the tussock moth.] when to spray: _in the case of chewing insects_, the latter part of may is the time to spray. the caterpillars hatch from their eggs, and the elm leaf beetle leaves its winter quarters at that time. _in the case of sucking insects_, the instructions will have to be more specific, depending upon the particular insect in question. some sucking insects can best be handled in may or early june when their young emerge, others can be effectively treated in the fall or winter when the trees are dormant. how to spray: thoroughness is the essential principle in all spraying. in the case of leaf-eating insects, this means covering every leaf with the poison and applying it to the under side of the leaves, where the insects generally feed. in the case of sucking insects, thoroughness means an effort to touch every insect with the spray. it should be borne in mind that the insect can be killed only when hit with the chemical. the solution should be well stirred, and should be applied by means of a nozzle that will coat every leaf with a fine, mist-like spray. mere drenching or too prolonged an application will cause the solution to run off. special precautions should be taken with contact poisons to see that the formula is correct. too strong a solution will burn the foliage and tender bark. spraying apparatus: there are various forms of spraying apparatus in the market, including small knapsack pumps, barrel hand-pumps, and gasolene and gas-power sprayers, figs. and . hose and nozzles are essential accessories. one-half inch, three-ply hose of the best quality is necessary to stand the heavy pressure and wear. two -foot lengths is the usual quantity required for use with a barrel hand-pump. each line of hose should be supplied with a bamboo pole feet long, having a brass tube passed through it to carry the nozzle. the vermorel nozzle is the best type to use. the cost of a barrel outfit, including two lines of hose, nozzles and truck, should be from $ to $ . power sprayers cost from $ to $ or more. spraying material: _arsenate of lead_ should be used in the proportion of pounds of the chemical to gallons of water. a brand of arsenate of lead containing at least per cent of arsenic oxide with not more than per cent of water should be insisted upon. this spray may be used successfully against caterpillars and other leaf-eating insects in the spring or summer. _whale-oil soap_ should be used at the rate of ½ pounds of the soap to gallon of hot water, if applied to the tree in winter. as a spray in summer, use pound of the soap to gallons of water. this treatment is useful for most sucking insects. _lime-sulfur wash_ is an excellent material to use against sucking insects, such as the san josé scale and other armored scales. the application of a lime-sulfur wash when put on during the dormant season is not likely to harm a tree and has such an excellent cleansing effect that the benefits to be derived in this direction alone are often sufficient to meet the cost of the treatment. lime-sulfur wash consists of a mixture, boiled one hour, of pounds of lime and pounds of sulfur, in gallons of water. it may be had in prepared form and should then be used at the rate of gallon to about gallons of water in winter or early spring before the buds open. at other times of the year and for the softer-bodied insects a more diluted mixture, possibly part to or parts of water, should be used, varying with each case separately. _kerosene emulsion_ consists of one-half pound of hard soap, gallon of boiling water, and gallons of kerosene. it may be obtained in prepared form and is then to be used at the rate of one part of the solution to nine parts of water when applied in winter or to the bark only in summer. use gallons of the solution to a -gallon barrel of water when applying it to the leaves in the summer. kerosene emulsion is useful as a treatment for scale insects. _tobacco water_ should be prepared by steeping one-half pound of tobacco stems or leaves in a gallon of boiling water and later diluting the product with to gallons of water. it is particularly useful for plant lice in the summer. the life history of an insect: in a general way, all insects have four stages of transformation before a new generation is produced. it is important to consider the nature of these four stages in order that the habits of any particular insect and the remedies applicable in combating it may be understood. all insects develop from _eggs_, fig. . the eggs then hatch into caterpillars or grubs, which is the _larva_ stage, in which most insects do the greatest damage to trees. the caterpillars or grubs grow and develop rapidly, and hence their feeding is most ravenous. following the larva stage comes the third or _pupa_ stage, which is the dormant stage of the insect. in this stage the insect curls itself up under the protection of a silken cocoon like the tussock moth, or of a curled leaf like the brown-tail moth, or it may be entirely unsheltered like the pupa of the elm leaf beetle. after the pupa stage comes the _adult insect_, which may be a moth or a beetle. a study of the four stages of any particular insect is known as a study of its _life history_. the important facts to know about the life history of an insect are the stage in which it does most of its feeding, and the period of the year in which this occurs. it is also important to know how the insect spends the winter in order to decide upon a winter treatment. important insects the elm leaf beetle life history: the elm leaf beetle, fig. , is annually causing the defoliation of thousands of elm trees throughout the united states. several successive defoliations are liable to kill a tree. the insects pass the winter in the beetle form, hiding themselves in attics and wherever else they can secure shelter. in the middle of may when the buds of the elm trees unfold, the beetles emerge from their winter quarters, mate, and commence eating the leaves, thus producing little holes through them. while this feeding is going on, the females deposit little, bright yellow eggs on the under side of the leaves, which soon hatch into small larvae or grubs. the grubs then eat away the soft portion of the leaf, causing it to look like lacework. the grubs become full grown in twenty days, crawl down to the base of the tree, and there transform into naked, orange-colored pupae. this occurs in the early part of august. after remaining in the pupa stage about a week, they change into beetles again, which either begin feeding or go to winter quarters. remedies: there are three ways of combating this insect: first, by _spraying the foliage_ with arsenate of lead in the latter part of may while the beetles are feeding, and repeating the spraying in june when the larvae emerge. the spraying method is the one most to be relied on in fighting this insect. a second, though less important remedy, consists in _destroying the pupae_ when they gather in large quantities at the base of the tree. this may be accomplished by gathering them bodily and destroying them, or by pouring hot water or a solution of kerosene over them. in large trees it may be necessary to climb to the crotches of the main limbs to get some of them. the third remedy lies in gathering and _destroying the adult beetles_ when found in their winter quarters. the application of bands of burlap or "tanglefoot," or of other substances often seen on the trunks of elm trees is useless, since these bands only prevent the larvae from crawling down from the leaves to the base and serve to prevent nothing from crawling up. scraping the trunks of elm trees is also a waste of effort. [illustration: fig. .--the elm leaf beetle. (after dr. e.p. felt.) . egg cluster, enlarged. a. single egg, greatly enlarged. . young larva, enlarged. . full grown larva, much enlarged. . pupa, enlarged. . overwintered beetle, enlarged. . fresh, brightly colored beetle, enlarged. . under surface of leaf showing larvae feeding. . leaf eaten by larvae. . leaf showing holes eaten by beetles.] the tussock moth life history: this insect appears in the form of a red-headed, yellow-colored caterpillar during the latter part of may, and in june and july. the caterpillars surround themselves with silken cocoons and change into pupae. the mature moths emerge from the cocoons after a period of about two weeks, and the females, which are wingless, soon deposit their eggs on the bark of trees, on twigs, fences, and other neighboring objects. these eggs form white clusters of nearly individual eggs each, and are very conspicuous all winter, see fig. . remedies: there are two ways of combating this insect: ( ) by spraying with arsenate of lead for the caterpillars during the latter part of may and early june. ( ) by removing and destroying the egg masses in the fall or winter. [illustration: fig. .--the tussock moth. (after dr. e.p. felt.) . caterpillar. . male moth. . female moth laying eggs. cocoons. . cast skins of caterpillar. . work of young caterpillar. . male pupa. and . girdled branches.] the gipsy moth life history: this insect, imported from europe to this country in , has ever since proved a serious enemy of most shade, forest, and fruit trees in the new england states. it even feeds on evergreens, killing the trees by a single defoliation. the insect appears in the caterpillar stage from april to july. it feeds at night and rests by day. the mature caterpillar, which is dark in color, may be recognized by rows of blue and red spots along its back. after july, egg masses are deposited by the female moths on the bark of trees, and on leaves, fences, and other neighboring objects. here they remain over the winter until they hatch in the spring. the flat egg masses are round or oval in shape, and are yellowish-brown in color. see fig. . remedies: spray for the caterpillars in june with arsenate of lead and apply creosote to the egg masses whenever found. the brown-tail moth life history: this insect was introduced here from europe in and has since done serious damage to shade, forest, and fruit trees, and to shrubs in the new england states. it appears in the caterpillar stage in the early spring and continues to feed on the leaves and buds until the last of june. then the caterpillars pupate, the moths come out, and in july and august the egg clusters appear. these hatch into caterpillars which form nests for themselves by drawing the leaves together. here they remain protected until the spring. see fig. . remedies: collect the winter nests from october to april and burn them. also spray the trees for caterpillars in early may and especially in august with arsenate of lead. [illustration: fig. .--the gipsy moth. (after f.w. rane mass. state forester.)] [illustration: fig. .--the brown-tail moth. (after f.w. rane, mass. state forester.)] [illustration: fig. .--larva of the leopard moth.] the fall webworm the caterpillars of this insect congregate in colonies and surround themselves with a web which often reaches the size of a foot or more in diameter. these webs are common on trees in july and august. cutting off the webs or burning them on the twigs is the most practical remedy. [illustration: fig. .--branch showing work of the leopard moth larva.] the leopard moth life history: this insect does its serious damage in the grub form. the grubs which are whitish in color with brown heads, and which vary in size from / of an inch to inches in length (fig. ), may be found boring in the wood of the branches and trunk of the tree all winter. fig. . the leopard moth requires two years to complete its round of life. the mature moths are marked with dark spots resembling a leopard's skin, hence the name. fig. . it is one of the commonest and most destructive insects in the east and is responsible for the recent death of thousands of the famous elm trees in new haven and boston. fig. . [illustration: fig. .--the leopard moth.] remedies: trees likely to be infested with this insect should be examined three or four times a year for wilted twigs, dead branches, and strings of expelled frass; all of which may indicate the presence of this borer. badly infested branches should be cut off and burned. trees so badly infested that treatment becomes too complicated should be cut down and destroyed. where the insects are few and can be readily reached, an injection of carbon bisulphide into the burrow, the orifice of which is then immediately closed with soap or putty, will often destroy the insects within. [illustration: fig. .--elm tree attacked by the leopard moth.] the hickory bark borer life history: this insect is a small brown or black beetle in its mature form and a small legless white grub in its winter stage. the beetles appear from june to august. in july they deposit their eggs in the outer sapwood, immediately under the bark of the trunk and larger branches. the eggs soon hatch and the grubs feed on the living tissue of the tree, forming numerous galleries. the grubs pass the winter in a nearly full-grown condition, transform to pupae in may, and emerge as beetles in june. remedies: the presence of the insect can be detected by the small holes in the bark of the trees and the fine sawdust which is ejected from these holes, when the insects are active. it is important to emphasize the advisability of detecting the fine sawdust because that is the best indication of the actual operations of the hickory bark borer. these holes, however, will not be noticeable until the insect has completed its transformation. in summer, the infested trees show wilted leaves and many dead twigs. holes in the base of the petioles of these leaves are also signs of the working of the insect. since the insect works underneath the bark, it is inaccessible for treatment and all infested trees should be cut down and burned, or the bark removed and the insects destroyed. this should be done before the beetles emerge from the tree in june. plant lice or aphides these often appear on the under side of the leaves of the beech, norway maple, tulip tree, etc. they excrete a sweet, sticky liquid called "honey-dew," and cause the leaves to curl or drop. spraying with whale-oil soap solution formed by adding one pound of the soap to five gallons of water is the remedy. study ii. tree diseases because trees have wants analogous to those of human beings, they also have diseases similar to those which afflict human beings. in many cases these diseases act like cancerous growths upon the human body; in some instances the ailment may be a general failing due to improper feeding, and in other cases it may be due to interference with the life processes of the tree. how to tell an ailing tree: whatever the cause, an ailing tree will manifest its ailment by one or more symptoms. a change of color in the leaves at a time when they should be perfectly green indicates that the tree is not growing under normal conditions, possibly because of an insufficiency of moisture or light or an overdose of foreign gases or salts. withering of the leaves is another sign of irregularity in water supply. dead tops point to some difficulty in the soil conditions or to some disease of the roots or branches. spotted leaves and mushroom-like growths or brackets protruding from the bark as in fig. , are sure signs of disease. in attempting to find out whether a tree is healthy or not, one would therefore do well to consider whether the conditions under which it is growing are normal or not; whether the tree is suitable for the location; whether the soil is too dry or too wet; whether the roots are deprived of their necessary water and air by an impenetrable cover of concrete or soil; whether the soil is well drained and free from foreign gases and salts; whether the tree is receiving plenty of light or is too much exposed; and whether it is free from insects and fungi. if, after a thorough examination, it is found that the ailment has gone too far, it may not be wise to try to save the tree. a timely removal of a tree badly infested with insects or fungi may often be the best procedure and may save many neighboring trees from contagious infection. for this, however, no rules can be laid down and much will depend on the local conditions and the judgment and knowledge of the person concerned. [illustration: fig. .--a bracket fungus (_elfvingia megaloma_) on a tulip tree.] fungi as factors of disease: the trees, the shrubs and the flowers with which we are familiar are rooted in the ground and derive their food both from the soil and from the air. there is, however, another group of plants,--_the fungi_,--the roots of which grow in trees and other plants and which obtain their food entirely from the trees or plants upon which they grow. the fungi cannot manufacture their own food as other plants do and consequently absorb the food of their host, eventually reducing it to dust. the fungi are thus disease-producing factors and the source of most of the diseases of trees. when we can see fungi growing on a tree we may safely assume that they are already in an advanced state of development. we generally discover their presence when their fruiting bodies appear on the surface of the tree as shown in fig . these fruiting bodies are the familiar mushrooms, puffballs, toadstools or shelf-like brackets that one often sees on trees. in some cases they spread over the surface of the wood in thin patches. they vary in size from large bodies to mere pustules barely visible to the naked eye. their variation in color is also significant, ranging from colorless to black and red but never green. they often emulate the color of the bark, fig. . radiating from these fruiting bodies into the tissues of the tree are a large number of minute fibers, comprising the _mycelium_ of the fungus. these fibers penetrate the body of the tree in all directions and absorb its food. the mycelium is the most important part of the fungous growth. if the fruiting body is removed, another soon takes its place, but if the entire mycelium is cut out, the fungus will never come back. the fruiting body of the fungus bears the seed or _spores_. these spores are carried by the wind or insects to other trees where they take root in some wound or crevice of the bark and start a new infestation. [illustration: fig. .--the fruiting body of a fungus.] the infestation will be favored in its growth if the spore can find plenty of food, water, warmth and darkness. as these conditions generally exist in wounds and cavities of trees, it is wise to keep all wounds well covered with coal tar and to so drain the cavities that moisture cannot lodge in them. this subject will be gone into more fully in the following two studies on "pruning trees" and "tree repair." [illustration: fig. .--the birch-fungus rot. (_polyponis betulinus_ fr.) note the similarity in the color of the fruiting body and bark of the tree.] while the majority of the fungi grow on the trunks and limbs of trees, some attack the leaves, some the twigs and others the roots. some fungi grow on living wood some on dead wood and some on both. those that attack the living trees are the most dangerous from the standpoint of disease. the chestnut disease: the disease which is threatening the destruction of all the chestnut trees in america is a fungus which has, within recent years, assumed such vast proportions that it deserves special comment. the fungus is known as _diaporthe parasitica_ (murrill), and was first observed in the vicinity of new york in . at that time only a few trees were known to have been killed by this disease, but now the disease has advanced over the whole chestnut area in the united states, reaching as far south as virginia and as far west as buffalo. fig. shows the result of the chestnut disease. the fungus attacks the cambium tissue underneath the bark. it enters through a wound in the bark and sends its fungous threads from the point of infection all around the trunk until the latter is girdled and killed. this may all happen within one season. it is not until the tree has practically been destroyed that the disease makes its appearance on the surface of the bark in the form of brown patches studded with little pustules that carry the spores. when once girdled, the tree is killed above the point of infection and everything above dies, while some of the twigs below may live until they are attacked individually by the disease or until the trunk below their origin is infected. all species of chestnut trees are subject to the disease. the japanese and spanish varieties appear to be highly resistant, but are not immune. other species of trees besides chestnuts are not subject to the disease. [illustration: fig. .--chestnut trees killed by the chestnut disease.] there is no remedy or preventive for this disease. from the nature of its attack, which is on the inner layer of the tree, it is evident that all applications of fungicides, which must necessarily be applied to the outside of the tree, will not reach the disease. injections are impossible and other suggested remedies, such as boring holes in the wood for the purpose of inserting chemicals, are futile. the wood of the chestnut tree, within three or four years after its death, is still sound and may be used for telephone and telegraph poles, posts, railroad ties, lumber and firewood. spraying for fungous diseases: where a fungous disease is attacking the leaves, fruit, or twigs, spraying with bordeaux mixture may prove effective. the application of bordeaux mixture is deterrent rather than remedial, and should therefore be made immediately before the disease appears. the nature of the disease and the time of treatment can be determined without cost, by submitting specimens of affected portions of the plant for analysis and advice to the state agricultural experiment station or to the united states department of agriculture. bordeaux mixture, the standard fungicide material, consists of a solution of pounds of copper sulphate (blue vitriol) with pounds of slaked lime in gallons of water. it may be purchased in prepared form in the open market, and when properly made, has a brilliant sky-blue color. spraying with bordeaux mixture should be done in the fall, early spring, or early summer, but never during the period when the trees are in bloom. study iii. pruning trees fundamental principles trees are very much like human beings in their requirements, mode of life and diseases, and the general principles applicable to the care of one are equally important to the intelligent treatment of the other. the removal of limbs from trees, as well as from human beings, must be done sparingly and judiciously. wounds, in both trees and human beings, must be disinfected and dressed to keep out all fungus or disease germs. fungous growths of trees are similar to human cancers, both in the manner of their development and the surgical treatment which they require. improper pruning will invite fungi and insects to the tree, hence the importance of a knowledge of fundamental principles in this branch of tree care. [illustration: fig. .--a tree pruned improperly and too severely.] time: too much pruning at one time should never be practiced (fig. ), and no branch should be removed from a tree without good reason for so doing. dead and broken branches should be removed as soon as observed, regardless of any special pruning season, because they are dangerous, unsightly and carry insects and disease into the heart of the tree. but all other pruning, whether it be for the purpose of perfecting the form in shade trees, or for increasing the production of fruit in orchard trees, should be confined to certain seasons. shade and ornamental trees can best be pruned in the fall, while the leaves are still on the tree and while the tree itself is in practically a dormant state. proper cutting: all pruning should be commenced at the top of the tree and finished at the bottom. a shortened branch (excepting in poplars and willows, which should be cut in closely) should terminate in small twigs which may draw the sap to the freshly cut wound; where a branch is removed entirely, the cut should be made-close and even with the trunk, as in fig. . wherever there is a stub left after cutting off a branch, the growing tissue of the tree cannot cover it and the stub eventually decays, falls out and leaves a hole (see fig. ), which serves to carry disease and insects to the heart of the tree. this idea of close cutting cannot be over-emphasized. where large branches have to be removed, the splitting and ripping of the bark along the trunk is prevented by making one cut beneath the branch, about a foot or two away from the trunk, and then another above, close to the trunk. [illustration: fig. .--branches properly cut close to the trunk.] too severe pruning: in pruning trees, many people have a tendency to cut them back so severely as to remove everything but the bare trunk and a few of the main branches. this process is known as "heading back." it is a method, however, which should not be resorted to except in trees that are very old and failing, and even there only with certain species, like the silver maple, sycamore, linden and elm. trees like the sugar maple will not stand this treatment at all. the willow is a tree that will stand the process very readily and the carolina poplar must be cut back every few years, in order to keep its crown from becoming too tall, scraggy and unsafe. [illustration: fig. .--a limb improperly cut. note how the stub is decaying and the resulting cavity is becoming diseased.] covering wounds: the importance of immediately covering all wounds with coal tar cannot be overstated. if the wound is not tarred, the exposed wood cracks, as in fig. , providing suitable quarters for disease germs that will eventually destroy the body of the tree. coal tar is by far preferable to paint and other substances for covering the wound. the tar penetrates the exposed wood, producing an antiseptic as well as a protective effect. paint only forms a covering, which may peel off in course of time and which will later protrude from the cut, thus forming, between the paint and the wood, a suitable breeding place for the development of destructive fungi or disease. the application of tin covers, burlap, or other bandages to the wound is equally futile and in most cases even injurious. [illustration: fig. .--result of a wound not covered with coal tar. the exposed wood cracked and decay set in.] special considerations pruning shade trees: here, the object is to produce a symmetrical crown and to have the lowest branches raised from the ground sufficiently high to enable pedestrians to pass under with raised umbrellas. such pruning should, therefore, necessarily be light and confined to the low limbs and dead branches. pruning lawn trees: here the charm of the tree lies in the low reach of the branches and the compactness of the crown. the pruning should, therefore, be limited to the removal of dead and diseased branches only. pruning forest trees: forest trees have a greater commercial value when their straight trunks are free from branches. in the forest, nature generally accomplishes this result and artificial pruning seldom has to be resorted to. trees in the forest grow so closely together that they shut out the sunlight from their lower limbs, thus causing the latter to die and fall off. this is known as natural pruning. in some european forests, nature is assisted in its pruning by workmen, who saw off the side branches before they fall of their own accord; but in this country such practice would be considered too expensive, hence it is seldom adopted. tools used in pruning good tools are essential for quick and effective work in pruning. two or three good saws, a pair of pole-shears, a pole-saw, a -foot single ladder, a -foot extension ladder of light spruce or pine with hickory rungs, a good pruning knife, plenty of coal tar, a fire-can to heat the tar, a pole-brush, a small hand brush and plenty of good rope comprise the principal equipment of the pruner. suggestions for the safety of tree climbers . before climbing a tree, judge its general condition. the trunk of a tree that shows age, disease, or wood-destroying insects generally has its branches in an equally unhealthy condition. . the different kinds of wood naturally differ in their strength and elasticity. the soft and brash woods need greater precautions than the strong and pliable ones. the wood of all the poplars, the ailanthus, the silver maple and the chestnut, catalpa and willow is either too soft or too brittle to be depended upon without special care. the elm, hickory and oak have strong, flexible woods and are, therefore, safer than others. the red oak is weaker than the other oaks. the sycamore and beech have a tough, cross-grained wood which is fairly strong. the linden has a soft wood, while the ash and gum, though strong and flexible, are apt to split. . look out for a limb that shows fungous growths. every fungus sends fibers into the main body of the limb which draw out its sap. the interior of the branch then loses its strength and becomes like a powder. outside appearances sometimes do not show the interior condition, but one should regard a fungus as a danger sign. . when a limb is full of holes or knots, it generally indicates that borers have been working all kinds of galleries through it, making it unsafe. the silver maple and sycamore maple are especially subject to borers which, in many cases, work on the under side of the branch so that the man in the tree looking down cannot see its dangerous condition. . a dead limb with the bark falling off indicates that it died at least three months before and is, therefore, less safe than one with its bark tightly adhering to it. . branches are more apt to snap on a frosty day when they are covered with an icy coating than on a warm summer day. . always use the pole-saw and pole-shears on the tips of long branches, and use the pole-hook in removing dead branches of the ailanthus and other brittle trees where it would be too dangerous to reach them otherwise. . be sure of the strength of a branch before tying an extension ladder to it. study iv. tree repair where trees have been properly cared for from their early start, wounds and cavities and their subsequent elaborate treatment have no place. but where trees have been neglected or improperly cared for, wounds and cavities are bound to occur and early treatment becomes a necessity. there are two kinds of wounds on trees: ( ) surface wounds, which do not extend beyond the inner bark, and ( ) deep wounds or cavities, which may range from a small hole in a crotch to the hollow of an entire trunk. surface wounds: surface wounds (fig. ) are due to bruised bark, and a tree thus injured can no longer produce the proper amount of foliage or remain healthy very long. the reason for this becomes very apparent when one looks into the nature of the living or active tissue of a tree and notes how this tissue becomes affected by such injuries. [illustration: fig. .--a surface wound properly freed from decayed wood and covered with coal tar.] this living or active tissue is known as the "cambium layer," and is a thin tissue situated immediately under the bark. it must completely envelop the stem, root and branches of the trees. the outer bark is a protective covering to this living layer, while the entire interior wood tissue chiefly serves as a skeleton or support for the tree. the cambium layer is the real, active part of the tree. it is the part which transmits the sap from the base of the tree to its crown; it is the part which causes the tree to grow by the formation of new cells, piled up in the form of rings around the heart of the tree; and it is also the part which prevents the entrance of insects and disease to the inner wood. from this it is quite evident that any injury to the bark, and consequently to this cambium layer alongside of it, will not only cut off a portion of the sap supply and hinder the growth of the tree to an extent proportional to the size of the wound, but will also expose the inner wood to the action of decay. the wound may, at first, appear insignificant, but, if neglected, it will soon commence to decay and thus to carry disease and insects into the tree. the tree then becomes hollow and dangerous and its life is doomed. injury to the cambium layer, resulting in surface wounds, may be due to the improper cutting of a branch, to the bite of a horse, to the cut of a knife or the careless wielding of an axe, to the boring of an insect, or to the decay of a fungous disease. (see fig. .) whatever the cause, _the remedy lies in cleaning out all decayed wood, removing the loose bark and covering the exposed wood with coal tar_. in cutting off the loose bark, the edges should be made smooth before the coal tar is applied. loose bark, put back against a tree, will never grow and will only tend to harbor insects and disease. bandages, too, are hurtful because, underneath the bandage, disease will develop more rapidly than where the wound is exposed to the sun and wind. the application of tin or manure to wounds is often indulged in and is equally injurious to the tree. the secret of all wound treatment is to keep the wound _smooth, clean_ to the live tissue, _and well covered_ with coal tar. the chisel or gouge is the best tool to employ in this work. a sharp hawk-billed knife will be useful in cutting off the loose bark. coal tar is the best material for covering wounds because it has both an antiseptic and a protective effect on the wood tissue. paint, which is very often used as a substitute for coal tar, is not as effective, because the paint is apt to peel in time, thus allowing moisture and disease to enter the crevice between the paint and the wood. [illustration: fig. .--a neglected surface wound. note the rough surface of the wound, the want of a coal tar covering and the fungous growth that followed.] cavities: deep wounds and cavities are generally the result of stubs that have been permitted to rot and fall out. surface wounds allowed to decay will deepen in course of time and produce cavities. cavities in trees are especially susceptible to the attack of disease because, in a cavity, there is bound to exist an accumulation of moisture. with this, there is also considerable darkness and protection from wind and cold, and these are all ideal conditions for the development of disease. the successful application of a remedy, in all cavity treatment, hinges on this principal condition--_that all traces of disease shall be entirely eliminated before treatment is commenced_. fungous diseases attacking a cavity produce a mass of fibers, known as the "mycelium," that penetrate the body of the tree or limb on which the cavity is located. in eliminating disease from a cavity, it is, therefore, essential to go _beyond_ the mere decaying surface and to cut out all fungous fibers that radiate into the interior of the tree. where these fibers have penetrated so deeply that it becomes impossible to remove every one of them, the tree or limb thus affected had better be cut down. (fig. .) the presence of the mycelium in wood tissue can readily be told by the discolored and disintegrated appearance of the wood. the filling in a cavity, moreover, should serve to prevent the accumulation of water and, where a cavity is perpendicular and so located that the water can be drained off without the filling, the latter should be avoided and the cavity should merely be cleaned out and tarred. (fig. .) where the disease can be entirely eliminated, where the cavity is not too large, and where a filling will serve the practical purpose of preventing the accumulation of moisture, the work of filling should be resorted to. [illustration: fig. .--a cavity filled in a tree that should have been cut down. note how the entire interior is decayed and how the tree fell apart soon after treatment.] filling should be done in the following manner: first, the interior should be thoroughly freed from diseased wood and insects. the chisel, gouge, mall and knife are the tools, and it is better to cut deep and remove every trace of decayed wood than it is to leave a smaller hole in an unhealthy state. the inner surface of the cavity should then be covered with a coat of white lead paint, which acts as a disinfectant and helps to hold the filling. corrosive sublimate or bordeaux mixture may be used as a substitute for the white lead paint. a coat of coal tar over the paint is the next step. the cavity is then solidly packed with bricks, stones and mortar as in fig. , and finished with a layer of cement at the mouth of the orifice. this surface layer of cement should not be brought out to the same plane with the outer bark of the tree, but should rather recede a little beyond the growing tissue (cambium layer) which is situated immediately below the bark, fig. . in this way the growing tissue will be enabled to roll over the cement and to cover the whole cavity if it be a small one, or else to grow out sufficiently to overlap the filling and hold it as a frame holds a picture. the cement is used in mixture with sand in the proportion of one-third of cement to two-thirds of sand. when dry, the outer layer of cement should be covered with coal tar to prevent cracking. [illustration: fig. .--a cavity in the process of being filled.] [illustration: fig. --the same cavity properly filled.] trees that tend to split: certain species of trees, like the linden and elm, often tend to split, generally in the crotch of several limbs and sometimes in a fissure along the trunk of the tree. midwinter is the period when this usually occurs and timely action will save the tree. the remedy lies in fastening together the various parts of the tree by means of bolts or chains. a very injurious method of accomplishing this end is frequently resorted to, where each of the branches is bound by an iron band and the bands are then joined by a bar. the branches eventually outgrow the diameter of the bands, causing the latter to cut through the bark of the limbs and to destroy them. another method of bracing limbs together consists in running a single bolt through them and fastening each end of the bolt with a washer and nut. this method is preferable to the first because it allows for the growth of the limbs in thickness. [illustration: fig. .--diagram showing the triple-bar method of fastening limbs.] a still better method, however, consists in using a bar composed of three parts as shown in fig. . each of the two branches has a short bolt passed through it horizontally, and the two short bolts are then connected by a third bar. this arrangement will shift all the pressure caused by the swaying of the limbs to the middle connecting-bar. in case of a windstorm, the middle bar will be the one to bend, while the bolts which pass through the limbs will remain intact. the outer ends of the short bolts should have their washers and nuts slightly embedded in the wood of the tree, so that the living tissue of the tree may eventually grow over them in such a way as to hold the bars firmly in place and to exclude moisture and disease. the washers and nuts on the inner side of the limbs should also be embedded. a chain is sometimes advantageously substituted for the middle section of the bar and, in some cases, where more than two branches have to be joined together, a ring might take the place of the middle bar or chain. bolts on a tree detract considerably from its natural beauty and should, therefore, be used only where they are absolutely necessary for the safety of the tree. they should be placed as high up in the tree as possible without weakening the limbs. chapter vii forestry study i. what forestry is and what it does although forestry is not a new idea but, as a science and an art, has been applied for nearly two thousand years, there are many persons who still need an explanation of its aims and principles. forestry deals with the establishment, protection and utilization of forests. by establishment, is meant the planting of new forests and the cutting of mature forests, in such a way as to encourage a natural growth of new trees without artificial planting or seeding. the planting may consist of sowing seed, or of setting out young trees. the establishment of a forest by cutting may consist of the removal of all mature trees and dependence upon the remaining stumps to reproduce the forest from sprouts, or it may consist of the removal of only a portion of the mature trees, thus giving the young seedlings on the ground room in which to grow. by protection, is meant the safeguarding of the forest from fire, wind, insects, disease and injury for which man is directly responsible. here, the forester also prevents injury to the trees from the grazing and browsing of sheep and goats, and keeps his forest so well stocked that no wind can uproot the trees nor can the sun dry up the moist forest soil. [illustration: fig. .--a forest of bull pine cut on forestry principles. (photograph taken on the black hills national forest, south dakota.)] by utilization, is meant the conservative and intelligent harvesting of the forest, with the aim of obtaining the greatest amount of product from a given area, with the least waste, in the quickest time, and without the slightest deterioration of the forest as a whole. the forester cuts his mature trees, only, and generally leaves a sufficient number on the ground to preserve the forest soil and to cast seed for the production of a new crop. in this way, he secures an annual output without hurting the forest itself. he studies the properties and values of the different woods and places them where they will be most useful. he lays down principles for so harvesting the timber and the by-products of the forest that there will be the least waste and injury to the trees which remain standing. he utilizes the forest, but does not cut enough to interfere with the neighboring water-sheds, which the forests protect. [illustration: .--a white pine plantation, in rhode island, where the crowns of the trees have met. the trees are fifteen years old and in many cases every other tree had to be removed.] forestry, therefore, deals with a vast and varied mass of information, comprising all the known facts relating to the life of a forest. it does not deal with the individual tree and its planting and care,--that would be arboriculture. nor does it consider the grouping of trees for aesthetic effect,--that would be landscape gardening. it concerns itself with the forest as a community of trees and with the utilization of the forest on an economic basis. each one of these activities in forestry is a study in itself and involves considerable detail, of which the reader may obtain a general knowledge in the following pages. for a more complete discussion, the reader is referred to any of the standard books on forestry. the life and nature of a forest: when we think of a forest we are apt to think of a large number of individual trees having no special relationship to each other. closer observation, however, will reveal that the forest consists of a distinct group of trees, sufficiently dense to form an unbroken canopy of tops, and that, where trees grow so closely together, they become very interdependent. it is this interdependence that makes the forest different from a mere group of trees in a park or on a lawn. in this composite character, the forest enriches its own soil from year to year, changes the climate within its own bounds, controls the streams along its borders and supports a multitude of animals and plants peculiar to itself. this communal relationship in the life history of the forest furnishes a most interesting story of struggle and mutual aid. different trees have different requirements with regard to water, food and light. some need more water and food than others, some will not endure much shade, and others will grow in the deepest shade. in the open, a tree, if once established, can meet its needs quite readily and, though it has to ward off a number of enemies, insects, disease and windstorm--its struggle for existence is comparatively easy. in the forest, the conditions are different. here, the tree-enemies have to be battled with, just as in the open, and in addition, instead of there being only a few trees on a plot of ground, there are thousands growing on the same area, all demanding the same things out of a limited supply. the struggle for existence, therefore, becomes keen, many falling behind and but few surviving. [illustration: fig. .--measuring the diameter of a tree and counting its annual rings.] this struggle begins with the seed. at first there are thousands of seeds cast upon a given area by the neighboring trees or by the birds and the winds. of these, only a few germinate; animals feed on some of them, frost nips some and excessive moisture and unfavorable soil conditions prevent others from starting. the few successful ones soon sprout into a number of young trees that grow thriftily until their crowns begin to meet. when the trees have thus met, the struggle is at its height. the side branches encroach upon each other (fig. ), shut out the light without which the branches cannot live, and finally kill each other off. the upper branches vie with one another for light, grow unusually fast, and the trees increase in height with special rapidity. this is nature's method of producing clear, straight trunks which are so desirable for poles and large timber. in this struggle for dominance, some survive and tower above the others, but many become stunted and fail to grow, while the majority become entirely overtopped and succumb in the struggle; see fig. . but in this strife there is also mutual aid. each tree helps to protect its neighbors against the danger of being uprooted by the wind, and against the sun, which is liable to dry up the rich soil around the roots. this soil is different from the soil on the open lawn. it consists of an accumulation of decayed leaves mixed with inorganic matter, forming, together, a rich composition known as _humus_. the trees also aid each other in forming a close canopy that prevents the rapid evaporation of water from the ground. the intensity of these conditions will vary a great deal with the composition of the forest and the nature and habits of the individual trees. by composition, or type of forest, is meant the proportion in which the various species of trees are grouped; i.e., whether a certain section of woodland is composed of one species or of a mixture of species. by habit is meant the requirements of the trees for light, water and food. [illustration: fig. .--mountain slopes in north carolina well covered with forests.] some trees will grow in deep shade while others will demand the open. in the matter of water and food, the individual requirements of different trees are equally marked. the natural rapidity of growth of different species is also important, and one caring for a forest must know this rate of growth, not only as to the individual species, but also with respect to the forest as a whole. if he knows how fast the trees in a forest grow, both in height and diameter, he will know how much wood, in cubic feet, the forest produces in a year, and he can then determine how much he may cut without decreasing the capital stock. the rate of growth is determined in this way: a tree is cut and the rings on the cross-section surface are counted and measured; see fig. . each ring represents one year's growth. the total number of rings will show the age of the tree. by a study of the rings of the various species of trees on a given plot, the rate of growth of each species in that location can be ascertained and, by knowing the approximate number of trees of each species on the forest area, the rate of growth of the whole forest for any given year can be determined. [illustration: fig. .--bottom lands buried in waste from deforested mountains. wu-t'ai-shan, shan-si province, china.] [illustration: fig. .--eroded slope in western north carolina.] forests prevent soil erosion and floods: forests help to regulate the flow of streams and prevent floods. most streams are bordered by vast tracts of forest growths. the rain that falls on these forest areas is absorbed and held by the forest soil, which is permeated with decayed leaves, decayed wood and root fibers. the forest floor is, moreover, covered with a heavy undergrowth and thus behaves like a sponge, absorbing the water that falls upon it and then permitting it to ooze out gradually to the valleys and rivers below. a forest soil will retain one-half of its own quantity of water; i.e., for every foot in depth of soil there can be six inches of water and, when thus saturated, the soil will act as a vast, underground reservoir from which the springs and streams are supplied (fig. ). cut the forest down and the land becomes such a desert as is shown in fig. . the soil, leaves, branches and fallen trees dry to dust, are carried off by the wind and, with the fall of rain, the soil begins to wash away and gullies, such as are shown in fig. , are formed. streams generally have their origins in mountain slopes and there, too, the forests, impeding the sudden run off of the water which is not immediately absorbed, prevent soil erosion. [illustration: fig. .--flood in pittsburgh, pa.] where the soil is allowed to wash off, frequent floods are inevitable. rain which falls on bare slopes is not caught by the crowns of trees nor held by the forest floor. it does not sink into the ground as readily as in the forest. the result is that a great deal of water reaches the streams in a short time and thus hastens floods. at other periods the streams are low because the water which would have fed them for months has run off in a few days. the farms are the first to suffer from the drouths that follow and, during the period of floods, whole cities are often inundated. fig. shows such a scene. the history of forestry is full of horrible incidents of the loss of life and property from floods which are directly traceable to the destruction of the local forests and, on the other hand, there are many cases on record where flood conditions have been entirely obviated by the planting of forests. france and germany have suffered from inundations resulting from forest devastation and, more than a hundred years ago, both of these countries took steps to reforest their mountain slopes, and thereby to prevent many horrible disasters. [illustration: fig. .--planting a forest with seedling trees on the nebraska national forest. the man on the right is placing the tree in a slit just made with the spade. the man on the left is shoveling the dry sand from the surface before making the slit for the tree.] [illustration: fig. .--diagrammatic illustration of a selection forest.] how forests are established: new forests may be started from seed or from shoots, or suckers. if from seed, the process may be carried on in one of three ways: first, by sowing the seed directly on the land. second, by first raising young trees in nurseries and later setting them out in their permanent locations in the forest. this method is applicable where quick results are desired, where the area is not too large, or in treeless regions and large open gaps where there is little chance for new trees to spring up from seed furnished by the neighboring trees. it is a method extensively practiced abroad where some of the finest forests are the result. the u.s. government, as well as many of the states, maintain forest-tree nurseries where millions of little trees are grown from seed and planted out on the national and state forests. fig. shows men engaged in this work. the fundamental principles of starting and maintaining a nursery have already been referred to in the chapter on "what trees to plant and how." the third method of establishing a forest from seed is by cutting the trees in the existing forest so that the seed falling from the remaining trees will, with the addition of light and space, readily take root and fill in the gaps with a vigorous growth of trees, without artificial seeding or planting. this gives rise to several methods of cutting or harvesting forests for the purpose of encouraging natural reproduction. the cutting may extend to single trees over the whole area or over only a part of the whole area. where the cutting is confined to single trees, the system is known as the "selection system," because the trees are selected individually, with a view to retaining the best and most vigorous stock and removing the overcrowding specimens and those that are fully mature or infested with disease or insects. fig. is a diagrammatic illustration of the operation of this system. in another system the cutting is done in groups, or in strips, and the number of areas of the groups or strips is extended from time to time until the whole forest is cleared. this system is illustrated in fig. . still another method consists in encouraging trees which will thrive in the shade, such as the beech, spruce and hemlock, to grow under light-demanding trees like the pine. this system presents a "two-storied" forest and is known by that name. the under story often has to be established by planting. [illustration: fig. .--diagrammatic illustration of the group or strip system.] in the system of reproducing forests from shoots or suckers, all trees of a certain species on a given area are cut off and the old stumps and roots are depended upon to produce a new set of sprouts, the strongest of which will later develop into trees. the coniferous trees do not lend themselves at all to this system of treatment, and, among the broadleaf trees, the species vary in their ability to sprout. some, like the chestnut and poplar, sprout profusely; others sprout very little. how forests are protected: forestry also tries to protect the forests from many destructive agencies. wasteful lumbering and fire are the worst enemies of the forest. fungi, insects, grazing, wind, snow and floods are the other enemies. [illustration: fig. .--the result of a forest fire. the trees, lodgepole pine and englemann spruce, are all dead and down. photograph taken in the colorado national forest, colorado.] by wasteful lumbering is meant that the forest is cut with no regard for the future and with considerable waste in the utilization of the product. conservative lumbering, which is the term used by foresters to designate the opposite of wasteful lumbering, will be described more fully later in this study. protection from fire is no less important than protection from wasteful lumbering. forest fires are very common in this country and cause incalculable destruction to life and property; see fig. . from ten to twelve million acres of forest-land are burnt over annually and the timber destroyed is estimated at fifty millions of dollars. the history of forestry abounds in tales of destructive fires, where thousands of persons have been killed or left destitute, whole towns wiped out, and millions of dollars in property destroyed. in most cases, these uncontrollable fires started from small conflagrations that could readily, with proper fire-patrol, have been put out. there are various ways of fighting fires, depending on the character of the fire,--whether it is a surface fire, burning along the surface layer of dry leaves and small ground vegetation, a ground fire, burning below the surface, through the layer of soil and vegetable matter that generally lines the forest floor, or a top fire, burning high up in the trees. when the fire runs along the surface only, the injury extends to the butts of the trees and to the young seedlings. such fires can be put out by throwing dirt or sand over the fire, by beating it, and, sometimes, by merely raking the leaves away. ground fires destroy the vegetable mold which the trees need for their sustenance. they progress slowly and kill or weaken the roots of the trees. [illustration: fig. .--a top fire near bear canyon, arizona.] top fires, fig. , are the most dangerous, destroying everything in their way. they generally develop from surface fires, though sometimes they are started by lightning. they are more common in coniferous forests, because the leaves of hardwoods do not burn so readily. checking the progress of a top fire is a difficult matter. some fires will travel as rapidly as five miles an hour, and the heat is terrific. the only salvation for the forest lies, in many cases, in a sudden downpour of rain, a change of wind, or some barrier which the fire cannot pass. a barrier of this kind is often made by starting another fire some distance ahead of the principal one, so that when the two fires meet, they will die out for want of fuel. in well-kept forests, strips or lanes, free from inflammable material, are often purposely made through the forest area to furnish protection against top fires. carefully managed forests are also patrolled during the dry season so that fires may be detected and attacked in their first stages. look-out stations, watch-towers, telephone-connections and signal stations are other means frequently resorted to for fire protection and control. notices warning campers and trespassers against starting fires are commonly posted in such forests. (fig. .) [illustration: fig. .--sheep grazing on holy cross national forest, colorado. the drove consists of sheep, of which only part are shown in the photograph.] the grazing of sheep, goats and cattle in the forest is another important source of injury to which foresters must give attention. in the west this is quite a problem, for, when many thousands of these animals pass through a forest (fig. ), there is often very little young growth left and the future reproduction of the forest is severely retarded. grazing on our national forests is regulated by the government. as a means of protection against insects and fungi, all trees infested are removed as soon as observed and in advance of all others, whenever a lumbering operation is undertaken. [illustration: fig. .--a typical montana sawmill.] how forests are harvested: forestry and forest preservation require that a forest should be cut and not merely held untouched. but it also demands that the cutting shall be done on scientific principles, and that only as much timber shall be removed in a given time as the forest can produce in a corresponding period. after the cutting, the forest must be left in a condition to produce another crop of timber within a reasonable time: see fig. . these fundamental requirements represent the difference between conservative lumbering and ordinary lumbering. besides insuring a future supply of timber, conservative lumbering, or lumbering on forestry principles, also tends to preserve the forest floor and the young trees growing on it, and to prevent injury to the remaining trees through fire, insects and disease. it provides for a working plan by which the kind, number and location of the trees to be cut are specified, the height of the stumps is stipulated and the utilization of the wood and by-products is regulated. conservative lumbering provides that the trees shall be cut as near to the ground as possible and that they shall be felled with the least damage to the young trees growing near by. the branches of the trees, after they have been felled, must be cut and piled in heaps, as shown in fig. , to prevent fire. when the trunks, sawed into logs, are dragged through the woods, care is taken not to break down the young trees or to injure the bark of standing trees. waste in the process of manufacture is provided against, uses are found for the material ordinarily rejected, and the best methods of handling and drying lumber are employed. fig. shows a typical sawmill capable of providing lumber in large quantities. in the utilization of the by-products of the forest, such as turpentine and resin, forestry has devised numerous methods for harvesting the crops with greater economy and with least waste and injury to the trees from which the by-products are obtained. fig. illustrates an improved method by which crude turpentine is obtained. [illustration: fig. .--gathering crude turpentine by the cup and gutter method. this system, devised by foresters, saves the trees and increases the output.] forestry here and abroad: forestry is practiced in every civilized country except china and turkey. in germany, forestry has attained, through a long series of years, a remarkable state of scientific thoroughness and has greatly increased the annual output of the forests of that country. in france, switzerland, austria, hungary, norway, sweden, russia and denmark, forestry is also practiced on scientific principles and the government in each of these countries holds large tracts of forests in reserve. in british india one finds a highly efficient forest service and in japan forestry is receiving considerable attention. in the united states, the forest areas are controlled by private interests, by the government and by the states. on privately owned forests, forestry is practiced only in isolated cases. the states are taking hold of the problem very actively and in many of them we now find special forestry commissions authorized to care for vast areas of forest land reserved for state control. these commissions employ technically trained foresters who not only protect the state forests, but also plant new areas, encourage forest planting on private lands and disseminate forestry information among the citizens. new york state has such a commission that cares for more than a million acres of forest land located in the northern part of the state. many other states are equally progressive. the united states government is the most active factor in the preservation of our forests. the government to-day owns over two hundred million acres of forest land, set aside as national forests. there are one hundred and fifty individual reserves, distributed as shown in fig. and cared for by the forest service, a bureau in the department of agriculture. each of the forests is in charge of a supervisor. he has with him a professional forester and a body of men who patrol the tract against fire and the illegal cutting of timber. some of the men are engaged in planting trees on the open areas and others in studying the important forest problems of the region. fig. . [illustration: fig. .--map showing our national forests.] [illustration: fig. .--government foresters in missouri studying the growth and habits of trees. they are standing in water three feet deep.] where cutting is to be done on a national forest, the conditions are investigated by a technically trained forester and the cutting is regulated according to his findings. special attention is given to discovering new uses for species of trees which have hitherto been considered valueless, and the demand upon certain rare species is lessened by introducing more common woods which are suitable for use in their place. aside from the perpetuation of the national forests, the u.s. forest service also undertakes such tree studies as lie beyond the power or means of private individuals. it thus stands ready to cooperate with all who need assistance. study ii. care of the woodland almost every farm, large private estate or park has a wooded area for the purpose of supplying fuel or for enhancing the landscape effect of the place. in most instances these wooded areas are entirely neglected or are so improperly cared for as to cause injury rather than good. in but very few cases is provision made for a future growth of trees after the present stock has gone. proper attention will increase and perpetuate a crop of good trees just as it will any other crop on the farm, while the attractiveness of the place may be greatly enhanced through the intelligent planting and care of trees. how to judge the conditions: a close examination of the wooded area may reveal some or all of the following unfavorable conditions: the trees may be so crowded that none can grow well. a few may have grown to large size but the rest usually are decrepit, and overtopped by the larger trees. they are, therefore, unable, for the want of light and space, to develop into good trees. fig. shows woodland in such condition. [illustration: fig. .--woodland which needs attention. the trees are overcrowded.] there may also be dead and dying trees, trees infested with injurious insects and fungi and having any number of decayed branches. the trees may be growing so far apart that their trunks will be covered with suckers as far down as the ground, or there may be large, open gaps with no trees at all. here the sun, striking with full force, may be drying up the soil and preventing the decomposition of the leaves. grass soon starts to grow in these open spaces and the whole character of the woodland changes as shown in figs. and . [illustration: fig. .--first stage of deterioration. the woodland is too open and grass has taken the place of the humus cover.] where any of these conditions exist, the woodland requires immediate attention. otherwise, as time goes on, it deteriorates more and more, the struggle for space among the crowded and suppressed trees becomes more keen, the insects in the dying trees multiply and disease spreads from tree to tree. under such conditions, the soil deteriorates and the older trees begin to suffer. [illustration: fig. .--second stage of deterioration. the surface soil of the wooded area has washed away and the trees have died.] the attention required for the proper care of woodland may be summed up under the four general heads of _soil preservation_, _planting_, _cutting_, and _protection_. improvement by soil preservation: the soil in a wooded area can best be preserved and kept rich by doing two things; by retaining the fallen leaves on the ground and by keeping the ground well covered with a heavy growth of trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants. the fallen leaves decompose, mix with the soil and form a dark-colored material known as _humus_. the humus supplies the tree with a considerable portion of its food and helps to absorb and retain the moisture in the soil upon which the tree is greatly dependent. a heavy growth of trees and shrubs has a similar effect by serving to retain the moisture in the soil. improvement by planting: the planting of new trees is a necessity on almost any wooded area. for even where the existing trees are in good condition, they cannot last forever, and provision must be made for others to take their place after they are gone. the majority of the wooded areas in our parks and on private estates are not provided with a sufficient undergrowth of desirable trees to take the place of the older ones. thus, also, the open gaps must be planted to prevent the soil from deteriorating. waste lands on farms which are unsuited for farm crops often offer areas on which trees may profitably be planted. these lands are sufficiently good in most cases to grow trees, thus affording a means of turning into value ground which would otherwise be worthless. it has been demonstrated that the returns from such plantations at the end of fifty years will yield a six per cent investment and an extra profit of $ . per acre, the expense totaling at the end of fifty years, $ . . the value of the land is estimated at $ per acre and the cost of the trees and planting at $ per acre. the species figured on here is white pine, one of the best trees to plant from a commercial standpoint. with other trees, the returns will vary accordingly. [illustration: fig. .--a farm woodlot.] the usual idea that it costs a great deal to plant several thousand young trees is erroneous. an ordinary woodlot may be stocked with a well-selected number of young trees at a cost less than the price generally paid for a dozen good specimen trees for the front lawn. it is not necessary to underplant the woodlot with big trees. the existing big trees are there to give character to the forest and the new planting should be done principally as a future investment and as a means of perpetuating the life of the woodlot. young trees are even more desirable for such planting than the older and more expensive ones. the young trees will adapt themselves to the local soil and climatic conditions more easily than the older ones. their demand for food and moisture is more easily satisfied, and because of their small cost, one can even afford to lose a large percentage of them after planting. the young plants should be two-year-old seedlings or three-year-old "transplants." two-year-old seedlings are trees that have been grown from the seed in seed beds until they reach that age. they run from two to fifteen inches in height, depending upon the species. three-year-old "transplants" have been grown from the seed in seed beds and at the end of the first or second year have been taken up and transplanted into rows, where they grow a year or two longer. they are usually a little taller than the two-year-old seedlings, are much stockier and have a better root system. for this reason, three-year-old transplants are a little more desirable as stock for planting. they will withstand drought better than seedlings. the best results from woodland planting are obtained with native-grown material. such stock is stronger, hardier and better acclimated. foreign-grown stock is usually a little cheaper, owing to the fact that it has been grown abroad, under cheap labor conditions. the trees may be purchased from reputable dealers, of whom there are many in this country. these dealers specialize in growing young trees and selling them at the low cost of three to ten dollars per thousand. in states in which a forestry commission has been inaugurated, there have also been established state nurseries where millions of little trees are grown for reforestation purposes. in order to encourage private tree planting, the forestry commissions are usually willing to sell some of these trees at cost price, under certain conditions, to private land owners. inquiries should be made to the state forestry commission. great care must be taken to select the species most suitable for the particular soil, climatic and light conditions of the woodlot. the trees which are native to the locality and are found growing thriftily on the woodlot, are the ones that have proven their adaptability to the local conditions and should therefore be the principal species used for underplanting. a list from which to select the main stock would, therefore, vary with the locality. in the eastern states it would comprise the usual hardy trees like the red, pin and scarlet oaks, the beech, the red and sugar maples, the white ash, the tulip tree, sycamore, sweet gum and locust among the deciduous trees; the white, austrian, red, pitch and scotch pines, the hemlock and the yew among the conifers. with the main stock well selected, one may add a number of trees and shrubs that will give to the woodland scene a pleasing appearance at all seasons. the brilliant autumnal tints of the sassafras, pepperidge, blue beech, viburnum, juneberry and sumach are strikingly attractive. the flowering dogwood along the drives and paths will add a charm in june as well as in autumn and an occasional group of white birch will have the same effect if planted among groups of evergreens. additional undergrowth of native woodland shrubs, such as new jersey tea, red-berried elder and blueberry for the eastern states, will augment the naturalness of the scene and help to conserve the moisture in the soil. two or three years' growth will raise these plants above all grass and low vegetation, and a sprinkling of laurel, rhododendron, hardy ferns and a few intermingling colonies of native wild flowers such as bloodroot, false solomon's seal and columbines for the east, as a ground cover will put the finishing touches to the forest scene. as to methods of planting the little trees, the following suggestions may prove of value. as soon as the plants are received, they should be taken from the box and dipped in a thick puddle of water and loam. the roots must be thoroughly covered with the mud. then the bundles into which the little trees are tied should be loosened and the trees placed in a trench dug on a slant. the dirt should be placed over the roots and the exposed parts of the plants covered with brush or burlap to keep away the rays of the sun. when ready for planting, a few plants are dug up, set in a pail with thin mud at the bottom and carried to the place of planting. the most economical method of planting is for one man to make the holes with a mattock. these holes are made about a foot in diameter, by scraping off the sod with the mattock and then digging a little hole in the dirt underneath. a second man follows with a pail of plants and sets a single plant in this hole with his hands, see fig. , making sure that the roots are straight and spread out on the bottom of the hole. the dirt should then be packed firmly around the plant and pressed down with the foot. improvement by cutting: the removal of certain trees in a grove is often necessary to improve the quality of the better trees, increase their growth, make the place accessible, and enhance its beauty. cutting in a wooded area should be confined to suppressed trees, dead and dying trees and trees badly infested with insects and disease. in case of farm woodlands, mature trees of market value may be cut, but in parks and on private estates these have a greater value when left standing. the cutting should leave a clean stand of well-selected specimens which will thrive under the favorable influence of more light and growing space. considerable care is required to prevent injury to the young trees when the older specimens are cut and hauled out of the woods. the marking of the trees to be removed can best be done in summer when the dead and live trees can be distinguished with ease and when the requisite growing space for each tree can be judged better from the density of the crowns. the cutting, however, can be done most advantageously in winter. immediately after cutting all diseased and infested wood should be destroyed. the sound wood may be utilized for various purposes. the bigger logs may be sold to the local lumber dealers and the smaller material may be used for firewood. the remaining brush should be withdrawn from the woodlot to prevent fire during the dry summer months. in marking trees for removal, a number of considerations are to be borne in mind besides the elimination of dead, diseased and suppressed trees. when the marker is working among crowding trees of equal height, he should save those that are most likely to grow into fine specimen trees and cut out all those that interfere with them. the selection must also favor trees which are best adapted to the local soil and climatic conditions and those which will add to the beauty of the place. in this respect the method of marking will be different from that used in commercial forestry, where the aim is to net the greatest profit from the timber. in pure forestry practice, one sees no value in such species as dogwood, ironwood, juneberry, sumac and sassafras, and will therefore never allow those to grow up in abundance and crowd out other trees of a higher market value. but on private estates and in park woodlands where beauty is an important consideration, such species add wonderful color and attractiveness to the forest scene, especially along the roads and paths, and should be favored as much as the other hardier trees. one must not mark too severely in one spot or the soil will be dried out from exposure to sun and wind. when the gaps between the trees are too large, the trees will grow more slowly and the trunks will become covered with numerous shoots or suckers which deprive the crowns of their necessary food and cause them to "die back." where the trees are tall and slim or on short and steep hillsides, it is also important to be conservative in marking in order that the stand may not be exposed to the dangers of windfall. no hard-and-fast rule can be laid down as to what would constitute a conservative percentage of trees to cut down. this depends entirely on the local conditions and on the exposure of the woodlot. but in general it is not well to remove more than twenty per cent of the stand nor to repeat the cutting on the same spot oftener than once in five or six years. the first cutting will, of course, be the heaviest and all subsequent cuttings will become lighter and lighter until the woodlot is put in good growing condition. on private estates and parks, where beauty is the chief aim, the woodland should be kept as natural, informal and as thick as possible. where the woodland is cut up by many paths and drives, density of vegetation will add to the impression of depth and distance. protection: this subject has already been discussed considerably in the previous study on forestry, and here it becomes necessary merely to add a few suggestions with special reference to private and park woodlands. guarding woodlands from _fire_ is the most important form of protection. surface fires are very common on small woodland holdings and the damage done to the standing vegetation is generally underestimated. an ordinary ground or surface fire on a woodland area will burn up the leaf-litter and vegetable mold, upon which the trees depend so much for food and moisture, and will destroy the young seedlings on the ground. where the fire is a little more severe, the older trees are badly wounded and weakened and the younger trees are frequently killed outright. insects and disease find these trees an easy prey, and all related forest conditions commence to deteriorate. constant watchfulness and readiness to meet any emergency are the keynote of effective fire protection. notices similar to the one shown in fig. often help to prevent fires. it is also helpful to institute strict rules against dropping lighted matches or tobacco, or burning brush when the ground is very dry, or leaving smouldering wood without waiting to see that the fire is completely out. there should be many roads and foot-paths winding through the woodland in order that they may serve as checks or "fire lanes" in time of fire. these roads and paths should be kept free from brush and leaves and should be frequently patrolled. when made not too wide, unpretentious and in conformity with the natural surroundings, such drives and paths can become a very interesting feature of the place, winding through the woodland, exposing its charms and affording opportunity for pleasant driving and walking. the borders of the paths can be given special attention by placing the more beautiful native shrubs in prominent positions where they can lend increased attractiveness. in case of fire, it should be possible to call for aid by telephone directly from the woodland and to find within easy reach the tools necessary to combat fire. it is also important to obtain the co-operation of one's neighbors in protecting the adjoining woodlands, because the dangers from insects, disease and fire threatening one bit of woodland area are more or less dependent upon the conditions in the adjoining woodland. [illustration: fig. .--poster suitable for private woodlands and forest parks. the translations in italian and polish have been used by the writer in this particular instance to meet the local needs.] as to other forms of protection, passing mention may be made of the importance of keeping out cattle, sheep and hogs from the woods, of eliminating all insects and disease, of keeping the ground free from brush and other inflammable material, of retaining on the ground all fallen leaves and keeping the forest well stocked with little trees and shrubs. forest lands may be exempted from taxation: in new york and other states there exists a state law providing for exemption or reduction in taxes upon lands which are planted with forest trees or maintained as wooded areas. the object of the law is to encourage home forestry and to establish fairness in the agricultural land-tax law by placing forest lands in the same category with other crop-producing lands. for detailed information and a copy of the law, one should address the local state forestry commission. chapter viii our common woods: their identification, properties and uses woods have different values for various practical purposes because of their peculiarities in structure. a knowledge of the structural parts of wood is therefore necessary as a means of recognizing the wood and of determining why one piece is stronger, heavier, tougher, or better adapted for a given service than another. structure of wood: if one examines a cross-section of the bole of a tree, he will note that it is composed of several distinct parts, as shown in fig. . at the very center is a small core of soft tissue known as the _pith_. it is of much the same structure as the pith of cornstalk or elder, with which all are familiar. at the outside is the _bark_, which forms a protective covering over the entire woody system. in any but the younger stems, the bark is composed of an inner, live layer, and an outer or dead portion. between the pith at the center and the bark at the outside is the wood. it will be noted that the portion next to the bark is white or yellowish in color. this is the _sapwood_. it is principally through the sapwood that the water taken in by the roots is carried up to the leaves. in some cases the sapwood is very thin and in others it is very thick, depending partly on the kind of tree, and partly on its age and vigor. the more leaves on a tree the more sapwood it must have to supply them with moisture. [illustration: fig. .--pine wood. (magnified times.)] very young trees are all sapwood, but, as they get older, part of the wood is no longer needed to carry sap and it becomes _heartwood_. heartwood is darker than the sapwood, sometimes only slightly, but in other instances it may vary from a light-brown color to jet black. it tends to fill with gums, resins, pigments and other substances, but otherwise its structure is the same as that of the sapwood. [illustration: fig. .--cross-section of oak.] the wood of all our common trees is produced by a thin layer of cells just beneath the bark, the _cambium_. the cambium adds new wood on the outside of that previously formed and new bark on the inside of the old bark. a tree grows most rapidly in the spring, and the wood formed at that time is much lighter, softer and more porous than that formed later in the season, which is usually quite hard and dense. these two portions, known as _early wood_ or spring wood, and _late wood_ or summer wood, together make up one year's growth and are for that reason called _annual rings_. trees such as palms and yucca do not grow in this way, but their wood is not important enough in this country to warrant a description. [illustration: fig. .--white oak wood. (magnified times.)] if the end of a piece of oak wood is examined, a number of lines will be seen radiating out toward the bark like the spokes in a wheel. these are the _medullary rays_. they are present in all woods, but only in a few species are they very prominent to the unaided eye. these rays produce the "flakes" or "mirrors" that make quartersawed (radially cut) wood so beautiful. they are thin plates or sheets of cells lying in between the other wood cells. they extend out into the inner bark. while much may be seen with the unaided eye, better results can be secured by the use of a good magnifying glass. the end of the wood should be smoothed off with a very sharp knife; a dull one will tear and break the cells so that the structure becomes obscured. with any good hand lens a great many details will then appear which before were not visible. in the case of some woods like oak, ash, and chestnut, it will be found that the early wood contains many comparatively large openings, called _pores_, as shown in figs. and . pores are cross-sections of vessels which are little tube-like elements running throughout the tree. the vessels are water carriers. a wood with its large pores collected into one row or in a single band is said to be _ring-porous_. fig. shows such an arrangement. a wood with its pores scattered throughout the year's growth instead of collected in a ring is _diffuse-porous_. maple, as shown in fig. , is of this character. [illustration: fig. .--example of the black oak group. (quercus coccinea.) (magnified times.)] all of our broadleaf woods are either ring-porous or diffuse-porous, though some of them, like the walnut, are nearly half way between the two groups. if the wood of hickory, for example, be examined with the magnifying lens, it will be seen that there are numerous small pores in the late wood, while running parallel with the annual rings are little white lines such as are shown in fig. . these are lines of _wood parenchyma_. wood parenchyma is found in all woods, arranged sometimes in tangential lines, sometimes surrounding the pores and sometimes distributed over the cross-section. the dark, horn-like portions of hickory and oak are the _woodfibers_. they give the strength to wood. in many of the diffuse-porous woods, the pores are too small to be seen with the unaided eye, and in some cases they are not very distinct even when viewed with a magnifier. it is necessary to study such examples closely in order not to confuse them with the woods of conifers. the woods of conifers are quite different in structure from broadleaf woods, though the difference may not always stand out prominently. coniferous woods have no pores, their rays are always narrow and inconspicuous, and wood parenchyma is never prominent. the woods of the pines, spruces, larches, and douglas fir differ from those of the other conifers in having _resin ducts_, fig. . in pines these are readily visible to the naked eye, appearing as resinous dots on cross-sections and as pin scratches or dark lines on longitudinal surfaces. the presence or absence of resin ducts is a very important feature in identifying woods, hence it is very important to make a careful search for them when they are not readily visible. how to identify a specimen of wood: the first thing to do in identifying a piece of wood is to cut a smooth section at the end and note (without the magnifier) the color, the prominence of the rays and pores, and any other striking features. if the pores are readily visible, the wood is from a broadleaf tree; if the large pores are collected in a ring it belongs to the ring-porous division of the broadleaf woods. if the rays are quite conspicuous and the wood is hard and heavy, it is oak, as the key given later will show. close attention to the details of the key will enable one to decide to what group of oaks it belongs. in most cases the structure will not stand out so prominently as in oak, so that it is necessary to make a careful study with the hand lens. if pores appear, their arrangement, both in the early wood and in the late wood, should be carefully noted; also whether the pores are open or filled with a froth-like substance known as _tyloses_. wood parenchyma lines should be looked for, and if present, the arrangement of the lines should be noted. [illustration: fig. .--(magnified about times.)] if no pores appear under the magnifying lens, look closely for resin ducts. if these are found, note whether they are large or small, numerous or scattered, open or closed, lighter or darker than the wood. note also whether the late wood is very heavy and hard, showing a decided contrast to the early wood, or fairly soft and grading into the early wood without abrupt change. weigh the piece in your hand, smell a fresh-cut surface to detect the odor, if any, and taste a chip to see if anything characteristic is discoverable. then turn to the following key: key i. woods without pores--conifers or so-called "softwoods" a. woods with resin ducts. . pines. fig. . resin ducts numerous, prominent, fairly evenly distributed. wood often pitchy. resinous odor distinct. clear demarcation between heart and sapwood. there are two groups of pines--soft and hard. (a) soft pines. wood light, soft, not strong, even-textured, very easy to work. change from early wood to late wood is gradual and the difference in density is not great. (b) hard pines. wood variable but typically rather heavy, hard and strong, uneven textured, fairly easy to work. change from early wood to late wood is abrupt and the difference in density and color is very marked, consequently alternate layers of light and dark wood show. the wood of nearly all pines is very extensively employed in construction work and in general carpentry. . douglas fir. resin ducts less numerous and conspicuous than in the pines, irregularly distributed, often in small groups. odorless or nearly so. heartwood and sapwood distinct. the wood is of two kinds. in one the growth rings are narrow and the wood is rather light and soft, easy to work, reddish yellow in color; in the other the growth rings are wide, the wood is rather hard to work, as there is great contrast between the weak early wood and the very dense late wood of the annual rings. douglas fir is a tree of great economic importance on the pacific coast. the wood is much like hard pine both in its appearance and its uses. . spruces. resin ducts few, small, unevenly distributed; appearing mostly as white dots. wood not resinous; odorless. the wood is white or very light colored with a silky luster and with little contrast between heart and sapwood. it is a great deal like soft pine, though lighter in color and with much fewer and smaller resin ducts. the wood is used for construction, carpentry, oars, sounding boards for musical instruments, and paper pulp. . tamarack. resin ducts the same as in the spruces. the color of the heartwood is yellowish or russet brown; that of the distinct sapwood much lighter. the wood is considerably like hard pine, but lacks the resinous odor and the resin ducts are much fewer and smaller. the wood is used largely for cross-ties, fence posts, telegraph and telephone poles, and to a limited extent for lumber in general construction. b. woods without resin ducts. . hemlock. the wood has a disagreeable, rancid odor, is splintery, not resinous, with decided contrast between early and late wood. color light brown with a slight tinge of red, the heart little if any darker than the sapwood. hemlock makes a rather poor lumber which is used for general construction, also for cross-ties, and pulp. . balsam fir. usually odorless, not splintery, not resinous, with little contrast between early and late wood. color white or very light brown with a pinkish hue to the late wood. heartwood little if any darker than the sapwood. closely resembles spruce, from which it can be distinguished by its absence of resin ducts. the wood is used for paper pulp in mixture with spruce. also for general construction to some extent. . cypress. odorless except in dark-colored specimens which are somewhat rancid. smooth surface of sound wood looks and feels greasy or waxy. moderate contrast between early and late wood. color varies from straw color to dark brown, often with reddish and greenish tinge. heartwood more deeply colored than the sapwood but without distinct boundary line. wood used in general construction, especially in places where durability is required; also for shingles, cooperage, posts, and poles. . red cedar. has a distinct aromatic odor. wood uniform-textured; late wood usually very thin, inconspicuous. color deep reddish brown or purple, becoming dull upon exposure; numerous minute red dots often visible under lens. sapwood white. red cedar can be distinguished from all the other conifers mentioned by the deep color of the wood and the very distinct aromatic odor. wood largely used for pencils; also for chests and cabinets, posts, and poles. it is very durable in contact with the ground. _western red cedar_ is lighter, softer, less deeply colored and less fragrant than the common eastern cedar. it grows along the pacific coast and is extensively used for shingles throughout the country. . redwood. wood odorless and tasteless, uniform-textured, light and weak, rather coarse and harsh. color light cherry. close inspection under lens of a small split surface will reveal many little resin masses that appear as rows of black or amber beads which are characteristic of this wood. redwood is confined to portions of the pacific coast. it is used for house construction, interior finish, tanks and flumes, shingles, posts, and boxes. it is very durable. ii. woods with pores--broadleaf, or so-called "hardwoods" a. ring-porous. . woods with a portion of the rays very large and conspicuous. oak. the wood of all of the oaks is heavy, hard, and strong. they may be separated into two groups. the white oaks and the red or black oaks. (a) white oaks. pores in early wood plugged with tyloses, collected in a few rows. fig. . the transition from the large pores to the small ones in the late wood is abrupt. the latter are very small, numerous, and appear as irregular grayish bands widening toward the outer edge of the annual ring. impossible usually to see into the small pores with magnifier. (b) red or black oaks. pores are usually open though tyloses may occur, fig. ; the early wood pores are in several rows and the transition to the small ones in late wood is gradual. the latter are fewer, larger and more distinct than in white oak and it is possible to see into them with a hand lens. the wood of the oaks is used for all kinds of furniture, interior finish, cooperage, vehicles, cross-ties, posts, fuel, and construction timber. . woods with none of the rays large and conspicuous. (a) pores in late wood small and in radial lines, wood parenchyma in inconspicuous tangential lines. chestnut. pores in early wood in a broad band, oval in shape, mostly free from tyloses. pores in late wood in flame-like radial white patches that are plainly visible without lens. color medium brown. nearly odorless and tasteless. chestnut is readily separated from oak by its weight and absence of large rays; from black ash by the arrangement of the pores in the late wood; from sassafras by the arrangement of the pores in the late wood, the less conspicuous rays, and the lack of distinct color. the wood is used for cross-ties, telegraph and telephone poles, posts, furniture, cooperage, and tannin extract. durable in contact with the ground. (b) pores in late wood small, not radially arranged, being distributed singly or in groups. wood parenchyma around pores or extending wing-like from pores in late wood, often forming irregular tangential lines. . ash. pores in early wood in a rather broad band (occasionally narrow), oval in shape, see fig. , tyloses present. color brown to white, sometimes with reddish tinge to late wood. odorless and tasteless. there are several species of ash that are classed as white ash and one that is called black or brown ash. (a) white ash. wood heavy, hard, strong, mostly light colored except in old heartwood, which is reddish. pores in late wood, especially in the outer part of the annual ring, are joined by lines of wood parenchyma. (b) black ash. wood more porous, lighter, softer, weaker, and darker colored than white ash. pores in late wood fewer and larger and rarely joined by tangential lines of wood parenchyma. the wood of the ashes is used for wagon and carriage stock, agricultural implements, oars, furniture, interior finish, and cooperage. it is the best wood for bent work. [illustration: fig. .--hickory wood. (magnified times.)] . locust. pores in early wood in a rather narrow band, round, variable in size, densely filled with tyloses. color varying from golden yellow to brown, often with greenish hue. very thin sapwood, white. odorless and almost tasteless. wood extremely heavy and hard, cutting like horn. locust bears little resemblance to ash, being harder, heavier, of a different color, with more distinct rays, and with the pores in late wood in larger groups. the wood is used for posts, cross-ties, wagon hubs, and insulator pins. it is very durable in contact with the ground. (c) pores in late wood comparatively large, not in groups or lines. wood parenchyma in numerous fine but distinct tangential lines. [illustration: fig. .--elm. (magnified times.)] hickory, fig. . pores in early wood moderately large, not abundant, nearly round, filled with tyloses. color brown to reddish brown; thick sapwood, white. odorless and tasteless. wood very heavy, hard, and strong. hickory is readily separated from ash by the fine tangential lines of wood parenchyma and from oak by the absence of large rays. the wood is largely used for vehicles, tool handles, agricultural implements, athletic goods, and fuel. (d) pores in late wood small and in conspicuous wavy tangential bands. wood parenchyma not in tangential lines. elm. pores in early wood not large and mostly in a single row, fig. (several rows in slippery elm), round, tyloses present. color brown, often with reddish tinge. odorless and tasteless. wood rather heavy and hard, tough, often difficult to split. the peculiar arrangement of the pores in the late wood readily distinguishes elm from all other woods except _hackberry_, from which it may be told by the fact that in elm the medullary rays are indistinct, while they are quite distinct in hackberry; moreover, the color of hackberry is yellow or grayish yellow instead of brown or reddish brown as in elm. the wood is used principally for slack cooperage; also for hubs, baskets, agricultural implements, and fuel. [illustration: fig. .--(magnified about times.)] b. diffuse-porous. . pores varying in size from rather large to minute, the largest being in the early wood. intermediate between ring-porous and diffuse-porous. black walnut. color rich dark or chocolate brown. odor mild but characteristic. tasteless or nearly so. wood parenchyma in numerous, fine tangential lines. wood heavy and hard, moderately stiff and strong. the wood is used principally for furniture, cabinets, interior finish, moulding, and gun stocks. . pores all minute or indistinct, evenly distributed throughout annual ring. (a) with conspicuously broad rays. . sycamore. fig. . rays practically all broad. color light brown, often with dark stripes or "feather grain." wood of medium weight and strength, usually cross-grained, difficult to split. the wood is used for general construction, woodenware, novelties, interior finish, and boxes. . beech. with only a part of the rays broad, the others very fine, fig. . color pale reddish brown to white; uniform. wood heavy, hard, strong, usually straight-grained. the wood is used for cheap furniture, turnery, cooperage, woodenware, novelties, cross-ties, and fuel. much of it is distilled. (b) without conspicuously broad rays. . cherry. rays rather fine but very distinct. color of wood reddish brown. wood rather heavy, hard, and strong. the wood is used for furniture, cabinet work, moulding, interior finish, and miscellaneous articles. . maple, fig. . with part of the rays rather broad and conspicuous, the others very fine. color light brown tinged with red. the wood of the hard maple is very heavy, hard and strong; that of the soft maples is rather light, fairly strong. maple most closely resembles birch, but can be distinguished from it through the fact that in maple the rays are considerably more conspicuous than in birch. the wood is used for slack cooperage, flooring, interior finish, furniture, musical instruments, handles, and destructive distillation. . tulip-tree, yellow poplar or whitewood. rays all fine but distinct. color yellow or brownish yellow; sapwood white. wood light and soft, straight-grained, easy to work. the wood is used for boxes, woodenware, tops and bodies of vehicles, interior finish, furniture, and pulp. . red or sweet gum. rays all fine but somewhat less distinct than in tulip tree. color reddish brown, often with irregular dark streaks producing a "watered" effect on smooth boards; thick sapwood, grayish white. wood rather heavy, moderately hard, cross-grained, difficult to work. the best grades of figured red gum resemble circassian walnut, but the latter has much larger pores unevenly distributed and is less cross-grained than red gum. the wood is used for finishing, flooring, furniture, veneers, slack cooperage, boxes, and gun stocks. [illustration: fig. .--maple. (magnified times.)] . black or sweet birch, fig. . rays variable in size but all rather indistinct. color brown, tinged with red, often deep and handsome. wood heavy, hard, and strong, straight-grained, readily worked. is darker in color and has less prominent rays than maple. the wood is used for furniture, cabinet work, finishing, and distillation. . cottonwood. rays extremely fine and scarcely visible even under lens. color pale dull brown or grayish brown. wood light, soft, not strong, straight-grained, fairly easy to work. cottonwood can be separated from other light and soft woods by the fineness of its rays, which is equaled only by willow, which it rather closely resembles. the wood is largely used for boxes, general construction, lumber, and pulp. how to judge the quality of wood: to know the name of a piece of wood means, in a general way, to know certain qualities that are common to all other pieces of wood of that species, but it does not explain the special peculiarities of the piece in question or why that particular piece is more suitable or unsuitable for a particular purpose than another piece of the same species. the mere identification of the wood does not explain why a particular piece is tougher, stronger or of darker color than another piece of the same species or even of the same tree. the reason for these special differences lies in the fact that wood is not a homogeneous material like metal. within the same tree different parts vary in quality. the heartwood is generally heavier and of deeper color than the sapwood. the butt is superior to the top wood, and the manner in which the wood was sawed and dried will affect its quality. knots, splits, checks, and discoloration due to incipient decay are defects worth considering. wood that looks lusterless is usually defective, because the lack of luster is generally due to disease. woods that are hard wear best. hardness can be determined readily by striking the wood with a hammer and noting the sound produced. a clear, ringing sound is a sign of hardness. the strength of a piece of wood can be judged by its weight after it is well dried. heavy woods are usually strong. a large amount of late wood is an indication of strength and the production of a clear sound when struck with a hammer is also an evidence of strength. chapter ix an outdoor lesson on trees the importance of nature study in the training of the child is now well recognized. the influences of such study from the hygienic, moral and aesthetic point of view are far reaching and cannot be expressed in dollars and cents. in his association with nature, the child is led to observe more closely and to know and to be fond of what is truly beautiful in life--beautiful surroundings, beautiful thoughts and beautiful deeds. he is inspired with reverence for law, order and truth because he sees it constantly reflected in all works of nature. the social instinct is highly developed and even the parents are often bettered through the agency of their children. the only way, however, to study nature--especially plants--is to study it out of doors. our present tendency to gather in cities demands the upbuilding influences of trips into the open in order to equip the child mentally and physically to face the world and its work with the strength and tenacity characteristic of the country-bred. moreover, the study of objects rather than books is an axiom in modern education and here, too, we can readily see that the best way to study trees is to take the pupil to the trees. such studies are more lasting than book study because they emphasize the spirit and the goal rather than the petty facts. educators and parents are now recognizing the value of outdoor trips for their children and are beginning to indulge in them quite frequently. in many instances teachers about to take out their children for a day have inquired of the writer how to go about giving a general field lesson when they reached the park or woodland. the purpose of this chapter is to answer such a question and yet it is evident that it cannot be answered completely. what to observe out doors and how to present one's impressions is a broad question and varies with the knowledge and ability of the teacher as well as with the age and experience of the children. the how and the what in nature study is of greater import than the hard, dry facts and that must be left entirely to the teacher. a few suggestions, however, may not be amiss: . general observations with a view to character building: first of all it is important to remember that the great value of all tree and nature study is the inculcation in the minds of the children of an appreciation and love for the beautiful. inspiring them to _love_ trees generally means more than teaching them to _know_ trees. mere facts about trees taught in an academic way are often no more lasting than the formulae in trigonometry which most of us have long ago forgotten. the important thing is that permanent results be left and nothing else will produce such lasting impressions as the study of trees out of doors. [illustration: fig. .--trees have individuality.] general observations about trees can be made by pointing out the beauty and character of the individual forms and branching, their harmony in their relations to each other as factors of a beautiful composition and the wealth of shades and colors in their leaves, bark and flowers. compare, for instance, the intricate ramification of an american elm with the simple branching of a sugar maple, the sturdiness of a white oak with the tenderness of a soft maple, the wide spread of a beech with the slender form of a lombardy poplar, the upward pointing branches of a gingko with the drooping form of a weeping willow. at close range, each of these trees reveals itself as an individual with a character quite its own. at little distance you may see them grouped together, subordinating their individuality and helping to blend into a beautiful composition with a character all its own. there is nothing more inspiring than the variety of greens in the spring foliage, the diversity of color in the spring blossoms and the wonderful display of autumnal tints offered by the sweet gum, sassafras, dogwood, black gum, red maple, sugar maple, scarlet oak, blue beech, sorrel tree, ash and gingko. the white bark of the gray birch, the dark bark of the black oak, the gray of the beech, the golden yellow of the mulberry and the mottled bark of the sycamore are interesting comparisons. the smooth bark of the mockernut hickory contrasts greatly with the shaggy bark of the shagbark hickory--members of the same family and yet how different. a wonderful opportunity is thus offered for a comparative study of human nature--individuality and community life, all reflected in trees. with this preliminary study and with the addition of some remarks on the value of trees as health givers and moral uplifters, the child is interested and attracted. the lesson so far has attained its aim. . specific observations with a view to training the observative powers: the child's training in closeness of observation and scientific precision may be the next consideration. his enthusiasm will now prompt him to lend his interest for greater detail. we can teach him to recognize a few of the common trees by their general characters--an american elm by its fan-shaped form, a gray birch by its white bark, a white pine by the five needles to each cluster, a horsechestnut by its opposite branching and big sticky bud and a willow by its drooping habit. after that we may introduce, if the age of the pupils justifies, more details extending to greater differences which distinguish one species from another. the lesson might continue by pointing out the requirements of trees for water and light. find a tree on some slope where the roots are exposed and another which is being encroached upon by its neighbor, and show how in one case the roots travel in search of water and food and in the other the branches bend toward the light, growing more vigorously on that side. compare the trees on the open lawn with those in the grove and show how those in the open have grown with branches near the ground while those in the woodland are slender, tall and free from branches to some distance above the ground. point out the lenticels on the bark of birch and sweet cherry trees and explain how trees breathe. compare this process with that of the human body. you may now come across an old stump and here you can point out the structure of the wood--the sapwood, cambium and bark. you can illustrate the annual rings and count the age of the tree. at another point you may find a tree with a wound or bruised bark and here you can readily make a closer study of the cambium layer and its manner of growth. the adaptation of plants to the seasonal changes opens another interesting field of study for beginners. if the season is the fall or winter, note how the trees have prepared themselves for the winter's cold by terminating the flow of sap, by dropping their leaves too tender to resist the winter's cold, and by covering their buds with scales lined with down on the inside. observe how the insects have spun for themselves silken nests or remain preserved in the egg state over the winter. if the season is spring or summer the opposite may be noted. see how everything turns to life; how the buds are opening, the leaves emerging, the sap running, seeds germinating and flowers blooming. the soil conditions on the lawn and in the grove furnish another interesting feature of comparison and study. in the grove, you can demonstrate the decomposition of the fallen leaves, the formation of humus and its value to the tree. the importance of the forest soil as a conservator of water and its relation to stream flow and soil erosion can be brought out at this juncture. an eroded bank and a slope covered with trees and shrubs would provide excellent models for this study. a consideration of the economic value of the trees would also be in place. . civic lessons reflected in trees: the community life of trees in the grove, their growth, struggles for light and food and their mutual aid can be brought out and compared with the community life among people. the trees may here be seen struggling with each other for light and food, forcing each other's growth upward, some winning out and developing into stalwart and thrifty specimens and others becoming suppressed or entirely killed. on the other hand they may be seen helping each other in their community growth by protecting each other from windfall and by contributing to the fertility of the forest soil in dropping their leaves and shading the ground so that these fallen leaves may decompose readily. [illustration: fig. .--trees also grow in communities.] . enemies of trees: an old stump or tree may be seen crumbling away under the influence of fungi and here the children may be shown the effects of tree diseases both as destroyers of life and as up-builders, because fungi turn to dust the living trees and build up others by furnishing them with the decomposed wood matter. insects too, may be invading the old dead tree, and something of their nature, habits and influences may be gone into. they may be shown as wood borers, leaf eaters, or sap suckers, all injurious to the tree. on the other hand they may be shown as seed disseminators and as parasites on other injurious insects; all benefactors. forest fires as an enemy of trees might be touched upon by noting how easily the leaves may be ignited and a surface fire started when the season is dry. top and ground fires emanating from surface fires can then be readily explained. [illustration: fig. .--trees blend together to form a beautiful composition.] . expression: the pupils have by this time been taught to feel the beautiful, to observe carefully and to reason intelligently and they may now be trained to express themselves properly. this may be accomplished by asking them to remember their observations and to write about them in the classroom. the lesson may be supplemented with effective reading about trees and forests. interesting reading matter of this sort can be found in abundance in children's readers, in special books on the subject and in arbor day manuals published by the various state education departments. . preparation: in order to save time looking for objects of interest and for the purpose of correlating the various observations so that all will follow in orderly sequence, it is well for the teacher or leader to go over the ground beforehand and note the special features of interest. the various topics can then be given some thought and a brief synopsis can be drawn up to serve as a memorandum and guide on the trip. it is also well to be provided with a hatchet to cut into some decayed stump, a trowel to dig up the forest soil, a knife for cutting off twigs and a hand reading glass for examining the structural parts of the various objects under observation. a camera is always a valuable asset because the photographs hung in the classroom become records of great interest to all participants. . suggestions for forming tree clubs: a good way to interest children in trees and nature study is to form, among them, a tree club. the idea has been fully developed in brooklyn, n.y., newark, n.j., and other cities and consists of forming clubs of children in the public schools and private institutions for the purpose of interesting them in the trees around their school and their homes. the members of these clubs are each given the tree warden's badge of authority and assigned to some special duty in the preservation of the local trees. a plan of study and of outdoor trips is laid out for them by their director and at stated periods they are given illustrated lectures on trees and taken to the neighboring parks or woodlands. index acer negundo, -- platanoides, -- polymorphum, -- pseudoplatanus, -- rubrum, -- saccharinum, -- saccharum, aesculus hippocastanum, -- rubicunda, ailing tree, how to tell an, air, influence of, alternate branched trees, american beech, -- elm, -- larch, -- linden, annual rings, aphides or plant lice, apple rust, arbor-vita and red cedar, description of, -- (northern white cedar), arsenate of lead, ash, wood, -- black, -- white, ash-leaf maple, aspen, large-toothed, --, quaking, austrian pine, bald cypress, balm of gilead, balsam, fir, --, poplar, bark, bark, how to prevent splitting when removing branches, -- or trunk, trees told by their, bass-wood, bean, indian, beech, american, --, blue, or hornbeam, --, copper, --, european, -- tree, beetle, elm leaf, betula alba, -- lutea, -- lenta, -- papyrifera, -- populifolia, bhotan pine, bigbud hickory, birch, black, --, european white, -- fungus rot, --, gray, --, paper, --, sweet, -- tree, --, white, --, yellow, bitternut hickory, black ash, -- birch, -- locust, -- oak, -- or sweet birch, -- spruce, -- walnut, blotches, leaf, blue beech, or hornbeam, -- spruce, bolting limbs, bordeaux mixture, borer, bronze-birch, --, hickory bark, --, linden, --, locust, --, sugar maple, boring insects, box-elder, bracing limbs, various methods of, bracket fungus, branches, dead and broken, removal of, --, how to prevent bark splitting when removing, broadleaf or "hardwoods," bronze-birch borer, brooklyn, n.y., broom hickory, brown hickory, brown-tail moth, buckeye, butternut, buttonball, buttonwood, by-products of forests, utilization of, cambium layer, camperdown elm, care in selecting trees suitable for the soil, carolina poplar, carpinus caroliniana, castanea dentata, catalpa speciosa, caterpillars, caterpillars, leaf-eating, --, spraying for, catkin, cattle grazing in forests a source of injury, cavities, fungous diseases attacking, -- how caused, --, manner of filling, cedar apple, --, white, celtis occidentalis, chamaecyparis thyoides, character building and trees, chestnut, -- and oaks, -- disease, chewing insects, cherry, child training in observation and precision, chlorophyll, civic lessons reflected in trees, climbing trees, precautions, clubs, tree, coffee tree, colorado blue spruce, color of leaves, common catalpa, -- locust, community life of trees, conifers or "softwoods," coniferous trees, copper beech, cork elm, cornus florida, corrosive sublimate, cottonwood, cottony-maple scale, crataegus oxyacantha, crown, cucumber tree, cypress, -- and larch, description of, --, bald, -- knees, -- obtuse leaf, japanese, dead and broken branches, removal of, deciduous trees, destroying injurious insects, methods of, -- pupae, developing disease, moisture a factor in, diaporthe parasitica, diffuse-porous woods, disease, fungi as factors of, -- moisture a factor in developing, dogwood, flowering, douglas fir, effect of heat on trees, elkwood, elm, --, american, --, camperdown, --, cork, --, english, -- leaf beetle, --, poplar, gingko and willow trees, told by their form, --, white, enemies of trees, enemy of trees, forest fires as an english elm, -- hawthorn, -- yew, european beech, -- larch, -- linden, -- weeping birch, -- white birch, fall webworm, fagus, -- americana, -- sylvatica, fern, maidenhair, fighting forest fires, various ways of, filling cavities, manner of, fire, guarding woodlands from, flowering dogwood, foliage, spraying, forest fires as an enemy of trees, -- --, various ways of fighting, -- lands, exemption from taxation, --, life and nature of, -- trees, pruning, forestry in various countries, --, what it is and what it does, forests, grazing cattle in, a source of injury, forest service, u.s., --, harvesting, --, harvesting of, to increase production, --, how established, --, how harvested, --, how protected, --, how they help to regulate streams and prevent floods, --, method of establishing, --, planting, with seedling trees, -- prevent soil erosion, --, protecting from destructive agencies, --, safeguarding, --, utilization of by-products, fraxinus americana, -- nigra, frost, effect of, on trees, fungi and insects, protection against, -- as factors of disease, fungous diseases attacking cavities, -- diseases, spraying for, fungus, fruiting body of, gingko biloba, -- or maidenhair tree, gipsy moth, gleditsia triacanthos, gloeosporium nervisequum, gray or white birch, grazing effect on forests, grove and lawn, study of soil conditions on, gum, red or sweet, gymnocladus dioicus, hackberry tree, hackmatack, hard maple, -- pines, "hardwoods," or broadleaf trees, hardy catalpa, harvesting forests, harvesting of forests to increase production, hawthorn, english, healthy tree, conditions which indicate, heartwood, heat, effect of, on trees, hemlock, -- and spruce, description of, hickory, -- bark borer, --, bigbud, --, bitternut, --, broom, --, brown, --, mockernut, --, pignut, --, shagbark, --, shellbark, --, whiteheart, hicoria alba, -- glabra, -- minima, -- ovata, honey locust, hop hornbeam, hornbeam, (blue beech), horsechestnut, --, red, humus, hydrophytes, important insects, improperly pruned trees, indian bean, individuality of trees, insects and fungi, protection against, --, boring, --, chewing, -- galls, --, important kinds of, -- injurious to trees, --, leaf-eating, --, methods of destroying injurious, --, nature, habits and influences of, --, sucking, --, the four stages, or life history of, ironwood tree, italian or lombardy poplar, japanese maple, -- umbrella pine, juglans cinerea, -- nigra, juniper, juniperus communis, juniperus virginiana, kerosene emulsion, knees, cypress, larch, american, -- and cypress, description of, -- european, large-toothed aspen, larix europaea, lawn and grove, study of soil conditions on, lawn trees, -- --, pruning, leaf blotches, leaf-eating caterpillars, ----, insect, leaves, --, needle-shaped, --, scale-like, --, star-shaped, lenticels, leopard moth, lesson on trees, outdoor, light, influence of, on trees, limbs, various methods of bracing, lime-sulphur wash, lime-tree, linden, american, -- borer, --, european, liquidambar styraciflua, liriodendron, tulipifers, location of trees, care to be exercised in, locust, --, black, -- borer, --, common, --, honey, -- miner, --, yellow, lombardy or italian poplar, low juniper, magnolia acuminata, --, mountain, -- soulangeana, --, soulange's, -- tripetala, magnolias, the, maiden-hair fern, -- or gingko tree, maple wood, --, ash-leaf, --, hard, --, japanese, --, norway, -- phenacoccus, --, red, --, rock, --, silver, --, soft, -- sugar, -- swamp, --, sycamore, --, white, mesophytes, method of covering wounds, methods of destroying injurious insects, mockernut hickory, moisture a factor in developing disease, --, influence of, on trees, moral influence of trees, morus alba, -- rubra, moth, gipsy, --, leopard, mountain magnolia, mugho pine, mulberry, red, --, white, national forests, needle-shaped leaves, nettle tree, newark, n.j., northern white cedar (arbor-vitae), norway maple, -- spruce, nursery, tree, oak, --, black, --, pin, --, red, --, scarlet, --, swamp white, --, white, --, yellow, oaks and chestnut, observations about trees, general, -- and precision, child training in, obtuse japanese cypress, opposite branched trees, orange, osage, oriental spruce, -- sycamore, osage orange, ostrya virginiana, outdoor lesson on trees, oyster-shell scale, paper birch, picea canadensis, -- excelsa, -- mariana, -- orientalis, -- parryana, -- pungens, pignut hickory, pin oak, pine, austrian, --, bhotan, --, mugho, --, red, --, scotch, -- trees, -- weevil, white, --, white, pines, pinus austriaca, -- excelsa, -- mughus, -- resinosa, -- rigida, -- strobus, -- sylvestris, pitch pine, pith, plane or sycamore tree, plant lice, or aphides, -- study, value of, for children, -- trees, how to, planting forests, -- forests with seedling trees, -- little trees, methods of, --, improving woodland by, -- new trees, -- trees, -- -- most economical method, -- -- on land unsuitable for crops, plants, adaptation of, to seasonal changes, platanus occidentalis, -- orientalis, polyporus betulinus, poplar, balsam, --, carolina, --, lombardy or italian, --, silver, --, tulip, --, white, --, yellow, populus alba, -- balsamifera, -- deltoides, -- grandidentata, -- nigra, -- tremuloides, pores in wood, -- small or indistinct, -- varying in size, poster for private woodlands, precautions against fire, protection against fungi and insects, pruning forest trees, -- lawn trees, -- shade trees, --, tools used in, --, too severe, -- trees, fundamental principles, -- --, time for, pussy willow, quaking aspen, quality of trees, how to judge, quality of wood, how to judge, quercus alba, -- palustris, -- platanoides, -- rubra, -- velutina, red cedar, -- -- and arbor-vitae, description of, -- gum, -- horsechestnut, -- juniper, -- maple, -- mulberry, -- oak, -- pine, -- or black oaks, -- or sweet gum, red spider, redwood, removal of dead and broken branches, -- of trees, how to mark, requirements of trees, retinospora obtusa, rhytisma acerinum, ring-porous woods, robinia pseudacacia, rock maple, roots, --, development of, --, protection of, from drying, rust, apple, safeguarding forests, salix babylonica, salix discolor, saperda vestita, sapwood, sawfly, scale, cottony-maple, --, oyster-shell, scale-like leaves, scarlet oak, sciadopitys verticillata, scolytus quadrispinosus, scotch pine, screening trees, season, influence of, seasons for spraying trees, seedling trees, planting forests with, shade trees, pruning, shagbark hickory, shellbark hickory, silver maple, -- poplar, soft maple, -- pines, "softwoods" or conifers, soil erosion, forests prevent, --, influence of, on trees, -- of wooded areas, preserving, --, physical character of, important for production of trees, soulange's magnolia, specifications for street tree, specimens of wood, how to identify, split trees, spray trees, how to, spraying apparatus, -- foliage, -- for caterpillars, -- for fungous diseases, -- material, arsenate of lead, kerosene emulsion, lime-sulfur wash, tobacco water, whale-oil soap, -- trees, seasons for, -- trees, thoroughness essential, spruce and hemlock, description of, --, black, --, blue, --, oriental, --, norway, --, white, spruces, star-shaped leaves, stem, stomata, streets, trees for, structure of trees, -- of woods, sucking insects, sugarberry, sugar maple, -- maple borer, suggestions for forming tree clubs, -- for outdoor study of trees, -- for planting little trees, -- for safety of tree climbers, -- for tree nursery, surface wounds, swamp maple, -- white oak, sweet birch, -- gum, sycamore, -- maple, -- tree, tamarack, taxation, forest lands exempt from, taxodium distichum, taxus baccata, thuja occidentalis, tilia americana, -- microphylla, tobacco water, tools used in pruning, toxylon pomiferum, training a child to recognize trees, -- children in observation and precision, trametes pini, treating surface wounds, tree, ailing, how to tell an, -- and nature study, value of, --, beech, --, birch, --, blue beech, -- climbers, suggestions for safety of, -- clubs, suggestions for forming, --, coffee, -- diseases, -- diseases, effects of, as destroyers and up-builders, -- growth, conditions for, in different localities, --, hackberry, --, iron wood, --, nettle, -- nursery, suggestions for, --, plane, -- repair, --, sycamore, --, tulip, --, weeping willow, trees and character building, --, care of, --, care to be exercised in location of, --, civic lessons reflected in, --, community life of, --, coniferous, --, crowding, --, deciduous, --, effect of frost on, --, effect of heat on, --, enemies of, -- for lawns, -- for screening, -- for streets, -- for woodland, --, general observations about, --, hickories, walnut, and butternut, --, how to identify, --, how to mark for removal, --, how to plant, --, how to spray, --, improperly pruned, --, individuality of --, influence of light on, --, influence of moisture on, --, influence of soil on, --, insects injurious to, --, measuring diameter of, --, methods of planting little, --, methods of removing, --, nature and habits of individual, --, needs that nature or man must supply, --, outdoor lesson on, --, physical character of soil important for production of, --, planting, on land unsuitable for crops, --, pruning, fundamental principles, --, --, how to cut properly, --, quality, --, rapidity of growth of different species, --, requirements of, --, seasons for spraying, --, setting, --, structure of, --, study of rings of various species, --, suggestions for outdoor study of, --, suggestions, for planting little, -- suitable for the soil, care in selecting, --, tendency to split, --, thoroughness essential in spraying, --, time for pruning, -- told by their bark or trunk, --, training a child to recognize, --, value of, as health givers and moral uplifters, --, what to plant and how, --, when and how to procure, --, when to plant, --, when to spray, --, wooded areas improved by planting new, --, yew, tsuga canadensis, tulip poplar, -- tree, tussock moth, ulmus americana, -- campestris, umbrella pine, japanese, -- tree, value of plant study for children, -- of tree and nature study, -- of trees as health givers and moral uplifters, walnut, --, black, wasteful lumbering, weeping willow tree, western catalpa, whale-oil soap, white ash, -- birch, european, -- cedar, -- elm, -- flowering dogwood, whiteheart hickory, white maple, -- mulberry, -- oak, -- oak, swamp, -- or gray birch, -- pine, -- pine weevil, -- poplar, -- spruce, whitewood, willow, weeping, --, pussy, wood, diffuse-porous, --, diseased, disposal of, --, early, -- fibers, --, how to identify specimens, --, how to judge quality of, --, late, -- medullary rays, -- parenchyma, -- resin ducts, --, ring-porous, -- spring, --, structure, of, -- summer, woodland, care of the, -- how to improve by removing trees, -- how to judge, unfavorable conditions, -- trees, woodlands, other means of protecting, woodlot, small cost of well-selected young trees for the, wood, structure of, wooded areas improved by planting new trees, -- areas, preserving soil of, woods, identification, properties and uses of common, --, ring-porous, -- with large and conspicuous rays, -- with pores, -- with resin ducts, -- with small and inconspicuous rays, -- without pores, -- without resin ducts, wounds, importance of covering, --, methods of covering, --, treating surface, xerophytes, yellow birch, -- locust, -- oak, -- poplar, yew, english, yew trees, young trees for the woodlot, small cost of well-selected, handbook of the trees of new england _with ranges throughout the united states and canada_ by lorin l. dame, s.d. and henry brooks _plates from original drawings_ by elizabeth gleason bigelow boston, u.s.a. ginn & company, publishers the athenæum press copyright, , by lorin l. dame and henry brooks all rights reserved preface. there is no lack of good manuals of botany in this country. there still seems place for an adequately illustrated book of convenient size for field use. the larger manuals, moreover, cover extensive regions and sometimes fail by reason of their universality to give a definite idea of plants as they grow within more limited areas. new england marks a meeting place of the canadian and alleghanian floras. many southern plants, long after they have abandoned more elevated situations northward, continue to advance up the valleys of the connecticut and merrimac rivers, in which they ultimately disappear entirely or else reappear in the valley of the st. lawrence; while many northern plants pushing southward maintain a more or less precarious existence upon the mountain summits or in the cold swamps of new england, and sometimes follow along the mountain ridges to the middle or southern states. in addition to these two floras, some southwestern and western species have invaded vermont along the champlain valley, and thrown out pickets still farther eastward. at or near the limit of a species, the size and habit of plants undergo great change; in the case of trees, to which this book is restricted, often very noticeable. there is no fixed, absolute dividing line between trees and shrubs. in accordance with the usual definition, a tree must have a single trunk, unbranched at or near the base, and must be at least fifteen feet in height. trees that are native in new england, or native in other sections of the united states and thoroughly established in new england, are described and, for the most part, figured. foreign trees, though locally established, are not figured. trees may be occasionally spontaneous over a large area without really forming a constituent part of the flora. even the apple and pear, when originating spontaneously and growing without cultivation, quickly become degenerate and show little tendency to possess themselves of the soil at the expense of the native growths. gleditsia, for example, while clearly locally established, has with some hesitation been accorded pictorial representation. the geographical distribution is treated under three heads: canada and alaska; new england; south of new england and westward. with regard to the distribution outside of new england, the standard authorities have been followed. an effort extending through several years has been made to give the distribution as definitely as possible in each of the new england states, and while previous publications have been freely consulted, the present work rests mainly upon the observations of living botanists. all descriptions are based upon the habit of trees as they appear in new england, unless special mention is made to the contrary. the descriptions are designed to apply to trees as they grow in open land, with full space for the development of their characteristics under favorable conditions. in forest trees there is much greater uniformity; the trunks are more slender, taller, often unbranched to a considerable height, and the heads are much smaller. when the trunk tapers uniformly from the ground upward, the given diameter is taken at the base; when the trunk is reinforced at the base, the measurements are made above the swell of the roots; when reinforced at the ground and also at the branching point, as often in the american elm, the measurements are made at the smallest place between the swell of the roots and of the branches. a regular order has been followed in the description for the purpose of ready comparison. no explanation of the headings used seems necessary, except to state that the _habitat_ is used in the more customary present acceptation to indicate the place where a plant naturally grows, as in swamps or upon dry hillsides. under the head of "horticultural value," the requisite information is given for an intelligent choice of trees for ornamental purposes. the order and names of families follow, in the main, engler and prantl. in accordance with the general tendency of new england botanists to conform to the best usage until an authoritative agreement has been reached with regard to nomenclature by an international congress, the berlin rule has been followed for genera, and priority under the genus for species. other names in use at the present day are given as synonyms and included in the index. only those common names are given which are actually used in some part of new england, whether or not the same name is applied to different trees. it seems best to record what is, and not what ought to be. common names that are the creation of botanists have been disregarded altogether. any attempt to displace a name in wide use, even by one that is more appropriate, is futile, if not mischievous. the plates are from original drawings by mrs. elizabeth gleason bigelow, in all cases from living specimens, and they have been carefully compared with the plates in other works. so far as practicable, the drawings were made of life size, with the exception of the dissected portions of small flowers, which were enlarged. in this way, though not on a perfectly uniform scale, they are, when reduced to the necessary space, distinct in all their parts. so far as consistent with due precision, popular terms have been used in description, but not when such usage involved tedious periphrase. especial mention should be made of those botanists whose assistance has been essential to a knowledge of the distribution of species in the new england states: maine,--mr. m. l. fernald; new hampshire,--mr. wm. f. flint, report of forestry commission; vermont,--president ezra brainerd; massachusetts,--trees about northampton, mrs. emily hitchcock terry; throughout the connecticut river valley, mr. e. l. morris; rhode island,--professor w. w. bailey, professor j. f. collins; connecticut,--mr. c. h. bissell, mr. c. k. averill, mr. j. n. bishop. dr. b. l. robinson has given advice in general treatment and in matters of nomenclature; dr. c. w. swan and mr. charles h. morss have made a critical examination of the manuscript; mr. warren h. manning has contributed the "horticultural values" throughout the work; and miss m. s. e. james has prepared the index. to these and to all others who have given assistance in the preparation of this work, the grateful thanks of the authors are due. contents. pages key to the trees of new england ix list of plates xi authorities xiii abbreviations xvii text and plates appendix glossary index key to the trees of new england. i. leaves simple. =leaves alternate= a outline entire a c outline slightly indented a d outline lobed a e lobes entire a e f lobes slightly indented a e g lobes coarsely toothed a e h =leaves opposite= b a c ovate to oval, obscurely toothed tupelo a c ovate to oval persimmon a c also -lobed sassafras a c sometimes opposite, clustered at the ends of the branchlets dogwoods a d tremulous habit, oval poplars a d lanceolate, finely serrate, sometimes entire willows a d ovate-oval, serrate, doubly serrate { birches { hornbeams a d oval, serrate, oblong-lanceolate, veins { beeches terminating in teeth { chestnut a d ovate-oblong, doubly serrate, surface rough elms a d ovate to ovate-lanceolate, serrate, surface slightly rough hackberry a d outline variable, ovate-oval, sometimes lobed ( - ), serrate-dentate mulberry a d ovate, serrate, oblong { shadbush { plums { cherries a d oval or oval-oblong, spines, evergreen holly a d broad-ovate, one-sided, serrate linden a d obovate, oval, lanceolate, oblong chestnut oaks a d broad-ovate to broad-elliptical, thorny thorns a e f lobes rounded sassafras a e f base truncate or heart-shaped tulip tree a e f obtuse, rounded lobes white oaks a e f - -lobed, white-tomentose to glabrous beneath white poplar a e g -lobed, finely serrate sweet gum a e g irregularly - -lobed, serrate-dentate with equal teeth mulberry a e h pointed or bristle-tipped lobes black oaks a e h coarse-toothed or pinnate-lobed, short lobes ending in sharp point sycamore b outline entire, ovate, veins prominent flowering dogwood b outline serrate, apex often tapering sheep berry b outline lobed maples ii. leaves compound. =leaves pinnately compound= i leaflets alternate i a outlines of leaflets entire i a c leaflets opposite i b =leaves bi-pinnately compound= j i a outlines of leaflets with two or three teeth at base. ailanthus ia outlines of leaflets serrate { sumacs (except poison sumac) { mountain ashes { walnuts { hickories i a c leaflets oval, apex obtuse locusts (except honey locust) i a c leaflets oblong, apex acute poison sumac i b outlines of leaflets entire ashes (except mountain ashes) i b outlines of leaflets serrate ashes (except mountain ashes) i b leaflets irregularly or coarsely toothed, -lobed or nearly entire box elder j irregularly bi-pinnate, outlines of leaflets entire, thorns on stem and trunk honey locust list of plates. plate page i. larix americana ii. pinus strobus iii. pinus rigida iv. pinus banksiana v. pinus resinosa vi. picea nigra vii. picea rubra viii. picea alba ix. tsuga canadensis x. abies balsamea xi. thuja occidentalis xii. cupressus thyoides xiii. juniperus virginiana xiv. populus tremuloides xv. populus grandidentata xvi. populus heterophylla xvii. populus deltoides xviii. populus balsamifera xix. populus candicans xx. salix discolor xxi. salix nigra xxii. juglans cinerea xxiii. juglans nigra xxiv. carya alba xxv. carya tomentosa xxvi. carya porcina xxvii. carya amara xxviii. ostrya virginica xxix. carpinus caroliniana xxx. betula lenta xxxi. betula lutea xxxii. betula nigra xxxiii. betula populifolia xxxiv. betula papyrifera xxxv. fagus ferruginea xxxvi. castanea sativa, var. americana xxxvii. quercus alba xxxviii. quercus stellata xxxix. quercus macrocarpa xl. quercus bicolor xli. quercus prinus xlii. quercus muhlenbergii xliii. quercus rubra xliv. quercus coccinea xlv. quercus velutina xlvi. quercus palustris xlvii. quercus ilicifolia xlviii. ulmus americana xlix. ulmus fulva l. ulmus racemosa li. celtis occidentalis lii. morus rubra liii. liriodendron tulipifera liv. sassafras officinale lv. liquidambar styraciflua lvi. platanus occidentalis lvii. pyrus americana lviii. pyrus sambucifolia lix. amelanchier canadensis lx. cratægus mollis lxi. prunus nigra lxii. prunus americana lxiii. prunus pennsylvanica lxiv. prunus virginiana lxv. prunus serotina lxvi. gleditsia triacanthos lxvii. robinia pseudacacia lxviii. rhus typhina lxix. rhus vernix lxx. ilex opaca lxxi. acer rubrum lxxii. acer saccharinum lxxiii. acer saccharum lxxiv. acer saccharum var. nigrum lxxv. acer spicatum lxxvi. acer pennsylvanicum lxxvii. acer negundo lxxviii. tilia americana lxxix. cornus florida lxxx. cornus alternifolia lxxxi. nyssa sylvatica lxxxii. diospyros virginiana lxxxiii. fraxinus americana lxxxiv. fraxinus pennsylvanica lxxxv. fraxinus pennsylvanica. var. lanceolata lxxxvi. fraxinus nigra lxxxvii. viburnum lentago botanical authorities. page atkins, c. g. pinus banksiana, lamb averill, c. k. v populus balsamifera, l. (_rhodora_, ii, ) prunus americana, marsh. quercus muhlenbergii, engelm. bailey, l. h. populus candicans, ait. bailey, w. w. celtis occidentalis, l. fraxinus pennsylvanica, _var._ lanceolata, sarg. bartram, william quercus tinctoria ( ) batchelder, f. w. betula nigra, l. salix discolor, muhl. (laconia, n. h.) bates, j. a. pinus banksiana, lamb sassafras officinale, nees bishop, j. n. v celtis occidentalis, l. fraxinus pennsylvanica, marsh. fraxinus pennsylvanica, _var._ lanceolata, sarg. juglans nigra, l. (_in lit._, ) morus rubra, l. populus heterophylla, l. quercus muhlenbergii, engelm. thuja occidentalis, l. bissell, c. h. v cratægus crus-galli, l. pinus sylvestris, l. (_in lit._, ) prunus americana, marsh. (_in lit._, ) rhus copallina brainerd, ezra carya porcina, nutt. cratægus punctata, jacq. ulmus racemosa, thomas brewster, william pinus banksiana, lamb britton, nathaniel lord acer saccharum, _var._ nigrum browne, d. t. ilex opaca (_trees of north america_, ) _bulletin torrey botanical club_, xviii, pinus banksiana, lamb chamberlain, e. b. ulmus fulva, michx. ( ) churchill, j. r. prunus americana, marsh. collins, j. f. v gleditsia triacanthos, l. dame. l. l. cratægus crus-galli, l. salix fragilis, l. (_typical elms and other trees of massachusetts_, p. ) day, f. m. pinus banksiana, lamb deane, walter sassafras officinale, nees ( ) dudley, w. r. populus heterophylla, l. eggleston, w.w. carya porcina, nutt. celtis occidentalis, l. morus rubra, l. platanus occidentalis, l. populus deltoides, marsh. sassafras officinale, nees. ulmus racemosa, thomas. engler, adolph v fernald, m. l. fraxinus pennsylvania, marsh, _var._ lanceolata, sarg. (_in lit._, sept., ) gleditsia triacanthos, l. populus balsamifera, l. _var._ candicans, gray (_rhodora_. iii, ) salix balsamifera, barratt. salix discolor, muhl. (_in lit._, sept., ) flagg morus rubra, l. flint, w. f. v acer negundo, l. quercus alba, l. _flora of vermont_ betula lenta, l. ( ) cratægus crus-galli, l. ( ) fraxinus pennsylvanica, marsh. ( ) picea nigra, link ( ) pinus rigida, mill ( ) populus deltoides, marsh. ( ) quercus alba, l. ( ) furbish, miss kate cratægus coccinea, l. (may, ) pinus banksiana, lamb goodale, g. l. pinus banksiana. lamb grant sassafras officinale, nees gray, asa ilex opaca, ait. (_manual of botany_, th ed.) haines, mrs. pinus banksiana, lamb harger, e. b. picea nigra (_rhodora_, ii, ) harper, r. m. liriodendron tulipifera, l. (_rhodora_ ii, ) harrington, a. k. picea alba, link haskins, t. h. ulmus racemosa, thomas (_garden and forest_, v, ) holmes, dr. ezekiel nyssa sylvatica, marsh hosford, f. h. cratægus mollis, scheele hoyt, miss fanny e. pinus banksiana, lamb humphrey, j. e. picea alba, link quercus palustris, du roi (_amherst trees_) jack, j. g. cratægus coccinea, l. ( - ) jessup, henry griswold carya amara, nutt ulmus racemosa, thomas josselyn, john sassafras officinale, nees (_new england rarities_, ) knowlton, c. h. pinus rigida, mill. (_rhodora_, ii, ) manning, warren h. vi matthews, f. schuyler morus rubra. l. michaux, fils, franÇois andrÉ ulmus fulva (_sylva of north america_, iii, ed. ) morris, e. l. v morss, charles h. vi oakes, william morus rubra, l. parlin, j. c. sassafras officinale, nees ( ) prantl, karl von v pringle, c. g. pinus banksiana, lamb pyrus sambucifolia, cham. & schlecht quercus muhlenbergii, engelm rand, e. l. pinus banksiana _rhodora_, iii, acer saccharum, marsh., _var._ barbatum, trelease acer saccharum, marsh., _var._ nigrum, britton _rhodora_, iii, ilex opaca, ait. _rhodora_, iii, prunus americana, marsh robbins, james w. sassafras officinale, nees ulmus racemosa, thomas robinson, dr. b. l. vi robinson, john cratægus coccinea, l. ( ) robinson, r. e. pinus banksiana, lamb russell, l. w. diospyros virginiana. l. quercus palustris, du roi quercus stellata. wang sargent, charles s. cratægus coccinea, l. (_botanical gazette_, xxxi, , , by permission) cratægus mollis, scheele (_botanical gazette_. xxxi, , , ) setchell, w. a. populus heterophylla. l. stone, w. e. quercus palustris. du roi (_bull. torr. club_, ix, ) swan, dr. c. w. vi terry, mrs. emily h. picea alba. link trelease, william acer saccharum, marsh., _var._ barbatum tuckerman, edward betula papyrifera, _var._ minor, marsh. waghorne, a. c. cratægus coccinea, l. ( ) abbreviations. ait.--aiton, william. barratt, joseph. b. s. p.--britton, nathaniel lord, sterns, e. e., and poggenburg, justus f. borkh.--borkhausen, m. b. carr.--carrière, Éli abel. cham.--chamisso, adelbert von. coulter, john merle. dc.--de candolle, augustin pyramus. desf.--desfontaines, rené louiche. du roi, johann philip. ehrh.--ehrhart, friedrich. engelm.--engelmann, george. gray, asa. jacq.--jacquin, nicholaus joseph. karst.--karsten, hermann gustav karl wilhelm. koch, wilhelm daniel joseph. l.--linnæus, carolus. l. f.--linnæus, fils, carl von. lam.--lamarck, j. b. p. a. de monet. lamb, aylmer bourke. link, heinrich friedrich. marsh.--marshall, humphrey. medic.--medicus, friedrich casimir. michx.--michaux, andré. michaux, fils.--françois andré. mill.--miller, philip. moench, konrad. muhl.--muhlenberg, h. ernst. nees--nees von esenbeck, c. g. nutt.--nuttall, thomas. peck, charles h. poggenburg, justus f. pursh, friedrich trangott. roem.--roemer, johann jacob. sarg.--sargent, charles s. scheele, a. schlecht--schlechtendal, d. f. l. von. schr.--schrader, heinrich a. spach, eduard. sterns, e. e. sudw.--sudworth, george b. sweet, robert. t. and g.--torrey, john, and gray, asa. thomas, david. vent.--ventenat, Étienne pierre. walt.--walter, thomas. wang.--wangenheim, f. a. j. von. watson, sereno. waugh, frank a. willd.--willdenow, carl ludwig. trees of new england. pinoideÆ. pine family. conifers. abietaceÆ. cupressaceÆ. trees or shrubs, resinous; leaves simple, mostly evergreen, relatively small, entire, needle-shaped, awl-shaped, linear, or scale-like; stipules none; flowers catkin-like; calyx none; corolla none; ovary represented by a scale (ovuliferous scale) bearing the naked ovules on its surface. abietaceÆ. larix. pinus. picea. tsuga. abies. buds scaly; leaves evergreen and persistent for several years (except in _larix_), scattered along the twigs, spirally arranged or tufted, linear, needle-shaped, or scale-like; sterile and fertile flowers separate upon the same plant; stamens (subtended by scales) spirally arranged upon a central axis, each bearing two pollen-sacs surmounted by a broad-toothed connective; fertile flowers composed of spirally arranged bracts or cover-scales, each bract subtending an ovuliferous scale; cover-scale and ovuliferous scale attached at their bases; cover-scale usually remaining small, ovuliferous scale enlarging, especially after fertilization, gradually becoming woody or leathery and bearing two ovules at its base; cones maturing (except in _pinus_) the first year; ovuliferous scales in fruit usually known as cone-scales; seeds winged; roots mostly spreading horizontally at a short distance below the surface. cupressaceÆ. thuja. cupressus. juniperus. leaf-buds not scaly; leaves evergreen and persistent for several years, opposite, verticillate, or sometimes scattered, scale-like, often needle-shaped in seedlings and sometimes upon the branches of older plants; flowers minute; stamens and pistils in separate blossoms upon the same plant or upon different plants; stamens usually bearing - pollen-sacs on the underside; scales of fertile aments few, opposite or ternate; fruit small cones, or berries formed by coalescence of the fleshy cone-scales; otherwise as in _abietaceæ_. larix americana, michx. _larix laricina, koch._ tamarack. hacmatack. larch. juniper. =habitat and range.=--low lands, shaded hillsides, borders of ponds; in new england preferring cold swamps; sometimes far up mountain slopes. labrador, newfoundland, and nova scotia, west to the rocky mountains; from the rockies through british columbia, northward along the yukon and mackenzie systems, to the limit of tree growth beyond the arctic circle. maine, new hampshire, and vermont,--abundant, filling swamps acres in extent, alone or associated with other trees, mostly black spruce; growing depressed and scattered on katahdin at an altitude of feet; massachusetts,--rather common, at least northward; rhode island,--not reported; connecticut,--occasional in the northern half of the state; reported as far south as danbury (fairfield county). south along the mountains to new jersey and pennsylvania; west to minnesota. =habit.=--the only new england conifer that drops its leaves in the fall; a tree - feet high, reduced at great elevations to a height of - feet, or to a shrub; trunk - feet in diameter, straight, slender; branches very irregular or in indistinct whorls, for the most part nearly horizontal; often ending in long spire-like shoots; branchlets numerous, head conical, symmetrical while the tree is young, especially when growing in open swamps; when old extremely variable, occasionally with contorted or drooping limbs; foliage pale green, turning to a dull yellow in autumn. =bark.=--bark of trunk reddish or grayish brown, separating at the surface into small roundish scales in old trees, in young trees smooth; season's shoots gray or light brown in autumn. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds small, globular, reddish. leaves simple, scattered along the season's shoots, clustered on the short, thick dwarf branches, about an inch long, pale green, needle-shaped; apex obtuse; sessile. =inflorescence.=--march to april. flowers lateral, solitary, erect; the sterile from leafless, the fertile from leafy dwarf branches; sterile roundish, sessile; anthers yellow: fertile oblong, short-stalked; bracts crimson or red. =fruit.=--cones upon dwarf branches, erect or inclining upwards, ovoid to cylindrical, / - / of an inch long, purplish or reddish brown while growing, light brown at maturity, persistent for at least a year; scales thin, obtuse to truncate; edge entire, minutely toothed or erose; seeds small, winged. =horticultural value.=--hardy in new england; grows in any good soil, preferring moist locations; the formal outline of the young trees becomes broken, irregular, and picturesque with age, making the mature tree much more attractive than the european species common to cultivation. rarely for sale in nurseries, but obtainable from collectors. to be successfully transplanted, it must be handled when dormant. propagated from seed. =note.=--the european species, with which the mature plant is often confused, has somewhat longer leaves and larger cones; a form common in cultivation has long, pendulous branches. [illustration: plate i.--larix americana.] . branch with sterile and fertile flowers. . sterile flowers. . different views of stamens. . ovuliferous scale with ovules. . fruiting branch. . open cone. . cone-scale with seeds. . leaf. . cross-section of leaf. pinus. the leaves are of two kinds, primary and secondary; the primary are thin, deciduous scales, in the axils of which the secondary leaf-buds stand; the inner scales of those leaf-buds form a loose, deciduous sheath which encloses the secondary or foliage leaves, which in our species are all minutely serrulate. pinus strobus, l. white pine. =habitat and range.=--in fertile soils; moist woodlands or dry uplands. newfoundland and nova scotia, through quebec and ontario, to lake winnipeg. new england,--common, from the vicinity of the seacoast to altitudes of feet, forming extensive forests. south along the mountains to georgia, ascending to feet in the adirondacks and to in north carolina; west to minnesota and iowa. =habit.=--the tallest tree and the stateliest conifer of the new england forest, ordinarily from to feet high and - feet in diameter at the ground, but in northern new england, where patches of the primeval forest still remain, attaining a diameter of - feet and a height ranging from to feet, rising in sombre majesty far above its deciduous neighbors; trunk straight, tapering very gradually; branches nearly horizontal, wide-spreading, in young trees in whorls usually of five, the whorls becoming more or less indistinct in old trees; branchlets and season's shoots slender; head cone-shaped, broad at the base, clothed with soft, delicate, bluish-green foliage; roots running horizontally near the surface, taking firm hold in rocky situations, extremely durable when exposed. =bark.=--on trunks of old trees thick, shallow-channeled, broad-ridged; on stems of young trees and upon branches smooth, greenish; season's shoots at first rusty-scurfy or puberulent, in late autumn becoming smooth and light russet brown. =winter buds and leaves.=--leading branch-buds / - / inch long, oblong or ovate-oblong, sharp-pointed; scales yellowish-brown. foliage leaves in clusters of five, slender, - inches long, soft bluish-green, needle-shaped, -sided, mucronate, each with a single fibrovascular bundle, sessile. =inflorescence.=--june. sterile flowers at the base of the season's shoots, in clusters, each flower about one inch long, oval, light brown; stamens numerous; connectives scale-like: fertile flowers near the terminal bud of the season's shoots, long-stalked, cylindrical; scales pink-margined. =fruit.=--cones, - inches long, short-stalked, narrow-cylindrical, often curved, finally pendent, green, maturing the second year; scales rather loose, scarcely thickened at the apex, not spiny; seeds winged, smooth. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; free from disease; grows well in almost any soil, but prefers a light fertile loam; in open ground retains its lower branches for many years. good plants, grown from seed, are usually readily obtainable in nurseries; small collected plants from open ground can be moved in sods with little risk. several horticultural forms are occasionally cultivated which are distinguished by variations in foliage, trailing branches, dense and rounded heads, and dwarfed or cylindrical habits of growth. plate ii. pinus strobus. . branch with sterile flowers. . stamen. . branch with fertile flowers. . bract and ovuliferous scale, outer side. . ovuliferous scale with ovules, inner side. . branch with cones. . cross-section of leaf. pinus rigida, mill. pitch pine. hard pine. =habitat and range.=--most common in dry, sterile soils, occasional in swamps. new brunswick to lake ontario. maine,--mostly in the southwestern section near the seacoast; as far north as chesterville, franklin county (c. h. knowlton, _rhodora_, ii, ); scarcely more than a shrub near its northern limits; new hampshire,--most common along the merrimac valley to the white mountains and up the connecticut valley to the mouth of the passumpsic, reaching an altitude of feet above the sea level; vermont,--common in the northern champlain valley, less frequent in the connecticut valley (_flora of vermont_, ); common in the other new england states, often forming large tracts of woodland, sometimes exclusively occupying extensive areas. south to virginia and along the mountains to northern georgia; west to western new york, ohio, kentucky, and tennessee. =habit.=--usually a low tree, from to feet high, with a diameter of - feet at the ground, but not infrequently rising to - feet, with a diameter of - feet; trunk straight or more or less tortuous, tapering rather rapidly; branches rising at a wide angle with the stem, often tortuous, and sometimes drooping at the extremities, distinctly whorled in young trees, but gradually losing nearly every trace of regularity; roughest of our pines, the entire framework rough at every stage of growth; head variable, open, often scraggly, widest near the base and sometimes dome-shaped in young trees; branchlets stout, terminating in rigid, spreading tufts of foliage. [illustration: plate ii.--pinus strobus.] =bark.=--bark of trunk in old trees thick, deeply furrowed, with broad connecting ridges, separating on the surface into coarse dark grayish or reddish brown scales; younger stems and branches very rough, separating into scales; season's shoots rough to the tips. =winter buds and leaves.=--leading branch-buds / - / inch long, narrow-cylindrical or ovate, acute at the apex, resin-coated; scales brownish. foliage leaves in threes, - inches long, stout, stiff, dark yellowish-green, -sided, sharp-pointed, with two fibrovascular bundles; sessile; sheaths when young about / inch long. =inflorescence.=--sterile flowers at the base of the season's shoots, clustered; stamens numerous; anthers yellow: fertile flowers at a slight angle with and along the sides of the season's shoots, single or clustered. =fruit.=--cones lateral, single or in clusters, nearly or quite sessile, finally at right angles to the stem or twisted slightly downward, ovoid, ovate-conical; subspherical when open, ripening the second season; scales thickened at the apex, armed with stout, straight or recurved prickles. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; well adapted to exposed situations on highlands or along the seacoast; grows in almost any soil, but thrives best in sandy or gravelly moist loams; valuable among other trees for color-effects and occasional picturesqueness of outline; mostly uninteresting and of uncertain habit; subject to the loss of the lower limbs, and not readily transplanted; very seldom offered in quantity by nurserymen; obtainable from collectors, but collected plants are seldom successful. usually propagated from the seed. [illustration: plate iii.--pinus rigida.] . branch with sterile flowers. . stamen, front view. . stamen, top view. . branch with fertile flowers. . fertile flower showing bract and ovuliferous scale, outer side. . fertile flower showing ovuliferous scale with ovules, inner side. . fruiting branch with cones one and two years old. . open cone. . seed. . cross-section of leaf. =pinus banksiana, lamb.= _pinus divaricata. sudw._ scrub pine. gray pine. spruce pine. jack pine. =habitat and range.=--sterile, sandy soil: lowlands, boggy plains, rocky slopes. nova scotia, northwesterly to the athabasca river, and northerly down the mackenzie to the arctic circle. maine,--traveller mountain and grand lake (g. l. goodale); beal's island on washington county coast, harrington, orland, and cape rosier (c. g. atkins); schoodic peninsula in gouldsboro, a forest feet high (f. m. day, e. l. rand, _et al._); flagstaff (miss kate furbush); east branch of penobscot (mrs. haines); the forks (miss fanny e. hoyt); lake umbagog (wm. brewster); new hampshire,--around the shores of lake umbagog, on points extending into the lake, rare (wm. brewster _in lit._, ); welch mountains (_bull. torr. bot. club_, xviii, ); vermont,--rare, but few trees at each station; monkton in addison county (r. e. robinson); fairfax, franklin county (bates); starkesboro (pringle). west through northern new york, northern illinois, and michigan to minnesota. =habit.=--usually a low tree, - feet high and - inches in diameter at the ground, but under favorable conditions, as upon the wooded points and islands of lake umbagog, attaining a height of - feet, with a diameter of - inches. extremely variable in habit. in thin soils and upon bleak sites the trunk is for the most part crooked and twisted, the head scrubby, stunted, and variously distorted, resembling in shape and proportions the pitch pine under similar conditions. in deeper soils, and in situations protected from the winds, the stem is erect, slender, and tapering, surmounted by a stately head with long, flexible branches, scarcely less regular in outline than the spruce. foliage yellowish-green, bunched at the ends of the branchlets. =bark.=--bark of trunk in old trees dark brown, rounded-ridged, rough-scaly at the surface; branchlets dark purplish-brown, rough with the persistent bases of the fallen leaves; season's shoots yellowish-green, turning to reddish-brown. =winter buds and leaves.=--branch-buds light brown, ovate, apex acute or rounded, usually enclosed in resin. leaves in twos, divergent from a short close sheath, about inch in length and scarcely / inch in width, yellowish-green, numerous, stiff, curved or twisted, cross-section showing two fibrovascular bundles; outline narrowly linear; apex sharp-pointed; outer surface convex, inner concave or flat. =inflorescence.=--june. sterile flowers at the base of the season's shoots, clustered, oblong-rounded: fertile flowers along the sides or about the terminal buds of the season's shoots, single, in twos or in clusters; bracts ovate, roundish, purplish. =fruit.=--cones often numerous, - inches long, pointing in the general direction of the twig on which they grow, frequently curved at the tip, whitish-yellow when young, and brown at maturity; scales when mature without prickles, thickened at the apex; outline very irregular but in general oblong-conical. the open cones, which are usually much distorted, with scales at base closed, have a similar outline. =horticultural value.=--hardy in new england; slow growing and hard to transplant; useful in poor soil; seldom offered by nurserymen or collectors. propagated from seed. [illustration: plate iv.--pinus banksiana.] . branch with sterile flowers. . stamen, front view. . stamen, top view. . branch with fertile flowers. . ovuliferous scale with ovules, inner side. . fruiting branch. . open cone. , . variant leaves. , . cross-sections of leaves. pinus resinosa, ait. red pine. norway pine. =habitat and range.=--in poor soils: sandy plains, dry woods. newfoundland and new brunswick, throughout quebec and ontario, to the southern end of lake winnipeg. maine,--common, plains, brunswick (cumberland county); woods, bristol (lincoln county); from amherst (western part of hancock county) and clifton (southeastern part of penobscot county) northward just east of the penobscot river the predominant tree, generally on dry ridges and eskers, but in greenbush and passadumkeag growing abundantly on peat bogs with black spruce; hillsides and lower mountains about moosehead, scattered; new hampshire,--ranges with the pitch pine as far north as the white mountains, but is less common, usually in groves of a few to several hundred acres in extent; vermont,--less common than _p. strobus_ or _p. rigida_, but not rare; massachusetts,--still more local, in stations widely separated, single trees or small groups; rhode island,--occasional; connecticut,--not reported. south to pennsylvania; west through michigan and wisconsin to minnesota. =habit.=--the most beautiful of the new england pines, - feet high, with a diameter of - feet at the ground; reaching in maine a height of feet and upwards; trunk straight, scarcely tapering; branches low, stout, horizontal or scarcely declined, forming a broad-based, rounded or conical head of great beauty when young, becoming more or less irregular with age; foliage of a rich dark green, in long dense tufts at the ends of the branches. =bark.=--bark of trunk reddish-brown, in old trees marked by flat ridges which separate on the surface into thin, flat, loose scales; branchlets rough with persistent bases of leaf buds; season's shoots stout, orange-brown, smooth. =winter buds and leaves.=--leading branch-buds conical, about / inch long, tapering to a sharp point, reddish-brown, invested with rather loose scales. foliage leaves in twos, from close, elongated, persistent, and conspicuous sheaths, about inches long, dark green, needle-shaped, straight, sharply and stiffly pointed, the outer surface round and the inner flattish, both surfaces marked by lines of minute pale dots. =inflorescence.=--sterile flowers clustered at the base of the season's shoots, oblong, / - / inch long: fertile flowers single or few, at the ends of the season's shoots. =fruit.=--cones near extremity of shoot, at right angles to the stem, maturing the second year, - inches long, ovate to oblong conical; when opened broadly oval or roundish; scales not hooked or pointed, thickened at the apex. =horticultural value.=--hardy in new england; a tall, dark-foliaged evergreen, for which there is no substitute; grows rapidly in all well-drained soils and in exposed inland or seashore situations; seldom disfigured by insects or disease; difficult to transplant and not common in nurseries. propagated from seed. [illustration: plate v.--pinus resinosa.] . branch with sterile flowers. . stamen, front view. . stamen, top view. . branch with fertile flowers and one-year-old cones. . bract and ovuliferous scale, outer side. . ovuliferous scale with ovules, inner side. . fruiting branch showing cones of three different seasons. . seeds with cone-scale. , . cross-sections of leaves. = pinus sylvestris, l.= scotch pine (sometimes incorrectly called the scotch fir). indigenous in the northern parts of scotland and in the alps, and from sweden and norway, where it forms large forests eastward throughout northern europe and asia. at southington, conn., many of these trees, probably originating from an introduced pine in the vicinity, were formerly scattered over a rocky pasture and in the adjoining woods, a tract of about two acres in extent. most of these were cut down in , but the survivors, if left to themselves, will doubtless multiply rapidly, as the conditions have proved very favorable (c. h. bissell _in lit._, ). like _p. resinosa_ and _p. banksiana_, it has its foliage leaves in twos, with neither of which, however, is it likely to be confounded; aside from the habit, which is quite different, it may be distinguished from the former by the shortness of its leaves, which are less than inches long, while those of _p. resinosa_ are or ; and from the latter by the position of its cones, which point outward and downward at maturity, while those of _p. banksiana_ follow the direction of the twig. picea nigra, link. _picea mariana, b. s. p. (including picea brevifolia, peck)._ black spruce. swamp spruce. double spruce. water spruce. =habitat and range.=--swamps, sphagnum bogs, shores of rivers and ponds, wet, rocky hillsides; not uncommon, especially northward, on dry uplands and mountain slopes. labrador, newfoundland, and nova scotia, westward beyond the rocky mountains, extending northward along the tributaries of the yukon in alaska. maine,--common throughout, covering extensive areas almost to the exclusion of other trees in the central and northern sections, occasional on the top of katahdin ( feet); new hampshire and vermont,--common in sphagnum swamps of low and high altitudes; the dwarf form, var. _semi-prostrata_, occurs on the summit of mt. mansfield (_flora of vermont_, ); massachusetts,--frequent; rhode island,--not reported; connecticut,--rare; on north shore of spectacle ponds in kent (litchfield county), at an elevation of feet; newton (fairfield county), a few scattered trees in a swamp at an altitude of feet: (new haven county) a few small trees at bethany; at middlebury abundant in a swamp of five acres (e. b. harger, _rhodora_, ii, ). south along the mountains to north carolina and tennessee; west through the northern tier of states to minnesota. =habit.=--in new england, usually a small, slender tree, - feet high and - inches in diameter; attaining northward and westward much greater dimensions; reduced at high elevation to a shrub or dwarf tree, or feet high; trunk tapering very slowly, forming a narrow-based, conical, more or less irregular head; branches rather short, scarcely whorled, horizontal or more frequently declining with an upward tendency at the ends, often growing in open swamps almost to the ground, the lowest prostrate, sometimes rooting at their tips and sending up shoots; spray stiff and rather slender; foliage dark bluish-green or glaucous. this tree often begins to blossom after attaining a height of - feet, the terminal cones each season remaining persistent at the base of the branches, sometimes for many years. =bark.=--bark of trunk grayish-brown, separating into rather close, thin scales; branchlets roughened with the footstalks of the fallen leaves; twigs in autumn dull reddish-brown with a minute, erect, pale, rusty pubescence, or nearly smooth. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds scaly, ovate, pointed, reddish-brown. leaves scattered, needle-shaped, dark bluish-green, the upper sides becoming yellowish in the sunlight, the faces marked by parallel rows of minute bluish dots which sometimes give a glaucous effect to the lower surface or even the whole leaf on the new shoots, -angled, / - / of an inch long, straight or slightly incurved, blunt at the apex, abruptly tipped or mucronate, sessile on persistent, decurrent footstalks. =inflorescence.=--april to may, a week or two earlier than the red spruce; sterile flowers terminal or axillary, on wood of the preceding year; about / inch long, ovate; anthers madder-red: fertile flowers at or near end of season's shoots, erect; scales madder-red, spirally imbricated, broader than long, margin erose, rarely entire. =fruit.=--cones, single or clustered at or near ends of the season's shoots, attached to the upper side of the twig, but turning downward by the twisting of the stout stalk, often persistent for years; / - - / inches long; purplish or grayish brown at the end of the first season, finally becoming dull reddish or grayish brown, ovate, ovate-oval, or nearly globular when open; scales rigid, thin, reddish on the inner surface; margin rounded, uneven, eroded, bifid, or rarely entire. =horticultural value.=--best adapted to cool, moist soils; of little value under cultivation; young plants seldom preserving the broad-based, cone-like, symmetrical heads common in the spruce swamps, the lower branches dying out and the whole tree becoming scraggly and unsightly. seldom offered by nurserymen. [illustration: plate vi.--picea nigra.] . branch with sterile flowers. . stamen, front view. . stamen, side view. . stamen, top view. . branch with fertile flowers. . cover-scale and ovuliferous scale, outer side. . ovuliferous scale with ovules, inner side. . fruiting branch. . seed. . leaf. . cross-sections of leaves. =picea rubra, link.= _picea rubens, sarg. picea nigra, var. rubra, engelm._ red spruce. =habitat and range.=--cool, rich woods, well-drained valleys, slopes of mountains, not infrequently extending down to the borders of swamps. prince edward island and nova scotia, along the valley of the st. lawrence. maine,--throughout: most common towards the coast and in the extreme north, thus forming a belt around the central area, where it is often quite wanting except on cool or elevated slopes; new hampshire,--throughout; the most abundant conifer of upper coos, the white mountain region where it climbs to the alpine area, and the higher parts of the connecticut-merrimac watershed; vermont,--throughout; the common spruce of the green mountains, often in dense groves on rocky slopes with thin soil; massachusetts,--common in the mountainous regions of berkshire county and on uplands in the northern sections, occasional southward; rhode island and connecticut,--not reported. south along the alleghanies to georgia, ascending to an altitude of feet in the adirondacks, and - feet in west virginia; west through the northern tier of states to minnesota. =habit.=--a hardy tree, - feet high; trunk - - / feet in diameter, straight, tapering very slowly; branches longer than those of the black spruce, irregularly whorled or scattered, the lower often declined, sometimes resting on the ground, the upper rising toward the light, forming while the tree is young a rather regular, narrow, conical head, which in old age and in bleak mountain regions becomes, by the loss of branches, less symmetrical but more picturesque; foliage dark yellowish-green. =bark.=--bark of trunk smoothish and mottled on young trees, at length separating into small, thin, flat, reddish scales; in old trees striate with shallow sinuses, separating into ashen-white plates, often partially detached; spray reddish or yellowish white in autumn with minute, erect, pale rusty pubescence. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds scaly, conical, brownish, / inch long. leaves solitary, at first closely appressed around the young shoots, ultimately pointing outward, those on the underside often twisting upward, giving a brush-like appearance to the twig, / - / inch long, straight or curved (curvature more marked than in _p. nigra_), needle-shaped, dark yellowish-green, -angled; apex blunt or more or less pointed, often mucronate; base blunt; sessile on persistent leaf-cushions. =inflorescence.=--may. sterile flowers terminal or axillary on wood of the preceding year, / - / inch long, cylindrical; anthers pinkish-red: fertile flowers lateral along previous season's shoots, erect; scales madder-purple, spirally imbricated, broader than long, margin entire or slightly erose. =fruit.=--cones; single or clustered, lateral along the previous season's shoots, recurved, mostly pointing downward at various angles, on short stalks, falling the first autumn but sometimes persistent a year longer, - inches long (usually larger than those of _p. nigra_), reddish-brown, mostly ovate; scales thin, stiff, rounded; margin entire or slightly irregular. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; adapts itself to a great variety of soils and lives to a great age. its narrow-based conical form, dense foliage, and yellow green coloring form an effective contrast with most other evergreens. it grows, however, slowly, is subject to the loss of its lower branches and to disfigurement by insects. seldom offered in nurseries. [illustration: plate vii.--picea rubra.] . branch with sterile flowers. . stamen, front view. . stamen, side view. . branch with fertile flowers. . cover-scale and ovuliferous scale, outer side. . ovuliferous scale with ovules, inner side. . fruiting branch with cones of two seasons. . seed. . leaf. . cross-sections of leaves. =picea alba, link.= _picea canadensis, b. s. p._ white spruce. cat spruce.[ ] skunk spruce.[ ] labrador spruce. =habitat and range.=--low, damp, but not wet woods; dry, sandy soils, high rocky slopes and exposed hilltops, often in scanty soil. [footnote , : so called from the peculiarly unpleasant odor of the crushed foliage and young shoots,--a characteristic which readily distinguishes it from the _p. nigra_ and _p. rubra_.] newfoundland and nova scotia, through the provinces of quebec and ontario to manitoba and british columbia, northward beyond all other trees, within miles of the arctic sea. maine,--frequent in sandy soils, often more common than _p. rubra_, as far south as the shores of casco bay; new hampshire,--abundant around the shores of the connecticut river, disappearing southward at fifteen-mile falls; vermont,--restricted mainly to the northern sections, more common in the northeast; massachusetts,--occasional in the mountainous regions of berkshire county; a few trees in hancock (a. k. harrington); as far south as amherst (j. e. humphrey) and northampton (mrs. emily h. terry), probably about the southern limit of the species; rhode island and connecticut,--not reported. west through the northern sections of the northern tier of states to the rocky mountains. =habit.=--a handsome tree, - feet high, with a diameter of - feet at the ground, the trunk tapering slowly, throwing out numerous scattered or irregularly whorled, gently ascending or nearly horizontal branches, forming a symmetrical, rather broad conical head, with numerous branchlets and bluish-green glaucous foliage spread in dense planes; gum bitter. =bark.=--bark of trunk pale reddish-brown or light gray, on very old trees ash-white; not as flaky as the bark of the red spruce, the scales smaller and more closely appressed; young trees and small branches much smoother, pale reddish-brown or mottled brown and gray, resembling the fir balsam; branchlets glabrous; shoots from which the leaves have fallen marked by the scaly, persistent leaf-cushions; new shoots pale fawn-color at first, turning darker the second season; bark of the tree throughout decidedly lighter than that of the red or black spruces. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds scaly, ovoid or conical, about / inch long, light brown. leaves scattered, stout as those of _p. rubra_ or very slender, those on the lower side straight or twisted so as to appear on the upper side, giving a brush-like appearance to the twig, about / of an inch long; bluish-green, glaucous on the new shoots, needle-shaped, -angled, slightly curved, bluntish or sharp-pointed, often mucronate, marked on each side with several parallel rows of dots, malodorous, especially when bruised. =inflorescence.=--april to may. sterile flowers terminal or axillary, on wood of the preceding season; distinctly stalked; cylindrical, / an inch long; anthers pale red: fertile flowers at or near ends of season's shoots; scales pale red or green, spirally imbricated, broader than long; margin roundish, entire or nearly so; each scale bearing two ovules. =fruit.=--cones short-stalked, at or near ends of branchlets, light green while growing, pale brownish when mature, spreading, - - / inches long, when closed cylindrical, tapering towards the apex, cylindrical or ovate-cylindrical when open, mostly falling the first winter; scales broad, thin, smooth; margin rounded, sometimes straight-topped, usually entire. =horticultural value.=--a beautiful tree, requiring cold winters for its finest development, the best of our new england spruces for ornamental and forest plantations in the northern sections; grows rapidly in moist or well-drained soils, in open sun or shade, and in exposed situations. the foliage is sometimes infested by the red spider. propagated from seed. [illustration: plate viii.--picea alba.] . branch with sterile flowers. . stamen, front view. . stamen, side view. . branch with fertile flowers. . cover-scale and ovuliferous scale, outer side. . ovuliferous scale with ovules, inner side. . fruiting branch. . open cone. . seed with ovuliferous scale. . leaves. . cross-sections of leaves. =tsuga canadensis, carr.= hemlock. =habitat and range.=--cold soils, borders of swamps, deep woods, ravines, mountain slopes. nova scotia, new brunswick, through quebec and ontario. maine,--abundant, generally distributed in the southern and central portions, becoming rare northward, disappearing entirely in most of aroostook county and the northern penobscot region; new hampshire,--abundant, from the sea to a height of feet in the white mountains, disappearing in upper coos county; vermont,--common, especially in the mountain forests; massachusetts, rhode island, and connecticut,--common. south to delaware and along the mountains to georgia and alabama, ascending to an altitude of feet in the adirondacks; west to michigan and minnesota. =habit.=--a large handsome tree, - feet high; trunk - feet in diameter, straight, tapering very slowly; branches going out at right angles, not disposed in whorls, slender, brittle yet elastic, the lowest declined or drooping; head spreading, somewhat irregular, widest at the base; spray airy, graceful, plume-like, set in horizontal planes; foliage dense, extremely delicate, dark lustrous green above and silver green below, tipped in spring with light yellow green. =bark.=--bark of trunk reddish-brown, interior often cinnamon red, shallow-furrowed in old trees; young trunks and branches of large trees gray brown, smooth; season's shoots very slender, buff or light reddish-brown, minutely pubescent. =winter buds and leaves.=--winter buds minute, red brown. leaves spirally arranged but brought by the twisting of the leafstalk into two horizontal rows on opposite sides of the twig, about / an inch long, yellow green when young, becoming at maturity dark shining green on the upper surface, white-banded along the midrib beneath, flat, linear, smooth, occasionally minutely toothed, especially in the upper half; apex obtuse; base obtuse; leafstalk slender, short but distinct, resting on a slightly projecting leaf-cushion. =inflorescence.=--sterile flowers from the axils of the preceding year's leaves, consisting of globose clusters of stamens with spurred anthers: fertile catkins at ends of preceding year's branchlets, scales crimson. =fruit.=--cones, on stout footstalks at ends of branchlets, pointing downward, ripening the first year, light brown, about / of an inch long, ovate-elliptical, pointed; scales rounded at the edge, entire or obscurely toothed. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows almost anywhere, but prefers a good, light, loamy or gravelly soil on moist slopes; a very effective tree single or in groups, useful in shady places, and a favorite hedge plant; not affected by rust or insect enemies; in open ground retains its lower branches for many years. about twenty horticultural forms, with variations in foliage, of columnar, densely globular, or weeping habit, are offered for sale in nurseries. [illustration: plate ix.--tsuga canadensis.] . branch with flower-buds. . branch with sterile flowers. . sterile flowers. . spurred anther. . branch with fertile flowers. . ovuliferous scale with ovule, inner side. . fruiting branch. . cover-scales with seeds. . leaf. . cross-section of leaf. =abies balsamea, mill.= fir balsam. balsam. fir. =habitat and range.=--rich, damp, cool woods, deep swamps, mountain slopes. labrador, newfoundland, and nova scotia, northwest to the great bear lake region. maine,--very generally distributed, ordinarily associated with white pine, black spruce, red spruce, and a few deciduous trees, growing at an altitude of feet upon katahdin; new hampshire,--common in upper coos county and in the white mountains, where it climbs up to the alpine area; in the southern part of the state, in the extensive swamps around the sources of the contoocook and miller's rivers, it is the prevailing timber; vermont,--common; not rare on mountain slopes and even summits; massachusetts,--not uncommon on mountain slopes in the northwestern and central portions of the state, ranging above the red spruces upon graylock; a few trees here and there in damp woods or cold swamps in the southern and eastern sections, where it has probably been accidentally introduced; rhode island and connecticut,--not reported. south to pennsylvania and along high mountains to virginia; west to minnesota. =habit.=--a slender, handsome tree, the most symmetrical of the new england spruces, with a height of - feet, and a diameter of - feet at the ground, reduced to a shrub at high altitudes; branches in young trees usually in whorls; branchlets mostly opposite. the branches go out from the trunk at an angle varying to a marked degree even in trees of about the same size and apparent age; in some trees declined near the base, horizontal midway, ascending near the top; in others horizontal or ascending throughout; in others declining throughout like those of the norway spruce; all these forms growing apparently under precisely the same conditions; head widest at the base and tapering regularly upward; foliage dark bright green; cones erect and conspicuous. =bark.=--bark of trunk in old trees a variegated ashen gray, appearing smooth at a short distance, but often beset with fine scales, with one edge scarcely revolute, giving a ripply aspect; branches and young trees mottled or striate, greenish-brown and very smooth; branchlets from which the leaves have fallen marked with nearly circular leaf-scars; season's shoots pubescent; bark of trunk in all trees except the oldest with numerous blisters, containing the canada balsam of commerce. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds small, roundish, resinous, grouped on the leading shoots. leaves scattered, spirally arranged in rows, at right angles to twig, or disposed in two ranks like the hemlock; / - inch long, dark glossy green on the upper surface, beneath silvery bluish-white, and traversed lengthwise by rows of minute dots, flat, narrowly linear; apex blunt, in young trees and upon vigorous shoots, often slightly but distinctly notched, or sometimes upon upper branches with a sharp, rigid point; sessile; aromatic. =inflorescence.=--early spring. lateral or terminal on shoots of the preceding season; sterile flowers oblong-cylindrical, / inch in length; anthers yellow, red-tinged: fertile flowers on the upper side of the twig, erect, cylindrical; cover-scales broad, much larger than the purple ovuliferous scales, terminating in a long, recurved tip. =fruit.=--cones along the upper side of the branchlets, erect or nearly so in all stages of growth, purplish when young, - inches long, inch or more wide; puberulous; cover-scales at maturity much smaller than ovuliferous scales, thin, obovate, serrulate, bristle-pointed; ovuliferous scales thin, broad, rounded; edge minutely erose, serrulate or entire; both kinds of scales falling from the axis at maturity; seeds winged, purplish. =horticultural value.=--hardy in new england, but best adapted to the northern sections; grows rapidly in open or shaded situations, especially where there is cool, moist, rich soil; easily transplanted; suitable for immediate effects in forest plantations, but not desirable for a permanent ornamental tree, as it loses the lower branches at an early period. nurserymen and collectors offer it in quantity at a low price. propagated from seed. [illustration: plate x.--abies balsamea.] . branch with flower-buds. . branch with sterile flowers. . branch with fertile flowers. . cover-scale and ovuliferous scale with ovules, inner side. . fruiting branch. . ovuliferous scales with ovules at maturity, inner side. . cone-scale and ovuliferous scale at maturity, outer side. - . leaves. - . cross-sections of leaves. =thuja occidentalis, l.= arbor-vitÆ. white cedar. cedar. =habitat and range.=--low, swampy lands, rocky borders of rivers and ponds. southern labrador to nova scotia; west to manitoba. maine,--throughout the state; most abundant in the central and northern portions, forming extensive areas known as "cedar swamps"; sometimes bordering a growth of black spruce at a lower level; new hampshire,--mostly confined to the upper part of coos county, disappearing at the white river narrows near hanover; seen only in isolated localities south of the white mountains; vermont,--common in swamps at levels below feet; massachusetts,--berkshire county; occasional in the northern sections of the connecticut river valley; rhode island,--not reported; connecticut,--east hartford (j. n. bishop). south along the mountains to north carolina and east tennessee; west to minnesota. =habit.=--ordinarily - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet, in northern maine occasionally - feet in height, with a diameter of - feet; trunk stout, more or less buttressed in old trees, tapering rapidly, often divided, inclined or twisted, ramifying for the most part near the ground, forming a dense head, rather small for the size of the trunk; branches irregularly disposed and nearly horizontal, the lower often much declined; branchlets many, the flat spray disposed in fan-shaped planes at different angles; foliage bright, often interspersed here and there with yellow, faded leaves. =bark.=--bark of trunk in old trees a dead ash-gray, striate with broad and flat ridges, often conspicuously spirally twisted, shreddy at the edge; young stems and large branches reddish-brown, more or less striate and shreddy; branchlets ultimately smooth, shining, reddish-brown, marked by raised scars; season's twigs invested with leaves. =winter buds and leaves.=--leaf-buds naked, minute. leaves in opposite pairs, -ranked, closely adherent to the branchlet and completely covering it, keeled in the side pairs and flat in the others, scale-like, ovate (in seedlings needle-shaped), obtuse or pointed at the apex, glandular upon the back, exhaling when bruised a strong aromatic odor. =inflorescence.=--april to may. flowers terminal, dark reddish-brown; sterile and fertile, usually on the same plant, rarely on separate plants; anthers opposite; filaments short; ovuliferous scales opposite, with slight projections near the base, usually -ovuled. =fruit.=--cones, terminal on short branchlets, spreading or recurved, about / inch long, reddish-brown, loose-scaled, opening to the base at maturity; persistent through the first winter; scales - , dry, oblong, not shield-shaped, not pointed; margin entire or nearly so; seeds winged all round. =horticultural value.=--hardy in new england; adapts itself to all soils and exposures, but prefers moist locations; grows slowly. young trees have a narrowly conical outline, which spreads out at the base with age; retains its lower branches in open places, and is especially useful for hedges or narrow evergreen screens; little affected by insects; often disfigured, however, by dead branches and discolored leaves; is transplanted readily, and can be obtained in any quantity from nurserymen and collectors. the horticultural forms in cultivation range from thick, low, spreading tufts, through very dwarf, round, oval or conical forms, to tall, narrow, pyramidal varieties. some have all the foliage tinged bright yellow, cream, or white; others have variegated foliage; another form has drooping branches. the bright summer foliage turns to a brownish color in winter. it is propagated from the seed and its horticultural forms from cuttings and layers. [illustration: plate xi.--thuja occidentalis.] . flowering branch with the preceding year's fruit. . branch. . sterile flower. . stamen. . fertile flower. . scale with ovules. =cupressus thyoides, l.= _chamæcyparis sphæroidea, spach. chamæcyparis thyoides, b. s. p._ white cedar. cedar. =habitat and range.=--in deep swamps and marshes, which it often fills to the exclusion of other trees, mostly near the seacoast. cape breton island and near halifax, nova scotia, perhaps introduced in both. maine,--reported from the southern part of york county; new hampshire,--limited to rockingham county near the coast; vermont,--no station known; massachusetts,--occasional in central and eastern sections, very common in the southeast; rhode island,--common; connecticut,--occasional in peat swamps. southward, coast region to florida and west to mississippi. =habit.=-- - feet high and - feet in diameter at the ground, reaching in the southern states an altitude of and a diameter of feet; trunk straight, tapering slowly, throwing out nearly horizontal, slender branches, forming a narrow, conical head often of great elegance and lightness; foliage light brownish-green; strong-scented; spray flat in planes disposed at different angles; wood permanently aromatic. =bark.=--bark of trunk thick, reddish, fibrous, shreddy, separating into thin scales, becoming more or less furrowed in old trees; branches reddish-brown; fine scaled; branches after fall of leaves, in the third or fourth year, smooth, purplish-brown; season's shoots at first greenish. =winter buds and leaves.=--leaf-buds naked, minute. leaves mostly opposite, -ranked, adherent to the branchlet and completely covering it; keeled in the side pairs and slightly convex in the others, dull green, pointed at apex or triangular awl-shaped, mostly with a minute roundish gland upon the back. =inflorescence.=--april. flowers terminal, sterile and fertile, usually on the same plant, rarely on separate plants, fertile on short branchlets: sterile, globular or oblong, anthers opposite, filaments shield-shaped: fertile, oblong or globular; ovuliferous scales opposite, slightly spreading at top, dark reddish-brown. =fruit.=--cones, variously placed, / inch in diameter, roundish, purplish-brown, opening towards the center, never to the base; scales shield-shaped, woody; seeds several under each scale, winged. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england, growing best in the southern sections. young trees are graceful and attractive, but soon become thin and lose their lower branches; valued chiefly in landscape planting for covering low and boggy places where other trees do not succeed as well. seldom for sale in nurseries, but easily procured from collectors. several unimportant horticultural forms are grown. [illustration: plate xii.--cupressus thyoides.] . branch with flowers. . sterile flower. . stamen, back view. . stamen, front view. . fertile flower. . ovuliferous scale with ovules. . fruiting-branch. . fruit. . branch. =juniperus virginiana, l.= red cedar. cedar. savin. =habitat and range.=--dry, rocky hills but not at great altitudes, borders of lakes and streams, sterile plains, peaty swamps. nova scotia and new brunswick to ontario. maine,--rare, though it extends northward to the middle kennebec valley, reduced almost to a shrub; new hampshire,--most frequent in the southeast part of the state; sparingly in the connecticut valley as far north as haverhill (grafton county); found also in hart's location in the white mountain region; vermont,--not abundant; occurs here and there on hills at levels less than feet; frequent in the champlain and lower connecticut valleys; massachusetts,--west and center occasional, eastward common; rhode island and connecticut,--common. south to florida; west to dakota, nebraska, kansas, and indian territory. =habit.=--a medium-sized tree, - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - inches, attaining much greater dimensions southward; extremely variable in outline; the lower branches usually nearly horizontal, the upper ascending; head when young very regular, narrow-based, close and conical; in old trees frequently rather open, wide-spreading, ragged, roundish or flattened. in very exposed situations, especially along the seacoast, the trunk sometimes rises a foot or two and then develops horizontally, forming a curiously contorted lateral head. under such conditions it occasionally becomes a dwarf tree - feet high, with wide-spreading branches and a very dense dome; spray close, foliage a sombre green, sometimes tinged with a rusty brownish-red; wood pale red, aromatic. =bark.=--bark of trunk light reddish-brown, fibrous, shredding off, now and then, in long strips, exposing the smooth brown inner bark; season's shoots green. =winter buds and leaves.=--leaf-buds naked, minute. leaves dull green or brownish-red, of two kinds: . scale-like, mostly opposite, each pair overlapping the pair above, -ranked, ovate, acute, sometimes bristle-tipped, more or less convex, obscurely glandular. . scattered, not overlapping, narrowly lanceolate or needle-shaped, sharp-pointed, spreading. the second form is more common in young trees, sometimes comprising all the foliage, but is often found on trees of all ages, sometimes aggregated in dense masses. =inflorescence.=--early may. flowers terminating short branches, sterile and fertile, more commonly on separate trees, often on the same tree; anthers in opposite pairs; ovuliferous scales in opposite pairs, slightly spreading, acute or obtuse; ovules - . =fruit.=--berry-like from the coalescence of the fleshy cone-scales, the extremities of which are often visible, roundish, the size of a small pea, dark blue beneath a whitish bloom, - -seeded. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; prefers sunny slopes and a loamy soil, but grows well in poor, thin soils and upon wind-swept sites; young plants increase in height - feet yearly and have a very formal, symmetrical outline; old trees often become irregular and picturesque, and grow very slowly; a long-lived tree; usually obtainable in nurseries and from collectors, but must frequently be transplanted to be moved with safety. if a ball of earth can be retained about the roots of wild plants, they can often be moved successfully. there are horticultural forms distinguished by a slender weeping or distorted habit, and by variegated bluish or yellowish foliage, occasionally found in american nurseries. the type is usually propagated from the seed, the horticultural forms from cuttings or by grafting. [illustration: plate xiii.--juniperus virginiana.] . branch with sterile and fertile flowers. . sterile flower. . stamen with pollen-sacs. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. . branch. . branch with needle-shaped leaves. salicaceÆ. willow family. trees or shrubs; leaves simple, alternate, undivided, with stipules either minute and soon falling or leafy and persistent; inflorescence from axillary buds of the preceding season, appearing with or before the leaves, in nearly erect, spreading or drooping catkins, sterile and fertile on separate trees; flowers one to each bract, without calyx or corolla; stamens one to many; style short or none; stigmas , entire or - -lobed; fruit a - -celled capsule. populus. inflorescence usually appearing before the leaves; flowers with lacerate bracts, disk cup-shaped and oblique-edged, at least in sterile flowers; stamens usually many, filaments distinct; stigmas mostly divided, elongated or spreading. salix. inflorescence appearing with or before the leaves; flowers with entire bracts and one or two small glands; disks wanting; stamens few. =populus tremuloides, michx.= poplar. aspen. =habitat and range.=--in all soils and situations except in deep swamps, though more usual in dry uplands; sometimes springing up in great abundance in clearings or upon burnt lands. newfoundland, labrador, and nova scotia to the hudson bay region and alaska. new england,--common, reaching in the white mountain region an altitude of feet. south to new jersey, along the mountains in pennsylvania and kentucky, ascending feet in the adirondacks; west to the slopes of the rocky mountains, along which it extends to mexico and lower california. =habit.=--a graceful tree, ordinarily - feet and not uncommonly - feet high; trunk - inches in diameter, tapering, surmounted by a very open, irregular head of small, spreading branches; spray sparse, consisting of short, stout, leafy rounded shoots set at a wide angle; distinguished by the slenderness of its habit, the light color of trunk and branches, the deep red of the sterile catkins in early spring, and the almost ceaseless flutter of the delicate foliage. =bark.=--trunk pale green, smooth, dark-blotched below the branches, becoming ash-gray and roughish in old trees; season's shoots dark reddish-brown or green, shining; bitter. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds / - / inch long, reddish-brown and lustrous, usually smooth, ovate, acute, often slightly incurved at apex, the upper often appressed. leaves - - / inches long, breadth usually equal to or exceeding the length, yellowish-green and ciliate when young, dark dull green above when mature, lighter beneath, glabrous on both sides, bright yellow in autumn; outline broadly ovate to orbicular, finely serrate or wavy-edged, with incurved, glandular-tipped teeth, apex rather abruptly acute or short-acuminate; base acute, truncate or slightly heart-shaped, -nerved; leafstalk slender, strongly flattened at right angles to the plane of the blade, bending to the slightest breath of air; stipules lanceolate, silky, soon falling. =inflorescence.=--april to may. sterile catkins - inches long, fertile at first about the same length, gradually elongating; bracts cut into several lanceolate or linear divisions, silky-hairy; stamens about ; anthers red: ovary short-stalked; stigmas two, -lobed, red. =fruit.=--june. capsules, in elongated catkins, conical; seeds numerous, white-hairy. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england in the most exposed situations; grows almost anywhere, but prefers a moist, rich loam; grows rapidly; foliage and spray thin; generally short-lived; often used as a screen for slow-growing trees; type seldom found in nurseries, but one or two horticultural forms are occasionally offered. propagated from seed or cuttings. [illustration: plate xiv.--populus tremuloides.] . branch with sterile catkins. . sterile flower. . branch with fertile catkins. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. . branch with mature leaves. . variant leaves. =populus grandidentata, michx.= poplar. large-toothed aspen. =habitat and range.=--in rich or poor soils; woods, hillsides, borders of streams. nova scotia, new brunswick, southern quebec, and ontario. new england,--common, occasional at altitudes of feet or more. south to pennsylvania and delaware, along the mountains to kentucky, north carolina, and tennessee; west to minnesota. =habit.=--a tree - feet in height and foot to inches in diameter at the ground, sometimes attaining much greater dimensions; trunk erect, with an open, unsymmetrical, straggling head; branches distant, small and crooked; branchlets round; spray sparse, consisting of short, stout, leafy shoots; in time and manner of blossoming, constant motion of foliage, and general habit, closely resembling _p. tremuloides._ =bark.=--bark of trunk on old trees dark grayish-brown or blackish, irregularly furrowed, broad-ridged, the outer portions separated into small, thickish scales; trunk of young trees soft greenish-gray; branches greenish-gray, darker on the underside; branchlets dark greenish-gray, roughened with leaf-scars; season's twigs in fall dark reddish-brown, at first tomentose, becoming smooth and shining. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds / inch long, mostly divergent, light chestnut, more or less pubescent, dusty-looking, ovate, acute. leaves - inches long, two-thirds as wide, densely white-tomentose when opening, usually smooth on both sides when mature, dark green above, lighter beneath, bright yellow in autumn; outline roundish-ovate, coarsely and irregularly sinuate-toothed; teeth acutish; sinuses in shallow curves; apex acute; base truncate or slightly heart-shaped; leafstalks long, strongly flattened at right angles to the plane of the blade; stipules thread-like, soon falling. =inflorescence.=--march to april. sterile catkins - inches long, fertile at first about the same length, but gradually elongating; bracts cut into several lanceolate divisions, silky-hairy; stamens about ; anthers red: ovaries short-stalked; stigmas two, -lobed, red. =fruit.=--fruiting catkins at length - inches long; capsule conical, acute, roughish-scurfy, hairy at tip: seeds numerous, hairy. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows almost anywhere, but prefers moist, rich loam; grows rapidly and is safely transplanted, but is unsymmetrical, easily broken by the wind, and short-lived; seldom offered by nurserymen, but readily procured from northern collectors of native plants. useful to grow for temporary effect with permanent trees, as it will fail by the time the desirable kinds are well established. propagated from seed or cuttings. =note.=--points of difference between _p. tremuloides_ and _p. grandidentata_. these trees may be best distinguished in early spring by the color of the unfolding leaves. in the sunlight the head of _p. tremuloides_ appears yellowish-green, while that of _p. grandidentata_ is conspicuously cotton white. the leaves of _p. grandidentata_ are larger and more coarsely toothed, and the main branches go off usually at a broader angle. the buds of _p. grandidentata_ are mostly divergent, dusty-looking, dull; of _p. tremuloides_, mostly appressed, highly polished with a resinous lustre. [illustration: plate xv.--populus grandidentata.] . branch with sterile catkins. . sterile flower, back view, . sterile flower, front view. . branch with fertile catkins. . bract of fertile flower. . fertile flower, front view. . fruiting branch with mature leaves. . fruit. . fruit. =populus heterophylla, l.= poplar. swamp poplar. cottonwood. =habitat and range.=--in or along swamps occasionally or often overflowed; rare, local, and erratically distributed. connecticut,--frequent in the southern sections; bozrah (j. n. bishop); guilford, in at least three wood-ponds (w. e. dudley _in lit._), new haven, and near norwich (w. a. setchell). following the eastern coast in wide belts from new york (staten island and long island) south to georgia; west along the gulf coast to western louisiana, and northward along the mississippi and ohio basins to arkansas, indiana, and illinois. =habit.=--a slender, medium-sized tree, attaining a height of - feet, reaching farther south a maximum of feet; trunk - inches in diameter, usually branching high up, forming a rather open hemispherical or narrow-oblong head; branches irregular, short, rising, except the lower, at a sharp angle; branchlets stout, roundish, varying in color, degree of pubescence, and glossiness, becoming rough after the first year with the raised leaf-scars; spray sparse. =bark.=--bark of trunk dark ash-gray, very rough, and broken into loosely attached narrow plates in old trees; in young trees light ash-gray, smooth at first, becoming in a few years roughish, low-ridged. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds conical, acute, more or less resinous. leaves - inches long, two-thirds as wide, densely white-tomentose when young, at length dark green on the upper side, lighter beneath and smooth except along the veins; outline ovate, wavy-toothed; base heart-shaped, lobes often overlapping; apex obtuse; leafstalk long, round, downy; stipules soon falling. =inflorescence.=--april to may. sterile catkins when expanded - inches long, at length pendent; scales cut into irregular divisions, reddish; stamens numerous, anthers oblong, dark red: fertile catkins spreading, few and loosely flowered, gradually elongating; scales reddish-brown; ovary short-stalked; styles - , united at the base; stigmas - , conspicuous. =fruit.=--fruiting catkins spreading or drooping, - inches long: capsules usually erect, ovoid, acute, shorter than or equaling the slender pedicels: seeds numerous, white-hairy. =horticultural value.=--not procurable in new england nurseries or from collectors; its usefulness in landscape gardening not definitely known. [illustration: plate xvi.--populus heterophylla.] . winter buds. . branch with sterile catkin. . sterile flower. . scale of sterile flower. . branch with fertile catkin. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch with mature leaves. =populus deltoides, marsh.= _populus monilifera, ait._ cottonwood. poplar. =habitat and range.=--in moist soil; river banks and basins, shores of lakes, not uncommon in drier locations. throughout quebec and ontario to the base of the rocky mountains. maine,--not reported; new hampshire,--restricted to the immediate vicinity of the connecticut river, disappearing near the northern part of westmoreland; vermont,--western sections, abundant along the shores of the hoosac river in pownal and along lake champlain (w. w. eggleston); in the connecticut valley as far north as brattleboro (_flora of vermont_, ); massachusetts,--along the connecticut and its tributaries; rhode island,--occasional; connecticut,--occasional eastward, common along the connecticut, farmington, and housatonic rivers. south to florida; west to the rocky mountains. =habit.=--a stately tree, - feet in height; trunk - feet in diameter, light gray, straight or sometimes slightly inclined, of nearly uniform size to the point of branching, surmounted by a noble, broad-spreading, open, symmetrical head, the lower branches massive, horizontal, or slightly ascending, more or less pendulous at the extremities, the upper coarse and spreading, rising at a sharper angle; branchlets stout; foliage brilliant green, easily set in motion; the sterile trees gorgeous in spring with dark red pendent catkins. =bark.=--in old trees thick, ash-gray, separated into deep, straight furrows with rounded ridges; in young trees light yellowish-green, smooth; season's shoots greenish, marked with pale longitudinal lines. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds large, conical, smooth, shining. leaves - inches long, scarcely less in width, variable in color and shape, ordinarily dark green and shining above, lighter beneath, ribs raised on both sides; outline broadly ovate, irregularly crenate-toothed; apex abruptly acute or acuminate; base truncate, slightly heart-shaped or sometimes acute; stems long, slender, somewhat flattened at right angles to the plane of the blade; stipules linear, soon falling. =inflorescence.=--april to may. in solitary, densely flowered catkins; bracts lacerate-fringed, each bract subtending a cup-shaped scale; stamens very numerous; anthers longer than the filaments, dark red: fertile catkins elongating to or inches; ovary ovoid; stigmas or , nearly sessile, spreading. =fruit.=--capsules ovate, rough, short-stalked; seeds densely cottony. =horticultural value.=--hardy in southern-central new england; grows rapidly in almost any soil and is readily obtainable in nurseries. where an immediate effect is desired, the cottonwood serves the purpose excellently and frequently makes very fine large individual trees, but the wood is soft and likely to be broken by wind or ice. usually propagated from cuttings. [illustration: plate xvii.--populus deltoides.] . winter buds. . branch with sterile catkins. . sterile flower, back view. . sterile flower, front view. . scale of sterile flower. . fertile flower. . fruiting catkin. . branch with mature leaves. . variant leaf. =populus balsamifera, l.= balsam. poplar. balm of gilead. =habitat and range.=--alluvial soils; river banks, valleys, borders of swamps, woods. newfoundland and nova scotia west to manitoba; northward to the coast of alaska and along the mackenzie river to the arctic circle. maine,--common; new hampshire,--connecticut river valley, generally near the river, becoming more plentiful northward; vermont,--frequent; massachusetts and rhode island,--not reported; connecticut,--extending along the housatonic river at new milford for five or six miles, perhaps derived from an introduced tree (c. k. averill, _rhodora_, ii, ). west through northern new york, michigan, minnesota, dakota (black hills), montana, beyond the rockies to the pacific coast. =habit.=--a medium-sized tree, - feet high, trunk - feet in diameter, straight; branches horizontal or nearly so, slender for size of tree, short; head open, narrow-oblong or oblong-conical; branchlets mostly terete; foliage thin. =bark.=--in old trees dark gray or ash-gray, firm-ridged, in young trees smooth; branchlets grayish; season's shoots reddish or greenish brown, sparsely orange-dotted. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds / inch long, appressed or slightly divergent, conical, slender, acute, resin-coated, sticky, fragrant when opening. leaves - inches long, about one-half as wide, yellowish when young, when mature bright green, whitish below; outline ovate-lanceolate or ovate, finely toothed, gradually tapering to an acute or acuminate apex; base obtuse to rounded, sometimes truncate or heart-shaped; leafstalk much shorter than the blade, terete or nearly so; stipules soon falling. the leaves of var. _intermedia_ are obovate to oval; those of var. _latifolia_ closely approach the leaves of _p. candicans_. =inflorescence.=--april. sterile - inches long, fertile at first about the same length, gradually elongating, loosely flowered; bracts irregularly and rather narrowly cut-toothed, each bract subtending a cup-shaped disk; stamens numerous; anthers red: ovary short-stalked; stigmas two, -lobed, large, wavy-margined. =fruit.=--fruiting catkins drooping, - inches long: capsules ovoid, acute, longer than the pedicels, green: seeds numerous, hairy. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows in all excepting very wet soils, in full sun or light shade, and in exposed situations; of rapid growth, but subject to the attacks of borers, which kill the branches and make the head unsightly; also spreads from the roots, and therefore not desirable for ornamental plantations; most useful in the formation of shelter-belts; readily transplanted but not common in nurseries. propagated from cuttings. [illustration: plate xviii.--populus balsamifera.] . branch with sterile flowers. . sterile flower, back view. . sterile flower, side view. . scales of sterile flower. . branch with fertile catkins. . fertile flower. . fruiting catkins, mature. . branch with mature leaves. =populus candicans, ait.= _populus balsamifera_, var. _candicans, gray._ balm of gilead. =habitat and range.=--in a great variety of soils; usually in cultivated or pasture lands in the vicinity of dwellings; infrequently found in a wild state. the original site of this tree has not been definitely agreed upon. professor l. h. bailey reports that it is indigenous in michigan, and northern collectors find both sexes in new hampshire and vermont; while in central and southern new england the staminate tree is rarely if ever seen, and the pistillate flowers seldom if ever mature perfect fruit. the evidence seems to indicate a narrow belt extending through northern new hampshire, vermont and michigan, with the intermediate southern sections of the province of ontario as the home of the balm of gilead. nova scotia and new brunswick,--occasional; ontario,--frequent. new england,--occasional throughout. south to new jersey; west to michigan and minnesota. =habit.=--a medium-sized tree, - feet high; trunk - feet in diameter, straight or inclined, sometimes beset with a few crooked, bushy branchlets; head very variable in shape and size; solitary in open ground, commonly _broad-based, spacious, and pyramidal_, among other trees more often rather small; loosely and irregularly branched, with sparse, coarse, and often crooked spray; _foliage dark green, handsome, and abundant_; all parts characterized by a strong and peculiar resinous fragrance. a single tree multiplying by suckers often becomes parent of a grove covering half an acre, more or less, made up of trees of all ages and sizes. =bark.=--bark of trunk and lower portions of large branches dark gray, rough, irregularly striate and firm in old trees; in young trees and upon smaller branches smooth, soft grayish-green, often flanged by prominent ridges running down the stalk from the vertices of the triangular leaf-scars; season's shoots often flanged, shining reddish or olive green, with occasional longitudinal gray lines, viscid. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds dark reddish-brown, rather closely set along the stalk, conical or somewhat angled, narrow, often falcate, sharp-pointed, resinous throughout, viscid, aromatic, exhaling a powerful odor when the scales expand, terminal about / inch long. leaves - inches long and nearly as wide, yellowish-green at first, becoming dark green and smooth on the upper surface with the exception of a _minute pubescence along the veins_, dull light green beneath, finely serrate with incurved glandular points, usually ciliate with minute stiff, whitish hairs; base heart-shaped; apex short-pointed; petioles about - - / inches long, _more or less hairy_, somewhat flattened at right angles to the blade; stipules short, ovate, acute, soon falling. =inflorescence.=--similar to that of _p. balsamifera_. =fruit.=--similar to that of _p. balsamifera_. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; has an attractive foliage and grows rapidly in all soils and situations, but the branches are easily broken by the wind, and its habit of suckering makes it objectionable in ornamental ground; occasionally offered by nurserymen and collectors. propagated from cuttings. [illustration: plate xix.--populus candicans.] . winter bud. . branch with fertile catkins. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. =populus alba, l.= abele. white poplar. silver-leaf poplar. =range.=--widely distributed in the old world, extending in europe from southern sweden to the mediterranean, throughout northern africa, and eastward in asia to the northwestern himalayas. introduced from england by the early settlers and soon established in the colonial towns, as in plymouth and duxbury, on the western shore of massachusetts bay. planted or spontaneous over a wide area. new brunswick and nova scotia,--occasional. new england,--occasional throughout, local, sometimes common. southward to virginia. =habit.=--a handsome tree, resembling _p. grandidentata_ more than any other american poplar, but of far nobler proportions; - feet high and - feet in diameter at the ground; growing much larger in england; head large, spreading; round-topped, in spring enveloped in a dazzling cloud of cotton white, which resolves itself later into two conspicuously contrasting surfaces of dark green and silvery white. =bark.=--light gray, smooth upon young trees, in old trees furrowed upon the trunk. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds not viscid, cottony. leaves - inches long, densely white-tomentose while expanding, when mature dark green above and white-tomentose to glabrous beneath; outline ovate or deltoid, - -lobed and toothed or simply toothed, teeth irregular; base heart-shaped or truncate; apex acute to obtuse; leafstalk long, slender, compressed; stipules soon falling. =inflorescence and fruit.=--april to may. sterile catkins - inches long, cylindrical, fertile at first shorter,--stamens - ; anthers purple: capsules / inch long, narrow-ovoid; seeds hairy. =horticultural value.=--hardy. thrives even in very poor soils and in exposed situations; grows rapidly in good soils; of distinctive value in landscape gardening but not adapted for planting along streets and upon lawns of limited area on account of its habit of throwing out numerous suckers and its liability to damage from heavy winds. the sides of country roads where the abele has been planted are sometimes obstructed for a considerable distance by the thrifty shoots from underground. =salix discolor. muhl.= pussy willow. glaucous willow. =habitat and range.=--low, wet grounds; banks of streams, swamps, moist hillsides. nova scotia to manitoba. maine,--abundant; common throughout the other new england states. south to north carolina; west to illinois and missouri. =habit.=--mostly a tall shrub with several stems, but occasionally assuming a tree-like habit, with a height of - feet and trunk diameter of - inches; one tree reported at laconia, n. h., feet high (f. w. batchelder); branches few, stout, ascending, forming a very open, hemispherical head. =bark.=--trunk reddish-brown; branches dark-colored; branchlets light green, orange-dotted. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds ovate-conical; apex obtuse to acute. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, smooth and bright green above, smooth and whitish beneath when fully grown; outline ovate-lanceolate to narrowly oblong-oval, crenulate-serrate to entire; apex acute, base acute and entire; leafstalk short; stipules toothed or entire. =inflorescence.=--march to april. appearing before the leaves in catkins, sterile and fertile on separate plants, occasionally both kinds on the same plant, sessile,--sterile spreading or erect, oblong-cylindrical, silky; calyx none; petals none; bracts entire, reddish-brown turning to black, oblong to oblong-obovate, with long, silky hairs; stamens ; filaments distinct: fertile catkins spreading; bracts oblong to ovate, hairy; style short; stigma deeply -lobed. =fruit.=--fruiting catkins somewhat declined: capsules ovate-conical, tomentose, stem two-thirds the length of the scale: seeds numerous. =horticultural value.=--picturesque in blossom and fruit; its value dependent chiefly upon its matted roots for holding wet banks, and its ability to withstand considerable shade. sold by plant collectors; easily propagated from cuttings. [illustration: plate xx.--salix discolor.] . leaf-buds. . branch with sterile catkins. . sterile flower. . branch with fertile catkins. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. . mature leaves. =salix nigra, marsh.= black willow =habitat and range.=--in low grounds, along streams or ponds, river flats. new brunswick to western ontario. new england,--occasional throughout, frequent along the larger streams. south to florida; west to dakota, nebraska, kansas, indian territory, louisiana, texas, southern california, and south into mexico. =habit.=--a large shrub or small tree, - feet high and - inches in trunk diameter, attaining great size in the ohio and mississippi valleys and the valley of the lower colorado; trunk short, surmounted by an irregular, open, often roundish head, with stout, spreading branches, slender branchlets, and twigs brittle towards their base. _s. nigra_, var. _falcata_, pursh., covers about the same range as the type and differs chiefly in its narrower, falcate leaves. =bark.=--trunk rough, in young trees light brown, in old trees dark-colored or nearly black, deeply and irregularly ridged, separated on the surface into thick, plate-like scales; branchlets reddish-brown; twigs bronze olive. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds narrowly conical, acute. leaves simple, alternate, appearing much later than those of _s. discolor_, - inches long, somewhat pubescent on both sides when young, when mature green and smooth above, paler and sometimes pubescent along the veins beneath; outline narrowly lanceolate, finely serrate; apex acute or acuminate, often curved; base acutish to rounded or slightly heart-shaped; petiole short, usually pubescent; stipules large and persistent, or small and soon falling. =inflorescence.=--april to may. appearing with the leaves from the axils of the short, lateral shoots, in catkins, sterile and fertile on different trees, stalked,--sterile spreading, narrowly cylindrical; calyx none; corolla none; bracts entire, rounded to oblong, villous, ciliate; stamens about : fertile catkins spreading; calyx none; corolla none; bracts ovate to narrowly oblong, acute, villous; ovary short-stalked, with two small glands at its base, ovate-conical, sometimes obovate, smooth; stigmas , short. =fruit.=--fertile catkins drooping: capsules ovate-conical, short-stemmed, minutely granular; style very short: seeds numerous. =horticultural value.=--hardy in new england; grows rapidly in all soils, particularly useful in very wet situations; seriously affected by insects; occasionally offered in nurseries; transplanted readily; propagated from cuttings. [illustration: plate xxi.--salix nigra.] . winter buds. . branch with sterile catkins. . sterile flower, side view. . sterile flower, front view. . branch with fertile catkins. . fertile flower, side view. . fertile flower, front view. . fruiting branch. . fruit enlarged. =salix fragilis and salix alba.= the _fragilis_ and _alba_ group of genus _salix_ gives rise to puzzling questions of determination and nomenclature. pure _fragilis_ and pure _alba_ are perfectly distinct plants, _fragilis_ occasional, locally rather common, and _alba_ rather rare within the limits of the united states. each species has varieties; the two species hybridize with each other and with native species, and the hybrids themselves have varietal forms. this group affords a tempting field for the manufacture of species and varieties, about most of which so little is known that any attempt to assign a definite range would be necessarily imperfect and misleading. the range as given below in either species simply points out the limits within which any one of the various forms of that species appears to be spontaneous. =salix fragilis, l.= crack willow. brittle willow. =habitat and range.=--in low land and along river banks. indigenous in southwestern asia, and in europe where it is extensively cultivated; introduced into america probably from england for use in basket-making, and planted at a very early date in many of the colonial towns; now extensively cultivated, and often spontaneous in wet places and along river banks, throughout new england and as far south as delaware. =habit.=--tree often of great size; attaining a maximum height of - feet; head open, wide-spreading; branches except the lowest rising at a broad angle; branchlets reddish or yellowish green, smooth and polished, very brittle at the base. in there was standing upon the groome estate, humphreys street, dorchester, mass., a willow of this species about feet high, feet inches in girth five feet from the ground, with a spread of feet (_typical elms and other trees of massachusetts_, p. ). =bark.=--bark of the trunk gray, smooth in young trees, in old trees very rough, irregularly ridged, sometimes cleaving off in large plates. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds about / inch long, reddish-brown, narrow-conical. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, smooth, dark green and shining above, pale or glaucous beneath and somewhat pubescent when young; outline lanceolate, glandular-serrate; apex long-acuminate; tapering to an acute or obtuse base; leafstalk short, glandular at the top; stipules half-cordate when present, soon falling. =inflorescence.=--april to may. catkins appearing with the leaves, spreading, stalked,--sterile - inches long; stamens - , usually ; filaments distinct, pubescent below; ovary abortive: fertile catkins slender; stigma nearly sessile; capsule long-conical, smooth, short-stalked. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows best near streams, but adapts itself readily to all rich, damp soils. a handsome ornamental tree when planted where its roots can find water, and its branches space for free development. readily propagated from slips. salix alba, l. white willow. =habitat and range.=--low, moist grounds; along streams. probably indigenous throughout europe, northern africa, and asia as far south as northwestern india. extensively introduced in america, and often spontaneous over large areas. new brunswick, nova scotia, and ontario. new england,--sparingly throughout. south to delaware; extensively introduced in the western states. =habit.=--a large tree, - feet in height; trunk usually rather short and - feet in diameter; head large, not as broad-spreading as that of _s. fragilis_; branches numerous, mostly ascending. =bark.=--bark of trunk in old trees gray and coarsely ridged, in young trees smooth; twigs smooth, olive. =leaves.=--leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, _silky-hairy on both sides when young, when old still retaining more or less pubescence, especially on the paler under surface_; outline narrowly lanceolate or elliptic-lanceolate, glandular-serrate, tapering to a long pointed apex and to an acute base; leafstalk short, usually without glands; stipules ovate-lanceolate, soon falling. =note.=--var. _vitellina_, koch., by far the most common form of this willow; mature leaves glabrous above; twigs _yellow_. var. _cærulea_, koch.; mature leaves bluish-green, glabrous above, glaucous beneath; twigs _olive_. =inflorescence.=--april to may. catkins appearing with the leaves, slender, erect, stalked; scales linear; stamens ; filaments distinct, hairy below the middle; stigma nearly sessile, deeply cleft; capsule glabrous, sessile or nearly so. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows best in moist localities; extensively cultivated to bind the soil along the banks of streams. easily propagated from slips. juglandaceÆ. walnut family. =juglans cinerea, l.= butternut. oilnut. lemon walnut. =habitat and range.=--roadsides, rich woods, river valleys, fertile, moist hillsides, high up on mountain slopes. new brunswick, throughout quebec and eastern ontario. maine,--common, often abundant; new hampshire,--throughout the connecticut valley, and along the merrimac and its tributaries, to the base of the white mountains; vermont,--frequent; massachusetts,--common in the eastern and central portions, frequent westward; rhode island and connecticut,--common. south to delaware, along the mountains to georgia and alabama; west to minnesota, kansas, and arkansas. =habit.=--usually a medium-sized tree, - feet in height, with a disproportionately large trunk, - feet in diameter; often attaining under favorable conditions much greater dimensions. it ramifies at a few feet from the ground and throws out long, rather stout, and nearly horizontal branches, the lower slightly drooping, forming for the height of the tree a very wide-spreading head, with a stout and stiffish spray. at its best the butternut is a picturesque and even beautiful tree. =bark.=--bark of trunk dark gray, rough, narrow-ridged and wide-furrowed in old trees, in young trees smooth, dark gray; branchlets brown gray, with gray dots and prominent leaf-scars; season's shoots greenish-gray, faint-dotted, with a clammy pubescence. the bruised bark of the nut stains the skin yellow. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds flattish or oblong-conical, few-scaled, - buds often superposed, the uppermost largest and far above the axil. leaves pinnately compound, alternate, - - / feet long, viscid-pubescent throughout, at least when young; rachis enlarged at base; stipules none; leaflets - , - inches long, about half as wide, upper surface rough, yellowish when unfolding in spring, becoming a dark green, lighter beneath, yellow in autumn; outline oblong-lanceolate, serrate; veins prominent beneath; apex acute to acuminate; base obtuse to rounded, somewhat inequilateral, sessile, except the terminal leaflet; stipels none. =inflorescence.=--may. appearing while the leaves are unfolding, sterile and fertile flowers on the same tree,--the sterile from terminal or lateral buds of the preceding season, in single, unbranched, stout, green, cylindrical, drooping catkins - inches long; calyx irregular, mostly -lobed, borne on an oblong scale; corolla none; stamens - , with brown anthers: fertile flowers sessile, solitary, or several on a common peduncle from the season's shoots; calyx hairy, -lobed, with small petals at the sinuses; styles , short; stigmas , large, feathery, diverging, rose red. =fruit.=--ripening in october, one or several from the same footstalk, about inches long, oblong, pointed, green, downy, and sticky at first, dark brown when dry: shells sculptured, rough: kernel edible, sweet but oily. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows in any well-drained soil, but prefers a deep, rich loam; seldom reaches its best under cultivation. trees of the same age are apt to vary in vigor and size, dead branches are likely to appear early, and sound trees or inches in diameter are seldom seen; the foliage is thin, appears late and drops early; planted in private grounds chiefly for its fruit; only occasionally offered in nurseries, collected plants seldom successful. best grown from seed planted where the tree is to stand, as is evident from many trees growing spontaneously. [illustration: plate xxii.--juglans cinerea.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower, side view. . fertile flower. . fruit. . leaf. =juglans nigra, l.= black walnut. =habitat and range.=--rich woods. maine, new hampshire, and vermont,--not reported native; massachusetts,--rare east of the connecticut river, occasional along the western part of the connecticut valley to the new york line; rhode island,--doubtfully native, apponaug (kent county) and elsewhere; connecticut,--frequent westward, darien (fairfield county); plainville (hartford county, j. n. bishop _in lit._, ); in the central and eastern sections probably introduced. south to florida; west to minnesota, kansas, arkansas, and texas. =habit.=--a large tree, - feet high, with a diameter above the swell of the roots of - feet; attaining in the ohio valley a height of feet and a diameter of - feet; trunk straight, slowly tapering, throwing out its lower branches nearly horizontally, the upper at a broad angle, forming an open, spacious, noble head. =bark.=--bark of trunk in old trees thick, blackish, and deeply furrowed; large branches rough and more or less furrowed; branchlets smooth; season's twigs downy. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds small, ovate or rounded, obtuse, more or less pubescent, few-scaled. leaves pinnately compound, alternate; rachis smooth and swollen at base, but less so than that of the butternut; stipules none; leaflets - (the odd leaflet at the apex often wanting), opposite or alternate, - inches long, about half as wide; dark green and smooth above, lighter and slightly glandular-pubescent beneath, turning yellow in autumn; outline ovate-lanceolate; apex taper-pointed; base oblique, usually rounded or heart-shaped; stemless or nearly so, except the terminal leaflet; stipels none. aromatic when bruised. =inflorescence.=--may. appearing while the leaves are unfolding, sterile and fertile flowers on the same tree,--the sterile along the sides or at the ends of the preceding year's branches, in single, unbranched, green, stout, cylindrical, pendulous catkins, - inches long; perianth of rounded lobes, stamens numerous, filaments very short, anthers purple: fertile flowers in the axils of the season's shoots, sessile, solitary or several on a common peduncle; calyx -toothed, with small petals at the sinuses; stigmas , reddish-green. =fruit.=--ripening in october at the ends of the branchlets, single, or two or more together; round, smooth, or somewhat roughish with uneven surface, not viscid, dull green turning to brown: husk not separating into sections: shell irregularly furrowed: kernel edible. =horticultural value.=--hardy in central and southern new england; grows well in most situations, but in a deep rich soil it forms a large and handsome tree. readily obtainable in western nurseries; transplants rather poorly, and collected plants are of little value. its leaves appear late and drop early, and the fruit is often abundant. these disadvantages make it objectionable in many cases. grown from seed. [illustration: plate xxiii.--juglans nigra.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower, front view. . sterile flower, back view. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. =carya alba, nutt.= _hicoria ovata, britton._ shagbark. shagbark or shellbark hickory. walnut. =habitat and range.=--in various soils and situations, fertile slopes, brooksides, rocky hills. valley of the st. lawrence. maine,--along or near the coast as far north as harpswell (cumberland county); new hampshire,--common as far north as lake winnepesaukee; vermont,--occasional along the connecticut to windsor, rather common in the champlain valley and along the western slopes of the green mountains; massachusetts, rhode island, and connecticut,--common. south to delaware and along the mountains to florida; west to minnesota, kansas, indian territory, and texas. =habit.=--the tallest of the hickories and proportionally the most slender, from to feet in height, and not more than feet in trunk diameter; rising to a great height in the ohio and indiana river bottoms. the trunk, shaggy in old trees, rises with nearly uniform diameter to the point of furcation, throwing out rather small branches of unequal length and irregularly disposed, forming an oblong or rounded head with frequent gaps in the continuity of the foliage. =bark.=--trunk in young trees and in the smaller branches ash-gray, smoothish to seamy; in old trees, extremely characteristic, usually shaggy, the outer layers separating into long, narrow, unequal plates, free at one or both ends, easily detachable; branchlets smooth and gray, with conspicuous leaf-scars; season's shoots stout, more or less downy, numerous-dotted. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds tomentose, ovate to oblong, terminal buds large, much swollen before expanding; inner scales numerous, purplish-fringed, downy, enlarging to - inches in length as the leaves unfold. leaves pinnately compound, alternate, - inches long; petiole short, rough, and somewhat swollen at base; stipules none; leaflets usually , sometimes or , - inches long, dark green above, yellowish-green and downy beneath when young, the three upper large, obovate to lanceolate, the two lower much smaller, oblong to oblong-lanceolate, all finely serrate and sharp-pointed; base obtuse, rounded or acute, mostly inequilateral; nearly sessile save the odd leaflet; stipels none. =inflorescence.=--may. sterile and fertile flowers on the same tree, appearing when the leaves are fully grown,--sterile at the base of the season's shoots, in slender, green, pendulous catkins, - inches long, usually in threes, branching umbel-like from a common peduncle; flower-scales -parted, the middle lobe much longer than the other two, linear, tipped with long bristles; calyx adnate to scale; stamens mostly in fours, anthers yellow, bearded at the tip: fertile flowers single or clustered on peduncles at the ends of the season's shoots; calyx -toothed, hairy, adherent to ovary; corolla none; stigmas , large, fringed. =fruit.=--october. spherical, - inches in circumference: husks rather thin, firm, green turning to brown, separating completely into sections: nut variable in size, subglobose, white, usually -angled: kernel large, sweet, edible. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; prefers light, well-drained, loamy soil; when well established makes a moderately rapid growth; difficult to transplant, rarely offered in nurseries; collected plants seldom survive; a fine tree for landscape gardening, but its nuts are apt to make trouble in public grounds. propagated from a seed. a thin-shelled variety is in cultivation. [illustration: plate xxiv.--carya alba.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower, front view. . sterile flower, back view. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. =carya tomentosa, nutt.= _hicoria alba, britton._ mockernut. white-heart hickory. walnut. habitat and range.--in various soils; woods, dry, rocky ridges, mountain slopes. niagara peninsula and westward. maine and vermont,--not reported; new hampshire,--sparingly along the coast; massachusetts,--rather common eastward; rhode island and connecticut,--common. south to florida, ascending feet in virginia; west to kansas, nebraska, missouri, indian territory, and texas. =habit.=--a tall and rather slender tree, - feet high, with a diameter above the swell of the roots of - feet; attaining much greater dimensions south and west; trunk erect, not shaggy, separating into a few rather large limbs and sending out its upper branches at a sharp angle, forming a handsome, wide-spreading, pyramidal head. =bark.=--bark of trunk dark gray, thick, hard, close, and rough, becoming narrow-rugged-furrowed; crinkly on small trunks and branches; leaf-scars prominent; season's shoots stout, brown, downy or dusty puberulent, dotted, resinous-scented. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds large, yellowish-brown, ovate, downy. leaves pinnately compound, alternate, - inches long; rachis large, downy, swollen at the base; stipules none; leaflets - , opposite, large, yellowish-green and smooth above, beneath paler and thick-downy, at least when young, turning to a clear yellow or russet brown in autumn, the three upper obovate, the two lower ovate, all the leaflets slightly serrate or entire, pointed, base acute to rounded, nearly sessile except the odd one. aromatic when bruised. =inflorescence.=--may. sterile and fertile flowers on the same tree, appearing when the leaves are fully grown,--sterile at the base of the season's shoots, in slender, pendulous, downy catkins, - inches long, usually in threes, branching umbel-like from a common peduncle; scales -lobed, hairy; calyx adnate; stamens or , anthers red, bearded at the tip: fertile flowers on peduncles at the end of the season's shoots; calyx toothed, hairy, adherent to ovary; corolla none; stigmas , hairy. =fruit.=--october. generally sessile on terminal peduncles, single or in pairs, as large or larger than the fruit of the shagbark, or as small as that of the pignut, oblong-globose to globose: husk hard and thick, separating in segments nearly to the base, strong-scented: nut globular, -ridged near the top, thick-shelled: kernel usually small, sweet, edible. the superior size of the fruit and the smallness of the kernel probably give rise to the common name, "mockernut." =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; prefers a rich, well-drained soil, but grows well in rocky, ledgy, exposed situations, and is seldom disfigured by insect enemies. young trees have large, deep roots, and are difficult to transplant successfully unless they have been frequently transplanted in nurseries, from which, however, they are seldom obtainable. propagated from seed. [illustration: plate xxv.--carya tomentosa.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower, front view. . sterile flower, side view. . sterile flower, top view. . fertile flower, side view. . fruiting branch. =carya porcina, nutt.= _hicoria glabra, britton_. pignut. white hickory. =habitat and range.=--woods, dry hills, and uplands. niagara peninsula and along lake erie. maine,--frequent in the southern corner of york county; new hampshire,--common toward the coast and along the lower merrimac valley; abundant on hills near the connecticut river, but only occasional above bellows falls; vermont,--marsh hill, ferrisburgh (brainerd); w. castleton and pownal (eggleston); massachusetts,--common eastward; along the connecticut river valley and some of the tributary valleys more common than the shagbark; rhode island and connecticut,--common. south to the gulf of mexico; west to minnesota, nebraska, kansas, indian territory, and texas. =habit.=--a stately tree, - feet high, reaching in the ohio basin a height of feet; trunk - feet in diameter, gradually tapering, surmounted by a large, oblong, open, rounded, or pyramidal head, often of great beauty. =bark.=--bark of trunk dark ash-gray, uniformly but very coarsely roughened, in old trees smooth or broken into rough and occasionally projecting plates; branches gray; leaf-scars rather prominent; season's shoots smooth or nearly so, purplish changing to gray, with numerous dots. =winter buds and leaves.=--lateral buds smaller than in _c. tomentosa_, oblong, pointed; terminal, globular, with rounded apex; scales numerous, the inner reddish, lengthening to or inches, not dropping till after expansion of the leaves. leaves pinnately compound, alternate, - inches long; petiole long and smooth; stipules none; leaflets - , opposite, - inches long, yellowish-green above, paler beneath, turning to an orange brown in autumn, smooth on both sides; outline, the three upper obovate, the two lower oblong-lanceolate, all taper-pointed; base obtuse, sometimes acute, especially in the odd leaflet. =inflorescence.=--may. sterile and fertile flowers on the same tree, appearing when the leaves are fully grown,--sterile at the base of the season's shoots, in pendulous, downy, slender catkins, - inches long, usually in threes, branching umbel-like from a common peduncle; scales -lobed, nearly glabrous, lobes of nearly equal length, pointed, the middle narrower; stamens mostly , anthers yellowish, beset with white hairs: fertile flowers at the ends of the season's shoots; calyx -toothed, pubescent, adherent to the ovary; corolla none; stigmas . =fruit.=--october. single or in pairs, sessile on a short, terminal stalk, shape and size extremely variable, pear-shaped, oblong, round, or obovate, usually about - / inches in diameter: husk thin, green turning to brown, when ripe parting in four sections to the center and sometimes nearly to the base: nut rather thick-shelled, not ridged, not sharp-pointed: kernel much inferior in flavor to that of the shagbark. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows in all well-drained soils, but prefers a deep, rich loam; a desirable tree for ornamental plantations, especially in lawns, as the deep roots do not interfere with the growth of grass above them; ill-adapted, like all the hickories, for streets, as the nuts are liable to cause trouble; less readily obtainable in nurseries than the shellbark hickory and equally difficult to transplant. propagated from the seed. [illustration: plate xxvi.--carya porcina.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. , . sterile flower, back view. . fertile flower, side view. . fruiting branch. =carya amara, nutt.= _hicoria minima, britton_. bitternut. swamp hickory. =habitat and range.=--in varying soils and situations; wet woods, low, damp fields, river valleys, along roadsides, occasional upon uplands and hill slopes. from montreal west to georgian bay. maine,--southward, rare; new hampshire,--eastern limit in the connecticut valley, where it ranges farther north than any other of our hickories, reaching well's river (jessup); vermont,--occasional west of the green mountains and in the southern connecticut valley; massachusetts,--rather common, abundant in the vicinity of boston; rhode island and connecticut,--common. south to florida, ascending feet in virginia; west to minnesota, nebraska, kansas, indian territory, and texas. =habit.=--a tall, slender tree, - feet high and foot- - / feet in diameter at the ground, reaching greater dimensions southward. the trunk, tapering gradually to the point of branching, develops a capacious, spreading head, usually widest near the top, with lively green, finely cut foliage of great beauty, turning to a rich orange in autumn. easily recognized in winter by its flat, yellowish buds. =bark.=--bark of trunk gray, close, smooth, rarely flaking off in thin plates; branches and branchlets smooth; leaf-scars prominent; season's shoots yellow, smooth, yellow-dotted. =winter buds and leaves.=--terminal buds long, yellow, flattish, often scythe-shaped, pointed, with a granulated surface; lateral buds much smaller, often ovate or rounded, pointed. leaves pinnately compound, alternate, - inches long; rachis somewhat enlarged at base; stipules none; leaflets - , opposite, - inches long, - inches wide, bright green and smooth above, paler and smooth or somewhat downy beneath, turning to orange yellow in autumn; outline lanceolate, or narrowly oval to oblong-obovate, serrate; apex taper-pointed to scarcely acute; base obtuse or rounded except that of the terminal leaflet, which is acute; sessile and inequilateral, except in terminal leaflet, which has a short stem and is equal-sided; sometimes scarcely distinguishable from the leaves of _c. porcina_; often decreasing regularly in size from the upper to the lower pair. =inflorescence.=--may. sterile and fertile flowers on the same tree, appearing when the leaves are fully grown,--sterile at the base of the season's shoots, or sometimes from the lateral buds of the preceding season, in slender, pendulous catkins, - inches long, usually in threes, branching umbel-like from a common peduncle; scale -lobed, hairy-glandular, middle lobe about the same length as the other two but narrower, considerably longer toward the end of the catkin; stamens mostly , anthers bearded at the tip: fertile flowers on peduncles at the end of the season's shoots; calyx -lobed, pubescent, adherent to the ovary; corolla none; stigmas . =fruit.=--october. single or in twos or threes at the ends of the branchlets, abundant, usually rather small, about inch long, the width greater than the length; occasionally larger and somewhat pear-shaped: husk separating about to the middle into four segments, with sutures prominently winged at the top or almost to the base, or nearly wingless: nut usually thin-shelled: kernel white, sweetish at first, at length bitter. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows almost anywhere, but prefers a rich, loamy or gravelly soil. a most graceful and attractive hickory, which is transplanted more readily and grows rather more rapidly than the shagbark or pignut, but more inclined than either of these to show dead branches. seldom for sale by nurserymen or collectors. grown readily from seed. [illustration: plate xxvii.--carya amara.] . winter bud. . flowering branch. . sterile flower, back view. . sterile flower, front view. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. betulaceÆ. birch family. =ostrya virginica, willd.= _ostrya virginiana, willd._ hop hornbeam. ironwood. leverwood. =habitat and range.=--in rather open woods and along highlands. nova scotia to lake superior. common in all parts of new england. scattered throughout the whole country east of the mississippi, ranging through western minnesota to nebraska, kansas, indian territory, and texas. =habit.=--a small tree, - feet high and - inches in diameter at the ground, sometimes attaining, without much increase in height, a diameter of feet; trunk usually slender; head irregular, often oblong or loosely and rather broadly conical; lower branches sometimes slightly declining at the extremities, but with branchlets mostly of an upward tendency; spray slender and rather stiff. suggestive, in its habit, of the elm; in its leaves, of the black birch; and in its fruit, of clusters of hops. =bark.=--trunk and large limbs light grayish-brown, very narrowly and longitudinally ridged, the short, thin segments in old trees often loose at the ends; the smaller branches, branchlets, and in late fall the season's shoots, dark reddish-brown. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds small, oblong, pointed, invested with reddish-brown scales. leaves simple, alternate, roughish, - inches long, - inches wide, more or less appressed-pubescent on both sides, dark green above, lighter beneath; outline ovate to oblong-ovate, sharply and for the most part doubly serrate; apex acute to acuminate; base slightly and narrowly heart-shaped, rounded or truncate, mostly with unequal sides; leafstalks short, pubescent; stipules soon falling. =inflorescence.=--april to may. sterile flowers from wood of the preceding season, lateral or terminal, in drooping, cylindrical catkins, usually in threes; scales broad, laterally rounded, sharp-pointed, ciliate, each subtending several nearly sessile stamens, filaments sometimes forked, with anthers bearded at the tip: fertile catkins about inch in length, on short leafy shoots, spreading; bracts lanceolate, tapering to a long point, ciliate, each subtending two ovaries, each ovary with adherent calyx, enclosed in a hairy bractlet; styles , long, linear. =fruit.=--early september. a small, smooth nut, enclosed in the distended bract; the aggregated fruit resembling a cluster of hops. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; prefers dry or well-drained slopes in gravelly or rocky soil; graceful and attractive, but of rather slow growth; useful in shady situations and worthy of a place in ornamental plantations, but too small for street use. seldom raised by nurserymen; collected plants moved with difficulty. propagated from seed. [illustration: plate xxviii.--ostrya virginica.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower, back view. . sterile flower, front view. . fertile catkin. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. =carpinus caroliniana, walt.= hornbeam. blue beech. ironwood. water beech. =habitat and range.=--low, wet woods, and margins of swamps. province of quebec to georgian bay. rather common throughout new england, less frequent towards the coast. south to florida; west to minnesota, nebraska, kansas, indian territory, and texas. =habit.=--a low, spreading tree, - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - inches, rarely reaching feet; trunk short, often given a fluted appearance by projecting ridges running down from the lower branches to the ground; in color and smoothness resembling the beech; lower branches often much declined, upper going out at various angles, often zigzag but keeping the same general direction; head wide, close, flat-topped to rounded, with fine, slender spray. =bark.=--trunk smooth, close, dark bluish-gray; branchlets grayish; season's shoots light green turning brown, more or less hairy. =winter buds and leaves.=--leaf-buds small, oval or ovoid, acute to obtuse. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, dull green above, lighter beneath, turning to scarlet or crimson in autumn; outline ovate or slightly obovate oblong or broadly oval, irregularly and sharply doubly serrate; veins prominent and pubescent beneath, at least when young; apex acuminate to acute; base rounded, truncate, acute, or slightly and unevenly heart-shaped; leafstalk rather short, slender, hairy; stipules pubescent, falling early. =inflorescence.=--may. sterile flowers from growth of the preceding season in short, stunted-looking, lateral catkins, mostly single; scales ovate or rounded, obtuse, each subtending several stamens; filaments very short, mostly -forked; anthers bearded at the tip: fertile flowers at the ends of leafy shoots of the season, in loose catkins; bractlets foliaceous, each subtending a green, ovate, acute, ciliate, deciduous scale, each scale subtending two pistils with long reddish styles. =fruit.=--in terminal catkins made conspicuous by the pale green, much enlarged, and leaf-like -lobed bracts, each bract subtending a dark-colored, sessile, striate nutlet. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; prefers moist, rich soil, near running water, on the edges of wet land or on rocky slopes in shade. its irregular outline and curiously ridged trunk make it an interesting object in landscape plantations. it is not often used, however, because it is seldom grown in nurseries, and collected plants do not bear removal well. propagated from the seed. [illustration: plate xxix.--carpinus caroliniana.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower, back view. . sterile flower, front view. . fertile catkin. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. =betula.= inflorescence.--in scaly catkins, sterile and fertile on the same tree, appearing with or before the leaves from shoots of the previous season,--sterile catkins terminal and lateral, formed in summer, erect or inclined in the bud, drooping when expanded in the following spring; sterile flowers usually , subtended by a shield-shaped bract with bractlets; each flower consisting of a -scaled calyx and anthers, which appear to be from the division of the filaments into two parts, each of which bears an anther cell: fertile catkins erect or inclined at the end of very short leafy branchlets; fertile flowers subtended by a -lobed bract falling with the nuts; bractlets none; calyx none; corolla none; consisting of - ovaries crowned with spreading styles. =betula lenta, l.= black birch. cherry birch. sweet birch. =habitat and range.=--moist grounds; rich woods, old pastures, fertile hill-slopes, banks of rivers. newfoundland and nova scotia to the lake superior region. maine,--frequent; new hampshire,--in the highlands of the southern section, and along the connecticut river valley to a short distance north of windsor; vermont,--frequent in the western part of the state, and in the southern connecticut valley (_flora of vermont_, ); massachusetts and rhode island,--frequent throughout, especially in the highlands, less often near the coast; connecticut,--widely distributed, especially in the connecticut river valley, but not common. south to delaware, along the mountains to florida; west to minnesota and kansas. =habit.=--a medium-sized or rather large tree, - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet, often conspicuous along precipitous ledges, springing out of crevices in the rocks and assuming a variety of picturesque forms. in open ground the dark trunk develops a symmetrical, wide-spreading, hemispherical head broadest at its base, the lower limbs horizontal or drooping sometimes nearly to the ground. the limbs are long and slender, often more or less tortuous, and separated ultimately into a delicate, polished spray. distinguished by its long purplish-yellow, pendulous catkins in spring, and in summer by its glossy, bright green, and abundant foliage, which becomes yellow in autumn. =bark.=--bark of trunk on old trees very dark, separating and cleaving off in large, thickish plates; on young trees and on branches a dark reddish-brown, not separating into thin layers, smooth, with numerous horizontal lines - inches long; branchlets reddish-brown, shining, with shorter lateral lines; season's shoots with small, pale dots. inner bark very aromatic, having a strong checkerberry flavor,--hence the common name, "checkerberry birch"; called also "cherry birch," from the resemblance of its bark to that of the garden cherry. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds reddish-brown, oblong or conical, pointed, inner scales whitish, elongating as the bud opens. leaves simple, in alternate pairs, - inches long and one-half as wide, shining green above and downy when young, paler beneath and silvery-downy along the prominent, straight veins; outline ovate-oval, ovate-oblong, or oval; sharply serrate to doubly serrate; apex acute to acuminate; base heart-shaped to obtuse; leafstalk short, often curved, hairy when young; stipules soon falling. =inflorescence.=--april to may. sterile catkins - inches long, slender, purplish-yellow; scales fringed: fertile catkins erect or suberect, sessile or nearly so, / - inch long, oblong-cylindrical; bracts pubescent; lateral lobes wider than in _b. lutea._ =fruit.=--fruiting catkins oblong-cylindrical, nearly erect; bracts with short, nearly equal diverging lobes: nut obovate-oblong, wider than its wings; upper part of seed-body usually appressed-pubescent. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows everywhere from swamps to hilltops, but prefers moist rocky slopes and a loamy or gravelly soil; occasionally offered by nurserymen; both nursery and collected plants are moved without serious difficulty; apt to grow rather unevenly. [illustration: plate xxx.--betula lenta.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower, back view. . sterile flower, front view. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. . fruit. . mature leaf. =betula lutea, michx. f.= yellow birch. gray birch. =habitat and range.=--low, rich woodlands, mountain slopes. newfoundland and nova scotia to rainy river. new england,--abundant northward; common throughout, from borders of lowland swamps to feet above the sea level; more common at considerable altitudes, where it often occurs in extensive patches or belts. south to the middle states, and along the mountains to tennessee and north carolina; west to minnesota. =habit.=--a large tree, at its maximum in northern new england - feet high and - feet in diameter at the base. in the forest the main trunk separates at a considerable height into a few large branches which rise at a sharp angle, curving slightly, forming a rather small, irregular head, widest near the top; while in open ground the head is broad-spreading, hemispherical, with numerous rather equal, long and slender branches, and a fine spray with drooping tendencies. in the sunlight the silvery-yellow feathering and the metallic sheen of trunk and branches make the yellow birch one of the most attractive trees of the new england forest. =bark.=--bark of trunks and large limbs in old trees gray or blackish, lustreless, deep-seamed, split into thick plates, standing out at all sorts of angles; in trees - inches in diameter, scarf-bark lustrous, parted in ribbon-like strips, detached at one end and running up the trunk in delicate, tattered fringes; season's shoots light yellowish-green, minutely buff-dotted, woolly-pubescent, becoming in successive seasons darker and more lustrous, the dots elongating into horizontal lines. aromatic but less so than the bark of the black birch; not readily detachable like the bark of the canoe birch. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds conical, / inch long, mostly appressed, tips of scales brownish. leaves simple, in alternate pairs or scattered singly along the stem; - inches long, / - inches wide, dull green on both sides, paler beneath and more or less pubescent on the straight veins; outline oval to oblong, for the most part doubly serrate; apex acuminate or acute; base heart-shaped, obtuse or truncate; leafstalk short, grooved, often pubescent or woolly; stipules soon falling. =inflorescence.=--april to may. sterile catkins - inches long, purplish-yellow; scales fringed: fertile catkins sessile or nearly so, about inch long, cylindrical; bracts -lobed, nearly to the middle, pubescent, lobes slightly spreading. =fruit.=--fruiting catkins oblong or oblong-ovoid, about inch long and two-thirds as thick, erect: nut oval to narrowly obovate, tapering at each end, pubescent on the upper part, about the width of its wing. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows in wet or dry situations, but prefers wet, peaty soil, where its roots can find a constant supply of moisture; similar to the black birch, equally valuable in landscape-gardening, but less desirable as a street tree; transplanted without serious difficulty. differences between black birch and yellow birch: =black birch.=--bark reddish-brown, not separable into thin layers; leaves bright green above, finely serrate; fruiting catkins cylindrical; bark of twigs decidedly aromatic. =yellow birch.=--bark yellow, separable into thin layers; leaves dull green above; serration coarser and more decidedly doubly serrate; fruiting catkins ovoid or oblong-ovoid; flavor of bark less distinctly aromatic. [illustration: plate xxxi.--betula lutea.] . winter buds. . flower-buds. . flowering branch. - . sterile flowers. . fertile flower. . bract. . fruiting branch. . fruit. =betula nigra, l.= red birch. river birch. =habitat and range.=--along rivers, ponds, and woodlands inundated a part of the year. doubtfully and indefinitely reported from canada. no stations in maine, vermont, rhode island, or connecticut; new hampshire,--found sparingly along streams in the southern part of the state; abundant along the banks of beaver brook, pelham (f. w. batchelder); massachusetts,--along the merrimac river and its tributaries, bordering swamps in methuen and ponds in north andover. south, east of the alleghany mountains, to florida; west, locally through the northern tier of states to minnesota and along the gulf states to texas; western limits, nebraska, kansas, indian territory, and missouri. =habit.=--a medium-sized tree, - feet high, with a diameter at the ground of - - / feet; reaching much greater dimensions southward. the trunk, frequently beset with small, leafy, reflexed branchlets, and often only less frayed and tattered than that of the yellow birch, develops a light and feathery head of variable outline, with numerous slender branches, the upper long and drooping, the reddish spray clothed with abundant dark-green foliage. =bark.=--reddish, more or less separable into layers, fraying into shreddy, cinnamon-colored fringes; in old trees thick, dark reddish-brown, and deeply furrowed; branches dark red or cinnamon, giving rise to the name of "red birch"; season's shoots downy, pale-dotted. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds small, mostly appressed near the ends of the shoots, tapering at both ends. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, two-thirds as wide, dark green and smooth above, paler and soft-downy beneath, turning bright yellow in autumn; outline rhombic-ovate, with unequal and sharp double serratures; leafstalk short and downy; stipules soon falling. =inflorescence.=--april to may. sterile catkins usually in threes, - inches long, scales - -flowered: fertile catkins bright green, cylindrical, stalked; bracts -lobed, the central lobe much the longest, tomentose, ciliate. =fruit.=--june. earliest of the birches to ripen its seed; fruiting catkins - inches long, cylindrical, erect or spreading; bracts with the lobes nearly equal in width, spreading, the central lobe the longest: nut ovate to obovate, ciliate. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows in all soils, but prefers a station near running water; young trees grow vigorously and become attractive objects in landscape plantations; especially useful along river banks to bind the soil; retains its lower branches better than the black or yellow birches. seldom found in nurseries, and rather hard to transplant; collected plants do fairly well. [illustration: plate xxxii.--betula nigra.] . leaf-buds. . flower-buds. . branch with sterile and fertile catkins. . sterile flower. . fertile flower. . scale of fertile flower. . fruit. . fruiting branch. =betula populifolia, marsh.= white birch. gray birch. oldfield birch. poplar birch. poverty birch. small white birch. =habitat and range.=--dry, gravelly soils, occasional in swamps and frequent along their borders, often springing up on burnt lands. nova scotia to lake ontario. maine,--abundant; new hampshire,--abundant eastward, as far north as conway, and along the connecticut to westmoreland; vermont,--common in the western and frequent in the southern sections; massachusetts, rhode island, and connecticut,--common. south, mostly in the coast region, to delaware; west to lake ontario. =habit.=--a small tree, - feet high, with a diameter at the ground of - inches, occasionally much exceeding these dimensions; under favorable conditions, of extreme elegance. the slender, seldom erect trunk, continuous to the top of the tree, throws out numerous short, unequal branches, which form by repeated subdivisions a profuse, slender spray, disposed irregularly in tufts or masses, branches and branchlets often hanging vertically or drooping at the ends. conspicuous in winter by the airy lightness of the narrow open head and by the contrast of the white trunk with the dark spray; in summer, when the sun shines and the air stirs, by the delicacy, tremulous movement, and brilliancy of the foliage. =bark.=--trunk grayish-white, with triangular, dusty patches below the insertion of the branches; not easily separable into layers; branches dark brown or blackish; season's shoots brown, with numerous small round dots becoming horizontal lines and increasing in length with the age of the tree. the white of the bark does not readily come off upon clothing. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds somewhat diverging from the twig; narrow conical or cylindrical, reddish-brown. leaves simple, alternate, single or in pairs, - inches long, two-thirds as wide, bright green above, paler beneath, smooth and shining on both sides, turning to a pale shining yellow in autumn, resinous, glandular-dotted when young; outline triangular, coarsely and irregularly doubly serrate; apex taper-pointed; base truncate, heart-shaped, or acute; leafstalks long and slender; stipules dropping early. =inflorescence.=--may. sterile catkins usually solitary or in pairs, slender-cylindrical, - inches long: fertile catkins erect, green, stalked; bracts minutely pubescent. =fruit.=--fruiting catkins erect or spreading, cylindrical, about - / inches long and / inch in diameter, stalked; scales -parted above the center, side lobes larger, at right angles or reflexed: nuts small, ovate to obovate, narrower than the wings, combined wings from broadly obcordate to butterfly-shape, wider than long. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england, growing in every kind of soil, finest specimens in deep, rich loam. were this tree not so common, its graceful habit and attractive bark would be more appreciated for landscape gardening; only occasionally grown by nurserymen, best secured through collectors; young collected plants, if properly selected, will nearly all live. [illustration: plate xxxiii.--betula populifolia.] . branch with sterile and fertile catkins. . sterile flower, back view. . fertile flower. . scale of fertile flower. . fruiting branch. . fruit. =betula papyrifera, marsh.= canoe birch. white birch. paper birch. =habitat and range.=--deep, rich woods, river banks, mountain slopes. canada, atlantic to pacific, northward to labrador and alaska, to the limit of deciduous trees. maine,--abundant; new hampshire,--in all sections, most common on highlands up to the alpine area of the white mountains, above the range of the yellow birch; vermont,--common; massachusetts,--common in the western and central sections, rare towards the coast; rhode island,--not reported; connecticut,--occasional in the southern sections, frequent northward. south to pennsylvania and illinois; west to the rocky mountains and washington on the pacific coast. var. _minor_, tuckerman, is a dwarf form found upon the higher mountain summits of northern new england. =habit.=--a large tree, - feet high, with a diameter of - feet; occasionally of greater dimensions. the trunk develops a broad-spreading, open head, composed of a few large limbs ascending at an acute angle, with nearly horizontal secondary branches and a slender, flexible spray without any marked tendency to droop. characterized by the dark metallic lustre of the branchlets, the dark green foliage, deep yellow in autumn, and the chalky whiteness of the trunk and large branches; a singularly picturesque tree, whether standing alone or grouped in forests. =bark.=--easily detachable in broad sheets and separable into thin, delicately colored, paper-like layers, impenetrable by water, outlasting the wood it covers. bark of trunk and large branches chalky-white when fully exposed to the sun, lustreless, smooth or ragged-frayed, in very old forest trees encrusted with huge lichens, and splitting into broad plates; young trunks and smaller branches smooth, reddish or grayish brown, with numerous roundish buff dots which enlarge from year to year into more and more conspicuous horizontal lines. the white of the bark readily rubs off upon clothing. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds small, ovate, flattish, acute to rounded. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, two-thirds as wide, dark green and smooth above, beneath pale, hairy along the veins, sometimes in young trees thickly glandular-dotted on both sides; outline ovate, ovate-oblong, or ovate-orbicular, more or less doubly serrate; apex acute to acuminate; base somewhat heart-shaped, truncate or obtuse; leafstalk - inches long, grooved above, downy; stipules falling early. =inflorescence.=--april to may. sterile catkins mostly in threes, - inches long: fertile catkins - - / inches long, cylindrical, slender-peduncled, erect or spreading; bracts puberulent. =fruit.=--fruiting catkins - inches long, cylindrical, short-stalked, spreading or drooping: nut obovate to oval, narrower than its wings; combined wings butterfly-shaped, nearly twice as wide as long. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; prefers a well-drained loam or gravelly soil, but does fairly well in almost any situation; young trees rapid growing and vigorous, but with the same tendency to grow irregularly that is shown by the black and yellow birches; transplanted without serious difficulty; not offered by many nurserymen, but may be obtained from northern collectors. [illustration: plate xxxiv.--betula papyrifera.] . leaf-buds. . flower-buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower, front view. . fertile flower, front view. . scale of fertile flower. . fruiting branch. . fruit. =alnus glutinosa, medic.= european alder. this is the common alder of great britain and central europe southward, growing chiefly along water courses, in boggy grounds and upon moist mountain slopes; introduced into the united states and occasionally escaping from cultivation; sometimes thoroughly established locally. in medford, mass., there are many of these plants growing about two small ponds and upon the neighboring lowlands, most of them small, but among them are several trees - feet in height and - inches in diameter at the ground, distinguishable at a glance from the shrubby native alders by their greater size, more erect habit, and darker trunks. fagaceÆ. beech family. =fagus ferruginea, ait.= _fagus americana, sweet. fagus atropunicea, sudw._ beech. =habitat and range.=--moist, rocky soil. nova scotia through quebec and ontario. maine,--abundant; new hampshire,--throughout the state; common on the connecticut-merrimac watershed, enters largely into the composition of the hardwood forests of coos county; vermont,--abundant; massachusetts,--in western sections abundant, common eastward; rhode island and connecticut,--common. south to florida; west to wisconsin, missouri, and texas. =habit.=--a tree of great beauty, rising to a height of - feet, with a diameter at the ground of - / - feet; under favorable conditions attaining much greater dimensions; trunk remarkably smooth, sometimes fluted, in the forests tall and straight, in open situations short and stout; head symmetrical, of various shapes,--rounded, oblong, or even obovate; branches numerous, mostly long and slender, curving slightly upward at their tips, near the point of branching horizontal or slightly drooping, beset with short branchlets which form a flat, dense, and beautiful spray; roots numerous, light brown, long, and running near the surface. tree easily distinguishable in winter by the dried brownish-white leaves, spear-like buds, and smooth bark. =bark.=--trunk light blue gray, smooth, unbroken, slightly corrugated in old trees, often beautifully mottled in blotches or bands and invested by lichens; branches gray; branchlets dark brown and smooth; spray shining, reddish-brown; season's shoots a shining olive green, orange-dotted. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds conspicuous, long, very slender, tapering slowly to a sharp point; scales rich brown, lengthening as the bud opens. leaves set in plane of the spray, simple, alternate, - inches long, one-half as wide, silky-pubescent with fringed edges when young, nearly smooth when fully grown, green on both sides, turning to rusty yellows and browns in autumn, persistent till mid-winter; outline oval, serrate; apex acuminate; base rounded; veins strong, straight, terminating in the teeth; leafstalk short, hairy at first; stipules slender, silky, soon falling. =inflorescence.=--may. appearing with the leaves from the season's shoots, sterile flowers from the lower axils, in heads suspended at the end of silky threads - inches long; calyx campanulate, pubescent, yellowish-green, mostly -lobed; petals none; stamens - ; anthers exserted; ovary wanting or abortive: fertile flowers from the upper axils, usually single or in pairs, at the end of a short peduncle; involucre -lobed, fringed with prickly scales; calyx with six awl-shaped lobes; ovary -celled; styles . =fruit.=--a prickly bur, thick, -valved, splitting nearly to the base when ripe: nut sharply triangular, sweet, edible. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows well in any good soil, but prefers deep, rich, well-drained loam; usually obtainable in nurseries; when frequently transplanted, safely moved. its clean trunk and limbs, deep shade, and freedom from insect pests make it one of the most attractive of our large trees for use, summer or winter, in landscape gardening; few plants, however, will grow beneath it; the bark is easily disfigured; it has a bad habit of throwing out suckers and is liable to be killed by any injury to the roots. propagated from the seed. the purple beech, weeping beech, and fern-leaf beech are well-known horticultural forms. [illustration: plate xxxv.--fagus ferruginea.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. . section of fruit. . nut. =castanea sativa, var. americana, watson and coulter.= _castanea dentata, borkh. castanea vesca, var. americana, michx._ chestnut. =habitat and range.=--in strong, well-drained soil; pastures, rocky woods, and hillsides. ontario,--common. maine,--southern sections, probably not indigenous north of latitude ° '; new hampshire,--connecticut valley near the river, as far north as windsor, vt.; most abundant in the merrimac valley south of concord, but occasional a short distance northward; vermont,--common in the southern sections, especially in the connecticut valley; occasional as far north as windsor (windsor county), west rutland (rutland county), burlington (chittenden county); massachusetts,--rather common throughout the state, but less frequent near the sea; rhode island and connecticut,--common. south to delaware, along the mountains to alabama; west to michigan, indiana, and tennessee. =habit.=--a tree of the first magnitude, rising to a height of - feet and reaching a diameter of - feet above the swell of the roots, with a spread sometimes equaling or even exceeding the height; attaining often much greater proportions. the massive trunk separates usually a few feet from the ground into several stout horizontal or ascending branches, the limbs higher up, horizontal or rising at a broad angle, forming a stately, open, roundish, or inversely pyramidal head; branchlets slender; spray coarse and not abundant; foliage bright green, dense, casting a deep shade; flowers profuse, the long, sterile catkins upon their darker background of leaves conspicuous upon the hill slopes at a great distance. a tree that may well dispute precedence with the white or red oak. =bark.=--bark of trunk in old trees deeply cleft with wide ridges, hard, rough, dark gray; in young trees very smooth, often shining; season's shoots green or purplish-brown, white-dotted. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds small, ovate, brown, acutish. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, - inches wide, bright clear green above, paler beneath and smooth on both sides; outline oblong-lanceolate, sharply and coarsely serrate; veins straight, terminating in the teeth; apex acuminate; base acute or obtuse; leafstalk short; stipules soon falling. =inflorescence.=--june to july. appearing from the axils of the season's shoots, after the leaves have grown to their full size; sterile catkins numerous, clustered or single, erect or spreading, - inches long, slender, flowers pale yellowish-green or cream-colored; calyx pubescent, mostly -parted; stamens - ; odor offensive when the anthers are discharging their pollen: fertile flowers near the base of the upper sterile catkins or in separate axils, - in a prickly involucre; calyx -toothed; ovary ovate, styles as many as the cells of the ovary, exserted. =fruit.=--burs round, thick, prickly, - inches in diameter, opening by valves: nuts - , dark brown, covered with whitish down at apex, flat on one side when there are several in a cluster, ovate when only one, sweet and edible. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; prefers fertile, well-drained, gravelly or rocky soil; rather difficult to transplant; usually obtainable in nurseries. its vigorous and rapid growth, massive, broad-spreading head and attractive flowers make it a valuable tree for landscape gardening, but in public places the prickly burs and edible fruit are a serious disadvantage. propagated from the seed. [illustration: plate xxxvi.--castanea sativa, var. americana.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower. . fertile flower. . fruit. . nut. =quercus.= inflorescence appearing with the leaves in spring; sterile catkins from terminal or lateral buds on shoots of the preceding year, bracted, usually several in a cluster, unbranched, long, cylindrical, pendulous; bracts of sterile flowers minute, soon falling; calyx parted or lobed; stamens - , undivided: fertile flowers terminal or axillary upon the new shoots, single or few-clustered, bracted, erect; involucre scaly, becoming the cupule or cup around the lower part of the acorn; ovary -celled; stigma -lobed. white oaks. leaves with obtuse or rounded lobes or teeth; cup-scales thickened or knobbed at base; stigmas sessile or nearly so; fruit maturing the first year. black oaks. leaves with pointed or bristle-tipped lobes and teeth; cup-scales flat; stigmas on spreading styles; fruit maturing the second year. =quercus alba, l.= white oak. =habitat and range.=--light loams, sandy plains, and gravelly ridges, often constituting extensive tracts of forest. quebec and ontario. maine,--southern sections; new hampshire,--most abundant eastward; in the connecticut valley confined to the hills in the immediate vicinity of the river, extending up the tributary streams a short distance and disappearing entirely before reaching the mouth of the passumpsic (w. f. flint); vermont,--common west of the green mountains, less so in the southern connecticut valley (_flora of vermont_, ); massachusetts, rhode island, and connecticut,--common. south to the gulf of mexico; west to minnesota, nebraska, kansas, arkansas, and texas. =habit.=--a tree of the first rank, - feet high and - feet in diameter above the swell of the roots, exhibiting considerable diversity in general appearance, trunk sometimes dissolving into branches like the american elm, and sometimes continuous to the top. the finest specimens in open land are characterized by a rather short, massive trunk, with stout, horizontal, far-reaching limbs, conspicuously gnarled and twisted in old age, forming a wide-spreading, open head of striking grandeur, the diameter at the base of which is sometimes two or three times the height of the tree. =bark.=--trunk and larger branches light ash-gray, sometimes nearly white, broken into long, thin, loose, irregular, soft-looking flakes; in old trees with broad, flat ridges; inner bark light; branchlets ash-gray, mottled; young shoots grayish-green, roughened with minute rounded, raised dots. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds / to / inch long, round-ovate, reddish-brown. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, - inches wide, delicately reddish-tinted and pubescent upon both sides when young; at maturity glabrous, light dull or glossy green above, paler and somewhat glaucous beneath, turning to various reds in autumn; outline obovate to oval; lobes - ; ascending, varying greatly in different trees; when few, short and wide-based, with comparatively shallow sinuses; when more in number, ovate-oblong, with deeper sinuses, or somewhat linear-oblong, with sinuses reaching nearly to midrib; apex of lobe rounded; base of leaf tapering; leafstalks short; stipules linear, soon falling. the leaves of this species are often persistent till spring, especially in young trees. =inflorescence.=--may. appearing when the leaves are half grown; sterile catkins - inches long, with slender, usually pubescent thread; calyx yellow, pubescent; lobes - , pointed: pistillate flowers sessile or short-peduncled, reddish, ovate-scaled. =fruit.=--maturing in the autumn of the first year, single, or more frequently in pairs, sessile or peduncled: cup hemispherical to deep saucer-shaped, rather thin; scales rough-knobby at base: acorn varying from / inch to an inch in length, oblong-ovoid: meat sweet and edible, said to be when boiled a good substitute for chestnuts. =horticultural value.=--hardy in new england; grows well in all except very wet soils, in all open exposures and in light shade; like all oaks, difficult to transplant unless prepared by frequent transplanting in nurseries, from which it is not readily obtainable in quantity; grows very slowly and nearly uniformly up to maturity; comparatively free from insect enemies but occasionally disfigured by fungous disease which attacks immature leaves in spring. propagated from seed. [illustration: plate xxxvii.--quercus alba.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. - . sterile flower, front view. . fertile flower, side view. . fruiting branch. - . variant leaves. =quercus stellata, wang.= _q. obtusiloba, michx. q. minor, sarg_. post oak. box white oak. =habitat and range.= doubtfully reported from southern ontario. in new england, mostly in sterile soil near the sea-coast; massachusetts,--southern cape cod from falmouth to brewster, the most northern station reported, occasional; the islands of naushon, martha's vineyard where it is rather common, and nantucket where it is rare; rhode island,--along the shore of the northern arm of wickford harbor (l. w. russell); connecticut,--occasional along the shores of long island sound west of new haven. south to florida; west to kansas, indian territory, and texas. =habit.=--farther south, a tree of the first magnitude, reaching a height of feet, with a trunk diameter of feet; in southern new england occasionally attaining in woodlands a height of - feet; at its northern limit in massachusetts, usually to feet in height, with a diameter at the ground of - inches. the trunk throws out stout, tough, and often conspicuously crooked branches, the lower horizontal or declining, forming a disproportionately large head, with dark green, dense foliage. near the shore the limbs often grow very low, stretching along the ground as if from an underground stem. =bark.=--resembling that of the white oak, but rather a darker gray, rougher and firmer; upon old trunks furrowed and cut into oblongs; small limbs brownish-gray, rough-dotted; season's shoots densely tawny-tomentose. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds small, rounded or conical, brownish, scales minutely pubescent or scurfy. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, two-thirds as wide, thickish, yellowish-green and tomentose upon both sides when young, becoming a deep, somewhat glossy green above, lighter beneath, both sides still somewhat scurfy; general outline of leaf and of lobes, and number and shape of the latter, extremely variable; type-form -lobed, all the lobes rounded, the three upper lobes much larger, more or less subdivided, often squarish, the two lower tapering to an acute, rounded, or truncate base; sinuses deep, variable, often at right angles to the midrib; leafstalk short, tomentose; stipules linear, pubescent, occasionally persistent till midsummer. the leaves are often arranged at the tips of the branches in star-shaped clusters, giving rise to the specific name _stellata_. =inflorescence.=--may. sterile catkins - inches long, connecting thread woolly; calyx - parted, lobes acute, densely pubescent, yellow; stamens - , _anthers with scattered hairs_: pistillate flowers single or in clusters of , , or more, sessile or on a short stem; stigma red. =fruit.=--maturing the first season, single and sessile, or nearly so, or in clusters of , , or more, on short footstalks: cup top-shaped or cup-shaped, / - / the length of the acorn, about / inch wide, thin; scales smooth or sometimes hairy along the top, acutish or roundish, slightly thickened at base: acorn / - inch long, sweet. =horticultural value.=--hardy in new england; prefers a good, well-drained, open soil; quite as slow-growing as the white oak; seldom found in nurseries and difficult to transplant. propagated from the seed. [illustration: plate xxxviii.--quercus stellata.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower, back view. . sterile flower, front view. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. =quercus macrocarpa, michx.= bur oak. over-cup oak. mossy-cup oak. =habitat and range.=--deep, rich soil; river valleys. nova scotia to manitoba, not attaining in this region the size of the white oak, nor covering as large areas. maine,--known only in the valleys of the middle penobscot (orono) and the kennebec (winslow, waterville); vermont,--lowlands about lake champlain, especially in addison county, not common; massachusetts,--valley of the ware river (worcester county), stockbridge and towns south along the housatonic river (berkshire county); rhode island,--no station reported; connecticut,--probably introduced in central and eastern sections, possibly native near the northern border. south to pennsylvania and tennessee; west to montana, nebraska, kansas, indian territory, and texas. =habit.=--a medium-sized tree, - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; attaining great size in the ohio and mississippi river basins; trunk erect, branches often changing direction, ascending, save the lowest, which are often nearly horizontal; branchlets numerous, on the lowest branches often declined or drooping; head wide-spreading, rounded near the center, very rough in aspect; distinguished in summer by the luxuriance of the dark-green foliage and in autumn by the size of its acorns. =bark.=--bark of trunk and branches ash-gray, but darker than that of the white oak, separating on old trees into rather firm, longitudinal ridges; bark of branches sometimes developed into conspicuous corky, wing-like layers; season's shoots yellowish-brown, minutely hairy, with numerous small, roundish, raised dots. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds brown, / to / inch long, conical, scattered along the shoots and clustered at the enlarged tips. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, - inches broad, smooth and dark green above, lighter and downy beneath; outline obovate to oblong, varying from irregularly and deeply sinuate-lobed, especially near the center, to nearly entire, base wedge-shaped; stalk short; stipules linear, pubescent. =inflorescence.=--may. sterile catkins - inches long; calyx mostly -parted, yellowish-green; divisions linear-oblong, more or less persistent; stamens ; anthers yellow, glabrous: pistillate flowers sessile or short-stemmed; scales reddish; stigma red. =fruit.=--maturing the first season; extremely variable; sessile or short-stemmed: cup top-shaped to hemispherical, / - inches in diameter, with thick, close, pointed scales, the upper row often terminating in a profuse or sparing hairy or leafy fringe: acorn ovoid, often very large, sometimes sunk deeply and occasionally entirely in the cup. =horticultural value.=--hardy in new england; in general appearance resembling the swamp white oak, but better adapted to upland; grows rather slowly in any good, well-drained soil; difficult to transplant; seldom disfigured by insects or disease; occasionally grown in nurseries. propagated from seed. a narrower-leafed form with small acorns (var. _olivæformis_) is occasionally offered. [illustration: plate xxxix.--quercus macrocarpa.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower, back view. . sterile flower, front view. . fertile flowers. . fruiting branch. =quercus bicolor, willd.= _quercus platanoides, sudw._ swamp white oak. =habitat and range.=--in deep, rich soil; low, moist, fertile grounds, bordering swamps and along streams. quebec to ontario, where it is known as the blue oak. maine,--york county; new hampshire,--merrimac valley as far as the mouth of the souhegan, and probably throughout rockingham county; vermont,--low grounds about lake champlain; massachusetts,--frequent in the western and central sections, common eastward; rhode island and connecticut,--common. south to delaware and along the mountains to northern georgia; west to minnesota, iowa, east kansas, and arkansas. =habit.=--a medium-sized tree, - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; attaining southward of the great lakes and in the ohio basin much greater dimensions; roughest of all the oaks, except the bur oak, in general aspect; trunk erect, continuous, in young trees often beset at point of branching with down-growing, scraggly branchlets, surmounted by a rather regular pyramidal head, the lower branches horizontal or declining, often descending to the ground, with a short, stiff, abundant, and bushy spray; smaller twigs ridgy, widening beneath buds; foliage a dark shining green; heads of large trees less regular, rather open, with a general resemblance to the head of the white oak, but narrower at the base, with less contorted limbs. =bark.=--bark of trunk and larger branches thick, dark grayish-brown, longitudinally striate, with flaky scales; bark of young stems, branches, and branchlets darker, separating in loose scales which curl back, giving the tree its shaggy aspect; season's shoots yellowish-green. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds brown, roundish-ovate, obtuse. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, - wide, downy on both sides when unfolding, at maturity thick and firm, smooth and dark shining green above, slightly to conspicuously whitish-downy beneath, in autumn brownish-yellow; obovate, coarsely and deeply crenate or obtusely shallow-lobed, when opening sometimes pointed and tapering to a wedge-shaped base, often constricted near the center; leafstalk short; stipules linear, soon falling. =inflorescence.=--may. sterile catkins - inches long, thread hairy; calyx deeply - -parted, pale yellow, hairy; stamens - ; anthers yellow, glabrous: pistillate flowers tomentose, on rather long, hairy peduncles; stigmas red. =fruit.=--variable, on stems - inches long, maturing the first season, single or frequently in twos: cup rounded, rather thin, deep, rough to mossy, often with fringed margins: acorn about inch long, oblong-ovoid, more or less tapering: meat sweet, edible. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows in any good soil, wet or dry, but prefers a position on the edge of moist or boggy land, where its roots can find a constant supply of water; growth fairly rapid; seldom affected by insects or disease; occasionally offered by nurserymen and rather less difficult to transplant than most of the oaks. its sturdy, rugged habit and rich dark green foliage make it a valuable tree for ornamental plantations or even for streets. [illustration: plate xl.--quercus bicolor.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower, side view. . sterile flower, front view. . fertile flowers. . fruiting branch. =quercus prinus, l.= chestnut oak. rock chestnut oak. =habitat and range.=--woods, rocky banks, hill slopes. along the canadian shore of lake erie. maine,--saco river and mt. agamenticus, near the southern coast (york county); new hampshire,--belts or patches in the eastern part of the state and along the southern border, hinsdale, winchester, brookline, manchester, hudson; vermont,--western part of the state throughout, not common; abundant at smoke mountain at an altitude of feet, and along the western flank of the green mountains, at least in addison county; massachusetts,--eastern sections, sterling, lancaster, russell, middleboro, rare in medford and sudbury, frequent on the blue hills; rhode island,--locally common; connecticut,--common. south to delaware and along the mountains to georgia, extending nearly to the summit of mt. pisgah in north carolina; west to kentucky, tennessee, and alabama. =habit.=--a small or medium-sized tree, - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - - / feet, assuming noble proportions southward, often reaching a height of - feet and trunk diameter of - feet; trunk tall, straight, continuous to the top of the tree, scarcely tapering to the point of ramification, surmounted by a spacious, open head. =bark.=--bark of trunk and large branches deep gray to dark brown or blackish, in firm, broad, continuous ridges, with small, close surface scales; bark of young trees and of branchlets smooth, brown, and more or less lustrous; season's shoots light brown. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds ovate to cylindrical, mostly acute, brownish. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, - inches wide, dark green and smooth above, paler and more or less downy beneath; outline obovate to oval, undulate-crenate; apex blunt-pointed; base wedge-shaped, obtuse or slightly rounded, often unequal-sided; veins straight, parallel, prominent beneath; leafstalk / - - / inches long; stipules linear, soon falling. =inflorescence.=--may. sterile catkins - inches long; calyx - -parted, yellow, hairy; divisions oblong, densely pubescent; stamens - ; anthers yellow, glabrous: pistillate flowers with hairy scales and dark red stigmas. =fruit.=--seldom abundant, maturing the first season, variable in size, on stems usually equal to or shorter than the leaf-stems: cup thin, hemispheric or somewhat top-shaped, deep; scales small, knobby-thickened at the base: acorns / - - / inches long, ovoid-conical, sweet. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; prefers a light gravelly or stony soil; rapid-growing and free from disease; more easily and safely transplanted than most oaks; occasionally offered by nurserymen, who propagate it from the seed. its vigorous, clean habit of growth and handsome foliage should give it a place in landscape gardening and street use. [illustration: plate xli.--quercus prinus.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower, back view. . sterile flower, front view. . fertile flowers. . fruiting branch. . variant leaf. =quercus muhlenbergii, engelm.= _quercus acuminata, sarg._ chestnut oak. =habitat and range.=--dry hillsides, limestone ridges, rich bottoms. ontario. vermont,--gardner's island, lake champlain; ferrisburg (pringle); connecticut,--frequent (j. n. bishop, ); on the limestone formation in the neighborhood of kent (litchfield county, c. k. averill); often confounded by collectors with _q. prinus_; probably there are other stations. not authoritatively reported from the other new england states. south to delaware and district of columbia, along the mountains to northern alabama; west to minnesota, nebraska, kansas, indian territory, and texas. =habit.=--a medium-sized tree, - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet, attaining much greater dimensions in the basins of the ohio, mississippi, and their tributaries; trunk in old trees enlarged at the base, erect, branches rather short for the genus, forming a narrow oblong or roundish head. =bark.=--bark of trunk and large branches grayish or pale ash-colored, comparatively thin, flaky; branchlets grayish-brown; season's shoots in early summer purplish-green with pale dots. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds ovate, acute to obtuse, brownish. leaves simple, alternate; in the typical form as recognized by muhlenburg, - inches long, - / - inches wide, glossy dark green above, pale and minutely downy beneath; outline lanceolate or lanceolate-oblong, with rather equal, coarse, sharp, and often inflexed teeth; apex acuminate; base wedge-shaped or acute; stipules soon falling. there is also a form of the species in which the leaves are much larger, - inches in length and - inches in width, broadly ovate or obovate, with rounded teeth; distinguishable from _q. prinus_ only by the bark and fruit. =inflorescence.=--may. appearing with the leaves; sterile catkins - inches long; calyx yellow, hairy, segments - , ciliate; stamens - , anthers yellow: pistillate flowers sessile or on short spikes; stigma red. =fruit.=--maturing the first season, sessile or short-peduncled: cup covering about half the nut, thin, shallow, with small, rarely much thickened scales: acorn ovoid or globose, about / inch long. =horticultural value.=--hardy in new england; grows in all good dry or moist soils, in open or partly shaded situations; maintains a nearly uniform rate of growth till maturity, and is not seriously affected by insects. it forms a fine individual tree and is useful in forest plantations. propagated from seed. [illustration: plate xlii.--quercus muhlenbergii.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower. . fertile flowers. . fruiting branch. =quercus prinoides, willd.= scrub white oak. scrub chestnut oak. more or less common throughout the states east of the mississippi; westward apparently grading into _q. muhlenbergii_, within the limits of new england mostly a low shrub, rarely assuming a tree-like habit. the leaves vary from rather narrow-elliptical to broadly obovate, are rather regularly and coarsely toothed, bright green and often lustrous on the upper surface. =quercus rubra, l.= red oak. =habitat and range.=--growing impartially in a great variety of soils, but not on wet lands. nova scotia and new brunswick to divide west of lake superior. maine,--common, at least south of the central portions; new hampshire,--extending into coos county, far north of the white mountains; vermont, massachusetts, rhode island, and connecticut,--common; probably in most parts of new england the most common of the genus; found higher up the slopes of mountains than the white oak. south to tennessee, virginia, and along mountain ranges to georgia; reported from florida; west to minnesota, nebraska, kansas, and texas. =habit.=--the largest of the new england oaks, - feet high, with a diameter of - feet above the swell of the roots; occasionally attaining greater dimensions; trunk usually continuous to the top of the tree, often heavily buttressed; point of branching higher than in the white oak; branches large, less contorted, and rising at a sharper angle, the lower sometimes horizontal; branchlets rather slender; head extremely variable, in old trees with ample space for growth, open, well-proportioned, and imposing; sometimes oblong in outline, wider near the top, and sometimes symmetrically rounded, not so broad, however, as the head of the white oak; conspicuous in summer by its bright green, abundant foliage, which turns to dull purplish-red in autumn. =bark.=--bark of trunk and lower parts of branches in old trees dark gray, firmly, coarsely, and rather regularly ridged, smooth elsewhere; in young trees greenish mottled gray, smooth throughout; season's shoots at first green, taking a reddish tinge in autumn, marked with pale, scattered dots. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds ovate, conical, sharp-pointed. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, - inches broad, bright green above, paler beneath, dull brown in autumn; outline oval or obovate, sometimes scarcely distinguishable by the character of its lobing from _q. tinctoria_; in the typical form, lobes broadly triangular or oblong, with parallel sides bristle-pointed; leafstalks short; stipules linear, soon falling. =inflorescence.=--earliest of the oaks, appearing in late april or early may, when the leaves are half-grown; sterile catkins - inches long; calyx mostly -lobed; lobes rounded; stamens mostly ; anthers yellow: pistillate flowers short-stemmed; calyx lobes mostly or ; stigmas long, spreading. =fruit.=--maturing in the second year, single or in pairs, sessile or short-stalked: cup sometimes turbinate, usually saucer-shaped with a flat or rounded base, often contracted at the opening and surmounted by a kind of border; scales closely imbricated, reddish-brown, more or less downy, somewhat glossy, triangular-acute to obtuse, pubescent: acorn nearly cylindrical or ovoid, tapering to a broad, rounded top. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows in all well-drained soils, but prefers a rich, moist loam; more readily obtainable than most of our oaks; in common with other trees of the genus, nursery trees must be transplanted frequently to be moved with safety; grows rapidly and is fairly free from disfiguring insects; the oak-pruner occasionally lops off its twigs. when once established, it grows as rapidly as the sugar maple, and is worthy of much more extended use in street and landscape plantations. propagated from the seed. [illustration: plate xliii.--quercus rubra.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower. . fertile flowers, side view. . fruiting branch. =quercus coccinea, wang.= scarlet oak. =habitat and range.=--most common in dry soil. ontario. maine,--valley of the androscoggin, southward; new hampshire and vermont,--not authoritatively reported by recent observers; massachusetts,--more common in the eastern than western sections, sometimes covering considerable areas; rhode island and connecticut,--common. south to the middle states and along the mountains to north carolina and tennessee; reported from florida; west to minnesota, nebraska, and missouri. =habit.=--a medium-sized tree, - feet high and - feet in trunk diameter; attaining greater dimensions southward; trunk straight and tapering, branches regular, long, comparatively slender, not contorted, the lower nearly horizontal, often declined at the ends; branchlets slender; head open, narrow-oblong or rounded, graceful; foliage deeply cut, shining green in summer and flaming scarlet in autumn; the most brilliant and most elegant of the new england oaks. =bark.=--trunk in old trees dark gray, roughly and firmly ridged; inner bark red; young trees and branches smoothish, often marked with dull red seams and more or less mottled with gray. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds small, reddish-brown, ovate to oval, acutish, partially hidden by enlarged base of petiole. leaves simple, alternate, extremely variable, more commonly - inches long, two-thirds as wide, bright green and shining above, paler beneath, smooth on both sides but often with a tufted pubescence on the axils beneath, turning scarlet in autumn, deeply lobed, the rounded sinuses sometimes reaching nearly to the midrib; lobes - , rather slender and set at varying angles, sparingly toothed and bristly tipped; apex acute; base truncate to acute; leafstalk - - / inches long, slender, swollen at base. =inflorescence.=--early in may. appearing when the leaves are half grown; sterile catkins - inches long; calyx most commonly -parted; pubescent; stamens commonly , exserted; anthers yellow, glabrous: pistillate flowers red; stigmas long, spreading, reflexed. =fruit.=--maturing in the autumn of the second year, single or in twos or threes, sessile or on rather short footstalks: cup top-shaped or cup-shaped, about half the length of the acorn, occasionally nearly enclosing it, smooth, more or less polished, thin-edged; scales closely appressed, firm, elongated, triangular, sides sometimes rounded, homogeneous in the same plant: acorn / - / inch long, variable in shape, oftenest oval to oblong: kernel white within; less bitter than kernel of the black oak. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows in any light, well-drained soil, but prefers a fertile loam. occasionally offered by nurserymen, but as it is disposed to make unsymmetrical young trees it is not grown in quantity, and it is not desirable for streets. its rapid growth, hardiness, beauty of summer foliage, and its brilliant colors in autumn make it desirable in ornamental plantations. propagated from the seed. [illustration: plate xliv.--quercus coccinea.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flowers, side view. . fertile flower, side view. . fruiting branch. =quercus velutina, lam.= _quercus tinctoria, bartram. quercus coccinea_, var. _tinctoria, gray._ black oak. yellow oak. =habitat and range.=--poor soils; dry or gravelly uplands; rocky ridges. southern and western ontario. maine,--york county; new hampshire,--valley of the lower merrimac and eastward, absent on the highlands, reappearing within three or four miles of the connecticut, ceasing at north charlestown; vermont,--western and southeastern sections; massachusetts,--abundant eastward; rhode island and connecticut,--frequent. south to the gulf states; west to minnesota, kansas, indian territory, and texas. =habit.=--one of our largest oaks, - feet high and - feet in diameter, exceptionally much larger, attaining its maximum in the ohio and mississippi basins; resembling _q. coccinea_ in the general disposition of its mostly stouter branches; head wide-spreading, rounded; trunk short; foliage deep shining green, turning yellowish or reddish brown in autumn. =bark.=--bark of trunk dark gray or blackish, often lighter near the seashore, thick, usually rough near the ground even in young trees, in old trees deeply furrowed, separating into narrow, thick, and firmly adherent block-like strips; inner bark thick, yellow, and bitter; branches and branchlets a nearly uniform, mottled gray; season's shoots scurfy-pubescent. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds / - / inch long, bluntish to pointed, conspicuously clustered at ends of branches. leaves simple, alternate, of two forms so distinct as to suggest different species, _a_ (plate xlv, ) varying towards _b_ (plate xlv, ), and _b_ often scarcely distinguishable from the leaf of the scarlet oak; in both forms outline obovate to oval, lobes usually , densely woolly when opening, more or less pubescent or scurfy till midsummer or later, dark shining green above, lighter beneath, becoming brown or dull red in autumn. form _a_, sinuses shallow, lobes broad, rounded, mucronate. form _b_, sinuses deep, extending halfway to the midrib or farther, oblong or triangular, bristle-tipped. =inflorescence.=--early in may. appearing when the leaves are half grown; sterile catkins - inches long, with slender, pubescent threads; calyx usually - -lobed; lobes ovate, acute to rounded, hairy-pubescent; stamens - , commonly - ; anthers yellow: pistillate flowers reddish, pubescent, at first nearly sessile; stigmas , red, divergent, reflexed. =fruit.=--maturing the second year; nearly sessile or on short footstalks: cup top-shaped to hemispherical; scales less firm than in _q. coccinea_, tips papery and transversely rugulose, obtuse or rounded, or some of them acutish, often lacerate-edged, loose towards the thick and open edge of the cup: acorn small: kernel yellow within and bitter. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows in well-drained soils, but prefers a rich, moist loam; of vigorous and rapid growth when young, but as it soon begins to show dead branches and becomes unsightly, it is not a desirable tree to plant, and is rarely offered by nurserymen. propagated from seed. =note.=--apparently runs into _q. coccinea_, from which it may be distinguished by its rougher and darker trunk, the yellow color and bitter taste of the inner bark, its somewhat larger and more pointed buds, the greater pubescence of its inflorescence, young shoots and leaves, the longer continuance of scurf or pubescence upon the leaves, the yellow or dull red shades of the autumn foliage, and by the yellow color and bitter taste of the nut. [illustration: plate xlv.--quercus velutina.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower, -lobed calyx. . sterile flower, -lobed calyx. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. . fruit. . variant leaf. =quercus palustris, du roi.= pin oak. swamp oak. water oak. =habitat and range.=--low grounds, borders of forests, wet woods, river banks, islets in swamps. ontario. northern new england,--no station reported; massachusetts,--amherst (stone, _bull. torrey club_, ix, ; j. e. humphrey, _amherst trees_); springfield, south to connecticut, rare; rhode island,--southern portions, bordering the great kingston swamp, and on the margin of the pawcatuck river (l. w. russell); connecticut,--common along the sound, frequent northward, extending along the valley of the connecticut river to the massachusetts line. south to the valley of the lower potomac in virginia; west to minnesota, east kansas, missouri, arkansas, and indian territory. =habit.=--a medium-sized tree, - feet high, with trunk diameter of - feet, occasionally reaching a height of - feet (l. w. russell), but attaining its maximum of feet in height and upward in the basins of the ohio and mississippi rivers; trunk rather slender, often fringed with short, drooping branchlets, lower tier of branches short and mostly descending, the upper long, slender, and often beset with short, lateral shoots, which give rise to the common name; head graceful, open, rounded and symmetrical when young, in old age becoming more or less irregular; foliage delicate; bright shining green in autumn, often turning to a brilliant scarlet. =bark.=--bark of trunk dark, furrowed and broken in old trees, in young trees grayish-brown, smoothish; branchlets shining, light brown. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds short, conical, acute. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, bright green, smooth and shining above, duller beneath, with tufted hairs in the angles of the veins; outline broadly obovate to ovate; lobes divergent, triangular, toothed or entire, bristle-pointed; sinuses broad, rounded; leafstalk slender; stipules linear, soon falling. =inflorescence.=--may. appearing when the leaves are half grown; sterile catkins - inches long; segments of calyx mostly or , obtuse or rounded, somewhat lacerate; stamens mostly or , anthers yellow, glabrous: pistillate flowers with broadly ovate scales; stigmas stout, red, reflexed. =fruit.=--abundant, maturing the second season, short-stemmed: cup saucer-shaped, with firm, appressed scales, shallow: acorns ovoid to globose, about / inch long, often striate, breadth sometimes equal to entire length of fruit. =horticultural value.=--probably hardy throughout new england; grows in wet soils, but prefers a rich, moist loam; of rapid and uniform growth, readily and safely transplanted, and but little disfigured by insects; obtainable in leading nurseries. propagated from the seed. [illustration: plate xlvi.--quercus palustris.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower, side view. . fertile flower, side view. . fruiting branch. =quercus ilicifolia, wang.= _quercus nana, sarg. quercus pumila, sudw._ scrub oak. bear oak. =habitat and range.=--in poor soils; sandy plains, gravelly or rocky hills. maine,--frequent in eastern and southern sections and upon mount desert island; new hampshire,--as far north as conway, more common near the lower connecticut; vermont,--in the eastern and southern sections as far north as bellows falls; massachusetts, rhode island, and connecticut,--too abundant, forming in favorable situations dense thickets, sometimes covering several acres. south to ohio and the mountain regions of north carolina and kentucky; west to the alleghany mountains. =habit.=--shrub or small tree, usually - feet high, but frequently reaching a height of - feet; trunk short, sometimes in peaty swamps - inches in diameter near the ground, branches much contorted, throwing out numerous branchlets of similar habit, forming a stiff, flattish head; beautiful for a brief week in spring by the delicate greens and reds of the opening leaves and reds and yellows of the numerous catkins. sometimes associated with _q. prinoides_. =bark.=--old trunks dark gray, with small, closely appressed scales; small trunks and branches grayish-brown, not furrowed or scaly; younger branches marked with pale yellow, raised dots; season's shoots yellowish-green, with a tawny, scurfy pubescence. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds / - / inch long, ovoid or conical, covered with imbricated, brownish, minutely ciliate scales. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long and - inches broad; when unfolding reddish above and woolly on both sides, when mature yellowish-green and somewhat glossy above, smooth except on the midrib, rusty-white, and pubescent beneath; very variable in outline and in the number ( - ) and shape of lobes, sometimes entire, oftenest obovate with bristle-tipped angular lobes, the two lower much smaller; base unequal, wedge-shaped, tip obtuse or rounded; leafstalk short; stipules linear, soon falling. =inflorescence.=--early in may. appearing when the leaves are half grown; sterile catkins - inches long; calyx pubescent, lobes oftenest - , rounded; stamens - ; anthers red or yellow: pistillate flowers numerous; calyx lobes ovate, pointed, reddish, pubescent; stigmas , reddish, recurved, spreading. =fruit.=--abundant, maturing in the autumn of the second year, clustered along the branchlets on stout, short stems: cup top-shaped or hemispherical: acorn about / inch long, varying greatly in shape, mostly ovoid or spherical, brown, often striped lengthwise. =horticultural value.=--hardy in new england; grows well in dry, gravelly, ledgy, or sandy soil, where few other trees thrive; useful in such situations where a low growth is required; but as it is not procurable in quantity from nurseries, it must be grown from the seed. the leaves are at times stripped off by caterpillars, but otherwise it is not seriously affected by insects or fungous diseases. [illustration: plate xlvii.--quercus ilicifolia.] . flowering branch. . sterile flower, side view. . fertile flowers, side view. . fruiting branch. . variant leaves. ulmaceÆ. elm family. =ulmus americana, l.= elm. american elm. white elm. =habitat and range.=--low, moist ground; thrives especially on rich intervales. from cape breton to saskatchewan, as far north as ° '. maine,--common, most abundant in central and southern portions; new hampshire,--common from the southern base of the white mountains to the sea; in the remaining new england states very common, attaining its highest development in the rich alluvium of the connecticut river valley. south to florida; west to dakota, nebraska, kansas, and texas. =habit.=--in the fullness of its vigor the american elm is the most stately and graceful of the new england trees, - feet high and - feet in diameter above the swell of the roots; characterized by an erect, more or less feathered or naked trunk, which loses itself completely in the branches, by arching limbs, drooping branchlets set at a wide angle, and by a spreading head widest near the top. modifications of these elements give rise to various well-marked forms which have received popular names. . in the vase-shaped tree, which is usually regarded as the type, the trunk separates into several large branches which rise, slowly diverging, - feet, and then sweep outward in wide arches, the smaller branches and spray becoming pendent. . in the umbrella form the trunk remains entire nearly to the top of the tree, when the branches spread out abruptly, forming a broad, shallow arch, fringed at the circumference with long, drooping branchlets. . the slender trunk of the plume elm rises, usually undivided, a considerable height, begins to curve midway, and is capped with a one-sided tuft of branches and delicate, elongated branchlets. . the drooping elm differs from the type in the height of the arch and greater droop of the branches, which sometimes sweep the ground. . in the oak form the limbs are more or less tortuous and less arching, forming a wide-spreading, rounded head. in all forms short, irregular, pendent branchlets are occasional along the trunks. the trees most noticeably feathered are usually of medium size, and have few large branches, the superfluous vitality manifesting itself in a copious fringe, which sometimes invests and obliterates the great pillars which support the masses of foliage. conspicuous at all seasons of the year,--in spring when its brown buds are swollen to bursting, or when the myriads of flowers, insignificant singly, give in the sunlight an atmosphere of purplish-brown; when clothed with light, airy masses of deep green in summer or pale yellow in autumn, or in winter when the great trunk and mighty sweep of the arching branches distinguish it from all other trees. the roots lie near the surface and run a great distance. =bark.=--dark gray, irregularly and broadly striate, rather firmly ridged, in very old trees sometimes partially detached in plates; branches ash-gray, smooth; branchlets reddish-brown; season's shoots often pubescent, light brown in late fall. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds ovate, brown, flattened, obtuse to acute, smooth. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, - inches wide, dark green and roughish above, lighter and downy at first beneath; outline ovate or oval to obovate-oblong, sharply and usually doubly serrate; apex abruptly pointed; base half acute, half rounded, produced on one side, often slightly heart-shaped or obtuse; veins straight and prominent; leafstalk stout, short; stipules small, soon falling. leaves drop in early autumn. =inflorescence.=--april. in loose lateral clusters along the preceding season's shoots; flowers brown or purplish, mostly perfect, with occasional sterile and fertile on the same tree; stems slender; calyx - -lobed, hairy or smooth; stamens - , filaments slender, anthers exserted, brownish-red; ovary flat, green, ciliate; styles . =fruit.=--ripening in may, before the leaves are fully grown, a samara, / inch in diameter, oval or ovate, smooth on both sides, hairy on the edge, the notch in the margin closed or partially closed by the two incurved points. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows in any soil, but prefers a deep, rich loam; the ideal street tree with its high, overarching branches and moderate shade; grows rapidly, throws out few low branches, bears pruning well; now so seriously affected by numerous insect enemies that it is not planted as freely as heretofore; objectionable on the borders of gardens or mowing land, as the roots run along near the surface for a great distance. very largely grown in nurseries, usually from seed, sometimes from small collected plants. though so extremely variable in outline, there are no important horticultural forms in cultivation. [illustration: plate xlviii.--ulmus americana.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . flower, side view. . fruiting branch. . mature leaf. =ulmus fulva, michx.= _ulmus pubescens, walt._ slippery elm. red elm. =habitat and range.=--rich, low grounds, low, rocky woods and hillsides. valley of the st. lawrence, apparently not abundant. maine,--district of maine (michaux, _sylva of north america_, ed. , iii, ), rare; waterborough (york county, chamberlain, ); new hampshire,--valley of the connecticut, usually disappearing within ten miles of the river; ranges as far north as the mouth of the passumpsic; vermont,--frequent; massachusetts,--rare in the eastern sections, frequent westward; rhode island.--infrequent; connecticut,--occasional. south to florida; west to north dakota and texas. =habit.=--a small or medium-sized tree, - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - - / feet; head in proportion to the height of the tree, the widest spreading of the species, characterized by its dark, hairy buds and rusty-green, dense and rough foliage. =bark.=--bark of trunk brown and in old trees deeply furrowed; larger branches grayish-brown, somewhat striate; branchlets grayish-brown, rough, marked with numerous dots, downy; season's shoots light gray and very rough; inner bark mucilaginous, hence the name "slippery elm." =winter buds and leaves.=--buds ovate to rounded-cylindrical, acute or obtuse, very dark, densely tomentose, very conspicuous just before unfolding. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, - inches wide, thickish, minutely hairy above and woolly beneath when young, at maturity pale rusty-green and very rough both ways upon the upper surface, scarcely less beneath, rough and hairy along the ribs; sweet-scented when dried; outline oblong, ovate-oblong, or oval, doubly serrate; apex acuminate; base more or less heart-shaped or obtuse, inequilateral; leafstalk short, rough, hairy; stipules small, soon falling. =inflorescence.=--march to april. preceding the leaves, from the lateral buds of the preceding season, in clusters of nearly sessile, purplish flowers; sterile, fertile, and perfect on the same tree; calyx - -lobed, downy; corolla none; stamens - , anthers dark red; ovary flattened; styles two, purple, downy. =fruit.=--a samara, winged all round, / inch in diameter, roundish, pubescent over the seed, not fringed, larger than the fruit of _u. americana_. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; does well in various situations, but prefers a light, sandy or gravelly soil near running water; grows more rapidly than _u. americana_, and is less liable to the attacks of insects; its large foliage and graceful outline make it worthy of a place in ornamental plantations. propagated from seed. [illustration: plate xlix.--ulmus fulva.] . winter buds. . flowering branch, . flower, top view. . flower, side view, part of perianth and stamens removed. . pistil. . fruiting branch. =ulmus racemosa, thomas.= cork elm. rock elm. =habitat and range.=--dry, gravelly soils, rich soils, river banks. quebec through ontario. maine,--not reported; new hampshire,--rare and extremely local; meriden and one or two other places (jessup); vermont,--rare, bennington, pownal (robbins), knowlton (brainerd), highgate (eggleston); comparatively abundant in champlain valley and westward (t. h. haskins, _garden and forest_, v, ); massachusetts,--rare; rhode island and connecticut,--not reported native. south to tennessee; west to minnesota, iowa, nebraska and missouri. =habit.=--a large tree, scarcely inferior at its best to _u. americana_, - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; reaching in southern michigan a height of feet and a diameter of feet; trunk rather slender; branches short and stout, often twiggy in the interior of the tree; branchlets slender, spreading, sometimes with a drooping tendency; head rather narrow, round-topped. =bark.=--bark of trunk brownish-gray, in old trees irregularly separated into deep, wide, flat-topped ridges; branches grayish-brown; leaf-scars conspicuous; season's shoots light brown, more or less pubescent or glabrous, oblong-dotted; branches and branchlets often marked lengthwise with corky, wing-like ridges. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds ovate to oblong, pointed, scales downy-ciliate, pubescent. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, half as wide, glabrous above, minutely pubescent beneath; outline ovate, doubly serrate (less sharp than the serratures in _u. americana_); apex acuminate; base inequilateral, produced and rounded on one side, acute or slightly rounded on the other; veins straight; leafstalk short, stout; stipules soon falling. =inflorescence.=--april to may. appearing before the leaves from lateral buds of the preceding season, in drooping racemes; calyx lobes - , broad-triangular, with rounded edges and a mostly obtuse apex: pedicels thread-like, jointed; stamens - , exserted, anthers purple, ovary -styled: stigmas recurved or spreading. =fruit.=--samara ovate, broadly oval, or obovate, pubescent, margin densely fringed, resembling fruit of _u. americana_ but somewhat larger. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; prefers a moist, rich soil, in open situations; less variable in habit than the american elm and a smaller tree with smaller foliage, scarcely varying enough to justify its extensive use as a substitute. not often obtainable in nurseries, but readily transplanted, and easily propagated from the seed. [illustration: plate l.--ulmus racemosa.] . winter buds, at the time the flowers open. . flowering branch. . flower, side view. . flower, side view, perianth and stamens partly removed. . fruiting branch. celtis occidentalis, l. hackberry. nettle tree. hoop ash. sugar berry. =habitat and range.=--in divers situations and soils; woods, river banks, near salt marshes. province of quebec to lake of the woods, occasional. maine,--not reported; new hampshire,--sparingly along the connecticut valley, as far as wells river; vermont,--along lake champlain, not common; norwich and windsor on the connecticut (eggleston); massachusetts,--occasional throughout the state; rhode island,--common (bailey); connecticut,--common (j. n. bishop). south to the gulf states; west to minnesota and missouri. =habit.=--a small or medium-sized tree, - feet high, with a trunk diameter of inches to feet; attaining farther south a maximum of feet in height, with a trunk diameter of - feet; variable; most commonly the rough, straight trunk, sometimes buttressed at the base, branches a few feet from the ground, sending out a few large limbs and numerous slender, horizontal or slightly drooping and more or less tortuous branches; head wide-spreading, flattish or often rounded, with deep green foliage which lasts into late autumn with little change in color, and with cherry-like fruit which holds on till the next spring. =bark.=--bark of trunk in young trees grayish, rough, unbroken, in old trees with deep, short ridges; main branches corrugated; secondary branches close and even; branchlets pubescent; season's shoots reddish-brown, often downy, more or less shining. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds small, ovate, acute, scales chestnut brown. leaves simple, alternate, extremely variable in size, outline, and texture, usually - inches long, two-thirds as wide, thin, deep green, and scarcely rough above, more or less pubescent beneath, with numerous and prominent veins, outline ovate to ovate-lanceolate, sharply serrate above the lower third; apex usually narrowly and sharply acuminate; base acutish, inequilateral, -nerved, entire; leafstalk slender; stipules lanceolate, soon falling. =inflorescence.=--may. appearing with the leaves from the axils of the season's shoots, sterile and fertile flowers usually separate on the same tree; flowers slender-stemmed, the sterile in clusters at the base of the shoot, the fertile in the axils above, usually solitary; calyx greenish, segments oblong; stamens - , in the fertile flowers about the length of the lobes, in the sterile exserted; ovary with two long, recurved stigmas. =fruit.=--drupes, on long slender stems, globular, about the size of the fruit of the wild red cherry, purplish-red when ripe, thin-meated, edible, lasting through the winter. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows in all well-drained soils, but prefers a deep, rich, moist loam. young trees grow rather slowly and are more or less distorted, and trees of the same age often vary considerably in size and habit; hence it is not a desirable street tree, but it appears well in ornamental grounds. a disease which seriously disfigures the tree is extending to new england, and the leaves are sometimes attacked by insects. occasionally offered by nurserymen and easily transplanted. [illustration: plate li.--celtis occidentalis.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. moraceÆ. mulberry family. =morus rubra, l.= mulberry. =habitat and range.=--banks of rivers, rich woods. canadian shore of lake erie. a rare tree in new england. maine,--doubtfully reported; new hampshire,--pemigewasset valley, white mountains (matthews); vermont,--northern extremity of lake champlain, banks of the connecticut (flagg), pownal (oakes), north pownal (eggleston); massachusetts,--rare; rhode island,--no station reported; connecticut,--rare; bristol, plainville, north guilford, east rock and norwich (j. n. bishop). south to florida; west to michigan, south dakota, and texas. =habit.=--a small tree, - feet in height, with a trunk diameter of - inches; attaining much greater dimensions in the ohio and mississippi basins; a wide-branching, rounded tree, characterized by a milky sap, rather dense foliage, and fruit closely resembling in shape that of the high blackberry. =bark.=--trunk light brown, rough, and more or less furrowed according to age; larger branches light greenish-brown; season's shoots gray and somewhat downy. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds ovate, obtuse. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, two-thirds as wide, rough above, yellowish-green and densely pubescent when young; at maturity dark green and downy beneath, turning yellow in autumn; conspicuously reticulated; outline variable, ovate, obovate, oblong or broadly oval, serrate-dentate with equal teeth, or irregularly - -lobed; apex acuminate; base heart-shaped to truncate; stalk - inches long; stipules linear, serrate, soon falling. =inflorescence.=--may. appearing with the leaves from the season's shoots, in axillary spikes, sterile and fertile flowers sometimes on the same tree, sometimes on different trees,--sterile flowers in spreading or pendulous spikes, about inch long; calyx -parted; petals none; stamens , the inflexed filaments of which suddenly straighten themselves as the flower expands: fertile spikes spreading or pendent; calyx -parted, becoming fleshy in fruit; ovary sessile; stigmas , spreading. =fruit.=--july to august. in drooping spikes about inch long and / inch in diameter; dark purplish-red, oblong, sweet and edible; apparently a simple fruit but really made up of the thickened calyx lobes of the spike. =horticultural value.=--hardy in southern new england; grows rapidly in a good, moist soil in sun or shade; the large leaves start late and drop early; useful where it is hardy, in low tree plantations or as an undergrowth in woods; readily transplanted, but seldom offered for sale by nurserymen or collectors; propagated from seed. [illustration: plate lii.--morus rubra.] . winter buds. . branch with sterile flowers. . sterile flower with stamens incurved. . sterile flower expanded. . branch with fertile flowers. . fertile flower, side view. . fruiting branch. =morus alba, l.= probably a native of china, where its leaves have from time immemorial furnished food for silkworms; extensively introduced and naturalized in india and central and southern europe; introduced likewise into the united states and canada from ontario to florida; occasionally spontaneous near dwellings, old trees sometimes marking the sites of houses that have long since disappeared. it may be distinguished from _m. rubra_ by its smooth, shining leaves, its whitish or pinkish fruit, and its greater susceptibility to frost. magnoliaceÆ. magnolia family. =liriodendron tulipifera, l.= tulip tree. whitewood. poplar. =habitat and range.=--prefers a rich, loamy, moist soil. vermont,--valley of the hoosac river in the southwestern corner of the state; massachusetts,--frequent in the connecticut river valley and westward; reported as far east as douglas, southeastern corner of worcester county (r. m. harper, _rhodora_, ii, ); rhode island and connecticut,--frequent, especially in the central and southern portions of the latter state. south to the gulf states; west to wisconsin; occasional in the eastern sections of missouri and arkansas; attains great size in the basins of the ohio and its tributaries, and southward along the mississippi river bottoms. =habit.=--a medium-sized tree, - feet high; trunk - feet in diameter, straight, cylindrical; head rather open, more or less cone-shaped, in the dense forest lifted high and spreading; branches small for the size of the tree, set at varying angles, often decurrent, becoming scraggly with age. the shapely trunk, erect, showy blossoms, green, cone-like fruit, and conspicuous bright green truncate leaves give the tulip tree an air of peculiar distinction. =bark.=--bark of trunk ashen-gray and smoothish in young trees, becoming at length dark, seamed, and furrowed; the older branches gray; the season's shoots of a shining chestnut, with minute dots and conspicuous leaf-scars; glabrous or dusty-pubescent; bark of roots pale brown, fleshy, with an agreeable aromatic smell and pungent taste. =winter buds and leaves.=--terminal buds / - inch long; narrow-oblong; flattish; covered by two chestnut-brown dotted scales, which persist as appendages at the base of the leafstalk, often enclosing several leaves which develop one after the other. leaves simple, alternate, lobed; - inches long and nearly as broad, dark green and smooth on the upper surface, lighter, with minute dusty pubescence beneath, becoming yellow and russet brown in autumn; usually with four rounded or pointed lobes, the two upper abruptly cut off at the apex, and separated by a slight indentation or notch more or less broad and shallow at the top; all the lobes entire, or - sublobed, or coarsely toothed; base truncate, acute or heart-shaped; leafstalks as long or longer than the blade, slender, enlarged at the base; stipules - inches long, pale yellow, oblong, often persisting till the leaf is fully developed. =inflorescence.=--late may or early june. flowers conspicuous, solitary, terminal, held erect by a stout stem, tulip-shaped, - / - inches long, opening at the top about inches. there are two triangular bracts which fall as the flower opens; three greenish, concave sepals, at length reflexed; six greenish-yellow petals with an orange spot near the base of each; numerous stamens somewhat shorter than the petals; and pistils clinging together about a central axis. =fruit.=--cone-like, formed of numerous carpels, often abortive, which fall away from the axis at maturity; each long, flat carpel encloses in the cavity at its base one or two orange seeds which hang out for a time on flexible, silk-like threads. =horticultural value.=--an ornamental tree of great merit; hardy except in the coldest parts of new england; difficult to transplant, but growing rapidly when established; comes into leaf rather early and holds its foliage till mid-fall, shedding it in a short time when mature; adapts itself readily to good, light soils, but grows best in moist loam. it has few disfiguring insect enemies. mostly propagated by seed, but sometimes successfully collected; for sale in the leading nurseries and usually obtainable in large quantities. of abnormal forms offered by nurserymen, one has an upright habit approaching that of the lombardy poplar; another has variegated leaves, and another leaves without lobes. [illustration: plate liii.--liriodendron tulipifera.] . winter bud, terminal. . opening leaf-bud with stipules. . flowering branch. . fruit. . fruit with many carpels removed. . carpel with seeds. lauraceÆ. laurel family. =sassafras officinale, nees.= _sassafras sassafras, karst._ sassafras. =habitat and range.=--in various soils and situations; sandy or rich woods, along the borders of peaty swamps. provinces of quebec and ontario. maine,--this tree grows not beyond black point (scarboro, cumberland county) eastward (josselyn's _new england rarities_, ); not reported again by botanists for more than two hundred years; rediscovered at wells in (walter deane) and north berwick in (j. c. parlin); new hampshire,--lower merrimac valley, eastward to the coast and along the connecticut valley to bellows falls; vermont,--occasional south of the center; pownal (robbins, eggleston); hartland and brattleboro (bates), vernon (grant); massachusetts,--common especially in the eastern sections; rhode island and connecticut,--common. south to florida; west to michigan, iowa, kansas, and texas. =habit.=--generally a shrub or small tree but sometimes reaching a height of - feet and a trunk diameter of - feet; attaining a maximum in the southern and southwestern states of - feet in height and a trunk diameter of - feet; head open, flattish or rounded; branches at varying angles, stout, crooked, and irregular; spray bushy; marked in winter by the contrasting reddish-brown of the trunk, the bright yellowish-green of the shoots and the prominent flower-buds, in early spring by the drooping racemes of yellow flowers, in autumn by the rich yellow or red-tinted foliage and handsome fruit, at all seasons by the aromatic odor and spicy flavor of all parts of the tree, especially the bark of the root. =bark.=--bark of trunk deep reddish-brown, deeply and firmly ridged in old trees, in young trees greenish-gray, finely and irregularly striate, the outer layer often curiously splitting, resembling a sort of filagree work; branchlets reddish-brown, marked with warts of russet brown; season's shoots at first minutely pubescent, in the fall more or less mottled, bright yellowish-green. =winter buds and leaves.=--flower-buds conspicuous, terminal, ovate to elliptical, the outer scales rather loose, more or less pubescent, the inner glossy, pubescent; lateral buds much smaller. leaves simple, alternate, often opposite, - inches long, two-thirds as wide, downy-tomentose when young, at maturity smooth, yellowish-green above, lighter beneath, with midrib conspicuous and minutely hairy; outline of two forms, one oval to oblong, entire, usually rounded at the apex, wedge-shaped at base; the other oval to obovate, mitten-shaped or -lobed to about the center, with rounded sinuses; apex obtuse or rounded; base wedge-shaped; leafstalk about inch long; stipules none. =inflorescence.=--april or early may. appearing with the leaves in slender, bracted, greenish-yellow, corymbous racemes, from terminal buds of the preceding season, sterile and fertile flowers on separate trees,--sterile flowers with stamens, each of the three inner with two stalked orange-colored glands, anthers -celled, ovary abortive or wanting: fertile flowers with rudimentary stamens in one row; ovary ovoid; style short. =fruit.=--generally scanty, drupes, ovoid, deep blue, with club-shaped, bright red stalk. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; adapted to a great variety of soils, but prefers a stony, well-drained loam or gravel. its irregular masses of foliage, which color so brilliantly in the fall, make it an extremely interesting tree in plantations, but it has always been rare in nurseries and difficult to transplant; suckers, however, can be moved readily. propagated easily from seed. [illustration: plate liv.--sassafras officinale.] . winter buds. . branch with sterile flowers. . sterile flower. . branch with fertile flowers. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. hamamelidaceÆ. witch hazel family. =liquidambar styraciflua, l.= sweet gum. =habitat and range.=--low, wet soil, swamps, moist woods. connecticut,--restricted to the southwest corner of the state, not far from the seacoast; darien to five mile river, probably the northeastern limit of its natural growth. south to florida; west to missouri and texas. =habit.=--tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of inches to feet, attaining a height of feet and a diameter of - feet in the ohio and mississippi valleys; trunk tall and straight; branches rather small for the diameter and height of the tree, the lower mostly horizontal or declining; branchlets beset with numerous short, rather stout, curved twigs; head wide-spreading, ovoid or narrow-pyramidal, symmetrical; conspicuous in summer by its deep green, shining foliage, in autumn by the splendor of its coloring, and in winter by the long-stemmed, globular fruit, which does not fall till spring. =bark.=--trunk gray or grayish-brown, in old trees deeply furrowed and broken up into rather small, thickish, loose scales; branches brown-gray; branchlets with or without prominent corky ridges on the upper side; young twigs yellowish. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds ovate, reddish-brown, glossy, acute. leaves simple, alternate, regular, - inches in diameter, dark green turning to reds, purples, and yellows in autumn, cut into the figure of a star by - equal, pointed lobes, glandular-serrate, smooth, shining on the upper surface, fragrant when bruised; base more or less heart-shaped; stalk slender. =inflorescence.=--may. developing from a bud of the season; sterile flowers in an erect or spreading, cylindrical catkin; calyx none; petals none, stamens many, intermixed with minute scales: fertile flowers numerous, gathered in a long peduncled head; calyx consisting of fine scales; corolla none; pistil with -celled ovary and long styles. =fruit.=--in spherical, woody heads, about inch in diameter, suspended by a slender thread: a sort of aggregate fruit made up of the hardened, coherent ovaries, holding on till spring, each containing one or two perfect seeds. =horticultural value.=--hardy along the southern shores of new england; grows in good wet or dry soils, preferring clays. young plants are tender in massachusetts, but if protected a few seasons until well established make hardy trees of medium size. it is offered by nurserymen, but must be frequently transplanted to be moved with safety; rate of growth rather slow and nearly uniform to maturity. propagated from seed. [illustration: plate lv.--liquidambar styraciflua.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. platanaceÆ. plane-tree family. =platanus occidentalis, l.= buttonwood. sycamore. buttonball. plane tree. =habitat and range.=--near streams, river bottoms, and low, damp woods. ontario. maine,--apparently restricted to york county; new hampshire,--merrimac valley towards the coast; along the connecticut as far as walpole; vermont,--scattering along the river shores, quite abundant along the hoosac in pownal (eggleston); massachusetts,--occasional; rhode island and connecticut,--rather common. south to florida; west to minnesota, nebraska, kansas, and texas. =habit.=--a tree of the first magnitude, - feet and upwards in height, with a diameter of - feet; reaching in the rich alluvium of the ohio and mississippi valleys a maximum of feet in height and a diameter of feet; the largest tree of the new england forest, conspicuous by its great height, massive trunk and branches, and by its magnificent, wide-spreading, dome-shaped or pyramidal, open head. the sunlight, streaming through the large-leafed, rusty foliage, reveals the curiously mottled patchwork bark; and the long-stemmed, globular fruit swings to every breeze till spring comes again. the lower branches are often very long and almost horizontal, and the branchlets frequently have a tufted, broom-like appearance, due probably to the action of a fungous disease on the young growth. =bark.=--bark of trunk and large branches dark greenish-gray, sometimes rough and closely adherent, but usually flaking off in broad, thin, brittle scales, exposing the green or buff inner bark, which becomes nearly white on exposure; branchlets light brown, sometimes ridgy towards the ends, marked with numerous inconspicuous dots. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds short, ovate, obtuse, enclosed in the swollen base of a petiole, and, after the fall of the leaf, encircled by the leaf-scar. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, - wide, pubescent on both sides when young, at maturity light rusty-green above, light green beneath, finally smooth, turning yellow in autumn, coriaceous; outline reniform; margin coarse-toothed or sinuate-lobed, the short lobes ending in a sharp point; base heart-shaped to nearly truncate; leafstalk - inches long, swollen at the base; stipules sheathing, often united, forming a sort of ruffle. =inflorescence.=--may. in crowded spherical heads; flowers of both kinds with insignificant calyx and corolla,--sterile heads from terminal or lateral buds of the preceding season, on short and pendulous stems; stamens few, usually , anthers -celled: fertile heads from shoots of the season, on long, slender stems, made up of closely compacted ovate ovaries with intermingled scales, ovaries surmounted by hairy one-sided recurved styles, with bright red stigmas. =fruit.=--in heads, mostly solitary, about inch in diameter, persistent till spring: nutlets small, hairy, -seeded. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; prefers a deep, rich, loamy soil near water, but grows in almost any situation; of more rapid growth than almost any other native tree, and formerly planted freely in ornamental grounds and on streets, but fungous diseases disfigure it so seriously, and the late frosts so often kill the young leaves that it is now seldom obtainable in nurseries; usually propagated from seed. the european plane, now largely grown in some nurseries, is a suitable substitute. [illustration: plate lvi.--platanus occidentalis.] . winter buds. . flowering branch with sterile and fertile heads. . stamen. . pistil. . fruiting branch. . stipule. . bud with enclosing base of leafstalk. pomaceÆ. apple family. trees or shrubs; leaves simple or pinnate, mostly alternate, with stipules free from the leafstalk and usually soon falling; flowers regular, perfect; calyx -lobed; calyx-tube adnate to ovary; petals , inserted on the disk which lines the calyx-tube; stamens usually many, distinct, inserted with the petals; carpels of the ovary - , partially or entirely united with each other; ovules - in each carpel; styles - ; fruit a fleshy pome, often berry-like or drupe-like, formed by consolidation of the carpels with the calyx-tube. pyrus. malus. amelanchier. cratÆgus. =pyrus americana, dc.= _sorbus americana, marsh._ mountain ash. =habitat and range.=--river banks, cool woods, swamps, and mountains. newfoundland to manitoba. maine,--common; new hampshire,--common along the watersheds of the connecticut and merrimac rivers and on the slopes of the white mountains; vermont,--abundant far up the slopes of the green mountains; massachusetts,--graylock, wachusett, watatic, and other mountainous regions; rare eastward; rhode island and connecticut,--occasional in the northern sections. south, in cold swamps and along the mountains to north carolina; west to michigan and minnesota. =habit.=--a small tree, - feet high, often attaining in the woods of northern maine and on the slopes of the white mountains a height of - feet, with a trunk diameter of - inches; reduced at its extreme altitudes to a low shrub; head, in open ground, pyramidal or roundish; branches spreading and slender. =bark.=--closely resembling bark of _p. sambucifolia_. =winter buds and leaves.,=--buds more or less scythe-shaped, acute, smooth, glutinous. leaves pinnately compound, alternate; stem grooved, enlarged at base, reddish-brown above; stipules deciduous; leaflets - , - inches long, bright green above, paler beneath, smooth, narrow-oblong or lanceolate, the terminal often elliptical, finely and sharply serrate above the base; apex acuminate; base roundish to acute and unequally sided; sessile or nearly so, except in the odd leaflet. =inflorescence.=--in terminal, densely compound, large and flattish cymes; calyx -lobed; petals , white, roundish, short-clawed; stamens numerous; ovary inferior; styles . =fruit.=--round, bright red, about the size of a pea, lasting into winter. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; prefers a good, well-drained soil; rate of growth slow and nearly uniform. it is readily transplanted and would be useful on the borders of woods, in plantations of low trees, and in seaside exposures. rare in nurseries and seldom for sale by collectors. the readily obtainable and more showy european _p. aucuparia_ is to be preferred for ornamental purposes. [illustration: plate lvii.--pyrus americana.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . flower with part of perianth and stamens removed. . petal. . fruiting branch. =pyrus sambucifolia, cham. & schlecht.= _sorbus sambucifolia, r[oe]m._ mountain ash. =habitat and range.=--mountain slopes, cool woods, along the shores of rivers and ponds, often associated with _p. americana_, but climbing higher up the mountains. from labrador and nova scotia west to the rocky mountains, then northward along the mountain ranges to alaska. maine,--abundant in aroostook county, piscataquis county, somerset county at least north to the moose river, along the boundary mountains, about the rangeley lakes and locally on mount desert island; new hampshire,--in the white mountain region; vermont,--mt. mansfield, willoughby mountain (pringle); undoubtedly in other sections of these states; to be looked for along the edges of deep, cool swamps and at considerable elevations. south of new england, probably only as an escape from cultivation; west through the northern tier of states to the rocky mountains, thence northward along the mountain ranges to alaska and south to new mexico and california. =habit.=--a shrub - feet high, or small tree rising to a height of - feet, reaching its maximum in northern new england, where it occasionally attains a height of - feet, with a trunk diameter of inches. it forms an open, wide-spreading, pyramidal or roundish head, resembling the preceding species in the color of bark, in foliage and fruit. whether these are two distinct species is at the present problematical, as there are many intermediate forms, and the same tree sometimes furnishes specimens that would indubitably be referred to different species. =bark.=--on old trees light brown and roughish on the trunk, separating into small scales curling up on one side; large limbs light-colored, smoothish, often conspicuously marked with coarse horizontal blotches and leaf-scars; season's shoots light brown, smooth, silvery dotted. =winter buds and leaves.=--terminal bud inch long, lateral / inch, appressed, brownish, scythe-shaped, acute, more or less glutinous. leaves pinnately compound, alternate, stems grooved and reddish above, enlarged at base; stipules deciduous; leaflets - , the odd one stalked, - inches long, / - inch wide, bright green above, paler beneath, smooth, mostly ovate-oblong, serrate above the base; apex rounded or more usually tapering suddenly to a short point, or rarely acuminate; base inequilateral. =inflorescence.=--in broad, compound cymes at the ends of the branches; flowers white and rather larger than those of _p. americanus_; calyx -lobed; petals , ovate, short-clawed; stamens numerous; pistil -styled. =fruit.=--in broad cymes; berries bright red, roundish, rather larger than those of _p. americana_, holding on till winter. =horticultural value.=--hardy in new england, though of shrub-like proportions in the southern sections; grows in exposed situations inland, and along the seashore. the dwarf habit, graceful foliage, and showy fruit give it an especial value in artificial plantations; but it is seldom for sale in nurseries and only occasionally by collectors. it is readily transplanted and is propagated by seed. =note.=--in the european mountain ash, _p. aucuparia_, the leaves have a blunter apex than is usually found in either of the american species, and have a more decided tendency to double serration. [illustration: plate lviii.--pyrus sambucifolia.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . flower with part of perianth and stamens removed. . fruiting branch. =pyrus communis, l.= pear tree. the common pear, introduced from europe; a frequent escape from cultivation throughout new england and elsewhere; becomes scraggly and shrubby in a wild state. =pyrus malus, l.= _malus malus, britton_. apple tree. the common apple; introduced from europe; a more or less frequent escape wherever extensively cultivated, like the pear showing a tendency in a wild state to reversion. =amelanchier canadensis, medic.= shadbush. june-berry. =habitat and range.=--dry, open woods, hillsides. newfoundland and nova scotia to lake superior. new england,--throughout. south to the gulf of mexico; west to minnesota, kansas, and louisiana. =habit.=--shrub or small tree, - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - inches, reaching sometimes a height of feet and trunk diameter of inches; head rather wide-spreading, slender-branched, open; conspicuous in early spring, while other trees are yet naked, by its profuse display of loose spreading clusters of white flowers, and the delicate tints of the silky opening foliage. =bark.=--trunk and large branches greenish-gray, smooth; branchlets purplish-brown, smooth. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds small, oblong-conical, pointed. leaves - - / inches long, about half as wide, slightly pubescent when young, dark bluish-green above at maturity, lighter beneath; outline varying from ovate to obovate, finely and sharply serrate; apex pointed or mucronate, often abruptly so; base somewhat heart-shaped or rounded; leafstalk about inch long; stipules slender, silky, ciliate, soon falling. =inflorescence.=--april to may. appearing with the leaves at the end of the branchlets in long, loose, spreading or drooping, nearly glabrous racemes; flowers large; calyx -cleft, campanulate, pubescent to nearly glabrous; segments lanceolate, acute, reflexed; petals , whole, narrow-oblong or oblong-spatulate, about inch long, two to three times the length of the calyx; stamens numerous: ovary with style deeply -parted. =fruit.=--june to july. in drooping racemes, globose, passing through various colors to reddish, purplish, or black purple, long-stemmed, sweet and edible without decided flavor. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows in all soils and situations except in wet lands, but prefers deep, rich, moist loam; very irregular in its habit of growth, sometimes forming a shrub, at other times a slender, unsymmetrical tree, and again a symmetrical tree with well-defined trunk. its beautiful flowers, clean growth, attractive fruit and autumn foliage make it a desirable plant in landscape plantations where it can be grouped with other trees. occasionally in nurseries; procurable from collectors. [illustration: plate lix.--amelanchier canadensis.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . flower with part of perianth and stamens removed. . fruiting branch. cratÆgus. a revision of genus _cratægus_ has long been a desideratum with botanists. the present year has added numerous new species, most of which must be regarded as provisional until sufficient time has elapsed to note more carefully the limits of variation in previously existing species and to eliminate possible hybrids. during the present period of uncertainty it seems best to exclude most of the new species from the manuals until their status has been satisfactorily established by raising plants from the seed, or by prolonged observation over wide areas. =cratægus crus-galli, l.= cockspur thorn. rich soils, edge of swamps. quebec to manitoba. found sparingly in western vermont (_flora of vermont_, ); southern connecticut (c. h. bissell). south to georgia; west to iowa. a small tree, - feet in height and - inches in trunk diameter; best distinguished by its thorns and leaves. thorns numerous, straight, long ( - inches), slender; leaves thick, smooth, dark green, shining on the upper surface, pale beneath, turning dark orange red in autumn; outline obovate-oblanceolate, serrate above, entire or nearly so near base; apex acute or rounded; base decidedly wedge-shaped shaped; leafstalks short. fruit globose or very slightly pear-shaped, remaining on the tree throughout the winter. hardy throughout southern new england; used frequently for a hedge plant. =cratægus punctata, jacq.= thickets, hillsides, borders of forests. quebec and ontario. small tree, common in vermont (brainerd) and occasional in the other new england states. south to georgia. thorns - inches long, sometimes branched; leaves - - / inches long, smooth on the upper surface, finally smooth and dull beneath; outline obovate, toothed or slightly lobed above, entire or nearly so beneath, short-pointed or somewhat obtuse at the apex, wedge-shaped at base; leafstalk slender, - inches long; calyx lobes linear, entire; fruit large, red or yellow. =cratægus coccinea, l.= in view of the fact of great variation in the bark, leaves, inflorescence, and fruit of plants that have all passed in this country as _c. coccinea_, and in view of the further uncertainty as to the plant on which the species was originally founded, it seems "best to consider the specimen in the linnæan herbarium as the type of _c. coccinea_ which can be described as follows: "leaves elliptical or on vigorous shoots mostly semiorbicular, acute or acuminate, divided above the middle into numerous acute coarsely glandular-serrate lobes, cuneate and finely glandular-serrate below the middle and often quite entire toward the base, with slender midribs and remote primary veins arcuate and running to the points of the lobes, at the flowering time membranaceous, coated on the upper surface and along the upper surface of the midribs and veins with short soft white hairs, at maturity thick, coriaceous, dark green and lustrous on the upper surface, paler on the lower surface, glabrous or nearly so, - / - inches long and - - / inches wide, with slender glandular petioles / - inch long, slightly grooved on the upper surface, often dark red toward the base, and like the young branchlets villous with pale soft hairs; stipules lanceolate to oblanceolate, conspicuously glandular-serrate with dark red glands, / - / inch long. flowers / - / inch in diameter when fully expanded, in broad, many-flowered, compound tomentose cymes; bracts and bractlets linear-lanceolate, coarsely glandular-serrate, caducous; calyx tomentose, the lobes lanceolate, glandular-serrate, nearly glabrous or tomentose, persistent, wide-spreading or erect on the fruit, dark red above at the base; stamens ; anthers yellow; styles or . fruit subglobose, occasionally rather longer than broad, dark crimson, marked with scattered dark dots, about / inch in diameter, with thin, sweet, dry yellow flesh; nutlets or , about / inch long, conspicuously ridged on the back with high grooved ridges. "a low, bushy tree, occasionally feet in height with a short trunk - inches in diameter, or more frequently shrubby and forming wide dense thickets, and with stout more or less zigzag branches bright chestnut brown and lustrous during their first year, ashy-gray during their second season and armed with many stout, chestnut-brown, straight or curved spines - - / inches long. flowers late in may. fruit ripens and falls toward the end of october, usually after the leaves. "slopes of hills and the high banks of salt marshes usually in rich, well-drained soil, essex county, massachusetts, john robinson, ; gerrish island, maine, j. g. jack, - ; brunswick, maine, miss kate furbish, may, ; newfoundland, a. c. waghorne, ."[ ] [footnote : prof. c. s. sargent in _bot. gaz._, xxxi, . by permission of the publishers.] =cratægus mollis, scheele.= _cratægus subvillosa, schr. cratægus coccinea,_ var. _mollis, t. & g._ thorn. =habitat and range.=--bordering on low lands and along streams. provinces of quebec and ontario. maine,--as far north as mattawamkeag on the middle penobscot, dover on the piscataquis, and orono on the lower penobscot; reported also from southern sections; vermont,--charlotte (hosford); massachusetts,--in the eastern part infrequent; no stations reported in the other new england states. south to pennsylvania, louisiana, and texas; west to michigan and missouri. =habit.=--shrub or often a small tree, - feet high, with trunk - inches in diameter, often with numerous suckers; branches at - feet from the ground, at an acute angle with the stem, lower often horizontal or declining; head spreading, widest at base, spray short, angular, and bushy; thorns slender, - inches long, straight or slightly recurved. =bark.=--bark of the whole tree, except the ultimate shoots, light gray, on the trunk and larger branches separating lengthwise into thin narrow plates, in old trees dark gray and more or less shreddy; season's shoots reddish or yellowish-brown, glossy. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds small, ovate, reddish-brown, shining; scales broad, glandular-edged. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, light green above, lighter beneath, broad-ovate to broad-elliptical; rather regularly and slightly incised with fine, glandular-tipped teeth; apex acute; base wedge-shaped, truncate, or subcordate; roughish above and slightly pubescent beneath, especially along the veins; leaf-stalk pubescent; stipules linear, glandular-edged, deciduous. =inflorescence.=--may to june. in cymes from the season's growth; flowers white, / inch broad, ill-smelling; calyx lobes , often incised, pubescent; petals roundish; stamens indefinite, styles - ; flower stems pubescent; bracts glandular. =fruit.=--a drupe-like pome, / - inch long, bright scarlet, larger than the fruit of the other new england species; ripens and falls in september. =horticultural value.=--hardy in new england. an attractive and useful tree in low plantations; rarely for sale by nurserymen or collectors; propagated from the seed. [illustration: plate lx.--cratægus mollis.] . winter buds. . branch with thorns. . flowering branch. . flower with part of perianth and stamens removed. . fruiting branch. =note.=--the new england plants here put under the head of _cratægus mollis_ have been referred by prof. c. s. sargent to _cratægus submollis_ (_bot. gaz_., xxxi, , ). the new species differs from the true _cratægus mollis_ in its smaller ovate leaves with cuneate base and more or less winged leafstalk, in the smaller number of its stamens, usually , and in its pear-shaped orange-red fruit, which drops in early september. it is also probable that _c. arnoldiana_, sargent, new species, has been collected in massachusetts as _c. mollis_. it differs from _c. submollis_ "in its broader, darker green, more villose leaves which are usually rounded, not cuneate at the base, in its smaller flowers, subglobose, not oblong or pear-shaped, crimson fruit with smaller spreading calyx lobes, borne on shorter peduncles and ripening two or three weeks earlier, and by its much more zigzag and more spiny branches, which make this tree particularly noticeable in winter, when it may readily be recognized from all other thorn trees."--c. s. sargent in _bot. gaz._, xxxi, , . drupaceÆ. plum family. trees or shrubs; bark exuding gum; bark, leaves, and especially seeds of several species abounding in prussic acid; leaves simple, alternate, mostly serrate; stipules small, soon falling; leafstalk often with one to several glands; flowers in umbels, racemes, or solitary, regular; calyx tube free from the ovary, -lobed; petals , inserted on the calyx; stamens indefinite, distinct, inserted with the petals; pistil , ovary with carpel, -seeded; fruit a more or less fleshy drupe. =prunus nigra, ait.= _prunus americana_, var. _nigra, waugh._ wild plum. red plum. horse plum. canada plum. =habitat and range.=--native along streams and in thickets, often spontaneous around dwellings and along fences. from newfoundland through the valley of the st. lawrence to lake manitoba. maine,--abundant in the northern sections and common throughout; new hampshire and vermont,--frequent, especially in the northern sections; massachusetts,--occasional; rhode island and connecticut,--not reported. rare south of new england; west to wisconsin. =habit.=--a shrub or small tree, - feet high; trunk - inches in diameter; branches stout, ascending, somewhat angular, with short, rigid branchlets, forming a stiff, narrow head. =bark.=--bark of trunk grayish-brown, smooth in young trees, in old trees separating into large plates; smaller branches dark brown, season's shoots green. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds small, ovate, acute, dark brown. leaves - inches long, light green on the upper side, paler beneath, pubescent when young; outline ovate-obovate or orbicular, crenulate-serrate; teeth not bristle-tipped; apex abruptly acuminate; base wedge-shaped, rounded, somewhat heart-shaped, or narrowing to a short petiole more or less red-glandular near the blade; stipules usually linear, ciliate, soon falling. =inflorescence.=--appearing in may before the leaves, in lateral, - -flowered, slender-stemmed umbels; flowers about an inch broad, white when expanding, turning to pink; calyx -lobed, glandular; petals , obovate-oblong, contracting to a claw; stamens numerous; style , stigma . =fruit.=--a drupe, oblong-oval, - - / inches long, orange or orange-red, skin tough, flesh adherent to the flat stone and pleasant to the taste. the fruit toward the southern limit of the species is often abortive, or develops through the growth of a fungus into monstrous forms. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england, and will grow, when not shaded, in almost any dry or moist soil. it has a tendency to sucker freely, forming low, broad thickets, especially attractive from their early spring flowers and handsome autumn leaves. [illustration: plate lxi.--prunus nigra.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . flower with petals removed. . petal. . fruiting branch. . stone. =prunus americana, marsh.= a rare plant in new england, scarcely attaining tree-form. the most northern station yet reported is along the slopes of graylock, massachusetts, where a few scattered shrubs were discovered in (j. r. churchill). in connecticut it seems to be native in the vicinity of southington, shrubs, and small trees - feet high (c. h. bissell _in lit._, ); new milford and munroe, small trees (c. k. averill). distinguished from _p. nigra_ by its sharply toothed leaves, smaller blossoms (the petals of which do not turn pink), and by its globose fruit. [illustration: plate lxii.--prunus americana.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . flower with part of perianth and stamens removed. . petal. . flowering branch. . stone. =prunus pennsylvanica, l. f.= red cherry. pin cherry. pigeon cherry. bird cherry. =habitat and range.=--roadsides, clearings, burnt lands, hill slopes, occasional in rather low grounds. from labrador to the rocky mountains, through british columbia to the coast range. throughout new england; very common in the northern portions, as high up as feet upon katahdin, less common southward and near the seacoast. south to north carolina; west to minnesota and missouri. =habit=.--a slender tree, seldom more than feet high; trunk - inches in diameter, erect; branches at an angle of ° or less; head rather open, roundish or oblong, characterized in spring by clusters of long-stemmed white flowers, and in autumn by a profusion of small red fruit. =bark.=--bark of trunk in fully grown trees dark brownish-red, conspicuously marked with coarse horizontal lines; the outer layer peeling off in fine scales, disclosing a brighter red layer beneath; in young trees very smooth and shining throughout; lines very conspicuous in the larger branches; branchlets brownish-red with small horizontal lines; spray and season's shoots polished red, with minute orange dots. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds small, broad-conical, acute. leaves numerous, - inches long, - inches wide, light green and shining on both sides, ovate-lanceolate, oval or oblong-lanceolate, finely serrate; teeth sharp-pointed, sometimes incurved; apex acuminate; base obtuse or roundish; midrib depressed above; leafstalks short, channeled; stipules falling early. =inflorescence.=--june. appearing with the leaves, in lateral clusters, the flowers on long, slender, somewhat branching stems; calyx -cleft; segments thin, reflexed; petals , white, obovate, short-clawed; stamens numerous; pistil ; style . =fruit.=--about the size of a pea, round, light red, thin-meated and sour: stone oval or ovate. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; prefers a light gravelly loam, but grows in poor soils and exposed situations; habit so uncertain and tendency to sprout so decided that it is not wise to use it in ornamental plantations; sometimes very useful in sterile land. a variety with transparent yellowish fruit is occasionally met with, but is not yet in cultivation. [illustration: plate lxiii.--prunus pennsylvanica.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . flower with part of perianth and stamens removed. . petal. . fruiting branch. =prunus virginiana, l.= chokecherry. =habitat and range.=--in varying soils; along river banks, on dry plains, in woods, common along walls, often thickets. from newfoundland across the continent, as far north on the mackenzie river as °. common throughout new england; at an altitude of feet upon mt. katahdin. south to georgia; west to minnesota and texas. =habit.=--usually a shrub a few feet high, but occasionally a tree - feet in height, with a trunk diameter of - inches; head, in open places, spreading, somewhat symmetrical, with dull foliage, but very attractive in flower and fruit, the latter variable in color and quantity. =bark.=--trunk and branches dull gray, darker on older trees, rough with raised buff-orange spots; branchlets dull grayish or reddish brown; season's shoots lighter, minutely dotted. bitter to the taste. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds - - / inches long, conical, sharp-pointed, brown, slightly divergent from the stem. leaves - inches long and two-thirds as wide, dull green on the upper side, lighter beneath, obovate or oblong, thin, finely, sharply, and often doubly serrate; apex abruptly pointed; base roundish, obtuse or slightly heart-shaped; leafstalk round, grooved, with two or more glands near base of leaf; stipules long, narrow, ciliate, falling when the leaves expand. =inflorescence.=--appearing in may, a week earlier than _p. serotina_, terminating lateral, leafy shoots of the season in numerous handsome, erect or spreading racemes, - inches long; flowers short-stemmed, about / inch across; petals white, roundish; edge often eroded; calyx -cleft with thin reflexed lobes, soon falling; stamens numerous; pistil ; style . =fruit.=--in drooping racemes; varying from yellow to nearly black, commonly bright red, edible, but more or less astringent; stem somewhat persistent after the cherry falls. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows in almost any soil, but prefers a deep, rich, moist loam. vigorous young trees are attractive, but in new england they soon begin to show dead branches, and are so seriously affected by insects and fungous diseases that it is not wise to use them in ornamental plantations, or to permit them to remain on the roadside. [illustration: plate lxiv.--prunus virginia.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . flower with part of perianth and stamens removed. . a petal. . fruiting branch. =prunus serotina, ehrh.= rum cherry. black cherry. =habitat and range.=--in all sorts of soils and exposures; open places and rich woods. nova scotia to lake superior. maine,--not reported north of oldtown (penobscot county); frequent throughout the other new england states. south to florida; west to north dakota, kansas, and texas, extending through mexico, along the pacific coast of central america to peru. =habit.=--usually a medium-sized tree, - feet in height, with a trunk diameter varying from or inches to feet; attaining much greater dimensions in the middle and southern states; branches few, large, often tortuous, subdividing irregularly; head open, widest near the base, rather ungraceful when naked, but very attractive when clothed with bright green, polished foliage, profusely decked with white flowers, or laden with drooping racemes of handsome black fruit. =bark.=--bark of trunk deep reddish-brown and smooth in young trees, in old trees very rough, separating into close, thick, irregular, blackish scales; branches dark reddish-brown, marked with small oblong, raised dots. bitter to the taste. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds ovate, / inch long, covered with imbricated brown scales. leaves - inches long, about half as wide, dark green above and glossy when full grown, paler below, turning in autumn to orange, deep red, or pale yellow, firm, smooth on both sides, elliptical, oblong, or lanceolate-oblong; finely serrate with short, incurved teeth; apex sharp; base acute or roundish; meshes of veins minute; petioles / inch long, with usually two or more glands near the base of the leaf; stipules glandular-edged, falling as the leaf expands. =inflorescence.=--may to june. from new leafy shoots, in simple, loose racemes, - inches long; flowers small; calyx with short teeth separated by shallow sinuses, persistent after the cherry falls; petals , spreading, white, obovate; stamens numerous; pistil one; style single. =fruit.=--september. somewhat flattened vertically, / inch in diameter; purplish-black, edible, slightly bitter. =horticultural value.=--hardy in new england; in rich soil in open situations young trees grow very rapidly, old trees rather slowly. seldom used for ornamental purposes, but serves well as a nurse tree for forest plantations, or where quick results and a luxurious foliage effect is desired, on inland exposures or near the seacoast. the branches are very liable to disfigurement by the black-knot and the foliage by the tent-caterpillar. large plants are seldom for sale, but seedlings may be obtained in large quantities and at low prices. a weeping horticultural form is occasionally offered. propagated from seed. [illustration: plate lxv.--prunus serotina.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . flower with part of perianth and stamens removed. . a petal. . fruiting branch. . mature leaf. =prunus avium, l.= mazard cherry. introduced from england; occasionally spontaneous along fences and the borders of woodlands. as an escape, - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; head oblong or ovate; branches mostly ascending. leaves ovate to obovate, more or less pubescent beneath, serrate, - inches long; leafstalk about / inch long, often glandular near base of leaf; inflorescence in umbels; flowers white, expanding with the leaves; fruit dark red, sweet, mostly inferior or blighted. leguminosÆ. pulse family. =gleditsia triacanthos, l.= honey locust. three-thorned acacia. =habitat and range.=--in its native habitat growing in a variety of soils; rich woods, mountain sides, sterile plains. southern ontario. maine,--young trees in the southern sections said to have been produced from self-sown seed (m. l. fernald); new hampshire and vermont,--introduced; massachusetts,--occasional; rhode island,--introduced and fully at home (j. f. collins); connecticut,--not reported. probably sparingly naturalized in many other places in new england. spreading by seed southward; indigenous along the western slopes of the alleghanies in pennsylvania; south to georgia and alabama; west from western new york through southern ontario (canada) and michigan to nebraska, kansas, indian territory, and texas. =habit.=--a medium-sized tree, reaching a height of - feet and a trunk diameter of - feet; becoming a tree of the first magnitude in the river bottoms of ohio, kentucky, and tennessee; trunk dark and straight, the upper branches going off at an acute angle, the lower often horizontal, both trunk and larger branches armed above the axils with stout, sharp-pointed, simple, three-pronged or numerously branched thorns, sometimes clustered in forbidding tangles a foot or two in length; head wide-spreading, very open, rounded or flattish, with extremely delicate, fern-like foliage lying in graceful planes or masses; pods flat and pendent, conspicuous in autumn. =bark.=--trunk and larger branches a sombre iron gray, deepening on old trees almost to black; yellowish-brown in second year's growth; season's shoots green, marked with short buff, longitudinal lines; branchlets rough-dotted. =winter buds and leaves.=--winter buds minute, in clusters of three or four, the upper the largest. leaves compound, once to twice pinnate, both forms often in the same leaf, alternate, inches to foot long, rachis abruptly enlarged at base and covering the winter buds: leaflets - , / - - / inches long, about one-third as wide, yellowish-green when unfolding, turning to dark green above, slightly lighter beneath, yellow in autumn; outline lanceolate, oblong to oval, obscurely crenulate-serrate; apex obtuse, scarcely mucronate; base mostly rounded; leafstalks and leaves downy, especially when young. =inflorescence.=--early june. from lateral or terminal buds on the old wood, in slender, pendent, greenish racemes scarcely distinguishable among the young leaves; sterile and fertile flowers on different trees or on the same tree and even in the same cluster; calyx somewhat campanulate, - -cleft; petals - , somewhat wider than the sepals, and inserted with the - stamens on the calyx: pistil in sterile flowers abortive or wanting, conspicuous in the fertile flowers. parts of the flower more or less pubescent, arachnoid-pubescent within, near the base. =fruit.=--pods dull red, - - / feet long, flat, pendent, and often twisted, containing several flat brown seeds. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england, grows in any well-drained soil, but prefers a deep, rich loam; transplants readily, grows rapidly, is long-lived, free from disease, and makes a picturesque object in ornamental plantations, but is objectionable in public places and highly finished grounds on account of the stiff spines, which are a source of danger to pedestrians, and also on account of the long strap-shaped pods, which litter the ground. there is a thornless form which is better adapted than the type for ornamental purposes. the type is sometimes offered in nurseries at a low price by the quantity. propagated from seed. [illustration: plate lxvi.--gleditsia triacanthos.] . winter buds. . winter buds with thorns. . flowering branch. . sterile flower, enlarged. . flowering branch, flowers mostly fertile. . fertile flower, enlarged. . fruiting branch. . leaf partially twice pinnate. =robinia pseudacacia, l.= locust. =habitat and range.=--in its native habitat growing upon mountain slopes, along the borders of forests, in rich soils. naturalized from nova scotia to ontario. maine,--thoroughly at home, forming wooded banks along streams; new hampshire,--abundant enough to be reckoned among the valuable timber trees; vermont,--escaped from cultivation in many places; massachusetts, rhode island, and connecticut,--common in patches and thickets and along the roadsides and fences. native from southern pennsylvania along the mountains to georgia; west to iowa and southward. =habit.=--mostly a small tree, - feet high, under favorable conditions reaching a height of - feet; trunk diameter inches to / feet; lower branches thrown out horizontally or at a broad angle, forming a few-branched, spreading top, clothed with a tender green, delicate, tremulous foliage, and distinguished in early june by loose, pendulous clusters of white fragrant flowers. =bark.=--bark of trunk dark, rough and seamy even in young trees, and armed with stout prickles which disappear as the tree matures; in old trees coarsely, deeply, and firmly ridged, not flaky; larger branches a dull brown, rough; branchlets grayish-brown, armed with prickles; season's shoots green, more or less rough-dotted, thin, and often striped. =winter buds and leaves.=--winter buds minute, partially sunken within the leaf-scar. leaves pinnately compound, alternate; petiole swollen at the base, covering bud of the next season; often with spines in the place of stipules; leaflets - , opposite or scattered, / - - / inches long, about half as wide, light green; outline ovate or oval-oblong; apex round or obtuse, tipped with a minute point; base truncate, rounded, obtuse or acutish; distinctly short-stalked; stipellate at first. =inflorescence.=--late may or early june. showy and abundant, in loose, pendent, axillary racemes; calyx short, bell-shaped, -cleft, the two upper segments mostly coherent; corolla shaped like a pea blossom, the upper petal large, side petals obtuse and separate; style and stigma simple. =fruit.=--a smooth, dark brown, flat pod, about inches long, containing several small brown flattish seeds, remaining on the tree throughout the winter. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england in all dry, sunny situations, of rapid growth, spreading by underground stems, ordinarily short-lived and subject to serious injury by the attacks of borers. occasionally procurable in large quantities at a low rate. in europe there are many horticultural forms, a few of which are occasionally offered in american nurseries. the type is propagated from seed, the forms by grafting. [illustration: plate lxvii.--robinia pseudacacia.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . flower with corolla removed. . fruiting branch. =robinia viscosa, vent.= clammy locust. this tree appears to be sparingly established in southern canada and at many points throughout new england. common in cultivation and occasionally established through the middle states; native from virginia along the mountains of north carolina, south carolina, and georgia. easily distinguished from _r. pseudacacia_ by its smaller size, glandular, viscid branchlets, later period of blossoming, and by its more compact, usually upright, scarcely fragrant, rose-colored flower-clusters. simarubaceÆ. ailanthus family. =ailanthus glandulosus, desf.= ailanthus. tree-of-heaven. chinese sumac. sparsely and locally naturalized in southern ontario, new england, and southward. a native of china; first introduced into the united states on an extensive scale in at flushing, long island; afterwards disseminated by nursery plants and by seed distributed from the agricultural department at washington. its rapid growth, ability to withstand considerable variations in temperature, and its dark luxuriant foliage made it a great favorite for shade and ornament. it was planted extensively in philadelphia and new york, and generally throughout the eastern sections of the country. when these trees began to fill the ground with suckers and the vile-scented sterile flowers poisoned the balmy air of june and the water in the cisterns, occasioning many distressing cases of nausea, a reaction set in and hundreds of trees were cut down. the female trees, against the blossoms of which no such objection lay, were allowed to grow, and have often attained a height of - feet, with a trunk diameter of - feet. the fruit is very beautiful, consisting of profuse clusters of delicate pinkish or greenish keys. the tree is easily distinguished by its ill-scented compound leaves, often - feet long, by the numerous leaflets, sometimes exceeding , each ovate, or ovate-lanceolate, with one or two teeth near the base, by its vigorous growth from suckers, and in winter by the coarse, blunt shoots and conspicuous, heart-shaped leaf-scars. anacardiaceÆ. sumac family. =rhus typhina, l.= _rhus hirta, sudw._ staghorn sumac. =habitat and range.=--in widely varying soils and localities; river banks, rocky slopes to an altitude of feet, cellar-holes and waste places generally, often forming copses. from nova scotia to lake huron. common throughout new england. south to georgia; west to minnesota and missouri. =habit.=--a shrub, or small tree, rarely exceeding feet in height; trunk - inches in diameter; branches straggling, thickish, mostly crooked when old; branchlets forked, straight, often killed at the tips several inches by the frost; head very open, irregular, characterized by its velvety shoots, ample, elegant foliage, turning in early autumn to rich yellows and reds, and by its beautiful, soft-looking crimson cones. =bark.=--bark of trunk light brown, mottled with gray, becoming dark brownish-gray and more or less rough-scaly in old trees; the season's shoots densely covered with velvety hairs, like the young horns of deer (giving rise to the common name), the pubescence disappearing after two or three years; the extremities dotted with minute orange spots which enlarge laterally in successive seasons, giving a roughish feeling to the branches. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds roundish, obtuse, densely covered with tawny wool, sunk within a large leaf-scar. leaves pinnately compound, - feet long; stalk hairy, reddish above, enlarged at base covering the axillary bud; leaflets - , mostly in opposite pairs, the middle pair longest, nearly sessile except the odd one, - inches long; dark green above, light and often downy beneath; outline narrow to broad-oblong or broad-lanceolate, usually serrate, rarely laciniate, long-pointed, slightly heart-shaped or rounded at base; stipules none. =inflorescence.=--june to july. flowers in dense terminal, thyrsoid panicles, often a foot in length and - inches wide; sterile and fertile mostly on separate trees, but sterile, fertile, and perfect occasionally on the same tree; calyx small, the hairy, ovate-lanceolate sepals united at the base and, in sterile flowers, about half the length of the usually recurved petals; stamens , somewhat exserted; ovary abortive, smooth; in the fertile flowers the sepals are nearly as long as the upright petals; stamens short; ovary pubescent, -celled, with short styles and spreading stigmas. =fruit.=--in compound terminal panicles, - or inches long, made up of small, dryish, smooth-stoned drupes densely covered with acid, crimson hairs, persistent till spring. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england. grows in any well-drained soil, but prefers a deep, rich loam. the vigorous growth, bold, handsome foliage, and freedom from disease make it desirable for landscape plantations. it spreads rapidly from suckers, a single plant becoming in a few years the center of a broad-spreading group. seldom obtainable in nurseries, but collected plants transplant easily. the cut-leaved form is cultivated in nurseries for the sake of its exceedingly graceful and delicate foliage. [illustration: plate lxviii.--rhus typhina.] . winter buds. . branch with staminate flowers. . staminate flower. . branch with pistillate flowers. . pistillate flower. . fruit cluster. . fruit. =rhus vernix, l.= _rhus venenata, dc._ dogwood. poison sumac. poison elder. =habitat and range.=--low grounds and swamps; occasional on the moist slopes of hills. infrequent in ontario. maine,--local and apparently restricted to the southwestern sections; as far north as chesterville (franklin county); vermont,--infrequent; common throughout the other new england states, especially near the seacoast. south to northern florida; west to minnesota and louisiana. =habit.=--- a handsome shrub or small tree, - feet high; trunk sometimes - inches in diameter; broad-topped in the open along the edge of swamps; conspicuous in autumn by its richly colored foliage and diffusely panicled, pale, yellowish-white fruit. =bark.=--trunk and branches mottled gray, roughish with round spots; branchlets light brown; season's shoots reddish at first, turning later to gray, thickly beset with rough yellowish warts; leaf-scars prominent, triangular. =buds and leaves.=--buds small, roundish. leaves pinnately compound, alternate; rachis abruptly widened at base; leaflets - , opposite, short-stalked except the odd one, - inches long, - inches wide, smooth, light green and mostly glossy when young, becoming dark green and often dull, obovate to oval or ovate; entire, often wavy-margined; apex acute, acuminate, or obtuse; base mostly obtuse or rounded; veins prominent, often red; stipules none. =inflorescence.=--early in july. near the tips of the branches, in loose, axillary clusters of small greenish flowers; sterile, fertile, and perfect flowers on the same tree, or occasionally sterile and fertile on separate trees; calyx deeply -parted, divisions ovate, acute; petals , oblong; stamens , exserted in the sterile flowers; ovary globose, styles . =fruit.=--drupes about as large as peas, smooth, more or less glossy, whitish; stone ridged; strongly resembling the fruit of _r. toxicodendron_ (poison ivy). =horticultural value.=--no large shrub or small tree, so attractive as this, does so well in wet ground; it grows also in any good soil, but it is seldom advisable to use it, on account of its noxious qualities. it can be obtained only from collectors of native plants. =note.=--this sumac has the reputation of being the most poisonous of new england plants. the treacherous beauty of its autumn leaves is a source of grief to collectors. many are seriously affected, without actual contact, by the exhalation of vapor from the leaves, by grains of pollen floating in the air, and even by the smoke of the burning wood. it is easily distinguished from the other sumacs. the leaflets are not toothed like those of _r. typhina_ (staghorn sumac) and _r. glabra_ (smooth sumac); it is not pubescent like _r. typhina_ and _r. copallina_ (dwarf sumac); the rachis of the compound leaf is not wing-margined as in _r. copallina_; the panicles of flower and fruit are not upright and compact, but drooping and spreading; the fruit is not red-dotted with dense crimson hairs, but is smooth and whitish. unlike the other sumacs, it grows for the most part in lowlands and swamps. in the vicinity of southington, southern connecticut, _rhus copallina_ is occasionally found with a trunk or inches in diameter (c. h. bissell). [illustration: plate lxix.--rhus vernix.] . winter buds. . branch with sterile flowers. . sterile flower. . branch with fertile flowers. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. aquifoliaceÆ. holly family. =ilex opaca, ait.= holly. american holly. =habitat and range.=--generally found in somewhat sheltered situations in sandy loam or in low, moist soil in the vicinity of water. maine,--reported on the authority of gray's _manual_, sixth edition, in various botanical works, but no station is known; new hampshire and vermont,--no station reported; massachusetts,--occasional from quincy southward upon the mainland and the island of naushon; rare in the peat swamps of nantucket; rhode island,--common in south kingston and little compton and sparingly found upon prudence and conanicut islands in narragansett bay; connecticut,--mostly restricted to the southwestern sections. southward to florida; westward to missouri and the bottom-lands of eastern texas. =habit.=--a shrub or small tree, exceptionally reaching a height of feet, with a trunk diameter of - inches, but attaining larger proportions south and west; head conical or dome-shaped, compact; branches irregular, mostly horizontal, clothed with a spiny evergreen foliage. the fertile trees are readily distinguished through late fall and early winter by the conspicuous red berries. =bark.=--bark of trunk thick, smooth on young trees, roughish, dotted on old, of a nearly uniform ash-gray on trunk and branches; the young shoots more or less downy, bright greenish-yellow, becoming smooth and grayish at the end of the season. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds short, roundish, generally obtuse, scales minutely ciliate. leaves evergreen, simple, alternate, - inches long, - / - inches wide, flat when compared with those of the european holly, thickish, smooth on both sides, yellowish-green, scarcely glossy on the upper surface, paler beneath, elliptical, oval or oval-oblong; apex acutish, spine-tipped; base acutish or obtuse; margin wavy and concave between the large spiny teeth, sometimes with one or two teeth or entire; midrib prominent beneath; leafstalks short, grooved; stipules minute, awl-shaped, becoming blackish, persistent. =inflorescence.=--flowers in june along the base of the season's shoots; sterile and fertile flowers usually on separate trees,--the sterile in loose, few-flowered clusters, the fertile mostly solitary; peduncles and pedicels slender, bracted midway; calyx persistent, with pointed, ciliate teeth; corolla white, monopetalous, with roundish, oblong divisions; stamens , alternating with and shorter than the lobes of the corolla in the fertile flowers, but longer in the sterile; ovary green, nearly cylindrical, surmounted by the sessile, -lobed stigma. parts of the flower sometimes in fives or sixes. =fruit.=--a dull red, berry-like drupe, with nutlets, ribbed or grooved on the convex back, ripening late, and persistent into winter. a yellow-fruited form reported at new bedford, mass. (_rhodora_, iii, ). =horticultural value.=--hardy in southern new england; though preferring moist, gravelly loam, it does fairly well in dry soil; of slow growth; useful to form low plantation in shade and to enrich the undergrowth of woods; occasionally sold by collectors but rare in nurseries; nursery plants must be frequently transplanted to be moved successfully; only a small percentage of ordinary collected plants live. the seed seldom germinates in less than two years. =notes.=--the cultivated european holly, which the american tree closely resembles, may be distinguished by its deeper green, glossier, and more wave-margined leaves and the deeper red of its berries. "there are several fine specimens of the _ilex opaca_ on the farm of col. minot thayer in braintree, mass., which are about a foot in diameter a yard above the ground and feet in height. they have maintained their present dimensions for more than fifty years."--d. t. browne's _trees of north america_, published in . this estate is now owned by mr. thomas a. watson. several of these trees have been cut down, but one of them is still standing and of substantially the dimensions given above. it must have reached the limit of growth a hundred years ago and now shows very evident signs of decrepitude. this may be due, however, to the loss of a square foot or more of bark from the trunk. [illustration: plate lxx.--ilex opaca.] . branch with staminate flowers. . staminate flower. . pistillate flower. . fruiting branch. aceraceÆ. maple family. =acer rubrum, l.= red maple. swamp maple. soft maple. white maple. =habitat and range.=--borders of streams, low lands, wet forests, swamps, rocky hillsides. nova scotia to the lake of the woods. common throughout new england from the sea to an altitude of feet on katahdin. south to southern florida; west to dakota, nebraska, and texas. =habit.=--a medium-sized tree, - feet high, rising occasionally in swamps to a height of - feet; trunk - feet in diameter, throwing out limbs at varying angles a few feet from the ground; branches and branchlets slender, forming a bushy spray, the tips having a slightly upward tendency; head compact, in young trees usually rounded and symmetrical, widest just above the point of furcation. in the first warm days of spring there shimmers amid the naked branches a faint glow of red, which at length becomes embodied in the abundant scarlet, crimson, or yellow of the long flowering stems; succeeded later by the brilliant fruit, which is outlined against the sober green of the foliage till it pales and falls in june. the colors of the autumn leaves vie in splendor with those of the sugar maple. =bark.=--in young trees smooth and light gray, becoming very dark and ridgy in large trunks, the surface separating into scales, and in very old trees hanging in long flakes; young shoots often bright red in autumn, conspicuously marked with oblong white spots. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds aggregated at or near the ends of the preceding year's shoots, about / inch long; protected by dark reddish scales; inner scales lengthening with the growth of the shoot. leaves simple, opposite, - inches long, green and smooth above, lighter and more or less pubescent beneath, especially along the veins; turning crimson or scarlet in early autumn; ovate, - -lobed, the middle lobe generally the longest, the lower pair (when lobes are present) the smallest; unequally sharp-toothed, with broad, acute sinuses; apex acute; base heart-shaped, truncate, or obtuse; leafstalk - inches long. the leaves of the red maple vary greatly in size, outline, lobing, and shape of base. =inflorescence.=--april - . appearing before the leaves in close clusters encircling the shoots of the previous year, varying in color from dull red or pale yellow to scarlet; the sterile and fertile flowers mostly in separate clusters, sometimes on the same tree, but more frequently on different trees; calyx lobes oblong and obtuse; petals linear-oblong; pedicels short; stamens - , much longer than the petals in the sterile and about the same length in the fertile flowers; the smooth ovary surmounted by a style separating into two much-projecting stigmatic lobes. =fruit.=--fruit ripe in june, hanging on long stems, varying from brown to crimson; keys about an inch in length, at first convergent, at maturity more or less divergent. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; found in a wider range of soils than any other species of the genus, but seeming to prefer a gravelly or peaty loam in positions where its roots can reach a constant supply of moisture. it is more variable than any other of the native maples and consequently is not so good a tree for streets, where a symmetrical outline and uniform habit are required. it is transplanted readily, but recovers its vigor more slowly than does the sugar or silver maple and is usually of slower growth. its variable habit makes it an exceedingly interesting tree in the landscape. [illustration: plate lxxi.--acer rubrum.] . leaf-buds. . flower-buds. . branch with sterile flowers. . sterile flower. . branch with sterile and fertile flowers. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. . variant leaves. =acer saccharinum, l.= _acer dasycarpum, ehrh._ silver maple. soft maple. white maple. river maple. =habitat and range.=--along streams, in rich intervale lands, and in moist, deep-soiled forests, but not in swamps. infrequent from new brunswick to ottawa, abundant from ottawa throughout ontario. occasional throughout the new england states; most common and best developed upon the banks of rivers and lakes at low altitudes. south to the gulf states; west to dakota, nebraska, kansas, and indian territory; attaining its maximum size in the basins of the ohio and its tributaries; rare towards the seacoast throughout the whole range. =habit.=--a handsome tree, - feet in height; trunk - feet in diameter, separating a few feet from the ground into several large, slightly diverging branches. these, naked for some distance, repeatedly subdivide at wider angles, forming a very wide head, much broader near the top. the ultimate branches are long and slender, often forming on the lower limbs a pendulous fringe sometimes reaching to the ground. distinguished in winter by its characteristic graceful outlines, and by its flower-buds conspicuously scattered along the tips of the branchlets; in summer by the silvery-white under-surface of its deeply cut leaves. it is among the first of the new england trees to blossom, preceding the red maple by one to three weeks. =bark.=--bark of trunk smooth and gray in young trees, becoming with age rougher and darker, more or less ridged, separating into thin, loose scales; young shoots chestnut-colored in autumn, smooth, polished, profusely marked with light dots. =winter buds and leaves.=--flower-buds clustered near the ends of the branchlets, conspicuous in winter; scales imbricated, convex, polished, reddish, with ciliate margins; leaf-buds more slender, about / inch long, with similar scales, the inner lengthening, falling as the leaf expands. leaves simple, opposite, - inches long, of varying width, light green above, silvery-white beneath, turning yellow in autumn; lobes , or more usually , deeply cut, sharp-toothed, sharp-pointed, more or less sublobed; sinuses deep, narrow, with concave sides; base sub-heart-shaped or truncate; stems long. =inflorescence.=--march to april. much preceding the leaves; from short branchlets of the previous year, in simple, crowded umbels; flowers rarely perfect, the sterile and fertile sometimes on the same tree and sometimes on different trees, generally in separate clusters, yellowish-green or sometimes pinkish; calyx -notched, wholly included in bud-scales; petals none; sterile flowers long, stamens - much exserted, filaments slender, ovary abortive or none: fertile flowers broad, stamens about the length of calyx-tube, ovary woolly, with two styles scarcely united at the base. =fruit.=--fruit ripens in june, earliest of the new england maples. keys large, woolly when young, at length smooth, widely divergent, scythe-shaped or straight, yellowish-green, one key often aborted. =horticultural value.=--hardy in cultivation throughout new england. the grace of its branches, the beauty of its foliage, and its rapid growth make it a favorite ornamental tree. it attains its finest development when planted by the margin of pond or stream where its roots can reach water, but it grows well in any good soil. easily transplanted, and more readily obtainable at a low price than any other tree in general use for street or ornamental purposes. the branches are easily broken by wind and ice, and the roots fill the ground for a long distance and exhaust its fertility. [illustration: plate lxxii.--acer saccharinum.] . leaf-buds. . flower-buds. . branch with sterile flowers. . branch with fertile flowers. . branch with sterile and fertile flowers. . sterile flower. . fertile flower. . perfect flower. . fruiting branch. =acer saccharum, marsh.= _acer saccharinum, wang._ _acer barbatum, michx._ rock maple. sugar maple. hard maple. sugar tree. =habitat and range.=--rich woods and cool, rocky slopes. nova scotia and newfoundland, westward to lake of the woods. new england,--abundant, distributed throughout the woods, often forming in the northern portions extensive upland forests; attaining great size in the mountainous portions of new hampshire and vermont, and in the connecticut river valley; less frequent toward the seacoast. south to the gulf states; west to minnesota, nebraska, kansas, and texas. =habit.=--a noble tree, - feet in height; trunk - feet in diameter, stout, erect, throwing out its primary branches at acute angles; secondary branches straight, slender, nearly horizontal or declining at the base, leaving the stem higher up at sharper and sharper angles, repeatedly subdividing, forming a dense and rather stiff spray of nearly uniform length; head symmetrical, varying greatly in shape; in young trees often narrowly cylindrical, becoming pyramidal or broadly egg-shaped with age; clothed with dense masses of foliage, purple-tinged in spring, light green in summer, and gorgeous beyond all other trees of the forest, with the possible exception of the red maple, in its autumnal oranges, yellows, and reds. =bark.=--bark of trunk and principal branches gray, very smooth, close and firm in young trees, in old trees becoming deeply furrowed, often cleaving up at one edge in long, thick, irregular plates; season's shoots at length of a shining reddish-brown, smooth, numerously pale-dotted, turning gray the third year. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds sharp-pointed, reddish-brown, minutely pubescent, terminal / inch long, lateral / inch, appressed, the inner scales lengthening with the growth of the shoot. leaves simple, opposite, - inches long, with a somewhat greater breadth, purplish and more or less pubescent when opening, at maturity dark green above, paler, with or without pubescence beneath, changing to brilliant reds and yellows in autumn; lobes sometimes , usually , acuminate, sparingly sinuate-toothed, with shallow, rounded sinuses; base subcordate, truncate, or wedge-shaped; veins and veinlets conspicuous beneath; leafstalks long, slender. =inflorescence.=--april - . appearing with the leaves in nearly sessile clusters, from terminal and lateral buds; flowers greenish-yellow, pendent on long thread-like, hairy stems; sterile and fertile on the same or on different trees, usually in separate, but not infrequently in the same cluster; the -lobed calyx cylindrical or bell-shaped, hairy; petals none; stamens - , in sterile flowers much longer than the calyx, in fertile scarcely exserted; ovary smooth, abortive in sterile flowers, in fertile surmounted by a single style with two divergent, thread-like, stigmatic lobes. =fruit.=--keys usually an inch or more in length, glabrous, wings broad, mostly divergent, falling late in autumn. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england. its long life, noble proportions, beautiful foliage, dense shade, moderately rapid growth, usual freedom from disease or insect disfigurement, and adaptability to almost any soil not saturated with water make it a favorite in cultivation; readily obtainable in nurseries, transplants easily, recovers its vigor quickly, and has a nearly uniform habit of growth. =note.=--not liable to be taken for any other native maple, but sometimes confounded with the cultivated norway maple, _acer platanoides_, from which it is easily distinguished by the milky juice which exudes from the broken petiole of the latter. the leaves of the norway maple are thinner, bright green and glabrous beneath, and its keys diverge in a straight line. [illustration: plate lxxiii.--acer saccharum.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower. . fertile flower, part of perianth and stamens removed. . fruiting branch. =acer saccharum, marsh., var. nigrum, britton.= _acer nigrum, michx. acer saccharinum,_ var. _nigrum, t. & g. acer barbatum,_ var. _nigrum, sarg._ black maple. =habitat and range.=--low, damp ground on which, in new england at least, the sugar maple is rarely if ever seen, or upon moist, rocky slopes. apparently a common tree from ottawa westward throughout ontario. the new england specimens, with the exception of those from the champlain valley, appear to be dubious intermediates between the type and the variety. maine,--the rangeley lake region; new hampshire,--occasional near the connecticut river; vermont,--frequent in the western part in the champlain valley, occasional in all other sections, especially in the vicinity of the connecticut; massachusetts,--occasional in the connecticut river valley and westward, doubtfully reported from eastern sections; rhode island,--doubtful, resting on the authority of colonel olney's list; connecticut,--doubtfully reported. south along the alleghanies to the gulf states; west to the th meridian. the extreme forms of _nigrum_ show well-marked varietal differences; but there are few, if any, constant characters. further research in the field is necessary to determine the status of these interesting plants. =habit.=--the black maple is somewhat smaller than the sugar maple, the bark is darker and the foliage more sombre. it generally has a symmetrical outline, which it retains to old age. =leaves.=--the fully grown leaves are often larger than those of the type, darker green above, edges sometimes drooping, width equal to or exceeding the length, -lobed, margin blunt-toothed, wavy-toothed, or entire, the two lower lobes small, often reduced to a curve in the outline, broad at the base, which is usually heart-shaped; texture firm; the lengthening scales of the opening leaves, the young shoots, the petioles, and the leaves themselves are covered with a downy to a densely woolly pubescence. as the parts mature, the woolliness usually disappears, except along the midrib and principal veins, which become almost glabrous. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england, preferring a moist, fertile, gravelly loam; young trees are rather more vigorous than those of the sugar maple, and easily transplanted. difficult to secure, for it is seldom offered for sale or recognized by nurseries, although occasionally found mixed with the sugar maple in nursery rows. [illustration: plate lxxiv.--acer saccharum, var. nigrum.] . fruiting branch. =acer spicatum, lam.= mountain maple. =habitat and range.=--in damp forests, rocky highland woods, along the sides of mountain brooks at altitudes of - feet. from nova scotia and newfoundland to saskatchewan. maine,--common, especially northward in the forests; new hampshire and vermont,--common; massachusetts,--rather common in western and central sections, occasional eastward; rhode island,--occasional northward; connecticut,--occasional in northern and central sections; reported as far south as north branford (new haven county). along mountain ranges to georgia. =habit.=--mostly a shrub, but occasionally attaining a height of feet, with a diameter, near the ground, of - inches; characterized by a short, straight trunk and slender branches; bright green foliage turning a rich red in autumn, and long-stemmed, erect racemes of delicate flowers, drooping at length beneath the weight of the maturing keys. =bark.=--bark of trunk thin, smoothish, grayish-brown; primary branches gray; branchlets reddish-brown streaked with green, retaining in the second year traces of pubescence; season's shoots yellowish-green, reddish on the upper side when exposed to the sun, minutely pubescent. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds small, flattish, acute, slightly divergent from the stem. leaves simple, opposite, - inches long, two-thirds as wide, pubescent on both sides when unfolding, at length glabrous on the upper surface, -lobed above the center, often with two small additional lobes at the base, coarsely or finely serrate, lobes acuminate; base more or less heart-shaped; veining - -nerved, prominent, especially on the lower side, furrowed above; leafstalks long, enlarged at the base. =inflorescence.=--june. appearing after the expansion of the leaves, in long-stemmed, terminal, more or less panicled, erect or slightly drooping racemes; flowers small and numerous, both kinds in the same raceme, the fertile near the base; all upon very slender pedicels; lobes of calyx , greenish, downy, about half as long as the alternating linear petals; stamens usually , in the sterile flower nearly as long as the petals, in the fertile much shorter; pistil rudimentary, hairy in the sterile flower; in the fertile the ovary is surmounted by an erect style with short-lobed stigma. =fruit.=--in long racemes, drooping or pendent; the keys, which are smaller than those of any other american maple, set on hair-like pedicels, and at a wide but not constant angle; at length reddish, with a small cavity upon one side. =horticultural value.=--hardy in cultivation throughout new england; prefers moist, well-drained, gravelly loam in partial shade, but grows well in any good soil; easily transplanted, but recovers its vigor rather slowly; foliage free from disease. seldom grown in nurseries, but readily obtainable from northern collectors of native plants. [illustration: plate lxxv.--acer spicatum.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower. . abortive ovary in sterile flower. . fertile flower with part of the perianth and stamens removed. . fruiting branch. =acer pennsylvanicum, l.= striped maple. moosewood. whistlewood. =habitat and range.=--cool, rocky or sandy woods. nova scotia to lake superior. maine,--abundant, especially northward in the forests; new hampshire and vermont,--common in highland woods; massachusetts,--common in the western and central sections, rare towards the coast; rhode island,--frequent northward; connecticut,--frequent, reported as far south as cheshire (new haven county). south on shaded mountain slopes and in deep ravines to georgia; west to minnesota. =habit.=--shrub or small tree, - feet high, with a diameter at the ground of - inches; characterized by a slender, beautifully striate trunk and straight branches; by the roseate flush of the opening foliage, deepening later to a yellowish-green; and by the long, graceful, pendent racemes of yellowish flowers, succeeded by the abundant, drooping fruit. =bark.=--bark of trunk and branches deep reddish-brown or dark green, conspicuously striped longitudinally with pale and blackish bands; roughish with light buff, irregular dots; the younger branches marked with oval leaf-scars and the linear scars of the leaf-scales; the season's shoots smooth, light green, mottled with black. in spring the bark of the small branches is easily separable, giving rise to the name "whistle wood." =winter buds and leaves.=--terminal bud long, short-stalked, obscurely -sided, tapering to a blunt tip; lateral buds small and flat; opening foliage roseate. leaves simple, opposite; - inches long and nearly as broad; the upper leaves much narrower; when fully grown light green above, paler beneath, finally nearly glabrous, yellow in autumn, divided above the center into three deep acuminate lobes, finely, sharply, and usually doubly serrate; base heart-shaped, truncate, or rounded; leafstalks - inches long, grooved, the enlarged base including the leaf-buds of the next season. =inflorescence.=--in simple, drooping racemes, often - inches long, appearing after the leaves in late may or early june; the sterile and fertile flowers mostly in separate racemes on the same tree; the bell-shaped flowers on slender pedicels; petals and sepals greenish-yellow; sepals narrowly oblong, somewhat shorter than the obovate petals; stamens usually , shorter than the petals in the sterile flower, rudimentary in the fertile, the pistil abortive or none in the sterile flower, in the fertile terminating in a recurved stigma. =fruit.=--in long, drooping racemes of pale green keys, set at a wide but not uniform angle; distinguished from the other maples, except _a. spicatum_, by a small cavity in the side of each key; abundant; ripening in august. =horticultural value.=--hardy, under favorable conditions, throughout new england. prefers a rich, moist soil near water, in shade; but grows well in almost any soil when once established, many young plants failing to start into vigorous growth. occasionally grown by nurserymen, but more readily obtainable from northern collectors of native plants. [illustration: plate lxxvi.--acer pennsylvanicum.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . sterile flower. . fertile flower with part of the perianth removed. . fruiting branch. =acer negundo, l.= _negundo aceroides, moench. negundo negundo, karst._ box elder. ash-leaved maple. =habitat and range.=--in deep, moist soil; river valleys and borders of swamps. infrequent from eastern ontario to lake of the woods; abundant from manitoba westward to the rocky mountains south of ° north latitude. maine,--along the st. john and its tributaries, especially in the french villages, the commonest roadside tree, brought in from the wild state according to the people there; thoroughly established young trees, originating from planted specimens, in various parts of the state; new hampshire,--occasional along the connecticut, abundant at walpole; extending northward as far as south charlestown (w. f. flint _in lit._); vermont,--shores of the winooski river and of lake champlain; connecticut,--banks of the housatonic river at new milford, cornwall bridge, and lime rock station. south to florida; west to the rocky and wahsatch mountains, reaching its greatest size in the river bottoms of the ohio and its tributaries. =habit.=--a small but handsome tree, - feet high, with a diameter of - feet. trunk separating at a small height, occasionally a foot or two from the ground, into several wide-spreading branches, forming a broad, roundish, open head, characterized by lively green branchlets and foliage, delicate flowers and abundant, long, loose racemes of yellowish-green keys hanging till late autumn, the stems clinging throughout the winter. =bark.=--bark of trunk when young, smooth, yellowish-green, in old trees becoming grayish-brown and ridgy; smaller branchlets greenish-yellow; season's shoots pale green or sometimes reddish-purple, smooth and shining or sometimes glaucous. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds small, ovate, enclosed in two dull-red, minutely pubescent scales. leaves pinnately compound, opposite; leaflets usually , sometimes or , - inches long, - / - - / inches broad, light green above, paler beneath and woolly when opening, slightly pubescent at maturity, ovate or oval, irregularly and remotely coarse-toothed mostly above the middle, -lobed or nearly entire; apex acute; base extremely variable; veins prominent; petioles - inches long, enlarging at the base, leaving, when they fall, conspicuous leaf-scars which unite at an angle midway between the winter buds. =inflorescence.=--april - . flowers appearing at the ends of the preceding year's shoots as the leaf-buds begin to open, small, greenish-yellow; sterile and fertile on separate trees,--the sterile in clusters, on long, hairy, drooping, thread-like stems; the calyx hairy, -lobed, with about hairy-stemmed, much-projecting linear anthers; pistil none: the fertile in delicate, pendent racemes, scarcely distinguishable at a distance from the foliage; ovary pubescent, rising out of the calyx; styles long, divergent; stamens none. =fruit.=--loose, pendent, greenish-yellow racemes, - inches long, the slender-pediceled keys joined at a wide angle, broadest and often somewhat wavy near the extremity, dropping in late autumn from the reddish stems, which hang on till spring. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; flourishes best in moist soil near running water or on rocky slopes, but accommodates itself to almost any situation; easily transplanted. plants of the same age are apt to vary so much in size and habit as to make them unsuitable for street planting. an attractive tree when young, especially when laden with fruit in the fall. there are several horticultural varieties with colored foliage, some of which are occasionally offered in nurseries. a western form, having the new growth covered with a glaucous bloom, is said to be longer-lived and more healthy than the type. [illustration: plate lxxvii.--acer negundo.] . winter buds. . branch with sterile flowers. . sterile flower. . branch with fertile flowers. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. tiliaceÆ. linden family. =tilia americana, l.= basswood. linden. lime. whitewood. =habitat and range.=--in rich woods and loamy soils. southern canada from new brunswick to lake winnipeg. throughout new england, frequent from the seacoast to altitudes of feet; rare from to feet. south along the mountains to georgia; west to kansas, nebraska, and texas. =habit.=--a large tree, o- feet high, rising in the upper valley of the connecticut river to the height of feet; trunk - feet in diameter, erect, diminishing but slightly to the branching point; head, in favorable situations, broadly ovate to oval, rather compact, symmetrical; branches mostly straight, striking out in different trees at varying angles; the numerous secondary branches mostly horizontal, slender, often drooping at the extremities, repeatedly subdividing, forming a dense spray set at broad angles. foliage very abundant, green when fully grown, almost impervious to sunlight; the small creamy flowers in numerous clusters; the pale, odd-shaped bracts and pea-like fruit conspicuous among the leaves till late autumn. =bark.=--dark gray, very thick, smooth in young trees, later becoming broadly and firmly ridged; in old trees irregularly furrowed; branches, especially upon the upper side, dark brown and blackish; the season's shoots yellowish-green to reddish-brown, and numerously rough-dotted. the inner bark is fibrous and tough. =winter buds and leaves.=--leaf-buds small, conical, brownish red, contrasting strongly with the dark stems. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, three-fourths as wide, green and smooth on both sides, thickish, paler beneath, broad-ovate, one-sided, serrate, the point often incurved; apex acuminate or acute; base heart-shaped to truncate; midrib and veins conspicuous on the under surface with minute, reddish tufts of down at the angles; stems smooth, - - / inches long; stipules soon falling. =inflorescence.=--late june or early july. in loose, slightly fragrant, drooping cymes, the peduncle attached about half its length to a narrowly oblong, yellowish bract, obtuse at both ends, free at the top, and tapering slightly at the base, pedicels slender; calyx of colored sepals united toward the base; corolla of petals alternate with the sepals, often obscurely toothed at the apex; petal-like scales in front of the petals and nearly as long; calyx, petals, and scales yellowish-white; stamens indefinite, mostly in clusters inserted with the scales; anthers -celled, ovary -celled; style ; stigma -toothed. =fruit.=--about the size of a pea, woody, globose, pale green, -celled by abortion: - seeds. =horticultural value.=--useful as an ornamental or street tree; hardy throughout new england, easily transplanted, and grows rapidly in almost any well-drained soil; comes into leaf late and drops its foliage in early fall. the european species are more common in nurseries. they are, however, seriously affected by wood borers, while the native tree has few disfiguring insect enemies. usually propagated from the seed. a horticultural form with weeping branches is sometimes cultivated. =note.=--there is so close a resemblance between the lindens that it is difficult to distinguish the american species from each other, or from their european relatives. american species sometimes found in cultivation: _tilia pubescens, ait._, is distinguished from _americana_ by its smaller, thinner leaves and densely pubescent shoots. _tilia heterophylla, vent._, is easily recognized by the pale or silver white under-surface of the leaves. there are several european species more or less common in cultivation, indiscriminately known in nurseries as _tilia europæa_. they are all easily distinguished from the american species by the absence of petal-like scales. [illustration: plate lxxviii.--tilia americana.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . flower enlarged. . pistil with cluster of stamens, petaloid scale, petal, and sepal. . fruiting branch. cornaceÆ. dogwood family. =cornus florida, l.= flowering dogwood. boxwood. =habitat and range.=--woodlands, rocky hillsides, moist, gravelly ridges. provinces of quebec and ontario. maine,--fayette ridge, kennebec county; new hampshire,--along the atlantic coast and very near the connecticut river, rarely farther north than its junction with the west river; vermont,--southern and southwestern sections, rare; massachusetts,--occasional throughout the state, common in the connecticut river valley, frequent eastward; rhode island and connecticut,--common. south to florida; west to minnesota and texas. =habit.=--a small tree, - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - inches. the spreading branches form an open, roundish head, the young twigs curving upwards at their extremities. in spring, when decked with its abundant, showy white blossoms, it is the fairest of the minor trees of the forest; in autumn, scarcely less beautiful in the rich reds of its foliage and fruit. =bark.=--bark of trunk in old trees blackish, broken-ridged, rough, often separating into small, firm, -angled or roundish plates; branches grayish, streaked with white lines; season's twigs purplish-green, downy; taste bitter. =winter buds and leaves.=--terminal leaf-buds narrowly conical, acute; flower-buds spherical or vertically flattened, grayish. leaves simple, opposite, - inches long, two-thirds as wide, dark green above, whitish beneath, turning to reds, purples, and yellows in the autumn, ovate to oval, nearly smooth, with minute appressed pubescence on both surfaces; apex pointed; base acutish; veins distinctly indented above, ribs curving upward and parallel; leafstalk short-grooved. =inflorescence.=--may to june. appearing with the unfolding leaves in close clusters at the ends of the branches, each cluster subtended by a very conspicuous -leafed involucre (often mistaken for the corolla and constituting all the beauty of the blossom), the leaves of which are white or pinkish, - / inches long, obovate, curiously notched at the rounded end. the real flowers are insignificant, suggesting the tubular disk flowers of the compositæ; calyx-tube coherent with the ovary, surmounting it by small teeth; petals greenish-yellow, oblong, reflexed; stamens ; pistil with capitate style. =fruit.=--ovoid, scarlet drupes, about / inch long, united in clusters, persistent till late autumn or till eaten by the birds. =horticultural value.=--hardy in southern and southern-central new england, but liable farther north to be killed outright or as far down as the surface of the snow; not only one of the most attractive small trees on account of its flowers, habit, and foliage, but one of the most useful for shady places or under tall trees. the species, a red-flowering and also a weeping variety are obtainable in leading nurseries. collected plants can be made to succeed. it is a plant of rather slow growth. [illustration: plate lxxix.--cornus florida.] . leaf-buds. . flower-buds. . flowering branch. . flower. . fruiting branch. =cornus alternifolia, l. f.= dogwood. green osier. =habitat and range.=--hillsides, open woods and copses, borders of streams and swamps. nova scotia and new brunswick along the valley of the st. lawrence river to the western shores of lake superior. common throughout new england. south to georgia and alabama; west to minnesota. =habit.=--a shrub or small tree, - feet high, trunk diameter - inches; head usually widest near the top, flat; branches nearly horizontal with lateral spray, the lively green, dense foliage lying in broad planes. =bark.=--trunk and larger branches greenish, warty, streaked with gray; season's shoots bright yellowish-green or purplish, oblong-dotted. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds small, acute. leaves simple, alternate or sometimes opposite, clustered at the ends of the branchlets, - inches long, dark green on the upper side, paler beneath, with minute appressed pubescence on both sides, ovate to oval, almost entire; apex long-pointed; base acutish or rounded; veins indented above, ribs curving upward and parallel; petiole long, slender, and grooved. =inflorescence.=--june. from shoots of the season, in irregular open cymes; calyx coherent with ovary, surmounting it by minute teeth; corolla white or pale yellow, with the oblong petals at length reflexed: stamens , exserted; style short, with capitate stigma. =fruit.=--october. globular, blue or blue black, on slender, reddish stems. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england, adapting itself to a great variety of situations, but preferring a soil that is constantly moist. nursery or good collected plants are easily transplanted. a disease, similar in its effect to the pear blight, so often disfigures it that it is not desirable for use in important plantations. [illustration: plate lxxx.--cornus alternifolia.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . flower with one petal and two stamens removed, side view. . flower, view from above. . fruiting branch. =nyssa sylvatica, marsh.= tupelo. sour gum. pepperidge. =habitat and range.=--in rich, moist soil, in swamps and on the borders of rivers and ponds. ontario. maine,--waterville on the kennebec, the most northern station yet reported (dr. ezekiel holmes); new hampshire,--most common in the merrimac valley, seldom seen north of the white mountains; vermont,--occasional; massachusetts, rhode island, and connecticut,--rather common. south to florida; west to michigan, missouri, and texas. =habit.=--tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet, rising in the forest to the height of - feet; attaining greater dimensions farther south; lower branches horizontal or declining, often touching the ground at their tips, the upper horizontal or slightly rising, angular, repeatedly subdividing; branchlets very numerous, short and stiff, making a flat spray; head extremely variable, unique in picturesqueness of outline; usually broad-spreading, flat-topped or somewhat rounded; often reduced in nantucket and upon the southern shore of cape cod to a shrub or small tree of - feet in height, forming low, dense, tangled thickets. foliage very abundant, dark lustrous green, turning early in the fall to a brilliant crimson. =bark.=--trunk of young trees grayish-white, with irregular and shallow striations, in old trees darker, breaking up into somewhat hexagonal or lozenge-shaped scales; branches smooth and brown; season's shoots reddish-green, with a few minute dots. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds ovoid, / - / inch long, obtuse. leaves simple, irregularly alternate, often apparently whorled when clustered at the ends of the shoots, - inches long, one-half as wide; at first bright green beneath, dullish-green above, becoming dark glossy green above, paler beneath, obovate or oblanceolate to oval; entire, few or obscurely toothed, or wavy-margined above the center; apex more or less abruptly acute; base acutish; firm, smooth, finely sub-veined; stem short, flat, grooved, minutely ciliate, at least when young; stipules none. =inflorescence.=--may or early june. appearing with the leaves in axillary clusters of small greenish flowers, sterile and fertile usually on separate trees, sometimes on the same tree,--sterile flowers in simple or compound clusters; calyx minutely -parted, petals , small or wanting; stamens - , inserted on the outside of a disk; pistil none: fertile flowers larger, solitary, or several sessile in a bracted cluster; petals , small or wanting; calyx minutely -toothed. =fruit.=--drupes -several, ovoid, blue black, about / inch long, sour: stone striated lengthwise. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; adapts itself readily to most situations but prefers deep soil near water. seldom offered in nurseries and difficult to transplant unless frequently root-pruned or moved; collected plants do not thrive well; seedlings are raised with little difficulty. few trees are of greater ornamental value. [illustration: plate lxxxi.--nyssa sylvatica.] . winter buds. . branch with sterile flowers. - . sterile flowers. . branch with fertile flowers. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. ebenaceÆ. ebony family. =diospyros virginiana, l.= persimmon. =habitat and range.=--rhode island,--occasional but doubtfully native; connecticut,--at lighthouse point, new haven, near the east haven boundary line, there is a grove consisting of about one hundred twenty-five small trees not more than a hundred feet from the water's edge, in sandy soil just above the beach grass, exposed to the buffeting of fierce winds and the incursions of salt water, which comes up around them during the heavy winter storms. these trees are not in thriving condition; several are dead or dying, and no new plants are springing up to take their places. a cross-section of the trunk of a dead tree, as large as any of those living, shows about fifty annual rings. there is no reason to suppose that the survivors are older. this station is said to have been known as early as , at which date the ground where they stand was grassy and fertile. these trees, if standing at that time, must assuredly have been in their infancy. the encroachment of the sea and subsequent change of conditions account well enough for the present decrepitude, but their general similarity in size and apparent age point rather to introduction than native growth. south to florida, alabama, and louisiana; west to iowa, kansas, and texas. =habit.=--one of the rhode island trees measured feet inches girth at the base, and gradually tapered to a height of more than feet (l. w. russell). the trees at new haven are - feet in height, with a trunk diameter of - inches, trunk and limbs much twisted by the winds. their branches, beginning to put out at a height of - feet, lie in almost horizontal planes, forming a roundish, open head. =bark.=--trunk in old trees dark, rough, deeply furrowed, separating into small, firm sections; large limbs dark reddish-brown; season's shoots green, turning to brown. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds oblong, conical, short. leaves simple, alternate, - inches long, about half as wide, dark green and mostly glossy above, somewhat lighter and minutely downy (at least when young) beneath, ovate to oval, entire; apex acute to acuminate; base acute, rounded or truncate; leafstalk short; stipules none. =inflorescence.=--june. sterile and fertile flowers on separate or on the same trees; not conspicuous, axillary; sterile often in clusters, fertile solitary; calyx - -parted; corolla - -parted; about / inch long, pale yellow, thickish, urn-shaped, constricted at the mouth and somewhat smaller in the sterile flowers; stamens in the sterile flowers, in fertile flowers or less, imperfect; styles , ovary -celled. =fruit.=--a berry, ripe in late fall, roundish, about an inch in diameter, larger farther south, with thick, spreading, persistent calyx, yellow to yellowish-brown, very astringent when immature, edible and agreeable to the taste after exposure to the frost; several-seeded. =horticultural value.=--hardy along the south shore of new england; prefers well-drained soil in open situations; free from disfiguring enemies; occasionally cultivated in nurseries but difficult to transplant. propagated from seed. [illustration: plate lxxxii.--diospyros virginiana.] . winter buds. . branch with sterile flowers. . vertical section of sterile flower. . branch with fertile flowers. . section of fertile flower. . fruiting branch. oleaceÆ. olive family. fraxinus americana, l. white ash. =habitat and range.=--rich or moist woods, fields and pastures, near streams. newfoundland and nova scotia to ontario. maine,--very common, often forming large forest areas; in the other new england states, widely distributed, but seldom occurring in large masses. south to florida; west to minnesota, nebraska, kansas, and texas. =habit.=--a tall forest tree, - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; rising in the rich bottom lands of the ohio river feet or more, often in the forest half its height without a limb. in open ground the trunk, separating at a height of a few feet, throws off two or three large limbs, and is soon lost amid the slender, often gently curving branches, forming a rather open, rounded head widest at or near the base, with light and graceful foliage, and a stout, rather sparse, glabrous, and sometimes flattish spray. =bark.=--bark of trunk in mature trees easily distinguishable at some distance by the characteristic gray color and uniform striation; ridges prominent, narrow, flattish, firm, without surface scales but with fine transverse seams; furrows fine and strong, sinuous, parallel or connecting at intervals; large limbs more or less furrowed; smaller branches smooth and grayish-green; season's shoots polished olive green; leaf-scars prominent. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds short, rather prominent, smooth, dark or pale rusty brown. leaves pinnately compound, opposite, - inches long; petiole smooth and grooved; leaflets - , - inches long, deep green and smooth above, paler and smooth, or slightly pubescent (at least when young) beneath; ovate to lance-oblong, entire or somewhat toothed; apex pointed; base obtuse, rounded or sometimes acute; leaflet stalks short, smooth; stipules and stipels none. =inflorescence.=--may. in loose panicles from lateral or terminal buds of the previous season's shoots, sterile and fertile flowers for the most part on separate trees, numerous, inconspicuous; calyx in sterile flowers -toothed, petals none, stamens - , anthers oblong; calyx in fertile flowers unequally -toothed or nearly entire, persistent; petals none, stamens none, pistil , style , stigma -cleft. =fruit.=--ripening in early fall, and hanging in clusters into the winter; a samara or key - inches long, body nearly terete, marginless below, dilating from near the tip into a wing two or three times as long as the body. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; prefers a rich, moist, loamy soil, but grows in any well-drained situation; easily transplanted, usually obtainable in nurseries, and can be collected successfully. it is one of the most desirable native trees for landscape and street plantations, on account of its rapid and clean growth, freedom from disease, moderate shade, and richly colored autumn foliage. as the leaves appear late in spring and fall early in autumn, it is desirable to plant with other trees of different habit. propagated from seed. [illustration: plate lxxxiii.--fraxinus americana.] . winter buds. . branch with sterile flowers. . sterile flowers. . branch with fertile flowers. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. =fraxinus pennsylvanica, marsh.= _fraxinus pubescens, lam._ red ash. brown ash. river ash. =habitat and range.=--river banks, swampy lowlands, margins of streams and ponds. new brunswick to manitoba. maine,--infrequent; new hampshire,--occasional, extending as far north as boscawen in the merrimac valley; vermont,--common along lake champlain and its tributaries (_flora of vermont_, ); occasional in other sections; massachusetts and rhode island,--sparingly scattered throughout; connecticut,--reported from east hartford, westville, canaan, and lisbon (j. n. bishop). south to florida and alabama; west to dakota, nebraska, kansas, and missouri. =habit.=--medium-sized to large tree, - feet high, with trunk - feet in diameter; erect, branches spreading, broad-headed; in general appearance resembling the white ash. =bark.=--trunk dark gray or brown, smooth in young trees, furrowed in old, furrows rather shallower than in the white ash; branches grayish; young shoots greenish-gray with a rusty-velvety or scurfy pubescence lasting often into the second year. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds rounded, dark reddish-brown, more or less downy, smaller than those of the white ash, partially covered by the swollen petiole. leaves pinnately compound, opposite, - inches long; petiole short, downy, enlarged at base; leaflets - , opposite, - inches long, about one half as wide, light green and smooth above, paler and more or less downy beneath; outline extremely variable, ovate, narrow-oblong, elliptical or sometimes obovate, entire or slightly toothed; apex acute to acuminate; base acute or rounded; leaflet stalks short, grooved, downy; stipules and stipels none. =inflorescence.=--may. similar to that of the white ash. =fruit.=--ripening in early fall, and hanging in clusters into the winter; samara or key about - / inches long; body of the fruit narrowly cylindrical, the edges gradually widening from about the center into linear or spatulate wings, obtuse or rounded at the ends, sometimes mucronate. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows readily in any good soil, but prefers a wet or moist, rich loam; almost as rapid growing when young as the white ash, and is not seriously affected by insects or fungous diseases; worthy of a place in landscape plantations and on streets, but not often found in nurseries; propagated from seed. [illustration: plate lxxxiv.--fraxinus pennsylvanica.] . winter buds. . branch with sterile flowers. . sterile flowers. . branch with fertile flowers. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. . mature leaf. =fraxinus pennsylvanica, var. lanceolata, sarg.= _fraxinus viridis, michx. f. fraxinus lanceolata, borkh._ green ash. river valleys and wet woods. ontario to saskatchewan. maine,--common along the penobscot river from oldtown to bangor; vermont,--along lake champlain; gardner's island, and the north end of south hero; rhode island (bailey); connecticut,--frequent (j. n. bishop, _report of connecticut board of agriculture_, ). south along the mountains to florida; west to the rocky mountains. the claims to specific distinction rest mainly upon the usual absence of pubescence from the young shoots, leaves and petioles, the color of the leaves (which is bright green above and scarcely less so beneath), the usually more distinct serratures above the center, and a rather more acuminate apex. apparently an extreme form of _f. pubescens_, connected with it by numerous intermediate forms through the entire range of the species. [illustration: plate lxxxv.--fraxinus pennsylvanica, var. lanceolata.] . winter buds. . fruiting branch. =fraxinus nigra, marsh.= _fraxinus sambucifolia, lam._ black ash. swamp ash. basket ash. hoop ash. brown ash. =habitat and range.=--wet woods, river bottoms, and swamps. anticosti through ontario. maine,--common; new hampshire,--south of the white mountains; vermont,--common; massachusetts,--more common in central and western sections; rhode island,--infrequent; connecticut,--occasional throughout. south to delaware and virginia; west to arkansas and missouri. =habit.=--a tall tree reaching a height of - feet, with a trunk diameter of - feet; attaining greater dimensions southward. in swamps, when shut in by other trees, the trunk is straight, very slender, scarcely tapering to point of branching, in open situations under favorable conditions forming a large, round, open head. easily distinguished from the other ashes by its sessile leaflets. =bark.=--bark of trunk a soft ash-gray, in old trees marked by parallel ridges separating into fine, thin, close flakes; limbs light gray, rough-warted, the smaller with conspicuous leaf-scars; season's shoots olive green, stout; flattened at apex, with small, black, vertical dots. =winter buds and leaves.=--buds roundish, pointed, very dark, the terminal / inch long. leaves compound, opposite, - inches long; stipules none; stem grooved and smooth; leaflets - , more frequently , - inches long, - / - inches wide, green on both sides, lighter beneath and more or less hairy on the veins; outline variable, more usually oblong-lanceolate, sharply serrate; apex acuminate; base obtuse to rounded, sessile except the odd leaflets; stipels none. =inflorescence.=--may. appearing before the leaves in loose panicles from lateral or terminal buds of the preceding season, sterile and fertile flowers on different trees; bracted; calyx none; petals none. =fruit.=--august to september. samaras, in panicles, rather more than inch long, rounded at both ends: body entirely surrounded by the wing. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; grows in any good soil, but prefers swamp or wet land. its very tall, slender habit makes it a useful tree in some positions, but it is not readily obtainable in nurseries and is seldom used. propagated from the seed. [illustration: plate lxxxvi.--fraxinus nigra.] . winter buds. . branch with sterile flowers. . sterile flower. . branch with fertile flowers. . fertile flower. . fruiting branch. . fruit. caprifoliaceÆ. honeysuckle family. =viburnum lentago, l.= sheep berry. sweet viburnum. nanny plum. =habitat and range.=--rich woods, thickets, river valleys, along fences. province of quebec to saskatchewan. frequent throughout new england. south along the mountains to georgia and kentucky; west to minnesota, nebraska, and missouri. =habit.=--a shrub or small tree, - feet in height with numerous branches forming a wide-spreading, compact rounded head; conspicuous by rich foliage, profuse, fragrant yellowish-white flowers, and long, drooping clusters of crimson fruit which deepen to a rich purple when fully ripe. =bark.=--trunk and larger branches dark purplish or reddish brown, separating in old trees into small, firm sections; branchlets grayish-brown; season's shoots reddish-brown, dotted, more or less scurfy. =winter buds and leaves.=--leaf-buds long, narrow, covered with scurfy, brown, leaf-like scales; flower-buds much longer, swollen at the base, with two leaf-like scales extended into a long, spire-like point. leaves simple, opposite, - inches long, upper surface bright green, lower paler and set with rusty scales, ovate to oblong-ovate or orbicular, sharply and finely serrate, smooth, tapered or abruptly pointed; base acute to rounded or truncate; stem slender, wavy-margined, channeled above; stipules none. =inflorescence.=--may or early june. terminal, in broad, flat-topped, compound, sessile cymes; calyx-tube adherent to the ovary, -toothed; corolla white, salver-shaped, segments , oval, reflexed; stamens , projecting, anthers yellow; pistil truncate. =fruit.=--profuse, in clusters; drupes / inch long, oval, crimson when ripening, deep purple when fully ripe, edible, sweet: stone flat, oval, rough, obscurely striate lengthwise. =horticultural value.=--hardy throughout new england; prefers a rich soil in open places or in light shade. its showy flowers, healthy foliage, and vigorous growth make it a desirable plant for high shrub plantations, and as an undergrowth in open woods. offered for sale by collectors and occasionally by nurserymen; easily transplanted; propagated from seed or from cuttings. [illustration: plate lxxxvii.--viburnum lentago.] . winter buds. . flowering branch. . flower. . flower, side view. . flower with petals and stamens removed. . fruiting branch. appendix. the range of several trees as given in the text has been extended by discoveries made during the summer of , but reported too late for incorporation in its proper place. _populus balsamifera_, l., var. _candicans_, gray.--one of the commonest and stateliest trees in the alluvium of the connecticut and the cold rivers; with negundo, river maple, and white and slippery elm, forming a tall and dense forest along the connecticut at the foot of fall mountain, and opposite bellows falls. the densely pubescent petioles and the ciliate margins of the broad cordate leaves at once distinguish this tree from the usually smaller but more common _p. balsamifera_ ("some trees and shrubs of western cheshire county, n. h." mr. m. l. fernald, in _rhodora_, iii, ). the above is the _populus candicans_, ait., of the text. _salix discolor_, muhl.--there are many fine trees at fort kent, maine, one with trunk inches in diameter. (m. l. fernald _in lit._, september, .) _salix balsamifera_, barrett.--a handsome tree at fort kent, - feet high, with trunk - inches in diameter. (m. l. fernald _in lit._, september, .) _cratægus crus-galli_, l.--nantucket, massachusetts. young trees were set out in , enclosing an oblong of about an acre and a half. the most flourishing of these have obtained a height of about feet and a trunk diameter near the ground of - inches. now established, probably through the agency of birds, along swamps and upon hill-slopes. (l. l. d.) _prunus americana_, marsh.--one clump of small trees in a thicket at alstead centre, n. h., has the characteristic spherical fruit of this species. _p. nigra_, ait., with oblong, laterally flattened fruit, is abundant. (_rhodora_, iii, .) _acer saccharum_, marsh., var. _barbatum_, trelease.--characteristic trees (cheshire county, n. h.), with small, firm, deep green, three-lobed leaves, appear very distinct, but many transitions are noted between this and the typical _acer saccharum_. (_rhodora_, iii, .) _acer saccharum_, marsh., var. _nigrum_, britton.--occasional in alluvium of the cold river (cheshire county, n. h.). the large, dark green, "flabby" leaves, with closed sinuses and with densely pubescent petioles and lower surfaces, quickly distinguish this tree from the ordinary forms of the sugar maple. (_rhodora_, iii. .) _fraxinus pennsylvanica_. marsh., var. _lanceolata_, sarg.--common along the connecticut at walpole, n. h. (m. l. fernald _in lit._, september, .) glossary. =abortive.= defective or barren, through non-development of a part. =acuminate.= long-pointed. =acute.= ending with a sharp but not prolonged point. =adherent.= growing fast to; adnate anther, attached for its whole length to the ovary. =adnate.= essentially same as adherent, with the added idea of congenital adhesion. =aggregate fruits.= formed by crowding together all the carpels of the same flower; as in the blackberry. =ament.= name given to such flower-clusters as those of the willow, birch, poplar, etc. =anther.= the part of the stamen which bears the pollen. =appressed.= lying close against another organ. =ascending.= rising upward, or obliquely upward. =axil.= angle formed on the upper side between the leaf stem or flower stem and the branch from which it springs. =bract.= reduced leaf subtending a flower or flower-cluster. =branches, primary.= the leading or main branches thrown out directly from the trunk, giving a general shape to the head. =branches, secondary.= never directly from the trunk but from other branches. =buttressed.= supported against strain in any direction by a conspicuous ridge-like enlargement of the trunk vertically to the roots. several of these buttresses often give a tree a square appearance. =caducous.= dropping off very early after development. =calyx.= the outer set of the leaves of the flower. =campanulate.= bell-shaped. =capitate.= head-shaped or collected in a head. =capsule.= a dry compound fruit. =carpel.= a simple pistil. =catkin.= see ament. =ciliate.= margin with hairs or bristles. =coherent.= one organ uniting with another. =compound.= see leaf, ovary, etc. =connate.= similar organs, more or less grown together. =connective.= the part of the anther connecting its two cells. =coriaceous.= thick, leathery in texture. =corolla.= leaves of the flower within the calyx. =corymb.= that sort of flower-cluster in which the flower stems arranged along the central axis elongate, forming a broad convex or level top, the flowers opening successively from the outer edge towards the center. =crenate.= edge with rounded teeth. =crenulate.= edge with small rounded teeth. =cyme.= flat-topped or convex flower-cluster, the central flower opening first; blossoming outward. =deciduous.= falling off, as leaves in autumn, or calyx and corolla before fruit grows. =declining.= bent downwards. =decurrent.= leaves prolonged on the stem beneath the insertion: branchlets springing out beneath the point of furcation, as the feathering along the trunk of elms, etc. =dentate.= with teeth pointing outwards. =disk.= central part of a head of flowers; fleshy expansion of the receptacle of a flower; any rounded, flat surface. =drupe.= a stone fruit; soft externally with a stone at the center, as the cherry and peach. =erose.= eroded, as if gnawed. =exserted.= protruding, projecting out of. =falcate.= scythe-shaped. =fertile.= flowers containing the pistil, capable of producing fruit. anthers in such blossoms, if any, are generally abortive. =fibrovascular.= bundle or tissue, formed of wood fibers, ducts, etc. =filament.= part of stamen supporting anther. =fungus.= a division of cryptogamous plants, including mushrooms, etc. =furcation.= branching. =glabrous.= smooth without hairiness or roughness. =glandular.= bearing glands or appendages having the appearance of glands. =glaucous.= covered with a bloom: bluish hoary. =globose= or =globous.= spherical or nearly so. =habit.= the general appearance of a plant. =habitat.= the place where a plant naturally grows, as in swamps, in water, upon dry hillsides, etc. =hybrid.= a cross between two species. =imbricated.= overlapping. =inflorescence.= mode of disposition of flowers; sometimes applied to the flower-cluster itself. =involucre.= bracts subtending a flower or a cluster of flowers. =keeled.= having a central dorsal ridge like the keel of a boat. =key.= a winged fruit; a samara. =lacerate.= irregularly cleft, as if torn. =lanceolate.= lance-shaped, broadest above the base, gradually narrowing to the apex. =leaf.= consisting when botanically complete of a blade, usually flat, a footstalk and two appendages at base of the footstalk; often consisting of blade only. =leaf, compound.= having two to many distinct blades on a common leafstalk or rachis. these blades may be sessile or have leafstalks of their own. =leaf, pinnately compound.= with the leaflets arranged along the sides of the rachis. =leaf, palmately compound.= with leaflets all standing on summit of petiole. =leaf-cushions.= organs resembling persistent decurrent footstalks, upon which leaves of spruces, etc., stand; sterigmata. =leaf-scar.= the scar left on the twig where the petiole was attached. =lenticel.= externally appearing upon the bark as spots, warts, and perpendicular or transverse lines. =linear.= long and narrow with sides nearly parallel. =monopetalous.= having petals more or less united. =mucronate.= abruptly tipped with a small, sharp point. =nerved.= having prominent unbranched ribs or veins. =obcordate.= inversely heart-shaped. =obovate.= ovate with the broader end towards the apex. =obtuse.= blunt or rounded at the end. =orbicular.= having a circular or nearly circular outline. =ovary.= the part of the pistil containing the ovules. =ovoid.= a solid with an oval or ovate outline. =ovuliferous.= bearing ovules. =panicle.= general term for any loose and irregular flower-cluster, commonly of the racemose type, with pedicellate flowers. =pedicel.= the stalk of a single flower in the ultimate divisions of an inflorescence. =peduncle.= the stem of a solitary flower or of a cluster. =perfect.= having both pistils and stamens. =perianth.= the floral envelope consisting of calyx, corolla, or both. =persistent.= not falling for a long time. =petal.= a division of the corolla. =petiole.= the stalk of a leaf. =petiolule.= the stalk of a leaflet in a compound leaf. =pistil.= the seed-bearing organ of the flower. =pistillate.= provided with pistils; usually applied to flowers without stamens. =pollen.= the fertilizing grains contained in the anthers. =puberulent.= minutely pubescent. =pubescent.= covered with short soft or downy hairs. =raceme.= a simple cluster of pediceled flowers upon a common axis. =rachis.= the main axis of a compound leaf, of a raceme or of a spike. =ramification.= branching. =range.= the geographical extent and limits of a species. =reflexed.= turned backward. =reticulated.= netted; in the form of a network. =revolute.= rolled backward from the margin or apex. =samara.= key fruit; winged fruit, like that of the ash or maple. =scarf-bark.= the thin, outermost layer which often peels off. =segment.= one of the divisions into which a plane organ, such as a leaf, may be divided. =sepal.= a calyx leaf. =serrate.= with teeth inclining forward. =serrulate.= with small teeth inclining forward. =sessile.= not stalked, as when the leaf blade or flower rests directly upon the twig. =simple leaf.= not compound, having one blade not jointed with its stem. =sinuate.= strongly wavy-margined. =sinus.= interval between two lobes or divisions of a leaf; sometimes sharp-angular, sometimes rounded. =spatulate.= gradually narrowed downward from a rounded summit. =spike.= a cluster of sessile or nearly sessile lateral flowers on an elongated axis. =spray.= the smaller branches and ultimate branchlets of a tree taken as a whole. =stamens.= the pollen-bearing organs of a flower, each stamen consisting of a filament (stem) and anther which contains the pollen. =staminate.= having stamens. =sterile.= variously applied: to flowers with stamens only; to stamens without anthers; to anthers without pollen; to ovaries not producing seed, etc. =stigma.= part of pistil which receives the pollen. =stipels.= appendages to a leaflet, analogous to the stipules of a leaf. =stipules.= appendages of a leaf, usually at the point of insertion. =striate.= streaked, or very finely ridged lengthwise. =style.= part of pistil uniting ovary with stigma; often wanting. =sucker.= a shoot of subterranean origin. =suture.= the line of union between parts which have grown together; most often used with reference to the line along which an ovary opens. =terete.= cylindrical. =ternate.= in threes. =tomentose.= densely pubescent or woolly. =truncate.= as if cut off at the end. =umbel.= an inflorescence in which the flower stems spring from the same point like the rays of an umbrella. =verticillate.= arranged in a circle round an axis; whorled. =villose= or =villous.= with long, soft hairs. =whorl.= arranged in a circle about an axis. index. a abele. (populus alba, l.) , abies balsamea, mill. _fir balsam_ - =abietacæ.= (=pinoideæ=) - larix - pinus - picea - tsuga , abies - acacia, (robinia pseudacacia, l.) , (robinia viscosa, vent.) three-thorned. (gleditsia triacanthos, l.) , =aceraceæ.= (maple family). - acer barbatum, michx. _rock, sugar, hard maple, sugar tree_ - barbatum, var. nigrum, sarg. _black maple_ , dasycarpum, ehrh. _silver, soft, white, river maple_ - negundo, l. _box elder, ash-leaved maple_ - nigrum, michx. _black maple_ , pennsylvanicum, l. _striped maple, moosewood, whistlewood_ - platanoides _norway maple_ rubrum, l. _red, swamp, soft, white maple_ - saccharinum, l. _silver, soft, white, river maple_ - saccharinum, wang. _rocky sugar, hard maple, sugar tree_ - saccharinum, var. nigrum, t. and g. _black maple_ , saccharum, marsh. _rock, sugar, hard maple, sugar tree_ - saccharum, marsh., var. barbatum, trelease saccharum, marsh., var. nigrum, britton. _black maple_ , , spicatum, lam. _mountain maple_ , negundo aceroides, moench. _box elder, ash-leaved maple_ - negundo, karst, _box elder, ash-leaved maple_ - ailanthus family. (=simarubaceæ=) ailanthus, tree of heaven, chinese sumac (ailanthus glanulosus, desf.) alder, european. (alnus glutinosa, medic.) alnus glutinosa, medic, _european alder_ amelanchier canadensis, medic. _shadbush, june-berry_, , american elm (ulmus americana, l.) - holly. (hex opaca, alt.) - =anacardiaceæ.= (sumac family) - rhus copallina. _dwarf sumac_, glabra. _smooth sumac_, hirta, sudw. _staghorn sumac_, , toxicodendron. _poison ivy_, typhina, l. _staghorn sumac_, , venenata, dc. _dogwood, poison sumac. poison elder_, , vernix, l. _dogwood, poison sumac. poison elder_, , apple family. (=pomaceæ=) - apple tree. (pyrus malus, l.) =aquifoliaceæ.= (holly family) - ilex opaca, ait. _american holly_ , ash, black, swamp, basket, hoop, brown ash. (fraxinus nigra, marsh.) - european mountain ash. (pyrus aucuparia) , green ash. (fraxinus pennsylvanica, var. lanceolata, sarg.) , mountain ash. (pyrus americana, dc.) , mountain ash. (pyrus sambucifolia, cham. & schlecht.) - red, brown, river ash. (fraxinus pubescens. lam.) , white ash. (fraxinus americana, l.) - ash-leaved maple. (acer negundo, l.) - aspen, large-toothed. (populusgrandidentata, michx.) , (populus tremuloides, michx.) , b balm of gilead. (populus balsamifera, l.) , (populus candicans, alt.). - , balsam. (abies balsamea, mill.) - (populus balsamifera, l.) , basket ash. (fraxinus nigra, marsh.) , basswood. (tilia americana, l.) - bear oak. (quercus ilicifolia, wang.) , beech family. (=fagaceæ=) - beech (fagus ferruginea, alt.) - blue beech, water beech. (carpinus caroliniana. walt.) , betula lenta, l. _black, cherry, sweet birch_ , lutea, michx. l. _yellow, gray birch_ , nigra, l. _red, river birch_ , papyrifera. marsh. _white, canoe. paper birch,_ - betula papyrifera, var. minor, tuckerman. _dwarf birch_ populifolia, marsh. _gray, poplar, oldfield, poverty, small white birch_ - =betulaceæ.= (birch family) - alnus glutinosa, medic. _european alder_ betula lenta, l. _black, cherry, sweet birch_ , lutea, michx. f. _yellow, gray birch_ , nigra, l. _red, river birch_ , papyrifera, marsh. _white, canoe, paper birch_ - var. minor, tuckerman. _dwarf birch_ populifolia, marsh. _gray, poplar, oldfield, poverty, small white birch_ - carpinus caroliniana, walt. _hornbeam, blue beech, ironwood, water beech_ , ostrya virginica, willd. _hop hornbeam, ironwood, leverwood_ , birch family. (=betulaceæ=) - birch. black, cherry, sweet birch. (betula lenta, l.) , canoe, white, paper birch. (betula papyrifera, marsh.) - red, river birch (betula nigra, l.) , white, gray, oldfield, poplar, poverty, small white birch (betula populifolia, marsh.) - yellow, gray birch. (betula lutea, michx. f.) , bird cherry (prunus pennsylvanica, l. f.) , bitternut (carya amara, nutt.) - black ash (fraxinus nigra, marsh.) , birch (betula lenta, l.) , cherry (prunus serotina, ehrh.) , maple (acer saccharum, marsh., _var_. nigrum, britton) , , oak (quercus velutina, lam.) - spruce (picea nigra, link) - walnut (juglans nigra, l.) , willow (salix nigra, marsh.) , blue beech (carpinus caroliniana, walt.) , box elder (acer negundo, l.) - white oak (quercus stellata, wang.) , boxwood (cornus florida, l.) , braintree, mass. fine specimen of _ilex opaca_ on farm of col. minot thayer brittle willow (salix fragilis, l.) - brown ash (fraxinus nigra, marsh.) , (fraxinus pennsylvanica, marsh.) , bur oak (quercus macrocarpa, michx.) , butternut (juglans cinerea, l.) , buttonball (platanus occidentalis, l.) , buttonwood (platanus occidentalis, l.) , c canada plum (primus nigra. ait.), , canoe birch (betula papyrifera, marsh.), - =caprifoliaceæ.= (honeysuckle family) , viburnum lentas l. _sheep berry sweet viburnum. nanny plum_ , carpinus caroliniana, walt. _hornbeam. blue beech. ironwood. water beech_ , carya alba, nutt. _shagbark, shellbark hickory, walnut_ - amara, nutt. _bitter nut. swamp hickory_ - porcina, nutt. _pignut. white hickory_ - tomentosa, nutt. _mockernut. white-heart hickory. walnut_ - castanea dentata. borkh. _chestnut_ - sativa, _var._ americana, watson & coulter. _chestnut_ - vesca, _var._ americana, michx. _chestnut_ - cat spruce. (picea alba, link) - cedar, arbor vitæ. white cedar. (thuja occidentals, l.) , red cedar. savin. (juniperus virginiana. l.) - white cedar. (chamæcyparis sphæroidea, spach) , celtis occidentalis. l. _hackberry, nettle tree, hoop ash, sugar berry_ - chamæcyparis sphæroidea. spach. white cedar , cherry. (primus avium, l.) chokecherry. (prunus virginiana, l.) , rum, black cherry. (prunus serotina, ehrh.) , wild red, pin, pigeon, bird cherry prunus pennsylvania, l. f. , cherry birch. (betula lenta, l.) , chestnut. (castanea sativa, _var_. americana, watson & coulter) - chestnut oak. (quercus muhlenbergii, engelm.) , (quercus prinus, l.) - chinese sumac. (ailanthus glandulosus, desf.) chokecherry. (prunus virginiana, l.) , clammy locust. (robinia viscosa, vent.) cockspur thorn (cratægus crus-galli, l.) , , conifer family, (=pinoideæ=) - cork elm. (ulmus racemosa, thomas) , =cornaceæ.= (dogwood family) - cornus alternifolia, l, f. _dogwood, green osier_ , florida, l _flowering dogwood, boxwood_ , nyssa sylvatica. marsh. _tupelo, sour gum, pepperidge_ , cottonwood (populus deltoides, marsh.) , (populus heterophylla. l.) , crack willow. (salix fragilis, l.) - cratægus arnoldiana, sarg. _thorn_ coccinea, l. _thorn_ , coccinea, _var._ mollis, t. & g. _thorn_, , crus-galli, l. _cockspur thorn_ , , mollis, scheele _thorn_ , punctata, jacq. _cockspur thorn_ submollis, sarg. _thorn_ subvillosa, schr. _thorn_ , =cupressaceæ.= (pinoideæ) - cupressus , juniperus - thuja , cupressus thyoides, l. _white cedar_ , d diospyros virginiana, l. _persimmon_ - dogwood family. (=cornaceæ=) - dogwood (rhus vernix, l.) , flowering dogwood (cornus florida, l.) , green osier (cornus alternifolia, l. f.) , double spruce (picea nigra, link) - =drupaceæ.= (plum family) - prunus americana, marsh. _wild plum_ , , americana, _var._ nigra, waugh. _wild, red, horse, canada plum_ , avium, l. _mazard cherry_ nigra, ait. _wild, red, horse, canada plum_ , , pennsylvanica, l. f. _wild red, pin, pigeon, bird cherry_ , serotina, ehrh. _rum, black cherry_ , virginiana, l. _chokecherry_ , dwarf birch. (betula papyrifera, _var._ minor, tuckerman) black spruce. (picea nigra, var. semiprostrata) sumac. (rhus copallina) e =ebenaceæ.= (ebony family) - diospyros virginiana, l. persimmon - ebony family. (=ebenaceæ=) - elder, poison elder. (rhus vernix, l.) , elm family. (=ulmaceæ=) - elm, american elm (ulmus americana, l.) - cork, rock elm (ulmus racemosa. thomas) , slippery, red elm (ulmus fulva, michx.) , european alder (alnus glutinosa. medic.) mountain ash (pyrus aucuparia) - f =fagaceæ.= (beech family) - castanea dentata, borkh. _chestnut_ - sativa, _var._ americana, watson & coulter _chestnut_ - vesca, _var._ americana, michx. _chestnut_ - fagus americana, sweet _beech_ - atropunicea, sudw. _beech_ - ferruginea, ait. _beech_ - quercus acuminata, sarg. _chestnut oak_ , alba, l. _white oak_ - bicolor, willd. _swamp white oak_ - coccinea, wang. _scarlet oak_ , coccinea, _var._ tinctoria, gray. _black, yellow oak_ - ilicifolia, wang. _scrub, bear oak_ , macrocarpa, michx. _bur, over-cup, mossy-cup oak_ , minor, sarg. _post, box white oak_ - muhlenbergii, engelm. _chestnut oak_ , nana, sarg. _scrub oak, bear oak_ , obtusiloba, michx. _post, box white oak_ , palustris, du roi _pin, swamp, water oak_ - platanoides, sudw. _swamp white oak_ - prinoides, willd. _scrub white oak. scrub chestnut oak_ prinus, l. _chestnut, rock chestnut oak_ - pumila, sudw. _scrub, bear oak_ , rubra, l. _red oak_ , stellata, wang. _post, box white oak_ , tinctoria, bartram _black, yellow oak_ - velutina, lam. _black, yellow oak_ - fir (abies balsamea, mill.) - fir balsam (abies balsamea, mill.) - fraxinus americana, l. _white ash_ - lanceolata. borkh. _green ash_ , nigra. marsh. _black, swamp, basket, hoop, brown ash_ , pennsylvanica, marsh. _red, brown, river ash_ , fraxinus pennsylvania, _var._ lanceolata, sarg. _green ash_ , pubescens, lam. _red, brown, river ash_ , sambucifolia, lam. _black, swamp, basket, hoop, brown ash_ , viridis, michx. f. _green ash_ , g glaucous willow. (salix discolor, muhl.) , gleditsia triacanthos, l. _honey locust_ , gray birch. (betula lutea, michx. f.) , (betula populifolia, marsh.) - pine. (pinus banksiana, lam.) , green ash. (fraxinus pennsylvanica, _var._ lanceolata, sarg.) , osier. (cornus alternifolia, l. f.) , groome estate, dorchester, mass., willow. (_salix fragilis_, ) gum, (liquidambar styraciflua, l.) , sour gum. (nyssa sylvatica, marsh.) , h hackberry. (celtis occidentalis, l.) - hacmatack. (larix americana, michx.) - =hamamelidaceæ.= (witch hazel family) , liquidambar styraciflua, l. _sweet gum_ , hard maple. (acer saccharum, marsh.) - pine. (pinus rigida, mill.) , hemlock. (tsuga canadensis, carr.) , hickory. bitternut, swamp hickory. (carya amara, nutt.) - mockernut, white-heart hickory. (carya tomentosa, nutt.) - pignut, white hickory. (carya porcina, nutt.) - shagbark, shellbark hickory. (carya alba, nutt.) - hicoria alba, britton. _mockernut, white-heart hickory, walnut_ - glabra, britton. _pignut, white hickory_ - minima, britton. _butternut, swamp hickory_ - ovata, britton. _shagbark, shellbark hickory, walnut_ - holly family. (=aquifoliaceæ=) - holly, american holly. (ilex opaca, ait.) - honey locust. (gleditsia triacanthos, l.) , honeysuckle family. (=caprifoliaceæ=) , hoop ash. (celtis occidentals, l.) - (fraxinus nigra, marsh.) , hop hornbeam. (ostrya virginica, willd.) , hornbeam. (carpinus caroliniana, walt.) , horse plum. (prunus nigra, ait.) , i ilex opaca, ait. _american holly_ - ironwood. (carpinus caroliniana, walt.) , (ostrya virginica, willd.) , ivy, poison ivy. (rhus toxicodendron) j jack pine. (pinus banksiana, lamb) , =juglandaceæ.= (walnut family) - carya alba, nutt. _shagbark, shellbark hickory, walnut_ - amara, nutt. _bitternut, swamp hickory_ - porcina, nutt. _pignut, white hickory_ - tomentosa, nutt. _mockernut, white-heart hickory. walnut_ - hicoria alba, britton _mockernut, white-heart hickory. walnut_ - glabra, britton. _pignut, white hickory_ - minima, britton. _bitternut, swamp hickory_ - ovata, britton. _shagbark, shellbark hickory, walnut_, - juglans cinerea, l. _butternut, oilnut, lemon walnut_, , nigra, l. _black walnut_ , june-berry. (amelanchier canadensis, medic.) , juniper. (larix americana, michx.) - juniperus virginiana, l. _red cedar, savin_ - l labrador spruce. (picea alba, link) - laconia, n.h., pussy willow, ft. high. (salix discolor, muhl.) larch. (larix americana, michx.) - large-toothed aspen . . (populus grandidenta, michx.) , larix americana, michx. _tamarack, hacmatack, larch, juniper_ - laricina, koch. _tamarack, hacmatack, larch, juniper_ - =lauraceæ.= (laurel family) - sassafras officinale. nees. _sassafras_ - sassafras, karst. _sassafras_ - laurel family. (=lauraceæ=) - =leguminosæ.= (pulse family) - gleditsia triacanthos, l. _honey locust, three-thorned acacia_ , robinia pseudacacia. l. _locust_ , viscosa, vent. _clammy locust_ lemon walnut (juglans cinerea, l.) , leverwood (ostrya virginica, willd.) , lime. (tilia americana, l.) - linden family. (=tiliaceæ=) - linden. (tilia americana, l.) - liquidambar styraciflua, l. _sweet gum_ , liriodendron tulipifera, l. _tulip tree, whitewood, poplar_ - locust. (robinia pseudacacia, l.) , clammy locust (robinia viscosa, vent.) honey locust (gleditsia triacanthos, l.) , m magnolia family. (=magnoliaceæ=) - =magnoliaceæ.= (magnolia family) - liriodendron tulipifera, l. _tulip tree, whitewood, poplar_ - malus malus, britton. apple tree maple family. (=aceraceæ=) - maple, black maple (acer saccharum, marsh., _var._ nigrum, britton) , , box elder, ash-leaved maple. (acer negundo, l.) - mountain maple (acer spicatum, lam.) , norway maple (_cultivated_) (acer platanoides) red, swamp, soft, white maple. (acer rubrum, l.) - rock, sugar, hard maple, sugar tree. (acer saccharum, marsh.) - , silver, soft, white maple, river (acer saccharinum, l.) - striped maple, moosewood, whistlewood. (acer pennsylvanicum, l.) - mazard cherry. (prunus avium, l.) mockernut. (carya tomentosa, nutt.) - moosewood. (acer pennsylvanicum, l.) - =moraceæ.= (mulberry family) - morus alba, l. _white mulberry_ rubra, l. _red mulberry_ , mossy-cup oak (quercus macrocarpa, michx.) , mountain ash (pyrus americana, dc.) , (pyrus sambucifolia, cham. & schlecht.) - mountain ash, european. (pyrus aucuparia) , maple (acer spicatum, lam.) , mulberry family. (=moraceæ=) - mulberry, red mulberry. (morus rubra. l.) , white mulberry. (morus alba, l.) n nanny plum (viburnum lentago, l.) , negundo aceroides, moench. _box elder, ash-leaved maple_ - negundo, karst. - nettle tree (celtis occidentalis, l.) - norway maple. (acer platanoides) pine (pinus resinosa, ait.) , nyssa sylvatica, marsh. _tupelo, sour gum, pepperidge_ , o oak, black, yellow oak (quercus velutina, lam.) - bur, over-cup, mossy-cup oak (quercus macrocarpa, michx.) , chestnut oak (quercus muhlenbergii) , chestnut, rock chestnut oak (quercus prinus, l.) - pin, swamp, water oak (quercus palustris, du roi) - post, box white oak (quercus stellata, wang.) , red oak (quercus rubra, l.) , scarlet oak (quercus coccinea, wang.) , scrub, bear oak (quercus ilicifolia, wang.) , scrub chestnut, scrub white oak (quercus prinoides. willd.) swamp white oak (quercus bicolor, willd.), - white oak (quercus alba, l.) - oilnut (juglans cinerea, l.) , oldfield birch (betula populifolia, marsh.) - =oleaceæ.= (olive family) - fraxinus americana, l. _white ash_ - lanceolata, borkh. _green ash_ , nigra, marsh. _black, swamp, basket, hoop, brown ash_ , pennsylvania, marsh. _red, brown, river ash_ , pennsylvania, _var._ lanceolata, sarg. _green ash_ , pubescens, lam. _red, brown, river ash_ , sambucifolia, lam. _black, swamp, basket, hoop, brown ash_ , viridis, michx. f. _green ash_ olive family. (=oleaceæ=) - osier (cornus alternifolia, l. f.) , ostrya virginica, willd. _hop hornbeam, ironwood, leverwood_ , over-cup oak. (quercus macrocarpa, michx.) , p paper birch (betula papyrifera, marsh.) - pear tree (pyrus communis, l.) pepperidge (nyssa sylvatica, marsh.) , persimmon (diospyros virginiana, l.) - picea alba, link _white spruce_ - canadensis, b. s. p. _white spruce_ - nigra, link. _black spruce_ - nigra, _var._ semiprostrata _dwarf black spruce_ rubra, link _red spruce_ , pigeon cherry (primus pennsylvanica, l. f.) , pignut (carya porcina, nutt.) - pin cherry (prunus pennsylvanica, l. f.) , oak (quercus palustris, du roi) - pine family: conifers. (=pinoideæ=) - pine. jack, gray, scrub, spruce pine (pinus banksiana, lamb) , pitch, hard pine (pinus rigida, mill.) , red, norway pine (pinus resinosa, ait.) , scotch pine (_dit_ incorrectly scotch fir) (pinus sylvestris, l.) , white pine (pinus strobus, l.) - =pinoideæ.= (pine family: conifers) - =abietaceæ.= - abies balsamea, mill. _fir balsam, balsam, fir_ - larix americana, michx. _tamarack, hacmatack, larch, juniper_ - laricina, koch. _tamarack, hacmatack, larch, juniper_ - picea alba, link _white, cat, skunk, labrador spruce_ - canadensis, b.s.p. _white, cat, skunk, labrador spruce_ - nigra, link. _black, double, swamp, water spruce_ - rubra, link. _red spruce_ , semiprostrata _dwarf black spruce_ pinus banksiana, lamb. _jack, gray, scrub, spruce pine_ , resinosa, ait. _red, norway pine_ , rigida, mill. _pitch, hard pine_ , strobus, l. _white pine_ - sylvestris, l. _scotch pine_ , tsuga canadensis, carr. _hemlock_ , =cupressaceæ.= , - chamæcyparis sphæroidea, spach. _white cedar, cedar_ , thyoides, l. _white cedar, cedar_ , juniperus virginiana, l. _red cedar, savin_ - thuja occidentalis, l. _arbor-vitæ, white cedar_ , pitch pine. (pinus rigida. mill.) , plane tree family. (=platanaceæ=) , =platanaceæ.= (plane tree family) , platanus occidentalis, l. _buttonwood, sycamore. buttonball, plane tree_ , plum family. (=drupaceæ=) - plum, wild plum. (prunus americana, marsh.) , , wild, red, horse, canada plum. (prunus nigra, ait.) , , poison elder (rhus vernix. l.) , ivy (rhus toxicodendron) sumac (rhus vernix, l.) , =pomaceæ.= (apple family) - amelanchier canadensis, medic. _shadbush, june-berry_ , cratægus arnoldiana, sarg., _thorn_ coccinea, l,. _thorn_ , coccinea, _var._ mollis, t. & g. , crus-galli, l. _cockspur thorn_ , , mollis, scheele _thorn_ , punctata, jacq....._cockspur thorn_ submollis, sarg. _thorn_ subvillosa, schr. _thorn_ , malus malus, britton _apple tree_ pyrus americana, dc. _mountain ash_ , aucuparia _european mountain ash_ , communis, l. _pear tree_ malus, l. _apple tree_ sambucifolia, cham. & schlecht. _mountain ash_ - sorbus americana, marsh. _mountain ash_ , sambucifolia, r[oe]m. _mountain ash_ , poplar, tulip tree, white wood. (liriodendron tulipifera, l.) - aspen. (populus tremuloides, michx.) , balsam, balm of gilead. (populus balsamifera. l.) , cottonwood. (populus deltoides, marsh.) , poplar, large-toothed aspen. (populus grandidentata, michx.) , swamp poplar, cottonwood, poplar. (populus heterophylla, l.) , white, silver-leaved poplar. (populus alba, l.) , poplar birch. (betula populifolia, marsh.) - populus alba, l. _abele, white, silver-leaved poplar_ , balsamifera, l. _balsam_ , , balsamifera, _var._ candicans, gray. _balm of gilead_ - , balsamifera, _var._ intermedia _balsam, poplar, balm of gilead_ populus balsamifera, _var._ latifolia _balsam, poplar, balm of gilead_ candicans, ait., _balm of gilead_ - , deltoides, marsh. _cottonwood, poplar_ , grandidentata, michx. _poplar, large-toothed aspen_ , heterophylla, l. _swamp poplar, poplar, cottonwood_ , monilifera, ait. _cottonwood_ , tremuloides, michx. _aspen, poplar_ , post oak (quercus stellata, wang.) , poverty birch (betula populifolia, marsh.) - prunus americana, marsh. _wild plum_ , , _var_. nigra, waugh _wild, red, horse, canada plum_ , , avium, l. _mazard cherry_ nigra, ait. _wild plum_ , , pennsylvanica, l. f. _wild red, pin, pigeon, bird cherry_ , serotina, ehrh. _rum, black cherry_ , virginiana, l. _chokecherry_ , pulse family. (=leguminosæ=) - pussy willow (salix discolor, muhl.) , , pyrus americana, dc. _mountain ash_ , aucuparia _european mountain ash_ , communis, l. _pear tree_ malus, l. _apple tree_ sambucifolia, cham. & schlecht. _mountain ash_ - q quercus acuminata, sarg. _chestnut oak_ , alba, l. _white oak_ - bicolor, willd. _swamp white oak_ - coccinea, wang. _scarlet oak_ , coccinea, _var._ tinctoria, gray. _black oak_ - ilicifolia, wang. _scrub, bear oak_ , macrocarpa, michx. _bur, over-cup, mossy-cup oak_ , minor, sarg. _post, box white oak_ , muhlenbergii, engelm. _chestnut oak_ , nana, sarg. ...._scrub, bear oak_ , obtusiloba, michx. _post, box white oak_ , palustris, du roi. _pin, swamp, water oak_ - platanoides, sudw. _swamp white oak_ - prinoides, willd. _scrub white, scrub chestnut oak_ prinus, l. _chestnut, rock chestnut oak_ - pumila, sudw. _scrub, bear oak_ , quercus rubra, l. _red oak_ , stellata, wang. _post, box white oak_ , tinctoria, bartram. _black, yellow oak_ - velutina, lam. _black, yellow oak_ - r red ash (fraxinus pennsylvanica, marsh.) , birch (betula nigra, l.) , cedar (juniperus virginiana, l.) - elm (ulmus fulva, michx.) , maple (acer rubrum, l.) - mulberry (morus rubra, l.) , oak (quercus rubra, l.) , pine (pinus resinosa, ait.) , plum (prunus nigra, ait.) , spruce (picea rubra, link) , rhus copallina _dwarf sumac_ glabra _smooth sumac_ hirta, sudw. _staghorn sumac_ , toxicodendron _poison ivy_ typhina, l. _staghorn sumac_ , venenata, dc. _dogwood, poison sumac_ , vernix, l. _dogwood, poison sumac_ , river ash (fraxinus pennsylvanica, marsh.) , birch (betula nigra, l.) , maple (acer saccharinum, l.) - robinia pseudacacia, l. _locust_ , viscosa, vent. _clammy locust_ rock chestnut oak (quercus prinus, l.) - elm (ulmus racemosa, thomas) , maple (acer saccharum, marsh.) - , rum cherry (primus serotina, ehrh.) , s =salicaceæ.= (willow family) - populus alba, l. _abele, white, silver-leaf poplar_ , balsamifera, l. _poplar, balsam. balm of gilead_ , balsamifera, _var._ candicans, gray. _balm of gilead_ - , balsamifera, _var._ intermedia _poplar, balsam_ balsamifera, _var._ latifolia _poplar, balsam_ candicans, ait. _balm of gilead_ - , deltoides, marsh. _cottonwood, poplar_ , populus grandidentata, michx. _poplar, large-toothed aspen_ , heterophylla, l. _poplar, swamp poplar, cottonwood_ , monilifera, ait. _cottonwood poplar_ , tremuloides, michx. _poplar, aspen_ , salix alba, l. _white willow_ , , _var._ cærulea, koch _white willow_ _var._ vitellina, koch _white willow_ balsamifera, barrett discolor, muhl. _pussy willow, glaucous willow_ , , falcata, pursh _black willow_ fragilis, l. _crack willow, brittle willow_ - nigra, marsh. _black willow_ , sassafras officinale, nees _sassafras_ - sassafras, karst. _sassafras_ - savin (juniperus virginiana, l.) - scarlet oak (quercus coccinea, wang.) , scotch pine (pinus sylvestris, l.) , scrub chestnut oak (quercus prinoides, willd.) oak (quercus ilicifolia, wang.) , pine (pinus banksiana, lamb) , white oak (quercus prinoides, willd.) shadbush (amelanchier canadensis, medic.) , shagbark (carya alba, nutt.) - sheep berry (viburnum lentago, l.) , silver-leaf poplar (populus alba, l.) , maple (acer saccharinum, l.) - =simarubaceæ.= (ailanthus family) ailanthus glandulosus, desf. _tree of heaven, chinese sumac_ skunk spruce (picea alba, link) - slippery elm (ulmus fulva, michx.) , small white birch (betula populifolia, marsh.) - smooth sumac (rhus glabra) soft maple (acer rubrum, l.) - (acer saccharinum, l.), - sorbus americana, marsh. _mountain ash_ , sambucifolia, r[oe]m. _mountain ash_ , sour gum (nyssa sylvatica, marsh.) , spruce, black, swamp, double, water. (picea nigra, link) - red spruce (picea rubra, link) , white, cat, skunk, labrador. (picea alba, link) - spruce pine (pinus banksiana, lamb) , staghorn sumac (rhus typhina, l.) , striped maple (acer pennsylvanicum, l.) - sugar berry (celtis occidentalis, l.) - sugar maple (acer saccharum, marsh.) - tree (acer saccharum, marsh.) - sumac family. (=anacardiaceæ=) - sumac, ailanthus, tree of heaven, chinese sumac (ailanthus glandulosus, desf.) dogwood, poison sumac. (rhus vernix, l.) , dwarf sumac (rhus copallina) smooth sumac (rhus glabra) staghorn sumac (rhus tyhina, l.) , swamp ash (fraxinus nigra, marsh.) , hickory (carya amara, nutt.) - maple (acer rubrum, l.), - oak (quercus palustris, du roi) - poplar (populus heterophylla, l.) , spruce (picea nigra, link) - white oak (quercus bicolor, willd.) - sweet birch (betula lenta, l.) , gum (liquidambar styraciflua, l.) , viburnum (viburnum lentago, l.) , sycamore (platanus occidentalis, l.) , t tamarack. (larix americana, michx.) - thayer, col. minot estate, braintree, mass., _ilex opaca_, fine specimen thorn. cockspur (cratægus crus-galli, l.) , , (cratægus coccinea, l.) , (cratægus mollis, scheele) , three-thorned acacia (gleditsia tricanthus, l.) , thuja occidentalis, l. _arbor-vitæ, white cedar, cedar_ , =tiliaceæ.= (linden family) - tilia americana, l. _basswood, linden, lime, whitewood_ - europæa _basswood, linden, lime, whitewood_ heterophylla, vent. _basswood, linden, lime, whitewood_ puebescens, ait. _basswood, linden, lime, whitewood_ tree of heaven (ailanthus glandulosus, desf.) tsuga canadensis, carr. _hemlock_ , tulip tree (liriodendron tulipifera, l.) - tupelo (nyssa sylvatica, marsh.) , u =ulmaceæ.= (elm family) - celtis occidentalis, l. _hackberry_, _nettle tree_, _hoop ash_, _sugar berry_ - ulmus americana, l. _american_, _white elm_ - fulva, michx. _slippery_, _red elm_ , puebescens, walt. _slippery_, _red elm_ , racemosa, thomas. _cork_, _rock elm_ , v viburnum lentago, l. _sheep berry_ , w walnut family. (=juglandaceæ=) - walnut, black walnut (juglans nigra, l.) , butternut, oilnut, lemon walnut. (juglans cinerea, l.) , mockernut, white-heart hickory. (carya tomentosa, nutt.) - walnut, shagbark, shellbark hickory. (carya alba, nutt.) - water beech (carpinus caroliniana, walt.) , oak (quercus palustris, du roi) - spruce (picea nigra, link) - watson, thomas, braintree, mass., _ilex opaca_, on estate of whistlewood (acer pennsylvanicum, l.) - white ash (fraxinus americana, l.) - birch (betula papyrifera, marsh.) - (betula populifolia, marsh.) - cedar (cupressus thyoides, l.) , (thuja occidentalis, l.) , elm (ulmus americana, l.) - hickory (carya porcina, nutt.) - maple (acer rubrum, l.) - (acer saccharinum, l.) - mulberry (morus alba, l.) oak (quercus alba, l.) - pine (pinus strobus, l.) - poplar (populus alba, l.) , spruce (picea alba, link) - willow (salix alba) , , white-heart hickory (carya tomentosa, nutt) - whitewood (liriodendron tulipifera, l.) - whitewood (tilia americana, l.) - wild plum (prunus americana, marsh.) (prunus nigra, ait.) , , red cherry (prunus pennsylvanica, l. f.) , willow family. (=salicaceæ=) - willow, black willow (salix nigra, marsh.) , crack, brittle willow. (salix fragilis, l.) - pussy willow, glaucous willow (salix discolor, muhl.) , , white willow. (salix alba, l., _var._ vitellina, koch) , witch hazel family. (=hamamelidaceæ=) , y yellow birch. (betula lutea, michx. f.) , oak. (quercus velutina, lam.) - uses of cure*** transcribed by ruth hart ruthhart@twilightoracle.com transcriber's notes: while most of the book titles and non-english words are italicized, not all of them are, and i have left the non-italicized terms as is. page numbers have been placed in sqare brackets to facilitate the use of the table of contents and the index. herbal simples approved for modern uses of cure by w. t. fernie, m.d. author of "botanical outlines," etc_ second edition. "medicine is mine; what herbs and _simples_ grow in fields and forests, all their powers i know." dryden. philadelphia: boericke & tafel. . "jamque aderat phoebo ante alios dilectus lapis iasides: acri quondam cui captus amore ipse suas artes, sua munera, laetus apollo augurium, citharamque dabat, celeresque sagittas ille ut _depositi_ proferret fata _clientis,_ scire potestates herbarum, usumque medendi maluit, et mutas agitare inglorius artes." virgil, _aenid_: libr. xii. v. - . "and now lapis had appeared, blest leech! to phoebus'-self endeared beyond all men below; on whom the fond, indulgent god his augury had fain bestowed, his lyre-his sounding bow! but he, the further to prolong a fellow creature's span, _the humbler art of medicine chose, the knowledge of each plant that grows,_ plying a craft not known to song, an unambitious man!" [vii] preface to the first edition. it may happen that one or another enquirer taking up this book will ask, to begin with, "what is a herbal simple?" the english word "simple," composed of two latin words, _singula plica_ (a single fold), means "singleness," whether of material or purpose. from primitive times the term "herbal simple" has been applied to any homely curative remedy consisting of one ingredient only, and that of a vegetable nature. many such a native medicine found favour and success with our single-minded forefathers, this being the "reverent simplicity of ancienter times." in our own nursery days, as we now fondly remember, it was: "simple simon met a pieman going to the fair; said simple simon to the pieman, 'let me taste your ware.'" that ingenuous youth had but one idea, connected simply with his stomach; and his sole thought was how to devour the contents of the pieman's tin. we venture to hope our readers may be equally eager to stock their minds with the sound knowledge of herbal simples which this modest manual seeks to provide for their use. healing by herbs has always been popular both [xviii] with the classic nations of old, and with the british islanders of more recent times. two hundred and sixty years before the date of hippocrates ( b.c.) the prophet isaiah bade king hezekiah, when sick unto death, "take a lump of figs, and lay it on the boil; and straightway the king recovered." iapis, the favourite pupil of apollo, was offered endowments of skill in augury, music, or archery. but he preferred to acquire a knowledge of herbs for service of cure in sickness; and, armed with this knowledge, he saved the life of aeneas when grievously wounded by an arrow. he averted the hero's death by applying the plant "dittany," smooth of leaf, and purple of blossom, as plucked on the mountain ida. it is told in _malvern chase_ that mary of eldersfield ( ), "whom some called a witch," famous for her knowledge of herbs and medicaments, "descending the hill from her hut, with a small phial of oil, and a bunch of the 'danewort,' speedily enabled lord edward of march, who had just then heavily sprained his knee, to avoid danger by mounting 'roan roland' freed from pain, as it were by magic, through the plant-rubbing which mary administered." in shakespeare's time there was a london street, named bucklersbury (near the present mansion house), noted for its number of druggists who sold simples and sweet-smelling herbs. we read, in [ix] _the merry wives of windsor_, that sir john falstaff flouted the effeminate fops of his day as "lisping hawthorn buds that smell like bucklersbury in simple time." various british herbalists have produced works, more or less learned and voluminous, about our native medicinal plants; but no author has hitherto radically explained the why and where fore of their ultimate curative action. in common with their early predecessors, these several writers have recognised the healing virtues of the herbs, but have failed to explore the chemical principles on which such virtues depend. some have attributed the herbal properties to the planets which rule their growth. others have associated the remedial herbs with certain cognate colours, ordaining red flowers for disorders of the blood, and yellow for those of the liver. "the exorcised demon of jaundice," says conway, "was consigned to yellow parrots; that of inflammatory disease to scarlet, or red weeds." again, other herbalists have selected their healing plants on the doctrine of allied signatures, choosing, for instance, the viper's bugloss as effectual against venomous bites, because of its resembling a snake; and the sweet little english eyebright, which shows a dark pupil in the centre white ocular corolla, as of signal benefit for inflamed eyes. thus it has continued to happen that until the [x] last half-century herbal physic has remained only speculative and experimental, instead of gaining a solid foothold in the field of medical science. its claims have been merely empirical, and its curative methods those of a blind art:-- "si vis curari, de morbo nescio quali, accipias herbam; sed quale nescio; nec quâ ponas; nescio quo; curabere, nescio quando." your sore, i know not what, be not foreslow to cure with herbs, which, where, i do not know; place them, well pounc't, i know not how, and then you shall be perfect whole, i know not when." happily now-a-days, as our french neighbours would say, _nous avons changé tout cela_, "old things are passed away; behold all things are become new!" herbal simples stand to-day safely determined on sure ground by the help of the accurate chemist. they hold their own with the best, and rank high for homely cures, because of their proved constituents. their manifest healing virtues are shown to depend on medicinal elements plainly disclosed by analysis. henceforward the curtain of oblivion must fall on cordial waters distilled mechanically from sweet herbs, and on electuaries artlessly compounded of seeds and roots by a lady monmouth, or a countess of arundel, as in the stuart and tudor times. our herbal simples are fairly entitled at last to independent promotion from the shelves of the amateur still-room, from [xi] the rustic ventures of the village grandam, and from the shallow practices of self styled botanical doctors in the back streets of our cities. "i do remember an apothecary,-- and hereabouts he dwells,--whom late i noted in tatter'd weeds, with overwhelming brows, _culling of simples_; meagre were his looks; and in his needy shop a tortoise hung, an alligator stuff'd, and other skins of ill-shap'd fishes; and about his shelves a beggarly account of empty boxes, green earthen pots, bladders, and musty seeds, remnants of packthread, and old cakes of roses were thinly scattered to make up a show." _romeo and juliet_, act v. sc. . chemically assured, therefore, of the sterling curative powers which our herbal simples possess, and anxious to expound them with a competent pen, the present author approaches his task with a zealous purpose, taking as his pattern, from the _comus_ of milton:-- "a certain shepherd lad of small regard to see to, yet well skilled in every virtuous plant, and healing herb; he would beg me sing; which, when i did, he on the tender grass would sit, and hearken even to constancy; and in requital ope his leathern scrip, and show me _simples_, of a thousand names, telling their strange, and vigorous faculties." shakespeare said, three centuries ago, "throw physic to the dogs." but prior to him, one doctor key, self styled caius, had written in the latin [xii] tongue (_tempore_ henry viii.), a medical history of the british canine race. his book became popular, though abounding in false concords; insomuch that from then until now medical classics have been held by scholars in poor repute for grammar, and sound construction. notwithstanding which risk, many a passage is quoted here of ancient herbal lore in the past tongues of greece, rome; and the gauls. it is fondly hoped that the apt lines thus borrowed from old faultless sources will escape reproach for a defective modern rendering in dog latin, mongrel greek, or the "french of stratford atte bowe." lastly, quaint old fuller shall lend an appropriate epilogue. "i stand ready," said he ( ), "with a pencil in one hand, and a spunge in the other, to add, alter, insert, efface, enlarge, and delete, according to better information. and if these my pains shall be found worthy to passe a second impression, my faults i will confess with shame, and amend with thankfulnesse, to such as will contribute clearer intelligence unto me." . [xiii] preface to the second edition. on its first reading, a bill drafted in parliament meets with acquiescence from the house on both sides mainly because its merits and demerits are to be more deliberately questioned when it comes up again in the future for a second closer reading, meanwhile, its faults can be amended, and its omissions supplied: fresh clauses can be introduced: and the whole scheme of the bill can be better adapted to the spirit of the house inferred from its first reception. in somewhat similar fashion the second edition of "herbal simples" is now submitted to a parliament of readers with the belief that its ultimate success, or failure of purpose, is to depend on its present revised contents, and the amplified scope of its chapters. the criticism which public journalists, not a few, thought proper to pass on its first edition have been attentively considered herein. it is true their comments were in some cases so conflicting as to be difficult of practical appliance. the fabled old man and his ass stand always in traditional warning against futile attempts to satisfy inconsistent objectors, or to carry into effect suggestions made by irreconcilable censors. "_quot homines, tot [xiv] sententioe_," is an adage signally verified when a fresh venture is made on the waters of chartered opinion. how shall the perplexed navigator steer his course when monitors in office accuse him on the one hand of lax precision throughout, and belaud him on the other for careful observance of detail? or how shall he trim his sails when a contemptuous standard-bearer, strangely uninformed on the point, ignores, as a leader of any repute, "one gerard," a former famous captain of the herbal fleet? with the would-be spectator's lament that gerard's graphic drawings are regrettedly wanting here, the author is fain to concur. he feels that the absence of appropriate cuts to depict the various herbs is quite a deficiency: but the hope is inspired that a still future edition may serve to supply this need. certain botanical mistakes pointed out with authority by the _pharmaceutical journal _have here been duly corrected: and as many as fifty additional simples will be found described in the present enlarged edition. at the same time a higher claim than hitherto made for the paramount importance of the whole subject is now courageously advanced. to all who accept as literal truth the scriptural account of the garden of eden it must be evident how intimately man's welfare from the first was made to depend on his uses of trees and herbs. the labour of earning his bread in the sweat of his brow by tilling the ground: and the penalty of [xv] and thistles produced thereupon, were alike incurred by eve's disobedience in plucking the forbidden fruit: and a signified possibility of man's eventful share in the tree of life, to "put forth his hand, and eat, and live for ever," has been more than vaguely revealed. so that with almost a sacred mission, and with an exalted motive of supreme usefulness, this manual of healing herbs is published anew, to reach, it is hoped, and to rescue many an ailing mortal. against its main principle an objection has been speciously raised, which at first sight appears of subversive weight; though, when further examined, it is found to be clearly fallacious. by an able but carping critic it was alleged that the mere chemical analysis of old-fashioned herbal simples makes their medicinal actions no less empirical than before: and that a pedantic knowledge of their constituent parts, invested with fine technical names, gives them no more scientific a position than that which our fathers understood. but, taking, for instance, the herb rue, which was formerly brought into court to protect a and the bench from gaol fever, and other infectious disease; no one knew at the time by what particular virtue the rue could exercise this salutary power. but more recent research has taught, that the essential oil contained in this, and other allied aromatic herbs, such as elecampane, [xvi] rosemary, and cinnamon, serves by its germicidal principles (stearoptens, methyl-ethers, and camphors), to extinguish bacterial life which underlies all contagion. in a parallel way the antiseptic diffusible oils of pine, peppermint, and thyme, are likewise employed with marked success for inhalation into the lungs by consumptive patients. their volatile vapours reach remote parts of the diseased air-passages, and heal by destroying the morbid germs which perpetuate mischief therein. it need scarcely be said the very existence of these causative microbes, much less any mode of cure by their abolishment, was quite unknown to former herbal simplers. again, in past times a large number of our native, plants acquired a well-deserved, but purely empirical celebrity, for curing scrofula and scurvy. but later discovery has shown that each of these several herbs contains lime, and earthy salts, in a subtle form of high natural sub-division: whilst, at the same time, the law of cure by medicinal similars has established the cognate fact that to those who inherit a strumous taint, infinitesimal doses of these earth salts are incontestably curative. the parents had first undergone a gradual impairment of health because of calcareous matters to excess in their general conditions of sustenance; and the lime proves potent to cure in the offspring what, through the parental surfeit, was entailed as [xvii] a heritage of disease. just in the same way the mineral waters of missisquoi, and bethesda, in america, through containing siliceous qualities so sublimated as almost to defy the analyst, are effective to cure cancer, albuminuria, and other organic complaints. nor is this by any means a new policy of cure. its barbaric practice has long since obtained, even in african wilds, where the native snake doctor inoculates with his prepared snake poison to save the life of a victim otherwise fatally bitten by another snake of the same deadly virus. to ovid, of roman fame ( b.c.), the same sanative axiom was also indisputably known as we learn from his lines:-- "tunc observatas augur descendit in herbas; usus et auxilio est anguis ab angue dato." "then searched the augur low mid grass close scanned for snake to heal a snake-envenomed hand." and with equal cogency other arguments, which are manifold, might be readily adduced, as of congruous force, to vindicate our claim in favour of analytical knowledge over blind experience in the methods of herbal cure, especially if this be pursued on the broad lines of enlightened practice by similars. so now, to be brief, and to change our allegory, "on the banks of the nile," as mrs. malaprop would have pervertingly put it, with "a nice [xviii] derangement of epitaphs," we invite our many guests to a simple "dinner of herbs." such was man's primitive food in paradise: "every green herb bearing seed, and every tree in the which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed:" "the green herb for meat for every beast of the earth, and every fowl of the air." what better preface can we indite than a grace to be said before sitting down to the meal? "sallets," it is hoped, will be found "in the lines to make the matter savoury." far be it from our object to preach a prelude of texts, or to weary those at our board i with a meaningless long benediction. "'tis not so plain as the old hill of howth," said tender-hearted witty tom hood, with serio-comic truth, "a man has got his belly full of meat, because he talks with victuals in his mouth." rather would we choose the "russet yeas and honest kersey noes" of sturdy yeoman speech; and cheerfully taking the head of our well-stocked table, ask in homely terms that "god will bless these the good creatures of his herbal simples to our saving uses, and us to his grateful service." . [xix] contents. absinthe . . . acorn . . . agaric, fly . . . agrimony . . . alexanders . . . allspice . . . amadou . . . anemone, wood . . . angelica . . . aniseed . . . apple . . . arsmart . . . artichoke, globe . . . " jerusalem . . . arum . . . asafetida . . . ash, mountain . . . asparagus . . . asphodel, bog . . . avens . . . balm . . . barberry . . . barley . . . basil, sweet . . . bean . . . bedstraw . . . bee sting . . . beet . . . belladonna . . . bennet herb . . . betony, water . . . , " wood . . . bilberry . . . bistort, great . . . blackberry . . . black pot herb . . . blackthorn . . . bladderwrack . . . blessed thistle . . . blue bell . . . bog bean . . . borage . . . bracken . . . brooklime . . . broom . . . bryony, black . . . " white . . . buckthorn . . . bugle . . . bullace . . . bulrush . . . burdock . . . burnet saxifrage . . . butcher's broom . . . butterbur . . . buttercup . . . cabbage . . . " sea . . . calamint . . . camphor . . . capsicum . . . caraway . . . carline thistle . . . carraigeen moss . . . carrot . . . cascara sagrada . . . cat mint . . . cat thyme . . . cat's tail . . . [xx] celandine, greater . . . " lesser . . . celery . . . centaury . . . chamomile . . . " bitter . . . cherry . . . chervil . . . chestnut, horse . . . " sweet . . . chickweed . . . chicory . . . christmas rose . . . cider . . . cinnamon . . . cinquefoil, creeping . . . clary . . . cleavers . . . clover, meadow . . . " sweet . . . clovers . . . club moss . . . colchicum . . . coltsfoot . . . comfrey . . . , " prickly . . . coriander . . . couch grass . . . cow . . . cowslip . . . crab apple . . . cresses . . . cress, garden . . . " water . . . crowfoot . . . cuckoo flower . . . cuckoo pint . . . cumin . . . currants, red, white, and black . . . daffodil . . . daisy . . . damson . . . dandelion . . . darnel . . . date . . . dill . . . dock . . . " great water . . . " yellow curled . . . dodder . . . dog's mercury . . . dropwort, water . . . dulse . . . earthnut . . . egg . . . elder . . . " dwarf . . . elecampane . . . eryngo . . . eyebright . . . fairy rings . . . fennel . . . " water . . . ferns . . . " female (bracken) . . . " hart's-tongue . . . " maidenhair . . . " male . . . " polypody . . . " royal . . . " spleenwort . . . " wall rue . . . feverfew . . . fig . . . figwort . . . flag, blue . . . " yellow . . . " stinking (gladdon) . . . " sweet . . . , flax . . . " purging . . . fly agaric . . . foxglove . . . fumitory . . . furze . . . gage, green . . . garlic . . . " poor man's . . . ginger . . . gipsy wort (water hore-hound) . . . [xxi] good king henry . . . gooseberry . . . goosefoot . . . " stinking . . . goosegrass . . . goutweed . . . grapes . . . grasses . . . ground ivy . . . groundsel . . . hawthorn . . . hellebore, stinking . . . hemlock . . . " water . . . hemp agrimony . . . henbane . . . herb, bennet . . . hoglouse . . . honey . . . hop . . . horehound, black . . . " white . . . horse radish . . . house leek . . . hyssop . . . " hedge . . . iceland moss . . . irish moss . . . ivy . . . " ground . . . john's wort, saint . . . juniper . . . knapweed, the lesser . . . ladies' mantle . . . " smock . . . lavender . . . " sea . . . laver . . . leek . . . lemon . . . lentil . . . lettuce . . . lettuce, lamb's . . . " wild . . . lily of the valley lily, water . . . lime tree . . . linseed . . . liquorice . . . lords and ladies (arum) . . . lungwort . . . lupine . . . mace . . . mace reed . . . mallow . . . " marsh . . . " musk . . . mandrake . . . marigold . . . " corn . . . " marsh . . . marjoram . . . melancholy thistle . . . menthol . . . mercury, dog's . . . " english . . . milk thistle . . . mints . . . mistletoe . . . monk's rhubarb . . . moon daisy . . . moss, club . . . " iceland . . . " irish . . . mountain ash . . . mugwort . . . mulberry . . . mullein . . . mum . . . mushrooms . . . mustard . . . " hedge . . . , nasturtium . . . nettle . . . " dead . . . night shade, deadly . . . nutmeg . . . nuts . . . [xxii] oak bark . . . oat . . . onion . . . orach . . . orange . . . orchids . . . orpine (live long) . . . ox eye daisy . . . pansy, wild . . . parsley . . . " fool's . . . parsnip . . . " water . . . pea . . . peach . . . pear . . . pellitory of spain . . . " of wall . . . pennyroyal . . . peppermint . . . pepper, water . . . periwinkle, greater . . . " lesser . . . perry . . . pilewort . . . pimento, allspice . . . pimpernel . . . pine . . . pink . . . plantain, greater . . . " ribwort . . . " water . . . plum, common . . . " wild . . . polypody fern . . . poppy, scarlet . . . " welsh . . . " white . . . potato . . . primrose . . . " evening . . . primula . . . prune . . . prunella . . . psyllium seeds . . . puff ball . . . pulsatilla . . . quince . . . radish . . . " horse . . . ragwort . . . ransoms . . . raspberry . . . reed, sweet scented . . . rest harrow . . . rhubarb, garden . . . rice . . . rosemary . . . " wild . . . roses . . . " rock . . . rue . . . rushes . . . saffron . . . " meadow . . . sage . . . " meadow . . . sago . . . saint john's wort . . . salep . . . saliva . . . samphire . . . sanicle . . . saucealone . . . savin . . . schalot . . . scurvy grass . . . , sea holly . . . " tang . . . " water . . . " weeds . . . selfheal . . . service tree . . . shepherd's purse . . . silverweed . . . skullcap . . . " the lesser . . . sloe . . . snails . . . soapwort . . . solomon's seal . . . sorrel . . . " wood . . . southernwood . . . sowbread . . . sow thistle . . . spearmint . . . speedwell . . . spinach . . . " sea . . . spindle tree . . . spurge wood . . . " petty . . . stitchwort . . . stonecrop (house leek) . . . strawberry . . . " wild . . . succory . . . sundew . . . sunflower . . . tamarind . . . tansy . . . tar . . . tarragon . . . teasel, fuller's . . . " wild . . . thistles . . . thyme . . . thymol . . . toadflax . . . toadstool . . . tomato . . . tormentil . . . truffle . . . turnip . . . turpentine . . . tutsan . . . valerian, red . . . " wild . . . verbena (vervain) . . . verguice . . . , vernal grass . . . vine . . . , violet, sweet . . . " wild . . . viper's bugloss . . . wallflower . . . walnut . . . " american . . . wartwort . . . watercress . . . water dropwort . . . " figwort . . . " horehound . . . " lily, white . . . " yellow . . . " pepper . . . whitethorn . . . whortleberry . . . woodruff, sweet . . . " squinancy . . . wood sorrel . . . , wormwood . . . , woundwort, hedge . . . yarrow yew [ ] introduction. the art of _simpling _is as old with us as our british hills. it aims at curing common ailments with simple remedies culled from the soil, or got from home resources near at hand. since the days of the anglo-saxons such remedies have been chiefly herbal; insomuch that the word "drug" came originally from their verb _drigan_, to dry, as applied to medicinal plants. these primitive simplers were guided in their choice of herbs partly by watching animals who sought them out for self-cure, and partly by discovering for themselves the sensible properties of the plants as revealed by their odour and taste; also by their supposed resemblance to those diseases which nature meant them to heal. john evelyn relates in his _acetaria_ ( ) that "one signor faquinto, physician to queen anne (mother to the beloved martyr, charles the first), and formerly physician to one of the popes, observing scurvy and dropsy to be the epidemical and dominant diseases [ ] of this nation, went himself into the hundreds of essex, reputed the most unhealthy county of this island, and used to follow the sheep and cattle on purpose to observe what plants they chiefly fed upon; and of these simples he composed an excellent electuary of marvellous effects against these same obnoxious infirmities." also, in like manner, it was noticed by others that "the dog, if out of condition, would seek for certain grasses of an emetic or purgative sort; sheep and cows, when ill, would devour curative plants; an animal suffering from rheumatism would remain as much as it could in the sunshine; and creatures infested by parasites would roll themselves frequently in the dust." again, william coles in his _nature's paradise, or, art of simpling_ ( ), wrote thus: "though sin and sathan have plunged mankinde into an ocean of infirmities, jet the mercy of god, which is over all his works, maketh grass to grow upon the mountaines, and herbes for the use of men; and hath not only stamped upon them a distinct forme, but also given them particular signatures, whereby a man may read even in legible characters the use of them." the present manual of our native herbal simples seeks rather to justify their uses on the sound basis of accurate chemical analysis, and precise elementary research. hitherto medicinal herbs have come down to us from early times as possessing only a traditional value, and as exercising merely empirical effects. their selection has been commended solely by a shrewd discernment, and by the practice of successive centuries. but to-day a closer analysis in the laboratory, and skilled provings by experts have resolved the several plants into their component parts, and have chemically determined the medicinal nature of these parts, both [ ] singly and collectively. so that the study and practice of curative british herbs may now fairly take rank as an exact science, and may command the full confidence of the sick for supplying trustworthy aid and succour in their times of bodily need. scientific reasons which are self-convincing may be readily adduced for prescribing all our best known native herbal medicines. among them the elder, parsley, peppermint, and watercress may be taken as familiar examples of this leading fact. almost from time immemorial in england a "rob" made from the juice of elderberries simmered and thickened with sugar, or mulled elder wine concocted from the fruit, with raisins, sugar, and spices, has been a popular remedy in this country, if taken hot at bedtime, for a recent cold, or for a sore throat. but only of late has chemistry explained that elderberries furnish "viburnic acid," which induces sweating, and is specially curative of inflammatory bronchial soreness. so likewise parsley, besides being a favourite pot herb, and a garnish for cold meats, has been long popular in rural districts as a tea for catarrh of the bladder or kidneys; whilst the bruised leaves have been extolled as a poultice for swellings and open sores. at the same time, a saying about the herb has commonly prevailed that it "brings death to men, and salvation to women." not, however, until recently has it been learnt that the sweet-smelling plant yields what chemists call "apiol," or parsley-camphor, which, when given in moderation, exercises a quieting influence on the main sensific centres of life--the head and the spine. thereby any feverish irritability of the urinary organs inflicted by cold, or other nervous shock, would be subordinately allayed. thus likewise the parsley-camphor (whilst serving, [ ] when applied externally, to usefully stimulate indolent wounds) proves especially beneficial for female irregularities of the womb, as was first shown by certain french doctors in . again, with respect to peppermint, its cordial water, or its lozenges taken as a confection, have been popular from the days of our grandmothers for the relief of colic in the bowels, or for the stomach-ache of flatulent indigestion. but this practice has obtained simply because the pungent herb was found to diffuse grateful aromatic warmth within the stomach and bowels, whilst promoting the expulsion of wind; whereas we now know that an active principle "menthol" contained in the plant, and which may be extracted from it as a camphoraceous oil, possesses in a marked degree antiseptic and sedative properties which are chemically hostile to putrescence, and preventive of dyspeptic fermentation. lastly, the watercress has for many years held credit with the common people for curing scurvy and its allied ailments; while its juices have been further esteemed as of especial use in arresting tubercular consumption of the lungs; and yet it has remained for recent analysis to show that the watercress is chemically rich in "antiscorbutic salts," which tend to destroy the germs of tubercular disease, and which strike at the root of scurvy generally. these salts and remedial principles are "sulphur," "iodine," "potash," "phosphatic earths," and a particular volatile essential oil known as "sulphocyanide of allyl," which is almost identical with the essential oil of white mustard. moreover, many of the chief herbal simples indigenous to great britain are further entitled for a still stronger reason to the fullest confidence of both doctor [ ] and patient. it has been found that when taken experimentally in varying quantities by healthy provers, many single medicines will produce symptoms precisely according with those of definite recognized maladies; and the same herbs, if administered curatively, in doses sufficiently small to avoid producing their toxical effects, will speedily and surely restore the patient to health by dispelling the said maladies. good instances of such homologous cures are afforded by the common buttercup, the wild pansy, and the sundew of our boggy marshes. it is widely known that the field buttercup (_ranunculus bulbosus_), when pulled from the ground, and carried in the palm of the hand, will redden and inflame the skin by the acrimony of its juices; or, if the bruised leaves are applied to any part they will excite a blistering of the outer cuticle, with a discharge of watery fluid from numerous small vesicles, whilst the tissues beneath become red, hot, and swollen; and these combined symptoms precisely represent "shingles,"--a painful skin disease given to arise from a depraved state of the bodily system, and from a faulty supply of nervous force. these shingles appear as a crop of sore angry blisters, which commonly surround the walls of the chest either in part or entirely; and modern medicine teaches that a medicinal tincture of the buttercup, if taken in small doses, and applied, will promptly and effectively cure the same troublesome ailment; whilst it will further serve to banish a neuralgic or rheumatic stitch occurring in the side from any other cause. and so with respect to the wild pansy (_viola tricolor_), we read in hahnemann's commentary on the proved plant: "the pansy violet excites certain cutaneous eruptions about the head and face, a hard thick scab being formed, which is cracked here and there, and [ ] from which a tenacious yellow matter exudes, and hardens into a substance like gum." this is an accurate picture of the diseased state seen often affecting the scalp of unhealthy children, as milk-crust, or, when aggravated, as a disfiguring eczema, and concerning the same dr. hughes of brighton, in his authoritative modern treatise, says, "i have rarely needed any other medicine than the viola tricolor for curing milk-crust, which is the plague of children," and "i have given it in the adult for recent impetigo (a similar disease of the skin), with very satisfactory results." finally, the sundew (_drosera rotundifolia_), which is a common little plant growing on our bogs, and marshy places, is found to act in the same double fashion of cause or cure according to the quantity taken, or administered. farmers well know that this small herb when devoured by sheep in their pasturage will bring about a violent chronic cough, with waste of substance: whilst the sundew when given experimentally to cats has been found to stud the surface of their lungs with morbid tubercular matter, though this is a form of disease to which cats are not otherwise liable. in like manner healthy human provers have become hoarse of voice through taking the plant, and troubled with a severe cough, accompanied with the expectoration of abundant yellow mucus, just as in tubercular mischief beginning at the windpipe. meantime it has been well demonstrated (by dr. curie, and others) that at the onset of pulmonary consumption in the human subject a cure may nearly always be brought about, or the symptoms materially improved, by giving the tincture of sundew throughout several weeks--from four to twenty drops in the twenty-four hours. and it has further become an established fact that the same tincture [ ] will serve with remarkable success to allay the troublesome spasms of whooping cough in its second stage, if given in small doses, repeated several times a day. from these several examples, therefore, which are easy to be understood, we may fairly conclude that positive remedial actions are equally exercised by other herbal simples, both because of their chemical constituents and by reason of their curing in many cases according to the known law of medicinal correspondence. until of late no such an assured position could be rightly claimed by our native herbs, though pretentions in their favour have been widely popular since early english times. indeed, herbal physic has engaged the attention of many authors from the primitive days of dioscorides (a.d. ) to those of elizabethan gerard, whose exhaustive and delightful volume published in has remained ever since in paramount favour with the english people. its quaint fascinating style, and its queer astrological notions, together with its admirable woodcuts of the plants described, have combined to make this comprehensive herbal a standing favourite even to the present day. gerard had a large physic-garden near his house in old bourne (holborn), and there is in the british museum a letter drawn up by his hand asking lord burghley, his patron, to advise the establishment by the university of cambridge in their grounds of a simpling herbarium. nevertheless, we are now told (h. lee, ) that gerard's "ponderous book is little more than a translation of dodonoeus, from which comparatively un-read author whole chapters have been taken verbatim without acknowledgment." no english work on herbs and plants is met with prior to the sixteenth century. in all books on [ ] astronomy and geography were ordered to be destroyed, because supposed to be infected with magic. and it is more than probable that any publications extant at that time on the virtues of herbs (then associated by many persons with witchcraft), underwent the same fate. in like manner king hezekiah long ago "fearing lest the herbals of solomon should come into profane hands, caused them to be burned," as we learn from that "loyal and godly herbalist," robert turner. during the reigns of edward the sixth and mary, dr. william bulleyn ranked high as a physician and botanist. he wrote the first _boke of simples_, which remains among the most interesting literary productions of that era as a record of his acuteness and learning. it advocates the exclusive employment of our native herbal medicines. again, nicholas culpeper, "student in physick," whose name is still a household word with many a plain thinking english person, published in , for the benefit of the commonwealth, his "compleat method whereby a man may cure himself being sick, for threepence charge, with such things only as grow in england, they being most fit for english bodies." likewise in the honourable richard boyle, f.r.s., published "_a collection of choice, safe, and simple english remedies_, easily prepared, very useful in families, and fitted for the service of country people." once more, the noted john wesley gave to the world in an admirable little treatise on _primitive physic, or an easy and natural method for curing most diseases_; the medicines on which he chiefly relied being our native plants. for asthma, he advised the sufferer to "live a fortnight on boiled carrots only"; for "baldness, to wash the head with a decoction of boxwood"; [ ] for "blood-spitting to drink the juice of nettles"; for "an open cancer, to take freely of clivers, or goosegrass, whilst covering the sore with the bruised leaves of this herb"; and for an ague, to swallow at stated times "six middling pills of cobweb." in wesley's day tradition only, with shrewd guesses and close observation, led him to prescribe these remedies. but now we have learnt by patient chemical research that the wild carrot possesses a particular volatile oil, which promotes copious expectoration for the relief of asthmatic cough; that the nettle is endowed in its stinging hairs with "formic acid," which avails to arrest bleeding; that boxwood yields "buxine," a specific stimulant to those nerves of supply which command the hair bulbs; that goosegrass or clivers is of astringent benefit in cancer, because of its "tannic," "citric," and "rubichloric acids"; and that the spider's web is of real curative value in ague, because it affords an albuminous principle "allied to and isomeric with quinine." long before this middle era in medicine, during quite primitive british times, the name and office of "leeches" were familiar to the people as the first doctors of physic; and their _parabilia_ or "accessibles" were worts from the field and the garden; so that when the saxons obtained possession of britain, they found it already cultivated and improved by what the romans knew of agriculture and of vegetable productions. hence it had happened that rue, hyssop, fennel, mustard, elecampane, southernwood, celandine, radish, cummin, onion, lupin, chervil, fleur de luce, flax (probably), rosemary, savory, lovage, parsley, coriander, alexanders, or olusatrum, the black pot herb, savin, and other useful herbs, were already of common growth for kitchen uses, or for medicinal purposes. [ ] and as a remarkable incidental fact antiquity has bequeathed to us the legend, that goats were always exceptionally wise in the choice of these wholesome herbs; that they are, indeed, the herbalists among quadrupeds, and known to be "cunning in simples." from which notion has grown the idea that they are physicians among their kind, and that their odour is wholesome to the animals of the farmyard generally. so that in deference, unknowingly, to this superstition, it still happens that a single nanny or a betty is freakishly maintained in many a modern farmyard, living at ease, rather than put to any real use, or kept for any particular purpose of service. but in case of stables on fire, he or she will face the flames to make good an escape, and then the horses will follow. it was through chewing the beans of mocha, and becoming stupefied thereby, that unsuspicious goats first drew the attention of mahomedan monks to the wonderful properties of the coffee berry. next, coming down to the first part of the present century, we find that purveyors of medicinal and savoury herbs then wandered over the whole of england in quest of such useful simples as were in constant demand at most houses for the medicine-chest, the store-closet, or the toilet-table. these rustic practitioners of the healing art were known as "green men," who carried with them their portable apparatus for distilling essences, and for preparing their herbal extracts. in token of their having formerly officiated in this capacity, there may yet be seen in london and elsewhere about the country, taverns bearing the curious sign of "the green man and (his) still." it is told of a certain french writer not long since, that whilst complacently describing our british manners [ ] customs, he gravely translated this legend of the into "_l'homme vert, et tranquil_." passing on finally to our own times at the close of the nineteenth century, we are able now-a-days, as has been already said, to avail ourselves of precise chemical research by apparatus far in advance of the untutored herbalist's still. he prepared his medicaments and his fragrant essences, merely as a mechanical art, and without pretending to fathom their method of physical action. but the skilled expert of to-day resolves his herbal simples into their ultimate elements by exact analysis in the laboratory, and has learnt to attach its proper medicinal virtue to each of these curative principles. it has thus come about that herbal physic under competent guidance, if pursued with intelligent care, is at length a reliable science of fixed methods, and crowned with sure results. moreover, in this happy way is at last vindicated the infinite superiority felt instinctively by our forefathers of home-grown herbs over foreign and far-fetched drugs; a superiority long since expressed by ovid with classic felicity in the passage:-- "aetas cui facimus _aurea_ nomen, fructibus arbuteis, et humus quas educat herbis fortunata fuit."--_metamorphos., lib. xv_. "happy the age, to which we moderns give the name of 'golden,' when men chose to live on woodland fruits; and for their medicines took herbs from the field, and simples from the brook." or, as epitomised in the time-worn latin adage:-- "qui potest mederi _simplicibus_ frustra quaerit composita." "if _simple_ herbs suffice to cure, 'tis vain to compound drugs endure." in the following pages our leading herbal simples [ ] are reviewed alphabetically; whilst, to ensure accuracy, the genus and species of each plant are particularised. most of these herbs may be gathered fresh in their proper season by persons who have acquired a knowledge of their parts, and who live in districts where such plants are to be found growing; and to other persons who inhabit towns, or who have no practical acquaintance with botany, great facilities are now given by our principal druggists for obtaining from their stores concentrated fresh juices of the chief herbal simples. again, certain preparations of plants used only for their specific curative methods are to be got exclusively from the homoeopathic chemist, unless gathered at first hand. these, not being officinal, fail to find a place on the shelves of the ordinary pharmaceutical druggist. nevertheless, when suitably employed, they are of singular efficacy in curing the maladies to which they stand akin by the law of similars. for convenience of distinction here, the symbol h. will follow such particular preparations, which number in all some seventy-five of the simples described. at the same time any of the more common extracts, juices, and tinctures (or the proper parts of the plants for making these several medicaments), may be readily purchased at the shop of every leading druggist. it has not been thought expedient to include among the simples for homely uses of cure such powerfully poisonous plants as monkshood (_aconite_), deadly nightshade (_belladonna_), foxglove (_digitalis_), hemlock or henbane (except for some outward uses), and the like dangerous herbs, these being beyond the province of domestic medicine, whilst only to be administered under the advice and guidance of a qualified prescriber. [ ] the chief purpose held in view has been to reconsider those safe and sound herbal curative remedies and medicines which were formerly most in vogue as homely simples, whether to be taken or to be outwardly applied. and the main object has been to show with what confidence their uses may be now resumed, or retained under the guidance of modern chemical teachings, and of precise scientific provings. this question equally applies, whether the simples be employed as auxiliaries by the physician in attendance, or are welcomed for prompt service in a household emergency as ready at hand when the doctor cannot be immediately had. moreover, such a manual as the present of approved herbal remedies need not by any means be disparaged by the busy practitioner, when his customary medicines seem to be out of place, or are beyond speedy reach; it being well known that a sick person is always ready to accept with eagerness plain assistant remedies sensibly advised from the garden, the store-closet, the spice-box, or the field. "of simple medicines, and their powers to cure, a wise physician makes his knowledge sure; else i or the household in his healing art he stands ill-fitted to take useful part." so said oribasus (freely translated) as long ago as the fourth century, in classic terms prophetic of later times, _simplicium medicamentorum et facultatum quoe in eis insunt cognitio ita necessaria est ut sine eâ nemo rite medicari queat_. but after all has been said and done, none the less must it be finally acknowledged in the pathetic utterance of king alfred's anglo-saxon proverb, _nis [ ] no wurt woxen on woode ne on felde, per enure mage be lif uphelden_. "no wort is waxen in wood or wold, which may for ever man's life uphold." neither to be discovered in the quaint herbals of primitive times, nor to be learnt by the advanced chemical knowledge of modern plant lore, is there any panacea for all the ills to which our flesh is heir, or an elixir of life, which can secure for us a perpetual immunity from sickness. _contra vim mortis nullum medicamentum in hortis_, says the rueful latin distich:-- "no healing herb can conquer death, and so for always give us breath." to sum up which humiliating conclusion good george herbert has put the matter thus with epigrammatic conciseness:-- "st. luke was a saint and a physician, yet he is dead!" but none the less bravely we may still take comfort each in his mortal frailty, because of the hopeful promise preached to men long since by the son of sirach, "a faithful friend is the medicine of life; they that fear the lord shall find him." [ ] acorn. this is the well-known fruit of our british oak, to which tree it gives the name--_aik_, or _eik_, oak. the acorn was esteemed by dioscorides, and other old authors, for its supposed medicinal virtues. as an article of food it is not known to have been habitually used at any time by the inhabitants of britain, though acorns furnished the chief support of the large herds of swine on which our forefathers subsisted. the right of maintaining these swine in the woods was called "panage," and formed a valuable property. the earliest inhabitants of greece and southern europe who lived in the primeval forests were supported almost wholly on the fruit of the oak. they were described by classic authors as fat of person, and were called "balanophagi"--acorn eaters. during the great dearth of the french were driven to eat bread of acorns steeped in water to destroy the bitterness, and they suffered therefrom injurious effects, such as obstinate constipation, or destructive cholera. it is worth serious notice medically that in years remarkable for a large yield of acorns disastrous losses have occurred among young cattle from outbreaks of acorn poisoning, or the acorn disease. those up to two years old suffered most severely, but sheep, pigs and deer were not affected by this acorn malady. its symptoms are progressive wasting, loss of appetite, diarrhoea, sore places inside the mouth, discharge from [ ] the eyes and nostrils, excretion of much pale urine, and no fever, but a fall of temperature below the normal standard. having regard to which train of symptoms it is fair to suppose the acorn will afford in the human subject a useful specific medicine for the marasmus, or wasting atrophy of young children who are scrofulous. the fruit should be given in the form of a tincture, or vegetable extract, or even admixed (when ground) sparingly with wheaten flour in bread. the dose should fall short of producing any of the above symptoms, and the remedy should be steadily pursued for many weeks. the tincture should be made of saturated strength with spirit of wine on the bruised acorns, to stand for a fortnight before being decanted. then the dose will be from twenty to thirty drops with water three or four times a day. the acorn contains chemically starch, a fixed oil, citric acid, uncrystallizable sugar, and another special sugar called "quercit." acorns, when roasted and powdered, have been sometimes employed as a fair substitute for coffee. by distillation they will yield an ardent spirit. dr. burnett strongly commends a "distilled spirit of acorns" as an antidote to the effects of alcohol, where the spleen and kidneys have already suffered, with induced dropsy. it acts on the principle of similars, ten drops being given three times a day in water. in certain parts of europe it is customary to place acorns in the hands of the newly dead; whilst in other districts an apple is put into the palm of a child when lying in its little coffin. the bark of an oak tree, and the galls, or apples, produced on its leaves, or twigs, by an insect named [ ] cynips, are very astringent, by reason of the gallo-tannic acid which they furnish abundantly. this acid, given as a drug, or the strong decoction of oak bark which contains it, will serve to restrain bleedings if taken internally; and finely powdered oak bark, when inhaled pretty frequently, has proved very beneficial against consumption of the lungs in its early stages. working tanners are well known to be particularly exempt from this disease, probably through their constantly inhaling the peculiar aroma given off from the tan pits; and a like effect may be produced by using as snuff the fresh oak bark dried and reduced to an impalpable powder, or by inhaling day after day the steam given off from recent oak bark infused in boiling water. marble galls are formed on the back of young twigs, artichoke galls at their extremities, and currant galls by spangles on the under surface of the leaves. from these spangles females presently emerge, and lay their eggs on the catkins, giving rise to the round shining currant galls. the oak--_quercus robur_--is so named from the celtic "quer," beautiful; and "cuez," a tree. "drus," another celtic word for tree, and particularly for the oak, gave rise to the terms dryads and druids. among the greeks and romans a chaplet of oak was one of the highest honours which could be conferred on a citizen. ancient oaks exist in several parts of england, which are traditionally called gospel oaks, because it was the practice in times long past when beating the bounds of a parish to read a portion of the gospel on ascension day beneath an oak tree which was growing on the boundary line of the district. cross oaks were planted at the juncture of cross roads, so that persons suffering from ague might peg a lock of their hair into the [ ] trunks, and by wrenching themselves away might leave the hair and the malady in the tree together. a strong decoction of oak bark is most usefully applied for prolapse of the lower bowel. oak apple day (may th) is called in hampshire "shikshak" day. agrimony. the agrimony is a simple well known to all country folk, and abundant throughout england in the fields and woods, as a popular domestic medicinal herb. it belongs to the rose order of plants, and blossoms from june to september with small yellow flowers, which sit close along slender spikes a foot high, smelling like apricots, and called by the rustics "church steeples." botanically it bears the names _agrimonia eupatoria_, of which the first is derived from the greek, and means "shining," because the herb is thought to cure cataract of the eye; and the second bears reference to the liver, as indicating the use of this plant for curing diseases of that organ. chemists have determined that the agrimony possesses a particular volatile oil, and yields nearly five per cent. of tannin, so that its use in the cottage for gargles, and as an astringent application to indolent wounds, is well justified. the herb does not seem really to own any qualities for acting medicinally on the liver. more probably the yellow colour of its flowers, which, with the root, furnish a dye of a bright nankeen hue, has given it a reputation in bilious disorders, according to the doctrine of signatures, because the bile is also yellow. nevertheless, gerard says: "a decoction of the leaves is good for them that have naughty livers." by pouring a pint of boiling water on a handful of the plant--stems, flowers and leaves--an [ ] excellent gargle may be made for a relaxed throat; and a teacupful of the same infusion may be taken cold three or four times in the day for simple looseness of the bowels; also for passive losses of blood. in france, agrimony tea is drank as a beverage at table. this herb formed an ingredient of the genuine arquebusade water, as prepared against wounds inflicted by an arquebus, or hand-gun, and it was mentioned by philip de comines in his account of the battle of morat, . when the yeomen of the guard were first formed in england-- --half were armed with bows and arrows, whilst the other half carried arquebuses. in france the _eau de arquebusade_ is still applied for sprains and bruises, being carefully made from many aromatic herbs. agrimony was at one time included in the london _materia medica_ as a vulnerary herb. it bears the title of cockleburr, or sticklewort, because its seed vessels cling by the hooked ends of their stiff hairs to any person or animal coming into contact with the plant. a strong decoction of the root and leaves, sweetened with honey, has been taken successfully to cure scrofulous sores, being administered two or three times a day in doses of a wineglassful persistently for several months. perhaps the special volatile oil of the plant, in common with that contained in other herbs similarly aromatic, is curatively antiseptic. pliny called it a herb "of princely authoritie." the _hemp agrimony_, or st. john's herb, belongs to the composite order of plants, and grows on the margins of brooks, having hemp-like leaves, which are bitter of taste and pungent of smell, as if it were an umbelliferous herb. because of these hempen leaves it was formerly called "holy rope," being thus named after the rope with which jesus was bound. they contain a volatile [ ] oil, which acts on the kidneys; likewise some tannin, and a bitter chemical principle, which will cut short the chill of intermittent fever, or perhaps prevent it. provers of the plant have found it produce a "bilious fever," with severe headache, redness of the face, nausea, soreness over the liver, constipation, and high-coloured urine. acting on which experience, a tincture, prepared (h.) from the whole plant, may be confidently given in frequent small well-diluted doses with water for influenza, or for a similar feverish chill, with break-bone pains, prostration, hot dry skin, and some bilious vomiting. likewise a tea made with boiling water poured on the dried leaves will give prompt relief if taken hot at the onset of a bilious catarrh, or of influenza. this plant also is named _eupatorium_ because it refers, as pliny says, to eupator, a king of pontus. in holland it is used for jaundice, with swollen feet: and in america it belongs to the tribe of bone-sets. the hemp agrimony grows with us in moist, shady places, with a tall reddish stem, and with terminal crowded heads of dull lilac flowers. its distinctive title is _cannabinum_, or "hempen," whilst by some it is known as "thoroughwort." anemone (wood). the _wood anemone_, or medicinal english _pulsatilla_, with its lovely pink white petals, and drooping blossoms, is one of our best known and most beautiful spring flowers. herbalists do not distinguish it virtually from the silky-haired _anemone pulsatilla_, which medicinal variety is of highly valuable modern curative use as a herbal simple. the active chemical principles of each plant are "anemonin" and "anemonic acid." a tincture is made (h.) with spirit of wine from the entire [ ] plant, collected when in flower. this tincture is remarkably beneficial in disorders of the mucous membranes, alike of the respiratory and of the digestive passages. for mucous indigestion following a heavy or rich meal the tincture of pulsatilla is almost a specific remedy. three or four drops thereof should be given at once with a tablespoonful of water, hot or cold, and the same dose may be repeated after an hour if then still needed. for catarrhal affections of the eyes and the ears, as well as for catarrhal diarrhoea, the tincture is very serviceable; also for female monthly difficulties its use is always beneficial and safe. as a medicine it best suits persons of a mild, gentle disposition, and of a lymphatic constitution, especially females; it is less appropriate for quick, excitable, energetic men. anemonin, or pulsatilla camphor, which is the active principle of this plant, is prepared by the chemist, and may be given in doses of from one fiftieth to one tenth of a grain rubbed up with dry sugar of milk. such a dose (or a drop of the tincture with a tablespoonful of water), given every two or three hours, will soon relieve a swollen testicle; and the tincture still more diluted will ease the bladder difficulties of old men. furthermore, the tincture, in doses of two or three drops with a spoonful of water, will allay spasmodic cough, as of whooping cough, or bronchitis. the vinegar of wood anemone made from the leaves retains all the more acrid properties of the plant, and is put, in france, to many rural domestic purposes. when applied in lotions every night for five or six times consecutively, it will heal indolent ulcers; and its rubefacient effects serve instead of those produced externally by mustard. if a teaspoonful is sprinkled within the palms and its volatile vapours are inhaled through the mouth and nose, this [ ] will dispel an incipient catarrh. the name pulsatilla is a diminutive of the latin _puls_, a pottage, as made from pulse, and used at sacrificial feasts. the title anemone signifies "wind-flower." pliny says this flower never opens but when the wind is blowing. the title has been misapprehended as "an emony." turner says gardeners call the flowers "emonies"; and tennyson, in his "northern farmer," tells of the dead keeper being found "doon in the woild _enemies_ afoor i corned to the plaice." other names of the plant are wood crowfoot, smell fox (rants), and flawflower. alfred austin says, "with windflower honey are my tresses smoothed." it is also called the passover flower, because blossoming at easter; and it belongs to the ranunculaceous order of plants. the flower of the wood anemone tells the approach of night, or of a shower, by curling over its petals like a tent; and it has been said that fairies nestle within, having first pulled the curtains round them. among the old romans, to gather the first anemone of the year was deemed a preservative against fever. the pasque flower, also named bluemoney and easter, or dane's flower, is of a violet blue, growing in chalky pastures, and less common than the wood anemone, but each possesses equally curative virtues. the seed of the anemone being very light and downy, is blown away by the first breeze of wind. a ready-witted french senator took advantage of this fact while visiting bacheliere, a covetous florist, near paris, who had long held a secret monopoly of certain richly-coloured and splendidly handsome anemones from the east. vexed to see one man hoard up for himself what ought to be more widely distributed, he walked and talked with the florist in his garden when the anemone [ ] plants were in seed. whilst thus occupied, he let fall his robe, as if by accident, upon the flowers, and so swept off a number of the little feathery seed vessels which clung to his dependent garment, and which he afterwards cultivated at home. the petals of the pasque flower yield a rich green colour, which is used for staining easter eggs, this festival having been termed pask time in old works, from "paske," a crossing over. the plant is said to grow best with iron in the soil. angelica (also called master-wort). the wild angelica grows commonly throughout england in wet places as an umbelliferous plant, with a tall hollow stem, out of which boys like to make pipes. it is purple, furrowed, and downy, bearing white flowers tinged with pink. but the herb is not useful as a simple until cultivated in our gardens, the larger variety being chosen for this purpose, and bearing the name _archangelica_. "angelica, the happy counterbane, sent down from heaven by some celestial scout, as well its name and nature both avow't." it came to this country from northern latitudes in . the aromatic stems are grown abundantly near london in moist fields for the use of confectioners. these stems, when candied, are sold as a favourite sweetmeat. they are grateful to the feeble stomach, and will relieve flatulence promptly. the roots of the garden angelica contain plentifully a peculiar resin called "angelicin," which is stimulating to the lungs, and to the skin: they smell pleasantly of musk, being an excellent tonic and carminative. an infusion of the plant may be made by pouring a pint of boiling water on an ounce of the bruised root, and two tablespoonfuls [ ] of this should be given three or four times in the day; or the powdered root may be administered in doses of from ten to thirty grains. the infusion will relieve flatulent stomach-ache, and will promote menstruation if retarded. it is also of use as a stimulating bronchial tonic in the catarrh of aged and feeble persons. angelica, taken in either medicinal form, is said to cause a disgust for spirituous liquors. in high dutch it is named the root of the holy ghost. the fruit is employed for flavouring some cordials, notably chartreuse. if an incision is made in the bark of the stems, and the crown of the root, at the commencement of spring, a resinous gum exudes with a special aromatic flavour as of musk or benzoin, for either of which it can be substituted. gerard says: "if you do but take a piece of the root, and hold it in your mouth, or chew the same between your teeth, it doth most certainly drive away pestilent aire." icelanders eat both the stem and the roots raw with butter. these parts of the plant, if wounded, yield a yellow juice which becomes, when dried, a valuable medicine beneficial in chronic rheumatism and gout. some have said the archangelica was revealed in a dream by an angel to cure the plague; others aver that it blooms on the day of michael the archangel (may th, old style), and is therefore a preservative against evil spirits and witchcraft. aniseed. the anise (_pimpinella_), from "bipenella," because of its secondary, feather-like leaflets, belongs to the umbelliferous plants, and is cultivated in our gardens; but its aromatic seeds chiefly come from germany. the careful housewife will do well always to have a [ ] supply of this most useful simple closely bottled in her store cupboard. the herb is a variety of the burnet saxifrage, and yields an essential oil of a fine blue colour. to make the essence of aniseed one part of the oil should be mixed with four parts of spirit of wine. this oil, by its chemical basis, "anethol," represents the medicinal properties of the plant. it has a special influence on the bronchial tubes to encourage expectoration, particularly with children. for infantile catarrh, after its first feverish stage, aniseed tea is very useful. it should be made by pouring half-a-pint of boiling water on two teaspoonfuls of the seeds, bruised in a mortar, and given when cold in doses of one, two, or three teaspoonfuls, according to the age of the child. for the relief of flatulent stomach-ache, whether in children or in adults, from five to fifteen drops of the essence may be given on a lump of sugar, or mixed with two dessertspoonfuls of hot water. gerard says: "the aniseed helpeth the yeoxing, or hicket (hiccough), and should be given to young children to eat which are like to have the falling sickness, or to such as have it by patrimony or succession." the odd literary mistake has been sometimes made of regarding aniseed as a plural noun: thus, in "the englishman's doctor," it is said, "some anny seeds be sweet, and some bitter." an old epithet of the anise was, _solamen intestinorum_--"the comforter of the bowels." the germans have an almost superstitious belief in the medicinal virtues of aniseed, and all their ordinary household bread is plentifully flavoured with the whole seeds. the mustaceoe, or spiced cakes of the romans, introduced at the close of a rich entertainment, to prevent indigestion, consisted of meal, with anise, cummin, and other aromatics used for staying putrescence or fermentation within the [ ] intestines. such a cake was commonly brought in at the end of a marriage feast; and hence the bridecake of modern times has taken its origin, though the result of eating this is rather to provoke dyspepsia than to prevent it. formerly, in the east, these seeds were in use as part payment of taxes: "ye pay tithe of mint, anise [dill?], and cummin!" the oil destroys lice and the itch insect, for which purpose it may be mixed with lard or spermaceti as an ointment. the seed has been used for smoking, so as to promote expectoration. besides containing the volatile oil, aniseed yields phosphates, malates, gum, and a resin. the leaves, if applied externally, will help to remove freckles; and, "let me tell you this," says a practical writer of the present day, "if you are suffering from bronchitis, with attacks of spasmodic asthma, just send for a bottle of the liqueur called 'anisette,' and take a dram of it with a little water. you will find it an immediate palliative; you will cease barking like cerberus; you will be soothed, and go to sleep."-- _experto crede!_ "i have been bronchitic and asthmatic for twenty years, and have never known an alleviative so immediately efficacious as 'anisette.'" for the restlessness of languid digestion, a dose of essence of aniseed in hot water at bedtime is much to be commended. in the _paregoric elixir_, or "compound tincture of camphor," prescribed as a sedative cordial by doctors (and containing some opium), the oil of anise is also included--thirty drops in a pint of the tincture. this oil is of capital service as a bait for mice. apple. the term "apple" was applied by the ancients indiscriminately to almost every kind of round fleshy fruit, [ ] such as the thornapple, the pineapple, and the loveapple. paris gave to venus a golden apple; atalanta lost her classic race by staying to pick up an apple; the fruit of the hesperides, guarded by a sleepless dragon, were golden apples; and through the same fruit befell "man's first disobedience," bringing "death into the world and all our woe" (concerning which the old hebrew myth runs that the apple of eden, as the first fermentable fruit known to mankind, was the beginner of intoxicating drinks, which led to the knowledge of good and evil). nothing need be said here about the apple as an esculent; we have only to deal with this eminently english, and most serviceable fruit in its curative and remedial aspects. chemically, the apple is composed of vegetable fibre, albumen, sugar, gum, chlorophyll, malic acid, gallic acid, lime, and much water. furthermore, german analysts say that the apple contains a larger percentage of phosphorus than any other fruit or vegetable. this phosphorus is specially adapted for renewing the essential nervous "lethicin" of the brain and spinal cord. old scandinavian traditions represent the apple as the food of the gods, who, when they felt themselves growing feeble and infirm, resorted to this fruit for renewing their powers of mind and body. also the acids of the apple are of signal use for men of sedentary habits, whose livers are sluggish of action; they help to eliminate from the body noxious matters, which, if retained, would make the brain heavy and dull, or produce jaundice, or skin eruptions, or other allied troubles. some experience of this sort has led to the custom of our taking apple sauce with roast pork, roast goose, and similar rich dishes. the malic acid of ripe apples, raw or cooked, will neutralize the chalky matter engendered in gouty subjects, particularly from [ ] an excess of meat eating. a good, ripe, raw apple is one of the easiest of vegetable substances for the stomach to deal with, the whole process of its digestion being completed in eighty-five minutes. furthermore, a certain aromatic principle is possessed by the apple, on which its peculiar flavour depends, this being a fragrant essential oil--the valerianate of amyl--in a small but appreciable quantity. it can be made artificially by the chemist, and used for imparting the flavour of apples to sweetmeats and confectionery. gerard found that "the pulp of roasted apples, mixed in a wine quart of faire water, and laboured together until it comes to be as apples and ale--which we call lambswool (celtic, 'the day of apple fruit')--never faileth in certain diseases of the raines, which myself hath often proved, and gained thereby both crownes and credit." also, "the paring of an apple cut somewhat thick, and the inside whereof is laid to hot, burning or running eyes at night when the party goes to bed, and is tied or bound to the same, doth help the trouble very speedily, and, contrary to expectation, an excellent secret." a poultice made of rotten apples is commonly used in lincolnshire for the cure of weak, or rheumatic eyes. likewise in the _hotel des invalides_, at paris, an apple poultice is employed for inflamed eyes, the apple being roasted, and its pulp applied over the eyes without any intervening substance to obviate constipation two or three apples taken at night, whether baked or raw, are admirably efficient. it was said long ago: "they do easily and speedily pass through the belly, therefore they do mollify the belly," and for this reason a modern maxim teaches that:-- "to eat an apple going to bed will make the doctor beg his bread." [ ] there was concocted in gerard's day an ointment with the pulpe of apples, and swine's grease, and rosewater, which was used to beautifie the face, and to take away the roughnesse of the skin, and which was called in the shops "pomatum," from the apples, "poma," whereof it was prepared. as varieties of the apple, mention is made in documents of the twelfth century, of the pearmain, and the costard, from the latter of which has come the word costardmonger, as at first a dealer in this fruit, and now applied to our costermonger. caracioli, an italian writer, declared that the only ripe fruit he met with in britain was a _baked_ apple. the juices of apples are matured and lose their rawness by keeping the fruit a certain time. these juices, together with those of the pear, the peach, the plum, and other such fruits, if taken without adding cane sugar, diminish acidity in the stomach rather than provoke it: they become converted chemically into alkaline carbonates, which correct sour fermentation. it is said in devonshire that apples shrump up if picked when the moon is on the wane. from the bark of the stem and root of the apple, pear and plum trees, a glucoside is to be obtained in small crystals, which possesses the peculiar property of producing artificial diabetes in animals to whom it is given. the juice of a sour apple, if rubbed on warts first pared away to the quick, will serve to cure them. the wild "scrab," or crab apple, armed with thorns, grows in our fields and hedgerows, furnishing verjuice, which is rich in tannin, and a most useful application for old sprains. in the united states of america an infusion of apple tree bark is given with benefit during intermittent, remittent, and bilious fevers. we likewise prescribe apple water as a grateful cooling drink for [ ] feverish patients. francatelli directs that it should be made thus: "slice up thinly three or four apples without peeling them, and boil them in a very clean saucepan, with a quart of water and a little sugar until the slices of apple become soft; the apple water must then be strained through a piece of muslin, or clean rag, into a jug, and drank when cold." if desired, a small piece of the yellow rind of a lemon may be added, just enough to give it a flavour. about the year a certain rector of st. ives, in cornwall, the rev. mr. attwell, practised physic with milk and apples so successfully in many diseases, and so spread his reputation, that numerous sufferers came to him from all the neighbouring counties. in germany ripe apples are applied to warts for removing them, by reason of the earthy salts, particularly the magnesia, of the fruit. it is a fact, though not generally known, that magnesia, as occurring in ordinary epsom salts, will cure obstinate warts, and the disposition thereto. just a few grains, from three to six, not enough to produce any sensible medicinal effect, taken once a day for three or four weeks, will surely dispel a crop of warts. old cheese ameliorates apples if eaten when crude, probably by reason of the volatile alkali, or ammonia of the cheese neutralizing the acids of the apple. many persons make a practice of eating cheese with apple pie. the "core" of an apple is so named from the french word, _coeur_, "heart." the juice of the cultivated apple made by fermentation into cider, which means literally "strong drink," was pronounced by john evelyn, in his _pomona_, , to be "in a word the most wholesome drink in europe, as specially sovereign against the scorbute, the stone, spleen, and what not." this beverage [ ] contains alcohol (on the average a little over five per cent.), gum, sugar, mineral matters, and several acids, among which the malic predominates. as an habitual drink, if sweet, it is apt to provoke acid fermentation with a gouty subject, and to develop rheumatism. nevertheless, dr. nash, of worcester, attributed to cider great virtues in leading to longevity; and a herefordshire vicar bears witness to its superlative merits thus:-- "all the gallic wines are not so boon as hearty cider;--that strong son of wood in fullest tides refines and purges blood; becomes a known bethesda, whence arise full certain cures for spit tall maladies: death slowly can the citadel invade; a draught of this bedulls his scythe, and spade." medical testimony goes to show that in countries where cider--not of the sweet sort--is the common beverage, stone, or calculus, is unknown; and a series of enquiries among the doctors of normandy, a great apple country, where cider is the principal, if not the sole drink, brought to light the fact that not a single case had been met with there in forty years. cider apples were introduced by the normans; and the beverage began to be brewed in . the hereford orchards were first planted "tempore" charles i. a chance case of stone in the bladder if admitted into a devonshire or a herefordshire hospital, is regarded by the surgeons there as a sort of professional curiosity, probably imported from a distance. so that it may be fairly surmised that the habitual use of natural unsweetened cider keeps held in solution materials which are otherwise liable to be separated in a solid form by the kidneys. pippins are apples which have been raised from pips; [ ] a codling is an apple which requires to be "coddled," stewed, or lightly boiled, being yet sour and unfit for eating whilst raw. the john apple, or apple john, ripens on st. john's day, december th. it keeps sound for two years, but becomes very shrunken. sir john falstaff says (_henry iv_., iii. ) "withered like an old apple john." the squab pie, famous in cornwall, contains apples and onions allied with mutton. "of wheaten walls erect your paste: let the round mass extend its breast; next slice your apples picked so fresh; let the fat sheep supply its flesh: then add an onion's pungent juice-- a sprinkling--be not too profuse! well mixt, these nice ingredients--sure! may gratify an epicure." in america, "apple slump" is a pie consisting of apples, molasses, and bread crumbs baked in a tin pan. this is known to new englanders as "pan dowdy." an agreeable bread was at one time made by an ingenious frenchman which consisted of one third of apples boiled, and two-thirds of wheaten flour. it was through the falling of an apple in the garden of mrs. conduitt at woolthorpe, near grantham, sir isaac newton was led to discover the great law of gravitation which regulates the whole universe. again, it was an apple the patriot william tell shot from the head of his own bright boy with one arrow, whilst reserving a second for the heart of a tyrant. dr. prior says the word apple took its origin from the sanskrit, _ap_,--"water," and _phal_,--"fruit," meaning "water fruit," or "juice fruit"; and with this the latin name _pomum_--from _poto_, "to drink"--precisely agrees; if which be so, our apple must have come originally from the east long ages back. [ ] the term "apple-pie order" is derived from the french phrase, _à plis_, "in plaits," folded in regular plaits; or, perhaps, from _cap à pied_, "armed from head to foot," in perfect order. likewise the "apple-pie bed" is so called from the french _à plis_, or it may be from the apple turnover of devon and cornwall, as made with the paste turned over on itself. the botanical name of an apple tree is pyrus malus, of which schoolboys are wont to make ingenious uses by playing on the latter word. malo, i had rather be; malo, in an apple tree; malo, than a wicked man; malo, in adversity. or, again, _mea mater mala est sus_, which bears the easy translation, "my mother is a wicked old sow"; but the intentional reading of which signifies "run, mother! the sow is eating the apples." the term "adam's apple," which is applied to the most prominent part of a person's throat in front is based on the superstition that a piece of the forbidden fruit stuck in adam's throat, and caused this lump to remain. arum--the common. the "lords and ladies" (_arum maculatum_) so well known to every rustic as common throughout spring in almost every hedge row, has acquired its name from the colour of its erect pointed spike enclosed within the curled hood of an upright arrow-shaped leaf. this is purple or cream hued, according to the accredited sex of the plant. it bears further the titles of cuckoo pint, wake robin, parson in the pulpit, rampe, starchwort, arrowroot, gethsemane, bloody fingers, snake's meat, adam and eve, calfsfoot, aaron, and priest's pintle. the red spots on its glossy emerald arrow-head leaves, are attributed to the dropping of our saviour's blood on [ ] the plant whilst growing at the foot of the cross. several of the above appellations bear reference to the stimulating effects of the herb on the sexual organs. its tuberous root has been found to contain a particular volatile acrid principle which exercises distinct medicinal effects, though these are altogether dissipated if the roots are subjected to heat by boiling or baking. when tasted, the fresh juice causes an acrid burning irritation of the mouth and throat; also, if swallowed it will produce a red raw state of the palate and tongue, with cracked lips. the leaves, when applied externally to a delicate skin will blister it. accordingly a tincture made (h.) from the plant and its root proves curative in diluted doses for a chronic sore throat, with swollen mucous membrane, and vocal hoarseness, such as is often known as "clergyman's sore throat," and likewise for a feverish sore mouth, as well as for an irresistible tendency to sleepiness, and heaviness after a full meal. from five to ten drops of the tincture, third decimal strength, should be given with a tablespoonful of cold water to an adult three times a day. an ointment made by stewing the fresh sliced root with lard serves efficiently for the cure of ringworm. the fresh juice yields malate of lime, whilst the plant contains gum, sugar, starch and fat. the name arum is derived from the hebrew _jaron_, "a dart," in allusion to the shape of the leaves like spear heads; or, as some think, from _aur_, "fire," because of the acrid juice. the adjective _maculatum _refers to the dark spots or patches which are seen on the smooth shining leaves of the plant. these leaves have sometimes proved fatal to children who have mistaken them for sorrel. the brilliant scarlet coral-like berries which are found set closely about the erect spike of the arum in the autumn [ ] are known to country lads as adder's meat--a name corrupted from the anglo-saxon _attor_, "poison," as originally applied to these berries, though it is remarkable that pheasants can eat them with impunity. in queen elizabeth's time the arum was known as starch-wort because the roots were then used for supplying pure white starch to stiffen the ruffs and frills worn at that time by gallants and ladies. this was obtained by boiling or baking the roots, and thus dispelling their acridity. when dried and powdered the root constitutes the french cosmetic, "cypress powder." recently a patented drug, "tonga," has obtained considerable notoriety for curing obstinate neuralgia of the head and face--this turning out to be the dried scraped stem of an aroid (or arum) called raphidophora vitiensis, belonging to the fiji islands. acting on the knowledge of which fact some recent experimenters have tried the fresh juice expressed from our common arum maculatum in a severe case of neuralgia which could be relieved previously only by tonga: and it was found that this juice in doses of a teaspoonful gave similar relief. the british domestic herbal, of sydenham's time, describes a case of alarming dropsy, with great constitutional exhaustion treated most successfully with a medicine composed of arum and angelica, which cured in about three weeks. the "english passion flower" and "portland sago" are other names given to the arum maculatum. asparagus. the asparagus, belonging to the lily order of plants, occurs wild on the coasts of essex, suffolk, and cornwall. it is there a more prickly plant than the cultivated vegetable which we grow for the sake of the tender, [ ] edible shoots. the greeks and romans valued it for their tables, and boiled it so quickly that _velocius quam asparagi coquuntur_--"faster than asparagus is cooked"--was a proverb with them, to which our "done in a jiffy" closely corresponds. the shoots, whether wild or cultivated, are succulent, and contain wax, albumen, acetate of potash, phosphate of potash, mannite, a green resin, and a fixed principle named "asparagin." this asparagin stimulates the kidneys, and imparts a peculiar, strong smell to the urine after taking the shoots; at the same time, the green resin with which the asparagin is combined, exercises gently sedative effects on the heart, calming palpitation, or nervous excitement of that organ. though not producing actual sugar in the urine, asparagus forms and excretes a substance therein which answers to the reactions used by physicians for detecting sugar, except the fermentation test. it may fairly be given in diabetes with a promise of useful results. in russia it is a domestic medicine for the arrest of flooding. asparagin also bears the chemical name of "althein," and occurs in crystals, which may be reduced to powder, and which may likewise be got from the roots of marsh mallow, and liquorice. one grain of this given three times a day is of service for relieving dropsy from disease of the heart. likewise, a medicinal tincture is made (h.) from the whole plant, of which eight or ten drops given with a tablespoonful of water three times a day will also allay urinary irritation, whilst serving to do good against rheumatic gout. a syrup of asparagus is employed medicinally in france: and at aix-les-bains it forms part of the cure for rheumatic patients to eat asparagus. the roots of asparagus contain diuretic virtues more abundantly than the shoots. an infusion [ ] made from these roots will assist against jaundice, and congestive torpor of the liver. the shrubby stalks of the plant bear red, coral-like berries which, when ripe, yield grape sugar, and spargancin. though generally thought to branch out into feathery leaves, these are only ramified stalks substituted by the plant when growing on an arid sandy soil, where no moisture could be got for the maintenance of leaves. the berries are attractive to small birds, who swallow them whole, and afterwards void the seeds, to germinate when thus scattered about. thus there is some valid reason for the vulgar corruption of the title asparagus into sparrowgrass, or grass. botanically the plant is a lily which has seen better days. in the united states of america, asparagus is thought to be undeniably sedative, and a palliative in all heart affections attended with excited action of the pulse. the water in which asparagus has been boiled, if drunk, though somewhat disagreeable, is beneficial against rheumatism. the cellular tissue of the plant furnishes a substance similar to sago. in venice, the wild asparagus is served at table, but it is strong in flavour and less succulent than the cultivated sort. mortimer collins makes sir clare, one of his characters in _clarisse_ say: "liebig, or some other scientist maintains that asparagin--the alkaloid in asparagus-develops _form_ in the human brain: so, if you get hold of an artistic child, and give him plenty of asparagus, he will grow into a second raffaelle!" gerard calls the plant "sperage," "which is easily concocted when eaten, and doth gently loose the belly." our name, "asparagus," is derived from a greek word signifying "the tearer," in allusion to the spikes of some species; or perhaps from the persian "spurgas," a shoot. [ ] john evelyn, in his _book of salads_, derives the term asparagus in easy fashion, _ab asperitate_, "from the sharpness of the plant." "nothing," says he, "next to flesh is more nourishing; but in this country we overboil them, and dispel their volatile salts: the water should boil before they are put in." he tells of asparagus raised at battersea in a natural, sweet, and well-cultivated soil, sixteen of which (each one weighing about four ounces) were made a present to his wife, showing what "solum, coelum, and industry will effect." the asparagus first came into use as a food about b.c., in the time of the elder cato, and augustus was very partial to it. the wild asparagus was called lybicum, and by the athenians, horminium. roman cooks used to dry the shoots, and when required these were thrown into hot water, and boiled for a few minutes to make them look fresh and green. gerard advises that asparagus should be sodden in flesh broth, and eaten; or boiled in fair water, seasoned with oil, pepper, and vinegar, being served up as a salad. our ancestors in tudor times ate the whole of the stalks with spoons. swift's patron, sir william temple, who had been british minister at the hague, brought the art of asparagus culture from holland; and when william iii. visited sir william at moor park, where young jonathan was domiciled as secretary, his majesty is said to have taught the future dean of st. patrick's how to eat asparagus in the dutch style. swift afterwards at his own table refused a second helping of the vegetable to a guest until the stalks had been devoured, alleging that "king william always ate his stalks." when the large white asparagus first came into vogue, it was known as the "new vegetable." this was grown with lavish manure and was called dutch asparagus. for [ ] cooking the stalks should be cut of equal lengths, and boiled standing upwards in a deep saucepan with nearly two inches of the heads out of the water. then the steam will suffice to cook these tender parts, whilst the hard stalky portions may be boiled long enough to become soft and succulently wholesome. two sorts of asparagus are now grown-- the one an early kind, pinkish white, cultivated in france and the channel islands; the other green and english. at kynance cove in cornwall, there is an island called asparagus island, from the abundance in which the plant is found there. in connection with this popular vegetable may be quoted the following riddle:-- "what killed a queen to love inclined, what on a beggar oft we find, show--to ourselves if aptly joined, a plant which we in bundles bind." balm. the herb balm, or _melissa_, which is cultivated quite commonly in our cottage gardens, has its origin in the wild, or bastard balm, growing in our woods, especially in the south of england, and bearing the name of "mellitis." each is a labiate plant, and "bawme," say the arabians, "makes the heart merry and joyful." the title, "balm," is an abbreviation of balsam, which signifies "the chief of sweet-smelling oils;" hebrew, _bal smin_, "chief of oils"; and the botanical suffix, _melissa_, bears reference to the large quantity of honey (_mel_) contained in the flowers of this herb. when cultivated, it yields from its leaves and tops an essential oil which includes a chemical principle, or "stearopten." "the juice of balm," as gerard tells us, "glueth together greene wounds," and the leaves, say [ ] both pliny and dioscorides, "being applied, do close up woundes without any perill of inflammation." it is now known as a scientific fact that the balsamic oils of aromatic plants make most excellent surgical dressings. they give off ozone, and thus exercise anti-putrescent effects. moreover, as chemical "hydrocarbons," they contain so little oxygen, that in wounds dressed with the fixed balsamic herbal oils, the atomic germs of disease are starved out. furthermore, the resinous parts of these balsamic oils, as they dry upon the sore or wound, seal it up, and effectually exclude all noxious air. so the essential oils of balm, peppermint, lavender, and the like, with pine oil, resin of turpentine, and the balsam of benzoin (friars' balsam) should serve admirably for ready application on lint or fine rag to cuts and superficial sores. in domestic surgery, the lamentation of jeremiah falls to the ground: "is there no balm in gilead: is there no physician there?" concerning which "balm of gilead," it may be here told that it was formerly of great esteem in the east as a medicine, and as a fragrant unguent. it was the true balsam of judea, which at one time grew nowhere else in the whole world but at jericho. but when the turks took the holy land, they transplanted this balsam to grand cairo, and guarded its shrubs most jealously by janissaries during the time the balsam was flowing. in the "treacle bible," , jeremiah viii., v. , this passage is rendered: "is there not treacle at gylead?" venice treacle, or triacle, was a famous antidote in the middle ages to all animal poisons. it was named _theriaca_ (the latin word for our present treacle) from the greek word _therion_, a small animal, in allusion to the vipers which were added to the triacle by andromachus, physician to the emperor nero. [ ] tea made of our garden balm, by virtue of the volatile oil, will prove restorative, and will promote perspiration if taken hot on the access of a cold or of influenza; also, if used in like manner, it will help effectively to bring on the delayed monthly flow with women. but an infusion of the plant made with cold water, acts better as a remedy for hysterical headache, and as a general nervine stimulant because the volatile aromatic virtues are not dispelled by heat. formerly, a spirit of balm, combined with lemon peel, nutmeg, and angelica-root, enjoyed a great reputation as a restorative cordial under the name of carmelite water. paracelsus thought so highly of balm that he believed it would completely revivify a man, as _primum ens melissoe_. the london dispensatory of said: "the essence of balm given in canary wine every morning will renew youth, strengthen the brain, relieve languishing nature, and prevent baldness." "balm," adds john evelyn, "is sovereign for the brain, strengthening the memory, and powerfully chasing away melancholy." in france, women bruise the young shoots of balm, and make them into cakes, with eggs, sugar, and rose water, which they give to mothers in childbed as a strengthener. it is fabled that the jew ahasuerus (who refused a cup of water to our saviour on his way to golgotha, and was therefore doomed to wander athirst until christ should come again) on a whitsuntide evening, asked for a draught of small beer at the door of a staffordshire cottager who was far advanced in consumption. he got the drink, and out of gratitude advised the sick man to gather in the garden three leaves of balm, and to put them into a cup of beer. this was to be repeated every fourth day for twelve days, the refilling of the cup to be continued as often as might be wished; then "the [ ] disease shall be cured and thy body altered." so saying, the jew departed and was never seen there again. but the cottager obeyed the injunction, and at the end of the twelve days had become a sound man. barberry. the common barberry (_berberis_), which gives its name to a special order of plants, grows wild as a shrub in our english copses and hedges, particularly about essex, being so called from berberin, a pearl oyster, because the leaves are glossy like the inside of an oyster shell. it is remarkable for the light colour of its bark, which is yellow inside, and for its three-forked spines. provincially it is also termed pipperidge-bush, from "pepin," a pip, and "rouge," red, as descriptive of its small scarlet juiceless fruit, of which the active chemical principles, as well as of the bark, are "berberin" and "oxyacanthin." the sparingly-produced juice of the berries is cooling and astringent. it was formerly held in high esteem by the egyptians, when diluted as a drink, in pestilential fevers. the inner, yellow bark, which has been long believed to exercise a medicinal effect on the liver, because of its colour, is a true biliary purgative. an infusion of this bark, made with boiling water, is useful in jaundice from congestive liver, with furred tongue, lowness of spirits, and yellow complexion; also for swollen spleen from malarious exposure. a medicinal tincture (h.) is made of the root-branches and the root-bark, with spirit of wine; and if given three or four times a day in doses of five drops with one tablespoonful of cold water, it will admirably rouse the liver to healthy and more vigorous action. conversely the tincture when of reduced strength will stay bilious diarrhoea. british farmers dislike the [ ] barberry shrub because, when it grows in cornfields, the wheat near it is blighted, even to the distance of two or three hundred yards. this is because of a special fungus which is common to the barberry, and being carried by the wind reproduces itself by its spores destructively on the ears of wheat, the aecidium berberidis, which generates puccinia. clusius setteth it down as a wonderful secret which he had from a friend, "that if the yellow bark of barberry be steeped in white wine for three hours, and be afterwards drank, it will purge one very marvellously." the berries upon old barberry shrubs are often stoneless, and this is the best fruit for preserving or for making the jelly. they contain malic and citric acids; and it is from these berries that the delicious _confitures d'epine vinette_, for which rouen is famous, are commonly prepared. and the same berries are chosen in england to furnish the kernel for a very nice sugar-plum. the syrup of barberries will make with water an excellent astringent gargle for raw, irritable sore throat; likewise the jelly gives famous relief for this catarrhal affection. it is prepared by boiling the berries, when ripe, with an equal weight of sugar, and then straining. for an attack of colic because of gravel in the kidneys, five drops of the tincture on sugar every five minutes will promptly relieve, as likewise when albumen is found by analysis in the urine. a noted modern nostrum belauds the virtues of the barberry as specific against bile, heartburn, and the black jaundice, this being a remedy which was "discovered after infinite pains by one who had studied for thirty years by candle light for the good of his countrymen." in gerard's time at the village of ivor, near colebrooke, most of the hedges consisted solely of barberry bushes. [ ] the following is a good old receipt for making barberry jam:--pick the fruit from the stalks, and bake it in an earthen pan; then press it through a sieve with a wooden spoon. having mixed equal weights of the prepared fruit, and of powdered sugar, put these together in pots, and cover the mixture up, setting them in a dry place, and having sifted some powdered sugar over the top of each pot. among the italians the barberry bears the name of holy thorn, because thought to have formed part of the crown of thorns made for our saviour. barley. hordeum vulgare--common barley--is chiefly used in great britain for brewing and distilling; but, it has dietetic and medicinal virtues which entitle it to be considered among serviceable simples. roman gladiators who depended for their strength and prowess chiefly on barley, were called hordearii. nevertheless, this cereal is less nourishing than wheat, and when prepared as food is apt to purge; therefore it is not made into bread, except when wheat is scarce and dear, though in scotland poor people eat barley bread. in india barley meal is made into balls of dough for the oxen and camels. pearl barley is prepared in holland and germany by first shelling the grain, and then grinding it into round white granules. the ancients fed their horses upon barley, and we fatten swine on this grain made into meal. among the greeks beer was known as barley wine, which was brewed without hops, these dating only from the fourteenth century. a decoction of barley with gum arabic, one ounce of the gum dissolved in a pint of the hot decoction, is a very useful drink to soothe irritation of the bladder, [ ] and of the urinary passages. the chemical constituents of barley are starch, gluten, albumen, oil, and hordeic acid. from the earliest times it has been employed to prepare drinks for the sick, especially in feverish disorders, and for sore lining membranes of the chest. honey may be added beneficially to the decoction of barley for bronchial coughs. the french make "orgeat" of barley boiled in successive waters, and sweetened at length as a cooling drink: though this name is now applied in france to a liqueur concocted from almonds. basil. the herb sweet basil (_ocymum basilicum_) is so called because "the smell thereof is fit for a king's house." it grows commonly in our kitchen gardens, but in england it dies down every year, and the seeds have to be sown annually. botanically, it is named "basilicon," or royal, probably because used of old in some regal unguent, or bath, or medicine. this, and the wild basil, belong to the labiate order of plants. the leaves of the sweet basil, when slightly bruised, exhale a delightful odour; they gave the distinctive flavour to the original fetter-lane sausages. the wild basil (_calamintha clinopodium_) or basil thyme, or horse thyme, is a hairy plant growing in bushy places, also about hedges and roadsides, and bearing whorls of purple flowers with a strong odour of cloves. the term _clinopodium_ signifies "bed's-foot flower," because "the branches dooe resemble the foot of a bed." in common with the other labiates, basil, both the wild and the sweet, furnishes an aromatic volatile camphoraceous oil. on this account it is much employed in france for flavouring soups (especially mock turtle) and [ ] sauces; and the dry leaves, in the form of snuff, are used for relieving nervous headaches. a tea, made by pouring boiling water on the garden basil, when green, gently but effectually helps on the retarded monthly flow with women. the bush basil is _ocymum minimum_, of which the leafy tops are used for seasoning, and in salads. the sweet basil has been immortalised by keats in his tender, pathetic poem of _isabella and the pot of basil_, founded on a story from boccaccio. she reverently possessed herself of the decapitated head of her lover, lorenzo, who had been treacherously slain:-- "she wrapped it up, and for its tomb did choose a garden pot, wherein she laid it by, and covered it with mould, and o'er it set sweet basil, which her tears kept ever wet." the herb was used at funerals in persia. its seeds were sown by the romans with maledictions and curses through the belief that the more it was abused the better it would prosper. when desiring a good crop they trod it down with their feet, and prayed the gods it might not vegetate. the greeks likewise supposed basil to thrive best when sown with swearing; and this fact explains the french saying, _semer la basilic_, as signifying "to slander." it was told in elizabeth's time that the hand of a fair lady made basil flourish; and this was then planted in pots as an act of gallantry. "basil," says john evelyn, "imparts a grateful flavour to sallets if not too strong, but is somewhat offensive to the eyes." shenstone, in his _school mistress's garden_, tells of "the tufted basil," and culpeper quaintly says: "something is the matter; basil and rue will never grow together: no, nor near one another." it is related [ ] that a certain advocate of genoa was once sent as an ambassador to treat for conditions with the duke of milan; but the duke harshly refused to hear the message, or to grant the conditions. then the ambassador offered him a handful of basil. demanding what this meant, the duke was told that the properties of the herb were, if gently handled, to give out a pleasant odour; but that, if bruised, and hardly wrung, it would breed scorpions. moved by this witty answer, the duke confirmed the conditions, and sent the ambassador honourably home. bean (_see_ pea and bean). belladonna (_see_ night shade). bennet herb (avens). this, the _herba benedicta_, or blessed herb, or avens (_geum urbanum_) is a very common plant of the rose tribe, in our woods, hedges, and shady places. it has an erect hairy stem, red at the base, with terminal bright yellow drooping flowers. the ordinary name avens--or avance, anancia, enancia--signifies an antidote, because it was formerly thought to ward off the devil, and evil spirits, and venomous beasts. where the root is in a house satan can do nothing, and flies from it: "therefore" (says ortus sanitatis) "it is blessed before all other herbs; and if a man carries the root about him no venomous beast can harm him." the herb is sometimes called way bennet, and wild rye. its graceful trefoiled loaf, and the fine golden petals of its flowers, symbolising the five wounds of christ, were sculptured by the monks of the thirteenth century on their church architecture. the botanical title of this [ ] plant, _geum_, is got from _geuo_, "to yield an agreeable fragrance," in allusion to the roots. hence also has been derived another appellation of the avens--_radix caryophyllata_, or "clove root," because when freshly dug out of the ground the roots smell like cloves. they yield tannin freely, with mucilage, resin, and muriate of lime, together with a heavy volatile oil. the roots are astringent and antiseptic, having been given in infusion for ague, and as an excellent cordial sudorific in chills, or for fresh catarrh. to make this a pint of boiling water should be poured on half an ounce of the dried root, or rather more of the fresh root, sliced. half a wineglassful will be the dose, or ten grains of the powdered root. an extract is further made. when the petals of the flower fall off, a small round prickly ball is to be seen. betony. few, if any, herbal plants have been more praised for their supposed curative virtues than the wood betony (_stachys betonica_), belonging to the order of labiates. by the common people it is often called bitny. the name _betonica_ is from the celtic "ben," head, and "tonic," good, in allusion to the usefulness of the herb against infirmities of the head. it is of frequent growth in shady woods and meadows, having aromatic leaves, and spikes (stakoi) of light purple flowers. formerly it was held in the very highest esteem as a leading herbal simple. the greeks loudly extolled its good qualities. pliny, in downright raptures, styled it _ante cunctas laudatissima_! an old italian proverb ran thus: _vende la tunica en compra la betonia_, "sell your coat, and buy betony;" whilst modern italians, when speaking of a most excellent man, say, [ ] "he has as many virtues as betony"--_he piu virtù che bettonica_. in the _medicina britannica_, , we read: "i have known the most obstinate headaches cured by daily breakfasting for a month or six weeks on a decoction of betony, made with new milk, and strained." antonius musa, chief physician to the emperor augustus, wrote a book entirely on the virtues of this herb. meyrick says, inveterate headaches after resisting every other remedy, have been cured by taking daily at breakfast a decoction made from the leaves and tops of the wood betony. culpeper wrote: "this is a precious herb well worth keeping in your house." gerard tells that "betony maketh a man have a good appetite to his meat, and is commended against ache of the knuckle bones" (sciatica). a pinch of the powdered herb will provoke violent sneezing. the dried leaves formed an ingredient in rowley's british herb snuff, which was at one time quite famous against headaches. and yet, notwithstanding all this concensus of praise from writers of different epochs, it does not appear that the betony, under chemical analysis and research, shows itself as containing any special medicinal or curative constituents. it only affords the fragrant aromatic principles common to most of the labiate plants. parkinson, who enlarged the _herbal_ of gerard, pronounced the leaves and flowers of wood betony, "by their sweet and spicy taste, comfortable both in meate and medicine." anyhow, betony tea, made with boiling water poured on the plant, is a safe drink, and likely to prove of benefit against languid nervous headaches; and the dried herb may be smoked as tobacco for relieving the same ailment. to make betony tea, put two ounces of [ ] the herb to a quart of water over the fire, and let this gradually simmer to three half-pints. give a wine-glassful of the decoction three times a day. a conserve may be made from the flowers for similar purposes. the poet laureate, a. austin, mentions "lye of betony to soothe the brow." both this plant, and the _water betony_--so called from its similarity of leaf--bear the name of kernel-wort, from having tubers or kernels attached to the roots, and from being therefore supposed, on the doctrine of signatures, to cure diseased kernels or scrofulous glands in the neck; also to banish piles from the fundament. but the water betony (figwort) belongs not to the labiates, but to the _scrophulariaceoe_, or scrofula-curing order of plants. it is called in some counties "brown-wort," and in yorkshire "bishopsleaves," or, _l'herbe du siège_, which term has a double meaning--in allusion both to the seat in the temple of cloacina (w.c.) and to the ailments of the lower body in connection therewith, as well as to the more exalted "see" of a right reverend prelate. in old times the water figwort was famous as a vulnerary, both when used externally, and when taken in decoction. the name "brown-wort" has been got either from the brown colour of the stems and flowers, or, more probably, from its growing abundantly about the "brunnen," or public german fountains. wasps and bees are fond of the flowers. in former days this herb was relied on for the cure of toothache, and for expelling the particular disembodied spirit, or "mare," which visited our saxon ancestors during their sleep after supper, being familiarly known to them as the "nightmare." the "echo" was in like manner thought by the saxons to be due to a spectre, or mare, which they called the "wood mare." the water [ ] betony is said to make one of the ingredients in count mattaei's noted remedy, "anti-scrofuloso." the figwort is named in somersetshire "crowdy-kit" (the word kit meaning a fiddle), "or fiddlewood," because if two of the stalks are rubbed together, they make a noise like the scraping of the bow on violin strings. in devonshire, also, the plant is known as "fiddler." an allied figwort--which is botanically called _nodosa_, or knotted--is considered, when an ointment is made with it, using the whole plant bruised and treated with unsalted lard, a sovereign remedy against "burnt holes" or gangrenous chicken-pox, such as often attacks the irish peasantry, who subsist on a meagre and exclusively vegetable diet, being half starved, and pent up in wretched foul hovels. this herb is said to be certainly curative of hydrophobia, by taking every morning whilst fasting a slice of bread and butter on which the powdered knots of the roots have been spread, following it up with two tumblers of fresh spring water. then let the patient be well clad in woollen garments and made to take a long fast walk until in a profuse perspiration. the treatment should be continued for nine days. again, the botanical name of a fig, _ficus_, has been commonly applied to a sore or scab appearing on a part of the body where hair is, or to a red sore in the fundament, i.e., to a pile. and the figwort is so named in allusion to its curative virtues against piles, when the plant is made into an ointment for outward use, and when the tincture is taken internally. it is specially visited by wasps. bilberry (whortleberry, or whinberry). this fruit, which belongs to the cranberry order of plants, grows abundantly throughout england in heathy [ ] and mountainous districts. the small-branched shrub bears globular, wax-like flowers, and black berries, which are covered, when quite fresh, with a grey bloom. in the west of england they are popularly called "whorts," and they ripen about the time of st. james' feast, july th. other names for the fruit are blueberry, bulberry, hurtleberry, and huckleberry. the title whinberry has been acquired from its growing on whins, or heaths; and bilberry signifies dark coloured; whence likewise comes blackwort as distinguished in its aspect from the cowberry and the cranberry. by a corruption the original word myrtleberry has suffered change of its initial m into w. (whortlebery.) in the middle ages the myrtleberry was used in medicine and cookery, to which berry the whortleberry bears a strong resemblance. it is agreeable to the taste, and may be made into tarts, but proves mawkish unless mixed with some more acid fruit. the bilberry (_vaccinium myrtillus_) is an admirable astringent, and should be included as such among the domestic medicines of the housewife. if some good brandy be poured over two handfuls of the fruit in a bottle, this will make an extract which continually improves by being kept. obstinate diarrhoea may be cured by giving doses of a tablespoonful of this extract taken with a wineglassful of warm water, and repeated at intervals of two hours whilst needed, even for the more severe cases of dysenteric diarrhoea. the berries contain chemically much tannin. their stain on the lips may be quickly effaced by sucking at a lemon. in devonshire they are eaten at table with cream. the irish call them "frawns." if the first tender leaves are properly gathered and dried, they can scarcely be [ ] distinguished from good tea. moor game live on these berries in the autumn. their juice will stain paper or linen purple:-- "sanguineo splendore rosas vaccinia nigro, induit, et dulci violas ferrugine pingit." claudian. they are also called in some counties, blaeberries, truckleberries, and blackhearts. the extract of bilberry is found to be a very useful application for curing such skin diseases as scaly eczema, and other eczema which is not moist or pustulous; also for burns and scalds. some of the extract is to be laid thickly on the cleansed skin with a camel hairbrush, and a thin layer of cotton wool to be spread over it, the whole being fastened with a calico or gauze bandage. this should be changed gently once a day. another vaccinium (oxycoccos), the marsh whortleberry, or cranberry, or fenberry--from growing in fens--is found in peat bogs, chiefly in the north. this is a low plant with straggling wiry stems, and solitary terminal bright red flowers, of which the segments are bent back in a singular manner. its fruit likewise makes excellent tarts, and forms a considerable article of commerce at langtown, on the borders of cumberland. the fruit stalks are crooked at the top, and before the blossom expands they resemble the head and neck of a crane. blackberry. this is the well-known fruit of the common bramble (_rubus fructicosus_), which grows in every english hedgerow, and which belongs to the rose order of plants. it has long been esteemed for its bark and leaves as a [ ] capital astringent, these containing much tannin; also for its fruit, which is supplied with malic and citric acids, pectin, and albumen. blackberries go often by the name of "bumblekites," from "bumble," the cry of the bittern, and kyte, a scotch word for belly; the name bumblekite being applied, says dr. prior, "from the rumbling and bumbling caused in the bellies of children who eat the fruit too greedily." "rubus" is from the latin _ruber_, red. the blackberry has likewise acquired the name of scaldberry, from producing, as some say, the eruption known as scaldhead in children who eat the fruit to excess; or, as others suppose, from the curative effects of the leaves and berries in this malady of the scalp; or, again, from the remedial effects of the leaves when applied externally to scalds. it has been said that the young shoots, eaten as a salad, will fasten loose teeth. if the leaves are gathered in the spring and dried, then, when required, a handful of them may be infused in a pint of boiling water, and the infusion, when cool, may be taken, a teacupful at a time, to stay diarrhoea, and for some bleedings. similarly, if an ounce of the bruised root is boiled in three half-pints of water, down to a pint, a teacupful of this may be given every three or four hours. the decoction is also useful against whooping-cough in its spasmodic stage. the bark contains tannin; and if an ounce of the same be boiled in a pint and a half of water, or of milk, down to a pint, half a teacupful of the decoction may be given every hour or two for staying relaxed bowels. likewise the fruit, if desiccated in a moderately hot oven, and afterwards reduced to powder (which should be kept ill a well corked bottle) will prove an efficacious remedy for dysentery. [ ] gerard says: "bramble leaves heal the eyes that hang out, and stay the haemorrhoides [piles] if they can be laid thereunto." the london _pharmacopoeia_ ( ) declared the ripe berries of the bramble to be a great cordial, and to contain a notable restorative spirit. in cruso's _treasury of easy medicines_ ( ), it is directed for old inveterate ulcers: "take a decoction of blackberry leaves made in wine, and foment the ulcers with this whilst hot each night and morning, which will heal them, however difficult to be cured." the name of the bush is derived from brambel, or brymbyll, signifying prickly; its blossom as well as the fruit, ripe and unripe, in all stages, may be seen on the bush at the same time. with the ancient greeks blackberries were a popular remedy for gout. as soon as blackberries are over-ripe, they become quite indigestible. country folk say in somersetshire and sussex: "the devil goes round on old michaelmas day, october th, to spite the saint, and spits on the blackberries, so that they who eat them after that date fall sick, or have trouble before the year is out." blackberry wine and blackberry jam are taken for sore throats in many rustic homes. blackberry jelly is useful for dropsy from feeble ineffective circulation. to make "blackberry cordial," the juice should be expressed from the fresh ripe fruit, adding half a pound of white sugar to each quart thereof, together with half an ounce of both nutmeg and cloves; then boil these together for a short time, and add a little brandy to the mixture when cold. in devonshire the peasantry still think that if anyone is troubled with "blackheads," _i.e._, small pimples, or boils, he may be cured by creeping from east to west on the hands and knees nine times beneath an arched [ ] bramble bush. this is evidently a relic of an old dryad superstition when the angry deities who inhabited particular trees had to be appeased before the special diseases which they inflicted could be cured. it is worthy of remark that the bramble forms the subject of the oldest known apologue. when jonathan upbraided the men of shechem for their base ingratitude to his father's house, he related to them the parable of the trees choosing a king, by whom the bramble was finally elected, after the olive, the fig tree, and the vine had excused themselves from accepting this dignity. in the roxburghe ballad of "the children in the wood," occurs the verse-- "their pretty lips with blackberries were all besmeared and dyed; and when they saw the darksome night they sat them down, and cryed." the french name for blackberries is _mûres sauvages_, also _mûres de haie_; and in some of our provincial districts they are known as "winterpicks," growing on the blag. blackberry wine, which is a trustworthy cordial astringent remedy for looseness of the bowels, may be made thus: measure your berries, and bruise them, and to every gallon of the fruit add a quart of boiling water. let the mixture stand for twenty-four hours, occasionally stirring; then strain off the liquid, adding to every gallon a couple of pounds of refined sugar, and keep it in a cask tightly corked till the following october, when it will be ripe and rich. a noted hair-dye is said to be made by boiling the leaves of the bramble in strong lye, which then imparts permanently to the hair a soft, black colour. tom hood, in his humorous way, described a negro funeral [ ] as "going a black burying." an american poet graphically tell us:-- "earth's full of heaven, and every common bush afire with god! but only they who see take off their shoes; the rest sit round it, and--pluck blackberries." bluebell (wild hyacinth). this,--the _agraphis mutans_,--of the lily tribe--is so abundant in english woods and pastures, whilst so widely known, and popular with young and old, as to need no description. hyacinth petals are marked in general with dark spots, resembling in their arrangement the greek word ai, alas! because a youth, beloved by apollo, and killed by an ill-wind, was changed into this flower. but the wild hyacinth bears no such character on its petals, and is therefore called "non-scriptus." the graceful curl of the petals, not their dark violet colour, has suggested to the poets "hyacinthine locks." in walton's _angler_ the bluebell is mentioned as culverkeys, the same as "calverkeys" in wiltshire. no particular medicinal uses have attached themselves to the wild hyacinth flower as a herbal simple. the root is round, and was formerly prized for its abundant clammy juice given out when bruised, and employed as starch. miss pratt refers to this as poisonous; and our poet laureate teaches:-- "in the month when earth and sky are one, to squeeze the blue bell 'gainst the adder's bite." when dried and powdered, the root as a styptic is of special virtue to cure the whites of women: in doses of not more than three grains at a time. "there is [ ] hardly," says sir john hill, "a more powerful remedy." tennyson has termed the woodland abundance of hyacinths in full spring time as "the heavens upbreaking through the earth." on the day of st. george, the patron saint of england, these wild hyacinths tinge the meadows and pastures with their deep blue colour--an emblem of the ocean empire, over which england assumes the rule. but the chief charms of the bluebell are its beauty and early appearance. now is "the winter past; the rain is over and gone; the flowers appear on the earth; the time for the singing of birds is come; and the voice of the turtle is heard in the land." "this earth is one great temple, made for worship everywhere; the bells are flowers in sun and shade which ring the heart to prayer." "the city bell takes seven days to reach the townsman's ear; but he who kneels in nature's ways. has sabbath all the year." the hairbell (_campanula rotundifolia_) is the bluebell of scotland; and nothing rouses a scot to anger more surely than to exhibit the wild hyacinth as the true bluebell. bog bean (or marsh-trefoil). the buck-bean, or bog-bean, which is common enough in stagnant pools, and on our spongy bogs, is the most serviceable of all known herbal tonics. it may be easily recognised growing in water by its large leaves overtopping the surface, each being composed of three leaflets, and resembling the leaf of a windsor broad bean. the flowers when in bud are of a bright rose [ ] color, and when fully blown they have the inner surface of their petals thickly covered with a white fringe, on which account the plant is known also as "white fluff." the name buckbean is perhaps a corruption of _scorbutus_, scurvy; this giving it another title, "scurvy bean." and it is termed "goat's bean," perhaps from the french _le bouc_, "a he-goat." the plant flowers for a month and therefore bears the botanical designation, "menyanthes" (_trifoliata_) from _meen_, "a month," and _anthos_, "a flower." it belongs to the gentian tribe, each of which is distinguished by a tonic and appetizing bitterness of taste. the root of the bog bean is the most bitter part, and is therefore selected for medicinal use. it contains a chemical glucoside, "menyanthin," which consists of glucose and a volatile product, "menyanthol." for curative purposes druggists supply an infusion of the herb, and a liquid extract in combination with liquorice. these preparations are in moderate doses, strengthening and antiscorbutic; but when given more largely they are purgative and emetic. gerard says if the plant "be taken with mead, or honied water, it is of use against a cough"; in which respect it is closely allied to the sundew (another plant of the bogs) for relieving whooping-cough after the first feverish stage, or any similar hacking, spasmodic cough. a tincture is made (h.) from the whole plant with spirit of wine, and this proves most useful for clearing obscuration of the sight, when there is a sense, especially in the open-air, of a white vibrating mist before the eyes; and therefore it has been given with marked success in early stages of amaurotic paralysis of the retina. the dose should be three or four drops of the tincture with a tablespoonful of cold water three times in the day for a week at a time. [ ] borage. the borage, with its gallant blue flower, is cultivated in our gardens as a pot herb, and is associated in our minds with bees and claret cup. it grows wild in abundance on open plains where the soil is favourable, and it has a long-established reputation for cheering the spirits. botanically, it is the _borago officinalis_, this title being a corruption of _cor-ago_, i.e., _cor_, the heart, _ago_, i stimulate--_quia cordis affectibus medetur_, because it cures weak conditions of the heart. an old latin adage says: _borago ego gaudia semper ago_--"i, borage, bring always courage"; or the name may be derived from the celtic, _borrach_, "a noble person." this plant was the bugloss of the older botanists, and it corresponds to our common bugloss, so called from the shape and bristly surface of its leaves, which resemble _bous-glossa_, the tongue of an ox. chemically, the plant borage contains potassium and calcium combined with mineral acids. the fresh juice affords thirty per cent., and the dried herb three per cent. of nitrate of potash. the stems and leaves supply much saline mucilage, which, when boiled and cooled, likewise deposits nitre and common salt. these crystals, when ignited, will burn with a succession of small sparkling explosions, to the great delight of the schoolboy. and it is to such saline qualities the wholesome, invigorating effects and the specially refreshing properties of the borage are supposed to be mainly due. for which reason, the plant, "when taken in sallets," as says an old herbalist, "doth exhilarate, and make the mind glad," almost in the same way as a bracing sojourn by the seaside during an autumn holiday. the flowers possess cordial virtues which are very revivifying, and have been much commended against melancholic depression of the nervous system. burton, in his [ ] _anatomy of melancholy_ ( ), wrote with reference to the frontispiece of that book:-- "borage and hellebore fill two scenes, sovereign plants to purge the veins of melancholy, and cheer the heart of those black fumes which make it smart; the best medicine that god e'er made for this malady, if well assaid." "the sprigs of borage," wrote john evelyn, "are of known virtue to revive the hypochondriac and cheer the hard student." according to dioscorides and pliny, the borage was that famous nepenthe of homer which polydamas sent to helen for a token "of such rare virtue that when taken steep'd in wine, if wife and children, father and mother, brother and sister, and all thy dearest friends should die before thy face, thou could'st not grieve, or shed a tear for them." "the bowl of helen had no other ingredient, as most criticks do conjecture, than this of borage." and it was declared of the herb by another ancient author: _vinum potatum quo sit macerata buglossa moerorum cerebri dicunt auferre periti_:-- "to enliven the sad with the joy of a joke, give them wine with some borage put in it to soak." the romans named the borage _euphrosynon_, because when put into a cup of wine it made the drinkers of the same merry and glad. parkinson says, "the seed of borage helpeth nurses to have more store of milk, for which purpose its leaves are most conducing." its saline constituents promote activity of the kidneys, and for this reason the plant is used in france to carry off catarrhs which are feverish. the fresh herb has a cucumber-like odour, and when compounded with lemon and sugar, added to wine and [ ] water, it makes a delicious "cool tankard," as a summer drink. "a syrup concocted of the floures," said gerard, "quieteth the lunatick person, and the leaves eaten raw do engender good blood." of all nectar-loving insects, bees alone know how to pronounce the "open sesame" of admission to the honey pots of the borage. broom. the broom, or link (_cytisus scoparius_) is a leguminous shrub which is well known as growing abundantly on open places in our rural districts. the prefix "cytisus" is derived from the name of a greek island where broom abounded. it formerly bore the name of _planta genista_, and gave rise to the historic title, "plantagenet." a sprig of its golden blossom was borne by geoffrey of anjou in his bonnet when going into battle, making him conspicuous throughout the strife. in the _ingoldsby legends_ it is said of our second king henry's headdress:-- "with a great sprig of broom, which he bore as a badge in it, he was named from this circumstance, henry plantagenet." the stalks of the broom, and especially the topmost young twigs, are purgative, and act powerfully on the kidneys to increase the flow of urine. they contain chemically an acid principle, "scoparin," and an alkaloid, "sparteine." for medical purposes these terminal twigs are used (whether fresh or dried) to make a decoction which is of great use in dropsy from a weak heart, but it should not be given where congestion of the lungs is present. from half to one ounce by weight of the tops should be boiled down in a pint of water to half this quantity, and a wineglassful may be taken as a dose every four or six hours. for more chronic dropsy, a compound decoction of broom may be given with much [ ] benefit. to make this, use broom-tops and dandelion roots, of each half an ounce, boiling them in a pint of water down to half a pint, and towards the last adding half an ounce of bruised juniper berries. when cold, the decoction should be strained and a wineglassful may be had three or four times a day. "henry the eighth, a prince of famous memory, was wonte to drinke the distilled water of broome flowers against surfeits and diseases therefrom arising." the flower-buds, pickled in vinegar, are sometimes used as capers; and the roasted seeds have been substituted for coffee. sheep become stupefied or excited when by chance constrained to eat broom-tops. the generic name, _scoparius_, is derived from the latin word _scopa_, a besom, this signifying "a shrub to sweep with." it has been long represented that witches delight to ride thereon: and in holland, if a vessel lying in dock has a besom tied to the top of its mast, this advertises it as in search of a new owner. hence has arisen the saying about a woman when seeking a second husband, _zij steetk't dem bezen_, "she hangs out the broom." there is a tradition in suffolk and sussex:-- "if you sweep the house with broom in may, you'll sweep the head of the house away." allied to the broom, and likewise belonging to the papilionaceous order of leguminous plants, though not affording any known medicinal principle, the yellow gorse (_ulex_) or furze grows commonly throughout england on dry exposed plains. it covers these during the flowering season with a gorgeous sheet of yellow blossoms, orange perfumed, and which entirely conceals the rugged brown unsightly branches beneath. its elastic seed vessels burst with a crackling noise in hot [ ] weather, and scatter the seeds on all sides. "some," says parkinson, "have used the flowers against the jaundice," but probably only because of their yellow colour. "the seeds," adds gerard, "are employed in medicines against the stone, and the staying of the laske" (_laxitas_, looseness). they are certainly astringent, and contain tannin. in devonshire the bush is called "vuzz," and in sussex "hawth." the gorse is rare in scotland, thriving best in our cool humid climate. in england it is really never out of blossom, not even after a severe frost, giving rise to the well-known saying "love is never out of season except when the furze is out of bloom." it is also known as fursbush, furrs and whins, being crushed and given as fodder to cattle. the tender shoots are protected from being eaten by herbivorous animals in the same way as are the thistles and the holly, by the angles of the leaves having grown together so as to constitute prickles. "'twere to cut off an epigram's point, or disfurnish a knight of his spurs, if we foolishly tried to disjoint its arms from the lance-bearing furze." linnoeus "knelt before it on the sod: and for its beauty thanked his god." the _butcher's broom, ruscus (or bruscus) aculeatus_, or prickly, is a plant of the lily order, which grows chiefly in the south of england, on heathy places and in woods. it bears sharp-pointed, stiff leaves (each of which produces a small solitary flower on its upper surface), and scarlet berries. the shrub is also known as knee hulyer, knee holly (confused with the latin _cneorum_), prickly pettigrue and jews' myrtle. butchers make besoms of its twigs, with which to sweep their stalls or [ ] blocks: and these twigs are called "pungi topi," "prickrats," from being used to preserve meat from rats. jews buy the same for service during the feast of tabernacles; and the boughs have been employed for flogging chilblains. the butcher's broom has been claimed by the earls of sutherland as the distinguishing badge of their followers and clan, every sutherland volunteer wearing a sprig of the bush in his bonnet on field days. this shrub is highly extolled as a free promoter of urine in dropsy and obstructions of the kidneys; a pint of boiling water should be poured on an ounce of the fresh twigs, or on half-an-ounce of the bruised root, to make an infusion, which may be taken as tea. the root is at first sweet to the taste, and afterwards bitter. bryony. english hedgerows exhibit bryony of two distinct sorts--the white and the black--which differ much, the one from the other, as to medicinal properties, and which belong to separate orders of plants. the white bryony is botanically a cucumber, being of common growth at our roadsides, and often called the white vine; it also bears the name of tetterberry, from curing a disease of the skin known as tetters. it climbs about with long straggling stalks, which attach themselves by spiral tendrils, and which produce rough, palmated leaves. insignificant pale-green flowers spring in small clusters from the bottom of these leaves. the round berries are at first green, and afterwards brilliantly red. chemically, the plant contains "bryonin," a medicinal substance which is intensely bitter; also malate and phosphate of lime, with gum, starch, and sugar. a tincture is made (h.) from the fresh root collected before the plant flowers, which is found to [ ] be of superlative use for the relief of chronic rheumatism (especially when aggravated by moving), and for subduing active congestions of the serous membranes which line the heart-bag, the ribs, the outer coat of the brain, and which cover the bowels. in the treatment of pleurisy, this tincture is invaluable. four drops should be given in a tablespoonful of cold water every three or four hours. also for any contused bruising of the skin, and especially for a black eye, to promptly bathe the injured part with a decoction of white bryony root will speedily subdue the swelling, and will prevent discoloration far better than a piece of raw beef applied outside as the remedy most approved in the ring. in france, the white bryony is deemed so potent and perilous, that its root is named the devil's turnip--_navet du diable_. our english plant, the _bryonia dioica_, purges as actively as colocynth, if too freely administered. the name bryony is two thousand years old, and comes from a greek word _bruein_, "to shoot forth rapidly." from the incised root of the white bryony exudes a milky juice which is aperient of action, and which has been commended for epilepsy, as well as for obstructed liver and dropsy; also its tincture for chronic constipation. the popular herbal drink known as hop bitters is said to owe many of its supposed virtues to the bryony root, substituted for the mandrake which it is alleged to contain. the true mandrake is a gruesome herb, which was held in superstitious awe by the greeks and the romans. its root was forked, and bears some resemblance to the legs of a man; for which reason the moneymakers [ ] of the past increased the likeness, and attributed supernatural powers to the plant. it was said to grow only beneath a murderer's gibbet, and when torn from the earth by its root to utter a shriek which none might hear and live. from earliest times, in the east, a notion prevailed that the mandrake would remove sterility. with which purpose in view, rachel said to leah: "give me, i pray thee, of thy son's mandrakes" (genesis xxx. v. ). in later times the bryony has come into use instead of the true mandrake, and it has continued to form a profitable spurious article with mountebank doctors. in henry the eighth's day, ridiculous little images made from bryony roots, cut into the figure of a man, and with grains of millet inserted into the face as eyes, the same being known as pappettes or mammettes, were accredited with magical powers, and fetched high prices with simple folk. italian ladies have been known to pay as much as thirty golden ducats for one of these artificial mandrakes. readers of thalaba (southey) will remember the fine scene in which khawla procures this plant to form part of the waxen figure of the destroyer. unscrupulous vendors of the fraudulent articles used to seek out a thriving young bryony plant, and to open the earth round it. then being prepared with a mould such as is used for making plaster of paris figures, they fixed it close to the root, and fastened it with wire to keep it in place. afterwards, by filling the earth up to the root they left it to assume the required shape, which was generally accomplished in a single summer. the medicinal tincture (h.) of white bryony (_bryonia alba_) is of special service to persons of dark hair and complexion, with firm fibre of flesh, and of a bilious cross-grained temperament. also it is of [ ] particular use for relieving coughs, and colds of a feverish bronchial sort, caught by exposure to the east wind. on the contrary, the catarrhal troubles of sensitive females, and of young children, are better met by ipecacuanha:-- "coughing in a shady grove sat my juliana, lozenges i gave my love, ipecacuanha-- full twenty from the lozenge box the greedy nymph did pick; then, sighing sadly, said to me-- my damon, i am sick." _george canning._ thyrsis et phyllis. in nemore umbroso phyllis mea forte sedebat, cui mollem exhausit tussis anhela sinum: nec mora: de loculo deprompsi pyxida loevo, ipecacuaneos, exhibuique trochos: illa quidem imprudens medicatos leniter orbes absorpsit numero bisque quaterque decem: tum tenero ducens suspiria pectore dixit, "thyrsi! mihi stomachum nausea tristis habet." the _black bryony _(lady's-seal, or oxberry), which likewise grows freely in our hedges, is quite a different plant from its nominal congener. it bears the name of _tamus vulgaris_, and belongs to the natural order of yams. it is also called the wild hop, and tetterberry or tetterwort (in common with the greater celandine), because curing the skin disease known as tetters; and further, blackbindweed. it has smooth heart-shaped leaves, and produces scarlet, elliptical berries larger than those of the white bryony. a tincture is made (h.) from the root-stock, with spirit of wine, which proves a most useful application to unbroken chilblains, when [ ] made into a lotion with water, one part to twenty. the plant is called black bryony (_bryonia nigra_) from its dark leaves and black root. it is not given at all internally, but the acrid pulp of the root has been used as a stimulating plaster. buckthorn. the common buckthorn grows in our woods and thickets, and used to be popularly known because of the purgative syrup made from its juice and berries. it bears dense branches of small green flowers, followed by the black berries, which purge violently. if gathered before they are ripe they furnish a yellow dye. when ripe, if mixed with gum arabic and lime water, they form the pigment called "bladder green." until late in the present century-- _o dura ilia messorum!_--english rustics, when requiring an aperient dose for themselves or their children, had recourse to the syrup of buckthorn. but its action was so severe, and attended with such painful gripings, that as time went on the medicine was discarded, and it is now employed in this respect almost exclusively by the cattle doctor. dodoeus taught about buckthorn berries: "they be not meet to be administered but to young and lusty people of the country, which do set more store of their money than their lives." the shrub grows chiefly on chalk, and near brooks. the name buckthorn is from the german _buxdorn_, boxthorn, hartshorn. in anglo-saxon it was heorot-bremble. it is also known as waythorn, rainberry thorn, highway thorn and rhineberries. each of the berries contains four seeds: and the flesh of birds which eat thereof is said to be purgative. when the juice is given medicinally it causes a bad stomach-ache, with much dryness of the throat: for which reason sydenham [ ] always ordered a basin of soup to be given after it. chemically the active principle of the buckthorn is "rhamno-cathartine." likewise a milder kind of buckthorn, which is much more useful as a simple, grows freely in england, the _rhamnus frangula_ or so-called "black berry-bearing alder," though this appellation is a mistake, because botanically the alder never bears any berries. this black buckthorn is a slender shrub, which occurs in our woods and thickets. the juice of its berries is aperient, without being irritating, and is well suited as a laxative for persons of delicate constitution. it possesses the merit of continuing to answer in smaller doses after the patient has become habituated to its use. the berry of the _rhamnus frangula _may be known by its containing only two seeds. country people give the bark boiled in ale for jaundice; and this bark is the black dogwood of gunpowder makers. lately a certain aperient medicine has become highly popular with both doctors and patients in this country, the same being known as cascara sagrada. it is really an american buckthorn, the _rhamnus persiana_, and it possesses no true advantage over our black alder buckthorn, though the bark of this latter must be used a year old, or it will cause griping. a fluid extract of the english mild buckthorn, or of the american cascara, is made by our leading druggists, of which from half to one teaspoonful may be given for a dose. this is likewise a tonic to the intestines, and is especially useful for relieving piles. lozenges also of the alder buckthorn are dispensed under the name of "aperient fruit lozenges;" one, or perhaps two, being taken for a dose as required. there is a sea buckthorn, _hippophoe_, which belongs to a different natural order, _eloeagnaceoe_, a low shrubby tree, [ ] growing on sandhills and cliffs, and called also sallowthorn. the fruit is made (in tartary) into a pleasant jelly, because of its acid flavour, and used in the gulf of bothnia for concocting a fish sauce. the name signifies "giving light to a horse," being conferred because of a supposed power to cure equine blindness; or it may mean "shining underneath," in allusion to the silvery underside of the leaf. the old-fashioned cathartic buckthorn of our hedges and woods has spinous thorny branchlets, from which its name, _rhamnus_, is thought to be derived, because the shrub is set with thorns like as the ram. at one time this buckthorn was a botanical puzzle, even to royalty, as the following lines assure us:-- "hicum, peridicum; all clothed in green; the king could not tell it, no more could the queen; so they sent to consult wise men from the east. who said it had horns, though it was not a beast." burnet saxifrage (_see_ pimpernel). buttercup. the most common buttercup of our fields (_ranunculus bulbosis_) needs no detailed description. it belongs to the order termed _ranunculaceoe_, so-called from the latin _rana_, a frog, because the several varieties of this genus grow in moist places where frogs abound. under the general name of buttercups are included the creeping ranunculus, of moist meadows; the _ranunculus acris_, hunger weed, or meadow crowfoot, so named from the shape of the leaf (each of these two being also called king cup), and the _ranunculus bulbosus_ mentioned above. "king-cob" signifies a resemblance between the unexpanded flowerbud and [ ] a stud of gold, such as a king would wear; so likewise the folded calyx is named goldcup, goldknob and cuckoobud. the term buttercup has become conferred through a mistaken notion that this flower gives butter a yellow colour through the cows feeding on it (which is not the case), or, perhaps, from the polished, oily surface of the petals. the designation really signifies "button cop," or _bouton d'or_; "the batchelor's button"; this terminal syllable, _cup_, being corrupted from the old english word "cop," a head. it really means "button head." the buttercup generally is known in wiltshire and the adjoining counties as crazy, or crazies, being reckoned by some as an insane plant calculated to produce madness; or as a corruption of christseye (which was the medieval name of the marigold). a burning acridity of taste is the common characteristic of the several varieties of the buttercup. in its fresh state the ordinary field buttercup is so acrimonious that by merely pulling up the plant by its root, and carrying it some little distance in the hand, the palm becomes reddened and inflamed. cows will not eat it unless very hungry, and then the mouth of the animal becomes sore and blistered. the leaves of the buttercup, when bruised and applied to the skin, produce a blistering of the outer cuticle, with a discharge of a watery fluid, and with heat, redness, and swelling. if these leaves are masticated in the mouth they will induce pains like a stitch between the ribs at the side, with the sharp catchings of neuralgic rheumatism. a medicinal tincture is made (h.) from the bulbous buttercup with spirit of wine, which will, as a similar, cure _shingles_ very expeditiously, both the outbreak of small watery pimples clustered together at the side, and the accompanying sharp pains between the ribs. also this tincture will [ ] promptly relieve neuralgic side-ache, and pleurisy which is of a passive sort. from six to eight drops of the tincture may be taken with a tablespoonful of cold water by an adult three or four times a day for either of the aforesaid purposes. in france, this plant is called "jaunet." buttercups are most probably the "cuckoo buds" immortalised by shakespeare. the fresh leaves of the crowfoot (_ranunculus acris_) formed a part of the famous cancer cure of mr. plunkett in . this cure comprised crowfoot leaves, freshly gathered, and dog's-foot fennel leaves, of each an ounce, with one drachm of white arsenic levigated, and with five scruples of flowers of sulphur, all beaten together into a paste, and dried by the sun in balls, which were then powdered, and, being mixed with yolk of egg, were applied on pieces of pig's bladder. the juice of the common buttercup (_bulbosus_), known sometimes as "st. anthony's turnip," if applied to the nostrils, will provoke sneezing, and will relieve passive headache in this way. the leaves have been applied as a blister to the wrists in rheumatism, and when infused in boiling water as a poultice over the pit of the stomach as a counter-irritant. for sciatica the tincture of the bulbous buttercup has proved very helpful. the _ranunculus flammata_, spearwort, has been used to produce a slight blistering effect by being put under a limpet shell against the skin of the part to be relieved, until some smarting and burning have been sensibly produced, with incipient vesication of the outermost skin. the _ranunculus sceleratus_, marsh crowfoot, or celery-leaved buttercup, called in france "_herbe sardonique_," and "_grenouillette d'eau_," when made into a tincture (h.) with spirit of wine, and given in small diluted doses, proves curative of stitch in the side, and of neuralgic pains between the ribs, likewise of pleurisy without [ ] feverishness. the dose should be five drops of the third decimal tincture with a spoonful of water every three or four hours. this plant grows commonly at the sides of our pools, and in wet ditches, bearing numerous small yellow flowers, with petals scarcely longer than the calyx. cabbage. "the time has come," as the walrus said in _alice and the looking glass_, "to talk of many things"-- "of shoes, and ships, and sealing-wax; of _cabbages_, and kings." the cabbage, which is fabled to have sprung from the tears of the spartan lawgiver, lycurgus, began as the colewort, and was for six hundred years, according to pliny and cato, the only internal remedy used by the romans. the ionians had such a veneration for cabbages that they swore by them, just as the egyptians did by the onion. with ourselves, the wild cabbage, growing on our english sea cliffs, is the true collet, or colewort, from which have sprung all our varieties of cabbage--cauliflower, greens, broccoli, etc. no vegetables were grown for the table in england before the time of henry the eighth. in the thirteenth century it was the custom to salt vegetables because they were so scarce; and in the sixteenth century a cabbage from holland was deemed a choice present. the whole tribe of cabbages is named botanically _brassicaceoe-- apo tou brassein_--because they heat, or ferment. by natural order they are cruciferous plants; and all contain much nitrogen, or vegetable albumen, with a considerable quantity of sulphur; hence they tend strongly to putrefaction, and when decomposed their odour is very offensive. being cut into pieces, and pressed close in a tub with aromatic herbs and salt, so as to undergo an acescent fermentation (which is [ ] arrested at that stage), cabbages form the german _saurkraut_, which is strongly recommended against scurvy. the white cabbage is most putrescible; the red most emollient and pectoral. the juice of the red cabbage made into syrup, without any condiments, is useful in chronic coughs, and in bronchial asthma. the leaves of the common white cabbage, when gently bruised and applied to a blistered surface, will promote a free discharge, as also when laid next the skin in dropsy of the ankles. all the coleworts are called "crambe," from _krambos_, dry, because they dispel drunkenness. "there is," says an old author, "a natural enmitie between the colewort and the vine, which is such that the vine, if growing near unto it, withereth and perisheth; yea, if wine be poured into the colewort while it is boiling, it will not be any more boiled, and the colour thereof will be quite altered." the generic term colewort is derived from _caulis_, a stalk, and _wourte_, as applied to all kinds of herbs that "do serve for the potte." "good worts," exclaimed falstaff, catching at evans' faulty pronunciation of _words_,--"good worts,"--"good cabbages." an irish cure for sore throat is to tie cabbage leaves round it; and the same remedy is applied in england with hot cabbage leaves for a swollen face. in the island of jersey coarse cabbages are grown abundantly on patches of roadside ground, and in corners of fields, the stalks of which attain the height of eight, ten, or more feet, and are used for making walking sticks or _cannes en tiges de choux_. these are in great demand on the island, and are largely exported. it may be that a specially tall cabbage of this sort gave rise to the fairy tale of "jack and the bean stalk." the word cabbage bears reference [ ] to _caba (caput)_, a head, as signifying a colewort which forms a round head. _kohl rabi_, from _caulo-rapum_, cabbage turnip, is a name given to the _brassica oleracea_. in the sum of twenty shillings was paid for six cabbages and a few carrots, at the port of hull, by the purveyor to the clifford family. the red cabbage is thought in france to be highly anti-scorbutic; and a syrup is made from it with this purpose in view. the juice of white cabbage leaves will cure warts. the _brassica oleracea_ is one of the plants used in count mattaei's vaunted nostrum, "anti-scrofuloso." this, the sea cabbage, with its pale clusters of handsome yellow flowers, is very ornamental to our cliffs. its leaves, which are conspicuously purple, have a bitter taste when uncooked, but become palatable for boiling if first repeatedly washed; and they are sold at dover as a market vegetable. these should be boiled in two waters, of which the first will be made laxative, and the second, or thicker decoction, astringent, which fact was known to hippocrates, who said "_jus caulis solvit cujus substantia stringit_." sir anthony ashley brought the cabbage into english cultivation. it is said a cabbage is sculptured at his feet on his monument in wimbourne minster, dorset. he imported the cabbage (cale) from cadiz (cales), where he held a command, and grew rich by seizing other men's possessions, notably by appropriating some jewels entrusted to his care by a lady. hence he is said to have got more by cales (cadiz) than by cale (cabbage); and this is, perhaps, the origin of our term "to cabbage." among tailors, this phrase "to cabbage" is a cant saying which means to filch the cloth when cutting out for a customer. arbuthnot writes "your [ ] tailor, instead of shreds, cabbages whole yards of cloth." perhaps the word comes from the french _cabasser_, to put into a basket. from the seed of the wild cabbage (rape, or navew) rape-seed oil is extracted, and the residue is called rape-cake, or oil-cake. some years ago it was customary to bake bread-rolls wrapped in cabbage leaves, for imparting what was considered an agreeable flavour. john evelyn said: "in general, cabbages are thought to allay fumes, and to prevent intoxication; but some will have them noxious to the sight." after all it must be confessed the cabbage is greatly to be accused for lying undigested in the stomach, and for provoking eructations; which makes one wonder at the veneration the ancients had for it, calling the tribe divine, and swearing _per brassicam_, which was for six hundred years held by the romans a panacea: though "_dis crambee thanatos_"--"death by twice cabbage"--was a greek proverb. gerard says the greeks called the cabbage amethustos, "not only because it driveth away drunkennesse; but also for that it is like in colour to the pretious stone called the amethyst." the cabbage was pompey's best beloved dish. to make a winter salad it is customary in america to choose a firm white cabbage, and to shred it very fine, serving it with a dressing of plain oil and vinegar. this goes by the name of "slaw," which has a dutch origin. the free presence of hydrogen and sulphur causes a very strong and unpleasant smell to pervade the house during the cooking of cabbages. nevertheless, this sulphur is a very salutary constituent of the vegetable, most useful in scurvy and scrofula. partridge and cabbage suit the patrician table; bacon and cabbage [ ] better please the taste and the requirements of the proletarian. the nitrogen of this and other cruciferous plants serves to make them emit offensive stinks when they lie out of doors and rot. for the purulent scrofulous ophthalmic inflammation of infants, by cleansing the eyes thoroughly every half-hour with warm water, and then packing the sockets each time with fresh cabbage leaves cleaned and bruised to a soft pulp, the flow of matter will be increased for a few days, but a cure will be soon effected. pliny commended the juice of the raw cabbage with a little honey for sore and inflamed eyes which were moist and weeping, but not for those which were dry and dull. in kent and sussex, when a cabbage is cut and the stalk left in the ground to produce "greens" for the table, a cottager will carve an x on the top flat surface of the upright stalk, and thus protect it against mischievous garden sprites and demons. some half a century ago medical apprentices were taught the art of blood-letting by practising with a lancet on the prominent veins of a cabbage leaf. carlyle said "of all plants the cabbage grows fastest to completion." his parable of the oak and the cabbage conveys the lesson that those things which are most richly endowed when they come to perfection, are the slowest in their production and development. capsicum (cayenne). the _capsicum_, or bird pepper, or guinea pepper, is a native of tropical countries; but it has been cultivated throughout great britain as a stove plant for so many years (since the time of gerard, ) as to have become practically indigenous. moreover, its fruit-pods are so highly useful, whether as a condiment, or as a medicine, [ ] no apology is needed for including it among serviceable herbal simples. the cayenne pepper of our tables is the powdered fruit of bird pepper, a variety of the capsicum plant, and belonging likewise to the order of solanums; whilst the customary "hot" pickle which we take with our cold meats is prepared from another variety of the capsicum plant called "chilies." this plant--the bird pepper--exercises an important medicinal action, which has only been recently recognized by doctors. the remarkable success which has attended the use of cayenne pepper as a substitute for alcohol with hard drinkers, and as a valuable drug in _delirium tremens_, has lately led physicians to regard the capsicum as a highly useful, stimulating, and restorative medicine. for an intemperate person, who really desires to wean himself from taking spirituous liquors, and yet feels to need a substitute at first, a mixture of tincture of capsicum with tincture of orange peel and water will answer very effectually, the doses being reduced in strength and frequency from day to day. in _delirium tremens_, if the tincture of capsicum be given in doses of half-a-dram well diluted with water, it will reduce the tremor and agitation in a few hours, inducing presently a calm prolonged sleep. at the same time the skin will become warm, and will perspire naturally; the pulse will fall in quickness, but whilst regaining fulness and volume; and the kidneys, together with the bowels, will act freely. chemically the plant furnishes an essential oil with a crystalline principle, "capsicin," of great power. this oil may be taken remedially in doses of from half to one drop rubbed up with some powdered white sugar, and mixed with a wineglassful of hot water. the medicinal tincture is made with sixteen grains of [ ] the powdered capsicum to a fluid ounce of spirit of wine; and the dose of this tincture is from five to twenty drops with one or two tablespoonfuls of water. in the smaller doses it serves admirably to relieve pains in the loins when depending on a sluggish inactivity of the kidneys. unbroken chilblains may be readily cured by rubbing them once a day with a piece of sponge saturated with the tincture of capsicum until a strong tingling is induced. in the early part of the present century, a medicine of capsicum with salt was famous for curing severe influenza with putrid sore throat. two dessert spoonfuls of small red pepper; or three of ordinary cayenne pepper, were beaten together with two of fine salt, into a paste, and with half-a-pint of boiling water added thereto. then the liquor was strained off when cold, and half-a-pint of very sharp vinegar was mixed with it, a tablespoonful of the united mixture being given to an adult every half, or full hour, diluted with water if too strong. for inflammation of the eyes, with a relaxed state of the membranes covering the eyeballs and lining the lids, the diluted juice of the capsicum is a sovereign remedy. again, for toothache from a decayed molar, a small quantity of cayenne pepper introduced into the cavity will often give immediate relief. the tincture or infusion given in small doses has proved useful to determine outwardly the eruption of measles and scarlet fever, when imperfectly developed because of weakness. also for a scrofulous discharge of matter from the ears, capsicum tincture, of a weak strength, four drops with a tablespoonful of cold water three times a day, to a child, will prove curative. a capsicum ointment, or "chili paste," scarcely ever fails to relieve chronic rheumatism when rubbed in [ ] topically for ten minutes at a time with a gloved hand; and an application afterwards of dry heat will increase the redness and warmth, which persist for some while, and are renewed by walking. this ointment, or paste, is made of the oleo-resin--capsicin--half-an-ounce, and lanolin five ounces, the unguent being melted, and, after adding the capsicin, letting them be stirred together until cold. the powder or tincture of capsicum will give energy to a languid digestion, and will correct the flatulency often incidental to a vegetable diet. again, a gargle containing capsicum in a proper measure will afford prompt relief in many forms of sore throat, both by its stimulating action, and by virtue of its special affinities (h.); this particularly holds good for a relaxed state of the throat, the uvula, and the tonsils. cayenne pepper is employed in the adulteration of gin. the "peter piper" of our young memories took pickled pepper by the peck. he must have been a homoeopathic prover with a vengeance; but has left no useful record of his experiments--the more's the pity--for our guidance when prescribing its diluted forms. caraway. the common caraway is a herb of the umbelliferous order found growing on many waste places in england, though not a true native of great britain. its well-known aromatic seeds should be always at hand in the cupboard of every british housewife. the plant got its name from inhabiting caria, a province of asia minor. it is now cultivated for commerce in kent and essex; and the essential oil distilled from the home grown fruit is preferred in this country. the medicinal properties of the caraway are cordial and comforting to [ ] the stomach in colic and in flatulent indigestion; for which troubles a dose of from two to four drops of the essential oil of caraway may be given on a lump of sugar, or in a teaspoonful of hot water. for earache, in some districts the country people pound up the crumb of a loaf hot from the oven, together with a handful of bruised caraway seeds; then wetting the whole with some spirit, they apply it to the affected part. the plant has been long naturalised in england, and was known here in shakespeare's time, who mentions it in the second part of _henry iv_. thus: "come, cousin silence! we will eat a pippin of last year's graffing, with a dish of caraways; and then to bed!" the seeds grow numerously in the small flat flowers placed thickly together on each floral plateau, or umbel, and are best known to us in seed cake, and in caraway comfits. they are really the dried fruit, and possess, when rubbed in a mortar, a warm aromatic taste, with a fragrant spicy smell. caraway comfits consist of these fruits encrusted with white sugar; but why the wife of a comfit maker should be given to swearing, as shakespeare avers, it is not easy to see. the young roots of caraway plants may be sent to table like parsnips; they warm and stimulate a cold languid stomach. these mixed with milk and made into bread, formed the _chara_ of julius caesar, eaten by the soldiers of valerius. chemically the volatile oil obtained from caraway seeds consists of "carvol," and a hydro-carbon, "carvene," which is a sort of "camphor." dioscorides long ago advised the oil for pale-faced girls; and modern ladies have not disregarded the counsel. from six pounds of the unbruised seeds, four ounces of the pure essential oil can be expressed. in germany the peasants flavour their cheese, soups, and household [ ] bread--jager--with the caraway; and this is not a modern custom, for an old latin author says: _semina carui satis communiter adhibentur ad condiendum panem; et rustica nostrates estant jusculum e pane, seminibus carui, et cerevisâ coctum_. the russians and germans make from caraways a favourite liqueur "kummel," and the germans add them as a flavouring condiment to their sawerkraut. in france caraways enter into the composition of _l'huile de venus_, and of other renowned cordials. an ounce of the bruised seeds infused for six hours in a pint of cold water makes a good caraway julep for infants, from one to three teaspoonfuls for a dose, it "consumeth winde, and is delightful to the stomack; the powdered seed put into a poultice taketh away blacke and blew spots of blows and bruises." "the oil, or seeds of caraway do sharpen vision, and promote the secretion of milk." therefore dimsighted men and nursing mothers may courageously indulge in seed cake! the name caraway comes from the gaelic _caroh_, a ship, because of the shape which the fruit takes. by cultivation the root becomes more succulent, and the fruit larger, whilst more oily, and therefore acquiring an increase of aromatic taste and odour. in germany the seeds are given for hysterical affections, being finely powdered and mixed with ginger and salt to spread with butter on bread. as a draught for flatulent colic twenty grains of the powdered seeds may be taken with two teaspoonfuls of sugar in a wineglassful of hot water. caraway-seed cake was formerly a standing institution at the feasts given by farmers to their labourers at the end of wheat sowing. but narcotic effects have been known to follow the chewing of caraway seeds in a large quantity, such as three ounces at a time. [ ] as regards its stock of honey the caraway may be termed, like uriah heep, and in a double sense, "truly umbel." the diminutive florets on its flat disk are so shallow that lepidopterous and hymenopterous insects, with their long proboses, stand no chance of getting a meal. they fare as poorly as the stork did in the fable, whom the fox invited to dinner served on a soup plate. as sir john lubbock has shown, out of fifty-five visitants to the caraway plant for nectar, one moth, nine bees, twenty-one flies, and twenty-four miscellaneous midges constituted the dinner party. chamomile. no simple in the whole catalogue of herbal medicines is possessed of a quality more friendly and beneficial to the intestines than "chamomile flowers." this herb was well known to the greeks, who thought it had an odour like that of apples, and therefore they named it "earth apple," from two of their words, _kamai_--on the ground, and _melon_--an apple. the spaniards call it _manzanilla_, from a little apple, and they give the same name to one of their lightest sherries flavoured with this plant. the flowers, or "blows" of the chamomile belong to the daisy genus, having an outer fringe of white ray florets, with a central yellow disk, in which lies the chief medicinal virtue of the plant. in the cultivated chamomile the white petals increase, while the yellow centre diminishes; thus it is that the curative properties of the wild chamomile are the more powerful. the true chamomile is to be distinguished from the bitter chamomile (_matricaria chamomilla_) which has weaker properties, and grows erect, with several flowers at a level on the same stalk. the true chamomile grows prostrate, and produces but [ ] one flower (with a convex, not conical, yellow disk) from each stem, whilst its leaves are divided into hair-like segments. the flowers exhale a powerful aromatic smell, and present a peculiar bitter to the taste. when distilled with water they yield a small quantity of most useful essential oil, which, if fresh and good, is always of a bluish colour. it should be green or blue, and not faded to yellow. this oil is a mixture of ethers, among which "chamomilline," or the valerianate of butyl, predominates. medicinally it serves to lower nervous excitability reflected from some organ in trouble, but remote from the part where the pain is actually felt; so it is very useful for such spasmodic coughs as are due to indigestion; also for distal neuralgia, pains in the head or limbs from the same cause, and for nervous colic bowels. the oil may be given in doses of from two to four drops on a lump of sugar, or in a dessert-spoonful of milk. an officinal tincture (_tinctura anthemidis_) is made from the flowers of the true chamomile (_anthemis nobilis_) with rectified spirit of wine. the dose of this is from three to ten drops with a spoonful of water. it serves usefully to correct the summer diarrhoea of children, or that which occurs during teething, when the stools are green, slimy and particoloured. the true chamomile, the bitter chamomile, and the feverfew, are most obnoxious to flies and mosquitoes. an infusion of their respective leaves in spirit will, if used as a wash to the face, arms, or any exposed part of the body, protect effectually from all attack by these petty foes, which are quaintly described in an old version of our bible as "the pestilence that walketh in the darkness, and the bug that destroyeth at noonday." chamomile tea is an excellent stomachic when taken in moderate doses of half-a-teacupful at a [ ] time. it should be made by pouring half-a-pint of boiling water on half-an-ounce of the dried flower heads, and letting this stand for fifteen minutes, a special tincture (h.) of chammomilla is made from the bitter chamomile (_matricaria_), which, when given in small doses of three or four drops in a dessertspoonful of cold water every hour, will signally relieve severe neuralgic pains, particularly if they are aggravated at night. likewise this remedy will quickly cure restlessness and fretfulness in children from teething, and who refuse to be soothed save by being carried about. the name, _matricaria_, of the bitter chamomile is derived from _mater cara_, "beloved mother," because the herb is dedicated to st. anne, the reputed mother of the virgin mary, or from matrix, as meaning "the womb." this herb may be known from the true chamomile because having a large, yellow, conical disk, and no scales on the receptacles. chamomile tea is also an excellent drink for giving to aged persons an hour or more before dinner. francatelli directs that it should be made thus: "put about thirty flowers into a jug, and pour a pint of boiling water on them; cover up the tea, and when it has stood for about ten minutes pour it off from the flowers into another jug, and sweeten with sugar or honey." a teacupful of this chamomile tea, into which is stirred a large dessertspoonful of moist sugar, with a little grated ginger added, will answer the purpose now indicated. for outward application, to relieve inflammatory pains, or congestive neuralgia, hot fomentations made of the infused chamomile "blows" are invaluable. bags may be loosely stuffed with the flowers, and steeped well in boiling water before being applied. but for internal use the infusion and the extract of the herb are comparatively [ ] useless, because much of the volatile essential oil is dissipated by boiling, or by dry heat. this oil made into pills with bread crumbs, and given whilst fasting two hours before a meal, will effectually dispel intestinal worms. true chamomile flowers may be known from spurious ones (of the feverfew) which have no bracts on the receptacle when the florets are removed. it is remarkable that each chamomile is a plant physician, as nothing contributes so much to the health of a garden as a number of chamomile herbs dispersed about it. singularly enough, if another plant is drooping, and apparently dying, in nine cases out of ten it will recover if you place a herb of chamomile near it. the stinking chamomile (_anthemis cotula_) or mayweed, grows in cornfields, having a foetid smell, and often blistering the hand which gathers it. another name which it bears is "dog's fennel," because of the disagreeable odour, and the leaf resembling fennel. similar uses may be made of it as with the other chamomiles, but less effectively. it has solitary flowers with erect stems. dr. schall declares that the chamomile is not only a preventive of nightmare, but the sole certain remedy for this complaint. as a carminative injection for tiresome flatulence, it has been found eminently beneficial to employ chamomile flowers boiled in tripe broth, and strained through a cloth, and with a few drops of the oil of aniseed added to the decoction. falstaffe says in _henry iv_.: "though chamomile, the more it is trodden on the faster it grows; yet youth, the more it is wasted the sooner it wears." for coarse feeders and drunkards chamomile is peculiarly suitable. its infusion will cut short an attack of delirium tremens in the early stage. gerard found the oil of the flowers [ ] a remedy against all weariness; and quaint old culpeper reminds us that the egyptians dedicated the chamomile to the sun because it cured agues. he slyly adds: "they were like enough to do it, for they were the arrantest apes in their religion i ever read of." carrot. our garden carrot, or dauke, is a cultivated variety of the _dalucus sylvestris_, or wild carrot, an umbelliferous plant, which groweth of itself in untoiled places, and is called _philtron_, because it serveth for love matters. this wild carrot may be found abundantly in our fields and on the sea shore; the term carrot being celtic, and signifying "red of colour," or perhaps derived from caro, flesh, because this is a fleshy vegetable. daucus is from the greek _daio_, to burn, on account of the pungent and stimulating qualities. it is common also on our roadsides, being popularly known as "bee's nest," because the stems of its flowering head, or umbel, form a concave semi-circle, or nest, which bees, when belated from the hive will use as a dormitory. the small purple flower which grows in the middle of the umbel has been found beneficial for the cure of epilepsy. the juice of the carrot contains "carotine" in red crystals; also pectin, albumen, and a particular volatile oil, on which the medicinal properties of the root depend. the seeds are warm and aromatic to the taste, whilst they are slightly diuretic. a tea made from the whole plant, and taken each night and morning, is excellent when the lithic acid, or gouty disposition prevails, with the deposit of a brick-dust sediment in the urine on its becoming cool. the chief virtues of carrots lie in the strong antiseptic qualities they possess, which prevent all putrescent [ ] changes within the body. in suffolk they were given long since as a secret specific for preserving and restoring the wind of horses, but cows if fed long on them will make bloody urine. wild carrots are superior medicinally to those of the cultivated kind. carrot sugar got from the inspissated juice of the roots may be used at table, and is good for the coughs of consumptive children. the seeds of the wild carrot were formerly esteemed as a specific remedy for jaundice; and in savoy the peasants now give an infusion of the roots for the same purpose; whilst this infusion has served to prevent stone in the bladder throughout several years when the patient had been previously subject to frequent attacks. carrots boiled sufficiently, and mashed into a pulp, when applied directly to a putrid, indolent sore, will sweeten and heal it. the carrot poultice was first used by sulzer for mitigating the pain, and correcting the stench of foul ulcers. raw scraped carrot is an excellent plaster for chapped nipples. at vichy, where derangements of the liver and of the biliary digestion are particularly treated, carrots in one or another form are served at every meal, whether in soup, or as a vegetable; and considerable efficacy of cure is attributed to them. in the time of parkinson ( ) the leaves of the carrot were thought to be so ornamental that ladies wore them as a head-dress instead of feathers. a good british wine may be brewed from the roots of the carrot; and very tolerable bread may be prepared for travellers from these roots when dried and powdered. pectic acid can be extracted by the chemist from carrots, which will solidify plain sugared water into a wholesome appetising jelly. one part of this pectic acid dissolved in a little hot water, and added to make three hundred parts of warm water, [ ] is soon converted into a mass of trembling jelly. the yellow core of the carrot is the part which is difficult of digestion with some persons, not the outer red layer. before the french revolution the sale of carrots and oranges was prohibited in the dutch markets, because of the unpopular aristocratic colour of these commodities. in one thousand parts of a carrot there are ninety-five of sugar, and (according to some chemists) only three of starch. in country districts raw carrots are sometimes given to children for expelling worms, probably because the vegetable matter passes mechanically through the body unchanged, and scours it. "remember, william," says sir hugh evans in the _merry wives of windsor_, "focative is caret," "and that" replies mrs. quickly, "is a good root." "the man in the moon drinks claret, but he is a dull jack-a-dandy; would he know a sheep's head from a carrot he should learn to drink cider and brandy." song of mad tom in _midsummer night's dream_. celandine (greater, and lesser). this latter flower is a conspicuous herald of spring, which is strikingly welcome to everyone living in the country throughout england, and a stranger to none. the pilewort, or lesser celandine, bespangles all our banks with its brilliant, glossy, golden stars, coming into blossom on or about march th, st. perpetua's day. they are a timely tocsin for five o'clock tea, because punctually at that hour they shut up their showy petals until . a.m. on the following morning. the well-known little herb, with its heart-shaped leaves, is a ranunculus, and bears the affix _ficaria_ from its curative value in the malady called _ficus_--a "red sore in the fundament". (littleton, ). [ ] the popular title, pilewort, from _pila_, a ball, was probably first acquired because, after the doctrine of signatures, the small oval tubercles attached to its stringy roots were supposed to resemble and to cure piles. nevertheless, it has been since proved practically that the whole plant, when bruised and made into an ointment with fresh lard, is really useful for healing piles; as likewise when applied to the part in the form of a poultice or hot fomentation. "there be those also who thinke that if the herbe be but carried about by one that hath the piles the paine forthwith ceaseth." it has sometimes happened that the small white tubercles collected about the roots of the plant, when washed bare by heavy rains, and lying free on the ground, have given rise to a supposed shower of wheat. after flowering the pilewort withdraws its substance of leaf and stem into a small rounded tube underground, so as to withstand the heat of summer, and the cold of the subsequent winter. with the acrid juice of this herb, and of others belonging to the same ranunculous order, beggars in england used to produce sores about their body for the sake of exciting pity, and getting alms. they afterwards cured these sores by applying fresh mullein leaves to heal them. the lesser celandine furnishes a golden yellow volatile oil, which is readily converted into anemonic acid. wordsworth specially loved this lesser celandine, and turned his lyre to sing its praises:-- "there is a flower that shall be mine, 'tis the little celandine; i will sing as doth behove hymns in praise of what i love." in token of which affectionate regard these flowers have been carved on the white marble of his tomb. [ ] the greater celandine, or _coeli donum_ (_chelidonium majus_), though growing freely in our waste places and hedgerows, is, perhaps, scarcely so well known as its diminutive namesake. yet most persons acquainted with our ordinary rural plants have repeatedly come across this conspicuous herb, which exudes a bright yellow juice when bruised. it has sharply cut vivid leaves of a dull green, with a small blossom of brilliant yellow, and is not altogether unlike a buttercup, though growing to the height of a couple of feet. but this celandine belongs to the poppy tribe, whilst the buttercup is a ranunculus. the technical name of the greater celandine (_chelidonium_) comes from the greek word _chelidon_, a swallow, because of an ancient tradition that the bird makes use of this herb to open the eyes of its young, or to restore their sight when it has been lost:-- "caecatis pullis hâc lumina mater hirundo (plinius ut scripsit) quamvis sint eruta, reddit." the ancients entertained a strong belief that birds are gifted with a knowledge of herbs; the woodpecker, for instance, seeking out the springwort to remove obstructions, and the linnet making use of the eyebright to restore its vision. queen elizabeth in the forty-sixth year of her age was attacked with such a grievous toothache that she could obtain no rest by night or day because of the torture she endured. the lords of her council decided on sending for an "outlandish physician" named penatus, who was famous for curing this agonising pain. he advised that when all was said and done, if the tooth was hollow, it were best to have it drawn; but as her majesty could not bring herself to submit to the use of [ ] chirugical instruments, he suggested that the _chelidonius major_--our greater celandine-- should be put into the tooth, and this stopped with wax, which would so loosen the tooth that in a short time it might be pulled out with the fingers. aylmer, bishop of london, tried to encourage the queen by telling her that though he was an old man, and had not many teeth to spare, she should see a practical experiment made on himself. thereupon he bade the surgeon who was in attendance extract one of his teeth in her majesty's presence. this plant, the _chelidonium majus_, is still used in suffolk for toothache by way of fomentation. it goes also by the name of "fenugreek" (_foenum groecum_), yellow spit, grecian hay, and by that of tetterwort. the root contains chemically "chelidonin" and "sanguinarin." on the doctrine of signatures the herb, because of its bright orange-coloured juice, was formerly believed to be curative of jaundice. a medicinal tincture (h.) made from the entire plant with spirit of wine is at the present time held in high esteem by many physicians for overcoming torpid conditions of the liver. eight or ten drops of this tincture, or of the fresh juice of the plant, may be given for a dose three times in the day in sweetened water when bilious yellowness of the skin is present, with itching, and with clayey stools, dark thick urine, constipation, and a pain in the right shoulder; also for neuralgia of the head and face on the right side. it is certainly remarkable that though the fanciful theory of choosing curative plants by their signatures has been long since exploded, yet doctors of to-day select several yellow medicines for treating biliary disorders--to wit, this greater celandine with its ochreous juice; the yellow barberry; the dandelion; [ ] the golden seal (hydrastis); the marigold; orange; saffron; and tomato. animals poisoned by the greater celandine have developed active and pernicious congestion of the lungs and liver. clusius found by experience that the juice of the greater celandine, when squeezed into small green wounds of what sort so ever, wonderfully cured them. "if the juice to the bigness of a pin's head be dropped into the eye in the morning in bed, it takes away outward specks, and stops incipient suffusions." also if the yellow juice is applied to warts, or to corns, first gently scraped, it will cure them promptly and painlessly. the greater celandine is by genus closely allied to the horned poppy which grows so abundantly on our coasts. its tincture given in small doses proves of considerable service in whooping-cough when very spasmodic. curious remedies for this complaint have found rustic favour: in yorkshire owl broth is considered to be a specific; again in gloucestershire a roasted mouse is given to be eaten by the patient; and in staffordshire the child is made to look at the new moon whilst the right hand of the nurse is rubbed up and down its bare belly. celery. the parsleys are botanically named _selinon_, and by some verbal accident, through the middle letter "n" in this word being changed into "r," making it _seliron_, or, in the italian, celeri, our celery (which is a parsley) obtained its title. it is a cultivated variety of the common smallage (_small ache_) or wild celery (_apium graveolens_), which grows abundantly in moist english ditches, or in water. this is an umbelliferous herb, unwholesome as a food, and having a coarse root, with [ ] a fetid smell. but, like many others of the same natural order, when transplanted into the garden, and bleached, it becomes aromatic and healthful, making an excellent condimentary vegetable. but more than this, the cultivated celery may well take rank as a curative herbal simple. dr. pereira has shown us that it contains sulphur (a known preventive of rheumatism) as freely as do the cruciferous plants, mustard, and the cresses. in , mr. gibson ward, then president of the vegetarian society, wrote some letters to the times, which commanded much attention, about celery as a food and a medicament. "celery," said he, "when cooked, is a very fine dish, both as a nutriment and as a purifier of the blood; i will not attempt to enumerate all the marvellous cures i have made with celery, lest medical men should be worrying me _en masse_. let me fearlessly say that rheumatism is impossible on this diet; and yet english doctors in allowed rheumatism to kill three thousand six hundred and forty human beings, every death being as unnecessary as is a dirty face." the seeds of our sweet celery are carminative, and act on the kidneys. an admirable tincture is made from these seeds, when bruised, with spirit of wine; of which a teaspoonful may be taken three times a day, with a spoonful or two of water. the root of the wild celery, smallage, or marsh parsley, was reckoned, by the ancients, one of the five great aperient roots, and was employed in their diet drinks. the great parsley is the large age, or large ache; as a strange inconsistency the romans adorned the heads of their guests, and the tombs of their dead with crowns of the smallage. our cultivated celery is a capital instance of fact that most of the poisonous plants call, by [ ] human ingenuity, be so altered in character as to become eminently serviceable for food or medicine. thus, the wild celery, which is certainly poisonous when growing exposed to daylight, becomes most palatable, and even beneficial, by having its edible leaf stalks earthed up and bleached during their time of cultivation. dr. pereira says the digestibility of celery is increased by its maceration in vinegar. as taken at table, celery possesses certain qualities which tend to soothe nervous irritability, and to relieve sick headaches. "this herb celery [sellery] is for its high and grateful taste," says john evelyn, in his _acetaria_, "ever placed in the middle of the grand sallet at our great men's tables, and our praetor's feasts, as the grace of the whole board." it contains some sugar and a volatile odorous principle, which in the wild plant smells and tastes strongly and disagreeably. the characteristic odour and flavour of the cultivated plant are due to this essential oil, which has now become of modified strength and qualities; also when freshly cut it affords albumen, starch, mucilage, and mineral matter. why celery accompanies cheese at the end of dinner it is not easy to see. this is as much a puzzle as why sucking pig and prune sauce should be taken in combination,--of which delicacies james bloomfield rush, the norwich murderer, desired that plenty should be served for his supper the night before he was hanged, on april th, . centaury. of all the bitter appetising herbs which grow in our fields and hedgerows, and which serve as excellent simple tonics, the centaury, particularly its white flowered variety, belonging to the gentian order of [ ] plants, is the most efficacious. it shares in an abundant measure the restorative antiseptic virtues of the field gentian and the buckbean. there are four wild varieties of the centaury, square stemmed, and each bearing flat tufts of flowers which are more or less rose coloured. the ancients named this bitter plant the gall of the earth, and it is now known as christ's ladder, or felwort. though growing commonly in dry pastures, in woods, and on chalky cliffs, yet the centaury cannot be reared in a garden. of old its tribe was called "chironia," after chiron, the greek centaur, well skilled in herbal physic; and most probably the name of our english plant was thus originated. but the germans call the centaury _tausendgulden kraut_--"the herb of a thousand florins,"--either because of its medicinal value, or as a corruption of _centum aureum_, "a hundred golden sovereigns." centaury has become popularly reduced in worcestershire to centre of the sun. its generic adjective "erythroea" signifies red. the flowers open only in fine weather, and not after twelve o'clock (noon) in the day. chemically the herb contains erythrocentaurin--a bitter principle of compound character,--together with the usual herbal constituents, but with scarcely any tannin. the tops of the centaury, especially of that _flore albo_--with the light coloured petals--are given in infusion, or in powder, or when made into an extract. for languid digestion, with heartburn after food, and a want of appetite, the infusion prepared with cold water, an ounce of the herb to a pint is best; but for muscular rheumatism the infusion should be made with boiling water. a wineglass of either will be the proper dose, two or three times a day. [ ] cherry. the wild cherry (_cerasus_), which occurs of two distinct kinds, has by budding and grafting begotten most of our finest garden fruits of its genus. the name _cerasus _was derived from kerasous, a city of cappadocia, where the fruit was plentiful. according to pliny, cherries were first brought to rome by lucullus after his great victory over mithridates, b.c. the cultivated cherry disappeared in this country during the saxon period, and was not re-introduced until the reign of henry viii. the _cerasus sylvestris _is a wild cherry tree rising to the height of thirty or forty feet, and producing innumerable small globose fruits; whilst the _cerasus vulgaris_, another wild cherry, is a mere shrub, called _cerevisier_ in france, of which the fruit is sour and bitter. cherry stones have been found in the primitive lake dwellings of western switzerland. there is a tradition that christ gave a cherry to st. peter, admonishing him not to despise little things. in the time of charles the first, herrick, the clergyman poet, wrote a simple song, to which our well-known pretty "cherry ripe" has been adapted:-- "cherry ripe! ripe! i cry, full and fair ones i come, and buy! if so be you ask me where they do grow: i answer there where my julia's lips do smile, there's the land: a cherry isle." "cherries on the ryse" (or, on twigs) was well known as a london street cry in the fifteenth century; but these were probably the fruit of the wild cherry, or gean tree. in france soup made from cherries, and taken with bread, is the common sustenance of the wood cutters and charcoal burners of the forest during the [ ] winter. the french distil from cherries a liqueur named _eau de cerises_, or, in german, _kirschwasser_; whilst the italians prepare from a cherry called _marusca_ the liqueur noted as _marasquin_. cherries termed as mazzards are grown in devon and cornwall, a gum exudes from the bark of the cherry tree which is equal in value to gum arabic. a caravan going from ethiopia to egypt, says husselquist, and a garrison of more than two hundred men during a siege which lasted two months, were kept alive with no other food than this gum, "which they sucked often and slowly." it is known chemically as "cerasin," and differs from gum acacia in being less soluble. the leaves of the tree and the kernels of the fruit contain a basis of prussic acid. the american wild cherry (_prunus virginiana_) yields from its bark a larger quantity of the prussic acid principle, which is sedative to the nervous centres, and also some considerable tannin. as an infusion, or syrup, or vegetable extract, it will allay nervous palpitation of the heart, and will quiet the irritative hectic cough of consumption, whilst tending to ameliorate the impaired digestion. its preparations can be readily had from our leading druggists, and are found to be highly useful. a teaspoonful of the syrup, with one or two tablespoonfuls of cold water, is a dose for an adult every three or four hours. the oozing of the gum-tears from the trunk and boughs is due to the operation of a minute parasitic fungus. helena, in the _midsummer night's dream_, paints a charming picture of the close affection between hermia and herself-- "so we grew together like to a double cherry-seeming parted, but yet a union in partition: two lovely berries moulded on one stem." chervil, or beaked parsley. "there is found," writes parkinson, "during june and july, in almost every english hedge, a certain plant called _choerophyllum_, in show very like unto hemlockes, of a good and pleasant smell and taste, which have caused us to term it 'sweet chervill.'" and in modern times this plant has taken rank as a pot herb in our gardens, though its virtues and uses are not sufficiently known. "the root is great, thick and long, exceedingly sweet in smell, and tasting like unto anise seeds. this root is much used among the dutch people in a kind of loblolly or hotchpot, which they do eat, calling it _warmus_. the seeds taken as a salad whilst they are yet green, exceed all other salads by many degrees in pleasantness of taste, sweetness of smell, and wholesomeness for the cold and feeble stomach." in common with other camphoraceous and strongly aromatic herbs, by reason of its volatile oil and its terebinthine properties, the scandix, or sweet chervil, was entitled to make one of the choice spices used for composing the holy oil with which the sacred vessels of the tabernacle were anointed by moses. it belongs to the particular group of umbelliferous plants which is endowed with balsamic gums, and with carminative essences appealing powerfully to the sense of smell. the herb chervil was in the mind of roman catullus when discoursing sweet verses of old to his friend fabullus:-- "nam unguentum dabo quod meoe puelloe donârunt veneres, cupidinesque. quod tu quum olfacies deo rogabis totum ut te faciat. fabulle! nasum." "i will give you a perfume my damsels gave me, sweet daughters of venus, sad hoydens are ye! which the moment you smell will incite you to pray my fabullus! to live as 'all nose' from that day." evelyn taught ( ) that "the tender tops of cherville should never be wanting in our sallets, being exceeding wholesome, and chearing the spirits; also that the roots boiled and cold are to be much commended for aged persons." but in several dutch soldiers were poisoned by eating the rough wild chervil, from which the cultivated sweet variety is to be distinguished by its having its stems swollen beneath the joints--much as our blue-blooded patricians are signalised by gouty knuckles and bunioned feet. the botanical name of the sweet chervil (_choerophyllum_) signifies a plant which rejoices the heart--_kairei-phyllum_. "the roots," said an old writer, "are very good for old people that are dull and without courage; they gladden and comfort the spirits, and do increase their lusty strength." the juice is slightly aperient, and abundantly lacteal when mixed with goat's milk, or in gruel. physicians formerly held this herb in high esteem, as capable of curing most chronic disorders connected with the urinary passages, and gravel. some have even asserted that if these distempers will not yield to a constant use of chervil, they win be scarcely curable by any other medicine. the wild chervil will "help to dissolve any tumours or swellings in all parts of the body speedily, if applied to the place, as also to take away the spots and marks in the flesh and skin, of congealed blood by blows or bruises." the feathery leaves of chervil, which are of a bright emerald hue in the spring, become of a rich purple in the autumn, just as the objectionably carroty locks of tittlebat titmouse, in _ten thousand a year_, became vividly green under "cyanochaitanthropopoin," and were afterwards strangely empurpled by "tetragmenon abracadabra," at nine and sixpence the bottle. [ ] chestnuts (horse, and sweet). ever since the horse chestnut tree has grown and flourished in england, having been brought at first from the mountains of northern asia. for the most part it is rather known and admired for its wealth of shade, its large handsome floral spikes of creamy, pink-tinted blossom, and its white, soft wood, than supposed to exercise useful medicinal properties. but none the less is this tree remarkable for the curative virtues contained in its large nuts of mahogany polish, its broad palmate leaves, and its smooth silvery bark. these virtues have been discovered and made public especially by physicians and chemists of the homoeopathic school. from the large digitated leaves an extract is made which has proved of service in whooping-cough, and of which from one-third to half a teaspoonful may be given for a dose. on the continent the bark is held in estimation for cutting short attacks of intermittent fever and ague by acting in the same way as peruvian bark, though it is much more astringent. but the nuts are chiefly to be regarded as the medicinal belongings of the horse chestnut tree; and their bodily sphere of action is the rectum, or lower bowel, in cases of piles, and of obstinate constipation. their use is particularly indicated when the bottom of the back gives out on walking, with aching and a sense of weariness in that region. likewise, signal relief is found to be wrought by the same remedy when the throat is duskily red and dry, in conjunction with costiveness, and piles. a tincture is made (h.) from the ripe nuts with spirit of wine, for the purposes described above, or the nuts themselves are finely powdered and given in that form. these nuts are starchy, and contain so much potash, that they may be used when boiled for washing purposes. [ ] in france and switzerland they are employed for cleansing wool and bleaching linen, on account of their "saponin." botanically, the horse chestnut is named _aesculus hippocastanea_--the first word coming from _esca_, food; and the second from _hippos_, a horse; and _castana_, the city, so called. the epithet "horse" does not imply any remedial use in diseases of that animal, but rather the size and coarseness of this species as compared with the sweet spanish chestnut. in the same way we talk of the horse radish, the horse daisy, and the horse leech. in turkey the fruit is given to horses touched or broken in the wind, but in this country horses will not eat it. nevertheless, horse chestnuts may be used for fattening cattle, particularly sheep, the nuts being cut up, and mixed with oats, or beans. their bitterness can be removed by first washing the chestnuts in lime water. medicinally, the ripe nut of this tree is employed, being collected in september or october, and deprived of its shell. the odour of the flowers is powerful and peculiar. no chemical analysis of them, or of the nuts, has been made, but they are found to contain tannin freely. rich-coloured, of a reddish brown, and glossy, these nuts have given their name to a certain shade of mellow dark auburn hair. rosalind, in _as you like it_, says "orlando's locks are of a good colour: i' faith your chestnut was ever the only colour." of the horse chestnut tincture, two or three drops, with a spoonful of water, taken before meals and at bedtime, will cure almost any simple case of piles in a week. also, carrying a horse chestnut about the person, is said to obviate giddiness, and to prevent piles. taken altogether, the horse chestnut, for its splendour of blossom, and wealth of umbrageous leaf, [ ] its polished mahogany fruit, and its special medicinal virtues, is _facile princeps_ the belle of our english trees. but, like many a ball-room beauty, when the time comes for putting aside the gay leafy attire, it is sadly untidy, and makes a great litter of its cast-off clothing. it has been ingeniously suggested that the cicatrix of the leaf resembles a horse-shoe, with all its nails evenly placed. the sweet spanish chestnut tree is grown much less commonly in this country, and its fruit affords only material for food, without possessing medicinal properties; though, in the united states of america, an infusion of the leaves is thought to be useful for staying the paroxysms of whooping-cough. of all known nuts, this (the sweet chestnut, stover nut, or meat nut) is the most farinaceous and least oily; hence it is more easy of digestion than any other. to mountaineers it is invaluable, so that on the apennines and the pyrenees the chestnut harvest is the event of the year. the italian chestnut-cakes, called _necci_, contain forty per cent. of nutritious matter soluble in cold water; and chestnut flour, when properly prepared, is a capital food for children. to be harvested the chestnuts are spread on a frame of lattice-work overhead, and a fire is kept burning underneath. when dry the fruit is boiled, or steamed, or roasted, or ground into a kind of flour, with which puddings are made, or an excellent kind of bread is produced. the ripe chestnut possesses a fine creamy flavour, and when roasted it becomes almost aromatic. a good way to cook chestnuts is to boil them for twenty minutes, and then place them for five minutes more in a dutch oven. it was about the fruit of the spanish tree shakespeare [ ] said: "a woman's tongue gives not half so great a blow to the ear as will a chestnut in a farmer's fire." in the united states of america an old time-worn story, or oft repeated tale, is called in banter a "chestnut," and a stale joker is told "not to rattle the chestnuts." for convalescents, after a long serious illness, the french make a chocolate of sweet chestnuts, which is highly restorative. the nuts are first cooked in _eau de vie_ until their shells and the pellicle of the kernels can be peeled off; then they are beaten into a pulp together with sufficient milk and sugar, with some cinnamon added. the mixture is afterwards boiled with more milk, and frothed up in a chocolate pot. chickweed. chickweed--called _alsine_ or _stellaria media_, a floral star of middle magnitude--belongs to the clove-pink order of plants, and, despite the most severe weather, grows with us all the year round, in waste places by the roadsides, and as a garden weed. it is easily known by its fresh-looking, juicy, verdant little leaves, and by its tiny white star-like flowers; also by a line of small stiff hairs, which runs up one side of the stalk like a vegetable hog-mane, and when it reaches a pair of leaves immediately shifts its position, and runs up higher on the opposite side. the fact of our finding chickweed (and groundsel) in england, as well as on the mainland of europe, affords a proof that britain, when repeopled after the great ice age, must have been united somewhere to the continent; and its having lasted from earliest times throughout europe, north america, and siberia, seems to show that this modest plant must be possessed of some universal utility which has enabled it to hold its own [ ] until now in the great evolutionary struggle. it grows wild allover the earth, and serves as food for small birds, such as finches, linnets, and other feathered songsters of the woods. moreover, we read in the old herbal of turner: _qui alunt aviculas caveis inclusas hoc solent illas si quando cibos fastigiant recreare_--or, as gerard translates this: "little birds in cages are refreshed with chickweed when they loath their meat." the chickweed is termed _alsine--quia lucos, vel alsous amat_-- because it loves to grow in shady places this small herb abounds with the earthy salts of potash, which are admirable against scurvy when thus found in nature's laboratory, and a continued deprivation from which always proves disastrous to mankind. "the water of chickweed," says an old writer, "is given to children for their fits, and its juice is used for their gripes." when boiled, the plant may be eaten instead of spinach. its fresh juice if rubbed on warts, first pared to the quick, will presently cause them to fall off. fresh chickweed juice, as proved medicinally in , produced sharp rheumatic pains and stitches in the head and eyes, with a general feeling of being bruised; also pressure about the liver and soreness there, with sensations of burning, and of bilious indigestion. subsequently, the herb, when given in quite small doses of tincture, or fresh juice, or infusion, has been found by its affinity to remove the train of symptoms just described, and to act most reliably in curing obstinate rheumatism allied therewith. furthermore, a poultice prepared from the fresh green juicy leaves, is emollient and cooling, whilst an ointment made from them with hog's lard, is manifestly healing. when rain is impending, the flowers remain closed; [ ] and the plant teaches an exemplary matrimonial lesson, seeing that at night its leaves approach one another in loving pairs, and sleep with the tender buds protected between them. culpeper says: "chickweed is a fine, soft, pleasing herb, under the dominion of the moon, and good for many things." parkinson orders thus: "to make a salve fit to heal sore legs, boil a handful of chickweed with a handful of red rose leaves in a pint of the oil of trotters or sheep's feet, and anoint the grieved places therewith against a fire each evening and morning; then bind some of the herb, if ye will, to the sore, and so shall ye find help, if god will." christmas rose--black hellebore. this well-known plant, a native of southern europe, and belonging to the ranunculus order, is grown commonly in our gardens for the sake of its showy white flowers, conspicuous in winter, from december to february. the root has been famous since time immemorial as a remedy for insanity. from its abundant growth in the grecian island of anticyra arose the proverb: _naviget anticyram_--"take a voyage to anticyra," as applied by way of advice to a man who has lost his reason. when fresh the root is very acrid, and will blister the skin. if dried and given as powder it will cause vomiting and purging, also provoking sneezing when smelt, and inducing the monthly flow of a woman. this root contains a chemical glucoside--"helleborin," which, if given in full doses, stimulates the kidneys to such an excess that their function becomes temporarily paralyzed. it therefore happens that a medicinal tincture (h.) made from the fresh root collected at christmas, just before the plant would flower, when [ ] taken in small doses, will promptly relieve dropsy, especially a sudden dropsical swelling of the skin, with passive venous congestion of the kidneys, as in scrofulous children. a former method of administering the root was by sticking a particularly sweet apple full of its fibres, and roasting this under hot embers; then the fibres were withdrawn, and the apple was eaten by the patient. taken by mischance in any quantity the root is highly poisonous: one ounce of a watery decoction has caused death in eight hours, with vomiting, giddiness, insensibility, and palsy. passive dropsy in children after scarlet fever may be effectually cured by small doses of the tincture, third decimal strength. the name hellebore, as applied to the plant, comes from the greek _elein_--to injure, and _bora_--fodder. it is also known as _melampodium_, being thus designated because melampus, a physician in the peloponnesus (b.c. ) watched the effect on his goats when they had eaten the leaves, and cured therewith the insane daughters of proetus, king of argos. it was famous among the egyptian and greek doctors of old as the most effectual remedy for the diseases of mania, epilepsy, apoplexy, dropsy, and gout. the tincture is very useful in mental stupor, with functional impairment of the hearing and sight; likewise for strumous water on the brain. the original reputation of this herb was acquired because of its purgative properties, which enabled it to carry off black bile which was causing insanity. no tannin is contained in the root. a few drops of the juice obtained therefrom, if dropped warm into the ear each night and morning, will cure singing and noises in the ears. a proper dose of the powdered root [ ] is from five to ten grains. snuff made with this powder has cured night blindness, as among the french prisoners at norman cross in . the gauls used to rub the points of their hunting spears with hellebore, believing the game they killed was thus rendered more tender. hahnemann said that at least one third of the cases of insanity occurring in lunatic asylums may be cured by this and the white hellebore (an allied plant) in such small doses as of the tincture twelfth dilution, given in the patient's drink. a bastard hellebore, which is _foetidus_, or, "stinking," and is known to rustics as bearsfoot, because of its digitate leaves, grows frequently near houses in this country, though a doubtful native. the sepals of its flowers are purple, and the leaves are evergreen; the petals are green and leaf-like, whilst the nectaries are large and tubular, often containing small flies. the nectar is reputed to be poisonous. again, this plant bears the names pegroots, oxbeel, oxheal, and setterwort, because used for "settering" cattle. a piece of the root is inserted as a seton (so-called from _seta_--a hank of silk) into the dewlap, and this is termed "pegging," or, "settering," for the benefit of diseased lungs. "the root," says gerard, "consists of many small black strings, involved or wrapped one within another very intricately." the smell of the fresh plant is extremely fetid, and, when taken, it will purge, or provoke vomiting. the leaves are very useful for expelling worms. dr. woodville says their juice made into a syrup, with coarse sugar, is almost the only vermifuge he had used against round worms for three years past. "if these leaves be dried in an oven after the bread is drawne out, and the powder thereof be taken in a figge, or raisin, or strewed upon a piece of [ ] bread spread with honey, and eaten, it killeth worms in children exceedingly." a decoction made with one drachm of the green leaves, or about fifteen grains of the dried leaves in powder, is the usual dose for a child between four and six years of age; but a larger dose will provoke sickness, or diarrhoea. the medicine should be repeated on two or three consecutive mornings; and it will be found that the second dose acts more powerfully than the first, "never failing to expel round worms by stool, if there be any lodged in the alimentary tube." clover. in this country we possess about twenty species of the trefoil, or clover, which is a plant so well known in its general features by its abundance in every field and on every grass plot, as not to need any detailed description. the special variety endowed with medicinal and curative virtues, is the meadow clover (_trifolium pratense_), or red clover, called by some, cocksheads, and familiar to children as suckles, or honey-suckles, because of the abundant nectar in the long tubes of its corollae. other names for it are bee-bread, and smere. an extract of this red clover is now confidently said to have the power of healing scrofulous sores, and of curing cancer. the _new york tribune_ of september, , related a case of indisputable cancer of the breast of six years' standing, with an open fetid sore, which had penetrated the chest-wall between the ribs, and which was radically healed by a prolonged internal use of the extract of red clover. four years afterwards, in september, , "the breast was found to be restored to its normal condition, all but a small place the size of half a dollar, which will in every probability become absorbed like [ ] the rest, so that the patient is considered by her physicians to be absolutely cured." the likelihood is that whatever virtue the red clover can boast for counteracting a scrofulous disposition, and as antidotal to cancer, resides in its highly-elaborated lime, silica, and other earthy salts. moreover, this experience is not new. sir spencer wells, twenty years ago, recorded some cases of confirmed cancer cured by taking powdered and triturated oyster shells; whilst egg shells similarly reduced to a fine dust have proved equally efficacious. it is remarkable that if the moorlands in the north of england, and in some parts of ireland, are turned up for the first time, and strewed with lime, white clover springs up there in abundance. again, a syrup is made from the flowers of the red clover, which has a trustworthy reputation for curing whooping-cough, and of which a teaspoonful may be taken three or four times in the day. also stress is laid on the healing of skin eruptions in children, by a decoction of the purple and white meadow trefoils. the word clover is a corruption of the latin _clava_ a club; and the "clubs" on our playing cards are representations of clover leaves; whilst in france the same black suit is called _trefle_. a conventional trefoil is figured on our coins, both irish and english, this plant being the national badge of ireland. its charm has been ever supposed there as an unfailing protection against evil influences, as is attested by the spray in the workman's cap, and in the bosom of the cotter's wife. the clover trefoil is in some measure a sensitive plant; "its leaves," said pliny, "do start up as if afraid of an assault when tempestuous weather is at hand." [ ] the phrase, "living in clover," alludes to cattle being put to feed in rich pasturage. a sworn foe to the purple clover cultivated by farmers, is the dodder (_cuscuta trifolii_), a destructive vegetable parasite which strangles the plants in a crafty fashion, and which goes by the name of "hellweed," or "devil's guts." it lies in ambush like a pigmy field octopus, with deadly suckers for draining the sap of its victims. these it mats together in its wiry, sinuous coils, and chokes relentlessly by the acre. nevertheless, the petty garotter-- like a toad, "ugly and venomous, wears yet a precious jewel in its head." "if boiled," says hill, "with a little ginger, the dodder in decoction works briskly as a purge. also, the thievish herb, when bruised and applied externally to scrofulous tumours, is an excellent remedy." the word "dodder" signifies the plural of "dodd," a bunch of threads. the parasite is sometimes called "red tangle" and "lady's laces." its botanical name _cuscuta_ comes from the greek _kassuo_--to sew together. if the piece of land infested with it is closely mown (and the cut material carried away unshaken), being next covered with deal saw-dust, on which a ten per cent. solution of sulphate of iron is freely poured, then by combining with the tannin contained in the stems of the dodder, this will serve to kill the parasite without doing any injury to the clover or lucerne. although a parasite the plant springs every year from seed. it is a remedy for swooning or fainting fits. the sweet clover (or yellow melilot), when prepared as a tincture (h.), with spirit of wine, and given as a medicine in material doses, causes, in sensitive persons, a severe headache, sometimes with a determination of [ ] blood to the head, and bleeding from the nose. when administered, on the principle of curative affinity, in much smaller doses, it is singularly beneficial against nervous headaches, with oppression of the brain, acting helpfully within five minutes. dr. hughes (brighton) writes: "i value this medicine much in nervous headaches, and i always carry it in my pocket-case-- as the mother tincture--which i generally administer _by olfaction_." for epilepsy, it is said in the united states of america to be "the one grand master-remedy," by giving a drop of the tincture every five minutes during the attack, and five drops five times a day in water, for some weeks afterwards. the melilot (from _mel_, honey, and _lotus_, because much liked by bees) is known as plaster clover from its use since galen's time in plasters for dispersing tumours. continental physicians still employ the same made of melilot, wax, resin, and olive oil. the plant contains, "coumarin" in common with the sweet woodruff, and the tonquin bean. other names for it are "harts' clover," because deer delight to feed on it and "king's clover" or "corona regis," because "the yellow flouers doe crown the top of the stalkes as with a chaplet of gold." it is an herbaceous plant common in waste places, and having light green leaves; when dried it smells like woodruff, or new hay. club moss. though not generally thought worth more than a passing notice, or to possess any claims of a medicinal sort, yet the club moss, which is of common growth in great britain on heaths and hilly pastures, exerts by its spores very remarkable curative effects, and [ ] therefore it should be favourably regarded as a herbal simple. it is exclusively due to homoeopathic provings and practice, that the _lycopodium clavatum _(club moss) takes an important position amongst the most curative vegetable remedies of the present day. the word _lycopodium_ means "wolf's claw," because of the claw-like ends to the trailing stems of this moss; and the word clavatum signifies that its inflorescence resembles a club. the spores of club moss constitute a fine pale-yellow, dusty powder which is unctuous, tasteless, inodorous, and only medicinal when pounded in all agate mortar until the individual spores, or nuts, are fractured. by being thus triturated, the nuts give out their contents, which are shown to be oil globules, wherein the curative virtues of the moss reside. sugar of milk is then rubbed up for two hours or more with the broken spores, so as to compose a medicinal powder, which is afterwards to be further diluted; or a tincture is made from the fractured spores, with spirit of ether, which will develop their specific medicinal properties. the club moss, thus prepared, has been experimentally taken by provers in varying material doses; and is found through its toxical affinities in this way to be remarkably useful for chronic mucous indigestion and mal-nutrition, attended with sallow complexion, slow, difficult digestion, flatulence, waterbrash, heartburn, decay of bodily strength, and mental depression. it is said that whenever a fan-like movement of the wings of the nostrils can be observed during the breathing, the whole group of symptoms thus detailed is _specially_ curable by club moss. as a dose of the triturated powder, reduced to a weaker dilution, ten grains may be taken twice a day [ ] mixed with a dessertspoonful of water; or of the tincture largely reduced in strength, ten drops twice a day in like manner. chemically, the oil globules extracted from the spores contain "alumina" and "phosphoric acid." the diluted powder has proved practically beneficial for reducing the swelling and for diminishing the pulsation of aneurism when affecting a main blood-vessel of the heart. in cornwall the club moss is considered good against most diseases of the eyes, provided it be gathered on the third day of the moon when first seen; being shown the knife whilst the gatherer repeats these words:-- "as christ healed the issue of blood, do thou cut what thou cut test for good." "then at sundown the club moss should be cut by the operator whilst kneeling, and with carefully washed hands. it is to be tenderly wrapped in a fair white cloth, and afterwards boiled in water procured from the spring nearest the spot where it grew," and the liquor is to be applied as a fomentation; or the club moss may be "made into an ointment with butter from the milk of a new cow." such superstitious customs had without doubt a druidic origin, and they identify the club moss with the selago, or golden herb, "cloth of gold" of the druids. this was reputed to confer the power of understanding the language of birds and beasts, and was intimately connected with some of their mysterious rites; though by others it is thought to have been a sort of hedge hyssop (_gratiola_). the common lycopodium bears in some, districts the name of "robin hood's hatband." its unmoistenable powder from the spores is a capital absorbing application to weeping, raw surfaces. at the shops, this [ ] powder of the club moss spores is sold as "witch meal," or "vegetable sulphur." for trade purposes it is obtained from the ears of a wolfsfoot moss, the lycopodium clavatum, which grows in the forests of russia and finland. the powder is yellow of colour, dust-like and smooth to the touch. half a drachm of it given during july in any proper vehicle has been esteemed "a noble remedy to cure stone in the bladder." being mixed with black pepper, it was recognized by the college of physicians in as a medicine of singular value for preventing and curing hydrophobia. dr. mead, who had repeated experience of its worth, declared that he never knew it to fail when combined with cold bathing. club moss powder ignites with a flicker, and is used for stage lightning. it is the _blitzmehl_, or lightning-meal of the germans, who give it in doses of from fifteen to twenty grains for the cure of epilepsy in children. when the "mortal struggle" was produced (see _nicholas nickleby_) by mr. vincent crummles at portsmouth, with the aid of miss snevelicci, and the infant phenomenon, lurid lightning was much in request to astonish the natives; and this was sufficiently well simulated by igniting, with a sudden flash and a hiss, highly inflammable spores of the club moss projected against burning tow within a hollow cone, producing weird scenic effects. coltsfoot. the coltsfoot, which grows abundantly throughout england in places of moist, heavy soil, especially along the sides of our raised railway banks, has been justly termed "nature's best herb for the lungs, and her most eminent thoracic." its seeds are supposed to have lain [ ] dormant from primitive times, where our railway cuttings now upturn them and set them growing anew; and the rotting foliage of the primeval herb by retaining its juices, is thought to have promoted the development and growth of our common earthworm. the botanical name of coltsfoot is _tussilago farfara_, signifying _tussis ago_, "i drive away a cold"; and _farfar_, the white poplar tree, which has a similar leaf. it is one of the composite order, and the older authors named this plant, _filius ante patrem_--"the son before the father," because the flowers appear and wither before the leaves are produced. these flowers, at the very beginning of spring, stud the banks with gay, golden, leafless blossoms, each growing on a stiff scaly stalk, and resembling a dandelion in miniature. the leaves, which follow later on, are made often into cigars, or are smoked as british herbal tobacco, being mixed for this purpose with the dried leaves and flowers of the eye-bright, buckbean, betony, thyme, and lavender, to which some persons add rose leaves, and chamomile flowers. all these are rubbed together by the hands into a coarse powder, coltsfoot forming quite one-half of the same; and this powder may be very beneficially smoked for asthma, or for spasmodic bronchial cough. linnoeus said, "_et adhuc hodie plebs in sueciâ, instar tabaci contra tussim fugit_"--"even to-day the swiss people cure their coughs with coltsfoot employed like tobacco." when the flowers are fully blown and fall off, the seeds with their "clock" form a beautiful head of white flossy silk, and if this flies away when there is no wind it is said to be a sure sign of coming rain. the goldfinch often lines her nest with the soft pappus of the coltsfoot. in paris the coltsfoot flower is painted on the doorposts of an apothecary's house. [ ] from earliest times, the plant has been found helpful in maladies of the chest. hippocrates advised it with honey for "ulcerations of the lungs." dioscorides, pliny, and galen, severally commended the use of its smoke, conducted into the mouth through a funnel or reed, for giving ease to cough and difficult breathing; they named it _breechion_, from _breex_, a cough. in taste, the leaves are harsh, bitter, and mucilaginous. they appear late in march, being green above, with an undersurface which is white, and cottony. sussex peasants esteem the white down of the leaves as a most valuable medicine. all parts of the plant contain chemically tannin, with a special bitter principle, and free mucilage; so that the herb is to be considered emollient, demulcent, and tonic. dr. cullen employed a decoction of the leaves with much benefit in scrofula, where the use of sea water had failed. and dr. fuller tells about a girl cured of twelve scrofulous sores, by drinking daily, for four months, as much as she could of coltsfoot tea, made so strong from the leaves as to be sweet and glutinous. a modern decoction is prepared from the herb with boiling water poured on the leaves, and with liquorice root and honey added. but, "hark! i hear the pancake bell," said poor richard in his almanack, ; alluding to pancakes then made with coltsfoot, like tansies, and fried with saged butter. a century later it was still the fashion to treat consumptive young women with quaint remedies. mrs. delaney writes in , "does mary cough in the night? two or three snails boiled in her barley water may be of great service to her." again, the confectioner provides coltsfoot rock, [ ] concocted in fluted sticks of a brown colour, as a sweetmeat, and flavoured with some essential oil--as aniseed, or dill--these sticks being well beloved by most schoolboys. the dried leaves, when soaked out in warm water, will serve as an excellent emollient poultice. a certain preparation, called "essence of coltsfoot," found great favour with our grand sires for treating their colds. this consisted of balsam of tolu and friar's balsam in equal parts, together with double the quantity of spirit of wine. it did not really contain a trace of coltsfoot, and the nostrum was provocative of inflammation, because of the spirit in excess. dr. paris said: "and this, forsooth, is a pectoral for coughs! if a patient with a catarrh should recover whilst using such a remedy, i should certainly designate it a lucky escape, rather than a skilful cure." gerard wrote about coltsfoot: "the fume of the dried leaves, burned upon coles, effectually helpeth those that fetch their winde thicke, and breaketh without peril the impostumes of the brest"; also "the green leaves do heal the hot inflammation called saint anthony's fire." the names of the herb--coltsfoot, and horsehoof--are derived from the shape of the leaf. it is likewise known as asses' foot, and cough wort; also as foal's foot, and bull's foot, hoofs, and (in yorkshire) cleats. to make an infusion or decoction of the plant for a confirmed cough, or for chronic bronchitis, pour a pint of boiling water on an ounce of the dried leaves and flowers, and take half a teacupful of it when cold three or four times in the day. the silky down of the seed-heads is used in the highlands for stuffing pillows, and the presence of coal is said to be indicated by an abundant growth of the herb. another species, the butter bur (_tussilago petasites_), [ ] is named from _petasus_, an umbrella, or a broad covering for the head. it produces the largest leaves of any plant in great britain, which sometimes measure three feet in breadth. this plant was thought to be of great use in the time of the plague, and thus got the names of pestilent wort, plague flower and bog rhubarb. both it, and the coltsfoot, are specific remedies (h.) for severe and obstinate neuralgia in the small of the back, and the loins, a medicinal tincture being prepared from each herb. comfrey. the comfrey of our river banks, and moist watery places, is the _consound_, or knit-back, or bone-set, and blackwort of country folk; and the old _symphytum_ of dioscorides. it has derived these names from the consolidating and vulnerary qualities attributed to the plant, from _confirmo_, to strengthen together, or the french, _comfrie_. this herb is of the borage tribe, and is conspicuous by its height of from one to two feet, its large rough leaves, which provoke itching when handled, and its drooping white or purple flowers growing on short stalks. chemically, the most important part of the plant is its "mucilage." this contains tannin, asparagin, sugar, and starch granules. the roots are sweet, sticky, and without any odour. "_quia tanta proestantia est_," says pliny, "_ut si carnes duroe coquuntur conglutinet addita; unde nomen!_"--"and the roots be so glutinative that they will solder or glew together meat that is chopt in pieces, seething in a pot, and make it into one lump: the same bruysed, and lay'd in the manner of a plaister, doth heale all fresh and green wounds." these roots are very brittle, and the least bit of them will start growing afresh. [ ] the whole plant, beaten to a cataplasm, and applied hot as a poultice, has always been deemed excellent for soothing pain in any tender, inflamed or suppurating part. it was formerly applied to raw indolent ulcers as a glutinous astringent, and most useful vulnerary. pauli recommended it for broken bones, and externally for wounds of the nerves, tendons, and arteries. more recently surgeons have declared that the powdered root (which, when broken, is white within, and full of a slimy juice), if dissolved in water to a mucilage, is far from contemptible for bleedings, fractures, and luxations, whilst it hastens the callus of bones under repair. its strong decoction has been found very useful in germany for tanning leather. the leaves were formerly employed for giving a flavour to cakes and panada. a modern medicinal tincture (h.) is made from the root-stock with spirit of wine; and ten drops of this should be taken three or four times a day with a tablespoonful of cold water. french nurses treat cracked nipples by applying a hollow section of the fresh root over the sore caruncle; and a decoction of the root made by boiling from two to four drachms in a pint of water, is given for bleedings from the lungs or bladder. the name _consound_, owned by the common comfrey, was given likewise to the daisy and the bugle, in the middle ages. "it joyeth," says gerard, "in watery ditches, in fat and fruitful meadows." a solve concocted from the fresh herb will certainly tend to promote the healing of bruised and broken parts, suggesting as an appropriate motto for the salve box: "behold how good and pleasant a thing it is to dwell together in unity! it is like the precious ointment which ran down aaron's beard." some foreknowledge [ ] of the comfrey perhaps inspired the prophet isaiah to predict that after a time "the heart should rejoice and the bones flourish like a herb." the poet laureate tells of "this, the consound, whereby the lungs are eased of their grief." about a century ago, the _prickly comfrey_--a variety of our consound--was naturalised in this country from the caucasus, and has since proved itself amazingly productive to farmers, as, when cultivated, it will grow six crops in the year; and the plant is both preventive and curative of foot and mouth disease in cattle. it bears flowers of a rich blue colour. from our common comfrey a sort of glue is got in angora, which is used for spinning the famous fleeces of that country. mr. cockayne relates that the locksman at teddington informed him how the bone of his little finger being broken, was grinding and grunching so sadly for two months, that sometimes he felt quite wrong in his head. one day he saw a doctor go by, and told him about the distress. the doctor said: "you see that comfrey growing there? take a piece of its root, and champ it, and put it about your finger, and wrap it up." the man did so, and in four days his finger was well. coriander. coriander comfits, sold by the confectioner as admirably warming to the stomach, and corrective of flatulence, consist of small aromatic seeds coated with white sugar. these are produced by the coriander, an umbelliferous herb cultivated in england from early times for medicinal and culinary uses, though introduced at first from the mediterranean. it has now [ ] become wild as an escape, growing freely in our fields and waste places. farmers produce it, especially about essex, under the name of col, the crops being mown down when ripe, and the fruits being then thrashed out to procure the seeds. the generic name has been derived from _koros_, a bug; alluding to the stinking odour of the bruised leaves, though these, when dried, are fragrant, and pleasant of smell. in some countries, as egypt and peru, they are taken in soups. the seeds are cordial, but become narcotic if used too freely. when distilled with water they yield a yellow essential oil of a very aromatic and strong odour. coriander water was formerly much esteemed as a carminative for windy colic. being so aromatic and comfortably stimulating, the fruit is commended for aiding the digestion of savoury pastry, and to correct the griping tendencies of such medicines as senna and rhubarb. it contains malic acid, tannin, the special volatile oil of the herb, and some fatty matter. distillers of gin make use of this fruit, and veterinary surgeons employ it as a drug for cattle and horses. alston says, "the green herb--seeds and all--stinks intolerably of bugs"; and hoffman admonishes, "_si largius sumptura fuerit semen non sine periculo e suâ sede et statu demovet, et qui sumpsere varia dictu pudenda blaterant_." the fruits are blended with curry powder, and are chosen to flavour several liquors. by the chinese a power of conferring immortality is thought to be possessed by the seeds. from a passage in the book of numbers where manna is likened to coriander seed, it would seem that this seed was familiar to the israelites and used by them for domestic purposes. robert turner says when taken in wine it stimulates the animal passions. [ ] cowslip. our english pastures and meadows, especially where the soil is of blue lias clay, become brilliantly gay, "with gaudy cowslips drest," quite early in the spring. but it is a mistake to suppose that these flowers are a favourite food with cows, who, in fact, never eat them if they can help it. the name cowslip is really derived, says dr. prior, from the flemish words, _kous loppe_, meaning "hose flap," a humble part of woollen nether garments. but skeat thinks it arose from the fact that the plant was supposed to spring up where a patch of cow dung had fallen. originally, the mullein--which has large, oval, woolly leaves-- and the cowslip were included under one common latin name, _verbascum_; for which reason the attributes of the mullein still remain accredited by mistake to the second plant. former medical writers called the cowslip _herba paralysis_, or, "palsywort," because of its supposed efficacy in relieving paralysis. the whole plant is known to be gently narcotic and somniferous. pope praised the herb and its flowers on account of their sedative qualities:-- "for want of rest, lettuce and cowslip wine--_probatum est_." whilst coleridge makes his _christabel_ declare with reference to the fragrant brew concocted from its petals, with lemons and sugar:-- "it is a wine of virtuous powers, my mother made it of wild flowers." physicians for the last two centuries have used the powdered roots of the cowslip (and the primrose) for wakefulness, hysterical attacks, and muscular rheumatism; and the cowslip root was named of old both [ ] _radix paralyseos_, and _radix arthritica_. this root, and the flowers, have an odour of anise, which is due to their containing some volatile oil identical with mannite. their more acrid principle is "saponin." hill tells us that when boiled in ale, the roots are taken by country persons for giddiness, with no little success. "they be likewise in great request among those that use to hunt after goats and roebucks on high mountains, for the strengthening of the head when they pass by fearful precipices and steep places, in following their game, so that giddiness and swimming of the brain may not seize upon them." the dose of the dried and powdered flowers is from fifteen to twenty grains. a syrup of a fine yellow colour may also be made from the petals, which answers the same purposes. three pounds of the fresh blossoms should be infused in five pints of boiling water, and then simmered down to a proper consistence with sugar. herbals of the elizabethan date, say that an ointment made from cowslip flowers "taketh away the spots and wrinkles of the skin, and doth add beauty exceedingly, as divers ladies, gentlewomen, and she citizens--whether wives or widows--know well enough." the tiny people were then supposed to be fond of nestling in the drooping bells of cowslips, and hence the flowers were called fairy cups; and, in accordance with the doctrine of signatures, they were thought effective for removing freckles from the face. "in their gold coats spots you see, these be rubies: fairy favours. in these freckles live their savours." the cluster of blossoms on a single stalk sometimes bears the name of "lady's keys" or "st. peter's wort," either because it resembles a bunch of keys as st. [ ] peter's badge, or because as _primula veris_ it unlocks the treasures of spring. cowslip flowers are frequently done up by playful children into balls, which they call tisty tosty, or simply a tosty. for this purpose the umbels of blossoms fully blown are strung closely together, and tied into a firm ball. the leaves were at one time eaten in salad, and mixed with other herbs to stuff meat, whilst the flowers were made into a delicate conserve. yorkshire people call this plant the cowstripling; and in devonshire, where it is scarcely to be found, because of the red marl, it has come about that the foxglove goes by the name of cowslip. again, in some provincial districts, the cowslip is known as petty mullein, and in others as paigle (palsywort). the old english proverb, "as blake as a paigle," means, "as yellow as a cowslip." one word may be said here in medicinal favour of the poor cow, whose association with the flower now under discussion has been so unceremoniously disproved. the breath and smell of this sweet-odoured animal are thought in flintshire to be good against consumption. henderson tells of a blacksmith's apprentice who was restored to health when far advanced in a decline, by taking the milk of cows fed in a kirkyard. in the south of hampshire, a useful plaster of fresh cow-dung is applied to open wounds. and even in its evolutionary development, the homely animal reads us a lesson; for _dat deus immiti cornua curta bovi_, says the latin proverb--"savage cattle have only short horns." so was it in "the house that jack built," where the fretful creature that tossed the dog had but one horn, and this grew crumpled. [ ] cresses. the cress of the herbalist is a noun of multitude: it comprises several sorts, differing in kind but possessing the common properties of wholesomeness and pungency. here "order in variety we see"; and here, "though all things differ, all agree." the name is thought by some to be derived from the latin verb _crescere_, to grow fast. each kind of cress belongs to the cruciferous genus of plants; whence comes, perhaps, the common name the several varieties of cress are stimulating and anti-scorbutic, whilst each contains a particular essential principle, of acrid flavour, and of sharp biting qualities. the whole tribe is termed _lepidium_, or "siliquose," scaly, with reference to the shape of the seed-pouches. it includes "land cress (formerly dedicated to st. barbara); broad-leaved cress (or the poor-man's pepper); penny cress (_thlapsus_); garden, or town cress; and the well known edible water cress." formerly the greeks attached much value to the whole order of cresses, which they thought very beneficial to the brain. a favourite maxim with them was, "eat cresses, and get wit." in england these plants have long been cultivated as a source of profit; whence arose the saying that a graceless fellow is not worth a "kurse" or cress--in german, _kers_. thus chaucer speaks about a character in the _canterbury tales_, "of paramours ne fraught he not a kers." but some writers have referred this saying rather to the wild cherry or kerse, making it of the same significance as our common phrase, "not worth a fig." as curative herbal simples we need only consider the garden or town cress, and the water cress: whilst regarding the other varieties rather as condiments, and [ ] salad herbs to be taken by way of pleasant wholesome appetisers at table. these aromatic herbs were employed to season the homely dishes of our forefathers, before commerce had brought the spices of the east at a cheap rate to our doors; and cresses were held in common favour by peasants for such a purpose. the black, or white pepper of to-day, was then so costly that "to promise a saint yearly a pound of it was considered a liberal bequest." and therefore the leaves of wild cresses were eaten as a substitute for giving pungency to the food. remarkable among these was the _dittander sativus_, a species found chiefly near the sea, with foliage so hot and acrid, that the plant then went by the name of "poor-man's pepper," or "pepper wort." pliny said, "it is of the number of scorching and blistering simples." "this herbe," says lyte, "is fondly and unlearnedly called in english dittany. it were better in following the dutchmen to name it pepperwort." the _garden cress_, called _sativum_ (from _satum_, a pasture), is the sort commonly coupled with the herb mustard in our familiar "mustard and cress." it has been grown in england since the middle of the sixteenth century, and its other name _town_ cress refers to its cultivation in "tounes," or enclosures. it was also known as passerage; from _passer_, to drive away--rage, or madness, because of its reputed power to expel hydrophobia. "this garden cress," said wm. coles in his _paradise of plants_, , "being green, and therefore more qualified by reason of its humidity, is eaten by country people, either alone with butter, or with lettice and purslane, in sallets, or otherwise." it contains sulphur, and a special ardent volatile medicinal oil. the small leaves combined with those of [ ] our white garden mustard are excellent against rheumatism and gout. likewise it is a preventive of scurvy by reason of its mineral salts. in which salutary respects the twin plants, mustard and cress, are happily consorted, and well play a capital common part, like the "two single gentlemen rolled into one" of george colman, the younger. the _water cress_ (_nasturtium officinale_) is among cresses, to use an american simile, the "finest toad in the puddle." this is because of its superlative medicinal worth, and its great popularity at table. early writers called the herb "shamrock," and common folk now-a-days term it the "stertion." zenophon advised the persians to feed their children on water-cresses (_kardamon esthie_) that they might grow in stature and have active minds. the latin name _nasturtium_ was given to the watercress because of its volatile pungency when bruised and smelt; from _nasus_, a nose, and _tortus_, turned away, it being so to say, "a herb that wriths or twists the nose." for the same reason it is called _nasitord_ in france. when bruised its leaves affect the eyes and nose almost like mustard. they have been usefully applied to the scald head and tetters of children. in new zealand the stems grow as thick as a man's wrist, and nearly choke some of the rivers. like an oyster, the water-cress is in proper season only when there is an "r" in the month. according to an analysis made recently in the school of pharmacy at paris, the water-cress contains a sulpho-nitrogenous oil, iodine, iron, phosphates, potash, certain other earthy salts, a bitter extract, and water. its volatile oil which is rich in nitrogen and sulphur (problematical) is the sulpho-cyanide of allyl. anyhow [ ] there is much sulphur possessed by the whole plant in one form or another, together with a considerable quantity of mineral matter. thus the popular plant is so constituted as to be particularly curative of scrofulous affections, especially in the spring time, when the bodily humours are on the ferment. dr. king chambers writes (_diet in health and disease_), "i feel sure that the infertility, pallor, fetid breath, and bad teeth which characterise some of our town populations are to a great extent due to their inability to get fresh anti-scorbutic vegetables as articles of diet: therefore i regard the water-cress seller as one of the saviours of her country." culpeper said pithily long ago: "they that will live in health may eat water-cress if they please; and if they won't, i cannot help it." the scrofula to which the water-cress and its allied plants are antidotal, got its name from _scrofa_, "a burrowing pig," signifying the radical destruction of important glands in the body by this undermining constitutional disease. possibly the quaint lines which nurses have long been given to repeat for the amusement of babies while fondling their infantine fingers bear a hidden meaning which pointedly imports the scrofulous taint. this nursery distich, as we remember, personates the fingers one by one as five little fabulous pigs:--the first small piggy doesn't feel well; and the second one threatens the doctor to tell; the third little pig has to linger at home; and the fourth small porker of meat has none; then the fifth little pig, with a querulous note, cries "weak, weak, weak" from its poor little throat. "oegrotat multis doloribus porculus ille: ille rogat fratri medicum proferre salutem: debilis ille domi mansit vetitus abire; carnem digessit nunquam miser porculus ille; 'eheu!' ter repetens, 'eheu!' perporculus, 'eheu!' vires exiguas luget plorante susurro." [ ] on account of its medicinal constituents the herb has been deservedly extolled as a specific remedy for tubercular consumption of the lungs. haller says: "we have seen patients in deep declines cured by living almost entirely on this plant;" and it forms the chief ingredient of the _sirop antiscorbutique _given so successfully by the french faculty in scrofula and other allied diseases. its active principles are at their best when the plant is in flower; and the amount of essential oil increases according to the quantity of sunlight which the leaves obtain, the proportion of iron being determined according to the quality of the water, and the measure of phosphates by the supply of dressing afforded. the leaves remain green when grown in the shade, but become of a purple brown because of their iron when exposed to the sun. the expressed juice, which contains the peculiar taste and pungency of the herb, may be taken in doses of from one to two fluid ounces at each of the three principal meals, and it should always be had fresh. when combined with the juice of scurvy grass and of seville oranges it makes the popular antiscorbutic medicine known as "spring juices." a water-cress cataplasm applied cold in a single layer, and with a pinch of salt sprinkled thereupon makes a most useful poultice to heal foul scrofulous ulcers; and will also help to resolve glandular swellings. water-cresses squeezed and laid against warts were said by the saxon leeches to work a certain cure on these excrescences. in france the water-cress is dipped in oil and vinegar to be eaten at table with chicken or a steak. the englishman takes it at his morning or evening meal, with bread and butter, or at dinner in a salad. it loses some of its pungent flavour and of its curative qualities [ ] when cultivated; and therefore it is more appetising and useful when freshly gathered from natural streams. but these streams ought to be free from contamination by sewage matter, or any drainage which might convey the germs of fever, or other blood poison: for, as we are admonished, the water-cress plant acts as a brush in impure running brooks to detain around its stalks and leaves any dirty disease-bringing flocculi. some of our leading druggists now make for medicinal use a liquid extract of the _nasturtium officinale_, and a spirituous juice (or _succus_) of the plant. these preparations are of marked service in scorbutic cases, where weakness exists without wasting, and often with spongy gums, or some skin eruption. they are best when taken with lemon juice. the leaf of the unwholesome water parsnep, or fool's cress, resembles that of the water-cress, and grows near it not infrequently: but the leaves of the true water-cress never embrace the stem of the plant as do the leaf stalks of its injurious imitators. herrick the joyous poet of "dull devonshire" dearly loved the water-cress, and its kindred herbs. he piously and pleasantly made them the subject of a quaint grace before meat:-- "lord, i confess too when i dine the pulse is thine: and all those other bits that be there placed by thee: the wurts, the perslane, and the mess of water-cress." the true _nasturtium_ (_tropoeolum majus_), or greater indian cress grows and is cultivated in our flower gardens as a brilliant ornamental creeper. it was brought from peru to france in , and was called _la grande capucine_, whilst the botanical title _tropoeolum_, [ ] a trophy, was conferred because of its shield-like leaves, and its flowers resembling a golden helmet. an old english name for the same plant was yellow lark's heels. two years later it was introduced into england. this partakes of the sensible and useful qualities of the other cresses. the fresh plant and the dark yellow flowers have an odour like that of the water-cress, and its bruised leaves emit a pungent smell. an infusion made with water will bring out the antiscorbutic virtues of the plant which are specially aromatic, and cordial. the flowers make a pretty and palatable addition to salads, and the nuts or capsules (which resemble the "cheeses" of mallow) are esteemed as a pickle, or as a substitute for capers. invalids have often preferred this plant to the scurvy grass as an antiscorbutic remedy. in the warm summer months the flowers have been observed about the time of sunset to give out sparks, as of an electrical kind, which were first noticed by a daughter of linnoeus. the _water-cress_ is justly popular with persons who drink freely overnight, for its power of dissipating the fumes of the liquor, and of clearing away lethargic inaptitude for work in the morning: also for dispelling the tremors, and the foul taste induced by excessive tobacco smoking. closely allied thereto is another cruciferous plant, the scurvy grass (_cochleare_), named also "spoon-wort" from its leaves resembling in shape the bowl of an old-fashioned spoon. this is thought to be the famous _herba britannica_ of the ancients. our great navigators have borne testimony to its never failing use in scurvy, and, though often growing many miles from the sea, yet the taste of the herb is always [ ] found to be salt. if eaten in its fresh state, as a salad, it is the most effectual of all the antiscorbutic plants, the leaves being admirable also to cure swollen and spongy gums. it grows along the muddy banks of the avon, likewise in wales, and is found in cumberland, more commonly near the coast; and again on the mountains of scotland. it may be readily cultivated in the garden for medicinal use. the cuckoo flower, or "ladies' smock" (cardamine) from _cardia damao_, "i strengthen the heart," is another wholesome cress with the same sensible properties as the water-cress, only in an inferior degree, while the strong pungency of its flavour prevents it from being equally popular. this plant bears also the names of "lucy locket," and "smell smocks." in cornwall the flowering tops have been employed for the cure of epilepsy throughout several generations with singular success; though the use of the leaves only for this purpose has caused disappointment. from one to three drams of these flowering tops are to be taken two or three times a day. by the rev. mr. gregor ( ) and by his descendants this remedy was given for inveterate epilepsy with much benefit. lady holt, and her sister lady bracebridge, of aston hall, warwickshire, were long famous for curing severe cases of the same infirmity by administering this herb. they gave the powdered heads of the flowers when in full bloom-twelve grains three times a day for many weeks together. sir george baker in read a paper before the london college of physicians on the value of these flowers in convulsive disorders. he related five cures of st. vitus' dance, spasmodic convulsions, and spasmodic asthma. formerly the flowers were admitted into the [ ] london pharmacopoeia. the herb was named ladies' smock in honour of the virgin mary, because it comes first into flower about lady day, being abundant with its delicate lilac blossoms in our moist meadows and marshes: "lady smocks all silver white do paint the meadows with delight." this plant is also named--"milk maids," "bread and milk," and "mayflower." gerard says "it flowers in april and may when the cuckoo cloth begin to sing her pleasant notes without stammering." one of his characters is made by the poet laureate to-- "steep for danewulf leaves of lady smock, for they keep strong the heart." "and so much," as says william cole, herbalist, in his _paradise of plants_, , "for such plants as cure the scurvy." cumin. cumin (_cuminum cyminum_) is not half sufficiently known, or esteemed as a domestic condiment of medicinal value, and culinary uses; whilst withal of ready access as one of our commonest importations from malta and sicily for flavouring purposes, and veterinary preparations. it is an umbelliferous plant, and large quantities of its seeds are brought every year to england. the herb has been cultivated in the east from early days, being called "cuminum" by the greeks in classic times. the seeds possess a strong aromatic odour with a penetrating and bitter taste; when distilled they yield a pungent powerful essential oil. the older herbalists esteemed them superior in comforting carminative [ ] qualities to those of the fennel or caraway. they are eminently useful to correct the flatulence of languid digestion, serving also to relieve dyspeptic headache, to allay colic of the bowels, and to promote the monthly flow of women. in holland and switzerland they are employed for flavouring cheese; whilst in germany they are added to bread as a condiment. here the seeds are introduced in the making of curry powder, and are compounded to form a stimulating liniment; likewise a warming plaster for quickening the sluggish congestions of indolent parts. the odorous volatile oil of the fruit contains the hydro-carbons "cymol," and "cuminol," which are redolent of lemon and caraway odours. a dose of the seeds is from fifteen to thirty grains. cumin symbolised cupidity among the greeks: wherefore marcus antoninus was so nick-named because of his avarice; and misers were jocularly said to have eaten cumin. the herb was thought to specially confer the gift of retention, preventing the theft of any object which contained it, and holding the thief in custody within the invaded house; also keeping fowls and pigeons from straying, and lovers from proving fickle. if a swain was going off as a soldier, or to work a long way from his home, his sweetheart would give him a loaf seasoned with cumin, or a cup of wine in which some of the herb had been mixed. the ancients were acquainted with the power of cumin to cause the human countenance to become pallid; and as a medicine the herb is well calculated to cure such pallor of the face when occurring as an illness. partridges and pigeons [ ] are extremely fond of the seeds: respecting the scriptural use of which in the payment of taxes we are reminded (luke xi. v. )--"ye pay tithe of mint, and anise, and cummin." it has been discovered by grisar that cumin oil exercises a special action which gives it importance as a medicine. this is to signally depress nervous reflex excitability when administered in full doses, as of from two to eight drops of the oil on sugar. and when the aim is to stimulate such reflex sensibility as impaired by disease, small diluted doses of the oil serve admirably to promote this purpose. currants. the original currants in times past were small grapes, grown in greece at zante, near corinth, and termed corinthians; then they became corantes, and eventually currants. but, as an old roman proverb pertinently said: _non cuivis homini contingit adire corinthum_, "it was not for everyone to visit fashionable corinth." and therefore the name of currants became transferred in the epirus to certain small fruit of the gooseberry order which closely resembled the grapes of zante, but were identical rather with the currants of our modern kitchen gardens, such as we now use for making puddings, pies, jams, and jellies. the bushes which produce this fruit grow wild in the northern part, of great britain, and belong to the saxifrage order of plants. the wild red currant bears small berries which are intensely acid. in modern italy basketsful are gathered in the woods of the apennines, and the alps. currants are not mentioned in former greek or roman literature, nor do they seem to have been cultivated by the anglo-saxons, or the normans. our several sorts [ ] of currants afford a striking illustration of the mode which their parent bushes have learnt to adopt so as to attract by their highly coloured fruits the birds which shall disperse their seeds. these colours are not developed until the seed is ripe for germination; because if birds devoured them prematurely the seed would fall inert. but simultaneously come the ripeness and the soft sweet pulp, and the rich colouring, so that the birds may be attracted to eat the fruit, and spread the seed in their droppings. zeuxis, a famous sicilian painter four hundred years before christ, depicted currants and grapes with such fidelity that birds came and tried to peck them out from his canvas. white currants are the most simple in kind; and the red are a step in advance. if equal parts of either fruit and of sugar are put over the fire, the liquid which separates spontaneously will make a very agreeable jelly because of the "pectin" with which it is chemically furnished. nitric acid will convert this pectin into oxalic acid, or salts of sorrel. the juice of red currants also contains malic and citric acids, which are cooling and wholesome. in the northern counties this red currant is called wineberry, or garnetberry, from its rich ruddy colour, and transparency. its sweetened juice is a favourable drink in paris, being preferred there to the syrup of _orgeat _(almonds). when made into a jelly with sugar the juice of red currants is excellent in fevers, and acts as an anti-putrescent; as likewise if taken at table with venison, or hare, or other "high" meats. this fruit especially suits persons of sanguine temperament. both red and white currants are without doubt trustworthy remedies in most forms of obstinate visceral obstruction, and they correct impurities of the blood, being certainly antiseptic. [ ] the black currant is found growing wild in england, for the most part by the edges of brooks, and in moist grounds, from mid-scotland southwards. throughout sussex and kent the shrub is called "gazles" as corrupted from the french _groseilles_ (gooseberries). the fruit is cooling, laxative, and anodyne. its thickened juice concocted over the fire, with, or without sugar, formed a "rob" of old english times. the black currant is often named by our peasantry "squinancy," or "quinsyberry," because a jelly prepared therefrom has been long employed for sore throat and quinsy. the leaf glands of its young leaves secrete from their under surface a fragrant odorous fluid. therefore if newly gathered, and infused for a moment in very hot water and then dried, the leaves make an excellent substitute for tea; also these fresh leaves when applied to a gouty part will assuage pain, and inflammation. they are used to impart the flavour of brandy to common spirit. bergius called the leaf, _mundans, pellens, et diuretica_. botanically the black currant, _ribes nigrum_, belongs to the saxifrage tribe, this generic term ribes being applied to all fresh currants, as of arabian origin, and signifying acidity. grocers' currants come from the morea, being small grapes dried in the sun, and put in heaps to cake together. then they are dug out with a crow-bar, and trodden into casks for exportation. our national plum pudding can no more be made without these currants than "little tom tucker who for his supper, could cut his bread without any knife or could find himself married without any wife." former cooks made an odd use of grocers' currants, according to king, a poet of the middle ages, who says:-- "they buttered currants on fat veal bestowed, and rumps of beef with virgin honey strewed." [ ] on the kitchen currant a riddling rhyme was long ago to be found in the _children's book of conundrums_:-- "higgledy-piggledy, here i lie picked and plucked, and put in a pie; my first is snapping, snarling, growling; my second noisy, ramping, prowling." eccles cakes are delicious currant sandwiches which are very popular in manchester. black currant jelly should not be made with too much sugar, else its medicinal-virtues will be impaired. a teaspoonful of this jelly may be given three or four times in the day to a child with thrush. in russia the leaves of the black currant are employed to fabricate brandy made with a coarse spirit. these leaves and the fruit are often combined by our herbalists with the seeds of the wild carrot for stimulating the kidneys in passive dropsy. a medicinal wine is also brewed from the fruit together with honey. in this country we use a decoction of the leaf, or of the bark as a gargle. in siberia black currants grow as large as hazel nuts. both the black and the red currants afford a pleasant home-made wine. _ex eo optimum vinum fieri potest non deterius vinis vetioribus viteis_, wrote haller in . white currants, however, yield the best wine, and this may be improved by keeping, even for twenty years. dr. thornton says: "i have used old wine of white currants for calculous affections, and it has surpassed all expectation." a delicate jelly is made from the red currant at bas-le-duc; and a well-known nursery rhyme tells of the tempting qualities of "cherry pie, and currant wine." a rob of black currant jam is taken in scotland with whiskey toddy. shakespeare in the _winter's tale_ makes antolycus, the shrewd "picker-up of unconsidered [ ] trifles" talk of buying for the sheep-shearing feast "three pounds of sugar, five pounds of currants, and rice." in france a cordial called _liqueur de cassis_ is made from black currants; and a refreshing drink, _eau de groseilles_, from the red. some forty years ago, at the time of the crimean war a patriotic song in praise of the french flag was most popular in our streets, and had for its refrain, "hurrah for the red, white, and blue!" so valuable for food and physics are our tricoloured currants that the same argot may be justly paraphrased in their favour, with a well-merited eulogium of "hurrah for the white, red, black!" daffodil. the yellow daffodil, which is such a favourite flower of our early spring because of its large size, and showy yellow color, grows commonly in english woods, fields, and orchards. its popular names, daffodowndilly, daffodily, and affodily, bear reference to the asphodel, with which blossom of the ancient greeks this is identical. it further owns the botanical name of narcissus (pseudo-narcissus)--not after the classical youth who met with his death through vainly trying to embrace his image reflected in a clear stream because of its exquisite beauty, and who is fabled to have been therefore changed into flower--but by reason of the narcotic properties which the plant possesses, as signified by the greek word, _narkao_, "to benumb." pliny described it as a _narce narcisswm dictum, non a fabuloso puero_. an extract of the bulbs when applied to open wounds has produced staggering, numbness of the whole nervous system, and paralysis of the heart. socrates called this plant the "chaplet of the infernal gods," because of its [ ] narcotic effects. nevertheless, the roots of the asphodel were thought by the ancient greeks to be edible, and they were therefore laid in tombs as food for the dead. lucian tells us that charon, the ferryman who rowed the souls of the departed over the river styx, said: "i know why mercury keeps us waiting here so long. down in these regions there is nothing to be had but, asphodel, and oblations, in the midst of mist and darkness; whereas up in heaven he finds it all bright and clear, with ambrosia there, and nectar in plenty." in the middle ages the roots of the daffodil were called _cibi regis_, "food for a king,"; but his majesty must have had a disturbed night after partaking thereof, as they are highly stimulating to the kidneys: indeed, there is strong reason for supposing that these roots have a prior claim to those of the dandelion for lectimingous fame, (_lectus_, "the bed"; _mingo_, to "irrigate"). the brilliant yellow blossom of the daffodil possesses, as is well known, a bell-shaped crown in the midst of its petals, which is strikingly characteristic. the flower-stalk is hollow, bearing on its summit a membranous sheath, which envelops a single flower of an unpleasant odour. but the jonquil, which is a cultivated variety of the daffodil, having white petals with a yellow crown, yields a delicious perfume, which modern chemistry can closely imitate by a hydrocarbon compound. if "naphthalin," a product of coal tar oil, has but the smallest particle of its scent diffused in a room, the special aroma of jonquil and narcissus is at once perceived. when the flowers of the daffodil are dried in the sun, if a decoction of them is made, from fifteen to thirty grains will prove emetic like that of ipecacuanha. from five to six ounces of boiling water should be poured on this quantity of the dried [ ] flowers, and should stand for twenty minutes. it will then serve most usefully for relieving the congestive bronchial catarrh of children, being sweetened, and given one third at a time every ten or fifteen minutes until it provokes vomiting. it is also beneficial in this way, but when given less often, for epidemic dysentery. the chemical principles of the daffodil have not been investigated; but a yellow volatile oil of disagreeable odour, and a brown colouring matter, have been got from the flowers. arabians commended this oil to be applied for curing baldness, and for stimulating the sexual organs. herrick alludes in his _hesperides_ to the daffodil as death:-- "when a daffodil i see hanging down its head towards me, guess i may what i must be-- first i shall decline my head; secondly i shall be dead; lastly, safely buried." daffodils, popularly known in this country as lent lilies, are called by the french _pauvres filles de sainte clare_. the name _junquillo_ is the spanish diminutive of _junco_, "the rush," and is given to the jonquil because of its slender rush-like stem. from its fragrant flowers a sweet-smelling yellow oil is obtained. the medicinal influence of the daffodil on the nervous system has led to giving its flowers and its bulb for hysterical affections, and even epilepsy, with benefit. daisy. our english daisy is a composite flower which is called in the glossaries "gowan," or yellow flower. botanically [ ] it is named _bellis perennis_, probably from _bellis_, "in fields of battle," because of its fame in healing the wounds of soldiers; and perennis as implying that though "the rose has but a summer reign, the daisy never dies," the flower is likewise known as "bainwort," "beloved by children," and "the lesser consound." the whole plant has been carefully and exhaustively proved for curative purposes; and a medicinal tincture (h.) is now made from it with spirit of wine. gerard says: "daisies do mitigate all kinds of pain, especially in the joints, and gout proceeding from a hot humour, if stamped with new butter and applied upon the pained place." and, "the leaves of daisies used among pot herbs do make the belly soluble." pliny tells us the daisy was used in his time with mugwort as a resolvent to scrofulous tumours. the leaves are acrid and pungent, being ungrateful to cattle, and even rejected by geese. these and the flowers, when chewed experimentally, have provoked giddiness and pains in the arms as if from coming boils: also a development of boils, "dark, fiery, and very sore," on the back of the neck, and outside the jaws. for preventing, or aborting these same distressing formations when they begin to occur spontaneously, the tincture of daisies should be taken in doses of five drops three times a day in water. likewise this medicine should be given curatively on the principle of affinity between it and the symptoms induced in provers who have taken the same in material toxic doses, "when the brain is muddled, the sight dim, the spirits soon depressed, the temper irritable, the skin pimply, the heart apt to flutter, and the whole aspect careworn; as if from early excesses." then the infusion of the plant in tablespoonful doses, or the diluted tincture, will answer admirably [ ] to renovate and re-establish the health and strength of the sufferer. the flowers and leaves are found to afford a considerable quantity of oil and of ammoniacal salts. the root was named _consolida minima _by older physicians. fabricius speaks of its efficacy in curing wounds and contusions. a decoction of the leaves and flowers was given internally, and the bruised herb blended with lard was applied outside. "the leaves stamped do take away bruises and swellings, whereupon, it was called in old time bruisewort." if eaten as a spring salad, or boiled like spinach, the leaves are pungent, and slightly laxative. being a diminutive plant with roots to correspond, the daisy, on the doctrine of signatures, was formerly thought to arrest the bodily growth if taken with this view. therefore its roots boiled in broth were given to young puppies so as to keep them of a small size. for the same reason the fairy milkah fed her foster child on this plant, "that his height might not exceed that of a pigmy":-- "she robbed dwarf elders of their fragrant fruit, and fed him early with the daisy-root, whence through his veins the powerful juices ran, and formed the beauteous miniature of man." "daisy-roots and cream" were prescribed by the fairy godmothers of our childhood to stay the stature of those gawky youngsters who were shooting up into an ungainly development like "ill weeds growing apace." daisies were said of old to be under the dominion of venus, and later on they were dedicated to st. margaret of cortona. therefore they were reputed good for the special-illnesses of females. it is remarkable there is no [ ] greek word for this plant, or flower. ossian the gaelic poet feigns that the daisy, whose white investments figure innocence, was first "sown above a baby's grave by the dimpled hands of infantine angels." during mediaeval times the daisy was worn by knights at a tournament as an emblem of fidelity. in his poem the _flower and the leaf_, chaucer, who was ever loud in his praises of the "eye of day"--"empresse and floure of floures all," thus pursues his theme:-- "and at the laste there began anon a lady for to sing right womanly a bargaret in praising the daisie: for--as methought among her notes sweet, she said, '_si doucet est la margarete_.'" the french name _marguerite _is derived from a supposed resemblance of the daisy to a pearl; and in germany this flower is known as the meadow pearl. likewise the greek word for a pearl is _margaritos_. a saying goes that it is not spring until a person can put his foot on twelve of these flowers. in the cultivated red daisies used for bordering our gardens, the yellow central boss of each compound flower has given place to strap-shaped florets like the outer rays, and without pollen, so that the entire flower consists of this purple inflorescence. but such aristocratic culture has made the blossom unproductive of seed. like many a proud and belted earl, each of the pampered and richly coloured daisies pays the penalty of its privileged luxuriance by a disability from perpetuating its species. the moon daisy, or oxeye daisy (_leucanthemum orysanthemum_), st. john's flower, belonging to the same tribe of plants, grows commonly with an erect stem about two feet high, in dry pastures and roads, bearing large solitary flowers which are balsamic and make a [ ] useful infusion for relieving chronic coughs, and for bronchial catarrhs. boiled with some of the leaves and stalks they form, if sweetened with honey, or barley sugar, an excellent posset drink for the same purpose. in america the root is employed successfully for checking the night sweats of pulmonary consumption, a fluid extract thereof being made for this object, the dose of which is from fifteen to sixty drops in water. the moon daisy is named maudlin-wort from st. mary magdalene, and bears its lunar name from the grecian goddess of the moon, artemis, who particularly governed the female health. similarly, our bright little daisy, "the constellated flower that never sets," owns the name herb margaret. the moon daisy is also called bull daisy, gipsies' daisy, goldings, midsummer daisy, mace flinwort, and espilawn. its young leaves are sometimes used as a flavouring in soups and stews. the flower was compared to the representation of a full moon, and was formerly dedicated to the isis of the egyptians. tom hood wrote of a traveller estranged far from his native shores, and walking despondently in a distant land:-- "when lo! he starts with glad surprise, home thoughts come rushing o'er him, for, modest, wee, and crimson-tipped a flower he sees before him. with eager haste he stoops him down, his eyes with moisture hazy; and as he plucks the simple bloom he murmurs, 'lawk, a daisy'"! dandelion. owing to long years of particular evolutionary sagacity in developing winged seeds to be wafted from the silky pappus of its ripe flowerheads over wide areas of land, [ ] the dandelion exhibits its handsome golden flowers in every field and on every ground plot throughout the whole of our country. they are to be distinguished from the numerous hawkweeds, by having the outermost leaves of their exterior cup bent downwards whilst the stalk is coloured and shining. the plant-leaves have jagged edges which resemble the angular jaw of a lion fully supplied with teeth; or, some writers say, the herb has been named from the heraldic lion which is vividly yellow, with teeth of gold-in fact, a dandy lion! again, the flower closely resembles the sun, which a lion represents. it is called by some blowball, time table, and milk "gowan" (or golden). "how like a prodigal does nature seem, when thou with all thy gold so common art." in some of our provinces the herb is known as wiggers, and swinesnout; whilst again in devon and cornwall it is called the dashelflower. botanically it belongs to the composite order, and is named _taraxacum leontodon_, or eatable, and lion-toothed. this latter when latinised is _dens leonis_, and in french _dent de lion_. the title taraxacum is an arabian corruption of the greek _trogimon_, "edible"; or it may have been derived from the greek _taraxos_, "disorder," and _akos_, "remedy." it once happened that a plague of insects destroyed the harvest in the island of minorca, so that the inhabitants had to eat the wild produce of the country; and many of them then subsisted for some while entirely on this plant. the dandelion, which is a wild sort of succory, was known to arabian physicians, since avicenna of the eleventh century mentions it as _taraxacon_. it is found throughout europe, asia, and north america; possessing a root which abounds with milky juice, and [ ] this varying in character according to the time of year in which the plant is gathered. during the winter the sap is thick, sweet, and albuminous; but in summer time it is bitter and acrid. frost causes the bitterness to diminish, and sweetness to take its place; but after the frost this bitterness returns, and is intensified. the root is at its best for yielding juice about november. chemically the active ingredients of the herb are taraxacin, and taraxacerine, with inulin (a sort of sugar), gluten, gum, albumen, potash, and an odorous resin, which is commonly supposed to stimulate the liver, and the biliary organs. probably this reputed virtue was assigned at first to the plant largely on the doctrine of signatures, because of its bright yellow flowers of a bilious hue. but skilled medical provers who have experimentally tested the toxical effects of the dandelion plant have found it to produce, when taken in excess, troublesome indigestion, characterized by a tongue coated with a white skin which peels off in patches, leaving a raw surface, whilst the kidneys become unusually active, with profuse night sweats and an itching nettle rash. for these several symptoms when occurring of themselves, a combination of the decoction, and the medicinal tincture will be invariably curative. to make a decoction of the root, one part of this dried, and sliced, should be gently boiled for fifteen minutes in twenty parts of water, and strained off when cool. it may be sweetened with brown sugar, or honey, if unpalatable when taken alone, several teacupfuls being given during the day. dandelion roots as collected for the market are often adulterated with those of the common hawkbit (_leontodon hispidus_); but these are more tough and do not give out any milky juice. [ ] the tops of the roots dug out of the ground, with the tufts of the leaves remaining thereon, and blanched by being covered in the earth as they grow, if gathered in the spring, are justly esteemed as an excellent vernal salad. it was with this homely fare the good wise hecate entertained theseus, as we read in evelyn's _acetaria_. bergius says he has seen intractable cases of liver congestion cured, after many other remedies had failed, by the patients taking daily for some months, a broth made from dandelion roots stewed in boiling water, with leaves of sorrel, and the yelk of an egg; though (he adds) they swallowed at the same time cream of tartar to keep their bodies open. incidentally with respect to the yelk of an egg, as prescribed here, it is an established fact that patients have been cured of obstinate jaundice by taking a raw egg on one or more mornings while fasting. dr. paris tells us a special oil is to be extracted from the yelks (only) of hard boiled eggs, roasted in pieces in a frying pan until the oil begins to exude, and then pressed hard. fifty eggs well fried will yield about five ounces of this oil, which is acrid, and so enduringly liquid that watch-makers use it for lubricating the axles and pivots of their most delicate wheels. old eggs furnish the oil most abundantly, and it certainly acts as a very useful medicine for an obstructed liver. furthermore the shell, when finely triturated, has served by its potentialised lime to cure some forms of cancer. sweet are the uses of adversity! even such as befell the egg symbolised by humpty-dumpty:-- "humptius in muro requievit dumptius alto, humptius e muro dumptius--heu! cecidit! sed non regis equi, reginae exercitus omnis humpti, te, dumpti, restituere loco." [ ] the medicinal tincture of dandelion is made from the entire plant, gathered in summer, employing proof spirit which dissolves also the resinous parts not soluble in water. from ten to fifteen drops of this tincture may be taken with a spoonful of water three times in the day. of the freshly prepared juice, which should not be kept long as it quickly ferments, from two to three teaspoonfuls are a proper dose. the leaves when tender and white in the spring are taken on the continent in salads or they are blanched, and eaten with bread and butter. parkinson says: "whoso is drawing towards a consumption, or ready to fall into a cachexy, shall find a wonderful help from the use thereof, for some time together." officially, according to the london college, are prepared from the fresh dried roots collected in the autumn, a decoction (one ounce to a pint of boiling water), a juice, a fresh extract, and an inspissated liquid extract. because of its tendency to provoke involuntary urination at night, the dandelion has acquired a vulgar suggestive appellation which expresses this fact in most homey terms: _quasi herba lectiminga, et urinaria dicitur_: and this not only in our vernacular, but in most of the european tongues: _quia plus lotii in vesicam derivat quam puerulis retineatur proesertim inter dormiendum, eoque tunc imprudentes et inviti stragula permingunt_. at gottingen, the roots are roasted and used instead of coffee by the poorer folk; and in derbyshire the juice of the stalk is applied to remove warts. the flower of the dandelion when fully blown is named priest's crown (_caput monachi_), from the resemblance of its naked receptacle after the winged seeds have been all blown away, to the smooth shorn head of a roman [ ] cleric. so hurdis sings in his poem _the village curate_:-- "the dandelion this: a college youth that flashes for a day all gold: anon he doffs his gaudy suit, touched by the magic hand of bishop grave, and all at once by commutation strange becomes a reverend priest: and then how sleek! how full of grace! with silvery wig at first so nicely trimmed, which presently grows bald. but let me tell you, in the pompous globe which rounds the dandelion's head is fitly couched divinity most rare." boys gather the flower when ripe, and blow away the hall of its silky seed vessels at the crown, to learn the time of day, thus sportively making:-- "dandelion with globe of down the school-boy's clock in every town." date. dates are the most wholesome and nourishing of all our imported fruits. children especially appreciate their luscious sweetness, as afforded by an abundant sugar which is easily digested, and which quickly repairs waste of heat and fat. with such a view, likewise, doctors now advise dates for consumptive patients; also because they soothe an irritable chest, and promote expectoration; whilst, furthermore, they prevent costiveness. dates are the fruit of the date palm (_phoenix dactylifera_), or, tree of life. in old english bibles of the sixteenth century, the name date-tree is constantly given to the palm, and the fruit thereof was the first found by the israelites when wandering in the wilderness. oriental writers have attributed to this tree a certain semi-human consciousness. the name _phoenix_ was [ ] bestowed on the date palm because a young shoot springs always from the withered stump of an old decayed date tree, taking the place of the dead parent; and the specific term _dactylifera_ refers to a fancied resemblance between clusters of the fruit and the human fingers. the date palm is remarkably fond of water, and will not thrive unless growing near it, so that the arabs say: "in order to flourish, its feet must be in the water, and its head in the fire (of a hot sun)." travellers across the desert, when seeing palm dates in the horizon, know that wells of water will be found near at hand: at the same time they sustain themselves with date jam. in some parts of the east this date palm is thought been the tree of the forbidden fruit in the garden of eden. it is mystically represented as the tree of life in the sculptured foliage of early french churches, and on the primitive mosaics found in the apses of roman basilicas. branches of this tree are carried about in catholic countries on palm sunday. formerly dates were sent to england and elsewhere packed in mats from the persian gulf; but now they arrive in clean boxes, neatly laid, and free from duty; so that a wholesome, sustaining, and palatable meal may be had for one penny, if they are eaten with bread. the egyptian dates are superior, being succulent and luscious when new, but apt to become somewhat hard after christmas. the dates, however, which surpass all others in their general excellence, are grown with great care at tafilat, two or three hundred miles inland from morocco, a region to which europeans seldom penetrate. these dates travel in small packages by camel, rail, and steamer, being of the best quality, and highly valued. their exportation is prohibited by the african [ ] authorities at tafilat, unless the fruit crop has been large enough to allow thereof after gathering the harvest with much religious ceremony. dates of a second quality are brought from tunis, being intermixed with fragments of stalk and branch; whilst the inferior sorts come in the form of a cake, or paste (_adjoue!_), being pressed into baskets. in this shape they were tolerably common with us in tudor times, and were then used for medicinal purposes. strutt mentions a grocer's bill delivered in , in which occurs the item of six pounds of dates supplied at a funeral for two shillings; and we read that in the best kind of dates cost five shillings a pound. if taken as a portable refection by jurymen and others who may be kept from their customary food dates will prevent exhaustion, and will serve to keep active the energies of mind and body. the fruit should be selected when large and soft, being moist, and of a reddish yellow colour outside, and not much wrinkled, whilst having within a white membrane between the flesh and the stone. beads for rosaries are made in barbary from date stones turned in a lathe; or when soaked in water for a couple of days the stones may be given to cattle as a nutritious food, being first ground in a mill. the fodder being astringent will serve by its tannin, which is abundant, to cure or prevent looseness. in a clever parody on bret harte's "heathen chinee," an undergraduate is detected in having primed himself before examination thus:-- "inscribed on his cuffs were the furies, and fates, with a delicate map of the dorian states: whilst they found in his palms, which were hollow, what are common in palms--namely, dates." [ ] again, a conserve is prepared by the egyptians from unripe dates whole with sugar. the soft stones are edible: and this jam, though tasteless, is very nourishing. the arabs say that adam when driven out of paradise took with him three things--the date, chief of all fruits, myrtle, and an ear of wheat. another palm--the _sagus_, or, _cycus revolute_,--which grows naturally in japan and the east indian islands, being also cultivated in english hot-houses, yields by its gummy pith our highly nutritious sago. this when cooked is one of the best and most sustaining foods for children and infirm old persons. the indians reserve their finest sago for the aged and afflicted. a fecula is washed from the abundant pith, which is chemically a starch, very demulcent, and more digestible than that of rice. it never ferments in the stomach, and is very suitable for hectic persons. by the arabs the pith of the date-bearing palm is eaten in like manner. the simple wholesome virtues of this domestic substance have been told of from childhood in the well-known nursery rhyme, which has been playfully rendered into latin and french:-- "there was an old man of iago whom they kept upon nothing but sago; oh! how he did jump when the doctor said plump: 'to a roast leg of mutton you may go.'" "jamdudum senior quidam de rure tobagus invito mad das carpserat ore dapes; sed medicus tandem non injucunda locutus: 'assoe' dixit 'oves sunt tibi coena, senex.'" "j'ai entendu parler d'un veillard de tobag qui ne mangea longtemps que du ris et du sague; mais enfin le medecin lui dit ces mots: 'allez vous en, mon ami, au gigot.'" [ ] dill. cordial waters distilled from the fragrant herb called dill are, as every mother and monthly nurse well know, a sovereign remedy for wind in the infant; whilst they serve equally well to correct flatulence in the grown up "gourmet." this highly scented plant (_anethum graveolens_) is of asiatic origin, growing wild also in some parts of england, and commonly cultivated in our gardens for kitchen or medicinal uses. it "hath a little stalk of a cubit high, round, and joyned, whereupon do grow leaves very finely cut, like to those of fennel, but much smaller." the herb is of the umbelliferous order, and its fruit chemically furnishes "anethol," a volatile empyreumatic oil similar to that contained in the anise, and caraway. virgil speaks of the dill in his _second eclogue _as the _bene olens anethum_, "a pleasant and fragrant plant." its seeds were formerly directed to be used by the _pharmacopoeias_ of london and edinburgh. forestus extols them for allaying sickness and hiccough. gerard says: "dill stayeth the yeox, or hicquet, as dioscorides has taught." the name _anethum _was a radical greek term (_aitho_--to burn), and the herb is still called anet in some of our country districts. the pungent essential oil which it yields consists of a hydrocarbon, "carvene," together with an oxygenated oil; it is a "gallant expeller of the wind, and provoker of the terms." "limbs that are swollen and cold if rubbed with the oil of dill are much eased; if not cured thereby." a dose of the essential oil if given for flatulent indigestion should be from two to four drops, on sugar, or with a tablespoonful of milk. of the distilled water sweetened, one or two teaspoonfuls may be given to an infant. [ ] the name dill is derived from the saxon verb _dilla_, to lull, because of its tranquillizing properties, and its causing children to sleep. this word occurs in the vocabulary of oelfric, archbishop of canterbury, tenth century. dioscorides gave the oil got from the flowers for rheumatic pains, and sciatica; also a carminative water distilled from the fruit, for increasing the milk of wet nurses, and for appeasing the windy belly-aches of babies. he teaches that a teaspoonful of the bruised seeds if boiled in water and taken hot with bread soaked therein, wonderfully helps such as are languishing from hardened excrements, even though they may have vomited up their faeces. the plant is largely grown in the east indies, where is known as _soyah_. its fruit and leaves are used for flavouring pickles, and its water is given to parturient women. drayton speaks of the dill as a magic ingredient in love potions; and the weird gipsy, meg merrilies, crooned a cradle song at the birth of harry bertram in it was said:-- "trefoil, vervain, john's wort, _dill_, hinder witches of their will." dock. the term dock is botanically a noun of multitude, meaning originally a bundle of hemp, and corresponding to a similar word signifying a flock. it became in early times applied to a wide-spread tribe of broad-leaved wayside weeds. they all belong to the botanical order of _polygonaceoe_, or "many kneed" plants, because, like the wife of yankee doodle, famous in song, they are "double-jointed;" though he, poor man! expecting to find mistress doodle doubly active in her household [ ] duties, was, as the rhyme says, "disappointed." the name "dock" was first applied to the _arctium lappa_, or bur-dock, so called because of its seed-vessels becoming frequently entangled by their small hooked spines in the wool of sheep passing along by the hedge-rows. then the title got to include other broad-leaved herbs, all of the sorrel kind, and used in pottage, or in medicine. of the docks which are here recognized, some are cultivated, such as garden rhubarb, and the monk's rhubarb, or herb patience, an excellent pot herb; whilst others grow wild in meadows, and by river sides, such as the round-leafed dock (_rumex obtusifolius_), the sharp-pointed dock (_rumex acutus_), the sour dock (_rumex acetosus_), the great water dock (_rumex hydrolapathum_), and the bloody-veined dock (_rumex sanguineus_). all these resemble our garden rhubarb more or less in their general characteristics, and in possessing much tannin. most of them chemically furnish "rumicin," or crysophanic acid, which is highly useful in several chronic diseases of the skin among scrofulous patients. the generic name of several docks is _rumex_, from the hebrew _rumach_, a "spear"; others arc called _lapathum_, from the greek verb _lapazein_, to cleanse, because they act medicinally as purgatives. the common wayside dock (_rumex obtusifolius_) is the most ordinary of all the docks, being large and spreading, and so coarse that cattle refuse to eat it. the leaves are often applied as a rustic remedy to burns and scalds, and are used for dressing blisters. likewise a popular cure for nettle stings is to rub them with a dock leaf, saying at the same time:-- "out nettle: in dock; dock shall have a new smock." [ ] or: "nettle out: dock in; dock remove the nettle sting." a tea made from the root was formerly given for the cure of boils, and the plant is frequently called butterdock, because its leaves are put into use for wrapping up butter. this dock will not thrive in poor worthless soil; but its broad foliage serves to lodge the destructive turnip fly. the root when dried maybe added to tooth powder. it was under the broad leaf of a roadside dock that hop o' my thumb, famous in nursery lore, sought refuge from a storm, and was unfortunately swallowed whilst still beneath the leaf by a passing hungry cow. the herb patience, or monk's rhubarb (_rumex alpinus_), a griselda among herbs, may be given with admirable effect in pottage, as a domestic aperient, "loosening the belly, helping the jaundice, and dispersing the tympany." this grows wild in some parts, by roadsides, and near cottages, but is not common except as a cultivated herb ill the kitchen-garden, known as "patience-dock." it is a remarkable fact that the toughest flesh-meat, if boiled with the herb, or with other kindred docks, will become quite tender. the name patience, or passions, was probably from the italian _lapazio_, a corruption of _lapathum_, which was mistaken for _la passio_, the passion of christ. our _garden rhubarb_ is a true dock, and belongs to the "many-kneed," buckwheat order of plants. its brilliant colouring is due to varying states of its natural pigment (_chlorophyll_), in combination with oxygen. for culinary purposes the stalk, or petiole of the broad leaf, is used. its chief nutrient property is glucose, which is identical with grape-sugar. the agreeable taste and odour of the [ ] plant are not brought out until the leaf stalks are cooked. it came originally from the volga, and has been grown in this country since . the sour taste of the stalks is due to oxalic acid, or rather to the acid oxalate of potash. this combines with the lime elaborated in the system of a gouty person (having an "oxalic acid" disposition), and makes insoluble and injurious products which have to be thrown off by the kidneys as oxalate crystals, with much attendant irritation of the general system. sorrel (_rumex acetosus_) acts with such a person in just the same way, because of the acid oxalate of potash which it contains. garden rhubarb also possesses albumen, gum, and mineral matters, with a small quantity of some volatile essence. the proportion of nutritive substance to the water and vegetable fibre is very small. as an article of food it is objectionable for gouty persons liable to the passage of highly coloured urine, which deposits lithates and urates as crystals after it has cooled; and this especially holds good if hard water, which contains lime, is drunk at the same time. the round-leaved dock, and the sharp-pointed dock, together with the bloody-veined dock (which is very conspicuous because of its veins and petioles abounding in a blood-coloured juice), make respectively with their astringent roots a useful infusion against bleedings and fluxes; also with their leaves a decoction curative of several chronic skin diseases. the _rumex acetosus_ (sour dock, or sorrel), though likely to disagree with gouty persons, nevertheless supplies its leaves as the chief constituent of the _soupe aux herbes_, which a french lady will order for herself after a long and tiring journey. its title is derived as some think, from struma, because curative [ ] thereof. this dock further bears the names of sour sabs, sour grabs, soursuds, soursauce, cuckoo sorrow, and greensauce. because of their acidity the leaves make a capital dressing with stewed lamb, veal, or sweetbread. country people beat the herb to a mash, and take it mixed with vinegar and sugar as a green sauce with cold meat. when boiled by itself without water it serves as an excellent accompaniment to roast goose or pork instead of apple sauce. the root of sorrel when dried has the singular property of imparting a fine red colour to boiling water, and it is therefore used by the french for making barley water look like red wine when they wish to avoid giving anything of a vinous character to the sick. in ireland sorrel leaves are eaten with fish, and with other alkalescent foods. because corrective of scrofulous deposits, sorrel is specially beneficial towards the cure of scurvy. applied externally the bruised leaves will purify foul ulcers. says john evelyn in his noted _acetaria _( ), "sorrel sharpens the appetite, assuages heat, cools the liver and strengthens the heart; it is an antiscorbutic, resisting putrefaction, and in the making of sallets imparts a grateful quickness to the rest as supplying the want of oranges and lemons. together with salt it gives both the name and the relish to sallets from the sapidity which renders not plants and herbs only, but men themselves, and their conversations pleasant and agreeable. but of this enough, and perhaps too much! lest while i write of salts and sallets i appear myself insipid." the wood sorrel (_oxalis acetosella_) is a distinct plant from the dock sorrel, and is not one of the _polygonaceoe_, but a geranium, having a triple leaf which is often employed to symbolise the trinity. painters of old [ ] placed it in the foreground of their pictures when representing the crucifixion. the leaves are sharply acid through oxalate of potash, commonly called "salts of lemon," which is quite a misleading name in its apparent innocence as applied to so strong a poison. the petals are bluish coloured, veined with purple. formerly, on account of its grateful acidity, a conserve was ordered by the london college to be made from the leaves and petals of wood sorrel, with sugar and orange peel, and it was called _conserva lujuoe_. the burdock (_arctium lappa_) grows very commonly in our waste places, with wavy leaves, and round heads of purple flowers, and hooked scales. from the seeds a medicinal tincture (h.) is made, and a fluid extract, of which from ten to thirty drops, given three times a day, with two tablespoonfuls of cold water, will materially benefit certain chronic skin diseases (such as psoriasis), if taken steadily for several weeks, or months. dr. reiter of pittsburg, u.s.a., says the burdock feed has proved in his hands almost a specific for psoriasis and for obstinate syphilis. the tincture is of special curative value for treating that depressed state of the general health which is associated with milky phosphates in the urine, and much nervous debility. eight or ten drops of the reduced tincture should be given in water three times a day. the root in decoction is an excellent remedy for other skin diseases of the scaly, itching, vesicular, pimply and ulcerative characters. many persons think it superior to sarsaparilla. the burs of this dock are sometimes called "cocklebuttons," or "cucklebuttons," and "beggarsbuttons." its anglo-saxon name was "fox's clote." boys throw them into the air at dusk to catch bats, which dart at the bur in mistake for a moth or fly; [ ] then becoming entangled with the thorny spines they fall helplessly to the ground. of the botanical names, _arctium_ derived from _arktos_, a bear, in allusion to the roughness of the burs; and _lappa_ is from _labein_, to seize. other appellations of the herb are clot-bur (from sticking to clouts, or clothes), clithe, hurbur, and hardock. the leaves when applied externally are highly resolvent for tumours, bruises, and gouty swellings. in the _philadelphia recorder_ for january, , a striking case is given of a fallen womb cured after twenty years' duration by a decoction of burdock roots. the liquid extract acts as an admirable remedy in some forms (strumous) of longstanding indigestion. the roots contain starch; and the ashes of the plant burnt when green yield carbonate of potash abundantly, with nitre, and inulin. the yellow curled dock (_rumex crispus_), so called because its leaves are crisped at their edges, grows freely in our roadside ditches, and waste places, as a common plant; and a medicinal tincture which is very useful (h.) is made from it before it flowers. this is of particular service for giving relief to an irritable tickling cough of the upper air-tubes, and the throat, when these passages are rough and sore, and sensitive to the cold atmosphere, with a dry cough occurring in paroxysms. it is likewise excellent for dispelling any obstinate itching of the skin, in which respect it was singularly beneficial against the contagious army-itch which prevailed during the last american war. it acts like sarsaparilla chiefly, for curing scrofulous skin affections and glandular swellings. to be applied externally an ointment may be made by boiling the root in vinegar until the fibre is softened, and by then mixing the pulp with lard (to which some sulphur is [ ] added at times). in all such cases of a scrofulous sort from five to ten drops of the tincture should be given two or three times a day with a spoonful of cold water. rumicin is the active principle of the yellow curled dock; and from the root, containing chrysarobin, a dried extract is prepared officinally, of which from one to four grains may be given for a dose in a pill. this is useful for relieving a congested liver, as well as for scrofulous skin diseases. "huds," or the great water dock (_rumex hydrolapathum_) is of frequent growth on our river banks, bearing numerous green flowers in leafless whorls, and being identical with the famous _herba britannica_ of pliny. this name does not denote british origin, but is derived from three teuton words, _brit_, to tighten: _tan_, a tooth; and _ica_, loose; thus expressing its power of bracing up loose teeth and spongy gums. swedish ladies employ the powdered root as a dentifrice; and gargles prepared therefrom are excellent for sore throat and relaxed uvula. the fresh root must be used, as it quickly turns yellow and brown in the air. the green leaves make a capital application for ulcers of the legs. they possess considerable acidity, and are laxative. horace was aware of this fact, as we learn by his _sermonum, libr_. ii., _satir_ :-- "si dura morabitur alvus, mytulus, et viles pellent, obstantia conchae, et lapathi brevis herba, sed albo non sine coo." elder. "'arn,' or the common elder," says gerard, "groweth everywhere; and it is planted about cony burrows, for the shadow of the conies." formerly it was much [ ] cultivated near our english cottages, because supposed to afford protection against witches. hence it is that the elder tree may be so often seen immediately near old village houses. it acquired its name from the saxon word _eller_ or _kindler_, because its hollow branches were made into tubes to blow through for brightening up a dull fire. by the greeks it was called _aktee_. the botanical name of the elder is _sambucus nigra_, from _sambukee_, a sackbut, because the young branches, with their pith removed, were brought into requisition for making the pipes of this, and other musical instruments. it was probably introduced as a medicinal plant at the time of the monasteries. the adjective term _nigra_ refers to the colour of the berries. these are without odour, rather acid, and sweetish to the taste. the french put layers of the flowers among apples, to which they impart, an agreeable odour and flavour like muscatel. a tract on _elder and juniper berries, showing how useful they may be in our coffee houses_, is published with the _natural history of coffee_, . elder flowers are fatal to turkeys. hippocrates gave the bark as a purgative; and from his time the whole tree has possessed a medicinal celebrity, whilst its fame in the hands of the herbalist is immemorial. german writers have declared it contains within itself a magazine of physic, and a complete chest of medicaments. the leaves when bruised, if worn in the hat, or rubbed on the face, will prevent flies from settling on the person. likewise turnips, cabbages, fruit trees, or corn, if whipped with the branches and green leaves of elder, will gain an immunity from all depredations of blight; but moths are fond of the blossom. dried elder flowers have a dull yellow colour, being [ ] shrivelled, and possessing a sweet faint smell, unlike the repulsive odour of the fresh leaves and bark. they have a somewhat bitter, gummy taste, and are sold in entire cymes, with the stalks. an open space now seen in malvern chase was formerly called eldersfield, from the abundance of elder trees which grew there. "the flowers were noted," says mr. symonds, "for eye ointments, and the berries for honey rob and black pigments. mary of eldersfield, the daughter of bolingbroke, was famous for her knowledge of herb pharmacy, and for the efficacy of her nostrums." chemically the flowers contain a yellow, odorous, buttery oil, with tannin, and malates of potash and lime, whilst the berries furnish viburnic acid. on expression they yield a fine purple juice, which proves a useful laxative, and a resolvent in recent colds. anointed on the hair they make it black. a medicinal tincture (h.) is made from the fresh inner bark of the young branches. this, when given in toxical quantities, will induce profuse sweating, and will cause asthmatic symptoms to present themselves. when used in a diluted form it is highly beneficial for relieving the same symptoms, if they come on as an attack of illness, particularly for the spurious croup of children, which wakes them at night with a suffocative cough and wheezing. a dose of four or five drops, if given at once, and perhaps repeated in fifteen minutes, will straightway prove of singular service. sir thomas browne said that in his day the elder had become a famous medicine for quinsies, sore throats, and strangulations. the inspissated juice or "rob" extracted from the crushed berries, and simmered with white sugar, is cordial, aperient, and diuretic. this has long been a [ ] popular english remedy, taken hot at bed-time, when a cold is caught. one or two tablespoonfuls are mixed with a tumblerful of very hot water. it promotes perspiration, and is demulcent to the chest. five pounds of the fresh berries are to be used with one pound of loaf sugar, and the juice should be evaporated to the thickness of honey. "the recent rob of the elder spread thick upon a slice of bread and eaten before other dishes," says dr. blochwich, , "is our wives' domestic medicine, which they use likewise in their infants and children whose bellies are stop't longer than ordinary; for this juice is most pleasant and familiar to children; or to loosen the belly drink a draught of the wine at your breakfast, or use the conserve of the buds." also a capital wine, which may well pass for frontignac, is commonly made from the fresh berries, with raisins, sugar, and spices. when well brewed, and three years' old, it constitutes english port. "a cup of mulled elder wine, served with nutmeg and sippets of toast, just before going to bed on a cold wintry night, is a thing," as cobbet said, "to be run for." the juice of elder root, if taken in a dose of one or two tablespoonfuls when fasting, acts as a strong aperient, being "the most excellent purger of watery humours in the world, and very singular against dropsy, if taken once in the week." john evelyn, in his _sylva_ ( ), said of the elder: "if the medicinal properties of its leaves, bark, and berries, were fully known, i cannot tell what our countrymen could ail, for which he might not fetch a remedy from every hedge, either for sickness or wounds." "the buds boiled in water gruel have effected wonders in a fever," "and an extract composed [ ] of the berries greatly assists longevity. indeed,"--so famous is the story of neander-- "this is a catholicum against all infirmities whatever." "the leaves, though somewhat rank of smell, are otherwise, as indeed is the entire shrub, of a very sovereign virtue. the springbuds are excellently wholesome in pottage; and small ale, in which elder flowers have been infused, are esteemed by many so salubrious, that this is to be had in most of the eating houses about our town." "it were likewise profitable for the scabby if they made a sallet of those young buds, who in the beginning of the spring doe bud forth together with those outbreakings and pustules of the skin, which by the singular favour of nature is contemporaneous; these being sometimes macerated a little in hot water, together with oyle, salt, and vinegar, and sometimes eaten. it purgeth the belly, and freeth the blood from salt and serous humours" ( ). further, "there be nothing more excellent to ease the pains of the haemorrhoids than a fomentation made of the flowers of the elder and _verbusie_, or honeysuckle, in water or milk, for in a short time it easeth the greatest pain." if the green leaves are warmed between two hot tiles, and applied to the forehead, they will promptly relieve nervous headache. in germany the elder is regarded with much respect. from its leaves a fever drink is made; from its berries a sour preserve, and a wonder-working electuary; whilst the moon-shaped clusters of its aromatic flowers, being somewhat narcotic, are of service in baking small cakes. the romans made use of the black elder juice as a hair dye. from the flowers a fragrant water is now distilled as a perfume; and a gently stimulating ointment is prepared with lard for dressing burns and [ ] scalds. another ointment, concocted from the green berries, with camphor and lard, is ordered by the london college as curative of piles. "the leaves of elder boiled soft, and with a little linseed oil added thereto, if then laid upon a piece of scarlet or red cloth, and applied to piles as hot as this can be suffered, being removed when cold, and replaced by one such cloth after another upon the diseased part by the space of an hour, and in the end some bound to the place, and the patient put warm to bed. this hath not yet failed at the first dressing to cure the disease, but if the patient be dressed twice, it must needs cure them if the first fail." the elder was named _eldrun_ and _burtre_ by the anglo-saxons. it is now called _bourtree_ in scotland, from the central pith in the younger branches which children bore out so as to make pop guns:-- "bour tree--bour tree: crooked rung, never straight, and never strong; ever bush, and never tree since our lord was nailed on thee." the elder is specially abundant in kent around folkestone. by the gauls it was called "scovies," and by the britons "iscaw." this is the tree upon which the legend represents judas as having hanged himself, or of which the cross was made at the crucifixion. in _pier's plowman's vision_ it is said:-- "judas he japed with jewen silver, and sithen an eller hanged hymselve." gerard says "the gelly of the elder, otherwise called jew's ear, taketh away inflammations of the mouth and throat if they be washed therewith, and doth in like manner help the uvula." he refers here to a fungus [ ] which grows often from the trunk of the elder, and the shape of which resembles the human ear. alluding to this fungus, and to the supposed fact that the berries of the elder are poisonous to peacocks, a quaint old rhyme runs thus:-- "for the coughe take judas' eare, with the paring of a peare, and drynke them without feare if you will have remedy." "three syppes for the hycocke, and six more for the chycocke: thus will my pretty pycocke recover bye and bye." various superstitions have attached themselves in england to the elder bush. the tree-mother has been thought to inhabit it; and it has been long believed that refuge may be safely taken under an elder tree in a thunderstorm, because the cross was made therefrom, and so the lightning never strikes it. elder was formerly buried with a corpse to protect it from witches, and even now at a funeral the driver of the hearse commonly has his whip handle made of elder wood. lord bacon commended the rubbing of warts with a green elder stick, and then burying the stick to rot in the mud. brand says it is thought in some parts that beating with an elder rod will check the growth of boys. a cross made of the wood if affixed to cow-houses and stables was supposed to protect cattle from all possible harm. belonging to the order of _caprifoliaceous_ (with leaves eaten by goats) plants, the elder bush grows to the size of a small tree, bearing many white flowers in large flat umbels at the ends of the branches. it gives off an unpleasant soporific smell, which is said to prove harmful to those that sleep under its shade. our summer is [ ] not here until the elder is fully in flower, and it ends when the berries are ripe. when taken together with the berries of herb paris (four-leaved paris) they have been found very useful in epilepsy. "mark by the way," says _anatomie of the elder_ ( ), "the berries of herb paris, called by some bear, or wolfe grapes, is held by certain matrons as a great secret against epilepsie; and they give them ever in an unequal number, as three, five, seven, or nine, in the water of linden tree flowers. others also do hang a cross made of the elder and sallow, mutually inwrapping one another, about the children's neck as anti-epileptick." "i learned the certainty of this experiment (dr. blochwich) from a friend in leipsick, who no sooner erred in diet but he was seized on by this disease; yet after he used the elder wood as an amulet cut into little pieces, and sewn in a knot against him, he was free." sheep suffering from the foot-rot, if able to get at the bark and young shoots of an elder tree, will thereby cure themselves of this affection. the great boerhaave always took off his hat when passing an elder bush. douglas jerrold once, at a well-known tavern, ordered a bottle of port wine, which should be "old, but not _elder_." the _dwarf elder_ (_sambucus ebulus_) is quite a different shrub, which grows not infrequently in hedges and bushy places, with a herbaceous stem from two to three feet high. it possesses a smell which is less aromatic than that of the true elder, and it seldom brings its fruit to ripeness. a rob made therefrom is actively purgative; one tablespoonful for a dose. the root, which has a nauseous bitter taste, was formerly used in dropsies. a decoction made from it, as well as from the inner bark, purges, and promotes free urination. [ ] the leaves made into a poultice will resolve swellings and relieve contusions. the odour of the green leaves will drive away mice from granaries. to the dwarf elder have been given the names danewort, danesweed, and danesblood, probably because it brings about a loss of blood called the "danes," or perhaps as a corruption of its stated use _contra quotidianam_. the plant is also known as walewort, from _wal_--slanghter. it grows in great plenty about slaughterford, wilts, where there was a noted fight with the danes; and a patch of it thrives on ground in worcestershire, where the first blood was drawn in the civil war between the parliament and the royalists. rumour says it will only prosper where blood has been shed either in battle, or in murder. elecampane. "elecampane," writes william coles, "is one of the plants whereof england may boast as much as any, for there grows none better in the world than in england, let apothecaries and druggists say what they will." it is a tall, stout, downy plant, from three to five feet high, of the composite order, with broad leaves, and bright, yellow flowers. campania is the original source of the plant (_enula campana_), which is called also elf-wort, and elf-dock. its botanical title is _helenium inula_, to commemorate helen of troy, from whose tears the herb was thought to have sprung, or whose hands were full of the leaves when paris carried her off from menelaus. this title has become corrupted in some districts to horse-heal, or horse-hele, or horse-heel, through a double, blunder, the word _inula_ being misunderstood for _hinnula_, a colt; and the term _hellenium_ being thought to have something to do with healing, or [ ] heels; and solely on this account the elecampane has been employed by farriers to cure horses of scabs and sore heels. though found wild only seldom, and as a local production in our copses and meadows, it is cultivated in our gardens as a medicinal and culinary herb. the name _inula_ is only a corruption of the greek _elenium_; and the herb is of ancient repute, having been described by dioscorides. an old latin distich thus celebrates its virtues: _enula campana reddit proecordia sana_--"elecampane will the spirits sustain." "julia augusta," said pliny, "let no day pass without eating some of the roots of _enula_ condired, to help digestion, and cause mirth." the _inula_ was noticed by horace, _satire_ viii., :-- "erucos virides inulas ego primus amaras monstravi incoquere." also the _enula campana_ has been identified with the herb moly (of homer), "_apo tou moleuein_, from its mitigating pain." prior to the norman conquest, and during the middle ages, the root of elecampane was much employed in great britain as a medicine; and likewise it was candied and eaten as a sweetmeat. some fifty years ago the candy was sold commonly in london, as flat, round cakes, being composed largely of sugar, and coloured with cochineal. a piece was eaten each night and morning for asthmatical complaints, whilst it was customary when travelling by a river to suck a bit of the root against poisonous exhalations and bad air. the candy may be still had from our confectioners, but now containing no more of the plant elecampane than there is of barley in barley sugar. gerard says: "the flowers of this herb are in all [ ] their bravery during june and july; the roots should be gathered in the autumn. the plant is good for an old cough, and for such as cannot breathe freely unless they hold their necks upright; also it is of great value when given in a loch, which is a medicine to be licked on. it voids out thick clammy humors, which stick in the chest and lungs." galen says further: "it is good for passions of the huckle-bones, called sciatica." the root is thick and substantial, having, when sliced, a fragrant aromatic odour. chemically, it contains a crystalline principle, resembling camphor, and called "helenin"; also a starch, named "inulin," which is peculiar as not being soluble in water, alcohol, or ether; and conjointly a volatile oil, a resin, albumen, and acetic acid. inulin is allied to starch, and its crystallized camphor is separable into true helenin, and alantin camphor. the former is a powerful antiseptic to arrest putrefaction. in spain it is much used as a surgical dressing, and is said to be more destructive than any other agent to the bacillus of cholera. helenin is very useful in ulceration within the nose (_ozoena_), and in chronic bronchitis to lessen the expectoration. the dose is from a third of a grain to two grains. furthermore, elecampane counteracts the acidity of gouty indigestion, and regulates the monthly illnesses of women. the french use it in the distillation of absinthe, and term it _l'aulnee, d'un lieu planté d'aulnes ou elle se plait_. to make a decoction, half-an-ounce of the root should be gently boiled for ten minutes in a pint of water, and then allowed to cool. from one to two ounces of this may be taken three times in the day. of the powdered root, from half to one teaspoonful may be given for a dose. [ ] a medicinal tincture (h.) is prepared from the root, of which thirty or forty drops may be taken for a dose, with two tablespoonfuls of cold water; but too large a dose will induce sickness. elecampane is specifically curative of a sharp pain affecting the right elbow joint, and recurring daily; also of a congestive headache coming on through costiveness of the lowest bowel. moreover, at the present time, when there is so much talk about the inoculative treatment of pulmonary consumption by the cultivated virus of its special microbe, it is highly interesting to know that the helenin of elecampane is said to be peculiarly destructive to the bacillus of tubercular disease. in classic times the poet horace told how fundanius first taught the making of a delicate sauce, by boiling in it the bitter _inula_ (elecampane); and how the roman stomach, when surfeited with an excess of rich viands, pined for turnips, and the appetising _enulas acidas_ from frugal campania:-- "quum rapula plenus atque acidas mavult inulas." eyebright. found in abundance in summer time on our heaths, and on mountains near the sea, this delicate little plant, the _euphrasia officinalis_, has been famous from earliest times for restoring and preserving the eyesight. the greeks named the herb originally from the linnet, which first made use of the leaf for clearing its vision, and which passed on the knowledge to mankind. the greek word, _euphrosunee_, signifies joy and gladness. the elegant little herb grows from two to six inches high, with deeply-cut leaves, and numerous white or [ ] purplish tiny flowers variegated with yellow; being partially a parasite, and preying on the roots of other plants. it belongs to the order of scrofula-curing plants; and, as proved by positive experiment (h.), the eyebright has been recently found to possess a distinct sphere of curative operation, within which it manifests virtues which are as unvarying as they are truly potential. it acts specifically on the mucous lining of the eyes and nose, and the uppermost throat to the top of the windpipe, causing, when given so largely as to be injurious, a profuse secretion from these parts; and, if given of reduced strength, it cures the same troublesome symptoms when due to catarrh. an attack of cold in the head, with copious running from the eyes and nose, may be aborted straightway by giving a dose of the infusion (made with an ounce of the herb to a pint of boiling water) every two hours; as, likewise, for hay fever. a medicinal tincture (h.) is prepared from the whole plant with spirit of wine, of which an admirably useful lotion may be made together with rose water for simple inflammation of the eyes, with a bloodshot condition of their outer coats. thirty drops of the tincture should be mixed with a wineglassful of rosewater for making this lotion, which may be used several times in the day. what precise chemical constituents occur in the eyebright beyond tannin, mannite, and glucose, are not yet recorded. in iceland its expressed juice is put into requisition for most ailments of the eyes. likewise, in scotland, the highlanders infuse the herb in milk, and employ this for bathing weak, or inflamed eyes. in france, the plant is named _casse lunettes_; and in germany, _augen trost_, or, consolation of the eye. [ ] surely the same little herb must have been growing freely in the hedge made famous by ancient nursery tradition:-- "thessalus acer erat sapiens proe civibus unus qui medium insiluit spinets per horrida sepem. effoditque oculos sibi crudelissimus ambos. cum vero effosos orbes sine lumine vidit viribus enisum totis illum altera sepes accipit, et raptos oculos cito reddit egenti." "there was a man of thessuly, and he was wondrous wise; he jumped into a quick set hedge, and scratched out both his eyes; then, when he found his eyes were out, with all his might and main he jumped into the quick set hedge, and scratched them in again." old herbals pronounced it "cephalic, ophthalmic, and good for a weak memory." hildamus relates that it restored the sight of many persons at the age of seventy or eighty years. "eyebright made into a powder, and then into an electuary with sugar, hath," says culpeper, "powerful effect to help and to restore the sight decayed through years; and if the herb were but as much used as it is neglected, it would have spoilt the trade of the maker." on the whole it is probable that the eyebright will succeed best for eyes weakened by long-continued straining, and for those which are dim and watery from old age. shenstone declared, "famed euphrasy may not be left unsung, which grants dim eyes to wander leagues around"; and milton has told us in _paradise lost_, book xi:-- "to nobler sights michael from adam's eyes the film removed, then purged with _euphrasy_ and rue the visual nerve, for he had much to see." [ ] the arabians i mew the herb eyebright under the name _adhil_, it now makes an ingredient in british herbal tobacco, which is smoked most usefully for chronic bronchial colds. some sceptics do not hesitate to say that the eyebright owes its reputation solely to the fact that the tiny flower bears in its centre a yellow spot, which is darker towards the middle, and gives a close resemblance to the human eye; wherefore, on the doctrine of signatures, it was pronounced curative of ocular derangements. the present poet laureate speaks of the herb as:-- "the eyebright this. whereof when steeped in wine i now must eat because it strengthens mindfulness." grandmother cooper, a gipsy of note for skill in healing, practised the cure of inflamed and scrofulous eyes, by anointing them with clay, rubbed up with her spittle, which proved highly successful. outside was applied a piece of rag kept wet with water in which a cabbage had been boiled. as confirmatory of this cure, we read reverently in the _gospel of st. john_ about the man "which was blind from his birth," and for whose restoration to sight our saviour "spat on the ground, and made clay of the spittle, and anointed the eyes of the blind man with the clay." more than one eminent oculist has similarly advised that weak, ailing eyes should be daily wetted on waking with the fasting saliva. and it is well known that "mothers' marks" of a superficial character, but even of a considerable size, become dissipated by a daily licking with the mother's tongue. old mizaldus taught that "the fasting spittle of a whole and sound person both quite taketh away all scurviness, or redness of the face, ringworms, tetters, and all kinds [ ] of pustules, by smearing or rubbing the infected place therewith; and likewise it clean puts away thereby all painful swelling by the means of any venomous thing as hornets, spiders, toads, and such like." healthy saliva is slightly alkaline, and contains sulphocyanate of potassium. fennel. we all know the pleasant taste of fennel sauce when eaten with boiled mackerel. this culinary condiment is made with sweet fennel, cultivated in our kitchen gardens, and which is a variety of the wild fennel growing commonly in england as the finkel, especially in cornwall and devon, on chalky cliffs near the sea. it is then an aromatic plant of the umbelliferous order, but differing from the rest of its tribe in producing bright yellow flowers. botanically, it is the _anethum foeniculum_, or "small fragrant hay" of the romans, and the _marathron_ of the greeks. the whole plant has a warm carminative taste, and the old greeks esteemed it highly for promoting the secretion of milk in nursing mothers. macer alleged that the use of fennel was first taught to man by serpents. his classical lines on the subject when translated run thus:-- "by eating herb of fennel, for the eyes a cure for blindness had the serpent wise; man tried the plant; and, trusting that his sight might thus be healed, rejoiced to find him right." "hac mansâ serpens oculos caligine purgat; indeque compertum est humanis posse mederi illum hominibus: atque experiendo probatum est." pliny also asserts that the ophidia, when they cast their skins, have recourse to this plant for restoring their [ ] sight. others have averred that serpents wax young again by eating of the herb; "wherefore the use of it is very meet for aged folk." fennel powder may be employed for making an eyewash: half-a-teaspoonful infused in a wineglassful of cold water, and decanted when clear. a former physician to the emperor of germany saw a monk cured by his tutor in nine days of a cataract by only applying the roots of fennel with the decoction to his eyes. in the elizabethan age the herb was quoted as an emblem of flattery; and lily wrote, "little things catch light minds; and fancie is a worm that feedeth first upon fennel." again, milton says, in _paradise lost_, book xi:-- "the savoury odour blown, grateful to appetite, more pleased my sense than smell of sweetest fennel." shakespeare makes the sister of laertes say to the king, in _hamlet_, when wishing to prick the royal conscience, "there's fennel for you." and falstaff commends poins thus, in _henry the fourth_, "he plays at quoits well, and eats conger, and fennel." the italians take blanched stalks of the cultivated fennel (which they call _cartucci_) as a salad; and in germany its seeds are added to bread as a condiment, much as we put caraways in some of our cakes. the leaves are eaten raw with pickled fish to correct its oily indigestibility. evelyn says the peeled stalks, soft and white, when "dressed like salery," exercise a pleasant action conducive to sleep. roman bakers put the herb under their loaves in the oven to make the bread taste agreeably. chemically, the cultivated fennel plant furnishes a volatile aromatic oil, a fixed fatty principle, sugar, and some [ ] in the root; also a bitter resinous extract. it is an admirable corrective of flatulence; and yields an essential oil, of which from two to four drops taken on a lump of sugar will promptly relieve griping of the bowels with distension. likewise a hot infusion, made by pouring half-a-pint of boiling water on a teaspoonful of the bruised seeds will comfort belly ache in the infant, if given in teaspoonful doses sweetened with sugar, and will prove an active remedy in promoting female monthly regularity, if taken at the periodical times, in doses of a wineglassful three times in the day. gerard says, "the green leaves of the fennel eaten, or the seed made into a ptisan, and drunk, do fill women's brestes with milk; also the seed if drunk asswageath the wambling of the stomacke, and breaketh the winde." the essential oil corresponds in composition to that of anise, but contains a special camphoraceous body of its own; whilst its vapour will cause the tears and the saliva to flow. a syrup prepared from the expressed juice was formerly given for chronic coughs. w. coles teaches in _nature's paradise_, that "both the leaves, seeds, and roots, are much used in drinks and broths for those that are grown fat, to abate their unwieldinesse, and make them more gaunt and lank." the ancient greek name of the herb, _marathron_, from _maraino_, to grow thin, probably embodied the same notion. "in warm climates," said matthiolus, "the stems are cut, and there exudes a resinous liquid, which is collected under the name of fennel gum." the edinburgh _pharmacopoeia_ orders "sweet fennel seeds, combined with juniper berries and caraway seeds, for making with spirit of wine, the 'compound spirit of juniper,' which is noted for promoting a copious flow of urine in dropsy." the bruised plant, if applied [ ] externally, will speedily relieve toothache or earache. this likewise proves of service as a poultice to resolve chronic swellings. powdered fennel is an ingredient in the modern laxative "compound liquorice powder" with senna. the flower, surrounded by its four leaves, is called in the south of england, "devil in a bush." an old proverb of ours, which is still believed in new england, says, that "sowing fennel is sowing sorrow." a modern distilled water is now obtained from the cultivated plant, and dispensed by the druggist. the whole herb has been supposed to confer longevity, strength and courage. longfellow wrote a poem about it to this effect. the fine-leaved hemlock water dropwort (_oenanthe phellandrium_), is the water fennel. ferns. only some few of our native ferns are known to possess medicinal virtues, though they may all be happily pronounced devoid of poisonous or deleterious properties. as curative simples, a brief consideration will be given here to the common male and female ferns, the royal fern, the hart's tongue, the maidenhair, the common polypody, the spleenwort, and the wall rue. generically, the term "fern" has been referred to the word "feather," because of the pinnate leaves, or to _farr_, a bullock, from the use of the plants as litter for cattle. ferns are termed _filices_, from the latin word _filum_, a thread, because of their filamentary fronds. each of those now particularized owes its respective usefulness chiefly to its tannin; while the few more specially endowed with healing powers yield also a peculiar chemical acid "filicic," which is fatal to worms. in an old charter, a.d. , the [ ] right of pasturage on the common ferns was called "fearnleswe," or _pascua procorum_, the pasturage of swine (from _fearrh_, a pig). matthiolus when writing of the ferns, male and female, says, _utriusque radice sues pinguescunt_. in some parts of england ferns at large are known as "devil's brushes"; and to bite off close to the ground the first fern which appears in the spring, is said, in cornwall, to cure toothache, and to prevent its return during the remainder of the year. the common male fern (_filix mas_) or shield fern, grows abundantly in all parts of great britain, and has been known from the times of theophrastus and dioscorides, as a specific remedy for intestinal worms, particularly the tape worm. for medicinal purposes, the green part of the rhizome is kept and dried; this is then powdered, and its oleo-resin is extracted by ether. the green fixed oil thus obtained; which is poisonous to worms, consists of the glycerides of filocylic and filosmylic acids, with tannin, starch, gum, and sugar. the english oil of male fern is more reliable than that which is imported from the continent. twenty drops made into an emulsion with mucilage should be given every half-hour on an empty stomach, until sixty or eighty drops have been taken. it is imprudent to administer the full quantity in a single dose. the treatment should be thus pursued when the vigour of the parasite has been first reduced by a low diet for a couple of days, and is lying within the intestines free from alimentary matter; a purgative being said to assist the action of the plant, though it is, independently, quite efficacious. the knowledge of this remedy had become lost, until it was repurchased for fifteen thousand francs, in , by the french king, under the advice of his principal physicians, from madame nouffer, [ ] a surgeon's widow in switzerland, who employed it as a secret mode of cure with infallible success. her method consisted in giving from one to three drams of the powdered root, after using a clyster, and following the dose up with a purge of scammony and calomel. the rhizome should not be used medicinally if more than a year old. a medicinal tincture (h.) is now prepared from the root-stock with proof spirit, in the autumn when the fronds are dying. the young shoots and curled leaves of the male fern, which is distinguished by having one main rib, are sometimes eaten like asparagus; whilst the fronds make an excellent litter for horses and cattle. the seed of this and some other species of fern is so minute (one frond producing more than a million) as not to be visible to the naked eye. hence, on the doctrine of signatures, the plant--like the ring of gyges, found in a brazen horse--has been thought to confer invisibility. thus shakespeare says, _henry iv_., act ii., scene , "we have the receipt of fern seed; we walk invisible." bracken or brakes, which grows more freely than any other of the fern tribe throughout england, is the _filix foemina_, or common female fern. the fronds of this are branched, whilst the male plant having only one main rib, is more powerful as an astringent, and antiseptic; "the powder thereof freely beaten healeth the galled necks of oxen and other cattell." bracken is also named botanically, _pteris aquilina_, because the figure which appears in its succulent stem when cut obliquely across at the base, has been thought to resemble a spread eagle; and, therefore, linnaeus termed the fern _aquilina_. some call it, for the same reason, "king charles in the oak tree"; and in scotland the symbol is said to be an impression of the devil's foot. [ ] again, witches are reputed to detest this fern, since it bears on its cut root the greek letter x, which is the initial of _christos_. in ireland it is called the fern of god, because of the belief that if the stem be cut into three sections, on the first of these will be seen the letter g; on the second o; and on the third d. an old popular proverb says about this bracken:-- "when the fern is as high as a spoon you may sleep an hour at noon, when the fern is as high as a ladle you may sleep as long as you're able, when the fern is looking red milk is good with faire brown bread." the bracken grows almost exclusively on waste places and uncultivated ground; or, as horace testified in roman days, _neglectis urenda filix innascitur agris_. it contains much potash; and its ashes were formerly employed in the manufacture of soap. the young tops of the plant are boiled in hampshire for hogs' food, and the peculiar flavour of hampshire bacon has been attributed to this custom. the root affords much starch, and is used medicinally. "for thigh aches" [sciatica], says an old writer, "smoke the legs thoroughly with fern braken." during the seventeenth century it was customary to set growing brakes on fire with the belief that this would produce rain. a like custom of "firing the bracken" still prevails to-day on the devonshire moors. by an official letter the earl of pembroke admonished the high sheriff of stafford to forbear the burning of ferns during a visit of charles i., as "his majesty desired that the country and himself may enjoy fair weather as long as he should remain in those parts." in northern climates a coarse kind of bread is made [ ] from the roots of the brake fern; whilst in the south the young shoots are often sold in bundles as a salad. (some writers give the name of lady fern, not to the bracken, but to the _asplenium filix foemina_, because of its delicate and graceful foliage.) the bracken has branched riblets, and is more viscid, mucilaginous, and diuretic, than the male fern. its ashes when burnt contain much vegetable alkali which has been used freely in making glass. it was customary to "watch the fern" on midsummer eve, when the plant put forth at dusk a blue flower, and a wonderful seed at midnight, which was carefully collected, and known as "wish seed." this gave the power to discover hidden treasures, whilst to drink the sap conferred perpetual youth. the royal fern (_osmunda regalis_), grows abundantly in many parts of great britain, and is the stateliest of ferns in its favourite watery haunts. it heeds a soil of bog earth, and is incorrectly styled "the flowering fern," from its handsome spikes of fructification. one of its old english names is "osmund, the waterman"; and the white centre of its root has been called the heart of osmund. this middle part boiled in some kind of liquor was supposed good for persons wounded, dry-beaten, and bruised, or that have fallen from some high place. the name "osmund" is thought to be derived from _os_, the mouth, or _os_, bone, and _mundare_, to cleanse, or from _gross mond kraut_, the greater moonwort; but others refer it to saint osmund wading a river, whilst bearing the christ on his shoulders. the root or rhizome has a mucilaginous slightly bitter taste. the tender sprigs of the plant at their first coming are "good to be put into balmes, oyles, and healing plasters." dodonoeus says, "the harte of the root of [ ] osmonde is good against squattes, and bruises, heavie and grievous falles, and whatever hurte or dislocation soever it be." "a conserve of these buds," said dr. short of sheffield, , "is a specific in the rickets; and the roots stamped in water or gin till the liquor becometh a stiff mucilage, has cured many most deplorable pains of the back, that have confined the distracted sufferers close to bed for several weeks." this mucilage was to be rubbed over the vertebrae of the back each night and morning for five or six days together. also for rickets, "take of the powdered roots with the whitest sugar, and sprinkle some thereof on the child's pap, and on all his liquid foods." "it maketh a noble remedy," said dr. bowles, "without any other medicine." the actual curative virtues of this fern are most probably due to the salts of lime, potash, and other earths, which it derives in solution from the bog soil, and from the water in which it grows. on july th it is specially dedicated to st. christopher, its patron saint. the hart's tongue or hind's tongue, is a fern of common english growth in shady copses on moist banks, it being the _lingua cervina_ of the apothecaries, and its name expressing the shape of its fronds. this, the _scolopendrium vulgare_, is also named "button-hole," "horse tongue;" and in the channel islands "godshair." the older physicians esteemed it as a very valuable medicine; and galen gave it for diarrhoea or dysentery. by reason of its tannin it will restrain bleedings, "being commended," says gerard, "against the bloody flux." people in rural districts make an ointment from its leaves for burns and scalds. it was formerly, in company with the common maidenhair fern, one of the five great capillary herbs. dr. tuthill massy advises the drinking, in bright's disease, of as much as three [ ] half-pints daily of an infusion of this fern, whilst always taking care to gather the young shoots. also, in combination (h.) with the american golden seal (_hydrastis canadensis_). the hart's tongue has served in not a few authenticated cases to arrest the progress of that formidable disease, diabetes mellitus. its distilled water will quiet any palpitations of the heart, and will stay the hiccough; it will likewise help the falling of the palate (relaxed throat), or stop bleeding of the gums if the mouth be gargled therewith. from the _ophioglossum vulgatum_, "'adder's tongue,' or 'christ's spear,' when boiled in olive oil is produced a most excellent greene oyle. or rather a balsam for greene wounds, comparable to oyle of st. john's wort; if it doth not far surpasse it." a preparation from this plant known as the "green oil of charity," is still in request as a vulnerary, and remedy for wounds. the true maidenhair fern (_adiantum capillus veneris_), of exquisite foliage, and of a dark crimson colour, is a stranger in england, except in the west country. but we have in greater abundance the common maidenhair (_asplenium trichomanes_), which grows on old walls, and which will act as a laxative medicine; whilst idiots are said to have taken it remedially, so as to recover their senses. the true maidenhair is named _adiantum_, from the greek: _quod denso imbre cadente destillans foliis tenuis non insidet humor_, "because the leaves are not wetted even by a heavily falling shower of rain." "in vain," saith pliny, "do you plunge the adiantum into water, it always remains dry." this veracious plant doth "strengthen and embellish the hair." it, occurs but rarely with us; on damp rocks, and walls near the sea. the maidenhair is called _polytrichon_ because it brings forth a multitude of hairs; [ ] _calitrichon_ because it produces black and faire hair; _capillus veneris_ because it fosters grace and love. from its fine hairlike stems, and perhaps from its attributed virtues in toilet use, this fern has acquired the name of "our lady's hair" and "maria's fern." "the true maidenhair," says gerard, "maketh the hair of the head and beard to grow that is fallen and pulled off." from this graceful fern a famous elegant syrup is made in france called _capillaire_; which is given as a favourite medicine in pulmonary catarrh. it is flavoured with orange flowers, and acts as a demulcent with slightly stimulating effects. one part of the plant is gently boiled with ten parts of water, and with nineteen parts of white sugar. dr. johnson says boswell used to put _capillaire_ into his port wine. sir john hill instructed us that (as we cannot get the true maidenhair fresh in england) the fine syrup made in france from their fern in perfection, concocted with pure narbonne honey, is not by any means to be thought a trifle, because barley water, sweetened with this, is one of the very best remedies for a violent cold. but a tea brewed from our more common maidenhair will answer the same purpose for tedious coughs. its leaves are sweet, mucilaginous, and expectorant, being, therefore, highly useful in many pulmonary disorders. the common polypody fern, or "rheum-purging polypody" grows plentifully in this country on old walls and stumps of trees, in shady places. in hampshire it is called "adder's tongue," as derived from the word _attor_, poison; also wall-fern, and formerly in anglo-saxon ever-fern, or boar-fern. in germany it is said to have sprung from the virgin's milk, and is named _marie bregue_. the fresh root has been used successfully in decoction, or powdered, for melancholia; [ ] also of late for general rheumatic swelling of the joints. by the ancients it was employed as a purgative. six drachms by weight of the root should be infused for two hours in a pint of boiling water, and given in two doses. this is the oak fern of the herbalists; not that of modern botanists (_polypodium dryopteris_); it being held that such fern plants as grew upon the roots of an oak tree were of special medicinal powers, _quod nascit super radices quercûs est efficacius_. the true oak fern (_dryopteris_) grows chiefly in mountainous districts among the mossy roots of old oak trees, and sometimes in marshy places. if its root is bruised and applied to the skin of any hairy part, whilst the person is sweating, this will cause the hair to come away. dioscorides said, "the root of polypody is very good for chaps between the fingers." "it serveth," writes gerard, "to make the belly soluble, being boiled in the broth of an old cock, with beets or mallows, or other like things, that move to the stool by their slipperiness." parkinson says: "a dram or two, it need be, of the powdered dry roots taken fasting, in a cupful of honeyed water, worketh gently as a purge, being a safe medicine, fit for all persons and seasons, which daily experience confirmeth." "applied also to the nose it cureth the disease called polypus, which by time and sufferance stoppeth the nostrils." the leaves of the polypody when burnt furnish a large proportion of carbonate of potash. the spleenwort (_asplenium ceterach_--an arabian term), or scaly fern, or finger fern, grows on old walls, and in the clefts of moist rocks. it is also called "miltwaste," because supposed to cure disorders of the milt, or spleen:-- "the finger fern, which being given to swine, it makes their milt to melt away in fine." [ ] very probably this reputed virtue has mainly become attributed to the plant, because the lobular milt-like shape of its leaf resembles the form of the spleen. "no herbe maie be compared therewith," says one of the oldest herbals, "for his singular virtue to help the sicknesse or grief of the splene." pliny ordered: "it should not be given to women, because it bringeth barrenness." vitruvius alleged that in crete the flocks and herds were found to be without spleens, because they browsed on this fern. the plant was supposed when given medicinally to diminish the size of the enlarged spleen or "ague-cake." the wall rue (_ruta muraria_) is a white maidenhair fern, and is named by some _salvia vitoe_. it is a small herb, somewhat nearly of the colour of garden rue, and is likewise good for them that have a cough, or are shortwinded, or be troubled with stitches in the sides. it stayeth the falling or shedding of the hair, and causeth them to grow thick, fair, and well coloured. this plant is held by those of judgment and experience, to be as effectual a capillary herb as any whatever. also, it helpeth ruptures in children. matthiolus "hath known of divers holpen therein by taking the powder of the herb in drink for forty days together." its leaves are like those of rue, and the fern has been called tentwort from its use as a specific or sovereign remedy for the cure of rickets, a disease once known as "the taint." the generic appellations of the several species of ferns are derived thus: _aspidium_, from _aspis_, a shield, because the spores are enclosed in bosses; _pteris_, from _pteerux_, a wing, having doubly pinnate fronds; or from _pteron_, a feather, having feathery fronds; _scolopendrium_, because the fructification is supposed to resemble the feet of _scoltpendra_, a genus of mydrapods; and _polypody_, many footed, by reason of the pectinate fronds. [ ] there grows in tartary a singular polypody fern, of which the hairy foot is easily made to simulate in form a small sheep. it rises above the ground with excrescences resembling a head and tail, whilst having four leg-like fronds. fabulous stories are told about this remarkable fern root; and in china its hairy down is so highly valued as a styptic for fresh bleeding cuts and wounds, that few families will be without it. dr. darwin, in his _loves of the plants_, says about this curious natural production, the _polypodium barometz_:-- "cradled in snow, and fanned by arctic air shines, gentle barometz, thy golden hair; rooted in earth each cloven hoof descends, and found and round her flexile neck she bends: crops the green coral moss, and hoary thyme, or laps with rosy tongue the melting rime; eyes with mute tenderness her distant dam, or seems to bleat--a vegetable lamb." feverfew. the feverfew is one of the wild chamomiles (_pyrethrum parthenium_), or _matricaria_, so called because especially useful for motherhood. its botanical names come from the latin _febrifugus_, putting fever to flight, and _parthenos_, a virgin. the herb is a composite plant, and grows in every hedgerow, with numerous small heads of yellow flowers, having outermost white rays, but with an upright stem; whereas that of the true garden chamomile is procumbent. the whole plant has a pungent odour, and is particularly disliked by bees. a double variety is cultivated in gardens for ornamental purposes. the herb feverfew is strengthening to the stomach, preventing hysteria and promoting the monthly functions of women. it is much used by country mediciners, though insufficiently esteemed by the doctors of to-day. [ ] in devonshire the plant is known as "bachelor's buttons," and at torquay as "flirtwort," being also sometimes spoken of as "feathyfew," or "featherfull." gerard says it may be used both in drinks, and bound on the wrists, as of singular virtue against the ague. as "feverfue," it was ordered, by the magi of old, "to be pulled from the ground with the left hand, and the fevered patient's name must be spoken forth, and the herbarist must not look behind him." country persons have long been accustomed to make curative uses of this herb very commonly, which grows abundantly throughout england. its leaves are feathery and of a delicate green colour, being conspicuous even in mid-winter. chemically, the feverfew furnishes a blue volatile oil; containing a camphoraceous stearopten, and a liquid hydrocarbon, together with some tannin, and a bitter mucilage. the essential oil is medicinally useful for correcting female irregularities, as well as for obviating cold indigestion. the herb is also known as "maydeweed," because useful against hysterical distempers, to which young women are subject. taken generally it is a positive tonic to the digestive and nervous systems. out chemists make a medicinal tincture of feverfew, the dose of which is from ten to twenty drops, with a spoonful of water, three times a day. this tincture, if dabbed oil the parts with a small sponge, will immediately relieve the pain and swelling caused by bites of insects or vermin. in the official guide to switzerland directions are given to take "a little powder of the plant called _pyrethrum roseum_ and make it into a paste with a few drops of spirit, then apply this to the hands and face, or any exposed part of the body, and let it [ ] dry: no mosquito or fly will then touch you." or if two teaspoonfuls of the tincture are mixed with half a pint of cold water, and if all parts of the body likely to be exposed to the bites of insects are freely sponged therewith they will remain unassailed. feverfew is manifestly the progenitor of the true chamomilla (_anthemis nobilis_), from which the highly useful camomile "blows," so commonly employed in domestic medicine, are obtained, and its flowers, when dried, may be applied to the same purposes. an infusion of them made with boiling water and allowed to become cold, will allay any distressing sensitiveness to pain in a highly nervous subject, and will afford relief to the faceache or earache of a dyspeptic or rheumatic person. this feverfew (_chrysanthemum parthenium_), is best calculated to pacify those who are liable to sudden, spiteful, rude irascibility, of which they are conscious, but say they cannot help it, and to soothe fretful children. "better is a dinner or such herbs, where love is; than a stalled ox, and hatred therewith." figs. "in the name of the prophet 'figs'" was the pompous utterance ascribed to dr. johnson, whose solemn magniloquent style was simulated as eastern cant applied to common business in _rejected addresses_, by the clever humorists, horace and james smith, . the tree which produces this fruit belongs to the history of mankind. in paradise adam partook of figs, and covered his nakedness with the leaves. though indigenous to western asia, figs have been cultivated in most countries from a remote period, and will ripen in england during a warm summer if screened from north-east winds. the fig tree flourishes best with [ ] us on our sea coasts, bathed by the english channel, by reason of the salt-laden atmosphere. near gosport, and at fig valleys, in the neighbourhood of worthing, there are orchards of figtrees; but they remain barren in this country as far as affording seed to be raised anew from the ripened fruit. the first figtrees introduced into england are still alive and productive in the gardens of the archbishop of canterbury, at lambeth, having been planted there by cardinal pole in the time of henry the eighth. we call the sunday before easter "fig sunday," probably because of our saviour's quest of the fruit when going from bethany the next day. by the jews a want of blossom on the fig tree was considered a grievous calamity. on the saturday preceding palm sunday (says miss baker), the market at northampton is abundantly supplied with figs, and more of the fruit is purchased at this time than throughout the rest of the year. even charity children are regaled in some parts with figs on the said sunday; whilst in lancashire fig pies made of dried figs with sugar and treacle are eaten beforehand in lent. in order to become fertilised, figs (of which the sexual apparatus lies within the fruit) must have their outer skin perforated by certain gnats of the cynips tribe, which then penetrate to the interior whilst carrying with them the fertilising pollen; but these gnats are not found in this country. producers of the fruit abroad bearing the said fact in view tie some of the wild fruit when tenanted by the culex fly to the young cultivated figs. foreign figs are dried in the oven so as to destroy the larvae of the cynips insect, and are then compressed into small boxes. they consist in this state almost exclusively of mucilage and sugar. [ ] only one kind of fig comes to ripeness with us in england, the great blue fig, as large as a catherine pear. "it should be grown," says gerard, "under a hot wall, and eaten when newly gathered, with bread, pepper, and salt; or it is excellent in tarts." this fruit is soft, easily digested, and corrective of strumous disease. dried turkey figs, as imported, contain glucose (sugar), starch, fat, pectose, gum, albumen, mineral matter, collulose, and water. they are used by our druggists as an ingredient in confection of senna for a gentle laxative effect. when split open, and applied as hot as they can be borne against gumboils, and similar suppurative gatherings, they afford ease, and promote maturation of the abscess; and likewise they will help raw, unhealthy sores to heal. the first poultice of figs on record is that employed by king hezekiah years before christ, at the instance of the prophet isaiah, who ordered to "take a lump of figs; and they took it, and laid it on the boil, and the king recovered" ( kings xx. ). the fig is said to have been the first fruit, eaten as food by man. among the greeks it formed part of the ordinary spartan fare, and the athenians forbade exportation of the best figs, which were highly valued at table. informers against those who offended in this respect were called _suko phantai_, or fig discoverers--our _sycophants_. bacchus was thought to have acquired his vigour and corpulency from eating figs, such as the romans gave to professed wrestlers and champions for strength and good sustenance. dodonoeus said concerning figs, _alimentum amplius quam coeteri proebent_; and pliny spoke of them as the best restorative for those brought low by languishing [ ] disease, with loss of their colour. it was under the perpul tree (_ficus religiosa_) buddha attained nirvada. the botanical name _ficus_ has been derived from the greek verb _phuo_ to generate, and the husbandry of figs was called by the latins "caprification." the little fig-bird of the roman campagna pays a yearly visit in september to the fig orchards on our sussex coast. when eaten raw, dried figs prove somewhat aperient, and they are apt to make the mouth sore whilst masticating them. their seeds operate mechanically against constipation, though sometimes irritating the lining membrane of the stomach and bowels. grocers prepare from the pulp of these foreign dried figs, when mixed with honey, a jam called "figuine," which is wholesome, and will prevent costiveness if eaten at breakfast with bread. the pulp of turkey figs is mucilaginous, and has been long esteemed as a pectoral emollient for coughs: also when stewed and, added to ptisans, for catarrhal troubles of the air passages, and of other mucous canals. in its fresh green state the fruit secretes a mildly acrid juice, which will destroy warts; this afterwards becomes saccharine and oily. the dried figs of the shops give no idea of the fresh fruit as enjoyed in italy at breakfast, which then seem indeed a fruit of paradise, and which contain a considerable quantity of grape sugar. in the _regimen of the school of salerno_ (eleventh century) we read:-- "scrofa, tumor, glandes, ficus cataplasma sedet, swines' evil, swellings, kernels, a plaster of figs will heal." barley water boiled with dried figs (split open), liquorice root, and raisins, forms the compound decoction of barley prescribed by doctors as a capital demulcent; [ ] and an admirable gargle for inflamed sore throat may be made by boiling two ounces of the figs in half-a-pint of water, which is to be strained when cool. figs cooked in milk make an excellent drink for costive persons. in the french codex a favourite pectoral medicine is composed of figs, stoned dates, raisins, and jujubes. formerly the poisoned fig was used in spain as a secret means for getting rid of an enemy. the fruit was so common there that to say "a fig for you!" and "i give you the fig" became proverbial expressions of contempt. _in fiocchi_ (in gala costome), is an italian phrase which we now render as "in full fig." the _water figwort_, a common english plant which grows by the sides of ditches, and belongs to the scrofula-curing order, has acquired its name because supposed to heal sores in the fundament when applied like figs as a poultice. it further bears the name of _water betony_ (_page_ ), under which title its curative excellence against piles, and for scrofulous glands in the neck has been already described. the whole plant, yielding its juice, may be blended with lard to be used as an ointment; and an infusion of the roots, made with boiling water, an ounce to a pint, may be taken as a medicine--a wineglassful three times in the day. in ireland it is known as "rose noble," also as kernelwort, because the kernels, or tubers attached to the roots have been thought to resemble scrofulous glands in the neck. "divers do rashly teach that if it be hanged about the necke, or else carried about one it keepeth a man in health." in france the sobriquet _herbe du seige_, given to this plant, is said to have been derived from its famous use in healing all sorts of wounds during the long siege of rochelle under louis xiii. [ ] the water figwort may be readily known by the winged corners of its stems, which, though hollow and succulent, are rigid when dead, and prove very troublesome to anglers. the flowers are much frequented by wasps: and the leaves are employed to correct the taste of senna. flag (common). our english water flags are true whigs of the old school, and get their generic name because hanging out their banners respectively of dark blue and yellow. each is also called iris, as resembling the rainbow in beauty of colour. the land flag (_iris versicolor_) is well known as growing in swamps and moist meadows, with sword-shaped leaves, and large purple heads of flowers, bearing petals chiefly dark blue, and veined with green, yellow, or white. the water flag (_iris pseudacorus_) is similar of growth, and equally well known by its brilliant heads of yellow flowers, with blade-like leaves, being found in wet places and water courses. the root of the blue flag, "dragon flower," or "dagger flower," contains chemically an "oleo-resin," which is purgative to the liver in material doses, and specially alleviative against bilious sickness when taken of much reduced strength by reason of its acting as a similar. the official dose of this "iridin" is from one to three grains. a liability to the formation of gall stones may be remedied by giving one grain of the oleoresin (iridin) every night for twelve nights. a medicinal tincture (h.) is made which holds this iris in solution; and if three or four drops are taken immediately, with a spoonful of water, and the same dose is repeated in half-an-hour if still necessary, an attack of bilious vomiting, with sick headache, and a [ ] film before the eyes, will be prevented, or cut short. the remedy is, under such circumstances, a trustworthy substitute for calomel, or blue pill. orris powder, which is so popular in the nursery, and for the toilet table with ladies, on account of its fresh "violet" scent, is made from the root of this iris, being named from the genitive _ireos_. louis vii. of france chose this blue flag as his heraldic emblem, and hence its name, _fleur de lys_, has been subsequently borne on the arms of france. the flower was said to have been figured on a shield sent down from heaven to king louis at clovis, when fighting against the saracens. fleur de louis has become corrupted to _fleur de lys_, or _fleur de lis_. the purple flag was formerly dedicated to the virgin mary. a certain knight more devout than learned could never remember more than two words of the latin prayer addressed to the holy mother; these were _ave maria_, which the good old man repeated day and night until he died. then a plant of the blue iris sprang up over his grave, displaying on every flower in golden letters these words, _ave maria_. when the monks opened the tomb they found the root of the plant resting on the lips of the holy knight whose body lay buried below. the yellow flag, or water flag, is called in the north, "seggs." its flowers afford a beautiful yellow dye; and, its seeds, when roasted, can be used instead of coffee. the juice of the root is very acrid when sniffed up the nostrils, and causes a copious flow of water therefrom, thus giving marked relief for obstinate congestive headache of a dull, passive sort. the root is very astringent, and will check diarrhoea by its infusion; also it is of service for making ink. in the [ ] south of england the plant is named "levers." it contains much tannin. the "stinking flag," or "gladdon," or "roast beef," because having the odour of this viand, is another british species of flag, abundant in southern england, where it grows in woods and, shady places. its leaves, when bruised, emit a strong smell like that of carrion, which is very loathsome. the plant bears the appellations, _iris foetidissima_, _spatual foetida_, and "spurgewort," having long, narrow leaves, which stink when rubbed. country folk in somersetshire purge themselves to good purpose with a decoction made from the root. the term "glad," or "smooth," refers to the surface of the leaves, or to their sword-like shape, from _gladiolus_ (a small sword), and the plant bears flowers of a dull, livid purple, smaller than those of the other flags. lastly, there is the sweet flag (_acorus calamus_), though this is not an iris, but belongs botanically to the family of _arums_. it grows on the edges of lakes and streams allover europe, as a highly aromatic, reedy plant, with an erect flowering stem of yellowish green colour. its name comes from the greek, _koree_, or "pupil of the eye," because of its being used in ailments of that organ. _calamus_ was the roman term for a reed; and formerly this sweet flag, by reason of its pleasant odour like that of violets, was freely strewn on the floor of a cathedral at times of church festivals, and in many private houses instead of rushes. the root is a powerful cordial against flatulence, and passive indigestion, with headache. it contains a volatile oil, and a bitter principle, "acorin;" so that a fluid extract is made by the chemists, of which from thirty to forty drops may be given as a dose, with a [ ] tablespoonful, of water, every half-hour for several consecutive times. the candied root is much employed for like uses in turkey and india. it is sold as a favourite medicine in every indian bazaar; and ainslie says it is reckoned so valuable in the bowel complaints of children, that there is a penalty incurred by every druggist who will not open his door in the middle of the night to sell it if demanded. the root stocks are brought to this country from germany, being used by mastication to cleat the urine when it is thick and loaded with dyspeptic products; also for flavouring beer, and scenting snuff. their ash contains potash, soda, zinc, phosphoric acid, silica, and peroxide of iron. in the _times_ april th, , dr. graves wrote commending for the soldiers when landing at galipoli, and notable to obtain costly quinine, the sweet flag--_acorus calamas_--as their sheet anchor against ague and allied maladies arising from _marsh miasmata_. the infusion of the root should be given, or the powdered root in doses of from ten to sixty grains. (_see_ rushes.) flax (linseed). the common flax plant, from which we get our linseed, is of great antiquity, dating from the twenty-third century before christ, and having been cultivated in all countries down to the present time. but it is exhausting to the soil in england, and therefore not favoured in home growth for commercial uses. the seeds come to us chiefly from the baltic. nevertheless, the plant (_linum usitatissimum_) is by no means uncommon in our cornfields, flowering in june, and ripening its seed in september. provincially it is called "lint" and "lyne." a rustic proverb says "if put in the shoes it preserves [ ] from poverty"; wherever found it is probably an escape from cultivation. the word "flax" is derived from _filare_, to spin, or, _filum_, a thread; and the botanical title, _linum_, is got from the celtic _lin_ also signifying thread. the fibres of the bark are separated from the woody matter by soaking it in water, and they then form tow, which is afterwards spun into yarn, and woven into cloth. this water becomes poisonous, so that henry the eighth prohibited the washing of flax in any running stream. the seeds ate very rich in linseed oil, after expressing which, the refuse is oil-cake, a well-known fattening food for cattle. the oil exists chiefly in the outer skins of the seeds, and is easily extracted by boiling water, as in the making a linseed poultice. these seeds contain gum, acetic acid, acetate and muriate of potash, and other salts, with twenty-two parts per cent. of the oil. they were taken as food by the ancient greeks and romans, whilst hippocrates knew the demulcent properties of linseed. an infusion of the seeds has long been given as linseed tea for soothing a sore chest or throat in severe catarrh, or pulmonary complaints; also the crushed seed is used for making poultices. linseed oil has laxative properties, and forms, when mixed with lime water, or with spirit of turpentine, a capital external application to recent burns or scalds. tumours of a simple nature, and sprains, may be usefully rubbed with linseed oil; and another principal service to which the oil is put is for mixing the paints of artists. to make linseed tea, wash two ounces of linseed by putting them into a small strainer, and pouring cold water through it; then pare off as thinly as possible the yellow rind of half a lemon; to the linseed and lemon rind add a quart of cold water, [ ] and allow them to simmer over the fire for an hour-and-a-half; strain away the seeds, and to each half-pint of the tea add a teaspoonful of sugar, or sugar candy, with some lemon juice, in the proportion of the juice of one lemon to each pint of tea. the seeds afford but little actual nourishment, and are difficult of digestion; they provoke troublesome flatulence, though sometimes used fraudulently for adulterating pepper. flax seed has been mixed with corn for making bread, but it proved indigestible and hurtful to the stomach. in the sixteenth century during a scarcity of wheat, the inhabitants of middleburgh had recourse to linseed for making cakes, but the death of many citizens was caused thereby, it bringing about in those who partook of the cakes dreadful swellings on the body and face. there is an act of parliament still in force which forbids the steeping of flax in rivers, or any waters which cattle are accustomed to drink, as it is found to communicate a poison destructive to cattle and to the fish inhabiting such waters. in dundee a hank of yarn is worn round the loins as a cure for lumbago, and girls may be seen with a single thread of yarn round the head as an infallible specific for tic douloureux. the purging flax (_linum catharticum_), or mill mountain (_kamailinon_), or ground flax, is a variety of the flax common on our heaths and pastures, being called also fairy flax from its delicacy, and dwarf flax. it contains a resinous, purgative principle, and is known to country folk as a safe, active purge. they infuse the herb in water, which they afterwards take medicinally. also a tincture is made (h.) from the entire fresh plant, which may be given curatively for frequent, wattery, painless diarrhoea, two or three [ ] drops for a dose with water every hour or two until the flux is stayed. foxglove. the purple foxglove (_digitalis purpurea_) which every one knows and admires for its long graceful spikes of elegant bell-shaped brilliant blossoms seen in our woods and hedges, is also called the thimble flower, or the finger flower, from the resemblance of these blossoms to a thimble or to the fingers of a glove. the word digitalis refers likewise to the digits, or fingers of a gauntlet. in france the title is _gants de notre dame_, the gloves of our lady the virgin. some writers give folks' glove, or fairies' glove as the proper english orthography, but this is wrong. our name of the plant comes really from the anglo-saxon, foxesglew or fox music, in allusion to an ancient musical instrument composed of bells which were hanging from an arched support, _a tintinnabulum_, which this plant with its pendent bell-shaped flowers so exactly represents. in ireland the foxglove is known as the great herb, and lusmore, also the fairy cap; and in wales it is the goblin's gloves; whilst in the north of scotland it is the dead men's bells. we read in the _lady of the lake_ there grew by loch katrine:-- "night shade and foxglove side by side, emblems of punishment and pride." in devonshire the plant is termed poppy, because when one of the bell-shaped flowers is inflated by the breath whilst the top edges are held firmly together; the wind bag thus formed, if struck smartly against the other hand, goes off with a sounding pop. the peasantry also call it "flop a dock." strangely enough, the foxglove, so handsome and striking in a landscape, is not [ ] mentioned by shakespeare, or by either of the old english poets. the "long purples" of shakespeare refers to the _orchis mascula_. chemically, the foxglove contains a dangerous, active, medicinal principle _digitalin_, which acts powerfully on the heart, and on the kidneys, but this should never be given in any preparation of the plant except under medical guidance, and then only with much caution. parkinson speaks highly of the bruised herb, or of its expressed juice, for scrofulous swellings when applied outwardly in the form of an ointment. an officinal tincture is made from the plants collected in the spring, when two years old; also, in some villages the infusion is employed as a homely remedy to cure a cold, the herb being known as "throttle wort;" but this is not a safe thing to do, for medical experience shows that the watery infusion of foxglove acts much more powerfully than the spirituous tincture, which is eight times stronger, and from this fact it may fairly be inferred that the presence of alcohol, as in the tincture, directly opposes the specific action of the plant. this herb bears further in some districts the names "flop top," "cow flop," and "flabby dock." it was stated in the _times telescope_, , "the women of the poorer class in derbyshire used to indulge in copious draughts of foxglove tea, as a cheap means of obtaining the pleasures of intoxication. this was found to produce a great exhilaration of the spirits, with other singular effects on the system." so true is the maxim, _ubi virus, ibi virtus_. no animal will touch the plant, which is biennial, and will only develop its active principle _digitalin_, when getting some sunshine, but remains inert when grown altogether in the shade. therefore its source of production for medicinal purposes is very important. [ ] fumitory. the common fumitory (_fumaria officinalis_) is a small grey-green plant, bearing well known little flowers, rose coloured, and tipped with purple, whilst standing erect in every cornfield, vineyard, or such-like manured place throughout great britain. it is so named from the latin _fumus terroe_, earth smoke, which refers either to the appearance of its pretty glaucous foliage on a dewy summer morning, or to the belief that it was produced not from seed but from vapours rising out of the earth. the plant continues to flower throughout the year, and was formerly much favoured for making cosmetic washes to purify the skin of rustic maidens in the spring time:-- "whose red and purpled mottled flowers are cropped by maids in weeding hours to boil in water, milk, or whey, for washes on a holiday; to make their beauty fair and sleek, and scare the tan from summer's cheek." in many parts of kent the fumitory bears the name of "wax dolls," because its rose coloured flowers, with their little, dark, purple heads, are by no means unlike the small waxen toys given as nurslings to children. dioscorides affirmed: "the juice of fumitory, of that which groweth among barley, with gum arabic, doth take away unprofitable hairs that prick, being first plucked away, for it will not suffer others to grow in their places." "it helpeth," says gerard, "in the summer time those that are troubled with scabs." pliny said it is named because causing the eyes to water as smoke does. in shakespeare the name is written fumiter. it continues to flower throughout the year, and its presence is thought to indicate good deep rich land. there is also a "ramping" fumitory [ ] (_capreolata_) which climbs; being found likewise in fields and waste places, but its infusion produces purgative effects. the whole plant has a saline, bitter, and somewhat acrid taste. it contains "fumaric acid," and the alkaloid "fumarina," which are specially useful for scrofulous diseases of the skin. a decoction of the herb makes a curative lotion for the milk-crust which disfigures the scalp of an infant, and for grown up persons troubled with chronic eruptions on the face, or freckles. the fresh juice may be given as a medicine; or an infusion made with an ounce of the plant to a pint of boiling water, one wineglassful for a dose twice or three times in the day. by the ancients fumitory was named _capnos_, smoke: pliny wrote "_claritatem facit inunctis oculis delachrymationemque, ceu fumus, unde nomen_." they esteemed the herb specially useful for dispelling dimness of the sight, and for curing other infirmities of the eyes. the leaves, which have no particular odour, throw up crystals of nitre on their surface when cool. the juice may be mixed with whey, and taken as a common drink, or as a medicinal beverage for curing obstinate skin eruptions, and for overcoming obstructions of the liver and digestive organs. dr. cullen found it most useful in leprous skin disease. the juice from the fresh herb may be given two ounces in the day, but the virtues remain equally in the dried plant. its smoke was said by the ancient exorcists to have the power of expelling evil spirits. the famous physician, john of milan, extolled fumitory as a sovereign remedy against malarious fever. it is a remarkable fact, that the colour of the hair and the complexion seem to determine the liability, or [ ] otherwise, of a european to west coast fever in africa. a man with harsh, bright-coloured red hair, such as is common in scotland, has a complete immunity, though running the same risks as another mall, dark and with a dry skin, who seems absolutely doomed. a red-haired european will, as a rule, keep his health where even the natives are attacked. old negresses have secret methods of cure which can, undoubtedly, save life even in cases which have become hopeless to european medical science. garlic, leek, and onion. seeming at first sight out of place among the lilies of the field, yet garlic, the leek, and the onion are true members of that noble order, and may be correctly classified together with the favoured tribe, "clothed more grandly than solomon in all his glory." they possess alike the same properties and characteristics, though in varying degrees, and they severally belong to the genus _allium_, each containing "allyl," which is a radical rich in sulphur. the homely onion may be taken first as the best illustration of the family. this is named technically _allium cepa_, from _cep_, a head (of bunched florets which it bears). lucilius called it _flebile coepe_, because the pungency of its odour will provoke a flow of tears from the eyes. as shakespeare says, in _taming of the shrew_:-- "mine eyes smell onions; i shall weep anon." the egyptians were devoted to onions, which they ate more than two thousand years before the time of christ. they were given to swear by the onion and [ ] garlic in their gardens. herodotus tells us that during the building of the pyramids nine tons of gold were spent in buying onions for the workmen. but it is to be noted that in egypt the onion is sweet and soft; whereas, in other countries it grows hard, and nauseous, and strong. by the greeks this bulb was called krommuon, "_apo tau meuein tas koras_," because of shutting the eyes when eating it. in latin its name _unio_, signified a single root without offsets. raw onions contain an acrid volatile oil, sulphur, phosphorus, alkaline earthy salts, phosphoric and acetic acids, with phosphate and citrate of lime, starch, free uncrystallized sugar, and lignine. the fresh juice is colourless, but by exposure to the air becomes red. a syrup made from the juice with honey is an excellent medicine for old phlegmatic persons in cold weather, when their lungs are stuffed, and the breathing is hindered. raw onions increase the flow of urine, and promote perspiration, insomuch, that a diet of them, with bread, has many a time cured dropsy coming on through a chill at first, or from exposure to cold. they contain the volatile principle, "sulphide of allyl," which is acrid and stimulating. if taken in small quantities, onions quicken the circulation, and assist digestion; but when eaten more prodigally they disagree. in making curative simples, the onion (and garlic) should not be boiled, else the volatile essential oil, on which its virtues chiefly depend, will escape during the process. the principal internal effects of the onion, the leek, and garlic, are stimulation and warmth, so that they are of more salutary use when the subject is of a cold [ ] temperament, and when the vital powers are feeble, than when the body is feverish, and the constitution ardently excitable. "they be naught," says gerard, "for those that be cholericke; but good for such as are replete with raw and phlegmatick humors." _vous tous qui etes gros, et gras, et lymphatiques, avec l'estomac paresseux, mangez l'oignon cru; c'est pour vous que le bon dieu l'a fait_. onions, when eaten at night by those who are not feverish, will promote sleep, and induce perspiration. the late frank buckland confirmed this statement. he said, "i am sure the essential oil of onions has soporific powers. in my own case it never fails. if i am much pressed with work, and feel that i am not disposed to sleep, i eat two or three small onions, and the effect is magical." the onion has a very sensitive organism, and absorbs all morbid matter that comes in its way. during our last epidemic of cholera it puzzled the sanitary inspectors of a northern town why the tenants of one cottage in an infected row were not touched by the plague. at last some one noticed a net of onions hanging in the fortunate house, and on examination all these proved to have become diseased. but whilst welcoming this protective quality, the danger must be remembered of eating an onion which shows signs of decay, for it cannot be told what may have caused this distemper. when sliced, and applied externally, the raw onion serves by its pungent and essential oil to quicken the circulation, and to redden the skin of the particular surface treated in this way; very usefully so in the case of an unbroken chilblain, or to counteract neuralgic pain; but in its crude state the bulb is not emollient or demulcent. if employed as a poultice for ear-ache, or broken chilblains, the onion should be roasted, so as to [ ] modify its acrid oil. when there is a constant arid painful discharge of fetid matter from the ear, or where an abscess is threatened, with pain, heat, and swelling, a hot poultice of roasted onions will be found very useful, and will mitigate the pain. the juice of a sliced raw onion is alkaline, and will quickly relieve the acid venom of a sting from a wasp, or bee, if applied immediately to the part. a tincture is made (h.) from large, red, strong onions for medicinal purposes. as a warming expectorant in chronic bronchitis, or asthma, or for a cold which is not of a feverish character, from half to one teaspoonful of this tincture may be given with benefit three or four times in the day in a wineglassful of hot water, or hot milk. likewise, a jorum (_i.e._, an earthen bowl) of hot onion broth taken at bedtime, serves admirably to soothe the air passages, and to promote perspiration; after the first feverish stage of catarrh or influenza has passed by. to make this, peel a large spanish onion, and divide it into four parts; then put them into a saucepan, with half a saltspoonful of salt, and two ounces of butter, and a pint of cold water; let them simmer gently until quite tender; next pour all into a bowl which has been made hot, dredging a little pepper over; and let the porridge be eaten as hot as it can be taken. the allyl and sulphur in the bulbs, together with their mucilaginous parts, relieve the sore mucous membranes, and quicken perspiration, whilst other medicinal virtues are exercised at the same time on the animal economy. by eating a few raw parsley sprigs immediately afterwards, the strong smell which onions communicates to the breath may be removed and dispelled. lord [ ] bacon averred "the rose will be sweeter if planted in a bed of onions." so nutritious does the highlander find this vegetable, that, if having a few raw bulbs in his pocket, with oat-cake, or a crust of bread, he can travel for two or three days together without any other food. dean swift said:-- "this is every cook's opinion, no savoury dish without an onion, but lest your kissing should be spoiled, your onions must be fully boiled." provings have been made by medical experts of the ordinary red onion in order to ascertain what its toxical effects are when pushed to an excessive degree, and it has been found that onions, leeks, or garlic, when taken immoderately, induce melancholy and depression, with severe catarrh. they dispose to sopor, lethargy, and even insanity. the immediate symptoms are extreme watering of the eyes after frequent sneezing, confusion of the head, and heavy defluxion from the nose, with pains in the throat extending to the ears; in a word, all the accompaniments of a bad cold, sneezings, lacrymation, pains in the forehead, and a hoarse, hacking cough. these being the effects of taking onions in a harmful quantity, it is easy to understand that when the like morbid symptoms have arisen spontaneously from other causes, as from a sharp catarrh of the head and chest, then modified forms of the onion are calculated to counteract them on the law of similars, so that a cure is promptly produced. on which principle the onion porridge is a scientific remedy, as food, and as physic, during the first progress of a catarrhal attack, and _pari passu_ the medicinal tincture of the red onion may be likewise curatively given. [ ] spanish onions, which are imported into this country in the winter, are sweet and mucilaginous. a peasant in spain will munch an onion just as an english labourer eats an apple. at the present day egyptians take onions, roasted, and each cut into four pieces, with small bits of baked meat, and slices of an acid apple, which the turks call kebobs. with this sweet and savoury dish they are so delighted, that they trust to enjoy it in paradise. the israelites were willing to return to slavery and brick-making for their love of the onion; and we read that hecamedes presented some of the bulbs to patrochus, in _homer_, as a regala. these are supplied liberally to the antelopes and giraffes in our zoological gardens, which animals dote on the onion. a clever paraprase of the word onion may be read in the lines:-- "charge! stanley, charge! on! stanley, on! were the last words of marmion. if _i_ had been in stanley's place when marmion urged him to the chase, in me you quickly would descry what draws a tear from many an eye." for chilblains apply onions with salt pounded together, and for inflamed or protruding piles, raw onion pulp, made by bruising the bulb, if kept bound to the parts by a compress, and renewed as needed, will afford certain relief. the garlic (_allium sativum_), skorodon of the greeks, which was first cultivated in english gardens in , takes its name, from _gar_, a spear; and _leac_, a plant, either because of its sharp tapering leaves, or perhaps as "the war plant," by reason of its nutritive and stimulating qualities for those who do battle. it is known also [ ] to many as "poor-man's treacle," or "churls treacle," from being regarded by rustics as a treacle, or antidote to the bite of any venomous reptile. the bulb, consisting of several combined cloves, is stimulating, antispasmodic, expectorant, and diuretic. its active properties depend on an essential oil which may be readily obtained by distillation. a medicinal tincture is made (h.) with spirit of wine, of which from ten to twenty drops may be taken in water several times a day. garlic proves useful in asthma, whooping-cough, and other spasmodic affections of the chest. for all adult, one or more cloves may be eaten at a time. the odour of the bulb is very diffusible, even when it is applied to the soles of the feet its odour is exhaled by the lungs. when bruised and mixed with lard, it makes a most useful opbdeldoc to be rubbed in for irritable spines of indolent scrofulous tumours or gout, until the skin surface becomes red and glowing. if employed thus over the chest (back and front) of a child with whooping-cough, it proves eminently helpful. raw garlic, when applied to the skin, reddens it, and the odour sniffed into the nostrils will revive an hysterical sufferer. it formed the principal ingredient in the "four thieves' vinegar," which was adopted so successfully at marseilles for protection against the plague, when prevailing there. this originated with four thieves, who confessed that, whilst protected by the liberal use of aromatic vinegar during the plague, they plundered the dead bodies of its victims with complete security. or, according to another explanation of the name, an old tract, printed in , testifies that one, richard forthave, who lived in bishopsgate street, invented and sold a vinegar which had such a run that [ ] he soon grew famous, and that his surname became thus corrupted in the course of time. but long before the plague at marseilles ( ) vinegar was employed as a disinfectant. with cardinal wolsey it was a constant custom to carry in his hand an orange emptied of its pulp, and containing a sponge soaked in vinegar made aromatic with spices, so as to protect himself from infection when passing through the crowds which his splendour and his office attracted. it is related that during a former outbreak of infectious fever in somer's town and st. giles's, the french priests, who constantly used garlic in all their dishes, visited the worst cases in the dirtiest hovels with impunity, while the english clergy, who were similarly engaged, but who did not eat onions in like fashion, caught the infection in many instances, and fell victims to the disease. for toothache and earache, a clove of garlic stripped of its skin, and cut in the form of a suppository, if thrust in the ear of the aching side, will soon assuage the pain. if introduced into the lower bowel, it will help to destroy thread worms, and when swallowed it abolishes round worms. as a condiment, garlic undoubtedly aids digestion by stimulating the circulation, with a consequent increase of saliva and gastric juice. the juice from the bulbs can be employed for cementing broken glass or china, by means of its mucilage. dr. bowles, a noted english physician of former times, made use of garlic with much success as a secret remedy for asthma. he concocted a preserve from the boiled cloves with vinegar and sugar, to be kept in an earthen jar. the dose was a bulb or two with some of the syrup, each morning when fasting. [ ] the pain of rheumatic parts may be much relieved by simply rubbing them with cut garlic. garlic emits the most acrimonious smell of all the onion tribe. when leprosy prevailed in this country, garlic was a prime specific for its relief, and as the victims had to "pil," or peel their own garlic, they were nicknamed "pil garlics," and hence it came about that anyone shunned like a leper had this epithet applied to him. stow says, concerning a man growing old: "he will soon be a peeled garlic like myself." the strong penetrating odour and taste of this plant, though offensive to most english palates, are much relished by russians, poles, and spaniards, and especially by the jews. but the greeks detested garlic. it is true the attic husbandmen ate it from remote times, probably in part to drive away by its odour venomous creatures from assailing them; but persons who partook of it were not allowed to enter the temples of cybele, says athenaeus; and so hated was garlic, that to have to eat it was a punishment for those that had committed the most horrid crimes; horace, among the romans, was made ill by eating garlic at the table of maecenas; and afterwards (in his third _epode_) he reviled the plant as, _cicutis allium nocentius_, "garlic more poisonous than hemlock." sir theodore martin has thus spiritedly translated the passage:-- "if his old father's throat any impious sinner, has cut with unnatural hand to the bone: give him garlick--more noxious than hemlock--at dinner; ye gods! what strong stomachs the reapers must own!" the singular property is attributed to garlic, that if a morsel of the bulb is chewed by a man running a race, it will prevent his competitors from getting ahead of him. hungarian jockeys sometimes fasten a clove of [ ] garlic to the bits of their racers; and it is said that the horses which run against those thus baited, fall back the moment they smell the offensive odour. if a leg of mutton, before being roasted, has a small clove of garlic inserted into the knuckle, and the joint is afterwards served with haricot beans (soaked for twenty-four hours before being boiled), it is rendered doubly delicious. in greece snails dressed with garlic are now a favourite dish. a well known _chef_ is said to have chewed a small clove of garlic when he wished to impart its delicate flavour to a choice _plât_, over which he then breathed lightly. dumas relates that the whole atmosphere of provence is impregnated with the perfume of garlic, and is exceedingly wholesome to inhale. as an instance of lunar influences (which undoubtedly affect our bodily welfare), it is remarkable that if garlic is planted when the moon is in the full, the bulb will be round like an onion, instead of being composed, as it usually is, of several distinct cloves. homer says it was to the virtues of the yellow garlic (moly?) ulysses owed his escape from being changed by circe into a pig, like each of his companions. the crow garlic, _vineale_, and the purple striped, _oleraceum_, grow wild in this country. when the former of these is eaten by birds it so stupefies them that they may be taken with the hand. concerning the cure of nervous headache by garlic (and its kindred medicinal herb _asafoetida_), an old charm reads thus:-- "give onyons to saynt cutlake, and garlycke to saynt cyryake; if ye will shun the headake, ye shall have them at queenhyth." the asafoetida (_ferula asafoetida_) grows in western thibet, and exudes a gum which is used medicinally, coming as a milky juice from the incised root and soon coagulating; it is then exported, having a very powerful odour of garlic which may be perceived a long distance away. phosphorus and sulphur are among its constituent elements, and, because of the latter, says dr. garrod after much observation, he regards asafoetida as one of the most valuable remedies known to the physician. from three to five grains of the gum in a pill, or half-a-teaspoonful of the tincture, with a small wineglassful of warm milk, may be given for a dose. some of the older writers esteemed it highly as an aromatic flavouring spice, and termed it _cibus deorum_, food of the gods. john evelyn says (in his _acetaria_) "the ancient silphium thought by many to be none other than the fetid asa, was so highly prized for its taste and virtues, that it was dedicated to apollo at delphi, and stamped upon african coins as a sacred plant." aristophanes extolled its juice as a restorer of masculine vigour, and the indians at this day sauce their viands with it. nor are some of our skilful cooks ignorant how to condite it, with the applause of those who are unaware of the secret. the silphium, or _laserpitium_ of the romans, yielded what was a famous restorative, the "cyrenaic juice." pareira tells us he was assured by a noted gourmet that the finest relish which a beef steak can possess, may be communicated to it by rubbing the gridiron on which the steak is to be cooked, with asafoetida. the gum when given in moderate doses, acts on all parts of the body as a wholesome stimulant, leading among other good results, to improvement of the vision, [ ] and enlivening the spirits. but its use is apt to produce eructations smacking of garlic, which may persist for several hours; and, if it be given in over doses, the effects are headache and giddiness. when suitably administered, it quickens the appetite and improves the digestion, chiefly with those of a cold temperament, and languid habit. smollet says the romans stuffed their fowls for the table with asafoetida. in germany, sweden, and italy, it is known as "devil's dung." the leek (_allium porrium_) bears an anglo-saxon name corrupted from porleac, and it is also called the porret, having been the prason of the greeks. it was first made use of in england during . this was a food of the poor in ancient egypt, as is shown by an inscription on one of the pyramids, whence was derived the phrase, "to eat the leek"; and its loss was bewailed by the israelites in their journey through the desert. it was said by the romans to be prolific of virtue, because latona, the mother of apollo, longed after leeks. the welsh, who take them much, are observed to be very fruitful. they dedicate these plants to st. david, on whose day, march st, in , the britons (who were known to each other by displaying in their caps, at the inspiration of st. david, some leeks, "the fairest emblym that is worne," plucked in a garden near the field of action) gained a complete victory over the saxons. the bulb contains some sulphur, and is, in its raw state, a stimulating expectorant. its juice acts energetically on the kidneys, and dissolves the calculous formations of earthy phosphates which frequently form in the bladder. for chilblains, chapped hands, and sore eyes, the juice of a leek squeezed out, and mixed with cream, [ ] has been found curative. old tusser tells us, in his _husbandry for march_:-- "now leeks are in season, for pottage full good, that spareth the milch cow, and purgeth the blood," and a trite proverb of former times bids us:-- "eat leeks in lide [march] and ramsons in may, then all the year after physicians can play." ramsons, or the wild garlic (_allium ursinum_), is broad leaved, and grows abundantly on our moist meadow banks, with a strong smell of onions when crushed or bruised. it is perennial, having egg-shaped or lance-like leaves, whilst bearing large, pearly-white blossoms with acute petals. the name is the plural of "ramse," or "ram," which signifies strong-smelling, or rank. and the plant is also called "buck rams," or "buck rampe," in allusion to its spadix or spathe. "the leaves of ramsons," says gerard, "are stamped and eaten with fish, even as we do eat greene sauce made with sorrell." this is "bear's garlic," and the star flower of florists. leeks were so highly esteemed by the emperor nero, that his subjects gave him the sobriquet of "porrophagus." he took them with oil for several days in each month to clear his voice, eating no bread on those days. _un remede d'empereur (neron) pour se debarrasser d'un rhume,--et de commère pour attendre le meme but-- fut envelopper un oignon dans une feuille de chou et le faire cuire sous la cendre; puis l'ecrasser, le reduire en pulpe, le mettre dans une tasse de lait, ou une decoction chaude de redisse; se coucher; et se tenir chaudement, au besoin recidiver matin et soir_. the scotch leek is more hardy and pungent than that [ ] grown in england. it was formerly a favourite ingredient in the cock-a-leekie soup of caledonia, which is so graphically described by sir walter scott, in the _fortunes of nigel_. a "herby" pie, peculiar to cornwall, is made of leeks and pilchards, or of nettles, pepper cress, parsley, mustard, and spinach, with thin slices of pork. at the bottom of the squab pie mentioned before was a squab, or young cormorant, "which diffused," says charles kingsley, "through the pie, and through the ambient air, a delicate odour of mingled guano and polecat." that "lovers live by love, as larks by leeks," is an old saying; and in the classic story of pyramus and thisbe, reference is made to the beautiful emerald green which the leaves of the leek exhibit. "his eyes were as green as leeks." among the welsh farmers, it is a neighbourly custom to attend on a certain day and plough the land of a poor proprietor whose means are limited--each bringing with him one or more leeks for making the soup or broth. the _schalot_, or _eschalotte_, is another variety of the onion tribe, which was introduced into england by the crusaders, who found it growing at ascalon. and chives (_allium schoenoprasum_) are an ever green perennial herb of the onion tribe, having only a mild, alliaceous flavour. epicures consider the schalot to be the best seasoning for beef steaks, either by taking the actual bulb, or by rubbing the plates therewith. again, as a most common plant in all our hedgerows, is found the poor man's garlic, or sauce-alone (_erisymum alliaria_), from _eruo_, to cure, a somewhat coarse and most ordinary member of the onion tribe, which goes also by the names of "jack by the hedge" and "garlick-wort," and belongs to the cruciferous order [ ] of plants. when bruised, it gives out a strong smell of garlic, and when eaten by cows it makes their milk taste powerfully of onions. the ancients, says john evelyn, used "jack by the hedge" as a succedaneum to their scordium, or cultivated garlic. this herb grows luxuriantly, bearing green, shining, heart-shaped leaves, and headpieces of small, white-flowering bunches. it was named "saucealone," from being eaten in the springtime with meat, whilst having so strong a flavour of onions, that it served alone of itself for sauce. perhaps (says dr. prior) the title "jack by the hedge" is derived from "jack," or "jakes," an old english word denoting a privy, or house of office, and this in allusion to the fetid smell of the plant, and the usual place of its growth. when gathered and eaten with boiled mutton, after having been first separately boiled, it makes an excellent vegetable, if picked as it approaches the flowering state. formerly this herb was highly valued as an antiscorbutic, and was thought a most desirable pot herb. (the _erysimum officinale_ (hedge mustard) and the _vervain_ (verbena) make count mattaei's empirical nostrum _febrifugo_: but this _erysimum_ is not the same plant as the jack by the hedge.) gooseberry. the gooseberry (_ribes grossularia_) gets its name from _krüsbar_, which signifies a cross, in allusion to the triple spine of the fruit or berry, which is commonly cruciform. this is a relic of its first floral days, preserved like the apron of the blacksmith at persia, when he came to the throne. the term _grossularia_ implies a resemblance of the fruit to _grossuli_, small unripe figs. [ ] frequently the shrub, which belongs to the same natural order as the currant (_ribes_), grows wild in the hedges and thickets of our eastern counties, bearing then only a small, poor berry, and not supposed to be of native origin. in east anglia it is named fabe, feap, thape, or theab berry, probably by reason of a mistake which arose through an incorrect picture. the melon, in a well-known book of tabernaemontanus, was figured to look like a large gooseberry, and was headed, _pfebe_. and this name was supposed by some wiseacre to be that of the gooseberry, and thus became attached to the said fruit. loudon thinks it signifies feverberry, because of the cooling properties possessed by the gooseberry, which is scarcely probable. in norfolk, the green, unripe fruit is called thape, and the schoolboys in that county well know thape pie, made from green gooseberries. the french call the fruit _groseille_, and the scotch, grosert. it contains, chemically, citric acid, pectose, gum, sugar, cellulose, albumen, mineral matter, and water. the quantity of flesh-forming constituents is insignificant. its pectose, under heat, makes a capital jelly. in this country, the gooseberry was first cultivated at the time of the reformation, and it grows better in great britain than elsewhere, because of the moist climate. the original fruit occurred of the hairy sort, like esau, as the _uva crispa_ of fuschius, in henry the eighth's reign; and there are now red, white, and yellow cultivated varieties of the berry. when green and unripe, gooseberries are employed in a sauce, together with bechamel, and aromatic spices, this being taken with mackerel and other rich fish, as an acid corrective condiment. also, from the juice of the [ ] green fruit, "which cureth all inflammations," may be concocted an excellent vinegar. gooseberry-fool, which comes to our tables so acceptably in early summer, consists of the unripe fruit _foulé_ (that is, crushed or beaten up) with cream and milk. similarly the french have a _foulé des pommes_, and a_ foulé des raisins_. to "play old gooseberry" with another man's property is conjectured to mean smashing it up, and reducing it, as it were, to gooseberry-fool. the young and tender leaves of the shrub, if eaten raw in a salad; drive forth the gravel. and from the red gooseberry may be prepared an excellent light jelly, which is beneficial for sedentary, plethoric, and bilious subjects. this variety of the fruit, whether hairy or smooth, is grown largely in scotland, but in france it is little cared for. the yellow gooseberry is richer and more vinous of taste, suiting admirably, when of the smooth sort, for making gooseberry wine; which is choice, sparkling, and wholesome, such as that wherewith goldsmith's popular _vicar of wakefield_ used to regale farmer flamborough and the blind piper, having "lost neither the recipe nor the reputation." they were soothed in return by the touching ballads of _johnny armstrong's last good night_, and _cruel barbara allen_. gooseberry shows are held annually in lancashire, and excite keen competition; but after exhibition, the successful berries are "topped and tailed," so as to disqualify them from being shown elsewhere. southey, in _the doctor_, speaks about an obituary notice in a former manchester newspaper, of a man who "bore a severe illness with christian fortitude, and was much esteemed among gooseberry growers." prizes are given for the [ ] biggest and heaviest berries, which are produced with immense pains as to manuring, and the growth of cool chickweed around the roots of the bushes. at the same time each promising berry is kept submerged in a shallow vessel of water placed beneath it so as to compel absorption of moisture, and thus to enlarge its size. whimsical names, such as "golden lion," "the jolly angler," and "crown bob," etc., are bestowed on the prize fruit. cuttings from the parent plant of a prize gooseberry become in great request; and thus the pedigree scions of a single bush have been known to yield as much as thirty-two pounds sterling to their possessor. the _gooseberry book_ is a regular manchester annual. a berry weighing as heavy as thirty-seven penny-weight has been exhibited; and a story is told of a middleton weaver, who, when a thunder-storm was gathering, lay awake as if for his life, and at the first patter of rain against the window panes, rushed to the rescue of his gooseberry bushes with his bed quilt. green gooseberries will help to abate the strange longings which sometimes beset pregnant women. in devon the rustics call gooseberries "deberries," and in sussex they are familiarly known to village lads as goosegogs. an irish cure for warts is to prick them with a gooseberry thorn passed through a wedding ring. by some subtle bodily action wrought through a suggestion made to the mind, warts undoubtedly disappear as the result of this and many another equally trivial proceeding; which being so, why not the more serious skin affections, and larger morbid growths? the poet southey wrote a _pindaric ode upon a gooseberry_ [ ] pie, beginning "gooseberry pie is best," with the refrain:-- "and didst thou scratch thy tender arms, oh, jane i that i should dine"? goosefoot. among curative simples, the goosefoot, or chenopod order of british plants, contributes two useful herbs, the _chenopodium bonus henricus_ (good king henry), and the _chenopodium vulvaria_ (stinking goosefoot). this tribe derives its distinctive title from the greek words, _cheen_, a goose, and _pous_, a foot, in allusion to the resemblance borne by its leaves to the webbed members of that waddling bird which raw recruits are wont to bless for their irksome drill of the goose-step. incidentally, it may be said that goosegrease, got from the roasted bird, is highly emollient, and very useful in clysters; it also proves easily emetic. the goosefoot herbs are common weeds in most temperate climates, and grow chiefly in salt marshes, or on the sea-shore. other plants of this tribe are esculent vegetables, as the spinach, beet, and orach. they all afford "soda" in abundance. the _good king henry_ (goosefoot) grows abundantly in waste places near villages, being a dark green, succulent plant, about a foot high, with thickish arrow-shaped leaves, which are cooked as spinach, especially in lincolnshire. it is sometimes called blite, from the greek _bliton_, insipid; and, as evelyn says, in his _acetaria_, "it is well named, being insipid enough." why the said goosefoot has been named "good king henry," or, "good king harry," is a disputed point. a french writer declares "this humble plant which grows on our plains without culture will confer a more lasting [ ] duration on the memory of _henri quatre_ than the statue of bronze placed on the pont neuf, though fenced with iron, and guarded by soldiers." dodoeus says the appellation was given to distinguish the plant from another, a poisonous one, called _malus henricus_, "bad henry." other authors have referred it to our harry the eighth, and his sore legs, for which the leaves were applied as a remedy; but this idea does not seem of probable correctness. frowde tells us "the constant irritation of his festering legs made his terrible temper still more dreadful. warned of his approaching dissolution; and consumed with the death-thirst, he called for a cup of white wine, and, turning to one of his attendants; cried, 'all is lost!'--and these were his last words." the substantive title, _henricus_, is more likely derived from "heinrich," an elf or goblin, as indicating certain magical virtues in the herb. it is further known as english marquery, or mercury, and _tota bona_; or, allgood, the latter from a conceit of the rustics that it will cure all hurts; "wherefore the leaves are now a constant plaster among them for every green wound." it bears small flowers of sepals only, and is grown by cottagers as a pot herb. the young shoots peeled and boiled may be eaten as asparagus, and are gently laxative. the leaves are often made into broth, being applied also externally by country folk to heal old ulcers; and the roots are given to sheep having a cough. both here and in germany this goosefoot is used for feeding poultry, and it has hence acquired the sobriquet of fat-hen. the term, english mercury, has been given because of its excellent remedial qualities against indigestion, and bears out the proverb: "be thou sick or whole, put [ ] mercury in thy koole." poultices made from the herb are applied to cleanse and heal chronic sores, which, as gerard teaches, "they do scour and mundify." certain writers associate it with our _good_ king henry the sixth. there is made in america, from an allied plant, the oak-leaved goosefoot (_chenopodium glaucum_), or from the aphis which infests it, a medicinal tincture used for expelling round worms. the stinking goosefoot, called therefore, _vulvaria_, and _garosmus_, grows often on roadsides in england, and is known as dog's orach. it is of a dull, glaucous, or greyish-green aspect, and invested with a greasy mealiness which when touched exhales a very odious and enduring smell like that of stale salt fish, this being particularly attractive to dogs, though swine refuse the plant. it has been found very useful in hysteria, the leaves being made into a conserve with sugar; or dr. fuller's famous _electuarium hystericum_ may be compounded by adding forty-eight drops of oil of amber (_oleum succini_) to four ounces of the conserve. then a piece of the size of a chestnut should be taken when needed, and repeated more or less often as required. it further promotes the monthly flow of women. but the herb is possessed _odoris virosi intolerabilis_, of a stink which remains long on the hands after touching it. the whole plant is sprinkled over with the white, pellucid meal, and contains much "trimethylamine," together with osmazome, and nitrate of potash; also it gives off free ammonia. the title, orach, given to the stinking goosefoot, a simple of a "most ancient, fish-like smell," and to others of the same tribe, is a corruption of _aurum_, gold, because their seeds were supposed to cure the ailment known popularly as the "yellow jaundice." these plants afford no nutriment, [ ] and, therefore, each bears the name, _atriplex_, not, _trephein_, to nourish:-- "atriplicem tritum cum nitro, melle, et aceto dicunt appositum calidum sedare podagram _ictericis_ dicitque galenus tollere morbum illius semen cum vino saepius haustum." "with vinegar, honey, and salt, the orach made hot, and applied, cures a gouty attack; whilst its seeds for the jaundice, if mingled with wine, --as galen has said--are a remedy fine." "orach is cooling," writes evelyn, "and allays the pituit humors." "being set over the fire, neither this nor the lettuce needs any other water than their own moisture to boil them in." the orach hails from tartary, and is much esteemed in france. it was introduced about . goosegrass. "goosey, goosey, gander, whither do ye wander?" says an old nursery rhyme by way of warning to the silly waddling birds not to venture into hedgerows, else will they become helplessly fettered by the tough, straggling coils of the clivers, goosegrass, or, hedgeheriff, growing so freely there, and a sad despoiler of feathers. the medicinal goosegrass (_galium aparine_), which is a highly useful curative simple, springs up luxuriantly about fields and waste places in most english districts. it belongs to the rubiaceous order of plants, all of which have a root like madder, affording a red dye. this hardy goosegrass climbs courageously by its slender, hairy stems through the dense vegetation of our hedges into open daylight, having sharp, serrated leaves, and producing small white flowers, "pearking on the tops of the sprigs." it is one of the bedstraw tribe, and bears [ ] a number of popular titles, such as cleavers, clithers, robin run in the grass, burweed, loveman, gooseherriff, mutton chops, clite, clide, clitheren, and goosebill, from the sharp, serrated leaves, like the rough-edged mandibles of a goose. its stalks and leaves are covered with little hooked bristles, which attach themselves to passing objects, and by which it fastens itself in a ladder-like manner to adjacent shrubs, so as to push its way upwards in the hedgerows. goosegrass has obtained the sobriquet of beggar's lice, from clinging closely to the garments of passers by, as well as because the small burs resemble these disgusting vermin; again it is known to some as harriff, or, erriff, from the anglo-saxon "hedge rife," a taxgather, or robber, because it plucks the wool from the sheep as they pass through a hedge; also grip-grass, catchweed, and scratchweed. furthermore, this bedstraw has been called goose-grease, from a mistaken belief that obstructive ailments of geese can be cured therewith. it is really a fact that goslings are extremely fond of the herb. the botanical name, _aparine_, bears the same meaning, being derived from the greek verb, _apairo_, to lay hold of. the generic term, _galium_, comes from the greek word _gala_, milk, which the herb was formerly employed to curdle, instead of rennet. the flowers of this bedstraw bloom towards august, about the time of the feast of the annunciation, and a legend says they first burst into blossom at the birth of our saviour. bedstraw is, according to some, a corruption of beadstraw. it is certain that irish peasant girls often repeat their "aves" from the round seeds of the bedstraw, using them for beads in the absence of a rosary; [ ] and hence, perhaps, has been derived the name our lady's be(a)dstraw. but straw (so called from the latin _sterno_, to strew, or, scatter about) was formerly employed as bedding, even by ladies of rank: whence came the expression of a woman recently confined being "in the straw." children style the _galium aparine_ whip tongue, and tongue-bleed, making use of it in play to draw blood from their tongues. this herb has a special curative reputation with reference to cancerous growths and allied tumours. for open cancers an ointment is made from the leaves and stems wherewith to dress the ulcerated parts, and at the same time the expressed juice of the plant is given internally. dr. tuthill massy avers that it often produces a cure in from six to twelve months, and advises that the decoction shall be drank regularly afterwards in the springtime. dr. quinlan, at st. vincent's hospital, dublin, successfully employed poultices made with the fresh juice, and applied three times in the day, to heal chronic ulcers on the legs. its effects, he says, in the most unlikely cases, were decisive and plain to all. he gave directions that whilst a bundle of ten or twelve stalks is grasped with the left hand, this bundle should be cut into pieces of about half-an-inch long, by a pair of scissors held in the right hand. the segments are then to be bruised thoroughly in a mortar, and applied in the mass as a poultice beneath a bandage. dr. thornton, in his excellent _herbal_ ( ), says: "after some eminent surgeons had failed, he ordered the juice of cleavers, mixed with linseed, to be applied to the breast, in cases of supposed cancer of that part, with a teaspoonful of the juice to be taken every night and morning whilst fasting; by which plan, after a short [ ] time, he dispersed very frightful tumours in the breast." the herb is found, on analysis, to contain three distinct acids--the tannic acid (of galls), the citric acid (of lemons), and the special rubichloric acid of the plant. "in cancer," says dr. boyce, "five fluid ounces of the fresh juice of the plant are to be taken twice a day, whilst constantly applying the bruised leaves, or their ointment, to the sore." some of our leading druggists now furnish curative preparations made from the fresh herb. these include the _succus_, or juice, to be swallowed; the decoction, to be applied as a lotion; and the ointment, for curative external use. both in england and elsewhere the juice of this goosegrass constitutes one of the spring juices taken by country people for scorbutic complaints. and not only for cancerous disease, but for many other foul, illconditioned ulcers, whether scrofulous or of the scurvy nature, this goosegrass has proved itself of the utmost service, its external application being at all times greatly assisted by the internal use of the juice, or of a decoction made from the whole herb. by reason of its acid nature; this galium is astringent, and therefore of service in some bleedings, as well as in diarrhoea, and for obesity. gerard writes: "the herb, stamped with swine's grease, wasteth away the kernels by the throat; and women do usually make pottage of cleavers with a little mutton and oatmeal, to cause leanness, and to keep them from fatness." dioscorides reported that: "shepherds do use the herb to take hairs out of the milk, if any remain therein." considered generally, the _galium aparine_ exercises acid, astringent, and diuretic effects, whilst it is of [ ] special value against epilepsy, and cancerous sores, as already declared; being curative likewise of psoriasis, eczema, lepra, and other cutaneous diseases. the dose of the authorised officinal juice is from one to two teaspoonfuls, and from five to twenty grains of the prepared extract. the title _galium_ borne by bedstraws has been derived from the greek _gala_, milk, because they all possess to some extent the power of curdling milk when added to it. similarly the appellation "cheese rennet," or, cheese running (from _gerinnen_, to coagulate), is given to these plants. highlanders make special use of the common yellow bedstraw for this purpose, and to colour their cheese. from the yellow bedstraw (_galium verum_), which is abundant on dry banks chiefly near the sea, and which may be known by its diminutive, puffy stems, and its small golden flowers, closely clustered together in dense panicles, "an ointment," says gerard, "is prepared, which is good for anointing the weary traveller." because of its bright yellow blossoms, this herb is also named "maid's hair," resembling the loose, unsnooded, golden hair of maidens. in henry viii's reign "maydens did wear silken callis to keep in order their hayre made yellow with dye." for a like reason the yellow bedstraw has become known as "petty mugget," from the french _petit muguet_, a little dandy, as applied in ridicule to effeminate young men, the _jemmy jessamies_, or "mashers" of the period. old herbalists affirmed that the root of this same bedstraw, if drunk in wine, stimulates amorous desires, and that the flowers, if long smelt at, will produce a similar effect. this is, _par excellence_, the bedstraw of _our lady_, who [ ] gave birth to her son, says the legend, in a stable, with nothing but wild flowers for the bedding. thus, in the old latin hymn, she sings right sweetly:-- "lectum stravi tibi soli: dormi, nate bellule! stravi lectum foeno molli: dormi, mi animule! ne quid desit sternam rosis: sternam foenum violis, pavimentum hyacinthis; et praesepe liliis." "sleep, sweet little babe, on the bed i have spread thee; sleep, fond little life, on the straw scattered o'er! 'mid the petals of roses, and pansies i've laid thee, in crib of white lilies; blue bells on the floor." goutweed. a passing word should certainly be given to the goutweed, or, goatweed, among herbal simples. it is, though but little regarded, nevertheless, a common and troublesome garden weed, of the umbelliferous tribe, and thought to possess certain curative virtues. botanically it is the _oegopodium podagraria_, signifying, by the first of these names, goatsfoot, and by the second, a specific power against gout. the plant is also known as herb gerard, because dedicated to st. gerard, who was formerly invoked to cure gout, against which this herb was employed. also it has been named ashweed, wild master-wort, and gout-wort. the herb grows about a foot high, with white flowers in umbels, having large, thrice-ternate, aromatic leaves, and a creeping root. these leaves are sometimes boiled, and eaten, but they possess a strong, disagreeable flavour. culpeper says: "it is not to be supposed that goutweed hath its name for nothing; but upon experiment to heal the gout, and sciatica; as also joint aches, and other cold griefs; _the very bearing it about one_ [ ] _easeth the pains of the gout, and defends him that bears it from disease_." hill recommends the root and fresh buds of the leaves as excellent in fomentations and poultices for pains; and the leaves, when boiled soft, together with the roots, for application about the hip in sciatica. no chemical analysis of the goutweed is yet on record. "herbe gerard groweth of itself in gardens without setting, or sowing; and is so fruitful in his increase that where once it hath taken root, it will hardly be gotten out again, spoiling and getting every yeere more ground--to the annoying of better herbes." grapes (see also vine). grapes, the luscious and refreshing fruit of the vine, possess certain medicinal properties and virtues which give them a proper place among herbal simples. the name vine comes from _viere_, to twist, being applied with reference to the twining habits of the parent stock; as likewise to "with," and "withy." the fruit consists of pulp, stones, and skin. within the pulp is contained the grape sugar, which differs in some respects chemically from cane sugar, and which is taken up straightway into our circulation when eaten, without having to be changed slowly by the saliva, as is the case with cane sugar. therefore it happens that the grape sugar warms and fattens speedily, with a quick repair of waste, when the strength and the structures are consumed by fever, grapes then being most grateful to the sufferer. but they do not suit inflammatory subjects at other times, or gouty persons at any time, as well as cane sugar, which has to undergo slower chemical conversion before it furnishes heat and [ ] sustenance. and in this respect, grape sugar closely resembles the glucose, or sweet principle of honey. the fruit also contains a certain quantity of "fruit sugar," which is chemically identical with cane sugar; and, because of the special syrupy juice of its pulp, the grape adapts itself to quick alcoholic fermentation. the important ingredients of grapes are sugar (grape and fruit), gum, tannin, bitartrate of potash, sulphate of potash, tartrate of lime, magnesia, alum, iron, chlorides of potassium and sodium, tartaric, citric, racemic, and malic acids, some albumen, and azotized matters, with water. but the wine grower is glad to see his _must_ deposit the greater part of these chemical ingredients in the "tartar," a product much disliked, and therefore named _sal tartari_, or hell salt; and _cremor tartari_, hell scum (cream of tartar). in italy, the vine furnishes oil as well as wine, this being extracted from the grape stones, and reckoned superior to any other sort, whether for the table or for purposes of lighting. it has no odour, and burns without smoke. the stones also yield volatile essences, which are developed by crushing, and which give bouquet to the several wines, whilst the skin affords colouring matter and tannin, of more or less astringency. grapes supply but little actual nutritious matter for building up the solid structures of the body; they act as gentle laxatives; though their stones, and the leaves of the vine, are astringent. these latter were formerly employed to stop bleedings, and when dried and powdered, for arresting dysentery in cattle. in egypt the leaves are used, when young and tender, for enveloping balls of hashed meat, at good tables. the [ ] sap of the vine, named _lacryma_, "a tear," is an excellent application to weak eyes, and for specs of the cornea. the juice of the unripe fruit, which is verjuice (as well as that of the wild crabapple), was much esteemed by the ancients, and is still in good repute for applying to bruises and sprains. when taken in any quantity, grapes act freely on the kidneys, and promote a flow of urine. the vegetable acids of the fruit become used up as such, and are neutralised in the system by combining with the earthy salts found therein, and they pass off in the urine as alkaline carbonates. with full-blooded, excitable persons, grapes in any quantity are apt to produce palpitation, and to quicken the circulation for a time. also with persons of slow and feeble energies, having a languid digestion (and especially if predisposed to acid fermentation in the stomach), grapes are apt to disagree. they send their glucose straightway into the circulation combined with acids found in the stomach, and create considerable distress of heartburn and dyspepsia. "thus," says dr. king chambers, "is generated acidity of the stomach, parent of gout, and of all its hideous crew." likewise wine, especially if sweet, new, or full-bodied, when taken by such persons at a meal, is absorbed but slowly by the stomach, and much of the sugar, with some alcohol, becomes converted by fermentation into acetic acid, which further causes the oily ingredients in the food which has been swallowed to turn rancid. "things sweet to taste prove to digestion sour." but otherwise, with a person in good health, and not given to gout or rheumatism, grapes are an excellent food for supplying warmth as combustion material, by their ready-made sugar; whilst the essential flavours of the fruit are cordial, and [ ] whilst a surplus of the glucose serves to form fat for storage. what is known as the _grape-cure_, is pursued in the tyrol, in bavaria, on the banks of the rhine, and elsewhere--the sick person being ordered to eat from three to six pounds of grapes a day. but the relative proportions of the sugar and acids in the various kinds of grapes have important practical bearings on the results obtained, determining whether wholesome purgation shall follow, or whether tonic and fattening effects shall be produced. in the former case, sufferers from sluggish liver and torpid biliary functions, with passive local congestions, will benefit most by taking the grapes not fully ripe, and not completely sweet; whilst in the latter instance, those invalids will gain special help from ripe and sweet grapes, who require quick supplies of animal heat and support to resist rapid waste of tissue, as in chronic catarrh of the lungs, or mucous catarrh of the bowels. the most important constituent to be determined is the quantity of grape sugar, which varies according to the greater or less warmth of the climate. tokay grapes are the sweetest; next are those of southern france; then of moselle, bohemia, and heidelberg; whilst the fruit of the vine in spain, italy, and madeira, is not commended for curative purposes. the grapes are eaten three, four, or five times a day, during the promenade; those which are not sweet produce a diuretic and laxative effect; seeing, moreover, that their reaction is alkaline, the "cure" thereby is particularly suitable for persons troubled with gravel and acid gout. after losses of blood, and in allied states of exhaustion, the restorative powers of the grape-cure are often [ ] strikingly exhibited. formerly, the german doctors kept their patients, when under this mode of treatment, almost entirely without other food. but it is now found that light, wholesome nourishment, properly chosen, and taken at regular times, even with some moderate allowance of bordeaux wine, may be permitted in useful conjunction with the grapes. children do not, as a rule, bear the grape-cure well. one sort of grape, the bourdelas, or verjus, being intensely sour when green, is never allowed to ripen, but its large berries are made to yield their acid liquor for use instead of vinegar or lemon juice, in sauces, drinks, and medicinal preparations. a vinegar poultice, applied cold, is an effectual remedy for sprains and bruises, and will arrest the progress of scrofulous enlargements of bones. it may be made with vinegar and oatmeal, or with the addition of bread crumb."--_pharmacopoeia chirurgica_, . "other fruits may please the palate equally well, but it is the proud prerogative of the kingly grape to minister also to the mind." this served to provide one of the earliest offerings to the deity, seeing that "bread and wine were brought forth to abraham by melchisedec, the priest of the most high god." the vine (_vitis vinifera_) was almost always to the front in the designs drawn by the ancients. thus, miniatures and dainty little pictures were originally encircled with representations of its foliage, and we still name such small exquisite illustrations, "vignettes," from the french word, _vigne_. the large family of muscat grapes get their distinctive title not because of any flavour of musk attached to them, but because the sweet berries are particularly attractive to flies (muscre), a reason which [ ] induced the romans to name this variety, vitis apiaria. "_on attrape plus de mouches avec le miel qu' avec le vinaigre_"-- say the french. in portugal, grape juice is boiled down with quinces into a sort of jam--the progenitor of all marmalades. the original grape vine is supposed to have been indigenous to the shores of the caspian sea. if eaten to excess, especially by young persons, grapes will make the tongue and the lining membrane of the mouth sore, just as honey often acts. for this reason, both grapes and honey do good to the affection known as thrush, with sore raw mouth, and tongue in ulcerative white patches, coming on as a derangement of the health. grasses. our abundant english grasses furnish nutritious herbage and farinaceous seeds, whilst their stems and leaves prove useful for textile purposes. furthermore, some few of them possess distinctive medicinal virtues, with mucilaginous roots, and may be properly classed among herbal simples. the sweet-scented vernal grass (anthoxanthum, with yellow anthers) gives its delightfully characteristic odour to newly mown meadow hay, and has a pleasant aroma of woodruff. but it is specially provocative of hay fever and hay asthma with persons liable to suffer from these distressing ailments. accordingly, a medicinal tincture is made (h.) from this grass with spirit of wine, and if some of the same is poured into the open hand-palms for the volatile aroma to be sniffed well into the nose and throat, immediate relief is afforded during an attack. at the same time three or four drops of the tincture should be taken as a dose with water, and [ ] repeated at intervals of twenty or thirty minutes, as needed. the flowers contain "coumarin," and their volatile pollen impregnates the atmosphere in early summer. the sweet perfume is due chiefly to benzoic acid, such as is used for making scented pastilles, or ribbon of bruges for fumigation. again, the couch grass, dog grass, or quilch (_triticum repens_) found freely in road-sides, fields, and waste places, has been employed from remote times as a vulnerary, and to relieve difficulties of urination. our english wheat has been evolved therefrom. in modern days its infusion--of the root--is generally regarded as a soothing diuretic, helpful to the bladder and kidneys. formerly, this was a popular drink to purify the blood in the spring. but no special constituents have been discovered in the root besides a peculiar sugar, a gum-like principle, _triticin_, and some lactic acid. the decoction may be made from the whole fresh plant, or from the dried root sliced, two to four ounces being put in a quart of water, reduced to a pint by boiling. a wineglassful of this may be given for a dose. it certainly palliates irritation of the urinary passages, and helps to relieve against gravel. a liquid extract is also dispensed by the druggists, of which from one to two teaspoonfuls are given in water. the french specially value this grass for its stimulating fragrancy of vanilla and rose perfumes in the decoction. they use the cocksfoot grass (_dactylis_), or _pied de poule_, in a similar way, and for the same purposes. also the "bearded darnel," _lolium temulentum_ ("intoxicated"), a common grass-weed in english cornfields, will produce medicinally all the symptoms of drunkenness. the french call it _ivraie_ for this reason, and [ ] with us it is known as ray grass, or in some provincial districts as "cheat." the old sages supposed it to cause blindness, hence with the romans, _lolio victitare_, to live on darnel, was a phrase applied to a dim-sighted person. gerard says, "the new bread wherein darnell is eaten hot, causeth drunkenness." from _lolium_ the term lollard given in reproach to the waldenses, and the followers of wickliffe, indicated that they were pernicious weeds choking and destroying the pure wheat of the gospel. milne says the expression in matthew xiii. v. , would have been better translated "darnel" than "tares." a general trembling, followed by inability to walk, hindered speech, and presently profound sleep, with subsequent headache and vomiting, are the symptoms produced by darnel when taken in a harmful quantity. so that medicinally a tincture of the plant may be expected, if given in small diluted doses, to quickly dispel intoxication from alcoholic drinks; also to prove useful for analogous congestion of the brain coming on as an illness, and for dimness of vision. chemically, it contains an acrid fixed oil, and a yellow glucoside. there is some reason to suspect that the old custom of using darnel to adulterate malt and distilled liquors has not been wholly abandoned. farmers in devonshire are fond of the ray grass, which they call "eaver" or "iver"; and "devon-ever" is noted likewise in somersetshire. groundsel. common groundsel is so well known throughout great britain, that it needs scarcely any description. it is very prolific, and found in every sort of cultivated ground, being a small plant of the daisy tribe, but without any [ ] outer white rays to its yellow flower-heads. these are compact little bundles, at first of a dull yellow colour, until presently the florets fall off and leave the white woolly pappus of the seeds collected together, somewhat resembling the hoary hairs of age. they have suggested the name of the genus "senecio," from the latin _senex_, an old man:-- "quod canis simili videatur flore capillis; cura facit canos quamvis vir non habet annos." "with venerable locks the groundsel grows; hard care more quick than years white head-gear shows." in the fifteenth century this herb went by the name of grondeswyle, from _grund_, ground, and _swelgun_, to swallow, and to this day it is called in scotland grundy swallow, or ground glutton. not being attractive to insects or visited by them the groundsel is fertilized by the wind. it flowers throughout the whole year, and is the favourite food of many small birds, being thus given to canaries, and to other domesticated songsters. the weed, named at first "ascension," is called in the eastern counties by corruption "senshon" and "simson." its leaves are fleshy, with a bitter saline taste, whilst the juice is slightly acrid, but emollient. in this country farriers give it to horses for bot-worms, and in germany it is employed as a vermifuge for children. a weak infusion of the whole plant with boiling water makes a simple and easy purgative dose, but a strong infusion will act as an emetic. for the former purpose two drachms by weight of the fresh plant should be boiled in four fluid ounces of water, and the same decoction serves as a useful gargle for a [ ] sore throat from catarrh. chemically it contains senecin and seniocine. in the hands of simplers the groundsel formerly held high rank as a herb of power. au old herbal prescribes against toothache to "dig up groundsel with a tool that hath no iron in it, and touch the tooth five times with the plant, then spit thrice after each touch, and the cure will be complete." hill says "the fresh roots if smelled when first taken out of the ground, are an immediate cure for many forms of headache." to apply the bruised leaves will serve for preventing boils, and the plant, if taken as a sallet with vinegar, is good for sadness of the heart. gerard says "women troubled with the mother (womb) are much eased by baths made of the leaves, and flowers of this, and the kindred ragworts." a decoction of groundsel serves as a famous application for healing chapped hands. in cornwall if the herb is to be used as an emetic they strip it upwards, if for a purgative downwards. "lay by your learned receipts," writes culpeper, "this herb alone shall do the deed for you in all hot diseases, first safely, second speedily." hawthorn (whitethorn). the hawthorn, or whitethorn, is so welcome year by year as a harbinger of summer, by showing its wealth of sweet-scented, milk-white blossoms, in our english hedgerows, that everyone rejoices when the mayflower comes into bloom. its brilliant haws, or fruit, later on are a botanical advance on the blackberry and wild raspberry, which belong to the same natural order. it has promoted itself to the possession of a single carpel or seed-vessel to each blossom, producing a [ ] separate fruit, this being a stony apple in miniature. but the word "haw" is misapplied, because it really means a "hedge," and not a fruit; whilst "hips," which are popularly connected with "haws," are the fruit-capsules of the wild dog-rose. haws, when dried, make an infusion which will act on the kidneys; they are astringent, and serve, as well as the flowers, in decoction, to cure a sore throat. the hawthorn bush was chosen by henry the seventh for his device, because a small crown from the helmet of richard the third was discovered hanging thereon. hence arose the legend "cleve to thy crown though it hangs on a bush." in some districts it is called hazels, gazels, and halves; and in many country places the villagers believe that the blossom of the hawthorn still bears the smell of the great plague of london. it was formerly thought to be scathless--a tree too sacred to be touched. botanically, the hawthorn is called _cratoegus oxyacantha_, these names signifying _kratos_, strength or hardness (of the wood); and _oxus_, sharp--_akantha_, a thorn. it is the german _hage-dorn_ or hedge thorn, showing that from a very early period in the history of the germanic races, their land was divided into plots by means of hedges. the hawthorn is also named whitethorn, from the whiteness of its rind; and quickset from its growing in a hedge as a "quick" or living shrub, when contrasted with a paling of dead wood. an old english name for the buds of the hawthorn when just expanding, was ladies' meat; and in sussex it is called the bread and cheese tree. in many parts of england charms or incantations are [ ] employed to prevent a thorn from festering in the flesh, as:-- "happy the man that christ was born, he was crowned with a thorn, he was pierced through the skin for to let the poison in; but his five wounds, so they say, closed before he passed away; in with healing, out with thorn! happy man that christ was born." the flowers are fertilised for the most part by carrion insects, and a certain undertone of decomposition may be detected (says grant allen) by keen nostrils in the scent of the mayflower. it is this curious element, in what seems otherwise a pure and delicious perfume, which attracts the meat-eating insects, or rather those insects which lay their eggs and hatch out their larvae in decaying animal matter. the meat-fly comes first abroad just at the time when the mayblossom breaks into bloom. a greek bride was sometimes decked with a sprig of hawthorn, as emblematic of a flowery future, with thorns intermingled. it is supposed that "the jewes maden," for our saviour, "a croune of the branches of albespyne, that is, whitethorn, that grew in the same garden, and therefore hath the whitethorn many vertues" being called in france _l'epine noble_. the shadows in the moon are popularly thought to represent a man laden with a bundle of thorns in punishment of theft:-- "rusticus in lunâ quem sarcina deprimit una, monstrat per spinas nulli prodesse rapinas." "a thievish clown by cruel thorns opprest shows in the moon that honesty pays best." [ ] hemlock and henbane. the spotted hemlock (_conium maculatum_), and the sickly-smelling henbane (_hyoscyamus niger_), are plants of common wild growth throughout england, especially the former, and are well known to everyone familiar with our herbal simples. but each is so highly narcotic as a medicine, and yet withal so safely useful externally to allay pain, as well as to promote healing, that their outward remedial forms of application must not be overlooked among our serviceable herbs. nevertheless, for internal administration, these herbs lie altogether beyond the pale of domestic uses, except in the hands of a doctor. the hemlock is an umbelliferous plant of frequent growth in our hedges and roadsides, with tall, hollow stalks, powdered blue at the bottom, whilst smooth and splashed about with spotty streaks of a reddish purple. it possesses foliage resembling that of the garden carrot, but feathery and more delicately divided. the name has been got from _healm_, or _haulm_, straw, and _leac_, a plant, because of the dry hollow stalks which remain after flowering is done. in kent and essex, the hemlock is called kecksies, and the stalks are spoken of as hollow kecksies. keckis, or kickes, of humblelockis are mentioned by our oldest herbalists. in a book about herbs, of the fourteenth century, two sorts of hemlock are specified--one being the grete homeloc, which is called "kex," or "wode whistle," being of no use except for poor men's fuel, and children's play. botanically, it bears the name of _conium maculatum_ (spotted), the first of these words coming from the greek, _konos_, a top, and having reference to the giddiness which the juice of hemlock causes toxically in the [ ] human brain. the unripe fruit of this plant possesses its peculiar medicinal properties in a greater degree than any other part, and the juice expressed therefrom is more reliably medicinal than the tincture made with spirit of wine, from the whole plant. soil, situation, and the time of year, materially affect the potency of hemlock. being a biennial plant, it is not poisonous in this country to cattle during the first year, if they eat its leaves. the herb is always uncertain of action unless gathered of the true "maculatum" sort, when beginning to flower. its juice should be thickened in a water bath, or the leaves carefully dried, and kept in a well-stoppered bottle, not exposed to the light. cole says, "if asses chance to feed on hemlock, they will fall so fast asleep that they seem to be dead, insomuch that some, thinking them to be dead indeed, have flayed off their skins; yet after the hemlock had done operating they had stirred and wakened out of their sleep." the dried leaves of the plant, if put into a small bag, and steeped in boiling water for a few minutes, and then applied hot to a gouty part, will quickly relieve the pain; also, they will help to soften the hard concretions which form about gouty joints. if the fresh juice of the hemlock is evaporated to a thick syrup, and mixed with lanoline (the fat of sheep's wool), to make an ointment, it will afford wonderful relief to severe itching within and around the fundament; but it must be thoroughly applied. for a poultice some of this thickened juice may be added to linseed meal and boiling water, previously mixed well together. conium plasters were formerly employed to dry up the breast milk, and are now found of service to subdue palpitations of the heart. [ ] an extract of hemlock, blended with potash, is kept by the chemists, to be mixed with boiling water, for inhalation to ease a troublesome spasmodic cough, or an asthmatic attack. in russia and the crimea, this plant is so inert as to be edible; whereas in the south of europe it is highly poisonous. chemically, the toxic action of hemlock depends on its alkaloids, "coniine," and "methyl-coniine." vinegar has proved useful in neutralising the poisonous effects of hemlock, and it is said if the plant is macerated or boiled in vinegar it becomes altogether inert. for inhalation to subdue whooping-cough, three or four grains of the extract should be mixed with a pint of boiling water in a suitable inhaler, so that the medicated vapour may be inspired through the mouth and nostrils. to make a hemlock poultice, when the fresh plant cannot be procured, mix an ounce of powdered hemlock leaves (from the druggist) with three ounces of linseed meal; then gradually add half a pint of boiling water whilst constantly stirring. herb gatherers sometimes mistake the wild cicely (_myrrhis odorata_) for the hemlock; but this cicely has a furrowed stem without spots, and is hairy, with a highly aromatic flavour. the bracts of hemlock, at the base of the umbels, go only half way round the stem. the rough chervil is also spotted, but hairy, and its stem is swollen below each joint. under proper medical advice, the extract and the juice of hemlock may be most beneficially given internally in cancer, and as a nervine sedative. the hemlock was esteemed of old as _herba benedicta_, a blessed herb, because "where the root is in the house [ ] the devil can do no harm, and if anyone should carry the plant about on his person no venomous beast can harm him." the eleusinian priests who were required to remain chaste all their lives, had the wisdom to rub themselves with hemlock. poultices may be made exclusively with the fresh leaves (which should be gathered in june) or with the dried leaflets when powdered, for easing and healing cancerous sores. baron stoerck first brought the plant into repute ( ) as a medicine of extraordinary efficacy for curing inveterate scirrhus, cancer, and ulcers, such as were hitherto deemed irremediable. likewise the _cicuta virosa_, or water hemlock, has proved curative to many similar glandular swellings. this is also an umbelliferous plant, which grows commonly on the margins of ditches and rivers in many parts of england. it gets its name from _cicuta_ (a shepherd's pipe made from a reed), because of its hollow stems. being hurtful to cows it has acquired the title of cowbane. the root when incised secretes from its wounded bark a yellow juice of a narcotic odour and acrid taste. this has been applied externally with benefit for scirrhous cancer, and to ease the pain of nervous gout. but when taken internally it is dangerous, being likely to provoke convulsions, or to produce serious narcotic effects. nevertheless, goats eat the herb with impunity:-- "nam videre licet pinguescere soepe cicutam, barbigeras pecudes; hominique est acre venenum." the leaves smell like celery or parsley, these being most toxical in summer, and the root in spring. the potency of the plant depends on its cicutoxin, a principle derived from the resinous constituents, and [ ] which powerfully affects the organic functions through the spinal cord. it was either this or the spotted hemlock, which was used as the state poison of the greeks for causing the death of socrates. for a fomentation with the water hemlock half-a-pound of the fresh leaves, or three ounces of the dried leaves should be boiled in three pints of water down to a quart; and this will be found very helpful for soothing and healing painful cancerous, or scrofulous sores. also the juice of the herb mixed with hot lard, and strained, will serve a like useful purpose. for pills of the herb take of its inspissated juice half-an-ounce, and of the finely powdered plant enough when mixed together to make from forty to sixty pills. then for curing cancer, severe scrofula, or syphilitic sores, give from one to twenty of these pills in twenty-four hours (_pharmacopeia chirurgica_, ). an infusion of the plant will serve when carefully used, to relieve nervous and sick headache. if the fresh, young, tender leaves are worn under the soles of the feet, next the skin, and are renewed once during the day, they will similarly assuage the discomfort of a nervous headache. the oil with which the herb abounds is not poisonous. the _black henbane_ grew almost everywhere about england, in gerard's day, by highways, in the borders of fields, on dunghills, and in untoiled places. but now it has become much less common as a rustic herb in this country. we find it occasionally in railway cuttings, and in rubbish on waste places, chiefly on chalky ground, and particularly near the sea. the plant is biennial, rather large, and dull of aspect, with woolly sea-green leaves, and bearing bell-shaped flowers of a lurid, creamy colour, streaked and spotted with purple. it [ ] is one of the night-shade tribe, having a heavy, oppressive, sub-fetid odour, and being rather clammy to the touch. this herb is also called hogsbean, and its botanical name, _hyoscyamus_, signifies "the bean of the hog," which animal eats it with impunity, though to mankind it is a poisonous plant. it has been noticed in sherwood forest, that directly the turf is pared henbane springs up. "to wash the feet," said gerard, "in a decoction of henbane, as also the often smelling to the flowers, causeth sleep." similarly famous anodyne necklaces were made from the root, and were hung about the necks of children to prevent fits, and to cause an easy breeding of the teeth. from the leaves again was prepared a famous sorcerer's ointment. "these, the seeds, and the juice," says gerard, "when taken internally, cause an unquiet sleep, like unto the sleep of drunkenness, which continueth long, and is deadly to the patient." the herb was known to the ancients, being described by dioscorides and celsus. internally, it should only be prescribed by a physician, and is then of special service for relieving irritation of the bladder, and to allay maniacal excitement, as well as to subdue spasm. the fresh leaves crushed, and applied as a poultice, will quickly relieve local pains, as of gout or neuralgia. in france the plant is called _jusquiame_, and in germany it is nicknamed devil's-eye. the chemical constituents of henbane are "hyoscyamine," a volatile alkaloid, with a bitter principle, "hyoscypricin" (especially just before flowering), also nitrate of potash, which causes the leaves, when burnt, to sparkle with a deflagration, and other inorganic salts. the seeds contain a whitish, oily albumen. the leaves and viscid stem are produced only in [ ] each second year. the juice when dropped into the eye will dilate the pupil. druggists prepare this juice of the herb, and an extract; also, they dispense a compound liniment of henbane, which, when applied to the skin-surface on piline, is of great service for relieving obstinate rheumatic pains. in some rural districts the cottony leaves of henbane are smoked for toothache, like tobacco, but this practice is not free from risk of provoking convulsions, and even of causing insanity. gerard writes, with regard to the use of the seed of henbane by mountebanks, for obstinate toothache: "drawers of teeth who run about the country and pretend they cause worms to come forth from the teeth by burning the seed in a chafing dish of coals, the party holding his mouth over the fume thereof, do have some crafty companions who convey small lute strings into the water, persuading the patient that those little creepers came out of his mouth, or other parts which it was intended to ease." forestus says: "these pretended worms are no more than an appearance of worms which is always seen in the smoak of henbane seed." "sic dentes serva; porrorum collige grana: no careas thure; cum _hyoscyamo_ ure: sic que per embotum fumun cape dente remotum." _regimen sanitatis salernitanum_ (translated ). "if in your teeth you happen to be tormented, by means some little worms therein do brede, which pain (if need be tane) may be prevented by keeping cleane your teeth when as ye fead. burn frankonsence (a gum not evil scented), put henbane into this, and onyon seed, and with a tunnel to the tooth that's hollow, convey the smoke thereof, and ease shall follow." [ ] by older writers, the henbane was called henbell and symphonica, as implying its resemblance to a ring of bells (_symphonia_), which is struck with a hammer. it has also been named _faba jovis_ (jupiter's bean). only within recent times has the suffix "bell" given place to "bane," because the seeds are fatal to poultry and fish. in some districts horsedealers mix the seed of henbane with their oats, in order to fatten the animals. an instance is narrated where the roots of henbane were cooked by mistake at a monastery for the supper of its inmates, and produced most strange results. one monk would insist on ringing the large bell at midnight, to the alarm of the neighbourhood; whilst of those who came to prayers at the summons, several could not read at all, and others read anything but what was contained in their breviaries. some authors suppose that this is the noxious herb intended by shakespeare, in the play of _hamlet_, when the ghost of the murdered king makes plaint, that: "sleeping within mine orchard, my custom always of the afternoon, upon my secure hour thy uncle stole, with juice of cursed _hebenon_ in a vial, and in the porches of mine ear did pour the leprous distilment." but others argue more correctly that the name used here is a varied form of that by which the yew is known in at least five of the gothic languages, and which appears in marlow and other elizabethan writers, as "hebon." "this tree," says lyte, "is altogether venomous and against man's nature; such as do but only sleepe under the shadow thereof, become sicke, and sometimes they die." [ ] honey. being essentially of floral origin, and a vegetable product endowed with curative properties, honey may be fairly ranked among herbal simples. indeed, it is the nectar of flowers, partaking closely of their flavours and odours, whilst varying in taste, colour, scent, and medicinal attributes, according to the species of the plant from which it is produced. the name honey has been derived from a hebrew word _ghoneg_, which means literally "delight." historically, this substance dates from the oldest times of the known world. we read in the book of genesis, that the land of canaan where abraham dwelt, was flowing with milk and honey; and in the mosaic law were statutes regulating the ownership of bees. among the ancients honey was used for embalming the dead, and it is still found contained in their preserved coffins. aristoeus, a pupil of chiron, first gathered honey from the comb, and it was the basis of the seasoning of apicius: whilst pythagoras, who lived to be ninety, took latterly only bread and honey. "whoever wishes," said an old classic maxim, "to preserve his health, should eat every morning before breakfast young onions with honey." tacitus informs us that our german ancestors gave credit for their great strength and their long lives to the mead, or honey-beer, on which they regaled themselves. pliny tells of rumilius pollio, who enjoyed marvellous health arid vitality, when over a hundred years old. on being presented to the emperor augustus, who enquired what was the secret of his wondrous longevity, pollio answered, "_interus melle, exterus oleo_, the eating of honey, and anointing with oil." [ ] at the feasts of the gods, described by ovid, the delicious honey-cakes were never wanting, these being made of meal, honey, and oil, whilst corresponding in number to the years of the devout offerer. pure honey contains chemically about seventy per cent. of glucose (analogous to grape sugar) or the crystallizable part which sinks to the bottom of the jar, whilst the other portion above, which is non-crystallizable, is levulose, or fruit sugar, almost identical with the brown syrup of the sugar cane, but less easy of digestion. hence, the proverb has arisen "of oil the top, of wine the middle, of honey the bottom." the odour of honey is due to a volatile oil associated with a yellow colouring matter _melichroin_, which is separated by the floral nectaries, and becomes bleached on exposure to the sunlight. a minute quantity of an animal acid lends additional curative value for sore throat, and some other ailments. honey has certain claims as a food which cane sugar does not possess. it is a heat former, and a producer of vital energy, both in the human subject, and in the industrious little insect which collects the luscious fodder. moreover, it is all ready for absorption straightway into the blood after being eaten, whereas cane sugar must be first masticated with the saliva, or spittle, and converted somewhat slowly into honey sugar before it can be utilised for the wants of the body. in this way the superiority of honey over cane sugar is manifested, and it may be readily understood why grapes, the equivalent of honey in the matter of their sugar, have an immediate effect in relieving fatigue by straightway contributing power and caloric. aged persons who are toothless may be supported almost exclusively on sugar. the great duke of [ ] beaufort, whose teeth were white and sound at seventy, whilst his general health was likewise excellent, had for forty years before his death a pound of sugar daily in his wine, chocolate, and sweetmeats. a relish for sugar lessens the inclination for alcohol, and seldom accompanies the love of strong drink. with young children, cane sugar is apt to form acids in the stomach, chiefly acetic, by a process of fermentation which causes pain, and flatulence, so that milk sugar should be given instead to those of tender years who are delicate, as this produces only lactic acid, which is the main constituent of digestive gastric juice. when examined under a microscope honey exhibits in addition to its crystals (representing glucose, or grape sugar), pollen-granules of various forms, often so perfect that they may be referred to the particular plants from which the nectar has been gathered. as good honey contains sugar in a form suitable for such quick assimilation, it should be taken generally in some combination less easily absorbed, otherwise the digestion may be upset by too speedy a glut of heat production, and of energy. therefore the bread and honey of time-honoured memory is a sound form of sustenance, as likewise, the proverbial milk and honey of the old testament. this may be prepared by taking a bowl of new milk, and breaking into it some light wheaten bread, together with some fresh white honeycomb. the mixture will be found both pleasant and easy of digestion. our forefathers concocted from honey boiled with water and exposed to the sun (after adding chopped raisins, lemon peel, and other matters) a famous fermented drink, called mead, and this was termed metheglin (_methu_, wine, and _aglaion_, splendid) when the finer [ ] honey was used, and certain herbs were added so as to confer special flavours. "who drank very hard the whole night through cups of strong mead, made from honey when new, metheglin they called it, a mighty strong brew, their whistles to wet for the morrow." likewise, the old teutons prepared a honey wine, (hydromel), and made it the practice to drink this for the first thirty days after marriage; from which custom has been derived the familiar honeymoon, or the month after a wedding. queen elizabeth was particularly fond of mead, and had it made every year according to a special recipe of her own, which included the leaves of sweet briar, with rosemary, cloves, and mace. honey derived from cruciferous plants, such as rape, ladies' smock, and the wallflower, crystallizes quickly, often, indeed, within the comb before it is removed from the hive; whilst honey from labiate plants, and from fruit trees in general, remains unchanged for several months after being extracted from the comb. as a heat producer, if taken by way of food, one pound of honey is equal to two pounds of butter; and when cod liver oil is indicated, but cannot be tolerated by the patient, honey may sometimes be most beneficially substituted. in former times it was employed largely as a medicine, and applied externally for the healing of wounds. when mixed with flour, and spread on linen, or leather, it has long been a simple remedy for bringing boils to maturity. in coughs and colds it makes a serviceable adjunct to expectorant medicines, whilst acting at the same time as sufficiently laxative. for sore throats it may be used in gargles with remarkable benefit; and [ ] when mixed with vinegar it forms the old-fashioned oxymel, always popular against colds of the chest and throat. "honeywater" distilled from honey, incorporated with sand, is an excellent wash for promoting the growth of the hair, either by itself, or when mixed with spirit of rosemary. rose honey (_rhodomel_) made from the expressed juice of rose petals with honey, was formerly held in high esteem for the sick. bee propolis, or the glutinous resin manufactured by bees for fixing the foundations of their combs, will afford relief to the asthmatic by its fumes when burnt. it consists largely of resin, and yields benzoic acid. basilicon, kingly ointment, or resin ointment, is composed of bees wax, olive oil, resin, burgundy pitch, and turpentine. this is said to be identical with the famous "holloway's ointment," and is highly useful when the stimulation of indolent sores is desired. a medicinal tincture of superlative worth is prepared by homoeopathic practitioners from the sting of the honey bee. this makes a most valuable and approved medicine for obviating erysipelas, especially of the head and face; likewise, for a puffy sore throat with much swelling about the tonsils; also for dropsy of the limbs which has followed a chill, or is connected with passive inactivity of the kidneys. ten drops of the diluted tincture, first decimal strength, should be given three or four times in the day, with a tablespoonful of cold water. this remedy is known as the tincture of _apis mellifica_. for making it the bees are seized when emerging from the hive, and they thus become irritated, being ready to sting. they are put to death with a few drops of chloroform, and then have their honey-bags severed. these are bruised in a mortar [ ] with glycerine, and bottled in spirit of wine, shaking them for several days, and lastly filtering the tincture. boiling water poured on bees (workers) when newly killed makes bee-tea, which may be taken to relieve strangury, and a difficult passage of urine, as likewise for dropsy of the heart and kidneys. also of such bees when dried and powdered, thirty grains will act as a dose to promote a free flow of the urine. honey, especially if old, will cause indigestion when eaten by some persons, through an excessive production of lactic acid in the stomach; and a superficial ulceration of the mouth and tongue, resembling thrush, will ensue; it being at the same time a known popular fact, that honey by itself, or when mixed with powdered borax (which is alkaline) will speedily cure a similar sore state within the mouth arising through deranged health. as long ago as when soranus lived, the contemporary of galen ( a.d.) honey was declared to be "an easy remedy for the thrush of children," but he gravely attributed its virtues in this respect to the circumstance that bees collected the honey from flowers growing over the tomb of hippocrates, in the vale of tempe. the sting venom of bees has been found helpful for relieving rheumatic gout in the hands, and elsewhere through toxicating the tender and swollen limbs by means of lively bees placed over the parts in an inverted tumbler, and then irritating the insects so as to make them sting. a custom prevails in malta of inoculation by frequent bee stinging, so as to impart at length a protective immunity against rheumatism, this being confirmatory of the fact known to beekeepers elsewhere, that after exposure to attacks from bees, often repeated [ ] throughout a length of time, most persons will acquire a convenient freedom from all future disagreeable effects. an austrian physician has based on these methods an infallible cure for acute rheumatism. in shakespeare's _twelfth night_, sir toby belch asks to have a "song for sixpence," the third verse of which has been thought to run thus:-- "the king was in his counting house counting out his money, the queen was in the parlour eating bread and honey." "mel mandit, panemque, morans regina culinâ, dulcia plebeiâ non comedenda nuru." a plain cake, currant or seed, made with honey in place of sugar is a pleasant addition to the tea-table and a capital preventive of constipation. "all kinds of precious stones cast into honey become more brilliant thereby," says st. francis de sales in _the devout life_, , "and all persons become more acceptable when they join devotion to their graces." hop. the hop (_humulus lupulus_) belongs to the nettle tribe (_cannabineoe_) of plants, and grows wild in our english hedges and copses; but then it bears only male flowers. when cultivated it produces the female catkins, or strobiles which are so well known as hops, and are so largely used for brewing purposes. the plant gets its first name _humulus_ from _humus_, the rich moist ground in which it chooses to grow, and its affix _lupulus_ from the latin _lupus_ a wolf, because (as pliny explained), when produced among osiers, it [ ] strangles them by its light climbing embraces as the wolf does a sheep. the word hop comes from the anglo-saxon _hoppan_ to climb. the leaves and the flowers afford a fine brown dye, and paper has been made from the bine, or stalk, which sprouts in may, and soon grows luxuriantly; as said old tusser ( ):-- "get into thy hop-yard, for now it is time to teach robin hop on his pole how to climb." the hop, says cockayne, was known to the saxons, and they called it the _hymele_, a name enquired-for in vain among hop growers in worcestershire and kent. hops were first brought to this country from flanders, in :-- "turkeys, carp, hops, pickerel, and beer, came into england all in one year." so writes old izaak walton! before hops were used for improving and preserving beer our saxon ancestors drank a beverage made from malt, but clarified in a measure with ground ivy which is hence named ale-hoof. this was a thick liquor about which it was said:-- "nil spissius est dum bibitur; nil clarius dum mingitur, unde constat multas faeces in ventre relinqui." the picts made beer from heather, but the secret of its manufacture was lost when they became exterminated, since it had never been divulged to strangers. kenneth offered to spare the life of a father, whose son had been just slain, if he would reveal the method; but, though pardoned, he refused persistently. the inhabitants of tola, jura, and other outlying districts, now brew a potable beer by mixing two-thirds of heath tops with one of malt. highlanders think it very lucky to [ ] find the white heather, which is the badge of the captain of clan ronald. at first hops were unpopular, and were supposed to engender melancholy. therefore henry the eighth issued an injunction to brewers not to use them. "hops," says john evelyn in his _pomona_, , "transmuted our wholesome ale into beer, which doubtless much altered our constitutions. this one ingredient, by some suspected not unworthily, preserves the drink indeed, but repays the pleasure with tormenting diseases, and a shorter life." hops, such as come into the market, are the chaffy capsules of the seeds, and turn brown early in the autumn. they possess a heavy fragrant aromatic odour, and a very bitter pungent taste. the yellow glands at the base of the scales afford a volatile strong-smelling oil, and an abundant yellow powder which possesses most of the virtues of the plant. our druggists prepare a tincture from the strobiles with spirit of wine, and likewise a thickened extract. again, a decoction of the root is esteemed by some as of equal benefit with sarsaparilla. the lassitude felt in hot weather at its first access, or in early spring, may be well met by an infusion of the leaves, strobiles and stalks as hop tea, taken by the wineglassful two or three times in the day, whilst sluggish derangements of the liver and spleen may be benefited thereby. _lupulin_, the golden dust from the scales (but not the pollen of the anthers, as some erroneously suppose), is given in powder, and acts as a gentle sedative if taken at bedtime. this is specific against sexual irritability and its attendant train of morbid symptoms, with mental depression and vital exhaustion. it contains [ ] "lupulite," a volatile oil, and a peculiar resin, which is somewhat acrid, and penetrating of taste. each of the simples got from the hop will allay pain and conduce to sleep; they increase the firmness of the pulse, and reduce its frequency. also if applied externally, hops as a poultice, or when steeped in a bag, in very hot water as a stupe, will relieve muscular rheumatism, spasm, and bruises. hop tea, when made from the flowers only, is to be brewed by pouring a pint of boiling water on an ounce of the hops, and letting it stand until cool. this is an excellent drink in delirium tremens, and will give prompt ease to an irritable bladder. sherry in which some hops have been steeped makes a capital stomachic cordial. a pillow, _pulvinar humuli_, stuffed with newly dried hops was successfully prescribed by dr. willis for george the third, when sedative medicines had failed to give him sleep; and again for our prince of wales at the time of his severe typhoid fever, , in conjunction then with a most grateful draught of ale which had been heretofore withheld. the crackling of dry hop flowers when put into a pillow may be prevented by first sprinkling them with a little alcohol. persons have fallen into a deep slumber after remaining for some time in a storehouse full of hops; and in certain northern districts a watery extract from the flowers is given instead of opium. it is useful to know that for sound reasons a moderate supper of bread and butter, with crisp fresh lettuces, and light home-brewed ale which contains hops, is admirably calculated to promote sleep, except in a full-blooded plethoric person. _lupulin_, the glandular powder from the dried strobiles, will induce sleep without causing constipation, or headache. the dose is from two to four grains at bedtime [ ] on a small piece of bread and butter, or mixed with a spoonful of milk. the year produced a larger crop of cultivated hops than has been known before or since. when hop poles are shaken by the wind there is a distant electrical murmur like thunder. hop tea in the leaf is now sold by grocers, made from a mixture of the kentish and indian plants, so as to combine in its infusion, the refreshment of the one herb with the sleep-inducing virtues of the other. the hops are brought direct from the farmers, just as they are picked. they are then laid for a few hours to wither, after which they are put under a rolling apparatus, which ill half-an-hour makes them look like tea leaves, both in shape and colour. they are finally mixed with indian and ceylon teas. the young tops of the hop plant if gathered in the spring and boiled, may be eaten as asparagus, and make a good pot-herb: they were formerly brought to market tied up in small bundles for table use. a popular notion has, in some places, associated the hop and the nightingale together as frequenting the same districts. medicinally the hop is tonic, stomachic, and diuretic, with antiseptic effects; it prevents worms, and allays the disquietude of nervous indigestion. the popular nostrum "hop bitters" is thus made: buchu leaves, two ounces; hops, half-a-pound; boil in five quarts of water, in an iron vessel, for an hour; when lukewarm add essence of winter-green (_pyrola_), two ounces, and one pint of alcohol. take one tablespoonful three times in the day, before eating. white bryony root is likewise used in making the bitters. [ ] horehound (white and black). the herb horehound occurs of two sorts, white and black, in our hedge-rows, and on the sides of banks, each getting its generic name, which was originally harehune, from _hara_, hoary, and _hune_, honey; or, possibly, the name horehound may be a corruption of the latin _urinaria_, since the herb has been found efficacious in cases of strangury, or difficult making of water. the white horehound (_marrubium_) is a common square-stemmed herb of the labiate order, growing in waste places, and of popular use for coughs and colds, whether in a medicinal form, or as a candied sweetmeat. its botanical title is of hebrew derivation, from _marrob_, a bitter juice. the plant is distinguished by the white woolly down on its stems, by its wrinkled leaves, and small white flowers. it has a musky odour, and a bitter taste, being a much esteemed herbal simple, but very often spuriously imitated. it affords chemically a fragrant volatile oil, a bitter extractive "marrubin," and gallic acid. as a homely remedy it is especially given for coughs accompanied with abundant thick expectoration, and for chronic asthma. in norfolk scarcely a cottage garden can be found without its horehound corner; and horehound beer is much drunk there by the natives. horehound tea may be made by pouring boiling water on the fresh leaves, an ounce to a pint, and sweetening this with honey: then a wineglassful should be taken three or four times in the day. or from two to three teaspoonfuls of the expressed juice of the herb may be given for a dose. candied horehound is best made from the fresh plant by boiling it down until the juice is extracted, [ ] and then adding sugar before boiling this again until it has become thick enough of consistence to pour into a paper case, and to be cut into squares when cool. gerard said: "syrup made from the greene fresh leaves and sugar is a most singular remedy against the cough and wheezing of the lungs. it doth wonderfully, and above credit, ease such as have been long sicke of any consumption of the lungs; as hath been often proved by the learned physicians of our london college." when given in full doses, an infusion of the herb is laxative. if the plant be put in new milk and set in a place pestered with flies, it will speedily kill them all. and according to columella, the horehound is a serviceable remedy against the cankerworm in trees: _profuit et plantis latices infundere amaros marrubii_. the marrubium was called by the egyptian priests the "seed of horus" or "the bull's blood" and "the eye of the star." it was a principal remedy in the negro caesar's antidote for vegetable poisons. the black horehound (_ballota nigra_), so called from its dark purple-coloured flowers, is likewise of common growth about our roadsides and waste places. its botanical title comes from the greek _ballo_, to reject, because of its disagreeable odour, particularly when burnt. the herb is sometimes known as madwort, being supposed to act as an antidote to the bite of a mad dog. in beaumont and fletcher's _faithful shepherdess_, we read of:-- "black horehound, good for sheep, or shepherd bitten by a wood-dog's venomed tooth." if its leaves are applied externally as a poultice, they will relieve the pain of gout, and will mollify angry [ ] boils. in gotha the plant is valued for curing chronic skin diseases, particularly of a fungoid character, such as ringworm; also for diseases of cattle. "this," says meyrick "is one of those neglected english herbs which are possessed of great virtues, though they are but little known, and still less regarded. it is superior to most things as a remedy in hysteria, and for low spirits." drayton said (_polybion_, ):-- "for comforting the spleen and liver--get for juice, pale horehound." the water horehound (_lycopus_), or gipsy wort, which grows frequently in our damp meadows and on the sides of streams, yields a black dye used for wool, or silk, and with which gipsies stain their skins, as well as with walnut juice. "this is called gipsy wort," says lyte, "because the rogues and runagates, which name themselves egyptians, do colour themselves black with this herbe." each of the horehounds is a labiate plant; and this, the water variety, bears flesh coloured flowers, whilst containing a volatile oil, a resin, a bitter principle, and tannin. its medicinal action is astringent, with a reduced frequency of the pulse, and some gentle sedative effects, so that any tendency to coughing, etc., will be allayed. half-an-ounce of the plant to a pint of boiling water will make the infusion. horse radish (_radix_, a root). the horse radish of our gardens is a cultivated cruciferous plant of which the fresh root is eaten, when scraped, as a condiment to correct the richness of our national roast beef. this plant grows wild in many parts of the country, particularly about rubbish, and the sides of ditches; yet it is probably an introduction, [ ] and not a native. its botanical name, _cochlearia armoracia_, implies a resemblance between its leaves and an old-fashioned spoon, _cochleare_; also that the most common place of its growth is _ar_, near, _mor_, the sea. our english vernacular styles the plant "a coarse root," or a "horse radish," as distinguished from the eatable radish (root), the _raphanus sativus_. formerly it was named mountain radish, and great raifort. this is said to be one of the five bitter herbs ordered to be eaten by the jews during the feast of the passover, the other four being coriander, horehound, lettuce, and nettle. not a few fatal cases have occurred of persons being poisoned by taking aconite root in mistake for a stick of horse radish, and eating it when scraped. but the two roots differ materially in shape, colour, and taste, so as to be easily discriminated: furthermore the leaves of the aconite--supposing them to be attached to the root--are not to be mistaken for those of any other plant, being completely divided to their base into five wedge-shaped lobes, which are again sub-divided into three. squire says it seems incredible that the aconite root should be mistaken for horse radish unless we remember that country folk are in the habit of putting back again into the ground horse radish which has been scraped, until there remain only the crown and a remnant of the root vanishing to a point, these bearing resemblance to the tap root of aconite. the fresh root of the horse radish is a powerful stimulant by reason of its ardent and pungent volatile principle, whether it be taken as a medicament, or be applied externally to any part of the body. when scraped it exhales a nose-provoking odour, and possesses [ ] a hot biting taste, combined with a certain sweetness: but on exposure to the air it quickly turns colour, and loses its volatile strength; likewise, it becomes vapid, and inert by being boiled. the root is expectorant, antiscorbutic, and, if taken at all freely, emetic. it contains a somewhat large proportion of sulphur, as shown by the black colour assumed by metals with which it comes into touch. hence it promises to be of signal use for relieving chronic rheumatism, and for remedying scurvy. taken in sauce with oily fish or rich fatty viands, scraped horse radish acts as a corrective spur to complete digestion, and at the same time it will benefit a relaxed sore throat, by contact during the swallowing. in facial neuralgia scraped horse radish applied as a poultice, proves usefully beneficial: and for the same purpose some of the fresh scrapings may be profitably held in the hand of the affected side, which hand will become in a short time bloodlessly benumbed, and white. when sliced across with a knife the root of the horse radish will exude some drops of a sweet juice which may be rubbed with advantage on rheumatic, or palsied limbs. also an infusion of the sliced root in milk, almost boiling, and allowed to cool, makes an excellent and safe cosmetic; or the root may be infused for a longer time in cold milk, if preferred, for use with a like purpose in view. towards the end of the last century horse radish was known in england as red cole, and in the previous century it was eaten habitually at table, sliced, with vinegar. infused in wine the root stimulates the whole nervous system, and promotes perspiration, whilst acting likewise as a diuretic. for rheumatic neuralgia [ ] it is almost a specific, and for palsy it has often proved of service. our druggists prepare a "compound spirit of horse radish," made with the sliced fresh root, orange peel, nutmeg, and spirit of wine. this proves of effective use in strengthless, languid indigestion, as well as for chronic rheumatism; it stimulates the stomach, and promotes the digestive secretions. from one to two teaspoonfuls may be taken two or three times in the day, with half a wineglassful of water, at the end of a principal meal, or a few minutes after the meal. an infusion of the root made with boiling water and taken hot readily proves a stimulating emetic. until cut or bruised the root is inodorous; but fermentation then begins, and develops from the essential oil an ammoniacal odour and a pungent hot bitter taste which were not pre-existing. chemically the horse radish contains a volatile oil, identical with that of mustard, being highly diffusible and pungent by reason of its "myrosin." one drop of this volatile oil will suffice to odorise the atmosphere of a whole room, and, if swallowed with any freedom, it excites vomiting. other constituents of the root are a bitter resin, sugar, starch, gum, albumen, and acetates. a mixture of the fresh juice, with vinegar, if applied externally, will prove generally of service for removing freckles. bergius alleges that by cutting the root into very small pieces without bruising it, and then swallowing a tablespoonful of these fragments every morning without chewing them, for a month, a cure has been effected in chronic rheumatism, which had seemed otherwise intractable. for loss of the voice and relaxed sore throat the [ ] infusion of horse radish makes an excellent gargle; or it may be concentrated in the form of a syrup, and mixed for the same use--a teaspoonful, with a wine-glassful of cold water. gerard said of the root: "if bruised and laid to the part grieved with the sciatica, gout, joyntache, or the hard swellings of the spleen and liver, it doth wonderfully help them all." if the scraped root be macerated in vinegar, it will form a mixture (which may be sweetened with glycerine to the taste) very effective against whooping cough. in pimply acne of the skin, to touch each papula with some of the compound spirit of horse radish now and again will soon effect a general cure of the ailment. house leek (crassulaceoe). the house leek (_sempervivum tectorum_), or "never dying" flower of our cottage roofs, which is commonly known also as stone-crop, grows plentifully on walls and the tops of small buildings throughout great britain, in all country districts. it is distinguished by its compact rose-shaped arrangement of seagreen succulent leaves lying sessile in a somewhat flattened manner, and by its popularity among country folk on account of these bland juicy leaves, and its reputed protective virtues. it possesses a remarkable tenacity of life, _quem sempervivam dicunt quoniam omni tempore viret_, this being in allusion to its prolonged vitality; for which reason it is likewise called ayegreen, and sengreen (_semper_, green). history relates that a botanist tried hard for eighteen months to dry a plant of the house leek for his herbarium, but failed in this object. he afterwards restored it to its first site when it grew again as if nothing had interfered with its ordinary life. [ ] the plant was dedicated of old to thor, or jupiter, and sometimes to the devil. it bore the titles of thor's beard, jupiter's eye, joubarb, and jupiter's beard, from its massive inflorescence which resembles the sculptured beard of jove; though a more recent designation is st. george's beard. "quem sempervivam dicunt quoniam viret omni tempore--'barba jovis' vulgari more vocatur, esse refert similem predictoe plinius istam." _macer_. the romans took great pleasure in the house leek, and grew it in vases set before the windows of their houses. they termed it _buphthalmon_, _zoophthalmon_, and _stergethron_, as one of the love medicines; it being further called _hypogeson_, from growing under the eaves; likewise _ambrosia_ and _ameramnos_. the plant is indigenous to the greek islands, being sometimes spoken of as "imbreke" and "home wort." it has been largely planted about the roofs of small houses throughout the country, particularly in scotland, because supposed to guard against lightning and thunderstorms; likewise as protective against the enchantments of sorcerers; and, in a more utilitarian spirit, as preservative against decay. hence the house leek is known as thunderbeard, and in germany _donnersbart_ or _donderbloem_, from "jupiter the thunderer." the english name house leek denotes _leac_ (anglo-saxon) a plant growing on the house; and another appellation of its genus, sedum, comes from the latin _sedare_, to soothe, and subdue inflammations, etc. the thick leaves contain an abundant acidulous astringent juice, which is mucilaginous, and affords malic acid, identical with that of the apple. this juice, in a dose of from one to three drams, has proved [ ] useful in dysentery, and in some convulsive diseases. galen extolled it as a capital application for erysipelas and shingles. dioscorides praised it for weak and inflamed eyes, but in large doses it is emetic and purgative. in rural districts the bruised leaves of the fresh plant or its juice are often applied to burns, scalds, contusions, and sore legs, or to scrofulous ulcers; as likewise for chronic skin diseases, and enlarged or cancerous lymphatic glands. by the dutch the leaves are cultivated with a dietetic purpose for mixing in their salads. with honey the juice assuages the soreness and ulcerated condition within the mouth in thrush. gerard says: "the juice being gently rubbed on any place stung by nettles, or bees, or bitten by any venomous creature, doth presently take away the pain. being applied to the temples and forehead it easeth also the headache and distempered heat of the brain through want of sleep." the juice, moreover, is excellently helpful for curing corns and warts, if applied from day to day after they have been scraped. as parkinson teaches, "the juice takes away cornes from the toes and feet if they be bathed therewith every day, and at night emplastered as it were with the skin of the same house leek." the plant may be readily made to cover all the roof of a building by sticking on the offsets with a little moist earth, or cowdung. it bears purple flowers, and its leaves are fringed at their edges, being succulent and pulpy. thus the erect gay-looking blossoms, in contrast to the light green foliage arranged in the form of full blown double roses, lend a picturesque appearance to the roof of even a cow-byre, or a hovel. [ ] the house leek (_sedum majus_), and the persicaria water-pepper (arsmart), if their juices be boiled together, will cure a diarrhoea, however obstinate, or inveterate. the famous empirical _anti-canceroso nostrum_ of count mattaei is authoritatively said to consist of the _sedum acre_ (betony stone-crop), the _sempervivum tectorum_ (house leek), _sedum telephium_ (livelong), the _matricaria_ (feverfew), and the _nasturtium sisymbrium_ (water-cress). the _sedum telephium_ (livelong, or orpine), called also roseroot and midsummer men, is the largest british species of stone-crop. being a plant of augury its leaves are laid out in pairs on st. john's eve, these being named after courting couples. when the leaves are freshly assorted those which keep together promise well for their namesakes, and those which fall apart, the reverse. the special virtues of this _sedum_ are supposed to have been discovered by telephus, the son of hercules. napoleon, at st. helena, was aware of its anti-cancerous reputation, which was firmly believed in corsica. the plant contains lime, sulphur, ammonia, and (perhaps) mercury. it remains long alive when hung up in a room. the designation orpine has become perversely applied to this plant which bears pink blossoms, the word having been derived from _orpin_, gold pigment, a yellow sulphuret of the metal arsenic, and it should appertain exclusively to yellow flowers. the livelong _sedum_ was formerly named life everlasting. it serves to keep away moths. doctors have found that the expulsive vomiting provoked by doses of the _sedum acre_ (betony stone-crop), will serve in diphtheria to remove such false membrane clinging in patches to the throat and tonsils, [ ] as threatens suffocation: and after this release afforded by copious vomiting, the diphtheritic foci are prevented from forming again. the _sedum acre_ (or biting stone-crop) is also named pepper crop, being a cyme, or head of flowers, which furnishes a pungent taste like that of pepper. this further bears the names of ginger (in norfolk), jack of the buttery, gold dust, creeping tom, wall pepper, pricket or prick madam, gold chain, and biting mouse tail. it was formerly said "the savages of caledonia use this plant for removing the sloughs of cancer." the herb serves admirably to make a gargle for scurvy of the gums, and a lotion for scrofulous, or syphilitic ulcers. the leaves are thick and very acrid, being crowded together. this and the _sedums album_ and _reflexum_ were ingredients in a famous worm-expelling medicine, or _theriac_ (treacle), which conferred the title "jack of the buttery," as a corruption of "_bot. theriaque_." the several stone-crops are so named from _crop_, a top, or bunch of flowers, these plants being found chiefly in tufts upon walls or roofs. from their close growth originally on their native rocks they have acquired the generic title of _sedum_, from _sedere_ (to sit). hyssop. the cultivated hyssop, now of frequent occurrence in the herb-bed, and a favourite plant there because of its fragrance, belongs to the labiate order, and possesses cordial qualities which give it rank as a simple. it has pleasantly odorous striped leaves which vary in colour, and possess a camphoraceous odour, with a warm aromatic bitter taste. this is of comparatively recent introduction into our gardens, not having been [ ] cultivated until gerard's time, about , and not being a native english herb. the _ussopos_ of dioscorides, was named from _azob_, a holy herb, because used for cleansing sacred places. hence it is alluded to in this sense scripturally: "purge me with hyssop, and i shall be clean: wash me, and i shall be whiter than snow" (psalm li. ). solomon wrote "of all trees, from the cedar in lebanon to the hyssop that springeth out of the wall." the healing virtues of the plant are due to a particular volatile oil which admirably promotes expectoration in bronchial catarrh and asthma. hyssop tea is a grateful drink well adapted to improve the tone of a feeble stomach, being brewed with the green tops of the herb. the same parts of the plant are sometimes boiled in soup to be given for asthma. the leaves and flowers are of a warm pungent taste, and of an agreeable aromatic smell; therefore if the tops and blossoms are reduced to a powder and added to cold salad herbs they give a comforting cordial virtue. there was formerly made a distilled water of hyssop, which may still be had from some druggists, it being deemed a good pectoral medicine. in america an infusion of the leaves is used externally for the relief of muscular rheumatism, as also for bruises and discoloured contusions. the herb was sometimes called rosemary in the east, and was hung up to afford protection from the evil eye, as well as to guard against witches. to make hyssop tea, one drachm of the herb should be infused in a pint of boiling water, and allowed to become cool. then a wineglassful is to be given as a dose two or three times in the day. of the essential oil of hyssop, from one to two drops [ ] should be the dose. pliny said: "hyssop mixed with figs, purges; with honey, vomits." if the herb be steeped in boiling water and applied hot to the part, it will quickly remove the blackness consequent upon a bruise or blow, especially in the case of "black" or blood-shot eyes. parkinson says that in his day "the golden hyssop was of so pleasant a colour that it provoked every gentlewoman to wear them in their heads, and on their arms with as much delight as many fine flowers can give." the leaves are striped conspicuously with white or yellow; for which reason, and because of their fragrance, the herb is often chosen to be planted on graves. the green herb, bruised and applied, will heal cuts promptly. its tea will assist in promoting the monthly courses for women. hyssop grows wild in middle and southern europe. the hedge hyssop (_gratiola officinalis_), or water hyssop, is quite a different plant from the garden pot-herb, and belongs to the scrofula-curing order, with far more active medicinal properties than the hyssop proper. the commonly recognized hedge hyssop bears a pale yellow, or a pale purple flower, like that of the foxglove; and the whole plant has a very bitter taste. a medicinal tincture (h.) is made from the entire herb, of which from eight to ten drops may be taken with a tablespoonful of cold water three times in the day. it will afford relief against nervous weakness and shakiness, such as occur after an excessive use of coffee or tobacco. the title "gratiola," is from _dei gratiâ_, "by the grace of god." the juice of the plant purges briskly, and may be usefully employed in some forms of dropsy. its decoction is milder of action, and proves beneficial [ ] in cases of jaundice. in france the plant is cultivated as a perfume, and it is said to be an active ingredient in the famous _eau médicinale_ for gout. of the dried leaves from five to twenty-five grains will act as a drastic vermifuge to expel worms. the root resembles ipecacuanha in its effects, and in moderate quantities, as a powder or decoction, helps to stay bloody fluxes and purgings. the flowers are sometimes of a blood-red hue, and the whole plant contains a special essential oil. "whoso taketh," says parkinson, "but one scruple of _gratiola_ (hedge hyssop) bruised, shall perceive evidently his effectual operation and virtue in purging mightily, and that in great abundance, watery, gross, and slimy tumours." _caveat qui sumpserit_. on the principle of affinities, small diluted doses of the tincture, or decoction, or of the dried leaves, prove curative in cases of fluxes from the lower bowels, where irritation within the fundament is frequent, and where there is considerable nervous exhaustion, especially in chronic cases of this sort. ivy, common (_araliaceoe_). the clergyman of fiction in the sixth chapter of dickens' memorable _pickwick_, sings certain verses which he styles "indifferent" (the only verse, by the way, to be found in all that great writer's stories), and which relate to the ivy, beginning thus:-- "oh! a dainty plant is the ivy green, that creepeth o'er ruins old." the well known common ivy (_hedera helix_), which clothes the trunks of trees and the walls of old buildings so picturesquely throughout great britain, gets its botanical name most probably from the celtic word _hoedra _[ ] "a cord," or from the greek _hedra_ "a seat," because sitting close, and its vernacular title from _iw_ "green," which is also the parent of "yew." in latin it is termed _abiga_, easily corrupted to "iva"; and the danes knew it as winter-grunt, or winter-green, to which appellation it may still lay a rightful claim, being so conspicuously green at the coldest times of the year when trees are of themselves bare and brown. by the ancients the ivy was dedicated to bacchus, whose statues were crowned with a wreath of the plant, under the name kissos, and whose worshippers decorated themselves with its garlands. the leaves have a peculiar faintly nauseous odour, whilst they are somewhat bitter, and rough of taste. the fresh berries are rather acid, and become bitter when dried. they are much eaten by our woodland birds in the spring. a crown of ivy was likewise given to the classic poets of distinction, and the greek priests presented a wreath of the same to newly married persons. the custom of decorating houses and churches with ivy at christmastide, was forbidden by one of the early councils on account of its pagan associations. prynne wrote with reference to this decree:-- "at christmas men do always ivy get, and in each corner of the house it set, but why make use then of that bacchus weed? because they purpose bacchus-like to feed." the ivy, though sending out innumerable small rootlets, like suckers, in every direction (which are really for support) is not a parasite. the plant is rooted in the soil and gets its sustenance therefrom. chemically, its medicinal principles depend on the special balsamic resin contained in the leaves and stems, as well as constituting the aromatic gum. [ ] ivy flowers have little or no scent, but their yield of nectar is particularly abundant. when the bark of the main stems is wounded, a gum will exude, and may be collected: it possesses astringent and mildly aperient properties. this was at one time included as a medicine in the edinburgh _pharmacopoeia_, but it has now fallen out of such authoritative use. its chemical principle is "hederin." the gum is anti-spasmodic, and promotes the monthly flow of women. an infusion of the berries will relieve rheumatism, and a decoction of the leaves applied externally will destroy vermin in the heads of children. fresh ivy leaves will afford signal relief to corns when they shoot, and are painful. good john wesley, who dabbled in "domestic medicine," and with much sagacity of observation, taught that having bathed the feet, and cut the corns, and having mashed some fresh ivy leaves, these are to be applied: then by repeating the remedial process for fifteen days the corns will be cured. during the great plague of london, ivy berries were given with some success as possessing antiseptic virtues, and to induce perspiration, thus effecting a remission of the symptoms. cups made from ivywood have been employed from which to drink for disorders of the spleen, and for whooping cough, their method of use being to be kept refilled from time to time with water (cold or hot), which the patient is to constantly sip. ivy gum dissolved in vinegar is a good filling for a hollow tooth which is causing neuralgic toothache: and an infusion of the leaves made with cold water, will, after standing for twenty-four hours, relieve sore and smarting eyes if used rather frequently as a lotion. a decoction of the leaves and berries will mitigate a [ ] severe headache, such as that which follows hard drinking over night. and it may have come about that from some rude acquaintance with this fact the bacchanals adopted goblets carved out of ivywood. this plant is especially hardy, and suffers but little from the smoke and the vitiated air of a manufacturing town. chemically, such medicinal principles as the ivy possesses depend on the special balsamic resin contained in its leaves and stems; as well as on its particular gum. bibulous old bacchus was always represented in classic sculpture with a wreath of ivy round his laughing brows; and it has been said that if the foreheads of those whose potations run deep were bound with frontlets of ivy the nemesis of headache would be prevented thereby. but legendary lore teaches rather that the infant bacchus was an object of vengeance to juno, and that the nymphs of nisa concealed him from her wrath, with trails of ivy as he lay in his cradle. at one time our taverns bore over their doors the sign of an ivybush, to indicate the excellence of the liquor supplied within. from which fact arose the saying that "good wine needs no bush," "_vinum vendibile hederâ non est opus_." and of this text rosalind cleverly avails herself in _as you like it_, "if it be true" says she, "that good wine needs no bush,"--"'tis true that a good play needs no epilogue." ivy (ground). this common, and very familiar little herb, with its small ivy-like aromatic leaves, and its striking whorls of dark blue blossoms conspicuous in early spring time, comes into flower pretty punctually about the third or fourth of april, however late or early the season may be. its name is attributed to the resemblance borne [ ] by its foliage to that of the true ivy (_hedera helix_). the whole plant possesses a balsamic odour, and an aromatic taste, due to its particular volatile oil, and its characteristic resin, as a fragrant labiate herb. it remaineth green not only in summer, but also in winter, at all times of the year. from the earliest days it has been thought endowed with singular curative virtues chiefly against nervous headaches, and for the relief of chronic bronchitis. ray tells of a remarkable instance in the person of a mr. oldacre who was cured of an obstinate chronic headache by using the juice or the powdered leaves of the ground ivy as snuff: _succus hujus plantoe naribus attractus cephalalgiam etiam vehementissimam et inveteratam non lenit tantum, sed et penitus aufert_; and he adds in further praise of the herb: _medicamentum hoc non satis potest laudari; si res ex usu oestimarentur, auro oequiparandum_. an infusion of the fresh herb, or, if made in winter, from its dried leaves, and drank under the name of gill tea, is a favourite remedy with the poor for coughs of long standing, accompanied with much phlegm. one ounce of the herb should be infused in a pint of boiling water, and a wineglassful of this when cool is to be taken three or four times in the day. the botanical name of the plant is _nepeta glechoma_, from _nepet_, in tuscany, and the greek _gleechon_, a mint. resembling ivy in miniature, the leaves have been used in weaving chaplets for the dead, as well as for adorning the alestake erected as a sign at taverns. for this reason, and because formerly in vogue for clearing the ale drank by our saxon ancestors, the herb acquired the names of ale hoof, and tun hoof ("tun" signifying a garden, and "hoof" or "hufe" a coronal or chaplet), [ ] or hove, "because," says parkinson, "it spreadeth as a garland upon the ground." other titles which have a like meaning are borne by the herb, such as "gill go by the ground," and haymaids, or hedgemaids; the word "gill" not only relating to the fermentation of beer, but meaning also a maid. this is shown in the saying, "every jack should have his gill, or jill"; and the same notion was conveyed by the sobriquet "haymaids." again in some districts the ground ivy is called "lizzy run up the hedge," "cat's-foot" (from the soft flower heads), "devil's candlesticks," "aller," and in germltny "thundervine," also in the old english manuscripts "hayhouse," "halehouse," and "horshone." the whole plant was employed by our saxon progenitors to clarify their so-called beer, before hops had been introduced for this purpose; and the place of refreshment where the beverage was sold bore the name of a "gill house." in _a thousand notable things_, it is stated, "the juice of ground ivy sniffed up into the nostrils out of a spoon, or a saucer, purgeth the head marvellously, and taketh away the greatest and oldest pain thereof that is: the medicine is worth gold, though it is very cheap." small hairy tumours may often be seen in the autumn on the leaves of the ground ivy occasioned (says miss pratt) by the punctures of the _cynips glechomoe_ from which these galls spring. they have a strong flavour of the plant, and are sometimes eaten by the peasantry of france. the volatile oil on which the special virtues of the ground ivy depend exudes from small glandular dots on the under surface of the leaves. this is the active ingredient of gill tea made by country persons, and sweetened with honey, sugar, or liquorice. also the expressed juice of the herb is [ ] equally effectual, being diaphoretic, diuretic, and somewhat astringent against bleedings. gerard says that in his day "the ground ivy was commended against the humming sound, and ringing noises of the ears by being put into them, and for those that are hard of hearing. also boiled in mutton broth it helpeth weak and aching backs." dr. thornton tells us in his _herbal _( ) that "ground ivy was at one time amongst the 'cries' of london, for making a tea to purify the blood," and dr. pitcairn extolled this plant before all other vegetable medicines for the cure of consumption. perhaps the name ground ivy was transferred at first to the _nepeta_ from the periwinkle, about which we read in an old distich of stockholm:-- "parvenke is an erbe green of colour, in time of may he bereth blo flour, his stalkes are so feynt and feye that nevermore groweth he heye: on the grounde he rynneth and growe as doth the erbe that _hyth tunhowe_; the lef is thicke, schinende and styf as is the grene ivy leef: uniche brod, and nerhand rownde; men call it the _ivy of the grounde_." in the _organic materia medica_ of detroit, u.s.a., , it is stated, "painters use the ground ivy (_nepeta glechoma_) as a remedy for, and a preventive of lead colic." an infusion is given (the ounce to a pint of boiling water)--one wineglassful for a dose repeatedly. in the relief which it affords as a snuff made from the dried leaves to congestive headache of a passive continued sort, this benefit is most probably due partly to the special titillating aroma of the plant, and partly to the copious defluxion of mucus and tears from the nasal passages, and the eyes. [ ] john's wort. the wild saint john's wort (_hypericum peiforatum_) is a frequent plant in our woods and hedgebanks, having leaves studded with minute translucent vesicles, which seem to perforate their structure, and which contain a terebinthinate oil of fragrant medicinal virtues. the name _hypericum_ is derived from the two greek words, _huper eikon_, "over an apparition," because of its supposed power to exorcise evil spirits, or influences; whence it was also formerly called _fuga doemoniorum_, "the devil's scourge," "the grace of god," "the lord god's wonder plant." and some other names of a like import, probably too, because found to be of curative use against insanity. again, it used to be entitled _hexenkraut_, and "witch's herb," on account of its reputed magical powers. matthiolus said, _scripsere quidam hypericum adeo odisse doemones, ut ejus suffitu statim avolent_, "certain writers have said that the st. john's wort is so detested by evil spirits that they fly off at a whiff of its odour." further names of the herb are "amber," "hundred holes," and _sol terrestris_, the "terrestrial sun," because it was believed that all the spirits of darkness vanish in its presence, as at the rising of the sun. for children troubled with incontinence of urine at night, and who wet their beds, an infusion, or tea, of the st. john's wort is an admirable preventive medicine, which will stop this untoward infirmity. the title st. john's wort is given, either because the plant blossoms about st. john's day, june th, or because the red-coloured sap which it furnishes was thought to resemble and signalise the blood of st. john the baptist. ancient writers certainly attributed a host of virtues to this plant, especially for the cure of hypochondriasis, and insanity. the red juice, or "red [ ] oil," of _hypericum_ made effective by hanging for some months in a glass vessel exposed to the sun, is esteemed as one of the most popular and curative applications in europe for excoriations, wounds, and bruises. the flowers also when rubbed together between the fingers yield a red juice, so that the plant has obtained the title of _sanguis hominis_, human blood. furthermore, this herb is _medicamentum in mansâ intus sumptum_, "to be chewed for its curative effects." and for making a medicinal infusion, an ounce of the herb should be used to a pint of boiling water. this may be given beneficially for chronic catarrhs of the lungs, the bowels, or the urinary passages, dr. tuthill massy considered the st. john's wort, by virtue of its healing properties for injuries of the spinal cord, and its dependencies, the vulnerary "arnica" of the organic nervous system. on the doctrine of signatures, because of its perforated leaves, and because of the blood-red juice contained in the capsules which it bears, this plant was formerly deemed a most excellent specific for healing wounds, and for stopping a flow of blood:-- "hypericon was there--the herb of war, pierced through with wounds, and seamed with many a scar." for lacerated nerves, and injuries by violence to the spinal cord, a warm lotion should be employed, made with one part of the tincture to twenty parts of water, comfortably hot. a salve compounded from the flowers, and known as st. john's wort salve, is still much used and valued in english villages. and in several countries the dew which has fallen on vegetation before daybreak on st. john's morning, is gathered with great care. it is thought to protect the eyes from all harm throughout the ensuing year, and the venetians [ ] say it renews the roots of the hair on the baldest of heads. peasants in the isle of man, are wont to think that if anyone treads on the st. john's wort after sunset, a fairy horse will arise from the earth, and will carry him about all night, leaving him at sunrise wherever he may chance to be. the plant has a somewhat aromatic odour; and from the leaves and flowers, when crushed, a lemon-like scent is exhaled, whilst their taste is bitter and astringent. the flowers furnish for fabrics of silk or wool a dye of deep yellow. those parts of the plant were alone ordered by the london _pharmacopoeia_ to be used for supplying in chief the medicinal, oily, resinous extractive of the plant. the juice gives a red colour to the spirit of wine with which it is mixed, and to expressed oils, being then known as the _hypericum_ "red oil" mentioned above. the flowers contain tannin, and "_hypericum_ red." moreover, this _hypericum_ oil made from the tops is highly useful for healing bed sores, and is commended as excellent for ulcers. a medicinal tincture (h.) is prepared with spirit of wine from the entire fresh plant, collected when flowering, or in seed, and this proves of capital service for remedying injuries to the spinal cord, both by being given internally, and by its external use. it has been employed in like manner with benefit for lock-jaw. the dose of the tincture is from five to eight drops with a spoonful of water two or three times a day. this plant may be readily distinguished from others of the hypericaceous order by its decidedly two edged stem. sprigs of it are stuck at the present time in wales over every outer door on the eve of st. john's day; [ ] and in scotland, milking is done on the herb to dispel the malignant enchantments which cause ropy milk. among the christian saints st. john represents light; and the flowers of this plant were taken as a reminder of the beneficent sun. tutsan is a large flowered variety (_hypericum androsoemum_) of the st. john's wort, named from the french _toute saine_, or "heal all," because of its many curative virtues; and is common in devon and cornwall. it possesses the same properties as the perforate sort, but yields a stronger and more camphoraceous odour when the flowers and the seed vessels are bruised. a tincture made from this plant, as well as that made from the perforate st. john's wort, has been used with success to cure melancholia, and its allied forms of insanity. the seed-capsules of the tutsan are glossy and berry-like; the leaves retain their strong resinous odour after being dried. tutsan is called also provincially "woman's tongue," once set g(r)owing it never stops; and by country folk in ireland the "rose of sharon." its botanical name androsoemum, _andros aima_, man's blood, derived from the red juice and oil, probably suggested the popular title of tutsan, "heal all," often corrupted to "touchen leaf." gerard gives a receipt, as a great secret, for making a compound oil of _hypericum_, "than which," he says, "i know that in the world there is no better; no, not the natural balsam itself." "the plant," he adds, "is a singular remedy for the sciatica, provided that the patient drink water for a day or two after purging." "the leaves laid upon broken shins and scabbed legs do heal them." the whole plant is of a special value for healing [ ] punctured wounds; and its leaves are diuretic. it is handsome and shrubby, growing to a height of two or three feet. juniper. the juniper shrub (arkenthos of the ancients), which is widely distributed about the world, grows not uncommonly in england as a stiff evergreen conifer on heathy ground, and bears bluish purple berries. these have a sweet, juicy, and, presently, bitter, brown pulp, containing three seeds, and they do not ripen until the second year. the flowers blossom in may and june. probably the shrub gets its name from the celtic _jeneprus_, "rude or rough." gerard notes that "it grows most commonly very low, like unto our ground furzes." gum sandarach, or pounce, is the product of this tree. medicinally, the berries and the fragrant tops are employed. they contain "juniperin," sugar, resins, wax, fat, formic and acetic acids, and malates. the fresh tops have a balsamic odour, and a carminative, bitterish taste. the berries afford a yellow aromatic oil, which acts on the kidneys, and gives cordial warmth to the stomach. forty berries should yield an ounce of the oil. steeped in alcohol the berries make a capital _ratafia_; they are used in several confections, as well as for flavouring gin, being put into a spirit more common than the true geneva of holland. the french obtain from these berries the _genièvre_ (_anglice_ "geneva"), from which we have taken our english word "gin." in france, savoy, and italy, the berries are largely collected, and are sometimes eaten as such, fifteen or twenty at a time, to stimulate the kidneys; or they are taken in powder for the same [ ] purpose. being fragrant of smell, they have a warm, sweet, pungent flavour, which becomes bitter on further mastication. our british _pharmacopoeia_ orders a spirit of juniper to be made for producing the like diuretic action in some forms of dropsy, so as to carry off the effused fluid by the kidneys. a teaspoonful of this spirit may be taken, well diluted with water, several times in the day. of the essential oil the dose is from two to three drops on sugar, or with a tablespoonful of milk. these remedies are of service also in catarrh of the urinary passages; and if applied externally to painful local swellings, whether rheumatic, or neuralgic, the bruised berries afford prompt and lasting relief. an infusion or decoction of the juniper wood is sometimes given for the same affections, but less usefully, because the volatile oil becomes dissipated by the boiling heat. a "rob," or inspissated juice of the berries, is likewise often employed. gerard said: "a decoction thereof is singular against an old cough." gin is an ordinary malt spirit distilled a second time, with the addition of some juniper berries. formerly these berries were added to the malt in grinding, so that the spirit obtained therefrom was flavoured with the berries from the first, and surpassed all that could be made by any other method. at present gin is cheaply manufactured by leaving out the berries altogether, and giving the spirit a flavour by distilling it with a proportion of oil of turpentine, which resembles the juniper berries in taste; and as this sophistication is less practised in holland than elsewhere, it is best to order "hollands," with water, as a drink for dropsical persons. by the use of juniper berries dr. mayern cured some patients who were deplorably ill with [ ] epilepsy when all other remedies had failed. "let the patient carry a bag of these berries about with him, and eat from ten to twenty every morning for a month or more, whilst fasting. similarly for flatulent indigestion the berries may be most usefully given; on the first day, four berries; on the second, five; on the third, six; on the fourth, seven; and so on until twelve days, and fifteen berries are reached; after this the daily dose should be reduced by one berry until only five are taken in the day; which makes an admirable 'berry-cure.'" the berries are to be well masticated, and the husks may be afterwards either rejected or swallowed. juniper oil, used officinally, is distilled from the full-grown, unripe, green fruit. the laplanders almost adore the tree, and they make a decoction of its ripe berries, when dried, to be drunk as tea, or coffee; whilst the swedish peasantry prepare from the fresh berries a fermented beverage, which they drink cold, and an extract, which they eat with their bread for breakfast as we do butter. simon pauli assures us these berries have performed wonders in curing the stone, he having personally treated cases thus, with incredible success. schroder knew a nobleman of germany, who freed himself from the intolerable symptoms of stone, by a constant use of these berries. evelyn called them the "forester's panacea," "one of the most universal remedies in the world to our crazy forester." astrological botanists advise to pull the berries when the sun is in virgo. we read in an old tract (london, ) on _the use of juniper and elder berries in our publick houses_: "the simple decoction of these berries, sweetened with a little sugar candy, will afford liquors so pleasant to the eye, so grateful to the palate, and so beneficial to the [ ] body, that the wonder is they have not been courted and ushered into our publick houses, so great are the extraordinary beauty and vertues of these berries." "one ounce, well cleansed, bruised, and mashed, will be enough for almost a pint of water. when they are boiled together the vessel must be carefully stopt, and after the boiling is over one tablespoonful of sugar candy must be put in." from rifts which occur spontaneously in the bark of the shrubs in warm countries issues a gum resembling frankincense. this gum, as gerard teaches, "drieth ulcers which are hollow, and filleth them with flesh if they be cast thereon." "being mixed with oil of roses, it healeth chaps of the hands and feet." bergius said "the lignum (wood) of juniper is _diureticum, sudorificum, mundificans_; the _bacca_ (berry), _diuretica, nutriens, diaphoretica_." in germany the berries are added to _sauerkraut_ for flavouring it. virgil thought the odour exhaled by the juniper tree noxious, and he speaks of the _juniperis gravis umbra_:-- "surgamus! solet esse gravis cantantibus umbra; juniperis gravis umbra; nocent et frugibus umbrae." _eclog. x. v._ . but it is more scientific to suppose that the growth of juniper trees should be encouraged near dwellings, because of the balsamic and antiseptic odours which they constantly exhale. the smoke of the leaves and wood was formerly believed to drive away "all infection and corruption of the aire which bringeth the plague, and such like contagious diseases." sprays of juniper are frequently strewn over floors of apartments, so as to give out when trodden down, their agreeable odour which is supposed to promote [ ] sleep. queen elizabeth's bedchamber was sweetened with their fumes. in the french hospitals it is customary to burn juniper berries with rosemary for correcting vitiated air, and to prevent infection. on the continent the juniper is regarded with much veneration, because it is thought to have saved the life of the madonna, and of the infant jesus, whom she hid under a juniper bush when flying into egypt from the assassins of herod. virgil alludes to the juniper as cedar:-- "disce et odoratam stabulis accendere cedrum." _georgic_. "but learn to burn within your sheltering rooms sweet juniper." its powerful odour is thought to defeat the keen scent of the hound; and a hunted hare when put to extremities will seek a safe retreat under cover of its branches. elijah was sheltered from the persecutions of king ahab by the juniper tree; since which time it has been always regarded as an asylum, and a symbol of succour. from the wood of the _juniperus oxycoedrus_; an empyreumatic oil resembling liquid pitch, is obtained by dry distillation, this being named officinally, _huile de cade_, or _oleum cadinum_, otherwise "juniper tar." it is found to be most useful as an external stimulant for curing psoriasis and chronic eczema of the skin. a recognised ointment is made with this and yellow wax, _unguentum olei cadini_. in italy stables are popularly thought to be protected by a sprig of juniper from demons and thunderbolts, just as we suppose the magic horseshoe to be protective to our houses and offices. [ ] knapweed (the lesser). black knapweed, the _centaurea nigra_, is a common tough-stemmed composite weed growing in our meadows and cornfields, being well known by its heads of dull purple flowers, with brown, or almost black scales of the outer floral encasement. it is popularly called hard heads, loggerheads, iron heads, horse knob, and bull weed. dr. withering relates that a decoction made from these hard heads has afforded at least a temporary relief in cases of diabetes mellitus, "by diminishing the quantity of urine, and dispelling the sweetness." its chief chemical constituent _enicin_, is identical with that of the blessed thistle, and the blue bottle, and closely resembles that of the dandelion. it has been found useful in strengthless indigestion, especially when this is complicated with sluggish torpor of the liver. from half to one ounce of the herb may be boiled in eight fluid ounces of water, and a small wineglassful be taken for a dose twice or three times a day. in bucks young women make use of this knapweed for love divination:-- "they pull the little blossom threads from out the knotweed's button beads, and put the husk with many a smile in their white bosoms for a while; then, if they guess aright, the swain their love's sweet fancies try to gain, 'tis said that ere it lies an hour 'twill blossom with a second flower." lavender. the lavender of our gardens, called also lavender spike, is a well-known sweet-smelling shrub, of the labiate order. it grows wild in spain, piedmont, and [ ] the south of france, on waysides, mountains, and in barren places. the plant was propagated by slips, or cuttings, and has been cultivated in england since about . it is produced largely for commercial purposes in surrey, hertfordshire, and lincoln. the shrub is set in long rows occupying fields, and yields a profitable fragrant essential oil from the flowering tops, about one ounce of the oil from sixty terminal flowering spikes. from these tops also the popular cosmetic lavender water is distilled. they contain tannin, and a resinous camphire, which is common to most of the mints affording essential oils. if a hank of cotton is steeped in the oil of lavender, and drained off so as to be hung dry about the neck, it will prevent bugs and other noxious insects from attacking that part. when mixed with three-fourths of spirit of turpentine, or spirit of wine, this oil makes the famous _oleum spicoe_, formerly much celebrated for curing old sprains and stiff joints. lavender oil is likewise of service when rubbed in externally, for stimulating paralysed limbs--preferring the sort distilled from the flowering tops to that which is obtained from the stalks. internally, the essential oil, or a spirit of lavender made therefrom, proves admirably restorative and tonic against faintness, palpitations of a nervous sort, weak giddiness, spasms, and colic. it is agreeable to the taste and smell, provokes appetite, raises the spirits, and dispels flatulence; but the infusion of lavender tops, if taken too freely, will cause griping, and colic. in hysteria, palsy, and similar disorders of debility, and lack of nerve power, the spirit of lavender will act as a powerful stimulant; and fomentations with lavender in bags, applied hot, will speedily relieve local pains. "it profiteth them much," says gerard, "that have the palsy if they be washed with the distilled water [ ] from the lavender flowers; or are anointed with the oil made from the flowers and olive oil, in such manner as oil of roses is used." a dose of the oil is from one to four drops on sugar, or on a small piece of bread crumb, or in a spoonful or two of milk. and of the spirit, from half to one teaspoonful may be taken with two tablespoonfuls of water, hot or cold, or of milk. the spirit of lavender is made with one part of the essential oil to forty-nine parts of spirit of wine. for preparing distilled lavender water, the addition of a small quantity of musk does much to develop the strength of the lavender's odour and fragrance. the essential oil of _lavandula latifolia_, admirably promotes the growth of the hair when weakly, or falling off. by the greeks the name nardus is given to lavender, from naarda, a city of syria, near the euphrates; and many persons call the plant "nard." st. mark mentions this as spikenard, a thing of great value the woman who came to christ having an alabaster box of ointment of spikenard, very precious "brake the box, and poured it on his head." in pliny's time blossoms of the nardus sold for a hundred roman denarii (or £ s. d.) the pound. this lavender or _nardus_, was likewise called asarum by the romans, because not used in garlands or chaplets. it was formerly believed that the asp, a dangerous kind of viper, made lavender its habitual place of abode, so that the plant had to be approached with great caution. conserves of lavender were much used in the time of gerard, and desserts may be most pleasantly brought to the table on a service of lavender spikes. it is said, on good authority, that the lions and tigers in our zoological gardens, are powerfully affected by the smell of lavender-water and become docile under its influence. [ ] the lavender shrub takes its name from the latin _lavare_, "to wash," because the ancients employed it as a perfume. lavender tops, when dried, and placed with linen, will preserve it from moths and other insects. the whole plant was at one time considered indispensable in africa, _ubi lavandis corporibus lybes eâ utuntur; nec nisi decocto ejus abluti mane domo egrediuntur_, "where the libyans make use of it for washing their bodies, nor ever leave their houses of a morning until purified by a decoction of the plant." in this country the sweet-smelling herb is often introduced for scenting newly washed linen when it is put by; from which custom has arisen the expression, "to be laid up in lavender." during the twelfth century a washerwoman was called "lavender," in the north of england. a tea brewed from the flowers is an excellent remedy for headache from fatigue, or weakness. but lavender oil is, in too large a dose, a narcotic poison, and causes death by convulsions. the tincture of red lavender is a popular medicinal cordial; and is composed of the oils of lavender and rosemary, with cinnamon bark, nutmeg, and red sandal wood, macerated in spirit of wine for seven days; then a teaspoonful may be given for a dose in a little water, with excellent effect, after an indigestible meal, taking the dose immediately when feeling uneasy, and repeating it after half-an-hour if needed. an old form of this compound tincture was formerly famous as "palsy drops," it being made from the lavender, with rosemary, cinnamon, nutmeg, red sandal wood, and spirit. in some cases of mental depression and delusions the oil of lavender proves of real service; and a few drops of it rubbed on the temples will cure nervous headache. [ ] shakespeare makes perdita (_winter's tale_) class lavender among the flowers denoting middle age: "here's flowers for you, hot lavender: mints: savory: marjoram; the marigold that goes to bed with the sun, and with him rises, weeping: these are the flowers of middle summer, and i think they are given to men of middle age." there is a broad-leaved variety of the lavender shrub in france, which yields three times as much of the essential oil as can be got from our narrow-leaved plant, but of a second rate quality. the sea lavender, or thrift (_statice limonium_) grows near the sea, or in salt marshes. it gets its name statice from the greek word _isteemi_ (to stop, or stay), because of its medicinal power to arrest bleeding. this is the marsh rosemary, or ink root, which contains (if the root be dried in the air) from fourteen to fifteen per cent. of tannin. therefore, its infusion or tincture will prove highly useful to control bleeding from the lungs or kidneys, as also against dysentery; and when made into a gargle, for curing an ulcerated sore throat. lemon. the lemon (_citrus limonum_) is so common of use in admixing refreshing drinks, and for its fragrancy of peel, whether for culinary flavour, or as a delightful perfume, that it may well find a place among the simples of a sagacious housewife. moreover, the imported fruit, which abounds in our markets, as if to the manner born, is endowed with valuable medicinal properties which additionally qualify it for the domestic _herbarium_. the lemons brought to england come chiefly from sicily, [ ] through messina and palermo. flowers may be found on the lemon tree all the year round. in making lemonade it is a mistake to pour boiling water upon sliced lemons, because thus brewing an infusion of the peel, which is medicinal. the juice should be squeezed into cold water (previously boiled), adding to a quart of the same the juice of three lemons, a few crushed strawberries, and the cut up rind of one lemon. this fruit grows specially at mentone, in the south of france; and a legend runs that eve carried two or three lemons with her away from paradise, wandering about until she came to mentone, which she found to be so like the garden of eden that she settled there, and planted her fruit. the special dietetic value of lemons consists in their potash salts, the citrate, malate, and tartrate, which are respectively antiscorbutic, and of assistance in promoting biliary digestion. each fluid ounce of the fresh juice contains about forty-four grains of citric acid, with gum, sugar, and a residuum, which yields, when incinerated, potash, lime, and phosphoric acid. but the citric acid of the shops is not nearly so preventive or curative of scurvy as the juice itself. the exterior rind furnishes a grateful aromatic bitter; and our word "zest" signifies really a chip of lemon peel or orange peel used for giving flavour to liquor. it comes from the greek verb, "_skizein_," to divide, or cut up. the juice has certain sedative properties whereby it allays hysterical palpitation of the heart, and alleviates pain caused by cancerous ulceration of the tongue. dr. brandini, of florence, discovered this latter property of fresh lemon juice, through a patient who, when suffering [ ] grievously from that dire disease, found marvellous relief to the part by casually sucking a lemon to slake his feverish thirst. but it is a remarkable fact that the acid of lemons is harmful and obnoxious to cats, rabbits, and other small animals, because it lowers the heart's action in these creatures, and liquifies the blood; whereas, in man it does not diminish the coagulability of the blood, but proves more useful than any other agent in correcting that thin impoverished liquidity thereof which constitutes scurvy. rapin extols lemons, or citrons, for discomfort of the heart:-- "into an oval form the citrons rolled beneath thick coats their juicy pulp unfold: from some the palate feels a poignant smart, which, though they wound the tongue, _yet heal the heart_." throughout italy, and at rome, a decoction of fresh lemons is extolled as a specific against intermittent fever; for which purpose a fresh unpeeled lemon is cut into thin slices, and put into an earthenware jar with three breakfastcupfuls of cold water, and boiled down to one cupful, which is strained, the lemon being squeezed, and the decoction being given shortly before the access of fever is expected. for a restless person of ardent temperament and active plethoric circulation, a lemon squash (unsweetened) of not more than half a tumblerful is a capital sedative; or, a whole lemon may be made hot on the oven top, being turned from time to time, and being put presently when soft and moist into a teacup, then by stabbing it about the juice will be made to escape, and should be drunk hot. if bruised together with a sufficient quantity of sugar the pips of a fresh lemon or orange will serve admirably against worms in [ ] children. cut in slices and put into the morning bath, a lemon makes it fragrant and doubly refreshing. professor wilhelm schmole, a german doctor, has published a work of some note, in which he advances the theory that fresh lemon juice is a kind of _elixir vitae_; and that if a sufficient number of lemons be taken daily, life may be indefinitely prolonged. lemon juice is decidedly beneficial against jaundice from passive sluggishness of the biliary functions; it will often serve to stay bleedings, when ice and astringent styptics have failed; it will prove useful when swallowed freely against immoderately active monthly fluxes in women; and when applied externally it signally relieves cutaneous itching, especially of the genitals. prize-fighters refresh themselves with a fresh cut lemon between the rounds when competing in the ring. hence has arisen the common saying, "take a suck of the lemon, and at him again." for a relaxed sore throat, lemon juice will help to make a serviceable gargle. by the heat of the sun it may be reduced to a solid state. for a cold in the head, if the juice of a ripe lemon be squeezed into the palm of the hand, and strongly sniffed into the nostrils at two or three separate times, a cure will be promoted. roast fillet of veal, with stuffing and lemon juice, was beloved by oliver cromwell. for heartburn which comes on without having eaten sweet things, it is helpful to suck a thin slice of fresh lemon dipped in salt just after each meal. the chinese practice of rubbing parts severely neuralgic with the wet surface of a cut lemon is highly useful. this fruit has been sold within present recollection at half-a-crown each, and during the american war at five shillings. [ ] the hands may be made white, soft, and supple by daily sponging them with fresh lemon juice, which further keeps the nails in good order; and the same may be usefully applied to the roots of the hair for removing dandriff from the scalp. the candied peel which we employ as a confection is got from one of the citrons (a variety of the lemon); whilst another of this tribe is esteemed for religious purposes in jewish synagogues. these citrons are imported into england from the east; and for unblemished specimens of the latter which reach london, high prices are paid. one pound sterling is a common sum, and not infrequently as much as seventy shillings are given for a single "citron of law." the fruit is used at the feast of tabernacles according to a command given in the book of the law; it is not of an edible nature, but is handed round and smelt by the worshippers as they go out, when they "thank god for all good things, and for the sweet odours he has given to men." this citron is considered to be almost miraculously restorative, especially by those who regard it as the "tappnach," intended in the text, "comfort me with apples." ladies of the orient, even now, carry a piece of its rind about them in a vinaigrette. the citron which furnishes candied peel resembles a large juicy lemon, but without a nipple. virgil said of the fruit generally:-- "media fert tristes succos, tardumque saporem felicis mali." fresh lemon juice will not keep because of its mucilage, which soon ferments. sidney smith, in writing about foston, his remote country cure in yorkshire, said it is "twelve miles from a lemon." [ ] lentil. among the leguminous plants which supply food for the invalid, and are endowed with certain qualifications for correcting the health, may be justly placed the lentil, though we have to import it because our moist, cold climate is not favourable for its growth. nevertheless, it closely resembles the small purple vetch of our summer hedgerows at home. in france its pulse is much eaten during lent--which season takes its name, as some authors suppose, from this penitential plant. men become under its subduing dietary influence, "_lenti et lenes_." the plant is cultivated freely in egypt for the sake of the seeds, which are flat on both sides, growing in numerous pods. the botanical name is _ervum lens_; and about the year a mr. wharton sold the flour of lentils under the name of ervalenta, this being then of a primrose colour. he failed in his enterprise, and du barry took up the business, but substituting the red arabian lentil for the yellow german pulse. joseph's mess of pottage which he sold to esau for his birthright was a preparation of the red lentil: and the same food was the bread of ezekiel. the legumin contained in this vegetable is very light and sustaining, but it is apt to form unwholesome combinations with any earthy salts taken in other articles of food, or in the water used in cooking; therefore lemon juice or vinegar is a desirable addition to lentils at table. this is because of the phosphates contained so abundantly, and liable to become deposited in the urine. "lentils," says gerard, "are singular good to stay the menses." they are traditionally regarded as funeral plants, and formerly they were forbidden at sacrifices and feasts. [ ] parkinson said, "the country people sow it in the fields as food for their cattle, and call it 'tills', leaving out the 'lent', as thinking that word agreeth not with the matter." "_ita sus minervam_." in hampshire the plant is known as "tils," and in oxfordshire as "dills." the romans supposed it made people indolent and torpid, therefore they named the plant from _lentus_, slow. allied to the lentil as likewise a leguminous plant is the lupine, grown now only as an ornament to our flower beds, but formerly cultivated by the romans as an article of food, and still capable of usefulness in this capacity for the invalid. pliny said, "no kind of fodder is more wholesome and light of digestion than the white lupine when eaten dry." if taken commonly at meals it will contribute a fresh colour and a cheerful countenance. when thus formerly used neither trouble nor expense was needed in sowing the seed, since it had merely to be scattered over the ground without ploughing or digging. but virgil designated it _tristis lupinus_, "the sad lupine," probably because when the pulse of this plant was eaten without being first cooked in any way so as to modify its bitter taste, it had a tendency to contract the muscles of the face, and to give a sorrowful appearance to the countenance. it was said the lupine was cursed by the virgin mary, because when she fled with the child christ from the assassins of herod, plants of this species by the noise they made attracted the attention of the soldiers. the lupine was originally named from _lupus_, a wolf, because of its voracious nature. the seeds were used as pieces of money by roman actors in their plays and comedies, whence came the saying, "_nummus lupinus_," "a spurious bit of money." [ ] lettuce. our garden lettuce is a cultivated variety of the wild, or strong-scented lettuce (_lactuca virosa_), which grows, with prickly leaves, on banks and waysides in chalky districts throughout england and wales. it belongs to the composite order of plants, and contains the medicinal properties of the plant more actively than does the lettuce produced for the kitchen. an older form of the name is _lettouce_, which is still retained in scotland. chemically the wild lettuce contains lactucin, lactucopricin, asparagin, mannite, albumen, gum, and resin, together with oxalic, malic, and citric acids; thus possessing virtues for easing pain, and inducing sleep. the cultivated lettuce which comes to our tables retains these same properties, but in a very modified degree, since the formidable principles have become as completely toned down and guileless in the garden product as were the child-like manners and the pensive smile of bret harte's heathen chinee. each plant derives its name, _lactuca_, from its milky juice; in latin _lactis_; and in greek, _galaktos_ (taking the genitive case). this juice, when withdrawn from the cut or incised stalks and stems of the wild lettuce, is milky at first, and afterwards becomes brown, like opium, being then known (when dried into a kind of gum) as _lactucarium_. from three to eight grains of this gum, if taken at bedtime, will allay the wakefulness which follows over-excitement of brain. a similar _lactucarium_, got from the dried milk of the cultivated garden lettuce, is so mild a sedative as to be suitable for restless infants; and two grains thereof may be safely given to a young child for soothing it to sleep. the wild lettuce is rather laxative; with which view a decoction of the leaves is sometimes taken as a drink [ ] to remedy constipation, and intestinal difficulties, as also to allay feverish pains. the plant was mentioned as acting thus in an epigram by martial (_libr. vi., sq_.). "prima tibi dabitur ventro lactuca movendo utilis, et porris fila resecta suis." gerard said: "being in some degree laxative and aperient, the cultivated lettuce is very proper for hot bilious dispositions;" and parkinson adds ( ): "lettuce eaten raw or boyled, helpeth to loosen the belly, and the boyled more than the raw." it was known as the "milk plant" to dioscorides and theophrastus, and was much esteemed by the romans to be eaten after a debauch of wine, or as a sedative for inducing sleep. but a prejudice against it was entertained for a time as _venerem enervans_, and therefore _mortuorum cibi_, "food for the dead." apuleius says, that when the eagle desires to fly to a great height, and to get a clear view of the extensive prospect below him, he first plucks a leaf of the wild lettuce and touches his eyes with the juice thereof, by which means he obtains the widest perspicuity of vision. "dicunt aquilam quum in altum volare voluerit ut prospiciat rerum naturas lactucoe sylvaticoe folium evellere et succo ejus sibi oculos tangere, et maximam inde claritudinem accipere." after the death of adonis, venus is related to have thrown herself on a bed of lettuces to assuage her grief. "in lactucâ occultatum a venere adonin--cecinit callimachus--quod allegoricé interpretatus athenoeus illuc referendum putat quod in venerem hebetiores fiunt lactucas vescentes assidue." the pythagoreans called this plant "the eunuch"; and there is a saying in surrey, "o'er much lettuce in [ ] the garden will stop a young wife's bearing." during the middle ages it was thought an evil spirit lurked among the lettuces adverse to mothers, and causing grievous ills to new-born infants. the romans, in the reign of domitian, had the lettuce prepared with eggs, and served with the last course at their tables, so as to stimulate their appetites afresh. martial wonders that it had since then become customary to take it rather at the beginning of the meal:-- "claudere quae caenas lactuca solebat avorum dic mihi cur nostras inchoat illa dapes." antoninus musa cured caesar augustus of hypochondriasis by means of this plant. the most common variety of the wild lettuce, improved by frequent cultivation, is the cabbage lettuce, or roman, "which is the best to boil, stew, or put into hodge-podge." different sorts of the cos lettuce follow next onwards. the _lactuca sylvatica_ is a variety of the wild lettuce producing similar effects. from this a medicinal tincture (h.) is prepared, and an extract from the flowering herb is given in doses of from five to fifteen grains. no attempt was made to cultivate the lettuce in this country until the fourth year of elizabeth's reign. when bleached by gardeners the lettuce becomes tender, sweet, and succulent, being easily digested, even by dyspeptic persons, as to its crisp, leafy parts, but not its hard stalk. it now contains but little nutriment of any sort, but supplies some mineral salts, especially nitre. in the stem there still lingers a small quantity of the sleep-inducing principle, "lactucarin," particularly when the plant is flowering. galen, when sleepless from [ ] advanced age and infirmities, with hard study, took decoction of the lettuce at night; and pope says, with reference to our garden sort:-- "if you want rest, lettuce, and cowslip wine:--'probatum est.'" but if lettuces are taken at supper with this view of promoting sleep, they should be had without any vinegar, which neutralises their soporific qualities. "sleep," said sir thomas brown, "is so like death that i dare not trust it without my prayers." some persons suppose that when artificially blanched the plant is less wholesome than if left to grow naturally in the garden, especially if its ready digestibility by those of sensitive stomachs be correctly attributed to the slightly narcotic principle. it was taken uncooked by the hebrews with the paschal lamb. john evelyn writes enthusiastically about it in his _book of sallets_: "so harmless is it that it may safely be eaten raw in fevers; it allays heat, bridles choler, extinguishes thirst, excites appetite, kindly nourishes, and, above all, represses vapours, conciliates sleep, and mitigates pain, besides the effect it has upon the morals-- temperance and chastity." "galen (whose beloved sallet it was) says it breeds the most laudable blood. no marvel, then, that lettuces were by the ancients called _sanoe_ by way of eminency, and were so highly valued by the great augustus that, attributing to them his recovery from a dangerous sickness, it is reported he erected a statue and built an altar to this noble plant." likewise, "tacitus, spending almost nothing at his frugal table in other dainties, was yet so great a friend to the lettuce that he used to say of his prodigality in its purchase, _summi se mercari_ [ ] _illas sumitus effusione_." probably the lettuce of greece was more active than our indigenous, or cultivated plant. by way of admonition as to care in preparing the lettuce for table, dr. king chambers has said (_diet in health and disease_), "the consumption of lettuce by the working man with his tea is an increasing habit worthy of all encouragement. but the said working man must be warned of the importance of washing the material of his meal. this hint is given in view of the frequent occurrence of the large round worm in the labouring population of some agricultural counties, oxfordshire for instance, where unwashed lettuce is largely eaten." young lettuces may be raised in forty-eight-hours by first steeping the seed in brandy and then sowing it in a hot-house. the seeds of the garden lettuce are emollient, and when rubbed up with water make a pleasant emulsion, which contains nothing of the milky, laxative bitterness furnished by the leaves and stalk. this emulsion resembles that of almonds, but is even more cooling, and therefore a better medicine in disorders arising from acrimony and irritation. from the _lactuca virosa_, or strong-scented wild lettuce, a medicinal tincture (h.) is prepared, using the whole plant. on the principle of treating with this tincture, when diluted, such toxic effects as too large doses of the juice would bring about, a slow pulse, with a disposition to stupor, and sleepy weakness, are successfully met by its use. also a medicinal extract is made by druggists from the wild lettuce, and given in doses of from three to ten grains for the medicinal purposes which have been particularised, and to remove a dull, heavy headache. "the garden lettuce is good," as pliny said, "for [ ] burnings and scaldings if the leaves be laid thereon, with salt (_sic_), before the blisters do appear." "by reason," concludes evelyn, "too, of its soporiferous quality, the lettuce ever was, and still continues, the principal foundation of the universal tribe of sallets, which cools and refreshes, besides its other properties, and therefore was held in such high esteem by the ancients, that divers of the valerian family dignified and ennobled their name with that of _lactucinii_." it is botanically distinguished as the _lactuca sativa_, "from the plenty of milk," says "adam in eden" (w. coles), "that it hath, and _causeth_." lambs' lettuce, or corn salad, is a distinct plant, one of the valerian tribe, which was formerly classed as a lettuce, by name, _lactuca agnina_, either because it appears about the time when lambs (_agni_) are dropped, or because it is a favourite food of lambs. the french call this _salade de prètre_, "monks' salad," and in reference thereto an old writer has said: "it certainly deserves a place among the _penitential_ herbs, for the stomach that admits it is apt to cry _peccavi_." the same plant is also known by the title of the white pot herb, in contrast to the _olus atrum_, or black pot herb. it grows wild in the banks of hedges and waste cornfields, and is cultivated in our kitchen gardens as a salad herb, the milk grass, being called botanically the _valerianella olitoria_, and having been in request as a spring medicine among country folk in former days. by genus it is a _fedia_, and bears diminutive white flowers resembling glass. gerard says: "we know the lambs' lettuce as _loblollie_; and it serves in winter as a salad herb, among others none of the worst." in france it goes by the names _manche_ and _broussette_. a medicinal tincture is made (h.) from the fresh root. [ ] the black pot-herb--so called from the dark colour of its fruit--is an umbelliferous plant, (_smyrnium olusatrum_) or alexanders, often found in the vicinity of abbeys, and probably therefore held in former repute by the monks. its names are derived from _smyrna_, myrrh, in allusion to the odour of the plant; and from _macedonicum_, or the parsley of macedon, alexander's country. the herb was also known as stanmarch. it grows on waste places by rivers near the sea, having been formerly cultivated like celery, which has now supplanted it. when boiled it is eaten with avidity by sailors returning from long voyages, who happen to land at the south western corner of anglesea. lily of the valley. the lily of the valley grows wild in many of our english woods, and possesses special curative virtues, which give it, according to modern knowledge, a just place among herbal simples of repute. this is the parent flower of our graceful, sweet-scented scape of pendent, milk-white little floral bells, enshrined within two broad leafy blades of dark green, and finding general favour for the _jardinière_, or the button-hole. its name _convallaria majalis_ is derived from _convallis_, "a valley," and _majalis_, "belonging to the month of may," when this lily comes into flower. rustics corrupt the double title to "liry confancy," and provincially the plant is known as "wood lily," "may lily," and "may blossom." also it bears the name of mugget, and is said to have grown up after the bloody combat of st. leonard with the dragon. the french call it _muguet_, or "little musk." the taste of the flowers is acrid and bitter; they have been [ ] employed with benefit, when dried and powdered, as snuff, for headache, and giddiness arising from weakness. a tincture of the plant is made, and can be procured from any leading druggist. the active medicinal principle is "convallarin," which slows the disturbed action of a weak, irritable heart, whilst at the same time increasing its power. happily the remedy is a perfectly safe one, and no harm has been known to occur from taking it experimentally in full and frequent doses; so that, in this respect, it is far preferable to the fox glove, which is apt to accumulate in the blood with poisonous results. to make the tincture of _convallaria_, one part of the flowers is treated with eight parts of spirit of wine (proof); and the dose is from five to fifteen drops, with a tablespoonful of water, three times in the twenty-four hours. also an infusion may be made with boiling water poured over the whole plant-root, stems, and flowers; and this infusion may be given continuously for from five to ten days; but it should be left off for a time as soon as the irritability of the heart is subdued, and the pulse steady and stronger. if taken during an attack of palpitation and laboured breathing from a weak heart, the benefit of the infusion in tablespoonful doses is felt at once. ten grains of the dried flowers may be infused in six ounces of boiling water; and a tablespoonful of this be given three times a day with perfect safety, and with a most soothing effect for a weak, sensitive, palpitating heart; but it does not suit a fatty heart equally well. nevertheless, even for insufficiency of the valves, when dangerous, or distressing symptoms of heart disease have set in, an infusion of the flowers has proved very helpful. the _rhizome_, root, exhales a pleasant odour, [ ] different from that of the flowers; it tastes sweet at first but afterwards bitter. a fluid extract is further prepared, and may be mixed in doses of from five to twenty drops with water. the russian peasants have long employed the lily of the valley for certain forms of dropsy, when proceeding from a faulty heart. in the summer, when the flowers are in bloom, two drachms, by weight, of the leaves should be steeped in a pint of water, either cold or boiling; and the whole of this may be taken, if needed, during the twenty-four hours. it will promote a free flow of urine. culpeper commended the lily of the valley for weak memory, loss of speech, and apoplexy; whilst gerard advised it for gout. in devonshire it is thought unlucky to plant a bed of these lilies, as the person who does so will probably die within the next twelve months. in the _apocrypha_, canticles ii, i, "i am the lily of the valley," this flower is apparently brought under notice, but some other plant must be intended here, because the lily convally does not grow in palestine. the word lily is used in oriental languages for a flower in general. distilled water from the flowers was formerly in great repute against nervous affections, and for many troubles of the head, insomuch that it was treasured in vessels of gold and silver. matthiolus named it _aqua aurea_, "golden water"; and etmuller said of the virtues of the plant, _quod specifice armabit impotentes maritos ad bellum veneris_. a spirit made from the petals is excellent as an outward embrocation for rheumatism and sprains; and in some parts of germany, a wine is prepared from the flowers mixed with raisins. old gerard adopted an [ ] unaccountable method for extracting these virtues of the lilies. he ordered that, "the flowers being close stopped up in a glass vessel, should be put into an ant hill, and taken away again a month after, when ye shall find a liquor in the glass which, being outwardly applied, will help the cure of the gout." after the blossom has fallen off a berry is formed, which assumes in the autumn a bright scarlet colour, and proves attractive to birds. lime tree, flowers of (_tiliaceoe_). though not a native of great britain, yet, because of its common growth in our roadways and along the front of terraced houses, and in suburban avenues, the lime tree has become almost indigenous. in the old _herbals_ it is called lyne or line, tillet, till tree, and tilia, each of these names bearing reference to the bast or inner bark of the tree, which is used in the north for cordage. others say the name is an alteration of telia, from _telum_, a dart, alluding to the use of the wood. tilia is more probably derived from _ptilon_, a feather, because of the feathery appearance of the floral leaves. shakespeare says:-- "now, tell me thy name, good fellow," said he, "under the leaves of lyne." the "n" in later writers has been changed into "m." its sweet-smelling and highly fragrant flowers blossom in may, and are much sought after by bees, because abounding with honied nectar. a medicinal tincture (h.) is made from them with spirit of wine; and when given in doses of from five to ten drops with water, three times in the day, it serves to relieve sick [ ] bilious giddiness, with depression of spirits, and a tendency to loose bowels, with nervous headache. the sap of the lime tree (_tilia europoea_) abounds in mucilage, from which sugar can be elaborated. a tea made from the blossoms and leaves with boiling water, is admirable for promoting perspiration. it is because of a long established reputation for giving relief in chronic epilepsy or the falling sickness, and of curing epileptiform headaches, whilst proving of indisputable usefulness in allied nervous disorders, that the flowers and leaves of the lime or linden tree occupy a true place among modern medicinal simples. gilbert white made some lime-blossom tea, and pronounced it a very soft, well-flavoured, pleasant saccharine julep, much resembling the juice of liquorice. this tea has been found efficacious for quieting hard coughs and for relieving hoarseness. the flowers easily ferment, and being so fragrant may be used for making wine: likewise a fine flavoured brandy has been distilled from them. the fruit contains an oily substance, and has been proposed, when roasted, as a domestic substitute for chocolate. the sap may be procured by making incisions in the trunk, and branches. the flowers are sedative, and anti-spasmodic. fenelon decorates his enchanted isle of calypso with flowering lime trees. hoffman says _tilioe ad mille usus petendoe_. the inner bark furnishes a soft mucilage, which may be applied externally with healing effect to burns, scalds, and inflammatory swellings. gerard taught, "that the flowers are commended by divers persons against pain of the head proceeding from a cold cause; against dizziness, apoplexy, and the falling sickness; and not only the flowers, but the distilled water thereof." [ ] hoffman knew a case of chronic epilepsy recovered by a use of the flowers in infusion drunk as tea. such, indeed, was the former exalted anti-epileptic reputation of the lime tree, that epileptic persons sitting under its shade were reported to be cured. a famous "lind" or lime tree, which grew in his ancestral place, gave to the celebrated linnaeus his significant name. the well-known street, _unter den lïnden_ in berlin, is a favourite resort, because of its pleasant, balmy shade; and when heine lay beneath the lindens, he "thought his own sweet nothing-at-all thoughts." the wood of the lime tree is preferred before every other wood fur masterly carving. grinling gibbons executed his best and most noted work in this material; and the finely-cut details still remain sharp, delicate, and beautiful. chemically, the linden flowers contain a particular light, fragrant, volatile oil, which is soluble in alcohol. they are used in warm baths with much success to allay nervous irritability; or a strong infusion of them is administered by enema for the same purpose. liquorice, english (_leguminous_). the common liquorice plant, a native of the warmer european countries, was first cultivated in britain about , in turner's time. it has been chiefly grown at pontefract (pomfret) in yorkshire, worksop in nottinghamshire, and godalming in surrey; whilst at the present time it is produced abundantly at mitcham, near london, and the roots are dug up after a three years' growth, to be supplied to the shops. the use of the liquorice plant was first learnt by the hellenes from the scythians; and the root was named _adipson_, being thought from the time of theophrastus to [ ] powerfully extinguish thirst. but dr. cullen says his experience has not confirmed this as a true effect of chewing the root. when lightly boiled in a little water it yields all its sweetness, together with some mucilage. a favourite pastime of school boys at the beginning of the present century, was to carry in the pocket a small phial of water containing bits of this "spanish juice," and to shake it continually so as to make a solution, valued the more the darker and thicker it became. the juice is commonly employed as a pectoral in coughs or hoarseness, when thickened to the consistence of a lozenge, or to that of a solid mass, which hardens in the form of a stick. it is also added to nauseous medicines, for masking their taste. towards obtaining this juice the underground stem or root of the plant is the part employed. the search of diogenes for an honest man was scarcely more difficult than would be that of an average person for genuine liquorice; since the juice is adulterated to any extent, and there is no definite standard of purity for this article so commonly used. potato starch, miller's sweepings mixed with sugar, and any kind of rubbish are added to it. in china, the roots of _glycyrrhiza echinata _and _glycyrrhiza glabra_, are used in a variety of medicinal preparations as possessing tonic, alterative, and expectorant properties, and as a mild aperient. thereto are attributed rejuvenating and highly nutritive qualities. english liquorice root occurs in pieces three or four inches long, and about as thick as a finger. the extract of liquorice must be prepared from the _dried_ root, else it cannot be strained bright, and would be liable to fermentation. chemically, the root [ ] contains a special kind of sugar, glycyrrhizine, a demulcent starch, asparagin, phosphate and malate of lime and magnesia, a resinous oil, albumen, and woody fibre. old fuller says concerning nottingham, "this county affordeth the first and best liquorice in england: great is the use thereof in physick. a stick of the same is commonly the spoon prescribed to patients to use in any loaches. if (as the men of oeneas were forced to eat their own trenchers), these chance to eat their spoons, their danger is none at all." the loach, or lingence, from _ekleigma_, a substance licked-up, has become our modern lozenge. extract of liquorice is largely imported as "spanish" or "italian" juice, the solazzi juice being most esteemed, which comes in cylindrical or flattened rolls, enveloped in bay leaves; but the pipe liquorice of the sweetstuff shops is adulterated. pontefract lozenges are made of refined liquorice, and are justly popular. the sugar of liquorice may be safely taken by diabetic patients. officinally, the root and stolons (underground stems) of the _glycyrrhiza glabra_ (smooth) are variously employed; for making an extract, for mixing with linseed in a tea, for combination with powdered senna, sugar, and fennel, to form a favourite mild laxative medicine, known as "compound liquorice powder," and for other uses. the solid juice is put into porter and stout, because giving sweetness, thickness, and blackness to those beverages, without making them fermentative; but liquorice, like gum, supplies scant aliment to the body. black liquorice is employed in the manufacture of tobacco, for smoking and chewing. the rest harrow (_ononis arvensis_), a troublesome weed, very common in our ploughed fields, has a root [ ] which affords a sweet viscid juice, and hence it is popularly known as "wild liquorice." this is a leguminous plant, called also "ground furze," which is a favourite food of the donkey, and therefore gets its botanical title from the greek word _onos_, an ass. its long and thickly matted roots will arrest the progress of the harrow, or plough. medicinally, the plant has been given with success to subdue delirium. it is obnoxious to snakes, and they will not come near it. other appellations of the herb are cammock, stinking tommy, _arréte boeuf_, _remora aratri_, _resta bovis_, and land whin (which from the latin _guindolum_, signifies a kind of cherry). the plant was formerly much extolled for obviating stone in the bladder. it is seen to be covered with spines; and a tradition exists that it was the rest harrow which furnished the crown of thorns plaited by the roman soldiers at the crucifixion of our saviour. this plant has been long-used as a culinary vegetable, its young shoots being boiled, or taken in salad, or pickled. the french know it as _bugrane_, beloved by goats, and the chief delight of donkeys, who rejoice to roll themselves amid its prickles. simon pauli _ne connait pas de meilleur remède contre le calcul des reins, et de la vessie_. "_anjourdhui l'arr éte boeuf est à peu pres abandonné_." "_on y reviendra!_" the plant contains "ononin," a chemical glucoside, which is demulcent to the urinary organs. its botanical name of _glycyrrhiza_ comes from the greek words, _glukus_, "sweet," and _riza_, "a root." english liquorice root, when dried, is commercially used in two forms, the peeled and the unpeeled. by far and away the best lozenges are those of our [ ] boyhood, still attributed to one "smith," in the borough of london. mallows. all the mallows (_malvaceoe_) to the number of a thousand, agree in containing mucilage freely, and in possessing no unwholesome properties. their family name "mallow" is derived from the greek _malassein_, "to soften," as alluding to the demulcent qualities of these mucilaginous plants. the common mallow is a well-known roadside plant, with large downy leaves, and streaked trumpet-shaped purple flowers, which later on furnish round button-like seeds, known to the rustics as "pickcheeses" in norfolk and elsewhere, whilst beloved by schoolboys, because of their nutty flavour, and called by them "bread and cheese." clare tells playfully of the fairies, borne by mice at a gallop:-- "in chariots lolling at their ease, made of whate'er their fancies please, with wheels at hand of mallow seeds, which childish sport had strung as beads." and recalls the time when he sat as a boy:-- "picking from mallows, sport to please, the crumpled seed we called a cheese." both this plant and its twin sister, the marsh mallow (_althoea hibiscus_, from _altho_, to cure), possess medicinal virtues, which entitle them to take rank as curative herbal simples. the sussex peasant knows the common mallow as "maller," so that "aller and maller" means with him alehoof (ground ivy) and mallow. pliny said: "whosoever shall take a spoonful of the [ ] mallows shall that day be free from all diseases that may come to him." this plant is often named "round dock," and was formerly called "hock herb": our hollyhock being of the mallow tribe, and first brought to us from china. pythagoras held _malvoe folium sanctissimum_; and we read of epimenides in _plato_, "at his mallows and asphodels." the romans esteemed the plant _in deliciis_ among their dainties, and placed it of old as the first dish at their tables. the laxative properties of the mallow, both as regards its emollient leaves, and its _radix altheoe efficacior_, were told of by cicero and horace. the _marsh mallow_ grows wild abundantly in many parts of england, especially in marshes near the sea coast. it gets its generic name _althoea_, from the greek _althos_, "a remedy," because exercising so many curative virtues. its old appellations were _vismalva_, _bismalva_, _malvaviscus_, being twice as medicinally efficacious as the ordinary mallow (_sylvestris_). virgil in one of his eclogues teaches how to coax goats with the marsh mallow:-- "haedorumque gregem viridi compellere hibisco." the root is sweet and very mucilaginous when chewed, containing more than half its weight of saccharine viscous mucilage. it is, therefore, emollient, demulcent, pain-soothing, and lubricating; serving to subdue heat and irritation, whilst, if applied externally, diminishing the painful soreness of inflamed parts. it is, for these reasons, much employed in domestic poultices, and in decoction as a medicine for pulmonary catarrhs, hoarseness, and irritative diarrhoea or dysentery. also the decoction acts well as a bland soothing collyrium for [ ] bathing inflamed eyes. gerard says: "the leaves be with good effect mixed with fomentations and poultices against pains of the sides, of the stone, and of the bladder; also in a bath they serve to take away any manner of pain." the mucilaginous matter with which the marsh mallow abounds is the medicinal part of the plant; the roots of the common mallow being useless to yield it for such purposes, whilst those of the marsh mallow are of singular efficacy. a decoction of marsh mallow is made by adding five pints of water to a quarter-of-a-pound of the dried root, then boiling down to three pints, and straining through calico. also marsh mallow ointment is a popular remedy, especially for mollifying heat, and hence it was thought invaluable by those who had to undergo the ordeal of holding red hot iron in their hands, to rapidly test their moral integrity. the sap of the marsh mallow was combined together with seeds of fleabane, and the white of an hen's egg, to make a paste which was so adhesive that the hands when coated with it were safe from harm through holding for a few moments the glowing iron. french druggists prepare a famous medicinal sweet-meat, known as _pate de gimauve_ from the root of the marsh mallow. in palestine, the plant is employed by the poor to eke out their food; thus we read in the book of job (chap. xxx. ver. ), "who cut up mallows by the bushes, and juniper roots for their meat." in france, the young tops and tender leaves of the marsh mallow are added to spring salads, as stimulating the kidneys healthily, for which purpose is likewise prepared a syrup of marsh mallows (_syrupus althoeus_) from the roots with cold water, to which the [ ] sugar is afterwards added. the leaves, flowers, and roots, are employed for making ptisans. in devonshire, this plant is termed by the farmers, "meshmellish," also "drunkards," because growing close by the water; and in the west of england, "bulls-eyes"; whilst being known in somerset as "bull flowers" (pool flowers). the root of the marsh mallow contains starch, mucilage, pectin, oil, sugar, asparagin, phosphate of lime, glutinous matter and cellulose. an infusion made with cold water takes up the mucilage, sugar, and asparagin, then the hot water dissolves the starch. the flowers were used formerly on may-day by country people for strewing before their doors, and weaving into garlands. the geranium is said to have been originally a mallow. mahomet having washed his shirt while on a journey, hung it on a mallow to dry, and the plant became therefore promoted to be a geranium. most probably, the modern french _pate de gimauve_ contains actually nothing of the plant or its constituents; but the root is given in france to infants, on which they may try their teeth during dentition, much as orris root is used elsewhere. the laxative quality of the common mallow was mentioned by martial:-- "exoneraturas ventrem mihi villica malvas attulit, et varias quas habet hortus opes." the musk mallow (_malva moschata_) is another common variety of this plant, which emits from its leaves a faint musky odour, especially in warm weather, or when they are drawn lightly through the hand. its virtues are similar in kind, but less powerful in degree, to those of the marsh mallow. [ ] marigold. in the _grete herball_ this plant was called mary gowles. three varieties of the marigold exercise medicinal virtues which constitute them herbal simples of a useful nature--the corn marigold (_chrysanthemum segetum_), found in our cornfields; the cultivated garden marigold (_calendula officinalis_); and the marsh marigold (_caltha palustris_), growing in moist grass lands, and popularly known as "mareblobs." the corn marigold, a composite flower, called also bigold, and the yellow oxeye, grows freely, though locally, in english cornfields, its brilliant yellow flowers contrasting handsomely with adjacent scarlet-hued poppies and bluebottles (_centaurea cyanus_). it is also named buddle or boodle, from _buidel_, a purse, because it bears _gools_ or _goldins_, representing gold coins, in the form of the flat, round, brightly yellow blossoms, which were formerly known, too, as _ruddes_ (red flowers). the botanical title of the species, _chrysanthemum segetum_, signifies "golden flower." hill named this marigold, "the husbandman's dyall." in common with the larger oxeye daisy (_chrysanthemum leucanthemum_) it has proved of late very successful in checking the night sweats of pulmonary consumption. a tincture and an infusion of the herb have been made; from five to ten drops of the former being given for a dose, and from two to three tablespoonfuls of the latter. the garden marigold, often called african marigold, came originally from southern france, and has been cultivated in england since . it is a composite plant, and bears the name _calendula_ from the latin _calendoe_, the first days of each month, because it flowers all the year round. whittier styles it "the grateful and [ ] obsequious marigold." the leaves are somewhat thick and sapid; when chewed, they communicate straightway a viscid sweetness, which is followed by a sharp, penetrating taste, very persistent in the mouth, and not of the warm, aromatic kind, but of an acrid, saline nature. this marigold has always been grown, chiefly for its flowers, which were esteemed of old as a cordial to cheer the spirits, and when dried were put into broths as a condiment: charles lamb (elia) says, in his _essay on christ's hospital_: "in lieu of our half-pickled sundays, or quite fresh boiled beef on tuesdays (strong as _caro equina_), with detestable marigolds floating in the pail to poison the broth." the strap-like florets of the rays are the parts of the flowers used for such a purpose. they should be gathered on a fine day when the blossoms are fully expanded, which having been divested of their outer green leaves, should be next spread on a cloth in an airy room to become dry. after having been turned frequently for a few days, they may be put by in paper bags or in drawers. gerard says: "the yellow leaves of the flowers are dried and kept throughout dutch-land against winter, to put into broths and physical potions, and for divers other purposes, in such quantity that the stores of some grocers or spice-sellers contain barrels filled with them, and to be retailed by the penny, more or less; insomuch, that no broths are well made without dried marigolds"; and, "the herb drank after the coming forth from the bath of them that hath the yellow jaundice doth in short time make them well coloured." (this is probably conjectured on the doctrine of signatures.) a decoction of the flowers is employed by country people as a posset drink in measles and small-pox; and the expressed fresh juice proves a useful remedy against [ ] costiveness, as well as for jaundice and suppression of the monthly flow--from one to two tablespoonfuls being taken as a dose. the plant has been considered also of service for scrofulous children, when given to them as a salad. one of the flowers if rubbed on any part recently stung by a bee or wasp, will quickly relieve it. buttercups and marigolds, when growing close to each other, are called in devonshire, "publicans and sinners." the active, bitter principle of the marigold is "callendulin," which is yellow and tasteless, whilst swelling in water into a transparent jelly. druggists now make a medicinal tincture (h.) of the common marigold, using four ounces of the dried florets to a pint of proof spirit, the dose being from half a teaspoonful to two teaspoonfuls in water, twice or three times in the day. it is advised as a sudorific stimulant in low fevers, and to relieve spasms. also, the marigold has been employed both as a medicine and externally in treating cancer, being thought to "dispose cancerous sores to heal." a saturated tincture of the flowers when mixed with water, promotes the cure of contusions, wounds, and simple sores or ulcers; also the extract will allay chronic vomiting, if given in doses of two grains, several times a day. one drop of the tincture with two grains of powdered borax when sprayed into the ear, is very useful if a discharge has become established therefrom. the plant, especially its flowers, was used on a large scale by the american surgeons, to treat wounds and injuries sustained during the last civil war; and obtained their warmest commendation. it quite prevented all exhausting suppurative discharges and drainings. _succus calenduloe_ (the fresh juice) is the best form--say american surgeons--in which the _calendula_ [ ] is obtainable for ready practice. just sufficient alcohol should be added to the juice as will prevent fermentation. for these purposes as a vulnerary, the _calendula_ owes its introduction and first use altogether to homoeopathic methods, as signally valuable for healing wounds, ulcers, burns, and other breaches of the skin surface. dr. hughes (brighton) says: "the marigold is a precious vulnerary. you will find it invaluable in surgical practice." on exposure to the sun the yellow colour of the garden marigold becomes bleached. some writers spell the name "marygold," as if it, and its synonyms bore reference to the virgin mary; but this is a mistake, though there is a fancied resemblance of the disc's florets to rays of glory. it comes into blossom about march th (the annunciation of the virgin mary). "what flower is this which bears the virgin's name, and richest metal joined with the same?" in the chancel of burynarbon church, devonshire, is an epitaph containing a quaint allusion to this old idea respecting the marigold:--"to the pretious memory of mary, ye dear, and only daughter of george westwood. january st, ." "this mary gold, lo! here doth show mari's worth gold lies here below; the marigold in sunshine spread, when cloudie closed doth bow the head." margaret of orleans had for her device a marigold turning towards the sun, with the motto, "_je ne veux suivre que lui seul_." dairy women used to churn the petals of the marigold with their cream for giving to their butter a yellow colour. the marsh marigold (_caltha poetarum_) or the marsh [ ] horsegowl of old writers, grows commonly in our wet meadows, and resembles a gigantic buttercup, being of the same order of plants (_ranunculaceoe_). the term, marsh marigold, is a pleonasm for marigold, which means of itself the marsh gowl or marsh golden flower, being an abbreviation of the old saxon _mear-gealla_. so that the term "marsh" has become prefixed unnecessarily. presently, the name "marigold," "marsh gowl," was passed on to the _calendula_ of the corn fields of southern europe, and to the garden marigold. furthermore, the botanical title, caltha, of the mare blob, is got from _calathus_, a small round basket of twigs or osiers made two thousand years and more ago, which the concave golden bowl of the marsh marigold was thought to resemble. persephone was collecting wild flowers in a _calathus_ when carried off by the admiring pluto. the earliest use of the floral name _caltha_ occurs in virgil's second pastoral, "_mollia luteolâ pingit vaccinia calthâ_." the title mare blob comes from the anglo-saxon, "_mere_" (a marsh), and "_bleb_" or "_blob_" (a bladder). these flowers were the _flaventia lumina calthoe_ of columella, described by shakespeare in the _winter's tale_. they are also known as "bublicans," "meadowbrights," "crazies," "christ's eyes," "bull's eyes," "may blobs," "drunkards," "water caltrops," and wild "batchelor's buttons." a tincture is made (h.) from the whole plant when in flower, and may be given with success for that form of bloodlessness with great impairment of the whole health, known as pernicious anaemia. in toxic quantities the marsh marigold has produced in its provers, a pallid, yellow, swollen state of the face, constant headache and giddiness, a thickly-coated tongue, diarrhoea, a small rapid pulse sometimes intermittent, heaviness of the limbs, and an [ ] unhealthy, eruptive state of the skin; so that the tincture of the plant in small, well-diluted doses will slowly overcome this totality of symptoms, and serve to establish a sound state of restored health. five drops of the tincture diluted to the third strength should be given three times a day with water. dr. withering tells that on a large quantity of the flowers being put in the bed-room of a girl subject to fits, the attacks ceased; and an infusion of the flowers has been since given with success for similar fits. the marsh marigold has been called _verrucaria_, because efficacious in curing warts; also _solsequia_, or _solsequium_; and sponsa solis, since the flower opens at the rising, and shuts at the setting of the sun. marjoram. the common marjoram (_origanum_) grows frequently as a wild labiate plant on dry, bushy places, especially in chalky districts throughout britain, the whole herb being fragrantly aromatic, and bearing flowers of a deep red colour. when cultivated in our kitchen gardens it becomes a favourite pot herb, as "sweet marjoram," with thin compact spikes, and more elliptical leaves than the wild marjoram. its generic title, _origanum_, means in greek, the joy of the mountains (_oros-ganos_) on which it grows. this plant and the pennyroyal are often called "organ." its dried leaves are put as a pleasant condiment into soups and stuffings, being also sometimes substituted for tea. together with the flowering tops they contain an essential volatile fragrant oil, which is carminative, warming, and tonic. an infusion made from the fresh plant will excellently relieve nervous headaches by virtue of the camphoraceous principle [ ] contained in the oil; and externally the herb may be applied with benefit in bags as a hot fomentation to painful swellings and rheumatism, as likewise for colic. "organy," says gerard, "is very good against the wambling of the stomacke, and stayeth the desire to vomit, especially at sea. it may be used to good purpose for such as cannot brooke their meate." the sweet marjoram has also been successfully employed externally for healing scirrhous tumours of the breast. murray says: "tumores mammarum dolentes scirrhosos herba recens, viridis, per tempus applicata feliciter dissipavit." the essential oil, when long kept, assumes a solid form, and was at one time much esteemed for being rubbed into stiff joints. the greeks and romans crowned young couples with marjoram, which is in some countries the symbol of honour. probably the name was originally, "majoram," in latin, _majorana_. our forefathers scoured their furniture with its odorous juice. in the _merry wives of windsor_, act v, scene , we read:-- "the several chairs of order look you scour with juice of balm, and every precious flower." mercury-dog's (_euphorbiaceoe_). the _mercuriallis perennis_ (dog's mercury) grows commonly in our hedges and ditches, occurring in large patches, with egg-shaped pointed leaves, square stems, and light green flowers, developed in spikes. the old herbalists called it smerewort, and gave it for agues, as well as to cure melancholy humours. it has been eaten in mistake for good king henry, which is sometimes called mercury goosefoot; but it is decidedly poisonous, even when cooked. some persons style it "kentish balsam." [ ] the name dog's mercury or dog's cole was given either because of its supposed worthlessness, or to distinguish it from the mercury goosefoot aforesaid. a medicinal tincture is made (h.) from the whole plant freshly collected when in flower and fruit, with spirit of wine; and the dose of this in a diluted form is from five to ten drops, of the third decimal strength, two or three times a day, with a spoonful of water. the condition which indicates its medicinal use, is that of a severe catarrh, with chilliness, a heavy head, sneezing, a dry mouth, and general aching, lassitude, with stupor, and heat of face. its chemical constituents have not been ascertained. in the isle of skye it is used for causing salivation, as a vegetable mercury; and _per contra_ for curing a sore mouth. such virtues as the herb possesses were thought to have been taught by the god mercury. the greeks called it mercury's grass (_ermou poa_). when boiled and eaten with fried bacon in error for the english spinach, good king henry, it has produced sickness, drowsiness, and convulsive twitchings. the root affords both a blue and a crimson colour for dyeing. mints. (pennyroyal, peppermint, and spearmint). several kinds of the mints have been used medicinally from the earliest times, such as balm, basil, ground ivy, horehound, marjoram, pennyroyal, peppermint, rosemary, sage, savory, spearmint, and thyme, some being esteemed rather as pot herbs, than as exercising positive medicinal effects. the most useful as herbal simples which have yet to be considered are pennyroyal, peppermint, and spearmint. the cat mint (_nepeta cataria_) and horse mint are of minor importance. [ ] all the mints are severally provided with leaves of a familiar fragrant character, it having been observed that this aromatic vegetation is a feature of deserts, and of other hot, dry places, allover the world. tyndall showed the power exercised by a spray of perfume when diffused through a room to cool it, or in other words to exclude the passage of the heat rays; and it has been suggested that the presence of essential oils in the leaves of these plants serves to protect them against the intense dry heat of a desert sun all effectively as if they were partly under shelter. nevertheless mints, with the exception of "arvensis," are the inhabitants of wet and marshy wastes. they have acquired their common name _mentha_ from minthes (according to ovid) who was changed into a plant of this sort by proserpina, the wife of pluto, in a fit of jealousy. their flowering tops are all found to contain a certain portion of camphor. pliny said: "as for the garden mint, the very smell of it alone recovers and refreshes the spirits, as the taste stirs up the appetite for meat, which is the reason that it is so general in our acid sauces, wherein we are accustomed to dip our meat." the mints for paying tithes, with respect to which the pharisees were condemned for their extravagance by our saviour, included the horse mint (_sylvestris_), the round-leaved mint, the hairy mint (_aquatica_), the corn mint (_arvensis_), the bergamot mint, and some others, besides the "mint, rue, and anise," specially mentioned. "woe unto you pharisees; for ye tithe mint and rue, and all manner of herbs. ye pay tithe of mint, and anise, and cummin." the mint pennyroyal (_mentha pulegium_) gets its name from the latin _puleium regium_, because of its royal efficacy in destroying fleas (_pulices_). the french call [ ] this similarly, _pouliot_. it grows on moist heaths and pastures, and by the margins of brooks, being cultivated further in our herb gardens, for kitchen and market uses. also, it is produced largely about mitcham, and is mostly sold in a dry state. the herb was formerly named pudding grass, from its being used to make the stuffing for meat, in days when this was termed a pudding. thus we read in an old play, _the ordinary_:-- "let the corporal come sweating under a breast of mutton stuffed with [pudding]." the pennyroyal was named by the greeks _bleekon_ and _gleekon_, being often used by them as a condiment for seasoning different viands. formerly it was known in england as "lurk in ditch," and "run by the ground," from its creeping nature, arid love of a damp soil. its first titles were "puliall royall," and "hop marjoram." a chaplet of pennyroyal was considered admirable for clearing the brain. treadwell says, the pennyroyal was especially put into hog's puddings, which were made of flour, currants, and spice, and stuffed into the entrail of a hog. the oil of pennyroyal is used commercially in france and germany. its distilled water is carminative and anti-spasmodic; whilst the whole plant is essentially stimulating. the fresh herb yields about one per cent. of a volatile oil containing oxygen, but of which the exact composition has not been ascertained. from two to eight drops may be given as a dose in suitable cases, but not where feverish or inflammatory symptoms are present. if added to an ordinary embrocation the oil of [ ] pennyroyal increases the reddening and the benumbing (anodyne) effects, acting in the same way as, menthol (oil of peppermint) for promptly dispelling severe neuralgic pain. with respect to the pennyroyal, folk speak in devonshire of "organs," "organ tea," and "organ broth." an essence is made of the oil, mixed and diluted with spirit of wine. the pennyroyal has proved useful in whooping cough; but the chief purpose to which it has long been devoted, is that of promoting, the monthly flow with women. haller says he never knew an infusion of the herb in white wine, with steel, to fail of success; _quod me nunquam fefellit_. it is certain that in some parts of england preparations of pennyroyal are in considerable demand, and a great number of women ascribe _emmenagogue_ properties to it, that is, the power of inducing the periodical monthly flux. many married women of intelligence and close observation, assert as a positive fact, that pennyroyal will bring on the periodical flow when suppressed; and yet the eminent jurisprudist, dr. taylor, was explicit in declaring that pennyroyal has no such properties. he stated that it has no more effect on the womb than peppermint or camphor water. so there is difficulty in collecting evidence as regards the real action of pennyroyal in such respect. chemists supply the medicine in the full belief of this eminent opinion just quoted: at the same time they know it is not wanted for "catarrh of the chest," as alleged. the purchaser keeps her secret to herself, and does not communicate her experience to anyone. dr. taylor evidently supposed peppermint water and camphor water to be almost inert, especially as exercising any toxical effect on the womb. the medicinal basis of the latter is certainly a powerful agent, and its stimulating volatile principles [ ] are found to exist in most of the aromatic herbs; in fact, camphor is a concrete volatile vegetable oil, and camphoraceous properties signalise all the essences derived from carminative herbal simples. the camphor of commerce is secreted by trees of the laurel sort native to china and japan, whilst coming also from the west indies. everyone knows by sight and smell the white crystalline granular semi-translucent gum, strongly odorous, and having a warm pungent characteristic taste. branches, leaves, and chips of the trees are soaked in water until it is saturated with the extract, which is then turned out into an earthen basin to coagulate. this is completely soluble in spirit of wine, but scarcely at all in water; nevertheless, if a lump of the camphor be kept in a bottle of fresh water, to be drawn off from time to time as required, it will constitute camphor julep. a wineglassful of it serves to relieve nervous headache and hysterical depression. the domestic uses of camphor are multiple, and within moderate limits perfectly safe; but a measure of caution should be exercised, as was shown a while ago by the school-boy, whom his mother furnished affectionately after the holidays with a bottle of supersaturated pilules to be taken one or two at a time against any incipient catarrh or cold. the whole bottleful was devoured at once as a sweetmeat, and the lad's life was rescued with difficulty because of intense nervous shock occasioned thereby. an old latin adage declares that _camphora per nares emasculat mares_, "camphor in excess makes men eunuchs," even when imbibed only through the air as a continuous practice. and, therefore, as a "similar" the odorous gum, in small repeated doses, is an excellent sexual restorative. likewise, persons who have taken poisonous, or large [ ] probative quantities of camphor found themselves quickly affected by exhausting choleraic diarrhoea; and hahnemann therefore advised, with much success, to give (in doses of from one to three or four drops on sugar), repeatedly for cholera, a tincture of camphor (rubini's) made with spirit of wine above proof. this absorbs as much as is possibly soluble of the drug. physiologically camphor acts by reducing reflex nervous irritability. externally its spirit makes an admirable warming liniment, either by itself, or when conjoined with other rubefacients. in persons poisoned by the drug, all the superficial blood vessels of the bodily skin have been found immensely dilated; acting on a knowledge of which fact anyone wishing to produce copious general sweating, may do so by sitting over a plate on which camphor is heated, whilst a blanket envelops the body loosely, and is pinned round the neck so that the fumes do not get down the throat. in medical books of the last century this substance was called "camphire." to a certain extent its effluvium is noxious to insects, and it may therefore be employed for preserving specimens, as well as for protecting fabrics against moths. but its volatile odours swiftly evaporate, and become even offensively diffused about the room. in a moderate measure camphor is antiseptic, and lessens urinary irritation. recently a dose of ninety-six grains, taken toxically, produced giddiness, then epileptic convulsions, with dilated pupils, and stertor of breathing. the peppermint (_mentha piperita_), or "brandy mint," so called because having a pungent smell, and taste of a peppery (_piper_) nature, is a labiate plant, found not uncommonly in moist places throughout britain, and occurring of several varieties. both it and the spearmint [ ] probably escaped from cultivation at first, and then became our wild plants. its leaves and stems exhale a powerful, refreshing, characteristic aroma, and give a taste which, whilst delicate at first, is quickly followed by a sense of numbness and coldness, increased by inspiring strongly. preparations of peppermint, when swallowed, diffuse warmth in the stomach and mouth, acting as a stimulating carminative, with some amount of anodyne power to allay the pain of colic, flatulence, spasm, or indigestion. this is through the powerful volatile oil, of which the herb yields one per cent. its bruised fresh leaves, if applied, will relieve local pains and headache. a hot infusion, taken as tea, soothes stomach ache, allays sickness, and stays colicky diarrhoea. this will also subdue menstrual colic in the female. the essential oil owes its virtues to the menthol, or mint camphor, which it contains. the peppermint is largely grown at mitcham, and is distilled on the ground at a low temperature, the water which comes away with the oil not being re-distilled, but allowed for the most part to run off. chinese oil of peppermint (_po ho yo_) yields menthol in a solid crystalline form, which, when rubbed over the surface of a painful neuralgic part, will afford speedy and marked relief, as also for neuralgic tooth-ache, tic douloureux, and the like grievous troubles. it is sold in diminutive bottles and cases labelled with chinese characters. an ethereal tincture of menthol is made officinally with one part of menthol to eight parts of pure ether. if some of this is inhaled by vaporisation from a mouthpiece inhaler, or is sprayed into the nostrils and hindermost throat, it will relieve acute affections thereof, and of the nose, by making the blood vessels contract, and by arresting the flow of mucous discharge, [ ] thus diminishing the congestion, and quieting the pain. this camphoraceous oil was formerly applied by the romans to the temples for the cure of headache. in local rheumatic affections the skin may be painted beneficially with oil of peppermint. for internal use, from one to three drops of the oil may be given as a dose on sugar, or in a spoonful of milk; but the diluted essence, made from some of the oil admixed with spirit of wine, is to be preferred. put on cotton wool into the hollow of a carious tooth, a drop or two of the essential oil will often ease the pain speedily. the fresh plant, bruised, and applied against the pit of the stomach over the navel, will allay sickness, and is useful to stay the diarrhoeic purging of young children. from half to one teaspoonful of the spirituous essence of peppermint may be given for a dose with two tablespoonfuls of hot water; or, if peppermint water be chosen, the dose of this should be from half to one wineglassful. distilled peppermint water should be preferred to that prepared by adding the essence to common water. lozenges made of the oil, or the essence, are admirable for affording ease in colic, flatulence, and nausea. they will also prevent or relieve sea-sickness. when tom hood lay a dying he turned his eyes feebly towards the window on hearing it rattle in the night, whereupon his wife, who was watching him, said softly. "it's only the wind, dear"; to which he replied, with a sense of humour indomitable to the last, "then put a peppermint lozenge on the sill." two sorts of this herb are cultivated for the market--black and white peppermint, the first of which furnishes the most, but not the best oil. the former has purple stems, and the latter green. as an antiseptic, and destroyer of disease germs, this oil is signally efficacious, [ ] on which important account it is now used for inhalation by consumptive patients as a volatile vapour to reach remote diseased parts of the lung passages, and to heal by destroying the morbid germs which are keeping up mischief therein. towards proving this preservative power exercised by the oil of peppermint, pieces of meat, and of fat, wrapped in several layers of gauze medicated with the oil have been kept for seven months sweet, and free from putrescent changes. a simple respirator for inhaling the oil is made from a piece of thin perforated zinc plate adapted to the shape of the mouth and nostrils like a small open funnel, within the narrow end of which is fitted a pledget of cotton wool saturated with twenty drops of the oil, or from twenty to thirty drops of the spirituous essence. this should be renewed each night and morning, whilst the apparatus is to be worn nearly all day. at the same time the oil is agreeable of odour, and is altogether harmless. it may be serviceably admixed with liniments for use to rheumatic parts. "peppermint," says dr. hughes (brighton), "should be more largely employed than it is in coughs, especially in a dry cough, however caused, when it seems to act specifically as a cure, just as arnica does for injuries, or aconite for febrile inflammation. it will relieve even the irritative hectic cough of consumptive patients. eight or ten drops of the essence should be given for this purpose as a dose with a tablespoonful of water. in france continuous inhalations of peppermint oil combined with creasote and glycerine, have become used most successfully, even when cavities exist in the lungs, with copious bacillary expectoration. the cough, the night sweats, and the heavy phlegm have been arrested, whilst the nutrition and the weight have steadily increased." [ ] a solution of menthol one grain, spirit of wine fifty drops, and oil of cloves ten drops, if painted over the seat of pain, will relieve neuralgia of the face, or sciatica promptly. unhealthy sores may be cleansed, and their healing promoted, by being dressed with strips of soft rag dipped in sweet oil, to each ounce of which one or two drops of the oil of peppermint has been added. for diphtheria, peppermint oil has been of marked use when applied freely twice or three times in the day to the ulcerated parts of the throat. this oil, or the essence, can be used of any strength, in any quantity, without the least harm to the patient. it checks suppuration when applied to a sore or wound, whilst exercising an independent antiseptic influence. "altogether," says dr. braddon, "the oil of peppermint forms the best, safest, and most agreeable of known antiseptics." pliny tells that the greeks and romans crowned themselves with the peppermint at their feasts, and adorned their _al fresco_ tables with its sprays. the "chefs" introduced this herb into all their sauces, and scented their wines with its essence. the roman housewives made a paste of the peppermint with honey, which they esteemed highly, partaking of it to sweeten their breath, and to conceal their passion for wine at a time when the law punished with death every woman convicted of quaffing the ruby seductive liquor. seneca perished in a bath scented with woolly mint. the spearmint (_mentha viridis_) is found growing apparently wild in england, but is probably not an indigenous herb. it occurs in watery places, and on the banks of rivers, such as the thames, and the exe. if used externally, its strong decoction will heal chaps and indolent eruptions. it possesses a warm, aromatic odour and taste, much [ ] resembling those of peppermint, but not so pungent. its volatile oil, and its essence, made with spirit of wine, contain a similar stimulating principle, but are less intense, and therefore better adapted for children's maladies. the spearmint is called "mackerel mint," and in germany "lady's mint," with a pun on the word munze. its name, spear, or spire, indicates the spiry form of its floral blossoming. when the leaves of the herb are macerated in milk, this curdles much less quickly than it otherwise would; and therefore the essence is to be commended for use with milk diets by delicate persons, or for young children of feeble digestive powers, though not when feverishness is present. "spearmint," says john evelyn, "is friendly to the weak stomach, and powerful against all nervous crudities." "this is the spearmint that steadies giddiness," writes alfred austin, poet laureate. our cooks employ it with vinegar for making the mint sauce which we eat with roast lamb, because of its condimentary virtues as a spice to the immature meat, whilst the acetic acid of the vinegar serves to help dissolve the crude albuminous fibre. the oil is less used than that of peppermint. from two to five drops may be given on sugar; or from half to one teaspoonful of the spirit of spearmint with two tablespoonfuls of water. also a distilled water of spearmint is made, which will relieve hiccough, and flatulence, as well as the giddiness of indigestion. the tincture prepared from the dried herb looks of a bright dark green by day, but of a deep red colour by night. martial called the spearmint _rutctatrix mentha_. "_nec deest ructatrix mentha_." the calamint, or basil thyme, grows frequently in [ ] our waysides and hedges, a labiate plant, with downy stems and leaves, whilst bearing light purple flowers. the whole herb has a sweet, aromatic odour, and makes a pleasant cordial tea. it is named from the greek kalos, "excellent," because thought useful against serpents; "there is made hereof," said galen, "an antidote marvellous good for young women that want their courses." the stem of this pretty slender herb is seldom more than five or six inches high, and its blossoms are so inconspicuous as to be often overlooked. the flowers droop gracefully before expansion. in country places it is often called mill mountain, and its infusion is an old remedy for rheumatism. if bruised, and applied externally, it reddens the skin, and will sometimes even blister it. in this way it acts well when judiciously used for lumbago, and rheumatic pains. the calamint contains a camphoraceous, volatile, stimulating oil, in common with the other mints; this is distilled by water, but its virtues are better extracted by rectified spirit. the lesser calamint is a variety of the herb possessing almost superior virtues, with a stronger odour resembling that of pennyroyal. "apple mint" is the "_mentha rotundifolia_." "many robust men and women among our peasantry," says dr. george moore, "from notions of their own, use infusions of balm, sage, or even a little rue, or wild thyme, as a common drink, with satisfaction to their stomachs, and advantage to their health, instead of infusing the chinese herb." the calamint is a favourite herb with such persons. about the cat mint there is an old saying, "if you set it the cats will eat it: if you sow it the cats won't know it." this, the _nepeta cataria_, or _herbe aux chats_, is as much beloved by cats as _valerian_, [ ] and the common _marum_, for which herbs they have a frenzied passion. they roll themselves over the plants, which they lick, tear with their teeth, and bathe with their urine. but the cat mint is the detestation of rats, insomuch that with its leaves a small barricade may be constructed which the vermin will never pass however hungry they may be. it is sometimes called "nep," as contracted from _nepeta_. hoffman said, "the root of the cat mint, if chewed, will make the most gentle person fierce and quarrelsome"; and there is a legend of a certain hangman who could never find courage to exercise his gruesome task until he had masticated some of this aromatic root. mistletoe. the mistletoe, which we all associate so happily with the festivities of christmas, is an evergreen parasite, growing on the branches of deciduous trees, and penetrating with simple roots through the bark into the wood. it belongs to the _loranthaceoe_, and has the botanical name of _viscum_, or "sticky," because of its glutinous juices. the mistletoe contains mucilage, sugar, a fixed oil, resin, an odorous principle, some tannin, and various salts. its most interesting constituent is the "viscin," or bird glue, which is mainly developed by fermentation, and becomes a yellowish, sticky, resinous mass, such as can be used with success as a bird-lime. the dried young twigs, and the leaves, are chiefly the medicinal parts, though young children have been attacked with convulsions after eating freely of the berries. the name (in anglo-saxon, _mistiltan_) is derived, says dr. prior, from _mistil_, "different," and _tan_, "a twig," [ ] because so unlike the tree it grows upon; or, perhaps, _mist_ may refer to excrement, and the adjective, _viscum_, bear some collateral reference to viscera, "entrails." probably our _viscum_ plant differs from that of the latin writers in their accounts of the druids, which would be the _loranthus_ growing on the _quercus pubescens_ (an oak indigenous to the south of france). they knew it by a name answering to "all-heal." it is of a larger and thicker sort than our common mistletoe, which, however, possesses the same virtues in a lesser degree. the germans call the plant _vogellein_, and the french _gui_, which is probably celtic. the plant is given powdered, or as an infusion, or made into a tincture (h.) with spirit of wine. from ten to sixty grains of the powder may be taken for a dose, or a decoction may be made by boiling two ounces of the bruised plant with half-a-pint of water, and giving one tablespoonful for a dose several times in the day; or from five to ten drops of the tincture (which is prepared almost exclusively by the homoeopathic chemists) are a dose, with one or two tablespoonfuls of cold water. sir john colebatch published in a pamphlet, on _the treatment of epilepsy by mistletoe_, regarding it, and with much justice, as a specific. he procured the parasite from the lime trees at hampton court. the powdered leaves were ordered to be given (in black cherry water), as much of these as will lie on a sixpence every morning. sir john says, "this beautiful plant must have been designed by the almighty for further and more noble purposes than barely to feed thrushes, or to be hung up superstitiously in houses to drive away evil spirits." his treatise was entitled, _a dissertation concerning the misseltoe--a most wonderful specifick remedy for the cure of convulsive distempers_. the physiological effect of the [ ] plant is that of lessening, and temporarily benumbing such nervous action as is reflected to distant organs of the body from some central organ which is the actual seat of trouble. in this way the spasms of epilepsy and of other convulsive distempers, are allayed. large doses of the plant, or of its berries, would, on the contrary, aggravate these convulsive disorders. in a french "_recueil de remedes domestiques_," , _avec privilege du roy_, we read, de l'epilepsie: "il est certain que contre ce deplorable mal le veritable guy de chêne (mistletoe) est un remede excellent, curatif, preservatif, et qui soulage beaucoup dans l'accident. il le faut secher au four apres qu'on aura tiré le pain: le mettre en poudre fort subtile; passer cette poudre par un tamis de foye, et la conserver pour le besoin. il faut prendre les poids dun ecu d'or de cette poudre chaque matin dans vin blanc tous les trois derniers jours de la lune vieille. il est encore bon que la personne affligée de ce mal porte toujours un morceau de guy de chêne pendu à son col; mais ce morceau doit etre toujours frais, et sans avoir ete mis au four." the active part of the plant is its resin (_viscin_), which is yielded to spirit of wine in making a tincture. this is prepared (h.) with proof spirit from the leaves and ripe berries of our mistletoe in equal quantities, but it is difficult of manufacture owing to the viscidity of the sap. a special process is employed of passing the material twice through a sausage machine, and then mixing the mass with powdered glass before its percolation with the spirit. a trituration made from the leaves, berries, and tender twigs, is given for epilepsy, in doses of twenty grains, twice or three times a day. nowadays the berries are taken by country people when finding themselves troubled with severe stitches, [ ] and they obtain almost instantaneous relief. in accordance with which experience johnson says it was creditably reported to him, "that a few of the berries of the misseltoe, bruised and strained into oyle and drunken, hath presently and forthwith rid a grievous and sore stitch." the tincture, moreover, is put to a modern use as a heart tonic in place of the foxglove. it lessens reflex irritability, and strengthens the heart's beat, whilst raising the frequency of a slow pulse. dr. j. wilde has shown that the mistletoe possesses a high repute in rural hampshire for the cure of st. vitus's dance, and similar spasmodic nervous complaints. in the united states the leaves have been successfully employed as an infusion to check female fluxes, and haemorrhages, also to hasten childbirth by stimulating the womb when labour is protracted to the exhaustion of the mother. in scotland the plant is almost unknown, and is restricted to one locality only. the druids regarded the mistletoe as the soul of their sacred tree-- the oak; and they taught the people to believe that oaks on which it was seen growing were to be respected, because of the wonderful cures which the priests were then able to effect with it, particularly of the falling sickness. the parasite was cut from the tree with a golden sickle at a high and solemn festival, using much ceremonial display, it being then credited with a special power of "giving fertility to all animals." ovid said, "ad viscum cantare druidoe solebant." shakespeare calls it "the baleful mistletoe," in allusion to the scandinavian legend, that balder, the god of peace, was slain with an arrow made of mistletoe. he was restored to life at the request of the other gods and goddesses. the mistletoe was afterwards given to [ ] be kept by the goddess of love; and it was ordained in olympus that everyone who passed under it should receive a kiss, to show that the branch was the emblem of love, and not of death. persons in sweden afflicted with epilepsy carry with them a knife having a handle of oak mistletoe, which plant they call thunder-besom, connecting it with lightning and fire. the thrush is the great disseminator of the parasite. he devours the berries eagerly, and soils, or "missels" his feet with their viscid seeds, conveying them thus from tree to tree, and getting thence the name of missel thrush. in brittany the plant is named _herbe de la croix_, and, because the crucifix was made from its wood when a tree, it is thought to have become degraded to a parasite. when norwood, in surrey, was really a forest the mistletoe grew there on the oak, and, being held as medicinal, it was abstracted for apothecaries in london. but the men who meddled with it were said to become lame, or to fall blind with an eye, and a rash fellow who ventured to cut down the oak itself broke his leg very shortly afterwards. one teaspoonful of the dried leaves, in powder, from the appletree mistletoe, taken in acidulated water twice a day, will cure chronic giddiness. sculptured sprays and berries, with leaves of mistletoe, fill the spandrils of the tomb of one of the berkeleys in bristol cathedral--a very rare adornment, because for some unknown reason the parasite has been always excluded from the decorations of churches. in some districts it is called devil's-fuge, also the spectre's wand, from a belief that with due incantations a branch held in the hand will compel the appearance of a spectre, and require it to speak. [ ] mountain ash. a somewhat common, and handsomely conspicuous tree in many parts of england, especially about high lands, is the rowan, or mountain ash. in may and june it attracts attention by its bright green feathery foliage set off by cream-coloured bloom, whilst in september it bears a brilliant fruitage of berries, richly orange in colour at first, but presently of a clear ripe vermilion. popularly this abundant fruit is supposed to be poisonous, but such is far from being the case. a most excellent and wholesome jelly may be prepared therefrom, which is slightly tonic by its salutary bitterness, and is an admirable antiseptic accompaniment to certain roast meats, such as venison and mutton. to make this jelly, boil the berries in water (cold at first) in an enamelled preserving pan; when the fruit has become sufficiently soft, run the contents of the pan through a flannel bag without pressure; tie the bag between two chairs, with a basin below, and let the juice strain leisurely through so as to come out clear. then to each pint of the juice add a pound of sugar, and boil this from ten to twenty minutes; pour off into warm dry jars, and cover them securely when cool. after the juice has dripped off the fruit a pleasant refreshing drink may be made for children by pouring a kettleful of boiling water through the flannel bag. some persons mix with the fruit an equal quantity of green apples when making the jelly. birds, especially field fares, eat the berries with avidity; and a botanical designation of the tree is _aucuparia_, as signifying fruit used by the _auceps_, or bird catcher, with which to bait his snares. "there is," says an old writer, "in every berry the exhilaration of wine, and the satisfying of old mead; and whosoever shall eat three berries of them, if he has [ ] completed a hundred years, he will return to the age of thirty years." at the same time it must be noted that the _leaves_ of the mountain ash are of a poisonous quality, and contain prussic acid like those of the laurel. but, as already shown, the berries, when ripe, may be eaten freely without fear. chemically they contain tartaric acid when unripe, and both malic and citric acids when ripe. they also furnish sorbin, and parasorbic acid. the unripe fruit and the bark are extremely astringent, being useful in decoction, or infusion, to check diarrhoea; and externally in poultices or lotions, to constringe such relaxed parts as the throat, and lower bowel. the title rowan tree has affixed itself to the mountain ash, as derived from the norse, _runa_ (a charm), because it is supposed to have the power of averting the evil eye. "rowan tree and red thread hold the witches a' in dread." "ruma" was really a magician, or whisperer, from _ru_, to murmur, and in olden times runes, or mystical secrets, were carved exclusively on the mountain ash tree in scandinavia and the british isles. crosses made of the twigs, and tied with red thread were sewn by highlandmen into their clothes. dame sludge fastened a piece of the wood into flibbertigibbet's collar as a protection against wayland smith's sorceries.--(kenilworth). other folk-names of the tree are quicken tree, quick beam, wiggen, and witcher. the mountain ash is botanically a connecting link between the dog rose of our hedges and the apple tree of our orchards. its flowers exactly resemble apple blossoms, and its thickly-clustered red berries are only small crabs dwarfed by the love of the tree for mountain [ ] heights and bleak windy situations. in the harsh cold regions of the north it is only a stunted shrub with leaves split up into many small leaflets, so as to suffer less by any breadth of resistance to the sharp driving blasts of icy winds. confusion has been often made between this tree and the service tree (_sorbus_, or _pyrus domestica_), which is quite distinct, being more correctly called servise tree, from _cerevisia_, fermented beer. formerly this servise, or checker-tree, was employed for making an intoxicating drink. virgil says:-- "et pocula lae fermento atque acidis imitantur vitea _sorbis_." "with acid juices from the service ash, and humming ale, they make their lemon squash." the fruit of the service tree (or witten pear-tree) resembles a small pear, and is considered in france very useful for dysentery because of its tannin; but this _pyrus domestica_ is a rare tree in england. sometimes mistaken for it is the wild service tree (the _pyrus torminalis_), much more common in our south country hedges. its fruit is threaded on long strings, and carried in procession at village feasts in northamptonshire, but is worthless. evelyn says, "ale and beer brewed from the berries, when ripe, of the true service tree is an incomparable drink." mugwort and wormwood. the herb mugwort (_artemisia vulgaris_), a composite plant, is frequent about hedgerows and waste ground throughout britain; and it chiefly merits a place among herbal simples because of a special medicinal use in certain female derangements. its name mugwort has [ ] been attributed to "moughte," a moth, or maggot, this title being given to the plant because dioscorides commended it for keeping off moths. its anglo-saxon synonym is _wyrmwyrt_. mugwort is named from artemis the greek goddess of the moon, and is also called maidenwort or motherwort (womb wort), being a plant beneficial to the womb. macer says, terming it by mistake "mother of worts": "herbarum matrem justum puto ponere primo praepue morbis mulieribus illa medetur." a decoction of the fresh tops acts famously to correct female irregularities when employed as a bath. _uterina est, adeoque usus est creberrimus mulierculis quoe eam adhibent externe, atque interne ut vix balnea et lotiones parent in quibus artemisia non contineatur_. thus writes ray, quoting from schroder. or it may be that the term mugwort became popularly applied because this herb was in demand for helping to preserve ale. the plant was formerly known as _cingulum sancti johannis_, since a crown made from its sprays was worn on st. john's eve, to gain security from evil possession; also as _zona divi johannis_, it being believed that john the baptist bore a girdle of it in the wilderness. in germany and holland it has received the name of st. john's plant, because, if gathered on st. john's eve, it is thought protective against diseases and misfortunes. the mugwort is also styled "felon wort," or "felon herb." if placed in the shoes, it will prevent weariness. a dram of the powdered leaves taken four times a day has cured chronic hysterical fits, which were otherwise intractable. "mugwort," says gerard, "cureth the shakings of the joynts inclining to the palsie." the mermaid of the clyde is said to have exclaimed, [ ] when she beheld the funeral of a young maiden who had died from consumption and decline:-- "if they wad drink nettles in march, and eat muggins [mugwort] in may, sae mony braw young maidens wad na' be gang to clay." portions of old dead roots are found at the base of the herb, which go by the name of "coals," and are thought to be preventive of epilepsy when taken internally, or worn around the neck as an amulet. parkinson says: "mugwort is of wonderful help to women in risings of the mother, or hysteria." it is also useful against gout by boiling the tender parts of the roots in weak broth, and taking this frequently; whilst at the same time the affected limbs should be bathed and fomented with a hot decoction of the herb. the plant, without doubt, is decidedly anti-epileptic, its remedial effects being straightway followed by profuse and fetid perspirations. it is similarly useful against the convulsions of children in teething. for preventing disorders, as well as for curing rheumatism, the japanese, young and old, rich and poor, indiscriminately, are said to be singed with a "moxa" made from the mugwort. its dried leaves are rubbed in the hands until the downy part becomes separated, and can be moulded into little cones. one of these having been placed over the site of the disease, is ignited and burnt down to the skin surface, which it blackens and scorches in a dark circular patch. this process is repeated until a small ulcer is formed when treating chronic diseases of the joints, which sore is kept open by issue peas retained within it so that they may constantly exercise a derivative effect. the flesh of geese is declared to be more savoury when [ ] stuffed with this herb, which contains "absinthin" as its active principle, and other chemical constituents in common with wormwood; but the odour of mugwort is not fragrant or aromatic, because it does not possess a volatile essential oil like that of the _artemisia absinthium_ (wormwood). this wormwood is also a composite plant of the same tribe and character, but with an intensely bitter taste; and hence its name, _absinthium_, has been derived from the greek privative, _a_, and _psinthos_, "delight," because the flavour is so bitterly distasteful. it is a bushy plant, which abounds in our rural districts, having silky stems and leaves, with small heads of dull yellow flowers, the whole plant being _amara et aromatica_. the mugwort, as an allied wormwood of the same genus, is taller and more slender than the absinthium, and is distinguished by being scentless, its leaves being green above, and white below. the bitter taste of the true wormwood is also due to "absinthin," and each kind contains nitrate of potash, tannin, and resin, with succinic, malic, and acetic acids. old tusser says:-- "where chamber is swept, and wormwood is strown, no flea for his life dare abide to be known." and again:-- "what savour is better, if physic be true, for places infected, than wormwood and rue." the infusion of wormwood makes a useful fomentation for inflammatory pains, and, combined with chamomile flowers and bay leaves, it formed the anodyne fomentation of the earlier dispensatories. this infusion, with a few drops of the essential oil of wormwood, will serve [ ] as an astringent wash to prevent the hair from falling off when it is weak and thin. both mugwort and wormwood have been highly esteemed for overcoming epilepsy in persons of a feeble constitution, and of a sensitive nervous temperament, especially in young females. mugwort tea, and a decoction of wormwood, may be confidently given for the purposes just named, also to correct female irregularities. for promoting the monthly flow, chinese women make a confection of the leaves of mugwort mixed with rice and sugar, which, when needed to overcome arrested monthly fluxes, or hysteria, they _instar bellaria ingerunt_, "eat as a sweetmeat." a drachm of the powdered leaves of the mugwort, taken four times a day, has cured chronic hysterical fits otherwise irrepressible. the true wormwood (_artemisia absinthium_) is used for preparing absinthe, a seductive liqueur, which, when taken to excess, induces epileptic attacks. any habitual use of alcohol flavoured with this herb singularly impairs the mental and physical powers. "an ointment," says meyrick, "made of the juice of mugwort with hogs' lard, disperses hard knots and kernels about the neck and throat." mulberry. the mulberry tree (_morus nigra_) has been cultivated in england since the middle of the sixteenth century, being first planted at sion house in . it is now grown commonly in the garden, orchard, or paddock, where its well-known rich syrupy fruit ripens in september. this fruit, abounding with a luscious juice of regal hue, is used in some districts, particularly in devonshire, for mixing with cider during [ ] fermentation, giving to the beverage a pleasant taste, and a deep red colour. the juice, made into syrup, is curative of sore throats, especially of the putrid sort, if it be used in gargles; also of thrush in the mouth, if applied thereto; and the ripe fruit is gently laxative. horace recommends that mulberries be gathered before sunset:-- "aestatis peraget qui nigris prandia moris finiet ante gravem quae legerit arbore solem." the generic name, _morus_, is derived from the celtic _mor_, "black." in germany (at iserlohn), mothers, in order to deter their children from eating mulberries, tell them the devil requires the juicy berries for the purpose of blacking his boots. this fruit was fabled to have become changed from white to a deep red through absorbing the blood of pyramus and thisbe, who were slain beneath its shade. it is thought by some that "morus" has been derived from the latin word _mora_, delay, as shown in a tardy expansion of the buds. because cautious not to burst into leaf until the last frost of spring is over, the mulberry tree, as the wisest of its fellows, was dedicated by the ancients to minerva, and the story of pyramus and thisbe owed its origin to the white and black fruited varieties:-- "the mulberry found its former whiteness fled, and, ripening, saddened into dusky red." shakespeare's famous mulberry tree, planted in , was of the black species. it was recklessly cut down at new place, stratford-on-avon, in . ten years afterwards, when the freedom of the city was presented to garrick, the document was enclosed in a casket made from the wood of this tree. likewise a cup was [ ] wrought therefrom, and at the shakespeare jubilee, garrick, holding the cup aloft, recited the following lines, composed by himself for the occasion:-- "behold this fair goblet: 'twas carved from the tree which, oh, my sweet shakespeare, was planted by thee! as a relic i kiss it, and bow at thy shrine, what comes from thy hand must be ever divine." "all shall yield to the mulberry tree; bend to the blest mulberry: matchless was he who planted thee, and thou, like him, immortal shall be." a slip of it was grown by garrick in his garden at hampton court. the leaves of the mulberry tree are known to furnish excellent food for silk worms. botanically, each fruit is a collection of berries on a common pulpy receptacle, being, like the strawberry, especially wholesome for those who are liable to heartburn, because it does not undergo acetous fermentation in the stomach. in france mulberries are served at the beginning of a meal. among the romans the fruit was famous for maladies of the throat and windpipe. the tree does not bear until it is somewhat advanced in age. it contains in every part a milky juice, which will coagulate into a sort of indian rubber, and this has been thought to give tenacity to the filament spun by the silkworm. the juice of mulberries contains malic and citric acids, with glucose, pectin, and gum. the bark of the root has been given to expel tapeworm; and the fruit is remarkable for its large quantity of sugar, being excelled in this respect only by the fig, the grape, and the cherry. we are told in _ivanhoe_ that the saxons made a favourite drink, "morat," from the juice of mulberries [ ] with honey. during the thirteenth century these berries were sometimes called "pynes." in the memorable narrative of the old testament, _samuel_, v., , "when thou hearest the sound of a going in the tops of the mulberry trees," the word used (_bekhaim_) has been mistranslated, really intending the aspen (_populus tremula_). mullein. the great mullein (_verbascum thapsus_) grows freely in england on dry banks and waste places, but somewhat sparingly in scotland. it belongs to the scrofula-curing order of plants, having a thick stalk, from eighteen inches to four feet high, with large woolly mucilaginous leaves, and with a long flower-spike bearing plain yellow flowers, which are nearly sessile on the stem. the name "molayne" is derived from the latin, _mollis_, soft. in most parts of ireland, besides growing wild, it is carefully cultivated in gardens, because of a steady demand for the plant by sufferers from pulmonary consumption. constantly in irish newspapers there are advertisements offering it for sale, and it can be had from all the leading local druggists. the leaves are best when gathered in the late summer, just before the plant flowers. the old irish method of administering mullein is to put an ounce of the dried leaves, or a corresponding quantity of the fresh ones, in a pint of milk, which is boiled for ten minutes, and then strained. this is afterwards given warm to the patient twice a day, with or without sugar. the taste of the decoction is bland, mucilaginous, and cordial. dr. quinlan, of dublin, treated many cases of tubercular lung disease, even when some were far advanced in pulmonary consumption, with the mullein, [ ] and with signal success as regards palliating the cough, staying the expectoration, and increasing the weight. mullein leaves have a weak, sleepy sort of smell, and rather a bitter taste. in queen elizabeth's time they were carried about the person to prevent the falling sickness; and distilled water from the flowers was said to be curative of gout. the leaves and flowers contain mucilage, with a yellowish volatile oil, a fatty substance, and sugar, together with some colouring matter. fish will become stupefied by eating the seeds. gerard says "figs do not putrifie at all that are wrapped in the leaves of mullein. if worn under the feet day and night in the manner of a sock they bring down in young maidens their desired sicknesse." the plant bears also the name of hedge taper, and used to be called torch, because the stalks were dipped in suet, and burnt for giving light at funerals and other gatherings. "it is a plant," says the _grete herball_, "whereof is made a manner of lynke if it be tallowed." according to dodoeus the mullein was called "candela." _folia siquidem habet mollia hirsuta ad lucernarum funiculos apta_. "it was named of the latines, _candela regia_ and _candelaria_." the modern romans style it the "plant of the lord," other popular english names of the plant are "adam's flannel," "blanket," "shepherd's club," "aaron's rod," "cuddie's lungs"; and in anglo-saxon, "feldwode." gower says of medea:-- "tho' toke she feldwode, and verveine, of herbes ben nought better tweine." the name _verbascum_ is an altered form of the latin _barbascum_, from _barba_, "a beard," in allusion to the dense woolly hairs on both sides of the leaves; and the [ ] appellation, mullein, is got from the french _molène_, signifying the "scab" in cattle, and for curing which disease the plant is famous. it has also been termed cow's lung wort, hare's beard, jupiter's staff, ladies' foxglove, and velvet dock from its large soft leaves. the mullein bears the title "bullock's lung wort," because of its supposed curative powers in lung diseases of this animal, on the doctrine of signatures, because its leaf resembles a dewlap; and the term "malandre" was formerly applied to the lung maladies of cattle. also the "malanders" meant leprosy, whence it came about that the epithet "malandrin" was attached to a brigand, who, like the leper, was driven from society and forced to lead a lawless life. an infusion of the flowers was used by the roman ladies to tinge their tresses of the golden colour once so much admired in italy; and now in germany, a hair wash made from the mullein is valued as highly restorative. a decoction of the root is good for cramps and against the megrims of bilious subjects, which especially beset them in the dark winter months. the dried leaves of the mullein plant, if smoked in an ordinary tobacco pipe, will completely control the hacking cough of consumption; and they can be employed with equal benefit, when made into cigarettes, for asthma, and for spasmodic coughs in general. by our leading english druggists are now dispensed a _succus verbasci_ (mullein juice), of which the dose is from half to one teaspoonful; a tincture of _verbascum_ (mullein), the dose of which is from half-a-teaspoonful to two teaspoonfuls; and an infusion of mullein, in doses of from one to four tablespoonfuls. also a tincture (h.) is made from the fresh herb with spirit of wine, which has been proved beneficial for migraine (sick head-ache) of long [ ] standing, with oppression of the ears. from eight to ten drops of this tincture are to be given as a dose, with cold water, and repeated pretty frequently whilst needed. mullein oil is a most valuable destroyer of disease germs. if fresh flowers of the plant be steeped for twenty-one days in olive oil whilst exposed to the sunlight, this makes an admirable bactericide; also by simply instilling a few drops two or three times a day into the ear, all pain therein, or discharges therefrom, and consequent deafness, will be effectually cured, as well as any itching eczema of the external ear and its canal. a conserve of the flowers is employed on the continent against ringworm. some of the most brilliant results have been obtained in suppurative inflammation of the inner ear by a single application of mullein oil. in acute or chronic cases of this otorrhoea, two or three drops of the oil should be made fall into the ear twice or thrice in the day. and the same oil is an admirable remedy for children who "wet the bed" at night. five drops should be put into a small tumblerful of cold water; and a teaspoonful of the mixture, first stirred, should be taken four times in the day. flowers of mullein in olive oil, when kept near the fire for several days in a corked bottle, form a remedy popular in germany for frost-bites, bruises, and piles. also a poultice made with the leaves is a good application to these last named troublesome evils. for the cure of piles, sit for five minutes on a chamber vessel containing live coals, with crisp dry mullein leaves over them, and some finely powdered resin. mushrooms. without giving descriptive attention to those mushrooms (_agarics_, _boleti_, and others) which are edible, and [ ] of which over a hundred may be enumerated, as beyond our purpose when treating of curative herbal simples, notice will be bestowed here on two productions of the mushroom nature--the puff ball and the fly agaric,--because of their medicinal qualities. it may be first briefly stated that the _agaricus campestris_, or field mushroom, is the kind most commonly eaten in england, being highly nitrogenous, and containing much fat. this may be readily distinguished from any harmful fungus by the pink colour of its gills, the solidity of its stem, the fragrant anise-like odour which it possesses, and the separability of its outer skin. other edible mushrooms which grow with us, and are even of a better quality than the above, are the _agaricus augustus_ and the _agaricus elvensis_, not to mention the _chanatrelle_, said to be unapproachable for excellence. the greeks were aware of edible fungi, and knew of injurious sorts which produced a sense of choking, whilst subsequent wasting of the body occurred. athenaeus quotes an author who said: "you will be choked like those who waste after eating mushrooms." the romans also esteemed some fungi as of so exquisite a flavour that these would be stolen sooner than silver or gold by anyone entrusted with their delivery:-- "argentum, atque aurum facile est laenamque togamque. mittere, boletos mittere difficile est." mushrooms were styled by porphry _deorum filii_, and "without seed, as produced by the midwifery of autumnal thunderstorms, and portending the mischief which these cause." "they are generally reported to have something noxious in them, and not without reason; but they were exalted to the second course of the caesarean tables with the noble title 'bromatheon,' [ ] a dainty fit for the gods, to whom they sent the emperor claudius, as they have many since to the other world." "so true it is he who eats mushrooms many times, _nil amplius edit_, eats no more of anything." the poisonous kinds may be commonly recognised by their possessing permanently white gills which do not touch the stem; and a thin ring, or frill, is borne by the stem at some distance from the top, whilst the bottom of the stem is surrounded by a loose sheath, or volva. if "phalline" is the active poisonous principle, this is not rendered inert by heat in cooking; but the helvellic acid of other sorts disappears during the process, and its fungi are thus made non-poisonous. there is a popular belief that mushrooms which grow near iron, copper, or other metals, are deadly; the same idea obtaining in the custom of putting a coin in the water used for boiling mushrooms in order that it may attract and detach any poison, and so serve to make them wholesome. in essex there is an old saying:-- "when the moon is at the full, mushrooms you may freely pull; but when the moon is on the wane, wait till you think to pluck again." even the most poisonous species may be eaten with impunity after repeated maceration in salt and water, or vinegar and water--which custom is generally adopted in the south of europe, where the diet of the poorer classes largely includes the fungi which they gather; but when so treated the several mushrooms lose much of their soluble nutritive qualities as well as their flavour. for the most part, _agarics_ with salmon-coloured spores are injurious, likewise fungi having a rancid or fetid odour, and an acrid, pungent, peppery taste. celsus said: "if anyone shall have eaten [ ] noxious fungi, let him take radishes with vinegar and water, or with salt and vinegar." wholesome mushrooms afford nourishment which is a capital substitute for butchers' meat, and almost equally sustaining. if a poisonous fungus has been eaten, its ill-effects may nowadays be promptly met by antidotes injected beneath the skin, and by taking small doses of strychnia in coffee. gerard says: "i give my advice to those that love such strange and new fangled meats to beware of licking honey among thorns, lest the sweetness of the one do not countervail the sharpness and pricking of the other." with regard to mushrooms generally, horace said:-- "pratensibus optima fungis natura est; aliis male creditur." "the meadow mushrooms are in kind the best; 'tis ill to trust in any of the rest." the st. george's mushroom, an early one, takes, perhaps, the highest place as an agaric for the table. blewits (formerly sold in covent garden market for catsup), and blue caps, each all autumnal species, are savoury fungi to be fried. they may be served with bacon on toast. a very old test as to the safety of mushrooms is to stew with them in the saucepan a small carefully-peeled onion. if after boiling for a few minutes this comes out white, and clean-looking, the mushrooms may all be confidently eaten: but if it has turned blue, or black, there are dangerous ones among them, and all should be rejected. the puff ball (_lycoperdon giganteum bovista_) grows usually on the borders of fields, in orchards, or meadows, also on dry downs, and occasionally in gardens. it [ ] should be collected as a simple in august and september. this puff ball is smooth, globose, and yellowish-white when young, becoming afterwards brown. it contains, when ripe, a large quantity of extremely fine brown black powder, which is a capital application for stopping bleeding from slight wounds and cuts. this also makes a good drying powder for dusting on weeping eruptive sores between parts which approximate to one another, as the fingers, toes, and armpits. the powder is very inflammable, and when propelled in a hollow cone against lighted spirit of wine on tow at the other end by a sudden jerk, its flash serves to imitate lightning for stage purposes. it was formerly used as tinder for lighting fires with the flint and steel. when the fungus is burnt, its fumes exercise a narcotic property, and will stupify bees, so that their honey may be removed. it has been suggested that these fumes may take the place of chloroform for minor surgical operations. the gas given off during combustion is carbonic oxide. puff balls vary in size from that of a moderately large turnip to the bigness of a man's head. their form is oval, depressed a little at the top, and the colour is a pure white both without and within. the surface is smooth at first, but at length cracking, and as the fungus ripens it becomes discoloured and dry; then the interior is resolved into a yellow mass of delicate threads, mixed with a powder of minute spores, about the month of september. when young and pulpy the puff ball is excellent to be eaten, and is especially esteemed in italy; but it deteriorates very rapidly after being gathered, and should not be used at table if it has become stained with yellow marks. when purely white it may be cut into thick [ ] slices of a quarter-of-an-inch, and fried in fresh butter, with pepper, salt; and pounded herbs, and each slice should be first dipped in the yolk of an egg; the puff ball will also make an excellent omelette. small puff balls are common on lawns, heaths, and pastures. these are harmless, and eatable as long as their flesh remains quite white. the society of amateur botanists, , had its origin (as described by the president, mr. m. c. cooke), "over a cup of tea and fried puff balls," in great turnstile. pieces of its dried inner woolly substance, with a profusion of minute snuff-coloured spores, have been long kept by the wise old women of villages for use to staunch wounds and incisions; whilst a ready surgical appliance to a deep cut is to bind a piece of puff ball over it, and leave it until healing has taken place. in norfolk large puff balls found at the margins of cornfields are known as bulfers, or bulfists, and are regarded with aversion. in medicine a trituration (h.) is made of this fungus, and its spores, rubbed up with inert sugar of milk powdered, and it proves an effective remedy against dull, stupid, sleepy headache, with passive itchy pimples about the skin. from five to ten grains of the trituration, diluted to the third decimal strength, should be given twice a day, with a little water, for two or three weeks. sir b. richardson found that even by smelling at a strong tincture of the fungus great heaviness of the head was produced; and he has successfully employed the same tincture for relieving an analogous condition when coming on of its own accord. but the puff ball, whether in tincture (h.) or in trituration, is chiefly of service for curing the itchy pimply skin of "tettery" subjects, especially if this is aggravated by washing. likewise the remedy is of essential use in some forms [ ] of eczema, especially in what is known as bakers', or grocers' itch. five drops of the diluted tincture may be given with a spoonful of water three times in the day; and the affected parts should be sponged equally often with a lotion made of one part of the stronger tincture to four parts of water, or thin strained gruel. sometimes when a full meal of the puff ball fried in butter, or stewed in milk, has been taken, undoubted evidences of its narcotic effects have shown themselves. gerard said: "in divers parts of england, where people dwell far from neighbours, they carry the puff balls kindled with fire, which lasteth long." in latin they were named _lupi crepitum_, or wolfs' fists. "the powder of them is fitly applied to merigals, kibed heels, and such like; the dust or powder thereof is very dangerous for the eyes, for it bath been observed that divers have been poreblind even after when some small quantity thereof hath been blown into their eyes." this fungus has been called molly puff, from its resemblance to a powder puff; also devil's snuff box, fuss balls, and puck fists (from _feist, crepitus ani_, and _puck_, the impish king of the fairies). in scotland the puff ball is the blind man's e'en, because it has been believed that its dust will cause blindness; and in wales it is the "bag of smoke." the fly agaric, or bug agaric (_agaricus muscarius_) gives the name of mushroom to all the tribe of fungi as used for the destruction of flies (_mousches_). albertus magnus describes it as _vocatus fungus muscarum eo quidem lacte pulverisatus interficit muscas_: and this seems to be the real source of the word, which has by caprice become transmitted from a poisonous sort to the wholesome kinds exclusively. the pileus of the fly agaric is broad, convex, and of a rich orange scarlet [ ] colour, with a striate margin and white gills. it gets its name, as also that of flybane, from being used in milk to kill flies; and it is called bug agaric from having been formerly employed to smear over bedsteads so as to destroy bugs. it inhabits dry places, especially birchwoods, and pinewoods, having a bright red upper surface studded with brown warts; and when taken as a poisonous agent it causes intoxication, delirium, and death through narcotism. it is more common in scotland than in england. this mushroom is highly poisonous, and therefore the remedial preparations are only to be given in a diluted form. for medicinal purposes a tincture is made (h.) from the fresh fungus: and a trituration of the dried fungus powdered and mixed with inert sugar of milk also powdered. these preparations are kept specially by the homoeopathic chemists: and the use of the fly agaric has been adopted by the school which they represent for curatively treating an irritable spinal cord, with soreness, twitching of the limbs, dragging of the legs, unsteadiness of the head, neuralgic pains in the arms and legs (as if caused by sharp ice), some giddiness, a coating of yellow fur on the lining mucous membranes, together with a crawling, or burning, and eruptive skin. in fact for a lamentably depraved condition of all the bodily health, such as characterises advanced locomotor ataxy, and allied spinal degradations leading to general physical failure. just such a totality of symptoms has been recorded by provers after taking the fungus for some length of time in toxical quantities. the tincture should be used of the third decimal strength, five drops for a dose twice or three times a day with a spoonful of water; or the trituration of the third decimal strength, for each dose as much of the powder as will lie on the flat surface of [ ] a sixpence. chilblains may be mitigated by taking the tincture of this agaric, and by applying some of the stronger tincture on cotton wool over the swollen and itching parts alt night. "muscarin" is the leading active principle of the fly agaric, in conjunction with agaricin, mycose, and mannite. it stimulates, when swallowed in strong doses, certain nerves which tend to retard the action of the heart. both our fly agaric and the white agaric of the united states serve to relieve the night sweats of advanced pulmonary consumption, and they have severally proved of supreme palliative use against the cough, the sleeplessness, and the other worst symptoms of this, wasting disease, as also for drying up the milk in weaning. each of these fungi when taken by mistake will salivate profusely, and provoke both immoderate, and untimely laughter. when the action of the heart is laboured and feeble through lack of nervous power, muscarin, or the tincture of fly agaric, in a much diluted potency will relieve this trouble. the dose of muscarin, or agaricin, is from a sixth to half a grain in a pill. these medicines increase the secretion of tears, saliva, bile, and sweating, but they materially lessen the quantity of urine. belladonna is found to be the best antidote. from the oak agaric, "touchwood," or "spunk,"--when cut into thin slices and beaten with a hammer until soft,--is made "amadou," or german tinder. this is then soaked in a solution of nitre and dried; it afterwards forms an excellent elastic astringent application for staying bleedings and for bed sores. the larch agaric is powdered, and given in germany as a purgative, its dose being from twenty to sixty grains. in belgium the _polyporus officinalis_ is used medicinally [ ] as an aperient, and to check profuse sweating. by the malays the _polyporus sanguineus_ is used outwardly for leprosy. truffles (_tuber cibarium_) may receive a passing notice whilst treating of fungi, though they are really subterranean tubers of an edible sort found in the earth, especially beneath beech trees, and uprooted by dogs trained for the purpose. they somewhat resemble our english "earth nuts," which swine discover by their scent. the ancients called the truffle _lycoperdon_, because supposing it to spring from the dung of wolves. in athens the children of cherips had the rights of citizenship granted them because their father had invented a choice ragout concocted of truffles. but delicate and weak stomachs find them difficult to digest. pliny said, "those kinds which remain hard after cooking are injurious; whilst others, naturally harmful if they admit of being cooked thoroughly well, and if eaten with saltpetre, or, still better, dressed with meat, or with pear stalks, are safe and innocent." in italy these tubers are fried in oil and dusted with pepper. for epicures they are mixed with the liver of fattened geese in _paté de foie gras_. also, greedy swine are taught to discover and root them out, "being of a chestnut colour and heavy rank hercline smell, and found not seldom in england." black truffles are chiefly used: but there are also red and white varieties, the best tubers being light of weight in proportion to their size, with an agreeable odour, and elastic to the touch. they are stimulating and heating, insomuch, that for delicate children who are atrophied, and require a _multum in parvo_ of fatty and nitrogenous food in a compact but light form, which is fairly easy of digestion, [ ] the _paté de foie gras_ on bread is a capital prescription. truffles grow in clusters several inches below the soil, being found commonly on the downs of wiltshire, hampshire and kent; also in oak and chestnut forests. dogs have been trained to discriminate their scent below the surface of the soil, and to assist in digging them out. there is a garlic truffle of a small inferior sort which is put into stews; and the best truffles are frequently found full of perforations. the presence of the tubers beneath the ground is denoted by the appearance above of a beautiful little fly having a violet colour--this insect being never seen except in the neighbourhood of truffles. they are subject to the depredations of certain animalcules, which excavate the tubers so that they soon become riddled with worms. these, after passing through a chrysalis state, develop into the violet flies. gerard called truffles "spanish fussebals." they were not known to english epicures in queen elizabeth's day. another appellation borne by them formerly was "swines' bread," and they were supposed to be engendered by thunderbolts. in northern france they were first popularised four hundred and fifty years ago, by john, duke of berry, a reprobate gambler, third son of john the good. the perigord truffle has a dark skin, and smells of violets. piedmontese truffles suggest garlic: those of burgundy are a little resinous: the neapolitan specimens are redolent of sulphur: and in the gard department (france) they have an odour of musk. the english truffle is white, and best used in salads. dr. warton, poet laureate, , said "happy the grotto'ed hermit with his pulse, who wants no truffles." a girton girl under examination described the tuber as a "sort of sea-anemone on land." when once dug up truffles soon [ ] lose their perfume and aroma, so they are imported bedded in the very earth which produced them. the earth nut (_bunium flexuosum_) is also catted hog nut, pig nut, jur nut, st. anthony's nut, earth chesnut, and kipper nut. caliban says, in the tempest, "i with my long nails-will dig thee pig nuts." they are an excellent diuretic, serving to stimulate the kidneys. pliny talked of fungi in general as a great delicacy to be eaten with amber knives and a service of silver. but seneca called them _voluptuaria venena_. the russians take some which we think to be deleterious; but they first soak these in vinegar, which (adds pliny), "being contrary to them neutralizes their dangerous qualities; also they are rendered still more safe if cooked with pear stalks; indeed it is good to eat pears immediately after all fungi." almost every species except the common mushroom is characterized by the majority of our countrymen as a toadstool; but this title really appertains to the large group bearing the subgeneric name of _tricholoma_, which probably does not contain a single unwholesome species. other rustic names given to this group are "puckstools" and "puckfists." they are further known as "toad skeps" (toad's cap) in the eastern counties. puck, the mischievous king of the fairies, has been commonly identified with _pogge_, the toad, which was believed to sit upon most of the unwholesome fungi; and the _champignon_ (or paddock stool) was said to owe its growth to "those wanton elves whose pastime is to make midnight mushrooms." one of the "toad stoo's" (the _clathrus cancellatus_) is said to produce cancerous sores if handled too freely. it has an abominably disgusting odour, and is therefore named the "lattice stinkhorn." the toad was popularly thought to [ ] impersonate the devil; and the toad-stool, pixie stool, or paddock stool was believed to spring from the devil's droppings. the word mushroom may have been derived from the french _moucheron_, or _mousseron_, because of its growing among moss. the chief chemical constituents of wholesome mushrooms are albuminoids, carbo-hydrates, fat, mineral matters, and water. when salted they yield what is known as catsup, or ketchup (from the japanese _kitchap_). the second most edible fungus of this nature is the parasol mushroom (_lepcota procera_). edible mushrooms, if kept uncooked, become dangerous: they cannot be sent to table too soon. in rome our favourite _pratiola_ is held in very small esteem, and the worst wish an italian can express against his foe is "that he may die of a _pratiola_." if this species were exposed for sale in the roman markets it would be certainly condemned by the inspector of fungi. fairy rings are produced by the spawn, or mycelium, beginning to germinate where dropped by a bird or a beast, and exhausting the soil of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and potash, from the centre continuously outwards; whilst immediately within the enlarging ring there is constantly a band of coarse rank grass fed by the manure of the penultimate dead spawn. the innermost starved ground remains poor and barren. in this duplicate way the rings grow larger and larger. our edible mushroom is a _pratella_ of the subgenus _psalliota_, and the _agaricus campestris_ of english botanists. in common with the esculent mushrooms of france it contains phosphate of potassium--a cell salt essentially reparative of exhausted nerve tissue and energy. the old practice of testing mushrooms with a silver [ ] spoon, which is supposed to become tarnished only when the juices are of an injurious quality (i.e., when sulphur is developed therein under decomposition) is not to be trusted. in cases of poisoning by injurious fungi after the most violent symptoms may have been relieved, and the patient rescued from immediate danger, yet great emaciation will often follow from the subsequent effects of the poison: and the skin may exhibit an abundant outbreak of a vesicular eruption, whilst the health will remain perhaps permanently injured. strong alcoholic drinks should never be taken together with, or immediately after eating mushrooms, or other innocent fungi. experienced fungus eaters (mycophagists) have found themselves suffering from severe pains, and some swellings through taking whiskey and water shortly after the meal: whereas precisely the same fungus, minus the whiskey, could be eaten with impunity by these identical experimentalists. mustard. the wild mustard (_brassica sinapistrum_), a cruciferous herb commonly called chedlock, from _leac_, a weed, and _kiede_, to annoy, grows abundantly as a product of waste places, and in newly disturbed ground. the field mustard (_arvensis_) is charlock, or brassock; its botanical term, _sinapis_, being referable to the celtic _nap_, as a general name for plants of the rape kind. mustard was formerly known as "senvie" in english. it has been long cultivated and improved, especially in darham. now we have for commercial and officinal purposes two varieties of the cultivated plant, the black mustard (_sinapis nigra_), and the white mustard (_brassica_, or _sinapis alba_). there is also a plain plant of the hedges, [ ] hedge mustard (_sisymbrium officinale_) which is a mere rustic simple. it is the black mustard which yields by its seeds the condiment of our tables, and the pungent yellow flour which we employ for the familiar stimulating poultice, or sinapism. this black mustard is a tall smooth plant, having entire leaves, and smooth seed pods, being now grown for the market on rich alluvial soil chiefly in lincolnshire and yorkshire. in common with its kindred plants it gets its name from _mustum_, the "must," or newly fermented grape juice, and _ardens_, burning, because as a condiment, mustard flour was formerly mixed with home-made wine and sugar. the virtues of black mustard depend on the acrid volatile oil contained in its seeds. these when unbruised and macerated in boiling water yield only a tasteless mucilage which resides in their skin. but when bruised they develop a very active, pungent, and highly stimulative principle with a powerful penetrating odour which makes the eyes water. from thence is perhaps derived the generic name of the herb _sinapis_ (_para tou sinesthai tous hopous_, "because it irritates the eyes"). this active principle contains sulphur abundantly, as is proved by the discoloration of a silver spoon when left in the mustard-pot, the black sulphuret of silver being formed. the chemical basis of black mustard is "sinnigrin" and its acid myronic. the acridity of its oil is modified in the seeds by combination with another fixed oil of a bland nature which can be readily separated by pressure, then the cake left after the expression of this fixed oil is far more pungent than the seeds. the bland oil expressed from the hulls of the black seeds after the flour has been sifted away, promotes the growth of the hair, and may be used with benefit externally for [ ] rheumatism. whitehead's noted essence of mustard is made with spirits of turpentine and rosemary, with which camphor and the farina of black mustard seed are mixed. this oil is very little affected by frost or the atmosphere; and it is therefore specially prized by clock makers, and for instruments of precision. a mustard poultice from the farina of black mustard made into a paste with, or without wheaten flour commingled, constitutes one of the most powerful external stimulating applications we can employ. it quickly induces a sharp burning pain, and it excites a destructive outward inflammation which enters much more into the true skin than that which is caused by an old fashioned blister of spanish fly. this has therefore superseded the latter as more promptly and reliably effective for the speedy relief of all active internal congestions. if the application of mustard has caused sores, these may be best soothed and healed by lime-water liniment. mustard flour is an infallible antiseptic and sterilising agent. it is a capital deodoriser; and if rubbed thoroughly into the bands and nails will take away all offensive stink when corrupt or dead tissues have been manipulated. if a tablespoonful of mustard flour is added to a pint of tepid water, and taken at a draught it operates briskly as a stimulating and sure emetic. hot water poured on bruised seeds of black mustard makes a good stimulating footbath for helping to throw off a cold, or to dispel a headache; and meantime the volatile oil given out as an aroma, if not too strong, proves soporific. this oil contains erucic, and sinapoleic acids. when properly mixed with spirit of wine, twenty-four drops of the oil to an ounce of spirit, the essential oil forms, [ ] by reason of its stimulating properties and its contained sulphur, a capital liniment for use in rheumatism, or for determining blood to the surface from deeper parts. caution should be used not to apply a plaster made altogether of mustard flour to the delicate skin of young children, or females, because ulcers difficult to heal may be the result, or even gangrenous destruction of the deeper skin may follow. the effects of a mustard bath, at about ninety degrees, are singular; decided chills are felt at first throughout the whole body, with some twitchings at times of the limbs; and later on, even after the skin surface has become generally red, this sense of coldness persists, until the person leaves the water, when reaction becomes quickly established, with a glowing heat and redness of the whole skin. for obstinate hiccough a teacupful of boiling water should be poured on a teaspoonful of mustard flour, and taken when sufficiently cool, half at first, and the other half in ten minutes if still needed. for congestive headache a small roll of mustard paper or mustard leaf may be introduced into one or both nostrils, and left there for a minute or more. it will relieve the headache promptly, and may perhaps induce some nose bleeding. admixture with vinegar checks the development of the pungent principles of mustard. this used to be practised for the table in england, but is now discontinued, though some housewives add a little salt to their made mustard. claims for the introduction of mustard at durham in , have been raised in favour of a mrs. clements, but they cannot be substantiated. shakespeare in the _taming of the shrew_ makes grumio ask katherine "what say you to a piece of beef and mustard?" and speaks, in _henry iv_., of poins' wit being "as thick [ ] as tewkesbury mustard"; whilst fuller in his _worthies of england_, written only a very few years after shakespeare's death, says "the best mustard in england is made at tewkesbury in the county of gloucester." coles observes ( ), "in gloucestershire about teuxbury they grind mustard seed and make it up into balls, which are brought to london and other remote places as being the best that the world affords." george the first restored the popularity of mustard by his approval of it. prior to no such condiment as mustard in its present form was used at table in this country. it is not improbable that the romans, who were great eaters of mustard-seed pounded and steeped in new wine, brought the condiment with them to our shores, and taught the ancient britons how to prepare it. at dijon in france where the best mixed continental mustard is made, the condiment is seasoned with various spices and savouries, such as anchovies, capers, tarragon, catsup of walnuts, or mushrooms, and the liquors of other pickles. philip the bold granted armorial ensigns ( ) to dijon, with the motto _moult me tarde_ (i wish for ardently). the merchants of sinapi copied this on their wares, the middle word of the motto being accidentally effaced. a well-known couplet of lines supposed to occur in _hudibras_ (but not to be found there), has long baffled the research of quotation hunters: "sympathy without relief is like to mustard without beef." mustard flour moistened with a little water into a paste has the singular property of dispelling the odours of musk, camphor, and the fetid gum resins. for deodorising vessels which have contained the essences of turpentine, creasote, assafetida, or other such drugs, it [ ] will answer to introduce some bruised mustard-seed, and then a little water, shaking the vessel well for a minute or more, and afterwards rinsing it out with plenty of water. the white mustard grows when uncultivated on waste ground with large yellow flowers, and does not yield under any circumstances a pungent oil like the black mustard. it is a hirsute plant, with stalked leaves and hairy seed pods; and when produced in our gardens its young leaves are eaten as a salad, or as "mustard, with cress." "when in the leaf," says john evelyn in his _acetaria_, "mustard, especially in young seedling plants, is of incomparable effect to quicken and revive the spirits, strengthening the memory, expelling heaviness, preventing the vertiginous palsy, and a laudable cephalic, besides being an approved antiscorbutic." he tells further that the italians, in making mustard as a condiment, mingle lemon and orange peel with the (black) seeds. "in the composition of a sallet the mustard (a noble ingredient) should be of the best tewkesbury or else of the soundest and weightiest yorkshire seed, tempered a little by the fire to the consistence of a pap with vinegar, in which some shavings of the horseradish have been steeped. then, cutting an onion, and putting it into a small earthen gally-pot, pour the mustard over it and close it very well with a cork. _note_.--the seeds should have been pounded in a mortar, or bruised with a polished cannon bullet in a large wooden bowl dish." the active principle of white mustard is "sinapin," and the seed germinates so rapidly that it has been said a salad of this may be grown while the joint of meat is being roasted for dinner. seeds of the white mustard have been employed medicinally from early times. [ ] hippocrates advised their use both internally, and as a counter-irritating poultice made with vinegar. when swallowed whole in teaspoonful doses three or four times a day, they exercise a laxative effect mechanically, and are voided without undergoing any perceptible change, only the outer skin being a little softened and mucilaginous. an infusion of the seed taken medicinally will relieve chronic bronchitis, and confirmed rheumatism: also for a relaxed sore throat a gargle of mustard seed tea will be found of service. a french expression for trifling one's time away is _s'amuser à la moutarde_. the essential oil is an admirable deodorant and disinfectant, especially on an emergency. but the "grain of mustard seed, the smallest of all seeds" (_mark _iv., ), "which when it is grown up is the greatest among herbs," was a tree of the east, very different from our mustard, and bearing branches of real wood. the hedge mustard (_sisymbrium_, or _erisymum_) grows by our roadsides, and on waste grounds, where it seems to possess a peculiar aptitude for collecting and retaining dust. the pods are downy, close pressed to the stem, and the leaves hairy with their points turned backwards. it is named by the french "st. barbara's hedge mustard," and the singer's plant, "_herbe au chantre_," or "_herbe au chanteur_." up to the time of louis xiv, it was considered an infallible remedy for loss of the voice. racine writing to boileau recommended the syrup of _erysimum_ to him when visiting the waters of bourbonne in order to be cured of voicelessness. "si les eaux de bourbonne ne vous guerissent pas de votre extinction de voix, le sirop d'erysimum vous guerirait infalliblement. ne l'oubliez pas, et à l'occasion vingt grammes par litre d'eau en tisane [ ] matin et soir." it used to be called flix, or flux weed from being given with benefit in dysentery, a disease formerly known as the flix. this herb has been commended for chronic coughs and hoarseness, using the juice mixed with an equal quantity of honey, or sugar. it has been designated "the most excellent of all remedies for diseases of the throat, especially in ulcerated sore throats, which it will serve to cure when all the advice of physicians and surgeons has proved ineffectual." a strong infusion of the herb is excellent in asthmas, and it may be made with sugar into a syrup which will keep all the year round. the hedge mustard contains chemically a soft resin, and a sulphuretted volatile oil. this herb with the vervain is supposed to form count mattaei's noted nostrum _febrifugo_. nettle. no plant is more commonplace and plentiful in our fields and hedges throughout an english summer than the familiar stinging nettle. and yet most persons unknowingly include under this single appellation several distinct herbs. actually as nettles are to be found: the annual _urtica dioica_, or true stinging nettle; the perennial _urtica urens_ (burning); the white dead nettle; the archangel, or yellow weasel snout, and the purple hedge nettle. this title "urtica" comes _ab urendo_, "from burning." the plant which stings has a round hairy stalk, and carries only a dull colourless bloom, whereas the others are labiate herbs with square stems, and conspicuous lipped flowers. as simples only the great stinging nettle, the lesser stinging nettle, and the white dead nettle call for observation. also another variety of our stinging nettle is the _urtica pilulifera_, called by [ ] corruption the roman nettle, really because found abundantly at romney in kent. but a legend obtains belief with some that roman soldiers first brought with them to england the seeds of this plant, and sowed it about for their personal uses. they heard before coming that the climate here was so cold that it might not be endured without some friction to warm the blood, and to stir up the natural heat; and they therefore bethought them to provide nettles wherewith to chafe their limbs when "stiffe and much benummed." or, again, lyte says, "they do call al such strange herbes as be unknown of the common people romish, or romayne herbes, although the same be brought direct from sweden or norweigh." the cure for nettle stings has been from early times to rub the part with a dock leaf. the dead nettles are so named as having no sting, but possessing nettle-like leaves. the stinging effect of the true nettle is caused by an acrid secretion contained in minute vesicles at the base of each of the stiff hairs; and _urtication_, or flogging, with nettles, is an old external remedy, which was long practised for chronic rheumatism, and loss of muscular power. _tacta quod exurat digitos urtica tenentis_. --macer. tea made from the young tops is a devonshire cure for nettle-rash. gerard says, "the nettle is a good medicine for them that cannot breathe unless they hold their necks upright: and being eaten boiled with periwinkles it makes the body soluble." the word nettle is derived from _net_, meaning something spun, or sewn; and it indicates the thread made from the hairs of the plant, and formerly used among scandinavian nations. this was likewise employed by scotch weavers in the seventeenth century. westmacott, the historian, says, "scotch cloth is only the [ ] housewifery of the nettle." and the poet campbell writes in one of his letters, "i have slept in nettle sheets, and dined off a nettle table cloth: and i have heard my mother say she thought nettle cloth more durable than any other linen." goldsmith has recorded the "rubbing of a cock's heart with stinging nettles to make it hatch hen's eggs." some think the word "nettle" an alteration of the anglo-saxon "needl," with reference to the needle-like stings. spun silk is now made in england from "ramie" the decorticated fibre of nettles after washing away the glutinous juice from under their bark. the seeds (_dioica_) contain a fine oil, and powerfully stimulate the sexual functions. in russia, as a recent mode of treatment, _urtication_ is now enthusiastically commended, that is, slapping, or pricking with a bundle of fresh nettle twigs for one or more minutes, once, or several times in the day. it is a superlative method of cure because harmless (neither irritating the kidneys nor disfiguring the skin), cleanly, simple in application, rapid in its effects, and cheap, though perhaps somewhat rude. for sciatica, for incipient wasting, for the difficult breathing of some heart troubles (where such stimulation along the backbone affords more prompt and complete relief than any other treatment), for some coughs palsy, suppression of the monthly flow in women, rheumatism, and for lack of muscular energy, this urtication is said to be an invaluable resuscitating measure which has been successfully resorted to by the peasantry of russia from time immemorial. it will sometimes produce a crop of small harmless blisters. the analysis of the fresh nettle shows a presence of formic acid (the irritating principle of the stinging hairs), with mucilage, salts, ammonia, carbonic acid, and [ ] water. a strong decoction of nettles drunk too freely by mistake has produced severe burning over the whole body, with general redness, and a sense of being stung. the features became swollen, and minute vesicles appeared on the skin, which burst, and discharged a limpid fluid. no fever accompanied the attack, and after five or six days the eruption dried up. a medicinal tincture (h.) is made from the entire plant with spirit of wine: and this, as taught by the principle of similars, may be confidently given in small diluted doses to mitigate such a totality of symptoms as now described, whether coming on as an attack of severe nettle rash, or assuming some more pronounced eruptive aspect, such as chicken pox. the same tincture also acts admirably in cases of burns, when the deep skin is not destructively involved. and again for relieving the itching of the fundament caused by the presence of threadworms. "burns," says lucomsky, "may be rapidly cured by applying over them linen cloths well wetted with an alcoholic tincture of the stinging nettle prepared from the fresh plant, this being diluted with an equal, or a double quantity of cold water. the cloths should be frequently re-wetted, but without removing them, so as to prevent pain from exposure." dr. burnett has shown conclusively that nettle tea, and nettle tincture (ten drops for a dose in water), are curative of feverish gout, as well as of intermittent fever and ague. either remedy will promote a speedy extrication of gravel through the kidneys. again the nettle was a favourite old english remedy for consumption, as already mentioned (see _mugwort_), with reference to the mermaid of the clyde, when she beheld with regret the untimely funeral of a young glasgow maiden. [ ] fresh nettle juice given in doses of from one to two tablespoonfuls is a most serviceable remedy for all sorts of bleeding, whether from the nose, the lungs, or some internal organ. also the decoction of the leaves and stalks taken in moderate quantities is capital for many of the minor skin maladies. an alcoholic extract is made officinally from the entire young plant gathered in the spring, and some of this if applied on cotton wool will arrest bleeding from the nose, or after the extraction of a tooth, when persistent. if a leaf of the plant be put upon the tongue and pressed against the roof of the mouth, it will stop a bleeding from the nose. taken as a fresh young vegetable in the spring, or early summer, nettle tops make a very wholesome and succulent dish of greens, which is slightly laxative; but during autumn they are hurtful. in italy where herb soups are in high favour, "herb knodel" (or round balls made like a dumpling in size and consistency) of nettles are esteemed as nourishing and medicinal. the greater nettle (_urtica dioica_), and the lesser nettle (_urtica urens_) possess stinging properties in common. a crystalline alkaloid which is fatal to frogs in a dose of one centigramme, has been isolated from the common stinging nettle. the watery extract has but little effect on mammals: but in the frog it causes paralysis, beginning in the great nervous centres and finally stopping the action of the heart. if planted in the neighbourhood of beehives, the nettle will serve to drive away frogs. the expressed seeds yield an oil which may be used for burning in lamps. nettle leaves, rubbed into wooden vessels, such as tubs, &c., will prevent their leaking. the juice of the leaves coagulates, and fills up the [ ] interstices of the wood. when dried the leaves will often relieve asthma and similar bronchial troubles by inhalation, although other means have failed. eight or ten grains should be burnt, and the fumes inspired at bedtime. the _lamium album_ (white dead nettle), a labiate plant, though not of the stinging nettle order, is likewise of special use for arresting haemorrhage, as in spitting of blood, dysentery, and female fluxes. its name _lamium_ is got from the greek _laimos_, the throat, because of the shape of its corollae. if the plant be macerated in alcohol for a week, then cotton wool dipped in the liquid is as efficacious for staying bleeding, when applied to the spot, as the strongly astringent muriate of iron. also, a tincture of the flowers is made (h.) for internal use in similar cases. from five to ten drops of this tincture should be given for a dose with a tablespoonful of cold water. the red nettle, another _lamium_, is also called archangel, because it blossoms on st. michael's day, may th. if made into a tea and sweetened with honey, it promotes perspiration, and acts on the kidneys. the white dead nettle is a degenerate form of this purple herb as shown by still possessing on its petals the same brown markings. nevertheless, having disobeyed the laws of its growth, it has lost its original colour, and, like the lady of shalott, it is fain to complain "the curse has come upon me." count mattaei's nostrum _pettorale_ is thought to be got from the _galeopsis_ (hemp nettle), another of the labiate herbs, with nettle-like leaves, but no stinging hairs, named from _galee_, a cat, or weazel, and _opsis_, a countenance, because supposed to have a blossom resembling the face of the animal specified. [ ] night shade, deadly (_belladonna_). this is a solanaceous plant found native in great britain, and growing generally on chalky soil under hedges, or about waste grounds. it bears the botanical name of _atropa_, being so called from one of the classic fates,--she who held the shears to cut the thread of human life:-- "clotho velum retinet, lachesis net, et atropos occit." its second title, _belladonna_, was bestowed because the spanish ladies made use of the plant to dilate the pupils of their brilliant black eyes. in this way their orbs appeared more attractively lustrous: and the _donna_ became _bella_ (beautiful). the plant is distinguished by a large leaf growing beside a small one about its stems, whilst the solitary flowers, which droop, have a dark full purple border, being paler downwards, and without scent. the berries (in size like small cherries) are of a rich purplish black hue, and possess most dangerously narcotic properties. they are medicinally useful, but so deadly that only the skilled hands of the apothecary should attempt to manipulate them; and they should not be prescribed for a patient except by the competent physician. when taken by accident their mischievous effects may be prevented by swallowing as soon as possible a large glass of warm vinegar. a tincture of allied berries was used of old by ladies of fashion in the land of the pharaohs, as discovered among the mummy graves by professor baeyer, of munich. this had the property of imparting a verdant sheen to the human iris; and, perhaps by the quaint colour-effect it produced on the transparent cornea of some wily egyptian belle, it gave rise to the saying, "do you see any green in the white of my eye?" [ ] at one time _belladonna_ leaves were held to be curative of cancer when applied externally as a poultice, either fresh, or dried, and powdered. it is remarkable that sheep, rabbits, goats, and swine can eat these leaves with impunity, though (as boerhaave tells) a single berry has been known to prove fatal to the human subject; and a gardener was once hanged for neglecting to remove plants of the deadly night shade from certain grounds which he knew. a peculiar symptom in those poisoned by _belladonna_ berries is the complete loss of voice, together with frequent bending forward of the trunk, and continual movements of the hands and fingers. the scotch under macbeth sent bread and wine treacherously impregnated with this poison to the troops of sweno. the plant bears other titles, as "dwale" (death's herb), "great morel," and "naughty man's cherry." the term "morel" is applied to the plant as a diminutive of _mora_, a moor, on account of the black-skinned berries. the _belladonna_ grows especially near the ruins of monasteries, and is so abundant around furness abbey that this locality has been styled the "vale of night shade." hahnemann taught that, acting on the law of similars, belladonna given in very small doses of its tincture will protect from the infection of scarlet fever. he confirmed this fact by experiments on one hundred and sixty children. when taken by provers in actual toxic doses the tincture, or the fresh juice, has induced sore throat, feverishness, and a dry, red, hot skin, just as if symptomatic of scarlet fever. the plant yields atropine and hyoscyamine from all its parts. as a drug it specially affects the brain and the bladder. the berries are known in buckinghamshire as "devil's cherries." [ ] nutmeg, cinnamon, ginger, and cloves. the spice box is such a constant source of ready domestic comforts of a medicinal sort in every household that the more important, and best known of its contents may well receive some consideration when treating of herbal simples; though it will, of course, be understood these spices are of foreign growth, and not indigenous products. cinnamon, nutmeg, ginger, and cloves, claim particular notice in this respect. "sinament, ginger, nutmeg, and cloves, and that gave me my jolly red nose." _beaumont and fletcher_. cinnamon possesses positive medicinal as well as aromatic virtues. what we employ as this spice consists of the inner bark of shoots from the stocks of a ceylon tree, first cultivated here in . such bark chemically contains cinnamic acid, tannin, a resin, and sugar, so that its continued use will induce constipation. the aromatic and stimulating effects of cinnamon have been long known. it was freely given in england during the epidemic scourges of the early and middle centuries, nearly every monastery keeping a store of the cordial for ready use. the monks administered it in fever, dysentery, and contagious diseases. and recent discovery in the laboratory of m. pasteur, the noted french bacteriologist, has shown that cinnamon possesses the power of absolutely destroying all disease germs. our ancestors, it would appear, had hit upon a valuable preservative against microbes, when they infused cinnamon with other spices in their mulled drinks. mr. chamberland says, "no disease germ can long resist the antiseptic powder of essence of cinnamon, [ ] which is as effective to destroy microbes as corrosive sublimate." by its warming astringency, it exercises cordial properties which are most useful in arresting passive diarrhoea, and in relieving flatulent indigestion. its volatile oil is procured from the bark, and likewise a tincture, as well as an aromatic water of cinnamon. for a sick qualmish stomach either preparation is an excellent remedy, as the virtue of the bark rests in this essential volatile oil. when obtained from the _fruit_ it is extremely fragrant, of thick consistence, and sometimes made into candles at ceylon, for the sole use of the king. the doses are of the powdered bark from ten to twenty grains; of the oil from one to five drops; of the tincture from half to one teaspoonful, and of the distilled water from one to two tablespoonfuls. our queen is known to be partial to the use of cinnamon. keats, the poet, wrote of "lucent syrups tinct. with cinnamon." and saint francis of sales says in his _devout life_: "with respect to the labour of teaching, it refreshes and revives the heart by the sweetness it brings to those who are engaged in it, as the cinnamon does in _arabia felix_ to them who are laden with it." in toxic quantities of an injurious amount, cinnamon bark has produced haemorrhage from the bowels, and nose bleeding. therefore small doses of the diluted tincture are well calculated to obviate these symptoms when presenting themselves through illness. the bark was formerly thought to stimulate the functions of the womb, and of late it has come again into medical use for this purpose. to check fluxes from that organ a teaspoonful of the bruised bark should be infused in half a pint of boiling water, and a tablespoonful given frequently when cool. lozenges made [ ] with the essential oil are also medicinally available for the speedy relief of sickness, and as highly useful against influenza. it is well known that persons who live in cinnamon districts have an immunity from malaria. ginger (_zingiberis radix_) is the root-stock of a plant grown in the east and west indies, and is scraped before importation. its odour is due to an essential oil, and its pungent hot taste to a resin. it was known in queen elizabeth's reign, having been introduced by the dutch about . "grene gynger of almondes" is mentioned in the paston letters, . "when condited," says gerard, "it provoketh venerie." this green ginger, which consists of the young shoots of the rhizome, when boiled in syrup makes an excellent preserve. officinally from the dried and scraped _rhizome_ are prepared a tincture, and a syrup. if a piece of the root is chewed it causes a considerable flow of saliva, and an application of powdered ginger, made with water into paste, against the skin will produce intense tingling and heat. to which end it may be spread on paper and applied to the forehead as a means for relieving a headache from passive fulness. in india, europeans who suffer from languid indigestion drink an infusion of ginger as a substitute for tea. for gouty dyspepsia the root may be powdered in a mortar: and a heaped teaspoonful of it should be then infused in boiling milk; to be taken when sufficiently cool, for supper or at breakfast. the dose of the powder is from ten to twenty grains; of the tincture from a third of a teaspoonful to a teaspoonful, in water hot or cold; of the syrup from one to two teaspoonfuls in water. either preparation is of service to correct diarrhoea, and to relieve weakly chronic bronchitis. also as admirably corrective of [ ] chronic constipation through general intestinal sluggishness, a vespertine slice of good, old-fashioned gingerbread made with brown treacle and grated ginger may be eaten with zest, and reliance. there is a street in hull called "the land of ginger." the habitat of the tree from which our nutmeg comes is the molucca islands, and the part of the nut which constitutes the spice is the kernel. this is called generically _nux moschata_, or mugget (french _musqué_) a diminutive of musk, from its aromatic odour, and properties. the nutmeg is oval, or nearly round, of a brown wrinkled aspect, with an aromatic smell, and a bitter fragrant taste. officinally the tree is named _myristica officinalis_, and the oil distilled from the nutmeg in britain is much superior to foreign oil. ordinarily as a condiment of a warming character the nutmeg is employed to correct cold indigestible food, or as a cordial addition to negus: and medicinally for languid digestion, with giddiness and flatulence, causing oppressed breathing. its activity depends on the volatile oil, contained in the proportion of six per cent. in the nut. this when given at all largely is essentially narcotic. four nutmegs have been known to completely paralyse all nervous sensibility, and have produced a sort of wakeful unconsciousness for three entire days, with loss of memory afterwards, and with more or less paralysis until after eight days. the banda, or nutmeg islands in the indian ocean, are twelve in number, and the strength of the nutmeg in its season is said to overcome birds of paradise so that they fall helplessly intoxicated. when taken to any excess, whether as a spice, or as a medicine, the nutmeg and its preparations are apt to cause giddiness, oppression of the chest, stupor, and [ ] delirium. a moderate dose of the powdered nutmeg is from five to twenty grains, but persons with a tendency to apoplexy should abstain from any free use of this spice. from two to six drops of the essential oil may be taken on sugar to relieve flatulent oppression and dyspepsia, or from half to one teaspoonful of the spirit of nutmeg made by mixing one part of the oil with forty parts of spirit of wine; this dose being had with one or two tablespoonfuls of hot water, sweetened if desired. a medicinal tincture is prepared (h.) from the kernel with spirit of wine (not using the oil, nor the essence). this in small diluted doses is highly useful for drowsiness connected with flatulent indigestion, and a disposition to faintness: also for gout retrocedent to the stomach. the dose is from five to ten drops with a spoonful of water every half hour, or every hour until the symptoms are adequately relieved. against diarrhoea nutmeg grated into warm water is very helpful, and will prove an efficient substitute for opium in mild cases. externally the spirit of nutmeg is a capital application to be rubbed in for chronic rheumatism, and for paralysed limbs. the "butter of nutmegs," or their concrete oil, is used in making plasters of a warming, and stimulating kind. a drink that was concocted by our grandmothers was nutmeg tea. one nutmeg would make a pint of this tea, two or three cupfuls of which would produce a sleep of many hours' duration. the worthy old ladies were wont to carry a silver grater and nutmeg case suspended from the waist on their chatelaines. but in any large quantity the nutmeg may produce sleep of such a profundity as to prove really dangerous. two drachms of the powder have brought on a comatose sleep with some delirium. [ ] the nutmeg contains starch, protein, and other simple constituents, in addition to its stimulating principles. mace is the aromatic envelope of the nutmeg, and possesses the same qualities in a minor degree. its infusion is a good warming medicine against chronic cough, and moist bronchial asthma in an old person. mace is a membranaceous structure enveloping the nutmeg, having a fleshy texture, and being of a light yellowish-brown colour. it supplies an allied essential volatile principle, which is fragrant and cordial. if given three or four times during the twenty-four hours, in a dose of from eight to twelve grains, crushed, or powdered mace will prove serviceable against long-continued looseness of the bowels; but this dose should not be exceeded for fear of inducing narcotism. cloves (from _clavus_, a nail), also found in the kitchen spice box, and owning certain medicinal resources of a cordial sort, which are quickly available, belong to the myrtle family of plants, and are the unexpanded flower buds of an aromatic tree (_caryophyllus_), cultivated at penang and elsewhere. they contain a volatile oil which, like that of chamomile, although cordial, lowers nervous sensibility, or irritability: also tannin, a gum resin, and woody fibre. this volatile oil consists principally of "eugenin" with a camphor, "caryophyllin." the "eugenic acid," with a strong odour of cloves, is powerfully antiseptic and anti-putrescent. it reduces the sensibility of the skin: and therefore the oil with lanolin is a useful application for eczema. dr burnett has lately taught ( ) that a too free use of cloves will bring on albuminuria; and that when this disease has supervened from other causes, the dilute tincture of cloves, third decimal strength, will frequently do much to lessen the quantity of albumen [ ] excreted by the kidneys. from five to ten drops of this tincture should be given with water three times a day. used in small quantities as a spice the clove stimulates digestion, but when taken more freely it deadens the susceptibility of the stomach, lessens the appetite, and induces constipation. an infusion of cloves, made with half an ounce to a pint of water, and drank in doses of a small wineglassful, will relieve the nausea and coldness of flatulent indigestion. the oil put on cotton wool into the hollow of a decayed tooth is a useful means for giving ease to toothache. the dose of the oil is from one to five drops, on sugar, or in a spoonful of milk. the odour of cloves is aromatic, and the taste pleasantly hot, but acrid. half a tumbler of quite hot water poured over half a dozen cloves (which are to brew for a few minutes on the hob, and then to be taken out), will often secure a good night to a restless dyspeptic patient, if taken just before getting into bed. or if given cold before breakfast this dose will obviate constipation. in holland the oil of cloves is prescribed with cinchona bark for ague. arthur cecil's german medico in the play advises his patient to "rub your pelly mit a clove." all-spice (_pimento_) is another common occupant of the domestic spice box. it is popular as a warming cordial, of a sweet odour, and a grateful aromatic taste; but being a native of south america, grows with us only as a stove plant. the leaves and bark are full of inflammable particles, whilst walks between pimento trees are odorous with a delicious scent. the name all-spice is given because the berries afford in smell and taste a combination of cloves, juniper berries, cinnamon and pepper. the special qualities of the pimento reside in the rind of these berries; and this tree is the _bromelia ananas_, [ ] named in brazil nana. an extract made from the crushed berries by boiling them down to a thick liquor, is, when spread on linen, a capital stimulating plaster for neuralgic or rheumatic parts. about the physician in "les francais" it was said admiringly "c'est lui qui a inventé la salade d'ananas." the essential oil, as well as the spirit and the distilled water of pimento, are useful against flatulent indigestion and for hysterical paroxysms. this spice was formerly added to our syrup of buckthorn to prevent it from griping. the berries are put into curry powder, and added to mulled wines. oat. the oat is a native of britain in its wild and uncultivated form, and is distinguished by the spikelets of its ears hanging on slender pedicels. this is the _avena fatua_, found in our cornfields, but not indigenous in scotland. when cultivated it is named _avena sativa_. as it needs less sunshine and solar warmth to ripen the grain than wheat, it furnishes the principal grain food of cold northern europe. with the addition of some fat this grain is capable of supporting life for an indefinite period. physicians formerly recommended highly a diet-drink made from oats, about which hoffman wrote a treatise at the end of the seventeenth century; and johannis de st. catherine, who introduced the drink, lived by its use to a hundred years free from any disease. nevertheless the oat did not enjoy a good reputation among the old romans; and pliny said "primum omnis frumenti vitium avena est." american doctors have taken of late to extol the oat (_avena sativa_) when made into a strong medicinal tincture with spirit of wine, as a remarkable nervine stimulant and restorative: this being "especially valuable in [ ] all cases where there is a deficiency of nervous power, for instance, among over-worked lawyers, public speakers, and writers." the tincture is ordered to be given in a dose of from ten to twenty drops, once or twice during the day, in hot water to act speedily; and a somewhat increased dose in cold water at bedtime so as to produce its beneficial effects more slowly then. it proves an admirable remedy for sleeplessness from nervous exhaustion, and as prepared in new york may be procured from any good druggist in england. oatmeal contains two per cent. of protein compounds, the largest portion of which is avenin. a yeast poultice made by stirring oatmeal into the grounds of strong beer is a capital cleansing and healing application to languid sloughing sores. oatmeal supplies very little saccharine matter ready formed. it cannot be made into light bread, and is therefore prepared when baked in cakes; or, its more popular form for eating is that of porridge, where the ground meal becomes thoroughly soft by boiling, and is improved in taste by the addition of milk and salt. "the halesome parritch, chief of scotia's food," said burns, with fervid eloquence. scotch people actually revel in their parritch and bannocks. "we defy your wheaten bread," says one of their favourite writers, "your home-made bread, your bakers' bread, your baps, rolls, scones, muffins, crumpets, and cookies, your bath buns, and your sally luns, your tea cakes, and slim cakes, your saffron cakes, and girdle cakes, your shortbread, and singing hinnies: we swear by the oat cake, and the parritch, the bannock, and the brose." scotch beef brose is made by boiling oatmeal in meat liquor, and kail brose by cooking oatmeal in cabbage-water. [ ] crushed oatmeal, from which the husk has been removed, is known as "groats," and is employed for making gruel. at the latter end of the seventeenth century this was a drink asked-for eagerly by the public at london taverns. "grantham gruel," says quaint old fuller, in his _history of the worthies of england_, "consists of nine grits and a gallon of water." when "thus made, it is wash rather, which one will have little heart to eat, and yet as little heart by eating." but the better gruel concocted elsewhere was "a wholesome spoon meat, though homely; physic for the sick, and food for persons in health; grits the form thereof: and giving the being thereunto." in the border forays of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries all the provision carried by the scotch was simply a bag of oatmeal. but as a food it is apt to undergo some fermentation in the stomach, and to provoke sour eructations. furthermore, it is somewhat laxative, because containing a certain proportion of bran which mechanically stimulates the intestinal membranes: and this insoluble bran is rather apt to accumulate. oatmeal gruel may be made by boiling from one to two ounces of the meal with three pints of water down to two pints, then straining the decoction, and pouring off the supernatant liquid when cool. its flavour may be improved by adding raisins towards the end of boiling, or by means of sugar and nutmeg. because animals of speed use up, by the lungs, much heat-forming material, oats (which abound in carbonaceous constituents) are specially suitable as food for the horse. onion (_see_ garlic, _page _). orange. though not of native british growth, except by way of a luxury in the gardens of the wealthy, yet the orange [ ] is of such common use amongst all classes of our people as a dietetic fruit, when of the sweet china sort, and for tonic medicinal purposes when of the bitter seville kind, that some consideration may be fairly accorded to it as a curative simple in these pages. the _citrus aurantium_, or popular orange, came originally from india, and got its distinctive title of _aurantium_, either (_ab aureo colore corticis_) from the golden colour of its peel, or (_ab oppido achoeioe arantium_) from arantium, a town of achaia. it now comes to us chiefly from portugal and spain. this fruit is essentially a product of cultivation extending over many years. it began in hindustan as a small bitter berry with seeds; then about the eighth century it was imported into persia, though held somewhat accursed. during the tenth century it bore the name "bigarade," and became better known. but not until the sixteenth century was it freely grown by the spaniards, and brought into mexico. even at that time the legend still prevailed that whoever partook of the luscious juice was compelled to embrace the faith of the prophet. spenser and milton tell of the orange as the veritable golden apple presented by jupiter to juno on the day of their nuptials: and hence perhaps arose its more modern association with marriage rites. of the varieties the china orange is the most juicy, being now grown in the south of europe; whilst the st. michael orange (a descendant of the china sort, first produced in syria), is now got abundantly from the azores, whence it derives its name. john evelyn says the first china orange which appeared in europe, was sent as a present to the old condé mellor; then prime minister to the king of portugal, when only one plant escaped sound and useful [ ] of the whole case which reached lisbon, and this became the parent of all the orange trees cultivated by our gardeners, though not without greatly degenerating. the seville orange is that which contains the medicinal properties, more especially in its leaves, flowers, and fruit, though the china sort possesses the same virtues in a minor degree. the leaves and the flowers have been esteemed as beneficial against epilepsy, and other convulsive disorders; and a tea is infused from the former for hysterical sufferers. two delicious perfumes are distilled from the flowers--oil of neroli, and napha water,--of which the chemical hydro-carbon "hesperidin," is mainly the active principle. this is secreted also as an aromatic attribute of the leaves through their minute glands, causing them to emit a fragrant odour when bruised. a scented water is largely prepared in france from the flowers, _l'eau de fleur d'oranger_, which is frequently taken by ladies as a gentle sedative at night, when sufficiently diluted with sugared water. thousands of gallons are drunk in this way every year. as a pleasant and safely effective help towards wooing sleep, from one to two teaspoonfuls of the french _eau de fleur d'oranger_, if taken at bedtime in a teacupful of hot water, are to be highly commended for a nervous, or excitably wakeful person. orange buds are picked green from the trees in the gardens of the riviera, and when dried they retain the sweet smell of the flowers. a teaspoonful of these buds is ordered to be infused in a teacupful of quite hot water, and the liquid to be drunk shortly, before going to bed. the effect is to induce a refreshing sleep, without any subsequent headache or nausea. the dried berries may be had from an english druggist. [ ] a peeled orange contains, some citric acid, with citrate of potash; also albumen, cellulose, water, and about eight per cent. of sugar. the white lining pith of the peel possesses likewise the crystalline principle "hesperidin." dr. cullen showed that the acid juice of oranges, by uniting with the bile, diminishes the bitterness of that secretion; and hence it is that this fruit is of particular service in illnesses which arise from a redundancy of bile, chiefly in dark persons of a fibrous, or bilious temperament. but if the acids of the orange are greater in quantity than can be properly corrected by the bile (as in persons with a small liver, and feeble digestive powers), they seem, by some prejudicial union with that liquid, to acquire a purgative quality, and to provoke diarrhoea, with colicky pains. the rind or peel of the seville orange is darker in colour, and more bitter of taste than that of the sweet china fruit. it affords a considerable quantity of fragrant, aromatic oil, which partakes of the characters exercised by the leaves and the flowers as affecting the nervous system. pereira records the death of a child which resulted from eating the rind of a sweet china orange. the small green fruits (windfalls) from the orange trees of each sort, which become blown off, or shaken down during the heats of the summer, are collected and dried, forming the "orange berries" of the shops. they are used for flavouring curacoa, and for making issue peas. these berries furnish a fragrant oil, the _essence de petit grain_, and contain citrates, and malates of lime and potash, with "hesperidin," sulphur, and mineral salts. the orange flowers yield a volatile, odorous oil, acetic acid, and acetate of lime. the juice of the orange consists of citric and malic acids, with sugar; [ ] citrate of lime, and water. the peel furnishes hesperidin, a volatile oil, gallic acid, and a bitter principle. by druggists, a confection of bitter orange peel is sold; also a syrup of this orange peel, and a tincture of the same, made with spirit of wine, to be given in doses of from one to two teaspoonfuls with water, as an agreeable stomachic bitter. _eau de cologne_ contains oil of neroli, oil of citron, and oil of orange. the fresh juice of oranges is antiseptic, and will prevent scurvy if taken in moderation daily. common oranges cut through the middle while green, and dried in the air, being afterwards steeped for forty days in oil, are used by the arabs for preparing an essence famous among their old women because it will restore a fresh dark, or black colour to grey hair. the custom of a bride wearing orange blossoms, is probably due to the fact that flowers and fruit appear together on the tree, in token of a wish that the bride may retain the graces of maidenhood amid the cares of married life. this custom has been derived from the saracens, and was originally suggested also by the fertility of the orange tree. the rind of the seville orange has proved curative of ague, and powerfully remedial to restrain the monthly flux of women when in excess. its infusion is of service also against flatulency. a drachm of the powdered leaves may be given for a dose in nervous and hysterical ailments. finally, "the orange," adds john evelyn, "sharpens appetite, exceedingly refreshes, and resists putrefaction." with respect to the fruit, it is said that workpeople engaged in the orange trade enjoy a special immunity from influenza, whilst a free partaking of the juice given largely, has been found preventive of [ ] pneumonia as complicating this epidemic. the benefit is said to occur through lessening the fibrin of the blood. in the time of shakespeare, it was the fashion to carry "pomanders," these being oranges from which all the pulp had been scooped out, whilst a circular hole was made at the top. then after the peel had become dry, the fruit was filled with spices, so as to make a sort of scent-box. orange lilies, orangemen, and william of orange, are all more or less associated with this fruit. the dutch government had no love for the house of orange: and many a grave burgomaster went so far as to banish from his garden the orange lily, and marigold; also the sale of oranges and carrots was prohibited in the markets on account of their aristocratic colour. there exists at brighton a curious custom of bowling or throwing oranges along the high road on boxing day. he whose orange is hit by that of another, forfeits the fruit to the successful hitter. in henry the eighth's reign oranges were made into pies, or the juice was squeezed out, and mixed with wine. this fruit when peeled, and torn into sections, after removing the white pith, and the pips, and sprinkling over it two or three spoonfuls of powdered loaf sugar, makes a most wholesome salad. a few candied orange-flower petals will impart a fine flavour to tea when infused with it. orchids. our common english orchids are the "early purple," which is abundant in our woods and pastures; the "meadow orchis"; and the "spotted orchis" of our heaths and commons. less frequent are the "bee orchis," the "butterfly orchis," "lady's tresses," and the "tway blade." [ ] two roundish tubers form the root of an orchid, and give its name to the plant from the greek _orchis_, testicle. a nutritive starchy product named salep, or saloop, is prepared from the roots of the common male orchis, and its infusion or decoction was taken generally in this country as a beverage before the introduction of tea and coffee. sassafras chips were sometimes added for giving the drink a flavour. salep obtained from the tubers of foreign orchids was specially esteemed; and even now that sold in indian bazaars is so highly valued for its fine qualities that most extravagant prices are paid for it by wealthy orientals. also in persia and turkey it is in great repute for recruiting the exhausted vitality of aged, and enervated persons. in this country it may be purchased as a powder, but not readily miscible with water, so that many persons fail in making the decoction. the powder should be first stirred with a little spirit of wine: then the water should be added suddenly, and the mixture boiled. one dram by weight of the salep powder in a fluid dram and a half of the spirit, to half-a-pint of water, are the proper proportions. sometimes amber, cloves, cinnamon, and ginger are added. dr. lind, in the middle of the last century, strongly advised that ships, and soldiers on long marches, should be provided with salep made into a paste or cake. this (with a little portable soup added) will allay hunger and thirst if made liquid. an ounce in two quarts of boiling water will sufficiently sustain a man for one day, being a combination of animal and vegetable foods. among the early romans the orchis was often called "satyrion," because it was thought to be the food of the satyrs, exciting them to their sexual orgies. hence the orchis root became famous as all aphrodisiac [ ] medicine, and has been so described by all herbalists from the time of dioscorides. a tradition is ascribed to the english orchis mascula (early purple), of which the leaves are usually marked with purple spots. it is said that these are stains of the precious blood which flowed from our lord's body on the cross at calvary, where this species of orchis is reputed to have grown. similarly in cheshire, the plant bears the name of gethsemane. this early orchis is the "long purples," mentioned by shakespeare in hamlet: and it is sometimes named "dead men's fingers," from the pale colour, and the hand-like shape of its tubers. "that liberal shepherds give a grosser name, but our cold maids do 'dead men's fingers' call them." it is further styled "cain and abel" and "rams' horns," the odour being offensive, especially in the evening. it thrives wherever the wild hyacinth flourishes, and is believed by some to grow best where the earth below is rich in metal. country people in yorkshire call it "crake feet," and in kent "keat legs," or "neat legs." the roots of this orchis abound with a glutinous sweetish juice, of which a salep may be made which is quite equal to any brought from the levant. the new root should be washed in hot water, and its thin brown skin rubbed off with a linen cloth. having thus prepared a sufficient number of roots, the operator should spread them on a tin plate in a hot oven for eight or ten minutes, until they get to look horny, but without shrinking in size: and being then withdrawn, they may be dried with more gentle heat, or by exposure to the air. their concocted juice can be employed with the same intentions and in the same complaints as gum arabic,--about which we read that [ ] not only has it served to sustain whole negro towns during a scarcity of other provisions, but the arabs who collect it by the river niger have nothing else to live upon for months together. salep is a most useful article of diet for those who suffer from chronic diarrhoea. parsley. parsely is found in this country only as a cultivated plant, having been introduced into england from sardinia in the sixteenth century. it is an umbelliferous herb, which has been long of garden growth for kitchen uses. the name was formerly spelt "percely," and the herb was known as march, or merich (in anglo-saxon, merici). its adjective title, _petroselinum_, signifies "growing on a rock." the greeks held parsley in high esteem, making therewith the victor's crown of dried and withered parsley, at their isthmian games, and the wreath for adorning the tombs of their dead. hence the proverb, _deeisthai selinon_ (to need only parsley) was applied to persons dangerously ill, and not expected to live. the herb was never brought to table of old, being held sacred to oblivion and the defunct. it is reputed to have sprung from the blood of a greek hero, archemorus, the fore-runner of death; and homer relates that chariot horses were fed by warriors with this herb. greek gardens were often bordered with parsley and rue: and hence arose the saying when an undertaking was in contemplation but not yet commenced, "oh! we are only at the parsley and rue." garden parsley was not cultivated in england until the second year of edward the sixth's reign, . in our modern times the domestic herb is associated rather with those who come into the world than with those [ ] who go out of it. proverbially the parsley-bed is propounded to our little people who ask awkward questions, as the fruitful source of new-born brothers and sisters when suddenly appearing within the limits of the family circle. in suffolk there is an old belief that to ensure the herb coming up "double," parsley seed must be sown on good friday. the root is faintly aromatic, and has a sweetish taste. it contains a chemical principle, "apiin," sugar, starch, and a volatile oil. likewise the fruit furnishes the same volatile oil in larger abundance, this oil comprising parsley-camphor, and "apiol," the true essential oil of parsley, which may be now had from all leading druggists. apiol exercises all the virtues of the entire plant, and is especially beneficial for women who are irregular as to their monthly courses because of ovarian debility. from three to six drops should be given on sugar, or in milk (or as a prepared capsule) twice or three times in the day for some days together, at the times indicated, beginning early at the expected date of each period. if too large a dose of apiol be taken it will cause headache, giddiness, staggering, and deafness; and if going still further, it will induce epileptiform convulsions. for which reason, in small diluted doses, the same medicament will curatively meet this train of symptoms when occurring as a morbid state. and it is most likely on such account parsley has been popularly said to be "poison to men, and salvation to women." apiol was first obtained in , by drs. joret and homolle, of brittany, and proved an excellent remedy there for a prevailing ague. it exercises a singular influence on the great nervous centres within the head and spine. bruised parsley seeds make a decoction which is likewise beneficial against [ ] ague and intermittent fever. they have gained a reputation in america as having a special tendency to regulate the reproductive functions in either sex. country folk in many places think it unlucky to sow parsley, or to move its roots; and a rustic adage runs thus: "fried parsley brings a man to his saddle, and a woman to her grave." taking parsley in excess at table will impair the eyesight, especially the tall parsley; for which reason it was forbidden by chrysippus and dionysius. the root acts more readily on the kidneys than other parts of the herb; therefore its decoction is useful when the urine becomes difficult through a chill, or because of gravel. the bruised leaves applied externally will serve to soften hard breasts early in lactation, and to resolve the glands in nursing, when they become knotty and painful, with a threatened abscess. sheep are fond of the plant, which protects them from foot-rot; but it acts as a deadly poison to parrots. in france a rustic application to scrofulous swellings is successfully used, which consists of parsley and snails pounded together in a mortar to the thickness of an ointment. this is spread on coarse linen and applied freely every day. also on the continent, and in some parts of england, snails as well as slugs are thought to be efficacious medicinally in consumption of the lungs, even more so than cod-liver oil. the _helix pomatia_ (or apple snail) is specially used in france, being kept for the purpose in a snaillery, or boarded-in space of which the floor is covered half-a-foot deep with herbs. the romans were very partial to these apple snails, and fattened them for the table with bran soaked in wine until the creatures attained almost a fabulous size. even in this country shells of apple snails have been [ ] found which would hold a pound's worth of silver. the large snail was brought to england in the sixteenth century, to the south downs of surrey, and sussex, and to box hill by an earl of arundel for his countess, who had them dressed, and ate them because of her consumptive disease. likewise in pliny's time snails beaten up with warm water were commended for the cure of coughs. gipsies are great snail eaters, but they first starve the creatures, which are given to devour the deadly night shade, and other poisonous plants. it is certain, that snails retain the flavour and odour of the vegetables which they consume. the chalky downs of the south of england are literally covered with small snails, and many persons suppose that the superior flavour of south down mutton is due to the thousands of these snails which the sheep consume together with the pasture on which they feed. in a medical writer set forth the curative virtues of _helicin_, a glutinous constituent principle derived from the snail, and to be given in broth as a remedy for pulmonary consumption. in france the apple snail is known as the "great escargot"; and the snail gardens in which the gasteropods are fattened, and reared, go by the name of "escargotoires." throughout the winter the creatures hybernate, shutting themselves up by their operculum whilst lying among dead leaves, or having fixed themselves by their glutinous secretion to a wall or tree. they are only taken for use whilst in this state. according to a gipsy, the common english snail is quite as good to be eaten, and quite as beneficial as an apple snail, but there is less of him. in wiltshire, when collected whilst hybernating, snails are soaked in salted water, and then grilled on the bars of the grate. about france the escargots are dried, and prepared as a lozenge [ ] for coughs. our common garden snail is the helix aspersa. on the continent for many years past the large apple snail, together with a reddish-brown slug, the arion rufus, has been employed in medicine for colds, sore throats, and a tendency to consumption of the lungs. these contain "limacine," and eight per cent. of emollient mucilage, together with "helicin," and uric acid just under the shell. many quarts of cooked garden snails are sold every week to the labouring classes in bristol; and an annual feast of snails is held in the neighbourhood of newcastle. mrs. delaney in , recommended that "two or three snails should be boiled in the barley-water which mary takes who coughs at night. she must know nothing of it; they give no manner of taste. six or eight boiled in water, and strained off, and put in a bottle would be a good way of adding a spoonful of the same to every liquid thing she takes. they must be fresh done every two or three days, otherwise they grow too thick." the _london gazette_, of march rd, , tells that mrs. joanna stephens received from the government five thousand pounds for revealing the secret of her famous cure against stone in the bladder, and gravel. this consisted chiefly of eggshells, and snails, mixed with soap, honey and herbs. it was given in powders, decoctions, and pills. to help weak eyes in south hampshire, snails and bread crust are made into a poultice. a moderate dose of parsley oil when taken in health, induces a sense of warmth at the pit of the stomach, and of general well-being. the powdered seeds may be taken in doses of from ten to fifteen grains. the bruised leaves have successfully resolved tumours of hard (scirrhous) cancer when cicuta, and mercury had failed. though used so commonly at table, facts have proved [ ] that the herb, especially when uncooked, may bring on epilepsy in certain constitutions, or at least aggravate the fits in those who are subject to them. alston says: "i have observed after eating plentifully of raw parsley, a fulness of the vessels about the head, and a tenderness of the eyes (somewhat inflamed) and face, as if the cravat were too tight." the victors at the old grecian games were crowned with chaplets of parsley leaves; and it is more than probable our present custom of encircling a joint, and garnishing a dish with the herb had its origin in this practice. the romans named parsley _apium_, either because their bee (_apis_) was specially fond of the herb, or from _apex_, the head of a conqueror, who was crowned with it. the tincture has a decided action on the lining membrane of the urinary passages, and may be given usefully when this is inflamed, or congested through catarrh, in doses of from five to ten drops three times in the day with a spoonful or two of cold water. wild parsley is probably identical with our garden herb. it is called in the western counties eltrot, perhaps because associated with the gambols of the elves. the fool's parsley (_oethusa cynapium_) is a very common wayside weed, and grows wild in our gardens. it differs botanically from all other parsleys in having no bracts, but three narrow leaves at the base of each umbel. this is a more or less poisonous herb, producing, when eaten in a harmful quantity, convulsive and epileptic symptoms; also an inflamed state of the eyelids, just such as is seen in the scrofulous ophthalmia of children, the condition being accompanied with swelling of glands and eruptions on the skin. therefore the tincture which is made (h.) of fool's parsley, when given in small doses, and diluted, proves [ ] very useful for such ophthalmia, and for obviating the convulsive attacks of young children, especially if connected with derangement of the digestive organs. also as a medicine it has done much good in some cases of mental imbecility. and this tincture will correct the summer diarrhoea of infants, when the stools are watery, greenish, and without smell. from three to ten drops of the tincture diluted to the third decimal strength, should be given as a dose, and repeated at intervals, for the symptoms just recited. this variety is named oethusa, because of its acridity, from the greek verb _aitho_ (to burn). "it has faculties," says gerard, "answerable to the common hemlock," the poisonous effects being inflamed stomach and bowels, giddiness, delirium, convulsions, and insensibility. it is called also "dog's parsley" and "kicks." the leaves of the fool's parsley are glossy beneath, with lanceolate lobes, whereas the leaflets of other parsleys are woolly below. gerard calls it dog's parsley, and says: "the whole plant is of a naughty smell." it contains a peculiar alkaloid "cynapina." the tincture, third decimal strength, in half-drop doses, with a teaspoonful of water, will prevent an infant from vomiting the breast milk in thick curds. another variety which grows in chalky districts, the stone parsley, _sison_, or breakstone, was formerly known as the "hone-wort," from curing a "hone," or boil, on the cheek. it was believed at one time to break a glass goblet or tumbler if rubbed against this article. parsnip. the wild parsnip (_pastinaca sativa_) grows on the borders of ploughed fields and about hedgerows, being generally hairy, whilst the garden parsnip is smooth, [ ] with taller stems, and leaves of a yellowish-green colour. this cultivated parsnip has been produced as a vegetable since roman times. the roots furnish a good deal of starch, and are very nutritious for warming and fattening, but when long in the ground they are called in some places "madnip," and are said to cause insanity. chemically, they contain also albumen, sugar, pectose, dextrin, fat, cellulose, mineral matters, and water, but less sugar than turnips or carrots. the volatile oil with which the cultivated root is furnished causes it to disagree with persons of delicate stomach; otherwise it is highly nutritive, and makes a capital supplement to salt fish, in lent. the seeds of the wild parsnip (quite a common plant) are aromatic, and are kept by druggists. they have been found curative in ague, and for intermittent fever, by their volatile oil, or by its essence given as a medicine. but the seeds of the garden parsnip, which are easier to get, though not nearly so efficacious, are often substituted at the shops. a decoction of the wild root is good for a sluggish liver, and in passive jaundice. in gerard's time, parsnips were known as mypes. marmalade made with the roots, and a small quantity of sugar, will improve the appetite, and serve as a restorative to invalids. from the mashed roots of the wild parsnip in some parts of ireland, when boiled with hops, the peasants brew a beer. in scotland a good dish is prepared from parsnips and potatoes, cooked and beaten together, with butter. parsnip wine, when properly concocted, is particularly exhilarating and refreshing. the water parsnip (spelt also in old _herbals_, pasnep, and pastnip, and called sium) is an umbelliferous plant, [ ] common by the sides of rivers, lakes, and ditches, with tender leaves which are "a sovereign remedy against gravel in the kidney, and stone in the bladder." it is known also as _apium nodiflorum_, from _apon_, water, and contains "pastinacina," in common with the wild parsnip. this is a volatile alkaloid which is not poisonous, and is thought to be almost identical with ammonia. the fresh juice, in doses of one, two, or three tablespoonfuls, twice a day, is of curative effect for scrofulous eruptions on the face, neck, and other parts of children. dr. withering tells of a child, aged six years, who was thus cured of an obstinate and otherwise intractable skin disease. the juice may be readily mixed with milk, and does not disagree in any way. pea and bean. typical of leguminous plants (so called because they furnish legumin, or vegetable cheese), whilst furthermore possessing certain medicinal properties, the bean and the pea have a claim to be classed with herbal simples. the common kidney bean (_phaseolus vulgaris_) is a native of the indies, but widely cultivated all over europe, and so well known as not to need any detailed description as a plant. because of the seed's close resemblance to the kidney, as well as to the male testis, the egyptians made it an object of sacred worship, and would not partake of it as food. they feared lest by so doing they should eat what was human remaining after death in the bean, or should consume a soul. the romans celebrated feasts (lemuria) in honour of their departed, when beans were cast into the fire on the altar; and the people threw black beans on the graves of the deceased, because the smell was thought disagreeable to any hostile manes. in italy at the present day it is [ ] customary to eat beans, and to distribute them among the poor, on the anniversary of a death. because of its decided tendency to cause sleepiness the jewish high priest was forbidden to partake of beans on the day of atonement; and there is now a common saying in leicestershire that for bad dreams, or to be driven crazy, one has only to sleep all night in a bean field. the philosopher, pythagoras, warned his pupils against eating beans, the black spot thereon being typical of death; and the disciples were ever mindful: "_jurare in verba magistri_." when bruised and boiled with garlic, beans have been known to cure coughs which were past other remedies. but the roots of the kidney bean have proved themselves dangerously narcotic. the pea (_pisum sativum_) is a native of england, first taking its botanical name from pisa, a town of elis, where peas grew in plenty. the english appellation was formerly peason, or pease, and the plant has been cultivated in this country from time immemorial; though not commonly, even in elizabeth's day, when (as fuller informs us) "peas were brought from holland, and were fit dainties for ladies, they came so far, and cost so dear." in germany peas are thought good for many complaints, especially for wounds and bruises; children affected with measles are washed there systematically with water in which peas have been boiled. these, together with beans and lentils, etc., are included under the general name of pulse, about which cowper wrote thus:-- "daniel ate pulse by choice: example rare! heaven blest the youth, and made him fresh and fair." grey peas were provided in the pits of the greek and roman theatres, as we supply oranges and a bill of the play. [ ] "hot grey pease and a suck of bacon" (tied to a string of which the stall-keeper held the other end), was a popular street cry in the london of james the first. peas and beans contain sulphur, and are richer in mineral salts, such as potash and lime, than wheat, barley, or oats; but their constituents are apt to provoke indigestion, whilst engendering flatulence through sulphuretted hydrogen. they best suit persons who take plenty of out-door exercise, but not those of sedentary habits. the skins of parched peas remain undigested when eaten cooked, and are found in the excrements. these leguminous plants are less easily assimilated than light animal food by persons who are not robust, or laboriously employed, though vegetarians assert to the contrary. lord tennyson wrote to such effect as the result of his personal experience (in his dedication of _tiresias_ to e. fitzgerald):-- "who live on meal, and milk, and grass:-- and once for ten long weeks i tried your table of pythagoras, and seem'd at first 'a thing enskied' (as shakespeare has it)--airylight, to float above the ways of men: then fell from that half spiritual height, until i tasted flesh again. one night when earth was winter black, and all the heavens were flashed in frost, and on me--half asleep--came back that wholesome heat the blood had lost." but none the less does a simple diet foster spirituality of mind. "in milk"--says one of the oldest vedas--"the finer part of the curds, when shaken, rises and becomes butter. just so, my child, the finer part of food rises when it is eaten, and becomes mind." old fuller relates "in a general dearth all over [ ] england ( ), plenty of pease did grow on the seashore, near dunwich (suffolk), never set or sown by human industry; which being gathered in full ripeness much abated the high prices in the markets, and preserved many hungry families from famishing." "they do not grow", says he, "among the bare stones, neither did they owe their original to shipwrecks, or pease cast out of ships." the sea-side pea (_pisum maritimum_) is a rare plant. peach. the peach (_amygdabus persica_), the apple of persia, began to be cultivated in england about , or perhaps before then. columella tells of this fatal gift conveyed treacherously to egypt in the first century:-- "apples, which most barbarous persia sent, with native poison armed." the peach tree is so well known by its general characteristics as not to need any particular description. its young branches, flowers, and seeds, after maceration in water, yield a volatile oil which is chemically identical with that of the bitter almond. the flowers are laxative, and have been used instead of manna. when distilled, they furnish a white liquor which communicates a flavour resembling the kernels of fruits. an infusion made from one drachm of the dried flowers, or from half an ounce of the fresh flowers, has a purgative effect. the fruit is wholesome, and seldom disagrees if eaten when ripe and sound. its quantity of sugar is only small, but the skin is indigestible. the leaves possess the power of expelling worms if applied outside a child's belly as a poultice, but in any medicinal form they must be used with caution, as they contain some of the properties of prussic acid, as found [ ] also in the leaves of the laurel. a syrup of peach flowers was formerly a preparation recognised by apothecaries. the leaves infused in white brandy, sweetened with barley sugar, make a fine cordial similar to noyeau. soyer says the old romans gave as much for their peaches as eighteen or nineteen shillings each. peach pie, owing to the abundance of the fruit, is as common fare in an american farm-house, as apple pie in an english homestead. our english king john died at swinestead abbey from a surfeit of peaches, and new ale. a tincture made from the flowers will allay the pain of colic caused by gravel; but the kernels of the fruit, which yield an oil identical with that of bitter almonds, have produced poisonous effects with children. gerard teaches "that a syrup or strong infusion of peach flowers doth singularly well purge the belly, and yet without grief or trouble." two tablespoonfuls of the infusion for a dose. in sicily there is a belief that anyone afflicted with goitre, who eats a peach on the night of st. john, or the ascension, will be cured, provided only that the peach tree dies at the same time. in italy peach leaves are applied to a wart, and then buried, so that they and the wart may perish simultaneously. thackeray one day at dessert was taken to task by his colleague on the _punch_ staff, angus b. reach, whom he addressed as mr. reach, instead of as mr. (_scotticé_) reach. with ready promptitude, thackeray replied: "be good enough mr. re-ack to pass me a pe-ack." pear. the pear, also called pyrrie, belongs to the same natural order of plants (the _rosacoe_) as the apple. it is [ ] sometimes called the pyerie, and when wild is so hard and austere as to bear the name of choke-pear. it grows wild in britain, and abundantly in france and germany. the barland pear, which was chiefly cultivated in the seventeenth century, still retains its health and vigour, "the identical trees in herefordshire which then supplied excellent liquor, continuing to do so in this, the nineteenth century." this fruit caused the death of drusus, a son of the roman emperor claudius, who caught in his mouth a pear thrown into the air, and by mischance attempted to swallow it, but the pear was so extremely hard that it stuck in his throat, and choked him. pears gathered from gardens near old monasteries were formerly held in the highest repute for flavour, and it was noted that the trees which bore them continued fruitful for a great number of years. the secret cause seems to have been, not the holy water with which the trees were formally christened, but the fact that the sagacious monks had planted them upon a layer of stones so as to prevent the roots from penetrating deep into the ground, and so as thus to ensure their proper drainage. the cellular tissue of which a pear is composed differs from that of the apple in containing minute stony concretions which make it, in many varieties of the fruit, bite short and crisp; and its specific gravity is therefore greater than that of the apple, so much so that by taking a cube of each of equal size, that of the pear will sink when thrown into a vessel of water, while that of the apple will float. the wood of the wild pear is strong, and readily stained black, so as to look like ebony. it is much employed by wood-engravers. gerard says "it serveth to be cut [ ] up into many kinds of moulds; not only such fruits as those seen in my herbal are made of, but also many sorts of pretty toies for coifes, breast plates, and such like; used among our english gentlewomen." the good old black pear of worcester is represented in the civic arms, or rather in the second of the two shields belonging to the faithful city; argent, a fesse between three pears, sable. the date of this shield coincides with that of the visit of queen elizabeth to worcester. virgil names three kinds of pears which he received as a present from cato:-- "nec surculus idem, crustaneis, syriisque pyris, gravibusque volemis." the two first of these were bergamots and pounder pears, whilst the last-named was called _a volemus_, because large enough to fill the hollow of the hand, (_vola_). mural paintings which have been disclosed at pompeii represent the pear tree and its fruit. in pliny's time there were "proud" pears, so called because they ripened early, and would not keep; and "winter" pears for baking, etc. again, in the time of henry the eighth, a "warden" pear, so named (anglo-saxon "wearden") from its property of long keeping, was commonly cultivated. "her cheek was like the catherine pear, the side that's next the sun," says one of our old poets concerning a small fruit seen often now-a-days in our london streets, handsome, but hard, and ill-flavoured. the special taste of pears is chemically due for the most part to their containing amylacetate; and a [ ] solution of this substance in spirit is artificially prepared for making essence of jargonelle pears, as used for flavouring pear drops and other sweetmeats. the acetate amyl is a compound ether got from vinegar and potato oil. pears contain also malic acid, pectose, gum, sugar, and albumen, with mineral matter, cellulose, and water. gerard says wine made of the juice of pears, called in english, perry, "purgeth those that are not accustomed to drinke thereof, especially when it is new; notwithstanding, it is as wholesome a drink (being taken in small quantity) as wine; it comforteth and warmeth the stomacke, and causeth good digestion." perry contains about one per cent. alcohol over cider, and a slightly larger proportion of malic acid, so that it is rather more stimulating, and somewhat better calculated to produce the healthful effects of vegetable acids in the economy. how eminently beneficial fruits of such sort are when ripe and sound, even to persons out of health, is but little understood, though happily the british public is growing wiser to-day in this respect. for instance, it has been lately discovered that there is present in the juice of the pine-apple a vegetable digestive ferment, which, in its action, imitates almost identically the gastric juices of the stomach; and a demand for bananas is developing rapidly in london since their wholesome virtues have become generally recognised. it is a remarkable fact that the epidemics of yellow fever in new orleans have declined in virulence almost incredibly since the banana began to be eaten there in considerable quantities. if a paste of its ripe pulp dried in the sun be made with spice, and sugar, this will keep well for years. at godstone, as is related in bray's survey, the water [ ] from a well sunk close to a wild pear tree (which bore fruit as hard as iron) proved so curative of gout, that large quantities of it were sent to london and sold there at the rate of sixpence a quart. pears were deemed by the romans an antidote to poisonous fungi; and for this reason, which subsequent experience has confirmed, perry is still reckoned the best thing to be taken after eating freely of mushrooms, as also pear stalks cooked therewith. there is an old continental saying: _pome, pere, ed noce guastano la voce_--"apples, pears, and nuts spoil the voice," and an ancient rhymed distich says:-- "for the cough take judas eare, with the parynge of a pear; and drynke them without feare, if ye will have remedy." all pears are cold, and have a binding quality, with an earthy substance in their composition. it should be noted that pears dried in the oven, and kept without syrup, will remain quite good, and eatable for a year or more. most pears depend on birds for the dispersion of their seeds, but one striking variety prefers to attract bees, and the larger insects for cross-fertilization, and it has therefore assumed brilliant crimson petals of a broadly expanded sort, instead of bearing a succulent edible fruit, this is the highly ornamental _pyrus japonica_, which may so often be seen trained on the sunny walls of cottages. pellitory. a plant belonging to the order of nettles, the pellitory of the wall, or paritory--_parietaria_, from the latin _parietes_, walls--is a favourite herbal simple in many [ ] rural districts. it grows commonly on dry walls, and is in flower all the summer. the leaves are narrow, hairy, and reddish; the stems are brittle, and the small blossoms hairy, in clusters. their filaments are so elastic that if touched before the flower has expanded, they suddenly spring from their in curved position, and scatter the pollen broadcast. an infusion of the plant is a popular medicine to stimulate the kidneys, and promote a large flow of watery urine. the juice of the herb acts in the same way when made into a thin syrup with sugar, and given in doses of two tablespoonfuls three times in the day. dropsical effusions caused by an obstructed liver, or by a weak dilated heart, may be thus carried off with marked relief. the decoction of _parietaria_, says gerard, "helpeth such as are troubled with an old cough." all parts of the plant contain nitre abundantly. the leaves may be usefully applied as poultices. but another pellitory, which is more widely used because of its pungent efficacy in relieving toothache, and in provoking a free flow of saliva, is a distinct plant, the _pyrethrum_, or spanish chamomile of the shops, and not a native of great britain, though sometimes cultivated in our gardens. the title "purethron" is from _pur_, fire, because of its burning ardent taste. its root is scentless, but when chewed causes a pricking sensation (with heat, and some numbness) in the mouth and tongue. then an abundant flow of saliva, and of mucus within the cheeks quickly ensues. these effects are due to "pyrethrin" contained in the plant, which is an acid fixed resin; also there are present a second resin, and a yellow, acrid oil, whilst the root contains inulin, tannin, and other substances. when sliced and applied to the skin it induces heat, [ ] tingling, and redness. a patient seeking relief from rheumatic or neuralgic affections of the head and face, or for palsy of the tongue, should chew the root of this _pyrethrum_ for several minutes. the "pelleter of spain" (_pyrethrum anacyclus_), was so styled, not because of being brought from spain; but because it is grown there. a gargle of _pyrethrum_ infusion is prescribed for relaxed uvula, and for a partial paralysis of the tongue and lips. the tincture made from the dried root may be most helpfully applied on cotton wool to the interior of a decayed tooth which is aching, or the milder tincture of the wall pellitory may be employed for the same purpose. to make a gargle, two or three teaspoonfuls of the tincture of _pyrethrum_, which can be had from any druggist, should be mixed with a pint of cold water, and sweetened with honey, if desired. the powdered root forms a good snuff to cure chronic catarrh of the head and nostrils, and to clear the brain by exciting a free flow of nasal mucus and tears--_purgatur cerebrum mansâ radice pyrethri_. incidentally, as a quaint but effective remedy for carious toothache, may be mentioned the common lady bird insect, coccinella, which when captured secretes from its legs a yellow acrid fluid having a disagreeable odour. this fluid will serve to ease the most violent toothache, if the creature be placed alive in the cavity of the hollow tooth. gerard says this _pyrethrurn_ (pellitory of spain, or pelletor) "is most singular for the surgeons of the hospitals to put into their unctions _contra neapolitanum morbum_, and such other diseases that are cousin germanes thereunto." the _parietaria_, or pellitory of the wall, is named lichwort, from growing on stones. [ ] sir william roberts, of manchester, has advised jujubes, made of gum arabic and pyrethrum, to be slowly masticated by persons who suffer from acid fermentation in the stomach, a copious flow of alkaline saliva being stimulated thereby in the mouth, which is repeatedly swallowed during the sucking of one or more of the jujubes, and which serves to neutralise the acid generated within the stomach. distressing heartburn is thus effectively relieved without taking injurious alkalies, such as potash and soda. pennyroyal, _see_ mint. periwinkle. there are two british periwinkles growing wild; the one _vinca major_, or greater, a doubtful native, and found only in the neighbourhood of dwelling-houses; the other _vinca minor_ lesser, abounding in english woods, particularly in the western counties, and often entirely covering the ground with its prostrate evergreen leaves. the common name of each is derived from _vincio_, to bind, as it were by its stems resembling cord; or because bound in olden times into festive garlands and funeral chaplets. their title used also to be pervinca, and pervinkle, pervenkle, and pucellage (or virgin flower). this generic name has been derived either from _pervincire_, to bind closely, or from _pervincere_, to overcome. lord bacon observes that it was common in his time for persons to wear bands of green periwinkle about the calf of the leg to prevent cramp. now-a-days we use for the same purpose a garter of small new corks strung on worsted. in germany this plant is the emblem of immortality. it bears the name [ ] "pennywinkles" in hampshire, probably by an inland confusion with the shell fish "winkles." each of the two kinds possesses acrid astringent properties, but the lesser periwinkle, _vinca minor_ or winter-green, is the herbal simple best known of the pair, for its medicinal virtues in domestic use. the periwinkle order is called _apocynaceoe_, from the greek _apo_, against, and _kunos_, a dog; or dog's bane. the flowers of the greater periwinkle are gently purgative, but lose their effect by drying. if gathered in the spring, and made into a syrup, they will impart all their virtues, and this is excellent to keep the bowels of children gently open, as well as to overcome habitual constipation in grown persons. but the leaves are astringent, contracting and strengthening the genitals if applied thereto either as a decoction, or as the bruised leaves themselves. an infusion of the greater periwinkle, one part of the fresh plant to ten of water, may be used for staying female fluxes, by giving a wine-glassful thereof when cool, frequently; or of the liquid extract, half a teaspoonful for a dose in water. on account of its striking colour, and its use for magical purposes, the plant, when in bloom, has been named the sorcerer's violet, and in some parts of devon the flowers are known as cut finger or blue buttons. the italians use it in making garlands for their dead infants, and so call it death's flower. simon fraser, whose father was a faithful adherent of sir william wallace, when on his way to be executed (in ) was crowned in mockery with the periwinkle, as he passed through the city of london, with his legs tied under the horse's belly. in gloucestershire, the flowers of the greater periwinkle are called cockles. the lesser periwinkle is perennial, and is sometimes [ ] cultivated in gardens, where it has acquired variegated leaves. it has no odour, but gives a bitterish taste which lasts in the mouth. its leaves are strongly astringent, and therefore very useful to be applied for staying bleedings. if bruised and put into the nostrils, they will arrest fluxes from the nose, and a decoction made from them is of service for the diarrhoea of a weak subject, as well as for chronic looseness of the bowels; likewise for bleeding piles, by being applied externally, and by being taken internally. again, the decoction makes a capital gargle for relaxed sore throat, and for sponginess of the mouth, of the tonsils, and the gums. this plant was also a noted simple for increasing the milk of wet nurses, and was advised for such purpose by physicians of repute. culpeper gravely says: "the leaves of the lesser periwinkle, if eaten by man and wife together, will cause love between them." a tincture is made (h.) from the said plant, the _vinca minor_, with spirit of wine. it is given medicinally for the milk-crust of infants, as well as for internal haemorrhages, the dose being from two to ten drops three or four times in the day, with a spoonful of water. pimpernel. the "poor man's weather glass" or "shepherd's dial," is a very well-known and favourite little flower, of brilliant scarlet hue, expanding only in bright weather, and closing its petals at two o'clock in the day. it occurs quite commonly in gardens and open fields, being the scarlet pimpernel, or _anagallis arvensis_, and belonging to the primrose tribe of plants. old authors called it burnet; which is quite a distinct herb, cultivated now for kitchen use, the _pimpinella saxifraga_, of so cheery and exhilarating a quality, and so generally commended, [ ] that its excellence has passed into a proverb, "_l'insolata non buon, ne betta ove non é pimpinella_." but this burnet pimpinella is of a different (umbelliferous) order, though similarly styled because its leaves are likewise bipennate. the scarlet pimpernel is named _anagallis_, from the greek _anagelao_, to laugh; either because, as pliny says, the plant removes obstructions of the liver, and spleen, which would engender sadness, or because of the graceful beauty of its flowers:-- "no ear hath heard, no tongue can tell the virtues of the pimpernell." the little plant has no odour, but possesses a bitter taste, which is rather astringent. doctors used to consider the herb remedial in melancholy, and in the allied forms of mental disease, the decoction, or a tincture being employed. it was also prescribed for hydrophobia, and linen cloths saturated with a decoction were kept applied to the bitten part. narcotic effects were certainly produced in animals by giving considerable doses of an extract made from the herb. the flowers have been found useful in epilepsy, twenty grains dried being given four times a day. a medicinal tincture (h.) is prepared with spirit of wine. it is of approved utility for irritability of the main urinary passage, with genital congestion, erotism, and dragging of the loins, this tincture being then ordered of the third decimal strength, in doses of from five to ten drops every three or four hours, with a spoonful of water. a decoction of the plant is held in esteem by countryfolk as checking pulmonary consumption in its early stages. hill says there are many authenticated cases of this dire disease being absolutely cured by the herb, [ ] the infusion is best made by pouring boiling water on the fresh plant. it contains "saponin," such as the soapwort also specially furnishes. in france the pimpernel (_anagallis_) is thought to be a noxious plant of drastic narcotico-acrid properties, and called _mouron--qui tue les petits oiseaux, et est un violent drastique pour l'homme, et les grands animaux; à dose tres elevée le mouron peut meme leur donner la mort_. in california a fluid extract of the herb is given for rheumatism, in doses of one teaspoonful with water three times a day. the _burnet pimpinella_ is more correctly the burnet saxifrage, getting its first name because the leaves are brown, and the second because supposed to break up stone in the bladder. it grows abundantly in our dry chalky pastures, bearing terminal umbels of white flowers. it contains an essential oil and a bitter resin, which are useful as warmly carminative to relieve flatulent indigestion, and to promote the monthly flow in women. an infusion of the herb is made, and given in two tablespoonfuls for a dose. cows which feed on this plant have their flow of milk increased thereby. small bunches of the leaves and shoots when tied together and suspended in a cask of beer impart to it an agreeable aromatic flavour, and are thought to correct tart, or spoiled wines. the root, when fresh, has a hot pungent bitterish taste, and may be usefully chewed for tooth-ache, or to obviate paralysis of the tongue. in germany a variety of this burnet yields a blue essential oil which is used for colouring brandy. again the herb is allied to the anise (_pimpinella anisum_). the term burnet was formerly applied to a brown cloth. smaller than this common burnet is the salad burnet, _poterium sanguisorba, quod sanguineos fluxus sistat_, a useful [ ] styptic, which is also cordial, and promotes perspiration. it has the smell of cucumber, and is, therefore, an ingredient of the salad bowl, or often put into a cool tankard, whereto, says gerard, "it gives a grace in the drynkynge." another larger sort of the burnet pimpinella (_magna_), which has broad upper leaves less divided, grows in our woods and shady places. a bright blue variety of the true scarlet pimpernel (_anagallis_) is less frequent, and is thought by many to be a distinct species. gerard says, "the pimpernel with the blue flower helpeth the fundament that is fallen down: and, contrariwise, red pimpernel being applied bringeth it down." the water pimpernel (_anagallis aquatica_) is more commonly known as brooklime, or beccabunga, and belongs to a different order of plants, the _scrophulariaceoe_ (healers of scrofula). it grows quite commonly in brooks and ditches, as a succulent plant with smooth leaves, and small flowers of bright blue, being found in situations favourable to the growth of the watercress. it is the _brok lempe_ of old writers, _veronica beccabunga_, the syllable _bec_ signifying a beck or brook; or perhaps the whole title comes from the flemish _beck pungen_, mouth-smart, in allusion to the pungent taste of the plant. "it is eaten," says gerard, "in salads, as watercresses are, and is good against that _malum_ of such as dwell near the german seas, which we term the scurvie, or skirby, being used after the same manner that watercress and scurvy-grass is used, yet is it not of so great operation and virtue." the leaves and stem are slightly acid and astringent, with a somewhat bitter taste, and frequently the former are mixed by sellers of water-cresses with their stock-in-trade. [ ] a full dose of the juice of fresh brooklime is an easy purge; and the plant has always been a popular simple for scrofulous affections, especially of the skin. chemically, this water pimpernel contains some tannin, and a special bitter principle; whilst, in common with most of the cruciferous plants, it is endowed with a pungent volatile oil, and some sulphur. the bruised plant has been applied externally for healing ulcers, burns, whitlows, and for the mitigation of swollen piles. the bog pimpernel (_anagallis tenella_), is common in boggy ground, having erect rose-coloured leaves larger than those of the poor man's weather glass. pink. the clove pink, or carnation of our gardens, though found apparently wild on old castle walls in england, is a naturalised flower in this country. it is, botanically, the _dianthus caryophyllus_, being so named as _anthos_, the flower, _dios_, of jupiter: whilst redolent of _caryophylli_, cloves. the term carnation has been assigned to the pink, either because the blossom has the colour, _carnis_, of flesh: or, as more correctly spelt by our older writers, coronation, from the flowers being employed in making chaplets, _coronoe_. thus spenser says:-- "bring coronations, and sops in wine, worn of paramours."--_shepherd's kalendar_. this second title, sops in wine, was given to the plant because the flowers were infused in wine for the sake of their spicy flavour; especially in that presented to brides after the marriage ceremony. further, this pink is the clove gilly (or _july_) flower, and gives its specific name to the natural order _caryophyllaceoe_. the word pink is a corruption of the greek pentecost [ ] (fiftieth), which has now come to signify a festival of the church. in former days the blossoms were commended as highly cordial: their odour is sweet and aromatic, so that an agreeable syrup may be made therefrom. the dried petals, if powdered, and kept in a stoppered bottle, are of service against heartburn and flatulence, being given in a dose of from twenty to sixty grains. gerard says, "a conserve made of the flowers with sugar is exceeding cordiall, and wonderfully above measure doth comfort the heart, being eaten now and then. a water distilled from pinks has been commended as excellent for curing epilepsy, and if a conserve be composed of them, this is the life and delight of the human race." the flower was at one time called _ocellus_, from the eye-shaped markings of its corolla. it is nervine and antispasmodic. by a mistake turner designated the pink incarnation. plantain. the plantains (_plantaginacecoe_), from _planta_, the sole of the foot, are humble plants, well known as weeds in fields and by roadsides, having ribbed leaves and spikes of flowers conspicuous by their long stamens. as herbal simples, the greater plantain, the ribwort plantain, and the water plantain, are to be specially considered. the greater plantain of the waysides affords spikes of seeds which are a favourite food of canaries, and which, in common with the seeds of other sorts, yield a tasteless mucilage, answering well as a substitute for linseed. the leaves of the plantains have a bitter taste, and are somewhat astringent. the generic name _plantago_ is probably derived from the latin _planta_, the sole of the foot, in allusion to the [ ] broad, flat leaves lying close on the ground, and ago, the old synonym for wort, a cultivated plant. this greater plantain (_plantago major_) is also termed waybred, waybread, or waybroad, "spread on the way," and has followed our colonists to all parts of the globe, being therefore styled "the englishman's foot" and "whiteman's foot." the shape of the leaf in the larger species resembles a footprint. the root has a sweet taste, and gives the saliva a reddish tinge. dioscorides advised that it should be applied externally for sores of every kind, and taken internally against haemorrhages. in the _romeo and juliet_ of shakespeare, romeo says, "your plantain leaf is excellent for broken shin." country persons apply these leaves to open sores and wounds, or make a poultice of them, or give fomentations with a hot decoction of the same, or prepare a gargle from the decoction when cold. the expressed juice of the greater plantain has proved of curative effect in tubercular consumption, with spitting of blood. this herb is said to furnish a cure for the venomous bite of the rattlesnake, as discovered by the negro caesar in south carolina. it is of excellent curative use against the intermittent fevers of spring, but for counteracting autumnal (septic) fevers it is of no avail. the virtues of the greater plantain as an application to wounds and sores were known of old. it possesses a widespread repute in switzerland as a local remedy for toothache, the root or leaves being applied against the ear of the affected side. those persons who proved the plant by taking it experimentally in various doses, suffered much pain in the teeth and jaws. accordingly, dr. hale found that, of all his remedies [ ] for the toothache, none could compare with the _plantago major_. it gives rise to an active flow of urine when taken in considerable doses, and when administered in small doses of the diluted tincture, it has proved curative of bed wetting in young children. gerard tells that "plantain leaves stuped stayeth the inordinate flux of the terms, though it hath continued many years." for inflamed protruding piles, a broad-leaved plantain reduced to a pulp, and kept bound to the parts by a compress, will give sure and speedy relief. highlanders call it _slanlus_, the healing plant. the ribwort plantain (_plantago lanceolata_), ribgrass, soldiers, or cocks and hens, is named from the strong parallel veins in its leaves. the flower stalks are termed kemps, from _campa_, a warrior. the leaves are astringent, and useful for healing sores when applied thereto, and for dressing wounds. this plantain is also named hardheads, fighting cocks, and in germany, devil's head, being used in divination. children challenge one another to a game of striking off the heads. toads are thought to cure themselves of their ailments by eating its leaves. in sussex, it is known as lamb's tongue. the powdered root of the ribwort plantain is of use for curing vernal ague, a dessertspoonful being given for a dose, two or three times in a day. the water plantain (_alisma plantago_), belonging to a different natural order, is common on the margins of our rivers and ditches, getting its name from the celtic _alos_, water, and being called also the greater thrumwort, from thrum, the warp end of a weaver's web. the root and leaves contain an acrid juice, dispersed by heat, which is of service for irritability of the bladder. after [ ] the root is boiled so as to dissipate this medicinal juice it makes an edible starchy vegetable. this plant is commonly classed with the plantains because its leaves resemble theirs; but in general characteristics and qualities it more properly belongs to the _ranunculaceoe_. its fresh leaves applied to the skin will raise a blister, and may be used for such a purpose, especially to relieve the swollen legs of dropsical subjects when the vesicles should be punctured and the serum drawn off. they contain a pungent butyraceous volatile oil. the seeds dislodged from the dry, ripe plant, by striking it smartly on a table, are good in decoction against bleedings, and are employed by country people for curing piles. about the russian empire the water plantain is still regarded as efficacious against hydrophobia. dr. george johnston says: "in the government of isola it has never failed of a cure for the last twenty-five years." reduced to powder it is spread over bread and butter, and is eaten. likewise, cures of rabid dogs by this plant are reported; and in america it is renowned as a remedy against the bite of the rattlesnake. the tubers contain a nutritious substance, and are eaten by the tartars. _apropos_ of this "water plantain" a teesdale proverb says: "he's nar a good weaver that leaves lang _thrums_." the small seeds of a plantain grass which grows commonly in southern europe, the fleawort, or _plantago psyllium_, have been known from time immemorial as an easy and popular aperient. in france these psyllium seeds, given in a dessertspoonful dose, are widely prescribed as a laxative in lieu of mineral aperient waters, or the morning seidlitz. they act after being soaked for some hours in cold water, by their mucilage, and [ ] when swallowed, by virtue of a laxative oil set free within the intestines. the grass is well known in some parts as "clammy plantain," and it has leafless heads with toothed leaves. these seeds are dispensed by the london druggists who supply french medicines. poppy. the scarlet poppy of our cornfields (_papaver rhoeas_) is one of the most brilliant and familiar of english wild flowers, being strikingly conspicuous as a weed by its blossoms rich in scarlet petals, which are black at the base. the title _papaver_ has been derived from pap, a soft food given to young infants, in which it was at one time customary to boil poppy seeds for the purpose of inducing sleep. provincially this plant bears the titles of "cop rose" (from its rose-like flowers, and the button-like form of its cop, or capsule) and "canker rose," from its detriment to wheat crops. the generic term _rhoeas_ comes from _reo_, to fall, because the scarlet petals have so fragile a hold on their receptacles; and the plant has been endowed with the sobriquet, "john silver pin, fair without and foul within." in the eastern counties of england any article of finery brought out only occasionally, and worn with ostentation by a person otherwise a slattern, is called "joan silver pin." after this sense the appellation has been applied to the scarlet poppy. its showy flower is so attractive to the eye, whilst its inner juice is noxious, and stains the hands of those who thoughtlessly crush it with their fingers. "and poppies a sanguine mantle spread, for the blood of the dragon st. margaret shed." robert turner naively says, "the red poppy flower (_papaver erraticum_) resembleth at its bottom the settling [ ] of the 'blood in pleurisie'"; and, he adds, "how excellent is that flower in diseases of the pleurisie with similar surfeits hath been sufficiently experienced." it is further called blindy buff, blind eyes, headwarke, and headache, from the stupefying effects of smelling it. apothecaries make a syrup of a splendid deep colour from its vividly red petals; but this does not exercise any soporific action like that concocted from the white poppy, which is a sort of modified opiate, suitable for infants under certain conditions, when sanctioned by a doctor. otherwise, all sedatives of a narcotic sort are to be strongly condemned for use by mothers, or nurses:-- "but a child that bids the world 'good-night' in downright earnest, and cuts it quite, (a cherub no art can copy), 'tis a perfect picture to see him lie, as if he had supped on dormouse pie, an ancient classical dish, by-the-bye, with a sauce of syrup of poppy." petronius, in the time of nero, a.d. , "delivered an odd receipt for dressing dormouse sausages, and serving them up with poppies and honey, which must have been a very soporiferous dainty, and as good as owl pye to such as want a nap after dinner." the white poppy is specially cultivated in britain for the sake of its seed capsules, which possess attributes similar to opium, but of a weaker strength. these capsules are commonly known as poppyheads, obtained from the druggist for use in domestic fomentations to allay pain. also from the capsules, without their seeds, is made the customary syrup of white poppies, which is so familiar as a sedative for childhood; but it should be always remembered that infants of tender years are highly susceptible to the influence even of this mild form [ ] of opium. the true gum opium, and laudanum, which is its tincture, are derived from eastern poppies (_papaver somniferum_) by incisions made in the capsules at a proper season of the year. the cultivated poppy of the garden will afford english opium in a like manner, but it is seldom used for this purpose. a milky juice exudes when the capsules of these cultivated flowers are cut, or bruised. they are familiar to most children as drumsticks, plucked in the garden after the gaudy petals of the flowers have fallen off. the leaves and stems likewise afford some of the same juice, which, when inspissated, is known as english opium. the seeds of the white poppy yield by expression a bland nutritive oil, which may be substituted for that of olives, or sweet almonds, in cooking, and for similar uses. dried poppy-heads, formerly in constant request for making hot soothing stupes, or for application directly to a part in pain, are now superseded for the most part by the many modern liquid preparations of opium handy for the purpose, to be mixed with hot water, or applied in poultices. for outward use laudanum may be safely added to stupes, hot or cold, a teaspoonful being usually sufficient for the purpose, or perhaps two, if the pain is severe; and powdered opium may be incorporated with one or another ointment for a similar object. if a decoction of poppy capsules is still preferred, it should be made by adding to a quarter-of-a-pound of white poppy heads (free from seeds, and broken up in a mortar) three pints of boiling water; then boil for ten or fifteen minutes, and strain off the decoction, which should measure about two pints. dr. herbert snow, resident physician at the brompton cancer hospital, says ( ) he has found: "after a [ ] long experience, opium exhibits a strong inhibitive influence on the cancer elements, retarding and checking the cell growth, which is a main feature of the disease. even when no surgical operation has been performed, opium is the only drug which markedly checks cancer growth: and the early employment of this medicine will usually add years of comfortable life to the otherwise shortened space of the sufferer's existence." opium gets its name from the greek _apos_, juice. the seeds of the white poppy are known us mawseed, or balewort, and are given as food to singing birds. in old egypt these seeds were mixed with flour and honey, and made into cakes. pliny says: "the rustical peasants of greece glazed the upper crust of their loaves with yolks of eggs, and then bestrewed them with poppy seeds," thus showing that the seeds were then considered free from narcotic properties. and in queen elizabeth's time these seeds were strewn over confectionery, whilst the oil expressed from them was "delightful to be eaten when taken with bread." white poppy capsules, when dried, furnish papaverine and narcotine, with some mucilage, and a little waxy matter. the seeds contained within the capsules yield poppy seed oil, with a fixed oil, and a very small quantity of morphia--about five grains in a pound of white poppy seeds. in some parts of russia the seeds are put into soups. the poppy was cultivated by the greeks before the time of hippocrates. it has long been a symbol of death, because sending persons to sleep. ovid says, concerning the cave of somnus:-- "around whose entry nodding poppies grow, and all cool simples that sweet rest bestow." [ ] the common scarlet poppy was called by the anglo-saxons "chesebolle," "chebole," or "chybolle," from the ripe capsule resembling a round cheese. there is a welsh poppy, with yellow flowers; and a horned poppy, named after glaucus, common on our sea coasts, with sea-green leaves, and large blossoms of golden yellow. glaucus, a fisherman of boeotia, observed that all the fishes which he caught received fresh vigour when laid on the ground, and were immediately able to leap back into the sea. he attributed these effects to some herb growing in the grass, and upon tasting the leaves of the sea poppy he found himself suddenly moved with an intense desire to live in the sea; wherefore he was made a sea-god by oceanus and tethys. borlase says: "that in the scilly islands the root of the sea poppy is so much valued for removing all pains in the breast, stomach, and intestines, as well as so good for disordered lungs, whilst so much better there than in other places, that the apothecaries of cornwall send thither for it; and some persons plant these roots in their gardens in cornwall, and will not part with them under sixpence a root." the scarlet petals of the wild poppy, very abundant in english cornfields, when treated with sulphuric acid make a splendid red dye. with gorgeous tapestry cut from these crimson petals, the clever "drapery bee" (_apis papaveris_) upholsters the walls of her solitary cell. bruised leaves of the wild, or the garden poppy, if applied to a part which has been stung by a bee or a wasp, will give prompt relief. potato. our invaluable potato, which enters so largely into the dietary of all classes, belongs to the nightshade tribe of [ ] dangerous plants, though termed "solanaceous" as a natural order because of the sedative properties which its several genera exercise to lull pain. this potato, the _solanum tuberosum_, is so universally known as a plant that it needs no particular description. it is a native of peru, and was imported in by thomas heriot, mathematician and colonist, being afterwards taken to ireland from virginia by sir walter raleigh, and passing from thence over into lancashire. he knew so little of its use that he tried to eat the fruit, or poisonous berries, of the plant. these of course proved noxious, and he ordered the new comers to be rooted out. the gardener obeyed, and in doing so first learnt the value of their underground wholesome tubers. but not until the middle of the eighteenth century, were they common in this country as an edible vegetable. "during ," says parkinson, "the potato from virginia was roasted under the embers, peeled and sliced: the tubers were put into sack with a little sugar, or were baked with cream, marrow, sugar, spice, etc., in pies, or preserved and candied by the comfit makers." but he most probably refers here to the batatas, or sweet potato, a convolvulus, which was a popular esculent vegetable at that date, of tropical origin, and to which our potato has since been thought to bear a resemblance. this batatas, or sweet potato, had the reputation, like eringo root, of being able to restore decayed vigour, and so falstaff is made by shakespeare to say: "let the sky rain potatoes, hail kissing comfits, and snow eringoes." for a considerable while after their introduction the potato tubers were grown only by men of fortune as a delicacy; and the general cultivation of this vegetable was strongly opposed by the public, [ ] chiefly by the puritans, because no mention of it could be found in the bible. also in france great opposition was offered to the recognised use of potatoes: and it is said that louis the fifteenth, in order to bring the plant into favour, wore a bunch of its flowers in the button hole of his coat on a high festival. later on during the revolution quite a mania prevailed for potatoes. crowds perambulated the streets of paris shouting for "la liberté, et des batatas"; and when louis the sixteenth had been dethroned the gardens of the tuileries were planted with potatoes. cobbett, in this country, exclaimed virulently against the tuber as "hogs' food," and hated it as fiercely as he hated tea. the stalks, leaves, and green berries of the plant share the narcotic and poisonous attributes of the nightshades to which it belongs; and the part which we eat, though often thought to be a root, is really only an underground stem, which has not been acted on by light so as to develop any poisonous tendencies, and in which starch is stored up for the future use of the plant. the stalks, leaves, and unripe fruit yield an active principle apparently very powerful, which has not yet been fully investigated. there are two sorts of tubers, the red and the white. a roasted potato takes two hours to digest; a boiled one three hours and a half. "after the potato," says an old proverb, "cheese." chemically the potato contains citric acid, like that of the lemon, which is admirable against scurvy: also potash, which is equally antiscorbutic, and phosphoric acid, yielding phosphorus in a quantity less only than that afforded by the apple, and by wheat. it is of the first importance that the potash salts should be retained by the potato during cooking: and the [ ] tubers should therefore be steamed with their coats on; else if peeled, and then steamed, they lose respectively seven and five per cent. of potash, and phosphoric acid. if boiled after peeling they lose as much as thirty-three per cent. of potash, and twenty-three per cent. of phosphoric acid. "the roots," says gerard, "were forbidden in burgundy, for that they were persuaded the too frequent use of them causeth the leprosie." nevertheless it is now believed that the potato has had much to do with expelling leprosy from england. the affliction has become confined to countries where the potato is not grown. boiled or steamed potatoes should turn out floury, or mealy, by reason of the starch granules swelling up and filling the cellular tissue, whilst absorbing the albuminous contents of its cells. then the albumen coagulates, and forms irregular fibres between the starch grains. the most active part of the tuber lies just beneath the skin, as may be shown by pouring some tincture of guaiacum over the cut surface of a potato, when a ring of blue forms close to the skin, and is darkest there while extending over the whole cut surface. abroad there is a belief the potato thrives best if planted on maundy thursday. rustic names for it are: taiders, taities, leather coats, leather jackets, lapstones, pinks, no eyes, flukes, blue eyes, red eyes, and murphies; in lancashire potatoes are called spruds, and small potatoes, sprots. the peel or rind of the tuber contains a poisonous substance called "solanin," which is dissipated and rendered inert when the whole potato is boiled, or steamed. stupes of hot potato water are very serviceable in some forms of rheumatism. to make the [ ] decoction for this purpose, boil one pound of potatoes (not peeled, and divided into quarters.) in two pints of water slowly down to one pint; then foment the swollen and painful parts with this as hot as it can be borne. similarly some of the fresh stalks of the plant, and its unripe berries, as well as the unpeeled tubers cut up as described, if infused for some hours in cold water, will make a liquor in which the folded linen of a compress may be loosely rung out, and applied most serviceably under waterproof tissue, or a double layer of dry flannel. the carriage of a small raw potato in the trousers' pocket has been often found preventive of rheumatism in a person predisposed thereto, probably by reason of the sulphur, and the narcotic principles contained in the peel. ladies in former times had their dresses supplied with special bags, or pockets, in which to carry one or more small raw potatoes about their person for avoiding rheumatism. if peeled and pounded in a mortar, uncooked potatoes applied cold make a very soothing cataplasm to parts that have been scalded, or burnt. in derbyshire a hot boiled potato is used against corns; and for frost-bites the mealy flour of baked potatoes, when mixed with sweet oil and applied, is very healing. the skin of the tuber contains corky wood which swells in boiling with the jackets on, and which thus serves to keep in all the juices so that the digestibility of the potato is increased; at the same time water is prevented from entering and spoiling the flavour of the vegetable. the proportion of muscle-forming food (nitrogen) in the potato is very small, and it takes ten and a half pounds of the tubers to equal one pound of butcher's meat in nutritive value. the potato is composed mainly of starch, which [ ] affords animal heat and promotes fatness, the irish think that these tubers foster fertility; they prefer them with the jackets on, and somewhat hard in the middle--"with the bones in." a potato pie is believed to invigorate the sexual functions. new potatoes contain as yet no citric acid, and are hard of digestion, like sour crude apples; their nutriment, as gerard says, "is sadly windy," the starch being immature, and not readily acted on by the saliva during mastication. "the longer i live," said shrewd sidney smith, "the more i am convinced that half the unhappiness in the world proceeds from a vexed stomach, or vicious bile: from small stoppages, or from food pressing in the wrong place. old friendships may be destroyed by toasted cheese; and tough salted meat has led a man not infrequently to suicide." a mature potato yields enough citric acid even for commercial purposes; and there is no better cleaner of silks, cottons, and woollens, than ripe potato juice. but even of ripe potatoes those that break into a watery meal in the boiling are always found to prove greatly diuretic, and to much increase the quantity of urine. by fermentation mature potatoes, through their starch and sugar, yield a wine from which may be distilled a potato spirit, and from it a volatile oil can be extracted, called by the germans, _fuselöl_. this is nauseous, and causes a heavy headache, with indigestion, and biliary disorders together with nervous tremors. chemically it is amylic ether. also when boiled with weak sulphuric acid, the potato starch is changed into glucose, or grape sugar, which by fermentation yields alcohol: and this spirit is often sold under the name of british brandy. a luminosity strong enough to enable a bystander to [ ] read by its light issues from the common potato when in a state of putrefaction. in cumberland, to have "taities and point to dinner," is a figurative expression which implies scanty fare. at a time when the duty on salt made the condiment so dear that it was scarce in a household, the persons at table were fain to point their potatoes at the salt cellar, and thus to cheat their imaginations. carlyle asks in _sartor resartus_ about "an unknown condiment named 'point,' into the meaning of which i have vainly enquired; the victuals _potato and point_ not appearing in any european cookery book whatever." german ladies, at their five o'clock tea, indulge in potato talk (_kartoffel gesprach_) about table dainties, and the methods of cooking them. men likewise, from the four quarters of the globe, in the days of our childhood, were given to hold similar domestic conclaves, when:-- "mr. east made a feast, mr. north laid the cloth, mr. west brought his best, mr. south burnt his mouth eating a cold potato." with pleasant skill of poetic alliteration, sidney smith wrote in ordering how to mix a sallet:-- "two large potatoes passed through kitchen sieve, unwonted softness to a salad give." and sir thomas overbury wittily said about a dolt who took credit for the merits of his ancestors: "like the potato, all that was good about him was underground." primrose. the common primrose (_primula veris_) is the most widely known of our english wild flowers, and appears in the spring as its earliest herald. [ ] it gets its name from the latin _primus_, first, being named in old books and m.s. _pryme rolles_, and in the _grete herball_, primet, as shortened from primprint. in north devon it is styled the butter rose, and in the eastern counties it is named (in common with the cowslip) paigle, peagle, pegyll, and palsy plant. medicinally also it possesses similar curative attributes, though in a lesser degree, to those of the cowslip. both the root and the flowers contain a volatile oil, and "primulin" which is identical with mannite: whilst the acrid principle is "saponin." alfred austin, poet laureate, teaches to "make healing salve with early primroses." pliny speaks of the primrose as almost a panacea: _in aquâ potam omnibus morbis mederi tradunt_. an infusion of the flowers has been always thought excellent against nervous disorders of the hysterical sort. it should be made with from five to ten parts of the petals to one hundred of water. "primrose tea" says gerard, "drunk in the month of may, is famous for curing the phrensie." the whole plant is sedative and antispasmodic, being of service by its preparations to relieve sleeplessness, nervous headache, and muscular rheumatism. the juice if sniffed up into the nostrils will provoke violent sneezing, and will induce a free flow of water from the lining membranes of the nostrils for the mitigation of passive headaches: though this should not be tried by a person of full habit with a determination of blood to the head. a teaspoonful of powdered dry primrose root will act as an emetic. the whole herb is somewhat expectorant. when the petals are collected and dried they become of a greenish colour: whilst fresh they have a honey-like odour, and a sweetish taste. [ ] within the last few years a political significance and popularity have attached themselves to the primrose beyond every other british wild flower. it arouses the patriotism of the large conservative party, and enlists the favour of many others who thoughtlessly follow an attractive fashion, and who love the first fruits of early spring. botanically the primrose has two varieties of floral structure: one "pin-eyed," with a tall pistil, and short stamens; the other "thrum-eyed," showing a rosette of tall stamens, whilst the short pistil must be looked for, like the great panjandrum himself, "with a little round button at the top," half way down the tube. darwin was the first to explain that this diversity of structure ensures cross fertilisation by bees and allied insects. through advanced cultivation at the hands of the horticulturist the primula acquires in some instances a noxious character. for instance, the _primula biconica_, which is often grown in dwelling rooms as a window plant, and commonly sold as such, will provoke an crysipelatous vesicular eruption of a very troublesome and inflamed character on the hands and face of some persons who come in contact with the plant by manipulating it to take cuttings, or in other ways. a knowledge of this fact should suggest the probable usefulness of the said primula, when made into a tincture, and given in small diluted doses thereof, to act curatively for such an eruption if attacking the sufferer from idiopathic causes. the latins named the ligustrum (our privet) primrose. coles says concerning it ( th century): "this herbe is called primrose; it is good to 'potage.'" they also applied the epithet, "prime rose" to a lady. the evening primrose (_oenothera biennis_, or _odorata_) is found in this country on sand banks in the west of england and cornwall; but it is then most probably a [ ] garden scape, and an alien, its native habitat being in canada and the united states of america. we cultivate it freely in our parterres as a brilliant, yellow, showy flower. it belongs to the natural order, _onagraceoe_, so called because the food of wild asses; and was the "vini venator" of theophrastus, b.c. the name signifies having the odour of wine, _oinos_ and _theera_. pliny said: "it is an herbe good as wine to make the heart merrie. it groweth with leaves resembling those of the almond tree, and beareth flowers like unto roses. of such virtue is this herbe that if it be given to drink to the wildest beast that is, it will tame the same and make it gentle." the best variety of this plant is the _oenothera macrocarpa_. the bark of the evening primrose is mucilaginous, and a decoction made therefrom is of service for bathing the skin eruptions of infants and young children. to answer such purpose a decoction should be made from the small twigs, and from the bark of the larger branches, retaining the leaves. this has been found further of use for diarrhoea associated with an irritable stomach, and asthma. the infusion, or the liquid extract, acts as a mild but efficient sedative in nervous indigestion, from twenty to thirty drops of the latter being given for a dose. the ascertained chemical principle of the plant, _oenotherin_, is a compound body. its flowers open in the evening, and last only until the next noon; therefore this plant is called the "evening primrose," or "evening star." another of the primrose tribe, the cyclamen, or sow-bread (_panis porcinus_), is often grown in our gardens, and for ornamenting our rooms as a pot plant. its name means (greek) "a circle," and refers to the reflected corolla, or to the spiral fruit-stalks; and again, [ ] from the tuber being the food of wild swine. gerard said it was reported in his day to grow wild on the welsh mountains, and on the lincolnshire hills: but he failed to find it. nevertheless it is now almost naturalised in some parts of the south, and east of england. as the petals die, the stalks roll up and carry the capsular berries down to the surface of the ground. a medicinal tincture is made (h.) from the fresh root when flowering. the ivy-leaved variety is found in england, with nodding fresh-coloured blossoms, and a brown intensely acrid root. besides starch, gum, and pectin, it yields chemically, "cyclamin," or "arthanatin," with an action like "saponin," whilst the juice is poisonous to fish. when applied externally as a liniment over the bowels, it causes them to be purged. gerard quaintly and suggestively declares "it is not good for women with childe to touch, or take this herbe, or to come neere unto it, or to stride over the same where it groweth: for the natural attractive vertue therein contained is such that, without controversie, they that attempt it in manner above said, shall be delivered before their time; which danger and inconvenience to avoid, i have fastened sticks in the ground about the place in my garden where it groweth, and some other sticks also crosswaies over them, lest any woman should by lamentable experiment find my words to be true by stepping over the same. again, the root hanged about women in their extreme travail with childe, causeth them to be delivered incontinent: and the leaves put into the place hath the like effect." inferentially a tincture of the plant should be good for falling and displacement of the womb. "furthermore, sowbread, being beaten, and made into little flat cakes, is reputed to be a good amorous medicine, to make one in love." [ ] in france, another primula, the wild pimpernel, occurs as a noxious herb, and is therefore named mouron. quince. the quince (_cydonia_) is cultivated sparingly in our orchards for the sake of its highly fragrant, and strong-smelling fruit, which as an adjunct to apples is much esteemed for table uses. it may well be included among remedial herbal simples because of the virtues possessed by the seeds within the fruit. the tree is a native of persia and crete; bearing a pear-shaped fruit, golden yellow when gathered, and with five cells in it, each containing twelve closely packed seeds. these are mucilaginous when unbroken, and afford the taste of bitter almonds. when immersed in water they swell up considerably, and the mucilage will yield salts of lime with albumen. _bandoline_ is the mucilage of quince seeds to which some eau de cologne is added: and this mixture is employed for keeping the hair fixed when dressed by the _coiffeur_. the mucilage of quince seeds is soothing and protective to an irritated or inflamed skin; it may also be given internally for soreness of the lining mucous membranes of the stomach and bowels, as in gastric catarrh, and for cough with a dry sore throat. one dram of the seeds boiled slowly in half-a-pint of fresh water until the liquor becomes thick, makes an excellent mucilage as a basis for gargles and injections; or, one part of the seeds to fifty parts of rosewater, shaken together for half-an-hour. from growing at first in cydon, now candia, the tree got its name _cydonia_: its old english title was melicotone; and in ancient rome it was regarded as a sacred fruit, [ ] being hung upon statues in the houses of the great. now we banish the tree, because of its strong penetrating odour, to a corner of the garden. lord bacon commended "quiddemy," a preserve of quinces, for strengthening the stomach; and old fuller said of this fruit, "being not more pleasant to the palate than restorative to the health, they are accounted a great cordiall." jam made from the quince (_malmelo_) first took the name of marmalade, which has since passed on to other fruit conserves, particularly to that of the seville orange. in france the quince is made into a _compôte_ which is highly praised for increasing the digestive powers of weakly persons. according to plutarch solon made a law that the quince should form the invariable feast of the bridegroom (and some add likewise of the bride) before retiring to the nuptial couch. columella said: "quinces yield not only pleasure but health." the greeks named the quince "chrysomelon," or the golden apple; so it is asserted that the golden fruit of the hesperides were quinces, and that these tempted hercules to attack their guardian dragon. shakespeare makes lady capulet when ordering the wedding feast, "call for dates, and quinces in the pastry." in persia the fruit ripens, and is eaten there as a dessert delicacy which is much prized. if there be but a single quince in a caravan, no one who accompanies it can remain unconscious of its presence. in sussex at one time a popular wine was made of quinces. they are astringent to stay diarrhoea; and a syrup may be concocted from their juice to answer this purpose. for thrush and for excoriations within the mouth and upper throat, one drachm of the seeds should [ ] be boiled in eight fluid ounces of water until it acquires a proper demulcent mucilaginous consistence. "simon sethi writeth," says gerard: "that the woman with child that eateth many quinces during the time of her breeding, shall bring forth wise children, and of good understanding." gerard says again: "the marmalad, or cotiniat made of quinces and sugar is good and profitable to strengthen the stomach that it may retain and keep the meat therein until it be perfectly digested. it also stayeth all kinds of fluxes both of the belly, and of other parts, and also of blood. which cotiniat is made in this manner. take four quinces, pare them, cut them in pieces, and cast away the core: then put into every pound of quinces a pound of sugar, and to every pound of sugar a pint of water. these must be boiled together over a still fire till they be very soft: next let it be strained, or rather rubbed through a strainer, or a hairy sieve, which is better. and then set it over the fire to boil again until it be stiff: and so box it up: and as it cooleth, put thereto a little rose water, and a few grains of musk mingled together, which will give a goodly taste to the cotiniat. this is the way to make marmalad." "the seed of quinces tempered with water doth make a mucilage, or a thing like jelly which, being held in the mouth is marvellous good to take away the roughness of the tongue in hot burning fevers." lady lisle sent some cotiniat of quinces to henry the eighth by her daughter katharine. they were reputed a sexual stimulant. after being boiled and preserved in syrup, quinces give a well known pleasant flavour to apple pie. as the fruit is free from acid, or almost so; its marmalade may be eaten by the goutily disposed with more impunity than that made with the seville orange. an after taste suggestive of [ ] garlic is left on the palate by masticating quince marmalade. in the modern treatment of chronic dysentery the value of certain kinds of fresh fruit has come to be medically recognised. of these may be specified strawberries, grapes, fresh figs, and tomatoes, all of which are seed fruits as distinguished from stone fruit. it is essential that they shall be absolutely sound, and in good condition. dr. saumaurez lacy, of guernsey, has successfully practised this treatment for many years, and it has been recently employed by others for chronic dysentery, and diarrhoea, with most happy results. radish. the common garden radish (_raphanus sativus_) is a cruciferous plant, and a cultivated variety of the horse radish. it came originally from china, but has been grown allover europe from time immemorial. radishes were celebrated by dioscorides and pliny as above all roots whatsoever, insomuch, that in the delphic temple there was a radish of solid gold, _raphanus ex auro dicatus_: and moschinus wrote a whole volume in their praise; but hippocrates condemned them as _vitiosas, innatantes, acoegre concoctiles._ among the oblations offered to apollo in his temple at delphi, turnips were dedicated in lead, beet in silver, and radishes in wrought gold. the wild radish is _raphanus raphanistrum_. the garden radish was not grown in england before . later on john evelyn wrote in his _acetaria_: "and indeed (besides that they decay the teeth) experience tells us that, as the prince of physicians writes, it is hard of digestion, inimicous to the stomach, causing nauseous eructations, and sometimes vomiting, though [ ] otherwise diuretic, and thought to repel the vapours of wine when the wits were at their genial club." "the radish," says gerard, "provoketh urine, and dissolveth cluttered sand." the roots, which are the edible part, consist of a watery fibrous pulp, which is comparatively bland, and of an external skin furnished with a pungent volatile aromatic oil which acts as a condiment to the phlegmatic pulp. "radishes are eaten with salt alone as carrying their pepper in them." the oil contained in the roots, and likewise in the seeds, is sulphuretted, and disagrees with persons of weak digestion. a young radish, which is quickly grown and tender, will suit most stomachs, especially if some of the leaves are masticated together with the root; but a radish which is tough, strong, and hollow, "_fait penser à l'ile d'elbe: il revient_." the pulp is chemically composed chiefly of nitrogenous substance, being fibrous and tough unless when the roots are young and quickly grown. on this account they should not be eaten when at all old and hard by persons of slow digestion, because apt to lodge in the intestines, and to become entangled in their caecal pouch, or in its appendix. but boiled radishes are almost equal to asparagus when served at table, provided they have been cooked long enough to become tender, that is, for almost an hour. the syrup of radishes is excellent for hoarseness, bronchial difficulty of breathing, whooping cough, and other complaints of the chest. for the cure of corns, if after the feet have been bathed, and the corns cut, a drop or two of juice be squeezed over the corn from the fresh pulp of a radish on several consecutive days, this will wither and [ ] disappear. also radish roots sliced when fresh, and applied to a carbuncle will promote its healing. an old saxon remedy against a woman's chatter was to "taste at night a root of radish when fasting, and the chatter will not be able to harm him." in some places the radish is called rabone. from the fresh plant, choosing a large spanish radish, with a turnip-shaped root, and a black outer skin, and collected in the autumn, a medicinal tincture (h.) is made with spirit of wine. this tincture has proved beneficial in cases of bilious diarrhoea, with eructations, and mental depression, when a chronic cough is also liable to be present. four or five drops should be given with a tablespoonful of cold water, twice or three times in the day. the black radish is found useful against whooping cough, and is employed for this purpose in germany, by cutting off the top, and then making a hole in the root. this is filled with treacle, or honey, and allowed to stand for a day or two; then a teaspoonful of the medicinal liquid is given two or three times in the day. roman physicians advised that radishes should be eaten raw, with bread and salt in the morning before any other food. and our poet thomson describes as an evening repast:-- "a roman meal such as the mistress of the world once found delicious, when her patriots of high note, perhaps by moonlight at their humble doors, under an ancient oak's domestic shade, enjoy'd spare feast, a radish and an egg." ragwort. the ragwort (_senecio jacoboea_) is a very common plant in our meadows, and moist places, closely allied to the [ ] groundsel, and well known by its daisy-like flowers, but of a golden yellow colour, with rays in a circle surrounding the central receptacle, and with a strong smell of honey. this plant goes popularly by the name of st. james's wort, or canker wort, or (near liverpool) fleawort, and in yorkshire, seggrum; also jacoby and yellow top. the term ragwort, or ragweed, is a corruption of ragewort, as expressing its supposed stimulating effects on the sexual organs. for the same reason the _pommes d'amour_ (love apples, or tomatoes) are sometimes caned rage apples. the ragwort was formerly thought to cure the staggers in horses, and was hence named stagger wort, or because, says dr. prior, it was applied to heal freshly cut young bulls, known as seggs, or staggs. so also it was called st. james's wort, either because that great warrior and saint was the patron of horses, or because it blossoms on his day, july th: sometimes also the plant has been styled stammer wort. furthermore it possesses a distinct reputation for the cure of cancer, and is known as cankerwort, being applied when bruised, either by itself, or combined with goosegrass. probably the lime which the whole plant contains in a highly elaborated state of subdivision has fairly credited it with anti-cancerous powers. for just such a reason sir spencer wens commended powdered egg shells and powdered oyster shells as efficacious in curing certain cases under his immediate observation of long-standing cancer, when steadily given for some considerable time. a poultice made of the fresh leaves, and applied externally two or three times in succession "will cure, if ever so violent, the old ache in the hucklebone known as sciatica." chemically the active principle of the [ ] ragwort is "senecin," a dark resinous substance, of which two grains may be given twice or three times in the day. also the tincture, made with one part of the plant to ten parts of spirit of wine (tenuior), may be taken in doses of from five to fifteen drops, with a spoonful of water three times in the day. either form of medicine will correct monthly irregularities of women where the period is delayed, or difficult, or arrested by cold. it must be given steadily three times a day for ten days or a fortnight before the period becomes re-established. in suitable cases the senecio not only anticipates the period, but also increases the quantity: and where the monthly time has never been established the ragwort is generally found useful. this herb--like its congener, the common groundsel--has lancinated, juicy leaves, which possess a bitter saline taste, and yield earthy potash salts abundantly. each plant is named "senecio" because of the grey woolly pappus of its seeds, which resemble the silvered hair of old age. in ireland the ragwort is dedicated to the fairies, and is known as the fairies' horse, on the golden blossoms of which the good little people are thought to gallop about at midnight. raspberry. the raspberry (_rubus idoeus_) occurs wild plentifully in the woods of scotland, where children gather the fruit early in summer. it is also found growing freely in some parts of england--as in the sussex woods--and bearing berries of as good a quality as that of the cultivated raspberry, though not so large in size. another name for the fruit is _framboise_, which is [ ] a french corruption of the dutch word _brambezie_, or brambleberry. again, the respis, or raspberry, was at one time commonly known in this country as hindberry, or the gentler berry, as distinguished from one of a harsher and coarser sort, the hartberry. "respberry" signifies in the eastern counties of england a shoot, or sucker, this name being probably applied because the fruit grows on the young shoots of the previous year. raspberry fruit is fragrant and cooling, but sugar improves its flavour. like the strawberry, if eaten without sugar and cream, it does not undergo any acetous fermentation in the stomach, even with gouty or strumous persons. when combined with vinegar and sugar it makes a liqueur which, if diluted with water, is most useful in febrile disorders, and which is all excellent addition to sea stores as preventive of scurvy. the latins named this shrub "the bramble of ida," because it grew in abundance on that classic mountain where the shepherd paris adjudged to venus the prize for beauty--a golden apple--on which was divinely inscribed the words, _detur pulchriori_--"let this be awarded to the fairest of womankind." the fresh leaves of the raspberry are the favourite food of kids. there are red, white, yellow, and purple varieties of this fruit. heat develops the richness of its flavour; and raspberry jam is the prince of preserves. again, a wine can be brewed from the fermented juice, which is excellent against scurvy because of its salts of potash--the citrate and malate. raspberry vinegar, made by pouring vinegar repeatedly over successive quantities of the fresh fruit, is a capital remedy for sore throat from cold, or of the [ ] relaxed kind; and when mixed with water it furnishes a most refreshing drink in fevers. but the berries should be used immediately after being gathered, as they quickly spoil, and their fine flavour is very evanescent. the vinegar can be extemporised by diluting raspberry jelly with hot vinegar, or by mixing syrup of the fruit with vinegar. in germany a conserve of raspberries which has astringent effects is concocted with two parts of sugar to one of juice expressed from the fruit. besides containing citric and malic acids, the raspberry affords a volatile oil of aromatic flavour, with crystallisable sugar, pectin, colouring matter, mucus, some mineral salts, and water. gerard says: "the fruit is good to be given to them that have weake, and queasie stomackes." a playful example of the declension of a latin substantive is given thus:-- _musa, musoe_, the gods were at tea: _musoe, musam_, eating raspberry jam: _musa, musah_, made by cupid's mamma. rhubarb (garden). _see_ dock, _page_ . rice. rice, or ryse, the grain of _oryza sativa_, a native cereal of india, is considered here scarcely as a herbal simple, but rather as a common article of some medicinal resource in the store cupboard of every english house-hold, and therefore always at band as a vegetable remedy. among the arabs rice is considered a sacred food: [ ] and their tradition runs that it first sprang from a drop of mahomet's perspiration in paradise. being composed almost exclusively of starch, and poorer in nitrogen, as well as in phosphoric acid, than other cereals, it is less laxative, and is of value as a demulcent to palliate irritative diarrhoea, and to allay intestinal distress. a mucilage of rice made by boiling the well-washed grain for some time in water, and straining, contains starch and phosphate of lime in solution, and is therefore a serviceable emollient. but when needed for food the grain should be steamed, because in boiling it loses the little nitrogen, and the greater part of the lime phosphate which it has scantily contained. rice bread and rice cakes, simply made, are very light and easy of digestion. the gluten confers the property of rising on dough or paste made of rice flour. but as an article of sustenance rice is not well suited for persons of fermentative tendencies during the digestion of their food, because its starch is liable to undergo this chemical change in the stomach. dr. tytler reported in the _lancet_ ( ), cases resembling malignant cholera from what he termed the _morbus oryzoeus_, as provoked by the free and continued use of rice as food. and boutins, in , published an account of the diseases common to the east indies, in which he stated that when rice is eaten more or less exclusively, the vision becomes impaired. but neither of these allegations seems to have been afterwards authoritatively confirmed. chemically, rice consists of starch, fat, fibrin, mineral matter such as phosphate of lime, cellulose, and water. a spirituous liquor is made in china from the grain of rice, and bears the name "arrack." [ ] rice cannot be properly substituted in place of succulent green vegetables dietetically for any length of time, or it would induce scurvy. the indians take stewed rice to cure dysentery, and a decoction of the grain for the purpose of subduing inflammatory disorders. paddy, or paddee, is rice from which the husk has not been removed before crushing. it has been said by some that the cultivation of rice lowers vitality, and shortens life. in java a special rice-pudding is made by first putting some raw rice in a conical earthen pot wide at the top, and perforated in its body with holes. this is placed inside another earthen pot of a similar shape but not perforated, and containing boiling water. the swollen rice soon stops up the holes of the inner pot, and the rice within becomes of a firm consistence, like pudding, and is eaten with butter, sugar, and spices. an ordinary rice-pudding is much improved by adding some rosewater to it before it is baked. this grain has been long considered of a pectoral nature, and useful for persons troubled with lung disease, and spitting of blood, as in pulmonary consumption. the custom of throwing a shower of rice after and over a newly married couple is very old, though wheat was at first the chosen grain as an augury of plenty. the bride wore a garland of ears of corn in the time of henry the eighth. roses. certain curative properties are possessed both by the briar, or wild dog rose of our country hedges, and by the cultivated varieties of this queen of flowers in our roseries. the word rose means red, from the greek [ ] _rodon_, connected also with _rota_, a wheel, which resembles the outline of a rose. the name briar is from the latin _bruarium_, the waste land on which it grows. the first rose of a dark red colour, is held to have sprung from the blood of adonis. the fruit of the wild rose, which is so familiar to every admirer of our hedgerows in the summer, and which is the common progenitor of all roses, is named hips. "heps maketh," says gerard, "most pleasant meats or banquetting dishes, as tarts and such like, the concoction whereof i commit to the cunning cook, and teeth to eat them in the rich man's mouth." hips, derived from the old saxon, _hiupa, jupe_, signifies the briar rather than its fruit. they are called in some parts, "choops," or "hoops." the woolly down which surrounds the seeds within the hips serves admirably for dispelling round worms, on which it acts mechanically without irritating the mucous membrane which lines the bowels. when fully ripe and softened by frost, the hips, after removal of their hard seeds, and when plenty of sugar is added, make a very nice confection, which the swiss and germans eat at dessert, and which forms an agreeable substitute for tomato sauce. apothecaries employ this conserve in the preparing of electuaries, and as a basis for pills. they also officinally use the petals of the cabbage rose (_centifolia_) for making rose water, and the petals of the red rose (_gallica_) for a cooling infusion, the brilliant colour of which is much improved by adding some diluted sulphuric acid; and of these petals they further direct a syrup to be concocted. next in development to the dog rose, or hound's rose, comes the sweetbriar (eglantine), with a delicate perfume contained under its glandular leaves. [ ] "_fragrantia ejus olei omnia alia odoramenta superest_." this (_rosa rubiginosa_) grows chiefly on chalk as a bushy shrub. its poetic title, eglantine, is a corruption of the latin _aculeius_, prickly. a legend tells that christ's crown of thorns was made from the rose-briar, about which it has been beautifully said:-- "men sow the thorns on jesus' brow, but angels saw the roses." pliny tells a remarkable story of a soldier of the praetorian guard, who was cured of hydrophobia, against all hope, by taking an extract of the root of the _kunoroddon_, dog rose, in obedience to the prayer of his mother, to whom the remedy was revealed in a dream; and he says further, that it likewise restored whoever tried it afterwards. hence came the title _canina_. "_parceque elle a longtemps été en vogue pour guerir de la rage_." but the term, dog rose, is generally thought to merely signify a flower of lower quality than the nobler roses of garden culture. the five graceful fringed leaflets which form the special beauty of the eglantine flower and bud, have given rise to the following latin enigma (translated):-- "of us five brothers at the same time born, two from our birthday always beards have worn: on other two none ever have appeared, while our fifth brother wears but half a beard." from roses the romans prepared wine and confections, also subtle scents, sweet-smelling oil, and medicines. the petals of the crimson french rose, which is grown freely in our gardens, have been esteemed of signal efficacy in consumption of the lungs [ ] since the time of avicenna, a.d. , who states that he cured many patients by prescribing as much of the conserve as they could manage to swallow daily. it was combined with milk, or with some other light nutriment; and generally from thirty to forty pounds of this medicine had to be consumed before the cure was complete. julius caesar hid his baldness at the age of thirty with roman roses. "take," says an old ms. recipe of lady somerset's, "red rose buds, and clyp of the tops, and put them in a mortar with ye waight of double refined sugar; beat them very small together, then put it up; must rest three full months, stirring onces a day. this is good against the falling sickness." it is remarkable that while the blossoms of the rose order present various shades of yellow, white, and red, blue is altogether foreign to them, and unknown among them. as the thistle is symbolical of scotland, the leek of wales, and the shamrock of ireland: so the sweet, pure, simple, honest rose of our woods is the apt-chosen emblem of saint george, and the frank, bonny, blushing badge of merrie england. the petals of the cabbage rose (_centifolia_), which are closely folded over each other like the leaves of a cabbage, have a slight laxative action, and are used for making rose-water by distillation, whether when fresh, or after being preserved by admixture with common salt. this perfumed water has long enjoyed a reputation for the cure of inflamed eyes, more commonly when combined with zinc, or with sugar of lead. hahnemann quotes the same established practice as a tacit avowal that there exists in the leaves of the rose some healing power for certain diseased conditions of [ ] the eyes, which virtue is really founded on the homoeopathic property possessed by the rose, of exciting a species of ophthalmia in healthy persons; as was observed by echtius, ledelius, and rau. it is recorded also in his _organon of medicine_, that persons are sometimes found to faint at the smell of roses (or, as pope puts it, to "die of a rose in aromatic pain"); whereas the princess maria, cured her brother, the emperor alexius, who suffered from faintings, by sprinkling him with rose-water, in the presence of his aunt eudoxia. the wealthy greeks and romans strewed roses on the tombs of departed friends, whilst poorer persona could only afford a tablet at the grave bearing the prayer: "sparge, precor, rosas super mea busta, viator." "scatter roses, i beseech you, over my ashes, o pitiful passer-by." but nowadays many persons have an aversion to throwing a rose into a grave, or even letting one fall in. roses and reticence of speech have been linked together since the time of harpocrates, whom cupid bribed to silence by the gift of a golden rose-bud; and therefore it became customary at roman feasts to suspend over the table a flower of this kind as a hint that the convivial sayings which were then interchanged wore not to be talked of outside. what was spoken "sub vino" was not to be published "sub divo": "est rosa flos veneris, cujus quo facta laterent harpocrati, matris dona, dicavit amor: inde rosam mensis hospes suspendid amicis, conviva ut sub eâ dicta tacenda sciat." [ ] for the same reason the rose is found sculptured on the ceilings of banqueting rooms; and in it began to be placed over confessionals. thus it has come about that the rose is held to be the symbol of secrecy, as well as the flower of love, and the emblem of beauty: so that the significant phrase "sub rosa,"--under the rose,-- conveys a recognised meaning, understood, and respected by everyone. the bed of roses is not altogether a poetic fiction. in old days the sybarites slept upon mattresses which were stuffed with rose petals: and the like are now made for persons of rank on the nile. a memorial brass over the tomb of abbot kirton, in westminster abbey, bears testimony to the high value he attached during life to roses curatively:-- "sis, rosa, flos florum, morbis medicina meoium." many country persons believe, that if roses and violets are plentiful in the autumn, some epidemic may be expected presently. but this conclusion must be founded like that which says, "a green winter makes a fat churchyard," on the fact that humid warmth continued on late in the year tends to engender putrid ferments, and to weaken the bodily vigour. attar of roses is a costly product, because consisting of the comparatively few oil globules found floating on the surface of a considerable volume of rose water thrice distilled. it takes five hundredweight of rose petals to produce one drachm by weight of the finest attar, which is preserved in small bottles made of rock crystal. the scent of the minutest particle of the genuine essence is very powerful and enduring:-- "you may break, you may ruin, the vase if you will, but the scent of the roses will hang round it still." the inscription, _rosamundi, non rosa munda,_ was graven on the tomb of fair rosamund, the inamorata of henry the seventh:-- "hic jacet in tombâ rosa mundi, non rosa munda; non redolet, sed olet quae redolere solet." "here rose the graced, not rose the chaste, reposes; the smell that rises is no smell of roses." in sussex, the peculiar excrescence which is often found on the briar, as caused by the puncture of an insect, and which is known as the canker, or "robin redbreast's cushion," is frequently worn round the neck as a protective amulet against whooping cough. this was called in the old pharmacopeias "bedeguar," and was famous for its astringent properties. hans andersen names it the "rose king's beard." the rosary was introduced by st. dominick to commemorate his having been shown a chaplet of roses by the blessed virgin. it consisted formerly of a string of beads made of rose leaves tightly pressed into round moulds and strung together, when real roses could not be had. the use of a chaplet of beads for recording the number of prayers recited is of eastern origin from the time of the egyptian anchorites. the rock rose (a _cistus_), grows commonly in our hilly pastures on a soil of chalk, or gravel, bearing clusters of large, bright, yellow flowers, from a small branching shrub. these flowers expand only in the sunshine, and have stamens which, if lightly touched, spread out, and lie down on the petals. the plant proves medicinally useful, particularly if grown in a soil containing magnesia. a tincture is prepared (h.) from the whole plant, english or canadian, which is useful for curing shingles, on the principle of its producing, when taken by healthy provers in doses of various [ ] potencies, a cutaneous outbreak on the trunk of the body closely resembling the characteristic symptoms of shingles, whilst attended with nervous distress, and with much burning of the affected skin. the plant has likewise a popular reputation for healing scrofula, and its tincture is beneficial for reducing enlarged glands, as of the neck and throat; also for strumous swelling of the knee joint, as well as of other joints. it is a "helianthemum" of the sunflower tribe. the canadian rock rose is called frostwort and frostweed, because crystals of ice shoot from the cracked bark below the stem during freezing weather in the autumn. a decoction of our plant has proved useful in prurigo (itching), and as a gargle for the sore throat of scarlet fever. for shingles, from five to ten drops of the tincture, third decimal strength, should be given with a spoonful of water three times a day. rosemary. the rosemary is a well-known, sweet-scented shrub, cultivated in our gardens, and herb beds on account of its fragrancy and its aromatic virtues. it came originally from the south of europe and the levant, and was introduced into england before the norman conquest. the shrub (_rosmarinus_) takes its compound name from _ros_, dew, _marinus_, belonging to the sea; in allusion to the grey, glistening appearance of the plant, and its natural locality, as well as its odour, like that of the sea. it is ever green, and bears small, pale, blue flowers. rosemary was thought by the ancients to refresh the memory and comfort the brain. being a cordial herb it was often mentioned in the lays, or amorous ballads, of the troubadours; and was called "coronaria" [ ] because women were accustomed to make crowns and garlands thereof. "what flower is that which regal honour craves? adjoin the virgin: and 'tis strewn o'er graves." in some parts of england rosemary is put with the corpse into the coffin, and sprigs of it are distributed among the mourners at a funeral, to be thrown into the grave, gay alludes to this practice when describing the burial of a country lass who had met with an untimely death:-- "to show their love, the neighbours far and near followed, with wistful looks, the damsel's bier; sprigged rosemary the lads and lasses bore, while dismally the parson walked before; upon her grave the rosemary they threw, the daisy, butter flower, and endive blue," in _romeo and juliet_, father lawrence says:-- "dry up your tears, and stick your rosemary on this fair corse." the herb has a pleasant scent and a bitter, pungent taste, whilst much of its volatile, active principle resides in the calices of the flowers; therefore, in storing or using the plant these parts must be retained. it yields its virtues partially to water, and entirely to rectified spirit of wine. in early times rosemary was grown largely in kitchen gardens, and it came to signify the strong influence of the matron who dwelt there:-- "where rosemary flourishes the woman rules," the leaves and tops afford an essential volatile oil, but not so much as the flowers. a spirit made from this essential oil with spirit of wine will help to renovate the vitality of paralyzed limbs, if rubbed in with brisk friction. the volatile oil [ ] includes a special camphor similar to that possessed by the myrtle. the plant also contains some tannin, with a resin and a bitter principle. by old writers it was said to increase the flow of milk. the oil is used officinally for making a spirit of rosemary, and is added to the compound tincture of lavender, as well as to soap liniment. by common consent it is agreed that the volatile oil (or the spirit) when mixed in washes will specially stimulate growth of the hair. the famous hungary water, first concocted for a queen of hungary who, by its continual use, became effectually cured of paralysis, was prepared by putting a pound and a half of the fresh tops of rosemary, when in full flower, into a gallon of proof spirit, which had to stand for four days, and was then distilled. hungary water (_l'eau de la reine d'hongrie_) was formerly very famous for gout in the hands and feet. hoyes says, the formula for composing this water, written by queen elizabeth's own hand in golden characters, is still preserved in the imperial library at vienna. an ounce of the dried leaves and flowers treated with a pint of boiling water, and allowed to stand until cold, makes one of the best hair washes known. it has the singular power of preventing the hair from uncurling when exposed to a damp atmosphere. the herb is used in the preparation of _eau de cologne_. rosemary wine, taken in small quantities, acts as a quieting cordial to a heart of which the action is excitable or palpitating, and it relieves ally accompanying dropsy by stimulating the kidneys. this wine may be made by chopping up sprigs of rosemary, and pouring on them some sound white wine, which after two or [ ] three days, may be strained off and used. by stimulating the nervous system it proves useful against the headaches of weak circulation and of languid health. "if a garlande of the tree be put around the heade it is a remedy for the stuffing of the head that cometh from coldness." the green-leaved variety of rosemary is the sort to be used medicinally. there are also silver and gold-leaved diversities. sprigs of the herb were formerly stuck into beef whilst roasting as an excellent relish. a writer of tells of "rosemary-preserve to dress your beef." the toilet of the ancients was never considered complete without an infusion, or spirit of rosemary; and in olden times rosemary was entwined in the wreath worn by the bride at the altar, being first dipped in scented water. anne of cleves, one of henry the eighth's wives, wore such a wreath at her wedding; and when people could afford it, the rosemary branch presented to each guest was richly gilded. the custom which prevailed in olden times of carrying a sprig of rosemary in the hand at a funeral, took its rise from the notion of an alexipharmick or preservative powder in this herb against pestilential disorders; and hence it was thought that the smelling thereof was a powerful defence against any morbid effluvia from the corpse. for the same reason it was usual to burn rosemary in the chambers of the sick, just as was formerly done with frankincense, which gave the greeks occasion to call the rosemary _libanotis_. in the french language of flowers this herb represents the power of rekindling lost energy. "the flowers of rosemary," says an old author, "made up into plates (lozenges), with sugar, [ ] and eaten, comfort the heart, and make it merry, quicken the spirits, and make them more lively." "there's rosemary for you--that's for remembrance! pray you, love, remember!" says ophelia in _hamlet_. the spirit of rosemary is kept by all druggists, and may be safely taken in doses of from twenty to thirty drops with a spoonful or two of water. rosemary tea will soon relieve hysterical depression. some persons drink it as a restorative at breakfast. it will help to regulate the monthly flow of women. an infusion of the herb mixed with poplar bark, and used every night, will make the hair soft, glossy, and strong. in northern ireland is found the wild rosemary, or marsh tea (_ledum palustre_), which has admirable curative uses, and from which, therefore, though it is not a common plant in england, a medicinal tincture (h.) is made with spirit of wine. the herb belongs to the rock rose tribe, and contains citric acid, leditannic acid, resin, wax, and a volatile principle called "ericinol." this plant is of singular use as a remedy for chilblains, as well as to subdue the painful effects of a sting from a wasp or bee; also to relieve gouty pains, which attack severely, but do not cause swelling of the part, especially as regards the fingers and toes. four or five drops of the tincture should be taken for a dose with a tablespoonful of cold water, three or four times in the day; and linen rags soaked in a lotion made with a teaspoonful of the tincture added to half a tumblerful of cold water, should be kept applied over the affected part. it equally relieves whitlows; and will heal punctured wounds, if arnica, or the marigold, or st. john's wort is not indicated, or of use. when tested by provers in large doses, it has caused a widespread eruption of [ ] eczema, with itching and tingling of the whole skin, extending into the mouth and air passages, and occasioning a violent spasmodic cough. hence, one may fairly assume (and this has been found to hold good), that a gouty, spasmodic cough of the bronchial tubes, attended with gouty eczema, and with pains in the smaller joints, will be generally cured by tincture or infusion of the wild rosemary in small doses of a diluted strength, given several times a day, the diet at the same time being properly regulated. formerly this herb was used in germany for making beer heady; but it is now forbidden by law. rue. the wild rue is found on the hills of lancashire and yorkshire, being more vehement in smell and in operation than the garden rue. this latter, _ruta graveolens,_ (powerfully redolent), the common cultivated rue of our kitchen gardens, is a shrub with a pungent aromatic odour, and a bitter, hot, penetrating taste, having leaves of a bluish-green colour, and remaining verdant all the year round. it is first mentioned as cultivated in england by turner, in his _herbal_, , and has since become one of the best known and most widely grown simples for medicinal and homely uses. the name _ruta_ is from the greek _reuo_, to set free, because this herb is so efficacious in various diseases. the greeks regarded rue as an anti-magical herb, since it served to remedy the nervous indigestion and flatulence from which they suffered when eating before strangers: which infirmity they attributed to witchcraft. this herb was further termed of old "serving men's joy," because of the multiplicity of common ailments which it was warranted to cure. it constituted a chief ingredient of the famous antidote of mithridates to poisons, the formula of which [ ] was found by pompey in the satchel of the conquered king. the leaves are so acrid, that if they be much handled they inflame the skin; and the wild plant possesses this acridity still more strongly. water serves to extract the virtues of the cultivated shrub better than spirit of wine is able to do. the juice of rue is of great efficacy in some forms of epilepsy, operating for the most part insensibly, though sometimes causing vomiting or purging. piperno, a neapolitan physician, in , commended rue as a specific against epilepsy and vertigo. for the former malady at one time some of this herb was suspended round the neck of the sufferer, whilst "forsaking the devil with all his works, and invoking the lord jesus." goat's rue, _galega_, is likewise of service in epilepsy and convulsions. if a leaf or two of rue be chewed, a refreshing aromatic flavour will pervade the mouth, and any nervous headache, giddiness, hysterical spasm, or palpitation, will be quickly relieved. two drachms of powdered rue, if taken every day regularly as a dose for a long while together, will often do wonders. it was much used by the ancients, and hippocrates commended it. the herb is strongly stimulating and anti-spasmodic; its most important constituent being the volatile oil, which contains caprinic, pelargonic, caprylic, and oenanthylic acids. the oxygenated portion is caprinic aldehyde. in too full doses the oil causes aching of the loins, frequent urination, dulness and weight of mind, flushes of heat, unsteadiness of gait, and increased frequency of the pulse, but with diminished force. similar symptoms are produced during an attack of the modern epidemical influenza; as like-wise by oil of wormwood, and some other essential oils. [ ] externally, rue is an active irritant to the skin, the bruised leaves blistering the hands, and causing a pustular eruption. gerard says, "the wild rue venometh the hands that touch it, and will also infect the face; therefore it is not to be admitted to meat, or medicine." it stimulates the monthly function in women, but must be used with caution. the decoction and infusion are to be made from the fresh plant, or (when this plant cannot be got), the oil may be given in a dose of from one to five drops. externally, compresses saturated with a strong decoction of the plant when applied to the chest, have been used beneficially for chronic bronchitis. rue is best adapted to those of phlegmatic habit, and of languid constitutional energies. it is often employed in the form of tea. the _schola salernitana_ says about this plant:-- "ruta viris minuit venerem, mulieribus addit ruta facit castum, dat lumen, et ingerit astum coctaque ruta facit de pulicibus loca tuta." "rue maketh chaste: and eke preserveth sight; infuseth wit, and putteth fleas to flight." the leaves promote the menses, being given in doses of from fifteen to twenty grains. "pliny," says john evelyn, "reports rue to be of such effect for the preservation of sight that the painters of his time used to devour a great quantity of it; and the herb is still eaten by the italians frequently mingled amongst their salads." with respect to its use in epilepsy, julius caesar baricellus said: "i gave to my own children two scruples of the juice of rue, and a small matter of gold; and, by the blessing of god, they were freed from their fits." the essential oil of rue may be used for the same purpose, and in like manner. [ ] formerly this plant was thought to bestow second sight; and so sacred a regard was at one time felt for it in our islands, that the missionaries sprinkled their holy water from brushes made of the rue; for which cause it was named "herb of grace." gerard tells us: "the garden rue, which is better than the wild rue for physic's use, grows most profitably (as dioscorides said) under a fig tree." country people boil its leaves with treacle, thus making a conserve of them. these leaves are curative of croup in poultry. in the early part of the present century it was customary for judges, sitting at assize, to have sprigs of rue placed on the bench of the dock, as defensive against the pestilential infection brought into court from gaol by the prisoners. the herb was supposed to afford powerful protection from contagion. at the present time the medicinal tincture (h.) is used for the treatment of rheumatism when developed in the membranes which invest the bones. if bruised and applied, the leaves will ease the severe pain of sciatica. the expressed juice taken in small quantities is a noted remedy for nervous nightmare. a quaint old rhyme says of the plant:-- "nobilis est ruta quia lumina reddit acuta." "noble is rue! it makes the sight of eyes both sharp and clear; with help of rue, oh! blear-eyed man i thou shalt see far and near." this is essentially the case when the vision has become dim through over exertion of the eyes. it was with "euphrasy and rue" the visual nerve of adam was purged by milton's angel. as a preserver of chastity ophelia was made by shakespeare to give rue to hamlet's mother, the queen of denmark. [ ] rushes. the true rushes (_juncaceoe_) include the soft rush (_effusus_); the hard rush (_glaucus_); and the common rush (_conglomeratus_). the bulrush (pool rush) is a sedge; the club rush is a typha; and the flowering rush, a butomus. "rish" was the old method of spelling the name. a medicinal tincture is made (h.) from the fresh root of the _juncus effusus_. it will be found helpful against spinal irritability, with some crampy tightness felt in the arms and legs, together with headache and flatulent indigestion. four or five drops should be given for a dose, with a spoonful of water, three or four times in the day. this, the soft rush, is commonly used for tying the bines of hops to the poles; and, as these bines grow larger in size, the rushes wither, setting the bines free in a timely fashion. to find a green-topped seave, or rush, and a four-leaved clover, is, in rural estimation, equally lucky. the generic title, _juncus_, has been applied because rushes are _in conjunction_ when planted together for making cordage. the common rush is found by roadsides in damp pastures, and is readily known by its long, slender, round, naked stem, containing pith, and showing about the middle of july a dense globular bead of brown flowers. rushes of this sort were employed by our remote ancestors for strewing, when fresh and green, about the floor of the hall after discontinuing its big fire at eastertide. shakespeare says in _romeo and juliet:_-- "wantons, light of heart, tickle the senseless rushes with their heels." [ ] in obedience to a bequest ( ); rushes are still strewn about the pavement of redcliff church at bristol every whit-sunday. the common phrase, "not worth a rush," took its origin from this general practice. distinguished guests were honoured in mediaeval times with clean fresh rushes; but those of inferior rank had either the rushes left by their superiors, or none at all. the sweet-scented "flag," or rush (_acorus calamus_), was always used by preference where it could be procured. it is a native of this country, growing on watery banks, and very plentiful in the river's of norfolk, from whence the london market is supplied. the roots have a warm, bitter taste, and the essential oil is highly aromatic, this being used for preparing aromatic vinegar. in norfolk the powdered dry rhizome is given for ague. with sugar it makes an agreeable cordial conserve. (see _flag (sweet)_, _page_ ). for preserving the aromatic qualities within the dried rhizome; or root, it should be kept in stock unpeeled. this contains "oleum calami," and the bitter principle "acorin." some of the root may be habitually chewed for the relief of chronic indigestion. the odorous delights of a pastoral time passed near these sweetly-fragrant plants have been happily alluded to in the well-known lines of idyllic verse:-- "green grow the rushes, oh! green grow the rushes, oh! the sweetest hours that e'er i spent were spent among the lasses, oh!" "virent junci fluviales, junci prope lymphas: ah! quain ridet quoe me videt hora inter nymphas!" [ ] the old saying, "as fit as tib's rush for tom's fore-finger," alludes to an ancient custom of making spurious marriages with a ring constructed from a rush. tom and tib were vulgar epithets applied in shakespeare's time to the rogue, and the wanton. the bulrush (_scirpus lacustris_) is a tall, aquatic plant, which belongs to the sedge tribe. it name was formerly spelt "pole rush," and was given because this grows in pools of water, and not like other rushes, in mire. bottoms of chairs are frequently made with its stems. its seed is prepared medicinally, being astringent and somewhat sedative; "so soporiferous," says gerard, "that care must be had in the administration thereof, lest in provoking sleep you induce a drowsiness, or dead sleep." street hawkers, in autumn, offer as bulrushes the tall, round spikes of the great reed mace, which is not a true rush. artists are responsible in the first instance for the mistake--notably paul de la roche, in his famous picture of "the finding of moses." the future great leader of the israelites is there depicted in an ark amid a forest of great cat's-tail reeds. the flowering rush, or water gladiole, which grows by the banks of rivers is called botanically "butomus," from the greek, _bous_, an ox, and _temno_, to cut, because the sharp edges of the erect three-cornered leaf-blades wound the cattle which come in contact with them, or try to eat them. its root is highly esteemed in russia for the cure of hydrophobia, being regarded by the doctors as a specific for that disease. its flowers are large, and of a splendid rose colour. the seeds promote the monthly flow in women, act on disordered kidneys, prove astringent against fluxes, and serve to woo sleep in nervous wakefulness. gerard tells that "the seed [ ] of rushes drieth the overmuch flowing of women's termes." the reed mace, or cat's-tail, is often incorrectly called bulrush, though it is a typha (_tuphos_, marsh) plant. the bog asphodel (_narthecium ossifragum_) grows in bogs, and bears a spike of yellow, star-like flowers. its second nominative was given to signify its causing the bones of cattle which feed thereon to become soft; but probably this morbid state is incurred rather through the exhalations arising from the bogs where the cattle are pastured. to the same plant has been given also the name "mayden heere," because young damsels formerly used it for making their hair yellow. the great cat's-tail (_typha palustris_), or great reed mace, a perennial reed common in great britain, affords by the tender white part of its stalks when peeled near the root, a crisp, cooling, pleasant article of food. this is eaten raw with avidity by the cossacks. aristophanes makes mention of the mace in his comedy of frogs who were glad to have spent their day skipping about _inter cyperum et phleum_, among galingale and cat's-tail. sacred pictures which represent our saviour wearing the crown of thorns, place this reed in his hands as given him in mockery for a kingly mace. the same _typha_ has been further called "dunse-down," from making persons "dunch," or deaf, if its soft spikes accidentally run into the ears. "_ejus enim paniculoe flos si aures intraverit, exsurdat_." it is reasonable to suppose that, on the principle of similars, a preparation of this plant, if applied topically within the ear, as well as taken medicinally, will be curative of a like deafness. most probably the injury to the hearing caused by the spikes at first is toxic as well as of the nature of an injury. the poet laureate sings of "sleepy breath made sweet [ ] with galingale" (_cyperus longus_). other names again are, "chimney-sweeper's brush"; "blackheads" until ripe, then "whiteheads"; and "water torch," because its panicles, if soaked in oil, will burn like a torch. saffron (meadow and cultivated). the meadow saffron (_colchicum autumnale_) is a common wild crocus found in english meadows, especially about the midland districts. the flower appears in the autumn before the leaves and fruit, which are not produced until the following spring. its corollae resemble those of the true saffron, a native of the east, but long cultivated in great britain, where it is sometimes found apparently wild. they are plants of the iris order. from the meadow saffron is obtained a corm or bulb, dug up in the spring, of which the well-known tincture of colchicum, a specific for rheumatism, is made; and from the true saffron flowers are taken the familiar orange red stigmata, which furnish the fragrant colouring matter used by confectioners in cakes, and by the apothecary for his syrup of saffron, etc. the flower of the meadow saffron rises bare from the earth, and is, therefore, called "upstart" and "naked lady." this plant owes its botanical name _colchicum_, to colchis, in natalia, which abounded in poisonous vegetables, and gave rise to the fiction about the enchantress medea. she renewed the vitality of her aged father, aeneas, by drawing blood out of his veins and refilling them with the juices of certain herbs. the fabled origin of the saffron plant ran thus. a certain young man named crocus went to play at quoits in a field with mercurie, when the quoit of his companion happened by misfortune to hit him on the head, whereby, before long, he died, to the great sorrow of [ ] his friends. finally, in the place where he had bled, saffron was found to be growing: whereupon, the people, seeing the colour of the chine as it stood, adjusted it to come of the blood of crocus, and therefore they gave it his name. the medicinal properties of colchicum have been known from a very early period. in the reign of james the first ( ), sir theodore mayerne administered the bulb to his majesty together with the powder of unburied skulls. in france, it has always been a favourite specific for gout; and during the reign of louis the fifteenth, it became very fashionable under the name of _eau medicinale_; but the remedy is somewhat dangerous, and should never be incautiously used. instances are on record where fatal results have followed too large a medicinal dose, even on the following day, after taking sixty drops of the wine of colchicum overnight; and when given in much smaller doses it sometimes acts as a powerfully irritating purgative, or as an emetic. the medicine should not be employed except by a doctor; its habitual use is very harmful. the acrimony of the bulb may be modified in a measure if it, or its seeds, are steeped in vinegar before being taken as a medicine. the french designate the roots of the meadow saffron (_colchicum_) as "_tue-chien_"; "_morte aux chiens_," "death to dogs." alexander of tralles, a greek physician of the sixth century, was the first to advise colchicum (_hermodactylon_) for gout, with the effect that patients, immediately after its exhibition, found themselves able to walk. "but," said he, and with shrewd truth, "it has this bad property, that it disposes those who take it curatively for gout or rheumatism, to be afterwards more frequently attacked with the disease than before." [ ] our druggists supply an officinal tincture of colchicum (meadow saffron) made from the seeds, the dose of which is from ten to thirty drops, with a spoonful of water; also a wine infused from the bulb, of which the dose is the same as that of the tincture, twice or three times a day; and an acetous extract prepared from the thickened juice of the crushed bulbs, of which from half to two grains may be given in a pilule, or dissolved in water, twice or three times a day, until the active symptoms are subdued, and then less often for another day or two afterwards. the most important chemical constituent of the bulb, flowers, and seeds, is "colchicin." besides this there are contained starch, gum, sugar, tannin, and some fatty resinous matter. there is also a fixed oil in the seeds. _crocus vernus_, the true saffron, grows wild about halifax, and in the neighbourhood of derby; but for commercial uses the supply of stigmata is had from greece, and asia minor. this plant was cultivated in england as far back as during the reign of edward the third. it is said that a pilgrim then brought from the levant to england the first root of saffron, concealed in a hollow staff, doing the same thing at the peril of his life, and planting such root at saffron walden, in essex, whence the place has derived its name. the stigmata are picked out, then dried in a kiln, over a hair cloth, and pressed afterwards into cakes, of which the aromatic quality is very volatile. the plant was formerly cultivated at saffron walden, where it was presented in silver cups by the corporation to some of our sovereigns, who visited walden for the ceremony. five guineas were paid by the corporation for the pound of saffron which they purchased for queen elizabeth; and to constitute this quantity forty [ ] thousand flowers were required. the city arms of walden bears three saffron plants, as given by a charter of edward the sixth. saffron hill, in holborn, london, belonged formerly to ely house, and got its name from the crops of saffron which were grown there: "_occult? spolia hi croceo de colle ferebant_" (comic latin grammar). in our rural districts there is a popular custom of giving saffron tea in measles, on the doctrine of colour analogy; to which notion may likewise be referred the practice of adding saffron to the drinking water of canaries when they are moulting. in england, it was fashionable during the seventh century to make use of starch stained yellow with saffron; and in an old cookery book of that period, it is directed that "saffron must be put into all lenten soups, sauces, and dishes; also that without saffron we cannot have well-cooled peas." confectioners were wont to make their pastry attractive with saffron. so the clown says in shakespeare's _winter's tale_, "i must have saffron to colour the warden pies." we read of a saffron-tub in the kitchen of bishop swinfield, . during the fourteenth century saffron was cultivated in the herbarium of the manor-house, and the castle. throughout devonshire this product is quoted to signify anything costly. henry the eighth forbade persons to colour with saffron the long locks of hair worn then, and called glibbes. lord bacon said, "the english are rendered sprightly by a liberal use of saffron in sweetmeats and broth": also, "saffron conveys medicine to the heart, cures its palpitation, removes melancholy and uneasiness, revives the brain, renders the mind cheerful, and generates boldness." the restorative plant has been termed "_cor hominis_;" "_anima_ [ ] _pulmonum_," "the heart of man"; and there is an old saying alluding to one of a merry temper, "_dormivit in sacco croci_," "he has slept in a sack of saffron." it was called by the ancients "_aurum philosophorum_," contracted to "_aroph_." also, _sanguis herculis_, and _rex vegetabilium_, "being given with good success to procure bodily lust." the english word saffron comes from the arabian--_zahafram_--whilst the name crocus of this golden plant is taken from the greek_ krokee_--a thread-- signifying the dry thin stigmata of the flower. old fuller wrote "the crocodile's tears are never true save when he is forced where saffron groweth (whence he hath his name of _croco-deilos_, or the saffron-fearer), knowing himself to be all poison, and it all antidote." frequently marigold stigmata are cheaply used for adulterating the true saffron. homer introduces saffron as one of the flowers which formed the nuptial couch of jupiter: and solomon mentioned it as growing in his garden: "spikenard and saffron: calamus, and cinnamon" (_canticles_ iv., ). pliny states that wine in which saffron was macerated gave a fragrant odour to theatres about which it was sprinkled. the cilician doctors advised cleopatra to take saffron for clearing her complexion. the medicinal use of saffron has always obtained amongst the orientals. according to a treatise, _croco-logia_ ( ), by hartodt, it was then employed as a medicine, as a pigment, and for seasoning various kinds of food. the colouring matter of saffron is a substance called polychroite, or crocin; and its slightly stimulating properties depend upon a volatile oil. boerhaave said that saffron possesses the power of liquefying the blood; hence, "women who use it too freely suffer from immoderate menses." a tincture is [ ] made (h.) from the saffron of commerce, which is of essential use for controlling female haemorrhages. four or five drops of the tincture may be given with a spoonful of water every three or four hours for this purpose. the same tincture is good for impaired vision, when there is a sense of gauze before the eyes, which the person tries to wink, or wipe away. smelling strongly and frequently at the hay saffron of commerce (obtained from spain and france), will cause headache, stupor, and heavy sleep; whilst, during its internal use, the urine becomes of a deep yellow colour. of the syrup of saffron, which is a slightly stimulating exhilarant, and which possesses a rich colour, from one to two teaspoonfuls may be given for a dose, with two tablespoonfuls of cold water. it serves to energise the organs within the middle trunk of both males and females; also to recruit an exhausted brain. in devonshire, saffron used to be regarded as a most valuable remedy to restore consumptive patients, even when far advanced in the disease, and it was, therefore, esteemed of great worth:-- "nec poteris croci dotes numerare, nec usus." saffron is such a special remedy for those that have consumption of the lungs, and are--as we term it--at death's door, and almost past breathing, "that it bringeth breath again, and prolongeth life for certain days, if ten, or twenty grains at most, be given in new, or sweet wine. it presently, and in a moment, removeth away difficulty of breathing, which most dangerously and suddenly happeneth." in westphalia, an apple mixed with saffron, on the doctrine of signatures, is given on easter monday, against jaundice. evelyn tells us: "the german [ ] housewives have a way of forming saffron into balls; by mingling it with a little honey, which, when thoroughly dried, they reduce to powder, and sprinkle it over their sallets for a noble cordial." those of spain and italy, we know, generally make use of this flower, mingling its golden tincture with almost everything they eat. but, an excessive use of saffron proves harmful. it will produce an intense pain in the head, and imperil the reason. half-a-scruple, _i.e._, ten grains, should be the largest dose. in fuller doses this tincture will provoke a determination of blood to the head, with bleeding from the nose, and sometimes with a disposition to immoderate laughter. small doses, therefore, of the diluted tincture, ought to relieve these symptoms when they occur as spontaneous illness. the inhabitants of eastern countries regard saffron as a fine restorative, and nuptial invitations are often powdered by them with this medicament. in ireland women dye their sheets with saffron to preserve them from vermin, and to strengthen their own limbs. "green herbs, red pepper, mussels, _saffron_, soles, onions, garlic, roach and dace; all these you eat at ferre's tavern in that one dish of bouillabaisse." --_thackeray_. sage. our garden sage, a familiar occupant of the english herb bed, was formerly celebrated as a medicine of great virtue. this was the _elalisphakos_ of the greeks, so called from its dry and withered looking leaves. it grows wild in the south of europe, but is a cultivated simple in england, france, and germany. like other labiate herbs [ ] it is aromatic and fragrant, because containing a volatile, camphoraceous, essential oil. all parts of the plant have a strong-scented odour, and a warm, bitter, astringent taste. the latin name, _salvia_, has become corrupted through _sauja_, _sauge_, to sage, and is derived from _salvere_, "to be sound," in reference to the medicinally curative properties of the plant. a well-known monkish line about it ran to this effect: _cur moriatur homo cui salvia crescit in horto_? "why should a man die whilst sage grows in his garden?" and even at this time, in many parts of england, the following piece of advice is carefully adopted every year:-- "he that would live for aye must eat sage in may." during the time of charlemagne, the school of salerno thought so highly of sage that they originated the dictum quoted above of saracenic old pharmacy, but they wisely added a second line:-- "contra vim mortis non est medicamen in hortis." the essential oil of the herb may be more readily dissolved in a spirituous than in a watery vehicle. of this, the active principle is "salviol," which confers the power of resisting putrefaction on animal substances; whilst the bitterness and condimentary pungency of the herb enable the stomach to digest rich, luscious meats and gravies, if it be eaten therewith. hence has arisen the custom of stuffing ducks for the table, and geese, with the conventional sage and onions. or there is no better way of taking sage as a stomachic wholesome herb than by eating it with bread and butter. in buckinghamshire a tradition maintains [ ] that the wife rules where sage grows vigorously in the garden: and it is believed that this plant will thrive or wither, just as the owner's business prospers or fails. george whitfield, when at oxford ( ), took only sage-tea, with sugar, and coarse bread. old sayings tell of the herb, as _salvia salvatrix; naturoe conciliatrix_; and the line runs:-- "salvia cum rutâ faciunt tibi pocula tuta." recommending to plant rue among the sage so as to keep away noxious toads. the chinese are as fond of sage as we are of their fragrant teas; and the dutch once carried on a profitable trade with them, by exchanging a pound of sage leaves for each three-pound parcel of tea. it was formerly thought that sage, if used in the making of cheese, improved its flavour. "marbled with sage the hardening cheese she pressed." --_gay_. "sage," says gerard, "is singular good for the head and brain; it quickeneth the senses and memory; strengtheneth the sinews; restoreth health to those that hath the palsy; and takes away shaky trembling of the members." agrippa called it "the holy herb," because women with child, if they be likely to come before their time, "do eat thereof to their great good." pepys, in his well-known diary says, "between gosport and southampton we observed a little churchyard where it is customary to sow all the graves with sage." in _franche comte_ the herb is supposed to mitigate grief, mental and bodily. "salvia comfortat nervos, manuumque tremorem tollit; et ejus ope febris acuta fugit." "sage helps the nerves, and by its powerful might palsy is cured, and fever put to flight." [ ] but if sage be smelt for some time it will cause a sort of intoxication, and giddiness. the leaves, when dried and smoked in a pipe as tobacco, will lighten the brain. in sussex, a peasant will munch sage leaves on nine consecutive mornings, whilst fasting, to cure ague. a strong infusion of the herb has been used with success to dry up the breast milk for weaning; and as a gargle sage leaf tea, when sweetened with honey, serves admirably. this decoction, when made strong, is an excellent lotion for ulcers, and to heal raw abrasions of the skin. the herb may be applied externally ill bags as a hot fomentation. some persons value the wormwood sage more highly than either of the other varieties. in the sage flower the stamens swing round their loosely-connected anther cells against the back of any blundering bee who is in search of honey, just as in olden days the bag of sand caught the shoulders of a clumsy youth when tilting at the quintin. wild meadow sage (_salvia verbenaca_), or meadow clary, grows in our dry pastures, but somewhat rarely, though it is better known as a cultivated herb in our kitchen gardens. the leaves and flowers afford a volatile oil, which is fragrant and aromatic. some have attributed the name _salvia sclarea_, clary (clear eye) to the fact of the seeds being so mucilaginous, that when the eye is invaded by any small foreign body, their decoction will remove the same by acting as an emulsion to lubricate it away. the leaves and flowers may be usefully given in an infusion for hysterical colic and similar troubles connected with nervous weakness. also they make a pleasant fermented wine. the wood sage is the wood germander, [ ] _teucrium scorodinia_, a woodland plant with sage-like leaves, containing a volatile oil, some tannin, and a bitter principle. this plant has been used as a substitute for hops. it was called "hind heal" from curing the hind when sick, or wounded, and was probably the same herb as _elaphoboscum_, the dittany, taken by harts in crete. a snuff has been made from its powder to cure nasal polypi: also the infusion (freshly prepared), should be given medicinally, two tablespoonfuls for a dose: or, of the powder, from thirty to forty grains. the name "germander" is a corruption from chamoedrys, _chamai_, ground, and _drus_, oak, because the leaves are like those of the oak. saint john's wort (_see page_ ) savin. savin, the juniper savin (_sabina_), or saffern, is a herb which grows freely in our bed of garden simples, if properly cared for, and which possesses medicinal virtues of a potential nature. the shrub is a native of southern europe, being a small evergreen plant, the twigs of which are densely covered with little leaves in four rows, having a strong, peculiar, unpleasant odour of turpentine, with a bitter, acrid, resinous taste. the young branchlets are collected for medicinal use. they contain tannin, resin, a special volatile oil, and extractive matters. a medicinal tincture (h.) is made from the fresh leaves, and the points of the shoots of the cultivated savin. but this is a powerful medicine, and must be used with caution. in small doses of two or three drops with a tablespoonful of cold water it is of singular efficacy for arresting an active florid flux from the [ ] womb at the monthly times of women when occurring too profusely, the remedy being given every two, three, or four hours. or from one to four grains of powdered savin may be taken instead of each dose of the tincture. the stimulating virtues of savin befit it for cleansing carbuncles, and for benefiting baldness. when mixed with honey it has removed freckles with success; the leaves, dried and powdered, serve, when applied, to dispel obstinate warty excrescences about the genitals. rubbed together with cerate, or lard, powdered savin is used for maintaining the sores of blisters, and of issues, open when it is desired to keep up their derivative action. the essential oil will stimulate the womb to functional activity when it is passively congested and torpid. as to its elementary composition this oil closely resembles the spirit of turpentine; and when given in small well diluted doses as a tincture (made of the oil mixed with spirit of wine), such medicine does good service in relieving rheumatic pains and swellings connected with impaired health of the womb. for these purposes the ordinary tincture (h.) of savin should be mixed, one part thereof with nine parts of spirit of wine, and given in doses of from six to ten drops with a tablespoonful of water. dr. pereira says about the herb: "according to my own observation, savin is the most certain and powerful stimulator of the monthly courses in the whole of our _materia medica_; and i never saw any ill effects result from its administration." the essential oil may be preferred in a dose of from one to four drops on sugar, or in milk, when this functional activity is sought. savin was known of old as the "devil's tree," and the "magician's cypress," because much affected by witches and sorcerers when working their spells. [ ] scurvy grass. one of the roost useful, but not best known, of the cruciferous wild plants which are specifics against scrofula is our english scurvy grass. it grows by choice near the sea shore, or in mountainous places; and even when found many miles from the sea its taste is salt. it occurs along the muddy banks of the avon; also in wales, and in cumberland, more commonly near the coast, and likewise on the mountains of scotland; again it may be readily cultivated in the garden for medicinal uses. if eaten as a salad in its fresh state it is the most effectual of all the antiscorbutic plants. the herb is produced with an angular smooth shilling stem, twelve or fourteen inches high, having narrow green leaves, and terminating in thick clusters of white flowers. its leaves are good and wholesome when eaten in spring with bread and butter. the juice, when diluted with water, makes a good mouth-wash for spongy gums. the whole plant contains tannin, and a bitter principle, which is butyl-mustard oil, and on which the medicinal properties depend. this oil is of great volatility and penetrating power; one drop instilled on sugar, or dissolved in spirit, communicates to a quart of wine the taste and smell of scurvy grass. the fresh plant taken as such, or the expressed fresh juice, confers the benefits of the herb in by far the most effectual way. a distilled water, and a conserve prepared with the leaves, were formerly dispensed by druggists; and the fresh juice mixed with that of seville oranges went by the name of "spring drinks," or "juices." the plant is found in large quantities at lymington [ ] (hants), on low banks almost dipping into the sea. its expressed juice was formerly taken in beer, or boiled in milk as a decoction, flavoured with pepper, aniseed, etc. this scurvy grass has the botanical name _cochlearia_, or, in english, spoonwort, so named from its leaves resembling in shape the bowl of an old-fashioned spoon. it is supposed to be the famous _herba britannica_ of the ancients. our great navigators have borne unanimous testimony to its never-failing value in scurvy; and it has been justly noticed that the plant grows most plentifully in altitudes where scurvy is specially troublesome and frequent. the green herb bruised may be applied as a poultice. for making a decoction of the plant as a blood purifier, and against scurvy, put two ounces of the whole plant and its roots into a quart jug, and fill up with boiling water, taking care to keep this well covered. when it is cold take a wineglassful thereof three, or four times in the day. another name for the plant is scruby grass. the fresh herb has a strong pungent odour when bruised, and a warm bitter taste. its beneficial uses in scurvy, are due to the potash salts which it contains. externally, the juice will cleanse and heal foul ulcers, and ill-favoured eruptions. sea plants and sea weeds. of marine plants commonly found, the samphire and the sea holly have certain domestic and medicinal uses which give them a position as simples; and of the more ordinary sea weeds (cryptogamous, or flowerless plants) some few are edible, though sparingly nutritious, whilst curative and medicinal virtues are attributed to several others, as irish moss, scotch dulse, sea tang, and the [ ] bladderwrack. it may be stated broadly that the sea weeds employed as remedial simples owe their powers to the bromine, iodine, and sulphate of soda which they contain. pliny and dioscorides in their days extolled the qualities of various sea weeds; and practitioners of medicine on our sea coasts are now unanimous in pronouncing sea weed liniments, and poultices, as of undoubted value in reducing glandular swellings, and in curing obstinate sprains; whilst they administer the bladderwrack, etc., internally for alterative purposes with no little success. bits of sea weed, called ladies' trees, are still to be seen as chimney ornaments in many a cornish cottage, being fixed on small stands, and supposed to protect the dwelling from fire, or other mishaps. samphire, of the true sort, is a herb difficult to be gathered, because it grows only out of the crevices of lofty perpendicular rocks which cannot be easily scaled. this genuine samphire (_crithmum maritimum_) is a small plant, bearing yellow flowers in circular umbels on the tops of the stalks, which flowers are followed by seeds like those of the fennel, but larger. the leaves are juicy, with a warm aromatic taste, and may be put into sauce; or they make a good appetising condimentary pickle, which is wholesome for scrofulous subjects. persons living by the coast cook this plant as a pot herb. formerly, it was regularly cried in the london streets, and was then called crest marine. shakespeare alludes in well-known lines to the hazardous proceedings of the samphire gatherer's "dreadful trade":-- "how fearful and dizzy 'tis to cast one's eyes so low! the crows and choughs that wing the midway air show scarce so gross as beetles: half-way down _hangs one that gathers samphire_: dreadful trade! methinks he seems to bigger than his head."--_king lear_. [ ] and evelyn has praised the plant for excellence of flavour, as well as for aromatic virtues against the spleen. pliny says samphire is the very herb that the good country wife hecate prepared for theseus when going against the bull of marathon. its botanic name is from the greek _crithe_, "barley," because the seeds are thought to resemble that grain. the title samphire is derived from the french _herbe de st. pierre_, because the roots strike deep in the crevices of rocks. st. peter's wort has become corrupted to sampetre, sampier, and samphire. a spurious samphire, the _inula crithmoides_, or golden samphire, is often supplied in lieu of the real plant, though it has a different flavour, and few of the proper virtues. this grows more abundantly on low rocks, and on ground washed by salt water. also a salicornia, or jointed glasswort, or saltwort, or crabgrass, is sold as samphire for a pickle, in the italian oil shops. gerard says of samphire: "it is the pleasantest sauce, most familiar, and best agreeing with man's body." "preferable," adds evelyn, "for cleansing the passages, and sharpening appetite, to most of our hotter herbs, and salad ingredients." the sea holly (_eryngium maritimum_), or sea hulver, is a well-known prickly sea-green plant, growing in the sand on many parts of our coasts, or on stony ground, with stiff leaves, and roots which run to a great length among the sand, whilst charged with a sweetish juice. a manufactory for making candied roots of the sea holly was established at colchester, by robert burton, an apothecary, in the seventeenth century, as they were considered both antiscorbutic, and excellent for health. [ ] gerard says: "the roots, if eaten, are good for those that be liver sick; and they ease cramps, convulsions, and the falling sickness. if condited, or preserved with sugar, they are exceeding good to be given to old and aged people that are consumed and withered with age, and which want natural moisture." he goes on to give an elaborate receipt how to condite the roots of sea holly, or eringos (which title is, according to liddell and scott, the diminutive of _eerungos_, "the beard of a goat." or, eryngo has been derived from the greek _eruggarein_, to eructate, because the plant is, according to herbalists, a specific against belching). with healthy provers, who have taken the sea holly experimentally in toxical doses of varying strength the sexual energies and instincts became always depressed. this accounts for the fact that during the elizabethan era, the roots of the plant used _in moderation_ were highly valued for renovating masculine vigour, such as falstaff invoked, and which classic writers have extolled:-- "non male turn graiis florens eryngus in hortis quaeritur; hunc gremio portet si nupta virentem nunquam inconcessos conjux meditabitur ignes." --_rapinus_. these eryngo roots, prepared with sugar, were then called "kissing comfits." lord bacon when recommending the yolks of eggs for giving strength if taken with malmsey, or sweet wine, says: "you shall doe well to put in some few slices of eringium roots, and a little ambergrice: for by this means, besides the immediate facultie of nourishment, such drinke will strengthen the back." plutarch writes: "they report of the sea holly, if one goat taketh it into her mouth, it causeth her first to stand still, and afterwards the whole flock, until such [ ] time as the shepherd takes it from her." boerhaave thought the root "a principal aperient." irish moss, or _carraigeen_, is abundant on our rocky coasts, and is collected on the north western shores of ireland, while some of it comes to us from hamburg. its chief constituent is a kind of mucilage, which dissolves to a stiff paste in boiling water, this containing some iodine, and much sulphur. but before being boiled in water or milk, the moss should be soaked for an hour or more in cold water. officinally, a decoction is ordered to be made with an ounce of the moss to a pint of water: of which from one to four fluid ounces may be taken for a dose. this lichen contains starchy, heat-giving nourishment, about six parts of the same to one of flesh-forming food; therefore its jelly is found to be specially sustaining to persons suffering from pulmonary consumption, with an excessive waste of the bodily heat. at one time the irish moss fetched as high a price as half-a-crown for the pound. it bears the botanical name of _chondrus crispus_, and varies much in size and colour. when growing in small pools, it is shallow, pale, and stunted; whilst when found at the bottom of a deep pool, or in the shadow of a great rock, it occurs in dense masses of rich ruddy purple, with reddish green thick fronds. iceland moss contains the form of starch called "lichenin." it is a british lichen found especially in wales and scotland. most probably the icelanders were the first to learn its helpful properties. in two kinds of pulmonary consumption this lichen best promotes a cure-that with active bleeding from the lungs, and that with profuse purulent expectoration. the icelanders boil the moss in broth, or dry it in cakes used as bread. they likewise make gruel of it mixed [ ] with milk: but the first decoction of it in water, being purgative, is always thrown away. an ounce of the iceland moss boiled for a quarter-of-an-hour in a pint of milk, or water, will yield seven ounces of thick mucilage. this has been found particularly useful in dysentery. also contained in the moss are cetrarin, uncrystallizable sugar, gum, and green wax; with potash, and phosphate of lime. it affords help in diabetes, and for general atrophy; being given also in powder, or syrup, or mixed with chocolate. francatelli directs for making _iceland moss jelly_. boil four ounces of the moss in one quart of water: then add the juice of two lemons, and a bit of the rind, with four ounces of sugar (and perhaps a gill of sherry?). boil up and remove the scum from the surface. strain the jelly through a muslin bag into a basin, and set it aside to become cold. it may be eaten thus, but it is more efficacious when taken warm. a sea-moss, the _lichen marinum_, is "a singular remedy to strengthen the weakness of the back." it is called "oister-green." in new england the generic term "moss" is a cant word signifying money: perhaps as a contraction of mopuses, or as a play on the proverb, "a rolling stone gathers no moss." the dulse is used in scotland and ireland both as food and medicine. botanically it bears the name of _iridea edulis_, or _rhodymenia palmata_ (the sugar _fucus_ of iceland). there is a saying in scotland: "he who eats of the dulse of guerdie, and drinks of the wells kindingie, will escape all maladies except black death." this marine weed contains within its cellular structure much iodine, which makes it a specific remedy for scrofulous glandular enlargements, or morbid deposits. [ ] in ireland the dulse is first well washed in fresh water, and exposed in the air to dry, when it gives out a white powdery substance, which is sweet and palatable, covering the whole plant. the weed is presently packed in cases, and protected from the air, so that being thus preserved, it may either be eaten as it is, or boiled in milk, and mixed with flour of rye. the powdery substance is "mannite," which is abundant likewise on many of our sea weeds. cattle and sheep are very fond of dulse, for which reason in norway it is known as soudsell, or sheep's weed. this _iridea edulis_ is pinched with hot irons by the fishermen in the south west of england, so as to make it taste like an oyster. in scotland it is roasted in the frying-pan. the maritime sea tang (_laminaria digitata_) was belauded in the _proverbial philosophy_ of martin tupper:-- "health is in the freshness of its savour; and it cumbereth the beach with wealth; comforting the tossings of pain with its violet tinctured essence." tang signifies anglo-saxon "thatch," from sea weed having been formerly used instead of straw to cover the roofs of houses. when bruised and applied by way of a poultice to scrofulous swellings and glandular tumours, the sea tang has been found very valuable. the famous john hunter was accustomed to employ a poultice of sea-water and oatmeal. this weed is of common marine growth, consisting of a wide smooth-brown frond, with a thick round stem, and broad brown ribbons like a flag at the end of it. it is familiarly known as seagirdles, tangle, sea staff, sea wand, and cows' tails. fisher boys cut up the stems as handles for knives, or hooks, because, after the haft of [ ] the blade is inserted within the stem, this dries, and contracts on the iron staple, becoming densely hard and firm. the absorbent stem power of the _laminaria_ for taking up iodine is very large; and this element is afterwards brought out by fire in the kelp kilns of ireland and scotland. sea tang acts most beneficially against the various forms of scrofulous disease; and signally relieves some rheumatic affections. it is also used largely in the making of glass. likewise for scrofula, seawater, being rich in chlorides and iodides, has proved both curative and preventive. dr. sena, of valencia, gave bread made with sea-water in the misericordia hospital for cases of scrofulous disease, and other states of defective nutrition, with singular success. another laminaria (_saccharina_), with a single olive yellow semi-transparent frond, yields an abundance of sweet "mannit" when boiled and evaporated. the bladderwrack (_fucus vesiculosus_), kelpware, or our lady's wrack, is found on most of our sea coasts in heavy brown masses of coarse-looking sea weed, which cover, and shelter many small algae. kelp is an impure carbonate of soda containing sulphate, and chloride of sodium, with a little charcoal. by its characteristic bladders, or vesicles studded about the blades of the branched narrowish fronds, this sea weed may be easily known. these bladders are full of a glutinous substance, which makes the weed valuable both as a remedy for the glandular troubles of scrofula, and, when bottled in rum, as an embrocation, such as is specially useful for strengthening the limbs of rickety, or bandy-legged children. against glandular swellings also the weed is [ ] taken internally as a medicine, when burnt to a black powder. an analysis of the bladderwrack has shown it to contain an empyreumatic oil, sulphur, earthy salts, some iron, and iodine freely. thus it is very rich in anti-scrofulous elements. the fluid extract of this sea weed has the long standing reputation of safely diminishing an excess of personal fat. it is given for such a purpose three times a day, shortly after meals, in doses of from one to four teaspoonfuls. the remedy should be continued perseveringly, whilst cutting down the supplies of fat, starchy foods, sugar, and malt liquors. when thus taken (as likewise in the concentrated form of a pill, if preferred) the bladderwrack will especially relieve rheumatic pains; and the sea pod liniment dispensed by many druggists at our chief marine health resorts, proves signally efficacious towards the same end. furthermore, they prepare a sea-pod essence for applying on a wet compress beneath waterproof tissue to strumous tumours, goitre, and bronchocele; also for old strains and bruises. this sea weed should not be obtained when too fully matured, as it quickly undergoes decomposition. wrack is sea weed thrown ashore, from _vrage_, to reject. wrack grass (_zostera marina_), is a marine plant with long grass-like leaves. there are four common fuci on our coasts--the _nodosus_ (knobbed wrack), the _vesiculosus_ (bladder wrack), the _serratus_ (saw-edged sea weed), and the _caniculatus_ (channeled sea weed). it is by reason of its contained bromine and iodine as safe medicinal elements, the _fucus vesiculosus_ acts in reducing fatness; these elements stimulating all the absorbent glands of the body to increased activity. [ ] in common with the other fuci it furnishes mannite, an odorous oil, a bitter principle, mucilage, and ash, this last constituent abounding in the bromine and iodine. for internal use, a decoction may be made with from two to four drachms of the weed to a pint of water, boiled together for a few minutes; and for external application to enlarged or hardened glands, the bruised weed may be applied as a cold poultice. this bladder wrack is reputed to be the _anti-polyscarcique_ nostrum of count mattaei. although diminishing fat it does no harm by inducing any atrophied wasting of the breast glands, or of the testicles. the bladderwrack yields a rich produce to the seaside agriculturist highly useful as manure for the potato field and for other crops: and it is gathered for this purpose all along the british coast. in jersey and guernsey it is called _vraic_. among the hebrides, cheeses, whilst drying, are covered with the ashes of this weed which abounds in salt. patients who have previously suffered much from rheumatism about the body and limbs have found themselves entirely free from any such pains or trouble whilst taking the extract of _fucus vesiculosus_ (bladderwrack). this sea weed is in perfection only during early and middle summer. for fresh sprains and bruises a hot decoction of the bladderwrack should be used at first as a fomentation; and, afterwards, a cold essence of the weed should be rubbed in, or applied on wet lint beneath light thin waterproof tissue, or oiled silk, as a compress: this to be changed as often as hot or dry. laver is the popular name given to some edible sea weeds--the _porphyra lanciniata_, and the _ulva latissima_. the same title was formerly bestowed by pliny on an [ ] aquatic plant now unknown, and called also sloke, or sloken. _porphyra_, from a greek word meaning "purple," is the true laver, or sloke. it is slimy, or semi-gelatinous of consistence when served at table, having been stewed for several hours until quite tender, and then being eaten with butter, vinegar, and pepper. at the london reform club laver is provided every day in a silver saucepan at dinner, garnished with lemons, to flank the roast leg of mutton. others prefer it cooked with leeks and onions, or pickled, and eaten with oil and lemon juice. the englishman calls this sea weed, laver; the irishman, sloke; the scotchman, slack; and the student, _porphyra_. it varies in size and colour between tidemarks, being sometimes long and ribbon-like, of a violet or purple hue; sometimes long and broad, whilst changing to a reddish purple, or yellow. it is very wholesome, and preventive of scurvy, being therefore valuable on sea voyages, as it will keep good for a long time in closed tin vessels. the _ulva latissima_ is a deep-green sea weed, called by the fishermen oyster green, because employed to cover over oysters. this is likewise known as laver, because sometimes substituted by epicures for the true laver (_porphyra_) when the latter cannot be got; but it is not by any means as good. the name _ulva_ is from _ul_, meaning "water." sea spinach (_satsolacea--spirolobea_) is a saltwort found growing on the shore in hampshire and other parts of england, the best of all wild vegetables for the table, having succulent leaves shaped like worms, and being esteemed as an excellent antiscorbutic. the sea beet--a chenopod--which grows plentifully on our shores, gave origin to the cultivated beetroot of [ ] our gardens. its name was derived from a fancied resemblance borne by its seed vessels when swollen with seed to the greek letter b (_beta_). "nomine cum graio cui litera proxima primoe pangitur in cerâ doeti mucrone magistri." "the greeks gave its name to the beet from their alphabet's second letter, as an attic teacher wrote it on wax with a sharp stiletto." by the grecians the beet was offered on silver to apollo in his temple at delphi. a pleasant wine may be made from its roots, and its juice when applied with a brush is an excellent cosmetic. the mangel wurzel, also a variety of beet, means literally, "scarcity root." another sea weed, the bladderlocks (_alaria esculenta_), "henware," "honeyware," "murlins," is edible, the thick rib which runs through the frond being the part chosen. this abounds on the northern coasts of england and scotland, being of a clear olive yellow colour, with a stem as thick as a small goosequill, varying in length, with its fronds, from three to twenty feet. the fruit appears as if partially covered with a brown crust consisting of transparent spore cases set on a stalk in a cruciform manner. common coraline (_corallina anglica_), a sea weed of a whitish colour, tinged with purple and green, and of a firm substance, is famous for curing worms. the presence of gold in sea water, even as surrounding our own islands, has been sufficiently proved; though, as yet, its extraction is a costly and uncertain process. one analyst has estimated that the amount of gold contained in the oceans of the globe must be ten million tons, without counting the possible quantity locked up in floating icebergs about the poles. professor liveredge, of the sydney university, [ ] examined sea water collected off the australian coast, as also some from northern shores, and obtained gold, from five-tenths to eight-tenths of a grain per ton of the sea water. it occurs as the chloride, and the bromide of gold; which salts, as recently shown by dr. compton burnett, when administered in doses almost infinitesimally small, are of supreme value for the cure of epilepsy, secondary syphilis, sexual debility, and some disorders of the heart. dr. russell wrote on the uses of sea water in diseases of the glands. he found the soapy mucus within the vesicles of the bladderwrack an excellent resolvent, and most useful in dispersing scrofulous swellings. he advises rubbing the tumour with these vesicles bruised in the hand, and afterwards washing the part with sea water. selfheal. several herbal simples go by the name of selfheal among our wild hedge plants, more especially the sanicle, the common prunella, and the bugle. the first of these is an umbelliferous herb, growing frequently in woods, having dull white flowers, in panicled heads, which are succeeded by roundish seeds covered with hooked prickles: the wood sanicle (_europoea_). it gets its name sanicle, perhaps, from the latin verb _sanare_, "to heal, or make sound;" or, possibly, as a corruption of st. nicholas, called in german st. nickel, who, in the _tale of a tub_, is said to have interceded with god in favour of two children whom an innkeeper had murdered and pickled in a pork tub; and he obtained their restoration to life. anyhow, the name sanicle was supposed in the middle ages to mean "curative," whatever its origin: [ ] thus, _qui a la bugle, et la sanicle fait aux chirurgiens la nicle_--"he who uses sanicle and bugle need have no dealings with the doctor." lyte and other herbalists say concerning the sanicle: "it makes whole and sound all wounds and hurts, both inward and outward." "celui qui sanicle a de plaie affaire il n'a." "who the sanicle hath at the surgeon may laugh." the name prunella (which belongs more rightly to another herb) has been given to the sanicle, perhaps, through its having been originally known as brunella, brownwort, both because of the brown colour of its spikes, and from its being supposed to cure the disease called in germany _die braune_, a kind of quinsy; on the doctrine of signatures, because the corolla resembles a throat with swollen glands. the sanicle is popularly employed in germany and france as a remedy for profuse bleeding from the lungs, bowels, womb, and urinary organs; also for the staying of dysenteric diarrhoea. the fresh juice of the herb may be given in tablespoonful doses. as yet no analysis has been made of this plant; but evidence of tannin in its several parts is afforded by the effects produced when these are remedially applied. the _prunella vulgaris_ is a distinct plant from the self heal, or sanicle, and belongs to the labiate order of herbs. it grows commonly in waste places about england, and bears pink flowers, being sometimes called slough heal. this is incorrect, as the surgical term "slough" was not used until long after the prunella and the sanicle became named self-heal. each of these was applied as a vulnerary, not to sloughing sores, but to fresh cut wounds. [ ] the _prunella vulgaris_ has a flattened calyx, and whorls of purplish blue flowers, which are collected in a head. it is also known as carpenter's herb, perhaps, from its corolla, when seen in profile, being shaped like a bill hook; and therefore, on the doctrine of signatures, it was supposed to heal wounds inflicted by edge tools; whence it was likewise termed hook-heal and sicklewort, arid in yorkshire, black man. by virtue of its properties as a vulnerary it has also been called _consolida_; but the daisy is the true _consolida minor_. "the decoction of prunell," says gerard, "made with wine and water, doth join together and make whole and sound all wounds, both inward and outward, even as bugle doth. to be short, it serveth for the same that the bugle serveth; and in the world there are not two better wound herbs, as bath been often proved." the bugle, or middle comfrey, is also a sanicle, because of its excellence for healing wounds, in common with the prunella and the true sanicle. it grows in almost every wood, and copse, and moist shadowy place, being constantly reckoned among the consounds. this herb (_ajuga reptans_) is of the labiate order, bearing dark blue or purple flowers, whorled, and crowded into a spike. its decoction, "when drunk, healeth and maketh sound all wounds of the body." "it is so singular good for all sorts of hurts that none who know its usefulness will be ever without it. if the virtues of it make you fall in love with it (as they will if you be wise), keep a syrup of it, to take inwardly, and an ointment and plaister of it to use outwardly, always by you." the chemical principles of the prunella and the bugle [ ] resemble those of other labiate herbs, comprising a volatile oil, some bitter principle, tannin, sugar, and cellulose. the ladies' mantle, alchemilla--a common inconspicuous weed, found everywhere--is called great sanicle, also parsley-breakstone, or piercestone, because supposed to be of great use against stone in the bladder. it contains tannin abundantly, and is said to promote quiet sleep if placed under the pillow at night. "_endymionis somnum dormire_." shepherd's purse. the small shepherd's purse (_bursa capsella pastoris_) is one of the most common of wayside english weeds. the name _capsella_ signifies a little box, in allusion to the seed pods. it is a cruciferous plant, made familiar by the diminutive pouches, or flattened pods at the end of its branching stems. this herb is of natural growth in most parts of the world, but varies in luxuriance according to soil and situation, whilst thickly strewn over the whole surface of the earth, facing alike the heat of the tropics, and the rigours of the arctic regions; even, if trodden underfoot, it rises again and again with ever enduring vitality, as if designed to fulfil some special purpose in the far-seeing economy of nature. it lacks the winged valves of the _thlaspi_. our old herbalists called it st. james's wort, as a gift from that saint to the people for the cure of various diseases, st. anthony's fire, and several skin eruptions. in france, too, the plant goes by the title of _fleur de saint jacques_. it flowers from early in spring until autumn, and has, particularly in summer, an acrid bitter taste. other names for the herb are, "case weed," "pick pocket," and "mother's heart," as called so by [ ] children. if a pod is picked they raise the cry, "you've plucked out your mother's heart." small birds are fond of the seeds. bombelon, a french chemist, has reported most favourably about this herb as of prompt use to arrest bleedings and floodings, when given in the form of a fluid extract, one or two teaspoonfuls for a dose. he explains that our hedge-row simple contains a tannate, an alkaloid "bursine," (which resembles sulphocyansinapine), and bursinic acid, this last constituent being the active medicinal principle. english chemists now prepare and dispense the fluid extract of the herb. this is given for dropsy in the u. s. america as a diuretic; from half to one teaspoonful in water for a dose. dr. von ehrenwall relates a recent case of female flooding, which had defied all the ordinary remedies, and for which, at the suggestion of a neighbour, he tried an infusion of the shepherd's purse weed, with the result that the bleeding stopped after the first teacupful of the infusion had been taken a few minutes. since then he has used the plant in various forms of haemorrhage with such success that he considers it the most reliable of our medicines for staying fluxes of blood. "shepherd's purse stayeth bleeding in any part of the body, whether the juice thereof be drunk, or whether it be used poultice-like, or in bath, or any way else." besides the ordinary constituents of herbs, it is found to contain six per cent. of soft resin, together with a sulphuretted volatile oil, which is identical with that of mustard, as obtained likewise from the bitter candytuft, _iberis amara_. its medicinal infusion should be made with an ounce of the plant to twelve ounces of water, reduced by [ ] boiling to half-a-pint; then a wineglassful may be given for a dose. the herb and its seeds were employed in former times to promote the regular monthly flow in women. it bears, further, the name of poor man's permacetty (or spermaceti), "the sovereignst remedy for bruises;"--"perhaps," says dr. prior, "as a joke on the latin name _bursa pastoris_, or 'purse,' because to the poor man this is always his best remedy." and in some parts of england the shepherd's purse is known as clapper pouch, in allusion to the licensed begging of lepers at our crossways in olden times with a bell and a clapper. they would call the attention of passers-by with the bell, or with the clapper, and would receive their alms in a cup, or a basin, at the end of a long pole. the clapper was an instrument made of two or three boards, by rattling which the wretched lepers incited people to relieve them. thus they obtained the name of rattle pouches, which appellation has been extended to this small plant, in allusion to the little purses which it hangs out by the wayside. because of these miniature pockets the herb is also named toy wort; and pick purse, through being supposed to steal the goodness of the land from the farmer. in queen elizabeth's time leper hospitals were common throughout england; and many of the sufferers were banished to the lizard, in cornwall. the shepherd's purse is now announced as the chief remedy of the seven "marvellous medicines" prepared by count mattaei, of bologna, which are believed by his disciples to be curative of diseases otherwise intractable, such as cancer, internal aneurism, and destructive leprosy. count mattaei professed to extract certain vegetable [ ] electricities found stored up in this, and some other plants, and to utilize them for curative purposes with almost miraculous success. his other herbs, as revealed by a colleague, count manzetti, are the knotgrass, the water betony, the cabbage, the stonecrop, the houseleek, the feverfew, and the watercress. lady paget, when interviewing count mattaei, gathered that shepherd's purse is the herb which furnishes the so-called "blue electricity," of extraordinary efficacy in controlling haemorrhages. small birds are fond of the seeds: and the young radical leaves are sold in philadelphia as greens in the spring. silverweed. two _potentillas_ occur among our common native plants, and possess certain curative virtues (as popularly supposed), the silverweed and the cinquefoil. they belong to the rose tribe, and grow abundantly on our roadsides, being useful as mild astringents. the _potentilla anserina_ (silverweed) is found, as its adjective suggests, where geese are put to feed. country folk often call it cramp weed: but it is more generally known as goose tansy, or goose gray, because it is a spurious tansy, fit only for a goose; or, perhaps, because eaten by geese. other names for the herb are silvery cinquefoil, and moorgrass. it occurs especially on clay soils, being recognised by its pinnate white silvery leaves, and its conspicuous golden flowers. in yorkshire the roots are known as "moors," which boys dig up and eat in the winter; whilst swine will also devour them greedily. they have then a sweet taste like parsnips. in scotland, also, they are eaten roasted, or boiled; and sometimes, in hard seasons, [ ] when other provisions were scanty, these roots have been known to support the inhabitants of certain islands for months together. both the roots and the leaves are mildly astringent; so that their infusion helps to stay diarrhoea, and the fluxes of women; making also with honey a useful gargle. the leaf is of an exquisitely beautiful shape, and may be seen carved on the head of many an old stall in church, or cathedral. by reason of its five leaflets, this gives to the plant the title "five leaf," or five fingered grass, _pentedaktulon_. _potentilla_ comes from the latin _potens_, as alluding to the medicinal virtues of the species. in former days the cinquefoil was much affected as a heraldic device through the number of the leaflets answering to the five senses of man; whilst the right to bear cinquefoil was considered an honourable distinction to him who had worthily mastered his senses, and conquered his passions. silverweed tea is excellent to relieve cramps of the belly; and compresses, wrung out of a hot decoction of the herb, may at the same time be helpfully applied over the seat of the cramps. a potent anglo-saxon charm against crampy bellyache was to wear a gold ring with a dolphin engraved on it, and bearing in greek the mystic words:--"theos keleuei mee keneoon ponois," "_god forbids the pains of colic_." this acted doubtless by mental suggestion, as in the cure of warts. the knee-cap bone, or patella, of a sheep, known locally as the "cramp-bone," is worn in northamptonshire for a like purpose; also the application of a gold wedding ring (first wetted with saliva, an ingredient in the holy salve of the saxons), to a stye threatened in an eyelid is often found to disperse the swelling; but in this case [ ] it may be, that a sulphocyanide of gold is formed with the spittle, which promotes the cure by absorption. a strong infusion, if used as a lotion, will check the bleeding of piles, the ordinary infusion being meantime taken as a medicine. the good people of leicestershire were accustomed in bygone days to prevent pitting by small-pox with the use of silverweed fomentations. a distilled water of the herb takes away freckles, spots, pimples in the face, and sunburnings; whilst all parts of the plant are found to contain tannin. the creeping cinquefoil (_potentilla replans_) grows also abundantly on meadow banks, having astringent roots, which have been used medicinally since the times of hippocrates and dioscorides. they were found to cure intermittent fevers, such as used to prevail in marshy or ill-drained lands much more commonly than now in great britain; though country folk still use the infusion or decoction for the same purpose in some districts; also for jaundice. likewise, because of the tannin contained in the outer bark of the roots, their decoction is useful against diarrhoea; and their infusion as a gargle for relaxed sore throats. but, except in mild cases, other more positively astringent herbs are to be preferred. the roots afford a useful red dye. skullcap. a useful medicinal tincture (h.) is made from the skullcap (_scutellaria_), which is a labiate plant of frequent growth on the banks of our rivers and ponds, having bright blue flowers, with a tube longer than the calyx. this is the greater variety (_galericulata_). there is a lesser variety (_scutellaria minor_), which is [ ] infrequent, and grows in bogs about the west of england, with flowers of a dull purple colour. each kind gets its name from the latin _scutella_, "a little cap," which the calyx resembles, and is therefore called hood wort, or helmet flower. the upper lip of the calyx bulges outward about its middle, and finally closes down like a lid over the fruit. when the seed is ripe it opens again. provers of the tincture (h.) in toxic doses experienced giddiness, stupor, and confusion of mind, twitchings of the limbs, intermission of the pulse, and other symptoms indicative of the epileptiform "petit mal"; for which morbid affection, and the disposition thereto, the said tincture, of a diluted strength, in small doses, has been successfully given. the greater skullcap contains, in common with most other plants of the same order, a volatile oil, tannin, fat, some bitter principle, sugar, and cellulose. if a decoction of the plant is made with two ounces of the herb to eight ounces of water, and is taken for some weeks continuously in recent epilepsy, or when the disease has only functional causes, it will often prove very beneficial. likewise, this decoction, in common with an extract of the herb, has been given curatively for intermittent fever and ague, as well as for some depressed, and disordered states of the nervous system. a dried extract of the lesser skullcap (_lateriflora_) is made by chemists, and given in doses of from one to three grains as a pill to relieve severe hiccough, and as a nervine stimulant; also for the sleeplessness of an exhausted brain. sloe. the parent tree which produces the sloe is the blackthorn, our hardy, thorny hedgerow shrub (_prunus_ [ ] _spinosa_), greek _prounee_, common everywhere, and starting into blossom of a pinky white about the middle of march before a leaf appears, each branchlet ending in a long thorn projecting beyond the flowers at right angles to the stem. from the conspicuous blackness of its rind at the time of flowering, the tree is named blackthorn, and the spell of harsh unkindly cold weather which prevails about then goes by the name of "blackthorn winter." the term sloe, or sla, means not the fruit but the hard trunk, being connected with a verb signifying to slay, or strike, probably because the wood of this tree was used as a flail, and nowadays makes a bludgeon. in the autumn every branch becomes clustered with the oval blue-black fruit presently covered with a fine purple bloom; and until mellowed by the early frosts, this fruit is very harsh and sour. the leaves, when they unfold late in the spring, are small and narrow. if dried, they make a very fair substitute for tea, and when high duties were placed on imported tea, it was usual to find the sloe trees stripped of their marketable foliage. furthermore, the dark ruby juice of sloes enters largely into the manufacture of british port wine, to which it communicates a beautiful deep red colour, and a pleasant sub-acid roughness. letters marked upon linen fabric with this juice, when used fresh, will not wash out. if obtained by expression from the unripe fruit, it is very useful as an astringent medicine, and is a popular remedy for stopping a flow of blood from the nose. it may be gently boiled to a thick consistence, and will then keep throughout the year without losing its virtues. winter-picks is a provincial name for the sloe fruit, [ ] and winter-pick wine takes the place of port in the rustic cellar. the french call them prunelles. sloe-blossoms make a safe, harmless, laxative medicine. to use these, "boil them up, and drink a cup of the tea daily for three or four days; it will act gently, painlessly, but thoroughly." the syrup is especially useful for children. country people bury the sloes in jars to preserve them for winter use; and the bush which bears this fruit is sometimes called, provincially, scroggs. sloes may be gathered when ripe on a dry day, picked clean, and put into jars or bottles, without any boiling or other process, and then covered with loaf sugar; a tablespoonful of brandy should presently be added, and the jar sealed. by christmas, the syrup formed from the juice, the sugar, and the spirit, will have covered and saturated the fruit, and then a couple of tablespoonfuls will not only make an agreeable dessert liqueur, but will act as an astringent cordial of a very pleasant sort. in somersetshire the sloe is named snag (as corrupted from "slag," i.e., sloe). the juice is viscid, and when thickened to dryness, is the german gum acacia. those provers who have taken experimentally a tincture made from the wood and bark and leaves of the blackthorn, all had to complain of sharp pains in the right eyeball and accordingly the diluted tincture is found, when administered in small quantities, to give signal relief for ciliary neuralgia, arising from a functional disorder of the structures within the eyeball. dr. hughes says: "it not only relieves such pains, but also checks the inflammation, and clears the vision." the medicinal tincture is made (h.) with proof spirit of wine from the flower buds collected in early spring [ ] before they expand. the sloe has been employed as a styptic ever since the time of dioscorides. "from the effects," says withering, "which i have repeatedly observed to follow a wound from the thorns, i find reason for believing that there is something poisonous in their nature, particularly in the autumn." next to the sloe in order of development comes the bullace (_prunus insititia_), a shrub with fewer thorns, and bearing its flowers after the leaves have begun to unfold. the fruit is five times as big as the sloe, but likewise of a delicate bluish colour. it is named from the latin plural bullas, meaning the round bosses which the romans put on their bridles. lydgate ( ) used the phrase, "as bright as bullaces," in one of his poems. in lincolnshire the blossom is known as "bully bloom," and the fruit are "bullies." after harvest the women and children go out gathering them for bullace-wine. boys in france call slot's "_sibarelles_," because it is impossible to whistle immediately after eating them. some writers say the signification of "sloe" is "that which sets the teeth on edge." finally comes the true wild plum (_prunus domestica_), which is far less common than the two preceding sorts. its flowers are large, and in small clusters, whilst the leaves unfold with the blossom. the fruit is a small brownish plum, intensely sharp and acrid to the taste, and the tree is thorny. only in this latter respect does it differ from an inferior kind of garden plum of which the cultivation has been neglected. the cultivated plum has been developed from the wild plum, and has been made to exhibit some fifty varieties of form and character. the fruit of damascus was formerly much valued, being now known as damascenes, (damsons), damasin, or damask prune. [ ] all the wild plums develop thorns; but the cultivated kinds have entirely cast them off. the plum, as a fruit, was known to the romans in cato's time, but not the tree. "little jack horner," says the familiar nursery rhyme, "sat in a corner, eating a christmas pie; he put in his thumb, and he pulled out a plum, and said 'what a good boy am i.'" "inquit, et unum extraheus prunum, horner, quam fueris nobile pueris exemplar imitabile"! when ripe, cultivated plums are cooling and slightly laxative, especially the french fruit, which is dried and bottled for dessert. they are useful for costive habits, and may be made into an electuary; but, when unripe, plums provoke choleraic diarrhoea. the garden fruit contains less sugar than cherries, but a large amount of gelatinising pectose. dr. johnson was specially fond of veal pie with plums and sugar. he taunted boswell about the need of gardeners to produce in scotland what grows wild in england. "pray, sir," said he, "are you ever able to bring the sloe to perfection there?" on change a hundred thousand pounds are whimsically known as "a plum," and a million of money is "a marigold." lately a chicago physician whilst officiating at a reformatory found that the boys behaved themselves much better when taking prunes in their diet than at any other time. these act, he supposes, on certain organs which are the seats, and centres of the passions. from france comes the greengage, named in that country (out of compliment to the queen of francis the first) _la reine claude_. it was brought to england from [ ] the monastery of la grande chartreuse, about the middle of the eighteenth century, by the rev. john gage, brother to the owner of hengrave hall, near coldham, suffolk; and taking his name this fruit soon became diffused throughout england. french prunes are conveyed to england in their dried state from marseilles. with their pulp, figs, tamarinds, and senna, the officinal "lenitive electuary" is made; and apothecaries prepare a medicinal tincture from the fresh flower-buds of the blackthorn. culpeper says: "all plumbs are under venus, and are like women-- some better, some worse." in sussex and some other counties, a superstitious fear attaches itself to the blackthorn in bloom, because of the apparent union of life and death when the tree is clothed in early spring with white flowers, but is destitute of leaves; so that to carry, or wear a piece of blackthorn in blossom, is thought to signify bringing a death token. soapwort. the soapwort (_saponaria officinalis_) grows commonly in england near villages, on roadsides, and by the margins of woods, in moist situations. it belongs to the _caryophyllaceoe_, or clove and pink tribe of plants; and a double flowered variety of it is met with in gardens. this is miss mitford's "spicer" in _our village_. it is sometimes named "bouncing bet," and "fuller's herb." the root has a sweetish bitter taste, but no odour. it contains resin and mucilage, in addition to saponin, which is its leading principle, and by virtue of which decoctions of the root produce a soapy froth. saponin is likewise found in the nuts of the horse-chestnut tree, and in the scarlet pimpernel. [ ] a similar soapy quality is also observed in the leaves, so much so that they have been used by mendicant monks as a substitute for soap in washing their clothes. this "saponin" has considerable medicinal efficacy, being especially useful for the cure of inveterate syphilis without giving mercury. several writers of note aver that such cases have been cured by a decoction of the plant; though perhaps the conclusion has been arrived at through the resemblance between the roots of soapwort and those of sarsaparilla. gerard says: "ludovicus septalius, when treating of decoctions in use against the french poxes, mentions the singular effect of the soapwort against that filthy disease"; but, he adds, "it is somewhat of an ungrateful taste, and therefore must be reserved for the poorer sort of patients." he employed it _soepe et soepius_. the _pharmacopoeia chirurgica_ of , teaches: "a decoction of this plant has been found useful for scrofulous, impetiginous, and syphilitic affections. boil down half a pound of the bruised fresh herb in a gallon of distilled water to two quarts, and give from one to three pints in the twenty-four hours." formerly the herb was called bruisewort, and was thought of service for contusions. it will remove stains, or grease almost as well as soap, but contains no starch. saponin, when smelt, excites long-continued sneezing; if injected or administered, it reduces the frequency and force of the heart's pulsations, paralyzing the cardiac nerves, and acting speedily on the vaso-motor centres, so as to arrest the movements of the heart, on which principle, when given in a diluted form, and in doses short of all toxic effects, it has proved of signal use in low typhoid inflammation of the lungs, where restorative stimulation of the heart is to be aimed at. [ ] also, likewise for passive suppression of the female monthly flow, it will act beneficially as a stimulant of the womb to incite its periodical function. in a patient who took a poisonous quantity of saponin at saint petersburg all the muscular contractile sensitiveness was completely abolished; whilst, nevertheless, all the bodily functions were normally performed. per contra, this effect should be a curative guide in the use of soapwort as a simple. saponin is found again in the root and unripe seeds of the corn cockle, and in all parts of the nottingham catch-fly except the seeds; also in the wild lychnis, and some others of the pink tribe. solomon's seal. the solomon's seal (_convallaria polygonatum_) is a handsome woodland plant by no means uncommon throughout england, particularly in berkshire, bucks, rants, kent, and suffolk. it grows to the height of about two feet, bearing along its curved drooping branches handsome bells of pure white, which hang down all along the lower side of the gracefully weeping flower stalks. the oval leaves are ribbed, and grow alternately from the stem, for which reason the plant is called ladder-to-heaven; or, "more probably," says dr. prior, "from a confusion of _seal de notre dame_ (our lady's seal), with _echelle de notre dame_ (our lady's ladder)." the round depressions resembling seal marks, which are found on the root, or the characters which appear when it is cut transversely, gave rise to the notion that solomon, "who knew the diversities of plants, and the virtues of roots," had set his seal upon this in testimony of its value to man as a medicinal root. the rhizome and [ ] herb contain convallarin, asparagin, gum, sugar, starch, and pectin. in galen's time the distilled water was used by ladies as a cosmetic for removing pimples and freckles from the skin, "leaving the place fresh, fair, and lovely." during the reign of elizabeth it had great medical celebrity, so that, as we learn from a contemporary writer, "the roots of solomon's seal, stamped whilst fresh and green, and applied, taketh away, in one night, or two at the most, any bruise, black or blue spots gotten by falls, or woman's wilfulness in stumbling upon their hasty husband's fists, or such like," and "that which might be trewly written of this herb as touching the knitting of bones, would seem to some well nigh incredible; yea, although they be but slenderly, and unhandsomely wrapped-up; but common experience teacheth that in the worlde there is not to be found another herbe comparable for the purpose aforesaid. it was given to the patients in ale to drink--as well unto themselves as to their cattle--and applied outwardly in the manner of a pultis." the name lady's seal was conferred on this plant by old writers, as also st. mary's seal, _sigillum sanctoe marioe_. the arabs understand by solomon's seal the figure of a six-pointed star, formed by two equilateral triangles intersecting each other, as frequently mentioned in oriental tales. gerard maintains that the name, _sigillum solomunis_, was given to the root "partly because it bears marks something like the stamp of a seal, but still more because of the virtue the root hath in sealing or healing up green wounds, broken bones, and such like, being stamp't and laid thereon." the bottle of brass told of in the _arabian nights_ as fished up was closed with a stopper of lead bearing the [ ] "seal of our lord suleyman." this was a wonderful talisman which was said to have come down from heaven with the great name of god engraved upon it, being composed of brass for the good genii, and iron for the evil jinn. the names _convallaria polygonatum_ signify "growth in a valley," and "many jointed." other titles of the plant are many knees, jacob's ladder, lily of the mountain, white wort, and seal wort. the turks eat the young shoots of this plant just as we eat asparagus. sorrel. (_see_ "dock," _page_ .) southernwood. southernwood, or southern wormwood, though it does not flower in this country, is well known as grown in every cottage garden for its aromatic fragrance. it is the _artemisia abrotanum_, a composite plant of the wormwood tribe, commonly known as "old man." pliny explains that this title is borne because of the plant being a sexual restorative to those in advanced years, as explained by macer:-- "hoec etiam venerem pulvino subdita tantum incitat." pliny says further that this herb is potent against syphilis, and _veneficia quibus coitus inhibeatur_. its odour is lemon-like, and depends on a volatile essential oil which consists chiefly of absinthol, and is common to the other wormwoods. "abrotanum" is a greek term. another appellation of this plant is "lad's love," and "boy's love," from the making of an ointment with its [ ] ashes, to be used by youngsters for promoting the growth of the beard. "cinis abrotani barbam segnius tardiusque enascentem cum aliquo dictorum oleorum elicit." the plant is found in spain and italy as an indigenous herb. its leaves and tops have a strong aromatic odour, and a penetrating warms bitterish taste which is rather nauseous. an infusion, or tea, of the herb is agreeable: but a decoction is distasteful, having lost much of the aroma. the plant was formerly in great repute as a cordial against hysterics, and to strengthen the stomach of a weakly person. it will expel both round worms and thread worms, whilst its presence is hostile to moths; and hence has been got one of its french names, "garde robe." externally it will promote the growth of the hair. in lincolnshire it is known as "motherwood." sowbread, or cyclamen. (_see page_ , "primrose.") speedwell. this little plant, with its exquisite flowers of celestial blue, grows most familiarly in our hedgerows throughout the spring, and early summer. its brilliant, gemlike blossoms show a border of pale purple, or delicate violet, marked with deeper veins or streaks. but the lovely circlet of petals is most fragile, and falls off at a touch; whence are derived the names speedwell, farewell, good-bye, and forget-me-not. speedwell is a veronica (_fero_, "i bring," _nikee_, "victory"), which tribe was believed to belong especially to birds. so the plant bears the name "birds' eyes," as well as "blue eyes," "strike fires," and "mammy die" (because of the belief that if the herb were brought [ ] into a family the mother would die within the year). turner calls the plant "fluellin," or "lluellin," a name "the shentleman of wales have given it because it saved her nose, which a disease had almost gotten from her." further, it is the paul's betony, called after paulus oegineta. the plant belongs to the scroflua-curing order. it is related that a shepherd observed how a stag, whose hind-quarters were covered with a scabby eruption brought about through the bite of a wolf, cured itself by rolling on plants of the speedwell, and by eating its leaves. thereupon he commended the plant to his king, and thus promoted his majesty's restoration to health. in germany it bears the title _grundheele_, from having cured a king of france who suffered from a leprosy for eight years, which disease is named _grund_ in german. at one time the herb was held in high esteem as a specific for gout in this country, but it became adulterated, and its fame suffered a downfall. the only sensible quality of the speedwell is the powerful astringency of its leaves, and this property serves to protect it from herbivorous foes. it has been long held famous among countryfolk as an excellent plant for coughs, asthma, and pulmonary consumption. the leaves are bitter, with a rough taste; and a decoction of the whole plant stimulates the kidneys. the infusion promotes perspiration, and reduces feverishness. the juice may be boiled into a syrup with honey, for asthma and catarrhs. when applied outwardly, it is said to cure the itch; and by some it has been asserted that a continued use of the infusion will overcome sterility, if taken daily as a tea. the french still distinguish the plant as the [ ] _thé d'europe_; and a century ago it was used commonly in germany in substitution for tea. as a medicine, by reason of its astringency, it became called _polychresta herba veronica_. "my freckles with the speedwell's juices washed," says alfred austin, our poet laureate. the germans also name this plant _ehren-preis_, or prize of honour; which fact favours the supposition of its being the true "forget-me-not," or _souveigne vous de moy_, as legendary on knightly collars of yore to commemorate a famous joust fought in between the most accomplished champions of england and france. the present forget-me-not is a _myosotis_, or mouse ear, or scorpion grass. in somersetshire, the pretty little germander speedwell is known as cat's eye: and because seeming to reflect by its azure colour the beautiful blue firmament above, this pure-tinted blossom has got its name of _veron eikon_, the "true image" (_veronica_); just as the napkin with which a compassionate maiden wiped the face of christ on the morning of his crucifixion, held imprinted for ever on its fabric a miraculous portrait, which led to her being afterwards canonised on this account as saint veronica. the emperor charles the fifth of spain is said to have derived much relief to his gout from the use of this herb. it contains tannin, and a particular bitter principle. spinach. spinach (_lapathum hortense_) is a persian plant which has been cultivated in our gardens for about two hundred years; and considerably longer on the continent. some say the spinach was originally brought [ ] from spain. it was produced by monks in france at the middle of the th century. this is a light vegetable, easily digested, and rather laxative, besides having some wonderful properties ascribed to its use. its sub-order, the saltworts (_salsolaceoe_), are found growing in marshes by the seashore, and as weeds by waste places, serving some of them to expel worms. "spinach," says john evelyn, "if crude, the oft'ner kept out of sallets the better; but being boiled to a pulp; and without other water than its own moisture, is a most excellent condiment with butter, vinegar, or lemon, for almost all sorts of boiled flesh, and may accompany a sick man's diet. 'tis laxative and emollient, and therefore profitable for the aged." spinach is richer in iron than the yolk of the egg, which contains more than beef. its juice produced in cooking the leaves without adding any water is a wholesome drink, and improves the complexion. it was with a delicate offering of "gammon and spinach" in his hands, mr. anthony roley, of nursery fame, went so sadly a wooing:-- "ranula furtivos statuebat quaoerere amores: me miserum! tristi rolius ore gemit. ranula furtivos statuebat quoerere amores, mater sive daret, sive negaret iter." a wild species of spinach, the "good king henry," grows in england, and is popular as a pot herb in lincolnshire. spindle tree (celastracoe). during the autumn, in our woody hedgerows a shrub becomes very conspicuous by bearing numerous rose-coloured floral capsules, strikingly brilliant, each with a [ ] scarlet and orange-coloured centre. this is the spindle tree (_euonymus_), so called because it furnishes wood for spindles, or skewers, whence it is also named prickwood, skewerwood, and gadrise, or gad rouge. the word "gad" is used in our western counties for a stick pointed at both ends to fasten down thatch. the spindle tree has a green bark, and glossy leaves, producing only small greenish flowers: whilst the pendulous ornaments so brilliantly borne in autumn are four-lobed capsules of a pale red hue, which open out and disclose ruddy orange-coloured seeds wrapped in a scarlet arillus. it is further known as the louseberry tree, from the fruit being applied to destroy lice in children's heads, whilst its powdered bark will kill nits, and serve to remove scurf. other popular titles owned by this shrub are "gatter," "gatten," and "gatteridge." the ripe fruit, from which a medicinal tincture is prepared, furnishes euonymin, a golden resin, which is purgative and emetic. this acts specially on the liver, and promotes a free flow of bile. the plant also yields asparagin, and euonic acid. an ointment is made with the fruits: and the powdered resin is given in doses of from half-a-grain to two grains. in the united states of america, this tree is the wahoo, or burning bush. the green leaves of one species are eaten by the arabs to induce watchfulness. in allusion to the actively irritating properties of the shrub, its name, _euonymus_, is associated with that of euonyme, the mother of the furies. the bark is mildly aperient and causes no nausea, whilst at the same time stimulating the liver somewhat freely. to make its decoction add an ounce to a pint of water, and boil together slowly. a small wineglassful may be given, when cool, for a dose two or three times in the day. of the medicinal tincture made from the bark with spirit [ ] of wine, a dose of from five to ten drops may be taken with water in the same way. french doctors call the shrub fusain, or _bonnet de prètre_ (birretta). they give the fruit, three or four for a dose, as a purgative in rural districts: and employ the decoction, whilst adding some vinegar, as a lotion against mange in horses and cattle. also, they make from the wood when slightly charred a delicate crayon for artists. spurge. conspicuous in summer by their golden green leaves, and their striking epergnes of bright emerald blossoms, the wood spurge, and the petty spurge, adorn our woodlands and gardens commonly and very remarkably. together with many other allied plants, foreign and indigenous, they yield from their severed stems a milky juice of medicinal properties. the name _euphorbioe _has been given to this order from euphorbus, the favourite physician of juba, king of mauritania. all the spurges possess the same poisonous principle, which may, however, be readily dissipated by heat; and then, in many instances, the root becomes a nourishing and palatable food. for example, the manioc, a south american spurge, furnishes a juice which has been known to kill in a few minutes. nevertheless, its root baked, after first draining away the juice, makes a wholesome bread: and by washing the fresh pulp a starch is produced which we know as tapioca for our table. this is so sustaining that half-a-pound a day is said to be sufficient of itself to support a healthy man. the indian rubber and castor oil plants belong also to this order of euphorbioe. the wood spurge, seen so frequently during our country rambles, suggests by its spreading aspect a [ ] clever juggler balancing on his upturned chin a widely-branched series of delicate green saucers on fragile stems, which ramify below from a single rod. each saucer is the bearer again of sub-divided pedicels which stretch out to support other brightly verdant little leafy dishes; so that the whole system of well poised flowering perianths forms a specially handsome candelabrum of emerald (cup-like) bloom. the botanical title spurge is derived from _expurgare_, to act as a purgative, because of the acrid juice possessing this property. gerard says "the juice of the wood spurge, if given as physic, must be ministered with discretion, and prepared with correctories by some honest apothecary." furthermore, this juice, "if mixed with honey causeth hair to fall from that part which is anointed therewith, if it be done in the sun." therefore, what better place may there be than a wooded english meadow on a sunny day for a clean and convenient natural shave by those of the fair sex who, unhappily, own hirsute facial appendages of which they would gladly be rid? _euphorbia peplus_, the petty spurge, is equally common, and often called "wart weed." it signifies, "welcome to our house," and turns its flowers towards the sun. the irish spurge (_hiberna_), is so powerful that a small bundle of its bruised plant will kill the fish for several miles down a river. yet another spurge (_lathyris_), a twin brother, bears caper-like seeds which are sometimes dishonestly pickled and sold as a (dangerous) substitute for the toothsome flowerbuds taken in sauce with our boiled mutton. the whole tribe of spurges contains two hundred genera, and forms, what we call now-a-days, "a large order." the roots of several common kinds are used in making quack medicines, which are unsafe, [ ] and violent in action. because of its milk-white sap the wood spurge bears the name in somersetshire of virgin mary's nipple: and yet in other parts, for the like reason, this plant is known as devil's milk. chemically, most of the spurges contain caoutchouc, resin, gallic acid, and their particular acrid principle which has not been fully defined. in france the rustics sometimes purge themselves with a dose of from six to twelve grains of the dried wood spurge: and its juice is used in this country as an application to destroy warts; also, to be rubbed in behind the ear for ear-ache, or face-ache. the famous surgeon, cheselden, employed a noted plaster made with the resin of spurge for relieving disease of the hip joint by counterstimulation. but, to sum up, i would say with wise gerard, "these herbes by mine advice should not be received into the body, considering there be so many other good and wholesome potions to be made with other herbes that may be taken without peril." nevertheless, a tincture prepared (h.) from the wood spurge, with spirit of wine, may be given admirably in much diluted doses for curing the same severe symptoms which the plant produces when taken to a toxical degree. offensive diarrhoea, with prolapse of the lowest bowel, will be certainly remedied by four or five drops of this tincture, first decimal strength, with water, every two or three hours: especially if, at the same time, there be a burning and stinging soreness of the throat. said young rosamond berew ( ), in _malvern chase_, concerning "a tall gaunt figure," noted for her knowledge of herbs, sometimes called the witch, but worshipped by the hinds and their children:--"there is mary, of eldersfield; i expect she has been on berthill after nettles to make a capon sit, or to gather spurges for ointments." [ ] stitchwort. the stitchworts, greater and less (_stellaria holostea_), grow very abundantly as herbal weeds in all our dry hedges and woods, having tough stems which run closely together, and small white star-like (_stellaria_) blossoms. these plants are of the same order (chickweed) as the alsine and the small chickweed. their second name, holostea, signifies "all bones," because the whole plant is very brittle from the flinty elements which its structures contain. as its title declares, the great stitchwort has a widespread reputation for curing the stitch, or sharp muscular pain, which often attacks one or other side of the body about the lower ribs. in the days of the old saxon leechdoms it was customary against a stitch to make the sign of the cross, and to sing three times over the part:-- "longinus miles lanceâ pinxit dominum: restet sanguis, et recedat dolor!" "the spear of longinus, the soldier, pierced our saviour's side: may the blood, therefore, quicken: and the pain no longer abide!" or some similar form of charm. gerard said of folk, in his day: "they are wont to drink it in wine (with the powder of acorns) against the pain in the side, stitches, and such like." but according to dr. prior, the herb is named rather because curing the sting (in german _stich_) of venomous reptiles. in country places the stitchwort is known as adder's meat, and the satin flower: also miller's star, shirtbutton, and milk maid, in yorkshire: the early english name was bird's tongue. [ ] about, plymouth, it is dedicated to the pixies; whilst the lesser variety is called white sunday, because of its delicate white blossoms, with golden-dusted stamens. these were associated with the new converts baptised in white garments on low sunday--the first sunday after easter--named, therefore, white sunday. but in some parts of wales the stitchwort bears the names of devil's-eyes and devil's-corn. boys in devonshire nickname the herb snapjack, snapcrackers, and snappers. parkinson tells us that in former days it was much commended by some to clear the eyes of dimness by dropping the fresh juice into them. again, galen said: "the seed is sharp and biting to him that tastes it." as a modern curative simple, the stitchworts, greater and less, stand related to silica, a powerfully remedial preparation of highly pulverised flint. this is because of the exquisitely subdivided flint found abundantly dispersed throughout the structures of stitchwort plants; which curative principle is eminently useful in chronic diseases, such as cancer, rickets, and scrofula. it exercises a deep and slow action, such as is remedially brought to bear by the bethesda waters of america, and the powdered oyster shells of sir spencer wells. the fresh infusion should be steadily taken, a tea-cupful three times daily, for weeks or months together. it may be made with a pint of boiling water to an ounce of the fresh herb. likewise, the fresh plant should be boiled and eaten as "greens," so as to secure medicinally the insoluble parts of the silica. this further serves against albumen, and sugar in the urine. [ ] stone crop (_see house leek, page _). strawberry. properly, our familiar strawberry plant is a native of cold climates, and so hardy that it bears fruit freely in lapland. when mixed with reindeer cream, and dried in the form of a sausage, this constitutes kappatialmas, the plum pudding of the polar regions. "strawberry" is from the anglo-saxon _strowberige_, of which the first syllable refers to anything strewn. the wild woodland strawberry (_fragaria vesca_) is the progenitor of our highly cultivated and delicious fruit. this little hedgerow and sylvan plant has a root which is very astringent, so that when held in the mouth it will stay any flow of blood from the nostrils. its berries are more acid than the garden strawberry, and make an excellent cleanser of the teeth, the acid juice dissolving incrustations of tartar without injuring the enamel. a medicinal tincture is ordered (h.) from the berries of this woodland strawberry, which is of excellent service for nettle rash, or allied erysipelas: also for a suffocative swelling of the swallowing throat. "_ipsa tuis manibus sylvestri nata sub umbrâa: mollia fraga leges_," says ovid. an infusion of the leaves is of excellent service in dysentery. it is incorrect to call the fruit a berry, because the edible, succulent pulp is really a juicy cushion over which numerous small seeds are plentifully dotted; whilst the name strawberry is a corruption of strayberry, in allusion to the trailing runners, which stray in all directions from the parent stock. being of very ancient date, the strawberry is found widely diffused throughout most parts of the world. [ ] among the greeks its name _komaros_, "a mouthful," indicated the compact size of the fruit. by the latins it was termed _fragaria_, because of its delicate perfume. virgil ranked it with sweet-smelling flowers; ovid gave it a tender epithet; pliny mentions the strawberry as one of the native fruits of italy; linnaeus declared he kept himself free from gout by eating plentifully of the fruit; and hoffman says he has known consumption cured by the same means. from shakespeare we learn that in his day the fruit was grown in holborn, now the centre of london. gloster, when contemplating the death of hastings, wishes to get the bishop of ely temporarily out of the way, and thus addresses him:-- "my lord of ely--when i was last in holborn i saw good strawberries in your garden there; i do beseech you send for some of them." in elizabeth's time doctors made a tea from the leaves to act on the kidneys, and used the roots as astringent. all former herbalists agreed in pronouncing strawberries wholesome and beneficial beyond every other english fruit. their smell is refreshing to the spirits; they abate fever, promote urine, and are gently laxative. the leaves may be used in gargles for quinsies and sore mouths, but, "if anyone suffering from a wound in the head should partake of this fruit, it would certainly prove fatal," in accordance with a widespread superstition. so wholesome are strawberries, that if laid in a heap and left by themselves to decompose, they will decay without undergoing any acetous fermentation; nor can their kindly temperature be soured even by exposure to the acids of the stomach. they are constituted entirely of soluble matter, and leave no residuum to [ ] hinder digestion. it is probably for this reason, and because the fruit does not contain any actual nutriment as food, that a custom has arisen of combining rich clotted cream with it at table, whilst at the same time the sharp juices are thus agreeably modified. "mella que erunt epulis, et lacte fluentia fraga":-- "then sit on a cushion, and sew up a seam; and thou shalt have strawberries, sugar, and cream." cardinal wolsey regaled off this delicate confection with the lords of the star chamber; and charles lamb is reported to have said, "doubtless, god almighty could have made a better berry, but he never did." parkinson advised that water distilled from strawberries is good for perturbation of the spirits, and maketh the heart merry. the fruit especially suits persons of a bilious temperament, being "a surprising remedy for the jaundice of children, and particularly helping the liver of pot companions, wetters, and drammers." "some also do use thereof to make a water for hot inflammations in the eyes, and to take away any film that beginneth to grow over them. into a closed glass vessel they put so many strawberries as they think meet for their purpose, and let this be set in a bed of hot horse manure for twelve or fourteen days, being afterwards distilled carefully, and the water kept for use." the chemical constituents of the strawberry are--a peculiar volatile aroma, sugar, mucilage, pectin, citric and malic acids in equal parts, woody fibre, and water. the fruit is mucilaginous, somewhat tart and saccharine. it stimulates perspiration, and imparts a violet scent to the urine. when fermented for the purpose it yields an ardent spirit. if beaten into a pulp [ ] when ripe, and with water poured thereupon, it makes a capital cooling drink which is purifying, and somewhat laxative. strawberries are especially suitable in inflammatory and putrid fevers, and for catarrhal sore throats. french herbalists direct that when fresh, and recently crushed, the fruit shall be applied on the face at night for heat spots and freckles by the sun. from the juice, with lemon, sugar, and water, they concoct a most agreeable drink, _bavaroise à la grecque_; also they employ the roots and leaves against passive hemorrhages, and in chronic diarrhoea. in germany, stewed strawberries, and strawberry jam are taken at dinner with roasted meats, or with chicken. this jam promotes a free flow of urine. it is to be noticed that though most commonly wholesome and refreshing, yet with some persons, particularly those of a strumous bodily habit, strawberries will often disagree. the late dr. armstrong held a very strong opinion that the seed grains which lie sprinkled allover the outer surface of each pulpy berry are prone to excite much intestinal irritation, and he advised his patients to suck their strawberries through muslin, in order to prevent these diminutive seeds from being swallowed. german legends dedicate strawberries to the virgin, with whom they are reputed to have been a favourite fruit. she went a berrying with the children on st. john's morning; and therefore no mother who has lost a young child, will taste the delicacy then. the strawberries symbolise little children who have died when young, and the mothers suppose they ascend to heaven concealed in the fragrant pulp. from the french, _fraise_, signifying the strawberry [ ] leaves borne on the family shield, is derived in scotland the name of the frazers. and eight of these (so called) leaves wrought in ornamental gold form a part of the coronet which our english dukes claim as one of their proud insignia, conferred by henry the fourth. being desirous of adding fresh splendour to the coronation of a lancastrian prince he introduced these leaves into the regal crown. an earl's coronet has eight leaves: that of a marquis four. succory. the wild succory (_cichorium intybus_) is a common roadside english plant, white or blue, belonging to the composite order, and called also turnsole, because it always turns its flowers towards the sun. it blows with a blue blossom somewhat paler than the cornflower, but "bearing a golden heart." its fresh root is bitter, and a milky juice flows from the rind, which is somewhat aperient and slightly sedative, so that this specially suits persons troubled with bilious torpor, and jaundice combined with melancholy. an infusion of the herb is useful for skin eruptions connected with gout. if the root and leaves are taken freely, they will produce a gentle diarrhoea, their virtue lying chiefly in the milky juice; and on good authority the plant has been pronounced useful against pulmonary consumption. in germany it is called wegwort, or "waiting on the way." the syrup of succory is an excellent laxative for children. the succory or cichorium was known to the romans, and was eaten by them as a vegetable, or in salads. horace writes (_ode_ ): "me pascunt olivae, me chicorea, levesque malvae." [ ] and virgil, in his first _georgic_, speaks of _amaris intuba fibris_. when cultivated it becomes large, and constitutes chicory, of which the taproot is used extensively in france for blending with coffee, being closely allied to the endive and the dandelion. this is the _chicorée frisée_ when bleached, or the _barbe de capucin_. the cortical part of the root yields a milky saponaceous juice which is very bitter and slightly sedative. some writers suppose the succory to be the horehound of the bible. in the german story, _the watcher of the road_, a lovely princess, abandoned for a rival, pines away, and asking only to die where she can be constantly on the watch, becomes transformed into the wayside succory. this succory plant bears also the name of _rostrum porcinum_. its leaves, when bruised, make a good poultice for inflamed eyes, being outwardly applied to the grieved place. also the leaves when boiled in pottage or broths for sick and feeble persons that have hot, weak, and feeble stomachs, do strengthen the same. it is said that the roots, if put into heaps and dried, are liable to spontaneous combustion. the taproot of the cultivated plant is roasted in france, and mixed with coffee, to which, when infused, it gives a bitterish taste and a dark colour. the chemical constituents of succory and chicory are--in addition to those ordinarily appertaining to vegetables--inulin, and a special bitter principle not named. chicory, when taken too habitually or too freely, causes venous passive congestion in the digestive organs within the abdomen, and a fulness of blood in the head. both it and succory, if used in excess as a medicine, will bring about amaurosis, or loss of visual power in [ ] the retina of the eyes. therefore, when given in a much diluted form they are remedial for these affections. the only benefit of quality which chicory gives to coffee is by increase of colour and body, with some bitterness, but not by possessing any aroma, or fragrant oil, or stimulating virtue. french writers say it is _contra-stimulante_, and serving to correct the excitation caused by the active principles of coffee, and therefore it suits sanguineo-bilious subjects who suffer from habitual tonic constipation. but it is ill adapted for persons whose vital energy soon flags; and for lymphatic, or bloodless people its use should be altogether forbidden. the flowers of succory used to rank among the four cordial flowers, and a water was distilled from them to allay inflammation of the eyes. the seeds contain abundantly a demulcent oil, whilst the petals furnish a glucoside which is colourless unless treated with alkalies, when it becomes of a golden yellow. sundew. the sundew (_ros solis_, or _drosera rotundifolia_) is a little plant always eagerly recognised in marshy and heathy grounds by ardent young botanists. in the sun its leaves seem tipped with dew (_drosos_). it grows plentifully in hampshire and the new forest, bearing a cluster of hairy leaves in a stellate form, at the top of a slender stem. these leaves either from lack of other sustenance in so barren a soil, or more probably as an advance in plant evolution to a higher grade of development, excrete a sticky moisture or dew, which entangles unwary flies settling on the plant, and which serves to digest these victims therewith. each of the long red [ ] hairs on the leaves is viscid, and possesses a small secreting gland at its top. some writers say the word sundew means "sin" ever, moist (dew). the plant is also called redrot, and moor grass, because the soil in which it grows is unwholesome for sheep. it goes further by the additional names of youthwort, and lustwort--_quia acrimonia sua sopitum veneris desiderium excitat_ (dodoeus). the fresh juice of the herb contains malic acid in a free state, various salts, and a red colouring matter; also glucose, and a peculiar crystallisable acid. cattle of the female gender are said to have their copulative instincts excited by eating even a small quantity of the plant. throughout europe it has long been esteemed a remedy of repute for chronic bronchitis and asthma; and more recently, in the hands of homoeopathic practitioners, it has acquired a fame for specifically curing whooping cough in its spasmodic stages, after the first feverishness of this malady has become subdued. it signally lessens the frequency and force of the spasmodic attacks, besides diminishing the sickness. provers who have pushed on themselves the administration of the sundew in toxical quantities, developed hoarseness, with expectoration of yellow mucus from the throat and upper lungs, as well as a hacking cough, and loss of flesh, this combination of symptoms closely resembling the form of tubercular consumption which begins in the throat, and extends mischievously to the lungs. regarded from such point the sundew may be justly pronounced a homoeopathic antidote to consumptive disease of the nature here indicated, when attacking spontaneously from constitutional causes. [ ] moreover, country folk notice that sheep who eat the sundew in their pasturage have often a violent cough, and waste away. dr. curie, of paris, fed cats with this plant, and they died subsequently with all the symptoms of lung consumption, their chest organs being afterwards found studded with tubercular deposit though cats are not ordinarily liable to tubercle. so the sundew may fairly be accepted as a medicinal simple for laryngeal and pulmonary consumption in its early stages, as well as for whooping-cough, after the manner already explained. a tincture is made (h.) from the entire fresh plant, with spirit of wine, of which a couple of drops may be given in water several times a day, to a child of from four to eight years old, for confirmed whooping-cough; and if this dose seems to aggravate the paroxysms, or to provoke sickness, it must be reduced in strength, and dilution. also from four to ten drops of the tincture may be administered with a tablespoonful of cold water, two or three times a day, for several consecutive weeks, to a consumptive adult, in the early stages of this disease. dr. hughes (brighton) has employed a diluted tincture of the sundew (one part of this tincture admixed with nine parts of spirit of wine) in doses of from three to five drops with water, to a child of from three to eight years of age, for spasmodic whooping-cough, several times in the day, with marked success; whilst a larger dose or the stronger tincture served only to increase the cough in violence and frequency. the same results may perhaps follow too strong or full a dose to a consumptive patient, so that it must be regulated by the effects produced. externally, the juice [ ] of the fresh sundew has been used for destroying warts. sunflower. the sunflower (_helianthus annuus_) which is so popular and brilliant an ornament of cottage gardens throughout england in summer and autumn, is an importation of long standing, and has been called the marigold of peru. its general nature and appearance are so well known as scarcely to need any description. the plant is of the composite order, indigenous to tropical america, but flourishing well in this country, whilst bearing the name of _heli-anthus_ (sunflower), and smelling of turpentine when the disc of the flower is broken across. the growing herb is highly useful for drying damp soils, because of its remarkable power of absorbing water; for which reason several acres of sunflowers are now planted in the thames valley. swampy districts in holland have been made habitable by an extensive culture of the sunflower, the malarial miasmata being absorbed and nullified, whilst pure oxygen is emitted abundantly. an old rhyme declares, for some unknown reason:-- "the full sunflower blew and became a starre of bartholomew." the name sunflower has been given as most persons think because the flowers follow the sun by day turning always towards its shining face. but gerard says, about this alleged fact, he never could observe it to happen, though he spared no pains to observe the matter; he rather thought the flower to have got its title because resembling the radiant beams of the sun. likewise, [ ] some have called it corona solis, and sol indianus, the indian sunne-floure: by others it is termed chrysanthemum peruvianum. in peru this flower was much reverenced because of its resemblance to the radiant sun, which luminary was worshipped there. in their temples of the sun the priestesses were crowned with sunflowers, and wore them in their bosoms, and carried them in their hands. the early spanish invaders found in these temples numerous representations of the sunflower wrought in pure virgin gold, the workmanship of which was so exquisite that it far out-valued the precious metal whereof they were made. some country folk call it "lady eleven o'clock." if the buds of the sunflower before expanding be boiled, and eaten with butter, vinegar and pepper, after the manner of serving the jerusalem artichoke, they are exceeding pleasant meat, surpassing the artichoke moreover in provoking the _desiderium veneris_. the chinese make their finest yellow dye from the sunflower, which they worship because resembling the sun. all parts of the plant contain much carbonate of potash; and the fruit, or seed, furnishes a fixed oil in abundance. the kernels of the seeds contain helianthic acid, and the pith of the plant will yield nine per cent. of carbonate of potash. the oil of the sunflower may be used as olive oil, and the cake after expressing away this oil makes a good food for cattle. a medicinal tincture (h.) is prepared from the seed with rectified spirit of wine; also from the fresh juice with diluted spirit. each of these serves admirably against intermittent fever and ague, instead of quinine. the sunflower is adored by the chinese as the most useful of all vegetables. from its seeds the best oil is [ ] extracted, and an excellent soap is made. this oil burns longer than any other vegetable oil, and sunflower cake is more fattening to cattle than linseed cake. the flowers furnish capital food for bees, and the leaves are of use for blending with tobacco. the stalk yields a fine fibre employed in weaving chinese silk, and evelyn tells of "the large sunflower, ere it comes to expand and show its golden face, being dressed as an artichoke, and eaten as a dainty." the plant is closely allied in its species to the globe artichoke, and the jerusalom artichoke (_girasole_), so named from turning _vers le soleil_, or _au soleil_, this being corrupted to "jerusalem," and its soup by further perversion to "palestine" soup. the original moorish name was archichocke, or earththorn. the globe artichoke (_cinara maxima anglicana_) of our kitchen gardens, when boiled and brought to table, has a middle pulp which is eaten as well as the soft delicate pulp at the base of each prickly floret. "this middle pulp," says gerard, "when boiled with the broth of fat flesh, and with pepper added, makes a dainty dish being pleasant to the taste, and accounted good to procure bodily desire. (it stayeth the involuntary course of the natural seed)." evelyn tells us: "this noble thistle brought from italy was at first so rare in england that they were commonly sold for crowns apiece." pliny says: "carthage spent three thousand pounds sterling a year in them." the plant is named cinara, from _cinis_, "ashes," because land should be manured with these. it contains phosphoric acid, and is, therefore, stimulating. the leaves of the globe artichoke afford somewhat freely on expression a juice which is bitter, and acts as [ ] a brisk diuretic in many dropsies. such a constituent in the plant was known to the arabians for curdling milk. the jerusalem artichoke (_helianthus tuberosus_) is of the sunflower genus, having been brought at first from brazil, and being now commonly cultivated in england for its edible tubers. these are red outside, and white within; they contain sugar, and albumen, with all aromatic volatile principle, and water. the tuber is the _topinambour_, and _pois de terre_ of the french; having been brought to europe in . it furnishes more sugar and less starch than the potato. in the jerusalem artichoke was quite common as a vegetable in london: though, says parkinson, when first introduced, it was "a dainty for a queen." formerly, it was baked in pies with beef marrow, dates, ginger, raisins, and sack. the juice pressed out before the plant blossoms was used by the ancients for restoring the hair of the head, even when the person was quite bald. the sunflower has been from time immemorial a popular remedy for malarial fevers in russia, turkey, and persia, being employed as a tincture made by steeping the stems and leaves in brandy. it is considered even preferable to quinine, sometimes succeeding when this has failed, and being free from any of the inconveniences which often arise from giving large doses of the drug: whilst the pleasant taste of the plant is of no small advantage in the case of children. cases in which both quinine and arsenic proved useless have been completely cured by the tincture of sunflower in a week or ten days. golden sunflowers are introduced at rheims into the stained glass of an apse window in the church of st. remi, with the virgin and st. john on either side of [ ] the cross, the head of each being encircled with an aureole having a sunflower inserted in its outer circle. the flowers are turned towards the saviour on the cross as towards their true sun. tamarind. the tamarind pod, though of foreign growth, has been much valued by our immediate ancestors as a household medicinal simple; and a well stocked jar of its useful curative pulp was always found in the store cupboard of a prudent housewife. but of late years this serviceable fruit has fallen into the background of remedial resources, from which it may be now brought forward again with advantage. the natives of india have a prejudice against sleeping under the tamarind; and the acid damp from the trees is known to affect the cloth of tents pitched under them for any length of time. so strong is this prejudice of the natives against the tamarind tree that it is difficult to prevent them from destroying it, as they believe it hurtful to vegetation. the parent tree, tamar hindee, "indian date," is of east, or west indian growth; but the sweet pulpy jam containing shining stony seeds, and connected together by tough stringy fibres, may be readily obtained at the present time from the leading druggists, or the general provision merchant. it fulfils medicinal purposes which entitle it to high esteem as a simple for use in the sick-room. large quantities of this luscious date are brought to our shores from the levant and persia, but before importation the shell of the pod is removed; and the pulp ought not to exhibit any presence of copper, as shown on a clean steel knife-blade held within the same, though the fruit by nature possesses traces of gold in its composition. chemically, this pulp contains citric, tartaric, [ ] and malic acids, as compounds of potassium; with gum, pectin and starch. boiled syrup has been poured over it as a preliminary. the fruit is sharply acid, and may be made into an excellent cooling drink by infusion with boiling water, being allowed to become cold, and then strained off as an agreeable tea, which proves highly grateful to a fevered patient. the arabians first taught the use of tamarinds, which contain an unusual proportion of acids to the sweet constituents. they are anti-putrescent, and exert a laxative action corrective of bilious sluggishness. a capital whey may be made by boiling two ounces of the fruit with two pints of milk, and then straining. gerard tells that "travellers carry with them the pulp mixed with sugar throughout the desert places of africa." tamarinds are an efficient laxative if enough (from one to two ounces) can be taken at a time: but this quantity is inconvenient, and apt to clog by its excess of sweetness. therefore a compressed form of the pulp is now in the market, known as tamar indien lozenges, coated with chocolate. these are combined, however, with a purgative of greater activity, most probably jalap. the fruit of the tamarind is certainly antibilious, and by the virtue of its potash salts it tends to heal any sore places within the mouth. in india it is added as an ingredient to punch; but the tree is superstitiously regarded as the messenger of the god of death. when acids are indicated, to counteract septic fever, and to cool the blood, whilst in natural harmony with the digestive functions, the tamarind will be found exceptionally helpful; and towards obviating [ ] constipation a dessertspoonful, or more, of the pulp may be taken with benefit as a compôte at table, together with boiled rice, or sago. the name tamarind is derived from _tamar_, the date palm; and _indus_, of indian origin. formerly this fruit was known as oxyphoenica (sour date). officinally apothecaries mix the pulp with senna as an aperient confection. it is further used in flavouring curries on account of its acid. tansy. the tansy (_tanacetum vulgare_--"buttons,"--bed of tansy), a composite plant very familiar in our hedgerows and waste places, being conspicuous by its heads of brilliant yellow flowers, is often naturalized in our gardens for ornamental cultivation. its leaves smell like camphor, and possess a bitter aromatic taste; whilst young they were commonly used in times past, and are still employed, when shredded, for flavouring cakes, puddings, and omelets. the roots when preserved with honey, or sugar, are reputed to be of special service against the gout, if a reasonable quantity thereof be eaten fasting every day for a certain space. the fruit is destructive to round worms. the seed also of the tansy is a singular and appropriate medicine against worms: for "in whatsoever sort taken it killeth and driveth them forth." in sussex a peasant will put tansy leaves in his shoes to cure ague; and the plant has a rural celebrity for correcting female irregularities of the functional health. the name tansy is probably derived from the greek word _athanasia_ which signifies immortality, either, as, says dodoeus, _quia non cito flos inflorescit_, "because it lasts so long in flower," or, _quia ejus succus, vel oleum extractum cadavera a putredine conservat_ (as ambrosius writes), "because it is so capital [ ] for preserving dead bodies from corruption." it was said to have been given to ganymede to make him immortal. the whole herb contains resin, mucilage, sugar, a fixed oil, tannin, a colouring matter, malic or tanacetic acid, and water. when the camphoraceous bitter oil is taken in any excess it induces venous congestion of the abdominal organs, and increases the flow of urine. if given in moderate doses the plant and its essential oil are stomachic and cordial, whether the leaves, flowers, or seeds be administered, serving to allay spasm, and helping to promote the monthly flow of women; the seeds being also of particular use against worms, and relieving the flatulent colic of hysteria. this herb will drive away bugs from a bed in which it is placed. meat rubbed with the bitter tansy will be protected from the visits of carrion flies. ten drops of the essential oil will produce much flushing of the head and face, with giddiness, and with beat of stomach; whilst half a drachm of the oil has been followed by a serious result. but from one to four drops may be safely given for a dose according to the symptoms it is desired to relieve. cases of epilepsy (not inherited) have been successfully treated with the liquid extract of tansy in doses of a drop with water four times in the day. the essential oil will toxically produce epileptic seizures. the plant has been used externally with benefit for some eruptive diseases of the skin; and a hot infusion of it to sprained, or rheumatic parts will give relief from pain by way of a fomentation. in scotland the dried flowers are given for gout, from half to one teaspoonful for a dose two or three times in the day; or an infusion is drank prepared from the flowers and seeds. this has kept inveterate gout at bay for years. [ ] a medicinal tincture is made (h.) from the fresh plant with spirit of wine. from eight to ten drops of the same may be given with a tablespoonful of cold water to an adult twice or three times in the day. formerly this was one of the native plants dedicated to the virgin mary; and the "good wives" used to take a syrup of tansy for preventing miscarriage. "the laplanders," says linnoeus, "use tansy in their baths to facilitate parturition." at easter also it was the custom, even, by the archbishops, the bishops, and the clergy of some churches, to play at handball (so say the old chroniclers), with men of their congregations, whilst a tansy cake was the reward of the victors, this being a confection with which the bitter herb tansy was mixed. some such a corrective was supposed to be of benefit after having eaten much fish during lent. the tansy cake was made from the young leaves of the plant mixed with eggs, and was thought to purify the humours of the body. "this balsamic plant" said boerhaave, "will supply the place of nutmegs and cinnamon." in lyte's time the tansy was sold in the shops under the name of athanasia. tarragon. the kitchen herb tarragon (_artemisia dracunculus_) is cultivated in england, and more commonly in france, for uses in salads, and other condimentary purposes. it is the "little dragon mugwort: in french, _herbe au dragon_"; to which, as to other dragon herbs, was ascribed the faculty of curing the bites and stings of venomous beasts, and of mad dogs. the plant does not fructify in france. it is of the composite order, and closely related to [ ] our common wormwood, and southernwood, but its leaves are not divided. this herb is a native of siberia, but has been long grown largely by french gardeners, and has since become widespread in this country as a popular fruit, also for making a vinegar, and for adding to salads. the word tarragon is by corruption "a little dragon." french cooks commonly mix their table mustard with the vinegar of the herb. many strange tales have been told about the origin of the plant, one of which, scarce worth the noting, runs that the seed of flax put into a radish root, or a sea onion, and being thus set doth bring forth this herb tarragon (so says gerard). in continental cookery the use of tarragon is advised to temper the coldness of other herbs in salads, like as a rocket doth. "neither," say the authorities, "do we know what other use this herb hath." the volatile essential oil of tarragon is chemically identical with that of anise, and it is found to be sexually stimulating. probably by virtue of its finely elaborated camphor it exercises its specific effects, the fact being established that too much camphor acts in the opposite direction. john evelyn says of the plant "'tis highly cordial and friendly to the head, heart, and liver." thistles. thistles are comprised in a large mixed genus of our english weeds, and wild plants, several of them possessing attributed medicinal virtues. some of these are thistles proper, as the _carduus_, the _cnicus_, and the _carlina_: others are teasels, eryngiums, and globe thistles, etc. consideration should be given here to the _carduus marianus_, or lady's thistle, the common [ ] carline thistle, the _carduus benedictus_ (blessed thistle), the wild teasel (_dipsacus_), and the fuller's teasel, as herbal simples; whilst others of minor curative usefulness are to be incidentally mentioned. as a class thistles have been held sacred to thor, because, say the old authors, receiving their bright colours from the lightning, and because protecting those who cultivate them from its destructive effects. in devon and cornwall thistles are commonly known as dazzels, or dashel flowers. as a rule they flourish best in hot dry climates. the _carduus marianus_ (lady's thistle), milk thistle, or holy thistle, grows abundantly in waste places, and near gardens throughout the british isles, but it is not a native plant. the term _carduus_, or cardinal, refers to its spring leaves, and the adjectives "marianus," "milk," and "holy," have been assigned through a tradition that some drops of the virgin mary's milk fell on the herb, and became exhibited in the white veins of its leaves. by some persons this thistle is taken as the emblem of scotland. dioscorides told of the milk thistle, "the seeds being drunk are a remedy for infants that have their sinews drawn together." he further said: "the root if borne about one doth expel melancholy, and remove all diseases connected therewith." modern writers do laugh at this: "let them laugh that win! my opinion is that this is the best remedy that grows against all melancholy diseases." the fruit of the _carduus marianus_ contains an oily bitter seed: the tender leaves in spring may be eaten as a salad; and the young peeled stalks, after being soaked, are excellent boiled, or baked in pies. the heads of this thistle before the flowers open may be [ ] cooked like artichokes. the seeds were formerly thought to cure hydrophobia. they act as a demulcent in catarrh and pleurisy, being also a favourite food of goldfinches. a decoction of the seeds when applied externally is said to have proved beneficial in cases of cancer. thistle down was at one time gathered by poor persons and sold for stuffing pillows. it is very prolific in germination, and an old saying runs on this score:-- "cut your thistles before st. john, or you'll have two instead of one." this milk thistle (_carduus marianus_) is said to be the empirical nostrum, _anti-glaireux_, of count mattaei. "disarmed of its prickles," writes john evelyn, "and boiled, it is worth esteem, and thought to be a great breeder of milk, and proper diet for women who are nurses." in germany it is very popular for curing jaundice and kindred biliary derangements. when taken by healthy provers in varying quantities to test its toxic effects the plant has caused distension of the whole abdomen, especially on the right side, with tenderness on pressure over the liver, and with a deficiency of bile in hard knotty stools, the colouring matter of the faeces being found by chemical tests present in the urine: so that a preparation of this thistle modified in strength, and considerably diluted in its doses proves truly homoeopathic to simple obstructive jaundice through inaction of the liver, and readily cures the disorder. a tincture is prepared (h.) for medicinal use from equal parts of the root, and the seeds (with the hull on) together with spirit of wine. the _carduus benedictus_ (blessed thistle) was first [ ] cultivated by gerard in , and has since become a common medicinal simple. it was at one time considered to be almost a panacea, and capable of curing even the plague by its antiseptic virtues. this thistle was a herb of mars, and, as gerard says: "it helpeth giddiness of the head: also it is an excellent remedy against the yellow jaundice. it strengthens the memory, cures deafness, and helps the bitings of mad dogs and venomous beasts." it contains a bitter principle "cnicin," resembling the similar tonic constituent of the dandelion, this being likewise useful for stimulating a sluggish liver to more healthy action. the infusion should be made with cold water: when kept it forms a salt on its surface like nitre. the herb does not yield its virtues to spirit of wine as a tincture. its taste is intensely bitter. the carline thistle (_carlina vulgaris_) was formerly used in magical incantations. it possesses medicinal qualities very like those of elecampane, being diaphoretic, and in larger doses purgative. the herb contains some resin, and a volatile essential oil of a camphoraceous nature, like that of elecampane, and useful for similar purposes, as cordial and antiseptic. this thistle grows on dry heaths especially near the sea, and is easily distinguished from other thistles by the straw-coloured glossy radiate long inner scales of its outer floral cup. they rise up over the florets in wet weather. the whole plant is very durable, like that of the "everlasting flowers:" cudweed (_antennaria_). the name carlina was given because the thistle was used by charles the great as a remedy against the plague. it was revealed to him when praying for some means to stay this pestilence which was destroying his army. in his sleep there appeared to him an angel who shot [ ] an arrow from a cross bow, telling him to mark the plant upon which it fell: for that with such plant he might cure his soldiers of the dire epidemic: which event really happened, the herb thus indicated being the said thistle. in anglo-saxon it was the ever-throat, or boar-throat. on the continent a large white blossom of this species is nailed upon cottage doors by way of a barometer to indicate the weather if remaining open or closing. the wild teasel (_dipsacus sylvestris_) grows commonly in waste places, having tall stems or stalks, at the bottom of which are leaves (like bracts) united at their sides so as to form a cup, open upwards, around the base of the stalk, and hence the term "_dipsacus_," thirsty. this cup serves to retain rain water, which is thought to acquire curative properties, being used, for one purpose, to remove warts. the cup is called venus' basin, and its contents, says ray, are of service _ad verrucas abigendas_; also it is named barber's brush, and church broom. the fuller's teasel, or thistle (_dipsacus fullonum_) is so termed from its use in combing and dressing cloth,--_teasan_, to tease,-- three teaselheads being the arms of the cloth weavers' company. this is found in the neighbourhood of the cloth districts, but is not considered to be a british plant. it is probably a cultivated variety of the wild teasel, but differs by having the bristles of its receptacles hooked. the sow thistle (_sonchus oleraceus_), named _sonchus_ because of its soft spikes instead of prickles, grows commonly as a weed in gardens, and having milky stalks which are reputed good for wheezy and short-winded folk, whilst the milk may be used as a wash for the face. it is named also "turn sole" because always facing the sun, and hare's thistle (the hare's panacea, [ ] says an old writer, is the sow thistle), or hare's lettuce because "when fainting with the heat she recruits her strength with the herb; or if a hare eat of this herb in the summer when he is mad he shall become whole." another similar title of the herb is hare's palace, since the creature was thought to get shelter and courage from it. some suppose that the botanical term _sonchus_ signifies _apo ton soon ekein_, from its yielding a salubrious juice. the sow thistle has been named also milkweed. according to tradition it sometimes conceals marvels, or treasures; and in italian stories the words, "open sow thistle" are used as of like significance with the magical invocation "open sesame." another name is "du tistel" or sprout thistle; because the plant may be used for its edible sprouts, which evelyn says, were eaten by galen as a lettuce. and matthiolus told of the tuscans in his day "_soncho nostri utuntur hyeme in acetariis_." the melancholy thistle (_carduus heterophyllus_) has been held curative of melancholy. it grows most frequently in scotland and the north of england, and is a non-prickly plant. thyme. the wild english thyme (_thymus serpyllum_) belongs to the labiate plants, and takes its second title from a greek verb signifying "to creep," which has reference to the procumbent habit of the plant. it bears the appellation "brotherwort." typically the _thymus serpyllum_ flourishes abundantly on hills, heaths, and grassy places, having woody stems, small fringed leaves, and heads of purple flowers which diffuse a sweet perfume into the surrounding air, [ ] especially in hot weather. shakespeare's well known line alludes to this pleasant fact: "i know a bank where the wild thyme grows." the name thyme is derived from the greek _thumos_, as identical with the latin _fumus_, smoke, having reference to the ancient use of thyme in sacrifices, because of its fragrant odour; or, it may be, as signifying courage (_thumos_), which its cordial qualities inspire. with the greeks thyme was an emblem of bravery, and activity; also the ladies of chivalrous days embroidered on the scarves which they presented to their knights the device of a bee hovering about a spray of thyme, as teaching the union of the amiable and the active. horace has said concerning wild thyme:-- "impune tutum per nemus arbutos quaerunt latentes, et thyma deviae olentis uxores mariti." wild thyme is subject to variations in the size and colour of its flowers, as well as in the habits of the varieties. this wild thyme bears also the appellation, "mother of thyme," which should be "mother thyme," in allusion to its medicinal influence on the womb, an organ which the older writers always termed the "mother." isidore tells that the wild thyme was called in latin, _matris animula, quod menstrua movet_. platearius says of it: _serpyllum matricem comfortat et mundificat. mulieres saliternitanoe hoc fomento multum utuntur_. dr. neovius writes enthusiastically in a finnish journal on the virtues of common thyme in combating whooping cough. he has found that if given _fresh_, from an ounce and a half to six ounces a day, mixed [ ] with a little syrup, regularly for some weeks, it is practically a specific. if taken from the first, the symptoms vanish in two or three days, and in a fortnight the disease is expelled. the simplicity, harmlessness, and cheapness of this remedy are great supporters of its claims. other titles of the herb are pulial mountain, and creeping thyme. it is anti-spasmodic, and good for nervous or hysterical headaches, for flatulence, and the headache which follows inebriation. the infusion may be profitably applied for healing skin eruptions of various characters. virgil mentions (in _eclogue_ xi., lines , ) the restorative value of thyme against fatigue:-- "thestylis et rapido fessis messoribus oestu allia, serpyllumque herbas contundit olentes." or, "thestlis for mowers tired with parching heat garlic and thyme, strong smelling herbs, doth beat." tournefort writes: "a conserve made from the flowers and leaves of wild thyme (_serpyllum_) relieves those troubled with the falling sickness, whilst the distilled oil promotes the monthly flow in women." the delicious flavour of the noted honey of hymettus was said to be derived from the wild thyme there visited by the bees. likewise the flesh of sheep fed on pasturage where the wild thyme grows freely has been said to gain a delicate flavour and taste from this source: but herein a mistake is committed, because sheep are really averse to such pasturage, and refuse it if they can get other food. an infusion of the leaves of thyme, whether wild, or cultivated, makes an excellent aromatic tea, the odour of which is sweet and fragrant, whilst the taste of the [ ] plant is bitter and camphoraceous. there is in some districts an old superstition that to bring wild thyme into the house conveys severe illness, or death to some member of the family. in grecian days the attic elegance of style was said to show an odour of thyme. shenstone's schoolmistress had a garden:-- "where herbs for use and physic not a few of grey renown within those borders grew, the tufted basil,--_pun provoking_ thyme, the lordly gill that never dares to climb." bacon in his _essay on gardens_ recommends to set whole alleys of thyme for the pleasure of its perfume when treading on the plant. and dioscorides said thyme used in food helps dimness of sight. gerard adds: "wild thyme boiled in wine and drunk is good against the wamblings and gripings of the belly": whilst culpeper describes it as "a strengthener of the lungs, as notable a one as grows." "the thyme of candy, musk thyme, or garden thyme is good against the sciatica, and to be given to those that have the falling sickness, to smell to." the volatile essential oil of wild thyme (as well as of garden thyme) consists of two hydrocarbons, with thymol as the fatty base, this thymol being readily soluble in fats and oils when heated, and taking high modern rank as an antiseptic. it will arrest gastric fermentation when given judiciously as a medicine, though an overdose will bring on somnolence, with a ringing in the ears. officinally thymol, the stearoptene obtained from the volatile oil of _thymus vulgaris_, is directed to be given in a dose of from half to two grains. [ ] thymol is valued by some authorities more highly even than carbolic acid for destroying the germs of disease, or for disinfecting them. it is of equal service with tar for treating such skin affections as psoriasis, and eczema. when inhaled thymol is most useful against septic sore throat, especially during scarlet fever. at the hospital for throat diseases the following formula is ordered: thymol twenty grains to rectified spirit of wine three drachms, and carbonate of magnesia ten grains, with water to three ounces; a teaspoonful to be used in a pint of water at ° fahrenheit for each inhalation. against ringworm an ointment made with one drachm of thymol to an ounce of soft paraffin is found to be a sure specific. the spirit of thymol should consist of one part of thymol to ten parts of spirit of wine; and this is a convenient form for use to medicate the wool of antiseptic respirators. as a purifying and cleansing lotion for wounds and sores, thymol should be mixed in the proportion of five grains thereof to an ounce of spirit of wine, an ounce of glycerine, and six ounces of water. the common garden thyme is an imported sort from the south of europe. its odour and taste depend on an essential oil known commercially as oil of origanum. another variety of the wild thyme is lemon thyme (_thymus citriodorus_), distinguished by its parti-coloured leaves, and by its lilac flowers. small beds of this thyme, together with mint, are cultivated at penzance, in which to rear millepedes, or hoglice, administered as pills for several forms of scrofulous disease. the woodlouse, sowpig, or hoglouse abounds with a nitrous salt which has long found favour for curing scrofulous [ ] disease, and inveterate struma, as also against some kinds of stone in the bladder. the hoglouse, or millepede was the primitive medicinal pill. it is found in dry gardens under stones, etc., and rolls itself up into a ball when touched. these are also called chiselbobs, and cudworms. from three to twelve were formerly given in rhenish wine for a hundred days together to cure all kinds of cancers; or they were sometimes worn round the neck in a small bag (which was absurd!). in the eastern counties they are known as "old sows," or "st. anthony's hogs." their latin name is _porcellus scaber_. the welsh call this small creature the "withered old woman of the wood," "the little pig of the wood," and "the little grey hog," also "grammar sows." their word "gurach" like "grammar" means a dried up old dame. cat thyme (_teucrium marum verum_) was imported from spain, and is cultivated in our gardens as a cordial aromatic herb, useful in nervous disorders. its flowers are crimson, and its bark is astringent. the dried leaves may be given in powder or used in snuff. a tincture (h.) is made from the whole herb which is effectual against small thread worms. provers of the herb in material toxic quantities have experienced troublesome itching and irritation of the fundament. for similar conditions, and to expel thread worms, two or three drops of the tincture diluted to its first decimal strength should be given with a spoonful of water three or four times in the day to a child of from four to six years. toadflax. the toadflax, or flaxweed (_linaria vulgaris_) belongs to the scrofula-curing order of plants, getting its name from _linum_, flax, and being termed "toad" by a [ ] mistaken translation of its latin title _bubonio_, this having been wrongly read _bufonio_,-- belonging to a toad,--or because having a flower (as the snapdragon) like a toad's mouth: whereas "bubonio" means "useful for the groins." it is an upright herbaceous plant most common in hedges, having leaves like grass of a dull sea green aspect, and bearing dense clusters of yellow flowers shaped like those of the garden snapdragon, with spurs at their base. it continues in flower until the late autumn. the russians cultivate the snapdragon for the oil yielded by its seeds. the toadflax has a faint disagreeable smell, and a bitter saline taste. it acts medicinally as a powerful purge, and promoter of urine, and therefore it is employed for carrying off the water of dropsies, being in this respect a well known rural simple. waller says: "country people boil the whole plant in ale, and drink the decoction; but the expressed juice of the fresh plant acts still more powerfully." in many districts the herb is familiarly known as "butter and eggs;" and in germany though dedicated to the virgin it is called "devil's band." again in devonshire it goes by the names of "rambling," or "wandering sailor," "pedler's basket," "mother of millions" (the ivy-leaved sort), "lion's mouth" and "flaxweed." when used externally an infusion of the herb acts as an anodyne to subdue irritation of the skin, and it may be taken as a medicine to modify skin diseases. the fresh juice is attractive to flies, but at the same time it serves to poison them: so if it be mixed with milk, and placed where flies resort they will drink it and perish at the first sip. [ ] as promoting a free flow of urine, the herb has been named "urinalis," or sometimes "ramsted." the flowers contain a yellow colouring matter, mucilage, and sugar. in germany they are given with the rest of the plant for dropsy, jaundice, piles, and some diseases of the skin. gerard says: "the decoction openeth the stoppings of the liver, and spleen: and is singular good against the jaundice which is of long continuance." he advises an ointment made from the plant stampt with lard for certain skin eruptions, and a decoction made with four drachms of the herb in eight ounces of boiling water. the bruised leaves are useful externally for curing blotches on the face, and for piles. an old distich says of the toadflax as compared with the larkspur:-- "esula lactescit: sine lacte linaria crescit;" or, "larkspur with milk doth flow: toadflax without milk doth grow," (alluding to the dry nature of the toadflax). to which the hereditary marshal of hesse added the following line:-- "esoula nil nobis, sed dat linaria _taurum_," implying that the herb was of old valued for its good effects when applied externally to piles as an ointment, a fomentation, or a poultice, each being made from the leaves and the flowers. the originator of this ointment was a dr. wolph, physician to the landgrave of hesse, who only divulged its formula on the prince promising to give him _a fat ox_ annually for the discovery. tomato (or love apple). though only of recent introduction as a common vegetable in this country, and though grown chiefly [ ] under glass for the table in england, yet the tomato is so abundantly imported, and so extensively used by all classes now-a-days throughout the british isles that it may fairly take consideration for whatever claims it can advance as a curative simple. imported early in the present century from south america it remained for a while an exclusive luxury produced for the rich like pine apples and melons. but gradually since then the tomato has steadily acquired an increasing popularity, and now large crops of the profitable fruit are brought from bordeaux and the channel islands, to meet the demands of our english markets. much of the favour which has become attached to this ruddy, polished, attractive-looking fruit is due to a widespread impression that it is good for the liver, and a preventive of biliousness. nevertheless, rumours have also gone abroad that habitual tomato-eaters are especially liable to cancerous disease in this, or that organ. belonging to the solanums the tomato (_lycopersicum_) is a plant of mexican origin. its brilliant fruit was first known as _mala oethiopica_, or the apples of the moors, and bearing the italian designation _pomi dei mori_. this name was presently corrupted in the french to _pommes d'amour_; and thence in english to the epithet love apples, a perversion which shows by what curious methods primary names may become incongruously changed. they are also called gold apples from their bright yellow colour before getting ripe. the term _lycopersicum_ signifies a "wolf's peach," because some parts of the plant are thought to excite animal passions. the best fruit is supposed to grow within sight, or smell of the sea. it needs plenty of sunlight and heat. the quicker it is produced the fewer will be the seeds discoverable in its pulp. [ ] green when young, tomatoes acquire a bright yellow hue before reaching maturity, and when ripe they are smooth, shining, furrowed, and of a handsome red. chemically this love apple contains citric and malic acids: and it further possesses oxalic acid, or oxalate of potash, in common with the sorrel of our fields, and the rhubarb of our kitchen gardens. on which account each of this vegetable triad is ill suited for gouty constitutions disposed to the formation of irritating oxalate of lime in the blood. with such persons a single indulgence in tomatoes, particularly when eaten raw, may provoke a sharp attack of gout. otherwise there are special reasons for supposing the tomato to be a wholesome fruit of remarkable purifying value. dr. king chambers classifies it among remedies against scurvy, telling us that tomatoes mixed with brown bread make a capital sauce for costive persons. and the fruit owns a singular property in connection with diseases of plants, suggesting its probable worth as protective against bacterial germs, and microbes of disease in our bodies when it is taken as food, or medicinally. if a tomato shrub be uprooted at the end of the summer, and allowed to wither on the bough of a fruit tree, or if it be burnt beneath the fruit tree, it will not only kill any blight which may be present, but will also preserve the tree against any future invasion by blight. the hostility thus evinced by the plant to low organisms is due to the presence of sulphur, which the tomato shrub largely contains, and which is rendered up in an active state by decay, or by burning. now remembering that digestion likewise splits up the tomato into its chemical constituents, and releases its sulphur within us, we may fairly assume that persons [ ] who eat tomatoes habitually are likely to have a particular immunity from bacterial and putrefactive diseases. wherefore it is altogether improbable that tomatoes will engender cancer, which is essentially a disease of vitiated blood, and of degenerate cell tissue. possibly the old exploded doctrine of signatures may have suggested, or started this accusation against the maligned, though unguarded tomato: for it cannot be denied the guileless fruit bears a nodulated tumour-like appearance, whilst showing, when cut, an aspect of red raw morbid fleshy structure strangely resembling cancerous disease. vegetarians who eat tomatoes constantly and freely claim that cancer is a disease almost unknown among their ranks; but an italian doctor writing from rome gives it as the experience of himself and his medical brethren that cancer is as common in italy and sicily among vegetarians as with mixed eaters. most of our american cousins, who are the enterprising fathers of this medicinal fruit, persuade themselves that they are never in perfect health except during the tomato season. and with us the ruddy solanum has obtained a wide popularity not simply at table as a tasty cooling sallet, or an appetising stew, but essentially as a supposed antibilious purifier of the blood. when uncooked it contains a notable quantity of solanin, and it would be dangerous to let animals drink water in which the plant had been boiled. the staff of the cancer hospital at brompton have emphatically declared "they see no ground whatever for supposing that the eating of tomatoes predisposes to cancer." nevertheless some country people in the remote american states attribute cancer to an excessively free use of the wild uncultivated tomato as food. [ ] the first mention of this fruit by the london horticultural society occurred in . chemically in addition to the acids already named the tomato contains a volatile oil, a brown resinous extractive matter very fragrant, a vegeto-mineral matter, muco-saccharin, some salts, and in all probability an alkaloid. the whole plant smells unpleasantly, and its juices when subjected to heat by the action of fire emit a vapour so powerful as to provoke vertigo and vomiting. the specific principles furnished by the tomato will, when concentrated, produce, if taken medicinally, effects very similar to those brought about by taking mercurial salts, viz., an ulcerative-state of the mouth, with a profuse flow of saliva, and with excessive stimulation of the liver: peevishness also on the following day, with a depressing backache in men, suggesting paralysis, and with a profuse fluor albus in women. when given in moderation as food, or as physic, the fruit will remedy this chain of symptoms. by reason of its efficacy in promoting an increased flow of bile if judiciously taken, the tomato bears the name in america of vegetable mercury, and it has almost superseded calomel there as a biliary medicinal provocative. dr. bennett declares the tomato to be the most useful and the least harmful of all known medicines for correcting derangements of the liver. he prepares a chemical extract of the fruit and plant which will, he feels assured, depose calomel for the future. across the atlantic an officinal tincture is made from the tomato for curative purposes by treating the apples, and the bruised fresh plant with alcohol, and letting this stand for eight days before it is filtered and strained. a teaspoonful of the tincture is a sufficient dose with one or two tablespoonfuls of cold water, three times in the day. [ ] the fluid extract made from the plant is curative of any ulcerative soreness within the mouth, such as nurses' sore mouth, or canker. it should be given internally, and applied locally to the sore parts. spaniards and italians eat tomatoes with pepper and oil. we take them as a salad, or stewed with butter, after slicing and stuffing them with bread crumb, and a spice of garlic. the green tomato makes a good pickle, and in its unripe state is esteemed an excellent sauce with rich roast pork, or goose. the fruit when cooked no longer exercises active medicinal effects, as its volatile principles have now become dispelled through heat. by the late mr. shirley hibberd, who was a good naturalist, it was asserted with seeming veracity that the cannibal inhabitants of the fiji islands hold in high repute a native tomato which is named by them the _solanum anthropophagorutm_, and which they eat, _par excellence_, with "cold missionary." nearer home a worthy dame has been known with pious aspirations to enquire at the stationer's for "foxe's book of to-martyrs." "chops and tomato sauce" were ordered from mrs. bardell, in pickwick's famous letter. "gentlemen!" says serjeant buzfuz, in his address to the jury, "what does this mean?" but he missed a point in not going on to add--"i need not tell you, gentlemen, the popular name for the tomato is _love apple_! is it not manifest, therefore, what the base deceiver intended?" "a cucumber in early spring might please a sated caesar, rapture asparagus can bring, and dearer still green peas are: oh! far and wide, where mushrooms hide, i'll search, as wide and far too for watercress; but all their pride must stoop to thee,--tomato!" [ ] tormentil. the tormentil (_potentilla tormentilla_) belongs to the tribe of wild roses, and is a common plant on our heaths, banks, and dry pastures. it is closely allied to the _potentilla_, but bears only four petals on its flowers, which are of bright yellow. the woody roots are medicinally useful because of their astringent properties. sometimes the stem is trailing, making this the _tormentilla reptans_, but more commonly it ascends. the name comes from _tormina_, which signifies such griping of the intestines as the herb will serve to relieve, as likewise the twinges of toothache. the root is employed both for tanning leather, and for dyeing it by the thickened red juice. furthermore through its astringency this root is admirable for arresting bleedings. vesalius considered it to be as useful against syphilis as guiacum, and sarsaparilla. a decoction of tormentil makes a capital gargle, and will heal ulcers of the mouth if used as a wash. if a piece of lint soaked therein be kept applied to warts, they will wither and disappear. chemically the herb contains "_tormentilla red_," identical with that of the horse chestnut, also tannic, and kinoric acids. the decoction should be made with four drams to half-a-pint of water boiled together for ten minutes, adding half a dram of cinnamon stick at the end of boiling; one or two tablespoonfuls will be the dose, or of the powdered root (dried) the dose will be from five to thirty grains. "_in fluxu sanguinis, fluore albo, et mictu involuntario tormentilla valet_." dr. thornton ( ) tells of a labouring botanist who learnt the powers of this root, and by its decoction, sweetened with honey, cured intractable agues, severe diarrhoeas, and scorbutic ulcers (which had been turned out of hospitals as inveterate), [ ] also many fluxes. lord william russell heard about this, and allowed the poor man a piece of his park in which to cultivate the herb, "_non est vegetabile quod in fluxionibus alvi efficacius est_." the root is so rich in tannin that it may be used instead of oak bark. turnip. the turnip (_brassica rapa_) belongs to the cruciferous cabbage tribe, being often found growing in waste places, though not truly wild. in this state it is worth nothing to man or beast; but, by cultivation, it becomes a most valuable food for cattle in the winter, and a good vegetable for our domestic uses. it exercises some aperient action, and the liquid in which turnips are boiled will increase the flow of urine. it is called also "bagie," and was the "gongyle" of the greeks, so named from the roundness of the root. when mashed, and mixed with bread and milk, the turnip makes an excellent cleansing and stimulating poultice for indolent abscesses or sores. the scotch eat small, yellow-rooted turnips as we do radishes. "tastes and turnips proverbially differ." at plymouth, and some other places, when a girl rejects a suitor, she is said to "give him turnips," probably with reference to his sickly pallor of disappointment. the seventeenth of june--as the day of st. botolph, the old turnip man,--is distinguished by various uses of a turnip, because in the saga, which figuratively represents the seasons, the seeds were sown on that day. it is told that the king of bithynia in some expedition against the scythians during the winter, and when at a great distance from the sea, had a violent [ ] longing for a small fish known as _aphy_--a pilchard, or anchovy. his cook cut a turnip to a perfect imitation of its shape, which, when fried in oil, well salted, and powdered with the seeds of a dozen black poppies, so deceived the king that he praised the root at table as an excellent fish. being likely to provoke flatulent distension of the bowels, turnips are not a proper vegetable for hysterical persons, or for pregnant women. the rind is acrimonious, but the tops, when young and tender, may be boiled for the table as a succulent source of potash, and other mineral salts in the spring. the fermented juice of turnips will yield an ardent spirit. when properly cooked they serve to sweeten the blood. an essential volatile oil contained in the root, chiefly in the rind, disagrees, by provoking flatulent distension. this root is sometimes cut up and partly substituted for the peel and pulp of oranges in marmalade. if turnips are properly grown in dry, lean, sandy earth, a wholesome, agreeable sort of bread can be made from them, "of which we have eaten at the greatest persons' tables, and which is hardly to be distinguished from the best of wheat." some persons roast turnips in paper under the embers, and serve them with butter and sugar. the juice made into syrup is an old domestic remedy for coughs and hoarseness. a nice wholesome dish of piedmontese turnips is thus prepared: half boil your turnip, and cut it in slices like half-crowns; butter a pie dish, and put in the slices, moisten them with a little milk and weak broth, sprinkle over lightly with bread crumbs, adding pepper and salt; then bake in the oven until the turnips become of a light golden colour. [ ] the turnip, a navew, or variety of rape (_navus_), should never be sown in a rich soil, wherein it would become degenerate and lose its shape as well as its dry agreeable relish. horace advised field-grown turnips as preferable at a banquet to those of garden culture. they may be safely eaten when raw, having been at one time much consumed in russia by the upper classes. turnips have been introduced into armorial bearings to represent a person of liberal disposition who relieves the poor. dr. johnson's famous illustration of false logic ran thus:-- "if a man fresh turnips cries: but cries not when his father dies, is this a proof the man would rather possess fresh turnips than a father?" turpentine. from our english pines, if their stems be wounded, the oleo-resin known as turpentine, can be procured. this is so truly a vegetable product, and so readily available for medical uses in every household, being withal so valuable for its remedial and curative virtues that no apology is needed for giving it notice as a herbal simple. the said oleo-resin which exudes on incising the bark furnishes our oil, or so-called spirit of turpentine. but larger quantities, and of a richer resin, can be had from abroad than it is practicable for england to provide, so that our turpentine of commerce is mainly got from american and french sources. the oleo-resin consists of a resinous base and a volatile essential oil, which is usually termed the spirit. the _pinus picra_, or silver fir-tree, yields common [ ] turpentine; and to sleep on a pillow made from its yellow shavings is a capital american device for relieving asthma. fir cones are called "buntins," and "oysters." "tears," or resin drops, which trickle out on the stems of the pine, if taken, five or six of these tears in a day, will benefit chronic bronchitis, and will prove useful to lessen the cough of consumption. when swallowed in a full dose, turpentine gives a sensation of warmth, and excites the secretion of urine, to which it imparts a violet hue. it also promotes perspiration, and stimulates the bronchial mucous membrane. from eight to twenty drops may be given as a dose to produce these effects; but an immoderate dose will purge, or intoxicate, and stupefy, causing strangury, and congestion of the kidneys. for bleeding from the lungs, five drops may be given, and repeated at intervals of not less than half-an-hour, whilst needed. the dose may be taken in milk, or on sugar, or bread. with the object of meeting for a curative purpose such symptoms occurring as disease which large doses of this particular drug will produce, as if by poisoning, in a healthy person, quite small doses of turpentine oil will promptly relieve simple congestion of the kidneys, when occurring as illness, it may be from exposure to cold, and accompanied by some feverishness, with frequent urination, as well as a dragging of the loins. on which principle three or four drops of a diluted tincture of turpentine (made with one part of turpentine to nine parts of spirit of wine), given in a spoonful of milk every four hours, will speedily dispel the congestion, thus acting as an infallible specific, and a similar dose of the same tincture will quickly subdue rheumatic inflammation of the eyes. [ ] a pleasant form in which to administer turpentine, whether for chronic bronchitis or for kidney congestion from cold, is a confection. this may be made by rubbing up one part of oil of turpentine, with one part of liquorice powder, and with two parts of clarified honey. combine the first two together, then add the honey. if the turpentine separates, pour it off, and add it again with plenty of rubbing until it unites. from half to one teaspoonful of this confection, when mixed with two tablespoonfuls of peppermint-water, will be found palatable, and may be repeated two or three times in the day. what is called terebene, a most useful medicine for winter cough, is produced by the action of sulphuric acid on turpentine. from five to ten drops may be taken on sugar three or four times in the day, and its vapour acts by inhalation as a very useful antiseptic sedative in consumptive disease of the lungs. externally, turpentine is stimulating and counter-irritating, and derivative. when applied to the skin, unless properly diluted, turpentine will cause redness and smarting to a painful degree, with an outbreak of small blisters. as an embrocation, the oil of turpentine mixed with spirit of wine and camphor, together with soap liniment, proves very efficacious for the relief of sciatica, and for the chronic rheumatism of joints. also, when compounded with wax and resin, it makes an excellent healing ointment for indolent, and unhealthy sores. in dublin, turpentine is commingled with peppermint water, and used as an external stimulant for chronic bronchitis. the famous liniment of st. john long consisted of oil of turpentine one part, acetic acid one part, and liniment of camphor one part. this was of admirable [ ] service for rubbing along the spine to relieve the irritability of the spinal nerves, and it has proved effectual to modify or prevent epileptic attacks, by being thus applied. in cases of colic attending obstinate constipation, with strengthless distension of the bowels, turpentine mixed with starch or thin gruel, an ounce to the pint, and administered as a clyster, makes one of the most reliable and safe evacuants. also as a remedy for round worms, six or eight drops (more or less according to age) may be safely and effectively given to a child on one or more nights in milk. pills made from chian turpentine, which is got from cyprus, were extolled by dr. clay of manchester, in , as a cure for cancer of the womb, and for some other forms of cancerous disease. from five to ten grains were to be given in a pill, or mixed with mucilage as an emulsion, so that in all daily, after food, and in divided doses, one hundred and eighty grains of this turpentine were swallowed; and the quantity was gradually increased until five hundred grains a day were taken. in many cases this method of treatment proved undoubtedly useful. a small quantity of powdered sulphur was also incorporated by dr. clay in his chian pills. about the fourth day the pain was relieved, and the cancerous growth would melt away in a period of from four to thirteen weeks. the arrest of bleeding and the continued freedom from glandular infection after a prolonged use of this chian turpentine were highly important points in the improvement produced. from the _pinus sylvestris_ an oil is distilled by steam, and of this from ten drops to a teaspoonful may be given for a dose, in milk, for chronic rheumatism or chronic bronchitis. [ ] it is most useful in the treatment of diphtheria to burn in the room, near the patient, a mixture of turpentine and tar in a pan or deep dish. the fumes serve to dissolve the false membrane, and have helped to effect a cure in desperate cases. this tree had the anglo-saxon name pimm, from pen, or pin, a sharp rock,--"_ab acumine foliorum_," or perhaps as a contraction of _picinus_--pitchy. it furnishes from its leaves an extract, and the volatile oil. wool is saturated with the latter, and dried, being then made into blankets, jackets, spencers, and stockings, for the use of rheumatic sufferers. there are establishments in germany where the pine cure is pursued by the above means, together with medicated baths. pine cones were regarded of old by the assyrians as sacred symbols, and were employed as such in the decoration of their temples. from the tops of the norway spruce fir a favourite invigorating drink is brewed which is known in the north as spruce beer. this has an excellent reputation for curing scurvy, chronic rheumatism, and cutaneous maladies. laplanders make a bread from the inner bark of the pine. tar (_pix liquida_) is furnished abundantly by the _pinus sylvestris_, or scotch fir, and is extracted by heat. the tree is cut into pieces, which are enclosed in a large oven constructed for the purpose: fire is applied, and the liquid tar runs out through an opening at the bottom. it is properly an empyreumatic oil of turpentine, and has been much used in medicine both externally and internally. tar water was extolled in , by bishop berkley, almost as a panacea. he gave it for scurvy, skin eruptions, ulcers, asthma, and rheumatism. it evidently promotes the secretions, especially the urine. [ ] tar yields pyroligneous acid, oil of tar, and pitch: as well as guiacol and creasote. syrup of tar is an officinal medicine in the united states of america for chronic bronchitis, and winter cough. by this the expectoration is made easier, and the sleep at night improved. from one to two teaspoonfuls are given as a dose, with or without water. also tar pills are prepared of pitch and liquorice powder in equal parts, five grains in the whole pill. two or three of these may be taken twice or three times in the day. tar ointment is highly efficacious against some forms of skin disease; but in eczema and allied maladies of the skin, no preparation of tar should be employed as long as the skin is actively inflamed, or any exudation of moisture is secreted by it. dr. cullen met with a singular practice respecting tar. a leg of mutton was put to roast, being basted during the whole process with tar instead of butter. whilst roasting, a sharp skewer was frequently thrust into the substance of the meat to let the juices escape, and with the mixture of tar and gravy found in the dripping pan, the body of the patient was anointed all over for three or four nights consecutively, throughout all this time the same body linen being worn. the plan proved quite successful in curing obstinate lepra. a famous liquor called "mum" was concocted by the house of brunswick, some of which was sent to general monk. it was chiefly brewed from the rind and tops of firs, and was esteemed very powerful against the formation of stone, and to cure all scorbutick distempers. various herbs, as best approved by the maker, were infused with the mum in concocting it, such as betony, birch, burnet, brooklime, elder-flowers, horse-radish, [ ] marjoram, thyme, water-cress, pennyroyal, etc., together with several eggs, "the shells not cracked or broken"! the germans, especially in saxony, have so great a veneration for mum that they fancy their bodies can never decay as long as they are lined, and embalmed with so powerful a preserver. the swedes call the fir "the scorbutick tree" to this day. tar is soluble in its own bulk of spirit of wine, rectified, but separates when water is added. inhaled, its vapour is very useful in chronic bronchitis. tar water should be made by stirring a pint of tar with half a gallon of water for fifteen minutes, and then decanting it. from half-a-pint to a pint may be taken daily, and it may be used as a wash. or from twenty to sixty drops of tar are to be swallowed for a dose several times in the day, whether for chronic catarrhal affections, or for irritable urinary passages. tar ointment is prepared with five parts of tar to two pounds of yellow wax. it is an excellent application for scald head in a child. juniper tar oil is known as "oil of cade," and birch tar is got from the butcher's broom. a recognised plaster and an ointment are made with burgundy pitch (from the _picus picea_) and yellow wax. probably the modern employment of carbolic acid, and its various combinations--all derived from tar--for neutralising the septic elements of disease, and for acting as germicides, was unknowingly forestalled by the sagacious right reverend lord bishop of cloyne, in his _philosophical reflections and inquiries concerning the virtues of tar water_, two centuries ago, when the cup which "cheers but not inebriates" was first told of by him, long before cowper. bishop berkley said, "i do, verily, think there is not any other medicine whatsoever [ ] so effectual to restore a crazy constitution and to cheer a dreary mind: or so likely to subvert that gloomy empire of the spleen which tyranniseth over the better sort." in _great expectations_, by charles dickens, the wife of joe gargery is described as possessed of great faith in the curative virtues of tar water. valerian. the great wild valerian, or heal-all (from _valere_, to be well), grows abundantly throughout this country in moist woods, and on the banks of streams. it is a benedicta, or blessed herb, being dedicated to the virgin mary, as preservative against poisons; and it bears the name of capon's tail, from its spreading flowers. when found among bushes, in high pastures, and on dry heaths, it is smaller, with the leaves narrower, but the roots more aromatic, and less nauseous. the valerian family of plants is remarkable for producing aromatic and scented genera, which are known as "nards" (the spikenard of scripture), and which are much favoured in asiatic harems under several varieties, according to the situation of growth. judas valued the box of ointment made from the spikenard (_valeriana jatamansi_), with which mary anointed the feet of our saviour at two hundred denarii (£ : s: d.). we have also the small marsh valerian, which is wild, and the cultivated red valerian, of our cottage gardens. the roots of our wild valerian exercise a strange fascination over cats, causing an ecstasy of delight in these animals, who become almost intoxicated when brought into contact with the simple. and rats strangely exhibit the same fondness for these roots [ ] which they grub up. it has been suggested that the pied piper of hamelin may have carried one of such roots in his wallet. they have been given from an early period with much success for hysterical affections, and for epileptic attacks induced by strong emotional excitement, as anger or fear: likewise, they serve as a safe and effectual remedy against habitual constipation when active purgatives have failed to overcome this difficulty. the plant is largely cultivated for the apothecary's uses about the villages near chesterfield, in derbyshire. it is named setwall in the north of england; and, says gerard, "no broths, pottage, or physicall meats be worth anything if setwall (a corruption from zedoar), be not there":-- "they that will have their heale, must put setwall in their keale." the greeks employed one kind of valerian named _phu_ for hanging on doors and windows as a protective charm. but some suppose this to have been a title of aversion, like our english "faugh" against any thing which stinks. dr. uvedale introduced the valerian into his garden, at eltham palace, before ; and uvedale house still exists in church street, at chelsea. the herb is sometimes called cut-heal, not because, as gerard thought, it is "useful for slight cuts and wounds," but from its attributed efficacy in disorders of the womb (kutte cowth). joined with manna, valerian has proved most useful in epilepsy; and when combined with guiacum it has resolved scrofulous tumours. in germany imps are thought to be afraid of it. at plymouth, the broad-leaved red valerian goes by the name of drunken sailor, and bovisand soldier, the [ ] larger sort being distinguished as bouncing bess, whilst the smaller, paler kind is known as delicate bess throughout the west of devon. an officinal tincture is made from the rhizome of valerian with spirit of wine, of which from one to two teaspoonfuls may be given for a dose, with a little water. also a tincture (ammoniated) is prepared with aromatic spirit of ammonia on the rhizome, and this is considerably stronger; from twenty to forty drops is a sufficient dose with a spoonful or two of water. the essential oil of valerian lessens the sensibility of the spinal cord after primary stimulation of its nervous substance. a drop of this oil in a spoonful of milk will be a proper dose: especially in some forms of constipation. used externally, by friction, the volatile oil of valerian has proved beneficial as a liniment for paralyzed limbs. the powdered root mixed in snuff is of efficacy for weak eyes. the cultivated plant is less rich in the volatile oil than the wild herb. on exposure to the air valerian oil becomes oxidised, and forms valerianic acid, which together with an alcohol, "borneol," constitutes the active medicinal part of the plant. the root also contains malic, acetic, and formic acids, with a resin, tannin, starch, and mucilage. it is by first arousing and then blunting the reflex nervous activities of the spinal cord, that the oil of valerian overcomes chronic constipation. preparations of valerian act admirably for the relief of nervous headache associated with flatulence, and in a person of sensitive temperament. they likewise do good for infantine colic, and they diminish the urea; when the urine contains it in excess. [ ] the greek valerian is another british species, found growing occasionally in the north of england and in scotland, being known as the blue jacob's ladder. it is also named "make bate," because said to set a married couple quarrelling if put in their bed. this must be a play on its botanical name _polemonium_, from the greek _polemos_, war. it is called jacob's ladder from its successive pairs of leaflets. verbena. the verbena, or common vervain, is a very familiar herb on waste ground throughout england, limited to no soil, and growing at the entrance into towns and villages, always within a quarter of a mile of a house, and hence called formerly the simpler's joy. of old, much credit for curative virtues attached itself to this plant, though it is without odour, and has no taste other than that of slight astringency. but a reputation clings to the vervain because it used to be held sacred, as "holy herb," and was employed in sacrificial rites, being worn also around the neck as an amulet. it was called "tears of isis" "tears of juno" "persephonion" and "demetria." the juice was given as a remedy for the plague. vervain grew on calvary: and gerard says "the devil did reveal it as a secret, and divine medicine." it is a slender plant with but few leaves, and spikes of small lilac flowers, when wild; but its cultivated varieties, developed by the gardener, are showy plants, remarkable for their brilliant colours. the name frogfoot has been applied to the vervain because its leaf somewhat resembles in outline the foot of that creature. old writers called the plant _verbinaca_ and _peristerium_:-- "frossis fot men call it, for his levys are like the frossy's fet." [ ] the practice of wearing it round the neck became changed from a religious observance to a medicinal proceeding, for which reason it was ordered that the plant should be _bruised_ before being appended to the person; and thus it gained a name for curing inveterate headaches. presently also it was applied to other parts as a cataplasm. nevertheless, the vervain has fallen of late years into disfavour as a british herbal simple, though a pamphlet has recently appeared, written by a mr. morley, who strongly advises the revived use of the herb for benefiting scrofulous disease. therein it is ordered that the root of vervain shall be tied with a yard of white satin ribband round the neck of the patient until he recovers. also an infusion and an ointment are to be prepared from the leaves of the plant. the expressed juice of verbena will act as a febrifuge; and the infusion by its astringency makes a good lotion for weak and inflamed eyes, also for indolent ulcers, and as a gargle for a relaxed sore throat. the druids gathered it with as much reverence as they paid to the mistletoe. it was dedicated to isis, the goddess of birth, and formed a famous ingredient in love philtres. pliny saith: "they report that if the dining chamber be sprinkled with water in which the herb verbena has been steeped, the guests will be the merrier." geoffrey st. hilaire and pasteur praise the vervain highly as beneficial against ailments of the hair, the fresh juice being especially used. other names of the plant are juno's tears, mercury's moist blood, pigeons' grass, and columbine--the two latter being assigned because pigeons show a partiality for the herb. verbena plants were named _sagmina_ of old, because [ ] cut up by the praetor in the capitol. when borne by an ambassador verbena rendered his person inviolable. all herbs used in sacred rites were probably known as verbena. they were reported as of singular force against the tertian and quartan agues; "but one must observe mother bombie's rules--to take just so many knots, or sprigs, and no more, lest it fallout that it do you no good, if you catch no harm by it." vine. the fruit of the vine (_vitis vinifera_) has already been treated of here under the heading "grapes," as employed medicinally whether for the purgation of the bilious--being then taken crude, and scarcely ripe,--or for imparting fat and bodily warmth in wasting disease by eating the luscious and richly-saccharine berries. it should be added that the fumes exhaled from the wine-presses whilst the juice is fermenting, prove highly beneficial as a restorative for weakly and delicate young persons (an example which might be followed perhaps at our home breweries). consumptive patients are sent with this view to the gironde, where the vapour from the wine vats is more stimulating and curative than in burgundy. young girls who suffer from atrophy are first made to stand for some hours daily in the sheds when the wine pressing is going forward. after a while, as they become less weak, they are directed to jump into the wine press, where, with the vintagers and labourers they skip about and inhale the fumes of the fermenting juice, until they sometimes become intoxicated, and even senseless. this effect passes off after one or two trials, and the girls return to their labour with renewed strength and heightened colour, hopeful, joyous, and robust. the [ ] vats of the famous chateau d'yquem are the most celebrated of all for the wondrous cures they have effected even in cases considered past human aid. violet. the wild violet or pansy (_viola tricolor_) is found commonly throughout great britain on banks and in hilly pastures, from whence it has come to be cultivated in our gardens. _viola_, a corruption of "ion," is a name extended by old writers to several other different plants. but the true indigenous representative of the violet tribe is our wild pansy, or paunce, or pance, or heart's ease; called also "john of my pink," "gentleman john," "meet her i' th' entry; kiss her i' th' buttery" (the longest plant name in the english language), and "love in idleness." "a little western flower, before milk-white, now purple with love's wound, and maidens call it--'love in idleness.'" from its coquettishly half hiding its face, as well as from some fancied picture in the throat of the corolla it has received various other amatory designations, such as "cuddle me to you," "tittle my fancy," "jump up and kiss me," and "garden gate": also it is called "flamy," because its colours are seen in the flame of burning wood, and flame flower. the term "heart's ease" has signified a cordial which is comforting to the heart. but the fact is that pansies, "pretty little puritans," produce anything but heart's ease if eaten, and their roots provoke sickness so speedily that these are sometimes employed as an emetic. dr. johnson derived the word pansy from panacea, [ ] as curing all diseases; but this was a mistake, the true derivation is from the french _pensée_, "thoughts," as shakespeare knew, when making ophelia say: "there is pansies--that's for thoughts." from its three colours it has been called the herb trinity. a medicinal tincture is made (h.) from the _viola tricolor_ with spirit of wine, using the entire plant. hahnemann found that the pansy violet, when taken by provers, served to induce cutaneous eruptions, or to aggravate them, and he reasoned out the curative action of the plant in small diluted doses for the cure of these symptoms, when occurring as disease. "for milk crust and scald head," says dr. hughes (brighton)--the plague of children, "i have rarely needed any other medicine than this _viola tricolor_; and i have more than once given it in recent impetigo (pustular eczema) for adults, with very satisfactory effects." for the first of these maladies the tincture should be given in doses of from three to six drops, to a child of from two to six or eight years, three times a day in water. again, "for curing scalled (from _scall_, a shell) head in children, a small handful of the fresh plant, or half a drachm of the dried herb, boiled for two hours in milk, is to be taken each night and morning; also a bread poultice made with this decoction should be applied to the affected part. "during the first eight days the eruption increases, and the urine, when the medicine succeeds, has a nauseous odour like that of the cat, which presently passes off; then, as the use of the plant is continued, the scabs disappear, and the skin recovers its natural clean condition." the root of the _viola tricolor_ has similar properties [ ] to that of ipecacuanha, and is often used beneficially as a substitute by country doctors. an infusion thereof is admirable for the dysentery of young children. it loves a mixture of chalk in the soil where it grows. the pansy contains an active chemical principle, "violin," resin, mucilage, sugar, and the other ordinary constituents of plants. when bruised the plant, and especially its root, smells like peach kernels, or prussic acid. it acts as a slight laxative: and "the distilled water of the flowers" says gerard--"cureth the french disease." the germans style the pansy _stief-mutter_, because figuratively the mother-in-law appears in the flower predominant in purple velvet, and her own two daughters gay in purple and yellow, whilst the two poor little cinderellas, more soberly and scantily attired, are squeezed in between. again, another fable says, with respect to the five petals and the five sepals of the pansy, two of which petals are plain in colour, whilst each has a single sepal, the three other petals being gay of hue, one of these (the largest of all) having two sepals; that the pansy represents a family of husband, wife, and four daughters, two of the latter being step-children of the wife. the plain petals are the step-children, with only one chair; the two small gay petals are the daughters, with a chair each; and the large gay petal is the wife, with two chairs. to find the father, one must strip away the petals until the stamens and pistils are bare. these then bear a fanciful resemblance to an old man with a flannel wrapper about his neck, having his shoulders upraised, and his feet in a bath tub. the french also call the pansy "the step-mother." the chemical principle, "violin," contained in the [ ] flowering wild pansy resembles emetin in action. if the dried plant is given medicinally, from ten to sixty grains may be taken as a dose, in infusion. the sweet violet (_viola odorata_) is well known for its delicious fragrance of perfume when growing in our woods, pastures, and hedge banks. the odour of its petals is lost in drying, but a pleasant syrup is made from the flowers which is a suitable laxative for children. a conserve, called "violet sugar," prepared from the flowers, has proved of excellent use in consumption. this conserve was made in the time of charles the second, being named "violet plate." also, the sweet violet is thought to possess admirable virtues as a cosmetic. lightfoot gives a translation from a highland recipe in gaelic, for its use in this capacity, rendered thus: "anoint thy face with goat's milk in which violets have been infused, and there is not a young prince upon earth who will not be charmed with thy beauty." there is a legend that mahomet once compared the excellence of violet perfume above all other sweet odours to himself above all the rest of creation: it refreshes in summer by its coolness, and revives in winter by its warmth. the syrup of sweet violets should be made as follows: to one pound of sweet violet flowers freshly picked, add two-and-a-half pints of boiling water: infuse these for twenty-four hours in a glazed china vessel, then pour off the liquid, and strain it gently through muslin; afterwards add double its weight of the finest loaf sugar, and make it into a syrup, but without letting it boil. violets are cultivated largely at stratford-on-avon for the purpose of making the syrup, which when mixed with almond oil, is a capital laxative for children, [ ] and will help to soothe irritative coughs, or to relieve a sore throat. the flowers have been commended for the cure of epilepsy and nervous disorders; they are laxative when eaten in a salad. the seeds are diuretic, and will correct gravel. the sweet violet contains the chemical principle "violin" in all its parts. a medicinal tincture (h.) is made from the entire fresh plant with proof spirit. it acts usefully for a spasmodic cough, with hard breathing; also for rheumatism of the wrists especially the right one. this violet is highly esteemed likewise in syria, chiefly because of its being chosen for making the violet sugar used in sherbet. that which is drunk by the grand signior himself is compounded of sweet violets, and sugar. from the flower may be pleasantly contrived a pretty miniature bird, by carefully removing the calyx and corolla, leaving only the stamens and pistil attached to the receptacle; then the stigma forms the bead and neck, whilst the anthers make a golden breast, and their tongues appear like a pair of green wings. mademoiselle clarion, a noted french actress, had a nosegay of violets sent her every morning of the season for thirty years; and to enhance the value of the gift, she stripped off the petals every evening, being passionately devoted to the flower, and took them in an infusion as tea. pliny recommended a garland of sweet violets as a cure for headache. the romans made wine of the flowers; and napoleon the great claimed the violet as _par excellence_ his own, for which reason he was often styled, _le père du violette_. this floral association took date from the time of his exile to elba. the emperor's return was alluded to among his adherents by a pass [ ] word, "_aimez vous la violette? eh, bien! reparaitra au printemps_." the scentless dog violet (_viola canina_) is likewise mildly laxative, and possesses the virtues of the _viola odorata_ in a lesser degree. the water violet is "feather foil" (_hottonia palustris_). viper's bugloss. the simpler's passing consideration should be given to this tall handsome english herb which grows frequently in gravel pits, and on walls. it belongs to the borage tribe (see page ), and, in common with the lungwort (_pulmonaria_), the comfrey, and the ordinary bugloss, abounds in a soft mucilaginous saline juice. this is demulcent to the chest, or to the urinary passages, being also slightly laxative. bees favour the said plants, which are rich in honey. each herb goes by the rustic name of "abraham, isaac, and jacob," because bearing spires of tricoloured flowers, blue, purple, and red. the viper's bugloss is called botanically _echium_, having been formerly considered antidotal to the bite of (_echis_) a viper: and its seed was thought to resemble the reptile's head: wherefore such a curative virtue became attributed to it after the doctrine of signatures. "_in echio, herba contra viperarum morsus celeberrima, natura semen viperinis capitibus simile procreavit_." similarly the lungwort (or jerusalem cowslip), because of its spotted leaves, was held to be a remedy for diseased lungs. this rarely grows wild, but it is of frequent cultivation in cottage gardens, bearing also the rustic name, "soldiers and sailors," "to-day and to-morrow," and "virgin mary." from either of these herbs a fomentation of the flowers, or a decoction of the whole bruised plant, may be employed with benefit locally to sore or raw surfaces: [ ] whilst an infusion made with three drams of the dried herb to a pint of boiling water will be good in feverish pulmonary catarrh. by our ancestors viper broth was thought to be highly invigorating: and vipers cooked like eels were given to patients suffering from ulcers. the sardinians still take them in soup. marvellous powers were supposed to be acquired by the druids through their possession of a viper's egg, laid in the air, and caught before reaching the earth. all herbs of the borage order are indifferently "of force and virtue to drive away sorrow and pensiveness of the mind: also to comfort and strengthen the heart." with respect to the comfrey (see page ), quite recently the president of the irish college of surgeons has reported the gradual disappearance of a growth ("malignant, sarcomatous, twice recurrent, and of a bad type"), since steadily applying poultices of this root to the tumour. "i know nothing," says professor thomson, "of the effects of comfrey root: but the fact that this growth has simply disappeared is one of the greatest surprises and puzzles i have met with." wallflower. the wallflower, or handfiower (_cheiranthus cheiri_), or wall-gilliflower, has been cultivated in this country almost from time immemorial, for its fragrance and bright colouring. it is found wild in france, switzerland, and spain, as the keiri or wallstock. formerly this flower was carried in the hand at classic festivals. herrick, in , gave a more romantic origin to the name wallflower:-- "why this flower is now called so list, sweet maids, and you shall know: understand this wilding was once a bright and bonny lad [ ] who a sprightly springal loved, and to have it fully proved up she got upon a wall tempting to slide down withal: but the silken twist untied, so she fell: and, bruised, she died. love, in pity of the deed, and such luckless eager speed, turned her to this plant we call now the 'floweret of the wall.'" it is the only british species belonging to the cruciferous order of plants, and flourishes best on the walls of old buildings, flowering nearly all the summer, though scantily supplied with moisture. we may presume it was one of the earliest cultivated flowers in english gardens, as it is discovered on the most ancient houses. turner, an early writer on plants, calls it wallgelouer, or "hartisease;" and by spencer it was termed cherisaunce, as meaning a cordial to the heart, this being really the herb to which the name heart's-ease was originally given. by rustics it is known also as the "beeflower." but the common stock likewise bore the appellation, "gilliflower": and the probability is, there was in old days, as cotgrave suggests, a popular medicine or food "for the passions of the heart," called "gariofile," from the cloves which it contained, the latin for a clove being _caryophyllum_. hence it came about that the wallflower, the pansy, and the stock, by virtue of their cordial qualities, were alike called gilliflowers, or heart's-ease. there are two varieties of the cultivated wallflower, the yellow and the red; those of a deep colour growing on old rockeries and similar places, are often termed [ ] bloody warriors, and bleeding heart. the double wallflower has been produced for more than two centuries. if the flowers are steeped in oil for some weeks, they contribute thereto a stimulating warming property useful for friction to limbs which are rheumatic, or neuralgic. gerard suggests that the "oyle of wallflowers is good for use to annoint a paralyticke." an infusion of the flowers, made with boiling water, will relieve the headache of debility, and is cordial in nervous disorders, by taking a small wine-glassful immediately, and repeating it every half-hour whilst required. the aromatic volatile principles of the flowers are _caryophyllin_ and _eugenol_. "this wallflower," adds gerard, "and the stock gilliflower are used by certain empiricks and quack salvers about love and lust,--matters which for modesty i omit." walnut. the walnut tree is known of aspect to most persons throughout great britain as of stately handsome culture, having many spreading branches covered with a silvery grey bark, which is smooth when young, though thick and cracked when old. the flowers occur in long, hanging, inconspicuous spikes or catkins, of a brownish green colour. this tree is a native of asia minor, but is largely grown in england. the greeks called it "karuon," and the latins "nux." its botanical title is _juglans regia_, a corruption of _glans_, the acorn, _jovis_, of jupiter, or the "royal nut of jupiter," food fit for the gods! its fruit is also named ban nut, or ball nut, and welsh nut, or walnut-- the word wal, or welsh, being teutonic for "stranger." "as for the timber," said fuller, "it may be termed the english shittim wood." [ ] the london society of apothecaries has directed that the unripe fruit of the walnut should be used pharmaceutically on account of its worm-destroying virtues. it is remarkable that no insects will prey on the leaves of this tree. in good seasons the produce of nuts is weighty enough to pay the rent of the land occupied by the trees. the vinegar of the pickled fruit makes a very useful gargle for sore throats, even when slightly ulcerated: and the green husks, or early buds of the blossom, being dried to powder, serve in some places for pepper. the kernel of the nut (or the part of the inside taken at dessert) affords an oil which does not congeal by cold, and which painters find very useful on such account. this oil has proved useful when applied externally for troublesome skin diseases of the leprous type. indeed, the walnut has been justly termed vegetable arsenic, because of its curative virtues in eczema, and other obstinately diseased conditions of the skin. the tincture when made (h.) from the rind of the green fruit and the fresh leaves, with spirit of wine, and given in material doses, will determine in a sound person a burning itching eruption of the skin, of an eczematous character, lasting a long time, and leaving the parts which have been affected afterwards blue and swollen. reasoning from which it has been found that the tincture, in a reduced form, and of a diminished strength, proves admirably curative of eczema, impetigo, and ecthyma. the unripe fruit is laxative, and of beneficial use in thrush, and in ulcerative sore throat. the leaves are said to be anti-syphilitic: likewise the green husk, and unripe shell. obstinate ulcers may be cured with sugar well moistened in a strong decoction of the leaves. [ ] well kept, kiln-dried walnuts, of some age, are better digested than newer fruit; in contrast to old gherkins, about which it has been humorously said, "avoid stale q-cumbers: they will w-up." in many parts of germany the peasants literally subsist on walnuts for several months together; and a young farmer before he marries has to own a certain number of flourishing walnut trees. the bark or yellow skin which clothes the inner nut is a notable remedy for colic, being given when dried and powdered, in a dose of thirty or forty grains mixed with some carminative water; and the same powder will help to expel worms. according to the salernitan maxim, if the fruit of the walnut be eaten after fish, the digestion of the latter is promoted:-- post pisces nux sit: post carnes case us esto. or, "take welsh nuts after fish: take cheese after flesh meat." but with some persons coughing is excited by eating walnuts. the roots, leaves, and rind yield a brown dye which is supposed to contain iodine, and which gipsies employ for staining their skins. it also serves to turn the hair black. a custom prevails (says a latin sentence) among certain country folk to thrash the nuts out of their husks while still on the trees, so that they may grow more abundantly the following year. in allusion to which practice the lines run thus:-- "nux, asinus, mulier, simili sunt lege ligata; haec trieo nil fructûs faciunt si verbera cessant." "a woman, a donkey, a walnut tree-- the more you beat them, the better they be." [ ] it is a fact, that by acting in this way, the barren ends of the branches are knocked off, and fresh fruit-bearing twigs spring out at each side in their stead. walnut cake, after expressing out the oil from the kernels, is a good food for cattle, these kernels being the crumpled cotyledons or seed leaves. they contain oil, mucilage, albumen, mineral matter, cellulose, and water. the rook has a most abiding affection for walnuts. as soon as there is any fruit on the trees worth eating, this bird finds it out, and brings it to the ground, choosing only those nuts which are soft enough for him to penetrate. ovid has left a charming little poem, _nucis elegia_--the plaint of the walnut tree--because beaten with sticks and pelted with stones, in return for the generosity with which it bestows on mankind its fair produce. a valuable medicinal spirit is distilled by druggists from the fruit of the walnut. it is an admirable remedy for spasmodic indigestion, and to relieve the morning sickness of pregnancy. a teaspoonful of the spirit (_spiritus nucis juglandis_) may be given with half a wine-glassful of water every hour or two, for most forms of sickness, and the dose may be increased if necessary. "nucin," or "juglon," is the active chemical principle of the several parts of the tree and its fruit. the leaves, when slightly rubbed, emit a rich aromatic odour, which renders them proof against the attacks of insects. qualities of this odoriferous sort commended the tree to king solomon, whose "garden of nuts" was clearly one of walnuts, according to the hebrew word _eghoz_. the longevity of the tree is very great. there is at balaclava, in the crimea, a walnut tree believed to be a thousand years old. [ ] the shade of the walnut tree was held by the romans to be baneful, but the nuts were thought propitious, and favourable to marriage as a symbol of fecundity. the ceremony of throwing nuts, for which boys scrambled at a wedding, was of athenian origin:-- "let the air with hymen ring hymen! io! hymen sing! soon the nuts will now be flung: soon the wanton verses sung." --_catullus_. in italy this is known as the "witches tree." it is hostile to the oak. the leaves of the american black walnut tree, which grows naturally in virginia, are of the highest curative value for scrofulous diseases and for strumous eruptions. chronic, indolent sores have been healed by these after every other remedy has failed. the parts should be washed several times a day with a strong decoction of the leaves, and an infusion of the same should be taken internally; also of the extract made from the leaves, four grains in a pill each night and morning. for such purposes the leaves of our english walnut are almost equally efficacious. to make an infusion one ounce should be used to twelve ounces of boiling water. for a syrup mix eight grains of the extract with an ounce of simple syrup: and give one teaspoonful of this twice a day with water. also apply to any sore some of the powdered leaves on lint soaked in the decoction. for scrofulous joints, or glands, this treatment is invaluable. a green english walnut, boiled in syrup and preserved in the same, is an excellent homely remedy for constipation. it will be noticed that the fruit becomes black by boiling. the chinese put the raw kernels into their tea to give it a flavour. [ ] by the romans walnuts were scattered among the people when a marriage was celebrated, as an intimation that the wedded couple henceforth abandoned the frivolities of youth. the "titmouse" walnut produces very delicate fruit, rich in oil, and with thin shells, so that the little creatures can pierce the husks and shells while the fruit is still on the bough. nuts of various kinds, being charged with carbon and oil, are highly nutritious, but on account of this oil abounding, they are not readily digested by some persons. in southern europe, the chestnut is a staple article of food, the title "nut" signifies a hard round lump, from _nodus_, a knot. leigh hunt wrote meaningly of the "inexorably hard cocoa nut-- milky at heart." in devonshire a plentiful crop of hazel nuts is believed to portend an unhealthy year:-- "many nits (nuts) many pits (graves)." when eating almonds and raisins at dessert we get the nitrogenous food of the nuts with the saccharine nourishment of the grapes. wart-wort, or wart-weed. this name has been commonly applied to the petty spurge, or to the sun spurge, a familiar little weed growing abundantly in english gardens, with umbels of a golden green colour which "turn towards the sun." its stem and leaves yield, when wounded, an acrid milky juice which is popularly applied for destroying warts, and corns. but our greater celandine (see page ) or swallow-wort is better known abroad as the wart-wort: and its sap is widely given in russia for the cure, not only of [ ] warts, but likewise of cancerous outgrowths, whether occurring on the skin surface, or assailing membranes inside the body. conclusive evidence has been adduced of cancerous disease within the gullet and the stomach--as well as on the external skin--being healed by this herb. its sap, or juice, contains chemically, "chelidonine," and "sanguinarine," which latter principle (obtained heretofore from the canadian "blood root"), is of long established repute for repressing fungoid granulations of indolent ulcers, when powdered over them, and of quickly advancing their cure. each principle exercises a narcotic influence on the nervous system, and will, thereby, relieve spasmodic coughs. healthy provers have taken the fresh juice of the greater celandine in doses of from twenty to two hundred drops, at repeated intervals; the results of the larger portions being drastic purgation, with persistent nervous torpor, and with an outbreak on the skin of irritating, sore, itching eruptions. in some of the provers active inflammatory congestion of the right lung ensued, with turgidity of the liver. the root beaten into a conserve with sugar will operate by stool, and by urine. for cancerous excrescences from five to ten drops of the fresh juice, or of the mother tincture (h.) should be given steadily three times a day, this quantity being reduced if it should move the bowels too freely. some of the sap, or tincture, should be also used outwardly as a lotion, either by itself, or diluted with an equal quantity of cold water. water plants (other). (water dropwort, water lily, water pepper.) the water dropwort--hemlock (_oenanthe crocata_) is an umbelliferous plant, frequent in our marshes and ditches. [ ] it is named from _oinos_, wine, and _anthos_, a flower, because its blossoms have a vinous smell. a medicinal tincture is made (h.) from the ripe fruit. the leaves look like celery, and the roots like parsnips. a country name of this plant is dead-tongue, from its paralyzing effects on the organs of the voice. of eight lads who were poisoned by eating the root, says mr. vaughan, five died before morning, not one of them having spoken a word. other names are horsebane, from its being thought in sweden to cause in horses a kind of palsy; (due, as linnaeus thought, to an insect, _curculio paraplecticus_, which breeds in the stem); and five-fingered-root, from its five leaflets. the roots contain a poisonous, milky juice, which becomes yellow on exposure to the air, and which exudes from all parts of the plant when wounded. it will be readily seen that because of so virulent a nature the plant is too dangerous for use as a herbal simple, though the juice has been known to cure obstinate and severe skin disease. it yields an acrid emetic principle. the root is sometimes applied by country folk to whitlows, but this has proved an unsafe proceeding. the plant has a pleasant odour. its leaves have been mistaken for parsley, and its root for the skirret. the _oenanthe phellandrium_ (water fennel) is a variety of the same species, but with finer leaves. pliny gave the seeds, twenty grains for a dose, against stone, and disorders of the bladder. also they have been commended for cancer. in this country water lilies, or pond lilies, comprise the white water lily--a large native flower inhabiting clear pools and slow rivers--and the yellow water lily, frequent in rivers and ditches, with a yellow, globose flower smelling like brandy, so that it is called "brandy [ ] bottle" in norfolk and other parts. its root and stalks contain much tannin. this latter yellow lily (_nuphar lutea_) possesses medicinal virtues against diarrhoea, such as is aggravated in the morning, and against sexual weakness. a tincture is made (h.) from the whole plant with spirit of wine. the second title, _lutea_, signifies growing in the mud; whilst the large white water lily is called _nymphoea_, from occurring in the supposed haunts of the nymphs: and flatter-dock. the root stocks of the yellow water lily, when bruised, and infused in milk, will destroy beetles and cockroaches. the smoke of the same when burnt will get rid of crickets. the small yellow pond lily bears the name of candock, from the shape of its seed vessel, like that of a silver can or flagon, and this perhaps has likewise to do with the appellations, "brandy bottle" and "water can:" which latter may be given because of the half unfolded leaves floating on the water like cans. the root of the larger white water lily is acrid, and will redden the skill if the juice is applied thereto. an ointment may be made with this juice to stimulate the scalp so as to prevent falling out of the hair. the root contains tannin and mucilage, it is therefore astringent and demulcent. also the expressed juice from the fresh leaves of this white water lily, the "one sinless flower," if used as a head wash, will preserve the hair. "oh, destinée des choses d'ici bas! descendre des austeritiés du cloitre dans l'officine cancanière du perruquier!" dutch boys are said to be extremely careful about plucking or handling the water lily, for, if a boy fall [ ] with the flowers in his possession, he is thought to immediately become subject to fits. the water pepper (_polygonum hydropiper_) or arsmart, grows abundantly by the sides of lakes and ditches in great britain. it bears a vulgar english name signifying the irritation which it causes when applied to the fundament; and its french sobriquet, _culrage_, conveys the same meaning:-- "an erbe is the cause of all this rage, in our tongue called culrage." the plant is further known to rustics as cyderach, or ciderage, and as red-knees, from its red angular points. it possesses an acrid, biting taste, somewhat like that of the peppermint, which resides in the glandular dots sprinkled about its surface, and which is lost in drying. fleas will not come into rooms where this herb is kept. it is called also "lake weed." a tradition says that the plant when placed under the saddle will enable a horse to travel for some long time without becoming hungry or thirsty. the scythians knew this herb (_hippice_) to be useful for such a purpose. the water pepper has its virtues first taught by a beggar of savoy. it is admirable against syphilis, and to arrest sexual losses: being long adored because "healing the original sin." farriers use it for curing proud flesh in the sores of animals, and when applied to the human skin, the leaves will serve the purpose of a mustard poultice. also, a piece of the plant may be chewed to relieve toothache, as well as to cure small ulcers of thrush in the mouth, and pimples on the tongue. the expressed juice of the freshly-gathered plant has been found very useful in jaundice. from one to three [ ] tablespoonfuls may be taken for a dose. a hot decoction made from the whole herb (water persicaria) has a sheet soaked in it as an american remedy for cholera, the patient being wrapped therein immediately when seized. this herb, together with the _thuja occidentalis_ (_arbor vitoe_) makes the _anti-venereo_ of count mattaei. another polygonum, the great bistort, or snakeweed, and adderswort, is a common wild plant in the northern parts of great britain, having bent or crooked roots, which are difficult to be extirpated, and are strongly astringent. this bistort, "twice twisted," on account of its snake-like root, was at one time called _serpentaria_, _columbrina_, and _dracunculus_. it has been thought to be the _oxylapathum britannicum_ and _limonium_ of the ancients. the dose of the root in substance is from twenty to sixty grains. in the north of england the plant is known as easter giant, and its young shoots are eaten in herb pudding. about manchester they are substituted for greens, under the name of passion's dock. the root may be employed both externally as a poultice, and inwardly as a decoction, when an astringent is needed. it is most useful for a spongy state of the gums, attended with looseness of the teeth. this plant grows in moist meadows, but is not common. its roots are reddish of colour inside. the bistort contains starch, and much tannin; likewise its rhizome (crooked root) furnishes gallic acid. the decoction is to be made with an ounce of the bruised root boiled in a pint of water; one tablespoonful of this may be given every two hours in passive bleedings, and for simple diarrhoea. other names for the [ ] plant are osterick, and twice writhen (_bis tort_), red legs, and man giant, from the french _mangeant_, eatable. whitethorn. (_see_ "hawthorn," _page _.) whortleberry. (_see_ "bilberry," _page _.) woodruff. concerning the sweet woodruff (_asperula odorata_), it is a favourite little plant growing commonly in our woods and gardens, with a pleasant smell which, like the good deeds of the worthiest persons, delights by its fragrance most after death. this herb is of the rubiaceous order, and gets its botanical name from the latin _asper_, rough, in allusion to the rough leaves possessed by its species. it may be readily recognised by its small white flowers set on a slender stalk, with narrow leaves growing round it in successive whorls, just as in the cleaver (goosegrass), which belongs to the same order. the name woodruffe has been whimsically spelt woodderowffe, thus:-- double u, double o, double d, e r, o, double u, double f, e. its terminal syllable, "ruff," is derived from _rofe_, a wheel,--with the diminutive _rouelle_, a little wheel or rowel, like that of an ancient spur,--which the verticillate leaves of this herb closely resemble. they serve to remind us also of good queen bess, and of the high, starched, old-fashioned ruff which she is shown to wear [ ] in her portraits. therefore, the plant is known as woodrowel. when freshly gathered, it has but little odour, but when dried it exhales a delightful and lasting aroma, like the scent of meadow grass, or of peach blossoms. a fragrant and exhilarating tea may be made from the leaves and blossoms of the sweet woodruffe, and this is found to be of service in correcting sluggishness of the liver. "when it is desired," says mr. johns, "to preserve the leaves merely for their scent, the stem should be cut through just below and above a joint, and the leaves pressed in such a way as not to destroy their star-like arrangement." gerard tells us: "the flowers are of a very sweet smell, as is the rest of the herb, which, being made up into garlands or bundles, and hanged up in houses, in the heat of summer, doth very well attemper the air, cool and make fresh the place, to the delight and comfort of such as are therein." the agreeable odour of this sweet woodruffe is due to a chemical principle named "coumarin," which powerfully affects the brain; and the plant further contains citric, malic, and rubichloric acids, together with some tannic acid. another species of the same genus is the squinancy woodruff (_asperula cynanchica_), so called from the greek _cynanche_, which means quinsy, because an excellent gargle may be made from this herb for the troublesome throat affection here specified, and for any severe sore throat. quinsy is called cynanche, from the greek words, _kuon_, a dog, and _ancho_, to strangle, because the distressed patient is compelled by the swollen state of his highly inflamed throat, to gasp with his mouth open like a choking dog. [ ] this plant is found growing in dry pastures, especially on a chalky or limestone soil, but it is not common; it has very narrow leaves, and tufts of lilac flowers. reverting to the sweet woodruff, the dried herb may be kept amongst linen, like lavender, to preserve it from insects. she--"fresh woodruff soaks to brew cool drink, and keep away the moth." --_a. austin, poet laureate_. it was formerly employed for strewing churches, littering chambers, and stuffing beds. withering declares that its strongly aromatic flowers make an infusion which far exceeds even the choice teas of china. the powdered leaves are mixed with fancy snuffs, because of their enduring fragrance. woodsorrell (_see also "docks."_) this elegant little herb, called also french sorrel, rabbits' food, shamrock, and wood sour (_oxalis acetosella_), is abundant throughout our woods, and in other moist, shady places. it belongs to the natural order of geraniums, and bears the provincial names of sour trefoil, cuckoo's bread, or gowk's-meat, and stubwort (from growing about the stubs of hewn trees). its botanical title is got from the greek word _oxus_, sharp, or acid, because of its penetrating sour taste. this is due to the acid oxalate of potash which it contains abundantly, in common with the dock sorrel, and the garden rhubarb. by reason of this chemical salt being present in combination with less leafy matter than in the other plants which are akin to it, the wood sorrel makes a lighter and more palatable salad. in olden days the monks named this pretty little [ ] woodland plant _alleluia_, because it blossoms between easter and whitsuntide, when the psalms--from the th to the th, inclusive--which end with the aspiration, "hallelujah!" were sung. st. patrick is said to have shown on the ternate leaf of the wood sorrel to his rude audience the possibility of a trinity in unity. the herb has been long popular as a simple for making a fever drink, which is thought to be somewhat sedative to the heart, and for helping to cure scurvy. also, it has proved useful against intermittent fever. towards assisting to digest, by their free acid, the immature fibre of young flesh meats, the wood sorrel leaves are commonly eaten as a dressing with veal, and lamb. but too habitual use of such a salad or sauce has led to the formation of gouty crystals (oxalate of lime) in the urine, with considerable irritation of the kidneys. externally, the bruised leaves are of excellent service for cleansing and stimulating foul sores and ulcers, being first macerated in a cabbage leaf with warmth. this familiar harbinger of spring, with its three delicate leaflets on a long stalk, and its tiny white flowers, having purple veins like those of the wood anemone, bears the fanciful name of fairy-bells in welsh districts. fra angelico placed the claret-stained flowers in the foreground of his pictures representing the crucifixion. after the doctrine of signatures, because of its shape like a heart, the leaf of the wood sorrel was formerly esteemed as a cordial medicine. it was called in latin _panis cuculi_, meaning the "cuckoo's bread and cheese." the leaves, when bruised, make with sugar a capital conserve which is refreshing to a fevered stomach, or, if boiled in milk, they form an agreeable sub-acid whey. [ ] twenty pounds of the fresh plant will yield four ounces of the oxalate of potash, commonly known as salt of lemons or salt of sorrel, which is often used for taking ink stains out of linen. francus, an old classical author, concluded by experiment that the herb is of value (_cordis vires reparare_) to recruit the energies of the heart, and (_anginum abigere_) to dispel the quinsy. its infusion makes an excellent anti-putrescent gargle. there is also a yellow variety of the wood sorrel. wormwood. the common wormwood (_artemisia absinthium_) has been partly considered here together with mugwort, to which it is closely allied. it is a composite herb of frequent growth on waste ground, being a bushy plant with silky stems, and collections of numerous small heads of dull yellow flowers. the name wormwood is from _wehren_, to keep off--_mought_, a maggot or moth; and _absinthium_, from-a-negative--_psinthos_, delight, in allusion to the very bitter taste. the whole plant is of an aromatic smell and bitter flavour. the flowers, when dried and powdered, destroy worms more effectually than worm seed, whilst the leaves resist putrefaction and help to make capital antiseptic fomentations. wormwood tea, or the powdered herb in small doses, mixed in a little soup, will serve to relieve bilious melancholia, and will help to disperse the yellow hue of jaundice from the skin. this herb was formerly thought to possess the power of dispelling demons, and was thus associated with the ceremonials of st. john's eve, owning the name, on the continent, of st. john's herb, or st. john's girdle. both it, and the mugwort were dedicated to diana: [ ] and venus gave thereof (ambrose) to aeneas. it bears the provincial name "old woman." the smell of common wormwood is very refreshing, and its reviving qualities in heated courts are almost equal to a change of air. dioscorides declared it a preventive of intoxication, and a remedy for the ill-effects of any such excess; for which reason the _poculum absinthiacum_ was a favourite beverage. gerard says: "the plant voideth away the worms, not only taken inwardly, but applied outwardly; it withstandeth all putrefactions, and is good against the stinking breath." it keepeth garments also from the moths--_a tineis tutam reddit quá conditur arcam_ (macer); and dr. w. bulleyne says "it keepeth clothes from moths and wormes." this is the great preventive used by cloth manufacturers. "furthermore," adds gerard, "taken in wine it is good against the biting of the shrew mouse, and of the sea dragon. it may be applied against the squincie, or inflammation of the throat, with honey and water: likewise, after the same manner, to dim eyes, and mattery ears." the characteristic odour of the plant is due to a volatile oil which consists mainly of absinthol; and the intensely bitter taste resides in "absinthin." the plant also contains tannin, resin, starch, succinic, malic, and acetic acids, with nitrate of potash, and other salts. in some districts it is popularly called "green ginger." wormwood is of benefit for strengthless flatulent indigestion. an infusion may be made of an ounce of the dried plant to a pint of boiling water, and given in doses of from one to two tablespoonfuls three times during the day. [ ] this infusion with a few drops of the essential oil will prevent the hair from falling off. absinthe, a liqueur concocted from wormwood, is used largely in france, and the medical verdict pronounced there about its effects shows that it exercises through the pneumogastric nerve a painful sensation, which has been taken for that of extreme hunger. this feeling goes off quickly if a little alcohol is given, though it is aggravated by coffee, whilst an excessive use of absinthe from day to day is not slow in producing serious symptoms: the stomach ceases to perform its duty, there is an irritative reaction in the brain, and the effects of blind drunkenness come on after each debauch. the french military call absinthe _un perroquet_. the daily taking even for a short while only of a watery infusion of wormwood shows its bad effects by a general languor, with obscurities of the sight, giddiness, want of appetite, and painful indigestion. when indulged-in as an appetiser by connoisseurs, absinthe, the "fairy with the green eyes," is modified by admixture with anisette, noted as an "agreeable and bronchitis-palliating" liqueur. as a result of his experiments on animals, dr. maignan has come to the conclusion that absinthe (wormwood) determines tremblings, dulness of thought, and epileptiform convulsions,--symptoms which alcohol alone will not produce. hence it may be inferred that absinthe contains really a narcotic poison which should prevent its being employed as a liqueur, or as a homely medicament, to any excess. dogs are given to eat the wormwood as a remedy for their ailments. its medicinal and curative uses have been already partly discussed, together with those of _mugwort_. [ ] woundwort. the hedge woundwort (_stachys sylvatica_) is a common labiate plant in our hedges and woods, branched and hairy, with whorls of small dull purple flowers on a spike two feet high or more. there are other varieties of the herb, such as the marsh (march) woundwort, the corn woundwort, and the downy woundwort. the hedge woundwort was named by gerard, clown's all heal, or the husbandman's woundwort, because a countryman who had cut his hand to the bone with a scythe, healed the wound in seven days with this plant. it is called by some the hedge dead nettle, from its nettle-like leaves, and the place of its growth. "the leaves," says gerard, "stampt (pounded) with hog's grease, and applied unto green wounds in the manner of a poultice, heal them in such short time and such absolute manner, that it is hard for anyone that hath not had the experience thereof to believe. for instance, a deep and grievous wound in the breast with a dagger, and two others in the abdomen (or nether belly), so that the fat commonly named the caul, issued forth, the which mortal wounds, by god's permission, and the virtues of this herb, i perfectly cured within twenty days--for the which the name of god be praised." the name _stachys_ given to this herb, is from the greek _stakos_, a bunch, because of the arrangement of the flowers. it contains a volatile oil, and a bitter principle undetermined. the _stachys germanica_ (downy woundwort) is so called from its soft, downy leaves having been employed instead of lint as a surgical dressing to wounds. the plant grows on a chalky soil in bedfordshire, [ ] berkshire, and oxfordshire: being named also "lamb's ear." this _stachys lanata_ (woolly woundwort) is known as saviour's blanket, in sussex; also in devonshire and somersetshire, as mouse's ear, donkey's ear, and lamb's tongue. the knights' water woundwort (_statiotes aloides_) was supposed from its blade-like leaves, acting on the doctrine of signatures, to heal sword wounds. yarrow. the yarrow, from _hiera_, holy herb (_achillea millefolium_), or milfoil, is so called from the very numerous fine segments of its leaves. it is a composite plant very common on waysides and in pastures throughout britain. the name _achillea_ has been bestowed thereupon because the greek warrior, achilles, is said to have disclosed its virtues which he had been taught by chiron, the centaur. this herb is the _stratiotes chiliophullos _of the greek botanists, by whom it was valued as an excellent astringent and vulnerary. but gerard supposes it may have been the _achillea millefolium nobile_, which grows with a thick root and longer leaves, on a fat and fruitful soil, a stranger in england, "and the very same with which achilles cured the wounds of his soldiers." but, he adds, "the virtues of each sort of milfoil are set to be both alike." the flowers of the common yarrow or nosebleed are white or pink; those of the _nobile_ are yellow. the popular name of nosebleed has been given to the yarrow because the hairy filaments of the leaves, when put up the nose, provoke an exudation of blood, and will thus afford relief to headache, caused by a passive fulness of the vessels. parkinson says "if it be [ ] pat into the nose, assuredly it will stay the bleeding of it," which mast be the' effect of action according to similars. or if using yarrow in the same way as a love charm, the following lines were repeated:-- "green arrow! green arrow! you bear a white blow; if my love love me my nose will bleed now." the leaves have a somewhat fragrant smell, and a bitterish taste. the odour of the flowers, when rubbed between the fingers, is aromatic. in consequence of this pungent, volatile principle, the herb has proved useful in hysteria, flatulence, heartburn, colic, and epilepsy; also, it is employed in norway for the cure of rheumatism, and sometimes chewed for toothache. yarrow is one of the few aboriginal english plants, having held the primitive title, _gearwe_. greek botanists seem to have known the identical species which we now possess, and to have used it against haemorrhagic losses. it yields, chemically, a dark-green volatile oil, and achilleic acid, which is said to be identical with aconitic acid; also resin, tannin, gum; and earthy ash consisting of nitrates, phosphates, and chlorides of potash and lime. for preparing an infusion of the plant, half an ounce should be boiled down in half a pint of water to six ounces; one tablespoonful for a dose. sir john hill says the best way of giving yarrow is in a strong decoction of the whole plant. a hot infusion of the herb taken freely on going to bed at night seldom fails to make short work of a cold. a medicinal tincture (h.) is prepared from the whole plant with spirit of wine. this, when employed in a diluted form of the first or third decimal strength, and [ ] in small doses of from five to ten drops in a tablespoonful of cold water, will act admirably in arresting nocturnal losses in the male; likewise bleeding from the lungs, the kidneys, or the nose, especially in florid, hectic subjects. it has been found by healthy provers that stronger, and larger doses of any preparation of the herb will induce or aggravate one or another of these bleedings. the fresh juice of the plant may be had, a dessert-spoonful three times in the day; or of the volatile essential oil, from three to five drops for a dose. these medicines greatly stimulate and promote the appetite. "for ague," says parkinson, "drink a decoction of the herb warm before the fit, and so for two or three fits together." externally, a strong decoction of the leaves has been used as an injection into the nostrils to stay bleeding from the nose. it is similarly of service for piles, and for female floodings, because exerting a special local action on the organs within the middle trunk. the bruised herb, or an ointment made from it, is applied by rustics to heal fresh cuts and contusions. even in ancient times it was famous as a topical remedy for piles. it is further of benefit for sore nipples as a lotion, and for a relaxed sore throat as a gargle: also as a hair wash. the leaves were applied in former days as a poultice to wounds; and because of its healing and astringent virtues when so used, the plant gained the names sanguinary, thousand leaf, old man's pepper, soldiers' woundwort. other local names for it are staunch grass, carpenters' weed, and bloodwort: also, "old man's mustard," "bad man's plaything," and "devil's plaything." in gloucestershire and some other parts, the double-flowered yarrow is brought to a wedding by [ ] bridesmaids as "seven years' love." in cheshire, children draw the herb across the face to produce a tingling sensation, and they call it "devil's nettle." culpeper spoke of the same as a profitable herb in cramps, and therefore called _militaris_. yarrow, worn in a little bag over the stomach, was the secret (confided to boyle) of a great lord against ague. a famous physician had used it with strange efficacy. similarly a charmed packet containing dried yarrow has been credited with bringing success to its bearer, if at the same time he were admitted to the knowledge of a traditional secret (only whispered to the initiated) that this was the first herb our saviour had put into his hand when a child. again, elspeth reoch, in , when tried for witchcraft, acknowledged to having employed the yarrow in her incantations. she "plucked one herbe called meleflower, sitting on her right knee, and pulling it betwixt the mid-finger and thumbe, and saying: _in nominee patris, filii, et spiritus sancti_." the meleflower is the _achilloea ptarmica_ or sneezewort. by the plant so gathered, she was enabled to cure distempers, and to impart the faculty of prediction. yew. although the yew--a conifer--which is so thoroughly english a tree, is known to be highly poisonous as regards its leaves to the humans subject, and as concerning its loppings or half-dead branches, to oxen, horses, and asses, yet a medicinal tincture (h.) is made from the young shoots, which has distinct and curative uses. both the yew and the ivy were called _abiga_, because [ ] causing abortion. from which word when corrupted was formed _iua_; and under this latter name, says dr. prior, the ivy and the yew became inextricably mixed up. moreover, the red berries, or their coloured fleshy cups, are not poisonous when taken in moderation, but rejecting the seeds. gerard says: "when i was yong, and went to schoole, divers of my school-fellows and likewise myself, did eat our fils of the berries of this tree, and have not only slept under the shadow thereof, but among the branches also, without any hurt at all, and that not one time, but many times." yet leo grindon says, much more recently: "though the juice and pulp of the sweet and viscid berries are not harmful, still the _seeds_ of the yew, and the _leaves_ are deadly poison." in the _herbal_ of , lyte tells us the yew is altogether venomous, and against man's nature. "such as do but only sleep under the shadow thereof become sick, and sometimes they die;" and, "the extract of yew is used by ignorant apothecaries to the great peril and danger of the poor diseased people." the yew tree (_taxus baccata_) occurs in mountainous woods and rocky glens about britain, but is rare as of native growth. its name, taxus, is a corruption of toxos, an arrow, since arrows in the old time were poisoned with the juice of yew. the tree was planted frequently by our forefathers in churchyards, because of its value in the manufacture of bows. it is exceedingly long lived, and often attains great magnitude of girth. a ghastly superstition was attached to the yew when thus growing in a churchyard, that it would prey upon [ ] the dead bodies lying beneath its sombre shade. so tennyson writes (_in memoriam_):-- "old yew! which graspest at the stones that name the underlying dead, thy fibres net the dreamless head, thy roots are wrapped about the bones." the juice of the tree and of its leaves is a rapidly fatal poison, the symptoms corresponding in a very remarkable way with those which follow the bites of venomous snakes. no known poison but the yew produces the lazar-like ulcerations upon the body, on which marlowe lays such stress--(jew of malta):-- "in few, the blood of hydra--herne's bane, the juice of _hebron_, and cocytus' breath, and all the poisons of the stygian pool." the witches in _macbeth_ include it in their accursed brew:-- "liver of blaspheming jew, gall of goat, and _slips of yew_." the yew tree is called "hebon" by spencer, and "jew of malta" by other writers of shakespeare's time. the leaves are bitter, nauseous, and acrid. the succulent covering of the fruit is soft and slimy, mawkishly sweet, and mucilaginous. the leaves have a dangerous effect on the circulation of the heart, and when taken with any freedom are as fatal as the foxglove. before the new shakespeare society, , it was contended and proved to the satisfaction of the society, that "the cursed hebena," the "leperous distilment poured into the chambers of mine ears," told of, so pathetically, by the sad ghost of hamlet's father, was the [ ] poison of the yew, and identical with marlow[e]'s juice of hebron. ray mentions that a gardener employed in clipping a yew tree at pisa, could not proceed with his work for more than half-an-hour at a time without being seized with a violent pain in the head. nevertheless, deer, sheep, and goats can eat the foliage with impunity. the fresh leaves were administered to three children near manchester for worms. yawning and listlessness came on, and the eldest vomited a little, but neither of them complained of any pain. they all died within a few hours of each other. because being then green, on the sunday next before easter, the branches of the yew tree have been used as a substitute for the palms which symbolise the entry of jesus into jerusalem. the symptoms induced by provings of the leaves and juice in toxic quantities, have been sick headache, with giddiness, feeble, faltering pulse, coldness of the extremities, diarrhoea, and general prostration. so that for this combination of symptoms, as in severe biliousness, or as in the auditory vertigo of menière's disease, small doses of the diluted tincture are found to give prompt and effectual relief. the leaves contain a volatile oil, tannin, and a bitter principle "taxina," which is also furnished by the seeds. an extract of yew has been pronounced a useful narcotic by more than one physician of repute: and in some parts of germany a decoction of the wood is a well-known remedy against hydrophobia. a jelly prepared from the berries has been given for chronic bronchitis, and the leaves have been used for epilepsy; likewise they have been taken by ignorant persons to induce abortion, but with serious injury to the experimenter. in some rural districts the berries [ ] are known as "snots"; whilst the wood and roots are "wire thorn." by an old statute of edward the first, trees were required to be placed in churchyards to defend the church from high winds, the clergy being allowed to cut them down for repairing the chancel when necessary. perhaps, partly for this reason, the yew was commonly planted by the side of a newly-built church. that its wood was certainly employed for making bows, we learn from shakespeare:-- "thy very beadsmen learn to bend their bows of double-fatal yew against thy state." it was "double-fatal," because the leaves and fruit seeds are poisonous, and the bows made from its branches, as well as arrows armed with its deadly juice, were instruments of death. against the maladies which have been specified as indicating the tincture of yew for their cure, from five to ten drops of the third decimal tincture should be given, with a spoonful of water, every two, three, or four hours, whilst required. in switzerland the yew is known as william's tree, in memory of tell. formerly the name was spelt "eugh," "yeugh," and "ewgh." spenser says:-- "the eugh--obedient to the bender's will." in olden times the olitory, or herb-garden, formed an important annex to all demesnes having any pretensions to completeness, and was under "my lady's" [ ] special charge. in fact, the culture and preparing of simples formed a part of every lady's education. "my lord's" retainers and tenants, when out of sorts, were treated with these wholesome remedies, and were directed to find in simples the cure for all ordinary ailments. good george herbert, of country parson celebrity, taught, :-- "in the knowledge of simples, wherein the manifold wisdom of god is wonderfully to be seen, one thing should be carefully observed, which is, to know what herbs may be used instead of drugs of the same nature, and to make the garden the shop; for, home-bred medicines are both more easy for the parson's purse, and more familiar for all men's bodies. so where the apothecary useth either for loosing, rhubarb, or for binding, bole armena; the parson useth damask, or white roses for the one, and plantain, shepherd's purse, or knotgrass for the other: and that with better success. as for spices, he doth not only prefer home-bred things before them, but condemns them for vanities, and so shuts them out of his family, esteeming that there is no spice comparable of herbs to rosemary, thyme, savory, mints: and of seeds to fennel and carraway. accordingly for salves his wife seeks not the city, but prefers her garden and fields, before all outlandish gums. and, surely, hyssop, valerian, mercury, adder's tongue, yarrow, melilot, and st. john's wort, made into a salve, and elder, camomile, mallows, comphrey, and smallage, made into a poultice have done great, and rare cures!" [ ] index. age, old, to promote. agrimony, hemp . . . apples . . . - chamomile . . . chervil . . . cider . . . elder . . . fennel . . . fig . . . honey . . . lemon . . . mountain ash . . . oat drink . . . orchis salep . . . sage . . . sago . . . sea holly (eryngo) . . . sugar . . . ague, and intermittent fever. agrimony, hemp . . . chestnut, horse . . . cinquefoil, creeping . . . cloves oil . . . feverfew . . . flag, sweet . . . lemon . . . mercury, dog's . . . nettle . . . parsley seed . . . parsnip, wild . . . plantain, ribwort . . . rush, sweet-scented . . . sage . . . skullcap, greater . . . sunflower . . . - verbena-vervain . . . woodsorrel . . . yarrow . . . albuminuria, _see_ urine. aneurism of heart. club moss . . . antiseptic and germ destroying. agrimony . . . angelica . . . camphor . . . carrot . . . centaury . . . cinnamon bark . . . clove . . . currant, red, juice . . . elecampane . . . garlic . . . hop . . . juniper . . . mountain ash jelly . . . mustard flour . . . onion tribe . . . orange . . . peppermint . . . rosemary . . . rue . . . sage . . . sorrel . . . tamarind . . . tansy . . . tar . . . thistle, sow . . . --carline . . . thymol . . . tomato . . . wormwood . . . , [ ] appetite, to improve. asafetida (garlic) . . . lettuce . . . orange . . . parsnip . . . samphire . . . sorrel . . . yarrow . . . asthma. anise . . . bee propolis . . . cabbage, red . . . coltsfoot (to smoke) . . . elder . . . elecampane candy . . . garlic . . . horehound, white . . . hyssop . . . mace . . . mullein . . . mustard, hedge . . . nettle . . . onion tincture . . . pine, yellow (pillow) . . . primrose, evening (with diarrhoea) . . . rosemary, wild (gouty) . . . sow thistle . . . speedwell . . . vernal grass (hay) . . . atrophy and wasting. acorn (of children) . . . daisy (from youthful indiscretions) . . . dandelion . . . iceland moss . . . truffle . . . vine (of young women) . . . back, injury to spine. saint john's wort . . . bilious disorders, and jaundice. agrimony . . . apple (sluggish liver) . . . asparagus . . . barberry . . . carrot . . . celandine, greater . . . , chickweed . . . cinquefoil, creeping . . . dandelion . . . egg . . . flag, blue (bilious sickness) . . . gooseberry, red . . . grape cure . . . , hemp agrimony . . . hop . . . hyssop, hedge . . . ivy cup (spleen congested) . . . knapweed . . . lemon juice . . . lime . . . marigold . . . mullein (with megrims) . . . orach . . . orange . . . parsnip, wild . . . radish tincture . . . samphire (spleen congested) . . . spindle . . . spleenwort fern . . . strawberry . . . succory (melancholy) . . . tamarind . . . thistle, blessed . . . --milk . . . toadflax . . . tomato . . . water pepper (with sore fundament) . . . woodruff . . . wormwood (with melancholy) . . . yew (severe) . . . bladder, _see_ urine. bleeding. acorn . . . agaric, oak (amadou) . . . [ ] bistort, great . . . bramble . . . burnet saxifrage . . . cinnamon (from bowels) . . . comfrey . . . fern, hart's tongue . . . goosegrass . . . john's wort, saint . . . lavender, sea (from kidney) . . . lemon . . . mistletoe (from womb) . . . moss, iceland (from lungs) . . . nettle, white . . . periwinkle, lesser . . . plantain, water . . . puff-ball . . . quince . . . saffron (from nose) . . . sanicle . . . shepherd's purse . . . sloe . . . strawberry (root and leaf) . . . tormentil . . . turpentine (from lungs, or kidneys) . . . yarrow (from nose) . . . bloodlessness. marigold, marsh . . . boils. daisy . . . dock . . . fig . . . groundsel . . . honey . . . parsley, stone . . . radish (carbuncle) . . . bowels and stomach. catarrh-- grape . . . quince seed . . . brain. to strengthen-- apple . . . balm . . . cress . . . oat . . . rosemary . . . sage . . . congestion of-- darnel (active) . . . lettuce, wild . . . saffron . . . angry excitability-- cat mint . . . breast. cancer of-- goosegrass . . . marjoram . . . parsley . . . swollen with milk-- parsley leaves . . . yarrow (sore nipples) . . . bronchitis. recent catarrh-- daffodil (children) . . . eyebright . . . fig . . . flax, linseed . . . yarrow . . . chronic-- angelica . . . anise (of children) . . . coltsfoot . . . elecampane . . . garlic . . . ginger . . . horehound, white . . . hyssop . . . ivy, ground . . . mace . . . moon daisy . . . mustard, white . . . onion . . . radish . . . rue compress . . . [ ] sow thistle (wheezy) . . . sundew . . . tar . . . turpentine . . . yew . . . bruises. agrimony . . . bryony, white (black eye) . . . caraway poultice . . . chervil . . . comfrey . . . daisy . . . elder, dwarf . . . fern, royal . . . hyssop (black eye) . . . mullein oil . . . pea . . . shepherd's purse . . . solomon's seal (broken bones) . . . verjuice . . . vinegar poultice . . . yarrow . . . bugs, to expel. agaric . . . lavender . . . tansy . . . bunion. vinegar poultice . . . burrs and scalds. bilberry . . . blackberry . . . brooklime . . . dock, wayside . . . elder . . . fern, hart's tongue . . . house leek . . . lettuce leaf . . . lime, sweet . . . linseed flax . . . marigold . . . marsh mallow . . . nettle . . . potato, raw . . . cancer. belladonna (external) . . . clover, red . . . comfrey root . . . crowfoot, ranunculus . . . egg shells . . . , goosegrass . . . hemlock juice (external) . . . hoglouse . . . lemon juice (of tongue) . . . livelong sedum . . . marjoram (of breast) . . . marigold . . . opium . . . parsley leaves (tumours) . . . ragwort . . . shepherd's purse . . . stitchwort . . . stone crop . . . thistle, milk . . . tomato (for, or against) . . . turpentine chian (of womb) . . . wartwort (celandine, greater) . . . water fennel . . . water hemlock . . . carbuncle. radish juice . . . savin . . . chapped hands. fern, polypody . . . groundsel . . . juniper gum . . . leek . . . spearmint . . . chicken pock. nettle . . . chilblains. agaric, fly mushroom . . . bryony, black . . . butcher's broom . . . capsicum friction . . . [ ] leek . . . onion (to unbroken) . . . potato (frost bite) . . . rosemary, wild . . . cholera. camphor . . . elecampane . . . water pepper . . . cold and catarrh. for fresh cold-- anemone, wood . . . balm tea . . . barley water . . . borage . . . camphor . . . herb bennet . . . ivy, ground . . . lime, sweet tea . . . linseed flax . . . yarrow . . . for continued catarrh-- anise (of infants) . . . borage (feverish) . . . dog's mercury . . . elder . . . eyebright . . . fig pulp . . . hemp agrimony . . . honey . . . lemon . . . maiden-hair fern . . . mustard (apply) . . . onion (tincture and broth) . . . pellitory, spanish (of head) . . . peppermint spray . . . poppy, red (pleurisy) . . . quince . . . saint john's wort . . . soapwort (inflamed lungs) . . . thistle, milk . . . turnip (with hoarseness) . . . viper's bugloss . . . colic of bowels. chamomile . . . fennel (of infants) . . . ground ivy (lead colic) . . . marjoram . . . peppermint . . . poppy (foment) . . . rice . . . silver-weed . . . tormentil . . . turpentine . . . walnut (inner skin) . . . constipation of bowels. apple . . . barberry . . . brooklime . . . bryony, white . . . buckthorn (black alder) . . . bugloss . . . clove . . . dill seed . . . dock, herb patience . . . --water, great . . . dodder . . . dwarf, elder . . . elder . . . fig . . . flag, stinking . . . flax seed . . . flax, purging . . . gingerbread . . . grape . . . groundsel . . . honey . . . horse chestnut . . . hyssop, hedge . . . ivy, gum . . . lettuce, wild . . . liquorice . . . maidenhair fern . . . mallow . . . marigold . . . mulberry . . . mustard, white seeds . . . oatmeal . . . peach flowers . . . [ ] periwinkle, greater (children) . . . perry . . . plantain . . . plum, electuary . . . polypody fern . . . prune . . . psyllium seeds . . . sea cabbage . . . sea holly . . . sloe (gently laxative) . . . sowbread . . . spinach (for aged) . . . spindle . . . spurge, wood . . . strawberry . . . succory (children) . . . tamarind . . . thistle, carline . . . toadflax . . . tomato sauce . . . turpentine (with colic) . . . valerian (chronic) . . . violet, dog . . . violet, sweet . . . walnut, green . . . consumption of lungs. acorn, oak bark . . . agaric, fly (night sweats) . . . balm . . . carraigeen moss . . . carrot (children) . . . cow . . . cresses . . . dandelion . . . date . . . elecampane . . . grape cure . . . , ground ivy . . . horehound . . . iceland moss . . . marigold, corn (night sweats) . . . mugwort . . . mullein milk . . . nettle . . . ox eye daisy . . . peppermint oil (inhale) . . . pimpernel . . . plantain, greater (blood spitting) . . . poppy, sea . . . rice . . . rose, french crimson . . . saffron . . . snails . . . , speedwell . . . strawberry . . . succory . . . sundew (of wind pipe) . . . terebene . . . thyme . . . vine . . . violet sugar . . . watercress . . . convulsions. chickweed (of children) . . . henbane necklace . . . mistletoe . . . mugwort (children) . . . orange . . . parsley, fool's . . . cordial. allspice . . . asafetida . . . balm . . . blackberry . . . borage . . . , burnet saxifrage . . . calamint . . . caraway . . . cat-thyme . . . chervil . . . cinnamon . . . citron (restorative) . . . coriander . . . cumin . . . elecampane . . . fennel . . . flag, sweet . . . grapes . . . [ ] horse radish . . . hyssop . . . juniper berries . . . lavender . . . lime . . . lupine . . . marigold broth . . . marjoram . . . mead (honey) . . . mint, garden . . . mustard . . . nutmeg . . . pansy . . . parsnip . . . peach . . . pear, perry . . . pennyroyal . . . peppermint . . . pink . . . primrose, evening . . . quince . . . rosemary . . . saffron (noble) . . . sage (for indigestion) . . . sloe . . . spearmint . . . strawberry . . . tansy . . . tarragon . . . thistle, carline . . . thyme, wild . . . verbena . . . viper's bugloss . . . wallflower . . . woodruff . . . woodsorrel . . . corns. celandine, greater . . . house leek . . . ivy leaf . . . potato, boiled . . . radish juice . . . cough. bean . . . bryony, white (bronchial) . . . cabbage . . . chamomile (nervous) . . . cherry, wild . . . coltsfoot . . . dock, yellow curled (bronchial) . . . elder (croupy) . . . elecampane . . . fennel (chronic) . . . fern, maidenhair . . . fig . . . hedge mustard . . . hemlock vapour . . . honey . . . horehound, water . . . horehound, white . . . lime, sweet (hard cough) . . . linseed flax . . . liquorice (if hoarse) . . . marsh mallow . . . moon daisy . . . mullein (smoke) . . . mustard, hedge . . . nutmeg (chronic) . . . parietary (old cough) . . . pear . . . peppermint . . . radish (chronic and bilious) . . . rosemary, wild . . . speedwell . . . sundew . . . turnip syrup . . . turpentine (bronchial) . . . violet (spasmodic) . . . wall rue (bronchial) . . . wart-wort (spasmodic) . . . cramp. cork . . . mullein root . . . periwinkle, lesser (legs) . . . silverweed (belly) . . . yarrow . . . croup. elder . . . [ ] deafness, _see_ ear. debility, general. chestnut, sweet . . . fig . . . hop . . . lentil . . . lily of the valley (nervous) . . . lupine . . . mushroom, french . . . nettle-urtication . . . orange, bitter . . . potato, sweet . . . sage . . . salep . . . sea holly . . . spinach . . . truffles (children) . . . delirium tremens. capsicum . . . chamomile . . . diabetes. apple bark . . . asparagus . . . fern, hart's-tongue . . . iceland moss . . . knapweed . . . stitchwort, greater . . . diarrhoea. active looseness-- barberry (bilious) . . . camphor (choleraic) . . . cinnamon . . . fool's parsley . . . radish . . . spurge, wood . . . chronic looseness-- fruit, fresh . . . hart's-tongue fern . . . house leek . . . orchis (salep) . . . periwinkle, lesser . . . quince . . . sloe . . . strawberry . . . water lily, yellow (for morning looseness) . . . simple looseness-- agrimony . . . bilberry . . . bistort, great . . . blackberry . . . chamomile (children) . . . cinquefoil . . . flag, sweet . . . flag, yellow . . . flax purging . . . ginger . . . lime blossom . . . mace . . . marsh mallow . . . mountain ash . . . nutmeg . . . peppermint . . . pulsatilla (catarrhal) . . . rice . . . service tree . . . silverweed . . . tormentil . . . diphtheria. betony, stone-crop . . . peppermint oil . . . tar . . . turpentine . . . disinfectants, _see_ anti-septics. dizziness, _see_ giddiness. drink, alcoholic. effects to dispel-- acorn spirit . . . angelica . . . cabbage . . . capsicum . . . chamomile . . . darnel . . . ivy . . . sorrel . . . strawberry . . . watercress . . . wormwood . . . [ ] dropsy. artichoke, globe . . . asparagus (heart) . . . bee sting . . . blackberry . . . broom (heart) . . . butcher's broom . . . cabbage . . . christmas rose . . . currant, black, leaves . . . fennel . . . hyssop, hedge . . . juniper berries (kidney) . . . lily of the valley (heart) . . . onion . . . pellitory of wall (heart) . . . plantain, water . . . rosemary (heart) . . . shepherd's purse (kidney) . . . toadflax . . . drowsiness. nutmeg . . . dysentery. bilberry . . . daffodil . . . fruit, fresh . . . hart's-tongue fern . . . house leek . . . hyssop, hedge . . . iceland moss . . . marsh mallow . . . mustard, hedge . . . quince . . . rice . . . sanicle . . . service tree . . . strawberry, wild . . . violet, sweet (infants) . . . ears. ear-ache, or deafness-- cabbage . . . capsicum . . . caraway poultice . . . cat's tail . . . chamomile . . . christmas rose . . . fennel . . . feverfew (with headache) . . . garlic . . . ground ivy . . . marigold . . . mullein (with eczema, or abscess) . . . onion poultice . . . plaintain, greater . . . pulsatilla (catarrhal) . . . spurge, wood . . . yew tincture (giddiness from ear) . . . eczema, _see_ skin. epilepsy, falling sickness. bryony, white . . . carrot flower . . . clover, sweet . . . club moss . . . cuckoo flower . . . daffodil . . . elder flower . . . fool's parsley . . . goose grass . . . juniper berries . . . lime, sweet . . . marsh marigold . . . mistletoe . . . mugwort coals . . . mullein . . . orange flower . . . parsley . . . , --fool's . . . pimpernel . . . pink . . . rose, red . . . rue . . . skullcap, greater . . . sea holly . . . sea water (gold) . . . thyme, wild . . . turpentine . . . valerian . . . [ ] violet, sweet . . . wormwood . . . yarrow . . . yew . . . erysipelas. bee sting . . . house leek . . . primula . . . strawberry, wild . . . eyes. for weak or inflamed-- apple poultice . . . cabbage (scrofulous) . . . capsicum . . . clary . . . eyebright . . . fennel . . . fool's parsley (scrofulous) . . . house leek . . . ivy . . . marsh mallow . . . parsley . . . rose water . . . saint john's wort . . . saliva . . . sloe . . . snail poultice . . . strawberry . . . succory (amaurosis) . . . turpentine (rheumatic) . . . valerian . . . verbena . . . to strengthen vision-- asafetida . . . blackthorn . . . bogbean (amaurosis) . . . caraway . . . darnel . . . fennel (for cataract) . . . fumitory . . . parsley . . . puffball . . . rice . . . saffron . . . stitchwort . . . thyme, wild . . . vine sap . . . to reduce a black eye-- bryony, white . . . hyssop . . . to remove specks-- celandine, greater . . . meadow sage . . . sight impaired by the use of-- chicory . . . parsley . . . rice (in excess) . . . stye in eye (gold ring) . . . fainting, for. dodder . . . nutmeg . . . rosewater, sprinkle . . . fat, to reduce. bladderwrack . . . fennel seed . . . goose grass . . . fatigue, to lessen. grapes . . . honey . . . hop . . . sorrel soup . . . fertility, to promote. leek . . . potato . . . fever, to allay. apple tea . . . barley water . . . currant, red, juice . . . fumitory (malarious) . . . grapes . . . lemon (intermittent) . . . lettuce, garden [ ] marigold (low fever) . . . quince . . . raspberry vinegar . . . rice . . . rose, french crimson . . . soapwort (low fever) . . . sorrel, wood . . . - strawberry (putrid) . . . tamarind . . . vernal grass (hay fever) . . . flatulence. angelica . . . aniseed . . . burnet saxifrage . . . capsicum . . . caraway . . . cinnamon . . . clove . . . club moss . . . coriander . . . cumin . . . dill (infants) . . . fennel seed . . . flag, sweet . . . ginger . . . juniper berries . . . lavender . . . nutmeg . . . orange, seville . . . peppermint . . . pink . . . rice (to avoid) . . . rue . . . spearmint . . . tansy . . . thyme, wild . . . turnips (to avoid) . . . valerian . . . wormwood . . . yarrow . . . fleas, and other insects, to destroy. lavender oil . . . pennyroyal . . . walnut . . . water-lily, yellow . . . water pepper . . . wormwood . . . flies, to destroy, or prevent. chamomile . . . elder . . . feverfew . . . horehound . . . toadflax . . . freckles, to remove. anise . . . cowslip . . . fumitory . . . savin . . . silverweed . . . solomon's seal . . . speedwell . . . strawberry . . . frost-bites, for potato flour . . . fruits which do not turn acid in stomach. apple . . . mulberry . . . quince . . . raspberry . . . strawberry . . . fundament, sore, _and see_ piles. fig . . . figwort water . . . hemlock, apply . . . nettle, (for itching of) . . . thyme, cat . . . water pepper . . . giddiness. chestnut, horse . . . cowslip . . . lily of the valley . . . mistletoe (epileptiform) . . . nutmeg . . . [ ] parsley . . . rue . . . spearmint . . . tansy . . . thistle, blessed . . . yew, (connected with ear) . . . glands, scrofulous, enlarged to reduce. bladderwrack (goitre) . . . burdock . . . clover, sweet . . . cresses . . . cumin, plaster . . . dock, yellow curled . . . dodder . . . dulse . . . fennel . . . foxglove ointment . . . garlic . . . goosegrass . . . hemlock . . . house leek . . . linseed oil . . . marjoram (of breast) . . . mugwort . . . parsley (and snails) . . . peach (goitre) . . . rose rock . . . sea tang . . . sea weeds . . . valerian . . . walnut . . . watercress . . . water figwort (of neck) . . . gold. in sea water . . . gout. apple . . . asparagus . . . blackberry . . . carrot (with gravel) . . . currant, black . . . daisy . . . ginger . . . goutweed . . . grape cure . . . hemlock, apply . . . horehound, black . . . hungary water . . . lily of the valley . . . meadow saffron . . . mugwort . . . mullein . . . nettle . . . nutmeg . . . pear, wild . . . rosemary, wild (with eczema) . . . speedwell . . . strawberry . . . succory . . . tansy . . . fruit proper for gouty persons-- apple . . . mulberry . . . quince . . . raspberry . . . strawberry . . . fruits improper for the gouty-- grapes, sweet . . . rhubarb, garden . . . sorrel . . . tomato, uncooked . . . wood sorrel . . . , grape cure. grape cure . . . gravel, _see_ urine. gum boil. fig, split . . . hair. to promote the growth of-- artichoke, jerusalem . . . daffodil . . . [ ] honey water . . . lavender oil . . . lemon juice (to remove dandriff) . . . maidenhair fern . . . mullein . . . mustard oil . . . rosemary spirit . . . saint john's wort . . . savin . . . southernwood . . . spindle (remove scurf) . . . verbena . . . wall rue . . . water lily, yellow . . . wormwood . . . , to dye dark-- bramble . . . elder juice . . . oranges, green . . . walnut juice . . . to remove superfluous hair-- fern oak . . . fumitory . . . spurge, wood . . . for fixing the hair-- quince bandoline . . . headache. from active fulness, with hot skin, and flushed face-- basil . . . elder . . . mustard paper . . . parsley . . . tansy . . . passive fulness of head, with general coldness and pallor-- betony . . . buttercup . . . clover, sweet . . . cowslip . . . elecampane (costive) . . . flag, yellow . . . ginger . . . groundsel . . . lettuce, wild (dull and striped) . . . mustard . . . primrose . . . puffball powder . . . tansy . . . yarrow (for making nose bleed) . . . nervous headache and hysterical-- asafetida . . . balm . . . basil . . . betony . . . camphor . . . celery . . . clover, sweet . . . flag, blue (bilious) . . . garlic . . . ground ivy (inveterate) . . . ivy leaves (after hard drinking) . . . lavender . . . lily of the valley . . . lime, sweet . . . marjoram . . . mullein (in the bilious) . . . pennyroyal . . . peppermint . . . primrose . . . rosemary . . . rue (giddiness) . . . saffron . . . thyme, wild . . . valerian . . . verbena (inveterate) . . . violet, sweet . . . wallflower . . . water hemlock . . . heart. to strengthen a weak heart-- fly, agaric mushroom . . . lily of the valley . . . [ ] mistletoe . . . saffron . . . sea water, gold in . . . soapwort (in fever) . . . for irritable heart, with nervous palpitations-- asparagus . . . cherry, wild . . . hart's-tongue fern . . . hemlock plaster . . . lavender . . . lemon juice . . . lily of the valley . . . nettle, stinging . . . heartburn, _see_ indigestion. hiccough. aniseed . . . dill . . . hart's-tongue fern . . . mustard . . . skullcap, lesser . . . spearmint . . . hydrophobia. club moss . . . cress, garden . . . figwort . . . horehound, black . . . pimpernel . . . plantain, water . . . rose, dog root . . . rush, flowering . . . thistle, milk . . . yew . . . hysteria. allspice . . . caraway . . . cowslip . . . daffodil . . . feverfew . . . garlic . . . goosefoot, stinking . . . horehound, black . . . lavender . . . mistletoe (st. vitus's dance) . . . mugwort . . . orange blossoms . . . pennyroyal . . . primrose . . . rosemary . . . rue . . . sage, meadow (colic) . . . southernwood . . . tansy . . . thyme, wild . . . turnip (injurious) . . . valerian . . . yarrow . . . indigestion. allspice (flatulent) . . . anemone pulsatilla . . . capsicum . . . centaury (tonic) . . . cinnamon . . . clove . . . club moss (water brash) . . . cumin . . . currant, red (torpor) . . . feverfew . . . flag, sweet . . . ginger (gouty) . . . good king henry . . . gooseberry (after rich food) . . . hop . . . horse radish . . . lavender . . . lemon juice (heartburn) . . . lettuce . . . lupine . . . nutmeg (drowsy) . . . onion (if cold-blooded) . . . primrose, evening . . . pyrethrum lozenges, (heartburn) . . . quince . . . raspberries . . . sage (after rich meats) . . . [ ] sago . . . samphire . . . spearmint (infants after milk) . . . walnut (after fish, and for colic) . . . wood sorrel (prevents) . . . wormwood . . . influenza. agrimony, hemp . . . capsicum . . . cinnamon . . . orange . . . rue oil . . . insanity. active-- rest harrow . . . st. john's wort . . . melancholy-- borage . . . , chervil . . . elecampane . . . fool's parsley (imbecility) . . . hop . . . horehound, black . . . lavender . . . maidenhair fern (idiocy) . . . mercury, dog's . . . pimpernel . . . polypody fern . . . radish (with cough) . . . rose, christmas (hellebore) . . . saffron . . . saint john's wort . . . succory (bilious) . . . tar water . . . thistle, melancholy . . . thistle, milk . . . tutsan . . . wormwood (bilious) . . . invisibility, supposed to confer. fern seed . . . itching, and the itch. anise . . . cat thyme (fundament) . . . dock, yellow curled . . . henbane (of fundament) . . . lemon juice (of genitals) . . . nettle (of fundament) . . . puffball . . . rock rose . . . speedwell . . . jaundice, _see_ bilious indigestion. joints, affections of, _see_ scrofula. vinegar poultice . . . kidneys, _see_ also urine. active congestion-- marsh mallow . . . turpentine . . . passive conjestion to remove-- asparagus . . . capsicum . . . dandelion . . . gooseberry (gravel) . . . honey and bee sting . . . parsley . . . peach flowers (and colic) . . . leprosy and leprous eruptions, _see_ skin. life, to prolong, _see_ age. liver, disorders of, _see_ bilious indigestion. lock jaw. st. john's wort . . . lumbago, _see_ rheumatism. lungs, diseases of, _see_ colds and consumption. [ ] measles. marigold tea . . . pea . . . saffron tea . . . melancholy, _see_ insanity. memory, to strengthen. eyebright . . . milk, breast. to promote flow-- borage . . . caraway . . . dill . . . fennel seed . . . lettuce . . . periwinkle, lesser . . . rosemary . . . thistle, milk . . . to stay flow-- hemlock . . . sage . . . milk crust of children, _see_ skin. monthly flow of women. to promote-- anemone pulsatilla . . . angelica . . . balm . . . basil . . . burnet saxifrage . . . calamint . . . christmas rose . . . cumin . . . dill . . . elecampane . . . fennel . . . feverfew . . . goosefoot, stinking . . . hyssop . . . ivy gum . . . marigold . . . mugwort . . . mullein . . . nettle (urtication) . . . parsley oil . . . pennyroyal . . . ragwort . . . rosemary . . . rue . . . rush, flowering . . . savin . . . saxifrage, burnet . . . shepherd's purse . . . soapwort . . . tansy . . . thyme, wild . . . valerian (with hysteria) . . . wormwood . . . to arrest when excessive-- cinnamon bark . . . lemon juice . . . lentil . . . mistletoe . . . orange, seville . . . periwinkle, greater . . . plantain, greater . . . saffron (with liquidity) . . . savin . . . shepherd's purse . . . silverweed . . . yarrow . . . to ease pain at periods-- peppermint (colic) . . . savin . . . moths, to drive away. camphor . . . mugwort . . . sedum livelong . . . southernwood . . . woodruff . . . wormwood . . . mouth, sore, _see_ thrush. mushrooms. not to take alcohol with . . . to eat pears after . . . , [ ] nerves, to strengthen. citron of law . . . hedge hyssop . . . oat . . . saffron . . . skullcap, greater . . . valerian . . . violet, sweet . . . to stimulate reflex nervous activity-- cumin . . . to quiet reflex nervous irritability-- camphor . . . chamomile . . . clove . . . lime flowers . . . valerian . . . nettle rash, _see_ skin. neuralgia, to relieve. allspice plaster . . . arum . . . buttercup (stitch) . . . celandine, greater (face right side) . . . chamomile (face and teeth) . . . coltsfoot (back and loins) . . . cuckoopint . . . feverfew . . . henbane poultice . . . horse radish (face) . . . juniper berries . . . lemon, cut . . . pyrethrum (head and face) . . . pennyroyal . . . peppermint oil . . . sloe tincture (right eyeball) . . . wallflower oil (limbs) . . . yarn (tic douloureux) . . . nipples, chapped, or sore. carrot . . . comfrey . . . yarrow . . . nose, ulceration inside. elecampane . . . pain, local, for. buttercup (stitch) . . . chamomile fomentation . . . elecampane (in elbow) . . . hemlock, apply . . . henbane poultice . . . lavender . . . marsh mallow . . . mistletoe (stitch) . . . mugwort . . . peach (colic from gravel) . . . poppy, white, fomentation . . . stitch wort . . . wormwood . . . palpitation, _see_ heart. paralysis. burnet saxifrage (of tongue) . . . cowslip . . . daffodil (limbs) horse radish, scraped . . . hungary water . . . lavender oil . . . mustard liniment . . . nettle, stinging . . . nutmeg spirit (of limbs) . . . pellitory of spain (tongue and lips) . . . primrose . . . rosemary spirit (limbs) . . . sage . . . tomato (of back) . . . valerian oil . . . wallflower oil . . . water dropwort (voice) . . . perspiration, to promote. camphor . . . ivy . . . strawberry . . . turpentine . . . [ ] piles. blackberry . . . brook lime . . . celandine, lesser . . . chestnut, horse . . . elderberry . . . figwort . . . mountain ash (lower bowel relaxed) . . . mullein . . . oak bark (prolapse of bowel) . . . onion, raw (inflamed) . . . periwinkle, lesser . . . pimpernel, blue (descent of bowel) . . . plantain, greater . . . silverweed . . . toadflax . . . water betony . . . water pepper (sore fundament) . . . yarrow . . . pleuritic pain in side. bryony, white (with inflammation) . . . buttercup (neuralgic) . . . stitchwort . . . polypus of nose. polypody fern . . . sage, wood . . . poultices. carrot . . . flax-linseed . . . goosefoot . . . hemlock . . . marsh mallow . . . mustard . . . turnip . . . vinegar . . . water pepper . . . yeast (oat) . . . pregnancy, and _see_ womb. gooseberry, green (longings to abate) . . . quince (wise children to procreate) . . . turnip (injurious during) . . . psoriasis, _see_ skin. quinsy, _see_ also sore throat. currant, black . . . prunella . . . strawberry leaves . . . woodruff squinancy . . . woodsorrel . . . wormwood . . . rheumatism and lumbago. allspice plaster . . . bee sting . . . bryony, white calamint (lumbago) . . . chickweed (bilious) . . . fern royal (lumbago) . . . meadow saffron (colchicum) . . . nutmeg spirit . . . yarn, hank of . . . chronic rheumatism-- angelica . . . asparagus . . . bladderwrack, embrocation . . . bryony, white . . . buttercup . . . capsicum . . . celery . . . centaury (muscular) . . . cress, garden . . . garlic . . . henbane liniment . . . hop . . . horse radish . . . hyssop . . . ivy berries . . . juniper berries . . . lily of the valley . . . marjoram . . . mugwort (moxa) . . . [ ] mustard . . . - nettle, stinging . . . nutmeg spirit . . . pellitory (head and face) . . . peppermint . . . pimpernel . . . pine . . . polypody fern . . . potato, raw . . . primrose . . . rue (periosteal) . . . savin (of womb) . . . sea tang . . . spruce beer . . . tansy . . . turpentine liniment . . . violet, sweet (wrists) . . . wallflower . . . yarrow . . . rickets, _see_ scrofula. ringworm, _see_ skin. rupture of children. wall rue fern . . . saint vitus's dance (chorea). mistletoe berries . . . salivation, _see_ mouth, sore. scalds, _see_ burns. scald head, _see_ skin. scarlet fever. belladonna (to prevent) . . . rock rose (sore throat of) . . . sciatica. bracken (to smoke legs) . . . elecampane . . . goutweed . . . horse radish . . . nettle (urtication) . . . peppermint . . . ragwort . . . rue leaves, bruised . . . thyme, wild . . . turpentine . . . tutsan . . . scrofula, _see also_ glandular swellings acorn . . . agrimony . . . bladderwrack in rum . . . brooklime . . . chickweed . . . clover, red . . . coltsfoot . . . cresses . . . dock . . . dodder (tumours) . . . dulse . . . fern, royal (rickets) . . . fig . . . figwort, water . . . garlic . . . goosegrass . . . hoglouse . . . lavender oil . . . marigold . . . mugwort (moxa to joint) . . . parsley . . . poor man's garlic . . . rock rose (joints) . . . samphire . . . scurvy grass. ... seapod essence . . . sea tang . . . sea water in bread . . . spurge plaster . . . stitchwort . . . thyme (for hoglice) . . . verbena . . . walnut, black . . . wall rue fern (rickets) . . . watercress . . . [ ] scurvy. bogbean . . . brooklime . . . cabbage, red . . . chickweed . . . cresses . . . elder . . . goosegrass . . . horse radish . . . lamb's lettuce . . . laver . . . lemon juice . . . mum . . . mustard, white . . . nasturtium . . . orange . . . parsnip water . . . potato . . . raspberry liqueur . . . saucealone . . . scurvy grass . . . sea holy (candy) . . . sea spinach . . . sorrel . . . spruce beer . . . stone crop. sedum . . . watercress . . . woodsorrel . . . sexual disorders. functions, to strengthen-- artichoke, globe . . . asafetida . . . bedstraw, yellow . . . camphor . . . daisy (after excesses) . . . lily of the valley . . . lords and ladies . . . nettle (urtication) . . . orchis . . . periwinkle, greater . . . potato . . . potato, sweet . . . quince . . . rosemary (to renew energy) . . . ragwort . . . sea holly (eryngo) . . . sea water (gold) . . . southernwood . . . sowbread . . . sundew . . . sunflower . . . tarragon . . . tomato (to stimulate) . . . water lily, yellow . . . excitement, to control-- camphor, full doses . . . coriander . . . hemlock . . . hop . . . lettuce . . . parsley . . . rue . . . losses, and discharges, to stay-- artichoke, globe . . . hop-lupulin . . . periwinkle, greater . . . water pepper . . . yarrow . . . shingles, _see_ skin. sickness, to relieve. cinnamon . . . fool's parsley (infants) . . . marigold (chronic) . . . marjoram . . . pansy . . . peppermint . . . walnut, spirit (of pregnancy) . . . to induce-- mustard . . . violet . . . sight, _see_ eyes. skin, affections of. for general cure of when unhealthy-- brooklime . . . docks . . . - elder . . . [ ] horehound, black . . . lemon . . . mushroom, edible (vesicular outbreak) . . . nettle . . . parsnip water . . . primula . . . quince . . . shepherd's purse . . . tansy . . . thyme, wild . . . toadflax . . . turnip juice . . . walnut, black . . . water dropwort (chronic) . . . for eczema-- bilberry . . . clove . . . goosegrass . . . juniper cade oil . . . mullein (of ear) . . . primula biconica . . . puffball powder . . . rosemary, wild (gouty) . . . rue . . . tar (if eruption dry) . . . thymol . . . violet (pustular) . . . walnut . . . for leprous eruptions, scaly-- fumitory . . . garlic . . . goosegrass . . . potato . . . soapwort (venereal) . . . speedwell . . . tar gravy and ointment . . . walnut oil . . . for milk crust of children-- fumitory . . . periwinkle, lesser . . . violet, pansy . . . for nettle rash-- dandelion (bilious) . . . nettle, stinging . . . strawberry, wild . . . for pimples and "acne"-- horse radish . . . puffball powder . . . for bran-like psoriasls-- burdock . . . goosegrass . . . juniper cade oil . . . for ringworm-- arum . . . horehound, black . . . mullein . . . thymol . . . for scald head-- blackberry . . . tar . . . violet, pansy . . . for shingles-- buttercup . . . house leek . . . rock rose . . . cosmetics-- beet juice . . . cowslip (freckles) . . . cumin (for pallor) . . . flag, blue . . . fumitory . . . horse radish in milk . . . lemon juice (for hands) . . . pulse . . . savin . . . solomon's seal . . . speedwell (freckles) . . . spinach water . . . thistle, sow . . . toadflax . . . violet, sweet . . . to raise a blister-- water plantain . . . [ ] sleep for sleeplessness-- anise . . . bean . . . bulrush . . . chamomile (nightmare) . . . clove . . . cowslip . . . dill (of infants) . . . fennel . . . henbane (foot bath) . . . hop (tea, and pillow) . . . house leek (with head-ache) . . . lady's mantle . . . lemon squash . . . lettuce, garden, gum (infants) . . . lettuce, wild, gum . . . mushroom (in consumption) . . . mustard foot-bath . . . nutmeg . . . oat . . . onion . . . orange buds . . . orange flower water . . . poppy, white . . . primrose . . . rue (nightmare) . . . sea tang essence . . . skullcap, lesser (exhausted brain) . . . water figwort (nightmare) . . . sores, _see also_ ulcers. agrimony . . . amadou mushroom (bedsore) . . . carrot (fetid and indolent) . . . chickweed (on legs) . . . cleavers . . . clover, red . . . club moss powder (raw sores) . . . fig . . . foxglove ointment . . . groundsel (sore legs) . . . hemlock (cancerous) . . . house leek . . . marigold . . . marsh mallow . . . peppermint oil . . . plantain . . . puff ball powder (weeping sore) . . . resin ointment (pine) . . . saint john's wort (bedsore) . . . savin ointment (to keep sore open) . . . thymol . . . turnip poultice . . . viper's bugloss . . . walnut, black, the leaves . . . yeast poultice (oat) . . . spasms, _see_ pain. spine, irritable or weak. agaric, fly (locomotor ataxy) . . . chamomile . . . eryngo (to strengthen) . . . garlic . . . rush, soft . . . saint john's wort oil (after injury) . . . turpentine . . . valerian . . . water hemlock . . . . spleen, _see_ bilious disorders. sprains. agrimony . . . bladderwrack (old sprain) . . . lavender spike . . . linseed oil . . . rosemary . . . sea weeds . . . [ ] verjuice of apple, pear, and vine . . . , vinegar poultice . . . stings and bites. pain and swelling from-- dock, wayside (nettle sting) . . . feverfew . . . house leek . . . marigold . . . plantain, greater (snake bite) . . . onion, raw . . . poppy leaf . . . rosemary, wild . . . stitchwort . . . stitch of side, _see_ pain. stone in bladder. apple cider . . . carrot . . . currant, white . . . gorse seed . . . juniper berries . . . ladies' mantle . . . leek (phosphatic stone) . . . parsnip water . . . rest harrow . . . stephens', joanna, remedy . . . thyme, for woodlouse . . . water fennel . . . stye, _see_ eye. sweats, night, to check, _see_ consumption. syphilis, venereal disease. burdock . . . gold (in sea water) . . . hemlock . . . pellitory of spain . . . soapwort (inveterate) . . . southernwood . . . speedwell . . . stonecrop, sedum . . . tormentil . . . walnut leaves . . . water pepper . . . teeth. for tooth-ache and face-ache-- burnet saxifrage . . . cabbage . . . capsicum . . . celandine, greater . . . chamomile (of children) . . . clove oil . . . fennel . . . groundsel . . . henbane seeds, smoke . . . ivy gum . . . ladybird . . . pellitory of spain . . . peppermint . . . plantain, greater . . . tormentil . . . water pepper . . . yarrow . . . loose teeth, to tighten-- blackberry . . . dock, great water . . . great bistort (with spongy gums) . . . strawberry, wild . . . for children to cut teeth on-- marsh mallow root . . . temper, irritable, for. cat mint . . . chamomile (of children) . . . feverfew . . . testicle, swollen, for. anemone pulsatilla . . . [ ] throat, sore. agrimony . . . arum (lords and ladies) . . . barberry (relaxed) . . . blackberry . . . capsicum . . . chestnut, horse (with piles) . . . cinquefoil, creeping . . . currant, black (quinsy) . . . dock, great water . . . elder . . . fig . . . flax, linseed . . . groundsel . . . hart's-tongue fern . . . hawthorn flowers . . . honey . . . horse radish (with hoarseness) . . . leek (loss of voice) . . . lemon juice . . . lime, sweet . . . mountain ash (relaxed) . . . mulberry . . . mustard, hedge (ulcerated) . . . mustard, white, seed . . . pellitory . . . peppermint, menthol . . . periwinkle, lesser . . . quince . . . raspberry vinegar . . . rock rose (of scarlet fever) . . . sage . . . sanicle . . . sea lavender . . . sea pod essence (goitre) . . . selfheal, brownwort (quinsy) . . . strawberry leaves (quinsy) . . . thymol . . . tormentil . . . verbena . . . walnut vinegar . . . water dock . . . woodruff, squinancy (quinsy) . . . woodsorrel . . . wormwood (quinsy) . . . yarrow . . . thrush and sore mouth. currant, black . . . grapes . . . honey . . . house leek . . . mercury, dog's . . . mulberry . . . quince . . . tomato (salivation) . . . tormentil . . . water pepper . . . tic douloureux. flax yarn . . . toothache, _see_ teeth. tumours, _see_ glandular swellings. ulcers, to heal. blackberry leaves . . . brooklime . . . dock, water . . . good king henry . . . goosegrass . . . hemlock, apply . . . house leek . . . juniper gum (deep ulcers) . . . marigold . . . sage (strong) . . . saint john's wort . . . savin juice . . . scurvy grass . . . sorrel (scrofulous) . . . tormentil . . . turpentine resin . . . tutsan (sore legs) . . . verbena (indolent) . . . walnut leaves . . . wartwort . . . [ ] watercress leaves . . . woodsorrel . . . yew . . . urine, and kidney disorders. to promote flow of urine-- bee tea . . . broom . . . butcher's broom . . . celery . . . daffodil . . . earth nut . . . grapes . . . juniper . . . lily of the valley . . . nettle tea . . . onion . . . parsley . . . pellitory of wall . . . potato, watery . . . radish . . . speedwell . . . strawberry . . . tar . . . toadflax . . . violet seeds . . . to soothe irritable bladder and urinary passages-- asparagus . . . barley . . . camphor . . . chervil . . . couch grass . . . henbane . . . horehound . . . marsh mallow . . . parsley tea . . . pimpernel . . . plantain, water . . . pulsatilla anemone . . . rest harrow . . . turpentine . . . viper's bugloss . . . to correct deposits in urine-- barberry (gravel) . . . carrot (gravel) . . . couch grass . . . flag, sweet . . . gooseberry leaves . . . valerian (urea) . . . violet, sweet . . . water parsnip . . . of milky phosphates-- burdock . . . leek . . . albuminuria-- barberry . . . clove . . . hart's tongue fern . . . stitchwort, greater . . . bed-wetting, to prevent-- daffodil . . . dandelion . . . mullein oil . . . plantain, greater . . . saint john's wort . . . venereal disease, _see_ syphilis. vermin, to destroy. agaric, fly, mushroom . . . aniseed (lice) . . . cat mint (rats, keep away) . . . ivy leaf (lice) . . . . spindletree . . . tansy . . . water lily, yellow . . . warts, to remove. apple juice . . . cabbage, white . . . celandine, greater . . . chickweed . . . dandelion . . . elder . . . (epsom salts) . . . [ ] fig juice . . . gooseberry thorn . . . house leek . . . marsh marigold . . . peach leaf . . . savin . . . spurge wood . . . sundew . . . teasel water . . . tormentil . . . watercress juice . . . water brash, _see_ indigestion. whites, _see_ womb. whitlow. brooklime . . . rosemary, wild . . . water dropwort . . . whooping cough. blackberry . . . bog bean . . . celandine, greater . . . chestnut, sweet . . . clover, red . . . garlic . . . hemlock vapour . . . horse radish . . . ivy cup . . . pennyroyal . . . radish, black . . . rose canker . . . sundew . . . thyme, wild . . . womb, disorders of, _and see_ monthly flow. for irritable womb-- anemone pulsatilla . . . groundsel bath . . . parsley . . . savin . . . sowbread (falling womb) . . . thyme, wild . . . valerian . . . monthly illnesses, _see_ menstruation-- whites--leucorrhoea--to cure-- burdock . . . hyacinth, wild (blue bell) . . . tomato . . . cancer of womb-- turpentine chian . . . to prevent barrenness-- leeks . . . potato . . . speedwell . . . tansy (to prevent miscarriage) . . . worms, to expel. carrot, raw . . . cat thyme (thread worms) . . . chamomile . . . christmas rose (round worms) . . . coraline sea weed . . . fern, male, oil and root (tape worm) . . . garlic, clove . . . goosefoot (round worms) . . . groundsel (bot worms) . . . hedge hyssop . . . lemon pips . . . lettuce, unwashed (to guard against eating) . . . mulberry root (tape worms) . . . nettle . . . peach leaves . . . rose, dog, hips (round worms) . . . salt worts . . . sedum . . . southernwood . . . stinking hellebore . . . tansy seeds . . . [ ] turpentine (round worms) . . . walnut, unripe fruit . . . wormwood . . . wounds, to heal. adder's-tongue fern . . . agrimony . . . anemone, wood . . . balm . . . bugle . . . comfrey . . . cow-dung poultice . . . daisy . . . fern, royal . . . figwort (gangrenous) . . . good king henry . . . goosegrass . . . hemlock, water . . . house leek . . . hyssop, green . . . marigold . . . marsh mallow . . . pea . . . peppermint, apply . . . plantain, greater . . . potato flour . . . primrose salve . . . prunella, selfheal . . . puff ball powder (to stay bleeding) . . . resin (honey) . . . rosemary, wild . . . saint john's wort oil (deep wounds) . . . sanicle . . . solomon's seal . . . thymol . . . turnip poultice . . . tutsan . . . valerian . . . watercress poultice . . . woundwort, hedge . . . " water . . . yarrow . . . [ ] "farewell, sweet flowers!--whose time is fitly spent for all delights of colour, and of scent: and after death for cures! may i my days with equal uses fill, living to work some benefits: and still having an end like yours!" _robert herrick_, janet blenkinship and the online distributed proofreaders europe at http://dp.rastko.net +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ |transcriber's note: older spellings of place names have been left as in| |the original. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ the ~botanical magazine;~ or, ~flower-garden displayed:~ in which the most ornamental foreign plants, cultivated in the open ground, the green-house, and the stove, are accurately represented in their natural colours. to which are added, their names, class, order, generic and specific characters, according to the celebrated linnÆus; their places of growth, and times of flowering: together with the most approved methods of culture. a work intended for the use of such ladies, gentlemen, and gardeners, as wish to become scientifically acquainted with the plants they cultivate. by _william curtis_, author of the flora londinensis. ~vol. v.~ ----"the garden yields a soft amusement, an humane delight. to raise th' insipid nature of the ground, or tame its savage genius to the grace of careless sweet rusticity, that seems the amiable result of happy chance, is to create, and give a god-like joy, which ev'ry year improves." armstrong. london: printed by couchman and fry, throgmorton-street. for w. curtis, no , _st. george's-crescent_, black-friars-road; and sold by the principal booksellers in great-britain and ireland. m dcc xci. * * * * * [ ] monarda fistulosa, _var._ crimson monarda. _class and order._ diandra monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ inæqualis: labio superiore lineari filamenta involvente. _semina_ . _specific character and synonyms._ monarda _fistulosa_ capitulis terminalibus, caule obtusangulo. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. . ed. . murr._ _hort. kew. v. . p. ._ origanum fistulosum canadense. _corn. canad. . t. ._ [illustration: no ] the _monarda fistulosa_, a hardy herbaceous plant, growing spontaneously in canada, and other parts of north-america, has long been cultivated in the english gardens, to which it recommends itself as much by the fragrance of its foliage, as the beauty of its flowers; of this species the plant here figured is an uncommonly beautiful variety, its blossoms far surpassing those of the original in size, as well as brilliancy of colour, the floral leaves also are highly coloured; we have represented a single blossom of the common _monarda fistulosa_, that the difference of the two may be rendered obvious. this variety has been very lately introduced from holland, by messrs. grimwood and co. kensington; it flowers from june to september, and is propagated by parting its roots in spring or autumn. [ ] hypericum calycinum. large-flower'd st. john's-wort. _class and order._ polyadelphia polyandria. _generic character._ _calyx_ -partitus. _petala_ . _filamenta_ multa, in phalanges basi connata. _capsula._ _specific character and synonyms._ hypericum _calycinum_ floribus pentagynis solitariis terminalibus, caule tetragono fruticoso, foliis oblongo-ovatis coriaceis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. . mant. ._ _hort. kew. v. . ._ ascyrum magno flore. _bauh. pin. . prodr. ._ androsÆmum constantinopolitanum flore maximo. _wheler's journey into greece, p. . cum fig._ [illustration: no ] this species of st. john's-wort, particularly distinguished by the largeness of its flowers, has very generally been considered as the _ascyron_ of linnÆus, owing to his giving to that plant the synonyms which properly belong to the present one: in his _mantissa_, this species is called _calycinum_, which name is adopted in the th edition of the _systema vegetabilium_, and also in the _hortus kewensis_, where the proper synonyms are applied to it, and from which we learn, that it is a native of the country near constantinople, and was introduced into this country by sir george wheler, bart. in . it is a hardy perennial, increasing much by its roots, which are of the creeping kind, and by parting of which in the autumn it is most readily propagated; like the periwinkle, it is a plant well adapted to cover a bank, or bare, spots under trees, where other plants will not thrive. it flowers from july to september. [ ] dais cotinifolia. cotinus-leav'd dais. _class and order._ decandria monogynia. _generic character._ involucrum -phyllum. _cor._ s. -fida. bacca -sperma. _specific character and synonyms._ dais _cotinifolia_ floribus quinquefidis decandris. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _spec. pl. p. ._ dais _laurifolia_. _jacq. ic. collect. . p. ._ [illustration: no ] the _dais cotinifolia_ is an ornamental green-house shrub, of the deciduous kind, and though it appears from the _hortus kewensis_ to have been introduced by mr. james gordon, of mile-end, in , is yet a great rarity with us, and only to be found in some of the first collections. its scarcity, and consequent very high price, is attributed to the nursery-men's not having yet discovered the means of propagating it freely. messrs. grimwood and co. of kensington, have some very fine plants of it, which flower every year in the months of june and july, but as yet have produced no perfect seeds, which they may be expected to do when grown older; such having been known to ripen them in holland. it is a native of the cape, and appears to have been long possessed by the dutch, as its generic character taken from d. v. royen, is printed in the genera plantarum of linnÆus in . there are only two known species, and they vary in the number of their stamina, and divisions of the corolla. [ ] pelargonium betulinum. birch-leav'd crane's-bill. _class and order._ monadelphia heptandria. _generic character._ _cal._ -partitus: lacinia suprema definente in tubulum capillarem nectariferum, secus pedunculum decurrentem. _cor._ -petala, irregularis. _filamenta_ , inæqualia: quorum (raro ) castrata. _fructus_ -coccus, rostratus: rostra spiralia, introrsum barbata. _l'herit. geran._ _specific character and synonyms._ pelargonium _betulinum_ umbellis paucifloris, foliis ovatis inæqualiter serratis lævigatis. _l'herit. n. ._ geranium _betulinum_ calycibus monophyllis, foliis ovatis inæqualiter serratis planis, caule fruticoso. _linn. sp. pl. p. ._ _burm. ger. ._ geranium fruticosum, betulæ folio, africanum. _raii suppl. ._ [illustration: no ] though long since described, we have been in possession of this species of crane's-bill but a few years; it is one of the many new ones introduced by mr. masson from the cape, and at the same time one of the most desirable, as its blossoms which are ornamental, are freely produced during most of the summer, and the plant itself is readily propagated by cuttings. the flowers vary considerably, both in size, and colour; its foliage is different from that of most others, and, as its name imports, like that of the birch-tree. it requires the same treatment as most other green-house plants. [ ] zinnia multiflora. many-flowered zinnia. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia superflua. _generic character._ _recept._ paleaceum. _pappus_ aristis erectis. _cal._ ovato-cylindricus, imbricatus. _flosculi_ radii - , persistentes, integri. _specific character and synonyms._ zinnia _multiflora_ floribus pedunculatis. _linn. syst. veg. ed. . murr. p. ._ [illustration: no ] the _zinnia, multiflora_, a native of louisania, is a plant of more modern introduction, but requires the same treatment, and flowers at the same time, as the _tagetes patula_, with which, though far inferior in brilliancy of colour, it contributes to decorate the borders of the flower-garden from june to september. there is a variety of it with yellow flowers, nearly as common in our gardens as the present plant. linnÆus gave to this genus the name of zinnia, in honour of joh. gottfr. zinn, the pupil of haller, and his successor at the university of gottingen. the plant we have figured, answers to the name and to the specific description of linnÆus's _multiflora_; having never seen his _pauciflora_, we cannot say whether there be any just cause for suspecting them to be varieties of each other. [ ] tagetes patula. spreading tagetes, or french marigold. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia superflua. _generic character._ _receptaculum_ nudum. _pappus_ aristis erectis. _cal._ -phyllus, -dentatus, tubulosus. flosculi radii - , persistentes. _specific character and synonyms._ tagetes _patula_ caule subdiviso patulo. _linn. syst. veg. ed. . murr. ._ tanacetum africanum flos africanus minor. _bauh. pin. ._ flos africanus. _dod. pempt. ._ the small single french marigold. _park. par. p. ._ [illustration: no ] for richness and variety of tints few flowers can vie with this species of tagetes, which forms one of the chief ornaments of our gardens at the close of summer. some authors make it a native of africa, others of america. two principal varieties are usually kept in the gardens, the common small sort with a strong disagreeable smell, and a larger one here figured, usually called sweet-scented, the former is of more humble growth, its branches more spreading, its blossoms smaller than those of the latter, the flowers of which have usually a greater portion of the yellow tint, and the smell of the other so modified as to be far less disagreeable; sweet-scented we fear it can scarcely be called: from the seed of both sorts some flowers will be produced extremely double, and others single. miller recommends the seed to be frequently changed, to prevent them from degenerating. it is one of our tender annuals which require to be raised on a gentle hot-bed, if we are desirous of having them early; if that be not an object, they may be sown under a common hand-glass on a warm border the beginning of may, and, when large enough, planted out in the flower-beds, where they are to remain. dodonÆus observes, that the leaves, if held up to the light, appear as if perforated; and he adduces some instances, which prove the plant to be of a poisonous nature. [ ] lotus tetragonolobus. winged lotus. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _legumen_ cylindricum strictum. _alæ_ sursum longitudinaliter conniventes. _cal._ tubulosus. _specific character and synonyms._ lotus _tetragonolobus_ leguminibus solitariis membranaceo-quadrangulis, bractæis ovatis. _linn. syst. vegetab, p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. p. ._ lotus ruber siliqua angulosa. _bauh. pin. ._ lotus pulcherrima tetragonolobus. _comm. hort. . t. ._ pisum quadratum, the crimson-blossom'd or square-codded pease. _park. parad. p. ._ [illustration: no ] a common annual in our gardens, where it has been long cultivated; is a native of sicily, and flowers in the open borders in july and august; requires the same management as other hardy annuals. miller observes, that it was formerly cultivated as an esculent plant, the green pods being dressed and eaten as peas. [ ] epidendrum cochleatum. two-leav'd epidendrum. _class and order._ gynandria diandria. _generic character._ nectarium turbinatum, obliquum, reflexum. _specific character and synonyms._ epidendrum _cochleatum_ foliis oblongis geminis glabris striatis bulbo innatis, scapo multifloro, nectario cordato. _linn. syst. vegetab, ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ helleborine cochleato flore. _plum. sp. . u. . fig. ._ [illustration: no ] plants which draw their support from other living ones, of which there are numerous instances, are by botanists termed parasitical, and of this kind are most of the present family; deriving their generic name, which is of greek extraction, from growing on trees, into the bark of which they fix their roots; some of them are also found to grow on dead wood, as the present plant, which is described by sir hans sloane, in his history of jamaica, _v. . p. . t. . f. ._ as not only growing plentifully on trees, but also on the palisadoes of st. jago de la vega. instances of these plants flowering in england are very rare; commodore gardner, in the year , presented to the apothecaries company some roots of this plant, taken up in the woods of jamaica with great care, and which being successfully treated by mr. fairbairn in their garden at chelsea, one of them threw up a flowering stem last february, from whence our drawing was made. mr. fairbairn planted the roots in pots of earth, composed of rotten wood and decayed leaves, plunging them into the tan-bed of a pit of considerable size. in its fructification, the epidendrum obviously agrees with the orchis tribe, but differs essentially in the oeconomy of its roots; in the orchis the roots spring from the crown of the bulb, which is formed in the earth; in the epidendrum the bulb, or the part which appears to be analogous to a bulb, though of a green colour, is produced above ground, while the roots or fibres proceed from below it. [ ] bulbocodium vernum. vernal bulbocodium. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ infundibuliformis, hexapetala: unguibus angustis staminiferis. _capsula_ supera. _specific character and synonyms._ bulbocodium _vernum_ foliis lanceolatis. _linn. syst. veg. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ _retz. obs. bot. fasc. . t. ._ colchicum vernum hispanicum. _bauh. pin. ._ medowe saffron of the spring. _park. parad. p. - . f. ._ [illustration: no ] the excellent and learned clusius, in the second appendix to his history of rare plants, gives a very good figure of this plant, both in flower and seed, accompanied with its history; our parkinson also represents it in his _parad. terr._ and gives such a minute description of it, as convinces us he must have cultivated it at the time he wrote: mr. miller appears not to have been well acquainted with it, or he would not have described its root to be like that of the snowdrop; had he said colchicum, he would not have misled: retzius also in his bot. obs. gives a figure of it with the flower dissected. the _bulbocodium_, of which there is only one species, is a mountainous plant, a native of spain, and flowers in the open ground at the same time as the crocus, for a purple variety of which it might easily be mistaken at first sight; but it differs from the crocus in having six stamina, and from the colchicum, to which it is very nearly allied, in having one style instead of three. it is at present a rare plant in our gardens, which we attribute to its bulbs not admitting of much increase, as well as to its being liable to be killed by frost, and hence requiring more care than it may be thought entitled to from its appearance. it varies in the colour of its flowers. [ ] saponaria ocymoides, basil soap-wort. _class and order._ decandria digynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus, nudus. _petala_ unguiculata. _caps._ oblonga -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ saponaria _ocymoides_ calycibus cylindricis villosis, caulibus dichotomis procumbentibus. _linn. syst. veg. ed. . murr._ _jacq. fl. austr. v. . app. t. ._ _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ lychnis vel ocymoides repens montanum. _bauh. pin. ._ [illustration: no ] the _saponaria ocymoides_ has been figured in the appendix to the fifth volume of the _flora austriaca_ in its wild state, as in similar works every plant is expected to be; our figure represents a branch of it only, taken (as all ours in this work professedly are) from a garden specimen which grew on a wall of a particular construction in our garden at brompton, and of which it was the principal ornament through the months of may, june, and july, during most of which time it was covered with a profusion of bloom[ ]. though it produces blossoms in abundance, it affords but little seed, but may be increased by slips or cuttings. it is a hardy perennial, a native of france, italy, switzerland, and carinthia, loves a pure air and a dry situation[ ], grows best among rocks, stones, or out of a wall, and certainly is one of the best plants imaginable for ornamenting of rock-work. i received seeds of it, and many other rare plants, from my very kind friend mr. daval, of orbe, in switzerland. [ ] oxalis versicolor. striped-flower'd wood-sorrel. _class and order._ decandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _petala_ unguibus connexa. _caps._ angulis dehiscens, -gona. _specific character and synonyms._ oxalis _versicolor_ caule erecto hirto, pedunculis unifloris, foliis ternatis: foliolis linearibus callosis. _linn. syst. veg. ed. . murr. p. . p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ oxys africana foliis tenuissimis, flore amplo versicolore. _pluk. amalth. . t. . f. ._ oxys africana foliis tenuissimis in summitate caulis. _raii suppl. ._ [illustration: no ] the _oxalis-versicolor_ is considered as one of the most beautiful of the many species cultivated in gardens; and, though well known to, and described by several of the older botanists, has graced our collections but a few years, being introduced to the royal garden at kew, from the cape (where, as well as in ethiopia, it grows spontaneously) by mr. masson, in the year . many of this genus flower early in the spring, the season in which this species also puts forth its blossoms, but by dexterous management it may be made to flower during most of the year; and this is effected by placing the pea-like tubera or knobs which the root sends forth, and by which the plant is propagated, in pots filled with loam and bog-earth at stated distant periods. like most of the cape plants, it is well adapted to the greenhouse, and succeeds best when placed on a front shelf of the house, where it can have plenty of light and air; some keep it in the stove, but there the plant is drawn up, and the flowers lose a part of their brilliancy: in no situation do they ever expand but when the sun shines on them; this is the less to be regretted, as they are most beautiful when closed. [ ] coreopsis verticillata. whorled coreopsis. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia frustranea. _generic character._ _receptaculum_ paleaceum. _pappus_ bicornis. _calyx_ erectus, polyphyllus, basi radiis patentibus cinctus. _specific character and synonyms._ coreopsis _verticillata_ foliis decomposito-linearibus. _linn. syst. veg. ed. . murr. p. ._ coreopsis foliis verticillatis linearibus multifidis. _gronov. fl. virgin. p. ._ delphinii vel mei foliis planta ad nodos positis caule singulari. _clayt. n. ._ [illustration: no ] the _coreopsis verticillata_ is a hardy, perennial, herbaceous plant, a native of north-america; producing its blossoms, which are uncommonly shewy, from july to october, and is readily propagated by parting its roots in autumn. it grows to a great height, and is therefore rather adapted to the shrubbery than the flower-garden. clayton remarks, that the petals, though of a yellow colour, are used by the inhabitants to dye cloth red. [ ] hyacinthus botryoides. grape hyacinth. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ campanulata: _pori_ melliferi germinis. _specific character and synonyms._ hyacinthus _botryoides_ corollis globosis uniformibus, foliis canaliculato-cylindricis strictis. _linn. syst. veget. ed. . murr. p. ._ _aiton hort. kew. v. . p. ._ hyacinthus _racemosus_ cæruleus major. _bauh. pin. ._ hyacinthus botroides cæruleus amoenus. the skie-coloured grape-flower. _park. par. p. . p. . f. ._ [illustration: no ] the _hyacinthus botryoides_, a native of italy, and cultivated in the time of gerard and parkinson, is now become scarce with us, being only to be accidentally met with in long-established gardens; we first saw it in the garden of our very worthy and much valued friend, mr. john chorley, of tottenham, to whose lady my collection stands indebted for several rare and valuable plants. this species increases sufficiently fast by offsets, but in the open border does not very readily produce flowering stems: as both it and the _racemosus_ are apt to become troublesome in a garden from their great increase, we would recommend their bulbs to be placed in moderately sized pots filled with light earth, and plunged in the borders where they are designed to flower; in the autumn they should be regularly taken out, the offsets thrown away, and about half a dozen of the largest bulbs left, all of which will most probably flower at the usual time, the end of march or beginning of april. parkinson, who most admirably describes this and the _racemosus_, enumerates three varieties, viz. the _white_, the _blush-coloured_, and the _branched_; the first is frequently imported with other bulbs from holland, the second and third we have not seen; the latter, if we may judge from parkinson's _fig._ in his _parad._ is a most curious plant, and was obtained, as clusius reports, from seeds of the white variety; whether it now exists is deserving of inquiry. the _botryoides_ differs from the _racemosus_, in having its leaves upright, its bunch of flowers smaller, the flowers themselves larger, rounder, of a paler and brighter blue. [ ] hibiscus rosa sinensis. china-rose hibiscus. _class and order._ monadelphia polyandria. _generic character._ _calyx_ duplex, exterior polyphyllus. _capsula_ -locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ hibiscus _rosa sinensis_ foliis ovatis acuminatis serratis, caule arboreo. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. p. ._ alcea javanica arborescens, flore pleno rubicundo. _breyn. cent. . t. ._ hibiscus _javanica_. _mill. dict. ed. . to._ by whom cultivated in . [illustration: no ] rumphius in his _herbarium amboinense_ gives an excellent account of this beautiful native of the east-indies, accompanied by a representation of it with double flowers, in which state it is more particularly cultivated in all the gardens in india, as well as china; he informs us that it grows to the full size of our hazel, and that it varies with white flowers. the inhabitants of india, he observes, are extremely partial to whatever is red, they consider it as a colour which tends to exhilarate; and hence they not only cultivate this plant universally in their gardens, but use its flowers on all occasions of festivity, and even in their sepulchral rites: he mentions also an oeconomical purpose to which the flowers are applied, little consistent with their elegance and beauty, that of blacking shoes, whence their name of _rosæ calceolariæ_; the shoes, after the colour is imparted to them, are rubbed with the hand, to give them a gloss, and which thereby receives a blueish tinge, to discharge which they have recourse to lemon juice. with us it is kept in the stove, where it thrives and flowers readily during most of the summer; the single blossoms last but a short time, yet their superiority arising from the curious and beautiful structure of the interior parts of the flower, compensates for the shortness of their duration. it is usually increased by cuttings. [ ] alyssum saxatile. yellow alyssum. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliculosa. _generic character._ _filamenta_ quædam introrsum denticulo notata. _silicula_ emarginata. _specific character and synonyms._ alyssum _saxatile_ caulibus frutescentibus paniculatis, foliis lanceolatis mollissimis repandis. _linn. syst. veg, ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. p. ._ alyssum creticum saxatile, foliis undulatis incanis. _tourn. cor. ._ thlaspi luteum leucoji folio. _bocc. muf. . t. ._ [illustration: no ] as this plant has very generally obtained in gardens and nurseries the name of yellow alyssum, we have retained it; for though it is not the only one of the genus which produces yellow flowers, it may still be called yellow by way of eminence, such is the extreme brilliancy and profusion of its blossoms. it is a native of crete, and was first cultivated in this country by mr. miller, in [ ], at chelsea garden. it begins to flower about the latter end of april, and continues to blossom through great part of may; and it is not uncommon for it to flower again in autumn. if it has a pure air and a dry situation, it will grow in almost any soil. the usual mode of propagating it is by slips, or cuttings. as it is a small, shewy, hardy plant, and not disposed to over-run others, it is very suitable to embellish rock-work. [ ] pulmonaria virginica. virginia lungwort. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ infundibuliformis fauce pervia. _calyx_ prismatico-pentagonus. _specific character and synonyms._ pulmonaria _virginica_ calycibus abbreviatis, foliis lanceolatis obtusiusculis. _linn. syst. veg. ed. . murr. p. ._ pulmonaria non maculosa, floribus tubulosis longis pulcherrimis cæruleis, in panicula pendula congestis, foliis teneribus glabris latis obtusis, ad margines æqualibus, pediculis dilute purpureis infidentibus, radice crassa instar symphyti. mountain cowslip. _clayt. gron. fl. virg. p. ._ [illustration: no ] miller informs us in his dictionary, that the _pulmonaria virginica_ grows naturally upon mountains in most parts of north-america, that the seeds were sent many years since by mr. banister, from virginia; and some of the plants were raised in the garden of the bishop of london, at fulham, where for several years it was growing. though a native of virginia, it ranks with the hardy herbaceous plants of our gardens, and flowers in the open border about the middle of april; the blossoms before their expansion are of a reddish purple colour, when fully blown they become of a light bright blue, the foliage is glaucous, or blueish green; it is said to vary with white and flesh-coloured flowers. in favourable seasons, the flower-garden owes much of its gaiety to this elegant plant, and at a time when ornament is most desirable. it requires a pure air, and a situation moderately sheltered, as the cold easterly winds which too readily prevail in april, when it is in flower, are apt to deface it. it is usually propagated by parting its roots in autumn, and is a free grower. [ ] amygdalus nana. dwarf almond. _class and order._ icosandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus, inferus. _petala_ . drupa nuce poris perforata. _specific character and synonyms._ amygdalus _nana_ foliis basi attenuatis. _linn. syst. veg. ed. . murr. p. ._ _pallas. ross. . p. . t. ._ amygdalus indica nana. _pluk. alm. . t. . f. ._ armeniaca persicæ foliis, fructu exsucco. _amm. ruth. . t. ._ [illustration: no ] the dwarf almond, a native of russia and tartary, is justly considered as one of our most ornamental shrubs; it rarely rises above the height of three feet, and hence becomes very suitable for the shrubbery of small extent. it flowers about the middle of april, somewhat later than the common almond. miller observes, that the roots are apt to put out suckers, by which the plant may be increased in plenty; and if those are not annually taken away, they will starve the old plant. cultivated in , by mr. james sutherland. _ait. hort. kew._ [ ] sanguinaria canadensis. canada puccoon, or bloodwort. _class and order._ polyandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ -petala. _cal._ -phyllus. siliqua ovata, -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ sanguinaria _canadensis_. _linn. syst. veg. ed. . murr. p. ._ chelidonium majus canadense acaulon. _corn. canad. ._ ranunculus virginiensis albus. _park. theat. ._ sanguinaria flore simplici. _dill. elth. t. ._ [illustration: no ] though the sanguinaria cannot be considered as a handsome shewy plant, yet we scarcely know its equal in point of delicacy and singularity; there is something in it to admire, from the time that its leaves emerge from the ground, and embosom the infant blossom, to their full expansion, and the ripening of its seed vessels. the woods of canada, as well as of other parts of north-america, produce this plant in abundance with us it flowers in the beginning of april: its blossoms are fugacious, and fully expand only in fine warm weather. it is a hardy perennial, and is usually propagated by parting its roots in autumn; a situation moderately shady, and a soil having a mixture of bog-earth or rotten leaves in it suits it best. its knobby roots, when broken asunder, pour forth a juice of a bright red or orange colour, whence its name of sanguinaria: with this liquid the indians are said to paint themselves. dillenius, has figured it in his admirable work, the hortus elthamensis, where three varieties of it are represented, viz. a large one, a small one, and one in which the petals are multiplied, but which can scarcely be called double. it appears from morison[ ], that the sanguinaria was cultivated in this country in , the date of his work. [ ] phlox divaricata. early-flowering lychnidea. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ hypocrateriformis. _filamenta_ inæqualia. _stigma_ -fidum. _cal._ prismaticus. _caps._ -locularis, i-sperma. _specific character and synonyms._ phlox _divaricata_ foliis lato-lanceolatis: superioribus alternis, caule bifido, pedunculis geminis. _linn. syst. vegetab, p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. p. ._ lychnidea virginiana, alsines aquaticæ foliis, floribus in ramulis divaricatis. _pluk. mant. ?_ [illustration: no ] most of the plants of this genus are natives of north-america, and remarkable for their beauty; they were first introduced under the name of _lychnidea_, which, though a latin term, is now familiarized to the english ear. mr. aiton has given to this species the name of early-flowering, it coming much sooner into blossom than any of the others, beginning to flower in may with the yellow alyssum; its blossoms, however, are not of so long duration, nor so ornamental as some others of the same family. it seldom exceeds a foot in height, and, on this account, may be regarded as a suitable rock-plant. it rarely ripens its seeds with us, but is readily increased either by cuttings or layers; succeeds best in a pure air and a situation moderately dry. like most other american plants, it is of modern introduction, was cultivated by mr. miller, in , and figured in his icones. [ ] ranunculus gramineus. grass-leaved crowfoot. _class and order._ polyandria polygnia. _generic character._ _calyx_ -phyllus. _petala_ intra ungues poro mellifero. _semina_ nuda. _specific character and synonyms._ ranunculus _gramineus_ foliis lanceolato linearibus indivisis, caule erecto lævissimo paucifloro. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. p. ._ ranunculus gramineo folio bulbosus. _bauh. pin. ?_ ranunculus montanus folio gramineo. _bauh. pin. ._ ranunculus gramineus. grasse leafed crowfoot. _park. parad. p. . . f. i._ [illustration: no ] this species of ranunculus, an inhabitant of the dry pastures south of france and italy, and a hardy herbaceous plant of ready growth, recommends itself by the earliness of its flowering and the delicate glaucous colour of its foliage. parkinson figures it with double flowers, though he describes it with semi-double ones only; we have not observed either of these varieties in the gardens about london, they have most probably fallen victims to the rage for novelty, at the shrine of which many a fair and goodly flower is yearly sacrificed. it flowers towards the end of april, and is propagated by parting its roots in autumn. the synonyms of this and other species of ranunculus described in gerard's _fl. gallopr._ are very inaccurately quoted in professor murray's edition of the _syst. vegetab._ [ ] pelargonium cordifolium. heart-leaved geranium. _class and order._ monadelphia heptandria. _generic character._ _cal._ -partitus: lacinia suprema, definente in tubulum capilarem, nectariferum, secus pedunculum decurrentem. _cor._ -petala, irregularis. _filam_. inæqualia: quorum . (raro ) castrata. _fructus_ -coccus, rostratus: rostra spiralia introrsum barbata. _specific character and synonyms._ pelargonium _cordatum_ umbellis multifloris, foliis cordatis acutis dentatis, petalis inferis linearibus acutis. _ait. hort. kew. p. ._ geranium _cordifolium_. _cavan. diss. p. . t. . f. ._ [illustration: no ] our readers are here presented with the figure of another geranium of modern introduction, not enumerated by linnÆus or miller, and which in point of beauty, duration of flowering, and facility of culture, is equal to most. it was introduced to the royal garden, at kew, from the cape, by mr. masson, in . there are several varieties of it, but the one here figured is the most beautiful. it strikes readily from cuttings, by which it is usually propagated. requires the same treatment as the more common geraniums, and flowers, from march to july. [ ] cheiranthus maritimus. mediterranean stock. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliquosa. _generic character._ _germen_ utrinque denticulo glandulato. _cal._ clausus: foliolis duobus basi gibbis. _semina_ plana. _specific character and synonyms._ cheiranthus _maritimus_ foliis ellipticis obtusis nudis scabriusculis, caule diffuso scabro. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. ._ _mantiss. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ leucojum minus flore violaceo. _barr. ic. ._ [illustration: no ] linnÆus has described this plant minutely in his _mantissa plant_, so that no doubt remains of its being his _maritimus_. with us, it has been customary for gardeners and nurserymen to distinguish this species by the name of virginia stock, a name highly improper, as it is found to be a native of the mediterranean coast. the blossoms which this plant first puts forth are of a lively red, in a few days they become of a blueish purple colour; to this variety of hues the plant owes its chief beauty. being of humble growth, and producing a profusion of bloom, which is of long duration, it is frequently used as an edging to borders, and sometimes sown in little patches with other annuals; in whatever way used, it contributes greatly to enliven the borders of the flower-garden. it is one of those annuals whose seeds should be sown in the autumn, as it thereby comes much forwarder into bloom, and its blossoms are more lively than those arising from seeds sown in the spring; by varying the time of sowing, it may be had to flower in spring, summer, and autumn. small pots of it in bloom have a pretty appearance, and may be used to decorate the windows of those who reside in cities or great towns, where the pleasures of the garden are not to be enjoyed. [ ] sophora tetraptera. winged-podded sophora. _class and order._ decandria monogynia. _generic character._ _calyx_ -dentatus, superne gibbus. _cor._ papilionacea: alis-longitudine vexilli. _legumen._ _specific character and synonyms._ sophora _tetraptera_ foliis pinnatis foliolis numerosis ( -- ) lanceolato-oblongis villosiusculis: leguminibus membranaceo-quadrangulis, caule arboreo. _ait. hort. kew. p. ._ sophora _tetraptera_. _job. miller ic. tab. ._ [illustration: no ] the magnificent and highly curious species of sophora here represented, is one of the many plants discovered by sir joseph banks at new-zealand, where it forms a tree of a considerable size. a finer sight can scarcely be imagined than a tree of this sort, extending to a great breadth on a wall with a western aspect, in the apothecaries garden at chelsea, where it was planted by mr. forsyth about the year , and which at this moment (april , ) is thickly covered with large pendulous branches of yellow, i had almost said golden flowers; for they have a peculiar richness, which it is impossible to represent in colouring; in the winter care is taken to cover it carefully with mats, least it should suffer from any extraordinarily severe weather. it usually produces a few seed vessels of an uncommon form, having four wings, whence its name of _tetraptera_; from some of the seeds which have ripened in this country plants have been raised, and by these the plant is found to be propagated with the most success; it may also be increased by cuttings and layers. [ ] iris pavonia. peacock iris. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ -petala inæqualis, _petalis_ alternis geniculato-patentibus, _stigmata_ petaliformia; cucullato-bilabiata. _specific character and synonyms._ iris _pavonia_ imberbis folio lineari glabro, scapo subunifloro. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. ._ [illustration: no ] we have our doubts whether the plant here figured be the _pavonia_ of the _systema vegetabilium_, as it does not accord so well with the description there given, as we could wish; as such however it has been regarded by some here, and it must be allowed to answer extremely well to the name. it is a small delicate iris, about a foot and a half high, with very narrow leaves, bearing on the top of the stalk one or at most two flowers, three of the petals are large and white, with a brilliant blue spot at the base of each, edged on the outer side with deep purple; the delicacy of the flower, and the eye-like spot at the base of three of the petals, render at one of the most striking plants of the genus. the figure here given was drawn from a plant which flowered with messrs. grimwood and co. last june, who received it from holland, and treat it in the same way as their cape bulbs, of which country it is said to be a native. it is not mentioned either in mr. miller's _gardener's dictionary_, or the _hortus kewensis_. [ ] ixora coccinea. scarlet ixora. _class and order._ tetrandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ -petala, infundibuliformis, longa, supera, _stamina_ supra faucem. _bacca_ -sperma. _specific character and synonyms._ ixora _coccinea_ foliis ovalibus semiamplexicaulibus, floribus fasciculatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr._ _ait. hort. kew. p. ._ jasminum indicum, lauri folio, inodorum umbellatum, floribus coccineis. _pluk. alm. . t. . s. ._ cerasus zeylanica humilis sylvestris, floribus holosericeis intense rubris umbellatim congestis, fructibus nigris. _mus. zeyl. p. ._ flamma sylvarum _rumph. amb. . p. . t. ._ [illustration: no ] it will appear strange, we presume, to most of our readers, when they are informed, that the _ixora coccinea_, a plant at present in few hands, and which a short time since was sold in some of our nurseries for five guineas, should have been known in this country a hundred years ago; and yet mr. aiton, who has so laudably exerted himself, in ascertaining the precise period, when most of the exotics cultivated in the royal garden at kew first made their appearance in great-britain, informs us on very respectable authority, that this plant was introduced by mr. bentick in . there is every reason to suppose, that this splendid exotic did not long survive its introduction; on inquiry, we learn that it was reintroduced about fifteen years ago, by the late dr. john fothergill, a name, to medicine and botany ever dear, in whose rich and magnificent collection at upton was first known to flower; about the same time, the late mr. thoburn, nurseryman at brompton, raised a few ixoras from foreign seeds, and from these (an accident having happened to the plant which was dr. fothergill's) are said to have arisen the plants at present in this country. both rheede and rumphius describe and figure this plant in their respective works, the _hortus malabaricus_ and _herbarium amboinense_; it is mentioned also by several other authors: from their various accounts we discover, that in different parts of india, where it grows wild, it forms a slender shrub, or tree, about six feet high, rising generally with a single stem; that its clusters of flowers, seen from afar are so brilliant as to resemble a burning coal, especially in a dark wood, whence its name of _flamma sylvarum_; that it grows in the woods, and flowers in september and october, producing a black fruit, the size of small cherries, on which the peacocks are supposed to feed, and from whence they have obtained the name of _cerasa pavonina_. the chinese call it _santanhoa_; with them it produces flowers and fruit the year through, and they hold the blossoms in such veneration, as to use them in the sacrifices they make to their idol ixora, whence linnÆus has taken the name applied by him to this genus. the root is said to possess some acrimony, and to be made use of by the natives in curing the toothach. it is customary in this country, to treat the _ixora_ as a stove plant; perhaps it may be less tender than we are aware of; it flowers in july and august, but has not been known to produce fruit; is increased from cuttings, without much difficulty. our drawing was taken from a small but very healthy plant in the stove of mr. whitley (late thoburn and whitley, brompton). linnÆus describes, and some authors figure this plant with stipulæ, which our plant had not, not being arrived at an age, perhaps, to produce them. [ ] draba aizoides. sengreen draba, or whitlow-grass. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliculosa. _generic character._ _silicula_ integra, ovali-oblonga: valvis planiusculis, dissepimento parallelis. _stylus_ nullus. _specific character and synonyms._ draba _aizoides_ scapo nudo simplici, foliis ensiformibus carinatis ciliatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. murr. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ sedum alpinum hirsutum luteum. _bauh. pin. ._ leucojum luteum aizoides montanum. _col. ecphr. . p. ._ [illustration: no ] the plant here figured, a native of the german alps, is one of those whose beauty cannot be shewn in a small detached piece of it; to be admired, it must be seen in a tuft of some considerable size, which it is much disposed to form when growing among rock-work, for which, like many other small alpine plants, it is well suited; thus elevated above the surface of the ground, the various beauties of this humble race are more distinctly seen, and their curious structure more readily inspected. this species is the more to be esteemed, as it flowers very early in the spring, in march, and the beginning of april, and continues in blossom about six weeks. linnÆus originally confounded it with a similar plant, the _draba alpina_, a mistake since rectified in his _mantissa plant. p. ._ [ ] ixia chinensis. chinese ixia. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ -partita, campanulata, regularis. _stigmata_ . _specific character and synonyms._ ixia _chinensis_ foliis ensiformibus; floribus remotis, panicula dichotoma, floribus pedunculatis. _linn. sp. pl. v. i. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. v. i. p. ._ morÆa _chinensis_ caule compresso, foliis ensiformibus, panicula dichotoma, floribus pedunculatis. _murr. syst. vegetab. p. ._ [illustration: no ] in that elaborate and inestimable work, the _hortus malabaricus_, we have a good figure of the plant here exhibited, accompanied by a minute description; the author informs us that it grows spontaneously in india, attaining the height even of five or six feet, and affecting a sandy soil; the natives consider it as an antidote to poisons in general, and regard the bruised root as peculiarly efficacious in curing the bite of the serpent, called cobra de copella. we raised plants of it last year from seeds imparted to us by j. ibbettson, esq. of the admiralty; this year, during the months of august and september, many of them have flowered, and capsules are forming which have every appearance of producing perfect seeds; the root of this plant is yellow, and tuberous like that of the iris, the leaves also greatly resemble those of that tribe, it grows to the height of about three feet, and produces a considerable number of flowers in succession each of which is of short duration. the root and radical leaves as represented on the plate are much smaller than in plants which have been long established. our plants stood in pots in the open ground through the winter of - without injury, but it must be remembered, that the weather during that period was uncommonly mild; it will be safest therefore to consider it as a tender herbaceous plant. it differs so much in its fructification from many others of the genus, that prof. murray has considered it as a _moræa_, with which, in our humble opinion, it has scarcely any affinity. [ ] lamium orvala. balm-leaved archangel, or dead-nettle. _class and order._ didynamia gymnospermia. _generic character._ _corollæ_ labium superius integrum, fornicatum; lab. infer. -lobum; faux utrinque margine dentata. _specific character and synonyms._ lamium _orvala_ foliis cordatis inæqualiter arguteque serratis, corollis fauce inflata, caulibus coloratis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ lamium maximum sylvaticum alterum. _bauh. pin. ._ galeopsis maxima pannonica. _clus. hist. . p. ._ hungary dead-nettle, or the dragon flower. _park. parad. p. ._ [illustration: no ] few of the plants of this genus have been thought to possess sufficient beauty for the flower-garden, the present one excepted, the magnificence of whose blossoms justly entitles it to rank with the more curious, if not the most beautiful of the vegetable tribes. though not common in our gardens, it has long been introduced, having been cultivated and accurately described, though badly figured, by parkinson in his _parad. terr._ it grows spontaneously in the woods of italy and hungary, and flowers with us about the latter end of april, at which time, if cold winds prevail, it is apt to be injured, unless placed in a sheltered part of the garden. it may be propagated either by seeds, or by parting its roots in autumn, is a hardy plant and grows readily. [ ] aitonia capensis. cape aitonia. _class and order._ monadelphia octandria. _generic character._ monogyna. _cal._ -partitus. _cor._ -petala. _bacca_ sicca, -angularis, -locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ aitonia _capensis_. _linn. suppl. pl. p. ._ _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ cotyledon foliis linearibus, flore quadrifido, fructu subrotundo. _burm. afric. . t. . s. ._ [illustration: no ] this genus, of which there is only one known species, has been named by the younger linnÆus, in honour of mr. william aiton, author of the _hortus kewensis_, and botanic gardener to his majesty. the great length of time[ ], mr. aiton has been engaged in the cultivation of plants, the immense numbers which have been the constant objects of his care through every period of their growth, joined to his superior discernment, give him a decided superiority in the _prima facie_ knowledge of living plants over most botanists the present day; his abilities in the other line of his profession, are displayed in the eulogies of all who have seen the royal collection at kew, which he has the honour to superintend. the aitonia is a native of the cape, and was introduced by mr. masson, in the year . it is a greenhouse shrub of slow growth, seldom exceeding three feet in height; producing, when of sufficient age, flowers and fruit through most of the year; the fruit is a large dry angular berry, of a fine red colour. our drawing was made from a very fine plant, formerly dr. fothergill's, now in the collection of messrs. grimwood and co. kensington. it is only to be raised from seeds, which are sparingly produced in this country. [ ] buddlea globosa. round-headed buddlea. _class and order._ tetrandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus. _cor._ -fida. _stamina_ ex incifuris. _caps._ -fulca, -locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ buddlea _globosa_ foliis lanceolatis, capitulis solitariis. _ait. hort. kew. p. . v. ._ budleja _globosa_. _hope in act. harlem, v. . part. . p. . t. ._ palquin _feuil. it. . p. . t. ._ [illustration: no ] mr. adam buddle, in honour of whom the present genus has been originally named by dr. houston, was an ingenious english botanist, cotemporary with, and the friend of petiver; his name is often mentioned in the _synopsis_ of mr. ray and his _hortus siccus_, or dried collection of british plants, preserved in the british museum, still resorted to in doubtful cases. the present species not enumerated either by linnÆus or miller, is a native of chili, and according to the _hort. kew._ was introduced by messrs. kennedy and lee, in . it has been customary, in consideration of its native place of growth, to treat it here as a greenhouse plant, for which situation it soon becomes unfit from its magnitude; some have ventured to plant it in the open borders in warm sheltered situations, where it has been found to succeed very well, producing its beautiful yellow blossoms in abundance; care must be taken, however, to guard it carefully from severe frosts, which are apt to destroy it. it flowers in may and june, and is usually propagated by cuttings or layers. [ ] kalmia latifolia. broad-leav'd kalmia. _class and order._ decandria monogynia. _generic character._ _calyx_ -partitus. _cor._ hypocrateriformis: limbo subtus quinquecorni. _caps._ -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ kalmia _latifolia_ foliis ovato-ellipticis ternis sparsisque, corymbis terminalibus. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. . ed. . murr._ _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ andromeda foliis ovatis obtusis, corollis corymbosis infundibuliformis, genitalibus declinatis. _fl. virg. ._ chamÆdaphne foliis tini, floribus bullatis. _catesb. car. . t. ._ cistus chamærhododendros mariana laurifolia, floribus expansis, summo ramulo in umbellam plurimis. _pluk. mant. . t. . s. ._ the common laurel, vulgarly called ivy. [illustration: no ] professor kalm (in honour of whom linnÆus, as before has been observed, named this genus of plants) in his travels into north-america, published in english by mr. forster, relates that he found this species in various provinces of that extensive continent, as pensylvania, new-jersey, and new-york, growing most commonly on the sides of hills, sometimes in woods; that it flourished most on the northern sides of the hills, especially where they were intersected by rivulets; he observes, that when all the other trees had lost their ornaments, this enlivened the woods by the verdure of its foliage, and that about the month of may, it was covered with a profusion of blossoms of unrivalled beauty. [ ] cytisus laburnum. common laburnum. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ -labiatus: / . _legumen_ basi attenuatum. _specific character and synonyms._ cytisus _laburnum_ racemis simplicibus pendulis, foliolis ovato-oblongis. _linn. syst. veg. p. . ed. . murr._ _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ laburnum arbor trifolia anagyridi similis. _bauh. hist. . p. ._ laburnum. beane trefoile. _park. parad. p. ._ [illustration: no ] of the laburnum, our nurseries afford two principal varieties, the broad and narrow-leav'd; the latter (which is the one here figured) mr. miller was induced to make a species of under the name of _alpinum_; it certainly differs very materially from the broad-leav'd one, yet is most probably only a seminal variety; the laburnum figured in its wild state by professor jacquin, in his _flora austriaca_, has much broader leaves than ours, no mention is made by him of its being subject to vary. both miller and hanbury recommend the laburnum to be cultivated not only as an ornamental but as a timber tree, the wood having a very close grain, a good colour, and bearing a high polish;[ ] they urge in its favour, that it is very hardy, a quick grower, and one that will thrive in almost any soil; the latter says, it will become a timber tree of more than a yard in girt: whatever success may attend its cultivation for the more useful purposes, as a hardy, deciduous, ornamental tree, it has long been the pride of our shrubberies and plantations. it blossoms in may, and is usually very productive of seeds, by which it may be propagated most readily. hares and rabbits being fond of its bark, do great damage to plantations of laburnum, especially in severe weather; i remember somewhere to have read, that these animals will not touch a tree if soot has been placed about it; perhaps, a circle drawn round the base of the tree with the new coal tar, which has a powerful smell of long duration, might keep off these noxious animals. the professor does not mention the precise height which he had observed these trees to attain in north-america, but it is evident that they acquire a considerable thickness, as the wood of the root as well as the body of the tree is manufactured into various utensils by the natives, and by the indians into spoons in particular, whence it has obtained the name of the _spoon tree_. the leaves have been found to prove poisonous to kine, horses, and sheep, but the deer are observed to brouse on them with impunity. peter collinson, esq. who was highly instrumental in enriching this country with the native plants of north-america, is said to have introduced this elegant species about the year . with us it succeeds best when planted with a northern aspect, well sheltered, in a soil composed of loam and bog earth, in a situation moderately moist, where the air is perfectly pure. being with difficulty propagated by suckers or layers, it is most commonly raised from american seeds. [ ] kalmia glauca. glaucous kalmia. _specific character and synonyms._ kalmia _glauca_ foliis oppositis oblongis lævigatis, subtus glaucis, margine revolutis, corymbis terminalibus, ramulis ancipitibus. _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. . tab. ._ [illustration: no ] this species (much inferior in size to the _latifolia_, as it rarely exceeds two feet in height) is a native of newfoundland, where it was discovered by sir joseph banks, bart. and by him introduced to this country in the year . it is of course not described by mr. miller, nor is it mentioned the in the th edition of linnÆus's _syst. vegetab._ by professor murray; in the _hort. kew._ of mr. aiton, it is both described and figured. it flowers in april and may, is propagated in the same manner and requires the same treatment as the _latifolia_. [ ] hypericum coris. heath-leav'd. st. john's-wort. _class and order._ polyadelphia polyandria. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _petala_ . _nect._ . _capsula._ _specific character and synonyms._ hypericum _coris_ floribus trigynis, calycibus serrato-glandulosis, foliis subverticillatis. _linn. syst. veget. ed. . murr. p. ._ coris lutea. _bauh. pin. ._ coris legitima, ericæ similis. _hon. belli, ep. . ad cluj. clus. op. v. . p. ._ coris. _matthioli ._ [illustration: no ] there is an elegance and neatness in most of this tribe, and none possess those qualities in a greater degree than the present species, which is a charming little evergreen, admirably adapted for the greenhouse, as it forms a pretty bulb, and flowers during most of the summer. it grows spontaneously in the south of europe, and many parts of the levant; honorius bellus, in his epistle clusius (_vid. clus. op_.) describes it as growing on the hilly parts of the island of crete. mr. lee, of hammersmith, received it about four years since from the crimea. it is propagated by cuttings. [ ] fumaria glauca. glaucous fumitory. _class and order._ diadelphia hexandria. _generic character._ _cal._ diphyllus. _cor._ ringens. _filamenta_ , membranacea, singula _antheris_ . _specific character and synonyms._ fumaria _sempervirens_ siliquis linearibus paniculatis, caule erecto. _linn. sp. pl. v. . p. . syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ bastard fumitory. _mill. dict. ed. . to._ fumaria siliquosa sempervirens. _corn. canad. . t. ._ [illustration: no ] the term _sempervirens_ applied to this plant by linnÆus, originated in the description given of it by cornutus; (_vid. syn_.) the impropriety of calling an annual plant (for such it undoubtedly is with us, and must be in canada, its native place of growth) an _evergreen_, has appeared to us too glaring to be continued; we have thought the promotion of the science required a change in the name, and have therefore altered it to that of _glauca_, as coinciding with the english name of _glaucous_, given it by mr. aiton in his _hortus kewensis_; for to the delicate, pleasing, glaucous hue of its foliage, it owes its beauty, as much as to the lively colours of its blossoms. it is a hardy annual, coming up spontaneously in the open border where it has once flowered and seeded, and sometimes reaching the height of two feet. it flowers from june to september. mr. aiton informs us of its having been cultivated by mr. james sutherland in the year . strange! that it should yet be a rarity in our gardens. [ ] azalea nudiflora _var._ coccinea. scarlet azalea. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ campanulata. _stamina_ receptaculo inferta. _caps._ -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ azalea _nudiflora_ foliis ovatis, corollis pilosis, staminibus longissimis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ cistus virginiana, periclymeni flore ampliori minus odorato. _pluck. mant. ._ [illustration: no ] whether the variety of the azalea nudiflora here figured, was originally introduced to this country by mrs. norman of bromley in kent, or mr. bewick of clapham in surrey (both celebrated for their collections of american plants) we cannot with certainty assert; true it is, the azalea coccinea was little known here till the sale of mr. bewick's plant in ; a considerable number of these shrubs formed the choicest part of that collection, and sold at high prices, one of them produced twenty guineas: prior to this period, mr. bewick had presented one of the same sort of shrubs to mr. thoburn, the fruits of whose skill and assiduous care in the cultivation of american plants are apparent in his late nursery at brompton, now mr. whitley's, and from the produce of which plant our figure was taken. the original species, found abundantly in the more southern parts of north-america, was introduced, according to mr. aiton's account, by peter collinson, esq. about the year . the brilliancy of colour and a happy combination of form, unite in rendering the variety here figured, one of the most beautiful plants in nature: yet it wants the fragrance of some of the varieties of the _viscosa_. it flowers in june and continues in blossom about three weeks, requires a sheltered but not too shady a situation, more dry than moist, and a soil composed of loam and bog earth, or rotten leaves. the usual mode of propagating it is by layers; care must be taken not to remove the offspring too soon from the mother plant. index. in which the latin names of the plants contained in the _fourth volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ aitonia capensis. alyssum saxatile. amygdalus nana. azalea nudiflora _var._ coccinea. buddlea globosa. bulbocodium vernum. cheiranthus maritimus. coreopsis verticillata. cytisus laburnum. dais continifolia. draba aizoides. epidendrum cochleatum. fumaria glauca. hibiscus rosa sinensis. hyacinthus botryoides. hypericum calycinum. hypericum coris. iris pavonia. ixia chinensis. ixora coccinea. kalmia latifolia. kalmia glauca. lamium orvala. lotus tetragonolobus. monarda fistulosa _var._ oxalis versicolor. pelargonium cordifolium. pelargonium betulinum. phlox divaricata. pumonaria virginica. ranunculus gramineus. sanguinaria canadensis. sophora tetraptera. saponaria ocymoides. tagetes patula. zinnia multiflora. index. in which the english names of the plants contained in the _fourth volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ aitonia cape. almond dwarf. alyssum yellow. archangel balm-leav'd. azalea scarlet. buddlea round-headed. bulbocodium vernal. crane's-bill birch-leav'd. crane's-bill heart-leav'd. crowsfoot grass-leav'd. coreopsis whorled. dais continus-leav'd. draba fengreen. epidendrum two-leav'd. fumitory glaucous. hisicus china-rose. hyacinth grape. iris peacock. ixia chinese. ixora scarlet. kalmia broad-leav'd. kalmia glaucous. laburnum common. lotus winged. lungwort virginian. lychnidea early-flowering. marigold french. monarda crimson. puccoon canada. st. john's-wort large-flower'd. st. john's-wort heath-leav'd. soap-wort basil. sophora winged-podded. stock mediterranean. wood-sorrel striped-flower'd. zinnia many-flower'd. * * * * * footnotes [ ] pulcherrimos et latissimos in rupibus cespites efficit. _haller._ [ ] delectatur solo duro, arenoso, umbroso sylvarum. _jacquin._ [ ] _ait. hort. kew._ [ ] provenit sponte in america occidentali five in virginia seu canada, unde semen ad nos delata, quibus propagata ejus fobeles abundanter satis in hortulo suburbano gul. walker non longe a palatio divi jacobi, sito in vico ejusdem nominis jacobeo dicto. [ ] mr. a. was a pupil of the celebrated mr. miller. [ ] matthiolus long since noticed the excellence of this wood, and speaks of it as being particularly used for making the best kind of bows; are our modern toxopholites acquainted with this circumstance? trees of the northern united states their study, description and determination for the use of schools and private students by austin c. apgar professor of botany in the new jersey state normal school "trees are god's architecture."--_anonymous._ "a student who has learned to observe and describe so simple a matter as the form of a leaf has gained a power which will be of lifetime value, whatever may be his sphere of professional employment."--_wm. north rice._ new york-:-cincinnati-:-chicago american book company copyright, , by the american book company. w. p. . preface. this book has been prepared with the idea that teachers generally would be glad to introduce into their classes work dealing with the real objects of nature, provided the work chosen were of a character that would admit of its being studied at all seasons and in all localities, and that the subject were one of general interest, and one that could be taught successfully by those who have had no regular scientific instruction. the trees of our forests, lawns, yards, orchards, streets, borders, and parks give us just such a department. though many consider a large part of the vegetable kingdom of little importance, and unworthy of any serious study, there are few who do not admire, and fewer still who do not desire to know, our trees, the monarchs of all living things. the difficulty in tree study by the aid of the usual botanies lies mainly in the fact that in using them the first essential parts to be examined are the blossoms and their organs. these remain on the trees a very short time, are often entirely unnoticed on account of their small size or obscure color, and are usually inaccessible even if seen. in this book the leaves, the wood, the bark, and, in an elementary way, the fruit are the parts to which the attention is directed; these all can be found and studied throughout the greater part of the year, and are just the parts that must be thoroughly known by all who wish to learn to recognize trees. though every teacher is at liberty to use the book as he thinks best, the author, who has been a class teacher for over twenty years, is of the opinion that but little of part i. need be thoroughly studied and recited, with the exception of chapter iii. on leaves. the object of this chapter is not to have the definitions recited (the recitation of definitions in school work is often useless or worse than useless), but to teach the pupil to use the terms properly and to make them a portion of his vocabulary. the figures on pages - are designed for class description, and for the application of botanical words. the first time the chapter is studied the figure illustrating the term should be pointed out by the pupil; then, as a review of the whole chapter, the student should be required to give a full description of each leaf. after this work with chapter iii., and the careful reading of the whole of part i., the pupils can begin the description of trees, and, as the botanical words are needed, search can be made for them under the proper heads or in the glossary. the keys are for the use of those who know nothing of scientific botany. the advanced botanist may think them too artificial and easy; but let him remember that this work was written for the average teacher who has had no strictly scientific training. we can hardly expect that the great majority of people will ever become scientific in any line, but it is possible for nearly every one to become interested in and fully acquainted with the trees of his neighborhood. the attainment of such botanical knowledge by the plan given in this volume will not only accomplish this useful purpose, but will do what is worth far more to the student, _i.e._, teach him to employ his own senses in the investigation of natural objects, and to use his own powers of language in their description. with hardly an exception, the illustrations in the work are taken from original drawings from nature by the author. a few of the scales of pine-cones were copied from london's "encyclopædia of trees"; some of the retinospora cones were taken from the "gardener's chronicle"; and three of the illustrations in part i. are from professor gray's works. the size of the illustration as compared with the specimen of plant is indicated by a fraction near it; ¼ indicates that the drawing is one fourth as long as the original, / that it is natural size, etc. the notching of the margin is reduced to the same extent; so a margin which in the engraving looks about entire, might in the leaf be quite distinctly serrate. the only cases in which the scale is not given are in the cross-sections of the leaves among the figures of coniferous plants. these are uniformly three times the natural size, except the section of araucaria imbricata, which is not increased in scale. the author has drawn from every available source of information, and in the description of many of the species no attempt whatever has been made to change the excellent wording of such authors as gray, loudon, etc. the ground covered by the book is that of the wild and cultivated trees found east of the rocky mountains, and north of the southern boundary of virginia and missouri. it contains not only the native species, but all those that are successfully cultivated in the whole region; thus including all the species of ontario, quebec, etc., on the north, and many species, both wild and cultivated, of the southern states and the pacific coast. in fact, the work will be found to contain so large a proportion of the trees of the southern states as to make it very useful in the schools of that section. many shrubby plants are introduced; some because they occasionally grow quite tree-like, others because they can readily be trimmed into tree-forms, others because they grow very tall, and still others because they are trees in the southern states. in nomenclature a conservative course has been adopted. the most extensively used text-book on the subject of botany, "gray's manual," has recently been rewritten. that work includes every species, native and naturalized, of the region covered by this book, and the names as given in that edition have been used in all cases. scientific names are marked so as to indicate the pronunciation. the vowel of the accented syllable is marked by the grave accent (`) if long, and by the acute (´) if short. in the preparation of this book the author has received much valuable aid. his thanks are especially due to the authorities of the arnold arboretum, boston, massachusetts, and of the missouri botanical garden, st. louis, for information in regard to the hardiness of species; to mr. john h. redfield, of the botanical department of the philadelphia academy of natural sciences, for books, specimens from which to make illustrations, etc.; and to dr. a. c. stokes, of trenton, new jersey, for assistance in many ways, but especially for the accurate manner in which he has inked the illustrations from the author's pencil-drawings. the author also wishes to acknowledge the help received from many nurserymen in gathering specimens for illustration and in giving information of great value. among these, special thanks are due to mr. samuel c. moon, of morrisville nurseries, who placed his large collection of living specimens at the author's disposal, and in many other ways gave him much intelligent aid. contents. page. part i. essential organs, and terms needed for their description - chapter i. roots chapter ii. stems and branches chapter iii. leaves chapter iv. flowers and fruit chapter v. winter study of trees chapter vi. the preparation of a collection chapter vii. figures to be used in botanical description part ii. plan and models for tree description - part iii. key, classification and description of the species - * * * * * glossary of botanical terms, and index to part i - index to part iii - trees. part i. the essential organs, and the terms needed for their description. chapter i. _roots._ though but little study of the roots of trees is practicable, some knowledge of their forms, varieties, and parts is important. the great office of the roots of all plants is the taking in of food from the soil. thick or fleshy roots, such as the radish, are stocks of food prepared for the future growth of the plant, or for the production of flowers and fruit. the thick roots of trees are designed mainly for their secure fastening in the soil. the real mouths by which the food is taken in are the minute tips of the hair-like roots found over the surface of the smaller branches. as trees especially need a strong support, they all have either a _tap-root_--one large root extending from the lower end of the trunk deep down into the ground; or _multiple roots_--a number of large roots mainly extending outward from the base of the trunk. trees with large tap-roots are very hard to transplant, and cannot with safety be transferred after they have attained any real size. the hickories and oaks belong to this class. trees having multiple roots are readily transplanted, even when large. the maples and elms are of this class. roots that grow from the root-end of the embryo of the seed are called _primary roots_; those growing from slips or from stems anywhere are _secondary roots_. some trees grow luxuriantly with only secondary roots; such trees can readily be raised from stems placed in the ground. the willows and poplars are good examples of this group. other trees need all the strength that primary roots can give them; these have to be raised from seed. peach-trees are specially good examples, but practically most trees are best raised from seed. a few trees can be easily raised from root-cuttings or from suckers which grow up from roots. the ailanthus, or "tree of heaven," is best raised in this way. of this tree there are three kinds, two of which have disagreeable odors when in bloom, but the other is nearly odorless. by using the roots or the suckers of the third kind, only those which would be pleasant to have in a neighborhood would be obtained. one of the large cities of the united states has in its streets thousands of the most displeasing of these varieties and but few of the right sort, all because the nurseryman who originally supplied the city used root-cuttings from the disagreeable kind. if such trees were raised from the seed, only about one third would be desirable, and their character could be determined only when they had reached such a size as to produce fruit, when it would be too late to transplant them. fruit-trees, when raised from the seed, have to be grafted with the desired variety in order to secure good fruit when they reach the bearing age. chapter ii. _stems and branches._ the stem is the distinguishing characteristic of trees, separating them from all other groups of plants. although in the region covered by this book the trees include all the very large plants, size alone does not make a tree. a plant with a single trunk of woody structure that does not branch for some distance above the ground, is called a _tree_. woody plants that branch directly above the soil, even though they grow to the height of twenty feet or more, are called _shrubs_, or, in popular language, _bushes_. many plants which have a tendency to grow into the form of shrubs may, by pruning, be forced to grow tree-like; some that are shrubs in the northern states are trees further south. all the trees that grow wild, or can be cultivated out of doors, in the northern states belong to one class, the stems having a separable bark on the outside, a minute stem of pith in the center, and, between these, wood in annual layers. such a stem is called _exogenous_ (outside-growing), because a new layer forms on the outside of the wood each year. another kind of tree-stem is found abundantly in the tropics; one, the palmetto, grows from south carolina to florida. while in our region there are no trees of this character, there are plants having this kind of stem, the best illustration being the corn-stalk. in this case there is no separable bark, and the woody substance is in threads within the pithy material. in the corn-stalk the woody threads are not very numerous, and the pith is very abundant; in most of the tropical trees belonging to this group the threads of wood are so numerous as to make the material very durable and fit for furniture. a stem of this kind is called _endogenous_ (inside-growing). fig. represents a longitudinal and a cross section of an exogenous stem, and fig. of an endogenous one. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] since all the stems with which we have to deal are exogens, a particular description of that class will here be given. fig. shows the appearance of a section of an ash stem six years old. the central portion, which is about as thick as wrapping-twine, is the _pith_; from this outward toward the bark can be seen the six annual layers of the _wood_; and then comes the _bark_, consisting of two portions. first there is an inside layer of greenish material, the fresh-growing portion, and lastly the outer or dead matter. this outer portion must crack open, peel off, or in some way give a chance for the constant growth of the trunk. the different kinds of trees are readily known by the appearance of the bark of the trunk, due to the many varieties of surface caused by the allowance for growth. none of the characteristics of trees afford a better opportunity for careful observation and study than the outer bark. the birches have bark that peels off in thin horizontal layers--the color, thinness, and toughness differing in the different species; the ashes have bark which opens in many irregular, netted cracks moderately near each other; the bark of the chestnut opens in large longitudinal cracks quite distant from one another. the color of the bark and the character of the scales are quite different in the white and the black oaks. in the woody portion radiating lines may be seen; these are the _silver grain_; they are called by the botanist _medullary rays_. the central portion of the wood of many large stems is darker in color than the rest. this darker portion is dead wood, and is called _heart-wood_; the outer portion, called _sap-wood_, is used in carrying the sap during the growing season. the heart-wood of the walnut-tree is very dark brown; that of the cherry, light red; and that of the holly, white and ivory-like. the heart-wood is the valuable part for lumber. if examined under a magnifying glass, the _annual layers_ will be seen to consist of minute tubes or cells. in most trees these tubes are much larger in the portion that grew early in the season, while the wood seems almost solid near the close of the annual layer; this is especially true in the ashes and the chestnut; some trees, however, show but little change in the size of the cells, the beech being a good example. in a cross-section, the age of such trees as the chestnut can readily be estimated, while in the beech it is quite difficult to do this. boxwood, changing least in the character of its structure, is the one always used for first-grade wood-engravings. when wood is cut in the direction of the silver grain, or cut "quartering" as it is called by the lumbermen, the surface shows this cellular material spread out in strange blotches characteristic of the different kinds of wood. fig. shows an oak where the blotches of medullary rays are large. in the beech the blotches are smaller; in the elm quite small. lumber cut carefully in this way is said to be "quartered," and with most species its beauty is thereby much increased. any one who studies the matter carefully can become acquainted with all the useful and ornamental woods used in a region; the differences in the color of the heart-wood, the character of the annual layers, and the size and the distribution of the medullary rays, afford enough peculiarities to distinguish any one from all others. branching.--the regular place from which a branch grows is the _axil_ of a leaf, from what is called an _axillary bud_; but branches cannot grow in the axils of all leaves. a tree with opposite leaves occasionally has opposite branches; while a tree with alternate leaves has all its branches alternate. most branches continue their growth year after year by the development of a bud at the end, called a _terminal bud_. many trees form this bud for the next year's growth so early in the year that it is seldom or never killed by the winter weather; such trees grow very regularly and are symmetrical in form. most evergreens are good examples. fig. represents a good specimen. the age of such trees, if not too great, can be readily ascertained by the regularity of each year's growth. the tree represented is sixteen years old. the branches that started the fifth year, about the age at which regular growth begins, are shown by their scars on the trunk. [illustration: fig. .] the terminal buds of many trees are frequently killed by the frosts of winter; such trees continue their growth by the development of axillary buds; but as growth from an axillary bud instead of a terminal one will make a branch crooked, such trees are irregular in their branching and outline. just which axillary buds are most apt to grow depends upon the kind of tree, but trees of the same variety are nearly uniform in this respect. most trees are therefore readily recognized by the form of outline and the characteristic branching. a good example of a tree of very irregular growth is the catalpa (indian bean), shown in fig. . the tendency to grow irregularly usually increases with age. the buttonwood, for example, grows quite regularly until it reaches the age of thirty to forty years; then its new branches grow in peculiarly irregular ways. the twigs of a very old and a young apple-tree illustrate this change which age produces. [illustration: fig. .] there are great differences in the color and surface of the bark of the twigs of different species of trees; some are green (sassafras), some red (peach, on the sunny side), some purple (cherry). some are smooth and dotless, some marked with dots (birch), some roughened with corky ridges (sweet gum), etc. the taste and odor of the bark are characteristics worthy of notice: the strong, fragrant odor of the spice-bush; the fetid odor of the papaw; the aromatic taste of the sweet birch; the bitter taste of the peach; the mucilaginous slippery elm; the strong-scented, resinous, aromatic walnut, etc. the branches of trees vary greatly in the thickness of their tips and in their tendency to grow erect, horizontal, or drooping. thus the delicate spray of the birches contrasted with the stout twigs of the ailanthus, or the drooping twigs of the weeping willow with the erect growth of the lombardy poplar, give contrasts of the strongest character. in the same way, the directions the main branches take in their growth from the trunk form another distinctive feature. thus the upward sloping branches of the elm form a striking contrast to the horizontal or downward sloping branches of the sour gum, or, better still, to certain varieties of oaks. when the main trunk of a tree extends upward through the head to the tip, as in fig. , it is said to be _excurrent_. when it is soon lost in the division, as in fig. , it is said to be _deliquescent_. chapter iii. _leaves._ leaves are the lungs of plants. the food taken in by the roots has to pass through the stem to the leaves to be acted upon by the air, before it becomes sap and is fit to be used for the growth of the plant. no portion of a plant is more varied in parts, forms, surface, and duration than the leaf. no one can become familiar with leaves, and appreciate their beauty and variety, who does not study them upon the plants themselves. this chapter therefore will be devoted mainly to the words needed for leaf description, together with their application. the leaf.--in the axil of the whole leaf the bud forms for the growth of a new branch. so by noting the position of the buds, all the parts included in a single leaf can be determined. as a general thing the leaf has but one blade, as in the chestnut, apple, elm, etc.; yet the horse-chestnut has blades, the common locust often has , and a single leaf of the honey-locust occasionally has as many as . figs. - (chapter vii.) are all illustrations of single leaves, except fig. , where there are two leaves on a twig. a number of them show the bud by which the fact is determined (figs. , , , , , , , etc.); others show branches which grew from the axillary buds, many of them fruiting branches (figs. , , , , and ), one (fig. ) a thorny branch. the cone-bearing plants (figs. - ) have only simple leaves. each piece, no matter how small and scale-like, may have a branch growing from its axil, and so may form a whole leaf. a study of these figures, together with the observation of trees, will soon teach the student what constitutes a leaf. arrangement.--there are several different ways in which leaves are arranged on trees; the most common plan is the _alternate_; [illustration] in this only one leaf occurs at a joint or node on the stem. the next in frequency is the _opposite_, [illustration] where two leaves opposite each other are found at the node. a very rare arrangement among trees, though common in other plants, is the _whorled_, [illustration] where more than two leaves, regularly arranged around the stem, are found at the node. when a number of leaves are bundled together,--a plan not rare among evergreens,--they are said to be _fasciculated_ or in _fascicles_. [illustration] the term _scattered_ is used where alternate leaves are crowded on the stem. this plan is also common among evergreens. caution.--in some plants the leaves on the side shoots or spurs of a twig are so close together, the internodes being so short, that at first sight they seem opposite. in such cases, the leaf-scars of the preceding years, or the arrangement of the branches, is a better test of the true arrangement of the leaves. the twig of birch shown in fig. has alternate leaves. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] there is one variety of alternation, called _two-ranked_, which is quite characteristic of certain trees; that is, the leaves are so flattened out as to be in one plane on the opposite sides of the twig (fig. ). the elm-trees form good examples of two-ranked alternate leaves, while the apple leaves are alternate without being two-ranked. most leaves spread from the stem, but some are _appressed_, as in the arbor-vitæ (fig. ). in this species the _branches_ are _two-ranked_. parts of leaves.--a _complete leaf_ [illustration] consists of three parts: the _blade_, the thin expanded portion; the _petiole_, the leafstalk; and the _stipules_, a pair of small blades at the base of the petiole. the petiole is often very short and sometimes wanting. the stipules are often absent, and, even when present, they frequently fall off as soon as the leaves expand; sometimes they are conspicuous. most willows show the stipules on the young luxuriant growths. [illustration: fig. .] veining.--the leaves of most trees have a distinct framework, the central line of which is called a _midrib_; sometimes the leaf has several other lines about as thick as the midrib, which are called _ribs_; the lines next in size, including all that are especially distinct, are called _veins_, the most minute ones being called _veinlets_ (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] kinds.--leaves are _simple_ when they have but one blade; [illustration] _compound_ when they have more than one. compound leaves are _palmate_ when all the blades come from one point, as in the horse-chestnut; [illustration] _pinnate_ when they are arranged along the sides, as in the hickory. pinnate leaves are of two kinds: _odd-pinnate_, [illustration] when there is an odd leaflet at the end, as in the ash, and _abruptly pinnate_ [illustration] when there is no end leaflet. many trees have the leaves _twice pinnate_; they are either _twice odd-pinnate_ [illustration] or _twice abruptly pinnate_. [illustration] the separate blades of a compound leaf are called _leaflets_. leaves or leaflets are _sessile_ when they have no stems, and _petiolate_ when they have stems. when there are several ribs starting together from the base of a blade, it is said to be _radiate-veined_ or _palmate-veined_.[illustration] when the great veins all branch from the midrib, the leaf is _feather-veined_ or _pinnate-veined_. [illustration] if these veins are straight, distinct, and regularly placed, the leaf is said to be _straight-veined_. the chestnut is [illustration] a good example. leaves having veinlets joining each other like a net are said to be _netted-veined_. all the trees with broad leaves in the northern united states, with one exception, have netted-veined foliage. a leaf having its veinlets parallel to one another is said to be _parallel-veined_ or _-nerved_. [illustration] the ginkgo-tree, the indian corn, and the calla lily have parallel-veined leaves. the narrow leaves of the cone-bearing trees are also parallel-veined. forms.--leaves can readily be divided into the three following groups with regard to their general outline: . _broadest at the middle._ _orbicular_, [illustration] about as broad as long and rounded. _oval_, [illustration] about twice as long as wide, and regularly curved. _elliptical_, [illustration] more than twice as long as wide, and evenly curved. _oblong_, [illustration] two or three times as long as wide, with the sides parallel. _linear_, [illustration] elongated oblong, more than three times as long as wide. _acerose_, [illustration] needle-shaped, like the leaf of the pine-tree. . _broadest near the base._ _deltoid_, [illustration] broad and triangular. _ovate_, [illustration] evenly curved, with a broad, rounded base. _heart-shaped_ or _cordate_, [illustration] similar to ovate, but with a notch at the base. _lanceolate_, [illustration] shaped like the head of a lance. _awl-shaped_, [illustration] shaped like the shoemaker's curved awl. _scale-shaped_, [illustration] short, rounded, and appressed to the stem. the arbor-vitæ has both awl-shaped and scale-shaped leaves. . _broadest near the apex._ _obovate_, [illustration] same as ovate, but with the stem at the narrow end. _obcordate_, [illustration] a reversed heart-shape. _oblanceolate_, [illustration] a reversed lanceolate. _wedge-shaped_ or _cuneate_, [illustration] having a somewhat square end and straight sides like a wedge. these words are often united to form compound ones when the form of the leaf is somewhat intermediate. the term which most nearly suits the general form is placed at the end; thus _lance-ovate_ indicates a leaf between lanceolate and ovate, but nearer ovate than lanceolate; while _ovate-lanceolate_ indicates one nearer lanceolate. bases.--oftentimes leaves are of some general form, but have a peculiar base, one that would not be expected from the statement of shape. an ovate leaf which should have a rounded base might have a tapering one; it would then be described as ovate with a _tapering base_. [illustration] a lanceolate leaf should naturally have a tapering base, but might have an _abrupt_ one. [illustration] many leaves, no matter what their general form may be, have more or less notched bases; such bases are called _cordate_, [illustration] _deeply_ or _slightly_, as the case may be; and if the lobes at base are elongated, _auriculate_. [illustration] if the basal lobes project outward, the term _halberd-shaped_ [illustration] is used. any form of leaf may have a base more or less _oblique_. [illustration] points.--the points as well as the bases of leaves are often peculiar, and need to be described by appropriate terms. _truncate_ [illustration] indicates an end that is square; _retuse_, [illustration] one with a slight notch; _emarginate_, one with a decided notch; _obcordate_, with a still deeper notch; _obtuse_, [illustration] angular but abrupt; _acute_, [illustration] somewhat sharpened; _acuminate_, [illustration] decidedly sharp-pointed; _bristle-pointed_ and _awned_, [illustration] with a bristle-like tip; _spiny-pointed_, with the point sharp and stiff (holly); _mucronate_, [illustration] with a short, abrupt point. margins.--_entire_, [illustration] edge without notches; _repand_, [illustration] slightly wavy; _sinuate_, [illustration] decidedly wavy; _dentate_, [illustration] with tooth-like notches; _serrate_, [illustration] with notches like those of a saw; _crenate_, [illustration] with the teeth rounded; _twice serrate_, [illustration] when there are coarse serrations finely serrated, as on most birch leaves; _serrulate_, with minute serrations; _crenulate_, with minute crenations. leaves can be _twice crenate_ or _sinuate-crenate_. _revolute_ indicates that the edges are rolled over. when a leaf has a few great teeth, the projecting parts are called _lobes_, and the general form of the leaf is what it would be with the notches filled in. in the description of such leaves, certain terms are needed in describing the plan of the notches, and their depth and form. leaves with palmate veining are _palmately lobed_ [illustration] or _notched_; those with pinnate veining are _pinnately lobed_ [illustration] or _notched_. while the term _lobe_ is applied to all great teeth of a leaf, whether rounded or pointed, long or short, still there are four terms sometimes used having special signification with reference to the depth of the notches. _lobed_ indicates that the notches extend about one fourth the distance to the base or midrib; _cleft_, that they extend one half the way; _parted_, about three fourths of the way; and _divided_, that the notches are nearly deep enough to make a compound leaf of separate leaflets. so leaves may be palmately lobed, cleft, parted or divided, and pinnately lobed, cleft, parted or divided. the term _pinnatifid_ [illustration] is often applied to pinnately cleft leaves. the terms _entire_, _serrate_, _crenate_, _acute-pointed_, etc., are applied to the lobes as well as to the general margins of leaves. surface.--the following terms are needed in describing the surface of leaves and fruit. _glabrous_, smooth; _glaucous_, covered with a whitish bloom which can be rubbed off (plum); _rugous_, wrinkled; _canescent_, so covered with minute hairs as to appear silvery; _pubescent_, covered with fine, soft, plainly seen hairs; _tomentose_, densely covered with matted hairs; _hairy_, having longer hairs; _scabrous_, covered with stiff, scratching points; _spiny_, having stiff, sharp spines; _glandular-hairy_, having the hairs ending in glands (usually needing a magnifying glass to be seen). texture.--_succulent_, fleshy; _scarious_, dry and chaffy; _punctate_, having translucent glands, so that the leaf appears, when held toward the light, as though full of holes; _membranous_, thin, soft, and rather translucent; _thick_, _thin_, etc. duration.--_evergreen_, hanging on the tree from year to year. by noticing the color of the different leaves and their position on the twigs, all evergreen foliage can readily be determined at any time during the year. _deciduous_, falling off at the end of the season. _fugacious_, falling early, as the stipules of many leaves. chapter iv. _flowers and fruit._ the author hopes that those who use this work in studying trees will become so much interested in the subject of botany as to desire more information concerning the growth and reproduction of plants than can here be given. in professor asa gray's numerous works the additional information desired may be obtained: "how plants grow" contains an outline for the use of beginners; "the elements of botany" is a more advanced work; while the "botanical text book", in several volumes, will enable the student to pursue the subject as far as he may wish. in this small book the barest outline of the parts of flowers and fruit and of their uses can be given. [illustration: fig. .] flowers.--parts. the flowers of the cherry or apple will show the four kinds of organs that belong to a complete flower. fig. represents an apple-blossom. the _calyx_ is the outer row of leaves, more or less united into one piece. the _corolla_ is the row of leaves within the calyx; it is usually the brightest and most conspicuous part of the flower. the _stamens_ [illustration] are the next organs; they are usually, as in this case, small two-lobed bodies on slender, thread-like stalks. the enlarged parts contain a dust-like material called _pollen_. the last of the four kinds of parts is found in the center of the flower, and is called the _pistil_. it is this part which forms the fruit and incloses the seed. the stamens and the pistil are the _essential_ organs of a flower, because they, and they only, are needed in the formation of seeds. the pollen from the stamen, acting on the pistil, causes the _ovules_ which are in the pistil to grow into _seeds_. the calyx and corolla are called _enveloping organs_, since they surround and protect the essential parts. the pieces of which the calyx is composed are called _sepals_. the apple-blossom has five sepals. the pieces that compose the corolla are called _petals_. kinds of flowers.--when the petals are entirely separate from each other, as in the apple-blossom, the flower is said to be _polypetalous_; when they grow together more or less, as in the catalpa (fig. ), _monopetalous_; and when the corolla is wanting, as in the flowers of the oak, _apetalous_. [illustration: fig. .] when all sides of a flower are alike, as in the apple-blossom, the flower is _regular_; when one side of the corolla differs from the other in color, form, or size, as in the common locust, or catalpa, the flower is _irregular_. in trees the stamens and pistils are often found in separate flowers; in that case the blossoms containing stamens are called _staminate_, and those containing pistils _pistillate_; those that contain both are called _perfect_. staminate and pistillate flowers are usually found on the same tree, as in the oaks, birches, chestnut, etc.; in that case the plant is said to be _monoecious_, and all trees of this kind produce fruit. sometimes, however, the staminate and pistillate flowers are on separate trees, as in the willows, which are _dioecious_; and then only a portion of the trees--those with pistillate flowers--produce fruit. arrangement of flowers.--flowers, either solitary or clustered, grow in one of two ways; either at the end of the branches, being then called _terminal_, or in the axils of the leaves, then called _axillary_. the stem of a solitary flower or the main stem of a cluster is called a _peduncle_; the stems of the separate blossoms of a cluster are called _pedicels_. when either the flowers or the clusters are without stems, they are said to be _sessile_. _clusters with pedicellate flowers._ _raceme_, [illustration] flowers on pedicels of about equal length, scattered along the entire stem. locust-tree. _corymb_, [illustration] like a raceme except that the lower flowers have longer stems, making the cluster somewhat flat-topped; the outer flowers bloom first. hawthorn. _cyme_, [illustration] in appearance much like a corymb, but it differs in the fact that the central flower blooms first. alternate-leaved cornel. _umbel_, [illustration] stems of the separate flowers about equal in length, and starting from the same point. garden-cherry. _panicle_, [illustration] a compound raceme. catalpa. _thyrsus_, a compact panicle. horse-chestnut. _clusters with sessile or nearly sessile flowers._ _catkin_, [illustration] bracted flowers situated along a slender and usually drooping stem. this variety of cluster is very common on trees. the willows, birches, chestnuts, oaks, pines, and many others have their flowers in catkins. _head_, [illustration] the flowers in a close, usually rounded cluster. flowering dogwood. fruit.--in this book a single fruit will include all the parts that grow together and contain seeds, whether from a single blossom or a cluster; there will be no rigorous adherence to an exact classification; no attempt made to distinguish between fruits formed from a simple pistil and those from a compound one; nor generally between those formed from a single and those formed from a cluster of flowers. the fruit and its general classification, determined by the parts easily seen, is all that will be attempted. as stated before, it is hoped that this volume will not end the student's work in the investigation of natural objects, but that the amount of information here given will lead to the desire for much more. _berry_ will be the term applied to all fleshy fruits with more than one seed buried in the mass. persimmon, mulberry, holly. the _pome_ or _apple-pome_ differs from the berry in the fact that the seeds are situated in cells formed of hardened material. apple, mountain-ash. the _plum_ or _cherry drupe_ includes all fleshy fruits with a single stony-coated part, even if it contains more than one seed. peach, viburnum, china-tree. in some cases, when there is but one seed in the flesh and that not stony-coated, it will be called a _drupe-like berry_. the _dry drupe_ is like the cherry drupe except that the flesh is much harder. the fruit of the walnut, hickory, and sumac. [illustration: fig. .] the inner hard-coated parts of these and some others will be called _nuts_. if the nut has a partial scaly covering, as in the oaks, the whole forms an _acorn_. [illustration] if the coating has spiny hairs, as in the chestnut and beechnut, the whole is a _bur_. the coating in these cases is an _involucre_. if the coating or any part of the fruit has a regular place for splitting open, it is _dehiscent_ (chestnut, hickory-nut); if not, _indehiscent_ (black walnut). [illustration: fig. .] dry fruits with spreading, wing-like appendages, as in the ash (fig. ), maple (fig. ), elm (fig. ), and ailanthus, are called _samaras_ or _keys_. dry fruits, usually elongated, containing generally several seeds, are called _pods_. if there is but one cell and the seeds are fastened along one side, _pea-like pods_, or _legumes_. locust. the term _capsule_ indicates that there is more than one cell. catalpa, hibiscus. [illustration: fig. .] all the dry, scaly fruits, usually formed by the ripening of some sort of catkin of flowers, will be included under the term _cone_. pine, alder, [illustration] magnolia. if the appearance of the fruit is not much different from that of the cluster of flowers, as in the hornbeams, willows, and birches, the term _catkin_ will be retained for the fruit also. the scales of a cone may lap over each other; they are then said to be _imbricated_ or _overlapping_, [illustration] (pine); or they may merely touch at their edges, when they are _valvate_ [illustration] (cypress). when cones or catkins hang downward, they are _pendent_. if the scales have projecting points, these points are _spines_ if strong, and _prickles_ if weak. the parts back of the scales are _bracts_; these often project beyond the scales, when they are said to be _exserted_. [illustration] sometimes the exserted bracts are bent backward; they are then said to be _recurved_ or _reflexed_. chapter v. _winter study of trees._ many of the peculiarities of trees can be studied much better during the winter and early spring than at any other time of the year. the plan of branching, the position, number, size, form, color, and surface of buds, as well as the arrangement of the leaves within the bud and the peculiarities of the scales that cover them, are points for winter investigation. general plan of branching.--there are two distinct and readily recognized systems of branching. . the main stem is _excurrent_ (fig. ) when the trunk extends as an undivided stem throughout the tree to the tip; this causes the spire-like or conical trees so common among narrow-leaved evergreens. . the main stem is _deliquescent_ (fig. ) when the trunk divides into many, more or less equal divisions, forming the broad-topped, spreading trees. this plan is the usual one among deciduous trees. a few species, however, such as the sweet gum and the sugar-maple, show the excurrent stem while young, yet even these have a deliquescent stem later in life. the english maple and the apple both have a deliquescent stem very early. all the narrow-leaved evergreens, and many of the broad-leaved trees as well, show what is called _definite_ annual growths; that is, a certain amount of leaf and stem, packed up in the winter bud, spreads out and hardens with woody tissue early in the year, and then, no matter how long the season remains warm, no additional leaves or stem will grow. the buds for the next year's growth then form and often become quite large before autumn. there are many examples among the smaller plants, but rarely one among the trees, of _indefinite_ annual growth; that is, the plant puts forth leaves and forms stems throughout the whole growing-season. the common locust, the honey-locust, and the sumacs are illustrations. buds.--buds are either undeveloped branches or undeveloped flowers. they contain within the scales, which usually cover them, closely packed leaves; these leaves are folded and wrinkled in a number of different ways that will be defined at the end of this chapter. [illustration: fig. .] position and number.--while the axils of the leaves and the ends of the stems are the ordinary places for the buds, there are many peculiarities in regard to their exact position, number, etc., that render them very interesting for winter study. sometimes there are several to the single leaf. in the silver maple there are buds on each side of the true axillary one; these are flower-buds, and during the winter they are larger than the one which produces the branch. the butternut (fig. ) and the walnut have several above each other, the upper one being the largest and at quite a distance from the true axil. in these cases the uppermost is apt to grow, and then the branch is said to be _extra-axillary_. in the sycamore the bud does not show while the leaf remains on the tree, as it is in the hollow of the leafstalk. in the winter the bud has a ring-like scar entirely around it, instead of the moon-shaped scar below as in most trees. the common locust has several buds under the leafstalk and one above it in the axil. this axillary bud may grow during the time the leaf remains on the tree, and afterward the growth of the strongest one of the others may give the tree two branches almost together. some plants form extra buds especially when they are bruised or injured; those which have the greatest tendency to do so are the willows, poplars, and elms. such buds and growths are called _adventitious_. by cutting off the tops or _pollarding_ such trees, a very great number of adventitious branches can be made to grow. in this way the willow-twigs used for baskets are formed. adventitious buds form the clusters of curious thorns on the honey-locust and the tufts of whip-like branches on the trunks and large limbs of the elms. in trees the terminal bud and certain axillary ones, differing according to the species or variety of tree, are, during the winter, much larger than the rest. these are the ones which naturally form the new growth, and upon their arrangement the character of branching and thus the form of the tree depend. each species has some peculiarity in this regard, and thus there are differences in the branching of all trees. in opposite-leaved plants the terminal bud may be small and weak, while the two buds at its side may be strong and apt to grow. this causes a forking of the branches each year. this plan is not rare among shrubs, the lilac being a good example. bud-scales.--the coverings of buds are exceedingly varied, and are well worthy of study and investigation. the large terminal buds of the horse-chestnut, with their numerous scales, gummy on the outside to keep out the dampness, and hairy within to protect them from sudden changes of temperature, represent one extreme of a long line; while the small, naked, and partly buried buds of the honey-locust or the sumac represent the other end. the scales of many buds are merely extra parts formed for their protection, and fall immediately after the bursting of the buds; while other buds have the stipules of the leaves as bud-scales; these remain on the twigs for a time in the tulip-tree, and drop immediately in the magnolia. forms of buds.--the size of buds varies greatly, as before stated, but this difference in size is no more marked than the difference in form. there is no better way to recognize a beech at any time of the year than by its very long, slender, and sharp-pointed buds. the obovate and almost stalked buds of the alders are also very conspicuous and peculiar. in the balsam poplar the buds are large, sharp-pointed, and gummy; in the ailanthus they cannot be seen. [illustration: fig. .] all the things that might be learned from a small winter twig cannot be shown in an engraving, but the figures here given illustrate some of the facts easily determined from such specimens. the first twig (ash) had opposite leaves and is years old (the end of each year's growth is marked by dotted lines on all the figures); the year before last it had leaves on the middle portion; last year it had leaves on the end portion and on the side shoots of the middle portion. the buds near the end of the annual growth are strongest and are most apt to grow. the specimen illustrated was probably taken from the end of a branch of a rather young and luxuriantly growing tree. thus the ash must have quite a regular growth and form a regularly outlined tree. the second twig (sweet gum) shows years' growth and is probably a side shoot from more or less within the tree-top. it is stunted in its growth by the want of light and room. the leaves were alternate. the third twig (sycamore) also had alternate leaves; the pointed buds must have been under the leafstalks, as the leaf-scars show as rings around the buds. the larger branch grew three years ago. from the specimen one judges that the sycamore is quite an irregularly formed tree. the twig had leaves last year. the fourth twig (silver maple) shows that the plant had opposite leaves, and supernumerary buds at the sides of the true axillary ones; the true axillary buds are smaller than those at the sides. it would, in such cases, be reasonable to suppose that the supernumerary buds were floral ones, and that the plant blooms before the leaves expand. the annual growths are quite extended; two years and a part of the third make up the entire twig. if it was cut during the winter of - , it must have had leaves on the lower part in and leaves on the middle portion in , as well as probably on the lower portion on the side shoots. last year it had leaves on the end portion, two at least on each side shoot below, making in all. _folding of leaves in the bud._ there are some peculiarities in the arrangement of leaves in the bud which can be investigated only in the early spring. the common plans among trees are--_inflexed_: blade folded crosswise, thus bringing it upon the footstalk. tulip-tree. _conduplicate_: blade folded along the midrib, bringing the two halves together. peach. _plicate_: folded several times lengthwise, like a fan. birch. _convolute_: rolled edgewise from one edge to the other. plum. _involute_: both edges rolled in toward the midrib on the upper side. apple. _revolute_: both edges rolled backward. willow. _obvolute_: folded together, but the opposite leaves half inclosing each other. dogwood. chapter vi. _the preparation of a collection._ [illustration: fig. .] three specimens are needed of each kind of tree: one, a branch showing the flowers; another, showing the fruit--one of these, and in many cases both, will show the leaves. the third specimen, cut from a large limb or trunk, shows the bark and the wood. this should be a specimen with a surface so cut as to show the wood in the direction of the silver grain, _radial section_; with another surface cut in the direction of the annual layers, _tangential section_; and with a third cut across the grain, _cross-section_. it should be a specimen old enough to show the change of color in the heart-wood. by taking a limb or trunk inches in diameter, all these points can be secured. a specimen cut as shown in the figure will illustrate all the desired points. side e f g shows sap-and heart-wood in tangential section; side a b d c shows the same in radial section; end a b f e, in cross-section; and b f g d shows the bark. the central pith is at i; the heart-wood extends from c to j; the sap-wood from j to d. the silver grain is well shown at the end, and the blotches formed by it on the radial section. by having the piece made smooth, and the upper part down to the center (h) varnished, the appearance of the wood in furniture or inside finish will be illustrated. the specimens should be as nearly uniform in size as possible. if a limb inches in diameter be taken and a length of inches be cut off, the section a b d c should pass through the line of pith; the section e f g should be parallel with this at a distance from it of two inches; and two inches from the line of pith, the section a e c should be made. the whole specimen will then be inches wide and long, and inches thick. the twigs containing leaves, flowers and fruit need to be pressed while drying in order that they may be kept in good form and made tough enough to be retained as specimens. the plants should be placed between a large supply of newspapers, or, better still, untarred building-felt, while drying. a weight of from to pounds is needed to produce the requisite pressure. the weight is placed upon a board covering the pile of plants and paper. on account of the size of many leaves and flower-clusters, these pressed specimens of trees should not be shorter than from to inches, and even a length of inches is an advantage. the pads or newspapers should be about by inches. a transfer of the plants into dry pads each day for a few days will hasten the drying and increase the beauty of the specimens. the specimens of twigs can be mounted on cardboard by being partly pasted and partly secured by narrow strips of gummed cloth placed across the heavier portions. the cardboard should be uniform in size. one of the regular sizes of bristol-board is by inches; this will cut into four pieces by . specimens not over inches in length can readily be mounted on these, and for most collectors this might be a very convenient size. another regular size is by inches, cutting well into pieces by . specimens to inches long can be mounted on these. some kinds of evergreens, the spruces especially, tend to shed their leaves after pressing. such kinds can in most cases be made to form good specimens without pressing. fasten the fresh specimens on pillars of plaster in boxes or frames to inches deep, so that they touch nothing but the column of plaster. mix calcined plaster in water (as plasterers do), and build up a column high enough to support the branch. place the specimen on the top of the pillar already formed, and pour over the whole some quite thin plaster till a rounded top is formed completely fastening the specimen. if the leaves are not touched at all, after they are dry, they will hang on for a long time, making specimens that will show the tree characteristics better than pressed specimens possibly could. chapter vii. _figures to be used in botanical description._ [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] part ii. plan and models for tree description all pupils should be required to write some form of composition on the trees of the region. as far as possible, these compositions should be the result of personal investigation. it is not what a pupil can read and redescribe in more or less his own words, but how accurately he can see and, from the information conveyed by his own senses, describe in his own way the things he has observed, that makes the use of such a book as this important as an educational aid. some information in regard to trees, in a finished description, must be obtained from books, such as hardiness, geographical distribution, etc. pupils generally should be required to include only those things which they can give from actual observation. there are four distinct forms of tree descriptions that might be recognized by the teacher and occasionally called for as work from the pupil. st. a bare skeleton description, written by aid of a topical outline, from the observation of a single tree and its parts. d. a connected description, conveying as many facts given in the outline as can well be brought into good english sentences. this again is the description of a single tree. d. a connected, readable description of a certain kind of tree, made up from the observation of many trees of the same species to be found in the neighborhood. th. the third description including information to be obtained from outside sources in regard to the origin, geographical distribution, hardiness, character of wood, habits, durability, etc. these four plans of description are more or less successive methods to be introduced as the work of a class. pupils should be induced to carry on their own investigations as far as possible before going to printed sources for information. a good part of class work should be devoted to the first three of the methods given, but the work might finally include the fourth form of composition. the first two methods should follow each other with each of the trees studied; that is, one week let a mere outline be written, to be followed the next week with as clear and connected a description as the ability of the pupil will allow, and containing as much of the information given in the outline as possible. outline for tree description. _the tree as a whole_: size, general form, trunk, branching, twigs, character of bark, color of bark on trunk, branches, and fine spray. _leaves_: parts, arrangement, kinds, size, thickness, form, edges, veining, color, surface, duration. _buds_: position, size, form, covering, number, color. _sap_ and _juice_. _flowers_: size, shape, color, parts, odor, position, time of blooming, duration. _fruit_: size, kind, form, color when young and when ripe, time of ripening, substance, seeds, duration, usefulness. _wood_ (often necessarily omitted): hardness, weight, color, grain, markings, durability. _remarks_: the peculiarities not brought out by the above outline. notes on the foregoing outline. the height of a tree can be readily determined by the following plan. measure the height you can easily reach from the ground in feet and inches. step to the trunk of the tree you wish to measure and, reaching up to this height, pin a piece of white paper on the tree. step back a distance equal to three or four times the height of the tree; hold a lead-pencil upright between the thumb and forefinger at arm's-length. fix it so that the end of the pencil shall be in line with the paper on the trunk; move the thumb down the pencil till it is in line with the ground at the base of the tree; move the arm and pencil upward till the thumb is in line with the paper, and note where the end of the pencil comes on the tree. again move the pencil till the thumb is in line with the new position, and so continue the process till the top of the tree is reached. the number of the measures multiplied by the height you can reach will give quite accurately the height of the tree. the width of the tree can be determined in the same manner, the pencil, however, being held horizontally. in giving the forms of trees, it is well to accompany the description with a penciled outline. the distance from the ground at which the trunk begins to branch and the extent of the branching should be noted. the direction taken by the branches, as well as the regularity and the irregularity of their position, should also be observed and described. although most twigs are cylindrical, still there are enough exceptions to make it necessary to examine them with reference to their form. under leaves, it will be well to make drawings, both of the outline and of the veining. crushed leaves will give the odor, and the sap can best be noticed at the bases of young leaves. the differences in sap and juice need the following words for their description: _watery_, _milky_, _mucilaginous_, _aromatic_, _spicy_, _sweet_, _gummy_, _resinous_. pupils should not always be expected to find out much about the flowers of a tree, as they are frequently very evanescent, and usually difficult to reach. the fruit lasts a greater length of time and, usually dropping spontaneously, gives a much better chance for investigation. specimens of most of the common woods may be obtained from cabinet-makers and carpenters. in cases where these specimens are at hand, description of the wood should be required. if the school has such specimens as are described in chapter vi., part i., the wood in all its peculiarities can be described. examples of tree description. _taxodium distichum (bald cypress)._ _(atterbury's meadow.)_ _no. ._ tree eighty-four feet tall, thirty feet wide near base, ovate, conical, pointed; trunk seven feet in circumference near base and ridged lengthwise, but only four feet at the height of six feet from the ground, where it becomes round or nearly so, then gradually tapering to the top; branches small, very numerous, beginning six feet from the ground, sloping upward from the trunk at an angle of nearly forty-five degrees; twigs very slender, numerous, pendulous, two, three or even more growing together from supernumerary buds around the old scars; bark brownish, quite rough, thick and soft on the trunk, smoother on the branches, greenish on the young spray. [illustration] leaves about sessile, without stipules, alternate, crowded, two-ranked, thin, linear, entire, parallel-veined, with midrib, dark green, smooth, deciduous. buds show in the axils of only a few of the leaves, and are very small; but there are several supernumerary buds around many of the clusters of the shoots of the year. sap clear and slightly sticky with resin. [illustration] flowers looked for, but not seen; must have been small, or have bloomed before my examination in the spring. fruit one inch in diameter, cone globular, brown in the autumn; did not notice it before; fifteen six-sided scales, two seeds under each, still hanging on, though the leaves have dropped; only to produce seeds, i think. the wood i do not know about. _remarks._ around the base, at some distance from the trunk, there are four peculiar knobs, seemingly coming from the roots, one being nearly a foot high and nine inches through. _no. ._ the bald cypress standing near a small ditch in atterbury's meadow is a very beautiful, tall, conical tree, over feet high, with an excurrent trunk which is very large and ridged near the ground. it tapers rapidly upward, so that the circumference is only about half as great at the height of feet, where the branches begin. the branches are very numerous and, considering the size of the trunk, very small; the largest of them being only about inches through. they all slope upward rapidly, but the tip and fine spray show a tendency to droop; the fine thread-like branchlets, bearing the leaves of the year, are almost all pendulous. the bark is very rough, thick and soft, as i found in pinning on the bit of paper to measure the height of the tree, when i could easily press the pin in to its head. the leaves are very small and delicate, and as they extend out in two ranks from the thread-like twigs, look much like fine ferns. the small linear leaves and the spray drop off together in the autumn, as i can find much of last year's foliage on the ground still fastened to the twigs. i could not see any flowers, though i looked from early in the spring till the middle of the summer; then i saw a few of the globular green cones, almost an inch in diameter, showing that it had bloomed. next spring i shall begin to look for the blossoms before the leaves come out. on the ground, about feet from the tree, there are four very strange knobs which i did not notice till i stumbled over one of them. they seem to grow from the roots, and are quite soft and reddish in color. _no. ._ i have found twenty-two bald cypresses in trenton; they are all beautiful conical trees, and seem to grow well in almost any soil, as i have found some in very wet places and some in dry, sandy soil. they look from their position as though they had been planted out, and as i have found none in the woods around the town, they are probably not native in this region. they are from to nearly feet tall. i found one feet high. they are all of a very symmetrical, conical form, and pointed at the top; in no case has the trunk divided into branches, and on the old trees the trunk enlarges curiously near the ground, the lower portion being very rough with ridges. the bark is very thick and rough, and is so soft that a pin can readily be pushed through it to the wood. the branches are very numerous and small, and are not regularly arranged in whorls like most of the narrow-leaved trees. these branches all slope upward from the trunk, the ends having a tendency to bend downward and make delicate drooping spray, with very small, linear, entire leaves only ½ inch long. four of the largest trees show fruit, and each of these has only about a half-dozen of the globular cones. only a few of the trees--those in the wettest places--have the knobs on the ground near the base. _no. ._ the bald cypress (_taxodium distichum_) is a common tree, a native of the gulf states, growing very abundantly in the wettest swamps of that region. the northern limit of the tree in its wild state is said to be central delaware and southern illinois, but it can be successfully cultivated in the region around boston. there are several named varieties, one with the leaves but slightly spreading from the spray, and the whole of the branches showing a decided weeping tendency, so that it is called the weeping cypress. the knobs from the roots, called cypress-knees, grow very abundantly around all the trees in the southern swamps. these grow to the height of from to feet, and are very thick, sometimes as much as feet. they are hollow, and are occasionally used for bee-hives. it is said to be a broad, flat-topped tree, spreading its top over other trees. this seems very strange, as none of those in trenton, n. j., show such a tendency, but are quite spire-shaped. the wood is light, soft, straight-grained, and is said to be excellent for shingles and for other purposes. it generally has a dark reddish or brownish hue. it is a large tree, growing to the height of feet. the trunk is sometimes feet through near the ground. the flowers of the tree are in small catkins, blooming before the leaves expand in the early spring; in february, in south carolina. part iii. key, classification and description of the species. _method of using the key._ first read _all_ the statements following the stars (*) at the beginning of the key; decide which one of the statements best suits the specimen you have. at the end of the chosen one there is a letter in parenthesis ( ). somewhere below, this letter is used two or more times. read carefully _all_ the statements following this letter; at the end of the one which most nearly states the facts about your specimen, you will again be directed by a letter to another part of the key. continue this process till, instead of a letter, there is a number and name. the name is that of the genus, and forms the first part of the scientific name of the plant. turn to the descriptive part of the book, where this number, in regular order, is found. here descriptions of the species of the genus are given. if there are many species, another key will lead to the species. while the illustrations are intended to represent characteristic specimens, too much dependence must not be placed upon them; the leaves even of the same plant vary considerably, and the different varieties, especially of a cultivated plant, vary widely. read the whole description before deciding. the fractions beside the figures indicate the scale of the drawing as compared with the natural size of the part: / indicates natural size; / , that the drawing is twice the length of the object; ¼, that the drawing is one fourth the length of the object, etc. in the description of leaves the dimensions given refer to the blade. =key to the genera of trees.= * leaves narrow linear, needle, scale or awl shaped, usually but not always evergreen. (=gg.=) page . * leaves broad, flat, usually deciduous, occasionally evergreen, rarely over times as long as wide. (=a.=) =a.= leaves alternate,[ ] simple. (=b.=) =a.= leaves alternate, compound. (=m.=) page . =a.= leaves opposite or whorled on the stem. (=u.=) page . =b.= leaves with a midrib, netted-veined. (=c.=) =b.= leaves without a midrib, parallel-veined . _salisburia._ =c.= with radiating ribs, and including those which have the lower ribs longer and more branching than those above them. (=f.=) page . =c.= with distinct and definite feather-veining. (=d.=) =d.= margin entire, or so nearly so as to appear entire, sometimes slightly angulated but not lobed. (=v.=) =d.= once or twice serrate or crenate or wavy-edged, but not lobed. (=e.=) =d.= distinctly lobed. (=s.=) (if the notches are over on a side, look under =e.=) =e.= straight-veined. (=m.=) =e.= not distinctly and evenly straight-veined. (=f.=) =f.= leaves evergreen with either revolute or spiny-tipped margins . _ilex._ =f.= leaves evergreen, lanceolate-oblong, minutely serrate; flowers white, in. in diameter . _gordonia._ =f.= leaves deciduous. (=g.=) =g.= fruit with fleshy and often edible pulp. (=k.=) =g.= fruit a dry and more or less rounded pod. (=h.=) =g.= fruit and flowers in dry catkins; leaves, in most species, or more times as long as wide, finely serrate to entire, with free stipules, in many species remaining on the young twigs, in others shown by a rounded scar on the sides of the stem; wood soft; the willows . _salix._ =g.= fruit dry akenes with silky pappus, in small heads; whole plant whitened with scurf; leaves broadened and coarsely notched near tip; a broad spreading bush . _baccharis._ =h.= flowers conspicuous, in. or more in size, white. (=j.=) =h.= flowers quite small. (=i.=) =i.= flowers and fruit in large panicles; leaves elongated, peach-like in shape, sour . _oxydendrum._ =i.= flowers in terminal, erect racemes; fruit small, three-celled pods; leaves oval, - in. long, pointed, thin, finely serrate; plant hardly a tree . _clethra._ =i.= fruit rounded, small, with calyx adhering to the lower part, one-seeded, in clusters of -many; leaves - in. long. . _styrax._ =i.= fruit hairy, in long, hanging panicles, tipped with long, persistent style, one-seeded . _pterostyrax._ =j.= flowers bell-shaped, in. long; leaves widest below the middle; fruit winged pods . _halesia._ =j.= flowers spreading, in. broad; leaves about twice as long as wide, widest near the center . _stuartia._ =j.= flowers spreading, in. broad; leaves about times as long as wide, widest near tip . _gordonia._ =k.= fruit a plum-like drupe with a single bony stone; plant sometimes thorny . _prunus._ =k.= fruit berry-like, ending in a conspicuous spreading calyx; plant generally quite thorny . _cratægus._ =k.= fruit berry-like, black when ripe, small, without calyx, with usually cartilaginous coated seeds . _rhamnus._ =k.= fruit berry-like, red when ripe, small, without calyx, with usually - hard-coated, grooved nutlets . _ilex._ =k.= fruit a small or large apple-like pome, with the seeds in horny cells. (=l.=) =l.= fruit about ½ in. in diameter, sweet, in drooping racemes . _amelanchier._ =l.= fruit either sour or much larger, and not in elongated racemes . _pyrus._ =m.= leaves harsh to the touch; somewhat oblique at base; quite distinctly two-ranked; large trees . _ulmus._ =m.= leaves decidedly oblique at base; margin wavy; small tree, usually a shrub . _hamamelis._ =m.= fruit berry-like, ending in a conspicuous spreading calyx; plant generally quite thorny . _cratægus._ =m.= leaves not regularly oblique at base; plant not thorny. (=n.=) =n.= leaves thin and light, not harsh to the touch; spray light; bark smooth, in two species somewhat rough on the trunk. (=q.=) =n.= leaves thick; edge wavy, almost lobed; fruit an acorn. . _quercus._ =n.= leaves broad for the length, generally doubly serrate or wavy and serrate; shrubs, rarely tall enough for trees. (=p.=) =n.= not included in the above. (=o.=) =o.= leaves or more times as long as wide, widest near the center; fruit a round, prickly bur with - horny-coated nuts . _castanea._ =o.= leaves widest near the sharply serrate tip, narrow and entire near the base; fruit small pods in terminal racemes; small tree or shrub . _clethra._ =o.= leaves widest near the base, usually small; bark scaling off like the buttonwood; fruit axillary, solitary, small (¼ in.) roundish, dry drupes. a cultivated species, has rather large leaves, widest near the center . _planera._ =p.= fruit an open oval woody catkin or cone, remaining on the plant through the winter . _alnus._ =p.= fruit a rounded stony nut, in green leafy edged bracts; shrubs or small trees . _corylus._ =q.= usually aromatic; bark dotted on the spray and with horizontal marks on the trunk, peeling off in thin, often papery layers . _betula._ =q.= bark not peeling off in thin layers. (=r.=) =r.= leaf-buds long and slender; fruit a small prickly bur with two triangular, horny-coated nuts; large trees . _fagus._ =r.= fruit an elongated catkin with large leaf-like bracts; bark close, gray, on a grooved trunk . _carpinus._ =r.= fruit a hop-like catkin; bark brownish, finely furrowed . _ostrya._ =s.= plant more or less thorny; shrub or small tree; fruit rounded berries ending in persistent calyx-lobes . _cratægus._ =s.= plant not thorny. (=t.=) =t.= leaf deeply pinnatifid, usually with the basal lobes completely separated; cultivated . _pyrus._ =t.= end of leaf as though cut off; sides with one large lobe; margin entire; large tree . _liriodendron._ =t.= lower leaves three-lobed, heart-shaped at base, upper merely ovate, margin entire; small tree or shrub . _clerodendron._ =t.= not as above; leaves usually many-lobed. (=u.=) =u.= leaves thin; bark of trunk peeling off in thin horizontal strips . _betula._ =u.= leaves thin; leaf-buds long, slender, sharp-pointed; bark smooth, not peeling; cultivated . _fagus._ =u.= leaves thickish; bark roughish; fruit an oval woody cone, remaining on through the year . _alnus._ =u.= leaves thick; fruit an acorn . _quercus._ =v.= leaves evergreen, small, - in. long, thick, with revolute margins; fruit an acorn . _quercus._ =v.= leaves evergreen, oval to lance-oval, usually large; small trees, almost shrubs. (=d.=) page . =v.= leaves deciduous (some are evergreen in the southern states). (=w.=) =w.= plant more or less spiny. (=c.=) =w.= plant not at all spiny. (=x.=) =x.= leaf-blade thin, long, pointed, with curved parallel veins or ribs . _cornus._ =x.= leaf-blade thin, circular or broadly oval in outline, with blunt, almost rounded apex; veins not regularly parallel . _rhus._ =x.= leaf quite elongated, or more times as long as wide. (=b.=) =x.= leaves with none of the above peculiarities. (=y.=) =y.= deciduous bud-scales (stipules), leaving a scar or mark completely around the stem at the base of the leaves. . _magnolia._ =y.= leaves covered on one or both sides with silvery scales . _elæagnus._ =y.= no such ring around the stem, or silvery scales on the leaves. (=z.=) =z.= leaves distinctly straight-veined, thin . _fagus._ =z.= leaves thick, obtuse; fruit an acorn . _quercus._ =z.= leaves in. or more long; crushed leaves with a rank, fetid odor . _asimina._ =z.= leaves - in. long; twigs and leaves very spicy; shrub rather than tree . _lindera._ =z.= leaves about in. long, oval, on twigs which have ridges extending down from the sides of the leafstalk; small tree, almost a shrub, with beautiful flowers . _lagerstroemia._ =z.= leaves not as above. (=a.=) =a.= fruit a large (½- ½ in.) rounded pulpy berry with a heavy calyx at the base . _diospyros._ =a.= fruit small (¼ in.), fleshy, drupe-like, with a striate stone; limbs branching horizontally, often descending . _nyssa._ =a.= fruit a black, juicy berry ( / -½ in.), with about seeds . _rhamnus._ =a.= fruit an ovoid dry drupe (½ in.); leaves sweet-tasting . _symplocos._ =a.= fruit an apple-like pome (quince) . _pyrus._ =b.= wood soft; both kinds of flowers in catkins in spring; with either stipules or stipular sears . _salix._ =b.= wood hard; leaves thick; fruit an acorn . _quercus._ =c.= fruit a - -seeded small berry; juice not milky . _rhamnus._ =c.= fruit large, orange-like in size and color when ripe; juice milky . _maclura._ =c.= fruit small, black when ripe, cherry-like; juice milky . _bumelia._ =d.= aromatic; berries dark blue on red stalks . _persea._ =d.= not aromatic; leaves nearly ft. long; flowers large and solitary. . _magnolia._ =d.= not aromatic; leaves - in. long; flowers very small; fruit small dark-colored berries, with - seeds . _rhamnus._ =d.= not aromatic; flowers large, in showy clusters. (=e.=) =e.= leaves in. or more long . _rhododendron._ =e.= leaves less than in. long . _kalmia._ =f.= leaves decidedly aromatic, usually somewhat irregularly lobed, margin entire, base tapering . _sassafras._ =f.= leaves usually deltoid, sometimes heart-shaped with serrate margin and gummy buds, rarely palmately lobed. all have either the petiole flattened sidewise, the leaf-blade densely silvery-white beneath, or gummy aromatic buds . _populus._ =f.= leaves broadly heart-shaped; margin entire; small tree with abundance of red flowers in early spring; fruit a pea-like pod. . _cercis._ =f.= leaves not as above given. (=g.=) =g.= leaves broadly heart-shaped, with a serrate margin and a petiole about as long as the blade, sometimes longer; base of leaf not oblique . _idesia._ =g.= leaves broadly heart-shaped, those on the suckers much lobed; base not oblique; margin serrate; juice milky; bark very tough. (=l.=) =g.= leaves broadly heart-shaped, with an oblique base; margin regularly serrate; juice not milky . _tilia._ =g.= leaves slightly if at all heart-shaped at base, usually somewhat oblique, with neither milky juice nor lobes. (=j.=) =g.= leaves decidedly and quite regularly lobed. (=h.=) =h.= leaves with - large lobes, the margin entire or slightly angulated. . _sterculia._ =h.= leaves star-shaped, with - pointed, serrate lobes. (=i.=) =h.= leaves large, irregularly margined; leaf-stem covering the bud; large tree . _platanus._ =h.= plant quite thorny; fruit berry-like, ending in a conspicuous spreading calyx; small trees or shrubs with apple-like blossoms. . _cratægus._ =h.= leaves with a tapering base; small tree, almost a shrub, with large hollyhock-like flowers; plant not thorny . _hibiscus._ =i.= large tree, with fruit in. in diameter, dry, rough, hanging on a long stem . _liquidambar._ =i.= small tree with few branches and the trunk usually quite prickly; fruit berry-like in large clusters . _aralia._ =j.= fruit small berries, with flattened seeds, in clusters in the axils of the leaves, which are decidedly -ribbed from the base . _hovenia._ =j.= fruit small drupes, with seed, either solitary or in pairs in the axils of the leaves. (=k.=) =k.= plant without prickles; leaves decidedly oblique at base . _celtis._ =k.= plant with prickles; leaves narrow, decidedly -ribbed, and -ranked on green twigs . _zizyphus._ =l.= fruit not very edible; leaves rough above, very hairy below, on some of the twigs opposite . _broussonetia._ =l.= fruit edible; leaves not very hairy, never opposite . _morus._ =m.= leaves of entire-edged leaflets; fruit a pea-like pod . _laburnum._ =m.= leaves of quite regularly serrate, transparent-dotted leaflets . _ptelea._ =m.= leaves once or twice pinnate; the leaflets entire. (=s.=) =m.= leaves once or twice pinnate; the leaflets with margins more or less serrate or notched. (=n.=) =n.= leaves irregularly once to twice, in one case three times, pinnate. (=r.=) =n.= leaves regularly once pinnate. (=o.=) =o.= leaves less than ft. long, on a small, quite prickly plant; fruit very small pods (¼ in. long) . _xanthoxylum._ =o.= leaves less than ft. long; leaflets in. or less long; fruit bright-colored, berry-like pomes in clusters, persistent through the autumn; plant not thorny; branches not heavy-tipped. . _pyrus._ =o.= leaves usually larger on the small tree or almost a shrub; juice in most cases milky; branches heavy-tipped . _rhus._ =o.= leaves - ft. long; leaflets in. or more long; fruit a bony nut with green fleshy coat; large trees. (=q.=) =o.= leaves very large, ft. or more long on the rapid-growing branches; branches heavy-tipped; odor of bruised leaves quite strong; leaflets or more in number; large trees; juice not milky. (=p.=) =p.= leaflets with - glandular notches at the base . _ailanthus._ =p.= leaflets entire at base, but very slightly serrate near the tip . _cedrela._ =q.= coat of fruit more or less dehiscent into valves; nut smoothish; leaflets, except in one species, not over in number, usually - . _carya._ =q.= coat of fruit not regularly dehiscent; nut, in the wild species, rough-coated; leaflets, except in a cultivated species, over in number . _juglans._ =r.= leaves quite regularly twice odd-pinnate; leaflets about in. long; juice not milky; fruit rounded berries in large clusters; plant not prickly; branchlets not heavy-tipped . _melia._ =r.= leaves once to twice irregularly odd-pinnate; the leaflets very irregularly and coarsely toothed; a small, round-headed tree with bladdery pods . _koelreuteria._ =r.= leaves irregularly about twice odd-pinnate; the leaflets lanceolate; quite a low plant with few heavy-tipped branches; plant without prickles . _rhus._ =r.= leaves (sometimes ) times odd-pinnate; tree-stem with prickles; small tree or shrub, with few branches . _aralia._ =r.= leaves once to twice abruptly pinnate; large tree with slender-tipped branches, usually very thorny . _gleditschia._ =s.= leaves very large ( ft. or more long), about twice abruptly pinnate; leaflets broad and often in. long; branches blunt; no thorns . _gymnocladus._ =s.= leaves and leaflets much smaller, leaves quite irregularly once or twice abruptly pinnate; branches slender-tipped; large tree, usually very thorny . _gleditschia._ =s.= leaves twice abruptly pinnate; leaflets over in number, with midrib near the upper edge . _albizzia._ =s.= leaves regularly once pinnate, not over ft. long. (=t.=) =t.= leaves abruptly pinnate, not over in. long; leaflets - , small, mucronate-pointed . _caragana._ =t.= leaves odd-pinnate; shrub or small tree, with few, heavy-tipped branches; no spines or prickles . _rhus._ =t.= leaves odd-pinnate; leaflets large ( - in. long), not usually over in number; round-topped tree . _cladrastis._ =t.= leaves odd-pinnate; leaflets less than in. long, frequently - in number; often with spines at the bases of the leaves in the place of stipules . _xanthoxylum_ or . _robinia._ =u.= leaves palmately compound. (=cc.=) =u.= leaves pinnately compound. (=bb.=) =u.= leaves simple, evergreen, sessile, in whorls around the stem, which they completely cover ( a. _araucaria._) =u.= leaves simple, opposite, evergreen, entire, over in. long . _osmanthus._ =u.= leaves simple, opposite, evergreen, entire, under in. long . _buxus._ =u.= leaves simple, deciduous. (=v.=) =v.= branches ending in thorns; small trees, or shrubs. (=aa.=) =v.= plants not thorny. (=w.=) =w.= leaves palmately lobed (one variety, rarely cultivated, lacks lobes, but is heart-shaped with a serrate margin), the lobes over in number, or with notches or serrations; fruit dry, winged . _acer._ =w.= lower leaves palmately -lobed, and heart-shaped at base, upper ones ovate, all with entire margin; fruit with juicy pulp covering the seeds . _clerodendron._ =w.= leaves palmately lobed; fruit small, one-seeded, berry-like drupes in large clusters, with flattened stones, or large rounded clusters of flowers without stamens or pistils; shrubs rather than trees . _viburnum._ =w.= leaves heart-shaped, entire or slightly angulated; not lobed. (=dd.=) =w.= leaves irregularly serrate, somewhat straight-veined; fruit single-winged; large cultivated tree . _fraxinus._ =w.= leaves neither heart-shaped nor lobed; small trees, almost shrubs. (=x.=) =x.= leaves entire. (=z.=) =x.= leaves serrate or dentate, ovate or oval. (=y.=) =y.= fruit rounded drupes in large clusters, with single flattened stones . _viburnum._ =y.= fruit lobed pods, which burst open in the autumn; branchlets somewhat -sided . _euonymus._ =z.= leaves small, lanceolate; flowers and fruit large and beautiful . _punica._ =z.= leaves broad, thin, with curved parallel veins or ribs. . _cornus._ =z.= leaves large, broad, oval, without either curved or straight parallel ribs . _chionanthus._ =aa.= leaves entire and covered on both sides with silvery, peltate scales . _shepherdia._ =aa.= leaves ovate, small, minutely serrate . _rhamnus._ =bb.= leaves large, in. or more long; leaflets or more, very finely serrated . _phellodendron._ =bb.= leaves smaller; leaflets entire or quite evenly toothed, usually over in number . _fraxinus._ =bb.= leaflets coarsely and quite irregularly toothed, - (rarely ) in number . _negundo._ =cc.= leaflets slender-lanceolate, almost entire; shrub or small tree, - ft. high . _vitex._ =cc.= leaflets broader and serrate; usually large trees. . _Æsculus._ =dd.= leaves with radiating ribs. (=ff.=) =dd.= leaves with feather-veining. (=ee.=) =ee.= leaves - in. long; flowers small, in large, dense, terminal clusters . _syringa._ =ee.= leaves - in. long; flowers in pairs . _lonicera._ =ff.= leaves large, in. or more long; two almost hidden buds, one above the other, in the axils of the leaves on the rapid-growing branches; flowers large, purple, blooming in early spring; fruit rounded pods . _paulownia._ =ff.= leaves large, in. or more long; flowers large, white, blooming in june; fruit long pods . _catalpa._ =ff.= leaves - in. long, with red stems . _cercidiphyllum._ =gg.= leaves scattered singly over the stem, not in bundles or clusters. (=jj.=) =gg.= leaves in large or small clusters. (=hh.=) =hh.= clusters in whorls of many leaves around the stem like an umbrella . _sciadopitys._ =hh.= leaves clustered in bundles of - . _pinus._ =hh.= leaves clustered in bundles of over . (=ii.=) =ii.= leaves deciduous, soft . _larix._ =ii.= leaves evergreen, rigid . _cedrus._ =jj.= leaves hardly evergreen; spray quite slender. (=zz.=) =jj.= leaves fully evergreen. (=kk.=) =kk.= leaves awl or scale shaped, and mainly appressed to the stem. (=ww.=) =kk.= leaves linear or needle shaped, and decidedly spreading from the stem, though sometimes with a decurrent base. (=ll.=) =ll.= leaves narrowed to a distinct though short stem. (=rr.=) =ll.= leaves sessile; if narrowed, not so abruptly as to form a petiole. (=mm.=) =mm.= leaves opposite or whorled on the stem. (=pp.=) =mm.= leaves rather spirally arranged around the stem, not just opposite. (=nn.=) =nn.= leaves linear to lanceolate, flattened, spreading quite squarely from the stem. (=oo.=) =nn.= leaves not flattened but -sided, curved, gradually enlarging from the tips to the bases, which are decurrent, and on the young twigs completely cover the stem; cones rounded; the scales not lapping . _cryptomeria._ =oo.= leaves about linear in form, of nearly the same width throughout, and usually fastened to the cylindrical stem by a distinct disk-like base; cones erect; scales lapping. . _abies._ =oo.= leaves about in. long and gradually widening from the acute tips to the broad ( / in.) bases, which are decurrent on the stem . _cunninghamia._ =oo.= leaves ½- in. long, sharp-pointed, very flat, two-ranked, somewhat lanceolate in form; base narrowed almost to a petiole . _sequoia._ =pp.= leaves not decurrent, usually in whorls of three around the stem, sometimes opposite, acute-pointed; fruit small ( / in.), rounded, dark-colored berries . _juniperus._ =pp.= leaves decurrent on the stem, less than ½ in. long. (=qq.=) =qq.= fruit small, globular cones; the scales not lapping . _chamæcyparis._ =qq.= fruit small, elongated cones of few, lapping scales . _thuya._ =rr.= leaves usually but little flattened, but jointed to a short, brown petiole which is attached to a somewhat grooved twig; cones pendent, of lapping scales . _picea._ =rr.= leaves decidedly flattened, not jointed, but narrowed to a petiole which is usually green or greenish in color. (=ss.=) =ss.= leaves rounded or obtuse at the tip, distinctly two-ranked, usually less than in. long; cones oval, in. or less long, of lapping scales . _tsuga._ =ss.= leaves acute at the tip; fruit (found only on a portion of the plants, as the flowers are dioecious) drupe-like, with a single nut-like seed. (=tt.=) =tt.= leaves not two-ranked, over in. long . _podocarpus._ =tt.= leaves quite regularly two-ranked. (=uu.=) =uu.= leaves marked by two longitudinal lines; bruised or burned leaves with a very disagreeable odor ( a. _torreya._) =uu.= leaves with the midrib forming a distinct ridge, odor not disagreeable. (=vv.=) =vv.= leaves usually less than an inch long . _taxus._ =vv.= leaves usually more than an inch long ( b. _cephalotaxus._) =ww.= spray decidedly two-ranked, fan-like. (=yy.=) =ww.= spray branching in an irregular way, not two-ranked. (=xx.=) =xx.= fruit a purplish berry; bark shreddy . _juniperus._ =xx.= fruit a cone of thick, pointed, not lapping scales . _sequoia._ =yy.= cones elongated, of lapping scales . _thuya._ =yy.= cones globular, of peltate, valvate scales . _chamæcyparis._ =zz.= leaves very broad at base, half clasping the stem and rapidly narrowed to an acute tip; hardly at all spreading from the thread-like twigs; flowers pinkish, in spike-like clusters . _tamarix._ =zz.= leaves more elongated, quite even in width, not clasping the stem . _taxodium._ [footnote : look on the elongated branches for the arrangement of the leaves; they are too closely clustered on the short side shoots. see page .] =class i. angiospÉrmÆ.= plants with a pistil consisting of a closed ovary, which contains the ovules and forms the fruit. order =i. magnoliaceÆ.= (magnolia family.) trees or shrubs, mainly of tropical regions, including, in our section, the three following genera: genus = . magnÒlia.= trees and tall shrubs with alternate, thick, smooth, entire leaves with deciduous stipules which form the bud-scales, and are attached entirely around the stem, leaving a ridge, as in liriodendron. flowers very large ( to in. in diameter), usually white, solitary. fruit a large cone from which the seeds, drupe-like, usually red, hang out on long threads during the autumn. * blooming with or before the opening of the leaves. (=a.=) =a.= flowers entirely white , . =a.= flowers dark purple . =a.= flowers mixed purple and white. a large number of hybrids from china and japan. * blooming after the leaves expand. (=b.=) =b.= leaves evergreen, more than in. long . =b.= leaves evergreen, not in. long . =b.= leaves deciduous. (=c.=) =c.= leaves decidedly auriculate or cordate at the base. (=d.=) =d.= leaves very large ( to ft. long) . =d.= leaves smaller and much clustered at the tips of the flowering branches . =c.= leaves not conspicuously cordate at base. (=e.=) =e.= leaves clustered at the tips of the flowering branches . =e.= leaves scattered along the branches. (=f.=) =f.= base of leaf abrupt , . =f.= base of leaf tapering. (=g.=) =g.= leaves quite large, about ft. long; a very erect growing tree . =g.= leaves smaller, medium thick, glossy above . medium thin ( to in. long) . [illustration: m. grandiflòra.] . =magnòlia grandiflòra=, l. (large-flowered magnolia. southern evergreen magnolia.) leaves evergreen, thick, oval-oblong; upper surface glossy, under surface somewhat rusty. flowers large, to in. wide, white, fragrant. in spring. fruit oval, to in. long, ripe in october. seeds scarlet. splendid evergreen tree ( to ft.) in the southern states; half hardy, and reduced to a shrub ( to ft.) when cultivated in the middle states. [illustration: m. glaùca.] . =magnòlia glaùca=, l. (sweet-bay. swamp-magnolia.) leaves quite thick, oblong-oval, obtuse, smooth and glossy above, white or rusty pubescent beneath; evergreen in the southern states. leaf-buds silky. flowers globular, white, and very fragrant. june to august. fruit about ½ in. long, ripe in autumn. shrub, to ft. high, in the swamps of the atlantic states from massachusetts southward. slender tree, to ft. high, when cultivated in good damp soil. [illustration: m. acuminàta.] . =magnòlia acuminàta=, l. (cucumber-tree.) leaves thin, green above, paler beneath, oblong, usually pointed at both ends, to in. long. leaf-buds silky. flowers pale yellowish-green, in. wide, late in spring. fruit irregular-oblong ( to in. long), rose-colored when ripe, with a few hard, bony, black seeds, coated with red pulp, ripe in autumn. large ( to ft.) noble forest tree, wild in western new york and southward. wood rather soft, yellowish-white, quite durable, and extensively used for pump logs. occasionally cultivated; fine for avenues. [illustration: m. cordàta.] . =magnòlia cordàta=, michx. (yellow cucumber-tree.) leaves broadly ovate or oval, rarely cordate at base, smooth above, white-downy beneath, to in. long. flowers lemon-yellow slightly streaked with red. june. fruit nearly in. long, red when ripe in autumn. a rather small, broad-headed tree ( to ft.), wild in the southern states, but hardy as far north as boston; not often cultivated. probably an upland variety of the preceding. [illustration: m. macrophýlla.] . =magnòlia macrophýlla=, michx. (great-leaved magnolia.) leaves very large, sometimes ft. long, crowded at the summit of the branches, obovate-oblong, cordate at the narrowed base, glaucous-white beneath, green above; twigs whitish pubescent. flowers very large ( in. broad), white with a purple spot near the base; fragrant. fruit cylindrical, in. long, deep rose-colored when ripe in autumn. a medium-sized ( to ft.), spreading tree; wild from kentucky south, hardy and cultivated as far north as new york city. [illustration: m. fràseri.] . =magnòlia fràseri=, walt. (ear-leaved umbrella-tree.) leaves crowded at the ends of the flowering branches, obovate or spatulate, auriculate at base, smooth ( ft. long). leaf-buds smooth. flowers ( in. wide) white, slightly scented. april to may. fruit to in. long, rose-colored, ripe in autumn. medium-sized, rather slender tree ( to ft.), with soft yellowish-white wood. virginia and southward. hardy and extensively cultivated as far north as new york city. [illustration: m. umbrélla.] . =magnòlia umbrélla=, lam. (umbrella tree.) leaves clustered at the ends of the branches, obovate-lanceolate, pointed at both ends, to ft. long; downy beneath when young, but soon becoming smooth. flowers white, to in. broad. may. fruit oblong, to in. long, rather rose-colored when ripe in autumn. a small, rather straggling tree, to ft. high; common in the southern states, and wild as far north as new york state; cultivated throughout. [illustration: m. hypoleùca.] . =magnòlia hypoleùca=, s. & z. (japan magnolia.) leaves large ( ft. long), somewhat purple-tinted above, white and glaucous beneath. midrib and leafstalk often red. flowers cream-white, fragrant, appearing after the leaves in june. twigs stout and polished. a medium-sized, very erectly growing tree; from japan. [illustration: m. conspícua.] . =magnòlia conspícua,= salisb. (yulan or chinese white magnolia.) leaves deciduous, obovate, abruptly acuminate, pubescent when young. flowers large ( in.), cream-white, very fragrant, appearing very early (may), before any of the leaves. fruit rarely formed, with few ( to , rarely more) seeds to a cone. bark dark brown on the young branches; terminal winter buds over ½ in. long. small tree ( to ft.) with spreading habit and stout branches; very extensively cultivated for its abundant early bloom; from china. [illustration: m. kòbus.] . =magnòlia kòbus.= (thurber's japan magnolia.) leaves similar to the preceding, but smaller. flowers also similar, but pure white. fruit abundantly formed, with several ( to ) seeds to the cone. bark green on the young growth; terminal winter-buds under ½ in. long. small tree ( to ft.) with erect habit and slender branches. a beautiful tree of recent introduction from japan. [illustration: m. purpùrea.] . =magnòlia purpùrea=, sims. (purple japan magnolia.) leaves obovate, pointed at both ends, dark green. flowers erect, of sepals and obovate, purple petals; blooming about as the leaves expand. a low tree, or usually merely a shrub, from japan; often cultivated. besides the magnolias here given, there are quite a number of varieties and hybrids in cultivation, from china and japan, most of them blooming before the leaves expand in spring. genus . =liriodÉndron.= trees with alternate, deciduous, smooth, stipulate, -lobed leaves, the stipules large, attached entirely around the stem, and leaving a ridge when they drop off, as in the genus magnolia. flowers tulip-shaped, large ( in.), greenish-yellow. may to june. fruit a pointed cone, in. long, hanging on the tree till autumn. [illustration: l. tulipífera.] =liriodéndron tulipífera=, l. (tulip-tree.) leaves large, smooth on both sides, somewhat -lobed, the end one seemingly cut off, leaving a shallow notch; stipules light-colored, large, oblong, attached all around the stem, often remaining on through half the season. a very large ( to ft. high), beautiful, rapidly growing tree, with soft, straight-grained, greenish wood, of great use for inside work. southern new england and southward. especially abundant and large in the western states. also cultivated. genus . cercidiphÝllum. shrubs or trees with opposite, rarely subalternate, simple, deciduous leaves. fruit short-stemmed, with divergent pods, - in number, splitting open on the outer edges; each one-celled, with one row of lapping, pendulous seeds with membranous wings. [illustration: c. japónicum.] =cercidiphýllum japónicum.= (katsura-tree.) leaves broadly heart-shaped, palmately veined with - ribs, and with an apparently entire margin, dark green above, somewhat glaucous beneath. under a magnifying glass the margin will be found to have pellucid crenulations. leafstalk dark red and jointed above the base, the veins somewhat red-tinted. a beautiful, upright tree with birch-like, dotted, brown bark; of recent introduction from japan, and probably completely hardy throughout the region. order =ii. bixÍneÆ.= a rather small order of mostly tropical trees or shrubs, with alternate, simple leaves. genus . =idÈsia.= large trees with terminal and axillary panicles of very small flowers and berries. [illustration: i. polycárpa.] =idèsia polycárpa=, hook. leaves large, heart-shaped, serrate, palmately veined with ribs; leafstalk very long, red, with two glands near the base; twigs also glandular; berries very small (¼ inch), with many seeds. a large tree recently introduced from japan, which may prove hardy from pennsylvania south, but is killed by the climate of massachusetts. order =iii. anonÀceÆ.= (custard-apple family.) an order of tropical trees and shrubs except the following genus: genus = . asÍmina.= small trees or shrubs with simple, deciduous, alternate, entire, pinnately-veined leaves. flowers large, dull purplish, solitary in the axils of last year's leaves. fruit a large, oblong, several-seeded, pulpy berry. [illustration: a. tríloba.] =asímina tríloba=, dunal. (common papaw.) leaves large ( to in. long), oblong-obovate, acuminate, thin, lapping over each other in such a manner as to give the plant a peculiar imbricated appearance. flowers in. broad, appearing before the leaves. fruit in. long, ½ in. thick, yellowish, fragrant, about -seeded, ripe in the autumn. small ( to ft. high), beautiful tree with dark-brown twigs. all parts have a rank, fetid smell. wild in new york and southward along streams; cultivated. order =iv. tamariscÍneÆ.= a small order, consisting mostly of shrubs (from the old world) with minute leaves. genus = . tÁmarix.= leaves simple, very small, alternate, clasping; old ones almost transparent at the apex. flowers in spike-like panicles, small, red, or pink, rarely white. [illustration: t. gállica.] =támarix gállica=, l. (french tamarisk.) leaves very small, acute; spray very slender, abundant. a sub-evergreen shrub or small tree, to ft. high; with very small pinkish flowers, in spike-like clusters, blooming from may to october. a very beautiful and strange-looking plant, which, rather sheltered by other trees, can be successfully grown throughout. order =v. ternstroemiÀceÆ.= (tea or camellia family.) an order of showy-flowered trees and shrubs of tropical and subtropical regions, here represented by the following genera: genus = . stuÁrtia.= shrubs or low trees with alternate, simple, exstipulate, ovate, serrulate leaves, soft downy beneath. flowers large ( in.), white to cream-color, solitary and nearly sessile in the axils of the leaves; blooming in early summer. fruit a -celled capsule with few seeds; ripe in autumn. [illustration: s. pentágyna.] . =stuártia pentágyna=, l'her. (stuartia.) leaves thick, ovate, acuminate, acute at base, obscurely mucronate, serrate, finely pubescent, to in. long, one half as wide. flowers whitish cream-colored, one petal much the smallest; stamens of the same color. pod -angled. handsome shrub or small tree ( to ft.), wild south in the mountains, and hardy and cultivated as far north as new york city without protection. in massachusetts it needs some sheltered position. [illustration: s. virgínica.] . =stuártia virgínica=, cav. (virginia stuartia.) leaves elliptic-ovate, acuminate at both ends, in. long, in. wide, thin, serrate, silky pubescent beneath. flowers white with purple filaments and blue anthers. pod globular and blunt; ripe in october. a beautiful shrub rather than tree ( to ft.), wild in virginia and south; hardy as far north as washington. genus = . gordÒnia.= shrubs or small trees with alternate, simple, feather-veined leaves. flowers large ( to in. wide), white, showy, solitary in the axils of the leaves. blooming in summer. fruit a dry, dehiscent, conical-pointed, -celled capsule with to seeds, ripe in the autumn. [illustration: g. lasiánthus.] . =gordònia lasiánthus=, l. (loblolly bay.) leaves thick, evergreen, lanceolate-oblong, minutely serrate, nearly sessile, smooth and shining on both sides. the large, solitary, sweet-scented, axillary flowers on peduncles half as long as the leaves. a large tree ( to ft. high) in the south (wild in southern virginia), and cultivated as far north as central pennsylvania, without protection; at st. louis and boston it needs protection. wood of a reddish color, light and brittle. [illustration: g. pubéscens.] . =gordònia pubéscens=, l'her. leaves thin, deciduous, obovate-oblong, sharply serrate, white beneath. flowers nearly sessile. a small tree or shrub of the south ( ft. high in georgia), hardy, and rarely cultivated as far north as philadelphia, or still farther north if slightly sheltered. order =vi. malvÀceÆ.= (mallow family.) a large family, mainly of herbs, found in tropical and temperate regions. one cultivated species, almost a tree, is included in this work. genus = . hibÍscus.= herbs or shrubs; one sometimes tree-like, with simple, deciduous, alternate, stipulate, usually lobed leaves. flowers large, showy, -parted (hollyhock-shaped), in late summer. fruit a -celled, many-seeded pod, ripe in autumn. [illustration: h. syrìacus.] =hibíscus syrìacus=, l. (tree hibiscus.) the only woody and sometimes tree-like species; has ovate, wedge-shaped, -lobed, toothed leaves, and large ( in.) white, purple, red, or variegated flowers. usually a shrub, to ft. high, often cultivated throughout; introduced from syria. order =vii. sterculiÀceÆ.= trees or shrubs (a few are herbs), with alternate leaves, and the stamens united into a tube. a large order of tropical plants. genus = . stercÙlia.= leaves alternate, simple, usually lobed, ovaries more or less divided into carpels, each - to many-lobed; fruit when ripe forming a star of distinct pods. [illustration: s. platanifòlia.] =stercùlia platanifòlia=, l. (chinese parasol.) leaves large, deciduous, alternate, palmately - to -lobed, deeply heart-shaped at base, the margin entire, the lobes acute; smooth or slightly hairy; leafstalk about as long as the blade. flowers green, in axillary panicles; fruit star-shaped. a small, beautiful tree from china; probably not hardy north of washington. order =viii. tiliÀceÆ.= (linden family.) an order, mainly of trees, abundant in the tropics; here represented by a single genus: genus . =tÍlia.= trees with alternate, deciduous, obliquely heart-shaped, serrate leaves, about as broad as long. leaves two-ranked on the stem. flowers small, cream-colored, fragrant, in clusters on a peculiar, oblong, leaf-like bract. fruit small ( / in.), globular, woody, in clusters from the same bract. wood white and soft; inner bark very fibrous and tough. * flowers with petal-like scales among the stamens; american species. (=a.=) =a.= leaves very large, to in. . =a.= leaves medium, to in. . =a.= leaves small, to in. . * flowers with no petal-like scales among the stamens. . [illustration: t. americàna.] . =tília americàna=, l. (basswood. whitewood. linden.) leaves large, to in. long, green and smooth, or very nearly so, thickish. fruit ovoid, somewhat ribbed, ¼ in. broad, greenish when ripe in october, on a bract which is usually tapering to the base. tall tree, to ft. high, wild in rich woods and often cultivated. [illustration: t. pubéscens.] . =tília pubéscens=, ait. (small-leaved basswood.) leaves smaller, to in. long, thinner and rather pubescent beneath. fruit globose, / in. broad, on a bract usually quite rounded at base. this is usually considered as a variety of the last-named species. it is found from new york south and west. [illustration: t. heterophýlla.] . =tília heterophýlla=, vent. (white basswood.) leaves large, often in. broad, smooth and bright green above, silvery white and downy beneath, with darker, purplish veins. a large tree; wild in pennsylvania, west and south, and often cultivated. [illustration: t. europæa.] . =tília europæa=, mill. (european linden.) leaves twice as long as the petioles, and smooth except a woolly tuft in the axils of the veins beneath. small and large leaved varieties are in cultivation. the flowers have no petal-like scales among the stamens, while the american species have. an ornamental tree with dense foliage; often cultivated from europe. the twigs are more numerous and more slender than those of the american species. nearly a score of named varieties are in cultivation. var. _laciniata_ has deeply cut and twisted leaves. order =ix. rutÀceÆ.= (rue family.) shrubs and trees, rarely herbs, in most cases with transparent-dotted, heavy-scented foliage. a rather large order in warm climates. genus = . xanthÓxylum.= shrubs or trees with mostly odd-pinnate, alternate leaves. the stem and often the leaflets prickly; flowers small, greenish or whitish; fruit dry, thick pods, with to seeds. [illustration: x. americànum.] . =xanthóxylum americànum=, mill. (northern prickly-ash. toothache-tree.) leaves and flowers in sessile, axillary, umbellate clusters; leaflets to , ovate-oblong, downy when young. flowers appear before the leaves. shrub, scarcely at all tree-like, with bark, leaves, and pods very pungent and aromatic. common north, and sometimes cultivated. [illustration: x. clàva hércules.] . =xanthóxylum clàva hércules=, l. (southern prickly-ash.) leaflets to , ovate to ovate-oblong, oblique at base, shining above. flowers appear after the leaves. a small tree with very sharp prickles. sandy coast of virginia and southward; occasionally cultivated in the north. genus = . ptÈlea.= shrub with compound leaves of three leaflets, greenish-white flowers in terminal cymes, and -seeded fruit with a broad-winged margin, somewhat like the elm, only larger. [illustration: p. trifoliàta.] =ptèlea trifoliàta=, l. (hop-tree. shrubby trefoil.) leaflets ovate, pointed, downy when young. flowers with a disagreeable odor; fruit bitter, somewhat like hops. a tall shrub, often, when cultivated, trimmed into a tree-like form. wild, in rocky places, in southern new york and southward. genus = . phellodÉndron.= leaves opposite, odd-pinnate. flowers dioecious; so only a portion of the trees bear the small, odoriferous, -seeded, drupe-like fruit. [illustration: p. amurénse.] =phellodéndron amurénse.= (chinese cork-tree.) leaves opposite, odd-pinnate, ½ to ft. long; leaflets to many, lanceolate, sharply serrate, long-acuminate. flowers inconspicuous, dioecious, in loose-spreading clusters at the ends of the branches. the pistillate flowers form small, black, pea-shaped fruit, in loose, grape-like clusters, thickly covered with glands containing a bitter, aromatic oil, and remaining on the tree in winter. medium-sized tree ( to ft.), with ailanthus-like leaves which turn bright red in autumn, and remain long on the tree. hardy as far north as central massachusetts. order =x. meliÀceÆ.= (melia family.) tropical trees, including the mahogany; represented in the south by the following: genus = . mÈlia.= trees with alternate, bipinnate leaves. the flowers are conspicuous and beautiful, in large panicles, in the spring. fruit in large clusters of berry-like drupes, with a -celled stone. [illustration: m. azédarach.] =mèlia azédarach, l.= (china-tree. pride of india.) leaves very large, doubly pinnate, with many obliquely lance-ovate, acuminate, smooth, serrate leaflets. flowers small, lilac-colored, deliciously fragrant, in large axillary clusters. fruit globular, as large as cherries, yellow when ripe in autumn; hanging on through the winter. a rather small ( to ft. high), rapidly growing, round-headed, popular shade-tree in the south, and hardy as far north as virginia. introduced from persia. genus = . cedrÉla.= leaves large, alternate, deciduous, odd-pinnate. flowers with separate petals, fragrant, white, in large clusters. fruit -celled dehiscent pods, with many pendulous, winged seeds. [illustration: c. sinénsis.] =cedréla sinénsis.= (chinese cedrela.) leaves large, odd-pinnate, alternate, appearing much like those of the ailanthus, but with slight serrations near the tips of the leaflets, and no glands near the base. bruised leaves with a strong odor; footstalk and stout-tipped branches with glands. large tree, seemingly hardy in new jersey, but dies to the ground in winter in massachusetts. recently introduced from china. order =xi. simarubÀceÆ.= (quassia family.) eastern trees and shrubs, here represented by a single tree: genus = . ailÁnthus.= large trees to shrubs, with alternate, odd-pinnate leaves. flowers small, greenish, in large terminal panicles. fruit broadly winged, like the ash, but with the seed in the center. [illustration: a. glandulòsus.] =ailánthus glandulòsus=, desf. (tree of heaven.) leaves very large, to ft. long on the younger growths; leaflets obliquely lanceolate, coarsely toothed at the base, with a gland on the lower side at the point of each tooth; point of leaflets entire. young twigs thick, rusty brown; buds very small in the axils. only some of the trees have fruit, as some have only staminate flowers. the staminate flowers are very ill-scented. a rapid-growing tree, with useful hard wood; cultivated and naturalized; hardy throughout. see page . order =xii. ilicÌneÆ.= (holly family.) a small order of trees and shrubs, including for our purpose only one genus: genus = . Ìlex.= trees or shrubs with simple, alternate, thick, mostly evergreen leaves. flowers rather inconspicuous, mostly in clusters. fruit berry-like, small (¼ to ½ in.), with to nutlets; hanging on the plants late in the autumn or through the winter. * leaves evergreen. (=a.=) =a.= leaves with spiny teeth . =a.= no spiny teeth . * leaves deciduous . [illustration: i. opàca.] . =Ìlex opàca=, ait. (american holly.) leaves evergreen, oval, acute, thick, smooth, with scattered spiny teeth. flowers white; may. the bright-red berries, found only on some of the trees, remain on through the greater part of the winter. small tree, to ft. high, with very hard white wood; wild in southern new england and southward. a beautiful broad-leaved, evergreen tree which should be more extensively cultivated. north of latitude ° it needs a protected situation. [illustration: i. dahòon.] . =Ìlex dahòon=, walt. (dahoon holly.) leaves to in. long, evergreen, oblanceolate or oblong, entire or sharply serrate toward the apex, with revolute margins, not spiny. young branches and lower surface of the leaves, especially on the midrib, pubescent. small tree, to ft. high; virginia and south, with very hard, white, close-grained wood. rarely cultivated. [illustration: i. montícola.] . =Ìlex montícola=, gray. leaves deciduous, ovate to lance-oblong, to in. long, taper-pointed, thin, smooth, sharply serrate. fruit red, on short stems, with the seeds many-ribbed on the back. usually a shrub but sometimes tree-like; damp woods in the catskills and in the alleghany mountains. order =xiii. celastrÀceÆ.= shrubs with simple leaves and small, regular flowers, forming a fruit with ariled seeds. genus = . euÓnymus.= shrubs somewhat tree-like, with -sided branchlets, opposite, serrate leaves, and loose cymes of angular fruit which bursts open in the autumn. [illustration: e. atropurpùreus.] . =euónymus atropurpùreus=, jacq. (burning-bush. wahoo.) leaves petioled, oval-oblong, pointed; parts of the dark-purple flowers commonly in fours; pods smooth, deeply lobed, when ripe, cinnamon in color and very ornamental. tall shrub, to ft. high; wild in wisconsin to new york, and southward; often cultivated. [illustration: e. europæus.] . =euónymus europæus=, l. (european spindle-tree or burning-bush.) leaves oblong-lanceolate, serrate, smooth; flowers and fruit commonly in threes on compressed stems; fruit usually -lobed, the lobes acute; flowers greenish-white; may; fruit abundant, scarlet, ripe in september. generally a shrub, though sometimes tall enough ( to ft.) and trimmed so as to appear tree-like; twigs smooth, green or reddish-green. extensively cultivated; from europe. order =xiv. rhamnÀceÆ.= (buckthorn family.) an order mainly of shrubs, but including in the north-eastern united states two or three small trees. genus = . rhÁmnus.= shrubs or small trees with deciduous (rarely evergreen), usually alternate (rarely opposite), pinnately veined leaves. flowers small, -parted, inconspicuous, in clusters in the axils of the leaves. fruit berry-like, with to seed-like nuts. * branches terminating in thorns . * plant without thorns. (=a.=) =a.= leaves deciduous . =a.= leaves evergreen . [illustration: r. cathártica.] . =rhámnus cathártica, l.= (common buckthorn.) leaves ovate, minutely serrate, alternate or many of them opposite; branchlets terminating in thorns. flowers greenish. fruit globular, / in. in diameter, black with a green juice, and or seeds; ripe in september. a shrub or small tree, to ft. high, from europe; cultivated for hedges, and found wild in a few places, where it forms a small tree. [illustration: r. caroliniàna.] . rhámnus caroliniàna, walt. (carolina buckthorn.) leaves to in. long, alternate, oblong, wavy and obscurely serrulate, nearly smooth, on slender pubescent petioles. flowers greenish, -parted, solitary or in umbellate clusters in the axils. fruit berry-like, globular, the size of peas, -seeded, black when ripe in september. a thornless shrub or small tree, to ft. high. new jersey, south and west. usually a shrub except in the southern states. [illustration: r. califòrnicus.] . =rhámnus califòrnicus=, esch. (california buckthorn.) leaves evergreen, oval-oblong to elliptical, to in. long, rather obtuse, sometimes acute, generally rounded at base, serrulate or entire. fruit blackish purple, with thin pulp, ¼ in., - to -seeded. a spreading shrub, to ft. high, without thorns; from california. genus = . hovÈnia.= leaves alternate, deciduous, simple, oblique at base. fruit an obscurely -lobed, -celled, -seeded pod in dichotomous clusters, both axillary and terminal. [illustration: h. dúlcis] =hovènia dúlcis=, thunb. leaves long-petioled, more or less ovate to cordate, serrate, palmately -ribbed, much darker on the upper surface; both sides slightly roughened with scattered hairs. fruit sweet, edible, in clusters in the axils of the leaves; seeds lens-shaped, with a ridge on the inner side. flowers white; in july. a large, broad-topped tree, introduced from japan. hardy at washington, but dies to the ground in the arnold arboretum, massachusetts. genus = . zÌzyphus.= leaves simple, alternate, deciduous, -ribbed. flowers axillary, -petaled. fruit fleshy, drupe-like, containing a - to -celled nut. [illustration: z. vulgàris.] =zìzyphus vulgàris=, lam. (jujube.) leaves ovate-lanceolate, obtuse, serrate, smooth, and glossy green on both sides, upper side quite dark; slightly hairy beneath on the veins; prickles twin, one recurved, sometimes none. new growth of the year green, and resembling a once-pinnate compound leaf and usually dropping off in the autumn like one. leaves to on a twig, -ranked; flowers and drupes nearly sessile in the axils; fruit small (¼ in.), blood-red when ripe. a small tree ( to ft. high), of recent introduction from syria; hardy at philadelphia, but needing some protection at the arnold arboretum, massachusetts. order =xv. sapindÀceÆ.= (soapberry family.) a large order represented in all countries, and so varied in its characteristics as to form several sub-orders. genus = . Æsculus.= deciduous trees or sometimes shrubs, with opposite, palmately compound leaves with serrated, straight-veined leaflets. flowers usually conspicuous in dense terminal panicles. fruit large, leathery-coated, often rough, with one or few large chestnut-like but bitter seeds. fruit large in midsummer, hanging on the tree until frost. * fruit prickly. (=a.=) =a.= leaflets usually ; flowers widely spreading . =a.= leaflets - , red-spotted and rough; flowers rosy red _Æsculus rubicunda_ ( ). =a.= leaflets usually ; flowers not much spreading . * fruit smooth or nearly so. (=b.=) =b.= flowers bright red . =b.= flowers yellow, purplish or pinkish . =b.= flowers white, in long, slender, erect clusters . [illustration: Æ. hippocástanum.] . =Æsculus hippocástanum.= (common horse-chestnut.) leaves of obovate, abruptly pointed, serrated leaflets. flowers very showy in large clusters, with white, purple and yellow spotted, broadly spreading petals. a variety with double flowers is in cultivation. may or june. fruit large, covered with prickles. seeds large, chestnut-colored. tree of large size, with brown twigs; cultivated everywhere; from asia. [illustration: Æ. rubicúnda.] _Æsculus rubicunda_ (red-flowering horse-chestnut) is frequent in cultivation; leaflets to , red-spotted and rough; flowers rosy red. it is probably a hybrid between the common horse-chestnut and one of the buckeyes. [illustration: Æ glàbra.] . =Æsculus glàbra=, willd. (ohio buckeye.) leaves with oval-oblong, acuminate, serrate, smooth leaflets. flowers not showy, yellowish-white, with somewhat irregular, slightly spreading petals. june. fruit small, in. in diameter, covered with prickles, at least when young; ripe in autumn. small to large tree, wild in the basin of the ohio river, along river-banks. sometimes cultivated. [illustration: Æ. pàvia.] . =Æsculus pàvia=, l. (red buckeye.) leaves of to oblong-lanceolate, finely serrate, generally smooth leaflets, of a shining green color, with purple veins and petioles. flowers (corolla and calyx) bright red, with included stamens; corolla of petals, not spreading; calyx tubular. fruit smooth, oblong-obovate, in. long. small tree or shrub, to ft. high, with purple twigs. virginia west and south, and occasionally cultivated throughout. [illustration: Æ. flàva.] . =Æsculus flàva=, ait. (sweet buckeye.) leaves with to serrulate, elliptical, acuminate leaflets, usually smooth, sometimes minutely pubescent beneath; the pubescent petiole flattish toward the base. flowers yellow, not spreading. spring. fruit globose, uneven but not prickly, in. in diameter. seeds large ( in.), or in number, mahogany-colored; ripe in autumn. often a large tree, sometimes only a shrub, to ft. high, in rich woods; virginia to indiana, and southward. cultivated occasionally throughout. var. _purpurascens_ of this species has flesh-colored or dull-purple flowers, and leaflets quite downy beneath. [illustration: Æ. macrostàchya.] . Æsculus macrostàchya, mx. (long-racemed buckeye.) leaflets to , ovate, acuminate, serrate, velvety with hairs beneath. flowers white, in long, slender, erect clusters; july; petals , spreading; stamens very long. a beautiful, widely spreading shrub. to ft. high; from the southern states; often cultivated. probably hardy throughout. genus = . koelreutÈria.= a small tree with alternate, once to twice irregularly pinnate leaves with many coarsely toothed leaflets. flowers conspicuous, yellow, in terminal panicles. in summer. fruit rounded, bladdery, -celled, few-seeded pods; ripe in autumn. [illustration: k. paniculàta.] =koelreutèria paniculàta=, laxm. leaflets thin and very irregularly toothed. clusters to in. long, of many irregular flowers, ½ in. wide; through the summer. fruit an ovate, bladdery capsule, ripening in autumn. a fine, small, round-headed tree, to ft. high; from china. probably hardy throughout. genus = . Àcer.= trees, or rarely shrubs, with simple, opposite, and almost always palmately lobed leaves, which, in our species, are always deciduous. flowers small and usually dull-colored, in clusters. fruit double-winged and -seeded, in some species hanging on the tree till the leaves have fallen; in others dropping off early in the spring. the species differ much in the spreading of the wings of the fruit. wood light-colored and medium hard; bark rather smoothish, but in large trees with longitudinal cracks. * leaves slightly or not lobed . * leaves about -lobed (rarely -lobed); shrubs or small trees. (=a.=) =a.= leaves serrate , . =a.= leaves somewhat sinuate, not at all serrate; juice milky. . * leaves -, rarely -lobed. (=b.=) =b.= the lobes acute, irregularly but quite fully serrate; juice not milky. (=c.=) =c.= the fruit in corymbs, dropping early; american species. (=d.=) =d.= leaf-notches somewhat rounded; tree large; limbs drooping on old trees . =d.= leaf-notches acute; tree small . =c.= fruit in hanging racemes, remaining on the tree till autumn; leaves thickish . =b.= the lobes acute; sparingly or not at all serrate. (=e.=) =e.= juice not milky . =e.= juice milky at the bases of the leaves , . =b.= the lobes obtuse and sinuate . * leaves - to -lobed. (=f.=) =f.= lobes fully serrate . =f.= lobes sparingly serrate. (=g.=) =g.= juice milky , . =g.= juice not milky; leaves to in. broad . =f.= lobes somewhat sinuate, not serrate; juice milky . * leaves with or more lobes , . [illustration: À. spicàtum.] . =Àcer spicàtum=, lam. (mountain maple.) leaves with (rarely ) coarsely serrated, taper-pointed lobes, with slightly cordate base; downy beneath. flowers greenish-yellow, in erect, slender racemes or panicles, blooming in june. wings of the small fruit at about a right angle. small tree, to ft. high, or usually a shrub, with brown twigs. native; growing in moist woods; rarely cultivated. [illustration: À. pennsylvánicum.] . =Àcer pennsylvánicum=, l. (striped maple.) leaves large, thin, -lobed at the end, cordate at base, finely and sharply doubly serrate. flowers greenish, in drooping, elongated, loose racemes appearing after the leaves in spring. fruit with large diverging wings. a small, slender tree, with light green bark striped with dark red. wild throughout and cultivated. [illustration: À. dasycárpum.] . =Àcer dasycárpum=, ehrh. (silver or white maple.) leaves large, truncated at base, -lobed, with blunt notches, the lobes irregularly serrated and notched, silvery white, and, when young, downy beneath. flowers light yellowish-purple, preceding the leaves, in crowded umbels along the branches. wings of fruit large and forming about a right angle; ripe early in june. a rather large, rapidly growing, and usually somewhat weeping tree, with soft white wood. special cut-leaved and weeping varieties are sold at the nurseries. wild along river-banks, and extensively cultivated in the streets of cities. [illustration: À. rùbrum.] . =Àcer rùbrum=, l. (red maple.) leaves cordate at base and cleft into to acute-notched, irregularly toothed lobes, whitish beneath, turning a bright crimson in early autumn. flowers usually scarlet, rarely yellowish, in close clusters along the branches, appearing before the leaves in the spring. fruit often reddish, small, with the wings at about a right angle. a rather small, somewhat spreading tree with reddish branches; wild in wet places and often cultivated. [illustration: À. pseudoplátanus.] . =Àcer pseudoplátanus=, l. (sycamore-maple.) leaves thickish, cordate, downy beneath, with rather crenately toothed lobes, on long, often reddish petioles. flowers in long pendulous racemes, appearing after the leaves. fruit hanging on the tree till after the leaves fall in the autumn, the wings forming about a right angle. a rather large, spreading tree, to ft. high, with reddish-brown twigs. cultivated; from europe. many varieties of this species are sold by the nurserymen; among them may be mentioned the purple-leaved, golden-leaved, silver-leaved, tricolored, etc. [illustration: À. saccharìnum.] . =Àcer saccharìnum=, wang. (sugar or rock maple.) leaves deeply - to -lobed, with rounded notches; lobes acute, few-toothed; base heart-shaped, smooth above, glaucous beneath. flowers hanging in umbel-like clusters at the time the leaves are expanding in the spring. fruit with wings not quite forming a right angle. a large ( to ft. high), very symmetrical tree, ovate in form, with whitish-brown twigs. wild throughout, and extensively cultivated in the streets of cities. var. _nigrum_, torr. and gray. (black sugar-maple.) leaves scarcely paler beneath, but often minutely downy; lobes wider, often shorter and entire; notch at the base often closed (the under leaf in the figure). found with the other sugar-maple, and quite variable. [illustration: À. macrophýllum.] . =Àcer macrophýllum=, ph. (large-leaved or california maple.) leaves very large, to in. broad; -, sometimes -lobed, with deep, rounded notches; lobes themselves somewhat -lobed and repand-notched; pubescent beneath. flowers yellow, in erect panicles, fragrant, blooming after the leaves are expanded. fruit large, with the seeded portion hairy; wings at about a right angle. tree very large ( ft. high); wood soft, whitish, beautifully veined. twigs brown; buds green. cultivated; from the pacific coast, but not hardy north of ° n. latitude. [illustration: À. platanoìdes.] . =Àcer platanoìdes=, l. (norway maple.) leaves large, smooth, -, rarely -cleft, with cordate base; lobes acute, with few coarse, sharp teeth, bright green both sides. the leaves resemble those of the sycamore (platanus). flowers a little later than the leaves in spring, in stalked corymbs, less drooping than the sugar-maple (no. ). fruit with wings diverging in a straight line. a medium-sized, broad, rounded tree with brown twigs and milky juice, best seen at the bases of the young leaves. cultivated throughout. [illustration: À. lætum.] . =Àcer lætum.= (colchicum-leaved maple.) leaves - to -lobed, scarcely heart-shaped at base, smooth and green on both sides; juice milky; the lobes usually without any notches or irregularities, sometimes with about three winding sinuations. flowers in erect corymbs. differs from acer platanoides in having the lobes of the leaves more nearly entire, and the fruit much smaller with wings not so broadly spreading. [illustration: À. campéstre.] . =Àcer campéstre=, l. (english or cork-bark maple.) leaves cordate, with usually roundish lobes, sparingly crenate or rather undulated; juice milky. racemes of flowers erect, appearing after the leaves in spring. wings of the fruit broadly spreading; fruit ripening very late. a low ( to ft. high), round-headed tree, with the twigs and smaller branches covered with corky bark. occasionally cultivated; from europe. var. _variegatum_ has white blotched leaves. [illustration: À. palmàtum.] . =Àcer palmàtum=, thunb. (palmate-leaved japan maple.) leaves small, smooth, palmately parted into to quite regularly serrated lobes. flowers in small umbels. a very low tree, almost a shrub; cultivated; from japan; probably hardy throughout. there are a great number of japan maples, many of them probably varieties of this species, others hybrids. the leaves of some are so divided and dissected as to form merely a fringe or feather. in color they range from pure green to the richest reds. [illustration: À. circinàtum.] . =Àcer circinàtum=, pursh. (round-leaved or vine maple.) leaves orbicular, with to serrated, acute lobes, a heart-shaped base, reddish-green color, and both surfaces smooth. corymbs of purplish flowers, small and hanging on long peduncles; appearing after the leaves. wings of the fruit diverging in a straight line. a small tree or tall shrub, to ft. high, of spreading habit, with smooth bark, and pale brown twigs; cultivated; from the pacific coast of north america. [illustration: À. tartáricum.] . =Àcer tartáricum=, l. (tartarian maple.) leaves ovate, slightly cordate, rarely lobed, serrated, light-colored, expanding very early in the spring. panicle of greenish-yellow flowers erect, blooming after the leaves have expanded. wings of the fruit parallel or sometimes touching. a small tree, sometimes shrubby in growth, of irregular form, with brown twigs; rarely cultivated; from europe. genus = . negÚndo.= leaves pinnate, of to leaflets. flowers rather inconspicuous. fruit a two-winged key as in acer, in drooping racemes. [illustration: n. aceroìdes.] =negúndo aceroìdes=, moench. (ash-leaved maple. box-elder.) leaves pinnate, of to (rarely ) coarsely and sparingly toothed leaflets. flowers staminate and pistillate on separate trees, in drooping clusters rather earlier than the leaves. fruit on only a portion of the trees; wings forming less than a right angle. a rather small ( to ft. high), rapidly growing tree, with light pea-green twigs; wild from pennsylvania and south, and cultivated throughout. var. _californicum_, torr. and gray (the under drawing in the figure), has leaflets more deeply cut, thicker, and quite hairy; it is occasionally cultivated. order =xvi. anacardiÁceÆ.= (cashew family.) trees and shrubs, mainly of the tropical regions, here represented by only one genus: genus = . rhÚs.= low trees or shrubs with acrid, often poisonous, usually milky juice, and dotless, alternate, usually pinnately compound leaves. flowers greenish-white or yellowish, in large terminal panicles. fruit small ( / in.), indehiscent, dry drupes in large clusters, generally remaining on through the autumn. * leaves simple, rounded, entire , . * leaves once-pinnate. (=a.=) =a.= twigs very hairy; rachis not winged; leaflets to . =a.= twigs downy; rachis wing-margined; leaflets entire or nearly so . =a.= twigs smooth. (=b.=) =b.= rachis of leaf broadly winged; leaflets serrate . =b.= rachis not winged. (=c.=) =c.= leaflets to , serrate; fruit hairy . =c.= leaflets to , entire; fruit smooth; poisonous . * leaves twice-pinnate; variety under . [illustration: r. týphina.] . =rhús týphina=, l. (stag-horn sumac.) leaflets to , oblong-lanceolate, pointed, serrate (rarely laciniate), pale beneath. branches and footstalks densely hairy. fruit globular, in large, dense, erect panicles, covered with crimson hairs. shrub or tree, to ft. high. it is very common along fences and on hillsides. the wood is orange-colored and brittle. [illustration: r. glàbra.] . =rhús glàbra=, l. (smooth sumac.) leaflets to , lanceolate-oblong, pointed, serrate, smooth, glaucous white beneath. branches not hairy. fruit globular, in a rather open, spreading cluster, covered densely with crimson hairs. a shrubby plant, to ft. high, found quite abundantly in rocky or barren soil throughout. [illustration: r. laciniàta.] var. _laciniata_ is frequently planted for ornament. it has very irregularly twice-pinnate leaves drooping gracefully from the branches. [illustration: r. copallìna.] . =rhús copallìna=, l. (dwarf mountain sumac.) branches and stalks downy; leafstalk wing-margined between the to oblong-lanceolate, usually entire leaflets, which are oblique at base and smooth and shining above. wild in rocky hills throughout; often cultivated. north, a beautiful shrub; south, a tree. to ft. high. [illustration: r. venenàta.] . =rhús venenàta=, dc. (poison-sumac. poison-dogwood. poison-elder.) leaflets to , obovate-oblong, entire, abruptly pointed, smooth or nearly so. fruit small, globular, smooth, dun-colored, in loose axillary panicles hanging on late in winter; the stone striate. this is a very poisonous species (to the touch), to ft. high, growing in swamps. rarely at all tree-like. [illustration: r. osbéckii.] . =rhús osbéckii=, dc. (chinese sumac.) leaves very large, pinnate, assuming in autumn a rich reddish-fawn or orange color; the leafstalk broadly winged between the leaflets; leaflets serrate. a small ornamental tree, to ft. high; cultivated; from china; quite hardy in the northern states. [illustration: r. cótinus.] . =rhús cótinus=, l. (smoke-tree. venetian sumac.) leaves smooth, obovate, entire, on slender petioles. flowers greenish, minute, in terminal or axillary panicles. fruit seldom found. usually most of the flowers are abortive, while their pedicels lengthen, branch, and form long feather-like hairs, making large cloud-like branches that look somewhat like smoke (whence the name). a shrub or small tree, to ft. high, often planted for ornament; from europe. [illustration: r. cotinoìdes.] . =rhús cotinoìdes=, nutt. (american smoke-tree.) leaves thin, oval, obtuse, entire, acute at base, to in. long, smooth or nearly so. flowers and fruit like those of the cultivated species (rhus cotinus). a tree to ft. high; stem sometimes a foot or more in diameter in the southern states; wild in tennessee, west and south. rare in cultivation. order =xvii. leguminosÆ.= (pulse family.) a very large order of plants, mainly herbaceous; found in all climates. a few are shrubby, and others are from small to large trees. genus = . labÚrnum.= low trees or shrubs with alternate, palmate leaves of three leaflets. flowers conspicuous, pea-blossom-shaped, in long hanging racemes, in late spring. fruit pea-pod-shaped, dark brown, and many-seeded; ripe in autumn. [illustration: l. vulgàre.] =labúrnum vulgàre.= (laburnum. golden-chain. bean-trefoil tree.) leaves petiolate, with ovate-lanceolate leaflets, pubescent beneath. flowers bright yellow, nearly in. long, in long ( ft.), pendulous, simple racemes; in late spring. pods in. long, linear, many-seeded, covered with closely appressed pubescence; one edge thick; ripe in autumn. a low, very ornamental tree, to ft. high, often cultivated; from switzerland. varieties with reddish, purple, and white flowers are also in cultivation. var. _alpinus_ has smooth pods. genus = . caragÀna.= leaves alternate, deciduous, abruptly once-pinnate; leaflets mucronate; stipules usually spinescent. flowers pea-flower-shaped, mostly yellow. trees or shrubs of asia. [illustration: c. arboréscens.] =caragàna arboréscens=, larn. (pea-tree.) leaves with to pairs of oval-oblong, mucronate-pointed, hairy leaflets; petioles unarmed; stipules spinescent. flowers yellow, blooming in may. pods brown, ripe in august. a low, stiff, erect tree, to ft. high; in poor soil a bush. from siberia; frequent in cultivation. genus = . cladrÁstis.= small tree with alternate, odd-pinnate leaves, the base of the petiole hollow, and inclosing the leaf-buds of the next year. flowers large, pea-blossom-like in shape, in large clusters. fruit pea-pod-like in shape and size. wood light yellow, firm and hard. [illustration: c. tinctòria.] =cladrástis tinctòria=, raf. (yellow-wood.) leaflets to , oval to ovate, to in. long, beautiful light green in color. flowers in. long, white, not so fragrant as the common locust, in hanging panicles to in. long; blooming in june. pods in. long, ripe in august. wild but rare in kentucky and south. a beautiful tree, to ft. high, with very smooth grayish bark; rarely cultivated. genus = . robÍnia.= trees or shrubs with alternate, odd-pinnate leaves, having spines on each side of the stalk in place of stipules. leafstalk thickened near the base, and covering to buds for the growth of a branch for the next year. an axillary bud also found that may produce a branch the same year as the leaf. flowers large, pea-blossom-shaped, in large clusters. fruit a pea-shaped pod. * branchlets and leafstalks not sticky . * branchlets and leafstalks sticky . [illustration: r. pseudacácia.] . =robínia pseudacácia=, l. (common locust.) leaflets to , small, oblong-ovate, entire, thin. twigs purplish-brown, slender, smooth, not sticky. flowers white, fragrant, in hanging racemes, to in. long. june. pods flat, smooth, purplish-brown, ripe in september. an irregularly growing, slender tree, to ft. high, with white or greenish-yellow, very durable wood, and on old trees very rough bark with long, deep furrows. native; pennsylvania, west and south, and extensively planted and naturalized throughout. a number of varieties, some of which are thornless, are in cultivation. [illustration: r. viscòsa.] . =robínia viscòsa=, vent. (clammy locust.) leaflets to , ovate-oblong, sometimes slightly heart-shaped at base, tipped with a short bristle. twigs and leafstalks sticky to the touch. flowers in a short, rather compact, upright raceme, rose-colored and inodorous. a small tree, to ft. high; native south, and has been quite extensively cultivated north. . =robínia híspida=, l. (bristly locust. rose-acacia.), with bristly leafstalks and branchlets, and large rose-colored flowers, is only a bush. often cultivated. wild from virginia and south. genus = . cÉrcis.= small trees or shrubs, with alternate, simple, heart-shaped leaves. flowers in umbel-like clusters along the branches, appearing before the leaves, and shaped like pea-blossoms. fruit pea-like pods, remaining on the tree throughout the year. wood hard, heavy, and beautifully blotched or waved with black, green, and yellow, on a gray ground. [illustration: c. canadénsis.] . =cércis canadénsis=, l. (judas-tree. redbud.) leaves acutely pointed, smooth, dark green, glossy. flowers bright red-purple. pods nearly sessile, to in. long, brown when ripe in august. a small ornamental tree, to ft. high, with smooth bark and hard apple-tree-like wood; wild from central new york southward, and often cultivated. . =cércis siliquástrum= (european judas-tree.), from europe, with obtusely pointed, somewhat kidney-shaped leaves, and white to purple flowers, is sometimes cultivated. it is not so tall or tree-like as the american species. genus = . gymnÓcladus.= tall trees with alternate, very large ( to ft. long), unequally twice-pinnate leaves. flowers white, conspicuous, in racemes at the ends of the branches. fruit a large pea-like pod. some trees are without fruit through the abortion of the pistils. [illustration: g. canadénsis.] =gymnócladus canadénsis=, lam. (kentucky coffee-tree.) leaves to ft. long, often with the lower pinnæ simple and the upper pinnate. leaflets ovate, of a dull bluish-green color. shoots cane-like, blunt and stubby, quite erect. bark exceedingly rough. pod large, to in. long, in. broad, with seeds over ½ in. across. a large ( to ft. high) tree with compact, tough, reddish wood. wild from western new york southwestward, and occasionally cultivated as an ornamental tree. genus = . gledÍtschia.= usually thorny trees with alternate, once to twice abruptly pinnate leaves. flowers inconspicuous, greenish, in small spikes. summer. fruit a small or large pea-like pod, with one to many seeds; ripe in autumn, but often hanging on the trees through the winter. [illustration: g. triacánthos.] . =gledítschia triacánthos=, l. (honey-locust.) leaflets lanceolate-oblong, somewhat serrate. pods linear, to ½ ft. long, often twisted, filled with sweet pulp between the seeds. a large, handsome, clean tree, with usually many stout, much-branched thorns, especially abundant on bruised portions of the trunk and large branches; thorns compressed at base. wild from pennsylvania southward and westward, and extensively cultivated throughout. a variety without thorns is frequently met with (var. _inermis_), also one with drooping foliage (var. _bujotii pendula_). [illustration: g. aquática.] . =gledítschia aquática=, marsh. (water-locust.) leaflets ovate or oblong. pods oval, to in. long, - to few-seeded, without pulp. a small tree with few slender, usually simple thorns; in swamps in southern illinois and south. occasionally planted for ornament. this species is quite similar to the preceding one, but the leaves are somewhat smaller, the thorns, though occasionally branching, do not branch so extensively, and the pod is very short and rounded. [illustration: g. sinénsis.] . =gledítschia sinénsis=, lam. (chinese honey-locust.) a tree with stouter and more conical thorns, broader and more oval leaflets. a medium-sized or small tree, often cultivated. this species, like the others, has a thornless variety. genus = . albÍzzia.= trees or shrubs with abruptly pinnate leaves. fruit a broad-linear straight pod. [illustration: a. julibríssin.] =albízzia julibríssin=, boivin. (silk-tree.) leaves twice abruptly pinnate, of many (over ) leaflets; leaflets semi-oblong, curved, entire, acute, with the midrib near the upper edge. flowers in globose heads forming panicles. fruit plain pods on short stems. a very beautiful small tree, introduced from japan; probably not hardy north of washington. the figure shows only one of the lowest and shortest side divisions (pinnæ) of the leaf. the pinnæ increase in length and number of leaflets to the end of the leaf. order =xviii. rosaceÆ.= (rose family.) a large and very useful order of trees, shrubs, and herbs of temperate regions. genus = . prÙnus.= trees or shrubs with simple, alternate, deciduous, usually serrate, stipulate leaves, without lobes. the stems produce gum when injured. foliage and nuts have flavor of peach-leaves. flowers conspicuous, usually white, or light pink, often in clusters, peach-blossom-shaped; in early spring. fruit in size from pea to peach, a rounded drupe with one stony-coated seed. * drupe large, soft velvety on the surface; stone rough (peach, apricot) . * drupe medium, covered with a bloom; stone smooth, flattened (plums). (=a.=) =a.= usually thorny; wild, rarely cultivated. (=b.=) =b.= leaves acuminate , . =b.= leaves not acuminate , . =a.= not thorny; cultivated . * drupe medium to small, smooth, without bloom (cherries). (=c.=) =c.= drupes clustered in umbels, ½- in. in diameter. (=d.=) =d.= small cultivated tree; drupe globose, rather large, very sour . =d.= large cultivated tree; drupe large, somewhat pitted at the stem . =d.= rather small, native tree; drupe small, flesh thin . =c.= drupes clustered in racemes, / - / in. in diameter. (=e.=) =e.= tall shrubs rather than trees; racemes short . =e.= trees; racemes quite elongated. (=f.=) =f.= stone of fruit somewhat roughened . =f.= stone smooth . [illustration: p. pérsica.] . =prùnus pérsica=, l. (common peach.) leaves lanceolate, serrate. flowers rose-colored, nearly sessile, very early in bloom. fruit clothed with velvety down, large; stone rough-wrinkled. a small tree, to ft. high, cultivated in numberless varieties for its fruit. var. _lævis_ (nectarine) has smooth-skinned fruit. [illustration: p. americàna.] . =prùnus americàna=, marsh. (wild yellow or red plum.) leaves ovate or somewhat obovate, conspicuously pointed, coarsely or doubly serrate, very veiny, smooth when mature. fruit with little or no bloom, ½ to in. in diameter, yellow, orange, or red; skin tough and bitter. stone with two sharp edges. a small, thorny tree, to ft. high, common in woodlands and on river-banks. many improved varieties, some thornless, are in cultivation. wood reddish color. [illustration: p. alleghaniénsis.] . =prùnus alleghaniénsis=, porter. (alleghany plum.) leaves lanceolate to oblong-ovate, often long-acuminate, finely and sharply serrate, softly pubescent when young, smooth when old; fruit globose-ovoid, under ½ in., very dark purple, with a bloom; stone turgid, a shallow groove on one side and a broad, flat ridge on the other. a low, straggling bush, occasionally a tree, to ft. high. mountains of pennsylvania. [illustration: p. chicàsa.] . =prùnus chicàsa=, michx. (chicasaw plum.) leaves long, narrow, almost lanceolate, acute, finely serrate, thin. flowers on short stalks. fruit globular, ½ to / in. in diameter, thin-skinned, without bloom, yellowish-red, pleasant to taste. stone globular, without sharp edges. a thorny shrub or small tree, to ft. high; wild in new jersey, west and south, and often cultivated. [illustration: p. spinòsa.] . =prùnus spinòsa=, l. (sloe. blackthorn. bullace plum.) leaves obovate-oblong to lance-oblong, sharply serrate, soon smooth; leafstalk smooth; fruit small, globular, black, with a bloom; the stone rounded, acute at one edge; flesh greenish, astringent. a low tree with thorny branches; it is becoming naturalized along roadsides and waste places; from europe. var. _instititia_ (bullace plum) is less thorny, and has the leafstalk and lower side of the leaves pubescent. [illustration: p. doméstica.] . =prùnus doméstica=, l. (common garden plum.) leaves to in. long, oval or ovate-lanceolate, acute to obtuse. flowers white, nearly solitary. drupe globular, obovoid to ovoid, of many colors (black, white, etc.), covered with a rich glaucous bloom. a small tree, to ft. high, in cultivation everywhere for its fruit. over a hundred varieties are named in the catalogues. [illustration: p. pennsylvánica.] . =prùnus pennsylvánica=, l. f. (wild red cherry.) leaves oblong-lanceolate, pointed, finely and sharply serrate, shining green, smooth on both sides. flowers many in an umbel on long stems. fruit round, light red, quite small, ¼ in. in diameter, sour. a small tree, to ft. high, in rocky woods; common north and extending southward along the alleghanies to north carolina. [illustration: p. àvium.] . =prùnus àvium=, l. (bird-cherry or english cherry.) leaves oval-lanceolate, sharp-pointed, coarsely or doubly serrate. flowers in sessile umbels, opening when the leaves appear. fruit of various colors, somewhat heart-shaped. this is the cherry tree, to ft. high, of which there are many named varieties usually cultivated for the fruit. [illustration: p. cérasus.] . =prùnus cérasus=, l. (garden red cherry. morello cherry.) leaves obovate and lance-ovate, serrate, on slender spreading branches. flowers rather large. fruit globular, bright red to dark purple, very sour; in sessile umbels. a small, round-headed tree, to ft. high, often cultivated. the preceding species and this one are the parents of most of the cherry trees in cultivation. [illustration: p. serótina.] . =prùnus serótina=, ehrh. (wild black cherry.) leaves oblong or lance-oblong, thickish, smooth, usually taper-pointed, serrate, with incurved, short, thick teeth. flowers in long racemes. june. fruit as large as peas, purple-black, bitter; ripe in autumn. a fine tree, to ft. high, with reddish-brown branches. wood reddish and valuable for cabinet-work. common in woodlands and along fences. [illustration: p. virginiàna.] . =prùnus virginiàna=, l. (choke-cherry.) leaves thin, oval-oblong or obovate, abruptly pointed, very sharply, often doubly serrate, with slender teeth. racemes of flowers and fruit short and close. fruit dark crimson, stone smooth. flowers in may; fruit ripe in august; not edible till fully ripe. a tall shrub, sometimes a tree, with grayish bark. river-banks, common especially northward. [illustration: p. pàdus.] . =prùnus pàdus=, l. (small bird-cherry.) like prunus virginiana, excepting that the racemes are longer and drooping, and the stone is roughened. occasionally planted for ornament. genus = . pyrus.= trees and shrubs, with alternate, stipulate, simple, or pinnately compound leaves. flowers conspicuous, white to pink, apple-blossom-shaped ( petals); in spring. fruit a fleshy pome, with the cells formed by papery or cartilaginous membranes within juicy flesh. * leaves deeply pinnatifid or fully pinnate (mountain ashes) (=a.=) =a.= leaf deeply pinnatifid, sometimes fully divided at the base. . =a.= leaf once-pinnate throughout. (=b.=) =b.= leaf-buds pointed, smooth and somewhat glutinous . =b.= leaf-buds more or less hairy , . * leaves simple and not pinnatifid. (=c.=) =c.= leaves entire; fruit solitary (quinces) . =c.= leaves serrate; fruit clustered. (=d.=) =d.= fruit large, sunken at both ends (apples) . =d.= fruit small (½- in.), sour, much sunken at the stem end and but little at the other (crab-apples). (=e.=) =e.= leaves very narrow; fruit ½ in. . =e.= leaves broad; fruit in. . =d.= fruit usually obovate, not sunken at the stem end (pears). . [illustration: p. màlus.] . =pyrus màlus=, l. (common apple-tree.) leaves simple, ovate, evenly crenate or serrate, smooth on the upper surface and woolly on the lower. flowers large ( in.), white, tinged with pink, in small corymbs. may. fruit large, sunken at both ends, especially at base; ripe from august to october, according to variety. a flat-topped tree, to ft. high, cultivated in hundreds of named varieties; from europe. [illustration: p. angustifòlia.] . =pyrus angustifòlia=, ait. (narrow-leaved crab-apple.) leaves simple, lanceolate or oblong, often acute at base, mostly serrate, smooth. flowers large ( / in.), rose-colored, fragrant, in small, simple, umbel-like clusters. fruit very sour, small (½ in.). twigs lead-colored and speckled. a small tree, to ft. high. pennsylvania and southward. [illustration: p. coronària.] . =pyrus coronària=, l. (american or garland crab-apple.) leaves simple, ovate, often rather heart-shaped, cut-serrate, often -lobed, soon smooth. flowers large (¾ in.), few, in a cluster, rose-colored, very fragrant. fruit very sour and astringent, flattened, broad, in. or more in diameter, yellowish green. small tree, to ft. high; new york, west and south, also frequently cultivated. [illustration: p. commùnis.] . =pyrus commùnis=, l. (common pear-tree.) leaves simple, ovate, serrate, smooth on both sides, at least when mature. flowers large (over in.), white, with purple anthers. april and may. fruit large, usually obovate and mainly sunken at the large end; ripe july to october, according to the variety. a pyramidal-shaped tree, to ft. high, with smooth bark and often somewhat thorny branches. of several hundred named varieties, native to europe. cultivated for its fruit. wood slightly tinged with red; strong, and of fine grain. [illustration: p. vulgàris.] . =pyrus vulgàris.= (quince. common quince-tree.) leaves ovate, obtuse at base, entire, hairy beneath. flowers solitary, large, in., white or pale rose-color. fruit large, hard, orange-yellow, of peculiar sour flavor; seeds mucilaginous; ripens in october. a low tree, to ft. high, with a crooked stem and rambling branches; from europe. several varieties in cultivation. [illustration: p. pinnatífida.] . =pyrus pinnatífida=, ehrh. (oak-leaved mountain-ash.) leaves pinnately cleft and often fully pinnate at base, hairy beneath. pome globose, ¼ in., scarlet, ripe in autumn. a cultivated tree, to ft. high; from europe. [illustration: p. americàna.] . =pyrus americàna=, dc. (american mountain-ash.) leaflets to , lanceolate, bright green, nearly smooth, taper-pointed, sharply serrate with pointed teeth. leaf-buds pointed, glabrous and somewhat glutinous. flowers white, / in., in large, flat, compound cymes. in june. fruit berry-like pomes, the size of small peas, bright scarlet when ripe in september, and hanging on the tree till winter. a tall shrub or tree, to ft. high, in swamps and mountain woods; more abundant northward. often cultivated for the showy clusters of berries in autumn. [illustration: p. sambucifòlia.] . =pyrus sambucifòlia=, cham. & schlecht. (elder-leaved mountain-ash.) leaflets oblong, oval or lance-ovate, obtuse (sometimes abruptly sharp-pointed), usually doubly serrate with rather spreading teeth, generally pale beneath. leaf-buds somewhat hairy. flowers and berries larger, but in smaller clusters, than the preceding species. the berries globose when ripe, / in. broad, bright red. this species, much like pyrus americana, is found wild in northern new england and westward. [illustration: p. aucupària.] . =pyrus aucupària=, gaertn. (european mountain-ash, or rowan-tree.) much like pyrus americana, but the leaflets are paler and more obtuse, with their lower surface downy. leaf-buds blunter and densely covered with hairs. flowers larger, ½ in. or more in diameter. fruit also much larger, sometimes nearly ½ in. in diameter. beautiful tree, to ft. high, often cultivated. genus = . cratÆgus.= thorny shrubs or small trees with simple, alternate, serrate, doubly serrate or lobed leaves. flowers cherry-like blossoms, usually white in color and growing in corymbs, generally on the ends of side shoots; in spring. fruit a berry or drupe with to bony stones, tipped with the persistent calyx-teeth; ripe in autumn. * calyx, stipules, bracts, etc., often glandular. (=a.=) =a.= flowers and fruit often over in a cluster. (=b.=) =b.= leaves usually abrupt at base . =b.= leaves usually attenuate at base . =a.= flowers and fruit few, to in a cluster . * calyx, etc., without glands (no. has glandular teeth to the calyx); flowers many in a cluster. (=c.=) =c.= leaves more or less tapering at base. (=d.=) =d.= leaves generally lobed; cultivated, rarely escaped . =d.= leaves rarely lobed; native. (=e.=) =e.= leaves small, shining, crenate at the end . =e.= leaves villous or pubescent, at least when young . =e.= leaves smooth or only downy at the axils, acutely serrate. south . =c.= leaves usually abrupt at base, sometimes cordate. (=f.=) =f.= leaves downy when young. (=g.=) =g.= leaves usually lobed . =g.= leaves rarely lobed; veins very prominent . =f.= leaves quite smooth . [illustration: c. coccínea.] . =cratægus coccínea=, l. (scarlet-fruited thorn.) leaves bright green, smooth, thin, roundish-ovate, sharply cut-toothed or lobed, on slender petioles. branches reddish, villous-pubescent; spines stout, chestnut-brown. flowers large, ½ to / in., many in a corymb, on glandular peduncles. may to june. fruit scarlet, round or pear-shaped, ½ in.; ripe in september, with from to cells and seeds. tall shrub or low tree, to ft. high, in hedges and woods; common from canada to florida. var. _mollis_ has the shoots densely pubescent; leaves large, slender-petioled, cuneate, cordate or truncate at base, usually with acute narrow lobes, often rough above, and more or less densely pubescent beneath. flowers large, in.; fruit light scarlet with a light bloom, in. broad. [illustration: c. crus-gálli.] . =cratægus crus-gálli=, l. (cockspur thorn.) leaves smooth, thick, shining above, wedge-obovate, finely serrate above the middle, with a short petiole. there are broad and narrow-leaved varieties. flowers large and numerous, in lateral corymbs. may to june. fruit globular, / in. broad, dull red; ripe in september and october. a small tree with a flat, bushy head, horizontal branches, and long, sharp thorns. wild and common throughout, and often planted. [illustration: c. oxyacántha.] . =cratægus oxyacántha.= (english hawthorn.) leaves obovate, smooth, wedge-shaped at base, cut-lobed and toothed above. no glands. flowers medium-sized, ½ in., single or double, white, rose, or pink-red, numerous in corymbs. in spring. fruit coral-red, / in.; ripe in autumn. a small tree or shrub, fine for lawn; from europe; also escaped in some places. [illustration: c. apiifólia.] . =cratægus apiifólia=, michx. (parsley-leaved thorn.) leaves small, ovate, with a broad truncate or heart-shaped base, pinnatifid into to crowded, irregularly toothed lobes; white and soft-downy when young, smoothish when grown; petioles slender. flowers medium-sized, ½ in., many in a corymb, white. may to june. fruit small, / in., coral-red, ripe in autumn. a handsome, low ( to ft. high), spreading tree, with flexible branches and white-downy twigs. virginia and south, in moist woods. [illustration: c. spathulàta.] . =cratægus spathulàta=, michx. (spatulate-leaved thorn.) leaves almost evergreen, thick, shining, spatulate, crenate toward the apex and nearly sessile, those on the young downy branches somewhat cut or lobed. flowers small, ½ in., in large clusters. may. fruit small, ¼ in., bright red; ripe in october. a small tree, to ft. high; virginia and south. [illustration: c. cordàta.] . =cratægus cordàta=, ait. (washington thorn.) leaves broadly triangular-ovate, somewhat heart-shaped, thin, deep shining green, smooth, often - to -lobed and serrate, on slender petioles. flowers small, / in., many in terminal corymbs, white. may, june. fruit scarlet, about the size of peas; ripe in september. a compact, close-headed, small tree, to ft. high, with many slender thorns. virginia, kentucky, and southward. sometimes planted in the north for hedges. [illustration: c. víridis.] . =cratægus víridis=, l. (tall hawthorn.) leaves ovate to ovate-oblong, or lanceolate, or oblong-obovate, mostly acute at both ends, on slender petioles; acutely serrate, often somewhat lobed and often downy in the axils. flowers numerous, in large clusters. fruit bright red, or orange, ovoid, small, ¼ in. broad. a small tree, to ft. high, with few large thorns or without thorns. southern illinois and missouri, along the mississippi and in the southern states. [illustration: c. tomentòsa.] . =cratægus tomentòsa=, l. (black or pear hawthorn.) leaves downy-pubescent on the lower side (at least when young), thickish, rather large, oval or ovate-oblong, sharply toothed and often cut-lobed below, abruptly narrowed into a margined petiole, the upper surface impressed along the main veins or ribs. branches gray. flowers ill-scented, many in a corymb. fruit ½ in. long, obovate to globose, dull red. shrub or tree, to ft. high, wild in western new york, west and south. [illustration: c. punctàta.] . =cratægus punctàta.= (dotted-fruited hawthorn.) leaves rather small, mostly wedge-obovate, attenuate and entire below, unequally toothed above, rarely lobed, villous-pubescent, becoming smooth but dull, the veins prominent beneath and impressed above. fruit globose, large, in. broad, red to bright yellow; peduncles not glandular. shrub to tree, to ft. high, with horizontal branches; canada to georgia. [illustration: c. flàva.] . =cratægus flàva=, ait. (yellow or summer haw.) leaves small, wedge-obovate, unequally toothed and cut above the middle; on short petioles; the teeth, stipules and petioles glandular. flowers mostly solitary, white, large (¾ in). may. fruit usually pear-shaped, quite large (¾ in. long), yellow or greenish-yellow, sometimes tinged or spotted with red, pleasant-flavored. ripe in autumn. a low spreading tree, to ft. high. virginia, south and west, in sandy soil. var. _pubescens_ is downy-or villous-pubescent when young, and has thicker leaves and larger and redder fruit. genus = . amelÁnchier.= small trees or shrubs with simple, deciduous, alternate, sharply serrate leaves; cherry-blossom-like, white flowers, in racemes at the end of the branches, before the leaves are fully expanded. fruit a small apple-like pome; seeds or less, in separate cartilaginous-coated cells. [illustration: a. canadénsis.] =amelánchier canadénsis=, torr. & gray. (shad-bush. service-berry.) a very variable species with many named varieties. the leaves, to ½ in. long, vary from narrow-oblong to roundish or cordate; bracts and stipules silky-ciliate. flowers large, in drooping racemes, in early spring, with petals from to times as long as wide. fruit globular, ½ in. broad, purplish, sweet, edible; ripe in june. it varies from a low shrub to a middle-sized tree, to ft. high. order =xix. hamamelÍdeÆ.= (witch-hazel family.) a small family of trees and shrubs represented in most countries. genus = . hamamÈlis.= tall shrubs, rarely tree-like, with alternate, straight-veined, -ranked, oval, wavy-margined leaves. flowers conspicuous, yellow, -parted; blooming in the autumn while the leaves are dropping, and continuing in bloom through part of the winter. fruit rounded capsules which do not ripen till the next summer. [illustration: h. virginiána.] =hamamèlis virginiána=, l. (witch-hazel.) the only species; to ft. high; rarely grows with a single trunk, but usually forms a slender, crooked-branched shrub. flowers sessile, in small clusters of to , in an involucre in the axils of the leaves. genus = . liquidÁmbar.= trees with alternate, simple, palmately cleft leaves. flowers inconspicuous; in spring. fruit a large ( in.), globular, long-stalked, dry, open, rough catkin, hanging on the tree through the winter. [illustration: l. styracíflua.] =liquidámbar styracíflua=, l. (sweet gum. bilsted.) leaves rounded, deeply - to -cleft, star-shaped, dark green, smooth and shining, glandular-serrate. twigs often covered with corky ridges. a large, beautiful tree, to ft. high, with deeply furrowed bark. connecticut, west and south; abundant south of ° n. lat. well worthy of more extensive cultivation than it has yet received. order =xx. lythrÀceÆ.= (loosestrife family.) a small order of shrubs, herbs, or trees; mainly tropical. genus = . pÙnica.= leaves simple, usually opposite, deciduous; flowers scarlet, with petals and numerous stamens; fruit a many-seeded berry. [illustration: p. granàtum.] =pùnica granàtum=, l. (pomegranate-tree.) leaves opposite, lanceolate, smooth, entire; flowers large, both calyx and corolla scarlet and very ornamental; the fruit as large as an orange, fine-flavored. a tree-shaped plant, growing to the height of ft. in the southern states. if given some protection, it can be grown as far north as washington. it has been cultivated from the earliest times, and is probably a native of western asia. genus = . lagerstroemia.= flowers with long-clawed petals inserted on the broadly spreading calyx; fruit - to -celled pods with many winged seeds. [illustration: l. Índica.] =lagerstroemia Índica=, l. (crape-myrtle.) leaves roundish-ovate, thick, smooth, short-petiolate; branches winged; flowers in terminal clusters with large, delicately crisped, long-stemmed petals of pink, purple, and other colors. a beautiful small tree, or usually a shrub, from india; often cultivated in the north in conservatories; hardy as far north as washington. order =xxi. araliÀceÆ.= (ginseng family.) a small order of herbs, shrubs, and trees, here represented by the following genus: genus = . arÀlia.= herbs, shrubs, or trees, with pinnately or palmately compound leaves; here including acanthopanax with palmately cleft leaves. flowers whitish or greenish, in umbels, often forming large panicles. fruit small, berry-like, several-celled, several-seeded. * leaves to times odd-pinnate (aralia proper) , . * leaves simple, palmately cleft (acanthopanax) . [illustration: a. spinòsa.] . =aràlia spinòsa=, l. (angelica-tree. hercules'-club.) leaves large, crowded at the summit of the stem, twice or sometimes thrice odd-pinnate, usually prickly, with sessile, ovate, acuminate, deeply serrate leaflets, glaucous beneath. large panicles of small whitish flowers in umbels, with involucres of few leaves. berry small, ¼ in., -ribbed, crowned with the remains of the calyx. a tree-like plant, to ft. high, or in the gulf states ft. high, with the stem covered with numerous prickles. usually dies to the ground after flowering. wild in damp woods, pennsylvania and south, and cultivated in the north. [illustration: a. chinénsis.] . =aràlia chinénsis.= leaves more or less fully twice-pinnate; leaflets ovate-oblong, oblique at base, acuminate, sharply serrate, hairy. flowers and fruit in large, branching, hairy panicles; thorns few, straight. a small tree, to ft. high; occasionally cultivated; from china. [illustration: a. maximowíczii.] . =aràlia (acanthópanax) maximowíczii.= leaves long-petioled, simple, thick, palmately cleft, with serrate lobes; old leaves smooth, the young with woolly bases. panicles of flowers and fruit terminal; the berries striated. tree-trunk usually quite prickly. this species is said to grow ft. high in japan. it has been recently introduced, and proves perfectly hardy in massachusetts. order =xxii. cornÀceÆ.= (dogwood family.) a small order of shrubs and trees (rarely herbs) of temperate regions. genus = . cÓrnus.= small trees or shrubs (one species an herb) with simple, entire, curved-veined, and (except in one species) opposite leaves. the curved parallel ribs of the leaves in all the species are quite peculiar and readily recognized. flowers small, of petals, in some species rendered very conspicuous by large bracts. fruit small, usually bright-colored drupes in clusters; ripe from august to october. there are but species that grow at all tree-like. * leaves opposite. (=a.=) =a.= fruit in close head-like clusters, red when ripe . =a.= fruit in open clusters. (=b.=) =b.= branches bright red; fruit white . =b.= branches brownish; fruit bright red . * leaves alternate; fruit blue . [illustration: c. flórida.] . =córnus flórida=, l. (flowering dogwood.) leaves ovate, pointed, acutish at base. flowers in a head surrounded by white bracts, making the whole cluster look like a single large flower in. broad. abundant in may and june. fruit a small, bright red drupe with a single -seeded nut. ripe in august. a large shrub or low tree to ft. high, with broad, roundish head. common on high ground throughout, and one of the finest small trees in cultivation. a variety with the bracts quite red is also cultivated. [illustration: c. álba.] . =córnus álba=, l. (siberian red-stemmed cornel.) leaves broadly ovate, acute, densely pubescent beneath; drupes white; branches recurved, bright red, rendering the plant a conspicuous object in the winter. a shrub rather than a tree, cultivated from siberia; hardy throughout. [illustration: c. máscula.] . =córnus máscula=, dur. (cornelian cherry.) leaves opposite, oval-acuminate, rather pubescent on both surfaces. flowers small, yellow, in umbels from a -leaved involucre, blooming before the leaves are out in spring. fruit oval, ½ in. long, cornelian-colored, ripe in autumn, rather sweet, used in confectionery. a large shrub or low tree, to ft. high, with hard, tough, flexible wood, sometimes cultivated for its early flowers and late, beautiful fruit. [illustration: c. alternifòlia.] . =córnus alternifòlia=, l. f. (alternate-leaved cornel.) leaves alternate, clustered at the ends of the branches, ovate or oval-acuminate, tapering at base, whitish with minute pubescence beneath. cymes of flowers and fruit broad and open. fruit deep blue on reddish stalks. shrub, though occasionally tree-like, to ft. high; on hillsides throughout; rarely cultivated. genus = . nÝssa.= trees with deciduous, alternate, exstipulate, usually entire leaves, mostly acute at both ends. flowers somewhat dioecious, i.e. staminate and pistillate flowers on separate trees. the staminate flowers are quite conspicuous because so densely clustered. april and may. fruit on but a portion of the trees, consisting of one or two small (¼ to ½ in.), drupes in the axils of the leaves. stone roughened with grooves. ripe in autumn. * fruit usually clustered , . * fruit solitary . [illustration: n. sylvática.] . =nýssa sylvática=, marsh. (pepperidge. black or sour gum.) leaves oval to obovate, pointed, entire (sometimes angulate-toothed beyond the middle), rather thick, shining above when old, to in. long. the leaves are crowded near the ends of the branches and flattened so as to appear -ranked, like the beech; turning bright crimson in the autumn. fruit ovoid, bluish-black, about ½ in. long, sour. medium-sized tree with mainly an excurrent trunk and horizontal branches. wood firm, close-grained and hard to split. rich soil, latitude of albany and southward. difficult to transplant, so it is rarely cultivated. . =nýssa biflòra=, walt. (sour gum.) leaves to in. long, smaller than in n. sylvatica; fertile flowers and fruit to , in the axils; stone decidedly flattened and more strongly furrowed. new jersey to tennessee and southward. too nearly like the last to need a drawing. all the species of nyssa may have the margin of the leaves somewhat angulated, as shown in the next. [illustration: n. uniflòra.] . =nýssa uniflòra=, wang. (large tupelo.) leaves much larger, to in. long, sometimes slightly cordate at base, entire or angularly toothed, downy beneath. fruit solitary, oblong, blue, in. or more in length. wood soft, that of the roots light and spongy and used for corks. in water or wet swamps; virginia, kentucky, and southward. order =xxiii. caprifoliÀceÆ.= (honeysuckle family.) shrubs (rarely herb or tree-like plants) of temperate regions. genus = . vibÚrnum.= shrubs or small trees with opposite, simple, petioled leaves. flowers light-colored, small but in large, conspicuous, flat-topped clusters at the ends of the branches; blooming in early summer. fruit small, -seeded drupes with flattened stones; ripe in autumn. * leaves distinctly palmately lobed . * leaves pinnately veined and not lobed. (=a.=) =a.= coarsely dentated . =a.= finely serrated. (=b.=) =b.= leaves long-acuminated . =b.= obtuse or slightly pointed . [illustration: v. Ópulus.] . =vibúrnum Ópulus=, l. (cranberry-tree.) leaves palmately veined and strongly -lobed, broadly wedge-shaped or truncate at base, the spreading lobes mostly toothed on the sides and entire in the notches; petiole with glands at the apex. fruit in peduncled clusters, light red and quite sour (whence the name "cranberry-tree"). a nearly smooth, small tree or shrub, to ft. high; wild along streams, and cultivated under the name of snowball-tree or guelder rose. in this variety the flowers have all become sterile and enlarged. =vibúrnum acerifòlium= (arrow-wood) has also lobed leaves, and is much more common. this species never forms a tree, and has dark-colored berries. [illustration: v. dentàtum.] . =vibúrnum dentàtum=, l. (arrow-wood.) leaves, pale green, broadly ovate, somewhat heart-shaped at base, coarsely and sharply dentated, strongly veined and often with hairy tufts in the axils; petioles rather long and slender. fruit ¼ in. long, in peduncled clusters, blue or purple; a cross-section of the stone between kidney-and horseshoe-shaped. a shrub or small tree, to ft. high, with ash-colored bark; in wet places. [illustration: v. lentàgo.] . =vibúrnum lentàgo=, l. (sweet viburnum or sheep-berry.) leaves broad, ovate, long-pointed, to in. long, closely and sharply serrated; petioles long and with narrow, curled margins; entire plant smooth. fruit in sessile clusters of to rays, oval, large, ½ in. long, blue-black, edible, sweet; ripe in autumn. a small tree, to ft. high; found wild throughout, in woods and along streams. [illustration: v. prunifòlium.] . =vibúrnum prunifòlium=, l. (black haw.) leaves oval, obtuse or slightly pointed, to in. long, finely and sharply serrated. blooming early, may to june. fruit oval, large (½ in. long), in sessile clusters of to rays, black or blue-black, sweet. a tall shrub or small tree, to ft. high; in dry soil or along streams; new york, south and west. genus = . lonÍcera.= leaves entire, opposite; corolla -lobed; berry several-seeded. [illustration: l. tartárica.] =lonícera tartárica=. (tartarian honey-suckle.) leaves deciduous, oval, heart-shaped; flowers in pairs, showy, pink to rose-red; in spring; berries formed of the two ovaries, bright red; ripe in summer. a shrub, often planted and occasionally trimmed to a tree-like form, and growing to the height of nearly ft. order =xxiv. compÓsitÆ.= this, the largest order of flowering plants, is made up almost exclusively of herbaceous plants, but contains one shrub or low tree which is hardy from boston southward near the atlantic coast. genus = . bÁccharis.= leaves simple, deciduous; heads of flowers small, many-flowered; receptacle naked; pappus of hairs. [illustration: b. halimifòlia.] =báccharis halimifòlia=, l. (groundsel-tree.) leaves obovate, wedge-shaped, crenately notched at end, light grayish in color, with whitish powder; branches angled; flowers white with a tint of purple, blooming in the autumn. a broad, loose-headed, light-colored bush rather than a tree, to ft. high; wild on sea-beaches, massachusetts and south, and occasionally cultivated. the plant is dioecious; the fertile specimens are rendered quite conspicuous in autumn by their very long, white pappus. order =xxv. ericÀceÆ.= (heath family.) a large order, mainly of shrubs, though a few species are herbs, and fewer still are tall enough to be considered trees. genus = . oxydÉndrum.= trees with deciduous, alternate, oblong-lanceolate, pointed, serrate, sour-tasting leaves. flowers small, in large panicles at the ends of the branches. in summer. fruit small, dry capsules, with cells and many seeds. [illustration: o. arbòreum.] =oxydéndrum arbòreum=, dc. (sorrel-tree. sourwood.) leaves in size and shape much like those of peach trees. flowers small, urn-shaped. small-sized tree, to ft. high; wild in rich woods, pennsylvania and southward, mainly in the mountains. rare in cultivation, but very beautiful, especially in autumn, when its leaves are brilliantly colored, and the panicles of fruit still remain on the trees. it is perfectly hardy both at the arnold arboretum, boston, and the missouri botanical garden, st. louis. genus = . kÁlmia.= evergreen shrubs with alternate, entire, thick, smooth leaves. flowers large, beautiful, cup-shaped, in showy clusters. fruit a small, -celled, many-seeded capsule. [illustration: k. latifòlia.] =kálmia latifòlia=, l. (mountain-laurel. calico-bush.) the only species which grows at all tree-like has ovate-lanceolate or elliptical, smooth, petioled leaves, tapering at both ends and green on both sides. flowers in terminal corymbs, clammy-pubescent, white to pink. june. pod depressed, glandular. shrub or small tree, to ft. high, with reddish twigs; wild in rocky hills and damp soils through out; occasionally planted. wood very hard and close-grained. genus = . rhododÉndron.= shrubs or low trees with usually alternate, entire leaves and showy flowers in umbel-like clusters from large, scaly-bracted, terminal buds. fruit a dry -celled pod with many seeds. [illustration: r. máximum.] =rhododéndron máximum=, l. (great laurel.) leaves thick, to in. long, elliptical-oblong or lance-oblong, acute, narrowed toward the base, very smooth, with somewhat revolute margins. flowers large ( in.), with an irregular bell-shaped corolla and sticky stems, in large clusters, white or slightly pinkish with yellowish dots. july. evergreen shrub or tree, to ft. high, throughout the region, especially in damp swamps in the alleghany mountains; occasionally cultivated. genus = . clÈthra.= shrubs or trees with alternate, simple, deciduous, exstipulate, serrate leaves. flowers (july and august) conspicuous, white, in elongated terminal racemes which are covered with a whitish powder. fruit -celled pods with many seeds, covered by the calyx. * leaves thin, large, to in. long, pale beneath . * leaves thickish, smaller, green both sides . [illustration: c. acuminàta.] . =clèthra acuminàta=, michx. (acuminate-leaved clethra. sweet pepper-bush.) leaves to in. long, oval to oblong, pointed, thin, abruptly acute at base, finely serrate, on slender petioles, smooth above and glaucous below. racemes drooping, of sweet-scented flowers, with the bracts longer than the flowers. filaments and pod hairy. a small tree or shrub, to ft. high, in the alleghanies, virginia, and south. not often in cultivation, but well worthy of it. [illustration: c. alnifòlia.] . =clèthra alnifòlia=, l. (common sweet pepper-bush.) leaves wedge-obovate, sharply serrate near the apex, entire near the base, straight-veined, smooth, green on both sides. racemes erect, often compound, with bracts shorter than the flowers and with smooth filaments. this is a shrub rather than a tree; abundant in wet places east of the alleghanies. occasionally cultivated for its sweet-scented flowers. order =xxvi. sapotÀceÆ.= (sapodilla family.) a small order, mainly of tropical plants, here including one genus found only in the southern part of our range. genus = . bumÈlia.= leaves simple, alternate, entire, sub-evergreen, exstipulate; branches often spiny. flowers small, whitish, usually crowded in fascicles. fruit a black cherry-like drupe with a - to -celled nut. shrubs and trees of the southern states. two species (although hardly trees) are found far enough north to be included in this work. * leaves rusty-woolly beneath . * leaves smooth or slightly silky beneath . [illustration: b. lanuginòsa.] . =bumèlia lanuginòsa=, pers. (woolly-leaved buckthorn.) leaves oblong-obovate, obtuse, entire, smooth above and rusty-woolly beneath, but not silky; spiny, with downy branchlets. clusters - to -flowered, pubescent; flowers greenish-yellow. fruit globular and quite large (½ in.), black, edible. a small tree, to ft. high, of the woods of southern illinois and southward. with slight protection it can be cultivated in massachusetts. [illustration: b. lycioìdes.] . =bumèlia lycioìdes=, pers. (southern buckthorn.) leaves to in. long, oval-lanceolate, usually bluntish with a tapering base and entire margin, deciduous, a little silky beneath when young. clusters densely many-flowered ( to ); flowers small ( / in.), smooth, greenish-white. may, june. a spiny shrub or tree, to ft. high, in moist ground, virginia, west and south. about as hardy as the preceding species. order =xxvii. ebenÀceÆ.= (ebony family.) a small order of mostly tropical trees and shrubs. genus = . diospyros.= trees or shrubs with alternate, simple, entire, feather-veined leaves. flowers small, inconspicuous, mostly dioecious. fruit a globose berry with the -lobed thick calyx at the base, and with to , occasionally to , rather large seeds; ripe after frost. [illustration: d. virginiàna.] =diospyros virginiàna=, l. (common persimmon.) leaves to in. long, ovate-oblong, acuminate, rather thick, smooth, dark, shining above, a little pale beneath. bark dark-colored and deeply furrowed in a netted manner with rather small meshes. flowers yellowish, rather small, somewhat dioecious; the staminate ones urn-shaped with mouth nearly closed; the pistillate ones more open. june. fruit large, in.; very astringent when young, yellow and pleasant-tasting after frost. a handsome, ornamental tree, to ft. high, with very hard, dark-colored wood and bright foliage. southern new england to illinois and south; also cultivated. =diospyros lòtus= (date-plum), with leaves very dark green above, much paler and downy beneath, and fruit much smaller ( / in.), and =diospyros kàki= (japan persimmon), with large, leathery, shining leaves and very large fruit ( in.), are successfully cultivated from washington, d. c., southward. the under leaf represents d. lotus, the upper one a small specimen of d. kaki. [illustration: d. lòtus and d. kàki.] order =xxviii. styracÀceÆ.= (storax family.) a small order of shrubs and trees, mostly of warm countries. genus = . styrax.= shrubs or small trees with commonly deciduous leaves, and axillary, or racemed, white, showy flowers on drooping stems. pubescence scurfy or stellate; fruit a globular dry drupe, its base covered with the persistent calyx, forming a - to -seeded nut. [illustration: s. americàna.] . =styrax americàna=, lam. (american storax.) shrub or small tree ( to ft.), with oblong, alternate leaves acute at both ends, to inches long, smooth or very nearly so; fruit ½ in. long, in racemes of - . wild along streams, virginia and south; occasionally cultivated, and probably hardy throughout. [illustration: s. japónica.] . =styrax japónica=, sieb. (japan storax.) leaves alternate, membranaceous, ovate to ovate-lanceolate, serrate or crenate, ½ to in. long, smooth or with short stellate hairs; flowers and fruit in long racemes. a beautiful low tree, to ft. high; from japan. hardy as far north as philadelphia, but needing a little protection in massachusetts and missouri. genus = . pterostyrax.= similar to styrax, but with the fruit in panicles, -winged, conical, and crowned with the persistent base of the style. [illustration: p. corymbòsum.] =pterostyrax corymbòsum=, sieb. leaves deciduous, to in. long, feather-veined, petioled, ovate, rarely cordate at base, sharply serrate, with stellate hairs. shrub or small tree, to ft. high, cultivated from japan; with ashy-gray bark, and white flowers turning yellowish or purplish with age; blooming in may, fruit ripe in august. not perfectly hardy in massachusetts. genus = . halÈsia.= small trees or shrubs with alternate, simple, deciduous, serrate leaves. flowers large, in. long, conspicuous, white, hanging, bell-shaped, monopetalous, -lobed; blooming in spring. fruit with a single, rough, elongated, bony nut surrounded by a - to -winged coat; ripe in autumn. wood light-colored, very hard and fine-grained. [illustration: h. díptera.] . =halèsia díptera, l.= (two-winged silverbell tree.) leaves large ( to in. long), ovate, acute, serrate, softly pubescent. fruit with conspicuous, broad wings, sometimes with intermediate narrow ridges. a small tree or a large shrub, wild in the south, and cultivated as far north as new york city. [illustration: h. tetráptera.] . =halèsia tetráptera, l.= (four-winged silverbell tree.) leaves smaller ( to in.), oblong-ovate, finely serrate. fruit smaller, with nearly equal wings. a small, beautiful tree, to ft. high, more hardy than halesia diptera, and therefore cultivated occasionally throughout. wild in virginia and south. genus = . sÝmplocos.= shrubs or small trees, with leaves furnishing a yellow dye. [illustration: s. tinctòria.] =sýmplocos tinctòria=, l'her. (horse-sugar. sweetleaf.) leaves simple, alternate, thick, to in. long, elongate-oblong, acuminate, nearly entire, almost persistent, pale beneath, with minute pubescence, sweet-tasting. flowers to , in close-bracted, axillary clusters, -parted, sweet-scented, yellow; in early spring. fruit a dry drupe, ovoid, ½ in. long. a shrub or small tree, to ft. high. delaware and south. order =xxix. oleÀceÆ.= (olive family.) an order of trees and shrubs, mainly of temperate regions. genus = . frÁxinus.= trees with petioled, opposite, odd-pinnate leaves (one cultivated variety has simple leaves). flowers often inconspicuous, in large panicles before the leaves in spring. fruit single-winged at one end (samara or key-fruit), in large clusters; ripe in autumn. some trees, owing to the flowers being staminate, produce no fruit. wood light-colored, tough, very distinctly marked by the annual layers. the leaves appear late in the spring, and fall early in the autumn. * flowers with white corolla; a cultivated small tree . * flowers with no corolla. (=a.=) =a.= leaves pinnate; leaflets petiolate; calyx small, persistent on the fruit. (=b.=) =b.= fruit broad-winged, ¾ in. wide. south . =b.= wings much narrower. (=c.= ) =c.= branchlets round and pubescent . =c.= branchlets round and smooth. (=d.=) =d.= leaflets nearly entire . =d.= leaflets serrate near tip, entire below . =c.= branchlets, on vigorous growths, square . =a.= leaves pinnate; leaflets sessile; no calyx. (=e.=) =e.= native; wing of fruit rounded at tip . =e.= cultivated from europe; wing notched at tip . =a.= leaves simple; variety under . [illustration: f. americàna.] . =fráxinus americàna=, l. (white ash.) leaflets to (usually ), stalked, ovate or lance-oblong, pointed, shining above, pale and either smooth or pubescent beneath, somewhat toothed or entire. flowers almost always dioecious (may), thus the fruit is found on but a portion of the trees. the fruit (august to september) terete and marginless below, abruptly dilated into the wing, which is to times as long as the terete portion; entire fruit about ½ in. long. a common large forest-tree, to ft. high, with gray, furrowed bark, smooth, grayish-green branchlets, and rusty-colored buds. extensively cultivated. [illustration: f. pubéscens.] . =fráxinus pubéscens=, lam. (red ash.) like the white ash, but to be distinguished from it by the down on the young, green or olive-green twigs, and on the footstalks and lower surface of the leaves. fruit acute, -edged at base, gradually dilated into the wings as in fraxinus viridis. a smaller and more slender tree than the white ash; growing in about the same localities, but rare west of the alleghanies; heart-wood darker-colored. [illustration: f. víridis.] . =fráxinus víridis=, michx. f. (green ash.) smooth throughout; leaflets to , bright green on both sides, ovate or oblong-lanceolate, often wedge-shaped at base and serrate above. fruit acute and -edged or margined at base and gradually spreading into an oblanceolate or linear-spatulate wing as in the red ash. small to middle-sized trees (like the red ash), found throughout, but common westward. [illustration: f. quadrangulàta.] . =fráxinus quadrangulàta=, michx. (blue ash.) leaflets to , short-stalked, oblong-ovate or lanceolate, pointed, sharply serrate, green on both sides. fruit narrowly oblong, blunt, of the same width at both ends, or slightly narrowed at the base. a large tree, to ft. high, with smooth square twigs on the vigorous growths. wisconsin to ohio and kentucky. [illustration: f. platycárpa.] . =fráxinus platycárpa=, michx. (water-ash.) leaflets to , to in. long, ovate or oblong, acute at both ends, short-stalked, slightly serrate. branchlets terete, smooth to pubescent. fruit broadly winged, ¾ in. wide, often -winged, tapering to the base. a medium-sized tree in deep river-swamps, virginia and south. [illustration: f. sambucifòlia.] . =fráxinus sambucifòlia=, lam. (black ash.) leaflets to , sessile, oblong-lanceolate, tapering to a point, serrate, obtuse or rounded at base, green and smooth on both sides; when young, with some rusty hairs along the midrib. fruit without calyx at base and with wing all around the seed-bearing part, blunt at both ends. a slender tree, to ft. high, with dark-blue or black buds. [illustration: f. excélsior.] [illustration: var. monophýlla.] . =fràxinus excélsior=, l. (european ash.) leaflets to (in some cultivated varieties reduced to to ), almost sessile, lanceolate-oblong, acuminate, serrate, wedge-shaped at base. flowers naked, somewhat dioecious, and so the fruit does not form on all the trees. keys linear-oblong, obtuse, obliquely notched at apex. this species in its very numerous varieties is common in cultivation. one of the most interesting is the weeping ash (var. _pendula_). the most remarkable is the one with simple, from pinnatifid to entire leaves (var. _monophylla_). [illustration: f. òrnus.] . =fráxinus òrnus.= (flowering ash.) leaflets to , lanceolate or elliptical, attenuated, serrated, entire at the stalked bases, villous or downy beneath. flowers fringe-like, white, in large terminal drooping clusters, of or petals. may to june. fruit small, lance-linear, obtuse, attenuate at each end. a small tree, to ft. high, planted in parks. not hardy north of new york city without some protection. genus = . osmÁnthus.= shrub or small tree with opposite, thick, evergreen, nearly entire leaves. flowers small, white, in panicles or corymbs in late spring. fruit a spherical drupe, ½ in. long, with a -seeded stone; hanging on during the winter. [illustration: o. americàna.] =osmánthus americàna, l.= (devil-wood.) leaves thick, evergreen, oblong-lanceolate, entire, acute, narrowed to a petiole, to in. long. flowers dioecious, very small. may. fruit globular, about ½ in. in diameter, violet-purplish; ripe in autumn, and remaining on the tree through the winter. a small tree, to ft. high, from southern virginia southward, in moist woods. genus = . syrÍnga.= leaves simple, entire, opposite; flowers ornamental, in large, dense clusters. the lilacs are all beautiful, but form mere shrubs, except the following: [illustration: s. japónica.] =syrínga japónica.= (japan lilac. giant tree lilac.) leaves deciduous, opposite, oval to cordate, thick, dark green, glossy; flowers white, -parted, odorless, in very large, dense, erect, terminal clusters, blooming in summer; fruit dry -celled pods with to seeds. a magnificent small tree, to ft. high; from japan; probably hardy throughout. genus = . chionÁnthus.= low trees or shrubs with simple, deciduous, opposite, entire, thick, smooth, petioled leaves. flowers -parted, with long, slender, delicate white lobes, drooping in clusters from the lower side of the branches and forming a fringe; in early summer. fruit a purple drupe. [illustration: c. virgínica.] =chionánthus virgínica, l.= (fringe-tree). leaves smooth, thickish, large ( to in. long), oval or obovate, entire. the leaves are occasionally somewhat alternate and thin; they resemble those of the magnolia. drupe ovoid, ¾ in. long, covered with a bloom. a beautiful small tree or shrub, to ft. high, wild along streams, southern pennsylvania and southward, and generally cultivated north for its delicate fringe-like flowers. hardy. a variety (var. _angustifolia_) with long, narrow leaves is occasionally cultivated. order =xxx. scrophulariÀceÆ.= (figwort family.) a large order of plants, almost entirely herbaceous; found in all climates; it includes one cultivated tree in this region. genus = . paulÒwnia.= tree with opposite (sometimes in whorls of three), large, deciduous, palmately veined, heart-shaped leaves. leaf-stem often hollow; minute cup-shaped glands, separated from one another, situated on many portions of the leaf, but quite abundant on the upper side at the branching of the veins. flowers large, in immense panicles; in spring, before the leaves expand. fruit a dry, ovate, pointed capsule, ½ in. long, with innumerable flat-winged seeds; hanging on the tree throughout the winter. [illustration: p. imperiàlis.] =paulòwnia imperiàlis=, (imperial paulownia.) leaves to in. long, sometimes somewhat lobed, usually very hairy beneath; buds, almost hidden under the bark, above each other in the axil. flowers purple, nearly in. long, with a peculiar, thick, leather-like calyx. a broad flat-headed tree, of rapid growth when young. cultivated; from japan; and hardy throughout, but the flower-buds are winter-killed quite frequently north of new york city. order =xxxi. bignoniÀceÆ.= (bignonia family.) an order of woody plants abundant in south america; here including one genus of trees: genus = . catÁlpa.= trees or shrubs with large, simple, opposite (or whorled in threes), heart-shaped, pointed leaves. flowers irregular, showy, in large panicles; blooming in june. fruit long pods with many, winged seeds, hanging on till spring. branches coarse and stiff. wood light and close-grained. * flowers bright-spotted; wings of seeds narrowed . * flowers nearly pure white; wings of seeds broad . [illustration: c. bignonioìdes.] . =catálpa bignonioìdes=, walt. (indian bean. southern catalpa.) the large heart-shaped leaf has connected scaly glands in the axils of the large veins on the lower side; usually entire though sometimes angulated, generally opposite though sometimes in whorls of threes, very downy beneath when young, to in. long. flowers much spotted with yellow and purple, and with the lower lobe entire. pod thin, in. or more in length. a medium-sized, wide-spreading tree, to ft. high, of rapid growth, with soft, light wood and thin bark; wild in the southern states, and extensively cultivated as far north as albany. [illustration: c. speciósa.] . =catálpa speciósa=, warder. (indian bean. western catalpa.) leaves large ( to in. long), heart-shaped, long-pointed. flowers in. long, nearly white, faintly spotted, the lower lobes somewhat notched. pod thick. a large, tall tree, to ft. high, with thick bark; wild in low, rich woodlands, southern indiana, south and west. [illustration: c. kæmpferi.] =catálpa kæmpferi= and =catálpa búngei= are dwarf forms from japan, the latter growing to the height of from to ft., and the former rarely reaching the height of ft. the leaf of c. kæmpferi is figured. it is more apt to have its margin angulated, though all the species occasionally have angulated leaves. order =xxxii. verbenaceÆ.= herbs, shrubs, rarely small trees, with opposite leaves, irregular flowers and dry - to -celled fruits. genus = . clerodÉndron.= shrubby trees or climbing shrubs with opposite or whorled, usually entire leaves; flowers with an almost regular, -parted corolla surrounded by a bell-shaped calyx; fruit drupe-like, with seeds. [illustration: c. trichótomum.] =clerodéndron trichótomum=, thunb. (fate-tree.) leaves opposite, long-petioled, cordate, thin, entire, glandular-dotted above, very veiny; lower leaves largest and three-lobed, the upper ovate, long-pointed, all -ribbed. flowers in large, terminal clusters; fruit with juicy pulp covering the seeds. a small tree from japan; hardy at washington and south. the figure represents one of the upper leaves. genus = . vÍtex.= shrubs or low trees with opposite, usually palmate leaves, panicled clusters of flowers and drupe-like fruit. [illustration: v. agnus-cástus.] =vítex agnus-cástus, l.= (chaste-tree.) leaves long-petioled, palmate, with to lanceolate, acute, nearly entire leaflets, whitened beneath; with an aromatic though unpleasant odor. branches obtusely -sided, hairy; flowers pale lilac, in interrupted panicles, agreeably sweet-scented in late summer. shrub or small tree, to ft. high, cultivated from southern europe; hardy at washington and south. if cultivated further north, it needs protection, at least when young. order =xxxiii. laurÀceÆ.= (laurel family.) an order of aromatic trees and shrubs, chiefly tropical. genus = . pÉrsea.= aromatic, evergreen trees with alternate, entire, feather-veined leaves. flowers small, in small close panicles. fruit small (½ in.) -seeded drupes. [illustration: p. carolinénsis.] =pérsea carolinénsis=, nees. (red bay.) leaves to in. long, oblong, entire, covered with a fine down when young, soon smooth above. flowers silky, in small rounded clusters on short stems. may. fruit an ovate, pointed, -seeded, deep-blue drupe, ½ in. long, on a red stalk; ripe in autumn. usually a small tree, to ft. high, wild in swamps, delaware, virginia, and south. wood reddish, beautiful, hard, strong, durable. genus = . sÁssafras.= aromatic trees or shrubs with alternate, simple, deciduous, often lobed leaves. juice of bark and leaves mucilaginous. flowers yellowish-green, in clusters; blooming in early spring. fruit a small bluish drupe on a thick reddish stem. ripe in september. twigs greenish-yellow. [illustration: s. officinàle.] =sássafras officinàle=, nees. (sassafras.) leaves very variable in form, ovate, entire, or some of them - to -lobed, soon smooth. flowering as the leaves are putting forth. tree to ft. high, common in rich woods. the aromatic fragrance is strongest in the bark of the roots. wood reddish, rather hard and durable. genus = . lÍndera.= shrubs with deciduous, alternate, aromatic leaves and small, yellow flowers in close clusters along the branches. fruit a drupe on a not-thickened stalk. [illustration: l. benzòin.] =líndera benzòin=, blume. (spice-bush. benjamin-bush.) leaves alternate, oblong-ovate, entire, pale beneath, very spicy in odor and taste; twigs green; leaf-buds scaly; drupes red, ripe in autumn. flowers to together in sessile umbels; in early spring, before the leaves expand. common in damp woods throughout. order =xxxiv. elÆagnÀceÆ.= (oleaster family.) a small order of shrubs or small trees, with the leaves covered with silvery scurf. genus = . elÆÁgnus=. leaves alternate, entire; flowers axillary, stemmed; fruit drupe-like with an -grooved stone. [illustration: e. lóngipes.] =elæágnus lóngipes.= (silver-leaved elÆagnus.) leaves almost evergreen, rather thick, ovate-oblong, rather blunt, entire, smooth and dark green above, but silvery below. flowers inconspicuous. fruit about ½ in. long, bright red, with silvery scales, very abundant and beautiful; ripe in july; juicy and edible, with a pungent flavor. shrub from japan; hardy throughout. genus = . shephÉrdia.= small trees or shrubs with opposite, deciduous, entire, silvery-scaled leaves. flowers very small, dioecious. fruit small, berry-like, translucent, -seeded. [illustration: s. argéntea.] =shephérdia argéntea=, nutt. (buffalo-berry. rabbit-berry.) leaves opposite, oblong-ovate, tapering at base, silvery on both sides, with small peltate scales. branches often ending in sharp thorns. fruit, scarlet berries the size of currants, forming continuous clusters on every branch and twig, but found only on the pistillate plants. they are juicy, somewhat sour, pleasant-tasting, and make excellent jelly; ripe in september. a small handsome tree, to ft. high, wild in the rocky mountains, and sometimes cultivated east. its thorny-tipped branches make it a good hedge-plant. hardy. order =xxxv. euphorbiÀceÆ.= (spurge family.) a large order of mainly herbaceous and shrubby plants of warm countries, with usually milky juice. genus = . bÚxus.= shrubs or trees with opposite, evergreen, entire leaves and small flowers. the fruit -celled, -seeded pods. [illustration: b. sempérvirens.] =búxus sempérvirens=, l. (boxwood.) leaves ovate, smooth, dark green; leaf-stems hairy at edge. this plant is a native of europe, and in its tree form furnishes the white wood used for wood-engraving. var. _subfruticosa_ (dwarf boxwood) grows only a foot or two high, and is extensively used for edgings in gardens. the tree form is more rare in cultivation, and is of slow growth, but forms a round-topped tree. order =xxxvi. urticÀceÆ.= (nettle family.) a large order of herbs, shrubs and trees, mainly tropical. genus = . Úlmus.= tall umbrella-shaped trees with watery juice and alternate, -ranked, simple, deciduous, obliquely ovate to obliquely heart-shaped, strongly straight-veined, serrate leaves, harsh to the touch, often rough. flowers insignificant, appearing before the leaves. fruit a flattened, round-winged samara; ripe in the spring and dropping early from the trees. bark rough with longitudinal ridges. * leaves very rough on the upper side. (=a.=) =a.= leaves to in. long; buds rusty-downy; inner bark very mucilaginous . =a.= leaves smaller; buds not downy; cultivated. (=b.=) =b.= wide-spreading tree; twigs drooping; fruit slightly notched . =b.= tree rather pyramidal; twigs not usually drooping; fruit deeply notched . * leaves not very rough on the upper side. (=c.=) =c.= buds and branchlets pubescent; twigs often with corky ridges . =c.= buds and branchlets free from hairs, or very nearly so. (=d.=) =d.= twigs with corky wings . =d.= twigs often with corky ridges; cultivated , . =d.= branchlets never corky . [illustration: u. fúlva.] . =Úlmus fúlva=, michx. (slippery or red elm.) leaves large, to in., very rough above, ovate-oblong, taper-pointed, doubly serrate, soft-downy beneath; branchlets downy; inner bark very mucilaginous; leaves sweet-scented in drying; buds in spring soft and downy with rusty hairs. fruit with a shallow notch in the wing not nearly reaching the rounded nut. a medium-sized tree, to ft. high, with tough and very durable reddish wood; wild in rich soils throughout. [illustration: u. montàna.] . =Úlmus montàna=, bauh. (scotch or witch elm.) leaves broad, obovate, abruptly pointed and doubly serrated. fruit rounded, with a slightly notched wing, naked. branches drooping at their extremity, their bark smooth and even. a medium-sized tree, to ft. high, with spreading or often drooping branches; extensively cultivated under a dozen different names, among the most peculiar being the white-margined (var. _alba marginata_), the crisped-leaved (var. _crispa_), and the weeping (var. _pendula_) elms. [illustration: u. campéstris.] . =Úlmus campéstris=, l. (english or field elm.) leaves much smaller and of a darker color than the american elm, obovate-oblong, abruptly sharp-pointed, doubly serrated, rough. fruit smooth, with the wing deeply notched. a tall and beautiful cultivated tree, with the branches growing out from the trunk more abruptly than those of the american elm, and thus forming a more pyramidal tree. a score of named varieties are in cultivation in this country, some with very corky bark, others with curled leaves, and still others with weeping branches. [illustration: u. racemòsa.] . =Úlmus racemòsa=, thomas. (cork or rock elm.) leaves to in. long, obovate-oblong, abruptly pointed, often doubly serrated, with very straight veins; twigs and bud-scales downy-ciliate; branches often with corky ridges. fruit large (½ in. or more long), with a deep notch; hairy. a large tree with fine-grained, heavy and very tough wood. southwest vermont, west and south, southwestward to missouri, on river-banks. [illustration: u. alàta.] . =Úlmus alàta=, michx. (wahoo or winged elm.) leaves small, to in. long, ovate-oblong or oblong-lanceolate, acute, thickish, downy beneath and nearly smooth above, sharply serrate. bud-scales and branchlets nearly smooth. notch in the wing of the fruit deep. a small tree, to ft. high, the branches having corky wings. wild, virginia, west and south; rarely cultivated. [illustration: u. americàna.] . =Úlmus americàna=, l. (american or white elm.) leaves to in. long, obovate-oblong or oval, abruptly sharp-pointed, sharply and often doubly serrated, soft-pubescent beneath when young, soon quite smooth; buds and branchlets smooth. fruit ½ in. long, its sharp points incurved and closing the deep notch; hairy only on the edges. a large ornamental tree, usually with spreading branches and drooping branchlets, forming a very wide-spreading top. wild throughout in rich, moist soil; common in cultivation. genus = . plÁnera.= trees or tall shrubs with alternate, simple, pointed, -ranked, feather-veined, toothed leaves. flowers inconspicuous, with the leaves in spring. fruit a small, nut-like, scaly, globular drupe, ripe in autumn. bark scaling off like that of the sycamore. [illustration: p. aquática.] . =plánera aquática=, gmel. (american planer-tree.) leaves ovate-oblong, small, to ½ in. long, on short stems, sharp-pointed, serrate with equal teeth, smooth, green above and gray below, not oblique at base. flowers minute, in small heads, appearing before the leaves. fruit a scaly, roughened nut, ¼ in., raised on a stalk in the calyx; ripe in september. a small tree, to ft. high; wet banks, kentucky and southward; hardy as far north as philadelphia. [illustration: p. acuminàta.] . =plánera acuminàta.= (kiaka elm or japan planer-tree.) leaves large, glossy, smooth, deeply notched, on red stems; young shoots also red. this is a larger, more hardy, and finer tree than the american planer-tree, and should be more extensively cultivated. the caucasian planer-tree (_planera parvifolia_), with very small leaves, is also occasionally cultivated. genus = . cÉltis.= trees or shrubs with alternate, simple, -ranked, oblique, serrate leaves. flowers inconspicuous, greenish, axillary. fruit berry-like, sweet, edible drupes, about the size of a currant, with one seed; color dark; ripe in autumn. * leaves usually sharply serrate . * leaves almost entire . [illustration: c. occidentàlis.] . =céltis occidentàlis=, l. (sugarberry. hackberry.) leaves ovate, obliquely subcordate to truncate at base, long-acuminate, serrate (at least near the apex), rough above and hairy beneath. fruit a single-seeded, ¼ in., globular drupe, solitary on a peduncle, in. long, in the axils of the leaves; purple when ripe in autumn. shrub (var. _pumila_) to large tree, to ft. high; throughout; rare north, abundant south. sometimes cultivated. the branches are numerous, slender, horizontal, giving the tree a wide-spreading, dense top. [illustration: c. mississippiénsis.] . =céltis mississippiénsis=, bosc. leaves almost entire, with a very long, tapering point, a rounded and mostly oblique base, thin and smooth. fruit smaller than that of the preceding species. a small tree with rough, warty bark. illinois and southward. genus = . maclÙra.= trees or shrubs with milky juice and simple, alternate, entire, deciduous leaves, generally having a sharp spine by the side of the bud in the axils. flowers inconspicuous; in summer. fruit large, globular, orange-like in appearance. [illustration: m. aurantìaca.] =maclùra aurantìaca=, nutt. (osage orange. bow-wood.) leaves rather thick, ovate to ovate-oblong, almost entire, smooth and shining above, strong-veined and paler beneath, in. long by in. wide; spines simple, about in. long. fruit as large as an orange, golden-yellow when ripe. a medium-sized tree, to ft. high; native west of the mississippi. extensively cultivated for hedges, and also for ornament, throughout. genus = . mÒrus.= trees with milky juice and alternate, deciduous, exstipulate, broad, heart-shaped, usually rough leaves. flowers inconspicuous; in spring. fruit blackberry-like in shape and size; in summer. * leaves rough; fruit dark-colored . * leaves smooth and shining; fruit white to black . [illustration: m. rùbra.] . =mòrus rùbra=, l. (red mulberry.) leaves broad, heart-shaped, to in. long, serrate, rough above and downy beneath, pointed; on the young shoots irregularly lobed. fruit dark red, almost purple when ripe, cylindrical; not found on all the trees, as the flowers are somewhat dioecious; ripe in july. wood yellow, heavy and durable. usually a small tree, to ft. high; wild throughout, also cultivated. [illustration: m. álba.] . =mòrus álba=, l. (white mulberry.) leaves obliquely heart-ovate, pointed, serrate, smooth and shining; lobed on the younger growths; to in. long. fruit whitish, oval to oblong; ripe in july. a small tree from china, planted for feeding silkworms, but now naturalized throughout. var. _multicaulis_ has large leaves, and is considered better for silkworm food than the usual form. it is not very hardy, as it is frequently winter-killed in the latitude of new york city. var. _downingii_ (downing's everbearing mulberry) has large leaves and very large, dark red or black fruit, of excellent flavor, which does not ripen all at once as most mulberries do. genus = . broussonÈtia.= trees with milky juice and alternate, deciduous, stipulate, broad, very hairy leaves. flowers dioecious. fruit (only on a portion of the plants) similar to the common mulberry. [illustration: b. papyrífera.] =broussonètia papyrífera=, l. (paper-mulberry.) leaves ovate to heart-shaped, variously lobed, deeply so on the young suckers, serrate, very rough above and quite soft-downy beneath; leaves on the old trees almost without lobes; bark tough and fibrous. flowers in catkins, greenish; in spring. fruit club-shaped, dark scarlet, sweet and insipid; ripe in august. small cultivated tree, to ft. high, hardy north to new york; remarkable for the great variety in the forms of its leaves on the young trees. order =xxxvii. platanÀceÆ.= (plane-tree family.) a very small order, containing but one genus: genus = . plÁtanus.= trees with alternate, simple, large, palmately lobed leaves. the base of the petiole is hollowed to cover the bud. flowers inconspicuous; in early spring. fruit a large, dry ball, hanging on a long peduncle, and remaining on the tree through the winter. large tree with white bark separating into thin, brittle plates. [illustration: p. occidentàlis.] . =plátanus occidentàlis=, l. (american sycamore. buttonwood.) leaves large ( to in. broad), roundish heart-shaped, angularly sinuate-lobed, the short lobes sharp-pointed, scurfy-downy till old. fruit globular, solitary, in. in diameter, hanging on long, -in. peduncles; remaining on the tree through the winter. a large, well-known tree, to ft. high; found on river-banks throughout; also cultivated. wood brownish, coarse-grained; it cannot be split, and is very difficult to smooth. the marking of the grain on the quartered lumber is very beautiful. [illustration: p. orientàlis.] . =plátanus orientàlis=, l. (oriental plane.) leaves more deeply cut, smaller, and sooner smooth than those of the american sycamore. fruit frequently clustered on the peduncles. this tree is similar to the american sycamore, and in many ways better for cultivation. order =xxxviii. juglandÀceÆ.= (walnut family.) a small order of useful nut-and timber-trees. genus = . jÙglans.= trees with alternate, odd-pinnate leaves, of to leaflets, with to axillary buds, the uppermost the largest. flowers inconspicuous, the sterile ones in catkins. may. fruit a large, bony, edible nut surrounded by a husk that has no regular dehiscence. the nut, as in the genus carya, has a bony partition between the halves of the kernel. * leaflets to , strongly serrate; husk of the fruit not separating from the very rough, bony nut; native. (=a.=) =a.= upper axillary bud cylindrical, whitish with hairs; nut elongated . =a.= upper axillary bud ovate, pointed; nut globular . * leaflets to ; husk of the fruit separating when dry from the smoothish, thin-shelled nut; cultivated . [illustration: j. cinèrea.] . =jùglans cinèrea=, l. (butternut. white walnut.) leaflets to , lanceolate, rounded at base, serrate with shallow teeth; downy, especially beneath; leafstalk sticky or gummy. buds oblong, white-to-mentose. fruit oblong, clammy, pointed. a thick-shelled nut, deeply sculptured and rough with ragged ridges; ripe in september. a widely spreading, flat-topped tree, to ft. high, with gray bark and much lighter-colored wood than that of the juglans nigra. [illustration: j. nìgra.] . =jùglans nìgra=, l. (black walnut.) leaflets to , lanceolate-ovate, taper-pointed, somewhat heart-shaped and oblique at base, smooth above and very slightly downy beneath. fruit globular, roughly dotted; the thick-shelled nut very rough; ripe in october. a large handsome tree, to ft. high, with brown bark; more common west than east of the alleghanies; often planted. wood dark purplish-brown. [illustration: j. règia.] . =jùglans règia=, l. (madeira nut. english walnut.) leaflets to , oval, smooth, obscurely serrate. fruit oval, with a thin-shelled oval nut not nearly so rough as that of juglans cinerea, or of juglans nigra. when ripe the husk becomes very brittle and breaks open to let out the nut. tree intermediate in size, to ft. high, hardy as far north as boston in the east, but needs protection at st. louis. it should be more extensively cultivated. introduced from persia. genus = . cÁrya.= hard-wooded trees with alternate, odd-pinnate leaves having straight-veined leaflets. the leaflets are opposite each other, and the terminal pair and end leaflet are usually much the largest. the sterile flowers are in hanging catkins, the fertile ones minute, forming a large, rounded, green-coated, dry drupe, with a roughened nut having a bony partition. the drupes hang on till frost, when they open more or less and usually allow the nut to drop out. wood hard and tough. * bark shaggy and scaly; kernel very good. (=a.=) =a.= leaflets usually ( to ) . =a.= leaflets to . * bark rough, deeply furrowed but not shaggy; kernel edible. (=b.=) =b.= leaflets to , usually . =b.= leaflets to , usually . * bark smooth; kernel bitter. (=c.=) =c.= leaflets to , usually , smooth . =c.= leaflets to , serrate with deep teeth . * bark smooth; nut thin-shelled; kernel sweet; leaflets to . [illustration: c. álba.] . =cárya álba=, nutt. (shellbark or shagbark hickory.) leaflets , the lower pair much smaller, all oblong-lanceolate, taper-pointed, finely serrate, downy beneath when young. fruit globular, depressed at the top, splitting readily into wholly separate valves. nut white, sweet, compressed, -angled. husk quite thin for the hickories. tree to ft. high, with very shaggy bark, even on quite small trees. wild throughout, and cultivated. [illustration: c. sulcàta.] . =cárya sulcàta=, nutt. (big shellbark. kingnut.) leaflets to , obovate-acuminate, sharply serrate, the odd one attenuate at base and nearly sessile; downy beneath (more so than carya alba). fruit large, oval, -ribbed above the middle, with intervening depressions. husk very thick, entirely separating into valves. nut large, ¼ to in. long, dull-whitish, thick-shelled, usually strongly pointed at both ends. kernel sweet and good. tree to ft. high, with a shaggy bark of loose, narrow strips on large trees. quite common west of the alleghanies. [illustration: c. tomentòsa.] . =cárya tomentòsa=, nutt. (mockernut. white-heart hickory.) leaflets to (mostly ), lance-obovate, pointed, obscurely serrate or almost entire, the lower surface as well as the twigs and the catkins tomentose when young. fruit globular or ovoid, usually with a very hard, thick husk slightly united at base. nut somewhat hexagonal, with a very thick shell and well-flavored kernel. a tall, slender tree, to ft. high, with a rough deeply furrowed, but not shaggy bark. common on dry hillsides throughout. [illustration: c. microcárpa.] . =cárya microcárpa=, nutt. (small mockernut.) leaflets about ( to ), oblong-lanceolate, long-pointed, finely serrate, smooth, glandular beneath; buds small, ovate. fruit small, subglobose, with a thin husk; nut not sharply angled, with a thin shell; edible. a large tree, to ft. high; new york, pennsylvania, and westward. [illustration: c. porcìna.] . =cárya porcìna=, nutt. (pignut. broom-hickory.) leaflets to (usually ), oblong-ovate, acuminate, serrate, smooth. fruit pear-shaped to oval, somewhat rough, splitting regularly only about half-way. nut large ( ½ to in. long), brownish, somewhat obcordate, with a thick, hard shell, and poor, bitter kernel. tall tree, to ft. high, with dark-colored heart-wood, and rather smooth bark. common on ridges. [illustration: c. amàra.] . =cárya amàra=, nutt. (bitternut. swamp-hickory.) leaflets to , lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, serrate with deep teeth. fruit roundish-ovate, regularly separable only half-way, but friable at maturity. nut small, white, subglobose, with a very thin shell and an extremely bitter kernel. large tree with orange-yellow winter buds, and firm, not scaly, bark. wild throughout, and sometimes cultivated. [illustration: c. olivæfórmis.] . =cárya olivæfórmis=, nutt. (pecan-nut.) leaflets to , ovate-lanceolate, serrate; lateral ones nearly sessile and decidedly curved. fruit oblong, widest above the middle, with distinct valves. nut oblong, ¼ in., nearer smooth than the other edible hickory-nuts, the shell thin, but rather too hard to be broken by the fingers. the kernel is full, sweet, and good. a tall tree, to ft. high. indiana and south; also cultivated, but not very successfully, as far north as new york city. order =xxxix. cupulÌferÆ.= (oak family.) this order contains more species of trees and shrubs in temperate regions than any other, except the coniferæ. the genus quercus (oak) alone contains about species of trees in the region covered by this work. genus = . bÉtula.= trees or shrubs with simple, alternate, mostly straight-veined, thin, usually serrate leaves. flowers in catkins, opening in early spring, in most cases before the leaves. fruit a leafy-scaled catkin or cone, hanging on till autumn. twigs usually slender, the bark peeling off in thin, tough layers, and having peculiar horizontal marks. many species have aromatic leaves and twigs. * trunks with chalky white bark. (=a.=) =a.= native. (=b.=) =b.= small tree with leafstalks about ½ as long as the blades . =b.= large tree; leafstalks about / as long as the blades . =a.= cultivated; from europe; many varieties . * bark not chalky white, usually dark. (=c.=) =c.= leaves and bark very aromatic. (=d.=) =d.= bark of trunk yellowish and splitting into filmy layers . =d.= bark not splitting into filmy layers . =c.= leaves not very aromatic; bark brownish and loose and shaggy on the main trunk; growing in or near the water . [illustration: b. populifòlia.] . =bétula populifòlia=, ait. (american white or gray birch.) leaves triangular, very taper-pointed, and usually truncate or nearly so at the broad base, irregularly twice-serrate; both sides smooth and shining, when young glutinous with resinous glands; leafstalks half as long as the blades and slender, so as to make the leaves tremulous, like those of the aspen. fruit brown, cylindrical, more or less pendulous on slender peduncles. a small ( to ft. high), slender tree with an ascending rather than an erect trunk. bark chalky or grayish white, with triangular dusky spaces below the branches; recent shoots brown, closely covered with round dots. [illustration: b. papyrífera.] . =bétula papyrífera=, marsh. (paper or canoe birch.) leaves to in. long, ovate, taper-pointed, heart-shaped, abrupt or sometimes wedge-shaped at the base, sharply and doubly serrate, smooth and green above, roughly reticulated, glandular-dotted and slightly hairy beneath; footstalk not over / the length of the blade. fruit long-stalked and drooping. a large tree, to ft. high, with white bark splitting freely into very thin, tough layers. a variety, to ft. high (var. _minor_), occurs only in the white mountains. young shoots reddish or purplish olive-green deepening to a dark copper bronze. new england and westward, also cultivated. [illustration: b. álba.] . =bétula álba=, l. (european white birch.) leaves ovate, acute, somewhat deltoid, unequally serrate, often deeply cut, nearly smooth; in var. _pubescens_ covered with white hairs. fruit brown, cylindric, drooping. a tree, to ft. high, with a chalky-white bark; from europe, extensively cultivated in this country, under many names, which indicate the character of growth or foliage; among them may be mentioned _pendula_ (weeping), _laciniata_ (cut-leaved), _fastigiata_ (pyramidal), _atropurpurea_ (purple-leaved), and _pubescens_ (hairy-leaved). [illustration: b. lénta.] . =bétula lénta=, l. (sweet, black or cherry birch.) leaves and bark very sweet, aromatic. leaves ovate or ovate-oblong, with more or less heart-shaped base, very acute apex, and doubly and finely serrate margin, bright shining green above, smooth beneath, except the veins, which are hairy. fruit to ¼ in. long, cylindric, with spreading lobes to the scales. a rather large tree, to ft. high, with bark of trunk and twigs in appearance much like that of the garden cherry, and not splitting into as thin layers as most of the birches. wood rose-colored, fine-grained. moist woods, rather common throughout; also cultivated. [illustration: b. lùtea.] . =bétula lùtea=, michx. f. (yellow or gray birch.) a species so like the preceding (betula lenta) as to be best described by stating the differences. leaves and bark are much less aromatic. leaves to in. long, not so often nor so plainly heart-shaped at base, usually narrowed; less bright green above, and more downy beneath; more coarsely serrate. fruit not so long, and more ovate, with much larger and thinner scales, the lobes hardly spreading. a large tree, to ft. high, with yellowish or silvery-gray bark peeling off into very thin, filmy layers from the trunk. wood whiter, and not so useful. rich, moist woodlands, especially northward; also cultivated. [illustration: b. nìgra.] . =bétula nìgra=, l. (river or red birch.) leaves ½ to ½ in. long, rhombic-ovate, acute at both ends, distinctly doubly serrate, bright green above; glaucous beneath when young; on petioles only / their length. twigs brown to cinnamon-color, and downy when young. a medium-sized tree, to ft. high, usually growing on the edges of streams, the old trunks having a very shaggy, loose, torn, reddish-brown bark. wild in massachusetts, south and west; often cultivated. genus = . Álnus.= shrubs or small trees with deciduous, alternate, simple, straight-veined leaves with large stipules that remain most of the season. flowers in catkins. fruit a small, scaly, open, woody cone, remaining on the plant throughout the year. * native species; growing in wet places. (=a.=) =a.= leaves rounded at base; whitened beneath; found north of ° n. lat . =a.= leaves acute or tapering at base; southward. (=b.=) =b.= flowering in the spring . =b.= flowering in the autumn . * cultivated species; from europe; will grow in dry places , . [illustration: a. incàna.] . =Álnus incàna=, willd. (speckled or hoary alder.) leaves to in. long, broadly oval or ovate, rounded at base, sharply serrate, often coarsely toothed, whitened and mostly downy beneath; stipules lanceolate and soon falling. fruit orbicular or nearly so. a shrub or small tree, to ft. high, with the bark of the trunk a polished reddish green; common along water-courses north of ° n. lat.; sometimes cultivated. [illustration: a. serrulàta.] . =Álnus serrulàta=, willd. (smooth alder.) leaves to ½ in. long, thickish, obovate, acute at base, sharply and finely serrate, green both sides, smooth or often downy beneath; stipules yellowish green, oval, and falling after or leaves have expanded above them. fruit ovate. rather a shrub than a tree, to ft. high, common along streams south of ° n. lat. in the southern states it sometimes forms a tree ft. high. [illustration: a. marítima.] . =Álnus marítima=, muhl. (seaside alder.) smooth; leaves oblong-ovate to obovate, with a tapering base, sharply serrulate; petiole slender; color bright green, somewhat rusty beneath. flowering in the autumn. fruiting catkin large, ¾ to in. long, ½ in. thick, usually solitary, ovoid to oblong. a small tree, to ft. high. southern delaware and eastern maryland, near the coast. [illustration: a. glutinòsa.] . =Álnus glutinòsa=, l. (european alder.) leaves roundish, wedge-shaped, wavy-serrated, usually abrupt at tip, glutinous; sharply and deeply incised in some varieties. fruit oval, ½ in. long. a medium-sized tree, to ft. high, of rapid growth, often cultivated under several names; the most important being vars. _laciniata_ (cut-leaved), _quercifolia_ (oak-leaved), and _rubrinervis_ (red-leaved). [illustration: a. cordifòlia.] . =Álnus cordifòlia=, ten. (heart-leaved alder.) leaves heart-shaped, dark green and shining. flowers greenish-brown, blooming in march and april, before the leaves expand. a large and very handsome alder, to ft. high, growing in much dryer soil than the american species. cultivated from southern europe. hardy after it gets a good start, but often winter-killed when young. genus = . cÓrylus.= low trees and large shrubs with simple, alternate, deciduous, doubly serrate, straight-veined leaves. flowers insignificant, in catkins in early spring. fruit an ovoid-oblong bony nut, inclosed in a thickish involucre of two leaves with a lacerated frilled border; ripe in autumn. * leafy bracts of fruit forming a bottle-shaped involucre . * leafy bracts not bottle-shaped. (=a.=) =a.= involucre much longer than the nut . =a.= involucre but little longer than the nut . [illustration: c. americàna.] . =córylus americàna=, walt. (wild hazelnut.) leaves roundish heart-shaped, pointed, doubly serrate; stipules broad at base, acute, and sometimes cut-toothed; twigs and shoots often hairy. involucre of the fruit open to the globose nut, the two leaf-like bracts very much cut-toothed at the margin and thick and leathery at the base. merely a shrub, to ft. high; quite common throughout. [illustration: c. rostràta.] . =córylus rostràta=, ait. (beaked hazelnut.) leaves but little or not at all heart-shaped; stipules linear-lanceolate. the involucre, extending beyond the nut in a bract like a bottle, is covered with stiff, short hairs. shrub, to ft. high. wild in the same region as corylus americana, but not so abundant. [illustration: c. avellàna.] . =córylus avellàna=, l. (european hazel. filbert.) leaves roundish-cordate, pointed, doubly serrate, nearly sessile, with ovate-oblong, obtuse stipules; shoots bristly. involucre of the fruit not much larger than the large nut ( in.), and deeply cleft. a small tree or shrub, to ft. high, from europe; several varieties in cultivation. genus = . Óstrya.= slender trees with very hard wood, brownish, furrowed bark, and deciduous, alternate, simple, exstipulate, straight-veined leaves. flowers inconspicuous, in catkins. fruit hop-like in appearance, at the ends of side shoots of the season, hanging on through the autumn. [illustration: o. virgínica.] . =Óstrya virgínica=, willd. (iron-wood. american hop-hornbeam.) leaves oblong-ovate, taper-pointed, very sharply doubly serrate, downy beneath, with to straight veins on each side of the midrib; buds acute. the hop-like fruit to times as long as wide; full grown and pendulous, to in. long, in august, when it adds greatly to the beauty of the tree. a small, rather slender tree, to ft. high, with the bark on old trees somewhat furrowed; wood white and very hard and heavy; common in rich woods, and occasionally cultivated. [illustration: o. vulgàris.] . =Óstrya vulgàris=, willd. (european hop-hornbeam.) this species from europe is much like the american one, but has longer, more slender, more pendulous fruit-clusters. occasionally cultivated. genus = . carpÌnus.= trees or tall shrubs with alternate, simple, straight-veined leaves, and smooth and close gray bark. flowers in drooping catkins, the sterile flowers in dense cylindric ones, and the fertile flowers in a loose terminal one forming an elongated, leafy-bracted cluster with many, several-grooved, small nuts, hanging on the tree till late in the autumn. [illustration: c. caroliniàna.] . =carpìnus caroliniàna=, walt. (american hornbeam. blue or water beech.) leaves ovate-oblong, pointed, sharply doubly serrate, soon nearly smooth. fruit with the scales obliquely halberd-shaped and cut-toothed, ¾ in. long, nuts / in. long. a tree or tall shrub, to ft. high, with a peculiarly ridged trunk; the close, smooth gray bark and the leaves are much like those of the beech. the wood is very hard and whitish. common along streams; sometimes cultivated. [illustration: c. bétulus.] . =carpìnus bétulus=, l. (european hornbeam.) this cultivated species is quite similar to the american, but can be distinguished by the scales of the fruit, which are wholly halberd-shaped, having the basal lobes nearly equal in size, as shown in the cut; while the american species has scales only half halberd-shaped. genus = . quÉrcus.= large trees to shrubs, with simple, alternate, deciduous or evergreen, entire to deeply lobed leaves. the leaves are rather thick and woody, and remain on the tree either all winter or at least until nearly all other deciduous leaves have fallen. flowers insignificant; the staminate ones in catkins; blooming in spring. fruit an acorn, which in the white, chestnut, and live oaks matures the same year the blossoms appear; while in the red, black, and willow oaks the acorns mature the second year. they remain on the tree until late in autumn. the oaks, because of their large tap-roots, can be transplanted only when small. most of the species are in cultivation. the species are very closely related, and a number of them quite readily hybridize; this is especially true of those of a particular group, as the white oaks, black oaks, etc. there is no attempt in the key to characterize the hybrids, of which some are quite extensively distributed. _quercus heterophylla_, michx. (bartram's oak), supposed to be a hybrid between _quercus phellos_ and _quercus rubra_, is found quite frequently from staten island southward to north carolina. * cultivated oaks from the old world; bark rough; leaves more or less sinuated or lobed. (=a.=) =a.= acorn cup not bristly . =a.= acorn cup more or less bristly . * wild species, occasionally cultivated. (=b.=) =b.= leaves entire or almost entire, or merely - (rarely -) lobed at the enlarged summit. (=c.=) =c.= ends about equal, petioles very short. (=d.=) =d.= leaves small ( to in. long), evergreen, bark smooth, black (live-oaks) . =d.= leaves not evergreen in the north, somewhat awned when young, bark very smooth, black and never cracked (willow-oaks). (=e.=) =e.= down on the under side quite persistent . =e.= under side soon smooth . =c.= widened near the tip, somewhat obovate and the end usually -lobed; bark quite black, smooth or furrowed, but never scaly (black-oaks). (=f.=) =f.= leaves acute at base . =f.= leaves abrupt or cordate at base . =b.= leaves distinctly straight-veined, sinuate rather than lobed, the teeth generally rounded and never awned; bark white, rough and scaling (chestnut-oaks). (=g.=) =g.= lobes rounded , , . =g.= lobes rather acute , . =b.= leaves coarsely lobed, the lobes usually rounded, never awned; bark white or whitish-brown, cracking and scaling off in thin laminæ (white oaks). (=h.=) =h.= leaves crowded at the ends of the branchlets . =h.= leaves not crowded , , . =b.= leaves more or less lobed, the lobes and teeth acute and bristle-pointed; petiole slender; base rather abrupt; bark dark-colored, smooth or furrowed, but never scaly (red oaks). (=i.=) =i.= leaves smooth both sides, at least when mature , , . =i.= leaves soft-downy beneath , . [illustration: q. álba.] . =quércus álba=, l. (american white oak.) leaves short-stemmed, acute at base, with to oblong, obtuse, usually entire, oblique lobes, very persistent, many remaining on the tree through the winter; pubescent when young, soon smooth, bright green above. acorns in the axils of the leaves of the year, ovoid-oblong, in., in a shallow, rough cup, often sweet and edible. a large tree, to ft. high, with stem often ft. in diameter; wood light-colored, hard, tough and very useful. common throughout. [illustration: q. stellàta] . =quércus stelláta=, wang. (post-oak. rough or box white oak.) leaves to in. long, sinuately cut into to roundish, divergent lobes, the upper ones much larger and often - to -notched, grayish-or yellowish-downy beneath, and pale and rough above. acorn ovoid, about ½ in. long, one third to one half inclosed in a deep, saucer-shaped cup; in the axils of the leaves of the year. a medium-sized tree, to ft. high, with very hard, durable wood, resembling that of the white oak. massachusetts, south and west. [illustration: q. macrocárpa.] . =quércus macrocárpa=, michx. (bur-oak. mossy-cup.) leaves obovate or oblong, lyrately pinnatifid or deeply sinuate-lobed or nearly parted, the lobes sparingly and obtusely toothed or entire. acorn broadly ovoid, in. or more long, one half to almost entirely inclosed in a thick and woody cup with usually a mossy fringed border formed of the upper awned scales; cup very variable in size, ¾ to in. across. a handsome, middle-sized tree, to ft. high. western new england to wisconsin, and southwestward. [illustration: q. lyràta.] . =quércus lyràta=, walt. (swamp post-oak.) leaves crowded at the ends of the branchlets, very variable, obovate-oblong, more or less deeply - to -lobed, white-to-mentose beneath when young, becoming smoothish; the lobes triangular to oblong, acute or obtuse, entire or sparingly toothed. acorn about ¾ in. long, nearly covered by the round, ovate, thin, rugged, scaly cup. a large tree with pale flaky bark. river-swamps in southern indiana to wisconsin, and southward. [illustration: q. bícolor.] . =quércus bícolor=, willd. (swamp white oak.) leaves obovate or oblong-obovate, wedge-shaped at base, coarsely sinuate-crenate, and often rather pinnatifid than toothed, whitish, soft-downy beneath. main primary veins to pairs. acorns, nearly in., oblong-ovoid, set in a shallow cup often mossy fringed at the margin, on a peduncle about as long as the acorn, much longer than the petioles of the leaves; in the axils of the leaves of the year. a large tree, to ft. high, stem to ft. in diameter. most common in the northern and western states, in swamps, but found in moist soil in the mountains of the south. [illustration: q. michaùxii.] . =quércus michaùxii=, nutt. (basket-oak or cow-oak.) leaves to in. long, oval to obovate, acute, obtuse, or even cordate at base, regularly but usually not deeply sinuate, rather rigid, usually very tomentose beneath. acorn large, - / in. long, sweet and edible; cup shallow and roughened with coarse, acute scales; no fringe. a large and valuable oak with gray and flaky bark. [illustration: q. prìnus] . =quércus prìnus=, l. (chestnut-oak.) leaves obovate or oblong, coarsely undulately toothed, with to pairs of straight, prominent ribs beneath; surface minutely downy beneath, and smooth above. acorn ovoid, in. long, covered nearly half-way with a thick, mostly tuberculated cup; in the axils of the leaves of the year; kernel sweetish and edible. a middle-sized or small tree, with reddish, coarse-grained wood. found throughout, but common only southward. [illustration: q. muhlenbérgii.] . =quércus muhlenbérgii=, engelm. (yellow chestnut-oak.) leaves usually thin, to in. long, ½ to in. broad, oblong-lanceolate, rather sharply notched, mostly obtuse or roundish at base, sometimes broadly ovate or obovate, and two thirds as wide as long. the leaves are usually more like those of the chestnut than any other oak; the primary veins very straight, impressed above, prominent beneath. acorn / to ¾ in. long, inclosed in a thin, hemispherical cup with small, appressed scales. a middle-sized tree with flaky, pale, thin, ash-colored bark, and tough, very durable, yellowish or brownish wood. western new england, westward and south. [illustration: q. prinoìdes.] . =quércus prinoìdes=, willd. (dwarf chestnut-oak.) much like the last, but generally grows only to ft. high in the eastern states. the leaves are more wavy-toothed, on shorter stems. it seems to be only a variety of quercus muhlenbergii, especially in the west, where it grows much taller and runs into that species. [illustration: q. vìrens.] . =quércus vìrens=, ait. (live-oak.) leaves thick, evergreen, to in. long, oblong, obtuse, and somewhat wrinkled; smooth and shining above, hairy beneath, the margin revolute, usually quite entire, rarely spiny-toothed. acorns pedunculate, to in a cluster, oblong-ovate, with top-shaped nut. a mere shrub to a large tree, with yellowish wood of excellent grain and durability. virginia and south. [illustration: q. rùbra.] . =quércus rùbra, l.= (red oak.) leaves rather thin, smooth, oblong, moderately pinnatifid, sometimes deeply so, into to entire or sharply toothed lobes, turning dark red after frost. acorn oblong-ovoid, in. or less long, set in a shallow cup of fine scales, with a narrow raised border, ¾ to in. in diameter; sessile or nearly so. a large tree, to ft. high, with reddish, very coarse-grained wood. common throughout. [illustration: q. coccínea.] . =quércus coccínea=, wang. (scarlet oak.) leaves, in the ordinary form on large trees, bright green, shining above, turning red in autumn, oval or oblong, deeply pinnatifid, the to lobes divergent, and sparingly cut-toothed, notches rounded. acorn ½ to ¾ in. long, roundish, depressed, one half or a little more inclosed in a top-shaped, coarsely scaled cup; in the axils of the leaf-scars of the preceding year. a large handsome tree, to ft. high, with grayish bark not deeply furrowed, interior reddish; coarse-grained reddish wood. moist or dry soil. common. [illustration: var. tinctória.] var. _tinctoria_. (quercitron. yellow-barked or black oak.) leaves, especially on young trees, often less deeply pinnatifid, sometimes barely sinuate. foliage much like that of quercus rubra. acorn nearly round, ½ to / in. long, set in a rather deep, conspicuously scaly cup. bark of trunk thicker, rougher, darker-colored and with the inner color orange. rich and poor soil. abundant east, but rare west. [illustration: q. palústris.] . =quércus palústris=, du roi. (swamp, spanish, or pin oak.) leaves oblong, deeply pinnatifid, with divergent, sharply toothed, bristle-tipped lobes and rounded notches, and with both sides bright green. acorn globular, hardly ½ in. long, cup shallow and saucer-shaped, almost sessile, in the axils of last year's leaf-scars. a handsome, medium-sized tree; wood reddish, coarse-grained. in low ground. common throughout. [illustration: q. falcàta.] . =quércus falcàta=, michx. (spanish oak.) leaves obtuse or roundish at base, - to -lobed above, the lobes prolonged, mostly narrow, and the end ones more or less scythe-shaped, bristle-tipped, entire or sparingly cut-toothed, soft-downy beneath. foliage very variable. acorn / to ½ in. long, globose, half inclosed in the hemispherical cup; nearly sessile. a tree, to ft. high, large and abundant in the south; bark thick and excellent for tanning; wood coarse-grained, dark brown or reddish. new jersey, south and west. [illustration: q. ilicifòlia.] . =quércus ilicifòlia=, wang. (bear or black scrub-oak.) leaves obovate, wedge-shaped at base, angularly about -lobed ( to ), white-downy beneath, to in. long, thickish, with short, triangular bristle-tipped lobes. acorn ovoid, globular, ½ in. long. a dwarfed, straggling bush, to ft. high. sandy barrens and rocky hills. new england to ohio, and south. [illustration: q. aquática.] . =quércus aquática=, walt. (water-oak.) leaves thick, sub-evergreen, obovate-wedge-shaped, smooth, tapering at the base, sometimes obscurely -lobed at the tip; on the seedlings and the young rapid-growing shoots often incised or sinuate-pinnatifid, and then bristle-pointed. acorn small, globular-ovoid, downy, in a saucer-shaped cup, very bitter; in the axils of leaf-scars of the previous year. a very variable tree, to ft. high, with smooth bark. wet ground. maryland, west and south. [illustration: q. nìgra.] . =quércus nìgra=, l. (black oak or barren oak.) leaves large, to in. long, thick, wedge-shaped, broadly dilated above, and truncate or slightly -lobed at the end, bristle-awned, smooth above, rusty-downy beneath. acorn oblong-ovate, ½ to ¾ in. long, in the axils of the leaves of the preceding year, one third or one half inclosed in the top-shaped, coarse-scaled cup. a small tree, to ft. high, with rough, very dark-colored bark. new york, south and west, in dry, sandy barrens. [illustration: q. imbricària.] . =quércus imbricària=, michx. (laurel-or shingle-oak.) leaves lanceolate-oblong, entire, tipped with an abrupt, sharp point, pale-downy beneath. acorn globular, / in. long, cup with broad, whitish, close-pressed scales, covering about one third of the nut. a stout tree, to ft. high, found in barrens and open woodlands. wood extensively used in the west for shingles. new jersey to wisconsin, and southward. [illustration: q. phéllos.] . =quércus phéllos=, l. (willow-oak.) leaves to in. long, thick, linear-lanceolate, narrowed at both ends, entire or very nearly so, soon smooth, light green, bristle-tipped, willow-like, scurfy when young. acorns about sessile, globular, small (½ in.), in a shallow saucer shaped cup; on the old wood. tree to ft. high, with smooth, thick bark, and reddish, coarse-grained wood, of little value. borders of swamps, new jersey, south and west; also cultivated. [illustration: q. ròbur.] . =quércus ròbur=, l. (english oak.) leaves on short footstalks, oblong, smooth, dilated upward, sinuately lobed, hardly pinnatifid. acorns in the axils of the leaves of the year, ovate-oblong, over in., about one third inclosed in the hemispherical cup; sessile in var. _sessiliflora_; clustered and long-peduncled in var. _pedunculata_. trees to ft. high, extensively cultivated; from europe; the nursery catalogues name as many as a score or more varieties. one var., _fastigiata_ (pyramidal oak), is a peculiar upright tree like the lombardy poplar; var. _pendula_ (weeping oak) has long, slender, drooping branches. [illustration: q. cérris.] . =quércus cérris=, l. (turkey oak.) leaves on very short stalks, oblong, deeply and unequally pinnatifid, hairy beneath; lobes lanceolate, acute, somewhat angular. acorns in the axils of the leaves of the year, ovate, with a hemispherical, bristly or mossy cup. several varieties of this species, from europe, are cultivated in this country. they form tall, round-headed, symmetrical trees. genus = . castÀnea.= trees or shrubs with alternate, simple, straight-veined, elongated, pointed leaves. sterile flowers in long, drooping, conspicuous catkins, blooming in june or july; the fertile ones rather inconspicuous, but forming prickly-coated burs which hang on till the frost, when they split open and let out the brown, horny-coated nuts. wood light, coarse-grained. * large tree with burs having to nuts . * small tree with burs having rounded nut . [illustration: c. satìva.] . =castànea satìva=, mill. (chestnut.) leaves oblong-lanceolate, pointed, coarsely serrate, with usually awned teeth; smooth on both sides, to in. long, ½ to ¼ in. wide. burs large, very prickly, inclosing to large, ovoid, brown nuts, ripe after frost, which opens the bur into valves. a common large tree, with light, coarse-grained wood, and bark having coarse longitudinal ridges on the old trees. many varieties of this species are in cultivation, varying in the size and sweetness of the nuts, the size of the trees, and the size and the margins of the leaves, some of which are almost entire. the wild species is var. _americana_. [illustration: c. pùmila.] . =castànea pùmila=, mill. (chinquapin.) leaves lance-oblong, strongly straight-veined, coarsely serrate, usually with awned tips; whitish-downy beneath, to in. long, ¼ to in. wide. bur small, prickly, with a single small, rounded, sweet, chestnut-colored nut. a handsome small tree, or in the wild state usually a shrub, to ft. high. central new jersey, southern ohio and southward, and cultivated successfully as far north as new york city. genus = . fÀgus.= trees with alternate, strongly straight-veined, almost entire to deeply pinnatifid leaves. flowers inconspicuous, appearing with the leaves. fruit a prickly bur, inclosing triangular, sharp-ridged nuts, the bur hanging on the trees during the greater part of the winter. leaf-buds very elongated, slender, sharp-pointed. * the straight veins all ending in the teeth; native . * margin varying from entire to deeply pinnatifid, the straight veins occasionally ending in the notches . [illustration: f. ferrugínea.] . =fàgus ferrugínea=, ait. (american beech.) leaves thin, oblong-ovate, taper-pointed, distinctly and often coarsely toothed; petioles and midrib ciliate with soft silky hairs when young, soon almost naked. the very straight veins run into the teeth. prickles of the fruit mostly recurved or spreading. large tree, to ft. high, with grayish-white, very smooth bark, and firm, light-colored, close-grained wood. wild throughout, and frequently cultivated. [illustration: f. sylvática.] . =fàgus sylvática=, l. (european beech.) leaves often similar to those of the american beech, but usually shorter and broader; the border, often nearly entire, is wavy in some varieties, and in others deeply pinnatifid. the bark in most varieties is darker than in the american. this beech, with its numerous varieties, is the one usually cultivated. among the most useful varieties are _atropurpurea_ (purple beech), with the darkest foliage of any deciduous tree, and almost entire-margined leaves; _laciniata_ (cut-leaved beech), with very deeply cut leaves; and _argentea variegata_ (silver variegated beech), having in the spring quite distinctly variegated leaves. order =xl. salicÀceÆ.= (willow family.) a small order of soft-wooded trees and shrubs, abundantly distributed in the northern temperate and frigid zones. genus = . sÀlix.= soft-wooded trees or shrubs growing in damp places, with alternate, usually quite elongated, pointed, deciduous leaves, without lobes. stipules often large, leaf-like, and more or less persistent through the summer; sometimes scale-like and dropping early. the stipules are always free from the leafstalk and attached to the twig at small spots just below the leafstalk. even if the stipules have dropped off, the small scars remain. flowers staminate and pistillate on separate trees (dioecious), in elongated catkins in early spring. fruit consists of catkins of small pods with numerous seeds having silky down at one end. the seeds usually drop early. among the willows there are so many hybrids and peculiar varieties as to render their study difficult, and their classification, in some cases, impossible. the following key will probably enable the student to determine most specimens. no attempt has been made to include all the cultivated forms. * spray decidedly weeping . * spray not decidedly weeping. (=a.=) =a.= rather small willows, to ft. high, with broad leaves, usually not over twice as long as wide; cultivated. (=b.=) =b.= leaves glossy dark green on the upper side, taper-pointed . =b.= leaves with white cottony hairs beneath . =b.= leaves rough-veiny beneath . =a.= rather large willows, to ft. high, with the bark of the trunk very rough; leaves more elongated. (=c.=) =c.= petioles of the leaves not glandular; tree to ft. high. (=d.=) =d.= leaves green on both sides when mature . =d.= leaves glaucous beneath . =c.= petioles of the leaves usually glandular; tree to ft. high. (=e.=) =e.= young leaves green above and glaucous beneath . =e.= young leaves ashy gray or silvery white on both sides . =a.= small trees or almost shrubs, under ft. high; bark of trunk rather smooth. (=f.=) =f.= leaves ovate rather than lanceolate, sometimes truncate or even cordate at base. (=g.=) =g.= leaves quite broad, shining on both sides. (=h.=) =h.= leaves bright green; twigs polished green . =h.= leaves very dark green, strongly fragrant when bruised . =g.= leaves pale-downy beneath, often cordate at base . =f.= leaves usually wider near the acute or acuminate tip, glaucous beneath. (=i.=) =i.= branches very twiggy; leaves often opposite; twigs olive-color or reddish . =i.= branches not very twiggy; leaves all alternate , . =f.= leaves very long and slender, almost linear . [illustration: s. nìgra] . =sàlix nìgra=, marsh. (black willow.) leaves narrowly lanceolate, tapering at the ends, serrate, smooth except on the petiole and midrib, green on both sides; stipules small (large in var. _falcata_), dentate, dropping early. branches very brittle at base. a small tree, to ft. high, with rough black bark. common along streams, southward, but rare in the northern range of states. [illustration: s. amygdaloìdes.] . =sàlix amygdaloìdes=, anderson. (western black willow.) leaves to in. long, lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, attenuate-cuspidate, pale or glaucous beneath, with long slender petioles; stipules minute and soon falling. a small tree, to ft. high, from central new york westward. it is the common black willow of the streams of ohio to missouri. [illustration: s. frágilis.] . =sàlix frágilis=, l. (brittle willow. crack-willow.) leaves lanceolate, taper-pointed, smooth, glaucous beneath (slightly silky when young), serrate throughout; stipules half heart-shaped, usually large. branches smooth and polished, very brittle at base. a tall ( to ft. high) handsome willow, with a bushy head and salmon-colored wood; cultivated from europe for basket-work, and extensively naturalized. many varieties, hybrids between this species and the next, are very common. among them may be mentioned the following: var. _decipiens_, with dark-brown buds; var. _russelliana_, with more slender, brighter, and more sharply serrate leaves, the annual shoots silky-downy toward autumn; var. _viridis_, with tough, pendulous branchlets, and firmer, bright green leaves. [illustration: s. álba.] . =sàlix álba=, l. (white willow.) leaves lanceolate or elliptical-lanceolate, pointed, serrate, covered more or less with white silky hairs, especially beneath; var. _cærulea_ has nearly smooth leaves, at maturity of a bluish tint; stipules small and quite early deciduous. catkins of flowers long and loose, on a peduncle; stamens usually ; stigmas nearly sessile, thick, and recurved. may, june. a quite large tree, to ft. high, with thick, rough bark, usually having yellow twigs (var. _vitellina_); introduced from europe and now quite common throughout. branches very brittle at base. [illustration: s. babylónica.] . =sàlix babylónica=, tourn. (weeping willow.) leaves linear-lanceolate, acuminate, finely serrate, smooth, glaucous beneath; stipules small, roundish, oblique, acuminate; branches pendulous. a large, gracefully drooping tree, so extensively cultivated for ornament as to seem native; from europe. var. _annularis_ (ring-leaved willow. curled willow) has the leaves coiled round into rings and spirals. [illustration: s. lùcida.] . =sàlix lùcida=, mühl. (shining or american bay willow.) leaves thickish, ovate-lanceolate, with a rounded base, a very long acuminate point, and a glandular petiole; when mature, smooth and shining on both sides. twigs rather stout, polished, and dark green. bark of trunk smooth. fruiting catkins quite persistent. a beautiful small tree or shrub, to ft. high, of bushy form. new jersey, north and westward. [illustration: s. pentándra.] . =sàlix pentándra, l.= (laurel-leaved or bay willow.) leaves ovate, taper-pointed, crenate, glandular, smooth, glossy, bright deep green on both sides, strongly fragrant when bruised. catkins large, fragrant, golden-yellow, with to (commonly ) stamens to each flower. june, after the leaves are expanded. a small handsome tree, to ft. high, from europe, which should be more extensively cultivated in damp soils, as its form, flowers, and foliage are all beautiful. [illustration: s. cordàta. var. rufescens.] . =sàlix cordàta, mühl.= (heart-leaved willow.) leaves lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, heart-shaped, truncate or sometimes acute at base, taper-pointed, sharply serrate, smooth above, pale-downy beneath; stipules often large, kidney-shaped, and toothed, sometimes small and entire. catkins appearing with or before the leaves along the sides of the stem; stamens ; scales dark or black, hairy, persistent. shrub or small tree, to ft. high, very common in low and wet places. many named varieties are found. var. _rigida_ has large, thick, coarse-toothed leaves; vars. _myricoides_ and _angustata_ have narrower, finely serrate leaves, almost or fully acute at base. [illustration: s. purpùrea.] . =sàlix purpùrea, l.= (purple willow.) leaves lanceolate, pointed, partly opposite, minutely serrate, smooth. twigs olive-color or reddish. catkins cylindric, with leafy bracts at base, and apparently stamen to each flower (the filaments are united). a shrub or small tree, to ft. high; from europe. in low ground; often cultivated for the twigs, which are used in basket-making. [illustration: s. càprea.] . =sàlix càprea, l.= (goat-willow.) leaves large, roundish, ovate, pointed, serrate, wavy, deep green above, pale and downy with soft, white-cottony hairs beneath; stipules somewhat crescent-shaped. catkins large, oval, numerous, almost sessile, blooming much before the leaves appear, and of a showy yellow color. a moderate-sized tree, to ft. high, with spreading, brown or purplish branches. frequent in cultivation; from europe; growing well in dry places. the goat-willow is the one generally used for the stock of the artificial umbrella-formed "kilmarnock willow." the growth of shoots from these stocks is rendering the goat-willow quite common. [illustration: s. rostràta.] . =sàlix rostràta, richards.= (beaked willow.) leaves oblong to obovate-lanceolate, acute, usually obscurely toothed, sometimes crenate or serrate, downy above, prominently veined, soft-hairy and somewhat glaucous beneath. twigs downy. catkins appearing with the leaves. fruit-capsules tapering to a long slender beak, pedicels long and slender. a small, tree-shaped shrub, to ft. high, common in both moist and dry ground. new england, west and north. [illustration: s. díscolor.] . =sàlix díscolor, mühl.= (glaucous or bog willow.) leaves lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, acute, remotely serrate at the base, finely serrate along the middle, and almost entire near the tip; smooth and bright green above, soon smooth and somewhat glaucous beneath; stipules, on the vigorous shoots, equaling the petiole, more frequently small and inconspicuous. catkins sessile, in. long, appearing before the leaves in the spring; scales dark red or brown, becoming black, covered with long glossy hairs. fruit in catkins, ½ in. long, the capsules very hairy, with short but distinct style. a very variable species, common in low meadows and on river-banks; usually a shrub, but occasionally ft. high. [illustration: s. cinèrea.] . =sàlix cinèrea, l.= (gray or ash-colored willow.) leaves obovate-lanceolate, entire to serrate; glaucous-downy and reticulated with veins beneath; stipules half heart-shaped, serrate. flowers yellow; ovary silky, on a stalk half as long as the bracts. a shrub to middle-sized tree, to ft. high, with an erect trunk; occasionally cultivated; from europe. [illustration: s. longifòlia.] . =sàlix longifòlia=, mühl. (long-leaved willow.) leaves linear-lanceolate, very long, tapering at each end, nearly sessile, remotely notched with projecting teeth, clothed with gray hairs when young; stipules small, lanceolate, toothed. branches brittle at base. a shrub or small tree, to ft. high, common, especially westward, along river-banks. genus = . pÓpulus.= trees with alternate, deciduous, broad-based leaves. flowers in long and drooping catkins, appearing before the leaves are expanded in the spring. fruit small, dry pods in catkins, having seeds, coated with cottony down, which early in the season escape and float in the wind. on this account the trees are called cottonwoods in the west. trees with light-colored, rather soft wood. * leaves always white-hairy underneath; more or less deeply lobed; buds not gummy . * leaves smooth beneath, at least when old. (=a.=) =a.= leafstalk decidedly flattened laterally. (=b.=) =b.= buds not covered with sticky gum. (=c.=) =c.= leaves roundish heart-shaped; bark on trunk greenish-white, . =c.= leaves large, ovate, with large, irregular, sinuate teeth, . =b.= buds covered with aromatic, glutinous resin. (=d.=) =d.= tree tall, spire-shaped, . =d.= not very spire-shaped; young twigs sharply angled or winged, leaves to in. long, broadly deltoid, serrate with incurved teeth, . =d.= not spire-shaped; young twigs not angular, . =a.= leafstalk not decidedly flattened; leaf-margin crenate. (=e.=) =e.= buds not glutinous; leaves white-woolly beneath when young, . =e.= buds very glutinous; leaves large, shining green on both sides, . [illustration: p. álba.] . =pópulus álba=, l. (white poplar or abele tree.) leaves roundish, slightly heart-shaped, wavy toothed or lobed, soon green above, very white-cottony beneath even when old; buds without the sticky coating common in the genus. branches very white with down when young. root creeping and producing numerous suckers. a large tree, to ft. high, of rapid growth, often cultivated; from europe. leaves and branches very variable, forming several named varieties in the catalogues of the nurseries. [illustration: p. tremuloìdes.] . =pópulus tremuloìdes=, michx. (quaking-asp. american aspen.) leaves roundish heart-shaped, with a short sharp point, and small, quite regular teeth; downy when young, but soon smooth on both sides; margins downy. leafstalk long, slender, compressed, causing the leaves to tremble continually in the slightest breeze. leaf with glands at the base on the upper surface; buds varnished. a medium-sized tree, to ft. high; bark greenish-white outside, yellow within, quite brittle. common both in forests and in cultivation. [illustration: p. grandidentàta.] . =pópulus grandidentàta=, michx. (large-toothed aspen.) leaves large, to in. long, roundish-ovate, with large, irregular, sinuate teeth; and when young densely covered with white, silky wool, but soon becoming smooth on both sides; leaf, when young, reddish-yellow; petiole compressed. a large tree, to ft. high, with rather smoothish gray bark. woods; common northward, rare southward, except in the alleghanies. wood soft and extensively used for paper-making. [illustration: p. heterophýlla.] . =pópulus heterophýlla=, l. (downy-leaved poplar.) leaves heart-shaped or roundish-ovate with small, obtuse, incurved teeth; white-woolly when young, but soon becoming smooth on both sides except on the veins beneath. leafstalk slightly compressed. shoots round, tomentose. buds not glutinous. a large tree, to ft. high, not very common; found from western new england to illinois, and southward. [illustration: p. dilatàta.] . =pópulus dilatàta=, l. (lombardy poplar.) leaves deltoid, wider than long, crenulated all round, both sides smooth from the first; leafstalk compressed; buds glutinous. a tall tree, to ft. high; spire-like, of rapid growth, with all the branches erect; the trunk twisted and deeply furrowed. frequently planted a century ago, but now quite rare in the eastern united states. from europe. it is thought to be a variety of populus nigra (no. ). [illustration: p. monilífera.] . =pópulus monilífera=, ait. (cottonwood. carolina poplar. necklace-poplar.) leaves large, broadly heart-shaped or deltoid, serrate with cartilaginous, incurved, slightly hairy teeth. the rapid-growing young twigs very angular and bearing very large ( to in. long) leaves. a very large ( to ft. high) tree, common in the mississippi valley, but found in western new england and often planted. [illustration: p. nìgra.] . =pópulus nìgra=, l. (black poplar.) leaves rather large, deltoid, pointed, serrate with glandular teeth, smooth on both sides even when young. leafstalk somewhat compressed. buds very sticky. a very variable, large ( to ft. high), rapidly growing tree with spreading branches. occasionally planted. from europe. [illustration: p. balsamífera.] . =pópulus balsamífera=, l. (balsam-poplar. tacamahac. balm of gilead.) leaves very large, ovate, gradually acuminate, sometimes heart-shaped, finely serrate, smooth, bright green and shining on both sides; leafstalk nearly round; leaves in spring rich yellow. branches ridged below the leaves; buds large and covered with very fragrant resin. a medium-sized tree, to ft. high, pyramidal in form. wild in the north and often cultivated. var. _candicans_, or balm of gilead, has larger and more or less heart-shaped leaves (the larger figure in the cut). class ii. gymnospÉrmÆ. plants in which the pistil is represented by an open scale instead of a body with a closed ovary, as in class i. order =xli. conÍferÆ.= (pine family.) as far as the number of species is concerned, this is the largest order of trees and shrubs of temperate and cold-temperate regions. the order is of the greatest importance, both on account of the valuable timber it furnishes and for its resinous secretions, turpentine and resin. genus = . pÌnus.= (the pines.) leaves needle-shaped, to in. long, almost cylindric, , , or together in clusters, with a sheath, more or less persistent, at the base. flowers monoecious, both staminate and pistillate in catkins, usually insignificant and unnoticeable. in spring. fruit a cone, persistent and formed of more or less woody, overlapping scales. * leaves usually together in bundles. (=a.=) =a.= leaves in. or more long, glaucous green and very pendulous . =a.= leaves under in. long. (=b.=) =b.= cones over in. long, on stalks in. long, pendulous when ripe . =b.= cones to in. long. (=c.=) =c.= scales of cones thin, unarmed , . =c.= scales of cones thick and woody, obtuse, in. broad . =b.= cones under in. long; scales slightly hooked but pointless . * leaves usually in threes, rarely in twos; scales of cones with spines or prickles. (=d.=) =d.= scales of cones with short, rigid, straight spines; leaves to in. long . =d.= scales with sharp, bent prickles. (=e.=) =e.= leaves over in. long, sometimes in. long , . =e.= leaves to in. long, rigid and flattened, from short sheaths, . * leaves usually in twos; cones rarely over in. long. (=f.=) =f.= leaves over in. long. (=g.=) =g.= cone-scales with dull spines . =g.= with small or minute, persistent prickles , , . =g.= with no prickles, or small ones, early deciduous , . =f.= leaves in. or less long. (=h.=) =h.= cone-scales with straight or slightly curved, rigid spines . =h.= cone-scales with stout, recurved spines , . =h.= cone-scales with small prickles which are early deciduous . =h.= cone-scales without spines or prickles , . [illustration: p. excélsa.] . =pìnus excélsa=, wallich. (bhotan pine.) leaves in fives, from short, fugacious, overlapping, membranaceous sheaths, to in. long, very slender, of a glaucous-green color, and very pendulous. cones to in. long, and in. in diameter, drooping and clustered, with broad, thick, wedge-shaped scales. a large beautiful tree from southern asia, much subject to blight when planted in this country. owing to its peculiar drooping branches it has been called the weeping fir. [illustration: p. lambertiàna.] . =pìnus lambertiàna=, douglas. (lambert's or sugar pine.) leaves in fives, to in. long, from short, deciduous sheaths. cones to in. long and to in. in diameter, gradually tapering to a point, on stalks in. long, brown and pendulous when ripe, without resin; seeds large, oval, nearly in. long, edible. a very large tree ( to ft. high in california and northward), and seemingly hardy and well worth cultivation in the east. wood white and soft like that of the white pine. [illustration: p. stróbus.] . =pìnus stróbus=, l. (white pine. weymouth pine.) leaves in fives, to in. long, from a loose, deciduous sheath; slender, soft, and whitish on the under side. cones to in. long, cylindric, usually curved, with smooth, thin, unarmed scales. tall ( to ft. high), very useful tree, of white, soft wood nearly free from resin and more extensively used for lumber than any other american tree. has been common throughout, but is getting scarce on account of its consumption for lumber. [illustration: p. montícola.] . =pìnus montícola=, dougl. (mountain-pine.) leaves in fives, to in. long, from short, overlapping, very deciduous sheaths; smooth, glaucous green. cones in. long and ¾ in. in diameter, cylindric, smooth, obtuse, short-peduncled, resinous, with loosely overlapping, pointless scales. a large tree, to ft. high, resembling the white pine, and often considered a variety of it, but the foliage is denser; pacific coast. [illustration: p. fléxilis.] . =pìnus fléxilis=, james. (western white pine.) leaves to in. long, rigid, entire, acute, densely crowded, sharp-pointed, of a rich dark green color, together in lanceolate, deciduous sheaths. cones to in. long and half as wide, subcylindric, tapering to the end, semipendulous, clustered. scales thick, woody, obtuse, loose, ¼ in. broad, yellowish brown. seeds rather large, with rigid margins instead of wings. a handsome hardy tree from the pacific highlands, occasionally cultivated. it resembles the eastern white pine, but is more compact and of a darker color. [illustration: p. cémbra.] . =pìnus cémbra=, l. (cembra pine. swiss stone-pine.) leaves to in. long, from a medium-sized deciduous sheath; triangular, rigid, slender, straight, crowded, dark green with a glaucous surface; together. cones ½ in. by in., ovate, erect, with obtuse, slightly hooked, but pointless scales. seeds as large as peas and destitute of wings. a slow-growing, cultivated tree, to ft. high. forms a regular cone; branches to the ground; europe; hardy throughout. [illustration: p. tæda.] . =pìnus tæda=, l. (loblolly or old-field pine.) leaves in twos and threes, to in. long, with elongated, close sheaths; slender and of a light green color. cones in pairs or solitary, lateral, to in. long, oblong, conical; the scales having short, rigid, straight spines. a large tree, to ft. high, wild from delaware, south and west, in swamps and old fields. [illustration: p. ponderòsa.] . =pìnus ponderòsa=, dougl. (western yellow or heavy-wooded pine.) leaves in threes, to in. long, from short sheaths; broad, coarse, twisted, flexible, of a deep green color; branchlets thick, reddish brown. cones to in. long, ovate, reflexed, clustered on short stems. scales long, flattened, with small, sharp, recurved prickles. a large pacific coast species, to ft. high, with rather coarse-grained, hard and heavy, whitish wood, and thick, deeply furrowed bark; beginning to be cultivated east. [illustration: p. paltústris.] . =pìnus palústris=, mill. (long-leaved or southern yellow pine.) leaves together in bundles, to in. long, from a long, lacerated, light-colored sheath, of a bright green color, and crowded in dense clusters at the ends of the branches. cones to in. long, usually cylindric, of a beautiful brown color, with thick scales, armed with very small, slightly recurved prickles. a rather tall pine, ft. high, wild in the southern states, and cultivated as far north as new jersey, in sheltered situations. [illustration: p. rígida.] . =pìnus rígida=, mill. (pitch-pine.) leaves in threes, to in. long, from short sheaths; rigid and flattened. cones ovate, in. to nearly in. long, sometimes in clusters; scales with a short, recurved prickle. a medium-sized tree, to ft. high, with hard, coarse-grained, very resinous wood; found east of the alleghanies throughout; more abundant in swamps. [illustration: p. austrìaca.] . =pìnus austrìaca=, höss. (austrian or black pine.) leaves long, to in., rigid, slender, incurved, sharply mucronate, of a dark green color; from short sheaths; together. cones ½ to in. long, regularly conical, slightly recurved, of a light brown color; scales smooth, shining, with a dull spine in the center. a large cultivated tree, to ft. high, hardy throughout. europe. [illustration: p. larício.] . =pìnus larício=, poir. (corsican pine.) leaves to in. long, slender, very wavy, dark green; together in a sheath. cones to in. long, conical, somewhat curved, often in pairs. scales with very small prickles. seeds rather large with broad wings. a tall, open, pyramidal, rapid-growing tree, to ft. high, with the branches in regular whorls, spreading and very resinous. often cultivated. europe. [illustration: p. massoniàna.] . =pìnus massoniàna=, sieb. (masson's pine.) leaves in twos, to in. long, rather stiff, concave on one side and convex on the other, twisted but not curved; sharp-pointed, of a fresh, bright green color. cones to ½ in. long, conical, incurved, solitary but numerous, with closely overlapping scales terminating in slender prickles. an upright, compact tree, to ft. high, from japan; sometimes cultivated. hardy at boston. [illustration: p. mìtis.] . =pìnus mìtis=, michx. (common yellow pine.) leaves sometimes in threes, usually in twos, from long sheaths; slender, to in. long, dark green, rather soft. cones ovate to oblong-conical, hardly in. long; the scales with minute weak prickles. a large tree with an erect trunk, to ft. high. staten island, south and west. the western form has more rigid leaves, and more spiny cones. [illustration: p. densiflòra.] . =pìnus densiflòra=, siebold. (japan pine.) leaves about in. long, from short, fringed, scale-like sheaths; rigid, convex above, concave beneath and somewhat serrulate on the margin, very smooth, sharp-pointed and crowded, shining green and somewhat glaucous; falling when one to two years old; in a sheath. cones abundant; ½ in. long, short-peduncled, conical, obtuse, terminal, somewhat pendent; scales linear-oblong, woody, with a small prickle which soon falls off. a beautiful small tree, to ft. high; from japan; hardy throughout. [illustration: p. resinòsa.] . =pìnus resinòsa=, ait. (red pine.) leaves to in. long, in twos, from long sheaths; rigid, straight, dark green. cones in. long, ovate-conical, smooth, their scales without points, slightly thickened, usually growing in clusters. a tall tree, to ft. high, with rather smooth, reddish bark and hard light-colored wood; branchlets also having smooth reddish bark. pennsylvania, north and west. [illustration: p. ínops.] . =pìnus ínops=, ait. (jersey or scrub pine.) leaves short, ½ to in. long, rigid; usually , rarely , in a short sheath. cones solitary, to in. long, ovate-oblong, curved, on a short stalk. scales tipped with a straight, rigid spine. a small tree, to ft. high, growing wild in sections where the soil is poor and sandy; having straggling flexible branches with rough, dark bark; new jersey, south and west. rarely cultivated. [illustration: p. púngens.] . =pinus púngens=, michx. f. (table-mountain pine.) leaves in twos, sometimes in threes, stout, short, ¼ to ½ in. long, crowded, bluish; the sheath short (very short on old foliage). cones in. or more long, hanging on for a long time; the scales armed with a stout, hooked spine, ¼ in. long. a rather small tree, to ft. high. new jersey and south westward, along the mountains. [illustration: p. sylvéstris.] . =pìnus sylvéstris=, l. (scotch pine, wrongly called scotch fir.) leaves in twos, ½ to ½ in. long, from short, lacerated sheaths, twisted, rigid, of a grayish or a glaucous-green color. cones to in. long, ovate-conical, of a grayish-brown color, ripening the second year, the scales having -sided, recurved points. a large and very valuable tree of central europe. many varieties are in cultivation in this country. it forms the red and yellow deal so extensively used for lumber in europe. [illustration: p. contórta.] . =pìnus contórta=, dougl. (twisted-branched pine.) leaves in. long, numerous, rigid, sharply mucronate, from a short, dark, overlapping sheath; to a sheath. cones from to ½ in. long, ovate, smooth, clustered. scales furnished with a point which is soon shed. a small cultivated tree, to ft. high, from the pacific coast of the united states. as it has an irregular shape, and crooked branches, it is not often planted. [illustration: p. banksiàna.] . =pìnus banksiàna=, lambert. (gray or northern scrub pine.) leaves in twos, short, in. long, oblique, divergent from a close sheath. cones lateral, conical, oblong, usually curved, ½ to in. long, the scales thickened at the end and without points. a straggling shrub, sometimes a low tree, found wild in the extreme northern states. [illustration: p. édulis.] [illustration: p. monophýlla.] . =pìnus édulis=, engelm. (piÑon or nut-pine.) leaves mostly in pairs, rarely in threes, to ½ in. long, from short sheaths, light-colored, rigid, curved or straightish, spreading; cones sessile, globose or nearly so, in. long; tips of scales thick, conical-truncate, no awns or prickles; seeds large, nut-like, wingless, edible. a low, round-topped tree, branching from near the base, to ft. high; from the rocky mountains. a fine small pine; cultivated in the east. it needs some protection at boston. the figure shows the seed. =pìnus monophýlla=, torr. and frem., from the mountain regions farther west, has its leaves in ones and twos; when in ones, round and very rigid; when in pairs, flat on the inner side; leaves on the young shoots bluish, glaucous green, or silvery. this is probably only a variety of p. edulis. the seeds of both are so large and nutritious that they are extensively used for food by the indians. genus = . pÌcea.= (the spruces.) leaves evergreen, scattered (pointing in every direction), needle-shaped, keeled above and below, thus making them somewhat -sided. fertile catkins and cones terminal; cones maturing the first year, pendulous; scales thin, without prickles, persistent, the cone coming off the tree whole. * leaves very short, usually ¼ to ½ in. long, obtuse , . * leaves usually ½ in. or more long, acute. (=a.=) =a.= cones over in. long; cultivated. (=b.=) =b.= leaves dark green; large tree, common . =b.= leaves bright or pale green , , . =a.= cones in. or less long; large native trees , . [illustration: p. nìgra.] . =pìcea nìgra=, link. (black or double spruce.) leaves about ½ in. long, erect, stiff, somewhat -sided, very dark green or whitish-gray; branchlets pubescent. cones persistent, to ½ in. long, ovate or ovate-oblong, changing from dark purple to dull reddish-brown; scales very thin, roundish, with toothed or uneven edges. a conical-shaped tree, to ft. high; wild in the north and along the alleghanies; often cultivated. bark dark brown; branches horizontal; wood light reddish. var. _rubra_ has larger, darker leaves, and larger, brighter-colored cones. [illustration: p. álba.] . =pìcea álba=, link. (white or single spruce.) leaves ½ to ¾ in. long, rather slender, needle-shaped, sharp-pointed, incurved, pale- or glaucous-green; branchlets smooth. cones deciduous, in. long, oblong-cylindrical, with entire, thin-edged scales. tree to ft. high, of beautiful, compact, symmetrical growth when young, and such light-colored foliage as to make it a fine species for cultivation. wild in the north, and cultivated throughout. there are varieties with bluish-green (var. _cærulea_) and with golden (var. _aurea_) foliage in cultivation. [illustration: p. excélsa.] . =pìcea excélsa=, link. (norway spruce.) leaves ¾ to in. long, rigid, curved, dark green. cones to in. long, and pendent at maturity, with the scales slightly incurved. a large tree, to ft. high, of vigorous growth, with numerous, stout, drooping branches; abundant in cultivation. a score of named varieties are sold at the nurseries, some quite dwarf, others so very irregular in shape as to be grotesque. [illustration: p. políta.] . =pìcea políta=, carr. (tiger's-tail spruce.) leaves ½ to ¾ in. long, strong, rigid, sharp-pointed, somewhat curved, glabrous, bright green, on stout branches with prominent buds. leaves persistent for years; not -ranked. cones to in. long, spindle-shaped elliptical, rounded at the ends. tree of slow growth, with horizontal, yellowish-barked branches. as it is a tree of recent introduction ( ) from japan, there are no large specimens. hardy at boston. [illustration: p. púngens.] . =pìcea púngens=, eng. (silver spruce.) leaves ½ to in. long, broad, rigid, stout, sharply acute, usually curved, pale green above, silvery-glaucous beneath, on smooth and shining branchlets. cones very abundant, to in. long, cylindric, with elongated, undulated, retuse scales. a strictly conical tree with spreading branches and thick, smooth, gray bark. sometimes cultivated; from the rocky mountains. hardy. [illustration: p. morínda.] . =pìcea morínda=, link. (himalayan spruce.) leaves to in. long, very sharply acute, pale green color, spreading, -sided, straight, rigid, slightly glaucous beneath; branches horizontal; branchlets remotely verticillate, numerous, drooping, with light-colored bark. cones to in. long, ovate-oblong; scales light brown, oblong, entire, smooth, loosely imbricated. a tall tree, cultivated from eastern asia and not hardy north of washington except in sheltered positions. [illustration: p. alcóquina.] . =pìcea alcóquina=, lindl. (alcock's spruce.) leaves ¼ to ¾ in. long, crowded, somewhat -sided, flattish, recurved, obtusely rounded at tip, deep green above, whitish or yellowish below. cones to in. long, in. in diameter, reddish fawn-color, with very persistent scales; scales wedge-shaped at base, rounded at tip. a large tree from japan; fully hardy as far north as mass. [illustration: p. orientàlis.] . =pìcea orientàlis=, l. (eastern or oriental spruce.) leaves very short, ½ in. long, -sided, rigid, stout, rather obtuse, dark shining green, entirely surrounding the branches. cones ½ to in. long, cylindrical, with soft, thin, loose, rounded scales, uneven on the edges. a beautiful, conical, slow-growing, compact tree, reaching the height of ft.; often cultivated; from the black sea. hardy. genus = . tsÙga.= (hemlocks.) leaves evergreen, scattered, flat, narrowed to a green petiole, appearing -ranked by the direction they take, whitened beneath. fertile catkins and cones on the end of last year's branchlets. cones pendulous, maturing the first year; scales thin, persistent. [illustration: t. canadénsis.] . =tsùga canadénsis=, carr. (common hemlock.) leaves short-petioled, linear, ½ in. long, obtuse, dark green above and white beneath; the young leaves in the spring a very light green. cones oval, ½ to ¾ in. long, pendent, of few ( to ) scales. a large, very beautiful tree, to ft. high, abundant in rocky woods, and cultivated throughout; spray light and delicate. [illustration: t. caroliniàna.] . =tsùga caroliniàna=, engelm. (mountain-hemlock.) this is similar to the last; its leaves are larger, glossier, more crowded; its cones are larger, and have wider and more spreading scales; the tree is smaller, rarely growing ft. high. wild, but scarce, in the higher alleghanies, south; beginning to be cultivated north, and probably hardy throughout. [illustration: t. siebòldii.] . =tsùga siebòldii.= (japan hemlock.) leaves ½ to ¾ in. long, linear, obtuse to notched at the tip, smooth, thick, dark green above, with two white lines below. cones scarcely in. long, elliptical, solitary, terminal, obtuse, quite persistent; scales pale brown. a beautiful small tree, to ft. high, with an erect trunk, dark-brown bark, and numerous, pale, slender branchlets. introduced from japan, and probably hardy throughout. genus = . Àbies.= (the firs.) leaves evergreen, flat, scattered, generally whitened beneath, appearing somewhat -ranked by the directions they take. fertile catkins and cones erect on the upper side of the spreading branches. cones ripening the first year; their scales thin and smooth, and the bracts generally exserted; scales and bracts breaking off at maturity and falling away, leaving the axis on the tree. a great number of species and varieties have been planted in this country, but few if any besides those here given do at all well in our dry and hot climate. * cones to in. long; leaves blunt at tip. (=a.=) =a.= leaves over an inch long , . =a.= leaves an inch or less long . * cones ½ to in. long. (=b.=) =b.= leaves in. or more long, -ranked . =b.= leaves in. or less long. (=c.=) =c.= leaves acute at tip , . =c.= leaves blunt or notched at tip. (=d.=) =d.= two-ranked . =d.= not -ranked . * cones to ½ in. long. (=e.=) =e.= leaves an inch or more long , . =e.= leaves less than an inch long , . [illustration: a. balsàmea.] . =Àbies balsàmea=, mill. (common balsam-fir.) leaves narrow, linear, ½ to ¾ in. long, and much crowded, silvery beneath; those on the horizontal branches spreading into ranks. bark yielding canada balsam from blisters. cones erect, on spreading branches, to in. long and in. thick, cylindric, violet-colored, with mucronate-pointed bracts extending beyond the scales and not reflexed. wild in cold, wet grounds; to ft. high, with numerous horizontal branches. has been cultivated quite extensively, although there are better firs for ornamental purposes. [illustration: a. fràseri.] . =Àbies fràseri=, lindl. (fraser's or southern balsam-fir.) leaves ½ to ¾ in. long, somewhat -ranked, linear, flattened, obtuse, emarginate, whitish beneath, the lower ones curved and the upper ones erect. cones oblong, to in. long, with sharp-pointed bracts half exserted and reflexed. a rare, small tree, to ft. high, growing wild in the mountains, from virginia south. a hardy tree and handsome when young. [illustration: a. nordmanniàna.] . =Àbies nordmanniàna=, link. (nordmann's silver fir.) leaves very numerous, crowded, broad, linear, blunt or erose-dentate at the ends, somewhat curved, of unequal length, in. or less long, deep green above and whitened beneath. cones large, in. long, ovate, erect, with very obtuse scales; bracts exserted and recurved. a beautiful large tree, to ft. high, occasionally cultivated; with numerous horizontal branches and smooth bark. [illustration: a. fírma.] . =Àbies fírma=, s. and z. (japan silver fir.) leaves ¾ to in. long, very closely -ranked, slightly twisted, linear, somewhat notched at the end, smooth and dark above, somewhat silvery below. cones to ½ in. long, to ½ in. in diameter, straight, cylindric, with broad, downy, leathery, crenulated scales; bracts exserted, with acute, slightly recurved points. a beautiful tall tree with somewhat the habit of the common silver fir; recently introduced from japan, and hardy as far north as central new york. [illustration: a. grándis.] . =Àbies grándis=, lindl. (great silver fir.) leaves to ½ in. long, mostly curved, deep green above and silvery below, not -ranked. cones in. long and about in. broad, obtuse, solitary, chestnut-brown in color. a very large ( to ft. high), handsome tree from the pacific coast. hardy at washington; needs protection north. [illustration: a. píchta.] . =Àbies píchta=, fisch. (siberian silver fir.) leaves in. long, linear, flat, obtuse, incurved at the apex, mostly scattered, very dark green above, paler beneath. cones in. long, ovate, cylindric, obtuse, with rounded, entire scales and hidden bracts. a small to medium-sized cultivated tree, to ft. high, with horizontal, somewhat pendulous branches and dense compact growth. it is peculiar in its very dark foliage; very hardy. [illustration: a. cephalónica.] . =Àbies cephalónica=, loud. (cephalonian silver fir.) leaves ¾ in. long, very stiff, sharp-pointed, spreading broadly from the branches in all directions, dark green above and white beneath; petioles very short, dilated lengthwise at the point of attachment of the branches. cones very erect, to in. long, - / in. in diameter; projecting scales unequally toothed and reflexed at the point. a beautiful, cultivated tree, to ft. high, with bright brown bark and resinous buds. [illustration: a. pinsàpo.] . =Àbies pinsàpo=, bois. (pinsapo fir.) leaves less than in. long (usually ½ in.), rigid, straight, scattered regularly around the branches, and pointing in all directions; disk-like bases large; branches in whorls, and branchlets very numerous. cones to in. long, oval, sessile; scales rounded, broad, entire; bracts short. a very handsome tree from spain, and reported hardy at the arnold arboretum. [illustration: a. cóncolor.] . =Àbies cóncolor=, lindl. (white fir.) leaves to in. long, mostly obtuse, but on young trees often long-pointed, -ranked, not crowded on the stem, pale green or silvery. cones oblong-cylindric, to in. long, ½ in. in diameter; scales twice as broad as long; bracts short, not projecting. a large tree, to ft. high; bark rough, grayish. native in the rocky mountains; hardy at the arnold arboretum, massachusetts, but needs some protection at st. louis. [illustration: a. cilícica.] . =Àbies cilícica=, carr. (cilician silver fir.) leaves flat, linear, to ¾ in. long and / in. broad, somewhat -ranked but rather irregularly scattered around the young shoots; shining dark green above and whitish beneath. cones to in. long, nearly in. in diameter, cylindric, obtuse, erect, with thin and entire scales, and short and hidden bracts. a very conical tree, ft. high, with branches in whorls, and numerous, small, slender branchlets. bark light gray; recently cultivated from asia. [illustration: a. nóbilis.] . =Àbies nóbilis=, lindl. (noble silver fir.) leaves to in. long, linear, much curved, the base extending a short distance upward along the branch, then spreading squarely from it, crowded, compressed, deep green above, glaucous below; base of the leaf much less disk-like than in most of the firs; branches horizontal, spreading, numerous. cones to in. long and nearly in. in diameter, cylindric, sessile, with large, entire, incurved scales; bracts large, exserted, reflexed, spatulate, with terminal, awl-shaped points. a very large, beautiful tree, from the pacific coast, where it grows ft. high. hardy in pennsylvania, but needs some protection in massachusetts. [illustration: a. pectinàta.] . =Àbies pectinàta=, dc. (european or common silver fir.) leaves ½ to in. long, linear, obtuse, occasionally with an incurved point, polished green above, two white lines below, rigid, straight; branches horizontal and in whorls. cones to in. long, cylindric, brown when ripe; scales broad, thin, rounded; bracts long, exserted, with an acute reflexed tip. introduced from europe. good specimens can be found as far north as massachusetts, though our climate is not fitted to give them either long life or perfect form. genus = . lÀrix.= (the larches.) leaves deciduous, all foliaceous, the primary ones scattered, but most of them in bundles of numerous leaves from lateral globular buds. cones usually small (in one cultivated species in. long), ovoid, erect, with smooth scales. * cones less than in. long, of not more than scales . * cones to in. long, of from to scales , . * cones to in. long, with thick, woody, somewhat divergent deciduous scales. (pseudolarix) . [illustration: l. americàna.] . =làrix americàna=, michx. (american larch. tamarack or hackmatack.) leaves less than in. long, thread-like, linear, slender, light bluish-green. cones ½ to ¾ in. long, ovoid, of a reddish color. a tree of large size, to ft. high, growing wild in all the northern portion of our region, and frequent in cultivation, although not quite so fine a tree as larix europæa. [illustration: l. europæa.] . =lárix europæa=, dc. (european larch.) leaves in. long, linear, obtuse, flat, soft, numerous, and bright green in color. cones sometimes more than in. long, with oval, erect, very persistent scales. a beautiful tree with horizontal branches and drooping branchlets; abundant in cultivation. var. _pendula_ has long, pendent branches, and forms a very fine weeping tree. [illustration: l. leptolépsis.] . =làrix leptolépsis=, gordon. (japan larch.) leaves to ½ in. long, slender, pale green. cones - / in. long, and half as wide, of about scales, reflexed at the margin, pale brown in color; bracts lanceolate, acute, entire, thin, one half the length of the scales; seeds obovate, compressed, with long, obtuse, thin wings. a small tree from northern japan, where it grows ft. high. it is a handsome, erect-growing tree, with slender, smooth, ash-colored branches, and rather rigid, spreading branchlets. [illustration: l. kæmpferi] . =làrix kæmpferi=, lamb. (golden larch.) leaves from to ½ in. long, flat, linear, sword-shaped, somewhat soft, pale pea-green in the spring, golden-yellow in the autumn. cones to in. long, with flattish, divergent scales which are very deciduous. a beautiful large tree, over ft. high, from china, which proves hardy as far north as central new york. it is often placed in a new genus (pseudolarix) because of the deciduous scales to the cones. genus = . cÈdrus.= (the lebanon cedars.) leaves linear, simple, evergreen, in large, alternate clusters. cones large, erect, solitary, with closely appressed scales; seeds adhering to the base of their lacerated, membranous wings. large, spreading-branched trees from southern asia and northern africa. occasionally successfully grown from new york city southward. * leaves in. or less long , . * leaves over in. long, light glaucous-green . [illustration: c. libàni.] . =cèdrus libàni=, barr. (cedar of lebanon.) leaves ¾ to in. long, acuminate, needle-form, rigid, few in a fascicle, deep green in color. cones to in. long, oval, obtuse, very persistent, grayish-brown in color; scales thin, truncate, slightly denticulate; seeds quite large and irregular in form. a cultivated tree with wide-spreading, whorled, horizontal branches covered with rough bark. somewhat tender when young in the middle states, but forming a grand tree in proper positions. [illustration: c. atlántica.] . =cèdrus atlántica=, manetti. (mt. atlas, silver, or african cedar.) leaves ½ to ¾ in. long, mostly cylindric, straight, rigid, mucronate, crowded, and of a beautiful glaucous-green color. cones ½ to in. long, ovate, glossy. this beautiful tree has been considered a silvery variety of cedrus libani. they are about alike in hardiness and in general form. cedrus atlantica has more slender branches, denser and more silvery foliage. from africa. [illustration: c. deodàra.] . =cèdrus deodàra=, lindl. (deodar or indian cedar.) leaves to in. in length, - or usually -sided, rigid, acute, very numerous (about in a fascicle), bright green, covered with a glaucous bloom. cones to in. long, ovate, obtuse, very resinous, rich purple when young, and brown when old; the scales separating from the axis at maturity. seeds wedge-shaped, with large, bright brown wings. a beautiful pyramidal tree, with graceful drooping branches and light silvery foliage. not hardy north of philadelphia; from india. genus = a. araucÀria.= [illustration: a. imbricàta.] =araucària imbricàta=, pavon. (chile pine.) leaves to in. long, ovate-lanceolate, sessile, rigid, acute, very persistent, closely overlapping, completely covering the thick stems, in whorls of to , deep glossy green; branches horizontal, in whorls of to , with ascending tips, covered with resinous, corky bark. flowers dioecious; cones (on only a portion of the trees) large, roundish, about in. in diameter, erect, solitary; seeds wedge-shaped, to in. long. a large, peculiar, beautiful, conical tree, with much the appearance of a cactus; not fitted to our climate, although a few specimens may be found growing quite well near the coast south of philadelphia. from the mountains of chile. genus = . cunninghÀmia.= a genus of but one species. the cone-scales are very small, but the bracts are large, thick, and serrate. [illustration: c. sinénsis.] =cunninghàmia sinénsis=, r. br. (cunninghamia.) leaves ½ to ½ in. long, flat, rigid, numerous, alternate, somewhat serrulate; the leaf gradually increases in width from the acute tip to the base, which is decurrent on the stem and about / in. wide. cones to ½ in. long, nearly globular, erect, very persistent, mostly clustered, sessile; the scale is a mere transverse ridge, but the bract is large and prominent, like a triangular-hastate, dilated leaf. a very handsome tree, from china, which does not succeed very well in this region except in protected situations. genus = . sciadÓpitys.= cones elliptical or cylindrical, large, obtuse. leaves evergreen, somewhat flattened, arranged in distant whorls around the stems, and spreading in all directions. [illustration: s. verticillàta.] =sciadópitys verticillàta=, s. and z. (umbrella-pine.) leaves to in. long, / in. wide, linear, obtuse, smooth, persistent, sessile, entire, in whorls of to at the nodes and extremity of the branches. cones by ½ in. scales wedge-shaped, corrugated, overlapping, coriaceous, persistent; bracts adherent, broad, and smooth. a beautiful, tall, conical, slow-growing tree, with the branches whorled. recently introduced; hardy in the new england states. genus = . taxÒdium.= leaves deciduous, spreading, in ranks. flowers monoecious on the same branch, the staminate ones in spikes, and the pistillate ones in pairs below. cones globular; the scales peltate, angular, thick, firmly closed till ripe, with angular seeds under each. [illustration: t. dístichum.] =taxòdium dístichum=, richard. (southern or bald cypress.) leaves deciduous, flat, linear, ½ to ¾ in. long, in rows on the slender branchlets, forming feather-like spray of a light green color. this whole spray usually falls off in the autumn as though a single leaf. cones round, closed, hard, in. in diameter. a fine, tall ( to ft. high), slender, spire-shaped tree with a large, spreading, rigid trunk, to ft. thick, and peculiar conical excrescences (called knees) growing up from the roots. wild from maryland south, and cultivated and hardy in the middle and many of the northern states. [illustration: var. pendulum.] var. _pendulum_, with horizontal branches and drooping branchlets, has the leaves but slightly spreading from the stems, especially when young. very beautiful; hardy as far north as massachusetts. genus = . sequÓia.= flowers monoecious, terminal, solitary, catkins nearly globular. seeds winged, to under each scale. [illustration: s. gigántea.] . =sequóia gigántea=, torr. (big or great tree of california.) leaves on the young shoots spreading, needle-shaped, sharp-pointed, scattered spirally around the branchlets; finally scale-shaped, overlapping, mostly appressed, with generally an acute apex, light green in color. cones oval, to in. long, of about scales. the largest tree known, ft. high, with a trunk nearly ft. through, found in california and occasionally planted east, though with no great success, as it is almost certain to die after a few years. [illustration: s. sempérvirens.] . =sequóia sempérvirens=, endl. (redwood.) leaves from ½ to in. long, linear, smooth, -ranked, flat, acute, dark shining green, glaucous beneath; branches numerous, horizontal, spreading. cones in. long, roundish, solitary, terminal; scales numerous, thick, rough, furnished with an obtuse point. a magnificent tree from california, where it grows to ft. high. in the east it can be kept alive but a few years even at washington. genus = . thÚya.= (arbor-vitÆ.) small, evergreen trees with flat, -ranked, fan-like spray and closely overlapping, small, appressed leaves of two shapes on different branchlets, one awl-shaped and acute, the other scale-like, usually blunt and close to the branch. fertile catkins of few, overlapping scales fixed by the base; at maturity, dry and spreading. there are scores of named varieties of arbor-vitae sold by the nurserymen under different generic names, thuya, biota, and thuyopsis. there are but slight differences in these groups, and they will in this work be placed together under thuya. some that in popular language might well be called arbor-vitæ (the retinosporas) will, because of the character of the fruit, be included in the next genus. * scales of the cones pointless, thin, straight. (thuya) , . * scales reflexed and wedge-shaped. (thuyopsis) . * scales thick, with horn-like tips. (biota) . [illustration: t. occidentàlis.] . =thùya occidentàlis=, l. (american arbor-vitÆ. white cedar.) leaves in rows on the -edged branchlets, having a strong aromatic odor when bruised. cones oblong, / in. long, with few ( to ) pointless scales. a small tree, to ft. high, or in cultivation to ft. high, with pale, shreddy bark, and light, soft, but very durable wood. wild north, and extensively cultivated throughout under more than a score of named varieties. their names--_alba_, _aurea_, _glauca_, _conica_, _globosa_, _pyramidalis_, _pendula_, etc.--will give some idea of the variations in color, form, etc. [illustration: t. gigantèa.] . =thùya gigantèa=, nutt. (giant arbor-vitÆ.) leaves scale-shaped, somewhat -sided, closely overlapping, sharp-pointed, slightly tuberculate on the back; cones more or less clustered and nearly ½ in. long. a very large and graceful tree, ft. high, with white, soft wood; from the pacific coast; introduced but not very successfully grown in the atlantic states. [illustration: t. dolabràta.] . =thùya dolabràta=, l. (hatchet-leaved arbor-vitÆ.) leaves large, sometimes ¼ in. long, very blunt, in rows on the flattened spray. cones quite small, ovate, sessile, with jagged edges; scales reflexed and wedge-form. a small conical tree with horizontal branches and drooping branchlets; which, because of its large leaves (for an arbor-vitæ) and flexible branchlets, is quite unique and interesting. in shaded and moist places it has done quite well as far north as new york. [illustration: t. orientàlis.] . =thùya orientàlis=, l. (eastern or chinese arbor-vitÆ.) leaves small, in opposite rows, appressed, acute, on the numerous -edged branchlets. cones large, roundish, with thick leathery scales having recurving, horn-like tips. of this species there are as many varieties sold as of number one, and nearly the same varietal names are used; but it is not so good a species for general cultivation in this country. var. _flagelliformis_, jacq. (weeping arbor-vitæ), has very slender, elongated, weeping branches, curving gracefully to the ground. it is a beautiful variety, often cultivated (a single stem is shown in the figure). genus = . chamÆcÝparis.= (the cypresses.) strong-scented, evergreen trees with very small, scale-like or somewhat awl-shaped, closely appressed (except in some cultivated varieties), overlapping leaves and -ranked branchlets, almost as in thuya. cones globular, with peltate, valvate scales, firmly closed till ripe; the scales thick and pointed at the center. * native trees; leaves light glaucous-green. . * cultivated trees from western america; leaves dark green. (=a.=) =a.= no tubercle on the backs of the leaves. . =a.= usually a tubercle on the back . * cultivated small trees and shrubs from japan (called retinospora) . [illustration: c. sphæroídea.] . =chamæcýparis sphæroídea=, spach. (white cedar.) leaves very small, triangular, awl-shaped, regularly and closely appressed in rows, of a light glaucous-green color, often with a small gland on the back. cones very small, / in. in diameter, of about scales, clustered. tree to ft. high, wild in low grounds throughout; abundant in middle states. with reddish-white wood and slender, spreading and drooping sprays; bark fibrous, shreddy; sometimes cultivated. [illustration: c. nutkænsis.] . =chamæcýparis nutkænsis=, lambert. (nootka sound cypress.) leaves only / in. long, sharp-pointed, and closely appressed, of a very dark, rich green color; very slightly glaucous, without tubercles on the back. cones small, globular, solitary, with a fine, whitish bloom; scales , rough and terminating in a sharp straight point. tree ft. high in alaska, and would make a fine cultivated tree for this region if it could stand our hot, dry summers. [illustration: c. lawsoniàna.] . =chamæcýparis lawsoniàna=, park. (lawson's cypress.) leaves small, deep green, with a whitish margin when young, forming with the twigs feathery-like, flat spray of a bluish-green color; leaves usually with a gland on the back. cones scarcely ¼ in. in diameter, of to scales. a magnificent tree in california, and where it is hardy (in rather moist soil, new york and south) it forms one of our best cultivated evergreens. the leading shoot when young is pendulous. [illustration: r. obtùsa.] . =chamæcýparis= (=retinóspora=) =obtùsa=, endl. (japanese arbor-vitÆ.) leaves scale-formed, obtuse, closely appressed and very persistent. cones of or hard, light brown, wedge-shaped scales. beautiful small trees or generally shrubs (in this country), of a score of named varieties of many colors and forms of plant and foliage. there are probably a number of species of japanese and chinese chamæcyparis (retinospora), but till their size, hardiness, and origin have been more fully determined, it would be impossible to make an entirely satisfactory list for such a work as this. figures are given of the common, so-called, species cultivated in this country; under each of these, several varieties are sold by the nurserymen. the three twigs of retinospora squarrosa were all taken from a single branch; this shows how impossible it is to determine the varieties or species; the twig at the left represents the true _squarrosa_; the others, the partial return to the original. most of the forms shown in the figures have purple, golden, silvery, and other colored varieties. [illustration: retinospora filifera.] [illustration: retinospora pisifera.] [illustration: retinospora squarrosa.] [illustration: retinospora lycopoides.] [illustration: retinospora plumosa.] genus = . cryptomÈria.= a genus of evergreens containing only the following species: [illustration: c. japónica.] =cryptomèria japónica=, don. (japan cedar.) leaves about ½ in. long, not flattened, but about equally -sided, curved and tapering quite gradually from the tip to the large, sessile base; branches spreading, mostly horizontal, with numerous branchlets. cones ½ to ¾ in. in diameter, globular, terminal, sessile, very persistent, with numerous, loose, not overlapping scales. a beautiful tree from japan, to ft. high. not very successfully grown in our climate. north of washington, d. c., it needs a sheltered position, and should have a deep, but not very rich soil. genus = . junÍperus.= leaves evergreen, awl-shaped or scale-like, rigid, often of two shapes on the same plant. spray not -ranked. flowers usually dioecious. fertile catkins rounded, of to fleshy, coalescent scales, forming in fruit a bluish-black berry with a whitish bloom, but found on only a portion of the plants. * leaves rather long, ½ in., in whorls of threes . * leaves smaller; on the old branches mostly opposite . [illustration: j. commùnis.] . =juníperus commùnis=, l. (common juniper.) leaves rather long, ½ in., linear, awl-shaped, in whorls of threes, prickly-pointed, upper surface glaucous-white, under surface bright green. fruit globular, ¼ in. or more in diameter, dark purple when ripe, covered with light-colored bloom. a shrub or small tree with spreading or pendulous branches; common in dry, sterile soils. there are a great many varieties of this species in cultivation, but few of them grow tall enough to be considered trees. var. _hibernica_ (irish juniper) grows erect like a column. var. _alpina_ is a low creeping plant. var. _hemispherica_ is almost like a half-sphere lying on the ground. [illustration: j. virginiàna.] . =juníperus virginiàna=, l. (red cedar.) leaves very small and numerous, scale-like on the older branches, but awl-shaped and somewhat spreading on the young shoots; dark green. fruit small, / in., abundant on the pistillate plants, dark purple and covered with fine, glaucous bloom. trees from to ft. high (sometimes only shrubs), with mostly horizontal branches, thin, scaling bark, dense habit of growth, and dark foliage. wood light, fine-grained, durable; the heart-wood of a handsome dark red color. wild throughout; several varieties are found in cultivation. many other species from china, japan, california, etc., are occasionally cultivated, but few are large enough to be called trees, and those that are large enough are not of sufficient importance to need specific notice. genus = . tÁxus.= leaves evergreen, flat, linear, mucronate, rigid, scattered, appearing more or less -ranked. fertile flowers and the fruit solitary; the fruit, a nut-like seed in a cup-shaped, fleshy portion formed from a disk; red. [illustration: t. baccàta.] =táxus baccàta=, l. (common european yew.) leaves evergreen, -ranked, crowded, linear, flat, curved, acute. fruit a nut-like seed within a cup / in. in diameter; red when ripe in the autumn. as this species is somewhat dioecious, a portion of the plants will be without fruit. a widely spreading shrub rather than a tree, extensively cultivated under nearly a score of named varieties. we have a closely related wild species, =táxus canadénsis= (the ground-hemlock), which is merely a low straggling bush. genus = o a. torrÈya.= [illustration: t. taxifòlia.] the torreyas are much like the yews, but their leaves have two longitudinal lines, and a remarkably disagreeable odor when burned or bruised. =torrèya taxifòlia=, arn., from florida, and =torrèya califòrnica=, torr., from california, have been often planted. they form small trees, but probably cannot be grown successfully in the region. the figure shows a twig of t. taxifolia. genus = o b. cephalotÁxus.= [illustration: c. fortùnii.] =cephalotáxus fortùnii=, hook., does not form a tree in this section, but a wide-spreading bush growing sometimes to the height of ft., and spreading over a spot ft. wide. leaves flat, with the midrib forming a distinct ridge on both sides, linear, sometimes over in. long, glossy green on the upper side, slightly whitened beneath. fruit very large, in. or more long, elliptical, with a single, thin-shelled nut-like seed covered with purplish, pulpy, thin flesh. branches spreading, drooping, long, slender; buds small, covered with many sharp-pointed, overlapping scales; twigs green, somewhat grooved. from japan; about hardy in new jersey. genus = . podocÁrpus.= leaves one-nerved, opposite, alternate, or scattered, linear or oblong. flowers axillary and mostly dioecious; fruit drupe-like, with a bony-coated stone. [illustration: p. japónica.] =podocárpus japónica=, sieb. (japan podocarpus.) leaves alternate, crowded, flat, linear-lanceolate, elongated, quite sharp-pointed, narrowed to a short though distinct petiole, and continued down the stem by two ridges; leaves not -ranked, large, to in. long and ½ in. wide when growing in perfection; in specimens grown in this region, to in. long and ¼ in. wide; midrib forms a ridge on both sides; upper side dark glossy green; lower side with two broad whitish lines. a beautiful, erect-growing, small tree; from japan; about hardy in central new jersey; needs some protection in massachusetts. genus = . salisbÙria.= leaves broad, simple, alternate, stipulate, deciduous, deeply cut or lobed at the apex, alike on both surfaces, with long petioles. flowers dioecious; staminate ones in catkins, pistillate ones either solitary or in clusters of a few each. fruit a nut with a drupaceous covering. [illustration: s. adiantifòlia.] =salisbùria adiantifòlia=, sm. (ginkgo tree.) leaves parallel-veined, fan-shaped, with irregular lobes at the end, thick, leathery, with no midrib. fruit globular or ovate, in. long, on long, slender stems. a very peculiar and beautiful large tree, to ft. high; from japan. hardy throughout, and should be more extensively cultivated than it is. glossary of botanical terms and index to part i. the numbers refer to the pages where the illustrations appear or where fuller definitions of the words are given. _abortive._ defective or barren; not producing seeds. _abrupt base of leaf_, . _abruptly pinnate._ pinnate, without an odd leaflet at the end; even-pinnate, . _acerose._ slender; needle-shaped, . _acorn_, . _acuminate._ taper-pointed, . _acute._ terminating in a well-defined angle, usually less than a right angle, . _adventitious buds_, . _alternate._ not opposite each other; as the leaves of a stem when arranged one after the other along the branch, . _angulated._ edge with such sudden bends as to form angles. _annual layer of wood_, . _anther._ the essential part of a stamen of a flower; the part which contains the pollen, . _apetalous._ said of a flower which has no corolla, . _apex._ the point or summit, as the point of a leaf. _apple-pome._ a fruit like the apple, with seeds in horny cells, . _appressed._ pressed close to the stem or other part, . _ariled._ seed with a somewhat membranous appendage, sometimes surrounding it, and attached to one end. _aromatic._ with an agreeable odor. _arrangement of flowers_, ; of leaves, . _astringent._ that which contracts or draws together muscular fiber; the opposite of laxative. _auriculate._ furnished with ear-shaped appendages, . _awl-shaped._ like a shoemaker's curved awl; subulate, . _awned._ furnished with a bristle-shaped appendage, . _axil._ the angle between the leafstalk and the twig, . _axillary._ situated in the axil; as a bud, branch, or flower-cluster when in the axil of a leaf, , , . _bark_, . _bases of leaves_, . _berry._ used in this work to include any soft, juicy fruit with several (at least more than one), readily separated seeds buried in the mass, . _bipinnate._ twice-pinnate, . _bladdery._ swollen out and filled with air. _blade._ the thin, spreading portion, as of a leaf, . _bract._ a more or less modified leaf belonging to a flower or fruit; usually a small leaf in the axil of which the separate flower of a cluster grows, . _branch._ a shoot or stem of a plant, . _branching_, general plan of, . _branchlet._ a small branch. _bristle-pointed._ ending in a stiff, roundish hair, . _bud._ undeveloped branch or flower, ; forms of, ; bud-scales, . _bur._ rough-prickly covering of the seeds or fruit, . _bush._ a shrub, . _calyx._ the outer leafy part of a flower, . _canescent._ with a silvery appearance, . _capsule._ a dry, pod-like fruit which has either more than one cell, or, if of one cell, not such a pod as that of the pea with the seeds fastened on one side on a single line, . _carpel._ that part of a fruit which is formed of a simple pistil, or one member of a compound pistil; often shown by a single seed-bearing line or part. a fruit has as many carpels as it has seed-bearing lines on its outer walls, or as it had stigmas when it was a pistil, or as it had leaves at its origin. _catkin._ a scaly, usually slender and pendent cluster of flowers, , . _ciliate._ fringed with hairs along its edge. _cleft._ cut to about the middle, . _cluster._ any grouping of flowers or fruit on a plant, so that more than one is found in the axil of a leaf, or at the end of a stem, . _complete._ having all the parts belonging to an organ; a _complete leaf_ has blade, leafstalk, and stipules, ; a _complete flower_ has calyx, corolla, stamen, and pistil, . _compound._ composed of more than one similar part united into a whole; a _compound leaf_ has more than one blade, . _conduplicate._ folded on itself lengthwise, . _cone._ a hard, scaly fruit, as that of a pine-tree, . _conical._ with a circular base and sloping sides gradually tapering to a point; more slender than pyramidal. _convolute._ in a leaf, the complete rolling from edge to edge, . _cordate._ heart-shaped, the stem and point at opposite ends, . _coriaceous._ leathery in texture or substance. _corolla._ the inner, usually the bright-colored, row of floral leaves, often grown together, . _corymb._ a flat-topped or rounded flower-cluster; in a strict use it is applied only to such clusters when the central flower does not bloom first. see _cyme_, . _crenate._ edge notched with rounded teeth, . _crenulate._ finely crenated, . _crisped._ having an undulated or curled edge. _cross-section of wood_, . _cuneate._ wedge-shaped, . _cylindric._ with an elongated, rounded body of uniform diameter. _cyme._ a flat-topped flower-cluster, the central flower blooming first, . _deciduous._ falling off; said of leaves when they fall in autumn, and of floral leaves when they fall before the fruit forms, . _decurrent leaf._ a leaf which extends down the stem below the point of fastening. _definite annual growth_, . _dehiscence._ the regular splitting open of fruits, anthers, etc. _dehiscent._ opening in a regular way, , . _deliquescent_, , . _deltoid._ triangular, . _dentate._ edge notched, with the teeth angular and pointing outward, . _denticulate._ minutely dentate. _dichotomous._ forking regularly by twos, as the branches of the lilac. _dilated._ spreading out; expanding in all directions. _dioecious._ with stamens and pistils on different plants, . _distichous._ two-ranked; spreading on opposite sides in one plane; as _leaves_, ; or _branches_, . _divergent._ spreading apart. _divided._ separated almost to the base or midrib, . _drupe._ a fleshy fruit with a single bony stone. in this book applied to all fruits which, usually juicy, have a single seed, even if not bony, or a bony stone, even if the stone has several seeds, . _dry drupe._ used when the material surrounding the stone is but slightly fleshy, . _duration of leaves_, . _elliptical._ having the form of an elongated oval, . _emarginate._ with a notched tip, . _endogenous._ inside-growing; growing throughout the substance of the stem, . _entire._ with an even edge; not notched, . _enveloping organs._ in a flower, the calyx and corolla which cover the stamens and pistil, . _essential organs._ in a flower, the organs needed to produce seeds; the stamens and pistil, . _evergreen._ retaining the leaves (in a more or less green condition) through the winter and till new ones appear, . _excurrent._ with the trunk continued to the top of the tree, , . _exogenous._ outside-growing; growing by annual layers near the surface, . _exserted._ projecting beyond an envelope, as the stamens from a corolla, or the bracts beyond the scales of a cone, . _exstipulate._ without stipules, . _extra-axillary buds_, . _fasciculated._ in clusters or fascicles, . _feather-veined._ with the veins of a leaf all springing from the sides of the midrib, . _fibrous._ composed of fine threads or fibers. _filament._ the stalk of a stamen, ; any thread-like body. _flowering._ having flowers. _flowers_, ; clusters of, ; kinds of, . _folding of leaves in the bud_, . _foliaceous._ like a leaf in texture or appearance. _footstalk._ the stem of a leaf (petiole), or the stem of a flower (peduncle). _forms of leaves_, . _fruit_, , . _gamopetalous._ same as monopetalous, . _glabrous._ having a smooth surface; free from hairs, bristles, or any pubescence, . _glands._ small cellular organs which secrete oily, aromatic, or other products. they are sometimes sunk in the leaves, etc., as on the prickly-ash; sometimes on the surface as small projections; sometimes on the ends of hairs. the word is also used to indicate small swellings, whether there is a secretion or not. _glandular._ having glands. _glandular-hairy._ with glandular-tipped hairs, . _glaucous._ covered with a fine white powder that rubs off, . _globose._ spherical in form. _globular._ nearly globose. _glutinous._ covered with a sticky gum. _hairy._ having rather long hairs, . _halberd-shaped_, . _head._ a compact, rounded cluster of flowers or fruit, . _heart-shaped._ ovate, with a notched base; cordate, . _heart-wood_, , . _herbaceous._ without woody substance in the stem; like an herb; soft and leaf-like. _hybrid._ an intermediate form of plant between two nearly related species; formed by the action of the pollen of one upon the pistil of the other. _imbricated._ overlapping one another like the shingles on a roof, . _incised._ irregularly and deeply cut, as the edge of a leaf. _incurved._ gradually curving inward. _indefinite annual growth_, . _indehiscent._ not splitting open. _inflexed._ bent inward, . _involucre._ a whorl or set of bracts around a flower, a cluster of flowers, or fruit, . _involute._ rolled inward from the edges, . _irregular._ said of a flower which has its corolla of different sized, shaped, or colored pieces, . _kernel._ the substance contained within the shell of a nut or the stone of a fruit. _key._ a fruit furnished with a wing, or leaf-like expansion, . _kidney-shaped._ broadly heart-shaped, with the apex and basal notch somewhat rounded. _lacerated._ with a margin irregularly notched or apparently torn. _laciniate._ cut into narrow lobes; slashed. _lance-shaped._ _lanceolate._ like a lance-head in shape, . _leaf_, ; arrangement of leaves, ; bases of, ; forms of, ; kinds of, ; margins of, ; parts of, ; points of, ; veining, . _leaflet._ a separate blade of a compound leaf, . _leafstalk._ the stem of a leaf; petiole, . _legume._ a pea-like pod, . _lensform._ _lenticular._ thickest in the center, with the edges somewhat sharp; like a double-convex lens. _linear._ long and narrow, with the edges about parallel, . _lobe._ the separate, projecting parts of an irregularly edged leaf if few in number, . _lobed._ having lobes along the margin, . _margin of leaves_, . _medullary rays_, . _membranous._ thin and rather soft, and more or less translucent, . _midrib._ the central or main rib of a leaf, . _monoecious._ with both pistillate and staminate flowers on the same plant, . _monopetalous._ with the corolla more or less grown together at the base; gamopetalous, . _mucronate._ tipped with a short abrupt point, . _multiple roots_, . _nerved._ parallel-veined, as the leaves of some trees, . _netted-veined._ with branching veins, forming a network as in the leaves of most of our trees, . _node._ the part of a stem to which a leaf is attached, . _nut._ a hard, unsplitting, usually one-seeded fruit, . _nutlet._ a small nut. _obcordate._ heart-shaped, with the stem at the pointed end, , . _oblanceolate._ lanceolate, with the stem at the more pointed end, . _oblong._ two to four times as long as wide, with the sides somewhat parallel, . _oblique._ applied to leaves when the sides are unequal, . _obovate._ a reversed ovate, . _obovoid._ a reversed ovoid; an egg form, with stem at the smaller end. _obscurely._ not distinctly; usually needing a magnifying-glass to determine. _obtuse._ blunt or rounded at tip, . _obvolute_, . _odd-pinnate._ pinnate, with an end leaflet, . _once-pinnate._ a compound leaf, with but a single series of leaflets along the central stem, . _opposite._ with two leaves on opposite sides of a stem at a node, . _orbicular._ circular in outline, . _oval._ broadly elliptical, . _ovary._ the part of the pistil of a flower containing the ovules or future seeds. _ovate._ shaped like a section of an egg, with the broader end near the stem, . _overlapping._ one piece spreading over another. _ovoid._ ovate or oval in a solid form, like an egg. _ovules._ the parts within the ovary which may form seeds, . _palmate._ a compound leaf, with the leaflets all starting from the end of the petiole, . _palmately lobed_, . _palmately veined._ with three or more main ribs, or veins of a leaf, starting from the base, . _panicle._ an open, much branched cluster of flowers or fruit, . _pappus._ the down, hairs, or teeth on the end of the fruit in compositæ, as the thistle-down. _parallel-veined._ with the veins of the leaf parallel; nerved, . _parted._ edge of a blade separated three fourths of the distance to the base or midrib, . _pedicel._ the stem of each flower of a cluster, . _peduncle._ the stem of a solitary flower, or the main stem of a cluster, . _pellucid._ almost or quite transparent. _peltate._ applied to a leaf or other part when the stem or stalk is attached within the margin on the side. _pendent._ hanging downward, . _pendulous._ hanging or drooping. _perfect._ said of a flower with both stamen and pistil, . _petal._ a leaf of the corolla of a flower, . _petiole._ the stalk or stem of a leaf, . _petiolate._ said of a leaf which has a stem, . _pinnæ._ the first divisions of a bipinnate or tripinnate leaf. _pinnate leaf._ a compound leaf with the leaflets arranged along the sides of the stem, . _pinnately lobed_, ; _pinnate-veined_, . _pinnatifid._ a leaf deeply notched along the sides in a pinnate manner, . _pistil._ the central essential organ of a flower, . _pistillate._ a flower with pistil but no stamens, . _pith_, . _plicate._ folded like a fan, . _pod._ a dry dehiscent fruit like that of the pea, . _points of leaves_, . _pollarding trees_, . _pollen._ the dust or fertilizing material contained in the anther, . _polypetalous._ having a corolla of separate petals, . _pome._ an apple-like fruit with the seeds in horny cells, . _preparation of a collection_, . _pressing plants_, . _prickles._ sharp, spine-like elevations on the bark, leaf or fruit, . _primary root_, . _pubescent._ hairy or downy, especially with fine soft hairs or pubescence, . _pulp._ the soft flesh of such fruits as the apple or cherry. _punctate._ with translucent glands, . _pyramidal._ with sloping sides like a pyramid, but with a circular base; broad-conical. _raceme._ a flower-cluster with one-flowered stems arranged along the peduncle, . _radial section of wood_, . _radiating ribs._ the ribs of a leaf when several start together at or near the base. a leaf having such ribs is said to be radiately or palmately veined, . _rapier-shaped._ narrow, pointed, and curved like a sword. _recurved_ or _reflexed_. bent backward, . _regular._ said of a flower which has its enveloping organs alike on all sides, . _repand._ wavy-margined, . _retuse._ with a slightly notched tip, . _revolute._ rolled backward, as the edges of many leaves, , . _ribbed._ with prominent ribs, often somewhat parallel. _ribs._ the strong veins of a leaf, . _root_, . _rugous._ having an irregularly ridged surface, . _samara._ a winged fruit; a key fruit, . _sap-wood_, . _scabrous._ rough or harsh to the touch, . _scale-shaped_, . _scarious._ thin, dry, and membranous, . _scattered leaves_, . _secondary roots_, . _section of wood_, . _seedling._ a young plant raised from a seed. _seeds_, . _sepal._ a division of a calyx, . _serrate._ having a notched edge, with the teeth pointing forward, . _serration._ a tooth of a serrated edge. _serrulate._ finely serrate, . _sessile._ without stem; sessile leaf, ; sessile flower, . _sheath._ a tubular envelope. _shoot._ a branch. _shrub._ a bush-like plant; one branching from near the base, . _silver grain._ _medullary rays_, , . _simple leaf._ one with but a single blade, . _sinuate._ with a margin strongly wavy, . _sinuation._ one of the waves of a sinuate edge. _spatulate._ gradually narrowed downward from a rounded tip. _spike._ an elongated cluster of flowers with the separate blossoms about sessile. _spine._ a sharp, rigid outgrowth from the wood of a stem; sometimes applied to sharp points not so deeply seated which should be considered as prickles, . _spinescent_ or _spiny_. having spines, , . _spray._ a collection of small shoots or branches of a plant. _stamen._ one of the pollen-bearing or fertilizing parts of a flower, . _staminate._ said of flowers which have stamens but no pistil, . _stellate._ branching, star-like. _stems and branches_, . _stipules._ small blades at the base of a leafstalk, . _straight-veined._ feather-veined with the veins straight and parallel, . _striate._ marked with fine longitudinal lines or ridges. _sub._ a prefix applied to many botanical terms, and indicating nearly. _subulate._ awl-shaped, . _succulent._ thick and fleshy, . _suckers._ shoots from a subterranean part of a plant. _surface of leaves and fruit_, . _tangential section of wood_, . _tapering._ gradually pointed; gradually narrowed, . _tap-root._ a simple root with a stout tapering body, . _terete._ cylindric, but tapering as the twigs of a tree. _terminal._ belonging to the extremity of a branch, as a _terminal bud_, ; or _terminal flower-cluster_, . _texture of leaves_, . _thyrsus._ a compact, much-branched flower- or fruit-cluster, . _tomentose._ covered with matted, woolly hairs, . _toothed._ with teeth or short projections. _tree._ a plant with a woody trunk which does not branch near the ground, . _truncate._ with a square end as though cut off, . _twice-pinnate._ applied to a leaf which is twice divided in a pinnate manner, . _twice-serrate_, . _twice-crenate_, . _two-ranked._ applied to leaves when they are flattened out in two ranks on opposite sides of a stem, ; also applied to spray when it branches out in one plane, . _umbel._ a cluster of flowers or fruit having stems of about equal length, and starting from the same point, . _umbellate._ like an umbel. _valvate._ touching edge to edge, . _veining of leaves_, . _veinlets._ the most minute framework of a leaf, . _veins._ the smaller lines of the framework of a leaf, . _wedge-shaped._ shaped like a wedge; cuneate, . _whorl._ in a circle around the stem, as the leaves of a plant, . _wings._ a blade or leaf-like expansion bordering a part, as a fruit or stem, . _winged._ with wing-like membranes. _winter study of trees_, . _wood_, . index to part iii. abele-tree, . abies, - . acanthopanax, . acer, - . acuminate-leaved clethra, . Æsculus, - . african cedar, . ailanthus, . albizzia, . alcock's spruce, . alder, , . alleghany plum, . alnus, , . alternate-leaved cornel, . amelanchier, . anacardiaceæ, . angelica-tree, . angiospermæ, . anonaceæ, . apple, . aralia, , . araliaceæ, . araucaria, . arbor-vitæ, american, . chinese, . eastern, . giant, . hatchet-leaved, . japanese, . weeping, . arrow-wood, . ash, black, . blue, . european, . flowering, . green, . red, . water, . weeping, . white, . ash-colored willow, . ash-leaved maple, . asimina, . aspen, . austrian pine, . baccharis, . bald cypress, . balm of gilead, . balsam-fir, , . balsam-poplar, . barren oak, . bartram's oak, . basket-oak, . basswood, , . bay, red, . bay willow, , . beaked hazelnut, . beaked willow, . bean-trefoil tree, . bear scrub oak, . beech, american, . blue, . cut-leaved, . european, . purple, . silver variegated, . water, . benjamin-bush, . betula, - . bhotan pine, . bignoniaceæ, . bignonia family, . big shellbark, . big tree of california, . bilsted, . biota, . birch, american white, . black, . canoe, . cherry, . cut-leaved, . european white, . gray, , . hairy-leaved, . paper, . purple-leaved, . pyramidal, . red, . river, . sweet, . weeping, . yellow, . bird-cherry, , . bitternut, . bixineæ, . black ash, . birch, . cherry, . gum, . haw, . hawthorn, . oak, , . pine, . poplar, . scrub oak, . spruce, . sugar-maple, . walnut, . willow, . blackthorn, . blue ash, . beech, . bog willow, . bow-wood, . box elder, . white oak, . boxwood, . bristly locust, . brittle willow, . broom-hickory, . buckeye, , . buckthorn, california, . carolina, . common, . southern, . woolly-leaved, . buckthorn family, . buffalo-berry, . bullace plum, . bumelia, , . burning-bush, . bur-oak, . butternut, . buttonwood, . buxus, , . calico-bush, . california buckthorn, . maple, . camellia family, . canoe birch, . caprifoliaceæ, . caragana, . carolina buckthorn, . poplar, . carpinus, , . carya, - . cashew family, . castanea, , . catalpa, , . caucasian planer-tree, . cedar, african, . deodar, . indian, . japan, . lebanon, . mt. atlas, . red, . silver, . white, , . cedrela, . cedrus, , . celastraceæ, . celtis, , . cembra pine, . cephalonian silver fir, . cephalotaxus, . cercidiphyllum, . cercis, . chaste-tree, . cherry, , . cherry birch, . cherry, cornelian, . chestnut, . chestnut-oak, , . chickasaw plum, . chile pine, . china-tree, . chinese arbor-vitæ, . cedrela, . cork-tree, . honey-locust, . parasol, . sumac, . white magnolia, . chinquapin, . chionanthus, . choke-cherry, . cilician silver fir, . cladrastis, . clammy locust, . clerodendron, . clethra, , . club, hercules', . cockspur thorn, . coffee-tree, kentucky, . colchicum-leaved maple, . compositæ, . coniferæ, . cork-bark maple, . cork elm, . cork-tree, chinese, . cornaceæ, . cornel, , . cornelian cherry, . cornus, - . corsican pine, . corylus, . cottonwood, . cow-oak, . crab-apple, . crack-willow, . cranberry-tree, . crape-myrtle, . cratægus, - . crisped-leaved elm, . cryptomeria, . cucumber-tree, , . cunninghamia, . cupuliferæ, . custard-apple family, . cut-leaved birch, . alder, . cypress, bald, . lawson's, . nootka sound, . southern, . dahoon holly, . date-plum, . deodar cedar, . devil-wood, . diospyros, , . dogwood, flowering, . poison, . dotted-fruited hawthorn, . double spruce, . downy-leaved poplar, . dwarf chestnut-oak, . dwarf mountain sumac, . ear-leaved umbrella-tree, . eastern spruce, . ebenaceæ, . ebony family, . elæagnaceæ, . elæagnus, , . elder-leaved mountain ash, . elder, poison, . elm, american, . cork, . crisped-leaved, . english, . field, . kiaka, . red, . rock, . scotch, . slippery, . wahoo, . weeping, . white, . white-margined, . winged, . witch, . english elm, . cherry, . hawthorn, . maple, . oak, . walnut, . ericaceæ, . euonymus, . euphorbiaceæ, . fagus, , . fate-tree, . field elm, . figwort family, . filbert, . fir, balsam, , . cephalonian silver, . cilician silver, . european silver, . fraser's balsam, . great silver, . japan silver, . noble silver, . nordmann's silver, . pinsapo, . scotch, . siberian silver, . silver, - . southern balsam, . white, . flowering ash, . dogwood, . four-winged silverbell tree, . fraser's balsam-fir, . fraxinus, - . french tamarisk, . fringe-tree, . garden plum, . red cherry, . garland crab-apple, . giant arbor-vitæ, . tree lilac, . ginkgo-tree, . gleditschia, , . goat-willow, . golden-chain, . golden larch, . gordonia, . gray birch, , . pine, . willow, . great laurel, . great-leaved magnolia, . great silver fir, . tree of california, . green ash, . groundsel-tree, . gum, black, . sour, , . sweet, . gymnocladus, . gymnospermæ, . hackberry, . hackmatack, . halesia, . hamamelideæ, . hamamelis, . hatchet-leaved arbor-vitæ, . haw, black, . summer, . yellow, . hawthorn, black, . dotted-fruited, . english, . pear, . tall, . hazel, . hazelnut, . heart-leaved alder, . willow, . heath family, . heavy-wooded pine, . hemlock, common, . ground, . japan, . mountain, . hercules'-club, . hibiscus, . hickory, big shellbark, . broom, . shagbark, . shellbark, . swamp, . white-heart, . himalayan spruce, . hoary alder, . holly, . holly family, . honey-locust, , . honeysuckle family, . hop-hornbeam, . hop-tree, . hornbeam, . horse-chestnut, , . horse-sugar, . hovenia, . idesia, . ilex, , . ilicineæ, . imperial paulownia, . indian bean, . cedar, . irish juniper, . iron-wood, . japan arbor-vitæ, . cedar, . hemlock, . larch, . lilac, . magnolia, . maple, . persimmon, . planer-tree, . pine, . podocarpus, . silver fir, . storax, . jersey pine, . judas-tree, . juglandaccæ, . juglans, , . jujube, . juniper, , . juniperus, , . kalmia, . katsura-tree, . kentucky coffee-tree, . kiaka elm, . kilmarnock willow, . kingnut, . koelreuteria, . laburnum, . lagerstroemia, . lambert's pine, . larch, american, . european, . golden, . japan, . large-flowered magnolia, . large-leaved maple, . large-toothed aspen, . large tupelo, . larix, - . lauraceæ, . laurel, , . laurel family, . laurel-leaved willow, . laurel-oak, . lawson's cypress, . lebanon cedar, . leguminosæ, . lilac, . linden, , . linden family, . lindera, . liquidambar, . liriodendron, . live-oak, . loblolly bay, . pine, . locust, bristly, . clammy, . common, . honey, , . lombardy poplar, . long-leaved pine, . willow, . long-racemed buckeye, . lonicera, . loosestrife family, . lythraceæ, . maclura, . madeira nut, . magnolia, chinese white, . great-leaved, . japan, . large-flowered, . purple japan, . southern evergreen, . swamp, . thurber's japan, . magnoliaceæ, . magnolia family, . mallow family, . malvaceæ, . maple, ash-leaved, . california, . colchicum-leaved, . cork-bark, . english, . japan, . large-leaved, . mountain, . norway, . palmate-leaved, . red, . rock, . round-leaved, . silver, . striped, . sugar, . sycamore, . tartarian, . vine, . white, . masson's pine, . melia, . meliaceæ, . melia family, . mockernut, , . morello cherry, . morus, , . mossy-cup oak, . mountain ash, , . hemlock, . laurel, . maple, . pine, , . sumac, . mount atlas cedar, . mulberry, . paper, . myrtle, crape, . narrow-leaved crab-apple, . necklace-poplar, . negundo, , . noble silver fir, . nootka sound cypress, . nordmann's silver fir, . northern prickly ash, . scrub pine, . norway maple, . spruce, . nut, bitter, . hickory, , . king, . mocker, , . pecan, . pig, . nut-pine, . nyssa, , . oak, american white, . barren, . bartram's, . basket, . bear scrub, . black, , . black scrub, . box white, . bur, . chestnut, , . cow, . english, . laurel, . live, . mossy-cup, . pin, . post, , . pyramidal, . quercitron, . red, . rough, . scarlet, . scrub, . shingle, . spanish, , . swamp, , . turkey, . water, . weeping, . white, , . willow, . yellow, , . oak family, . oak-leaved alder, . mountain-ash, . ohio buckeye, . old-field pine, . oleaceæ, . oleaster family, . olive family, . orange, osage, . oriental plane, . spruce, . osage orange, . osmanthus, . ostrya, . oxydendrum, . palmate-leaved japan maple, . papaw, . paper birch, . mulberry, . parsley-leaved thorn, . paulownia, . peach, . pear hawthorn, . pear-tree, . pea-tree, . pecan-nut, . pepperbush, , . pepperidge, . persea, . persimmon, , . phellodendron, . picea, - . pignut, . pine, austrian, . bhotan, . black, . cembra, . chile, . corsican, . gray, . heavy-wooded, . japan, . jersey, . lambert's, . loblolly, . long-leaved, . masson's, . mountain, , . nut, . old-field, . piñon, . pitch, . red, . scotch, . scrub, , . stone, . sugar, . swiss stone, . table-mountain, . twisted-branched, . umbrella, . weymouth, . white, , . yellow, , . pine family, . pin-oak, . piñon pine, . pinsapo fir, . pitch-pine, . pinus austriaca, . banksiana, . cembra, . contorta, . densiflora, . edulis, . excelsa, . flexilis, . inops, . lambertiana, . laricio, . massoniana, . mitis, . monophylla, . monticola, . palustris, . ponderosa, . pungens, . resinosa, . rigida, . strobus, . sylvestris, . tæda, . plane, oriental, . planera, , . planer-tree, . plane-tree family, . platanaceæ, . platanus, . plum, , . plum, date, . podocarpus, , . poison dogwood, . elder, . sumac, . pomegranate-tree, . populus, - . poplar, balsam, . black, . carolina, . downy-leaved, . lombardy, . necklace, . white, . post-oak, , . prickly ash, , . pride of india, . prunus, - . ptelea, . pterostyrax, . pulse family, . punica, . purple japan magnolia, . purple-leaved birch, . purple willow, . pyramidal birch, . oak, . pyrus, - . quaking-asp, . quassia family, . quercitron oak, . quercus alba, . aquatica, . bicolor, . cerris, . coccinea, . falcata, . fastigiata, . heterophylla, . ilicifolia, . imbricaria, . lyrata, . macrocarpa, . michauxii, . muhlenbergii, . nigra, . palustris, . pedunculata, . pendula, . phellos, , . prinoides, . prinus, . robur, . rubra, , . sessiliflora, . stellata, . tinctoria, . virens, . quince-tree, . rabbit-berry, . red ash, . bay, . birch, . buckeye, . cedar, . cherry, . elm, . horse-chestnut, . maple, . mulberry, . oak, . pine, . plum, . redbud, . red-leaved alder, . redwood, . retinospora, , , . rhamnaceæ, . rhamnus, , . rhododendron, . rhus, - . river birch, . robinia, , . rock elm, . maple, . rosaceæ, . rose-acacia, . rose family, . rough oak, . round-leaved maple, . rowan-tree, . rue family, . rutaceæ, . salicaceæ, . salisburia, . salix alba, . amygdaloides, . angustata, . annularis, . babylonica, . caprea, . cinerea, . cordata, . decipiens, . discolor, . falcata, . fragilis, . longifolia, . lucida, . myricoides, . nigra, . pentandra, . purpurea, . rigida, . rostrata, . rufescens, . russelliana, viridis, . vitellina, . sapindaceæ, . sapodilla family, . sapotaceæ, . sassafras, , . scarlet-fruited thorn, . scarlet oak, . sciadopitys, . scotch elm, . fir, . pine, . scrophulariaceæ, . scrub oak, . pine, , . seaside alder, . sequoia, , . service-berry, . shad-bush, . shagbark hickory, . sheep-berry, . shellbark hickory, . shepherdia, . shingle oak, . shining willow, . shrubby trefoil, . siberian cornel, . silver fir, . silk-tree, . silverbell-tree, . silver cedar, . fir, - . maple, . spruce, . silver-leaved elæagnus, . simarubaceæ, . single spruce, . slippery elm, . sloe, . smoke-tree, . smooth alder, . sumac, . soapberry family, . sorrel-tree, . sour gum, , . sourwood, . southern cypress, . spanish oak, , . speckled alder, . spice-bush, . spindle-tree, . spruce, alcock's, . black, . double, . eastern, . himalayan, . norway, . oriental, . silver, . single, . tiger's-tail, . white, . spurge family, . stag-horn sumac, . sterculia, . sterculiaceæ, . stone-pine, . storax, . storax family, . striped maple, . stuartia, , . styracaceæ, . styrax, . sugarberry, . sugar maple, . pine, . sumac, , . summer haw, . swamp hickory, . magnolia, . oak, . post-oak, . white oak, . sweet bay, . birch, . buckeye, . gum, . pepper-bush, , . viburnum, . sweetleaf, . swiss stone-pine, . sycamore, american, . sycamore-maple, . symplocos, . syringa, . table-mountain pine, . tacamahac, . tamarack, . tamariscineæ, . tamarisk, . tamarix, . tartarian honeysuckle, . maple, . taxodium, . tea family, . ternstroemiaceæ, . thorn, , . thurber's japan magnolia, . thuya, , . thuyopsis, . tiger's-tail spruce, . tilia, , . tiliaceæ, . toothache-tree, . torreya, . tree hibiscus, . tree of heaven, . trefoil, . tsuga, . tulip-tree, . tupelo, . turkey oak, . ulmus, - . umbrella-pine, . umbrella-tree, . urticaceæ, . venetian sumac, . verbenaceæ, . viburnum, , . vine maple, . vitex, , . wahoo, , . walnut, , . walnut family, . washington thorn, . water ash, . beech, . locust, . oak, . weeping ash, . birch, . elm, . oak, . willow, . white ash, . basswood, . birch, , . cedar, , . elm, , . fir, . maple, . mulberry, . oak, , . poplar, . spruce, . willow, . white-heart hickory, . whitewood, . willow, american bay, . ash-colored, . bay, , . beaked, . black, . bog, . brittle, . crack, . glaucous, . goat, . gray, . heart-leaved, . kilmarnock, . willow, laurel-leaved, . long-leaved, . purple, . shining, . weeping, . white, . willow family, . willow-oak, . winged elm, . witch-elm, . witch-hazel, . witch-hazel family, . xanthoxylum, . yellow-barked oak, . yellow birch, . cucumber-tree, . haw, . plum, . yellow-wood, . yew, . yulan, . zizyphus, . from the journal of the cincinnati society of natural history, oct. , jan. . the myxomycetes of the miami valley, ohio. by a. p. morgan. first paper. (read january , .) table of contents myxomycetes, wallr. order genera page liceaceÆ. licea tubulina lycogala reticulariaceÆ. reticularia clathroptychium cibraria dictydium perichÆnaceÆ. perichæna ophiotheca arcyriaceÆ. lachnobolus arcyria heterotrichia trichiaceÆ. hemiarcyria calonema trichia oligonema stemonitaceÆ. clastoderma lamproderma comatricha stemonitis enerthenema diachaea didymiaceÆ. didymium spumaria diderma lepidoderma physaraceÆ. angioridium cienkowskia leocarpus physarella cytidium craterium physarum fuligo badhamia scyphium list or illustrations vol. xv. plate iii. figs. - . vol. xvi. plate i. figs. - . vol. xvi. plate xi. figs. - . vol. xvi. plate xii. figs. - . vol. xix. plate xiii. figs. - . vol. xix. plate xiv. figs. - . vol. xix. plate xv. figs. - . preston, hamilton county, ohio, december , . mr. davis l. james _dear sir_--along with this i send you the first installment of the papers, entitled "the myxomycetes of the miami valley, ohio." the work in these papers is based upon my ample collection of myxomycetes growing in this region, comprising more than one hundred species; these have been diligently compared with specimens obtained from correspondents elsewhere in this country and in europe. at the same time, i have also included many extra limital species. this has been done chiefly to more clearly elucidate the subject in places where the local material is not sufficient. the only apology i can make for the arrangement which i present, is that i have been obliged to choose from several different systems. i have aimed not to hamper myself, by attaching paramount importance to some particular character throughout. i purpose to furnish a synopsis of the whole at the end of the work. very truly yours, a. p. morgan. * * * * * myxomycetes, wallr. fructification essentially a minute membranaceous vesicle, the sporangium inclosing the spores, the product of a motile protoplasmic body called the plasmodium. microscopic organisms with the habit of the fungi. the ripe spore of the myxomycetes is globose or ellipsoidal in shape, with the epispore colorless or colored, and smooth or marked by characteristic surface--sculpture according to the species; the spore in germination gives rise to an elongated protoplasmic body, which exhibits amoeboid movements, and is known by the name of _swarm-cell_. the swarm-cells multiply by bipartition, which may be repeated through several generations; they then unite together to form the large motile protoplasmic bodies named _plasmodia_. the newly-formed plasmodium is distinguished by its greater size from the swarm-cells, while it exhibits essentially the same movements and changes of shape. the plasmodia gradually increase in size, and as they grow assume commonly the form of branched strands; these spread over the surface of the substratum, which is usually the decaying parts of plants, in the form of veins and net-works of veins, giving rise to a copiously-branched reticulated or frill-like expansion, which covers surfaces varying in extent from a few to several centimeters. they are chiefly composed of a soft protoplasm of the consistence of cream, which may be readily spread out into a shapeless smear, and is usually colorless, but sometimes exhibits brilliant colors of yellow, orange, rose, purple, etc. the development of the plasmodium ceases with the formation of the _spores_ within their _sporangia_. the formation of the sporangia out of the plasmodium appears under three general forms, which, however, pass into each other and are, therefore, not strictly limited. _first:_ an entire plasmodium spread out on its substratum becomes transformed into a sporangium, or it divides into a variable number of unequal and irregular pieces, each of which undergoes transformation. such a sporangium lying flat on the substratum, more or less elongated and flexuous, often branched and reticulate, is termed a _plasmodiocarp_. _second:_ erect sporangia on a narrow or stalk-like base, begin as node-like swellings on the branches of the plasmodium, and gradually rise to their ultimate form as the surrounding protoplasm flows into them and assumes an upward direction. these sporangia are nearly always perfectly regular in shape; they may be globose, obovoid, somewhat depressed, or more or less elongated, and are either stipitate or sessile. _third:_ a number of plasmodia collect together from every side and become fused into a single body, often of considerable dimensions; from these combinations originate the large spore-receptacles which are called _æthalia_. the component sporangia may be regular in shape, standing close together, in a single stratum, with entire connate walls; more often, being elongated and flexuous, they branch and anastomose freely, their walls becoming perforated and more or less defective; in other cases, the æthalium is a compound plasmodiocarp, the narrow sinuous sporangia branched and anastomosing in all directions, forming an intricate network, closely packed together and inseparable. the surface of the æthalium is often covered by a continuous layer of some excreted substance, which is called the _common cortex_. the wall of the sporangium, typically, is a thin, firm membrane, colorless and pellucid, or colored in various shades of violet, brown, yellow, etc.; it is sometimes extremely delicate, as in lamproderma, or is scarcely evident, as in stemonitis; in other instances it is thickened by deposits on the inner surface, as in tubulina, or by incrustations on the outer surface, as in chondrioderma. the stipes are tubes usually with a thick wall, which is often wrinkled and folded lengthwise, and is confluent above with the wall of the sporangium; in some cases the stipe also enters the sporangium, and is more or less prolonged within it as a _columella_. the stipe commonly expands at the base into a membrane, which fastens it to the substratum, and is called the _hypothallus_; when all the stipes of the same group of sporangia stand upon a single continuous membrane, it is called a _common hypothallus_. in the simplest forms, the cavity of the sporangium is filled exclusively with the numerous spores; but in most all of the genera, tubules or threads of different forms occur among the spores and constitute the _capillitium_. the capillitium first makes its appearance in reticularia, in which upon the inner surface of the walls of the sporangia there are abundant fibrous thickenings; next in cribraria it is spread over the inner surface of the wall, and is early separated from it; here, also, it first assumes a more definite form and arrangement; in physarum it is in connection with the wall of the sporangium only by its extremities while it traverses the interior with a complicated network; in stemonitis and its allies the capillitium originates wholly from the columella; in most species of arcyria it issues from the interior of the stipe. the capillitium in trichia consists of numerous slender threads which are _free_, that is, are not attached in any way; they are usually simple and pointed at each extremity; the surface of these threads exhibits beautiful spiral markings. order i. liceaceÆ. sporangia always sessile, simple and regular or plasmodiocarp, sometimes united into an æthalium. the wall a thin, firm, persistent membrane, often granulose-thickened, usually rupturing irregularly. spores globose, usually some shade of umber or olivaceous, rarely violaceous. the species of this order are the simplest of the myxomycetes; the sporangium, with a firm, persistent wall contains only the spores. there is no trace of a capillitium, unless a few occasional threads in the wall of tubulina prefigure such a structure. to the genera of this order is appended the anomalous genus lycogala, which seems to me better placed here than elsewhere. table of genera of liceaceÆ. . licea. sporangia simple and regular or plasmodiocarp, gregarious; hypothallus none. . tubulina. sporangia cylindric, or by mutual pressure becoming prismatic, distinct or more or less connate and æthalioid, seated upon a common hypothallus. . lycogala. Æthalium with a firm membranaceous wall; from the inner surface of the wall proceed numerous slender tubules, which are intermingled with the spores. i. licea, schrad. sporangia sessile, simple and regular or plasmodiocarp, gregarious, close or scattered; hypothallus none; the wall a thin, firm membrane, sometimes thickened with scales or granules, breaking up irregularly and falling away or dehiscent in a regular manner. spores globose, variously colored. the sporangia are not seated on a common hypothallus; they are, consequently, more or less irregularly scattered about on the substratum. . licea variabilis, schrad. plasmodiocarp not much elongated, usually scattered, sometimes closer and confluent, somewhat depressed, the surface uneven or a little roughened and not shining, reddish-brown or blackish in color; the wall a thin, firm pellucid membrane, covered by a dense outer layer of thick brown or blackish scales, rupturing irregularly. spores in mass pale ochraceous, globose or oval, even or nearly so, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood. plasmodiocarp - . mm. in length, though sometimes confluent and longer. the wall is thick and rough, not at all shining. it is evidently the species of schweinitz referred to by fries under this name. . licea lindheimeri, berk. sporangia sessile, regular, globose, gregarious, scattered or sometimes crowded, dark bay in color, smooth and shining; the wall a thin membrane with a yellow-brown outer layer, opaque, rupturing irregularly. spores in mass bright bay, globose, minutely warted, opaque, - mic. in diameter. growing on herbaceous stems sent from texas. sporangia about . mm. in diameter. the bright bay mass of spores within will serve to distinguish the species. the thin brown wall appears dark bay with the inclosed spores. . licea biforis, morgan, n. sp. sporangia regular, compressed, sessile on a narrow base, gregarious; the wall thin, firm, smooth, yellow-brown in color and nearly opaque, with minute scattered granules on the inner surface, at maturity opening along the upper edge into two equal parts, which remain persistent by the base. spores yellow-brown in mass, globose or oval, even, - mic. in diameter. see plate iii, fig. . growing on the inside bark of liriodendron. sporangia . -. mm. in length, shaped exactly like a bivalve shell and opening in a similar manner. i have also received specimens of this curious species from prof. j. dearness, london, canada. . licea pusilla, schrad. sporangia regular, sessile, hemispheric, the base depressed, gregarious, chestnut-brown, shining; the wall thin, smooth, dark-colored and nearly opaque, dehiscent at the apex into regular segments. spores in the mass blackish-brown, globose, even, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, sporangium about mm. in diameter. on account of the color of the spores the genus _protoderma_ was created for this species by rostafinski. it is number , of schweinitz's n. a. fungi. ii. tubulina, pers. sporangia cylindric, or by mutual pressure becoming prismatic, distinct or more or less connate and æthalioid, the apex convex, seated upon a common hypothallus; the wall a thin membrane, minutely granulose, firm and quite persistent, gradually breaking away from the apex downward. spores abundant, globose, umber or olivaceous. the sporangia usually stand erect in a single stratum, with their walls separate or grown together: in the more compact æthalioid forms, however, the sporangia, becoming elongated and flexuous, pass upward and outward in various directions, branching and anastomosing freely. see plate iii, figs. , , . . tubulina cylindrica, bull. sporangia cylindric, more or less elongated, closely crowded, distinct or connate, pale umber to rusty-brown in color, seated on a well developed hypothallus; the wall thin, firm, with minute veins and granules, semi-opaque, pale umber, often iridescent. spores in mass pale umber to rusty-brown, globose, most of the surface reticulate, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, mosses, etc. Æthalium circular or irregular in shape, from one to several centimeters in extent, the individual sporangia - mm. in height. plasmodium at first milky-white, soon changing to bright red, then to umber, becoming paler when mature and dry. . tubulina casparyi, rost. sporangia more or less elongated, closely crowded and prismatic, connate, pale umber to brown in color, seated on a conspicuous hypothallus; the wall thin, firm, minutely granulose, semi-opaque, pale umber, iridescent when well matured; all or many of the sporangia traversed by a central columella, from which a few narrow bands of the membrane stretch to the adjacent walls. spores in the mass pale umber to brown, globose, the surface reticulate, - mic. in diameter. growing on old prostrate trunks. Æthalium two or three to several centimeters in extent, the individual sporangia - mm. in height. plasmodium white, the immature sporangia dull-gray tinged with sienna color. the columella, with its radiating bits of membrane, is the same substance as the wall; it may be a reëntrant edge of the prismatic sporangium, caused by excessive crowding together; at least, this may be regarded as its origin; there may have arisen some further adaptation. the species is _siphoptychium casparyi_, rost. i am indebted to dr. george a. rex for the specimens i have examined. . tubulina cÆspitosa, peck. sporangia short-cylindric, closely crowded, distinct or connate, argillaceous olive to olive-brown in color, seated on a well-developed hypothallus; the wall a thin membrane, with a dense layer of minute dark-colored round granules on the inner surface. spores argillaceous olive in the mass, globose, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood. Æthalium in irregular patches sometimes several centimeters in extent, the single sporangia about mm. in height. plasmodium dark olivaceous, the sporangia blackish if dried when immature, taking a paler shade of olivaceous, according to development and maturity. this is _perichæna cæspitosa_, peck, in the st n. y. report. iii. lycogala, mich. Æthalium with a firm membranaceous wall; from the inner surface of the wall proceed numerous slender tubules, which are intermingled with the spores. the material of the wall appears under three different forms: the inner layer is a thin membrane, uniform in structure, of a yellow-brown color, and semi-pellucid; the outer layer consists of large flat roundish or irregular vesicles, brown in color, filled with minute granules, and arranged in one or more strata; from these vesicles originate the tubules, which traverse the wall for a certain distance, and then enter the interior among the spores; the tubules are more or less compressed, simple or branched, and the surface is ornamented with warts and ridges, which sometimes form irregular rings and reticulations. if the sporophores in this genus be regarded as simple sporangia, which is the view that rostafinski takes of one of the species, the tubules are simply the peculiar threads of a capillitium. if, however, the æthalium is a compound plasmodiocarp, the tubules stand for the original plasmodial strands and, consequently, represent the component sporangia. . lycogala conicum, pers. Æthalia small, ovoid-conic, gregarious, sometimes close together with the bases confluent, the surface pale umber or olivaceous marked with short brown lines, regularly dehiscent at the apex. the wall thin; the outer layer not continuous, the irregular brown vesicles disposed in angular patches and elongated bands, which have a somewhat reticulate arrangement. the tubules appear as a thin stratum upon the inner membrane; they do not branch, and they send long slender simple extremities inward among the spores. spores in mass pale ochraceous, globose, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. see plate iii, fig. . growing on old wood. Æthalium - mm. in height, the tubules - mic. in thickness. this is _dermodium conicum_ of rostafinski's monograph, but the structure is essentially the same as in the other species. massee evidently did not have specimens of this species. i have never seen any branching of the tubules either in the wall or in the free extremities of the interior. . lycogala exiguum, morg. n. sp. Æthalia small, globose, gregarious, the surface dark brown or blackish, minutely scaly, irregularly dehiscent. the wall thin; the vesicles with a dark polygonal outline, disposed in thin irregular reticulate patches, which are more or less confluent. the tubules appear as an interwoven fibrous stratum upon the inner membrane; they send long slender branched extremities inward among the spores. spores in mass pale ochraceous, globose, nearly smooth, - mic. in diameter. see plate iii, fig. . growing on old wood. Æthalium - mm. in diameter, the threads - mic. in thickness, with very slight thickenings of the membrane. the polygonal vesicles give a reticulate appearance to the dark-brown patches which ornament the surface of the wall. . lycogala epidendrum, buxb. Æthalia subglobose, gregarious, sometimes closely crowded and irregular, the surface umber, brown or olivaceous, minutely warted, at length, irregularly dehiscent at or about the apex. the wall thick, the brown vesicles loosely aggregated and densely agglutinated together, traversed in all directions by the much-branched tubules, which send long-branched extremities inward among the spores; the main branches thick and flat, with wide expansions, especially at the angles, the ultimate branchlets more slender and obtuse at the apex. spores in the mass from pale to reddish ochre, globose, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. see plate iii, fig. . growing on old wood. Æthalium - mm. in diameter, the width of the tubules varying from - mic. in the main branches, with broader expansions at the angles, to - mic. in the more slender final branchlets. this is one of the most common of the myxomycetes; it grows in all countries, and in this region may be found on old trunks at all seasons of the year. . lycogala flavofuscum, ehr. Æthalia large, subglobose or somewhat pulvinate, solitary or gregarious, the surface at first silvery-shining, becoming yellow-brown, minutely areolate, irregularly dehiscent. the wall very thick and firm, hard and rigid; the thick outer layer of roundish brown vesicles closely compacted in numerous strata; from the vesicles of the lower strata the long and broad much-branched tubules proceed into the interior among the spores; the ultimate branchlets clavate and obtuse at the apex. spores in the mass pale ochre, cinerous or brownish, globose, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. see plate iii, figs. , . growing on old trunks. Æthalium to several centimeters in diameter, the width of the tubules varying from - mic. in the main branches, with sometimes much broader expansions at the angles, to - mic. in the ultimate branchlets. the brown vesicles of the outer wall are easily separated from each other and emptied of their contents by maceration; it is then seen that a thin pellucid membrane incloses numerous roundish granules, much resembling the spores, but usually a little larger, - mic. in diameter. order ii.--reticulariaceÆ. sporangia simple, regular and stipitate, or compound, forming an æthalium; the wall a thin membrane with distinct fibrous thickenings upon the inner surface, the membrane, or at least certain portions of it, disappearing usually at the maturity of the spores, leaving behind the more permanent fibrous thickenings as a more or less definite capillitium. spores globose, purple, brown, ochraceous, rarely violaceous. in this order the threads of a capillitium first make their appearance; but they are confined to the inner surface of the wall of the sporangium, being set at liberty by the early decay of the outer membrane. table of genera of reticulariaceÆ. _a. Æthalia._ . reticularia. Æthalium composed of numerous slender sinuous sporangia which repeatedly branch and anastomose. . clathroptychium. Æthalium composed of numerous regular erect sporangia. _b. sporangia simple._ . cribraria. capillitium of slender threads combined into a network of polygonal meshes. . dictydium. capillitium of numerous convergent ribs, which extend from base to apex, and are united by fine transverse fibers, thus forming a network of rectangular meshes. i. reticularia, bull. Æthalium composed of numerous slender sinuous sporangia, which repeatedly branch and anastomose, closely packed together and seated upon a common hypothallus, the apices of the final branches coherent at the surface, and naked or covered by an additional corticate layer. walls of the sporangia consisting of a thin membrane, with abundant fibrous thickenings, presenting broad expansions, narrowing to thin flat bands, and reduced in many places to slender fibrous threads. spores abundant, globose, umber or violaceous. after the maturity of the spores disintegration of the sporangial wall begins, the thin membrane disappearing more rapidly than the fibrous thickenings or the portions of the sporangial walls near the base, which are more compactly grown together; there is thus left at each stage an increasing number of the shreddy fibers mingled with the spores. . reticularia splendens, morg. n. sp. Æthalium pulvinate, circular or more or less elongated and irregular, seated on a conspicuous silvery hypothallus; the surface naked, bright umber, smooth and shining. walls of the sporangia firm and quite persistent, pale umber, slowly disintegrating, consisting for the most part of wide expansions, with their angles tapering to narrow bands and slender threads. spores in the mass pale umber, globose, most of the surface reticulate, - mic. in diameter. see plate iii, fig. . growing on old wood. Æthalium from to several centimeters in extent and - mm. in thickness, usually growing singly, rarely close enough to be confluent. this species has lately been referred to _reticularia rozeana_, rost., but it varies greatly from the account given of that species in the journal of botany for september, . . reticularia umbrina, fr. Æthalium pulvinate, roundish, more or less irregular, the surface covered by a thin, silvery, shining, common cortex, which at the base is confluent with the hypothallus. walls of the sporangia umber or rusty-brown next the base, with broad expansions in places thickly grown together, toward the surface passing into narrow bands and abundant fibrous threads, which rapidly disintegrate. spores in the mass umber or rusty brown, globose, most of the surface reticulate, - mic. in diameter. growing on old trunks. Æthalium one to several centimeters in extent, and - mm. in thickness. the walls of the sporangia are much more reduced to the shreddy fibrous condition than in the preceding species, and on this account they much more rapidly disintegrate, causing the æthalium soon to collapse. it is _reticularia lycoperdon_, bull. . reticularia atra, a. & s. Æthalium pulvinate, variable in form and size, covered with a thin, fragile, blackish, cortical layer. walls of the sporangia violaceous, next the base with broad expansions, in places more thickly grown together, toward the surface becoming narrow with more abundant fibrous threads, sometimes presenting a loose irregular network, the whole structure, however, quite variable, according to the stage of the disintegration. spores globose, violet, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. growing on wood and bark, especially of pine. Æthalium or to several centimeters in extent. this is _amaurochæte atra_ of rostafinski's monograph, but the structure appears to be altogether similar to that of _reticularia umbrina_. ii. clathroptychium, rost. Æthalium composed of numerous regular erect sporangia, seated in a single compact stratum, on a well-developed hypothallus, the surface formed by the coherent apices. sporangia at first cylindric, with the apex convex and the wall entire; soon, by mutual pressure, they become prismatic and the lateral faces disappear, leaving the edges and the apex permanent. spores globose, ochraceous. . clathroptychium rugulosum, wallr. Æthalium composed of numerous very slender sporangia, closely compacted into a single stratum, and seated on a conspicuous silvery hypothallus; the surface ochroleucous, honey color or olivaceous. the sporangia are typically hexangular when the lateral faces disappear, leaving at the edges six simple triangular threads, extending from the angles of the hexagonal apex downward to the base. spores in the mass ochraceous, yellowish or brownish, globose, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood. Æthalium somewhat circular, or often quite irregular in shape, to several centimeters in extent, the individual sporangia nearly mm. in height, but scarcely . mm. in thickness. deviations from the typical form of the sporangia sometimes occur, they are not seldom pentangular, and i have seen the apices quadrangular, with only four threads, or even triangular, and with but three; the threads, too, are said occasionally to branch and anastomose. _reticularia plumbea_, fries, s. m. iii, ; and _ostracoderma spadiceum_, schw., n. a. fungi no. , . iii. cribraria, pers. sporangia simple, globose or obovoid, stipitate, often cernuous; the wall regularly thickened on the inner surface in two ways, the lower basal portion by radiating ribs consisting of minute brown granules, the upper part by slender threads combined into a network of polygonal meshes; the basal portion of the membrane is commonly persistent with its thickening and is called the _calyculus_, the upper part nearly always disappears from the network at maturity; there are usually nodules of the brown granules at the angles of the network. spores globose, purple, brown, ochraceous. _a. sporangium, large._ . cribraria argillacea, pers. sporangia globose or obovoid, stipitate or nearly sessile, standing close together on a thin and evanescent hypothallus; the wall quite firm, silvery-shining, the greater portion persistent, breaking away about the apex; calyculus small, the brown radiating ribs soon passing into a network of polygonal meshes, the threads with irregular granulose-thickened portions at intervals throughout their whole extent. stipe very short, erect, brown. spores in the mass argillaceous, globose, - mic. in diameter. growing in large irregular patches on rotten trunks. sporangia . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe always much shorter than the sporangium, sometimes nearly obsolete. the resemblance of this species to some forms of _tubulina cæspitosa_ is very great. . cribraria vulgaris, schrad. sporangium large, globose, stipitate, somewhat cernuous; the calyculus brown, finely ribbed and granulose within, occupying but a small part of the sporangium; the network of slender threads, with very small nodules at the angles, each with several ( - ) radiating threads, sometimes with one or two free extremities, the meshes triangular or rhombic. stipe rather short, stout, tapering upward, usually a little bent or curved at the apex, dark purplish brown in color. spores in the mass pale ochraceous, globose, even, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe two or three times the diameter of the sporangium in length. recognized by the large sporangium and the very small nodules with their few radiating threads. . cribraria dictydioides, c. & b. sporangium large, globose, stipitate, cernuous; the calyculus small, with thickish brown ribs, from which the outer thin membrane often disappears soon after maturity; the network of slender threads, with large brown nodules at the angles, more or less elongated and irregular in shape, each with numerous ( - ) radiating threads, usually some with free extremities, the meshes largely triangular. stipe long, tapering upward, flexuous, curved at the apex, dark purplish-brown in color. spores in mass pale ochraceous, globose, even, - mic. in diameter. growing on rotten wood, especially of oak. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe from three to five times as long. this species appears to be intermediate between _cribraria vulgaris_ and _cribraria intricata_; the nodules are usually large and irregular, but the characteristic parallel threads of _c. intricata_ do not often occur. the outer membrane of the calyculus is by no means always absent. . cribraria elegans, b. & c. sporangium rather large, globose, stipitate, somewhat cernuous; the calyculus thickly coated inside with dark purple granules, faintly ribbed, occupying about a third part of the sporangium; the network of slender threads, with large irregular dark purple nodules, quite variable in shape and size, angular and lobed, below sometimes much elongated, the meshes very irregular. stipe rather short, tapering upward, bent at the apex, dark purple in color. spores in the mass bright purple, globose, even, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe two or three times as long. it does not appear to be greatly different from _cribraria purpurea_, schrad. _b. sporangium, small._ . cribraria tenella, schrad. sporangium small, globose, stipitate, cernuous; the calyculus brown, shining, granulose within and faintly ribbed, occupying from one-fourth to one-half the sporangium, sometimes the outer thin membrane early disappearing; the network of slender threads with small roundish or irregular nodules at the angles, each with several ( - ) radiating threads, sometimes two or three with free extremities, the meshes triangular or rhombic. stipe long, tapering upward, flexuous, curved at the apex, purplish-brown in color. spores pale ochraceous in mass, globose, even, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood. the sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe three to five times as long. this is a much more delicate species than _cribraria dictydioides_. the calyculus is variable in size; in some examples the thin connecting membrane between the ribs has disappeared. . cribraria microcarpa, schrad. sporangium very small, globose, stipitate, somewhat cernuous; the calyculus represented by a few short brown ribs, the outer membrane soon disappearing; the network of slender threads, with small roundish nodules at the angles, each with several ( - ) radiating threads, with an occasional free extremity, the meshes largely rhombic. stipe very long, slender, somewhat flexuous, bent at the apex, purplish-brown in color. spores in mass pale ochraceous, globose, even, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipes - mm. in length. readily distinguished by its very small sporangium and the comparatively very long stem. i am indebted to dr. george a. rex for specimens of this species. . cribraria cuprea, morg. n. sp. sporangium very small, oval or somewhat obovoid, stipitate, cernuous; the calyculus copper-colored, finely ribbed and granulose within, occupying from one-third to one-half the sporangium; the network of slender threads, with rather large triangular or quadrilateral meshes, and with large irregular dark copper-colored nodules, each having several ( - ) radiating threads, with an occasional free extremity. stipe not very long, tapering upward, curved at the apex, of the same color as the sporangium or darker below. spores pale coppery in mass, globose, even, - mic. in diameter. see plate iii, fig. . growing on old wood. sporangium . -. x . -. mm, the stipe two to four times as long as the sporangium. a minute species, easily recognized by its almost uniform color of bright new copper. iv. dictydium, schrad. sporangium simple, depressed-globose, stipitate, cernuous; the wall regularly thickened on the inner surface by numerous convergent ribs, which extend from base to apex and are united by fine transverse fibers, thus forming a network of rectangular meshes; the basal portion of the membrane sometimes persists as a calyculus, the upper part disappears at maturity. spores globose; purplish. the ribs run from base to apex like the meridians on a globe; they are simple, or here and there they separate into two divergent branches, which sometimes again converge into one; at the apex of the sporangium there is usually a small irregular net in which all the ribs terminate. . dictydium cernuum, pers. sporangium depressed-globose, umbilicate at the apex, stipitate, cernuous, purplish-brown in color; the calyculus granulose within, occupying from one-fourth to one-third of the sporangium, the ribs united by firm, persistent fibers. stipe not very long, erect, tapering upward, bent at the apex, purplish-brown, the apex pale and pellucid, standing on a small hypothallus. spores purplish-brown in mass, globose, even, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe two or three times longer than the diameter of the sporangium. this appears to be the species figured and described by rostafinski and by massee. . dictydium longipes, morg. n. sp. sporangium large, depressed-globose, the apex umbilicate, stipitate, cernuous, dark purple in color; calyculus usually wholly wanting, the ribs united by weak fibers, which are easily torn asunder, allowing the ribs to curl up inwards. stipe very long, flexuous, tapering upward, curved and twisted at the apex, dark purple in color, standing on a thin hypothallus. spores in the mass dark purple, globose, even, - mic. in diameter. see plate iii, fig. . growing on rotten wood, mosses, etc. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe three to five times as long. this is a much larger species than the preceding; it has a uniform dark purple hue, the stipe is very long and much bent and twisted, the ribs of the sporangium are soon torn apart and rolled inward. explanation of plate iii fig. .--licea biforis, morgan, n. sp. figs. , , .--diagrammatic representation of the structure of tubulina fig. .--lycogala conicum, pers., natural size fig. .--lycogala exiguum, morgan, n. sp., natural size fig. .--lycogala epidendrum, buxb., natural size fig. .--lycogala flavofuscum, ehr., natural size fig. .--portion of tubule of lycogala flavofuscum fig. .--reticularia splendens, morgan, n. sp., natural size fig. .--cribraria cuprea, morgan, n. sp. fig. .--dictydium longipes, morgan, n. sp. [illustration: the journal of the cin. soc. natural history. vol. xv. plate iii.] * * * * * from the journal of the cincinnati society of natural history, april, . the myxomycetes of the miami valley, ohio. by a. p. morgan. second paper. (read may , .) order iii. perichÆnaceÆ. sporangia sessile or plasmodiocarp; the wall a thin membrane, with a more or less thickened outer layer of minute brownish scales and granules. capillitium of long and very slender tubules, proceeding from numerous points of the sporangial wall, loosely branched, forming no evident network, the surface minutely warted or spinulose. spores globose, oval, or somewhat irregular, yellow. the order is distinguished by the sessile sporangia, with thick brown walls, and the very slender threads of the capillitium, with irregular and indefinite markings. table of genera of perichÆnaceÆ. . perichÆna. sporangia more or less depressed, roundish or more commonly polygonal and irregular, dehiscent in a circumscissile manner. . ophiotheca. plasmodiocarp terete and more or less elongated, bent and flexuous, sometimes annular or reticulate, irregularly dehiscent. i. perichÆna, fr. sporangia more or less depressed, roundish or more commonly polygonal and irregular, the edges approximate and sometimes confluent; the wall a thin membrane, with a thick dense yellow-brown outer layer of minute scales and granules, becoming darker at the surface, dehiscent in a circumscissile manner. capillitium of very slender loosely-branched threads, with the surface minutely warted. spores globose, oval or somewhat irregular, yellow. distinguished from ophiotheca by the flattened sporangium with a regular circumscissile dehiscence. . perichÆna depressa, lib. sporangia very much depressed, polygonal, irregular, crowded, the edges contiguous, sometimes confluent; the wall thick, yellow-brown within and scarcely impressed by the spores; the outer surface smooth, brown-red to brown or blackish in color, dehiscent in a circumscissile manner. capillitium of slender loosely-branched threads, - mic. in thickness, the surface merely uneven or very minutely warted. spores globose, yellow, - mic. in diameter. see plate i, fig. . growing on the inside of the bark of juglans, acer, etc. sporangia variable in size, - . mm. in breadth, irregular and angular, much flattened. it is said to include _perichæna vaporaria_, schw. . perichÆna irregularis, b. & c. sporangia depressed, irregular, polygonal, crowded, the edges contiguous and sometimes confluent; the wall thick, yellow inside and faintly reticulately impressed by the spores, the outer surface smooth, purplish-brown, dehiscent in a circumscissile manner. capillitium of slender-loosely branched threads, about mic. in thickness, the surface minutely warted or spinulose. spores subglobose, yellow, - mic. in diameter. growing on the outer bark of acer, etc. sporangium . -. mm. in width, closely crowded and irregular. it is much smaller than _perichæna depressa_, and its threads are more distinctly warted and spinulose. . perichÆna corticalis, batsch. sporangia globose, the base depressed, gregarious: the wall thick, yellow within and distinctly reticulately impressed by the spores, the outer surface reddish-brown or yellow-brown in color, dehiscent in a circumscissile manner. capillitium of slender loosely-branched threads, about mic. in thickness, the surface very minutely warted. spores subglobose, yellow, - mic. in diameter. growing on the inside of the bark of elm. sporangia . -. mm. in diameter, quite regular in shape, with a slightly flattened base. my specimens are from prof. mcbride, of iowa. . perichÆna marginata, schw. sporangia depressed, polygonal, approximate and sometimes confluent, the surface cinereous-pulverulent, seated on a silvery hypothallus; the wall firm, thick, the outer surface yellow-brown, covered with minute whitish scales, the inner surface yellow, deeply reticulately impressed by the spores which rest against it, dehiscent in a circumscissile manner. capillitium consisting of a few simple or somewhat branched threads or well-nigh obsolete. spores subglobose, yellow, - mic. in diameter. growing on the outer surface of the bark of acer, fagus, etc. sporangia . -. mm. in width. this is plainly _perichæna cano-flavescens_, raunkier. i do not find any threads of a capillitium in my specimens. ii. ophiotheca, currey. plasmodiocarp terete and more or less elongated, bent and flexuous, sometimes annular or reticulate, the surface not polished or shining: the wall a thin membrane, with a thin outer layer of minute scales and granules, irregularly dehiscent. capillitium of very slender loosely-branched threads, with the surface minutely warted and spinulose. spores globose, oval or somewhat irregular, yellow. distinguished from perichæna by the terete plasmodiocarp and by the more spinulose capillitium. _cornuvia_ of rostafinski. . ophiotheca chrysosperma, currey. plasmodiocarp globose or oblong to elongated, and bent or flexuous, sometimes annular or branched and reticulate, dull brown in color; the wall a thin yellowish membrane, with a thin yellow-brown outer layer, irregularly dehiscent. capillitium of slender loosely-branched threads, - mic. in thickness, the surface minutely spinulose. spores subglobose, yellow, - mic. in diameter. growing on the inner surface of old bark of quercus, etc. plasmodiocarp . -. mm. in thickness, variable in length. _cornuvia circumscissa_ of rostafinski's monograph. . ophiotheca wrightii, b. & c. plasmodiocarp more or less elongated, bent and flexuous, very commonly in small rings, from brownish-ochre to brown or blackish in color, not polished; the wall a thin yellow membrane, with a thin brown outer layer, irregularly dehiscent. capillitium of slender loosely-branched threads, - mic. in thickness, furnished with numerous straight or bent long-pointed spinules. spores subglobose, yellow, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. see plate i, fig. . growing on the inside of bark of acer, carya, etc. plasmodiocarp about . mm. in thickness, variable in length, often in small rings - mm. in diameter. the prickly threads are quite characteristic; the spinules are - mic. in length. _hemiarcyria melanopeziza_, speg., is evidently the same thing. . ophiotheca vermicularis, schw. plasmodiocarp terete and more or less elongated, bent and flexuous, sometimes annular or reticulate, the surface not polished, brownish in color; the wall a thin yellow membrane, covered on the outside by a more or less thickened brown layer of scales and granules, irregularly dehiscent. capillitium of slender loosely branched threads, - mic. in thickness, the surface with minute warts and ridges. spores subglobose, yellow, - mic. in diameter. growing on the inside of old bark. plasmodiocarp about . mm. in thickness and various in length; in my specimens the sporangia are mostly small rings. the species looks exactly like _ophiotheca wrightii_, but the character of the threads is quite different. . ophiotheca pallida, b. & c. plasmodiocarp terete, oblong or elongated annular and flexuous, the surface dull, pale ochraceous; the wall a thin pellucid membrane, minutely granulate, with a thin pale ochraceous outer layer, irregularly dehiscent. capillitium of slender loosely-branched threads, - mic. in thickness, the surface minutely warted or spinulose. spores subglobose, pale yellow, - mic. in diameter. growing on dead stems of herbaceous plants. plasmodiocarp . -. mm. in thickness, variable in length, sometimes short and roundish or oblong, sometimes much elongated and flexuous. more delicate than _ophiotheca vermicularis_, and distinguished by its pallid color throughout. order iv. arcyriaceÆ. sporangia regular and stipitate, rarely sessile; the wall a thin membrane, minutely granulose, colored as the spores and capillitium, the upper part soon torn away in a somewhat circumscissile manner, and early disappearing. capillitium of slender tubules, repeatedly branching and anastomosing to form a complicated network of evident meshes, more or less expanded after dehiscence; the surface of the threads minutely warted or spinulose or with elevated ridges in the shape of rings, half rings or reticulations. this order is specially distinguished by the threads of the capillitium forming a complicated network of evident meshes. table of genera of arcyriaceÆ. . lachnobolus. capillitium of slender tubules, quite variable in thickness, proceeding from numerous points of the sporangial wall. . arcyria. capillitium of slender tubules, issuing from the interior of the stipe, the network without any free extremities. . heterotrichia. capillitium issuing from the interior of the stipe, the peripheral portion of the network bearing numerous short acute free branches. i. lachnobolus, fr. sporangia stipitate or sessile, the wall a thin delicate membrane, minutely granulose, rupturing irregularly. stipe short or sometimes wanting. capillitium of slender tubules quite variable in thickness, proceeding from numerous points of the sporangial wall and forming a complicated network, the surface minutely warted or spinulose. spores globose, yellowish or flesh-color. this genus differs from arcyria in the capillitium springing from numerous points of the sporangial wall. . lachnobolus globosus, schw. sporangia globose, stipitate, pale yellow, changing to clay-color; the wall thin and delicate, pellucid, minutely granulose, the upper part torn away and soon disappearing, the lower half more persistent. stipe short, tapering upward, expanding at the base into a small hypothallus. capillitium arising from the lower portion of the sporangium, forming a complicated network, the threads - mic. in thickness, the surface closely covered with minute warts. spores globose, pale yellow to clay-color in mass, - mic. in diameter. see plate i, fig. . growing on the spines of chestnut burs. sporangia . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe shorter than the sporangium. . lachnobolus incarnatus, a. & s. sporangia globose or ellipsoidal, substipitate, closely crowded and seated on a common hypothallus; the wall thin and delicate, pellucid, minutely granulose, dehiscing irregularly. stipe very short or often obsolete. capillitium proceeding from the inner surface of the sporangial wall, forming a complicated network, the threads extremely variable in thickness, minutely warted and spinulose. spores globose, flesh-color in the mass, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood. sporangia . -. mm. in height, sessile on a narrow base or with a very short stipe; the threads of the capillitium are generally - mic. in thickness, but there are broader expansions at the nodes and elsewhere. my specimens are from prof. mcbride, of iowa. the species is extremely variable, and these specimens differ much from those described elsewhere. ii. arcyria, hill. sporangia regular ovoid to cylindric, stipitate; the wall a thin delicate membrane, circumscissile or torn away near the base, the upper portion evanescent, the lower part persistent, small and cup-shaped. stipe more or less elongated, the interior containing roundish vesicles which become smaller upward, and gradually pass into the normal spores. capillitium of slender tubules, issuing from the interior of the stipe, forming a complicated network, without any free extremities, the surface minutely warted or spinulose or with annular ridges. spores globose, red, brown, yellow, cinereous. § . clathroides, mich. capillitium closely attached by a few threads which issue from the interior of the stipe, and are free from the calyculus (except in _a. punicea_), much elongated after dehiscence, weak and drooping or prostrate; the meshes open and irregular, not differing externally and internally, their threads similar throughout, the warts or ridges of the surface exhibiting a spiral arrangement. . arcyria punicea, pers. sporangium ovoid, more or less elongated; the calyculus small, plicate-sulcate. stipe long, erect, brownish-red in color, expanded at the base into a small hypothallus. capillitium firmly attached by numerous threads which are connate with the wall of the calyculus, much elongated after dehiscence, ovoid-oblong to cylindric, bright red in color, fading to red-brown or brownish-ochre; the threads uniform in thickness, about mic., the surface with a series of prominent half-rings, which wind around the thread in a long spiral. spores globose, even, - mic. in diameter. growing on old bark, wood, mosses, etc. the stipe - mm. in length, the capillitium elongated - mm. the commonest of the species, conspicuous by reason of its bright red color. . arcyria minor, schw. sporangium ovoid-oblong; the calyculus small, sulcate and ribbed, granulose. stipe short, erect, brownish-red in color, standing on a thin hypothallus. capillitium much elongated after dehiscence, oblong to cylindric, lax and prostrate, bright red to brownish in color; the threads uniform in thickness, . - mic., the surface with a series of prominent half-rings, which wind around the thread in a long spiral. spores globose, even, - mic. in diameter. see plate i, fig. . growing on old wood, bark, polyporus, etc. the stipe . -. mm. in length, the capillitium elongated . - mm. not uncommon, but it is usually referred to _a. adnata_. . arcyria adnata, batsch. sporangium ovoid; the calyculus very small, finely ribbed and granulose. stipe very short or entirely wanting. capillitium much expanded after dehiscence, globose or obovoid, pale red to brownish in color; the threads uniform in thickness, about mic., the surface with a series of prominent half-rings with mingled warts and spines, which wind around the thread in a long spiral. spores globose, even, - mic. in diameter. growing in small clusters on old wood. a small species, the capillitium expanded - mm., the stipe extremely short, or altogether absent. . arcyria nutans, bull. sporangium cylindric; the calyculus small, granulose, ribbed and sulcate. stipe very short, arising from a common hypothallus. capillitium greatly elongated after dehiscence, cylindric, drooping and pendulous, pale yellow or pale ochraceous; the threads - mic. in thickness, the surface covered with spinules, among which are rings and half-rings, with an indistinct spiral arrangement. spores globose, even, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood. the capillitium elongated - mm., the stipe very short. a very conspicuous species by reason of its long pale yellow capillitium. § . plectanella. capillitium erect, firmly attached by numerous threads, which issue from the interior of the stipe, but are connate with the wall of the calyculus, after dehiscence not much expanded: the meshes at the surface of the network much smaller than those within, folded back and forth, narrow and irregular, their threads densely warted or spinulose; the meshes of the interior much larger, open and expanded, their threads with minute scattered warts or perfectly smooth. . arcyria cinerea, bull. sporangium ovoid or oblong-ovoid; the calyculus very small. stipe long, erect, cinereous, becoming blackish, standing on a thin hypothallus. capillitium not much expanded after dehiscence, ovoid-oblong, erect, pale cinereous, sometimes pale yellowish; the external threads densely spinulose, - mic. in thickness; the threads of the interior thicker, - mic., and very minutely warted or quite smooth. spores globose, even, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood. capillitium - mm. long, the stipe about the same length. . arcyria cookei, mass. sporangium ovoid-cylindric, the calyculus very small. stipe long, erect, gray to mouse-color, darker below, arising from a thin hypothallus. capillitium not much expanded after dehiscence, ovoid-cylindric, erect, gray to mouse-color; the superficial threads densely and uniformly covered with minute warts, - mic. in thickness; the threads of the interior thinner, about mic. and smooth, or with very minute scattered warts. spores globose, even, - mic. in diameter. see plate i, fig. . growing on old wood, mosses, etc. capillitium - mm. long, the stipe about the same length. it seems as common as _arcyria cinerea_, and has heretofore been included in it. see massee's monograph, p. . . arcyria digitata, schw. sporangium cylindric, the calyculus very small. stipe long, ascending, brownish in color, usually several fasciculate or to some extent connate, the sporangia divergent at the apex. capillitium not much expanded after dehiscence, cylindric, pale cinereous, or pale yellowish; the threads variable in thickness. - mic., those at the surface densely and minutely warted, those of the interior nearly smooth. spores globose, even, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood. capillitium - mm. long, the stipe about the same length. _arcyria bicolor_, b. & c. iii. heterotrichia, massee. sporangia regular, oblong-ovoid, stipitate; the wall a thin delicate membrane, the upper part disappearing at maturity, leaving the basal portion as a small calyculus. stipe filled with large thick-walled vesicles, which are sub-angular from mutual pressure; these become smaller upward, and pass gradually into normal spores. capillitium issuing from the interior of the stipe, the central and superficial threads dissimilar, forming a complicated network, with numerous free extremities, the surface minutely warted, or with annular ridges. spores globose, brownish. distinguished from arcyria by the numerous free extremities of the peripheral portion of the network. . heterotrichia gabriellÆ, massee. sporangium oblong-ovoid, stipitate; the calyculus small, thin, smooth. stipe very short, erect, yellowish-brown in color. capillitium much elongated after dehiscence, cylindric-ovoid, sub-erect; the threads of the central portion about . mic. thick, with slightly elevated ridges partly encircling the tube, nearly colorless; threads of the peripheral portion bright yellow, - mic. thick, with numerous short acute free branches, the surface densely and minutely warted. spores in mass, yellowish-brown, globose, even, - mic. in diameter. see plate i, fig. . growing on wood; s. carolina, _h. w. ravenel_. the sporangia densely crowded, becoming scattered toward the margin of the cluster. massee's monograph of the myxogasters. order v. trichiaceÆ. sporangium regular and stipitate or sessile, rarely plasmodiocarp; the wall a thin membrane, usually granular or venulose on the inner surface, colored as the spores and capillitium, irregularly dehiscent. capillitium of slender tubules, simple or branched, scarcely forming an evident network; the surface of the threads furnished with continuous ridges, which wind around the tube in a spiral manner. spores globose, red, brown, yellow, olivaceous. this order is readily recognized by the spiral ridges which wind around the tubules of the capillitium. table of genera of trichiaceÆ. . hemiarcyria. capillitium of long slender tubules, arising from the base of the sporangium, or issuing from the interior of the stipe; the spiral ridges parallel and conspicuous. . calonema. capillitium of slender tubules, arising from the base of the sporangium; the surface traversed by a system of branching veins. . trichia. capillitium consisting of numerous short slender tubules, called elaters, which are wholly free; the spiral ridges parallel and conspicuous. . oligonema. capillitium scanty, composed of elaters habitually irregular and abnormal; the surface variously marked. i. hemiarcyria, fr. sporangia regular and stipitate, rarely plasmodiocarp, the wall at maturity breaking away from above downward, leaving more or less of the lower portion persistent. stipe more or less elongated, rarely wanting, resting on a thin hypothallus. capillitium of long slender tubules, more or less branched, arising from the base of the sporangium, or issuing from the interior of the stipe; the spiral ridges parallel and conspicuous, - , rarely more in number, smooth or spinulose. spores globose, red, yellow. the genus is related on the one hand to arcyria by the mode of attachment of the threads, on the other hand to trichia, by the parallel spiral ridges which wind around them. by the mode of branching of the threads, the species fall readily into two sections. § . arcyrioides. capillitium of slender threads, branching and anastomosing, thus forming a more or less evident network. in some of the species the large irregular meshes of the network are scarcely to be discerned, but are rather to be inferred from the abundant branching of the threads and the paucity of the free extremities. . hemiarcyria plumosa, morgan, n. sp. sporangium obovoid to turbinate, olive-yellow to olive-brown in color, stipitate; the wall densely granulose within, externally smooth and shining, the upper part soon disappearing, leaving a funnel-shaped persistent base. stipe long, erect, reddish-brown, arising from a thin hypothallus. capillitium of threads - mic. in thickness, repeatedly branched and anastomosing, to form a dense network without any free extremities, olive-yellow to olive-brown in color; the spiral ridges five or six, close, smooth. spores in mass, lemon-yellow, globose, very minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. see plate i, fig. . growing gregariously on old damp logs; very common in this region. sporangium with the stipe - mm. in height, the stipe usually much longer than the sporangium; the capillitium expands considerably after the disappearance of the upper part of the sporangium. this species is an arcyria in every respect, except the spiral ridges, which wind about the thread of the capillitium. . hemiarcyria varneyi, rex. sporangium elongated ovoid, pale yellow, stipitate; the upper part of the wall disappearing at maturity, leaving a small cup-shaped persistent base. stipe very short, dull brown. capillitium of very slender threads . - . mic. in thickness, dull ochre in color, forming a network of small meshes, with numerous short slightly clavate free extremities, which proceed from the peripheral meshes; the spiral ridges seven or eight, winding unevenly, those of the superficial threads minutely spinulose. spores in mass pale yellow, globose, even, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood; kansas, may varney. sporangium with the stipe about mm. in height, the stipe very short. dr. rex, in proceedings of the academy of natural sciences, philadelphia, . . hemiarcyria ablata, morgan n. sp. sporangium obovoid to turbinate, yellow or olive-yellow, stipitate; the wall rather firm, smooth and shining, breaking away about the apex, leaving the greater portion persistent. stipe short, erect, yellow-brown to blackish in color, arising from a thin hypothallus. capillitium of threads, - mic. in thickness, yellowish-ochre in color, more or less branched; the free extremities very scarce, obtuse or slightly swollen; the spiral ridges four or five, close, smooth or very minutely warted. spores in mass, yellow, globose, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood of elm, etc. sporangium with the stipe . - . mm. in height, the stipe variable in length, but not longer than the sporangium, diameter of the sporangium . -. mm. a half dozen threads proceed from the inner wall of the stipe branch twenty-five or thirty times, and afford scarcely half a dozen free ends. . hemiarcyria stipata, schw. sporangia terete, elongated and flexuous, closely packed together and lying upon one another, stipitate, from bright incarnate to brick red or bay in color, smooth and shining; the wall thin and fragile, soon disappearing, except a small cup-shaped portion at the base. the stipes very short, often entirely concealed by the dense mass of sporangia, arising from a common hypothallus. capillitium of threads somewhat variable in thickness, - mic., repeatedly branched and forming a network of very unequal meshes, with occasional clavate free extremities, pale to dark red in color; the spiral ridges three or four, often irregular, thickened or interrupted by minute warts and spinules. spores in mass incarnate to brownish-red, globose, even, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood of liriodendron. sporangia usually in small patches, each - mic. in length, the stipe very thin and short. § . hemitrichia. capillitium of very long slender threads, simple or remotely branched, and not forming a network, their further extremities all free. the threads of the capillitium in these species are usually much coiled and entangled, but when straightened out they are seen to be very long, but few in number, fixed at one end and free at the other. . hemiarcyria longifila, rex. sporangium obovoid or pyriform, yellow, stipitate; the wall a thin pellucid membrane, smooth and shining, beautifully iridescent, breaking away above the middle, the lower cup-shaped portion persistent. stipe very short, reddish-brown to blackish, arising from a common hypothallus. capillitium of slender threads, . - mic. in thickness, golden yellow in color, simple or very rarely branched; the free extremities obtuse or slightly swollen, sometimes minutely apiculate; the spiral ridges, three or four, rather distant, with very minute scattered spinules or nearly smooth. spores in mass, golden-yellow, globose, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood of oak, etc. sporangium with the stipe . - . mm. in height, the stipe very short, not exceeding the diameter of the sporangium. a small species, distinguished by its golden-yellow spores and capillitium. . hemiarcyria funalis, morgan n. sp. sporangium obovoid to turbinate, yellow or olive yellow, polished stipitate; the wall firm, thickened on the inner surface by an olivaceous layer, breaking away from above downward, leaving an irregular cup-shaped base. stipe short, reddish-brown to blackish, arising from a thin hypothallus. capillitium of threads - mic. in thickness, yellowish-ochre or dull ochre in color, simple or remotely branched; the free extremities obtuse or swollen; the spiral ridges four or five, minutely warted. spores in mass yellow, globose, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. see plate i, fig. . growing on old wood. sporangium . - . mm. in height, the stipe variable, but usually much shorter than the sporangium. scarcely to be distinguished from _hemiarcyria ablata_, except by the threads of the capillitium. . hemiarcyria rubiformis, pers. sporangium obovoid or turbinate to cylindric, usually few to many fasciculate upon the united stipes, sometimes sessile, brown-red to brown or blackish in color, smooth and often shining with a metallic luster; the wall much thickened by a dense brownish-red layer of minute granules, at maturity the apex torn away, leaving much the greater part persistent. capillitium of slender threads, - mic. in thickness, brownish-red in color, very rarely branched; the free extremities usually terminated by a stout spine; the spiral ridges three or four, furnished with numerous spinules. spores in mass, brownish-red, globose, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood; one of the commonest of the myxomycetes. the fascicle - mm. in height, the individual sporangia . -. mm. in diameter. . hemiarcyria serpula, scop. plasmodiocarp terete, flexuous, usually branching and anastomosing to form an extensive network, from tawny to golden-yellow in color; the wall thin above and yellow, breaking open irregularly and falling away down to the brownish thicker adherent base. capillitium consisting of a few long slender threads with numerous scattered short branches, the threads - mic. in thickness, golden-yellow; the free ends of the branches terminating in a slender spine; the spiral ridges three or four, covered with numerous slender spinules. spores in the mass golden-yellow, globose, the surface reticulate, - mic. in diameter. growing on and inside of rotten wood. plasmodiocarp an irregular patch, one to several centimeters in extent, the strands of the net about . mm. in thickness. a single reticulate plasmodium is usually converted without change of form into an individual plasmodiocarp. ii. calonema, morgan, gen. nov. sporangia subglobose, irregular, sessile, without a hypothallus; the wall thin, marked with branching veins, irregularly dehiscent. capillitium of slender tubules, arising from the base of the sporangium, repeatedly branched and with numerous free extremities; the surface traversed by a system of branching veins, ending in minute veinlets, which appear as irregular rings and spirals. spores subglobose, yellow. the habit of the single species is that of an oligonema, and it has spores similar to those of most species of this genus, but the threads are long and branched, and they are fastened below to the base of the sporangium. . calonema aureum, morgan n. sp. sporangia subglobose to turbinate, sessile, closely crowded and from mutual pressure quite irregular; the wall thin, marked with branching veins, golden-yellow in color, smooth and shining. capillitium of threads more or less branched, - mic. in thickness, golden-yellow; the surface minutely venulose, and with larger rings and spirals, and sometimes with scattered spinules; the free extremities obtuse. spores subglobose, yellow, the surface with elevated ridges combined into a network, - mic. in diameter. see plate i, fig. . growing on and within rotten wood. sporangia quite irregular and variable in size, . -. mm. in diameter. the beautiful venation of the wall of the sporangium is continued upon the surface of the threads of the capillitium. iii. trichia, haller. sporangia regular and stipitate or sessile and somewhat irregular; the wall, at maturity, irregularly ruptured. the stipe more or less elongated or often wanting, usually resting on a hypothallus. capillitium consisting of numerous short slender tubules, called _elaters_, intermingled with the spores and wholly free; elaters simple or rarely branched a time or two, each extremity terminating in a smooth tapering point; the spiral ridges parallel and conspicuous, - in number, smooth or spinulose. spores globose, yellow, ochraceous, olivaceous. the genus trichia is unique among the myxomycetes in having its capillitium composed of tubules, which are entirely free from the wall of the sporangium. the length of these free tubes varies usually between . mm. and . mm., being sometimes shorter, but seldom longer; they are typically cylindric, or equally thickened from end to end, or quite rarely they are thickened in the middle, and taper gradually to each extremity; the extremities terminate in a smooth tapering point, straight or sometimes a little curved or flexuous, which maintains an average length in each species. the spiral ridges wind around the thread almost invariably to the left, or with the hands of a watch; they are always more or less prominent and conspicuous, and usually maintain a regular curve and uniform interval between each other in the same species; their surface is either smooth, or sometimes it is invested with minute warts or spinules. in all the species of this genus, however, irregular and abnormal elaters are occasionally met with among the typical ones. as these abnormal forms always arrest attention, and have been conceived to possess specific value, it may be well to note the principal of them. . the elater is sometimes branched. in two or three species the branching appears to be quite regular and not abnormal; still, even in these species, most of the elaters in the sporangia are not branched. in some cases the branching arises from confluence of two or more elaters. . ellipsoidal swellings, or enlargements of the elater, sometimes occur, at one or both extremities, or at points intermediate between them; these always occur irregularly, and are essentially abnormal. . the smooth tapering point is rarely wanting, in which case the extremity presents a blunt end, the spiral ridges running to the end. more frequently the tapering points are multiplied, the elaters bearing two or three spines at the extremities; this often occurs in the species of trichia, and also of hemiarcyria with spinulose elaters. . the spiral ridges are sometimes defective, there being less than the typical number; sometimes they are merely displaced, there being a much wider interval between them than usual; rarely do they habitually wind about the thread in an irregular manner. . under high magnifying power, fine ridges are sometimes seen running lengthwise of the elaters, bridging the intervals between the spirals. these were first observed by debary, in _trichia chrysosperma_, but they have since been seen in the elaters of nearly every other species of trichia, and also in species of hemiarcyria. the few species with elaters, so far as yet known, habitually irregular, defective and abnormal, are referred to the genus oligonema. the normal species of trichia arrange themselves quite naturally into three sections. § . a nactium. sporangia varying from globose to pyriform or turbinate, supported on a more or less elongated stipe. spores globose, the surface minutely warted. _a. elaters with very long tapering extremities._ . trichia fragilis, sow. sporangia obovoid to pyriform or clavate, often fasciculate, stipitate; the wall a thin membrane, with a thick dense outer layer of brown-red granules. stipes long, erect or curved, simple or usually fasciculate and often connate, arising from a thin hypothallus. mass of spores and capillitium from reddish-brown to yellow and ochraceous; elaters simple, rarely branched, - mic. thick, with very long tapering extremities, ending in smooth points - mic. long; spirals, three or four, perfectly smooth. spores globose, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood. sporangia with the stipe - mm. in height, the sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe usually longer than the sporangium. the color quite variable, mostly dull red-brown or blackish-brown, more rarely yellow or coffee-brown, usually opaque, rarely shining. . trichia fallax, pers. sporangium obovoid to pyriform or turbinate, rarely clavate, stipitate; the wall thin, smooth and shining, colored as the spores and capillitium. stipe more or less elongated, simple, erect, brownish below, filled with roundish vesicles. mass of capillitium and spores yellowish, ochraceous or olivaceous; elaters simple or sometimes with several branches, - mic. thick in the middle, tapering gradually to each extremity, ending in smooth tapering points, - mic. in length; spirals, three, perfectly smooth. spores globose, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. see plate i, fig. . growing on old wood. sporangium with the stipe - mm. in height, sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe usually longer than the sporangium. under high magnifying power the spores are seen to be minutely reticulated. _b. elaters cylindric, ending in a smooth tapering point._ . trichia subfusca, rex. sporangium globose, rarely globose-turbinate, stipitate; the wall thickish, dull tawny-brown above, shading to dark brown at the base. stipe simple, erect, brown or blackish in color. mass of capillitium and spores bright yellow; elaters simple, rarely branched, cylindric, . - mic. in thickness, ending in smooth tapering points, - mic. in length; spirals, four in number, perfectly smooth. spores globose, minutely warted, . - . mic. in diameter. on old wood and bark, adirondack mountains, new york. dr. george a. rex. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe equal in height to the diameter of the sporangium. . trichia erecta, rex. sporangium globose to globose-turbinate, stipitate; the wall of both sporangium and stipe with a rough outer layer of brown scales and granules, which, on the upper surface of the sporangium, soon breaks up into irregular patches. stipes long, erect, usually simple, rarely fasciculate and connate. mass of capillitium and spores, bright yellow; elaters simple, cylindric, mic. in thickness, ending in smooth points, - mic. long; spirals four, often united by intervening branches, covered with numerous irregular spinules. spores globose, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood and bark, adirondack mountains, new york, dr. geo. a. rex. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe about mm. in height. this trichia is conspicuous by the checkering or areolation of the upper surface in the mature sporangia, affording a sharp contrast between the brown patches and the yellow bands. § . chrysophidia. sporangia globose, obovoid or somewhat irregular, sessile, rarely with a short stipe, usually closely crowded. spores globose, the surface minutely warted. _a. elaters perfectly smooth._ . trichia varia, pers. sporangia globose, obovoid or somewhat irregular, gregarious and scattered or crowded, yellowish, ochraceous or olivaceous, sessile, or with a very short brown or blackish stipe. mass of capillitium and spores yellow; elaters long, simple or sometimes branched a time or two, - mic. in thickness, ending in a smooth tapering point, - mic. long; spirals only two, smooth, very prominent in places, causing the elater to appear notched. spores globose, oval or somewhat irregular, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. growing in patches on old wood; a very common species. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, or when irregular sometimes elongated to mm. or more. extremely variable as to the form of the sporangium, but readily recognized by its elaters. . trichia andersoni, rex. sporangia globose or obovoid, sessile, gregarious, closely crowded, or sometimes scattered, the wall thickened with minute scales, in color brownish-ochre or olivaceous. mass of capillitium and spores yellow; elaters long, simple, - mic. in thickness, ending in a very long flexuous point, - mic. in length; spirals three or four, winding evenly and closely, perfectly smooth. spores globose, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. growing on the inside of bark of acer. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter. the capillitium is deep orange and the spores olivaceous, but this difference in shade of color between spores and capillitium occurs in other species. _trichia advenula_, mass., is a closely related species, the swellings in the elaters having no specific value. . trichia inconspicua, rost. sporangia very small, subglobose, sessile, collected together in clusters, or scattered, without any hypothallus; the wall brown, smooth and shining. mass of capillitium and spores yellow; elaters long, simple, cylindric, - mic. in thickness, ending in smooth tapering points, - mic. in length; spirals three or four, close, not prominent, perfectly smooth. spores globose, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. growing on bark of platanus, etc. new york, _peck_; iowa, _mcbride_. the sporangia spherical or reniform and very small. _b. elaters spinulose._ . trichia iowensis, mcbride. sporangia subglobose, sessile, gregarious, scattered, or sometimes close and confluent; the wall thickened with minute scales, reddish-brown in color. mass of capillitium and spores yellow; elaters quite variable, usually very long, but sometimes very short, simple, rarely branched, the thickness unequal, - mic. in the same elater, with occasional thicker swellings, bearing numerous scattered spines, usually about as long as the thickness of the elater, but sometimes much longer, those at the ends being similar; spirals three or four, fine and close, in places nearly obsolete. spores globose, or more or less irregular, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. growing on old bark of populus; iowa, mcbride. sporangia . -. mm. in diameter. this is a very curious species of trichia; it suggests _ophiotheca wrightii_, but the elaters are short and simple, and there is no question as to the spirals upon them. i could find no branched elaters in my specimen. . trichia scabra, rost. sporangia globose or somewhat irregular, sessile and closely crowded on a well-developed hypothallus; the wall thin, gold-yellow or orange to yellow-brown in color, smooth and shining. mass of capillitium and spores orange or golden-yellow; elaters long, simple, - mic. in thickness, ending in a smooth tapering point, - mic. in length; spirals three or four, covered with numerous short acute spinules. spores globose, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. see plate i, fig. . growing on old wood in patches, sometimes several centimeters in extent. sporangia . - mm. in diameter. "the papillæ, which cover the spore, show, when highly magnified, a distinct net-like pattern," _mcbride_. the elaters of this species are subject to much irregularity in the way of abnormal swellings, duplicating the spines at the apex, etc.; the spinules are sometimes quite obsolete on some or all of the elaters of a sporangium. § . goniospora, fr. sporangia obovoid to oblong, sessile and closely crowded on a well-developed common hypothallus. spores with thick ridges upon the surface, which are combined into a more or less incomplete network of polygonal meshes. the ridges of the epispore are - mic. in height, and do not present to the view more than two or three perfect polygons on a hemisphere of the spores; more often the reticulation is imperfect, the ridges being interrupted and defective. when highly magnified these ridges are seen to be "perforated through their thickness with one, two or three rows, or with clusters of cylindrical openings or pits, or are sculptured into intricate plexuses of minute reticulations with quadrilateral interspaces." . trichia affinis, deb. sporangia obovoid to oblong, sessile and closely crowded on a common hypothallus; the wall thin, golden-yellow to tawny or brownish-yellow, smooth and shining. mass of capillitium and spores golden to tawny-yellow; elaters long, simple, - mic. in thickness, ending in a smooth tapering point, - mic. in length; spirals four, usually spinulose, rarely smooth. spores angularly or irregularly globose, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood and bark in small patches of a few millimeters to a centimeter or more in extent. sporangia . -. mm. in height by . -. mm. in diameter. _trichia jackii_, rost., is included in this species. . trichia chrysosperma, bull. sporangia oblong-obovoid to cylindric, sessile and closely crowded on a well-developed hypothallus; the wall thin, pale citron to olive-yellow, smooth and shining. mass of capillitium and spores, golden to ochre-yellow; elaters long, simple, - mic. in thickness, ending in a smooth tapering point, - mic. in length; spirals four or five, usually smooth, rarely spinulose. spores angularly or irregularly globose, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, in small patches, one to several centimeters in extent. sporangia - mm. in height and . -. mm. in diameter. this is readily distinguished from _trichia affinis_ by the larger and differently colored sporangia. iv. oligonema, rost. sporangia subglobose, more or less irregular, sessile and closely crowded, often in heaps, one upon another, the wall thin, smooth and shining; hypothallus none. capillitium scanty, composed of elaters habitually irregular and abnormal, intermingled with the spores; elaters simple or sometimes branched, commonly very short, but varying greatly in length, even in the same sporangium; the surface marked with faint spirals, with a few annular ridges, minutely punctulate or altogether smooth. spores globose, yellow. the species of this genus are to be regarded as degenerate trichias. of course, the abnormality is exhibited most markedly by the elaters; nevertheless, the sporangia of some of the species have a peculiar habit of heaping themselves upon each other. _a. surface of the spores reticulate._ _a. elaters with projecting rings._ . oligonema nitens, lib. sporangia subglobose, irregular, sessile, closely crowded and heaped upon each other, the wall thin, yellow, smooth and shining. mass of capillitium and spores yellow; elaters simple or sometimes branched, - mic. in thickness, with a few distant projecting rings, the surface smooth between, or with very faint spirals, the extremities obtuse, or sometimes with a minute apiculus. spores angularly or irregularly globose, the surface reticulate, - mic. in diameter. growing in small patches on and within rotten wood. sporangia . -. mm. in diameter; the elaters variable, some with as many as a dozen projecting rings, some with but a few or nearly smooth. _trichia nitens_, libert. . oligonema pusilla, schr. sporangia subglobose, irregular, sessile, scattered or collected together in heaps; the wall thin, yellow, smooth and shining. mass of capillitium and spores yellow; elaters simple or sometimes branched, mic. in thickness, sometimes with thicker inflated portions, the surface marked with low faint spirals or perfectly smooth; the extremities rounded and usually terminating in a smooth point, - mic. in length--this point either curved, bent to one side or turned back, and twisted around the extremity as a ring. spores angularly or irregularly globose, the surface reticulate, - mic. in diameter. growing in small clusters in rotten wood. sporangia . -. mm. in diameter; the elaters variable in length, scarcely exceeding mic. and often much shorter. _trichia pusilla_, schroeter. _b. elaters with no projecting rings._ . oligonema flavidum, peck. sporangia obovoid to oblong, sessile, closely crowded and irregular from mutual pressure; the wall thin, yellow, shining, punctulate or minutely granulose. mass of spores and capillitium yellow; elaters simple or sometimes branched, - mic. in thickness, sometimes with thicker inflated portions; the surface punctulate or minutely warted, occasionally marked with very faint spirals; the extremities usually rounded and obtuse, sometimes acute, and rarely with a minute apiculus. spores angularly or irregularly globose, the surface reticulate, - mic. in diameter. see plate i, fig. . growing in dense patches on old wood and mosses. sporangia . -. mm. in diameter, and reaching mm. in height, the elaters usually rather long, sometimes quite long and branched. . oligonema brevifila, peck. sporangia subglobose, irregular, sessile, crowded, forming clusters or effused patches; the wall thin, yellow, densely granulose and venulose. mass of capillitium and spores ochre-yellow; elaters simple or sometimes branched, often very short and fusiform, when elongated having long tapering extremities, sometimes with irregular swollen portions; the surface minutely granulose and rugulose, here and there a few spinules, occasionally with indistinct spirals. spores angularly or irregularly globose, the surface reticulate, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood and mosses. sporangia . -. mic. in diameter, the elaters varying greatly in length, some not more than or mic. long, others more than mic. in length. _b. spores minutely warted._ . oligonema fulvum, morgan n. sp. sporangia rather large, subglobose, sessile, closely crowded and more or less irregular; the wall tawny yellow, very thin and fragile, smooth, shining and iridescent. mass of capillitium and spores tawny yellow; elaters simple or sometimes branched, mostly very short, mic. in thickness, sometimes with thicker swollen portions; the surface marked with low smooth spirals, in places faint and obsolete; the extremities rounded and obtuse, usually with a very minute apiculus, - mic. in length. spores globose, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. growing on an old effused sphæria. sporangia . -. mm. in diameter, the elaters mostly - mic. in length, rarely much longer and sometimes shorter; the longer elaters and those that are branched often arise from confluence of the shorter ones. explanation of plate i. fig. .--perichæna depressa, lib. fig. .--ophiotheca wrightii, b. & c. fig. .--lachnobolus globosus, schw. fig. .--arcyria cookei, massee. fig. .--arcyria minor, schw. fig. .--heterotrichia gabriellæ, massee. (after massee.) fig. .--hemiarcyria plumosa, morgan. fig. .--hemiarcyria funalis, morgan. fig. .--calonema aureum, morgan. fig. .--trichia fallax, pers. fig. .--trichia scabra, rost. fig. .--oligonema flavidum, peck. note.--each figure exhibits the sporangium as it appears magnified about diameters, and the capillitium and spores magnified about diameters. [illustration: the journal of the cin. soc. natural history. vol. xvi. plate i.] * * * * * the myxomycetes of the miami valley, ohio. by a. p. morgan. third paper. (read february , .) order vi. stemonitaceÆ. sporangia globose or ovoid to oblong and cylindrical, stipitate; the wall very thin and fragile, soon disappearing. stipe tapering upward and continued within the sporangium as a more or less elongated columella. capillitium of slender brown threads, arising from numerous points of the columella, repeatedly branching and usually anastomosing to form a network, persistent and rigidly preserving the outline of the sporangium. spores globose, brown or violaceous. this order is readily distinguished by the brown persistent capillitium, arising from a lengthened columella, and rigidly maintaining the form of the sporangium. table of genera of stemonitaceæ. _a. stipe and columella brown or black._ _a. the columella scarcely reaching the center of the sporangium._ . clastoderma. threads of the capillitium forking several times, but not combined into a network. . lamproderma. threads of the capillitium branching and anastomosing to form a network. _b. the columella extending beyond the center of the sporangium._ . comatricha. threads of the capillitium forming only an interior network, attaining the wall by numerous more or less elongated free extremities. . stemonitis. threads of the capillitium forming an interior network of large meshes and a superficial network of smaller meshes. . enerthenema. threads of the capillitium pendent from a discoid membrane at the apex of the columella. _b. stipe and columella white or yellowish._ . diachaea. threads of the capillitium branching and anastomosing to form a network. i. clastoderma, blytt. sporangium regular, globose, stipitate; the wall very thin and fragile. stipe elongated, tapering upward, entering the sporangium as a very short or nearly obsolete columella. capillitium arising by a few branches from the apex of the columella, these branches forking several times at a sharp angle, but not combined into a network, the ultimate branchlets long and free, or only connected together at their tips by persistent fragments of the sporangial wall. spores globose, violaceous. the claim of this genus to be distinguished from lamproderma must rest upon the fact that the branchlets of the capillitium do not anastomose and form a network. it is the same as the genus orthotricha of wingate. . clastoderma de baryanum, blytt. sporangium very small, globose; the wall early disappearing, except the minute fragments which persist at the extremities of the capillitium, and a narrow collar at the base of the columella. stipe very long, thick and brown below, tapering upward to a pellucid oblong swelling, thence abruptly narrowed to the apex; the columella extremely short, capillitium of very slender pale-brown semi-pellucid threads, divergently forking, the ultimate branchlets often joined - together at their tips by fragments of the sporangial wall. spores globose, even, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. see plate xi, fig. . growing in rather a scattered way on old rotten wood. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe . - . mm. long. _orthotricha microcephala_, wingate. blytt's species was found in norway, wingate's in pennsylvania; i have met with it several times in this locality. it is possibly more common than it appears, as by reason of the difficulty of seeing the minute sporangium it is passed by as some mold. blytt's spore measurements are . - mic.; in some specimens i have seen a few spores of this size, but they are abnormal. ii. lamproderma, rost. sporangia regular, globose, stipitate; the wall thin and fragile, rugulose, shining with metallic tints, breaking up irregularly and gradually falling away. stipe more or less elongated, smooth, brown or black in color, arising from a hypothallus, tapering upward and entering the sporangium as a short columella scarcely reaching the center. capillitium of numerous threads radiating from the columella, usually forking several times and combined into a net by lateral anastomosing branchlets. spores globose, brown or violaceous. lamproderma is distinguished by the shining metallic tints of the sporangial wall, and by the short columella scarcely reaching half the height of the sporangium. . lamproderma physaroides, a. & s. sporangium globose; the wall with a silvery metallic luster, at length breaking up and falling away. stipe long, slender, brown or blackish, arising from a small circular hypothallus; columella clavate, obtuse, not reaching the center of the sporangium. capillitium of brownish-violet threads, arising from the upper part of the columella; these branch repeatedly at a sharp angle, form an intricate network of elongated meshes, terminating at the wall in numerous short free branchlets. spores globose, minutely warted, bright brown, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, moss, etc., new york, _chas. h. peck_. distinguished by the pale silvery sporangial wall and the clear brown spores. . lamproderma arcyrionema, rost. sporangium small, globose; the wall dark bronze, with a silvery sheen when loosened from the spores, soon breaking into scales and falling away. stipe long and slender, smooth, shining and black, rising from a thin hypothallus; the columella short cylindric, variable in length, but not attaining the center of the sporangium. capillitium arising by division of the apex of the columella into several primary branches; these immediately separate into numerous slender flexuous brown threads, which unite and form a dense network of small arcuate meshes, the ultimate branchlets not free. spores globose, even, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. see plate xi, fig. . growing on old wood of juglans and carya. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe three or four times as long. the columella is somewhat variable, it sometimes forks or divides immediately on entering the sporangium, at other times it is longer and cylindric, with more slender primary branches. the meshes of the capillitium resemble those of arcyria, whence the name. this is the _stemonitis physaroides_, a. & s. var. _suboeneus_ of lea's catalogue. . lamproderma violaceum, fr. sporangium depressed-globose, convex above and more or less flattened and umbilicate beneath; the wall shining with steel or violet, blue and purple tints, deciduous. stipe short, stout, brown or blackish in color, arising from a thin, brown, common hypothallus; columella cylindric, or tapering slightly to an obtuse apex, attaining the center of the sporangium. capillitium of numerous slender threads, radiating from the upper part of the columella; these threads are brown below, with a variable outer portion colorless; they branch a few times and form an interior network of elongated meshes, outwardly arching and freely anastomosing they give rise to an external network of small irregular meshes, they then attain the wall by innumerable short, simple, or forked free branchlets. spores globose, minutely spinulose, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. see plate xi, fig . growing on old wood, mosses, etc., late in autumn. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe about the same length. the capillitium is sometimes most of it colorless and flaccid; sometimes it is all brown and rigid except the minute free extremities. . lamproderma arcyrioides, somm. sporangium globose or ellipsoid, and somewhat elongated; the wall with tints of violet, purple, and blue, deciduous. stipe usually short, or sometimes nearly obsolete, brown or blackish in color, arising from a strongly-developed hypothallus; the columella cylindric or slightly tapering upward, and obtuse, reaching nearly to the center of the sporangium. capillitium of numerous pale-brown threads, radiating from the apex of the columella; these fork directly from the base, are bent and flexuous, and are combined into a dense, intricate net, with abundant free extremities. spores globose, spinulose, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old leaves, wood, etc. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe variable in length from very short to mm. long or beyond. _lamproderma columbinum_, pers. is a doubtful species, the forms of that name being easily distributed between the present species and _l. physaroides_. . lamproderma scintillans, b. & br. sporangium globose; the wall shining with colors of blue, purple, and bronze, deciduous. stipe long, slender, smooth, and shining, brown or blackish, rising from a thin, brown, common hypothallus; columella cylindric or slightly tapering to the obtuse apex, not reaching the center of the sporangium. capillitium of numerous brown threads, originating about the apex of the columella; these fork several times, with few anastomosing branchlets, and terminate at the wall in long, free extremities. spores globose, minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. see plate xi, fig. . growing on old leaves, moss, etc., in early spring. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe from once to twice as long. this is _lamproderma irideum_ of massee's monograph. i am indebted to arthur lister, esq., of london, for the identification of my specimens with _stemonitis scintillans_, b. & br., and with _lamproderma irideum_, cke. iii. comatricha, preuss. sporangia various in shape, from globose or ovoid to oblong and cylindric, stipitate; the wall very thin and fugacious. stipe more or less elongated, smooth and black, arising from a common hypothallus, tapering upward, entering the sporangium and prolonged nearly or quite to the apex as a columella. capillitium arising from numerous points of the columella throughout its entire length; the threads immediately branching and anastomosing to form an interior network, attaining the wall by numerous more or less elongated free extremities. spores globose, brown or violaceous. this genus is not sharply limited from stemonitis. the species with very short free ends, and consequently with superficial meshes approximate to the wall, are near the form of stemonitis. but it may be observed that in these species, the meshes of the capillitium become smaller gradually outward, the sides of the superficial meshes are arched away from the wall, and they are in contact with it only by the free extremities. § . typhoides. threads of the capillitium repeatedly branching and anastomosing, to form a dense network of small meshes, with innumerable short, free extremities. . comatricha typhina, roth. sporangia short, erect or a little curved, cylindric or usually narrowing slightly upward, the base quite blunt, the apex more rounded, growing together on a thin hypothallus. stipe and columella brown or blackish, tapering upward and vanishing near the apex of the sporangium, the stipe much shorter than the columella. capillitium of slender flexuous tawny-brown threads; these branch repeatedly, forming an intricate network of small irregular meshes, ending in very short free extremities. spores globose, violaceous, very minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, mosses, etc. sporangium with the stipe - mm. in height, the stipe much the shorter, the sporangium . -. mm. in thickness. _stemonitis typhoides_, fries, s. m. . comatricha Æqualis, pk. sporangia usually more or less inclined or curved and nodding, cylindric, obtuse at each end, growing together on a thin hypothallus. stipe and columella slender, smooth, black, extending nearly or quite to the apex of the sporangium, the stipe longer than the columella. capillitium of very slender flexuous tawny-brown threads; these branch repeatedly, forming an intricate network of small irregular meshes, ending in very short free extremities. spores globose, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood. sporangium . - mm. in height by . -. mm. in thickness, the stipe usually about the same length as the sporangium, but sometimes nearly twice as long. the capillitium is rather looser than in _c. typhina_, whence the drooping habit. peck, thirty-first report, p. . . comatricha nigra, pers. sporangia globose or ovoid to ellipsoid or oblong, erect or sometimes inclined or even nodding. the stipe very long, smooth and black, tapering upward, expanding at the base into a small circular hypothallus; the columella short, reaching from one-half to three-fourths the height of the sporangium. capillitium of slender flexuous brown threads, which branch repeatedly, forming a dense intricate network of small meshes, ending in very short free extremities. spores globose, even, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, leaves, etc. sporangium . - . mm. in height, . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe . - mm. long or sometimes considerably longer. this species seems to be rare in this country. i have preferred the name adopted by schroeter to rostafinski's _comatricha friesiana_. . comatricha ellisii, morgan, n. sp. sporangia short, erect, oval or ovoid to oblong. stipe and columella erect, brown and smooth, rising from a thin pallid hypothallus, tapering upward and vanishing into the capillitium toward the apex of the sporangium, the stipe usually longer than the columella. capillitium of slender pale brown threads; these branch several times with lateral anastomosing branchlets, forming a rather open network of small meshes, ending with very short free extremities. spores globose, even, pale ochraceous, - mic. in diameter. see plate xi, fig. . growing on old pine wood. sporangium . -. mm. in height by . -. mm. in width, the stipe usually a little longer than the sporangium. this elegant little species i have from mr. j. b. ellis, of newfield, n. j. it is said to be mingled in some of the specimens with _lamproderma ellisiana_, cke. § . larvella. threads of the capillitium branching a few times and anastomosing to form a network of large meshes, attaining the wall by numerous long, free extremities. . comatricha crypta, schw. sporangia cylindric, bent or flexuous and more or less inclined, growing close together on a conspicuous purplish-brown hypothallus. stipe and columella smooth and black, tapering upward and reaching the apex of the sporangium, the columella bent and flexuous or spirally twisted, about as long as the stipe. capillitium composed of irregular, bent and uneven threads, which are brown below, becoming colorless outwardly; the threads branch a few times, forming a network of large irregular meshes, sometimes much defective; the free extremities irregular and unequal, simple or branched. spores globose, brown, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. see plate xi, fig. . growing out of fissures of the bark and wood of hickory, acer, etc. sporangium with the stipe - mm. in height, the stipe a little shorter, or sometimes much longer than the sporangium, the latter . -. mm. in thickness. the exterior colorless portion of the capillitium is exceedingly delicate, easily breaking away and leaving the capillitium quite irregular and defective. _stemonitis crypta_, schweinitz's n. a. fungi, . _comatricha irregularis_, rex, is the same thing. . comatricha cÆspitosa, sturgis. sporangia short, clavate, densely crowded or cæspitose upon a delicate hypothallus; the wall subpersistent, silvery, shining with tints of purple and blue. stipe very short or nearly obsolete, the columella rising to two-thirds or three-fourths the height of the sporangium. capillitium of slender dark-brown threads, which branch and anastomose quite irregularly, forming a network of intermingled large and small meshes, ending in long, tapering, free extremities. spores globose, minutely spinulose, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on moss and lichens, at wood's holl, massachusetts. sporangium - . mm. in height, the stipe very short or sometimes apparently wanting. i am indebted to dr. w. c. sturgis, of new haven, conn., for a specimen of this unique species. . comatricha longa, peck. sporangia very slender and much elongated, tapering gradually upward, weak and prostrate or pendulous, growing close together on a well-developed purplish-black hypothallus. stipe and columella capillary, smooth and black, reaching to the apex of the sporangium or often vanishing in the network far below it, the stipe very short, the columella long and flexible. capillitium of long, slender, dark-brown threads; these are reticulately connected near the base, forming a network of large irregular meshes in a series along the columella; outwardly they are terminated by very long free branchlets, which vary from simple to two or three times forked or branched. spores globose, minutely warted, dark brown, - mic. in diameter. see plate xi, fig. . growing on old wood and bark of elm, willow, etc., in autumn. sporangium with the stipe - mm. in length, the stipe - mm. long, the sporangium . -. mm. in thickness. this is the most characteristic species of the genus, being farthest removed from stemonitis. . comatricha flaccida, lister. sporangia growing closely crowded together and more or less confluent, on a purplish-brown hypothallus, the walls fugacious. columellas rising simply from the common hypothallus, or sometimes grown together below and then apparently branching, running through to the apex, and there often confluent with each other, or joined together by portions of membrane. capillitium of slender brown threads, which branch and anastomose very irregularly, forming a ragged network with large irregular meshes, and long free extremities; the capillitium of adjoining columellas being much entangled, and often confluent or grown together. spores globose, very minutely warted, brown, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood and bark of oak, willow, etc. the component sporangia - mm. in length. the early appearance is much like that of species of stemonitis, but the mature stage is a great mass of spores with scanty capillitium, as in reticularia; the columellas, however, are genuine and not adjacent portions of wall grown together. arthur lister calls this _stemonitis splendens_, var. _flaccida_. iv. stemonitis, gled. sporangia subcylindric, elongated, stipitate, standing close together on a well-developed common hypothallus, the wall very thin and evanescent. stipe brown or black, smooth and shining, tapering upward, entering the sporangium and prolonged nearly to the apex as a slender columella, the stipe shorter than the columella. capillitium arising from numerous points of the columella throughout its entire length; the threads immediately branch and anastomose to form an interior network of large meshes, they then spread out next the wall of the sporangium into a superficial network of smaller meshes. spores globose, brown or violaceous. in this genus there are two distinctly differentiated series in the capillitium, the one an interior supporting network of large meshes, the other a superficial network of smaller meshes; sometimes the superficial network disappears or is wanting toward the upper part of the capillitium, there is then an approach to comatricha. very minute scattered branchlets usually connect the superficial network with the wall of the sporangium. § . dictynna. threads of the capillitium arising from numerous points of the columella, immediately branching several times and anastomosing to form the interior network of large meshes; the superficial network consisting of small irregular and unequal meshes, varying from smaller than the spores to two or three times their diameter. . stemonitis fusca, roth. sporangia elongated, subcylindric, tapering and obtuse at the apex, tapering gradually downward, growing closely crowded together on a strongly-developed brown hypothallus. stipe and columella smooth and black, tapering gradually upward and disappearing near the apex of the sporangium, the stipe shorter than the columella. capillitium of slender brown or blackish threads, which immediately branch and anastomose, forming a dense interior network of large irregular meshes, the ultimate branchlets of which support a superficial network of small polygonal meshes. spores globose, dark violaceous, the surface minutely warted, the warts with a reticulate arrangement, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, bark, leaves, etc.; common everywhere. sporangium with the stipe - mm. in height, the sporangium . -. mm. in thickness, the stipe variable in length, but always shorter than the sporangium. the meshes of the superficial net vary in size in the same sporangium, being usually - mic. in width, but sometimes they are larger, ranging from - mic. in extent. the name _stemonitis maxima_ was given by schweinitz to some unusually large specimens which grew on a polyporus. _stemonitis dictyospora_ of rostafinski's monograph, with spores mic. in diameter, is said to occur in south carolina; i have seen no specimens. . stemonitis tenerrima, b. & c. sporangia small, subcylindric, tapering and obtuse at the apex, tapering gradually downward, growing close together on a thin brown hypothallus. stipe and columella black and smooth, tapering gradually upward and vanishing toward the apex of the sporangium, the stipe shorter than the columella. capillitium of very slender pale violet threads, which branch and anastomose to form a dense interior network of large irregular meshes, and then spread out into a superficial network of small polygonal meshes. spores globose, even, pale brownish-violet, - mic. in diameter. see plate xi, fig. . growing on old wood, mosses, etc. sporangium with the stipe - mm. in height, the sporangium . -. mm. in thickness, the stipe variable in length, but always shorter than the sporangium. the meshes of the superficial network varying usually from - mic. in width, but sometimes larger from - mic. the species grows scantily in this region, but i have elegant specimens from alabama, sent me by prof. geo. f. atkinson. . stemonitis microspora, lister. plasmodium white. sporangia elongated, subcylindric, tapering and obtuse at the apex, tapering gradually downward, growing closely crowded together on a strongly-developed brown hypothallus. stipe and columella brown and smooth, tapering gradually upward and reaching nearly to the apex of the sporangium, the stipe shorter than the columella. capillitium of slender tawny-brown threads; the primary branches simple or only branched above, or with a few lateral anastomosing branchlets, forming a rather loose network of large irregular meshes; these support a superficial network of very small polygonal meshes. spores globose, even, tawny-brown, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, bark, leaves, etc.; very common in this region. sporangium with the stipe - mm. in height, the sporangium . -. mm. in thickness, the stipe shorter than the sporangium. meshes of the superficial network - mic. in width. i am indebted to arthur lister, esq., of london, for pointing out to me the difference between this species and the _stemonitis ferruginea_ of fries and rostafinski. . stemonitis ferruginea, ehr. plasmodium lemon-yellow. sporangia subcylindric, the apex obtuse, growing closely crowded together on a thin, brown hypothallus. stipe and columella brown and smooth, tapering gradually upward and vanishing beneath the apex of the sporangium, the stipe much shorter than the columella. capillitium of slender, tawny-brown threads, which immediately branch and anastomose, forming a dense interior network of large irregular meshes, supporting a superficial network of small polygonal meshes. spores globose, very minutely warted, tawny-brown in color, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, leaves, grasses, etc. sporangium with the stipe - mm. in height, the sporangium . -. mm. in thickness, the stipe much shorter than the sporangium. the meshes of the superficial network varying from - mic. or sometimes from - mic. in width, according to the specimen. the species is certainly rare in this country, and my description is drawn up from british specimens. but i am unable to distinguish authentic specimens of _stemonitis herbatica_, peck, from these british specimens. § . megalodictys. threads of the capillitium arising from rather distant points of the columella, branching and anastomosing but a few times, thus forming an interior network of very large meshes; the superficial network consisting of large irregular meshes, varying from three or four to many times the diameter of the spores. . stemonitis webberi, rex. sporangia subcylindric, the apex obtuse, tapering gradually downward, growing close together on a common hypothallus. stipe and columella black and smooth, the stipe very short, the columella extending nearly or quite to the apex of the sporangium, the upper part usually flexuous. capillitium composed of slender, flexuous brown threads; these immediately branch and anastomose several times, forming an interior network of very large meshes; the superficial network consisting of large irregular meshes, sometimes much elongated. spores globose, very minutely warted, brown, - mic. in diameter. see plate xi, fig. . growing on old wood, bark, etc. sporangium with the stipe - mm. in height, the stipe - mm. in length, the sporangium . -. mm. in thickness; meshes of the superficial net of the capillitium - - mic. in extent. this is a much smaller species than _stemonitis splendens_, and the structure of the interior network of the capillitium is entirely different. . stemonitis splendens, rost. sporangia linear-cylindric, obtuse at the apex, growing close together on a conspicuous hypothallus. stipe and columella black and shining, the stipe very short, the columella reaching nearly or quite to the apex of the sporangium, often flexuous above. capillitium composed of brown threads, variable in thickness, often with membranaceous expansions; the primary branches some of them simple or only branched above, others with a few anastomosing branchlets, forming an interior network of extremely large meshes; the superficial network consisting of large, irregular, roundish or polygonal meshes. spores globose, very minutely warted, brown, - mic. in diameter. see plate xi, fig. . growing on old wood. sporangium with the stipe - mm. in height, the stipe - mm. in length, the sporangium about . mm. in thickness; the meshes of the superficial network of the capillitium - - mic. or sometimes as much as mic. in extent. this is _stemonitis morgani_, peck. v. enerthenema, bowm. sporangium regular, globose, stipitate; the wall thin and fragile, fugacious. stipe stout, thick, tapering upward, entering the sporangium and prolonged to its apex, there expanding into a discoid membrane. capillitium originating from the lower surface of the apical disk of the columella; the threads branched a few times and hanging downward, their extremities free. spores globose, violaceous. a well-marked genus, by reason of the peculiar origin of the capillitium. . enerthenema papillatum, pers. sporangium globose, stipitate; the wall brown or blackish, soon disappearing. stipe black, rugulose, thick below, tapering above into the slender columella, which, at its apex, expands into a thin membranaceous disk. capillitium of long brown threads suspended from the apical disk, the threads branched a few times, occasionally anastomosing by a short, transverse branchlet, the free ends often forked. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. see plate xi, fig. . growing on old wood. stipe and columella . - . mm. in height. the species seems to be rare in this country, as i have met with it but once myself, and have received only a few specimens from elsewhere. vi. diachÆa, fr. sporangia globose to oblong, stipitate, arising from a common hypothallus; the wall thin, rugulose, iridescent with metallic tints, breaking up irregularly and gradually falling away. stipe and columella thick, erect, rigid, tapering upward, filled with minute, roundish granules of lime, white or yellowish in color. capillitium arising from numerous points of the columella, the threads repeatedly branching and anastomosing to form an intricate network, attaining the wall by numerous short free extremities. spores globose, violaceous. this genus is scarcely to be distinguished from lamproderma, except by the white mass of lime which fills the tube of the stipe and columella. . diachÆa leucopoda, bull. sporangia ovoid-oblong to short cylindric, the base obtuse or slightly umbilicate, the apex more rounded; the wall with bronze, blue, purple, and violet tints, gradually falling away. stipe short, thick, white, arising from a white, venulose, hypothallus, tapering upward; the columella cylindric or slightly tapering, obtuse, terminating below the apex of the sporangium. capillitium of slender, flexuous brown threads forming a dense network of rather small meshes. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old leaves, sticks, etc., and sometimes running over living plants. sporangium with the stipe - mm. in height, the stipe usually much shorter than the sporangium, the latter . -. mm. in thickness. _diachæa elegans_, fr. . diachÆa splendens, peck. sporangia globose, sometimes a little depressed, with the base umbilicate; the wall steel-blue with tints of purple and violet, quite persistent, rupturing irregularly. stipe short, thick, white, arising from a white, reticulate hypothallus, tapering upward; the columella oblong or short cylindric, extending beyond the center of the sporangium. capillitium of slender, brown threads, which branch several times and form a loose network of rather large meshes. spores subglobose, with very large warts, dark violet, - mic. in diameter. growing on old leaves and twigs. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe about the same length. this is a beautiful species. . diachÆa thomasii, rex. sporangia globose, or sometimes a little depressed; the wall gold-bronze, with tints of purple and blue, subpersistent, rupturing irregularly. stipe thick, dull ochre-yellow in color, variable in length, usually very short and sometimes quite obsolete, arising from an ochre-yellow hypothallus; the columella varying from bluntly-conical to cylindric-clavate, attaining the center of the sporangium. capillitium of slender, brown threads, radiating from all points of the columella, branching several times and forming a loose network of elongated meshes. spores globose, minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. see plate xi, fig. . growing on sticks, leaves, etc. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe usually shorter or sometimes wanting. this species has been found only in the mountains of north carolina. i am indebted to dr. george a. rex for my example. in its structure the species is essentially a lamproderma, but the stipe and columella are stuffed with granules of lime. explanation of plate xi. fig. .--sectional view of the capillitium and stipe of clastoderma de baryanum, blytt. fig. .--section through the capillitium, columella and stipe of lamproderma arcyrionema, rost. fig. .--perpendicular section through lamproderma violaceum, fr. fig. .--perpendicular section through lamproderma scintillans, berk. fig. .--section through the capillitium, columella and stipe of comatricha ellisii, morgan. fig. .--sectional view through the capillitium and columella of a portion of comatricha crypta, schw. fig. .--sectional view through the columella and capillitium of a portion of comatricha longa, peck. fig. .--a portion of the capillitium of stemonitis tenerrima, b. & c.--a sectional view through the columella above and below a view of the superficial network. fig. .--a portion of the capillitium of stemonitis splendens, rost.--a sectional view through the columella above and below a view of the superficial network. fig. .--the capillitium of a very short sporangium of stemonitis webberi, rex; the breadth, however, somewhat exaggerated. fig. .--showing the stipe, columella, apical disk and pendent capillitium of enerthenema papillatum, pers. fig. .--perpendicular section through the capillitium, columella, and stipe of diachæa thomasii, rex. note.--the figures of the objects are drawn as they appear under a magnifying power of about diameters. [illustration: the journal of the cin. soc. natural history. vol. xvi. plate xi.] order vii.--didymiaceÆ. sporangia simple and subglobose, or plasmodiocarp, rarely combined into an æthalium. wall of the sporangium a thin membrane with an outer layer composed of minute stellate crystals, or of minute roundish granules of lime; these either lie singly upon the surface, or are compacted into a crustaceous coat. stipe present or often wanting; the columella usually conspicuous and well-developed. capillitium consisting of very slender, often sinuous threads, which extend from the base of the sporangium or from the columella to the walls, either simple or outwardly branching a few times at a sharp angle, combined into a loose irregular net by a few transverse branchlets, which are situated chiefly at the extremities. spores globose, violaceous. this order is readily distinguished from the physaraceæ by the absence of lime from the threads of the capillitium. table of genera of didymiaceÆ. _a. the lime on the wall of the sporangium in the form of minute stellate crystals._ . didymium. sporangium simple, subglobose and stipitate, the base commonly umbilicate, or sometimes sessile and plasmodiocarp. . spumaria. Æthalium composed of numerous elongated irregularly-branched sporangia, closely compacted together and confluent. _b. the lime on the wall of the sporangium consisting of minute roundish granules._ . diderma. wall of the sporangium with the outer calcareous layer usually compacted into a smooth continuous crust. . lepidoderma. wall of the sporangium with an outer layer of large scales, consisting of bicarbonate of lime. i. didymium, schrad. sporangium simple, subglobose and stipitate, the base commonly umbilicate, or sometimes sessile and plasmodiocarp; the wall a thin membrane with an outer layer of minute stellate crystals of lime. stipe present or sometimes wanting; the columella mostly conspicuous, sometimes thin or obsolete. capillitium of very slender threads, straight or often sinuous, stretching from the columella to the wall of the sporangium, simple or outwardly sparingly branched at a sharp angle. spores globose, violaceous. didymium, together with spumaria, is to be distinguished from all other genera of the myxomycetes by the covering of stellate crystals, like hoar-frost, upon the outer surface of the sporangium. § . cionium. columella prominent, subcentral, globose, obovoid, or turbinate; the threads of the capillitium radiating in all directions to the wall of the sporangium. _a. sporangium stipitate._ . didymium squamulosum, a. & s. sporangium variable in form and size, small and globose, or large and much depressed, the base usually umbilicate, stipitate, or sometimes sessile, and even plasmodiocarp; the wall very thin and pellucid, with a thin, gray-white layer of stellate crystals of lime, breaking up into subpersistent scales. stipe short, erect, snow-white, longitudinally furrowed or plicate; the columella central, snow-white, various in shape, globose, obovoid, turbinate, and stipitate or sessile. capillitium of numerous colorless threads, radiating from the columella and separating outwardly into several branches. spores globose, very minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, leaves, herbaceous stems, etc. sporangium . -. -. mm. in diameter, the stipe scarcely longer than the diameter, often much shorter or nearly wanting. . didymium proximum, b. & c. sporangium globose or depressed-globose, the base more or less umbilicate, stipitate; the wall very thin and pellucid, with a loose white covering of stellate crystals of lime, the upper part breaking up and falling away. stipe long, erect, tapering upward, yellow-brown to reddish-brown, expanding at the base into a small hypothallus; the columella central, white, turbinate, or discoid turbinate. capillitium of slender, colorless threads, radiating from the columella, branching and often anastomosing. spores globose, even, pale violaceous, - mic. in diameter. plate xii, fig. . growing on old leaves, sticks, culms, etc. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe two or three times the diameter. . didymium eximium, peck. sporangium depressed-globose, the base umbilicate, sometimes very much depressed and also umbilicate above, stipitate; the wall pale ocher or pale yellow, with a thin layer of minute white crystals of lime, the upper part gradually breaking away. stipe long, erect, tapering upward, pale yellow-brown, darker below, expanding into a small brown hypothallus; the columella central, large, discoid, or sometimes rough and irregular, pale ochre or yellowish. capillitium of much-branched colorless threads, radiating upward and downward from the columella. spores globose, very minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. plate xii, fig. . growing on old leaves, sticks, etc. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe about twice the diameter. . didymium microcarpum, fr. sporangium small, globose, the base slightly umbilicate, stipitate; the wall a dark-colored membrane, covered with abundant snow-white crystals of lime. stipe long, slender, erect, delicately striate, yellow-brown to blackish in color, expanded at the base into a small hypothallus; the columella small, globose, sessile or substipitate, pale yellow-brown. capillitium of pale brown threads, somewhat branched and forming a loose net. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, leaves, mosses, etc. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe two or three times as long. the species is more particularly distinguished by its small spores. . didymium minus, lister. sporangium depressed-globose, the base umbilicate, stipitate, rarely sessile and plasmodiocarp; the wall a dark-colored membrane with a thin layer of stellate crystals of lime, breaking up gradually and falling away. stipe erect or sometimes bent at the apex, variable in length, rarely wanting, from pale brown to blackish in color, rising from a small hypothallus; the columella reaching the center, brown or blackish, rough, convex, subglobose or pulvinate, substipitate. capillitium of slender colorless threads, radiating from the columella and more or less branched outwardly. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. plate xii, fig. . growing in vast abundance in spring on old leaves, bark, wood, etc. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe scarcely longer but usually shorter than the diameter of the sporangium rarely absent. it is considered by lister to be a variety of _d. farinaceum_; it differs from this species in its smaller and less-depressed sporangium and in its smaller nearly smooth spores. _b. sporangia sessile._ . didymium effusum, link. sporangia gregarious or scattered, sessile on a flattened base, convex above, various in shape, subrotund or by confluence effused and venosely creeping; the wall very thin and pellucid, invested with a thin flocculose layer of minute crystals of lime. the columella hemispheric, rugulose, usually snow-white. capillitium of very slender colorless threads, furnished with numerous minute protuberances, much branched and combined into a dense net. spores globose, very minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old leaves, wood, etc. sporangium about . mm. in diameter or thickness, sometimes confluent and more or less elongated as a plasmodiocarp. this species is reported from the united states, but i have seen no specimens. . didymium physaroides, pers. sporangia roundish or hemispheric, more or less irregular and deformed, sessile or with a very short stipe, and closely crowded together upon a strongly-developed common hypothallus; the wall a dark colored membrane, with a thin layer of stellate crystals of lime. the columella large and thick, divided into cells which are filled with irregular lumps of lime, common to all the sporangia. capillitium of stout threads, usually simple, only rarely branched, furnished with numerous fusiform swellings. spores globose, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, bark, moss, etc. reported from carolina by curtis. it is said superficially to resemble somewhat _physarum didermoides_. § . placentia. columella basal, much depressed, very thin or quite obsolete, connate with the base of the sporangium; the threads of the capillitium ascending to the wall of the sporangium. _a. sporangium stipitate._ . didymium farinaceum, schrad. sporangium hemispherical, more or less depressed, the base profoundly umbilicate; the wall firm, rugulose, dark-colored and nearly opaque, with a mealy coat of stellate crystals of lime, rupturing irregularly. stipe variable in length, rigid, erect, black or sometimes rusty-brown, arising from a small hypothallus; the columella broad, hemispherical or pulvinate, black, the lower side connate with the wall of the sporangium. capillitium of dark-colored sinuous threads, simple or scarcely branched. spores globose, dark violaceous, minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. plate xii, fig. . growing on old wood, leaves, mosses, etc. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe about as long as the diameter of the sporangium or sometimes much longer, usually, however, much shorter than the diameter and almost concealed within the umbilicus. my specimens are from pennsylvania and alabama. it is readily distinguished from _didymium minus_ by the much larger and more distinctly warted spores. . didymium clavus, a. & s. sporangium pileate, very much depressed, convex above and concave below, stipitate; the wall a dark-colored membrane, thickly covered with minute white crystals of lime, except the brown concavity underneath, the upper part breaking away, the lower persistent. stipe short, erect, rugulose, brown or blackish, expanding at the base into a small hypothallus; the columella reduced to a thin layer of minute brown scales upon the base of the sporangium. capillitium of simple or sparingly-branched threads, colorless at the extremities and dark-colored between. spores globose, even, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old leaves, sticks, herbaceous stems, etc. the sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe about the same length. fries considered this to be a mere variety of _d. farinaceum_, but it is readily distinguished by its very small spores. _b. sporangia sessile._ . didymium serpula, fr. plasmodium yellow. plasmodiocarp much depressed, subrotund or usually more or less elongated, bent, flexuous and reticulate; the wall dark-colored, with a thin layer of stellate crystals of lime. columella entirely wanting. capillitium of very slender threads, extending from base to upper surface, much branched, the branches combined into a dense network; to these threads adhere numerous roundish vesicles, composed of a brownish membrane, inclosing a yellow coloring matter, the vesicles - mic. in diameter. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old leaves, bark, etc. the plasmodiocarp . -. mm. in thickness and extending from one to several millimeters in length. this species is reported from the united states by massee. it ought to be readily recognized by its yellow plasmodium and the peculiar vesicles adherent to the capillitium. . didymium anellus, morgan, n. sp. plasmodiocarp in small rings or links, then confluent and elongated, irregularly connected together, bent and flexuous, resting on a thin venulose hypothallus; the wall firm, dark-colored, with a thin layer of stellate crystals of lime, irregularly ruptured. columella merely a thin layer of brown scales. capillitium of slender dark-colored threads, which extend from base to wall, more or less branched, and combined into a loose net. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. plate xii, fig. . growing on old leaves in woods in spring. plasmodiocarp in rings . -. mm. in diameter, or often more or less elongated into links and chains, which are bent and flexed in quite an irregular manner, the thread or vein composing them about . mm. in thickness. a more minute species than _didymium serpula_, without characteristic thickenings upon the threads of the capillitium, and wanting the peculiar large cells of this species. ii. spumaria, pers. Æthalium composed of numerous elongated, irregularly-branched sporangia, more or less closely compacted together and confluent, seated upon a well-developed common hypothallus; the walls of the sporangia a thin membrane with an outer layer of minute, stellate crystals of lime. each sporangium traversed by a central subcylindric hollow columella, which extends also to the branches, but does not reach to their apices. capillitium of slender threads, more or less branched, and combined into a network. spores globose, violaceous. spumaria is essentially related to didymium by the crystals of lime upon the walls of the sporangia. rostafinski's figure can only be regarded as ideal or diagrammatic. i am disposed to question the existence of the central columella altogether; if it does exist, it must be extremely defective. . spumaria alba, bull. plasmodium white, amplectant. Æthalium variable in form and size, resting upon a white, membranaceous hypothallus, and usually covered by a white, friable, common cortex composed of minute crystals of lime. the component sporangia elongated, irregular, more or less branched, the branches rude, deformed, compressed, laterally confluent, obtuse or pointed at the apex; the walls of the sporangia thin and delicate, rugulose, pellucid, with a tinge of violet, iridescent when divested of the crystals of lime. capillitium of slender threads, more or less branched and combined into a net; the threads dark colored, with pellucid extremities, and furnished with occasional rings or roundish swellings throughout their length. spores globose, densely spinulose, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. plate xii, fig. . climbing up and surrounding the stems of small shrubs, herbaceous plants, culms of grasses, etc., especially those of living plants, rarely effused upon old wood, bark, leaves, etc. the æthalium from two or three to several centimeters in length, and with a radial thickness of two or three to several millimeters. the following forms or varieties have been distinguished as species at different times: var. . didymium. sporangia irregular, simple or lobed and branched, lifted up on narrow, flat extensions of the hypothallus, as if furnished with short white stipes; the common cortex wanting. this is _didymium spumarioides_, fr.; it is probably a dwarf form of the next variety. plate xii, fig. . var. . cornuta. Æthalium large and rugged in outline, cinerous from the scanty cortex; the sporangia loosely compacted, the branches running out into numerous free-pointed extremities. capillitium of rather thick threads, forming a dense net, with broad expansions at the angles. spores - mic. in diameter. this is _spumaria cornuta_, schum. it is evidently the form so elaborately figured by rostafinski, and which fries says abounds in northern europe. var. . mucilago. Æthalium large, even and uniform in outline, covered by a thick, white, common cortex; the sporangia laterally confluent and densely compacted together throughout. capillitium of rather slender threads, forming a loose net, scarcely expanded at the angles. spores - mic. in diameter. this is _spumaria mucilago_, nees, as figured by greville in the scottish cryptogamic flora. the capillitium is figured by mcbride in the myxomycetes of iowa. this is the only form i have met with in this country. iii. diderma, pers. sporangia subglobose and stipitate or more often sessile, sometimes plasmodiocarp; the wall a thin membrane, with an outer layer composed of minute roundish granules of lime, which are usually compacted into a smooth continuous crust. stipe present or mostly absent; the columella usually well developed. capillitium of very slender threads, stretching from the columella to the wall of the sporangium, more or less branched, and combined into a loose net by short lateral branchlets. spores globose, violaceous. this genus is easily recognized by the smooth crustaceous layer of lime on the outer surface of the sporangium; in many cases this easily shells off or breaks away. such a coating occurs in a few species of physarum, but here the vesicles of lime attached to the threads distinguish them. this is chondrioderma of rostafinski's monograph; the reason for coining a new name and entirely discarding the old one is not apparent. § . leangium. sporangium usually stipitate; the wall at maturity separating from the inner mass of spores and capillitium and splitting in a stellate manner, the segments becoming reflexed. . diderma radiatum, linn. sporangium depressed-globose, the base flattened or umbilicate, stipitate or nearly sessile; the wall smooth, whitish or pale brown, splitting from the apex downward into a few reflexed irregular segments. stipe short, thick, erect, tapering downward, standing on a thin membranaceous hypothallus; the columella large, convex, globose or obovoid, roughened. capillitium of slender dark-colored threads, radiating from the columella, simple or branching outwardly. spores globose, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old bark and wood. sporangium . - . mm. in diameter, the stipe shorter than the diameter, sometimes nearly obsolete. apparently rare in this country. . diderma floriforme, bull. sporangium globose or obovoid, stipitate, growing closely crowded together on a thin brown membranaceous hypothallus; the wall smooth, varying in color from whitish or yellowish to bright brown, splitting into irregular segments, which become reflexed and revolute. stipe long, erect, white or yellowish to brown; the columella elongated, obovoid to clavate, roughened, colored as the stipe. capillitium of dark-colored threads, radiating from the columella and sparingly branched. spores globose, with minute scattered warts, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. plate xii, fig. . growing on old wood of oak, hickory, etc., late in autumn. sporangium . - . mm. in diameter before dehiscence, the stipe usually longer than the sporangium. the color of stipe, columella and sporangium varies from white through yellowish to brown; the spores are quite peculiar by reason of their prominent scattered warts. i do not think _chondrioderma lyallii_, massee, can be maintained as a separate species. § . stromnidium. sporangia growing closely crowded together upon a thick highly-developed calcareous common hypothallus, either seated upon it or partially imbedded in its substance; the wall rupturing irregularly. . diderma spumarioides, fr. sporangia rather small, irregularly subglobose, sessile, seated close together on a strongly-developed whitish or yellowish common hypothallus; the wall white, rugulose, covered by a dense farinaceous layer of lime. columella convex, roughened, white or yellowish, sometimes scarcely developed. capillitium rather scanty, of slender colorless threads, sparingly branched, ascending from the columella. spores globose, minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old leaves, bark, moss, etc. sporangia . -. mm. in diameter, irregular and rugulose. on account of the pulverulent coat of lime on the sporangium, massee refers the species back to didymium, where it was placed by fries. . diderma stromateum, link. sporangia large, subglobose, depressed, irregular and angular from mutual pressure, closely crowded together on a thick yellowish or pinkish common hypothallus; the wall smooth and even, grayish-white or cinereous, with a thin closely connate outer layer of minute granules of lime. columella considerably elevated or much depressed, convex, subglobose or quite irregular, white or colored, as the hypothallus, especially at the base. capillitium of abundant colored threads, more or less branched and combined into a loose net. spores globose, minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on hickory bark. the sporangia . -. mm. in diameter, the surface smooth. rostafinski, in his monograph, places this species as a variety of _d. spumarioides_, but in the appendix it is separated as a species. the sporangia are quite different from those of _d. spumarioides_, but i can see no difference in the spores. . diderma globosum, pers. sporangia subglobose, more or less irregular from mutual pressure, closely crowded together on a thick, white hypothallus, seated upon it or usually sunk into its substance at the base; the wall with a white, smooth, and polished crustaceous outer layer of lime, distinct and separable from the inner membrane, easily breaking into fragments, and falling away: the inner membrane very thin, rugulose, cinereous with granules of lime or free from them and iridescent. columella white, small, irregular, subglobose or ellipsoidal, rarely wanting. capillitium of slender, dark colored threads, more or less branched and combined into a loose net. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old leaves. sporangia . -. mm. in diameter, the surface smooth and polished. . diderma crustaceum, peck. sporangia subglobose, irregular from mutual pressure, closely crowded together on a thick, yellowish-white common hypothallus, and at the base confluent with its substance; the wall with a creamy white, smooth, crustaceous outer layer of lime, distinct and separable from the inner membrane, and easily breaking up and falling away; the inner membrane very thin, rugulose, cinereous and iridescent. columella whitish or cream colored, small, irregular, subglobose or ellipsoidal, often wanting. capillitium of slender, uneven, dark colored threads, branched and combined into a loose net. spores globose, minutely warted, violet-black, opaque, - mic. in diameter. plate xii, fig. . growing on old leaves, sticks, etc. a common species in this country. sporangia . - . mm. in diameter, the surface even but finely pulverulent rather than polished. _chondrioderma affine_, rost., is said to be the same species. it is readily distinguished from _d. globosum_, by the much larger spores. § . astrotium. sporangia gregarious, scattered, or sometimes crowded and confluent, often much depressed, sessile, rarely stipitate; the hypothallus none or very scanty. . diderma michelii, lib. sporangia orbicular, very much depressed, often umbilicate above and concave underneath, stipitate or sessile, gregarious, with the margins of the sporangia sometimes confluent. the wall with a white crustaceous layer of lime, which soon ruptures around the edges, allowing the upper part to break in pieces and fall away; the inner membrane cinereous, rupturing irregularly. stipe short, stout, erect, arising from a small, circular hypothallus, whitish or alutaceous, longitudinally rugulose, expanding at the apex, the wrinkles running out as veins on the under side of the sporangium; the columella much flattened, lenticular or discoid, alutaceous or pinkish. capillitium of very slender, colorless threads, simple or forking a time or two, and connected by short branchlets at the extremities. spores globose, even, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on sticks, leaves, herbaceous stems, etc. sporangium . - . mm. in diameter, the stipe shorter than the diameter, sometimes very short or quite obsolete. . diderma testaceum, schr. sporangia circular or oval, much depressed, sessile, without any hypothallus, gregarious, irregularly scattered, sometimes close and even confluent. the outer calcareous layer of the wall thick, smooth, crustaceous, separate and distinct from the inner membrane, white or pinkish-white to rose-red in color, gradually breaking up in pieces and falling away; the inner membrane thin, pellucid, cinereous from the adherent granules of lime, irregularly dehiscent from the apex downward. columella hemispheric or depressed, granulose-roughened, white, pinkish, or fleshy-red. capillitium of very slender, nearly colorless threads, more or less branched. spores globose, very minutely warted, - mic. in diameter. growing on old leaves, wood, mosses, etc. very common in this country. sporangium . - . mm. in diameter, sometimes a little irregular, especially the form growing on mosses, and occasionally confluent. . diderma cinereum, morgan, n. sp. sporangia subglobose, more or less irregular, somewhat depressed, sessile, usually close or crowded, sometimes confluent; the hypothallus a thin membrane, pellucid or with occasional patches of lime granules, sometimes not apparent. the wall very thin, even or rugulose, cinereous, the thin membrane covered by a single layer of closely-adherent granules of lime, rupturing irregularly. columella white, hemispheric or depressed and irregular, the surface granulose. capillitium of very slender, colored threads, the extremities pellucid, more or less branched. spores globose, minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. plate xii, fig. . growing on old wood, leaves, etc. the sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, thin and smooth or rugulose. the species superficially greatly resembles _physarum cinereum_. . diderma difforme, pers. plasmodiocarp roundish, oblong, or more or less elongated and flexuous, scattered or seriately disposed; the hypothallus a thin brownish membrane, or commonly not apparent. the outer calcareous layer of the wall snow-white, thin, smooth, distinct from the inner membrane, breaking into pieces and falling away; the inner membrane thin, opaque and bluish or pellucid and iridescent. columella reduced to a thin layer of scales and granules upon the brownish basal membrane. capillitium scanty, consisting of short nearly colorless threads, which are simple, or fork a time or two. spores globose, even, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on bark, leaves, twigs, herbaceous stems, etc. plasmodiocarp . -. mm. in thickness and variable in length, sometimes elongated several millimeters. . diderma reticulatum, rost. plasmodiocarp very much depressed, roundish, oblong, much elongated and flexuous, closely crowded together and confluent; the hypothallus a thin white granulose layer of lime, scarcely broader than the plasmodiocarp. the outer calcareous layer of the wall white, distinct, very fragile and easily shelling off; the inner membrane much shrunken and withdrawn from the outer coat, rugulose, cinereous, with a dense closely-adherent layer of granules of lime. the columella a thin alutaceous, granulose-roughened layer, extending along the base of the plasmodiocarp. capillitium of threads short and very slender, colorless, somewhat branched. spores globose, even, pale violaceous, - mic. in diameter. plate xii, fig. . growing on old wood, leaves, twigs, etc. plasmodiocarp . -. mm. in width, much flattened and usually closely crowded. the rough calcareous base of the plasmodiocarp might be considered as either all columella or all hypothallus, with the upper surface leather-colored. i am indebted to arthur lister, of london, for the determination of my specimens. . diderma effusum, schw. plasmodiocarp very much flattened, longitudinally creeping and reticulate or altogether widely effused; hypothallus none. the wall very thin, smooth, white or cinereous, the thin membrane covered by a single layer of closely-adherent granules of lime, rupturing irregularly. the columella reduced to a thin alutaceous layer of granules of lime, forming the base of the plasmodiocarp. capillitium of short colorless threads, extending from base to wall, the extremities branched and connected together. spores globose, even, pale violaceous, - mic. in diameter. plate xii, fig. . growing on old leaves. the plasmodiocarp forms very much flattened irregular patches from a few to several millimeters in length or extent. i am indebted to dr. geo. a. rex, of philadelphia, for the identification of my specimens, with those in the herbarium of schweinitz, under the name of _physarum effusum_. iv. lepidoderma, deb. sporangium stipitate or sessile, sometimes plasmodiocarp; the wall a thin, firm, colorless membrane, with an outer layer of large scales consisting of bicarbonate of lime, the scales either lying upon the wall or inclosed in lenticular cavities of the membrane. stipe present or absent; the columella usually conspicuous. capillitium of very slender threads, simple or outwardly branching at a sharp angle, connected at the extremities. spores globose, violaceous. "in the present genus the carbonate of lime is present in the form of very minute amorphous lumps until near to maturity, when it is dissolved and reappears as bicarbonate of lime deposited in comparatively large flakes."--_massee._ . lepidoderma tigrinum, schr. sporangium large, much depressed, hemispheric or lenticular, the base umbilicate, stipitate; the wall a firm, dark colored membrane, variegated with large and small irregular shining scales, greenish-yellow or straw color, rupturing irregularly. stipe stout, thick, erect, rugulose, ochraceous or ferruginous, variable in length, expanding at the base into a thin hypothallus; the columella brown, convex or hemispheric. capillitium of slender, dark colored threads, simple or sparingly branched, radiating from the columella to the wall. spores globose, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, moss, etc. sporangium - . mm. in diameter, the stipe mm. or less in length. this appears to be the only species of the genus thus far discovered in this country. explanation of plate xii. fig. .--didymium proximum, b. & c. _a._ sporangium and stipe × . _b._ section through the columella. fig. .--didymium eximium, peck. _a._ showing the rough columella of one form. _b._ section through the discoid columella of the very much depressed form. magnified by . fig. .--didymium minus, lister. _a._ sporangium and stipe × . _b._ _c._ _d._ sections through the columella showing different forms. fig. .--didymium farinaceum, schr. section through the columella. after rostafinski. fig. .--didymium anellus, morgan, _a._ growing upon a leaf × . _b._ plasmodiocarp × . fig. .--spumaria alba, bull. var. . didymium, sporangia × . drawn from a foreign specimen. fig. .--spumaria alba, bull. _a._ Æthalium natural size. _b._ capillitium and spores as seen by a magnifying power of diameters. fig. .--diderma floriforme, bull. stipe and columella × . fig. .--diderma crustaceum, peck. _a._ sporangia crowded on the thick hypothallus, natural size. _b._ sporangia × . _c._ section through outer coat, inner membrane, and columella. fig. .--diderma cinereum, morgan, _a._ sporangia growing on a leaf × . _b._ sporangia × . _c._ section through the wall and columella. fig. .--diderma reticulatum, rost. plasmodiocarp growing on leaf × . fig. .--diderma effusum, schw. plasmodiocarp effused on a leaf × . [illustration: the journal of the cin. soc. natural history. vol. xvi. plate xii.] * * * * * reprint from the journal of the cincinnati society of natural history, august, . the myxomycetes of the miami valley, ohio. by a. p. morgan. fourth paper. (read may , .) order viii. physaraceÆ. sporangia simple and stipitate or sessile, sometimes plasmodiocarp, rarely combined into an aethalium; the wall a thin membrane, usually with an outer layer of minute roundish granules of lime. stipe present or often wanting, seldom prolonged within the sporangium as a columella. capillitium consisting of slender tubules, which branch repeatedly in every direction and anastomose to form an intricate network, the extremities attached on all sides to the wall of the sporangium; the tubules more or less expanded at the angles of the network and inclosing minute roundish granules of lime, these granules either aggregated into nodules with intervening empty spaces or more rarely distributed throughout their entire length. spores globose, very rarely ellipsoidal, violaceous. this order is at once distinguished from the didymiaceæ by the presence of the granules of lime in the capillitium. table of genera of physaraceÆ. i. tubules of the capillitium having the granules of lime in them aggregated into roundish or angular nodules, with intervening empty spaces. _a. outer surface of the sporangium destitute of lime._ . angioridium. plasmodiocarp laterally compressed, splitting regularly into two valves. . cienkowskia. plasmodiocarp terete, elongated, irregularly dehiscent. . leocarpus. sporangia subglobose or obovoid, stipitate or sessile. _b. outer surface of the sporangium invested with granules of lime._ _a. stipe prolonged within the sporangium as a columella._ . physarella. sporangium oblong, stipitate, the apex re-entrant. . cytidium. sporangium globose, stipitate, the apex convex. _b. stipe never entering the sporangium._ . craterium. sporangium obovoid to cylindric, stipitate. . physarum. sporangium globose, depressed globose or irregular, stipitate or sessile. . fuligo. aethalium a compound plasmodiocarp. ii. tubules of the capillitium with the granules of lime in them distributed throughout their entire length. . badhamia. stipe not prolonged within the sporangium as a columella. . scyphium. stipe entering the sporangium and prolonged within it as a columella. i. angioridium, grev. plasmodiocarp laterally compressed, more or less elongated and flexuous, attached by the lower margin to the substratum, and, at maturity, regularly dehiscent along the upper margin by a longitudinal fissure; the wall a firm membrane, with the granules of lime forming a reticulate layer on the inner surface. capillitium a loose, irregular net-work of tubules, extending from side to side, and containing large, irregular nodules of lime. spores globose, violaceous. a genus readily distinguished by its laterally compressed plasmodiocarp, splitting lengthwise by a regular fissure. the wall is a single membrane, and there is but a single reticulate layer of lime upon it, which is plainly on the inner surface. . angioridium sinuosum, bull. plasmodiocarp laterally compressed and very much flattened, more or less elongated and flexuous, sometimes confluent and branched or reticulate, without any hypothallus; the wall a more or less thickened and brownish membrane, the inner surface coated with a dense reticulately thickened white layer of lime, and often studded with the white nodules. capillitium of hyaline tubules, forming a loose irregular net-work, with numerous broad vesicular expansions filled with lime; the nodules white, very large, irregularly lobed, and branched. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old leaves, sticks, mosses, etc. plasmodiocarp commonly about mm. in height and - mm. in length, but the size is variable. the color appears to depend upon the thickening of the membrane; when it is thin and pellucid, the color is white or cinereous from the inner layer of lime and the contained spores; with a more thickened membrane, the color becomes ochraceous or brownish. _physarum bivalve_ pers. _physarum sinuosum_ of rostafinski's monograph. ii. cienkowskia, rost. plasmodiocarp terete, elongated, flexuous, creeping, and reticulate, irregularly dehiscent; the wall a more or less thickened membrane, externally naked, with the granules of lime on the inner surface. capillitium of slender tubules, combined into an irregular network, attached on all sides to the wall of the sporangium, and bearing everywhere short pointed or uncinate free branchlets; the lime in thin transverse plates and irregular nodules. spores globose, violaceous. the peculiar characteristic of this genus is the short free hooked and pointed branchlets of the capillitium. . cienkowskia reticulata, a. & s. plasmodiocarp more or less elongated, curved and flexuous, simple or branched, sometimes confluent and reticulate, breaking away first along the upper surface, leaving an irregular margin. the wall a firm yellow membrane, with thinner hyaline areas and with thicker yellow-brown or red-brown spots; the outer surface without any lime, smooth, and shining; the inner surface with a dense layer of yellow granules raised at intervals into transverse ridges, these are connected with broad thin flat plates of lime which traverse the capillitium, forming imperfect septa to the sporangium. capillitium consisting of slender yellow tubules, forming a network of irregular meshes, with slight expansions at the angles and bearing along the sides short pointed or uncinate free branchlets; the tubules containing a few scattered yellow nodules of lime various in size and shape. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, bark, leaves, etc. plasmodiocarp in veins . -. mm. in thickness, sometimes forming a net-work a centimeter or more in extent. this curious myxomyces seems very rare in america. i have met with it but once. the specimen in the herbarium of schweinitz, marked _physarum reticulatum_, is not this species, though it answers well enough to the original description. iii. leocarpus, link. sporangia subglobose or obovoid, stipitate or sessile; the wall a more or less thickened membrane, the external surface destitute of lime, polished and shining, irregularly dehiscent. stipe short, poorly developed or sometimes wanting. capillitium of slender tubules, forming an irregular net-work more or less expanded at the angles; the tubules enlarging at intervals into vesicles, which usually contain nodules of lime. spores globose, violaceous. a genus characterized by the form of the sporangia and the smooth and glossy surface of the wall. . leocarpus psittacinus, ditm. sporangium small globose or somewhat depressed, stipitate or subsessile; the wall a thin membrane, rugulose and iridescent, with thicker red or yellow spots and patches, destitute of lime. stipe weak, erect or inclined, variable in length, the base expanded, orange to red in color. capillitium a dense net-work of tubules, widely expanded at the angles and bearing numerous irregular vesicles, various in size and form, yellow or orange to red in color. spores globose, even, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, leaves, etc. the sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe about the same length or sometimes very short. the sporangia are dull brownish to the naked eye, but when magnified the green, purple, and blue metallic tints of the wall become apparent. there does not appear to be any granules of lime either on the wall or in the capillitium. _physarum psittacinum_ ditm. . leocarpus cÆspitosus, schw. sporangium small subglobose or obovoid to turbinate, somewhat irregular, stipitate or subsessile; the wall a reticulately thickened and fragile membrane, yellow-brown to greenish-yellow or olivaceous in color, externally rugulose and glossy, the inner surface with scales and patches of lime. stipe short and thick, sometimes nearly obsolete, yellowish or reddish brown, darker below, the base expanded into a small hypothallus. capillitium a loose irregular net-work of tubules with wide expansions at the angles; the nodules of lime large, numerous, white or yellowish, irregular, with acute angles and pointed lobes. spores globose, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing cæspitosely or scattered on old wood and mosses. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, variable in shape, the stipe usually very short. _physarum cæspitosum_ schw., _north american fungi_. my specimens, some of them, have been referred to _physarum citrinellum_ peck; others to _physarum variabile_ rex. . leocarpus brunneolus, phillips. sporangium large, globose or somewhat depressed, sessile; the wall a thick yellow-brown membrane, the outer surface naked, smooth, and polished, with a dense white inner layer of granules of lime, dehiscing in a stellate manner, the segments becoming reflexed. capillitium of tubules forming a dense net-work, with wide expansions at the angles; the nodules of lime very large, numerous, white, angular and irregular. spores globose, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on bark of oak, california (_harkness._) sporangium nearly mm. in diameter. _diderma brunneolum_ phillips. i have taken the description from massee's monograph. . leocarpus fragilis, dicks. sporangium very large, obovoid-oblong, stipitate or subsessile; the wall a greatly thickened membrane, polished and shining within and without, from alutaceous or pale umber to dark-brown in color, destitute of lime. stipe short, weak, and slender, arising from a thin hypothallus. capillitium of slender tubules forming a loose network of large irregular meshes, with slight expansions at the angles; the lime white, variable in amount, sometimes quite scanty, then again filling large portions of the net-work with long-branched and reticulate masses. spores subglobose, dark violaceous, opaque, - mic. in diameter. growing gregariously on old wood, leaves, mosses, etc. sporangium . - mm. in length by mm. in thickness, the stipe variable in length, but usually much shorter than the sporangium. _diderma vernicosum_ pers. iv. physarella, peck. sporangium oblong, stipitate; the apex re-entrant and confluent with the hollow columella; the wall a thin membrane covered with small scales and minute granules of lime, at maturity torn away at the apex and stellately splitting into a few segments. stipe elongated, tapering upward, entering the sporangium and prolonged to the apex as a tubaeform columella. capillitium distinguished by two distinct sets of tubules; the first consisting of long, thick tubules filled with lime, rising at regular intervals from the wall of the sporangium and extending to the columella; the second, of very slender threads, scarcely branched, and nearly destitute of lime, stretching between the wall and the columella. spores globose, violaceous. a genus founded upon the one remarkable species, and more distinct than any other from the typical genus of the physaraceae. in fact, the structure of the sporangium is unique among the myxomycetes. . physarella oblonga, b. & c. sporangium oblong, the apex re-entrant and confluent with the summit of the columella, the base obtuse or slightly umbilicate, stipitate, cernuous. the wall of the sporangium a firm, yellowish membrane, covered with minute granules and with scattered, small, yellow scales of lime; after maturity the apex is torn away more or less irregularly from the summit of the columella and the wall splits into a few segments, which become reflexed and are subpersistent about the base of the sporangium. stipe long, erect or flexuous, the apex bent or curved, red-brown, rising from a small hypothallus, entering the sporangium and prolonged to the apex as a hollow tubaeform columella. capillitium of thick, spiniform tubules filled with lime and slender, violet threads, extending between the wall and the columella. the tubules elongated, terete, tapering gradually from wall to columella, containing yellow granules of lime; the threads very slender, outwardly branched a time or two, the further extremities connected by short, lateral branches, often furnished with minute, free branchlets, and containing a few small, fusiform nodules of lime. spores globose, nearly smooth, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, bark, leaves, etc. sporangium commonly . - . mm. in length by . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe - mm. long; the spiniform tubules measure - × - mic. the abnormal forms of this species which sometimes manifest themselves are very singular; the sporangium has a tendency to dilate, becoming funnel-form or even salver-shaped, the stipe shortening and even disappearing. i have a large specimen which superficially resembles some lichen, a _physcia_, for example; the sporangia are pressed down, flattened out, extremely irregular, and in many places confluent; the rudimentary stipes are hidden beneath the leafy expansions. in all the forms, however, may be uncovered the spiniform tubules mingled with the slender threads. this is _trichamphora oblonga_ b. & c. _tilmadoche oblonga_ of rostafinski's monograph, and _physarella mirabilis_ peck. v. cytidium, morgan. gen. nov. sporangium globose or rarely ellipsoidal, stipitate; the wall a thin membrane, with an external layer of minute granules of lime, rupturing irregularly. stipe more or less elongated, tapering upward and entering the sporangium as a columella. capillitium of slender tubules, arising from the columella, repeatedly branching and anastomosing to form a regular net-work, the extremities attached on all sides to the wall of the sporangium, the tubules containing at intervals nodules of lime. spores globose, violaceous. this genus is readily distinguished from _physarum_ by the columella, which gives origin to the capillitium; this feature indicates a relationship to _didymium_ and to _lamproderma_. § . eucytis. sporangium globose, the columella not reaching its center. . cytidium pulcherrimum, b. & r. sporangium globose, stipitate; the wall a thin lilac-tinted membrane, with a dense closely adherent layer of granules of lime, dark purple or wine-colored. stipe long, erect, dark purple to purplish black, tapering upward and entering the sporangium as a slight obtuse columella. capillitium of slender lilac tinted threads, forming a dense net-work of very small meshes, with slight expansion at the angles; the nodules of lime very small, numerous, dark purplish or vinose in color, ellipsoidal or obtusely angular. spores globose, even, lilac, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe two or three times as long; the lime-nodules about the size of the spores. the purple stain, which the sporangia leave on white paper, is made by the granules of lime; the spores color the paper violet. _physarum pulcherrimum_ b. & rav., and _p. atrorubrum_ peck. . cytidium citrinum, schum. sporangium globose, the base slightly flattened or umbilicate, stipitate; the wall a thin membrane, covered with small scales of lime, yellow or greenish-yellow, breaking up and falling away at maturity. stipe stout, erect, yellow, longitudinally rugulose, expanded at the base, tapering upward and entering the sporangium as a short obtusely conical columella. capillitium of slender tubules, forming a dense net-work, with slight expansions at the angles; the lime-nodules numerous, roundish or ellipsoidal, variable in size, yellow. spores globose, nearly smooth, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on bark, leaves, mosses, etc. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe from once to twice this length. this, the typical species, i have not seen in this country, but forms with the sporangium lemon-yellow and grayish-yellow, with the stipe golden-yellow, connect it with _c. rufipes_. it is _physarum citrinum_ schum. _diderma citrinum_ of fries., s. m. . cytidium rufipes, a. & s. sporangium globose, sometimes a little depressed and the base umbilicate, stipitate; the wall a thin membrane, covered with small scales of lime, golden-yellow to orange in color, breaking up at maturity and falling away. stipe variable in length, slender, from orange or orange-red to dark red in color, sometimes blackish below, rising from a thin hypothallus, tapering upward and entering the sporangium as a short obtuse columella. capillitium of slender tubules, forming a dense net-work of very small meshes, slightly expanded at the angles; the nodules of lime small, numerous, ellipsoidal or obtusely angular, orange to red in color. spores globose, nearly smooth, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, mosses, etc. a very abundant species. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe from once to twice as long. as here defined, the species includes _physarum aurantium_ var. _rufipes_ a. & s., and _physarum aureum_ var. _chrysopus_ lev, which i am unable to keep separate; the variation in size of the spores is not in correspondence with the variations in color of the sporangia. _physarum pulchripes_ peck, and _physarum petersii_ b. & c., mostly belong here. the bright orange colors become dull or tawny with age and exposure to the weather. . cytidium ravenelii, b. & c. sporangium globose, stipitate; the wall a thin pellucid membrane, covered with small scales of lime, from gray or drab to pale umber in color, breaking up at maturity and falling away. stipe variable in length, concolorous with the sporangium or darker below, tapering upward and entering the sporangium as a short obtusely conical columella. capillitium of tubules, forming a dense net-work of very small meshes, with slight expansions at the angles; the lime-nodules small, numerous, ellipsoidal or obtusely angular, gray or drab to pale umber in color. spores globose, nearly even, pale violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, mosses, etc. sporangium about . mm. in diameter, the stipe once to twice this length. the species as here described includes _didymium ravenelii_ b. & c., _physarum simile_ rost., and _physarum murinum_ lister. . cytidium globuliferum, bull. sporangium globose, the base sometimes flattened or slightly umbilicate, stipitate; the wall a thin, pellucid membrane, covered with small scales of lime, white, cream-colored, or sometimes pinkish, breaking up and falling away at maturity. stipe variable in length, white or smoky-white, usually darker below, rising from a thin hypothallus, tapering upward and entering the sporangium as a short obtuse or conical columella. capillitium of slender tubules, forming a dense, persistent net-work of very small meshes, more or less expanded at the angles; the nodules of lime variable in size, numerous, white, roundish, ellipsoidal or obtusely angular. spores globose, nearly even, pale violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, bark, mosses, etc. a very common and abundant species. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe from once to two or three times this length. the lime nodules in the capillitium are sometimes round and quite minute, then again they are large and obtusely angular; the columella varies from very short and conical to longer and more cylindric. _diderma globuliferum_ of fries s. m., _physarum albicans_ peck. the specimens with the columella well nigh obsolete, may be _tilmadoche columbina_ rost. . cytidium melleum, b. & br. sporangium globose, stipitate or subsessile; the wall a thin yellowish membrane, rugulose, covered by large irregular scales of lime, honey-color to golden-yellow, breaking up irregularly. stipe short, sometimes very short or nearly obsolete, snow-white, expanding at the base into a small white hypothallus, tapering upward and entering the sporangium as a short obtusely conical columella. capillitium a loose net-work of delicate tubules with broad vesicular expansions containing much lime; the nodules numerous, white or sometimes yellow, large, irregular, lobed, and branched. spores globose, nearly even, pale violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old leaves, sticks, herbaceous stems, etc.; not uncommon in this region. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe about the same length or much shorter. _didymium melleum_ b. & br. _didymium chrysopeplum_ b. & c. also belongs here and not with _c. citrinum_. § . rexiella. sporangium ellipsoidal or pyriform, the columella prolonged nearly to the apex of the sporangium. . cytidium penetrale, rex. sporangium ellipsoidal or pyriform, stipitate; the wall a thin pellucid membrane, covered with small scales of lime, yellow-gray to greenish-yellow, rupturing at maturity into two to four segments. stipe long, slender, translucent, pale red to dark red in color, tapering upward, entering the sporangium and prolonged nearly to the apex as a slender columella. capillitium of very slender tubules, radiating from numerous points of the columella, forming a delicate net-work of very small meshes, scarcely expanded at the angles; the nodules of lime small, not numerous, roundish or obtusely angled, white or yellowish. spores globose, very minutely warted, pale violaceous, . - . mic. in diameter. growing on old wood. a rare and singular species. sporangium . -. mm. in height by . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe two or three times the height of the sporangium. there is an affinity between this species and the _physarella_. the obscure _tilmadoche hians_ rost., may be the same as the present species. explanation of plate xiii. fig. .--angioridium sinuosum, bull. _a._ plasmodiocarp × _b._ capillitium and spores × . fig. .--cienkowskia reticulata, a. & s. _a._ plasmodiocarp × . _b._ piece of plasmodiocarp × . _c._ capillitium and spores × . fig. . leocarpus fragilis, dicks, _a._ sporangia × . _b._ capillitium and spores × . fig. .--leocarpus caespitosus, schw. _a._ sporangia × . _b._ capillitium and spores × . fig. .--physarella oblonga, b. & c. _a._ sporangia × . _b._ sporangia × . _c._ capillitium and spores × . fig --cytidium penetrale, rex. _a._ sporangia × _b._ sporangia and columella × . _c._ capillitium and spores × . fig. .--cytidium globuliferum, bull. _a._ sporangia × . _b._ sporangia × . _c_. columella × _d._ capillitium and spores × . [illustration: the journal of the cin. soc. natural history. vol. xix. plate xiii. morgan on myxomycetes] vi. craterium, trent. sporangium obovoid to cylindric, stipitate; the upper and usually greater part of the wall covered with granules of lime, the basal portion naked and more persistent. stipe short or sometimes elongated, arising from a small circular hypothallus, longitudinally plicate, confluent above and similarly colored with the base of the sporangium. capillitium of tubules, forming a loose network, bearing numerous large angular and irregular nodules of lime, which are often confluent along the axis of the sporangium into a pseudo-columella. spores globose, minutely warted, violaceous. in this genus the sporangium is commonly obovoid, with a naked base which is confluent with the stipe and similarly colored; after dehiscence there is left behind the more persistent cyathiform portion standing on the substratum. § . eu-craterium. sporangium at maturity dehiscent in a regular circumscissile manner, the apex falling away as a lid, leaving behind the more persistent cup-shaped portion. . craterium minutum, leers. sporangium cyathiform, stipitate; the lid slightly convex, discrete from the first, usually depressed below the rim of the cup, falling away at maturity, and leaving a smooth, circular margin to the lower cyathiform portion. the wall a thick, firm, yellow-brown membrane, the outer surface of the cup entirely naked, smooth and shining, varying greatly in color from alutaceous or ochraceous to various shades of brown; the lid usually whitened by a thin layer of granules of lime. stipe short, erect or bent, and slightly curved at the apex, varying in color from rusty yellow to reddish brown, longitudinally plicate, arising from a small, circular hypothallus. capillitium of tubules forming a loose net-work, bearing large, irregular, white nodules of lime, which are sometimes confluent in the axis of the sporangium. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, sticks, leaves, etc. sporangium, together with the stipe, . - . mm. in height and . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe usually shorter than the sporangium, sometimes equal to it in length, rarely longer. the latest authorities include the three species _craterium vulgare_, _c. pyriforme_, and _c. minutum_ of rostafinski's monograph all in one species. . craterium concinnum, rex. sporangium usually minute, broadly funnel-shaped, stipitate; operculum always more or less convex, rarely approaching a hemispherical shape, dehiscent in a regular circumscissile manner. the wall a thick, brownish membrane, externally smooth and variously colored, sometimes uniformly light or dark umber, sometimes dark brown below and brownish white above; the operculum brownish white, darkest in the center. stipe short, dark brown, longitudinally ridged. capillitium of tubules forming a close-meshed net-work, bearing small rounded or slightly angular nodules of lime, ochre-brown in color. spores globose, very minutely warted, brown, - mic. in diameter. growing usually upon chestnut-burs, and frequently associated with _lachnobulus globosus_. sporangium . -. mm. in height including the stipe and . -. mm. in diameter at the top, the stipe equaling the sporangium in length. it is readily distinguished by its small nodules in the capillitium, which are invariably of a dull, brownish-ochre color. . craterium rubescens, rex. sporangium subcylindric or elongated cyathiform, stipitate; the apex convex, at maturity separating by an irregular line in a circumscissile manner. the wall dark violet-red, smooth, except at the upper portion, which is slightly roughened by an external deposit of scattered lime-granules of a pale, lilac color. stipe short, violet-black, wrinkled longitudinally. capillitium of tubules forming a loose, irregular net-work, bearing large, violet-red nodules of lime which are often confluent in the axis of the sporangium. spores globose, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, leaves, etc. sporangium . -. mm. in height including the stipe and . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe one-half the height of the sporangium. the species is distinguished by the color, which exhibits some shade of red or violet-red in every part of its structure. . craterium minimum, b. & c. sporangium cylindric or turbinate cylindric, stipitate; the apex convex, separating in a regular circumscissile manner by a lid. the wall a thick, yellow-brown membrane, most of the outer surface covered with minute, white granules of lime, the basal portion naked. stipe very short, plicate, red-brown, arising from a small hypothallus. capillitium of tubules forming a loose net-work bearing large, irregular, white nodules of lime, sometimes confluent in the axis of the sporangium. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old leaves, herbaceous stems, etc. sporangium together with the stipe - . mm. in height and . -. mm. in thickness, the stipe . -. mm. in length. this is a common species everywhere in the united states, and perfectly distinct from _craterium convivale_. it is _craterium cylindricum_ of massee's monograph, according to lister. § . cupularia, link. sporangium irregularly dehiscent, breaking up and gradually falling away from the apex downward. _a. stipe shorter than the sporangium._ . craterium convivale, batsch. sporangium obovoid or oblong-obovoid, stipitate; the wall hyaline, thin and fragile above, the lower portion a thickened and brownish membrane, the surface, usually most of it, covered with minute white granules of lime, the base naked and brown. stipe very short, erect, red-brown, plicate, arising from a small hypothallus. capillitium of tubules forming a dense net-work, bearing numerous large irregular white nodules of lime, which are often confluent in the axis of the sporangium. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old leaves, herbaceous stems, etc. sporangium . - . mm. in height including the stipe and . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe much shorter than the sporangium. the thin apex breaks up into pieces and falls away, leaving sometimes a regular cyathiform portion, at other times the margin is broken and irregular. this is _craterium leucocephalum_ of rostafinski's monograph. the specimens of _physarum scyphoides_ c. & b. which i have seen appear to be a small form of this species. . craterium aureum, schum. sporangium obovoid to oblong obovoid, stipitate, the wall a thin and delicate membrane above, thicker and firmer below, hyaline or yellowish, almost entirely covered by a dense layer of granules of lime, varying from lemon-yellow to orange in color. stipe short, erect, yellow to orange, brownish toward the base, longitudinally plicate, rising from a small hypothallus. capillitium of slender tubules, forming a dense net-work, bearing numerous rather small irregular nodules of lime, yellow or sometimes white in color, and often confluent along the axis of the sporangium. spores globose, very minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old leaves, sticks, herbaceous stems, etc. sporangium and stipe . - . mm. in height and . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe . -. mm. long. the elongated form is the common one in this region. _craterium mutabile_ fr. _b. stipe longer than the sporangium._ . craterium nodulosum, c. & b. sporangium globose or obovoid, stipitate; the greater part of the wall a thin hyaline membrane, easily breaking away, covered externally with large white scales and nodules of lime; the basal portion naked, thickened, and more persistent, red-brown and plicate. stipe long, erect or inclined, plicate, red-brown, rising from a small hypothallus. capillitium of tubules forming a loose net-work, containing a variable quantity of lime in the shape of long irregular white nodules, sometimes confluent, with pointed lobes and branchlets. spores globose, very minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, bark, leaves, etc. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe two or three times as long. it is _badhamia nodulosa_ c. & b., _journal of mycology_, vol. v, p. . ravenel's specimens are on _acacia_ bark. mr. webber sent me elegant specimens from florida where, he says, it grows commonly on the leaves and bark of the orange trees. . craterium maydis, morgan, n. sp. sporangium globose or obovoid, stipitate; the upper part of the wall a yellowish membrane, thin and fragile, covered with large thick scales and nodules of lime, amber-colored to golden-yellow; the basal portion thicker and more persistent, naked and plicate, red-brown. stipe red-brown, long, slender, plicate, rising from a small hypothallus. capillitium of thick tubules, forming a net-work with wide expansions at the angles; the nodules of lime large, numerous, yellow, angularly lobed and branched. spores globose, very minutely warted, pale violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old stalks of _zea mays_. sporangium with the stipe - . mm. in height and . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe always longer than the sporangium. i find it in abundance on old stalks of indian corn, but never on anything else. vii. physarum, pers. sporangium globose, depressed globose or irregular, stipitate or sessile; the wall a thin membrane, with an outer layer of minute roundish granules of lime, irregularly dehiscent. stipe present or often wanting, never prolonged within the sporangium as a columella. capillitium of slender tubules, forming an intricate net-work, the extremities attached on all sides to the wall of the sporangium; the tubules more or less expanded at the angles of the net-work, and containing at varying intervals nodules of lime. spores globose, violaceous. _physarum_ is the central genus of the _physaraceæ_ from which all the others are detached by characters which for the most part are unimportant. § . lapidium. lime in the capillitium scanty; the nodules small, roundish, ellipsoidal or fusiform. _a. sporangium stipitate._ _a. sporangia regular._ . physarum nutans, pers. sporangium orbicular, very much depressed, the base concave or umbilicate, stipitate, cernuous; the wall a thin pellucid membrane, thickly covered with minute white or yellow roundish scales of lime, breaking up into irregular fragments, which often remain attached to the capillitium. stipe long, slender, tapering upward, bent or curved at the apex, longitudinally rugulose, brown or blackish at the base, becoming paler upward and cinereous or whitish at the apex. capillitium of very slender threads, rising from the base of the sporangium, forming a net-work with much elongated meshes, scarcely expanded at the angles; the nodules of lime white or yellow, ellipsoidal or fusiform, often very small and few in number, sometimes rather large and numerous. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on wood, bark, mosses, etc. a very common species. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe - mm. in length, the lime-nodules commonly not thicker than the spores, but sometimes from once to twice their diameter. under this name i have included all the lenticular species of persoon's synopsis, _physarum nutans_, _p. luteum_, _p. viride_ and _p. aureum_. there is no difference in these species, except in the color of the granules of lime; the form of the sporangium and the shape and color of the stipe are the same in all of them. no two authorities agree in the presentation of this species. . physarum cupripes, b. & r. sporangium orbicular, much depressed, the base umbilicate, stipitate, cernuous; the greater part of the wall thin and delicate, with a scanty covering of yellow granules of lime, becoming naked and then brassy and iridescent, after maturity soon disappearing; the lower basal portion thicker and more persistent, with a layer of small yellow scales of lime. stipe long, flexuous, bent at the apex, plicate, pale brown to yellow-brown, darker toward the base. capillitium of slender tubules, forming a dense persistent net-work, more or less expanded at the angles; the lime-nodules small, numerous, yellow, angular and fusiform, below often confluent. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood; rare. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe two or three times this length. the lime nodules are found both on the sides and at the angles of the meshes, and are fusiform or angular accordingly; the lime is scanty above, but in the lower part of the capillitium the nodules sometimes run together into lobed and branched forms. this is _physarum berkeleyi_ of rostafinski's monograph. . physarum obrusseum, b. &. c. sporangium globose, the base usually slightly flattened or umbilicate, stipitate and cernuous; the wall a thin, violaceous membrane, covered by small, roundish, white or yellow scales of lime, or sometimes naked, splitting irregularly from the apex downward. stipe long, slender, tapering upward, flexuous, bent or curved at the apex, yellow, yellow-brown, or pale brown. capillitium of very slender tubules, forming a loose net-work, scarcely expanded at the angles; the nodules of lime small, white or yellow, roundish or obtusely angular, few to numerous, rarely wanting. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, bark, mosses, etc sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe - mm. in length, the lime nodules when abundant once to twice the diameter of the spores, when scanty very small. this, as i find it growing, is an extremely variable species; i think its various forms and appearances cover such species as _didymium obrusseum_ b. & c.; _d. tenerrimum_ b. & c.; _physarum tenerum_ rex, etc., etc. . physarum nucleatum, rex. sporangium globose, stipitate, erect or slightly nodding; the wall a thin, pellucid membrane, thickly covered with minute, white, roundish scales of lime, which are exceptionally sparse or absent, rupturing irregularly. stipe long, slender, yellowish-white, longitudinally rugulose, tapering upward, expanded at the base into a small hypothallus. capillitium of very slender tubules, forming a delicate net-work of small meshes, scarcely expanded at the angles; nodules of lime small, not numerous, roundish, white, usually concentrated into a large lump in the center of the sporangium. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, bark, etc.; rare. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe two or three times as long, the lime-nodules about the size of the spores. the species much resembles some of the forms of _p. obrusseum_, but is to be distinguished by its central mass of lime and the small spores. . physarum compactum, wingate. sporangium depressed-globose, the base slightly umbilicate, stipitate, cernuous; the wall a thin, violaceous membrane, rugulose and iridescent, studded with large and thick, snow-white, roundish or elliptic scales of lime, at maturity splitting from the apex downward into several segments. stipe long, rather weak, bent and flexuous, tapering upward, longitudinally rugulose, from snow-white to whitish-ochre and smoky-white, usually brownish at the base, and arising from a thin hypothallus. capillitium a delicate net-work of very slender threads, with no expansions at the angles; the lime mostly concentrated in one large, snow-white nodule at the center, a few very small, roundish nodules scattered through the net-work. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, mosses, etc.; a common species. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe two or three times this length. _tilmadoche compacta_ wingate. it is doubtful if _tilmadoche columbina_ rost. belongs to this species. according to lister, _lepidoderma stellatum_ massee, is the same as this species, and if it be objected to the name that there is already a _physarum compactum_ ehrenberg, it may have to be called _physarum stellatum_. _b. sporangium more or less irregular_. . physarum leucophÆum, fr. sporangium globose or depressed-globose, more or less irregular, the base never umbilicate, stipitate or subsessile; the wall a thin violaceous membrane, rugulose and iridescent, with a thin coat of small white scales and granules of lime, or sometimes nearly naked. stipe variable in length, sometimes very short or quite obsolete, occasionally a few of them confluent, wrinkled, and sulcate, brown below, paler or whitish above. capillitium a dense irregular net-work of slender tubules, more or less expanded at the angles; the nodules of lime white, small, roundish, or angular, few and scattered. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, bark, leaves, etc. the sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe about the same length, or shorter, and sometimes wanting. the lime on the wall and in the capillitium is never abundant and sometimes extremely scanty. rostafinski's presentation of this species applies well to our specimens. . physarum connexum, link. sporangia subglobose, depressed, more or less irregular, sometimes confluent, stipitate, or subsessile; the wall a thin violaceous, or brownish membrane, rugulose, thickly covered with small white roundish scales of lime, which sometimes accumulate so as to make the surface rough and uneven. stipe short, thick, rugulose, from snow white to smoky or sooty, especially toward the base, sometimes with a scanty calcareous hypothallus. capillitium a loose net-work of tubules, much expanded at the angles; the nodules of lime small, white, rather numerous, ellipsoidal or fusiform, sometimes confluent and elongated. spores irregularly globose, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood and bark. sporangium . - . mm. in diameter, the stipe usually shorter than the diameter, sometimes very short; the lime-nodules about the thickness of the spores. this is a larger and rougher species than _p. leucophæum_, the sporangium is more often irregular and the spores darker colored. _p. confluens_ and _p. connexum_ of link. . physarum compressum, a. & s. sporangium laterally compressed and much flattened, subreniform, stipitate or subsessile; the wall a thin violaceous or brownish membrane, rugulose, thickly covered with small white roundish nodules of lime, similar to those in the capillitium. stipe short, brown or blackish at least below, sometimes pallid or grayish above, longitudinally rugulose. capillitium of slender tubules, forming a loose net-work; the nodules of lime small, white, very numerous, roundish or ellipsoidal, often confluent end to end. spores irregularly globose or angular, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old stalks and leaves of _zea mays_. sporangium variable, . - . mm. in breadth, the stipe mm. or less in length; the lime nodules about the thickness of the spores. according to saccardo this species is the same as _physarum nephroedium_ rost. . physarum polycephalum, schw. sporangia confluent into a subspheric gyrose-complicate head, composed of several to many laterally compressed, irregular, simple sporangia; the wall a thin, pellucid membrane, covered by a thin layer of minute scales of lime, white to yellow or greenish-yellow stripes thin, flat, weak, and often prostrate, pale yellow, more or less connate, arising from a thin hypothallus. capillitium of slender tubules forming a loose, irregular network, more or less expanded at the angles: the lime-nodules white or yellow, small, fusiform or by confluence elongated and sometimes branched. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old bark, wood, leaves, etc. the sporangia rarely simple, usually confluent into a head of from four or five to fifteen or twenty, and sometimes more, simple sporangia; the stipes variable in length, long or short, rarely wanting. the gray form is _didymium polymorphum_ mont., the yellow-green form _d. gyrocephalum_ mont. sprengel considered this species the same as _physarum compactum_ ehr., and it appears under this name in schweinitz's _north american fungi_; but fries, who had seen specimens of both, disposed of them differently. . physarum didermoides, pers. sporangia obovoid-oblong, stipitate, growing close together on a white membranaceous common hypothallus; the wall with a thick, white, outer layer of lime, easily crumbling and falling away, leaving the sporangium dark gray; the inner membrane rather thick and firm, violaceous, with a closely adherent layer of granules of lime. stipes very short, white, thin, and weak, each formed by a bit of membrane arising from the hypothallus. capillitium a loose net-work of slender threads, bearing numerous roundish or irregular white nodules of lime. spores irregularly or angularly globose, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on wood, leaves, grass, etc. sporangia . - . mm. in length by . -. mm. in thickness, the stipe shorter than the sporangia. _spumaria licheniformis_ schw., belongs here. this is a truly abnormal species of _physarum_, so much so that fries, in the _summa veg. scand._ placed it by itself in a separate genus, _claustria_. _b. sporangia sessile._ . physarum confluens, pers. plasmodiocarp roundish, oblong or elongated, and by confluence branched and reticulate; the wall a thin, violaceous membrane, rugulose, with a thin, closely adherent layer of minute granules of lime, over which are scattered small, white, roundish nodules, which sometimes accumulate into a thick, pulverulent coat. capillitium a loose net-work of tubules, widely expanded at the angles; the nodules of lime small, white, very numerous, roundish or ellipsoidal, by confluence elongated and irregular. spores irregularly globose, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, bark, leaves, etc. plasmodiocarp . -. mm. in thickness, varying from roundish to much elongated, creeping and reticulate. the sporangium before dehiscence is gray, whence link's name, _physarum griseum_; the loose pulverulent coating of lime easily falls away, leaving the sporangium dark colored, whence rostafinski's name, _physarum lividum_. the amount of lime on the wall and in the capillitium is variable. . physarum luteolum, peck. sporangia small, subglobose, sessile, closely gregarious; the wall a thin membrane, covered by a layer of small scales of lime, yellowish, inclining to tawny, in color, rupturing irregularly. capillitium of slender tubules, forming a dense net-work of small meshes, scarcely expanded at the angles; the nodules of lime small, numerous, yellowish, roundish, or ellipsoidal. spores globose, nearly smooth, violaceous, about mic. in diameter. growing on living leaves of _cornus canadensis_, adirondack mountains, new york. i have not seen a specimen of this _physarum_, but from professor peck's description and figure it seems to be a unique species. . physarum thejoteum, fr. sporangia very small, sessile, on a thin membranaceous hypothallus, closely crowded together and more or less connate, subobovoid or oblong, irregular from mutual pressure; the wall a thin violaceous membrane, closely covered with a thin layer of small irregular scales of lime, tawny or yellowish tawny in color, breaking up irregularly about the apex. capillitium a loose irregular net-work of slender threads, more or less expanded at the angles; the lime nodules small, tawny or yellowish, not numerous, ellipsoidal or fusiform, by confluence elongated and irregular. spores globose, even, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, mosses, etc. sporangia . -. mm. in diameter at the apex, densely packed and their walls grown together, approaching the aethalioid structure; the lime-nodules from one to two or three times the diameter of the spores in thickness. i have described my specimens, which are abundant, very carefully, and judge them to be referable to this species; if so, they show that the species should be kept apart from _physarum virescens_. _didymium nectriæforme_ b. & c., is evidently this same species. . physarum lateritium, b. & r. sporangia sessile, irregularly globose and gregarious, or by confluence more or less elongated and plasmodiocarp; the wall a thin violaceous membrane, rugulose and iridescent, closely covered with small irregular scales of lime, from testaceous or brick-red to bright red in color. capillitium a dense irregular net-work of tubules, much expanded at the angles; the nodules of lime small, very numerous, roundish or angular, whitish or yellowish, sometimes tinged with red granules. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, sticks, leaves, etc. sporangia . -. mm. in diameter, by confluence sometimes much elongated; the lime-nodules two or three times the diameter of the spores in thickness. _didymium lateritium_ b. & r. _physarum inequale_ peck, is the same species. § . saxella. lime in the capillitium abundant, the nodules large, angular or irregular, with pointed lobes and branchlets. _a. sporangia stipitate._ . physarum imitans, racib. sporangium depressed-globose, the base flattened or umbilicate, stipitate, erect or cernuous; the wall a thin violaceous membrane, with a closely adherent layer of minute granules, over which are scattered rather large, roundish or irregular white scales of lime, splitting from the apex downward into a few irregular segments. stipe short, thick at the base and tapering upward, longitudinally rugulose, from gray to brown or blackish, especially below. capillitium a loose irregular network of tubules, widely expanded at the angles; the nodules of lime white, numerous, large, irregular, with pointed angles and lobes. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, mosses, etc. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe about the same length or a little longer. the species superficially resembles the gray form of _physarum nutans_, and quite likely is constantly overlooked on this account. although i am not able to verify my reference, yet my specimens answer so well to the description of raciborski that i am unwilling to invent a new name. . physarum ornatum, peck. sporangium globose or depressed-globose, stipitate; the wall a thin yellowish membrane, covered with minute granules and small irregular scales of lime, yellow to orange in color. stipe short, erect, blackish-brown, black at the base, longitudinally plicate, rising from a small hypothallus. capillitium of tubules forming a rather dense net-work, with wide expansions at the angles; the nodules of lime large, numerous, yellow, irregular, sometimes confluently branched and reticulate. spores globose, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, bark, mosses, etc. sporangium about . mm. in diameter, the stipe about the same length or shorter. _physarum oblatum_ mcbride, can not be distinguished from this. specimens of this species in the herbarium of schweinitz are labeled _physarum sulphureum_; this is without doubt a mistake. . physarum gravidum, morgan, n. sp. sporangium depressed-globose, the base umbilicate, stipitate; the wall a thin, violaceous membrane, brownish at the base, with a thin coat of small, white scales and minute granules of lime. stipe long, erect, brown or reddish-brown, darker below, tapering upward, expanding at the base into a small hypothallus. capillitium of slender tubules forming a loose net-work, more or less expanded at the angles and for the most part filled with lime; the nodules white, slender, much elongated and branched, with pointed lobes and branchlets. spores globose, very minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old stalks of _zea mays_. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe about twice this length. the lower part of the capillitium is sometimes entirely filled with lime, so that the species approaches badhamia in the structure of its capillitium. . physarum leucopus, link. sporangium globose, the base slightly flattened, stipitate; the wall a thin, violaceous membrane, with a white, pulverulent outer coat of minute granules of lime. stipe short, thick, erect, snow-white, longitudinally rugulose, tapering upward, expanding at the base into small, white hypothallus. capillitium a loose net-work of tubules, with wide expansions at the angles; the nodules of lime large, white, numerous, irregularly lobed and branched. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, leaves, etc. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe about the same length as the diameter. our specimens are a smaller form than the european, with smaller and smoother spores. superficially the species resembles _didymium squamulosum_, and it is _didymium leucopus_ of fries, s. m. . physarum glaucum, phillips. sporangium globose, or the base slightly depressed, stipitate; the wall a thin, violaceous membrane, covered with minute, white granules and small roundish or irregular scales of lime. stipe short, stout, erect, black, longitudinally wrinkled, expanding at the base into a small hypothallus. capillitium of much-flattened tubules, forming a loose net-work, widely expanded at the angles; the nodules of lime numerous, large, white, irregular, with pointed angles and lobes. spores globose, very minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old leaves: california. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe not longer than the diameter. this is quite a robust species, both externally and in the broad, flat tubules of the capillitium. . physarum relatum, morgan, n. sp. sporangium globose, the base umbilicate, stipitate, often cernuous; the wall a thin, violaceous membrane, rugulose and iridescent, covered with small, roundish or irregular white scales of lime. stipe long, erect or inclined, rising from a thin hypothallus, tapering upward, white or cream color to ochraceous. capillitium a dense net-work of tubules, more or less expanded at the angles, and almost entirely filled with white granules of lime, leaving only here and there short, slender empty spaces. spores globose, nearly smooth, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe about twice this length. the capillitium is rigid, with the abundance of lime almost as in the genus _badhamia_. superficially the species much resembles _cytidium globuliferum_ or _physarum compactum_, but the disposition of the lime on the wall and in the capillitium is altogether different. . physarum auriscalpium, cke. sporangia subglobose, depressed, substipitate; the wall a hyaline membrane with a thin, closely adherent layer of minute granules of lime, over which are scattered large, irregular, orange-red scales of lime. stipe very short, sometimes almost obsolete. capillitium of tubules forming a loose net-work, with widely expanded angles, and mostly filled with orange granules of lime, only here and there short, slender, empty spaces. spores globose, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on rotten wood; south carolina, ravenel. sporangia . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe very short. described in _annals of the lyceum of natural history of new york_, june, . so fine a species ought to be found again. cooke's specimen was examined by lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . explanation of plate xiv. fig. .--craterium minimum, b. & c. _a._ sporangia × . _b._ sporangium with lid × . _c._ capillitium and spores × . fig. .--craterium maydis, morgan. _a._ sporangia × . _b._ sporangium × . _c._ capillitium and spores × . fig. .--physarum obrusseum, b. & c. _a._ sporangia × . _b._ sporangium × . _c._ capillitium and spores × . fig. .--physarum connexum, link. _a._ sporangia × . _b._ sporangium × . _c._ capillitium and spores × . fig. .--physarum polycephalum, schw. _a._ sporangia × . _b._ sporangia × . _c._ capillitium and spores × . fig. .--physarum lateritium, b. & c. _a._ sporangia × . _b._ sporangia × . _c._ capillitium and spores × . fig. .--physarum imitans, racib. _a._ sporangia × . _b._ sporangium × . _c._ capillitium and spores × . fig. .--physarum relatum, morgan. _a._ sporangia × . _b._ sporangia × . one divested of the wall and showing the rigid capillitium. _c._ capillitium and spores × . [illustration: the journal of the cin. soc. natural history. vol. xix. plate xiv. morgan on myxomycetes.] _b. sporangia sessile._ . physarum plumbeum, fr. sporangia small, globose or obovoid, sessile, on a narrow base, gregarious, sometimes close but seldom confluent; the wall a thin violaceous membrane, with a very thin layer of small white scales and minute granules of lime, sometimes naked. capillitium a loose net-work of slender tubules, with slight expansions at the angles; the nodules of lime white, numerous, more or less elongated, irregularly lobed and branched. spores globose, even, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old leaves, sticks, etc. sporangia . -. mm. in diameter, quite regular in shape, attached by a narrow base, sometimes by a mere point, rarely confluent. the lime on the wall of the sporangium is rather scanty, sometimes altogether absent, and the nodules of lime in the capillitium are rather small. the species is figured by micheli n. p. g. tab. , fig. . it is named by fries s. m., iii, p. . it is figured again by de bary, _die mycetozoen_, tafel i. . physarum atrum, schw. sporangia sessile, subglobose or oblong, by confluence, more or less elongated, bent or flexuous and branched; the wall a thin violaceous membrane, rugulose, covered by a wrinkled and reticulate layer of white granules of lime, which sometimes become thin or disappear. capillitium a loose net-work of tubules, more or less expanded at the angles; the nodules of lime white, numerous, large, irregularly lobed and branched. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old leaves, bark, grasses, etc.; apparently the most common of these three cinereous species. sporangia . -. mm. in thickness, some of them roundish or oblong, others elongated to several millimeters. the sporangium is often elegantly reticulate as observed by schweinitz even when the lime is quite scanty. in saccardo's _sylloge_ berlese changed the name to _physarum reticulatum_, but this is unnecessary, as the _physarum atrum_ of fries is not a myxomyces. . physarum cinereum, batsch. sporangia large, subglobose, sessile, gregarious, sometimes close and confluent; the wall a thin violaceous membrane, with a closely adherent layer of minute granules, over which are scattered irregular white scales of lime. capillitium of tubules forming a loose net-work, with wide expansions at the angles; the nodules of lime numerous, white, very large, with pointed angles and lobes, by confluence often branched and reticulate, and occasionally forming a pseudo-columella in the center of the sporangium. spores globose, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, leaves, etc. the sporangia . -. mm. in diameter, more or less irregular. the great abundance of lime in the capillitium and the large distinctly warted spores distinguish this species. _physarum cinereum_ of persoon's synopsis, _didymium cinereum_ of fries' _systema_. the only american specimens i have of this species are from iowa (_mcbride_) and from nebraska (_webber_). . physarum virescens ditm. sporangia large, subglobose, irregular and unequal, sessile, gregarious, sometimes crowded, but not often confluent; the wall a thin membrane, violaceous, or in places yellowish, with a dense layer of yellow or greenish-yellow scales and granules of lime. capillitium a loose net-work of tubules, with wide expansions at the angles; the nodules of lime large, numerous, yellow or greenish-yellow, more or less elongated, lobed, and branched. spores globose or somewhat irregular, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old leaves, mosses, etc. sporangia . -. mm. in diameter, occasionally by confluence more elongated. though found in all parts of the country, the species seems rare. this is not the _physarum virescens_ described by rostafinski. . physarum rubiginosum, fr. sporangia subglobose, sessile, gregarious; the wall a thin hyaline membrane, thickly covered with large irregular scales of lime, orange to red or dark red in color, breaking up irregularly. capillitium of hyaline tubules, forming a loose irregular net-work, more or less expanded at the angles; the nodules of lime large, angular, and irregular, sometimes confluent, orange to dark red in color. spores globose, very minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, leaves, mosses, etc. sporangia . -. mm. in diameter. _physarum fulvum_ fries s. m., iii, p. . a rare species. it should not be confounded with _physarum lateritium_. . physarum serpula morgan, _n. nom._ plasmodiocarp roundish or oblong to much elongated, bent, annular and flexuous, sometimes by confluence branched and reticulate; the wall a firm yellowish membrane, with a thin, rough, closely adherent coat of granules of lime, dull ochre to lemon-yellow and orange in color. capillitium a dense net-work of tubules, for the most part filled with lime, only here and there short, slender, empty spaces; the nodules large, numerous, white or yellow, angular and with pointed lobes and branchlets. spores globose, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on leaves, bark, lichens, etc. plasmodiocarp . -. mm. in thickness and of varying length. this species is in the herbarium of schweinitz, at philadelphia, with the name _physarum reticulatum_; it is described by george massee as _physarum gyrosum_; by lister it is incorporated with several other species under _badhamia decipiens_. . physarum contextum, pers. sporangia sessile and closely crowded together, roundish or more or less elongated, flexuous and complicate, the apex plane or impressed; the wall a firm yellowish membrane, covered by a thick pulveraceous layer of lime, white, ochraceous or yellow, easily crumbling and breaking up. capillitium a loose net-work of tubules, much expanded at the angles; the nodules of lime very large, white or yellow, numerous, angular, and irregular, by confluence lobed and branched, sometimes massed together in the center of the sporangium. spores globose, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on bark, leaves, mosses, etc. sporangia with a width of . -. mm. and varying in length from . mm. to or mm. the sporangia are often so much crowded as to appear to be grown together. _diderma ochroleucum_ b. & c. belongs to this species. _physarum conglomeratum_ fr. is a closely related species, with smaller and smoother spores. i have not met with this. . physarum diderma, rost. sporangia large, irregularly globose or oblong, sessile, but without a hypothallus, closely crowded together and sometimes confluent. the wall composed of two distinct and separate layers; the outer a thick, uneven, crustaceous, snow-white layer of lime; the inner a thin, violaceous membrane, cinereous from the adherent granules of lime, or free from them, and iridescent. capillitium of tubules forming a loose net-work, with wide expansions at the angles; the nodules of lime numerous, snow-white, large, irregular, with pointed angles and lobes, sometimes confluent in the center of the sporangium. spores globose, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on wood, bark, and mosses. sporangia . - . mm. in diameter, more or less irregular. the wall of the sporangium is exactly like that of certain species of _diderma_. this species must be rare, as i have met with it but twice in ten years, and i am not aware that it has ever been found by any one else. viii. fuligo, haller. aethalium a compound plasmodiocarp; the component sporangia branching and anastomosing in every direction, complicate and grown together; the walls of the sporangia a thin membrane, coated with minute, roundish granules of lime. capillitium of tubules forming a net-work of irregular meshes, more or less expanded at the angles, the tubules containing in greater or less abundance irregular nodules of lime. spores globose or sometimes ellipsoidal, violaceous. the genus is readily distinguished from _spumaria_ by the round granules of lime upon the walls of the sporangia. § . aethalium, link. aethalia large; the lime in the capillitium scanty, the nodules small, ellipsoidal, or fusiform. _a. aethalium with a thick fragile common cortex._ . fuligo rufa, pers. plasmodium a large soft mass with a peculiar odor and golden yellow in color. aethalium very large, pulvinate, orbicular, elongated, or quite irregular, extremely friable, the surface tawny or ferruginous to ochraceous and whitish. the long narrow, sinuous sporangia closely compacted, entirely grown together and inseparable, covered by a thick common cortex, and seated on a much thickened hypothallus; walls of the sporangia a thin pellucid membrane, coated by a thin layer of white granules of lime. capillitium of very slender tubules, extending across from wall to wall, sparingly branched and scarcely forming a network, not at all or only slightly expanded at the angles; the tubules for the most part empty, here and there with slight fusiform or elongated swellings containing granules of lime, occasionally bearing roundish or ellipsoidal nodules of larger size. spores globose, nearly smooth, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old trunks in woods in great abundance from early spring to winter. aethalium - or sometimes many centimeters in extent and - cm. in thickness. the common cortex and the hypothallus are a millimeter or more in thickness; they are composed of successive layers of thin plates of membrane coated with granules of lime. _b. aethalium naked, i. e., without a common cortex._ . fuligo violacea, pers. plasmodium a soft effused mass, dark red or wine-colored. aethalium large, pulvinate or effused, orbicular or more or less elongated and irregular, the surface minutely pitted and perforate, furnished with a scanty layer of lime, whitish or yellowish to brick-red in color, leaving naked purple and violet spots and patches, seated on a thin membranaceous brick-red hypothallus. sporangia long, narrow, and sinuous, closely packed together; the walls a thin violaceous membrane, rugulose and iridescent, with scattered granules, or nearly destitute of lime. capillitium of slender violet tubules, forming a loose net-work, with slight expansions at the angles; the tubules with numerous rather large vesicular expansions, ellipsoid or fusiform in shape, and scantily furnished with lime. spores globose, nearly smooth, pale vinous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old trunks in woods; not uncommon in this region. aethalium - or more centimeters in extent, and - mm. in thickness. the vesicles of the capillitium vary from - or sometimes to mic. in diameter, their inner surface is usually coated by a single layer of granules of lime, they are rarely filled with lime and sometimes are naked entirely; when dry many of them are to be found collapsed. . fuligo flava, pers. plasmodium effused lemon-yellow. aethalium mostly effused, irregular, the surface reticulate, pitted and perforate, entirely naked, pale yellow to lemon-yellow and greenish-yellow, the hypothallus thin or scarcely evident. sporangia laterally much compressed, flexuous, and gyrose, not everywhere grown together, but forming a dense reticulum; the walls a thin, pellucid membrane, with a dense layer of lemon-yellow granules of lime. capillitium of short and very slender tubules, sparingly branched and scarcely forming a net-work, not expanded at the angles; the tubules very scantily furnished with lime, in scattered, small, fusiform nodules, white or lemon-yellow. spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on mosses, old leaves, sticks, etc.; not common. aethalia in irregular patches - cm. or more in extent, sometimes almost reduced to a simple plasmodiocarp. this species furnishes a clear notion of the structure of the aethalium in the other species, on account of the sporangia being but loosely compacted and not entirely grown together. the _fuligo vaporaria_ pers., of the green-houses and gardens i have never seen; the _mucor septicus_ linn., was thought to be the plasmodium of this. linnæus's description is simply "_mucor unctuosus flavus._" § . aethaliopsis, zopf. aethalium small; lime abundant in the capillitium, the nodules numerous and large, angular and irregular. . fuligo muscorum, a. & s. plasmodium effused, golden yellow. aethalium small, subpulvinate, irregular, the surface furnished with scattered, irregular scales of lime, whitish or ochraceous to golden yellow in color, arising from a thin, white, membranaceous hypothallus. sporangia closely packed and grown together; the walls a thin, violaceous membrane, rugulose, with a thin, closely adherent layer of granules of lime. capillitium a loose net-work of tubules, widely expanded at the angles; the tubules for the most part filled with lime, the nodules white or yellowish, numerous, very large, angular and irregular, sometimes confluent with pointed lobes and branchlets. spores irregularly globose, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on leaves, twigs, mosses, etc. aethalium from or mm. to a centimeter or more in extent. i have a specimen of _fuligo simulans_ karsten, from karsten himself; it is identical with my specimens of _fuligo ochracea_ peck. there could be no better representation of these specimens made at that time than the description and figure of _fuligo muscorum_ a. & s., in the _conspectus_. . fuligo cinerea, schw. plasmodium milk-white, changing to cinereous. aethalium effused, variable in extent, the surface rugulose and perforate, white, the hypothallus thin or scarcely evident. sporangia variously contracted and grown together, forming a dense reticulum; the walls a thin pellucid membrane, with a thick white outer layer of granules of lime. capillitium a loose net-work of tubules, widely expanded at the angles, the tubules for the most part filled, with lime, the nodules white, numerous, very large, angular, and irregular, lobed and branched. spores globose or oval, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - × - mic. growing on old leaves, herbaceous stems, etc. i find it most abundantly about the horse barn, upon the old straw and manure, sometimes running out onto the green herbage. aethalium from a few millimeters to several centimeters in extent. upon the testimony of dr. geo. a. rex this is both _enteridium cinereum_ and _lachnobolus cinereus_ of schweinitz's _north american fungi_ as represented in his herbarium. it is _physarum ellipsosporum_ of rostafinski. it is no doubt also _aethaliopsis stercoriformis_ zopf. ix. badhamia, berk. sporangia large, subglobose or obovoid, sometimes depressed, substipitate or sessile; the wall a thin membrane, with an outer layer of minute roundish granules of lime, irregularly dehiscent. stipe poorly developed, sometimes a mere strip of the hypothallus, often wanting. capillitium of thick tubules, attached on all sides to the wall of the sporangium, combined into a net-work of large meshes, more or less expanded at the angles; the tubules containing minute roundish granules of lime throughout their whole extent. spores large, subglobose, dark violaceous. the peculiar character of this genus is that the granules of lime are distributed along the whole interior of the tubules of the capillitium; this makes the net-work rigid, and on this account a firmer support for the wall of the sporangium. . badhamia capsulifera, bull. sporangia subglobose or obovoid, sessile, on a thin pallid or yellowish hypothallus, which sometimes sends out narrow bands or strings of membrane of variable length, bearing sporangia singly or in clusters. wall of the sporangium a thin pellucid membrane, mostly even or somewhat rugulose and iridescent, coated by a very thin layer of white granules of lime. capillitium of rather slender tubules, forming an open net-work of very large meshes, only slightly expanded at the angles; the tubules coated within by a very thin layer of white granules of lime. spores subglobose or obovoid, adhering together in clusters of six to twenty or more, distinctly warted on the outer exposed surface, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old bark, leaves, etc. sporangia . - . mm. in diameter. _badhamia hyalina_ and _b. capsulifera_ of rostafinski's monograph are here included together; he distinguished the former by the "sporangia in clusters always exactly globose," a distinction first made by chevallier; otherwise the characters are the same in both. . badhamia utricularis, bull. sporangia subglobose or obovoid, sessile, on a thin pallid or yellowish hypothallus, which often separates into narrow strips and strings of membrane of variable length, bearing the sporangia singly or in clusters. wall of the sporangium a thin violaceous membrane, rugulose and iridescent, shining with purple, blue, and violet tints, with a thin layer of white granules of lime. capillitium of thick tubules, forming an open net-work of large meshes, more or less expanded at the angles, the tubules coated within by a thin layer of granules of lime. spores subglobose, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, bark, herbaceous stems, etc. sporangia . - . mm. in diameter, usually growing in clusters, sometimes suspended by the strings of membrane. rostafinski's distinction between this and the preceding species in regard to the spores holds good so far as my specimens are concerned. _badhamia magna_ peck, i have never seen. george massee includes all four of these species in one composite species, which he names _badhamia varia_. . badhamia papaveracea, b. & rav. sporangia subglobose or obovoid, substipitate or sessile, growing close together; the wall a thin violaceous membrane, rugulose and iridescent, with a very thin coat of white granules of lime. stipe very short, brown or blackish, sometimes reduced to merely a thickened blackish base to the sporangium. capillitium of thick tubules, forming an open net-work of large meshes, more or less expanded at the angles; the tubules with an inner lining of very minute white granules of lime. spores adhering together in clusters of six to twenty, each spore subobovoid, the free portion more distinctly warted, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, bark, etc. sporangia . - . mm. in diameter. readily distinguished by its black base or black stipe and the elegant clusters of its spores, which stick together most persistently. . badhamia orbiculata, rex. sporangia much depressed, orbicular or somewhat irregular, umbilicate often both above and below, gregarious, sometimes growing close together and confluent, stipitate or sessile. the wall a thin pellucid membrane, with a thin layer of minute granules of lime, which are sometimes raised into small scales and fine ridges. stipe very short, black, sometimes reduced to merely a blackish base to the sporangium. capillitium of thick tubules, forming a scanty irregular net-work, with wide expansions at the angles; the tubules filled with white granules of lime. spores subglobose, very minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old bark, herbaceous stems, etc. sporangia . -. mm. in diameter, sometimes by confluence larger. this species seems near _badhamia verna_ smfdt, but the latter everywhere is described as sessile, while in the former the short black stipe is nearly always distinguishable. . badhamia affinis, rost. sporangium hemispherical, or much depressed, the base flattened or umbilicate, stipitate, erect or often cernuous; the wall a thin pellucid membrane, coated with minute white granules of lime, which are frequently raised into scales and ridges. stipe short, erect or bent at the apex, black, expanding at the base into a small hypothallus. capillitium of thick tubules, forming an open net-work of large meshes, more or less expanded at the angles; the tubules filled with white granules of lime. spores subglobose, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on mosses and upon the bark of maple trunks. sporangium . - . mm. in diameter, the stipe about the same length. rostafinski's description is based upon a specimen found in chili, south america, by bertero; it is recorded in this country by peck. i find it in some seasons quite abundant. the spores are very large, in some specimens averaging mic. . badhamia decipiens, curtis. sporangia gregarious, sessile, globose, oval or oblong, by confluence sometimes more elongated; the wall a somewhat thickened and firm yellow or yellow-brown membrane, covered with large, thick scales of lime, tawny to golden yellow or orange in color. capillitium of thick tubules, forming an open network, more or less expanded at the angles; the tubules filled throughout with yellow granules of lime. spores globose, very minutely warted, lilac, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood and bark. sporangia . - . mm. in length by . -. mm. in thickness. my specimens were determined by dr. george a. rex by comparison with a specimen from curtis in the herbarium of the philadelphia academy of sciences. this species should not be confused with what we have described as _physarum serpula_. _physarum chrysotrichum_, b. & c., is no doubt the same thing. _badhamia nitens_ berk., which is also golden yellow, has not yet been found in this country; it will readily be distinguished from the present species by its clustered spores. . badhamia panicea, fr. sporangia sessile, subglobose or oblong, more or less irregular, gregarious; the wall a thin, pellucid membrane, covered with large, irregular, very thick, white scales of lime. capillitium of thick tubules, forming a loose net-work of rather small meshes, with wide expansions at the angles; the tubules filled with white granules of lime, sometimes confluent toward the base of the sporangium. spores subglobose, very minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, bark, leaves, etc. sporangia . - . mm. in length, with a thickness of . - . mm. this species appears to be rare; the only specimens known to me in this country i have from professor thos. a. williams, of south dakota; they are identical with european specimens received from lister. _physarum paniceum_ fries, s. m., iii, p. ; it approaches _physarum cinereum_ batsch. . badhamia lilacina, fr. sporangia globose or obovoid, sessile or rarely substipitate, closely crowded together on a thin, brownish hypothallus; the wall a firm, hyaline membrane, with a thick, smooth, continuous outer-layer of lime, varying in color from gray-white or drab to lilac and flesh color. capillitium of very thick tubules, forming a dense net-work of small meshes; the tubules stuffed with granules of lime, which are white or colored somewhat as those in the wall, often confluent in the center of the sporangium. spores globose, minutely warted, dark violaceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on wood, leaves, mosses, etc. sporangium . -. mm. in diameter. the outer crustaceous layer of lime on the wall crumbles and falls away, as in some species of _diderma_. the white form is _diderma concinnum_ b. & c.; the lilac or flesh-colored form is _physarum lilacinum_ of fries, s. m., p. . i have seen it colored only white and drab. under a high magnifying power the sculpturing of the spores is seen to be peculiar. x. scyphium, rost. sporangium obovoid to oblong-obovoid, stipitate or subsessile; the wall a thickened, brownish membrane, the surface entirely naked or only the upper portion covered with granules of lime, breaking up irregularly about the apex. stipe variable in length, arising from a common hypothallus and prolonged within the sporangium as a columella. capillitium of thick tubules, proceeding from numerous points of the columella and forming a dense network; the tubules filled with lime throughout their whole extent. spores large, subglobose, dark reddish-brown. this genus differs from _badhamia_ by the columella which gives origin to the capillitium. the sporangia in the species composing it, resemble those of _craterium_, and to this genus they are referred by massee, but the capillitium is that of _badhamia_. . scyphium rubiginosum, chev. sporangia gregarious, obovoid, stipitate; the wall a thickened reddish-brown membrane, the upper part covered by a thin layer of white granules of lime, the lower basal portion naked, strongly venulose and more persistent. stipe long, erect, reddish-brown, expanding at the base into a brown hypothallus, prolonged within the sporangium to more than half its height as a columella. capillitium of thick tubules, forming a dense net-work of small meshes; the tubules stuffed with white granules of lime. spores irregularly globose, minutely warted, dark reddish-brown, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, mosses, etc. sporangia . -. mm. in height by . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe from once to twice the height of the sporangium. this is _physarum rubiginosum_ chevallier, _flor de paris_. it is also _craterium obovatum_ peck. . scyphium curtisii, berk. sporangia oblong-obovoid, stipitate or subsessile, usually growing in clusters; the wall a thick, firm, reddish-brown membrane, venulose and reticulate, nearly destitute of lime. stipes variable, commonly very short, sometimes confluent, arising from a brown hypothallus, prolonged within the sporangium to about half its height. capillitium of thick tubules, forming a dense network of small meshes; the tubules stuffed with white granules of lime. spores irregularly globose, minutely warted, dark reddish-brown, - mic. in diameter. growing on old wood, leaves, grass, etc. sporangium . -. mm. in height by . -. mm. in diameter, the stipe often reduced to a mere point or cushion on the hypothallus, and varying thence to nearly the length of the sporangium. the sporangium is narrower than in the preceding species, and the brown wall is usually without granules of lime. it is _didymium curtisii_, berk. rostafinski and massee both preserve it distinct from _s. rubiginosum_. see plate xv. fig. . explanation of plate xv. fig. .--physarum glaucum, phillips, _a._ sporangia × . _b._ sporangium × . _c._ capillitium and spores × . fig. .--physarum serpula, morgan, _a._ plasmodiocarp × . _b._ piece of plasmodiocarp × . _c._ capillitium and spores × . fig. .--fuligo violacea, pers. _a._ aethalium natural size. _b._ capillitium and spores × . fig .--fuligo flava, pers. _a._ portion of an aethalium × . _b._ capillitium and spores × . fig. .--fuligo cinerea, schw. _a._ portion of aethalium × . _b._ capillitium and spores × . fig. .--badhamia papaveracea, b. & rav. _a._ sporangia × . _b._ sporangium together with transverse section × . _c._ capillitium and spores × . _d._ portion of capillitium with clustered spores × . fig. .--badhamia affinis, rost. _a._ sporangia × . _b._ sporangia × , one with section showing capillitium. _c._ capillitium and spores × . fig. .--badhamia decipiens, curtis, _a._ sporangia × . _b._ sporangia × . _c._ section of sporangium showing capillitium. _d._ capillitium and spores × . fig. .--scyphium rubiginosum, chev. _a._ sporangia × . _b._ sporangia × , with section showing capillitium. _c._ capillitium and spores × . fig. .--scyphium curtisii, berk. sporangia × . [illustration: the journal of the cin. soc. natural history. vol. xix. plate xv. morgan on myxomycetes.] transcriber's notes the table of contents and list of illustrations was added; not part of the original papers. page & vol. xv, plate iii: 'lycogola' changed to 'lycogala'. page : 'exigum' changed to 'exiguum'. page : 'stiptiate' changed to 'stipitate'. page : 'fasiculate' changed to 'fasciculate'. page : 'a nactium' unknown word. unchanged. vol. xvi, plate i: 'cookii' changed to 'cookei'. page : 'stermonitis scintillans' changed to 'stemonitis scintillans'. page , ( ): 'circumcissile' changed to 'circumscissile'. 'network' and 'net-work' are used interchangeably throughout. use of accents is inconsistent, especially in illustrations. links to plates xiii, xiv and xv added in html version. plates moved closer to referencing text. file made using scans of public domain works at the university of georgia.) the ~botanical magazine~; or, ~flower-garden displayed~: in which the most ornamental foreign plants, cultivated in the open ground, the green-house, and the stove, are accurately represented in their natural colours. to which are added, their names, class, order, generic and specific characters, according to the celebrated linnÆus; their places of growth, and times of flowering: together with the most approved methods of culture. a work intended for the use of such ladies, gentlemen, and gardeners, as wish to become scientifically acquainted with the plants they cultivate. ~by william curtis~, author of the flora londinensis. ~vol. ii~ "a garden is the purest of human pleasures." verulam. london: printed by couchman and fry, throgmorton-street, for w. curtis, at his botanic-garden, lambeth-marsh; and sold by the principal booksellers in great-britain and ireland. m dcc xc. [ ] ~chironia frutescens. shrubby chironia.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _cor._ rotata. _pistillum_ declinatum. _stamina_ tubo corollæ infidentia. _antheræ_ demum spirales. _peric._ -loculare. _specific character and synonyms._ chironia _frutescens_, foliis lanceolatis subtomentosis, calycibus campanulatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ centaurium foliis binis oppositis angustis linearibus, flore magno rubente. _burm. afric. . t. . fig. ._ [illustration: no ] of the genus _chironia_, ten species are enumerated in prof. murray's last edition of the _syst. vegetab._ of linnÆus, exclusive of the _chironia centaurium_ which we first added to this genus in the d number of the _flora londinensis_. of these, the _frutescens_ is the most shewy, and therefore the most cultivated. it is a native of different parts of africa. the flowers are produced from june to autumn, and the seeds ripen in october. this plant should be placed in an airy glass case in winter, where it may enjoy a dry air, and much sun, but will not thrive in a warm stove, nor can it be well preserved in a common green-house, because a damp moist air will soon cause it to rot. the seed of this plant should be sown in small pots filled with light sandy earth, and plunged into a moderate hot-bed; sometimes the seeds will lie a long time in the ground; so that if the plants do not appear the same season, the pots should not be disturbed, but preserved in shelter till the following spring, and then plunged into a fresh hot-bed, which will bring up the plants in a short time if the seeds are good. when the plants are fit to remove, they should be transplanted into small pots, four or five in each pot, then plunged into a moderate hot-bed, where they must have a large share of air in warm weather; when they have obtained some strength, they must be gradually inured to the open air; when exposed abroad, they should be mixed with such plants as require little water, placed in a warm situation, and screened from heavy rains, which are apt to rot them. the cuttings of this sort take root if properly managed. _miller's gard. dict._ [ ] ~viburnum tinus. common laurustinus.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria trigynia.~ _generic character._ _calyx_ -partitus, superus. _cor._ -fida. _bacca_ -sperma. _specific character and synonyms_. viburnum _tinus_ foliis integerrimis ovatis: ramificationibus venarum subtus villoso-glandulosis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ laurus sylvestris, corni fæminæ foliis subhirsutis. _bauh. pin. ._ the wild bay-tree. _park. parad. p. ._ [illustration: no ] we scarcely recollect a plant whose blossoms are so hardy as those of the laurustinus, they brave the inclemency of our winters, and are not destroyed but in very severe seasons. the beauties of this most charming shrub can be enjoyed by those only who cultivate it at some little distance from town, the smoke of london being highly detrimental to its growth. it is a native of portugal, spain, and italy. botanists enumerate many varieties of the laurustinus, and so considerably do some of these differ, that miller has been induced to make two species of them, which he distinguishes by the names of _virburnum tinus_ and _v. lucidum_; the last of these is the most ornamental, and at the same time the most tender; there are some other trifling varieties, besides those, with variegated leaves, or the gold and silver-striped. it is only in very favourable situations that these shrubs ripen their seeds in england, hence they are most commonly propagated by layers, which readily strike root: miller says, that the plants raised from seeds are hardier than those produced from layers. it thrives best in sheltered situations and a dry soil. [ ] ~franklin's tartar.~ _a scarlet bizarre carnation._ [illustration: no ] the carnation here exhibited is a seedling raised by mr. franklin, of lambeth-marsh, an ingenious cultivator of these flowers, whose name it bears: we have not figured it as the most perfect flower of the kind, either in form or size, but as being a very fine specimen of the sort, and one whose form and colours it is in the power of the artist pretty exactly to imitate. the _dianthus caryophyllus_ or _wild clove_ is generally considered as the parent of the carnation, and may be found, if not in its wild state, at least single, on the walls of rochester castle, where it has been long known to flourish, and where it produces two varieties in point of colour, the pale and deep red. flowers which are cultivated from age to age are continually producing new varieties, hence there is no standard as to _name_, _beauty_, or _perfection_, amongst them, but what is perpetually fluctuating; thus the _red hulo_, the _blue hulo_, the _greatest granado_, with several others celebrated in the time of parkinson, have long since been consigned to oblivion; and it is probable, that the variety now exhibited, may, in a few years, share a similar fate; for it would be vanity in us to suppose, that the carnation, by assiduous culture, may not, in the eye of the florist, be yet considerably improved. to succeed in the culture of the carnation, we must advert to the situation in which it is found wild, and this is observed to be dry and elevated; hence excessive moisture is found to be one of the greatest enemies this plant has to encounter; and, on this account, it is found to succeed better, when planted in a pot, than in the open border; because in the former, any superfluous moisture readily drains off; but, in guarding against too much wet, we must be careful to avoid the opposite extreme. to keep any plant in a state of great luxuriance, it is necessary that the soil in which it grows be rich; hence a mixture of light-loam, and perfectly rotten horse or cow dung, in equal proportions, is found to be a proper compost for the carnation. care should be taken that no worms, grubs, or other insects, be introduced with the dung; to prevent this, the dung, when sifted fine, should be exposed to the rays of the sun, on a hot summer's day, till perfectly dry, and then put by in a box for use; still more to increase the luxuriance of the plants, water it in the spring and summer with an infusion of sheep's dung. the carnation is propagated by seeds, layers, and pipings; new varieties can only be raised from seed, which, however, is sparingly produced from good flowers, because the petals are so multiplied, as nearly to exclude the parts of the fructification essential to their production. "the seed must be sown in april, in pots or boxes, very thin, and placed upon an east border. "in july, transplant them upon a bed in an open situation, at about four inches asunder; at the end of august transplant them again upon another bed, at about ten inches asunder, and there let them remain till they flower: shade them till they have taken root, and in very severe weather in winter, cover the bed with mats over some hoops. "the following summer they will flower, when you must mark such as you like, make layers from, and pot them." _ellis's gardener's pocket calendar._ the means of increasing these plants by layers and pipings, are known to every gardener. such as wish for more minute information concerning the culture, properties, divisions, or varieties, of this flower, than the limits of our work will admit, may consult _miller's gard. dict._ or the _florists catalogues_. [ ] ~trillium sessile. sessile trillium.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria trigynia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _cor._ -petala. _bacca_ -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ trillium flore sessili erecto. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ paris foliis ternatis, flore sessili erecto. _gron. virg. ._ solanum triphyllum. _pluk. alm. . t. . f. ._ _catesb. car. t. ._ [illustration: ] of this genus there are three species, all of which are natives of north-america, and described by miller, in his _gardener's dictionary_, where the genus is called _american herb paris_; but as the _paris_ and _trillium_, though somewhat similar in the style of their foliage, are very different in their parts of fructification, we have thought it most expedient to anglicise _trillium_, it being to the full as easily pronounced as _geranium_, and many other latin names now familiar to the english ear. this species takes its' trivial name of _sessile_, from the flowers having no foot-stalk, but sitting as it were immediately on the end of the stalk. the figure here exhibited was taken from a plant which flowered in my garden last spring, from roots sent me the preceding autumn, by mr. robert squibb, gardener, of charleston, south-carolina, who is not only well versed in plants, but indefatigable in discovering and collecting the more rare species of that country, and with which the gardens of this are likely soon to be enriched. it grows in shady situations, in a light soil, and requires the same treatment as the _dodecatheon_ and _round-leav'd cyclamen_. we have not yet had a fair opportunity of observing whether this species ripens its seeds with us: though of as long standing in this country as the _dodecatheon_, it is far less common; hence one is led to conclude that it is either not so readily propagated, or more easily destroyed. [ ] ~calceolaria pinnata. pinnated slipper-wort.~ _class and order._ ~diandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _cor._ ringens inflata. _caps._ -locularis, -valvis. _cal._ -partitus æqualis. _specific character and synonyms._ calceolaria _pinnata_ foliis pinnatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ calceolaria foliis scabiosæ vulgaris. _fewill peruv. , t. . fig. ._ [illustration: ] there being no english name to this plant, we have adopted that of _slipper-wort_, in imitation of _calceolaria_, which is derived from _calceolus_, a little shoe or slipper. this species of calceolaria is one of the many plants introduced into our gardens, since the time of miller: it is an annual, a native of peru, and, of course, tender: though by no means a common plant in our gardens, it is as easily raised from seed as any plant whatever. these are to be sown on a gentle hot-bed in the spring; the seedlings, when of a proper size, are to be transplanted into the borders of the flower-garden, where they will flower, ripen, and scatter their seeds; but being a small delicate plant, whose beauties require a close inspection, it appears to most advantage in a tan stove, in which, as it will grow from cuttings, it may be had to flower all the year through, by planting them in succession. this latter mode of treatment is used by mr. hoy, gardener to his grace of northumberland, at sion-house, where this plant may be seen in great perfection. [ ] ~camellia japonica. rose camellia.~ _class and order._ ~monadelphia polyandria.~ _generic character._ _calyx_ imbricatus, polyphyllus: foliolis interioribus majoribus. _specific character and synonyms._ camellia _japonica_ foliis acute serratis acuminatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. ed. . p. ._ _thunberg fl. japon. t. ._ tsubaki _kempfer amoen. . t. ._ rosa chinensis. _ed. av. . p. . t. ._ thea chinensis pimentæ jamaicensis folio, flore roseo. _pet. gaz. t. . fig. ._ [illustration: ] this most beautiful tree, though long since figured and described, as may be seen by the above synonyms, was a stranger to our gardens in the time of miller, or at least it is not noticed in the last edition of his dictionary. it is a native both of china and japan. thunberg, in his _flora japonica_, describes it as growing every where in the groves and gardens of japan, where it becomes a prodigiously large and tall tree, highly esteemed by the natives for the elegance of its large and very variable blossoms, and its evergreen leaves; it is there found with single and double flowers, which also are white, red, and purple, and produced from april to october. representations of this flower are frequently met with in chinese paintings. with us, the _camellia_ is generally treated as a stove plant, and propagated by layers; it is sometimes placed in the green-house; but it appears to us to be one of the properest plants imaginable for the conservatory. at some future time it may, perhaps, not be uncommon to treat it as a _laurustinus_ or _magnolia_: the high price at which it has hitherto been sold, may have prevented its being hazarded in this way. the blossoms are of a firm texture, but apt to fall off long before they have lost their brilliancy; it therefore is a practice with some to stick such deciduous blossoms on some fresh bud, where they continue to look well for a considerable time. petiver considered our plant as a species of tea tree; future observations will probably confirm his conjecture. [ ] ~cistus incanus. hoary, or rose cistus.~ _class and order._ ~polyandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ -petala. _calyx_ -phyllus, foliolis duobus minoribus. _capsula_. _specific character and synonyms._ cistus _incanus_ arborescens exstipulatus, foliis spatulatis tomentosis rugosis inferioribus basi connatis vaginantibus. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ cistus mas angustifolius. _bauh. pin. ._ [illustration: ] few plants are more admired than the cistus tribe; they have indeed one imperfection, their petals soon fall off: this however is the less to be regretted, as they in general have a great profusion of flower-buds, whence their loss is daily supplied. they are, for the most part, inhabitants of warm climates, and affect dry, sheltered, though not shady, situations. the present species is a native of spain, and the south of france, and being liable to be killed by the severity of our winters, is generally kept with green-house plants. it may be propagated either by seeds, or cuttings; the former make the best plants. [ ] ~cyclamen persicum. persian cyclamen.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ rotata, reflexa, tubo brevissimo: fauce prominente. _bacca_ tecta capsula. _specific character._ cyclamen _persicum_ foliis cordatis serratis. _miller's dict. to. ed. ._ [illustration: ] linnÆus in this, as in many other genera, certainly makes too few species, having only two; miller, on the contrary, is perhaps too profuse in his number, making eight. the ascertaining the precise limits of species, and variety, in plants that have been for a great length of time objects of culture, is often attended with difficulties scarcely to be surmounted, is indeed a gordian knot to botanists. our plant is the _cyclamen persicum_ of miller, and has been introduced into our gardens long since the european ones; being a native of the east-indies, it is of course more tender than the others, and therefore requires to be treated more in the style of a green-house plant. it is generally cultivated in pots, in light undunged earth, or in a mixture of loam and lime rubbish, and kept in frames, or on the front shelf of a green-house, where it may have plenty of air in the summer, but guarded against too much moisture in the winter. may be raised from seeds in the same manner as the round-leaved cyclamen already figured in this work, p. n. . flowers early in the spring, and is admirably well adapted to decorate the parlour or study. varies with fragrant flowers, and the eye more or less red. [ ] ~crocus vernus. spring crocus.~ _class and order_ ~triandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ -partita, æqualis. _stigmata_ convoluta. _specific character and synonyms._ crocus _vernus_ foliis latioribus margine patulo. _jacq. fl. austr. vol. . app. t. ._ _lin. syst. vegetab. p. . var. sativ._ crocus vernus latifolius. _bauh. pin. , ._ the yellow crocus. _parkins. parad. p. ._ [illustration: ] linnÆus considers the crocus, or saffron of the shops, which blows invariably in the autumn, and the spring crocus, with its numerous varieties (of which parkinson, in his garden of pleasant flowers, enumerates no less than twenty-seven) as one and the same species; other botanists have considered them as distinct, particularly prof. jacquin, whose opinion on this subject we deem the most decisive. we have figured the yellow variety, which is the one most commonly cultivated in our gardens, though according to the description in the _flora austriaca_, the _crocus vernus_, in its wild state, is usually purple or white. the cultivation of this plant is attended with no difficulty; in a light sandy loam, and dry situation, the roots thrive, and multiply so much as to require frequent reducing; they usually flower about the beginning of march, and whether planted in rows, or patches, on the borders of the flower-garden, or mixed indiscriminately with the herbage of the lawn, when expanded by the warmth of the sun, they produce a most brilliant and exhilirating effect. the most mischievous of all our common birds, the sparrow, is very apt to commit great depredations amongst them when in flower, to the no small mortification of those who delight in their culture; we have succeeded in keeping these birds off, by placing near the object to be preserved, the skin of a cat properly stuffed: a live cat, or some bird of the hawk kind confined in a cage, might perhaps answer the purpose more effectually, at least in point of duration. [ ] ~leucojum vernum. spring snow-flake.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ campaniformis, -partita, apicibus incrassata, _stigma_ simplex. _specific character and synonyms._ leucojum _vernum_ spatha uniflora, stylo clavato. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ leucojum bulbosum vulgare. _bauh. pin. ._ the great early bulbous violet. _park. parad._ [illustration: ] the blossoms of the _leucojum_ and _galanthus_, or snow-drop, are very similar at first sight, but differ very essentially when examined; the snow-drop having, according to the linnæan description, a three-leaved nectary, which is wanting in the leucojum; the two genera then being very distinct, it becomes necessary to give them different names; we have accordingly bestowed on the leucojum the name of _snow-flake_, which, while it denotes its affinity to the snow-drop, is not inapplicable to the meaning of leucojum. as the spring snow-flake does not increase so fast by its roots, as the snow-drop, or even the summer snow-flake, so it is become much scarcer in our gardens; it may, indeed, be almost considered as one of our plantæ rariores, though at the same time a very desirable one. it does not flower so soon by almost a month, as the snow-drop; but its blossoms, which are usually one on each foot-stalk, sometimes two, are much larger, and delightfully fragrant. it is found wild in shady places and moist woods in many parts of germany and italy. the most proper situation for it is a north or east border, soil a mixture of loam and bog earth; but by having it in different aspects, this, as well as other plants, may have its flowering forwarded or protracted, and, consequently, the pleasure of seeing them in blossom, considerably lengthened. in a favourable soil and situation, it propagates tolerably fast by offsets. [ ] ~amaryllis formosissima. jacobæan amaryllis.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ -petala, campanulata. _stigma_ trifidum. _specific character and synonyms._ amaryllis _formosissima_ spatha uniflora, corolla inæquali petalis tribus, staminibus pistilloque declinatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ lilio-narcissus jacobæus, flore sanguineo nutante, _dillen. elth. . t. . f. ._ the indian daffodil with a red flower. _park. par. . f. ._ [illustration: ] a native of south-america: according to linnÆus, first known in europe in , figured by parkinson in , and placed by him among the daffodils; stoves and green-houses were then unknown, no wonder therefore it did not thrive long. "is now become pretty common in the curious gardens in england, and known by the name of jacobæa lily; the roots send forth plenty of offsets, especially when they are kept in a moderate warmth in winter; for the roots of this kind will live in a good green-house, or may be preserved through the winter under a common hot-bed frame; but then they will not flower so often, nor send out so many offsets as when they are placed in a moderate stove in winter. this sort will produce its flowers two or three times in a year, and is not regular to any season; but from march to the beginning of september, the flowers will be produced, when the roots are in vigour. "it is propagated by offsets, which may be taken off every year; the best time to shift and part these roots is in august, that they may take good root before winter; in doing of this, there should be care taken not to break off the fibres from their roots. they should be planted in pots of a middling size, filled with light kitchen-garden earth; and, if they are kept in a moderate degree of warmth, they will produce their flowers in plenty, and the roots will make great increase." _miller's gard. dict._ [ ] ~narcissus triandrus. reflexed daffodil.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _petala_ sex, æqualia. _nectario_ infundibuliformi, -phyllo, _stamina_ intra nectarium. _specific character and synonyms._ narcissus _triandrus_ spatha sub-biflora, floribus cernuis, petalis reflexis, staminibus tribus longioribus. narcissus _triandrus_ spatha sub-uniflora, nectario campanulato crenato dimidio petalis breviore, staminibus ternis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ narcissus juncifolius, albo flore reflexo. _clus. app. alt._ the yellow turning junquilia, or rush daffodil. _parkins. parad. . fig. , ._ [illustration: ] the present species of _narcissus_ is considered by the nursery-men near london as the _triandrus_ of linnÆus, which it no doubt is, though it does not accord in every particular with his description: his _triandrus_ is white, ours is pale yellow, but colour is not in the least to be depended on, for it is found to vary in this as in all the other species; his _triandrus_ he describes as having in general only three stamina, whence the name he has given it; ours, so far as we have observed, has constantly six, three of which reach no further than the mouth of the tube, a circumstance so unusual, that linnÆus might overlook it without any great impeachment of his discernment; he says, indeed, that it has sometimes six: perhaps, the three lowermost ones may, in some instances, be elongated so as to equal the others; if he had observed the great inequality of their length, he would certainly have mentioned it. this species is found wild on the pyrenean mountains; was an inhabitant of our gardens in the time of parkinson (who has very accurately described it, noticing even its three stamina) to which, however, it has been a stranger for many years: it has lately been re-introduced, but is as yet very scarce. our figure was taken from a specimen which flowered in mr. lee's nursery at hammersmith. it grows with as much readiness as any of the others of the genus, and flowers in march and april. [ ] ~soldanella alpina. alpine soldanella.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ campanulata, lacero-multifida. _caps._ -locularis, apice multidentata. _specific character and synonyms._ soldanella _alpina._ _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ soldanella alpina rotundifolia. _bauh. pin. ._ [illustration: ] of this genus there is at present only one known species, the _alpina_ here figured, which is a native of germany, and, as its name imports, an alpine plant. its blossoms are bell-shaped, of a delicate blue colour, sometimes white, and strikingly fringed on the edge. it flowers usually in march, in the open ground; requires, as most alpine plants do, shade and moisture in the summer, and the shelter of a frame, in lieu of its more natural covering snow, in the winter; hence it is found to succeed best in a northern aspect: will thrive in an open border, but is more commonly kept in pots. may be increased by parting its roots early in autumn. [ ] ~iris sibirica. siberian iris.~ _class and order._ ~triandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _cor._ -petala, inæqualis, petalis alternis geniculato-patentibus. _stigmata_ petaliformia, cucullato-bilabiata. _thunb. diss. de iride._ _specific character and synonyms._ iris _sibirica_ imberbis foliis linearibus, scapo subtrifloro tereti, germinibus trigonis. _lin. syst. vegetab._ _p._ . iris pratensis angustifolia, non foetida altior. _bauh. pin. ._ iris _bicolor._ _miller's dict. ed. , to._ the greater blue flower-de-luce with narrow leaves. _parkins. parad. p. . fig. ._ [illustration: ] this species of iris is a native of germany and siberia, and is distinguished from those usually cultivated in our gardens by the superior height of its stems, and the narrowness of its leaves; from which last character it is often, by mistake, called _graminea_; but the true _graminea_ is a very different plant. the _iris sibirica_ is a hardy perennial, and will thrive in almost any soil or situation; but grows most luxuriantly in a moist one, and flowers in june. is propagated most readily, by parting its roots in autumn. [ ] ~narcissus major. great daffodil.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _petala_ æqualia: _nectario_ infundibuliformi, -phyllo. _stamina_ intra nectarium. _specific character and synonyms._ narcissus _major_ foliis subtortuosis, spatha uniflora, nectario campanulato patulo crispo æquante petala. narcissus _major_ totus luteus calyce prælongo. _bauhin pin. ._ narcissi sylvestris alia icon. _dodon. stirp. p. ._ the great yellow spanish bastard daffodil. _parkins. parad. t. . fig. ._ [illustration: ] the present species of daffodil is the largest of the genus, and bears the most magnificent flowers, but, though it has long been known in this country, it is confined rather to the gardens of the curious. it is a native of spain, and flowers with us in april. as its roots produce plenty of offsets, it is readily propagated. it approaches in its general appearance very near to the _narcissus pseudo-narcissus_, but differs in being a much taller plant, having its leaves more twisted, as well as more glaucous, its flowers (but especially its nectary) much larger, and its petals more spreading; and these characters are not altered by culture. it answers to the _bicolor_ of linnÆus in every respect but colour, and we should have adopted that name, had not the flowers with us been always of a fine deep yellow; we have therefore taken bauhin's name as the most expressive. it varies with double flowers. [ ] ~gentiana acaulis. large-flowered gentian, or gentianella.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria digynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ monopetala. _capsula_ bivalvis, -locularis. _receptaculis_ -longitudinalibus. _specific character and synonyms._ gentiana _acaulis_ corolla quinquefida campanulata caulem excedente. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. ._ gentiana alpina latifolia magno flore. _bauh. pin. ._ small gentian of the spring. _park. par. p. . t. . f. ._ [illustration: ] plants growing in mountainous situations, where they are constantly exposed to strong-blowing winds, are always dwarfish; in such situations, the present plant has no stalk, whence its name _acaulis_, but cultivated in gardens it acquires one. most of the plants of this family are beautiful, and, cultivated in gardens, in brilliancy of colour none exceed the present species. as most alpine plants do, this loves a pure air, an elevated situation, and a loamy soil, moderately moist; it is however somewhat capricious, thriving without the least care in some gardens, and not succeeding in others; at any rate it will not prosper very near london. it flowers usually in may, and sometimes in the autumn. is propagated by parting its roots at the close of summer; but miller says, the strongest and best plants are produced from seed. [ ] ~cineraria lanata. woolly cineraria.~ _class and order._ ~syngenesia polygamia superflua.~ _generic character._ _receptaculum_ nudum. _pappus_ simplex. _calyx_ simplex, polyphyllus, æqualis. _specific character and synonyms._ cineraria _lanata_ caule suffruticoso, foliis subquinquelobis, subtus tomentosis; foliolis ad pedunculos lanatis. [illustration: ] in the beauty of its blossoms, this species of _cineraria_, lately introduced from africa, by far eclipses all the others cultivated in our gardens; its petals exteriorly are of a most vivid purple, interiorly white; this change of colour adds much to the brilliancy of the flower. what renders this plant a more valuable acquisition to the green-house, is its hardiness, its readiness to flower, and the facility with which it may be propagated. it flowers early in the spring, and, by proper management, may be made to flower the whole year through; it is sometimes kept in the stove, and may be made to flower earlier by that means; but it succeeds better in a common green-house, with no more heat than is just necessary to keep out the frost, indeed it may be preserved in a common hot-bed frame through the winter, unless the weather prove very severe. certain plants are particularly liable to be infested with _aphides_, or, in the vulgar phrase, to become lousy, this is one: the only way to have handsome, healthy, strong-flowering plants, is to procure a constant succession by cuttings, for there is no plant strikes more readily; these should be placed in a pot, and plunged into a bed of tan. [ ] ~anemone sylvestris, snowdrop anemony.~ _class and order._ ~polyandria polygynia.~ _generic character._ _calyx_ nullus. _petala_ - . _semina_ plura. _specific character and synonyms._ anemone _sylvestris_ pedunculo nudo, feminibus subrotundis, hirsutis, muticis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. ._ anemone sylvestris alba major. _bauh. pin. p. ._ the white wild broad-leafed wind-flower. _park. par. ._ [illustration: ] parkinson very accurately notices the striking characters of this species of anemone, which are its creeping roots, its large white flowers standing on the tops of the flower-stalks, which sometimes grow two together, but most commonly singly; the leaves on the stalk, he observes, are more finely divided than those of the root, and its seeds are woolly. miller describes it as having little beauty, and therefore but seldom planted in gardens; it is true, it does not recommend itself by the gaudiness of its colours, but there is in the flowers, especially before they expand, a simple elegance, somewhat like that of the snowdrop, and which affords a pleasing contrast to the more shewy flowers of the garden. it flowers in may, and ripens its seeds in june. it will grow in almost any soil or situation, is propagated by offsets from the root, which it puts out most plentifully, so as indeed sometimes to be troublesome. is a native of germany. [ ] ~geranium striatum. striped geranium.~ _class and order._ ~monadelphia decandria.~ _generic character._ monogynia. _stigmata_ . _fructus_ rostratus -coccus. _specific character and synonyms._ geranium _striatum_ pedunculis bifloris, foliis quinquelobis: lobis medio dilatatis, petalis bilobis venosoreticulatus. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. ._ geranium _striatum_ pedunculis bifloris, foliis caulinis trilobis, obtuse crenatis. _miller's dict._ geranium romanum versicolor sive striatum. the variable striped cranesbill. _park. parad. p. ._ [illustration: ] this species is distinguished by having white petals, finely reticulated with red veins, and the corners of the divisions of the leaves marked with a spot of a purplish brown colour, which parkinson has long since noticed. is said by linnÆus to be a native of italy, is a very hardy plant, flowers in may and june, and may be propagated by parting its roots in autumn, or by seed; prefers a loamy soil and shady situation. [ ] ~geranium lanceolatum. spear-leaved geranium.~ _class and order._ ~monadelphia decandria.~ _generic character._ monogyna. _stigmata_ . _fructus_ rostratus -coccus. _specific character and synonyms._ geranium _glaucum_ calycibus monophyllis, foliis lanceolatis integerrimis glaucis, caule erecto suffruticoso. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. . supp. pl. p. ._ [illustration: ] this elegant and very singular species of _geranium_ appears to have been first cultivated in this country; its introduction was attended with circumstances rather unusual. mr. lee, nurseryman of the vineyard, hammersmith, in looking over some dried specimens in the possession of sir joseph banks, which he had recently received from the cape of good hope, was struck with the singular appearance of this geranium, no species having before been seen in this country with spear-shaped leaves; on examining the specimens attentively, he perceived a few ripe seeds in one of them, those he solicited, and obtained; and to his success in making them vegetate, we are indebted for the present species. the shape of the leaf readily suggested the name of _lanceolatum_, an epithet by which it has been generally distinguished in this country, and which, from its extreme fitness, we have continued, notwithstanding young professor linnÆus has given it that of _glaucum_, though, at the same time, his illustrious father had distinguished another species by the synonymous term of _glaucophyllum_. this species rarely ripens its seeds with us, and is therefore to be raised from cuttings, which however are not very free to strike. it has been usual to keep it in the stove, but we have found by experience, that it succeeds much better in a common green-house, in which it will flower during the whole of the summer. small young plants of this, as well as most other geraniums, make the best appearance, and are therefore to be frequently obtained by cuttings. [ ] ~papaver orientale. eastern poppy.~ _class and order._ ~polyandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _cor._ -petala. _cal._ -phyllus. _capsula,_ -locularis sub stigmate persistente poris dehiscens. _specific character and synonyms._ papaver _orientale_ capsulis glabris, caulibus unifloris scabris foliosis pinnatis serratis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. ._ papaver orientale hirsutissimum, magno flore. _tournes. cor. . itin. . p. . t. ._ [illustration: ] most of the plants of this tribe are distinguished by the splendour of their colours, most of them also are annuals, in gaiety of colour none exceed the present species; but it differs in the latter character, in having not only a perennial root, but one of the creeping kind, whereby it increases very much, and by which it is most readily propagated. though a native of the east, as its name imports, it bears the severity of our climate without injury, flowers in may, and as its blossoms are extremely shewy, it gives great brilliancy to the flower-garden or plantation; prefers a dry soil. [ ] ~iris spuria. spurious iris.~ _class and order._ ~triandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ -petala, inæqualis, petalis alternis geniculato-patentibus. _stigmata_ petaliformia, cucullato-bilabiata. _conf. thunb._ _diss. de iride._ _specific character and synonyms._ iris _spuria_ imberbis foliis linearibus, scapo subtrifloro tereti, germinibus hexagonis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. ._ _jacq. fl. austr. tab. ._ iris pratensis angustifolia, folio foetido. _bauh. pin. ._ the greater blue flower-de-luce with narrow leaves. _park. parad. p. ._ [illustration: ] some plants afford so little diversity of character, that an expressive name can scarcely be assigned them; such is the present plant, or linnÆus would not have given it the inexpressive name of _spuria_, nor we have adopted it. this species is distinguished by the narrowness of its leaves, which emit a disagreeable smell when bruised, by the colour of its flowers, which are of a fine rich purple inclining to blue, and by its hexangular germen. it is a native of germany, where, as professor jacquin informs us, it grows in wet meadows; is a hardy perennial, thrives in our gardens in almost any soil or situation, flowers in june, and is propagated by parting its roots in autumn. [ ] ~mesembryanthemum bicolorum. two-coloured fig-marigold.~ _class and order._ ~icosandria pentagynia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus. _petala_ numerosa, linearia. _caps._ carnosa, infera, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ mesembryanthemum _bicolorum_ foliis subulatis punctatis lævibus distinctis, caule frutescente, corollis bicoloribus. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. ._ mesembryanthemum tenuifolium fruticescens, flore croceo. _dill. elth. . t. . f. ._ [illustration: ] contrary to the _mesembryanthemum dolabriforme_, lately figured in this work, this species expands its flowers in the day-time, and that only when the sun shines powerfully on them; on such occasions, the blossoms on the top of the branches being very numerous, exhibit a most splendid appearance. it is a native of the cape of good hope, flowers in july, and is most readily propagated by cuttings. like most of the cape plants, it requires the shelter of a green-house during the winter. [ ] ~lathyrus odoratus. sweet pea, or vetchling.~ _class and order._ ~diadelphia decandria.~ _generic character._ _stylus_ planus, supra villosus, superne latior. _cal._ laciniæ superiores -breviores. _specific character and synonyms._ lathyrus _odoratus_ pedunculis bifloris, cirrhis diphyllis, foliolis ovato-oblongis, leguminibus hirsutis, _linn. syst. vegetab. p. ._ lathyrus distoplatyphyllos hirsutus mollis, magno et peramæno flore odoro. _comm. hort. . p. . t. ._ [illustration: ] there is scarcely a plant more generally cultivated than the _sweet pea_, and no wonder, since with the most delicate blossoms it unites an agreeable fragrance. several varieties of this plant are enumerated by authors, but general cultivation extends to two only, the one with blossoms perfectly white, the other white and rose-coloured, commonly called the _painted lady pea_. the sweet pea is described as a native of sicily, the painted lady variety as an inhabitant of ceylon; they have both been introduced since the time of parkinson and evelyn. it is an annual, and not a very tender one; seedling plants sown in autumn frequently surviving our winters. as it is desirable to have this plant in flower for as great a length of time as possible, to have them early, we must sow them in the autumn, either in pots or in the open border; if sown in pots, they can the more readily be secured from any severe weather, by placing them in a hot-bed frame, a common practice with gardeners who raise them for the london markets, in which they are in great request: others again should be sown early in the spring, and the sowings repeated every month; they grow readily in almost any soil or situation, and by this means may be had to flower most of the year through. if sown in pots, care must be taken to water them frequently. [ ] ~iris ochroleuca. tall iris.~ _class and order._ ~triandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ -petala, inæqualis, petalis alternis geniculato-patentibus. _stigmata_ petaliformia, cucullato-bilabiata. _thunb. diss. de iride._ _specific character and synonyms._ iris _ochroleuca_ imberbis foliis ensiformibus, scapo subtereti germinibus hexagonis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ [illustration: ] of the several species of iris cultivated in our gardens, this excels in point of height; we have taken our english name therefore from this character, and not from the term _ochroleuca_, which, if translated, would be too expressive of the colour of the blossoms of the _iris pseudacorus_, with which the _ochroleuca_ has some affinity in point of size as well as colour. notwithstanding mr. miller's description of his _orientalis_ accords very badly with that of linnÆus's _ochroleuca_, they have been generally considered in this country as one and the same plant, distinguished by the name of pococke's iris, dr. pococke being the person who, according to miller, in his time first introduced it from _carniola_ (by inadvertence spelt _carolina_, in the th to edition of the dictionary). there are grounds, however, for suspecting some error in the habitat of this plant, for had it grown spontaneously in carniola, it is not probable that scopoli would have omitted it in his _flora carniolica_. leaving its place of growth to be more accurately ascertained hereafter, we shall observe, that it appears perfectly naturalized to this country, growing luxuriantly in a moist rich soil, and increasing, like most of the genus, very fast by its roots. it flowers later than most of the others. [ ] ~centaurea glastifolia. woad-leaved centaurea.~ _class and order._ ~syngenesia polygamia superflua.~ _generic character._ _receptaculum_ setosum. _pappus_ simplex. _corollæ_ radii infundibuliformes, longiores, irregulares. _specific character and synonyms._ centaurea _glastifolia_ calycibus scariosis, foliis indivisis integerrimis decurrentibus. _lin. syst. veg. p. ._ _gmelin sib. . p. ._ centaurium majus orientale erectum, glasti folio, flore luteo. _comm. rar. . t. ._ [illustration: ] assumes the name of _glastifolia_ from the similitude which the leaves bear to those of the _isatis tinctoria_, or _woad_, _glastum_ of the old botanists. in this plant we have an excellent example of the _folium decurrens_ and _calyx scariosus_ of linnÆus, the leaves also exhibit a curious phenomenon, having veins prominent on both their sides; the scales of the calyx are moreover distinguished by a beautiful silvery appearance, which it is difficult to represent in colours. it is a native of the east, as well as of siberia; flowers with us in july, in the open border, and is readily propagated by parting its roots in autumn, which are of the creeping kind: requires no particular treatment. miller, in the last to edition of his dictionary, enumerates a _cent. glastifolia_; but his description in detail, by no means accords with the plant. [ ] ~fragaria monophylla. one-leaved strawberry, or strawberry of versailles.~ _class and order._ ~icosandria polygynia.~ _generic character._ _calyx_ -fidus. _petala_ . _receptaculum_ feminum ovatum, baccatum, deciduum. _specific character and synonyms._ fragaria _monophylla_ foliis simplicibus. _lin. syst. veg. p. ._ _le fraisier de versailles. duchesne hist. nat. des frais, p. ._ [illustration: ] the first mention made of this strawberry, we find in duchesne's _histoire naturelle des fraisiers_, where we have its complete history, and from which we learn, that it was originally raised by him at versailles, in the year , from seeds of the wood strawberry. from france this plant has been conveyed to most parts of europe; how it has happened we know not, but it is certainly very little known in this country: in the th edit of the _syst. veg._ of linnÆus, it appears as a species under the name of _monophylla_, originally imposed on it by duchesne; linnÆus, however, has his doubts as to its being a species distinct from the _vesca_, and, in our humble opinion, not without reason; for it can certainly be regarded as a very singular variety only; its origin indeed is a proof of this; in addition to which we may observe, that plants raised from the runners will sometimes, though very rarely indeed, have three leaves instead of one: and it is observed by the very intelligent author of the _hist. nat._ abovementioned, that seedling plants sometimes produced leaves with three divisions, like those of the wood strawberry. besides the remarkable difference in the number of the leaves in this plant, the leaves themselves are observed to be much smaller in the winter season, and their ribs less branched; the runners also are slenderer and more productive, and the fruit in general more oblong or pyramidal. as an object of curiosity, this plant is deserving a place in every garden of any extent; nor is its singularity its only recommendation, its fruit being equal to that of the finest wood strawberry, with which it agrees in the time of its flowering, fruiting, and mode of treatment. [ ] ~hemerocallis fulva. tawny day-lily.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ campanulata: tubo cylindrico. _stamina_ declinata. _specific character and synonyms._ hemerocallis _fulva_ foliis lineari-subulatis carinatis, corollis fulvis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ lilium rubrum asphodeli radice. _bauh. pin. ._ the gold red day-lily. _park. parad. p. . t. . f. ._ [illustration: ] according to linnÆus, this species is a native of china. it has long been inured to our climate, and few plants thrive better in any soil or situation, but a moist soil suits it best; its leaves on their first emerging from the ground, and for a considerable time afterwards, are of the most delicate green imaginable; the appearance which the plant assumes at this period of its growth is, indeed, so pleasing, that it may be said to constitute one half of its beauty; its blossoms which appear in july and august, are twice the size of those of the _flava_, of a tawny orange colour, without gloss or smell, the petals waved on the edge, the flowers are rarely or never succeeded by ripe capsules as in the _flava_, which is a circumstance that has been noticed by parkinson; when these several characters, in which the _fulva_ differs so essentially from the _flava_, are attentively considered, we shall wonder that linnÆus could entertain an idea of their being varieties of each other. the _hemerocallis fulva_, from its size, and from the great multiplication of its roots, is best adapted to large gardens and plantations. may be propagated by parting its roots in autumn. [ ] ~clematis integrifolia. entire-leaved clematis, or virgins-bower.~ _class and order._ ~polyandria polygynia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ . _petala_ . rarius .--vel . _sem._ caudata. _specific character and synonyms._ clematis _integrifolia_ foliis simplicibus ovato-lanceolatis, floribus cernuis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ clematitis coerulea erecta. _bauh. pin. ._ clematis coerulea pannonica. the hungarian climer. _park. parad. p. ._ [illustration: ] the _clematis integrifolia_ is not an uncommon plant in the nurseries about london, and is deserving a place in gardens, if not for the beauty of its flowers, at least for their singularity. it is a native of germany, flowers in july, and is one of those hardy perennials which suit most people, requiring little more than an introduction. is propagated by parting its roots in autumn. [ ] ~passiflora alata. winged passion-flower.~ _class and order._ ~gynandria pentandria.~ _generic character._ trigyna. _cal._ -phyllus. _petala_ . _nectarium_ corona. _bacca_ pedicellata. _specific character._ passiflora _alata_ foliis indivisis cordatis integerrimis, petiolis quadriglandulosis, cauli membranaceo tetragono. [illustration: ] this species of passion-flower is one of those which have been introduced into the english gardens since the time of miller; if it does not equal the _coerulea_ in elegance, it excels it in magnificence, in brilliancy of colour, and in fragrance, the blossoms being highly odoriferous: as yet, it is by no means so general in this country, as its extraordinary beauty merits, we have seen it flower this year, both summer and autumn, in great perfection in the stove of our very worthy friend james vere, esq. kensington-gore; at the physic garden, chelsea; and at mr. malcom's, kennington; at chelsea, in particular, it afforded the richest assemblage of foliage and flowers we ever saw. it appears to the greatest advantage, when trained up an upright pole, nearly to the height of the back of the stove, and then suffered to run along horizontally. by some it has been considered as a variety only of the _passiflora quadrangularis_, others, with whom we agree in opinion, have no doubt of its being a very distinct species; it differs from the _quadrangularis_, in having leaves more perfectly heart-shaped, and less veiny; in having four glands on the foot-stalks of the leaves, instead of six; and in not producing fruit with us, which the _quadrangularis_ has been known frequently to do. the nursery-men report, that this species was first raised in this country, by a gentleman in hertfordshire, from west-india seeds. the usual mode of propogating it here, is by cuttings. [ ] ~mesembryanthemum pinnatifidum. jagged-leaved fig-marigold.~ _class and order._ ~icosandria pentagynia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus. _petala_ numerosa linearia. _caps._ carnosa infera polysperma. _specific character._ mesembryanthemum _pinnatifidum_ foliis pinnatifidis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. . suppl. p. ._ [illustration: ] this species of _mesembryanthemum_, so different in the shape of its foliage from all the others hitherto introduced into this country, is first described in the _supplementum plantarum_ of the younger linnÆus, from which we learn that it grew in the upsal garden, into which it was most probably introduced by professor thunberg, as on his authority it is mentioned as a native of the cape of good hope. mr. zier, apothecary, of castle-street, was so obliging as to present me this summer with the seeds of this curious plant, i sowed them in a pot of earth, plunged in a tan pit, whose heat was nearly exhausted; they quickly vegetated, and though the summer was far advanced, they proceeded rapidly into flower, and bid fair to produce ripe seeds, as the capsules have long since been formed. the whole plant is sprinkled over with glittering particles like the ice plant, to which it bears some affinity in its duration, being an annual and requiring the same treatment. the blossoms are small and yellow, and if the weather be fine, open about two or three o'clock in the afternoon, the stalks are of a bright red colour, and the foliage yellowish green. [ ] ~sempervivum arachnoideum. cobweb houseleek.~ _class and order._ ~dodecandria dodecagynia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ -partitus. _petala_ . _caps._ . polyspermæ. _specific character._ sempervivum _arachnoideum_ foliis pilis intertextis, propaginibus globosis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. ._ sedum montanum tomentosum. _bauh. pin. ._ [illustration: ] by the old botanists, this plant was considered as a _sedum_; and to this day it is generally known in the gardens by the name of the _cobweb sedum_, though its habit or general appearance, independent of its fructification, loudly proclaims it a _houseleek_. in this species the tops of the leaves are woolly; as they expand they carry this woolly substance with them, which being thus extended, assumes the appearance of a cobweb, whence the name of the plant. like most of the houseleeks it is best kept in a pot, or it will grow well and appear to great advantage on a wall or piece of rock-work; the more it is exposed to the sun, the more colour will enliven its stalks and foliage, and the more brilliant will be its flowers; the latter make their appearance in july. it is propagated by offsets which it sends forth in abundance. it is no uncommon practice to treat this beautiful species of houseleek, as a native of a warm climate; under such an idea we have seen it nursed up in stoves, while the plant spontaneously braves the cold of the switzerland alps. [ ] ~rosa muscosa. moss rose.~ _class and order._ ~icosandria polygynia.~ _generic character._ _petala_ . _cal._ urceolatus, -fidus, carnosus, collo coarctatus. _sem._ plurima, hispida, calycis interiori lateri affixa. _specific character and synonyms._ rosa _muscosa_ caule petiolisque aculeatis, pedunculis calycibusque pilosissimis. _miller's dict._ [illustration: ] if there be any one genus of plants more universally admired than the others, it is that of the rose--where is the poet that has not celebrated it? where the painter that has not made it an object of his imitative art? in the opinion of miller, the moss rose, or moss province, as it is frequently called, is a perfectly distinct species; linnÆus considers it as a variety only of the _centifolia_: as it is found in our nurseries in a double state only, and as we are ignorant of what country it is the produce, the decision of this matter must be left to future observation and inquiry. though it may not increase so fast by suckers, nor be increased so readily by layers, as the _centifolia_, there is no difficulty in propagating it either way; the latter mode is usually adopted. [ ] ~mesembryanthemum barbatum. bearded fig-marigold.~ _class and order._ ~icosandria pentagynia~. _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus. petala numerosa, linearia. _caps._ carnosa, infera, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ mesembryanthemum _barbatum_, foliis subovatis papulosis distinctis, apice barbatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ mesembryanthemum radiatum, ramulis prolixis recumbentibus. _dillen. hort. elth. . t. . f. ._ [illustration: ] the leaves of this species have small hairs, issuing like rays from their points, whence its name of _barbatum_; there are two others figured by dillenius, whose leaves have a great similarity of structure, and which are considered by linnÆus as varieties of this species; our plant is the _stellatum_ of miller's _dict._ _ed._ . _to_. like most of this tribe it inhabits the cape, flowers in july, and is readily propagated by cuttings. [ ] ~statice sinuata. purple-cup't statice, or thrift.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria pentagynia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus, integer, plicatus, scariosus. _petala_ . _sem._ . superum. _specific character and synonyms._ statice _sinuata_ caule herbaceo, foliis radicalibus alternatim pinnato sinuatis: caulinis ternis triquetris subulatis decurrentibus. _lin. syst. vegetab._ _p._ . limonium peregrinum foliis asplenii. _bauh. pin. ._ limonium rauwolfii marsh buglosse. _parkins. parad. p. ._ [illustration: ] that this singular species of _statice_ was long since an inhabitant of our gardens, appears from parkinson, who in his _garden of pleasant flowers_, gives an accurate description of it, accompanied with an expressive figure; since his time it appears to have been confined to few gardens: the nurserymen have lately considered it as a newly-introduced species, and sold it accordingly. it is one of those few plants whose calyx is of a more beautiful colour than the corolla (and which it does not lose in drying); it therefore affords an excellent example of the _calyx coloratus_, as also of _scariosus_, it being sonorous to the touch. being a native of sicily, palestine, and africa, it is of course liable to be killed with us in severe seasons, the common practice is therefore to treat it as a green-house plant, and indeed it appears to the greatest advantage in a pot; it is much disposed to throw up new flowering stems; hence, by having several pots of it, some plants will be in blossom throughout the summer; the dried flowers are a pretty ornament for the mantle-piece in winter. though a kind of biennial, it is often increased by parting its roots, but more advantageously by seed; the latter, however, are but sparingly produced with us, probably for the want, as parkinson expresses it, "of sufficient heate of the sunne." [ ] ~helleborus lividus. livid or purple hellebore.~ _class and order._ ~polyandria polygynia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ nullus. _petala_- . sive plura. _nectaria_ bilabiata, tubulata. _caps._ polyspermæ, erectiusculæ. _specific character._ helleborus _lividus_ caule multifloro folioso, foliis ternatis. _ait. hort. kew. ined. . p. ._ [illustration: ] it is not a little extraordinary that this plant which has for many years been cultivated in this country, should have escaped the notice of linnÆus; it is equally wonderful that we should at this moment be strangers to its place of growth. having three leaves growing together, it has been considered by many as the _trifoliatus_ of linnÆus but his _trifoliatus_ is a very different plant, a native of canada, producing small yellow flowers. it has been usual to treat this species as a green-house plant, or at least to shelter it under a frame in the winter; probably it is more hardy than we imagine. it is propagated by parting its roots in autumn, and by seeds, though few of the latter in general ripen, nor do the roots make much increase--to these causes we must doubtless attribute its present comparative scarcity. it flowers as early as february; on which account, as well as that of its singularity, it is a very desirable plant in collections. index. in which the latin names of the plants contained in the _second volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ amaryllis formosissima. anemone sylvestris. calceolaria pinnata. camellia japonica. centaurea glastifolia. chironia frutescens. cineraria lanata. cistus incanus. clematis integrifolia. crocus vernus. cyclamen persicum. dianthus caryophyllus, var. fragaria monophylla. gentiana acaulis. geranium striatum. ---- lanceolatum. helleborus lividus. hemerocallis fulva. iris ochroleuca. ---- sibirica. ---- spuria. lathyrus odoratus. leucojum vernum. mesembryanthemum barbatum. ---- bicolorum. ---- pinnatifidum. narcissus major. ---- triandrus. papaver orientale. passiflora alata. rosa muscosa. soldanella alpina. sempervivum arachnoideum. statice sinuata. trillium sessile. viburnum tinus. index. in which the english names of the plants contained in the _second volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ amaryllis jacobean. anemony snowdrop. camellia rose. centaurea woad-leaved. chironia shrubby. cineraria woolly. cistus, hoary or rose. clematis, or virgin's-bower entire-leaved. crocus spring. cyclamen persian. daffodil great. ---- reflexed. day-lily tawny. franklin's tartar. fig-marigold bearded. ---- jagged-leaved. ---- two-coloured. gentian large-flowered, or gentianella. geranium spear-leaved. ---- striped. houseleek cobweb. hellebore, livid or purple. iris siberian. ---- spurious. ---- tall. laurustinus common. passion-flower winged. pea, or vetchling sweet. poppy eastern. rose moss. slipper-wort pinnated. snow-flake spring. soldanella alpine. strawberry one-leav'd. trillium sessile. thrift purple-cup't. immutable, unchangeable, natural law= that produced the =human organism itself=, it supplies to that organism those elements which in poor health are lacking, elements that must be placed and retained in the system if permanent good health is to be enjoyed, and vitae-ore and vitae-ore only can put and retain them there. if you are sick and ailing, if you are all run down, if your organs, your blood, your stomach, your heart, your kidneys, are not working right, =if you are sick and do not know what is the matter with you=, if the doctors cannot and do not tell you, cannot and do not help you, =you ought to give this wonderful, natural, mineral remedy a trial= and the chance it needs =to prove= all this to you. it won't cost you a penny! =the owners take all the risk!= what doctor, what hospital, what sanitarium, has ever offered to treat you this way? 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what sensible person, no matter how prejudiced he or she may be, who desires a cure and is willing to pay for it, would hesitate to try =vitae-ore= on this liberal offer? one package is usually sufficient to cure ordinary cases; two or three for chronic, obstinate cases. =we mean just what we say= in this announcement and will do just as we agree. write to-day for a package at our risk and expense, giving your age and ailments, and mention the mayflower, so we may know that you are entitled to this liberal offer. not a penny unless you are benefited. this offer will challenge the attention and consideration, and afterwards the gratitude of every living person who desires better health or who suffers pains, ills, and diseases which have defied the medical world and grown worse with age. we care not for your skepticism, but ask only your investigation and at our expense, regardless of what ills you have, by sending to us for a package, address theo. noel co. m. g. dept. vitae-ore building, chicago. file made using scans of public domain works at the university of georgia.) [transcriber's note: many inconsistencies appeared in the original book and were retained in this version.] the ~botanical magazine~; or, ~flower-garden displayed~: in which the most ornamental foreign plants, cultivated in the open ground, the green-house, and the stove, are accurately represented in their natural colours. to which are added, their names, class, order, generic and specific characters, according to the celebrated linnÆus; their places of growth, and times of flowering: together with the most approved methods of culture. a work intended for the use of such ladies, gentlemen, and gardeners, as wish to become scientifically acquainted with the plants they cultivate. by william curtis, author of the flora londinensis. vol. i "a garden is the purest of human pleasures." verulam. london: printed by couchman and fry, throgmorton-street, for w. curtis, at his botanic-garden, lambeth-marsh; and sold by the principal booksellers in great-britain and ireland. m dcc xc. preface. the present periodical publication owes its commencement to the repeated solicitations of several ladies and gentlemen, subscribers to the author's botanic garden, who were frequently lamenting the want of a work, which might enable them, not only to acquire a systematic knowledge of the foreign plants growing in their gardens, but which might at the same time afford them the best information respecting their culture--in fact, a work, in which botany and gardening (so far as relates to the culture of ornamental plants) or the labours of linnÆus and miller, might happily be combined. in compliance with their wishes, he has endeavoured to present them with the united information of both authors, and to illustrate each by a set of new figures, drawn always from the living plant, and coloured as near to nature, as the imperfection of colouring will admit. he does not mean, however, to confine himself solely to the plants contained in the highly esteemed works of those luminaries of botany and gardening, but shall occasionally introduce new ones, as they may flower in his own garden, or those of the curious in any part of great-britain. at the commencement of this publication, he had no design of entering on the province of the florist, by giving figures of double or improved flowers, which sometimes owe their origin to culture, more frequently to the sportings of nature; but the earnest entreaties of many of his subscribers, have induced him so far to deviate from his original intention, as to promise them one, at least, of the flowers most esteemed by florists. the encouragement given to this work, great beyond the author's warmest expectations, demands his most grateful acknowledgements, and will excite him to persevere in his humble endeavours to render botany a lasting source of rational amusement; and public utility. botanic garden, lambeth-marsh, . [ ] ~iris persica. persian iris.~ _class and order._ ~triandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ corolla -partita: petalis alternis, reflexis. stigmata petaliformia. _specific character and synonyms._ iris _persica_ corolla imberbi, petalis interioribus brevissimis patentissimis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p._ . _sp. pl. p._ . iris bulbosa præcox minus odora persica variegata. _moris. hist._ . _p._ . xiphium persicum. _miller dict. ed._ . _to._ the persian bulbous flower-de-luce. _parkins. parad. p._ . [illustration: no ] a native of persia. flowers in february and march. its beauty, early appearance, and fragrant blossoms, make it highly esteemed by all lovers of flowers; like the hyacinth or narcissus it will blow within doors in a water-glass, but stronger in a small pot of sand, or sandy loam; a few flowers will scent a whole apartment: it will also blossom in the open air, but requires warmth and shelter; it is propagated by offsets and seeds; the best flowering roots are imported from holland, they bear forcing well; and hence this plant may be had to flower a full month or six weeks in succession. parkinson remarks, that in his time ( ) it was very rare, and seldom bore flowers. [ ] ~rudbeckia purpurea. purple rudbeckia.~ _class and order._ ~syngenesia polygamia frustranea.~ _generic character._ receptaculum paleaceum, conicum. pappus margine quadri-dentato. calyx duplici ordine squamarum. _specific character and synonyms._ rudbeckia _purpurea_ foliis lanceolato-ovatis alternis indivisis, radii petalis bifidis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p._ . _sp. pl. p._ . dracunculus virginianus latifolius, petalis florum longissimis purpurascentibus. _moris. hist._ . _p._ . _f._ . _t._ . _f._ . [illustration: no ] this species differs from the other plants of the genus, in the colour of its outermost petals, which are long, narrow, purple, and pendulous, and not unaptly resemble small pieces of red tape. notwithstanding it is a native of the warm climates carolina and virginia, it succeeds very well with us in an open border: but, as mr. miller very justly observes, it will always be prudent to shelter two or three plants under a common hot-bed frame in winter, to preserve the kind, because in very severe winters, those in the open air are sometimes killed. it flowers in july. as it rarely ripens its seeds with us, the only mode of propagating it, is by parting the roots; but in that way the plant does not admit of much increase. [ ] ~helleborus hyemalis. winter hellebore, or aconite.~ _class and order._ ~polyandria polygynia[a].~ _generic character._ calyx . petala sive plura. nectaria bilabiata, tubulata. capsulæ polyspermæ erectiusculæ. _specific character and synonyms._ helleborus _hyemalis_ flore folio infidente. _linn. syst. vegetab. p._ . _sp. pl. p._ . aconitum unifolium bulbosum. _bauh. pin._ . the winter's wolfesbane. _park. parad. p._ . [illustration: no ] grows wild in lombardy, italy, and austria, affects mountainous situations, flowers with us in february, and hence is liable to be cut off by severe frosts. "is propagated by offsets, which the roots send out in plenty. these roots may be taken up and transplanted any time after their leaves decay, which is generally by the beginning of june till october, when they will begin to put out new fibres; but as the roots are small and nearly the colour of the ground, so if care is not taken to search for them, many of the roots will be left in the ground. these roots should be planted in small clusters, otherwise they will not make a good appearance, for single flowers scattered about the borders of these small kinds are scarce seen at a distance; but when these and the snowdrops are alternately planted in bunches, they will have a good effect, as they flower at the same time, and are much of a size." _millers gard. dict._ [footnote a: most of the hellebores vary greatly in the number of their pistils, which in general are too few to justify the placing those plants in the order polygynia.] [ ] ~cyclamen coum. round-leav'd cyclamen.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ corolla rotata, reflexa, tubo brevissimo fauce prominente. bacca tecta capsula. _specific character and synonyms._ cyclamen _coum_ foliis orbiculatis planis, pediculis brevibus, floribus minoribus. _miller's dict._ cyclamen hyemale orbiculatis foliis inferius rubentibus purpurascente flore; coum herbariorum. _hort. reg. paris._ _herm. cat._ cyclamen orbiculato folio inferne purpurascente. _bauh. pin. p._ . the common round-leav'd sowebread. _park. parad. p._ . [illustration: no. ] grows wild in many parts of italy and germany, and is sometimes found with white flowers; if the season be mild, or the plants sheltered from the inclemency of the weather, this species will flower as early as february, or much earlier by artificial heat. as it grows naturally in woods and shady places, it will thrive best in a mixture of bog-earth and loam placed in a north border; if planted in the open border, it will require to be covered with a hand-glass during winter, and in the spring, when in bloom; the more usual method with gardeners is to preserve them in pots in a common hot-bed frame, the advantage of this method is that they may, at any time, be removed to decorate the parlour or the study. the plants of this genus admit of but little increase by their roots; the best method of propagating them is by seed, which should be sown soon after they are ripe in boxes or pots, and covered about half an inch deep, placing them where they may have only the morning-sun, till the beginning of september, when they may be removed to a warmer exposure. [ ] ~erythronuim dens canis. dogs-tooth, or dogs-tooth violet.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ corolla -petala, campanulata: nectario tuberculis -petalorum alternorum basi adnatis. _specific character and synonyms._ erythronium _dens canis._ _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ . _sp. pl. p._ . dens canis latiore rotundioreque folio. _bauh. pin._ . dogs-tooth with a pale purple flower. _park. parad. p._ . [illustration: no. ] of this genus mr. miller makes two species; linnæus, perhaps with more propriety, only one, for breadth of leaves or colour of flowers can scarcely be considered as sufficient to constitute a specific difference. it is found in the gardens with purple flowers of two different tints, also with white and yellow blossoms, grows naturally in hungary and some parts of italy, and blows in the open border at the beginning of april. "they are propagated by offsets from their roots. they love a shady situation and a gentle loamy soil, but should not be too often removed. they may be transplanted any time after the beginning of june, when their leaves will be quite decayed, till the middle of september; but the roots should not be kept very long out of the ground, for if they shrink it will often cause them to rot. the roots of these flowers should not be planted scattering in the borders of the flower-garden, but in patches near each other, where they will make a good appearance." _miller's gard. dict._ [ ] ~narcissus minor. least daffodil.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ petala , æqualia: nectario infundibuliformi, -phyllo. stamina intra nectarium. _specific character and synonyms._ narcissus _minor_ spatha uniflora, nectario obconico erecto crispo sexfido æquante petala lanceolata. _lin. sp. pl. p._ . _syst. vegetab. p._ . narcissus parvus totus luteus. _bauhin. pin._ . the least spanish yellow bastard daffodil. _park. parad. p._ . [illustration: no. ] we are not a little surprised that mr. miller should have taken no notice of the present species, as it must have been in the english gardens long before his time, being mentioned by parkinson in his garden of pleasant flowers: it is nearly related to the _pseudo-narcissus_, but differs from it in many particulars except size, _vid. lin. sp. pl._ and parkinson above quoted. though its blossoms are not so large as those of the other species, yet when the roots are planted in a cluster, they make a very pretty shew, and have this advantage, that they flower somewhat earlier than any of the others. like the common daffodil it propagates very fast by the roots, and will thrive in almost any soil or situation. though a native of spain, it is seldom injured by the severity of our climate. [ ] ~cynoglossum omphalodes. blue navelwort.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ corolla infundibuliformis, fauce clausa fornicibus. semina depressa interiore tantum latere stylo affixa. _specific character and synonyms._ cynoglossum omphalodes repens, foliis radicalibus cordatis[b], _lin. sp. pl. p._ . _syst. vegetab. p._ . _scopoli fl. carn. p._ . _t._ . symphytum minus borraginis facie. _bauh. pin._ . borago minor verna repens, folio lævi. _moris. hist._ . _p._ . _s._ , _t._ . _fig._ . [illustration: no. ] a native of spain, portugal, and carniola, and an inhabitant of woods and shady situations, flowers in march and april: in the autumn it puts forth trailing shoots, which take root at the joints, whereby the plant is most plentifully propagated; thrives best under a wall in a north border. [footnote b: "stolones repunt non caulis florifer, cui folia ovalia, et minime cordata. tournefortius separavit a symphito, et dixit omphallodem _pumilam vernam, symphyti folio_, sed bene monet linnÆus solam fructus asperitatem aut glabritiem, non sufficere ad novum genus construendum." _scopoli fl. carn. p._ .] [ ] ~helleborus niger. black hellebore, or christmas rose.~ _class and order._ ~polyandria polygynia.~ _generic character._ calyx nullus. petala sive plura. nectaria bilabiata, tubulata. capsulæ polyspermæ, erectiusculæ. _specific character and synonyms._ helleborus niger scapo sub-bifloro subnudo, foliis pedatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ . _sp. pl. p._ . helleborus niger flore roseo, _bauh. pin._ . the true black hellebore, or christmas flower. _parkins. parad. p._ . [illustration: no. ] as our publication seems likely to fall into the hands of such as are totally unacquainted with botany, or botanical writings, it must plead as an apology for our often explaining many circumstances relative to plants, which may be well known to adepts in the science. this plant derives its first name from the black colour of its roots, its second from its early flowering, and the colour of its petals, which though generally milk-white on their first appearance, yet have frequently a tint of red in them, which increases with the age of the blossom and finally changes to green; in some species of hellebore, particularly the _viridis_, the flower is green from first to last. black hellebore grows wild on the appenine and other mountains, preferring such as are rocky. if the weather be unusually mild, it will flower in our gardens, in the open border, as early as december and january; it may indeed be considered as the herald of approaching spring. like most other alpine plants, it loves a pure air, a situation moderately moist, and a soil unmanured: as the beauty of its flowers is apt to be destroyed by severe frosts, it should be covered during the winter with a hand-glass, or if it be treated in the manner recommended for the round-leav'd cyclamen, it may be had to flower in still greater perfection. it is propagated by parting its roots in autumn: neither this species nor the _hyemalis_ thrive very near london. [ ] ~iris pumila. dwarf iris.~ _class and order._ ~triandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ corolla sex-partita: petalis alternis, reflexis. stigmata petaliformia. _specific character and synonyms._ iris pumila corollis barbatis, caule foliis breviore unifloro. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ . _sp. plant. p._ . _jacq. fl. austr. t._ . chamÆiris minor flore purpureo. _bauh. pin._ . the lesser purple dwarf flower-de-luce. _park. parad. p._ . [illustration: no. ] gardeners, in former days, not having that profusion of plants to attend to and cultivate, which we can at present boast, appear to have been more solicitous in increasing generally the varieties of the several species; accordingly, we find in the _paradisus terrestris_ of the venerable parkinson, no less than six varieties of this plant[c], most of which are now strangers to the nursery gardens. we may observe, that varieties in general not being so strong as the original plant, are consequently much sooner lost. the iris pumila grows wild in many parts of hungary, affects open and hilly situations, and flowers in our gardens in the month of april; it is a very hardy plant, and will thrive in almost any soil or situation; is propagated by parting its roots in autumn. [footnote c: the lesser purple dwarf flower-de-luce with white blossoms, -- ---- ---- --- ---- --- straw colour ditto. -- ---- ---- --- ---- --- pale blue ditto. -- ---- ---- --- ---- --- blush-coloured ditto. -- ---- ---- --- ---- --- yellow variable ditto. -- ---- ---- --- ---- --- blue variable ditto, and the purple dwarf sea flower-de-luce of the same author, is probably no other than a variety.] [ ] ~anemone hepatica. hepatica, or noble liverwort.~ _class and order._ ~polyandria polygynia.~ _generic character._ calyx nullus. petala . . semina plura. _specific character and synonyms._ anemone hepatica foliis trilobis integerrimis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ . _sp. pl. p._ . _fl. suec. n._ . trifolium hepaticum flore simplici et pleno. _bauh. pin._ . red hepatica or noble liverwort. _park. parad. p._ . [illustration: no. ] dillenius, miller, and some other authors, make a distinct genus of the _hepatica_: linnæus unites it with the _anemone_, observing, that though it differs from the _anemone_ in having a calyx, yet that calyx is at some distance from the flower, and partakes more of the nature of an involucrum, which is not uncommon to the anemonies. the hepaticas, as parkinson observes, flower soon after the winter hellebore, "and making their pride appear in winter, are the more welcome early guests." it is found wild in its single state, with red, blue, and white flowers, in the woods and shady mountains of sweden, germany, and italy; the red variety with double flowers is the one most commonly cultivated in our gardens; the double blue is also not unfrequent; the single white is less common; and the double white miller never saw, yet admits that it may exist spontaneously, or be produced from seed: parkinson mentions a white variety with red threads or stamina. according to miller, this plant delights in a loamy soil, and in an eastern position where it may have only the morning sun: the single sorts are easily raised from seed; the double, increased by parting the roots, which ought to be done in march when they are in bloom; they should not be divided into very small heads: these plants, if often removed and parted, are apt to die, but left undisturbed for many years, they will thrive exceedingly, and become very large roots. [ ] ~erica herbacea. herbaceous heath.~ _class and order._ ~octandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ calyx -phyllus. corolla -fida. filamenta receptaculo inserta. antheræ bifidæ. capsula -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ erica _herbacea_ antheris muticis exsertis, corollis oblongis, stylo exserto, foliis quaternis, floribus secundis, _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ . _carnea sp. pl. ed._ . _p._ . erica _carnea_. _jacq. fl. austr. v._ . _tab._ erica procumbens herbacea. _bauh. pin. p._ . [illustration: no. ] since the days of mr. miller, who, with all his imperfections, has contributed more to the advancement of practical gardening than any individual whatever, our gardens, but more especially our green-houses, have received some of their highest ornaments from the introduction of a great number of most beautiful heaths: the present plant, though a native of the alps and mountainous parts of germany, is of modern introduction here, what renders it particularly acceptable, is its hardiness and early flowering; its blossoms are formed in the autumn, continue of a pale green colour during the winter, and expand in the spring, flowering as early as march, especially if kept in a green-house, or in a common hot-bed frame, which is the more usual practice. it may be propagated by seeds or cuttings, the latter is the most ready way of increasing this and most of the other species of the genus: when the cuttings have struck root, they should be planted in a mixture of fresh loam and bog earth, either in the open border, under a wall, or in pots. the name of _herbacea_, which linnæus has given to this plant, is not very characteristic, but it should be observed, that linnæus in this, as in many other instances, has only adopted the name of some older botanist; and it should also be remembered, that in genera, where the species are very numerous, it is no easy matter to give names to all of them that shall be perfectly expressive. this species does not appear to us to be specifically different from the _mediterranea_. [ ] ~dodecatheon meadia. mead's dodecatheon, or american cowslip.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ rotata, reflexa. _stamina_ tubo insidentia. _capsula_ unilocularis, oblonga. _specific character and synonyms._ dodecatheon _meadia_. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ . _sp. plant. p._ . meadia _catesb. car._ . _p._ . _t._ . _trew. ehret. t._ . auricula ursi virginiana floribus boraginis instar rostratis, cyclaminum more reflexis. _pluk. alm._ . _t._ . _f._ . [illustration: no. ] this plant grows spontaneously in virginia and other parts of north america, from whence, as miller informs us, it was sent by mr. banister to dr. compton, lord bishop of london, in whose curious garden he first saw it growing in the year . it is figured by mr. catesby, in his natural history of carolina, among the natural productions of that country, who bestowed on it the name of _meadia_, in honour of the late dr. mead, a name which linnæus has not thought proper to adopt as a generic, though he has as a trivial one. "it flowers the beginning of may, and the seeds ripen in july, soon after which the stalks and leaves decay, so that the roots remain inactive till the following spring. "it is propagated by offsets, which the roots put out freely when they are in a loose moist soil and a shady situation; the best time to remove the roots, and take away the offsets, is in august, after the leaves and stalks are decayed, that they may be fixed well in their new situation before the frost comes on. it may also be propagated by seeds, which the plants generally produce in plenty; these should be sown in autumn, soon after they are ripe, either in a shady moist border, or in pots, which should be placed in the shade; in the spring, the plants will come up, and must then be kept clean from weeds; and, if the season proves dry, they must be frequently refreshed with water: nor should they be exposed to the sun; for while the plants are young, they are very impatient of heat, so that i have known great numbers of them destroyed in two or three days, which were growing to the full sun. these young plants should not be transplanted till the leaves are decayed, then they may be carefully taken up and planted in a shady border, where the soil is loose and moist, at about eight inches distance from each other, which will be room enough for them to grow one year, by which time they will be strong enough to produce flowers, so may then be transplanted into some shady borders in the flower-garden, where they will appear very ornamental during the continuance of their flowers." _miller's gard. dict._ [ ] ~coronilla glauca. sea-green, or day-smelling coronilla.~ _class and order._ ~diadelphia decandria.~ _generic character._ _calyx_ bilabiatus: / : dentibus superioribus connatis. _vexillum_ vix alis longius. _legumen_ isthmis interceptum. _specific character and synonyms._ coronilla _glauca_ fruticosa, foliolis septenis, obtusissimis, stipulis lanceolatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p._ . _sp. pl._ . coronilla maritima, glauco folio. _tournef. inst._ . colutea scorpioides maritima, glauco folio. _bauh. pin._ . _prodr._ . [illustration: no. ] this charming shrub, which is almost perpetually in blossom, and admirably adapted for nosegays, is a native of the south of france, and a constant ornament to our green-houses. linnæus has observed, that the flowers, which in the day time are remarkably fragrant, in the night are almost without scent. "it is propagated by sowing the seeds in the spring, either upon a gentle hot-bed, or on a warm border of light earth: when the plants are come up about two inches high, they should be transplanted either into pots, or into a bed of fresh earth, at about four or five inches distance every way, where they may remain until they have obtained strength enough to plant out for good, which should be either in pots filled with good fresh earth, or in a warm situated border, in which, if the winter is not too severe, they will abide very well, provided they are in a dry soil." _miller's gard. dict._ [ ] ~primula villosa. mountain primula.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _involucrum_ umbellulæ. _corollæ_ tubus cylindricus: ore patulo. _specific character and synonyms._ primula _villosa_ foliis obovatis dentatis villosis, scapo brevissimo multifloro. primula _villosa_. _jacquin fl. austr. app. t._ . [illustration: no. ] mr. miller, in the sixth edition of the abridgment of his gardener's dictionary, mentions only four primulas, exclusive of the auricula, the two first of which are named erroneously, and of the two last not a syllable is said either as to their place of growth or culture. the plant here figured, has been introduced pretty generally into the nursery-gardens in the neighboured of london within these few years: mr. salisbury informs me, that a variety of this plant with white flowers, brought originally from the alps of switzerland, has for many years been cultivated in a garden in yorkshire. it is not noticed by linnæus: professor jacquin, in his flora austriaca, has figured and described a primula, which, though not agreeing so minutely as could be wished with the one we have figured, is nevertheless considered by some of the first botanists in this country as the same species; he gives it the name of _villosa_, which we adopt, though with us it is so slightly villous as scarcely to deserve that epithet. it varies in the brilliancy of its colours, flowers in april, and will succeed with the method of culture recommended for the round-leaved cyclamen. [ ] ~narcissus jonquilla. common jonquil.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _petala_ sex. _nectario_ infundibuliformi, monophyllo. _stamina_ intra nectarium. _specific character and synonyms._ narcissus _jonquilla_ spatha multiflora, nectario hemisphærico crenato, breviore petalis, foliis semiteretibus. _lin. spec. pl. p._ . [illustration: no. ] the fragrant jonquil is a native of spain, flowers in the open ground, about the latter-end of april, or beginning of may, and will thrive in almost any soil or situation, but prefers, as most bulbs do, a fresh loamy earth; indeed such a soil is favourable to the growth of most plants, as being exempt from a variety of subterraneous insects, which are apt to infest ground which has been long cultivated. it is found in the gardens with double flowers. our plant accords exactly with the description of linnæus, above quoted, but must be carefully distinguished from some others very similar to it. [ ] ~iris variegata. variegated iris.~ _class and order._ ~triandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ -partita; _petalis_ alternis, reflexis. _stigmata_ petaliformia. _specific character and synonyms._ iris _variegata_ corollis barbatis, caule subfolioso longitudine foliorum multifloro. _linn. spec. pl. p._ . iris latifolia pannonica, colore multiplici. _bauh. pin._ . the yellow variable flower-de-luce. _parkinson parad. p._ . [illustration: no. ] this species of iris, inferior to few in point of beauty, is a native of the hilly pastures of hungary, and flowers in our gardens in the month of may, and beginning of june. it is a hardy perennial, requires no particular treatment, and may be easily propagated by parting its roots in autumn. [ ] ~cactus flagelliformis. creeping cereus.~ _class and order._ ~icosandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _calyx_ -phyllus, superus, imbricatus. _corolla_ multiplex. _bacca_ -locularis, polysperma. _specific character._ cactus _flagelliformis_ repens decemangularis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed._ _p._ . cereus _flagelliformis_. _miller's gard. dict. ed._ . _to._ [illustration: no. ] grows spontaneously in south-america, and the west-indies, flowers in our dry stoves early in june, is tolerably hardy, and will thrive even in a common green-house, that has a flue to keep out the severe frosts. it is superior to all its congeners in the brilliancy of its colour, nor are its blossoms so fugacious as many of the other species. no plant is more easily propagated by cuttings; these miller recommends to be laid by in a dry place for a fortnight, or three weeks, then to be planted in pots, filled with a mixture of loam and lime rubbish, having some stones laid in the bottom of the pot to drain off the moisture, and afterwards plunged into a gentle hot-bed of tanners bark, to facilitate their rooting, giving them once a week a gentle watering: this business to be done the beginning of july. it is seldom that this plant perfects its seeds in this country: miller relates that it has borne fruit in chelsea gardens. [ ] ~geranium reichardi. dwarf geranium.~ _class and order._ ~monadelphia decandria.~ _general character._ monogynia. stigmata . fructus rostratus, -coccus. _specific character and synonyms._ geranium _reichardi_ scapis unifloris, floribus pentandris, foliis subreniformibus inciso-crenatis. geranium _reichardi_ scapis unifloris, foliis plerisque oblongis trilobis vel quinquelobis inciso-crenatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. murr._ . _p._ . [illustration: no. ] this species of geranium, so strikingly different from all others at present cultivated in our gardens, has been known for several years to the nursery-men in the neighbourhood of london, by the name of _acaule_, a name we should gladly have retained, had not professor murray described it in the th edition of linnæus's _systema vegetabilium_, under the name of _reichardi_, a name he was disposed to give it in compliment to a french gentleman, who first discovered it in the island of minorca, and introduced it into the gardens of france. linnæus describes many of the geraniums, as having only five antheræ, though several of those he thus describes have to our certain knowledge ten, the five lowermost of which shedding their pollen first, often drop off, and leave the filaments apparently barren: but in this species (with us at least) there never are more than five, but betwixt each stamen, there is a broad pointed barren filament or squamula, scarcely to be distinguished by the naked eye. the usual and best practice is to make a green-house plant of this species, though it has been known to remain in the open ground, during a mild winter, unhurt. it continues to have a succession of blossoms during the greatest part of the summer, and may be propagated either by seed or parting its roots. [ ] ~hemerocallis flava. yellow day-lily.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ campanulata, tubus cylindraceus. _stamina_ declinata. _specific character and synonyms._ hemerocallis _flava_ foliis lineari-subulatis carinatis, corollis flavis. _linn. syst. veg. ed._ . _p._ . lilium luteum, asphodeli radice. _bauh. pin._ . the yellow day-lily. _parkins. parad. p._ . [illustration: no. ] this genus has been called _hemerocallis_, in english, _day-lily_, from the short duration of its blossoms, but these are not quite so fugacious in this species as in the _fulva_. it very rarely happens that linnæus, in his specific character of a plant, has recourse to colour, he has however in this instance; but this seems to arise from his considering them rather as varieties, than species. to us they appear to be perfectly distinct, and in addition to several other characters, the flava is distinguished by the fragrance of its blossoms. this species is an inhabitant of hungary and siberia, and consequently bears our climate exceedingly well; it requires a moist soil, and a situation somewhat shady, and is easily propagated by parting its roots in autumn. [ ] ~geranium peltatum. ivy-leaved geranium.~ _class and order._ ~monadelphia decandria.~ _generic character._ monogyna. _stigmata_ quinque. _fructus_ rostratus. -coccus. _specific character._ geranium _peltatum_ calycibus monophyllis, foliis quinquelobis integerrimis glabris subpeltatis, caule fruticoso. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed._ . _p._ . geranium africanum, foliis inferioribus asari, superioribus staphidisagriæ maculatis splendentibus et acetosæ sapore. _comm. præl._ . _t._ . [illustration: no. ] a native of africa, as are most of our shewy geraniums, is not so tender as many others, and may be propagated very readily from cuttings. a leaf, having its foot-stalk inserted into the disk or middle part of it, or near it, is called by linnæus, peltatum, hence the latin trivial name of this plant. it may be observed, however, that some of the leaves have this character more perfectly than others. the african geraniums differ much from the european, in the irregularity of their petals, but exhibit the character of the class _monadelphia_ much better than any of our english ones, having their filaments manifestly united into one body; this species has only filaments bearing antheræ, but barren ones may be discovered upon a careful examination, which makes it of the order _decandria_. [ ] ~iris versicolor. particoloured iris.~ _class and order._ ~triandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ -petala, inæqualis, petalis alternis geniculato-patentibus. _stigmata_ petaliformia, cucullato-bilabiata. conf. _thunb. dis. de iride._ _specific character and synonyms._ iris _versicolor_ imberbis foliis ensiformibus, scapo tereti flexuoso, germinibus subtrigonis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed._ . _murr. p._ . _sp. plant. ed._ . _p._ . iris americana versicolor stylo crenato. _dill. elth._ . . . _f._ . [illustration: no. ] a native of virginia, maryland, and pensylvania, has a perennial root, is hardy, and will thrive in almost any soil or situation; may be increased by parting its roots in autumn. our plant is the _picta_ of miller, and the _versicolor_ of miller is, we believe, the _sibirica_ of linnæus. this species has, for the most part, a stalk unusually crooked or elbowed, by which it is particularly distinguished. it flowers in june, as do most of this beautiful tribe. [ ] ~nigella damascena. garden fennel-flower, love in a mist, devil in a bush.~ _class and order._ ~polyandria pentagynia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ nullus. _petala_ . nectaria . trifida, intra corollam. _capsulæ_ connexæ. _specific character and synonyms._ nigella _damascena_ floribus involucro folioso cinctis. _lin. syst. vegetab. ed._ . _murr. p._ . _sp. pl. p._ . nigella angustifolia, flore majore simplici cæruleo. _bauh. pin._ . the great spanish nigella. _park. parad. p._ . [illustration: no. ] is an annual, and grows wild among the corn in the southern parts of europe; varies with white and blue flowers, both single and double. "may be propagated by sowing their seeds upon a bed of light earth, where they are to remain (for they seldom succeed well if transplanted); therefore, in order to have them intermixed among other annual flowers in the borders of the flower garden, the seeds should be sown in patches at proper distances: and when the plants come up, they must be thinned where they grow too close, leaving but three or four of them in each patch, observing also to keep them clear from weeds, which is all the culture they require. in july they will produce their flowers, and their seeds will ripen in august. "the season for sowing these seeds is in march; but if you sow some of them in august, soon after they are ripe, upon a dry soil and in a warm situation, they will abide through the winter, and flower strong the succeeding year; by sowing of the seeds at different times, they may be continued in beauty most parts of the summer." _miller's gard. dict. ed._ . _to._ [ ] ~tropæolum majus. greater indian-cress, or nasturtium.~ _class and order._ ~octandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _calyx_ -phyllus, calcaratus. _petala_ in æqualia. _baccæ_ tres, siccæ. _specific character and synonyms._ tropÆolum _majus_ foliis peltatis subquinquelobis, petalis obtusis. _lin. syst. vegetab. ed._ . _murr. p._ . _sp. pl. p._ . cardamindum ampliori folio et majori flore. _grande capucine tournef. inst. p._ . [illustration: no. ] the present plant is a native of peru, and is said by linnæus to have been first brought into europe in the year ; it is certainly one of the greatest ornaments the flower-garden can boast: it varies in colour, and is also found in the nurseries with double flowers. the former, as is well known, is propagated by seed; the latter by cuttings, which should be struck on a hot-bed. to have these plants early, they should be raised with other tender annuals; they usually begin to flower in july, and continue blossoming till the approach of winter: the stalks require to be supported, for if left to themselves they trail on the ground, overspread, and destroy the neighbouring plants. elizabeth christina, one of the daughters of linnæus, is said to have perceived the flowers to emit spontaneously, at certain intervals, sparks like those of electricity, visible only in the dusk of the evening, and which ceased when total darkness came on. the flowers have the taste of water-cress, with a degree of sweetness, which that plant does not possess, more particularly resident in the spur of the calyx or nectary; hence are sometimes used in sallads, and hence the plant acquires its name of _nasturtium_. [ ] ~agrostemma coronaria. rose cockle, or campion.~ _class and order._ ~decandria pentagynia.~ _generic character._ _calyx_ -phyllus, coriaceus. _petala_ unguiculata: limbo obtuso, indiviso. _caps._ -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ agrostemma _coronaria_ tomentosa, foliis ovato-lanceolatis, petalis emarginatis coronatis serratis. _lin. syst. vegetab. ed._ . _murr. p._ . _sp. pl. p._ lychnis coronaria dioscoridis sativa. _bauh. pin._ . the single red rose campion. _parkins. parad. p._ . [illustration: no. ] grows spontaneously in italy and siberia; linnæus informs us that the blossom is naturally white, with red in the middle. "the single rose campion has been long an inhabitant of the english gardens, where, by its seeds having scattered, it is become a kind of weed. there are three varieties of this plant, one with deep red, another with flesh-coloured, and a third with white flowers, but these are of small esteem, for the double rose campion being a finer flower, has turned the others out of most fine gardens. the single sorts propagate fast enough by the seeds, the sort with double flowers never produces any, so is only propagated by parting of the roots; the best time for this is in autumn, after their flowers are past; in doing of this, every head which can be slipped off with roots should be parted; these should be planted in a border of fresh undunged earth, at the distance of six inches, observing to water them gently until they have taken root, after which they will require no more, for much wet is injurious to them, as is also dung. after the heads are well rooted, they should be planted into the borders of the flower-garden, where they will be very ornamental during the times of their flowering, which is in july and august." _miller's gard. dict. ed._ . _to._ miller, by mistake, calls this plant _cælirosa_. [ ] ~dianthus chinensis. china or indian pink.~ _class and order._ ~decandria digynia.~ _generic character._ _calyx_ cylindricus, -phyllus: basi squamis . _petala_ , unguiculata. _capsula_ cylindrica, -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ dianthus _chinensis_ floribus solitariis, squamis calycinis subulatis patulis, tubum æquantibus, corollis crenatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ . _sp. pl._ . caryophyllus sinensis supinus, leucoji folio, flore unico. _tournef. act._ . _p._ . _f._ . [illustration: no. ] this species, unknown to the older botanists, is a native of china, hence its name of china pink; but, in the nurseries, it is in general better known by the name of indian pink. though it cannot boast the agreeable scent of many of its congeners, it eclipses most of them in the brilliancy of its colours; there are few flowers indeed which can boast that richness and variety found among the most improved varieties of this species; and as these are easily obtained from seed, so they are found in most collections, both single and double. it is little better than an annual, but will sometimes continue two years in a dry soil, which it affects. attempts have been made to force it, but, as far as we have learned, with no great success. [ ] ~stapelia variegata. variegated stapelia.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria digynia.~ _generic character._ contorta. _nectarium_ duplici stellula tegente genitalia. _specific character and synonyms._ stapelia _variegata_ denticulis ramorum patentibus. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ . _sp. pl. p._ . asclepias aizoides africana. _bradl. suc._ . _p._ . _t._ . [illustration: no. ] this very singular plant is a native of the cape of good hope, where it grows and flourishes on the rocks with the _stapelia hirsuta_. if these plants be kept in a very moderate stove in winter, and in summer placed in an airy glass-case where they may enjoy much free air, but screened from wet and cold, they will thrive and flower very well; for although they will live in the open air in summer, and may be kept through the winter in a good green-house; yet these plants will not flower so well as those managed in the other way. they must have little water given them, especially in winter. it is very seldom that the _variegata_ produces seed-vessels in this country; miller observes, in upwards of forty years that he cultivated it, he never saw it produce its pods but three times, and then on such plants only as were plunged into the tan-bed in the stove. this plant may be propagated without seeds, as it grows fast enough from slips; treatment the same as that of the creeping cereus, which see. it takes its name of _stapelia_ from _stapel_, a dutchman, author of some botanical works, particularly a description of theophrastus's plants. [ ] ~convolvulus tricolor. small convolvulus or bindweed.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ campanulata, plicata. _stigmata_ . _capsula_ -locularis: loculis dispermis. _specific character and synonyms._ convolvulus _tricolor_ foliis lanceolato ovatis glabris, caule declinato, floribus solitariis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ . _sp. pl. p._ . convolvulus peregrinus cæruleus, folio oblongo. _bauh. pin._ . flore triplici colore insignito. _moris. hist._ . _p._ . _s._ . _t._ . _f._ . the spanish small blew bindeweede. _parkins. parad. p._ . [illustration: no. ] this species has usually been called _convolvulus minor_ by gardeners, by way of distinguishing it from the _convolvulus purpureus_, to which they have given the name of _major_. it is a very pretty annual; a native of spain, portugal, and sicily, and very commonly cultivated in gardens. the most usual colours of its blossoms are blue, white, and yellow, whence its name of _tricolor_; but there is a variety of it with white, and another with striped blossoms. the whole plant with us is in general hairy, hence it does not well accord with linnÆus's description. it is propagated by seeds, which should be sown on the flower-borders in the spring, where the plants are to remain: they require no other care than to be thinned and weeded. [ ] ~passiflora coerulea. common passion-flower.~ _class and order._ ~gynandria hexandria.~ _generic character._ trigyna. _cal._ -phyllus. _petala_ . _nectarium_ corona. _bacca_ pedicellata. _specific character and synonyms._ passiflora _coerulea_ foliis palmatis integerrimis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ . _sp. pl. p._ . granadilla polyphyllos, fructu ovato. _tourn. inst._ . flos passionis major pentaphyllus. _sloan. jam._ . _hist._ . _p._ . [illustration: no. ] the passion-flower first introduced into this country was the _incarnata_ of linnæus, a native of virginia, and figured by parkinson in his _paradisus terrestris_, who there styles it the surpassing delight of all flowers: the present species, which, from its great beauty and superior hardiness, is now by far the most common, is of more modern introduction; and, though a native of the brasils, seldom suffers from the severity of our climate; flowering plentifully during most of the summer months, if trained to a wall with a southern aspect, and, in such situations, frequently producing ripe fruit, of the size and form of a large olive, of a pale orange colour. this most elegant plant may be propagated by seeds, layers, or cuttings; foreign seeds are most to be depended on; they are to be sown in the spring, on a moderate hot-bed, and when the plants are grown to the height of two or three inches, they are to be carefully taken up, and each planted in a separate small pot, filled with good loam, then plunged into a moderate hot-bed, to forward their taking new root; after which they should be gradually inured to the common air: the younger the plants the more shelter they require, and if ever so old or strong, they are in danger from severe frosts. the layers and cuttings are to be treated in the common way, but seedling plants, if they can be obtained, are on many accounts to be preferred. [ ] ~reseda odorata. sweet-scented reseda or mignonette.~ _class and order._ ~dodecandria trigynia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus, partitus. _petala_ laciniata. _caps._ ore dehiscens, -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ reseda _odorata_ foliis integris trilobisque, calycibus florem æquantibus. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ . reseda foliis integris trilobisque, floribus tetragynis. _mill. dict. t._ . [illustration: no. ] _mignonette_ grows naturally in egypt, it was unknown to the older botanists; miller says he received the seeds of it from dr. adrian van royen, professor of botany at leyden, so that it is rather a modern inhabitant of our gardens. the luxury of the pleasure-garden is greatly heightened by the delightful odour which this plant diffuses; and as it is most readily cultivated in pots, its fragrance may be conveyed to the parlour of the recluse, or the chamber of the valetudinarian; its perfume, though not so refreshing perhaps as that of the sweet-briar, is not apt to offend on continuance the most delicate olfactories. being an annual it requires to be raised yearly from seed; when once introduced on a warm dry border it will continue to sow itself, and grow very luxuriantly, flowering from june to the commencement of winter; but as it is desirable to have it as early as possible in the spring, the best way is either to sow the seed in pots in autumn, securing them through the winter in frames, or in a greenhouse, or to raise the seeds early on a gentle hot bed, thinning the plants if they require it, so as to have only two or three in a pot. [ ] ~lilium chalcedonicum. chalcedonian lily.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _cor._ -petala, campanulata: _linea_ longitudinali nectarifera. _caps._ valvulis pilo cancellato connexis. _specific character and synonyms._ lilium _chalcedonicum_ foliis sparsis lanceolatis, floribus reflexis, corollis revolutis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ . lilium byzantium miniatum. _bauh. pin._ . the red martagon of constantinople. _park. parad. p._ . [illustration: no. ] this species is best known in the nurseries by the name of the _scarlet martagon_; but as it is not the martagon of linnæus, to avoid confusion it will be most proper to adhere to the name which linnæus has given it. it is a native not only of persia, but of hungary; professor jacquin, who has figured it in his most excellent _flora austriaca_, describes it as growing betwixt carniola and carinthia, and other parts of hungary, but always on the tops of the largest mountains. it varies in the number of its flowers, from one to six, and the colour in some is found of a blood red. authors differ in their ideas of its smell: jacquin describing it as disagreeble, while scopoli compares it to that of an orange. it flowers in june and july; and is propagated by offsets, which it produces pretty freely, and which will grow in almost any soil or situation. the best time for removing the roots is soon after the leaves are decayed, before they have begun to shoot. [ ] ~jasminum officinale. common jasmine or jessamine.~ _class and order._ ~diandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _cor._ -fida. _bacca_ dicocca. _sem_. arillata. _antheræ_ intra tubum. _specific character and synonyms._ jasminum _officinale_ foliis oppositis; foliolis distinctis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ . jasminum vulgatius flore albo. _bauh. pin._ . jasmine or gesmine. _park. parad. p._ . [illustration: no. ] there is an elegance in the jasmine which added to its fragrance renders it an object of universal admiration. "it grows naturally at malabar, and in several parts of india, yet has been long inured to our climate, so as to thrive and flower extremely well, but never produces any fruit in england. it is easily propagated by laying down the branches, which will take root in one year, and may then be cut from the old plant, and planted where they are designed to remain: it may also be propagated by cuttings, which should be planted early in the autumn, and guarded against the effects of severe frosts. "when these plants are removed, they should be planted either against some wall, pale, or other fence, where the flexible branches may be supported. these plants should be permitted to grow rude in the summer, otherwise there will be no flowers; but after the summer is past, the luxuriant shoots should be pruned off, and the others must be nailed to the support. "there are two varieties of this with variegated leaves, one with white, the other with yellow stripes, but the latter is the most common: these are propagated by budding them on the plain jasmine; they require to be planted in a warm situation, especially the white-striped, for they are much more tender than the plain, and in very severe winters their branches should be covered with mats or straw to prevent their being killed." _miller's gard. dict._ [ ] ~mesembryanthemum dolabriforme. hatchet-leav'd fig-marigold.~ _class and order._ ~icosandria pentagynia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus. _petala_ numerosa, linearia. _caps._ carnosa infera, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ mesembryanthemum _dolabriforme_ acaule, foliis dolabriformibus punctatis. _lin. syst. veg. p._ . ficoides capensis humilis, foliis cornua cervi referentibus, petalis luteis noctiflora, _bradl. suc._ . _p._ . _t._ . _dillen hort. elth. t._ . _f._ . [illustration: no. ] though many latin names of plants, as _geranium_, _hepatica_, _convolvulus_, &c. are more familiar to the ear, and more generally used than their english ones, yet _mesembryanthemum_ though used by some, appears too long to be generally adopted, its english name of _fig-marigold_ is doubtless to be preferred. the fig-marigolds are a very numerous tribe, chiefly inhabitants of the cape of good hope; no less than thirty-three species are figured in that inestimable work the _hortus elthamensis_ of dillenius. as most of these plants grow readily from slips, or cuttings, and require only the shelter of a common greenhouse, and as they recommend themselves to our notice, either from the extreme singularity of their foliage, the beauty of their flowers, or the peculiarity of their expansion, so they are a favourite class of plants with many. the present species is a native of the cape of good hope, and is particularly distinguished by having leaves somewhat resembling a hatchet, whence its name; it is as hardy as most, and flowers as freely, but its blossoms fully expand in the evening and night only. it is very readily propagated by cuttings. [ ] ~aster tenellus. bristly-leav'd aster.~ _class and order._ ~syngenesia polygamia superflua.~ _generic character._ _recept._ nudum. _pappus_ simplex. _cor._ radii plures . _cal._ imbricati squamæ inferiores patulæ. _specific character and synonyms._ aster _tenellus_ foliis subfiliformibus aculeato-ciliatis, pedunculis nudis, calycibus hemisphæricis æqualibus. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ . aster parvus æthiopicus, chamæmeli floribus, tamarisci ægyptiaci foliis tenuissime denticulatis. _pluk. alm._ . _t._ . _f._ . _raii. suppl._ . _n._ . [illustration: no. ] most of the numerous species of this genus flower about michaelmas, hence their vulgar name of _michaelmas-daisy_; a name exceptionable not only on account of its length, but from its being a compound word. _aster_, though a latin term, is now so generally received, that we shall make no apology for adopting it. we are indebted to north-america for most of our asters, but the present species, which is omitted by _miller_, and is rather a scarce plant in this country, though not of modern introduction, being figured by _plukenet_ and described by _ray_, is a native of africa, and, like a few others, requires in the winter the shelter of a greenhouse. it is particularly distinguished by having very narrow leaves with short bristles on them, and by its blossoms drooping before they open. it is a perennial, flowers in september and october, and may be propagated by slips or cuttings. the plant from whence our drawing was made, came from messrs. _gordon_ and _thompson_'s nursery, mile-end. [ ] ~browallia elata. tall browallia.~ _class and order._ ~didynamia gymnospermia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ -dentatus. _cor._ limbus -fidus, æqualis, patens: umbilico clauso antheris , majoribus. _caps._ -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ browallia _elata_ pedunculis unifloris multiflorisque. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ . _sp. pl._ . _mill. dict._ [illustration: no. ] of this genus there are only two species, both natives of south-america, the _elata_, so called from its being a much taller plant than the _demissa_, is a very beautiful, and not uncommon stove or green-house plant; it is impossible, by any colours we have, to do justice to the brilliancy of its flowers. being an annual, it requires to be raised yearly from seed, which must be sown on a hot-bed in the spring, and the plants brought forward on another, otherwise they will not perfect their seeds in this country. some of these may be transplanted into the borders of the flower-garden which are warmly situated, where, if the season prove favourable, they will flower and ripen their seeds; but, for security's sake, it will be prudent to keep a few plants in the stove or green-house. as these plants have not been distinguished by any particular english name, miller very properly uses its latin one; a practice which should as much as possible be adhered to, where a genus is named in honour of a botanist of eminence. [ ] ~crepis barbata. bearded crepis, or purple-eyed succory-hawkweed.~ _class and order._ ~syngenesia polygamia Æqualis.~ _generic character._ _recept._ nudum. _cal._ calyculatus squamis deciduis. _pappus_ plumosus, stipitatus. _specific character and synonyms._ crepis _barbata_ involucris calyce longioribus: squamis setaceis sparsis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ . hieracium proliferum falcatum. _bauh. pin._ . hieracium calyce barbato. _col. ecphr._ . _p._ . _t._ . _f._ . hieracium boeticum medio nigro. _herm. parad. bat._ . _t._ . [illustration: no. ] grows spontaneously in the south of france, about montpelier; also, in spain, italy, sicily, and elsewhere in the south of europe: is one of the most common annuals cultivated in our gardens. it begins flowering in july, and continues to blossom till the frost sets in. no other care is necessary in the cultivation of this species than sowing the seeds in the spring, in little patches, on the borders where they are to remain, thinning them if they prove too numerous. miller calls this species _boetica_, and improperly describes the centre of the flower as black, as also does herman: in all the specimens we have seen, it has evidently been of a deep purple colour, or, as linnÆus expresses it, _atropurpurascens_. [ ] ~lilium bulbiferum. orange lily.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _cor._ -petala, campanulata: _linea_ longitudinali nectarifera. _caps._ valvulis pilo cancellato connexis. _specific character and synonyms._ lilium _bulbiferum_ foliis sparsis, corollis campanulatis erectis: intus scabris. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ . _jacq. fl. austr. t._ . lilium purpureo-croceum majus. _bauh. pin._ . lilium aureum, the gold red lily. _park. parad. p._ . [illustration: no. ] "the common orange or red lily is as well known in the english gardens as the white lily, and has been as long cultivated here. this grows naturally in austria and some parts of italy. it multiplies very fast by offsets from the roots, and is now so common as almost to be rejected; however, in large gardens these should not be wanting, for they make a good appearance when in flower if they are properly disposed; of this sort there are the following varieties: the orange lily with double flowers, the orange lily with variegated leaves, the smaller orange lily. these varieties have been obtained by culture, and are preserved in the gardens of florists. they all flower in june and july, and their stalks decay in september, when the roots may be transplanted and their offsets taken off, which should be done once in two or three years, otherwise their branches will be too large, and the flower-stalks weak. this doth not put out new roots till towards spring, so that the roots may be transplanted any time after the stalks decay till november. it will thrive in any soil or situation, but will be strongest in a soft gentle loam, not too moist." _mill. dict._ bears the smoke of london better than many plants. varies with and without bulbs on the stalks. index. in which the latin names of the plants contained in the _first volume_, are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ agrostemma coronaria. anemone _hepatica_. aster tenellus. browallia elata. cactus flagelliformis. convolvulus tricolor. coronilla glauca. crepis barbata. cyclamen _coum_. cynoglossum _omphalodes_. dianthus chinensis. dodecatheon _meadia_. erica herbacea. erythronium _dens canis_. geranium reichardi. geranium peltatum. helleborus hyemalis. helleborus niger. hemerocallis flava. jasminum officinale. iris persica. iris pumila. iris variegata. iris versicolor. lilium chalcedonicum. lilium bulbiferum. mesembryanthemum dolabriforme. narcissus minor. narcissus _jonquilla_. nigella damascena. passiflora coerulea. primula villosa. reseda odorata. rudbeckia purpurea. stapelia variegata. tropæolum majus. index. in which the english names of the plants contained in the _first volume_, are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ aster bristly-leav'd. browallia tall. cereus creeping. cockle rose. coronilla sea-green. convolvulus small. crepis bearded. cyclamen round-leav'd. daffodil lesser. day-lily yellow. dodecatheon mead's. dog's-tooth. fennel-flower garden. fig-marigold hatchet-leav'd. geranium dwarf. geranium ivy-leav'd. heath herbaceous. hellebore black. hellebore winter. hepatica. jasmine common. indian-cress greater. jonquil common. iris dwarf. iris particoloured. iris persian. iris variegated. lily chalcedonian. lily orange. navel-wort blue. passion-flower common. pink china. primula mountain. reseda sweet-scented. rudbeckia purple. stapelia variegated. [illustration: plate i. figure .--hydnum erinaceum. original specimen × . found on mt. logan near chillicothe, ohio.] the mushroom edible and otherwise its habitat and its time of growth with photographic illustrations of nearly all the common species a guide to the study of mushrooms, with special reference to the edible and poisonous varieties, with a view of opening up to the student of nature a wide field of useful and interesting knowledge by m. e. hard, m. a. superintendent of public instruction kirkwood, mo. the ohio library co. distributors columbus, ohio press of the new franklin printing co. columbus, ohio. halftones by bucher engraving co. copyright by the mushroom publishing company columbus, ohio (all rights reserved) _author's edition_ _no._ ____ [illustration: author.] _to my wife_ _whose thorough knowledge of plant life, and whose patience in preserving fungal specimens--sometimes beautiful but often odorous--scattered from the back porch to the author's library, whose eyes, quick to detect structural differences, and whose kindly and patient help have been a constant benediction, this work's inscribed._ introduction i would agree with those who might maintain that no introduction is needed for this book on mushrooms. nevertheless a word may not be out of place for the inception of the work is out of the ordinary. mr. hard did not decide that a book on this subject was needed and then set about studying these interesting plants. he has observed them, collected them, induced many friends to join in eating those which proved to be palatable and delicious--really meddled for years with the various kinds which are edible and otherwise, and then recently he has decided to publish a book on his favorite subject. the interesting occupation of photographing the mushrooms and the toadstools doubtless has contributed largely to the determination culminating in the materialization of the treatise. if i have correctly apprehended the origin and the contributing causes, we would expect this book to be different from the other books on mushrooms--not of course in scope and purpose; but the instruction and suggestions given, the descriptions and general remarks offered, the wide range of forms depicted in word and picture, the whole make up of the book in fact, will appeal to the people at large rather than the college student in particular. the author does not write for the specially educated few, but for the mass of intelligent people--those who read and study, but who observe more; those who are inclined to commune with nature as she displays herself in the glens and glades, in the fields and forests, and who spend little, if any, time chasing the forms or sketching the tissues that may be seen on the narrow stage of a compound microscope. the book then is for the beginner, and for all beginners; the college student will find that this is the guide to use when he is ready to begin studying the mushrooms; the teachers in the schools should all begin to study mushrooms now, and for the purpose they will find this book advantageous; the people who see mushrooms often but do not know them may find here a book that really is a help. we might wish for color photography when the subject is a delicately tinted mushroom; but if with it we should lose detail in structure then the wish would be renounced. the colors can be, approximately, described, often not so the characteristic markings, shapes and forms. the halftones from the photographs will, we anticipate, prove a valuable feature of the book, especially if the plants be most carefully examined before turning to the pictures. for half an hour the pages may be turned and the illustrations enjoyed. that, however, would give one no real knowledge of mushrooms. if such use only is made of the pictures, better had they never been prepared by mr. hard and his friends. but if a charming little toadstool, a delicately colored mushroom, a stately agaric, be carefully removed from the bed of loam, the decaying stump, or the old tree-trunk, then turned over and over again, and upside down, every part scrutinized, the structure in every detail attentively regarded--not with repugnant feeling, rather with a sympathetic interest that should naturally find all organisms inhabiting our globe--then in due time coming to the picture, a real picture, in the book, it must surely bring both pleasure and profit. ponder the suggestion. then, to conclude in a word, if mr. hard's book will induce people to _learn_ and _enjoy_ the mushrooms that we have, it will be a success, and great will be his reward. w. a. kellerman, ph. d. _botanical department, ohio state university, columbus, o._ author's note in memoriam it is with feelings of profound sadness that i am impelled to supplement the above introduction by a brief tribute to the memory of that genial gentleman and lovable companion, as well as enthusiastic scientist, the late dr. w. a. kellerman. spending his life in the pursuit of science, the angel of death overtook him while still in search for wider knowledge of nature and her works, and with icy fingers sealed the lids over eyes ever on the alert for the discovery of hidden truths. quiet, reticent, and unassuming, it was given to but few to know the great-hearted, unselfish sweetness of nature underlying his whole life. yet the scientific world in general and nature students especially, recognize in dr. kellerman's death a loss long to be regretted and not soon to be repaired. the foregoing "introduction" from his pen was one of the latest, if not the last of his public writings, done but a few weeks before being stricken with the fatal fever which fell upon him in the forests of guatemala, and so quickly ended his earthly hopes and aspirations. it seems doubly sad that one so well and widely known in his life should be called upon to lay its burdens and its pleasures down while so far away from all who knew and loved him well; and to rest at last among strangers in a strange land. to this beloved friend and companion of so many pleasant days in woods and fields the author of this book desires to pay the tribute of a loving remembrance and heartfelt appreciation. the author. preface "various as beauteous, nature, is thy face; * * * all that grows, has grace. all are appropriate. bog and moss and fen are only poor to undiscerning men. here may the nice and curious eye explore how nature's hand adorns the ruby moor; beauties are these that from the view retire, but will repay th' attention they require." botany and geology have been favorite studies of the author since leaving college, thanks to dr. nelson, who lives in the hearts of all his students. he, by his teachings, made these subjects so attractive and interesting that by one, at least, every spare moment has been given to following up the studies of botany and paleontology. but the mycological part of botany was brought practically to the author's attention by the bohemian children at salem, ohio, at the same time arousing a desire to know the scientific side of the subject and thus to be able to help the many who were seeking a personal knowledge of these interesting plants. every teacher should be able to open the doors of nature to his pupils that they may see her varied handiwork, and, as far as possible, assist in removing the mist from their eyes that they may see clearly the beauties of meadow, wood or hillside. in beginning the fuller study of the subject the writer labored at great disadvantage because, for a number of years, there was but little available literature. every book written upon this subject, in this country, was purchased as soon as it came out and all have been very helpful. the study has been a very great pleasure, and some very delightful friendships have been made while in search for as great a variety of species as possible. for a number of years the object was simply to become familiar with the different genera and species, and no photographs of specimens were made. this was a great mistake; for, after it was determined to bring out this work, it seemed impossible to find many of the plants which the author had previously found in other parts of the state. however, this failure has been very largely overcome through the generous courtesy of his esteemed friends,--mr. c. g. lloyd, of cincinnati; dr. fisher, of detroit; prof. beardslee, of ashville, n. c.; prof. b. o. longyear, of ft. collins, col., and dr. kellerman, of ohio state university,--who have most kindly furnished photographs representing those species found earlier in other parts of the state. the species represented here have all been found in this state within the past few years. the writer is under great obligation to prof. atkinson, of cornell university, for his very great assistance and encouragement in the study of mycology. his patience in examining and determining plants sent him is more fully appreciated than can be expressed here. dr. william herbst, trexlertown, pa., has helped to solve many difficult problems; so also have mr. lloyd, prof. morgan, capt. mcilvaine and dr. charles h. peck, state botanist of new york. the aim of the book has been to describe the species, as far as possible, in terms that will be readily understood by the general reader; and it is hoped that the larger number of illustrations will make the book helpful to those who are anxious to become acquainted with a part of botany so little studied in our schools and colleges. no pains have been spared to get as representative specimens as it was possible to find. a careful study of the illustrations of the plants will, in most cases, very greatly assist the student in determining the classification of the plant when found; but the illustration should not be wholly relied upon, especially in the study of boleti. the description should be carefully studied to see if it tallies with the characteristics of the plant in hand. in many plants where notes had not been taken or had been lost, the descriptions given by the parties naming the plants were used. this is notably so of many of the boleti. the author felt that dr. peck's descriptions would be more accurate and complete, hence they were used, giving him credit. care has been taken to give the translation of names and to show why the plant was so called. it is always a wonder to the uninitiated how the latin name is remembered, but when students see that the name includes some prominent characteristic of the plant and thus discover its applicability, its recollection becomes comparatively easy. the habitat and time of growth of each plant is given, also its edibility. the author was urged by his many friends throughout the state, while in institute work and frequently talking upon this subject, to give them a book that would assist them in becoming familiar with the common mushrooms of their vicinity. the request has been complied with. it is hoped that the work will be as helpful as it has been pleasant to perform. m. e. h. chillicothe, ohio, january , . contents introduction by dr. w. a. kellerman vii preface ix chapter i. why study mushrooms? mushrooms and toadstools what any one may eat how to preserve mushrooms terms used what is a fungus or a mushroom? six groups of mushrooms group i--hymenomycetes family i--agaricaceæ spore prints analytical key chapter ii. the white-spored agarics chapter iii. the rosy-spored agarics chapter iv. the rusty-spored agarics chapter v. the purple-brown-spored agarics chapter vi. the black-spored agarics chapter vii. polyporaceæ. tube-bearing fungi chapter viii. fungi with teeth chapter ix. thelephoraceæ chapter x. clavariaceæ--coral fungi chapter xi. tremellini chapter xii. ascomycetes--spore-sac fungi chapter xiii. nidulariaceæ--bird's nest fungi chapter xiv. group gastromycetes chapter xv. lycoperdaceæ--puff-balls chapter xvi. sphæriaceæ chapter xvii. myxomycetes chapter xviii. recipes for cooking mushrooms chapter xix. how to grow mushrooms glossary a brief history of mycologists chapter i. =why study mushrooms.= some years ago, while in charge of the schools of salem, ohio, we had worked up quite a general interest in the study of botany. it was my practice to go out every day after flowers, especially the rarer ones, of which there were many in this county, and bring in specimens for the classes. there was in the city a wire nail mill, running day and night, whose proprietors brought over, from time to time, large numbers of bohemians as workers in the mill. very frequently, when driving to the country early in the morning, i found the boys and girls of these bohemian families searching the woods, fields and pastures at some distance from town, although they had not been in this country more than a week or two and could not speak a word of english. i soon found that they were gathering mushrooms of various kinds and taking them home for food material. they could not tell me how they knew them, but i quickly learned that they knew them from their general characteristics,--in fact, they knew them as we know people and flowers. i resolved to know something of the subject myself. i had no literature on mycology, and, at that time, there seemed to be little obtainable. about that time there appeared in harper's monthly an article by w. hamilton gibson upon edible toadstools and mushrooms--an article which i thoroughly devoured, soon after purchasing his book upon the subject. salem, ohio, was a very fertile locality for mushrooms and it was not long till i was surprised at the number that i really knew. i remembered that where there is a will there is a way. in i moved to bowling green, ohio; there i found many species which i had found about salem, ohio, but the extremely rich soil, heavy timber and numerous old lake beaches seemed to furnish a larger variety, so that i added many more to my list. after remaining three years in bowling green, making delightful acquaintance with the good people of that city as well as with the flowers and mushrooms of wood county, providence placed me in sidney, ohio, where i found many new species of fungi and renewed my acquaintance with many of those formerly met. since coming to chillicothe i have tried to have the plants photographed as i have found them, but having to depend upon a photographer i could not always do this. i have not found in this vicinity many that i have found elsewhere in the state, although i have found many new things here, a fact which i attribute to the hilly nature of the county. for prints of many varieties of fungi obtained before coming here, i am indebted to my friends. i should advise any one intending to make a study of this subject to have all specimens photographed as soon as they are identified, thus fixing the species for future reference. it seems to me that every school teacher should know something of mycology. some of my teachers have during the past year made quite a study of this interesting subject, and i have found that their pupils kept them busy in identifying their finds. their lists of genera and species, as exhibited on the blackboards at the close of the season were quite long. i found from my bohemian boys and girls that their teachers in their native country had opened for them the door to this very useful knowledge. observation has proven to me conclusively that there is a large and increasing interest in this subject throughout the greater part of ohio. every professional man needs a hobby which he may mount in his hours of relaxation, and i am quite sure there is no field that offers better inducement for a canter than the subject of botany, and especially this particular department of botanical work. i have a friend, a professional man who has an eye and a heart for all the beauties of nature. after hours of confinement in his office at close and critical work he is always anxious for a ramble over the hillsides and through the woods, and when we find anything new he seems to enjoy it beyond measure. many ministers of the gospel have become famous in the mycological world. the names of rev. lewis schweiwitz, of bethlehem, pa.; rev. m. j. berkeley and rev. john stevenson, of england, will live as long as botany is known to mankind. their influence for good and helpfulness to their fellowmen will be everlasting. with such an inspiration, how quickly one is lost to all business cares, and how free and life-giving are the fields, the meadows and the woods, so that one must exclaim with prof. henry willey in his "introduction to the study of the lichen": "if i could put my woods in song, and tell what's there enjoyed, all men would to my garden throng, and leave the cities void. in my lot no tulips blow; snow-loving pines and oaks instead; and rank the savage maples grow, from spring's first flush to autumn red; my garden is a forest ledge, which older forests bound." mushrooms and toadstools =how to tell mushrooms from toadstools.= in all probability no student of mycology has any one query more frequently or persistently pressed upon his attention than the question, "how do you tell a toadstool from a mushroom?"--or if in the woods or fields, in search for new species, with an uninitiated comrade, he has frequently to decide whether a certain specimen "is a mushroom or a toadstool," so firmly fixed is the idea that one class of fungi--the toadstools--are poisonous, and the other--the mushrooms--are edible and altogether desirable; and these inquiring minds frequently seem really disappointed at being told that they are one and the same thing; that there are edible toadstools and mushrooms, and poisonous mushrooms and toadstools; that in short a toadstool is really a mushroom and a mushroom is only a toadstool after all. hence the questions with the beginner is, how he may tell a poisonous fungus from an edible one. there is but one answer to this question, and that is that he must thoroughly learn both genera and species, studying each till he knows its special features as he does those of his most familiar friends. certain species have been tested by a number of people and found to be perfectly safe and savory; on the other hand, there are species under various genera which, if not actually poisonous, are at least deleterious. it is the province of all books on fungi to assist the student in separating the plants into genera and species; in this work special attention has been given to distinguishing between the edible and the poisonous species. there are a few species such as gyromitra esculenta, lepiota morgani, clitocybe illudens, etc., which when eaten by certain persons will cause sickness soon after eating, while others will escape any disagreeable effects. chemically speaking, they are not poisonous, but simply refuse to be assimilated in some stomachs. it is best to avoid all such. =how mushrooms grow.= there is a strong notion that mushrooms grow very quickly, springing up in a single night. this is erroneous. it is true that after they have reached the button stage they develop very quickly; or in the case of those that spring from a mature egg, develop so rapidly that you can plainly see the motion of the upward growth, but the development of the button from the mycelium or spawn takes time--weeks, months, and even years. it would be very difficult to tell the age of many of our tree fungi. =how to learn mushrooms.= if the beginner will avoid all amanitas and perhaps some of the boleti he need not be much worried in regard to the safety of other species. there are three ways by which he can become familiar with the edible kinds. the first is the physiological test suggested by mr. gibson in his book. it consists in chewing a small morsel and then spitting it out without swallowing the juice; if no important symptoms arise within twenty-four hours, another bit may be chewed, this time swallowing a small portion of the juice. should no irritation be experienced after another period of waiting, a still larger piece may be tried. i always sample a new plant carefully, and thus am often able to establish the fact of its edibility before being able to locate it in its proper species. this fall i found for the first time tricholoma columbetta; it was some time after i had proven it an edible mushroom before i had settled upon its name. a better way, perhaps, is to cook them and feed them to your cat and watch the result. another way is to have a friend who knows the plants go with you, and thus you learn under a teacher as a pupil learns in school. this is the quickest way to gain a knowledge of plants of any kind, but it is difficult to find a competent teacher. still another way, and one that is open to all, is to gain a knowledge of a few species and through their description become familiar with the terms used in describing a mushroom; this done, the way is open, if you have a book containing illustrations and descriptions of the most common plants. do not be in a hurry to get the names of all the plants, and do not make use of any about which you are not absolutely sure. in gathering mushrooms to eat, do not put into your basket with those you intend to eat a single mushroom of whose edible qualities you have any doubt. if you have the least doubt about it, discard it, or put it in another basket. there are no fixed rules by which you can tell a poisonous from an edible mushroom. i found a friend of mine eating lepiota naucina, not even knowing to what genus it belonged, simply because she could peel it. i told her that the most deadly mushroom can be peeled just as readily. nor is there anything more valuable in the silver spoon test in which mr. gibson's old lady put so much confidence. some say, do not eat any that have an acrid taste; many are edible whose taste is quite acrid. others say, do not eat any whose juice or milk is white, but this would discard a number of lactarii that are quite good. there is nothing in the white gills and hollow stem theory. it is true that the amanita has both, but it must be known by other characteristics. again we are told to avoid such as have a viscid cap, or those that change color quickly; this is too sweeping a condemnation for it would cut out several very good species. i think i may safely say there is no known rule by which the good can be distinguished from the bad. the only safe way is to know each species by its own individual peculiarities--to know them as we know our friends. the student of mycology has before him a description of each species, which must tally with the plant in hand and which will soon render him familiar with the different features of the various genera and species, so he can recognize them as readily as the features of his best friends. =what anyone may eat.= in the spring of the year there comes with the earliest flowers a mushroom so strongly characteristic in all its forms that no one will fail to recognize it. it is the common morel or sponge mushroom. none of them are known to be harmful, hence here the beginner can safely trust his judgment. while he is gathering morels to eat he will soon begin to distinguish the different species of the genera. from may till frost the different kinds of puff-balls will appear. all puff-balls are good while their interior remains white. they are never poisonous, but when the flesh has begun to turn yellow it is very bitter. the oyster mushroom is found from march to december and is always a very acceptable mushroom. the fairy rings are easily recognized and can be found in any old pasture during wet weather from june to october. in seasonable weather they are usually very plentiful. the common meadow mushroom is found from september to frost. it is known by its pink gills and meaty cap. there is a mushroom with pink gills found in streets, along the pavements and among the cobble stones. the stems are short and the caps are very meaty. it is a. rodmani. these are found in may and june. the horse mushroom has pink gills and may be found from june to september. the russulas, found from july to october, are generally good. a few should be avoided because of their acrid taste or their strong odor. there is no time from early spring till freezing weather when you can not find mushrooms, if the weather is at all favorable. i have given the habitat and the time when each species can be found. i should recommend a careful study of these two points. read the descriptions of plants which grow in certain places and at certain times, and you will generally be rewarded, if you follow out the description and the season is favorable. =how to preserve mushrooms.= many can be dried for winter use, such as the morels, marasmius oreades, boletus edulis, boletus edulis, va. clavipes, and a number of others. my wife has very successfully canned a number of species, notably lycoperdon pyriforme, pleurotus ostreatus and tricholoma personatum. the mushrooms were carefully picked over and washed, let stand in salt water for about five minutes, in order to free them of any insect-life which may be in the gills, then drained, cut into pieces small enough to go into the jars easily. each jar was packed as full as possible with mushrooms and filled up with water salt enough to flavor the mushroom properly. then put into a kettle of cold water on the stove, the lids being loosely placed on the top, and allowed to cook for an hour or more after the water in the kettle begins to boil. the tops were then fastened on securely and after trying the jars to see if there was any leak, they were set away in a cool, dark place. in canning puff-balls they should be carefully washed and sliced, being sure that they are perfectly white all through. they do not need to stand in salt water before packing in the jar as do those mushrooms which have gills. otherwise they were canned as the tricholoma and oyster mushroom. any edible mushroom can easily be kept for winter use by canning. use glass jars with glass tops. terms used =some of the most common terms used.= in describing mushrooms it is necessary to use certain terms, and it will be incumbent upon anyone who wishes to become familiar with this part of botanical work to understand thoroughly the terms used in describing the plants. the substance of all mushrooms is either fleshy, membranaceous, or corky. the _pileus_ or _cap_ is the expanded part, which may be either sessile or supported by a stem. the pileus is not made up of cellular tissue as in flowering plants, but of myriads of interwoven threads or hyphae. this structure of the pileus will become evident at once if a thin portion of the cap is placed under the microscope. the _gills_ or _lamellæ_ are thin plates or membranes radiating from the stem to the margin of the cap. when they are attached squarely and firmly to the stem they are said to be _adnate_. if they are attached only by a part of the width of the gills, they are _adnexed_. should they extend down on the stem, they are _decurrent_. they are _free_ when they are not attached to the stem. frequently the lower edge is notched at, or near, the stem and in this case they are said to be _emarginate_ or _sinuate_. [illustration: figure .--small portion of a section through the spore-bearing layer of a mushroom which produces its spores on the ends of cells called basidium. (a) spores, (b) basidium, (c) sterile cells.] in some genera the lower surface of the cap is full of pores instead of gills; in other genera the lower surface is crowded with teeth; in still others the surface is smooth, as in the stereums. the gills, pores and teeth afford a foundation for the hymenium or fruit-bearing surface. it will be readily seen that the gills, pores and teeth simply expose in a very economical way the greatest possible spore-bearing surface. if a section of the gills be examined by a microscope, it will be observed that upon both sides of the surface are extended hymenial layers. the _hymenium_ consists of elongated cells or basidia (singular, basidium) more or less club-shaped. figure will show how these basidia appear on the hymenial layer when strongly magnified. it will be seen that they are placed side by side and are perpendicular to the surface of the gills. upon each of these basidia are in some species two, usually four, slender projections upon which the spores are produced. in figure a number of sterile cells will be seen which resemble the basidia except that the latter bear four sterigmata upon which the spores rest. among these basidia and sterile cells will frequently be seen an overgrown bladder-like sterile basidium which projects beyond the rest of the hymenium, and whose use is not as yet fully known. they are called cystidia (singular, cystidium). they are never numerous, but they are scattered over the entire surface, becoming more numerous along the edge of the gills. when they are colored, they change the appearance of the gills. [illustration: figure .--rootlike strands of mycelium of the pear-shaped puff-ball growing in rotten wood. young puff-balls in the form of small white knots are forming on the strands. natural size.--_longyear._] the spores are the seeds of the mushroom. they are of various sizes and shapes, with a variety of surface markings. they are very small, as fine as dust, and invisible to the naked eye, except as they are seen in masses on the grass, on the ground, or on logs, or in a spore print. it is the object of every fungus to produce spores. some fall on the parent host or upon the ground. others are wafted away by every rise of the wind and carried for days and finally settle down, it may be, in other states and continents from those in which they started. millions perish because of not finding a suitable resting place. those spores that do find a favorable resting-place, under right conditions, will begin to germinate by sending out a slender thread-like filament, or hyphæ, which at once branches out in search of food material, and which always forms a more or less felted mass, called mycelium. when first formed the hyphæ are continuous and ramify through the nourishing substratum from which there arises afterward a spore-bearing growth known as the sporocarp or young mushroom. this vegetative part of the fungus is usually hidden in the soil, or in decayed wood, or vegetable matter. in figure is a representation of the mycelium of the small pear-shaped puff-ball with a number of small white knobs marking the beginning of the puff-ball. the mycelium exposed here is very similar to the mycelium of all mushrooms. in the pore-bearing genera the hymenium lines the vertical pores; in teeth-bearing fungi it lines the surface of each tooth, or is spread out over the smooth surface of the stereum. the development of the spores is quite interesting. the young basidia as seen in figure are filled with a granular protoplasm. soon small projections, called sterigma (plural, sterigmata), make their appearance on the ends of the basidia and the protoplasm passes into them. each projection or sterigma soon swells at its extremity into a bladder-like body, the young spore, and, as they enlarge, the protoplasm of the basidium is passed into them. when the four spores are full grown they have consumed all the protoplasm in the basidium. the spores soon separate by a transverse partition and fall off. all spores of the hymenomycetous fungi are arranged and produced in a similar manner, with their spore-bearing surface exposed early in life by the rupture of the universal veil. in the puff-balls the spores are arranged in the same way, but the hymenium is inclosed within an outer sack. when the spores are ripe the case is ruptured and the spores escape into the air as a dusty powder. the puff-balls, therefore, belong to the gastromycetous fungi because its spores are inclosed in a pouch until they are matured. another very large group of fungi is the ascomycetes, or sac fungi. it is very easily determined because all of its members develop their spores inside of small membranous sacs or asci. these asci are generally intermixed with slender, empty asci, or sterile cells, called paraphyses. these asci are variously shaped bodies and are known in different orders by different names, such as ascoma, apothecium, perithecium, and receptacle. the ascomycetes often include among their numbers fungi ranging in size from microscopic one-celled plants to quite large and very beautiful specimens. to this group belong the great number of small fungi producing the various plant diseases. in a work of this kind especial attention is naturally given to the order of discomycetes or cup fungi. this order is very large and is so called because so many of the plants are cup shaped. these cups vary greatly in size and form; some are so small that it requires a lens to examine them; some are saucer-shaped; some are like goblets, and some resemble beakers of various shapes. the saddle fungi and morels belong to this order. here the sac surface is often convoluted, lobed, and ridged, in order to afford a greater sac-bearing surface. [illustration: figure .--small portion of a section through the spore-bearing part of a morel in which the spores are produced in little sacs or asci. (a) an ascus, (b) an ascus discharging its spores, (c) the spores, (d) sterile cells. highly magnified.--_longyear._] in the mushrooms, puff-balls, etc., we find the spores were borne on the ends of basidia, usually four spores on each. in this group the spores are formed in minute club-shaped sacs, known as asci (singular, ascus). these asci are long, cylindrical sacs, standing side by side, perpendicular to the fruiting surface. figure will illustrate their position together with the sterile cells on the fruiting surface of one of the morels. they usually have eight spores in each sac or ascus. the stem of the mushroom is usually in the center of the cap, yet it may be eccentric or lateral; when it is wanting, the pileus is said to be sessile. the stem is solid when it is fleshy throughout, or hollow when it has a central cavity, or stuffed when the interior is filled with pithy substance. the stems are either fleshy or cartilaginous. when the former, it is of the same consistency as the pileus. if the latter, its consistency is always different from the pileus, resembling cartilage. the stem of the tricholoma affords a good example of the fleshy stemmed mushroom, and that of the marasmius illustrates the cartilaginous. [illustration: figure .--small portion of a stem of a morel showing cell filaments. highly magnified.--_longyear._] if the cap or stem of a mushroom is examined with a microscope of high magnifying power it will be found to be made up of a continuation of the mycelial filaments, interlaced and interwoven, branching, and the tubular filaments often delicately divided, giving the appearance of cells. figure represents a small portion of a morel stem highly magnified showing the cell filaments. in soft fungi the mycelial threads are more loosely woven and have thin walls with fewer partitions. the _veil_ is a thin sheet of mycelial threads covering the gills, sometimes remaining on the stem, forming a _ring_ or _annulus_. this sometimes remains for a time on the margin of the cap when it is said to be _appendiculate_. sometimes it resembles a spider's web when it is called _arachnoid_. the _volva_ is a universal wrapper, surrounding the entire plant when young, but which is soon ruptured, leaving a trace in the form of scales on the cap and a sheath around the base of the stem, or breaking up into scales or a scaly ring at the base of the stem. all plants having this universal volva should be avoided, further than for the purpose of study. care should be taken that, in their young state, they are not mistaken for puff-balls. frequently when found in the egg state they resemble a small puff-ball. figure represents a section of an amanita in the egg-state and also the gemmed puff-ball. as soon as a section is made and carefully examined the structure of the inside will reveal the plant at once. there is but little danger of confusing the egg stage of an amanita with the puff-ball, for they resemble each other only in their oval shape, and not in the least in their marking on the surface. [illustration: figure .--the lefthand figure represents a vertical section through a young plant of the gemmed puff-ball showing the cellular structure of the stem-like lower half, called the subgleba. the righthand figure shows a vertical section of the egg stage of an amanita, a very poisonous fungus which grows in woods and which might be mistaken for a young puff-ball if not cut open. the fungus forms just below the surface of the soil, finally bursting the volva, sending up a parasol mushroom. natural size.--_longyear._] =what is a fungus or a mushroom?= it is a cellular, flowerless plant, nourished by the mycelium which permeates the soil or other substances on which the fungus or mushroom grows. all fungi are either parasites or saprophytes which have lost their chlorophyll, and are incapable of supporting an independent existence. there is a vast number of genera and species, and many have the parasitic habit which causes them to enter the bodies of other plants and of animals. for this reason all fungi are of economic importance, especially the microscopic forms classed under the head of bacteria. some recent writers are inclined to separate the bacteria and slime-molds from the fungus group, and call them fungus animals. however this may be, they are true plants and have many of the characteristics of the fungi. they may differ from the fungi in their vegetative functions, yet they have so many things in common that i am inclined to place them under this group. many, such as the yeast fungus, the various fermentative fungi, and the bacteria concerned in the process of decomposition, are indeed very useful. the enrichment and preparation of soils for the uses of higher plants, effected by bacteria, are very important services. parasites derive their nourishment from living plants and animals. they are so constituted that when their nourishing threads come within range of the living plant they answer a certain impulse by sending out special threads, enveloping the host and absorbing nutrition. saprophitic plants do not experience this reaction from the living plants. they are compelled to get their nourishment from decaying products of plants or animals, consequently they live in rich ground or leaf mold, on decayed wood, or on dung. parasites are usually small, being limited by their host. saprophytes are not thus limited for food supply and it is possible to build up large plants such as the common mushroom group, puff-balls, etc. the spores are the seeds or reproductive bodies of the mushroom. they are very fine, and invisible to the naked eye except when collected together in great masses. underneath mushrooms, frequently, the grass or wood will be white or plainly discolored from the spores. the hymenium is the surface or part of the plant which bears the spores. the hymenophore is the part which supports the hymenium. in the common mushroom, and in fact many others, the spores develop on a certain club-like cell, called basidium (plural, basidia), on each of which four spores usually develop. in morels these cells are elongated into cylindrical membranous sacs called asci, in each of which eight spores are usually developed. the spores will be found of various colors, shapes, and sizes, a fact which will be of great assistance to the student in locating strange species and genera. in germination the spores send out slender threads which botanists call mycelium, but which common readers know as spawn. the method and place of spore development furnish a basis for the classification of fungi. the best way to acquire a thorough knowledge of both our edible and poisonous mushrooms is to study them in the light of the primary characters employed in their classification and their natural relation to each other. there is a wide difference of opinion as to the classification of mushrooms. perhaps the most simple and satisfactory is that of underwood and cook. they arrange them under six groups: . basidiomycetes--those in which the spores or reproductive bodies are naked or external as shown in illustration on page . . ascomycetes--those in which the spores are inclosed in sacs or asci. these sacs are very clearly represented in illustration figure on page . this will include the morels, pezizæ, pyrenomycetes, tuberaceæ, sphairiacei, etc. . physcomycetes--including the mucorini, saprolegniaceæ, and peronosporeæ. potato rot and downy mildew on grape vines belong to this family. . myxomycetes--slime moulds. . saccharomycetes--yeast fungi. . schizomycetes--are minute, unicellular protophytes which reproduce mainly by transverse fission. class, fungi--sub-class, basidiomycetes. this class will include all gill-bearing fungi, polyporus, boletus, hydnum, etc. fungi of this class are divided into four natural groups: . hymenomycetes. . gasteromycetes. . uredinæ. . ustilagineæ. group --hymenomycetes. under this group will be placed all fungi composed of membranes, fleshy, woody, or gelatinous, whether growing on the ground or on wood. the hymenium, or spore-bearing surface, is external at an early stage in the life of the plant. the spores are borne on basidia as explained in figure , page . when the spores ripen they fall to the ground or are carried by the wind to a host that presents all the conditions necessary for germination; there they produce the mycelia or white thread-like vines that one may have noticed in plowing sod, in old chip piles, or decayed wood. if one will examine these threads there will be found small knots which will in time develop into the full grown mushroom. hymenomycetes are divided into six families: . agaricaceæ. hymenium with gills. . polyporaceæ. hymenium with pores. . hydnaceæ. hymenium with spines. . thelephoraceæ. hymenium horizontal and mostly on the under surface. . clavariaceæ. hymenium on a smooth club-shaped surface. . tremellaceæ. hymenium even and superior. gelatinous fungi. family --agaricaceae. [illustration: figure .--spore-print of agaricus arvensis.] in the agaricaceæ or common mushrooms, and in all other of similar structure, the spore-producing membranes are found on the under surface of the cap. they consist of thin lamellæ, or gills, attached by the upper edge to the cap and extending from the stem to the margin of the cap. very frequently that space may be entirely utilized by shorter lamellæ, or gills, intervening between the longer, especially toward the margin of the cap. in a few species where the stem seems to be wanting, or where it is attached to the side of the cap, the lamellæ, or gills, radiate from the point of attachment or from the lateral stem to other parts of the circumference of the cap. berkeley gives the following characteristics: hymenium, inferior, spread over easily divisible gills or plates, radiating from a center or stem, which may be either simple or branched. this family includes the following genera: . agaricus--gills, not melting, edge acute; including all the sub-genera which have been elevated to the rank of genera. . coprinus--gills deliquescent, spores black. . cortinarius--gills persistent, veil spider-web-like, terrestrial. . paxillus--gills separating from the hymenophorum and decurrent. . gomphidius--gills branched and decurrent, pileus top-shaped. . bolbitius--gills becoming moist, spores colored. . lactarius--gills milky, terrestrial. . russula--gills equal, rigid, and brittle, terrestrial. . marasmius--gills thick, tough, hymenium dry. . hygrophorus--stem confluent with the hymenophorum; gills sharp edged. . cantharellus--gills thick, branched, rounded edge. . lentinus--pileus hairy, hard, tough; gills, tough, unequal, toothed; on logs and stumps. . lenzites--whole plant corky; gills simple or branched. . trogia--gills venose, fold-like, channelled. . panus--gills corky, with acute edge. . nyctalis--veil universal; gills broad, often parasitic. . schizophyllum--gills corky, split longitudinally. . xerotus--gills tough, fold-like. therefore the gill-bearing fungi are known under the family name, agaricaceæ, or more generally known as agarics. [illustration: figure .--spore-print of hypholoma sublatertium.] this family is divided into five series, according to the color of their spores. the spores when seen in masses possess certain colors, white, rosy, rusty, purple-brown and black. therefore the first and most important part to be determined in locating a mushroom is to ascertain the color of the spores. to do this, take a fresh, perfect, and fully developed specimen, remove the stem from the cap. place the cap with the gills downward on the surface of dark velvety paper, if you suspect the spores to be white. invert a finger bowl or a bell glass over the cap to keep the air from blowing the spores away. if the spores should be colored, white paper should be used. if the specimen is left too long the spore deposit will continue upward between the gills and it may reach an eighth of an inch in height, in which case if great care is taken in removing the cap there will be a perfect likeness of the gills and also the color of the spores. [illustration: figure .--spore-print of a flammula.] there are two ways of making these spore prints quite permanent. first take a piece of thin rice paper, muscilage it and allow it to dry, then proceed as above. in this way the print will stand handling quite a little. another way, and that used to prepare the spore-prints in these photographs, is to obtain the spore-print upon japanese paper as in the preceding method, then by an atomizer spray the print gently and carefully with a fixative such as is used in fixing charcoal drawings. success in making spore-prints requires both time and care, but the satisfaction they give is ample recompense for the trouble. it is more difficult to obtain good prints from the white-spored mushrooms than from those bearing colored spores, because it is hard to obtain a black paper having a dull velvety surface, and the spores will not adhere well to a smooth-finished, glossy paper. for the prints illustrated i am indebted to mrs. blackford. [illustration: figure .--spore-print of a boletus.] if the plant is dry it is well to moisten the fingerbowl or bell-glass on the inside before placing it over the mushroom. the spores of boleti, and, indeed, all fungi can be caught and fixed in the same way. from the study of these spore-prints we shall find five different colors of spores. this family is, therefore, divided into five series, determined by the color of the spores, which are always constant in color, size and shape. the five series will be treated in the following order: . the white-spored agarics. . the rosy-spored agarics. . the rusty-spored agarics. . the purple-brown-spored agarics. . the black-spored agarics. =analytical key.= this key is largely based upon cooke's analytical key. its use will help to locate the plant in hand in the genus to which it belongs. the first thing the student should do is to determine the color of the spore if it is not evident. this is best done according to the plan described on page . the plant should be fresh and mature. careful attention should be given to different stages of development. the habit of the plant should be considered; then, as soon as the color of the spores is determined, it will be an easy matter to locate the genus by means of the key. group i--hymenomycetes. mycelium floccose, giving rise to a distinct hymenium, fungus fleshy, membranaceous, woody or gelatinous. spores naked. hymenium, normally inferior-- hymenium with gills agaricaceæ. hymenium with pores polyporaceæ. hymenium with teeth hydnaceæ. hymenium even thelophoraceæ. hymenium, superior-- hymenium on smooth surface, club-shaped, clavariaceæ. hymenium lobed, convolute, gelatinous, tremellaceæ. family --agaricaceae. hymenium inferior, pileus more or less expanded, convex, bell-shaped. gills radiating from the point of attachment of the pileus with the stem, or from a lateral stem to other parts of the cap, simple or branched. i. spores white or slightly tinted. _a._ plants fleshy, more or less firm, decaying soon. _a._ stem fleshy, pileus easily separating from the stem. volva present and ring on the stem. pileus bearing warts or patches free from the cuticle amanita. volva present, ring wanting amanitopsis. pileus scaly, scales concrete with cuticle, volva wanting, ring present lepiota. hymenophore confluent, without cartilaginous bark, _b._ stem central, ring present (sometimes vague), volva wanting, gills attached armillaria. without a ring, gills sinuate tricholoma. gills decurrent, edges acute clitocybe. edges swollen cantharellus. gills adnate, parasitic on other mushrooms nyctalis. not parasitic, milky lactarius. not exuding juice when bruised, rigid and brittle russula. quite viscid, waxy consistency hygrophorus. _c._ stem lateral or none, rarely central pleurotus. _d._ stem with cartilaginous bark, gills adnate collybia. gills sinuate mycena. gills decurrent omphalia. plants tough, fleshy, membranaceous, leathery, stem central, gills simple marasmius. gills branched xerotus. _b._ plants gelatinous and leathery heliomyces. stem lateral or wanting, edge of gills serrate lentinus. edge of gills entire panus. gills fold-like, irregular trogia. edge of gills split longitudinally schizophyllum. _c._ plants corky or woody, gills anastomosing. lenzites. ii. spores rosy or salmon color. _a._ stem central. gills free, stem easily separating from pileus. without cartilaginous stem, volva present and distinct, no ring volvaria. without a volva, with a ring annularia. without a volva and without a ring pluteus. _b._ stem fleshy to fibrous, margin of pileus at first incurved, gills sinuate or adnate entoloma. gills decurrent clitopilus. _c._ stem eccentric or none, pileus lateral claudopus. gills decurrent, pileus umbilicate eccilia. gills not decurrent, pileus torn into scales, and slightly convex, margin at first involute leptonia. pileus bell-shaped, margin at first straight nolanea. iii. spores rusty-brown or yellow-brown. _a._ stem not cartilaginous, _a._ stem central, with a ring, ring continuous pholiota. veil arachnoid, gills adnate, powdery from spores cortinarius. gills decurrent or adnate, mostly epiphytal flammula. gills somewhat sinuate, cuticle of the pileus silky, or bearing fibrils inocybe. cuticle smooth, viscid hebeloma. gills separating from the hymenophore and decurrent paxillus. _b._ stem lateral or absent crepidotus. _b._ stem cartilaginous, gills decurrent tubaria. gills not decurrent, margin of the pileus at first incurved naucoria. margin of pileus always straight, hymenophore free pluteolus. hymenophore confluent galera. gills dissolving into a gelatinous condition bolbitius. iv. spores purple-brown. _a._ stem not cartilaginous, pileus easily separating from the stem, volva present, ring wanting chitonia. volva and ring wanting pilosace. volva wanting, ring present agaricus. gills confluent, ring present on stem stropharia. ring wanting, veil remaining attached to margin of pileus hypholoma. _b._ stem cartilaginous, gills decurrent deconia. gills not decurrent, margin of pileus at first incurved psilocybe. margin of pileus at first straight psathyra. v. black spored mushrooms. gills deliquescent coprinus. gills not deliquescent, gills decurrent gomphidius. gills not decurrent, pileus striate psathyrella. pileus not striate, ring wanting, veil often present on margin panæolus. ring wanting, veil appendiculate chalymotta. ring present anellaria. chapter ii. the white-spored agarics. the species bearing the white spores seem to be higher in type than those producing colored spores. most of the former are firmer, while the black spored specimens soon deliquesce. the white spores are usually oval, sometimes round, and in many cases quite spiny. all white-spored specimens will be found in clean places. _amanita. pers._ _amanita_ is supposed to be derived from mount amanus, an ancient name of a range separating cilicia from syria. it is supposed that galen first brought specimens of this fungus from that region. the genus _amanita_ has both a volva and veil. the spores are white and the stem is readily separable from the cap. the volva is universal at first, enveloping the young plant, yet distinct and free from the cuticle of the pileus. this genus contains some of the most deadly poisonous mushrooms, although a few are known to be very good. there is a large number of species--about being known, of which have been found in this country--a few being quite common in this state. all the amanita are terrestrial plants, mostly solitary in their habits, and chiefly found in the woods, or in well wooded grounds. in the button stage it resembles a small egg or puff-ball, as will be seen in figure , page , and great care should be taken to distinguish it from the latter, if one is hunting puff-balls to eat; yet the danger is not great, since the volva usually breaks before the plant comes through the ground. _amanita phalloides. fr._ the deadly amanita. [illustration: figure .--amanita phalloides. fr. showing volva at the base, cap dark.] [illustration: figure .--amanita phalloides. fr. white form showing volva, scaly stem, ring.] _phalloides_ means phallus-like. this plant and its related species are deadly poisonous. for this reason the plant should be carefully studied and thoroughly known by every mushroom hunter. in different localities, and sometimes in the same locality, the plant will appear in very different shades of color. there are also variations in the way in which the volva is ruptured, as well as in the character of the stem. the beginner will imagine he has a new species often, till he becomes thoroughly acquainted with all the idiosyncrasies of this plant. the pileus is smooth, even, viscid when young and moist, frequently adorned with a few fragments of the volva, white, grayish white, sometimes smoky-brown; whether the pileus be white, oyster-color or smoky-brown, the center of the cap will be several shades darker than the margin. the plant changes from a knob or egg-shape when young, to almost flat when fully expanded. many plants have a marked umbo on the top of the cap and the rim of the cap may be slightly turned up. the gills are always white, wide, ventricose, rounded next to the stem, and free from it. the stem is smooth, white unless in cases where the cap is dark, then the stem of those plants are apt to be of the same color, tapering upward as in the specimen (fig. ); stuffed, then hollow, inclined to discolor when handled. the volva of this species is quite variable and more or less buried in the ground, where careful observation will reveal it. one need never confound this species with the meadow mushroom, for the spores of that are always purple-brown, while a spore-print of this will always reveal white spores. i have seen a slight tint of pink in the gills of the a. phalloides but the spores were always white. until one knows thoroughly both lepiota naucina and a. phalloides before eating the former he should always hunt carefully for the remains of a volva and a bulbous base in the soil. this plant is quite conspicuous and inviting in all of its various shades of color. it is found in woods, and along the margin of woods, and sometimes on lawns. it is from four to eight inches high and the pileus from three to five inches broad. there is a personality about the plant that renders it readily recognizable after it has once been learned. found from august to october. _amanita recutita. fr._ the fresh-skinned amanita. poisonous. recutita, having a fresh or new skin. pileus convex, then expanded, dry, smooth, often covered with small scales, fragments of the volva; margin almost even, gray or brownish. the gills forming lines down the stem. the stem stuffed, then hollow, attenuated upward, silky, white, ring distant, edge of volva not free, frequently obliterated. rather common where there is much pine woods. august to october. this species differs from a. porphyria in ring not being brown or brownish. _amanita virosa. fr._ the poisonous amanita. virosa, full of poison. the pileus is from four to five inches broad; the entire plant white, conical, then expanded; viscid when moist; margin often somewhat lobed, even. the gills are free, crowded. the stem is frequently six inches long, stuffed, round, with a bulbous base, attenuated upward, squamulose, ring near apex, volva large, lax. the spores are subglobose, - µ. this is probably simply a form of a. phalloides. it is found in damp woods. august to october. _amanita muscaria. linn._ the fly amanita. poisonous. [illustration: figure .--amanita muscaria.--_linn._ cap reddish or orange, showing scales on the cap and at base of stem.] muscaria, from musca, a fly. the fly amanita is a very conspicuous and handsome plant. it is so called because infusions of it are used to kill flies. i have frequently seen dead flies on the fully developed caps, where they had sipped of the dew upon the cap, and, like the lotos-eaters of old, had forgotten to move away. it is a very abundant plant in the woods of columbiana county, this state. it is also found frequently in many localities about chillicothe. it is often a very handsome and attractive plant, because of the bright colors of the cap in contrast with the white stem and gills, as well as the white scales on the surface of the cap. these scales seem to behave somewhat differently from those of other species of amanita. instead of shrivelling, curling, and falling off they are inclined to adhere firmly to the smooth skin of the pileus, turning brownish, and in the maturely expanded plant appear like scattered drops of mud which have dried upon the pileus, as you will observe in figure . the pileus is three to five inches broad, globose at first, then dumb-bell in shape, convex, then expanded, nearly flat in age; margin in matured plants slightly striate; the surface of the cap is covered with white floccose scales, fragments of the volva, these scales being easily removed so that old plants are frequently comparatively smooth. the color of the young plant is normally red, then orange to pale yellow; late in the season, or in old plants, it fades to almost white. the flesh is white, sometimes stained yellow close to the cuticle. the gills are pure white, very symmetrical, various in length, the shorter ones terminating under the cap very abruptly, crowded, free, but reaching the stem, decurrent in the form of lines somewhat broader in front, sometimes a slight tinge of yellow will be observed in the gills. the stem is white, often yellowish with age, pithy and often hollow, becoming rough and shaggy, finally scaly, the scales below appearing to merge into the form of an obscure cup, the stem four to six inches long. the veil covers the gills of the young plant and later is seen as a collar-like ring on the stem, soft, lax, deflexed, in old specimens it is often destroyed. the spores are white and broadly elliptical. the history of this plant is as interesting as a novel. its deadly properties were known to the greeks and romans. the pages of history record its undoing and its accessory to crime. pliny says, alluding to this species, "very conveniently adapted for poisoning." this was undoubtedly the species that agrippina, the mother of nero, used to poison her husband, the emperor claudius; and the same that nero used in that famous banquet when all his guests, his tribunes and centurions, and agrippina herself, fell victims to its poisonous properties. however, it is said this mushroom is habitually eaten by certain people as an intoxicant; indeed, it is used in kamchatka and asiatic russia, generally, where the amanita drunkard takes the place of the opium fiend and the alcohol bibber in other countries. by reading colonel george kennan in his "tent-life in siberia," and cooke's "seven sisters of sleep," you will find a full description of the toxic employment of this fungus which will far surpass any possible imagination. it caused the death of the czar alexis of russia; also count de vecchi, with a number of his friends, in washington in . he was in search of the orange amanita and found this, and the consequences were serious. in size, shape, and color of the cap there is similarity, but in other respects the two are very different. they may be contrasted as follows: orange amanita, edible.--cap _smooth_, gills _yellow_, stem _yellow_, wrapper _persistent_, _membranaceous_, _white_. fly amanita, poisonous.--cap _warty_, gills _white_, stem _white_, or slightly _yellowish_, wrapper _soon breaking_ into _fragments or scales_, white or sometimes yellowish brown. found along roadsides, wood margins, and in thin woods. it prefers poor soil, and is more abundant where poplar and hemlock grow. from june to frost. [illustration: figure .--amanita muscaria.--_linn._ one-half natural size, showing development of the plant.] _amanita frostiana. pk._ frost's amanita. poisonous. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--amanita frostiana.] frostiana, named in honor of charles c. frost. the pileus is convex, expanded, bright orange or yellow, warty, sometimes smooth, striate on the margin, pileus one to three inches broad. the gills are free, white, or slightly tinged with yellow. the stem is white or yellow, stuffed, bearing a slight, sometimes evanescent, ring, bulbous, at the base, the bulb slightly margined by the volva. the spores globose, - µ in diameter. _peck._ great care should be taken to distinguish this species from a. cæsarea because of its often yellow stem and gills. i found some beautiful specimens on cemetery hill and on ralston's run. it is very poisonous and should be carefully avoided, or rather, it should be thoroughly known that it may be avoided. the striations on the margin of its yellow tinge might lead one to mistake it for the orange amanita. it is found in shady woods and sometimes in open places where there is underbrush. june to october. _amanita verna. bull._ the spring amanita. poisonous. [illustration: figure .--amanita verna. two-thirds natural size, showing the volva cup and the ring.] verna, pertaining to spring. this species is considered by some only a white variety of amanita phalloides. the plant is always a pure white. it can only be distinguished from the white form of the a. phalloides by its closer sheathing volva and perhaps a more ovate pileus when young. the pileus is at first ovate, then expanded, somewhat depressed, viscid when moist, even, margin naked, smooth. the gills are free. the stem is stuffed, with advancing age hollow, equal, floccose, white, ringed, base bulbous, volva closely embracing the stem with its free margin, ring forming a broad collar, reflexed. the spores are globose, µ broad. this species is very abundant on the wooded hills in this section of the state. its pure white color makes it an attractive plant, and it should be carefully learned. i have found it before the middle of june. _amanita magnivelaris. pk._ the large veiled amanita. poisonous. magnivelaris is from _magnus_, large; _velum_, a veil. the pileus is convex, often nearly plane, with even margin, smooth, slightly viscid when moist, white or yellowish-white. the gills are free, close, white. the stem is long, nearly equal, white, smooth, furnished with a large mebranaceous volva, the bulbous base tapering downward and rooting. the spores are broadly elliptical. this species very closely resembles amanita verna, from which it can be distinguished by its large, persistent annulus, the elongated downward-tapering bulb of its stem, and, especially, by its elliptical spores. it is found solitary and in the woods. i found several on ralston's run under beech trees. found from july to october. _amanita pellucidula. ban._ pileus at first campanulate, then expanded, slightly viscid, fleshy in center, attenuated at the margin; color a smooth bright red, deeper at the top, shaded into clear transparent yellow at the margin; glossy, flesh white, unchanging. the gills are ventricose, free, numerous, yellow. the stem is stuffed, ring descending, fugacious. peck's th report. this species differs from amanita cæsarea in having an even margin and a white stem. it is only a form of the cæsarea. the white stem will attract the attention of the collector. _amanita solitaria. bull._ the solitary amanita. [illustration: figure .--amanita solitaria. two-thirds natural size, showing the peculiar veil.] [illustration: figure .--amanita solitaria. two-thirds natural size, showing scaly cap and stem.] [illustration: plate ii. figure .--amanita solitaria. natural size, showing scaly cap and stem, plant white.] solitary, growing alone. i have found this plant in various parts of the state and have always found them growing alone. in poke hollow, where i found the specimens in the illustrations, i found several on the hillside on different occasions, but i have never found them growing in groups. it is quite large in size, white or whitish, very woolly or floccose. usually the cap, stem, and the gills are covered with a floccose substance which will serve to identify the species. this fluffy exterior adheres readily to your hands or clothing. the cap is sometimes tinged with brown, but the flesh is white and smells quite strong, not unlike chloride of lime. the annulus is frequently torn from the stem and is found adhering to the margin of the cap. the pileus is from three to five inches broad, or more, when fully expanded, at first globose to hemispherical, as will be seen in figures and , convex, or plane, warty, white or whitish, the pointed scales being easily rubbed off, or washed off by heavy rains, these scales varying in size from small granules to quite large conical flakes, and differing in condition and color in different plants. the gills are free, or are not attached by the upper part, the edges are frequently floccose where they are torn from the slight connection with the upper surface of the veil; white, or slightly tinged with cream-color, broad. the stem is four to eight inches high, solid, becoming stuffed when old, bulbous, rooting deep in the soil, very scaly, ventricose sometimes in young plants, white, very mealy. volva friable. ring, large, lacerated, usually hanging to the margin of the cap, but in figure it adheres to the stem. this is a large and beautiful plant in the woods, and easily identified because of its floccose nature and the large bulb at the base of the stem. it is not so warty and the odor is not nearly so strong as the amanita strobiliformis. it is edible but very great caution should be used to be sure of your species. found from july to october in woods and roadsides. _amanita radicata. pk._ [illustration: figure .--amanita radicata. two-thirds natural size, showing scaly cap, bulbous stem and root broken off and peculiar veil.] radicata means furnished with a root. the root of the specimen in figure was broken off in getting it out of the ground. the pileus is subglobose, becoming convex, dry, verrucose, white, margin even, flesh firm, white, odor resembling that of chloride of lime. the gills are close, free, white. the stem is solid, deeply radicating, swollen at the base or bulbous, floccose or mealy at the top, white; veil thin, floccose, or mealy, white, soon lacerated and attached in fragments to the margin of the pileus or evanescent. the spores are broadly elliptic, . - µ long, - µ broad. _peck._ this is quite a large and beautiful plant, very closely related to amanita strobiliformis, but readily distinguished from it because of its white color, its clearly radiating stem, and small spores. the stem shows to be bulbous and the cap covered with warts. i found the plant frequently in poke hollow and on ralston's run. july and august. [illustration: figure .--amanita radicata.] _amanita strobiliformis. fr._ the fir-cone amanita. [illustration: plate iii. figure .--amanita strobiliformis. young plant showing veil covering the entire gill-surface of the plant. cap covered with persistent warts, stem rough and rooting, odor strong of chloride of lime.] [illustration: plate iv. figure .--amanita strobiliformis. showing long root.] strobiliformis means fir-cone form; so called from the similarity of its undeveloped form to that of the strobile of the pine. the pileus is six to eight inches broad, when young, subglobose, then convex, expanded, nearly plane, with persistent warts, white, ash-color, sometimes yellow on the cap, the margin even and extending beyond the gills; warts hard, angular, pointed, white; flesh white, compact. the gills are free, crowded, rounded, white, becoming yellow. the stem is five to eight inches long, frequently longer, tapering upward, floccosely scaly, bulbous, rooting beyond the bulb; ring large, torn; volva forming concentric rings. the spores are - × - µ. this is one of the most stately plants in the woods. it is said to be edible, but the strong pungent odor, like chloride of lime, has deterred me from eating it. this, however, is said to disappear in cooking. it grows to be very large. dr. kellerman and i found a specimen in haynes's hollow whose stem measured over eleven inches, and cap nine inches. it is found in open woods and wood margins. great caution should be used before the plant is eaten to know it beyond doubt. found july to october. _amanita mappa. fr._ the delicate amanita. poisonous. [illustration: figure .--amanita mappa. natural size, showing long smooth stem, cap yellowish-white and ring.] mappa means a napkin, so called from the volva. the pileus is two to three inches broad, convex, then expanded, plane, obtuse or depressed, without separable cuticle; margin nearly even; white or yellowish, usually with patches of the volva dry. the gills are adnexed, close, narrow, shining, white. the stem is two to three inches long, stuffed, then hollow, cylindrical, nearly smooth, bulbous, nearly globose at the base, white, almost equal above the bulb. the volva with its free margin is acute and narrow. the ring is membranaceous, superior, soft, lax, ragged. its color is quite as variable and its habits are much like a. phalloides, from which it can only be distinguished by its less developed volva, which, instead of being cup-shaped, is little more than a mere rim fringing the bulb. the odor at times is very strong. it is found in open woods and under brush. label it poisonous. _amanita crenulata. pk._ [illustration: figure .--amanita crenulata.] crenulata means bearing notches, referring to the crenulate form of the gills, which are very distinct. the pileus is thin, two to two and a half inches broad, broadly ovate, becoming convex, or nearly plane, somewhat striate on the margin, adorned with a few thin whitish floccose warts or with whitish flocculent patches, whitish or grayish, sometimes tinged with yellow. the gills are close, reaching the stem, and sometimes forming decurrent lines upon it, floccose crenulate on the edge, the short ones truncate at the inner extremity, white. the stem is equal, bulbous, floccose mealy above, stuffed or hollow, white, the annulus slight, evanescent. spores broadly elliptic or subglobose, . - long, nearly as broad, usually containing a single large nucleus. _peck_, bull. tor. bot. club. the stem is bulbous at the base but the volva is rarely seen upon it although slight patches are frequently seen on the pileus. the ring is very evanescent and soon disappears. the specimens i have received from mrs. blackford look good enough to eat and she speaks highly of the edible qualities of this species. so far as i know this plant is confined to the new england states. found from september to november. it grows in low damp ground under trees. _amanita cothurnata. atkinson._ the booted amanita. [illustration: figure .--amanita cothurnata. slightly reduced from natural size, showing different stages of development.] cothurnata means buskined; from corthunus, a high shoe or buskin worn by actors. this species is easily separated from the other amanitas. i shall give prof. atkinson's description of it in full: "the pileus is fleshy and passes from nearly globose to hemispherical, convex, expanded, and when specimens are very old sometimes the margin is elevated. it is usually white, though specimens are found with a tinge of citron yellow in the center or of tawny yellow in the center of other specimens. the pileus is viscid, strongly so when moist. it is finely striate on the margin, and covered with numerous, white, floccose scales from the upper half of the volva, forming more or less dense patches, which may wash off in heavy rains. the gills are rounded next the stem, and quite remote from it. the edge of the gills is often eroded or frazzly from the torn-out threads with which they were loosely connected to the upper side of the veil in the young or button stage. the spores are globose or nearly so, with a large "nucleus" nearly filling the spore. the stem is cylindrical, even, and expanded below into quite a large oval bulb, the stem just above the bulb being margined by a close-fitting roll of the volva, and the upper edge of this presenting the appearance of having been sewed at the top like the rolled edge of a garment or buskin. the surface of the stem is minutely floccose, scaly or strongly so, and decidedly hollow even from a very young stage or sometimes when young with loose threads in the cavity. a. cothurnata resembles in many points a. frostiana and it will afford the collector a very interesting study to note the points of difference. i found the two species growing on cemetery hill. figure is from plants collected in michigan and photographed by dr. fisher. found in september and october. _amanita rubescens. fr._ the reddish amanita. edible. [illustration: figure .--amanita rubescens. one-third natural size, caps a dingy reddish-brown, stains reddish when bruised.] rubescens is from _rubesco_, to become red. it is so called because of the dingy reddish color of the entire plant, and also because when the plant is handled or bruised it quickly changes to a reddish color. it is often a large bulky plant and rather uninviting. the pileus is four to six inches broad, dingy reddish, often becoming pale flesh color, fleshy, oval to convex, then expanded; sprinkled with small pale warts, unequal, mealy, scattered, white, easily separating; margin even, faintly striate, especially in wet weather; flesh soft, white, becoming red when broken. the gills are white or whitish, free from the stem but reaching it and forming at times decurrent lines upon it, thin, crowded. the stem is four or five inches long, nearly cylindrical, solid, though inclined to be soft within, tapering from the base up, with a bulbous base which often tapers abruptly below, containing reddish scales, color dull red. it has seldom any distinct evidence of a volva at the base but abundant evidence on the cap. ring large, superior, white, and fragile. the plant is quite variable in color, sometimes becoming almost white with a slight reddish or brownish tint. the strong distinguishing character of the species is the almost entire absence of any remains of the volva at the base of the stem. by this, and by the dull red hues and the bruised portions quickly changing to a reddish color, it is easily distinguished from any of the poisonous amanitas. according to cordier it is largely used as an article of food in france. stevenson and cooke speak well of it. i noticed the small bohemian boys gathered it about salem, ohio, not having been in this country more than a week and not being able to speak a word of english. it convinced me that it was an article of diet in bohemia and that our species is similar to theirs. i have found the plants in woods about bowling green and sidney, ohio. the plants in figure were collected on johnson's island, sandusky, ohio, and photographed by dr. kellerman. it is found from june to september. _amanita aspera. fr._ rough amanita. aspera means rough. the pileus is convex, then plane; warts minute, somewhat crowded, nearly persistent; margin even, rather thin, increasing in thickness toward the stem; scarcely umbonate, reddish with various tints of livid and gray; flesh rather solid, white, with tints of reddish-brown immediately next to the epidermis. the gills are free, with sometimes a little tooth behind, running down the stem, white, broad in front. the stem is white, squamulose, bulb rugulose, ring superior and entire. the spores are × µ. when the flesh is bruised or eaten by insects it assumes a reddish-brown color, and in this respect it resembles a. rubescens. the odor is strong but the taste is not unpleasant. in woods from june till october. the collector should be sure he knows the plant before he eats it. _amanita cæsarea. scop._ the orange amanita. edible. [illustration: figure .--amanita cæsarea. from a drawing showing the different stages of the plant. caps, gills, stem and collar yellow, volva white.] [illustration: _photo by h. c. beardslee._ figure .--amanita cæsarea.] the orange amanita is a large, attractive, and beautiful plant. i have marked it edible, but no one should eat it unless he is thoroughly acquainted with all the species of the genus amanita, and then with great caution. it is said to have been cæsar's favorite mushroom. the pileus is smooth, hemispherical, bell-shaped, convex, and when fully expanded nearly flat, the center somewhat elevated and the margin slightly curved downward; red or orange, fading to yellow on the margin; usually the larger and well-developed specimens have the deeper and richer color, the color being always more marked in the center of the pileus; margin distinctly striate; gills rounded at the stem end and not attached to the stem, yellow, free and straight. the color of the gills of matured plants usually is an index to the color of the spores but it is an exception in this case as the spores are white. the stem and the flabby membranaceous collar that surrounds it toward the top are yellow like the gills, the depth of the color varying more with the size of the plant than is the case with color of the cap. sometimes in small and inferior plants the color of both stem and gills is nearly white, and if the volva is not distinct it is difficult to distinguish it from the fly mushroom, which is very poisonous. the stem is hollow, with a soft cottony pith in the young plants. in very young plants the edge of the collar is attached to the margin of the cap and conceals the gills, but with the upward growth of the stem and the expansion of the cap the collar separates from the margin and remains attached to the stem, where it hangs down upon it like a ruffle. the expanded cap is usually from three to six inches broad, the stem from four to six inches long and tapering upward. when in the button stage, the plant is ovate; and the white color of the volva, which now entirely surrounds the plant, presents an appearance much like a hen's egg in size, color, and shape. as the parts within develop, the volva ruptures in its upper part, the stem elongates and carries upward the cap, while the remains of the volva surrounds the base of the stem in the form of a cup. when the volva first breaks at the apex, it reveals the point of the cap with its beautiful red color and in contrast with the white volva makes quite a pretty plant, but with advancing age the red or orange red fades to a yellow. in drying the specimens the red often entirely disappears. in young, as well as in old plants, the margin is often prominently marked with striations, as will be seen in figures and . the flesh of the plant is white but more or less stained with yellow next to the epidermis and the gills, which are of that color. the plant grows in wet weather from july to october. it grows in thin woods and seems to prefer pine woods and sandy soil. i have found it from the south tier of counties to the north of our state. it is not, however, a common plant in ohio. from its several names--cæsar's agaric, imperial mushroom, cibus deorum, kaiserling--one would infer that for ages it had been held in high esteem as an esculent. too great caution cannot be used in distinguishing it from the very poisonous fly mushroom. _amanita spreta. pk._ hated amanita. poisonous. spreta, hated. the pileus at first is nearly ovate, slightly umbonate, then convex, smooth, sometimes fragments of the volva adhering, the margin striate, whitish or pale-brown toward and on the umbo, soft, dry, more or less furrowed on the margin. the flesh is white, thin on the edges, and increasing in thickness toward the center. gills close, white, reaching the stem. the stem is equal, smooth, annulate, stuffed or hollow, whitish, finely striate at the top from the decurrent lines of the gills, not bulbous at the base, the volva rather large and inclined to yellowish color. the spores are elliptical. the plant resembles the dark forms of the amanitopsis in having the marked striations and the entire and closely fitting volva at the base, but can be easily distinguished by its ring. i found it on cemetery hill in company with the amanitopsis. it does not seem to root as deep in the ground as the amanitopsis. it is very poisonous and should be carefully studied so that it may be readily recognized and avoided. it is found in open woods from july to september. _amanitopsis. roze._ amanitopsis is from _aminita_ and _opsis_, resembling; so called because it resembles the amanita. the principal feature wherein the genus differs from the amanita is the absence of a collar on the stem. its species are included among the amanita by many authors. the spores are white. the gills are free from the stem, and it has a universal veil at first completely enveloping the young plant, which soon breaks it, carrying remnants of it on the pileus, where they appear as scattered warts. it differs from the lepiota in having a volva. _amanitopsis vaginata. bull._ the sheathed amanitopsis. edible. [illustration: figure .--amanita vaginata. one-third natural size. notice a portion of the volva adhering to the cap.] vaginata--from _vagina_, a sheath. the plant is edible but should be used with very great caution. it is quite variable in color, ranging from white to mouse color, brownish or yellowish. the pileus is ovate at first, bell-shaped, then convex and expanded, thin, quite fragile, smooth, when young with a few fragments of the volva adhering to its surface, deeply and distinctly striate. the gills are free, white, then pallid, ventricose, broadest in front, irregular. the flesh is white, but in the darker forms stained under the easily separating skin. the spores are white and nearly round, - µ. the stem is cylindrical, even or slightly tapering upward, hollow or stuffed, smooth or sprinkled with downy scales, not bulbous at the base. the volva is long, thin, fragile, forming a permanent sheath which is quite soft and readily adheres to the base of the stem. the striations on the margin are deep and distinct, as in the orange amanita. the cup is quite regular but it is fragile, easily broken and usually deep in the ground. in some plants a slight umbo is developed at the center. the mushroom-eater wants to distinguish very carefully between this species and amanita spreta, which is very poisonous. it is found in woods, in open places where there is much vegetable mould, sometimes found in stubble and pastures, especially in meadows under trees. found from june to november. the plant varies considerably in color, and there are several varieties, separable by means of their color: a. vaginata, var. alba. the whole plant is white. a. vaginata var. fulva. the cap tawny yellow or pale ochraceous. a. vaginata var. livida. the cap leaden brown; gills and stem tinged with smoky brown. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate v. figure .--amanita vaginata] _amanitopsis strangulata. fr._ the gray amanitopsis. edible. strangulata means choked, from the stuffed stem. the pileus is two to four inches broad, soon plane, livid-bay or gray, with patches of the volva, margin striate or grooved. the gills are free, white, close. the stem is stuffed, silky above, scaly below, slightly tapering upwards. the volva soon breaking up, forming several ring-like ridges on the stem. the spores are globose, - µ. this is a synonym for a. ceciliae. b. and br. and perhaps nothing more than a vigorous growth of amanitopsis vaginata. it has almost no odor and a sweet taste and cooks deliciously. found in the woods and in open places from august to october. _lepiota. fr._ lepiota means a scale. in the lepiota the gills are typically free from the stem, as in amanita and amanitopsis, but they differ in having no superficial or removable warts on the cap, and no sheathing or scaly remains of a volva at the base of the stem. in some species the epidermis of the cap breaks into scales which persistently adhere to the cap, and this feature, indeed, suggests the name of the genus, which is derived from the latin word _lepis_, a scale. the stem is hollow or stuffed, its flesh being distinct from the pileus and easily separable from it. there are a number of edible species. _lepiota procera. scop._ the parasol mushroom. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate vi. figure .--lepiota procera.] procera means tall. the pileus is thin, strongly umbonate, adorned with brown spot-like scales. the gills are white, sometimes yellowish-white, free, remote from the stem, broad and crowded, ventricose, edge sometimes brownish. the stem is very long, cylindrical, hollow or stuffed, even, very long in proportion to its thickness and is, therefore, suggestive of the specific name, procera. the ring is rather thick and firm, though in mature plants it becomes loosened and movable on the stem. this and the form of the plant suggest the name, parasol. the cap is from three to five inches broad and the stem from five to nine inches high. i found one specimen among fallen timber that was eleven inches tall and whose cap was six inches broad. it has a wide distribution. it is found in all parts of ohio but is not abundant anywhere. it is a favorite with those who have eaten it, and, indeed, it is a delicious morsel when quickly broiled over coals, seasoned to taste with salt and pepper, butter melted in the gills and served on toast. this mushroom is especially free from grubs and it can be dried for winter use. there is no poisonous species with which one is likely to confound it. the very tall, slender stem with a bulbous base, the very peculiar spotted cap with the prominent dark colored umbo and the movable ring on the stem, are ear-marks sufficient to identify this species. spores white and elliptical, × µ. lloyd. it is found in pastures, stubble, and among fallen timber. july to october. i am indebted to c. g. lloyd for the photograph given here. _lepiota naucina. fr._ smooth lepiota. edible. [illustration: figure .--lepiota naucina. the entire plant white.] pileus soft, smooth, white or smoky-white; gills free, white, slowly changing with age to a dirty pinkish-brown color; stem annulate, slightly thickened at the base, attenuated upward, clothed with fibres pure white. the smooth lepiota is generally very regular in shape and of a pure white color. the central part of the cap is sometimes tinged with yellow or a smoky white hue. its surface is nearly always very smooth and even. the gills are somewhat narrower toward the stem than they are in the middle. they are rounded and not attached to the stem. cap two to four inches broad; stem two to three inches long. it grows in clean grassy places in lawn, pastures, and along roadsides. i have seen the roadside white with this species around sidney, ohio. the specimens represented in figure were found in chillicothe, august to november. this is one of the best mushrooms, not inferior to the meadow mushroom. it has this advantage over the former that the gills retain their white color and do not pass from a pink to a repulsive black. the halftone and the description ought to make the plant known to the most casual reader. _lepiota americana. pk._ the american lepiota. edible. [illustration: figure .--lepiota americana. center of disk red or reddish-brown, stem frequently swollen. plant turning red when drying.] this plant is quite common about chillicothe, especially upon sawdust piles. it grows both singly and in clusters. the umbonate cap is adorned with reddish or reddish-brown scales except on the center where the color is uniformly reddish or reddish-brown because the surface is not broken up into scales; gills close, free, white, ventricose; stem smooth, enlarged at the base. in some plants the base of the stem is abnormally large; ring white, inclined to be delicate. wounds and bruises are apt to assume brownish-red hues. dr. herbst says: "this is truly an american plant, not being found in any other country. this is the pride of the family. there is nothing more beautiful than a cluster of this fungi. to look over the beautiful scaly pileus is a sight equally as fascinating as a covey of quail." found in grassy lawns and on old sawdust piles, in common with pluteus cervinus. it is found almost all over the state. it is quite equal to the parasol mushroom in flavor. it has a tendency to turn the milk or cream in which it is cooked to a reddish color. it is found from june to october. mr. lloyd suggests the name lepiota bodhami. it is the same as the european plant l. hæmatosperma. bull. _lepiota morgani. pk._ in honor of prof. morgan. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate vii. figure .--lepiota morgani. entire plant white or brownish-white. gills white at first then greenish.] pileus fleshy, soft, at first subglobose, then expanded or even depressed, white, the brownish or yellowish cuticule breaking up into scales on the disk; gills close, lanceolate, remote, white, then green; stem firm, equal or tapering upward, subbulbous, smooth, webby-stuffed, whitish tinged with brown; ring rather large, movable as you will observe in figure . flesh of both pileus and stem white, changing to a reddish, then to yellowish hue when cut or bruised. spores ovate or subelliptical, mostly uninucleate, sordid green. - × - . peck. this plant is very abundant about chillicothe and i found it equally so at sidney. i have known several families to eat of it, making about half of the children in each family sick. i regard it as a dangerous plant to eat. it grows very large and i have seen it growing in well marked rings a rod in diameter. if you are in doubt whether the plant you have is morgani or not, let it remain in the basket over night and you will plainly see that the gills are turning green. the gills are white until the spores begin to fall. the plant is found in pastures and sometimes in pasture woods. june to october. _lepiota granulosa. batsch._ grainy lepiota. edible. granulosa--from granosus, full of grains. pileus thin, convex or nearly plain, sometimes almost umbonate, rough, with numerous granular scales, often radiately wrinkled, rusty-yellow or reddish-yellow, often growing paler with age. flesh white or reddish tinged. gills close, rounded behind and usually slightly adnexed, white. stem equal or slightly thickened at the base, stuffed or hollow, white above the ring, colored and adorned like the pileus below it. ring slight and evanescent. spores elliptical, . to . inch long, . to . inch broad. plant one to two and one-fifth inches high; pileus one to two and one-fifth inches broad; stem one to three lines thick. common in woods, copses, and waste places. august to october. "this is a small species with a short stem and granular reddish-yellow pileus, and gills slightly attached to the stem. the annulus is very small and fugacious, being little more than the abrupt termination to the coating of the stem. the species was formerly made to include several varieties which are now regarded as distinct."--peck's report. found in the open woods about salem, ohio. the plant is small but quite meaty and of a pleasing quality. _lepiota cristatella. pk._ pileus thin, convex, subumbonate, minutely mealy, especially on the margin, white disk slightly tinged with pink. gills close, rounded behind, free, white; stem slender, whitish, hollow; spores subelliptical, . inch long. mossy places in woods. october.--_peck's report_. no one will fail to recognize the crested lepiota the moment he sees it. it has many of the ear marks of the lepiota family. _lepiota granosa. morg._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate viii. figure .--lepiota granosa.] granosa means covered with granules. the pileus is convex, obtuse or umbonate, even, radiately rugose-wrinkled, generally even and regular on the margin, reddish-yellow or light bay. the gills are attached to the stem, slightly decurrent, somewhat crowded, whitish, then reddish-yellow. the stem is thickened at the base, tapering toward the cap, flesh of the stem is yellow. the veil is membranous and forms a persistent ring on the stem. it grows on decayed wood. i found it in large quantities, and tried to make it l. granulosa, but i found it fit better l. amianthinus, which it resembles very closely, but it is much larger and its habit is not the same. i was not satisfied with this description and sent the specimens to prof. atkinson, who set me right. it is a beautiful plant found on decayed wood in september and october. _lepiota cepæstipes. sow._ the onion stemmed lepiota. edible. [illustration: figure .--lepiota cepæstipes. pileus thin, white or yellowish.] cepæstipes is from cepa, an onion and stipes, a stem, pileus is thin at first ovate, then bell-shaped or expanded, umbonate, soon adorned with numerous minute brownish scales, which are often granular or mealy, folded into lines on the margin, white or yellow, the umbo darker. the gills are thin, close, free, white, becoming dingy with age or drying. the stem is rather long, tapering toward the apex, generally enlarged in the middle or near the base, hollow. the ring is thin and subpersistent. the spores are subelliptical, with a single nucleus, - × - µ. the plants often cespitose, two to four inches high. pileus is one to two inches broad. it is found in rich ground and decomposing vegetable matter. it is also found in graperies and conservatories. _peck._ this plant derives its specific name from the resemblance of its stem to that of the seed-stalk of an onion. one form has a yellow or yellowish cap, while the other has a white or fair cap. it seems to delight to grow in well rotted sawdust piles and hot houses. the specimens represented in figure were collected in cleveland and photographed by prof. h. c. beardslee. _lepiota acutesquamosa. wein._ the squarrose lepiota. edible. [illustration: figure .--lepiota acutesquamosa. two-thirds natural size, showing small pointed scales.] acutesquamosa is from _acutus_, sharp, and _squama_, a scale; so called from the many bristling, erect scales on the pileus. the pileus is two to three inches broad, fleshy, convex, obtuse, or broadly umbonate; pale rusty with numerous small pointed scales, which are usually larger and more numerous at the disk. the gills are free, crowded, simple, white or yellowish. the stem is two to three inches or more long; stuffed or hollow, tapering upward slightly from a swollen base; below the ring rough or silky, pruinose above, ring large. the spores are - × µ. they are found in the woods, in gardens, and frequently in greenhouses. there is a slight difference between the specimens growing in the woods and those in the greenhouse. in the latter the pubescent covering is less dense and the erect scales are more numerous than in the former. in older specimens these scales fall off and leave small scars on the cap where they were attached. the specimens in figure were gathered in michigan and were photographed by dr. fisher of detroit. _armillaria. fr._ armillaria, from armilla, a bracelet--referring to the ring upon the stem. this genus differs from all the foregoing white-spored species in having the gills attached to the stem by their inner extremity. the spores are white and the stem has a collar, though a somewhat evanescent one, but no wrapper at the base of the stem as in the amanita and amanitopsis. by the collar the genus differs from the other genera which are to follow. the amanita and lepiota have the flesh of the stem and the pileus not continuous, and their stems are, therefore, easily separated from the cap, but in the armillaria the gills and the pileus are attached to the stem. _armillaria mellea. vahl._ the honey-colored armillaria. edible. [illustration: figure .--armillaria mellea. two-thirds natural size. honey colored. tufted with dark-brown fugitive hairs. flesh white.] mellea, from melleus, of the color of honey. cap fleshy, honey colored, or ochraceous, striate on the margin, shaded with darker brown toward the center, having a central boss-like elevation and sometimes a central depression in full grown specimens, tufted with dark-brown fugitive hairs. color of the cap varies, depending upon climatic conditions and the character of the habitat. gills distant, ending in a decurrent tooth, pallid or dirty white, very often showing brown or rust colored spots when old. spores white and abundant. frequently the ground under a clump of this species will be white from the fallen spores. stem elastic and scaly, four inches or more in length. ring downy. diameter of cap from two to five inches. manner of growth is frequently in tufts, and, as with most of the armillarias, generally parasitic on old stumps. the veil varies greatly. it may be membranaceous and thin, or quite thick, or may be wanting entirely, as will be seen in figure ; in figure only a slight trace of the ring can be seen. the two plants grew under very different environment; the last grew in the woods and figure on a lawn in the city. the species is very common and grows either in thin woods or in cleared lands, on the ground or on decaying wood. its favorite habit is about stumps. it is either solitary, gregarious, or in dense clusters. it is very abundant about chillicothe, where i have seen stumps literally surrounded with it. it has a slight acridity while raw, which it seems to lose in cooking. those who like it may eat it without fear, all varieties being edible. prof. peck gives the following varieties: a. mellea var. obscura--has the cap covered with numerous small black scales. a. mellea var. flava--has a cap yellow or reddish-yellow, otherwise normal. a. mellea var. glabra--has a smooth cap, otherwise normal. a. mellea var. radicata--has a tapering root penetrating the soil. a. mellea var. bulbosa--has a bulbous base. a. mellea var. exannulata--has the cap smooth and even on the margin, and the stem tapering at the base. [illustration: figure .--armillaria mellea. two-thirds natural size, showing double ring present.] _armillaria bulbigera. a. & s._ marginate-bulbed armillaria. [illustration: figure .--armillaria bulbigera. reddish-gray caps and short bulbous stems.] bulbigera is from _bulbus_, a bulb, and _gero_, to bear. the pileus is fleshy, three to four inches across, convex, then expanded, obtuse, even, brownish, gray, sometimes reddish, dry, fibrillose near the margin. the gills are notched at the stem, pallid, crowded at first, at length rather distant, becoming slightly colored. the stem is distinctly bulbous, two to three inches long, stuffed, pallid, fibrillose, ring oblique, fugacious. the spores are - × µ. i have found some very fine specimens in poke hollow, near chillicothe. the stems were short and very bulbous, having hardly any trace of the ring on the older specimens. the caps were obtusely convex and of a grayish rufescent color. this species can readily be distinguished by the distinctly marginate bulb at the base of the stem. the specimens in figure were found in poke hollow, near chillicothe, october d. i have no doubt of their edibility but i have not eaten them. _armillaria nardosmia. ellis._ spikenard-smelling armillaria. ellis. [illustration: figure .--armillaria nardosmia. one-half natural size, showing the veil and incurved margin.] nardosmia is from _nardosmius_, the odor of nardus or spikenard. the pileus is quite thick, firm and compact, thinner toward the margin, strongly involute when young, grayish white and beautifully variegated with brown spots, like the breast of a pheasant, rather tough, with a separable epidermis, flesh white. the gills are crowded, slightly notched or emarginate, somewhat ventricose, white. the stem is solid, short, fibrous, sheathed by a veil forming a ring more or less evanescent. the spores are nearly round, µ in diameter. this is the most beautiful species of the genus, and from its pheasant-like spotted cap, as well as its strong odor and taste of spikenard or almonds, it is easily determined. the almond taste and odor disappears in cooking. i found some very fine specimens around a pond in mr. shriver's woods, east of chillicothe. in older specimens the cuticule of the caps frequently breaks into scales. found in woods in september and october. _armillaria appendiculata. pk._ appendiculata, bearing small appendages. pileus is broadly convex, glabrous, whitish, often tinged with rust-color or brownish rust-color on the disk. flesh white or whitish. gills close, rounded behind, whitish. stem equal or slightly tapering upward, solid, bulbous, whitish, the veil either membraneous or webby, white, commonly adhering in fragments to the margin of the pileus. spores subelliptical, × . pileus two to four inches broad. stem . - . inches long; - lines thick. the general appearance of this species is suggestive of tricholoma album, but the appearance of a veil separates it from that fungus and places it in the genus armillaria. the veil, however, is often slightly lacerated, or webby, and adherent to the margin of the pileus. peck's report. i have found this at salem and chillicothe. _tricholoma. fr._ tricholoma is from two greek words meaning hair and fringe. this genus is known by its stout, fleshy stem, without any evidence of a ring, and by the gills being attached to the stem and having a notch in their edges near or at the extremity. the veil is absent, or, if present, it is downy and adherent to the margin of the cap. the cap is generally quite fleshy; the stem is homogeneous and confluent with the pileus, central and nearly fleshy, without either ring or volva, and with no distinct bark-like coat. the spores are white or grayish-white. the distinguishing features are the fleshy stem, continuous with the flesh of the pileus, and the sinuate or notched gills. this is quite a universal genus. all the species grow on the ground, so far as i know them. there are many edible species under this genus, there being only two, so far as i know, not edible; and no one is likely to touch those on account of their strong odor. they are t. sulphureum and t. saponaceum. _tricholoma transmutans. pk._ the changing tricholoma. edible. transmutans means changing, from changes of color in both stem and gills in different stages of the plant. this species has a cap two to four inches broad, viscid or sticky when moist. it is at first tawny-brown, especially with advancing age. the flesh is white and has a decided farinaceous odor and taste. the gills are crowded, rather narrow, sometimes branched, becoming reddish-spotted with age. the stem is equal or slightly tapering upward; bare, or slightly silky-fibrillose; stuffed or hollow; whitish, often marked with reddish stains or becoming reddish-brown toward the base, white within. spores subglobose, µ. the species grows in woods and open places, also in clover pastures, either singly or in tufts. i have seen large tufts of them, and in that case the caps are more or less irregular on account of their crowded condition. i found it frequently about salem, and this fall, , i found it quite plentiful in a clover pasture near chillicothe. found in wet weather from august to september. _tricholoma equestre. linn._ the knightly tricholoma. edible. [illustration: figure .--tricholoma equestre.] equestre means belonging to a horseman; so called from its distinguished appearance in the woods. the pileus is three to five inches broad, fleshy, compact, convex, expanded, obtuse, viscid, scaly, margin incurved at first, pale yellowish, with sometimes a slight tinge of green in both cap and gills. flesh white or tinged with yellow. the gills are free, crowded, rounded behind, yellow. the stem is stout, solid, pale yellow or white, white within. the spores are - × µ. it differs from t. coryphæum in having gills entirely yellow, while the edges only of the latter are yellow. it differs from t. sejunctum in the latter having pure white gills and a more slender stem. it is found but occasionally here, and then only a specimen or two. it is an attractive plant and no one would pass it in the woods without admiring it. found from august to october. _tricholoma sordidum. fr._ [illustration: figure .--tricholoma sordidum.] sordidum means dingy, dirty. the pileus is two to three inches broad, rather tough, fleshy, convex, bell-shaped, then depressed, subumbonate, smooth, hygrophanous, margin slightly striate, brownish lilac, then dusky. the gills are rounded, rather crowded, dingy violet then dusky, notched with a decurrent tooth. the stem is colored like the pileus, fibrillose striate, usually slightly curved, stuffed, short, often thickened at the base. the spores are - × - , minutely rugulose. this species differs from t. nudum in being smaller, tougher, and often hygrophanous. it is found in richly manured gardens, about manure piles, and in hot-houses. the specimens in figure were found in a hot-house near boston, mass., and sent to me by mrs. e. blackford. they are found in september and october. _tricholoma grammopodium. bull._ the grooved stem tricholoma. edible. [illustration: figure .--tricholoma grammopodium. natural size.] grammopodium is from two greek words meaning _line_ and _foot_. the pileus is three to six inches broad, flesh thick at the center, thin at the margin, solid yet tender; brownish, blackish-umber, almost a dingy-lavender when moist, whitish when dry; at first bell-shaped, then convex, sometimes slightly wavy, obtusely umbonate; margin at first inclined to be involute, and extending beyond the gills. the gills are attached to the stem, broadly notched as will be seen in the specimen, closely crowded, quite entire, shorter ones numerous, a few branched, white or whitish. the stem is three to four inches long, thickened at the base, smooth, firm, longitudinally grooved from which it gets its specific name, whitish. the spores are nearly round, - µ. it closely resembles t. fuligineum but can be distinguished by the grooved stem and crowded gills. the specimens in figure were found near boston, and were sent to me by mrs. blackford. the plants keep well and are easily dried. they were found the first of june. they have an excellent flavor. _tricholoma pædidum. fr._ paedidum means nasty, stinking. the pileus is small, about one and a half inches broad, rather fleshy, tough; convex, then flattened, soon depressed around the conical umbo; fibrillose, becoming smooth; smoky gray, somewhat streaked; moist; margin involute, naked. the gills are adnexed, crowded, narrow, white, then grayish, somewhat sinuate with a slight decurrent tooth. the stem is short, slightly striate, dingy gray, thickened at the base. the spores are elliptical or fusiform, - × - µ. the specific name, "nasty" or "stinking," has really no application to the plant. it is said to be very good when cooked. it is found in well manured gardens and fields, or about manure piles. it differs from t. sordidum in having no trace of violet color. t. lixivium differs in the free truncate gills. _tricholoma lixivium. fr._ lixivium means made into lye; hence, of the color of ashes and water. the pileus is two to three inches broad; flesh thin; convex then plane; umbonate, never depressed; even; smooth; grayish-brown when moist, then umber; margin membranaceous, at length slightly striate, sometimes wavy. the gills are rounded behind and adnexed, free, soft, distant, often crisped, gray. the stem is about two inches long, fibrous, hollow, or stuffed, equal, at first covered with a white down, fragile, gray. the spores are elliptical, × - µ. the umbonate pileus and the nearly free, broad, gray gills will distinguish it. they are a late grower and are found under pine trees in november. _tricholoma sulphureum. bull._ sulphury tricholoma. poisonous. [illustration: figure .--tricholoma sulphureum.] sulphureum, sulphur; so called from the general color of the plant. the pileus is one to three inches broad, fleshy, convex, then expanded, plane, slightly umbonate, sometimes depressed, or flexuous and irregular, margin at first involute, dingy or reddish-yellow, at first silky, becoming smooth and even. the gills are rather thick, narrowed behind, emarginate or acutely adnate, sulphur-colored. the stem is two to four inches long, somewhat bulbous, sometimes curved, frequently slightly striate; stuffed, often hollow; sulphur-yellow, yellow within; furnished at the base occasionally with many rather strong, yellow, fibrous roots. odor strong and disagreeable. flesh thick and yellow. spores are - × µ. it grows in mixed woods. i find it frequently where logs have decayed. the specimen in figure was found in haynes' hollow and photographed by dr. kellerman. found in october and november. _tricholoma quinquepartitum. fr._ quinquepartitum means divided into five parts. there is no apparent reason for the name. fries could not identify linnæus' agaricus quinquepartitus and he attached the name of this species. the pileus is three or four inches broad, slightly fleshy; convex, rather involute, then flattened, somewhat repand; viscid, smooth, even, pale yellowish. the gills are notched at the point of attachment to the stem, broad, white. the stem is three to four inches long, solid, striate or grooved, smooth. the spores are - × - . this species differs from t. portentosum in the pileus not being virgate, and from t. fucatum in the smooth, striate or grooved stem. this plant is found in thin woods where logs have decayed. i have not eaten this species but i have no doubt of its edibility. the taste is pleasant. found in october and november. _tricholoma laterarium. pk._ [illustration: figure .--tricholoma laterarium.] laterarium is from _later_, a brick; so called because there is nearly always a slight tinge of brick red on the disk. the pileus is two to four inches broad, convex, then expanded, sometimes slightly depressed in the center; pruinose, whitish, the disk often tinged with red or brown, the thin margin marked with slight subdistant, short, radiating ridges. the gills are narrow, crowded, white, prolonged in little decurrent lines on the stem. the stem is nearly equal, solid, white. the spores are globose, . inch in diameter. _peck's_ th rep. this plant is quite widely distributed in the united states. it is found quite frequently in ohio and is rather abundant on the hillsides about chillicothe, where it is frequently somewhat bulbous. the tinge of brownish-red on the disk, and the short radiating ridges on the margin of the pileus will serve to identify the plant. it is edible and fairly good. found on leaf-mold in rather damp woods from july to november. _tricholoma panæolum. fr._ [illustration: figure .--tricholoma panæolum.] panæolum, all variegated. the pileus is from three to four inches broad, deeply depressed, dusky with a gray bloom, hygrophanous; margin at first inrolled, sometimes wavy or irregular when fully expanded. the gills are quite crowded, adnate, arcuate, white at first, turning to a light gray tinged with an intimation of red, notched with a decurrent tooth. the stem is short, slightly bulbous, tapering upward, solid, smooth, about the same color as the cap. the spores are subglobose, - . i found the specimens in figure under pine trees, growing on a bed of pine needles, on cemetery hill. they were found on the th of november. var. calceolum, sterb., has the pileus spongy, deformed, thin, soft, expanded, edge incurved, sooty-gray; gills smoky; stem excentric, fusiform, very short. _tricholoma columbetta. fr._ the dove-colored tricholoma. edible. [illustration: figure .--tricholoma columbetta. one-third natural size. caps white. stems bulbous.] columbetta is the diminutive of _columba_, a dove; so called from the color of the plant. the pileus is from one to four inches broad, fleshy, convex, then expanded; at first smooth, then silky; white, center sometimes a dilute mouse color shading to a white, frequently a tinge of pink will be seen on the margin, which is at first inrolled, tomentose in young plants, sometimes cracked. the gills are notched at the junction of the stem, crowded, thin, white, brittle. the stem is two inches or more long, solid, white, cylindrical, unequal, often compressed, smooth, crooked, silky especially in young plants, bulbous. spores . by . inch. flesh white, taste mild. this is a beautiful plant, seeming to be quite free from insects, and will remain sound for several days on your study table. i had no end of trouble with it till dr. herbst suggested the species. it is quite plentiful here. dr. peck gives quite a number of varieties. curtis, mcilvaine, stevenson, and cooke all speak of its esculent qualities. found in the woods in september and october. _tricholoma melaleucum. pers._ the changeable tricholoma. [illustration: figure .--tricholoma melaleucum. two-thirds natural size.] melaleucum, black and white; from contrasted colors of the cap and gills. this tricholoma grows in abundance in northern ohio. i have found it in the woods near bowling green, ohio. the specimens in the halftone were found near sandusky, ohio, and were photographed by dr. kellerman. it is usually found in sandy soil, growing singly in shady woods. the pileus fleshy, thin, from one to three inches broad, convex, rather broadly umbonate, smooth, moist, with variable color, usually pale, nearly white at first, later much darker, sometimes slightly wavy. the gills are notched, adnexed, ventricose, crowded, white. the stem is stuffed, then hollow, elastic, from two to four inches long, somewhat smooth, whitish, sprinkled with a few fibrils, usually thickened at the base. the flesh is soft and white. there is no report, so far as i know, regarding its edibility, and i have no doubt as to this, but would advise caution. _tricholoma lascivum. fr._ the tarry tricholoma. lascivum, playful, wanton; so called because of its many affinities, none of which are very close. the pileus is fleshy, convex, then expanded, slightly obtuse, somewhat depressed, silky at first, then smooth, even. the gills are notched, adnexed, crowded, white; the stem is solid, equal, rigid, rooting, white, tomentose at the base. found in the woods, haynes' hollow near chillicothe. september and october. _tricholoma russula. schæff._ the reddish tricholoma. edible. [illustration: figure .--tricholoma russula. natural size. caps reddish or flesh color.] russula is so named because of its likeness in color to some species of the genus russula. the pileus is three to four inches broad, fleshy, convex, then depressed, viscid, even or dotted with granular scales, red or flesh color, the margin somewhat paler, involute and minutely downy in the young plant. the gills are rounded or slightly decurrent, rather distant, white, often becoming red-spotted with age. the stem is two to three inches long, solid, firm, whitish rosy-red, nearly equal, scaly at the apex. the spores are elliptical, × µ. this plant is quite variable in many of its peculiar characteristics, yet it usually has enough to readily distinguish it. the cap may be flesh-color and the stem rosy-red, the cap may be red and the stem white or whitish with stains of red. during wet weather the caps of all are viscid; when dry, all may be cracked more or less. the stems may not be scaly at the apex, often rosy when young. they are found in the woods solitary, in groups, or frequently in dense clusters. the specimens in figure were found in michigan and photographed by dr. fischer. i found this plant in poke hollow. the gills were quite decurrent. _tricholoma acerbum. bull._ the bitter tricholoma. acerbum means bitter to the taste. the pileus is three to four inches broad, convex to expanded, obtuse, smooth, more or less spotted, margin thin, at first involute, rugose, sulcate, viscid, whitish, often tinged rufous, or yellow, quite bitter to the taste. the gills are notched, crowded, pallid or rufescent, narrow. the stem is solid, rather short, blunt, yellowish, squamulose above or about the apex. the spores are subglobose, - µ. these plants were found growing in a thick bed of moss along with armillaria nardosmia. they were not perfect plants but i judged them to be t. acerbum from their taste and involute margin. i sent some to prof. atkinson, who confirmed my classification. they grow in open woods in october and november. _tricholoma cinerascens. bull._ cinerascens means becoming the color of ashes. the pileus is two to three inches broad, fleshy, convex to expanded, even, obtuse, smooth, white, then grayish, margin thin. the gills are emarginate, crowded, rather undulate, dingy, reddish often yellowish, easily separating from the pileus. the stem is stuffed, equal, smooth, elastic. they grow in clusters in mixed wood. they are mild to the taste. _tricholoma album. schæff._ the white tricholoma. edible. [illustration: figure .--tricholoma album. entirely white.] album means white. the pileus is two to four inches broad, fleshy, entirely white, convex, then depressed, obtuse, smooth, dry, disc frequently tinged with yellow, margin at first involute, at length repand. the gills are rounded behind, rather crowded, thin, white, broad. the stem is two to four inches long, solid, firm, narrowed upwards, smooth. this plant is quite plentiful in our woods, growing usually in groups. it grows upon the leaf mould and is frequently quite large. it is quite acrid to the taste when raw, but this is overcome in cooking. it is found from august to october. these plants are quite plentiful on the wooded hillsides about chillicothe. those in figure were found on ralston's run and photographed by dr. kellerman. _tricholoma imbricatum. fr._ the imbricated tricholoma. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd_ figure .--tricholoma imbricatum.] imbricatum means covered with tiles, _imbreces_, referring to the lacerated condition of the cap. this species is very closely related to t. transmutans in size, color and taste. it is, however, easily separated by its dry cap and solid stem. its cap is reddish-brown or cinnamon-brown, and its surface often presents a somewhat scaly appearance because the epidermis becomes lacerated or torn into small irregular fragments which adhere and seem to overlap like shingles on a roof. the flesh is firm, white, and has a farinaceous taste as well as odor. the gills are white, becoming red or rusty spotted, rather close, and notched. the stem is solid, firm, nearly equal, except slightly swollen at the base, colored much like the cap but usually paler. when old it is sometimes hollow on account of the insects mining it. the spores are white and elliptical, . inch long. i found this mushroom near salem, ohio, bowling green, ohio, and on ralston's run near chillicothe. found in mixed woods from september to november. _tricholoma terriferum. pk._ the earth-bearing tricholoma. edible. terriferum, earth-bearing, alluding to the viscid cap's holding particles of loam and pine needles to it as it breaks through the soil. this is a meaty mushroom, and when properly cleaned makes an appetizing dish. the pileus is convex, irregular, wavy on the margin and rolled inward, smooth, viscid, pale yellow, sometimes whitish, generally covered with loam on account of the sticky surface of the cap, flesh white. the gills are white, thin, close, slightly adnexed. the stem is short, fleshy, solid, equal, mealy, very slightly bulbous at the base. found near salem, ohio, on hon. j. thwing brooks' farm september to october. _tricholoma fumidellum. pk._ the smoky tricholoma. edible. fumidellum--smoky, because of the clay-colored caps clouded with brown. the pileus is one to two inches broad, convex, then expanded, subumbonate, bare, moist, dingy-white or clay-color clouded with brown, the disk or umbo generally smoky brown. the gills are crowded, subventricose, whitish. the stem is one and a half to two and a half inches long, equal, bare, solid whitish. the spores minute, subglobose, - × µ. _peck_, rep. the specimens i found grew in a mixed woods in the leaf-mold. they are found only occasionally in our woods in september and october. _tricholoma leucocephalum. fr._ the white-capped tricholoma. edible. leucocephalum is from two greek words meaning white and head, referring to the white caps. the pileus is one and a half to two inches across, convex, then plane; even, moist, smooth when the silky veil is gone, water-soaked after a rain; flesh thin, tough, smell mealy, taste mild and pleasant. the gills are rounded behind and almost free, crowded, white. the stem is about two inches long, hollow, solid at the base, smooth, cartilaginous, tough, rooting. the spores are - × - µ. it differs from t. album in having the odor of new meal strongly marked. it is found in open woods during september and october. _tricholoma fumescens. pk._ smoky tricholoma. edible. [illustration: figure .--tricholoma fumescens.] fumescens means growing smoky. pileus convex or expanded, dry, clothed with a very minute appressed tomentum, whitish. the gills are narrow, crowded, rounded behind, whitish or pale cream color, changing to smoky blue or blackish where bruised. the stem is short, cylindrical, whitish. spores are oblong-elliptical, - × µ. pileus is one inch broad. stem one to one and a half inches high. _peck_, th rep. n. y. state bot. the caps are quite a bit larger in the specimens found in ohio than those described by dr. peck. so much so that i was in doubt as to the correct identification. i sent some specimens to dr. peck for his determination. the species will be readily identified by the fine crowded gills and the smoky blue or blackish hue they assume when bruised. the caps are frequently wavy, as will be seen in figure . i found the plants in poke hollow near chillicothe, september to november. _tricholoma terreum. schaeff._ the gray tricholoma. edible. [illustration: figure .--tricholoma terreum. cap grayish-brown or mouse color.] terreum is from _terra_, the earth; so called from the color. this is quite a variable species in color and size, as well as manner of growth. the pileus is one to three inches broad, dry, fleshy, thin, convex, expanded, nearly plane, often having a central umbo; floccose-scaly, ashy-brown, grayish-brown or mouse-color. the gills are adnexed, subdistant, white, becoming grayish, edges more or less eroded. spores, - µ. the stem is whitish, fibrillose, equal, paler than the cap, varying from solid to stuffed or hollow, one to three inches high. i find this plant on north hillsides, in beech woods. it is not plentiful. there are several varieties: var. orirubens. q. edge of gills reddish. var. atrosquamosum. chev. pileus gray with small black scales; g. whitish. var. argyraceum. bull. entirely pure white, or pileus grayish. var. chrysites. jungh. pileus tinged yellowish or greenish. the plants in figure were found in poke hollow near chillicothe. their time is september to november. _tricholoma saponaceum. fr._ [illustration: figure .--tricholoma saponaceum.] saponaceum is from _sapo_, soap, so called from its peculiar odor. the pileus is two to three inches broad, convex, then plane, involute at first as will be seen in figure , smooth, moist in wet weather but not viscid, often cracked into scales or punctate, grayish or livid-brown, often with a tinge of olive, flesh firm, becoming more or less red when cut or wounded. the gills are uncinately emarginate, thin, quite entire, not crowded, white, sometimes tinged with green. spores subglobose, × µ. the stem is solid, unequal, rooting, smooth, sometimes reticulated with black fibrils or scaly. this species is found quite frequently about chillicothe. it is quite variable in size and color, but can be readily recognized from its peculiar odor and the flesh's becoming reddish when wounded. it is not poisonous but its odor will prevent any one from eating it. found in mixed woods from august to november. _tricholoma cartilagineum. bull._ the cartilaginous tricholoma. edible. [illustration: figure .--tricholoma cartilagineum. two-thirds natural size.] cartilagineum means gristly or cartilaginous. the pileus is two to three inches broad, cartilaginous, elastic, fleshy, convex, soon expanded, wavy, as seen in figure , margin incurved, smooth, inclined to be blackish at first, then broken up into small black spots. the gills are slightly notched, adnexed, somewhat crowded, grayish. the stem is one to two inches long, rather firm, stuffed, equal, smooth, white, often striate and mealy. taste and odor pleasant. a number of my friends ate it because of its inviting taste and odor. it grew in quantities among the clover in our city park during the wet weather of the last of may and the first of june. _tricholoma squarrulosum. bres._ [illustration: figure .--tricholoma squarrulosum. caps showing black squamules.] squarrulosum means full of scales. the pileus is two to three inches broad, convex, then expanded, umbonate, dry; fuscous then lurid tan, center black, with black squamules; edge fibrillose, exceeding gills. the gills are broad, crowded, whitish-gray, reddish when bruised. the stem is of the same color as the pileus, punctato-squamulose. the spores are elliptical, - × - µ. this is a beautiful plant, growing in mixed woods among the leaves. the stem is short and apparently the same color as the pileus. the latter is covered with black squamules which give rise to the name of the species. i have succeeded in finding the plants only in october. the specimens in figure were found in poke hollow, near chillicothe. _tricholoma maculatescens. pk._ spotted tricholoma. [illustration: figure .--tricholoma maculatescens. one-third natural size.] maculatescens means growing spotted; so called because when the specimen is dried the cap becomes more or less spotted. the pileus is one and a half to three inches broad, compact, spongy, reddish-brown, convex, then expanded, obtuse, even, slightly viscid when wet, becoming rivulose and brown spotted in drying, flesh whitish, margin inflexed, exceeding the gills. the gills are slightly emarginate, rather narrow, cinereous. the stem is spongy-fleshy, equal, sometimes abruptly narrowed at the base, solid, stout, fibrillose, pallid or whitish. the spores are oblong or subfusiform, pointed at the ends, uninucleate, . inch long, . broad. _peck._ i found the plant on several occasions in the month of november, but was unable to fix it satisfactorily until prof. morgan helped me out. the specimens in figure were found on thanksgiving day in the morton woods, in gallia county, ohio. i had found several specimens about chillicothe, previous to this. this species seems to be very near t. flavobrunneum, t. graveolens, and t. schumacheri, but may be distinguished from them by the spotting of the pileus when drying and the peculiar shape of the spores. it is found among the leaves in mixed woods even during freezing weather. it is no doubt edible, but i should try it cautiously for the first time. _tricholoma flavobrunneum. fr._ the yellow-brown tricholoma. edible. flavobrunneum is from flavus, yellow; brunneus, brown; so called from the brown caps and yellow flesh. the pileus is three to four or more inches broad, fleshy, conical, then convex, expanded, subumbonate, viscid, brownish-bay, scaly-streaked, flesh yellow, then tinged with red. the gills are pale yellow, emarginate, slightly decurrent, somewhat crowded, and often tinged with red. the stem is three to four inches long, hollow, slightly ventricose, brownish, flesh yellow, at first viscid, sometimes reddish-brown. the spores are - × - . found in mixed woods among leaves. _tricholoma schumacheri. fr._ schumacheri in honor of c. f. schumacher, author of "plantarum sællandiæ." the pileus is from two to three inches broad, spongy, convex, then plane, obtuse, even, livid gray, moist, edge beyond gills incurved. the gills are narrow, close, pure white, slightly emarginate. the stem is three to four inches long, solid, fibrillosely-striate, white and fleshy. this seems to be a domestic plant, found in greenhouses. _tricholoma grande. pk._ the large tricholoma. edible. grande, large, showy. this was quite abundant in haines' hollow and on ralston's run during the wet weather of the fall of . it seems to be very like t. columbetta and is found in the same localities. the pileus is thick, firm, hemispherical, becoming convex, often irregular, dry, scaly, somewhat silky-fibrillose toward the margin, white, the margin at first involute. flesh grayish-white, taste farinaceous. the gills are close, rounded behind, adnexed, white. the stem is stout, solid, fibrillose, at first tapering upward, then equal or but slightly thickened at the base, pure white. the spores are elliptical, - × µ. the pileus is four to five inches broad, the stem two to four inches long, and an inch to an inch and a half thick. _peck_, th rep. this is a very large and showy plant, growing among leaves after heavy rains. both this and t. columbetta, as well as a white variety of t. personatum, were very plentiful in the same woods. they grow in groups so closely crowded that the caps are often quite irregular. the darker and scaly disk and larger sized spore will help you to distinguish it from t. columbetta. the very large specimens are too coarse to be good. found in damp woods, among leaves, from august to november. _tricholoma sejunctum. sow._ the separating tricholoma. edible. [illustration: figure .--tricholoma sejunctum. one-half natural size.] sejunctum means having separated. it refers to the separation of the gills from the stem. pileus fleshy, convex, then expanded, umbonate, slightly viscid, streaked with innate brown or blackish fibrils, whitish or yellow, sometimes greenish-yellow, flesh white and fragile. the gills are broad, subdistant, rounded behind or notched, white. the stem is solid, stout, often irregular, white. the spores are subglobose, . inch broad. the pileus is one to three inches broad; stem one to four inches long and from four to eight lines thick. _peck's_ report. this is quite common about salem, ohio; on the old lake shore line in wood county near bowling green, ohio; and i have found it frequently near chillicothe. when cooked it has a pleasant flavor. it is always an attractive specimen. i find it under beech trees in the woods, september to november. _tricholoma unifactum. pk._ united tricholoma. edible. unifactum means united or made into one, referring to the stems united in one base root or stem. the pileus is fleshy but thin, convex; often irregular, sometimes eccentric from its mode of growth; whitish, flesh whitish, taste mild. the gills are thin, narrow, close, rounded behind, slightly adnexed, sometimes forked near the base, white. the stems are equal or thicker at the base, solid, fibrous, white, united at the base in a large fleshy mass. spores are white, subglobose, . to . of an inch broad. _peck._ i found a beautiful specimen in poke hollow, in a beech woods with some oak and chestnut. there was but one cluster growing from a large whitish fleshy mass. there were fifteen caps growing from this fleshy mass. i could not identify species until too late to photograph. _tricholoma albellum. fr._ the whitish tricholoma. edible. the pileus is two to three inches broad, becoming pale-white, passing into gray when dry, fleshy, thick at the disk, thinner at the sides, conical then convex, gibbous when expanded, when in vigor moist on the surface, spotted as with scales, the thin margin naked, flesh soft, floccose, white, unchangeable. the gills are very much attenuated behind, not emarginate, becoming broad in front; very crowded, quite entire, white. the stem is one to two inches long, solid, fleshy-compact, ovate-bulbous (conical to the middle, cylindrical above), fibrillose-striate, white. spores elliptical, - × µ. _tricholoma personatum. fr._ the masked tricholoma. edible. [illustration: figure .--tricholoma personatum. one-third natural size. caps usually tinged with lilac or violet. stems bulbous.] [illustration: figure .--tricholoma personatum. two-thirds natural size. the entire plant white.] personatum means wearing a mask; so called because of the variety of colors it undergoes. this is a beautiful mushroom, and is excellently flavored; it has a wide range and is frequently found, in great abundance. i have often seen it growing in almost a straight line for over twenty feet, the caps so thoroughly crowded that they had lost their form. when young the cap is convex and quite firm, with the margin minutely downy or adorned with mealy particles, and incurved. in the mature plant it is softer, broadly convex, or nearly plane, with the thin margin spreading and more or less turned upward and wavy. when young it is pale lilac in color, but with advancing age it changes to a tawny or rusty hue, especially in the center. sometimes the cap is white, whitish or gray, or of a pale violaceous color. the gills are crowded, rounded next to the stem, and nearly free but approaching close to the stem, more narrow toward the margin, with a faint tinge of lilac or violet tint when young, but often white. the stem is short, solid, adorned with very minute fibers, downy or mealy particles when young and fresh, but becoming smooth with advancing age. the color of the stem is much like the cap but perhaps a shade lighter. the cap is from one to five inches broad, and the stem from one to three inches high. it grows singly or in groups. it is found in thin woods and thickets. it delights to grow where an old saw mill has stood. the finest specimens of this species that i ever saw grew on a pile of compost of what had been green cobs from the canning factory. they had lain in the pile for about three years and late in november the compost was literally covered with this species, many of whose caps exceeded five inches while the color and figuration of the plants were quite typical. in english books this plant is spoken of as blewits and in france as blue-stems, but the stems in this country are inclined to be lilac or violet, and then only in the younger plants. the spores are nearly elliptical and dingy white, but in masses on white paper they have a salmon tint. its smooth, almost shining, unbroken epidermis and its peculiar peach-blossom tint distinguish it from all other species of the tricholoma. there is a white variety, very plentiful in our woods, which is illustrated in figure . they are found only in leaf-mould in the woods. september to freezing weather. _tricholoma nudum. bull._ the naked tricholoma. edible. nudum, naked, bare; from the character of the margin. the pileus is two to three inches broad, fleshy, rather thin, convex, then expanded, slightly depressed; smooth, moist, the whole plant violet at first, changing color, margin involute, thin, naked, often wavy. the gills are narrow, rounded behind, slightly decurrent when the plant becomes depressed, crowded, violet at first, changing to a reddish-brown without any tinge of violet. the stem is two to three inches long, stuffed, elastic, equal, at first violaceous, then becoming pale, more or less mealy. spores × . µ i found some very fine specimens among the leaves in the woods in haynes' hollow, near chillicothe. october and november. _tricholoma gambosum. fr._ st. george's mushroom. edible. gambosum, with a swelling of the hoof, _gamba_. the pileus is three to six inches broad, sometimes even larger; very thick, convex, expanded, depressed, commonly cracked here and there; smooth, suggesting soft kid leather; margin involute at first, pale ochre or yellowish white. the gills are notched, with an adnexed tooth, densely crowded, ventricose, moist, various lengths, yellowish white. the stem is short, solid, flocculose at apex, substance creamy white; swollen slightly at the base. the spores are white. it is called st. george's mushroom in england because it appears about the time of st. george's day, april d. it frequently grows in rings or crescents. it has a very strong odor. its season is may and june. _tricholoma portentosum. fr._ the strange tricholoma. edible. [illustration: figure .--tricholoma portentosum.] portentosum means strange or monstrous. the pileus is three to five inches broad, fleshy, convex, then expanded, subumbonate, viscid, sooty, often with purple tinge, frequently unequal and turned up, streaked with dark lines, the thin margin naked, flesh not compact, white, fragile, and mild. the gills are white, very broad, rounded, almost free, distant, often becoming pale-gray or yellowish. the stem is three to six inches long, solid, quite fibrous, sometimes equal, often tapering toward the base, white, stout, striate, villous at base. the spores are subglobose, - × µ. the plants grow in pine woods and along the margins of mixed woods, frequently by roadsides. it is usually found in october and november. the plants in figure were found near waltham, mass., and were sent to me by mrs. e. b. blackford. this is said to even excel t. personatum in edible qualities. _clitocybe. fr._ clitocybe is from two greek words, a hillside, or declivity, and a head; so called from the central depression of the pileus. the genus clitocybe differs from tricholoma in the character of the gills. they are attached to the stem by the whole width and usually are prolonged down the stem or decurrent. this is the first genus with decurrent gills. the genus has neither a volva nor a ring and the spores are white. the stem is elastic, spongy within, frequently hollow and extremely fibrous, continuous with the pileus. the pileus is generally fleshy, growing thin toward the margin, plane or depressed or funnel-shaped, and with margin incurved. the universal veil, if present at all, is seen only on the margin of the pileus like frost or silky dew. these plants usually grow on the ground and frequently in groups, though a few may be found on decayed wood. the collybia, mycena, and omphalia have cartilaginous stems, while the stem of the clitocybe is extremely fibrous, and the tricholoma is distinguished by its notched gills. this genus, because of the variations in its species, will always be puzzling to the beginner, as it is to experts. we may easily decide it is a clitocybe because of the gills squarely meeting the stem, or decurrent upon it, and its external fibrous stem, but to locate the species is quite a different matter. _clitocybe media. pk._ the intermediate clitocybe. edible. [illustration: figure .--clitocybe media. one-half natural size.] media is from _medius_, middle; it is so called because it is intermediate between c. nebularis and c. clavipes. it is not as plentiful as either of the others in our woods. the pileus is grayish-brown or blackish-brown, always darker than c. nebularis. the flesh is white and farinaceous in taste. the gills are rather broad, not crowded, adnate and decurrent, white, with few transverse ridges or veins in the spaces between the gills. the stem is one to two inches long, usually tapering upward, paler than the pileus, rather elastic, smooth. the spores are plainly elliptical, × µ. this resembles very closely the two species mentioned above and is hard to separate. i found the specimens in figure along ralston's run where the ground is mossy and damp. found in september and october. _clitocybe infundibuliformis. schaeff._ the funnel-formed clitocybe. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate ix. figure .--clitocybe infundibuliformis.] infundibuliformis means funnel-shaped. this is a beautiful plant and very abundant in woods after a heavy rain. it grows upon the leaves and especially among pine needles. the pileus is at first convex and umbonate and as the plant advances in age the margin becomes elevated until the plant becomes funnel-shaped. the margin is frequently incurved and finally wavy. the flesh is soft and white. the color of the cap is a pale tan. if the cap is examined carefully it will be seen to be covered with a slight down or silky substance, especially on the margin. the color of the cap is apt to fade so that specimens will be found almost white. the gills are thin, close, white or whitish, and very decurrent. the stem is quite smooth, and generally tapers upward from the base. it is sometimes white or whitish, but more frequently like the cap. mycelium will usually be found at the base on the leaves, forming a soft white down. i have found this species in several parts of the state. it is frequently found in clusters, when the caps will be irregular on account of the crowded condition. they are very tender and of excellent flavor. found from august to october. _clitocybe odora. bull._ sweet-smelling clitocybe. edible. [illustration: figure .--clitocybe odora. one-third natural size. cap pale green.] odora means fragrant. this is one of the easiest of the clitocybes to identify. the collector will very readily recognize it by its olive-green color and its odor. the color in the old plant is quite variable but in young plants is well marked. the pileus is one to two and a half inches broad, flesh quite thick; at first convex, then expanded, plane, often depressed, sometimes inclined to be wavy; even, smooth, olive-green. the gills are adnate, rather close, sometimes slightly decurrent, broad, pallid. the stem is one to one and a half inches long, often slightly bulbous at the base. these plants are found from august to october, in the woods, on leaves. they are quite common about chillicothe after a rain. when cooked by themselves the flavor is a bit strong, but when mixed with other plants not so strong in flavor, they are fine. _clitocybe illudens. schw._ the deceiving clitocybe. not edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate x. figure .--clitocybe illudens. caps reddish-yellow to deep yellow. gills yellow and decurrent.] illudens means deceiving. pileus of a beautiful yellow, very showy and inviting. many a basketful has been brought to me to be identified with the hope of their edibility. the cap is convex, umbonate, spreading, depressed, smooth, often irregular from its crowded condition of growth; in older and larger plants the margin of the pileus is wavy. the flesh is thick at the center but thinner toward the margin. in old plants the color is brownish. the gills are decurrent, some much further than others; yellow; not crowded; broad. the stem is solid, long, firm, smooth tapering towards the base, as will be seen by figure , sometimes the stems are very large. the pileus is from four to six inches broad. the stem is six to eight inches high. it occurs in large clusters and the rich saffron color of the entire plant compels our admiration and we are reminded that "not all is gold that glitters." it will be interesting to gather a large cluster to show its phosphorescence and the heat which the plant will generate. you can show the phosphorescence by putting it in a dark room and by placing a thermometer in the cluster you can show the heat. it is frequently called "jack-o'-lantern." i have known people to eat it without harm, but the chances are that it will make most persons sick. it ought to be good, since it is so abundant and looks so rich. found from july to october. _clitocybe multiceps. pk._ the many-headed clitocybe. edible. [illustration: figure .--clitocybe multiceps. one-half natural size. caps grayish-white.] multiceps means many heads; so called because many caps are found in one cluster. it is a very common plant around chillicothe. it has been found within the city limits. it is quite a typical species, too, having all the characteristics of the genus. i have often seen over fifty caps in one cluster. the pileus is white or gray, brownish-gray or buff; smooth, thin at the margin, convex, slightly moist in rainy weather. the gills are white, crowded, narrow at each end, decurrent. the stem is tough, elastic, fleshy, solid, tinged with the same color as the cap. the pileus is one to three inches broad; grows in dense tufts. spores are white, smooth and globose. when found in june the plants are a shade whiter than in the fall. the fall plants are very much the oyster color. the early plant is a more tender one and better for table use, however, i do not regard it as excellent. they are found in woods, in old pastures by logs and stumps, and in lawns. june to october. _clitocybe clavipes. pers._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--clitocybe clavipes.] clavipes is from _clava_, a club, and _pes_, a foot. the pileus is one to two and a half inches broad, fleshy, rather spongy, convex to expanded, obtuse, even, smooth, gray or brownish, sometimes whitish toward the margin. the gills are decurrent, descending, rather distant, nearly entire, rather broad, white. the stem is two inches long, swollen at the base, attenuated upward, stuffed, spongy, fibrillose, livid sooty. spores are elliptical, - × µ. i found specimens on cemetery hill underneath pine trees. i sent some to dr. herbst and prof. atkinson; both pronounced them c. clavipes. they resemble quite closely c. nebularis. i have also found this plant in mixed woods. edible and fairly good. _clitocybe tornata. fr._ tornata means turned in a lathe; so called because of its neat and regular form. the pileus is orbicular, plane, somewhat depressed, thin, smooth, shining, white, darker on the disk, very regular. the gills are decurrent adnate, rather crowded, white. the stem is stuffed, firm, slender, smooth, pubescent at the base. the spores are elliptical, - × - µ. these are small, very regular, and inodorous plants. they are found in open fields in the grass about elm stumps. july to september. they are edible and cook readily. _clitocybe metachroa. fr._ the obconic clitocybe. edible. [illustration: figure .--clitocybe metachroa. caps dark gray. gills pale gray.] metachroa means changing color. the pileus is one to two and a half inches broad, somewhat fleshy, convex, then plane, depressed, smooth, hygrophanous, brownish-gray, then livid, growing pale. the gills are attached to the stem, crowded, pale gray, slightly decurrent. the stem is one to two inches long, stuffed, then hollow, apex mealy, equal, gray. it differs from c. ditopa in being inodorous and having a thicker and depressed pileus. the caps are quite smooth and are frequently concentrically cracked or wrinkled, much as in clitopilus noveboracensis. it is found growing on leaves in mixed woods, after a rain, in august and september. when young the margin is incurved but wavy in age. it is quite a hardy plant. _clitocybe adirondackensis. pk._ [illustration: figure .--clitocybe adirondackensis. three-fourths natural size. caps white.] adirondackensis, so called because the plant was first found in the adirondack mountains of new york. the pileus is thin, submembranaceous, funnel-form, with the margin decurved, nearly smooth, hygrophanous, white, the disk often darker. the gills are white, very narrow, scarcely broader than the thickness of the flesh of the pileus, crowded, long, decurrent, subarcuate, some of them forked. the stem is slender, subequal, not hollow, whitish, mycelio-thickened at the base. _peck._ the pileus is one to two inches broad and the stem is one to two and a half long. this is quite a pretty mushroom and has the clitocybe appearance in a marked degree. the long, narrow, decurrent gills, sometimes tinged with yellow, some of them forked, margin of the pileus sometimes wavy, will assist in distinguishing it. i have no doubt of its edibility. found among leaves in woods after heavy rains. with us it is confined to the wooded hillsides. the specimens in figure were found in michigan and photographed by dr. fischer. found in july and august. _clitocybe ochropurpurea. berk._ the clay-purple clitocybe. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate xi. figure .--clitocybe ochropurpurea.] ochropurpurea is from _ochra_, ocher or clay color; _purpureus_, purple; it is so called because the caps are clay-color and the gills are purple. the caps are convex, fleshy, quite compact, clay-colored, sometimes tinged with purple around the margin, cuticle easily separating, margin involute, often at first tomentose, old forms often repand or wavy. the gills are purple, sometimes whitish in old specimens from the white spores, broad behind, decurrent, distant. the stem is paler than the cap, often tinted with purple, solid, frequently long and swollen in the middle, fibrous. the spores white or pale yellow. the first time i found this species i never dreamed that it was a clitocybe. it was especially abundant on our wooded clay banks or hillsides, near chillicothe, during the wet weather in july and august of . it is a hardy plant and will keep for days. insects do not seem to work in it readily. when cooked carefully it is rather tender and fairly good. _clitocybe subditopoda. pk._ subditopoda is so called because it is nearly (sub) like fries' c. ditopus, which means living in two places, perhaps referring to the stem being sometimes central and sometimes eccentric. the pileus is thin, convex or nearly plane, umbilicate, hygrophanous, grayish-brown, striate on the margin when moist, paler when dry, flesh concolorous, odor and taste farinaceous. the gills are broad, close, adnate, whitish or pale cinereous. the stem is equal, smooth, hollow, colored like the pileus. the spores are elliptical, . to . inch long, . to . broad. _peck._ it is found on mossy ground in woods. i have found them under pine trees on cemetery hill. dr. peck says he separated this species from c. ditopoda because of the "striate margin of the pileus, paler gills, longer stem, and elliptical spores." the plant is edible. september and october. _clitocybe ditopoda. fr._ ditopoda is from two greek words, _di-totos_, living in two places, and _pus_ or _poda_, foot, having reference to the stem being central at times and again eccentric. the pileus is rather fleshy, convex, then plane, depressed, even, smooth, hygrophanous. the gills are adnate, crowded, thin, dark, cinereous. the stem is hollow, equal, almost naked. this species resembles in appearance c. metachroa but can be separated by the mild taste and farinaceous odor. its favorite habit is on pine needles. august and september. i found this species in various places about chillicothe and on thanksgiving day i found it in a mixed wood in gallia county, ohio, along with hygrophorus lauræ and tricholoma maculatescens. i sent some specimens to dr. herbst, who pronounced it c. ditopoda. _clitocybe pithyophila. fr._ the pine-loving clitocybe. [illustration: figure .--clitocybe pithyophila. two-thirds natural size. cap white and showing the pine needles upon which they grow.] pithyophila means pine-loving. this plant is very abundant under pine trees on cemetery hill. they grow on the bed of pine needles. the pileus is very variable in size, white, one to two inches broad; fleshy, thin, becoming plane, umbonate, smooth, growing pale, at length irregularly shaped, repand, wavy, sometimes slightly striate. the stem is hollow, terete, then compressed, smooth, equal, even, downy at the base. the gills are adnate, somewhat decurrent, crowded, plane, always white. the spores are - × µ. the plants in figure are small, having been found during the cold weather in november. they are said to be good, but i have not eaten them. _clitocybe candicans. fr._ candicans, whitish or shining white. pileus is one inch broad, entirely white, somewhat fleshy, convex, then plane, or depressed, even, shining, with regularly deflexed margin. the gills are adnate, crowded, thin, at length decurrent, narrow. the stem is nearly hollow, even, waxy, shining, nearly equal, cartilaginous, smooth, incurved at the base. the spores are broadly elliptical, or subglobose, - × µ. found in damp woods on leaves. _clitocybe obbata. fr._ the beaker-shaped clitocybe. edible. obbata means shaped like an obba or beaker. the pileus is somewhat membranaceous, umbilicate, then rather deeply depressed, smooth, inclined to be hygrophanous, sooty-brown, margin at length striate. the gills are decurrent, distant, grayish-white, pruinose. the stem is hollow, grayish-brown, smooth, equal, rather tough. i found plants growing on cemetery hill under pine trees. i had some trouble to identify the species until prof. atkinson helped me out. august to september. _clitocybe gilva. pers._ the yellow clitocybe. edible. gilva means pale yellow or reddish yellow. the pileus is two to four inches broad, fleshy, compact, soon depressed and wavy, smooth, moist, dingy ocher, flesh same color, sometimes spotted, margin involute. the gills are decurrent, closely crowded, thin, sometimes branched, narrow but broader in the middle, ochraceous yellow. the stem is two to three inches long, solid, smooth, nearly equal, somewhat paler than the cap, and inclined to be villous at the base. the spores are nearly globose, - µ. this plant is sometimes found in mixed woods, but it seems to prefer pine trees. it has a wide distribution, found in the east and south as well as the west. i have found it in several localities in ohio. found from july to september. _clitocybe flaccida. sow._ the limp clitocybe. edible. [illustration: figure .--clitocybe flaccida. one-half natural size.] flaccida means flabby, limp. the pileus is two to three inches broad, rather fleshy, thin, limp, umbilicate, then funnel-shaped, even, smooth, sometimes cracking into minute scales, tawny or rust-colored, margin broadly reflexed. the gills are strongly decurrent, yellowish, to whitish, close, arcuate. the stem is tufted, unequal, rusty, somewhat wavy, tough, naked, villous at the base. the spores are globose or nearly so, - × - µ. this resembles the c. infundibuliformis very closely, both in its appearance and its habit. it grows among leaves in mixed woods during wet weather. it is gregarious, often many stems growing from one mass of mycelium. the plants in figure were collected in ackerman's woods near columbus, ohio, and were photographed by dr. kellerman. they are found on all the hillsides about chillicothe. found from july to late in october. _clitocybe monadelpha. morg._ the one-brotherhood clitocybe. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate xii. figure .--clitocybe monadelpha.] monadelpha is from _monos_, one and _adelphos_, brother. prof. morgan of preston, ohio, gives the following description of the one-brotherhood clitocybe in the mycological flora of the miama valley: "densely cespitose. pileus fleshy, convex, then depressed, at first glabrous, then scaly, honey-colored, varying to pallid-brown or reddish. the stem elongated, solid, crooked, twisted, fibrous, tapering at the base, pallid-brownish or flesh color. spores white, a little irregular, . mm." it might be easily taken for the ringless armillaria mellea, but the decidedly decurrent gills and the solid stem ought to set any one right. in very wet weather it soon becomes water-soaked, and is then not good. it is found in woods about stumps, and in newly cleared fields about roots or stumps. from spring to october. see plate xii, figure , for an illustration. bresadola of europe has determined this to be the same as that described by scoparius in as agaricus (clitocybe) tabescens. i have preferred to retain the name given by prof. morgan. _clitocybe dealbata. sow._ the white clytocybe. edible. dealbata means whitewashed; so called from its white color. the pileus is about one inch broad, rather fleshy, convex, then plane, upturned and wavy, smooth, shining, even. the gills are crowded, white, attached to the stem. the stem is fibrous, thin, equal, stuffed. spores are - × . µ. this is a beautiful plant and widely distributed. found among leaves and sometimes in the grass. it makes a delicious dish. _clitocybe phyllophila. fr._ the leaf-loving clitocybe. edible. phyllophila means leaf and fond of. it is so called because it is found on leaves in the woods during wet weather. the pileus is one and a half to three inches in diameter, whitish-tan, rather fleshy, convex, then plane, at length depressed, even, dry, noticeably white around the margin. the gills are attached to the stem, decurrent especially after the cap is depressed, somewhat distant, rather broad, white, becoming yellowish or ocher tinged, thin. the stem is two to three inches long, stuffed, becoming hollow, silky, rather tough, whitish. the spores are elliptical., × µ. the whitish-tan cap with its white, silvery zone near the margin will serve to identify the species. august to october. _clitocybe cyathiformis. bull._ the cup-shaped clitocybe. edible. cyathiformis is from _cyathus_, a drinking cup; _formis_, form or shape. the pileus is two to three inches broad, fleshy, rather thin; at first depressed, then funnel-shaped; even, smooth, moist, hygrophanous; the margin involute, sooty or dark brown when moist, becoming pale when dry, often dingy ochraceous or tan-color, inclined to be wavy. the gills are attached to the stem, decurrent from the depressed form of the pileus, united behind, somewhat dingy, sparingly branched. the stem is stuffed, elastic, tapering upward, fibrillose, base villous. the spores are elliptical, × µ. this plant has a wide distribution and is found in woods or wood margins. i found some very fine specimens on ralston's run, near chillicothe. september to october. _clitocybe laccata. scop._ waxy clitocybe. edible. [illustration: figure .--clitocybe laccata. two-thirds natural size. caps violet or reddish-brown. gills broad and distant.] laccata means made of shellac or sealing-wax. this is a very common, variable plant. sometimes of a bright amethyst but usually of a reddish brown. the pileus is from one to two inches broad, almost membranaceous, convex, then plane, depressed in the center, downy with short hairs, violet or reddish-brown. the gills are broad, distant, attached to the stem by the entire width; pale fleshy-red in hue which is more constant than the color of the cap and which forms an ear-mark to tell the species; adnate with a decurrent tooth, plane, the white spores being very abundant. the stem is tough, fibrous, stuffed, crooked, white-villous at the base, rather long and slender, dull reddish yellow or reddish-flesh-colored, sometimes pallid or dull ochraceous, slightly striate; when the season is wet it is often watery. this waxy clitocybe has a wide range and is frequently very abundant. it is found through almost the entire season. it will grow almost anywhere, in woods, pastures, and lawns, and sometimes on naked ground. the plants in figure were found in tall grass in a grove in august. those in figure were found the last of november on cemetery hill, under pine trees. [illustration: figure .--clitocybe laccata. two-thirds natural size. specimens growing late in the fall.] prof. peck gives the following varieties: var. amethystina--in which the cap is much darker in color. var. pallidifolia--gills much paler than usual. var. striatula--cap smooth, thin, so that shadowy lines are seen on cap, radiating from near the center to the margin. this grows in damp places. some authors make clitocybe laccata a type for a new genus and call it lacaria laccata. _collybia. fr._ collybia is from a greek word meaning a small coin or a small round cake. the ring and volva are both wanting in this genus. the pileus is fleshy, generally thin, and when the plant is young the margin of the pileus is incurved. the gills are adnate or nearly free, soft, membranaceous. many species of collybia will revive to some extent when moistened, but they are not coriaceous. the stem differs in substance from the pileus, cartilaginous or has a cartilaginous cuticle, while the inside is stuffed or hollow. this is quite a large genus, containing fifty-four american species. _collybia radicata. rehl._ the rooting collybia. edible. [illustration: plate xiii. figure .--collybia radicata.] this, in its season, is one of the most common mushrooms in the woods. it grows in the ground, frequently around old stumps, sometimes on lawns. those in figure were found in the woods on the ground. one plant, as will be seen by the square, is a foot high. it is easily recognized by its long root and flat cap. the root extends into the ground and will frequently break before pulling up. this root gives name to the species. the pileus is fleshy, rather thin, convex, then plane, often with margin upturned in old plants as in figure , and frequently wrinkled at and toward the umbo, smooth, viscid when moist. the color is quite variable, from almost white to gray, grayish-brown; flesh thin, very white, elastic. the gills are usually snow white, broad, rather distant, broad in the middle, joined to the stem by the upper angle, unequal. the stem is frequently long, of the same color as the cap, yet sometimes paler; smooth, firm, sometimes grooved, often twisted, tapering upward, ending in a long tapering root, deeply planted in the soil. the spores are elliptical, × µ. they grow singly, but generally have many neighbors. they are found in open woods and around old stumps. i seldom have any trouble in getting enough for a large family and some for my neighbor, who may not know what to get but does know how to appreciate them. found from june to october and from the new england states through the middle west. they differ from c. hariolarum in the densely tufted habit of the latter. _colybia ingrata. schum._ ingrata means unpleasant; from its somewhat unpleasant odor. the pileus is one to two inches broad, globose, bell-shaped, then convex, umbonate, even, brownish-tan. the gills are free, narrow, crowded, pallid. the stem is twisted, subcompressed, sprinkled with a mealy tomentum above, umber below, hollow, rather long, unequal. i found this plant quite abundant on cemetery hill, growing under pine trees, from the mass of pine needles. found in july and august. _collybia platyphylla. fr._ broad-gilled collybia. edible. [illustration: figure .--collybia platyphylla. one-third natural size.] platyphylla is from two greek words meaning broad and leaf, referring to the broad gills. it is a much larger and stouter plant than collybia radicata. it is found in new ground on open pastures about stumps, also in woods, on rotten logs and about stumps. the pileus is three to four inches broad, at first convex, then expanded, plane, margin often upturned, smoky brown to grayish, streaked with dark fibrils, watery when moist, flesh white. the gills are adnexed, very broad, obliquely notched behind, distant, soft, white, in age more or less broken or cracked. the stem is short, thick, often striated, whitish, soft, stuffed, sometimes slightly powdered at the apex, root blunt. the spores are white and elliptical. it is easily distinguished from c. radicata by the blunt base of the root and the very broad gills. like c. radicata they need to be cooked well or there is a slightly bitter taste to them. they are found from june to october. _collybia dryophila. bull._ oak-loving collybia. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--collybia dryophila. natural size. caps bay-brown.] dryophila is from two greek words, oak and fond of. the pileus is bay-brown, bay red, or tan color, one or two inches broad, convex, plane, sometimes depressed and the margin elevated, flesh thin and white. the gills are free with a decurrent tooth, crowded, narrow, white, or whitish, rarely yellow. the stem is cartilaginous, smooth, hollow, yellow, or yellowish, equal, sometimes thickened at the base as will be seen in figure . the color of the stem is usually the same as the cap. this is a very common plant about chillicothe. they are found in woods, especially under oak trees, but are also found in open places. i found them on the high school lawn in chillicothe. some very fine specimens that were found growing in a well marked ring, in an old orchard, were brought to me about the first of may. their season is from the first of may to october. _collybia zonata. pk._ the zoned collybia. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate xiv. figure .--collybia zonata.] zonata, zoned; referring to the concentric zones on the cap which show faintly in figure . the pileus is about one inch broad, sometimes more, sometimes less; rather fleshy, thin, convex, when expanded nearly plane, slightly umbilicate, covered with fibrous down; tawny or ochraceous tawny, sometimes marked with faintly darker zones; even in the very young specimens the umbilicate condition is usually present. the gills are narrow, close, free, white or nearly white, usually with a pulverulent edge. the stem is one to three inches long, rather firm, equal, hollow, covered like the cap with a fibrous down, tawny, or brownish tawny. the spores are broadly elliptical, . inch long, . broad. this species closely resembles c. stipitaria, but is easily distinguished from it because of its habits of growth, different gills, and shorter spores. it is found on or near decaying wood in mixed woods. i have found it frequently on ralston's run but always only a few specimens in one place. it does not grow in a cespitose manner with us. found in august. _collybia maculata. alb. & schw._ the spotted collybia. edible. [illustration: figure .--collybia maculata. two-thirds natural size. reddish-brown spots on caps and stems.] maculata, spotted; referring to the reddish spots or stains both on the cap and on the stem. the pileus is two to three inches broad, at first white, then spotted (as well as the stem) with reddish brown spots or stains, fleshy, very firm, convex, sometimes nearly plane, even, smooth, truly carnose, compact, at first hemispherical and with an involute margin, often repand. the gills are somewhat crowded, narrow, adnexed, often free, linear, white or whitish, often brownish cream, gills not reaching to the margin of the cap. the stem is three to four inches long, nearly solid, more or less grooved, stout, unequal, sometimes ventricose, frequently partially bulbous, lighter than the gills, usually spotted in age, white at first. the spores are subglobose, - µ. the plant is a hardy one. it will keep for several days. the plants in figure grew in the woods where a log had rotted down. var. immaculata, cooke, differs from the typical form in not changing color or being spotted, and in the broader and serrated gills. this variety delights in fir woods. september to november. _collybia atrata. fr._ charcoal collybia. [illustration: figure .--collybia atrata. one-half natural size. caps dull blackish-brown. gills grayish-white.] atrata, clothed in black; from the pileus being very black when young. the pileus is from one to two inches broad, at first regular and convex, when expanded becoming, as a rule, irregular in shape, sometimes partially lobed or wavy; in young plants the cap is a dull blackish brown, faded in older specimens to a lighter brown, umbilicate, smooth, shining. the gills are adnate, slightly crowded, with many short ones, rather broad, grayish-white. the stem is smooth, equal, even, hollow, or stuffed, tough, short, brown within and without, but lighter than the cap. the plant grows in pastures where stumps have been burned out, always, so far as i have noticed, on burned ground. spores . ×. . _collybia ambusta. fr._ the scorched collybia. ambusta, burned or scorched, from its being found on burned soil. the pileus is nearly membranaceous, convex, then expanded, nearly plane, papillate, striatulate, smooth, livid brown, hygrophanous, umbonate. the gills are adnate, crowded, lanceolate, white, then of a smoky tinge. the stem is somewhat stuffed, tough, short, livid. spores - × - . this species differs from c. atrata in having an umbonate pileus. _collybia confluens. pers._ the tufted collybia. edible. [illustration: figure .--collybia confluens. natural size, showing reddish stems.] confluens means growing together; so called from the stems often being confluent or adhering to each other. the pileus is from an inch to an inch and a quarter broad, reddish-brown, often densely cespitose, somewhat fleshy, convex, then plane, flaccid, smooth, often watery, margin thin, in old specimens slightly depressed and wavy. the gills are free and in old plants remote from the stem, rather crowded, narrow, flesh colored, then whitish. the stem is two to three inches long, hollow, pale red, sprinkled with a mealy pubescence. the spores are slightly ovate, inclined to be pointed at one end, - × - µ. these plants grow among leaves in the woods after warm rains, growing in tufts, sometimes in rows or lines. they are not as large as c. dryophylla, the stem is quite different and the plants seem to have the ability to revive like a marasmius. they can be dried for winter use. _collybia myriadophylla. pk._ many-leaved collybia. [illustration: figure .--collybia myriadophylla.] myriadophylla is from two greek words, meaning many leaves. it has reference to its numerous gills. the pileus is very thin, broadly convex, then plane or centrally depressed, sometimes umbillicate, hygrophanous, brown when moist, ochraceous or tan-color when dry. the gills are very numerous, narrow, linear, crowded, rounded behind or slightly adnexed, brownish-lilac. the stem is slender, but commonly short, equal, glabrous, stuffed or hollow, reddish-brown. the spores are minute, broadly elliptical, . to . -inch long, . -inch broad. _peck_, th rep. i found only a few specimens in haynes's hollow. the caps were about an inch broad and the stems were an inch and a half long. it will be easily identified if one has the description of it, because of its peculiarly colored gills. i found my plants on a decayed stump in august. in the dried specimens the gills assume a more brownish-red hue, as in the next following species. collybia colorea. pk. they sometimes appear to have a glaucous reflection, probably from the abundance of the spores. the stem is more or less radicated and often slightly floccose-pruinose toward the base. the basidia are very short, being only . to . -inch long. _collybia atratoides. pk._ the blackish collybia. [illustration: figure .--collybia atratoides. two-thirds natural size. caps blackish to grayish-brown.] atratoides means like the species _atrata_, which means black; so called because the caps when fresh are quite black. atratoides has a different habitat and is not so dark. the pileus is thin, convex, subumbilicate, glabrous, hygrophanous, blackish-brown when moist, grayish-brown and shining when dry. the gills are rather broad, subdistant, adnate, grayish-white, often transversely veiny above and venosely connected. the stem is equal, hollow, smooth, grayish-brown with a whitish mycelioid tomentum at the base. the spores are nearly globose, about . -inch broad. the pileus is six to ten lines broad and the stem is about one inch long. _peck._ the plant is gregarious, growing on decayed wood and on mossy sticks in mixed woods. the margin of the cap is often serrated, as you will see in figure , yet this does not seem to be a constant characteristic of the species. it is closely related to c. atrata, but its habitat and the color of its pileus and gills differ very greatly. i have not eaten it, but have no doubt of its good qualities. found in august and september. quite common in all our woods. _collybia acervata. fr._ the tufted collybia. edible. [illustration: figure .--collybia acervata. two-thirds natural size. caps pale, tan or dingy pink.] acervata, from acervus, a mass, a heap. pileus fleshy but thin, convex, or nearly plane, obtuse, glabrous, hygrophanous, pale, tan-color or dingy pinkish-red, and commonly striate on the margin when moist, paler or whitish when dry. gills narrow, close, adnexed or free, whitish or tinged with flesh-color. the stem slender, rigid, hollow, glabrous, reddish, reddish-brown or brown, often whitish at the top, especially when young, commonly with a matted down at the base. spores elliptical, × - µ. the plant is cespitose. pileus one-half inch broad. stem two to three inches long. _peck's_ th report. this is a beautiful plant when growing in large tufts. the entire plant is tender and has a delicate flavor. i found the plant figured here on the frankfort pike where an old saw mill had formerly stood. it grew abundantly there, along with lepiota americana and pluteus cervinus. found from august to october. _collybia velutipes. curtis._ the velvet-foot collybia. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate xv. figure .--collybia velutipes. natural size, showing the velvet stems, which give name to the species.] velutipes, from _vellum_, velvet and _pes_, foot. pileus from one to four inches broad, tawny yellow, fleshy at the center, thick on the margin, quite sticky or viscid when moist, margin slightly striate, sometimes inclined to be excentric. gills rounded behind, broad, slightly adnexed, tan or pale-yellow, somewhat distant. the stem is cartilaginous, tough, hollow, umber, then becoming blackish, with a velvety coat. spores are elliptical, × - . µ. it grows on stumps, logs and roots, in the ground. it grows almost the year round. i have gathered it to eat in february. plate xv gives a very correct notion of the plant. it is most plentiful in september, october and november, yet found throughout the winter months. _mycena. fr._ mycena is from a greek word, meaning a fungus. the plants of this genus are small and rather fragile. pileus more or less membranaceous, generally striate, with the margin almost straight, and at first pressed to the stem, never involute, expanded, campanulate, and generally umbonate. the stem is externally cartilaginous, hollow, not stuffed when young, confluent with the cap. gills never decurrent, though some species have a broad sinus near the stem. most species are small and inodorous, but some which have a strong alkaline odor are probably not good. some are known to be edible. a few species exude a colored or watery juice when bruised. the mycena resembles the collybia, but never has the incurved margin of the latter. the plants are usually smaller, and the caps are more or less conical. this genus might be mistaken for omphalia, in which the gills are but slightly decurrent, but in omphalia the cap is umbilicate while in mycena it is umbonate. their being so small makes the determination of species somewhat difficult. some have characteristic odors which greatly assist in establishing their identity. _mycena galericulata. scop._ the small peaked-cap mycena. edible. [illustration: plate xvi. figure .--mycena galericulata. natural size.] galericulata, a small peaked-cap. the pileus is campanulate, whitish or grayish, center of the disk darker and lighter toward the margin, smooth, dry, margin striated nearly to the peak of the umbo, sometimes slightly depressed. the gills are adnate with a tooth, connected by veins, whitish, then gray, often flesh color, rather distant, ventricose, edge sometimes entire, sometimes serrate. the stem is rigid, cartilaginous, hollow, tough, straight, polished, smooth, hairy at the base. it grows on logs and stumps in the woods. it is very common and sometimes found in abundance. the plants are frequently densely clustered, the numerous stems matted together by a soft hairy down at the base. there are many forms of this plant. found from september to frost. the plants in figure were photographed by prof. g. d. smith, akron, o. _mycena rugosa. fr._ the wrinkled mycena. edible. rugosa means wrinkled. the pileus is somewhat fleshy, darker and smaller than the galericulata, quite tough, bell-shaped, then expanded, with unequal elevated wrinkles, always dry, striate on the margin. the gills are adnate, with a tooth, united behind, connected by veins, somewhat distant, whitish, then gray, edge sometimes entire, sometimes serrate. the stem is short, tough, rooted with a hairy base, strongly cartilaginous, hollow, rigid, smooth. it is found on stumps or decayed logs during september and october. _mycena prolifera. sow._ the proliferous mycena. edible. prolifera is from _proles_, offspring, and _fero_, to bear. the pileus is somewhat fleshy, campanulate, then expanded, dry, with a broad, dark umbo; margin at length sulcate or furrowed and sometimes split, pale-yellowish or becoming brownish-tan. the gills are adnexed, subdistant, white, then pallid. the stem is firm, rigid, smooth, shining, minutely striate, rooting. _fries._ this species, as well as m. galericulata, is closely related to m. cohærens. i have found it in dense tufts or clusters, sometimes on lawns, on the bare ground, and in the woods. it is one of the plants in which the stems may be cooked with the caps. _mycena capillaris. schum._ capillaris means hair-like. this is a very small but beautiful white plant. the pileus is bell-shaped, at length umbilicate, smooth. the gills are attached to the stem, ascending, rather distant. the stem is thread-like, smooth, short. the spores are - × . _fries._ these plants are very small and easily overlooked. they grow on leaves in the woods after a rain. july and august. quite common. _mycena setosa. sow._ setosa means full of setæ or hairs. the pileus is very delicate, hemispherical, obtuse, smooth. the gills are distant, white, almost free. the stem is short, slender, and covered with spreading hairs which gives rise to its specific name. commonly found on dead leaves in the woods after a rain. found in july and august. _mycena hæmatopa. pers._ the blood-foot mycena. edible. [illustration: figure .--mycena hæmatopa. brownish-red or flesh-color. a dull red juice exudes from the stem. margin dentate by sterile flap.] hæmatopa is from two greek words, meaning blood and foot. the pileus is fleshy, one inch broad, conic, or bell-shaped, somewhat umbonate, obtuse, whitish to flesh-color, with more or less dull red, even, or slightly striate at the margin, the margin extending beyond the gills and is toothed. the gills are attached to the stem, often with a decurrent tooth, whitish. spores, × - . the stem is two to four inches long, firm, hollow, sometimes smooth, sometimes powdered with whitish, soft hairy down, in color the same as the pileus, yielding a dark red juice which gives name to the species. the color varies quite a little in these plants, owing to some having more of the red juice than others. the genus is readily identified by the dull blood-red juice, hollow stem, the crenate margin of the cap, and its dense cespitose habits. it is found on decayed logs in damp places from august to october. the plants in figure were found in haynes' hollow, september . the plant is widely distributed over the united states. no one will have the slightest difficulty in recognizing this species after seeing the plants in the figure above. _mycena alkalina. fr._ the stump mycena. [illustration: figure .--mycena alkalina. two-thirds natural size, often larger. young specimens.] solitary or cespitose; pileus one-half to two inches broad, rather membranaceous, campanulate, obtuse, naked, deeply striate, moist, shining when dry, when old expanded or depressed, but little changed in color, though occasionally with a pink or yellow hue, whitish or grayish, the center of the disk darker. the gills are adnate, rather distant, slightly ventricose, at first pale, then glaucous, pinkish, or yellow, more or less connected by veins. the stem is smooth, slightly sticky, shining, villous at the base with a sometimes tawny-down, sometimes firm and tenacious, hollow, attenuated upward. the plant is rigid, but brittle, and strong-scented. found on decayed stumps and logs, you will meet it frequently. august to november. _mycena filopes. bull._ thready-stemmed mycena. pileus membranaceous, obtuse, campanulate, then expanded, striate, brown or umber, tinged with pink. the gills are free or minutely adnexed, slightly ventricose, white or paler than the pileus, crowded. the stem is hollow, juicy, smooth, filiform, rather brittle, whitish or brownish. found in woods on leaves, after a rain, from july to october. _mycena stannea. fr._ the tin-colored mycena. [illustration: figure .--mycena stannea. natural size. caps white, sometimes smoky.] stannea pertaining to the color of tin. this is a delicate species that grows in the woods in tufts on rotten wood in damp places. the general character is shown in the illustration, being nearly white but many of the pilei are somewhat smoky. the pileus is firm, membranaceous, bell-shaped, then expanded, smooth, very slightly striate, hygrophanous, quite silky, tin-color. the gills are firmly attached to the stem, with a decurrent tooth, connected by veins, grayish-white. the stem is smooth, even, shining, becoming pale, at length compressed. this species differs from mycena vitrea in having a tooth to the gills. may, june, and july. _mycena vitrea. fr._ vitrea, glassy. this plant is quite fragile. the pileus is membranaceous, bell-shaped, livid-brown, finely striate, no trace of umbo. the gills are firmly attached to the stem, not connected by veins, distinct, linear, whitish. the stem is slender, slightly striate, polished, pale, base fibrillose. this species differs from m. ætites and m. stannea in gills not having a decurrent tooth and not being connected by veins. _mycena corticola. fr._ [illustration: figure .--mycena corticola.] corticola means dwelling on bark. it is one of the smallest of the mycenas, the pileus being about two to four lines across, thin, hemispherical, obtuse, becoming slightly umbilicate, deeply striate, glabrous or flocculosely pruinose, gray, tan, or brownish. the gills are attached to the stem, with slight decurrent tooth, broad, rather ovate, pallid. the stem, is short, slender, incurved, glabrous or minutely scurfy, somewhat paler than the pileus. the spores are elliptical, - × µ; cystidia obtusely fusiform, - × - µ. these plants are found on the bark of living trees. after rains i have seen the bark on the shade trees along the walks in chillicothe, literally covered with these beautiful little plants. the plants in figure were taken from a maple tree the th of december. they are very close allied to m. hiemalis but can be distinguished by the broad, ovate gills bearing cystidia, and smaller spores. _mycena hiemalis. osbeck._ the winter mycena. hiemalis, of, or belonging to, winter. the pileus quite thin, bell-shaped, very slightly umbonate, margin striate; pinkish, rufescent, white, sometimes pruinose. the gills are adnate, linear, white or whitish. the stem is slender, curved, base downy, whitish, pinkish-red. the spores are - × . this is a more delicate species than m. corticola and differs from it in its narrow gills, and striate, not sulcate, pileus, also in the color of the stem. found on stumps and logs. october and november. _mycena leaiana. berk._ [illustration: figure .--mycena leaiana. natural size. caps bright orange and very viscid.] leaiana named in honor of mr. thomas g. lea, who was the first man to study mycology in the miami valley. this is a very beautiful plant growing on decayed beech logs in rainy weather. the pileus is fleshy, very viscid, bright orange, the margin slightly striate as will be seen in the one whose cap shows. the gills are distant, not entire, broad, notched at the stem, attached, the edge a dusky orange, or vermilion, the short gills beginning at the margin. the stem is in most cases curved, attenuated toward the cap, smooth, hollow, rather firm, quite hirsute or strigose at the base. the spores are elliptical, apiculate, . ×. mm. they are cæspitose, growing in dense tufts on logs somewhat decayed. it is extremely viscid, so much so that your hands will be stained yellow if you handle it much. it grows from spring to fall but is usually more abundant in august and september. very common. _mycena iris. b._ pileus is small, convex, expanded, obtuse, slightly viscid, striate, quite [blue?] when young, growing brownish with blue fibrils. the gills are free, tinged with gray. the stem is short, bluish below, tinged with brown above, somewhat pruinose. found in damp woods after a rain, in august. _mycena pura. pers._ [illustration: _photo by prof. g. d. smith._ figure .--mycena pura.] pura means unstained, pure. the pileus is fleshy, thin, bell-shaped, expanded, obtusely umbonate, finely striate on the margin, sometimes having margin upturned, violet to rose. the gills are broad, adnate to sinuate, in older plants sometimes free by breaking away from the stem, connected by veins, sometimes wavy and crenate on the edge, the edge of the gills sometimes almost or quite white, violet, rose. the stem is even, nearly naked, somewhat villous at the base, sometimes almost white when young, later assuming the color of the cap, hollow, smooth. the spores are white and oblong, - × - . . m. pelianthina differs from this in having dark-edged gills. it differs from m. pseudopura and m. zephira in having a strong smell. m. ianthina differs in having a conical cap. this plant is quite widely distributed. our plants are light-violet in color, and the color seems constant. i have found it in mixed woods. it is found in september and october. _mycena vulgaris. pers._ vulgaris means common. the pileus is small, convex, then depressed, papillate, viscid, brownish-gray, finely striate on the margin. the gills are subdecurrent, thin, white; the depressed cap and decurrent gills make the plant resemble an omphalia. spores, × . µ. the stem is viscid, pale, tough, fibrillose at the base, rooting, becoming hollow. it differs from m. pelliculosa in not having a separable cuticule and the fold-like gills. this plant will be recognized by its smoky or grayish color, umbilicate pileus, and viscid stem. it is found in woods on leaves and decayed sticks. august and september. _mycena epipterygia. scop._ [illustration: figure .--mycena epipterygia.] epipterygia is _epi_, upon, and _pterygion_, a small wing. these are small, the pileus being one-half to one inch broad, membranaceous, bell-shaped, then expanded, rather obtuse, not depressed, striate, the cuticule separable in every condition and viscid in damp weather, gray, often pale yellowish-green near the margin often minutely notched when young. the gills are attached to the stem with a decurrent tooth, thin, whitish or tinged with gray. the stem is two to four inches long, hollow, tough, rooting, viscid, yellowish, sometimes gray or even whitish. the spores are elliptical, - × - µ. these plants have a wide distribution and [are?] found on branches, among moss and dead leaves. they are found in clusters and solitary. they resemble in many ways m. alcalina but do not have the peculiar smell. the plants in figure were photographed by prof. g. d. smith of akron. _omphalia. fr._ omphalia is from a greek word meaning the navel; referring here to the central depression in the cap. the pileus from the first is centrally depressed, then funnel-shaped, almost membranaceous, and watery when moist; margin incurved or straight. stem cartilaginous and hollow, often stuffed when young, continuous with the cap but different in character. gills decurrent and sometimes branched. they are generally found on wood, preferring a damp woody situation and a wet season. it is easily distinguished from collybia and mycena by its decurrent gills. in some of the species of the mycena where the gills are slightly decurrent, the pileus is not centrally depressed as it is in corresponding species of omphalia. there are a few species of omphalia whose pileus is not centrally depressed but whose gills are plainly decurrent. _omphalia campanella. batsch._ the bell omphalia. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate xvii. figure .--omphalia campanella.] campanella means a little bell. the pileus is membranaceous, convex to extended, centrally depressed, striate, watery, rusty-yellow in color. the gills are moderately close, decurrent, bow-shaped, connected by veins, rigid, firm, yellowish. the spores elliptical, - × - µ. the stem is hollow, clothed with down, and paler above. this plant is very common and plentiful in our woods and is widely distributed in the states. it grows on wood or on ground very heavily charged with decaying wood. it is found through the summer and fall. it is delicious if you have the patience to gather them. _omphalia epichysia. pers._ the pileus is thin, convex to expanded, depressed in the center, sooty-gray with a watery appearance, pallid to nearly white when dry. the gills are slightly decurrent, whitish then gray, somewhat crowded. the stem is slender, hollow, gray. the spores are elliptical, - × - µ. it grows in decayed wood. its smoky color, funnel-shaped pileus, and gray short stem will distinguish it. i have some plants sent me from massachusetts which seem to be much smaller than our plants. _omphalia umbellifera. linn._ the umbel omphalia. edible. umbellifera--_umbella_, a small shade; _ferro_, to bear. pileus one-half inch broad, membranaceous, whitish, convex, then plane, broadly obconic, slightly umbilicate even in the smallest plants, hygrophanous in wet weather, rayed with darker striæ. the gills are decurrent, very distant, quite broad behind, triangular, with straight edges. the stem is short, not more than one inch long, dilated at the apex, of same color as the pileus, at first stuffed, then hollow, firm, white, villous at the base. it is a common plant in our woods, growing on decayed wood or ground largely made up of rotten wood. decayed beech bark is a favorite habitat. found from july till october. _omphalia cæspitosa. bol._ [illustration: figure .--omphalia cæspitosa. natural size.] cæspitosa means growing in tufts; _cæspes_, turf. the pileus is submembranaceous, very small, convex, nearly hemispherical, umbilicate, thin, sulcate, light-ochre, margin crenate, smooth. the gills are distant, rather broad, shortly decurrent, whitish. the stem is curved, hollow, colored like the pileus, slightly bulbous at the base. the spores are × . this species is very much like omphalia oniscus and they can only be distinguished by their habitats and color. it is found in august and september. it delights in well rotted wood. i have seen millions in one place. _omphalia oniscus. fr._ bolton's omphalia. edible. oniscus, a name given to a species of codfish by the greeks, so named because of their gray color. the pileus is flaccid, irregular, about one inch broad, convex, plane, or depressed, slightly fleshy, wavy, sometimes lobed, margin striate, dark cinereous, paler when dry. the gills are adnate, decurrent, livid or whitish, arranged in groups of four, somewhat distant. the stem is about one inch long, rather firm, straight or curved, sometimes unequal, nearly hollow. the spores are × - µ. this is found in damp places from august to november. _omphalia pyxidata. bull._ the box omphalia. pyxidata means made like a box, from _pyxis_, a box. the pileus is somewhat membranaceous, clearly umbilicate, then funnel-shaped, smooth when moist, margin often striate, brick-red. the gills are decurrent, rather distant, triangular, narrow, reddish gray, often yellowish. the stem is stuffed, then hollow, even, tough, pale-tawny. the spores are - × - µ. the plants are usually hygrophanous, but when dry, floccose or slightly silky. this is a small plant growing usually on lawns, nearly hidden in the grass. i found some very fine specimens on dr. sulzbacher's lawn on second street, chillicothe. the plant is, however, widely distributed. i found many specimens on the d of november. _omphalia fibula. bull._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--omphalia fibula.] fibula means a buckle or pin, from the pin-like stem. the pileus is membranaceous, at first top-shaped, expanded, slightly umbilicate, striate, margin inclined to be inflexed, yellow or tawny, with a dusky center, minutely pilose. the gills are deeply decurrent, paler, distinct. the stem is slender, nearly orange color with a violet-brown apex, the whole minutely pilose. the spores are elliptical, - × µ. they are found on mossy banks where it is more or less damp. i have only found it in october. _omphalia alboflava. moy._ the golden-gilled omphalia. [illustration: figure .--omphalia alboflava. cap yellowish-brown, sometimes a greenish tinge. gills golden yellow.] alboflava is from two greek words meaning whitish-yellow, from the yellow gills. the pileus is one to two inches broad, thin, somewhat membranaceous, umbilicate, flaccid, covered with fine woolly material, yellow-brown, lighter when dry, margin reflexed. the gills are distant, deep golden-yellow, occasionally forked. the stem is hollow, equal, smooth, shining, egg-yellow. the spores are elliptical, × µ. this plant, is found quite frequently on decayed branches and logs about chillicothe. i have never had the opportunity to test its edibility but i have no doubt of its being good. the plants in figure were found in haynes' hollow and were photographed by dr. kellerman. found from july to october. _marasmius. fr._ _marasmius is a greek participle meaning withered or shriveled_; it is so called because the plant will wither and dry up, but revive with the coming of rain. the spores are white and subelliptical. the pileus is tough and fleshy or membranaceous. the stem is cartilaginous and continuous with the pileus, but of a different texture. the gills are thick, rather tough and distant, sometimes unequal, variously attached or free, rarely decurrent, with a sharp entire edge. it is quite a large genus and many of its species will be of great interest to the student. _marasmius oreades. fr._ the fairy-ring mushroom. edible. [illustration: figure .--marasmius oreades. two-thirds natural size.] _oreades, mountain nymphs._ pileus is fleshy, tough and pliable when moist, brittle when dry, convex, becoming flat, somewhat umbonate, brownish-buff at first, becoming cream-color; when old it is usually quite wrinkled. the gills are broad and wide apart, creamy or yellowish, rounded at the stem end, unequal in length. the stem is solid, equal, tough, fibrous, naked and smooth at base, everywhere with a downy surface. the spores are white, × . to my mind there is no more appetizing mushroom than the "fairy ring" mushroom. figure will give an accurate notion of the plant and figure will show how they grow in the grass. it is found in all parts of ohio. every old pasture field or lawn will be full of these rings. the plant is small but its plentifulness will make up for its size. there are many conjectures why this and many other mushrooms grow in a circle. the explanation is quite obvious. the ring is started by a clump or an individual mushroom. the ground where the mushroom grew is rendered unfit for mushrooms again, the spores fall upon the ground and the mycelium spreads out from this point, consequently each year the ring is growing larger. sometimes they appear only in a crescent form. one can tell, by looking over a lawn or pasture, where the rings are, because, from the decay of the mushroom, the grass is greener and more vigorous there. long ago, in england and ireland, before the peasantry had begun to question the reality of the existence of the fairy folk and their beneficent interference in the affairs of life, these emerald-hued rings were firmly believed to be due to the fairy footsteps which nightly pressed their chosen haunts, and to mark the "little people's" favorite dancing ground. "they had always fine music among themselves, and danced in a moonshiny night around or in a ring, as one may see to this day upon every common in england where mushrooms grow," quaintly says one old writer. and the rev. gerard smith still further voices the belief of the people as to the nature of these grassy rings: "the nimble elves that do by moonshine green sour ringlets make, whereof the ewe bites not; whose pastime 'tis to make these midnight mushrooms." it is a very common plant, and it will pay any one to know it, as we cannot find anything in the markets that will equal it as a table delicacy. found in pastures and lawns during rainy weather from may till frost. [illustration: figure .--marasmius oreades. showing a fairy ring.] _marasmius urens. fr._ the stinging marasmius. urens means burning; so called from its acrid taste. the pileus is pale-buff, tough, fleshy, convex or flat, becoming depressed and finally wrinkled, smooth, even, one to two inches broad. the gills are unequal, cream-colored, becoming brownish, much closer than in the fairy ring, hardly reaching the stem proper, joined behind. the stem is solid above and hollow below, fibrous, pale, its surface more or less covered with flocculent down, and densely covered with white down at the base. it will be well for collectors to pass by this and m. peronatus, or to exercise the greatest caution in their use. they have been eaten without harm, but they also have so long been branded as poisonous that too great care cannot be taken. its taste is acrid, and it grows in lawns and pastures from june to september. _marasmius androsaceus. linn._ [illustration: figure .--marasmius androsaceus. natural size.] androsaceus is from a greek word which means an unidentified sea plant or zoophyte. the pileus is three to six lines broad, membranaceous, convex, with a slight depression, pale-reddish, darker in the center, striate, smooth. the gills are attached to the stem, frequently quite simple and few in number, about fifteen, with shorter ones between, sometimes forked, whitish. the stem is one to two inches long, horny, filiform, hollow, quite smooth, black, often twisted when dry. the spores are × - µ. this is a very attractive little plant found on the leaves in the woods after a rain. they are quite abundant. found from july to october. _marasmius foetidus. sow._ [illustration: figure .--marasmius foetidus.] foetidus means stinking or foetid. the pileus is submembranaceous, tough, convex, then expanded, umbilicate striato-plicate, turning pale when dry, subpruinose. the gills are annulato-adnexed, distant, rufescent with a yellow tinge. the stem is hollow, minutely velvety, bay, base flocculose. the caps are light brownish-red in color, fading when dry. when fresh it has a foetid odor quite perceptible for such small plants. it is found on decayed sticks and leaves in woods. during wet weather or after heavy rains it is quite common in the woods about chillicothe. found from july to october. this is also called heliomyces foetens (pat.) and is so classified by prof. morgan in his very excellent monogram on north american species of marasmius. _marasmius velutipes. b. & c._ [illustration: figure .--marasmius velutipes.] velutipes means velvet-footed, from the velvety stem. the pileus is thin, submembranaceous, smooth, convex, or expanded, grayish-rufous when moist, cinereous when dry, a half to one and a half inches broad. the gills are very narrow, crowded, whitish or grayish. the stem is slender, three to five inches long, equal, hollow, clothed with a dense grayish velvety tomentum. _peck._ they usually grow in a very crowded condition, many plants growing from one mat of mycelium. it is quite a common plant with us, found in damp woods or around a swampy place. the pileus with us is convex. some authorities speak of an umbilicate cap. the plant is quite hardy and easily identified because of its long and slender stem, with the grayish tomentum at the base. found from july to october. the specimens in figure were found at ashville, ohio. _marasmius cohærens. (fr.) bres._ the stemmed-massed marasmius. edible. [illustration: figure .--marasmius cohærens. two-thirds natural size, showing how the stems are massed together.] cohærens means holding together, referring to the stems being massed together. the pileus is fleshy, thin, convex, campanulate, then expanded, sometimes slightly umbonate, in old specimens the margin upturned or wavy, velvety, reddish tan-color, darker in the center, indistinctly striate. the gills are rather crowded, narrow, adnate, sometimes becoming free from the stem, connected by slight veins, pale cinnamon-color, becoming somewhat darker with age, the variation of color due to the number of cystidia scattered over the surface of the gills and on their edge. spores, oval, white, small, × µ. the stem is hollow, long, rigid, even, smooth, shining, reddish-brown, growing paler or whitish toward the cap, a number of the stems growing together at the base with a whitish myceloid tomentum present. the plant grows in dense clusters among leaves and in well rotted wood. i have found it quite often about chillicothe. it is called mycena cohærens, fr., collybia lachnophylla, berk., collybia spinulifera, pk. the plants in figure were found near ashville, ohio. september to frost. _marasmius candidus. bolt._ the white marasmius. [illustration: figure .--marasmius candidus. natural size.] candidus means shining white. this delicate species grows in moist and shady places in the woods. it grows on twigs, its habitat and structure are fully illustrated in the figure . the pileus is rather membranaceous, hemispherical, then plane or depressed, pellucid, wrinkled, naked, entirely white. the gills are adnexed, ventricose, distant, not entire. the stem is thin, stuffed, whitish, slightly pruinose, base tinged with brown. spores are elliptical, × µ. this plant has a wide distribution in this country. the specimens figured were collected by h. h. york near sandusky, ohio, and were photographed by dr. kellerman. i have found them at various points in ohio. _marasmius rotula. fr._ the collared marasmius. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--marasmius rotula. natural size. caps white or pale-buff.] rotula means a little wheel. the pileus is one to three lines broad, hemispherical, umbilicate, and minutely umbonate, plaited, smooth, membranaceous, margin crenate, white, or pale buff, with a dark umbilicus. the gills are broad, distant, few, equal, or occasionally with a few short ones, of the color of the pileus, attached to a free collar behind. the stem is setiform, slightly flexuous, white above, then tawny, deep shining brown at the base, striate, hollow, frequently branched and sarmentose, with or without abortive pilei.--m. j. b. this plant is very common in woods on fallen twigs. the plants in figure were collected near cincinnati. this plant has a wide distribution. it is in all our ohio woods. _marasmius scorodonius. fr._ strong-scented marasmius. edible. [illustration: figure .--marasmius scorodonius.] scorodonius is from a greek word meaning like garlic. the pileus is one-half inch or more broad, reddish when young, but becoming pale, whitish; somewhat fleshy, tough; even, soon plane, rugulose even when young, at length rugulose and crisped. the gills are attached to the stem, often separating, connected by veins, crisped in drying, whitish. the stem is at least one inch long, hollow, equal, quite smooth, shining, reddish. the spores are elliptical, × µ. it is found in woods growing on sticks and decayed wood. it is strong-smelling. it is frequently put with other plants to give a flavor of garlic to the dish. found from july to october. _marasmius calopus. fr._ calopus is from two greek words meaning beautiful and foot, so called because of its beautiful stem. the pileus is rather fleshy, tough, convex, plane then depressed, even, at length rugose, whitish. the gills are emarginate, adnexed, thin, white, in groups of - . the stem is hollow, equal, smooth, not rooting, shining, reddish-bay. it is found growing on twigs and fallen leaves, in the woods. smaller than m. scorodonius but with longer stem. _marasmius prasiosmus. fr._ the leek-scented marasmius. prasiosmus means smelling like a leek; from, _prason_, a leek. the pileus is one-half to one inch broad, somewhat membranaceous, tough, bell-shaped, pale yellow or whitish, disk often darker, wrinkled. the gills are adnexed, somewhat close, white. the stem is tough, hollow, pallid and smooth above, dilated at the base, tomentose and brown. it is found in woods adhering to oak leaves after heavy rains. it is very near m. porreus but differs from it in its gills being white and caps not being striated. it differs from m. terginus mainly in its habitat and leek-like scent. _marasmius anomalus. pk._ anomalus, not conforming to rule, irregular. the pileus is one to two inches broad, somewhat fleshy, tough, convex, even, reddish-gray. the stem is two to three inches long, hollow, equal, smooth, pallid above, reddish-brown below. the gills are rotundate-free, close, narrow, whitish or pallid. _morgan._ this is quite a pretty plant, growing on sticks among leaves in the woods. it is larger than most of the small marasmii found in similar habitats. _marasmius semihirtipes. pk._ semihirtipes means a slightly hairy foot or stem. the pileus is thin, tough, nearly plane or depressed, smooth, sometimes striate on the margin, hygrophanous, reddish-brown when moist, alutaceous when dry, the disk sometimes darker. the gills are subdistant, reaching the stem, slightly venose-connected, sub-crenulate on the edge, white. the stem is equal, even or finely striate, hollow, smooth above, velvety-tomentose toward the base, reddish-brown. _peck._ these plants are very small, often no doubt overlooked by the collector. they are gregarious in their mode of growth. _marasmius longipes. pk._ longipes means long stem or foot. the pileus is thin, convex, smooth, finely striate on the margin, tawny-red. the gills are not crowded, attached, white. the stem is tall, straight, hollow, equal, covered with a downy meal, rooting, brown or fawn-color, white at the top. these plants are quite small and slender, sometimes four to five inches high. they are rather common in our woods after a rain. _marasmius graminum. berk._ graminum is the gen. pl. of _gramen_, which means grass. the pileus small, membranaceous, convex, then nearly plane, umbonate, deeply and distinctly striate or sulcate, tinged with rufous, the furrows paler, disc brown. the gills are attached to a collar that is free around the stem, few in number, slightly ventricose, cream-color. the stem is short, slender, equal, smooth, shining, black, whitish above. the spores are globose, - µ. this species is very near m. rotula but it can be easily distinguished by the pale rufescent, distinctly sulcate pileus, and its growing on grass. i have frequently found it on the chillicothe high school lawn. _marasmius siccus. schw._ the bell-shaped marasmius. [illustration: plate xvii. figure .--marasmius siccus. natural size. the cap ochraceous red, the disks somewhat darker, the stems shining and blackish-brown.] [illustration: figure .--marasmius siccus. natural size. caps deeply furrowed and pinkish.] this is a very beautiful plant found in the woods after a rain, growing from the leaves. they are found singly, but usually in groups. the pileus is at first nearly conical, then campanulate, membranaceous, dry, smooth, furrows radiating from almost the center, growing larger as they approach the margin, ochraceous-red, the disk a little darker. the gills are free or slightly attached, few, distant, broad, narrowed toward the stem, whitish. the stem is hollow, tough, smooth, shining, blackish-brown, two to three inches long. the pileus is about a half inch broad. the plant is quite common in our woods. i have not found it elsewhere. the plants in the photograph represent the pink form, which is not so common as the ochraceous-red. in the pink form the center of the cap and the apex of the stem is a delicate pink, which gives the plant a beautiful appearance. found from june to october. i have not tested it but have no doubt of its esculent qualities. _marasmius fagineus. morgan._ fagineus means belonging to beech. pileus a little fleshy, convex then plane or depressed, at length somewhat repand, rugose-striate, reddish-pallid or alutaceous. the gills are short-adnate, somewhat crisped, close, pale reddish. the stem is short, hollow, pubescent, thickened upward, concolorous; the base somewhat tuberculose. _morgan_, myc. flora m. v. this plant is quite frequently found in our woods growing on the bark at the base of living beech trees. its habitat, its reddish or alutaceous cap, and its paler gills will clearly identify the species. _marasmius peronatus. fr._ the masked marasmius. [illustration: figure .--marasmius peronatus. natural size. cap reddish-buff. gills creamy or light reddish-brown.] peronatus is from _pero_, a boot. the pileus is reddish-buff, convex, slightly flattened at the top, quite wrinkled when old; diameter, at full expansion, between one and two inches, margin striate. the gills are thin and crowded, creamy, becoming light reddish-brown, continuing down the stem by a short curve. the stem is fibrous-stuffed, pale, densely clothed at the base with stiff yellowish hairs. it grows in the woods, among dead leaves, from may till frost. it is usually solitary yet is sometimes found in clusters. it has been eaten frequently without injury, but by most writers is branded poisonous. it is quite acrid, but that disappears in cooking. the dense yellow hairs at the base of the stem appear to constitute the distinguishing characteristic. found from july to october. _marasmius ramealis. fr._ [illustration: figure .--marasmius ramealis. natural size.] ramealis means a branch or stick; so called because the plant is found growing on sticks, in open woods. the pileus is very small, somewhat fleshy, plane or a trifle depressed, obtuse, not striate, slightly rugulose, opaque. the gills are attached to the stem, somewhat distant, narrow, white. the stem is about one inch long, stuffed, mealy, white, inclined to be rufescent at the base. the spores are elliptical, × µ. this is a very pretty plant, but easily overlooked. it is found on oak and beech branches, frequently in large groups. figure illustrates their mode of growth and will assist the collector in identifying the species. not poisonous, but too small to gather. found from july to october. the specimens in figure were found in haynes' hollow near chillicothe and photographed by dr. kellerman. _marasmius saccharinus. batsch._ granular marasmius. edible. saccharinus is from _saccharum_, sugar; it is so called because the white pileus looks very much like loaf sugar. the pileus is entirely white, membranaceous, convex, somewhat papillate, smooth, sulcate and plicate. the gills are broadly and firmly attached to the stem, narrow, thick, very distant, united by veins, whitish. the stem is quite thin, thread-form, attenuated upward, at first flocculose, at length becoming smooth, inserted obliquely, reddish, pale at the apex. spores, × µ. quite common in wet weather on dead oak limbs in woods. this plant differs from m. epiphyllus in its habitat, in the papillate form of its pileus and the stem's being flocculose, then smooth; also in that the gills are united in a reticulated manner. common. july to october. _marasmius epiphyllus. fr._ the leaf marasmius. edible. epiphyllus means growing on leaves. the pileus is white, membranaceous, nearly plane, at length umbilicate, smooth, wrinkled, plicate. the gills are firmly attached to the stem, white, connected by veins, entire, distant, few. the stem is rather horny, bay, minutely velvety, apex pale, inserted. the spores are × µ. this plant is abundant everywhere, on fallen leaves in woods during rainy weather. july to october. _marasmius delectans. morgan._ [illustration: figure .--marasmius delectans. natural size. caps white. gills broad and distant.] delectans means pleasing or delightful. the pileus is subcoriaceous, convex, then expanded and depressed, glabrous, rugulose, white, changing in drying to pale alutaceous. the gills are moderately broad, unequal, rather distant, trabeculate between, white, emarginate, adnexed; the spores are lance-oblong, hyaline, - × µ. the stem, arising from an abundant white-floccose mycelium, is long, slender, tapering slightly upward, smooth, brown and shining, white at the apex. it is found growing on old leaves in woods. the plants in the figure were collected in the woods at sugar grove, ohio, by r. a. young, july , , and photographed by dr. kellerman. found from july to october. _marasmius nigripes. schw._ [illustration: figure .--marasmius nigripes. natural size. caps and gills white, stems black.] nigripes means black foot, so called because the stems are black. tremmelloid. pileus very thin, pure white, pruinose, rugulose-sulcate, convex then expanded. the gills are pure white, unequal, some of them forked, adnate, the interstices venulose. the stem is thickest at the apex, tapering downward, black, white-pruinose, the base insititious. _morgan_. it is found on old leaves, sticks, and old acorns and hickory-nuts. when dry, the stem loses its black color and the gills become flesh-color. it is quite common in thin and open woods. the spores are hyaline and stellate, - -rayed. found from july to october. this is called heliomyces nigripes by some authors. _pleurotus. fr._ pleurotus is from two greek words meaning side and ear, alluding to its manner of growth on a log. this genus is very common everywhere in ohio, and is easily determined by its eccentric, lateral, or even absent stem, but it must have white spores, and the characteristics of the agaricini. pileus fleshy in the larger species and membranaceous in the smaller forms, but never becoming woody. stem mostly lateral or wanting; when present, continuous with cap. gills with sinus or broadly decurrent, toothed. grows in woods. _pleurotus ostreatus. jacq._ the oyster mushroom. edible. [illustration: figure .--pleurotus ostreatus. two-thirds natural size. often growing very large.] pileus two to six inches broad, soft, fleshy, convex, or slightly depressed behind, subordinate, often cespitosely imbricated, moist, smooth, margin involute; whitish, cinereous or brownish; flesh white, the whole surface shining and satiny when dry. [illustration: plate xviii. figure .--pleurotus ostreatus. two-thirds natural size.] gills broad, decurrent, subdistant, branching at the base, white or whitish. the stem when present is very short, firm, lateral, sometimes rough with stiff hair, hairy at the base. spores oblong, white, . to . inch long, . inch broad. this is one of our most abundant mushrooms, and the easiest for the beginner to identify. in figures and , you will see the plant growing in imbricated form apparently without any stem. in figure is a variety that has a pronounced stem, showing how the stems grow together at the base, the slight grooving on the stems, also the decurrent gills. in most of these plants the stems are plainly lateral, but a few will appear to be central. it will be difficult to distinguish it from the sapid mushroom and for table purposes there is little need to separate them. in ohio the oyster mushroom is very common everywhere. i have seen trees sixty to seventy feet high simply loaded with this mushroom. if one will locate a few logs or stumps upon which the oyster mushroom grows, he can find there an abundant supply (when conditions are right for fungus growth) during the entire season. it is almost universally a favorite among mushroom eaters, but it must be carefully and thoroughly cooked. it grows very large and frequently in great masses. i have often found specimens whose caps were eight to ten inches broad. it is found from may to december. [illustration: figure .--pleurotus ostreatus. one-half natural size, showing gills and stems.] _pleurotus salignus. fr._ the willow pleurotus. edible. [illustration: figure .--pleurotus ulmarius. one-third natural size.] salignus, from _salix_, a willow. pileus is compact, nearly halved, horizontal, at first cushion-shaped, even, then with the disk depressed, substrigose, white or fuliginous. the stem, eccentric or lateral, sometimes obsolete, short, white-tomentose. the gills are decurrent, somewhat branched, eroded, distinct at the base, nearly of the same color. spores . by . inch. fries. i found this species near bowling green on willow stumps. about every ten days the stumps offered me a very excellent dish, better than any meat market could afford. september to november. _pleurotus ulmarius. bull._ the elm pleurotus. edible. ulmarius, from _ulmus_, an elm. it takes its name from its habit of growing on elm trees and logs. it appears in the fall and may be found in company with the oyster mushroom, late in december, frozen solid. this species is frequently seen on elm trees, both dead and alive, on live trees where they have been trimmed or injured in some way. it is often seen on elms in the cities, where the elm is a common shade tree. its cap is large, thick and firm, smooth and broadly convex, sometimes pale yellow or buff. frequently the epidermis in the center of the cap cracks, giving the surface a tessellated appearance as in figure . the flesh is very white and quite compact. the gills are white or often becoming tawny at maturity, broad, rounded or notched, not closely placed, sometimes nearly decurrent. the stem is firm and solid, various in length, occasionally very short, inclined to be thick at the base and curved so that the plant will be upright, as will be seen in figure . the cap is from three to six inches broad. a specimen that measured over ten inches across the cap, was found some thirty feet high in a tree. while it was very large, it was quite tender and made several meals for two families. but this species is not limited entirely to the elm. i found it on hickory, about chillicothe. there are a few elm logs along my rambles that afford me fine specimens with great regularity. insects do not seem to infest it as they do the ostreatus and the sapidus. sometimes, when the plant grows from the top of a log or the cut surface of a stump, the stem will be longer, straight, and in the center of the cap. this form is called by some authors var. verticalis. for my own use i think the elm mushroom, when properly prepared, very delicious. like all tree mushrooms it should be eaten when young. it is easily dried and kept for winter use. found from september to november. _pleurotus petaloides. bull._ the petaloid pleurotus. edible. [illustration: figure .--pleurotus petaloides.] this species is so called from its likeness to the petals of a flower. pileus fleshy, spathulate, entire; margin at first involute, finally fully expanded; villous, depressed. the stem is compressed and villous, often channelled, nearly erect. the gills are strongly decurrent, crowded, narrow, and white or whitish. spores minutely globose, . by . . the plant varies very greatly in form and size. its chief characteristic is the presence of numerous short white cystidia in the hymenium, which dot the surface of the hymenium, and under an ordinary pocket lens give to the gills a sort of fuzzy appearance. frequently it will have the appearance of growing from the ground, but a careful examination will reveal a piece of wood of some kind, which serves as a host for the mycelium. i have found this plant but a few times, it seems to be quite rare in our state, especially in the southern part of the state. the plants in figure were photographed by prof. g. d. smith of akron, ohio. _pleurotus sapidus. kalchb._ the sapid pleurotus. edible. [illustration: figure .--pleurotus sapidus. one-third natural size, showing imbricated growth. spores lilac.] [illustration: figure .--pleurotus sapidus.] sapidus, savory. this plant grows in clusters whose stems are more or less united at the base as in figure . the caps when densely crowded are often irregular. they are smooth and vary much in color, being whitish, ash-gray, brownish, yellowish-gray. the flesh is thick and white. the gills are white or whitish, rather broad, running down on the stem, and slightly connected, at times, by oblique or transverse branches. the stem is generally short, solid, several usually springing from a thickened base, white or whitish and either laterally or eccentrically connected with the cap. this plant is classed with the white-spored species, yet its spores, after a short exposure to the air, really exhibit a pale lilac tint. this can only be seen when the spores are in sufficient quantity and resting on a suitable surface. the size of the plant varies, the cap being commonly from two to five inches long. it grows in woods and open places, on stumps and logs of various kinds. its edible quality is quite as good as the oyster mushroom. the only way by which it can be distinguished from the p. ostreatus is by its lilac-tinted spores. it is found from june to november. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate xx. figure .--pleurotus sapidus.] _pleurotus serotinoides. pk._ the yellowish pleurotus. edible. [illustration: figure .--pleurotus serotinoides. one-third natural size.] serotinoides, like serotinus, which means late-coming; from its appearing in the winter. the pileus is fleshy, one to three inches broad, compact, convex or nearly plane, viscid when young and moist, half-kidney-shaped, roundish, solitary or crowded and imbricated, variously colored, dingy-yellow, reddish-brown, greenish-brown or olivaceous, the margin at first involute. the gills are close, determinate, whitish or yellowish. the stem is very short, lateral, thick, yellowish beneath, and minutely downy or scaly with blackish points. the spores are minute, elliptical, . inch long, . inch broad. there is probably no difference between this and p. serotinus, the european species. it is a beautiful plant. the color and size are quite variable. i found it on ralston's run and in baird's woods on frankfort pike. it is found from september to january. _pleurotus applicatus. batsch._ little gray pleurotus. [illustration: figure .--pleurotus applicatus. natural size.] applicatus means lying upon or close to; so named from the sessile pileus. the pileus is one-third of an inch across, when young cup-shaped, dark cinereous, somewhat membranaceous, quite firm, resupinate, then reflexed, somewhat striate, slightly pruinose, villous at the base. the gills are thick, broad in proportion to the size of the cap, distant, radiating, gray, the margin lighter, sometimes the gills are as dark as the pileus. sometimes it is attached only by the center of the pileus; sometimes, growing on the side of a shelving log, it is attached laterally. it is not as abundant as some other forms of pleurotus. it differs from p. tremulus in absence of a distinct stem. _pleurotus cyphellæformis. berk._ cyphellæformis means shaped like the hollows of the ears. the pileus is cup-shaped, pendulous, downy or mealy, upper layer gelatinous, gray, very minutely hairy, especially at the base, margin paler. the gills are narrow, rather distant, pure white, alternate ones being shorter. these are very small plants, found only in damp places on dead herbaceous plants. they resemble a cyphella griseo-pallida in habit. _pleurotus abscondens. pk._ [illustration: figure .--pleurotus abscondens. entire plant white.] abscondens means keeping out of view. it is so called because it persists in growing in places where it is hidden from sight. the pileus is often two and a half inches broad, delicate-white, strong stringent odor, usually pruinose, margin slightly incurved. the gills are attached to the stem, rather crowded, very white, somewhat narrow. the stem is short, solid, pruinose, usually lateral, and curved. the plant usually grows in hollow stumps or logs, and in this case the stem is always lateral and the plant grows very much as does the p. ostreatus, except that they are not imbricated. occasionally the plant is found on the bottom of a hollow log and in that case the cap is central and considerably depressed in the center. i have never seen it growing except in a hollow stump or log. its manner of growth and its delicate shape of white will serve to identify it. it is found from august to november. _pleurotus circinatus. fr._ circinatus means to make round, referring to the shape of the pileus. the pileus is two to three inches broad, white, plane, orbicular, convex at first, even, covered over with silky-pruinose lustre. the gills are adnate-decurrent, rather crowded, quite broad, white. the stem is equal, smooth, one to two inches long, stuffed, central or slightly eccentric, rooted at the base. the form of these plants is quite constant and the round white caps will at first suggest a collybia. the white gills and its decurrent form will distinguish it from p. lignatilis. it makes quite a delicious dish when well cooked. i found some beautiful specimens on a decayed beech log in poke hollow. found in september and october. _lactarius. fr._ lactarius means pertaining to milk. there is one feature of this genus that should easily mark it, the presence of milky or colored juice which exudes from a wound or a broken place on a fresh plant. this feature alone is sufficient to distinguish the genus but there are other points that serve to make the determination more certain. the flesh, although it seems quite solid and firm, is very brittle. the fracture is always even, clean cut, and not ragged as in more fibrous substances. the plants are fleshy and stout, and in this particular resemble the clitocybes, but the brittleness of the flesh, milky juice, and the marking of the cap, will easily distinguish them. many species have a very acrid or peppery flavor. if a person tastes one when raw, he will not soon forget it. this acridity is usually lost in cooking. the pileus in all species is fleshy, becoming more or less depressed, margin at first involute, often marked with concentric zones. the stem is stout, often hollow when old, confluent with the cap. the gills are usually unequal, edge acute, decurrent or adnate, milky; in nearly all the species the milk is white, changing to a sulphur yellow, red, or violet, on exposure to the air. _lactarius torminosus. fr._ the woolly lactarius. poisonous. [illustration: figure .--lactarius torminosus. three-fourths natural size. caps yellowish-red or ochraceous tinged with red, margin incurved.] torminosus, full of grips, causing colic. the pileus is two to four inches broad, convex, then depressed, smooth, or nearly so, except the involute margin which is more or less shaggy, somewhat zoned, viscid when young and moist, yellowish-red or pale ochraceous, tinged with red. the gills are thin, close, rather narrow, nearly of the same color as the pileus, but yellower and paler, slightly forked, subdecurrent. the stem is one to two inches long, paler than the cap, equal or slightly tapering downward, stuffed or hollow, sometimes spotted, clothed with a very minute adpressed down. the milk is white and very acrid. the spores are echinulate, subglobose, - × - µ. this differs from l. cilicioides in its zoned pileus and white milk. most authorities speak of it as dangerous. captain mcilvaine speaks of the russians as preserving it in salt and eating it seasoned with oil and vinegar. they grow in the woods, open places, and in fields. the specimens in figure were found in michigan and photographed by dr. fischer. _lactarius piperatus. fr._ the peppery lactarius. edible. [illustration: figure .--lactarius piperatus. one-third natural size.] piperatus--having a peppery taste. the pileus is creamy-white, fleshy, firm, convex, then expanded, depressed in the center, dry, never viscid, and quite broad. the gills are creamy-white, narrow, close, unequal, forked, decurrent, adnate, exuding a milky juice when bruised, milky-white, very acrid. the stem is creamy white, short, thick, solid, smooth, rounded at the end, slightly tapering at the base. spores generally with an apiculus, . by . inch. the plant is found in all parts of ohio, but most people are afraid of it on account of its very peppery taste. although it can be eaten without harm, it will never prove a favorite. it is found in open woods from july to october. in its season is one of the very common plants in all of our woods. _lactarius pergamenus. fr._ pergamenus is from _pergamena_, parchment. the pileus is convex, then expanded, plane, depressed, wavy, wrinkled, without zones, often repand, smooth, white. the gills are adnate, very narrow, tinged with straw-color, often white, branched, much crowded, horizontal. the stem is smooth, stuffed, discolored, not long. the milk is white and acrid. spores, × . it differs from l. piperatus in its crowded, narrow gills and longer stem. found in woods from august to october. _lactarius deceptivus. pk._ deceiving lactarius. edible [illustration: figure .--lactarius deceptivus.] deceptivus means deceiving. the pileus is three to five inches broad, compact, at first convex, and umbilicate, then expanded and centrally depressed or subinfundibuliform, obsoletely tomentose or glabrous except on the margin, white or whitish, often varied with yellowish or sordid strains, the margin at first involute and clothed with a dense, soft cottony tomentum, then spreading or elevated and more or less fibrillose. the gills are rather broad, distant or subdistant, adnate or decurrent, some of them, forked, whitish, becoming cream-colored. the stem is one to three inches long, equal or narrowed downward, solid, pruinose-pubescent, white. spores are white, - . µ. milk white, taste acrid. this plant delights in woods and open groves, especially under coniferous trees. it is a large, meaty, acrid white species, with a thick, soft, cottony tomentum on the margin of the pileus of the young plant. the specimen photographed was sent me from massachusetts by mrs. blackford. it grows in july, august and september. its sharp acridity is lost in cooking, but like all acrid lactarius it is coarse and not very good. _lactarius indigo. (schw.) fr._ [illustration: figure .--lactarius indigo. one-third natural size. entire plant indigo blue.] [illustration: figure .--lactarius indigo. one-third natural size, showing gills.] this is one of our most striking plants. no one can fail to recognize it, because of the deep indigo blue that pervades the whole plant. i have found it in only one place, near what is known as the lone-tree hill near chillicothe. i have found it there on several different occasions. the pileus is from three to five inches broad, the very young plants seem to be umbilicate with the margin strongly incurved, then depressed or funnel-shaped; as the plant ages the margin is elevated and sometimes waved. the entire plant is indigo blue, and the surface of the cap has a silvery-gray appearance through which the indigo color is seen. the surface of the cap is marked with a series of concentric zones of darker shade, as will be seen in figure especially on the margin; sometimes spotted, becoming paler and less distinctly zonate with age or in drying. the gills are crowded, indigo blue, becoming yellowish and sometimes greenish, with age. the stem is one to two inches long, short, nearly equal, hollow, often spotted with blue, colored like the pileus. it is edible but rather coarse. found in open woods july and august. _lactarius regalis. pk._ [illustration: figure .--lactarius regalis. natural size. caps white, tinged with yellow.] regalis means regal; so named from its large size. the pileus is four to six inches broad, convex, deeply depressed in the center; viscid when moist; often corrugated on the margin; white, tinged with yellow. the gills are close, decurrent, whitish, some of them forked at the base. the stem is two to three inches long and one inch thick, short, equal, hollow. the taste is acrid and the milk sparse, white, quickly changing to sulphur-yellow. the spores are . of an inch in diameter. _peck._ this is frequently a very large plant, resembling in appearance l. piperatus but easily recognized because of its viscid cap and its spare milk changing to yellow, as in l. chrysorrhæus. it grows on the ground in the woods, in august and september. i find it here chiefly on the hillsides. the specimens in figure were found in michigan and photographed by dr. fischer. _lactarius scrobiculatus. fr._ the spotted-stemmed lactarius. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--lactarius scrobiculatus. natural size. caps reddish-yellow, zoned. margin very much incurved, stem pitted.] scrobiculatus is from _scrobis_, a trench, and _ferro_, to bear, referring to the pitted condition of the stem. the pileus is convex, centrally depressed, more or less zoned, reddish-yellow, viscid, the margin very much incurved, downy. the gills are adnate, or slightly decurrent, whitish, and often very much curled, because of the incurved condition of the cap at first. the stem is equal, stuffed, adorned often with pits of a darker color. the spores are white, juice white, then yellowish. the plant is very acrid to the taste, and solid. too hot to be eaten. i have found it only a few times on the hills of huntington township, near chillicothe. the yellowish hue and markedly incurved margin will identify the plant. found in august and september. _lactarius trivialis. fr._ [illustration: figure .--lactarius trivialis. one-half natural size. caps light tan with a pinkish hue. very acrid.] trivialis means common. the pileus is three to four inches broad, usually damp or watery, sometimes quite viscid, shining when dry, convex, then expanded, depressed in the center, margin at first incurved, even, smooth; warm, soft tan, rather light, and sometimes a very slight pinkish hue prevails. the flesh is solid and persistent. the gills are rather crowded, slightly decurrent, at first whitish, then a light yellow, many not reaching to the stem, none forked. the stem is from three to four inches long, of same color as the pileus, often a much lighter shade; tapering from the cap to the base, smooth, stuffed, and finally hollow. the plant is quite full of milk, white at first, then turning yellowish. the plant is very acrid and peppery. it is quite plentiful along the streams of ross county, ohio. it is not poisonous, but it seems too hot to eat. it is found after rains from july to october, in mixed woods where it is damp. _lactarius insulsus. fr._ [illustration: figure .--lactarius insulsus. one-third natural size. caps yellowish or straw color. very acrid.] insulsus, insipid or tasteless. this is a very attractive plant. quite solid and maintains its form for several days; the pileus is two to four inches broad, convex, depressed in the center, then funnel-shaped, smooth, viscid when moist, more or less zoned, the zones much narrower than l. scrobiculatus, yellowish or straw-color, margin slightly incurved and naked. the gills are thin, rather crowded, adnate and sometimes decurrent, some of them forked at the base, whitish or pallid. spores subglobose, rough, × µ. the stem is one to two inches long, equal or slightly tapering downward, stuffed, whitish, generally spotted. milk, white. most authorities class this as an edible plant, but it is so hot and the flesh so solid that i have never tried it. i found two plants which fully answered the description of the european plants. the zones were orange-yellow and brick-red. i have visited the place many times since, but have never been able to find another. it is not an abundant plant with us. found from july to october, in open woods. _lactarius lignyotus. fr._ the sooty lactarius. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate xxi. figure, .--lactarius lignyotus. natural size. caps a sooty umber. flesh mild to the taste.] lignyotus is from _lignum_, wood. the pileus is one to four inches in diameter, fleshy, convex, then expanded, sometimes slightly umbonate, often in age slightly depressed, smooth or often wrinkled, pruinosely velvety, sooty umber, the margin in the old plants wavy and distinctly plaited; the flesh white and mild to the taste. the gills are attached to the stem; unequal; snow-white or yellowish-white, slowly changing to a pinkish-red or salmon color when bruised; distant in old plants. the stem is one to three inches long, equal, abruptly constricted at the apex, smooth, stuffed, of the same color as the pileus. milk white, taste mild or tardily acrid. the spores are globose, yellowish, - . µ. this is called the sooty lactarius and is very easily identified. it will be frequently found associated with the smoky lactarius which it greatly resembles. it seems to delight in wet swampy woods. it is said to be one of the best of the lactarii. the specimens in figure were collected at sandusky, ohio, and photographed by dr. kellerman. _lactarius cinereus. pk._ [illustration: figure .--lactarius cinereus.] cinereus is from _cineres_, ashes; so called from the color of the plant. the pileus is one to two and a half inches broad, zoneless, somewhat viscid, floccose-scaly, depressed in the center, margin thin, even, flesh thin and white, mild to the taste, ashy-gray. the gills are adnate, rather close, sometimes forked (usually near the stem), uneven, white or creamy-white, milk white, not plentiful. the stem is two to three inches long, tapering upward, loosely stuffed, finally hollow, often floccose at the base. this plant is quite common from september to november, growing in damp weather on leaves in mixed woods. it has a mild taste. while i have not eaten it i have no doubt of its edibility. the color of the pileus is sometimes quite dark. _lactarius griseus. pk._ gray lactarius. [illustration: figure .--lactarius griseus.] griseus means gray. the pileus is thin, nearly plane, broadly umbilicate or centrally depressed, sometimes infundibuliform, generally with a small umbo or papilla, minutely squamulose tomentose, gray or brownish-gray, becoming paler with age. the gills are thin, close, adnate, or slightly decurrent, whitish or yellowish. the stem is slender, equal or slightly tapering upward, rather fragile; stuffed or hollow; generally villose or tomentose at the base; paler than, or colored like, the pileus. the spores are . to . inch; milk white, taste subacrid. pileus is to lines broad, stem to inches long, to lines thick. _peck._ it resembles l. mammosus and l. cinereus. it differs from the former in not having ferruginous gills and pubescent stems, and from the latter by its smaller size, its densely pubescent pileus, and its habitat. it grows on mossy logs or in mossy swamps. the base of one of the plants in figure is covered with the moss in which they grew. these plants were found in purgatory swamp, near boston, by mrs. blackford. they grow from july to september. _lactarius distans. pk._ the distant-gilled lactarius. edible. distans means distant, so called because the gills are very wide apart. the pileus is firm, broadly convex or nearly plane, umbilicate or slightly depressed in the center; with a minute, velvety pruinosity; yellowish-tawny or brownish-orange. the gills are rather broad, distant, adnate or slightly decurrent, white or creamy yellow, interspaces veined; milk white, mild. the stem is short, equal or tapering downward, solid, pruinose, colored like the pileus. the spores are subglobose, - µ broad. _peck_, n. y. report, . i frequently mistake this plant for l. volemus when seen growing in the ground, but the widely separated gills distinguish the plant as soon as it is gathered. the stem is short and round, tapering downward, solid, colored like the pileus. the milk is both white and mild. i find it on nearly every wooded hillside about chillicothe. it is found from july to september. _lactarius atroviridus. pk._ the dark-green lactarius. [illustration: figure .--lactarius atroviridus. cap and stem dark green. cap depressed in center. gills white.] atroviridus is from _ater_, black; _viridus_, green; so called from the color of the cap and the stem of the plant. the pileus is convex, plane, then depressed in the center, with an adherent pellicle, greenish with darker scales, margin involute. the gills are slightly decurrent, whitish, broad, distant; milk white but not copious as in many of the lactarii. the stem is quite short, tapering downward, dark green, scaly. the stem is so short that the cap seems to be right on the ground, hence it is very easily overlooked. it is found only occasionally on mossy hillsides, where there are not too many leaves. the plant in figure was found in haynes' hollow, near chillicothe. i have found the plant on top of mt. logan. it is found from july to october. i do not know of its edibility. all specimens that i have found i have sent to my mycological friends. it should be tasted with caution. _lactarius subdulcis. fr._ the sweet lactarius. edible. [illustration: figure .--lactarius subdulcis.] subdulcis means almost sweet, or sweetish. the pileus is two to three inches broad, rather thin, papillate, convex, then depressed, smooth, even, zoneless, cinnamon-red or tawny-red, margin sometimes wavy. the gills are rather narrow, thin, close, whitish, often reddish or tinged with red. spores, - µ. the stem is stuffed, then hollow, equal, slightly tapering upward, slender, smooth, sometimes villous at the base. the milk is white, sometimes rather acrid and unpleasant to the taste when raw. it needs to be cooked a long time to make it good. it is likely to be found anywhere, but it does best in damp places. the plants found with us all seem to have red or cinnamon-red gills, especially before the spores begin to fall. they are found growing on the ground, among leaves, or on well-rotted wood and sometimes on the bare ground. found from july to november. _lactarius serifluus. fr._ serifluus means flowing with serum, the watery part of milk. the pileus is fleshy, depressed in the center, dry, smooth, not zoned, tawny-brown, margin thin, incurved. the gills are crowded, light-brown, or yellowish, milk scanty and watery. the stem is solid, equal, paler than the pileus. spores, - µ. it differs from l. subdulcis in having a solid stem and perhaps a shade darker color. found in woods, july to november. _lactarius corrugis. pk._ the wrinkled lactarius. edible. [illustration: figure .--lactarius corrugis. caps wrinkled, tawny-brown. gills orange-brown.] corrugis means wrinkled. the pileus is convex, plane, expanded, slightly depressed in the center; surface of the cap wrinkled, dry, bay-brown; margin at first involute. the gills are adnexed, broad, yellowish or brownish-yellow, growing paler with age. the stem is rather short, equal, solid, pruinose, of the same color as the pileus. the spores are subglobose, - µ. this species looks very much like l. volemus, and its only essential difference is in the wrinkled form, and color of the pileus. the milk when dry is very sticky and becomes rather black. it has just a touch of acridity. any one determining this species will not fail to note the number of brown cystidia or setæ, in the hymenium, which project above the surface of the gills. they are so numerous and so near the edge of the gills that they give these a downy appearance. the quality of this species is even better than l. volemus, though it is not as abundant here as the latter. found in thin woods from august to september. the photograph, figure , was made by prof. h. c. beardslee. _lactarius volemus. fr._ the orange-brown lactarius. edible. [illustration: _photo by prof. atkinson._ figure .--lactarius volemus. natural size. caps golden-tawny. milk copious, as will be seen where the plant has been pricked.] _volemus from volema pira, a kind of a pear_, so called from the shape of the stem. the pileus is broad, flesh thick, compact, rigid, plane, then expanded, obtuse, dry, golden-tawny, at length somewhat wrinkly. the gills are crowded, adnate or slightly decurrent, white, then yellowish; milk copious, sweet. the stem is solid, hard, blunt, generally curved like a pear-stem; its color is that of the pileus but a shade lighter. spores globose, white. the milk in this species is very abundant and rather pleasant to the taste. it becomes quite sticky as it dries on your hands. this plant has a good record among mushroom eaters, both in this country and europe. there is no danger of mistaking it. the plants grow in damp woods from july to september. they are found singly or in patches. they were found quite plentifully about salem, ohio, and also about chillicothe. _lactarius deliciosus. fr._ the delicious lactarius. edible. [illustration: figure .--lactarius deliciosus. one-third natural size. caps light reddish-yellow. milk orange color.] deliciosus, delicious. the pileus is three to five inches broad; color varying from yellow to dull orange or even brownish-yellow with mottled concentric zones of deeper color, especially in younger plants, sometimes a light reddish-yellow, without apparent zones (as is the case of those in figure ); convex, when expanded becoming very much depressed; funnel-shaped; smooth, moist, sometimes irregular, wavy; flesh brittle, creamy, more or less stained with orange. the gills are slightly decurrent in the depressed specimens, somewhat crowded, forked at the stem, short ones beginning at the margin; when bruised exuding a copious supply of milky juice of an orange color; a pale tan-color, turning green in age or in drying. spores are echinulate, - × - µ. the stem is two to three inches or more, equal, smooth, hollow, slightly pruinose, paler than the cap, occasionally spotted with orange, tinged with green in old plants. the taste of the raw plant is slightly peppery. it grows in damp woods and is sometimes quite common. its name suggests the estimation in which it is held by all who have eaten it. like all lactarii it must be well cooked. the specimens in figure were gathered on cemetery hill close to the pine trees and in company with boletus americanus. found from july to november. i found the plant in a more typical form about salem, ohio. _lactarius uvidus. fr._ [illustration: figure .--lactarius uvidus.] uvidus is from _uva_, grape, so called because when exposed to the air changes to the color of a grape. the pileus is two to four inches broad, flesh rather thin, convex, sometimes slightly umbonate, then depressed in the center, not zoned, viscid, dingy pale ochraceous-tan, margin at first involute, naked, milk mild at first then becoming acrid, white changing to lilac. the gills are thin, slightly decurrent, crowded, shorter ones very obtuse and truncate behind, connected by veins, white, when wounded becoming lilac. the stem is soon hollow, two to three inches long, viscid, pallid. the spores are round, µ. not only the milk changes to a lilac when cut, but the flesh itself. they are found in damp woods during august and september. the plants in figure were found near boston, by mrs. blackford. these plants grew in purgatory swamp. the sphagnum moss will be seen at the base of the upright plant. _lactarius chrysorrheus. fr._ yellow-juiced lactarius. chrysorrheus from two greek words; _chrysos_, yellow or golden; _reo_, i flow, because the juice soon turns to a golden yellow. the pileus is rather fleshy, depressed, then funnel-shaped, yellowish-flesh colored, marked with dark zones or spots. the stem is stuffed, then hollow, equal, or tapering below, paler than the pileus, sometimes pitted. the gills are decurrent, thin, crowded, yellowish, milk white, then golden-yellow, very acrid. the milk is white, quite acrid, has a peculiar taste, and changes at once on exposure to a beautiful yellow. this is a common species about salem, ohio, and is quite variable in size. found in woods and groves from july to october. i do not know whether its edible quality has ever been tested. when i found it some years ago i had less faith in mushrooms than i have now. _lactarius vellereus. fr._ the wooly-white lactarius. edible. vellereus from vellus, a fleece. the pileus is white, compact, fleshy, depressed or convex, tomentose, zoneless, margin at first involute, milk white and acrid. the gills are white or whitish, distant, forked, adnate or decurrent, connected by veins, bow-shaped, milk scanty. the stem is solid, blunt, pubescent, white, tapering downward. spores white and nearly smooth, . by . inch. this species is quite common; and though very acrid to the taste, this acridity is entirely lost in cooking. it will be readily known by the downy covering of the cap. found in thin woods and wood margins. july to october. _russula. pers._ russula, red or reddish. the beginner will have little difficulty in determining this genus. there is such a strong family likeness that, finding one, he will say at once it is a russula. the contour of the cap, the brittleness of its flesh and of its stem, the fragile gills, and the failure of any part of the plant to exude a milky or colored juice, the many gay colors--will all help in determining the genus. many species of russula strongly resemble those of the genus lactarius, in size, shape, and texture. the spores, too, are quite similar, but the absence of the milky juice will mark the difference at once. the cap may be red, purple, violet, pink, blue, yellow, or green. the colored zones often seen in the lactarii do not appear here. the beginner will possibly find trouble in identifying species, because of variation of size and color. the spores are white to very pale yellow, generally spiny. the pileus is fleshy, convex, then expanded, and at length depressed. the stem is brittle, stout, and smooth, generally spongy within, and confluent with the cap. the gills are milkless, with acute edge, and very tender. captain mcilvaine, in his very valuable book, one thousand american fungi, says: "to this genus authors have done special injustice; there is not a single species among them known to be poisonous, and where they are not too strong of cherry bark and other highly flavored substances, they are all edible; most of them favorites." i can testify to the fact that many of them are favorites, though a few are very peppery and it requires some courage to attack them. they are all found on the ground in open woods, from early summer to late fall. _russula delica. fr._ the weaned russula. edible. delica means weaned, so called because, though it resembles lactarius vellereus in appearance, it is void of milk. the pileus is quite large, fleshy, firm, depressed, even, shining, margin involute, smooth, not striated. the gills are decurrent, thin, distant, unequal, white. the stem is solid, compact, white, short. specimens will be found that resemble lactarius piperatus and l. vellereus, but they may be easily distinguished because they have no milk in their gills and the taste is mild. they are not equal to most of the russulas. found in woods from august to october. _russula adusta. pers._ the smoky russula. edible. [illustration: figure .--russula adusta.] adusta means burned. the pileus is fuliginous, cinereous, flesh compact, margin even and inflexed, depressed in the center. the gills are attached to the stem, decurrent, thin, crowded, unequal, white, not reddening when bruised. the stem is obese, solid, of the same color as the pileus, not turning red when bruised. the plant resembles r. nigricans, but can readily be distinguished from it because of the thin, crowded gills and failure to turn red when cut or bruised. the spores are subglobose, almost smooth, - µ; no cystidia. it is found in the woods during august and september. edible but not first class. it is a plant very widely distributed. _russula nigricans. fr._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--russula nigricans.] nigricans means blackish. the pileus is two to four inches broad, dark grayish-brown, black with advancing age, fleshy, compact, flesh turning red when bruised or convex, flattened, then depressed, at length funnel-shaped, margin entire, without striate, margin at first incurved, young specimens are slightly viscid when moist, even, without a separable pellicle; whitish at first, soon sooty olive, at length becoming broken up into scales and black; flesh firm and white, becoming reddish when broken. the gills are rounded behind, slightly adnexed, thick, distant, broad, unequal, the shorter ones sometimes very scanty, forked, reddening when touched. the stem is rather short, thick, solid, equal, pallid when young, then black. the spores are subglobose, rough, - µ. the plant is quite compact, inodorous, becoming entirely black with age. it is easily distinguished from r. adusta by the flesh becoming reddish when bruised, and by the much thicker, and more distant gills. it is very close to r. densifolia but differs from it in that its gills are more distant and because of its mild taste. i am pleased to present to my readers, in figure , a photograph of a plant which grew in sweden in the locality where prof. fries did his great work in fungal study and research. it is a typical specimen of this species. it was gathered and photographed by mr. c. g. lloyd. it is found from june to october. not poisonous, but not good. _russula foetens. fr._ the fetid russula. not edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--russula foetens.] foetens means stinking. the pileus is four to six inches broad, dirty white or yellowish; flesh thin; at first hemispherical, then expanded, almost plane, often depressed in the center; covered with a pellicle which is adnate; viscid in wet weather; widely striate-tuberculate on the margin, which is at first incurved. the gills are adnexed, connected by veins, crowded, irregular, many forked, rather broad, whitish, becoming dingy when bruised, exuding watery drops at first. the stem is stout, stuffed, then hollow, concolor, two to four inches long. the spores are small, echinulate, almost round. i have found the plants very generally diffused over the state. it is very coarse and uninviting. its smell and taste are bad. found from july to october. these plants are widely distributed and usually rather abundant. _russula alutacea. fr._ the tan-colored russula. edible. [illustration: figure .--russula alutacea. two-thirds natural size. caps flesh color. gills broad and yellowish.] alutacea, tanned leather. the pileus is flesh-color, sometimes red; flesh white; bell-shaped, then convex; expanded, with a viscid covering, growing pale; slightly depressed; even; margin inclined to be thin, striate. the gills are broad, ventricose, free, thick, somewhat distant, equal, yellow, then ochraceous. the stem is stout, solid, even; white, though parts of the stem are red, sometimes purple; wrinkled lengthwise; spongy. the spores are yellow. the taste is mild and pleasant when young, but quite acrid when old. alutacea will be known mostly by its mild taste, broad, and yellow gills. it is quite common, but does not grow in groups. it is sweet and nutty. from july to october. _russula ochrophylla. pk._ ochrey gilled russula. edible. ochrophylla is from two greek words meaning _ochre_ and _leaf_, because of its ochre-colored gills. the pileus is two to four inches broad, firm, convex, becoming nearly plane or slightly depressed in the center; even, or rarely very slightly striate on the margin when old; purple or dark purplish-red; flesh white, purplish under the adnate cuticle; taste mild. the gills are entire, a few of them forked at the base, subdistant, adnate at first yellowish, becoming bright, ochraceous-buff when mature and dusted by the spores, the interspaces somewhat venose. the stem is equal or nearly so, solid or spongy within, reddish or rosy tinted, paler than the pileus. the spores are bright, ochraceous-buff, globose, verruculose, . of an inch broad. _peck._ this is one of the easiest russulas to determine because of its purple or purplish-red cap, entire gills, at first yellowish, then a bright, ochraceous-buff when mature. the taste is mild and the flavor fairly good. there is also a plant which has a purplish cap and a white stem, called russula ochrophylla albipes. pk. it quite agrees in its edible qualities with the former. r. ochrophylla is found in the woods, especially under oak trees, in july and august. _russula lepida. fr._ the neat russula. edible. [illustration: figure .--russula lepida. two-thirds natural size. caps, purplish-red, with more or less brown.] lepida, from _lepidus_, neat. the pileus firm, solid; varying in color from bright red to dull, subdued purplish with a distinct brown; compact; convex, then depressed, dry unpolished; margin even, sometimes cracked and scaly, not striated. the gills are white, broad, principally even, occasionally forked, very brittle, rounded, somewhat crowded, connected by veins, sometimes red on the edge, especially near the margin. the stem is solid, white, usually stained and streaked with pink, compact, even. the surface is dull, as with a fine dust or plum-like bloom, and thus without polish. often times the surface will appear almost velvety. the tints of the flesh and the gills will be found uniform. the plant when raw is sweet and nut-like to the taste. this is a beautiful species, the color being averaged under the general hue of dark, subdued red, inclining to maroon. it is simply delicious when properly cooked. found in woods from july to september. _russula cyanoxantha. fr._ the blue and yellow russula. edible. cyanoxantha, from two greek words, blue and yellow, referring to color of the plant. the pileus is quite variable as to color, ranging from lilac or purplish to greenish; disk yellowish, margin bluish or livid-purple; convex, then plane, depressed in center; margin faintly striate, sometimes wrinkled. the gills are rounded behind, connected by veins, forked, white, slightly crowded. the stem is solid, spongy, stuffed, hollow when old, equal, smooth and white. the color of the cap is quite variable but the peculiar combination of color will assist the student in distinguishing it. it is a beautiful plant and one of the best of the russulas to eat. the mushroom-eater counts himself lucky indeed when he can find a basketful of this species after "the joiner squirrel" has satisfied his love of this special good thing. it is quite common in woods from august to october. _russula vesca. fr._ the edible russula. edible. vesca from vesco, to feed. the pileus is from two to three inches broad; red-flesh-color, disk darker; fleshy; firm; convex, with a slight depression in the center, then funnel-shaped; slightly wrinkled; margin even, or remotely striate. gills adnate, rather crowded, unequal, forked, and white. the stem is firm, solid, sometimes peculiarly reticulated, tapering at the base. the spores are globose, spiny, and white. i frequently found it near salem, o., in thin chestnut woods and in pastures under such trees. a mushroom lover will be amply paid for the long tramps if he finds a basket full of these dainties. it is mild and sweet when raw. it is found in thin woods and in wood margins, sometimes under trees in pastures, from august to october. _russula virescens. fr._ the green russula. edible. [illustration: figure .--russula virescens. two-thirds natural size. caps pale-green. gills white.] virescens, being green. the pileus is grayish-green; at first globose, then expanded, convex, at last depressed at the center; firm, adorned with flaky greenish or yellow patches, produced by the cracking of the skin; two to four inches broad, margin striate, often white. the gills are white, moderately close, free or nearly so, narrow as they approach the stem, some being forked, others not; very brittle, breaking to pieces at the slightest touch. the stem is shorter than the diameter of the cap, smooth, white, and solid or spongy. the spores are white, rough, and nearly globose. this plant is especially sweet and nutty to the taste when young and unwilted. all russulas should be eaten when fresh. i have found the plant over the state quite generally. it is a prime favorite with the squirrels. you will often find them half eaten by these little nibblers. found in open woods from july to september. it is one of the best mushrooms to eat and one that is very easily identified. it is quite common about chillicothe, ohio. its mouldy color is not as prepossessing as the brighter hues of many far less delicious fungi, but it stands the test of use. _russula variata. ban._ variable russula. edible. pileus is firm, convex becoming centrally depressed or somewhat funnel-form, viscid, even on the thin margin, reddish-purple, often variegated with green, pea-green sometimes varied with purple, flesh white, taste acrid or tardily acrid. the gills are thin, narrow, close, often forked, tapering toward each end, adnate or slightly decurrent, white. the stem is equal or nearly so, solid, sometimes cavernous, white. the spores are white, subglobose, . to . of an inch long, . broad. _peck_, rep. state bot., . this plant grows in open beech woods, rather damp, and appears in july and august. the caps are often dark purple, often tinged with red, and sometimes the caps contains shades of green. i found the plants plentifully in woodland park, near newtonville, ohio, in july, . we ate them on several occasions and found them very good. the greenish margin and purplish center will mark the plant. _russula integra. fr._ the entire russula. edible. integra, whole or entire. the pileus is three or four inches in diameter, fleshy; typically red, but changing color; expanded, depressed, with a viscid cuticle, growing pale. margin thin, furrowed and tuberculate. flesh white, sometimes yellowish above. the stem is at first short and conical, then club-shaped or ventricose, sometimes three inches long and up to one inch thick; spongy, stuffed, commonly striate; even, and shining white. the gills are somewhat free, very broad, sometimes three-fourths of an inch; equal or bifid at the stem, rather distant and connected by veins; pallid or white, at length light yellow, being powdered yellow with the spores. although the taste is mild it is often astringent. one of the most changeable of all species, especially in the color of the pileus, which, though typically red, is often found inclining to azure-blue, bay-brown, olivaceous, etc. it occasionally happens that the gills are sterile and remain white. _fries._ the spores are spheroid, spiny, pale ochraceous. r. integra so closely resembles r. alutacea that to distinguish them requires a knowledge of both plants, and even then one may not feel quite sure; however, it matters little as they are equally good. its powdery gills will help to distinguish r. integra from r. alutacea. found from july to october. _russula roseipes. (secr) bres._ the rosy-stemmed russula. edible. [illustration: figure .--russula roseipes. natural size.] roseipes is from _rosa_, a rose; _pes_, a foot; so called because of its rose-colored or pinkish stem. the pileus is two to three inches broad, convex, becoming nearly plane, or slightly depressed; at first viscid, soon dry, becoming slightly striate on the margin; rosy-red variously modified by pink, orange or ochraceous hues, sometimes becoming paler with age; taste mild. the gills are moderately close, nearly entire, rounded behind and slightly adnexed, ventricose, whitish becoming yellow. the stem is one to three inches long, slightly tapering upward, stuffed or somewhat cavernous, white tinged with red. the spores are yellow, round. _peck_, r. this plant is widely distributed from maine to the west. it grows best in pine and hemlock woods, but sometimes found in mixed woods. it is found in july and august. _russula fragilis. fr._ the tender russula. [illustration: figure .--russula fragilis.] fragilis means fragile. the pileus is rather small, flesh-color or red, or reddish; thin, fleshy only at the disk; at first convex and often umbonate, then plane, depressed; cuticle thin, becoming pale, viscid in wet weather, margin tuberculate-striate. the gills are thin, ventricose, white, slightly adnexed, equal, crowded, sometimes slightly eroded at the edge. the spores are minutely echinulate, - × µ. the stem is stuffed, hollow, shining white. quite as acrid as r. emetica, which it resembles in many ways, especially the smaller plants. it can be distinguished by its thinner caps, thinner and crowded gills, more ventricose and often slightly eroded at the edge. it is generally classed among poisonous mushrooms; but captain charles mcilvaine in his book says: "though one of the peppery kind, i have not, after fifteen years of eating it, had reason to question its edibility." i should advise caution. eat of it sparingly till sure of its effects. found in woods from july to october. _russula emetica. fr._ the emetic russula. [illustration: figure .--russula emetica. two-thirds natural size. caps rose-red to yellow-red. gills white.] emetica means making sick, inciting to vomit. the pileus is fleshy, quite viscid, expanded, polished, shining, oval, or bell-shaped when young; its color is very variable from rose-red to a yellow-red or even purple; margin furrowed, flesh white. the gills are free, equal, broad, distant, white. the spores are round, µ. the stem is stout, solid, though sometimes spongy stuffed, even, white or reddish. the spores are white, round, and spiny. this species is recognized by its very acrid taste and free gills. a distinct channel will be seen between the gills and the stem. this very pretty mushroom is quite common in most parts of ohio. i found it in abundance about salem, bowling green, sidney, and chillicothe--all in this state. captain mcilvaine states that he has repeatedly eaten it and cites a number of others who ate it without bad results, although weight of authority would band it a reprobate. i am glad to report something in its favor, for it is a beautiful plant, yet i should advise caution in its use. it is found in open woods or in pastures under trees, from july to october. its viscid cap will distinguish it. _russula furcata. fr._ the forked gilled russula. edible. [illustration: figure .--russula furcata. two-thirds natural size. caps greenish-umber to reddish.] furca, a fork, so called from the forking of the gills. this is not peculiar, however, to this species. the pileus is two to three inches broad; greenish, usually greenish-umber, sometimes reddish; fleshy; compact; nearly round, then expanded, depressed in the center; even; smooth; often sprinkled with a silky luster, pellicle separable, margin at first inflexed, then expanded, always even, sometimes turned upward. the flesh is firm, white, dry, somewhat cheesy. the gills are adnate or slightly decurrent, somewhat crowded, broad, narrowed at both ends, many forked, shining white. the spores, - × µ. the stem is two to three inches long, solid, white, rather firm, even, equal or tapering downward. the spores are round and spiny. i have found it frequently on the wooded hillsides of the state. the taste when raw is mild at first, but soon develops a slight bitterness which, however, is lost in cooking. fried in butter they are excellent. july to october. _russula rubra, fr._ the red russula. [illustration: figure .--russula rubra. two-thirds natural size. caps bright-vermilion. gills forked and tinged with red.] rubra means red, so called from the cap being concolorous, bright vermillion; showy, becoming pale with age, center of the cap usually darker; compact, hard, fragile, convex, expanded, somewhat depressed, dry, no pellicle, often cracked when old. the flesh is white, often reddish under the cuticle. the gills are adnate, rather crowded, white at first, then yellowish, many forked and with some short ones intermixed, frequently tinged with red at the edge. spores - µ, cystidia pointed. the stem is two to three inches long, solid, even, white, often with a faint reddish hue. the spores are nearly round and white. it is very acrid to the taste, and because of this acridity it is usually thought to be poisonous, but captain mcilvaine says he does not hesitate to cook it either by itself or with other russulæ. it is found very generally in the state and is quite plentiful in the woods about chillicothe, from july to october. _russula purpurina. quel & schulz._ the purple russula. edible. [illustration: figure .--russula purpurina. two-thirds natural size. caps rosy-pink to light-yellow. gills yellowish in age.] purpurina means purple. the pileus is fleshy, margin acute, subglobose, then plane, at length depressed in the center, slightly viscid in wet weather, not striate, often split, pellicle separable, rosy-pink, paling to light-yellow. gills are crowded in youth, afterward subdistant, white, in age yellowish, reaching the stem, not greatly narrowed behind, almost equal, not forked. the stem is stuffed, spongy, very variable, cylindrical, attenuated above, rosy-pink, becoming paler toward the base, color obscure in age. the flesh is fragile, white, reddish under the skin; odor slight and taste mild. the spores white, globose, sometimes subelliptical, - µ long, minutely warted. _peck_, rept., n. y. state bot. this is not a large plant, but it can be readily determined by its red or reddish stem, mild taste and white spores. found in open woods in july and august. _russula densifolia. gillet._ [illustration: figure .--russula densifolia. two-thirds natural size. caps whitish, becoming fuliginous gray. flesh turning red when exposed to the air.] densifolia has reference to the crowded condition of the gills. the pileus is from three to four inches broad, fleshy, quite compact, convex, expanded, then depressed, margin inflexed, smooth, not striate, white or whitish, becoming fuliginous, gray, or brownish, quite black in center, flesh red when broken. the gills are attached to the stem, somewhat decurrent, unequal, thin, crowded, white or whitish, with a rosy tint. spores, - µ. the stem is short, slightly mealy, white, then gray, at length blackish, smooth, round, turning red or brown on being handled. it differs from _r. nigricans_ in being much smaller, and in its crowded gills. it differs from _r. adusta_ in flesh turning red when broken. the flesh or substance is white at first, turning red when exposed to the air, then blackish. this plant is not abundant in this state. i found a number of plants on cemetery hill, where some shale had been dumped under a large beech tree. found in july and august. _cantharellus. adanson._ cantharellus means a diminutive drinking-cup or vase. this genus can be distinguished from all other genera by the character of its gills which are quite blunt on the edge, like folds, polished, and are mostly forked or branched. in some species the gills vary in thickness and number. they are decurrent, folded, more or less thick and swollen. the spores are white. they grow on the ground, on rotten wood, and among moss. they seem to delight in damp shady places. _cantharellus cibarius. fr._ the edible cantharellus. [illustration: plate xxii. figure .--cantharellus cibarius. natural size. entire plant egg-yellow.] cibarius means pertaining to food. this plant is frequently spoken of as the chanterelle. the entire plant is a rich egg-yellow. the pileus is fleshy, at first convex, later flat, three to five inches broad, depressed in the center, finally funnel-shaped; bright to deep yellow; firm, smooth, but often irregular, its margin often wavy; flesh white, the cap has the appearance of an inverted cone. the gills are decurrent, shallow and fluted, resembling swollen veins, branched, more or less interconnected and tapering downward on the stem, color the same as the pileus. the stem is solid, variable in length, often curved, tapering towards the base, paler than the pileus and gills. it grows in woods and rather open places. i found it in great abundance in stanley's woods, near damascus, ohio. i have found it very often about chillicothe. the plant has a strong prune-like odor; when tasted raw they are peppery and pungent but sweet and quite delicious when cooked. my friends and myself have eaten it and pronounced very good. the plants in figure were gathered near columbus, ohio, and photographed by dr. kellerman. the species is quite common in the state, and is found from june to september. _cantharellus aurantiacus. fr._ false chantarelle. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--cantharellus aurantiacus. one-third natural size. caps orange-yellow. gills yellow and forked.] aurantiacus means orange-yellow. the pileus is fleshy, soft, depressed, downy, the margin strongly incurved when young, in mature plants it is wavy or lobed; color dull yellowish, usually brownish. the gills are crowded, straight, dark-orange, branched, with a regular bifurcation. the stem is lighter in color than the pileus, solid at first, spongy, stuffed, hollow, unequal, tapering upward, and somewhat curved. it is generally labeled poisonous, but some good authorities say it is wholesome. i have never eaten it further than in its raw state. it is easily distinguished from the edible species by its dull orange cap and its orange gills, which are thinner and closer and more regularly forked than those of the edible chantarelle. it grows in woods and open places. found from july to september. _cantharellus floccosus. schw._ the woolly cantharellus. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate xxiii. figure .--cantharellus floccosus.] floccosus means floccose or woolly. the pileus at the top is from one to two inches broad, fleshy, elongated funnel-form or trumpet-shape, floccose-squamose, ochraceous-yellow. the gills are vein-like, close, much anastomosing above, long decurrent and subparallel below, concolorous. the stem is very short, thick, rather deeply rooted. the spores are elliptical, . - × . µ. _peck_, rep., n. y. this plant is funnel-shaped nearly to the base of the stem. it is a small plant, never more than four inches high. i found it in haynes's hollow, in rather open woods, on mossy hillsides. july and august. _cantharellus brevipes. pk._ the short-stemmed cantharellus. edible. brevipes is from _brevis_, short; _pes_, foot; so called because of its short stem. the pileus is fleshy, obconic, glabrous, alutaceous, or dingy cream-color, the thin margin erect, often irregular and lobed, tinged with lilac in the young plant; folds numerous, nearly straight in the margin, abundantly anastomosing below; pale umber, tinged with lilac. the stem is short, tomentose-pubescent, ash-colored, solid, often tapering downward. spores yellowish, oblong-elliptical, uninucleate, - × µ. _peck_, d rep., n. y. the plant is small; with us, not more than three inches high and the pileus not more than two inches broad at the top. it differs somewhat in color, in the character of the folds, and materially in the shape of the margin of the pileus. found occasionally on the hillsides of huntington township, near chillicothe, july to august. _cantharellus cinnabarinus. schw._ the cinnabar cantharellus. edible. [illustration: figure .--cantharellus cinnabarinus. cap and stem cinnibar-red, flesh white. natural size.] cinnabarinus means cinnabar-red, from the color of the plant. the pileus is firm, convex, or slightly depressed in the center, often irregular with wavy or lobed margin; glabrous, cinnabar-red, flesh white. the gills are narrow, distant, branched, decurrent, of the same color as the cap, dull on the edge. the stem is equal or tapering downward, glabrous, solid, sometimes stuffed, cinnabar-red. the spores are elliptical, - µ long, - µ broad. no one will have any difficulty in identifying this plant, since its color suggests the name at once. it is quite common about chillicothe and throughout the state. it is found frequently with craterellus cantharellus. it is a very pretty plant, growing in open woods or along the roadside in woods. it will keep for some time after it is gathered. it is found from july to october. _cantharellus infundibuliformis. fr._ funnel-shaped cantharellus. infundibuliformis means shaped like a funnel. the pileus is one to two and a half inches broad, somewhat membranaceous, umbilicate, then infundibuliform, usually perforated at the base, and opening into the cavity of the stem, floccosely rugose on the surface, yellowish-gray or smoky when moist, pale when dry, becoming wavy. the gills are decurrent, thick, distant, regularly forked, straight, yellow or cenereous, at length pruinose. the stem is two to three inches long, hollow, even, smooth, always yellow, slightly thickened at the base. the spores are elliptical, smooth, - × µ. they grow on the ground, especially where wood has decayed and become a part of the ground. they also grow on decayed wood. they are found from july to october. _nyctalis. fr._ nyctalis is from a greek word meaning night. pileus symmetrical, in some species bearing large conidia upon its surface. the gills are adnate or decurrent, thick, soft, margin obtuse. the stem is central, its substance continuous with the flesh of the pileus. the spores are colorless, smooth, elliptical or globose. _fries._ _nyctalis asterophora. fr._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--nyctalis asterophora.] asterophora means star-bearing. the pileus is about one-half inch broad, fleshy; conical, then hemispherical; flocculose and rather mealy, owing to the large, stellate conidia; whitish, then tinged with fawn-color. the gills are adnate, distant, narrow, somewhat forked, straight, dingy. the stem is about one-half inch long, slender, twisted, stuffed, white then brownish, rather mealy. the spores are elliptical, smooth, × µ. _fries, hym._ i found, about the last of august, these plants growing on decaying specimens of russula nigricans, along ralston's run, near chillicothe. _hygrophorus. fr._ hygrophorus is from two greek words meaning bearing moisture. so called because the members of this genus may be known from their moist caps and the waxy nature of the gills, which distinguish them from all others. as in the pleurotus, the gills of some of the species are rounded or notched at the end next to the stem, but of others they are decurrent on it; hence, in some species they are like the gills of tricholoma in their attachment, in others they run down on the stem as in the clitocybe. in many of them both cap and stem are very viscid, a characteristic not found in the clitocybes; and the gills are generally thicker and much farther apart than in that genus. a number of the species are beautifully colored. _hygrophorus pratensis. fr._ the pasture hygrophorus. edible. [illustration: plate xxiv. figure .--hygrophorus pratensis.] pratensis, from pratum, a meadow. the pileus is one to two inches broad; when young almost hemispherical, then convex, turbinate or nearly flat, the center more or less convex, as if umbonate; margin often cracked, frequently contracted or lobed; white or various shades of yellow, buffish-reddish, or brownish. flesh white, thick in the center, thin at the margin. the stem is stuffed, attenuated downwards. the gills are thick, distant, white or yellowish, bow-shaped, decurrent, and connected by vein-like folds. spores are white, broadly elliptical, . to . inch long. the pasture hygrophorus is a small but rather stout-appearing mushroom. it grows on the ground in pastures, waste places, clearings, and thin woods, from july to september. sometimes all white or gray. var. cinereus, fr. pileus and gills gray. the stem whitish and slender. var. pallidus, b. & br. pileus depressed, edge wavy, entirely pale ochre. this species differs mainly from h. leporinus in that the latter is quite floccose on the pileus. _hygrophorus eburneus. bull._ shining white hygrophorus. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--hygrophorus eburneus.] eburneus is from _ebur_, ivory. the pileus is two to four inches broad, sometimes thin, sometimes somewhat compact, white; very viscid or glutinous in wet weather, and slippery to the touch; margin uneven, sometimes wavy; smooth, and shining. when young, the margin is incurved. the gills are firm, distant, straight, strongly decurrent, with vein-like elevations near the stem. the spores are white, rather long. the stem is unequal, sometimes long and sometimes short; stuffed, then hollow, tapering downward, punctate above with granular scales. odor and taste are rather pleasant. it is found in woods and pastures in all parts of ohio, but it is not plentiful anywhere. i have found it only in damp woods about chillicothe. august to october. _hygrophorus cossus. sow._ cossus, because it smells like the caterpillar, cossus ligniperda. the pileus is small, quite viscid, shining when dry, white with a yellow tinge, edge naked, very strong-scented. the gills are somewhat decurrent, thin, distant, straight, firm. the stem is stuffed, nearly equal, scurvy-punctate upwards. spores × . found in the woods. the strong smell will serve to identify the species. _hygrophorus chlorophanus. fr._ the greenish-yellow hygrophorus. chlorophanus is from two greek words, meaning appearing greenish-yellow. the pileus is one inch broad, commonly bright sulphur-yellow, sometimes scarlet-tinted, not changing color; slightly membranaceous, very fragile, often irregular, with the margin split or lobed, at first convex, then expanded; smooth, viscid, margin striate. the gills are emarginate, adnexed, quite ventricose, with a thin decurrent tooth, thin, subdistant, distinct, pale-yellow. the stem is two to three inches long, hollow, equal, round, viscid when moist, shining when dry, wholly unicolorous, rich light-yellow. the spores are slightly elliptical, × µ. this species resembles in appearance h. ceraceus, but it can be identified by its emarginate gills and somewhat larger form. the plant has a wide distribution, having been found from the new england states through the middle west. it is found in damp, mossy places from august to october. i have no doubt of its edibility. it has a mild and agreeable taste when eaten in the raw state. _hygrophorus cantharellus. schw._ [illustration: figure .--hygrophorus cantharellus. natural size. caps bright red.] cantharellus means a small vase. the pileus is thin, convex, at length umbilicate, or centrally depressed, minutely squamulose, moist, bright red, becoming orange or yellow. the gills are distant, subarcuate, decurrent, yellow, sometimes tinged with vermilion. the stem is one to three inches long, smooth, equal, sub-solid, sometimes becoming hollow, concolorous, whitish within. _peck._ i have found about chillicothe a number of the varieties given by dr. peck. var. flava. pileus and stem pale yellow. gills arcuate, strongly decurrent. var. flavipes. pileus red or reddish. stem yellow. var. flaviceps. pileus yellow. stem reddish or red. var. rosea. has the pileus expanded and margin wavy scalloped. found from july to september. _hygrophorus coccineus. fr._ the scarlet hygrophorus. edible. coccineus, pertaining to scarlet. the pileus is thin, convex, obtuse, viscid, scarlet, growing pale, smooth, fragile. the gills are attached to the stem, with a decurrent tooth, connected by veins, variously shaded. the stem is hollow and compressed, rather even, not slippery, scarlet near the cap, yellow at the base. this plant when young is of a bright scarlet, but it soon shades into a light-yellow with advancing age. it is quite fragile and varies very greatly in size in different localities. found in woods and pastures from july to october. _hygrophorus conicus. fr._ the conical hygrophorus. edible. [illustration: figure .--hygrophorus conicus.] the pileus is one to two inches broad, acutely conical, submembranaceous, smooth, somewhat lobed, at length expanded, and rimose; turning black, as does the whole plant when broken or bruised; orange, yellow, scarlet, brown, dusky. the gills are free or adnexed, thick, attenuated, ventricose, yellowish with frequently a cinereous tinge, wavy, rather crowded. the stem is three to four inches long, hollow, cylindrical, fibrillose, striated, colored like the pileus, turning black when handled. this plant is quite fragile. it can be identified by its turning black when bruised. it sometimes appears early in the spring and continues till late in the fall. it is not abundant but is only occasionally found on the ground in woods and open places. _hygrophorus flavodiscus. frost._ yellow-disked hygrophorus. edible. [illustration: figure .--hygrophorus flavodiscus. natural size. the gluten is shown connecting the margin of the cap to their stem.] flavodiscus means yellow-disked. the pileus is one-half to three inches broad, fleshy, convex or nearly plane, glabrous, very viscid or glutinous, white, pale-yellow or reddish-yellow in the center, flesh white. the gills are adnate or decurrent, subdistant, white, sometimes with a slight flesh-colored tint, the interspaces sometimes venose. the stem is one to three inches long, solid, subequal, very viscid, or glutinous, white at the top, white or yellowish elsewhere. the spores are elliptical, white, . to . of an inch long, . to . broad. these mushrooms make a delicious dish. the specimens in the photograph were gathered at west gloucester, mass., by mrs. e. b. blackford, of boston. i have found them about chillicothe. they are very viscid, as the plants in figure will show. the caps are thick and the margin inrolled. they are found in october and november. _hygrophorus speciosus. pk._ showy hygrophorus. edible. [illustration: figure .--hygrophorus speciosus.] speciosus means beautiful, showy; so called from the scarlet color of the umbo. the pileus is one to two inches in diameter, broadly convex, often with small central umbo; glabrous, very viscid or glutinous when moist; yellow, usually bright red or scarlet in the center; flesh white, yellow under the thin, separable pellicle. the gills are distant, decurrent, white, or slightly tinged with yellow. the stem is two to four inches long, nearly equal, solid, viscid, slightly fibrillose, whitish or yellowish. the spores are elliptic, . of an inch long, . broad. _peck._ this is a very beautiful and showy plant. it grows in swampy places and under tamarack trees. the specimens in figure were found in massachusetts by mrs. blackford, and were photographed by dr. kellerman. it is found in september and august. _hygrophorus fuligineus. frost._ sooty hygrophorus. edible. [illustration: figure .--hygrophorus fuligineus. natural size. specimen on the right is h. caprinus.] fuligineus means sooty or smoky. the pileus is one to four inches broad, convex or nearly plane, glabrous, very viscid or glutinous, grayish-brown or fuliginous, the disk often darker or almost black. the gills are subdistant, adnate or decurrent, white. the stem is two to four inches long, solid, viscid or glutinous, white or whitish. the spores are elliptic, . to . of an inch long, . broad. _peck_, no. , vol. . this species is found frequently associated with h. flavodiscus, which it resembles very closely, save in color. when moist, the cap and stems are covered with a thick coating of gluten, and when the caps are dry this gives them a varnished appearance. i do not find them abundant here. the plants in figure were found by mrs. blackford near west gloucester, mass. they are found october and november. _hygrophorus caprinus. scop._ the goat hygrophorus. edible. caprinus means belonging to a goat; it is so called from the fibrils resembling goat's hair. the pileus is two to three inches broad, fleshy, fragile, conical, then flattened and umbonate, rather wavy, sooty, fibrillose. the gills are very broad, quite distant, deeply decurrent, white, then glaucous. the stem is two to four inches long, solid, fibrillose, sooty, often streaked or striate, as will be seen in figure , page . the spores are × - µ. these plants grow in pine woods in company with h. fuligineus and h. flavodiscus. the specimen on the right in figure was found near west gloucester, mass., by mrs. blackford. it is found from september till hard frost. _hygrophorus lauræ. morg._ [illustration: figure .--hygrophorus lauræ.] this is a beautiful plant, found among leaves, and so completely covered with particles of leaves and soil that it is hard to clean them off. they are very viscid, both stem and cap. they are only occasionally found in our state. the pileus is two to three inches broad; reddish-brown in the center, shading to a very light tan on the edges; very viscid; convex; margin at first slightly incurved, then expanded. the gills are adnate, slightly decurrent, not crowded, unequal, yellowish. the stem is stuffed, tapering downward, whitish, furfuraceous near the cap. i have found this plant in poke hollow, near chillicothe, on several occasions, also in gallia county, ohio. i have not found it elsewhere in this vicinity. while i have not found it in sufficient quantity to try it i have no doubt of its edible qualities. i have found it only about the last of september and the first of october. it grows in rather dense woods on the north sides of the hills, where it is constantly shaded and damp. named in honor of prof. morgan's wife. _hygrophorus micropus. pk._ short-stemmed hygrophorus. edible. micropus means short-stemmed. the pileus is thin, fragile, convex or centrally depressed, umbilicate; silky, gray, often with one or two narrow zones on the margin; taste and odor farinaceous. the gills are narrow, close, adnate or slightly decurrent, gray, becoming salmon color with age. the stem is short, solid or with a slight cavity, often slightly thickened at the top, pruinose, gray, with a white, mycelioid tomentum at the base. the spores are angular, uninucleate, salmon color, . --. of an inch long, . --. broad. _peck._ this is a very small plant and not frequently found, but widely distributed. i have always found it in open grassy places during damp weather. the caps are thin, often markedly depressed. its silky appearance and narrow zones on the margin of the cap, together with its rather close gills, broadly attached to the stem, gray at first, then salmon color, will identify the species. july to september. _hygrophorus miniatus. fr._ the vermilion hygrophorus. edible. [illustration: figure .--hygrophorus miniatus. cap and stems vermilion-red. gills yellowish and tinged with bright-red.] miniatus is from minium, red lead. this is a small but a very common species, highly colored and very attractive. the pileus and the stem are bright red and often vermilion. the pileus is at first convex, but, when fully expanded, it is nearly or quite flat, and in wet weather it is even concave by the elevation of the margin, smooth or minutely scaly, often umbilicate. its color varies from a bright red or vermilion or blood-red to pale orange hues. the gills are yellow and frequently strongly tinged with red, distant, attached to the stem, and sometimes notched. the stem is usually short and slender, colored like, or a little paler, than the cap; solid, when young, but becoming stuffed or hollow with age. the spores are elliptical, white, µ long. the vermilion mushroom grows in woods and in open fields. it is more plentiful in wet weather. it seems to grow best where chestnut logs have decayed. it can be found in such places in sufficient quantities to eat. few mushrooms are more tender or have a more delicate flavor. there are two other species having red caps, hygrophorus coccineus and h. puniceus, but both are edible and no harm could come from any mistake. they are found from june to october. those in figure were found in poke hollow september . _hygrophorus miniatus sphagnophilus. pk._ [illustration: plate xxv. figure .--hygrophorus miniatus sphagnophilus. natural size.] sphagnophilus means sphagnum-loving, so called because it is found growing on sphagnum. the pileus is broadly convex, subumbilicate, red. the gills are adnate, whitish, becoming yellowish or sometimes tinged with red, occasionally red on the edge. the stem is colored like the pileus, whitish at the base, both it and the pileus are very fragile. this is more fragile than the typical form and retains its color better in drying. _peck_, d rep. this is a beautiful plant growing, as figure shows, on the lower dead portion of the stems of bog moss or sphagnum. it grows very abundantly in buckeye lake. the photograph was made by dr. kellerman. it is found from july to october. these plants cook readily, have an excellent flavor and because of their color make an inviting dish. i have eaten heartily of them several times. _hygrophorus marginatus. pk._ margined hygrophorus. edible. [illustration: figure .--hygrophorus marginatus.] marginatus, so called from the frequent vermilion edged gills. the pileus is thin, fragile, convex, subcampanulate or nearly plane, often irregular, sometimes broadly umbonate, glabrous, shining, striatulate on the margin, bright golden-yellow. the gills are rather broad, subdistant, ventricose, emarginate, adnexed, yellow, sometimes becoming orange or vermilion on the edge, interspaces venose. the stem is fragile, glabrous, often flexous, compressed or irregular, hollow, pale-yellow; spores broadly elliptic, . --. of an inch long, . --. broad. _peck_, n. y., . this plant has the most beautiful yellow i have ever seen in a mushroom. this bright golden yellow and the orange or vermilion color on the margin or edge of the gills will always characterize the plant. the specimen in figure were sent to me by mrs. blackford, of boston, mass., the last of august. they were not in the best condition when photographed. _hygrophorus ceraceus. fr._ the wax-like hygrophorus. edible. [illustration: figure .--hygrophorus ceraceus. caps waxy yellow.] ceraceus is from _cera_, wax. the pileus is one inch and less broad, waxy-yellow, shining, fragile, thin, occasionally subumbonate, slightly fleshy, slightly striate. the gills are firmly attached to the stem, subdecurrent, distant, broad, ventricose often connected with veins, almost triangular, yellow. the stem is one to two inches long, hollow, often unequal, flexuous, sometimes compressed, yellow, occasionally orange at the base, waxy. the spores × µ. this is a very beautiful, fragile plant, usually found growing in the grass. it is easily distinguished by its waxy yellow color. the plants photographed were found on the cemetery hill. they are found from august to october. _hygrophorus virgineus. wulf._ the ivory-capped hygrophorus. edible. [illustration: figure .--hygrophorus virgineus. two-thirds natural size. entire plant white.] virgineus, virgin; so called from its whiteness. the pileus is fleshy, convex, then plane, obtuse, at length depressed; moist, sometimes cracked into patches, floccose when dry. the gills are decurrent, distant, rather thick, often forked. the stem is curt, stuffed, firm, attenuated at the base, externally becoming even and naked. spores × - µ. _fries._ the plant is wholly white and never large. it is easily confounded with h. niveus and sometimes difficult to distinguish from the white forms of h. pratensis. this plant is quite common in pastures, both in the spring and in the fall. i found the specimens in figure on cemetery hill under the pine trees on november . they were photographed by dr. kellerman. _hygrophorus niveus._ the snow-white hygrophorus. edible. niveus, snow-white. the plant is wholly white. the pileus is scarcely one inch broad, somewhat membranaceous, bell-shaped, convex, then umbilicate, smooth, striate, viscid when moist, not cracked when dry, flesh thin, everywhere equal. the gills are decurrent, thin, distant, acute, quite entire. the stem is hollow, thin, equal, smooth. spores × µ. found in pastures. _hygrophorus sordidus. pk._ the dingy hygrophorus. edible. [illustration: figure .--hygrophorus sordidus.] sordidus means a dirty white, or dingy, referring to the color of the caps, so made by adhering earth. the pileus is broadly convex or nearly plane, glabrous, slightly viscid, white, but usually defiled by adhering dirt; the margin at first strongly involute, then spreading or reflexed; flesh firm when young, tough when old. the gills are subdistant, adnate, or decurrent, white or creamy-white. the stem is five to ten cm. long, firm, solid, white. the spores are elliptical, . - . × - µ. _peck._ the specimens i found were clear white, growing among leaves and were especially free from soil. the stems were short and were inclined to be slightly ventricose. dr. peck says that this "species is distinguished from h. penarius by its clear white color, though this is commonly obscured by the adhering dirt that is carried up in the growth of the fungus." the young, growing plants were strongly involute but the older plants were reflexed, giving the plants a funnel-shaped appearance and giving the gills a much stronger decurrent appearance. found october th. _hygrophorus serotinus. pk._ late hygrophorus. [illustration: figure .--hygrophorus serotinus.] serotinus means late. so called because it is late in the season. pileus is fleshy but thin, convex or nearly plane, often with the thin margin curved upward, glabrous or with a few obscure innate fibrils, reddish in the center, whitish on the margin, flesh white, taste mild. the gills are thin, subdistant, adnate or decurrent, white, the interspaces slightly venose. the stem is equal, stuffed or hollow, glabrous, whitish. the spores are white, elliptic, . of an inch long, . broad. pileus is - lines broad; stem about inch long, . - . lines thick. _peck._ some specimens of this species were sent to me from boston by mrs. blackford, but after a careful study of them i was unable to place them. she then sent them to dr. peck, who gave them their very appropriate name. those in figure were sent me in december, . they grow a number in the same locality and frequently in close groups or tufts. they seem to delight in oak and pine woods. dr. peck observes that this species is similar to hygrophorus queletii, bres., both in size and color, but the general characteristics of the plants do not agree. he also says it is similar in size and color to h. subrufescens, pk., but differs materially in the specific description. _panus. fr._ panus means swelling. the species under this genus are leathery plants, having the stems lateral and sometimes wanting. they dry up but revive with moisture. the gills are simple and thinner than the lentinus, but with an entire, acute edge. there are a few species which give a phosphorescent light when growing on decayed logs. the genus closely resembles lentinus but can be readily recognized on account of the smooth edged gills. a number of good authorities do not separate them but give both under the name lentinus. this genus abounds wherever there are stumps and fallen timber. _panus stypticus. fr._ the styptic panus. poisonous. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--panus stypticus. two-thirds natural size. cinnamon color.] stypticus means astringent, styptic. the pileus is coriaceous, kidney-shaped, cinnamon-color, growing pale, cuticle breaking up into scales, margin entire or lobed, surface nearly even, sometimes zoned. the gills are thin, crowded, connected by veins, of same color as cap, determinate, quite narrow. the stem is lateral, quite short, swollen above, solid, compressed, pruinose, paler than the gills. it is found very plentifully on decayed logs and stumps, and at times it is quite phosphorescent in its manifestations. it has an extremely unpleasant astringent taste. one might as well eat an indian turnip as this species. just a taste will betray it. found from fall to winter. _panus strigosus. b. & c._ the hairy panus. edible. strigosus, covered with stiff hairs. the pileus is sometimes quite large, eccentric, covered with stiff hairs, margin thin, white. the gills are broad, distant, decurrent, straw-color. the stem is stout, two to four inches long, hairy like the pileus. the favorite host of this species is an apple tree. i found a beautiful cluster on an apple tree in chillicothe. its creamy whiteness and hairy cap and short hairy stem will distinguish it from all other tree fungi. it is edible when young, but soon becomes woody. _panus conchatus. fr._ the shell panus. conchatus means shell-shaped. the pileus is thin, unequal, tough, fleshy, eccentric, dimidiate; cinnamon, then pale; becoming scaly; flaccid; margin often lobed. the gills are narrow, forming decurrent lines on the stem, often branched, pinkish, then ochre. the stem is short, unequal, solid, rather pale, base downy. this species will frequently be found imbricated and very generally confluent. its shell-like form, its tough substance, and its thin pileus are its distinguishing marks. the taste is pleasant but its substance very tough. found from september to frost. _panus rudis. fr._ [illustration: figure .--panus rudis.] this is a very plentiful plant about chillicothe and is found throughout the united states, although it is a rare plant in europe. it is generally given in american mycology under the name lentinus lecomtei. it grows on logs and stumps. the form of the plant is quite different when growing on the top of a log or a stump, from those springing from the side. those in the extreme left of figure grew on the side of the log, while those in the center grew on the top, in which case the plant has usually a funnel-shaped appearance. the pileus is tough, reddish or reddish-brown, depressed, sinuate, bristling with tufts of hair, the margin quite strongly incurved, cæspitose. the gills are narrow and crowded, decurrent, considerably paler than the cap. the stem is short, hairy, tawny; sometimes the stem is almost obsolete. there is a slight tinge of bitterness in the plant when raw, but in cooking this disappears. when prepared for food it should be chopped fine and well cooked. it can be dried for winter use. it is found from spring to late fall. _panus torulosus. fr._ the twisted panus. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--panus torulosus.] torulosus means a tuft of hair. the pileus is two to three inches broad, fleshy, then tough, coriaceous; plane, then funnel-shaped, or dimidiate; even; smooth; almost flesh color, varying to reddish-livid, sometimes violet tinted. the gills are decurrent, rather distant, distinct behind, separate, simple, ruddy, then tan-colored. the stem is short, stout, oblique, gray, covered with a violaceous down. the spores are × µ. the plant is variable both in form and color. sometimes shaded very slightly with pink. it is not very common here. i found some very fine specimens growing on a log near spider bridge, chillicothe. it is edible but quite tough. _panus levis. b. & c._ the light panus. edible. levis, light. pileus two to three inches broad, orbicular, somewhat depressed, white, covered with a dense mat of hair; margin inflexed and marked by triangular ridges. the gills are broad, entire, decurrent. the stem is two to three inches long, attenuated upward, eccentric, lateral, solid, hairy below like the pileus. the spores are white. this certainly is a very beautiful plant and will hold the attention of the collector. it is not common with us. i have found it only on hickory logs. it is said to be of good flavor and to cook readily. _lentinus. fr._ lentinus means tough. the pileus is fleshy, corky, tough, hard and dry, reviving when moist. the stem is central or lateral and often wanting, but when present is continuous with the cap. the gills are tough, unequal, thin, normally toothed, decurrent more or less, margin acute. the spores are smooth, white, orbicular. all the species, so far as i know, grow on wood. they assume a great variety of forms. this genus is very closely related to panus in the dry, coriaceous nature of the pileus and the gills, but it can be readily recognized by the toothed margin of the gills. _lentinus vulpinus. fr._ strong-scented vulpinus. [illustration: plate xxvi. figure .--lentinus vulpinus. one-third natural size.] vulpinus is from _vulpes_, a fox. this is quite a large, massive plant, growing in a sessile and imbricated manner. it has appeared in large quantities for the past four years on an elm, very slightly decayed, but in quite a damp and dark place. the reader will get some idea of the size of the whole plant in figure if he will consider each pileus to be five to six inches broad. they are built up one on top of another, overlapping each other like shingles on a roof. the pileus is fleshy but tough, shell-shaped, connate behind, longitudinally rough, costate, corrugate, tan-colored, and the margin is strongly incurved. the gills are broad, nearly white, flesh-colored near the base, coarsely toothed. the stem is usually obsolete, yet in some cases it is apparent. the spores are almost round and very small, . inch in diameter. in all plants which i have found the odor is somewhat strong and the taste is pungent. it grows in the woods in september and october. _lentinus lepideus. fr._ the scaly lentinus. edible. [illustration: figure .--lentinus lepideus.] lepideus is from _lepis_, a scale. the pileus is fleshy, compact, convex, then depressed, unequal, broken up in dark scales, flesh white, tough. the gills are sinuate, decurrent, broad, torn, transversely striate, whitish, or with white edges, irregularly toothed. the stem is stout, central or lateral, tomentose or scaly, often crooked, rooting, whitish, solid, equal or tapering at the base. this is a peculiar plant, growing sometimes to immense forms. it grows on wood, seemingly to be partial to railroad ties to which its mycelium is very injurious. i found the plant frequently about salem, ohio. the specimens in the halftone were found near akron, ohio, and photographed by prof. smith. as an esculent it almost rivals the pleuroti. it is found from spring to autumn. i found a beautiful cluster on an oak stump near chillicothe, while looking for morels, about the last of april. _lentinus cochleatus. fr._ the spiral-formed lentinus. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--lentinus cochleatus.] cochleatus is from _cochlea_, a snail, from resembling its shell. the pileus is two to three inches broad, tough, flaccid, irregular, depressed, sometimes funnel-shaped, sometimes lobed or contorted, flesh-color, becoming pale. the gills are crowded, beautifully serrated, pinkish-white. the stem is solid, length variable, sometimes central, frequently eccentric, often lateral, smooth. the spores are nearly round, µ. this is a beautiful plant but sparingly found with us. i found a pretty cluster at the foot of a maple stump in poke hollow. the serrated form of the gills will attract attention at once. it is found in august and september. _lenzites. fr._ lenzites, named after lenz, a german botanist. the pileus is corky, dimidiate, sessile. the gills are corky, firm, unequal, branched, edge obtuse. it is very common in the woods, sometimes almost covering stumps and logs. _lenzites betulina. fr._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate xxvii. figure .--lenzites betulina.] [illustration: figure .--lenzites betulina.] betulina, from _betula_, a birch. this has a somewhat corky, leathery cap, firm and without zones, woolly, sessile, deeply grooved concentrically, margin of the same color. the gills are radial, somewhat branching, and coming together again, sordid white or tan-color. this species is wide-spread and is quite variable. it grows in the form of brackets. figure was photographed by dr. kellerman. _lenzites separia. fr._ the chocolate lenzites. the pileus is corky, leathery shells, with the upper surface marked with rough zones of various shades of brown; margin yellowish. the gills are rather thick, branched, one running into another; yellowish. stem obsolete. growing on limbs and branches, especially of the fir tree. _lenzites flaccida. fr._ flaccid lenzites. [illustration: figure .--lenzites flaccida. two-thirds natural size.] flaccida means limp, flaccid. pileus is coriaceous, thin, flaccid, unequal, hairy, zoned, pallid, more or less flabelliform, imbricated. the gills are broad, crowded, straight, unequal, branched, white, becoming pallid. spores are × . this is a very attractive plant and quite common. it runs almost imperceptibly into lenzites betulina. it is found on stumps and trunks. _lenzites vialis. pk._ pileus is corky, almost woody, firm, zoned. gills are thick, firm, serpentine. stem, none. _schizophyllum. fr._ schizophyllum is from two greek words, meaning to split, and a leaf. the pileus is fleshy and arid. the gills are corky, fan-like, branched, united above by the tomentose pellicle, bifid, split longitudinally at the edge. the spores somewhat round and white. the two lips of the split edge of the gills are commonly revolute. this genus is far removed from the type of agaricini. it grows on wood and is very common. _stevenson._ _schizophyllum commune. fr._ [illustration: figure .--schizophyllum commune.] this is a very common plant, growing in the woods on branches and decayed wood, where it can be found in both winter and summer. the pileus is thin, adnate behind, somewhat extended, more or less fan-shaped or kidney-shaped, simple, often much lobed, narrowed behind to the point of attachment; whitish, downy, then strigose. the gills are radiating, gray, then brownish-purple, and sometimes white, branched, split along the edges and rather deeply rolled backwards. the spores are nearly round, - µ. this is a very common species all over the world. i found it in the winter of on decayed shade-trees along the streets of chillicothe. it seems to be partial to maple timber. some call this s. alneum. it is very easily identified from its purple gills being split. _trogia. fr._ trogia is so called in honor of the swiss botanist, trog. the pileus is nearly membranaceous, soft, quite tough, flaccid, dry, flexible, fibrillose, reviving when moist. the gills are fold-like, venose, narrow, irregular, crisped. _trogia crispa. fr._ crispa means crisp or curled. the pileus tough, cup-shaped, reflexed, lobed, villous, whitish or reddish toward the attachment, often tan-colored. the gills are quite narrow, vein-like, irregular, more or less branched, blunt on the edge, white or bluish-gray, quite crisped, edge not channeled. the caps are usually very much crowded and imbricated. it revives during wet weather and is found throughout the year, generally on beech limbs in our woods. chapter iii. the rosy-spored agarics. the spores of this series are of great variety of color, including rosy, pink, salmon-color, flesh-color, or reddish. in pluteus, volvaria, and most of clitopilus, the spores are regular in shape, as in the white-spored series; in the other genera they are generally irregular and angular. there are not so many genera as in the other series and fewer edible species. _pluteus. fr._ pluteus means a shed, referring to the sheds used to make a cover for besiegers at their work, that they might be screened from the missiles of the enemy. they have no volva, no ring on the stem. gills are free from the stem, white at first then flesh-color. _pluteus cervinus. schæff._ fawn-colored pluteus. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate xxviii. figure .--pluteus cervinus. natural size.] _cervinus is from cervus, a deer._ the pileus is fleshy, bell-shaped, expanded, viscid in wet weather, smooth, except a few radiating fibrils when young, margin entire, flesh soft and white; color of the cap light-brown or fawn-color, sometimes sooty, often more than three inches across the cap. the gills are free from the stem, broad, ventricose, unequal in length, almost white when young, flesh-colored when mature from the falling of the spores. the stem is solid, slightly tapering upward, firm, brittle, white, spread over with a few dark fibrils, generally crooked. the spores are broadly elliptical. the cystidia in the hymenium on the gills will be of interest to those who have a microscope. this is a very common mushroom about chillicothe. it is found on logs, stumps, and especially on old sawdust piles. note how easily the stem is removed from the cap. this will distinguish it from the genus entoloma. you cannot get anything in the market that will make a better fry than pluteus cervinus; fried in butter, it is simply delicious. found from may to october. [illustration: figure .--pluteus cervinus.] _pluteus granularis. pk._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--pluteus granularis.] pileus is convex, then expanded, slightly umbonate, wrinkled, sprinkled with minute blackish granules, varying in color from yellow to brown. the gills are rather broad, close, ventricose, free, whitish, then flesh-colored. the stem is equal, solid, pallid, or brown, usually paler at the top, velvety with a short, close pile. the spores are subglobose, about . inch in diameter. the plant is two to three inches high, pileus one to two inches broad, stem one to two lines thick. _peck_, th rep. n. y. state bot. this is a much smaller species than p. cervinus, but its esculent qualities are quite as good. found from july to october. _pluteus eximius. smith._ _eximius, choice, distinguished._ the pileus is fleshy, bell-shaped when young, expanded, beautifully fringed on the margin, larger than the cervinus. the gills are free, broad, ventricose, white at first, then rose-colored, flesh white, and firm. the stem is thick, solid, and clothed with fibers. dr. herbst, fungal flora of the lehigh valley. i found some beautiful specimens in george mosher's icehouse. i am very sorry i did not photograph them. _volvaria. fr._ the spores of this genus are regular, oval, rosy-spored. the veil is universal, forming a perfect volva, distinct from the cuticle of the pileus. the stem is easily separable from the pileus. the gills are free, rounded behind, at first white, then pink, soft. most of the species grow on wood. some on damp ground, rich mold, in gardens, and in hot-houses. one is a parasite on clitocybe nebularis and monadelphus. _volvaria bombycina. (pers.) fr._ the silky volvaria. edible. [illustration: plate xxix. figure .--volvaria bombycina. the egg form of the v. bombycina showing the universal veil or volva bursting at the apex. these are unusually large specimens.] [illustration: figure .--volvaria bombycina. two-thirds natural size. entire plant white and silky.] [illustration: figure .--volvaria bombycina. two-thirds natural size, showing the gills, which are pink, then dark-brown.] bombycina is from _bombyx_, _silk_. this plant is so called because of the beautiful silky lustre of the entire plant. the pileus is three to eight inches broad, globose, then bell-shaped, finally convex and somewhat umbonate, white, the entire surface silky, in older specimens more or less scaly, sometimes smooth at the apex. the flesh is white and not thick. the gills are free, very crowded, broad, ventricose, flesh-colored, not reaching the margin, toothed. the stem is three to six inches long, tapering upward, solid, smooth, the tough volva remaining like a cup at the base. the spores are rosy in mass, smooth, and elliptical. the volva is large, membranaceous, somewhat viscid. the plant in figure was found august th, on a maple tree where a limb had been broken, on north high street, chillicothe. many people had passed along and enjoyed the shade of the trees but its discovery remained for miss marian franklin, whose eyes are trained to see birds, flowers, and everything beautiful in nature. i have found the plant frequently about chillicothe, usually solitary; but on one occasion i found three specimens upon one trunk, apparently growing from the same mycelial mass. the caps of two of them were each five inches across. it usually grows on maple and beech. if you will observe a hollow beech, or sugar snag of which one side is broken away, leaving the sheltered yet open nestling place, you are very likely to find snugly enscounced in its decaying heart one or more specimens of these beautiful silky plants. the volva is quite thick and frequently the plant, when in the egg state, has the appearance of a phalloid. found from june to october. _volvaria umbonata. peck._ the umbonate volvaria. [illustration: figure .--volvaria umbonata. two-thirds natural size. entire plant white and silky.] umbonata, having an umbo or conical projection like the boss of a shield. this plant is quite common on the richly manured lawns of chillicothe. i have found it from june to october. the pileus is white or whitish, sometimes grayish, often smoky on the umbo; globose when young, bell-shaped, plane when fully expanded, umbonate, smooth; slightly viscid when moist, shining when dry, inch to an inch and a half broad. the flesh is white and very soft. the gills are free, white at first, then from flesh-color to a reddish hue from the rosy-colored spores; some of the gills are dimidiate, somewhat crowded, broader in the middle. the stem is two inches to two and a half long, tapering from the base up, smooth, cylindrical, hollow and firm. the volva is always present, free, variously torn, white and sometimes grayish. the entire plant is silky when dry. i have found it growing in my buggy shed. it is not abundant, though quite common. i have never eaten it, but i do not doubt its edibility. _volvaria pusilla. pers._ [illustration: figure .--volvaria pusilla.] the pileus is explanate, white, fibrillose, dry, striate, center slightly depressed when mature. the gills are white, becoming flesh-color, from the color of the spores, free, distant. the stem is white, smooth, volva split to the base into four nearly equal segments. the spores are broadly elliptical, - mc. this is the smallest species of the volvaria. it grows on the ground among the weeds and is apt to escape the attention of the collector unless he knows its habitat. it is quite likely that v. parvula is the same plant as this. also v. temperata, although it has a different habitat, seems to be very near this species. the plants in figure were collected in michigan and photographed by dr. fischer. the volva is brown-tipped as shown in the figure given. _volvaria volvacea. bull._ the stove volvaria. it is called "the stove volvaria" because it has been found in old unused stoves. pileus fleshy, soft, bell-shaped, then expanded, obtuse, virgate, with adpressed black fibrils. the gills are free, flesh-colored, and inclined to deliquesce. the stem is solid, subequal, white. the volva loose, whitish. the spores are smooth, elliptical. this is a much smaller plant than the v. bombycina and grows in the ground. it is often found in hot-houses and cellars. _entoloma. fr._ entoloma is from two greek words; _entos_, within; _loma_, a fringe, referring to the inner character of the veil, which is seldom even apparent. the members of this genus have rosy spores which are prominently angular. there is neither volva, nor annulus. the gills are attached to the stem or notched near the junction of the gills and the stem. the pileus is fleshy and the margin incurved, especially when young. the stem is fleshy, fibrous, sometimes waxy, continuous with the pileus. it corresponds with hypholoma, tricholoma, and hebeloma. it can always be separated from the rosy-spored genera by the notched gills. the flesh-colored spores and gills distinguish the entoloma from the hebeloma, which has ochre-spored ones, and tricholoma, which has white ones. all the species, so far as i know, have rather a pleasant odor, and for that reason it is highly necessary that the genus and species should be thoroughly known, as they are all dangerous. _entoloma rhodopolium. fr._ the rose-gray entoloma. [illustration: figure .--entoloma rhodopolium. three-fourths natural size.] rhodopolium is composed of two greek words, rose and gray. the pileus is two to five inches broad, hygrophanous; when moist dingy-brown or livid, becoming pale when dry, isabelline-livid, silky-shining; slightly fleshy, bell-shaped when young, then expanded and somewhat umbonate, or gibbous, at length rather plane and sometimes depressed; fibrillose when young, smooth when full grown; margin at first bent inwards and when large, undulated. flesh white. the gills adnate, then separating, somewhat sinuate, slightly distant, broad, white, then rose color. the stem is two to four inches long, hollow; equal when smaller, when larger, attenuated upward; white pruinate at the apex, otherwise smooth; slightly striate, white, often reddish from spores. spores - × - µ. _fries_. the plant is found in mixed woods and is rather common. captain mcilvaine reports it edible, but i have never eaten any of the entolomas. some of them have a bad reputation. found in september and october. _entoloma grayanum. pk._ [illustration: figure .--entoloma grayanum. one-half natural size.] the pileus is convex to expanded, sometimes broadly umbonate, drab in color, the surface wrinkled or rugose, and watery in appearance. the flesh is thin and the margin incurved. the gills are at first drab in color, but lighter than the pileus, becoming pinkish in age. the spores on paper are very light salmon-color. they are globose or rounded in outline, - angled, with an oil globule, - µ, in diameter. the stem is of the same color as the pileus, but lighter, striate, hollow, somewhat twisted, and enlarged below. the above accurate description was taken from atkinson's studies of american fungi. the plants were found near a slate cut on the b. & o. railroad near chillicothe. not edible. this species and e. grisea are very closely related. the latter is darker in color, with narrower gills, and has a different habitat. _entoloma subcostatum. atkinson n. sp._ [illustration: plate xxx. figure .--entoloma subcostatum. mature plants showing broad gills and very thin flesh, also fibrous striate stems.] subcostatum means somewhat ribbed, referring to the gills. plants gregarious or in troups or clusters, - cm. high; pileus - cm. broad; stems - . cm. thick. the pileus is dark-gray to hair-brown or olive-brown, often subvirgate with darker lines; gills light salmon-color, becoming dull; stem colored as the pileus, but paler; in drying the stems usually become as dark as the pileus. pileus subviscid when moist, convex to expanded, plane or subgibbous, not umbonate, irregular, repand, margin incurved; flesh white, rather thin, very thin toward the margin. gills are broad, - . cm. broad, narrowed toward the margin of the pileus, deeply sinuate, the angles usually rounded, adnexed, easily becoming free, edge usually pale, sometimes connected by veins, sometimes costate, especially toward the margin of the pileus. basidia four-spored. spores subglobose, about six angles, - µ in diameter, some slightly longer in the direction of the apiculus, pale-rose under the microscope. stem even, fibrous striate, outer bark subcartilaginous, flesh white, stuffed, becoming fistulose. odor somewhat of old meal and nutty, not pleasant; taste similar. related to e. prunuloides, fr., and e. clypeatum, linn. differs from the former in dark stem and uneven pileus, differs from the latter in being subviscid, with even stem, and pileus not umbonate and much more irregular, and differs from both in subcostate gills. _atkinson_. the specimens in plate xxx grew in grassy ground on the campus of the ohio state university, columbus, ohio. they were collected by r. a. young and photographed by dr. w. a. kellerman, and through his courtesy i publish it. the plants were found the last of october, . _entoloma salmonea. pk._ [illustration: figure .--entoloma salmonea.] pileus thin, conical or campanulate, subacute, rarely with a minute papilla at the apex, smooth, of a peculiar soft, ochraceous color, slightly tinged with salmon or flesh color. the gills and stem are colored like the pileus. _peck._ dr. peck says, "it is with some hesitation that this is proposed as a species, its resemblance to another species is so close. the only difference is found in its color and in the absence of the prominent cusp of that plant. in both species the pileus is so thin that in well dried specimens, slender, dark, radiating lines on it, mark the position of the lamellæ beneath, although in the living plant these are not visible." the plant in figure was found in purgatory swamp near boston, by mrs. blackford. they are found in august and september. _entoloma clypeatum. linn._ the buckler entoloma. _clypeatum, a shield or buckler._ the pileus is slightly fleshy, lurid when moist, when dry gray and rather shining, streaked, spotted, campanulate, then expanded, umbonate, smooth, watery. gills just reaching the stem, rounded, ventricose, somewhat distant, minutely toothed, dirty flesh-color. the stem is stuffed, then hollow, equal, round, clothed with small fibers, becoming pale, covered with a minute powdery substance. the flesh is white when dry. this plant will be distinguished usually by the amount of white mycelium at the base of the stem. dr. herbst remarks that it is a genuine entoloma. it is certainly a beautiful plant when fully developed. it is found in woods and in rich grounds from may till september. label it poisonous until its reputation is established. _clitopilus. fr._ clitopilus is from _clitos_, a declivity; pilos, a cap. this genus has neither volva nor ring. it is often more or less eccentric, margin at first involute; stem fleshy, diffused upward into the pileus; the gills are white at first, then pink or salmon-color as the plant matures and the spores begin to fall; decurrent, never notched. the pileus is more or less depressed, darker in the center. the spores are salmon-color, in some cases rather pale, smooth or warted. clitopilus is closely related to clitocybe, the latter having white gills, the former pink. it differs from entoloma just as clitocybe differs from tricholoma. it can always be distinguished from eccilia because the stem is never cartilaginous at the surface. it differs from the genus, flammula, mainly in the color of the spores. _clitopilus prunulus. scop._ the plum clitopilus. edible. [illustration: figure .--clitopilus prunulus.] prunulus means a small plum; so called from the white bloom covering the plant. the pileus is two to four inches broad, fleshy, firm; at first convex, then expanded, at length becoming slightly depressed, often eccentric, as will be seen in figure ; whitish, often covered with a frost-like bloom, margin often wavy, bending backward. the gills are strongly decurrent, comparatively few of full length, white, then flesh-color. the stem is solid, white, naked, striate, short. spores, - × . this is one of the most interesting plants because of the various forms it presents. i have found it in various parts of the state and frequently about chillicothe. it has a pleasant taste, and an odor reminding you of new meal. it is tender and its flavor is excellent. found in woods or open woods, especially where it is damp, and under beech trees, as well as oak. found from june to october. the plants in figure were collected near ashville, n. c., and photographed by prof. h. c. beardslee. _clitopilus orcellus. bull._ the sweet-bread clitopilus. edible. [illustration: figure .--clitopilus orcellus.] orcellus is a diminutive meaning a small cask; from _orca_, a cask. the pileus is fleshy, soft, plane, or slightly depressed, often irregular, even when young; slightly silky, somewhat viscid when moist; white or yellowish-white, flesh white, taste and odor farinaceous. the gills are deeply decurrent, close, whitish, then flesh-color. the stem is short, solid, flocculose, often eccentric, thickened above. the spores are elliptical, - × µ. _peck_, d rep. n. y. this plant resembles the plum mushroom, c. prunulus, very closely in appearance, taste and odor, but it is considerably smaller. it grows in wet weather, in open fields and lawns. it is quite widely distributed in our state, having found it in salem, bowling green, sidney, and chillicothe. i frequently find it associated with marasmius oreades. the specimens in figure were found near ashville, n. c., and were photographed by prof. h. c. beardslee. found from july to october. _clitopilus abortivus. b. and c._ the abortive clitopilus. edible. [illustration: figure .--clitopilus abortivus. two-thirds natural size, showing the grayish-brown cap and solid stem.] abortivus means abortive or imperfectly developed; so called from its many irregular and undeveloped forms. the pileus is fleshy, firm, convex, or nearly plane, regular or irregular, dry, clothed with a minute silky tomentum, becoming smoother with age, gray or grayish-brown, flesh white, taste and odor subfarinaceous. the gills are slightly or deeply decurrent, at first whitish or pale gray, then flesh-colored. spores irregular, . - × . µ. the stem is nearly equal, solid, minutely flocculose, sometimes fibrous, striate, paler than the pileus. _peck_, d report n. y. there are often three forms of this plant; a perfect form, an imperfect form, and an abortive form as will be seen in figure . the abortive forms seem to be more common, especially in this locality. they will be taken at first to be some form of puff-ball. they are found in open woods and in ravines. i found some very fine specimens under beech trees on cemetery hill. they are, however, widely distributed over the state and the united states. the specimens in figure were collected near ashville and photographed by prof. beardslee. [illustration: figure .--clitopilus abortivus. abortive forms. edible.] _clitopilus subvilis. pk._ the silky-capped clitopilus. edible. subvilis means very cheap, insignificant. the pileus is thin, centrally depressed or umbilicate, with the margin decurved, hygrophanus, dark-brown, striate on the margin when moist, taste farinaceous. the gills are subdistant, adnate, or slightly decurrent, whitish when young, then flesh-colored. the stem is slender, brittle, rather long, stuffed or hollow, glabrous, colored like the pileus or a little paler. the spores are angular, . - µ. _peck_, d rept. this plant is distinguished from clitopilus villis by its shining pileus, widely separated gills, and farinaceous taste. found on ralston's run and in haynes' hollow, near chillicothe, from july to october. _clitopilus noveboracensis. pk._ [illustration: figure .--clitopilus noveboracensis. two-thirds natural size.] noveboracensis, the new york clitopilus. pileus thin, convex, then expanded or slightly depressed; dingy-white, cracked in areas or concentrically rivulose, sometimes obscurely zonate; odor farinaceous, taste bitter. gills narrow, close, deeply decurrent, some of them forked, white, becoming dingy, tinged with yellow or flesh-color. stem equal, solid, colored like the pileus, the mycelium white, often forming white, branching, root-like fibers. spores globose. prof. beardslee thinks that this species is doubtless identical with _c. popinalis_ of europe. he has submitted specimens and photographs to european mycologists, who hold to this view. i found this plant quite abundant on the huntington hills after heavy rains in august. their season is from august to october. the specimens in figure were found growing among leaves after a heavy rain october th. the plants have a tendency to turn blackish if they are bruised in handling them. var. brevis. this is so called from its short stem. the margin of the pileus is pure white when moist. gills attached to the stem or slightly decurrent. _eccilia. fr._ eccilia is from a greek verb which means "i hollow out"; so called because the hollow cartilaginous stem expands upward into a membranaceous pileus, whose margin at first is incurved. gills decurrent, attenuated behind. this genus corresponds with omphalia and is separated from clitopilus by the cartilaginous, smooth stem. _eccilia carneo-grisea. b. & br._ the flesh-gray eccilia. edible. [illustration: figure .--eccilia carneo-grisea. caps dark-gray or slate color. gills rosy.] carneo-grisea means fleshy-gray. the pileus is one inch or more broad, umbilicate, dark-gray or grayish flesh color, finely striate, margin darkened with micaceous particles. the gills are distant, adnate, decurrent, rosy, slightly undulate, margin irregularly darkened. the stem is one to two inches long, slender, smooth, hollow, wavy, same color as the pileus, white tomentose at the base. spores irregularly oblong, rough, × µ. it is found from nova scotia through the middle west. it is commonly reported in fir and pine woods but i find it on the hillsides about chillicothe in mixed woods. it is frequently found here associated with boletinus porosus. found in july, august, and september. _eccilia polita. pers._ [illustration: figure .--eccilia polita. natural size. caps hair-brown to olive, umbilicate.] polita means having been furbished. the pileus is one inch or more broad, convex, umbilicate, somewhat membranaceous, watery, livid or hair-brown to olive, smooth, shining when dry, finely striate on the margin. the gills are slightly decurrent, crowded, irregular or uneven, flesh color. the stem is cartilaginous, stuffed or hollow, lighter in color than the pileus, equal or sometimes slightly enlarged at the base, polished from which the specific name is derived. this is a larger plant than e. carneo-grisea; and it differs materially in the character of its spores, which are strongly angled and some of them square, - µ in diameter, with a prominent mucro at one angle. it is found in the woods from september to frost. _leptonia. fr._ leptonia means slender, thin. the spores are salmon-color and irregular. the pileus is never truly fleshy, cuticle always torn into scales, disk umbilicate, and often darker than the margin which is at first incurved. the gills are attached to the stem and easily separated in old plants. the stem is rigid, with cartilaginous bark, hollow or stuffed, smooth, shining, often dark-blue, confluent with the cap. _leptonia incana. fr._ the hoary leptonia. incana means hoary or grayish-white. the pileus is about one inch broad, somewhat membranaceous, convex, then plane, depressed in the center, smooth, with a silky lustre, margin striate. the gills are attached to the stem, broad, somewhat distant, white, then greenish. the stem is hollow, shining, smooth, brownish-green. the spores are very irregular, dull-yellowish, pink, rough, - µ. it is frequently found in pastures after warm rains. they grow in clusters, and have the odor of mice to a marked degree. _leptonia serrulata. pers._ saw leptonia. [illustration: figure .--leptonia serrulata.] serrulata means saw-bearing, so named from the serrulate character of the gills. the pileus is dark-blue, flesh thin, umbilicate, depressed, without striate, squamulose. the gills are attached to the stem, with a dark serrulate edge. the stem is thin, cartilaginous, paler than the pileus. _nolanea. fr._ nolanea means a little bell, so called from the shape of the pileus. it is rosy-spored. the stem is cartilaginous and hollow. the pileus is submembranaceous, thin, bell-shaped, papillate, margin straight, pressed close to the stem. the gills are free and not decurrent. they are found growing on the ground in the woods and pastures. _nolanea pascua. p._ the pasture nolanea. pascua means pasture. the pileus is membranaceous, conical, then expanded, slightly umbonate, smooth, striate, watery; when dry, shining like silk. the gills are nearly free, ventricose, crowded, dirty-grayish. the stem is hollow, fragile, silky-fibrous, striate. the spores are irregular, - . they are found in pastures in summer and fall, after a rain. _nolanea conica. pk._ the cone nolanea. the pileus is thin, membranaceous, conical, with a minute umbo or papilla, cinnamon-color, striatulate when moist. the gills are light flesh-color, nearly free. the stem is slender, straight, hollow. found in moist woods. _claudopus. smith._ claudopus is from two greek words: _claudos_, lame; _pus_, foot. the pileus is eccentric or lateral like the pleuroti. the species were formerly placed in the pleuroti and crepidoti, which they very closely resemble, save in the color of the spores. this genus formerly included those plants which have lilac spores, but prof. fries limited it to those which have pink spores. the spores in some species are even and in others, rough and angular. the stem is either wanting or very short, hence its name. all are found on decayed wood. _claudopus nidulans. pers._ [illustration: figure .--claudopus nidulans. one-half natural size. cap yellow or buff. gills orange-yellow.] nidulans is from _nidus_, a nest. the pileus is sessile, sometimes narrowed behind into a short stem-like base, caps often overlapping one another, kidney-shaped, quite downy, the margin involute, hairy toward the margin, a rich yellow or buff color. the gills are broad, moderately close, orange-yellow. the spores are even, - × µ, elongated, somewhat curved, delicate pink in mass. it is quite common in the woods about chillicothe. a maple log from which i secured the specimen photographed in figure was completely covered and presented a beautiful sight. it has a rather strong and disagreeable odor. it is edible, but generally tough, and must be chopped very fine and cooked well. it is found in woods, on logs and stumps, from august to november. _claudopus variabilis. pers._ _variabilis, variable or changeable._ the pileus is white, thin, resupinate--that is the plant seems to be on its back, the gills being turned upward toward the light, quite downy, even, being fastened in the center to a short downy stem. the gills are at first white, then of the color of the spores. it is found on decaying limbs and branches in the woods. it is quite common everywhere. chapter iv. the rusty-spored agarics. the spores are of various shades of ochre yellow, rusty, rusty-brown, brown, yellowish-brown. the hymenophore is never free from the stem in the rusty-spored series, nor is there a volva. _pholiota. fr._ pholiota, a scale. the members of this genus have rusty spores. these may be sepia-brown, bright yellowish-brown or light red. there is no volva, but there is a ring which is sometimes persistent, friable, and fugacious. in this respect it corresponds with the armillaria among the white spored agarics. the pileus is fleshy. the gills are attached to the stem and sometimes notched with a decurrent tooth, tawny or rusty in color on account of the falling of the spores. many species grow on wood, logs, stumps, and branches of trees, although others grow on the ground. _pholiota precox. pers._ the early pholiota. edible. [illustration: figure .--pholiota precox. two-thirds natural size. caps whitish, often tinged with yellow.] _precox, early._ pileus is fleshy, soft, convex, then expanded, at length smooth, even, margin at first incurved; moist but not sticky, whitish, often with slight tinge of yellow or tan-color; when the plant is fully matured it is often upturned and fluted. the gills are attached to the stem and slightly decurrent by a tooth, moderately broad, crowded, unequal, creamy white, then rusty-brown. spores brownish, - × - µ. the stem is stuffed, then hollow, often striate above the ring, rather slender, sometimes mealy, skin peeling readily, whitish. the spores are rusty-brown and elliptical. the caps are from one to two inches broad, and the stem is from two to three inches long. the veil is stretched like a drumhead from the stem to the margin of the cap. it varies in manner of breaking; sometimes it separates from the margin of the cap and forms a ring around the stem; again, but little remains on the stem and much on the rim of the cap. it appears every year on the chillicothe high school lawn. the gills are creamy-white when the cap first opens, but they soon turn to a rusty-brown. it comes in may. i have never found it after june. i am always delighted to find it for it is always appetizing at that season. look for them on lawns and pastures and in grain fields. _pholiota dura. bolt._ the hard pholiota. edible. [illustration: figure .--pholiota dura. one-half natural size. caps tawny tan-color.] dura, hard; so called because the surface of the cap becomes quite hard and cracked. the pileus is from three to four inches or more broad, very compact, convex, then plane, cuticle often very much cracked, margin even, tawny, tan-color, sometimes quite brown. the gills are firmly attached to the stem, somewhat decurrent with a tooth, ventricose, livid, then a brown rusty color. spores elliptical, - × - µ. the stem is stuffed, hard, externally fibrous, thickened toward the apex, sometimes ventricose, often irregularly shaped. on june th, , i found mr. dillman's garden on hickory street, chillicothe, white with this plant. some were very large and beautiful and i had an excellent opportunity to observe the irregularity in the form of the stem. some years previous i found a garden in sidney, ohio, equally filled. in the fall of i was asked to drive out about seven miles from chillicothe to see a wheat-field, the last of october, that was white with mushrooms. i found them to be of this species. only the young plants should be used, as the older ones are a bit tough. _pholiota adiposa. fr._ the fat or pineapple pholiota. edible. [illustration: figure .--pholiota adiposa. two-thirds natural size. caps saffron-yellow.] adiposa is from _adeps_, fat. the pileus is showy, deep-yellow, compact, convex, obtuse, slightly umbonate, quite viscid when moist, shining when dry; cuticle plain or broken into scales which are dark-brown, the margin incurved; the flesh is saffron-yellow, thick at the center and thinning out toward the margin. the gills are firmly attached to the stem, sometimes slightly notched, close, yellow, then rust-color with age. spores elliptical, × µ. the stem is equal, stuffed, tough, thickening at the base, brown below and yellow above, quite scaly. the beautiful appearance of the tufts or clusters in which the pineapple pholiotas grow will attract the attention of an ordinarily unobservant beholder. the scales on the cap seem to contract and rise from the surface and sometimes disappear with age. the caps of mushrooms should not ordinarily be peeled before cooking, but it is better to peel this one. the ring is slight and the specimens represented here were found on a stump in miss effie mace's yard, on paint street, chillicothe. _pholiota caperata. pers._ the wrinkled pholiota. edible. caperata means wrinkled. [illustration: plate xxxi. figure .--pholiota caperata.] the pileus is three to four inches broad, fleshy, varying from a clay to a yellowish color, at first somewhat egg-shaped, then expanded, obtuse, wrinkled at the sides, the entire cap and especially at the center is covered with a white superficial flocci. the gills are adnate or attached to the stem, rather crowded, this, somewhat toothed on their edges, clay-cinnamon color. spores elliptical, × . µ. the stem is four to five inches long, solid, stout, round, somewhat bulbous at the base, white, scaly above the ring, which is often very slight, often only a trace, as will be seen on the left hand plant in figure . the spores are dark ferruginous when caught on white paper, but paler on dark paper. the white superficial flocci will mark the plant. it has a wide distribution throughout the states. i found it in a number of places in ohio and it is quite plentiful about chillicothe. it is a favorite in germany and it is called by the common people "zigeuner," a gypsy. it is found in september and october. _pholiota unicolor. fl. dan._ [illustration: figure .--pholiota unicolor. natural size.] unicolor means of one color. the pileus is campanulate to convex, subumbonate, hygrophanous, bay, then ochre, nearly even, never fully expanded. the gills are subtriangular, adnate, seceding, broad, ochraceous-cinnamon. spores - × µ. the stem is stuffed, then hollow, colored as the pileus, nearly smooth, ring thin but entire. they are a late grower and found on well-decayed logs. they are quite common in our woods. found in november. the plants in figure were found on the th of november, in haynes' hollow. _pholiota mutablis. schaff._ the changeable pholiota. edible. mutablis means changeable, variable. the pileus two to three inches broad, fleshy; deep cinnamon when moist, paler when dry; margin rather thin, transparent; convex, then expanded, sometimes obtusely umbonate, and sometimes slightly depressed; even, quite smooth, flesh whitish and taste mild. the gills are broad, adnate, slightly decurrent, close, pale umber, then cinnamon-color. the stem is two to three inches long, slender, stuffed, becoming hollow, smooth above or minutely pulverulent, and pale, below slightly scaly up to the ring, and darker at the base, ring membranaceous, externally scaly. the spores are ellipsoid, - × - µ. i find this specimen growing in a cæspitose manner on decayed wood. it is quite common here late in the season. i found some very large specimens on thanksgiving day, , in gallia county, ohio. it is one of the latest edible plants. _pholiota heteroclita. fr._ bulbous-stemmed pholiota. [illustration: figure .--pholiota heteroclita. natural size. caps whitish or yellowish.] heteroclitus means leaning to one side, out of the center. the pileus is three to six inches broad, compact, convex, expanded, very obtuse, rather eccentric, marked with scattered, innate, adpressed scales, whitish or yellowish, sometimes smooth when dry, viscid if moist. the gills are very broad, at first pallid, then ferruginous, rounded, adnexed. the stem is three to four inches long, solid, hard, bulbous at the base, fibrillose, white or whitish; veil apical, ring fugacious, appendiculate. the spores are subelliptical, - × - µ. this species has a strong and pungent odor very much like horse-radish. it grows on wood and its favorite hosts are the poplar and the birch. it is found at almost any time in the fall. the specimens in the figure were found in michigan and photographed by dr. fischer, of detroit. _pholiota aurevella. batsch._ golden pholiota. aurevella is from _auri-vellus_, a golden fleece. the pileus is two to three inches in diameter, bell-shaped, convex, gibbous, tawny-yellow, with darker scales, rather viscid. the gills are crowded, notched behind, fixed, very broad, plane, pallid olive, at length ferruginous. the stem is stuffed, nearly equal, hard, various in length, curved, with rusty adpressed squamules, ring rather distant. on trunks of trees in the fall, generally solitary. not very common. _pholiota curvipes. fr._ curvipes, with a curved foot or stem. pileus is rather fleshy, convex, then expanded, torn into adpressed floccose scales. the gills are adnate, broad, white, then yellowish, at length tawny. the stem is somewhat hollow, thin, incurved (from which it derives its name), fibrillose, yellow, as well as is the floccose ring. spores - × - . _cooke._ i found several specimens of this species at different times on one well rotted beech log on ralston's run, but was unable to find it on any other log in any woods near chillicothe. i had trouble to place it till prof. atkinson helped me out. i found it from august to november. _pholiota spectabilis. fr._ the showy pholiota. spectabilis, of notable appearance, worth seeing. the pileus is compact, convex, then plane, dry, torn into silky scales disappearing toward the margin, golden orange color, flesh yellow. the gills are adnexed, rounded near the stem, slightly decurrent, crowded, narrow, yellow, then ferruginous. the stem is solid, three to four inches high, quite thick, tough, spongy, thickened toward the base, even, bulbous, somewhat rooting. ring inferior. i found the specimens in october and november. it may grow earlier. found on decayed oak stumps. _pholiota marginata. batsch._ the marginate pholiota. edible. [illustration: figure .--pholiota marginata. two-thirds natural size. caps honey-colored and tan-colored.] marginata means edged, margined; so called from the peripheral striæ of the pileus. the pileus is rather fleshy, convex, then plane, smooth, moist, watery, striate on the margin, honey-colored when moist, tan-colored when dry. the gills are firmly attached to the stem, crowded, unequal; when mature, of a dark reddish-brown from the shedding of the spores. spores - × µ. the stem is cylindrical, smooth, hollow, of the same color as the pileus, covered with a frost-like bloom above the ring, which is distant from the apex of the stem and frequently disappears entirely. it is quite common, being found on nearly every rotten log in our woods. it comes early and lasts till late in the fall. the caps are excellent when well prepared. _pholiota ægerita. fr._ Ægerita is the greek name for the black poplar; so called because it grows on decayed poplar logs. the pileus is fleshy, convex, then plane, more or less checked or rivulose, wrinkled, tawny, edge of the cap rather pale. the gills are adnate, with a decurrent tooth, rather close, pallid, then growing darker. the stem is stuffed, equal, silky-white, ring superior, fibrillose, tumid. spores × µ. found in october and november, in the woods wherever there are decayed poplar logs. _pholiota squarrosoides. pk._ like the scaly pholiota. edible. [illustration: figure .--pholiota squarrosoides. two-thirds natural size. caps yellow or yellowish.] squarrosoides means like squarrosa. the pileus is quite firm, convex, viscid, especially when moist; at first densely covered with erect papillose or subspinose tawny scales, which soon separate from each other, revealing the whitish or yellowish color of the cap and its viscid character. the gills are close, emarginate, at first whitish, then pallid or dull cinnamon color. the stem is equal, firm, stuffed, rough, with thick squarrose scales, white above the thick floccose annulus, pallid or tawny below. the spores are minute, elliptical, . inch long, . inch broad. they grow in tufts on dead trunks and old stumps, especially of the sugar maple. they closely resemble p. squarrosa. found late in the fall. its favorite haunt is the inside of a stump or within the protection of a log. _pholiota squarrosa. mull._ the scaly pholiota. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate xxxii. figure .--pholiota squarrosa.] squarrosa means scaly. the pileus is three to four inches broad, fleshy, bell-shaped, convex, then expanded; obtusely umbonate, tawny-yellow, clothed with rich brown scales; flesh yellow near the surface. the gills are attached to the stem, with a decurrent tooth, at first yellowish, then of a pale olive, changing to rusty-brown in color, crowded, and narrow. the spores are elliptical, × µ. the stem is three to six inches high, saffron yellow, stuffed, clothed with small fibers, scaly like the pileus, attenuated at the base from the manner of its growth. the ring is close to the apex, downy, rich brown, inclining to orange in color. this is quite a common and showy mushroom. it is found on rotten wood, on or near stumps, growing out from a root underground, and is often found at the foot of trees. only the caps of the young specimens should be eaten. it is found from august to late frost. _inocybe. fr._ inocybe is from two greek words meaning fiber and head; so called from the fibrillose veil, concrete with the cuticle of the pileus, often free at the margin, in the form of a cortina. the gills are somewhat sinuate, though they are sometimes adnate, and in two species are decurrent; changing color but not powdered with cinnamon. spores are often rough but in other specimens are even, more or less brownish rust-color. _stevenson._ _inocybe scaber. mull._ rough inocybe. not edible. scaber means rough. the pileus is fleshy, conical, convex, obtusely gibbous, sprinkled with fibrous adpressed scales; margin entire, grayish-brown. the gills are rounded near the stem, quite crowded, pale dingy-brown. the stem is solid, whitish or paler than the pileus, clothed with small fibers, equal, veiled. the spores are elliptical, smooth, × µ. it is found on the ground in damp woods. not good. _inocybe lacera. fr._ the torn inocybe. lacera means torn. the pileus is somewhat fleshy, convex, then expanded, obtuse, umbonate, clothed with fibrous scales. the gills are free, broad, ventricose, white, tinged with red, light-gray. spores are obliquely elliptical, smooth, × µ. the stem is slender, short, stuffed, clothed with small fibers, naked above, reddish within. found on the ground where the soil is clayish or poor. not good. _inocybe subochracea burtii. peck._ [illustration: figure .--inocybe subochracea burtii. natural size.] this is a very interesting species. it is thus described by dr. peck: "veil conspicuous, webby fibrillose, margin of the pileus more fibrillose; stem longer and more conspicuously fibrillose. the well developed veil, and the longer stem, are the distinguishing characters of this variety." the plants are found in mossy patches on the north hillsides about chillicothe. the pale ochraceous yellow and the very fibrillose caps and stem will attract the attention of the collector at once. the caps are one to two and a half inches broad and the stem is two to three inches long. _inocybe subochracea. peck._ pileus thin, conical or convex, sometimes expanded, generally umbonate, fibrillose squamulose, pale ochraceous-yellow. the gills are rather broad, attached, emarginate, whitish, becoming brownish-yellow. the stem is equal, whitish, slightly fibrillose, solid. _peck._ this is a small plant from one to two inches high whose cap is scarcely over an inch broad. it grows in open groves where the soil is sandy. it is found on cemetery hill from june to october. _inocybe geophylla, var. violacea. pat._ [illustration: figure .--inocybe geophylla, var. violacea.] this is a small plant and has all the characteristics of inocybe geophylla excepting color of cap and gills. the pileus is an inch to an inch and a half broad, hemispherical at first, then expanded, umbonate, even, silky-fibrillose, lilac, growing paler in age. the gills are adnexed, lilac at first, then colored by the spores. spores × . the stem equal, firm, hollow, slightly violaceous. this plant grows in september in mixed woods among the dead leaves. its bright violet color will arrest the attention at once. _inocybe dulcamara. a. & s._ [illustration: figure .--inocybe dulcamara.] dulcamara means bitter-sweet. the pileus is an inch to an inch and a half in diameter, rather fleshy, convex, umbonate, pilosely-scaly. the gills are arcuate, ventricose, pallid olivaceous. the stem is somewhat hollow, fibrillose and squamulose from the veil, farinaceous at the apex. spores - × µ. found from july to september, in grassy places. _inocybe cincinnata. fr._ [illustration: figure .--inocybe cincinnata. two-thirds natural size. caps scaly, dark or grayish-brown.] cincinnata means with curled hair. this is quite an interesting little plant. it is found on cemetery hill, in chillicothe, under the pine trees and along the walks where there is but little grass. it is gregarious and quite a hardy plant. the pileus is fleshy, convex, then plane, quite squarrosely scaly, somewhat dark or grayish-brown. the gills are grayish-brown with a tinge of violet at times; adnexed, rather close, ventricose. the stem is solid, slender, scaly, somewhat lighter than the pileus. the spores are - × µ. this plant seems to be a late grower. i did not find it till about the th of october and it continued till the last of november. i had found two other species on the same hill earlier in the season. no inocybes are good to eat. _inocybe pyriodora. pers._ pyriodora, smelling like a pear. the pileus is one to two inches broad, quite strongly umbonate, at first conical, expanded, covered with fibrous adpressed scales, in old plants the margin turned up, smoky or brown-ochre becoming pale. the gills are notched at the stem, not crowded, dingy-white, becoming nearly cinnamon-brown, somewhat ventricose. the stem is two to three inches long, stuffed, firm, equal, pale, apex pruinose, veil very fugacious. flesh tinged with red. common in the woods in september and october. the plant is not edible. _inocybe rimosa. bull._ the cracked inocybe. rimosa, cracked. the pileus is one to two inches broad, shining, satiny, adpressed fibrillose, brown-yellow, campanulate, then expanded, longitudinally cracked. the gills are free, somewhat ventricose, at first white, brownish-clay color. the stem is one to two inches high, distant from the pileus, solid, firm, nearly smooth, bulbous, mealy white above. spores smooth, - × µ. i. eutheles differs from this species in being umbonate; i. pyriodora in its strong smell. many plants will often be found in one place in open woods or in cleared places. their radiately cracked pilei, with the inner substance showing yellow through the cracks, will help to distinguish the species. found from june to september. _hebeloma. fr._ hebeloma is from two greek words meaning youth and fringed. partial veil fibrillose or absent. pileus is smooth, continuous, somewhat viscid, margin incurved. the gills are notched adnate, edge of different color, whitish. the spores clay-color. all found on the ground. _hebeloma glutinosum. linn._ glutinosum, abounding in glue. the pileus is one to three inches broad, light-yellow, the disk darker, fleshy, convex, then plane, covered with a viscid gluten in wet weather; flesh is white, becoming yellow. the gills are attached to the stem, notched, slightly decurrent, crowded, pallid, light yellow, then clay-color. spores elliptical, - × µ. the stem is stuffed, firm, somewhat bulbous, covered with white scales, and mealy at the top. there is a partial veil in the form of a cortina. found among leaves in the woods. in wet weather the gluten is abundant. while it is not poisonous it is not good. _hebeloma fastibile. fr._ ochrey hebeloma. poisonous. fastibilis means nauseous, disagreeable; so called from its pungent taste and smell. the pileus is one to three inches across, convex, plane, wavy, viscid, smooth, pale yellowish-tan, margin involute and downy. the gills are notched, rather distant, pallid, then cinnamon; lachrymose. the stem is two to four inches long, solid, subbulbous, white, fibrous scaly, sometimes twisted, often becoming hollow, veil evident. the spores are pip-shaped, × µ. the odor is much the same as in h. crustuliniforme but it differs in having a manifest veil and more distant gills. found in woods from july to october. _hebeloma crustuliniforme. bull._ the ring hebeloma. not edible. crustuliniforme means the form of a cake or bun. the pileus is convex, then expanded, smooth, somewhat viscid, often wavy, yellowish-red, quite variable in size. the gills are notched, thin, narrow, whitish then brown, crowded, edge crenulate, and with beads of moisture. the stem is solid, or stuffed, firm, subbulbous, whitish, with minute white recurved flecks. it is found in woods or about old sawdust piles. the plants sometimes grow in rings. september to november. _hebeloma pascuense. pk._ [illustration: figure .--hebeloma pascuense. natural size. caps chestnut-color.] pascuense, pertaining to pastures; referring to its habitat. the pileus is convex, becoming nearly plane, viscid when moist, obscurely innately fibrillose; brownish-clay, often darker or rufescent in the center, the margin in the young plant slightly whitened by the thin webby veil; the margin of the cap more or less irregular, flesh white, the taste mild, odor weak. the gills are close, rounded behind, adnexed, whitish, becoming pale ochraceous. the stem is short, firm, equal, solid, fibrillose, slightly mealy at the top, whitish or pallid. the spores are pale ochraceous, subelliptical. i found the plants in figure on cemetery hill late in november. it is a very low plant, growing under the pine trees and keeping close to the walks. the whitened margin of the young plant is a very good ear-mark by which to know this species. _pluteolus. fr._ pluteolus means a small shed. it is the diminutive of _pluteus_, a shed or penthouse, from its conical cap. the pileus is rather fleshy, viscid, conical or campanulate, then expanded; margin at first straight, adpressed to the stem. stem somewhat cartilaginous, distinct from the hymenophore. gills free, rounded behind. _pluteolus reticulatus. pers._ reticulatus means made like a net; from _rete_, a net, so called from the net-like appearance of veins on the cap. the pileus is slightly fleshy, campanulate, then expanded, rugoso-reticulate, viscid, margin striate, pale violaceous. the gills are free, ventricose, crowded, saffron-yellow, to ferruginous. the stem is one to two inches long, hollow, fragile, fibrillose, inclined to be mealy at the top, white. i have found only a few plants of this species in our state. it seems to be rare. the anastomosing veins on the cap and its pale violaceous color will mark the species. i have always found it on decayed wood. captain mcilvaine speaks of finding it in quantities on the stems of fallen weeds and says it was tender and of fine flavor. september. _galera. fr._ galera means a small cap. the pileus is more or less bell-shaped, margin straight, at first depressed to the stem, hygrophanous, almost even, atomate when dry, more or less membranaceous. the gills are attached to the stem or with a decurrent tooth, as in mycena. the stem is cartilaginous, hollow, confluent with, but different in texture from the cap. the veil is often wanting, but when present is fibrous and fugacious. the spores are ochraceous ferruginous. _galera hypnorum. batsch._ the moss-loving galera. hypnorum means of mosses; from _hypna_, moss. the pileus is membranaceous, conic, campanulate, smooth, striate, watery when moist, pale when dry, cinnamon. the gills are attached to the stem, broad, rather distant, cinnamon-colored, whitish on the edge. the stem is slender, wavy, same color as the pileus, pruinose at the apex. this plant is very like g. tenera, only much smaller, and of a very different habitat. found in mosses from june to october. _galera tenera. schaeff._ the slender galera. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--galera tenera.] tenera is the feminine form of _tener_, slender, delicate. the pileus is somewhat membranaceous, at first cone-shaped, partially expanded, bell-shaped, hygrophanous, ochraceous when dry. the gills are attached to the stem, crowded, rather broad, ascending, cinnamon-brown, the edges whitish, sometimes slightly serrate. the stem is straight, hollow, fragile, rather shining; three to four inches long, equal or sometimes inclined to thicken downward, of nearly the same color as the pileus. the spores are elliptical and a dark rust-color, - × µ. you will frequently meet a variety whose cap and stem are quite pubescent but whose other characteristics agree with g. tenera. prof. peck calls it g. tenera var. pilosella. found in richly manured lawns and pastures. it is quite common. the caps, only, are good. _galera lateritia. fr._ the brick-red galera. edible. lateritia means made of brick, from _later_, a brick; so called because the caps are brick-colored. the pileus is somewhat membranaceous, cone-shaped, then bell-shaped, obtuse, even, hygrophanous, rather pale yellow when wet, ochraceous when dry. the gills are almost free, adnexed to the top of the cone, linear, very narrow, tawny or ferruginous. the stem is three to four inches long, hollow, slightly tapering upward, straight, fragile, white pruinose, whitish. spores are elliptical, - × - µ. this plant resembles g. ovalis, from which it can be distinguished by its linear ascending gills and the absence of a veil. found on dung and in richly manured pastures, from july to frost. _galera kellermani. pk. sp. nov._ [illustration: figure .--galera kellermani. showing young plants.] [illustration: figure .--galera kellermani. showing older plants.] kellermani is named in honor of dr. w. a. kellerman, ohio state university. the pileus is very thin, subovate or subconic, soon becoming plane or nearly so; striatulate nearly to the center when moist, more or less wavy and persistently striate on the margin when dry, minutely granulose or mealy when young, unpolished when mature, often with a few scattered floccose squamules when young, and sometimes with a few slight fragments of a veil adhering to the margin which appears as if finely notched by the projecting ends of the gills; watery-brown when moist, grayish-brown when dry, a little darker in the center; taste slight, odor faint, like that of decaying wood. the gills are thin, close, adnate, a delicate cinnamon-brown becoming darker with age. the stem is two and a half to four cm. long, slender, equal, or slightly tapering upward; finely striate, minutely scurvy or mealy, at least when young; hollow, white. the spores are brownish ferruginous with a faint pinkish tint in mass, elliptic, - × - µ. _peck._ dr. peck says the distinguishing features of this species are its broadly expanded or plane grayish-brown pileus, with its granulose or mealy surface, its persistently striate margin, and its very narrow gills becoming brownish with age. i have seen the plant growing in the culture beds in the greenhouse of the ohio state university. it is a beautiful plant. plants of all ages are shown in figures and . _galera crispa. longyear._ [illustration: figure .--galera crispa. natural size. cap ochraceous-brown.] crispa means crisped; the specific name is based on the peculiar character of the gills which are always crisped as soon as the pileus is expanded. the pileus is . to . cm. broad, membranaceous, persistently conico-campanulate, subacute, uneven and somewhat rivulose, ochraceous-brown on disk, lighter toward the margin which becomes crenulate and upturned in older specimens; slightly pruinose at first, rugulose and a little paler when dry. the gills are adnexed, not crowded, rather narrow, interspersed with anastomosing veins; much crisped; at first nearly white, then becoming ferruginous from the spores. the stem is to cm. long, tapering from a somewhat bulbous base, yellowish-white, pruinose at base, hollow, fragile. the spores are - µ broad, - µ long. _longyear._ they are found in grass on lawns and in pastures, june and july. dr. peck, to whom specimens were referred, suggested that they may be a variety of g. lateritia, unless the peculiar character of the gills proved to be constant. prof. longyear has found the plant frequently in michigan and it was found by him in the city park, denver, col., in july, . its distinguishing characteristic is sufficiently constant to make the recognition of the species a matter of ease. the plants in figure were photographed by prof. b. o. longyear. _galera ovalis. fr._ the oval galera. the pileus is somewhat membranaceous, oval or bell-shaped, even, watery, dusky-rust color, somewhat larger than g. tenera. the gills are almost free, ventricose, very broad, rust-colored. the stem is straight, equal, slightly striate, nearly of the same color as the cap, about three inches long. found in pastures where stock has been. i have found it in the dunn pasture, on the columbus pike, ross county, o. _crepidotus. fr._ _crepidotus_ is from a greek word meaning a slipper. the spores are dark or yellowish-brown. there is no veil. the pileus is excentric, dimidiate or resupinate. the flesh is soft. the stem is lateral or wanting, when present it is continuous with the cap. they generally grow on wood. _crepidotus versutus. pk._ [illustration: figure .--crepidotus versutus. natural size. caps pure white.] this is a very modest little plant growing on the underside of rotten logs or bark, thus, no doubt, escaping the attention of many. sometimes it may be found growing from the side of a log, in which case it grows in a shelving form. when growing under the log the upper side of the cap is against the wood and it is said to be resupinate. the pileus is kidney-form, quite small, thin, pure white, covered with a soft whitish down. the gills are radiate from the point of attachment of the cap, not crowded, whitish, then ferruginous from the spores. _crepidotus mollis. schaeff._ soft crepidotus. the pileus is between subgelatinous and fleshy; one to two inches broad; sometimes solitary, sometimes imbricated; flaccid, even, smooth, reniform, subsessile, pallid, then grayish. the gills are decurrent from base, crowded, linear, whitish then watery cinnamon. the spores are elliptical, ferruginous, - × - µ. this species is widely distributed and quite common on decayed logs and stumps, from july to october. _naucoria. fr._ naucoria, a nut shell. the pileus is some shade of yellow, convex, inflexed, smooth, flocculent or scaly. the gills are attached to the stem, sometimes nearly free, never decurrent. the stem is cartilaginous, confluent with the cap but of a different texture, hollow or stuffed. the veil is absent or sometimes small traces may be seen attached to the rim of the pileus, in young plants in the form of flakes. the spores are of various shades of brown, dull or bright. they grow on the ground on lawns and rich pastures. some on wood. _naucoria hamadryas. fr._ the nymph naucoria. edible. hamadryas, one of the nymphs whose life depended upon the tree to which she was attached. the pileus is one to two inches broad, rather fleshy, convex, expanded, gibbous, even, bay-ferruginous when young and moist, pale yellowish when old. the gills are attenuated, adnexed, almost free, rusty, slightly ventricose, somewhat crowded. the stem is hollow, equal, fragile, smooth, pallid, two to three inches long. the spores are elliptical, rust-color, - × µ. this is quite a common species, often growing alone along pavements, under shade trees, and in the woods. the caps only are good. found from june to november. _naucoria pediades. fr._ the tan-colored naucoria. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--naucoria pediades. natural size.] pediades is from a greek word meaning a plain or a field, referring to its being found on lawns and pastures. the pileus is somewhat fleshy, convex, then plane, obtuse or depressed, dry, finally opaque, frequently inclined to be minutely rivulose. the gills are attached to the stem but not adnate to it, broad, subdistant, only a few entire brownish, then a dingy cinnamon. the stem is pithy or stuffed, rather wavy and silky, yellowish, base slightly bulbous. the spores are of a brownish-rust color, - × - µ. if the small bulb at the base of the stem is examined, it will be found to be formed chiefly of mycelium rolled together around the base. it is found on lawns and richly manured pastures from may to november. use only the caps. this plant is usually known as semiorbicularis. _naucoria paludosella. atkinson n. sp._ [illustration: plate xxxiii. figure .--naucoria paludosella. showing mode of growth, clay-brown scales on the caps.] paludosella is a diminutive of _palus_, gen. paludis, a swamp or marsh. plants six to eight cm. high; pileus two and a half to three cm. broad; stem three to four mm. thick. pileus viscid when moist, convex to expanded, in age somewhat depressed; clay color, darker over center, often with appressed clay brown scales with a darker color. gills raw umber to mars brown (r), emarginate, adnate sometimes with a decurrent tooth, easily becoming free. cystidia on sides of gills none, edge of gills with large, hyaline, thin-walled cells, subventricose, sometimes nearly cylindrical, abruptly narrowed at each end with a slight sinus around the middle. spores subovate to subelliptical, subinequilateral, smooth, - × - µ, fuscous ferruginous, dull ochraceous under microscope. stem same color as pileus but paler, cartilaginous; floccose from loose threads or, in some cases, abundant threads over the surface; becoming hollow, base bulbous, the extreme base covered with whitish mycelium. veil rather thick, floccose, disappearing, leaving remnant on stem and margin of pileus when fresh. _atkinson._ dr. kellerman and i found this plant growing on living sphagnum, other mosses and on rotten wood on cranberry island, in buckeye lake, ohio. figure will illustrate its mode of growth, and the older plant with upturned cap will show the conspicuous clay-brown scales of the pileus. the plants are found in september and october. _flammula. fr._ flammula means a small flame; so called because many of the species have bright colors. the spores are ferruginous, sometimes light yellow. the cap is fleshy and at first usually inrolled, bright colored; veil filamentous, often wanting. the gills are decurrent or attached with a tooth. the stem is fleshy, fibrous, and of the same character as the cap. the species of the flammula are mostly found on wood. a few are found on the ground. _flammula flavida. schaeff._ the yellow flammula. flavida means yellow. the pileus is fleshy, convex, expanded, plane, equal smooth, moist, margin at first inrolled. the gills are firmly attached to the stem, yellow, turning slightly ferruginous. the stem is stuffed, somewhat hollow, fibrillose, yellow, ferruginous at the base. these plants are of a showy yellow, and are frequently found in our woods on decayed logs. they are found in july and august. _flammula carbonaria. fr._ the viscid flammula. [illustration: figure .--flammula carbonaria.] carbonaria is so called because it is found on charcoal or burned earth. the pileus is quite fleshy, tawny-yellow, at first convex, then becoming plane, even, thin, viscid, margin of the cap at first inrolled, flesh yellow. the gills are firmly attached to the stem, clay-colored or brown, moderately close. the stem is stuffed or nearly hollow, slender, rigid, squamulose, pallid, quite short. the spores are ferruginous-brown, elliptical, × . µ. i have found this species quite frequently where an old stump had been burned out. it is gregarious. i have only found it from september to november but the specimens in figure were sent to me in may, from boston. they were found in great abundance in purgatory swamp, where the grass and vegetation had been burned away. _flammula fusus. batsch._ fusus means a spindle; so called from the spindle-shaped stem. the pileus is compact, convex, then expanded, even, rather viscid, reddish-tan, flesh yellowish. the gills are somewhat decurrent, pallid yellow, becoming ferruginous. the stem is stuffed, firm, colored like the pileus, fibrillose, striate, attenuated and somewhat fusiform, rooting. the spores are broadly elliptical, × µ. found on well-decayed logs or on ground made up largely of decayed wood. found from july to october. _flammula fillius. fr._ the pileus is two to three inches broad, even, smooth, with rather viscid cuticle, pale orange-red with the disc reddish. the gills are attached to the stem, arcuate, rather crowded, white, then pallid or tawny-yellow. the stem is three to five inches long, hollow, smooth, pallid, reddish within. the spores are elliptical, × µ. found on the ground in the woods from july to october. _flammula squalida. pk._ [illustration: figure .--flammula squalida.] the pileus is one to one and a half inches broad, fleshy, convex, or plane, firm, viscose, glabrous, dingy-yellowish or rufescent, flesh whitish but in color similar to the pileus under the separate cuticle. the gills are rather broad, adnate, pallid, becoming dark ferruginous. the stem is one and a half to three inches long, one to two lines thick, slender, generally flexuose, hollow fibrillose, pallid or brownish, pale-yellow at the top when young; spores are brownish-ferruginous, . inch long, . broad. _peck._ it is found in bushy and swampy places. dr. peck says it is closely related to f. spumosa. its dingy appearance, slender habit, more uniform and darker color of the pileus, and darker color of the lamellæ. it grows in groups. the plant in figure was found in purgatory swamp, by mrs. blackford. found in august and september. _paxillus. fr._ paxillus means a small stake or peg. the spores as well as the entire plant are ferruginous. the pileus, with an involute margin, gradually unfolds. it may be symmetrical or eccentric. the stem is continuous with the hymenophore. the gills are tough, soft, persistent, decurrent, branching, membranaceous, usually easily separating from the hymenophore. the distinctive features of this genus are the involute margin and the soft, tough, and decurrent gills which are easily separable from the hymenophore. some grow on the ground, others grow on stumps and sawdust. _paxillus involutus. fr._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--paxillus involutus.] involutus means rolled inward. the pileus is two to four inches broad, fleshy, compact, convex, plane, then depressed; viscid when moist, the cap being covered with a fine downy substance, so that when the margin of the cap unrolls the marks of the gills are quite prominent; yellowish or tawny-ochraceous, spotting when bruised. the gills are decurrent, branched; anastomosing behind, near the stem; easily separating from the hymenophore. the stem is paler than the pileus, fleshy, solid, firm, thickened upward, brown spotted. the flesh is yellowish, changing to reddish or brownish when bruised. the spores are rust-colored and elliptical, - µ. it is found on the ground and decayed stumps. when found on the side of a decayed stump or a moss-covered log the stem is usually eccentric, but in other cases it is generally central. it will be found around swampy places in an open woods. i found quite large specimens around a swamp in mr. shriver's woods near chillicothe, but they were too far gone to photograph. it is edible but coarse. it appears from august to november. some authors call it the brown chantarelle. _paxillus atrotomentosus. fr._ [illustration: figure .--paxillus atrotomentosus.] atrotomentosus is from _ater_, black, and _tomentum_, woolly or downy. the pileus is three to six inches broad, rust-color or reddish-brown, compactly fleshy, eccentric, convex then plane or depressed, margin thin, frequently minutely rivulose, sometimes tomentose in the center, flesh white, tinged with brown under the cuticle. the gills are attached to the stem, slightly decurrent, crowded, branched at the base, yellowish-tawny, interspaces venose. the stem is two to three inches long, stout, solid, elastic, eccentric or lateral, rooting, covered except at the apex with a dark-brown velvety down. the spores are elliptical, - × - µ. i found the specimen in figure at the foot of an old pine tree on hillside at sugar grove, ohio. i found the plant frequently at salem, ohio. it grows where the pine tree is a native. it is not poisonous. i do not regard it as very good. found during august and september. _paxillus rhodoxanthus. schw._ the yellow paxillus. edible. [illustration: figure .--paxillus rhodoxanthus. two-thirds natural size. cap reddish-yellow or chestnut-brown. gills yellow.] rhodoxanthus means a yellow rose. the pileus is one to two inches broad, convex, then expanded, cushion-shaped, the epidermis of the cap often cracked showing the yellow flesh, resembling very much boletus subtomentosus; reddish-yellow or chestnut-brown. the flesh is yellow and the cap dry. the gills are decurrent, somewhat distant, stout, chrome yellow, occasionally forked at the base; anastomosing veins quite prominent, the cystidia being very noticeable. the stem is firm, stout, of the same color as the cap, perhaps paler and more yellow at the base. the spores are oblong, yellow, - × - µ. this is one of the most troublesome plants whose genus we have to settle. one of my mycological friends advised me to omit it from the genus altogether. it has been placed in various genera, but i have followed prof. atkinson and classed it under paxillus. the plant is widely distributed. i find it frequently about chillicothe. it is edible. found in august, september and october. a full discussion of the plant will be found in prof. atkinson's book. _cortinarius. fr._ cortinarius is from _cortina_, a curtain, alluding to a cobwebby veil seen only in the comparatively young plants. sometimes, parts of it will seem more substantial, remaining for a time on the margin of the cap or on the stem. the color of the pileus varies and its flesh and that of the stem are continuous. the hymenophore and the gills are continuous. the gills are attached to the stem, frequently notched, membranaceous, persistent, changing color, dry, powdery, with rusty-yellow spores which drop slowly. the veil and gills are the chief marks of distinction. the former is gossamer-like and separate from the cuticle, and the latter are always powdered. it is always essential to note the color of the gills in the young plant, since color is variable and sometimes shows only the slightest trace on the stem, colored from the falling spores. most authorities divide the genus into six tribes, from the appearance of the pileus. they are as follows: i. phlegmacium, meaning a shiny or clammy moisture. the pileus has a continuous pellicle, viscid when moist, stem dry, veil spider-webby. ii. myxacium, meaning mucus, slime; so called from the glutinous veil. the pileus is fleshy, glutinous, rather thin; the gills are attached to the stem, slightly decurrent; the stem is viscid, polished when dry, slightly bulbous. iii. inoloma, meaning a fibrous fringe; from _is_, genitive _inos_, a fibre; and _loma_, a fringe. the pileus is fleshy, dry, not hygrophanous or viscid, silky with innate scales; the gills may be violaceous, pinkish-brown, yellow at first, then in all cases cinnamon-color from the spores; the stem is fleshy and somewhat bulbous; veil simple. iv. dermocybe, meaning a skinhead; from _derma_, skin, and _cybe_, a head. the pileus thin and fleshy, entirely dry, at first clothed with silky down, becoming smooth in mature plants. the gills are changeable in color. the stem is equal or tapering downward, stuffed, sometimes hollow, smooth. v. telamonia, meaning a bandage or lint. the pileus is moist, watery, smooth or sprinkled with whitish superficial fibres, the remnants of the web-like veil. the flesh is thin, somewhat thicker at the center. the stem is ringed and frequently scaly from the universal veil, slightly veiled at the apex, hence almost with a double veil. the plants are usually quite large. vi. hydrocybe, meaning water-head or moist head. the pileus is moist, not viscid, smooth or sprinkled with a whitish superficial fibril, flesh changing color when dry, and rather thin. the stem is somewhat rigid and bare. veil thin, fibrillose, rarely forming a ring. gills also thin. tribe i. phlegmacium. _cortinarius purpurascens. fr._ the purplish cortinarius. edible. purpurascens means becoming purple or purplish; so named because the blue gills become purple when bruised. the pileus is four to five inches broad, bay-brown, viscid, compact, wavy, spotted when old; often depressed at the margin, sometimes bending back; the flesh blue. the gills are broadly notched, crowded, bluish-tan, then cinnamon-color, becoming purplish when bruised. the stem is solid, bulbous, clothed with small fibres, blue, very compact, juicy; becoming purplish when rubbed. the spores are elliptical, - × - µ. this is one of the delicious mushrooms to eat, the stem cooking tender as readily as the caps. i found it in tolerton's woods, salem, ohio, and in poke hollow near chillicothe. september to november. _cortinarius turmalis. fr._ the yellow-tan cortinarius. edible. turmalis means of or belonging to a troop or a squadron, turma; so called because occurring in groups, and not solitary. the pileus is two to four inches broad, viscid when wet, ochraceous-yellow, smooth, discoid, flesh soft; veil extending from the margin of the cap to the stem in delicate arachnoid threads, best seen in young plants. the gills are emarginate, decurrent, depending upon the age of the plant; crowded, somewhat serrated, whitish at first, then brownish-ochraceous-yellow. the remnants of the veil will usually show above the middle of the stem as a zone of minute striæ, darker than the stem. i found specimens on cemetery hill under pine trees. september to november. _cortinarius olivaceo-stramineus. kauff. n. sp._ olivaceo-stramineus means an olive straw-color. pileus - cm. broad, viscid from a glutinous cuticle, broadly convex, slightly depressed in the center when expanded; margin incurved for some time; pale-yellow with an olivaceous tinge, slightly rufous-tinged when old; smooth or silky-fibrillose, disk sometimes covered with minute squamules, shreds of the partial veil attached to the margin when expanded. flesh very thick, becoming abruptly thin toward the margin, white, dingy-yellowish in age, soon soft and spongy. gills rather narrow, mm. broad, sinuate-adnexed, whitish at first, then pale cinnamon, crowded, edge serratulate and paler. stem - cm. long, with a slight bulb when young, from whose margin arises the dense partial veil; white and very pruinate above the veil, which remains as dingy fibrils stained by the spores; spongy and soft within, becoming somewhat hollow. veil white with an olive tinge. spores, - × . - . µ, granular within, almost smooth. odor agreeable. kauffman says this resembles c. herpeticus, except that the gills when young are never violet-tinged. i found this plant in poke hollow, near chillicothe. it was unknown to me and i sent it to dr. kauffman of michigan university to determine. i found it under beech trees, during october and november. _cortinarius varius. fr._ the variable cortinarius. edible. _varius--variable_, so called because it varies in stature, its color and habit are unchangeable. the pileus is about two inches broad; compact, hemispherical, then expanded; regular, slightly viscid, thin margin at first incurved, sometimes with fragments of the web-like veil adhering. the gills are notched, thin, crowded, quite entire, purplish, at length clay-colored or cinnamon. the stem is solid, short, covered with threads, whitish, bulbous, from one and a half to two and a half inches long. the plant is quite variable in size but constant in color. it is found in woods. i found specimens at salem, ohio, and at bowling green, ohio. september to november. _cortinarius cærulescens. fr._ the azure-blue cortinarius. edible. cærulescens, azure-blue. pileus fleshy, convex, expanded, even, viscid, azure-blue, flesh soft, not changing color when bruised. the gills are attached to the stem, slightly rounded behind, crowded, quite entire, at first of a pure dark blue, then rusty from the spores. the stem is solid, attenuated upward, firm, bright violet, becoming pale, whitish, bulb growing less with age, fibrillose from vein. spores elliptical. neither the flesh nor the gills change color when bruised. this fact distinguishes it from c. purpurascens. when young the entire plant is more or less blue, or bluish-purple, and the color never entirely leaves the plant. in age it becomes somewhat spotted with yellow. the flesh is a little tough and needs to be stewed for some time. found in whinnery's woods, salem, ohio. september to october. tribe ii. myxacium. _cortinarius collinitus. fr._ the smeared cortinarius. edible. [illustration: figure .--cortinarius collinitus. one-half natural size. caps purplish-brown, also showing veil.] collinitus means smeared. the pileus is at first hemispherical, convex, then expanded, obtuse; smooth, even, glutinous, shining when dry; purplish when young, later brownish; at first incurved. the gills are attached to the stem, rather broad, dingy-white or grayish-tan when young, then cinnamon. the stem is solid, cylindrical, viscid or glutinous when moist, transversely cracking when dry, whitish or paler than the cap. the spores are elliptical, × µ. i found this species in tolerton's woods, salem, ohio, st. john's woods, bowling green, ohio, also on ralston's run near chillicothe, where the specimens in figure were found. both cap and stem are covered with a thick gluten. they grow, with us, in woods among leaves. the young plant has a development peculiar to itself. the cap varies greatly in color. the flesh is white or whitish. the peculiar bluish-white gills of the young plant will attract attention at once. it is found from september to november. tribe iii. inoloma. _cortinarius autumnalis. pk._ the fall cortinarius. edible. [illustration: figure .--cortinarius autumnalis. two-thirds natural size. cap a dull rusty-yellow, also showing bulbous stem.] autumnalis pertaining to fall. the pileus is fleshy, convex or expanded, dull rusty-yellow, variegated, or streaked with innate rust-colored fibrils. the gills are rather broad, with a wide, shallow emargination. the stem is equal, solid, firm, bulbous, a little paler than the pileus. the height is three to four inches, breadth of pileus two to four inches. _peck._ the plant was named by dr. peck because it was found late in the fall. i found the plant on several occasions in september, . it grew very sparingly in a mixed woods on a north hillside. _cortinarius alboviolaceus. pers._ the light violet cortinarius. edible. [illustration: figure .--cortinarius alboviolaceus. the caps are violet.] alboviolaceus means whitish-violet. the pileus is two to three inches broad, fleshy, rather thin, convex, then expanded, sometimes broadly subumbonate; smooth, silky, whitish, tinged with lilac or pale violet. the gills are generally serrulate, whitish-violet, then cinnamon-color. the stem is three to four inches long, equal or tapering upward, solid, silky, white, stained with violet, especially at the top, slightly bulbous, the bulb gradually tapering into the stem. spores, × - µ. _peck's_ report. sometimes the stem has a median ring-like zone, being violet above the zone and white below. the spider-like veil shows very plainly in the specimen on the left in figure . in the plant on the right is shown the tapering stem from the base to the apex. these plants were found in poke hollow, september st. they are quite abundant there and elsewhere about chillicothe. they are very good but not equal in flavor to c. violaceus. they are found in mixed woods. september to frost. _cortinarius lilacinus. pk._ the lilac-colored cortinarius. edible. the pileus is two to three inches broad, firm, hemispherical, then convex, minutely silky, lilac-color. the gills are close, lilac, then cinnamon. the stem is four to five inches long, stout, bulbous, silky-fibrillose, solid, whitish, tinged with lilac. spores nucleate, × µ. _peck._ i have found this plant in but one place near chillicothe. in poke hollow on a north hillside i have found a number of rare specimens. all were identified by dr. kauffman of michigan university. all were found under beech trees within a very small radius. september and october. _cortinarius bolaris. fr._ the collared cortinarius. the pileus is fleshy, obsoletely umbonate, growing pale, variegated with saffron-red, adpressed, innate, pilose scales. the gills are subdecurrent, crowded, watery cinnamon. the stem is two to three inches long, at first stuffed, then hollow, nearly equal, squamose. found under beech trees. only occasionally found here. _cortinarius violaceus. fr._ the violet cortinarius. edible. [illustration: figure .--cortinarius violaceus. two-thirds natural size. caps dark violet. stems bulbous. gills violet.] violaceus, violet color. the pileus is convex, becoming nearly plane, dry, adorned with numerous persistent hairy tufts or scales; dark violet. the gills are rather thick, distant, rounded, or deeply notched at the inner extremity; colored like the pileus in the young plant, brownish-cinnamon in the mature plant. the stem is solid, clothed with small fibres; bulbous, colored like the pileus. the spores are slightly elliptical. the violet cortinarius is a very beautiful mushroom and one easy of recognition. at first the whole plant is uniformly colored, but with age the gills assume a dingy ochraceous or brownish-cinnamon hue. the cap is generally well formed and regular, and is beautifully adorned with little hairy scales or tufts. these are rarely shown in figures of the european plant, but they are quite noticeable in the american plant, and should not be overlooked. the flesh is more or less tinged with violet. _peck._ th rep. n. y. state bot. no one can fail to recognize this plant. the web-like veil in the young plant, the bulbous stem, and the violet tinge throughout will readily distinguish it. it grows in rich hilly country. it grows solitary, and in open woods. tribe iv. dermocybe. _cortinarius cinnamoneus. fr._ the cinnamon cortinarius. edible. [illustration: figure .--cortinarius cinnamoneus. two-thirds natural size. caps cinnamon-brown. stems yellow.] the pileus is thin, convex, nearly expanded, sometimes nearly plane, sometimes slightly umbonate, sometimes the pileus is abruptly bent downward; dry, fibrillose at least when young, often with concentric rows of scales on the margin, cinnamon-brown, flesh yellowish. the gills are thin, close, firmly attached to the stem, slightly notched, decurrent with a tooth, becoming easily separated from the stem, shining, yellowish, then tawny-yellow. the stem is slender, equal, stuffed or hollow, thin, clothed with small fibres, yellow, as is also the flesh. the spores are elliptical. this plant is so called because of its color, the entire plant being of a cinnamon-color. sometimes there are cinnabar stains on the pileus. it seems to grow best under pine trees, but i have found it in mixed woods. my attention was called to it by the little bohemian boys picking it when they had been in this country but a few days and could not speak a word of english. it is evidently like the european species. there is also a cortinarius that has blood-red gills. it is var. semi-sanguineus, fr. july to october. the plants in figure were found on cemetery hill, chillicothe, o. _cortinarius ochroleucus. fr._ the pallid cortinaria. [illustration: figure .--cortinarius ochroleucus. two-thirds natural size, showing veil and bulbous form of stem.] ochroleucus, meaning yellowish and white, because of the color of the cap. the pileus is an inch to two and a half inches broad, fleshy; convex, sometimes somewhat depressed in the center, often remaining convex; dry; on the center finely tomentose to minutely scaly, sometimes the scales are arranged in concentric rows around the cap; quite fleshy at the center, thinning out toward the margin; the color is a creamy to a deep-buff, considerably darker at the center. the gills are attached to the stem, clearly notched, somewhat ventricose; in mature plants, somewhat crowded, not entire, many short ones, pale first, then clay-colored ochre. the stem is three inches long, solid, firm, often bulbous, tapering upward, often becoming hollow, a creamy-buff. the veil, quite beautiful and strongly persistent, forms a cortina of the same color as the cap but becoming discolored by the falling of the spores. in figure the cortina and the bulbous form of the stem will be seen. found along ralston's run. in beech woods from september to november. [illustration: figure .--cortinarius ochroleucus. two-thirds natural size, showing the developed plant.] tribe v. telamonia. _cortinarius morrisii. pk._ [illustration: figure .--cortinarius morrisii.] morrisii is named in honor of george e. morris, ellis, mass. pileus fleshy, except the thin and at length reflexed margin; convex, irregular, hygrophanous, ochraceous or tawny-ochraceous; flesh thin, colored like the pileus; odor weak, like that of radishes. the gills are broad, subdistant, eroded or uneven on the edge; rounded behind, adnexed, pale-yellow when young, becoming darker with age. the stem is nearly equal, fibrillose, solid, whitish or pale-yellow and silky at the top, colored like the pileus below and fibrillose; irregularly striate and subreticulate, the double veil whitish or yellowish-white and sometimes forming an imperfect annulus. the spores are tawny-ochraceous, subglobose or broadly elliptic, nucleate, - µ long, - µ broad. _peck._ pileus - cm. broad; stem - cm. long, - cm. thick. they require moist and shady places and the presence of hemlock trees. they are found from august to october. the plants in figure were found near boston by mrs. e. b. blackford. _cortinarius armillatus. fr._ the red-zoned cortinarius. edible. [illustration: figure .--cortinarius armillatus. two-thirds natural size, showing the rings on the stem.] armillatus means ringed; so called because the stem is banded with one or more rings, or red bands. the pileus is two to four inches broad, fleshy, not compact, bell-shaped, then expanded, soon innately fibrillose and torn into scales, smooth when young, reddish-brick-color, margin thin, flesh dingy-pallid. the gills are very broad, distant, adnate, slightly rounded, pallid, then dark-cinnamon. the stem is fairly long, solid, bulbous, whitish, with two or three red zones, somewhat fibrillose. the spores × µ. this is a very large and beautiful cortinarius and it has such a number of striking ear marks that it can be easily recognized. the thin and generally uneven margin of the pileus and the one to four red bands around the stem, the upper one being the brightest, will distinguish this species from all others. it is found in the woods in september and october. in quite young specimens the collector will notice two well defined arachnoid veils, the lower one being much more dense. prof. fries speaks of them as follows: "exterior veil woven, red, arranged in - distant cinnabar zones encircling the stem; partial veil continuous with the upper zone, arachnoid, reddish-white." the specimens in figure were collected in michigan and photographed by dr. fischer of detroit. a number of this species form a prize for the table. _cortinarius atkinsonianus. kauff._ [illustration: figure .--cortinarius atkinsonianus. caps waxy-yellow, bulbous stem, spider-like veil.] atkinsonianus is named in honor of prof. geo. f. atkinson. the pileus is cm. broad, expanded, _wax-yellow_ or _gallstone-yellow_ to _clay-colored and tawny_ (ridg.), colors very striking and sometimes several present at once; viscid, smooth, even, somewhat shining when dry. flesh thick, except at margin, bluish-white like the stem, or paler, scarcely or not at all changing when bruised. the gills are comparatively narrow, - mm., width uniform except near outer end, adnate, becoming slightly sinuate, _purplish_ to yellow, then cinnamon. the stem is _violaceus-blue_, cm. long, - mm. thick, equal or slightly tapering upward, bulbous by a rather thick, marginate bulb cm. thick, hung with fibrillose threads of the universal veil, which is a beautiful pale-yellow and clothes the bulb even at maturity; violaceous-blue within, solid. spores - µ× - . µ, _very tubercular_. _kauff._ the specimens in figure were found in poke hollow near chillicothe. i have found them on several occasions. they are edible and of very good flavor. found from september to frost. the specimens illustrate the spider-like veil that gives rise to the genus. _cortinarius umidicola. kauff._ [illustration: figure .--cortinarius umidicola. one-half natural size. caps pinkish-buff.] umidicola means dwelling in moist places. pileus as much as cm. broad (generally - cm. when expanded), hemispherical, then convex and expanded, with the margin for a long time markedly incurved; young cap heliotrope-purplish with umber on disk, or somewhat fawn-colored, fading very quickly to pinkish-buff, in which condition it is usually found; margin when young with narrow strips of silky fibrils from the universal veil; pileus when old covered with innate, whitish, silky fibrils, hygrophanous; surface punctuate, even when young. flesh of stem and pileus lavender when young but soon fading to a sordid white, thick on disk, abruptly thin towards margin, soon cavernous from grubs. the gills are very broad, as much as cm.; at first lavender, soon very pale-tan to cinnamon; rather distant, thick, emarginate with a tooth; at first plane, then ventricose; edge slightly serratulate, concolorous. stem as much as cm. long (usually to cm.), - cm. thick, usually thickened below and tapering slightly upwards, mostly thicker also at apex, rarely attenuate at the base, sometimes curved, always stout, solid, lavender above the woven, sordid white, universal veil, which at first covers the lower part as a sheath, but soon breaks up so as to leave a band-like annulus half way or lower down on the stem. the annulus is soon rubbed off, leaving a bare stem. cortina violaceous-white. spores - × - , almost smooth. _kauffman._ the specimens in figure were gathered at detroit, michigan, and photographed by dr. fischer. they grow in groups in damp places, preferring hemlock trees. _cortinarius croceocolor. kauff. sp. nov._ saffron-colored cortinarius. (telamonia.) croceocolor means saffron-colored. pileus - cm. broad, convex then expanded, saffron-yellow, with dense, dark-brown, erect squamules on disk; whole surface has a velvety appearance and feel, scarcely hygrophanous, even; flesh of pileus yellowish-white, rather thin except on disk, slightly hygrophanous, scissile. gills cadmium-yellow (ridg.), moderately distant, rather thick, emarginate, rather broad, - mm., width uniform except in front where they taper quickly to a point. stem - cm. long, tapering upwards from a thickened base, _i.e._, clavate-bulbous, - mm. thick below, peronate three-fourths of its length by the crome-yellow to saffron veil, paler above the veil, solid, saffron-colored within, hygrophanous, soon dingy; attached to strands of yellowish mycelium. spores subspheroid to short elliptical, . - × . - . µ, echinulate when mature. found under beech trees in poke hollow near chillicothe. found in october. _cortinarius evernius. fr._ [illustration: figure .--cortinarius evernius.] evernius comes from a greek word meaning sprouting well, flourishing. the pileus is one to three inches broad, rather thin, between membranaceous and fleshy, at first conical, becoming bell-shaped, and finally expanded, very slightly umbonate, everywhere covered with silky, adpressed veil, usually purplish-bay when smooth, brick-red when dry, then pale ochraceous when old, at length cracked and torn into fibrils, very fragile, flesh thin and colored like the pileus. the gills are attached to the stem, quite broad, ventricose, somewhat distant, purplish-violet, becoming pale, finally cinnamon. the stem is three to five inches long, equal or attenuated downwards, often slightly striate, soft, violaceous, scaly from the remains of the white veil. the spores are elliptical, granular, × µ. they grow in damp pine woods. the specimens in the photograph were gathered in purgatory swamp near boston, and sent to me by mrs. blackford. they are found in august and september. tribe vi. hydrocybe. _cortinarius castaneus. bull._ the chestnut-colored cortinarius. edible. [illustration: figure .--cortinarius castaneus. two-thirds natural size.] castaneus, a chestnut. the pileus one inch or more broad, at first quite small and globose, with a delicate fibrillose veil, which makes the margin appear silvery; dark-bay or dirty-violet, often with a tawny tint; soon expanded, broadly umbonate, pileus often cracked on the margin and slightly upturned. the gills are fixed, rather broad, somewhat crowded, violet-tinged, then cinnamon-brown, ventricose. spores, × µ. the stem is one to three inches high, inclined to be cartilaginous, stuffed, then hollow, even, lilac-tinged at the top, white or whitish below the veil, the whole stem beautifully fibrillose, veil white. this plant is very abundant on cemetery hill, growing under pine trees. the caps are small, but they grow in such profusion that it would not be difficult to secure enough for a meal. they compare very favorably with the fairy ring mushroom in flavor. they have little or no odor. found in october and november. chapter v. purple-brown spored agarics. _agaricus. linn._ (_psalliota. fr._) the pileus is fleshy, but the flesh of the stem is of different texture from that of the pileus, veil universal, concrete with the cuticle of the pileus, and fixed to the stem, forming a ring which soon disappears in some species; the stem is readily separated from the cap and the gills are free from the stem or slightly adnexed, white at first, then pink, afterwards purple-brown. all the species grow in rich ground, and it includes many of our valuable food mushrooms. _agaricus campestris. linn._ the meadow mushroom. edible. [illustration: figure .--agaricus campestris. two-thirds natural size.] _campestris, from campus, a field._ this is perhaps the widest known of all mushrooms, familiarly known as the "pink-gilled mushroom." it is the species found in the markets. it is the only species which is sure to respond to the methods of cultivation. it is the same species which is bought in cans at the store. in very young plants the pileus is somewhat globular, as will be seen in the small plants in the front row in figure . the edge is connected with the stem by the veil; then round convex, then expanding, becoming almost flat; surface dry, downy, even, quite scaly, varying in color from creamy-white to a light-brown; margin extending beyond the gills, as will be seen in figure in the one on the extreme right. the gills, when first revealed by the separation of the veil, are of a delicate pink hue, but with advancing age this generally deepens to a dark-brown or blackish-brown color. the stem is rather short, nearly equal, white or whitish; the substance in the center is more spongy than the exterior, hence it is said to be stuffed. sometimes the collar shrivels so much that it is scarcely perceptible, and may disappear altogether in old plants. the spores are brown in mass. the cap of this mushroom is from three to four inches in diameter and the stem from one to three inches long. this is the first mushroom that yielded to cultivation. it is raised in large quantities, not only in this country, but especially in france, japan, and china. no doubt other species and genera will be produced in time. this species grows in grassy places, in pastures, and richly manured grounds, never in the woods. i found it in great abundance in wood county, in fields which had never been plowed and where the ground was unusually rich. there it seemed to grow in groups or large clusters. usually it is found singly. found from august to october. the plants figured here were found near chillicothe. [illustration: figure .--agaricus campestris. two-thirds natural size.] _agaricus rodmani. pk._ rodman's mushroom. edible. [illustration: figure .--agaricus rodmani. two-thirds natural size.] the pileus is creamy, with brownish spots, firm, surface dry. the mature specimens frequently have the surface of the cap broken into large, brownish scales. the gills are whitish, then pink, becoming dark-brown; narrow, close and unequal. the stem is fleshy, solid, short, thick, about two inches long. the collar when well developed exhibits a striking characteristic. it appears as if there were two collars with a space between them. its spores are broadly elliptical, . to . inch long. it may be easily distinguished from the common agaric by the time when found, its thick firm flesh, its narrow gills, which are almost white at first, and its double collar. i have found people eating it, supposing they were eating the common mushroom. it is found in grassy places and especially between the cobble stones along the gutters in the cities. the specimens in figure were found in chillicothe in the gutters. it is a meaty plant and one can soon tell it from its weight alone. it is found through may and june. it is fully as good to eat as the common mushroom. macadam speaks of finding it in the fall, but i have never succeeded in finding it later than june. _agaricus silvicola. vitt._ the silvan agaric. edible. [illustration: figure .--agaricus silvicola. one-half natural size.] silvicola, from silva, woods and colo, to inhabit. the pileus is convex, sometimes expanded or nearly plane, smooth, shining, white or yellowish. the gills are crowded, thin, free, rounded behind, generally narrowed toward each end, at first white, then pinkish, finally blackish-brown. the stem is long, cylindrical, stuffed or hollow, white, bulbous; ring either thick or thin, entire or lacerated. spores elliptical, - × - . the plant is four to six inches high. pileus three to six inches broad. _peck._ th n. y. state bot. a. silvicola is very closely related to the common mushroom. its chief differences are in its place of growth, its being slender, and its hollow stem somewhat bulbous at the base. i have found it many times in the woods about chillicothe, although i have never succeeded in finding more than one or two at a time. i have always put them with edible species and have eaten them when thus cooked with others. because of the resemblance which it bears, in its earlier stages, to the deadly amanita, one can not exercise too great care in identifying it. it grows in the woods and is found from july to october. _agaricus arvensis. schaeff._ the field or horse mushroom. edible. [illustration: figure .--agaricus arvensis. two-thirds natural size, showing veil.] _arvensis, pertaining to a field._ pileus is smooth, white or yellowish, convex or conical, bell-shaped, then expanded, more or less mealy. the gills are crowded, free, generally broader toward the stem; at first whitish, then pinkish, finally black-brown. the stem is stout, equal, slightly thickened at the base, smooth, hollow or stuffed, ring rather large and thick, the upper part membranaceous and white, while the lower or exterior surface is thicker, downy, radically split and yellowish. the spores are elliptical, . to . inch long. this plant grows much larger than the common mushroom, and may be distinguished by the collar being composed of two parts closely allied to each other making a double membrane, the lower part being much thicker, softer in texture and split in a stellate manner into broad and yellow rays, as will be seen in figure . i found it very plentiful in wood county, ohio, and in quantities in dr. manville's yard in bowling green, ohio. i ate them frequently and gave them to my friends, who all voted them delicious. when the stem is first cut there exudes from the wound a yellowish liquid which is quite a sure ear mark of this species. there is a tradition that the spores will not germinate unless they pass through the alimentary canal of the horse or some animal. however this may be, it is found frequently where no trace of the horse can be found. it appears from july to september. i have found it in fayette county, ohio, in large rings, resembling the fairy-ring mushroom, only the ring is very large, as well as the mushrooms. [illustration: plate xxxiv. figure .--agaricus arvensis.] _agaricus abruptus. pk._ edible. [illustration: figure .--agaricus abruptus.] abruptus means to break away, referring to the breaking of the veil from the margin of the cap. the pileus is creamy-white, dry and silky, quite irregular in shape when young, turning yellow when bruised or when the stem is cut. the gills are slightly pinkish when the veil first breaks, gradually growing a deeper pink, in mature specimens becoming brownish, soft, free from the stem, quite close, unequal. the stem is creamy-white, much darker toward the base, hollow, rather stiff, quite brittle, frequently found to be split lengthwise, ventricose, tapering toward the cap. the veil is rather frail, one portion of it often adhering to the cap and another portion forming a ring on the stem. through the courtesy of captain mcilvaine i am able to present an excellent picture of this species. the beginner will have some trouble to distinguish it from a. silvicola. this species, like the a. silvicola, is closely related to the meadow mushroom, but can be readily separated from it. this, too, like the a. silvicola, when seen in the woods at a distance, resembles the amanita, but a careful glance at the gills will detect the difference. the gills of the very young plant may appear white, but they will soon develop a pinkish tinge which will distinguish it from the amanita. it is found in thin woods from july to october. _agaricus comptulus. fr._ comptulus means beautified or luxuriously decked; so called from the silky lustre of its cap. the pileus is at first convex, then expanded, rather fleshy, thinner at the margin and incurved, usually with an adpressed silky finish to the surface of the cap which gives rise to its specific name. the gills are free, much rounded toward the margin and the stem, white at first, then grayish, pinkish, purple-brown in old plants. the stem is hollow, tapering from the base to the cap, slight bulbous, white, then yellowish, fleshy, fibrous. the veil is more delicate than in a. silvaticus, parts of it often found in young plants on the margin of the cap, forming a ring on the stem which soon almost disappears. spores small, - × - µ. the surface of the cap, the rounding of the gills both in front and behind, also the tendency to turn white paper blue or bluish when the flesh of the cap comes in contact with it, will assist in determining this species. it is found in grassy places in open woods, especially in the vicinity of pine trees, october and november. _agaricus placomyces. pk._ the flat-cap mushroom. edible. [illustration: plate xxxv. figure .--agaricus placomyces.] [illustration: figure .--agaricus placomyces. two-thirds natural size.] [illustration: figure .--agaricus placomyces. two-thirds natural size.] placomyces means a flat mushroom. this is one of our prettiest plants. the pileus is broadly ovate, rather thin, at first convex, but when it is fully expanded it is quite flat, whitish, brown in the center, as will be seen in figure , but it is covered with a persistent brown scale. the gills are white at first, then pink, turning blackish brown, quite crowded. the stem is rather long, and slender, cylindrical stuffed, somewhat bulbous at the base, commonly whitish but at times bears yellow stains toward the base, tapering toward the cap. the veil is quite interesting. it is broad and double, loosely joined together by threads, the lower or outer veil breaking first into regular radiating portions. the spores are elliptical, - . µ long. the caps are two to four inches broad and the stem is three to five inches long. they are found in lawns or in thin woods. they are much more abundant in hemlock woods though they are frequently found in mixed woods in which there are hemlock trees. the behavior of the veil is very similar to a. arvensis and a. silvicola and indeed this plant seems to be very closely related to these species. it is found from july to september. _agaricus cretaceus. fr._ the chalk agaric. edible. cretaceus, relating to chalk. the pileus is entirely white, fleshy, obtuse, dry; sometimes even, sometimes marked with fine lines around the margin. the gills are free, remote, quite ventricose, narrowed toward the stem, crowded, white, and only in mature plants do they become brownish. spores, - × . µ. the stem is two to three inches long, even, smooth, firm, tapering toward the cap, hollow, or stuffed with a fine pith, white. it is found on lawns and in rich places. i find it more frequently in rich stubble fields. it makes a rare dish. found in august and september. _agaricus subrufescens. pk._ the slightly red mushroom. edible. subrufescens, sub, under; rufescens, becoming red. the pileus is at first inclined to be hemispherical, becoming convex or broadly expanded; silky fibrillose and minutely or obscurely scaly, whitish, grayish, or dull reddish-brown, usually smooth and darker on the disk. flesh white and unchangeable. the gills are at first white or whitish, then pink, finally blackish-brown. the stem is rather long, often somewhat thickened or bulbous at the base, at first stuffed, then hollow, white, the ring is scaly on the under side, mycelium whitish, forming slender branching root-like strings. the spores are elliptical. _peck_, th rep. n. y. state bot. the reddish-brown color is due to the coating of fibrils that covers the cap. in the center it does not separate into scales, hence it is smoother and more distinctly reddish-brown than the rest. its veil resembles that of the a. placomyces, but instead of the lower surface breaking into radial portions it breaks into small floccose flakes or scales. this species is found about greenhouses, and is frequently found in large clusters. dr. mcilvaine says: "this species is now cultivated and has manifest advantages over the market species--it is easier to cultivate, very productive, produces in less time after planting the spawn, is free from attacks of insects, carries better and keeps longer." mushroom beds in cellars are becoming quite popular and many are having very good results. _agaricus halophilus. pk._ sea-loving agaricus edible. [illustration: plate xxxvi. figure .--agaricus halophilus. showing the globose caps, narrow gills, solid stem, and the peculiar incurved margin. natural size.] halophilus is from two greek words meaning sea and loving, or fond of. this is a large fleshy plant and does not readily decay. at first it is quite round, then becomes broadly convex. all specimens that i have examined were covered with adpressed scales of a reddish-brown color, becoming grayish-brown when old. the flesh is white, becoming pink or reddish when cut. the margin has a peculiar angular turn, often retaining portions of the rather fragile veil. the taste is pleasant, and the odor is distinctly that of the seashore. the gills are quite narrow, as will be seen in figure , much crowded, free, pinkish at first, becoming purplish-brown as the plant matures. the edge of the gills is whitish. the stem is short, stout, solid, firm, equal, or occasionally slightly bulbous. the ring is rather delicate and in older specimens it is frequently wanting. the spores are broadly elliptical and purplish-brown, - × - µ. the specimens in figure were sent to me from boston, mass., by mrs. blackford, and on opening the box the odor of the seashore was plainly noticed. the flesh when cut quickly turned to a pinkish or reddish hue and the water in which the plants were prepared for cooking was changed to a faintly pink tinge. these plants were sent me the first of june, but the stems were free from worms and were as easily cooked as the caps. i regard it as one of the very best mushrooms for table use, while also easy to distinguish. it seems to delight in sandy soil near salt water. this was formerly called agaricus maritimus. _pilosace. fr._ pilosace is from two greek words, _pilos_, felt; _sakos_, garment. hymenophore is distinct from the stem. gills are free, and at first remote, from the stem. the general and partial veil are both absent, hence it is without ring or volva. this genus seems to have the habit of agaricus but no ring. _pilosace eximia. pk._ [illustration: figure .--pilosace eximia.] eximia means choice, distinguished. the pileus is fleshy, thin, convex or broadly campanulate, at length expanded and subumbonate, smooth, dark sooty-brown. the gills are close, broad, ventricose, rounded behind, free, dull-red, or brownish-pink, then brown. the stem is slender, hollow, a little thicker at the base, dull-red. the spores are elliptical, . inch long. these plants are small and quite rare, yet i have found the plants in haynes' hollow on three different occasions. dr. peck writes that it is a very rare plant. it grows on old stumps and decayed logs. the plants in figure [ ?] were found in haynes' hollow and photographed by dr. kellerman. _stropharia. fr._ stropharia is from the greek, strophos, a sword belt. the spores are bright purple-brown, brown or slate color. the flesh of the stem and the pileus is continuous. the veil, when ruptured, forms a ring on the stem. the gills are rounded and are not free. the genus can be distinguished from all the genera of the purple-spored plants except the agarics by the presence of a ring and by the united flesh of the stem and the cap and by the attachment of the gills. they grow on the ground or are elliptical. _stropharia semiglobata. batsch._ the semiglobose stropharia. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--stropharia semiglobata.] semiglobata--semi, half; globus, a ball. the pileus is somewhat fleshy at the center, thin at the margin, hemispherical, not expanded, even, viscid when moist. the stem is hollow, slender, straight, smooth, glutinous, yellowish, veil abrupt. the gills are firmly attached to the stem, broad, plane, sometimes inclined to be ventricose, clouded with black. this plant is very common on the dunn farm on the columbus pike, north of chillicothe, but is found everywhere in grassy places recently manured, or on dung. this plant has been under the ban for a number of years, but like many others its bad reputation has been outlived. found from may to november. _stropharia hardii. atkinson n. sp._ [illustration: figure .--stropharia hardii.] hardii is named for the collector and author of this book. plant cm. high; pileus cm. broad; stem ½ cm. thick. pileus pale bright ochraceous; gills brownish, near prout's brown (r); stem pale-yellow tinge. pileus convex to expanded, thick at the center, thin toward the margin, smooth; flesh tinged yellow. gills subelliptical to subventricose behind, broadly emarginate, adnexed. basidia -spored. spores suboblong, smooth, - × - µ, purple-brown under the microscope. cystidia not very numerous on side of gills, varying from clavate to subventricose and sublanceolate, the free end more or less irregular when narrow, rarely branching below the apex, and usually with a prominent broad apiculus or with two or several short processes. similar cells on edge of gills, but somewhat smaller and more regular. stem even at the base, tapering to a short root, transversely floccose, scaly both above and below the ring. the ring membranaceous, not prominent but still evident, about cm. from the apex. _atkinson._ the specimens in figure are very old plants. while the plant was in season i did not photograph it, but when prof. atkinson named it i hastened to find some good specimens but only two had survived sufficiently to photograph. they were found october , , on mr. miller's farm in poke hollow near chillicothe. _stropharia stercoraria. fr._ the dung stropharia. edible. stercoraria is from stercus, dung. the pileus is slightly fleshy at the center but thin at the margin; hemispherical, then expanded, even, smooth, discoid, slightly striate on the margin. the gills are firmly attached to the stem, slightly crowded, broad, white, umber, then olive-black. the stem is three inches or more long, stuffed with a fibrous pith, equal, ring close to cap, flocculose below the ring, viscid when moist, yellowish. this species is distinguished from the s. semiglobata by the distinct pithy substance with which the stem is stuffed, also by the fact that the cap is never fully expanded. it is found on dung and manure piles, in richly manured fields, and sometimes in woods. _stropharia æruginosa. curt._ the green stropharia. Æruginosa is from ærugo, verdigris. the pileus is fleshy, plano-convex, subumbonate, clothed with a green evanescent slime, becoming paler as the slime disappears. the gills are firmly attached to the stem, soft, brown, tinged with purple, slightly ventricose, not crowded. the stem is hollow, equal, fibrillose or squamose below the ring, tinged with blue. this species is quite variable in form and color. the most typical forms are found in the fall, in very wet weather and in shady woods. this is one of the species from which the ban has not been removed but its appearance will lead no one to care to cultivate its acquaintance further than name it. it is claimed by most writers that it is poisonous. found in meadows and woods, from july to november. _hypholoma. fr._ hypholoma is from two greek words, meaning a web and a fringe, referring to the web-like veil which frequently adheres to the margin of the cap, not forming a ring on the stem and not always apparent on old specimens. the pileus is fleshy, margin at first incurved. the gills are attached to the stem, sometimes notched at the stem. the stem is fleshy, similar in substance to the cap. they grow mostly in thick clusters on wood either above or under the ground. the spores are brown-purple, almost black. this genus differs from the genus agaricus from the fact that its gills are attached to the stem and its stem is destitute of a ring. _hypholoma incertum. pk._ the uncertain hypholoma. edible. [illustration: _by the courtesy of captain mcilvaine._ plate xxxvii. figure .--hypholoma incertum.] incertum, uncertain. prof. peck, who named this species, was uncertain whether it was not a form of h. candolleanum, to which it seemed to be very closely related; but as the gills of that plant are at first violaceous and of this one white at first, he concluded to risk the uncertainty on a new species. the pileus is thin, ovate, broadly spreading, fragile, whitish, margin often wavy and often adorned with fragments of the woolly white veil, opaque when dry, transparent when moist. the gills are thin, narrow, close, fastened to the stem at their inner extremity, white at first, then purplish-brown, edges often uneven. the stem is equal, straight, hollow, white, slender, at least one to three inches long. the spores are purplish-brown and elliptical. it is found in lawns, gardens, pastures, and thin woods. it is small but grows in such profusion that one can obtain quantities of it. the caps are very tender and delicious. it appears as early as may. _hypholoma appendiculatum. bull._ the appendiculate hypholoma. edible. appendiculatum, a small appendage. this is so called from the fragments of the veil adhering to the margin of the cap. the pileus is thin, ovate, expanded, watery, when dry, covered with dry atoms; margin thin and often split, with a white veil; the color when moist dark-brown, when dry nearly white, often with floccose scales on the cap. the gills are firmly attached to the stem, crowded, white, then rosy-brown, and at length dingy-brown. the stem is hollow, smooth, equal, white, fibrous, mealy at the apex. the veil is very delicate and only seen in quite young plants. the plant grows in the spring and the summer and is found on stumps and sometimes on lawns. it is a favorite mushroom with those who know it. the plant can be dried for winter use and retains its flavor to a remarkable degree. hypholoma candolleanum, fr., resembles the h. appendiculatum in many features, but the gills are violaceous, becoming cinnamon-brown and in old plants nearly free from the stem. it has more substance. the caps, however, are very tender and delicious. found in clusters. _hypholoma lachrymabundum. fr._ the weeping hypholoma. [illustration: figure .--hypholoma lachrymabundum. two-thirds natural size.] [illustration: figure .--hypholoma lachrymabundum.] lachrymabundum--full of tears. this plant is so called because in the morning or in damp weather the edge of the gills retain very minute drops of water. the plant in figure was photographed in the afternoon yet there can be seen a number of these minute drops. the pileus is fleshy, campanulate, then convex, sometimes broadly umbonate, spotted with hairy scales; flesh white. the gills are closely attached to the stem, notched, crowded, somewhat ventricose, unequal, whitish, then brown-purple, distilling minute drops of dew in wet weather or in the morning. the stem is hollow, somewhat thickened at the base, quite scaly with fibrils, often becoming brownish-red, two to three inches long. the spores are brownish-purple. i have never found the plant elsewhere than on the chillicothe high school lawn, and then not in sufficient numbers to test its edible qualities. when i do, i shall try it cautiously, but with full faith that i shall be permitted to try others. found on the ground and on decayed wood. it often grows in clusters. september to october. _hypholoma sublateritium. schaeff._ the brick-red hypholoma. edible. [illustration: figure .--hypholoma sublateritium. natural size.] _sublateritium is from sub, under, and later, a brick._ the pileus is brick-red, with pale yellowish border; the surface is covered with fine silky fibres; fleshy, moist, and firm; the cap is from two to four inches broad; remnants of the veil are often seen on the margin; flesh creamy, firm, and bitter. the gills are creamy when young, olive when old; attached to the stem at inner extremity, rather narrow, crowded, and unequal. the stem is creamy when young, lower part slightly tinged with red, hollow or stuffed, having silky fibres on the surface, two to four inches long, often incurved because of position. the spores are sooty-brown and elliptical. it grows in large clusters around old stumps. it is especially plentiful about chillicothe. it is not equal to many others of the hypholomas as an esculent. sometimes it is bitter even after it is cooked. captain mcilvaine gives a plausible reason when he says it may be due to the passage of larvæ through the flesh of the plant. it is found from september to early winter. _hypholoma perplexum. pk._ the perplexing hypholoma. edible. [illustration: figure .--hypholoma perplexum. one-half natural size. caps brown, with a pale yellow margin.] perplexum means perplexing; so called because it is quite difficult to distinguish it from h. sublateritium, also from h. fascicularis. from the latter it may be known by its redder cap, its whitish flesh, purple-brown tint of the mature gills and mild flavor. its smaller size, the greenish and purplish tint of the gills, and the slender hollow stem will aid in distinguishing it from h. perplexum. the pileus is complex, fleshy, expanded, smooth, sometimes broadly and slightly umbonate, brown with a pale-yellow margin, disk sometimes reddish. the gills are rounded, notched, easily separating from the stem, pale-yellow, greenish ash-color, finally purplish-brown, thin, quite close. the stem is nearly equal, firm, hollow, slightly fibrillose, yellowish or whitish above and reddish-brown below. the spores are elliptical and purplish brown. this plant is very abundant in ohio. it grows about old stumps, but a favorite habitat seems to be upon old sawdust piles. i have found it after we have had considerable freezing weather. the plants in the figure were frozen when i found them, the th of november. dr. mcilvaine says in his book, "if the collector gets puzzled, as he will, over one or all of these species, because no description fits, he can whet his patience and his appetite by calling it h. perplexum and graciously eating it." _psilocybe. pers._ _psilocybe is from two greek words, naked and head._ the spores are purple-brown or slate color. the pileus is smooth, at first incurved, brownish or purple. the stem is cartilaginous, ringless, tough, hollow, or stuffed, often rooting. generally growing on the ground. _psilocybe foenisecii. pers._ the brown psilocybe. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--psilocybe foenisecii. one-half natural size.] foenisecii means mown hay. the pileus is somewhat fleshy, smoky-brown or brownish, convex, campanulate at first, then expanded; obtuse, dry, smooth. the gills are firmly attached to the stem, ventricose, not crowded, brownish-umber. the stem is hollow, straight, even, smooth, not rooting, white, covered with dust, then brownish. quite common in grassy lawns and fields after summer rains. i have never eaten it, but i have no doubt of its esculent qualities. _psilocybe spadicea. schaeff._ the bay psilocybe. edible. spadicea means bay or date-brown. the pileus is fleshy, convex-plane, obtuse, even, moist, hygrophanous, bright bay-brown, paler when dry. the gills are rounded behind, attached to stem, easily separating from it, narrow, dry, crowded, white, then rosy-brown or flesh-color. the stem is hollow, tough, pallid, equal, smooth, one to two inches long. they grow in dense clusters where old stumps have been or where wood has decayed. the caps are small but very good. they are found from september to frost or freezing weather. _psilocybe ammophila. mont._ [illustration: figure .--psilocybe ammophila. two-thirds natural size, showing the sand on the base.] ammophila is from two greek words; ammos, sand, and philos, loving; so called because the plants seem to delight to grow in sandy soil. the pileus is small, convex, expanded, umbilicate, at first hemispherical, rather fleshy, yellow, tinged with red, fibrillose. the gills are smoky in color, with a decurrent tooth, powdered with the blackish spores. the stem is soft, rather short, hollow, lower half clavate and sunk into the sand, striate. the spores are × . they are found in august and september. they delight in sandy soil, as the specific name indicates. the plants in the photograph were found near columbus and photographed by dr. kellerman. it is quite common in sandy soil. i do not think it is edible. i should advise great caution in its use. chapter vi. the black-spored agarics. the genera belonging to this series have black spores. there is an entire absence of purple or brown shades. the genus gomphidius, placed in this series for other reasons, has dingy-olivaceous spores. _coprinus. pers._ coprinus is from a greek word meaning dung. this genus can be readily recognized from the black spores and from the deliquescence of the gills and cap into an inky substance. many of the species grow in dung, as the name implies, or on recently manured ground. some grow in flat rich ground, or where there has been a fill, or on dumping grounds; some grow on wood and around old stumps. the pileus separates easily from the stem. the gills are membranaceous, closely pressed together. the spores, with few exceptions, are black. most of the species are edible, but many are of such small size that they are easily overlooked. _coprinus comatus. fr._ the shaggy mane coprinus. edible. [illustration: _photo by prof shaftner._ figure .--coprinus comatus.] [illustration: figure .--coprinus comatus. one-half natural size.] comatus is from coma, having long hair, shaggy. it is so called from a fancied resemblance to a wig on a barber's block. a description is hardly necessary with a photograph before us. they always remind us of a congregation of goose eggs standing on end. this plant cannot be confounded with any other, and the finder is the happy possessor of a rich, savory morsel that cannot be duplicated in any market. the pileus is fleshy, moist, at first egg-shaped, cylindrical, becoming bell-shaped, seldom expanded, splitting at the margin along the line of the gills, adorned with scattered yellowish scales, tinged with purplish-black, yet sometimes entirely white; surface shaggy. the gills are free, crowded, equal, creamy white, becoming pink, brown, then black, and dripping an inky fluid. the stem is three to eight inches long, hollow, smooth, or slightly fibrillose, tapering upward, creamy-white, brittle, easily separating from the cap, slightly bulbous at the base. the ring is rarely adherent or movable in young plants, later lying on the ground at the base of the stem or disappearing altogether. the spores are black and elliptical, and are shed in liquid drops. found in damp rich ground, gardens, rich lawns, barnyards, and dumping grounds. they often grow in large clusters. they are found everywhere in great abundance, from may till late frost. a weak stomach can digest any of the coprini when almost any other food will give it trouble. i am always pleased to give a dish of any coprini to an invalid. _coprinus atramentarius. fr._ the inky coprinus. edible. [illustration: figure .--coprinus atramentarius. two-thirds natural size.] atramentarius means black ink. the pileus is at first egg-shaped, gray or grayish-brown, smooth, except that there is a slight scaly appearance; often covered with a marked bloom, margin ribbed, often notched, soft, tender, becoming expanded, when it melts away in inky fluid. the gills are broad, close, ventricose, creamy-white in young specimens, becoming pinkish-gray, then black, moist, melting away in inky drops. the stem is slender, two to four inches in length, hollow, smooth, tapering upward, easily separating from the cap, with slight vestige of a collar near the base when young but soon disappearing. the spores are elliptical, × µ., and black, falling away in drops. i have found it abundantly all over the state, from may till late frost. in figure the one in the center will show the spot-like scales; on the others the bloom referred to is quite apparent; the section to the right shows the broad, ventricose gills--cream-white though slightly tinged with pink--also the shape of the stem. the plant at the extreme right has expanded and begun to deliquesce. c. atramentarius is very abundant, growing in rich soil, lawns, filled places, and gardens. [illustration: plate xxxviii. figure .--coprinus atramentarius.] _coprinus micaceus. fr._ the glistening coprinus. edible. [illustration: figure .--coprinus micaceus. two-thirds natural size.] micaceus is from _micare_, to glisten, and refers to the small scales on the pileus which resemble mica scales. the pileus is tawny-yellow, tan or light buff, ovate, bell-shaped; having striations radiating from near the center of the disk to the margin; glistening mica-like scales covering undisturbed young specimens; the margin somewhat revolute or wavy. the gills are crowded, rather narrow, whitish, then tinged with pinkish or purplish-brown then black. the stem is slender, fragile, hollow, silky, even, whitish, often twisted, one to three inches long. the spores are blackish, sometimes brown, elliptical, × µ. the glistening coprinus is a small but common and beautiful species. one cannot fail to recognize a coprinus from a photograph. it is somewhat bell-shaped and marked with impressed lines or striations from the margin to or beyond the center of the disk and sprinkled with fugacious micaceous granules all of which show in figure . for eating, this is without doubt the best mushroom that grows. the specimens in figure grew around an old peach stump in dr. miesse's yard, in chillicothe. you will find them around any stump, especially just before a rain. if you secure a good supply and wish to keep them, partially cook them and warm them for use. _coprinus ebulbosus. pk._ [illustration: figure .--coprinus ebulbosus. one-half natural size.] _ebulbosus_, without being bulbous. this seems to be the difference between the american and the european plants, the latter being bulbous. the pileus is membranaceous, at first ovate, bell-shaped, striate, variegated with broad white scales, or white patches; one to two inches broad. the gills are free, broad, ventricose, grayish-black, soon deliquescing. the stem is hollow, equal, fragile, smooth, four to five inches long. usually found where old stumps have been cut off under the ground, leaving the roots in the ground. it is very abundant. the collector will have no trouble to recognize it from figure . they are found from june to october. edible, but not as good as c. atramentarius. _coprinus ephemerus. fr._ the ephemeral coprinus. edible. ephemerus, lasting for a day. this plant lasts only for a short time. it comes up in the early morning or at night and as soon as the sun's rays touch it it deliquesces into an inky fluid. the pileus is membranaceous, very thin, oval, slightly covered with bran-like scales, disk elevated, even. gills are adnexed, distant, whitish, brown, then black. the stem is slender, equal, pellucid, smooth, from one to two inches high. when this plant is fully developed it is quite a beautiful specimen, striated from margin to center. found on dung and dung heaps and in well manured grass plots from may to october. it must be cooked at once. its chief value is its excellent mushroom flavor. _coprinus ovatus. fr._ the ovate coprinus. edible. _ovatus is from ovum_, an egg. it is so called from the shape of the pileus, which is somewhat membranaceous, ovate, then expanded, striate; at first woven into densely imbricated, thick, concentric scales; is bulbous, rooting, flocculose, hollow above, the ring deciduous; gills free, remote, slightly ventricose, for sometime white, then umber-blackish. this plant is much smaller and less striking than the c. comatus, yet its edible qualities are the same. i have eaten it and found it delicious. it is found in about the same locality in which you would expect to find the c. comatus. _coprinus fimetarius. fr._ the shaggy dung coprinus. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate xxxix. figure .--coprinus fimetarius.] _fimetarius is from fimetum, a dunghill._ the pileus is somewhat membranaceous, clavate, then conical, at length torn and revolute; at first rough with floccose scales, then naked; longitudinally cracked and furrowed, even at the apex. the stem is inclined to be scaly, thickened at the base, solid. the gills are free, reaching the stem, at first ventricose, then linear, brownish-black. _fries._ this is quite a variable plant. there are a number of varieties classed under this species. it is said to be of excellent flavor. i have never eaten it. _panæolus. fr._ panæolus is from two greek words, all; variegated. this genus is so called from the mottled appearance of the gills. the pileus is somewhat fleshy, margin even, but never striate. the margin always extends beyond the gills and the gills are not uniform in color. the mottled appearance of the gills is due to the falling of the black spores. the gills do not deliquesce. the stem is smooth, sometimes scaly, at times quite long, hollow. the veil, when present, is interwoven. this plant is found on rich lawns recently manured, but principally on dung. there are only two edible species, p. retirugis and p. solidipes. the other species would not be likely to attract the attention of the ordinary collector. _panæolus retirugis. fr._ the ribbed panaeolus. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate xl. figure .--panaeolus retirugis. natural size, showing portions of the veil on the margin.] retirugis is from rete, a net; ruga, a wrinkle. the pileus is about one inch in diameter, inclined to be globose, then hemispherical, slightly umbonate, center darker, with united raised ribs, sometimes sprinkled with opaque atoms; veil torn, appendiculate. the gills are fixed, ascending, broad in middle; and in the expanded forms the gills are separated more and more from the stem and finally appear more or less triangular; cinereous-black, frequently somewhat clouded. the stem is equal, covered with a frost-like bloom, cylindrical, sometimes tortuous, cartilaginous, becoming hollow, pinkish-purple, always darker below and paler above, bulbous. the veil in young and unexpanded plants is quite strong and prominent; as the stem elongates it loosens from the stem, and as the cap expands it breaks into segments, frequently hanging to the margin of the cap. by close observation one will sometimes detect a black band on the stem, caused by the falling of the black spores, when the plant is damp, before the pileus has separated from the stem. the spores are black and elliptical. i have found it a number of times on the chillicothe high school lawn, especially after it was fertilized in the winter. it is found mostly on dung from june to october. i do not recommend it as a delicacy. _panæolus epimyces. pk._ [illustration: figure .--panæolus epimyces. note black spores in central foreground. note also huge masses of abortive stuff upon which it grows.] epimyces is from _epi_, upon; _myces_, a mushroom; so called because it is parasitic on fungi. there are a number of species of mushrooms whose habitat is on other mushrooms or fungus growths; such as collybia cirrhata, c. racemosa, c. tuberosa, volvaria loveiana and the species of nyctalis. the pileus is fleshy, at first subglobose, then convex, white, silky, fibrillose, flesh white or whitish, soft. the gills are rather broad, somewhat close, rounded behind, adnexed, dingy-white, becoming brown or blackish, with a white edge. the stem is short, stout, tapering upwards, strongly striate and minutely mealy or pruinose; solid in the young plant, hollow in the mature, but with the cavity small; hairy, or substrigose at the base. the spores elliptical and black, . to . of an inch long, . to . broad. _peck._ the plants are small, about two thirds to an inch broad and from an inch to an inch and a half high. it is referred to this genus because of its black spores. it has other characteristics which would seem to place it better among hypholomas. it is not common. found in october and november. the specimens in figure were found in michigan and photographed by dr. fisher. _panæolus campanulatus. linn._ bell-shaped panaeolus. campanulatus is from _campanula_, a little bell. the pileus is an inch to an inch and a quarter broad, oval or bell-shaped, sometimes slightly umbonate, smooth, somewhat shining, grayish-brown, sometimes becoming reddish-tinted, the margin often fringed with fragments of the veil. the gills are attached, not broad, ascending, variegated with gray and black. the stem is three to five inches long, hollow, slender, firm, straight, often covered with frost-like bloom and often striate at the top, the veil remaining only a short time. the spores are subellipsoid, - × µ. the gills do not deliquesce. it is widely distributed and is found in almost any horse pasture. captain mcilvaine says in his book that he has eaten it in small quantities, because larger could not be obtained, and with no other than pleasant effect. i have found it about chillicothe quite frequently but have never eaten it. it is found from june to august. _panæolus fimicolus. fr._ the dung panaeolus. fimicolus is from fimus, dung; colo, to inhabit. the pileus somewhat fleshy, convex-bell-shaped, obtuse, smooth, opaque; marked near the margin with a narrow brown zone; the stem is fragile, elongated, equal, pallid, covered with frost-like bloom above; the gills are firmly attached to the stem, broad, variegated with gray and brown. _fries._ the plant is very small and unimportant. it is found on dung, as its name indicates, from june to september. the caps appear lighter in color when dry than when wet. _panæolus solidipes. pk._ the solid foot panaeolus. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate xli. figure .--panaeolus solidipes.] solidipes is from solidus, solid; pes, foot; and is so called because the stem of the plant is solid. the pileus is two to three inches across; firm; at first hemispherical, then subcampanulate or convex; smooth; white; the cuticle at length breaking up into dingy-yellowish, rather large, angular scales. the gills are broad, slightly attached, whitish, becoming black. the stem is five to eight inches long and two to four lines thick, firm, smooth, white, solid, slightly striate at the top. the spores are very black with a bluish tint. _peck._ d rep. n. y. state bot. this is a large and beautiful plant and easily distinguished because of its solid stem, growing on dung. sometimes minute drops of moisture will be seen on the upper part of the stem. the plant is said to be one of the best of mushrooms to eat. _panæolus papilionaceus. fr._ the butterfly panaeolus. [illustration: figure .--panæolus papilionaceus. natural size.] papilionaceus is from _papilio_, a butterfly. the pileus is about an inch broad, somewhat fleshy, at first hemispherical, sometimes subumbonate, the cuticle breaking up into scales when dry, as will be seen in the photograph, pale-gray with a tinge of reddish-yellow especially on the disk, sometimes smooth. the gills are broadly attached to the stem, quite wide, at length plane, blackish or with varying tints of black. the stem is three to four inches long, slender, firm, equal, hollow, powdered above, whitish, sometimes tinged with red or yellow, slightly striate at the top, as will be seen in the photograph with a glass, generally stained with the spores. the specimens in figure were found in a garden that had been strongly manured. it is usually found on dung and on grassy lawns during may and june. captain mcilvaine in his book speaks of this mushroom producing hilarity or a mild form of intoxication. i should advise against its use. _anellaria. karst._ anellaria is from _anellus_, a little ring. this genus is so called because of the presence of a ring on the stem. the pileus is somewhat fleshy, smooth, and even. the gills are adnexed, dark slate-colored, variegated with black spores. the stem is central, smooth, firm, shining, ring persistent or forming a zone around the stem. _anellaria separata. karst._ separata means separate or distinct. the pileus is somewhat fleshy, bell-shaped, obtuse, even, viscid, at first ochraceous, then dingy-white, shining, smooth, wrinkled when old. the gills are firmly attached to the stem, broad, ventricose, thin, crowded, clouded, cinereous, margin nearly white, slightly deliquescent. the stem is long, straight, shining, white, thickened downward, ring distant, top somewhat striate, bulbous at the base. the spores are broadly elliptic-fusiform, black, opaque, × µ. it is found on dung from may to october. it is not poisonous. _bolbitius. fr._ bolbitius is from a greek word meaning cow-dung, referring to its place of growth. the pileus is membranaceous, yellow, becoming moist; gills moist but not deliquescing, finally losing their color and becoming powdery; stem hollow and confluent with the hymenophore. as the generic name implies the plant usually grows on dung, but sometimes it is found growing on leaves and where the ground had been manured the year before. the spores are of a rusty-red color. _bolbitius fragilis. (l.) fr._ fragilis means fragile. the pileus is membranaceous, yellow, then whitish, viscid, margin striate, disk somewhat umbonate. the gills are attenuated, adnexed, nearly free, ventricose, yellowish, then pale cinnamon. the stem is two to three inches long, naked, smooth, yellow. the spores are rust-colored, × . , massee. - × - µ. saccardo. this species is much more delicate and fragile than b. boltoni. i find it often in dairy pastures. it is well flavored and cooks readily. found from june to october. _bolbitius boltoni. fr._ bolton's bolbitius. edible. the pileus is somewhat fleshy, viscid, at first smooth, then the margin sulcate, disk darker and slightly depressed. the gills are nearly adnate, yellowish, then livid-brown. the stem is attenuated, yellowish, ring fugacious. this is rather common in dairy pastures and is found from may to september. _psathyrella. fr._ psathyrella is from a greek word meaning fragile. the members of this genus are mebranaceous, striated, margin straight, at first pressed to the stem, not extending beyond the gills. gills adnate or free, sooty-black, not variegated. the stem is confluent with, but different in character from, the spore-bearing surface. veil inconspicuous and generally absent. _psathyrella disseminata. pers._ the clustered psathyrella. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--psathyrella disseminata. natural size.] disseminata is from _dissemino_, to scatter. pileus is about a half inch across, membranaceous, ovate, bell-shaped, at first scurvy, then naked; coarsely striated, margin entire; yellowish then gray. gills adnate, narrow, whitish, then gray, finally blackish. stem one to one and a half inches long, rather curved, mealy then smooth, fragile, hollow. _massee._ this is a very small plant, growing on grassy lawns, and very common on old trunks, and about decaying stumps. a cluster about two yards square shows itself at intervals all summer on the chillicothe high school lawn. the grass shows itself to be greener and thriftier there on account of fertilization by the mushroom. the entire plant is very fragile and soon melts away. i have eaten the caps raw many times and they have a rich flavor. they are found from may till frost. _psathyrella hirta. pk._ [illustration: figure .--psathyrella hirta.] hirta means hairy, rough or shaggy. pileus thin, hemispherical or convex, adorned when young with erect or spreading tufts of white, easily determined and quickly evanescent hairs; hygrophanous, brown or reddish-brown and slightly striatulate when moist, pale grayish-brown or dingy-whitish when dry, flesh subconcolorous; lamellæ broad, moderately close, adnate and often furnished with a decurrent tooth, at first pallid, becoming blackish-brown or black; stem flexuose, squamose, hollow, shining, white; spores elliptical, black, . to . inch long, . to . broad. subcæspitose; pileus to lines broad; stem to inches long to - lines thick. the specimens in figure were found in the greenhouse at the state university. when quite young tufts of white hair were very conspicuous. they are scarcely observed in mature specimens. the plants were photographed by dr. kellerman. _gomphidius. fr._ gomphidius is from a greek word meaning a wooden bolt or peg. the hymenophore is decurrent on the stem. the gills are decurrent, distant, soft, somewhat mucilaginous; edge acute, pruinate with the blackish fusiform spores; veil viscoso-floccose, forming an imperfect ring around the stem. a small, but distinct, genus, with great difference among species; intermediate by its habits between cortinarius and hygrophorus. _gomphidius viscidus. fr._ viscid gomphidius. the pileus is two to three inches broad, viscid, convex, then depressed round the disk, obtusely umbonate, margin acute, reddish-brown to yellowish-brown in the center, the margin liver-color, flesh yellowish-brown. the gills are decurrent, distant, somewhat branched, firm, elastic, rather thick, purple-brown with an olive tinge. the stem is two to three inches high, subequal or slightly ventricose; pale yellowish-brown, fibrillose, firm, solid, slimy from the remains of the veil, which form an obsolete filamentose ring. the spores are elongato-fusiform, - × µ. its favorite habitat is under pine and fir trees. its taste is sweet and it has the mushroom smell. it is edible, but not first-class. found in september and october. chapter vii. polyporaceae. tube-bearing fungi. in this family the cap has no gills on the upper surface, but, instead, there are small tubes or pores. this class of plants may be naturally divided into two groups: the perishable fungi with the pores easily separating from the cap and from each other, which may be called boletaceæ; and the leathery, corky, and woody fungi, with pores permanently united to the cap and with each other, making the family polyporaceæ. in each group the spores are borne on the lining of the pore. a spore print may be made in the same manner as from mushrooms having gills. the color of the spores does not enter into the classification as in the case of the agaricini. the distinctive characteristics of these genera may be stated as follows: pores compacted together and forming a continuous stratum pores each a distinct tube, standing closely side by side fistulina . stem central, and stratum of spores easily separable from the cap boletus . stratum of tubes not separating easily, cap covered with coarse scales strobilomyces stratum of tubes separating, but not easily; tubes arranged in distinct, radiating lines. in boletinus porosus the tubes do not separate from the cap boletinus stratum of pores not separable from cap; plant soft when young, but becoming hard, corky, stipitate, shelving polyporus _boletus. dill._ _boletus, a clod_. there are very many species under this genus and the beginner will experience much trouble in separating the species with any degree of assurance. the boletus is distinguished from the other pore-bearing fungi by the fact that the stratum of tubes is easily separable from the cap. in the polyporus the stratum of tubes cannot be separated. nearly all boleti are terrestrial and have central stems. they grow in warm and rainy weather. many are very large and ponderous; fleshy and putrescent, decaying soon after maturity. it is important to note whether the flesh changes color when bruised and whether the taste is pleasant or otherwise. when i first began to study the boleti there were but few species that were thought to be edible, but the ban has been removed from very many, even from the most wicked, boletus satanus. _boletus scaber. fr._ the rough-stemmed boletus. edible. [illustration: figure .--boletus scaber. two-thirds natural size.] the pileus is from two to five inches in diameter, rounded convex, smooth, viscid when moist, minutely woolly, velvety or scaly, color from nearly white to almost black, the flesh white. the tubes are free from the stem, white, long, mouths minute and round. the stem is solid, tapering slightly upward, long, dingy-white; roughened with blackish-brown or reddish dots or scales, this being the most pronounced characteristic by which to distinguish the species; three to five inches long. the spores are oblong fusiform and brown. prof. peck has described a number of varieties under this species, most of which depend on the color of the cap. all are edible and good. this is a common plant, usually found in woods and shady waste places, from june to october. photographed by prof. h. c. beardslee. _boletus granulatus. l._ the granulated boletus. edible. [illustration: figure .--boletus granulatus. one-half natural size.] the pileus is two to three inches broad, hemispherical, then convex; at first covered with a brownish gluten, then turning yellowish; flesh thick, yellowish, does not turn blue; margin involute at first. the tubes are adnate; at first white, then light yellow; the margin distilling a pale watery fluid which when dry gives the granulated appearance. the stem is short, one to two inches high, thick, solid, pale yellow above, white below, granulated. the spores are spindle-shaped, rusty-yellow. this plant grows abundantly in pine regions, but i have found it where only a part of the trees were pine. the brownish gluten, always constant on the pileus, and the gummy juice drying upon the stem, like granules of sugar, will be strong features by which to identify the species. they are found from july to october. _boletus bicolor. pk._ the two-colored boletus. edible. the pileus is convex, smooth or merely downy, dark red, fading when old, often marked with yellow; flesh yellow, slowly changing to blue when bruised. the tubes are bright yellow, attached to the stem, the color changing to blue when bruised. the stem is solid, red, generally red at the top, one to three inches long. the spores are pale, rusty-brown color. found in woods and open places, from july to october. _boletus subtomentosus. l._ the yellow-cracked boletus. edible. [illustration: figure .--boletus subtomentosus. one-half natural size.] subtomentosus, slightly downy. the pileus is from three to six inches broad, convex, plane; yellowish-brown, olive or subdued tan color; cuticle soft and dry, with a fine pubescence; the cracks in the surface become yellow. the flesh is creamy white in mature specimens, changing to blue, and at length leaden, on being bruised. the tube surface is yellow or yellowish green, becoming bluish when bruised; opening of tubes large and angular. the stem is stout, yellowish, minutely roughened with scurvy dots or faintly striped with brown. the spores are a rusty-brown. the cracks in the cap become yellow, on which account this species is called the yellow-cracked boletus. the taste of the flesh is sweet and agreeable. palmer compares it with the taste of a walnut. the plant should not be feared because the flesh turns blue when bruised. i first found this species in whinnery's woods, salem, ohio. the specimens in figure grew near chillicothe and was photographed by dr. kellerman. july to august. _boletus chrysenteron. fr._ the red-cracked boletus. edible. [illustration: figure .--boletus chrysenteron. one-half natural size. caps yellowish to red. flesh yellow.] chrysenteron means gold or golden within. the pileus is two to four inches broad, convex, becoming more flattened, soft to the touch, varying from light to yellowish-brown or bright brick-red, more or less fissured with red cracks; the flesh yellow, changing to blue when bruised or cut, red immediately beneath the cuticle. the tube surface is olive-yellow, becoming bluish when bruised, tube-openings rather large, angled and unequal in size. the stem is generally stout, straight, yellowish, and more or less streaked or spotted with the color of the cap. the spores are light brown and spindle-shaped. this species will be easily distinguished from b. subtomentosus because of its bright color and the cracks in the cap turning red, whence the name of the "red-cracked boletus." the cap of this species strongly resembles boletus alveolatus, but the latter has rose-colored spores and a red pore surface, while the former has light brown spores and an olive-yellow pore surface. tolerton's and bower's woods, salem, ohio, july to october. _boletus edulis. bull._ the edible boletus. [illustration: plate xlii. figure .--boletus edulis. pileus light brown, tubes yellowish or greenish-yellow. stem bulbous and faintly reticulate. natural size.] this is quite a large and handsome plant and one rather easily recognized. the firm caps of the young plant and the white tubes with their very indistinct mouths, and the mature plants with the tubes changing to a greenish yellow with their mouths quite distinct, are enough to identify the plant at once. the pileus is convex or nearly plane; variable in color, light brown to dark brownish-red, surface smooth but dull, cap from three to eight inches broad. the flesh is white or yellowish, not changing color on being bruised or broken. the tube-surface is whitish in very young plants, at length becoming yellow and yellowish-green. pore openings angled. the tubes depressed around the stem, which is stout, bulbous, often disproportionately elongated; pale-brown; straight or flexuous, generally with a fine raised net-work of pink lines near junction of cap, sometimes extending to the base. the taste is agreeable and nutty, especially when young. woods and open places. july and august. common about salem and chillicothe, ohio. it is one of our best mushrooms. captain mcilvaine says: "carefully sliced, dried, and kept where safe from mold, it may be prepared for the table at any season." _boletus speciosus. frost._ the handsome boletus. edible. [illustration: figure .--boletus speciosus. natural size. cap red or deep scarlet. tubes bright lemon-yellow.] speciosus means handsome. the pileus is three to six inches broad, at first very thick, subglobose, compact, then softer, convex, glabrous or nearly so, red or deep scarlet. the flesh is pale yellow or bright lemon-yellow, changing to blue where wounded. the tubes are adnate, small, subrotund, plane, or slightly depressed around the stem; bright lemon-yellow, becoming dingy-yellow with age, changing to blue where bruised. the stem is two to four inches long, stout, subequal or bulbous, reticulated, bright lemon-yellow without and within, sometimes reddish at the base. the spores are oblong-fusiform, pale, ochraceous-brown, - . × - µ. the young specimen can be recognized by the whole plant's being of a vivid lemon-yellow except the surface of the cap. the plant quickly turns to green, then blue, wherever touched. it has a wide distribution in the eastern and middle states. the plant in figure was found in haynes' hollow by dr. chas. miesse and photographed by dr. kellerman. as an edible it is among the best. found from august to october. _boletus cyanescens. bull._ [illustration: figure .--boletus cyanescens.] cyanescens is from _cyaneus_, deep blue, so called the moment you touch it, it turns a deep blue. pileus is two to four inches across, convex, then expanded, sometimes nearly plane, frequently wavy, covered with an appressed tomentum; opaque, pale-buff, grayish-yellow, or yellowish, flesh thick, white, quickly changing to a beautiful azure-blue where cut or wounded. the tubes are quite free, openings small, white, then pale-yellow, round, changing color the same as the flesh. the stem is two to three inches long, ventricose, hoary with fine hair, stuffed at first, then becoming hollow, colored like the pileus. the spores are subelliptical, - . × - . µ. the specimens in figure were found on rather steep wooded hillsides, sugar grove, ohio. they were all solitary. i have found a few specimens about chillicothe. they are widely distributed in the eastern states. captain mcilvaine says in his book the caps make an excellent dish cooked in any way. i have never tried them. found on hilly ground in august and september. _boletus indecisus. pk._ the undecided boletus. edible. [illustration: figure .--boletus indecisus. one-half natural size.] indecisus means undecided; so called because it favors very closely boletus felleus. there is a difference in the style of the two plants by which, after continued tasting, the student can readily separate them. the pileus is three to four inches broad, dry, slightly downy, convex, ochraceous-brown, plane, often irregular on the margin, sometimes wavy, flesh white, and unchangeable, taste mild or sweet. the tube surface is nearly plane and firmly set against the stem, grayish, becoming tinged with flesh color in age, changing to a brown when bruised; the mouths small and nearly round. the stem is covered with a fine mealy substance, straight or flexuous, sometimes reticulated above. the spores are oblong, brownish flesh color, . - × µ. the b. indecisus can be readily told from b. felleus by its sweet taste and brownish spores. it is my favorite of all the boleti, indeed i think it equals the best of mushrooms. its favorite habitat is under beech trees in the open. it is widely distributed from massachusetts to the west. found in july and august. _boletus edulis. bull.--var. clavipes. pk._ club-footed boletus. edible. [illustration: figure .--boletus edulis, var. clavipes. two-thirds natural size. note confluent caps on right.] clavipes means club-footed. pileus fleshy, convex, glabrous, grayish-red or chestnut-color. flesh white, unchangeable. the tubes at first concave or nearly plane, white and stuffed, then convex, slightly depressed around the stem, ochraceous-yellow. stem mostly obclavate, inversely club-shaped, and reticulate to the base. the spores oblong-fusiform, - × - µ. _peck._ st rep. the club-footed boletus is very closely related to b. edulis. it differs, perhaps, in a more uniform color of the cap, and in having tubes less depressed around the stem, and less tinted with green when mature. the stem is more club-shaped and more completely reticulated. the pileus in the young plant is much more highly colored and fades out in age, but the margin does not become paler than the disk as is often the case with b. edulis. the specimens in figure were found in michigan and photographed by dr. fischer. they are quite as good as b. edulis. _boletus sullivantii. b. & m._ [illustration: figure .--boletus sullivantii.] sullivantii is named in honor of professor sullivant, an early ohio botanist. the pileus is three to four inches broad, hemispherical at first, glabrous, reddish-tawny or brown, brownish when dry, cracked in squares. the tubes are free, convex, medium size, angular, longer toward the margin, their mouths reddish. the stem is solid, violaceous at the thickened base, red-reticulated at the apex, expanded into the pileus. the spores are pallid to ochraceous, oblong-fusiform, - µ long. _peck's_ boleti in u. s. this species is very close to boletus scaber and boletus edulis. it differs from b. scaber in its reticulated stem and from b. edulis in its larger tubes. the specimens in figure were found by hambleton young near columbus, and were photographed by dr. kellerman. _boletus parvus. pk._ parvus means small; so named from the smallness of the plant. the pileus is one to two inches broad, convex, becoming plane, often slightly umbonate, subtomentose, reddish. flesh yellowish-white, slowly changing to pinkish when bruised. the tubes are nearly plane, adnate, their mouths rather large, angular, at first bright-red, becoming reddish-brown. the stem is equal or slightly thickened below, red, from one to two inches long. the spores are oblong, . × µ. they are found in thin woods, july and august. _boletus eximius. pk._ the select boletus. edible. [illustration: figure .--boletus eximius. two-thirds natural size.] eximius means select. the pileus at first is very compact, nearly round, somewhat covered with a mealy substance, purplish-brown, or chocolate color, sometimes with a faint tinge of lilac, becoming convex, soft, smoky red, or pale-chestnut, flesh grayish or reddish-white. the tube surface is at first concave or nearly plane, stuffed, colored nearly like the pileus, becoming paler with age and depressed around the stem, the mouths minute, round. the stem is stout, generally short, equal or tapering upward, abruptly narrowed at the base, minutely branny, colored like or a little paler than the cap, purplish-gray within. the spores are subferruginous, . - × - µ. this plant is found in open woods where there are beech trees. i found it frequently on cemetery hill, chillicothe. it is widely distributed, being found from the east to the west. july and august. _boletus pallidus. frost._ the pallid boletus. edible. pallidus, pale. the pileus is convex, becoming plane or centrally depressed, soft, smooth, pallid or brownish-white, sometimes tinged with red. flesh is white. tubes plane or slightly depressed around the stem, nearly adnate, very pale or whitish-yellow, becoming darker with age, changing to blue where wounded, the mouths small. the stem is equal or slightly thickened toward the base, rather long, smooth, often flexuous; whitish, sometimes streaked with brown, often tinged with red within. spores pale ochraceous-brown. pileus two to four inches broad. stem three to five inches long. _peck_, boleti of the u. s. this species is very good, tender, and appetizing. i found it quite abundant in the woods of gallia county and near chillicothe, ohio. _boletus alveolatus. b. and c._ the alveolate boletus. [illustration: figure .--boletus alveolatus.] alveolatus is from _alveolus_, a small hollow, referring to the pitted form of the pore-surface, which is one of the characters of this species. the pileus is convex, smooth, polished, usually rich crimson or maroon, sometimes varied with paler yellowish tints; substance solid, changing to blue on being fractured or bruised, three to six inches broad. the tube-surface reaches the stem proper, undulate with uneven hollows, maroon, the tubes in section being yellow beyond their dark red mouths. the stem is usually quite long, covered with depressions or pitted dentations, with intermediate coarse net-work of raised ridges, red and yellow. the spores are yellowish-brown. i found this species in the woods near gallipolis, ohio, also near salem, ohio. the bright color of its cap will command the attention of any one passing near it. it has been branded as a reprobate, but captain mcilvaine gives it a good reputation. found in the woods, especially along streams, august and september. photographed by prof. h. c. beardslee. _boletus felleus. bull._ the bitter boletus. [illustration: _photo by prof. atkinson._ figure .--boletus felleus. natural size.] felleus is from _fel_, gall, bitter. the pileus is convex, nearly plane, at first rather firm in substance, then becoming soft and cushion-like, smooth, without polish, varying in color from pale ochre to yellowish or reddish-brown or chestnut, flesh white, changing to flesh-color when bruised, taste exceedingly bitter, cap three to eight inches in diameter. the tube-surface is white at first, becoming dull pinkish with age or upon being cut or broken; rounded upward as it reaches the stem, attached to the stem, mouths angular. the stem is variable, tapering upward, rather stout, quite as smooth as the cap and a shade paler in color, toward the apex covered with a net-work which extends to the base, often bulbous. the flesh is not poisonous but intensely bitter. no amount of cooking will destroy its bitterness. i gave it a thorough trial, but it was as bitter after cooking as before. it is a common boletus about salem, ohio. i have seen plants there eight to ten inches in diameter and very heavy. they grow in woods and wood margins, usually about decaying stumps and logs, sometimes in the open fields. july to september. _boletus versipellis. fr._ the orange-cap boletus. edible. [illustration: figure .--boletus versipellis. natural size.] versipellis is from _verto_, to change, and _pellis_, a skin. the pileus is two to six inches in diameter, convex, orange-red, dry, minutely woolly or downy, then scaly or smooth, margin containing fragments of the veil, flesh white or grayish. the tube-surface is grayish-white, tubes long, free, mouths minute and gray. the stem is equal or tapering upward; solid, white with scaly wrinkles; three to five inches long; and is frequently covered with small reddish or blackish dots or scales. the spores are oblong spindle-shaped. this plant can be easily distinguished by the remnant of the veil which adheres to the margin of the cap and is of the same color. it is frequently turned under the margin adhering to the tubes. it is a large and imposing plant found in sandy soil and especially among the pines. i found it in j. thwing brooke's woods, salem, ohio. august to october. _boletus gracilis. pk._ the slender-stemmed boletus. edible. [illustration: figure .--boletus gracilis. two-thirds natural size.] gracilis means slender, referring to the stem. the pileus is one to two inches broad, convex, smooth or minutely tomentose, the epidermis frequently cracked as in the illustration; ochraceous-brown, tawny, or reddish brown; flesh white. the tube surface is convex to plane, depressed around the stem, nearly free, whitish, becoming flesh-colored. the stem is long and slender, equal or slightly tapering upward, usually curved; pruinose or mealy. the spores are subferruginous, . to . inch long, . to . inch broad. this is quite a pretty plant, but at first sight it will not be taken for a boletus. they are not plentiful in our woods. i find them only occasionally and then sparsely. they are found in july and august, the months for the boleti. they grow in leaf mold in mixed woods, especially among beech timber. _boletus striæpes. secr._ striæpes means striate stem. the pileus is convex or plane, soft, silky, olivaceous, the cuticle rust-color within, flesh white, yellow next the tubes, sparingly changing to blue. the tubes are adnate, greenish, their mouths minute, angular, yellow. the stem is firm, curved, marked with brownish-black striations, yellow, and brownish-rufescent at the base. the spores are - × µ. _peck_, boleti of the u. s. i found some beautiful specimens in a mixed woods on the edinger hillside, near chillicothe. i located them here, but observing that this species was not common i sent some to prof. atkinson, who placed them under this species. august. _boletus radicans. pers._ the pileus is convex, dry, subtomentose, olivaceous-cinereus, becoming pale-yellowish, the margin thin, involute. flesh pale-yellow, taste bitterish. the tubes are adnate, their mouths large, unequal; lemon-yellow. the stem is two to three inches long, even, tapering downward and radiating, flocculose with a reddish bloom, pale-yellow, becoming naked and dark with a touch. the spores are fusiform, olive, - . × µ. _peck_, boleti of the u. s. i found these specimens in the same locality with the b. striæpes. the olivaceous cap with its peculiar involute margin and its radiating stem will greatly assist in its determination. august. _boletus subluteus. pk._ the yellow boletus. edible. [illustration: figure .--boletus subluteus. natural size.] subluteus is from _sub_, under, nearly; _luteus_, yellow. pileus is two to three inches broad, convex, becoming plane, quite viscid when moist, dull yellowish to reddish brown, frequently more or less streaked. the flesh is whitish or dull yellow. the tube surface is plane or convex, the tubes set squarely against the stem, being small, nearly round, yellowish or ochraceous, becoming darker in age. the stem is rather long, nearly equal, about the color of the cap, dotted both above the ring and below it; the ring is membranaceous, quite variable and persistent, usually collapsing as a narrow ring on the stem. the spores are ochraceous-brown, oblong or elliptical, - × - . prof. atkinson has made a careful study of both the american and the european plants called in this country b. luteus and b. subluteus, and has come to the conclusion that they should all be called b. luteus. in distinguishing the two we usually say those having much gluten and dotted above the ring are b. luteus, and those dotted both above and below the ring are b. subluteus. the specimens in figure were collected at the state farm at lancaster, ohio, and photographed by dr. kellerman. they are found in july and august. _boletus parasiticus. bull._ [illustration: figure .--boletus parasiticus.] parasiticus means a parasite; so called because it grows on a scleroderma. it is a small plant and quite rare. the pileus is one to two inches broad, convex, or nearly plane, dry, silky, becoming glabrous, soon tessellately cracked, grayish or dingy yellow. tubes decurrent, medium size, golden yellow. the stem is equal, rigid, incurved, yellow within and without. the spores are oblong-fusiform, pale-brown, . - × µ. _peck._ the tubes are rather large and unequal, and inclined to run down upon the stem. this plant was found near boston, mass., by mrs. e. b. blackford and photographed by dr. kellerman. captain mcilvaine says it is edible but not of good flavor. it is found in july and august. _boletus separans. pk._ the separating boletus. edible. [illustration: figure .--boletus separans. one-half natural size.] separans, separating, alluding to the tubes sometimes separating from the stem by the expansion of the pileus. the pileus is convex, thick, smooth, subshining, often pitted or corrugated; brownish-red or dull-lilac, sometimes fading to yellowish on the margin; flesh white and unchangeable. tubes at first are nearly plane, adnate, white and stuffed, then convex, depressed around the stem, ochraceous-yellow or brownish-yellow and sometimes separating from the stem by the expansion of the pileus. the stem is equal or slightly tapering upward; reticulated, either wholly or in upper part only; colored like the pileus or a little paler, sometimes slightly furfuraceous. spores subfusiform, brownish-ochraceous. _peck_, boleti of u. s. the specimens in figure were found at londonderry, about fifteen miles east of chillicothe, in a grassy woods near a stream. the taste is agreeable when raw and quite good when cooked. this might appropriately have been called the lilac boletus, for that shade of color is usually present in it, somewhere. august to october. _boletus auripes. pk._ yellow-stemmed boletus. edible. [illustration: figure .--boletus auripes. one-half natural size. caps yellowish-brown. tube surface and stem yellow.] auripes is from _aureus_, yellow or golden; _pes_, foot; so called from its yellow stem. the pileus is three to four inches broad, convex, nearly smooth, yellowish-brown, the flesh often cracking in areas in old plants; flesh yellow at first, fading to a lighter color, in age. the tubes are nearly plane, their mouths small, nearly round, at first stuffed, yellow. the stem is two to four inches long, nearly equal, often reticulated, solid, a bright yellow on the surface and a light yellow within. the spores are ochraceous-brown, tinged with green, × µ. the whole plant, except the upper surface of the cap, is a golden yellow, and even the surface of the cap is more or less yellow. it favors one form of the b. edulis. it is sometimes found in mixed woods, especially if there are mountain laurels in the woods (_kalmia latifolia_). it is found in july and august. _boletus retipes. b. and c._ the beautiful-stemmed boletus. edible. [illustration: figure .--boletus retipes. natural size.] retipes is from _rete_, a net; _pes_, a foot; so called from the delicate net-work seen on the stem. the pileus is convex, dry, powdered with yellow, sometimes rivulose or cracked in areas. the tubes are adnate, yellow. the stem is subequal, cespitose, reticulate to the base, pulverulent below. the spores are greenish-ochraceous, - × - µ. _peck_, boleti. b. retipes is very close to b. ornatipes, but its manner of growth, its pulverulent cap, and its greenish-ochraceous spores will at once distinguish it. i have found them on ralston's run, a number from the same mycelial cluster, as in figure . the caps only are good. the specimens in the figure were found near ashville, n. c., and photographed by prof. h. c. beardslee. _boletus griseus. frost._ the gray boletus. [illustration: figure .--boletus griseus. two-thirds natural size.] griseus means gray. the pileus is broadly convex, firm, dry, almost smooth, gray or grayish black. the flesh is whitish or gray. the tubes are attached to the stem and slightly depressed around the stem, nearly plane, their mouths being small, nearly round, white or whitish. the stem is slightly unequal, tapering downward, distinctly reticulated, whitish or yellowish, sometimes reddish toward the base. the spores are ochraceous-brown, - × - µ. _peck._ this plant, with us, grows singly and it is infrequently found. i have found it always in beech woods along ralston's run. it is found in august and september. _boletus nigrellus. pk._ the blackish boletus. edible. [illustration: figure .--boletus nigrellus. two-thirds natural size.] nigrellus is a diminutive of _niger_, black. the entire plant is blackish except the pore surface. the pileus is three to six inches broad, rather broadly convex or nearly plane, dry, blackish. the flesh is soft and unchangeable. the tube-surface is rather plane, adhering to the stem, sometimes slightly depressed around the stem, the mouths being small, nearly round; whitish, becoming flesh-colored, changing to black or brown when wounded. the stem is equal, short, even, black or blackish. the spores are dull flesh-color, - × - µ. when i first found this specimen i was inclined to call it b. alboater, but its flesh-colored tubes served to distinguish it. i found the specimens in figure on edinger's hill, near chillicothe. the taste is mild and fairly good. august and september. _boletus americanus. pk._ [illustration: figure .--boletus americanus. one-half natural size.] this species will attract the attention of the collector because of its very viscid cap. i found the specimens in figure growing on cemetery hill, near chillicothe, in company with lactarius deliciosus. they were growing near and under pine trees, both in dense groups and separately. the caps were very viscid, yellow with a slight tinge of red. the stem is covered with numerous reddish-brown dots. the pileus is one to three inches broad, thin; at first rather globose, convex, then expanded, sometimes broadly umbonate; very viscid when moist, especially on the margin; yellow or becoming dingy or streaked with red in age. the tube-surface is nearly plane and the tubes join squarely against the stem; quite large, angular, pale yellow, becoming a dull ochraceous. the stem is slender, equal or tapering upward, firm, with no trace of a ring; yellow, often brownish toward the base, covered with numerous brown or reddish-brown quite persistent granular dots; yellow within. the spores are oblong, ochraceous-ferruginous, - × - µ. the veil is only observed in the very young specimens. only caps are good to eat. the specimens were photographed for me by dr. kellerman. _boletus morgani. pk._ morgan's boletus. edible. [illustration: figure .--boletus morgani. one-half natural size.] morgani is named in honor of prof. morgan. the pileus is one and a half to two inches broad, convex, soft, glabrous, viscid; red, yellow, or red fading to yellow on the margin; flesh white, tinged with red and yellow, unchangeable. the tube-surface convex, depressed around the stem, tubes rather long and large, bright yellow, becoming greenish-yellow. the stem is elongated, tapering upward, pitted with long and narrow depressions, yellow, red in the depressions, colored within like the flesh of the pileus. the spores are olive-brown, - µ, about half as broad. _peck._ this plant is found in company with b. russelli, which it resembles very closely. its smooth, viscid cap and white flesh will distinguish it. its stem is much more rough in wet weather than in dry. the peculiar color of the stem will help to identify the species. i found it frequently on ralston's run, near chillicothe. it is found in many of the states of the union. july and august. _boletus russelli. frost._ russell's boletus. edible. [illustration: figure .--boletus russelli. one-half natural size.] the cap is thick, hemispherical or convex, dry, covered with downy scales or bundles of red hairs, yellowish beneath the tomentum, often cracked in areas. the flesh is yellow and unchangeable. the tubes are subadnate, often depressed around the stem, rather large, dingy-yellow, or yellowish-green. the stem is very long, equal or tapering upward, roughened by the lacerated margins of the reticular depressions, red or brownish red. the spores are olive-brown, - × - µ. the pileus is one and a half to four inches broad, the stem is three to seven inches long, and three to six lines thick. this is distinguished from the other species by the dry squamulose pileus and the color of the stem. the latter is sometimes curved at the base. _peck._ i have found this species frequently in the woods and open places about chillicothe. it is one of the easiest of the boleti to determine. the plants here have a bright brownish-red pileus, with a shade lighter color on the stem; the latter quite rough and tapering toward the cap. they are usually solitary. the plants in figure were collected in michigan and photographed by dr. fischer. _boletus vermiculosus. pk._ [illustration: figure .--boletus vermiculosus. one-half natural size.] vermiculosus means full of small worms. the pileus is broadly convex, thick, firm, dry; smooth, or very minutely tomentose; brown, yellowish-brown or grayish-brown, sometimes tinged with red. the flesh is white or whitish, quickly changing to blue where wounded. the tubes are plane or slightly convex, nearly free, yellow; their mouths small, round, brownish-orange, becoming darker or blackish with age, changing promptly to blue where wounded. the stem is nearly equal, firm, even, paler than the pileus. the spores are ochraceous-brown, - × - µ. _peck._ the plant represented in figure grew under the beech trees on cemetery hill. i found it frequently in the woods, from july to september. _boletus frostii. russell._ [illustration: figure .--boletus frostii. caps blood-red and shining. natural size.] frostii is named in honor of mr. frost, a noted mycologist. the pileus is three to four inches broad; convex, polished, shining, blood-red; the margin is thin, the flesh scarcely changing to blue. the tubes are nearly free, greenish-yellow, becoming yellowish-brown with age, their mouths blood-red or cinnabar-red. the stem is two to four inches long, three to six lines thick, equal or tapering upward, distinctly reticulated, firm, blood-red. the spores are . - × µ. _peck_, boleti of u. s. this is a beautiful plant. it is not plentiful, yet it is found frequently on some of our hillsides. the plants in figure were found in hayne's hollow near chillicothe, and photographed by dr. kellerman. the plant is found in new england and through the middle west. i have had beautiful plants sent me from vermont. it is not edible, so far as i know. found in august and september. _boletus luridus. schaeff._ the lurid boletus. [illustration: figure .--boletus luridus. one-half natural size.] luridus means pale-yellow, sallow. the pileus is convex, tomentose, brown-olivaceous, then somewhat viscous, sooty. the flesh is yellow, changing to blue when wounded. tubes free, yellow, becoming greenish, their mouths round, vermilion, becoming orange. the stem is stout, vermilion, somewhat orange at the top, reticulate or punctuate. the spores are greenish-gray, × µ. the lurid boletus, though pleasant to the taste, is reputed very poisonous. boletus rubeolarius, pers., having a short, bulbous, scarcely reticulated stem, is regarded as a variety of this species. the red-stemmed boletus, b. erythropus, pers., is also indicated by fries as a variety of luridus. it will be seen on the right in figure . it is smaller than b. luridus, has a brown or reddish-brown pileus and a slender cylindrical stem, not reticulated but dotted with squamules. _peck_, boleti of the u. s. the plant is quite abundant in our woods. found in july and august. _boletus castaneus. bull._ the chestnut boletus. edible. [illustration: figure .--boletus castaneus. one-half natural size.] [illustration: figure .--boletus castaneus.] castaneus, pertaining to a chestnut. the pileus is dry, convex, then expanded, minutely velvety; cinnamon or reddish-brown, from one to three inches in diameter; the flesh white, not changing when bruised, cap frequently turned upward. the tube-surface is white, becoming yellow, tubes small and short, free from the stem. the stem is equal or tapering upward, colored and clothed like the cap, short and not always straight; when young it is spongy in the center but becomes hollow with age. the spores are pale-yellow, oval or broadly elliptical, which is a feature to distinguish the species. i found a number of specimens in james dunlap's woods, near chillicothe, ohio. a great majority seemed to be attacked by the parasitic fungi, sepedonium chrysospermum. the caps are very fine eating. care should be taken to use only young specimens. found in open woods from june to september. _boletus satanus. lenz._ satanic boletus. pileus convex, smooth, somewhat gluey, brownish-yellow or whitish; flesh whitish, becoming reddish or violaceous where wounded. tubes free, yellow, their mouths bright red, becoming orange-colored with age. the stem thick, ovate-ventricose, marked above with red reticulations. _peck_, boleti of u. s. hamilton gibson and captain mcilvaine seem to give his satanic majesty a good reputation, but i would say "be cautious." his looks always deterred me. found in woods from june to september. _strobilomyces. berk._ strobilomyces is from two greek words meaning a pine-cone and a fungus. the hymenophore is even, tubes not easily separable from it, large and equal. it is of a brownish-gray color, its shaggy surface more or less studded with deep-brown or black woolly points, each at the center of a scale-like segment. the tubes beneath are covered at first with a veil which breaks and is often found on the rim of the cap. it is a plant that will quickly attract attention. _strobilomyces strobilaceus. berk._ the cone-like boletus. edible. [illustration: figure .--strobilomyces strobilaceus. two-thirds natural size.] strobilaceus, cone-like. this is especially emphasized from the fact that both the genus and the species are named from the fancied resemblance of the cap to a pine cone. it is ever readily recognized because of this character of the cap. the pileus is convex, rough with dark umber scales drawn into regular cone-like points tipped with dark-brown; margin veiled, flesh grayish-white, turning red when bruised, and finally black. pore-surface grayish-white in young specimens, and usually covered with the veil; tubes attached to the stem, angular, turning red when bruised. the stem is equal or tapering upward, furrowed at the top, covered with a woolly down. spores dark-brown, - × µ. found at londonderry. common in woods. august to september. _boletinus. kalchb._ boletinus is a diminutive of boletus. hymenium composed of broad radiating lamellæ, connected by very numerous and narrow anastomosing branches or partitions, forming large angular pores. tubes somewhat tenacious, not easily separable from the hymenophore and from each other, adnate or subdecurrent, yellowish. _peck._ _boletinus pictus. pk._ the painted boletinus. edible. [illustration: figure .--boletinus pictus.] pictus, painted. this plant seems to delight in damp pine woods, but i have found it only occasionally about chillicothe, under beech trees. it is readily recognized by the red fibrillose tomentum which covers the entire plant when young. as the plant expands the reddish tomentum is broken into scales of the same color, revealing the yellowish color of the pileus beneath. the flesh is compact, yellow, often changing to a dull pinkish or reddish tint where wounded. the tube-surface is at first pale yellow, but becomes darker with age, often changing to pinkish, with a brown tinge where bruised. the stem is solid, equal, and covered with a cottony layer of mycelium-threads like the pileus, though often paler. the spores are ochraceous, - × - µ. the plants are two to four inches broad, and one and a half to three inches high. found from july to october. _boletinus cavipes. kalchb._ hollow-stemmed boletinus. edible. [illustration: figure .--boletinus cavipes.] cavipes is from two latin words meaning a hollow stem. the pileus is broadly convex, rather tough, flexible, soft, subumbonate, fibrillose-scaly, tawny-brown, sometimes tinged with reddish or purplish, flesh yellowish. the tubes are slightly decurrent, at first pale-yellow, then darker and tinged with green, becoming dingy-ochraceous with age. the stem is equal or slightly tapering upward, somewhat fibrillose or floccose, slightly ringed, hollow, tawny-brown or yellowish-brown, yellowish at the top and marked by the decurrent dissepiments of the tubes, white within. veil whitish, partly adhering to the margin of the pileus, soon disappearing. the spores are - × µ. _peck_, in boleti of the u. s. this plant grows in new york and the new england states, under pine and tamarack trees. the caps are convex, covered with a tawny-brown fibrillose tomentum. the stems of those i have seen are hollow from the first. the plants in figure were sent me from massachusetts by mrs. blackford. _boletinus porosus._ (_berk._) _pk._ [illustration: figure .--boletinus porosus. two-thirds natural size. caps nut-brown, yellowish-brown or olivaceous.] these form a small but interesting species, not usually exceeding three and a half inches in diameter nor more than two inches in height. the cap is somewhat fleshy, nut-brown, or yellowish-brown, shading to olivaceous in color in most of the specimens which i have found; when fresh and moist, somewhat sticky and shining. the margins are thin, rather even, and inclined to be involute; the shape of the cap is more or less irregular, in many cases almost kidney-shaped. the stem is laterally attached, tough, and gradually expands into the pileus which it resembles in color; it is markedly reticulated at the top by the decurrent walls of the spore-tubes. the spore-surface is yellow, the tubes arranged in radiating rows, some being more prominent than others, the partitions often assuming the form of gills which branch and are connected by cross partitions of less prominence. the stratum of tubes, while soft, is very tenacious, not separating from the flesh of the pileus. the odor and taste of all the specimens found were pleasant. found in damp woods in july and august. when a sufficient number can be found they make an excellent dish. it is found in abundance about chillicothe. _fistulina. bull._ fistulina means a small pipe; so called because the tubes stand close together and separate easily one from another. the hymenophore is fleshy and hymenium inferior. when first seen springing from a stump or root it looks like a large strawberry. it soon develops into the appearance of a big red tongue. when young the upper side is quite velvety and peach-colored, later it becomes a livid red and loses its velvety appearance. the under surface is flesh-colored and is rough like the surface of a tongue, owing to the fact that the tubes are free from one another. when it is moist it is very viscid, making your hands quite blood-stained in appearance. _fistulina hepatica. fr._ the liver fungus. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate xliii. figure .--fistulina hepatica. beefsteak mushroom.] this is a beautiful plant, quite common where there are chestnut stumps and trees. i have found it on chestnut oak, quite large specimens, too. it is one of my favorite mushrooms; one cannot afford to pass it by. its beautiful color will attract attention at once, and having once eaten it well prepared, one will never pass a chestnut stump without examining it. [illustration: figure .--fistulina hepatica. one-half natural size.] the pileus is fan-shaped or semicircular, red-juicy, flesh when cut somewhat mottled like beet-root and giving forth a very appetizing odor; the cap is moist and somewhat viscid, the color varying from a red (somewhat beefy) to a reddish-brown in older plants; while the spore surface varies from strawberry-pink through a light-and dark-tan to an almost chestnut-brown. in young plants the color is much richer and more vivid than in those of greater maturity. the spore surface resembles nothing so much as a very fine sponge, the spore-tubes being short, crowded, yet distinct. the marked peculiarity of its mode of growth is in the attachment of the stem; somewhat thick, fleshy, and juicy, coming from the side of the pileus like the handle of a fan, it looks as if some one had taken hold of the cap and given it a partial twist to the right or to the left, as may be seen in figure . another peculiarity i have noticed in this species consists of the nerve-like lines, or veinlets, radiating from the stem and streaking the upper surface of the cap. the taste, when raw, is slightly but pleasantly acid. its favorite habitat seems to be injured places on chestnut trees, and about chestnut stumps. it is known as liver fungus, beefsteak fungus, oak-tongue, chestnut-tongue, etc. it is found from july to october. i have found it plentiful about chillicothe on chestnut stumps, and quite generally over the state. i found some very fine specimens on the chestnut oaks, about bowling green, ohio. when properly prepared it is equal to any kind of meat. it is one of our best mushrooms. _fistulina pallida. b. and rav._ [illustration: figure .--fistulina pallida. natural size.] pallida means pale. pileus kidney-shaped, pallid-red, fawn or clay-color, thick at the base and thinning toward the margin, which is often crenate and inflexed; pulverulent, firm, flexible, tough; flesh white. the tubes are long and slender, mouths somewhat enlarged, whitish, the tube surface a pale cream-color and minutely mealy, pores not decurrent but ending with the beginning of the stem. the stem is uniformly attached to the concave margin of the cap; attenuated downward; whitish below, but near the cap it changes to the same tint. the peculiar manner of attachment of the stem will serve to identify the species, which i have found several times near chillicothe. the specimen in the illustration was found on the state farm, and photographed by dr. kellerman. _polyporus. fr._ polyporus is from two greek words meaning many and pores. in this genus the stratum of the pores is not easily separated from the cap. most of the species under this genus are tough and corky. many grow on decayed wood, a few on the ground, but even these are inclined to be tough. very few of those growing on wood have a central stem and many have apparently no stem at all. _polyporus picipes. fr._ the black-footed polyporus. [illustration: figure .--polyporus picipes. two-thirds natural size. note the black stem, which gives name to the species.] picipes is from _pix_, pitch or black, and _pes_, foot. the pileus is fleshy, rigid, coriaceous, tough, even, smooth, depressed either behind or in the center; livid with a chestnut-colored disk. the pores are decurrent, rounded, small, tender, white, finally reddish-gray. the stem is eccentric and lateral, equal, firm; at first velvety, then naked; punctate with black dots, becoming black. the stem at the base is pitch-black, as will be seen in figure . the margin of the cap is very thin and the caps are irregularly funnel-form. this plant is widely distributed over the united states and is quite common about chillicothe. found in damp woods on decayed logs from july to november. when very young and tender it can be eaten. _polyporus umbellatus. fr._ the sun-shade polyporus. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate xliv. figure .--polyporus umbellatus.] umbellatus is from _umbella_, a sun-shade. very much branched, fibrous-fleshy, toughish. the pileoli are very numerous, one-half to one and a half inches broad, sooty, dull-red, united at the base. pores are minute and white. white pileoli have sometimes occurred. _fries._ the tufts, as will be observed from figure , are very dense, and there seems to be no limit to their branching. notice that every cap is depressed or umbilicate. the specimen in figure was collected near mammoth cave, kentucky, by mr. c. g. lloyd, cincinnati, and through his courtesy i have used his print. i have found the plant about chillicothe and sidney, ohio. it is found on decayed roots on the ground, or on stumps. when the caps are fresh they are quite good. may to november. _polyporus frondosus. fr._ the branched polyporus. edible. [illustration: figure .--polyporus frondosus. one-fifth natural size.] frondosus, full of leafy branches. the tufts are from six inches to over a foot broad, very much branched, fibrous-fleshy, toughish. the pileoli are very numerous, one-half to two inches broad, sooty-gray, dimidiate, wrinkled, lobed, intricately recurved. flesh white. stems, growing into each other, white. the pores are rather tender, very small, acute, white, commonly round, but in oblique position, gaping open and torn. _fries._ the specimen in figure was found near chillicothe. when tender it is very good. found on stumps and roots from september till the coming of frost. we are told that in the roman markets this mushroom is frequently sold as an article of food. _polyporus leucomelas. fr._ [illustration: figure .--polyporus leucomelas.] leucomelas is from two greek words, _leucos_, white, and _melas_, black. the pileus is two to four inches broad, fleshy, somewhat fragile, irregularly shaped, silky, sooty-black; flesh soft, reddish when broken. the pores are rather large, unequal, ashy or whitish, becoming black when drying. the stem is one to three inches long, stout, unequal, somewhat tomentose, sooty-black, becoming black internally. the pileus and stem become black in places. the spores are cylindric-fusoid, pale-brown, - × - µ. they are usually found in pine woods. the caps are often deformed and are easily broken. the pores resemble those of a boletus. the plant is quite widely distributed. the one in figure was found in massachusetts by mrs. blackford, and i photographed it after it was partially dry. it is probably the same as p. griseus, p. _polyporus berkeleyi. fr._ berkeley's polyporus. edible. the pileoli are fleshy, tough, becoming hard and corky, many times imbricated, sometimes growing very large, with many in a head; subzonate, finally tomentose; the plant very much branched, alutaceous. the stem is short or entirely wanting, arising from a long and thick caudex. the pore surface is very large, the pores are large and irregular, angular, pale-yellowish. i have seen some very large specimens of this species. the natural size of the specimen in figure is two and one-fourth feet across. when young it is edible, but not equal to p. sulphureus. it is found growing on the ground near trees and stumps, and is a widely distributed plant. [illustration: figure .--polyporus berkeleyi. one-fifth natural size.] [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate xlv. figure .--polyporus berkeleyi. reduced. natural size being ½ feet across.] _polyporus giganteus. fr._ the giant polyporus. edible. giganteus is from _gigas_, a giant. the pileoli are very numerous, imbricated, fleshy, tough, somewhat coriaceous, flaccid, somewhat zoned; color a grayish-brown in young specimens, the deep cream pore surfaces tipping the pileoli, rendering it a very attractive plant; this cream-color is quickly changed to black or deep-brown by touching it. the pores are minute, shallow, round, pallid, at length torn. the stem is branched, connate from a common tuber. this is a large and certainly a very attractive plant, being very often two to three feet across. when young and tender it is edible. found growing on decayed stumps and roots, it is somewhat common in our state. i have found some quite large specimens about chillicothe. it is easily distinguished by its pore surface turning black or dark-brown to the touch. when young and tender it makes a good stew, but it must be well cooked. _polyporus squamosus. fr._ the scaly polyporus. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--polyporus squamosus. natural size.] squamosus means abounding in scales. the pileus is from three to eighteen inches broad, fleshy, fan-shaped, expanded, flattened, somewhat ochraceous, variegated, with scattered, brown, adpressed scales. the stem is eccentric and lateral, blunt, reticulated at apex, blackish at the base. the pores are thin, variable; at first minute, then broad, angular and torn; pallid. spores are white and elliptical, × µ. it is found from massachusetts to iowa, and grows very large. specimens have been reported seven feet in circumference and attaining a weight of pounds. the specimen in figure was found by mr. c. g. lloyd in the woods at red bank, near cincinnati. it is quite a common plant in europe. it is tough, but it is prepared for eating by being cut fine and stewed for a half hour or more. in figure the angular and torn pores are obvious, as well as the scales which give rise to its name. found on trunks and stumps from may to november. _polyporus sulphureus. fr._ the sulphur-colored polyporus. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate xlvi. figure .--polyporus sulphureus.] sulphureus, pertaining to sulphur, so called from the color of the tube-bearing surface. in mature specimens the growth is horizontal, spreading fan-like from the stem, undulating with radiating flutings. the upper surface is salmon, orange, or orange-red; flesh cheesy, light-yellow, the edge being smooth and unevenly thickened with nodule-like prominences. in young specimens the ascending, under yellow surface outwardly exposed. the pore surface is a bright sulphur-yellow, which is more persistent than the color of the cap; pores very minute, short, often formed of inflexed masses. the stem is short, a mere close attachment for the spreading growth. the taste is slightly acid and mucilaginous when raw. the spores are elliptical and white, - × - µ. it grows on decayed logs, on stumps, and on decayed places in living trees. the mycelium of this species will frequently be found in the hearts of trees and remain there for years before the tree is injured sufficiently for the mycelium to come to the surface. it may take months, or a century, to accomplish this. when this plant is young and tender it is a prime favorite with all who know it. it is found from august to november. its favorite host is an oak stump or log. _polyporus flavovirens. b. & rav._ [illustration: figure .--polyporus flavovirens. two-thirds natural size.] flavovirens means yellowish-green or olivaceous. the pileus is quite large, three to six inches broad, convex, expanded funnel-form or repand, fleshy, tomentose, yellowish-green or olivaceous; frequently the pileus is cracked when old; flesh white. the pores are not large, toothed, white or whitish, decurrent upon the stem which is tapering. this plant is very common on the oak hillsides about chillicothe. the plants in figure were found by miss margaret mace on the governor tiffin farm, about twelve miles north of chillicothe, growing in large groups under oak trees. it is edible though often tough. it is found in august and september. it is very abundant in this region. _polyporus heteroclitus. fr._ the bouquet polyporus. edible. [illustration: figure .--polyporus heteroclitus. one-fourth natural size. the pileoli bright orange.] heteroclitus is from two greek words; one of two and to lean, referring to its habit of growth, leaning apparently upon the ground or the base of a tree or stump. it is cæspitose and coriaceous. the pileoli are two and a half inches broad, orange and sessile, expanded on all sides from the radical tubercle, lobed, villous, zoneless. the pores are irregularly shaped and elongated, golden yellow. _fries._ the specimen in figure was found by mr. beyerly at richmond dale, ohio. it was over a foot in diameter and eight inches high, growing in many cæspitose layers, on the ground under an oak tree, from a radical tubercle. the flesh was juicy and tender, breaking easily. the radical tubercle from which it grew was filled with a milky juice. the flesh was somewhat lighter in color than the outside pilei, which extended horizontally from the tubercle. it is a very showy and attractive plant, and as captain mcilvaine remarks, it looks like a "mammoth dahlia" in bloom. when young and tender it is good, but in age it becomes rank. this plant was found july st. it grows in the months of june and july. _polyporus radicatus. schw._ [illustration: figure .--polyporus radicatus. one-third natural size.] radicatus, from the long root the plant has. the pileus is fleshy, quite tough, cushion-shaped, slightly depressed, pale sooty, somewhat downy. the pores are decurrent, quite large, obtuse, equal, white. the stem is very long, often eccentric, tapering downward, sometimes ventricose as in figure , rooting quite deep, black below. it is found on the ground in the woods and in old clearings beside old trees and stumps. the blackish or brown pileus, which is more or less tomentose, with a black stem more or less deformed, will serve to distinguish the species. found from september to november. _polyporus perplexus. pk._ [illustration: figure .--polyporus perplexus. two-thirds natural size.] the pileus is spongy-fleshy, fibrous, sessile, commonly imbricated, and somewhat confluent, irregular, hairy-tomentose to setose-hispid, grayish-tawny, or ferruginous, the margin subacute, sterile, the substance within tawny-ferruginous, somewhat zonate. the pores are two to three lines long, unequal, angular, the dissepiments becoming brownish-ferruginous with age or where bruised. the spores are ferruginous, broadly elliptical, . to . inch long and about . broad. _peck._ this is very abundant on beech logs, growing quite large, massive, imbricated, and confluent, the pileoli being often two to four inches broad. it is very closely related to p. cuticularis and p. hispidus. it can be easily distinguished from p. cuticularis by means of its straight margin, and from p. hispidus by its small size and smaller pores. found from september to november. _polyporus hispidus. fr._ pileus is very large, eight to ten inches broad and three to four inches thick, compact, spongy, fleshy but fibrous, dimidiate, with occasionally a very short stem; generally very hairy, but sometimes smooth; the pileus is often marked with concentric lines which seem to indicate arrested vegetation; brown, blackish, yellowish or reddish brown, below pale-yellow or rich sienna-brown, margin paler. the pores are minute, round, inclined to separate, fringed, paler. the spores are yellowish, apiculate, × µ. often found on living trees, the plant gains entrance to the living stem through the bark, by means of a wound made by some agency, as a bird or a boring insect; soon a mass of mycelium is formed, and from this the fruiting body is produced. _polyporus cuticularis. fr._ pileus is quite thin, spongy, fleshy, then dry; plane, hairy-tomentose, ferruginous, then blackish-brown; margin fibrous, fimbriate, internally loose and parallel, fibrous. the pores are long, quite small, pale, then ochraceous; pores longer than the thickness of the flesh. the spores are yellow or ochraceous, very abundant, × - µ. the hairs on the pileus are three-cleft. this is very frequent in beech woods about chillicothe. found in september and october. _polyporus circinatus. fr._ the round polyporus. edible. circinatus is from _circinus_, a pair of compasses, hence means rounded like a circle. the pileus is three to four inches across, with a double cap, one cap within another, both being compact, thick, round, plane, zoneless, velvety, rusty-yellow to reddish-brown, the flesh being of the same color. the upper cap is pliable, compact, soft, and covered with a soft tomentum, the lower cap, contiguous with the stem, is woody and corky. the pores are decurrent, extending down the stem, entire, rather small, dusky-gray. the stem is short and rather thick, often swollen, covered with a reddish-brown tomentum. this is an odd but handsome species and easily determined because of its double cap. it is said to prefer fir woods, but i have frequently found it in oak woods. it grows on the ground, and when young and fresh the pilei are said to be good. i have never found more than one specimen at a time and never in a condition to eat, though good authorities say it is edible when young and tender. found in september and october. _polyporus adustus. fr._ adustus means scorched, so called from the blackish color of margin. the pileus is often imbricated; fleshy, tough, firm, thin, villous, ash-color; margin straight, blackish. the pores are minute, round, obtuse, whitish, soon ashy-brown. it is abundant everywhere on fallen beech or on beech stumps. it is very close to p. fumosus if it is not identical with it. it is found from august to late fall. _polyporus resinosus._ [illustration: figure .--polyporus resinosus. one-fourth natural size.] pileus from three to six, and frequently eight, inches long; rich-brown, varying from bright cinnamon to red, handsomely marked with delicate pencilings radiating from the axis of growth; the color of the pileus seems to form a binding about the edge of the light-gray pore surface, which is closely punctured with minute elliptical pores. the color of the pore surface readily changes to brown upon slight pressure. the whole plant is full of a brownish juice which exudes freely upon pressure. the plant is shelving and imbricated upon the side of a log, without any apparent stem. taken altogether the polyporus resinosus presents one of the handsomest specimens of fungus growth that one will be likely to find in a long day's tramp. when fresh and growing it has rather a pleasant taste. it is found during october and november, growing on decayed logs, being partial to the beech. its abundance is equal to its beauty. _polyporus lucidus. fr._ [illustration: figure .--polyporus lucidus. one-third natural size.] the pileus is two to three or more inches broad, usually very irregular, brownish-maroon, with a distinct double zone of duller dark-brown and tan. cap glazed especially in the center, wrinkled. the spore surface is a very light grayish-brown in the young plant, changing to almost a tan in older ones, pores labyrinthiform. the stem is irregular, knotted and swollen with protuberances somewhat resembling buds, from which develop the caps which in some cases appear as if stuck on the stem like barnacles on a stick. contrary to most mushrooms the upper surface of the cap and the stem are of nearly the same color, the stem being usually of a more brilliant red. the stem has a distinct root extending into the ground several inches. the whole plant is almost indescribably irregular. it is quite an attractive plant when seen growing among the weeds and beside stumps. the plants in figure i found growing among datura stramonium beside old stumps in a pasture. i have found the same species growing on oak stumps. it is known as ganoderma curtisii, berk., g. pseudo-boletus, merrill. it is found from august till late fall. _polyporus obliquus. pers._ [illustration: figure .--polyporus obliquus. two-thirds natural size.] obliquus means slanting, oblique. this species is widely circumfused, usually hard, quite thick, uneven, pallid, elegant chocolate-brown, then blackish; conversely encircled crested border. the pores are long, very minute, obtuse, slightly angular. it grows on dead branches of iron-wood and wild cherry. the deep chocolate-brown and the oblique form of its pores will serve to identify the species. it grows, with us, in the spring. i gathered this specimen in june. in the fall i visited the same trunk, but found they had begun to decay. it is sometimes called poria obliqua. _polyporus graveolens. fr._ [illustration: figure .--polyporus graveolens.] graveolens means strong scented. corky or woody and extremely hard, very closely imbricated and connate, forming a subglobose polycephalous mass, figure . pileoli innumerable, inflexed and appressed, plicate, brown. pores concealed, very minute, round, pale-brown, the dissepiments thick and obtuse. _morgan._ this is a very interesting plant because of its peculiar mode of growth. it is found in woods or clearings on dead logs or on standing dead trees. in some parts of the state it is quite common. from the illustration, figure , it will be seen that the plant consists of an innumerable number of pileoli forming a subglobose or elongated mass. they are frequently three to six inches in diameter and several inches long. i have seen them very much elongated on standing trees. when it is young and growing it is shiny in appearance and has a reddish and sometimes a purplish tint. the inner substance is ferruginous but covered with a hard brown crust. the pores are brown, and when examined with the glass are seen to be lined with a very fine pubescence. the imbricated form of the pileoli show very plainly in the illustration. _polyporus brumalis. fr._ the winter polyporus. [illustration: figure .--polyporus brumalis.] brumalis is from _bruma_, which means winter; so called because it appears late, in cold weather. the specimens in figure were found in december. the pileus is from one to three inches broad, nearly plane, slightly depressed in the center; somewhat fleshy and tough; dingy-brown, clothed with minute scales, becoming smooth, pallid. the pores are oval, slightly angular, slender, acute, denticulate, white, - × µ. the stem is short, thin, slightly bulbous at the base, hirsute or squamulose, pale, central. it usually occurs singly but frequently you will find several in a group. found on sticks and logs, they are quite hard to detach from their hosts. too tough to eat. it equals polyporus polyporus. (retz) merrill. _polyporus rufescens. fr._ the rufescent polyporus. rufescens, becoming red. the pileus is flesh-colored, spongy, soft, unequal, hairy or woolly. the pores are large, sinuose and torn, white or flesh-colored. the stem is short, irregular, tuberous at the base. spores elliptical, × - µ. rather common about chillicothe on the ground about old stumps. _polyporus arcularius. batsch._ [illustration: figure .--polyporus arcularius. two-thirds natural size, showing dark brown and depressed center; also dark brown stems.] the pileus is dark-brown, minutely scaly, depressed in the center, margin covered with stiff hairs. the tube surface is of a dingy cream color, openings oblong, almost diamond-shaped, resembling the meshes of a net, the meshes being smaller on the margin, shallow, simply marked out at the top of the stem. the stem is dark-brown, minutely scaly, mottled, with a ground work of cream-color; hollow. common in the spring of the year on sticks and decayed wood in fields or in old clearings. it is quite generally distributed. edible but tough. _polyporus elegans. fr._ the pileus is fleshy, soon becoming woody; expanded, even, smooth, pallid. pores are plane, minute, nearly round, pallid, yellowish-white. the stem is eccentric, even, smooth, pallid; base from the first abruptly black. this is quite common on rotten wood in the forests. it resembles p. picipes both in appearance and habitat. _polyporus medulla-panis. fr._ effused, determinate, subundulate, firm, smooth, white, circumference naked, submarginate, wholly composed of middle sized, rather long, entire pores, the whole becoming yellowish in age. i found this species on an elm log along ralston's run. _polyporus albellus. pk._ the pileus is thick, sessile, convex or subungulate, subsolitary, two to four inches broad, one to one and a half thick, fleshy, rather soft; the adnate cuticle rather thin, smooth or sometimes slightly roughened by a slight strigose tomentum, especially toward the margin; whitish, tinged more or less with fuscus; flesh pure white, odor acidulous. the pores are nearly plane, minute, subrotund, about two lines long; white, inclining to yellowish, the dissepiments thin, acute. the spores are minute, cylindrical, curved, white, . to . inch long. _peck._ this species is quite common here and is very widely distributed in the united states. _polyporus epileucus. fr._ this is quite a large and beautiful plant. it apparently grows without a stem, its color being an unequal gray. the pileus is somewhat coriaceous, firm, pulvinate, villous. the pores are round, elongated, obtuse, entire, white. this is not common with us, but i have met it a few times and always on elm logs or stumps. _polyporus betulinus. fr._ the birch polyporus. edible. [illustration: figure .--polyporus betulinus.] betulinus is from _betulina_, birch. the pileus is from four to ten inches across, fleshy, soon corky, ungulate, obtuse, smooth, pale reddish-brown when mature, often mottled, roundish, or somewhat reniform, zoneless, the oblique vertex in the form of an umbo; pellicle thin, separating; flesh white, very thick. the pores are short, round, minute, unequal, separable from the pileus when fresh, but really concrete with it; white or tinged with brown, developing slowly; when mature there are peculiar hair-like scales attached to the pore-surface, making the plant look like a hydnum when viewed from the side. it is found wherever the birch tree grows. when young and fresh it is edible, but with a strong flavor unpleasant to many. in this state the deer eat it. the specimen in figure was found in wisconsin, and photographed by dr. kellerman. this species is the piptoporus suberosus (l.) of merrill. _polyporus cinnabarinus. schw._ cinnabar polyporus. [illustration: figure .--polyporus cinnabarinus. one-third natural size.] cinnabarinus like cinnabar (vermilion). the pileus is dry, more or less spongy, pliant, rather thick, fibrous on top; flesh light or yellowish-red, shelving. the pores are carmine, quite small, round, entire. this species is quite common in the woods about chillicothe. it is easily identified by the beautiful carmine color of the pileus and the pore surface, the latter being a shade darker than the former, as will be seen in figure . the specimens photographed were found in december. they grow on dead logs and branches, commonly on the oak and wild cherry, sometimes on maple. it is called by some authors trametes cinnabarina. _polyporus vulgaris. fr._ common effused polyporus. vulgaris, common. quite broadly effused, very thin, adheres closely to its host; even, white, dry. circumference soon smooth and the whole surface composed of firm, crowded, small, round, nearly equal pores. effused on dead wood, fallen branches, and frequently on moist boards. _polyporus lacteus. fr._ the pileus is white, or whitish, fleshy, somewhat fibrous, fragile, triangular in form, pubescent, azonate, margin somewhat inflexed, acute. the pores are thin, acute, dentate, finally lacerate and labyrinthiform. this species is found in the woods, on beech logs. it is small and thin, not much more than an inch in width but sometimes elongated. steep and gibbous behind, becoming at length smooth and equal. it is not abundant in our woods, but i have found it often. august and september. _polyporus cæsius. schrad._ the pileus is white, with a bluish tinge occasionally upon its surface, soft, tenacious, unequal, silky. the pores are small, unequal, long, flexuous, dentate, lacerate. it is found in woods on partially decayed sticks. i have only occasionally found a specimen in our woods. _polyporus pubescens. schw._ [illustration: figure .--polyporus pubescens. white without and within, pubescent and shiny.] pubescens means downy; so called from the satiny finish of its pileus, which is fleshy, quite tough and corky, soft, convex, subzonate, pubescent and shiny; white without and within; the margin acute, becoming at length yellowish and hard, with a shiny lustre. the pores are short, minute, nearly round and plane. the pileus is from one to two inches in width, laterally confluent and usually very much imbricated. quite plentiful in woods on beech logs. july to november. _polyporus volvatus. pk._ [illustration: figure .--polyporus volvatus. natural size.] volvatus, bearing a volva. this is a most interesting species. the pileus seems to be prolonged, making a volva-like protection of the spore surface. when this volva is ruptured small heaps of spores will often be seen on the volva, having been protected from the wind. the plant is small, somewhat round, and before the volva is ruptured it is very like a puffball; fleshy, smooth, attached by a small point, whitish, slightly tinged with yellow, red or reddish-brown; the cuticle of the pileus enveloping the entire pore-surface, thick and firm. the pores are rather long, small, the mouths yellowish, with a tinge of brown. the spores are elliptical and flesh-colored, . to . inch long and about . broad. this plant has a wide distribution, being found in the new england and eastern states, and the states of the pacific slope. i presume it will be found wherever the spruce tree is a native. the specimens in figure were found near boston and were sent me about the first of may by mrs. blackford. the first package i took, before examining them, to be a new puffball, which they seemed to resemble in their undeveloped state. _polystictus biformis. fr._ [illustration: figure .--polystictus biformis. natural size. frequently covered with green lichen.] biformis means two shapes or appearances; referring to the condition of the pores in the young and the old plant. the pileus is two to three inches wide, projecting from one to three inches, often imbricated so as to cover a large surface; laterally confluent, coriaceous, flexible, tough, subzonate, with innate radiating fibres, the cortex fibrillose, concolorous. the pores at first very large, simple, compound, or confluent, round, elongated, flexuous; the dissepiments dentate, then lacerate, the hymenium finally resolved into teeth. when i first found this plant the hymenium had resolved into teeth, and i supposed that i had found an irpex. it is found in woods on logs and stumps. very common with us. frequently covered with a green lichen. july to november. _polystictus hirsutus. fr._ the bristly polystictus. [illustration: figure .--polystictus hirsutus. natural size.] hirsutus means hairy or bristly. the pileus is corky, coriaceous, convex, then plane, hairy with rigid bristles, zoned with concentric furrows; of one color, whitish, sometimes these zones are quite marked as in figure . the pore surface is at first white, or whitish, becoming dark or brownish in age. the pores are round, the walls rather thick. it is found on logs and stumps in the woods. it is a very common plant and widely distributed. _polystictus versicolor. fr._ the common zoned polystictus. [illustration: figure .--polystictus versicolor. one-half natural size.] versicolor means varying colors. the pileus is coriaceous, thin, rigid, plane, depressed behind; quite velvety, nearly even and shining, variegated with colored zones, sometimes entirely white or grayish-white, not unfrequently the whole surface is villous or woolly, and the zones mere depressions. the pores are minute, round, acute, lacerated, white or cream-color. it is very common, as well as very variable in form and color. it is frequently found on logs and is then densely imbricated. on our hillsides it frequently grows on a small bush as in figure . it is one of the most beautiful plants in the woods. _polyporus gilvus. schw._ gilvus means pale-yellow or deep-reddish flesh-color. the pileus is corky, woody, hard, effuso-reflexed, imbricate, concrescent, subtomentose, then scabrous, uneven, reddish-yellow, then subferruginous, the margin acute. the pores are minute, round, entire, brownish-ferruginous. _morgan._ it is very abundant throughout the state, being found on all kinds of logs and stumps. _polystictus cinnamoneus. jacq._ [illustration: figure .--polystictus cinnamoneus.] the pileus is an inch and a half, or less, broad, coriaceous, slightly depressed in the center; rather rough on the surface, but with a beautiful satiny lustre, and more or less zoned; caps often growing together, but with separate stems; shining, a light cinnamon-brown. the spores are rather large, angular, torn with age; cinnamon-brown, growing darker in older plants. the stem is one to two inches long, equal, or slightly tapering upward, cinnamon-brown, hollow or stuffed, tough, frequently sending forth branches from the side and base of the stem. this is quite a beautiful plant, growing usually in patches of moss. the caps have quite a glossy cinnamon-brown surface, which will attract the attention of any one. they are very small and easily overlooked. found in august and september. this plant is called p. subsericeus by dr. peck. _polystictus perennis. fr._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate xlvii. figure .--polystictus perennis.] the pileus is thin, pliant when fresh but somewhat brittle when dry. it is minutely velvety on the upper surface, reddish-brown or cinnamon in color; expanded or umbilicate to nearly funnel-shaped. the surface is beautifully marked by radiations and fine concentric zones. the stem is also velvety. the spore-tubes are minute, the walls thin and acute, and the mouths angular, and at last more or less torn. the margin of the cap is finely fimbriate, but in old specimens those hairs are apt to become rubbed off. _atkinson._ i found specimens by the roadside near lone tree hill, near chillicothe. it is the only place in which i have found this plant. i have found polystictus subsericeus, or, as prof. atkinson calls it, p. cinnamomeus, in a number of localities. _polystictus pergamenus. fr._ [illustration: figure .--polystictus pergamenus.] pergamenus means parchment. the pileus is coriaceous, thin, effused, reflexed, villous, zoned, cinereous-white, with colored zone; pliant when fresh. the pores are unequal, torn, violaceous, then pallid. it is very common here on beech, maple, and wild cherry. the pores become torn so that they resemble the teeth of the hydnum. this is one of the most common fungi in our woods. the photograph is by prof. j. d. smith, of akron, o. _fomes leucophæus. mont._ this has been called by many authors in america fomes applanatus or polyporus applanatus. it is very common in this country but very rare in europe, while fomes applanatus, which is common in europe, is very scarce in the united states. in general appearance they are much alike, the applanatus having a softer tissue and echinulate spores, but our common species, leucophæus, has smooth spores. the pileus is expanded, tuberculose, obsoletely zoned, pulverulent, or smooth; cinnamon, becoming whitish; cuticle crustaceous, rigid, at length fragile, very soft within; loosely floccose, margin tumid; white, then cinnamon. the pores are very small, slightly ferruginous, orifice whitish, brownish when bruised. the spore surface when fresh is soft and white. this attractive plant is very common in our woods and furnishes an excellent stencil surface for drawing. found all the year round. _fomes fomentarius. fr._ the bracket fomes. this species is very common in our woods. the brackets resemble a horse's hoof in shape. they are smoky, gray, and of various shades of brown. the upper surface of the bracket is quite strongly zoned and furrowed, so as to show each year's growth. the margin is thick and blunt, and the tube surface is concave; the openings of the tubes quite large, so that they can be readily seen by the naked eye. the tube surface is reddish-brown when mature. the inside was formerly used in making tinder-sticks, which were made by rolling the fungus wood until it was perfectly flexible and then dipping it into saltpetre. _fomes rimosus. berkeley._ cracked fomes. [illustration: figure .--fomes rimosus.] rimosus means cracked. the fine checks in the pileus are clearly seen in the halftone. the pileus is pulvinate-ungulate, much dilated, deeply sulcate; cinnamon, then brown or blackish; very much cracked or rimose. it is very hard, fibrous, tawny-ferruginous; the margin broad, pruinate-velvety, rather acute. the pores are minute, indistinctly stratified, tawny-ferruginous, the mouths rhubarb-color. _morgan._ this plant is very common on the locust trees about chillicothe. i have never found it on other wood. _fomes pinicola. (swartz.) fr._ [illustration: figure .--fomes pinicola.] pinicola means dwelling on pine. it is found on dead pine, spruce, balsam, and other conifers. it resembles fomes leucophæus but is somewhat stouter and does not have as hard and firm a crust. the young growth is at the margin, and is whitish or tinged with yellow, while the old zones are reddish. the tube surface is whitish-yellow or yellowish. this is frequently called polyporus pinicolus. (swartz.) fr. _fomes igniarius. fr._ [illustration: figure .--fomes igniarius.] this is rather a common species in our state; black or brownish-black in color, somewhat triangular in shape, and frequently hoof-shaped. the zones indicating the yearly growth are plainly marked, and the tubes are quite long and of a dark brown color. their growth is rather slow, and it requires years to produce some of the moderate sized specimens. prof. atkinson of cornell university found a specimen which he believed to be over years old. this is called by many authors polyporus igniarius (l.), fr. murrill calls it pyropolyporus igniarius. this plant is widely distributed over the united states, and is met frequently in every wood in ohio. _fomes fraxinophilus. fr._ [illustration: figure .--fomes fraxinophilus.] fraxinophilus means ash-loving; rather common in this country, but does not grow in europe. the pileus is between corky and woody, smooth, somewhat flattened, at first zoneless; white when young, then reddish-brown, white around the margin; at first even, then concentrically sulcate, pale within. the tubes are short, pores minute, rusty-red but covered from the first with a white pubescence and continuous with the margin; the spores nearly round, - µ. the specimens in figure were found in haynes' hollow on a living ash, growing at intervals of five or six feet, one above another, to a height of thirty feet. _trametes. fr._ in case of the genus trametes the hymenophorum descends into the trama of the pores without any change, and is permanently concrete with the pileus. the pores are entire. there are, however, a few of the polypori which are quite thin that have the trama of the same structure with the hymenophorum. these have been separated by fries and have been called _polystictus_. they are distinguished by the fact that the pores develop from the center out and are perpendicular to the fibrillose stratum above the hymenophorum while in the genus _trametes_ the hymenophorum is not distant from the rest of the pileus. _trametes rubescens. fr._ [illustration: figure .--trametes rubescens.] [illustration: figure .--trametes rubescens.] this is one of the neatest plants of this structure in our woods. it grows on the small branches and many times covers them quite well. it is resupinate, the cap being beautifully zoned as you see in figure . frequently they grow from the side of a small tree that has fallen to the ground and in this case they are shelving. the pore surface is usually reddish or flesh-color, the pores being long and irregular and inclined to be labyrinthiform in older specimens as will be seen in figure . the whole plant is reddish or pale flesh-color. no one will fail to recognize it from these cuts. _trametes scutellata. schw._ scutellata means shield-bearing. it is frequently quite small, an inch or less; coriaceous, dimidiate, orbiculate or ungulate, fixed by the apex; the pilei quite hard: white, then brownish and blackish, becoming rugged and uneven, with white margin; hymenium disk-shaped, concave, white-pulverulent becoming dark; pores minute, long, with thick obtuse dissepiments. this is found on fence posts. _trametes ohiensis. berk._ the pilei are pulvinate, narrow, zoned, often laterally confluent; ochraceous-white, tomentose, then smooth, laccate. this plant resembles t. scutellata in many points, both in habit and in form. _trametes suaveolens. (l.) fr._ soft at first, pulvinate, white, villous, zoneless; pores rotund, rather large, obtuse, white, then darker; anise-scented. found on willows. _merulius. fr._ merulius means a blackbird; from the color of the fungus. hymenophore covered with the soft waxy hymenium, which is incompletely porus, or arranged in reticulate, sinuous, dentate folds. this genus grows on wood, at first resupinate, expanded; the hymenophore springing from a mucous mycelium. _merulius rubellus. pk._ [illustration: figure .--merulius rubellus. natural size.] rubellus is the diminutive of _ruber_, reddish. the pileus grows in tufts, sessile, confluent and imbricated, repand, thin, convex, soft, dimidiate, quite tenacious; tomentose, evenly red, margin mostly undulately inflexed, growing pale in age. hymenium whitish or reddish, folds much branched, forming anastomosing pores. the spores are elliptical, hyaline, minute, - × . - µ. the pileus is two to three inches long and an inch and a half broad. it is found very frequently on decayed beech and sugar trees and i have found it growing on a live oak. the specimens in figure were collected near columbus and photographed by dr. kellerman. it is probably the same as m. incarnati, schw. _merulius tremellosus. schrad._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--merulius tremellosus] tremellosus, trembling. resupinate; margin becoming free and more or less reflexed, usually radiately-toothed, fleshy, tremelloid, tomentose, white; hymenium variously wrinkled and porus, whitish and subtranslucent-looking, becoming tinged with brown in the center. the spores are cylindrical, curved, about × µ. from one to three inches across, remaining pale when growing in dark places. the margin is sometimes tinged with a rose-color, radiating when it is well developed. _massee._ this plant grows in woods on wood and is quite common in our woods--both the rose-colored and the translucent-brown. captain mcilvaine calls merulius tremellosus and m. rubellus emergency species. he says they are rather tasteless, tough, slightly woody in flavor. they are found in october and november. _merulius corium. fr._ resupinate, effused, soft, papery, circumference at length free, reflexed, white, villous below. hymenium netted, porus, pallid, tan-color. found on decaying-branches. quite common. _merulius lacrymans. fr._ resupinate, fleshy, spongy, moist, tender, at first very light, cottony and white; when the veins appear they are of a fine yellow, orange or reddish-brown, forming irregular folds, so arranged to have the appearance of pores (but never anything like tubes), distilling when perfect drops of water which give rise to the specific name "weeping." dr. charles w. hoyt of chillicothe, brought to my office two or three plants of this species that had grown on the under side of the floor in his wash-house. when he took up the floor the workmen discovered a number of pendant processes, some oval, some cone-shaped. some were eight inches long, very white and beautiful but clearly illustrating the weeping process. the doctor called them white rats suspended by their tails. _dædalea. pers._ dædalea is used with reference to the labyrinthiform pores; so named after dædalos, the builder of the labyrinth of crete. the hymenophore descends into the trama without any change, pores firm, when fully grown sinuous and labyrinthiform, lacerated, and toothed. the habits of dædalea are very much the same as trametes, but they are inodorous. care should be taken not to confound them with the species of polyporus that have elongated curved pores. _dædalea ambigua. berk._ [illustration: figure .--dædalea ambigua. one-third natural size, showing upper surface.] [illustration: figure .--dædalea ambigua. one-third natural size, showing the pore surface.] the pileus is white, corky, horizontal, explanate, reniform, subsessile, azonate, finely pubescent, becoming smooth. pores from round to linear and labyrinthiform, the dissepiments always obtuse and never lamellate. it is a very common growth in ohio, found on old logs of the sugar maple. you will see the beginning of the growth in the spring as a round white nodule which develops slowly. if the same plant is observed in the summer it will be found to be gibbous or convex in form. it finishes its growth in the fall when it has become explanate and horizontal, depressed above and with a thin margin. when fresh and growing it is of a rich cream-color and has a soft and velvety touch and a pleasant fragrance. in figure , showing the surface of the cap, the growth of the plant shows in the form of the zones. figure shows the form of the dissepiments. in younger specimens these are frequently round, much like a polyporus. there is one locality in poke hollow where the maple logs are white with this species, appearing, in the distance, to be oyster mushrooms. _dædalea quercina. pk._ the oak dÆdalea. [illustration: figure .--dædalea quercina.] the pileus is a pallid wood color, corky, rugulose, uneven, without zones, becoming smooth; of the same color within as without; the margin in full-grown specimens thin, but in imperfectly developed specimens swollen and blunt. the pores are at first round, then broken into contorted or gill-like labyrinthiform sinuses, with obtuse edges of the same color as the pileus, sometimes with a slight shade of pink. they grow to be very large, from six to eight inches broad, being found on oak stumps and logs, though not as common in ohio as d. ambigua. the specimen in figure were found in massachusetts by mrs. blackford and photographed here. _dædalea unicolor. fr._ villose-strigose, cinereous with concolorous zones; hymenium with flexuous, winding, intricate, acute dissepiments, at length torn and toothed. the pores are whitish cinereous, sometimes fuscous; variable in thickness, color, and character of hymenium; sometimes with white margin; often imbricated and fuliginous when moist. widely distributed over the states and found on nearly all deciduous trees. _dædalea confragosa. boton._ the willow dÆdalea. [illustration: figure .--dædalea confragosa.] confragosa means broken, rough. the pileus is rather convex, corky, rough, slightly zonate, reddish-brown, unicolorous, somewhat of a rust-red within. the pores are frequently round, like those of the polyporus, but sometimes they are elongated into gills like the lenzites; reddish-brown. i have seen quite old specimens that were very difficult to distinguish from some of the forms of lenzites. the young plants resemble very closely trametes rubescens. it grows on cratægus, willow and sometimes on other trees, and is widely distributed. the specimen in figure was found in massachusetts by mrs. blackford, and photographed in my study. _favolus. fr._ favolus is a diminutive of _favus_, honey-comb. the hymenium is alveolate, radiating, formed of the densely irregularly uniting gills; elongated, diamond-shaped. spores white. semicircular in outline, somewhat stipitate. _favolus canadensis. klotsch._ [illustration: figure .--favolus canadensis.] the pileus is fleshy, tough, thin, kidney-form, fibrillose, scaly, tawny, becoming pale and smooth. the pores or alveoli are angular elongated, white at first, then straw-color. the stem is eccentric, lateral, very short or lacking altogether. this plant is very common around chillicothe on fallen branches in the woods, especially on hickory. found from september to frost. not poisonous but too tough to eat. i do not believe there is any difference between f. canadensis and favolus europeus. i notice that our plant assumes different colors in different stages of its growth, and the form of the pores also changes. _cyclomyces. kunz & fr._ cyclomyces is from two greek words, meaning a circle and fungus. this genus is very distinct from other tube-bearing genera. the pileus is fleshy, leathery or membranaceous, and usually cushion-formed. upon the lower surface are the plate-like bodies resembling the gills of agarics but which are composed of minute pores. these pore bodies are arranged in concentric circles around the stem. _cyclomyces greenii. berk._ [illustration: figure .--cyclomyces greenii] [illustration: figure .--cyclomyces greenii. old specimens.] the pileus is two to three inches broad, globose at first, convex, sometimes undulate, somewhat zoned, tomentose, dry, cushion-formed, cinnamon-brown, rather showy. the gills are in concentric circles around the stem, growing larger and larger as they reach the margin of the cap. in the young plant the gills are divided into long divisions but in the older plant these division lines disappear as will be seen in figure . the edges of the gills are white at first, as will be seen in figure , but finally becoming cinnamon-brown. the stem is central, tapering upward, quite large and swollen at times very much like hydnum spongiosipes; the color is the same as the pileus. this is a very interesting plant and quite rare in ohio, however, i found several plants in the fall of , on ralston's run. in the same locality i found boletus badius, and when i first saw c. greenii i came near mistaking it for the same plant and so neglecting it, the caps being at first glance so much alike. _gloeoporus. mont._ gloeoporus is from two greek words, meaning gluten and pore. the plants of this genus resemble the polyporus and are frequently placed under that genus. _gloeoporus conchoides. mont._ conchoides means like a shell. the pileus is leathery or woody, at first fleshy, soft, effused, with upper margin reflexed; thin, silky, whitish, with edge of the margin often reddish. it has a trembling, gelatinous, spore-bearing surface, often somewhat elastic. the pores are short, very small, round, cinnamon-brown. there are several synonyms. polyporus dichrous, fr., and p. nigropurpurascens, schw. montgomery places it in the above genus because of its gelatinous hymenium. chapter viii. hydnaceae--fungi with teeth. there is, perhaps, no family in mycology that has a greater variety in form, size, and consistency than this. some species are very large, some are small, some fleshy, and some are corky or woody. the fruiting surface is the special characteristic marking the family. this surface is covered with spines or teeth which nearly always point to the earth. many of the hydnaceæ are shelving, growing on trees or logs; some grow on the ground on central, but usually eccentric, stems. the genera of hydnaceæ are distinguished by the size, shape, and attachment of the teeth. the following genera are included: hydnum--spines discrete at the base. irpex--resupinate; with gill-like teeth concrete with the pileus. mucronella--plants with teeth only and no basal membrane. radulum--hymenium with thick, blunt, irregular spines. sistotrema--fleshy plants with caps and flattened teeth, on ground. phlebia--plants spread over the host with crowded folds or wrinkles. grandinia--covered with granules, more or less smooth, and excavated. odontium--covered with crested granules. _hydnum. linn._ hydnum is from a greek word meaning an eatable fungus. the genus is characterized by awl-shaped spines which are distant at the base. these spines are at first papilliform, then elongated and round. they form the fruiting surface and take the place of the gills in the family agaricaceæ and of the pores in the family of polyporaceæ. the spines are simple or in some cases the tips are more or less branched. this is the greatest genus in the family and it includes many important edible species. it may be divided into two groups: one, those species having a cap and a central or lateral stem; the other, the species growing with or without a distinct cap, in large imbricated masses. some imitate coral in structure and some seem to be a mass of spines. many of these plants grow to be very large and massive, frequently weighing over ten pounds. _hydnum repandum. linn._ the spreading hydnum. edible. [illustration: figure .--hydnum repandum. two-thirds natural size.] repandum, bent backward, referring to the position of the stem and the cap. the pileus is two to four inches broad, generally irregular, with the stem eccentric; fleshy, brittle, convex or nearly plane, compact, more or less repand, nearly smooth; color varying from a pale buff--the typical hue--to a distinct brick-red; flesh creamy-white, inclining to turn brown when bruised; taste slightly aromatic, margin often wavy. the spines are beneath the cap, one-quarter to one-third of an inch long, irregular, entire, pointed, rather easily detached, leaving small cavities in the fleshy cap, soft, creamy, becoming darker in older specimens. the stem is short, thick, solid in young specimens, hollow in older specimens; paler than the pileus, rather rough, often set eccentrically into the cap; one to three inches long, sometimes thickened at the base, sometimes at the top. the spores are globose or a broad oval, with a small papilla at one end. the usual color of the cap is buff, sometimes very pale, almost white. the color and smoothness of the cap have given rise to the name of "doe-skin mushroom." i found this plant occasionally in the woods about salem, ohio. it is very variable in size and color, and is quite fragile, growing alone or in clusters. it is one of our best mushrooms if properly cooked, and may be dried and kept for winter use. found in woods and open places from july to october, sometimes earlier. specimens in figure were found in poke hollow. _hydnum imbricatum. linn._ the imbricated hydnum. edible. imbricatum is from _imbrex_, a tile, referring to the surface of the cap being torn into triangular scales, seeming to overlap one another like shingles on a roof. the pileus is fleshy, plane, slightly depressed, tessellated scaly, downy, not zoned, umber in color or brownish as if scorched, flesh dingy-white, taste slightly bitter when raw, margin round. the spines are decurrent, entire, numerous, short, ashy-white, generally equal in length. the stem is firm, short, thick, even, whitish. the spores are pale yellow-brown, rough. the bitter taste entirely leaves the plant when well cooked. it seems to delight in pine or chestnut woods. i found it in emmanuel thomas' woods, east of salem, ohio. it is found from september to november. _hydnum erinaceum. bull._ the hedgehog hydnum. edible. [illustration: plate xlviii. figure .--hydnum erinaceum. two-thirds natural size. the plant is entirely white when fresh.] erinaceum, a hedgehog. two to eight inches or more across. tufts pendulous. white and yellowish-white becoming yellowish-brown; fleshy, elastic, tough, sometimes emarginate (broadly attached as if tuft were cut in two or sliced off where attached), a mass of latticed branches and fibrils. spines one and a half inches to four inches long, crowded, straight, equal, pendulous. the stem is sometimes rudimentary. the spores are subglobose, white, plain, - µ. _peck_, n. y. report. the spines when just starting are like small papillæ, as will be seen in figure . figure represents a very fine specimen found on the end of a beech log, on the huntington hills, near chillicothe. it made a meal for three families. i have found several basketfuls of this species on this same log, within the past few years. i have also found on the same log large specimens of hydnum corralloides. the photograph at the beginning of the book represents the largest specimen i ever saw of this species. it measured eighteen inches one way and thirteen the other, and was found on a maple tree on top of mount logan. it grew from a central stem, while the one in figure grew from a crack in a log, apparently without a stem. plate i, figure was photographed after it was dried. the specimen can be seen in the lloyd library in cincinnati. found from july to october. [illustration: figure .--hydnum erinaceum. young state.] _hydnum caput-ursi. fr._ the bear's head hydnum. edible. [illustration: figure .--hydnum caput-ursi.] caput-ursi means the head of a bear. this is a very beautiful plant but not as common as some other species of hydnum. it grows in very large pendulous tufts, as figure will indicate. it is found frequently on standing oak and maple trees, sometimes quite high up in the trees. it is more frequently found on logs and stumps, as are its kindred species. the plant arises out of the wood by a single stout stem which branches into many divisions, all of which are covered by long pendant spines. when it grows on top of a log or stump the spines are frequently erect. it is white, becoming in age yellow and brownish. it has a wide distribution through the states. as an esculent it is fine. the specimen in figure was found near akron, ohio, and was photographed by mr. g. d. smith. it is found from july to october. _hydnum caput-medusæ. bull._ the medusa's head hydnum. edible. [illustration: figure .--hydnum caput-medusæ. one-third natural size.] caput-medusæ, head of medusa. this is a very striking plant when seen in the woods. the tufts are pendulous. the long wavy spines resemble the wavy locks of medusa, hence the name. the long soft spines cover the entire surface of the fungus, which is divided into fleshy branches or divisions, each terminating in a crown of shorter drooping teeth. the color at first is white, changing in age to a buff or a dark cream, which distinguishes it from h. caput-ursi. the taste is sweet and aromatic, sometimes slightly pungent. the stem is short and concealed beneath the growth. i found this plant growing on a hickory log, on lee's hill, near chillicothe, from which came the specimen in figure . i have also found it on elm and beech. found from july to october. it is both attractive and palatable. _hydnum coralloides. scop._ the coral-like hydnum. edible. [illustration: figure .--hydnum coralloides. one-fourth natural size. entire plant white.] this species grows in large, beautiful tufts on decaying logs, in damp woods. it grows from a common stem, dividing into many branches and then sub-dividing into many long and coral-like shoots, composed wholly of attenuated interlacing branches tapering to a point. the spines grow from one side of the flattened branches. it only needs to be seen once to be recognized as a coral-like mushroom. it is pure white at first, becoming creamy or dingy-white with age. it seems to delight in damp, hilly places, yet i found it to be abundant at sidney, and to some extent about bowling green, ohio, where it was very level. it is plentiful around chillicothe. one hickory log, from which the specimen in the figure was taken, furnished me several basketfuls of this plant during three seasons, but at the end of the third season the log crumbled away, mycelium having literally consumed it. it is one of the most beautiful fungi that dame nature has been able to fashion. it is said that elias fries, when a mere boy, was so impressed with the sight of this beautiful fungus, which grew abundantly in his native woods in sweden, that he resolved when he grew up to pursue the study of mycology, which he did; and became one of the greatest authorities of the world in that part of botany. in fact, he laid the foundation for the study of basidiomycetes, and this beautiful little coral-like fungus was his inspiration. it is found principally on beech, maple and hickory in damp woods, from july to frost. i have eaten it for years and esteem it among the best. _hydnum septentrionale. fr._ the northern hydnum. [illustration: plate xlix. figure .--hydnum septentrionale. grew from a small opening in a living beech tree.] septentrionale, northern. this is a very large, fleshy, fibrous plant, growing usually upon logs and stumps. there are many pilei growing one above the other, plane, margin straight, whole. the spines are crowded, slender and equal. i have found a number of specimens about chillicothe that would weigh from eight to ten pounds each. the plant is too woody to eat. besides, it seems to have but little flavor. i have always found it on beech logs, from september to october. a very large plant grows every year on a living beech tree on cemetery hill. _hydnum spongiosipes. pk._ [illustration: figure .--hydnum spongiosipes. one-third natural size.] spongiosipes means a sponge-like foot. pileus convex, soft, spongy-tomentose, but tough in texture, rusty-brown, the lower stratum firmer and more fibrous, but concolorous. the spines are slender, one to two lines long, rusty-brown, becoming darker with age. the stem is hard and corky within, externally spongy-tomentose; colored like the pileus, the central substance often transversely zoned, especially near the top. spores globose, nodulose, purplish-brown, - broad. pileus one and a half to four inches broad. stem one and a half to three inches long, and four to eight lines thick. _peck_, th rep. it is found in the woods, quite plentifully, about chillicothe. i referred it to h. ferrugineum for a long time, but not being satisfied, sent some specimens to dr. peck, who classified it as h. spongiosipes. it is edible but very tough. found from july to october. _hydnum zonatum. batsch._ the zoned hydnum. [illustration: figure .--hydnum zonatum.] zonatum, zoned. ferruginous; pileus equally coriaceous, thin, expanded, subinfundibuliform, zoned, becoming smooth; tough, almost leathery in texture, having a surface of beautiful brown, silky lustre, and with radiating striæ; margin paler; sterile. the stem is slender, nearly equal, floccose, bulbous at the base. the spines are slender, pallid, then of the same color as the pileus, equal. the spores are rough, globose, pale, µ. the spore-bearing spines are shown in the upper plants in figure . two of them show coalesced caps, though the stems are separate. this is the case with h. scrobiculatum and h. spongiosipes. the plants in figure were collected by the roadside in woods on the state farm, near lancaster, and photographed by dr. kellerman. _hydnum scrobiculatum. fr._ [illustration: figure .--hydnum scrobiculatum. two-thirds natural-size.] scrobiculatum means marked with a ditch or trench; so called from the rough condition of the cap. the pileus is from one to three inches broad, corky, convex, then plane, sometimes slightly depressed; tough in texture, rusty-brown; the surface of the cap usually quite rough, marked with ridges or trenches, flesh ferruginous. the spines are short, rusty-brown, becoming dark with age. the stem is firm, one to two inches long, unequal, rusty-brown, often covered with a dense tomentum. this species is very plentiful in our woods, among the leaves under beech trees. they grow in lines for some distance, the caps so close together that they are very frequently confluent. i found the plant at salem, and in several other localities in the state, although i have never seen a description of it. any one will be able to recognize it from figure . it grows in the woods in august and september. _hydnum blackfordæ. pk._ the pileus is fleshy, convex, glabrous, grayish or greenish-gray, flesh whitish with reddish stains, slowly becoming darker on exposure; aculei subulate, - mm. long, yellowish-gray, becoming brown with age or drying; stem equal or stuffed, becoming hollow in drying; glabrous, colored like the pileus; spores brown, globose, verrucose, - µ broad. the pileus is . - cm. broad; stem . - cm. long, - mm. thick. mossy ground in low springy places in damp mixed woods. august. _peck._ this species was found at ellis, mass., and was sent to me through courtesy of the collector, mrs. e. b. blackford, boston, for whom it was named. _hydnum fennicum. karst._ [illustration: figure .--hydnum fennicum. natural size, showing the teeth.] [illustration: figure .--hydnum fennicum. natural size, showing the scaly cap.] pileus fleshy, fragile, unequal; at first scaly, at length breaking up; reddish-brick color becoming darker; margin undulately lobed, two to four inches broad. flesh white. the teeth decurrent, equal, pointed, from white to dusky, about mm. long. the stem is sufficiently stout, unequal below, attenuated, flexuous or curved, smooth, of the same color as the cap, base acute, white tomentum outside, inside light pale-blue, or dark-gray. the spores are ellipso-spheroidical or subspheroidical, rough, dusky, - µ long, - µ broad. the plants in figures and were found in haynes' hollow. the plant is quite bitter and no amount of cooking will make it edible. found in woods from august to september. _hydnum adustum. fr._ [illustration: figure .--hydnum adustum. natural size.] adustum means scorched, burned. the pileus is two to three inches broad, yellowish-white, blackish around the margin, coriaceous, slightly zoned; plane at first, then slightly depressed; tomentose, thin; frequently a plant will be found growing on the top of another plant. the spines are at first white, adnate, short, turning flesh-color and when dried almost black. the stem is short, solid, tapering upward. the plant is found growing in the woods on trunks and sticks after a rain in july, august, and september. it is not as plentiful as hydnum spongiosipes and h. scrobiculatum. it is an attractive plant when seen in the woods. _hydnum ochraceum. p._ ochrey hydnum. small, at first entirely resupinate, gradually reflexed, and somewhat repand, at first sparingly clothed with dirty-white down, at length rugose; one to three inches broad. the spines are short, entire, becoming pale. _fries._ it is occasionally found on decayed sticks in the woods. _hydnum pulcherrimum. b. & c._ most beautiful hydnum. [illustration: figure .--hydnum pulcherrimum. showing the under side of one of the pileoli.] pulcherrimum is the superlative of _pulcher_, beautiful. the pileus is fleshy, somewhat fibrous, alutaceus, hirsute; the margin thin, entire, incurved. the aculei short, crowded, equal. it is found on beech wood, frequently imbricated and laterally confluent; a single pileus two to five inches in breadth and projecting two to four inches. the spines are rather short, not exceeding a quarter of an inch. the entire plant is quite fibrous and has a hirsute surface. the color varies from whitish to alutaceous and yellowish. it is not common with us. figure represents one of the pilei showing the spines. _hydnum graveolens. del._ fragrant hydnum. graveolens means sweet-scented. the pileus is coriaceous, thin, soft, not zoned, rugose, dark-brown, brown within, margin becoming whitish. the stem is slender and the spines are decurrent. the spines are short, gray. the whole plant smells of melilot; even after it has been dried and kept for years it does not lose this scent. i found two specimens in haynes's hollow. _irpex. fr._ irpex, a harrow, so called from a fancied resemblance of its teeth to the teeth of a harrow. it grows on wood; toothed from the first, the teeth are connected at the base, firm, somewhat coriaceous, concrete with the pileus, arranged in rows or like net-work. irpex differs from hydnum in having the spines connected at the base and more blunt. _irpex carneus. fr._ this plant, as its specific name indicates, resembles the color of flesh. reddish, effused, one to three inches long, cartilaginous-gelatinous, membranaceous, adnate. teeth obtuse and awl-shaped, entire, united at the base. _fries._ found on the tulip-tree, hickory, and elm. september and october. _irpex lacteus. fr._ growing on wood, membranaceous, clothed with stiff hair, more or less furrowed, milk-white, as its specific name indicates. the spines are compressed, radiate, margin porus. found on hickory and beech logs and stumps. _irpex tulipifera. schw._ [illustration: figure .--irpex tulipifera.] coriaceous-membranaceous, effused; hymenium inferior, at first toothed, teeth springing from a porus base, somewhat coriaceous, entirely concrete with the pileus, netted and connected at the base, white or whitish, turning yellowish with age. this plant is very abundant here on fallen tulip trees. i have seen entire tree tops and trunks covered with this plant. the branches after they have been penetrated with the mycelial threads become very light and brittle. _phlebia. fr._ lignatile, resupinate, hymenium soft and waxy, covered with folds or wrinkles, edges entire or corrugated. _phlebia radiata. fr._ [illustration: figure .--phlebia radiata.] somewhat round, then dilated, confluent, fleshy and membranaceous, reddish or flesh-red, the circumference peculiarly radiately marked. the folds in rows radiating from the center. the spores are cylindric-oblong, curved, - × - . µ. this is quite common on beech bark in the woods. its bright color and mode of growth will attract attention. _grandinia. fr._ lignatile, effused, waxy, granulated, granules globular, entire, permanent. _grandinia granulosa. fr._ effused, rather thin, waxy, somewhat ochraceous, circumference determinate, granules globular, equal, crowded. found on decayed wood. quite common in our woods. chapter ix. thelephoraceae. thelephoraceæ is from two greek words, a teat and to bear. the hymenium is even, coriaceous, or waxy, costate, or papillose. there are a number of genera under this family but i am acquainted with only the genus craterellus. _craterellus. fr._ craterellus means a small bowl. hymenium waxy-membranaceous, distinct but adnate to the hymenophore, inferior, continuous, smooth, even or wrinkled. spores white. _fries._ _craterellus cantharellus._ (_schw._) _fr._ yellow craterellus. edible. [illustration: figure .--craterellus cantharellus. caps and stems yellow.] cantharellus is a diminutive from a greek word meaning a sort of drinking-cup. the pileus is one to three inches broad, convex, often becoming depressed and funnel-shaped, glabrous, yellowish, or pinkish. flesh white, tough, elastic. hymenium slightly wrinkled, yellow or faint salmon color. the stem is one to three inches high, tapering downward, smooth, solid, yellow. the spores are yellowish or salmon color when caught on white paper, . - × - µ. _peck._ this plant resembles cantharellus cibarius very closely. the color, form of growth, and the odor are very similar to the latter. it may be readily distinguished from c. cibarius by the absence of folds on the under or fruiting surface. the caps are often large and wavy, resembling yellow cauliflower. it is quite abundant about chillicothe during the months of july and august. i have frequently gathered bushels of it for my mushroom-friends. it will be easily recognized from figure , bearing in mind that the caps and stems are yellow. _craterellus cornucopioides fr._ the horn of plenty craterellus. edible. [illustration: figure .--craterellus cornucopioides. one-third natural size.] cornucopioides is from _cornu_, a horn, and _copia_, plenty. the pileus is thin, flexible, tubiform, hollow to the base, blackish-brown, sometimes a little scaly, the hymenium even or somewhat wrinkled, cinereous. the stem is hollow, smooth, black, short, almost wanting. the spores are elliptical, whitish, - × - µ. no one will have any trouble in recognizing this species, having once seen its picture and read its description. its elongated or trumpet-shaped cap, and its dingy-gray or sooty-brown hue, will at once distinguish it. the spore-bearing surface is often a little paler than the upper surface. the cup is often three to four inches long. i have found it in quite large clusters in the woods near bowling green, and londonderry, though it is found rather sparingly on the hillsides about chillicothe. it has a wide distribution in other states. it does not look inviting, on account of its color, but it proves a favorite whenever tested, and may be dried and kept for future use. it is found from july to september. _craterellus dubius. pk._ [illustration: figure .--craterellus dubius. natural size.] dubius means uncertain, from its close resemblance to c. cornucopoides. the pileus is one to two inches broad, infundibuliform, subfibrillose, lurid-brown, pervious to the base, the margin generally wavy, lobed. hymenium dark cinereous, rugose when moist, the minute crowded irregular folds abundantly anastomosing; nearly even when dry. the stem is short. the spores are broadly elliptical or subglobose, - . µ long. _peck._ it differs from c. cornucopioides in manner of growth, paler color, and smaller spores. it is distinguished from craterellus sinuosus by its pervious stem, while very similar in color to cantharellus cinereus. this plant, like c. cornucopoides, dries readily, and when moistened expands and becomes quite as good as when fresh. it needs to be stewed slowly till tender, when it makes a delightful dish. the plants in figure were collected near columbus by r. h. young and photographed by dr. kellerman. they are found from july to october. _corticium. fr._ entirely resupinate, hymenium soft and fleshy when moist, collapsing when dry, often cracked. _corticium lacteum. fr._ this is a very small plant, resupinate, membranaceous, and it is so named because of the milk-white color underneath. the hymenium is waxy when moist, cracked when dry. _corticium oakesii. b. & c._ the plant is small, waxy-pliant, somewhat coriaceous, cup-shaped, then explanate, confluent, marginate, externally white-tomentose. the hymenium is even, contiguous, becoming pallid. spores elliptical, appendiculate. i found very fine specimens of this plant on the iron-wood, ostrya virginica, which grows on the high school lawn in chillicothe. in rainy weather in october and november the bark would be white with the plant. it resembles a small peziza at first. _corticium incarnatum. fr._ waxy when moist, becoming rigid when dry, confluent, agglutinate, radiating. hymenium red or flesh-color, covered with a delicate flesh-colored bloom. some fine specimens were found on dead chestnut trees in poke hollow. _corticium sambucum. pk._ effused on elder bark, white, continuous when growing, when dry cracked or flocculose and collapsing. it grows on the bark or the wood of the elder. _corticium cinereum. fr._ waxy when moist, rigid when dry, agglutinate, lurid. the hymenium is cinereous, with a very delicate bloom. common on sticks in the woods. _thelephora. fr._ the pileus is without a cuticle, consisting of interwoven fibres. hymenium ribbed, of a tough, fleshy substance, rather rigid, then collapsing and flocculent. _thelephora schweinitzii._ [illustration: figure .--thelephora schweinitzii.] schweinitzii is named in honor of the rev. david lewis de schweinitz. cæspitose, white or pallid. pilei soft-corinaceous, much branched; the branches flattened, furrowed and somewhat dilated at the apex. the stems are variable in length, often connate or fused together into a solid base. the hymenium is even, becoming darker colored when older. _morgan._ this plant is known as t. pallida. it is very abundant on our hillsides in ross county, and in fact throughout the state. _thelephora laciniata. p._ the pileus is soft, somewhat coriaceous, incrusting, ferruginous-brown. the pilei are imbricated, fibrous, scaly, margin fimbriated, at first dirty white. the hymenium is inferior and papillose. _thelephora palmata. fr._ the pileus is coriaceous, soft, erect, palmately branched from a common stalk; pubescent, purplish-brown; branches flat, even, tips fimbriated, whitish. the scent is very noticeable soon after it is picked. they grow on the ground in july and august. _thelephora cristata. fr._ the pileus is incrusting, rather tough, pallid, passing into branches, the apices compressed, expanded, and beautifully fringed. the plant is whitish, grayish, or purplish-brown. it is found on moss or stems of weeds. i found beautiful specimens at bainbridge caves. _thelephora sebacea. fr._ the pileus is effused, fleshy, waxy, becoming hard, incrusting, variable, tuberculose or stalactitic, whitish, circumference similar; hymenium flocculose, pruinose, or evanescent. it is found effused over grass. one meets with it often. _stereum. fr._ the hymenium is coriaceous, even, rather thick, concrete with the intermediate stratum of the pileus, which has a cuticle even and veinless, remaining unchanged and smooth. _stereum versicolor._ [illustration: figure .--stereum versicolor.] versicolor means changing color, referring to the different bands of color. the pileus is effused, reflexed, having a number of different zones; in some plants the zones are more marked than in others, the zones appearing very much like those in polyporus versicolor. the hymenium is even, smooth and brown. this is a very common plant, found everywhere on old logs and stumps. it is widely diffused and can be found at any time of the year. _stereum spadiceum. fr._ pilei coriaceous and spreading, reflexed, villous, somewhat ferruginous; margin rather obtuse, whitish, even beneath; smooth, brownish, and bleeding when scratched or bruised. _stereum hirsutum. fr._ hirsutum means shaggy, hairy. the pilei are coriaceous and spreading, quite hairy, imbricated, more or less zoned, quite tough, often having a greenish tinge from the presence of a minute algæ; naked, juiceless, yellowish, unchanged when bruised or scratched. the hymenium is pale-yellow, smooth, margin entire, often lobed. i find it usually on hickory logs. _stereum fasciatum. schw._ fasciatum means bands or fillets. pileus is coriaceous, plane, villous, zonate, grayish; hymenium, smooth, pale-red. growing on decayed trunks. common in all of our woods. _stereum sericeum. schw._ [illustration: figure .--stereum sericeum.] sericeum means silky or satiny; so called from its satin lustre. the plant is very small and easily overlooked, usually growing in a resupinate form; sessile, orbiculate, free, papyraceous, with a bright satin lustre, shining, smooth, pale-grayish color. the plant grows on both sides of small twigs as is shown in the photograph. i do not find it on large trunks but it is quite common on branches. no one will fail to recognize it from its specific name. when i first observed it i named it s. sericeum, not knowing that there was a species by that name. i afterwards sent it to prof. atkinson and was surprised to find that i had correctly named it. _stereum rugosum. fr._ rugosum means full of wrinkles. broadly effused, sometimes shortly reflexed; coriaceous, at length thick and rigid; pileus at length smooth, brownish. the hymenium is a pale grayish-yellow, changing slightly to a red when bruised, pruinose. the spores are cylindrico-elliptical, straight, - × - µ. _massee._ this is quite variable in form, and agrees with s. sanguinolentum in becoming red when bruised; but it is thicker and more rigid in substance, its pores are straighter and larger. _stereum purpureum. pers._ purpureum means purple, from the color of the plant. coriaceous but pliant, effuso-reflexed, more or less imbricated, tomentose, zoned, whitish or pallid. the hymenium is naked, smooth, even; in color a pale clear purple, becoming dingy ochraceous, with only a tinge of purple, when dry. the spores are elliptical, - × µ. i found the plant to be very abundant in december and january, in - , on soft wood corded up at the paper mill in chillicothe, the weather being mild and damp. _stereum compactum._ broadly effused, coriaceous, often imbricated and often laterally joined, pileus thin, zoned, finely strigose, the zones grayish-white and cinnamon-brown. the hymenium is smooth, cream-white. this species is found on decayed limbs and trunks of trees. _hymenochæte. lev._ hymenochæte is from two greek words, _hymen_, a membrane; _chæte_, a bristle. in this genus the cap or pileus may be attached to the host by a central stem, or at one side, but most frequently upon its back. the genus is known by the velvety or bristly appearance of the fruiting surface, due to smooth, projecting, thick-walled cells. i have found several species but have only been sure of three. _hymenochæte rubiginosa. (schr.) lev._ rubiginosa means full of rust, so called from the color of the plant. the pileus is rigid, coriaceous, resupinate, effused, reflexed, the lower margin generally adhering firmly, somewhat fasciated; velvety, rubiginous or rusty in color, then becoming smooth and bright brown, the intermediate stratum tawny-ferruginous. the hymenium ferruginous and velvety. it is found here upon soft woods such as chestnut stumps and willow. _hymenochæte curtisii. berk._ curtisii is named in honor of mr. curtis. the pileus is coriaceous, firm, resupinate, effused, reflexed, brown, slightly sulcate; the hymenium velvety with brown bristles. this is common on partially decayed oak branches in the woods. _hymenochæte corrugata. berk._ corrugata means bearing wrinkles or folds. the pileus is coriaceous, effused, closely adnate, indeterminate, cinnamon colored, cracked and corrugated when dry, which gives rise to its name. the bristles are seen, under the microscope, to be joined. found in the woods on partially decayed branches. chapter x. clavariaceae--coral fungi. hymenium not distinct from the hymenophore, covering entire outer surface, somewhat fleshy, not coriaceous; vertical, simple or branched. _fries._ most of the species grow on the ground or on well rotted logs. the following genera are included here: sparassis--fleshy, much branched, branches compressed, plate-like. clavaria--fleshy, simple or branched, typically round. calocera--gelatinous, then horn-like. typhula--simple or club-shaped, rigid when dry, usually small. _sparassis. fr._ sparassis, to tear in pieces. the species are fleshy, branched with plate-like branches, composed of two plates, fertile on both sides. _sparassis herbstii. pk._ [illustration: figure .--sparassis herbstii.] this is a plant very much branched, forming tufts four to five inches high, and five to six inches broad; whitish, inclining to creamy-yellow; tough, moist; the branches numerous, thin, flattened, concrescent, dilated above, spathulate or fan-shaped, often somewhat longitudinally curved or wavy; mostly uniformly colored, rarely with a few indistinct, nearly concolorous, transverse zones near the broad, entire apices. the spores are globose, or broadly elliptical, . to . inch long, . to . broad. this species was first found by the late dr. william herbst of trexlertown, pa., and was named by dr. peck in his honor. the specimen in figure was found at trexlertown, pa., and photographed by mr. c. g. lloyd. the plant delights in open oak woods, and is found through august and september. it is edible and quite good. _sparassis crispa. fr._ _crispus_, curly. this is a beautiful rosette-like plant, growing quite large at times, very much branched, whitish, oyster-colored, or pale yellow; branches intricate, flat and leaf-like, having a spore surface on both sides. the entire plant forms a large round mass with its leaf-like surface variously curled, folded, and lobed, with a crest-like margin, and springing from a well-marked root, most of which is buried in the ground. no one will have any trouble to recognize it, having once seen its photograph. i found the plant quite frequently, in the woods about bowling green. it is not simply good, but very good. _clavaria. linn._ clavaria is from _clavus_, a club. this is by far the largest genus in this family, and contains very many edible species, some of which are excellent. the entire genus is fleshy, either branched or simple; gradually thickening toward the top, resembling a club. in collecting clavaria special attention should be given to the character of the apices of the branches, color of the branches, color of spores, the taste of the plant, and the character of the place of its growth. this genus is readily recognized, and no one need to hesitate to eat any of the branching forms. _clavaria flava. schaeff._ pale-yellow clavaria. edible. [illustration: figure .--clavaria flava. natural size.] flava is from _flavus_, yellow. the plant is rather fragile, white and yellow, two to five inches high, the mass of branches from two to five inches wide, the trunk thick, much branched. the branches are round, even, smooth, crowded, nearly parallel, pointing upward, whitish or yellowish, with pale yellow tips of tooth-like points. when the plant is old, the yellow tips are likely to be faded, and the whole plant whitish in color. the flesh and the spores are white, and the taste is agreeable. i have eaten this species since , and i regard it as very good. it is found in woods and grassy open places. i have found it as early as june and as late as october. _clavaria aurea. pers._ the golden clavaria. edible. this plant grows from three to four inches high. its trunk is thick, elastic, and its branches are uniformly a deep golden yellow, often longitudinally wrinkled. the branches straight, regularly forked and round. the stem is stout but thinner than in c. flava. the spores are yellowish and elliptical. it is found in woods during august and september. _clavaria botrytes. pers._ the red-tipped clavaria. edible. [illustration: figure .--clavaria botrytes. one-half natural size.] botrytes is from a greek word meaning a cluster of grapes. this plant differs little from c. flava in size and structure, but it is easily recognized from the red tips of its branches. it is whitish, or yellowish, or pinkish, with its branches red-tipped. the stem is short, thick, fleshy, whitish, unequal. the branches are often somewhat wrinkled, crowded, repeatedly branched. in older specimens the red tips will be somewhat faded. the spores are white and oblong-elliptical. it is found in woods and open places, during wet weather. i found this plant occasionally near salem, from july to october, but it is not a common plant in ohio. _clavaria muscoides. linn._ forked yellow clavaria. edible. muscoides means moss-like. this plant is inclined to be tough, though graceful in growth; slender-stemmed, two or three time forked; smooth; base downy, bright yellow. the branchlets are thin, crescent-shape, acute. the spores are white and nearly round. the plant is usually solitary, not branching as much as some other species; quite dry, very smooth, except at the base, which is downy, in color resembling the yolk of an egg. it is frequently found in damp pastures, especially those skirting a wood. _clavaria amethystina. bull._ the amethystine clavaria. edible. [illustration: figure .--clavaria amethystina.] amethystina means amethyst in color. this is a remarkably attractive plant and easily recognized by its color. it is sometimes quite small yet often grows from three to five inches high. the color of the entire plant is violet; it is very much branched or almost simple; branches round, even, fragile, smooth, obtuse. the spores are elliptical, pale-ochraceous, sub-transparent, - × - µ. this plant is quite common around chillicothe, and it has a wide distribution over the united states. the specimens in figure were found in poke hollow. _clavaria stricta. pers._ the straight clavaria. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--clavaria stricta.] stricta is a participle from _stringo_, to draw together. the plant is very much branched, pale, dull-yellow, becoming brownish when bruised; the stem somewhat thickened; branches very numerous and forked, straight, even, densely pressed, tips pointed. the spores are dark cinnamon. it is found on the huntington hills near chillicothe. look for it in august and september. _clavaria pyxidata. pers._ the cup clavaria. edible. [illustration: figure .--clavaria pyxidata. natural size.] pyxidata is from _pyxis_, a small box. this plant is quite fragile, waxy, light-tan in color, with a thin main stem, whitish, smooth, variable in length, branching and rebranching, the branches ending in a cup. the spores are white. it is found on rotten wood and is readily recognized by the cup-like tips. the specimen in figure was found near columbus and photographed by dr. kellerman. found from june to october. _clavaria abietina. schum._ the fir-wood clavaria. [illustration: figure .--clavaria abietina.] abietina means fir-wood. this plant grows in dense tufts, very much branched, ochraceous, trunk somewhat thickened, short, clothed with a white down; branches straight, crowded, longitudinally wrinkled when dry, branchlets straight. the spores are oval and ochraceous. it can be readily identified by its changing to green when bruised. it is very common on our wooded hillsides. it is found from august to october. _clavaria spinulosa. pers._ [illustration: figure .--clavaria spinulosa.] spinulosa means spiny or full of spines. the trunk of this plant is rather short and thick, at least one-half to one inch thick, whitish. the branches are elongated, crowded, tense and straight; attenuated, tapering upward; color somewhat cinnamon-brown throughout. the spores are elliptical, yellowish-brown, - × µ. it is usually given as found under pine trees, but i find it about chillicothe in mixed woods, in which there are no pine trees at all. it is found after frequent rains, from august to october. as an edible, it is fairly good. _clavaria formosa. pers._ beautiful clavaria. edible. [illustration: figure .--clavaria formosa. three-fourths its natural size.] formosa is from _formosus_, meaning finely formed. this plant is two to six inches high, trunk rather thick, often over an inch in thickness; whitish, or yellowish, elastic, the branches numerous, crowded, elongated, divided at the ends into yellow branchlets, which are thin, straight, obtuse or toothed. the spores are elongated-oval, rough, buff-colored, × µ. this is an extremely beautiful plant, very tender or brittle. when the plant is quite young, just coming through the ground, the tips of the branches are often of a bright red or pink. this bright color soon fades, leaving the entire plant a light yellow in color. the plant has a wide distribution, and is found on the ground in the woods, frequently growing in rows. while the handsomest of the clavarias, it is not the best, and only the tender parts of the plant should be used. it is found from july to october. the specimen in figure was found in poke hollow. _clavaria cristata. pers._ the crested clavaria. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--clavaria cristata.] cristata is from _cristatus_, crested. this is a smaller plant than the c. flava or c. botrytes. it is usually two to three inches high, white or whitish, the tufts of broad flattened branches, sometimes tinged with a dull pink or creamy-yellow. the branches are numerous, widened and flattened above, deeply cut into several finger-like points, sometimes so numerous as to give it a crested appearance. this peculiar characteristic distinguishes it from c. coralloides. when the plant is old the tips usually turn brown. sometimes a form will be found in which the crested appearance is wanting, and in that case the branches terminate in blunt points. the stem is short and inclined to be spongy. it is found in the woods, in cool, moist, shady places. while it is tougher than some of the other species, if cut fine and well cooked it is very good. i have eaten it for years. it is found from june to october. _clavaria coronata. schw._ the crowned clavaria. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--clavaria coronata.] pale yellow, then fawn color; divided immediately from the base and very much branched; the branches divergent and compressed or angulate, the final branchlets truncate-obtuse at apex and there encircled with a crown of minute processes. _morgan_. this plant is found on decayed wood. it is repeatedly branched in twos and forms clusters sometimes several inches in height. it resembles in form c. pyxidata, but it is quite a distinct species. in some localities it is found quite frequently. it is plentiful about chillicothe. found from july to october. _clavaria vermicularis. scop._ white-tufted clavaria. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--clavaria vermicularis.] small, two to three inches high; cæspitose, fragile, white, club-shaped; clubs stuffed, simple, cylindrical, subulate. found on lawns, short pastures or in paths in woods. someone has said they "look like a little bundle of candles." edible, but too small to gather. june and july. _clavaria crispula. fr._ flexuous clavaria. edible. very much branched, tan-colored, then ochraceous; trunk slender, villous, rooting; branches flexuous, having many divisions, branches of the same color, divaricating, fragile. the spores are creamy-yellow, slightly elliptical. this plant is slightly acrid to the taste and retains a faint trace of acridity even after it is cooked. it is very plentiful in our woods. found from july to october. _clavaria kunzei. fr._ kunze's clavaria. rather fragile, very much branched from the slender cæspitose base; white; branches elongated, crowded, repeatedly forked, subfastigiate, even, equal; axils compressed. specimens were found on cemetery hill under beech trees, and identified by dr. herbst. the spores are yellowish. _clavaria cinerea. bull._ ash-colored clavaria. edible. cinerea, pertaining to ashes. this is a small plant, growing in groups, frequently in rows, under beech trees. the color is gray or ashy; it is quite fragile; stem thick, short, very much branched, with the branches thickened, somewhat wrinkled, rather obtuse. its gray color will distinguish it from the other clavaria. _clavaria pistillaris. l._ indian-club clavaria. edible. [illustration: figure .--clavaria pistillaris. one-half natural size.] pistillaris is from _pistillum_, a pestle. they are simple, large, stuffed, fleshy, everywhere smooth, three to ten inches high, attaining to one inch in thickness; light yellow, ochraceous, brownish, chocolate, club-shaped, ovate-rounded, puckered at the top; flesh white, spongy. the spores are white, × µ. they are found in the leaf-mold of mixed woods, and you will sometimes find several growing together. they are found from july to frost. the dark variety, which is frequently vertically wrinkled, is slightly acrid when raw, but this disappears upon cooking. the plant is widely distributed but abundant nowhere in our state. i found it occasionally in the woods near chillicothe. the plants in figure were found near columbus, and were photographed by dr. kellerman of ohio state university. _clavaria fusiformis. sow._ spindle-shaped clavaria. edible. [illustration: figure .--clavaria fusiformis. natural size.] fusiformis is from _fusus_, a spindle, and _forma_, a form. the plant is yellow, smooth, rather firm, soon hollow, cæspitose; nearly erect, rather brittle, attenuated at each end; clubs somewhat spindle-shaped, simple, toothed, the apex somewhat darker; even, slightly firm, usually with several united at the base. the spores are pale yellow, globose, - µ. they are found in woods and pastures. the plants in the figure were in the woods beside an untraveled road, on ralston's run. they strongly resemble c. inæqualis. when found in sufficient quantities they are very tender and have an excellent flavor. _clavaria inæqualis. mull._ the unequal clavaria. edible. inæqualis means unequal. somewhat tufted, quite fragile, from one to three inches high, often compressed, angular, often forked, ventricose; yellow, occasionally whitish, sometimes variously cut at the tip. the spores are colorless, elliptical, - × µ. one can readily distinguish it from c. fusiformis by the tips, these not being sharp pointed. it is found in clusters in woods and pastures from august to october. as delicious as c. fusiformis. _clavaria mucida. pers._ [illustration: figure .--clavaria mucida.] mucida means slimy, so named from the soft and watery condition of the plants. the plants are quite small, usually simple yet sometimes branched, club-shaped, one-eighth to an inch high, white, sometimes yellowish, frequently pinkish or rose-tinted. these plants are very small and easily overlooked. it is found on decayed wood. i have found it late in the fall and early in the spring. you can look for it at any time of the year after warm rains or in damp places, on well decayed wood. the specimens in figure were photographed by prof. g. d. smith, akron, ohio. _calocera. fr._ this plant is gelatinous, somewhat cartilaginous when moist, horny when dry, vertical, simple or branched, cæspitose or solitary. the hymenium is universal; the basidia round and two-lobed, each lobe bearing a single one-spored sterigma. the spores are inclined to be oblong and curved. this genus resembles clavaria, but is identified by being somewhat gelatinous and viscid when moist and rather horn-like when dry, but especially by its two-lobed basidia. _calocera cornea. fr._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--calocera cornea.] this is unbranched, cæspitose, rooting, even, viscid, orange-yellow or pale yellow; clubs short, subulate, connate at the base. the spores are round and oblong, - × µ. found upon stumps and logs, especially upon oak where the timber is cracked, the plants springing from the cracks. when dry they are quite stiff and rigid. _calocera stricta. fr._ these plants are unbranched, solitary, about one inch high, elongated, base somewhat blunt, even when dry, yellow. its habitat is very similar to c. cornea but more scattered. c. striata, fr., is very similar to c. cornea, but is distinguished by its being solitary, and striate or rugose when dry. _typhula. fr._ epiphytal. stem filiform, flaccid; clubs cylindrical, perfectly distinct from hymenium, sometimes springing from a sclerotium; hymenium thin and waxy. this is distinguished from clavaria and pistillaria by having its stem distinct from the hymenium. it is a small plant resembling, in miniature, typha, hence its generic name. _typhula erythropus. fr._ simple; club cylindrical, slender, smooth, white; stem nearly straight, dark red, inclining to be black, springing usually from a blackish and somewhat wrinkled sclerotium. the spores are oblong, - × - . µ. this plant has a wide distribution, and is found in damp places upon the stems of herbaceous plants. _typhula incarnata. fr._ simple; club cylindrical, elongated, smooth; whitish, more or less tinged with pink above; one to two-inches high, base minutely strigose, springing from a compressed brownish sclerotium. the spores are nearly round, × µ. this is a common and beautiful little plant and easily distinguished both by its color and the size and form of its spores. if the collector will watch the dead herbaceous stems in damp places, he will not only find the two just described, but another, differing in color, size, and form of spores, called t. phacorrhiza, fr. it has a brownish color and its spores are quite oblong, - × - µ. _lachnocladium. lev._ lachnocladium is from two greek words meaning a fleece and a branch. pileus coriaceous, tough, repeatedly branched; the branches slender or filiform, tomentose. hymenium amphigenous. fungi slender and much branched, terrestrial, but sometimes growing on wood. _lachnocladium semivestitum. b. & c._ [illustration: figure .--lachnocladium semivestitum.] pileus, much branched from a slender stem of variable length, expanded at the angles; the branches filiform, straight, somewhat fasciculate, smooth at the tips and paler in color. this is quite a common specimen on our north hillsides. it is white and quite fragile. found in damp places in august and september. _lachnocladium micheneri. b. & c._ [illustration: figure .--lachnocladium micheneri.] coriaceous, tough, pale or whitish; stem well marked, branching from a point, branches numerous, tips pointed; white tomentum at the base of the stem. this plant is very abundant here and is found very generally over the united states. it grows on fallen leaves in woods, after a rain, being found from july to october. chapter xi. tremellini fr. tremellini is from _tremo_, to tremble. the whole plant is gelatinous, with the exception, occasionally, of the nucleus. the sporophores are large, simple or divided. spicules elongated into threads. _berk._ the following genera are included: tremella--immarginate. hymenium universal. exidia--margined. hymenium superior. hirneola--cartilaginous, ear-shaped, attached by a point. _tremella. fr._ this plant is so called because the entire plant is gelatinous, tremulous, and without a definite margin, and also without nipple-like elevations. _tremella lutescens. fr._ yellowish tremella. edible. this is a small gelatinous cluster, tremulous, convoluted, in wavy folds, pallid, then yellowish, with its lobes crowded and entire. quite common over the state. it is found on decaying limbs and stumps from july to winter. it dries during absence of rain but revives and becomes tremulous during wet weather. it is called lutescens because of its yellowish color. _tremella mesenterica. retz._ mesenterica is from two greek words meaning the mesentery. the plant varies in size and form, sometimes quite flat and thin but generally ascending and strongly lobed; plicated, and convoluted; gelatinous but firm; lobes short, smooth, covered with a frost-like bloom by the white spores at maturity. the spores are broadly elliptical. common in the woods on decaying sticks and branches. _tremella albida. hud._ the whitish tremella. edible. [illustration: figure .--tremella albida. natural size.] albida, whitish. this plant is very common in the woods about chillicothe, and everywhere in the state where beech, sugar-maple, and hickory prevail. it is whitish, becoming dingy-brown when dry; expanded, tough, undulated, even, more or less gyrose, pruinose. it breaks the bark and spreads in irregular and scalloped masses; when moist it has a gelatinous consistency, a soft and clammy touch, yielding like a mass of gelatine. its spores are oblong, obtuse, curved, marked with tear-like spots, almost transparent, - × - µ. the specimen represented in figure was found near sandusky and photographed by dr. kellerman. _tremella mycetophila. pk._ [illustration: figure .--tremella mycetophila.] mycetophila is from two greek words, _mycetes_, fungi; _phila_, fond of. the plant is so called because it is found growing upon other fungi. often nearly round, somewhat depressed, circling in folds, sometimes in quite large masses about the stems of the plant, as will be seen in figure , tremelloid-fleshy, slightly pruinose, a dirty white or yellowish. i have found it frequently growing on collybia drophila, as is the case in figure . captain mcilvaine speaks in his book of finding this plant parasitic on marasmius oreades in quite a large mass for this plant. i can verify the statement for i have found it on m. oreades during damp weather in august and september. it has a pleasant taste. _tremella fimbriata. pers._ fimbriata is from _frimbriæ_, a fringe. it is very soft and gelatinous, olivaceous inclining to black, tufted, two to three inches high, and quite as broad, erect, lobes flaccid, corrugated, cut at the margin, which gives rise to the name of species; spores are nearly pear shaped. found on dead branches, stumps, and on fence-rails in damp weather. easily known by its dark color. _tremellodon. pers._ tremellodon means trembling tooth. these plants are gelatinous, with a cap or pileus; the hymenium covered with acute gelatinous spines, awl-shaped and equal. the basidia are nearly round with four rather stout, elongated sterigmata, spores very nearly round. _tremellodon gelatinosum. pers._ [illustration: figure .--tremellodon gelatinosum.] gelatinosum means full of jelly or jelly-like, from _gelatina_, jelly. the pileus is dimidiate, gelatinous, tremelloid, one to three inches broad, rather thick, extended behind into a lateral thick, stem-like base, pileus covered with a greenish-brown bloom, very minutely granular. the hymenium is watery-gray, covered with hydnum-like teeth, stout, acute, equal, one to two inches long, whitish, soft, inclined to be glaucous. the spores are nearly round, - µ. these plants are found on pine and fir trunks and on sawdust heaps. they grow in groups and are very variable in form and size but easily determined, being the only tremelloid fungus with true spines. the plants in figure were photographed by prof. g. d. smith of akron, ohio. they are edible. found from september to cold weather. _exidia. fr._ gelatinous, marginal, fertile above, barren below. exidia may be known by its minute nipple-like elevations. _exidia grandulosa. fr._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate l. figure .--excidia glandulosa.] this plant is called "witches' butter." it varies in color, from whitish to brown and deep cinereous, at length blackish; flattened, undulated, much wrinkled above, slightly plicated below; soft at first and when moist, becoming film-like when dry. found on dead branches of oak. _hirneola. fr._ hirneola is the diminutive of _hirnea_, a jug. gelatinous, cup-shaped, horny when dry. hymenium wrinkled, becoming cartilaginous when moistened. the hymenium is in the form of a hard skin which covers the cup-shaped cavities, and which can be peeled off after soaking in water, the interstices are without papillæ and the outer surface is velvety. _hirneola auricula-judæ. berk._ the jew's ear hirneola. edible. [illustration: figure .--hirneola auricula-judæ.] [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate li. figure .--hirneola auricula-judae.] auricula-judæ, the ear of the jew. the plant is gelatinous; one to four inches across; thin, concave, wavy, flexible when moist, hard when dry; blackish, fuzzy, hairy beneath; when covered with white spores it is cinereous. the hymenium by its corrugations forms depressions such as are found in the human ear. one will not fail to recognize it after seeing it once. it is not common in our woods, yet i have found it on several occasions. it is found on almost any timber but most frequently on the elm and elder. the plant in figure was found near chillicothe. its distribution is general. _guepinia. fr._ gelatinous, inclining to cartilaginous, free, different on the two sides, variable in form, substipitate. hymenium confined to one side. _guepinia spathularia._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--guepinia spathularia. entire plant a light yellow.] yellow, cartilaginous, especially when dry, spathulate, expanded above, hymenium slightly ribbed, contracted where it issues from a log. it is quite common on beech and maple logs. i have seen beech logs, somewhat decayed, quite yellow with this interesting plant. _hymenula. fr._ effused, very thin, maculæform, agglutinate, between wavy or gelatinous. _berk._ _hymenula punctiformis. b. & br._ point-like hymenula. dirty white, quite pallid, gelatinous, punctiform, slightly undulated; consisting of erect simple threads; frequently there is a slight tinge of yellow. the spores are very minute. it looked very much like an undeveloped peziza when i found it, in fact i thought it p. vulgaris until i had submitted a specimen to prof. atkinson. chapter xii. ascomycetes--spore-sac fungi. ascomycetes is from two greek words: _ascos_, a sack; _mycetes_, a fungus or mushroom. all the fungi which belong to this class develop their spores in small membranous sacs. these asci are crowded together side by side, and with them are slender empty asci called paraphyses. the spores are inclosed in these sacs, usually eight in a sac. they are called sporidia to separate them from the basidiomycetes. these sacs arise from a naked or inclosed stratum of fructifying cells, forming a hymenium or nucleus. family--helvellaceae. hymenium at length more or less exposed, the substance soft. the genera are distinguished from the earth-tongues by the cup-like forms of the spore body, but especially by the character of the spore sacs which open by a small lid, instead of spores. the following are some of the genera: morchella pileus deeply folded and pitted. gyromitra pileus covered with rounded and variously contorted folds. helvella pileus drooping, irregularly waved and lobed. _morchella. dill._ morchella is from a greek word meaning a mushroom. this genus is easily recognized. it may be known by the deeply pitted, and often elongated, naked head, the depressions being usually regular but sometimes resembling mere furrows with wrinkled interspaces. the cap or head varies in form from rounded to ovate or cone shape. they are all marked by deep pits, covering the entire surface, separated by ridges forming a net-work. the spore-sacs are developed in both ridges and depressions. all the species when young are of a buff-yellow tinged with brown. the stems are stout and hollow, white, or whitish in color. the common name is morel, and they appear during wet weather early in the spring. _morchella esculenta. pers._ the common morel. edible. [illustration: figure .--morchella esculenta. two-thirds natural size.] the common morel has a cap a little longer than broad, so that it is almost oval in outline. sometimes it is nearly round but again it is often slightly narrowed in its upper half, though not pointed or cone-like. the pits in its surface are more nearly round than in the other species. in this species the pits are irregularly arranged so that they do not form rows, as will be observed in figure . it grows from two to four inches high and is known by most people as the sponge mushroom. it grows in woods and wood borders, especially beside wood streams. old apple and peach orchards are favorite places for morels. it makes no difference if the beginner cannot identify the species, as they are all equally good. i have seen collectors have for sale a bushel basketful, in which half a dozen species were represented. they dry very easily and can be kept for winter use. it is said to grow in great profusion over burnt districts. the german peasants were reputed to have burned forest tracts to insure an abundant crop. i find that more people know the morels than any other mushroom. they are found through april and may, after warm rains. _morchella deliciosa. fr._ the delicious morel. edible. [illustration: figure .--morchella deliciosa. two-thirds natural size.] this and the preceding species would indicate by their names that they have been held in high esteem for a long time, as profs. persoon and fries, who named them, lived more than a hundred years ago. the delicious morel is recognized by the shape of its cap, which is generally cylindrical, sometimes pointed, and slightly curved. the stem is rather short and, like the stem of all morels, is hollow from the top to the bottom. it is found associated with other species of morels, in woods and wood borders, also in old apple and peach orchards. they need to be cooked slowly and long. coming early in the spring, they are not likely to be infested with worms. the flesh is rather fragile and not very watery. they are easily dried. found through april and may. _morchella esculenta var. conica. pers._ the conical morel. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate lii. figure .--morchella esculenta var. conica.] the conical morel is very closely related to m. esculenta and m. deliciosa, from which it differs in having the cap longer than it is wide, and more pointed, so that it is conical or oblong-conical. the plant, as a general thing, grows to be larger than the other species. it is, however, pretty hard to distinguish these three species. the conical morel is quite abundant about chillicothe. i have found morels especially plentiful about the reservoirs in mercer county, and in auglaize, allen, harden, hancock, wood and henry counties. i have known lovers of morels to go on camping tours in the woods about the reservoirs for the purpose of hunting them, and to bring home large quantities of them. [illustration: figure .--morchella esculenta var. conica. two-thirds natural size.] _morchella angusticeps. pk._ the narrow-cap morel. edible. [illustration: figure .--morchella angusticeps.] angusticeps is from two latin words: _angustus_, narrow; _caput_, head. this species and m. conica are so nearly alike that it is very difficult to identify them with any degree of satisfaction. in both species the cap is considerably longer than broad, but in angusticeps the cap is slimmer and more pointed. the pits, as a general thing are longer than in the other species. they are often found in orchards but are also frequently found in low woods under black ash trees. i have found some typical specimens about the reservoirs. the specimens in figure were collected in michigan, and photographed by prof. b. o. longyear. they appear very early in the spring, even while we are still having frosts. _morchella semilibera. d. c._ the hybrid morel. edible. [illustration: figure .--morchella semilibera. one-half natural size.] semilibera means half free, and it is so called because the cap is bell-shaped and the lower half is free from the stem. the cap is rarely more than one inch long, and is usually much shorter than the stem, as is indicated in figure . the pits on the cap are longer than broad. the stem is white or whitish and somewhat mealy or scurvy, hollow, and often swollen at the base. i found the specimens in figure about the last of may under elm trees, in james dunlap's woods. they are quite plentiful there. i do not detect any difference in the flavor of these and other species. _morchella bispora. sor._ the two-spored morel. edible. [illustration: figure .--morchella bispora. one-half natural size.] [illustration: plate liii. figure .--morchella bispora. the two-spored morel. edible. showing the cap free from the stem quite to the top.] bispora, two-spored, differs from the other species in the fact that the cap is free from the stem quite to the top. the distinguishing characteristic, which gives name to the species, can be seen only by the aid of a strong microscope. in this species there are only two spores in each ascus or sac, and these are much larger than in the other species, which have eight spores in a sac or ascus. the ridges, as will be seen in figure , run from the top to the bottom. the stem is much longer than the cap, hollow, and sometimes swollen at the base. the whole plant is fragile and very tender. the plants in figure were collected in michigan by prof. longyear. those in the full page display were found near columbus and were photographed by dr. kellerman. it seems to have a wide range, but is nowhere very plentiful. the spores can be readily obtained from morels by taking a mature specimen and placing it on white paper under a glass for a few hours. the beginner will find much difficulty in identifying the species of morels; but if he is collecting them for food he need not give the matter any thought, since none need be avoided, and they are so characteristic that no one need be afraid to gather them. _morchella crassipes. pers._ the gigantic morel. edible. crassipes is from _crassus_, thick; _pes_, foot. the cap resembles the cap of m. esculenta in its form and irregular pitting, but it is quite a little larger. the stem is very stout, much longer than the pileus, often very much wrinkled and folded. i have found only a few specimens of this species. found in april and may. _verpa. swartz._ verpa means a rod. ascospore smooth or slightly wrinkled, free from the sides of the stem, attached at the tip of the stem, bell-shaped, thin; hymenium covering the entire surface of the ascospore; asci cylindrical, -spored. the spores are elliptical, hyaline; paraphyses septate. the stem is inflated, stuffed, rather long, tapering downward. _verpa digitaliformis. pers._ [illustration: figure .--verpa digitaliformis.] digitaliformis is from _digitus_, a finger, and _forma_, a form. the pileus is bell-shaped, attached to the tip of the stem, but otherwise free from it; olive-umber in color; smooth, thin, closely pressed to the stem, but always free; the edge sometimes inflexed. the stem is three inches high, tapering downward, furnished at the base with reddish radicels; white, with a reddish tinge; apparently smooth, but under the glass quite scaly; loosely stuffed. the asci are large, -spored, the spores being elliptical. the paraphyses are slender and septate. figure represents several plants, natural size. the one in the righthand corner is old, with a ragged pileus; the vertical section shows the pithy contents of the stem. the plants are found in cool, moist, and shady ravines from may to august. edible, but not very good. _gyromitra. fr._ gyromitra is from _gyro_, to turn; _mitra_, a hat or bonnet. this genus is so called because the plants look like a hood that is much wrinkled or plaited. ascophore stipitate; hymenophore subglobose, inflated and more or less hollow or cavernous, variously gyrose and convolute at the surface, which is everywhere covered with the hymenium; substance fleshy; asci cylindrical, -spored; spores uniseriate, elongated, hyaline or nearly so, continuous; paraphyses present. _massee._ _gyromitra esculenta. fr._ [illustration: plate liv. figure .--gyromitra esculenta.] esculenta means edible. this is the largest spore-sac fungus. the original name was helvella esculenta. it is bay-red, round, wrinkled or convoluted, attached to the stem, irregular, with brain-like convolutions. the stem is hollow when mature, often very much deformed, whitish, scurvy, frequently enlarged or swollen at the base, sometimes lacunose, frequently attenuated upward, at first stuffed; asci cylindrical, apex obtuse, base attenuated, -spored; spores obliquely uniseriate, hyaline, smooth, continuous, elliptical, - × - µ; paraphases numerous. this plant will be readily recognized from figure , and its bay-red or chestnut-red cap with its brain-like convolutions. the books speak of its being found in pine regions, but i have found it frequently in the woods near bowling green, sidney, and chillicothe. many authors give this plant a bad reputation, yet i have eaten it often and when it is well prepared it is good. i should advise caution in its use. it is found in damp sandy woods during may and june. the plant in figure was found near chillicothe. _gyromitra brunnea. underwood._ the brown gyromitra. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--gyromitra brunnea.] brunnea is from _brunneus_, brown. a stout, fleshy plant, stipitate, three to five inches high, bearing a broad, much contorted, brown ascoma. stem is ¾ to . inch thick, more or less enlarged and spongy, solid at the base, hollow below, rarely slightly fluted, clear white; receptacle two to four inches across in the widest direction, the two diameters usually more or less unequal, irregularly lobed and plicate; in places faintly marked into areas by indistinct anastomosing ridges; closely cohering with the stem in the various parts; color a rich chocolate-brown or somewhat lighter if much covered with the leaves among which it grows; whitish underneath; asci -spored. spores oval. this plant is found quite frequently about bowling green. the land is very rich there and produced both g. esculenta and g. brunnea in greater abundance than i have found elsewhere in the state. it is quite tender and fragile. the specimen in figure was found near cincinnati and photographed by mr. c. g. lloyd. _helvella elastica. bull._ the peziza-like helvella. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--helvella elastica.] elastica means elastic, referring to its stem. the pileus is free from the stem, drooping, two to three lobed, center depressed, even, whitish, brownish, or sooty, almost smooth underneath, about cm. broad. the stem is two to three and a half inches high, and three to five lines thick at the inflated base; tapering upward, elastic, smooth, or often more or less pitted; colored like the pileus, minutely velvety or furfuraceous; at first solid, then hollow. spores hyaline, continuous, elliptical, ends obtuse, often -guttulate, - × - ; -serrate; paraphyses septate, clavate. _massee._ the plants in the figure were found near columbus and photographed by dr. kellerman. i have not found the plant as far south as chillicothe, though i found it frequently in the northern part of the state. it grows in the woods on leaf-mould. _helvella lacunosa. afz._ the cinereous helvella. edible. [illustration: figure .--helvella lacunosa.] lacunosa, full of pits or pitted. this is a beautiful plant, very closely related to the morchellas. the pileus is inflated, lobed, cinereous black, lobes deflected, adnate. the stem is hollow, white or dusky, exterior ribbed, forming intervening cavities. the asci are cylindrical, and stemmed. the sporidia are ovate and hyaline. the deep longitudinal grooves in the stem are characteristic of this species. the plants from which the halftone was made were collected near sandusky and photographed by dr. kellerman. they grow in moist woods. i found the plants frequently in the woods near bowling green and occasionally about chillicothe, growing about well-decayed stumps. _hypomyces. tul._ hypomyces means upon a mushroom. it is parasitic on fungi. mycelium byssoid; perithecia small; asci -spored. _hypomyces lactifluorum. schw._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--hypomyces lactifluorum. the entire plant is a bright yellow. natural size.] lactifluorum means milk-flowing. it is parasitic on lactarius, probably piperatus, as this species surrounded it. it seems to have the power to change the color into an orange-red mass, in many cases entirely obliterating the gills of the host-species, as will be seen in figure . the asci are long and slender. the sporidia are in one row, spindle-shaped, straight or slightly curved, rough, hyaline, uniseptic, cuspidate, pointed at the ends, - × - µ. this very closely resembles hypomyces aurantius, but the sporidia are larger, rough and warted and the felt-like mycelium at the base is wanting. it occurs in various colors, orange, red, white, and purple. it is not plentiful, occurring only occasionally. capt. mcilvaine says, "when it is well cooked in small pieces it is among the best." it is found from july to october. _leptoglossum luteum. (pk.) sac._ [illustration: figure .--leptoglossum luteum.] leptoglossum is from two greek words, meaning thin, delicate, and tongue; luteum means yellowish. the club is distinct from the stem, smooth, compressed, generally with a groove on one side; luteous, often becoming brown at the tip or apex. the stem is equal or slightly enlarged above, stuffed, luteous, minutely scaly. the spores are oblong, slightly curved, in a double row, - to - inch long. _peck._ these are found quite frequently among moss, or where an old log has rotted down, on the north hillsides about chillicothe. the plants were first described by dr. peck as "geoglossum luteum," but afterwards called by saccardo "leptoglossum luteum." the plants in figure were found in august or september, on ralston's run, near chillicothe, and were photographed by dr. kellerman. _spathularia. pers._ this is a very interesting genus, and one that will attract the attention of any one at first sight. it grows in the form of a spathula, from which it receives its generic name. the spore-body is flattened and grows down on both sides of the stem, tapering downward. _spathularia flavida. pers._ the yellow spathularia. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--spathularia flavida.] the spore body is a clear yellow, sometimes tinged with red, shaped like a spathula, the apex blunt, sometimes slightly cleft, the surface wavy, somewhat crisp, growing down the stem on opposite sides further than v. velutipes. the stem is thick, hollow, white, then tinged with yellow, slightly compressed; asci clavate, apex somewhat pointed, -spored; spores arranged in parallel fascicles, hyaline, linear-clavate, usually very slightly bent, - × . - µ; paraphyses filiform, septate, often branched, tips not thickened, wavy. while this is a beautiful plant it is not common. found in august and september. _spathularia velutipes. c. & f._ velvet-foot spathularia. edible. velutipes is from _velutum_, velvet; _pes_, foot. the spore body is flattened, shaped like a spathula, spore surface wavy, growing on the opposite sides of the upper part of the stem, tawny-yellow. the stem is hollow, minutely downy or velvety, dark brown tinged with yellow. it will dry quite as well as morchella. it is found in damp woods on mossy logs. it is not a common plant. found in august and september. _leotia. hill._ receptacle pileate. pileus orbicular, margin involute, free from the stem, smooth, hymenium covering upper surface. the stem is hollow, central, rather long, continuous with pileus; the whole plant greenish-yellow. asci club-shaped, pointed, -spored. the spores are elliptical and hyaline. the paraphyses are present, usually slender and round. _leotia lubrica. pers._ [illustration: figure .--leotia lubrica.] lubrica means slippery; so called because the plants are usually slimy. the pileus is irregularly hemispherical, somewhat wrinkled, inflated, wavy, margin obtuse, free from the stem, yellowish olive-green, tremelloid. the stem is one to three inches long, nearly equal, hollow, and continuous with the cap; greenish-yellow, covered with small white granules. the asci are cylindrical, slightly pointed at the apex, -spored. the spores are oblong, hyaline, smooth, sometimes slightly curved, - × µ. the paraphyses are slender, round, hyaline. the plants are gregarious and grow among moss or among leaves in the woods. this species is quite plentiful about chillicothe. it is distinguished from leotia chlorocephala by the color of its stem and cap. the color of the latter is green or dark green. they are found from july to frost. they are edible but not choice. _leotia chlorocephala. schw._ [illustration: figure .--leotia chlorocephala.] chlorocephala means green head. however, the entire plant is green. they grow in clusters, pileus round, depressed, somewhat translucent, more or less waxy, margin incurved, dark-verdigris-green, sometimes rather dark-green. the stem is rather short, almost equal; green, but often paler than the cap, covered with fine powdery dust, often twisted. asci cylindric-clavate, apex rather narrowed, -spored, spores smooth, hyaline, ends acute, often slightly curved, - × µ. the specimens in figure were found in purgatory swamp, near boston, by mrs. blackford. both cap and stem were a deep verdigris-green. they were sent to me during the warm weather of august. _peziza. linn._ peziza means stalkless mushroom. this is a large genus of discomycetous fungi in which the hymenium lines the cavity of a fleshy membranous or waxy cup. they are attached to the ground, decaying wood, or other substances, by the center, though sometimes they are distinctly stalked. they are often beautifully colored and are called fairy cups, blood cups, and cup fungi. they are all cup-or saucer-shaped; externally warted, scurvy or smooth; asci cylindrical, -spored. the genus is large. prof. peck reports species. found early in spring till early winter. _peziza acetabulum. linn._ reticulated peziza. edible. acetabulum, a small cup or vinegar cup. the spore-bearing body stipitate, cup-shaped, dingy, ribbed externally with branching veins, which run up from the short, pitted and hollow stem; mouth somewhat contracted; light umber without and darker within. found on the ground in the spring. _peziza badia. pers._ large brown peziza. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--peziza badia.] gregarious in its habits; sessile, or narrowed into a very short stout stem, more or less pitted; nearly round and closed at first, then expanded until cup-shaped; margin at first involute; externally covered with a frost-like bloom; disk darker than the external surface, very changeable in color; lobes more or less split and wavy, somewhat thick; spore-sacs cylindrical, apex truncante, sporidia oblong-ovate, epispore rough, -spored. found on the ground in the grass or by the roadside in open woods. i found my first specimens in a clearing at salem, but i have since found it at several points in the state. it should be fresh when eaten. _peziza coccinea. jacq._ the carmine peziza. [illustration: figure .--peziza coccinea. one-third natural size.] coccinea means scarlet or crimson. usually growing two or three on the same stick, the color is a very pure and beautiful scarlet, attractive to children; school children frequently bring me specimens, curious to know what they are. specimens not large, disk clear and pure carmine within, externally white, as is the stem; tomentose, with short, adpressed down; sporidia oblong, -spored. it is readily recognized by the pure carmine disk and whitish tomentose exterior. it is found in damp woods on decayed sticks, being very common all over the state. _peziza odorata. pk._ the odorous peziza. edible. gregarious in its habits. cup yellowish, sessile, translucent, becoming dull brown when old, brittle when fresh, flesh moist and watery; the frame of the cup is separable into two layers; the outer one is rough, while the inner one is smooth. the disk is yellowish-brown. the asci are cylindrical, opening by a lid. on ground in cellars, about barns and outbuildings. a very beautiful cluster grew upon a water-bucket in my stable. the cups were quite large, two and a half to three inches across. its odor is distinctive. it is very similar to peziza petersii from which it is distinguished by its larger spores and peculiar odor. found in may and june. _peziza stevensoni._ [illustration: figure .--peziza stevensoni.] this plant is sessile or nearly so, growing on the ground in dense clusters. the specimens in figure grew in dr. chas. miesse's cellar, in chillicothe. they grow quite large at times; are ovate, externally grayish-white, covered with a minute down or tomentum, internally reddish-brown, the rim of the cup finely serrated, as will be seen in the figure below. they are found from may to july. _peziza semitosta._ [illustration: figure .--peziza semitosta.] semitosta, from its scorched appearance, or umber-like color. the cup is one to one and a half inches across, hemispherical, hirsute-velvety without, date-brown within; margin indexed. the stem is ribbed or wrinkled. sporidia are subfusiform, . inch long. these plants are found on the ground in damp places. it was formerly called peziza semitosta or sarcoscypha semitosta. the plants in figure were found in august or september on the north side of the edinger hill, near chillicothe, and were photographed by dr. kellerman. no doubt edible, but the writer has not tried them. this is called macropodia semitosta. _peziza aurantia. fr._ orange-ground peziza. edible. aurantia means orange color. subsessile, irregular, oblique, externally somewhat pruinose, whitish. the sporidia are elliptic, rough. found on the ground in damp woods. the cups are often quite large and very irregular. found in august and september. _peziza repanda. wahl._ [illustration: figure .--peziza repanda.] repanda means bent backward. these plants are found in dark moist woods, growing on old, wet logs, or in well wooded earth. the cups are clustered or scattered, subsessile, contracted into a short, stout, stem-like base. when very small they appear like a tiny white knot on the surface of the log. this grows, so that soon a hollow sphere with an opening at the top is produced. the plant now begins to expand and flatten, producing an irregular, flattened disk with small upturned edges. the margin often becomes split and wavy, sometimes drooping and revolute; disk pale or dark brown, more or less wrinkled toward the center; externally the cup is a scurvy-white. the asci are -spored, quite large. the paraphyses are few, short, separate, clavate, and brownish at the tips. the spores are elliptical, thin-walled, hyaline, non-nucleate, × µ. found from may to october. edible. _peziza vesiculosa. bull._ the bladdery peziza. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--peziza vesiculosa.] often in thick clusters. those in the center are frequently distorted by mutual pressure; large, entire, sessile, at first globose; closed at first, then expanding; the margin of the cup more or less incurved, sometimes slightly notched; disk pallid-brown, externally; surface is covered with a coarsely granular or warty substance which plainly shows in the photograph. the hymenium is generally separable from the substance of the cap. the spores are smooth, transparent, continuous, elliptical, ends obtuse. they are found on dung-hills, hot-beds or wherever the ground has been strongly fertilized and contains the necessary moisture. this is an interesting plant and often found in large numbers. vesicolosa means full of bladders, as the picture will suggest. i found a very nice cluster on the th of april, , in my stable. _peziza scutellata. linn._ the shield-like peziza. [illustration: figure .--peziza scutellata. very small but will show form under the glass.] becoming plane, vermillion-red, externally paler, hispid towards the margin with straight black hairs. spores ellipsoid. found on damp rotten logs from july to october. very plentiful and very pretty under the magnifying glass. _peziza tuberosa. bull._ the tuberous peziza. [illustration: figure .--peziza tuberosa. natural size.] tuberosa, furnished with a tuber or sclerotium. the cup is thin, infundibuliform, bright brown, turning pale. the stem is elongated, springing from an irregular black tuber, called sclerotium. the stems run deep into the earth and are attached to a sclerotium, which will be seen in the halftone. many fungus plants have learned to store up fungus starch for the new plant. the sporidia are oblong-ellipsoid, simple. it is called by some authors sclerotinia tuberosa. it grows on the ground in the spring and may be known by its bright brown color and its stem running deep into the earth and attached to a tuber. _peziza hemispherica. wigg._ sessile, hemispherical, waxy, externally brownish, clothed with dense, fasciculate hairs; disk glaucous-white. this is called by gillet lachnea hemispherica. the cups are small, varying much in color and the sporidia are ellipsoidal. they are found on the ground in september and october. found in poke hollow. _peziza leporina. batsch._ substipitate, elongated on one side, ear-shaped, subferruginous externally, farinose internally; base even. it is sometimes cinereous or yellowish. sporidia ellipsoidal. this is called frequently otidea leporina, (batsch.) fckl. it is found on the ground in the woods during september and october. found in poke hollow. _peziza venosa. p._ this plant is saucer-shaped, sometimes many inches broad; sessile, somewhat twisted, dark umber, white beneath, wrinkled with rib-like veins. odor often strong. found growing on the ground in leaf mold. found in the spring, about the last of april, in james dunlap's woods, near chillicothe. this is also called discina venosa, suec. _peziza floccosa. schw._ [illustration: figure .--peziza floccosa. natural size.] this is a beautiful plant growing upon partially decayed logs. i have always found it upon hickory logs. the cap is cup-shaped, very much like a beaker. the stem is long and slender, rather woolly; the rim of the cap is fringed with long, strigose hairs. the inner surface of the cup represents the spore-bearing portion. the inside and the rim of the cup are very beautiful, being variegated with deep scarlet and white. also called sarcoscypha floccosa. the plant is found from june to september. _peziza occidentalis._ [illustration: figure .--peziza occidentalis. natural size.] this is another very showy plant, quite equal in attractiveness to p. floccosa and p. coccinea. the cup is infundibuliform, the outside as well as the stem whitish, and downy, the bowl or disk is reddish-orange. this is known by some authors as sarcoscypha occidentalis. it grows on rotten sticks upon the ground. may and june. _peziza nebulosa. cooke._ [illustration: figure .--peziza nebulosa.] nebulosa means cloudy or dark, from _nebula_, a cloud; from its color. ascophore stipitate, rather fleshy, closed at first, then cup-shaped, becoming somewhat plane, the margin slightly incurved, externally pilose or downy, pale gray or sometimes quite dark. asci are cylindrical; spores spindle-shaped, straight or bow-shaped, rough, - ; paraphyses thread-shaped. these plants are found on decayed stumps or logs in the wood. the woods where i have found them have been rather dense and damp. the plants in figure were found in haynes' hollow and photographed by dr. kellerman. _urnula craterium. (schw.) fr._ [illustration: figure .--urnula craterium. two-thirds natural size.] urnula means burned; craterium means a small crater; hence the translation is a burned-out crater, which will appear to the student as a very appropriate name. it is a very common and conspicuous ascomycetous, or cup fungus, growing in clusters on rotten sticks that lie in moist places. when the plants first appear they are small, black stems with scarcely any evidence of a cup. in a short time the end of the stem shows evidence of enlargement, showing lines of separation on the top. it soon opens and we have the cup as you see it in figure . the hymenium, or spore bearing surface, is the interior wall of the cup. the cup is lined inside with a palisade of long cylindrical sacs, each containing eight spores with a small amount of liquid. these sacs are at right angles to the inner surface, and are provided with lids similar to that of a coffee-pot; at maturity the lid is forced open and the spores are shot out of these sacs, and, by jarring the fungus when it is ready to make the discharge, they can be seen as a little cloud an inch or two above the cup. place a small slip of glass over the cup and you will see spores in groups of eight in very small drops of liquid on the glass. this species appears in april and may, and is certainly a very interesting plant. it is called by some peziza craterium, schw. _helotium. fr._ disc always open, at first punctiform, then dilated, convex or concave, naked. excipulum waxy, free, marginate, externally naked. _helotium citrinum. fr._ lemon-colored helotium. [illustration: figure .--helotium citrinum. disc-fungus, yellow growing on rotten logs. slightly magnified.] this is a beautiful little disc-fungus, yellow, growing upon rotten logs in damp woods. they often grow in dense clusters; a beautiful lemon-yellow, the head being plane or concave, with a short, thick, paler stem, forming an inverted cone. asci elongated, narrowly cylindrical, attenuated at the base into a long, slender, crooked pedicel, -spored. sporidia oblong, elliptical, with two or three minute nuclei. this is quite a common plant in our woods during wet weather or in damp places, growing upon old logs and stumps, in woods, in the fall. figure will give an idea of their appearance when in dense clusters. the plants photographed by dr. kellerman. _helotium lutescens. fr._ yellowish helotium. lutescens means yellowish. the plants are small, sessile, or attached by a very short stem; closed at first, then expanding until nearly plane; disk yellow, smooth; asci clavate, spored; spores hyaline, smooth. gregarious or scattered. found on half-decayed branches. _helotium æruginosum. fr._ the green helotium. Æruginosum means verdigris-green. gregarious or scattered, staining the wood on which they grow to a deep verdigris-green; ascophore at first turbinate and closed, then expanding, the margin usually wavy and more or less irregular; flexible, glabrous, even, somewhat contracted, and minutely wrinkled when dry; every part a deep verdigris-green, the disc often becoming paler with a tinge of tan color; - mm. across; stem - mm. long, expanding into the ascophore; hypothecium and excipulum formed of interlaced, hyaline hyphæ, - µ. thick, these becoming stouter and colored green in the cortex; asci narrowly cylindric-clavate, apex slightly narrowed, -spored; spores irregularly -seriate, hyaline or with a slight tinge of green, very narrowly cylindric-fusiform, straight or curved, - × . - . µ. -gutullate, or with several minute green oil globules; paraphyses slender, with a tinge of green at the tip. _massee._ massee calls this chlorosplenium æruginosum, de not. it is quite common on oak branches, staining to a deep green the wood upon which it grows. it is widely distributed, specimens having been sent me from as far east as massachusetts. the mycelium-stains in the wood are met more frequently than the fruit. _bulgaria. fr._ bulgaria--probably first found in that principality. receptacle orbicular, then truncate, glutinous within, at first closed; hymenium even, persistent, smooth. _bulgaria inquinans. fr._ the blackish bulgaria. [illustration: figure .--bulgaria inquinans. two-thirds natural size.] inquinans means befouling or polluting; so called because of the blackish, gelatinous coating of the cap. receptacle orbicular, closed at first, then opening, forming a cup, as shown on the right in figure ; disk or cup becoming plane; black, sometimes becoming lacunose; tough, elastic, gelatinous, dark-brown, or chocolate, almost black, wrinkled, and rough externally; stem very short, almost obsolete; cup light umber; sporidia large, elliptical, brown. this plant is quite plentiful in some localities near chillicothe. it is found in woods, on oak trunks or limbs partially decayed. chapter xiii. nidulariaceae--bird's nest fungi. spores produced on sporophores, compacted into one or more globose or disciform bodies, contained within a distinct peridium. _berkeley._ there are four genera included in this order. cyathus--peridium cup-shaped, composed of three different membranes. crucibulum--peridium of a uniform spongy membrane. nidularia--peridium globose, sporangia enveloped in mucus. sphærobolus--peridium double, sporangia ejected singly. _cyathus. pers._ cyathus is from a greek word meaning a cup. the peridium is composed of three membranes very closely related, closed at first by a white membrane, but finally bursting at the top. sporangia plane, umbilicate, attached to the wall by an elastic cord. _cyathus striatus. hoffm._ striate cyathus. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--cyathus striatus.] the plants are small, obconic, truncate, broadly open; externally ferruginous, with a hairy tomentum, internally lead-color, smooth, striated. the sporangia are somewhat trigonous, whitish, broadly umbilicate; covering of the cup thin, evanescent, somewhat thicker underneath, and cottony, often covered with down-like meal. the spores are thick and oblong. this is a very interesting little plant. it is quite widely distributed. i have had it from several states, including new england. it is easily identified by the striations, or lines, on the inside of the cup, being the only species thus marked by internal striæ. the peridioles of the species fill only the lower part of the cup, below the striations. _cyathus vernicosus. d. c._ varnished cyathus. [illustration: figure .--cyathus vernicosus.] vernicosus means varnished. it is bell-shaped, base narrowly subsessile, broadly open above, somewhat wavy; externally rusty-brown, silky tomentose, finally becoming smooth, internally lead-colored. the sporangia are blackish, frequently somewhat pale, even; covering rather thick, sprinkled with a grayish meal. spores elliptical, colorless, - × µ. i have frequently seen the ground in gardens and stubble-fields covered with these beautiful little plants. the quite firm, thick, and flaring cup will easily distinguish the species. the eggs or peridioles are black and quite large, appearing white because covered with a thin white membrane. found in late summer and fall. the plants in figure were photographed by prof. g. d. smith. _cyathus stercoreus._ [illustration: figure .--cyathus stercoreus.] stercoreus is from _stercus_, dung. this species, as the name suggests, is found on manure or manured grounds. mr. lloyd gives the following description: "the cups are even inside, and with shaggy hairs outside. when old they become smoother, and are sometimes mistaken for cyathus vernicosus. however when once learned, the plants can be readily distinguished by the cups. cyathus stercoreus varies considerably, however, as to shape and size of cups, according to habitat. if growing on a cake of manure, they are shorter and more cylindrical; if in loose manured ground, especially in grass, they are more slender and inclined to a stalk at the base." the peridioles or eggs are blacker than other species. they are found in late summer and fall. _crucibulum. tul._ the peridium consists of a uniform, spongy, fibrous felt, closed by a flat scale-like covering of the same color. the sporangia are plane, attached by a cord, springing from a small nipple-like tubercle. this genus is distinguished from cyathus, its nearest ally, by the peridial wall, consisting of two layers only. _crucibulum vulgare. tul._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--crucibulum vulgare.] the peridium is tan-colored, thick externally nearly even, internally quite even, smooth, shining; mouths of young plants are covered with a thin yellowish membrane called the epiphragm. when old the cups bleach out and lose their yellow color. the peridioles or eggs are white, that is they are covered with a white membrane. their yellowish color and white eggs will readily distinguish this species. they are found on decayed weeds, sticks, and pieces of wood. the specimens in the halftone grew on an old mat and were photographed by mr. c. g. lloyd. _nidularia. tul._ the peridium is uniform, consisting of a single membrane; globose, at first closed, finally ruptured or opening with a circular mouth. the sporangia are quite small and numerous, not attached by a funiculus to the peridium, enveloped in mucus. _nidularia pisiformis. tul._ pea-shaped nidularia. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--nidularia pisiformis.] pisiformis is from two latin words meaning _pea_ and _form_. the plant is gregarious, nearly round, sessile, rootless, hairy, brown or brownish, splitting irregularly. the sporangia are subrotund or discoidal in form, dark brown, smooth, shining. the spores are colorless, round or elliptical or pear-shaped, produced on sterigmata, - × - µ. sometimes found on the ground and on leaves, but their favorite home is an old log. found from july to september. chapter xiv. sub-class basidiomycetes. group gastromycetes. gastromycetes is from two greek words: _gaster_, stomach; _mycetes_, fungus. we have already seen that, in the group, hymenomycetes, the spore-bearing surface is exposed as in the common mushroom or in the pore-bearing varieties, but in the gastromycetes the hymenium is inclosed in the rind or peridium. the word peridium comes from _peridio_ (i wrap around); because the peridium entirely envelops the spore-bearing portion, which, in due time, sheds the inclosed spores that have been formed inside the basidia and spicules, as will be seen in figure . the cavity within the peridium consists of two parts: the threaded part, called the capillitium, which can be seen in any dried puffball, and a cellular part, called the gleba, which is the spore-bearing tissue, composed of minute chambers lined with the hymenium. the peridium breaks in various ways to permit the spores to escape. when children pinch a puffball to "see the smoke," as they say, issue from it, little do they know that they are doing just what the puffball would have them do, in order that its seeds may be scattered to the winds. in case of the phalloides, the hymenium deliquesces, instead of drying up. berkeley, in his "outlines," gives the following characterization of this family: "hymenium more or less permanently concealed, consisting in most cases of closely packed cells, of which the fertile ones bear naked spores in distinct spicules, exposed only by the rupture or decay of the investing coat or peridium." the following families will be treated here: i. phalloideæ--terrestrial. hymenium deliquescent. ii. lycoperdaceæ--cellular at first. hymenium drying up in a mass of threads and spores. iii. sclerodermaceæ--peridium inclosing sporangia. _phalloideæ. fr._ volva universal, the intermediate stratum gelatinous. hymenium deliquescent. _berkeley's outlines._ the following genera will be represented: i. phallus--pileus free around the stem. ii. mutinus--pileus attached to the stem. _phallus duplicatus. bosc._ laced stinkhorn. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate lv. figure .--phallus duplicatus. natural size, showing veil.] volva egg-shaped, thick, whitish, frequently having a pinkish tinge. the stem is cylindrical, cellulose, tapering upward. the veil is reticulate, frequently surrounding the whole of the stem from the pileus to the volva, often torn. the pileus is pitted, deliquescent, six to eight inches high, apex acute. spores elliptic-oblong. i am sure i never saw finer lace-work than i have seen on this plant. a few years ago one of these plants insisted upon growing near my house, where a fence post had formerly been, with the effect of almost driving the family from home. one can hardly imagine so beautiful a plant giving off such an odor. it is not a common plant in our state. _phallus ravenelii. b. & c._ [illustration: figure .--phallus ravenelii. natural size, showing volva at base, receptacle and cap.] this plant is extremely abundant about chillicothe. i have seen hundreds of fully developed plants on a few square yards of old sawdust; and one might easily think that all the bad smells in the world had been turned loose at that place. the eggs in the sawdust can be gathered by the bushel. in figure is represented a cluster, of these eggs. the section of an egg in the center of the cluster shows the outline of the volva, the pileus, and the embryo stem. inside of the volva, in the middle, is the short undeveloped stem; covering the upper part and sides of the stem is the pileus; the fruit-bearing part, which is divided into small chambers, lies on the outside of the pileus. the spores are borne on club-shaped basidia as shown in figure , within the chamber of the fruit-bearing part, and when the spores mature, the stem begins to elongate and force the gleba and pileus through the volva, leaving it at the base of the stem, as will be seen in figure . the large egg on the left in the background of figure is nearly ready to break the volva. i brought in a large egg one evening and placed it on the mantle. later in the evening, the room being warm, while we were reading my wife noticed this egg beginning to move and it developed in a few minutes to the shape you see in figure . the development was so rapid that the motion was very perceptible. the pileus is conical in shape, and after the disappearance of the gleba the surface of the pileus is merely granular. the plants are four to six inches high. the stem is hollow and tapers from the middle to each end. this plant is also known as dictyophora ravenelii, burt. [illustration: figure .--phallus ravenelii. two-thirds natural size.] [illustration: figure .--phallus ravenelii. two-thirds natural size, showing the egg stage.] _lysurus borealis. burt._ [illustration: figure .--lysurus borealis.] the receptacle is borne on a stalk, hollow, attenuated toward the base, divided above into arms, which do not join at their apices, and which bear the spore mass in their inner surfaces and sides, inclosing the spore mass when young, but later diverging. the stem of the phalloid is white, hollow, attenuated downward; the arms are narrow, lance-shaped, with pale flesh-colored backs, traversed their entire length by a shallow furrow. the egg in the center is about ready to break the volva and develop to a full grown plant. the plants in figure were found near akron, ohio, and photographed by g. d. smith. _mutinus. fr._ the gleba is borne directly on the upper portion of the stem, which is hollow and composed of a single layer of tissue; and the plant has no separate pileus, by which characteristic the genus differs from phallus. _mutinus caninus. fr._ [illustration: figure .--mutinus caninus.] the gleba-bearing portion is short, red or flesh-colored, subacute, wrinkled, the cap or gleba forming the spore-bearing mass which is usually conical, sometimes oblong or ovoid, covering one-fourth to one-sixth the total length of the stem. the stem is elongated, spindle-shaped, hollow, cylindrical, cellular, white, sometimes rosy. the spores are elliptical, involved in a green mucus, × µ. the plant comes from an egg, which is about the size of a quail's egg. you can find them in the ground if you will mark the place where you have seen them growing. they are found in gardens and in old woods and thickets. i have found this species in several localities about chillicothe, but always in damp thickets. mr. lloyd thought this more nearly resembled the european species than any he had seen in this country. found in july, august, and september. _mutinus elegans. montagne._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate lvi. figure .--mutinus elegans. natural size, showing an egg and a section of an egg.] [illustration: figure .--mutinus elegans. one-third natural size, showing volva, white receptacle and red cap.] the pileus is acuminate, perforated at apex. the stem is cylindrical, tapering gradually to the apex, whitish or pinkish below, pileus bright red. the volva is oblong-ovoid, pinkish, segments two or three. the spores are elliptical-oblong. _morgan._ the odor of this plant is not as strong as in some of the phalloids. the eggs of phallus and mutinus are said to be very good when fried properly, but my recollection of the odor of the plant has been too vivid for me to try them. it is usually found in mixed woods, but sometimes in richly cultivated fields. i have found them frequently about chillicothe six to seven inches high. in figure on the right is shown an egg and above it is a section of an egg containing the embryonic plant. this plant is called by prof. morgan mutinus bovinus. after seeing this picture the collector will not fail to recognize it. it is one of the curious growths in nature. found in july and august. chapter xv. lycoperdaceae--puff-balls. this family includes all fungi which have their spores in closed chambers until maturity. the chambers are called the gleba and this is surrounded by the peridium or rind, which in different puffballs exhibits various characteristic ways of opening to let the spores escape. the peridium is composed of two distinct layers, one called the cortex, the other the peridium proper. the plant is generally sessile, sometimes more or less stemmed, at maturity filled with a dusty mass of spores and thread. it affords many of our most delicious fungus food products. the following genera are considered here: i. calvatia--the large puffball. ii. lycoperdon--the small puffball. iii. bovista--the tumbling puffball. iv. geaster--earth star. v. scleroderma--the hard puffball. _calvatia. fr._ this genus represents the largest sized puffballs. they have a thick cord-like mycelium rooting from the base. the peridium is very large, breaking away in fragments when ripe and exposing the gleba. the cortex is thin, adherent, often soft and smooth like kid leather, sometimes covered with minute squamules; the inner peridium is thin and fragile, at maturity cracking into areas. the capillitium is a net-work of fine threads through the tissues of spore-bearing portion; tissue, snow white at first, turning greenish-yellow, then brown; the mass of spores and the dense net-work of threads (capillitium) attached to the peridium and to the subgleba or sterile base which is cellulose; limited and concave above. spores small, round, usually sessile. _calvatia gigantea. batsch._ the giant puffball. edible. [illustration: plate lvii. figure .--calvatia gigantea.] this species grows to an immense size (often twenty inches in diameter); round or obovoid, with a thick mycelial cord rooting it to the ground, sessile, cortex white and glossy, sometimes slightly roughened by minute floccose warts, becoming yellowish or brown. the inner peridium is thin and fragile, after maturity breaking up into fragments, apparently without any subgleba; capillitium and spores yellowish-green to dingy-olive. the spores are round, sometimes minutely warted. not common about chillicothe, but in the northwestern part of the state they are very plentiful in their season, and very large. standing in mr. joseph's wood-pasture, east of bowling green, i have counted fifteen giant puffballs whose diameters would average ten inches, and whose cortex was as white and glossy as a new kid glove. a friend of mine, living in bowling green, and driving home from deshler, saw in a wood-pasture twenty-five of these giant puffballs. being impressed with the sight and having some grain sacks in his wagon he filled them and brought them home. he at once telephoned for me to come to his house, as the mountain was too big to take to mohammed. he was surprised to learn that he had found that proverbial calf which is all sweet-breads. that evening we supplied twenty-five families with slices of these puffballs. they can be kept for two or three days on ice. the photograph, taken by prof. shaffner of ohio state university, will show how they look growing in the grass. they seem to delight to nestle in the tall bluegrass. this species has been classed heretofore as lycoperdon giganteum. found from august to october. [illustration: figure .--calvatia gigantia. one-fifth natural size, showing how they grow in the grass.] _calvatia lilacina. berk._ lilac puffball. edible. [illustration: plate lviii. figure .--calvatia lilacina. natural size in a growing state.] the peridium is three to six inches in diameter; globose or depressed globose; smooth or minutely floccose or scaly; whitish, cinereous-brown or pinkish-brown, often cracking into areas in the upper part; commonly with a short, thick, stemless base; capillitium and spores purple-brown, these and the upper part of the peridium falling away and disappearing when old, leaving a cup-shaped base with a ragged margin. spores globose, rough, purple-brown, - . broad. _peck_, th rep. n. y. state bot. it is very common all over the state. i have seen pastures in shelby and defiance counties dotted all over with this species. when the inside is white, they are very good and meaty. no puffball is poisonous, so far as is known, but if the inside has turned yellowish at all it is apt to be quite bitter. it will often be seen in pastures and open woods in the form of a cup, the upper portion having broken away and the wind having scooped out the purple spore-mass, leaving only the cup-shaped base. the specimens in figure are just beginning to crack open and to show purplish stains. they represent less than one-fourth of the natural size. they look very much like the smaller sized c. gigantea, but the purple spores and the subgleba at once distinguish the species. this species, found from july to october, is sometimes classed as lycoperdon cyathiforme. the photograph was taken by prof. longyear. [illustration: figure .--calvatia lilacina.] _calvatia cælata. bull._ the carved puffball. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate lix. figure .--calvatia caelata.] [illustration: figure .--calvatia cælata.] cælata, carved. peridium large, obovoid or top-shaped, depressed above, with a stout thick base and a cord-like root. cortex a thickish floccose layer, with coarse warts or spines above, whitish then ochraceous or finally brown, at length breaking up into areola which are more or less persistent; inner peridium thick but fragile, thinner about the apex, where it finally ruptures, forming a large, irregular, torn opening. subgleba occupying nearly half the peridium, cup-shaped above and for a long time persistent; the mass of spores and capillitium compact, farinaceous greenish-yellow or olivaceous, becoming pale to dark-brown; the threads are very much branched, the primary branches two or three times as thick as the spores, very brittle, soon breaking up into fragments. spores globose, even, - . in diameter, sessile or sometimes with a short or minute pedicel. peridium is three to five inches in diameter. _morgan._ this species is much like the preceding but can be easily distinguished by the larger size and the yellowish-olive color of the mature spore-mass. the sterile base is often the larger part of the fungus and, as will be seen in figure , it is anchored by a heavy root-like growth. it is found growing on the ground in fields and thin woods. when white through and through, sliced, rolled in egg and cracker crumbs, and nicely fried, you are glad you know a puffball. found from august to october. _calvatia craniiformis. schw._ the brain-shaped calvatia. edible. [illustration: plate lx. figure .--calvatia craniiformis.] [illustration: figure .--the sterile part of c. craniiformis.] craniiformis is from _cranion_, a skull; _forma_, a form. the peridium is very large, obovoid or top-shaped, depressed above, the base thick and stout, with a cord-like root. the cortex is a smooth continuous layer, very thin and fragile, easily peeling off, pallid or grayish, sometimes with a reddish tinge, often becoming folded in areas; the inner peridium is thin, ochraceous to bright-brown, extremely fragile, the upper part, after maturity, breaking into fragments and falling away. the subgleba occupies about one-half of the peridium, is cup-shaped above and for a long time persistent; the mass of spores and capillitium is greenish-yellow, then ochraceous or dirty olivaceous; the threads are very long, about as thick as the spores, branched. the spores are globose, even, - . µ in diameter, with minute pedicels. _morgan._ it is difficult to distinguish this from c. lilacina when fresh, but when ripe the color will tell the species. figure shows the plant as it appears on the ground, and figure shows the subgleba or sterile base, which is frequently found on the ground after weathering the winter. this plant is very common on the hillsides under small oak shrubbery. i have gathered a basketful within a few feet. they grow very large, often five to six inches in diameter, seeming to delight in rather poor soil. when the spore-mass is white this is an excellent fungus, but exceedingly bitter after it has turned yellow. found during october and november. _calvatia elata. massee._ the stemmed calvatia. edible. [illustration: figure .--calvatia elata.] elata means tall; so called from its long stem. the peridium is round, often slightly depressed above, plicate below, where it is abruptly contracted into a long stem-like base. the base is slender, round, and frequently pitted; mycelium rather plentiful, fibrous and thread-like. when in good condition it is a rich cream color. the cortex consists of a coat of minute persistent granules or spinules. the inner peridium is white or cream-colored, becoming brown or olivaceous, quite thin and fragile, the upper part at maturity breaking up and falling away. the subgleba occupies the stem. the mass of spores and capillitium is usually brown or greenish-brown. the threads are very long, branched, branches slender. spores round, even, sometimes slightly warted, - µ, with a slight pedicel. the plant grows on low mossy grounds among bushes, especially where it is inclined to be swampy. the plant in figure was found in a sphagnum swamp near akron and was photographed by prof. g. d. smith. i am inclined to think it the same as calvatia saccata, fr. _lycoperdon. tourn._ mycelium fibrous, rooting from the base. peridium small, globose, obovoid or turbinate, with a more or less thickened base; cortex a subpersistent coat of soft spines, scales, warts or granules; inner peridium thin, membranaceous, becoming papyraceous, dehiscent by a regular apical mouth. _morgan._ this genus includes puffballs with apical openings and is divided into two series, a purple-spored and an olive-spored series. the microscope shows that the gleba is composed of a great number of spores mixed with simple or branched threads. there are two sets of threads; one set arises from the peridial wall and the other from the subgleba or columella. purple-spored series. _lycoperdon pulcherrimum. b. & c._ the most beautiful puffball. edible. [illustration: _specimen from a. p. morgan._ _photo by c. g. lloyd_ figure .--lycoperdon pulcherrimum.] [illustration: figure .--lycoperdon pulcherrimum.] pulcherrimum, most beautiful. the peridium is obovoid, with a short base, the mycelium forming a cord like a root. the cortex is covered with long white spines, converging at the apex, as will be seen in figure . the spines soon fall from the upper part of the peridium, leaving the inner peridium with a smooth purplish-brown surface, often slightly scarred by the base of the spine. the subgleba occupies at least a third of the peridium. the spores and the capillitium are at first olivaceous, then brownish-purple, the spores rough and minutely warted. the plant is one to two inches in diameter. it is found in low, rich ground, in fields and wood margins. only young and fresh plants are good. the lower plant in figure shows where the spines have begun to fall, also the strong mycelial cord referred to in the description. i am indebted to mr. lloyd for the photograph. found in september and october. _lycoperdon umbrinum. pers._ the smooth puffball. edible. umbrinum, dingy umber. peridium obovate, nearly sub-turbinate, with a soft, delicate, velvety bark; yellowish; inner peridium smooth and glossy, opening by a small aperture. the spores and capillitium, olivaceous, then purplish-brown. the capillitium with a central columella. a very attractive little plant, not frequently found. this plant is also called l. glabellum. in woods, september and october. olive-spored series. _lycoperdon gemmatum. batsch._ the gemmed puffball. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate lxi. figure .--lycoperdon gemmatum. natural size. entirely white when young. from the young to the matured dehiscing plant.] the peridium is turbinate, depressed above; the base short and obconic, or more elongated and tapering, or subcylindric, arising from a fibrous mycelium. the cortex consists of long, thick, erect spines or warts of irregular shape, with intervening smaller ones, whitish or gray in color, sometimes with a tinge of red or brown; the larger spines first fall away, leaving pale spots on the surface, and giving it a reticulate appearance. the subgleba is variable in amount, usually more than half the peridium; mass of spores and capillitium greenish-yellow, then pale-brown; threads simple or scarcely branched, about as thick as the spores. spores globose, even, or very minutely warted. _morgan._ the species is readily recognized by the large erect spines which, because of their peculiar form and color, have given the notion of gems, whence the name of the species. these and the reticulations can be seen in figure by the aid of a glass. they are frequently found about chillicothe. _lycoperdon subincarnatum. pk._ the pinkish puffball. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--lycoperdon subincarnatum.] subincarnatum means pale flesh-color. the peridium is globe-shaped, sessile, without a stem-like base. not large, rarely over one inch in diameter. the subgleba is present but small. the outer peridium is pinkish-brown, with minute short, stout spinules, which fall away at maturity, leaving the inner ash-colored peridium neatly pitted by the falling off of the spinules of the outer coat, the pits not being surrounded by dotted lines. the capillitium and spores are first greenish-yellow, then brownish-olive. the threads are long, simple, and transparent. the columella is present and the spores are round and minutely warted. they are often found in abundance on decayed logs, old stumps, and on the ground about stumps where the ground is especially full of decayed wood. they are found from august to october. _lycoperdon cruciatum. roth._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--lycoperdon cruciatum.] peridium broadly ovate, often much depressed, plicate underneath, with a cord-like root; cortex a dense white coat of convergent spines, which at maturity peel off in flakes, as can be seen in the photograph, revealing a thin furfuraceous layer of minute yellowish scales covering the inner peridium. the subgleba broad, occupying about one-third of the cavity. the spores and capillitium are dark-brown. this species is very hard to distinguish from wrightii. it was once called _separans_ because of the fact that the outer coat separates, or peels off, so readily from the inner peridium. found in open woods, or along paths in open woods or pastures. from july to october. _lycoperdon wrightii. b. & c._ edible. [illustration: figure .--lycoperdon wrightii. natural size.] the specific name is in honor of charles wright. the peridium is globe-like, sessile, white, minutely spinulose, often converging at the apex; when denuded, smooth or minutely velvety. the spores and capillitium greenish-yellow, then brown-olive; the columella present, but very small. spores small, smooth, - µ. the plants are very small, scarcely more than two cm. in diameter. they are generally cæspitose in short grass, along paths, and in sandy places. i have frequently seen the ground white with them on cemetery hill where the specimens in figure were found. they were photographed by dr. kellerman. found from july to the last of october. _lycoperdon pyriforme. schaeff._ the pear-shaped puffball. edible. [illustration: plate lxii. figure .--lycoperdon pyriforme. natural size when young as seen growing on decayed wood. the sections show they are in the edible state.] pyriforme means pear-shaped. the peridium is ovate or pear-shaped, with a profusion of mycelial threads, as will be seen in figure . the cortex is covered with a thin coat of minute brownish scales or granules, which are quite persistent. these can be seen in the photograph by the aid of a glass. they are sessile or have a short stem-like base; the subgleba is small and compact; the capillitium and spores are first white, then greenish-yellow, then dingy olivaceous; the inner coat is smooth, papery, whitish-gray or brownish, opening by an apical mouth; the spores are round, even, greenish-yellow to brownish-olive. they grow in dense clusters, as will be seen in figure . an entire log and stump, about four feet high, and the roots around it, were covered, as shown in plate lxii. i gathered about three pecks, at this one place, to divide with my friends. it is one of the most common puffballs, and you may usually be sure of getting some, if you go into the woods where there are decayed logs and stumps. a friend of mine, who goes hunting with me occasionally, eats them as one would eat cherries. found from july to november. [illustration: figure .--lycoperdon pyriforme. natural size.] _lycoperdon pusillum. pr._ the small lycoperdon. edible. pusillum means small. peridium is one-fourth to one inch broad, globose, scattered or cespitose, sessile, radicating, with but little cellular tissue at the base, white, or whitish, brownish when old, rimose-squamulose or slightly roughened with minute floccose or furfuraceous persistent warts; capillitium and spores greenish-yellow, then dingy olivaceous. spores smooth µ in diameter. _peck._ these are found from june to cool weather in the fall, in pastures where the grass is eaten short. when mature they dehisce by a small opening, and when broken open will disclose the olive or greenish-yellow capillitium. the spores are of the same color, smooth and round. _lycoperdon acuminatum. bosc._ the pointed lycoperdon. edible. acuminatum means pointed. the peridium is small, round, then egg-shaped; with a plentiful mass of mycelium in the moss in which the plants seem to delight. the plant is white and the outer rind is soft and delicate. there is no subgleba; the spores and capillitium are pale-greenish-yellow, then a dirty gray. the threads are simple, transparent, much thicker than the spores. the spores are round, smooth, µ in diameter. i have found the plants frequently about chillicothe on damp, moss-covered logs and sometimes at the base of beech trees, when covered with moss. they are very small, not exceeding one-half inch in diameter. the small ovoid form, with the white, soft, delicate cortex, will serve to distinguish the species. found from september to october. _bovista. dill._ the genus bovista differs from lycoperdon in several ways. when the bovista ripens it breaks from its moorings and is blown about by the wind. it opens by an apical mouth, as does the genus lycoperdon, but the species of bovista have no sterile base. they are puffballs of small size. the outer coat is thin and fragile and at maturity peels off, leaving an inner coat firm, papery, and elastic, just such a coat as is suitable for the dispersion of its spores. leaving its moorings at maturity, it is blown about the fields and woods, and with every tumble it makes it scatters some of its spores. it may take years to accomplish this perfectly. the species of the lycoperdon do not leave their moorings naturally; their spores are dispersed through an apical mouth by a collapse of the walls of the peridium, after the fashion of a bellows, by which spores are driven out to the pleasure of the wind. in bovista the threads are free or separate from the peridium, but in lycoperdon they arise from the peridium and also from the columella. _bovista pila. b. & c._ the ball-like bovista. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate lxiii. figure .--bovista pila. natural size of matured specimens.] pila means a round ball. the peridium is globe-like, sessile, with a stout mycelium, a cortex thin, white at first, then brown, forming a smooth continuous coat, breaking up at maturity and rapidly disappearing. the inner peridium is tough, parchment-like, elastic, smooth, persistent, purplish-brown, fading to gray. the dispersion of spores takes place through an apical mouth. the capillitium is firm, compact, persistent, at first clay-colored, then purple-brown; threads small-branched, the ends being rigid, straight, pointed. there is something so noticeable about this little tumbler that you will know it when you see it, and if you often ramble over the fields you will soon meet it. however, i have as yet seen only the matured specimens. _bovista plumbea. pers._ lead-colored bovista. edible. [illustration: figure .--bovista plumbea. natural size. white when young.] the plant is small, never growing to more than an inch and a fourth in diameter. the peridium is depressed globose, with a fibrous mycelium. the outer peridium is rather thick and when the plant is nearing maturity it breaks up readily unless handled very carefully; at maturity it scales off, except a small portion about the base. the outer peridium is white and comparatively smooth, the inner is thin, tough, smooth, lead-colored, dehiscent at the apex by a round or oblong mouth. mass of spores and capillitium not solid or hard; yellowish-brown, or olivaceous, then purplish-brown; the threads three to five times branched, the ends of the branches slender and tapering to a point. the spores are oval and smooth, with long transparent pedicels. this species grows on the ground in old pastures, being quite plentiful after warm rains, from the first of may till fall. it is one of the best of the puffballs, but should be eaten before the inner peridium begins to assume the tough form. _bovistella. morgan._ bovistella, a diminutive of bovista, though the plants are usually larger than the bovistas. the mycelium is cord-like; peridium nearly round, cortex a dense floccose coat; inner peridium thin, strong, elastic, opening by an apical mouth; subgleba present, cup-shaped; threads free and separate, branched; spores white. the genus bovistella has the internal character of bovista, and the habits of lycoperdon. _bovistella ohiensis. morgan._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--bovistella ohiensis. natural size.] peridium globe-like or broadly obovoid, sometimes much depressed, with small plications or wrinkles underneath, and a thick cord-like base or root, as will be seen in figure . the outer coat is dense, floccose, or with soft warts or spines, white or grayish, drying to a buff color, and in time falling away; the inner coat is smooth, shining, with a pale brown or yellowish surface. the subgleba is large, occupying half of the peridium, extending up on the walls of the peridium, making it cup-shaped, and quite persistent. the spores and capillitium are rather loose, friable, clay-color to pale-brown. the threads, originating within the spore mass, and having no connection with the inner coat, are free, short, three to five times branching; branches tapering to the end. the spores are round to oval, with long translucent pedicels. this can be readily distinguished from the species of bovista because it has a sterile base; and from lycoperdon because its threads are separate and free, while those of the lycoperdon are attached both to the tissues of the inner peridium and to the columella or sterile base. they are found growing on the ground in old pastures, or in open woods. _scleroderma. pers._ scleroderma is from two greek words: _scleros_, hard; _derma_, skin. the peridium is firm, single, generally thick, usually bursting irregularly, and exposing the gleba, which is of uniform texture and consistency. there is no capillitium, but yellow flocci are found interspersed with the spores. the spores are globose, rough, usually mixed with the hyphæ tissue. _scleroderma aurantium. pers._ the common scleroderma. edible. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate lxiv. figure .--scleroderma aurantium. natural size, showing a section of a young specimen.] [illustration: figure .--scleroderma aurantium.] aurantium means colored like an orange. this is usually called s. vulgare. the peridium is rough, warty, depressed, globose, corky and hard, yellowish, opening by irregular fissures to scatter the spores; inner mass bluish-black, spores dingy. the plant remains solid until it is quite old. it is sessile, with a rooting base which is never sterile. i have followed mr. lloyd's classification in separating the species, calling the rough-surfaced one s. aurantium, and the smooth-surfaced s. cepa. in labeling it edible i wish only to indicate that it is not poisonous, as it is generally thought to be; however, it cannot be claimed as a very good article of food. it has a wide distribution over the states. the plants in figure were found on cemetery hill, chillicothe, and photographed by dr. kellerman. found from august to november. _scleroderma tenerum. berk._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--scleroderma tenerum.] this species is often regarded as a small form of s. verrucosum, but it always seemed strange to me that this rather smooth plant should be called "verrucosum" when its frequently near neighbor, s. aurantium, is very verrucose. s. tenerum is a very widely distributed species in the united states, somewhat constant as to form and quite frequent in occurrence. mr. lloyd, in his mycological notes, gives a very clear photograph of a plant that is quite local in this country and which he thinks should be called s. verrucosum of europe. the plant differs very widely from the one we find so commonly which by many authors has been called s. verrucosum. some have even called it scleroderma bovista. the plant is nearly sessile, somewhat irregular, peridium thin, soft, yellowish, densely marked with small scales, dehiscence irregular, flocci yellow and spores dingy olive. the species may be known by the thin and comparatively smooth peridium and yellow flocci. it is quite common in the united states, while the typical plant, s. verrucosum, is confined to a few localities along the atlantic coast. _scleroderma cepa. pers._ cepa meaning an onion; having very much the appearance of an onion. the peridium is thick, smooth, reddish-yellow to reddish-brown, opening by an irregular mouth. the plant is sessile and quite strongly rooted with fine rootlets. its habitat, with us, is along the banks of small brooks in the woods. it has been classed heretofore as s. vulgare, smooth variety. i sent some to prof. peck, who quite agrees that they should be separated from s. vulgare. found from august to november. _scleroderma geaster. fr._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ plate lxv. figure .--scleroderma geaster.] geaster, so called because it has a star-like opening somewhat similar to the genus geaster. peridium subglobose, thick, with a very short stem, or almost--sometimes entirely--sessile; hard, rough, splitting into irregular stellate limbs; frequently well buried in the ground. inner mass dark-brown or blackish, sometimes with rather a purplish tinge. some grow quite large with the peridium very thick. my attention was first attracted by some of the peridium shells upon the ground on cemetery hill. the plant is quite abundant there from september to december. _catastoma. morgan._ this is a small puffball-like plant, growing just beneath the ground and attached to its bed by very small threads which issue from every part of the cortex, which is quite thick. breaking away at maturity in a circumscissile manner, the lower part is held fast to the ground, while the upper part remains attached to the inner peridium as a kind of cup. the inner peridium, with the top part of the outer peridium attached, becomes loose and tumbles over the ground, the mouth being in the base of the plant as it grew. _catastoma circumscissum. b. & c._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--catastoma circumscissum.] circumscissum means divided into halves. the peridium is usually round, more or less depressed, commonly rough because of the soil attached; the larger part of the plant remaining in the soil as a cup; the upper part with the inner peridium, depressed-globose, thin, pallid, becoming gray, with branny scales, with a small basal mouth. a thin spongy layer will frequently be seen between the outer and inner peridium. the mass of the spores is olivaceous, changing to pale-brown. the spores are round, minutely warted, - µ. in diameter, often with very short pedicels. the plants are usually found in pastures along paths. i have seen them in several parts of ohio. they are found from maine to the western mountains. this is called bovista circumscissa by berkeley. there is a species of a western range called c. subterraneum. this differs mainly in having larger spores. it seems to be confined to the middle west. however, it does not grow under the ground, as its name would suggest. there is also another species called c. pedicellatum. this species seems to be confined to the southern states and differs mainly in the spores having marked pedicels and closely warted. _podaxineæ._ this tribe is characterized by having a stalk continuous with the apex of the peridium, forming an axis. some of the plants are short stalked, some long stalked. the tribe forms a natural connecting link between the gastromycetes and the agarics. thus: podaxon is a true gastromycetes, with capillitia mixed with spores; caulogossum, with its permanent gleba chambers, is close to the hymenogasters; secotium is only a step from caulogossum, the tramal plates being more sinuate-lamellate; and montagnites, which is usually placed with the agarics, is only a gyrophragmium with the plates truly lamellate. key to the genera. gleba with irregular, persistent chambers-- peridium, elongated club-shaped cauloglossum. peridium, round or conical, and dehiscing by breaking away at the base secotium. gleba with sinuate-lamellate plates gyrophragmium. walls of gleba chambers not persistent podaxon. --_lloyd._ _secotium. kunz._ this is a very interesting genus. when i found my first specimen i was much in doubt whether it was an agaric or a puffball, as it seemed to be a sort of connecting link between the two classes. the genus is divided into smooth-spored and rough-spored species, both having a stalk continuing, as an axis, to the apex of the plant. the peridium is round or conical and it dehisces by breaking away at the base. secotium is from a greek word meaning chamber. _secotium acuminatum. montagne._ [illustration: figure .--secotium acuminatum. life size of small specimens.] this is an exceedingly variable species, as found about chillicothe, yet the variability extends only to the outward appearance of the plant; some are almost round, slightly depressed, some (and a large majority) are inclined to be irregularly cone-shaped. the peridium is light-colored, of a soft texture, not brittle; it slowly expels its spores by breaking away at the base; the stalk is usually short, but distinct and prolonged to the apex of the peridium, forming an axis for the gleba. the surface of the peridium is smooth, dingy-white or ash-colored, with minute white spots, due to scales. it is of various shapes; acute-ovate, sometimes obtuse, nearly spherical, sometimes slightly depressed and irregular cone-shaped. the gleba is composed of semi-persistent cells, plainly seen with a glass or even with the naked eye. it has no capillitium. the spores are globose and smooth, often apiculate. this plant is quite abundant about chillicothe, and i have found it from the first of may to the last of october. this species is widely distributed in america, and occurs in northern africa and eastern europe. _polysaccum. dec._ polysaccum is from _polus_, many, and _saccus_, a sack. peridium irregularly globose, thick, attenuated downward into a stem-like base, opening by disintegration of its upper portion; internal mass or gleba divided into distinct sac-like cells. allied to scleroderma and distinguished by the cavities of the gleba containing distinct peridioles. _massee._ _polysaccum pisocarpium. fr._ [illustration: figure .--polysaccum pisocarpium.] pisocarpium is from two greek words meaning pea and fruited. peridium irregularly globose, indistinctly nodulose, passing downward into a stout stem-like base, peridioles irregularly angular, - × µ, yellow. spores globose, warted, coffee-color, - µ. _massee._ i have found this plant only a few times about chillicothe. mr. lloyd identified it for me. it has very much the shape of a pear. the skin is quite hard, smooth, olivaceous-black with yellow mottling patches not unlike the skin of a rattlesnake. the peridioles, which are small ovate sacs bearing the spores within, are very distinct. the interior of the plant when mature is dark, and it breaks and disintegrates from the upper part very like c. cyathiformis. this is a very interesting plant whose ovate sac-like cells will easily distinguish it. found from august to october, it delights in sandy soil, in pine or mixed woods. _mitremyces. nees._ mitremyces is made up of two words: _mitre_, a cap; _myces_, a mushroom. it is a small genus, there being but three species found in this country. the spore-mass or gleba, in its young state, is surrounded by four layers. the outer layer is gelatinous and behaves itself somewhat differently in each species. this outer layer is known as the volva or volva-like peridium, which soon disappears. the next layer is called the exoperidium and is composed of two layers, the inner one quite thin and cartilaginous--in m. cinnabarinus it is a bright red; this is attached to a rather thick, gelatinous, outer layer which soon falls away, exposing the endoperidium, which is the layer seen in older specimens. within the endoperidium are the spores, which are pale ochraceous or sulphur color, globose or elliptical in shape. they are contained in a separate membrane or sac; when they mature the sac contracts and forces the spores out into the air. the mycelium of this plant is especially peculiar, being composed of a bundle of root-like strands, translucent and jelly-like when young and fresh, but becoming tough and hard. this genus is called by some authors calostoma, meaning a beautiful mouth, a very appropriate name, as the mouths of all american species are red and quite beautiful. _mitremyces cinnabarinus. desv._ [illustration: figure .--mitremyces cinnabarinus. natural size.] the rooting strands are long, compact, dark when dry. exporidium bright red, smooth internally; the outer layer thick, gelatinous when fresh, finally breaking into areas and curling inward. the separation is caused by the fact that the cells of the thick gelatinous portion expand by the absorption of water, while those of the inner layer do not, hence the rupture occurs. the endoperidium and rayed mouth are bright red when fresh, partially fading in old specimens. the spores are elliptical-oblong, punctate-sculptured, varying much as to size in specimens from different localities; - × - in west virginia specimens. massachusetts specimens, - × - . _lloyd._ i have seen these specimens growing in the mountains in west virginia. they quickly arrest the attention because of their bright red caps. they seem not, as yet, to have crossed the alleghenies--at least i have not found it in ohio. it has a number of synonyms: scleroderma calostoma, calostoma cinnabarinum, lycoperdon heterogeneum, l. calostoma. the plants in figure were photographed by dr. kellerman. mr. geo. e. morris of waltham, mass., sent me some specimens early in august, . _geaster. mich._ geaster, an earth-star; so called because at maturity the outer coat breaks its connection with the mycelium in the ground and bursts open like the petals of a flower; then, becoming reflexed, those petals lift the inner ball from the ground and it remains in the center of the expanded, star-like coat. the coat of the inner ball is thin and papery, and opens by an apical mouth. the threads, or capillitium, which bear the spores proceed from the walls of the peridium and form the central columella. the threads are simple, long, slender, thickest in the middle and tapering towards the ends, fixed at one end and free at the other. the geaster is a picturesque little plant which will arrest the attention of the most careless observer. it is abundant and is frequently found in the late summer and fall in woods and pastures. _geaster minimus. schw._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--geaster minimus. natural size.] the outer coat or exoperidium recurved, segments acute at the apex, eight to twelve segments divided to about the middle. mycelial layer usually attached, generally shaggy with fragments of leaves or grass, sometimes partly or entirely separating. fleshy layer closely attached, very light in color, usually smooth on the limb of the exoperidium but cracked on the segments. pedicel short but distinct. the inner peridium ovoid, one-fourth to one-half inch in diameter; white to pale-brown, sometimes almost black. mouth lifted on a slight cone, lip bordered with a hair-like fringe; columella slender, as are also the threads. spores brown, globe-shaped, and minutely warted. found in the summer and early fall. nature seems to give it the power to lift up the spore-bearing body, the better to eject its spores to the wind. it is very frequently found in pastures all over the state. i have found it in many localities about chillicothe. it is called "minimus" because it is the smallest earth-star. _geaster hygrometricus. pers._ water-measuring earth-star. [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--geaster hygrometricus. natural size.] the unexpanded plant is nearly spherical. the mycelial layer is thin, tearing away as the plant expands, the bark or skin falling with the mycelium. the outer coat is deeply parted, the segments, acute at the apex, four to twenty; strongly hygrometric, becoming reflexed when the plant is moist, strongly incurved when the plant is dry. the inner coating is nearly spherical, thin, sessile, opening by simply a torn aperture. there is no columella. the threads are transparent, much branched, and interwoven. the spores are large, globose, and rough. the plant ripens in the fall and the thick outer peridium divides into segments, the number varying from four to twenty. when the weather is wet the lining of the points of the segments become gelatinous and recurve, and the points rest upon the ground, holding the inner ball from the ground. in dry weather the soft gelatinous lining becomes hard and the segments curve in and clasp the inner ball. hence its name, "hygrometricus," a measurer of moisture. the plant is quite general. _geaster archeri. berk._ [illustration: figure .--geaster archeri.] young plant acute. exoperidium cut beyond the middle into seven to nine acute segments. in herbarium specimens usually saccate but sometimes revolute. mycelial layer closely adherent, compared to previous species relatively smooth. as in the previous species the mycelium covers the young plant but is not so strongly developed, so that the adhering dirt is not so evident on the mature plant. fleshy layer when dry, thin and closely adherent. endoperidium globose, sessile. mouth sulcate, indefinite. columella globose-clavate. capillitium thicker than the spores. spores small, mc. almost smooth. _lloyd._ i first found the plant in the young state. the acute point, which will be seen in the photograph, puzzled me. i marked the place where it grew and in a few days found the developed geaster. the plant is reddish-brown and it differs from other species "with sulcate mouths, in its closely sessile endoperidium." i have found the plant several times in hayne's hollow, near chillicothe. i found it in the tracks of decayed logs. the plant has been called geaster morganii in this country but had previously been named from australia. _geaster asper. michelius._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--geaster asper. natural size.] exoperidium revolute, cut to about the middle in eight to ten segments. both mycelial and fleshy layers are more closely adherent than in most species. pedicel _short_ and _thick_. inner peridium subglobose, _verrucose_. mouth conical, beaked, strongly sulcate, seated on a depressed zone. columella prominent, persistent. capillitium threads simple, long tapering. spores globose, rough. the characteristic of this plant is the verrucose inner peridium. under a glass of low power it appears as though the peridium were densely covered with grains of sharp sand. this plant alone has this characteristic, to our knowledge; and although it is indicated in the figures of g. cornatus of both schaeffer and schmidel, we think that there it is only an exaggeration of the very _minute_ granular appearance cornatus has. the word "asper" is the first descriptive adjective applied by michelius. fries included it in his complex striatus. _lloyd._ i have found the plant frequently about chillicothe. the plants represented were photographed by mr. lloyd. _geaster triplex. jung._ [illustration: plate lxvi. figure .--geaster triplex.] the unexpanded plant acute. exoperidium recurved (or, when not fully expanded, somewhat saccate at base), cut to the middle (or usually two-thirds) in five to eight segments. mycelial layer adnate. fleshy layer generally peeling off from the segments of the fibrillose layer but usually remaining partially free, as a cup at base of inner peridium. inner peridium subglobose, closely sessile. mouth definite, fibrillose, broadly conical. columella prominent, elongated. threads thicker than spores. spores globose, roughened, - mc. _lloyd_, in mycological notes. the color of geaster triplex is reddish-brown. notice the remains of a fleshy layer forming a cup at base of inner peridium, a point which distinguishes this species and which gives name to the species--triplex, three folds or apparently three layers. the photograph was made by dr. kellerman. _geaster saccatus. fr._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--geaster saccatus. natural size.] the unexpanded plant is globose. mycelium is universal. exoperidium cut in six to ten segments about half way, the limb deeply saccate. mycelial layer adnate to fibrillose. fleshy layer, when dry, thin, adnate. inner peridium sessile, globose, with a determinate fibrillose mouth. the spores are globose, almost smooth. _lloyd._ mr. lloyd thinks this plant is practically the same as the g. fimbriatus of europe, differing from it in being more deeply saccate and having a determinate mouth. this plant is very common on all the wooded hillsides about chillicothe. i have seen the ground on the top of mt. logan almost completely covered with them. they are identified by mr. lloyd, prof. atkinson, and dr. peck. the plants in figure were photographed by mr. lloyd from typical specimens. _geaster mammosus. chev._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--geaster mammosus.] exporidium thin, rigid, hygroscopic, smooth, divided almost to the base into about ten linear segments, often umbilicate at the base; inner peridium globose, smooth, sessile, furnished with a conical, even, protruding mouth, seated on a definite area. columella short, globose, evident (though distinct in mature plants). capillitium simple, tapering, hyaline, often flattened, slightly thinner than the spores. spores globose, roughened, - mc. _lloyd._ this plant is found in the woods from july till late in the fall. it differs from g. hygrometricus by its even, conical mouth. i found specimens several times in haynes's hollow. _geaster velutinus. morg._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--geaster velutinus.] unexpanded plants globose, sometimes slightly pointed at apex. mycelium basal. outer layer rigid, membranaceous, firm, light colored in the american plant. the surface is covered with short, dense, appressed velumen, so that to the eye the surface appears simply dull and rough, but its true nature is readily seen under a glass of low power. the outer surface separates from the inner as the plant expands, and in mature specimens is usually partly free. the thickness and texture of the two layers are about the same. the fleshy layer is dark reddish-brown when dry, a thin adnate layer. inner peridium sessile, dark colored, globose, with a broad base and pointed mouth. mouth even, marked with a definite circular light-colored basal zone. columella elongated, clavate. spores globose, almost smooth, small, ½- ½ mc. _lloyd._ _myriostoma coliformis. dick._ [illustration: figure .--myriostoma coliformis. natural size.] exporidium usually recurved, cut to about the middle into six to ten lobes; if collected and dried when first open, rather firm and rigid; when exposed to weather becoming like parchment paper by the peeling off of the inner and outer layers. inner peridium, subglobose, supported on several more or less confluent pedicels. surface minutely roughened; mouths several, appressed fibrillose, round, plain or slightly elevated; columellæ several, filiform, probably the same in number as the pedicels; spores globose, roughened, - mc.; capillitium simple, unbranched, long, tapering, about half diameter of spores. the inner peridium with its several mouths can be, not inaptly, compared to a "pepper-box." the specific name is derived from the latin _colum_, a strainer, and the old english name we find in berkeley "cullender puffball" refers to a cullender (or colander more modern form) now almost obsolete in english, but meaning a kind of strainer. _lloyd._ found in sandy soil. it is quite rare. both the generic and specific names refer to its many mouths. the specimens in figure were found on green island, lake erie, one of the points where this rare species is found. it is found at cedar point, ohio, also. the plant was photographed by prof. schaffner of the ohio state university. chapter xvi. family--sphaeriaceae. perithecia carbonaceous or membranaceous, sometimes confluent with the stroma, pierced at the apex, and mostly papillate; hymenium diffluent.--_berkeley outlines._ there are four tribes in this family, viz: nectriæi. xylariæi. valsei. sphæriei. under nectriæi we have the following genera: stipitate-- clavate or capitate cordyceps. head globose, base sclerotioid claviceps. parasitic on grass-- stroma myceloid epichloe. variable-- sporidia double, finally separating hypocrea. sporidia double, ejected in tendrils, parasitic on fungi hypomyces. stroma definite, perithecia free, clustered or scattered nectria. perithecia erect, in a polished and colored sac oomyces. under xylariæi we have: stipitate-- stroma corky, subelavate xylaria. stroma somewhat corky, discoid poronia. _cordyceps. fr._ cordyceps is from a greek word meaning a club and a latin word meaning a head. it is a genus of pyrenomycetous fungi of which a few grow upon other fungi, but by far the greater number are parasitic upon insects or their larva, as will be seen in figure . the spores enter the breathing openings along the sides of the larva and the mycelium grows until it fills the interior of the larva and kills it. in fructification a stalk rises from the body of the insect or larva and in the enlarged extremity of this the perithecia are grouped. the stroma is vertical and fleshy, head distinct, hyaline or colored; sporidia repeatedly divided and sub-moniliform. _cordyceps herculea._ (_schw._) _sacc._ [illustration: figure .--cordyceps herculea. showing the grub upon which this species grows.] herculea is so called from its large size. the halftone will readily identify this species. the plant is quite large, clavate in form, the head oblong, round, slightly tapering upward with a decided protuberance at the apex, as will be seen in figure . the head is a light yellow in all specimens i found, not alutaceous as schw. states, nor is the head obtuse. i found several specimens on a sidehill in haynes's hollow in august and september, all growing from bodies of the large white grubs which are found about rotten wood. they were found during wet weather. they were identified by both dr. peck and dr. herbst. _cordyceps militaris. fr._ [illustration: figure .--cordyceps militaris.] this is much smaller and more common than c. herculea. conidia--subcæspitose, white; stem distinct, simple, becoming smooth; clubs incrassated, mealy; conidia globose. ascophore--fleshy, orange-red; head clavate, tuberculose; stem equal; sporidia long, breaking up into joints. this is frequently called torrubia militaris. it is known as the caterpillar fungus. its spores are cylindrical and are produced upon orange-red fruiting bodies in the fall. as soon as the spore falls on the caterpillar it sends out germ-threads which penetrate the caterpillar. here the threads form long narrow spores which break off and form other spores until the body-cavity is entirely filled. the caterpillar soon becomes sluggish and dies. the fungus continues to grow until it has completely appropriated all of the insect's soft parts, externally a perfect caterpillar but internally completely filled with mycelial threads. under favorable conditions this mycelial caterpillar, which has become a storage organ, will send up an orange-red club-shaped body, as will be seen in figure , and will produce the kind of spores described above. under some conditions this mycelial caterpillar may be made to produce a dense growth of threads from its entire surface, looking like a small white ball, and from these threads another kind of spore is formed. these spores are pinched off in great numbers and will germinate in the larva the same as the sac spore. the specimens were found by mrs. e. b. blackford near boston, and photographed by dr. kellerman. _cordyceps capitata. fr._ [illustration: _photo by c. g. lloyd._ figure .--cordyceps capitata. natural size.] this plant is fleshy, capitate, head ovate, bay-brown, stem yellow, then blackish. this plant is parasitic on elaphomyces granulatus. it is shown at the base of the stem of the plant. it grows two or three inches under the surface and somewhat resembles a truffle in appearance. both are very interesting plants. the plant in figure was found near boston, mass. they are usually found in pine woods, often in tufts. the stems are from one to four inches long, nearly equal, smooth, lemon-colored, at length fibroso-strigose and blackish. it is sometimes called torrubia capitata. chapter xvii. myxomycetes. the plants under this head belong to the slime-moulds and at first are wholly gelatinous. all the species and genera are small and easily overlooked, yet they are intensely interesting when carefully observed. in the morning you may see a mass of gelatinous matter and in the evening a beautiful net work of threads and spores, the transformation being so rapid. this gelatinous mass is known as protoplasm or plasmodium, and the motive power of the plasmodium has suggested to many that they should be placed in the animal kingdom, or called fungus animals. the same is true of schizomycetes, to which all the bacteria, bacillus, spirillum, and vibrio, and a number of other groups belong. i have only a few myxomycetes to present. i have watched the development of a number of plants of this group, but because of the scarcity of literature upon the subject i have been unable to identify them satisfactorily. _lycogala epidendrum. fr._ [illustration: figure .--lycogala epidendrum.] this is called the stump lycogala. it is quite common, seeming in a certain stage to be a small puffball. the peridium has a double membrane, papery, persistent, bursting irregularly at the apex; externally minutely warty, nearly round, blood-red or pinkish, then brownish; mouth irregular; spores becoming pale, or violet. _reticularia maxima. fr._ this is quite common on partially decayed logs. the peridium is very thin, tuberculose, effused, delicate, olivaceous-brown; spores olive, echinulate or spiny. _didymius xanthopus. fr._ these are very small yellow-stemmed plants, found on oak leaves in wet weather. the sporangium has an inner membranaceous peridium; the whole is round, brown, whitish. the stem is elongated, even, yellow. the columella is stipitate into the sporangia. _d. cinereum. fr._ sporangia sessile, round, whitish, covered with an ashy-gray scurf. spores black. very small. on fallen oak leaves. easily overlooked. _xylaria. schrank._ xylaria means pertaining to wood. it is usually vertical, more or less stipitate. the stroma is between fleshy and corky, covered with a black or rufous bark. _xylaria polymorpha. grev._ [illustration: figure .--xylaria polymorpha. natural size.] polymorpha means many forms. it is nearly fleshy, a number usually growing together, or gregarious; thickened as if swollen, irregular; dirty-white, then black; the receptacle bearing perithecia in every part. this plant is quite common in our woods, growing about old stumps or on decayed sticks or pieces of wood. the spore-openings can be seen with an ordinary hand-glass. _xylaria polymorpha, var. spathularia._ [illustration: figure .--xylaria polymorpha var. spathularia. natural size.] spathularia means in the form of a spathula or spatula. it is vertical and stipitate, the stem being more definite than in the x. polymorpha, the stroma being between fleshy and corky, frequently growing in numbers or gregarious, turgid, fairly regular, dirty-white, then brownish-red, finally black. an ordinary hand glass will show how it bears perithecia in all its parts. this will be clearly seen in the section on the right. these plants are not as common as the x. polymorpha, but are found in habitats similar to those of the other plant, particularly around maple stumps or upon decayed maple branches. _stemonitis. gled._ stemonitis is from a greek word which means stamen, one of the essential organs of a flower. this is a genus of myxomycetous fungi, giving name to the family stemonitaceæ, which has a single sporangium or æthalium; without the peculiar deposits of lime carbonate which characterize the fructification of other orders, and the spores, capillitium, and columella are usually uniformly black, or brownish. _stemonitis fusca. roth._ [illustration: figure .--stemonitis fusca. natural size.] fusca means dark-brown, smoky. the sporangia are cylindrical and pointed at the apex, peridia fugacious, exposing the beautiful net-work of the capillitium. the reticulate capillitium springs from the dark, penetrating stem. this is a very beautiful plant when studied with an ordinary hand-glass. i have frequently seen an entire log covered with this plant. _stemonitis ferruginea. ehrb._ ferruginea means rust color. the sporangia is very similar to that of s. fusca, cylindrical, peridium fugacious, exposing the reticulate capillitium, but instead of being dark-brown it is a yellowish or rusty-brown color. chapter xviii. recipes for cooking mushrooms. stewed mushrooms. no. . choose them as nearly as possible of uniform size and free from insects. drop them in salt water for five minutes to free them from any insects that may be hidden in the gills; drain them and wipe dry and clean with a rather rough cloth; cut off the stems close to the cap. put them into a granite or porcelain saucepan, cover closely and stew gently fifteen minutes. salt to taste. rub a tablespoonful of butter into about a tablespoonful of flour, and stir this into the mushrooms, letting boil three or four minutes; stir in three tablespoonfuls of cream, mixed with a well-beaten egg, and stir the whole for two minutes without letting it boil, and serve either on toast or as a vegetable. stewed mushrooms. no. . clean mushrooms as directed above and stew in water ten minutes; then drain off part of the water and put in as much warm milk as you have poured off water; let this stew for five to ten minutes; then add some drawn butter, or veal or chicken gravy, and salt and pepper to taste. thicken with a little corn starch wet in cold milk. serve hot. in cooking mushrooms they should always be kept as closely covered as possible in order the better to retain the flavor, and they should never be subjected to too great heat. baked mushrooms. be sure your mushrooms are fresh and free from insects; cut off the stems close to the caps and wipe the tops with a wet cloth. arrange them in a pie dish with the gills uppermost, laying a little bit of butter on each; sprinkle pepper, salt, and a very little mace upon them. put them into a hot oven and bake from fifteen minutes to half an hour, according to the tenderness of the mushrooms; if they are in danger of getting too dry baste them occasionally with butter and water. pour over them some _maitre d'hotel_ sauce and send to the table in the dish in which they were baked. broiled mushrooms. select the finest and freshest you can get and prepare as for baking; put into a deep dish and pour over them some melted butter, turning them over and over in it. salt and pepper and let them lie for an hour and a half in the butter. put them, gills uppermost, on an oyster gridiron over a clear hot fire, turning them over as one side browns. put them on a hot dish, having them well seasoned with butter, pepper, and salt and with a few drops of lemon juice squeezed upon each, if liked. mushroom and veal ragout. take equal quantities of cold veal steak or roast veal and small puffballs or other mushrooms, and mince all fine; mince a small onion and put with the mushrooms and meat into a pan with some cold veal gravy, if you have it, and water enough to cover the mixture. add a tablespoonful of butter, pepper and salt well, and let the mixture cook until it is almost dry, stirring it frequently to keep it from scorching; it should cook fully half an hour. when almost done, add a large tablespoonful of good catsup, or worcestershire sauce if preferred. serve hot. mushroom patÉs. wash mushrooms well, cut them into small pieces and drop them in salt water for five minutes. have ready in a pan upon the stove about two ounces of butter to each pint of mushrooms, having pan and butter very hot but not scorching; dip the mushrooms from the salt water with a skimmer and drop them into the hot butter; cover them closely to retain the flavor, shaking the pan or stirring them over to keep them from scorching or sticking. let them cook with moderate heat from fifteen to thirty minutes, according to the tenderness of the mushrooms. remove the cover from the pan, draw the mushrooms to one side and lift the pan on one side so that the gravy will run down to the opposite side; stir into the gravy a level tablespoonful of sifted flour, and rub this smooth with the gravy; then add a half a pint of rich milk or cream; stir the mushrooms into this and allow it to boil for a minute. have ready in the oven some paté shells, fill them with the mushrooms, seasoned to taste with salt and pepper, and set back in the oven for a few minutes to heat before serving. these are especially fine when made of tricholoma personatum or pleurotus ostreatus, but many other varieties will answer well. baked beefsteak with mushroom sauce. have your sirloin steak cut an inch or more thick, put into an exceedingly hot baking pan on top of the stove, in one minute turn steak over so that both sides will be seared. put the pan into an exceedingly hot oven and allow it to remain for twenty minutes. have ready in a saucepan two tablespoonfuls of melted butter, heat well and add two cupfuls of fresh, clean mushrooms which have been allowed to stand in salt water for a period of five minutes; cover closely and cook briskly without burning for ten minutes; set on the back of the stove (after having seasoned them properly with salt and pepper) to keep hot until ready to use. place the steak upon a hot dish, pour the mushrooms over it and send to the table at once. it is a dish fit for a king. stuffed morels. choose the freshest and best morels; cleanse them thoroughly by allowing the water from the faucet to run on them; open the stalk at the bottom; fill with veal stuffing, anchovy or any rich forcemeat you choose, securing the ends and dressing between slices of bacon; bake for a half an hour, basting with butter and water, and serve with the gravy which comes from them. fried morels. wash a dozen morels carefully and cut off the ends of the stems. split the mushrooms and put them into a pan in which two tablespoonfuls of butter have been melted. cover closely and cook with a moderate heat for fifteen minutes. mix two teaspoonfuls of corn starch in a half a pint of fresh milk and pour into the pan with the mushrooms, allowing it to boil for a minute or two; salt and pepper to taste and serve hot, upon toast if liked. to cook boleti. cut off the stems, and remove the spore-tubes, after having wiped the caps clean with a damp cloth. they may be broiled in a hot buttered pan, turning them frequently until done, which will be about fifteen minutes. dust with salt and pepper and put bits of butter over them as you would on broiled beefsteak. they may be stewed in a little water in a covered saucepan, after being cut into pieces of equal size. stew for twenty minutes and when done add pepper, salt, butter or cream. or they may be fried, after being sliced as you would egg plant, and dipped in batter or rolled in egg and cracker crumbs. in preparing boleti the spore tube should be removed unless very young, as they will make the dish slimy. mushroom catsup. to two quarts of mushrooms allow a quarter of a pound of salt. the full grown mushrooms are better in making this as they afford more juice. put a layer of mushrooms in the bottom of a stone jar, sprinkle with salt; then another layer of mushrooms till you have used all; let them lie thus for six hours, then break them into bits. set in a cool place for three days, stirring thoroughly every morning. strain the juice from them, and to every quart allow half an ounce of allspice, the same quantity of ginger, half a teaspoonful of powdered mace and half a teaspoonful of cayenne. put it into a stone jar, cover it closely, set it in a saucepan of water over the fire, and boil hard for five hours. take it off, empty it into a porcelain kettle and let it boil slowly for half an hour longer. set it in a cool place and let it stand all night until settled and clear, then pour off carefully from the sediment, into small bottles, filling them to the mouth. cork tightly and seal carefully. keep in a dry, cool, dark closet. mushrooms with bacon. take some full-grown mushrooms, and, having cleaned them, procure a few rashers of nice streaky bacon and fry it in the usual manner. when nearly done add a dozen or so of mushrooms and fry them slowly until they are cooked. in the cooking they will absorb all the fat of the bacon, and with the addition of a little salt and pepper will form a most appetizing breakfast relish. hydnum. the hydnums are sometimes slightly bitter and it is well to boil them for a few minutes and then throw away the water. drain the mushrooms carefully; add pepper and salt, butter, and milk; cook in a covered saucepan slowly for twenty or twenty-five minutes; have ready some slices of toast, pour the mushrooms over these and serve at once. oyster mushrooms. one of the best ways to cook an oyster mushroom is to fry it as you fry an oyster. use the tender part of the oyster mushroom; clean thoroughly; add pepper and salt; dip in beaten egg and then bread crumbs and fry in fat or butter. or parboil them for forty-five minutes, drain, roll in flour and fry. the oyster mushroom is also excellent when stewed. lepiota procera. clean the caps with a damp cloth and cut off the stem close to the caps; broil lightly on both sides over a clear fire or in a very hot pan, turning the mushrooms carefully three or four times; have ready some freshly-made, well-buttered toast; arrange the mushrooms on the toast and put a small piece of butter on each and sprinkle with pepper and salt; set in the oven or before a brisk fire to melt the butter, then serve quickly. some persons think that slices of bacon toasted over the mushrooms improve the flavor. beefsteak smothered in mushrooms. have ready a sufficient quantity of full-grown mushrooms, carefully cleaned; cut them in pieces and put into a baking pan with a tablespoonful of butter to two cupfuls of mushrooms, sprinkle with pepper and salt, and bake in a moderate oven forty-five minutes. broil your steak until it is almost done; then put it into the pan with a part of the mushrooms under and the remainder over the steak; put it into the oven again and allow it to remain for ten minutes; turn out upon a hot dish and serve quickly. agaricus, lepiota, coprinus, lactarius, tricholoma, and russula are especially fine for this method of preparation. chapter xix. cultivation of the mushroom. by prof. lambert, the american spawn co., st. paul, minn. =general considerations.=--commercially, and in a restricted sense, the term "mushroom" is generally used indiscriminately to designate the species of fungi which are edible and susceptible of cultivation. the varieties which have been successfully cultivated for the market are nearly all derived from _agaricus campestris_, _agaricus villaticus_, _and agaricus arvensis_. they may be white, cream or creamy-white, or brown; but the color is not always a permanent characteristic, it is often influenced by surrounding conditions. mushrooms are grown for the market on a large scale in france and in england. it is estimated that nearly twelve million pounds of fresh mushrooms are sold every year at the central market of paris. a large quantity of mushrooms are canned and exported from france to every civilized country. this industry has recently made remarkable progress in the united states, and fresh mushrooms are now regularly quoted on the markets of our large cities. they are sold at prices ranging from twenty-five cents to one dollar and fifty cents per pound, according to season, demand and supply. [illustration: figure .--mushroom beds in a cellar.] =essential conditions.=--mushrooms can be grown in any climate and in any season where the essential conditions may be found, obtained or controlled. these conditions are, _first_, a temperature ranging from ° to ° f., with extremes of ° to °; _second_, an atmosphere saturated (but not dripping) with moisture; _third_, proper ventilation; _fourth_, a suitable medium or bed; _fifth_, good spawn. it may be seen that in the open air, these conditions are rarely found together for any length of time. it is therefore necessary, in order to grow mushrooms on a commercial basis, that one or more of these elements be artificially supplied or controlled. this is usually done in cellars, caves, mines, greenhouses, or specially constructed mushroom houses. a convenient disposition of the shelves in a cellar is shown in figure . a large installation for commercial purposes is shown in figure , and a specially constructed cellar is shown in figure . where abandoned mines, natural or artificial caves are available, the required atmospheric conditions are often found combined and may be uniformly maintained throughout the year. [illustration: figure .--specially constructed mushroom houses.] [illustration: figure .--mushroom houses, flat beds.] =temperature.=--within the limits prescribed, the temperature should be uniform throughout the growth of the crop. when too cold, the development of the spawn will be retarded or arrested. a high temperature will favor the development of molds and bacteria which will soon destroy the spawn or the growing crop. the cultivation of the mushroom, as a summer crop, is therefore greatly restricted. as a fall, winter or spring crop it may be grown wherever means are at hand to raise the temperature to about ° f. many florists are utilizing the waste space under the benches for that purpose; they have the advantage of being able to use the expended material of mushroom beds in growing flowers. =moisture.=--moisture is an important factor in the cultivation of the mushroom, and demands intelligent application. the mushroom requires an atmosphere nearly saturated with moisture, and yet the direct application of water on the beds is more or less injurious to the growing crop. it is therefore essential that the beds, when made, contain the requisite amount of moisture, and that this moisture be not lost by excessive evaporation. they should be protected from a dry atmosphere or strong draughts. where watering becomes necessary, it should be applied in a fine spray around the beds with a view of restoring the moisture to the atmosphere, and on the beds after the mushrooms have been gathered. =ventilation.=--pure air is essential to a healthy crop. provision should therefore be made for a gradual renewal of the air in the mushroom house. however, draughts must be avoided as tending to a too rapid evaporation and cooling of the beds, an unfortunate condition which cannot thereafter be entirely remedied. =the beds.=--the most common type of beds is known as the "flat bed." it is made on the floor or on shelves as shown in the illustrations. it is usually about inches deep. another type, principally used in france, is known as the "ridge bed," and requires more labor than the flat bed. the mushroom house and shelves, if used, should be frequently disinfected and whitewashed in order to avoid danger from insects and bacteria. the preparation of the beds and subsequent operations will be shown in connection with the other subjects. =preparation of the manure.=--the best manure is obtained from horses fed with an abundance of dry and nitrogenous food. the manure of animals fed on greens is undesirable. growers do not all follow the same method of fermenting or composting the manure. when first unloaded, the manure is left in its original state for a few days. it is then piled in heaps about three feet deep and well pressed down. in this operation the material should be carefully forked and well mixed, and wherever found too dry, it should be lightly sprinkled. it is allowed to remain in that condition for about six days when it is again well forked and turned. in the latter operation it receives an additional light sprinkling; the dry portions are turned inside in order that the whole mass may be homogenous and uniformly moist, and the heap is again raised to about three feet. about six days later the operation is repeated, and in about three days the manure should be ready for the beds. it is then of a dark brown color mixed with white, free from objectionable odor. it is unctuous, elastic and moist, though not wet, and should not leave any moisture in the hand. of course, the above rules are subject to modification according to the condition of the manure, its age and previous handling. =spawning.=--the manure, having been properly composted, is spread evenly on the floor or shelves and firmly compressed in beds about ten inches in depth. the temperature of the bed is then too high for spawning and will usually rise still higher. it should be carefully watched with the aid of a special or mushroom thermometer. when the temperature of the beds has fallen to about ° or °, they may be spawned. the beds must be spawned when the temperature falls, never when it rises. the bricks of spawn are broken into eight or ten pieces, and these pieces are inserted from one to two inches below the surface, about nine to twelve inches apart. the bed is then firmly compressed. an advantage is found in breaking and distributing the spawn over the surface of the bed a few days before spawning; this allows the mycelium to absorb some moisture and swell to some extent. if the bed is in proper condition it should not require watering for several weeks. [illustration: figure .--brick spawn, pure culture.] =casing the beds.=--as soon as the spawn is observed to "run," or from eight days to two weeks, the beds are "cased" or covered with a layer of about one inch of light garden loam, well screened. the loam should be slightly moist, and free from organic matter. the beds should now be watched and should not be allowed to evaporate or dry out. =picking.=--mushrooms should appear in from five to ten weeks after spawning, and the period of production of a good bed ranges from two to four months. in picking the mushrooms an intelligent hand will carefully twist it from the soil and fill the hole left in the bed with fresh soil. pieces of roots or stems should never be allowed to remain in the beds, otherwise decay might set in and infect the surrounding plants. a good mushroom bed will yield a crop of from one-half to two pounds per square foot. mushrooms should be picked every day or every other day; they should not be left after the veils begin to break. for the market the mushrooms are sorted as to size and color, and packed in one, two or five-pound boxes or baskets. since they are very perishable, they must reach the market in the shortest time. =old beds.=--it is not practicable to raise another crop of mushrooms in the material of an old bed, although this material is still valuable for garden purposes. the old material should be entirely removed, and the mushroom house thoroughly cleaned before the new beds are made. if this precaution be omitted the next crop may suffer from the diseases or enemies of the mushrooms. [illustration: figure .--a cluster of mushrooms on one root, grown from "lambert's pure culture spawn" of the american spawn co., st. paul, minn.] =spawn.=--the cultivated mushroom is propagated from "spawn," the commercial name applied to the mycelium; the term "spawn" includes both the mycelium and the medium in which it is carried and preserved. spawn may be procured in the market in two forms, flake spawn and brick spawn. in both forms the mycelium growth is started on a prepared medium mainly consisting of manure and then arrested and dried. the flake spawn is short-lived by reason of its loose form, in which the mycelium is easily accessible to the air and destructive bacteria. it deteriorates rapidly in transportation and storage and can only be used to advantage when fresh. growers, especially in the united states, have therefore discarded it in favor of brick spawn, which affords more protection to the mycelium and can be safely transported and stored for a reasonable period. until recently the manufacturer of spawn was compelled to rely entirely upon the caprice of nature for his supply. the only method known consisted in gathering the wild spawn wherever nature had deposited it and running the same into bricks or in loose material, without reference to variety. neither the manufacturer nor the grower had any means of ascertaining the probable nature of the crop until the mushrooms appeared. [illustration: figure .--agaricus villaticus.] =pure culture spawn.=--the recent discovery of pure culture spawn in this country has made possible the selection and improvement of varieties of cultivated mushrooms with special reference to their hardiness, color, size, flavor and prolificness, and the elimination of inferior or undesirable fungi in the crop. the scope of this article precludes a description of the pure culture method of making spawn. it is now used by the large commercial growers and has in many sections entirely superseded the old english spawn and other forms of wild spawn. as now manufactured it resembles much in appearance the old english spawn (see figure ). some remarkable results have been obtained by the use of pure culture spawn. we illustrate a cluster of fifty mushrooms on one root grown by messrs. miller & rogers, of mortonville, pa., from "lambert's pure culture spawn" produced by the american spawn company, of st. paul, minn. (figure ). several promising varieties have already been developed by the new method, and can now be reproduced at will. figure is a good illustration of _agaricus villaticus_, a fleshy species in good demand. figure shows a bed of mushrooms grown from pure culture spawn in a sand rock cave, using the flat bed. [illustration: figure .--a mushroom cave, showing one of the test beds of the american spawn co., st. paul, minn.] =how to cook mushrooms.=--to the true epicure there are but four ways of cooking mushrooms--broiling, roasting, frying them in sweet butter and stewing them in cream. in preparing fresh mushrooms for cooking, wash them as little as possible, as washing robs them of their delicate flavor. always bear in mind that the more simply mushrooms are cooked the better they are. like all delicately flavored foods, they are spoiled by the addition of strongly flavored condiments. =broiled mushrooms.=--select fine, large flat mushrooms, and be sure that they are fresh. if they are dusty just dip them in cold salt water. then lay on cheese cloth and let them drain thoroughly. when they are dry cut off the stem quite close to the comb. or, what is better, carefully break off the stem. do not throw away the stems. save them for stewing, for soup or for mushroom sauce. having cut or broken off the stems, take a sharp silver knife and skin the mushrooms, commencing at the edge and finishing at the top. put them on a gridiron that has been well rubbed with sweet butter. lay the mushrooms on the broiling iron with the combs upward. put a small quantity of butter, a little salt and pepper in the center of each comb from where the stem has been removed and let the mushrooms remain over the fire until the butter melts. then serve them on thin slices of buttered and well browned toast, which should be cut round or diamond shape. serve the mushrooms just as quickly as possible after they are broiled, as they must be eaten when hot. so nourishing are broiled mushrooms that with a light salad they form a sufficient luncheon for anyone. =fried mushrooms.=--clean and prepare the mushrooms as for broiling. put some sweet, unsalted butter in a frying pan--enough to swim the mushrooms in. stand the frying pan on a quick fire, and when the butter is at boiling heat carefully drop the mushrooms in and let them fry three minutes, and serve them on thin slices of buttered toast. serve a sauce of lemon juice, a little melted butter, salt and red pepper with fried mushrooms. =stewed mushrooms.=--stewed mushrooms after the following recipe make one of the most delicious of breakfast dishes: it is not necessary to use large mushrooms for stewing--small button ones will do. take the mushrooms left in the basket after having selected those for broiling, and also use the stems cut from the mushrooms prepared for boiling. after cleaning and skinning them put them in cold water with a little vinegar, and let them stand half an hour. if you have a quart of mushrooms, put a tablespoonful of nice fresh butter in a stewpan and stand it on the stove. when the butter begins to bubble drop the mushrooms in the pan, and after they have cooked a minute season them well with salt and black pepper. now take hold of the handle of the stewpan and, while the mushrooms are gently and slowly cooking, shake the pan almost constantly to keep the butter from getting brown and the mushrooms from sticking. after they have cooked eight minutes pour in enough rich, sweet cream to cover the mushrooms to the depth of half an inch, and let them cook about eight or ten minutes longer. serve them in a very hot vegetable dish. do not thicken the cream with flour or with anything. just cook them in this simple way. you will find them perfect. glossary. abortive, imperfectly developed. aberrant, deviating from a type. acicular, needle-shaped. aculeate, slender pointed. acuminate, terminating in a point. acute, sharp pointed. adnate, gills squarely and firmly attached to the stem. adnexed, gills just reaching the stem. adhesion, union of different organs or tissues. adpressed, pressed into close contact, as applied to the gills. agglutinated, glued to the surface. alveolate, honey-combed. alutaceous, having the color of tanned leather. anastomosing, branching, joining of one vein with another. annual, completing growth in one year. annular, ring-shaped. annulate, having a ring. annulus, the ring around the stem of a mushroom. apex, in mushrooms the extremity of the stem next to the gills. apical, close to the apex. apiculate, terminating in a small point. appendiculate, hanging in small fragments. applanate, flattened out or horizontally expanded. arachnoid, cobweb-like. arculate, bow-shaped. areolate, pitted, net-like. ascus, spore case of certain mushrooms. ascomycetes, a group of fungi in which the spores are produced in sacs. ascospore, hymenium or sporophore bearing an ascus or asci. atomate, sprinkled with atoms or minute particles. atro (ater, black), in composition "black" or "dark." atropurpureous, dark purple (purpura, purple). aurantiaceous, orange-colored (aurantium, an orange). aureous, golden-yellow. auriculate, ear-shaped. azonate, without zones or circular bands. badious, bay, chestnut-color, or reddish-brown. basidium (pl. basidia), an enlarged cell on which spores are borne. basidiomycetes, the group of fungi that have spores borne on a basidium. bifid, cleft or divided into two parts. booted, applied to the stem of mushrooms when inclosed in a volva. boss, a knob or short rounded protuberance. bossed, furnished with a boss or knob, bulbate. byssus, a fine filamentous mass. cæspitose, growing in tufts. calyptra, applied to the portion of volva covering the pileus. campanulate, bell-shaped. cap, the expanded, umbrella-like receptacle of a common mushroom. capillitium, spore-bearing threads, often much branched, found in puffballs. carnose, flesh-color. cartilaginous, hard and tough. castaneous, chestnut-color. ceraceous, wax-like. cerebriform, brain-shaped. cespitose, growing in tufts. cilia, marginal hair-like processes. ciliate, fringed with hair-like processes. cinereous, light bluish gray or ash gray. circumscissile, breaking at or near the middle on equatorial line. circinate, rounded. clavate, club-shaped, gradually thickened upward. columella, a sterile tissue rising column-like in the midst of the capillitium. concrete, grown together. continuous, without a break, one part running into another. cordate, heart-shaped. coriaceous, of a leathery or a cork-like texture. cortex, outer or rind-like layer. cortina, the web-like veil of the genus cortinarius. cortinate, with a cortina. costate, with a ridge or ridges. crenate, notched, indented or escalloped at the edge. cryptogamia, applied to the division of non-flowering plants. cyathiform, cup-shaped. cyst, a bladder-like cell or cavity. cystidium (pl. cystidia), sterile cells of the hymenium, bladder-like. deciduous, of leaves falling off. decurrent, as when the gills of a mushroom are prolonged down the stem. dehiscent, a closed organ opening of itself at maturity. deliquescent, melting down, becoming liquid. dendroid, shaped like a tree. dentate, toothed. denticulate, with small teeth. dichotomous, paired, regularly forked. dimidiate, halved, applied to gills not entire. disc (disk), the hymenial surface, usually cup-shaped. discomycetes, ascomycetes with the hymenium exposed. dissepiments, dividing walls. distant, applied to gills which are not close. discrete, distinct, not divided. echinate, furnished with stiff bristles. effused, spread over without regular form. emarginate, when the gills are notched or scooped out at junction with stem. ephemeral, lasting but a short time. epidermis, the external or outer layer of the plant. epiphytal, growing upon another plant. eccentric, out of the center; stem not attached to center of pileus. exoperidium, outer layer of the peridium. exotic, foreign. explanate, flattened or expanded. farinaceous, mealy. farinose, covered with a mealy powder. falcate, hooked or curved like a scythe. fasciculate, growing in bundles. fastigiate, bundled together with a sheath. ferruginous, rust-colored. fibrillose, clothed with small fibers. fibrous, composed of fibers. filiform, thread-like. fimbriated, fringed. fissile, capable of being split. fistular, fistulose, with the stem hollow or becoming hollow. flabelliform, fan-shaped. flaccid, soft and flabby. flavescent, turning yellow. flexuose, wavy. flocci, threads as of mold. floccose, downy. flocculose, covered with flocci. free, said of gills not attached to the stem. friable, easily crumbling. fugacious, disappearing quickly. fuliginous, sooty-brown or dark smoke-color. furcate, forked. furfuraceous, with bran-like scales or scurf. fuscous, dingy, brownish or brown tinged with gray. fusiform, spindle-shaped. gasteromyces, basidiomycetes, in which the hymenium is inclosed. gelatinous, jelly-like. genus, a group of closely related species. gibbous, swollen at one point. gills, plates radiating from the stem on which the basidia are borne. glabrous, smooth. glaucous, with a white bloom. gleba, the spore-bearing tissue, as in puffballs and phalloids. globose, nearly round. granular, with a roughened surface. gregarious, growing in numbers in the same vicinity. habitat, the natural place of growth of a plant. hirsute, hairy. host, the plant or animal on which a parasitic fungus grows. hyaline, transparent, clear like glass. hygrophanous, looking watery when moist and opaque when dry. hygrometric, readily absorbing water. hymenium, the fruit-bearing surface. hymenophore, the portion which bears the hymenium. hypha, one of the elongated cells or threads of the fungus. imbricate, overlapping like shingles. immarginate, without a distinct border. incarnate, flesh-color. indehiscent, not opening. indigenous, native of a country or a place. indurated, hardened. indusium, a veil beneath the pileus. inferior, the ring low down on the stem of agarics. infundibuliform, funnel-shaped. innate, adhering by growth. involute, edges rolled inward. isabelline, color of sole leather, brownish-yellow. laccate, varnished or coated with wax. lacerate, irregularly torn. laciniate, divided into lobes. lacunose, pitted or having cavities. lamella (lamellæ), gills of a mushroom. lanate, wooly. leucospore, white spore. livid, bluish-black. luteous, yellowish. maculate, spotted. marginate, having a distinct border. micaceous, covered with glistening scales, mica-like. micron, one-thousandth of a millimeter, nearly . of an inch. mycelium, the delicate threads from germinating spores, called spawn. nigrescent, becoming black. obconic, inversely conical. obovate, inversely egg-shaped. obese, stout, plump. ochraceous, ochre-yellow, brownish-yellow. pallid, pale, undecided in color. papillate, covered with soft tubercles. paraphyses, sterile cells found among the reproductive cells of some plants. parasitic, growing on and deriving support from another plant. pectinate, toothed like a comb. peridium, the outer covering of a puffball, simple or double. perithecia, bottle-like receptacles containing asci. peronate, used when the stem has a distinct stocking-like coat. persistent, inclined to adhere firmly. pileate, having a cap or pileus. pileolus (pl. pileoli), a secondary pileus, arising from the primary one. pileus (pileus, a hat), the cap-like head of a fungus. pilose, covered with hairs, furry. pore, the opening of the tubes of a polyporus. pruinose, covered with a frost-like bloom. pubescent, downy. pulverulent, covered with dust. pulvinate, cushion-shaped. putrescent, soon decaying. punctate, dotted with points. reflexed, bent backwards. reniform, kidney-shaped. repand, bent or turned up or back. resupinate, attached to the matrix by the back. reticulate, marked with cross-lines, like the meshes of a net. revolute, rolled backward or upward. rimose, cracked or full of clefts. rimulose, covered with small cracks. ring, a part of the veil adhering to the stem of agarics. rubescent, tending to a red-color. rubiginous, rust-color. rufescent, reddish in color. rugose, wrinkled. rufous, brownish-red. sapid, agreeable to the taste. saprophyte, a plant that lives on decaying animal or vegetable matter. scrobiculate, marked with little pits or depressions. serrate, saw-toothed. sinuate, wavy margin of gills or sinus where they reach the stem. spathulate, in the form of a spathula. spawn, the popular name for mycelium, used in growing mushrooms. spores, the reproductive bodies of mushrooms. sporophore, name given to the basidia. squamose, having scales. squamulose, covered with small scales. squarrose, rough with scales. stigmata, the slender supports of the spores. stipitate, having a stem. striate, streaked with lines. strigose, covered with lines sharp and rigid. strobiliform, pineapple-shaped. stuffed, stem filled with different material from the walls. sulcate, furrowed. tawny, nearly the color of tanned leather. terete, top-shaped. tesselated, arranged in small squares. tomentose, downy, with short hairs. trama, the substance between the plates of gills. truncate, cut squarely off. tubercle, a small wart-like excrescence. turbinate, top-shaped. umbillicate, having a central depression. umbo, the boss of a shield, applied to the central elevation of cap. umbonate, having a central boss-like elevation. uncinate, hooked. undulate, wavy. vaginate, sheathed. veil, a partial covering of stem or margin of pileus. veliform, a thin veil-like covering. venate or veined, intersected by swollen wrinkles below and on the sides. ventricose, swollen in the middle. vernicose, shining as if varnished. verrucose, covered with warts. villose, villous, covered with long, weak hairs. viscid, covered with a shiny liquid which adheres to the fingers; sticky. viscous, gluey. volute, rolled up in any direction. volva, a universal veil. zoned, zonate, marked with concentric bands of color. authorities. it is customary to write, after the name of the plant, the name, or an abbreviation of it, of the person who gave the name. below will be found a brief history and the name in full of each abbreviation. atk. prof. geo. f. atkinson, at the head of the botanical department of cornell university and an authority on mycology. afz. adam afzelius, a swedish botanist, - ; a pupil of linnaeus. ban. miss banning of maryland, a student of mycology. batsch augustus batsch, a german botanist and mycologist, - . berk. rev. j. m. berkeley, a leading mycologist of england. bolt. james bolton, a prominent botanist of halifax. bosc. louis bosc, an early american botanist, - . barl. j. b. barla, a french mycologist. bull. pierre bulliard, one of the first french mycologists, - . curt. rev. m. a. curtise, state botanist of north carolina. d. c. augustin p. de candolle, a swiss botanist, - . dill. johann jakob dillenius, an eminent german botanist. ellis j. b. ellis, newfield, new jersey, an eminent mycologist. fr. elias magnus fries (pron. freece), a swedish botanist and mycologist, - . gill. c. c. gillet, a french botanist. herbst the late dr. william herbst, trexlertown, pa., an authority on mycology. hoffn. hoffman, a german mycologist. holmsk. theodor holmskiold, a danish mycologist, - . huds. william hudson, an eminent english botanist, - . jung. franz w. junghuhn, a prominent german botanist, - . kauff. dr. c. h. kauffman, botanical department michigan university. lasch william lasch, a german mycologist. lenz harald othmar lenz, a german botanist. lk. heinrich friedrich link, a prominent german mycologist. lloyd c. g. lloyd, cincinnati, ohio, one of the finest mycologists of the present day. lev. joseph henri leveille, a french mycologist. let. jean baptiste louis letellier, a french mycologist. l. or linn. carl von linnæus, a swedish botanist who is the author of the linnæan classification and who adopted the binomial nomenclature, viz.: the generic name which is the substantive, or a word used as such, and the specific name, an adjective, - . mass. george massee, an english botanist, principal assistant, royal gardens, kew; author of several works on mycology. morg. prof. a. p. morgan, preston, ohio, a well-known botanist and an authority on mycology. mont. montagne, a french botanist and mycologist. pk. dr. charles horton peck, the state botanist of new york; an eminent authority on mycology and botany generally. pers. christian hendrik persoon, a german botanist, - . rav. w. h. ravenel, leading mycologist of south carolina. roze ernest roze, a french mycologist. schw. rev. louis david de schweinitz, bethlehem, pa., a pioneer american mycologist. schroet. schroeter, a german botanist and mycologist. schaeff. jacobi c. schaeffer, a german botanist, - . scop. giovanni antonio scopoli, an italian botanist, - . schum. schumacher, a german botanist and mycologist. sacc. p. a. saccardo, an italian botanist, the author of sylloge fungorum, a work of several volumes written in latin, describing over forty thousand species. sow. james sowerby, an english botanist. vahl. martin vahl, a norwegian botanist, - . vitt. carlo vittadini, an italian mycologist. wulf. wulfen, a german botanist. references consulted. atkinson's studies of american fungi. cooke's hand-book of british fungi. massee's european fungus flora. mcilvaine's one thousand american fungi. our edible toadstools and mushrooms--w. h. gibson. herbst's fungal flora of the lehigh valley. berkeley's outlines of british fungology. the mushroom book--nina l. marshall. morgan's north american fungi. lloyd's mycological notes. peck's reports of new york. kellerman's mycological bulletins. kauffman's genus cortinarius. longyear's michigan mushrooms. cooke's british fungi. minnesota plant diseases--freeman. corrections. clitocybe metachroa, page . boletus parvus, page . polyporus berkeleyi, page . tricholoma resplendens, page . this page of the manuscript was used in making the sample pages and for some reason was not replaced, which will account for its coming out of order. _tricholoma resplendens. fr._ the shining tricholoma. edible. [illustration: figure .--tricholoma resplendens. entire plant white.] resplendens means shining brightly. the pileus is fleshy, convex, then nearly plane, even, bare, viscid, white, sometimes hyaline-spotted or yellowish on the disk, shining when dry, margin straight. flesh white, taste mild, odor pleasant. the gills are nearly free when young, then emarginate, somewhat crowded, rather thick, entire, white. the stem is solid, bare, subbulbose, even, white, dry. the spores are × µ. the caps are two to four inches broad; the stem is two to four inches long.--_peck._ this is a beautiful plant, entirely white, smell and taste pleasant, and found in poke hollow and in the woods along ralston's run, near chillicothe. this plant is found very generally over the united states. index to genera. agaricus, amanita, amanitopsis, anellaria, armillaria, bolbitius, boletinus, boletus, bovista, bovistella, bulgaria, calvatia, calostoma, calocera, catastoma, cantharellus, chlorosplenium, claudopus, clavaria, claviceps, clitocybe, clitopilus, collybia, coprinus, corticium, cortinarius, craterellus, crepidotus, crucibulum, cyclomyces, cyathus, dædalea, didymius, discina, dictyophora, eccilia, entoloma, epichloe, exidia, favolus, fistulina, flammula, fomes, galera, ganoderma, geaster, gloeoporus, gomphidius, grandinia, guepinia, gyromitra, hebeloma, heliomyces, helotium, helvella, hirneola, hydnum, hygrophorus, hymenochæte, hymenula, hypholoma, hypocerea, hypomyces, inocybe, irpex, lachnocladium, laccaria, lachnea, lactarius, lentinus, lenzites, leotia, lepiota, leptoglossum, leptonia, lycogala, lycoperdon, macropodia, marasmius, merulius, mitremyces, morchella, mucronella, mutinus, mycena, myriostomav, naucoria, nidularia, nolanea, nectrea, nyctalis, oomyces, omphalia, otidea, panæolus, panus, paronia, paxillus, peziza, phallus, phlebia, pholiota, pilosace, piptoporus, pleurotus, pluteolus, pluteus, podaxon, polyporus, polysaccum, polystictus, psathyrella, psilocybe, radulum, reticularia, russula, sarcoscypha, secotium, schizophyllum, scleroderma, sclerotina, sparassis, spathularia, sphærobolus, stemonitis, stereum, strobilomyces, stropharia, thelephora, torrubia, trametes, tremella, tremellodon, tricholoma, trogia, typhula, urnula, verpa, volvaria, xylaria, index to species. abietina (clavaria), abortivus (clitopilus), abruptus (agaricus), abscondens (pleurotus), acerbum (tricholoma), acervata (collybia), acetabulum (peziza), acuminatum (secotium), acuminatum (lycoperdon), acutesquamosa (lepiota), adiposa (pholiota), adirondackensis (clitocybe), adusta (russula), adustus (polyporus), adustum (hydnum), ægerita (pholiota), æruginosa (stropharia), æruginosum (heliotium), æruginosum (chlorosplenium), ætites (mycena), alba (amanitopsis), albellum (tricholoma), albellus (polyporus), albipes (russula), albida (tremella), alboflava (omphalia), alboater (boletus), alboviolaceus (cortinarius), album (tricholoma), alkalina (mycena), alutacea (russula), alveolatus (boletus), ambigua (dædalea), ambusta (collybia), americana (lepiota), americanus (boletus), amethystina (clitocybe), amethystina (clavaria), amianthinus (lepiota), ammophila (psilocybe), androsaceus (marasmius), angusticeps (morchella), anomalus (marasmius), appendiculata (armillaria), appendiculatum (hypholoma), applicatus (pleurotus), archeri (geaster), argyraceum (tricholoma), arcularius (polyporus), armillatus (cortinarius), asterophora (nyctalis), arvensis (agaricus), asper (geaster), aspera (amanita), atkinsonianus (cortinarius), atramentarius (coprinus), atrata (collybia), atratoides (collybia), atroviridus (lactarius), atrotomentosus (paxillus), atrosquamosum (tricholoma), aurantia (peziza), aurantius (hypomyces), aurantium (scleroderma), aurantiacus (cantharellus), aurea (clavaria), aurevella (pholiota), auricula-judæ (hirneola), auripes (boletus), autumnalis (cortinarius), badhami (lepiota), badia (peziza), berkeleyi (poylporus), betulina (lenzites), betulinus (polyporus), bicolor (boletus), biformis (polystictus), bispora (morchella), blackfordæ (hydnum), bolaris (cortinarius), boltoni (bolbitius), bombycina (volvaria), borealis (lysurus), botrytes (clavaria), bovinus (mutinus), bovista (plumbea), brevis (clitopilus), brevipes (cantharellus), brumalis (polyporus), brunnea (gyromitra), bulbigera (armillaria), cælata (calvata), cærulescens (cortinarius), cæsarea (amanita), cæsius (polvporus), cæspitosa (omphalia), calceolum (tricholoma), calopus (marasmius), calostoma (lycoperdon), campanella (omphalia), campanulatus (panæolus), campestris (agaricus), canadensis (favolus), candicans (clitocybe), candidus (marasmius), caninus (mutinus), cantharellus (craterellus), cantharellus (hygrophorus), capitata (torrubia), caperata (pholiota), capitata (cordyceps), capillaris (mycena), caprinus (hygrophorus), caput-medusæ (hydnum), caput-ursi (hydnum), carbonaria (flammula), carneo-grisæ (eccilia), carneus (irpex), cartilaginea (tricholoma), castaneus (boletus), castaneus (cortinarius), cavipes (boletinus), cecilia (agaricus), cepa (scleroderma), cepæstipes (lepiota), ceraceus (hygrophorus), cervinus (pluteus), chlorocephala (leotia), chlorophanus (hygrophorus), chrysenteron (boletus), chrysites (tricholoma), chrysorrheus (lactarius), cibarius (cantharellus), cinereus (lactarius), cinerea (clavaria), cinereum (didymius), cinereum (corticium), cinereus (hygrophorus), cinereus (cantharellus), cinereus (lactarius), cinerascens (tricholoma), cincinnata (inocybe), cinnabarinum (calostoma), cinnabarinus (cortinarius), cinnabarinus (cantharellus), cinnabarinus (polyporus), cinnabarinus (metremyces), cinnamoneus (cortinarius), cinnamoneus (polystictus), circinatus (polyporus), circinatus (pleurotus), circumscissum (catastoma), circumscissa (bovista), cirrhata (collybia), citrinum (heliotium), clavata (spathularia), clavipes (clitocybe), clypeatum (entoloma), coccinea (peziza), coccineus (hygrophorus), cohaerens (marasmius), cohaerens (mycena), cochleatus (lentinus), coliformis (myriostoma), collinitus (cortinarius), colorea (collybia), columbetta (tricholoma), comatus (coprinus), commune (schizophyllum), compactum (stereum), comtulus (agaricus), conchatus (panus), conchoides (gloeoporus), condolleanum (hypholoma), confluens (collybia), confragosa (dædalea), conica (nolanea), conicus (hygrophorus), conica (morchella), corraloides (hydnum), corium (merulius), cornea (calocera), coronata (clavaria), cornucopoides (craterellus), corrugata (hymenochæte), corrugis (lactarius), corticola (mycena), cossus (hygrophorus), cothurnata (amanita), craniiformis (calvatia), crassipes (morchella), craterium (urnula), crenulata (amanita), cretaceus (agaricus), crispa (trogia), crispa (galera), crispa (sparassis), crispula (clavaria), cristatella (lepiota), cristata (helephora), cristata (clavaria), croceocolor (cortinarius), crustuliniforme (hebeloma), cruciatum (lycoperdon), curtisii (polyporus), curtisii (hymenochæte), curtisii (ganoderma), curvipes (pholiota), cuticularis (polyporus), cyanescens (boletus), cyanoxantha (russula), cyathiformis (calvatia), cyathiformis (clitocybe), cyphellæformis (pleurotus), dealbata (clitocybe), deceptivus (lactarius), delica (russula), delectans (marasmius), deliciosa (morchella), deliciosus (lactarius), densifolia (russula), dichrous (polyporus), digitaliformis (verpa), disseminata (psathyrella), distans (lactarius), ditopoda (clitocybe), dryophila (collybia), dubius (craterellus), dulcamara (inocybe), duplicatus (phallus), dura (pholiota), ebulbosus (coprinus), eburneus (hygrophorus), edulis (boletus), edulis var. clavipes (boletus), elata (calvatia), elastica (helvella), elegans (mutinus), elegans (polyporus), emetica (russula), epichysia (omphalia), ephemerus (coprinus), epidendrum (lycogala), epileucus (polyporus), epiphyllus (marasmius), epipterygia (mycena), epimyces (panæolus), equestre (tricholoma), erinaceum (hydnum), erythropus (typhula), erythropus (boletus), esculenta (gyromitra), esculenta (helvella), esculenta (morchella), europeus (favolus), eutheles (inocybe), evernius (cortinarius), eximia (pilosace), eximius (pluteus), eximius (boletus), fagineus (marasmius), fasciatum (stereum), fascicularis (hypholoma), fastibile (hebeloma), felleus (boletus), fennicum (hydnum), ferrugineum (hydnum), ferruginea (stemonites), fibula (omphalia), fillius (flammula), filopes (mycena), fimbriata (tremella), fimbriatus (geaster), fimetarius (coprinus), fimicolus (panæolus), fistulina (hepatica), flaccida (clitocybe), flaccida (lenzites), flava (clavaria), flavida (flammula), flavida (spathularia), flaviceps (hygrophorus), flavipes (hygrophorus), flavus (hygrophorus), flavobrunneum (tricholoma), flavodiscus (hygrophorus), flavovireus (polyporus), floccosus (cantharellus), floccosa (peziza), floccosa (sarcoscypha), foenisecii (psilocybe), foetens (russula), foetidus (marasmius), foetens (heliomyces), fomentarius (fomes), formosa (clavaria), fragilis (bolbitius), fragilis (russula), fraxineus (fomes), frondosus (polyporus), frostiana (amanita), frostii (boletus), fuligineus (hygrophorus), fulva (amanitopsis), fumescens (tricholoma), fumidellum (tricholoma), furcata (russula), fusca (stemonites), fusus (flammula), fusiformis (clavaria), galericulata (mycena), gambosum (tricholoma), geaster (scleroderma), gelatinosum (tremellodon), gemmatum (lycoperdon), geophylla, var. violacea (inocybe), gigantea (calvatia), giganteum (lycoperdon), giganteus (polyporus), gilva (clitocybe), gilvus (polyporus), glabellum (lycoperdon), glutinosum (hebeloma), gracilis (boletus), graminum (marasmius), grande (tricholoma), garnosa (lepiota), granularis (pluteus), granulatus (boletus), granulosa (lepiota), granulosa (grandinia), granulosa (exidia), grammopodium (tricholoma), graveolens (polyporus), graveolens (tricholoma), graveolens (hydnum), grayanum (entoloma), greenii (cyclomyces), grisea (entoloma), griseus (boletus), griseus (lactarius), griseus (polyporus), griseo pallida (cyphella), hæmatosperma (lepiota), hæmatopa (mycena), halophilus (agaricus), hamadryas (naucoria), hardii (stropharia), hariolarum (collybia), hemispherica (peziza), hemispherica (lachnea), herbstii (sparassis), herpeticus (cortinarius), heteroclitus (polyporus), heteroclita (pholiota), heterogeneum (lycoperdon), hepatica (fistulina), herculea (cordyceps), hiemalis (mycena), hirta (psathyrella), hirsutus (polystictus), hirsutum (stereum), hispidus (polyporus), hygrometricus (geaster), hypnorum (galera), ianthina (mycena), ignarius (fomes), illudens (clitocybe), imbricatum (hydnum), imbricatum (tricholoma), immaculata (collybia), inæqualis (clavaria), incana (leptonia), incarnatum (corticium), incarnata (typhula), incertum (hypholoma), indecisus (boletus), indigo (lactarius), ingrata (collybia), infundibuliformis (cantharellus), infundibuliformis (clitocybe), inquinans (bulgaria), insulsus (lactarius), integra (russula), involutus (paxillus), iris (mycena), kunzei (clavaria), kellermani (galera), laccata (clitocybe), laccata (laccaria), lacera (inocybe), laciniata (thelephora), lachnophylla (collybia), lachrymabundum (hypholoma), lacrymans (merulius), lacteum (corticium), lacteus (irpex), lacteus (polyporus), lactifluorum (hypomyces), lacunosa (helvella), lascivum (tricholoma), lævis (panus), laterarium (tricholoma), lateritia (galera), lauræ (hygrophorus), leaiana (mycena), lecomtei (lentinus), lepida (russula), lepideus (lentinus), leporina (peziza), leporina (otidea), leporinus (hygrophorus), leucophæus (fomes), leucocephalum (tricholoma), leucomelas (polyporus), levis (panus), lilacina (calvatia), lignyotus (lactarius), livida (amanitopsis), lignatilis (pleurotus), lilacinus (cortinarius), lixivium (tricholoma), longipes (marasmius), loveiana (volvaria), lubrica (leotia), lucidus (polyporus), luridus (boletus), lutescens (tremella), lutescens (helotium), luteum (leptoglossum), maculata (collybia), maculatescens (tricholoma), magnivelaris (amanita), mammosus (geaster), mappa (amanita), marginatus (hygrophorus), marginata (pholiota), maxima (reticularia), media (clitocybe), medulla-panis (polyporus), mellea (armillaria), var. flava, var. obscura, var. exanulata, var. radicata, var. glabra, var. bulbosa, melaleucum (tricholoma), mesenterica (tremella), metachroa (clitocybe), micaceus (coprinus), micropus (hygrophorus), micheneri (lachnocladium), militaris (cordyceps), militaris (torrubia), miniatus (hygrophorus), miniatus sphagnophilus (hygrophorus), minimus (geaster), mollis (crepidotus), monadelpha (clitocybe), morgani (lepiota), morgani (geaster), morgani (boletus), morrisii (cortinarius), mucida (clavaria), multiceps (clitocybe), muscaria (amanita), muscoides (clavaria), mutabilis (pholiota), mycetophila (tremella), myriadophylla (collybia), nardosmia (armillaria), naucina (lepiota), naucinoides (lepiota), nebularis (clitocybe), nebulosa (peziza), nidulans (claudopus), nigrellus (boletus), nigripes (marasmius), nigripes (heliomyces), nigricans (russula), niveus (hygrophorus), noveboracensis (clitopilus), var. brevis (clitopilus), nudum (tricholoma), oakesii (corticium), obbata (clitocybe), obliquus (polyporus), ohiensis (trametes), ohiensis (bovistella), occidentalis (peziza), ochroleucus (cortinarius), ochropurpurea (clitocybe), ochrophylla (russula), ochraceum (hydnum), odorata (peziza), odora (clitocybe), olivaceo-stramineus (cortinarius), oniscus (omphalia), orcellus (clitopilus), oreades (marasmius), orirubens (tricholoma), ornatipes (boletus), ostreatus (pleurotus), ovalis (galera), ovatus (coprinus), pædidum (tricholoma), pallida (fistulina), pallida (thelephora), pallidus (boletus), pallidus (hygrophorus), pallidifolia (clitocybe), palmata (thelephora), paludosella (naucoria), papilionaceus (panæolus), panæolum (tricholoma), parasiticus (boletus), parvus (boletus), parvula (volvaria), pascua (nolanea), pascuense (hebeloma), pediades (naucoria), pelianthina (mycena), pedicellatum (catastoma), pellucidula (amanita), pelliculosa (mycena), penarius (hygrophorus), perennius (polystictus), pergamenus (polystictus), pergamenus (lactarius), peronatus (marasmius), perplexum (hypholoma), perplexus (polyporus), personatum (tricholoma), petaloides (pleurotus), petersii (peziza), phalloides (amanita), phyllophila (clitocybe), picipes (polyporus), pictus (boletinus), pila (bovista), pinicola (fomes), piperatus (lactarius), pisiformis (nidularia), pisocarpium (polysaccum), pistillaris (clavaria), pithyophila (clitocybe), placomyces (agaricus), placorrhiza (typhula), platyphylla (collybia), plumbea (bovista), polita (eccelia), polymorpha (xilaria), popinalis (clitopilus), porosus (boletinus), porphria (amanita), porreus (marasmius), portentosum (tricholoma), præcox (pholiota), pratensis (hygrophorus), prasiosmus (marasmius), procera (lepiota), prolifera (mycena), prunulus (clitopilus), prunuloides (entoloma), pseudo-pura (mycena), pseudo-boletus (ganoderma), pubescens (polyporus), pulcherrimum (lycoperdon), pulcherrimum (hydnum), punctiformis (hymenula), puniceus (hygrophorus), pura (mycena), purpurascens (cortinarius), purpurium (stereum), purpurina (russula), pusilla (volvaria), pusillum (lycoperdon), pyriforme (lycoperdon), pyriodora (inocybe), pyxidata (omphalia), pyxidata (clavaria), quletii (hygrophorus), quinquepartitum (tricholoma), quercina (dædalea), racemosa (collybia), radiata (phlebia), radicans (boletus), radicata (amanita), radicata (collybia), radicatus (polyporus), ramealis (marasmius), ravenelii (dictyophora), ravenelii (phallus), regalis (lactarius), resinosus (polyporus), recutita (amanita), repanda (peziza), repandum (hydnum), resplendens (tricholoma), reticulatus (pluteolus), retipes (boletus), retirugis (panæolus), rhodopolium (entoloma), rhodoxanthus (paxillus), rimosa (inocybe), rimosus (fomes), rodmani (agaricus), rosea (hygrophorus), roseipes (russula), rotula (marasmius), rubeolarius (boletus), rubellus (merulius), rubescens (amanita), rubescens (trametes), rubiginosa (hymenochæte), rubra (russula), rudis (panus), rufescens (polyporus), rugosa (mycena), rugosum (stereum), russelli (boletus), russula (tricholoma), saccata (calvatia), saccatus (geaster), saccharinus (marasmius), sæpiaria (lenzites), salignus (pleurotus), salmonea (entoloma), sambucum (corticium), sanguinolentum (stereum), sapidus (pleurotus), saponaceum (tricholoma), satanus, (boletus), scaber (boletus), scaber (inocybe), schumacheri (tricholoma), schweintzii (thelephora), scorodonius (marasmius), scrobiculatus (lactarius), scrobiculatum (hydnum), scutellata (peziza), scutellata (trametes), sebacea (thelephora), sejunctum (tricholoma), semilibera (morchella), semiglobata (stropharia), semihirtipes (marasmius), semi-sanguineus (cortinarius), semivestitum (lachnocladium), semiorbicularis (naucoria), semitosta (peziza), semitosta (macropodia), separans (boletus), separans (lycoperdon), separata (anellaria), septentrionale (hydnum), serotinoides (pleurotus), serotinus (pleurotus), serotinus (hygrophorus), serifluus (lactarius), serrulata (leptonia), sericeum (stereum), setosa (mycena), siccus (marasmius), silvaticus (agaricus), silvicola (agaricus), sinuosus (craterellus), solidipes (panæolus), solitaria (amanita), sordidum (tricholoma), sordidus (hygrophorus), spadicea (psilocybe), spadiceum (stereum), spathularia (guepinia), spathularia (xylaria), speciosus (boletus), speciosus (hygrophorus), spectabilis (pholiota), sphagnophilus (hygrophorus), spinulosa (clavaria), spinulifera (collybia), spongiosipes (hydnum), spreta (amanita), spumosa (flammula), squalida (flammula), squamosus (polyporus), squarrosa (pholiota), squarrosoides (pholiota), squarrulosum (tricholoma), stannea (mycena), stercoraria (stropharia), stercoreus (cyathus), stevensoni (peziza), stipitaria (collybia), striata (calocera), striatus (cyathus), striatula (clitocybe), strangulata (amanitopsis), striæpes (boletus), stricta (clavaria), stricta (calocera), strigosus (panus), strobillaceus (strobilomyces), styptus (panus), stypticus (panus), strobiliformis (amanita), suaveolens (trametes), subdulcis (lactarius), subcostatum (entoloma), subditopoda (clitocybe), suberosus (piptoporus), subochracea-burtii (inocybe), subochracea (inocybe), subsericeus (polystictus), subincarnatum (lycoperdon), sublateritium (hypholoma), subluteus (boletus), subterraneum (catastoma), subrufescens (agaricus), subrufescens (hygrophorus), subtomentosus (boletus), subvilis (clitopilus), sullivantii (boletus), sulphurus (polyporus), sulphureum (tricholoma), tabescens (clitocybe), terginus (marasmius), temperata (volvaria), tenera (galera), var. pilosella (galera), tenerum (scleroderma), terreum (tricholoma), terriferum (tricholoma), torminosus (lactarius), torulosus (panus), tornata (clitocybe), transmutans (tricholoma), tremellosus (merulius), trivialis (lactarius), turmalis (cortinarius), triplex (geaster), tuberosa (collybia), tuberosa (peziza), tuberosa (sclerotinia), tulipifera (irpex), ulmarius (pleurotus), umbellatus (polyporus), umbellifera (omphalia), umbonata (volvaria), umbrinum (lycoperdon), umidicola (cortinarius), unicolor (pholiota), unicolor (dædalea), unifactum (tricholoma), urens (marasmius), uvidus (lactarius), vaginata (amanitopsis), variabilis (claudopus), variata (russula), varius (cortinarius), vellereus (lactarius), velutipes (collybia), velutipes (spathularia), velutipes (marasmius), velutinus (geaster), venosa (peziza), venosa (discina), versutus (crepidotus), versicolor (polystictus), versicolor (stereum), verrucosus (cyathus), vermicularis (clavaria), vermiculosus (boletus), verna (amanita), verrucosum (scleroderma), versipeles (boletus), vesca (russula), vesiculosa (peziza), vialis (lenzites), villaticus (agaricus), violaceus (cortinarius), virescens (russula), virgineus (hygrophorus), virosa (amanita), viscidus (gomphidius), vitrea (mycena), volemus (lactarius), volvacea (volvaria), volvatus (polyporus), vulgaris (mycena), vulgaris (polyporus), vulgare (crucibulum), vulgare (scleroderma), vulpinus (lentinus), wrightii (lycoperdon), zanthopus (didymius), zephira (mycena), zonata (collybia), zonatum (hydnum), transcriber's notes: images have been moved from original locations to correspond with their respective descriptions. accents are not always consistently used, especially in headings, illustrations and indexes. these were left as in the original. page myselium changed to: mycelium page veril arachnoid changed to: veil arachnoid page lotos-eaters unchanged: acceptable old spelling. page l. h[oe]matosperma changed to: l. hæmatosperma page tricholoma cartilaginea changed to: tricholoma cartilagineum page clitocybe metachora. fr. changed to clitocybe metachroa. fr. pages , , , , , , and . cinerous changed to: cinereous pages , , , and . companulate changed to: campanulate pages and . tenaceous changed to: tenacious page pileus is small, convex, expanded, obtuse, slightly viscid, striate, quite [blue?] when young, growing brownish with blue fibrils. missing word after quite may be 'blue'. added. page these plants have a wide distribution and [are?] found on branches, among moss and dead leaves. missing word 'are' added. page fagineus means belonging to beach. changed to: fagineus means belonging to beech. page the stem is short, hollow, pub scent, changed to: the stem is short, hollow, pubescent, page the stem is solid, blunt, pub scent, changed to: the stem is solid, blunt, pubescent, page minutely echmulate, changed to: minutely echinulate, page myselium changed to: mycelium page its dingy appearance, slender habit, more uniform and darker color of the pileus, and darker color of the lamellæ. sentence has no verb. it appears to be a comparison to the before mentioned f. spumosa. no change. page whitish, tinged with lilacs. changed to: whitish, tinged with lilac. page the plants in figure [ ?] were found in haynes' hollow and photographed by dr. kellerman. added figure number, assuming it to be the figure pertaining to this article. page long to - lines meaning unknown: may be / or / lines? unchanged. page polyporus berkelyi changed to polyporus berkeleyi page obsoletely zoned, purverulent changed to: obsoletely zoned, pulverulent page it is a small plant resembling, in minature, changed to: it is a small plant resembling, in miniature, page sessible, at first changed to: sessile, at first page asci are cylindrical; spores spindle-shaped, straight or bow-shaped, rough, - ; dimensions don't make sense. it may be x , as this is spindle-shaped. unchanged. page caulogossum/cauloglossum both spellings used; unchanged. page clavata (spathularia), changed to: clavata (spathularia), page referring to spathularia. several instances of porus, which i think mean porous, are unchanged as the use is consistent throughout. the suffixes 'ceus' and 'ceous' are used interchangably, sometimes within the same paragraph. sometimes numbers like - and - may mean \ and \ respectively. measurements are apparently taken from various sources and use several standards, like mm., mc., mm., cm., lines, inches and µ. sometimes the units of measurement are lacking and i assume they are µ for spore sizes. none are changed. note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h.zip) transcriber's notes: irregularities or errors in spelling, punctuation or capitalization have been preserved as in the original text. text bolded in the original is delimited by '#', underlined text by '=' and italic text by '_'. the paragraphs immediately before and after "section . phylacia." were rendered in smaller font in the original text. the context does not seem to indicate an intent to block quote (see "speculation" later in text), so this has been transcribed as normal text. =synopsis= of =some genera= of the =large pyrenomycetes= camillea thamnomyces engleromyces _by_ c. g. lloyd cincinnati, ohio, january, the genus camillea. the receipt of a nice specimen of camillea cyclops from rev. torrend, brazil, has induced us to work over the similar species in our collection. on our last visit to europe we photographed the various specimens we found in the museums, but did not study them as to structure. however, they make such characteristic photographs that we believe the known species can be determined from our figures. we are all familiar with the common hypoxylons that form little globose, black balls, usually on dead limbs, in our own woods. they have a solid carbonous interior with the perithecia imbedded near the surface. there have been over two hundred alleged hypoxylons, mostly from the tropics. we have never worked them over, but suspect that a number of them from the tropics, when examined, will be found to be camilleas. if the specimens were examined, no doubt "prior" specific names would be found for several of this list.[ ] in the old days all similar carbonous fungi were called sphaeria. montagne first received a section of sphaeria with cylindrical form, from south america. the perithecia were long, cylindrical, and were arranged in a circle or were contiguous, near the summit of the stroma. he proposed to call it bacillaria, as a section of sphaeria, but the name being preoccupied, he, at the suggestion of fries, afterwards named it in honor of himself, camillea, montagne's first name being camille. the original species were separated into a genus by montagne in , and five species listed, and it is a curious fact that these five species, as well as all others that have since been added, are of the american tropics. i have not worked over the "hypoxylons" in the museums, but as far as the records go the genus camillea does not occur in other tropical countries. in léveillé announced that he had discovered a plant resembling an hypoxylon which had, however, the spores borne on filaments (acrogenous), and not in perithecia. he called it phylacia globosa, and classified it in sphaerioidaea. the specimen (fig. ) is still at paris. saccardo has omitted it, and states that phylacia is probably a pycnidial condition of hypoxylon turbinatum. both were guesses, one statement surely, and both probably, wrong. the interior is filled with a powder that under the microscope appears to be made up of ligneous filaments mixed with a few spores. these filaments appear to me to be the disintegrated walls of the perithecia, and not the "filaments that bear the spores." from analogy, at any rate, the spores of all these similar species are probably borne in asci which disappear early, and phylacia seems to be the same genus as camillea, the walls of the perlthecla disintegrating and forming a powdery mass. if this view is correct, camillea can be divided into two sections. #eucamillea.#--perithecia persistent. #phylacia.#--perithecia early disintegrated. section . eucamillea. camillea leprieurii (fig. ).--carbonous, black, cylindrical, - cm. long, - mm. thick. apex truncate, excavate. perithecia linear, near apex of stroma. asci (teste montagne) linear, spored. spores (pale) spindle shape, dark, - × - mic. [illustration: #fig. .#] a most peculiar and apparently a rare species. all the specimens i have noted came to montagne from leprieur, french guiana. berkeley records it from brazil, spruce, but i think it has not been collected in recent years. our figure is from specimens in montagne's herbarium, and these are three times as long as the specimen montagne pictures. i saw no such short specimens. patouillard has given a detailed account of the structure of the plant. the perithecia are arranged in a circle neat the apex of the stroma. the spores are spindle shaped (rather than caudate, as montagne shows them) and to mic long. patouillard claims that hypoxylon melanaspis has same spores and structure, and is the pulvinate form of camillea leprieurii. it does not seem possible to me, but i can not say to the contrary. camillea bacillum (fig. ).--stroma cylindrical, black, cm. long, mm. thick. apex truncate, shown punctulate in montagne's drawing. spores dark, reniform. [illustration: #fig. .#] this is very similar to the preceding in shape, but is a much smaller species with different spores (teste montagne). we have only seen the originals in montagne's herbarium, from which our figure is made. the drawing given by montagne represents the plant better than our photograph. montagne records the species from cuba and french guiana. we think it a very rare plant. camillea mucronata (fig. ).--stroma cylindrical, black, mm. long, mm. thick. apex with a prominent, mucronate point. perithecia linear, contiguous, near the apex of the plant. asci cylindrical. spores oblong (m.) ½ to × mic., colored. [illustration: #fig. .#] this also is a rare species, only known from the original collection by leprieur, french guiana. our photograph is from the type. in the original drawing there is a circle of little acute protuberances shown near the apex of the plant. we can see but faint indication of them in our photograph. camillea labellum (fig. ).--plant short, cylindrical, about a cm. tall and thick, with a depressed disc. perithecia contiguous, forming at layer beneath the disc. spores (m.) fusiform, dark, mic., long. i believe the plant is only known from the original collection in montagne's herbarium, from leprieur, french guiana. it does not follow, however, that it is such a rare plant, but only that the plants of the region have been scantily collected. our figure is a photograph of the types. [illustration: #fig. .#] camillea turbinata (figs. - ).--plants obconic or turbinate, about a cm. tall and broad, growing in a dense cluster from a common, mycelial carbonous base. the summit is truncate, and marked with a raised central disc, which is thin and in old plants breaks irregularly. a section of a young plant (figs. × ) shows the lower part composed of rather soft, carbonous tissue, the upper filled with a light brown powder, composed of spores mixed with hyphae tissue. in old plants the tops break in, the powder is dissipated, and there remains (fig. ) a bundle of carbonous tubes, the walls of the perithecia. finally, these break up and disappear, leaving the upper part of the plant hollow. the spores are elliptical, - × - mic., smooth, light colored. the asci which disappear at at very early stage, are shown by moeller as oval, each containing spores. this is at common plant in our american tropics, and was named by berkeley, as hypoxylon turbinatum, but in a later paper he referred it to camillea turbinata. it is compiled in saccardo as hypoxylon. i doubt not but that it was named sphaeria caelata by fries many years "prior." spegazzini found it abundantly, and noting that it was not a good hypoxylon, puzzled over it in two or three papers and finally also concluded that it was at camillea. moeller also "discovered" it, and although the common plant was well known in other centers, the rumors had not reached berlin, hence he "discovered" it was a new genus, which he dedicated to his friend, dr. hennings and called it henningsinia durissima. fortunately, he gave a good figure by which his "discovery" could be interpreted. we have beautiful specimens from dr. j. dutra, brazil, from which our figure was made, also we have specimens from rev. rick. [illustration: #fig. .# camillea turbinata. (side view, natural size.)] [illustration: #fig. .# section with spore mass (x ).] [illustration: #fig. .# same, top view.] [illustration: #fig. .# section after dispersion of spores.] camillea cyclops.--plants short, cylindrical, or semi-globose, black, about mm. in diameter, erumpent from a common mycelial origin, and distributed regularly over the matrix. they are produced at intervals of about ½ cm, and apparently never two contiguous. apex a circular, rounded depression, with a slightly elevated disc. perithecia arranged in a central bundle, with permanent, carbonous walls (fig. × ). spores oblong, × , pale colored. [illustration: #fig. .# camillea cyclops.] [illustration: #fig. .#] while this as probably not a rare plant in the american tropics, it appears to have been only known from the leprieur collections sent to montagne. we have recently gotten it from rev. torrend, brazil, and the receipt of the specimens inspired this pamphlet. i notice on some of these specimens (not all) little protruding points that are similar to those that montagne shows, near the apex of camillea mucronata. these appear like abortive surface perithecia, but i do not find any clue to their nature, and i do not know what they are. cyclops was the name of a giant in mythology that had but one eye in the middle of his forehead. thus species has but one "eye," but it is hardly a giant. in the same paper in which montagne lists camillea cyclops, he names and figures hypoxylon macromphalum. i can not tell the photograph (fig. ) i made of the type from the photograph of camillea cyclops. from montagne's sectional figure, the perithecia are arranged in the same manner, and the two plants are surely cogeneric and, i believe, identical. a close reading of montagne's description discloses but one point of difference. he records that in hypoxylon macromphalum the ostioles are prominent, and in a close examination of my photograph, i do note minute points on the disc that are absent from camillea cyclops. still i believe they are the same plant. [illustration: #fig. .#] section . phylacia. this might be made a genus, corresponding to hypoxylon as to stroma, but having the stroma hollow and filled with a pulverulent mass. in reality, i think it is a better camillea, the perithecia arranged the same way, not permanent, but broken up at an early stage. of course, it is only an inference. léveillé states that it has the spores borne on hyphae (acrogenous), but i do not place much value on léveillé's statements. patouillard, after admitting that he saw nothing but this powdery mass, adds "it is probable that the spores were contained in logettes with fugacious walls, of which only the marks on the inner side of the cavity remain." it would have been better if he had stopped there, but he goes on to propose afterwards that hypoxylon bomba should be held distinct from camillea under the name phylacia, because it presents a form "stylospored" and a form "ascospored." he does not give the reason for the assertion that it is "stylospored," not even citing the uncertain testimony of léveillé. phylacia might be held distinct from camillea on the ground of the powdery mass and the early disappearance of the perithecia and ascus walls. there is nothing new about that. it was done years ago by fries who called the "genus" leveilleana, which is a tip for some future name-juggler. all that is really known about its early structure is only from inference, and that inference is contrary to its having been "stylospored." [illustration: #fig. .# #fig. .# #fig. .# camillea sagraena. fig. , a cluster natural size; fig. , broken specimen as often seen; fig , two long stipe specimens.] camillea sagraena (figs. - ).--plants oblong about - mm., stipitate or substipitate at the base, growing densely caespitose, in patches, black, smooth, the apices usually obscurely mammillate. stipes usually short, but sometimes - mm. long, and when growing in clusters, the bases consolidated by a carbonous stroma. interior of the receptacle in two compartments (fig. × ), the lower filled with soft tissue, black around the edges, but _white_ in the center. the upper compartment filled with a mass of spores mixed with a few fragments of hyphae. spores narrowly elliptical, × , straight, pale colored. [illustration: #fig. .#] in cuba i made abundant collections of this species. it grew in patches from the thin bark, usually on the branches of a dead tree. i do not know the name of the tree, but i think it was only on one kind, one of the few softwood trees of cuba. camillea sagraena is undoubtedly a common species in the american tropics. it has never been well described, and the white tissue of the interior lower half, which is a very rare occurrence in similar black, carbonous plants, has never been noted. a "new genus" might be based on this feature. it is quite fragile and the broken bases as shown (fig. ) are often all that remain of it when old. camillea surinamensis as named by berkeley from specimens from surinam, type at kew, is exactly the same species. berkeley does not record it from cuba, but from nicaragua, and the specimen is supposed to be illustrated by ellis in his plate . it may have been the plant, but if so, it was so inaccurately drawn that it would never be recognized. in addition to my abundant collections from cuba, i have a scanty collection also from cuba from e. b. sterling. [illustration: #fig. .# #fig. .# camillea bomba. fig. on bark; fig. on hard wood.] camiillea bomba (figs. , ).--plants globose, sessile, - mm. in diameter, black, smooth, without any disc. dehiscing by irregular fracture. stroma hollow on the interior (fig. × ) filled with a brown powder, composed of spores mixed with abundant hyphae remnants of the perithecia and asci. spores - × - , elliptical, pale colored. [illustration: #fig. .#] this seems to be a frequent species in tropical america. i collected it in cuba and have specimens from miss barrett, jamaica, and l. j. k. brace, bahamas. the latter specimens grew erumpent from thin bark, and the broken bark forms a kind of cup at the base of the stroma. a thin, black mycelial stroma underlies the bark. those i collected in cuba were somewhat larger, and more irregular. some grew in same manner, erumpent from thin bark and the broken bark forms a kind of cup at the base of the stroma, others on the naked, hard wood and grew more compact. in the latter case the black stroma at the base was thicker and more in evidence. there is no question but that camillea bomba is cogeneric with camillea sagraena, but the gleba of the latter consists almost entirely of spores, while in the former there is considerably more hyphae remnants than spores. camillea globosa (fig. ).--plants densely caespitose, sessile, globose, black, smooth. - mm. in diameter. opening by irregular fracture. stroma hollow, filled with a brown mass of spores and hyphae remnants. spores elliptical. léveillé named this from a specimen from tolima, columbia, south america. the type fig. is all than is known to me. léveillé spins a long story about it having spores borne on filaments, merely a wrong deduction, i think, from his having found filaments (of the perithecia walls?) mixed with the spores. saccardo, who evidently did not take much stock in léveillé's story, omitted the species, suggesting that it was a form of camillea turbinata. saccardo's conclusions were almost as bad as léveillé's. we have not examined any specimens of camillea globosa, but suspect a section would show two divisions of the gleba, as in the next. in fact, with the exception of the stipe, it appears to be the same plant, and abundant collections may show them as only sessile and stipitate forms of the same thing. [illustration: #fig. .#] camillea poculiformis (figs. and ).--plants caespitose, stipitate, globose or obovate, smooth, black, - mm. in diameter. stroma somewhat flattened at apex, opening circumscissally[ ] or breaking irregularly. stipe - cm. long, - mm. thick, black. stroma hollow, the interior in two divisions, a narrow layer above, the fertile portion with a few spores in abundant, hyphae remnants, the lower (corresponding to the sterile base of a lycoperdon) of matted hyphae. spores short, elliptical, × , pale colored, scantily found. [illustration: #fig. .# camillea poculiformis.] [illustration: #fig. .#] the pulverulent mass is rather firm, and remains after the peridium breaks up. camillea poculiformis was named corynelia poculiformis in weigel's old exsiccatae, about a hundred years ago. it came from south america. years later montagne published it as hypoxylon poculiformis, and léveillé as phylacia poculiformis. i can not trace it from fries' writings, though no doubt fries had it and doubtless named it. the old specimens of weigel's exsiccatae are found in most museums of europe, and all the publishing has been done on this one collection. i have a nice collection (fig. ), made by t. j. collins in guatemala. speculations. the scanty knowledge we have of the real structure of this group of plants leaves much to speculation. they are all evidently closely related plants, and i think best classified under one general head, or genus, camillea. they are quite different from the hypoxylons of the temperate region, although we do not question that the tropical species are included in saccardo mostly under hypoxylon. when we come to compare what little we know of the species we find several differences on which "genera" could be based, and no doubt will be in time. in the original sense, camillea might be restricted to the two cylindrical species, c. leprieurii and c. bacillum. then we have the short, cylindrical or globose forms with persistent or semi-persistent perithecia, camillea labellum, c. cyclops and c. turbinata with the intermediate species c. mucronata. the above will form one, or two, genera, according to taste. in the following plants we find no perithecia in the ripe specimens, hence of course they will in time be considered a genus. we believe there are two distinct differences between the few species we know, corresponding with the old ideas of bovista and lycoperdon in the puff balls. camillea sagraena and c. poculiformis, with two divisions of the gleba, a fertile and a sterile portion, and camillea bomba and c. globosa (?) with homogenous gleba. the species camillea sagraena differs from the other in having the fertile portion composed largely of spores (scanty in others) and in having part of the sterile portion of uncolored hyphae. of course, it will form a "genus." thus the genus camillea can be easily divided into five "genera" and we make the suggestion for the benefit of those engaged in breaking up the old genera, and proposing new names to which to add their own. who will rise to the occasion? * * * * * the genus thamnomyces. this is included in saccardo as part of xylaria, but we feel is well entitled to generic rank. it was proposed by ehrenberg in for a curious species collected in brazil. the genus differs from xylaria in having the fruiting bodies on the ends of branches, which in one species are dichotomous, or in the other two species sessile or subsessile and borne on a slender rhachis. there are conflicting accounts of the structure of these bodies. the original, by ehrenberg, represents them as hollow bodies, with the perithecia imbedded in the walls. that also is as shown by cooke and is the usual idea. moeller, on the contrary, represents each body as a perithecium, and our examination confirms moeller's view. if moeller's account is true, as it seems to be, it is a strong reason why thamnomyces should not be classed with xylaria. the usual xylaria has a white, sterile, central portion known as the stroma, bearing a carbonous crust. the perithecia are generally imbedded in the outer portion of the stroma, the mouths opening through the carbonous crust. the walls of the perithecia are carbonous, and confluent with the crust. the genus thamnomyces has a slender stem, entirely carbonous. this seems to have been the main difference between it and xylaria in the old classification, but the character is fallacious. there are species of xylaria that have no white stroma. the stem is slender and carbonous and bears the carbonous fruit bodies, superficial, but sessile and globose. fries proposed for these species, the generic name rhizomorpha, which saccardo united with thamnomyces as a section of xylaria. in my view it is an entirely different idea from thamnomyces and should form a section in itself in the genus xylaria. there are several species like xylaria scopiformis that intimately connect rhizomorpha with xylaria. we believe the genus thamnomyces, in the true sense, embraces only three species as follows: [illustration: #fig. .#] thamnomyces chamissonis (fig. ).--stem carbonous, black, smooth, repeatedly dichotomously branched, the ultimate branches bearing ovate, acute fruiting bodies. structure of these bodies shown by moeller is entirely carbonous, hollow, each forming a single, carbonous perithecium. spores shown by different authors as of different shapes and sizes. in our specimens they are × - mic., dark, and arctuate. they closely resemble the ordinary xylaria spore. this was originally named from brazil by ehrenberg, who gave a good illustration of it. it has therefore escaped all synonyms, excepting by cooke, who discovered it was a new species and called it thamnomyces dendroidea. hennings also discovered it from africa, first as a new variety, then as a new species, thamnomyces camerunensis, but of course everything that came to hennings must be "new" something. it grows on rotten, hard wood, and does not seem frequent in our american tropics. in africa, however, i judge it is more abundant as numbers of african collections are in the museum at berlin. we have only received it once, at nice specimen (fig. ) from r. h. bunting, gold coast, africa. [illustration: #fig. .#] thamnomyces chordalis (fig. ).--stem long, slender, several proceeding from a common base, entirely carbonous, black, smooth. fruiting bodies (or perithecia?) sessile along the stem, ovate, with slender apices, black. spores oblong, arctuate, dark. this, i believe, is only known from tropical america, but is apparently not rare as it is recorded a number of times, mostly from brazil. fries named it from french guiana in and gave a characteristic description of it. a co-type with the fruit mostly gone is at kew. later montagne got it also from french guiana and gave a good figure and description under the name thamnomyces rostratus. he thought it was different from fries' species on account of the spores not being globose, but the "globose" spores of the original description is doubtless an error. the plants are surely the same. as montagne's figure is characteristic, the plant when subsequently found has usually been recorded under his name. we present in our figure both montagne's and fries' type. [illustration: #fig. .#] thamnomyces fuciformis (fig. ).--in general appearance, this is the same as thamnomyces chordalis, but a much larger plant. the fruit bodies (perithecia?) are more slender and are short, stalked. our figure, which is about half the spike, will show exactly the difference between the two species. the plant was named by berkeley from specimens collected in brazil by spruce, and to this day is only known from this old collection. the name is from the habits, "those of a fucus rather than a fungus," a far-fetched comparison, for my impression is there are no fuci that are carbonous, or have much resemblance to this plant. related plants. the following plants are compiled in the section thamnomyces in saccardo. none of them are true thamnomyces, and most of them could go into fries' genera rhizomorpha. i do not believe, however, it is possible to keep rhizomorpha separate from xylaria. the type species xylaria setosa is quite different from the normal type of xylarias in having entirely carbonous, filiform stems and superficial perithecia, but both of these features merge into xylaria through so many intermediate species that there is no drawing the line of demarcation. [illustration: #fig. .#] xylaria setosa (fig. ).--stem densely fasciculate, filiform, black, entirely carbonous. perithecia ovate, sparse, rarely developed. spores (teste fuckel), ovoid, dark, × mic. this is a rare plant in europe, growing on old sacks, matting, carpets, and similar refuse. it is generally found in cellars. i think it is not known on wood nor recorded in the united states. it resembles carbonized horse hair and was called "horse hair usnea" by old dillenius. our photograph of the specimen at kew will give a good idea of it, although from the account it grows erect, and is not matted. both bulliard and sowerby gave characteristic figures, both from plants growing in cellars, on old mats. it has had a great number of names, and is recorded in saccardo as xylaria hippotrichoides, the specific name proposed by sowerby and used by persoon. some very recent juggler, i have forgotten who, dug up the old name setosa, which i adopt as being less cumbersome. occasionally these jugglers do propose some improvement in names, and i believe in encouraging them, when their wonderful date dictionary discoveries are really better names. saccardo gives the following synonyms: sphaeria hippotrichoides, ceratonema hippotrichoides, hypoxylon loculiferum, rhizomorpha tuberculosa, cryptothamnium usneaeforme, rhizomorpha setiformis, chaenocarpus setosus, chaenocarpus simonini. the date expert must have had quite a job. xylaria adnata as described by fuckel (rhizomorpha adnata), and unknown to me, is evidently very similar to the preceding plant, but grows closely adnate to rotten beech wood. xylaria fragilis (rhizomorpha fragilis) is imperfectly known from old records in europe. it is probably same as above. xylaria hispidissima (rhizomorpha hispidissima) from east indies is known only from old description. it is an evident xylaria and seems to be same as recently collected, adventitious in a hot house in hungary, and distributed as xylaria hungarica. xylaria annulata, described in from west indies as thamnomyces annulatus and unknown otherwise, reads like thamnomyces chardalis, but the branches of the latter are not known to be "annulated under a lens." [illustration: #fig. .#] xylaria annulipes, described and figured by montagne as thamnomyces annulipes from brazil, is same as since named xylaria marasmoides (fig. ) by berkeley. berkeley does not mention the rings on the stem as shown so plainly in montagne's enlarged figure, nor can i note them with a lens on my photograph of berkeley's or montagne's types. spegazzini refers marasmoides as a synonym for annulipes, no doubt correctly. theissen refers it as a synonym for xylaria aristata, an evident error. xylaria vermiculus, recently published from brazil by sydow, as "saccardo n. sp. in litt.," is, both from description and photograph, evidently the same as xylaria annulipes. [illustration: #fig. .#] xylaria melanura (fig. ), west indies, described as chaenocarpus melanurus and compiled in saccardo in section thamnomyces, is evidently same as xylaria gracillima in sense of berkeley and montagne, but not i believe as to fries. we present a photograph made from léveillé's cotype. xylaria axillaris was not compiled in thamnomyces in saccardo, but is evidently a very similar if not the same plant as xylaria setosa, and is only known from currey's original account from africa. it is about a half inch high, with filiform stem, and few, superficial perithecia. spores are given as to mic., which are much larger than those of setosa. xylaria patagonica as named by crombie as thamnomyces and compiled in saccardo, vol. , was based on dillenius' old ( ) figure t. , f. , from patagonia, which, as far as the figure goes, could be xylaria setosa. of course, nothing as known about it. xylaria schwackei, named by hennings from brazil, seems from description to be xylaria melanura. xylaria warburgii, named by hennings from new guinea, seems from the crude figure to be xylaria carpophila. xylaria luzonensis, named from philippines by hennings, seems from crude figure to be xylaria multiplex in original sense of fries (not thiessen). * * * * * [illustration: #fig. .# engleromyces goetzei.] the genus engleromyces. plants large, subglobose, with alveolate, sinuate carbonous exterior. stroma white, fleshy, ½- cm. thick. perithecia carbonous, forming several stratose layers, imbedded in the stroma in the depressions. spores - × - , dark, smooth, curved, agreeing with xylaria spores. engleromyces goetzei (figs. and ).--this is the largest pyrenomycete, and as far as known only occurs in eastern, tropical africa. in hennings described and named it, and there are several specimens on exhibition in the museum at berlin. some years later ( ) a specimen reached paris from the same region. it was sent to the anthropological museum at paris, the collector taking it for a fossilized skull. the reference to a skull is not inappropriate as will be noted from our photograph (fig. ) from the specimen at paris. patouillard, not knowing of course what hennings had done at berlin, renamed it colletomanginia paradoxa. our figure shows a section, and the arrangement of the perithecia. practically nothing is known as to its habits. patouillard states it occurs on the trunk of abies, hennings on bamboo. we feel that on publication of our photograph there will be no occasion for further names for it. [illustration: #fig. .#] * * * * * footnotes: [ ] thus there is no doubt whatever in my mind that camillea turbinata is sphaeria caelata of fries, but not knowing the friesian species from specimens, i take the only sure name i know. montagne refers it to camillea poculiformis, but i do not think he knew more about it than i do, and i do not know anything excepting the "description." [ ] so shown in one specimen on fig. , but doubtful if it is a character of the plant. note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h.zip) tanscriber's note: text enclosed by equal signs was in bold face in the original (=bold=). the north american slime-moulds the macmillan company new york · boston · chicago · dallas atlanta · san francisco macmillan & co., limited london · bombay · calcutta melbourne the macmillan co. of canada, ltd. toronto [illustration: physarum notabile (enlarged one half) in the field; sporangia in varied magnification, due to inequality in background.] the north american slime-moulds a descriptive list of all species of myxomycetes hitherto reported from the continent of north america with notes on some extra-limital species by thomas h. macbride state university of iowa new and revised edition new york the macmillan company london: macmillan and co., ltd. all rights reserved copyright, , by the macmillan company. copyright, , by the macmillan company. the clio press iowa city, iowa, u. s. a. · in · memoriam · · samuelis · calvini · · scientiae · naturalis · in · universitate · iowensi · · nuper · professoris · · praeceptoris · comitis · amici · · hunc · librum · · grato · animo · dedicat · · discipulus · "ihr naht euch wieder schwankende gestalten, die früh sich einst dem trüben blick gezeigt." goethe. "diese kinder der natur, welche aus einer ungeformten gallert, und einem unsichtbaren saamen entstehen, sind im stande, in dem sie sich nach und nach entwickeln und ihre scheinbar nachlässige bildung genau beobachten (lassen), eben so sehr als die schönste pflanze, einem empfindenden herzen die tiefe achtung und das paradiesische vernügen zu verschaffen, welches einzig die betrachtung der heere der natur und ihre gleichbleibende erhaltung durch eine ewige kraft hervorbringen kann." a. j. g. c. batsch . table of contents page preface ix preface to second edition xiii bibliography xv introductory the myxomycetes addenda index of genera index of species plates, with explanations corrigenda the indulgent student will please notice the following for the new edition _north american slime moulds_-- on p. , no. , read _physarum megalosporum_ macbr. last line should read physarum _melanospermum_ sturgis, _mycologia_, vol. ix, p. . on p. , last line but one, at the end, read, p. . on p. , insert just before no. , vicinity of philadelphia,--_bilgram_. on p. , plate xiii, lacks numbers. these may readily be supplied by consulting descriptive text. on p. , in explanation figure , last word read hour. on p. , for name of species read _fuligo rufa_ pers., p. . preface to the first edition[ ] the present work has grown out of a monograph entitled _myxomycetes of eastern iowa_, published by the present author about eight years ago. the original work was intended chiefly for the use of the author's own pupils; but interest in the subject proved much wider than had been supposed, and a rather large edition of that little work was speedily exhausted. at that time literature on the subject in question--literature accessible to english readers--was scant indeed. cooke's translation of rostafinski, in so far as concerned the species of great britain, was practically all there was to be consulted in english. in appeared in london massee's _monograph of the myxogastres_, and two years later in the same world's centre the trustees of the british museum brought out lister's _mycetozoa_. although these two english works both claim revision of the entire group under discussion, the latter paying special attention to american forms, nevertheless there still seems place for a less pretentious volume which for american students shall present succinct descriptions of north american species only. the material basis of the present work consists of collections now in the herbarium of the state university of iowa. in accumulating the material the author has had the generous assistance of botanists in all parts of the country, from alaska to panama, and the geographical distribution is in most cases authenticated by specimens from the localities named. the descriptions, in case of species represented in europe, are based upon those of european authors; for forms first described in this country, the original descriptions have been consulted. a bibliography follows this preface. in reference to the omnipresent vexed question of nomenclature, a word is perhaps necessary. de candolle's rule, "the first authentic specific name published under the genus in which the species now stands," may be true philosophy, but it is certainly an open question how that rule shall be applied. if an author recognized and defined a given species in times past, and, in accordance with views then held, assigned the species to a particular genus, common honesty, it would seem, would require that his work be recognized. to assume that any later writer who may choose to set to familiar genera limits unknown before shall thereby be empowered to write all species so displaced his own, as if, forsooth, now for the first time in the history of science published or described, is not only absolutely and inexcusably misleading, but actually increases by just so much the amount of _débris_ with which the taxonomy of the subject is already cumbered. in face of a work so painstaking and voluminous as that of rostafinski, and in view of the almost universal confusion that preceded him, it would seem idle to change for reasons purely technical the nomenclature which the polish author has established. especially is this true in the case of organisms so very perishable and fragile as those now in question where comparative revision is apt to result in uncertainty. we had preferred to leave the rostafinskian, _i. e._ the heretofore current nomenclature, untouched; but since other writers have preferred to do otherwise, we are compelled to recognize the resultant confusion. slime-moulds have long attracted the attention of the student of nature. for nearly two hundred years they find place more or less definite in botanical literature. micheli, , figures a number of them, some so accurately that the identity of the species is hardly to be questioned. other early writers are buxbaum and dillenius. but the great names before rostafinski are schrader, persoon, and fries. schrader's judgment was especially clear. in his _nova genera_, , he recognizes plainly the difference between slime-moulds and everything else that passed by the name of fungus, and proposed that they should be set off in a family by themselves,[ ] but he suggested no definite name. nees (c. g.) also made the same observation in , and proposed the name _Ærogastres_; but he cites as type of his ærogastres, _eurotium_, and includes so many fungi, that it seems unsafe now to approve his nomenclature. schrader also has left an excellent account of the cribrarias, the basis of all that has since been attempted in that genus. persoon, in his _synopsis_, , attempts a review of all the fungi known up to that time. his notes and synonymy are invaluable, enabling us to understand the references of many of the earlier authors where these had otherwise been indefinite if not unintelligible. he makes a great many changes in nomenclature, and excuses himself on the ground that he follows, in this particular, illustrious examples! unfortunately, so do we all! fries, in his _systema mycologicum_, , summed up in most wonderful way the work of all his predecessors and the mycologic science of his time. in reading fries the modern student hardly knows which most to admire, the author's far-reaching, patient research, the singular acumen of his taxonomic instinct, the graceful exactness of the latin in which his conclusions are expressed, or the delicate courtesy with which he touches the work even the most primitive, of those his predecessors or contemporaries. nevertheless in our particular group even the determinations of fries are not conclusive. he himself often confesses as much. the microscopic technique of that day did not yield the data needful for minute comparison among these most delicate forms. it remained for debary and rostafinski to introduce a new factor into the description of species, and by spore-measurement and the delineation of microscopic detail to supply an element of definiteness which has no parallel in the work of any earlier student of this group. under these conditions the revision undertaken by rostafinski was of a most heroic sort. his work was almost a new beginning; and while in nomenclature he was inclined to follow the paris code, yet the inadequacy of the earlier descriptions often made such a course impracticable. the synonymy of rostafinski is largely that of fries, and upon this the polish author attempts to apply the law of priority. in the historical note, _wzmianka historyczna_, accompanying the description of each specific form, he generally states the reason for the nomenclature he adopts, whether selected from the mass of supposed synonymy or introduced by himself _de novo_. unfortunately, rostafinski is sometimes purely arbitrary in his selections. he sometimes changes a specific or even generic name, otherwise correctly applied, simply because in primary etymological significance the name seems to him inappropriate. in such cases it is proper to restore the earlier name. nevertheless rostafinski is still our most trustworthy guide. of course, where later investigations have served to obliterate the once-thought patent distinctions between supposed genera or species, it is proper to unite such forms under the older determinable titles and this we have attempted. but wherever in the present work a name has been changed, the name of the earlier author will be found in parenthesis, followed immediately by that of him who made the change, and in general, recent practice, especially as expressed in the rules of the various codes, has determined the puzzling questions of nomenclature. in justification of the use of _myxomycetes_ as a general title it may be said that in this case prevalent usage is not inconsistent with a rational application of the rules of priority. the friesian designation _myxogastres_ was applied by its author in to the endosporous slime-moulds as a section of gasteromycetous fungi. four years later link, perceiving more clearly the absolute distinctness of the group, substituted the name _myxomycetes_. in the same year wallroth adopted the same designation, but strangely confused the limitations of the group he named. wallroth seems to have thought _myxomycetes_ a synonym for _gasteromycetes_ fries. in debary applied the title _mycetozoa_ to a group which included the then lately discovered _acrasieae_ with the true slime-moulds, both endosporous and exosporous. for all except the _acrasieae_ debary retained the old appellation, myxomycetes. rostafinski adopted debary's general name, but changed its application. as it has been shown, since debary's time, that the _acrasieae_[ ] have no true plasmodium, and are therefore not properly, or at least not necessarily, associated with the slime-moulds, there appears no necessity for the term _mycetozoa_, and the question lies between _myxogastres_ and _myxomycetes_. of these two names the former, as we have seen, has undoubted priority, but only as applied to the endosporous species. the same thing was true of link's designation until debary redefined it, but having been taken up by debary, redefined and correctly applied, myxomycetes (link) debary must remain the undisputed title for all true slime-moulds, endosporous and exosporous alike. in arranging the larger divisions of the group the scheme of rostafinski has been somewhat modified in order to give expression to what the present author deems a more natural sequence of species. the highest expression of myxomycetan fructification is doubtless the isolated sporangium with its capillitium. this is reached by successive differentiations from the simple plasmodium. the æthalium may be esteemed in some instances a case of degeneration, in others of arrested development. in any event in the present arrangement, æthalioid forms are first disposed of, leaving the sporangiate species to follow from plasmodiocarpous as directly as may be. the artificial keys herewith presented proceed on the same plan and are to be taken, as such keys always are, not as definitive in any case, but simply as an aid to help the student more speedily to reach a probably satisfactory description. footnotes: [ ] _the north american slime moulds_, . [ ] schrader, _nova plantarum genera_, , pp. vi-vii. [ ] cf. edgar w. olive, _monograph of the acrasieae_; boston, . preface to the second edition the first edition of this little book having been exhausted long ago, the writer in this second issue takes opportunity to correct sundry errata, typographical and other, and at the same time to incorporate such new information in reference to individual species and to the subject entire as the researches of more recent years may afford. to miss gulielma lister, of london, the writer expresses his sense of deep obligation for much assistance in settling difficult matters of nomenclature and identification; it will be found as a result that in most instances the same thing in the two volumes, english and american, appears under the same name. there are still differences; these result in most cases from different points of view, different estimates or emphasis of characteristics in these ever elusive objects. to professor torrend, formerly of lisbon, the writer is indebted for a set of european types, and to professor bethel, pathologist of denver, for rich material from the fertile mountains of colorado and california. to professor morton peck, of oregon, we are indebted for many notes of the color of plasmodia and for collections of pacific coast forms. mr. bilgram, of philadelphia, read the manuscript of the genus _physarum_ and has contributed many rare species. to dr. sturgis, of massachusetts, we are indebted for material from both east and west. the present volume is intended especially for american readers and is accordingly particularly devoted to a discussion of species so far reported on the western continent; nevertheless it has seemed wise to include a brief description of some other forms as well, and reference to many extra-limital species now generally recognized will be found here and there in connection with the more extended treatment of related american forms. _february twenty-eight, ._ at the last moment, nearly all plates and drawings of the first edition disappeared! necessitating a quick renewal of drawings and plates. this may in part explain lack of uniformity, and various minor irregularities sure to grieve the intelligent student. bibliography the following are the principal works consulted in the prosecution of the investigations here recorded:-- . adanson, m. familles des plantes. . albertini--see under schweinitz. . annals and magazine of natural history. london, various volumes: , ser. i., vol. vi.; , ser. ii., vol. v. . annals of botany, vols. i-xxxi. . batsch, a. j. g. c. elenchus fungorum; with continuatio i. ; continuatio ii. . . battara, a. fungorum agri arimensis historia. . berkeley, m. j. outlines of fungology. . bolton, j. history of funguses about halifax. . bonorden, h. f. mycologie. . botanical gazette, the. various volumes to . . botanische zeitung. various volumes to . . bulletin laboratories nat. hist. iowa, vol. ii. . bulletin torrey botanical club. various volumes to . . bulliard, p. histoire des champignons de la france. . buxbaum, j. c. enumeratio plantarum. . cienkowski, l. zur entwickelungsgeschichte der myxomyceten. . celakowsky, l. die myxomyceten boehmens. . cooke, m. c. handbook of british fungi. . cooke, m. c. myxomycetes of great britain. . cooke, m. c. myxomycetes of the united states. . corda, a. i. c. icones fungorum. . currey, f., in quart. journal microscopical science. . curtis, m. a. contributions to the mycology of north america; am. journal of science and arts. . de bary, a. h. die mycetozoen. . de bary, a. h. morphologie der pilze, mycetozoen und bacterien. . de candolle, a. p. flore française. . dillenius, j. j. catalogus plantarum circa cissam nascentium. . ditmar, l. p. f., sturm, deutschlands flora, te abtheil; die pilze deutschlands. . ellis, j. b. north american fungi. _exsiccati. et seq._ . ehrenberg, c. g. sylvæ mycologicæ berolinenses. . flora, danica, vol. i.; also vols. iii. iv. v. . fries, elias m. symbolæ gasteromycetum. . fries, elias m. observationes mycologicæ. . fries, elias m. systema mycologicum. . fuckel, i. symbolæ mycologicæ. . gmelin, c. c. systema naturæ, tom. ii., pars. ii. . greville, r. k. scottish cryptogamic flora. . grevillea, various volumes to . . hill, sir john. a history of plants. . hoffman, g. c. deutschlands flora. . jacquin, n. i. miscellanea austriaca. . journal of mycology and _seq._ . karsten, mycologia fennica. . link, h. f. nova plantarum genera. . linné, c. systema naturæ--to . . lister, arthur. the mycetozoa; , second edition, revised by gulielma lister. . massee, george. monograph of the myxogastres. . micheli, p. a. nova plantarum genera. . morgan, a. p. myxomycetes of the miami valley--to . . nees, ch. g. d. das system der pilze und schwamme. . nees, t. f. l. et a. henry. das system der pilze. . peck, charles h. reports n. y. state museum nat. history--to . . persoon, c. h. observationes mycologicæ, pars prima. . persoon, c. h. observationes mycologicæ, pars secunda. . persoon, c. h. tentamen dispositionis methodicæ fungorum. . persoon, c. h. synopsis methodica fungorum. . rabenhorst, l. deutschland's kryptogamenflora. . raciborski, m. myxomycetes agri krakov. genera, species et varietates novæ. . raunkiær, c. myxomycetes daniæ. . retzius, a. j. in handlungen, kon. svensk. vet. acad. . rex, george a. in proceedings philad. acad. of nat. sciences--to . . rostafinski, j. versuch eines systems der mycetozoen. . rostafinski, j. sluzowce monografia. . roth, a. w. tentamen floræ germanicæ. . saccardo, p. a. sylloge fungorum, vol. vii., _et seq._ . sauter, a. flora, vol. xxiv., p. . . schaeffer, j. c. fungi qui in bav. et pal. nascuntur--to . . schrader, h. a. nova genera plantarum. . schroeter, j. myxomycetes, in engler u. prantl pflanzenfamilien. . schroeter, j. kryptogamenflora von schlesien, die pilze. . schumacher, c. f. enumeratio plant. sæll. crescentium. . albertini, i. and schweinitz, l. d. de. conspectus fungorum. . schweinitz, l. d. de. synopsis fungorum car. sup. . schweinitz, l. d. de. synopsis fungorum in america boreali. . sowerby, j. english fungi--to ; vols. . scopoli, j. a. flora carniolica--to . . trentepohl, k. observations botanicae,--to roth, catalecta botanica, fasc. i. . wallroth, c. f. flora cryptogamica germaniae. . willdenow, k. l. florae berolinensis prodromus. . wingate, harold, jour. mycol. ii., . . wingate harold, in proc. acad. nat. sci. philad. . wingate, harold--in revue mycologique. . woronin u. famintzin, ueber zwei neuen formen von schleimpilzen. . zopf, w. die pilzthiere oder schleimpilze. to these may be added the many contributions on the general subject, as these are found in all sorts of current botanical literature; cited everywhere in this volume as occasion offered. introductory the myxomycetes, or slime-moulds, include certain very delicate and extremely beautiful fungus-like organisms common in all the moist and wooded regions of the earth. deriving sustenance, as they for the most part do, in connection with the decomposition of organic matter, they are usually to be found upon or near decaying logs, sticks, leaves, and other masses of vegetable detritus, wherever the quantity of such material is sufficient to insure continuous moisture. in fruit, however, as will appear hereafter, slime-moulds may occur on objects of any and every sort. their minuteness retires them from ordinary ken; but such is the extreme beauty of their microscopic structure, such the exceeding interest of their life-history, that for many years enthusiastic students have found the group one of peculiar fascination, in some respects, at least, the most interesting and remarkable that falls beneath our lens. the slime-mould presents in the course of its life-history two very distinct phases: the _vegetative_, or growing, assimilating phase, and the _reproductive_. the former is in many cases inconspicuous and therefore unobserved; the latter generally receives more or less attention at the hands of the collector of fungi. the vegetative phase differs from the corresponding phase of all other plants in that it exhibits extreme simplicity of structure, if structure that may be called which consists of a simple mass of protoplasm destitute of cell-walls, protean in form and amoeboid in its movements. this phase of the slime-mould is described as plasmodial and it is proper to designate the vegetative phase in any species, as the _plasmodium_ of the species. it was formerly taught that the plasmodium is unicellular, but more recent investigation has shown that the plasmodial protoplasm is not only multinuclear but karyokinetic; its cells divide and redivide, as do the _reproductive_ cells of plants and animals generally. nevertheless, in its plasmodial phase, the slime-mould is hardly to be distinguished from any other protoplasmic mass, may be compared to a giant amoeba, and justifies in so far the views of those systematists who would remove the slime-moulds from the domain of the botanist altogether, and call them animals. the plasmodium is often quite large. it may frequently be found covering with manifold ramifications and net-like sheets the surface of some convenient substratum for the space of several square feet. the substance of the plasmodium has about the consistency of the white of an egg; is slippery to the touch, tasteless, and odorless. plasmodia vary in color in different species and at different times in the same species. the prevailing color is yellow, but may be brown, orange, red, ruby-red, violet, in fact any tint, even green. young plasmodia in certain species are colorless (as in _diderma floriforme_), while many have a peculiar écru-white or creamy tint difficult to define. not only does the color change, sometimes more than once in the course of the life history of the same species, but it may be the same for several forms, which in fruit are singularly diverse indeed, so that the mere color of the plasmodium brings small assistance to the systematist. in fact, the color depends no doubt upon the presence in the plasmodium of various matters, more or less foreign, unassimilated, possibly some of them excretory, differing from day to day. in its plasmodial state, as has been said, the slime-mould affects damp or moist situations, and during warm weather in such places spreads over all moist surfaces, creeps through the interstices of the rotting bark, spreads between the cells, between the growth-layers of the wood, runs in corded vein-like nets between the wood and bark, and finds in all these cases nutrition in the products of organic decomposition. such a plasmodium may be divided, and so long as suitable surroundings are maintained, each part will manifest all the properties of the whole. parts of the same plasmodium will even coalesce again. if a piece of plasmodium-bearing wood be brought indoors, be protected from desiccation by aid of a moist dark chamber, not too warm ( ° f.), the organism seems to suffer little if any injury, but will continue for days or weeks to manifest all the phenomena of living matter. thus, under such circumstances, the plasmodium will constantly change shape and position, can be induced to spread over a plate of moist glass, and so be transferred to the stage of a microscope, there to exhibit in the richest and most interesting and abundant fashion the streaming protoplasmic currents. as just indicated, the plasmodia follow moisture, creep from one moist substance to another, especially follow nutritive substrata. they seem also to secure in some way exclusive possession. i have never seen them interfered with by hyphæ or enemies of any sort, nor do they seem to interfere with one another. plasmodia of two common species, _hemitrichia clavata_ and _h. vesparium_ are often side by side on the same substratum, but do not mix, and their perfected fruits presently stand erect side by side, each with its own characteristics, entirely unaffected by the presence of the other. on the other hand, it is probable that some of the forms which, judged by their different fructifications, and by this alone, are to us distinct, may be more closely related than we suspect, and puzzling phases which show the distinctive marks supposed to characterize different species are no doubt sometimes to be explained on the theory of plasmodial crossing; they are hybrids. under certain conditions, low temperature, lack of moisture, the plasmodium may pass into a resting phase, when it masses itself in heaps and may become quite dry in lumps of considerable size, and so await the return of favorable conditions when former activity is quickly resumed. sometimes the larger plasmodia pass into the resting phase by undergoing a very peculiar change of structure. in ordinary circumstances the abundant free nuclei demonstrable in the plasmodium afford the only evidence of cellular organization. in passing now into the condition of rest, the whole protoplasmic mass separates simultaneously into numerous definite polyhedral or parenchymatous cells, each with a well-developed _cellulose wall_.[ ] when the conditions essential to activity are restored, the walls disappear, the cellulose is resorbed, and the plasmodium resumes its usual habit and structure. the plasmodial phase of the slime-mould, like the hyphal phase of the fungus, may continue a long time; for months, possibly for years. the reason for making the latter statement will presently appear. but however long or short the plasmodial phase continue, the time of fruit, the reproductive phase, at length arrives. when this time comes, induced partly by a certain maturity in the organism itself, partly no doubt by the trend of external conditions, the plasmodium no longer as before evades the light, but pushes to the surface, and appears usually in some elevated or exposed position, the upper side of the log, the top of the stump, the upper surface of its habitat, whatever that may be; or even leaves its nutrient base entirely and finds lodging on some neighboring object. in such emergency the stems and leaves of flowering plants are often made to serve, and even fruits and flowers afford convenient resting places. the object now to be attained is not the formation of fruit alone, but likewise its speedy desiccation and the prompt dispersal of the perfected spores. nothing can be more interesting than to watch the slime-mould as its plasmodium accomplishes this its last migration. if hitherto its habitat has been the soft interior of a rotten log, it now begins to ooze out in all directions, to well up through the crevices of the bark as if pushed by some energy acting in the rear, to stream down upon the ground, to flow in a hundred tiny streams over all the region round about, to climb all stems, ascend all branches, to the height of many inches, all to pass suddenly as if by magic charm into one widespread, dusty field of flying spores. or, to be more exact, whatever the position ultimately assumed, the plasmodium soon becomes quiescent, takes on definite and ultimate shape, which varies greatly, almost for each species. thus it may simply form a flat, cake-like mass, _aethalium_, internally divided into an indefinite number of ill-defined spore cases, sporangia; or the plasmodium may take the form of a simple net, _plasmodiocarp_, whose cords stand out like swollen veins, whose meshes vary both in form and size; or more commonly the whole protoplasmic mass breaks up into little spheroidal heaps which may be sessile directly on the substratum, or may be lifted on tiny stems, stipitate, which may rest in turn upon a common sheet-like film, or more or less continuous net, spreading beneath them all, the _hypothallus_. in any case, each differentiated portion of the plasmodium, portion poorly or well defined, elongate, net-like, spheroidal, elliptical, or of whatever shape, becomes at length a sporangium, spore-case, receptacle for the development and temporary preservation of the spores.[ ] the slime-moulds were formerly classed with the gasteromycetous fungi, puff-balls, and in description of their fruiting phase the terms applicable to the description of a puff-ball are still employed, although it will be understood that the structures described are not in the two cases homologous; analogous only. the sporangium of the slime-mould exhibits usually a distinct _peridium_, or outer limiting wall, which is at first continuous, enclosing the spores and their attendant machinery, but at length ruptures, irregularly as a rule, and so suffers the contents to escape. the peridium may be double, varies in texture, color, persistence, and so forth, as will be more fully set forth in the several specific descriptions. the peridium blends with the hypothallus below when such structure is recognizable, either directly, when the sporangium is sessile, or by the intervention of a _stipe_. the stipe may be hollow, may contain coloring matter of some sort, or may even contain peculiar spore-like cells or spores; is often furrowed, and in some cases shows a disposition to unite or blend with the stalks of neighboring sporangia. in many cases the stipe is continued upward, more or less definitely into the cavity of the sporangium, and there forms the _columella_, sometimes simple and rounded, like the analogous structure in the _mucores_, sometimes as in _comatricha_, branching again and again in wonderful richness and complexity. each sporangium is at maturity filled with numerous unicellular spores. these are usually spherical, sometimes flattened at various points by mutual contact; they are of various colors, more commonly yellow or violet brown, are sometimes smooth (?), but generally roughened either by the presence of minute warts, or spines, or by the occurence of more or less strongly elevated bands dividing reticulately the entire surface. the spores are in all cases small - µ, and reveal their surface characters only under the most excellent lenses. associated with the spores in the sporangium occurs the _capillitium_. this consists of most delicate thread-or hair-like elements, offering great variety both in form and structure. the threads composing the capillitium are not to be regarded, even when free, as cells, nor even of cellular origin; probably, as would appear from the researches of strasburger and harper, all forms of capillitial threads arise in connection with vacuoles in the protoplasmic mass. "whether the thread is hollow or solid, simple or branched, free or connected with the peridium or a columella,--these are entirely secondary conditions, depending on the extent and form of the vacuoles."[ ] they may occur singly or be combined into a net, they may be terete or flat, attached to the peridial wall or free, simple or adorned with bands or spires and knobs in every variety, uniform or profusely knotted and thickened at intervals, and burdened with calcic particles. in many cases, the capillitium contributes materially to the dispersal of the spores; in others, it doubtless contributes mechanically to the support of the peridial wall, and renders so far persistent the delicate sporangium. for more exact description the reader is again referred to the specific delineations which follow. the transition from phase to phase requires, as intimated, no great length of time. _tilmadoche polycephala_ completed the transition from vegetative to fruiting phase in less than twelve hours. the germination of the spores ensues closely upon their dispersal or maturity and is unique in many respects.[ ] the wall of the spore is ruptured and the protoplasmic content escapes as a zoöspore indistinguishable so far from an amoeba, or from the zoöspore of our chytridiaceous fungi. this amoeboid zoöspore is without cell-wall, changes its outline, and moves slowly by creeping or flowing from point to point. at this stage many of the spores assume each a flagellate cilium, and so acquire power of more rapid locomotion. the zoöspores, whether ciliate or not, thus enjoy independent existence and are capable of continuing such existence for some time, assimilating, growing, and even reproducing themselves by simple fission, over and over again. this takes place, of course, only in the presence of suitable nutrient media. nevertheless the spores of many species germinate quickly simply in water, and a drop suspended in the form of the ordinary drop-culture on a cover-glass affords ample opportunity. in the course of time, usually not more than two or three days, the swarm spores cease their activity, lose their cilia, and come to rest, exhibiting at most nothing more than the slow amoeboid movement already referred to. in the course of two or three days more, in favorable cases, the little spores begin to assemble and flow together; at first into small aggregations, then larger, until at length all have blended in one creeping protoplasmic mass to form thus once again the plasmodium, or plasmodial phase with which the round began. small plasmodia may generally be thus obtained artificially from drop-cultures. such, however, in the experience of the writer, are with difficulty kept alive. hay infusions, infusions of rotten wood, etc., may sometimes for a time give excellent results. the spores of _didymium crustaceum_ were sown upon a heap of leaves in autumn. an abundant display of the same species followed in the next june; but, of course, the intervening phases were not observed. the most satisfactory studies are obtained by plasmodia carefully brought in directly from the field. a plasmodium that appeared suddenly and passed to fruit on agar in a petri dish offers a valuable suggestion for further research. with such a life-history as that thus briefly sketched, it is small wonder that the taxonomic place of the slime-moulds is a matter of uncertainty, not to say perplexity. so long as men studied the ripened fruit, the sporangia and the spores, with the marvellous capillitium, there seemed little difficulty; the myxomycetes were fungi, related to the puff-balls, and in fact to be classed in the same natural order. the synonymy of some of the more noticeable species affords a very interesting epitome of the history of scientific thought in this particular field of investigation. thus the first described slime-mould identifiable by its description is lycogala epidendrum (buxbaum) fries, the most puff-ball looking of the whole series. ray, in , called this _fungus coccineus_. in , ruppinus described the same thing as _lycoperdon sanguineum_; dillenius at about the same time, as _bovista miniata_; and it was not until , that micheli so far appreciated the structure of the little puff-ball as to give it a definite, independent, generic place and title, _lycogala globosum_ ..., etc.[ ] but micheli's light was too strong for his generation. as fries, one hundred years later quaintly says, ... "immortalis micheli tam claram lucem accendit ut succesores proximi eam ne ferre quidem potuerint." notwithstanding micheli's clear distinctions, he was entirely disregarded, and our little lycogala was dubbed _lycoperdon_ and _mucor_ down to the end of the century; and so it was not till that persoon comes around to the standpoint of micheli and writes _lycogala miniata_. fries himself, reviewing the labors of his predecessors all, grouped the slime-moulds as a sub-order of the gasteromycetes and gave expression to his view of their nature and position when he named the sub-order _myxogastres_. in , link, having more prominently in mind the minuteness of most of the species collocated by fries, and perceiving perhaps more clearly even than the great mycologist the entire independence of the group, suggested as a substitute for the sub-order _myxogastres_, the order _myxomycetes, slime-moulds_. link's decision passed unchallenged for nearly thirty years. the slime-moulds were set apart by themselves; they were fungi without question and, of course, plants. if the hypha is the morphological test of a fungus, then it is plain that the slime-moulds are not fungi. no myxomycete has hyphæ, nor indeed anything at all of the kind. nevertheless, there are certain parasitic fungi, _chytridiaceae_ for example, whose relationships plainly entitle them to a place among the hyphate forms that have no hyphæ whatever in the entire round of their life-history. these are, however, exceptional cases and really do not bear very closely on the question at issue. physiologically, the fungi are incapable of independent existence, being destitute of chlorophyl. in this respect the slime-moulds are like the fungi; they are nearly all saprophytes and absolutely destitute of chlorophyl. unfortunately this physiological character is identically that one which the fungi share with the whole animal world, so that the startling inquiry instantly rises, are the slime-moulds plants at all? are they not animals? do not their amoeboid spores and plasmodia ally them at once to the amoeba and his congeners, to all the monad, rhizopodal world? this is the position suggested by debary in , and adopted since by many distinguished authorities, among whom may be mentioned saville kent, of england, and dr. william zopf, of germany, in _die pilzthiere_, . rostafinski was a pupil of debary's. however, his volume on the slime-moulds was written after leaving the laboratory; and no doubt with the suggestion of his master still before his mind, he adopts the title mycetozoa, as indicating a closer relationship with the animal world, but our leading authority really has little to say in regard to the matter.[ ] dr. schroeter, a recent writer on the subject, after showing the probable connection between the phycochromaceous algae and the simplest colorless forms, namely, the _schizomycetes_, goes on to remark: "at the same point where the schizomycetous series take rise, there begin certain other lines of development among the most diminutive protoplasmic masses.... through the amoebæ one of these lines gives rise on the one hand to rhizopods and sponges in the animal kingdom, on the other to the _myxomycetes_ among the fungi." this ranges the myxomycetes, in origin at least, near the _schizomycetes_. the brilliant studies of dr. thaxter, resulting in the discovery and recognition of a new group, a new order of the schizomycetes, strikingly confirm the judgment of schroeter.[ ] here we have forms that strangely unite characteristics of both the groups in question. if on the one hand the _myxobacteria_ are certainly schizomycetes, on the other they just as certainly offer in their developmental history "phenomena closely resembling those presented by plasmodia or pseudo-plasmodia...." now the schizophytes certainly pass by gradations easy to the filamentous algæ, and so to relationship with the plants, and the discovery of the _myxobacteriacae_, brings the myxomycetes very near the vegetable kingdom if not within it. all authorities agree that the myxomycetes have no connection in the direction of upward development, "keinen anschluss nach oben," if then their only relationship with other organisms is to be found at the bottom (centre) of the series only, it is purely a matter of indifference whether we say plant or animal, for at the only point where there is connection there is no distinction. but why call them either animals or plants? was nature then so poor that forsooth only two lines of differentiation were at the beginning open for her effort? may we not rather believe that life's tree may have risen at first in hundreds of tentative trunks of which two have become in the progress of the ages so far dominant as to entirely obscure less progressive types? the myxomycetes are independent; all that we may attempt is to assert their near kinship with one or other of life's great branches. the cellulose of the slime-mould looks toward the world of plants. the aerial fructification and stipitate habit of the higher forms tends in the same direction. the disposition to attach themselves to some fixed base is a curious characteristic of plants, more pronounced as we ascend the scale; but by no means lacking in many of the simplest, diatoms, filamentous algae, etc., and it is quite as reasonable to call a vorticella, or a stentor, by virtue of his stipitate form and habit, a plant as to call a slime-mould an animal because in one stage of its history it resembles an amoeba. the total life of an organism in any case must be taken into account.[ ] at the outset plants and animals are alike; there is no doubt about it; they differ in the course of their life-histories. the plasmodium is the vegetative phase of the slime-mould. it needs no cell-walls of cellulose, no more than do the dividing cells of a lily-endosperm; both are nourished by organic food and resort to walls only as conditions change. the possession of walls is an indication of some maturity. in the slime-mould the assumption of walls is indeed delayed. walls at length appear and when they do come they are like those of the lily; they are cellulose. the myxomycetes may be regarded as a section of the organic world in which the forces of heredity are at a maximum whatever those forces may be. slime-moulds have in smallest degree responded to the stimulus of environment. they have, it is true, escaped the sea, the fresh waters in part, and become adapted to habitation on dry land, but nothing more. it is instructive to reflect that even in her most highly differentiated forms the channel which nature elects for the transmissal of all that heredity may bestow, is naught else than a minute mass of naked protoplasm. nature reverts, we say, to her most ancient and simple phases, and heredity is still consonant with apparent simplicity; apparent we say, for as becomes increasingly evident, nothing that lives is simple! the fact is the myxomycetes constitute an exceedingly well-defined group, and the question of relationship in any direction need not much perplex the student. least of all is the question to be settled by anybody's dictum, which is apt to be positive inversely in proportion to the speaker's acquaintance with the subject. no one test can be applied as a universal touchstone to separate plants from animals. such is simply _petitio principii_. nor is there any advantage at present apparent in attempts to associate slime-moulds with other presumably related groups. saville kent's effort to join them with the sponges was not happy, and dr. zopf's association of the slime-moulds and monads appears forced, at best; for when it comes to the consideration of the former, their systematic and even morphological treatment, he is compelled to deal with them by themselves under headings such as "eumycetozoen," "höhere pilzthiere," etc. one rather commends the discreetness of debary, whose painstaking investigations first called attention to the uncertain position of the group. after reviewing the results of all his labors debary does not quite relegate the slime-moulds to the zoölogist for further consideration, but simply says:[ ] "from naked amoeba, with which the mycetozoa (=myxomycetes) are connected in ascending line, the zoölogists with reason derive the copiously and highly developed section of the shell-forming rhizopoda.... and since there are sufficient grounds for placing the rhizopods outside the vegetable and in the animal kingdom, and this is undoubtedly the true position for the amoebæ, which are their earlier and simpler forms, the mycetozoa, which _may_ be directly derived from the same stem, are at least brought very near to the domain of zoölogy." notwithstanding all the controversy in regard to the matter, the study of the slime-moulds still rests chiefly with the botanists. a simple phylogenetic scheme for thallophytes is offered in the strasburger text as follows:-- thallophyta . schizophyta bacteria cyanophyceÆ . flagellata { myxomycetes { peridineÆ _a_ { conjugatÆ { heterocontÆ { chlorophyceÆ _b_ { characeÆ . rhodophyceÆ . fungi about species of slime-moulds have been described. saccardo enumerates , inclusive of those denominated doubtful or less perfectly known. these species are distributed among genera, of which are represented by but a single species each,--monotypic. in the united states there have been recognized about species. of those here described, some are almost world-wide in their distribution, others are limited to comparatively narrow boundaries. the greater number occur in the temperate regions of the earth, although many are reported from the tropics, and some even from the arctic zone. schroeter found _physarum cinereum_ at north cape. our iowa forms are much more numerous in the eastern, that is, the wooded regions of the state. _physarum cinereum_ has however been taken on the untouched prairie, and on the western deserts, as also _physarum contextum_ on the decaying stem of _calamagrostis_, far from forest. as to the economic importance of our myxomycetes, there is no long chapter to write. fries says: "usu in vita communi parum admodum sese commendant, sed in oeconomia naturæ certe non spernendi. multa insectorum genera ex eorum sporidiis unica capiunt nutrimenta." however this may be, there is one species which has come to light since fries's day which is the source of no inconsiderable mischief to the agriculturist. _plasmodiophora brassicae_ occasions the disease known as "club-root" in cabbage, and has been often made the subject of discussion in our agricultural and botanical journals.[ ] aside from the injurious tendencies, possible or real, of the forms mentioned, i know not that all other slime-moulds of all the world, taken all together, affect in any slightest measure the hap or fortune of man or nation. and yet, if in the economic relations of things, man's intellectual life is to be considered, then surely come the uncertain myxos, with their fascinating problems proffered still in forms of unapproachable delicacy and beauty, not without inspiration. collection and care of slime-mould material on this subject a word may here be appropriate. as just now intimated, specimens may be taken at the appropriate season in almost any or every locality. beginning with the latter part of may or first of june, in the northern states, plasmodia are to be found everywhere on piles of organic refuse: in the woods, especially about fallen and rotting logs, undisturbed piles of leaves, beds of moss, stumps, by the seeping edge of melting snow on mountain sides, by sedgy drain or swamp, nor less in the open field where piles of straw or herbaceous matter of any sort sinks in undisturbed decay. within fifty years tree-planting in all the prairie states has greatly extended the range of many more definitely woodland species, so that species of _stemonitis_, for instance, are common in the groves on farms far into nebraska and dakota. in any locality the plasmodia pass rapidly to fruit, but not infrequently a plasmodium in june will be succeeded in the same place by others of the same species, on and on, until the cold of approaching winter checks all vital phenomena. the process of fruiting should be watched as far as possible, and for herbarium material, allowed to pass to perfection in the field. specimens collected should be placed immediately in boxes in such a way as to suffer no injury in transport; beautiful material is often ruined by lack of care on the part of the collector. once at the herbarium, specimens may be mounted by gluing the supporting material to the bottom of a small box. boxes of uniform size and depth may be secured for the purpose. some collectors prefer to fasten the specimen to a piece of stiff paper, of a size to be pressed into the box snugly, but which may be removed at pleasure. every pains must in any case be taken to exclude insects. against such depredators occasional baking of the boxes on the steam radiator in winter is found to be an efficient remedy. for simple microscopic examination it will be found convenient to first wet the material with alcohol on the slide, then with a weak solution of potassic hydrate, to cause the spores and other structures to assume proper plumpness. a little glycerine may be added or run under the cover if it is desired to preserve the material for further or prolonged study. for permanent mounting nothing in most cases is better than glycerine jelly. as a preparation, the material should lie for some time in häntsch's fluid,[ ] opportunity being given for evaporation of the alcohol and water. when the material shows the proper clearness and fulness, it may be mounted in jelly in the usual way. kaiser's formula gives beautiful results. after mounting, the preparation should be sealed with some good cement, as hollis's glue. footnotes: [ ] debary, _morphology and biology of the fungi,_ p. . [ ] see, however, _ceratiomyxa_, p. , following. [ ] harper in _botanical gazette_, vol. xxx., p. . [ ] the following germination periods are furnished by dr. constantineanu (_inaugural dissertation ueber die entwickelungsbedingungen der myxomyceten_; halle, ). _reticularia lycoperdon_ to min. _fuligo ovata_ to min. _stemonitis splendens_ to hrs. _perichaena depressa_ to hrs. _amaurochaete atra_ to hrs. _arcyria incarnata_ to hrs. _lycogala epidendrum_ to hrs. _physarum didermoides_ to da. _dictydium cancellatum_ to da. these records are for sowings in drop cultures, in distilled water, kept at temperature of °- ° f. ( °- ° c.). our own experiments have been made both with distilled water and tap-water with the advantage in favor of the latter. _dictydium cancellatum_ germinates in tap-water at temperature °- ° f. in - hours fresh from the field. _fuligo ovata_ spores were all swarming in about one hour at the same temperature. jahn (_myxomycetenstudien; ber. der deutschen bot. ges._ bd. xxiii., p. ) finds that the germination in some cases as _stemonitis_ species, is hastened by wetting, then drying, then wetting again. pinoy thinks microbes aid in germination (_bull. soc. myc. de france_ t. xviii.). [ ] the plasmodium in this case chances to be red, scarlet, etc. [ ] "die myxomyceten sind ebenso den pilzen wie den echten thieren verwandt."--rostafinski; closing sentence of the _versuch_, thesis for his doctorate at the university of strasburg, . [ ] _botanical gazette_, xvii., pp. , etc.; . [ ] researches of olive, _trans. wis. acad. sci., arts and let._, xv., pt. , p. , and of jahn, _ber. d. deutsch bot. ges._ xxvi., p. , and xxix., p. , demonstrate synapsis, and accordingly some form of alternation among the slime-moulds. from the protracted and painstaking investigation of the german author it appears that in _didymium_ at least, and probably _badhamia_ synapsis immediately precedes spore-formation as in _ceratiomyxa_; that the amoeboid issue of the spores are haploid; the nuclei of the plasmodium, diploid; that the ordinary vegetative plasmodium is accordingly sporophytic. that is, the sporophytic phase is dominant, as in higher plants. [ ] cf., , _ver. morph. u. biol. der pilz. mycet. u. bact._, p. . italics, in quotations, ours. [ ] see _journal of mycology_, washington, d. c., vol. vii., no. ; also _bulletin no. , agric. station of vermont_. see also bull. _ arizona agric. ex. station_: an inquiry into the cause and nature of crown-gall. j. w. tuomey. also _bull. torrey bot. club_, vol. , p. , where it appears that club-root may attack crucifers generally. professor b. m. duggar in _fungous diseases of plants_, pp. - , gives to club-root an illustrated chapter. [ ] häntsch's fluid:-- alcohol % three parts water two parts glycerine one part the north american slime-moulds the myxomycetes (_link_) _debary_ chlorophyl-less organisms whose vegetative phase consists of a naked mass of multinuclear protoplasm, the _plasmodium_; reproduced by spores which are either free or more commonly enclosed in sporangia, and which on germinating produce ciliated or amoeboid zoöspores, whose coalescence gives rise to the plasmodium. the myxomycetes are,-- _a._ _parasites_, in the cells of living plants phytomyxinÆ _b._ _saprophytes_, developed in connection with decaying vegetable matter: _a._ with free spores exosporeÆ _b._ with spores in receptacles or sporangia myxogastres sub-class phytomyxinÆ _schroeter_ . _phytomyxinae schroeter, engl. u. prantl._, i., i., pp. and . the parasitic myxomycetes affecting plants include but few (four or five) species, distributed among four genera. all are parasites in the cells of particular hosts; their vegetative phase is plasmodial and their spores are formed by the simultaneous breaking up of the plasmodium into an indefinite number of independent cells. but a single genus need here concern us,-- =plasmodiophora= _woronin_ . _plasmodiophora_ woronin, _pringsh. jahrb._, xi., p. . parasitic in the parenchymatous cells of the roots of living plants, causing noticeable enlargement of the affected organ, producing at length galls, knots, and various deformities and distortions. spores spherical, smooth, colorless, µ. i. plasmodiophora brassicÆ _woronin_. . _plasmodiophora brassicae_ woronin, _op. cit._ this species, typical of forms so far reported in this country, infests the roots of cabbages,[ ] and produces a very serious disease of that vegetable. in england the malady has long been known under the names "clubbing," "fingers and toes," etc. the roots affected swell greatly, and at length resemble sometimes the flexed fingers of the human hand; hence the english name. as the disease progresses, the roots speedily rot away, to the serious injury of the leaf-bearing portion of the plant. in badly affected fields, sometimes one-half of the crop is utterly destroyed. careful search continued through several years has not availed to bring this species to my personal acquaintance. for a full account of the parasitism of this species and its distribution in the united states see _jour. myc._, vii., p. ; also _bull._ , agric. sta. of vermont. sub-class exosporeÆ _rost._ ._ exosporeae_ rostafinski, _versuch_, p. . spores developed, superficially, outside the fructification, which consists of sporophores, membranous, or slender and branching; spores white, stalked. a single genus,-- =ceratiomyxa= _schroeter_ . _ceratiomyxa_ schroeter, _engl. u. prantl_, i., i., p. . for further synonymy, see under first species. sporangia none; spores superficial, borne on erect papillæ or pillars, or even on the inside of minute depressions or pits; each spore surmounting a delicate pedicel or stalk. the spores on germinating give rise to amoeboid zoöspores, which undergo repeated divisions, later become ciliate, and at length again amoeboid to blend into genuine plasmodia. at maturity the plasmodium gives rise to numerous minute divisions, each of which may lengthen in a direction perpendicular to the surface and bear a spore at the tip. the homologies between the structures just described and the fructification of the ordinary slime-mould are somewhat obscure, if indeed any really exist. are these minute reproductive bodies spores?--their behavior on germination is unique; are they sporangia?--the arrested development they exhibit is none the less puzzling. perhaps the sporiferous pillars represent incipient stipes, the spores the uncombined fragments of what might otherwise have coalesced at the summit of the pillar to form a true sporangium.[ ] several species have been recognized, all referable probably to one or two, or at most, four forms. that universally recognized alike in the literature of the past and in recent studies is,-- . ceratiomyxa fruticulosa (_muell._) _macbr._ plate i., figs. and _a_. . _puccinia ramosa, bifurcata_, etc. micheli, p. , tab. , fig. . . _byssus fruticulosa_ müller, in _fl. dan._, t. , fig. . . _tremella hydnoidea_ jacquin, _misc._, vol. i., t. . . _clavaria puccinia_ batsch, _elench. fung._, p. , fig. . . _puccinia byssoides_ gmelin, _syst. naturae_, p. . . _clavaria byssoides_ bulliard, _champ. de la france_, t. , fig. . . _isaria mucida_ pers., römer, _n. mag. bot._, i., p. . . _isaria mucida_ pers., _syn. meth._, p. . . _ceratium hydnoides_ alb. & schw., _consp. fung._, p. . . _ceratiomyxa porioides_ (a. & s.) schroet., _mycet._, p. , _var._ . _ceratium hydnoides_ fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _ceratium hydnoides_ wor. & fam., _mem. acad. imp._, petersburg. . _ceratium hydnoides_ debary, _comp. morph. fung._, p. . . _ceratiomyxa mucida_ schroeter, _engl. u. prantl nat. pflanz._, i., i., p. . . _ceratiomyxa mucida_, pers., macbr., _bull. nat. hist. iowa_, ii., p. . . _ceratiomyxa mucida_ schroet., lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . plasmodium in rotten wood, white or nearly transparent; when fruiting, forming on the substratum mould-like patches composed of the minute sporiferous pillars, generally in clusters of three or more together; spores white, ovoid, or ellipsoidal, smooth, - × µ. very common, occurring in summer on shaded rotten logs, especially after warm showers and in sultry weather. easily distinguishable from all similar moulds by the absence of mycelium or of anything like a hypha. in europe the plant seems to be in autumn exceedingly common. micheli not only described the form but figured it, nearly two hundred years ago. micheli's figure is good, as is that of mueller, _fl. dan._, l. c. mueller referred the species to a linnean genus _byssus_, which seems to have included algæ rather than anything else, if one can determine its limits at all. the same thing is true of _tremella_; but this name is now otherwise applied, as are all the other generic names down to _ceratium_, alb. & schw. but this had been by schrank preoccupied, . see the reference above for . as for specific name, there seems no reason to depart from the rule of priority, since mueller's work is determinative. _ceratiomyxa arbuscula_, berk. & br., apparently a form of this, is cited from toronto by miss currie. massee gives it recognition; lister as varietal. the sporophores are inclined to be simple, stipitate and dendroid. _c. filiforme_ of the english authors latest named is a wonderful thing and deserves a paragraph here, if not recognition as a distinct species. it occurs rarely; but once it appears, attracts attention. as in the historic species, the sporifers are white, stand more or less erect, but are every way finer and larger. each individual sporifer rises like a stiff stem, as of white thread, - mm. high; at top a tuft of fruiting branchlets, more or less distinct. all taken together, we have a dense mat completely concealing the substratum and spreading out sometimes over an area of surprising extent, several centimetres square. common everywhere in summer on decaying sticks and wood of every description, especially in wet places. alaska to nicaragua, and probably around the world. . ceratiomyxa porioides (_alb. & schw._) _schroeter._ . _ceratium porioides_ alb. & schw., _consp. fung._, p. . . _ceratium porioides_ fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _ceratium porioides_ fam. & wor. _acad. imp._, xx., , p. . . _ceratiomyxa porioides_ schroet., _engl. u. prantl_, i., i., p. . . _ceratiomyxa mucida_ schroet. var. _porioides_ lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . . _ceratiomyxa porioides_ alb. & schw. (schroet.), macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _ceratiomyxa porioides_ alb. & schw., schroet., _list. mycet._, p. , _var._ entire fructification confluent forming a mucilaginous mass, porose. pores ample, angulate, at length radiate-dentate. spores as in the preceding. plasmodium yellow. of these two species fries remarks: "... duæ sunt distinctissimæ, inter has vero longa formarum intermediarum series." famintzin and woronin not only concur, but consider it were more fitting to place the present species in a distinct genus, as _polyporus_ is set off from _hydnum_. a species based upon the color of the vegetative phase only, unconfirmed by any subsequent differential character in the fruit would seem somewhat hazardous. the color of the plasmodium is incident probably to varied nutrient environment. pores, however, are usually in evidence. iowa, tennessee, missouri, etc.; probably common everywhere. sub-class myxogastres (_fries_) _macbr._ . sub-order _myxogastres_ fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . sub-order _myxomycetes_ link, _handb. der gew._, , p. . . sub-order _myxomycetes_ wallroth, _fl. crypt._, ii., p. , in part. . class _mycetozoa_ debary, _bot. zeitung_, , pp. - , in part. . class _myxogastres_ schroeter, _engl. u. prantl_, nat. pflanz., i., i., p. . . class _myxogastres_ (fries) massee, _monograph_, p. . . class _mycetozoa_ lister, _mycetozoa_, p. , in part. except as just described, the slime-moulds present abundant, minute, unicellular spores, enclosed in sporangia more or less perfectly defined, and attended by peculiar thread-like structures, free or variously attached and conjoined, the so-called _capillitium_. so far as known, the spores on germination give rise to zoöspores, at first amoeboid, later ciliate, again amoeboid, conjugating in pairs, then, in some cases, at least, coalescing and dividing indefinitely to form the plasmodial or vegetative phase.[ ] =key to the orders of the myxogastres= spore-mass black or violaceous, rarely ferruginous series a spore-mass never black; usually some shade of brown or yellow, rarely purplish or rosy, etc. series b series a . capillitium present, delicate, thread-like; sporangia calcareous more or less throughout i. physarales . capillitium present, thread-like, arising usually as anastomosing branches from a well-developed columella, which in a single genus contains lime; sporangia otherwise non-calcareous ii. stemonitales series b . capillitium none, or very imperfectly developed; spores of some shade of brown, rarely purplish iii. cribrariales . capillitium the inwardly produced irregular extremities of plates or tubules, which by their interweaving outwardly make up the aethalial wall; spores pale, ashen iv. lycogalales . capillitium made up of more or less distinctly sculptured threads, parietal or free, simple, branched, or reticulate; spores commonly yellow v. trichiales this sequence is meant to convey the idea that the presence of lime is indicative of differentiation less complete. that the plasmodium should at the outset eliminate, by refusing the unnecessary lime, is indicative of higher rank than that the lime should be carried until the last and then be crystallized out, or excreted by simple desiccation. the circumstance that the excreted lime may sometimes serve a protective purpose in the fruit, does not vitiate the general principle. in series b the differentiation reaches a climax in the sculptured capillitium of the trichias. order i =physarales= spores violaceous-black. the capillitium usually delicate and thread-like; peridium and capillitium, one or other or both, more or less extensively surcharged with lime. peridium simple or double. fructification various. this order is recognizable by several characteristics, but is especially marked by the peculiar calcareous deposits which affect the capillitium or peridium, now one, now the other, more often both. as here defined, the order physarales includes two distinct families; of the one _physarum_, of the other _didymium_, is type. =key to the families of the order physarales= _a._ fructification often calcareous throughout; capillitium intricate _physaraceae_ _b._ calcareous deposits, when present, affecting the peridium only, or sometimes the stipe, in the typical genus plainly crystalline; capillitium simple _didymiaceae_ a. physaraceÆ =key to the genera of the physaraceæ= _a._ fructification æthalioid . _fuligo_ _b._ fructification plasmodiocarpous or of distinct sporangia. _a._ peridium evidently calcareous. i. capillitium calcareous throughout . _badhamia_ ii. capillitium largely hyaline. o sporangia globose, etc.; dehiscence irregular . _physarum_ oo sporangia vasiform or more or less tubular + dehiscence by a lid or more or less circumscissile . _craterium_ ++ dehiscence irregular, peridium introverted . _physarella_ _b._ peridium apparently limeless, at least outside. i. plasmodiocarpous . _cienkowskia_ ii. sporangia distinct . _leocarpus_ c. extra-limital. _a._ sporangia stipitate, saucer-shaped, following no. . _trichamphora_ _b._ sporangia elongate allantoid, etc., following no. . _erionema_ = . fuligo= (_haller_) _pers._ . _mucor_ linn., _sp. pl._ ii., no. (?). . _fuligo_ haller, _hist. helv._, nos. - , in part. . _fuligo_ haller, _pers. syn._, p. . . _Æthalium_ link, _diss._, i, p. . . _Æthalium_ fries, _sym. myc._, iii., p. . sporangia undefined, obscurely woven in and out among each other forming usually a cushion-shaped æthalioid mass. the outer layer sterile, often calcareous, forming a fragile crust, more or less defined. the middle layer sporiferous with calcigerous capillitium. the lowest layer a membranous hypothallus. the identity of this genus seems to have been recognized first by haller, _op. cit._, but by persoon more closely defined and illustrated. link simply translated the name into greek, for reasons less evident now, and in this was followed by fries. haller's designation is now probably securely fixed. the sporigerous median structure of the fructifications, under whatever specific name or names, is entirely confused. sporangial walls, if ever such there were, are hardly as such recoverable, seemingly _indicated_ only, in the changes to which the æthalium submits as in the ripening the sporogenic plasm passes on to spores. in the present state of our knowledge the forms of this genus present withal a most perplexing problem. are they simply phases of a single species, or are they in style and in structure sufficiently constant in their admitted variety, to claim specific rank and separate description? to follow the example of greville and recognize in all the literature of two hundred years varied descriptions of a single type,--this were perhaps the easier and speedier disposal of the case. fries thought so to treat the problem but was unable to keep faith with his own decision; for no sooner he states the genus monotypic than he proceeds forthwith to offer four varieties, a. b. c. d., viz. those by persoon and others duly recognized as species. recent students all, however, seem to find convenience in specific division. all seem disposed to honor dr. peck's _fuligo ochracea_ whether or not by the name he gave; and of other varieties some seem impressed by the constancy of one, some of another characteristic, thus indicating that to careful observers all over the world there are differences that may be recognized, that have been recognized again and again. if there are two species there are certainly more. out of the gatherings of many years one may set in order not less than five variations in the fruiting of _fuligo_, five distinct types of fructification, to all appearing sufficiently constant for specific recognition. it will be said, has been said, was said by fries, that these variations are insignificant, "pendent ex æris constitutione"; but as a matter of fact the several types now in question may be found on the same day, so that evidently something other than the atmospheric environment must determine. again it is said that the differences are in external form or color only, the spores in all cases almost if not quite the same. this is true; but specific characters are _surface_ characters in fact: a species morphologically is merely the form in which a _kind_ or _genus_ presents itself. if the presentation be constant, for our convenience we say so, in bestowing a name. whether in our present treatment the convenience is purely personal, students may decide. however it all may be, there are in this part of the world many varying presentations of _fuligo_ capable of illustration and description; the same forms, perhaps, which have attracted the notice of the more acute mycologists in the older history of the subject. some of these forms we here venture to describe, with such annotation as may show something of present knowledge. =key to the species of fuligo= _a._ Æthalium cm. or less; spores spherical . _f. muscorum_ _b._ Æthalium larger, or plasmodiocarpous, even sporangi-form, crust white, smooth, even, spores elliptical . _f. cinerea_ _c._ Æthalia larger, cm. or more. . cortex yellow, etc., not white; spores - µ . _f. septica_ . cortex nearly or quite wanting; spores - . _f. intermedia_ . cortex white, a foamy crust; spores - . _f. megaspora_ . fuligo muscorum _alb. & schw._ . _fuligo muscorum_, alb. & schw. lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . . _licea ochracea_ peck, n. y. _rep._, xviii., p. . . _fuligo ochracea_ peck, n. y. _rep._, xxxi., p. . . _fuligo muscorum_, alb. & schw., lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . . _fuligo muscorum_ alb. & schw., lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . plasmodium orange-yellow. Æthalium globoid, very small, cm. or less, the cortex very thin, greenish yellow; sporangial walls not evident; capillitium well-developed, the numerous calcareous nodes fusiform or often branching, and connected by rather short, transparent internodes; spores coarsely warted, - µ. this form seems to differ from _f. septica_ chiefly in its constant diminutive habit of fruiting, in its delicate cortex, and in its spores, brighter, larger, and more coarsely warted. the descriptions and figure by schweinitz seem referable to nothing else. first reported by albertini and schweinitz from germany; by schweinitz from the carolinas; then by dr. peck described as a _licea_ from new york. it seems less commonly collected in the united states. . fuligo cinerea (_schw._) _morg._ plate x., figs. , _a_, and _b_, and plate xxiii. . _enteridium cinereum_ schw., _n. a. f._, no. . . _physarum ellipsosporum_ rost., _mon. app._, p. . . _Æthaliopsis stercoriformis_ zopf., _pilzthiere_, p. . . _fuligo ellipsospora_ lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . . _fuligo cinerea_ (schw.) morg., _cin. soc. nat. hist._, p. . . _physarum ellipsosporum_ rost., macbr. _n. a. s._, p. . . _fuligo cinerea_ morg., list., _mycetozoa_, nd ed., p. . plasmodium milk-white, watery. plasmodiocarp long and widely effused, anon winding, here and there reticulate, always applanate; sometimes in form an æthalium, the peridial cortex membranous, firm, thick, and white. capillitium well-developed, furnished with lime. spores thin-walled, ellipsoidal, violaceous, plicate-rugose, - x - µ. not common. found occasionally in shaded situations on piles of rotting straw or in the woods, especially on detritus of the bracken. the spores are many of them ellipsoidal; some are spherical; all are decidedly spinulose, perhaps might appear plicate-rugulose when dry or shrunken. calcareous nodules very large and irregular, white. schweinitz, _loc. cit._, described this form as _enteridium cinereum_. rostafinski referred it to the genus _physarum_, but was obliged to adopt also a new specific name, as that suggested by schweinitz was already in use in the genus _physarum_. zopf, _die pilzthiere_, p. , founds a new genus on what seems to be the same form as here considered. this he publishes as _Æthaliopsis stercoriformis_ z. massee regards the specimens discovered by zopf as belonging to the genus _fuligo_, and lister regards rostafinski's type as _fuligo_, and includes zopf's material under the rostafinskian species. this has been described as properly an american form; lister cites other far localities. . fuligo septica (_linn._) _gmel_. . _mucor septicus_ linn., _sp. pl._ ii., no. (?). . _mucor ovatus_ schaeff., _fung. bav._, p. , fig. . . _fuligo septica_ (linn.) gmel., _syst. nat._, p. . . _fuligo varians_ sommf., _fl. lapl. sup._, p. . . _Æthalium flavum_ link, _diss._, i., p. . . _Æthalium septicum_ fr., _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _fuligo varians_ sommf., rost., _mon._, p. . . _fuligo varians_ sommf., macbr., _bull. lab. nat. hist. ia._ ii., p. . . _fuligo septica_ (linn.) lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . . _fuligo ovata_ (schaeff.) macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _fuligo septica_ gmel., lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . this remarkable and universal species presents as stated many forms and phases. of these five have been selected as representative. . form _a._ plasmodium yellow; cortex yellow, or orange-brown, strongly calcareous friable; form indefinite _f. ovata_ . form _b._ cortex less calcareous porose, yellowish brown, fructification definite, pulvinate _f. rufa_ . form _c._ cortex smooth, persistent; fructification small, less than two inches _f. laevis_ . form _d._ plasmodium yellow; cortex none; capillitium yellow, fructification thin, sometimes wide-spread _f. flava_ . form _e._ plasmodium violaceous, dark; cortex almost none; whole mass reddish or violet _f. violacea_ . form _a._ _fuligo ovata_ (schaeff.) pers. plasmodium bright yellow; æthalium pale brown, or yellowish-ochraceous, of variable size and shape, one to many cm. in diameter, and one to two cm. thick, enclosed by a distinct calcareous crust, which varies in texture, thickness, and color; capillitium well developed but variable in color, form, and extent; spore-mass dull black, sooty; spores spherical, purplish brown, nearly smooth, - µ. under this name may be placed our most common form. rising with an abundant yellowish creamy plasmodium from masses of decaying vegetation, lumber, sawdust, half buried logs, it creeps about with energy unsurpassed, coming to rest only in some position specially exposed, as the top of a log or stump, the face of a stone or post, or even the high clods of a cultivated field! the fructification is large, yellow, or at most pale ochraceous, the surface when mature extremely friable like dry foam. bulliard figures this phase well on plate , fig. , and calls it _reticularia_ (_fuligo_) _hortensis_, from its affecting the soils of gardens. more than thirty fructifications have appeared at one time, varying in size from one to twenty cm. in a field of potatoes, well tilled, and less than an acre in extent! such is life's perennial exuberance on this time-worn old world of ours! schæffer's plate cxii represents probably the same thing. so also bolton's plate, cxxxiv. sowerby's fig. on plate , and figures and on greville's plate possibly also depict this form. persoon calls this _f. vaporaria_ because it frequents hotbeds and the like, and believes this to represent the "_untuosus flavus_" of linnée, although he thinks schæffer's specimens do not. the calcareous internal structure is white. . form _b_, _f. rufa_ pers. this type of fuligo is very different from the preceding in form, habit, and color. in form it is much more definite, usually thick, well-rounded and with some solidity. the interior fructification is gray throughout, much less expanded than in _a_; in fact does not resemble _a_ at all! the cortex is porose but firm, orange at first, but becoming tawny with age, even in the herbarium. bulliard figures it well, plate , fig. , and sowerby's fig. on plate is also good, as are also greville's figure on plate showing the two colors referred to. not uncommon in the forest from june till september, but far more rare than _a_: always well-marked, with no other forms associated. . form _c_, _f. laevis_ pers. this is a still more specialized type of the group. the fructification is usually small, smooth, about an inch in diameter and sometimes nearly as thick; the cortex rusty brown, enduring, persisting often when all the sporiferous grayish mass has been distributed through chinks, or from below. the figure on plate x. shows this form. this also is a forest species, is autumnal rather, but may be taken sometimes as early as july. the cortex is not at all porose or spongy, in color reddish or brown, fragile indeed, but not to the touch, in the herbarium enduring for years. . form _d_, _f. flava_ pers. plate x, figs. , _a_, _b_. this is hardly _f. flava_ of persoon; rather of morgan who uses persoon's specific designation. persoon cites bolton's fig. cxxxiv, which is yellow indeed but is the ordinary presentation of _f. septica_. the form here considered is remarkable for its delicacy; extremely thin, perhaps one layer only of overlying elongate flexuous sporangia(?), covered by the merest shadow of a cortex in the form of yellow dust, soon lost: the capillitial structure yellow throughout; occurring upon fallen logs in moist dark woods; not common. . form _e_, _f. violacea_ pers. plasmodium (morgan _teste_) dark red, or wine-colored; the æthalium thin, two or three inches wide, covered by a cortex at first dull red and very soft, at length almost wholly vanishing, so that the entire mass takes on a purple-violet tint, upper surface varied with white; capillitium rather open, the more or less inflated, large, irregular nodes joined by long, slender, delicate, transparent filaments; spores dark violet, minutely roughened, spherical, about . µ. ohio, tennessee. probably everywhere, but not distinguished from . professor morgan, who gave the genus under consideration much attention, regarded _f. violacea_ as a form particularly well-defined. what the value of plasmodic color as a specific character in general, and how far such character is in the present case definitive, because constant, are points yet to be determined. . fuligo intermedia _macbr. n. s._ Æthalium two to three cm. in greatest diameter, . - cm. thick, covered with a thin, fragile, but not calcareous, greyish or brownish cortex; the spore-mass grey or violaceous-grey, firm, not at all sooty, the sporangia intricate, their walls more or less calcareous; capillitium not conspicuous; spores globose, pale purple, slightly roughened, - µ. this form has been repeatedly sent me from denver, colorado, by professor bethel. i have refrained from publishing it, still anxious to believe that all fuligos on the face of the earth were of one species. in the species next following it must be admitted that the spore-variations are too wide to remain comfortably under shelter of a single specific name. the present species is not _f. septica_, neither is it _f. megaspora_; it is _f. intermedia_. colorado; iowa. . fuligo megaspora _sturg._ . _fuligo megaspora_ sturg., _col. coll. pub._, p. . Æthalium pulvinate one to three inches in diameter, covered with a thick spongy incrustation of lime, white or yellowish toward the base: sporangia convolute, the walls membranous, brittle, charged throughout with round white granules of lime, . - µ in diameter: columella none: capillitium of delicate, colorless, anastomosing tubules, bearing toward the center large, white, branching calcareous nodules; spores spherical, or somewhat oval, dark purple-brown, rough-tuberculate, - µ. this species differs as pointed out by professor sturgis, chiefly in the character of the spores, their unusual size and roughness.[ ] colorado; africa!--_robert fries._ =extra-limital= =erionema= _penzig_ . _erionema_ penzig, _die myx. d. fl. v. beutenzorg_, p. . sporangia plasmodiocarpous but distinct, cylindrical; capillitium intricate, elastic; nodules few. . erionema aureum _penzig_ . _erionema aureum_ penz. _l. c._ sporangia elongate, clustered, pendulous, yellow or grayish yellow, generally stipitate on long flaccid stalks, or sessile and interlacing: stipes yellow, blending with the hypothallus; capillitium intricate, expanding at maturity after the manner of _arcyria_ to several times the sporangial length, the nodules small, yellow; spores nearly smooth, violaceous-brown, - µ. this unique form is near the fuligos which it resembles, especially when sessile, in its intricate sporangia. the spores also are those of the common _fuligo septica_. the habit is however entirely different. mr. fetch describes clusters in ceylon, hanging free, four to six cm. in length! = . badhamia= (_berkeley_) _rost._ . _badhamia_ berkeley, _trans. linn. soc._, xxi., p. . . _badhamia_ rostafinski, _monograph_, p. . sporangia simple; peridial wall simple, thin, breaking irregularly; capillitium formed of abundant, richly anastomosing tubules, filled throughout their entire length with calcareous granules; the nodes often feebly represented; stipe poorly developed or wanting entirely; columella, except in forms sometimes assigned to the sub-genus _scyphium_, poorly developed or none; spores frequently adherent in clusters. the whole genus calls for careful and protracted study; and the present so-called species are like something new on the world; as full of vagaries as though but just entered upon their phylogenetic race. this genus is closely related to _physarum_, but differs in having the capillitium calcareous throughout. forms occur and are included here, in which the capillitium, especially in some parts, is physarum-like, physaroid. nevertheless, the distinctions hold good as a rule, and are at once diagnostic. in capillitial differentiation the badhamias are definite and beautiful. the net in a typical species, as _b. papaveracea_, is throughout uniformly evenly tubular, the calcareous deposits delicate in the extreme, presenting, as the spores disappear, an elegant trabecular structure as if to support the persisting peridium if not the original content. in other forms the capillitium is physaroid, with swollen nodes, but heavily calcareous but not quite throughout. _badhamia_, _physarum_, _tilmadoche_, _craterium_ present a consistent group, of which _physarum_ is the generalized expression. berkeley's idea of the genus was expressed as follows: "peridium naked or furfuraceous. spores in groups, enclosed, at first, in a hyaline sack." rostafinski, while accepting berkeley's generic name, redefined it, emphasized the calcareous capillitium, and made reference to the spore-adherence only to assert that berkeley's description was, in this particular, based on mistaken observation. in some species, the spores do, in fact, show a tendency to cling together, a characteristic which badham was perhaps first to notice; but that this is occasioned by their being surrounded by a sac or common pellicle has not been proved nor even suggested, by any subsequent investigator. berkeley's genus was therefore founded upon a slight mistake; but we may conserve his rights in the premises if we write _badhamia_ (berk.) rost., and so keep history straight. =key to the species of badhamia= _a._ spores ovoid or ellipsoidal _a._ spores free . _b. ovispora_ _b._ spores adherent . _b. versicolor_ _b._ spores spherical _a._ sporangia yellow i. spores free . _b. decipiens_ ii. spores adhering . _b. nitens_ _b._ sporangia grey, spores free i. always sessile . _b. panicea_ ii. stalked, at least some of them o stipe when present black + globose, small . mm. . _b. affinis_ ++ larger, spores strongly spinulose . _b. macrocarpa_ +++ discoidal or annulate . _b. orbiculata_ oo stipes membranous yellowish + stipes long, sporangia iridescent . _b. magna_ ++ stipes short or none; iridescent . _b. foliicola_ _c._ sporangia grey, spores adherent i. stipe when present yellowish + wall iridescent, spores uniformly marked . _b. utricularis_ ++ more calcareous, spores strongly marked on one side . _b. capsulifera_ +++ colorado, spores anon barred . _b. populina_ ii. stipe when present black . _b. papaveracea_ _d._ sporangia brown, lilacine i. sessile . _b. lilacina_ ii. stipitate, columellate . _b. rubiginosa_ . badhamia ovispora _racib._ . _badhamia ovispora_ racib., _myx. ag. cracov._, xii., p. . sporangia sessile depressed-globose or plasmodiocarpous, white or ochraceous, covered by dense calcareous scales; capillitium white, the lime-granules sometimes aggregate at the center to form a pseudo-columella; spores not adhering, brownish-purple ellipsoidal, × - x µ. reported from bohemia, england, pennsylvania. . badhamia versicolor _lister_. . _badhamia versicolor_ list., _jour. bot._, xxxix., p. . . _badhamia versicolor_ list., _mycetozoa nd ed._, p. . sporangia scattered or clustered, minute, . -. mm., grey or flesh-colored, sessile, the calcareous deposits slight; capillitium white or apricot-colored; spores ovoid, × - × µ, clustered, purplish, and warted at the broader end, elsewhere colorless and smooth. this little species, as it comes to us, is grey, very uneven in size, . -. mm. and generally irregular in form and habit, perhaps scarce mature. the capillitium is white, physaroid. the spores furnish the distinguishing character. sometimes globose, about - . they are most of them definitely and permanently affected in shape by the fact of cluster-association, narrower in the direction of the cluster center. the indications are that these may become globose with maturity. colorado,--_bethel_; scotland. . badhamia decipiens (_curtis_) _berk._ . _physarum decipiens_ curtis, _am. jour. sci._, vi., p. . . _badhamia decipiens_ berk., _grev._, ii., p. . . _physarum chrysotrichum_ berk. & c., grev. ii., p. . . _badhamia chrysotricha_ (berk. & c.) rost., _app._, p. . sporangia gregarious, depressed-spherical or ovate, sessile, occasionally plasmodiocarpous, dull yellow, roughened by the rather large numerous calcareous scales; columella none; capillitium dull orange, strongly calcareous, only slightly widened at the nodes; spore-mass black; spores pale violet, minutely spinulose, free, - µ. among badhamias this and the next species are at once distinguished by the color. if the brief description (_grev._, ii., p. ) can be regarded as defining anything, this is the same as _p. chrysotrichum_ berk. & c. it resembles somewhat _p. serpula_ morg., but differs externally in color and in the surface scales, which are not perceptible in the _physarum_. the present species also resembles _cienkowskia reticulata_ (schw.) rost., but has a different capillitium. see under that species. chiefly eastern and american. new england, pennsylvania, ohio, south carolina; reported recently also from sweden and germany. . badhamia nitens berk. . _badhamia nitens_ berk., _trans. linn. soc._, xxi., p. . . _badhamia inaurata_ currey, _trans. linn. soc._, xxiv., p. . . _badhamia nitens_ berk., rost., _mon. app._, p. . sporangia gregarious or closely crowded, globose or depressed-globose, . - mm. in diameter, yellow or greenish yellow, rugulose, sessile; capillitium yellow, forming an open net with occasional thickenings at the nodes; spores clustered, delicately roughened, violaceous-brown, - µ. this much resembles the preceding species except in the clustered spores, and more commonly aggregate habit. the spores, as usual when clustered, are conspicuously echinulate on the outer side. this did not escape the notice of the author of the species, _op. cit._ colorado, oregon. reported from west indies, ceylon, various parts of europe. . badhamia panicea (fries) rost. . _physarum paniceum_ fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _badhamia panicea_ (fr.) rost., fuckel, _sym. myc. nachtr._, , p. . sporangia gregarious or aggregated in closely compacted clusters, globose or hemispherical, sessile, the peridium thin, transparent, thickly dotted with white calcareous scales; stipe none; columella none, although a pseudo-columella sometimes appears, formed by a more dense development of the capillitium near the centre of the sporangium below; capillitium abundantly developed, quite uniformly thickened, but showing an occasional delicate connecting thread, the nodes also somewhat flattened and enlarged; spore-mass black; spores by transmitted light, bright violaceous-brown, minutely roughened, - µ. plasmodium is said to be white. in america this seems to be a purely western species. specimens are before us from western iowa and from colorado, south dakota, nevada, and southern california. it is very well marked, though liable perhaps to be mistaken at first sight for sessile phases of _p. notabile_ or _p. cinereum_. the capillitium is, however, at once determinative. colorado; _bethel_. europe generally. . badhamia affinis _rost._ . badhamia affinis rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia aggregated, cespitose and sessile, or sometimes stipitate, depressed above, flat or umbilicate below, the wall grayish white, rugulose, and more or less calcareous-scaly; the stipe when present erect or sometimes nodding, black or brownish black; hypothallus scanty; columella none; capillitium not abundant, white, the nodes somewhat expanded; spores globose, minutely roughened, violet-brown, large, - µ. chiefly on moss, the pale ashen sporangia generally very small, mounted on the tips of the leaves, sometimes sessile, sometimes with a distinct black stipe in which case the peridium is distinctly umbilicate. specimens from kansas referred here have the stipe pale, rugose, long, about twice the sporangium; habitat bark. rare. new york, ohio, kansas; more recently reported from scotland and japan. there is nothing new to be added here; nor appears any other place to which such material as we have may be referred. new collections no doubt will one day appear, when the identity may, let us hope, be made secure. meantime we have a form closely related which may be entered as badhamia iowensis _macbr. n. s._ sporangia gregarious or loosely scattered, depressed globose, . -. mm. in diameter, stipitate, grey, flecked by rather prominent but small rounded calcareous scales: the stipe short, half the diameter of the sporangium, black or very dark brown, without hypothallus but widening above into a shallow expanded base for the sporangia; columella none: capillitium dull yellow, sometimes white, strongly calcareous, physaroid, heavy; spores free, dark brown in mass, pale violet by transmitted light, minutely verruculose, the tiny warts in some areas more densely placed, producing evident shadowy spots, - µ. this interesting little species occurs on the lower surface of fallen logs, blocks, etc., in colonies of considerable extent, hundreds of sporangia in a place. the capillitium is comparable to that of _b. decipiens_ or _b. panicea_; it is physaroid to the extent that an occasional filament may be found non-calcic, and not typically badhamioid as in _b. papaveracea_, _b. macrocarpa_. the sporangial base persists, dark brown, bearing traces of the clumsy capillitium, but no columella real or simulated. blackhawk co., iowa; _communicavit dr. jessie parish_. see plate xx., , _a_, _b_. reddish or roseate forms sometimes appear in colonies otherwise as described. it differs from _b. affinis_ in the size and character of the spores, in color and character of the capillitium, habit and surface markings. . badhamia macrocarpa (_ces._) _rost._ . _physarum macrocarpon_ cesati, _flora_, xxxviii., p. . . _badhamia macrocarpa_ (ces.) rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia scattered or closely aggregate, crowded globose or sub-globose, generally sessile, rugulose, white; the peridium membranous, white above, below yellowish or brown; capillitium not abundant, thoroughly calcareous, the nodes broad, conspicuous, the connecting tubules rigid; columella none; hypothallus scant or none; spore-mass black, spores non-adherent, by transmitted light bright clear brown, thickly spinulose all over, large spherical, - µ. closely resembles externally _b. panicea_, but is easily distinguished by larger and remarkably _spinulose_ spores, in this particular unrivalled in the entire genus. european authors describe both sessile and stipitate forms. american specimens generally are sessile and for the most part closely crowded, almost heaped; but--prof. bethel finds this in winter everywhere on fallen rotting stems of opuntia and on the bases of dead yucca leaves, still attached. associated with the typical phase and often _occurring alone on the yucca_ leaves is a discoidal form which when first sent in ( ) was called var. _gracilis_. presented alone to one ignorant of its history and associations, it would surely pass for a distinct species. this stalked phase is very delicate; the stipe pale brown, or yellow. see plate ii., fig. . see also sturgis _col. coll. pub._ xii., . . badhamia orbiculata _rex._ plate xiv., fig. . . _badhamia orbiculata_ rex. _proc. phil. acad._, p. . . _badhamia macrocarpa rost._, lister, _mycetozoa_, p. (in part). . _badhamia orbiculata_ rex., lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. sporangia stipitate or sessile, orbicular discoidal, irregularly elongated or plasmodiocarpous, averaging about mm. in width, generally stipitate, and when stipitate, flattened or depressed above, plane or slightly umbilicate below; the peridium simple, more or less translucent from the varying number of innate granules, sometimes covered with circular flat masses of lime, gray except the point of attachment to the stipe which is brown; stipe short, black, rough, plicate; capillitium dense at the centre, radiant at the periphery where it meets the sporangial wall, white; spores violaceous black, minutely warted, - µ. this is a beautiful species, easily known by its discoidal or almost annulate sporangia mounted upon short dark black stipes. the stipe in western collections is sometimes very short, but generally suffices to raise the sporangium, a little at least, above the substratum. sessile and plasmodiocarpous forms do occur with the typical stipitate phase, but may be regarded here as elsewhere as indicative of incomplete development. plasmodium cream-colored, or pale yellow. pennsylvania, ohio, iowa, nebraska, south dakota, colorado. . badhamia magna _peck._ plate xiv., fig. . . _dictydium magnum_ peck, _rep. n. y. state mus._, xxiv., p. . . _badhamia magna_ peck, _rep. n. y. state mus._, xxxi., p. . . _badhamia macrocarpa rost._, lister, _mycetozoa_, p. , in part. . _bahamia varia_ mass. _mon. myxog._, p. , in part. . _badhamia magna_ peck, list., _mycetozoa_, p. . . _badhamia capsulifera_ (berk.) macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _badhamia magna_ peck, lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia globose or ellipsoid, . - mm., pale iridescent, stipitate; peridium thin with slight calcareous deposits, rugulose, opening irregularly, white; stipe long flaccid, straw-colored; capillitium an elegant uniform net, its threads stiffened by slight deposits of lime, the nodes little thickened, badhamioid; spores free, dusky with a shade of violet, minutely spinulose, about µ. this beautiful species closely resembles some forms of _b. utricularis_ from which it differs chiefly in its unclustered smooth spores. _b. foliicola_ as recognized here is hardly more than a smaller, short-stemmed form of this; see species next following. not rare in the eastern united states and canada; iowa. seems to take the place of _b. capsulifera_ of europe. . badhamia foliicola _lister_. . _badhamia foliicola_ list., _jour. bot._, xxxv., p. . . _badhamia foliicola_ list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . "plasmodium orange." sporangia smaller, about . -. mm., globose or ellipsoidal, iridescent-gray, stipitate or sessile, the peridium thin, rugulose, sparingly calcareous, when empty white; the stipe when present short but yellowish, of the flaccid sort; capillitium badhamioid; spores free, delicately spinulescent, dusky-violaceous, about - µ. this has been so far collected but once, on the shores of lake okoboji. it was developed, no doubt, on the natural débris of a bur-oak prairie border, and went to fruit on the leaves, stems, and fruiting spikes of a species of _setaria_. it may prove to be different from the _b. foliicola_ of europe; future collections and study must reveal that. meantime it seems wise to refer it here. the color of the plasmodium is quoted from miss lister; a fact of some importance only when constant and confirmed by other criteria. iowa; toronto,--_miss currie._ . badhamia utricularis (_bull._) _berk._ . _sphaerocarpus utricularis_ bull., _champ._, p. , t. , fig. . . _physarum utriculare_ chev., _fl. paris_, i., p. . . _physarum utriculare_ fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _badhamia utricularis_ (bull.) berk., _tr. linn. soc._, xxi., p. . sporangia clustered, spherical or ovoid, large, sessile or mounted on long, thin, strand-like stalks, blue-gray, violet-iridescent or cinereous, smooth or more often rugulose; the stipes when present poorly differentiated, as if thread-like filaments and strips of the plasmodium, often branched and always reclining or even prostrate; hypothallus none; capillitium a large-meshed open network of rather slender tubules, the nodes unequally developed, white with the enclosed lime; spores not strictly adherent though not without some tendency to stick together, delicately warted, bright violet-brown, - µ. this species resembles _b. capsulifera_, but is distinguished by a more strongly rugulose less calcareous peridium and a more profuse development of filamentous stipes, but especially by the character of the spores. the spores of the present species while inclined, when mounted in a liquid, to stay together, nevertheless do not coalesce in heaps as in the related species, nor do they show any differentiation in the episporic markings, these being uniform over the entire spore. this is one of the finest and perhaps the most beautiful species of this fine genus. it is a forest species, generally to be found on trunks of fallen _populus_ or _tilia_ where the fine soft gray colonies often spread for several inches along the ridges and in crevices of the bark. colorado (_bethel_); mississippi valley and east. . badhamia capsulifera (_bull._) _berkeley_. . _sphaerocarpus capsulifer_ bull., _champ._, p. , t. , fig. . . _physarum hyalinum_ pers., _syn. meth. fung._, p. . . _badhamia capsulifera_ berk., _tr. lin. soc._, xxi., p. . . _badhamia hyalina_ berk., _tr. lin. soc._, xxi., p. . . _badhamia hyalina_ (pers.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _badhamia capsulifera_ (bull.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _badhamia hyalina_ lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . . _badhamia capsulifera_ lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia clustered or gregarious, sessile or sometimes stipitate, globose or obovoid, gray or greenish white, snow-white when empty; the peridium thin, translucent; the stipe, when present, as in _b. utricularis_, although generally shorter and better developed, yellow or straw colored; capillitium a very loose, open network of white, lime-filled tubules, not much expanded at the nodes; columella none; spore-mass purplish-brown; spores adhering in clusters of five or six to twenty or more, globose, but affected somewhat by mutual pressure, rough throughout, the exposed surface in the cluster, more distinctly warted, - µ. this is _badhamia hyalina_ (pers.) berk., rost., _mon._, p. ; but rostafinski himself admits that the two species, here united, as he defined them, are very much alike, having "the same spores and capillitium", differing in the form of the sporangium, an inconstant feature. bulliard's name has precedence; his descriptions of this and the preceding species are remarkable. the peculiarly adherent spores distinguish the species from _b. utricularis_; and the sporangia sessile or with short but strand-like stipes, distinguish it from _b. papaveracea_. the description above is for the typical european form. lister expresses doubt whether this occurs in the united states. the form from iowa which is the basis for the inclusion of the species in n. a. s. is, we believe, nothing else than _b. capsulifera_ (bull.) berk. the form approaches _b. populina_ as this is presented in colorado. the iowa specimens are white, aggregate, superimposed, etc., but have the capillitium and spores exactly as described for the type. accordingly _b. populina_ as this occurs in colorado has been for years referred to the berkeley species. the thicker more strongly calcareous peridia constitute, as would appear, the principal difference in the forms from colorado. see next species. . badhamia populina _list._ . _badhamia populina_ list. _jour. bot._, xlii., p. . . _badhamia populina_ list. _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . plasmodium white; sporangia sessile, crowded, heaped, large, . mm., rarely stipitate, globose or ovoid, white; stipe when present brown; capillitial strands broad, calcareous; spores clustered, - in a cluster, purple-brown, roughened and sometimes marked by obscure ridges and bands, - µ. generally distinguishable by its unusually large calcareous, white sporangia. the peridia are strongly calcareous, shell-like in texture. in some cases the color is tinted with rose. this species is very near _b. capsulifera_ as recognized in the united states. when white the colorado material corresponds almost exactly with the forms collected in iowa, and regarded as representing the species just named. the colorado gatherings are more strongly calcareous and the spores sometimes present the variations named. "the colorado phase of the american form." colorado,--_bethel_. europe? . badhamia papaveracea _berk. & rav._ plate ix., figs. , _a_, and _b_. . _badhamia papaveracea_ berk. & rav., _grev._, ii., p. . . _badhamia hyalina_ var. _papaveracea_ lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . . _badhamia papaveracea_ berk. & rav., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _badhamia papaveracea_ berk. & rav., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia gregarious, globose, large, stipitate, iridescent-gray; the peridium thin, translucent, and containing but little calcareous deposits, smooth or slightly rugulose; stipe very short, but generally distinct, black or very dark brown; hypothallus none; capillitium a network of large meshes with expanded nodes, prominent, white, persistent after the spores have been blown away; spore-mass deep brown; spores adherent as in _b. capsulifera_, marked in much the same way, and about the same size, - . µ distinguished by its short, dark, stipe and adherent spores. not common. new england, pennsylvania, ohio, maryland, south carolina, wisconsin, iowa. . badhamia lilacina (_fries_) _rost._ . _physarum lilacinum_ fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _badhamia lilacina_ (fries) rost., _mon._, p. . . _craterium lilacinum_ mass., _mon._, p. . . _badhamia lilacina_ (fr.) rost., lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . . _badhamia lilacina_ (fr.) rost., list., _mycetozoa_, nd ed., p. . sporangia globose, sub-globose, or obconical, sessile, gregarious or more or less clustered, supported by a thin, continuous, transparent hypothallus; the peridium smooth pale, lilac-brown without, white within; stipe none, although some sporangia have a narrowed base; columella none, the pseudo-columella formed by a more densely aggregated capillitium near the base; capillitium dense, white, strongly nodulose; spore-mass black; spores dark, violaceous-brown by transmitted light, distinctly warted, or reticulate, the reticulations resembling somewhat those of some of the trichias, as _t. affinis_, - µ. easily recognizable, generally at sight, by its peculiar color. white forms, however, occur; often lilac-tinted and white from the same plasmodium. a perfectly white colony seems to be rare. both colors are shown in specimens distributed. _n. a. f._, . common eastward, ontario, new england, pennsylvania, ohio, etc. not reported west of the mississippi river. whatever the color, the spores are in every case positively diagnostic. the episporic markings are unlike those of any other species in the present order. dr. rex describes some new york forms as provided with a short but distinct stipe. such forms resemble externally _scyphium rubiginosum_ (chev.) rost. the hypothallus is also unique. v. next species. . badhamia rubiginosa (_chev._) _rost._ plate x., figs. , _a_, _b_, _c_. . _physarum rubiginosum_ chev., _fl. par._, p. . . _craterium obovatum_ peck, _rep. n. y. mus._, xxvi., p. . . _scyphium rubiginosum_ (chev.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _badhamia rubiginosa_ (chev.) rost., _mon. app._, p. . . _craterium rubiginosum_ massee, _mon._, p. . sporangia gregarious, obovoid, grayish brown, stipitate, the peridium simple, membranous, above thin, pale, more or less calcareous below, more persistent blending with the stipe; stipe erect, reddish brown or purplish, expanded below into a small hypothallus, above, prolonged within the sporangia more than half its height as a definite columella; capillitium very dense, snow white, long persistent with the lower two-thirds of the sporangial wall; spore-mass dark brown; spores by transmitted light, dark violet or purple-brown, minutely roughened or spinulose, not adherent, - µ. this is probably the most common badhamia in the country and in the world. it is found every year, in the woods, on masses of decaying leaves, especially those of various species of oak. the plasmodium is yellow. the fructifications are very distinct, not likely to be mistaken for those of any other species; the stipes constitute a very prominent feature in every gathering i have seen. sometimes these are more or less coalescent, especially toward the base, where they are apt to be also wrinkled or longitudinally striate; in other specimens the stipes are well differentiated, long, terete, with little or no hypothallus. _badhamia curtisii_ (berk.) rost. is according to lister (mon., p. ) a sessile phase of this species. the only specimens known are in the herbarium of berkeley, now at kew. the species is based upon a gathering from s. carolina. berkeley thought it a didymium, called it _d. curtisii_. reported from western europe; the typical form abundant in the forested regions of eastern n. america, especially in the mississippi valley. . badhamia subaquila _macbr._ . _badhamia subaquila_ macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . sporangia closely gregarious or crowded, globose or sub-globose, sessile, brown, the peridium a thin but persistent brown membrane, rupturing above irregularly and remaining as a cup after spore dispersal; hypothallus none; capillitium strongly developed, thoroughly calcareous, the meshes large, the nodular thickenings broad, white; spores globose, in mass black, by transmitted light brown, very rough-warted, large, - µ. the variety is founded on material sent from maine by the late mr. f. l. harvey. professor harvey, upon the authority of mr. morgan of ohio, quotes the species, _bull. tor. bot. club_, , , as _b. verna_ (somm.) rost. but the specimens certainly do not conform to description of _b. verna_. here the wall corresponds with what is seen in _b. rubiginosa_; but the spores are much larger, and the capillitial structure very different. miss lister regards this a form of no. . so far, the original gathering represents the species; but the woods of maine are certain one day to send added information. rare. on mossy logs, maine. = . physarum= (_persoon_) _rost._ .[ ] _physarum_ pers., _rom. neu. mag. f. d. bot._, i., p. , in part. . _physarum_ pers., _ust. ann. bot._, xv., p. , in part. . _physarum_ pers., _syn. fung._, p. , in part. . _physarum_ (pers.) fries, _syst. myc._, ii., p. , in part. . _physarum_ (pers.) rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia plasmodiocarpous, æthalioid or distinct; the peridium usually simple, sometimes double, irregularly dehiscent, more or less definitely calcareous; capillitium a uniform irregular net, dilated and calcareous at the nodes, adherent on all sides to the peridial wall. this large and cosmopolitan genus is readily recognized by the characters quoted. it may be added that the capillitial threads are always exceedingly delicate, probably tubular, but never filled with lime throughout; the peridium may be almost nude or encrusted with lime, which, where present, is always amorphous, never crystalline; the sporangia when distinct may be either sessile or stipitate, and the stipe in the latter case is often hollow and charged with lime. in capillitium intermediate between _leocarpus_ and _badhamia_, since in the first the capillitium is unequally calcareous, diverse, while in _badhamia_ the capillitium is intricate and calcareous throughout. as first set up by its founder, the genus included diverse forms, only one or two of which would be included in the genus as now limited.[ ] persoon, however, was left to develop the matter to suit himself, and in successive works gave, under this generic name, more and more prominence to forms now so referred. fries, _syst. myc._, iii., pp. _et seq._, still better establishes the genus, though still including forms that, judging from the description, seem to belong elsewhere. twenty years later fries revising somewhat his earlier work thought to improve the chances of future students by reducing the number of physarums. this he would do by setting out certain evidently inter-related forms to make a new genus, _tilmadoche_. he named two or three species only, leaving his sucessors to add others as occasion offered.[ ] rostafinski approved the good intention of fries, but in the _monograph_, he entirely re-cast the genus as constituted by fries; actually called the species 'first cited' a typical physarum! would not have it in the new genus at all, first or last; but instead took the second species of fries as the type and added several forms, some from the friesian list, to make up a respectable group. until quite recently writers on the subject have generally approved the course adopted by the polish author. the arrangement showed features of convenience, even if artificial to a degree. perhaps we gain advantage in all directions if we treat the original genus _physarum_ as a whole, but in the key take advantage of fries' suggestion. we may write-- =key to the species of physarum= . capillitium irregularly reticulate throughout; calcic nodes various _physarum_ . capillitium more regular, especially below, furcate; nodes fusoid _tilmadoche_ section i. physarum i. fructification not stipitate, more or less plasmodiocarpous. . peridium simple. _a._ calcareous deposits yellow . _p. serpula_ _b._ calcareous deposits reddish or orange . _p. lateritium_ _c._ calcareous deposits white, peridium rugulose . _p. vernum_ . peridium double. _a._ fructification flatly compressed . _p. sinuosum_ _b._ fructification less compressed, rounded. i. outer peridium white . _p. bitectum_ ii. outer peridium brown or brown-tinged . _p. bogoriense_ iii. outer peridium yellow; capillitium yellow . _p. alpinum_ ii. fructification of sporangia more or less distinct. a. sporangia sessile, globose, ovoid, reniform, etc. . peridium double. _a._ sporangia white, peridium testaceous. . _p. diderma_ _b._ sporangia tinged with yellow. i. sporangia as if interwoven, compressed . _p. contextum_ ii. sporangia more nearly free, distinct. o spores pale, inner peridium brittle . _p. conglomeratum_ oo spores spinulose, dark violet . _p. mortoni_ _c._ sporangia brown, dehiscence revolute . _p. brunneolum_ . peridium simple, calcareous, flaky. _a._ sporangia grey, plasmodiocarpous; spores dusky, - forms of _b._ sporangia grey, more or less dense; spores violet, - . _p. cinereum_ _c._ calcareous deposits yellow or greenish, spores - . _p. virescens_ _d._ sporangia rusty or reddish brown, more or less dense . _p. rubiginosum_ _e._ sporangia minute, lignicolous, the fructification much extended upon a hypothallus, lime deposit tawny . _p. instratum_ _f._ sporangia white, depressed, annulate, sometimes with short stipes . _p. megalosporum_ . peridium simple, not flaky, small . -. mm., heaped . _p. confertum_ b. sporangia, at least some of them, stipitate. _a._ sporangia columellate. i. columella small, usually conical. o sporangium yellow. o columella white . _p. melleum_ oo columella yellow . _p. citrinum_ oo sporangium not yellow. o capillitial mass persistent. + sporangia globose, pallid or white . _p. globuliferum_ ++ sporangia blue or lilac, rose, etc. . _p. lilacinum_ +++ sporangia drab or brownish . _p. murinum_ ++++ sporangia wine-red . _p. pulcherrimum_ oo capillitial-mass less persistent; orange . _p. pulcherripes_ ii. columella long, - the sporangium non-calcareous. . _p. penetrale_ iii. columella large globose . _p. luteo-album_ _b._ sporangia without columella. i. sporangia nucleate, calcareous at center. o stipe yellow . _p. nucleatum_ oo stipe white . _p. wingatense_ ii. sporangia non-nucleate. o sporangia purple . _p. newtoni_ oo sporangia blue, spotted with red . _p. psittacinum_ ooo grey or white, iridescent betimes. o sporangia white, discoidal; stipe yellow . _p. discoidale_ oo sporangia lightly calcareous, iridescent, sub-globose, diam. about = to the stout, brown, slightly wrinkled stipe . _p. leucophaeum_ ooo sporangia globose or sub-globose. x. small, . mm. + stipe erect, clear brown . _p. nodulosum_ ++ stipe weak, yellow, stuffed . _p. maculatum_ xx. larger, lime-capped; stipe strand-like . _p. didermoides_ xxx. stipe snow-white, fragile . _p. leucopus_ xxxx. stipe generally distinctly fluted + sporangia laterally compressed, fan-shaped . _p. compressum_ ++ sporangia typically globose, umbilicate below, connate, etc., strongly calcareous . _p. notabile_ +++ sporangia reniform, concave below _p. affine_, see under ++++ sporangia larger, to mm., nearly limeless, iridescent . _p. tropicale_ oooo sporangia obovate, compound, clustered, the stipe fuscous, fluted, short. . _p. nicaraguense_ oooo sporangia yellow, rarely iridescent or brown. o capillitial nodes white. x. stipe also white . _p. sulphureum_ xx. stipe flesh-colored, spores smaller . _p. carneum_ xxx. stipe red or reddish brown . _p. citrinellum_ xxxx. stipe yellowish, flaccid, sporangia leocarpine . _p. albescens_ xxxxx. stipe very short or none, sporangia cylindric, brown . _p. variabile_ oo capillitium nodes yellow or orange-yellow. x. badhamioid, larger,--to . mm. . _p. auriscalpium_ xx. physaroid, base persistent . _p. oblatum_ ooo capillitium nodes pure yellow. x. capillitial threads yellow . _p. galbeum_ xx. capillitial threads hyaline . _p. tenerum_ xxx. peridium iridescent. + capillitium persistent . _p. flavicomum_ ++ capillitium less persistent, larger . _p. bethelii_ section ii. tilmadoche i. Æthalioid, gyrose or irregular . _p. gyrosum_ ii. fructification stipitate. . sporangia irregular, often convolute, involved . _p. polycephalum_ . sporangia simple, nutant, discoidal. _a._ thin-walled, grey or white. . _p. nutans_ _b._ vari-colored, yellow, greenish, orange, etc. . _p. viride_ . physarum serpula _morgan._ plate ix., figs. , _a_, and _b_. . _physarum reticulatum_ alb. & schw., schweinitz, _n. a. f._, no. . . _physarum gyrosum_ (rost.) wingate, ellis, _n. a. f._, no. . . _physarum gyrosum_ rost., massee, _mon._, p. . . _cienkowskia reticulata_ rost, macbr., _bull. nat. hist. iowa_, ii., , p. . . _badhamia decipiens_ berk., lister, _mycetozoa_, p. , in part. . _physarum serpula_ morg., _cin. soc. nat. hist._, p. . . _physarum serpula_ morg., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum serpula_ morg., lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . plasmodiocarp repent, reticulate, forming anon lines, circles, dots, etc., venulose pale yellow, ochraceous, at length whitish, the peridium thin, membranaceous, simple, fragile, but withal persistent, below united with a hypothallus which is more or less widely produced; capillitium rather scant, but abundantly charged with polygonal nodules of lime, yellow; spore-mass black; the spores, by transmitted light, violaceous, warted, globose, - µ. plasmodium, at maturity, greenish-yellow. a very distinct species not likely to be confused with anything else, although in description, so far as concerns external characters, suggesting _cienkowskia reticulata_. the two forms are not at all alike when placed side by side. for details as to the difference, see the description of the species last mentioned. apparently not rare in eastern united states, pennsylvania, virginia, ohio, iowa. in , albertini and schweinitz, _conspectus fungorum_, p. , t. , fig. , described as _physarum reticulatum_, a european form which became the basis of rostafinski's genus _cienkowskia_; see under that genus. later, , schweinitz discovered in america a physarum-looking specimen which he took to be the same thing, and accordingly placed in his herbarium under this name, and entered _n. a. f._ . rostafinski further renamed another schweinitzian species _fuligo muscorum_ calling it, _mon._, p. , _physarum gyrosum_. wingate and rex apply in ellis, _n. a. f._, this latter name to no. of schweinitz. such a reference is a mistake, judging from rostafinski's descriptions and from the description and figure of albertini and schweinitz (_consp. fung._, p. , t. , i), and by the testimony of lister. for further concerning rostafinski's species, see under _physarum gyrosum_, p. , _mon._ . physarum lateritium (_berk. & rav._) rost. . _didymium lateritium_ berk. & rav., _grev._, ii., p. . . _physarum ditmari lateritium_ rost., _mon._, _app._, p. . . _physarum inequale_ peck, _rep. n. y. mus._, xxxi., p. . . _physarum chrysotrichum_ berk. & c., massee, p. . . _physarum inequale_ peck, lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . . _physarum lateritium_ (berk. & rav.) morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. . . _physarum lateritium_ (berk. & rav.) morg., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum lateritium_ morg., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . plasmodium scarlet. sporangia gregarious, sessile, globose or sub-globose, or sometimes plasmodiocarpous, yellowish or orange, everywhere, when fresh, spotted with minute scarlet granules; the peridium thin, more or less rugulose; columella none; capillitium delicate, generally yellow, with nodules conspicuous, yellow or reddish; spores violet-brown in mass, by transmitted light pale violet, minutely roughened, - µ. a well-marked species easily recognized by the characters cited. the extent of lime deposit at the capillitial nodes varies; sometimes very little. this accounts for berkeley's generic reference. on the other hand, lister makes the rounded lime knots "each knot with a red centre surrounded by yellow, round, lime-granules" diagnostic. this pied condition does not come out in any of our specimens. the capillitium in broken specimens soon fades, tends to white, etc. new york, pennsylvania, ohio, colorado, and south. ceylon, java, brazil. . physarum vernum _somm._ . _physarum vernum_ somm., fries, _syst. mycol._, iii., p. . . _physarum cinereum_ (batsch), rost., _mon._, p. , in part. . _badhamia verna_ rost., _mon._, p. . . _badhamia panicea_ rost., list., _mycetozoa_, p. . . _physarum cinereum_ (batsch) rost., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. (in part). . _physarum vernum_ somm., lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . "plasmodium white." sporangia sessile, generally plasmodiocarpous white, nearly smooth; peridium more or less testaceous not scaly, but breaking irregularly; capillitium densely calcareous, the nodules angular, branching, sometimes united to form a pseudo-columella; spores dusky violaceous, rough, - µ. sommerfeldt's description quoted by fries, _l. c._, evidently concerned a less calcareous phase. fries by his annotation relieves somewhat the reader's uncertainty. rostafinski calls this a badhamia but describes a physarum, and the form has, as is believed, been consistently confused with _p. cinereum_ by every student of the group from the days of debary until now. in the second edition of the _mycetozoa_, lister clears the situation by transferring the species to _physarum_, and calling attention to spore-dimensions. the fact is, the species in external appearance so much resembles _p. cinereum_, that the unaided eye cannot distinguish one from the other. curiously enough, rostafinski describes the form he had before him as "one of the rarest." doubtless had he gone back to his specimens of _p. cinereum_ he had found plenty, for in europe it seems abundant everywhere. in this country it is _p. cinereum_ as now defined, that is rarer, although not uncommon. from all connection with _badhamia_, as representing _b. panicea_ it should, as would appear, be withdrawn once for all. . physarum sinuosum (_bull._) _weinm._ plate viii., figs. and _a_, and plate xix, fig. . . _reticularia sinuosa_ bulliard, _champ._, p. ; t. , fig. . . _physarum bivalve_ persoon, _obs. myc._, i., p. ; t. iii., fig. . . _physarum sinuosum_ wein., fries _teste, l. c._ . _angioridium sinuosum_ grev., _scot. crypt. fl._, . . _physarum sinuosum_ fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _physarum sinuosum_ (bull.) rost., _monograph_, p. . . _physarum sinuosum_ rost., massee, _mon._, p. . . _physarum bivalve_ pers., lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . . _angioridium sinuosum_ (grev.), morg., _cin. soc. nat. hist._, p. . . _physarum sinuosum_ (bull.) wein., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum sinuosum_ wein., lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia distinct or plasmodiocarpous, the plasmodiocarp creeping in long vein-like reticulations or curves, laterally compressed; sometimes distinct and crowded, always sessile. peridium double; the outer thick, calcareous, fragile, snow-white; the inner delicate, the dehiscence by more or less regular longitudinal fissure. capillitium strongly developed with abundant white, calcareous granules. spores smooth, dull violet, - µ. plasmodium pale gray, or nearly white. easily recognized at sight by its peculiar form, bilabiate and sinuous. apart from microscopic structure, perfectly described by fries, _syst. myc._, p. . bulliard called it _reticularia sinuosa_. habitat various, but not infrequently the upper surface of the leaves of living plants, a few inches from the ground. the two sorts of fructification often occur side by side, or merge into one another from the same plasmodium. where the substratum affords room the plasmodiocarpous style prevails; in narrower limits single sporangia stand. the calcareous deposit on the peridium is usually very rich and under a lens appears made up of countless snowy or creamy flakes. forms occur, however, in which these outer calcic deposits are almost entirely wanting; the peridium becomes transparent, the capillitium visible from without. judging from material before us, this appears to be the common presentation in western europe. see also no. following. widely distributed. new england to the carolinas, and louisiana west to south dakota and nebraska, iowa and washington. . physarum bitectum _list._ plate xix., fig. . . _physarum diderma_ rost., list., _jour. bot._, xxix., p. . . _physarum diderma_ rost., list., _mycetozoa_, p. . . _physarum bitectum_ list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia gregarious, sub-globose, sessile or plasmodiocarpous, smooth white or pallid, terete or somewhat compressed; peridium double, the outer wall calcareous, free and deciduous above, recurved and persistent below; the inner, smooth, pale purplish, more persistent; dehiscence more or less irregular beginning at the top; capillitium of large white nodules connected by short hyaline threads; spores generally spinulose, violaceous brown, - µ. as suggested by the author of this species it is properly a variety of _p. sinuosum_; certainly is, as it presents itself in this part of the world. of the species last named we have compressed forms opening by narrow fissure along their knife-edged summit, with scarce place for capillitium at all between the approaching walls; again we have colonies of sporangia quite terete, calcareous without, opening in fragmental fashion at the top, displaying sometimes the thin membranous inner wall but at length fissured and gaping as in the more usual phase figured by authors, where the plasmodiocarp is simply compressed but not extravagantly thin. both types occur in the western mountains, forms with and without calcium, fissured by wider or narrower cleft, _from the same plasmodium_; forms bilabiate and forms opening at first to display an inner peridium; forms globose with narrow base, but apex cleft, and forms ellipsoidal, yet compressed, opening like the gaping of some tiniest bivalve; did not persoon say _p. bivalve_! all are bivalvular at the last! nay; but what are these? here are some of the shorter forms become suddenly obovate, and are actually mounted on _stipes_! surely variation in the same plasmodium can no farther go![ ] not rare. colorado to the pacific coast. evidently a western-american variation of bulliard's european type. the latter occurs abundantly in iowa on the shores of lake okoboji; otherwise not common. . physarum bogoriense _racib._ . _physarum bogoriense_ raciborski, hedw., xxxvii., p. . sporangia sessile, elongate, creeping but not reticulate, semicircular in transverse section, sometimes globose or depressed globose; peridium double, the outer thick coriaceous, yellow or brown, dehiscing stellately into persistent more or less triangular reflected lobes, remote from the thin, colorless inner wall; columella none; capillitium feebly developed, the nodes white, large, isodiametric; spores bright violet, smooth, - µ. this species is not uncommon in the mountains of colorado where it has been taken at various stations by bethel. it is reported from pennsylvania and south carolina. raciborski describes it from java. in habit it is very much like some forms of _p. sinuosum_ but differs in the depressed, rather than compressed sporangia, and in the brown color of the outer peridium. . physarum alpinum _g. list._ . _physarum alpinum_ g. lister, _jour. bot._, xlvii, p. . sporangia globose and sessile or plasmodiocarpous, dull yellow, smooth or scaly; peridium double, the outer wall densely calcareous, separating irregularly from the membranous inner wall; capillitium densely calcareous, the nodes large, more or less branched, yellow; spores purple brown, closely and minutely warted, - µ. this species is based by its author upon a gathering made in california by dr. harkness and named by phillips who received it in england, _badhamia inaurata_. he seems not to have described it. since its first appearance, the form has been found repeatedly in the juras. specimens are before me from mt. rainier believed to be the same. the plasmodiocarpous habit and yellow capillitium separate this from related _p. contextum_ and _p. mortoni_. europe, california, washington. . physarum diderma _rost._ plate xviii., fig. . . _physarum diderma_ rost., _mon._, p. . . _physarum didermoides_ var. _lividum_ list., _jour. bot._, xxxvi., p. . . _physarum diderma_ rost., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum testaceum_ sturgis, list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia snow-white, clustered, sessile or narrowly adnate, globose or polygonal by mutual compression; peridium double, the outer dense, fragile, thick, calcareous, the inner delicate, remote, translucent, capillitium well developed, the calcareous nodules white, rounded or angular, sometimes uniting to form a pseudo-columella; spore-mass black; spores purplish, distinctly rough, - µ. a beautiful and distinct species. as others in the group with which it is here associated, it is a physarum with the outward seeming of a diderma. it occurs in europe, therefore it is safe to assume that rostafinski saw it. so well marked it is that any good description will define it, and rostafinski describes it perfectly, adequately.[ ] mr. lister having used for another species the name we here apply--see under _p. bitectum_--referred this present form to _p. didermoides_ rost., _l. c._ professor sturgis, convinced that such reference was at least doubtful, gave to our american gatherings the distinctive name above, citing specimens from massachusetts, from colorado, and from california. curiously enough he also includes specimens of _r. didermoides_ var. _lividum_ list., sent from england! rare! certainly rare in europe and so far seldom seen in the united states, though widely distributed. specimens are before us from ohio, michigan, iowa, oregon. no doubt the mountains of the north pacific coast, a region to-day almost unsearched, will yet afford the species in abundance. as stated mr. lister first applied the name _p. diderma_ to a plasmodiocarpous form occurring in england and near _p. sinuosum_. more lately, _mon., nd ed._, p. , he adopts a new specific name, _p. bitectum_ for the english specimens, and enters _p. diderma_ as a probable synonym for _p. lividum_ r. evidently our present form as described above has not come to mr. lister's view. he says the original type is not to be consulted. there is really no more merit in this later comparison than in that discarded. the species _p. diderma_ is not _p. lividum_, but stands as originally delimited, and will, doubtless, some day yet again appear in its own behalf upon the witness-stand of time; when, as before, a frenchman in debary's old-time haunts may rise to give it welcome, brought back by some keen-eyed polish student eager now in the arts of peace, from warsaw's shady groves. . physarum contextum _persoon._ plate ix., figs. and _a_. . _diderma contextum_ persoon, _obs. myc._, i., p. . . _physarum contextum_ persoon, _syn. meth._, p. . . _diderma contextum_ persoon, fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _diderma ochroleucum_ berk. & c., _grev._, ii., p. . . _diderma flavidum_ pk., _n. y. rep. state mus._, xxxi., p. . sporangia distinct, sessile, densely crowded, sub-rotund reniform more often elongate, interwoven; peridium double; the outer rather thick, calcareous, yellow, or yellowish white, the inner thin, yellowish; capillitium white, containing numerous large, irregular calcareous granules; columella none; spores deep violet, - µ, covered with minute spinules. this singular species occurs not rarely upon the bark of fallen twigs, upon bits of straw or grass-stems lying undisturbed upon the ground. in such a position the slime-mould covers, as with a sheath, the entire substratum. the outer peridium, especially its upper part, is entirely evanescent, our fig. shows the sporangia with upper outer peridium wanting. not rare in summer and autumn. new england, new york, pennsylvania, ohio, wisconsin, illinois, iowa, colorado, oregon, nicaragua. . physarum conglomeratum (_fr._) _rost._ . _spumaria granulata_ schum., _enum. pl. saell._, ii., p. , no. . . _spumaria minuta_ schum., _l. c._ . _diderma granulatum_ schum., fries, _s. m._, iii., p. . . _diderma minutum_ schum., fries, _l. c._, p. . . _diderma conglomeratum_ fries, _l. c._, p. . . _physarum conglomeratum_ (fr.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _physarum rostafinskii_ massee, _mon._, p. . . _physarum conglomeratum_ rost., lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . . _physarum conglomeratum_ (fr.) rost., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum conglomeratum_ rost., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia depressed, globose, or irregular, sessile, more or less aggregated, ochraceous-yellow, peridium double, the outer, thick, cartilaginous, at length irregularly ruptured, and reflexed, disclosing the more delicate, ashen-gray, inner membrane which encloses capillitium and spores; capillitium abundant, showing large, white irregular calcareous thickenings which are often consolidated in some sporangia tend to aggregate at the centre; spore-mass brown, spores violaceous, slightly roughened, - µ. this beautiful species shows a peridium as distinctly double as in any diderma. the outer peridium is reflexed exactly as in some species of that genus; is yellow without, white within, and withal long persistent. the capillitium of course distinguishes the species instantly as a physarum. by the size of the spores it is distinguished from the species preceding. this being a decisive specific character the synonymy prior to rostafinski is somewhat uncertain. the specific name adopted by the polish author is therefore approved, although perhaps not the earliest. rare. the only specimens thus far are from tennessee and louisiana. . physarum mortoni _macbr. n. s._ plate xx., figs. , _a_. sporangia gregarious, clustered but distinct, sessile small, about . mm., bright yellow, peridium double. the outer rough, breaking up into comparatively few rather large deciduous scales, the inner peridium white, calcareous, both persisting below to form a distinct cup; capillitium lax, the nodes white, large, angular; columella none; hypothallus none; spores distinctly rough, dark brown with the usual purple shadow, - µ. a very distinct little species related, no doubt, to _p. contextum_, but different in habit. it is never crowded, shows no plasmodiocarpous tendencies, while the outer peridium is generally deciduous except at the base and falls in flakes. collected several times in the three sisters mountains of oregon by _professor morton e. peck._ . physarum brunneolum (_phillips_) _mass._ plate xx., figs. , _a_. . _diderma brunneolum_ phillips, _grev._, v., p. . . _diderma brunneolum_ phill., saccardo, _syll. fung._, no. . . _physarum brunneolum_ phill., massee, _mon._, p. , figs. - . . _craterium pedunculatum_ lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . . _physarum brunneolum_ mass., lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. , pl. , fig. _a_. sporangia scattered or gregarious, but not crowded, sessile, globose or sub-depressed; peridium double, thick, smooth or polished, yellow brown, stellately dehiscent, the segments reflexed, white within; columella none; capillitium dense, with nodes numerous, large irregular, internodes thin and short; spores globose, lilac, minutely warted, - µ. this form was first described in _grevillea_, v., p. , as _diderma brunneolum_ phillips. later, students of the specimens preserved by mr. phillips, concur that we have to do not with a diderma, but with a craterium, lister, or physarum, massee. there seems no reason why we should not respect the decision of massee, whose description is here quoted in form somewhat abridged. the peridium is about as double as in the many physarums, not more so; the inner membrane so delicate as only occasionally to be revealed except to scrutiny most searching. but the appearance as a whole is as of some brown diderma; only the calcareous capillitium abides to prevent mistaken reference. when opened by irregular dehiscence from above, the persisting cup-like base of the sporangium recalls _leocarpus fragilis_; but then again the capillitium is different. california, portugal; colorado,--_sturgis._ . physarum cinereum (_batsch_) _pers._ plate ix., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _lycoperdon cinereum_ batsch, _elench. fung._, p. , fig. . . _physarum griseum_ link, _diss._, i, p. . . _physarum cinereum_ persoon, _synopsis_, p. . . _didymium cinereum_ batsch, fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _physarum plumbeum_ fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _physarum cinereum_ batsch, rost., _mon._, p. , in part. . _physarum plumbeum_ fr., morgan, _myx. mi. val._, p. . . _physarum plumbeum_ fr., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum cinereum_ (batsch) pers., torrend, _flore des myx._, p. . plasmodium watery white, or transparent, wide streaming on decaying sod, etc. sporangia sessile, closely gregarious, or even heaped, sub-globose, elongate or plasmodiocarpous, more or less calcareous, gray; peridium simple, thin, more or less densely coated with lime; capillitium strongly developed, the nodes more or less richly calcareous, the lime-knots rounded, angular; spore-mass brown, spores clear violaceous-brown, - µ, distinctly warted. this delicate, inconspicuous species is well defined by the characters given. it occurs not rarely on richly manured ground, in meadows, lawns, or even on the open prairie. the plasmodium may form rings several inches in diameter, scattered here and there over a surface several square feet in extent, in fruit ascending the blades of grass, completely covering these with the crowded sporangia. the color of the fruit is well described in the specific name; gray or ashen gray. the spores are very distinctly papillate; in some specimens, however, almost smooth; in few instances, rough. common. new england west to the black hills and pacific coast. cosmopolitan. the present species well illustrates the difficulty confronting the author of to-day who, discussing a group of microscopic organisms, would fain use the nomenclature of his predecessors, honored, but equipped with insufficient lenses. here is a species reported common in europe, observed by every mycologist there, from micheli down, and yet awaiting adequate description until rostafinski in his great book, gives the results of microscopic analysis. we are now really dealing with _p. cinereum_ rost; _p. cinereum_ batsch is a compliment to certain rather clever water-color drawings. rostafinski gives a long list of synonyms, none, it is believed, represent american forms; and without taking careful thought, surely no one would rudely disturb such honorable interment; but, in his description the range of spore-measurement, - . µ, gives us pause, and raises the suspicion that possibly, in one case or another, the sepulture were perhaps premature. the range is too great! perhaps, in the series offered in confirmation, small-spored forms represent one species, large-spored, something else? european students may decide this at their leisure. but rostafinski having, not without much labor, practically completed his review of the physaroid forms had almost finished the last genus _badhamia_, when his mind perhaps returned, no doubt with some lingering misgivings, to the thirteenth species in his physarum list. there were there, he recalled, some large-spored specimens which had rather badhamioid capillitium. the sessile physarums of fries were also before him, those especially, "floccis albis." of these one shall be _b. panicea_, one _b. lilacina_ and one _b. verna_, described as having rather delicate colorless capillitial tubes combined in a loose net, the calcareous deposits about the enlarged intersections scanty, the spores . µ. the description of the fructification as a whole is a condensed statement of that which describes _p. vernum_, and all taken together indicates some physarum. see now no. preceding, p. . _p. plumbeum_ fr. belongs here. it has similar spores, the only difference is a less calcareous peridium and more scattered habit of fructification with more nearly regular, depressed-globose sporangia. _p. cinereum_ pers. as cited by link, _op. cit._, is apparently a badhamia, may be _p. vernum_, while p. _griseum_ is probably the present species. . physarum virescens _ditmar_. plate viii., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _physarum virescens_ ditmar, sturm, _deutsch. fl. pilze_, i., p. , pl. . . _physarum ditmari_ rost., _mon., app._, p. . . _physarum ditmari_ rost., macbr., _bull. lab. nat. hist. a._, ii., p. . . _physarum virescens_ ditmar, lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . . _physarum virescens_ ditmar, torrend, _flo. d myx._, no. . . _physarum virescens_ ditmar, lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia sessile, crowded or heaped in small bunches, a dozen or more sporangia in one pile, spherical, ovoid or elongate, yellow or greenish yellow; peridium thin, fragile; capillitium delicate, with rather small, irregular, yellowish, calcareous nodes; columella none; spores bright violet, minutely roughened, - µ. this species occurs more commonly on moss-tufts, with which it is frequently con-colorless, or escaped on dead leaves, etc. the peridium is flecked with calcareous scales or grains stained yellow or green, and to these the whole fruit owes its peculiar color. the color and aggregate, heaped sporangia are distinctive macroscopic characters. in the _monograph_, p. , rostafinski adopted properly ditmar's name for this species. upon later consideration, in the _appendix_, p. , he changed the name, writing _p. ditmari_, on the ground that _virescens_ was descriptive of a character to which the species in question occasionally refuses to conform. most authors since rostafinski have simply accepted his suggestion, so that the species is often entered _p. ditmari_ rost. _p. virescens_ is certainly to be preferred. _n. a. f._, . canada, new england, new york, pennsylvania, ohio, iowa, black hills, south dakota. . physarum rubiginosum _fries_. . _physarum rubiginosum_ fries, _symb. gast._, p. . plasmodium scarlet. sporangia globose or cylindric, sessile or sometimes narrowed to a stem-like base as if short-stipitate, olivaceous brown with sometimes a flush of red; the peridium simple, thin rugulose or plain, the calcareous scales few, or apparently included; columella none; capillitium dense, the nodules rather large, angular, rusty brown; spores dull violaceous, gently roughened, about µ. a beautiful well-marked species, but evidently rare in north america. our only typical specimens are from the gatherings by mr. wingate, part of which is by lister referred to this species, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . _p. rubiginosum_ fr. in the _n. a. s._, , is based on certain west coast specimens now known as _badhamia decipiens_ berk. in colorado there occurs a plasmodiocarpous form of the species. it has the characteristic spore and capillitium but in form and habit differs very decidedly. the fructification is a delicate netted plasmodiocarp, the tubule about . mm., bright red; the peridium simple, cartilaginous, dehiscent from above, and flecked with just here and there a red calcareous scale. collected at palmer lake; _professor bethel._ . physarum instratum _macbr. n. s._ . _physarum thejoteum_ macbride, _n. a. s._, p. , not fries, as cited. . _physarum virescens_ ditmar, lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia very small, closely crowded on a delicate, more or less visible hypothallus, often connate, but not superimposed, sub-spherical, dull orange, brownish or tawny; peridium thin, violaceous, covered with very minute yellow calcareous scales; columella none; capillitium lax, sometimes almost wanting; the nodules small, yellowish or brownish, occasionally confluent; spore-mass violaceous, spores by transmitted light, violet-tinted, smooth or nearly so, - µ. not uncommon in the mississippi valley, where it sometimes is passed by the collector as an immature form of some other species. the appearance is very characteristic, unlike _p. virescens_ in both habit, size, and color. colonies are quite often three inches in length. the most common habitat seems to be rotten oak, especially fragments of charred logs, etc. ohio, illinois, missouri, iowa, nebraska. this species presents a decidedly well-marked form, so much so that it may be easily recognized at sight, without a lens. it therefore requires special discussion, and although in the spore-characters and some minor but not determinative details it agrees with _p. virescens_ ditm. to which it is by european authors sometimes referred, it seems nevertheless deserving of specific recognition, since in its entire habit and expression it is not only completely different but is constant in its specific peculiarities, much more so than is the suggested related form. in the first edition of this work, the form was referred to _physarum thejoteum_ of fries. this was the judgment of our american colleague, professor a. p. morgan whose work in this group is widely recognized. fries admits, _syst. myc._, iii., p. , that while he deems _p. thejoteum_ very distinct, he yet has not seen _p. virescens_ ditm.! since our form apparently does not occur in europe, specimens which the distinguished author had before him were doubtless representatives of the now commonly recognized species of ditmar. for these reasons it seems appropriate to give the american type a suitably descriptive title. . physarum megalosporum _macbr._ plate xvi., figs. and _a_. . _physarum melanospermum_ sturgis, _mycologia_, vol. ix, p. . sporangia gregarious, sessile, or short stipitate depressed, annulate, or at least umbilicate above, white or anon roseate, about . mm; stipe, when present, short, thick, black or dark brown! hypothallus none; columella none; capillitium strongly calcareous, an abundance of irregular white nodules burden the delicate net; spores dark sooty brown with a shade of purple by transmitted light, verruculose, - µ. this species is recognizable at once by its regular, uniform, depressed, annulate or pitted sporangia, scattered evenly over the habitat of rotten leaves or wood. it suggests a didymium in its form and habit, but is near a badhamia. colorado; _bethel_, . . physarum confertum _macbr. nom. nov._ plate xv., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _physarum atrum_ schw., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum atrum_ schw., lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia small about . -. mm. in diameter, gregarious, confluent, clustered or heaped, dull violaceous brown; peridium thin, more or less transparent, generally limeless but sometimes lightly sprinkled with minute white flecks: capillitium scanty, the calcareous nodes small, rounded, elongate, white! columella none; spores violet-brown, distinctly warted, - µ. having been assured on information believed trustworthy that the schweinitzian herbarium confirmed the identity of the species before us, in the first edition of this work the form was listed as _p. atrum_ schw. meantime in the herbarium referred to, at philadelphia the original type of _p. atrum_ still exists. my valued correspondent, mr. hugo bilgram, has recently given it careful study. it is a limeless _p. didermoides_ (pers.) r.! small wonder we have had trouble! exit _physarum atrum_ schw. the species is not uncommon, especially eastward; has been generally ignored for reasons cited. distinguished from everything else by the color and small size of the heaped sporangia. it resembles some phase of _p. virescens_ where the sporangia are small and somewhat heaped or rather aggregated, and scantily supplied with lime; but in such case the lime is yellow and the spores are small. this species has also been constantly referred to our confused _p. cinereum_, _p. plumbeum_, etc., but schweinitz, who certainly had seen _p. cinereum_ in europe, since he cites it, under several forms, in the _conspectus_, found the species in america and proceeded in pennsylvania in december to find something else, very different as he thought, and in fact. he called this new discovery _p. atrum_, "beautifully _reticulate_", he says "like _p. cinereum_ but larger." most american students in an effort to keep faith with their pioneer mycologist, have taken cue from the specific name, looking for something _black_, heedless that in pennsylvania almost any delicate thing has 'dark looks' in the middle of the winter! berlese in saccardo _syll._ vii., p. , regarding _p. atrum_ as a synonym, writes for the black american specimens, _p. reticulatum_, emphasizing another schweinitzian descriptive adjective. but _p. atrum_ schw. has had place in literature to this hour. . physarum melleum (_berk. & br._) _mass._ . _dydymium melleum_ berk. & br., _jour. linn. soc._, xiv., p. . . _didymium chrysopeplum_ berk. & c., _grev._, ii., p. . . _physarum schumacheri_ spr. var. _melleum_ rost., _mon., app._, p. . . _physarum melleum_ massee, _mon._, p. . . _cytidium melleum_ (berk. & br.), morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. . . _physarum melleum_ (berk. & br.), mass., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum melleum_ mass., lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia scattered, stipitate, globose, flattened below, clear yellow or honey colored; stipe short, about equaling the sporangium, pure white, somewhat wrinkled; columella small but distinct, white; hypothallus none, capillitium abundant, open, snow-white, with rather large angularly stellate nodes; spore-mass brown, almost black; spores by transmitted light, pale violet or lilac-tinted, almost smooth, . - µ. easily distinguished by its white stipe, columella and capillitium in contrast with yellow peridial walls. _n. a. f._, . massee refers this number erroneously to _p. schumacheri rost._ the description and specimen do not correspond. by that name the species has however, been hitherto known in the united states. eastern united states, common; rare west of the mississippi. reported from brazil, japan and the tropic islands round the world. portugal. . physarum citrinum _schumacher_. . _physarum citrinum_ schum., _enum. pl. saell._, ii., p. . . _physarum citrinum_ schum., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia gregarious, scattered, globose, somewhat flattened below, pale yellow, citrine, stipitate; the peridium thin, covered almost completely with small calcareous scales; stipe stout, erect, fragile, tapering upwards, furrowed, opaque, arising from a small hypothallus which is anon continuous from one sporangium to the next; columella small, conical, yellow; capillitium a rather dense, delicate network, the calcareous nodules yellow, numerous, roundish, and generally small; spore-mass black; spores under the lens violaceous, almost smooth, about µ. this species seems to be rare in the united states. it resembles somewhat _p. melleum_, from which it is distinguished by its yellow stipe. _p. galbeum_ is a smaller form, and lacks the columella. rostafinski strangely confused the synonymy here, including even _p. rufipes_ alb. & schw. new england, ohio, colorado. . physarum globuliferum (_bull._) _pers._ . _sphaerocarpus globuliferus_ bull., _champ._, pl. , fig. . . _physarum globuliferum_ pers., _syn._, p. , t. iii., figs. , , . . _diderma globuliferum_ fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _physarum petersii farlowii_ rost., _mon., app._, p. . . _physarum albicans_ peck, _rep. n. y. mus._, xxx., p. . . _physarum columbinum_ macbr., _bull. lab. nat. hist. iowa_, ii., . . _physarum globuliferum_ (bull.) pers., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum globuliferum_ pers., lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia gregarious, stipitate, globose, or slightly depressed above, pale blue-gray or pure white; stipe sometimes equal to the sporangium, generally longer, slender, slightly wrinkled, white, or yellow, pallid, when longer tapering upward; columella white, conical, sometimes obsolete; hypothallus none; capillitium dense, but delicate, persistent, a close network of hyaline threads, with white or yellowish nodes sparingly thickened and calcareous, many without lime; spore-mass brown; spores by transmitted light, violet, minutely warted, . - µ. plasmodium greenish-yellow. this species, very common eastward, rare west of the mississippi, is at once very beautiful and very variable. its several phases have been again and again observed and described too often by distinct specific or varietal names. a form from new york, with long, white stems and almost pure white sporangia, is _p. albicans_ peck. forms occur like _p. albicans_, but flushed with _rose_ throughout. from new england, specimens sent rostafinski were by him deemed a variety of _p. petersii_ berk. & c., and called _p. petersii_ var. _farlowii_ rost. by this name the species has been generally distributed in this country. _n. a. f._, . most gatherings of this species have small, somewhat ochraceous, sporangia, and pale yellow, or somewhat rusty, stipes. these latter, with somewhat heavier stem, represent _physarum simile_ rost. a form collected sparingly in iowa has short, white stipes and blue gray sporangia one-third larger than observed in the eastern types. this was recorded, _l. c._, as _p. columbinum_ macbr.; name already in use. the spores in the iowa specimens are also a little larger, - µ. pale cyanic and roseate forms also sometimes occur in late fruitings; see next species. in all phases the persistent tenacity of the capillitium is a striking characteristic well noticed by fries (_l. c._, p. ): "peridia a gleba omnimo libera, dein tota diffracta, evanescentia, ... capillitio compacto forma servata persistente." the peridium, except a small part below, all falls away, leaving the capillitium apparently intact, crowded with spores. from england to iowa; canada, south to louisiana and mexico; apparently, in one form or another, cosmopolitan. . physarum lilacinum _sturgis & bilgram._ . _physarum lilacinum_ sturg. & bilg., _mycologia_, vol. ix., p. . sporangia gregarious, stalked, globose, erect, pale-lilac to pale indian-red in color, . mm. in diameter; sporangium-wall membranous, beset with rounded masses of lilac or reddish lime. stipe erect, broad-based, tapering upwards, calcareous, furrowed, paler than the sporangium or concolorous, . - . mm. long, about . mm. thick, columella conical or columnar, capillitium delicate, rigid, persistent; lime-knots small, rounded, composed of large, pale lilac, or reddish, spherical granules. spores pale-brown, almost smooth, - µ. vicinity of philadelphia,--bilgram. . physarum murinum _lister_. . _physarum murinum_ lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . . _physarum ravenelii_ (berk. & c.) macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum murinum_ lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia scattered, globose or perfectly spherical, ashy-brown, rugulose, stipitate; stipe elongate, pale brown, erect, generally tapering upward, calcareous, brittle; hypothallus none; columella short, hemispherical or bluntly conical; capillitium dense, much as in _p. globuliferum_, the calcareous nodules, umber, brownish or orange-yellow, small; spore-mass brown; spores by transmitted light, bright lilac, almost smooth, - µ. a very distinct species, easily known by its peculiar drab-colored peridium and dull brown stalks. the author of the species allows for the capillitial nodes none other tint but brown. under direct illumination many gatherings, especially where the sporangia are well blown out, show nodules of a bright orange tint. not rare in the eastern united states, to missouri and iowa. reported also from western europe. mr. lister finds _didymium ravenelii_ berk. & c., on which _p. ravenelii_ (berk. & c.) macbr. is founded, referable to _p. pulcherripes_ pk. . physarum pulcherrimum _berk. & rav._ . _physarum pulcherrimum_ berk. & rav., _grev._, ii., p. . . _physarum pulcherrimum_ (berk. & rav.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _physarum atrorubrum_ peck, _rep. n. y. mus._, xxxi., p. . . _physarum pulcherrimum_ berk. & rav., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum pulcherrimum_ berk. & rav., lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . plasmodium dark red. sporangia scattered or gregarious, globose, even, or somewhat wrinkled, dark red, stipitate; stipe cylindric, even, sub-concolorous or blackish; columella small or none; capillitium free from spores, whitish, with a slight pinkish tinge; spores dark brown in mass, dark red when separated, globose, smooth, . - . µ. the capillitium is very delicate, and when cleared of spores the knot-like thickenings are seen to be very small and of a dark red color, to which is probably due the pinkish tinge which marks the whole. a part only of the thickenings are filled with lime granules. the dark red granules of the sporangium walls are abundant and appear to form a continuous crust. this is _p. atrorubrum_ peck, and his description, _l. c._, has been closely followed. the very brief description in _grevillea_, however, antedates the new york publication and, all inadequate as it is, no doubt applies to the same thing. not rare. new york, pennsylvania, ohio, missouri, iowa. . physarum pulcherripes _peck._ . _physarum aurantiacum_ var. _rufipes_ alb. & schw., _consp. fung._, p. . . _diderma rufipes_ (alb. & schw.) fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _physarum pulcherripes_ peck., _bull. buff. soc. nat. hist._, i., p. . . _didymium erythrinum_ berk., _grev._, ii., p. . . _didymium ravenelii_ berk. & c., _grev._, ii., p. . . _physarum petersii_ berk. & c., _grev._, ii., p. . . _physarum schumacheri_ spr. var. _rufipes_ alb. & schw., rost., _mon._, p. . . _physarum pulcherripes_ (peck), lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . . _cytidium rufipes_ (alb. & schw.) morg., _jour. cin. soc. nat. hist._, p. . . _physarum rufipes_ (alb. & schw.) morg., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum pulcherripes_ peck., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia gregarious, dark-colored, sprinkled with orange flakes of lime, globose, the wall thin, deciduous, stipitate; stipe slender, erect, deep red, sometimes black below, pale or orange above, and supported on a well-developed hypothallus; columella scant or none; capillitium dense, the meshes and nodes unusually small and delicate, the latter reddish or yellow; spore-mass black; spores by transmitted light, violet-tinted, - µ., almost smooth. the striking contrast of color between sporangia and stipes renders this species at sight, quite distinct from any related form. the peridia in the specimens before us are black or iridescent-black sprinkled more or less profusely with orange lime granules which sometimes cover all but the base. the stipe, springing from a small hypothallus, is dark red below for about one-fourth its height, then vermillion, above expanding slightly beneath the peridium; the columella scant or none. the capillitium is an elegant delicate net, with numerous small, uniformly regular, calcareous nodes, orange; by transmitted light, yellow. the spores, brown in mass, are, by transmitted light, pale violet, slightly papillose, - , mostly about µ. the plasmodium is probably yellow. this species is no doubt related to _p. psittacinum_. it is, however, much smaller, has a calcareous stipe, and a much less variegated peridium, and generally a small columella. it is also akin to _p. globuliferum_ and to _p. murinum_, _p. petersii_ berk. & c. is reported the same thing. . physarum penetrale _rex._ plate xv., figs. , _a_. . _physarum penetrale_ rex., _proc. phil. acad._, p. . . _physarum penetrale_ rex., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum penetrale_ rex., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia scattered, erect, stipitate, generally ellipsoidal, pyriform, rarely globose; peridium membranaceous semi-transparent, studded sparsely with rounded, pale yellow or yellow-gray lime-granules, rupturing to the base into two or four segments; stipe variable, slender, subulate, rugulose, flattened laterally toward the base, translucent, dull red or golden red in color; columella four-fifths the height of the sporangium, concolorous with the stipe, acuminate; capillitium dense, persistent, the nodes frequently calcareous, rounded, yellow; spore-mass brown, spores nearly smooth, brownish, - µ. readily recognizable by the elongate sporangia and the lengthened columella unique among physarums. the capillitial nodes are at first pale yellow, but tend to whiten on exposure. the spores when highly magnified show delicate spinulescence. maine, new york, pennsylvania, ohio, europe, java. . physarum luteo-album _lister_ . _physarum luteo-album_ list., _jour. bot._, xlii., p. . . _physarum luteo-album_ list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia gregarious, sub-globose, large, about mm. in diameter, yellow shading into white, orange or olivaceous, smooth or rugulose, stipitate; stipe stout, smooth, . - mm. high, yellow or orange above, white below, cylindric, lime-stuffed; columella large, sub-globose or clavate, yellow; capillitium either of very slender pale yellow, threads, branching at acute angles and anastomosing or of broad, yellow simple or forked strands, persistent after spore-dispersal; nodules few, small, linear or fusiform; spores purple-brown, spinulose, - µ. this species, originally described from england and northern europe has more recently been identified in material sent by professor sturgis from colorado. in description the form is well marked; evinces apparently great variation alike in form, color, and structure. the material we have, however, is poor, badly weathered. the general plan of structure corresponds very well with fries' idea of his genus tilmadoche, although the present species would seem, by very grossness, strangely out of place with the tilmadoches. but the singular, didermoid, evenly branching, threads of the capillitium, bearing their slender spindle-shaped burdens of lime are very suggestive; it is a diderma gone wandering into the camp of the physarums if one may judge from miss lister's graphic plate. the specific name selected for this peculiar form has once before done service, but apparently for something quite dissimilar. schumacher, _enum. pl. saell._ ii., p. , has _p. luteo-album_. fries thinks he had a perichæna on hand; at any rate, not a physarum, and makes schumacher's combination a synonym for _perichaena quercina_ fr., which rostafinski in turn makes synonymous with _p. corticalis_ (batsch) r. if "once a synonym always a synonym" be esteemed good taxonomic law, this species must one day have another name. the present author, unwilling to change his colleague's preference in this case, nevertheless begs to suggest that such a binomial as _p. listeri_ would probably at once make future history of the species less eventful, and honor the memory of england's latest and most distinguished student of the group he loved. . physarum nucleatum _rex._ . _physarum nucleatum_ rex., _proc. phil. acad._, p. . sporangia gregarious, spherical, ½ mm., white, stipitate; peridial wall membranaceous, rupturing irregularly, thickly studded with rounded white lime-granules; stipe about mm., subulate, yellowish-white, rugose; columella none, capillitium dense, snow-white, with minute, white, round or rounded nodes, in the centre a conspicuous mass of lime forming a shining ball, not part of the stipe although sometimes produced toward it; spore-mass black; spores brown-violet, delicately spinulose, - µ. this species most nearly resembles in appearance and habit of growth _p. globuliferum_ pers., but may be distinguished from it by the absence of a columella, by the central ball of lime, and the very small rounded lime-granules in the meshes of the capillitium. exceptionally the lime granules of the sporangium wall are sparse or absent entirely, in which case the wall has a silvery or coppery metallic lustre. pennsylvania, nicaragua. . physarum wingatense _nom. nov._ plate xvi., figs. , and . . _tilmadoche columbina_ (berk. & c.) rost., _mon., app._, p. (?). . _tilmadoche compacta_ wing., _proc. acad. nat. sci._, p. . . _physarum compactum_ list., _mycetozoa_, p. . . _physarum compactum_ (wing.) morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. . . _tilmadoche compacta_ wing., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum columbinum_ (rost.) sturg., _mycologia_, vol. viii., p. . sporangia gregarious, or somewhat crowded, erect or cernuous, stipitate, gray or brownish gray, globose; peridium thin, metallic brown or bronze in color, splitting at maturity in floriform manner into six to twelve segments; stipe white or yellowish white, often shading to black or fuscous below, rather long, tapering upward; hypothallus none; columella none; capillitium extremely delicate, white or colorless, radiating from a central lime-mass or nucleus, and with ordinary nodules small and few, fusiform; spore-mass brown; spores by transmitted light, violet-brown, delicately warted, - µ. this species is well marked by several characteristics; the brilliant wall of the peridium, white-flecked and laciniate, the delicate _didymium_-like capillitium running from centre to peridium, and especially the peculiar aggregation of lime at the center of the sporangium, like nothing else except a similar structure found in _physarum nucleatum_ rex. the variations affect the stipe and the distribution of the capillitial lime. some eastern specimens show stipes melanopodous, black below; specimens from ohio and nicaragua show stipes milk-white throughout. as to the capillitium, in some of the nicaragua collections the lime is more uniformly distributed through the capillitium, and accordingly the nucleus is not conspicuous, its place being taken by two or three nodes plainly larger than the others. the peculiar brown metallic lustre of the peridial wall, and the strongly developed calcareous patches with which the peridium is covered are constant features. that this is the _didymium columbinum_ berk., or _t. columbina_ (berk.) rost., is very doubtful; the specific name given by wingate becomes inapplicable when the series is transferred to _physarum_, since in that genus the combination is already a synonym. see _p. compactum_ ehrenberg, _syl. myc. berl._, p. ( ), cited repeatedly in the synonymy; fries, _op. cit._, vol. iii., p. . so also _p. columbinum, l. c._, pp. , , etc., to say nothing of the fate of persoon's first record, _obs. mycol. pars prim._, p. , . this is wingate's species, let it bear his name. . physarum newtoni _macbr._ plate xiv., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _physarum newtoni_ macbr., _bull. lab. nat. hist. iowa_, ii., p. . . _physarum newtoni_ macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum newtoni_ macbr., lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia simple, gregarious, short-stipitate or sessile, globulose or flattened, when not globose, depressed and deeply umbilicate above, purple, smooth, thin-walled, stipe when present very short and concolorous; columella none; hypothallus none; capillitium abundant, delicate, with more or less well-developed nodules, which are also concolorous; spores by transmitted light, dark brown, thick-walled, rough, nucleated, about µ. a very handsome little species collected by professor g. w. newton in colorado, at an altitude of several thousand feet. easily recognized by its almost sessile, rose purple, generally umbilicate sporangium. . physarum psittacinum _ditm._ . _physarum psittacinum_ ditm., sturm, _deutsch. fl. pilze_, p. . . _physarum psittacinum_ ditm., fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _physarum psittacinum_ ditm., rost., _mon._, p. . . _physarum psittacinum_ ditm., lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia scattered or gregarious, globose or depressed-globose, or reniform, iridescent-blue, mottled with various tints, red, orange, yellow, white, stipitate; stipe equal, or tapering slightly upward, rugose, orange or orange red, without lime, rising from a small concolorous hypothallus; columella none; capillitium dense, crowded with calcareous, brilliant orange nodules which are angular in outline and tend to aggregate at the centre of the sporangium; spore-mass brown; spores by transmitted light, pale brown, slightly but plainly warted, about µ. _n. a. f._, . differs from _p. pulcherripes_ pk. in external coloration, the peridium a rich blue, mottled but not with lime; in the capillitium, dense, calcareous, with large angular or branching nodes; in the stipe without lime; in the spores, a little larger than in _p. pulcherripes_, and by transmitted light much more distinctly brown in color. the sporangia are also broader in the present species, reaching mm. rare. maine, new york, massachusetts, pennsylvania. reported common in europe, ceylon, japan, etc. . physarum discoidale _macbr. n. s._ plate xx., figs. and _a_. sporangia gregarious, scattered, discoidal, depressed or umbilicate above, sometimes almost annulate, snow-white, small, . -. mm., stipitate; stipe about twice the sporangium, pale yellow, strand-like, but erect, even; hypothallus none; columella none; capillitium strongly calcareous, almost as in _badhamia_, aggregate at the center, and forming a pseudo-columella at the base of the peridium; peridial wall firm, covered with innate patches of lime, somewhat yellow at the base; spores minutely spinulose, violaceous, - µ. this little species reaches us from california. it appears in late winter in undisturbed grass tufts and the sporangia are scattered over the lower leaves. it displays a remarkable amount of lime. the nodules, however, are not large; they are rounded and connected here and there by the ordinary retal tubules characteristic of a physarum. . physarum leucophÆum _fr._ . _physarum leucophaeum_ fr., _symb. gast._, p. . . _physarum leucophaeum_ fr., rost., _mon._, p. , figs. , . . _physarum leucophaeum_ fr., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum nutans_ pers., sub-species _leucophaeum_ (fr.) lister, _mycet., nd ed._, p. . sporangia scattered or gregarious, stipitate; the peridium globose or sub-depressed, plano-convex, but never umbilicate below, erect, bluish-ashen; the stipe short, rugose, sub-sulcate, fuscous, brown, or sometimes almost white, even or slightly attenuate upward from a thickened base or sometimes from an indistinct hypothallus; capillitium dense, intricate; the nodules white, with comparatively little lime, thin, expanded, angular or branching; columella none; spore-mass black, spores violaceous, minutely roughened, about - µ. this extremely delicate and beautiful form is certainly not to be referred to _tilmadoche alba_ (bull.) fr. fries, who seems to have known of _p. compressum_ a. & s. and refers _it_ to _p. nutans_ pers., _op. cit._, p. , annotates the present species: "species especially remarkable in the stipe, in the internal structure, and in its whole habit, nor is there any other with which it may be compared. peridium thin, not uniform, presently breaking up into laciniate scales; at first yellow, then bluish-ashen; when empty, white. the form inconstant, globose, depressed, but never umbilicate at the base." if we may judge by what fries says on the subject, he certainly distinguished clearly between this species and _t. alba_ (bull.), to say nothing of the stouter, larger, in every way coarser forms called by rostafinski _p. nefroideum_, _p. compressum_, _p. lividum_, etc. the shadowy little species has had an eventful history, dipping in and out of our story in most uncertain fashion. beginning with fries, as noted, it received confirmation at the hands of debary, and by rostafinski was given priority over a long list of synonyms, and figured. the earlier english authors follow rostafinski, but for lister in the _mycetozoa_, p. , the species becomes a synonym of _t. alba_ as _p. nutans_, the description appropriately enlarged to receive it. meantime american students generally confused it with the tilmadoches on the one hand and _p. nefroideum_ r. (supposed) on the other. in , robt. fries in _sver. myxom. flora_, brings the species again to view as co-partner with _p. nutans_ and in the _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. , it appears as sub-species to the same. the resemblance to _p. album_ or _p. nutans_, is chiefly as intimated, a matter of definition; real differences are found in the irregular capillitium, fitting a globose sporange, in the character of the stipe and the consequent pose. see under _p. nutans_ and _p. notabile_. . physarum nodulosum _cke. & balf._ . _physarum nodulosum_ cke. & balf., _rav. n. a. f._, exsic., . . _badhamia nodulosa_ massee, _jour. myc._, vol. v., p. . . _physarum calidris_ lister, _jour. bot._, vol. xxix., p. . . _craterium nodulosum_ (cke. & balf.) morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. . . _physarum nodulosum_ cke. & balf., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum pusillum_ list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia gregarious; minute, globose, bluish-white, the sporangial wall thin and more or less encrusted with lime, breaking up irregularly, stipitate; stipe slender, longer than the sporangium, attenuate upward or even, bright brown, rugose, expanded above into a shallow cup-like base for the sporangium; columella none; capillitium with lime-knots more or less abundant, white, often uniting, badhamioid; spore-mass black; spores by transmitted light, pale lilac-brown, almost smooth, - µ. pennsylvania, ohio, iowa; canada. one of the smallest species of the genus, by its proportionally long stipe and small round sporangium reminding one somewhat of _p. globuliferum_; much smaller, however, and in every way different. the generic characters are mixed, and the species has been accordingly variously referred. the lower part of the peridium is sometimes persistent after the dehiscence, and so far reminds of _craterium_. but this character is not constant, and even at best the persisting part is very small, not greater than in _p. melleum_, for example. on the other hand, the capillitium in some sporangia is strongly calcareous, reminds of _badhamia_, but in most sporangia the _physarum_ characters are sufficiently clear. in the kew herbarium, it is said, are two american specimens under one label, "_didymium pusillum_." one specimen is a didymium indeed, but, as it appears, _d. proximum_ berk., already described. the other is a physarum. it is proposed in _mycetozoa, nd ed._, to use the combination thus set free, as if applied by the original author to the second specimen, _not_ didymium, and to make the new combination date from and so take precedence of the binomial applied in by cooke and balfour here retained by the law of priority. . physarum maculatum _macbr._ plate xiv., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _bull. lab. nat. hist. iowa_, ii., p. . . _physarum maculatum_ macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum tenerum_ rex., lister, _mycetozoa_, p. , in part. sporangia scattered or gregarious, very small, . -. mm., dull gray, thin-walled, dotted with minute, white calcareous granules, stipitate; stipe long, about mm., stout, attenuated upward, striate longitudinally or wrinkled, filled with irregular yellow masses of lime and accordingly bright yellow in color; columella none; capillitium forming a dense net, with comparatively small yellow nodular thickenings; spores globose, purplish, each minutely papillose and displaying several scattered spots occasioned by local development of the papillae; diameter of the spores - µ. this species was set up for the reception of certain material collected by professor shimek, in , in nicaragua. it remains so far unique. the small globose sporangium mounted upon a long upwardly tapering stipe, . mm. thick below, but narrowed at the extreme base where it is lightly attached, a stem which is simply a sack stuffed with yellow lime-granules;--this and the yellow capillitium are distinguishing features. the capillitium and spores suggest _tilmadoche viride_, but the entire habit precludes such reference. perhaps nearest to _p. melleum_. castillo, nicaragua. miss lister thinks this the same as _p. tenerum_ rex. but the whole habit and external appearance are different; the stipe notably long, clumsy, surcharged with lime; a very singular form. . physarum didermoides (_pers._) _rost._ plate ix., figs. , _a_, _b_, _c_. . _spumaria (?) didermoides_ acharius, pers., _syn. fung._, p. xxix. . _diderma oblongum_ fr., _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _spumaria licheniformis_ schw., _n. a. f._, p. , no. . . _physarum atrum_ schw., _syn. fung., am. bor._, p. . . _physarum lividum_, schw., rostafinski, _mon._, p. . . _physarum didermoides_ (ach.) rost., _mon._, p. . plasmodium pale, watery-white or gray; sporangia crowded, ovoid or cylindric, stipitate or sessile, blue-gray, often capped with white; stipe variable in length and structure, where well developed pure white, often flattened, expanded and diaphanous, connate with others through the irregular reticulate or sheet-like hypothallus; columella none; capillitium ample, the lime knots angular or rounded, white connected by hyaline threads; spores in mass black, by transmitted light dark violet, decidedly spinulose, - µ. a very variable species in many particulars. the sporangia in the same cluster are stipitate and sessile, ovoid and spherical. our description does not quite agree with that of rostafinski. as may be seen from the plate, it is the _outer_ peridium that is with us white, burdened with lime, the inner is simpler and comparatively thin. the whiteness of the outer peridium is however, easily displaced. the colony may not show it at all, in which case the peridia remaining give to the fructification entire a pale lead color, very characteristic. the disposition of the lime in the capillitium is also notably variable. specimens occur which in so far realize rostafinski's _crateriachea_; that is, the lime is massed as a snow-white pseudo-columella in the centre of each sporangium. in such cases the lime of the outer peridium is scant or limited in amount, never forming the calcareous cap shown in fig. . the size of the spores is also variable. rostafinski gives . - . µ; not infrequently a single spore reaches µ, a very unusual range of variation. the species is not common in the upper mississippi valley, but can be obtained in quantity where once it appears, as the plasmodia are profuse. ohio, carolinas, tennessee, iowa, south dakota, kansas. especially to be looked for on the bark of fallen stems of _populus_ and _negundo_. brazil, india, japan. _physarum lividum_ rost., _mon._, p. , is but a less calcareous form of this, as is evident even by the author's description. professor morgan thought _p. lividum_ a phase of _p. griseum_ lk. link, however, reckons _p. griseum_ the same as _p. cinereum_. link, _diss._, i., p. . . physarum leucopus _link._ plate ix., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _physarum leucopus_ link, _diss._, i, p. . sporangia gregarious, stipitate, globose snow-white, with a didymium like covering of calcareous particles; stipe white, not long, conical or tapering rapidly upward, slightly sulcate, brittle, from an evanescent hypothallus; columella none or small; capillitium, consisting of rather long hyaline threads, connecting the usual calcareous nodes, which are large, angular, snow-white; spore-mass black; spores by transmitted light, violet-brown, distinctly warted, about µ. the snow-white, nearly smooth stem, the small sporangium (½ mm.) covered with loose calcareous granules, distinguish this rare species. it looks like a small _didymium squamulosum_. fries called it _d. leucopus_, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . rare. iowa, ohio, maine; portugal. . physarum compressum _alb. & schw._ plate xviii., fig. , and plate xix., fig. and fig. . . _physarum compressum_ alb. & schw., _fung. lus._, p. . . _physarum nefroideum_ rost., _mon._, p. , in part. . _physarum affine_ rost., _mon._, p. . . _physarum compressum_ alb. & schw., torrend, _fl. des myx._, p. . . _physarum compressum_ list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia more or less scattered, _compressed_-globose, or compressed-reniform, i. e. often umbilicate, stipitate, sessile, or elongate as if plasmodiocarpous, calcareous, white or ashen; peridium thin, covered with squamules, opening irregularly, usually by apical cleft; stipe, when present, short, stout, more or less sulcate, dark brown or ashen; capillitium a rather loose net, the nodules white, variable in size and shape; spores purplish-brown, delicately roughened, about - . µ. _p. affine_ r. was in this connection set up for european types compressed indeed, but more strongly _reniform_. the author says in his further description that the form _affine_ is less definitely umbilicate, has white stems, etc.; allantoid, one would now say. such forms now begin to appear in america; and if for these a specific name is needed, it is provided, _p. affine_ rost., plate xix., fig. . this seems to be a cosmopolitan species, now that we have found it. however, in north america it is rare. it is reported from pennsylvania, from colorado; harkness found it in california, and the writer has often collected it in oregon, on mt. rainier, washington, and in california. europe. . physarum notabile _nom. nov._ plate ix., figs. , _a_, _b_; plate xv., fig. ; and frontispiece. . _didymium connatum_ peck, _rep. n. y. mus._, xxvi., p. . . _physarum polymorphum_ (mont.) rost., peck, _rep. n. y. mus._, xxxi., p. . . _physarum leucophaeum_ fr., ellis, _n. a. f._, no. , _second exhibit_. . _physarum leucophaeum_ fries, macbr., _bull. lab. nat. hist. iowa_, ii., p. . . _physarum compressum_ alb. & schw., list., _mycetozoa_, p. , in part. . _physarum connexum_ link., morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. , in part. . _physarum confluens_ pers., morg., _l. c._, p. . . _physarum nefroideum_ rost., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. , in part. . _physarum connatum_ lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia gregarious, sessile, stipitate, or even plasmodiocarpous; when stipitate, depressed, varying at times to irregular reniform in the same colony; globose, the peridium strongly calcareous, cinereous-white; stipe variable, generally tapering upward, always distinctly deeply plicate-furrowed throughout, in color dark, opaque, sometimes touched with white or gray; capillitium abundant, the white lime-knots, varying in size and shape, connected by rather long hyaline threads, with here and there an empty node; spore-mass black, by transmitted light, dark, sooty brown, minutely papillose, - . µ. this remarkable species, while not at all difficult of recognition to one familiar with its phases, is withal very difficult to define. normally stipitate, it often shows from the same plasmodium all sorts of forms, the shape of the fructification dependent apparently upon external conditions prevalent at the time. the amount of calcium also varies, especially in the capillitium, where there is usually much, with a tendency to the formation of something like a pseudo-columella; the outer net in such cases nearly destitute. the calcium in the stipe also varies; the black or brown stipes are, of course, free from it; the gray or white, calcareous. in this large and difficult genus, since spore-color is receiving increased consideration,--see no. preceding,--it is proper to note that in the present case two types appear, one with spore-color under the lens, as described, the other with spores violaceous with no trace of black; unshadowed. the preceding description is based on material assembled during forty years. the form is easily discoverable by any collector throughout the entire valley of the mississippi and eastward to nova scotia. for its naming, students in america have vainly waited the decision of those having access to mycologic types in europe. it seems now certain that the species is extremely rare in the old world if there occurrent; never seen by any of the earlier taxonomists including fries and rostafinski; perhaps adventitious in these later years, although thus far no specimen from europe has reached this table.[ ] _p. nefroideum_ of strasburg herbarium turns out, after all, _teste_ lister, to be _p. compressum_ alb. & schw., which accordingly shall now enjoy state and station of its own; our concern in european nomenclature, in the present instance, almost disappears, and we return to our synonymy from this side of the sea. mr. lister would recur to dr. peck's _didymium connatum_, which indeed represents the present species. in such disposition, how gladly would all concur, were the thing possible! but _physarum connatum_ is already a synonym twice over.[ ] unless we are done with the rules entirely, _p. connatum_ cannot stand. _p. polymorphum_ and _p. leucophaeum_ are names already in use, of course; and so under the circumstances, much as it is to be regretted, there would seem nothing left to do but to cancel all past synonymy and impose a new name whose permanence may at least be hoped for, if not expected. . physarum tropicale _macbr._ . _physarum tropicale_ macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . plate xv., figs. , _a_, _b_. sporangia scattered, gregarious, turbinate, short stipitate, blue-gray, about mm. in diameter; peridium above iridescent, green, blue, etc., dotted with minute flecks of white, below limeless, purple or bronze shading to the brown of the stipe; stipe short, stout, slightly rugose, cylindric, non-calcareous, brown; columella none; hypothallus none; capillitium abundant, the nodes generally calcareous, small, uniform, angular, white, uniformly distributed; spore-mass, black; spores dark violet-brown, distinctly and closely warted, - µ. a large handsome species recognizable by the peculiar turbinate sporangium, with its iridescent peridial wall in which green strongly predominates above, bronze below. the distinction between the upper and lower peridium would suggest _craterium_, but the internal structure is not at all _craterium_-like. the capillitium is typically of _physarum_. the color suggests _p. leucophaeum violascens_ rost. from this species it is at once distinguished by its much longer sporangia, larger and rougher spores. mexico; _c. l. smith_: sure to be again collected once that unhappy country shall again open its forests to research. . physarum nicaraguense _macbr._ plate xv., figs. , _a_, _b_; xvii., and _a_. . _physarum nicaraguense_ macbr., _bull. lab. nat. hist. iowa_, ii., p. . . _physarum compressum_ alb. & schw., list., _mycetozoa_, p. , in part. . _physarum nicaraguense_ macbr., petch, _mycetozoa ceylon_, p. . . _physarum reniforme_ list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. , in part. sporangia multilobate or compound-contorted, below obconic, gray, ribbed with calcareous thickenings; stem short, fuscous, longitudinally wrinkled; hypothallus distinct, black; columella none, although the lime massed at the centre of each sporangium simulates one; capillitium white, densely calcareous, with heavy angular nodules connected with comparatively short threads; spores violet, globose, spinulose, about µ in diameter. ometepe, nicaragua. _professor b. shimek_. this species resembles in some particulars no. , especially in the amount of lime present in both capillitium and peridium, in the fluted, sooty stipe, and the rough spores. mr. lister once regarded it as the same. nevertheless, it differs from _p. notabile_ in many definite particulars. in the first place, the sporangia are different in form and habit. they are obconic, nearly always compound, convolute, or botryoid, in this respect somewhat resembling _p. polycephalum_. besides, the sporangia are uniformly much smaller, and show constantly the strongly calcified centre, much transcending anything seen in _p. notabile_. the stipe also is peculiar, quite short, an upward extension or sweep of the common hypothallus which is usually very distinct or prominent; and, while the stipe is longitudinally wrinkled, it is much less so than in the related species, and in a different way. the spores are about the same in size, but differ in color, in this respect agreeing rather with _p. leucophaeum_. in the _mycetozoa, nd ed., l. c._, the present species is entered as a synonym of two described by massee: _tilmadoche reniformis_ mass., mon., p. , and _didymium echinosporum_ mass., _mon._ . but massee's description of his tilmadoche is, naturally enough, at variance in every important point with the facts in the species before us. massee says: "... sporangia deeply umbilicate _below_, sausage-shaped and curved; the stem elongated slender erect, pale brown; capillitial nodes scattered, fusiform, colorless or yellow; spores - µ." it is evident that whatever massee may have had in hand as he wrote it was _not p. nicaraguense_, which has spores - µ and reverses the remaining description. but _didymium echinosporum_ also defines _t. reniformis_ since lister, _mon._, p. , says they are based on two gatherings of one species. of this second species massee says: "a superficial resemblance to _t. nutans_, but distinct in the capillitium which contains _no trace of lime_; spores - µ!" again it is evident that whatever massee had in hand when he wrote, it was not _p. nicaraguense_ which "has capillitium almost badhamia-like," i. e., burdened with lime! worse than all; mr. massee's _alleged_ types are in evidence; one labelled _p. reniforme_[ ] includes forms of _p. didermoides_ and of _p. nicaraguense_; the other labelled by berkeley _p. nutans_ is _p. nicaraguense_. so mr. t. petch, _mycet. ceyl._, who enters our species as from ceylon, and the names cited from berkeley, massee, and others, as synonyms. he remarks, "probably thwaites' and were mixed during examination"! doubtless! and some other things too! what massee did have beneath his lens, no one now may say but apparently not in either case cited, the physarum of central america. . physarum sulphureum _alb. & schw._ . _physarum sulphureum_ alb. & schw., _consp. fung._, p. , tab. vi, f. . . _physarum flavum_ fries, _symb. gast._, p. . . _physarum sulphureum_ alb. & schw., rost., _mon._, p. .[ ] sporangia gregarious, sub-globose, rugulose-squamulose, . -. mm., sulphur-yellow, stipitate; peridium membranous, covered with calcareous scales; stipe stout, white, charged with lime, furrowed; columella none; capillitium strongly calcareous, the nodules large, white; spores violaceous, rough, - µ. northern europe. (lusatia) lausitz, alb. & schw.; dim old wendish region on the south borders of brandenburg. reported also from sweden. the description and figure given by schweinitz, , _l. c._, leave no doubt as to what he had in hand. twenty or thirty years later, having spent the interval in this country,--bishop, indeed, of the moravian churches, but a student of fungi all the while,--he reports the same thing from this country; _proc. phil. acad. sci._, . cooke also lists it in _myxomycetes of the u. s._ it surely will be found again. mr. lister thinks _p. variable_ rex may be the same thing. . physarum carneum _g. lister and sturgis_. . _physarum carneum_ g. lister and sturgis, _jour. bot._, vol. xlviii, p. . sporangia gregarious, stipitate, sub-globose, . mm. in diameter, ochraceous-yellow above, flesh-colored below; peridium membranous, pale yellow, lime-granules evenly distributed; stipe short, translucent, pinkish flesh-colored; capillitium dense, nodules white; spores purplish-brown, spinulose, µ. differs from _p. citrinellum_ in the membranous peridium, flesh-colored stalks and smaller spores. colorado; _dr. w. c. sturgis._ . physarum citrinellum _peck._ . _physarum caespitosum_ schw., syn. _n. a. f._, no. (?). . _diderma citrinum_ peck, _rep. n. y. mus._, xxii., p. . . _physarum citrinellum_ peck, _rep. n. y. mus._, xxxi., p. . . _craterium citrinellum_ list., _mycetozoa_, p. . . _physarum caespitosum_ schw., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum citrinellum_ peck, list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia gregarious, or scattered globose, short-stipitate, pale yellow or ochraceous, smooth or slightly roughened by the presence of minute lime-particles; peridium more or less distinctly double, the outer calcareous, fragile, the inner very delicate, with here and there a calcareous thickening, ruptured irregularly; stipe very short, half the sporangium, fuliginous, furrowed, expanded below into an imperfectly defined hypothallus; capillitium abundant, the nodes stellate-angular, large, the internodes delicate, short; spore-mass black, spores violaceous-brown by transmitted light, strongly spinulose, - . µ. a very distinct and handsome species. easily recognizable at sight by its large, globose, almost sessile and yet distinctly stalked sporangia. the color to the naked eye is pale ochraceous or buff. only under a moderate magnification do the citrine tints come out. in the _twenty-second n. y. report_, dr. peck incorrectly referred this species to _physarum citrinum_ schum. on the appearance of rostafinski's _monograph_, dr. peck in his revised list, _l. c._, writes _p. citrinellum_ peck, with description on p. , following. under the last name the species has been generally recognized in the united states and distributed. _n. a. f._, . in the former edition, this species was referred to _p. caespitosum_ schw., of which the original description is as follows: "_p. caespitosum_ l. v. s., pulcherrimum. in foliis et stipitibus rhododendri, bethlehem. physarum substipitatum aut saltem basi attenuata, caespitosim crescens et sparsim. caespitulis linearibus; peridiis stipatis, turbinatis, ovatis, basi contracta membranula exterori luteosquamulosa aut punctato-squarrulosa. sporidiis nigro-brunneis, floccis citrinis inspersis." _synopsis n. a. fungi_, . the type from the schweinitz herbarium is no longer in evidence. without it, the reference cannot be sustained. not uncommon in the eastern united states; reported also from japan. . physarum albescens _ellis._ plate xvi., figs. , _a_. . _physarum albescens_ ellis _in litt_: not described. . _physarum auriscalpium_ cke., macbr., _bull. lab. n. h. iowa_, no. , p. , in part. . _physarum virescens_ var. _nitens_ list., _mycetozoa_, p. , in part. . _physarum virescens_ var. _nitens_ list., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. , in part. . _leocarpus fulvus_ macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum fulvum_ lister, _mycet., nd ed._, p. . . _physarum virescens, nitens_ list., _mycet., nd ed._, p. , in part. sporangia gregarious, scattered, ovoid or globose, pale yellowish or fulvous, opening irregularly above, stipitate; the peridium double, the outer layer more or less calcareous, the inner delicate, almost indistinguishable, persistent below as a shallow cup; the stipe long, weak, striate, fulvous or yellow; hypothallus distinct, venulose, or more or less continuous; capillitium pallid or white, dense, with here and there below large continuous yellow calcareous nodules; columella none; spore-mass black; spores by transmitted light, dark brown, rough, - µ. varies to forms with single (inner) peridium and simple physaroid capillitium. _vid._ descriptions cited for _p. auriscalpium_, _p. nitens_, etc. this interesting form is from our western mountains, and suggests at first a diderma; but the capillitium is entirely unlike that of a diderma in color and structure, and plainly belongs here. plasmodium yellow, on fallen leaves and twigs. our material is from prof. bethel, denver; and lake tahoe, nevada; later from dr. weir, montana. no doubt common at high altitudes near the snow-line in mountainous regions, probably around the world. as indicated above, this was originally entered as of the genus _leocarpus_; the taxonomic history of the form may interest readers who note with surprise the presentation in synonymy here developed. about thirty-five or forty years ago dr. harkness of california sent to mr. ellis of new jersey a slime-mould which the sender referred to _diderma albescens_ phillips, (_grev._ v., p. , ). ellis sent a small bit to the iowa herbarium without other comment, save that he thought it a physarum. sometime later mr. ellis received from father langlois, a correspondent in louisiana, specimens he esteemed the same thing. he expressed the opinion that if this were what phillips had found in california, it should perhaps be called a physarum. the louisiana material by his courtesy came also to this table. the material was scanty, in poor condition, and all waited further light. to these specimens the writer paid less attention. they were in the hands of his correspondents and the courtesy of the case required their further consideration by dr. rex. in mr. holway found in iowa, a physarum of which he sent part to ellis and the remainder to the writer who, then engaged on the _myxomycetes of east. iowa_, referred his part of this iowa gathering to the _physarum auriscalpium_ cke. as found in new york. under this caption a specimen was later sent to mr. lister, who has, as we see, consistently regarded the thing as a variety of _p. virescens_ ditmar, _p. nitens_ list. meantime in colorado material from professor bethel reached the university. this did not recall any of the materials sent from ellis. _diderma albescens_ had meanwhile come again from california, and been recognized as _diderma niveum_ rost. accordingly, in _n. a. s._ the latest arrival from colorado was described as a new species, and with some temerity perhaps, offered as a second species of the hitherto monotypic _leocarpus_, all on account of the peculiar capillitium. sometime after publication our most valued correspondent mr. bilgram called attention to the resemblance between the colorado and louisiana material already referred to. the university specimens as stated were small, broken, and in every way poor, but enough remained to indicate the evident justice of our correspondent's suspicion. further investigation of the holway material in philadelphia showed that _it too was entitled to consideration_! inasmuch as the holway sending was all from one plasmodium, all difficulties vanished at once. the iowa gathering showed two phases: one at the university represents _p. nitens_, physaroid, single-walled; while the philadelphia part of the gathering corresponds, poorly it is true, but in fact, as _now_ appears, to the form coming in perfection from colorado; leocarpine in structure, published as _leocarpus fulvus_; _p. fulvum_ lister. since the combination _p. fulvum_ is already in use, synonym of _p. rubiginosum_, it seems better to write the name suggested by ellis; _physarum albescens_ never having been published, because _diderma albescens_, as noted took care of itself. since rostafinski we separate all these physaroid forms chiefly by capillitial characters: capillitial structure separates genera. _physarum diderma_ is a physarum despite its double wall. and so here _leocarpus_ was set out by its differentiating capillitium. in good specimens of the present species a large part of the capillitial net is entirely free from lime, so that when the peridium first opens at the summit, sometimes no trace of lime appears; the calcareous deposits are below, and tend to occupy not the nodal intersections as in _physarum_, but in large masses involve portions of the net itself, nodes and all, as in _leocarpus_. miss lister's beautiful figures, _op. cit._, figs. and , show this very well. in the _journal of botany_, , p. , the distinguished author and artist records the discovery of this species in the mountains of switzerland. she says: "this specimen shows a striking resemblance to _leocarpus fragilis_ rost., both in the shape of the sporangia and in the capillitium and spores; but although the color of the sporangia varies in both these species, the walls of _p. (l.) fulvum_ are membranous and rugose with included deposits of lime granules and show nothing of the polished cartilaginous layers characteristic of _l. fragilis_." the species is a boundary type at best, and shows again how artificial all our taxonomy is apt to prove, when the number of presentations of some particular type becomes larger. for these reasons, the present author writes _physarum_, and believes the question of identity in a perplexing case fortunately settled. . physarum variabile rex. . _physarum variabile_ rex, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . . _physarum variabile_ rex, list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia scattered, stipitate, sub-stipitate or sessile, about mm. high; regularly or irregularly globose, ellipsoidal, obovate or cylindric-clavate in shape; sporangium wall sometimes apparently thick, of a dingy yellow or brownish-ochre color, slightly rugulose on the surface, crustaceous, brittle, rupturing irregularly, sometimes thin, translucent, covered externally with flat circular calcic-masses falling away in patches; stipes nearly equal, occasionally much expanded at the base, rough, longitudinally rugose, variable in size, sometimes one-third of a millimetre high, sometimes a mere plasmodic thickening of the base of the sporangium; color of stipes varying from a yellowish-white to a dull brownish-gray; capillitium a small-meshed network of delicate colorless tubules with large, many-angled, rounded masses of white, or rarely yellowish-white lime-granules at the nodes; no true columella, but often a central irregular mass of white lime-granules; spores dark violet-brown, verruculose, - µ. pennsylvania. _dr. rex._ lister, _op. cit._, describes a variety, _sessile_, presenting plasmodiocarpous fructification, from ceylon, also from antigua, but there are some doubts as to the identity of these with american sessile and plasmodiocarpous forms. vid. _jour. bot._ xxxvi., p. . . physarum auriscalpium _cooke_. . _physarum auriscalpium_ cooke, _myx. u. s._, am. lyc. nat. hist. n. y., xi., p. . . _physarum auriscalpium_ cke., _myx. gr. brit._, pl. , f. - . . _physarum sulphureum_ (alb. & schw.), sturgis, _bot. gaz._, xviii., p. . . _physarum auriscalpium_ cke., list., _jour. bot._, xxxvi., p. . . _physarum auriscalpium_ cke., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, syn. excl. sporangia scattered, stipitate or occasionally sub-sessile spherical, . - mm. high; peridium granulated, bright golden yellow; stipe, when present, one-half to two-thirds the height of the sporangium, blackish-brown; hypothallus, minute, thin, brown; columella absent; capillitium rather dense, composed of large angular nodes, completely filled with bright yellow granules of lime, and connected by very short, delicate, colorless internodes destitute of lime; spores globose minutely verruculose, or asperate, . - . µ in diameter, brownish-violet by transmitted light, black in the mass. this is the original description, , of _p. sulphureum_ (alb. & schw.) sturgis; the author last named having compared certain stalked new england forms with what he could find of _p. sulphureum_ in the herbarium of schweinitz at philadelphia, and having, as he thought, established identity. meantime mr. lister had been inclined to refer _p. auriscalpium_ cke. to _p. rubiginosum_ fr., _mycetozoa_, p. . in professor sturgis and mr. lister agreed that the new england specimens, owing to color and character of stipe and some other differences could not be the schweinitzian species, but did indeed conform much better with those in london labelled _p. auriscalpium_ cke. accordingly _p. sulphureum_ is something else, very different, (v. a. & s., cons. _fung. tab._, vi., f. ), and by aid of recent[ ] discoveries in sweden goes its own way again. meanwhile _p. sulphureum_ sturgis stands, a new type for _p. auriscalpium_ cke., the description modified to suit; the lamented pioneer-author receives honor due, and his handsome species, with its "golden graving," may now march, let us hope, under appropriate banner far down the fair highway to future fame! . physarum oblatum _macbr._ plate iii., fig. ; plate xiv., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _physarum ornatum_ peck, rep. _n. y. museum_, xxxi., p. (?). . _physarum oblatum_ macbr., _bull. lab. nat. hist. iowa_, ii., p. . . _craterium maydis_ morg., _myx. miam. vall._, p. . . _physarum maydis_ torr., _flor. des myxo._, p. . . _physarum maydis_ torr. list., _mycet., nd ed._, p. . sporangia gregarious, stipitate, small, bright yellow, globose or depressed-globose, rough; stipe reddish-brown or fuliginous, even, short, slender; hypothallus scant, black, or none; columella none; threads of the capillitium yellow, delicate, connecting the rather dense and abundant yellow lime-granules; spore-mass brownish-black, spores violaceous, minutely but distinctly spinulose, - µ. this species is easily recognizable by its brilliant yellow color, somewhat rugose, sometimes scaly peridium, its richly calcareous capillitium, also bright yellow where not weathered or faded, its dark brown, translucent, non-calcareous stem. in dehiscence, the base of the peridium in cup-form, sometimes persists. this circumstance, with the fact that decaying maize-stalks and leaves are a favorite habitat, led professor morgan to its description as _craterium maydis_. but it is doubtless a physarum, occurring on habitats of all sorts, from ohio to iowa, colorado and washington. ceylon(?). _physarum ornatum_ peck is doubtfully cited here, although professor morgan thought it the same as _p. oblatum_. as a matter of fact the original brief description, _op. cit._, does not suggest either _p. oblatum_ or _p. maydis_; rather a form of _tilmadoche viridis_. professor sturgis, _notes on some type specimens of myxo., in the n. y. museum, trans. conn. acad. arts and sci._, vol. x., pt. , p. , says that of the type almost nothing remains, that the name _p. ornatum_ pk. "should be discarded." . physarum galbeum _wing._ . _physarum galbeum_ wing., ell., _n. a. f._, (no description). . _physarum petersii_ berk. & c., mass., _mon._, p. , in part. . _physarum berkeleyi_ rost., list., _mycetozoa_, p. , in part. . _physarum galbeum_ wing., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum galbeum_ wing., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia scattered, globose, stipitate, often nodding, golden yellow, the peridium exceedingly thin, breaking up into patches on which the yellow lime granules are conspicuous; stipe non-calcareous, pale brown or amber-colored, longitudinally wrinkled, about one and one-half times the diameter of the peridium; columella none; hypothallus none; capillitium dense, extremely delicate, the nodes only here and there calcareous, the lime knots when present small, angular, yellow; spore-mass pale brown; spores almost smooth, lilac- or violet-tinted, . - µ. distinguished among the small delicate species with which it will be naturally associated, by the yellow, richly calcareous wall of the globose sporangium and the almost limeless capillitium. the stipe is hollow and contains irregular masses of refuse granular matter, but no lime so far as we have been able to discover. _p. flavicomum_, to which the species is related most closely, differs in having the wall non-calcareous, iridescent, as well as in the color throughout; the character of the capillitium, in which lime is abundant; the absence of refuse-matter in the stem. pennsylvania, iowa, minnesota. . physarum tenerum _rex._ . _physarum tenerum_ rex., _proc. phil. acad._, p. . . _physarum polymorphum_ rost. var. _obrusseum_, lister, _mycet._, p. . . _physarum obrusseum_ (berk. & c.) rost., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum tenerum_ rex., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . the peridium thin, membranaceous, thickly studded with circular, flattened, yellow granules of lime; stipe long, slender, subulate, opaque, pale brown, striate and black below, pale yellow above; columella none; capillitium yellow or white, delicate, forming a loosely but regularly meshed network with numerous small round or rounded granules at the intersections; spores dark brown, delicately warted, - µ. this delicate physarum, very fragile and evanescent, seems to be distinct, by reason of its characteristic rounded lime granules, from any similar, stipitate species. it varies a little according to locality. ohio specimens are a little larger and have thicker and more calcareous stipes than is usual in those from philadelphia. the walls of the sporangia when fully matured generally break into several petal-like segments which finally become reflexed. the description given by berkeley is entirely insufficient. in an earlier edition this species was entered as _p. obrusseum_ following the polish text. miss lister who has the type of _didymium obrusseum_ at hand considers it as representing a phase of _physarum polycephalum_ schw. _d. tenerrimum_ berk. & curt. is judged the same. _p. tenerum_ rex is, in any event, certain, and the combination is adopted. rare:--pennsylvania, ohio, louisiana, texas, iowa, portugal, japan. . physarum flavicomum _berk._ plate xv., figs. , _a_. . _physarum flavicomum_ berk., _hook. jour. bot._, iv., p. . . _physarum cupripes_, berk. & rav., _grev._, ii., p. . . _physarum berkeleyi_ rost., _mon._, p. . . _physarum berkeleyi_ rost., list., _mycetozoa_, p. . . _physarum flavicomum_ berk., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum flavicomum_ berk., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia gregarious, small, spherical, at first fuliginous throughout, stipitate; the peridium thin, destitute of lime, iridescent, breaking up and deciduous in patches, except at the base; stipe twice the diameter of the peridium, brown, fluted, not hollow, tapering upward from a small but distinct, radiant hypothallus; columella none; capillitium dense, persistent, the nodes frequently calcareous, elongate and vertical, especially below, yellow; spore-mass brown; spores by transmitted light, bright violaceous-brown, slightly papillose, - µ. this species is instantly distinguishable from all cognate forms by its peculiar sooty color. not less is the species structurally marked by its capillitium. the latter below is exactly as in the species of _tilmadoche_. indeed, the present species unites characters supposed to distinguish _physarum_ from _tilmadoche_, and would so far justify those authors who bring all the species of both genera together under one generic name. in any case the species is by its capillitium entirely distinct from _p. galbeum_, as well as by the structure of the stipe and the peridial surface. the plasmodium, at first watery, emerges from decayed elm logs and soon takes on a peculiar greenish tint preserved somewhat in the mature fruit. rostafinski, _monograph_, pp. , , rejects berkeley's specific name, _flavicomum_, because it refers to the somewhat indefinite, characteristic color. as this is no valid reason for change, we have restored berkeley's specific name, which by general consent has priority. _n. a. f._, . not common. new jersey, ohio, south carolina, iowa. . physarum bethelii (_macbr._) _lister_. . _tilmadoche bethelii_, macbr., _exempl. ad herbaria._ . _physarum gyrosum_ rost., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia scattered, globose, umbilicate below, . - mm. in diameter, iridescent blue, or sometimes tinged by the presence of delicate pale yellow calcareous scales, stipitate; stipe rather short, black or dark brown, equal; capillitium dense, radiating from the black, slightly intrusive summit of the stipe, and from the base of the peridium ascending; the nodules not numerous, elongate, branching betimes, pale yellow; spores minutely roughened, - µ. this beautiful delicately tinted little species is clearly tilmadochoid in the friesian sense. the capillitium persists after the fall of the upper filmy peridium, adherent below to the persisting peridial base. collected thus far twice only; by professor bethel and by professor sturgis, colorado. section _=tilmadoche= fries_ . physarum gyrosum (_rost._) _jahn._ . _physarum gyrosum_ rost., _mon._, p. . . _physarum gyrosum_ rost., jahn, _ber. deutsch. bot. ges._, xx., p. , t. xiii. . _physarum gyrosum_ rost., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia gyrose, variable in form, or plasmodiocarpous and irregular, venulose, sessile upon a common, strongly developed hypothallus, sometimes isolated and irregularly globose, dehiscing irregularly or by longitudinal fissure, yellowish or greyish white; columella none; capillitium delicate, the nodules elongate, variable in size; spores pale violaceous, minutely spinulose, - µ. this is a european species recently resuscitated by dr. jahn. it perhaps might more correctly be recorded as _p. gyrosum_ jahn, since rostafinski certainly attempted in his description to cover two apparently distinct things. he seems to have had before him _fuligo muscorum_ schw. and "_p. gyrosum_," but he thought them the same, and his description touches now one, now the other. since _f. muscorum_ schw. has all along held its own and received due recognition, it is interesting to note the recovery of this gyrose form. judging by description and figures, it resembles a very large, sessile phase of _p. polycephalum_. see further under that species. europe, japan, eastern united states (?). . physarum polycephalum _schw._ plate viii., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _physarum polycephalum_ schw., _syn. fung. car._, no. . . _didymium polycephalum_ (schw.) fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _didymium polymorphum_ mont., _ann. sci. nat._, ser. , , p. . . _didymium gyrocephalum_ mont., _op. cit._, p. . . _physarum polymorphum_ (mont.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _tilmadoche gyrocephala_ (mont.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _tilmadoche polycephala_ (schw.) macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum polycephalum_ schw., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia spherical or irregular, impressed, gyrose-confluent, helvelloid, umbilicate below; peridium thin, ashy, covered with evanescent yellow squamules, fragile; stipe from an expanded membranaceous base, long-subulate, yellow; spores smooth, violet, - µ. a most singular species and well defined is this, occurring in masses of decaying leaves or on rotten logs. the plasmodium at first colorless; as it emerges for fructification, white, then yellow, spreading far over all adjacent objects, not sparing the leaves and flowers of living plants; at evening slime, spreading, streaming, changing; by morning fruit, a thousand stalked sporangia with their strangely convoluted sculpture. the evening winds again bear off the sooty spores, and naught remains but twisted yellow stems crowned with a pencil of tufted silken hairs. august. although rostafinski's description of this species is accurate and marks exactly a _tilmadoche_ and is very different from his description of _physarum polymorphum_, nevertheless it is probable that both descriptions have reference to the same thing. all specimens on which both species were based were american; _p. polymorphum_, north american. but the only north american form to which reference can be made is that by schweinitz called _p. polycephalum_ and, fortunately, sufficiently described. furthermore, rostafinski, under _t. gyrocephala_, himself affirms the probable identity of montagne's _didymium gyrocephalum_ with the schweinitzian species, and uses montagne's specific name provisionally. for these reasons it seems proper to write the species as above. widely distributed and common, from maine and canada to nebraska, and washington and south to nicaragua. this species is so common that its plasmodium and fructification may be easily observed. professor morton e. peck, who has been for years a close observer of the vegetative phases of our iowa species, says of _p. polycephalum_: "in one instance i observed a plasmodium for twelve successive days on the surface of a decaying stump. during this period it crept all around the stump and from top to bottom several times. at one time the color was bright yellow; at another, greenish yellow; and once, shortly before fruiting, it became clear bright green. a heavy rain fell upon the plasmodium but it appeared to sustain little injury and ultimately developed normal sporangia." . physarum nutans _pers._ . _sphaerocarpus albus_ bull., _champ._, p. , t. , iii., and t. , i, a-l. . _stemonitis alba_ (bull.), gmel., _syst. nat._, p. (?). . _physarum nutans_ pers., _ust. ann. bot._, xv., p. . . _trichia cernua schum., enum. pl, saell._, ii., p. . . _physarum cernuum_ (schum.) in part, fr., _syst. myc._, iii., pp. , . . _tilmadoche cernua_ (schum.) fr., _summ. veg. sc._, p. . . _tilmadoche nutans_ (pers.) rost., _versuch_, p. . . _tilmadoche alba_ (bull.) macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum nutans_ pers., list., _mycet., nd ed._, p. , in part. sporangia gregarious, depressed-spherical, stipitate, umbilicate, gray or white, thin-walled, nodding; stipe long, tapering upward, brown or black below, ashen white above, lightly striate, graceful; capillitium abundant, threads delicate, intricately combined in loose persistent network with occasional minute, rounded, or elongate calcareous nodules; spores minutely roughened, globose, about µ. the nodding, lenticular, umbilicate sporangium, barely attached to the apiculate stipe, is sufficient to distinguish this elegant little species, recognized and quite aptly characterized by mycologists for more than one hundred years. as _sphaerocarpus albus_ bulliard first prescribed the limits by which the species is at present bounded. the description by fries (_syst. myc.,_, iii., ) is especially graphic; "peridium very thin, in form quite constantly lenticular, umbilicate at base, at first smooth then uneven, generally laciniate-dehiscent, the segments persistent at least at base." the stipe is usually white above, fuscous below, at the apex almost evanescent; hence the cernuous sporangia. the same character is less strikingly manifest in the species next following. the plasmodium is bright yellow, sometimes greenish. brought in from the field and maturing under a bell-jar, the color changes to a watery white just before the sporangia rise in fruit. _p. album_ fuckel, _rhen. fl._, no. , , is believed to be _p. cinereum_ (batsch) pers. persoon changed bulliard's specific name in this case to furnish one himself, more descriptive as he thought and distinctive. his success in this attempt must be esteemed but partial since all the related forms, immediately listed, _nod_ as well. bulliard's name as applied by persoon is therefore to be preferred. but the transfer from _tilmadoche_ to _physarum_ loses for us one step in the ladder of priority. _p. album_ (bull.) may not enter here, since fries has given us one species under that title. so persoon comes next on the list, all the world now nodding approbation, let us hope! under the name _physarum gracilentum_, fries cites an extremely delicate form of this species. the sporangia are of the most minute, about . -. mm. in diameter, globose, slightly umbilicate below, the stipe usually white at top, but sometimes black throughout. this graceful form occurs rarely in undisturbed woods. widely distributed in the eastern united states, apparently rare in the west. reported from various parts of the world; europe, japan, australia, etc. . physarum viride (_bull._) _pers._ plate viii, figs. , _a_, _b_. . _sphaerocarpus viridis_ bull., _champ._, t. , fig. i. . _sphaerocarpus luteus_ bull., _champ._, t. , fig. ii. . _sphaerocarpus aurantius_ bull., _champ._, t. , fig. ii. . _stemonitis viridis_ (bull.) gmel., _sys. nat._, p. . . _physarum aureum_ pers., römer, _neu. mag. f. die bot._, i., p. . . _physarum viride_ pers., usteri, _ann. bot._, xv., p. . . _physarum aurantium_ pers., _syn. meth._, p. . . _physarum nutans_ var. fries, _syst. myc._, iii., pp. - . . _tilmadoche mutabilis_ rost., _mon._, p. . . _tilmadoche viridis_ (bull.) sacc., _michelia_, ii., p. . . _physarum viride_ pers., list., _mycetozoa_, p. . . _tilmadoche viridis_ (bull.) sacc., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarum viride_ pers., list., _mycetozoa_, nd ed. sporangia globose, flattened or lenticular, beneath plane or concave, variously colored, yellow, greenish yellow, rusty orange, stipitate, nodding; the peridium splitting irregularly or reticulately; stipe variable in length and color, through various shades of red and yellow, subulate; capillitium strongly developed, concolorous with sporangium, the tubes with colorless or yellow calcareous thickenings; spores smooth, fuscous or violet-black, µ. a very handsome and rather common little species; like the preceding, but generally greenish-yellow in color, and occasionally brilliantly orange without a suggestion of green. indeed, the color is so variable that some authors have been disposed to discard the species entirely, inasmuch as the chief specific character is color. the plasmodium is pale yellow, in rotten logs, stumps, etc. in the paler yellow or greenish forms the stipe is more commonly black. this is _physarum luteum_ (bull.) fries, and likewise also includes the three varieties, _viride_, _aureum_, _coccineum_, listed by the same author under _p. nutans_, while he at the same time remarks that they might with equal propriety be elsewhere referred. rostafinski considers that all the colored forms agree in capillitium sufficiently to be associated under one name and are in the same way unlike _t. nutans_.[ ] rostafinski thinks to avoid confusion by suggesting a more fitting specific name, _t. mutabilis_, but there seems no good reason for not adopting the earliest identifiable specific appellation, which in this case appears to be _viride_. the yellow phase is common in iowa, resembles in size, color, stipe, _p. galbeum_ wingate, but is instantly distinguishable by the capillitium. _n. a. f._, . widely distributed specimens are before us;--from new england, new york, pennsylvania, maryland, ohio, nebraska, iowa, california, oregon, canada, nicaragua, samoa, alaska, india, etc. =extra-limital=[ ] physarum mutabile (_rost._) _list._ . _crateriachea mutabilis_ rost., _mon._, p. . . _crateriachea mutabilis_ rost., mass., _mon._, p. . . _physarum cinereum_ list., _mycetozoa_, p. , in part. . _physarum crateriachea_ list., _jour. bot._, xxxiii., p. . . _physarum crateriachea_ list., petch, _mycetozoa ceylon_, p. . . _physarum mutabile_ list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia cylindrical ovoid or sub-globose white, plasmodiocarpous, sessile or stipitate, stipes when present yellow, with or without lime, often connected by a hypothallus; peridium thin, squamulose; capillitium persistent, intricate, the nodules white, more or less confluent at the center to form a real or a pseudo-columella; spores brownish-purple, spinulose, - µ. reported from europe, africa, ceylon. physarum roseum _berk. & br._ . _physarum roseum_ berk. & br., _jour. linn. soc._, xiv., p. . plasmodium rose-red; sporangia gregarious, stipitate, globose, rose-red; the stipe erect, brown, rugulose, translucent; capillitium lax, delicate, lilac, the nodules few, large, purple-red, branching; spores reddish-lilac or brown, minutely spinulose, - µ. reported from ceylon, java, borneo, japan. physarum dictyospermum _list._ . _physarum dictyospermum_ list., _jour. bot._, vol. xliii., p. . "it is distinguished from the other known species of _physarum_ by the strongly reticulated spores. its nearest ally is perhaps _p. psittacinum_ which it resembles in having orange-red lime-knots and in the sporangium-wall being studded with orange crystalline disks." _lister._ reported collected once only; new zealand. physarum straminipes _list._ . _physarum straminipes_ list., _jour. bot._, vol. xxxvi., p. . plasmodium white; sporangia greyish-white, obovoid or wedge-shaped, . mm. in diameter, clustered or scattered, stipitate or sessile, when stipitate stalks long, weak; peridium membranous, pale purple; capillitium a persistent rigid net, the nodules white, rounded, sometimes aggregate as a pseudo-columella; spores purple-brown, - µ, warted, the papillae in definite patches. related to _p. compressum_. reported from england; germany. physarum crateriforme _petch._ _physarum crateriforme_ petch, _ann. perad._, iv., p. . _physarum crateriforme_ petch, list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. , pl. . sporangia gregarious, globose, clavate or crateriform, sessile or stipitate, white; stalk when present opaque conical, black below, white above, in crateriform sporangia entering and developed as a columella; capillitium various, strongly calcareous, the nodules either grouped in a pseudo-columella, or in globose sporangia, rod-like, ascending; spores closely spinulose, - µ. reported from ceylon, japan, west indies; lisbon. physarum gulielmÆ _penzig._ . _physarum gulielmae_ penzig., _myx. beut._, p. . . _physarum gulielmae_ penzig., torrend, _fl. des myx._, p. . . _physarum gulielmae_ penzig., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . plasmodium yellow; sporangia sub-globose, sessile, brownish-orange or chestnut brown, rugulose, clustered or heaped, often with a yellow membranous hypothallus; peridium membranous with clustered deposits of yellowish-brown lime granules; capillitium abundant, the nodes angular, branching, white; spores purplish brown, spinulose, - µ. reported from java, sweden, switzerland. physarum echinosporum _list._ . _physarum echinosporum_ list., _jour. bot._, xxxvii., p. . this species is distinguished from the preceding chiefly in episporic characters. "spores purple, µ, marked by strong ridges and spines," µ. reported from antigua. physarum Æneum (_list._) _r. e. fries._ . _physarum murinum_ var. _aeneum_ lister, _jour. bot._, xxxvi., p. . . _physarum aeneum_ lister, r. e. fries, _arkiv. bot._, i., p. . sporangia sessile, sub-globose or plasmodiocarpous, pinkish-brown or bronze, glossy; peridium double, the outer somewhat cartilaginous, brittle, falling back from the shining, membranous inner wall; capillitium dense, the nodules not large, brown, sometimes aggregated to form a pseudo-columella; spores pale brownish-violet, nearly smooth, - µ. reported from west indies, bolivia. =related genus= trichamphora _junghuhn_, p. . . _trichamphora_, junghuhn, _fl. crypt. javanica_. sporangia discoidal, above concave, saucer-shaped, stipitate; the capillitium variable, anon physaroid, badhamioid, or even as in _didymium_. this genus is set up for the accommodation thus far of the single species following. it differs from _physarella_ in the apparently constant discoidal shape, absence of trabecules, etc. trichamphora pezizoidea _jungh._, _op. cit._ . _trichamphora pezizoidea_ jungh., _op. cit._ . _didymium zeylanicum_ berk. & br., _hook. jour. bot._, vi., p. . . _physarum macrocarpum_ fuckel, _symb. myc._, p. . . _chondrioderma pezizoidea_ rost., _mon._, p. , tab. viii., fig. . . _badhamia fuckeliana_ rost., _mon._, _app._, p. . . _trichamphora pezizoidea_ jungh., list., _mycetozoa_, p. . . _trichamphora pezizoidea_ jungh., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia discoidal or saucer-shaped, gregarious, stipitate, erect or nodding, grayish-white, the peridium thin, breaking irregularly and persistent; stipe subulate, striate, reddish brown, transparent; capillitium variable as above stated; spores pale violet-brown, spinulose or nearly smooth, about µ. in _mycetozoa, nd ed._, the spores are described as "dark or pale purplish brown, spinose, spinulose or nearly smooth, - µ in diameter." this would seem too great a variation even in this protean species. the only specimens in our herbarium are from the congo valley. the spores are pale and nearly smooth, as in _tilmadoche alba_, and µ. spores µ suggest immaturity; penultimate cell-division. the synonymy above cited shows how this species has impressed careful students. doubtless in every case the reference is correct, judging from the specimen each author had before him, although it is hard to see how _chondrioderma_ might have been suggested. the species is evidently tropical, though reported from europe. = . craterium= _trentepohl_ . _craterium_ trentepohl, roth, _catal._, i., p. . sporangia more or less distinctly cyathiform, stipitate, the peridium generally plainly of two layers or even of three, opening at the top by circumscission more or less definite, or by a distinct lid, the upper part calcareous often to a marked degree, the lower, cartilaginous, long persistent as a vasiform cup containing the capillitium and spores, the calcareous nodes aggregating more or less to form a pseudo-columella. this genus is distinguished from _physarum_ and _badhamia_ chiefly by the form of the sporangia and the method of dehiscence. the capillitium is in some specimens particularly, of the _physarum_ type; in others, like that of _badhamia_. there are accordingly species that receive at the hands of different authors diverse generic reference as one feature or another in the structure is emphasized in the different cases. it is granted that it is hard to draw the line sometimes between forms in which the dehiscence is irregularly circumscissile and those in which the wall breaks without any regularity whatever, since, in all, the breaking up of the peridium usually begins at the top. species here included will, however, offer little ambiguity. =key to the species of craterium= a. dehiscence circumscissile or by the breaking up of the upper wall of the sporangium. _a._ sporangia violet or purple . _c. paraguayense_ _b._ sporangia yellow . _c. aureum_ _c._ sporangia white-capped. . sporangia obovoid or globoid . _c. leucocephalum_ . sporangia cylindric, elongate . _c. cylindricum_ b. dehiscence by a distinct lid. _a._ capillitium pale brown . _c. concinnum_ _b._ capillitium white . _c. minutum_ . craterium paraguayense (_speg._) _list._ . _didymium paraguayense_ speg., _fung. guar. pug._, , p. . . _craterium rubescens_ rex, _proc. philad. acad. nat. sci._, p. . . _craterium rubescens_ rex, list., _mycetozoa_, p. . . _craterium rubescens_ rex, macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _iocraterium paraguayense_ (speg.) jahn, _hedwigia_, xlii., p. . . _craterium paraguayense_ list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia gregarious, cylindrical or elongate cyathiform, stipitate, dark violet-red, the apex slightly roughened by pale calcareous granules, the peridium longitudinally wrinkled below; dehiscence, irregularly circumscissile; stipe darker, one-half the height of the sporangium, longitudinally wrinkled; capillitium dense, abundantly calcareous; spores violet-brown, minutely roughened, - µ. in form resembling the following species, but instantly distinguished by the color, which is red throughout, tinged with purple or violet. the capillitium is badhamioid, as noted by dr. rex. very distinct from _p. newtoni_ in color, form, habit, epispore, etc. . craterium aureum (_schum._) _rost._ . _trichia aurea_ schum., _enum. pl. saell._, ii., p. . . _craterium mutabile_ fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _craterium aureum_ (schum.) rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia gregarious, globose or obovoid, stipitate, yellow, erect, the peridial wall thin, especially at the summit, where at maturity it breaks up somewhat reticulately, leaving the persistent lower portion with an uneven margin above which projects the pale yellow capillitium; stipe short, orange, or brownish-red, arising from a small hypothallus; capillitium dense, yellow, the nodules not large, irregular, tending to form a pseudo-columella in the centre of the cup; spores minutely warted, violaceous-brown, - µ. fries regards this, which he names _c. mutabile_, the most distinctly marked species of the genus; chiefly, as it appears, on account of the bright yellow color. this, however, varies. some specimens before us are gray, showing only a trace of yellow below. in some european specimens a reddish tinge prevails. the form of the sporangium also varies. in typical specimens, unopened, the shape is almost pyriform; opened, we have a cylindric, oftenest lemon-yellow vase, mounted on a short striate stalk. but again, from the same plasmodium, we may have globose sporangia, opening so as to leave only a shallow, salver-shaped base. in this case the stipe is also longer. the plasmodium is said to be "clear lemon yellow."--_massee._ there seems little doubt that schumacher had in mind the present species in his _trichia aurea_. rostafinski shows that fries's synonym, _c. mutabile_, is founded on a mistake. the earlier specific name is therefore on rostafinski's authority adopted. not common. pennsylvania, new jersey, north carolina, ohio, iowa. . craterium leucocephalum (_pers._) _ditmar_. plate viii., fig. . . _stemonitis leucocephala_ gmelin, _syst. nat._, ii., p. . . _arcyria_ (?) _leucocephala_ persoon, _syn. fung._, p. . . _craterium_ (?) _leucocephalum_, persoon, _syn. fung._, p. . . _craterium leucocephalum_ (pers.) ditmar, sturm, _deutsch. flora, pilze_, p. , pl. . . _physarum scyphoides_ cke. & balf., _jour. myc._, v., p. . . _craterium convivale_ (batsch) morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. . sporangia gregarious, short-cylindric or ovate, pure white above, brown or reddish-brown below, stipitate, dehiscence irregularly circumscissile, the persistent portion of the peridium beaker-shaped; stipe short, stout, expanded above into the base of the peridium with which it is concolorous; hypothallus scant; capillitium white or sometimes, toward the centre, brownish, the calcareous nodules large, conspicuous, and persistent; spore-mass black, spores violaceous-brown, minutely spinulose, - µ. distinguished by its white cap from all except the next, from which the markedly different form serves as the diagnostic feature. in some gatherings, curious patches of yellow mark the otherwise snow white cap and sides; these are mere stains, or sometimes definite, crystalline, flake-like bodies, standing out in plain relief on the sporangial wall, or lurking in the larger nodules which are massed along the axis of the cup to form the pseudo-columella here strongly developed. mr. lister calls attention to these yellow flakes, and regards them as diagnostic. european specimens show the capillitium yellow, sometimes throughout! the nomenclature question is here somewhat difficult. fries heads his list of synonyms with _peziza convivalis_ batsch. batsch simply described micheli's figure! now there is nothing in micheli's figure (pl. , fig. ) to enable one to say with certainty which craterium micheli had in mind, if craterium at all. nor does batsch help the matter when he offers the description following: "stipitata; acute conica, patens; stipite subdistincto, lineari, brevi, valido. _albicans. in foliis hederae putridis._" (_elenchus fungorum_, batsch, , p. .) there is nothing definitive here but the one word "albicans" quoted from micheli. but this term is applicable the rather to _c. minutum_, the cups of which whiten with weathering. it may be, as insisted by fries (_syst. myc._, iii., p. ), that micheli drew crateriums; but if so, we cannot determine which species. the specific name here adopted was applied by persoon probably to this form; but persoon likewise failed to distinguish the present species from _c. minutum_ (see _syn. fung._, pp. , ), and fries, _op. cit._, p. . ditmar, _l. c._, leaves no doubt as to what he figures and describes, and accordingly the name he first correctly uses is here adopted. not common. new england, pennsylvania, ohio, north carolina, iowa, colorado, washington, california; reported from europe. . craterium cylindricum _massee_. plate xvi., fig. . . _craterium minimum_ berk. & c., _grev._, ii., p. . . _craterium cylindricum_ massee, _mon._, p. . . _craterium leucocephalum_ ditm., list., _myc._, p. , in part. . _craterium minimum_ berk. & c., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _craterium leucocephalum_ var. _cylindricum_ list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia closely gregarious, very small, . µ or less, slender, cylindric, almost entirely white, stipitate, the peridium delicate, transparent although calcareous nearly to the base, opening by a dehiscence regularly circumscissile; stipe short, about one-third the total height, clear orange-brown, somewhat furrowed, rising from an indistinct hypothallus; capillitium very lax, physaroid, the calcareous nodules large, rounded, pure white, aggregated at the centre of the cup; spore-mass black, spores minutely roughened, violaceous-brown, - µ. this is the common form in the united states. massee describes it as _c. cylindricum_ mass., and it seems not to occur in europe. lister has put it in with _c. leucocephalum_, from which its more delicate structure and elegant cylindrical shape certainly distinguish it. the dehiscence is even more regular than in the preceding species and approaches that of _c. minutum_ leers., with bleached forms of which it must not be confused. _n. a. f._, . _c. minimum_ berk. & c. has here priority. massee regards this name as indicating a distinct species. we have been unable to determine what the authors really had before them, and adopt accordingly the first available combination. new england to iowa and south; reported also from the orient. . craterium concinnum _rex._ . _craterium concinnum_ rex, _proc. phila. acad._, p. . sporangia scattered, usually minute, broadly funnel-shaped, stipitate. the peridium simple, variously colored by innate lime granules, opening by a regular cap or operculum, brownish white, darkest in the centre, always more or less convex; stipe equalling the cup in height, dark brown, longitudinally ridged; the capillitium a close-meshed network, with small rounded or slightly angular masses of ochre-brown lime-granules, larger toward the centre; spores pale brown, minutely warted, - µ. this species differs from the following, to which it seems most nearly allied, in form, color, as in the capillitium, and color of the spores. in habitat, however, it seems no less distinct, being found always (?) on the spines of decaying chestnut-burs lying on the ground, and in company with that other peculiar species _lachnobolus globosus_. the range is probably that of the chestnut, _castanea dentata_ borkhausen, east of the mississippi river. . craterium minutum (_leers_) _fr._ plate xv., fig. . . _peziza minuta_ leers, _fl. herborn_, p. . . _craterium pedunculatum_ trent., roth., _catal. bot._, i., p. . . _craterium vulgare_ ditmar, sturm, _deutsch. fl. pilze_, p. . . _craterium pedunculatum_ trent., fr., _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _craterium minutum_ leers, fr., _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _craterium pedunculatum_ trent., macbr., _bull. lab. nat. hist. iowa_, ii, p. . . _craterium pedunculatum_ trent., lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . . _craterium minutum_ (leers) fr., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _craterium minutum_ fr., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia scattered, gregarious, cyathiform or turbinate, grayish brown, stipitate, the peridial wall rather thick, double, opening by a distinct lid which lies usually below the slightly thickened and everted margin of the cup; stipe paler, translucent, about equalling in height the peridial cup, longitudinally wrinkled, with hypothallus scant or none; capillitium physaroid, the calcareous nodules large, white, and generally aggregated at the centre of the cup; spore-mass black, spores by transmitted light violaceous, minutely warted, - µ. this is the most highly differentiated of the whole series. the cup is shapely and well defined, while the lid is not only distinct, but is a thin, delicate membrane of slightly different structure when compared with the peridial wall. it is in all the specimens before us much depressed below the mouth of the sporangium, and the whole structure in our specimens corresponds with fries' description of _c. pedunculatum_ trent., while specimens received from europe correspond to fries' account of _c. minutum_ leers. nevertheless we are assured that the two forms are in europe developed from the same plasmodium, and therefore adopt the earlier specific name as above. _n. a. f._, . this is probably _fungoides convivalis_ of batsch and micheli. in this species yellow sporangia are sometimes seen. miss currie reports from toronto such variation and in europe the case seems not unusual. in fact, there is a yellow tinge about the sporangia of every species listed here, except the first. with the same exception, the plasmodium in every case is yellow. common throughout the eastern united states, west to iowa, colorado, and south to louisiana; cosmopolitan. = . physarella= _peck._ . _physarella_ peck, _bull. torr. bot. club_, ix., p. . sporangium pervious to the base, the interior walls forming a persistent spurious columella; capillitium composed of filaments with here and there minute knot-like thickenings, straight tubes containing lime-granules extending from the exterior to the interior walls of the sporangium, persistently attached to the former.[ ] such is dr. peck's original description of this most peculiar genus. the form of the sporangium in the only species is very variable, but in typical cases is vasiform, the peridial wall at the apex introverted. the capillitium is like that of _tilmadoche_, except for the presence of the "straight tubes" emphasized in the original description. these are very remarkable and at once diagnostic. they take origin in the sporangial wall and pass across to the "columella"; but at the dehiscence of the sporangium, in typical cases, they remain attached at the points of origin, projecting as stout spine-like processes. physarella oblonga (_berk. & c._) _morg._ plate viii., figs. , _a_, _b_, _c_; plate xvi., figs. , _a_, _b_, and . . _trichamphora oblonga_ berk. & c., _grev._, ii., p. . . _tilmadoche oblonga_ (berk. & c.) rost., _mon. app._, p. . . _tilmadoche hians_ rost., _mon. app._, p . . _physarella mirabilis_ peck, _bull. torr. bot. club_, ix., p. . . _physarella oblonga_ (berk. & c.) morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. . . _physarella mirabilis_ peck, list., _mycet._, p. . . _physarella oblonga_ (berk. & c.) morg., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _physarella oblonga_ morg., list., _mycet., nd ed._, p. . sporangia scattered or gregarious, typically cup-shaped or sub-infundibuliform, stipitate, erect or cernuous, but varying through low salver-shaped cups, to irregular applanate and sessile masses, the peridium thin but firm, tawny, roughened by numerous yellowish calcareous scales, at length ruptured above and often reflexed in the form of petal-like segments from which project upwards the spiniform trabecules of the capillitium; stipe when present long, terete, red, arising from a scant hypothallus and extended within the sporangium to meet the tubular "columella"; capillitium of delicate violaceous threads seldom branched or united, radiating from the columella with few calcareous nodular expansions, but supported by stout yellow calcareous trabecules, running parallel to the capillitial threads, long adherent to the sporangial wall; spores smooth, globose violet-brown, - µ. not uncommon in wet places. new york, ohio, iowa, south dakota, louisiana, nicaragua; reported also from ceylon, java, etc. not the least remarkable feature of this remarkable species is the variation in the form of the fruit or sporangia. we have specimens from louisiana (rev. langlois) which show no trace of columella, the whole structure involute and plicate, short stipitate, recalling the extremest complexity of such a species as _p. polycephalum_. _vid._ pl. xvi., fig. . moreover, in these specimens the calcareous deposits are white and not yellow, giving the entire fructification a grayish aspect. yet there is no doubt we have here simply an exaggerated abnormality of the species; the spores are identical in size, color, and surface. plasmodium bright yellow. dr. peck gave to his forms the name _physarella mirabilis_; but specimens sent by michener of pennsylvania, and by berkeley and curtis described as _trichamphora oblonga_ (_grev._, ii., p. ), are the same thing. _n. a. f._, . _physarella lusitanica_ torrend is a globose form depressed above or betimes discoidal, occurring on eucalyptus trees in portugal. _p. oblonga_ is so variable in form that it sometimes suggests a different genus. forms of it have been mistaken for _fuligo gyrosa_ r., etc. professor torrend would include here _physarum javanicum_ (rac.), i. e. _tilmadoche javanica_ as raciborski saw it! we may not too often reflect that genera are purely artificial things set up for our convenience; but surely _physarella_ as a natural genus is distinct enough to all. = . cienkowskia= _rost._ . _cienkowskia_ rost., _versuch_, p. . fructification plasmodiocarpous, irregularly dehiscent, the wall a thin cartilaginous membrane destitute of lime, except the capillitial attachments within; capillitium scanty but rigid, and characterized everywhere by peculiar hook-like branchlets, free and sharp-pointed, the spores as in _physarum_, etc. the genus contains, so far, but a single species:-- cienkowskia reticulata (_alb. & schw._) _rost._ plate xiv., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _physarum reticulatum_ alb. & schw., _cons. fung._, p. . . _diderma reticulatum_ fr., _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _cienkowskia reticulata_ (alb. & schw.) rost., _versuch_, p. . plasmodiocarp an elongated, irregularly limited, close-meshed net, closely applied to the substratum, the wall thin, transversely rugulose, and roughened, dull orange-yellow, splashed here and there with scarlet, anon entirely red, within marked by transverse calcareous ridges, supporting in part the calcareous system of the capillitium; capillitium of delicate, rigid, reticulating yellow tubules or threads with numerous free, uncinate or sickle-shaped branchlets, and large, irregular, calcareous plates, more or less transverse to the axis of the sporangium, attached to the peridial walls, as if to form septa, ordinary calcareous nodules few; spore-mass jet-black, spores, by transmitted light, violaceous, minutely roughened, - µ. a very rare species, as it appears, easily recognized by the coddington even, much more by the microscopic characters quoted; probably often overlooked by the collector, as to the naked eye it presents the appearance of some imperfectly developed, dried-up plasmodium. very unlike _physarum serpula_ morgan, not infrequently offered by collectors as _cienkowskia_. it is _diderma reticulatum_ of fries, who, strangely enough, thought it might be a plasmodial phase of _diderma_ (i. e. _leocarpus_) _fragile_ (_syst. myc._, iii., p. ). eastern united states, europe, java, ceylon, california. see under _l. fragilis_, next following. = . leocarpus= (_link_) _rost._ . _leocarpus_ link, _diss._, i., p. . sporangia sessile, or short stipitate; peridial wall double, the outer thick, destitute of lime, polished, shining within and without, the inner very delicate, enclosing the capillitium and spores; capillitium of two, more or less, distinct systems, the one a delicate network of hyaline, limeless threads, the other calcareous throughout, or nearly so, the meshes large and the threads or tubules broad; columella none, although a pseudo-columella may sometimes be detected. this genus was by link established on characters purely external. rostafinski supplemented link's definition by calling attention to the peculiar character of the capillitium and to microscopic characters in general. the outer peridium is thick and strong, unlike the ordinary structure in _physarum_. some physarums, however, have a very similar outer wall; _p. brunneolum_, for instance; compare the peridium of _p. citrinellum_. in dehiscence and structure there is also some resemblance to some species of _diderma_, and by persoon and fries the common species was so referred, but the capillitium is again definitive. a critical study of all these things really begins with rostafinski's microscope. under his definition of the present genus _p. squamulosum_ wingate and _p. albescens_ ell. might well be entered here. such course at present would but increase confusion, and until by future research the ontogeny of all these, and so their relationship, shall be more exactly known, the genus may be left with its historic species,--montotypic. leocarpus fragilis (_dickson_) _rost._ plate viii., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _lycoperdon fragile_ dickson, _fasc. pl. crypt. brit._, i., p. . . _diderma vernicosum_ persoon, _ust. ann. bot._, xv., p. . . _leocarpus vernicosum_ link, _diss._, i., p. . . _leocarpus fragilis_ (dicks.) rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia gregarious or clustered, sessile or stipitate, obovoid, rusty or spadiceous-yellow, shining; peridium opening at maturity in somewhat stellate fashion; stipe filiform, white or yellow, weak and short; spores dull black, spinulose, - µ. a common species, distributed through all the world, iowa to tasmania. recognizable at sight by the form and color of the sporangia. in shape and posture these resemble the eggs of certain insects, and, occurring upon dead leaves, generally where these have drifted against a rotten log, they might perchance be mistaken for such structures. with no other slime-moulds are they likely to be confused. the outer peridium opens irregularly, or more rarely stellately. at centre of the capillitium is a calcareous core. the plasmodium is yellowish white, spread in rich and beautiful reticulations. _n. a. f._, . a plasmodiform gathering of this species which will be mistaken for an entirely different thing, is yellow, sessile, and has _adherent_ spores; looks like a badhamia, but is after all a leocarpus and probably belongs here. the spores are irregularly clustered and the badhamioid section of the capillitium seems now dominant. california. b. didymiaceÆ =key to the genera of the didymiaceæ= . fructification æthalioid . _mucilago_ . fructification plasmodiocarpous, or forming more often distinct sporangia. _a._ calcareous deposits crystalline, stellate . _didymium_ _b._ calcareous deposits amorphous, peridium double . _diderma_ _c._ calcareous deposits in form of scattered scales . _lepidoderma_ _d._ peridium double, the outer gelatinous . _colloderma_ = . mucilago= (_mich._) _adans._ . _mucilago_ micheli, _nov. pl. gen._, in part. . _mucilago_ (mich.) adanson, _fam. des pl._, ii., p. . . _spumaria_ pers. in gmelin, _syst. nat._, ii., p. . fructification æthalioid, consisting generally of large cushion-shaped masses covered without by a white foam-like crust; within, composed of numerous tubular sporangia, developed from a common hypothallus, irregularly branched, contorted and more or less confluent; the peridial wall thin, delicate, frosted with stellate lime-crystals, which mark in section the boundaries of the several sporangia; capillitium of delicate threads, generally only slightly branched, terminating in the sporangial wall, marked with occasional swellings or thickenings. by the descriptions offered by most authors, and especially by rostafinski's figures (_mon._, pl. ix.), a pronounced columella is called for in the structure of _spumaria_. the individual sporangia rise from a common hypothallus, and occasionally portions of this run up and give to a sporangium the appearance of being stipitate. sometimes also this upper extension of the hypothalline protoplasm passes beyond or behind the base of the sporangium or between two or more, and is more or less embraced by these in their confluent flexures. this, it seems, suggested rostafinski's elaborate diagram, fig. ; at least, none other form of columella is shown by american materials at hand. . mucilago spongiosa (_leyss._) _morgan._ plate vii, figs. , _a_, _b_. . _mucor spongiosus_ leysser, _fl. hal._, p. . . _reticularia alba_ bull., _c. fl. france_, p. . . _spumaria mucilago_ pers., gmel., _syst. nat._, ii., . . _spumaria alba_ (bull.) dc., _fl. fr._, ii., p. . . _mucilago spongiosa_ (leyss.) morg., _bot. gaz._, xxiv., p. . Æthalium white or cream-colored, of variable size and shape, half-an-inch to three inches in length and half as thick, the component sporangia resting upon a common hypothallus and protected by a more or less deciduous calcareous porous cortex; peridial walls thin, and where exposed iridescent, generally whitened by a thin coating of lime crystals; capillitium scanty, of simple, mostly dark-colored, slightly anastomosing threads; columella indefinite or none; hypothallus white, spongy; spore-mass black, spores violaceous, exceedingly rough, large, - µ. very common in all the eastern united states and the mississippi valley, south to texas. the plasmodium is dull white, of the consistence of cream, and is often met with in quantity on beds of decaying leaves in the woods. in fruiting the plasmodium ascends preferably living stems of small bushes, herbaceous plants, or grasses, and forms the æthalium around the stem some distance above the ground. the cortex varies in amount, is also deciduous, so that weathered or imperfectly developed forms probably represent the var. _s. cornuta_ schum. two varieties of this species are recognized; the one from bolivia, var. _dictyospora_ described by mr. r. e. fries (_arkiv. for botanik_ bd. , p. ) differs from the type chiefly in its finer capillitial threads its darker spores with longer spines and fine reticulate sculpture; the other from colorado, var. _solida_ described by professor sturgis differs, as the name implies, principally in its greater compactness and slightly smaller calcareous crystals; a desert phase. = . didymium= (_schrad._) _fr._ . _didymium_ schrad., _nov. gen. plant._, p. , in part. . _didymium_ (schrad.) fr., _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _didymium_ (schrad.) deby., rost., _versuch_, p. . sporangia distinct, stipitate, sessile or even plasmodiocarpous, never æthalioid; the peridium thin, irregular in dehiscence, covered with a more or less dense coating of calcareous crystals; columella more frequently present; capillitium of delicate threads, simple or sparingly branched, extending from the columella to the peridial wall. the genus _didymium_, as set up by schrader _l. c._, included a number of species now assigned to _diderma_, _lepidoderma_ or _lamproderma_. fries set out the didermas; debary and rostafinski completed the revision by setting out the remaining alien forms. the genus is among myxomycetes instantly recognized by the peculiar form of its calcareous deposits, stellate crystals coating, or merely frosting, usually distinct sporangia. =key to the species of didymium= . lime-crystals merely whitening the peridial wall. a. fructification plasmodiocarpous. _a._ white. o capillitium with adherent vesicles . _d. complanatum_ oo capillitium simple . _d. anellus_ ooo capillitium much combined; spores - µ . _d. wilczekii_ oooo capillitium crystal-bearing _a_. _d. anomalum_ _b._ yellow or tawny . _d. fulvum_ b. fructification normally of distinct sporangia. _a._ sporangia sessile or nearly so; outer calcareous wall conspicuously developed . _d. crustaceum_ _b._ sporangia plainly stipitate. i. peridium much depressed; umbilicate below. o stipe white . _d. squamulosum_ oo stipe black. + larger, about . - mm. . _d. melanospermum_ ++ small, about . mm. . _d. minus_ +++ sporangia discoid . _d. clavus_ ii. peridium small, globose. o stipe dark brown or black; columella dark, obsolete or none. . _d. nigripes_ oo stipe generally paler, of various tints of brown, orange, etc. + columella pale or white, nearly smooth . _d. xanthopus_ ++ columella, yellow, discoid, rough . _d. eximium_ iii. peridium turbinate, columella hemispheric . _d. trochus_ iv. peridium annulate . _d. annulatum_ . calcareous crystals forming a distinct crust. a. fructification wholly plasmodiocarpous . _d. dubium_ b. sporangia ill-defined, sessile, plasmodiocarpous. _a._ spores generally nearly smooth . _d. difforme_ _b._ spores very rough, obscurely banded . _d. quitense_ extra-limital _a._ sporangia discoid, spores reticulate . _d. intermedium_ _b._ stipe, columella, peridium, orange-brown . _d. leoninum_ . didymium complanatum (_batsch_) _rost._ plate xvi., fig. . . _lycoperdon complanatum_ batsch, _elench. fung._, i., p. . . _didymium serpula_ fr., _syst. myc._, iii., p. , rost., _app._, p. . . _didymium complanatum_ (batsch), rost., _mon._, p. . . _didymium complanatum_ (batsch) r., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _didymium complanatum_ rost., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . fructification plasmodiocarpous, creeping, flattened, vein-like, annulate or reticulate, the dark-colored peridium covered with white, but not numerous crystals; hypothallus none; columella none; capillitium much branched, violaceous threads combined to form a rather dense net which bears numerous, peculiar, rounded vesicles, yellowish in color, - µ in diameter; spores minutely warted, - µ, violaceous-brown. the defining characteristics here are the curious supplementary vesicles. these are evidently plasmodic, embraced, shot-through, by all the neighboring capillitial threads, withal warted like a spore. they remind of the curious, belated, spore-like but giant cells found in stipes, as in arcyriaceous forms. with all the wealth of his prolix, poetic, metaphoric tongue, the polish author gives them abundant consideration. in the _mon._, tab. ix., figs. and , he clearly shows the structure, although in the explanation of the plate he has strangely mixed this species with _d. crustaceum_ fr. under _d. serpula_ fries may refer to the present species, although there is nothing in his description to determine the fact. the same thing may be said of the description and figures of batsch. rostafinski, in the _monograph_, seems to have been satisfied as to the identity of batsch's materials: in the _appendix_, he writes _d. serpula_, but gives no reason. rare. new york. england, france, germany. . didymium anellus _morgan._ plate xviii., fig. . . _didymium anellus_ morgan, _jour. cin. soc._, p. . . _didymium anellus_ morg., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _didymium anellus_ morg., lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . plasmodiocarp in small rings or links, then confluent and elongated, irregularly connected together, bent and flexuous, resting on a thin venulose hypothallus, or sometimes globose, the peridium dark colored, with a thin layer of stellate crystals, irregularly ruptured; capillitium of slender, dark-colored threads, which extend from base to wall, more or less branched, and combined into a loose net; columella a thin layer of brown scales; spores globose, very minutely warted, violaceous, - µ. this minute species resembles a poorly developed, or sessile, phase of _d. melanospermum_. some of the sporangia (?) are spherical; such show a very short dark stalk. the columella is scant, and the spores are smaller than those of _d. melanospermum_. ohio. reported more recently from europe and ceylon. . didymium wilczekii _meylan_. . _didymium wilczekii_ meyl., _bull. soc. vaud. sci. nat._, xliv., p. . . _didymium wilczekii_ meyl., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . plasmodiocarpous, dehiscing irregularly, columella scant; capillitium abundant, the threads brown, anastomosing, forming an elastic net; spores purple-brown, minutely spinulose, - µ. resembling plasmodiocarpous forms of _d. squamulosum_, a montane var.; small and delicate, our specimen about × mm. evidently not common; collected but once by professor bethel at an altitude of , feet, rocky mountains of colorado. reported in switzerland and sweden. in certain swiss gatherings made in miss lister finds capillitial threads with _spiral_ tæniæ as in _trichia_! (_jour. of bot._, apr. .) the threads in our specimen are roughened, somewhat as in _d. squamulosum_, though less strongly; the spores are nearly smooth, fuliginous at first, paler and violaceous when saturate. . didymium fulvum _sturgis._ . _didymium fulvum_ sturgis, _mycologia_, ix., p. . sporangia gregarious, sessile, elongate or forming curved plasmodiocarps, sometimes confluent, rarely sub-globose, concave beneath, pale-raw-umber in color, . - . mm. in diameter, occasionally seated on a concolorous, membranous, lime-encrusted hypothallus which may form pseudo-stalks; sporangium wall membranous, stained with yellow blotches, thickly sprinkled with clusters of large acicular crystals of pale-yellowish lime; columella very much flattened or obsolete; capillitium an abundant network of delicate, almost straight or flexuose, pale-purple or nearly hyaline threads, frequently with dark, calyciform thickenings as in _mucilago_, and occasionally showing fusiform, crystalline blisters; spores dark-purplish-brown, coarsely tuberculate, the tubercles usually arranged in curved lines, paler and smoother on one side, . to . µ. colorado. . didymium crustaceum _fr._ . _didymium crustaceum_ fr., _syst. myc._, iii., p. . sporangia closely aggregated, globose, or by compression deformed, sessile, snow-white, by virtue of the remarkably developed covering of calcareous crystals by which each sporangium is surrounded as if to form a crust, the peridium membranous, colorless, usually shrunken above and depressed; columella pale, small, or obsolete; hypothallus scant or vanishing; capillitium of rather stout violaceous threads seldom branched except at the tips, where they are pale and often bifid, or more than once dichotomously divided; spores strongly warted, globose, violet-brown, - µ. this species has in some ways all the outward seeming of a diderma, but cannot be referred to that genus because of the crystalline character of its crust. this is a very marked structure; loosely built up of very large crystals, it is necessarily extremely frail, nevertheless persists, arching over at a considerable distance above the peridium proper. sometimes, however, caducous, evanescent. the sporangia are said to be sometimes stipitate. this feature does not appear in any of the material before us. lister in _mycetozoa_ pl. xl., _c._ draws the capillitium much more delicate than it appears in our specimens. the hypothallus is sometimes noticeable under some of the sporangia where closely crowded, but is not a constant feature. rostafinski (by typographical error?) confused in the _monograph_, pp. , , this species with persoon's _physarum confluens_. in the _appendix_ he substitutes the friesian nomenclature. persoon's description of his species is insufficient, and throws no light on the problem whatever. rare. iowa; black hills, south dakota. reported common in europe. canada; vancouver island to the st. lawrence. . didymium squamulosum (_alb. & schw._) _fries._ . _diderma squamulosum_ alb. & schw., _consp. fung._, p. . . _didymium effusum_ link, _diss._, ii., p. . . _didymium squamulosum_ (alb. & schw.), fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _didymium effusum_ (link) rost., _mon._, p. . . _didymium effusum_ (link) list., _mycetozoa_, p. . sporangia, in typical forms, gregarious, globose or depressed-globose, gray or snow-white, stipitate; the peridium a thin iridescent membrane covered more or less richly with minute crystals of lime; the stipe when present, snow-white, fluted or channelled, stout, even; columella white, conspicuous; hypothallus usually small or obsolete; capillitium of delicate branching threads, usually colorless or pallid, sometimes with conspicuous calyciform thickenings; spores violaceous, minutely warted or spinulose, - µ. this, one of the most beautiful species in the whole series, is remarkable for the variations which it presents in the fruiting phase. these range all the way from the simplest and plainest kind of a plasmodiocarp with only the most delicate frosting of calcareous crystals up through more or less confluent sessile sporangia to well-defined elegantly stipitate, globose fruits, where the lime is sometimes so abundant as to form deciduous flaky scales. the hypothallus, sometimes entirely wanting, is anon well developed, even continuous, venulose, from stipe to stipe. the capillitium varies much in abundance as in color; when scanty, it is colorless and in every way more delicate, when abundant, darker in color and sometimes with stronger thickenings. _d. fuckelianum rost._, as shown in _n. a. f._, , and in some private collections, seems to be a rather stout phase of the present species; the stipe is more abundantly and deeply plicate, is sometimes tinged with brown, and the capillitium is darker colored and coarser than in what is here regarded as the type of the species; but withal the specimens certainly fail to meet the requirements of rostafinski's elaborate description and figure, _mon._, p. and fig. . _d. effusum_ link, probably stands for a sessile form of this species, but link's brief description ( ) is antedated by the much better one of albertini and schweinitz, _l. c._ generally distributed throughout the wooded regions of north america, from new england to nicaragua, and from canada to california. not uncommon about stable-manure heaps, in flower beds, and on richly manured lands. july, august. nicaragua specimens not only show a continuous vein-like hypothallus, but have the peridia often confluent, the columellæ in such cases confluent, the stipes distinct. furthermore, the largest spores reach the limit of . µ, and perhaps the larger number range from - . µ, and all are very rough. this corresponds with _d. macrospermum_ rost., which is distinguished, says the author (_mon._, p. , _opis_), "chiefly by the large and strongly spinulose spores." however, the same sporangium in our central american specimens yield spores . - . µ, a remarkable range. so that _d. macrospermum_ on this side the ocean, at least, cannot be distinguished from _d. squamulosum_, as far as spores are concerned. a similar remark may be made relative to the form of the columella which rostafinski, in his figures especially, would make diagnostic. the columella in the sporangia with largest and roughest spores is that of a perfectly normal _d. squamulosum_. . didymium melanospermum (_pers._) _macbr._ plate vii., figs. , _a._ . _physarum melanospermum_ pers., _röm. n. mag. bot._, p. . . _didymium farinaceum_ schrader, _nov. gen. pl._, p. , t. , fig. . sporangia gregarious, hemispheric, depressed, umbilicate below, stipitate or sessile; the peridium firm, dull brown in color, frosted with minute crystals of lime, breaking irregularly; stipe, when present, short, stout, dull black, opaque, arising from a broad base or hypothallus; columella large, prominent; dark-colored, rough above, concave below; capillitium of more or less sinuous, usually dark-colored threads, sparingly branched, and often with calyciform thickenings; spore-mass black, spores by transmitted light pale, purplish-gray, spinulose or rough, - µ. a well-marked and common species, distinguished by its depressed sporangium and dark-colored, opaque stipe. the latter is usually very short, almost completely concealed in the concavity of the umbilicate sporangium. the columella is dark-colored, forming the floor of the peridial cavity. persoon first named this species as here. later on, _uster's ann._, xv., , he substituted _villosum_ as a more appropriate specific name. schrader rejects both names given by persoon as unsuitable, and suggests _farinaceum_. schrad., _op. cit._, p. . new england, ohio, missouri, alabama, iowa, nebraska; europe; probably cosmopolitan. . didymium minus _lister._ plate x., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _didymium farinaceum_ schr., var. _minus_, list., _mycetozoa_, p. . . _didymium minus_ list., morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. . . _didymium minus_ list., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . sporangia gregarious, depressed-globose, umbilicate below, whitish or gray, small, about ½ mm., stipitate; stipe erect, rather slender, black, faintly striate, about equal to the sporangium in the horizontal diameter; columella distinct, dark brown, globose or depressed-globose, attaining in some cases the centre, rough; capillitium delicate, almost colorless, radiating, sparsely branched; spores in mass dark brown, by transmitted light violet-tinted, minutely roughened, - µ. probably more common than the preceding, and generally mistaken for it. distinguished by its smaller size, longer and more slender stem, and general trim, well-differentiated appearance. certainly very near the preceding, of which mr. lister regards it as merely a variety. professor morgan thought it in this country the more common form. new york, ohio, iowa; reported from europe, africa, south america. . didymium clavus (_alb. & schw._) _rabenhorst._ . _physarum clavus_ alb. & schw., _consp. fung._, p. . . _didymium melanopus_ fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _didymium clavus_ (alb. & schw.) rabh., _ger. cr. fl._, no. . . _didymium clavus_ (alb. & schw.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _didymium clavus_ (alb. & schw.) rabenh., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _didymium clavus_ rost., list., _mycet., nd ed._, p. . sporangia gregarious, pale gray, discoid or pileate, depressed, stipitate; the peridium dark-colored, frosted with calcareous crystals above, naked below; stipe short, slender, tapering upward, furrowed, arising from a hypothallus more or less distinct, black; columella obsolete; capillitium of delicate threads, pale or colorless, little branched; spores violaceous, pale, nearly smooth, - µ. this species is well differentiated, easy of recognition by reason of its peculiar discoid sporangium, calcareous above, naked and black beneath. _d. neglectum_ massee, reported from philadelphia, is said to be a slender form of the present species. the figures of _d. clavus_ by albertini and schweinitz are excellent, as also the description. not common. pennsylvania, ohio, iowa. . didymium nigripes (_link_) _fries._ plate vii., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _physarum nigripes_ link, _obs. diss._, i., p. . . _physarum microcarpon_ fr., _sym. gast._, p. . . _didymium nigripes_ (link) fr., _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _didymium microcarpon_ (fr.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _didymium microcarpon_ fr., morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. . sporangia gregarious, globose or hemispheric, umbilicate beneath, small, white, stipitate; the peridium smoky, covered with minute calcareous crystals; stipe slender, erect, black, opaque; hypothallus scutate, black; columella distinct, globose, black or dark brown; capillitium of delicate threads, pale brown or colorless, with occasional brown thickenings or nodes, sparingly branched; spores pale, violaceous by transmitted light, minutely warted, - µ. this is _d. microcarpon_ rost. fries, _l. c._, acknowledges the priority of link's appellation, and discards _microcarpon_. rostafinski adopted _microcarpon_ simply because he thought it more appropriate. fries describes the columella "none or black." it is doubtful whether we have the typical friesian form on this continent. the fructification is in our specimens small, about . mm., and the spores, as noted by morgan, small; otherwise the species is hardly more than a variety of the next. under the name _d. nigripes_ lister groups our nos. , , . _n. a. f._, , represents dr. rex's conception of the present species. not common. new york, ohio, iowa. . didymium xanthopus (_ditmar_) _fr._ plate xvi., fig. . . _cionium xanthopus_ ditmar, sturm, _deutsch. fl._, iii., p. , t. . . _didymium xanthopus_ (dit.) fr., _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _didymium proximum_ berk. & c., _grev._, ii., p. . . _didymium microcarpon_ (fr.) rost., macbr., _bull. lab. nat. hist. iowa_, ii., p. , in part. . _didymium nigripes_ fr., list., _mycetozoa_, p. , in part. sporangia gregarious, white, globose, slightly umbilicate, stipitate; the peridium thin, and nearly or quite colorless, frosted with crystals of lime; the stipe yellowish or yellowish brown, corneous, erect, subulate, slender; hypothallus none; columella pale or white, turbinate, globose or depressed-globose; capillitium of dull brown, or colorless threads more or less branched, always white at the tips; spores violaceous, nearly smooth, . - . µ. this seems to be the most common form in the united states. it is distinguished from the preceding by the longer, more delicate, generally orange-yellow, stem with pale or white columella. the spores also average a shade larger. _n. a. f._, and , are illustrations of _d. xanthopus_. the columella in blown-out specimens is very striking, well confirming the diagnosis of fries, "_valde prominens, globosa, stipitata, alba_." berkeley makes the color of the capillitium diagnostic of _d. proximum_, but this feature is insufficient. eastern united states; common. . didymium eximium _peck._ plate xvi., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _didymium eximium_ peck, _rep. n. y. mus._, xxxi., p. . sporangia scattered, dull grayish-yellow or gray, depressed-globose, umbilicate, minute, stipitate; the peridium comparatively thick, tenacious, especially persistent below, tawny or yellow; the stipe pale brown or orange, erect, even or slightly enlarged at base; hypothallus scant or none; columella prominent, more or less discoidal, rough, or spinulose, especially on the upper surface, yellow; capillitium not abundant, pale fuliginous, often branching and anastomosing so as to form a loose net; spores nearly smooth, dark violaceous by transmitted light, . - . µ. the species differs from _d. xanthopus_ in several particulars,--in the much firmer, more persistent, and less calcareous peridium, in the more complex capillitium, in the darker and larger spores, and especially in the peculiar and prominent columella, which is not only rough, but even "sometimes spinulose even to the extent of long spicules penetrating to one-third the height of the sporangia." _n. a. f._, . as stated under no. , these last two species are called varieties only of _d. nigripes_. they are so retained in _mycetozoa, nd ed._ since, however, they are the usual presentation of the species in the united states, it seems wise to let them stand for the present, as here. they are quite distinguishable; _d. eximium_ especially well marked. apparently rare, it yet ranges from new york to eastern iowa, in colonies rather large. okoboji lake;--fine! . didymium trochus _list._ . _didymium trochus_ list., _jour. bot._, xxxvi., p. . sporangia plasmodiocarpous, hemispherical or turbinate, white, sessile or very short-stalked, cream-colored or white; peridium double, the outer shell-like, the inner membranaceous, more or less adherent to the outer, both caducous together, leaving the thickened base surrounding an expanded columella; stipe, when present, very short, stout; capillitium colorless, nearly simple; spores brownish-purple, strongly warted, - µ. on decaying leaves, rotten cactus, yucca, etc., monrovia, california; _bethel_. reported from england on beds of leaves or straw; in portugal dr. torrend finds it on or _in_ dead leaves of _agave americana_! evidently an american species, and belonging to arid regions; its occurrence in england surprising! . didymium annulatum _macbr. n. s._ plate xx., figs. , _a_. sporangia small, scattered, annulate, not only without columella but perforate when the stipe is broken, umbilicate above and below, grey, coated with crystalline frustules, opening irregularly about the periphery; stipe white, or pallid, fluted, tapering upward from a distinct hypothallus; capillitium scanty consisting of delicate, sparsely branching threads, the branchlets anastomosing more or less at length, attached to the peridial wall, radiating from the rim of the slightly depressed top of stipe, without special thickenings save at the insertion of the ramules a triangular enlargement is usual and of dark or pallid shade; spores smooth; however they show three or four spots on the hemisphere and other minute but variable markings; - µ. seattle, washington. differs from _d. nigripes_ in color of the stipes, capillitium, spore-diameter, etc. . didymium dubium _rost._ . _didymium dubium_ rost., _mon._, p. . . _didymium listeri_ mass., _mon._, p. . . _didymium dubium_ rost., list., _mycetozoa_, p. . . _didymium dubium_ rost., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . fructification wholly plasmodiocarpous, snow-white, small, - mm., flat and thin; the outer wall double, membranous within, calcareous-crystalline without; columella none; capillitium simple of rather thick, vertical, brown threads, sparingly united laterally, and only occasionally furcate at the ends, especially above; spores minutely spinulescent, violaceous pale, - µ. massee thought english specimens out of harmony with the original description and gave them a new name. to refuse this, lister enlarges the range of spore-measurements and disregards some of rostafinski's specifications as to capillitium. our specimens are as described. bohemia. england. shores of lake okoboji, iowa. this is indeed a doubtful form. it differs from _d. difforme_ chiefly in that the outer calcareous shell is not smooth, but is covered with abundant loose crystals, frosted. the spores are paler but about the same size. the frosting may be incident to local climatic conditions at the time and place of desiccation. . didymium difforme _duby._ . _diderma difforme_ pers. _tentamen disp. meth._, p. . . _didymium difforme_ duby., _bot. gall._, ii., p. . . _chondrioderma difforme_ pers., rost., _mon._, p. . . _didymium difforme_ duby., list., _mycetozoa_, p. . . _diderma personii_ macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _didymium difforme_ duby., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . plasmodiocarpous, the smooth, white outer peridium separable from the thin, colorless or purplish inner layer; capillitium of rather coarse, flat, dichotomously branching threads, broader below; spores minutely warted, or almost smooth, dark brown, - µ. the white crust-like outer wall has more than once carried this species into _diderma_. it is still doubtful whether we are here dealing with _chondrioderma calcareum_ rost. miss lister cites a variety, _s. difforme comatum_, with more abundant capillitium which may represent rostafinski's species. evidently rare in the united states; reported more common in europe and eastward. in our specimens the crust-like outer peridium shows crystals on the broken edge only; the body of the object, as its outer surface seems to be amorphous. . didymium quitense (_pat._) _torr._ . _chondrioderma quitense_ pat., _bull. soc. myc. fr._, xi., p. . . _didymium quitense_ (pat.) torr., _flor. myxom._, p. . . _didymium quitense_ torr., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . . _didymium quitense_ (pat.) torr., sturg., _myx._, col. ii., p. . sporangia more or less plasmodiocarpous, scattered, depressed, white; the outer peridium distinct, crust-like, remote from the thin membranous inner wall; columella undefined; capillitium brown, much branched, forming a network especially outwardly; spores very dark violaceous-brown, rough with a tendency to obscure reticulation; - µ. this species is different from _d. difforme_ chiefly in the rougher and somewhat banded epispore. it is reported from ecuador by father torrend, and from colorado mountains by dr. sturgis to whose kindness i am indebted for the specimens here described. evidently a high mountain species. colorado. _a_. didymium anomalum _sturg._ plate xix., figs. and _a_. . _didymium anomalum_ sturg. _myxomycetes of col._, ii., p. sporangia in the form of very thin effused grey plasmodiocarps, - cm. long, mm. or less in thickness. wall single or membranous, hyaline or yellowish, with rather scanty deposits of small, stellately crystalline or amorphous lime. columella none. capillitium consisting entirely of straight membranous, tubular, columns, extending from the base to the upper wall of the plasmodiocarp, - µ thick and usually containing small crystalline masses of lime. spores bright violet-brown, minutely and irregularly spinulose, - . µ diam. hab. on the inner bark of populus. colorado springs, colo., july . our specimens by the courtesy of dr. sturgis. =extra-limital= . didymium intermedium _schroeter._ . _didymium intermedium_ schroet., _hedwigia_, vol. xxxv., p. . . _didymium excelsum_ jahn, _ber. deut. bot. ges._, xx., p. . sporangia clustered or gregarious, discoidal and umbilicate below, or lobed or convolute, greyish white, stipitate; stipe pale yellow, tapering upwards, stuffed with lime crystals, expanding into the yellowish, discoidal, recurving columella; capillitium colorless, more or less branching; spores dark purple-brown, irregularly reticulate, - µ. differs from _d. squamulosum_ in the reticulate epispore. brazil. . didymium leoninum _berk. & br._ . _didymium leoninum_ berk. & br., _jour. linn. soc._, xiv., p. . . _lepidoderma tigrinum_ rost., _app. to mon._, p. . . _lepidodermopsis leoninus_ v. höhnel, _sitz. k. ak. wiss. wien, math. nat. ks._, cxviii., . sporangia gregarious, sub-globose, covered more or less completely with white or yellowish deposits of crystalline lime, stipitate; stipes short, orange or brown, containing lime, enlarged to form the globose orange columella and often connected at base by a venulose hypothallus; capillitium of slender threads, anastomosing, colorless at the tips; spores violet-grey, minutely warted, - µ. like _lepidoderma tigrinum_, but has different calcic crystals. java and ceylon. = . diderma= _persoon_ . _diderma persoon_, _röm. n. mag. bot._, i., p. . . _chondrioderma_ rost. _versuch_, p. , _mon._, p. . . _chondrioderma_ rost., list., _mycetozoa_, p. . . _diderma persoon_, macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . sporangia plasmodiocarpous or distinct, sessile or stipitate; the peridium as a rule double, the outer wall generally calcareous with the lime granules globular, non-crystalline, the inner wall very delicate and often, in the mature fructification, remote from the outer; columella generally prominent. the genus _diderma_ is usually easy of recognition, by reason of its double wall, the outer, crustaceous, usually calcareous, and its limits remain substantially as originally set by persoon. his definition is as follows:-- "peridium ut plurimum duplex; exterius fragile; interius pellucens, subdistans. columella magna, subrotunda. fila parca latentia."--_syn. meth. fung._, p. . rostafinski changed the name of the genus to _chondrioderma_ (_chondri_, cartilage), seemingly at de bary's suggestion, and seems to have regarded persoon's definition as applicable to those species only in which the wall is not only plainly double, but in which the two walls are as plainly remote from each other. more especially he esteemed a new generic name necessary, since he regarded several included species, as _d. spumarioides_, _d. michelii_, etc., monodermic. since it is doubtful whether any diderma is really monodermic, and since persoon's definition in any case seems sufficiently elastic, we have seen no reason to discard the older name. persoon's _diderma_ when established, _l. c._, included _d. floriforme_. he made some confusion in his later work by admitting some physarums. this induced schrader to throw all the didermas into his new genus, _didymium_. according to the nature of the sporangial wall, the species fall rather naturally into two sections:-- _a._ outer sporangial wall distinctly calcareous, fragile; species generally sessile _diderma_ _b._ outer sporangial wall cartilaginous, the inner less distinct, or concrete with the outer; species oftener stipitate _leangium_ _a._ sub-genus diderma . fructification wholly plasmodiocarpous . _d. effusum_ . fructification of distinct sporangia. _a._ sporangia on a common hypothallus. o outer wall fragile, not widely remote from the inner . _d. spumarioides_ oo inner wall lacking . _d. simplex_ ooo outer wall crustaceous, porcelain-like. i. spores - . _d. globosum_ ii. spores - . _d. crustaceum_ oooo outer wall firm, not crustaceous . _d. lyallii_ _b._ sporangia isolated, or, at least, not on a common hypothallus, sessile. o outer wall porcellanous, roseate . _d. testaceum_ oo outer wall white . _d. niveum_ ooo outer wall ashen . _d. cinereum_ _c._ sporangia stipitate . _d. hemisphericum_ _b._ sub-genus leangium . sporangia generally sessile. _a._ inner peridium distinct. o membranous colorless, columella scant . _d. sauteri_ oo colorless, columella prominent, red . _d. cor-rubrum_ ooo outer ochraceous, inner yellow . _d. ochraceum_ _b._ peridial layers inseparable. o peridium multifid; columella small or none . _d. trevelyani_ oo peridium breaking into but few irregular lobes; columella prominent. i. peridium umber brown . _d. roanense_ ii. peridium ashen . _d. radiatum_ iii. peridium chocolate without, inside white . _d. asteroides_ . sporangia stipitate. _a._ peridium pallid, smooth . _d. floriforme_ _b._ peridium white, rugulose . _d. rugosum_ . diderma effusum (_schw._) _morgan._ . _physarum effusum_ schw., _n. a. f._, p. . . _diderma effusum_ (schw.) morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. . . _diderma effusum_ (schw.) morg., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _diderma reticulatum_ rost., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _diderma effusum_ morg., lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . fructification plasmodiocarpous, reticulate, creeping, applanate and generally widely effused, white; the peridium thin, cinereous, covered by a delicate, white, calcareous crust; the columella simply the base of the plasmodiocarp, thin alutaceous; the capillitium pale, consisting of short threads somewhat branched toward their distal extremities; spores smooth, pale violaceous, - µ. this is _physarum effusum_ schw., _vid. n. a. f._, no. . it is reported by morgan from ohio, and we have one specimen from eastern nebraska, so that it is probably of general distribution in the eastern united states. this species was in the previous edition distinguished from the rostafinskian _p. reticulatum_ with spores a little smaller, - µ, and with a much stronger tendency to the formation of definite sporangia, elongate indeed and branching but often globose or depressed globose. this we may know as, var. reticulatum rost. . _chondrioderma reticulatum_ rost., _mon._, p. . . _diderma reticulatum_ (rost.) morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. . sporangia gregarious, generally rounded, not much depressed, flat, sometimes, especially toward the margin of a colony, elongate, venulose or somewhat plasmodiocarpous, dull white, the inner peridium ashen or bluish, remote from the calcareous crust, which is extremely fragile, easily shelling off; columella indistinguishable from the base of the sporangium, thin, alutaceous; capillitium of short, generally colorless, delicate, sparingly branching or anastomosing threads perpendicular to the columella; spores black in mass, by transmitted light violet-tinted, smooth, - µ. perhaps our most common form. found in fall on dead twigs, leaves, etc. recognized by its rather large, white, depressed or flattened sporangia tending to form reticulations, and hence suggesting the name. the lines of fruiting tend to follow the venation of the supporting leaf; where the sporangium is round, the columella is a distinct rounded or cake-like body; where the fruit is venulose, the columella is less distinct. by these rounded forms we pass easily, as by a gate, to _d. hemisphericum_, which, when wholly sessile, differs still in greater diameter of the sporangia and in having somewhat larger spores. usually in such case the compared colony will show somewhere a very short and stout but very real stipe supporting the discoid fruit. rostafinski divided the genus _chondrioderma_, i. e. _diderma_, into three sections:-- _monoderma_ to include those species in which the calcareous crust is less distinct or connate with the true peridium. _diderma_, in which the two structures were plainly separate. _leangium_, used as in the present work. in his first section rostafinski placed _c. reticulatum_ and _c. michelii_; in the second, _c. difforme_ and _c. calcareum_. lister has examined rostafinski's type of _c. reticulatum_ and declares that it has the usual didermic characters. hence there is no doubt that our small-spored american specimens are covered by rostafinski's description, no. . on the other hand, lister makes _c. difforme_ (pers.) rost. a _didymium_, by its crystalline coat. that species therefore is removed from consideration in this connection. _c. calcareum_ remains as applicable to american forms having the spores - µ, but according to the author of the species the capillitium is abundant and definitive. unhappily the type of _c. calcareum_ is lost (lister, _mon._, p. ), so that there is no other means of verification than the description and rostafinski's figure. under these circumstances we consider the name _calcareum_ inapplicable to any american forms we have so far seen. see next species. as to the american species which have been distributed as _c. calcareum_ (lk.) rost., they are, so far as seen, referable to _d. reticulatum_ (rost.), morg. here also belongs no. , ellis, _n. a. f._ new york, pennsylvania, ohio, iowa, nebraska. probably to be found throughout the eastern united states. . diderma spumarioides _fries_. . _diderma spumarioides_ fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _physarum stromateum_ link., _handb._, iii., p. . . _chondrioderma stromateum_ (lk.) rost., _app._, p. . sporangia sessile, crowded, spherical, or by mutual pressure irregular, white; the peridium plainly double, but the layers adhering, the outer more strongly calcareous, but very frail, almost farinaceous; hypothallus more or less plainly in evidence, white or pale alutaceous; columella distinct, though often small, globose, yellowish; capillitium variable in quantity, sometimes abundant, brown, somewhat branching and anastomosing outwardly, the tips paler; spores minutely roughened, dark violaceous, about µ. this species has the outward seeming of a didymium, but is plainly different as that genus is here defined, since the calcareous crust, although inclined to be pulverulent, is made up of minute granules, not crystals, of lime. the hypothallus is sometimes hardly discoverable, anon well developed, out-spread, rugulose, far beyond the limits of the fructification. in his _monograph_, p. , rostafinski includes here _physarum stromateum_ link. in the appendix he is inclined to raise link's form to the dignity of a distinct species, basing the diagnosis upon the superposition of the sporangia in certain cases, a feature entirely unknown to link's description and of extremely uncertain value, since by their crowding the sporangia are liable always to be pushed above each other. we therefore regard _c. stromateum_ (link) rost. as a synonym of the present species, as the description, link, handb., iii., , indicates, so far as it goes. . diderma simplex (_schroet._) _lister._ . _chondrioderma simplex_ schroet., _krypt. fl. schles._, iii., , p. . . _diderma simplex_ list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . "plasmodium bright yellowish brown." sporangia gregarious, sessile, globose or depressed globose, . -. mm., or anon plasmodiocarpous, brown or brick-red when fresh, becoming paler, ochraceous, etc.; hypothallus everywhere in evidence; columella ill-defined; capillitium scanty, the threads delicate, pale, branching as they join the peridial wall; spores dull violaceous, slightly roughened, - µ. a rather crude, primitive representative of this beautiful genus. the inner peridium seems to be lacking,--a comfort to rostafinski! rare. our best specimens are from new jersey, by courtesy of dr. c. l. shear. these went to fruit on leaves and branches of _vaccinium_. it seems to affect the heather of europe, moorland, etc. i have also specimens from the herbarium of the lamented dr. rex. these are more plasmodiocarpous, but open beautifully by a median fissure as in _physarum sinuosum_ bull. in no american gathering that i have examined does the capillitium show calcareous thickenings as described by the british text. . diderma globosum _persoon._ plate vii., figs. , _a_. . _diderma globosum_ pers., _röm. n. mag. bot._, i., p. . . _chondrioderma globosum_ (pers.) rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia more or less closely gregarious, sessile, globose or by mutual pressure prismatic or polyhedral, white, the outer wall smooth, polished, crustaceous, fragile, far remote from the inner, which is thin, smooth, or rugulose, iridescent blue; hypothallus usually pronounced and spreading beyond the sporangia, sometimes scanty or lacking, columella variable, sometimes very small, inconspicuous, sometimes large, globose, ellipsoidal, even pedicellate; capillitium abundant, brown or purplish brown, branching and occasionally anastomosing to form a loosely constructed superficial net; spores globose, delicately spinulose, µ. this species seems rare in this country. we have specimens from iowa. it is distinguished by small spores and generally snow-white color. lister has thrown doubt upon rostafinski's definition of this form--_mycetozoa_, p. . almost everything distributed in the united states under this name belongs in the next species. reported also from ohio,--_morgan._ washington. but:--it should be found in europe, where first described! there are two ways to meet the difficulty. in the first place it seems probable that a small-spored form really hides somewhere in europe. the difference between the _monograph_ measurement and the size admitted for _d. crustaceum_ pk., evidently considered by mr. lister as type and so used in his illustration, pl. , is too great to be esteemed merely an error. that added . (rost.) indicates caution, the average of several measurements. our _d. globosum_ may represent what the _monograph_ describes.[ ] in the second place we may as american students mistake larger and more globular forms of something else, of _d. spumarioides_ fr., whose spores are but little larger; or of _d. effusum_ (schw.) morg., where the flattened plasmodiocarps anon splatter out to globose drops of polished whiteness, and whose spores are µ. but even here the chances of error are small. in the species last named the columella or sporangial base is alutaceous, not white; in fries' species, while the columella if present may be white, the peridial walls are different, difficult to distinguish. for these reasons, _d. globosum_ pers. may stand, waiting further light from europe. . diderma crustaceum _peck._ plate vii., fig. . _diderma crustaceum_ peck, _rep. n. y. mus._, xxvi., p. . . _chondrioderma crustaceum_ (peck) berl., _sacc._, vii., p. . plasmodium at first watery, colorless, becoming at length milky white; sporangia closely crowded or superimposed, in a cushion-like colony, creamy white, globose, imbedded in the substance of the hypothallus, the outer peridium smooth, delicate, crustaceous, fragile, remote from the blue iridescent inner membrane; hypothallus prominent; columella variable, generally present, globose; capillitium dark-colored, the threads branching and combining to form a loose net; spore-mass black, spores by transmitted light dark violaceous, delicately roughened, - µ. common. readily to be distinguished from the preceding by the larger spores and more crowded habit. new england west to nebraska. the didermas are generally delicately beautiful. the outer wall in the present species is like finest unglazed china, softly smooth, and yet not polished, often absolutely white, with porcellanous fracture. an inter-parietal space separates the outer from the inner wall, so that the former may be broken, bit by bit, without in the least disturbing the underlying structure. the inner wall is ashen or gauzy iridescent green, sending back all colors in reflected light. the spores are violet, deeply so when fresh, the capillitium strong and likewise tinted; the columella passing down and blending with the common snow-white hypothalline base. the distinct habits of the two species are represented in figs. and . in the one the distinct sporangia are associated but not crowded; in the other all are massed together in quite æthalioid fashion, forming circumambient, chalky masses of considerable size, or cm., overcrowded, superimposed, where the sporangia are regular in shape and size by reason of mutual pressure. the plasmodium develops in forests and orchards, among decaying leaves, but is inclined to rise as maturity draws near, to ascend some twig erect, or the stem of a living plant to the height of several inches where the sporangia at length appear "heaped and pent", an encircling sheath, conspicuous after the fashion of a spumaria for which it is indeed sometimes mistaken. . diderma lyallii (_massee_) _macbr._ plate xviii., figs. and _a_ . _chondrioderma lyallii_ massee, _mon._, p. . . _chondrioderma lyallii_ mass., list., _mycetozoa_, p. . . _diderma lyallii_ mass., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _diderma lyallii_ list., sub-species, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia obovate, more or less closely crowded, white, stipitate, about mm. in diameter, the outer peridium firm, stout, encrusted, especially above, with granular masses of lime, the inner well developed, more or less cartilaginous, opaque, yellow or buff-colored; hypothallus well developed, venulose, white, passing up unchanged to form the short, stout stipe and lower outer peridium; columella prominent, half the height of the sporangium, brown; capillitium of short, brown threads, rigid, much branched, forming a net, widened irregularly and especially at the net-nodes; spore-mass black, spores by transmitted light bright brown, rough, - µ. a very distinct species; large, fine, showy sporangia in more or less crowded clusters spring from a snow-white, common hypothallus. first reported from western canada. our first specimens were collected by the late mr. charles irish, on the eastern slopes of the sierras, in nevada; now coming in abundantly from all the western mountains to the pacific. . diderma testaceum (_schrad._) _pers._ plate vii., , _a_, and _b_. . _didymium testaceum_ schrad., _nov. gen. plant._, p. . . _diderma testaceum_ persoon, _syn._, p. . . _chondrioderma testaceum_ (schrad.) rost., _vers._, p. . . _diderma mariae-wilsoni_ clinton, _rep. n. y. mus._, xxvi., p. . . _diderma testaceum_ (schrad.) pers., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _diderma testaceum_ pers., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia gregarious, sessile, depressed-spherical or sometimes elongate, small, mm. or less, rose-white, smooth, the outer peridium crustaceous, rather thick and persistent, polished, slightly raised above the inner, which is dull ashen and more or less wrinkled; hypothallus none; columella prominent, hemispherical in the typical rounded forms, slightly rough, reddish or reddish alutaceous; capillitium usually abundant, of slender, delicate pale or colorless threads, little branched, and smooth; spores violaceous-brown, minutely roughened, - µ. a very beautiful species occurring at the same time as the preceding and in similar situations. all our specimens from the west are on dead leaves of oak; some eastern gatherings are on moss. easily recognized when fresh by its delicate pink or roseate color; weathered specimens are white, and might be confused with forms of _d. reticulatum_, but the sporangia in the present species are less flattened and only rarely in special situations run off to linear or plasmodiocarpous shapes characteristic of _d. reticulatum_. not common, although widely distributed from east to west. new england, new york, new jersey, south carolina, ohio, illinois, iowa, nebraska, california (_harkness_), washington, oregon. . diderma niveum (_rostafinski_) _macbr._ plate xviii., fig. and _a_ . _chondrioderma niveum_ rost, _mon._, p. . . _diderma albescens_ phillips, _grev._, v., p. . sporangia gregarious, scattered, or more often crowded, sessile, depressed-spherical, sometimes ellipsoidal or elongate, white, the outer peridium crustaceous, chalky, smooth and fragile, the inner distinct, delicate, ochraceous; hypothallus scant or none; columella well developed, globose or hemispherical, orange-tinted or ochraceous; capillitium abundant, made of threads of two sorts, some purplish or dusky, with pale extremities, uneven, others more delicate and colorless, and with wart-like thickenings, all sparingly branched; spores violet-brown, minutely roughened, - µ. this species is not common. from colorado we have fine specimens typical in every way. specimens from washington are flat so far as at present at hand; probably represent _d. deplanatum_ (r.) list., which the last named author regards as varietal of the present species, entering it and _d. lyallii_ as sub-species and respectively. _d. deplanatum_ may perhaps be best so disposed of; but _d. lyallii_ is distinguished at sight, as well as by microscopic characters, spores nearly twice as great, rougher and different in color. . diderma cinereum _morg._ . _diderma cinereum_ morg., _myx. mi. val._, p. . sporangia gregarious, more or less crowded or even confluent, sub-globose, only slightly depressed, ashen white; the peridium not obviously double, very smooth and thin, rupturing irregularly; hypothallus an indistinct membrane or wholly wanting; columella large, globose or hemispheric, white, the surface granulose; capillitium of very slender colored threads, the extremities pellucid, more or less branched; spores violaceous, minutely warted, - µ. growing on old wood, leaves, etc. the sporangium . -. mm., thin and smooth or rugulose. this elegant little species i know only from specimens received from mr. morgan. it seems to be closely related to _d. spumarioides_, from which it is distinguished by its color, darker, and its smoother, or less spinulose spores. the author compares the color and external appearance to that of _p. cinereum_,--_jour. cin. soc._, xvi., p. . ohio, pennsylvania. . diderma hemisphericum (_bull._) _horne._ . _reticularia hemispherica_ bull., _cham. de fr._, i., p. . . _didymium hemisphericum_ (bull.) fr., _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _diderma hemisphericum_ (bull.) horne., _fl. dan._, xi., p. . . _didymium michelii_ lib., _pl. ard._, no. . . _chondrioderma michelii_ (lib.) rost., fuckel, _sym. myc._, p. . sporangia gregarious, orbicular, discoid, depressed above and often umbilicate below, stipitate or sometimes sessile, the outer peridium white, fragile, crustaceous, soon breaking about the margins, closely applied to the inner, which is delicate, cinereous, and ruptures irregularly; stipe about equal to the diameter of the sporangium, mm., rather stout, calcareous but colored, brownish or alutaceous, more or less wrinkled longitudinally, the wrinkles when present forming veins on the lower surface of the sporangium; hypothallus small; columella not distinct from the thickened brownish or reddish base of the sporangium; capillitium of delicate threads, mostly simple and colorless, often scanty; spores pale violaceous, nearly smooth, - µ. a very well marked species, easily recognized, at least when stipitate, by its remarkable discoid or lenticular sporangia. after the spore-dispersal, the stipes are long-persistent, surmounted by a peculiar disk representing the consolidated columella, lower sporangial wall, and expanded stem-top. sessile specimens are like similar forms of _d. reticulatum_, but in all the gatherings before us the stipitate type is at hand to reveal the identity of the species. rostafinski's figures, , , , and , adapted from corda, exaggerate the hypothallus, but otherwise leave nothing to be desired. as to synonymy, bulliard has plainly the priority. his figure, t. , fig. , can refer to nothing else, especially reënforced as it is by sowerby, _eng. fung._, t. . rather rare on fallen stems of herbaceous plants, but widely distributed, new england to oregon and washington. . diderma sauteri (_rost._) _macbr._ . _chondrioderma sauteri_ rost., _mon._, p. . . _chondrioderma aculeatum_ rex, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . sporangia scattered, gregarious, sessile, lenticular or hemispherical, flattened above and sometimes concave or umbilicate below, dusky or yellowish white, the outer peridium papyraceous, thin, occasionally wrinkled, rupturing irregularly, remote from the inner, which is thin, delicate, semi-transparent, grayish, rarely iridescent; hypothallus none; columella irregular, sometimes small and hardly evident, rugose, with spine-like processes, the persisting bases of the capillitial threads, reddish brown; capillitium scanty, white, or colorless, simple or sparingly branched; spores dark violaceous, spinulose, - µ. this is _chondrioderma aculeatum_ rex, _proc. acad. nat. sci. phil._, , p. . after careful comparison of specimens and various descriptions, especially that of rostafinski with the type specimens of dr. rex, i am constrained to concur with lister in adopting rostafinski's name. the sporangia in the type specimens (rex) are on moss, borne at the extreme tips of acuminate or aculeate leaves, so that at first sight they appear stipitate. apparently rare. maine, new york. . diderma cor-rubrum _macbr. n. s._ plate xviii., fig. sporangia gregarious clustered, small . -. mm., sessile corrugate-plicate, especially above, snow-white, the outer peridium cartilaginous polished without and within, the inner delicate, evanescent; columella well developed, globose or clavate, anchored by several stout transverse trabeculæ to the peridial wall, papillate, deep-red as is the peridium especially below; capillitium very delicate, sparingly branching, colorless; spores verruculose, fuliginous tinged with red, about µ. this curious but elegant little species is represented by a single colony collected by professor morton peck in iowa. it resembles _d. sauteri_ but is distinguished by the plicate white wall, the stout columella with its lateral extensions, as by the more delicate spores. on rotten wood. . diderma ochraceum _hoffm._ . _diderma ochraceum_ hoffm., _deutsch. fl. tab._ , , b. . _diderma ochraceum_ hoffm., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia gregarious or clustered, . - mm., sessile, globose or sometimes plasmodiocarpous, ochraceous yellow; outer wall cartilaginous with yellow deposits of lime, the inner also yellow, adherent or free; columella not distinct; capillitium simple or branching, purple-brown, hyaline at base; spores spinulose, purplish-grey, - µ. mr. lister reports this species from massachusetts. . diderma roanense (_rex_) _macbr._ . _chondrioderma roanense_ rex, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . sporangia scattered, discoidal, thin, flattened or slightly convex above, plane or plano-concave below, umber-brown, stipitate, the outer peridium smooth, brittle, rupturing irregularly, the basal fragments somewhat persistent, concrete with the inner peridium, which is pure white, except near the columella, and punctate; stipe short, variable, longitudinally ridged, jet-black; hypothallus none; columella flat, discoidal, pale ochraceous; capillitium sparse, white or colorless, composed of simple, rarely forked, sinuous threads occasionally joined by lateral branches; spores dark violaceous, distinctly warted, - µ. this species is readily distinguished by its color. the sporangia, found on rotten wood, are large, mm., brown, and have thick, persistent walls. dr. rex considered that the species differs from other related forms not only in color, but in the well-marked discoidal columella and the jet-black irregular stipe. it is perhaps most nearly related to the following species. tennessee. . diderma radiatum (_linn._) _morg._ plate xviii., fig. . _lycoperdon radiatum_ linn. (?) _sp. pl._, . . _didymium stellare_ schrad., _nov. gen. pl._, p. . . _diderma stellare_ (schrad.) persoon, _syn._, p. . . _chondrioderma radiatum_ (linn.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _diderma radiatum_ (linn.) morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. . . _diderma stellare_ schrad., macbr., _n. a. s._, p . . _diderma radiatum_ list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia scattered, depressed-globose, sometimes also flattened below, stipitate, smooth or slightly corrugate, ashen or brownish, about mm. in diameter, the peridium dehiscing irregularly or somewhat radiately from above downwards, the segments reflexed, the inner layer not distinguishable, or inseparable; stipe short, stout, brownish, sometimes almost lacking; hypothallus not conspicuous, but sometimes sufficient to connect the bases of adjacent stipes; columella large, hemispherical or globose, pallid or yellowish; capillitium abundant, of slender generally simple, colored threads, paler at the furcate tips; spores dark violaceous, minutely roughened, - µ. rare on rotten logs in the forests; september. easily recognized by the short-stiped, ashen sporangia which before dehiscence indicate by delicate tracings the lines which subsequent cleavage is to follow. in texture the peridium resembles that of _d. floriforme_. pennsylvania, ohio, iowa, virginia, colorado, washington, oregon; europe generally. the linnæan description on which to base the specific name _d. radiatum_ is wholly inadequate. it appears also by the testimony of linné _fils_, that _l. radiatum_ linné is a lichen! and the name is so applied by persoon. but in the linnæan herbarium preserved at london, _teste_ lister, the original type of _lycoperdon radiatum_ l. may yet be seen! to the confusion of _fils_, persoon, and other followers of schrader all, and our stellar species becomes radiate now, let us hope for long! . diderma trevelyani (_grev._) _fr._ . _leangium trevelyani_ grev., _scot., cr. fl._, tab. . . _diderma trevelyani_ (grev.) fr., _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _chondrioderma trevelyani_ (grev.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _diderma geasteroides_ phill., _grev._, v., p. . . _diderma laciniatum_ phill., _grev._, v., p. . sporangia scattered, globose or nearly so, smooth or verruculose, reddish-brown or rufescent, sessile or short-stipitate, the outer peridium firm, splitting more or less regularly into unequal, revolute, petal-like lobes which are white within, the inner not distinguishable as such; stipe, when present, equal, furrowed, concolorous; columella small or none; capillitium abundant, the threads rather rigid, purple or purplish brown, branching and anastomosing, more or less beaded; spores dark, violaceous brown, spinulose, - µ. in , harkness and moore collected in the sierra nevada mountains of california, forms of _diderma_ which are described by phillips, _grev._, v., p. , as _d. geasteroides_ and _d. laciniatum_. english authorities who have examined the material agree that the forms described constitute but a single species, and lister makes them identical with _d. trevelyani_ (grev.) fr. rostafinski's figures, , , are a curious reproduction, evidently, of fried. nees von esenbeck's, plate ix., fig. . massee describes a columella; lister says there is none. what may occasion such divergence of statement none may say; such forms as come in so far from our western mountains have no columella. . diderma asteroides _list._ plate xviii., figs. , _a_ . _diderma asteroides_ list., _jour. bot._, xl, p. . . _diderma asteroides_ list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia globose or ovoid-globose, the apex more or less acuminate, sessile, sometimes narrowed at the base to a short, thick stalk, brown or chocolate tinted, marked at the apex by radiant lines, and at length dehiscent by many reflexing lobes revealing the snow-white adherent inner peridium on the exposed or upper side; columella also white, globose or depressed-globose; capillitium generally colorless, somewhat branched, especially above; spores dark violaceous, verruculose, - µ. oregon, the three sisters mountains; colorado; california. a very beautiful species, recognizable at sight; when unopened, by the peculiar chocolate brown, the sporangia smaller than in _d. radiatum_. when opened, the snow-white flower-like figure, flat against the substratum, is definitive. very near number preceding; the dehiscence more regular. . diderma floriforme (_bull._) _pers._ plate viii., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _sphaerocarpus floriformis_ bulliard, _champ._, p. , t. . . _diderma floriforme_ (bull.) persoon, _röm. n. mag. bot._, p. . sporangia crowded, generally in dense colonies, globose, smooth, ochraceous-white, stipitate, the peridium thick, cartilaginous, splitting from above into several petal-like lobes, which become speedily reflexed exposing the swarthy spore-mass, the inner peridium not discoverable, inseparable; stipe concolorous, about equal to the sporangium; hypothallus, generally well developed, but thin, membranaceous, common to all the sporangia; columella prominent, globose or cylindric, often constricted below, and prolonged upward almost to the top of the spore-case; capillitium of slender, delicate, sparingly branched threads; spores dark violaceous-brown, studded with scattered warts, - µ. not uncommon, especially on rotten oak logs. easily recognized by the peculiar form of the fruit, spherical before dehiscence, floriform after. unlike most species, this form often fruits in dark places, in the interior of a log, even in the ground. new england, ontario to iowa and nebraska, and south. . diderma rugosum (_rex_) _macbr._ plate xviii., fig. . . _chondrioderma rugosum_ rex, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . sporangia gregarious, scattered, white or ashen, rugulose over the whole surface, the ridges marking the lines of subsequent rupture or dehiscence, the peridium thin papyraceous, stipitate; stipe well developed about equal to the sporangium, subulate, almost black; hypothallus none; columella distinct, generally white, sometimes small, globose, sometimes penetrating the sporangium, to one-half the height; capillitium white or colorless, the filaments freely forked and combined by lateral branches into a loose network attached to the columella and basal wall below and the upper sporangial wall above; spores violaceous-brown, warted, - µ. this species is well designated _rugosum_, and is recognizable at sight by its wrinkled, areolate surface. related to _d. radiatum_ in the prefigured dehiscence, but otherwise very distinct. liable to be overlooked as a prematurely dried physarum. rare. plasmodium gray. north carolina, iowa. = . lepidoderma= _debary_ . _lepidoderma_ deby., ms. rost., _versuch_, p. . sporangia stalked or sessile; peridium cartilaginous, adorned without with large calcareous scales, superficial or shut in lenticular cavities; capillitium non-calcareous.[ ] =key to species of lepidoderma= _a._ sporangia stipitate, stipe brown . _l. tigrinum_ _b._ sporangia sessile, plasmodiocarpous, spores - µ . _l. carestianum_ _c._ sporangia plasmodiocarpous, spores - µ . _l. chailletii_ . lepidoderma tigrinum (_schrad._) _rost._ plate xiv., fig. . . _didymium tigrinum_ schrad., _nov. gen. plantarum_, p. . . _lepidoderma tigrinum_ (schrad.) rost., _versuch_, p. . sporangia scattered, rather large, hemispherical-depressed, stipitate, umbilicate beneath, the peridium shining, olivaceous or purplish, tough, covered more or less abundantly with angular scales; the stipe stout, furrowed, dark brown, but containing calcareous deposits withal, tapering upward, and continued within the peridium as a pronounced more or less calcareous columella; hypothallus more or less prominent, yellowish or brownish; capillitium dark, purplish-brown, of sparingly branching threads radiating from the columella; spores dull purplish-brown, minutely roughened, - µ. a singular species, rare, but easily recognized by its peculiar, placoid scales, large and firmly embedded in the peridial wall. the internal structure is essentially that of _diderma_ or _didymium_. the species occurs in hilly or mountainous regions, on moss-covered logs. the plasmodium pale yellow, some part of it not infrequently remains as a venulose hypothallus connecting such sporangia as are near together. new england to washington and oregon; vancouver island. . lepidoderma carestianum (_rabenh._) _rost._ . _reticularia carestiana_ rabenh., _ms. fung. eur. exsic._, no. . . _lepidoderma carestianum_ (rabenh.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _amaurochaete minor_ sacc. & ell., _mich._, ii., p. . fructification in the form of flat, pulvinate plasmodiocarps, or, anon, sporangiate, the sporangia sessile, sub-globose, ellipsoidal, elongate, irregular, confluent, yellowish-grey, the peridium covered more or less completely with dull white, crystals or crystal-like scales; columella, where visible, yellowish-brown, calcareous; capillitium, coarse, rigid, more or less branched and united, or colorless, delicate, forming a definite net; spores distinctly warted, purple - µ. this is a most remarkable species. the sporangiate forms little resemble those distinctly plasmodiocarpal. in the former the calcic scales and crystals are distinct and quite as in _l. tigrinum_; in the latter they are cuboid, irregular. the wall of the peridium in the plasmodiocarps at hand is black, and the covering accordingly shows white; in the sporangial forms the wall is brown, and the scales have a yellow tinge as if tinged with iron. in the sporangial presentation the capillitium is intricate delicate; in the plasmodiocarp, rigid, dark-colored, etc. this looks like a didymium and in so far justifies the opinion of earlier students. fries, of course, includes all these things with the didymiums, and _d. squamulosum_ probably often sheltered them under extended wing. _didymium granuliferum_ phill., _grev._, v., p. , from california is by european authors referred here. the capillitium carries calcareous crystalline deposits in special vesicles and the spores show remarkable variation in unusual size-- - µ.[ ] should probably be entered _lepidoderma granuliferum_ (phill.) fr., spores - µ.[ ] utah,--harkness. . lepidoderma chailletii _rost._ plate xviii., figs. , _a_, _b_. sporangia distinct, coalescent or plasmodiocarpous, large, when isolated - . mm., dull drab in color, very sparsely sprinkled with white tetrahedral or irregular scales; the peridium thin, more or less translucent, rugulose, dull brown, persistent; columella none; capillitium abundant, under the lens purple-brown, sparingly branched, even, stout, rigid, no calcareous deposits nor vesicles; spores - µ, minutely warted, fuliginous. yosemite cañon, california, _prof. b. shimek._ this is, no doubt, similar to _l. carestianum_ but differs in the size and habit of the sporangia, and in the fact that the capillitium is uniform throughout, whatever the style of fructification, and in the size, color, and surface characters of the spore. evidently not _didymium granuliferum_ phill. both will, no doubt, be again collected, and we shall then have much needed light. nor is this quite rostafinski's species as cited. the spores are much smaller; rostafinski says - or more, and calls for a distinctly netted capillitium, the surface strongly marked by abundant calcareous crystals. ours may be a different thing. = . colloderma= _g. lister_ . _colloderma, jour. of botany_, xlviii., p. . peridium double; the outer gelatinous, the inner membranaceous; capillitium intricate, limeless. colloderma oculatum (_lipp._) _g. lister._ . _didymium oculatum_ lipp., _verh. zo-bot. ges. wien_, xliv., p. . . _colloderma oculatum_ (lipp.) g. list., _jour. bot._, xlviii., p. . sporangia gregarious, globose, or sub-globose, sessile or short-stipitate, olivaceous or purplish-brown, smooth and shining, the outer peridium gelatinous, thickened by moisture, hyaline; stipe dark brown; columella none; capillitium as in _didymium_ purplish-brown, colorless at the tips; spores spinulose, fuscous, about µ. new hampshire, europe. our specimens from the late dr. w. g. farlow who collected it in new hampshire. swollen by immersion in water the sporangia take on an eye-like appearance, oculate, etc. =extra-limital= physarina _von höhnel._ . _physarina_ von höhnel, _akad. wiss. wien; math-nat. kl._, cxviii., p. . sporangium wall rough with blunt spine-like processes, otherwise as _diderma_. one species, _op. cit._, p. , _p. echinocephala_ v. höhn. java. might as well be called _diderma echinocephalum_, one would think. structure is that of _leangium_. the striking character is a surface modification of the outer peridium, according to the description. order ii =stemonitales= capillitium present, thread-like, arising in typical cases from a well-developed columella; spores in mass, black or violet-brown, more rarely ferruginous. =key to the families of stemonitales= _a._ fructification æthalioid, capillitium poorly defined; columella rudimentary or none amaurochÆtaceÆ _b._ fructification of distinct sporangia, capillitium well defined; the columella generally prominent, long and abundantly branched throughout stemonitaceÆ _c._ sporangia distinct; capillitium developed chiefly or only, from the summit of the columella lamprodermaceÆ _a._ amaurochÆtaceÆ fructification æthalioid, an inch or two in diameter, in form varying with the habitat and place; capillitium dendroid, consisting of rather stout branches which rise irregularly more or less vertically from the hypothallus, branch repeatedly, often anastomose to form a network, especially toward the periphery; spores black. a single genus-- = . amaurochæte= _rostafinski_ . _amaurochaete_ rost., _versuch._, p. . the genus _amaurochaete_ as defined by rostafinski and the genus _reticularia_ as represented by _r. lycoperdon_ bull. stand, the expression, perhaps, of not dissimilar histories. whether in regressive or progressive series, each to-day presents a case of arrested development. each in æthalioid fructification, reveals a mass of involved individual (?) sporangia, so imperfectly developed that their outlines can be inferred rather than anywhere, with absolute definiteness, certainly ascertained. perhaps, because similar sporangia in the group to which either belongs, do come under other circumstances, to more perfect individual form and function--perhaps for this reason we may look upon these æthalia as exhibiting a suspended performance; the sporangia have failed to go forward to what was evidently a possible, though apparently not an essential destiny in form and figure. for the care and dispersal of the spores, achievement must surely be somewhat impaired. whatever the measure of such inefficiency, among the _stemonitales amaurochaete_ shows the acme, as _reticularia_ among the brown-spored forms. in _amaurochaete_ the individuality of anything like separate sporangia is less clear. the view afforded, however, by a good vertical section of a well-developed colony or cushion is interestingly arborescent. ragged, dendroid stems arise, dissipated above into a network most intricate, a "pleached arbor" if you please. the resemblance of the overhead net to that presented by a stemonitis or comatricha is very striking. =key to the species of amaurochæte= _a._ capillitium rigid, irregular spores rough . _a. fuliginosa_ _b._ capillitium soft, woolly, cincinnate, spores as in _a_ . _a. tubulina_ . amaurochÆte fuliginosa (_sowerby_) _macbr._ plate v., figs. , _a_. . _lycoperdon fuliginosum_ sow., _eng. fung._, t. . . _lycogala atrum_, alb. & schw., _consp. fung._, p. . . _amaurochaete atra_ (alb. & schw.) rost., _mon._, p. . fructification aethalioid, varying in form and size, if on the upper side of the substratum, pulvinate, if below pendent and almost stipitate, covered with a delicate cortex, at first shining, soon dull, black, fragile, and early dissipated; hypothallus long-persisting, supporting the capillitium, which is extremely variable, irregular, and for its perfection dependent upon the form assumed by the æthalium, and the conditions of weather, etc., under which it matures, sometimes, especially when prostrate, in a very much depressed æthalium, spreading into long fibrous threads, again under better conditions rising in columella-like forms, supporting a peripheral net; spores dark brown or black, irregularly globose, spinulose, . - µ. common in europe, and probably not uncommon in this country wherever pine forests occur. specimens before us are from new england and new york, ohio, carolina, colorado. canada. sowerby, in his comment on plate , _eng. fungi_, says: "it appears to consist of branching threads affixed to the deal and holding a dense mass of sooty powder. over the whole is a thin, deciduous pellicle." this description seems to be applicable to nothing else. the figure amounts to little. fries recognizes the english description, as does rostafinski, but both authors adopt the later name given by albertini and schweinitz, simply because of the excellent detailed description found in the _conspectus_. . amaurochÆte tubulina (_alb. & schw._) _macbr._ plate xx., and _a_. . _stemonitis tubulina_ (alb. & schw.), _cons. fung._, p. . . _lachnobolus cribrosus_ fr., _syst. orb. veg._, p. . . _amaurochaete cribrosa_ (fr.) macbr., _com. in litt._ to herbaria, harvard, etc.[ ] . _amaurochaete cribrosa_ (fr.) sturg., g. lister, _jour. bot._, lviii, p. . plasmodium at first transparent then white then rosy, ashen or grey finally deepening to jet-black; the æthalium even, thin, variable in extent from one to ten centimeters, covered by a distinct but thin transparent cortex, papillate, extended laterally but a short distance beyond the fructification, fragile, soon disappearing; hypothallus long-persistent, thin, silvery, supporting the capillitium as if by stipes, short slender columns, irregular plates, expansions, etc.; the capillitium an intricate network, very abundant, elastic, on fall of the peridium appearing like tiny tufts of wool, the meshes large, but formed as in _stemonitis_, persistent, dull black; spores, under the lens, dull olivaceous black, minutely roughened, - µ. this species differs from the preceding, already well known, especially in the capillitial characters. in the older species the capillitial branches fray out, and are only sparingly united into a net extremely lax. in the present form the net is the thing, common to all sporangia. the total effect is to lend to the blown-out æthalium a woolly appearance, entirely unlike that of its congener under the same conditions. but until fructification is quite mature, the presence of the collaborating sporangia below is indicated, suggested, by the papillose upper surface. the amaurochetes are remarkable in that they appear upon coniferous wood, logs or lumber, to all appearance undecayed. the species just described developed abundantly in august on the recently decorticated logs of _pinus ponderosa_, on the south-western slopes of mt. rainier, washington. in logging operations in the locality referred to, the trees are felled often at considerable distance from the mill. they are not infrequently large, - cm. in diameter. the logs are dragged along the ground, the transportation facilitated by removal of the bark from the new fallen trunk. in a few weeks' time, affected by alternate rain and sun, the whole surface becomes marked with hundreds of minute, almost invisible cracks, and it is in the larger of these that the plasmodium of the present species has its habitat. hardly any mycologic phenomenon is more surprising than to see plasmodia rising to fructification, scores at a time, upon a surface, new and white, showing otherwise no evidence of any decomposition. doubtless the persisting cambium, the unused starches, sugars, the wood of the season yet unlignified, afford easily accessible nutrition. when this form was first examined in the laboratory its distinctness was immediately seen. it was without doubt fries' cribrose reticularia; nobody questions that. under this name, citing fries' description, specimens were sent out to herbaria as harvard. further study of the records, however, soon convinces one familiar with the ontogeny of the case that we are here face to face with the species, described by alb. & schw. in their fine _conspectus_. their account of the form, evidently often taken and now described with great care, is entirely clear when read in presence of the facts. it is here submitted, as less easy of access but essential, if the reader would appreciate the present disposal of the species. "s. tubulina nobis "_s. magna pulvinata subhemisphaerica, stylidiis gregariis circinantibus, capillitiis elongatis cylindraceis in massam pulveraceam fuscam connatis, apicibus obtusis, prominulis, lucidis nigris._ "the size indeed, the circumscribed form, the capillitiums conjoined into a single body--indue this (form) with an appearance peculiar to a degree; however, should anyone prefer to call it a very remarkable variety of the preceding (_s. fasciculata_), we shall not strenuously refuse. at first glance it looks like a tubulina. after the fashion of its kind, the beginning is soft and milky. the diameter generally an inch and a half to two inches, the height four to six lines; the form perfectly round, or more rarely somewhat oblong. the hypothallus, stout, pellucid silvery, betimes iridescent, when turned to the light, easily separable from the substratum, bears the columellae, dusky, thin, hair-like, aggregate and yet entirely free, and everywhere circinately convergent, depressed by the superimposed burden, hence decumbent: ... the capillitium loosely interwoven, coalesces to a common mass whose smooth and shining surface shows above, regularly disposed minute papillae, the apices of individual sporangia. "far from infrequent, on decorticate pine, of _lycogala atrum_ a constant companion"! it goes of course without saying, that for the authors quoted, _lycogala atrum_ is _amaurochaete atra_ rost. _a. fuliginosa_ (sow.) of more recent students, described and perfectly figured in the volume cited. it is surprising that they did not enter the present species also as a lycogala. but the stemonitis relationship this time impressed them rather than the æthalial; besides they were misled by the _s. fasciculata_ of gmelin and persoon, a composite which the genius of fries hardly availed to disentangle twenty-five years later. the last named author, as we see, wrote first _lachnobolus_, then _reticularia_. he calls the interwoven capillitium--_lachne_, wool, a "_pilam tactu eximie elasticam_," etc. he read the description in the _conspectus_, but carried away the stemonitis suggestion dominant there, as we have seen, put _s. tubulina_ a. & s. as an undeveloped phase of _s. fusca_, which, of course, it is not. it needed not the authority of rostafinski, _mon._, p. , to assure us this. the earlier authors describe the species in course of development to complete maturity, and clinch the story by declaring the form a constant companion of the commonly recognized amaurochete, so fixing the relationship for us by habitat also. these men made a mistake, of course, in placing their species among the stemonites at all. they did much better however than fries who called it a reticularia. it was also a mistake to cite _s. fasciculata_,--the small fasciculate tufts of _s. fusca_ and _s. axifera_ offering by the aggregate habit only faint resemblance,--a possible refuge for those who would prefer another disposition of their species distinct (_aliena_) though it is. since fries' day the species has been overlooked although the genus has received more than once attention. zukal _hedwigia_, xxxv., p. , describes _a. speciosa_ as a new species. this saccardo writes down, syll. fung., vii., p. , _s. tubulina_ a. & s., admitting, however, at the same time, that as fine an authority as raciborsky refuses to call zukal's species either a stemonite or an amaurochete, thinks it deserving generic appellation of its own. however, _a. speciosa_ zuk. need not here concern us. neither in his description nor figures does zukal at all approach the form we study. his species is not an amaurochete; the size of the spores suggest that, to say nothing of the capillitial structure. in the same volume vii., the distinguished author introduces another amaurochete, _a. minor_ sacc. & ellis, _mich._ ii., p. . this is american; sent from utah by our famous pioneer collector harkness. a specimen is before us: it is a lepidoderma! in shining, scaly armor dressed; vid. under _l. carestianum_. since the distribution of washington material, as mentioned, our species reappears at various points in western europe, points in england, etc., and will no doubt now share, hereafter as a century ago, the habitat so long conceded to the long familiar older type. _b._ stemonitaceÆ capillitium abundant, springing usually as dissipating branches from all parts of the columella; the sporangia generally definite and distinct, though sometimes closely placed and generally rising from a common hypothallus. =key to the genera of the stemonitaceæ= _a._ fructification æthalioid; capillitium charged with vesicles . _brefeldia_ _b._ sporangia distinct, or nearly so. _a._ stipe and columella jet-black. . capillitium so united as to form a surface net . _stemonitis_ . capillitial branch-tips free . _comatricha_ _b._ stipe and columella whitish; calcareous . _diachaea_ = . brefeldia= _rostafinski_ . _brefeldia_ rost., _versuch_, p. . sporangia occupying in the æthalium several layers, those of the median, and especially of the lowest layers, furnished with columellæ which blend beneath; capillitium threads in the lowest layers arising from the columella, in the upper extending radiately between the individual sporangia, and united at the sporangial limits by means of rather large inflated sacs. the genus _brefeldia_ is, like some others, difficult to dispose of in any scheme of classification where linear sequence must be followed. rostafinski placed it in an order by itself. its relationships are on the one hand with _amaurochaete_ and _reticularia_, and on the other with the _stemonitales_, though easily distinguished from either. it is intermediate to _amaurochaete_ and _stemonitis_, and withal, as it appears to us, a little nearer the latter, as the limits of the individual sporangia are in _brefeldia_ pretty well defined. . brefeldia maxima (_fr._) _rost._ plate v., figs. , _a_, _b_, and plates xxi., xxii. . _reticularia maxima_ fries, _syst. orb. veg._, i., p. . . _brefeldia maxima_ (fr.) rost., _versuch._, p. . Æthalium large, four to twenty cm, papillate above, violet-black at first, then purple or purple-brown, developed upon a widespread, silver-shining hypothallus; sporangia in favorable cases distinct, indicated above by the papillæ; columellæ obscure, black; capillitium abundant, the threads uniting by multifid ends to surround as with a net the peculiar vesicles; spore-mass dark violet-black, the individual spores paler by transmitted light, distinctly papillose, - µ. a very remarkable species and one of the largest, rivalled by _fuligo_ only. to be compared with _reticularia_, which it resembles somewhat externally, and with some of the larger specimens of _enteridium_. the plasmodium at first white with a bluish tinge is developed abundantly in rotten wood, preferably a large oak stump, and changes color as maturity comes on, much in the fashion of _stemonitis splendens_, leaving a widespread hypothallic film to extend far around the perfected fruit-mass. in well-matured æthalia, "_jove favente_," the sporangia stand out perfectly distinct, particularly above and around the margins. closely and compactly crowded, they become prismatic by mutual pressure, and attain sometimes the height of half an inch or more. in the centre of the fructification, next the hypothallus, the sporangia are very imperfectly differentiated. many are here horizontally placed, and perhaps supplied with an imperfectly formed peridium,--if so are to be interpreted the lowest parts of the capillitial structure, the long, branching, ribbon-like strands which lie along the hypothallus. some of these branch repeatedly with flat anastomosing branchlets, ultimately fray out into lengthened threads, and perish after all the superstructure has been blown away. from every part of the structure so described, but more especially from the margins, are given off in profusion the strange cystiferous threads, so characteristic of this genus. these are exceeding delicate filaments, attached at one end, it may be, to a principal branch, at the other free or united to a second which again joins a third, and so looping and branching, dividing, they form a more or less extended network, a capillitium in which are entangled the myriad spores. each filament bears at its middle point (or is it the meeting point of two?) a peculiar plexus which embraces several large cysts or vesicles whose function or further homology does not readily appear. from the base of the fructification rise also ascending branches which are black, terete, and not infrequently branched as if to form the capillitium of a stemonitis. these ascending branches are in many cases, probably in all, real, though as yet imperfectly developed, columellæ. they rise, at least in many cases, directly from the hypothallus, each is central to an individual sporangium, rises to about two-thirds its height, but never attains the summit. the sporangia are so crowded that many are choked off below, never reach the top of the æthalium. in such cases the columella may cease at the sporangium-top. the columella bears cystiferous threads sparingly, if at all; nevertheless these abound in the peripheral portions of the sporangium all the way up, and are especially noticeable beyond the level of the top of the columella. many are so arranged that the plexus with its vesicles occupies a place in the plane separating adjacent sporangia, suggesting the possibility that we have here to do with an imperfectly developed surface-net and peridium. in this view the cysts would represent the meeting-point of two opposite radial capillitial threads rather than the middle of one. this accords with rostafinski's observations and drawings. the cysts, then, belong morphologically to the peridium or sporangium wall. it is a stemonitis whose sporangia have never been perfectly differentiated, a case of arrested development. see further under _stemonitis confluens_. rostafinski really offers the first definitive description. fries probably distinguished it, but his description would not indicate the fact except for the added note wherein appears the reason for discarding an apparently older name, viz., that given by link. but neither link nor sowerby distinguished by description or figure _brefeldia_ from _amaurochaete_. throughout the northern forest; maine to vancouver island: not common. = . stemonitis= (_gleditsch_) _rost._ . _stemonitis_ gleditsch, in part, _meth. fung._, p. . . _stemonitis_ (gleditsch) rost., _versuch_, p. . sporangia distinct, though often closely aggregate, cylindric, stipitate; columella prominent; capillitium well developed by repeated lateral and apical branching of the columella, at length assuming at the surface the form of a distinct net which supports an evanescent peridium. the genus is marked by its surface-net supported at the tips of the dichotomously branched divisions of the columella. over the net is spread, theoretically at least, the peridial film supported by very short points projecting from the net,--the peridial processes; the peridium, however, is seldom seen; in some cases, certainly, is never developed. rostafinski first defined the genus as employed by recent writers. gleditsch simply renamed micheli's _clathroidastrum_; all writers subsequent included species of other genera. the taxonomy of this genus is of the most difficult. macroscopic, defining characters are few, and even these sometimes uncertain. microscopic distinctions also tend to be illusive, variable in such fashion that often at the critical point the most exact description fails. all that may be done at present is to recognize two or three definite types and then cautiously differentiate among these with the light we have, until more general study of the group brings to service a wider range of observation with more comprehensive record on which judgment may better be sustained. we have before us many and beautiful forms of this genus yet unstudied. some of these doubtless have already found place in our growing taxonomic literature; some apparently undescribed; all to wait wider leisure or perhaps a younger hand. the entire life-history of every form is none too much if we would set out with any hope of accuracy the genetic relationships for which taxonomy stands. recently european students are making the color of the plasmodium a basis for species-discrimination, which is good so far. but plasmodic characters are at present unserviceable generally, for two reasons; they vary in the same species; and unfortunately, when most needed, they are unknown and inaccessible. the student is generally confronted by forms mature, the plasmodic stage already past. =key to the species of stemonitis= _a._ sporangia connately united. _a._ spores verruculose . _s. confluens_ _b._ spores reticulate . _s. trechispora_ _b._ sporangia at maturity distinct. _a._ spore-mass grayish black. . larger, - mm. spores distinctly reticulate or warted, but sometimes nearly smooth . _s. fusca_ . spores reticulate and spinulose. i. spores adherent, clustered . _s. uvifera_ ii. sporangia very tall, - mm., rigid . _s. dictyospora_ iii. sporangia short, jet- or violet-black . _s. nigrescens_ _b._ spore-mass rich brown. . columella central. i. sporangia shorter, - mm., spores banded . _s. virginiensis_ ii. sporangia - mm.; spores verruculose . _s. webberi_ iii. sporangia tall, - mm. or more . _s. splendens_ . columella eccentric, sporangium in cross-section, angular . _s. fenestrata_ _c._ spore-mass ferruginous; sporangia in tufts. . spores smooth or nearly so. i. sporangia pale, small, - mm., crowded, stipe unpolished . _s. smithii_ ii. sporangia ferruginous; columella regular . _s. axifera_ iii. sporangia ferruginous; columella proliferate just below the apex . _s. flavogenita_ iv. sporangia, spore-mass, dusky-purplish or brown. o on dead wood. o scattered, apex blunt . _s. pallida_ oo clustered, acuminate . _s. carolinensis_ oo on living leaves, preferably, spore-mass brown . _s. herbatica_ . stemonitis confluens _cooke & ellis._ plate xi., figs. , _a_, . . _stemonitis confluens_ cke. & ell., _grev._, v., p. . . _stemonitis splendens var. confluens_ lister, _mycet._, p. . . _stemonitis confluens_ cke. & ell., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _stemonitis confluens_ cke. & ellis, list., _mycet., nd ed._, p. . "sporangia fasciculate, confluent on a persistent hypothallus, dark fuscous; peridia very fugacious; stipes united at the base, erect, furcate; spores large, brown, globose. on oak bark. "the stems are branched in a furcate manner and confluent at the base, forming a compact tuft. the capillitium is membranaceous at the angles; spores very large compared with allied species, being µ. the specimens were too fully matured for more satisfactory description." such is the original description of this unique and interesting species. the sporangia occur in close-set tufts or clusters, are distinct, separate at their tips and bases only; perhaps not always at base. the capillitium rises by branching from the columella, rather more prolific than usual, and combines to form a distinct superficial net of large even meshes. from the outer arcs of the bounding net spring rather long acute processes which should support the peridium. this, however, is altogether rudimentary. in most places there is no sign of peridium at all, but here and there between contiguous sporangia opposite processes unite and at their point of union a tiny circular disk of the peridial membrane appears. at intervals, therefore, over the entire sporangium are seen these small brown disks, each about equalling in diameter the size of the average mesh. at other points the sporangia do not seem at all coalescent, but where the opposing processes do meet the union is perfect and the little disk seen edgewise looks like some delicate counter strung upon a wire. the interest attaching to this in view of what has been said about _amaurochaete_ and _brefeldia_ is obvious. under the lens the spores and capillitium are concolorous, dark fuscous, the spores distinctly verruculose, about . µ. the original gathering here described was from new jersey; twenty years later mr. ellis was so fortunate as to find again fine specimens all on oak bark. the sporangia are quite small, only mm. high, when blown out concolorous with the habitat. . stemonitis trechispora (_berk._) _torr._ plate xx., figs. , _a_, _b_, _c_. . _stemonitis fusca_ (roth) rost. var. _trechispora_ (berk.), _fl. myxom._, torrend, p. . . _stemonitis fusca var. trechispora_ torr., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . fructification in form of aggregations of more or less coalescent, small, dark-brown or dull black, sessile sporangia; hypothallus continuous, well-developed; columella black, gently tapering to a point beneath the apex, the capillitial branches, irregular, few, but passing into an open rather evenly-meshed net, the mesh several times the spore-diameter, free-ending branch-tips not lacking; the spores by transmitted light distinctly brown, the epispore a beautiful reticulation, a dozen or more cells to the hemisphere, - µ. this is entered sometimes as a variety of _s. fusca_ to which species relationship would seem remote. the differences lie in form, color and structure. the spores alone are distinctive; there are none such, so far, none just like them, elsewhere in the genus. torrend and lister both enter the form as varietal; why not set it out, and save questions? the habitat approaches that of _amaurochaete_, but the sporangia are distinct. for our specimens we are indebted to the kindness of dr. roland thaxter. the specimens were taken in a half-dry marsh, near cambridge. material from toronto sent by professor faull is also provisionally here referred. the form has netted spores, but they are not quite the same. the structure besides is more that of an amaurochaete; it has the peculiar basal webs and band-like stipes at base, stipes that never rise from horizontal to perpendicular and characterize _reticularia_ and especially _brefeldia_ as well as the usual amaurochaete. see plate xx., figs. , _a_, _b_. . stemonitis fusca (_roth_) _rost._ plate vi., figs. , _a_, _b_ . _stemonitis fusca_ roth, _röm. mag. bot._, i., p. . . _stemonitis fusca_ (roth) rost., _mon._, p. . . _stemonitis fusca_ rost., massee, _mon._, p. . . _stemonitis fusca_ roth, list., _mycetozoa_, p. . . _stemonitis fusca_ (roth) rost., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _stemonitis maxima_ schw., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . sporangia tufted, generally in small clusters - mm., the individual sporangia slender, cylindric, blue-black or fuscous, becoming pallid as the spores are lost, stipitate; stipe short, about one-fourth the total height, black, shining; hypothallus scanty, but common to all the sporangia; columella prominent, attaining almost the apex of the sporangium, freely branching to support the capillitial net; capillitium of slender dusky threads, which freely anastomose to form a dense interior network, and outwardly at length combine to form a close-meshed net; spores pale, dusky violet, usually beautifully spinulose-reticulate, but sometimes warted or spinulose only, or nearly smooth, - . µ. as here set out the description is intended to include _s. maxima_ schw. of the former edition. rostafinski, mon. _l. c._, describes _s. fusca_ roth. as having "spores smooth." since most american gatherings have reticulated spores, and since schweinitz described a black american species, his specific name seemed appropriate for all except smooth-spored forms. in the meantime two things have happened; mr. lister has examined the specimens remaining in the strasburg herbarium and finds them with reticulate spores. the statement quoted from the _monograph_ evidently does not apply to _all_ of rostafinski's material; but under the circumstances the name _fusca_ may easily take the field, especially since another discovery makes for the same conclusion. the evidence is good that _s. maxima_ schw. was indeed the largest, i. e. perhaps, the _tallest_ stemonitis he ever saw! probably, as his scanty herbarium-remnant shows, _s. fenestrata_ rex! . stemonitis uvifera _n. s._ plate xx., figs. , _a_, _b_, _c_. sporangia tufted, generally in medium-sized clusters much as in _s. fusca_. the individual sporangium - mm. high, dark, slender, brown, becoming dull black or pallid as the spores are lost, stipitate, the stipe about one-fourth to one-third the total height, black polished shining; hypothallus distinct, common to all sporangia, purple-brown, shining; columella distinct, attaining almost the summit of the sporangium but inclined to waver a little at last, in other words, flexuose toward the top, freely branching, the branches rather stout, anastomosing to support the capillitial net; the meshes larger, several times the spore-diameter, the spores sooty-brown, distinctly warted or spinulescent, about - µ, clustered in groups of four or more. mt. rainier, washington,-- . . stemonitis dictyospora _rost._ . _stemonitis dictyospora_ rost., _mon._, p. ; _myc. fen._, pp. , . . _stemonitis dictyospora_ rost., mass., _mon._, p. (?). . _stemonitis dictyospora_ rost., _sacc. syl. fung._, vol. vii., p. . . _stemonitis castillensis_ macbr., _nat. hist. bull._, vol. , p. . plate x., figs. , _a_, _b_. sporangia crowded in colonies of unusual size, - cm., tall, rigid - mm., slender, erect, stipitate, black throughout; the columella prominent, reaching nearly to the apex, abundantly branched, the branches forming an intricate dark brown capillitium; the net large-meshed several times the spore-diameter; the spores reticulate, spinulose, clear violet, - µ. we here recover as is believed one of rostafinski's best-described species. our material is from nicaragua, by kindness of professor shimek. its relationship is with _s. fusca_ where rostafinski placed it. the phrase describing spore-color is his. . stemonitis nigrescens _rex._ . _stemonitis nigrescens_ rex, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . . _stemonitis fusca_ roth, lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia gregarious, upon a common hypothallus, erect, small, cylindric, stipitate; stipe black, extremely short, about half a millimetre; columella reaching the apex; capillitium violet-black, darker near the surface, forming a complete superficial net at the lower part of the sporangium only, elsewhere irregular or vanishing; spore-mass nearly black; single spores violet-black under the lens, the epispore spinulose and reticulate, about µ. the author of this species remarks: "this species is noteworthy for its comparatively short stipes, its very spinulose spores, and its black or nearly black color, the slight violet tint being only apparent on close inspection, especially in fresh moist specimens." it is a small but very beautiful form, at first sight to be mistaken for a short _s. fusca_, though much more intensely black. the capillitium is concolorous, the inner network of rather few open meshes, the outer of large hexagonal openings, the arcuate threads of which are remarkable for the size, and especially the number, of the peridial processes, as many as five or six sometimes appearing along one side of a single mesh. the stipe is very short, and the columella runs as a straight, gradually diminishing axis to the very apex of the sporangium. total height - mm. the english _monograph_ includes this with _s. fusca_; but it seems quite distinct in size, habit, color, etc., and has been found in the mountainous regions of virginia and north carolina, as well as about philadelphia. . stemonitis virginiensis _rex._ . _stemonitis virginiensis_ rex, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . . _stemonitis virginiensis_ rex, macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _comatricha typhoides_ rost., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia erect, gregarious, from a common hypothallus, generally clustered, cylindric or elongate-ovate, stipitate; stipe black, shining; columella reaching the apex, where it blends with the capillitium; capillitium delicate, the meshes of the net small, scarcely greater than the diameter of the spores; spore-mass umber brown; epispores reticulated, with ten or twelve meshes to the hemisphere, - µ. this is a beautiful, and, as it seems to us, a very distinct, species. the markings on the epispore are sufficient to identify it. these are conspicuously banded somewhat as the spores of _trichia favoginea_, for example. in habit, size of the sporangia, and capillitial branching, this species recalls _comatricha typhoides_ (bull.) rost. all the sporangia examined are, however, plainly stemonitis in type, possessing the characteristic superficial net. until further light this may stand as offered in the first edition. miss lister prefers to enter it, banded spores and all, with the comatrichas, on account of color, size and occasional default (?) of surface net. virginia, _dr. rex._ . stemonitis webberi _rex._ plate xi., figs. , , . . _stemonitis webberi_ rex, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . sporangia clustered, usually in small tufts cm. wide, rusty brown in color, - mm., including the stipe, which is jet black, shining, and much expanded at the base; hypothallus continuous, well-developed, a thin, transparent pellicle; columella black, tapering upward, giving off at intervals the capillitial branches, and becoming dissipated just below the obtuse apex; inner capillitial network very open, the branches far apart, anastomosing but a few times before breaking into the surface net to form large, irregular meshes, - µ; spores minutely roughened, fuscous, - µ. these three forms, , , , are sometimes entered as varieties of a single species. dr. rex himself was inclined to take that view. there is no doubt of close similarity; it is a question of clearness in our dealing with the subject. all three forms occur abundantly in the mississippi valley, but are generally,--always, as it seems to the writer,--distinguishable by the hand-lens. if we take no. as type, has an eccentric columella; is shorter, about cm., of a different tint, dr. rex even says "spores ferruginous in mass". to the west and southwest, the capillitium becomes coarser, more decidedly brown. in short, however similar in presentation the phases may sometimes appear, it would seem that each at its best is distinct enough for immediate recognition. west of the mississippi river chiefly: iowa, south dakota, nebraska, kansas, oklahoma, new mexico, etc. . stemonitis splendens _rost._ plate vi., figs. , _a_, _c_, , _a_. . _stemonitis splendens_ rost., _mon._, p. . . _stemonitis morgani_ peck, _bot. gaz._, v., p. . . _stemonitis splendens_ rost., macbr., _bull. lab. nat. hist._, vol. ii, p. . . _stemonitis splendens_ rost., list., _mycetozoa_, p. , in part. . _stemonitis morgani_ peck, macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _stemonitis splendens_ rost., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia clustered irregularly, sometimes forming patches - centimetres or more in extent, rich purple-brown in mass, cylindric, long, - mm., stipitate; stipe black, polished, shining, rising from a common hypothallus, which extends as a thin silvery film beneath the entire colony, but does not usually transcend its limits; columella black, percurrent, sparingly branched; capillitium of fuscous threads, within forming a network very open, the branches scarcely anastomosing until they reach the surface where they form the usual net of small meshes, pretty uniform in size, and presenting very few small, inconspicuous peridial processes; spores brown, very minutely warted, about µ. this elegant species occurs not rarely on rotten wood, usually in protected situations, although sometimes on the exposed surfaces of its habitat. the sporangia attain with us unusual height, sometimes cm.; plasmodia, - cm., in diameter. the clear brown tufts appear in the autumn, marvels of graceful elegance and beauty; at sight easily recognizable by the large size and rich color. in iowa it is almost universally present on fallen stems of _acer saccharinum_ linn., and it appears to be widely distributed, by far the most beautiful of all this beautiful series. new england to iowa, south dakota, washington, and british columbia. professor shimek brings a _dusky_ phase from nicaragua!--the type? the plasmodium is white on maple stems, more creamy on stems of linden, on which wood it is more rarely found: occasionally on ash-stumps; even on the fallen bark of trees preferred. in in his famous _monograph_, rostafinski set out three species with "dusky violet spores". these are his nos. , and . the first one of these he calls _s. fusca_, "spore-mass, etc., violet-black, individual spore clear violet, smooth, - u." the second species he writes down _s. dictyospora_, "hypothallus, stalk, columella, capillitium and spore-mass, violet-black, spore netted and fringed, clear-violet, - µ." the third species is _s. splendens_, "hypothallus stalk, columella and spore-mass violet-black, spore smooth, clear-violet, - µ." it will be observed that in color down to color of the spore by transmitted light, the three species are exactly the same; constitute a suite, so to say. it has since turned out, as noted under our no. , that the spores of _s. fusca_ are netted. error in description here is not surprising; the reticulations are sometimes faint. in _s. dictyospora_ they are admittedly strong, and the inference was that the '_gladkie_' spores of the third species might be netted also. this is no criticism: lenses were fifty years since not nearly so good for such discoveries as the oil-immersion is now. however; rostafinski made his specific diagnosis turn largely upon the mesh-width in the superficial net. this comes out in the '_opis_' following the description, and upon _this_ the european decision in rostafinski's favor as against _s. morgani_ largely turns. tropical gatherings are probably always darker, and evidently from such, from the north coast of south america, the original description was drawn. specimens before us from the same latitude are dusky indeed; no clear brown at all, but purplish withal. for the sake of harmony we may therefore now substitute the earlier name "with reservations"! but our description remains as before, presenting the really splendid, shining things that adorn our northern fields. dr. rostafinski called the large open meshes of the net '_oka_', eyes; _lumina_ let us say! quite uniform they are in and , much less so in . . stemonitis fenestrata _rex._ . _stemonitis splendens_ r. _f. fenestrata_ rex, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . sporangia aggregated, in tufts cm. or more in diameter, rich purple brown, on a common hypothallus, more or less erect, stipitate, tall, about cm., slender, triangular in section; stipe black, about one-third the total height, passing into a slender columella which is lateral in position, not central, but little branched, continued almost to the apex; the capillitium consisting almost entirely of the peripheral net, which presents meshes of unusual uniformity of size and shape; spores in mass brown, colorless by transmitted light, nearly smooth, - . µ. the remarkable shape of the sporangium and the peculiar regularity of the surface net, the lateral columella, all combine here to warrant the erection of a distinct species. dr. rex referred this to _s. bäuerlinii_ mass. at that time he had not the author's description, and had seen only a very poor fragment received with notes in a letter. mr. massee's description makes it immediately evident that whatever other affiliations _s. bäuerlinii_ may have, by description it has at least none with _s. fenestrata_ nor with our northern form of _s. splendens_. massee's species is described as having the "mass of spores black", the capillitium with "branches springing from the columella; the main branches more and more numerous, thicker and irregular towards the apex of the sporangium, and often form irregular flattened expansions":--etc. this suggests some form of _s. dictyospora_ rost.: see under our no. . possibly for such reasons lister referred it to _s. splendens_ rost., which as we have just seen, was undoubtedly regarded by the author as a form of the _fuscous_ group. the long, slender, simple columella is not only lateral, but occupies indeed the sharp vertical angle of the triangular, prismatic sporangium. furthermore, the sporangium is at maturity strangely twisted, so that the columella in its ascent accomplishes one or more spiral turns. in forms collected by dr. rex, which seemed to him most nearly to agree with massee's species, the inner capillitium is somewhat abundant, but the character of the columella just the same. pennsylvania, ohio, kansas, colorado, iowa; india! . stemonitis smithii _macbr._ . _stemonitis smithii_ macbr., _bull. lab. nat. hist. ia._, ii., p. . . _stemonitis microspora_ list., morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. . . _stemonitis ferruginea_ var. _smithii_ lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia in small clusters, close-packed and erect, not spreading, bright ferruginous prior to spore dispersal, cylindric, stipitate, of varying height; stipe jet-black, shining, about one-third the total height; hypothallus generally well developed; columella black, gradually tapering, at length dissolving in capillitial threads and net some distance below the diminished plumose apex; capillitium of fuscous threads, the inner network of abundant, sparingly united branches uniformly thickened, the surface net very delicate, composed of small, regular, polygonal meshes, the peridial processes few; spore-mass bright ferruginous, spores by transmitted light pale, almost colorless, smooth, - µ. the species as thus constituted includes forms varying in size from . - mm. only. the common form heretofore known everywhere in america as _s. ferruginea_ is from - mm. high. the _type_ to which the specific name _s. smithii_ was originally applied is . mm. high and rejoices in smooth, almost colorless spores, - µ. the plasmodium in the case of the species now considered is as concerns the _type_, of course, unknown. in one or two gatherings referred here the color of the plasmodium was noted greenish-yellow. this has the look of _s. flavogenita_; but small spores and delicate make-up take it the other way. miss lister makes it varietal to no. , next following. . stemonitis axifera (_bull._) _macbr._ plate vi., , _a_, and _b_. . _trichia axifera ferruginea_ bull., _champ. de la fr._, p. , tab. . . _stemonitis ferruginea_ ehr., _syl. myc. berol._, p. ; et auct. europ. ex parte; americ., non. . _stemonitis ferruginea_ ehr., list., _mycetozoa_, p. , in part. . _stemonitis axifera_ (bull.) macbr., _n. a. s._, p. , in part. . _stemonitis ferruginea_ ehr., lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._ sporangia terete, acuminate, fasciculate small in dense clusters, distinctly ferruginous in color, stipitate, from - mm. in height; the stipe black one-third to one-half the total height, not shining or polished; columella evenly branching, dissipated before reaching the acuminate apex; capillitium-branches clear brown anastomosing and dividing more or less to bear the superficial fine-meshed net; spores pallid, faintly ferruginous, smooth or nearly so, - µ. this would seem to be the common _ferruginous_ species of the world. doubtless micheli had the thing before him when he drew tab. , _clathroidastrum_, hoffman and jacquin seem to have recognized the form. to be sure, under the present plasmodic limitations we cannot be quite certain about these references. not until does anyone write down a particular species as marked by a white plasmodium, and distinguish it from other similar fructifications having similar origin. bulliard, _l. c._, does this, discriminating between _t. axifera ferruginea_ and _c. typhoides_; see under the last-named species. youthful ehrenberg, in his doctor's thesis, nearly thirty years later, draws a similar parallel but ignores the great french author, writing _s. ferruginea_ ehr. as though the thing had never been seen before! by this name it has been called until very lately; fries accepting it, but noting that the plasmodium, for him at least, was _yellow_! in dr. e. jahn, following fries' suggestion, established the fact that ehrenberg's white-plasmodic species had small spores, that fries had in mind a form with larger spores, having indeed yellow plasmodium; but see number below. it is for the present assumed that the plasmodium of our american _s. axifera_ is white. so far, there are few or no observations which establish the fact. the color, the small smooth spores, the fine-meshed capillitial net and the general dimensions determine the reference. . stemonitis flavogenita _jahn._ plate xx., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _stemonitis ferruginea_ ehr., fries, _myc._ iii., p. , syn. excl. . _stemonitis axifera_ (bull.) macbr., _n. a. s._, p. , in part. . _stemonitis flavogenita_ jahn, _abh. bot. ver. brandenb._, xlv, p. . . _stemonitis flavogenita_ jahn, list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia cylindric, obtuse, closely fasciculate, "cinnamon brown," stipitate, - µ; stipe short, black, columella ceasing abruptly below the apex; capillitium a loose net-work with many broad expansions; the peridial net very delicate, the meshes small but uneven, - µ, with many projecting points; spores pale ferruginous, verruculose, - µ. this is _s. ferruginea_ ehr. of fries with its plasmodium yellow. fries says "flavicat," _becomes_ yellow, if one may follow the analogy of corresponding latin verbs of color, so that the record of color-changes in the present species is yet to be recorded. until further experience may advise to the contrary, we may assume that all stemonites cinnamon-brown in color, with widened columella-tip, and pale yellowish spores - µ in diameter, have at some time in their history a yellow plasmodium, and accordingly represent in america the new-found species. the larger spores, and, the strange proliferate development of the columella-tip, to which miss lister has happily called attention, constitute the essential diagnostic features here. our only specimens so far are from oregon. . stemonitis pallida _wingate._ plate xiii., fig. . _stemonitis pallida_ wing., _n. a. f._, ell. and ev., no. . . _stemonitis pallida_ wing., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _stemonitis pallida_ wing., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia gregarious, or somewhat clustered, erect, cylindric obtuse, short, blackish brown, rubescent, becoming pallid, stipitate; stipe short, black, polished, rising from a thin, brown, or iridescent hypothallus; columella percurrent, ceasing abruptly at the apex; capillitium filling the interior with abundant branches which form at the surface a close-meshed net, little developed above, making the apex very blunt; spores in mass, dark brown, by transmitted light dusky, nearly smooth, . µ. this species is well recognized at sight, among the fuscous forms, by its scattered, erect habit. in color it is not unlike _s. fusca_, but has an added reddish tinge. in form it is peculiar by virtue of the blunt rounded apex which seems to be a constant character. the spores under moderate lens are perfectly smooth, under the - they present very delicate low scattered papillæ. rare; eastern part of united states. . stemonitis carolinensis _macbr._ plate xiii., fig. . . _stemonitis tenerrima_ berk. & c., morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. . . _stemonitis carolinensis_ macbr., _nom. nov._, _n. a. s._, p. . . _stemonitis pallida_ wing., lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia tufted in scattered clusters, small, slender, cylindric but tapering from the apex, at first ferruginous then ashen or purplish, stipitate; the stipe short, black and shining, one-fourth the total height or less, even; hypothallus well developed, black or very dark brown; columella black, gradually diminishing, at length dissipated some distance below the clavate or acuminate apex of the sporangium; capillitium dense, the inner of many, scarcely expanded, pallid, freely anastomosing branches, the outer a net of very small meshes, often less than the spores, - µ, peridial processes imperceptible; spore-mass pale ferruginous, spores by transmitted light pale violaceous brown, smooth, - µ. very closely related to the preceding, but recognizable by its proportionately much more slender, taller, acuminate sporangia, paler, and denser capillitium and the remarkably close-meshed net. not uncommon south: kentucky, alabama. . stemonitis herbatica pk. plate xvi., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _stemonitis herbatica_ peck, _rep. n. y. mus._, xxvi., p. . . _stemonitis axifera_ (bull.) macbr., _n. a. s._, p. , in part. . _stemonitis herbatica_ pk., lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . sporangia clustered, in scattered tufts, cylindric, obtuse, pallid ferruginous, stipitate or sometimes nearly sessile; stipe fuscous or jet-black, only slightly expanded below, much shorter than the columella; hypothallus scanty or none; columella lessening upward, sometimes attaining the apex of the sporangium, sometimes dissolved in capillitial threads some distance below; capillitium of rich brown threads forming the usual inner network of medium density, with many wide expanded nodes, the surface net made up of delicate, almost colorless threads surrounding small polygonal meshes; spore-mass ferruginous, spores by transmitted light very pale, brownish, minutely warted, - µ. the plasmodium of this species is variously cited from white to yellow. probably each report is true, dependent on the relative time of the observation. the low tufts of brown sporangia with short black stipes, borne often as dr. peck found them, assembled on living leaves, distinguish this little species. in the former edition this form was tentatively enrolled under _s. axifera_ (bull.); but see further under that species. probably widely distributed, but confused with short forms of other species; sometimes also on rotten wood or other substratum; so reported. new york to iowa; washington and oregon. reported also from europe. = . comatricha= (_preuss_) _rost._ . _comatricha preuss_, _linnaea_, xxiv., p. . . _comatricha_ rostafinski, _versuch_, p. . sporangia cylindric or globose, stipitate; stipe prolonged upward to form a more or less extended and tapering columella bearing branches on every side, which by repeated divisions and reunions form the capillitium; ultimate branch-tips free, not supporting a surface net parallel to the peridial wall; peridium evanescent, perhaps sometimes not developed at all. the genus _comatricha_ was set off from _stemonitis_ by the joint effort of preuss ( ) and rostafinski ( - ). preuss included in his genus, _comatricha_, alien forms, and besides failed to give an accurate definition; included, however, in his list some species which have since been known by his generic name. the distinction between the two genera is almost an artificial one, and species are sometimes arbitrarily assigned to one genus or the other. the diagnosis in any case turns upon the presence or absence of a surface net, formed, in _stemonitis_, by the anastomosing of the ultimate divisions of the capillitial branches. in _comatricha_ the anastomosing is general, from the columella out, and is not specialized at the surface. recent attempts to reunite the genera here compared seem to result in no apparent advantage. the genera come very near together, but their separation along the line suggested by rostafinski remains convenient. =key to the species of comatricha= _a._ sporangia closely clustered. _a._ obovate or short cylindric. . spores verruculose . _c. caespitosa_ . spores reticulate . _c. cylindrica_ _b._ elongate, reddish-brown, tufts extended . _c. flaccida_ _b._ sporangia scattered more or less widely. _a._ capillitium lax, open. i. sporangia long, - mm. . _c. longa_ ii. sporangia shorter, capillitium irregular . _c. irregularis_ _b._ capillitium dense. i. sporangia large, to mm., spore-mass black . _c. suksdorfii_ ii. sporangia smaller-- mm. o spore-mass brown, spherical, conoidal, etc., generally with more or less lengthened stipe . _c. nigra_ oo spore-mass violaceous or purplish . _c. aequalis_ iii. sporangia ovate or cylindric, minute, to . mm. o cylindric, spore with few, scattered warts . _c. typhoides_ oo smaller, capillitium irregular, loose . _c. laxa_ ooo total height to mm. or much less. + columella digitately divided . _c. elegans_ ++ columella lamprodermoid, and on leaves . _c. rubens_ +++ columella stemonitoid . _c. pulchella_ ++++ columella furcate at tip . _c. ellisii_ +++++ columella almost percurrent. . _c. subcaespitosa_ . comatricha cÆspitosa _sturgis._ plate xi., figs. , , . . _comatricha caespitosa_ sturg., _bot. gaz._, xviii., p. . . _diachaea thomasii_ rex, var., list., _mycetozoa_, p. . . _comatricha caespitosa_ sturg., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _diachaea caespitosa_ lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia densely crowded or cespitose, sub-sessile or short stipitate, clavate, - . mm. high, the peridium gray, iridescent with blue tints, comparatively permanent but finally disappearing; columella attaining two-thirds to three-fourths the height of the sporangium, giving rise throughout its length to the dense blackish capillitium; hypothallus delicate, inconspicuous; capillitium, the main branches thick at the point of origin, frequently anastomosing, and becoming gradually thinner toward the surface of the sporangium, the tips pointed, free, forming the network; spores blackish-violet in mass, by transmitted light pale brownish-violet, rough, . - µ. a very distinct and curious species. the sporangia are densely crowded, though by the nature of habitat somewhat tufted. the shape of the individual sporangium is quite uniformly clavate or obovate, decidedly truncate above. the spores are uniformly verruculose and plainly unequal. this species, as indicated, was by its author described as a comatricha. to transfer it to another genus seems idle, especially when long established generic boundaries must be seriously disturbed expressly to admit the new arrival. new england, north carolina, on moss and lichens.--_dr. sturgis._ . comatricha cylindrica (_bilgram_) _macbr._ . _diachaea cylindrica_ bilgram, _proc. acad. nat. sci. philad._, . . _diachaea cylindrica_ bilgram, list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia cylindrical with obtuse apex, sessile, gregarious, iridescent, steel-gray or bronze, to . mm. high, . to . mm. thick; hypothallus whitish, rugose; sporangium-wall membranous, hyaline, not adhering to the capillitium; columella arising from the hypothallus and extending nearly to the apex, brown, very light and semi-translucent near the base, irregular, flexuous, limeless throughout; capillitium brown, radiating from the columella to the periphery, repeatedly branching and anastomosing; spores warted, the warts connected by ridges forming a more or less perfect, coarse reticulation, violaceous, pale, - µ. this is a very interesting species closely related to the preceding from which it differs chiefly in the reticulation and generally more uniform character of the spores. the author hesitated about the generic reference, finally referring it to _diachaea_ despite the lack of calcium, because it was sessile and had a peridium rather more persistent than is usual in comatrichas. but the presence of lime in stipe and columella is an essential element in the diagnosis of _diachaea_, while length of stem is everywhere variable in stipitate forms of every genus, and the persistence of the peridium is also an uncertain factor; hangs on long in _c. typhoides_, _e. g._ on dead twigs, etc.--philadelphia,--_mr. bilgram_; new hampshire. . comatricha flaccida _list._ . _comatricha flaccida_ list., morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. . . _stemonitis splendens_, var. _flaccida_ list., _mycetozoa_, p. . . _comatricha flaccida_ (list.) morg., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _stemonitis splendens_, var. _flaccida_ list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia semi-erect, close crowded in tufts two inches in diameter, ferruginous, from a dark brown hypothallus, sessile or short stipitate; columella weak, crooked, percurrent, generally enlarged irregularly at the apex; capillitium of few, slender, brown branches which anastomose sparsely and irregularly as in _c. irregularis_, and present when freed from spores the same chenille-like appearance; spore-mass ferruginous brown; spores by transmitted light bright reddish brown, minutely warted, - µ. "growing on old wood and bark of oak, willow, etc. the component sporangia - mm. in length. the early appearance is much like that of a species of _stemonitis_, but the mature stage is a great mass of spores with scanty capillitium, as in _reticularia_; the columellas, however, are genuine and not adjacent portions of wall grown together."--_professor morgan._ professor morgan's herbarium material is at hand for study. it meets his description, needless to say, very generally. in what remains of the type the membranous connections are obscure; in fact the relation of such peridial (?) fragments to the capillitium in any way, is no longer evident. but in any event the colony does not impress one as something prematurely or improperly developed, a stemonitis gone begging;--nothing of that kind; it is clearly a comatricha, easily identifiable with no trace of a surface net but, with long free tips in plenty. misled no doubt, by the peridial fragments referred to, mr. lister in _mycetozoa, l. c._, associated this with _s. confluens_ cke. & ell., but entered it as a variety of _s. splendens_ rost., just the same. in the second edition of the _monograph_, ellis' species is set out, but morgan's retains the old position. in light of present knowledge, the relationship suggested would be difficult of proof. if _c. flaccida_ morgan be related to the _splendens_ group at all, it must be with the form known as _s. webberi_ rex., but it differs from this in almost every particular. it has no net, with meshes uniform or diverse; it is clear brown in color, with a tinge of red, beneath the lens; the spores are smaller, distinctly warted and with the reddish tinge of the capillitium; and in short, it seems to be a comatricha and not a stemonitis. specimens from western washington differ in some particulars but are apparently the same thing. ohio, kentucky, washington, california; not common. . comatricha longa _peck._ plate vi., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _comatricha longa_ peck, _rep. n. y. mus._, xliii., p. . sporangia crowded in depressed masses or tufts, black, long, cylindric, even, stipitate; stipe black, shining, generally very short; hypothallus well developed, black; columella black, slender, weak, generally dissipated some distance below the apex; capillitium of slender brown or dusky threads anastomosing to form an open network next the columella, but extended outwardly in form of long free slender branchlets, now and then dichotomously forked; spore-mass blue-black, spores by transmitted light dark brown, globose, spinulose, some of them faintly reticulate, about µ. a very remarkable species. rare in the west, more common, as it appears, in the eastern states. the sporangia occur in tufts about or cm. wide, springing generally from crevices in the bark of decaying logs, especially willow and elm, in swampy places. the sporangia are remarkable for their great length. generally about - mm., specimens occasionally reach mm.! the capillitial branches are so remote that the spores are scarcely retained by the capillitium at all. well described and figured by the author of the species, _forty-third rep. n. y. state museum_, p. , pl. . new york, pennsylvania, ohio, iowa. . comatricha irregularis _rex._ . _comatricha irregularis_ rex, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . sporangia crowded in flocculent tufts, very dark brown or black, semi-erect or drooping, - mm. in height, irregularly cylindric, variable, stipitate; stipe black, distinct, often one-half the total height; hypothallus well developed, brown, shining; columella central, slender, flexuous, reaching the apex, where it blends, by branching, with the capillitium; capillitium loose, open, composed of arcuate threads which radiate from the columella, and are joined together, forming a central, irregular reticulation of large meshes, brown, paler toward the surface, where the free ends are sometimes colorless; spore-mass black, spores by transmitted light brown, minutely warted, - µ. related, no doubt, to _c. longa_, but differing in habit, stature, as in texture and structure of the capillitium. in _c. longa_ the inner net is extremely simple,--a row or two of meshes at most, and the radiating branches are long and straight; in the species before us the inner network is well developed, and the radiating branches proportionately shorter and abundantly branching, with pale or white free tips. generally, though not always, found growing in the crevices of the bark on fallen logs of various deciduous trees. september. not common. this is thought to be _c. crypta_ schw., _n. a. f._, ; but the description under that number does not make clear what form schweinitz had before him, the present species or _c. longa_, and the herbarium specimen of schweinitz is "utterly lost"; the later specific name is accordingly adopted. new england west to the cascade mountains; south to kansas and texas. . comatricha laxa _rostafinski._ plate v., figs. , _a_. . _comatricha laxa_ rost., _mon._, p. . . _lamproderma ellisiana_ cooke, _myx. u. s._, p. . . _comatricha ellisiana_ (cooke) ell. & ev., _n. a. f._, . sporangia scattered, gregarious, sub-globose or short cylindric, and obtuse, dusky stipitate; stipe short, black, tapering rapidly upward from an expanded base; hypothallus scant or none; columella erect, rigid, sometimes reaching nearly to the apex of the sporangium, sometimes dichotomously branched a little below the summit, before blending into the common capillitium; capillitium lax, of slender, horizontal branches, anastomosing at infrequent intervals and ending in short, free tips; spores pallid, nearly smooth, - . µ. a very minute, delicate little species, about ½ mm. high; the stipe half the total height. in general appearance the shorter forms of the species resemble slightly _c. nigra_, but are distinguished by a much shorter stipe and much more open capillitium. the sporangia of _c. nigra_ mounted on long capillary stipes always droops more or less; the sporangia of the present species stand rigidly erect. the sporangia vary in form and in the branching of the columella. in the more globose phases, the columella almost always shows a peculiar dichotomy near the apex; in the cylindric types, this peculiar division fails.[ ] in fact, the shape is determined chiefly by the mode of branching as affects the columella. rostafinski's figure, on tab. xiii, does not present the type usually seen in this country, nor even in europe if we may judge from later illustrations. the species with us has received various names, but so far as can be determined, all apply to the same thing, and comparison of specimens from mr. ellis with those from europe show the correctness of the nomenclature here adopted. rare, but widely distributed; across the continent. . stemonitis suksdorfii _ell. & everh._ plate xi., figs. , , . . _stemonitis suksdorfii_ ell. & everh., _bull. washb. coll._, vol. i., p. . . _stemonitis suksdorfii_ ell. & everh., mass., _mon._, p. . sporangia scattered in small tufts or gregarious, cylindric, obtuse at both ends, sometimes widened above, black, - mm., stipitate; stipe jet-black, shining, even, about one-half the total height; hypothallus not continuous, dark brown; columella black, rather slender, terminating in two or more large branches just below the apex; capillitium exceedingly dense, dark fuscous or black, the flexuous threads anastomosing in a close network, with abundant free pallid extremities; spores in mass, blue-black, by transmitted light fuscous or dark violaceous-brown, minutely warted, - µ. easily recognizable at sight by its sooty color. entirely unlike any of the preceding. the type of the capillitium is that of _c. pulchella_, but it is very much more dense and entirely different in color. the sporangia are often widened above, and fairly truncate; the total height about mm. found on the bark of fallen twigs of _abies, larix_, etc. distributed by ell. & everh. under this name as an _exsiccata_. the evanescent peridium is colorless; when free, white or silvery. . comatricha nigra (_pers._) _schroeter._ plate xi., figs. , , . . _stemonitis nigra_ pers., gmel., _syst. nat._, p. . . _stemonitis ovata_, var. _nigra_ pers., _syn._, p. . . _stemonitis friesiana_ deby., _rab. eur. fung._, no. . . _comatricha friesiana_ (deby.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _comatricha nigra_ (pers.) schroeter, _pilz. krypt. fl. v. schles._, i., p. . . _comatricha obtusata_ fr., lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . . _comatricha nigra_ (pers.) schroeter, macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . sporangia scattered, ferruginous or dark brown, globose or ovoid, stipitate; stipe long, hair-like, tapering upward, black; hypothallus none; columella rapidly diminished toward the top, at length dissipated; capillitium of slender flexuous threads, radiating horizontally, repeatedly branching and anastomosing to form an intricate dense network, from the surface of which project a few short hook-like peridial processes; spore-mass black, spores by transmitted light dark violaceous, smooth or nearly so, - µ. this species, when typical, is easily recognized by its almost globose sporangia mounted on long slender stocks. these are or mm. high and generally persist, as persoon noticed, a long time after the sporangium has fallen. the sporangia are at first black; after spore disposal pale ferruginous. in shape they vary from ovate to spherical. sometimes they are umbilicate below, so that a vertical section would be obcordate. care must be taken to distinguish the present species from blown-out forms of _lamproderma_. this most common species seems to be also the center of widest differentiation. in a valuable paper on the myxomycetes of dr. c. h. peck's herbarium dr. sturgis points out the varying relationships of a group of surrounding forms. according to account _c. nigra_ verges on one side to _c. laxa_, on the other to _aequalis_ which the listers enter as varietal here. however, in the former the more rigid, direct and simple branching from the columella is usually determinative; in the latter the color, form, and generally more delicate structure, and a tendency to grow in tufts will serve to distinguish. in this discussion we have assumed as typical the globose sporangium, with the variations in the direction of ovate, obovate, ellipsoidal, etc., the capillitium flexuous and more richly anastomosing near the columella. on the drier slopes in the mountains of colorado specimens are especially abundant, in proper season covering apparently the lower surface of every barkless twig or fallen stem or _tree entire_! in such a field one might imagine every possible variation open to observation. probably such is the case; but as a matter of fact a single small plasmodium at lower levels will sometimes show greater range of variation than were noted on the mountain-side. the cylindric forms were for some reason few, and when noted were short, though often surmounting stems of double the usual length. rostafinski calls this _c. friesiana_, a name suggested by de bary. by this name the species was commonly known for many years. more recently some writers prefer _c. obtusata_ preuss; but _c. obtusata_ preuss, as figured by that author (sturm's _deutsch. fl._, pl. ), is surely more likely _enerthenema papillata_, and the author says in his description "capillitio vertice soli innato." persoon certainly recognized the species, and his description, though brief, is yet applicable to no other european species. there seems no reason why the name he gave should not be permanently adopted. rostafinski's figure, tab. xiii., shows an ellipsoidal sporangium, not cylindric. on the lower levels of the mississippi valley, the species is not common. possibly overlooked by reason of its minuteness. massachusetts, pennsylvania, ohio, iowa, colorado, north carolina, missouri. . comatricha Æqualis _peck._ plate vi., figs. , _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_; and plate xviii., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _comatricha equalis_ peck., _rep. n. y. mus._, xxxi., p. . sporangia gregarious, seldom erect, usually inclined, curved or nodding, dark brown, becoming violet, cylindric, acuminate-obtuse, stipitate; stipe about half the total height, - ½ mm., black, polished, even; hypothallus well developed, brown, continuous; columella black, tapering gradually, and attaining almost the summit of the sporangium; capillitium dense, of flexuous tawny threads which, by repeated branching, form an intricate network, the free extremities numerous, short, and pale; spores dark violaceous, distinctly warted, . - µ. a very graceful, elegant species, related to _c. pulchella_ and _c. persoonii_, but distinct by its much greater size and smaller spores. the specimens before show us the perfection of beauty in this genus; the polished stipe, the symmetrical capillitium, the soft purple-brown tints, are remarkable, and enable one to recognize the form at sight. specimens from oregon are unusually fine; larger than usual, reach mm. total height, and when blown out present the tints of violet in unusual clearness; var. _c. pacifica_. plate xviii., figs. , _a_, and _b_. new york, pennsylvania, ohio, illinois; oregon, _professor peck._ . comatricha typhoides (_bull._) _rost._ plate vi., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _mucor stemonitis_ scopoli, _fl. carn._, ii., pp. - (?). . _mucor stemonitis_ schaeffer, _icones. tab._, ccxcvii (?). . _stemonitis typhina_ wiggers, _prim. fl. hols._, p. (?). . _trichia typhoides_ bulliard, _champ. de la france_, p. , t. , ii. . _stemonitis typhina_ persoon, _myc. obs._, i., p. , in part. . _stemonitis typhoides_ (bull.) d. c., _fl. fr._, p. . . _stemonitis typhoides_ (bull.) fr., _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _comatricha typhoides_ (bull.) rost., _vers._, p. . . _comatricha typhina_ (pers.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _comatricha stemonitis_ (scop.) sheldon, _minn. bot. stud._, p. . . _comatricha stemonitis_ (scop.) sheld., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _comatricha typhoides_ rost., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia gregarious, scattered, cylindric, erect, sometimes arcuate, obtuse, - mm. high, at first silvery, then brown, as the peridium vanishes, stipitate; stipe black, about one-half the total height or less; hypothallus distinct, more or less continuous, reddish-brown; columella tapering upward, black, attaining more or less completely the apex of the sporangium; capillitium, arising as rather stout branches of the capillitium, soon taking the form of slender, flexuous, brownish threads, which by repeated anastomosing form at length a close network, almost as in _stemonitis_, the free, ultimate branches very delicate and short; spore-mass dark brown; spores by transmitted light, pale, almost smooth, except for the presence of a few scattered but very prominent umbo-like warts, of which four or five may be seen at one time, - . µ. this is our most common north american species. it occurs everywhere on decaying wood, sometimes in remarkable quantity, thousands of sporangia at a time. the plasmodium, watery white in color, infests preferably very rotten logs of _quercus_, on which in june the sporangia rise as white or pallid columns. the peridium is exceedingly delicate, less seldom seen here than in some other species, but likely to be overlooked entirely. the spores when fresh have a distinct violet or bluish tinge; in old specimens they are almost colorless. in any case they are well marked by the large papillæ already referred to. _c. typhina_, var. _heterospora_ rex, differs from the type in several particulars: the sporangia manifest a closer habit; the capillitium is made up of more slender threads and forms a yet denser network; the spores between the large papillæ are marked by a more or less perfectly formed reticulation.[ ] as to nomenclature, this is our old friend _c. typhina_ (pers.) rost. it should be, more properly, called _c. typhina_ rost., for it is not persoon's species exactly. but scopoli, _l. c._, by citing hall, gleditsch, and micheli, so describes our form as to leave small doubt that he had before him our common species. schaeffer's figures also come to the rescue, which, though by no means satisfactory, yet can probably refer to no other species. however, bulliard gives the first good account and figure, and in concord with the decision of our english colleagues, the name afforded by the famous _champignons_ is here adopted. widely distributed. maine to california, and from british america to nicaragua. . comatricha elegans (_racib._) _list._ plate xvi., fig. . . _rostafinskia elegans_ racib., _rozpr. akad. krak._, xii., . . _raciborskia elegans_ berl., _sacc. syl._, vii., p. . . _raciborskia elegans_ berl., list., _mycet._, p. . . _comatricha elegans_ list., _br. mus. guide to mycet._, p. . sporangia loosely gregarious, globose, purplish-brown, small, - . mm. in total height, stipitate; stipe black, subulate, to mm,; columella at first divided into a few main branches, from which by repeated subdivision the delicate, anastomosing, flexuose capillitial threads take origin; spores pale brownish-violaceous, spinulescent, - µ. south carolina. colorado:--_dr. sturgis._ . comatricha rubens _lister._ . _comatricha rubens_ list., _mycet._, p. . sporangia gregarious, globoid or ellipsoidal, - . mm., pink-brown, stipitate; peridium persistent below; stipe . - mm., black, shining; columella to more than half the sporangium, giving off on all sides the brownish-violaceous, flexuose threads of the capillitium, somewhat thickened and broadly attached to the persisting peridial cup; spores lilac-brown, spinulescent, - µ. another border species, looking to the lamprodermas. philadelphia, by courtesy _mr. bilgram_. . comatricha pulchella (_bab._) _rost._ plate xiii., fig. , and plate xii., figs. and _a_. . _stemonitis pulchella_ bab., _trans. lin. soc._, p. . . _comatricha pulchella_ bab., berk., _ann. mag. nat. hist._, i. vi., p. , pl. xii., . _a._ _b._ . _stemonitis tenerrima_ curtis, _am. jour._, vi., p. . . _stemonitis tenerrima_ berk. & c., _grev._, ii., p. . . _comatricha pulchella_ (bab.) rost., _mon. app._, p. . . _comatricha persoonii_ rost., _mon._, p. . . _comatricha persoonii_ rost., list., _mycet._, p. . . _comatricha pulchella_ (bab.) rost., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _comatricha persoonii_ rost., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. , _excl. syn._ . _comatricha pulchella_ rost., list., _mycet., nd ed._, p. . . _comatricha pulchella_ var. _gracilis_ wing., list., _mycet., nd ed._, p. . sporangia very minute, mm. high, scattered, ovate or ovate-cylindric acuminate, pale brown or ferruginous, stipitate; stipe short, black, nearly even; hypothallus none, or merely a circular base to the tiny stem; columella straight, gradually tapering, reaching almost if not quite to the apex of the sporangium; capillitium dense, a network of flexuous brown threads, rather broad within, ending in slender tips without; spore-mass brown, spores by transmitted light pale "lilac brown," or pale ferruginous, minutely but uniformly warted, - µ. probably widely distributed but rarely collected. pennsylvania, iowa; _okoboji_. toronto,--_miss currie._ . comatricha ellisii _morg._ plate xii., figs. and _a_. . _comatricha ellisii_ morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. . . _comatricha laxa_ rost., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _comatricha nigra_ schroet., list., _mycet., nd ed._, p. . sporangia short, erect, oval or ovoid to oblong. stipe and columella erect, brown and smooth, rising from a thin pallid hypothallus, tapering upward and vanishing into the capillitium toward the apex of the sporangium, the stipe usually longer than the columella. capillitium of slender pale brown threads; these branch several times with lateral anastomosing branchlets, forming a rather open network of small meshes, ending with very short free extremities. spores globose, even, pale ochraceous, - mic. in diameter. growing on old pine wood. sporangium . -. mm. in height by . -. mm. in width, the stipe usually a little longer than the sporangium. on the strength of the clear descriptions and beautiful drawings of celakowsky, _myxomyceten böhmens_, p. ; taf. , figs. and , this elegant little species as described by my colleague professor morgan was, in the former edition, referred to _c. laxa_ rost. it was then reported from new jersey only. since then we have specimens from ohio and from southern missouri, all true to form, almost identical. it seems wise accordingly, while recognizing the relationship of the form to both _c. laxa_, and to _c. nigra_ as well, to give it here an individual place again. it is very small; but once studied may thereafter be easily recognized by a hand-lens. the form is definite, clean-cut, and the spores are pronouncedly smaller than in either of the two related species. . comatricha subcaespitosa _peck._ plate xii., figs. , _a_. . _comatricha subcaespitosa_ peck, _n. y. mus. rep._ , p. . sporangia scattered or sometimes in loose clusters, cylindric, obtuse, about . - mm., dark brown, stipitate; stipe short, one-fifth total height; hypothallus minute; capillitium regular, the branching quite uniform parallel, flexuous, brown with a tinge of violet, not dense; columella well-defined, almost percurrent; spores brown in mass, under lens dusky, nearly smooth, - µ. the larger spores, regular, erect form, and clustered habit separate this form from others with which it will be naturally associated. see page under _addenda_. = . diachæa= _fries_ . _diachaea_ fries, _syst. orb. veg._, i., p. .[ ] sporangia distinct, globose or cylindric, the peridium thin, iridescent, stipitate; the stipe and columella surcharged with lime, white or yellowish, rigid, thick, tapering upward; capillitium of delicate threads free from lime, radiating from various points on the columella, branching and anastomosing as in _comatricha_ to form a more or less intricate network, the ultimate branchlets supporting the peridial wall. rostafinski placed this genus near the _didymieae_ on account of the calcareous columella and the non-calcareous capillitium. on the other hand the structure of the capillitium and the iridescent simple peridium ally _diachaea_ to _lamproderma_ and the _stemoniteae_; the only distinction being the calcareous stem. it is simply an intermediate genus to be placed here more conveniently than anywhere else in what is of necessity a linear arrangement. =key to the species of diachæa= _a._ stipe and columella white. _a._ sporangium cylindric . _d. leucopodia_ _b._ sporangium globose. i. evidently stalked . _d. splendens_ ii. stalk very short, mm., conic. o spores warted . _d. bulbillosa_ oo spores faintly netted . _d. subsessilis_ _b._ stipe yellowish or orange . _d. thomasii_ . diachaea leucopodia (_bull._) _rost._ . _trichia leucopodia_ bull., _champ. de la france_, pl. , fig. . . _diachaea elegans_ fries, _syst. orb. veg._, i., p. . . _diachaea leucopoda_ (bull.) rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia rather closely gregarious, metallic blue or purple iridescent, cylindric or ellipsoidal, obtuse, sub-umbilicate below, stipitate; stipe short, much less than one-half the total height, snow-white, tapering upward; hypothallus white, venulose, occurring from stipe to stipe to form an open network over the substratum; columella thick, cylindric, tapering, blunt, terminating below the apex, white; capillitium springing from every part of the columella, of slender threads, brown, flexuous, branching and anastomosing to form an intricate net; spores in mass nearly black, by transmitted light dull violaceous, minutely roughened, - µ. a very beautiful species; not uncommon in the eastern states; rare west of the mississippi. easily recognized, amid related forms, by its snow-white stem, a feature which did not escape the notice of bulliard and suggested the accepted specific name. fries adopted the specific name proposed by trentepohl and wrote _d. elegans_, simply because to him the peridium was "admodum elegans." the peridium is exceedingly thin and early deciduous; the stipe long persistent. the plasmodium, dull white, was observed by fries at the beginning of the century; "morphoseos clavem inter myxogastres hoc genus primum mihi subministravit." this species, as the diachæas generally, affects fallen sticks and leaves in orchards and forests and even spreads boldly over the foliage and stems of living plants. new england, new york, pennsylvania, maryland, virginia, south carolina, ohio, iowa, california, canada. . diachaea splendens _peck._ plate vii., figs. , _a_, _b_, _c_. . _diachaea splendens_ peck, _rep. n. y. mus._, xxx., p. . sporangia gregarious, metallic blue with brilliant iridescence, globose, stipitate; stipe white, short, tapering upward; hypothallus white, venulose, a network supporting the snowy stipes; columella white, cylindric, passing the centre, obtuse; capillitium lax, of slender, anastomosing, brown, translucent threads; spores in mass black, by transmitted light dark-violaceous, very coarsely warted, - µ. this is perhaps the most showy species of the list. the globose brilliantly iridescent sporangia are lifted above the substratum on snow-white columnar stalks; these are again joined one to another by the pure white vein-like cords of the reticulate hypothallus. the plasmodium may spread very widely over all sorts of objects that come in the way, dry forest leaves and sticks, or the fruit and foliage of living plants. closely resembling the preceding, but differing in the globose sporangia, it may be instantly recognized under the lenses by its coarsely papillate spores. not common. new york, pennsylvania, ontario, ohio, iowa, nebraska. . diachaea subsessilis _pk._ . _diachaea subsessilis_ pk., _rep. n. y. mus. nat. history_, xxxi., p. . . _diachaea subsessilis_ pk., lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . sporangia gregarious or closely crowded, small, about . mm., dull iridescent-blue, greenish-gray, etc., globose or depressed-globose, short-stalked or nearly sessile; stipe generally very short, reduced sometimes to a mere persistent cone, white; columella obsolescent or reduced to white conical intrusion of the stipe; capillitium radiating from the stipe, brown, consisting of branching, anastomosing threads, paler at the tips; hypothallus very scanty or none; spores minutely warted, the papillæ arranged in an irregular, loose net-work, violet-brown, paler under the lens, - µ. this species is easily recognizable by its diminutive size and generally defective structure; i. e. it has the appearance of a degenerate or depauperate representative of some finer form. besides the type, yet to be seen in albany, dr. sturgis reports the species from connecticut and from the isle of wight! a small gathering is before me from colorado. every sporangium is borne upon a calcareous pedicel, very short indeed, but real. the _var. globosa_ referred to in the english text under _d. leucopodia_ has not appeared so far as reported, on this side the sea, but even such variety could scarcely in the hands of a collector take the place of the form now under consideration. specimens of _d. subsessilis_ from europe correspond remarkably with those described by drs. peck and sturgis. mr. lister would have our species a synonym for _lamproderma fuckelianum cracovense_ (rost.) cel. rare; from connecticut to colorado. . diachÆa bulbillosa (_berk. & br._) _list._ . _didymium bulbillosum_ berk. & br., _jour. linn. soc._, xiv., p. . . _diachaea bulbillosa_ lister, _jour. bot._, xxxvi., p. . . _diachaea bulbillosa_ lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia gregarious, globose, small, iridescent purple, stipitate; stipe conical, white, sometimes brown, half-a-mm., half the total height; columella clavate, white or brown; capillitium of purple-brown threads united to form a lax net; spores violet-grey, marked with scattered warts " - in a row across the hemisphere", - µ. java, _berkeley & broome, op. c._ toronto, canada; cited here by courtesy of miss currie who gives the spores . µ. . diachaea thomasii _rex._ plate v., fig. , _a_. . _diachaea thomasii_ rex, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . sporangia gregarious, more or less crowded, purple and bronze, iridescent, globose sessile or short stipitate; stipe, when present, very short, thick, tapering rapidly upward, orange; hypothallus orange, prominent venulose, continuous; columella ochre yellow, rough, cylindric, tapering upward to one-half the height of the sporangium, obtuse; capillitium lax, of slender brown rigid threads, radiating from the columella in every direction, anastomosing to form a loose, large-meshed network; spore-mass brown; spores by transmitted light violaceous, minutely, unevenly warted, - µ. the peculiar orange color of the calcareous deposits in stipe and columella easily distinguish this species. the capillitium is also distinctive, rigid, simple, and comparatively scant, lamprodermoid. rex calls attention to the fact that under low magnification the spores appear spotted; but the spots are occasioned simply by the closer aggregation, at particular points, of the ordinary papillæ. a southern species. all the specimens so far reported are from the mountains of north carolina. the specimens referred to under this name by lister, _mon._, p. , as coming from "kittery, u. s. a." (kittery, maine?), are, no doubt, according to mr. lister's figures, _comatricha caespitosa_ sturgis. see under that species. _c._ lamprodermaceÆ sporangia distinct, generally gregarious, more or less spherical; capillitium developed chiefly or solely from the summit of the columella. =key to the genera of the lamprodermaceæ= _a._ columella percurrent; capillitium from a disk at the apex . enerthenema _b._ columella scarce reaching the centre of the sporangium. _a._ capillitium not forming a net . clastoderma _b._ capillitium forming an intricate net . lamproderma _c._ minute, capillitium rudimentary . echinostelium = . enerthenema= _bowman_ . _enerthenema_ bowman, _trans. linn. soc._, xvi., p. . sporangia stipitate, the stipe extended as a columella, which entirely traverses the sporangium and forms at the apex an expanded disk; from this depends the capillitium. =key to the species of enerthenema= _a._ spores free . _e. papillatum_ _b._ spores in clusters . _e. berkeleyanum_ . enerthenema papillatum (_pers._) _rost._ plate v., fig. . . _stemonitis papillata_ pers., _syn._, p. . . _enerthenema elegans_ bowm., _trans. linn. soc._, xvi., p. . . _comatricha obtusata_ preuss, sturm, _deutschl. flora_, pl. lxx. . _enerthenema papillatum_ (pers.) rost., _mon. app._, p. . sporangia scattered or crowded, stipitate, spheroidal, naked, black fuscous, above, shining, adorned with a minute, black papilla; stipe black, opaque, conical or attenuate upward, about equal to the peridium; columella at the apex expanded into a shining disk; capillitium springing from the lower side of the disk or from its edge, made up of scarcely forked threads which are free below; spores violaceous or fuscous black, minutely warted, - µ. rare. wisconsin, ohio, south carolina, illinois, pennsylvania, iowa, colorado. this is one of the few species so well marked that persoon's description, _l. c._, is definitive: "stylidio toto penetrante. capillitium exacte globosum, sub-compactum, in eius apice stylidium papillæ in modum prominet." for this reason bowman's specific name _elegans_ is discarded. . enerthenema berkeleyanum _rost._ . _enerthenema berkeleyanum_ rost., _mon. app._, p. . . _enerthenema syncarpon_ sturgis, _myxo. col._, ii., p. . this species corresponds to the preceding in all respects except in the fact that the spores are clustered in groups of four to twelve and are a little larger, - µ, strongly spinulose on the exposed surface. dr. sturgis reports this from colorado, _l. c._, but discards rostafinski's specific name on the ground that the type has disappeared; only the spores of some fungus hyphæ remain in the place and these may have been mistaken by berkeley. this seems hardly possible since such supposition would not account for the generic reference either by berkeley (and broome) or by rostafinski. the description in the _monograph_ is minute as that of one who had the form under his lenses. rostafinski _saw_ berkeley's specimens. for a similar case, see under _prototrichia metallica, mycetozoa nd ed._, p. . south carolina, type; colorado. = . clastoderma= _blytt_ . _clastoderma_ blytt, _bot. zeit._, xxxviii., p. . sporangium globose, distinct, stipitate; the columella short or obsolete; the capillitium of few sparsely branched threads, which bear at their tops the persistent fragments of the peridium, but are not otherwise united. distinguished from _lamproderma_ by the peculiar manner in which the peridium is ruptured, and by the simplicity of the scanty capillitium. so far there appears to be but a single species. . clastoderma debaryanum _blytt._ plate xiii., fig. , and plate xvi., fig. . . _clastoderma debaryanum_ blytt, _bot. zeit._, xxxviii., p. . . _orthotrichia microcephala_ wing., _jour. myc._, ii., p. . sporangia scattered or gregarious, very minute, - to ¼ mm. in diameter, the peridium fugacious, except the minute patches that adhere to the capillitial branchlets, and the slight annulus at the base of the columella; stipe long, unequal, dark below, above paler; columella almost none, giving early rise to the comparatively few slender threads which by their repeated forking make up the capillitium; spores globose, even, violaceous, - µ. reported in the united states so far from maine, pennsylvania, ohio, and illinois. the sporangia are very small, but beautiful, delicate little structures, found on the bark of living red oak in this country; in norway it seems to have been seen first on a dead polyporus. its minuteness doubtless causes it to be generally overlooked, _n. a. f._, . = . lamproderma= _rostafinski_ . _lamproderma_ rostafinski, _versuch_, p. . sporangia stipitate, globose, or ellipsoid; columella cylindric or inflated or clavate at the apex, scarcely attaining half the height of the peridium; peridium shining with metallic tints, deciduous, except where, at the base of the columella, it forms a ring around the stipe; capillitium rising in tufts or by simple branches from the columella, the threads regularly forked, generally united into a net. the lamprodermas are distinguished from the comatrichas, to which they are most nearly allied, by the arrangement of the capillitium, its development from the apex only of the columella, the continuation of the stipe within the peridium. in other words, the peridium leaves the stipe some distance below the point where the lowest capillitial branches take origin. in mature specimens the peridium has often entirely disappeared, its only trace, a collar, more or less distinct, around the stipe, marking the beginning of the columella. nevertheless the peridium is far more persistent than in any comatricha, and shows in yet greater brilliancy the wondrous metallic tints and iridescence of _comatricha_ and _diachaea_. older authors, so far as can be seen, distributed the species between _physarum_ and _stemonitis_. =key to the species of lamproderma= _a._ peridium metallic blue. _a._ stipe short, stout. . capillitium tips colorless . _l. violaceum_ _b._ stipe long, slender. . capillitium of dark, tapering, oft-united threads . _l. columbinum_ . capillitial threads rigid, dark brown, seldom united . _l. scintillans_ _b._ peridium not blue, silvery. _a._ stipe long, slender. . capillitium very intricate, forming a compact net . _l. arcyrionema_ . capillitium of rigid dark brown threads . _l. physaroides_ _b._ stipe short, heads large, mm. or more . _l. robustum_ . lamproderma physaroides (_alb. & schw._) _rost._ . _physarum physaroides_ alb. & schw., _consp. fung._, p, . . _lamproderma physaroides_ (alb. & schw.) rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia gregarious, wide-spreading, globose, the peridium persistent with a silver metallic, sometimes brassy, lustre; stipe long, brown or black, tapering upward; hypothallus well developed, brown or purple, usually not continuous; columella swollen, obtuse, short at best, hardly attaining the centre of the sporangium; capillitium very rigid, of simple or sparingly branched, dark-brown threads radiating from the clavate apex of the columella and only here and there anastomosing toward the surface, the ultimate divisions distinctly rough; spores lilac brown, rough, - . µ. this species is well described and illustrated in rostafinski's _monograph_. it is well marked by its clavate columella and peculiarly simple, dark rigid capillitium, the branches of which rise in great numbers immediately from the columella, and maintain their primitive thickness during the greater part of their length. the transverse vincula are often at right angles to the principal branches, and the meshes, where formed, are often long and rectangular. externally, it resembles _l. arcyrionema_, but is by its spores and capillitium instantly distinguished. rostafinski gives the spores . - . µ. large spores are less common in the specimens before us. lister figures a sessile variety. in our first edition this species was entered from lists published for new england, new york, and ohio. the intervening years, however, have brought no confirmation. specimens from maine and ohio, with large spores, represent _l. columbinum_, and those cited for new york are forms of _l. violaceum_. it is accordingly doubtful that _l. physaroides_ (a. & s.) rost. occurs in north america. that it is to be found in europe there seems no doubt. the figure and description by schweinitz, _l. c._, may indeed be inconclusive, but rostafinski's citation and abundant description leave no doubt as to his opinion; while numerous localities named would indicate adequate material. what rostafinski described will no doubt obtain wider recognition some day. . lamproderma robustum _ell. & evh._ . _lamproderma robustum_ ell. & evh., mass., _mon._, p. . . _lamproderma violaceum_ var. _sauteri_ rost., list., _mycetozoa_, p. . . _lamproderma sauteri_ rost., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . sporangia gregarious, globose, dull black, the peridium when present silvery, shining, or simply smooth, transparent and without iridescence, stipitate; stipe short, black, tapering rapidly upward, annulate with the persisting base of the peridium; columella short, thick, truncate, and widened at the top; hypothallus well developed, brown or purple; capillitium dense, made up of dark brown branches, numerous and rather slender, repeatedly branched and anastomosing toward the surface to form a slight delicate network with abundant free ends; spores dark purple brown, rough, - µ. this species in outward appearance resembles _l. physaroides_, from which it is easily distinguished by the much greater diameter of the globose sporangium, mm. or more. the persistent base of the peridium is also characteristic, very prominent sometimes, and visible to the naked eye. the capillitium is also unlike that of _l. physaroides_; resembles more nearly that of _l. violaceum_. from the latter species _l. robustum_ is distinguished by the color of the peridium, and by the larger, darker spores and generally different capillitium. in our former edition this is called _l. sauteri_ rost. that much-quoted author distinguished _l. violaceum_ and _l. sauteri_; the english authors make the last named a variety only of the former. this our american species is _not_. it is, as presented in our western mountains, clear-cut, well defined, not a variety of anything. the original name is therefore restored. _lamproderma arcyrioides_ (somm.) morgan is probably a form of _l. columbinum_. the original _l. arcyrioides_ has not yet been certainly identified in north america; see following species. colorado, oregon, washington, california. . lamproderma columbinum (_pers._) _rost._ . _physarum columbinum_ pers., _obs. myc._, i., p. . . _lamproderma columbinum_ rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia scattered, gregarious; rich violet or purple with metallic iridescence, globose, stipitate; the stipe long, three-fourths the total height, slender, subulate, black; hypothallus scant, purplish or brown; columella small, one-third the height or less, tapering or acute, black; the capillitium brown throughout, not dense, arising from nearly all parts of the columella, freely branching and anastomosing to an open, large-meshed network; spore-mass black, spores by transmitted light dark brown, rough, - µ. rostafinski distinguished this beautiful species by the color of the peridium and the conic columella. according to mr. lister, rostafinski was not specially careful in labelling his material, different forms having been included under this specific name. nevertheless, the description is well drawn, and excludes _l. physaroides_ completely. at all events our american specimens correspond so well with the description of _l. columbinum_ (pers.) rost. that there seems no doubt that we have here what the polish author figured and described, whether or not he was always consistent in applying his labels. the color distinguishes at sight the present species from _l. physaroides_, and the capillitium and large rough brown spores distinguish it from _l. violaceum_. the capillitium of the minute _l. scintillans_ is much denser and more rigid, and the spores smaller. the stipe when dry is ciliate. this is the common species of our western mountains, especially on the pacific slope. in the cascades every dark ravine is certain to show it in later summer and autumn, far extended colonies covering the moist surfaces of every mouldering log; the myriad globoid sporangia giving back when brought to the sunlight the most extravagant blues and greens with all the splendor of metallic sheen, their brilliant beauty never fails to quicken the attention of even the most insensate tourist. abundant in the western forests, in the east extremely rare; maine, pennsylvania, south carolina, washington, oregon; vancouver, canada. . lamproderma scintillans (_berk. & br._) _morg._ plate v., figs. , _a_. . _stemonitis scintillans_ berk. & br., _jour. linn. soc._, xv., p. . . _lamproderma arcyrioides_, var. _iridea_ cke., _myx. g. b._, p. . . _lamproderma irideum_ (cke.) mass., _mon._, p. . . _lamproderma scintillans_ (berk. & br.) morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. . sporangia gregarious, scattered, globose or depressed-globose, rich metallic blue or purple, iridescent, stipitate; the stipe long, slender, even, inclined and nodding or sometimes erect; hypothallus small, circular; columella cylindric, small, not reaching the centre, black; capillitium dense, of rigid, straight, sparingly branched or anastomosing, brown threads, which are sometimes white or colorless just as they leave the columella; spores globose, rough, violaceous brown, µ. this is _l. irideum_ of cooke and of massee's _monograph_. its capillitium is remarkable, and constitutes an easy diagnostic mark. the threads appear at first sight entirely simple, but are really several times furcate, and not infrequently anastomose. the spores are covered with sparsely sown large papillæ, easily seen under moderate magnification. this is one of our earliest species. to be sought in may on beds of decaying oak leaves in the woods, especially in wet places, near streams, etc. rare. new england, pennsylvania, ohio, iowa. . lamproderma violaceum (_fries_) _rost._ . _stemonitis violacea_ fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _lamproderma violaceum_ (fries) _rost., mon._, p. . sporangia closely gregarious or scattered, depressed-globose, more or less umbilicate below, metallic blue or purple, sessile or short stipitate; stipe stout, dark brown or black, even; hypothallus, when the sporangia are crowded, a thin, continuous, purplish membrane; when the sporangia are scattered, the hypothallus discoidal; columella cylindric or tapering slightly upward, the apex obtuse, black, attaining the centre of the sporangium; capillitium lax and flaccid, made up of flexuous threads branching and anastomosing to form a network, open in the interior, more dense without, the threads at first pale brown as they leave the columella, becoming paler outward to the colorless tips; spores minutely warted, violaceous gray, - µ. this is our most common species; found on decaying sticks and logs late in the fall. its pale capillitium will usually distinguish it, especially where the sporangia are empty; then the pallid free extremities of the capillitial branches give to the little spheres under the lens a white or hoary appearance not seen in any other species. the plasmodium is at first almost transparent, then amber tinted, sending up tiny semi-transparent spheres on shining brownish stalks. as the changes approach maturity, the sporangia become jet-black, and only at last when the spores are ready for dispersal does the peridium assume its rich metallic purple tints. colonies a meter in length, two or three decimeters in width, are sometimes seen! new england, new york, pennsylvania, ohio, indiana, illinois, iowa, south dakota; toronto. common. . lamproderma arcyrionema _rost._ plate v., figs. , _a_. . _lamproderma arcyrionema_ rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia gregarious, scattered, globose, silvery gray or bronze, iridescent, erect, stipitate; stipe black, long, two-thirds to three-fourths the total height, slender, rigid; columella slender, cylindric, attaining about one-third the height of the sporangium when it breaks into the primary branches of the capillitium; capillitium exceedingly intricate, made up of slender, flexuous brown threads which frequently branch and anastomose to form an elegant round-meshed network resembling that of _arcyria_, free ultimate branchlets not numerous; spores in mass jet-black, by transmitted light violaceous, smooth, or only faintly warted, - µ. in outward appearance this species resembles _l. physaroides_, but is easily recognizable by its very peculiar capillitium. this, in its primary branching, resembles a comatricha. in typical forms, the columella branches at the apex only, generally into two strong divisions which then break up irregularly and anastomose in every direction. this seems to have been the form present to rostafinski when he wrote "columella truncate." in central american and some north american specimens, the branching is very different; the twigs leave the columella at various points almost down to the annulus, and the entire effect is dendroid. the columella is lost almost at once. a small form of this species was formerly distributed in the united states as _comatricha friesiana_ deby. this circumstance led the present author to describe central american forms as _c. shimekiana_. judging from a remark by massee (_mon._, p. ), a similar confusion seems to have prevailed in europe. as a matter of fact, the resemblance between _c. friesiana_, i. e. _c. nigra_, and the present species is sufficiently remote. _lamproderma minutum_ rostafinski seems to be a small form of this species. rostafinski bases his diagnosis upon the branching of the columella, which is, as we have seen, inconstant, and upon the colorless capillitium. this feature in specimens examined is also inconstant. occurring in large colonies on barkless decaying logs of various species; the plasmodium almost colorless. new england, pennsylvania, ohio, louisiana, texas, mexico, nicaragua; vancouver's island; ontario, toronto,--_miss currie._ = . echinostelium= _debary_ . _echinostelium_ debary, rost., _versuch_, p. . sporangia distinct, globose, minute, the structure limited to a few imperfect rib-like, loosely joined branches developed from the short columella or stem-top, sustaining the spores. a single species:-- . echinostelium minutum _deby_. . _echinostelium minutum_ deby., rost., _versuch_, p. . plate xix., figs. and _a_ sporangia distinct, scattered, globose, very minute, - µ, stipitate; the stipe, hair-like subulate, granular but hyaline; columella minute or none; capillitium consisting of a few arcuate spinose threads loosely united supporting the uncovered spores, spores globose, colorless, smooth, - µ.--_rostafinski._ this very singular and diminutive form, the least of all slime-moulds, is probably widely distributed but the accident of discovery is rare. debary found it once only, at frankfurt am main. miss lister reports its occurrence in england and austria. in the united states it has been seen but once on certain laboratory material from massachusetts, studied by dr. thaxter. our drawing is after rostafinski, iv., ; miss lister follows no. , and so finds a bit of peridium below the two spores shown in the figure, one on each side of a microscopic _columella_. this is almost the only taxonomic suggestion;--a mere suggestion; this microscopic bit of anxious life is but a shadow,--a shade, a shadow of a lamproderma! order iii cribrariales fructification plasmodiocarpous or æthalioid, or consisting of distinct sporangia; peridia membranaceous at maturity, more or less evanescent, opening irregularly or by means of a delicate network, which involves at least the upper part of the sporangium; capillitium usually none; spores of some shade of brown, umbrine, rarely purplish. this order is distinguished--except in a single case--by the entire absence of true capillitium, the pallid or brown spores, the gradual evolution of distinct sporangia in which provision for spore-dispersal is made by peridial modification especially at the sporangium-top. =key to the families of the cribrariales= _a._ fructification plasmodiocarpous scattered as if made up of the segments of the plasmodial net liceacÆ _b._ fructification of distinct and separate sporangia, long stipitate, opening by a delicate operculum at the top orcadellaceÆ _c._ fructification æthalioid, the sporangia generally more or less tubular, often prismatic by mutual pressure; opening by rupture of the apex, the lateral walls entire tubiferaceÆ _d._ fructification æthalioid, the sporangia ill defined, their walls more or less perforate, frayed, or dissipated, forming a pseudo-capillitium, reticulariaceÆ _e._ fructification of distinct and separate sporangia, the walls more or less reticulately perforate especially above cribrariaceÆ _a._ liceaceÆ a single genus,-- = . licea= (_schrader_) _rost._ . _licea_ schrader, _nov. gen. plant._, p. , in part. . _licea_ (schrader) rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia plasmodiocarpous, looped, irregular, or distinct, sessile, and regularly rounded or elliptical; the peridium simple, rather firm, ruptured irregularly or by simple fissure; hypothallus none. this genus is distinguished from other similar plasmodiocarpous forms by the extreme simplicity of its structure. there is absolutely no capillitium nor anything like it, simply a mass of spores surrounded by thin membranous walls. the spores range from pale olive, colorless under the lens, through various shades of brown to dusky almost black in _l. pusilla_. schrader included the _tubifera_ species. =key to the species of licea= _a._ plainly plasmodiocarpous . _l. variabilis_ _b._ opening by regular segments. . segments two only . _l. biforis_ . segments several. i. spores brown . _l. minima_ ii. spores dusky olive . _l. pusilla_ . licea variabilis _schrader._ plate xii., figs. and . . _licea variabilis_ schrader, _nov. gen._, p. , pl. vi., figs. and . . _licea variabilis_ schr., pers., _syn. meth._, p. . . _licea flexuosa_ pers., _syn. meth._, p. . . _licea flexuosa_ pers., list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . fructification plasmodiocarpous, elongate, hamate, annulate or irregularly repent, very dark brown, rough, the peridium of two layers, the outer closely adhering, dark brown, thick, opaque, the inner delicate, membranous, very thin, transparent, iridescent, rugulose, rupturing irregularly; hypothallus none; spores in mass pale yellow with a greenish tinge, by transmitted light nearly colorless, large, globose, minutely spinulose, . µ. this is the largest species of the genus as represented in this country, the plasmodiocarps of various lengths and from . -. µ wide. somewhat resembling some species of _ophiotheca_, but of much darker color. the outer peridium is deciduous, and the inner slowly ruptures, by irregular fissures discharging the spores. the plasmodium, according to schrader, is white. rare. probably overlooked. any good reason for changing the name given to this form so well illustrated and described by schrader does not appear. persoon quotes his predecessor's species and adds _l. flexuosa_ on his own account; strangely enough, since schrader expressly describes _l. variabilis_, "in uno eodemque enim loco peridium hemisphericum, ovatum, oblongum _flexuosum_ vel aliter formatum diversi est diametri." new york, pennsylvania, ohio, iowa. _licea flexuosa_ pers. is by schweinitz reported from pennsylvania. it is described as having brown spores, - µ, spinulose. . licea biforis _morgan._ plate xii., fig. . . _licea biforis_ morgan, _jour. cin. soc._, p. . sporangia regular, compressed, sessile on a narrow base, gregarious; the wall firm, thin, smooth, yellow brown in color and nearly opaque, with minute, scattered granules on the inner surface, at maturity opening into two equal parts, which remain persistent by the base; spores yellow-brown in mass, globose or oval, even, - u. minute but perfectly regular, almost uniform, corneous-looking sporangia are thickly strewn over the inner surface of decaying bark. each, at first elongate, pointed at each end, opens at length by fissure along the upper side setting free the minute yellowish spores. unlike anything else; reminding one, at first sight, of some species of _glonium_. inside bark of _liriodendron_. ohio, canada. . licea minima _fries_. . _licea minima_ fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . sporangia gregarious, umber-brown, spherical or hemispherical, sessile; the peridium opaque, brown, opening along prefigured lines, forming segments with dotted margins, ultimately widely reflexed; spores in mass dark brown, by transmitted light paler with olive tints, minutely roughened, - µ. the very minute sporangia, mm., of this species cause it to be overlooked generally by collectors. nevertheless, it may be found on decaying soft woods, in august, probably around the world. the number of sporangia produced by one plasmodium is in iowa also small. the larger specimens might be mistaken for species of _perichaena_, but are easily distinguished by the regular and lobate dehiscence. the plasmodium is yellow. dr. george rex, in almost the last paper from his hand, gives an interesting account of this diminutive species. among various gatherings studied he found a black variety, a melanistic phase, so to say, and was able to follow the evolution of the sporangia from the yellow plasmodium. the sutures by which the peridium opens, first show signs of differentiation by change of color from yellow through garnet to black. later the entire wall undergoes similar color changes, beginning next the completed sutural delimitations. of the open peridia, the reflexed segments remind one of certain didermas, as _d. radiatum_. see _bot. gaz._, vol. xix., p. . new england, new york, pennsylvania, iowa. . licea pusilla _schrader._ . _licea pusilla_ schrad., _nov. gen. pl._, p. , tab. vi., f. . . _physarum licea_ fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _protoderma pusilla_ (schrader) rost., _mon._, p . sporangia scattered, gregarious, depressed-globose, sessile on a flattened base, dark brown, shining, . - mm.; peridium thin, dark colored, translucent, dehiscent above by regular segments; spore-mass almost black, spores by transmitted light olivaceous brown, smooth, or nearly so, - µ. fries, _l. c._, makes this a physarum, and argues the case at length, evidently with such efficiency that he greatly impressed rostafinski, who did not make it a physarum indeed, but actually gave it generic place and station of its own; a physarum may do without calcium in the capillitium perhaps, but not be entirely non-calcareous; so he writes _protoderma_ (first cover) and places the species number on the long list of endosporous forms. even in his '_dodatek_', or supplement, as we should say, he refers to the thing again, but only to correct the inflexional ending of the specific name; he writes _protoderma pusillum_ (schrader) rost! schweinitz reports the species for america and morgan cites schweinitz and reports it for ohio, but we find it in no american collections. _b._ orcadellaceÆ; sporangia distinct, minute, long stipitate, opening above by a distinct lid. a single genus,-- =orcadella= _wingate_ . _orcadella_ wingate, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . sporangia furnished with rigid, unpolished stipes, blending above with the substance of the thick unpolished walls; the operculum thin, delicate, membranaceous. a single species,-- . orcadella operculata _wingate._ plate xii., fig. . . _orcadella operculata_ wingate, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . sporangia scattered, gregarious, ellipsoidal, ovoid, obconical or nearly globose, dull brown or blackish, the wall simple, thick, coarse, at the top replaced by a delicate, thin, yellowish, iridescent, lustrous or vernicose membrane which forms a circular, smooth, or wrinkled lid, soon deciduous; stipe of varying height, rough from deposit of plasmodic refuse; spores, in mass yellowish, globose, smooth, - µ. this curious little species, well described by its discoverer, appears to be very rare. at least it is seldom collected; overlooked by reason of its minuteness. it is a stipitate licea, or a lid-covered cribraria; perhaps nearer the former. it affects the bark of species of _quercus_, and seems to be associated there with _clastoderma debaryanum. n. a. f._, . pennsylvania, maine. _c._ tubiferaceÆ fructification æthalioid or of distinct sporangia; sporangia well defined, tubular, often prismatic by mutual pressure, seated on a common, well-marked hypothallus, at length dehiscent by the irregular rupture of the peridium, in typical cases at the apex, its walls remaining then otherwise entire; capillitial threads in no. , only. =key to the genera of the tubiferaceæ= _a._ spores olivaceous; sporangia in one or several series, . lindbladia _b._ spores umber; sporangia in a single series . tubifera _c._ sporangia stipitate; capillitium of tubular threads . alwisia = . lindbladia= _fries_ . _lindbladia_ fries, _sum. veg. scand._, p. . fructification æthalioid; the sporangia short, tubular, sometimes superimposed, sometimes forming a simple stratum, in the latter case generally sessile, but sometimes short-stipitate, the peridium at first entire, at length opening irregularly either at the sides or apex, beset with granules; spores olivaceous. this genus was established by fries in to accommodate a single species of wide distribution and somewhat varying habit, which is neither a tubifera nor yet a cribraria and offers points of resemblance to each. it is distinct in that the sporangia, while often in single series, are yet often superimposed. it resembles _tubifera_ in its simple sporangia, opening without the aid of a net; it is like _cribraria_ in the smooth ochraceous-olivaceous spores and granuliferous peridium. . lindbladia effusa (_ehr._) _rost._ plate i., figs. , _a_, plate xii., figs. , . . _licea effusa_ ehr., _sylv. myc. ber._, p. . . _lindbladia effusa_ (ehr.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _perichaena caespitosa_ peck, _rep. n. y. mus._, xxxi., p. . sporangia minute, either closely combined and superimposed, so as to form a pulvinate æthalium, or crowded together in a single layer, sessile, or short-stipitate; the peridia thin, membranous, marked by scattered plasmodic granules, often lustrous, sometimes dull lead-colored or blackish, especially above; stipe, when present, very short but distinct, brown, rugulose; hypothallus well developed, membranous, or more or less spongiose in structure; spore-mass ochraceous, under the lens, nearly smooth, almost colorless, - . µ. this very variable species has been well studied by dr. rex. see _bot. gaz._, xvii., p. . in its simpler phases it presents but a single layer of sporangia generally closely crowded together, sometimes free and even short stipitate! in the more complex phase the sporangia are heaped together in a pulvinate mass in which the peridia appear as boundaries of minute cells. in this case the outermost sporangia are often consolidated to form a cortex more or less dense and shining. in any case the hypothallus is a prominent feature; generally laminated and of two or three layers, it is in the more hemispheric æthalia very much more complex, sponge-like. when thin this structure is remarkable for its wide extent, - cm.! the simpler forms approach very near to _cribraria_ through _c. argillacea_. the most complex remind us of _enteridium_. this is _perichaena caespitosa_ peck. in this country it has, however, been generally distributed as _l. effusa_ ehr. this author throws some doubt on the species he describes by suggesting that the plasmodium may be _red_. the description, however, and figures are otherwise good and are established by the usage of rostafinski. the plasmodium has much the same color as the mature fruit. widely distributed. new england to the black hills and colorado, south to arkansas. california, about monterey. = . tubifera= _gmelin_ . _tubifera_ gmelin, _syst. nat._, ii., p. . sporangia tubular, by mutual pressure more or less prismatic, connate, pale ferruginous-brown, iridescent, the walls thin, slightly granular, long-persistent; dehiscence apical; hypothallus thick, spongiose, white or whitish; spore-mass ferruginous. this genus is easily recognized by the tubular sporangia, destitute of capillitial threads, seated upon a strongly developed hypothallus. the synonymy of the case is somewhat difficult. it is possible that mueller's _tubulifera ceratum, fl. dan._, ellevte haefte, , p. , may belong here, but neither the text nor the figures make it certain. neither he nor oeder, who gives us _t. cremor_ in the same work, had any accurate idea of the objects described. gmelin's description of _tubifera_, ii., , , is, however, ample, and his citations of bulliard's plates leave no doubt as to the forms he included. gmelin writes: "thecæ (membranæ expansæ superimpositæ) inter se connatæ seminibus nudiusculis repletæ." why, in face of so good a description, persoon changed the name to that since current, _tubulina_, is not clear. fries thinks mueller had an immature _arcyria_ before him, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . _tubulifera arachnoidea_ jacq., , is also an uncertain quantity, insufficiently described. =key to the species of tubifera= _a._ hypothallus well developed, but not conspicuous. _a._ pseudo-columellæ none . _t. ferruginosa_ _b._ pseudo-columellæ present at least in many of the tubules . _t. casparyi_ _b._ hypothallus prominent, columnar . _t. stipitata_ . tubifera ferruginosa (_batsch_) _macbr._ plate i., fig. ; plate vii., fig. ; plate xii., fig. . . _stemonitis ferruginosa_ batsch, _elench._, p. , fig. . . _sphaerocarpus cylindricus_ bull., _champ._, p. , t. , iii. . _tubifera ferruginosa_ gmelin, _syst. nat._, (_ex parte_). . _tubulina cylindrica_ (bull.) dc., _fl. fr._, . . _tubulina cylindrica_ (bull.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _tubulina fragiformis_ (pers.) lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . sporangia crowded, cylindric or prismatic, elongate, connate, more or less distinct above, pale umber-brown, generally simple though occasionally branched above, the peridia thin, sometimes fragile, but generally persistent, transparent, iridescent; hypothallus strongly developed, spongiose, white, often projecting beyond the æthalioid mass of sporangia; spore-mass umber-brown or ferruginous; spores by transmitted light almost colorless, plainly reticulate over three-fourths of the surface, - µ. not rare on old logs, mosses, etc., from maine to alaska. apparently more common north than south. easily known by its long, tubular sporangia packed with rusty spores and destitute of any trace of columella or capillitium, the hypothallus explanate, rather thick, but not columnar. a single plasmodium may give rise to one or several colonies, at first watery or white, then red, of somewhat varying shades, then finally umber-brown. these colors were noticed by all the older authors, but very inaccurately; thus a white plasmodium is the basis for _tubifera cylindrica_ (bull.) gmel., a roseate plasmodium for _tubifera fragiformis_ (bull.) gmel., and the mature fructification for _tubifera ferruginosa_ (batsch) gmel. rostafinski adopted a specific name given by bulliard, but batsch has clear priority. the peridia are sometimes accuminate, and widely separate above. this is persoon's _t. fragiformis_. in most cases, however, the peridia are connate throughout, and sometimes present above a membranous common covering. this is _t. fallax_ of persoon; _licea cylindrica_ (bull.) fries. in forms with thicker peridia, the walls often show the granular markings characteristic of the entire _anemeae_. . tubifera stipitata (_berk. & rav._) _macbr._ . _licea stipitata_ berk. & rav., _am. acad._, iv., p. .[ ] . _licea stipitata_ berk. & rav., _jour. linn. soc._, x., p. . . _tubulina stipitata_ (berk. & rav.) rost., p. . sporangia crowded in a globose or more or less hemispheric, expanded head, borne upon a spongy, stem-like, sulcate hypothallus - mm. high, their apices rounded, their walls very thin, evanescent; spores in mass umber-brown, small, about µ, the epispore reticulate as in the preceding species. this differs from number chiefly in the cushion-like receptacle on which the crowded sporangia are borne, and in the smaller spores. the species originates in a plasmodium at first colorless, then white, followed by salmon or buff tints, which pass gradually into the dark brown of maturity. this peculiar succession of colors is perhaps more diagnostic than the difference in habit. the spores are, however, constantly smaller in all the specimens we have examined, and the stipitate habit very marked. new england, new york, south to south carolina, and west to south dakota; our finest specimens are from missouri. . tubifera casparyi (_rost._) _macbr._ plate xii., fig. . . _siphoptychium casparyi_ rost., _mon. app._, p. . sporangia closely crowded, tubular, cylindric or prismatic by mutual pressure, connate, the apices rounded, convex, covered by a continuous membrane, umber-brown; the peridia firm, persistent, minutely granular, iridescent; hypothallus well developed, thin, brown, explanate; pseudo-columellæ erect, rigid, traversing many of the sporangia, and in some instances bound back to the peridial walls by slender, membranous bands or threads, a pseudo-capillitium; spore-mass dark brown or umber, spores by transmitted light pale, globose, reticulate, . - µ. this is _siphoptychium casparyi_ rost. in _bot. gaz._, xv., p. , dr. rex shows that the relationships of the species are with _tubifera_; that the so-called columella is probably an abortive sporangium, the so-called capillitial threads having no homology with the capillitial threads of the true columelliferous forms. it is a good species of _tubifera_, nothing more. the tubules are shorter than in either of the preceding species; the spores are darker, larger, and more thoroughly reticulate. the plasmodium is given by dr. rex, _l. c._, as white, then "dull gray tinged with sienna color," then various tones of sienna-brown, to the dark umber of the mature æthalium. new york, adirondack mountains; allamakee co., iowa. = . alwisia= _berk. & br._ plate xix., figs. and _a_. . _alwisia_ berk. & br., _jour. linn. soc._, vol. xiv., p. . sporangia ellipsoidal, clustered, stipitate; dehiscence by the falling away of the upper part of the peridium disclosing a persisting pencil of capillitial threads. a single species:-- . alwisia bombarda _berk. & br._ . _alwisia bombarda_ berk. & br., _jour. linn. soc._, xiv., p. . sporangia gathered in clusters of four to eight, surmounting coalescent, or sometimes divergent stalks, rusty-brown, or pallid, the peridium evanescent above; the coalescing stalks forming, especially below, a clustered column, mm. in height, equalling the sporangia, dull reddish-brown in color; capillitium of rigid, tubular, generally simple threads, attaching above by delicate tips, below by a broader sometimes branching base, sometimes conjoined near the peridial wall, now and then at irregular intervals inflated slightly or anon bulbose, roughened by projecting spinules, one-third the diameter, brownish or yellow; spores reddish-brown, faintly marked by reticulating bands over large part of the surface, - . µ. this peculiar species looks at first very little like a myxomycete. the stiff projecting hairs of the capillitium are hyphal in appearance and under the lens recall the phycomycetes; but the spores and withal the general structure seem to claim recognition here. rostafinski was inclined to make a trichia of it, because of the hair-like capillitium, and markings on the threads, massee found indistinct spiral markings even, enough to suit at least the prototrichias. mr. lister would put it near the tubifers. father torrend thinks of the dianemas, margaritas, etc., because of simple capillitium attached above and below! spore-characters are probably the index most reliable, and the partial reticulation suggests association with _tubifera_ and for the present it may find station there, as in the english monograph. rare. collected three times: twice in ceylon, once in jamaica. by the courtesy of dr. farlow, late lamented, we record the western specimens. _d._ reticulariaceÆ fructification æthalioid; the sporangia sometimes poorly defined, intricately associated, borne on a common hypothallus and covered above by a common cortex; the lateral walls variously perforate and incomplete, form a pseudo-capillitium; spores umber or ochraceous. =key to the genera of the reticulariaceæ= _a._ spores umber. _a._ sporangia wholly indeterminate, their walls much consolidated below, fraying out above into long, slender threads, . reticularia _b._ sporangia bounded, more or less distinctly, by broad perforate plates throughout . enteridium _b._ spores ochraceous . dictydiÆthalium = . reticularia= (_bull._) _rost._ . _reticularia_ bulliard, _champ. de la france_, p. , in part. . _reticularia_ (bulliard) rost., _versuch_, p. . plasmodium at first white, then pink, 'ashes of roses,' etc. sporangia wholly indeterminate or undefined, their walls represented (?) by a spongy mass of so-called capillitium, consisting of membranous plates, branching, anastomosing, vanishing without order or symmetry, generally giving rise at the sides, and especially above, to long slender flexuous threads; outer cortex silvery white; hypothallus distinct, white; spore-mass and threads umber or rusty brown. a single species,-- . reticularia lycoperdon (_bull._) _rost._ plate x., figs. , _a_; plate xii., fig. . . _reticularia lycoperdon_ bull., _champ. de la france_, p. . Æthalium pulvinate, - cm. broad, at first silvery white, later less lustrous, the cortex irregularly and slowly deciduous; hypothallus at first conspicuous as a white margin extending round the entire aethalium, evanescent without, but persisting as a firm membrane beneath the spore-mass, pseudo-capillitium abundant, tending to form erect central masses which persist long after the greater part of the fruit has been scattered by the winds; spore-mass umber, spores by transmitted light pale, reticulate over about two-thirds of the surface, the remainder slightly warted, - µ. not common. often confused with the following, the spores of the two forms being very much alike; the internal structure, entirely different, and once compared, the two are thereafter easily distinguished at sight by external characters. the sporangial make-up is indifferent, confused. it represents a phase in development whence might issue columellæ with capillitium-branches or distinct tubular sporangia with persisting walls; or are such structures here but reminiscent only? compare _amaurochaete atra_, where similar conditions prevail. there differentiation goes on to the formation of a structure of which _stemonitis_ is type; here the sporangium-wall becomes dominant; suffers modification for spore-disposal, an idea reaching fair expression in _cribraria_ and _dictydium_. the plasmodium is white, noted bulliard. fries cites with approval the words of schweinitz,--"color corticis ab initio argenteus sericeo nitore insignis; sed deinde sordescit e griseo in subfuscum vergens." sometimes the surface does indeed shine as silver! the fructification appears to be isolated in each case; the entire plasmodium consumed in a single plasmodiocarp. widely distributed. maine to california, and south. = . enteridium= _ehrenberg_ . _enteridium_ ehrenberg, link and spreng., _jahrb., bd._ ii., p. . fructification æthalioid; the confluent sporangia inextricably interwoven, the walls perforate by large openings, the resultant network of broad plates and bands widening at the points of intersection. the genus _enteridium_ is distinguished from _reticularia_ chiefly by the more perfectly developed sporangial walls. these are everywhere membranous and do not show the abundant filiform dissipation so characteristic of _reticularia_. the resultant structure in _reticularia_ is a mass of more or less lengthened and anastomosing threads; in _enteridium_, an exceedingly delicate but sufficiently persistent sponge. the "net-like, three-winged skeleton" referred to by rostafinski results from the union at one point of three adjoining sporangia. compare the section of the adjoining cells of a honeycomb. of this genus there are but two or three species, all so far occurring in our territory. =key to the species of enteridium= _a._ fructification umber brown . _e. splendens_ _b._ fructification olivaceous . _e. olivaceum_ _c._ fructification minute, - mm. . _e. minutum_ . enteridium splendens _morg._ plate i., figs. , _a_, _b_; plate xii., figs. , . . _reticularia_ (?) _rozeanum_ rost., _mon. app._, p. . . _enteridium rozeanum_ (rost.) wing., _proc. phil. acad._, p. . . _enteridium rozeanum_ wingate, macbr., _bull. lab. nat. hist. iowa_, ii., p. . . _reticularia splendens_ morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. . . _enteridium splendens_ morg., morg. _in litt._ Æthalium pulvinate, even, or somewhat irregular, unevenly swollen or inflated, lobate or compound, covered by an exceedingly thin, generally smooth, shining, but never white, pellicle or cortex, brown, from - cm. in diameter; hypothallus white, often wide extending; capillitium none; the sporangial walls thin and brown forming a network as above described; spore-mass umber, spores by transmitted light pale, about two-thirds of the surface reticulate, the rest nearly smooth, - µ. very common, especially west, on decaying logs and stumps of every description. easily distinguished by its brown color and smooth, shining, though uneven surface. the plasmodium as it emerges to form fruit is pale pink or flesh color, slowly deepening to brown as maturity advances. the first emergence is a watery white. new england, canada, to minnesota and nebraska, south dakota. in rostafinski provisionally referred to the genus _reticularia_ certain specimens received from m. roze of paris. thirteen years later in correspondence with m. roze, mr. wingate satisfied himself that the specimens discovered by roze were the same as our common enteridium. he therefore, _l. c._, applied to our american forms the name they have widely borne, _e. rozeanum_. mr. lister, _jour. of botany_, sept. ' , applied the rostafinskian name to certain english specimens. thereafter to be known as _reticularia lobata_ rost. and so fixed the status of that species. from all the literature before us it appears that mr. lister was right. _r. lobata_ list. (now _liceopsis lobata_ list.) torr., occurs in various parts of europe, while our american species of _enteridium_ is yet to be discovered on that side of the sea! were the latter native to the old world at all, it had surely been seen long ago. it is large and fine, and could not have escaped the famous collectors of the last two hundred years. although it has been sent by students from this side of the ocean to europe for more than thirty years, it has not even adventitiously appeared. it therefore appears that our american species is known to europe through mr. wingate's reference only. twenty years ago in correspondence with mr. wingate it was learned that the material received by him from m. roze was but a small fragment, crushed flat, and even this was at that time no longer in evidence. this specimen was itself _not part of the gathering submitted to rostafinski_; but only the fragment of something _appearing in in the same locality_! ... "something not the same, but only like its forecast in men's dreams." when we further reflect that the spores of species of several of the forms now in review, _tubifera_, _reticularia_, _enteridium_, are not without difficulty distinguished, it is easy to see that mr. wingate's specific reference has narrow foundations to say the least. it seems now likely that father torrend's _liceopsis_, _reticulara lobata_ r., m. roze's aftermath, and all, are but the depauperate forms of some tubifera! _e. rozeanum wing._, is therefore the synonym for an ill-defined something in western europe and need not further here concern us as far material reference goes. in any case, what induced mr. wingate to pull rostafinski's uncertain description of a problematic form across the sea, to attach it to our clearly defined and well known american species, changing the polish description the while to make it fit, is hard to understand; especially in view of the fact, by wingate admitted, that rex had in his letters to morgan already named the american type _enteridium umbrinum_. the two students differed as to generic reference, and later on morgan published _reticularia splendens_ morg.; rather than _r. umbrina_ (rex) morg. because he was using _r. umbrina_ fr. for what is generally known as _r. lycoperdon_ (_bull._) it would then appear that when wingate sought to impose the rostafinskian specific name upon our american form by changing (fixing!) rostafinski's generic reference, and by re-writing the specific description from the pages of the _monograph_ in order to claim identity, he was entirely without justification, especially since he knew the species appropriately named by his colleague, dr. rex, and had the name as used in the rex and morgan correspondence. in brief; mr. wingate proceeded to re-describe rostafinski's rozean specimen and referred a long-known american form (very different) to the european specimen as type. wingate's description is right; he had the american material before him; but his cited type is worthless, an entirely different thing. does the reader care to see what the european _type_ of our common form, wingate _teste_, really looks like, let him consult the _jour. of botany_, vol. xxix., p. , . . enteridium olivaceum _ehr._ . _enteridium olivaceum_ ehr. Æthalium depressed flat, oval or elongate, . cm. in extent, . mm. thick when fresh, glossy, smooth, greenish-olivaceous-brown; within a spongy net-work representing sporangial walls which are thin, pale olivaceous, perforate by circular openings, meshes surrounded by wide plates; spores in clusters, six or more together, ovoid, distinctly warted at the wider end, pale olivaceous, - µ. this, the type of the genus, is a very distinct species of this by its structure readily distinguished form. fries thought the species might represent a less perfectly-developed reticularia, and therefore wrote _reticularia olivacea_ noting, however, the clustered spores and the lack of hypothallus. common, as would appear, in europe and in s. america; rare with us. reported from n. hampshire and we have one specimen from colorado. . enteridium minutum _sturg._ . _enteridium minutum_ sturg., _mycologia_, ix, p. . Æthalia rounded or elongate, pulvinate, pale umber in color, seated on a broad membranous base, . - mm. in diameter; wall wrinkled and usually marked with small scattered pits, pale-yellow, membranous; walls of component sporangia, membranous, minutely roughened, perforated with round openings, the margins of which show many free threads; or reduced to irregular, anastomosing strands arising from the base of the æthalium, with membranous or net-like expansions at the angles and with many delicate, free, pointed ends. spores pale-yellow, usually united in twos or threes, and ovoid or flattened on one side; when free, globose, very minutely spinulose, . - . . colorado: _dr. sturgis._ = . dictydiæthalium= _rostafinski_ . _dictydiaethalium_ rost., _versuch_, p. . . _clathroptychium_ rost., _mon._, p. . Æthalium depressed, flat; the sporangia erect, regular, prismatic by mutual pressure, the peridia convex above, wanting at the sides and within the æthalium represented by vertical threads marking the angles and passing from base to summit. this genus is readily recognized by the internal structure of the æthalium. the lateral wall-openings, which, as we have seen, characterize the sporangia of the preceding genus, here become extreme, occupying to such extent the lateral wall-space of each sporangium that only threads remain to mark the vertical angles. in rostafinski applied the generic name here adopted, because he thought he discovered close relationships with _dictydium_. in , believing his first impressions erroneous, and desirous that the nomenclature might not at once mislead the student and perpetuate the memory of his own mistake, the same author proposed the name by which the genus has generally ever since been known--_clathroptychium_. however sensible the latter conclusion reached by our polish author, it is plainly contrary to all rules of priority. our region shows but a single widely distributed species,-- . dictydiaethalium plumbeum (_schum._) _rost._ plate i., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _fuligo plumbea_ schum., _enum. saell._, no. . . _licea rugulosa_ wall., _cr. fl. ger._, iv., p. . . _dictydiaethalium plumbeum_ (schum.) rost., _versuch_, p. . . _clathroptychium rugulosum_ (wallr.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _dictydiaethalium plumbeum_ rost., list., _mycetozoa_, p. . Æthalium thin, very flat, olivaceous or ochraceous, smooth, under the lens punctate, in section showing the columnar or prismatic sporangia, which are normally six-sided, having at the edges six simple threads, the remains of peridium, extending from base to apex, where the peridium remains intact, arcuate; hypothallus prominent, radiating far around the æthalium, silvery white; spores in mass, ochraceous, or dull brownish yellow, by transmitted light almost colorless, rough - µ. not rare, on decaying logs, especially of _tilla americana_, where in the same place successive fructifications follow each other sometimes for weeks together in the latter part of summer and early fall. the æthalium is generally elliptical or elongate, - cm. in extent, sometimes irregular or branched, varying in color according to degree of maturity, weathering, etc. plasmodium at first watery, then pink, or flesh-colored. eastern united states; common. toronto;--_miss currie._ _e._ cribrariaceÆ sporangia distinct, more or less closely gregarious, stipitate, the peridium opening, especially above, by a well-defined network formed from thickenings in the original sporangial wall. =key to the genera of the cribrariaceæ= _a._ peridial thickenings in form of an apical net with definite thickenings at the intersections of the component threads . cribraria _b._ peridial thickenings in form of parallel meridional ribs connected by delicate transverse threads . dictydium =cribraria= (_pers_) _schrader._ . _cribraria_ persoon, römer, _n. bot. mag._, i., p. , in part. . _cribraria_ schrader, _nov. gen. plant._, p. , in part. . _cribraria_ rostafinski, _mon._, p. . sporangia distinct, gregarious or closely crowded, globose or obovoid, stipitate; the stipe of very varying length; the peridium simple, marked within by distinct and peculiar, granular, thickenings, which below take the form of radiating ribs, supporting the persisting cup, _calyculus_, and above, by extremely delicate anastomosing branches, unite to weave a more or less regular net with open polygonal meshes; spores various, more often yellowish or ochraceous, sometimes brown, reddish, or purple. the genus _cribraria_, as limited by persoon, included all forms in which the peridium is thin, evanescent half-way down, or entirely, and in which capillitium, as persoon regarded the case, is formed of a network of reticulate threads surrounding the spores. schrader redefined the genus; opposed persoon's view as to the capillitial nature of the net, and separated the genus _dictydium_, but by imperfect limitations,--in fact, chiefly because of the more completely evanescent peridium. fries follows schrader. rostafinski first clearly separated the two genera, and his classification is here adopted. nevertheless, after reviewing the subject entire one is more and more inclined to appreciate the commendation of fries; "auctor schrader, qui insuper plurimas species detexit, et hoc et sequens genus ita proposuit ut sequentes vix aliquid addere valuerint." as to the habitat of the cribrarias, the remark of schrader is still pertinent--"in vetustissimis plenariæ destructionis proximis arborum truncis"--for all the species. rotten, coniferous wood seems to be preferred, but the decayed logs of trees of other orders are by no means refused. rotten oak forms a very common habitat. =key to the species of cribraria= _a._ sporangia with spores ochraceous or brownish. _a._ sporangia larger, . mm. or more. . net poorly developed, sometimes merely indicated . _c. argillacea_ . net conspicuous, nodes expanded, not swollen. i. calyculus reticulately thickened, ill-defined above . _c. macrocarpa_ ii. calyculus with radiant lines or ribs; net small-meshed; free ends none . _c. aurantiaca_ iii. net wide-meshed, calyx rufous . _c. rufa_ iv. calyx replaced by ribs . _c. splendens_ . net conspicuous, nodules swollen. i. net-threads simple; free ends many . _c. dictydioides_ ii. net-threads often parallel in twos or threes . _c. intricata_ _b._ sporangia small, less than . mm. . nodes not expanded . _c. minutissima_ . nodes well shown. i. calyculus distinctly marked by radiant lines, nodes round . _c. tenella_ ii. calyculus minute or none; nodes prominent . _c. microcarpa_ _b._ sporangia more or less marked with purple or violet tints. _a._ purple or violet throughout. . net poorly developed . _c. violacea_ . net well developed. i. meshes regular and the nodes distinct . _c. elegans_ ii. meshes and nodules irregular . _c. purpurea_ _b._ purple tints confined chiefly to plasmodic granules on the calyculus and stipe. net with nodes well expanded. i. stipe short, not more than double the sporangium; net and calyculus both well developed . _c. piriformis_ ii. stipe many times the sporangium, weak . _c. languescens_ iii. stipe slender, sporangium copper-colored . _c. cuprea_ . cribraria argillacea _pers._ plate xii., figs. , ; plate xvii., fig. . . _stemonitis argillacea_ (pers.) gmel., _syst. nat._, ii., . . _cribraria argillacea_ pers., _obs. myc._, i., p. . sporangia dull ochraceous-olivaceous, globose, nearly mm. in diameter, sessile or short stipitate, closely gregarious or crowded, the peridial walls at maturity smooth, shining, except above, long persistent, obscurely reticulate, with irregular thickenings which at the apex at length present the appearance of an irregular, coarsely meshed net without nodal thickenings; stipe very short, stout, erect, reddish brown, spore-mass ochraceous, spores by transmitted light pale, spinulose, - µ. this species stands just on the border-line between the tubiferas and the genus now before us. while on the one hand it possesses many characters such as the habit, form of sporangium, which are distinctly tubuline, on the other it shows in the upper peridial wall definite reticulations which suggest _cribraria_. in freshly formed sporangia the reticulations are barely visible in the crown; later on they are more manifest, until, as spore-dispersal proceeds; the cribraria characters come out with sufficient distinctness, and in empty sporangia the reticulations may be seen to affect the entire peridial wall. the nodes are not expanded. the spores are pale by transmitted light, spinulose, about µ. plasmodium lead-colored. found sometimes in large patches on rotten logs of various species. not uncommon. cf. _lindbladia effusa_. new england, new york, pennsylvania, south carolina, ohio, illinois, iowa, washington; canada. . cribraria macrocarpa _schrader._ plate xvii., fig. . . _cribraria macrocarpa_ schrad., _nov. gen. plant._, p. . sporangia more or less closely gregarious, yellowish brown, pear-shaped or obovate, large, . - mm. in diameter, stipitate; stipe brown furrowed, erect or often nodding, about equal to the sporangium or longer; calyculus distinct, marked by numerous dark brown radiating ribs, iridescent, perforate above, deeply dentate, and merging gradually into the elegant network, of which the dark nodes are more distinctly expanded about half way up, less so at the apex and below, the filaments exceedingly delicate, simple, with occasional free ends projecting into the small meshes; spore-mass yellowish, spores by transmitted light almost colorless, minutely roughened, - µ. perhaps the most striking characteristic of the present species, aside from its large size, is the peculiarly perforated cup or calyculus. schrader's artist failed him here completely. the structure is exceedingly delicate, the peridium between the ribs and reticulations reduced to the last degree of tenuity, with the iridescence of the soap-bubble, here and there lapsed entirely. withal the structure seems firm enough and persists until all the spores are dissipated by the wind. easily distinguished from the preceding, its only rival in size, by the obovate or turbinate, netted sporangium, its much longer stem, and flat, perfectly formed nodes. rare. new york, north carolina, south carolina, oregon; toronto, canada. . cribraria minutissima _schweinitz._ plate xvii., figs. , _a_. . _cribraria minutissima_ schw., _n. a. f._, no. . sporangia scattered, orange or nut-brown, very minute, . -. mm. or less, globose or ellipsoidal, stipitate, erect or nodding; hypothallus none; stipe short, - times the sporangium, filiform, tapering upward, brown; the calyculus variable, sometimes well marked and separated from the net when fully mature, by a shallow constriction, more commonly small or entirely wanting, especially in the spherical sporangia; net simple, large meshed, without nodal expansions, the threads flattened; spore-mass yellow, spores by transmitted light, pale, nearly smooth, - µ. a most beautiful tiny species. generally in all the specimens before us, a perfect, spherical net, firm enough to retain its place and structure after all the spores have been scattered. when mature the spore-mass seems to roll about as a ball, freely within the net, the spores being thus gradually dispersed. the calyculus when present is without veins. _c. minima_ berk. & c., and _c. microscopica_ berk. & c. are doubtless the same thing. _grev._, ii., p. , . see also _bot. gaz._, xix., . rare. pennsylvania, south carolina, missouri, iowa; black hills, south dakota. . cribraria rufa (_roth_) _rost._ plate xix., fig. . . _stemonitis rufa_ roth, _fl. germ._, i., p. . . _cribraria rufescens_ pers., roemer, _n. mag. bot._, i., p. . . _cribraria fulva_ schrad., _nov. gen. pl._, p. . sporangia scattered, sub-globose or turbinate, dark or reddish orange, . -. mm. in diameter, erect, stipitate; stipe about equalling the height of the sporangium or longer, dark brown or black; calyculus one-third to one-half the sporangium, the margin toothed, the wall ribbed and continuous with the open wide-meshed net; the network deep yellow or orange, the threads flattened; the nodes not thickened, little differentiated; spores concolorous, by transmitted light, pale yellow, verruculose, - µ. similar to the preceding, but generally much larger and not so much inclined to brown. the size, however, is extremely variable in sporangia from the same plasmodium (reported white), some no larger than those of the species reckoned most minute. oregon. _professor morton peck._ . cribraria splendens (_schrader_) _rost._ plate xix., fig. . . _dictydium splendens_ schrad., _nov. gen._, p. . . _cribraria splendens_ (schrad.) pers., _syn. fung._, p. . sporangia gregarious, globose, dusky yellow when filled with spores, dull or dusky brown when these are discharged, stipitate; stipe long, - times the sporangium, subulate, erect-nodding, brown; hypothallus none; network brown, with large meshes, imperfectly defined nodes and flattened threads; calyculus none, its place supplied by nine or ten distinct, firm ribs which radiate from the stipe and support the net, branching to blend with its reticulations; spore-mass yellow, spores by transmitted light, colorless, smooth or nearly so, - . µ. of this species two specimens only are before us, one from muscatine county, iowa, and one from washington (state). the species seems thus to have wide range, but to be exceedingly rare. it differs from all other american forms, so far described, in the peculiar development of the calyculus. rostafinski emphasizes the persistence of the peridial wall and the peculiar gleaming of the metallic tints, displayed by all the structures. these particulars we have not been able to verify. such characters may be incident to age or conditions of development. at all events, in forms which in all other respects seem to agree exactly with rostafinski's descriptions, the colors are dull and without any noticeable iridescence. the spores in our specimens are also a little larger than quoted. rostafinski gives - µ; massee, - µ. . cribraria aurantiaca _schrader._ plate xvii., fig. , and xix., fig. . . _cribraria aurantiaca_ schrad., _nov. gen. pl._, p. . sporangia gregarious, spherical, dusky or yellowish stipitate, nodding; the calyculus variable, generally prominent, more or less distinctly marked by fine, delicate radiating venules, the margin denticulate, the teeth numerous and slender, supporting the well-defined globose net; network made up of very tenuous threads, forming rather small irregular brownish nodules and showing only here and there a free extremity; stipe generally short, two or three times the diameter of the sporangium, sometimes longer, tapering upward, brown, slender, arcuate above; spore-mass yellow or ochraceous, spores by transmitted light, colorless, - µ, almost smooth. this widely distributed and very variable species is generally recognized by the large sporangia, . -. mm., comparatively short stipe, simple net, and more or less orange color. the color is an uncertain thing even in the sporangia, which rise from one plasmodium. schrader, however, made this feature so far diagnostic that he placed the more pronouncedly yellow forms in the species _c. aurantiaca_ and set off as _c. vulgaris_ forms in which more dusky tints prevail. the dark-colored forms have also usually longer stipes, but so much is dependent upon the climatic conditions prevalent at the time of fruiting, that this feature also is indeterminate. rostafinski's figures, and , tab. ii., show the characteristic nodules and the typical net structure. it is to be observed that fig. represents higher magnification; otherwise the two figures are very much alike. new england, new york, pennsylvania, maryland and south, ohio, washington, california; canada, toronto. . cribraria dictydioides _cke. & balf._ plate i., figs. , _a_, _b_, and xix., , _a_, _b_. . _cribraria dictydioides_ cke. & balf., _rav. fung. am._, . sporangia gregarious, of medium size, globose, cernuous, stipitate; the stipe long, slender, tapering upwards, dull brown in color; hypothallus none; the calyculus variable, sometimes well developed, as in _c. aurantiaca_, sometimes rudimentary or represented only by irregular, node-like ribs; the network delicate, the meshes small, few-sided; the nodules large, prominent, brown, irregular, with several radiating, free, projecting threads, beside the single continuous filaments which pass from node to node; spore-mass pale, ochraceous; spores nearly smooth, colorless, - µ. this seems to be the most common _cribraria_ in the mississippi valley. it is generally distinguished by the scant calyculus and the beautiful richness of its clear delicate net. the stellate nodules especially above, emit filamental rays in all directions, but are, notwithstanding, united by single, unpaired threads only. the calyculus is often entirely absent, and this has been supposed the typical condition; but, on the contrary, there often may present itself a cup as distinct as in _c. aurantiaca_. see, for this variation, _bot. gaz._ xix., p. . the rather large sporangia, . -. mm., the nodes joined by single threads, the remaining radiant threads, many or few, but very short--these seem to be the most distinctly diagnostic characters, and these are sufficiently constant to separate this species easily from _c. intricata_ on the one hand and _c. tenella_ on the other. mr. lister considers this merely a form of the next species. abundant on rotten logs of every sort, especially oak; common on the lower side of rotting pine planks in wooden walks along the streets everywhere. n. a. f., , seems to belong here. pennsylvania, ohio, north carolina, missouri, illinois, iowa, nebraska. . cribraria intricata (_schrad._) _rost._ . _cribraria intricata_ schrad., _nov. gen. pl._, p. . sporangia gregarious, globose, large, . - mm. in diameter, nut-brown or olivaceous, erect, stipitate; stipe long, slender, purplish brown, flexuous; calyculus variable, sometimes occupying one-third of the sphere, when it is delicately costate, concolorous with the stipe, and passes over to the net by a distinctly toothed or serrulate margin, sometimes represented by irregular ribs or costæ only; net well differentiated, the threads delicate, transparent, yellow, connecting large black nodules, running from one to the other in pairs or sometimes three together, free ends not numerous, the meshes few-sided, often triangular; spores in mass, dull olivaceous, under the lens pallid, nearly smooth, - µ. a very rare species, if indeed it occur in this country. at least the form figured by rostafinski, tab. ii., fig. , and massee, pl. , fig. , has not come to our notice. the parallelism of the net threads is a touch added by rostafinski; schrader does not mention it. lister makes this species include the preceding. the form described in _bull. lab. nat. hist. ia._ ii., p. , is _c. dictydioides_. reported from new york, new england and pennsylvania. in the english _monograph_ we are repeatedly assured that this species is common in the united states. the statement is made possible only by the inclusion of the form originally described from america and truly abundant east of the rocky mountains, _c. dictydioides_ cke. & balf.; _c. intricata_, by all accounts, just as preeminently the species of europe. it is true that schrader did not emphasize the parallel connecting threads by which later authorities distinguish the form; he had little occasion so to do, even did his figures intend accuracy in each detail, which they did not, and rostafinski's, though his drawing is a diagram, certainly knew what he was doing. cooke, in his list for great britain, quotes the polish text without dissent, and massee follows and illustrates; so that there can be no doubt as to what the european species is. in any cribraria the presence or relative obsolesence, of the calyculus is of little taxonomic import since that structure is variable in every species. in the latest edition of mr. lister's work, the american form is entered as a variety in "hot-houses"; apparently adventitious; it is indeed related to the european form but is a geographic species. . cribraria piriformis _schrader._ plate xvii., fig. ; plate xix., fig. . . _cribraria piriformis_ schrad., _nov. gen. pl._, p. . sporangia gregarious, small, . -. mm., turbinate or globose, erect, purplish brown, stipitate; stipe comparatively short, tapering upward, longitudinally furrowed, purple or brown; calyculus very well defined, about one-third the sporangium, not ribbed, flattened or even umbilicate below, the margin plainly denticulate, dusky brown; the net simple, the meshes large, triangular, with few free ends; the nodules small, globose or undifferentiated, slightly convex or flat; spore mass dull, yellowish brown; spores by transmitted light pale ochraceous or salmon-tinted, nearly smooth, - µ. schrader defined this beautiful form chiefly by its shape. this, though variable, is yet generally so far pyriform as to show distinct contraction toward the stipe. the well-defined calyculus is narrowed below and eroded or denticulate above. the cyanic tints due to the presence on the calyculus of radiating lines of purplish granules about one-half the size of the spores, the net open, uniform, the stipe rather stout, short, and distinctly furrowed, rising often from a small hypothallus--these are marks of this species. the net suggests _c. tenella_, but the latter species is much smaller, has a different stem, much longer and unfurrowed. the cup here is more nearly that of some form of _c. intricata_, but is better defined, passing into the net very abruptly by the simple intervention of projecting teeth. apparently rare. our specimens are from new york, through the courtesy of dr. rex, virginia, north carolina, iowa, oregon, colorado, and represent, as usual a modification of the european type, _c. notabilis_ rex. miss lister, _mon., nd ed._, writes var. _notabilis_. colorado forms are remarkable for dense brown coloration. . cribraria tenella _schrader._ plate xvii., fig. . . _cribraria tenella_ schrad., _nov. gen. pl._, p. . sporangia gregarious, small, . -. mm. in diameter or smaller, olivaceous or ochraceous, long-stipitate, nodding; stipe slender, dark brown or blackish, very long, reaching mm., weak and flexuous; calyculus variable, sometimes well defined, brown, costate, sometimes represented by the costæ only connected by a thin, transparent membrane; net well differentiated, the meshes small, irregular, the nodes small, black, more or less globular, prominent, connected by transparent threads with occasional or a few free ends; spores in mass, olivaceous-ochraceous, under the lens pallid, globose, smooth, - µ. very common eastward and south, on the weathered surface of rotten wood. generally easily recognized by its very long stipe, small, globose sporangium dotted with numerous small roundish nodules projecting plainly above the general surface. the obconic calyculus is always represented in the outline if not in definite structure. new england, new york, pennsylvania, ohio, tennessee, illinois, missouri, iowa, canada; toronto,--_miss currie._ . cribraria microcarpa (_schrad._) _persoon._ plate xvii., fig. . . _dictydium microcarpum_ schrad., _nov. gen. pl._, p. . . _cribraria microcarpa_ schrad., pers., _syn._, p. . . _cribraria microcarpa_ (schrad.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _cribraria microcarpa_ schrad., massee, _mon._, p. . . _cribraria microcarpa_ schrad., morg., _myx. mi. vall._, p. . . _cribraria microcarpa_ schrad., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _cribraria microcarpa_ pers., lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. (?). sporangia loosely gregarious, very small, . -. mm. in diameter, yellow ochraceous, stipitate, nodding; stipe comparatively stout, dark brown or blackish, tapering upward, often twisted at the apex as in _d. cancellatum_; calyculus none, represented by simple ribs which give off at intervals free or floating branchlets before blending into the common net; net well developed, the meshes large, the nodes small, irregular, though often rounded and prominent, black, connected by delicate transparent threads, with free ends few or none; spore-mass yellow, fading to ochraceous; spores pale, smooth, globose, - µ. this species resembles at first sight the preceding, and has been often mistaken for it. as a matter of fact, the distinctions are generally very sharp. in the first place, the sporangia, when carefully measured, are seen to be not more than half as great in diameter; the meshes of the net, on the other hand, are much wider, the whole structure more compact. the nodules are like those of _tenella_, but are much fewer. the stipe is shorter, the cup wanting, and the costæ are few and simple. the color suggests _c. aurantiaca_. the habitat and distribution as _c. tenella_. to anyone who will read the account of the species as given by the english _mon., nd ed._, p. , it is immediately apparent that the author has in mind a different form from that seen and described in our territory and previously noted by the authors of europe. these from schrader down, agree in portraying a brunescent form with yellow spores; mr. lister enters it with the cyanic series and so describes and figures it throughout. schrader figures a nut-brown species; rostafinski uses that descriptive term in connection with the general appearance when fresh, but gives the spore-mass yellow; only in the stipe does he find another tint, nut-brown-purple. the figure, in the _monograph_ now before us portrays, except in color, our _c. tenella_ exactly. dr. rex, _bot. gaz._, xix., , compares the present species with _c. minutissima_, and _c. tenella_ with _c. dictydioides_; which is correct for the american presentation of the species named. _c. dictydioides_ is certainly our presentation of _c. intricata_, a geographic species at the least; but if _c. microcarpa_ is purple we have of it no representation; our forms under that name are closely related to _c. tenella_, a yellow-spored species, and might perhaps be there referred; have, however, somewhat larger spores. . cribraria violacea _rex._ plate xvii., fig. . . _cribraria violacea_ rex, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . sporangia scattered or gregarious, very small, . mm. in diameter, violet tinted, erect, stipitate short, about one-half the total height, concolorous, slender, tapering upward; calyculus crateriform, persistent, or marked with minute plasmodic granules; the net rudimentary or poorly developed, the meshes large, irregular, the nodules also large triangular, violaceous; spores pale violet in mass, by transmitted light reddish, - µ, minutely warted. a very minute but well-marked species discovered by dr. rex in wissahickon park, near philadelphia, otherwise very rare. lister, however, reports it from england. in minuteness to be compared with _c. minutissima_, from which its color instantly distinguishes it. dr. rex reports the plasmodium as "violet black." all our specimens are on very rotten wood, basswood, _tilia americana_. pennsylvania, illinois, iowa. . cribraria purpurea _schrad._ . _cribraria purpurea_ schrad., _nov. gen. pl._, p. . sporangia gregarious, large, mm. in diameter, dark purple, erect, stipitate, depressed-globose; stipe concolorous, furrowed, about twice the diameter of the sporangium in length, with a distinct hypothallus; calyculus persistent, less than half the sporangium, obscurely ribbed, marked by concentric plications, the margin toothed; the net poorly differentiated, the meshes irregular in form and size, as are also the flat, unthickened nodes, the threads pale, free ends short and not numerous; spore-mass purple; spores by transmitted light, pale or colorless, - µ, smooth. rare. found on rotten coniferous wood in deep forests. easily recognized by its large size and uniform purple color. to the next species it offers a general resemblance, but has larger sporangia and an entirely different net. the plasmodium just before the formation of the fruit is scarlet. maine, new york, pennsylvania, ontario, oregon, colorado. . cribraria elegans _berk. & c._ . _cribraria elegans_ berk. & curt., _grev._, ii., p. . sporangia gregarious, erect or nodding, small, . -. mm., bright purple, stipitate; stipe long, slender, tapering upward, almost black, arising from a scanty hypothallus; calyculus about half the sporangium, finely ribbed, covered especially above with small purple granules, the margin toothed or perforate; net well developed, the meshes small, polygonal, the threads delicate, colorless, with many free ends, the nodules dark-colored, numerous and somewhat prominent; spore-mass pale purple; spores by transmitted light pale violaceous, smooth, - . µ. to be compared with the preceding. the small-meshed net with well-defined, dark-colored nodules is distinctive, aside from the fact of the much smaller sporangia. the stipe is also different, more slender, smooth, and dark-colored. the habitat of the two species appears to be the same. the present species is much more common, ranges farther west, and is to be looked for on the pacific coast. new york, pennsylvania, south carolina, missouri, iowa; black hills, south dakota. . cribraria languescens _rex._ . _cribraria languescens_ rex, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . sporangia scattered, very minute, . -. mm., spherical, long-stipitate, drooping; stipe . - mm., slender, flexuous, subulate, rugulose; calyculus about one-third the sporangium, reddish brown, shining, minutely striate with granular lines, the margin more or less regularly serrate; net reddish brown, the meshes triangular and the threads simple, the nodes large, polygonal, flat, but well differentiated; the spores when fresh dull red in mass, paling with age; by transmitted light colorless, µ, smooth. a very singular species, easily recognizable by its long, slender stipes, terminating in exceedingly small spherical sporangia. the colors are obscure, but the striations on the calyculus are violet-tinted, and the reds perhaps predominate elsewhere. "in its scattered and solitary growth, its tall, slender stipes, and relaxed habit it resembles _c. microcarpa_, in its network it approaches _c. tenella_, and its spores have the color of the paler form of _c. purpurea_." so dr. rex, _l. c._ western forms of the first-named species have much shorter stipes; the network in the specimens before us is unlike that of _c. tenella_, but resembles that of _c. purpurea_. rare, on very rotten wood, in the forest. new york, ohio, south carolina, ontario. . cribraria cuprea _morgan._ plate xvii., fig. . . _cribraria cuprea_ morg., _jour. cin. soc_., p. . sporangium very small, . mm., oval or somewhat obvoid, copper-colored, stipitate, nodding; stipe concolorous or darker below, subulate, curved at the apex, - times the sporangium; calyculus about one-half the sporangium, finely ribbed and granulose within, the margin nearly even; the net rather rudimentary, the meshes large, triangular or quadrilateral, the nodules also large, flat, concolorous, the threads slender, transparent, with free ends few; spores in mass copper-colored, by transmitted light colorless, smooth, - µ. recognizable by its small size and peculiar color, that of bright copper, although this fades somewhat with age, and the metallic tints are then lacking. related to the preceding and in specimens having globular sporangia closely resembling it; but the ground color in _c. languescens_ is always darker, and the stipe proportionally much longer. in habit the sporangia are widely scattered, much more than is common in the species of this genus. miss lister, _ nd ed._ regards this as a var. of no. . comparatively rare. before us is one very small colony of sporangia from iowa, one from ohio, and a large number from missouri. if one may judge from the material at hand, the favorite habitat is very rotten basswood, _tilia americana_. = . dictydium= (_schrad._) _rost._ sporangia distinct, gregarious, globose or depressed-globose, stipitate, cernuous; the peridium very delicate, evanescent, thickened on the inside by numerous meridional costæ which are joined at frequent intervals by fine transverse threads more or less parallel to each other, forming a persistent network of rectangular meshes. the ribs or costæ of the spore-case radiate from the top of the stipe and unite again at the top of the sporangium in a feeble, irregular net. schrader, _nov. gen. pl._, p. , , applied the name _dictydium_ to all _cribraria_-like species in which the calyculus was wanting. fries follows this, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . rostafinski, _versuch_, p. , _mon._, p. , first correctly limits the genus and separates it from _cribraria_. - . a single species is widely distributed throughout the world,-- . dictydium cancellatum (_batsch_) _macbr._ plate i., figs. , _a_ and plate xix., figs. , _a_, _b_, _c_, , . . _mucor cancellatus_ batsch, _elench. fung._, ii., p. . . _dictydium umbilicatum_ schrad., _nov. gen. pl._, p. . . _cribraria cernua_ pers., _syn._, p. . . _dictydium cernuum_ nees, _syst. d. pilz._, p. . . _dictydium cernuum_ (pers.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _dictydium longipes_ morg., _cin. soc. jour._, p. , in part. sporangia gregarious, depressed globose, nodding, the apex at length umbilicate, stipitate, in color brown, or brownish purple; the stipe varying much in length from two to ten times the diameter of the sporangium, attaining - mm., generally erect, more or less twisted and pallid at the apex, below dark brown, with hypothallus small or none; calyculus often wanting, when present a mere film connecting the ribs of the net; the net made up chiefly of meridional ribs connected at intervals by transverse parallel threads, above an open _cribraria_-like network closing the apex and more or less rudimentary; the spores varying in color through all shades of brown and purple when seen in mass, by transmitted light reddish, - µ, smooth or nearly so. this species in the united states is one of the most variable in the whole group. the extremes of such variation might easily constitute types for several distinct species were it not that in all directions the varieties shade into each other so completely as to defy definition. we have before us specimens purple throughout and short-stemmed; purple with stem long, pale and twisted at apex; brown, with the same variations; short-stemmed, with the apex of the stem pallid, and long-stemmed, with and without the same peculiarity. morgan (_cin. soc. nat. hist. jour._, ) would set off the purple, long-stemmed forms as _d. longipes_, "stipe three to five times the sporangium," but here are forms in which the stem is ten times the diameter of the sporangium, which yet possess in all other particulars the characters of the short-stemmed forms. european forms also vary. massee figures one type; lister, one or two others; rostafinski's figure indicates a taller form; fries says, "stipes elongatus, peridio quinquies et ultra longior." it seems reasonable to suppose that the variation is largely due to atmospheric conditions at the time of fruiting. the purple forms may be cases of arrested development, since the plasmodium appears to be in all cases purple, or at least they seem to represent those plasmodia which have failed of normal ripening. we may recognize two or three general types, distinguished primarily by color:-- a. _d. cancellatum cancellatum._--sporangia clear brown or with only a purplish tinge, the stipe tapering upward, and in extreme cases perfectly white at the twisted apex. the stipe in length ranges from three to ten times the diameter of the sporangium. the reticulations of the net are generally small and the ribs numerous. this is the most highly differentiated, finished type of the species. b. _d. cancellatum purpureum._--sporangium dark, the purple tints predominating, the stipe tapering upward, more or less twisted at the paler, sometimes almost colorless, apex. the stipe ranges a little shorter than in the preceding variety, three to seven times the sporangium. the reticulations of the net are often coarse, the ribs being fewer; the whole structure weak and showing signs of imperfect development. the figures, , _a_, _b_, _c, l. c._, illustrate the ideal accomplishment in form (a). the color is a clear definite brown with no suggestion of purple anywhere. the stipes are three or four times the diameter of the sporangium, brown below, white above, and twisted to allow the sporangium to hang inverted. this is complete in every part; a definite bell-shaped calyx, widening into the cancellate receptacle, the margin constricted, and closed at last by the apical net, _cribrum_, sign of the order. in form (b), the structure is similar but by no means so symmetrical and complete. the calyx often fails, or is present by obscure indications only. the cancellation is coarser, the number of ribs fewer, the whole sporangium more or less globose; ferruginous or purple, the prevailing tint. figs. on pl. . are from the ferruginous type. figure represents a beautiful thing; cup-less, ellipsoidal, delicate, of average size and in every way well-proportioned, clear rosy brown in color. this may stand for a third variety; (c) _d. cancellatum prolatum_. common everywhere. the fruit appears in june on decaying logs and stumps of various species of deciduous trees, conifers, etc., the finest, and greatest variety, are from southern missouri. order iv =lycogalales= fructification æthalioid; peridium membranaceous, tough, simple, without vesiculose with protoplasmic masses, within gelatinous; the capillitium of cortical origin, consisting of irregular lobate or branching tubules, varying much in width, and marked by numerous corrugations, irregular warts or bands; spores minute, ashen or pallid. this order includes but a single genus,-- =lycogala= _micheli._ . _lycogala_ micheli, _nov. plant. gen._, pp. , . . _lycoperdon_ linn. _syst. nat._, in part. . _lycogala_ persoon, römer, _n. bot. mag._, p. . micheli's description and figures, _nov. plant. gen._, pp. , , tab. , leave no doubt but that this illustrious man had species of _lycogala_ before him when he described the genus. his figure . no doubt portrays the second species in our present list. more recent writers, from persoon down, have used micheli's designation, but differed in regard to the limits to which the name should be applied. it is here used substantially as in . fries and, after him, rostafinski make a mistake in quoting retzius as writing _lycogala_ ( ). retzius wrote _lycoperdon sessile; kongl. vetenskaps acad. handling, för ar._ , p. . =key to the species of lycogala= _a._ Æthalia irregularly globose. _a._ cortex minutely roughened or warted; about mm. in diameter . _l. epidendrum_ _b._ cortex smooth, size large . _l. flavo-fuscum_ _c._ cortex rough; diameter mm. or less . _l. exiguum_ _b._ Æthalia conical . _l. conicum_ . lycogala epidendrum (_buxb._) _fries._ . _lycoperdon epidendron_, etc., buxb., _en. pl. hal._, p. . . _lycoperdon epidendrum_ linn., _sp. pl._, p. . . _lycogala epidendrum_ (buxb.) fries, _syst. myc._ iii., p. . Æthalia solitary or clustered, depressed spherical, or, when crowded, irregular, olivaceous or blackish, minutely warted, - mm. in diameter, dehiscing irregularly, but more often near the apex; peridium thin, but tough and persistent, made up of numerous agglutinated tubules enclosing in their mashes peculiar cell-like vesicles; capillitium parietal, consisting of long, branching, and anastomosing flattened tubules extended inwardly among the spores, everywhere marked by transverse wrinkles, ridges, and warts, the free ends of the ultimate branchlets rounded, concolorous with the spores; spore-mass, when fresh, rosy, or ashen with a rosaceous or purplish tinge, becoming with age sordid or ochraceous, spores by transmitted light colorless, minutely roughened or reticulate, - µ. this is not only a cosmopolitan species, but is no doubt, the most common slime-mould in the world. found everywhere on decaying wood of all sorts, more particularly on that of deciduous trees. it has likewise been long the subject of observation. it is doubtless the "_fungus coccineus_" of ray, , and the type of micheli's genus as here, . the different colors assumed, from the rich scarlet of the emerging plasmodium to the glistening bronze of the newly formed æthalium, have suggested various descriptive names,--as _l. miniata_ pers., _l. chalybeum_ of batsch, and _l. plumbea_ schum. the peridium is by authors described as double. this is for description only. in structure the outer and inner peridium completely blend. the outer is predominately vesiculose, the inner more gelatinous. for discussion of the microscopic structure see under the next species. common. new england, west to nebraska, south dakota, colorado, washington, oregon, california; alberta to nicaragua. _lycogala terrestre_ fr., _syst. myc._, iii., , appears to be a variety of the present species. in spores and capillitial thread the forms are indistinguishable; the difference is a matter of size, and to some extent, of the color of the wall. the specimens are a little larger, depressed and angular. the peridium is paler, smoother, though sometimes almost black, thin, ruptured irregularly. but the form and color of the peridium in the sporocarps of the older species vary much in response to external conditions; on a substratum affording scant nutrition the forms of fructification are minute; and in all cases, if maturity be hastened, the peridium responds in darker colors. under more favorable conditions the wall is smoother and brighter. . lycogala flavo-fuscum (_ehr._) _rost._ . _diphtherium flavo-fuscum_ ehr., _syl. myc. berol._, p. . . _reticularia flavo-fusca_ (ehr.) fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _lycogala flavo-fuscum_ (ehr.) rost., _versuch_, p. . Æthalia solitary or sometimes two or three together, large - cm. in diameter, spherical or spheroidal, purplish-gray or brown, smooth, shining; the peridium thick, simple but in microscopic section showing two or three successive layers; capillitium of abundantly branching, irregular, transparent tubules, marked by numberless warts and transverse rings or wrinkles, spores in mass yellowish gray, by transmitted light, colorless, smooth or only faintly reticulate or roughened, - µ. this, one of the largest and most striking of the slime-moulds, is by students generally mistaken for a puff-ball. it occurs on stumps and rotten logs of various sorts in the mississippi valley, more often affecting stumps of _acer saccharinum_ l. the fructification, when solitary, about the size of a walnut, though sometimes larger; when clustered, the individuals are smaller. the form depends largely upon the place in which the fruit is formed. the plasmodic mass is so large that its form is determined by gravity. thus on the lower surface of a log raised a little distance from the earth the æthalium is often pyriform. this fact did not escape micheli. see _nov. plant. gen._, tab. . the plasmodium is pale pink, soon becomes buff when exposed in fruiting, finally pallid or somewhat livid, and is outwardly changed into the stout, tough peridium. this consists of an intricate network of irregular gelatinous tubules enclosing within the meshes protoplasmic masses of pretty uniform size, - µ. outwardly the protoplasmic vesicles predominate; inwardly the gelatinous tubules, which are, in some instances at least, continued toward the centre of fructification to form the capillitium. the protoplasmic masses referred to respond to ordinary stains, are often broken into numberless small cells corresponding in size and appearance to ordinary spores. not common. new england, ohio, iowa. perhaps more abundant in the mississippi valley; canada. . lycogala exiguum _morg._ . _lycogala exiguum_ morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. . Æthalia small, - mm. in diameter, gregarious, globose, dark brown or black, sessile, minutely scaly, irregularly dehiscent; the peridium thin, the vesicles comparatively few, in irregular patches which are more or less confluent; capillitium as in preceding species, the tubules slender and branching; spore-mass pale, ochraceous, spores by transmitted light colorless, almost smooth, - µ. found in the same situations as no. , and at the same season. recognizable by its _gregarious_ habit, not crowded nor superimposed, small size, and dusky color. the little spheres occur a dozen or more in a place, dark lead-colored, shading to black, opening rather regularly at the top. it looks like a depauperate _l. epidendrum_, but seems to be constantly collected. our specimens are from ohio, iowa, missouri, canada. . lycogala conicum _pers._ . _lycogala conica_ pers., _syn. fung._, p. . . _dermodium conicum_ (pers.) rost., _mon._, p. . Æthalia scattered, sometimes two or three together, small - mm. high, conical, sessile, pallid, grayish brown, marked by obscure black reticulations, opening regularly at the somewhat acuminate tip; peridium thin in structure, as in _l. epidendrum_, but more delicate; capillitium made up of abundant, slender, uniform threads almost smooth, simple, the free ends obtuse, taking origin in the cortex much as in the preceding species; spores in mass ochraceous, by transmitted light colorless, minutely warted or faintly reticulate, about µ. a very distinct and rare little species. well described by persoon, who also appears to have observed the plasmodium "_primo rubra_." the color of the mature form varies with age; at first somewhat purplish. dr. rex collected it in pennsylvania; mr. morgan has it from ohio; our specimens are from southeastern missouri. order v =trichiales= fructification sporangial, rarely plasmodiocarpous, the sporangia stalked or sessile, gregarious or closely crowded, limeless throughout; the capillitium of definite threads, free or attached to the sporangial wall, isolated or combined into a net; spores generally some shade of yellow, never purple or black. the distinguishing feature in this order is found in the peculiar sculpture of the capillitial threads. this is suggested by the tubules of _lycogala_, though probably the resemblance is superficial only. the individual threads, as in _trichia_, are called elaters, from their probable efficiency in spore-dispersal. as here limited, the order is coextensive with the _calonemeae_ of rostafinski, except that that includes in addition the genera _prototrichia_ and _dianema_. the course of differentiation may be assumed to start with _dianema_, through the _perichaenaceae_ to the _arcyriaceae_ and again from the same starting-point through _prototrichia_ to the _trichiaceae_. =key to the families of the trichiales= _a._ capillitial threads transverse to the sporangial cavity, attached usually at each end, plain or only slightly roughened _dianemaceae_ _b._ capillitium plain, papillose, or spinulose, often scanty, not netted, the threads sometimes attached by one end to the sporangium wall _perichaenaceae_ _c._ capillitium a distinct net, usually attached below to the sporangial wall; sculpture various, not continuous spiral bands _arcyriaceae_ _d._ capillitial threads transverse, fascicled, attached at both ends, but sculptured by well defined spiral bands _prototrichiaceae_ _e._ capillitial threads typically free, sometimes more or less branched, forming a loose net attached below, characterized by definite spiral bands, or sometimes by scattered rings _trichiaceae_ _a._ dianemaceÆ =key to the genera of the dianemaceæ= _a._ capillitial threads attached at one end, or free . margarita _b._ capillitial threads attached at each end . dianema = . margarita= _list._ . _margarita_ lister, _mycet._, p. . sporangia sessile, the capillitium simple, hair-like, coiled. . margarita metallica (_berk. & br._) _list._ plate xvii., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _physarum metallicum_ berk. & br., _mag. zool. & bot._, i., p. . sporangia scattered or clustered, globose, or somewhat plasmodiocarpous, . - mm., sessile, coppery iridescent, the peridium thin, opening above irregularly; capillitium of long flexuous, coiling, simple or little dividing threads, nearly smooth, with infrequent attachments to the peridial wall; spores in mass yellowish, transparent under the lens, delicately verruculose, - µ. one of the handsomer species of the present group. so far a pacific coast form. california, oregon, washington; reported from chile. =dianema= _rex_ . _dianema harveyi_ rex, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . sporangia simple or plasmodiocarpous; capillitium composed of threads without characteristic thickenings running entirely across the sporangium attached both to the base and to the opposite wall, not joined to form a network. =key to species of dianema= _a._ sporangia distinct, iridescent . _d. harveyi_ _b._ fructification more or less plasmodiocarpous, dull brown . _d. corticatum_ _c._ sporangia, some of them stipitate . _d. andersoni_ . dianema harveyi _rex._ plate xvi., figs. and _b_. . _dianema harveyi_ rex, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . sporangia gregarious, generally rounded or cushion-shaped, depressed, sessile, iridescent bronze, mm. in diameter; peridium thin, translucent, opening irregularly; capillitium of simple threads, not netted, but often forked two or three times, taut, running from base to top; spores yellow, by transmitted light pale yellowish, minutely roughened, - µ. this interesting species was collected in orono, maine, in , by professor f. l. harvey, and so far as can be learned has not been taken since. mr. lister records two species from england which he refers to this genus. as to its systematic place, dr. rex says, _l. c._ "it stands as a single representative of a new and separate family adjoining the _perichaenacae_ in the order _calonemeae_ of rostafinski." rare. maine. . dianema corticatum _list._ plate xvi., figs. _a_, _c_. . _dianema corticatum_ list., _mycetozoa_, p. . "plasmodium pink"; sporangia sometimes flat-hemispheric, more often ill-defined, united in irregular, depressed, netted plasmodiocarps, generally dull brown; peridium opaque, didermatous, capillitium of simple or rarely branching filaments, variously beaded or marked with spiral bands, lightly attached at either end, occasionally twisted together; spore-mass dull brown, the spores in clusters of four or more, colorless by transmitted light, more or less verruculose, ellipsoidal, about - µ. our specimens are from the mountains of alberta. a curious, flat plasmodiocarp, an inch or more in length. it suggests _hemitrichia serpula_ prematurely dry. . dianema andersoni, _morg._ _dianema andersoni_, _morg._ ms., _non. pub._ sporangium globose, sessile or sub-stipitate, seated on a thin brownish hypothallus; the wall a thin smooth pinkish membrane, when dry rugulose and iridescent, the inner surface somewhat thickened below and brownish at the base. capillitium arising out of the thickened base, the threads hyaline or pinkish, ascending, flexuous, simple, or branched a time or two, the extremities attached on all sides to the wall of the sporangium. spores globose, very minutely warted, pale, pinkish, - µ, in diameter, free. growing on old wood and bark of _alnus_; british columbia, _w. b. anderson_. sporangium spherical, - mm. in diameter, sessile or on a very short stipe. this species differs from d. harveyi rex in the _uniform pinkish_ color of the wall and of the spores; the dividing threads are furnished remotely with minute roundish tubercles as in _didymium_; the spores are somewhat larger than in _d. harveyi_. _b._ perichÆnaceÆ =key to the genera of the perichænaceæ= _a._ sporangia more or less plasmodiocarpous in type, terete; dehiscence irregular . ophiotheca _b._ sporangia more or less polygonal in outline, or round, depressed; dehiscence circumscissile . perichÆna = . ophiotheca= _currey_. . _ophiotheca pallida_ berk. & c., _jour. linn. soc._, x., p. . fructification generally plasmodiocarpous, terete, bent or flexuous, often annular or cornuate, rarely globose, opening irregularly, peridium thin, not polished, covered more or less strongly with a distinct layer of scales or granules; capillitium of slender, loosely branching filaments, the surface rough to strongly spinulose; spores yellow. as a generic name _ophiotheca_ plainly has priority. _cornuvia_ as understood by rostafinski has no representative so far in our region. =key to the species of ophiotheca= _a._ plasmodiocarp usually upon herbaceous stems, slender . _o. vermicularis_ _b._ plasmodiocarp on rotting bark, logs, etc, _a._ pale brownish or yellowish . _o. chrysosperma_ _b._ chestnut brown or blackish . _o. wrightii_ . ophiotheca vermicularis (_schw._) _macbr._ . _physarum vermicularis_ schw., _n. a. f._, no. . . _ophiotheca pallida_ berk. & c., _jour. lin. soc._, x., p. . . _ophiotheca umbrina_ berk. & c. grev., ii., p. . . _perichaena pallida_ (schw.) rost., _mon. app._, p. . plasmodiocarp very slender, terete, elongate, flexuous or reticulate, annular, etc., of dull gray or neutral tint; the peridium thin, translucent, but with a delicate granular outer coating; capillitium of slender threads, frequently branched, warted and usually minutely spinulose; spore-mass ochraceous yellow; spores by transmitted light pale yellow, minutely roughened, µ. perhaps common, but seldom collected, probably overlooked on account of protective coloration; the color is about that of the habitat, the weathered surface of dead herbaceous stems and roots. on dead corn stalks not infrequent. differs from other species of the genus in having smoother capillitium, for which reason rostafinski calls the present species _perichaena vermicularis_. _o. pallida_ berk. & c. seems to us to be the same thing, _n. a. f._, . new england, new jersey, south carolina, ontario, ohio, iowa. . ophiotheca chrysosperma _currey_. . _ophiotheca chrysosperma_ currey, _quart. mic. jour._, ii., p. . . _cornuvia circumscissa_ (wallr.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _perichaena chrysosperma_ lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, in part, p. . plasmodiocarp elongate, bent and curved in various ways, spherical, more rarely annular or even reticulate, yellowish or ochraceous brown, opening irregularly; peridium thin, with yellowish outer layer; capillitium rather abundant, of threads slender, sparingly branched and minutely but distinctly spinulose; spore-mass yellow, spores by transmitted light pale, almost smooth, about µ. occurs on the inner bark of deciduous trees, especially of oak. not common. this is possibly _cornuvia circumscissa_ (_wallr._) of rostafinski's monograph; but it is doubtful to what wallroth referred. rostafinski's other citations are equally uncertain. currey's figures and description alone merit recognition. ohio, iowa, tennessee; canada. . ophiotheca wrightii _berk._ plate ii., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _ophiotheca wrightii_ berk. & c., _jour. linn. soc._, x., p. . . _cornuvia wrightii_ (berk. & c.) rost., _mon. app._, p. . . _cornuvia wrightii_ (berk. & c.) macbr., _bull. lab. nat. hist. ia._, ii., p. . . _perichaena chrysosperma_ lister, _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . plasmodiocarp bent or short-flexuous, often arcuate or completely annular, dark chestnut brown or black, opening irregularly; peridium thin, brittle, translucent, covered without by a rather dense layer of brownish or black brown scales; capillitium of long, sparingly branched threads furnished with projecting spinules remarkable for their length, about twice the diameter of the thread; spores yellow, minutely but distinctly warted, about µ. this is the common species everywhere on the inner side of the bark of fallen trees, _ulmus_, etc. it is readily distinguished at sight by the peculiar annular, looped, and u-shaped plasmodiocarps, with their dark umbrine or blackened surface. from the preceding it is especially distinguished by the spinulose capillitium and larger spores. not rare. new england, new york, pennsylvania, ohio. = . perichæna= _fries_ . _perichaena_ fries, _symb. gast._, p. . sporangia flattened, sometimes small and roundish, more often larger, polygonal by mutual interference, or irregular, the peridium thickened outwardly by a dense reddish or brownish layer of scales; dehiscing by circumscission or by a lid; capillitium often scant, of slender, warted, yellowish threads, attached betimes to the upper wall; spores yellow, oval or spherical. =key to the species of perichæna= _a._ sporangia plainly flattened. _a._ very flat, sporangia mm. or more in width . _p. depressa_ _b._ depressed; sporangia smaller . _p. quadrata_ _b._ sporangia more or less spherical _a._ chestnut brown . _p. corticalis_ _b._ gray or canescent . _p. marginata_ . perichaena depressa _libert._ plate xvii., fig. . . _perichaena depressa_ lib., _fl. crypt. ard._, iv., no., . sporangia sessile, applanate, crowded, polygonal by mutual contact, fuscous or chestnut brown, shining, opening by a definite lid; spore-mass and capillitium yellow, the capillitium well developed, of slender yellow threads of various widths, almost smooth; spores minutely warted, - µ. easily recognized by the peculiar, polygonal, depressed-flattened sporangia and consequent shallow spore-cases in which lie the yellow spores and scanty capillitium. rostafinski refers here _p. vaporaria_ schw., no. , but the meagre description seems rather to apply to the next species. the original material is no longer accessible. in the crevices and on the inside of bark of fallen logs of various sorts, walnut, maple, etc. not commonly collected. specimens are before us from new england, illinois, iowa, missouri, florida, mexico, nicaragua. probably over the whole wooded region of the continent. . perichaena quadrata _macbr._ . _perichaena irregularis_ berk. & c., morgan, _jour. cin. soc._, p. . sporangia very small, less than ½ mm., crowded, polygonal or quadrangular, depressed, but not flattened, smooth, bright rufous or brown; the peridium rather thick, yellow within, the dehiscence circumscissile; capillitium scanty, of slender, sparingly branched filaments, the surface minutely roughened, warted or spinulose; spore-mass yellow; by transmitted light pale yellow, - µ. differs from the preceding by the much smaller size of the sporangia, different color and habit. the sporangia, while depressed, still maintain considerable rotundity; they are occasionally quite spherical, and then of very uneven size, hardly in contact. in some cases the plasmodium before maturing seems to assume the form of a plasmodiocarp, which, by transverse fission at intervals, forms the curious four-sided conceptacles. at other times the plasmodium assumes the shape of a flat cushion or plate, which then subdivides into minute polygonal segments. this form has been known some years to collectors, and, if named at all, has been called _p. irregularis_. lister, _l. c._, assures us that berkeley's type "is typical _p. depressa_." not common. pennsylvania, ohio, illinois, missouri. . perichaena corticalis (_batsch_) _rost._ plate ii., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _lycoperdon corticale_ batsch, _elench. fung._, p. . . _perichaena corticalis_ (batsch) rost., _mon._, p. . . _perichaena populina_ fries, _symb. gast._, p. . sporangia sessile, gregarious, flattened, hemispherical; peridia simple, opening by a lid; dehiscence circumscissile, the upper part chestnut brown, the lower almost black; capillitium feebly developed, smooth, attached to the lid and usually coming away with it, bringing the brilliantly yellow spore-mass, and leaving a delicate, shining cupule adherent to the substratum; spores yellow, nearly smooth, - µ. on and under the bark of dead elms of various species. a very handsome little species occuring rarely with us, or perhaps overlooked by virtue of its protective coloration. found sometimes on the inner side of the bark where the latter has separated, but not yet wholly parted company with the wood. in such situations the tiny sporangia are so nearly quite the color of the moist substratum as to escape all but the closest scrutiny. the dehiscence is very remarkable, characteristic, beautiful. black, brown, chestnut, and gold are harmoniously blended, in the opening coffers. prior to maturity the future line of fission is plainly indicated by the difference in color. this is clearly the species found by batsch "ligni demortui putridi in interiore corticis pagina." bulliard has also described and figured the species, _sphaerocarpus sessilis_ t. , fig. v. the capillitium is nearly smooth; the spores are only slightly roughened by minute warts. apparently not common. iowa, missouri; black hills, south dakota; canada;--_miss currie._ . perichaena marginata _schweinitz._ . _perichaena marginata_ schw., _n. a. f._, no. , p. . sporangia depressed, globose, polygonal as they become approximate or crowded, hoary canescent, sessile; peridium rather thick, persistent, circumscissile in dehiscence, covered without by minute whitish calcareous (?) scales, within punctate by the imprint of the spores; hypothallus distinct, white; capillitium scant or none! spores in mass dull yellow, by transmitted light pale, nearly smooth, - µ. lister, following rostafinski, includes this form with the preceding. the differences between the two forms are, it seems to us, sufficient to make convenient their separation as by schweinitz. apart from the peculiar incrustation in the present species, the larger spores, and especially the peculiar white hypothallus, are distinctive. the method of dehiscence is also different. in _p. corticalis_ the line of cleavage before spore dispersal is indicated by a definite band surrounding the sporangium. nothing similar appears in the gray specimens of the present form, although the dehiscence is quite as certainly circumscissile. the habitat in american specimens is the _outer_ surface of the bark, which causes the species generally, by protective coloration, to be overlooked. not common. pennsylvania, ohio, missouri. _c._ arcyriaceÆ =key to the genera of the arcyriaceæ= _a._ peridium becoming fragmentary, but persisting; capillitium non-elastic . lachnobolus _b._ peridium evanescent above, persistent below; capillitium elastic . arcyria _c._ capillitium elastic, bearing hamate branches . heterotrichia = . lachnobolus= _fries_. . _lachnobolus_ fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . sporangia distinct, sessile or nearly so, globose or cylindric, often distorted, scattered or densely crowded, the peridium extremely thin, ruptured irregularly, and persistent in fragments; capillitium attached at numerous points to the sporangial wall, forming a dense net, the threads warted or spinulose, non-elastic. species of this genus are easily distinguished from those of the next by the peculiar fragile peridium and the inelastic capillitium. =key to the species of lachnobolus= _a._ sporangia pale yellow, on fallen flowers and fruit-burs of castanea . _l. globosus_ _b._ sporangia rosy or copper-colored, at length ochraceous . _l. occidentalis_ . lachnobolus globosus (_schw._) _rost._ . _arcyria globosa_ schw., _syn. fung. carol._, no. . . lachnobolus globosus (schw.) _rost., mon._, p. . . _arcyria albida_ pers. (in part) lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . sporangia on the spines of fallen chestnut burs, scattered, pale yellow or whitish, small, globose, the peridium early evanescent above, more persistent below, stipitate; stipe small, tapering upward, from a small hypothallus; capillitium a dense but not expanding network attached chiefly to the lower portion of the sporangial wall, minutely waited or roughened, with few expansions or inflations; spores in mass pale yellow, under the lens colorless, almost smooth, - µ. this singular little species is remarkable chiefly in the habitat it affects,--fallen chestnut burs. on these almost universal, but on nothing else, except on the fallen catkins of the same species. regarded by mr. lister as _a. cinerea_, from which it differs constantly in form, in capillitium more open and with larger threads, - µ in diameter as well as in its unique habitat, and yellowish color. distribution coterminous with that of _castanea dentata_ borkhausen,--eastern half of the united states. . lachnobolus occidentalis _macbr._ plate ii., figs. , _a_, _b_; and _a_. . _lachnobolus incarnatus_ (alb. & schw.) macbr., _bull. lab. nat. hist. iowa_, ii., p. . sporangia scattered or crowded upon a hypothallus more or less distinct, globose or ellipsoidal, short-stipitate, varying somewhat in color, at first rosy or flesh-colored, later brownish or ochraceous; the peridium exceedingly thin, pellucid, mealy, evanescent above, persisting as a shallow cup below; capillitium inelastic, rather closely netted of threads variable in thickness, marked by frequent thickenings or expansions, everywhere warted, attached to the peridial walls, spores in mass flesh-colored, under the lens colorless, smooth, globose, . - µ. this delicate and elegant little species appears to be not uncommon, but is probably generally passed over as an _arcyria_, which it superficially resembles. when newly formed, the sporangia have a peculiar rosy or flesh-colored metallic tint, which is all their own. within a short time this color passes, and most of the material comes from the field brownish or ochraceous in color. typical sporangia are spherical on distinct short stipes; when crowded, the shape is of course less definite. the capillitium never expands as in _arcyria_, but, exposed by the vanishing upper wall, remains a spherical mass resting upon the shallow cup-like base of the peridium. this species has been in the united states generally distributed as _l. incarnatus_ (alb. & schw.) schroet. a careful study of all descriptions of european forms and comparison of many specimens leads us to believe that we have here to do with a type presenting constant peculiarities. we have in america nothing to correspond with the figures of schweinitz, berkeley, or lister. in the american gatherings the sporangia are uniformly regular, globose, very generally short-stipitate, more or less closely gregarious, never superimposed, or heaped as shown in berkeley's figure, for instance, _ann. and mag. nat. hist._, iv., xvii., pl. ix., fig. . the plasmodium of our species is white; as it approaches maturity a rosy metallic tinge supervenes, quickly changing to dull yellow or alutaceous. the graphic description given by fries of _perichaena incarnata_, _syst. myc._, iii., p. , presents scarcely a character attributable to the form before us. _l. congesta_ berk. & br., evidently the form figured and described by lister, _mycetozoa_, p. , pl. lxx., b., resembles our species in color and capillitium, but is entirely different in habit. not uncommon. maine, iowa, missouri, nebraska. = . arcyria= (_hill_) _pers._ . _arcyria_ sir john hill, _gen. nat. hist._, ii., p. . . _arcyria_ pers., _syn. fung._, p. . sporangia ovoid or cylindric or even globose, stipitate; the peridium thin, evanescent to near the base, the lower part persisting as a calyculus; the stipe variable, packed with free cell-like vesicles, resembling spores, but larger; capillitium attached below, to the interior of the stipe or to the calyculus, in form an elastic network, the tubules adorned with warts, spinules, half-rings, etc., but without spiral bands or free extremities. micheli, of course, discovered the arcyrias, put them in two genera and several species, which we may only dimly recognize. persoon first saw distinctly the outlines of the genus as now understood and adopted the name given by hill in his curiously prolix description of certain species, probably partly of the genus _arcyria_, partly _stemonitis_. =key to the species of arcyria= _a._ mature capillitium loosely adhering to the calyculus. _a._ mature capillitium far-expanded, drooping. i. dusky. o long, mm. or more . _a. magna_ oo shorter, about mm. . _a. oerstedtii_ ii. yellow . _a. nutans_ _b._ mature capillitium short, not drooping, though sometimes procumbent. i. capillitium greenish yellow . _a. versicolor_ ii. capillitium reddish, flesh-colored, at length sordid, etc. o capillitium marked by transverse half-rings, cogs, etc. . _a. incarnata_ oo capillitium marked by sharp-edged transverse plates and by numerous nodes . _a. nodulosa_ ooo capillitium marked by close reticulations . _a. ferruginea_ _b._ capillitium persistently attached to the calyculus. _a._ sporangia reddish brown, etc. . _a. denudata_ _b._ sporangia gray or ashen i. simple . _a. cinerea_ ii. clustered . _a. digitata_ _c._ sporangia yellow . _a. pomiformis_ _d._ sporangia rose-colored, . - . mm. . _a. insignis_ . arcyria magna _rex._ . _arcyria magna_ rex, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . sporangia densely aggregated, forming clusters of greater or less extent, sometimes reaching several centimetres in either direction, tawny gray or ashen, cylindric, tapering a little above, when expanded reaching a length of half a centimetre or more, stipitate; peridium evanescent except the small shallow cup-like base, the calyculus; stipe long ( mm.), weak, pale brown or reddish, tubular, the channel filled with plasmodic masses; capillitium gray or drab-colored, very slightly attached to the bottom of the calyculus, far expanded, forming a loose-meshed net, the threads regular, cylindric, coarsely sculptured with rings, half-rings, cogs, spines, etc.; spores in mass dull gray, drab, under the lens colorless, papillate, with few papillæ, - µ. this magnificent form resembles in habit and general appearance, save color, _a. nutans_. the capillitium is, however, very different both in the sculpture and in the more delicate markings of the threads. dr. rex, _l. c._, has pointed out the lack of reticulation on the capillitium and calyculus. the color is also diagnostic. a roseate variety seems to occur with the present form. this is _a. magna rosea_ rex, and appears to agree with the type in all respects save color. the relationship here must be determined by future inquiry. the capillitial threads are remarkable for their graceful slenderness, regularity, and symmetry. . arcyria oerstedtii _rost._ . _arcyria oerstedtii_ rost., _mon._, p. , fig. . sporangia cylindric, arcuate, . mm. high when unexpanded, closely clustered, dull crimson, stipitate; peridium evanescent except here and there a persistent patch, the calyculus shallow, plicate, papillose within; stipe short, weak, concolorous; hypothallus distinct, membranous, concolorous; capillitium a loose, far-expanding, elastic net, the meshes uneven, often small, the threads characterized by much irregularity and many bulbose thickenings, especially at the nodes, strongly spinulose throughout; spore-mass crimson or reddish brown, dull; spores by transmitted light colorless, nearly smooth, sub-globose, - µ. this well-marked species is certainly rare within our limits. we have specimens from new england and from pennsylvania. the iowa material referred to this species, _bull. lab. nat. hist. ia._, ii., p. , is _a. magna_ rex. rostafinski's figure is excellent in the present case, and gives the idea of what we regard the typical marking of the capillitium in _a. oerstedtii_. externally the species resembles somewhat _a. nodulosa_, and the network of the capillitium is also suggestive of that form; the spiny capillitium is unique. rare. adirondacks, new york--_dr. rex._ . arcyria nutans (_bull._) _grev._ plate ii., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _trichia nutans_ bulliard, _champ._, p. , t. , iii. . _arcyria flava_ pers., _römer n. mag. bot._, i., p. . . _arcyria nutans_ grev., _fl. edin._, p. . sporangia crowded, cylindric, about mm. high when unexpanded, pale yellow or buff, short-stipitate or sessile by an acute base; peridium wholly evanescent, except at the base, where persists the shallow, colorless, often inwardly spinulose, plicatulate calyculus; stipe very short or wanting; hypothallus thin but usually in evidence; capillitium expanding to great length, forming an extremely flexile, plumose, pendulose open network of pale ochraceous tint, the threads - µ in thickness, adorned with spinules, sharp edged transverse plates sometimes rings, the surface especially marked by an indistinct reticulation; spore-mass buff or ochraceous, spores by transmitted light colorless, smooth or nearly so, - µ. this elegant species is not rare in undisturbed woods, especially on fallen willows. the expanded capillitia are very soft and plume-like, waving and nodding, very lightly attached below to the centre of the peridial cup. the capillitium threads are rough, with irregular spines and sharp-edged transverse plates, occasionally extending to form rings. resembles the first species somewhat in habit, size, and the spinescent capillitium, but the resemblance is superficial only. the color is at once diagnostic, and the capillitium is after all entirely different. not uncommon; canada to mexico; maine to california; probably cosmopolitan. bulliard's figure determines the synonymy. persoon called the form _a. flava_, because bulliard had missed the genus. . arcyria versicolor _phillips._ . _arcyria versicolor_ phillips, _grev._, v., p. . . _arcyria vitellina_ phillips, _grev._, v., p. . sporangia gregarious or more or less crowded, pyriform or clavate, dingy, olivaceous yellow, becoming reddish, stipitate; peridium membranous, largely persistent below, where it gives rise to the deep, goblet-shaped calyculus; stipe strand-like, weak, sometimes wanting, concolorous with the peridium; hypothallus prominent or venulose; capillitium only slowly expanded, bright golden yellow or orange, the threads rather broad, about µ in diameter, regular, even, elegantly branching, adorned with abundant short spines or warts, very small and evenly distributed, the whole net anchored in the bottom of the vasiform calyculus; spore-mass yellow, by transmitted light pale or nearly colorless, smooth, about µ. this beautiful species is easily known by its comparatively large size, peculiar, obovate shape, its brilliant color, and unusually persistent membranous calyculus. it is peculiar to the western part of north america, south dakota west to the pacific ocean. south dakota, colorado, california, washington. in the thin-covered mountains of colorado, or hidden by the still drier thickets and woods of southern california, the fruit of this species is small, somewhat as the clavate hemitrichia, pure, deep yellow, golden or vitelline as phillips says; but at loftier altitudes in the ever cool forests on the high mountain flanks, beginning away up where the glacier first starts to crack and slide between the 'cleavers', and forests of stunted white-stemmed pine or wooly-fruited fir throw down their twigs and foliage undisturbed through centuries,--on down to where the plowing ice forgets its thrust, and melts to gentle floods amid spruce and hemlock-groves,--all the way the beautiful versicolor spreads and fruits, in august and september in all the richness of color which its name implies, which phillips saw, tints of red, and yellow, and olive, and green, not brilliant, but in all the softer shades the artists love, weaving, in far-spread strands of tufted cylinders and cones upturned, fair as flowers, dusky garlands, by sunlight long forgot! did not the old-time botanists liken these things once and again, to flowers! . arcyria incarnata _persoon._ . _clathrus adnatus_ batsch, _elench. fung._, . (?) . _arcyria incarnata_ pers., gmel., _syst. nat._, ii., . sporangia closely crowded, cylindric, - . mm. high, rosy or flesh-colored, stipitate or almost sessile; stipe generally short, sometimes barely a conical point beneath the calyculus; hypothallus none; peridium wholly evanescent, except the shallow, saucer-like, inwardly roughened calyculus; capillitium loose, broad, pale reddish, attached to the cup at the centre only by strands which enter the hollow stem, the threads adorned with transverse plates, cogs, ridges, etc., arranged in an open spiral; spore-mass rosy, spores by transmitted light colorless, nearly smooth, - µ. this common species is well marked both by its color and by the delicate attachment of the capillitium to the calyculus. this is so frail that the slightest breath ofttimes suffices to effect a separation, and the empty calyculi are not infrequently the only evidence of the fructification. this peculiarity did not escape the attention of persoon, and is well shown in his figure (_obs. myc._, i., p. , pl. v. figs. and ) referred to by gmelin, _l. c._ batsch simply named and described micheli's figure (tab. xciv., fig. ), and accordingly his claim to priority is no better than micheli's figure, which may possibly concern the present species, but is in no sense determinative. it is impossible to say what retzius meant by his _clathrus ramosus_, cited by fries as a synonym here. common, especially in the mississippi valley and south; more rare in the west; black hills, south dakota; toronto to new mexico. . arcyria nodulosa _macbr._ plate iii., fig. . sporangia small, about mm. high when unexpanded, crowded in clusters of varying size, dull red or brownish, stipitate; the peridium evanescent except the cup; stipe very short, concolorous, plicate as the cup, or both smooth and unmarked; capillitium centrally attached, slowly expanded, open-meshed, dense, the threads even, - µ wide, expanded in globose, spinulose, or papillate-reticulate nodules, especially at points of intersection, marked everywhere by close-set, transverse, sharp-edged ridges, which encircle the thread and show no trace of spiral arrangement; spore-mass brown or red brown; spores by transmitted light pale yellow or colorless, minutely but distinctly roughened, globose, - µ. this variety is not distantly related to the preceding, as shown by the centrally attached capillitial mass, but differs in several definite particulars; the sporangia are much smaller of an entirely different color with longer stipes, larger, rougher spores; the capillitium is also peculiar, the threads unusually wide and densely corrugated transversely, expanding at frequent intervals into globose nodules which are sometimes double the width of the thread. in color suggests _a. affinis_ rost., but corresponds to no other particular. . arcyria ferruginea _sauter._ plate xii., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _arcyria ferruginea_ saut., _flora_, xxiv., p. . . _arcyria macrospora_ peck, _rep. n. y. mus._, xxxiv., p. . . _arcyria aurantiaca_ raunier, _myx. dan._, p. ( ). sporangia ovoid or short cylindric, crowded or gregarious, dull red or brownish, stipitate; stipe about equal to the sporangium, dark brown or black; hypothallus well developed, membranous, yellowish brown continuous; calyculus large, wide and shallow, smooth; capillitium centrally attached, when fresh, brick-red in color, fading on exposure, the threads of uneven size, those above - µ, below µ, abundantly branching, marked by conspicuous reticulations formed by the intersection of numerous vertical plates or ridges; spore-mass reddish, spores by transmitted light pale ochraceous, distinctly warted, - µ. this species is distinguishable at sight by the peculiar color and form of the sporangia. mr. durand in _bot. gaz._, xix., pp , , gives a careful study of the form. the same author declares the dehiscence circumscissile. we cannot distinguish _a. aurantiaca_ raun. from the present form. rare. maine, new york; monterey, california. . arcyria denudata (_linn._) _sheldon._ plate ii., figs. , _a_. . _clathrus denudatus_ linn., _syst. nat._, . . _arcyria punicea_ pers., _röm. n. mag. bot._, i., p. . . _arcyria denudata_ (linn.) sheld., _minn. bot. studies_, no. , p. . sporangia crowded or gregarious, ovoid or short cylindrical, tapering upward, red-brown, stipitate; peridium evanescent except the plicate calyculus; stipe about equal to the expanded capillitium, concolorous, plicate or striate, ascending from a small hypothallus; capillitium attached to the whole inner surface of the calyculus and connate with it; hence not deciduous, bright red or carmine when fresh, turning brown or paler with age, the threads even, about µ adorned with a series of rather distant cogs or half rings, which form around the thread a lengthened spiral; spore-mass red or reddish brown, spores by transmitted light colorless, nearly smooth, - µ. this species is easily distinguished from all other of similar tints by the attachment of the capillitium. in this respect it corresponds with the following species. in the adornment of the threads it is like _a. incarnata_. it is by far the commonest species of the genus, and probably enjoys a world-wide distribution. to be found at all seasons on the lower side of fallen sticks, _populus_, _tilia_, etc. micheli, pl. xciv., shows that he had the present species. the description given by linné is worthless, but helped out by micheli, and several other authors of the eighteenth century, who take the trouble to describe the species, but still give the linnean binomial as a synonym; we may give linné here the credit. as a matter of fact, batsch under _embolus crocatus_ first presents an unmistakable description and figure. maine to the black hills and colorado, and north and west; alaska to nicaragua. . arcyria cinerea (_bull._) _pers._ plate ii., figs. , _a_. . _trichia cinerea_ bull., _champ. de france_, p. , tab. , fig. iii. . _arcyria cinerea_ (bull.) pers., _syn. fung._, p. . sporangia scattered or gregarious, ovoid or cylindrical, generally tapering upward, about - mm. high, ashen gray, sometimes with a yellowish tinge, stipitate; calyculus very small, thin; stipe about half the total height, rising from a small hypothallus, thin, gray or blackish, densely crowded with spore-like cells; capillitium dense, freely branching, ashen, or yellowish, little wider below, minutely spinulose; spore-mass concolorous, spores by transmitted light colorless, smooth, - µ. a very common little species, easily recognized by its color and habit. the capillitium is more dense than in any other species and expands less. the stipe is about equal to the expanded capillitium, unusually long. the plasmodium occurs in rotten wood, especially species of _tilia_, is gray and, judging from the number of sporangia found in one place, scanty. bulliard, _l. c._, gives the first account of the species by which it can with any certainty be identified. by some authors _clathrus recutitus_ linn. is cited as a synonym. we fail to distinguish _a. cookei_ mass. from the old type. widely distributed; maine to alaska, and south to mexico and nicaragua. . arcyria digitata (_schw._) _rost._ . _stemonitis digitata_ schw., _n. a. f._, p. , no. . . _arcyria bicolor_ berk. & c., _jour. linn. soc._, x., p. . . _arcyria digitata_ (schw.) rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia compound, that is gathered in tufts, number - or more on a single stipe, the clusters themselves scattered; individual sporangia elongate cylindric, about - mm. long, ashen gray or nearly white, stipitate; stipe as long or longer than the sporangium, stout, sometimes showing traces of consolidation of several, sometimes none, dark brown or black; capillitium looser and more expanded than in the last, the threads more strongly spinulose; spore-mass concolorous, spores under the lens colorless, smooth, globose, . - µ closely related to the preceding, but different in habit and on the whole larger and more robust throughout. the stipes in some cases are completely merged in one; in others traces of coalescence remain. the number of united sporangia varies. there are some clusters before us containing and in a single fascicle! not very common. on rotten wood of deciduous trees, especially south. new england, pennsylvania, ohio; black hills, south dakota, and south to nicaragua. _arcyria bicolor_ berk. & c. seems to refer to the fact that the sporangia have sometimes an ochraceous tint. berkeley's specimens are from cuba. our latest specimens are from nicaragua; the form seems not to be reported from the old world. . arcyria pomiformis (_leers_) _rost._ . _mucor pomiformis_ leers, _flor. herb._, p. . . _arcyria pomiformis_ rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia scattered, gregarious, globose, bright yellow, very minute, . mm. high, . mm. in diameter, stipitate; stipe short, one-third the total height, pale brown or yellow; hypothallus none; capillitium loose, freely expanding, not deciduous, honey-yellow, the threads generally wide, - µ, toward the periphery more narrow, . µ warted, marked with blunt spinules, which not infrequently pass into distinct transverse, narrow plates or half-rings, free ends clavate and numerous; spore-mass yellow, spores by transmitted light smooth, granular, globose, - µ. this species as represented by the material before us seems constant in size, color, and microscopic characters, in all which it differs from all species here listed. it resembles somewhat _lachnobolus globosus_ schw., but differs in habit, habitat, color, the capillitium, its attachment and in the mode of dehiscence. in the present species the wall is evanescent almost _in toto_; in _l. globosus_ is it remarkably persistent, and the capillitium is adherent. probably rare. its smallness removes it from sight of all but the most exact collectors. maine, new york, south carolina, alabama, missouri, iowa; black hills, south dakota; ontario;--_miss currie._ while usually remotely gregarious a collection from southern california shows that on occasion the entire plasmodium may pass to fruit with narrowest limits, forming a stipitate, compact, globose mass of crowded, superimposed sporangia as in _oligonema nitens_. set plate xx., fig. . . arcyria insignis _kalkbr. & cke._ . _arcyria insignis_ kalkbr. & cke., _grev._, x., p. . . _arcyria insignis_ kalkbr. & cke., list., _mycet., nd ed._, p. . sporangia gregarious or clustered, pale or bright rose-colored, . - . mm. in height, stipitate, ovate or cylindric; stipe short, . -. mm. red, with spore-like cells; capillitium a close net-work of delicate threads with a few bulbous free ends, with faint transverse bands or short spinules, or nearly smooth, colorless beneath the lens; spores colorless, nearly smooth, - µ. reported from mass. by miss lister. should follow no. : apparently a very delicate form of the common species, _a. denudata_. = . heterotrichia= _mass._ . _heterotrichia_ mass., _mon._, p. . sporangia distinct, stipitate; the peridium simple evanescent above as in _arcyria_; capillitium centrally attached, freely branched, the threads within very slender, without broad, anastomosing to form a dense peripheral network, and everywhere extended to form short, free, often hamate tips. a single species,-- . heterotrichia gabriellae (_rav._) _mass._ plate xiii., figs. , _a._ . _arcyria gabriellae_ rav. _in litt. ad cooke_. . _heterotrichia gabriellae_ mass., _mon._, p. . . _arcyria ferruginea_ saut., var. _heterotrichia_ list., _mycet., nd ed._, p. . sporangia crowded or gregarious, oblong cylindric, ovoid, at first red, becoming yellowish brown, stipitate; the peridium evanscent except the calyculus, which is small and thin, polished; stipe shorter than the expanded capillitium, pale reddish brown; capillitium centrally attached, showing threads of two sorts, those within freely branching, slender, - . µ, marked with half-rings or ridges, those on the periphery very different, yellow, broad, - µ, forming rather dense reticulations, with abundant free tips, acute and often curved, the whole surface here minutely and densely warted; spore-mass reddish yellow, spores by transmitted light colorless, globose, - µ. the peculiar double capillitium seems to separate this form from the true arcyrias. some difference in the diameter of the capillitial threads in different regions is not infrequent in the several species of _arcyria_, but that difference is here emphasized and rendered yet more striking by the peculiar free tips. the present forms bear only the most superficial resemblance to _a. ferruginea_ saut., with which species it is in some quarters sought to unite it. very rare. collected, as noted, nearly fifty years ago in south carolina by ravenel, it was more recently ( ) again collected in maine by the late professor harvey. _d._ prototrichiacÆ a single genus,-- =prototrichia= _rost._ . _prototrichia_ rost., _mon. app._, p. . a single species,-- . prototrichia metallica (_berk._) _mass._ plate xviii., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _trichia metallica_ berk. hook., _fl. tasm._, , p. . . _trichia flagellifera_ berk. & br., _ann. mag. nat. hist._, , xvii., p. . . _prototrichia flagellifera_ (berk.) rost. _mon. app._, p. . . _prototrichia flagellifera_ rost., list., _mycet. nd ed._, p. . . _prototrichia flagellifera_ (berk. & br.) rost., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _prototrichia metallica_ mass., _mon._, p. . . _prototrichia metallica_ mass., list., _mycet., nd ed._, p. . sporangia sessile, scattered or sometimes crowded, brown, sometimes with a rosy tinge, about mm. in diameter; peridium a thin, transparent, iridescent membrane, bearing in its inner surface the distal attachments of the capillitial threads; capillitium of numerous brown, spirally banded threads, which take origin in the base of the sporangium, become subdivided as they ascend, and are at length attached by their tips to the sporangium wall; spore-mass brown, spores by transmitted light pale, minutely roughened. this curious form, with its spirally sculptured capillitial threads attached at both ends, stands intermediate between _dianema_ and _hemitrichia_ and _trichia_. berkeley called it a trichia, ignoring the attachment of the threads. cooke notes this as sufficient to exclude the form from the genus. but it remained for rostafinski to make the transfer by setting up for its reception the genus now adopted. he preferred the later ( ) specific name as more descriptive. miss lister reverts to the earlier name with the remark; "little now remains of the type _prototrichia metallica_ berk. from tasmania; but the specimen is referred to _prototrichia flagellifera_ by rostafinski who saw it in good condition." not uncommon in the abietine forests of the west. alberta, oregon, washington, california, nevada, montana, idaho, colorado. _e._ trichiaceÆ capillitium marked by spiral bands, sometimes scattered rings, etc., the threads entirely free, or at least loosely branched, and with free tips more or less numerous. =key to the genera of the trichiaceæ= _a._ capillitium threads long, generally united to form a loose net, centrally attached. _a._ sculpture spiral . _hemitrichia_ _b._ sculpture reticulate . _calonema_ _b._ capillitial threads shorter, entirely free, though sometimes branched. _a._ threads, elaters, marked by spiral bands . _trichia_ _b._ sculpture irregular or wanting . _oligonema_ = . hemitrichia= _rost._ . _hemiarcyria_ fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. in part. . _hemitrichia_ rost., _versuch_, p. . capillitium a tangled net of more or less branching and anastomosing fibres centrally attached; the sculpture regular, of conspicuous spirally winding bands or ridges; habit and color various. the species here associated are intermediate between _arcyria_ and _trichia_, resembling the former in the capillitial net and the latter in thread-sculpture. fries applied the name _hemiarcyrieae_ to a group of trichias so-called, citing _h. rubiformis_ as the first. in his _versuch_ rostafinski wrote _hemitrichia_ and afterward _hemiarcyria_ in the _monograph_. massee combines the genera _arcyria_ and _hemiarcyria_ under the former name. =key to the species of hemitrichia= _a._ plasmodiocarpous _a._ plasmodiocarp net-like, yellow . _h. serpula_ _b._ imperfectly plasmodiocarpous, brown . _h. karstenii_ _b._ sporangia all distinct. _a._ sessile; very short stalked i. peridium hyaline, iridescent . _h. ovata_ ii. peridium opaque . _h. montana_ _b._ stipitate, generally distinctly so; sometimes nearly sessile. i. yellow or ochraceous. o stalk hollow. + small, ½ mm., iridescent . _h. leiocarpa_ ++ larger, mm., smooth but not iridescent . free ends more or less abundant . _h. clavata_ . free ends none . _h. stipitata_ oo stalk solid . _h. intorta_ ii. not yellow. o ruby red . _h. vesparium_ oo copper-colored . _h. stipata_ . hemitrichia serpula (_scop._) _rost._ plate iii., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _mucor serpula_ scop., _fl. carn_, ii., p. . . _trichia serpula_ (scop.) pers., _röm. n. bot. mag._, i., p. . _hemiarcyria serpula_ (scop.) rost., _mon._, p. . fructification plasmodiocarpous, often covering several square centimetres, terete, branching freely and usually everywhere reticulate, rusty, tawny, or bright yellow; the peridium thin, transparent, with irregular dehiscence; hypothallus none; capillitium variable, a tangle of long yellow threads, sparingly branched, free everywhere, except below, spinulose, the free tips spinose, acuminate, spiral ridges three or four, with traces of longitudinal striæ; spore-mass golden yellow, spores beneath the lens pale yellow, globose, delicately reticulate, about µ. very common, recognized by its bright yellow color and conspicuous reticulate habit. the plasmodium is yellow, at least upon emergence, and passes almost without change to fruit. found on rotten logs of every description, on the _lower_ surface. in the mississippi valley, the lower surface of planks used in the construction of sidewalks appears to be a favorite habitat. common west to the rocky mountains, south to mexico and nicaragua. . hemitrichia karstenii (_rost._) _list._ . _hemiarcyria karstenii_ rost., _mon., app._, p. . . _hemiarcyria obscura_ rex, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . . _hemitrichia karstenii_ lister, _mycetozoa_, p. . fructification plasmodiocarpous, with a tendency to form distinct sessile, globose sporangia, color brownish red; capillitium a sparingly branched network, with free ends few, the thread marked by seven or eight faint spirals, the interspaces narrow, dull red in color, and . µ in diameter; spores yellow, delicately warted, - . µ. this is doubtless a very rare species. in the description we have followed dr. rex, _l. c._, as being more to the point for american forms. it is not improbable that the american material may after all be distinct, as discrepancies, if one may judge by descriptions, are not few. lister, who had a slide from dr. rex, considers the european and american forms the same. in outward appearing, plasmodiocarpous phases of this species very closely resemble forms of _licea_ or _ophiotheca_, and are in consequence often wrongly labeled. toronto; montana--_anderson_. to be looked for north and west. . hemitrichia ovata (_pers._) _macbr._ . _trichia ovata_ pers., _obs. myc._, i., p. , and ii., p. . . _trichia abietina_ wigand, _pringsh. jahr._, iii., p. , tab. ii., fig. . . _hemiarcyria wigandii_ rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia crowded or sometimes closely gregarious, sub-globose or turbinate, shining yellow, sessile, the peridium thin, iridescent; capillitium a tangle of sparingly branched yellow or ochraceous-yellow threads, rather slender, - µ, marked by one or two prominent spiral bands forming a loose somewhat irregular spiral, the free ends not infrequent, inflated and rounded; spore-mass yellow or yellow-ochraceous, spores by transmitted light pale yellow, distinctly and sharply spinulose, but not netted, - µ. a rare and beautiful species, distinguished well by the small size, about . mm., by the thin iridescent peridium, as by the microscopic characters of the capillitial threads. there is no doubt that this is persoon's _trichia ovata_. his description is accurate in all that pertains to external features, and rostafinski, _app._, p. , explicitly says that he _saw_ in persoon's herbarium specimens of the species bearing the name cited. just why rostafinski did not here adopt the older name is not clear, nor is there excuse for abandoning wigand's name were persoon's invalid. according to lister, _trichia nana_ mass., from maine, is the same thing. persoon, _l. c._, gives a synonymy which, in the nature of case, is unverifiable, the specific characters being microscopic. fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. , confirms persoon and takes pains to say that the color separates it from _t. chrysosperma_ with which it is sometimes compared. rare. maine, massachusetts, new york, ohio, toronto. . hemitrichia vesparium (_batsch_) _macbr._ plate iii., figs. and _a_. . _lycoperdon vesparium_ batsch, _elench. fung._, pp. , , fig. . . _trichia rubiformis_ pers., _röm. n. bot. mag._, i., p. . . _hemiarcyria rubiformis_ (pers.) _rost., mon._, p. . sporangia clustered or crowded, rarely single, clavate or subcylindric stipitate or sessile, dark wine-red or red-black in color, the peridium in perfect specimens glossy or shining metallic, opaque; stipes solid, usually blent together, concolorous; capillitium of intertwisted slender threads, sparingly branched, marked by three or four spiral ridges, abundantly spinulose, the free tips also acuminate, terminating in a spine, the whole mass dull red. spore-mass brownish-red, spores by transmitted light reddish-orange, very distinctly warted, sub-globose, - µ. a most common species, on rotten wood everywhere, especially in forests. recognized generally at sight by its color and fasciculate habit. the peridium shows a tendency, often, to circumscissile dehiscence, and persists long after the contents have been dissipated, in this condition suggesting the name applied by batsch, _vesparium_, wasp-nest. the capillitium is remarkably spinescent, the branching of the threads, rare. rostafinski describes the spores as smooth; they seem to be uniformly distinctly warted. the plasmodium is deep red, and a plasmodiocarpous fructification occasionally appears. throughout the whole range, new england to washington and oregon, south to nicaragua; toronto. . hemitrichia stipata (_schw._) _macbr._ plate i., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _leangium stipatum_ schw., _n. a. f._, p. , no. . . _hemiarcyria stipata_ (schw.) _rost., mon. app._, pp. , . . _arcyria stipata_ (schw.) lister, _mon. mycetozoa_, p. . sporangia distinct, crowded, cylindric or irregular, overlying one another, rich copper-colored, metallic, shining, becoming brown, stipitate; peridium thin, the upper portion early evanescent, the base persistent as a cup, as in _arcyria_; capillitium concolorous, the thread abundantly branched to form a loose net, with many free and bulbous ends, pale under the lens, marked by three or four somewhat obscure spiral bands and a few wart-like or plate-like thickenings; stipe very short; spore-mass reddish, spores by transmitted light pale, nearly or quite smooth, - µ. this species is known at sight by its peculiarly beautiful tint when fresh, as by the crowded prolix habit of the singular overlying sporangia. the netted capillitium and the evanescent peridium suggests _arcyria_, but there are abundant free tips, and the threads are unmistakably spirally wound, especially in the large, handsome sporangia characteristic of the mississippi valley. it is a boundary form unquestionably. the stipe is generally very short, about one-tenth the total height; sometimes, when the peridium is more globose, the stipe is proportionally longer. specimens from iowa show fructifications several centimetres long and wide. not rare. new england to the black hills and south. . hemitrichia leiocarpa (_cke._) _macbr._ . _hemiarcyria leiocarpa_ cke., _ann. lyc. nat. hist. n. y._, xi., p. . . _hemiarcyria varneyi_ rex, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . sporangia simple, obovate or pyriform, rarely almost globose, pallid, with a stem of the same color, as long as the diameter of the sporangium; spore-mass and capillitium concolorous, or with slight ochraceous tint; capillitium forming a loose net, the tubes branching in a reticulate manner; spirals three, thin, prominent, along the convex sides of the tubes mixed with a few obtuse spines; spores globose, with a thin membrane, - µ. such is the original description of this distinctly american species. _h. varneyi_ rex should differ in having spirals seven or eight, and spore only . µ. mr. lister, who has compared types of both species, declares them the same! the present writer has been unable to secure authentic specimens. pennsylvania. . hemitrichia intorta _list._ . _hemiarcyria intorta_ lister, _jour. bot._, p. . . _hemiarcyria longifila_ rex, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . . _hemitrichia_ intorta list., _mycetozoa_, p. . sporangia gregarious, globose-turbinate or pyriform, golden-yellow, stipitate; peridium thin, translucent, shining, opening at the summit irregularly, leaving a funnel-shaped receptacle below; stipe dark red brown, solid, rugulose; capillitium of threads sparingly branched, but looped and doubled upon themselves and constantly intertwisted, orange-yellow, - µ in diameter, with spirals four, sparingly spinulose, even and regular, the longitudinal striæ conspicuous; spores in mass concolorous, under the lens yellow, delicately warted, globose, - µ. concerning this species, dr. rex says: "externally this species resembles _h. clavata_ pers., and has probably often been mistaken for it. the capillitium, however, in its structural details and habit of growth, is widely different. the partial untwisting of the loops of the capillitium by drying, after the rupture of the sporangium, causes it to be projected and elongated sometimes two or three times the length of the sporangium." outwardly the open sporangium, by the projecting free tips, reminds one of a trichia. the capillitium is like that of _h. vesparium_, but less rough, and, of course, different in color. rare. fairmount park, philadelphia; ohio, iowa. . hemitrichia clavata (_pers._) _rost._ plate iii., figs. , _b_. . _trichia clavata_ pers., _röm. n. bot. mag._, i., p. . . _hemitrichia clavata_ pers., rost., _versuch_, p. . . _hemiarcyria clavata_ (pers.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _hemiarcyria ablata_ morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. . . _hemiarcyria funalis_ morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. . sporangia clavate or turbinate, gregarious, scattered or crowded, yellow, olivaceous or brownish, stipitate; the peridium generally thin, evanescent above, breaking away so as to leave a more or less definite cup beneath; stipe about one-half the total height, reddish, reddish-brown, or blackish, hollow about half-way down; capillitium various, yellow or ochraceous, made up of slender threads more or less freely branched and netted, bearing four or five regular, even, spiral plates which project sharply and are generally smooth, the free extremities numerous or almost none, swollen, or simply obtuse; spore-mass concolorous, spores by transmitted light pale yellow, globose, minutely but distinctly warted, - µ. this cosmopolitan species is generally one of the first brought in by the collector, its color and comparatively large size, - mm. high, making it conspicuous. nevertheless, we are not able to recognize it in the descriptions of the older authors. rostafinski quotes schmiedel, _icones_, , as affording the earliest account of the species, but neither his description nor figure is definitive. even bulliard fails us here, and is differently interpreted by different authors. persoon's description is none too good, but is reënforced by fries and rostafinski. the capillitium is variable both in the degree of smoothness presented, and the number of free ends, and the amount of branching. the spores in all specimens we have examined are remarkably constant in size and surface. in typical specimens free ends are easily discoverable, the branching forms a definite net, and the perfectly formed capillitial thread is smooth. in some american forms--developed under less favorable circumstances?--the net is less determined, the free ends are many, and the spirals minutely rough. here may be placed _h. funalis_ morgan, _l. c._ widely distributed. new england to colorado, south to mexico. . hemitrichia stipitata (_mass._) _macbr._ . _hemiarcyria stipitata_ mass., _jour. mic. soc._, p. . . _hemiarcyria plumosa_, morg., _jour. cin. soc._, p. . sporangia scattered, seldom crowded, obovoid or turbinate, olivaceous yellow, stipitate; the peridium smooth without, granulose within, evanescent above, persisting as a funnel-shaped cup below; the stipe long, reddish or blackish, rising from a small hypothallus; capillitium of threads - µ thick, very much branched, forming a dense net, free ends none, or not evident; the sculpture as in _h. clavata_, smooth and regular; spore-mass yellow; spores by transmitted light yellow, minutely warted, - µ. this form corresponds in nearly every respect with _h. clavata_, except in the structure of the capillitium. the color is rather ochraceous, dirty yellow, and the stipe is proportionally longer and darker, but the form of the net is positive and gives to the species a decidedly striking and unique appearance, so that it may be recognized by the naked eye. it looks like an arcyria and for this reason professor morgan said _h. plumosa_. lister regards it as the same as our number . common. ohio, illinois, missouri, iowa, and west; south to mexico. . hemitrichia montana _morgan._ sporangia scattered or gregarious more or less closely, globose, whitish, sessile or very short stipitate; the peridium opaque, dull white, persistent below; capillitium deep yellow, the threads abundantly branched, forming a compact network, µ wide, bearing spirals five or six, uneven and irregular, or anon interrupted, conspicuously spinulose or warted, free tips not lacking, generally inflated; spore-mass yellow, spores by transmitted light pale, nearly colorless, distinctly warted, µ. recognizable by its peculiar pallid, sessile sporangia, as by the internal structure. perhaps related to _hemiarcyria bucknalli_ mass. our specimens are from mr. morgan, of ohio, with the statement that they were collected in the san bernardino mountains, california, by mr. s. b. parrish; collected later from monterey south. common throughout south-western states to lower california. = . calonema= _morgan._ . _calonema_ morgan, _jour. cin. soc._, p. . sporangia sub-globose, crowded or superimposed, irregular sessile; hypothallus none; capillitium of slender tubules, arising from the sporangium base, branched, marked with branching veins in an irregular reticulation, and terminating in free extremities. spores yellow. . calonema aureum _morgan._ plate xiii., figs. , _a_, _b_, _c_. . _calonema aureum_ morgan, _l. c._ sporangia crowded or heaped in scattered clusters; peridium thin, golden yellow, adorned with intricate radiating veinlets capillitium of threads more or less branched, attached below, free above, the surface to the very tips venulose, interrupted with rings or fragmentary spirals, the apices bulbous and obtusely conical; spore-mass yellow, spores by transmitted light bright yellow, covered by a network of interlocking plates, as in _t. favoginea_, globose, - µ. a curious form, related to _hemitrichia_, much as _oligonema_ is to _trichia_. related to both the genera first named, but distinct, in the peculiar sculpture, from _hemitrichia_, and from _oligonema_ in that the threads are not entirely free. professor morgan's original determination, founded on ohio materials is confirmed by material sent us by professor underwood from alabama. = . trichia= (_haller_) _rost._ . _trichia_ haller, _hist. stirp. helv._, iii., p. , in part. . _trichia_ (haller) rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia distinct, sessile or stipitate; capillitium of distinct elastic threads, free acuminate at each end, yellow or more rarely reddish or brown; spores generally yellow. the trichias are easily recognized among their kind by their beautiful spirally wound, elastic capillitial threads, the _elaters_; these are entirely free, about - mm. in length, simple or only rarely branched, and generally acute at each extremity. the spiral bands, sometimes called _taeniae_, are generally very uniform in thickness, distance from each other, and pitch, and in many species are further reënforced by minute longitudinal plications running from one spiral to the next. furthermore, the spirals may be smooth or spinulose the elater uniform throughout or enlarged betimes by nodes and swellings. taken altogether, the trichias with the species of the genus next following exhibit the highest degree of differentiation attained by the myxomycetes. most of the earlier authors, including haller, used the generic name _trichia_ to cover a variety of forms. it is here used with the limits sketched by de bary in and (_die myxomyceten_), and followed more exactly ten years later by his pupil, rostafinski. =key to the species of trichia= _a._ sporangia, in typical cases at least, wholly sessile. _a._ gregarious; hypothallus none. i. peridium brown or reddish brown. o elaters smooth. oo spirals even, regular . _t. inconspicua_ + spirals irregular . _t. contorta_ ++ elaters rough, spinescent . _t. iowensis_ ii. peridium olivaceous or yellow. o elaters smooth . _t. varia_ _b._ hypothallus distinct; sporangia crowded; spores reticulate, banded, or netted. i. spore-bands pitted . _t. persimilis_ ii. spore-bands, narrow, plain . _t. favoginea_ iii. spores covered by a delicate net . _t. scabra_ _b._ sporangia stipitate. _a._ hypothallus distinct . _t. verrucosa_ _b._ hypothallus none; peridium checkered with pale reticulations. i. brownish red or black . _t. botrytis_ ii. olivaceous. o elaters smooth . _t. subfusca_ oo elaters rough . _t. erecta_ _c._ peridium plain, shining . _t. decipiens_ _d._ peridium plain, dull black . _t. lateritia_ . trichia inconspicua _rostafinski._ plate iii., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _trichia inconspicua_ rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia gregarious or crowded, small, spherical, ellipsoidal or arcuate, brown or reddish brown, sessile; hypothallus none; capillitium dull, dark, ochraceous, the elaters long, slender, even, about µ wide, the spirals three or four rather closely wound, the apices attenuate, acute, sometimes turned to one side; spore-mass concolorous, spores pale ochraceous, minutely but distinctly warted, - µ. one of the smallest of the _trichiae_, not uncommon in the mississippi valley on decaying fallen stems of _populus_--sp. distinguished at sight from all except no. following, by its small size and brown color. under the lens the long, delicate, finely sculptured capillitial threads, with fine tapering threads are distinctive. new england, new york, pennsylvania, illinois, iowa, missouri, nebraska; black hills, south dakota; toronto. . trichia contorta (_ditmar_) _rost._ plate xiii., figs. , _a_. . _lycogala contortum_ ditmar, sturm, _deutsch. fl._, iii., tab. . . _trichia reniformis_ peck, _rep. n. y. mus._, xxvi., p. . . _trichia contorta_ rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia gregarious, or crowded, small, ellipsoid or reniform, arcuate, dark red brown, sessile; hypothallus none; capillitial mass ochraceous or dull yellow, the elaters few, irregular, the spirals uneven, irregular, often projecting and thin, though generally flat or obscure, the apices more or less swollen, ending in a curved tip; spore-mass concolorous, spores beneath the lens bright yellow, papillose, - µ. this species resembles the preceding in color, but is of less aggregate habit, and the sporangia are more plasmodiocarpous, reniform, arcuate, etc. the capillitium is also distinctive, the sculpture irregular, uneven with general lack of symmetry. our description is made up from specimens of _t. reniformis_ peck, which appears to be the american form of rostafinski's species. rare. new york, montana? . trichia iowensis _macbr._ plate iii., figs. , _a_, _b_; plate x., fig. . . _trichia iowensis_ macbr., i_a., bull. lab. nat. hist._, ii., p. . sporangia sessile, gregarious, spherical or reniform, with no hypothallus, purple brown; spores and spore-mass yellow; elaters with three or four spiral bands unevenly distributed, and with occasional inflations, sparingly branched, spinulose, especially where inflated, spinules long, - µ, recurved, often bifid or trifid, especially at or near the acuminate tip; spores delicately warted, - µ. this species occurs not rarely and is found on the bark of _populus_, so far, exclusively. the sporangia are inconspicuous until opening by fissure they display the yellow spores and capillitial threads. the species is immediately recognized by its elaters, whose numerous and lengthened spinules are unlike those of any cognate form, reminding one of the capillitium of _ophiotheca_. related to the two preceding, but distinct by its spinulose capillitium. iowa, missouri; black hills, south dakota. _trichia andersoni_ rex carefully described by morgan, _myx. mi. val._, p. , belongs with this first group, four small species, the inconspicuous. to the present writer in each the structure seems distinct. in the herbarium a small bit of anderson's material has rested long; but it must not be lost to sight. the species is sure to be taken again in the cool mountains, somewhere abundant; as these stretch from alberta to far alaska. the capillitium is very even the taeniae closely wound, the elater-ends often furcate. . trichia varia (_pers._) _rost._ plate iv., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _stemonitis varia_ pers., gmel., _syst. nat._, ii., . . _trichia varia_ pers., _röm. neu. mag. bot._, i., p. . . _trichia varia_ (pers.) fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _trichia varia_ (pers.) rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia gregarious or sometimes closely crowded, globose, obovoid, or irregularly globoid, yellowish or ochraceous, shining, sessile, or with a short black stipe; hypothallus none; capillitium of rather long, simple, or more rarely branched elaters, - µ, wide, marked by irregular spirals generally only two, prominent and narrow and in places remote, the apices acute, about twice the elater diameter; spore-mass yellow, spores by transmitted light dull yellow, - µ, delicately verruculose, guttulate. a very common species, very variable in form, stipitate forms occuring anon beside those which are irregular and sessile. according to rostafinski the stipitate phase constitutes the _t. nigripes_ of persoon and other authors. the capillitium is, however, characteristic throughout. the two spiral bands wind loosely and irregularly and present an elater unlike anything else in the group except the same structure in _t. contorta_, but here the elater is narrow and the sculpture obscure. since the specific distinctions are purely microscopic, the synonymy beyond rostafinski is mainly conjectural. it is possible that fries properly applied the name. common. maine to oregon and california, and south to arkansas and alabama. . trichia scabra _rost._ plate iv., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _trichia scabra_ rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia closely crowded upon a well-developed hypothallus, regular, globose or turbinate-globose, orange or golden brown, smooth, shining; capillitial mass clear, golden yellow, or sometimes rusty orange, the elaters simple, long, - µ in width, the spirals three or four, closely wound, spinulose, even and regular, the apices short, acuminate; spore-mass concolorous, under the lens spores yellow, covered by a delicate fine-meshed network, or simply spinulose under low power, - µ. generally a well-marked species, easily recognized by its regular but roughened capillitial threads. under a - objective the spores are also diagnostic. to the unaided eye it resembles the next species in both color and habit. fructifications two inches or more in length and half as wide are not infrequent on the lower side of fallen stems in forests of deciduous trees. the plasmodium is white. not uncommon. maine to washington, oregon, alaska, and south to missouri and arkansas. . trichia persimilis _karst._ plate iv., figs. , _a_, _b_, _c_; , _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_. . _trichia persimilis_ karst., _not. saellsk. fenn. förh._ ix., p. . . _trichia affinis_ de bary, _fuckel, sym. myc._, p. . . _trichia jackii_ rost., _mon._, p. . . _trichia abrupta_ cke., _myxom. u. s._ p. . . _trichia proximella_ karst., _myc. fenn._, iv., p. . sporangia globose or obovoid or irregularly spherical, shining, golden yellow to tawny, anon iridescent with metallic lustre, sessile; hypothallus thin, but usually very distinct; capillitial mass ochraceous or tawny yellow, the elaters long, even, about µ wide, the spirals four, more or less spinulose, generally joined by longitudinal ridges, the apices short, tapering regularly, anon bifurcate; spore-mass concolorous, spores by transmitted light bright yellow, marked by an irregular or fragmentary banded reticulation, the bands broad, flat, and pitted, - µ. plasmodium said to be white. this species, common throughout the northern world, is distinguished from its congener, the following, not only by the episporic character, but generally by its different peridium and more sombre colors. it never shows at maturity the brilliant golden yellow fluff that hangs in masses about the open and empty vases of _t. favoginea_, a fact not unnoted by batsch, and rendering his figure and description so far determinable. the episporic network shows all degrees of perfection or imperfection, and the elater also varies somewhat both in the apices and distinctness of longitudinal striæ. the several synonyms listed seem to have taken origin in a recognition of some of the more pronounced variations. in any event the american form _t. abrupta_ cke., with bifid apices, belongs here, and european specimens seem to show the identity of forms described by karsten and de bary. not rare. new england, canada, new york, pennsylvania, ohio, alabama, missouri, and west. . trichia favoginea (_batsch_) _pers._ plate iv., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _lycoperdon favogineum_ batsch, _elench. fung._, p. , fig , _a_, _b_. . _sphaerocarpus chrysospermus_ bull., _cham. de fr._, tab. , fig. . . _trichia favoginea_ (batsch) pers., _röm. n. mag. bot._, i., p. . . _trichia chrysosperma_ (bull.) rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia closely crowded, cylindric or prismatic by mutual pressure, obovoid, sessile, olivaceous yellow, smooth and shining; the peridium thin, opening above somewhat stellately, persistent; capillitium golden yellow, escaping entirely from the peridia, and forming woolly masses above them, the threads long, even, beautifully sculptured, bearing spirals about four, usually smooth and connected by light longitudinal ridges, the apices short tapering, about equal to the width of the elater, - µ; spores concolorous, by transmitted light paler, but still bright yellow, the episporic net conspicuous, the bands narrow and high, not pitted nor fragmentary, in form irregularly globose, - µ. plasmodium yellow. a common and beautiful species recognizable at sight, after the peridia break, by the aggregate capillitium constantly in evidence above the abandoned vasiform peridia. the figures of bulliard are unsatisfactory, although the description he gives and the name he suggests, still current, may lead us to concede that he had our species before him. the spores are larger than in _t. persimilis_, and the episporic net different, the "border" wider. the plasmodium in the latitude of iowa not uncommon in woods in june, after emerging passes into fruit in the laboratory in about forty-eight hours, and the rupture of the peridia follows presently. the hypothallus is quite distinct, extra-marginal, and in substance like to the peridial wall. not rare. throughout the northern forests, maine to washington and oregon, south to alabama, louisiana, mexico. . trichia verrucosa _berk._ . _trichia verrucosa, fl. tasm._, ii., p. . sporangia pyriform, or obovoid, shining, ochraceous from the color of the contents, stipitate, more or less botryoid or connate; stipe twice the height of the spore-case, reddish brown, simple or consolidated with others, weak, inclined, or procumbent; hypothallus distinct; spore-mass ochraceous yellow, the elaters simple, with smooth tapering points, with spirals three or four, the spores beautifully and strongly reticulate, after the manner of the spores in the species preceding, with the meshes generally complete and always large, quite variable in size - µ. rostafinski quotes the species (_teste_ lister) from chile. specimens in the herbarium of the state university of iowa are from jalapa, mexico, collected by mr. c. l. smith. the species may be therefore expected in the southern united states. berkeley described it from tasmania. _t. superba_ mass, from description would seen to be the same thing. . trichia pulchella _rex._ . _trichia pulchella_ rex, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . sporangia solitary or in groups of four or five, bright vitelline yellow, sessile; the peridium thin, transparent, opening irregularly above; hypothallus none; capillitium bright yellow, not emergent, the threads narrow, - µ, wound with spirals three or four, more or less irregular, smooth, longitudinal ridges wanting, the apices rather long, acuminate, about twice the diameter of the elater, or anon clavate or even globose, bulbose at the tip and furnished with several stout spines; spore-mass concolorous; under the lens spores colorless, marked by a very feebly developed reticulation of _t. persimilis_ type, but the bands narrow and, as shown by the narrow "border," low, meshes few and often imperfect, globose or sub-globose, about µ. the episporic characters of this species ally it to _t. persimilis_ most nearly. the reticulations are possibly not more divergent from the typical form of that species than are the same features in some other forms there included. but in the present case, added to the episporic sculpture, we must reckon the peculiar capillitial thread, unlike that seen in either of the chrysospermatous forms, and the gregarious habit without hypothallus. these peculiarities seemed to dr. rex distinctive, and as they appear constant they may be left to separate the species. . trichia botrytis _persoon._ plate xiii., figs. , _a_. . _stemonitis botrytis_ pers., gmel., _syst. nat._, ii., . . _trichia botrytis_ pers., _röm. n. mag. bot._, i., p. . . _sphaerocarpus fragilis_ sowerby, _eng. fung._, i., p. . . _trichia pyriformis_ fries, _syst. myc._, iii., p. . . _trichia fragilis_ (sow.) rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia gregarious, scattered, sometimes combined in clusters, pyriform or turbinate, stipitate, red-purple or, ochraceous-brown the peridium breaking up irregularly, the dehiscence sometimes prefigured by pale reticulations on the surface; stipe solid, single, or united in clusters of five or more together, dark-colored, red or purple-brown, opaque; capillitium orange, ochraceous yellow, or even reddish brown, the threads simple or rarely branched, long-fusiform, about µ thick at the centre, tapering gradually to the long accuminate, apiculate tips, spirals three or four, even, smooth, rather closely wound and traceable almost to the apex; spores concolorous in mass, under the lens pale, globose, more or less closely minutely warted but not reticulate, - µ. a species remarkable for its variations in color. more commonly the unopened sporangia are opaque brown, by reason of a dense outer wall, and more frequently simple, or if compound, show but two or three united. the reddish variety, vinous or scarlet-black in color, is remarkably fasciate. some clusters show twenty or more stipitate, globose sporangia, conjoined by their distinct but coherent stems. in such fruitings the sporangia are small, . mm. in the brown sporangia the dehiscence, as stated, is often definitely prefigured; in the multiple, red, obscurely, if at all. as presented in collections from the eastern united states, the two forms might well be disjoined. persoon, however, discussed both together and so they remain. saccardo includes _craterium floriforme_ schw. here. by the descriptions of the earlier authors it is impossible to distinguish this from _h. vesparium_ on the one hand, and _t. decipiens_ on the other. _t. botrytis_ pers., _l. c._, gives us first secure foothold. fries discards persoon's appellation as unsuitable and improperly applied, and takes up what he deems an older specific designation, _t. pyriformis_ leers. but rostafinski is certain leers had _a. punicea_ in mind, and that other early names are equally ill-applied. rostafinski rejects persoon's names simply as not pertinent in every case. massee examined the specimens of léveillé, and finds them belonging here; but see our no. , _seq._ not common, but with wide range. maine, massachusetts, new york, pennsylvania, ohio, colorado; toronto. . trichia subfusca _rex._ . _trichia subfusca_ rex, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . sporangia gregarious, scattered, dull tawny brown, shading to dark brown below, about ½ mm. in diameter, globose, stipitate; stipe short, about equal to the sporangium, stout, brown or brownish black, rugulose, solid; capillitial mass bright straw color; the elaters long cylindrical, - µ wide, adorned with spirals four, which wind unevenly, are perfectly smooth, and terminate in abrupt tips about twice the diameter of the elater; spores yellow, under the lens yellow, minutely and closely warted, globose, µ. the spores of this species resemble closely those of the preceding, but the sporangium is at sight different in appearance and proportions and the capillitium not the same at all. the elaters are never fusiform, the apices always abrupt in their acumination, and the sculpture irregular and uneven. in form the elater resembles that of _t. scabra_. the description is drawn from specimens, _n. a. f._, , with which, however, specimens received from dr. rex and later collected exactly correspond. the elaters of uniform diameter, the apices abruptly narrowed to a blunt point, turned to one side, will serve to distinguish this species from the whole _t. botrytis_ group, some forms of which it outwardly resembles. we have beautiful specimens from the shores of puget sound. new york. . trichia erecta _rex._ . _trichia erecta_ rex, _proc. phil. acad._, p. . sporangia gregarious, often in clusters of two or three together, but generally single, nut-brown, checkered with broad, conspicuous yellow dehiscence bands, globose, ½ mm. wide, stipitate, stipe double the sporangium, dark brown, solid; capillitial mass bright yellow, the elaters cylindric, - µ wide, terminating in apices short and smooth, adorned with spirals, four, coarsely spinulose, winding unevenly or even branching and so united to one another! spore-mass yellow, spores by transmitted light pale, globose, minutely warted, µ. distinguished at sight by the peculiarly mottled peridium. _t. botrytis_ in its ochraceous forms sometimes shows tendency to the same thing, but the checkered surface is here conspicuous. the elaters resemble those of the preceding form, but are remarkably rough. rare. adirondacks, new york. . trichia decipiens (_pers._) _macbr._ plate iv., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _lycoperdon pusillum_ hedwig, _abh._, i., p. , tab. iii., fig. . . _arcyria decipiens_ pers., _ust. ann. bot._, xv., p. . . _trichia fallax_ pers., _obs. myc._, i., p. , etc. sporangia gregarious, sometimes closely so, sometimes scattered, turbinate, shining olive or olivaceous brown, stipitate; stipe generally elongate, concolorous above, dark brown below, hollow, _i. e._ filled with spore-like cells; capillitial mass yellowish or olivaceous yellow, the elaters perfectly smooth, long fusiform, tapering gradually to the long, slender taeniate apices, simple or often branched, adorned with spirals three, which wind evenly but somewhat distantly; spore-mass olivaceous or ochraceous, spores under the lens, pale, minutely delicately reticulate, - µ. one of our largest and most common species, in form and size resembling _h. clavata_, but immediately distinguished by its color. the capillitium is like that of _t. botrytis_, but differs in the more open sculpture and the longer and smoother unwound tips. the episporic net is a constant character in all the specimens examined. this feature reminds of _t. scabra_. this is, of course, our familiar _t. fallax_ of all authors from persoon down. the earliest unmistakable reference to this species is hedwig, _l. c._ but batsch, in , had used the same combination to describe a real puff-ball, so that hedwig's name was already a synonym. the specific name here adopted is next in point of priority, although persoon discarded it the year following, substituting _fallax_, because he had mistaken the genus. not rare. new england, toronto; west to the black hills and washington, oregon, california, south to the carolinas and kansas; jalapa, mexico. . trichia lateritia _lév._ . _trichia lateritia_ lév., _ann. sci. nat. bot._, v., p. . . _trichia lateritia_ lév., rost., _mon._, p. . . _trichia fragilis_ (sow.) rost., mass., _mon._, p. . . _trichia botrytis_ pers. var. _lateritia_ (lév.) list., _mon._, p. . . _trichia botrytis_ pers., macbr., _n. a. s._, p. . . _trichia botrytis_ pers. var. _lateritia_ (lév.) list., _mycetozoa, nd ed._, p. . sporangia more or less closely gregarious, (_a_) simple globose-turbinate, dull black when dry, when moist generally with a vinous tinge, mm. in diameter, stipitate. the stipe concolorous, rigid, erect, simple even, - mm., or (_b_) multiple, several sporangia united by their pale brown or reddish-brown, striate, weak, closely adherent or united stems; hypothallus small or none; capillitial-mass bright brick-red cut-off from the stem-cavity, such as may be, and enclosed by a thick, firm opaque peridium, which opens above in fragmental or petaloid lobes, leaving a craterium-like cup below, to persist in flower-like fashion long after the contents have blown away; elaters fusiform, extremely long, to µ; about µ in width at the widest (middle) point, long acuminate, adorned with usually four clean-cut even, regular, taeniae, uniformly spaced and carried forward on the progressive acumination, almost to the smooth, straight spine-like point; spores in mass brick-red, by transmitted light, orange-brown almost smooth, - µ. this showy and remarkable species is set out from _t. botrytis_ pers. with which it has been more or less closely associated, for several reasons. in the first place, it is easily recognized in the field, by its size, color, and structure. often simple throughout a colony entire, nevertheless where the vegetative development has been stronger, simple and multiple fructifications may stand side by side, but the odd fasciation is generally limited to few sporangia, perhaps three or four, or at most, half a dozen. these fasciate forms generally shorter, or less erect. the elaters, so far as our observation goes, are the longest in the genus notable for their beautiful symmetry. the spores are larger than in the red forms of _t. botrytis_ as usually presented, smoother and of different color. we have also a geographic limitation. taken to paris first from southern chile, it promises to be a pacific coast species, found as it now has been in north america from san diego, to vancouver. in a deep forest near monterey, california, a half-buried log showed one colony a meter in length and from six to twelve centimetres in width, hundreds of sporangia, each by gentlest explosion opening to display its tuft of bright-tinted wool, a patch of color visible from far. = . oligonema.= . _oligonema_ rost., _mon._, p. . sporangia distinct, small, generally crowded together and superimposed; hypothallus none; capillitium scanty, the sculpture rudimentary and imperfect, scattered rings or mere roughenings, sometimes imperfect or faint spirals; spores yellow. the oligonemas are simply degenerate _trichiae_, and show the vagaries usually to be noted in a passing type. they are difficult to define, and the species are indeed variable. those here listed seem to offer constant features throughout our range. =key to species of oligonema= _a._ spores reticulate. _a._ sporangia in broad effused patches . _o. brevifilum_ _b._ sporangia in small heaped clusters. i. elaters roughened, no distinct rings or spirals . _o. flavidum_ ii. elaters with scattered rings; sometimes faint spirals . _o. nitens_ b. spores warted . _o. fulvum_ . oligonema flavidum (_peck_) _mass._ . _perichaena flavida_ peck, _rep. n. y. mus._, p. . . _oligonema flavidum_ (peck) mass., _mon._, p. . sporangia crowded and superimposed, sessile in small masses or clusters cm. or less, bright yellow, shining, the peridium thin but opaque, yellow; capillitium of long, slender tubules usually simple, anon branched, even, or with an occasional inflation, the sculpture confined to warts or small, distinct spinules, roughening more or less conspicuously the entire surface, the apices generally obtuse, anon apiculate; spore-mass yellow, spores under the lens pale yellow, irregularly globose, beautifully reticulate, the meshes large and few, as in _trichia favoginea_, - µ. this species is marked by its capillitium, which is abundant for the present genus. the threads are longer than in any other species, and not infrequently branched, smooth, or more commonly, very distinctly minutely spinulose throughout, no trace of rings or relief sculpture of any sort, the spirals, that are to be expected, very imperfect, if discernible at all. in habit the species resembles _o. nitens_, but the colonies are much larger, and the sporangia higher and larger, attaining mm. new england to iowa and nebraska; south to alabama and louisiana. toronto; _miss currie._ . oligonema brevifilum _peck._ plate xx., figs. , _a_. . _oligonema brevifila_ peck, _rep. n. y, mus._, p. . sporangia small, cylindric, dull ochraceous-yellow, sessile closely crowded, sometimes superimposed, forming large, effused patches several centimetres in extent; capillitium exceedingly scant, consisting of nothing more than a few minute threads, very short, only three or four times the diameter of the spore, smooth, or without any definable sculpture, ochraceous; spore-mass dark ochraceous, under the lens the spores are brighter, marked with reticulations much as in other species of the genus, - µ. probably a variety of our no. , but constantly collected. separate, however, from the following also in color and habit. to the naked eye the fructification suggests _trichia persimilis_; the color much the same, and the sporangia similarly congested. the peculiarly rudimentary condition of the capillitium is apparently also constant. iowa specimens accord perfectly with those from new york. rare. new york, ohio, pennsylvania, north carolina, iowa, missouri, oregon, washington, california; vancouver island. . oligonema nitens (_lib._) _rost._ plate ii., figs. , _a_, _b_. . _trichia nitens_ lib. _pl. cr. ard._, iii., no. . . _oligonema nitens_ (lib.) rost., _mon._, p. . . _trichia pusilla_ schroet., _kr. fl. schl._, iii., p. . sporangia gathered in small, heaped clusters, irregularly spherical, bright straw-color, or yellow, sessile, superimposed, the peridium thin, smooth, shining; capillitium of short elaters, simple or branched, smooth, adorned with an occasional projecting ring, often with faint spiral sculpture spreading especially toward the apices, which are blunt or anon acute, the point sometimes flexed or bent to one side, never very long; spore-mass bright yellow, spores globose, beautifully reticulate, - µ. readily recognized at sight by its heaped, shining, or glistening sporangia. the capillitial threads are further definitive, and serve to distinguish it from everything else. the range is wide, probably coextensive with the forests of the country. specimens are before us from new england, canada, montana, and all intervening regions, and south to the gulf of mexico; california, nevada,--_prof. bethel._ yosemite, shores of mirror lake! . oligonema fulvum _morgan._ . _oligonema fulvum_ morgan, _jour. cin. soc._, p. . sporangia large, sub-globose, sessile, or crowded, more or less regular; the peridium tawny yellow, or olivaceous, very thin and fragile, iridescent; mass of capillitium and spores tawny-yellow, elaters simple or sometimes branched, very short, sometimes with thicker swollen portions, the surface marked with low smooth spirals, in places faint and obsolete, the extremities rounded and obtuse, usually with a minute apiculus; spores globose, minutely warted, - µ. this species may be recognized by its tawny, irregular, more or less crowded sporangia. under the lens the warted, not reticulate, spores are diagnostic. the elaters are quite constantly marked by imperfect spirals. our specimens are from the author of the species, and so far there are none reported from outside ohio. footnotes: [ ] for other crucifers, see _bull. torr. bot. club_, xxi, pp. - . [ ] see in reference to this whole matter, _myxomycetenstudien_ by e. jahn, no. , _ceratiomyxa_, . see also olive, _trans. wis. acad. of sci. arts and letters_, vol. xv, pl. ii, p. . [ ] see jahn, _myxomyceten studien_ no. , berlin . [ ] in discussing these species the reader may be referred to professor harper's study of cytology, _bot. gazette_, vol. xxx., p. . it is probable that in all these æthalioid forms the effect of disturbance, transfer to laboratory, is likely to be quite pronounced. giant spores are often seen, doubtless due to arrested cleavage in the procedure described by dr. harper: a giant spore is penultimate or antepenultimate in series; should, on this theory, occasionally, at least, show more than one nucleus. [ ] prior to persoon the physarums were variously referred: _lycoperdon_, _sphaerocarpus_, _trichia_, etc. it seems unnecessary to quote the synonymy further here. [ ] persoon's first-named species is _p. aureum_; see _römer neu. mag. f. d. bot._, i., p. . . [ ] fries (_sum. veg. scand._, p. ) described the new genus in the following words: tilmadoche. fr. physari spec. s. m. peridium simplex, tenerrimum (_angioridii_) irregulariter rumpens. capillitium intertexto-compactum, a peridio solutum liberum, sporisque inspersis fuscis. columella o. . t. leucophæa. fr. . t. soluta. (schum.) . t. cernua. (schum.) [ ] see also _inaug. diss._, h. rönn, _schr. d. naturw. ver. f. schl. holst._, xv., hpt. i., p. , . [ ] inasmuch as there has been decided difference of opinion in reference to this particular species,--all judges readers of the same original description,--it has seemed wise to submit an english translation from the celebrated _monograph loc. cit._ " . physarum diderma _rfski._ "sporangia sessile, globose, adnate by a narrow base, white. peridium double; the outer thick, strongly calcareous, very distinctly set off from the thin inner one by an air-filled space; the calcareous nodules many, angular, loosely developed within to form a pseudo-columella; spores dark violet, spinescent, . - in diameter. "_opis._ this physarum looks extremely like a diderma. "the sporangia stand either aggregated or bunched together in heaps of five to twelve, adnate to the hypothallus by a narrow base, etc." massee, _mon._, p. , translated this description, but misunderstood what is said of the columella and is inclined to think the author did not know a diderma when he saw one; which is pretentious, to say the least! [ ] see also, after all our trouble, _jour. bot._, lvii., p. . [ ] see fries, _syst. myc._, vol. iii., pp. , , rost., _mon._, p. , and _rep. n. y. state mus._, xxxi., p. . [ ] it would seem that m. massee would have written _t. reniformis_, were this authentic. [ ] for further synonymy, see under _p. auriscalpium_, no. . [ ] robt. e. fries, _ofvers. k. vetens. akad. forh._, , no. , p. . [ ] the polish author wrote tilmadoche instead of physarum in each case cited. [ ] forms cited are chiefly those likely to be found in our neighboring tropics, west indies, etc. [ ] these little structures have a fairly architectural appearance and may be called trabecules,--trabeculæ, little beams. [ ] dr. cooke, who used the microscope, applied the _monograph_ description to british forms occurring on leaves; proceeded further and found the same situation in new york. mr. massee gives the species wide range with spores - µ; average µ; only a fraction too large; evidently none - µ. [ ] if a sporangium of _l. tigrinum_ be mounted in water and treated to weak solution of hydro-chloric acid we may easily discover that the crystals, which so wonderfully adorn the outer wall in this and other species, consist, in part at least, of calcium carbonate. we may also discover that in the case before us the crystal or scale lies indeed enclosed in a filmy sac of organic origin, and that could we have seen the outer peridium as it came to form, we might probably have found it made up largely of an ectosarcous foam in whose cavities the excreted calcium found place for tabulate crystallization. in other species listed, conditions are different, and the crystals assume a different shape. the phrase "bicarbonate of lime" quoted in this connection in the former edition of this work from mr. massee's _monograph_, etc., is not clear. [ ] doubtless immature; _v. mitteil. naturwiss. gesell. wintert._, vi., p. , lister quoted by schinz. [ ] vid. _mycologia_, n. y., vol. ix., p. . [ ] see _addenda, d_, p. following. [ ] in the _mycetozoa_, nd ed., p. , is cited _stemonitis virginiensis_ rex as a synonym of this variety. by reference to p. of the present volume the virginian stemonitis is left as rex assigned it, and if the present variety be synonymous, it should be quoted there. the treatment of the species _c. nigra_ in the second edition does not establish such fact, nor with three varieties make for any increasing clearness. [ ] it had seemed less necessary to retain the classic orthography in this instance since de bary and rostafinski both use _diachea_. but modern scholarship is nothing if not meticulous; it is the fashion in latin still to keep the digraph, even to the vexation of all men. in the same way when bulliard wrote _leucopodia_, 'white stockings', he doubtless meant to be exact. [ ] for this citation we are indebted to _mr. hugo bilgram_. addenda a. this volume is as we see, a descriptive list of the various forms of the myxomycetes in so far as these have come to the personal notice of the writer. each form is designated, as is usual in discussing objects of the sort, by a particular binomial name, followed, in abbreviated form, by the name of the student or author who in describing the form in question used the combination. thus _stemonitis splendens_ was first described by rostafinski, and the name he thus used is applicable to the form he described, wherever found, and to _nothing else_. the proper naming of any specimen would thus appear to be a very simple matter. such, however, is often not the case, particularly where we are concerned with species long familiar to science. such often have received, at different times, and at the hands of the same author, or certainly of different authors, different names, given for various reasons; so that one who would refer to, or discuss, a single specimen to-day finds himself often in great uncertainty, confronted by a multitude of binomial combinations all thought to refer to the same particular thing. by general consent, of course, we strive to ascertain the oldest name on the list; the first that is really and clearly applicable, and we write all other names down as synonyms. in this volume a list of synonyms often accompanies the description; precedes it, showing, year by year, the history of the case; an abstract in fact of the title, as at last approved. the preparation of such an abstract is very troublesome, but is believed to be worth the trouble; must be made, indeed, if we are ever in our discussions to be sure that when we speak or write in america, we are dealing with the same thing intended by the man who speaks or writes in england, or elsewhere. the space occupied in synonymy, is therefore by no means wasted. by and by, if we succeed in establishing a nomenclature on which competent judges can agree, a thing not at all improbable, almost now attained, the lists may gradually disappear as having historical value only. b. taxonomy, in any field, is of necessity concerned with history. for his own sake, no student can ignore the thought and work of his predecessors. no man ever sees nature in completeness, nor even the small part of the world to which he devotes attention. he needs every possible assistance, especially the observations of intelligent men. the present author rejoices to acknowledge the assistance found in volumes written in europe during the last two hundred years. such men as persoon, bulliard, schumacher, schrader, fries, are deservedly famous; they laid the foundations of mycologic taxonomy. no student can afford to miss _elias fries_; his genius, spirit and scholarship entitle him to the recognition and sympathy of every lover of the intellectual life. c. the considerations just mentioned may, indeed do, sometimes act as a handicap to the american student, for the simple reason that he comes later to the field of time. he must naturally defer to the decision of men in europe who are supposedly familiar with original types. an american specimen is presumably the same as one occurring elsewhere in similar latitude and environment. it becomes evident after while that only in certain instances is this undoubtedly the fact. the flora of the american continent has been sufficiently disjoined in space and time from europe to permit extensive differentiation even in these minor forms, so that we have indeed in the groups we study many species, some genera, definitely autochthonous, more it is believed than are now suspected. an attempt to bring a specimen under the terms of a species described in western europe is not seldom an error. it becomes evident, as we go forward, that in eastern north america there are forms not only not described in european literature, but really not, part of european flora, not even adventitiously. d. many of the more minute species with which this volume has to do are very elusive, very difficult; for one reason,--perhaps in itself sufficient,--because of their minuteness, and consequent apparent paucity. they may be common, but none the less seldom seen. the comatrichas afford an illustration. there are several very small species. _c. pulchella_, _c. laxa_, _c. ellisii_ may be mentioned. _c. pulchella_ has been studied nearly a hundred years and has a synonymy accordingly. in rostafinski in the material, and among the descriptions, thought he recognized two distinct forms, and went on to give them names; the first in honor of persoon, _c. persoonii_, should show an ovate or ovate-cylindric outline with acuminate tip; the second should be truncate and represent a type first described by berkeley under a name given by babington, _c. pulchella_. berkeley's drawing shows a sporangium with tip acuminate! lilac or violaceous tints attracted attention in the spores of _c. persoonii_ only; in _c. pulchella_ all is ferruginous. curtis is especially commended for noticing the fact in describing _s. tenerrima_, here included as we see. _comatricha gracilis_ wing. is slender, cylindric and has small spores hardly reaching µ; should perhaps be now set out as a separate species; it is evidently purely an american phase. our figures, plate xii., and _a_, and _a_, show _c. pulchella_ and _c. gracilis_, respectively, extremes. plate xiii., , shows an ovate form not very unusual. this and _c. gracilis_ occur on living leaves. _c. ellisii_ is another of this minor series, very constant in its delicate beauty, but approaches _c. nigra_ rather than the others here discussed. _c. laxa_, as the name implies, shows an open construction, suggested, perhaps, by rostafinski's photographic print, but better brought out by celakowsky, _myx. böhm._, tab. , figs. and . e. it has been shown[ ] that the process of cell-division in the spore-plasm of the myxomycete is not dissimilar to that obtaining under the same conditions in higher plants. on this supposition we have explanation of spore-division in _ceratiomyxa_ and can understand the adherence of spores now and again notable. once the latter phenomenon was thought peculiar to the genus _badhamia_; but the unsculptured epispore of the spores of reticularias, tubiferas, etc., suggest the same thing and more recently we find it in _dianema_ and in the _stemoniteæ_; even _stemonitis_ arrives with clustered spores in groups of four, and we are in sight of a generalization wide. it is interesting to note that something of this sort was observed by at least one student long ago. schumacher, _enum. pl. sell._ , p. , describes _arcyria atra_ with the characters of an enerthenema, and says "the capillitial threads are some of them diffuse and bear spermatic globules"! did he anticipate _e. berkleyanum_? see the text under that species at p. , _supra_. f. in a paper read december, , before the _mycological_ division of section g., _a. a. a. s._, the present writer discussed briefly the physical principles involved in some of the more striking peculiarities of the slime-moulds. it is argued in that paper that the shaping of stipitate sporangia which is so surprising as relating to the ordinary behaviour of fluid masses, as usually observed, is, in part at least, referable to certain well known properties of fluids generally. for this discussion those interested are referred to the article itself in the november number of _mycologia_ (n. y.). sufficient to say here that it is a fact, in many cases, that in stipitate fructification, so far as observed, the stipe is first to take form, and, as viewed by the writer, in many cases, as it rises, becomes more and more a most delicate but definite ectosarcate capillary tubule, by which ascends the spore-plasm of the point concerned, to such level as may meet the immediate conditions of pressure, of whatsoever source. it will be interesting in this view to note the resultant shapes as presented in the sporangia of various genera. one may examine for illustrations figs. , , , , pl. xx., with the thought in mind that the stipe in each case may have served as a capillary tubule to carry up the spore-plasm to the position in which the spores at length are found. in some species of _hemitrichia_, for instance, there are spores or spore-like cells found at maturity in the hollow stipe. in other cases the stipe contains refuse matter. the capillary theory may not, probably does not, play part in every case. it would seem that a stemonitis, for example, must owe the rise of the spore-plasm to the play of different machinery. _brefeldia_, p. above, may offer suggestion. g. on page two of the introductory section of this volume mention is made of the variety of colors shown in the vegetative phases of the organisms we study. this fact is patent to all observers; but the identity of the plasmodium making the display must be ascertained by painstaking or prolonged and repeated observations. this for the reason that, as i am convinced, only in comparatively few cases is the color unchanged during the life-history of a given fructification. it may sometimes change from hour to hour as development proceeds. the color designated in the descriptive pages of this work is presumably, unless as otherwise set out, that immediately preceding that of the maturing fruit. as suggestive, and as, it is hoped, contributory to better knowledge of this phase of our subject a list of species is here subjoined as presented by my colleague, professor morton e. peck of oregon, who has given unusual attention to this particular investigation. species plasmodium colors _physarum sinuosum_ light grey, nearly white, ivory white _physarum serpula_ greenish-yellow; yellow _physarum virescens_ pale greenish-yellow; yellow _physarum cinereum_ watery grey, becoming white; pallid _physarum didermoides_ watery grey, becoming white; blue-white _physarum notabile_ pure white _physarum globuliferum_ greenish-yellow; yellow _physarum leucopus_ light grey _physarum pulcherrimum_ dark red _physarum flavicomum_ greenish or brownish yellow _physarum viride_ clear yellow _physarum wingatense_ at first grey, then pure white _badhamia orbiculata_ pale yellow, passing to white _physarella oblonga_ brilliant yellow _mucilago spongiosa_ watery grey, then white _didymium crustaceum_ white _didymium squamulosum_ pale grey, watery white _diderma floriforme_ grey tinged with yellow _stemonitis fusca_ white passing through blue to black _stemonitis smithii_ green to yellow to reddish purple _comatricha longa_ white, cream-yellow, reddish purple to dusky _comatricha irregularis_ white _comatricha nigra_ white _comatricha typhoides_ bluish white _diachaea splendens_ pure white _enerthenema papillatum_ colorless or greenish _reticularia lycoperdon_ white _dictydiaethalium plumbeum_ colorless, pink, salmon, rose, orange, chocolate brown _lindbladia effusa_ brown, lead-colored _tubifera ferruginosa_ watery white, scarlet, brown, almost black _cribraria dictydioides_ clear dark green _cribraria tenella_ watery, dark plumbeous, bronze _cribraria cuprea_ red _arcyria nutans_ white _arcyria denudata_ watery white, then flesh-color _arcyria cinerea_ grey, then white _trichia varia_ colorless, then white h. in a few instances references to illustration do not find place in connection with the descriptive matter. one phase of _physarum albescens_ is figured on pl. iii.; _mucilago_ will be found portrayed on pl. vii.; _physarum viride_ on pl. viii. j. the group before us has research possibilities not a few. the question of their nutrition and its limits in respect of variety, is yet to be solved. from present indications all that can be said is to the effect that a pabulum similar in variety, no doubt meets the needs of many species. whether in artificial culture a single base as gelatin or agar would suffice for all or several is yet to be discovered. whether a species brought from spore to maturity on artificial diet would conform in any reasonable way to our dim concept of its identity is also, it would seem, a problem. the variation in the field would seem to make it doubtful. from the table immediately preceding it is plain that there is place for doubt. color it is surmised is of itself everywhere incidental; the structure, which maintains identity or the reverse, lies deeper, although color may be none the less, in some way a resultant, and therefore in so far a reliable taxonomic guide. the treatment of our subject so far by no means exhausts the possibilities of even the simpler phases of microscopic study. we have endeavored to appreciate the work of those who hand us the literature of the group, and to recognize what such keen-eyed men have seen; but in our western and southern forests there are probably double as many species, as species go, as we have listed. the entire group is, as it would seem, in highest measure worthy of investigation and comprehension, and should it at any time prove that to such accomplishment the present volume may have been in any smallest way contributory, the author's satisfaction will be complete indeed. footnotes: [ ] farr. _cell-division in pol. mother-cells, cobæa scandens, bull. tor. bot. cl._, vol. , pp. - . index natural orders, etc. cribrariales, exosporeÆ, lycogalales, physarales, phytomyxinÆ, stemonitales, trichiales, genera alwisia, _alwis_; personal. amaurochÆte, [greek: amauros], dusky, and [greek: chaitê], hair. gr. arcyria, [greek: arkyon] a net. gr. badhamia, _c. d. badham_; personal. brefeldia, _o. brefeld_; personal. calonnema, [greek: kalos], beautiful, and [greek: nêma], a thread. gr. ceratiomyxa, [greek: keration], a small horn, and [greek: myxa], mucus. gr. cienkowskia, _leon cienkowski_; personal clastoderma, [greek: klastos], broken, and [greek: derma], dermis, skin or covering. gr. colloderma, [greek: kolla], glue, and [greek: derma], dermis, covering. comatricha, [greek: komê], and [greek: thrix], both words meaning hair. gr. craterium, [greek: kratêr], a vessel. gr. cribraria, _cribrum_, a sieve. lat. diachaea, [greek: diacheiu], to pour out; the application not patent. gr. dianema, [greek: dia], through or across, and [greek: nêma], thread. gr. dictydium, [greek: diktyon], a net. gr. dictydiÆthalium, dictydium and æthalium; the latter from [greek: aithalos], sooty. gr. diderma, [greek: dis], twice or twofold, and [greek: derma], as above. gr. didymium, [greek: didymos], double. gr. echinostelium, [greek: echinos], a sea-urchin, and [greek: stêlion], (?), a handle or stem. gr. enerthenema, [greek: enerthe], below, and [greek: nêma], a thread. enteridium, [greek: enteron] the intestine. gr. fuligo, fuligo, soot. lat. _=hemiarcyria=_, [greek: hêmi], half, and arcyria. hemitrichia, [greek: hêmi], half, and trichia. heterotrichia, [greek: heteros], other, and trichia. lachnobolus, [greek: lachnos], woolly, and [greek: bôlos], a lump. gr. lamproderma, [greek: lampros], shining, and [greek: derma], as above. gr. leocarpus, [greek: leios], smooth, and [greek: karpos], fruit. gr. lepidoderma, [greek: lepis], a scale, and [greek: derma], a covering. gr. licea, said to be latin; _licium_, a thrum, a girdle. lindbladia, _a. lindblad_; personal. lycogala, [greek: lykos], a wolf, and [greek: gala], milk. gr. margarita, [greek: margaritês], a pearl. gr. mucilago, _mucilago_, musty juice. lat. oligonema, [greek: oligos], few, and [greek: nêma], a thread. gr. ophiotheca, [greek: ophis], a serpent, and [greek: thêkê], a case. gr. orcadella, [greek: orka], a cask (?). diminutive. perichÆna, [greek: peri], around, and [greek: chainein], to crack open. gr. physarum, [greek: physa], a bladder, something inflated. physarella, diminutive of _physarum_. plasmodiophora, [greek: plasma], something formed, and [greek: phoros], that bears. gr. prototrichia, [greek: prôtos], first, and _trichia_. reticularia, _reticulum_, a small net. lat. stemonitis, like a stamen. tilmadoche, [greek: tilma], lint, and [greek: dochê], containing. gr. trichia, [greek: ophix], hair. gr. tubifera, _tubus_, a tube, and _fero_, i bear. lat. genera and species =_Æthaliopsis,_=, . _stercoriformis_ zopf., . =_Æthalium_=, . _flavum_ link., . _septicum_ fr., . alwisia, . bombarda _berk. & br._, . amaurochÆte, . _atra_ (alb. & schw.) rost., , . _cribrosa_ (fr.) macbr., . fuliginosa (_sow._) _macbr._, . tubulina (_alb. & schw._) _macbr._, . _minor_ sacc. & ell., . =_angioridium_=, . _sinuosum_ grev., . arcyria, . _albida_ pers., . _bicolor_ berk. & c., . cinerea (_bull._) _pers._, . conglobosa _macbr._, . _decipiens_ pers., . denudata (_l._) _sheld._, . digitata (_schw._) _rost._, . ferruginea _sauter._, . _flava_ pers., . _gabriellae_ rav., . _globosa_ schw., . incarnata _pers._, , . insignis _kalchbr. & cke._, . _leucocephala_ pers., . magna _rex_, . nodulosa _macbr._, . nutans (_bull._) _grev._, . oerstedtii _rost._, . pomiformis (_leers_) _rost._, . _punicea_ pers., . _stipata_, list., . versicolor _phill._, . _vitellina_ phill., . badhamia, . affinis _rost._, . capsulifera (_bull._) _berk._, , . chrysotricha _berk. & c._, . decipiens (_curt._) _berk._, . _decipiens_ berk., , . foliicola _g. list._, . gracilis _var. macbr._, . _hyalina_ (pers.) berk., . iowensis _macbr._, . inaurata _currey_, . lilacina (_fr._) _rost._, . macrocarpa (_ces._) _rost._, . _macrocarpa_ rost., . magna _peck_, . nitens _berk._, . _nodulosa_ mass., . orbiculata _rex_, . ovispora _racib._, . panicea (_fr._) _rost._, , . papaveracea _berk. & r._, . _penetralis_ cke. & ell., . populina _list._, . rubiginosa (_chev._) _rost._, . subaquila _macbr._, . utricularis (_bull._) _berk._, . _varia_ mass., . _verna_ fries, . versicolor _list._, . brefeldia, . maxima (_fr._) _rost._, . =_byssus._= _fruticulosa_ fl. dan., . calonema, . aureum _morg._, . ceratiomyxa, . arbuscula _berk. & br._, . filiforma _berk. & br._, . fruticulosa (_muell._) _macbr._, . _mucida_ schroet., , . porioides (_alb. & schw._) _schroet._, , , . =_ceratium_=, _hydnoides_ alb. & schw., . _porioides_ alb. & schw., , . =_chondrioderma_=, see diderma. _aculeatum_ rex, . _calcareum_ rost., . _crustaceum_ (peck) berl., . _globosum_ (pers.) rost., . _michelii_ (lib.) rost., . _niveum_ rost., . _radiatum_ (l.) rost., . _reticulatum_ rost., . _roanense_ rex, . _rugosum_ rex, _sauteri_ rost., . _stromateum_ (link.) rost., . _testaceum_ (schrad.) rost., . _trevelyani_ (grev.) rost., . cienkowskia, . reticulata (_alb. & schw._) _rost._, , . =_cionium_=, _xanthopus_ ditm., . clastoderma, . debaryanum _blytt._, . =_clathroptychium_=, . _rugulosum_ (wallr.) rost., . =_clathrus._= _adnatus_ batsch, . _denudatus_ l., . _ramosus_ retz., . =_clavaria_=, . _byssoides_ bull., . _puccinia_ batsch, . colloderma, . oculatum (_lipp._) _g. list._, . comatricha, . aequalis _peck_, . caespitosa _sturg._, . _crypta_ schw., . cylindrica (_bilgr._) _macbr._, . elegans (_racib._) _g. list._, . _ellisiana_ (cke.) ell. & ev., . ellisii _morg._, . flaccida (_list._) _morg._, . _friesiana_ (dby.) rost., . _gracilis_ wing, . irregularis _rex_, . laxa _rost._, , . longa _peck_, . nigra (_pers._) _schroet._, , . _obtusata_ (preuss.) list., , . _persoonii_ rost., . pulchella (_bab._) _rost._, . rubens _list_., . _shimekiana_ macbr., . _stemonitis_ (scop.) shel., . subcaespitosa _peck_, . suksdorfii _ell. & ev._, . _typhina_ (pers.) rost., . typhoides (_bull._) _rost._, , . =_cornuvia_=, , . _circumscissa_ (wallr.) rost., . _wrightii_ (berk. & c.) rost., . =_crateriachaea._= _crateriachaea mutabilis_ rost., . craterium, . aureum (_schum._) _rost._, . _citrinellum_ list., . concinnum _rex_, . _confusum_ mass., . _convivale_ (batsch) morg., . _cylindricum_ mass., . leucocephalum (_pers._) _ditm._, , . _lilacinum_ mass., . _maydis_ morg., . minimum _berk. & c._, . minutum (_leers_) _fr._, , . _mutabile_ fr., . _nodulosum_ (c. & b.) morg., . _obovatum_ peck, . _paraguayense_ (speg.) list, . _pedunculatum_ trent., , , . _rubescens_ rex, . _rubiginosum_ mass., . _vulgare_ ditm., . cribraria, . argillacea pers., . aurantiaca _schrad._, . _cernua_ pers., . cuprea _morg._, . dictydioides _cke. & balf._, . elegans _berk. & c._, . intricata (_schrad._) _rost._, . languescens _rex_, . macrocarpa _schrad._, . microcarpa (_schrad._) _pers._, . _microscopica_ _berk. & c._, . _minima_ berk. & c., . minutissima _schw._, . piriformis _schrad._, . purpurea _schrad._, . rufa (_roth_) _rost._, . splendens (schrad.) pers., . tenella _schrad._, . violacea _rex_, . _vulgaris_ schrad., . =_cytidium._= _melleum_ (berk. & br.) morg., . _ravenelii_ (berk. & c.) morg., . _rufipes_ (alb. & schw.) morg., . =_dermodium_=, . _conicum_ (pers.) rost., . diachaea, . bulbillosa (_berk. & br._) _list._, . _caespitosa_ list., . _cylindrica_ (bilgr.) list., . _elegans_ fr., . leucopodia (_bull._) _rost._, . splendens _peck_, . subsessilis _pk._, . thomasii _rex_, , . dianema, . andersoni _morg._, . corticatum _list._, . harveyi _rex_, . dictydiaethalium, . plumbeum (_schum._) _list._, . dictydium, . cancellatum (_batsch_) _macbr._, , . cancellatum cancellatum _macbr._, . cancellatum purpureum _macbr._, , . cancellatum prolatum _macbr._, . _cernuum_ nees, . _longipes_ morg., . _microcarpon_ schrad., . _splendens_ schrad., . _umbilicatum_ schrad., . diderma, . _albescens_ phill., . asteroides _list._, . _brunneolum_ phill., . cinereum _morg._, . _citrinum_ peck, . _conglomeratum_ fr., . _contextum_ pers., . cor-rubrum _macbr._, . crustaceum _peck_, . _difforme_ (pers.) morg., . effusum (_schw._) _morg._, . floriforme (_bull._) _pers._, . _geasteroides_ phill., . globosum _pers._, . _globuliferum_ fr., . _granulatum_ (schw.) fr., . hemisphericum (_bull._) _horne._, . _laciniatum_ phill., . lyallii _mass._, . _mariae-wilsoni_ clinton, . _minutum_ (schum.) fr., . niveum (_rost._) _macbr._, . _oblongum_ fr., . ochraceum _hoffm._, . _ochroleucum_ berk. & c., . _persoonii_ macbr., . radiatum (_l._) _morg._, . _reticulatum_ fr., , . reticulatum (rost.) morg., . roanense (_rex_) _macbr._, . _rufipes_ (alb. & schw.) fr., . rugosum (_rex_) _macbr._, . sauteri (_rost._) _macbr._, . simplex list., . spumarioides _fr._, . _squamulosum_ alb. & schw., . _stellare_ (schrad.) pers., . testaceum (_schrad._) _pers._, . trevelyani (_grev._) fr., . _vernicosum_ pers., . didymium, . anellus _morg._, . annulatum _macbr._, . anomalum _sturg._, . _chrysopeplum_ berk. & c., . _cinereum_ (batsch) fr., . clavus (_alb. & schw._) _rabh._, . complanatum (_batsch_) _rost._, . _connatum_ peck, . crustaceum _fr._, . difforme _duby_, . dubium _rost._, . _effusum_ link., . _erythrinum_ berk., . _excelsum_ jahn, . eximium _peck_, . _farinaceum_ schrad., . fulvum _sturg._, . _glaucum_ phill., . _gyrocephalum_ mont., . _hemisphericum_ (bull.) fr., . intermedium _schrad._, . _lateritium_ berk. & rav., . leoninum _berk. & br._, . _melanopus_ fr., . melanospermum (_pers._) _macbr._, . _melleum_ berk. & br., . _michelii_ lib., . _microcarpon_ (fr.) rost., . minus _list._, . _nigripes_ fr., . nigripes (_link_) _fr._, . _obrusseum_ berk. & c., . _oculatum_ lipp., . _paraguayense_ speg., . _polycephalum_ (schw.) fr., . _polymorphum_ mont., . _proximum_ berk. & c., . quitense (_pat._) _torr._, . _ravenelii_ berk. & c., . _serpula_ fr., . squamulosum (alb. & schw.) fr., . _stellare_ schrad., . _tenerrimum_ berk. & c., . _testaceum_ schrad., . _tigrinum_ schrad., . trochus _list._, . wilczekii _meylan_, . xanthopus (_ditm._) _fr._, . _zeylanicum_ berk. & br., . =_diphtherium._= _flavofuscum_ ehr., . echinostelium, . minutum debary, . enerthenema, . berkeleyanum _rost._, . _elegans_ bowm., . papillatum (_pers._) _rost._, . _syncarpon_ sturg., . enteridium, . _cinereum_ schw., . minutum _sturg._, . olivaceum _ehr._, . _rozeanum_ (rost.) wing., . splendens _morg._, . erionema, . aureum _penz._, . fuligo, . cinerea (_schw._) _morg._, . _ellipsospora_ list., . flava _pers._, . intermedia _macbr._, . laevis _pers._, . megaspora _sturg._, . muscorum _alb. & schw._, . _ochracea_ peck, . ovata (_schaeff._) _macbr._, , . _plumbea_ schum., . rufa _pers._, . septica (_l._) _gmel._, . _varians_ rost., . _varians_ sommf., . violacea _pers._, . =_hemiarcyria_=, see next, . hemitrichia, . _ablata_ morg., . clavata (_pers._) _rost._, . _funalis_ morg., . intorta _list._, . karstenii _rost._, . leiocarpa _cooke_, . _longifila_ rex, . montana morg., . _obscura_ rex, . ovata (_pers._) _macbr._, . _plumosa_ (morg.), . _rubiformis_ (pers.) rost., . serpula (_scop._) _rost._, . stipata (_schw._) _rost._, . stipitata _mass._, . _varneyi_ rex, . vesparium (_batsch_) _macbr._, . _wigandii_ rost., . heterotrichia, . gabriellae (_rav._) _mass._, . =_isaria._= _mucida_ pers., . lachnobolus, . _congesta_ berk. & br., . _cribrosus_ fr., . globosus (_schw._) _rost._, . _incarnatus_ (alb. & schw.) schroet., . occidentalis _macbr._, . lamproderma, . _arcyrioides_ (sommf.) morg., . _arcyrioides iridea_ cke., . arcyrionema _rost._, . columbinum (_pers._) _rost._, . _ellisiana_ cke., . _irideum_ (cke.) mass., . _minutum_ rost., . physaroides (_alb. & schw._) _rost._, . robustum _ell. & ev._, . _sauteri_ rost., . scintillans (berk. & br.) list., . violaceum (_fr._) rost., . =_leangium._= _stipatum_ schw., . _trevelyani_ grev., . leocarpus, . fragilis (_dicks._) _rost._, . _fragilis_ link., . _fulvus_ macbr., . _vernicosum_ link., . lepidoderma, . carestianum rost., . chailletii rost, . _stellatum_ mass., . tigrinum (_schrad._) rost., , . licea, . biforis _morg._, . _effusa_ ehr., . minima _fr._, . _ochracea_ peck, . pusilla _schrad._, . _rugulosa_ wallr., . _stipitata_ berk. & r., . variabilis _schrad._, . lindbladia, . effusa (_ehr._) _rost._, . _tubulina_ fr., . lycogala, . _atrum_ alb. & schw., . conicum _pers._, . _contortum_ ditm., . epidendrum (_buxb._) _fr._, , . exiguum _morg._, . flavofuscum (_ehr._) _rost._, . _miniata_ pers., . _terrestre_ fries, . =_lycoperdon_=, . _cinereum_ batsch, . _complanatum_ batsch, . _corticale_ batsch, . _epidendron_ (buxb.) l., . _favogineum_ batsch, . _fragile_ dicks., . _fuliginosum_ sow., . _pusillum_ hedw., . _radiatum_ l., . _vesparium_ batsch, . margarita metallica (_berk. & br._) _list._, . mucilago, . spongiosa (_leyss._) _morg._, . =_mucor_=, . _cancellatus_ batsch, . _ovatus_ schaeff., . _pomiformis_ leers, . _septicus_ l., . _serpula_ scop., . _spongiosus_ leyss., . _stemonitis_ scop., . oligonema, . brevifilum _peck_, . flavidum (_peck_) _mass._, . fulvum _morg._, . nitens (_lib._) _rost._, . ophiotheca, . chrysosperma _currey_, . _pallida_ berk. & c., . _umbrina_ berk. & c., . vermicularis (_schw._) _macbr._, . wrightii _berk. & c._, . orcadella, . operculata _wing._, . =_orthotrichia_=, . _microcephala_ wing., . perichaena, _caespitosa_ peck, . corticalis (_batsch_) _rost._, . depressa _lib._, , . _flavida_ peck, . _incarnata_ (alb. & schw.) fr., . _irregularis_ berk. & c., . marginata _schw._, . _pallida_ (schw.) rost., . _populina_ fr., . quadrata _macbr._, . _vaporaria_ schw., . physarella, . _mirabilis_ peck, . oblonga (_berk. & c._) _morg._, . physarum, . aeneum (_list._) _r. g. fries_, . affine _rost._, . albescens _ell._, . _albicans_ peck, . _album_ fr., . alpinum _g. list._, . _atrorubrum_ peck, . _atrum_ schw., . _aurantium_ pers., . _aureum_ pers., . auriscalpium _cke._, , . _berkeleyi_ (rost.) list., , . bethelii (_macbr._) _list._, . bitectum _list._, . _bivalve_ pers., . bogoriense _racib._, . brunneolum _phill._, . _caespitosum_ schw., . _calidris_ list., . carneum _list. & sturg._, . _cernuum_ (schum.) fr., . _chrysopeplum_ berk. & c., . _chrysotrichum_ berk. & c., , . cinereum (_batsch_) _pers._, , , . _cinereum_ ell. & ev., . citrinellum _peck_, . citrinum _schum._, , . _clavus_ alb. & schw., . _columbinum_ macbr., . _columbinum_ pers., . _compactum_ list., . compressum _alb. & schw._, . confertum _macbr._, . _confluens_ (pers.) morg., . conglomeratum (_fr._) _rost._, . _connatum_ peck, . _connexum_ (link.) morg., . contextum _pers._, . crateriforme _petch._, . _cupripes_ berk. & r., . _decipiens_ curt., . dictyospermum _list._, . diderma _rost._, , . didermoides (_ach._) _rost._, , , . discoidale _macbr._, . _ditmari_ rost., . echinosporum _list._, . _effusum_ schw., . _ellipsosporum_ rost., . _erythrinum_ berk., . _farlowii_ rost., . _flavidum_ peck, . flavicomum _berk._, . _flavum_ fr., . _fulvum_ _list._, . _galbeum_ _wing._, . _glaucum_ (phill.) mass., . globuliferum (_bull._) _pers._, . _griseum_ link., . gulielmae _penzig_, . gyrosum _rost._, , , . _hyalinum_ pers., . _inaequale_ peck, . instratum _macbr._, . lateritium (_berk. & br._) _rost._, . leucophaeum _fr._, . _leucophaeum_ (fr.) macbr., . leucopus _link._, . lilacinum _sturg. & bilg._, not fr., . _lividum_ rost., . _luteum_ pers., . luteo-album _list._, . _macrocarpon_ cesati, ; fuckel, . maculatum _macbr._, . _maydis_ torr., . megalosporum _sturg._, . _melanospermum_ pers., . melleum (_berk. & br._) _mass._, . _microcarpon_ fr., . mortoni _macbr._, . murinum _list._, . mutabile (_rost._) _list._, . _nefroideum_ rost., . newtoni _macbr._, . nicaraguense _macbr._, . _nigripes_ link., . nodulosum _cke. & balf._, . notabile _macbr._, . nucleatum _rex_, . nutans _pers._, , . oblatum _macbr._, . _oblongum_ fr., . _obrusseum_ (berk. & c.) rost., . _ochroleucum_ berk. & c., . _ornatum_ peck, . _paniceum_ fr., . penetrale _rex_, . _petersii_ berk. & c, , , . _phillipsii_ balf., . _physaroides_ alb. & schw., . plumbeum _fr._, . polycephalum _schw._, . _polymorphum_ (mont.) rost., , . _polymorphum_ rost., . _psittacinum_ ditm., . pulcherrimum _berk. & rav._, . pulcherripes _peck_, . _pusillum_ list., . _ravenelii_ (berk. & c.) mass., . _reniforme_ list., . _reticulatum_ alb. & schw., , . roseum _berk. & br._, . _rostafinskii_ mass., . _rubiginosum_ chev., . _rufipes_ alb. & schw., . _schumacheri_ spreng., . _scyphoides_ cke. & balf., . serpula _morg._, . sinuosum (_bull._) _weinm._, . straminipes list., . striatum _fries_, . _stromateum_ link, . _sulphureum_ (alb. & schw.) sturg., . _tenerum_ rex., . tenerum _rex_, . _testaceum_ sturg., . _thejoteum_ fr., . tropicale _macbr._, . _utriculare_ (bull.) chev., . variabile _rex_, . vernum _rost._, . _vermicularis_ schw., . viride _pers._, . _virescens_ ditm., , . wingatense _macbr._, . plasmodiophora, . brassicae _wor._, . =_protoderma._= _pusilla_ rost., . prototrichia, . _flagellifera_ (berk. & br.) rost., . metallica (_berk._) _mass._, . =_puccinia_=, . _byssoides_ gmel., . _ramosa_, etc., mich., . =_raciborskia._= _elegans_ berl., . reticularia, . _alba_ bull., . _atra_ fr., . _cribrosa_ fr., . _flavofusca_ (ehr.) fr., . _hemispherica_ bull., . lycoperdon _bull._, , . _maxima_ fr., . _rozeana_ rost., . _sinuosa_ bull., . _splendens_ morg., . =_rostafinskia_=, . _elegans_ racib., . =_scyphium._= _rubiginosum_ (chev.) rost., . =_siphotychium_=, . _casparyi_ rost., . =_sphaerocarpus._= _albus_ bull., . _aurantius_ bull., . _capsulifer_ bull., . _chrysospermus_ bull., . _cylindricus_ bull., . _floriformis_ bull., . _fragilis_ sowb., . _globuliferus_ bull., . _luteus_ bull., . _utricularis_ bull., . _viridis_ bull., . =_spumaria_=, . _alba_ (bull.) dc., . _didermoides_ (ach.) pers., . _granulata_ schum., . _licheniformis_ schw., . _minuta_ schum., . _mucilago_ pers., . stemonitis, . _alba_ (bull.) gmel., . _argillacea_ (pers.) gmel., . axifera (_bull._) _macbr._, , , . _bäuerlinii_ mass. (?), . _botrytis_ (pers.) gmel., . carolinensis _macbr._, . _castillensis_ macbr., . confluens _cke. & ell._, . dictyspora _rost._, . _digitata_ schw., . fenestrata _rex_, . _ferruginea_ ehr., , , . _ferruginosa_ batsch., . flavogenita _jahn_, . _friesiana_ dby., . fusca (_roth._) _rost._, , . herbatica _peck_, . _leucocephala_ (pers.) gmel., . _maxima_ schw. (?), . _microspora_ list., . _morgani_ peck, . _nigra_ pers., , . nigrescens _rex_, . _ovata nigra_ pers., . pallida _wing._, , . _papillata_ pers., . pulchella _bab._, . _scintillans_ berk. & br., . smithii _macbr._, . splendens _rost._, , . _splendens_ var. _confluens_ list., , . _suksdorfii_ ell. & ev., . _tenerrima_ berk. & c., , . _tenerrima_ curt., , , . trechispora (_berk._) _torr._, . _tubulina_ alb. & schw., . _typhina_ pers., . _typhina_ wig., . _typhoides_ (bull.) dc., . uvifera _macbr._, . varia (pers.) gmel., . _violacea_ fr., . virginiensis _rex_, . _viridis_ (bull.) gmel., . webberi _rex_, . tilmadoche, . _alba_ (bull.) macbr., . _bethelii_ macbr., . _cernua_ (schum.) fr., . _columbina_ (berk. & c.) rost., . _compacta_ wing., . _gyrocephala_ (mont.) rost., . _hians_ rost., . _mutabilis_ rost., . _nutans_ (pers.) rost., . _oblonga_ (berk. & c.) rost., . _polycephala_ (schw.) macbr., . _viridis_ (bull.) sacc., . =_tremella_=, . _hydnoides_ jacq., . =_trichamphora_=, . _oblonga_ berk. & c., . pezizoidea _jungh._, . trichia, . _abietina_ wig., . _abrupta_ cke., . _affinis_ dby., . andersoni _rex_, . _aurea_ schum., . _axifera_ bull., . botrytis _pers._, , . _cernua_ schum., , . _chrysosperma_ (bull.) rost., . _cinerea_ bull., . _circumscissa_ wallr., . _clavata_ pers., . contorta (_ditm._) _rost._, . decipiens (_pers._) _macbr._, . erecta _rex_, . _fallax_ pers., . favoginea (_batsch_) pers., . _flagellifera_ berk. & br., . _fragilis_ (sowb.) rost., , . inconspicua _rost._, . iowensis _macbr._, . _jackii_ rost., . lateritia _lév._, . _leucopodia_ bull., . _nana_ mass., . _nigripes_ pers., . _nitens_ lib., . _nutans_ bull., . _ovata_ pers., . persimilis _karst._, . _proximella_ karst., . pulchella _rex_, . _pusilla_ schroet., . _pyriformis_ fr., . _reniformis_ peck, . _rubiformis_ pers., . scabra _rost._, . _serpula_ (scop.) pers., . subfusca _rex_, . _typhoides_ bull., . varia (_pers._) _rost._, . verrucosa _berk._, . tubifera, . casparyi (_rost._) _macbr._, . ferruginosa (batsch) _macbr._, . stipitata (_b. & r._) _macbr._, . =_tubulina_=, . _cylindrica_ (bull.) dc., . _fragiformis_ (pers.) list., . _stipitata_ (berk. & rav.) rost., . plates to illustrate north american slime-moulds note.--plates i., ii., iv., vi., vii., viii., ix., x., were originally by miss mary p. macbride; plates v., xi., xii., were by mrs. hattie j. douglass; plates xiii., xiv., xv., xvi., xvii., were by the late mrs. bertha e. linder pumphrey; plate iii. was the joint work of mrs. pumphrey and miss macbride. all these, except iv., have been re-drawn for new plates; xvi., with additions, by miss margaret hayes; the remainder by mr. w. j. calvin, c. e. plate xviii. is by miss hayes; plate xix. by miss a. m. held; plate xx. by miss jane coventry. explanation of plate i _enteridium splendens_ morg., p. . fig. . Æthalium, natural size. fig. _a_. spore of the same species, × . fig. _b_. capillitium of the same species, × . _dictydiæthalium plumbeum_ (fr.) rost., p. . fig. . Æthalium, natural size. fig. _a_. sporangia and spores, × (after schroeter). fig. _b_. persistent apices of the peridia. _lindbladia effusa_ (ehr.) rost., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. a single spore, × . _tubifera ferruginosa_ (batsch) macbr., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . see also plate vii., fig. ; and plate xii., fig. . _cribraria dictydioides_ cke. & balf., p. . fig. . three sporangia, × . fig. _a_. a single sporangium, to show reticulate thickening, × . fig. _b_. a spore, × . _dictydium cancellatum_ (batsch) macbr., p. . fig. . sporangium, × . fig. _a_. a part of the peridial wall, seen from within, × . _ceratiomyxa fruticulosa_ (muell.) macbr., p. . fig. . three sporiferous pillars, × about . fig. _a_. tip of a single pillar, × . _hemitrichia stipata_ (schw.) macbr., p. . fig. . sporangia, × . fig. _a_. the capillitium of the same species, × . fig. _b_. a single spore, × . [illustration: plate i] explanation of plate ii _perichaena corticalis_ (batsch) rost., p. . fig. . sporangia, × . fig. _a_. a single spore, as if in section, × . fig. _b_. the capillitial thread, × . _lachnobolus occidentalis_ macbr., p. . fig. . the sporangia, × . fig. _a_. a portion of the capillitium, × . fig. _b_. spores, × . see also and a below. _arcyria cinerea_ (bull.) pers., p. . fig. . the expanded fructifications, × . fig. _a_. tip of a single capillitium mass, × . _lachnobolus occidentalis_ macbr., p. . fig. . a cluster of sporangia, × ; cylindric type. fig. _a_. capillitium, × ; to show characteristic surface of the threads. _arcyria denudata_ (linn.) pers., p. . fig. . sporangia, two expanded, one still closed, × . fig. _a_. a part of the capillitium of the same species, × . _arcyria nutans_ (bull.) grev., p. . fig. . expanded capillitium, etc., × . fig. _a_. capillitium, × . fig. _b_. a piece of the capillitium thread, × . _ophiotheca wrightii_ berk. & c., p. . fig. . a single sporangium, × . fig. _a_. a node of the capillitial thread, × . fig. _b_. a spore, × . _oligonema nitens_ (lib.) rost., p. . fig. . a single elater, × . figs. _a_ and _b_. spores, × . _badhamia macrocarpa_ rost., p. . var. _gracilis_. fig. . two sporangia, × . [illustration: plate ii] explanation of plate iii _hemitrichia clavata_ (pers.) rost., p. . fig. . three sporangia, one closed, × . fig. _b_. a single spore, × . _hemitrichia vesparium_ (batsch) macbr., p. . fig. . tip of the elater of capillitial thread, × . fig. _a_. a single spore, × . _trichia iowensis_ macbr., p. . fig. . a cluster of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. tip of a branching elater, × . fig. _b_. a single spore, × . see also plate x., fig. . _hemitrichia serpula_ scop., p. . fig. . a plasmodiocarp, × . fig. _a_. a single spore, × . fig. _b_. an elater-tip, × . _trichia inconspicua_ rost., p. . fig. . a cluster of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. tip of an elater, × . fig. _b_. a single spore, × . _physarum oblatum_ macbr., p. . fig. . a single sporangium, × ; stipe shown of unusual length. fig. _a_. a single spore, × . see also plate xiv., fig. . _physarum auriscalpium_ (cke.) lister, p. . fig. . a single sporangium, × ; a new york specimen. fig. _a_. a single spore, × . _arcyria nodulosa_ macbr., p. . fig. . capillitial thread, × . [illustration: plate iii] explanation of plate iv _trichia persimilis_ karst., p. . fig. . var. intermedia, × about . fig. _a_. spore of same species, × . fig. _b_. a second spore to show varying episporic network. fig. _c_. tip of elater, shows vertical connecting bands. _trichia decipiens_ (pers.) macbr., p. . fig. . sporangia, × about . fig. _a_. a spore of the same species, × . fig. _b_ and _c_. elaters of the same species, × about . _trichia varia_ (pers.) rost., p. . fig. . sporangia, × about . fig. _a_. a spore of the same species, × . fig. _b_. an elater of the same species, × . _trichia scabra_ rost., p. . fig. . sporangia, × about . fig. _a_. a single spore of the same species, × . fig. _b_. an elater-tip of the same, × . _trichia favoginea_ (batsch) pers., p. . fig. . sporangia, × about . fig. _a_. a single spore of the same, × . fig. _b_. a single elater-tip of the same, × . _trichia persimilis_ karst., var _abrupta_ cke., p. . fig. . an elater-tip, × . it will be noticed that the spirals are connected by vertical bars. fig. _a_. a single spore of the same variety, × . fig. _b_. a single spore, from the same sporangium as _a_. fig. _c_. trichia persimilis, a single spore, × . fig. _d_. tip of an elater from the same, × . [illustration: plate iv] explanation of plate v _lamproderma arcyrionema_ rost., p. . fig. . a single sporangium seen as if in section, × . fig. _a_. a single spore, × . _lamproderma scintillans_ (berk. & br.) list., p. . fig. . a single sporangium seen as in section, × . fig. _a_. a single spore, × . _enerthenema papillatum_ (pers.) rost., p. . fig. . an expanded, blown-out sporangium, × . _lamproderma robustum_ ell. & ev., p. fig. . a sporangium seen as in section, × . fig. _a_. a single spore, × . _comatricha laxa_ rost., p. . fig. . a sporangium seen as if in section, × . fig. _a_. a single spore, × . _diachaea thomasii_ rex, p. . fig. . three sporangia magnified about times. fig. _a_. a single spore of the same species, × . _brefeldia maxima_ (fries) rost., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, showing columellæ; × . fig. _a_. capillitial threads of the same species, × . fig. _b_. spore of the same species, × . _amaurochæte fuliginosa_ (sowb.) macbr., p. . fig. . a bit of so-called capillitium, × . fig. _a_. a single spore magnified about times. [illustration: plate v] explanation of plate vi _comatricha typhoides_ (bull.) rost., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. a single spore, × . fig. _b_. tip of the columella with its branches, × . _comatricha longa_ peck, p. . fig. . a single empty sporangium, × . fig. _a_. a part of the same taken near the apex, × . fig. _b_. a spore, × . _comatricha aequalis_ peck, p. . fig. . a single sporangium, × . fig. _a_. the columella and capillitium, × . fig. _b_. a single spore, × . figs. _c_ and _d_. sporangia to which the peridium still adheres, although in _c_ in shreds. _stemonitis fusca_ rost., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. a part of the columella and capillitium, × . fig. _b_. a single spore, × . _stemonitis axifera_ (bull.) macbr., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. a single spore, × . fig. _b_. a part of the capillitium with columella, × . _stemonitis splendens_, p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . figs. _a_ and _c_. single spores, the latter × . fig. _b_. a part of the columella and branches, × . fig. . a shorter variety of the same species with coarser meshes in capillitium, × . fig. _a_. a part of the columella and net, × . [illustration: plate vi] explanation of plate vii _diachaea splendens_ peck, p. . fig. . sporangia and hypothallus, × . fig. _a_. capillitium, × . fig. _b_. spores, × . fig. _c_. portion of the capillitium, × . _didymium nigripes_ fr., p. . fig. . sporangia, × . fig. _a_. a spore, × . fig. _b_. calcareous crystals from the peridial wall, × . _didymium melanospermum_ (pers.) macbr., p. . fig. . sporangia, × . fig. _a_. a single spore, × about . _diderma testaceum_ (schrad.) pers., p. . fig. . sporangia; the first exhibiting the two peridial walls and the spore-mass, × . fig. _a_. spore, × . fig. _b_. capillitial threads, × . _diderma globosum_ pers., p. . fig. . sporangia; the first with the outer peridium broken away, × . fig. _a_. a single spore, × . _mucilago spongiosa_ (leyss.) morg., p. . fig. . an æthalium, borne on a grass-stem, natural size. fig. _a_. a spore, × . fig. _b_. capillitium, with surface calcareous crystals, × . _diderma crustaceum_ peck, p. . fig. . a mass of clustered sporangia, to show habit of aggregation, natural size. _tubifera ferruginosa_ (batsch) macbr., p. . fig. . a single spore, × . [illustration: plate vii] explanation of plate viii _diderma floriforme_ (bull.) pers., p. . fig. . sporangia of various ages, × . fig. _a_. spore of the same species, × . fig. _b_. a capillitial thread, × . _physarum polycephalum_ schw., p. . fig. . the sporangia, × . fig. _a_. spores, × . fig. _b_. capillitium, × . _leocarpus fragilis_ (dicks.) rost., p. . fig. . sporangia, × . fig. _a_. a group of sporangia, natural size, to show habit. fig. _b_. a single spore, × . _physarella oblonga_ (berk. & c.) morg., p. . fig. . a single sporangium, × . figs. _a_ and _b_. capillitium and spore respectively, × . _craterium leucocephalum_ (pers.) ditmar, p. . fig. . sporangia, the first closed, × . _physarum sinuosum_ (bull.) weinm., p. . fig. . plasmodiocarp, natural size; _a_, × ; see also plate xix., fig. . _physarum virescens_ ditmar, p. . fig. . groups of sporangia, × and × . fig. _a_. spores, × . _physarum viride_ pers., p. . fig. . a single sporangium, × ; _a_, reverse. fig. _b_. the same after spore-dispersal. fig. _c_. capillitium, × . [illustration: plate viii] explanation of plate ix _physarum didermoides_ (ach.) rost., p. . fig. . sporangia, × . fig. _a_. a single sporangium open; shows calcareous capillitium, × . fig. _b_. spores, × . _physarum notabile_ macbr., p. . fig. . a cluster of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. a single sporangium open, × . fig. _b_. spores, × . see also plate xv., figs. , _a_, and the frontispiece. _physarum contextum_ pers., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. spores of the same, × . _physarum cinereum_ (batsch) pers., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. a single sporangium, × . fig. _b_. capillitium of the same, × . fig. _c_. spores, × . _physarum albescens_ ellis, p. . fig. . sporangia, × . see also plate xvi., figs. and _a_. fig. _a_. spore of the same species, × . fig. _b_. capillitium of the same, × . _physarum serpula_ morg., p. . fig. . plasmodiocarps, about natural size. fig. _a_. a bit of the plasmodiocarp, showing structure, × . fig. _b_. a spore of the same species, × . _physarum leucopus_ link., p. . fig. . a single sporangium, × . fig. _a_. a spore of the same species, × . fig. _b_. a fragment of the capillitium. [illustration: plate ix] explanation of plate x _badhamia rubiginosa_ (chev.) rost., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. two sporangia, same species, × , to show persisting capillitium. fig. _b_. capillitium fragment, × . fig. _c_. spore of the same species, × . _fuligo septica_ (l.) gmel.; form _laevis_, p. . fig. . an æthalium, natural size. fig. _a_. a section of the same, × . fig. _b_. a spore of the same, × . _fuligo cinerea_ pers., p. . fig. . a small æthalium borne upon a blade of grass, natural size. see also plate xxiii. fig. _a_. capillitial fragment from the same specimen, × . fig. _b_. spores of the same, × about . _didymium minus_ list., p. . fig. . a single sporangium, × . fig. _a_. the capillitium and fragment of the peridium of the same species, × . fig. _b_. a spore of the same species, × . _trichia iowensis_ macbr., p. . fig. . tip of an elater, × . see also plate iii, , _a_, _b_. _badhamia papaveracea_ berk. & rav., p. . fig. . sporangia, a cluster, × . fig. _a_. a cluster of spores, × . fig. _b_. a single spore of the same, × . _reticularia lycoperdon_ bull., p. . fig. . a fragment of the capillitium, × . fig. _a_. a single spore of the same species, × . see also plate xii., fig. . [illustration: plate x] explanation of plate xi _comatricha nigra_ pers., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. . a single sporangium as in section, × . fig. . a single spore, × . _stemonitis confluens_ ell. & cke., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. a thread of capillitium with adhering disk, × . fig. . a spore of the same, × . _stemonitis webberi_ rex, p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. . a single sporangium as in section, × . fig. . a single spore, same species, × . _comatricha suksdorfii_ ell. & ev., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. . a bit of the capillitium, × . fig. . a single spore, × . _comatricha cæspitosa_ sturg., p. . fig. . a cluster of sporangia, × . fig. . the capillitium highly magnified. fig. . a single spore, × . [illustration: plate xi] explanation of plate xii _lindbladia effusa_ (ehr.) rost., p. . fig. . fructification, natural size. fig. . portion of same in section, × . _reticularia lycoperdon_ bull., p. . fig. . residual capillitial structure, the spores blown away; about natural size. _enteridium splendens_ morg., p. . fig. . fructification, a large one, natural size. fig. . same in section, × . _arcyria ferruginea_ sauter, p. . fig. . three sporangia, magnified about times. fig. _a_. a single spore, magnified. fig. _b_. capillitial thread. _licea variabilis_ schrad., p. . fig. . sporangia, magnified about times. fig. . spore, magnified to show surface characters. _tubifera casparyi_ (rost.) macbr., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia; shows the pseudo-columellæ; × about . _licea biforis_ morg., p. . fig. . sporangia dehiscent, magnified about times. _orcadella operculata_ wing., p. . fig. . sporangia, magnified about times. _cribraria argillacea_ pers., p. . fig. . sporangia, magnified about times. fig. . a single sporangium, × about . see also plate xvii., fig. . _tubifera ferruginosa_ (batsch) macbr., p. . fig. . sporangia magnified to show apiculate tops. cf. _comatricha ellisii_ morg., p. . fig. . sporangium, × . fig. _a_. a single spore, × . _comatricha pulchella_ (bab.) rost, p. ; vid. p. . fig. . sporangium, × . fig. _a_. a single spore, × . _comatricha subcaespitosa_ peck, p. . fig. . sporangium, × . fig. _a_. a single spore, × . _comatricha gracilis_ wingate, p. . fig. . sporangium, × . fig. _a_. a single spore, × . [illustration: plate xii] explanation of plate xiii _heterotrichia gabriellæ_ mass., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, one expanded, the others empty, × . fig. _a_. capillitium of the species, × . _calonema aureum_ morg., p. . fig. . a cluster of sporangia, magnified about times. fig. _a_. the tip of an elater of the same species, × . fig. _b_. a single spore, × . fig. _c_. a bit of the sporangium wall, × . _stemonitis pallida_ wing., p. . fig. . sporangia, magnified about times. _comatricha pulchella_ (bab.) rost., form _c. persoonii_ r., p. . fig. . sporangia, magnified about times. see addenda, d, p. . _stemonitis carolinensis_ macbr., p. . fig. . sporangia, magnified about times. _clastoderma debaryanum_ blytt., p. . fig. . sporangium, magnified about times. _trichia contorta_ rost., p. . fig. . tip of an elater, × . fig. _a_. spore of the same species, × . _trichia botrytis_ pers., p. . fig. . tip of the elater, × . fig. _a_. spore of the same species, × . [illustration: plate xiii] explanation of plate xiv _badhamia magna_ peck., p. . fig. . a cluster, of sporangia, × . _cienkowskia reticulata_ (alb. & schw.) rost., p. . fig. . plasmodiocarp, × . fig. _a_. a bit of the capillitium of the same, × . fig. _b_. a single spore, × . _physarum oblatum_ macbr., p. . fig. . sporangia, × . fig. _a_. a piece of capillitium, × . fig. _b_. a single spore, × . the roughness much exaggerated. _badhamia orbiculata_ rex., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . _physarum newtoni_ macbr., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. a single spore, × . fig. _b_. a bit of the capillitium, × . _physarum maculatum_ macbr., p. . fig. . a cluster of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. a piece of the capillitial net, × . fig. _b_. a single spore, × . _lepidoderma tigrinum_ (schrad.) rost., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . [illustration: plate xiv] explanation of plate xv _physarum confertum_ macbr. _n. n._, p. . fig. . sporangia on a bit of leaf, × . fig. _a_. capillitium, × . fig. _b_. a single spore, × . _physarum notabile_ macbr., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, stipitate form, × . fig. _a_. a single spore, × . _physarum flavicomum_ berk., p. . fig. . a cluster of sporangia, one closed, × . fig. _a_. a single spore, × . _physarum tropicale_ macbr., p. . fig. . sporangia, × . fig. _a_. capillitium, × . fig. _b_. a single spore, × . _craterium minutum_ (leers) fr., p. . fig. . sporangia, the stalks unusually long, × . _physarum penetrale_ rex, p. . fig. . a group of sporangia; the calcareous crust has fallen in all. fig. _a_. a single sporangia, enlarged to show columella, × . _physarum nicaraguense_ macbr., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. capillitium, strongly calcareous, × . fig. _b_. a single spore, × . see also pl. xvii., figs and _a_. [illustration: plate xv] explanation of plate xvi _physarella oblonga_ (berk. & c.) morgan, p. . fig. . fully opened sporangium, × . fig. _a_. tubular sporangia closed, × . fig. _b_. transverse section of sporangium; shows trabecular calcareous nodules of the capillitium, × . _craterium cylindricum_ mass., p. . fig. . group of sporangia, × . _physarum wingatense_ macbr., p. . fig. . group of sporangia, × . _physarum albescens_ ellis, p. . fig. . group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. capillitium of the same species, × . _dianema harveyi_ rex, p. . fig. . group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. clustered spores, d. corticatum, × . fig. _b_. capillitial threads and spores, d. harveyi, × . fig. _c_. twisted, spirally striate single threads, × ; _d. corticatum_, list. _physarella oblonga_ berk. & c., p. . fig. . terrestial, plasmodiocarpous phase, × . _physarum megalosporum_ sturg., p. . fig. . group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. capillitium and spores, × . _didymium complanatum_ (batsch) rost., p. . fig. . capillitial structure, × . _physarum wingatense_, p. . fig. . sporangium, × , enlarged to show dehiscence. _didymium xanthopus_ (ditm.) fr., p. . fig. . sporangium--diagram to show columella, × . _didymium eximium_ pk., p. . fig. . group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. section of sporangium, × ; diagram. fig. _b_. spore, × . comatricha elegans (racib.) list., p. . fig. . a single sporangium, × . clastoderma debaryanum, p. . fig. . sporangium, seen in section, × . stemonitis herbatica pk., p. . fig. . group of sporangia, × . fig. a. the same enlarged to show general outline. fig. b. the same; capillitial section, × . fig. c. a single spore, × . [illustration: plate xvi] explanation of plate xvii _cribraria argillacea_ (pers.) schrad., p. . fig. . sporangium, highly magnified. _cribraria macrocarpa_ schrad., p. . fig. . sporangium, highly magnified. _cribraria aurantiaca_ schrad., p. . fig. . sporangium containing spores, × . _cribraria microcarpa_ schrad., p. . fig. . sporangium containing spores, × . _cribraria tenella_ schrad., p. . fig. . sporangium containing spores, × . _cribraria minutissima_ schw., p. . fig. . a single sporangium calyculate, × . fig. _a_. a smaller sporangium without calyx, with spore-mass. _cribraria cuprea_ morg., p. . fig. . a single sporangium, × . _cribraria violacea_ rex, p. . fig. . a single sporangium, × . _cribraria piriformis_ schrad., p. . fig. . a single sporangium, × . _perichaena depressa_ (libert) rost., p. . fig. . a cluster of sporangia, one open, × . _physarum nicaraguense_ macbr., p. . fig. . single sporangium, × . fig. _a_. a cluster of sporangia and hypothallus, × . [illustration: plate xvii] explanation of plate xviii _margarita metallica_ (berk. & br.) list., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. capillitium and spores, × . fig. _b_. a single spore, × . _diderma cor-rubrum_ n. s., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . _diderma asteroides_ list., p. . fig. . sporangia-spread, × . fig. _a_. same sporangia still unopened, × . _comatricha laxa_ rost., cf. pl. v., & _a_, p. . fig. . sporangia, × . _diderma lyallii_ (mass.) macbr., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. capillitium and spores, × . _lepidoderma chailletii_ rost., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. capillitium and spores, × . fig. _b_. a single spore, × . _didymium anellus_ morg., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . _diderma radiatum_ linn., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . _physarum diderma_ rost., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . _diderma rugosum_ (rex) macbr., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . _diderma niveum_ (rost.) macbr., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. spore and capillitium, × . _prototrichia metallica_ (berk.) mass., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. same; capillitium and spores, × . fig. _b_. tip of a capillitium thread to show spiral markings and end-fraying, × . _comatricha aequalis_ peck, p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. sporangium tip, capillitium, × . fig. _b_. spore, × . _physarum compressum_ alb. & schw., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia to show compressed form, × . see also plate xix., fig. . [illustration: plate xviii] explanation of plate xix _dictydium cancellatum_ batsch, p. . fig. . the finest phase, as the form appears in the mississippi valley, × . fig. _a_. sporangium of the same seen from below, × . fig. _b_. sporangium--same--seen from above, × . fig. _c_. cribraria-like net from the top, × . fig. . vertical section of what is believed the typical european form, × . fig. . an ellipsoidal piriform phase--var. _prolatum_, × . _physarum compressum_ alb. & schw. form _p. affine_ rost., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. a single spore, × . fig. _b_. capillitium, same species, × . _alwisia bombarda_ berk. & br., p. . fig. . open sporangia, × . fig. _a_. sporangium of same enlarged to show capillitium, × . _cribraria dictydiodes_ cke. & balf., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. single sporangium of same--lateral view, × . fig. _b_. same; base view, × . _cribraria aurantiaca_ schrad., p. . fig. . single sporangium, × . _cribraria rufa_ (roth) rost., p. . fig. . sporangium, × . _cribraria piriformis_ schrad., p. . fig. . sporangium, × . _cribraria splendens_ (schrad.) pers., p. . fig. . sporangium, × . _echinostelium minutum_ deby., p. . fig. . several sporangia, × . fig. _a_. vertical section, after rost., × . _physarum compressum_ schw., p. . fig. . sporangium, × , to show dehiscence. _didymium anomalum_ sturg., p. . fig. . plasmodiocarps, about natural size. fig. _a_. diagrammatic vertical section, etc., to show the calciferous pillars distinguishing the species, × . fig. . calcic crystal--enlarged. _physarum sinuosum_ (bull.) weinm., p. . fig. . plasmodiocarps passing to sporangia, × . cf. plate viii., and _a_. _physarum bitectum_ list., p. . fig. . plasmodiocarps as in , showing transitional phases, × . [illustration: plate xix] explanation of plate xx _badhamia iowensis_ n. s., p. . fig. . sporangia several presentations, × . fig. _a_. capillitium, × . fig. _b_. single spore, × . _physarum mortoni_ n. s., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. capillitium, × . _physarum discoidale_ n. s., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. a single spore, × . _didymium annulatum_ n. s., p. . fig. . group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. capillitium and spores, × . _oligonema brevifilum_ peck, p. . fig. . capillitium, × . fig. _a_. the same. fig. _b_. a single spore, × . _amaurochaete tubulina_ (alb. & schw.) macbr., p. . fig. . capillitium and spores, × . fig. _a_. spore, × . _physarum brunneolum_ (phill.) mass., p. . fig. . group of sporangia. fig. _a_. the same, mature, dehiscence beginning, × . fig. _b_. a single spore, × . _stemonitis uvifera_ n. s., p. . fig. . colony, natural size. fig. _a_. capillitium and spore-clusters, × . fig. _b_. single spore-cluster, × . fig. _c_. spore, × . _stemonitis trechispora_ berk., p. . fig. . fructification--natural size. fig. _a_. capillitium, branch and threads, × --the spores enlarged. fig. _b_. netted spore, × . masking as an amaurochete; _a. trechispora_ perhaps; compare , etc., below. _stemonitis flavogenita_ jahn, p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. capillitium showing columella-tip, × . fig. _b_. spore, × . _stemonitis trechispora_ (berk.) torr., p. . fig. . a group of sporangia, × . fig. _a_. diagram of a single sporangium, a less rudimentary specimen, × . fig. _b_. capillitium enlarged to show branching columella, × . fig. _c_. a single spore, × . _arcyria pomiformis_ (leers) rost., p. . fig. . a globose colony of sporangia, × ; var. _conglobosa_. fig. _b_. see under , above. [illustration: plate xx] explanation of plate xxi brefeldia maxima (fr.) rost., p. . a typical, beautiful æthalium, about natural size. [illustration: plate xxi] explanation of plate xxii _brefeldia maxima_ rost., p. . fig. . plasmodium active; climbing the stump. fig. . same plasmodium urgent; moving at the rate of cm. per hour. from photo-prints by mr. w. a. seaman and mr. john t. reeder, mich. the figures are about one-sixth the natural size of the object. see plate preceding for the mature phase of this species, natural size. [illustration: plate xxii] explanation of plate xxiii _fuligo rufa_ (schw.) pers., p. . . the plasmodium; urgent! . the perfected fruit; quiescent. the figures present their objects about natural size. see also plate x., figs. , _a_, _b_, for further illustration. from photo-prints by john t. reeder, mich. [illustration: plate xxiii] * * * * * * transcriber's note: many apparent spelling errors are in fact published synonyms and remain as printed. the 'corrigenda' or errata changes are entered. page . 'of enviroment.' changed 'enviroment' to 'environment.' page 'anon winding,' may be 'and winding,'; unchanged. page 'plate x, figs. , _a_, _b_.' added. page ' . _bahamia varia_' as in original; no change. page 'in some case' changed 'case' to 'cases'. page 'leaving his sucessors' as in original; unusual spelling; no change. page ' . _p. pulcherrinum_' changed 'pulcherrinum' to 'pulcherrimum', to match the referenced paragraph. page 'visible hyphothallus' changed 'hyphothallus' to 'hypothallus'. page ' . dydymium' as in original; no change. page 'sheet-like hyphothallus' changed 'hyphothallus' to 'hypothallus'. page . physarum leucopus _link_. ' .' missing in original; added. page 'p. affie rost., plate xix., fig. .' changed 'affie' to 'affine'. page 'which has spores - ' changed to 'which has spores - µ'. added 'µ'. page 'plate viii, figs. , _a_, _b_.' added. page 'pendunculatum trent.,' changed 'pendunculatum' to 'pedunculatum'. page '=cienkowskia= _rost._' changed to '= . cienkowskia= _rost._' ' .' added. page 'plate vii, figs. , _a_, _b_.' added. page _a._ sporangia discoid, spores reticulate . _d. intermedium_ _b._ stipe, columella, peridium, orange-brown . _d. leoninum_ changed to _a._ sporangia discoid, spores reticulate . _d. intermedium_ _b._ stipe, columella, peridium, orange-brown . _d. leoninum_ to match referenced text. page ' . _d. niveum_' changed ' .' to ' .' page 'cushion is interestingly aborescent' changed 'aborescent' to 'arborescent'. page amaurochÆte tubulina (_alb. & schw._) _macbr._ ' .' added. page ' . _l. biforis_. ' . _l. minima_'. ' . _l. pusilla_'. changed ' , , ' to ' , , ' respectively to match referenced text. page 'name to ertain english' changed 'ertain' to 'certain'. page 'granules on the calcyulus' changed 'calcyulus' to 'calyculus'. page '_prototrichia_ to the _trichiacae_.' changed 'trichiacae' to '_trichiaceae_'. page plate xvii., figs.---- changed 'figs.----' to 'figs. , _a_, _b_'. page 'adjoining the _perichaenacae_' as in original. this is probably 'perichaenaceae', as elsewhere in this book, however, it is in a quotation so is unchanged. page . 'ophiotheca chrysoperma _currey_.' changed 'chrysoperma' to 'chrysosperma'. page 'often, to circumscissle' changed 'circumscissle' to 'circumscissile'. page 'to be uniformily distinctly warted' changed 'uniformily' to 'uniformly'. page 'evanescent peridium suggests _arycria_' changed '_arycria_' to '_arcyria_'. page 'in typical spcimens' changed 'spcimens' to 'specimens'. page . trichia iowenis _macbr._ changed 'iowenis' to 'iowensis'. page '[greek: klaotos]' changed to '[greek: klastos]. page '[greek: echiuos]' changed to '[greek: echinos]'. page '[greek: lanchos]' changed to '[greek: lachnos]'. page lepidoderma, [greek: lepis], a scale, and [greek: 'depma'], a covering. gr. changed 'depma' to 'derma'. page '[greek: gala], a, milk. gr.' changed to '[greek: gala], milk. gr.'. removed 'a,'. page '[greek: ophix]' unchanged. maybe '[greek: tricha]' would be more appropriate. page 'diachafa ' changed to 'diachaea ' to match the referenced page. page 'pulchripes _peck_, .' changed to 'pulcherripes _peck_, .' to match the referenced page. page _badhamia macrocarpa_ rost., p. . 'changed p. .' to 'p. .' page _comatricha subcaespitosa_ peck, p. . changed 'p. ' to 'p. '. page _comatricha gracilis_ wingate, p. . changed 'p. .' to 'p. '. page _badhamia orbiculata_ rex., p. . changed 'p. .' to 'p. .' page 'showing transional phases' changed 'transional to 'transitional'. various pages inconsistent hyphenation: flavo-fusca flavofusca flavo-fuscum flavofuscum net-work network wide-spread widespread file made using scans of public domain works at the university of georgia.) the botanical magazine; or, flower-garden displayed: in which the most ornamental foreign plants, cultivated in the open ground, the green-house, and the stove, are accurately represented in their natural colours, to which are added, their names, class, order, generic and specific characters, according to the celebrated linnÆus; their places of growth, and times of flowering: together with the most approved methods of culture. a work intended for the use of such ladies, gentlemen, and gardeners, as with which to become scientifically acquainted with the plants they cultivate. by william curtis, author of the flora londinensis. vol. vi. * * * * * ----"nor thou disdain to check the lawless riot of the trees, to plant the grove, or turn the barren mould oh happy he, whom, when his years decline, (his fortune and his fame by worthy means attain'd, and equal to his mod'rate mind; his life approv'd by all the wise and good, even envy'd by the vain) the peaceful groves of epicurus, from this stormy world hereine in rest; of all ungrateful cares absolv'd, and sacred from the selfish crowd. happiest of men i if the same soil invites a chosen few, companions of his youth, once fellow-rakes perhaps now rural friends; with whom in easy commerce to pursue nature's free charms, and vie for sylvan fame a fair ambition; void of strife, or guile, or jealousy, or pain to be outdone. who plans th'enchanted garden, who directs the visto best, and best conducts the stream; whose groves the fastest thicken, and ascend; whom first the welcome spring salutes; who shews the earliest bloom, the sweetest proudest charms of flora; who best gives pomona's juice to match the sprightly genius of champain." armstrong. * * * * * london: printed by stephen couchman, for w. curtis, n^o , _st. george's-crescent_, black-friars-road; and sold by the principal booksellers in great-britain and ireland. m dcc xciii. * * * * * [ ] colutea frutescens. scarlet bladder senna. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus. _legumen_ inflatum, basi superiore dehiscens. _specific character and synonyms._ colutea _frutescens_ fruticosa, foliolis ovato-oblongis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr, p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ _mill. icon. ._ colutea æthiopica, flore purpureo. _breyn. cent. . t. ._ of the several species of colutea cultivated in our garden the one here figured, is distinguished by the brilliancy of its' flowers, the largeness of its pods, and the downy appearance of the under side of its leaves. it appears from the _hortus kewensis_ to have been cultivated by mr. james sutherland as long since as the year it was not however generally introduced to our gardens till the time of miller, who figured it in his _icones_, it was then understood to be an Æthiopian plant; mr. aiton since describes it as a native of the cape also; of course, we find it more tender than most of its kindred, and hence it is usually regarded as a greenhouse plant; yet, as it is not destroyed by a small degree of frost, it will frequently, like the myrtle survive a mild winter in the open border, especially if trained to a wall: it is rarely of more than two or three years duration. it is readily raised from seeds sown in the open ground, plants from which flower the august following, and, in favourable seasons, ripen their seeds; in order, however, that they may ripen them with more certainty, miller, recommends the sowing them early on a gentle hot-bed. a dry soil suits this species best. [illustration] [illustration] [ ] salvia aurea. golden sage. _class and order._ decandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ inæqualis. _filamenta_ transverse pedicello affixa. _specific character and synonyms._ salvia _aurea_ foliis subrotundis integerrimis, basi truncatis dentatis. _linn. syst. veget. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ salvia _africana_ frutescens folio subrotundo glauco, flore magno aureo. _comm. hort. . . t. ._ such as are delighted with the singular rather than the beautiful appearances of plants, cannot fail of ranking the present species of sage among their favourites. it been called _aurea_, from the colour of its flowers, _ferruginea_ would perhaps have been more expressive of them; when they first open indeed they are of a yellow colour, but they quickly and constantly become of the colour of rusty iron. the leaves are nearly round, and have a pleasing silvery hue: a few of them only, and those chiefly at the extremities of the young shoots, are of the form described by linnÆus in his specific character of the plant, and hence commelin's description (_vid. syn._) is to be preferred, as leading us with more certainty to a knowledge of the plant; the colour of the leaves, the colour and unusual magnitude of the blossoms, are indisputably the most striking features of the species, and therefore to be resorted to: for my own part, as a friend to the advancement of the science, rather than as the follower of that great man, i see no good reason why colour should not in many instances, especially where expressive characters are wanting, form a part of the specific character in plants, as well as in animals: we are told indeed of its inconstancy. i would ask--who ever saw the colour of the leaves or blossoms of the present plant to vary? and, on the contrary, who ever saw its leaves constant in their form? the _salvia aurea_ is a native of the cape, and was cultivated by mr. miller in , it is a hardy greenhouse plant, is readily propagated by cuttings, and flowers from may to november. if suffered to grow, it will become a shrub of the height of six or seven feet. [illustration] [ ] syringa vulgaris. common lilac. _class and order._ diandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ -fida. _capsula_ bilocularis. _specific character and synonyms._ syringa _vulgaris_ foliis ovato-cordatis integris. _linn. syst. veget. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ syringa cærulea, _bauh. pin. ._ lilac sive syringa cærulea. the blew pipe tree. _park. parad. p. ._ few shrubs are better known in this country than the lilac few more universally cultivated; there is scarcely a cottage it does not enliven, or a shrubbery it does not beautify. it has long had a place in our gardens; both gerard and parkinson describe two sorts, the blue and the white; to these another sort is added by more modern writers, superior in beauty to the original, as producing larger bunches of flowers, of a brighter hue, having more of the purple tint and hence called by some the purple lilac, miller considers the three as different species. the flowers of the lilac possess a considerable degree of fragrance, but not of the most agreeable kind; our readers perhaps, will not be displeased to hear the opinion of old gerard on this point, delivered in his own words:--"they have a pleasant sweete smell, but in my judgement they are too sweete, troubling and molesting the head in very strange manner: i once gathered the flowers, and laid them in my chamber window, which smelled more strongly after they had lien together a few howers, with such a ponticke and unacquainted savor, that they awaked me from sleepe, so that i could not take any rest until i had cast them out of my chamber."[ ] though a native of persia, it bears our severest winters without injury, has a pleasing appearance when in bud, flowers in may, and is readily propagated by suckers; but finer plants, in the opinion of miller, are raised from seeds. it will grow in almost any soil or situation, even in london, but, to flower well, it must have a pure air. [footnote : the name, indeed, of one of our colours is taken from its blossoms. this quotation from gerard referring to its smell belongs to the philadelphus coronarius or mock-orange which both by him and parkinson is called syringa, & which led to the mistake.] [ ] ixia crocata. saffron-colour'd ixia. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ -partita, campanulata, regularis. _stigmata_ . _specific character and synonyms._ ixia _crocata_ foliis ensiformibus, floribus secundis corolia basi hyalino-fenestratis. _thunb. diss. de ixia._ _linn. syst. veg. ed. . murr. p. ._ ixia _crocata_ foliis ensiformibus, floribus alternis, tubo longitudine bractearum, corollæ laminis ovatis integerrimis basi hyalinis. _ait. hort. kew. p. . v. ._ ixia planifolia, caule multifloro spatha brevissima. _mill. ic. . t. . f. ._ to the cape of good hope, that never-failing source of rare and beautiful plants, we are indebted for most of our ixias, and among others for the present species, which though not of that value, nor possessing the delicacy or fragrance of the blossoms of some others, is a very desirable plant, not only as an object of curiosity, from the transparency of the base of the corolla, but as it adds much to the brilliancy of a collection, is easily obtained, and as easily propagated. it flowers in may and june, but its flowering may be prolonged by putting its bulbs into pots at different periods, or accelerated by artificial heat. it produces offsets more plentifully than many of the genus. mr. aiton informs us that it was cultivated by mr. miller in , who figures it in his _icones_. [illustration] [ ] coronilla valentina. rue-leaved coronilla. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ -labiatus: / : dentibus superioribus connatis. _vexillum_ vix alis longius. _legumen_ isthmis interceptum. _specific character and synonyms._ coronilla _valentina_ fruticosa, foliolis subnovenis, stipulis suborbiculatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ polygala valentina. _clus. hist. pl. rar. p. . fig. inf._ the _coronilla valentina_ comes very near to the _glauca_ already figured in this work, but may be distinguished by a little attention; the _valentina_ has smaller leaves, which are more numerous, and more truly glaucous; the stipulæ, which in the _glauca_ are small, narrow, and pointed, in the _valentina_ are large, and almost round, and in the young plant are strikingly conspicuous; as the plant comes into flower, they drop off; the _valentina_ is not so much disposed to flower the year through as the _glauca_, but produces its blossoms chiefly in may, june, and july; the flowers of the _glauca_ are observed to smell more strongly in the day-time, those of the _valentina_ at all times diffuse a very powerful odour, so as even to scent a small greenhouse; we have often been amused with hearing the different opinions entertained of this smell, some speaking of it in terms of rapture, others ready to faint when they approach it: the flowers of the _valentina_ are more disposed to produce seed-vessels than those of the _glauca_, the seeds of which usually ripen well, and afford the means of increasing the plant most readily. to have a succession of small handsome bushy plants for the greenhouse, the old ones must either be frequently cut down, or young ones raised from seed, or cuttings, the stems as they grow up becoming naked at bottom. it is a hardy greenhouse plant, and may be kept well enough through the winter in a common hot-bed frame, or planted against a south wall, and matted as myrtles usually are in such situations; we have known the _glauca_, treated in prove a charming ornament. it is a native of spain, growing, as clusius informs us, by road-sides, in sandy places, and on the declivities of hills. cultivated here in , by j. tradescant, jun. h. k. [illustration] [illustration] [ ] selago ovata. oval-headed selago. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus. _cor._ tubus capillaris; limbus subæqualis, _sem._ . _specific character and synonyms._ selago _ovata_ spicis strobilinis ovatis terminalibus, foliis sparsis linearibus, caule fruticoso. _l'herit. stirp. nov. tom. . t. ._ _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ lippia _ovata_ capitulis ovatis, foliis linearibus integerrimis. _linn. mant. p. ._ linnÆus in his _mantissa_ has somewhat largely described this plant under the name of _lippia ovata_, evidently from a dried specimen, which may account for the flowers being described of a dark violet colour; he recommends it to such as might have an opportunity of seeing the living plant, to observe if it was not referable to some other genus; accordingly mons. l'heritier, who, when lately in england, saw it in the royal garden at kew, joined it to the genus _selago_, retaining the trivial name of _ovata, bractæata_ would perhaps have been a better name; for though its ovate inflorescence may be peculiar to the species, its bracteæ or floral leaves are so very singular that they constitute the most prominent feature of the plant. mr. aiton informs us, that it was introduced to the royal garden at kew, from the cape, by mr. masson, in . it recommends itself not so much on account of its beauty, curious structure of its flowering spikes, and the fragrance of its blossoms. it is a greenhouse plant, and flowers during most of the summer; its blossoms are white with a yellow spot on the two uppermost, and sometimes on all the segments of the corolla, and an orange spot at the mouth of the tube. is propagated by cuttings. [ ] iris sambucina. elder-scented iris. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ -petala, inæqualis, petalis alternis geniculato-patentibus. _stigmata_ petaliformia cucullato-bilabiata. _thunb. diss. de iride._ _specific character and synonyms._ iris _sambucina_ barbata, foliis ensiformibus glabris erectis brevioribus scapo multifloro, petalis deflexis planis. _linn. syst. vegetab, ed. . murr._ _thunb. loc. cit. n. ._ _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ iris latifolia germanica, sambuci odore. _bauh. pin. ._ iris camerarii sive purpurea versicolor major. the greater variable coloured purple flower-de-luce. _park. par. p. ._ this species of iris, said to be a native of the south of europe, derives its name from the smell of its flowers, which very much resembles that of elder in bloom. it is one of the tallest and handsomest of the genus, in a rich moist soil acquiring the height of three feet or more; it is therefore more proper for the shrubbery than the flower-garden. it flowers about the latter end of may, and is readily increased by parting its roots in autumn. the iris of parkinson, referred to in the synonyms, accords so exactly with our plant, in every circumstance but smell, which is not mentioned, that we have no doubt but it was cultivated in our gardens in his time. [illustration] [illustration] [ ] convolvulus nil. azure convolvulus. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ campanulata, plicata. _stigmata_ . _caps._ -locularis: loculis dispermis. _specific character and synonyms._ convolvulus _nil_ foliis cordatis trilobis, corollis semiquinquefidis, pedunculis petiolo brevioribus. _linn. syst. veg. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ convolvulus cæruleus hederaceo anguloso folio. _bauh. pin. p. ._ nil arab. _gef. hor. eyst._ convolvulus cæruleus. blew bindweed. _ger. herb. p. . cum ic._ convolvulus trifolius five hederaceus purpureus. the greater purple bindeweede or bell-flower with cornered leaves. _park. parad. pl. . fig. ._ all our writers on exotic botany treat of this plant, gerard, one of the first, gives us the following account: "this beautiful bindweed, which we call _convolvulus cæruleus_, is called of the arabians _nil_: of _serapio_, _hab al nil_, about alepo and tripolis in syria, the inhabitants call it hasmisen, the italians _campana azurea_, of the beautifull azured flowers and also _fior de notte_, bicause his beautie appeereth most in the night:" he informs us, that it grew in his garden, but perished before it ripened its seeds. parkinson says, it thrives remarkably well in our country, if the year be any thing kindly: miller informs us, that it is a native of africa and america, extols it as one of the most beautiful of the genus, observes, that it is a very distinct species from the purpurea, of which it has been considered by some as a variety; that it will grow to the height of eight or ten feet, that in favourable seasons the seeds will ripen in the open air, and that it requires the same treatment as other annuals usually raised on a hot-bed. mr. aiton considers it as a stove plant, as indeed most of our tender annuals properly are. it flowers from july to september. though apparently common in our gardens formerly, it is now very rarely met with. [illustration] [ ] erica grandiflora. great-flowered heath. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _cor._ -fida. _filamenta_ receptaculo inferta. _antheræ_ bifidæ. _caps._ -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ erica _grandiflora_ antheris muticis exfertis, corollis cylindraceis subincurvis glabris, stylo elongato, floribus axillaribus pedunculatis, foliis subsenis acerosis glabris. _ait. hort. kew. vol. . p. ._ erica _grandiflora_ foliis quaternis, stylo exserto, corolla cylindrica, calyce simplici, floribus lateralibus subcurvatis. _linn. suppl. pl. p. ._ the erica here figured, is one of the many new and beautiful species, which within these few years have been sent from the cape by mr. masson, and which have contributed so greatly to enrich the royal garden at kew. the description given of the _grandiflora_ in the _suppl. plant_. accords so ill with our plant, that we should be led to consider it as another species, did not the respectable authority of the _hortus kewensis_ silence all doubts on that head. the blossoms of this species, whether we regard their magnitude, their colour, their smooth and glossy surface, or the regular position of the filaments, projecting beyond the corolla, and closing together by the antheræ, excite our notice, and claim our admiration. like every other heath, the hardy ones excepted, it is a greenhouse plant, and flowers from may to july. our drawing was made from a plant finely blown, in the collection of james vere, esq. kensington-gore. [ ] ornithogalum aureum. golden ornithogalum. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ -petala, erecta, persistens, supra medium patens, _filamenta_ alterna basi dilatata. _specific character and synonyms._ ornithogalum _aureum_ foliis ovato-lanceolatis, albomargmatis, floribus racemosis confertis, filamentis nectario emarginato infidentibus. we have bestowed on this plant the name of _aureum_, from the colour of its blossoms, which are usually of a bright orange or gold colour; in some specimens we have observed them of a paler hue, and consequently less beautiful. this highly ornamental species is of modern introduction, having been received by mess. lee and kennedy, a few years since from the cape, of which it is a native. the root is a whitish bulb, resembling in size and shape that of the _lachenalia tricolor_, figured on plate of this work, from whence spring three or four smooth, somewhat fleshy, upright, dark-green leaves, about half an inch wide, and three or four inches long, edged with white, and, if magnified, appearing fringed with very fine hairs or villi; the stalk is naked, from eight to twelve inches high, supporting many flowers, which spring from the alæ of large, hollow, pointed bracteæ, and which opening one after another, keep the plant a considerable time in flower; according to linnÆus's generic character, every other filament should be dilated at the base, in the present species each filament is so, or rather sits as it were on a white glandular nectary, emarginated on the inside, and highly deserving of notice. in the greenhouse, where this plant has hitherto been kept, its blossoms come forth as early as january and february, and continue for several months; they will long display their beauty, if the stem be cut off and put in a phial of water. it is propagated by offsets from its bulbs, and has the appearance of being a plant of kindly growth and easy management. [illustration] [ ] primula marginata. silver-edged primula. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _specific character and synonyms._ primula _marginata_ foliis obovatis serrato-dentatis albo marginatis, scapo multifloro, involucri foliolis pedunculis brevioribus. there is no difficulty in determining the british plants of this genus, but much in ascertaining many of the foreign ones: professor jacquin has taken great pains to elucidate them in his _miscel. austr._ where fifteen are specifically described, none of which accord exactly with the plant here figured, which has every appearance of being a distinct species: in the _hortus kewensis_ it is described as the _glutinosa_ of the _flora austriaca_, with which it agrees in many respects, but specimens sent from vienna shew it to be a different plant; in its farinaceous tendency it accords with the _primula auricula_, but is very unlike that plant as it is figured in its wild state by prof. _jacquin_, in the _fl. austr._ the leaves being much narrower, the flowers larger, and of a different colour; it differs from _glutinosa_ in the shortness of its involucrum, from _villosa_ (already figured) in having leaves much narrower, perfectly smooth in respect to villi, and in the colour of its blossoms, which approach that of the lilac, but more especially in its disposition to become mealy, particularly on the edges of its leaves, between the serratures, where it is so strong as to make the leaf appear with a white or silvery edge; as this character is constant to it, and not to any other species of primula that we are acquainted with, we have given to it the name of _marginata_. mr. _lee_ received it from the alps in the year , and it has continued in our gardens ever since unaltered by culture.| it is a very delicate pretty plant, with a pleasing musky smell, and flowers in march and april. to succeed in its cultivation, it should be placed in a pot of stiffish loam, mixed with one-third rotten leaves, bog earth, or dung, and plunged in a north border, taking care that it does not suffer for want of water in dry seasons; thus treated, it increases by its roots nearly as readily as the auricula, and may be propagated by parting its' roots early in april or september. | [illustration] [illustration] [ ] cypripedium acaule. two-leaved lady's slipper. _class and order._ gynandria diandria. _generic character._ nectarium ventricosum, inflatum, cavum. _specific character and synonyms._ cypripedium _acaule_ radicibus fibrosis, foliis oblongis radicalibus. _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ helleborine _calceolus_ dicta, mariana, foliis binis e radice ex adverso prodeuntibus, flore purpureo _pluk. mant. ; t. . f. ._ cypripedium _humile_--corolla labio superiore rhomboideo acuminato lateribus deflexo subtus carina angustissima obtusa, inferiore petalis longiore antice fisso. _transact. linn. soc. v. . p. . t. . f. ._ we have not figured the present species of cypripedium so much on account of its beauty as of its rarity, for it is far less handsome than any of the other species that we are acquainted with. it is a native of different parts of north-america, and flowers with us in may. there is little difficulty in distinguishing it from the other foreign species, it has rarely more than two radical leaves, a very short flowering stem compared with the others, a large nectary in proportion to its size, which in the specimens we have seen has been divided on its upper part, through its whole length, so as in fact to destroy in a great degree that shoe or slipper-like form, from which this genus has taken its name. like the rest of the family, it requires a little extraordinary care in its culture; its roots should be placed in a pot filled with loam and bog-earth, or rotten leaves, well mixed, and plunged in a north border, where in severe seasons it will be proper to shelter it; if the whole border be formed of the same soil or compost the pot will be less necessary. our drawing was made from a plant growing with messrs. grimwood and co. kensington. [illustration] [ ] narcissus angustifolius. narrow-leaved narcissus. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _petala_ æqualia. _nectario_ infundibuliformi, -phyllo. _stamina_ intra nectarium. _specific character and synonyms._ narcissus _poeticus_ spatha uniflora, nectario rotato brevissimo scarioso crenulato. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _sp. pl. ed. . p. ._ narcissus uniflorus, foliis ensiformibus, scypho brevissimo. _hall. hist. n. ._ narcissus albus circulo purpureo. _bauh. pin. p. ._ _magnol. bot. monsp. p. ._ narcissus poeticus medio purpureus. _lob._ narcissus medio purpureus. _dod. pempt. p. . f. ._ narcissus medio purpureus præcox. timely purple ringed daffodil. _ger. herb. p. . f. ._ also _præcocior, fig. ._ and _præcocissimus, fig. ._ narcissus medio purpureus præcox. the early purple ringed daffodil. _park. parad. p. . t. . f. ._ narcissus latifol. classis altera, lin. . alterum vero, &c. _clus. hist. pl. rar. lib. . p. ._ under the name of _poeticus_ three different species of narcissus appearing perfectly distinct (though similar in many respects) and regarded as such by the old botanists, have been confounded by the moderns, viz. narcissus albus circulo purpureo, v et vi } narcissus albus magno odoro flore circulo pallido,} c. bauh. narcissus pallidus circulo luteo } narcissus medio purpureus præcox, } narcissus medio purpureus serotinus,} park parad. narcissus medio luteus vulgaris, } the first of these, the one here figured is evidently the _poeticus_ of _linnæus_, judging by the authors to whom he refers in the third edition of his _spec. pl._ which are indeed few in number, and confined chiefly to _bauh. pin._ _dodonæus_; of the second, and third, he takes no notice. the two former ones of these have the greatest affinity, inasmuch as they both produce for the most part only one flower, of a white colour, having a very short nectary, edged with orange; to both of these linnÆus's specific description is equally applicable, as well as the trivial name of _poeticus_, given them indiscriminately by several of the old botanists, some regarding the first, some the second as the plant mentioned by theocritus[ ], virgil[ ], and ovid[ ]; unfortunately both of them are found to grow in the same meadows, and have the same obvious appearances, it is therefore utterly impossible to say which of the two was the narcissus of the poets; if we have the greatest difficulty in ascertaining what the plants were of the _botanists_ of those times, how are we to discover what the _poets_ meant, who with very few exceptions have been unpardonably inattentive to the appearances of nature. since then the term _poeticus_ is equally suitable to both, and as there cannot be two with the same name, we have thought it best to get rid of it altogether, and substitute others which tend in a certain degree to discriminate the several species, denominating the st. _angustifolius._ d. _majalis._ d. _biflorus._ the _angustifolius_ here figured is a native of the south of europe, and said by magnol and clusius to grow spontaneously in the meadows about narbonne and montpelier. it flowers in our gardens early in april, about a month before the _biflorus_, and full six weeks sooner than the _majalis_, increases readily by offsets, and succeeds best in a soil that is moderately moist. in what respects it differs from the two others, will be mentioned when they come to be figured. [footnote : florida sed postquam venêre in prata puellæ, his illa, hæc aliis se floribus oblectabant; narcisso illa quidem bene olente, atq; illa hyacintho.] [footnote : pro molli viola, pro purpureo narcisso, carduus et spinis surgit paliurus acutis.] [footnote : nusquam corpus erat, croceum pro corpore florem inveniunt, foliis medium cingentibus albis.] [illustration] [ ] fritillaria imperialis. crown imperial. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ -petala, campanulata, supra ungues cavitate nectarifera. _stam._ longitudine corollæ. _specific character and synonyms._ fritillaria _imperialis_ racemo comoso inferne nudo, foliis integerrimis. _linn, syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ lilium sive corona imperialis. _bauh. pin. p. ._ tusai sive lilium persicum. _clust. hist. . p. ._ corona imperialis. the crowne imperiall. _park. par. p. . tab. . f. ._ the crown imperial, a native of the east, most probably of persia, was introduced according to dodonÆus, into the gardens of the emperor and some of the nobility at vienna in ; it appears to have been cultivated here as early as : both gerard and parkinson describe it minutely, the latter on account of its "stately beautifulness, gives it the first place in his garden of delight." it flowers usually in the beginning of april; the whole plant sends forth a strong unpleasant smell, compared by most writers to that of a fox, perceptible when you approach it; to this effluvia parkinson endeavours to reconcile us by saying that it is not unwholesome; it is so disagreeable however, that few choose to have many of these plants, or those in the most frequented parts of their gardens, yet it ought not to be proscribed, for independent of its beauty, there is much in it to admire, and especially its singular nectaria, which in the form of a white glandular excavation decorate the base of each petal; in these usually stands a drop of clear nectareous juice; the peduncle or flower-stalk which bends downwards when the plant is in flower, becomes upright as the seed ripens. of this plant, as of all others which have long been objects of culture, there are many varieties; those most generally cultivated in our gardens are the common orange-flowered single and double, yellow single and double, gold-striped leaved, and silver-striped leaved; the dutch in their catalogues enumerate thirteen varieties. luxuriant plants will sometimes produce a second and even a third whorl or crown of flowers, and the flat-stalked ones which are monsters, have been known to produce seventy-two blossoms, but none of these are found to be constant. the crown imperial, though a native of a much warmer climate than ours, is a hardy bulb, and not very nice in regard to soil, succeeds best in such as is stiffish, enriched with manure, and placed in a sheltered situation. is propagated by offsets, which are produced in tolerable abundance. [illustration] [ ] cheiranthus mutabilis. changeable wall-flower. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliquosa. _generic character._ _germen_ utrinque denticulo glandulato. _cal._ clausus foliolis duobus basi gibbis. _sem._ plana. _specific character._ cheiranthus _mutabilis_ foliis lanceolatis acuminatis argute serratis, caule frutescente, siliquis pedunculatis. _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ the present species of _cheiranthus_, unknown both to miller and linnÆus, was first described in the _hortus kewensis_ of mr. aiton, who informs us that it was introduced to the royal garden in , and found wild in the island of madeira by mr. masson. its chief merit as an ornamental plant consists in its early flowering; its blossoms which are shewy contribute to enliven the green-house in march and april; on their first expanding, they are white, in some plants (for they are subject to great variation) inclined to yellow, in a few days they become purple; to this change of colour observable also in the _cheiranthus maritimus_ already figured, it owes its name of _mutabilis_. in sheltered gardens at the foot of a wall, we have known this species survive a mild winter; it seems indeed to be almost as hardy as the common stock; it is most commonly however kept in the green-house. the usual way of propagating this species, which is of ready and quick growth, is by cuttings, which should be put into the ground as soon as the plant has done flowering; these if properly treated will become handsome plants to place in the green-house at the approach of winter, and to decorate it the ensuing spring; in like manner may the green-house be annually recruited with many similar plants to great advantage. [ ] saxifraga crassifolia. oval-leaved saxifrage. _class and order._ decandria digynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -partitus. _cor._ -petala. _caps._ -rostris, -locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ saxifraga _crassifolia_, foliis ovalibus retusis obsolete serratis petiolatis, caule nudo, panicula conglomerata. _linn. sp. pl ed. . p. ._ _syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ saxifraga foliis ovalibus crenulatis, caulibus nudis. _gmel. sib. . p. . t. ._ the term _grandifolia_ would have been more applicable to this species of saxifrage than _crassifolia_, for it is not so much distinguished for the thickness as the largeness of its leaves; these are almost equal in size to those of our broad-leaved dock, red on the under and of a fine shining green on their upper surface; they may be ranked indeed among the more handsome kinds of foliage; the flowering stems, according to the richness and moisture of the soil in which they are planted, rise from one to two or even three feet high; at top supporting a large bunch of purple pendulous flowers, which blossom in april and may, and, if the season prove favourable, make a fine appearance. should cold winds prevail at the time of their flowering, which they are very apt to do, the plants should be covered with a hand-glass; or, if in a pot, it may be removed into the green-house, which they will not disgrace. is found spontaneously on the alps of siberia, and, according to mr. aiton, was introduced in by dr. solander. no plant is more readily increased by parting its roots, which may be done either in spring or autumn. there is another saxifrage in our gardens exceedingly like this in appearance, but differing, in producing larger bunches of flowers, and in having larger, rounder, and more heart-shaped leaves; mr. aiton regards this as a variety of the _crassifolia_, we are inclined to consider it as a species under the name of _cordifolia_. the parts of fructification in the _crassifolia_ are apt to be preternaturally increased. [illustration] [illustration] [ ] narcissus biflorus. two-flower'd narcissus. narcissus _biflorus_ spatha biflor, nectario brevissimo scarioso. narcissus pallidus circulo luteo. _bauh. pin. p. ._ narcissus medio luteus. _dod. pempt. p. . f. ._ narcissus medio luteus. primrose peerles, or the common white daffodil. _ger. herb. p. . f. ._ narcissus medio luteus vulgaris. the common white daffodill, called _primrose peerlesse_. _park. par. p. . t. . f. ._ narcissus latifol classis altera, lin. . nascuntur, &c. ad intellexisse. _clus. hist. pl. rar. lib. . p. ._ both gerard and parkinson describe and figure this plant, informing us that it was very common in the gardens in their time; the former indeed mentions it as growing wild in fields and sides of woods in the west of england; the latter says he could never hear of its natural place of growth. clusius reports that he had been credibly informed of its growing wild in england; it probably may, but of this it remains for us to be more clearly ascertained; it undoubtedly is the plant mentioned by ray in his synopsis. as it grows readily, increases in a greater degree than most others and is both ornamental and odoriferous, it is no wonder that we meet with it in almost every garden, and that in abundance, flowering towards the end of april, about three weeks later than the angustifolia. it usually produces two flowers, hence we have called it biflorus; it frequently occurs with one, more rarely with three, in a high state of culture it probably may be found with more; when it has only one flower it may easily be mistaken for the _majalis_, but may be thus distinguished from it; its petals are of a more yellow hue, the nectary is wholly yellow, wanting the orange rim, it flowers at least three weeks earlier; but the character, which by observation we have found most to be depended on, exists in the flowering stem, the top of which in the biflorus, very soon after it emerges from the ground, bends down and becomes elbowed, as our figure represents; in the _majalis_, it continues upright till within a short time of the flowers expanding. [illustration] [ ] indigofera candicans. white-leaved indigo. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ patens. _cor._ carina utrinque calcari subulato patulo. _legumen_ lineare. _specific character and synonyms._ indigofera _candicans_ foliis ternatis lanceolato-linearibus subtus sericeis, spicis pedunculatis paucifloris, leguminibus cylindraceis rectis. _ait. hort. kew. v. , p. ._ of the genus _indigofera_, twenty-three species are enumerated in prof. murray's edition of the _syst. vegetab._ of linnÆus; ten in the _hortus kewensis_ of mr. aiton; in which last work only, the present plant, distinguished by the whiteness of its stalks and of the underside of its leaves, is described, and in which we are informed, that it is a native of the cape, from whence it was introduced by mr. masson in . its principal period of flowering is from about the beginning of may to the middle of june, at which time it is highly ornamental in the green-house: strong healthy plants produce from five to eight blossoms in a spike: on a plant growing with mr. colvill, nurseryman, king's-road, chelsea, we once counted nine: a few of these usually produce seed-vessels containing perfect seeds, by which the plant is mostly propagated; it may also be raised by cuttings, but not very readily. [ ] aster alpinus. alpine aster. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia superflua. _generic character._ _recept._ nudum. _pappus_ simplex. _cor._ radii plures . _cal._ imbricati squamæ inferiores patulæ. _specific character and synonyms._ aster _alpinus_ foliis subspathulatis hirtis integerrimis, caulibus simplicibus unifloris. _ait. hort. kew. p. ._ aster _alpinus_ foliis spatulatis hirtis: radicalibus obtusis, caule simplicissimo unifloro. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. ._ _jacq. fl. austr. v. . t. ._ aster montanus cæruleus, magno flore, foliis oblongis. _bauh. pin. p. ._ clusius and jacquin, by both of whom this species of aster is figured and described, inform us, that it grows spontaneously on the austrian alps: of the many hardy herbaceous species cultivated in our garden, this is by far the most humble in is growth; in its wild state acquiring the height of about four inches, and when cultivated, rarely exceeding eight or nine: its blossoms for its size are large and shewy, making their appearance much earlier than any of the others, viz. about the end of may and beginning of june, and continuing in blossom three weeks or a month. it is readily propagated by parting its roots in the autumn, may be kept in pots, or planted in the open border, prefers a moist stiffish soil; if carefully watered in dry weather, will grow among rock-work, for which, from its size, it is well adapted. [illustration] [ ] antirrhinum sparteum. branching toad-flax. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _cor._ basis deorsum prominens nectarifera. _caps._ -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ antirrhinum _sparteum_ foliis subulatis canaliculatis carnosis: inferioribus ternis, caule paniculato corollisque glaberrimis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. . p. ._ the drawing here exhibited gives but a faint idea of the elegant and lively appearance which this plant assumes when it grows in a tuft, and a number of its branches are in blossom at the same time. it is a hardy annual, of small stature, a native of spain, and flowers during most of the summer. was introduced into this country, according to mr. aiton, in , by mons. richard, and deserves to be much more generally cultivated. some regard it as a biennial, but as seeds of it sown in the spring flower the ensuing summer, and as the plant dies when it has ripened its seeds, there appears more propriety in considering it as an annual. it is to be sown in the same manner as other hardy annuals; will flower earlier if the seeds have been raised in autumn. the upper part of the stalk, as well as the leaves of the calyx, are beset with viscous hairs, in which respect it does not perfectly accord with linnÆus's description. _vid. sp. pl. ed. . p. ._ [illustration] [illustration] [ ] pelargonium bicolor. two-coloured crane's-bill. _class and order._ monadelphia heptandria. _generic character._ _cal._ -partitus: lacinia suprema desinente in tubulum capillarem, nectariferum, secus pedunculum decurrentem. _cor._ -petala, irregularis. _filam._ , inæqualia: quorum (raro ) castrata. _fructus_ -coccus, rostratus: _rostra_ spiralia, introrsum barbata. _specific character and synonyms._ pelargonium _bicolor_ umbellis multifloris, foliis ternatifidis lobatis dentatis undulatis villosis. _l'herit. n. ._ _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ geranium bicolor. _jacq. hort. . p. . t. ._ _cavan. diss. . p. . t. . f. ._ in every numerous tribe of plants, many of the species approach so near to each other, that there is much difficulty in distinguishing them; this objection cannot be urged against the present plant, which obviously differs from all the others of the same genus in the particular shape of its leaves and the colour of its blossoms, the latter are usually of a rich and very dark purple edged with white, from whence we apprehend it takes its name of _bicolor_; the colours however are scarcely distinct enough to justify such a name. mr. aiton informs us in his _hort. kew._ that this very ornamental species was introduced in the year , by john, the late earl of bute, but of what country it is a native, does not appear to be ascertained. our drawing was made from a plant in the collection of messrs. grimwood and co. kensington, with whom it flowers from june to august. it is not disposed to ripen its seeds, nor is it very readily increased by cuttings. [ ] lupinus perennis. perennial lupine. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ -labiatus. _antheræ_ , oblongæ , subrotundæ. _legumen_ coriaceum. _specific character and synonyms._ lupinus _perennis_ calycibus alternis inappendiculatis: labio superiore emarginato; inferiore integro. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ lupinus calycibus alternis, radice perenni repente. _fl. virg. ._ lupinus cæruleus minor perennis virginianus repens. _moris. hist. . p. . s. . t. . f. ._ lupinus floribus cæruleis inodoris, in spicas longas digestis, radice reptatrice. _clayt. n. ._ every species of lupine described in the _species plantarum_ of linnÆus, and in the _hortus kewensis_ of mr. aiton, except the one here figured, are annuals; till another perennial one therefore shall be discovered, the term _perennis_ will be strictly applicable to the present plant. its root is not only of the kind just mentioned, but creeping also; mr. _miller_ informs us, that he traced some of them belonging to plants of a year old, to the depth of three feet, they also spread out far and wide; hence the roots even of young plants are with difficulty taken up entire, and as they do not succeed well by transplanting, if the root be cut or broken, our excellent author prefers raising this elegant plant from seed, which, though not very plentifully produced, ripen in july and august; care must be taken to gather them as soon as ripe. it is a native of virginia, and appears to have been cultivated in the botanic garden at oxford, as long since as . flowers from may to july. is a hardy perennial, succeeding best in a dry situation, with a loam moderately stiff. [illustration] [illustration] [ ] geranium angulatum. angular-stalked crane's-bill. _class and order._ monadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _cor._ -petala, regularis. _nect._ glandulæ , melliferæ, basi longiorum filamentorum adnatæ. _fructus_ -coccus, rostratus: _rostra_ simplicia, nuda, (nec spiralia nec barbata). _specific character and synonyms._ geranium _angulatum_ foliis radicalibus subpartitis incisis hirsutis, caule erecto subangulato, petalis venosis. having cultivated the geranium here figured for a series of years, we are perfectly satisfied of its being a species altogether distinct from any of the hardy and more ornamental plants of that genus usually cultivated in our gardens. it is obviously distinguished by two characters, the angular appearance of its stalk (whence our name of _angulatum_) and its flesh-coloured blossoms, marked with veins of a deeper red. in size it stands between _pratense_ and _aconitifolium_, in its blossoms it has some affinity to _striatum_ and _lancastriense_, but veins are not so strongly marked as in the former, and it differs from the latter in having an upright stalk. it usually flowers in may, and frequently again in autumn; is a hardy perennial, and easily increased either by seeds or parting its roots. of what country it is a native, or when it was first introduced, we have yet to learn; we first observed it in a nursery near town, where it is regarded as a very different species. [illustration] [ ] ranunculus aconitifolius. mountain crowfoot, or fair maids of france. _class and order._ polyandria polygynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _petala_ -intra ungues poro mellifero. _sem._ nuda. _specific character and synonyms._ ranunculus _aconitifolius_ foliis omnibus quinatis lanceolatis inciso-serratis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ ranunculus folio aconiti, flore albo multiplici. _bauh. pin. ._ ranunculus montanus albus flore pleno. the double white mountain crowfoot. _park. parad. p. . f. ._ double white bachelors buttons. _ger. herb. p. . f. ._ this is one of those plants which derives its beauty from the multiplication of its petals; in its single state no one would think it deserving of culture as an ornamental plant: when double, few plants come in for a greater share of admiration. it is a native of the alps of europe, and flowers in may and june. was very generally cultivated in our gardens in the times of gerard and parkinson. like most alpine plants, it requires a pure air, and succeeds best in a situation moderately moist and shady; is a hardy perennial, and may be increased by parting its roots in autumn. in all seasons, with us, its foliage, as well as that of most other crowfoots, is liable to be disfigured, and sometimes nearly destroyed, by a very small maggot which feeds betwixt, the coats of the leaf, and which ultimately produces a small fly, called by us _musca ranunculi_. [ ] antirrhinum alpinum. alpine toad-flax. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _cor._ basis deorsum prominens, nectarifera. _caps._ -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ antirrhinum _alpinum_ foliis quaternis lineari-lanceolatis glaucis, caule diffuso, floribus racemosis, calcari recto. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. v. . p ._ _jacq. fl. austr. v. . t. ._ antirrhinum caule procumbente breviter spicato, foliis verticillatis. _hall. hist. p. ._ linaria quadrifolia supina. _bauh. pin. p. ._ linaria tertia styriaca. _clus. hist. . p. ._ professor jacquin, in describing the flowers of this plant, calls them _elegantissimi_; and to one of its varieties haller applies the epithet _pulcherrima_: such testimonies in its favour will, we presume, be sufficient to recommend it to our readers. it is a native of various mountainous parts of europe, affecting moist, stony situations,[ ] and flowers during most of the summer: is a hardy perennial[ ], according to the celebrated author of the _fl. austriaca_; mr. aiton, in his _hort. kew._ marks it as a biennial. it is nevertheless apt to be lost, like other small alpine plants, for want of proper treatment and care. mr. aiton informs us on the authority of lobel, that it was cultivated here by mr. hugh morgan, in . may be propagated by cuttings, as well as by seeds, which however are not very plentifully produced with us. succeeds best when kept in a pot, or on rock-work, which it is well suited to decorate. [footnote : in saxosis udis alpium. _jacq._] [footnote : radix perennis. _jacq._] [illustration] [illustration] [ ] geranium anemonefolium. anemone-leav'd geranium. _class and order._ monadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _cor._ -petala, regularis. _nect._ glandulæ melliferæ basi longiorum filamentorum adnatæ. _fructus_ -coccus, rostratus; _rostra_ simplicia nec spiralia nec barbata. _l. herit. geran._ _specific character and synonyms._ geranium _anemonefolium_ foliis palmatis; foliolis pinnatifidis, caule fruticoso. _l. herit. n. . t. ._ geranium palmatum. _cavan. diss. . p. . t. . f. ._ before the appearance of the _hortus kewensis_, _lævigatum_ was the term usually applied to this species of geranium, by botanists here, and that on account of the smooth and glossy appearance of its leaves; in that work mr. aiton adopts the word _anemonefolium_, by which mons. l. heritier had distinguished this species, from an idea that their shape afforded a more expressive character than their smoothness. we regret that the small size of our plate will not admit of our giving representation of those leaves, and of their mode of growth, which so strikingly characterizes the plant and adds so considerably to its beauty. mr. aiton informs us that this species is a native of madeira, from whence it was introduced here by mr. francis masson in . it flowers from may to september, is usually and readily raised from seeds, nor is it so tender as many other green-house plants. [illustration] [ ] dianthus barbatus. bearded pink or sweet william. _class and order._ decandria digynia. _generic character._ _cal._ cylindricus -phyllus: basi squamis . _petala_ unguiculata. _capsula_ cylindrica, -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ dianthus _barbatus_ floribus aggregatis fasciculatis: squamis calycinis ovato-subulatis tubum æquantibus, foliis lanceolatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ caryophyllus hortensis barbatus latifolius. _bauh. pin. ._ armerius latifolius simplex. single sweete williams. _park. parad. p. ._ linnÆus, in his _spec. pl._ appears not to have known of what country the sweet william was a native, and even in the _hortus kewensis_, this circumstance is left undecided; yet dodonÆus, in his _pemptades_[ ], mentions its being found wild in germany, and prof. hoffman confirms this in his _germanys flora_[ ]. at the time dodonÆus wrote ( ) this plant was cultivated in the netherlands, from whence it was probably introduced to this country, where it certainly is one of the oldest inhabitants of our gardens. beautiful as are the numerous varieties of this species of dianthus, florists have not deemed it worthy of that peculiar attention which they have bestowed on its more favoured relatives the pink and carnation, and hence it probably has not arrived at that degree of improvement of which it is capable; our figure is intended to represent one of the most esteemed of its kind, viz. the _painted lady_ variety, which has a deep rich purple eye, surrounded with a pure white, having the edge of the petals slightly indented; but our colours fall far short of the beauties of the original. besides single flowers producing an infinite variety of colours, there are several double varieties of the sweet william, some of which are observed to have more scent than others. to possess these plants in perfection, we must renew them yearly; for though the root be perennial, it is apt to decay, especially if the soil in which it grows be either very moist, or very dry; or if the air be not pure, the single sorts must be raised from seeds, which should be saved from the choicest flowers; the double sorts may be increased by cuttings, pipings, or layers, in the same manner, and at the same time as pinks and carnations; the seed should be sown early in april, the seedlings transplanted into a bed in june, taking advantage of a wet day and placed about six inches asunder each way; in september they will be fit to transplant into the flower border, where they will blossom the ensuing summer, during the months of june and july, and ripen their seed in august. [footnote : in petrosis collibus et asperis, fabulosis apricisque locis, apud germanos nascitur. _pempt. p. ._] [footnote : sponte in sylvaticis, montosis (carn. siles. tubing) germanys fl. . p. .] [ ] melissa grandiflora. great-flower'd balm. _class and order._ didynamia gymnospermia. _generic character._ _cal._ aridus, supra planiusculus; labio superiore subfastigiato. _corollæ_ lab. super. subfornicatum, -fidum; labium inf. lobo medio cordato. _specific character and synonyms._ melissa _grandiflora_ pedunculis axillaribus dichotomis longitudine florum. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ calamintha magno flore. _bauh. pin. ._ calamintha montana præstantior. the more excellent calamint. _ger. herb. p. ._ as to the name. _ger. emac. ._ as to the figure. the _melissa grandiflora_, a beautiful and hardy perennial, grows spontaneously on the hilly and mountainous parts of france, italy, and germany; gerard mentions it as found wild in this country, which stands in need of further confirmation; there is little doubt, however, but he had cultivated the plant; as he says, "brought into the garden, it prospereth marvellous well and very easily soweth itself." it is the more valuable, as it flowers during most of the summer. there is a variety of it with white, and another with red flowers, both much inferior in size to those of the plant here figured, and therefore not worth cultivating; we have a variety also with variegated leaves which we obtained from seeds. this plant is readily propagated by parting its roots in autumn, and may also be raised from seeds, which are plentifully produced: as it rarely exceeds a foot in height, it becomes a suitable plant for the small flower border, or for the decoration of rock-work. the leaves when bruised have the smell of garden balm. [illustration] [illustration] [ ] hibiscus trionum. bladder hibiscus. _class and order._ monadelphia polyandria. _generic character._ _cal._ duplex: exterior polyphyllus. _caps._ -locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ hibiscus _trionum_ foliis tripartitis incisis, calycibus inflatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ trionum _linn. hort. cliff. ._ alcea vesicaria. _bauh. pin. ._ alcea peregrina five vesicaria. venice mallow, or good night at noone. _park. parad. p. . . f. ._ seeds of the plant here figured are sold in the seed-shops under the name of venice mallow, a name by which it was known in the time of gerard and parkinson: mr. aiton has changed this for the more scientific one of bladder hibiscus. authors have also distinguished this plant by terms expressive of the short-lived expansion of its flowers, which gerard says open at eight o'clock in the morning and close about nine, from whence he observes, that it might with propriety be called malva horaria: miller lengthens the duration of its blowing to a few hours: we have frequently observed its blossoms continue sufficiently open to shew their beauty the greatest part of the day, more especially towards the close of summer. few annuals are more admired than this, the inside of the flower is of delicate cream colour, having the centre embellished with a rich purple velvet, on which its golden antheræ are proudly conspicuous. it is said to be a native of italy; a cape variety, differing in hairiness and a few other particulars is mentioned by miller, and considered by him as a species. the least possible trouble attends the raising of this beautiful annual, as it readily ripens its seeds, which falling on the ground produce plants in abundance the ensuing spring; to have it flower as long as may be, it will be proper to sow it at two or three different periods. [illustration] [ ] celsia linearis. linear-leav'd celsia. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _cal._ -partitus. _cor._ rotata. _filamenta_ barbata, _caps._ -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ celsia _linearis_. _jacq. collect. v. . n. ._ _icon. v. . t. ._ celsia _linearis_ foliis ternis linearibus denticulatis. we here present our readers with the figure of a plant newly introduced from france by mr. williams, nurseryman of paris, collected originally in peru by mr. dombey, whose flowers, if they do not equal those of the fuchsia already figured in elegance of form and growth, surpass them somewhat in brilliancy of colour, whence it becomes a most desirable plant for the purpose of ornament. professor jacquin, who first gave a figure and description of this plant, informs us in his collectanea, that he received seeds of it from professor ortega of madrid, under the name of _celsia linearis_, which name he has adopted; and we, from respect to such authority, have continued; at the same time we must observe, that it ill accords with that genus: the blossoms while in bud fold up somewhat in the same manner as those of the celsia, but on expansion they appear widely different; their shape indeed then becomes truly singular, resembling a half-formed imperfect corolla, its filaments are short and want the hairs which in part characterise the celsia; its seed-vessels also are far from being round: its antheræ are large and close together, somewhat like those of the solanum, and there is so little of inequality in them, that few students would be induced to refer its flowers to the class didynamia. being a native of a warm climate, it comes to the greatest perfection here when placed in a stove in which the heat is moderate; but it will succeed very well if treated as a tender green-house plant: it does not appear to be quite so hardy as the fuchsia, nor to flower like that plant at all seasons, but usually produces its blossoms in the latter summer months, those are succeeded by seed-vessels producing perfect seeds, by which, as well as by cuttings, the plant is propagated. its leaves, which are not deciduous, are linear, and more or less toothed, growing three together; this character however is somewhat obscured by others growing from their bosoms. [ ] sedum populifolium. poplar-leav'd stonecrop. _class and order._ decandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus. _cor._ -petala. _squamæ_ nectariferæ ad basin germinis. _caps._ . _specific character and synonyms._ sedum _populifolium_ foliis planis cordatis dentatis petiolatis, corymbis terminalibus. _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ sedum _populifolium_ foliis petiolatis cordatis dentatis, floribus paniculatis. _linn. fil. suppl. p. ._ sedum _populifolium_. _pallas, it. . p. . t. o. fig. ._ professor pallas, the celebrated russian naturalist, discovered this species of sedum in siberia, and in the year , introduced it to the royal garden at kew; the younger linnÆus describes it minutely in his _suppl. plantarum_, and observes, that in its general form it much resembles the _saxifraga rotundifolia_. its leaves are flat as in many of the other species, and when the plant grows in an open situation, exposed to the sun, they become as well as the stalks of a bright red colour, which adds much to its beauty. it is the only hardy sedum cultivated; in our gardens with a shrubby stalk, its leaves however are deciduous, so that in the winter it loses its verdure, it flowers in july and august, and is readily increased by cuttings. as most of this tribe grow readily, and many of them naturally on rocks and walls, they may be in general regarded as proper rock plants, some of them however are apt by the quickness of their growth to extend over and destroy plants of more value; this fault, if such it may be deemed, is not imputable to the _populifolius_. some not knowing its native place of growth, keep it in the green-house. [illustration] [ ] tanacetum flabelliforme. fan-leaved tansy. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia superflua. _generic character._ _recept._ nudum. _pappus_ submarginatus. _cal._ imbricatus, hemisphæricus. _cor._ radii obsoletæ, trifidæ. _linn. (interdum nullæ omnesque flosculi hermaphroditi.) murr._ _specific character and synonyms._ tanacetum _flabelliforme_ corymbis simplicibus, foliis deltoidibus apice serratis. _l'herit. sert. angl. t. ._ _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ there is a neatness in the appearance of this plant, which joined to the singular form of its foliage, varying also from the general hue, entitles it to a place in the green-house. mr. masson discovered it at the cape, and introduced it here in . _ait. kew._ it flowers from may to august, grows freely, and is usually propagated by cuttings. [illustration] [illustration] [ ] polygonum orientale. tall persicaria. _class and order._ octandria trigynia. _generic character._ _cal._ . _cor._ -partita, calycina. _sem._ . angulatum. _specific character and synonyms._ polygonum _orientale_ floribus heptandris digynis, foliis ovatis, caule erecto, stipulis hirtis hypocrateriformibus. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ persicaria _orientalis_ nicotianæ folio calyce florum purpureo. _tournef. cor. ._ schovanna-modelamuccu. _rheed. mal. . p. . t. ._ of the genus polygonum, the present well-known native of the east, as well as of india, is the principal one cultivated in our gardens for ornament, and is distinguished not less for its superior stature than the brilliancy of its flowers; it will frequently grow to the height of eight or ten feet, and become a formidable rival to the gigantic sun-flower. there is a dwarf variety of it, and another with white flowers; it has been observed to vary also in point of hairiness. it flowers from july to october, and produces abundance of seed, which, falling on the borders, generally comes up spontaneously in the spring; but it is most commonly sown in the spring with other annuals: when the seedlings appear, they should be thinned so as to stand a foot apart. this plant requires very little care, and will bear the smoke of london better than many others. was cultivated by the dutchess of beaufort, in . _ait. kew._ the stipulæ on the stalk are deserving of notice, being unusual in their form, and making it look as if beruffled. [ ] dracocephalum denticulatum. toothed dragon's-head. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _corollæ faux_ inflata: _labium_ superius concavum. _specific character and synonyms._ dracocephalum _denticulatum_ floribus spicatis remotis, foliis obovato-lanceolatis superne denticulatis. _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ about the year , we received from philadelphia, seeds of a plant collected at a considerable distance from that city, announced to us as new and rare, and which produced the present species of _dracocephalum_: mr. watson, nurseryman at islington, obtained the same plant from carolina, about the same period. it is a hardy perennial, multiplying considerably by its roots, which creep somewhat; it must be planted in a moist soil, and shady situation, for such it affects, and in such only will it thrive. it flowers in august and september. it bears a considerable affinity to the _dracocephalum virginianum_, to which, though a much rarer plant, it is inferior in point of beauty; it spreads more on the ground, its flowering stems are not altogether so upright, nor so tall, the leaves are broader, and the flowers in the spikes less numerous. [illustration] [illustration] [ ] ranunculus acris flore pleno. double upright crowfoot. _class and order._ polyandria polygynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _petala_ , intra ungues poro mellisero. _sem._ nuda. _specific character and synonyms._ ranunculus _acris_ calycibus patulis, pedunculis teretibus, foliis tripartito multifidis: summis linearibus. _linn. syst. veg. ed. . murr. p. ._ ranunculus hortensis erectus flore pleno. _bauh. pin. p. . ?._ ranunculus pratensis flore multiplici. _park. parad. p. ._ the double yellow field crowfoot. in giving a representation of this species of ranunculus, we have made a slight deviation from the strict letter of our plan, as expressed in the title page, which confines us to the figuring of foreign plants only; we have thought, however, that it would not be inconsistent with the spirit of the _flower-garden displayed_, were we occasionally to introduce such english plants as have double flowers, and which, on that account, are thought worthy of a place in every garden; they are but few in number, and we flatter ourselves that this trifling alteration will be approved by our numerous readers. the _ranunculus acris_ is the first that we offer of these; a plant, in its wild and single state, common in all our rich meadows, and in its improved, or to speak more botanically, in its monstrous state (all double flowers being monsters, for the most part formed from the preternatural multiplication of their petals) it has long been cultivated in gardens abroad, as well as here. there are certain ornamental plants of the perennial kind, which, if once introduced, will succeed with the least possible trouble, and therefore suit such as have little time to bestow on their flower-gardens; the present plant is one of those: if the soil in which we plant it be moist, it will grow most readily, and flower during the months of june and july; and it is easily increased, by parting its roots in autumn. [illustration] [ ] cypripedium album. white-petal'd ladies slipper. _class and order._ gynandria diandria. _generic character._ _nectarium_ ventricosum inflatum cavum. _specific character and synonyms._ cypripedium _album_ radicibus fibrosis foliis ovato-lanceolatis caulinis, petalis obtusis. _ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ helleborine calceolus dicta mariana flore gemello candido, venis purpureis, striato. _pluk. mant. . t. . f. ._ cypripedium _hirsutum_ foliis oblongo ovatis venosis hirsutis flore maximo. _mill. dict. ed. . to._ cypripedium _spectabile_. corolla labio superiore ovali basi retuso concavo subtus carina obtusa, inferiore petalis longiore grosso. _salisb. trans. linn. soc. v. . p. ._ of the genus _cypripedium_, great-britain produces only one, america several species; of these the _album_ here figured, (whose name is derived from the whiteness of its petals, and with which the nectary must not be confounded) is by far the most magnificent; indeed there are few flowers which to such singularity of structure add such elegance and beauty: it grows spontaneously in various parts of north-america, and chiefly in the woods; was introduced to the royal garden at kew, by mr. william young about the year , but was known to mr. miller, and cultivated by him at chelsea long before that period; this intelligent and truly practical author informs us, that all the sorts of cypripedium are with difficulty preserved and propagated in gardens; he recommends them to be planted in a loamy soil, and in a situation where they may have the morning sun only; they must, he observes, for the above reasons, be procured from the places where they naturally grow; the roots should be seldom removed, for transplanting them prevents their flowering, which usually takes place in june. a greater proof of the difficulty of increasing these plants need not be adduced than their present scarcity, though vast numbers have been imported, how few can boast of possessing them, or of preserving them for any length of time; careful management in their cultivation will doubtless go far, but peculiarity of soil and situation would appear to be of greater importance: it is well known that certain plants thrive in certain districts only, the double yellow rose, for instance, barely exists near london, yet this plant i have seen growing most luxuriantly, and producing a profusion of bloom, in the late mr. mason's garden, cheshunt, herts, and in which various orchis's also acquired nearly twice their usual size,--enviable spot! index. in which the latin names of the plants contained in the _sixth volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ antirrhinum sparteum. ---- alpinum. aster alpinus. celsia linearis. cheiranthus mutabilis. colutea frutescens. convolvulus nil. coronilla valentina. cypripedium acaule. ---- album. dianthus barbatus. dracocephalum denticulatum. erica grandiflora. fritillaria imperialis. geranium angulatum. ---- anemonefolium. hibiscus trionum. indigofera candicans. iris sambucina. ixia crocata. lupinus perennis. melissa grandiflora. narcissus angustifolius. ---- biflorus. ornithogalum aureum. pelargonium bicolor. polygonum orientale. primula marginata. ranunculus aconitifolius. ---- acris flore pleno. salvia aurea. saxifraga crassifolia. sedum populifolium. selago ovata. syringa vulgaris. tanacetum flabelliforme. index. in which the english names of the plants contained in the _sixth volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ aster alpine. balm great-flower'd. bladder-senna scarlet. celsia linear-leav'd. convolvulus azure. coronilla rue-leav'd. crane's-bill two-colour'd. ---- angular-stalk'd. crowfoot mountain. ---- upright-double. dragon's-head toothed. geranium anemone-leav'd. heath great-flower'd. hibiscus bladder. imperial crown. indigo white-leav'd. iris elder-scented. ixia saffron-colour'd. ladies-slipper two-leav'd. ---- white-petal'd. lilac common. lupine perennial. narcissus narrow-leav'd. ---- two-flower'd. ornithogalum golden. persicaria tall. primula silver-edg'd. sage golden. saxifrage oval-leav'd. selago oval-headed. stonecrop poplar-leav'd. tansey fan-leav'd. toad-flax branching. ---- alpine. wall-flower changeable. william sweet. file made using scans of public domain works at the university of georgia.) the botanical magazine; or, flower-garden displayed: in which the most ornamental foreign plants, cultivated in the open ground, the green-house, and the stove, are accurately represented in their natural colours. to which are added, their names, class, order, generic and specific characters, according to the celebrated linnÆus; their places of growth, and times of flowering: together with the most approved methods of culture. a work intended for the use of such ladies, gentlemen, and gardeners, as wish to become scientifically acquainted with the plants they cultivate. by _william curtis_, author of the flora londinensis. vol. vii. "now let us range both far, and wide, "thro' all the gardens boasted pride. "here jasmines spread the silver flow'r, "to deck the wall or weave the bow'r, "the woodbines mix in am'rous play, "and breathe their fragrant lives away. "there rising myrtles form a shade; "there roses blush, and scent the glade; "the orange, with a vernal face, "wears ev'ry rich autumnal grace; "while the young blossoms here unfold, "there shines the fruit like pendant gold; "citrons their balmy sweets exhale, "and triumph in the distant gale. cotton. _london:_ printed by stephen couchman, for w. curtis, no , _st. george's-crescent_, black-friars-road; and sold by the principal booksellers in great-britain and ireland. mdccxciv. [ ] buchnera viscosa. clammy buchnera. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _cal_. obsolete -dentatus. _corollæ_ limbus -fidus, æqualis: lobis cordatis. _caps_. -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ buchnera _viscosa_ foliis lineari-lanceolatis laxe dentatis subglutinosis, floribus pedunculatis, caule fruticoso. _l' herit. strip. nov. tom. . tab. . ait. kew. v. . p. ._ _buchnera_ is a genus of plants established by linnÆus in honour of a. e. buchner, a german naturalist. of this genus, nine species are enumerated in the th edition of the _systema vegetabilium_, by professor murray. we learn from mr. aiton, that the present species (a native of the cape) was introduced to the royal garden at kew in . it cannot boast much beauty, yet as it occupies but little room, grows readily from cuttings, and flowers during most of the summer: it obtains a place in most greenhouses. [illustration: _no _] [illustration: _no _] [ ] disandra prostrata. trailing disandra. _class and order._ heptandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ sub -partitus. _cor._ rotata, subseptem-partita. _caps._ -locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ disandra prostrata. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. suppl. pl. p. . ._ _ait. kew, v. . p. ._ sibthorpia peregrina. _linn. sp. pl. ed. . p. ._ the foliage of this plant greatly resembles that of ground ivy, and its branches trail on the ground somewhat in the same manner, extending to the length of several feet; but it is not on the ground that it is best seen, as its flowers are apt to be hid among the leaves: it appears most advantageously when growing in a pot, placed on a pedestal, or in some elevated situation, where its branches may hang carelessly down: thus treated, when fully blown, it becomes a most pleasing object. linnÆus, the son, in his _suppl. plant._ observes, that the _disandra_ varies extremely in the number of its stamina, as it does also in the divisions of its calyx, and corolla; in this respect;, indeed, we do not know its equal: fortunately for those systems of botany, which are formed from the number of certain parts of the fructification, few such inconstants exist. professor murray observes, that seven is the most prevalent number of its stamina, five the most natural. linnÆus describes it as a native of the east; mr. aiton informs us, that it was introduced here about the year , from madeira. it flowers during most of the summer months; in the winter it must be kept in the green-house; in the summer it will bear the open air, grows readily from cuttings, should be planted in rich earth, and plentifully watered in dry weather. [illustration: _no _] [ ] michauxia campanuloides. rough-leav'd michauxia. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -partitus. _cor._ rotata, -partita. _nectarium_ -valve, staminiferum. _caps._ -locularis, polysperma. _l' heritier monogr._ _specific character and synonyms._ michauxia campanuloides. _l' heritier monogr._ the celebrated author of the _hortus kewensis_ informs us, that the plant here figured is a native of the levant, and was introduced to this country in the year , by mons. l'heritier, who first gave it the name of _michauxia_, and wrote a monographia, or particular treatise on it. we have before observed, that when a plant has been named in honour of any particular person, that name must be retained in all countries, however uncouth its pronunciation may be, and there are few of our readers but what will think the present name sufficiently so. last summer , in the month of july, we had the pleasure to see a fine plant of this sort, fully blown, in the collection of messrs. grimwood and co. kensington; though in a small pot, it grew nearly to the height of six feet, was branched almost to the bottom, and loaded with a profusion of blossoms, such as are represented on the plate, and which bore some distant resemblance to those of a passion-flower. it is a biennial green-house plant, and, of course, only to be raised from seeds, which we are sorry to find have not ripened in this country, though they are said to do so in france. [ ] erica cerinthoides. honeywort-flower'd heath. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _cor._ -fida. _filamenta_ receptaculo inferta. _antheræ_ bifidæ. _caps._ -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ erica _cerinthoides_ antheris muticis inclusis, corollis clavatis grossis, stigmate incluso cruciato, foliis quaternis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ the _erica cerinthoides_ is one of the most magnificent and shewy of the genus, grows wild at the cape, from whence it was introduced to the royal garden at kew, by mr. masson, in ; it is the more valuable, as it flowers during most of the year: its blossoms are found to vary from a deep to a very pale red. it is a hardy green-house plant, and usually propagated by cuttings. to have this beautiful tribe of plants in perfection, they must be kept in pots proportioned to their size, filled with that kind of bog earth in which our british heaths grow spontaneously, finely sifted; to which it may be necessary sometimes to add a third part of the mould of rotten leaves, or choice loam, partaking more of a clayey than a sandy nature: we must be careful not to let them suffer for want of water in dry hot weather, as such an omission, even for one day, may be fatal; and to give them as much air as possible at all times when the weather is mild. [illustration: _no _] [ ] ipomoea coccinea. scarlet ipomoea. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ infundibuliformis, _stigma_ capitato-globosum, _caps._ -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ ipomoea _coccinea_ foliis cordatis acuminatis basi angulatis, pedunculis multifloris. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ convolvulus coccineus, folio anguloso, _plum. amer. . t. ._ quamolcit americana, folio hederæ, flore coccineo. _comm. rar. . t. ._ the _ipomoea_ is very nearly related to the _convolvulus_, one principal difference consists in the different form of its stigma, which is globular, like that of the primrose; whereas in the convolvulus it is divided into two substances, as is obviously shewn in the _convolvulus arvensis_ and _sepium_, but all the plants of these two genera have not this character marked with equal strength. the present species is a twining plant, will run up a stick to the height of six, eight, or ten feet, and produce an abundance of flowers, of a rich orange colour tending to scarlet, which renders it one of the most ornamental annuals cultivated in our gardens, into which it is not as yet generally introduced, though cultivated by mr. miller, in . mr. miller describes it as a native of carolina, and the bahama islands, mr. aiton of the west-indies; it flowers from june to september. it is cultivated in the same manner, and with the same ease as other annuals; three seeds may be set in the ground, about four inches asunder, in the form of a triangle; when the seedlings are sufficiently advanced, a tall stick is to be thrust down in the centre betwixt the three plants, for them to twine around: the warmer and more sheltered the situation, and the richer the soil in which they are placed, the taller the plants will grow; by raising them on a hot bed, you may anticipate their natural time of flowering, and be more certain of obtaining good seed. [illustration: _no _] [illustration: _no _] [ ] struthiola erecta. smooth struthiola. _class and order._ tetrandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ nulla. _cal._ tubulosus, ore glandulis . _bacca_ exsucca, polysperma. _linn. mant. p. . syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _specific character and synonyms._ struthiola _erecta_ glabra. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ passerina _dodecandra_. _linn. sp. pl. ed. . p. ._ _amæn. acad. v. . p. ._ passerina filiformis. _mill. dict. ed. . to._ passerina. _burm. afric. t. . f. ._ the plant here represented appears to have been first described and figured by burman, in his _pl. afric._ under the name of _passerina_: linnÆus introduced it in the d edition of his _sp. pl._ by the title of _passerina dodecandra_; discovering afterwards that it had in reality only four stamina, and that the other eight substances, mistaken for such, were so many glandular nectaria, he made in his _mantiss. plant._ a new genus of it, by the name of _struthiola_, and assigned it the trivial name of _erecta_; in the abbreviated generic description given of it by prof. murray, an alteration is made in this generic character, and what before was considered as corolla, is here regarded as calyx; no reason is assigned for this alteration, and we are at a loss to account for the propriety of it. mr. miller, who cultivated this plant in , describes it in his dictionary, and observes very justly, that though its branches when young are erect, when loaded with blossoms they incline to a horizontal position; hence the term _erecta_ becomes an improper one, and should be changed for one more expressive. this species of struthiola is a very common shrub in our greenhouses, will grow to the height of five or six feet, and, though not so ornamental as some other plants, has the merit of flowering during most of the year, and often in the depth of winter. is readily increased by cuttings. [ ] lychnis coronata. chinese lychnis. _class and order._ decandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus, oblongus, lævis. _petala_ , unguiculata: _limbo_ sub-bifido. _caps._ -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ lychnis _coronata_ glabra, floribus axillaribus terminalibusque solitariis, petalis laciniatis. _thunb. japon. p. ._ _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ lychnis _grandiflora_ floribus axillaribus terminalibusque folitariis, petalis inæqualiter crenatis. _jacq. collect. v. . p. . icon. v. ._ japonice sen sjun ra, vulgo ganpi. _kempf. amæn. exot. fasc. v. p. ._ the rich and elegant blossoms of this chinese or japanese beauty, possess a flatness and stiffness, which gives them an artificial air, to which their colour, which is exactly that of common red lead, may perhaps somewhat contribute; they make their appearance towards the close of the summer, and as many (when the plant is in health and vigour) are produced on the same stem, they continue a considerable time in bloom; its root is perennial, and its stem, which rises to the height of about two feet, herbaceous. we remember to have seen this plant in the collection of the late dr. fothergill at upton, about the year , by whom it was first introduced to this country: kÆmpfer, the celebrated dutch traveller, who saw it growing in japan, gives a very short description of it in his _amænitates exoticæ_, and mentions a variety of it with white flowers: professor thunberg, who saw it also in its wild state, as well as in the gardens of that country, confines himself to describing the plant more at large: professor jacquin, in his _icones_, has given an admirable figure of it. persons here differ in their mode of cultivating this species of lychnis, some treating it as a stove others as a greenhouse and others as a hardy herbaceous plant; the latter mode is to be preferred, provided care be taken to plant it in a sheltered situation, and to guard it against the inclemency of particular seasons; it is propagated by parting its roots, also by slips, and cuttings, but in this business more than ordinary care is required to be successful. [illustration: _no _] [illustration: _no _] [ ] phylica ericoides. heath-leav'd phylica. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _perianthium_ -partitum, turbinatum. _petala_ . _squamæ_ , stamina munientes. _caps._ tricocca, infera. _specific character and synonyms._ phylica _ericoides_ foliis linearibus verticillatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ alaternoides africana ericæ foliis, floribus albicantibus et muscosis. _comm. hort. . p. . t. ._ mr. miller, who cultivated this plant in , informs us, that it grows wild about lisbon, where it covers extensive tracts of ground, in the same manner as the heath does in this country; it seldom rises above the height of three feet, and is much disposed to become bushy; its flowers, which are slightly odoriferous, begin to appear in autumn, and continue during the winter and spring; they grow in little heads on the summits of the branches: their whiteness, contrasted with the dark colour of the foliage, forms a pleasing appearance, and entitles this plant, though a common and long-established inhabitant of the greenhouse, to a place with such as may boast more brilliancy of colour. its leaves, which thickly cover the stalks, do not well accord with linnÆus's specific description. it is usually propagated by cuttings, which strike readily. [illustration: _no _] [ ] lobelia surinamensis. shrubby lobelia. _class and order._ syngenesia monogamia. _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus. _cor._ -petala, irregularis. _caps._ infera, sive -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ lobelia _surinamensis_ caule suffruticoso, foliis oblongis glabris serratis, floribus axillaribus pedunculatis. _ait. kew. v. . p. . sp. pl. ._ lobelia _lævigata_ foliis ellipticis serratis glabris, capsulis grossis globosis, calycibus subulatis, corollis glaberrimis. _linn. suppl. p. ._ the lobelia surinamensis, a plant newly introduced here, is minutely described in the _suppl. pl._ of the younger linnÆus, under the name of _lævigata_, apparently from the smoothness of its flowers: in the year , mr. alexander anderson sent this plant to the royal garden at kew, from the west-indies, where it grows spontaneously, as well as at surinam; and mr. aiton has inserted it at the end of the _hort. kew._ assigning to it a new specific description, and a new trivial name: our drawing was made from a plant which flowered in the stove of messrs. grimwood and co. kensington, to whom it was imparted by richard molesworth, esq. of peckham, a gentleman liberal in his communications, and anxious to promote the cause of botany. this species of lobelia is a stove plant, having a some-*what shrubby stalk, growing to the height of several feet; its blossoms are very large, of a pale red colour, and its antheræ, which might be mistaken for the stigma, unusually hairy. it begins to flower in january and february, and continues to blossom during most of the summer. is increased by cuttings. [ ] arabis alpina. alpine wall-cress. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliquosa. _generic character._ _glandulæ_ nectariferæ , singulæ intra calycis foliola, squamæ instar reflexæ. _specific character and synonyms._ arabis _alpina_ foliis amplexicaulibus dentatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. vol. . p. ._ _mill. dict. ed. . to._ draba alba siliquosa repens. _bauh. pin. p. ._ an early-blowing plant, if it has no great pretensions to beauty, brings with it a powerful recommendation, more especially if its flowers are not of the more common hue; such are the claims which the present plant has to a place in this work: it is perennial, hardy, herbaceous, of low growth, rarely exceeding a foot in height, producing its white blossoms in april and may: its size renders it a suitable plant for the border of a small garden, or for the covering of rock-work. it is readily increased by parting its roots in autumn. grows spontaneously on the alps of switzerland, austria, and lapland, and was cultivated (_vid. hort. kew_) in the botanic garden at oxford, in . [illustration: _no _] [ ] helianthus multiflorus. many-flowered or perennial sun-flower. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia frustranea. _generic character._ _recept._ paleaceum, planum. _pappus_ -phyllus. _cal._ imbricatus, subsquarrosus. _specific character and synonyms._ helianthus _multiflorus_ foliis inferioribus cordatis trinervatis superioribus ovatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ chrysanthemum americanum majus perenne, floris folis foliis et floribus. _moris. hist. . p. ._ the helianthus multiflorus, a native of north-america, is a hardy perennial herbaceous plant, arising usually to the height of five or six feet, and producing a great number of large yellow shewy blossoms, which renders it a suitable plant to ornament the shrubbery or garden of large extent; the variety with double flowers is the one most commonly cultivated, and this we find in almost every garden: it flowers from july to september, and is propagated by parting its roots in autumn. this is a hardy plant, of ready growth, will bear the smoke of london better than many others; if it continues in the same spot for a great number of years, the blossoms are apt to become single. the single sort, according to morison, was introduced before by lord lemster. _ait. kew._ [illustration: _no _] [illustration: _no _] [ ] bellis perennis _var._ major flore pleno. great double daisy. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia superflua. _generic character._ _recept._ nudum, conicum. _pappus_ nullus. _cal._ hemisphæricus: squamis æqualibus. _sem._ subovata. _specific character and synonyms._ bellis _perennis_ scapo nudo. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ bellis hortensis flore pleno. _bauh. pin. p. ._ bellis minor hortensis flore pleno. double garden daisy. _park. parad. p. ._ the daisy, a plant common to europe, in its wild state delights in open situations, which are moderately moist, its root is perennial, and increases greatly; the usual colour of its flowers is white, the florets are sometimes tipt with red, but more frequently red on the under side. when double, the daisy becomes much more ornamental, and in this state many varieties of it have long been cultivated, very generally in gardens; those principally found in our nurseries are the large double daisy with florets of a deep red colour on the under side, figured on the plate; the flowers of this sort will sometimes expand nearly to the size of a half-crown piece, and are the most shewy of any that we have seen; the foliage of this sort is also proportionably larger. the pale red double daisy, more delicate in its appearance, but smaller, varying in its shades of colour. the pure white double daisy. the deep red double daisy; in this the petals are usually tubular or quilled. besides these, there are the coxcomb double daisy, both red and white, in which the flowering stem rises up preternaturally flattened, and carries on its summit a long-extended ridge of flowers, frequently of an enormous size; this monstrous production seems to arise from the coalescence of two or more flowering stems: and as it is of accidental origin, so we find that a daisy which has been a coxcomb one year, shall lose that appearance entirely the next, and out of a long edging of daisies growing luxuriantly, new ones shall here and there arise; we cannot therefore depend upon the constancy of this variety. another singular variety is the proliferous or hen and chicken daisy, in which a number of flowers standing on short footstalks spring circularly out of the main flower; as this appearance for the most part arises from great luxuriance[a], this sort of daisy is also found occasionally to lose its prolific character: in my garden at lambeth-marsh, i once had a daisy growing in an edging among a number of others, which not only became proliferous, or of the hen and chicken kind, but its stalk also, or scapus, became branched, producing six or seven flowering-stems, with flowers at their extremities of the size of the common daisy; thus we find that the most permanent characters of plants are liable to be altered, and even destroyed, by accident, or culture. daisies appear to most advantage planted as an edging to a border, not that they are superior, or even equal to box for the great purposes of an edging; but in the spring of the year they enliven the border more, and add much to the general gaiety of the garden: in the formation of these, we shall give our readers some practical instructions, which will enable them to succeed much better than by following the mode commonly practised. the last week in september, or the first in october, take up your daisy roots, and divide them into single plants; your border being dug, put down your line, and make a shallow trench along it as for the planting of box; in this trench place your plants three inches apart, spreading out their fibres in the trench, and pressing the earth closely round them; in this way they will soon become rooted, and firmly fixed in the ground before the approach of frost; should this business be deferred later, as it frequently is, and the daisies be planted with a dibber in the usual way, in all probability the worms will draw out every plant before spring, especially if the earth has been rendered loose by repeated frosts. edgings of this kind require to be replanted in the same way every autumn, as the plants, if they grow well, spread too wide; if the summer prove dry, many of the roots fail, and if they remain undisturbed in the same spot, they will degenerate and become single, notwithstanding mr. miller informs us, that he never observed them to do so. [footnote a: we once saw a specimen of a hen and chicken daisy gathered on a hill in sussex, much inferior in size to the daisy as it usually grows.] [ ] primula acaulis fl. pleno carneo. double lilac primrose. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _involucr._ umbellulæ. _corollæ_ tubus cylindricus ore patulo. _specific character and synonyms._ primula _acaulis_ foliis rugosis dentatis, subtus hirsutis; scapis unifloris. _jacq. misc. austr. p. ._ _curt. flor. lond. fasc. ._ the primrose in its wild single state is frequently introduced into shrubberies and plantations, for the purpose of enlivening them in the spring months; in its double state it has been deemed peculiarly worthy of cultivation by the curious in flowers. of the _double yellow_ primrose, which seems to have been the first known, we meet with a figure in the _hort. eyst._ and in the _parad. terrestr._ of parkinson, since those publications many new and perfectly double varieties have been introduced, as the _double white_, rarely met with. the _double deep red or velvet_, the blossoms of this will sometimes come single. the _double pink or lilac_, here figured, a plant much admired. the _double crimson_, a new variety, which, in brilliancy of colour, far surpasses all the others. the _red_, commonly called the _scotch primrose_, less ornamental than any of the preceding: besides these, we have observed a variety with blossoms of a dingy yellow inclining to red, not worth cultivating. these several varieties of primrose are admirably adapted to the decoration of the shrubbery, plantations, or even the north side of rock-work; they delight to grow in a stiff loam, a moist and somewhat shady situation, so planted they thrive admirably, the double succeeding almost as well as the single; every second or third year their roots should be divided, which may be done either in spring or autumn, they may be cultivated also in pots for the convenience of removing them when in blossom. [illustration: _no _] [illustration: _no _] [ ] plumbago rosea. rose-coloured leadwort. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ infundibuliformis: _stamina_ squamis basin corollæ claudentibus inserta. _stigma_ -fidum. _sem._ . oblongum tunicatum. _specific character and synonyms._ plumbago _rosea_ foliis petiolatis ovatis glabris, subdenticulatis caule geniculis gibbosis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. . sp. pl. ed. . p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ plumbago zeylanica, folio splendento ocymastri, flore rubro. _burm. zeyl. ._ radix vesicatoria. _rumph. amboin. . p. . t. ._ the _plumbago rosea_, one of the most ornamental plants which we keep in our stoves, is a native of india, from whence it was introduced to this country by the late dr. fothergill, in the year , posterior to the publication of the last edition of mr. miller's dictionary. it is a shrubby plant, which frequently grows to the height of four or five feet, and is perpetually putting forth flowering spikes; these continue a long while in blossom, and hence, with proper management, it may be had to flower during most of the year, a very desirable circumstance in a plant of such singular beauty. the usual mode of increasing it is by cuttings, which strike freely. its parts of fructification, whether we regard their colour or structure, are highly deserving of notice. [illustration: _no _] [ ] fumaria solida. solid-rooted fumitory. _class and order._ diadelphia pentandria. _generic character._ _cal._ diphyllus. _cor._ ringens. _filam._ membranacea, singula _antheris_ . _specific character and synonyms._ fumaria _solida_, caule simplici, bracteis brevioribus multifidis, radice solida. _mill. dict. ed. . to._ fumaria _bulbosa_, caule simplici, bracteis longitudine florum. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. . sp. pl. ed. . p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ fumaria _bulbosa_ radice non cava major. _bauh. pin. p. ._ small hollow roote. _park parad. p. . . f. ._ by the old botanists this species of _fumaria_, whose root is constantly solid, was considered as a distinct species from another similar to it of larger growth, whose root is as constantly hollow, and which will be figured in the next number of this work; caspar bauhine in particular, in his _pinax_, describes the characters in which they differ: linnÆus nevertheless makes them varieties of each other, uniting them under the name of _bulbosa_; from this union we have taken the liberty to dissent, choosing rather to follow miller, who regards them as distinct, and the botanists preceding him. the _fumaria solida_, a very old inhabitant of our gardens, is a plant of very humble growth, rarely exceeding three or four inches in height, and producing its spike of purple flowers in april, which continue in blossom about a fortnight. in point of colour the flowers of this plant are not subject to much variation, we possess a variety of it with blossoms of a much brighter colour than those of the common sort, and which, on that account, is much more worthy of cultivation. as a spring plant, it deserves a place in the garden; in point of ornament, it is applicable to the same purposes as the primrose, will grow in almost any soil or situation, requires to be taken up in the autumn, and fresh-planted every two or three years; if suffered to remain in the same spot for a great length of time, it becomes smaller, produces few or no flowers, and is so altered in its appearance, as to look like another species. [illustration: _no _] [ ] fumaria cava. hollow-rooted fumitory. _class and order._ diadelphia hexandria. _generic character._ _cal_. diphyllus. _cor._ ringens. _filamenta_ membranacea singula _antheris_ . _specific character and synonyms._ fumaria _cava_, caule simplici, bracteis longitudine florum integris, radice cava. fumaria _bulbosa_ radice cava major. _bauh. pin. p. ._ radix _cava_ major. _park. parad. p. ._ the hollow-rooted fumitory differs from the _solida_, already figured, and that constantly, in a variety of particulars; its root is always, as far as we have observed, hollow, appearing sometimes, as parkinson informs us, "like a shell, every part of which when broken will grow;" frequently acquiring a very great size; the plant itself usually grows to twice the height of the _solida_, bearing foliage and flowers proportionably large; its bracteæ or floral leaves, which in the _solida_ assume a kind of finger'd appearance from the manner in which they are divided, in this are entire or but slightly indented; it flowers also about three weeks earlier. of the _fumaria cava_ there are three principal varieties in point of colour, viz. the white, the blush-coloured, and the purple, which, though plentiful in our gardens formerly, are now rarely met with; mr. chappelow informs me, that he found them all this spring, in an old plantation at teddington, where they produced the most pleasing effect. it begins to flower in march and continues in bloom three weeks or a month, rarely produces any seed, so that it is to be propagated only by dividing its roots; it is a hardy herbaceous plant, a native of germany, and will grow in almost any soil provided it be planted in a shady situation. [ ] chironia baccifera. berry-bearing chironia. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ rotata. _pistillum_ declinatum. _stamina_ tubo corollæ infidentia. _antheræ_ demum spirales. _peric._ -loculare. _specific character and synonyms._ chironia _baccifera_ frutescens baccifera. _linn. syst. veget. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ centaurium minus arborescens pulpiferum. _comm. rar. . t. ._ centaurium minus africanum arborescens angustifolium. _old. afr. ._ the _chironia baccifera_, a native of africa, is a plant not unfrequent in our greenhouses; its flowers are curious in their structure, of a lively hue, and suceeded by round seed-vessels, which, when ripe, have the appearance of red berries, whence its name of _baccata_; if we carefully examine these seed-vessels, we shall find that they are not properly berries, for on cutting them transversly, they are found to be hollow and to be divided into two cells (_vid. pl._) in which are contained small black seeds, whose surface is beautifully reticulated with impressed dots; the sides of the seed-vessel are fleshy, and do not appear to divide or split in any regular manner for the discharge of the seed; they must however be regarded rather as capsules than berries: in the genus _hypericum_, the seed-vessels are found to vary in a somewhat similar manner; in this part of the fructification there is not, therefore, that deviation which has been supposed, but there is a very great one in the antheræ, which do not ultimately become spiral. this plant, which grows to the height of a foot and a half or two feet, becomes very bushy, rather too much so in point of ornament, and produces both flowers, and fruit, during most of the summer. though regarded as a greenhouse plant, it does not ripen its seeds well unless kept in the stove; is with difficulty raised from cuttings, from seeds readily, by which it requires to be frequently renovated. was cultivated by mr. miller in . _ait. kew._ [illustration: _no _] [illustration: _no _] [ ] linum arboreum. tree flax. _class and order._ pentandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _petala_ . _caps._ -valvis, -locularis. _sem._ solitaria. _specific character and synonyms._ linum _arboreum_ foliis cuneiformibus, caulibus arborescentibus. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ linum _arboreum_. _alp. exot. . t. ._ contrary to what we observe in most of the plants of this genus, the present very rare and no less beautiful species of flax forms (if not a tree, as its name imports) a shrub of the height of several feet, which begins to flower in the green-house in march, and continues to be more or less covered with blossoms to the close of the summer. it is a native of the levant, from whence it was introduced to this country in the year , with a profusion of other vegetables, by john sibthorp, m. d. the present celebrated professor of botany in the university of oxford; who, for the laudable purpose of promoting the science in which he is so eminent, and of enriching the oxford collection, already rendered most respectable by his unwearied labours, meditates, as we are informed, a second journey into greece. hitherto this plant has produced no seeds in this country, and it is with difficulty increased by cuttings. our figure was drawn from a plant which flowered in the spring with messrs. grimwood and co. kensington. [ ] trollius asiaticus. asiatic globe-flower. _class and order._ polyandria polygynia. _generic character._ _cal._ . _petala_ circiter . _capsulæ_ plurimæ, ovatæ, polyspermæ. _specific character and synonyms._ trollius _asiaticus_ corolla patula, nectariis staminibus longioribus. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ helleborus aconiti folio, flore globoso croceo. _amm. ruth. ._ of this genus, two species only have as yet been discovered, the one a native of great-britain, the other here figured the produce of siberia and cappadocia, both hardy, perennial, herbaceous plants; the latter, more particularly, from the bright orange colour of its flowers, held in high estimation as an ornamental plant, and flowering in may and june. this species, as yet rare in this country, is usually propagated by parting its roots in autumn; it may also be raised from seeds, which ripen frequently on strong healthy plants: to succeed in its cultivation, we should plant it in a composition of loam and bog earth, and place it in a north border, taking care that it does not suffer from want of watering in dry summers. was cultivated by mr. miller, in . _ait. kew._ [illustration: _no _] [illustration: _no _] [ ] verbascum myconi. borage-leav'd mullein. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ rotata, subinæqualis. _caps._ -locularis -valvis. _specific character and synonyms._ verbascum _myconi_ foliis lanatis radicalibus, scapo nudo. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. p. ._ cortusa foliis ovatis sessilibus. _linn. hort. cliff. ._ sanicula alpina, foliis boraginis villosa. _bauh. pin. ._ auricula _ursi_ myconi. _dalech. hist. ._ auricula _ursi_ flore coeruleo folio boraginis. blew beares eares with borage leaves. _park. parad. p. . . f. ._ most of the plants of this genus are tall and shewy; the one here figured is however, of very humble growth, its flowering stem in the cultivated plant rarely exceeding six inches in height; its flowers are proportionably large, of a blueish purple colour, and highly ornamental; they make their appearance in may, and continue successively in blossom for several months, hence it becomes a desirable plant to cultivate, especially for the decorating of rock-work; it is very hardy, requires a north aspect in the summer, and to be carefully watered in dry weather; will grow in almost any soil, and is usually propagated by planting its roots in autumn. grows spontaneously on the pyrenean alps; in its wild state it is more dwarfish than our figure represents it, its foliage more woolly, and enriched with various tints, which the plant loses on cultivation; such specimens i saw in the possession of dr. r. halifax, of albemarle-street, who gathered it on its native alps. was cultivated by mr. miller, in , _ait. kew._ and most probably long before that period by parkinson, who lives a figure and accurate description of it in his _parad. terrestris_. [ ] oxalic carina. goat's-foot wood sorrel. _class and order._ decandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _petala_ unibus connect. _caps._ anglos discerns, -gina. _specific character and synonyms._ oxalis _carina_ scapis unbeliefs, foliis ternaries glabris, floribus erects. _thunb. oxalic, n. ._ _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ oxalis _peas capra_ scapo embellisher, foliis ternaries sub bipartite apiece subtus callouses. _linn. sp. pl. ed. . p. ._ oxalis bulbosa pentacle et hexagonal, floribus margins lutes et copiosis. _burm. afr. . t. . et t. . f. ._ the cape of good-hope, that most fertile source of curious and beautiful plants, affords numerous species of wood sorrel, and, among others, the present one, which is distinguished for the largeness of its blossoms; they are of a fine yellow colour, and, when expanded by the influence of the sun, make a very conspicuous figure in the green-house; it begins to flower early in april, and continues about two months in bloom, many flowering stems arising from the same root. this species is of free growth, and increases plentifully by bulbs, which are produced on the crown of the root, as well as on its fibres; these, when the plant decays, should be taken up, and two or three of the largest planted in the middle of a pot filled with a mixture of bog earth and rotten leaves, well incorporated; towards winter, the pots mould be placed in the green-house, or in a frame so secured as perfectly to keep out frost. was cultivated by mr. miller, in . _ait. kew._ [illustration: _no _] [ ] senecio elegans. purple groundsel, or ragwort. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia superflua. _generic character._ _recept._ nudum. _pappus_ simplex. _cal._ cylindricus, calyculatus. _squamis_ apice sphacelatis. _specific character and synonyms._ senecio _elegans_ corollis radiants, foliis pontiffs æqualibus pianissimos margin increased recurved. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ senecio _elegans_ corollis radiants, foliis polos-viscid is pontiffs æqualibus pianissimos, roach inferno angsts, calycibus hurts. _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ aster africans annuus senecionis foliis. _comm. hort. . p. . t. ._ linnÆus has given to this charming annual the name of _elegans_, on account of the great beauty of its flowers, the florets of the radius being of a most brilliant purple, and those of the disk bright yellow; colours regarded as peculiar to this plant, till the _sen. venustus_ described in the _hort. kew._ was discovered and introduced here; it is a native of the cape and other parts of africa, grows usually to the height of a foot and a half, or two feet; flowers from june to august, grows readily, requiring the same treatment as other annuals of the more tender kind; seedling plants raised in the autumn in pots, and kept in the green-house or under a frame during winter, will, of course, flower much earlier than plants produced in the spring. within these few years, a variety of this senecio with perfectly double flowers, equally brilliant as those of the single kind, has been introduced, and is here figured; this, from its superior beauty, is now cultivated, in preference to the single; there is double variety of it also with white flowers which being less shewy is not so much esteemed; both of these are raised, and that readily, from cuttings, which as soon as well rooted may be planted out in the open borders, where they will be highly ornamental during most of the summer; as young plants are most desirable, we should take care to have a constant succession from cuttings regularly put in, and to preserve pots of such in particular, in the green-house during winter, for early blowing the ensuing summer. the single sort was cultivated here, by charles dubois, esq. in the year . _ait. kew._ [illustration: _no _] [ ] amaryllis atamasco. atamasco lily. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ hexapetaloidea, irregularis. _filamenta_ fauci tubi inserta, declinata, inæqualia proportione vel directione. _linn. fil._ _specific character and synonyms._ amaryllis _atamasco_ spatha bifida acuta, flore pedicellato, corolla campanulata subæquali erecta basi breve tubulosa, staminibus declinatis æqualibus. _linn. fil._ _ait. kew. p. ._ amaryllis _atamasco_ spatha uniflora, corolla æquali, pistillo declinato. _linn. spec. pl. ed . p. ._ lilio-narcissus indicus pumilus monanthus albus foliis angustissimis atamasco dictus. _moris. hist. . p. . t. ._ lilio-narcissus virginiensis. _catesb. carol. . p. . t. ._ lilio-narcissus liliflorus carolinianus flore albo singulari cum rubedine diluto. _pluk. alm. . t. . f. ._ the _amaryllis atamasco_ is a native of virginia and carolina, in which countries it grows very plentifully in the fields and woods, where it makes a beautiful appearance when it is in flower, which is in the spring. the flowers of this sort are produced singly, and at their first appearance have a fine carnation colour on their outside, but this fades away to a pale or almost white before the flowers decay. this plant is so hardy as to thrive in the open air in england, provided the roots are planted[b] in a warm situation and on a dry soil; it may be propagated by offsets from the roots, which they put out pretty plentifully, especially if they are not transplanted oftner than once in three years. _miller's dict._ it is usual with the nurserymen about london to keep this plant in the greenhouse, where it flowers about the end of april. mr. charles hatton cultivated here in , _ait. kew._ on the authority of morison. [footnote b: clayton in _gronov. fl. virg._ says maddidis gaudet locis, it delights to grow in wet places.] [illustration: _no _] [illustration: _no _] [ ] pelargonium tricolor. three-coloured crane's-bill. _class and order._ monadelphia heptandria. _generic character._ _cal._ -partitus: lacinia suprema desinente in tubulum capillarem, nectariferum, secus pedunculum decurrentem. _cor._ -petala, irregularis. _filamenta_ , inæqualia: quorum (raro ) castrata, fructus -coccus, rostratus: rostra spiralia, introrsum barbata. _l'herit. geran._ _specific character and synonyms._ pelargonium _tricolor_ petalis duobus superioribus punctis prominulis lucidis ad basin scabris. the _pelargonium tricolor_, a species perfectly new, in point of beauty is thought to eclipse all that have hitherto been introduced to this country; its blossoms are certainly the most shewy, in a collection of plants they are the first to attract the eye, the two uppermost petals are of a beautiful red, having their bases nearly black, the three lowermost are white, hence its name of _tricolor_: this peculiarity of colour joined to their form, has induced some to fancy a similarity betwixt its flowers and those of the heartsease: to the blossoms of the _lathyrus articulatus_ in point of colour, they bear also a distant resemblance. in our eagerness to lay before the public this striking novelty, we may possibly omit some circumstances relative to its history and treatment, which future experience may develope, they will not, however, we trust be very material; the plants which we have had an opportunity of seeing have scarcely exceeded a foot in height, growing up with a shrubby stem, and expanding widely into numerous flowering branches, unusually disposed to produce flowers in a constant succession, so that during most of the summer the plant is loaded with a profusion of bloom; these flowers for the most part go off without being followed by any seed, and when any seed is produced, of which we have seen a few instances, there is generally one perfect and four abortive, frequently all of them fail; the blossoms vary in the number of their stamina, four are most usually apparent, three superior, and that very constantly, one inferior and often two, we have never observed seven, the proper number of fertile stamina in a _pelargonium_: the whole plant is covered with short white hairs which give to the foliage a somewhat silvery hue. instances have occurred in which one or more of the white petals have had a stripe of red in them, and we have observed that the dark colour at the base of the uppermost petals is, in a certain degree, soluble in water, for on the plants being watered the white petals have here and there become stained by the colouring matter proceeding from it, and which, in a diluted state, is of a purplish tint: as the flowers decay, this apparently black part, distinguished by the roughness of its surface, arising from prominent lucid points, and which essentially distinguish the species, is sometimes perforated with numerous small holes. mr. masson, who is employed to collect plants at the cape, for the royal garden at kew, and in which employment he so honourably acquits himself, as the _hortus kewensis_ bears ample testimony, sent hither seeds of this _pelargonium_, which flowered in that matchless collection in the year ; a few plants of it have also been raised from cape seeds, by mr. williams, nurseryman, at hammersmith, some of which flowered this spring with mr. colvill, nurseryman, kings-road. it must be several years before the lovers of plants can be generally gratified with the possession of this plant, most of its branches running out speedily into flowering stalks, form few proper for cuttings, which are struck with difficulty, and perfect seeds are sparingly produced. it appears to be equally hardy as most others of the same tribe, and to require a similar treatment. [ ] fagonia cretica. cretian fagonia. _class and order._ decandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _petala_ , cordata. _caps._ -locularis, -valvisi, loculis -spermis. _specific character and synonyms._ fagonia _cretica_ spinosa, foliolis lanceolatis planis lævibus. _linn. sp. pl. ed . p. ._ _mant. p. ._ _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ trifolium spinosum creticum. _clus. hist. . p. . f._ _bauh. pin. p. ._ fagonia cretica spinosa. _tourn. inst. p. ._ clusius is the first author who has described and figured this plant, he is very minute in his description of it, noticing the exact number of its stamina; it is the more surprising, therefore, that he should have so little idea of generic character, as to rank it with the trefoils merely from the form of its leaves: tournefort, born to illustrate the genera of plants, named it _fagonia_ in honour of his friend and patron, mons. fagon, privy counsellor and consulting physician to lewis xiv. this species is a native of the island of candia, and was cultivated here by mr. miller, in ; it is an annual, and as it does not perfect its seeds with us in the open air, unless in very favourable seasons, it is usually treated as a green-house plant, its seeds should be sown in the autumn, as it thereby flowers earlier, and ripe seeds are with more certainty obtained. it blossoms from june to august. the plant from which our drawing was made, flowered this season in the very rich collection of messrs. lee and kennedy, hammersmith. its branches are usually procumbent, about a foot in length, and require, if the plant be kept in a pot, to be tied up to a stick. [illustration: _no _] [illustration: _no _] [ ] veronica decussata. cross-leav'd speedwell. _class and order._ diandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ limbo -partito: lacinia infima angustiore. _caps._ -locularis apice emarginata. _specific character and synonyms._ veronica _decussata_ spicis terminalibus paniculatis, foliis oblongis integerrimis lævigatis coriaceis, caule fruticoso. _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ veronica _decussata_ floribus racemosis axillaribus, foliis ovalibus decussatis integerrimis. _moench. weissenstein. p. ._ _linn. syst. nat. tom. . ed. ._ _gmel. p. ._ the plant here represented, is a native of falkland's island, and was introduced to this country by dr. fothergill, about the year ; if permitted to grow, it will become a bushy shrub of a considerable size: it has been chiefly admired for the unusual and regular growth of its leaves, which are ever-green, and grow thickly on the branches, cross-wise, affording an excellent example of the _folia decussata_; but it is entitled to our admiration on another account, its blossoms have a most delicious fragrance (similar to that of the _olea fragrans_) not mentioned by authors, and we believe scarcely known, having never heard it spoken of by those who have cultivated the plant; its flowers, which are white, are produced on the tops of the branches, which, however, they do not strictly terminate, but usually grow out just below the summits, on short racemi; the corolla is sometimes divided into five segments, and there is a greater equality in the segments than is usually found in the flowers of the veronica, the seed-vessel differs also in its form, being longer, more oval, and scarcely emarginate; these several deviations from the structure of the veronica genus, joined to the fragrance of the blossoms of this plant, induce us to think, that it has more affinity with the _olea_ above mentioned. cultivators complain, that it does not blow freely; without any peculiarity of treatment, it flowers with us every year, about the middle of june; it is one of the more hardy greenhouse plants, which is usually and readily increased by cuttings. [illustration: _no _] [ ] argemone mexicana. mexican argemone, or prickly poppy. _class and order._ polyandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ -petala. _cal._ -phyllus. _caps._ semivalvis. _specific character and synonyms._ argemone _mexicana_ capsulis sexvalvibus, foliis spinosis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ papaver spinosum. _clus. hist. . p. ._ carduus chrysanthemus peruanus. the golden thistle of peru. _ger. herb. p. ._ this species of argemone is a native of mexico, and the west-indies, where we should suppose it to be a very common and noxious weed, from the name there given it of _fico del inferno_, or the _devil's fig_: it has long been introduced to this country; gerard, who cultivated it with success, ludicrously attributes its nickname to a different source: "the golden thistle of peru, called in the west-indies, fique del inferno, a friend of mine brought it unto me from an iland there, called saint johns iland, among other seedes, what reason the inhabitants there have to call it so it is unto me unknown, unless it be bicause of his fruite, which doth much resemble a figge in shape and bignesse, but so full of sharpe and venemous prickles, that whosoever had one of them in his throte, doubtless less it would send him packing either to heaven or to hell." miller mentions it as a plant of no great use or beauty, in the latter point of view clusius, who was one of the first to figure and describe it, and gerard, thought differently; its foliage is certainly beautiful, somewhat like that of the milk thistle, its blossoms are large and shewy, though not of long duration; like the celandine, the whole plant abounds with a yellow juice, which flows out when it is wounded; it differs from the poppy, to which it is nearly related, in having a calyx of three leaves. though a native of a very warm climate, it is cultivated with as much facility as any annual whatever; in the gardens about london, where it has once grown, and scattered its seeds, it comes up spontaneously every spring, flowers in july and august, and ripens its seeds in september; these are large, somewhat round, of a black colour, with a beautiful surface; a light rich soil and warm situation suits it best. [ ] ipomoea quamoclit. winged leav'd ipomoea. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ infundibuliformis. _stigma_ capitato-globosum. _caps._ -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ ipomoea _quamoclit_ foliis pinnatifidis linearibus, floribus subsolitariis. _linn, syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ quamoclit _s_ jasminum americanum. _clus. posth. ._ convolvulus tenuifolius americanus. the red bellflower of america. _park. parad. p. . ._ in a former number of this work, we gave a figure of the scarlet ipomoea, which every one possessing a garden, at least in the more southern parts of this kingdom, might gratify themselves with a sight of, it being hardy enough to flower and ripen its seeds in the open border; but the present species, an annual also, and equally beautiful, with greater singularity of foliage, can be brought to perfection only in the stove of hot-house. its seeds should be sown early in the spring, two or three in a small pot; when the plants are so far advanced as to shew a disposition to climb, they should be removed with a ball of earth into a middle-sized pot, in which one, two, or three sticks, four or five feet high should be stuck, for the plants to climb up; in the months of june and july they will flower, and ripe seed will be produced in september. this elegant species, a native of both the indies, was cultivated here by parkinson, who minutely describes it in his _parad terr._ when speaking of the seed, he observes, "with us it will seldom come to flower, because our cold nights and frosts come so soone, before it cannot have comfort enough of the sun to ripen it." [illustration: _no _] [ ] teucrium latifolium. broad-leav'd shrubby germander. _class and order._ didynamia gymnospermia. _generic character._ _cor._ labium superius (nullum) ultra basin -partitum, divaricatum ubi stamina. _specific character and synonyms._ teucrium _latifolium_ foliis integerrimis rhombeis acutis villosis subtus tomentosis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ teucrium fruticans bæticum ampliore folio. _dill. elth. . t. . f. ._ the _teucrium latifolium_ as well as the _fruticans_, which is nearly related to it, is a native of spain, and was cultivated in this country in , by the duchess of beaufort, _vid. ait. kew._ it is a shrubby plant, growing to the height of seven or eight feet (it may be trained to a much greater height) now common in our greenhouses, and sometimes planted in the open border in warm situations, where it will bear about the same degree of cold as the myrtle; it flowers during most of the summer months, and is readily increased by cuttings. [illustration: _no _] [illustration: _no _] [ ] aquilegia canadensis. canadian columbine. _class and order._ polyandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ . _petala_ . _nectaria_ corniculata, inter petala. _caps._ distinctæ. _specific character and synonyms._ aquilegia _canadensis_ nectariis rectis, staminibus corolla longioribus. _linn. syst. veg. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ aquilegia _pumila_ praæox canadensis. _corn. canad. ._ aquilegia præcox canadensis; flore externe rubicundo, medio luteo. _moris. hist. . p. . t. . f. ._ aquilegia virginiania flore rubescente præcox. the early red columbine of virginia. _park. th. p. ._ parkinson was not acquainted with this plant when he wrote his _parad. terr._ but in his larger and more general work, the _theat. pl._ published in , he describes and figures it as a plant newly introduced from virginia, by mr. john tradescant: cornutus, in his account of the plants of canada, gives us a representation and a description of this plant also; according to him, its usual height in that country is about nine inches; in the gardens here it nearly equals the common columbine, which it considerably resembles in the appearance of its foliage, but differs in the form and colour of its flowers, the horn of the nectary is straighter, and the blossom in some of its parts inclines more to orange, which renders it highly ornamental. it is a hardy perennial, and may be easily propagated by parting its roots in autumn or spring; it may also be raised from seeds, which ripen readily here; these are found to be a long time in vegetating, as are others of this genus. we have observed in some gardens, a columbine of more humble growth than the one here figured, called by the name of _canadensis_, and which most probably is a variety of our plant, its blossoms spread wider, are of a pale red colour without any orange, and hence being less beautiful, is, of course, less worthy of culture. [ ] scabiosa atropurpurea. sweet scabious. _class and order._ tetrandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ communis polyphyllus; proprius duplex, superus. _recept._ paleaceum nudum. _specific character and synonyms._ scabiosa _atropurpurea_ corollulis quinquefidis radiantibus, foliis dissectis, receptaculis florum subulatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. i. p. ._ scabiosa peregrina rubra capite oblongo. _bauh. pin. ._ scabiosa vi. indica. _clus. hist. . p. ._ red flowered indian scabious. _park. parad. ._ it is not a little singular that we should have no certain account of what country this species of scabious is a native; clusius who describes and figures it accurately, relates that he received seeds of it from italy, under the name of _indian scabious_; he informs us also that he received seeds of a scabious from spain, which the same year produced flowers of a similar colour, but paler; parkinson says this plant is verily thought to grow naturally in spain and italy; does he borrow this idea from what clusius has advanced? he certainly gives no authority for his supposition: linnÆus mentions it as a native of india with a note of doubt; miller does the same, omitting any doubts about it; mr. aiton leaves its place of growth unsettled. the sweet scabious has long and deservedly held a place as an ornamental plant in our gardens, the flowers are well adapted for nosegays, have a sweet musky smell, and are produced in great profusion from june to october. it is a hardy biennial, requiring yearly to be raised from seeds, these should be sown about the latter end of may, or beginning of june, on a shady border of fresh earth, thinning the plants as they advance to the distance of three or four inches; in autumn they should be removed into the border, where they are intended to flower, thus treated they will become good strong plants against winter, flower early the ensuing summer, and produce abundance of perfect seeds. the blossoms vary in colour, towards autumn the edge of the florets become paler. parkinson, deviating from his usual accuracy, describes the flowers without scent. _vid. parad._ [illustration: _no _] [illustration: _no _] [ ] vinca rosea. madagascar periwinkle. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ contorta. _folliculi_ erecti. _semina_ nuda. _specific character and synonyms._ vinca _rosea_ caule fructescente erecto, foliis ovato oblongis, petiolis basi bidentatis, floribus geminis sessilibus. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ vinca foliis oblongo-ovatis integerrimis, tubo floris longissimo, caule ramoso fruticoso. _mill. icon. ._ the _vinca rosea_ was first cultivated in this country by mr. philip miller in , he observes that it deserves a place in the stove as much as any of the exotic plants we have in england, because the flowers are very beautiful, and there is a constant succession of them all the summer. the following account is extracted from his dictionary. "this plant grows naturally in the island of madagascar, from whence the seeds were brought to the royal garden at paris, where the plants were first raised, and produced their flowers the following summer; from these plants good seeds were obtained, which were sent me by mr. richard, gardener to the king at versailles and trianon. it rises to the height of three or four feet; the branches which when young are succulent become ligneous by age: these flowers which appear early in the summer produce ripe seeds in the autumn. "this sort is propagated by seeds or cuttings in the usual way; unless the summer proves warm these plants should not be placed abroad, for they will not thrive if they are exposed to cold or wet, therefore during the summer they should be placed in an airy glass-case, and in winter they must be removed into the stove, where the air is kept to a temperate heat, without which they will not live through the winter in england. _mill. dict._ there is a variety of this plant having white blossoms with a purple eye. the flowers do not always grow in pairs. [illustration: _no _] [ ] cineraria amelloides. blue-flowered cineraria or cape aster. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia superfloa. _generic character._ _recept._ nullum. _pappus_ simplex. _cal._ simplex polyphyllus æqualis. _specific character and synonyms._ cineraria _amelloides_ pedunculis unifloris, foliis oppositis ovatis nudis, caule suffruticoso. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait kew. v. . p. ._ aster africanus frutescens ramosus, floribus cæruleis, foliis oppositis minimis, caulibus et ramulis in pedunculos nudos exeuntibus. _raii suppl. ._ aster caule ramoso scabro perenni, foliis ovatis sessilibus, pedunculis nudis unifloris. _mill. icon. . f. ._ the _cineraria amelloides_ a plant common in every green-house, was introduced by mr. philip miller as long since as the year , being raised by him from cape seeds; it forms a bushy shrub, of the height of two, or three feet, produces numerous blossoms, which stand singly on long footstalks, are of a pale blue colour; they make some amends for their want of brilliancy by flowering during most of the year. the plant is easily propagated either by seeds or cuttings. [ ] myrtus tomentosa. woolly-leaved myrtle. _class and order._ icosandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus, superus. _petala_ . _bacca_ . s. sperma. _specific character and synonyms._ myrtus _tomentosa_ pedunculis unifloris, foliis triplinervii, subtus tomentosis. _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ arbor sinensis canellæ folio minore, trinervi, prona parte villoso, fructu caryophylli aromatici majoris villis similiter obducto. _pluk. amalth. . t. . f. ._ in the third edition of the _species plant._ of linnÆus, published in , thirteen myrtles are described; in the th edition of the _syst. natur._ published by gmelin in , forty-one are enumerated; thus in twenty-seven years this genus has gained an accession of twenty-eight species: most of these are natives of warm climates, and few comparatively have been introduced to this country, six species only being mentioned in the _hort. kew._ of mr. aiton, in that work the _tomentosa_ here figured, not known to linnÆus or miller is specifically described, and there mr. aiton informs us that it is a native of china, and was introduced by mrs. norman about the year . since that period it has fallen into the hands of various cultivators, and flowered perhaps in greater perfection than it did originally at kew; the peduncles, in the various specimens we have seen usually supporting more than one flower. it is a shrub of great beauty, both in respect to its foliage and flowers, bearing but little similitude to the common myrtle, if suffered to grow, acquiring the height of many feet. its blossoms are produced in june and july, the buds are covered with a white down, as is also the underside of the leaves, whence its name of _tomentosa_. it has been customary to treat it as a stove plant, such it is considered in the _hort. kew._ there is great reason however to believe, that it is by no means tender, and that it may succeed as most of the chinese plants do in a good greenhouse. it is usually increased by cuttings which are struck difficulty. [illustration: _no _] [ ] allium descendens. purple-headed garlick. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ -partita, patens. _spatha_ multiflora. _umbella_ congesta. _caps._ supera. _specific character and synonyms._ allium _descendens_ caule subteretifolio umbellifero, pedunculis exterioribus brevioribus, staminibus tricuspidatis. linn. _syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ allium staminibus alterne trifidis, foliis fistulosis, capite sphærico non bulbifero atropurpureo. _hall. all. tab. . f. p. . xx. ii._ baron haller in his most admirable _monographia_ on the plants of this genus, published in his _opuscula botanica_, describes and figures this species, a hardy perennial, being a native of switzerland, and cultivated according to mr. aiton, in the garden at oxford in . it usually grows to the height of three feet, thriving in almost any soil or situation, its flowers as in many other species grow in a capitulum or little head, not an umbel, strictly speaking, as linnÆus describes it; this head is at first covered with a whitish membrane, wearing some resemblance to a night-cap, on the falling off of which the whole of the capitulum is perceived to be of a green colour, shortly the crown of it becomes of a fine reddish purple, this colour extends itself gradually downwards, presently we see the upper half of the head purple, the lower half green, in this state it has a most pleasing appearance; the purple still extending downwards, the whole head finally becomes uniformly so, and then its flowers begin to open, and emit an odour rather agreeable than otherwise; on dissecting a flower we find three of the stamina in each longer than the others, and bearing two little points, which proceed not from the antheræ, but from the top of the filaments, it is therefore one of those alliums which linnÆus describes, as having _antheræ bicornes_. this species increases readily by offsets, which should be separated and planted in autumn. we know not why linnÆus should give it the name of _descendens_, unless from its being one of those plants whose roots in process of time descend deeply into the earth. [illustration: _no _] [illustration: _no _] [ ] campanula grandiflora. great-flowered bell-flower. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ campanulata fundo clauso valvis staminiferis. _stigma_ trifidium. _caps._ insera poris lateralibus dehiscens. _specific character and synonyms._ campanula _grandiflora_ caule subunifloro, foliis sublanceolatis serratis, corolla patente. _jacq. in litt. hort. v. . t. ._ campanula _grandiflora_ foliis ternis oblongis serratis, caule unifloro, flore patulo. _linn. suppl. p. . syst. veget. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ professor jacquin is, we believe, the first author who has figured this species of campanula, which he has done in his _hortus vindebonensis_; linnÆus the son afterwards inserted it in his _suppl. pl._ assigning it the characters specified above in the synonyms, and expressing his doubts whether it was not a variety of the _campanula carpatica_, already figured in this work, _pl. _. prof. jacquin clearly demonstrates that it cannot be so, as it differs most essentially from that plant in a variety of particulars, _vid. linn. syst. veget. ed. . murr._ his specific description there given, agrees much better with the plants we have seen flower here, than that of linnÆus does, there being generally more than one flower on a stalk, and the leaves rarely growing three together. the blossoms of this plant when it grows in perfection, are very large, nearly twice the size of those of the _campanula carpatica_, whence its name of _grandiflora_; previous to their opening fully, they somewhat resemble an air balloon, from which circumstance it has been called by some the balloon plant. it is a hardy perennial, a native of siberia and tartary, and was introduced to this country by mr. john bell in the year . it flowers in july, is as yet a rare plant in this country, and likely to continue so, as it is not easily increased, multiplying but little by its roots, scarcely to be struck from cuttings, and rarely producing perfect seeds. index. in which the latin names of the plants contained in the _seventh volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ allium descendens. amaryllis atamasco. arabis alpina. argemone mexicana. aquilegia canadensis. bellis perennis var. major fl. pl. buchnera viscosa. campanula grandiflora. chironia baccifera. cineraria amelloides. disandra prostrata. erica cerinthoides. fagonia cretica. fumaria solida. ---- cava. helianthus multiflorus. ipomoea coccinea. ---- quamoclit. linum arboreum. lobelia surinamensis. lychnis coronata. michauxia campanuloides myrtus tomentosa. oxalis caprina. pelargonium tricolor. phylica ericoides. plumbago rosea primula acaulis fl. pl. carneo. scabiosa atropurpurea. senecio elegans. struthiola erecta. teucrium latifolium. trollius asiaticus vinca rosea. verbascum myconi. veronica decussata index. in which the english names of the plants contained in the _seventh volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ bell flower great-flowered. buchnera clammy. chironia berry-bearing. cineraria blue-flowered. columbine canadian. cranes-bill three-coloured daisy great double. disandra trailing. fagonia cretian. flax tree. fumitory solid-rooted. ---- hollow-rooted. garlick purple-headed germander broad-leaved shrubby. globe-flower asiatic. heath honeywort-flowered. ipomoea scarlet. ---- winged-leaved. leadwort rose-coloured. lily atamasco. lobelia shrubby. lychnis chinese. michauxia rough-leaved. mullein borage-leaved. myrtle woolly-leaved. periwinkle madagascar. phylica heath-leaved. poppy prickly. primrose lilac double. rag wort purple. scabious sweet. speedwell cross-leaved. struthiola smooth. sunflower perennial. wall-cress alpine. wood-sorrel goat's-foot. getting acquainted with the trees by j. horace mcfarland _illustrated from photographs by the author_ new york the macmillan company copyright, by the outlook company * * * * * published april, reprinted april, new edition september, reprinted august, march, . foreword these sketches are, i fear, very unscientific and unsystematic. they record the growth of my own interest and information, as i have recently observed and enjoyed the trees among which i had walked unseeing far too many years. to pass on, as well as i can, some of the benefit that has come into my own life from this wakened interest in the trees provided by the creator for the resting of tired brains and the healing of ruffled spirits, as well as for utility, is the reason for gathering together and somewhat extending the papers that have brought me, as they have appeared in the pages of "the outlook," so many letters of fellowship and appreciation from others who have often seen more clearly and deeply into the woods than i may hope to. driven out from my desk by weariness sometimes--and as often, i confess, by a rasped temper i would fain hide from display--i have never failed to find rest, and peace, and much to see and to love, among the common and familiar trees, to which i hope these mere hints of some of their features not always seen may send others who also need their silent and beneficent message. j. h. mcf. _march , _ contents page a story of some maples the growth of the oak pines apples willows and poplars the elm and the tulip nut-bearing trees some other trees index botanical names list of illustrations page silver maple flowers young leaves of the red maple "the norway maple breaks into a wonderful bloom" samaras of the sugar maple a mature sycamore maple sycamore maple blossoms flowers of the ash-leaved maple ash-leaved maples in bloom striped maple the swamp white oak in winter flowers of the pin-oak the swamp white oak in early spring an old post-oak a blooming twig of the swamp white oak acorns of the english oak a lone pine on the indian river hemlock hill, arnold arboretum the long-leaved pines of the south fountain-like effect of the young long-leaved pines an avenue of white pines cones of the white spruce an apple orchard in winter when the apple trees blossom the spectabilis crab in bloom fruits of the wild crab the beauty of a fruiting apple branch bloom of double-flowering apple a weeping willow in early spring the weeping willow in a storm a pussy-willow in a park blooms of the white willow , a white willow in a characteristic position clump of young white willows white poplars in spring-time carolina poplar as a street tree winter aspect of the cottonwood lombardy poplar a mature american elm the delicate tracery of the american elm in winter the english elm in winter winter effect of tulip trees a great liriodendron in bloom flowers of the liriodendron the wide-spreading black walnut the american sweet chestnut in winter sweet chestnut blooms the chinquapin a shagbark hickory in bloom the true nut-eater the american beech in winter the witch-hazel sweet birch in spring yellow birches flowers of the spice-bush leaves and berries of the american holly american holly tree at trenton floral bracts or involucres of the dogwood the red-bud in bloom blooms of the shad-bush flowers of the american linden the american linden flowers of the black locust young trees of the black locust the sycamore, or button-ball button-balls--fruit of the sycamore the liquidambar the leaves and fruit of the liquidambar the papaw in bloom flowers of the papaw the persimmon tree in fruiting time berries of the spice-bush * * * * * a story of some maples this is not a botanical disquisition; it is not a complete account of all the members of the important tree family of maples. i am not a botanist, nor a true scientific observer, but only a plain tree-lover, and i have been watching some trees bloom and bud and grow and fruit for a few years, using a camera now and then to record what i see--and much more than i see, usually! in the sweet springtime, when the rising of the sap incites some to poetry, some to making maple sugar, and some to watching for the first flowers, it is well to look at a few tree-blooms, and to consider the possibilities and the pleasures of a peaceful hunt that can be made with profit in city street or park, as well as along country roadsides and in the meadows and the woods. who does not know of the maples that are all around us? yet who has seen the commonest of them bloom in very early spring, or watched the course of the peculiar winged seed-pods or "keys" that follow the flowers? the white or "silver" maple of streets or roadsides, the soft maple of the woods, is one of the most familiar of american trees. its rapid and vigorous growth endears it to the man who is in a hurry for shade, and its sturdy limbs are the joy of the tree-butcher who "trims" them short in later years. [illustration: silver maple flowers] watch this maple in very early spring--even before spring is any more than a calendar probability--and a singular bloom will be found along the slender twigs. like little loose-haired brushes these flowers are, coming often bravely in sleet and snow, and seemingly able to "set" and fertilize regardless of the weather. they hurry through the bloom-time, as they must do to carry out the life-round, for the graceful two-winged seeds that follow them are picked up and whirled about by april winds, and, if they lodge in the warming earth, are fully able to grow into fine little trees the same season. examine these seed-pods, keys, or samaras (this last is a scientific name with such euphony to it that it might well become common!), and notice the delicate veining in the translucent wings. see the graceful lines of the whole thing, and realize what an abundant provision dame nature makes for reproduction,--for a moderate-sized tree completes many thousands of these finely formed, greenish yellow, winged samaras, and casts them loose for the wind to distribute during enough days to secure the best chances of the season. this same silver maple is a bone of contention among tree-men, at times. some will tell you it is "coarse"; and so it is when planted in an improper place upon a narrow street, allowed to flourish unrestrained for years, and then ruthlessly cropped off to a headless trunk! but set it on a broad lawn, or upon a roadside with generous room, and its noble stature and grace need yield nothing to the most artistic elm of new england. and in the deep woods it sometimes reaches a majesty and a dignity that compel admiration. the great maple at eagles mere is the king of the bit of primeval forest yet remaining to that mountain rest spot. it towers high over mature hemlocks and beeches, and seems well able to defy future centuries. but there is another very early maple to watch for, and it is one widely distributed in the eastern states. the red or scarlet maple is well named, for its flowers, not any more conspicuous in form than those of its close relation, the silver maple, are usually bright red or yellow, and they give a joyous color note in the very beginning of spring's overture. not long are these flowers with us; they fade, only to be quickly succeeded by even more brilliant samaras, a little more delicate and refined than those of the silver maple, as well as of the richest and warmest hue. particularly in new england does this maple provide a notable spring color showing. [illustration: young leaves of the red maple] the leaves of the red maple--it is also the swamp maple of some localities--as they open to the coaxing of april sun and april showers, have a special charm. they are properly red, but mingled with the characteristic color is a whole palette of tints of soft yellow, bronze and apricot. as the little baby leaflets open, they are shiny and crinkly, and altogether attractive. one thinks of the more aristocratic and dwarfed japanese maples, in looking at the opening of these red-brown beauties, and it is no pleasure to see them smooth out into sedate greenness. again, in fall, a glory of color comes to the leaves of the red maple; for they illumine the countryside with their scarlet hue, and, as they drop, form a brilliant thread in the most beautiful of all carpets--that of the autumn leaves. i think no walk in the really happy days of the fall maturity of growing things is quite so pleasant as that which leads one to shuffle through this deep forest floor covering of oriental richness of hue. as the ground warms and the sun searches into the hearts of the buds, the norway maple, familiar street tree of eastern cities, breaks into a wonderful bloom. very deceptive it is, and taken for the opening foliage by the casual observer; yet there is, when these flowers first open, no hint of leaf on the tree, save that of the swelling bud. all that soft haze of greenish yellow is bloom, and bloom of the utmost beauty. the charm lies not in boldness of color or of contrast, but at the other extreme--in the delicacy of differing tints, in the variety of subtle shades and tones. there are charms of form and of fragrance, too, in this norway maple--the flowers are many-rayed stars, and they emit a faint, spicy odor, noticeable only when several trees are together in bloom. and these flowers last long, comparatively; so long that the greenish yellow of the young leaves begins to combine with them before they fall. the tints of flower and of leaf melt insensibly into each other, so that, as i have remarked before, the casual observer says, "the leaves are out on the norway maples,"--not knowing of the great mass of delightful flowers that have preceded the leaves above his unseeing eyes. i emphasize this, for i hope some of my readers may be on the outlook for a new pleasure in early spring--the blooming of this maple, with flowers so thoroughly distinct and so entirely beautiful. [illustration: "the norway maple breaks into a wonderful bloom"] the samaras to follow on this norway maple are smaller than those of the other two maples mentioned, and they hang together at a different angle, somewhat more graceful. i have often wondered how the designers, who work to death the pansies, the roses and the violets, have managed to miss a form or "motive" of such value, suggesting at once the near-by street and far-away egypt. [illustration: samaras of the sugar maple] a purely american species, and one of as much economic importance as any leaf-dropping tree, is the sugar maple, known also as rock maple--one designation because we can get sweetness from its sap, the other because of the hardness of its wood. the sugar maples of new england, to me, are more individual and almost more essentially beautiful than the famed elms. no saccharine life-blood is drawn from the elm; therefore its elegance is considered. i notice that we seldom think much of beauty when it attaches to something we can eat! who realizes that the common corn, the american maize, is a stately and elegant plant, far more beautiful than many a pampered pet of the greenhouse? but this is not a corn story--i shall hope to be heard on the neglected beauty of many common things, some day--and we can for the time overlook the syrup of the sugar maple for its delicate blossoms, coming long after the red and the silver are done with their flowers. these sugar-maple blooms hang on slender stems; they come with the first leaves, and are very different in appearance from the flowers of other maples. the observer will have no trouble in recognizing them after the first successful attempt, even though he may be baffled in comparing the maple leaves by the apparent similarity of the foliage of the norway, the sugar and the sycamore maples at certain stages of growth. [illustration: a mature sycamore maple] after all, it is the autumn time that brings this maple most strongly before us, for it flaunts its banners of scarlet and yellow in the woods, along the roads, with an insouciant swing of its own. the sugar possibility is forgotten, and it is a pure autumn pleasure to appreciate the richness of color, to be soon followed by the more sober cognizance of the elegance of outline and form disclosed when all the delicate tracery of twig and bough stands revealed against winter's frosty sky. the sugar maple has a curious habit of ripening or reddening some of its branches very early, as if it was hanging out a warning signal to the squirrels and the chipmunks to hurry along with their storing of nuts against the winter's need. i remember being puzzled one august morning as i drove along one of delaware's flat, flat roads, to know what could possibly have produced the brilliant, blazing scarlet banner that hung across a distant wood as if a dozen red flags were being there displayed. closer approach disclosed one rakish branch on a sugar maple, all afire with color, while every other leaf on the tree yet held the green of summer. again in the mountains, one late summer, half a lusty sugar maple set up a conflagration which, i was informed, presaged its early death. but the next summer it grew as freely as ever, and retained its sober green until the cool days and nights; just as if the ebullition of the season previous was but a breaking out of extra color life, rather than a suggestion of weakness or death. [illustration: sycamore maple blossoms] the norway maple is botanically _acer platanoides_, really meaning plane-like maple, from the similarity of its leaves to those of the european plane. the sycamore maple is _acer pseudo-platanus_, which, being translated, means that old linnæus thought it a sort of false plane-like maple. both are european species, but both are far more familiar, as street and lawn trees, to us dwellers in cities than are many of our purely american species. there is a little difference in the bark of the two, and the leaves of the sycamore, while almost identical in form, are darker and thicker than those of the norway, and they are whitish underneath, instead of light green. the habit of the two is twin-like; they can scarcely be distinguished when the leaves are off. but the flowers are totally different, and one would hardly believe them to be akin, judging only by appearances. the young leaves of the sycamore maple are lush and vigorous when the long, grape-like flower-clusters appear below the twigs. "racemes" they are, botanically--and that is another truly good scientific word--while the beautiful norway maple's flowers must stand the angular designation of "corymbs." but don't miss looking for the sycamore maple's long, pendulous racemes. they seem more grape-like than grape blossoms; and they stay long, apparently, the transition from flower to fruit being very gradual. i mind me of a sycamore i pass every winter day, with its dead fruit-clusters, a reminiscence of the flower-racemes, swinging in the frosty breeze, waiting until the spring push of the life within the twigs shoves them off. to be ready to recognize this maple at the right time, it is well to observe and mark the difference between it and the norway in the summer time, noting the leaves and the bark as suggested above. [illustration: flowers of the ash-leaved maple] another maple that is different is one variously known as box-elder, ash-leaved maple, or negundo. of rapid growth, it makes a lusty, irregular tree. its green-barked, withe-like limbs seem willing to grow in any direction--down, up, sidewise--and the result is a peculiar formlessness that has its own merit. i think of a fringe of box-elders along paxton creek, decked in early spring with true maple flowers on thread-like stems, each cluster surmounted by soft green foliage apparently borrowed from the ash, and it seems that no other tree could fit better into the place or the season. then i remember another, a single stately tree that has had a great field all to itself, and stands up in superb dignity, dominating even the group of pin-oaks nearest to it. 'twas the surprising mist of bloom on this tree that took me up the field on a run, one spring day, when the running was sweet in the air, but sticky underfoot. the color effect of the flowers is most delicate, and almost indescribable in ordinary chromatic terms. don't miss the acquaintance of the ash-leaved maple at its flowering time, in the very flush of the springtime, my tree-loving friends! i have not found a noticeable fragrance in the flowers of the box-elder, such as is very apparent where there is a group of norway maples in bloom together. the red maples also give to the air a faint and delightfully spicy odor, under favorable conditions. may i hint that the lusty box-elder, when it is booming along its spring growth, furnishes a loose-barked whistle stick about as good as those that come from the willow? the generous growth that provides its loosening sap can also spare a few twigs for the boys, and they will be all the better for a melodious reason for the spring ramble. [illustration: the ash-leaved maples in bloom] the striped maple of pennsylvania, a comparatively rare and entirely curious small tree or large shrub, is not well known, though growing freely as "elkwood" and "moosewood" in the alleghanies, because it is rather hard to transplant, and thus offers no inducements to the nurserymen. these good people, like the rest of us, move along the lines of least resistance, wherefore many a fine tree or fruit is rare to us, because shy or difficult of growth, or perhaps unsymmetrical. the fine rhode island greening apple is unpopular because the young tree is crooked, while the leather-skinned and punk-fleshed ben davis is a model of symmetry and rapidity of growth. our glorious tulip tree of the woods, because of its relative difficulty in transplanting, has had to be insisted upon from the nurserymen by those who know its superb beauty. for the same reason this small charming maple, with the large, soft, comfortable leaves upon which the deer love to browse, is kept from showing its delicate june bloom and its remarkable longitudinally striped bark in our home grounds. i hope some maple friends will look for it, and, finding, admire this, the aristocrat among our native species. [illustration: striped maple] the mountain maple--the nurserymen call it _acer spicatum_--is another native of rather dwarf growth. it is bushy, and not remarkable in leaf, its claim for distinction being in its flowers and samaras, which are held saucily up, above the branches on which they grow, rather than drooping modestly, as other maples gracefully bear their bloom and fruit. these shiny seeds or keys are brightly scarlet, as well, and thus very attractive in color. there is a reason for this, in nature's economy; for while the loosely hung samaras of the other maples are distributed by the breezes, the red pods of this mountain maple hold stiffly upward to attract the birds upon whom it largely depends for that sowing which must precede its reproduction. of the other maples of america--a score of them there are--i might write pages, to weariness. the black maple of the eastern woods, the large-leaved maples of the west, these and many more are in this great family, to say nothing of the many interesting cultivated forms and variations introduced from european nurseries, and most serviceable in formal ornamental planting. but i have told of those i know best and those that any reader can know as well in one season, if he looks for them with the necessary tree love which is but a fine form of true love of god's creation. this love, once implanted, means surer protection for the trees, otherwise so defenseless against the unthinking vandalism of commercialism or incompetence--a vandalism that has not only devastated our american forests, but mutilated shamefully many trees of priceless value in and about our cities. of the japanese maples--their leaves seemingly a showing of the ingenuity of these yankees of the orient, in their twists of form and depths of odd color--i could tell a tale, but it would be of the tree nursery and not of the broad outdoors. let us close the book and go afield, in park or meadow, on street or lawn, and look to the maples for an unsuspected feast of bloom, if it be spring, or for richness of foliage in summer and autumn; and in coldest winter let us notice the delicate twigs and yet sturdy structure of this tree family that is most of all characteristic of the home, in city or country. the growth of the oak the old saw has it, "great oaks from little acorns grow," and all of us who remember the saying have thus some idea of what the beginning of an oak is. but what of the beginning of the acorn? in a general way, one inferentially supposes that there must be a flower somewhere in the life-history of the towering white oak that has defied the storms of centuries and seems a type of everything sturdy and strong and masculine; but what sort of a flower could one imagine as the source of so much majesty? we know of the great magnolias, with blooms befitting the richness of the foliage that follows them. we see, and some of us admire, the exquisitely delicate blossoms of that splendid american tree, the tulip or whitewood. we inhale with delight the fragrance that makes notable the time when the common locust sends forth its white racemes of loveliness. but we miss, many of us, the flowering of the oaks in early spring, and we do not realize that this family of trees, most notable for rugged strength, has its bloom of beginning at the other end of the scale, in flowers of delicate coloring and rather diminutive size. the reason i missed appreciating the flowers of the oak--they are quite new to me--for some years of tree admiration was because of the distracting accompaniment the tree gives to the blooms. some trees--most of the maples, for instance--send out their flowers boldly ahead of the foliage, and it is thus easy to see what is happening above your head, as you stroll along drinking in the spring's nectar of spicy air. others, again, have such showy blooms that the mass of foliage only accentuates their attractiveness, and it is not possible to miss them. [illustration: the swamp white oak in winter] but the oak is different; it is, as modest as it is strong, and its bloom is nearly surrounded by the opening leaves in most seasons and in most of the species i am just beginning to be acquainted with. then, too, these opening leaves are of such indescribable colors--if the delicate chromatic tints they reflect to the eye may be so strongly named--that they harmonize, and do not contrast, with the flowers. it is with them almost as with a fearless chipmunk whose acquaintance i cultivated one summer--he was gay with stripes of soft color, yet he so fitted any surroundings he chose to be in that when he was quiet he simply disappeared! the oak's flowers and its exquisite unfolding of young foliage combine in one effect, and it is an effect so beautiful that one easily fails to separate its parts, or to see which of the mass of soft pink, gray, yellow and green is bloom and which of it is leafage. [illustration: flowers of the pin-oak] take the pin-oak, for instance, and note the softness of the greenery above its flowers. hardly can we define the young leaves as green--they are all tints, and all beautiful. this same pin-oak, by the way (i mean the one the botanists call _quercus palustris_), is a notable contradiction of the accepted theory that an oak of size and dignity cannot be reared in a lifetime. there are hundreds of lusty pin-oaks all over the eastern states that are shading the homes of the wise men who planted them in youth, and they might well adorn our parks and avenues in place of many far less beautiful and permanent trees. with ordinary care, and in good soil, the pin-oak grows rapidly, and the characteristic spreading habit and the slightly down-drooping branches are always attractive. in its age it has not the ruggedness of its kin, though it assumes a stately and somewhat formal habit, and, i must confess, accumulates some ragged dead branches in its interior. this raggedness is easily cared for, for the tree requires--and few trees do--no "trimming" of its outer branches. the interior twigs that the rapid growth of the tree has deprived of air and light can be quickly and easily removed. in washington, where street-tree planting has been and is intelligently managed under central authority, the avenues of pin-oaks are a splendid feature of the great boulevards which are serving already as a model to the whole country. let us plant oaks, and relieve the monotony of too many maples, poplars and horse-chestnuts along our city and village highways. i like, too, to see the smooth little acorns of the pin-oak before the leaves drop; they seem so finished and altogether pleasing, and with the leaves make a classical decorative motive worth more attention from designers. while i am innocent of either ability or intent to write botanically of the great oak family, i ought perhaps to transcribe the information that the flowers we see--if we look just at the right time in the spring--are known as "staminate catkins,"--which, being interpreted, means that there are also pistillate flowers, much less conspicuous, but exceedingly necessary if acorns are to result; and also the fact that the familiar "pussy-willow" of our acquaintance is the same form of bloom--the catkin, or ament. i ought to say, too, that some of the oaks perfect acorns from blossoms in one year, while others must grow through two seasons before they are mature. botanically, the oak family is nearly a world family, and we americans, though possessed of many species, have no monopoly of it. indeed, if i may dare to refer the reader to that great storehouse of words, the encyclopædia britannica, i think he will find that the oak is there very british, and that the english oak, surely a magnificent tree in england anyway, is patriotically glorified to the writer. but we want to talk of some of our own oaks. the one thoroughly characteristic is surely the noble white oak, a tree most admirable in every way, and most widely distributed over the northern states. its majestic form, as it towers high above the ordinary works of man, conveys the repose of conscious strength to the beholder. there is a great oak in connecticut to which i make pilgrimages, and from which i always get a message of rest and peace. there it stands, strong, full-powered, minding little the most furious storms, a benediction to every one who will but lift his eyes. there it has stood in full majesty for years unknown, for it was a great oak, so run the title-deeds, way back in , when first the white man began to own land in the connecticut valley. at first sight it seems not large, for its perfect symmetry conceals its great size; but its impression grows as one looks at it, until it seems to fill the whole landscape. i have sat under it in spring, when yet its leafy canopy was incomplete; i have looked into its green depths in midsummer, when its grateful shadow refreshed the highway; i have seen the sun set in redness beyond its bare limbs, the snowy countryside emphasizing its noble lines; i have tried to fathom the mystery in its sturdy heart overhead when the full moon rode in the sky; and always that "great oak of glastonbury" has soothed and cheered and rested, and taken me nearer the giver of all such good to restless humanity. do i wonder at my friend who has built his home where he may look always at this white oak, or that he raged in anger when a crabbed neighbor ruthlessly cut down a superb tree of the same kind that was on his property line, in order that he might run his barbed-wire fence straight? no; i agree with him that this tree-murderer has probably a barbed-wire heart, and we expect that his future existence will be treeless, at least! [illustration: the swamp white oak in early spring] sometimes this same white oak adapts itself to the bank of a stream, though its true character develops best in the drier ground. its strength has been its bane, for the value of its timber has caused many a great isolated specimen to be cut down. it is fine to know that some states--massachusetts, connecticut, and rhode island also, i think--have given to trees along highways, and in situations where they are part of the highway landscape, the protection of a wise law. under this law each town appoints a tree-warden, serving without pay (and therefore with love), who may seal to the town by his label such trees as are truly the common possession, regardless of whose land they happen to be on. if the owner desires to cut down a tree thus designated, he must first obtain permission, after stating satisfactory reasons, of the annual town-meeting, and this is not so easy as to make cutting very frequent. the whole country should have such a law, and i should enjoy its application right here in pennsylvania, where oaks of a hundred years have been cut down to make room for a whisky sign, and where a superb pin-oak that i passed today is devoted to an ignominious use. if i may venture to become hortatory, let me say that the responsibility for the preservation of the all-too-few remaining great primeval trees, and of their often notable progeny, in our eastern states, rests with those who care for trees, not alone with those who ought to care. to talk about the greatness and beauty of a fine oak or maple or tulip, to call attention to its shade value, and to appeal to the cupidity of the ground owner by estimating how much less his property will be worth when the trees are gone or have been mishandled, will aid to create the necessary public sentiment. and to provide wise laws, as may be often done with proper attention, is the plain duty and the high privilege of the tree-loving citizen. the trees are defenseless, and they are often unreplaceable; if you love them protect them as you would your children. the white-oak leaf is the most familiar and characteristic, perhaps, of the family; but other species, close to the white oak in habit, show foliage of a very different appearance. the swamp white oak, for instance, is a noble tree, and in winter particularly its irregular branches give it an especial expression of rugged strength as it grows along a brookside; but its leaves smooth up on the edges, giving only a hint of the deep serrations that typify its upland brother. deeply green above are these leaves and softly white below, and in late summer there appears, here and there, on a stout stem, a most attractive acorn of large size. its curious cup gives a hint, or more than a hint, as to the special designating character of another oak, the mossy-cup or bur. this latter species is beautiful in its habit, rich in its foliage, and the fringed or mossed acorns are of a remarkable size. [illustration: an old post-oak] of all the oaks, the sturdy but not lofty post-oak spreads the richest display of foliage. its peculiar habit leads to the even placing of its violoncello-shaped leaves, and its generous crop of acorns gives added distinction in late summer. it is fine in the forest, and a notable ornament anywhere. it has been said that a proper penance for an offending botanist would be a compulsory separation and description of the involved and complicated goldenrod family; and i would suggest that a second edition of the same penance might be a requirement to name off-hand the first dozen oak trees the same poor botanist might meet. so much do the foliage, the bark, and the habit of growth vary, and so considerable is the difference between individuals of the same species, that the wisest expert is likely to be the most conservative. an unbotanical observer, who comes at the family just because he loves trees in general, and is poking his eyes and his camera into unusual places, doesn't make close determinations; he tells what he thinks he sees, and leaves exact work to the scientists. [illustration: a blooming twig of the swamp white oak] there are some oaks, however, that have borrowed the foliage of other trees so cunningly that one at first scouts the possibility of the quercus parentage, until he sees an undeniable acorn thrusting itself forward. then he is sure that what seemed a rather peculiarly shaped chestnut tree, with somewhat stumpy foliage, is none other than the chestnut-oak. a fine tree it is, too, this same chestnut-oak, with its masquerading foliage of deep green, its upright and substantial habit, its rather long and aristocratic-looking acorns. the authorities tell that its wood, too, is brownish and valuable; but we tree-lovers are not enthusiastic over mere timber values, because that means the killing of the trees. the willow-oak will not deceive, because its habit is so oak-like and so willow-less; but its foliage is surely borrowed from its graceful and more rapidly growing neighbor. not so large, by any means, as the white oak or the chestnut-oak, it has somewhat rough and reddish bark, and its acorns are perfected in the second year of their growth, close to the twigs, in the way of the pin-oak. the general aspect of the tree is upright, rather than spreading, and it partakes thus of the maple character in its landscape effect. the willow-oak is one of the species i would, if i were writing a tree-planting article, heartily commend to those who wish to add adornment to the countryside that shall be permanent and satisfactory. just a hint here: nursery-grown oaks, now obtainable from any modern establishment, have usually been frequently moved or transplanted, as the trade term goes, and this means that they have established a somewhat self-contained root system, which will give them far greater vigor and cause them to take hold sooner when finally placed in a situation where they are to be permanent features. the reason is plain: the forest seedling, in the fierce struggle for existence usually prevailing, must send its roots far and wide for food, and when it is dug out their feeding capacity is so seriously curtailed as to check the growth of the tree for many years. the nursery-grown tree, on the contrary, has been brought up "by hand," and its food has always been convenient to it, leading to more rapid growth and a more compact root system. i only interject this prosaic fact here in the hope that some of my tree-loving readers will undertake to plant some oaks instead of only the soft-wooded and less permanent maples, poplars, and the like. another simulative leaf is that of the laurel-oak, and it is color and gloss as well as shape that have been borrowed from its humbler neighbor in the forest. the shining green of the laurel is seen in these oak leaves; they are also half evergreen, thus being one of the family particularly belonging to our southern states, and hardly enduring the chill of the winters north of virginia. it is one of the galaxy of oaks i remember as providing a special interest in the georgia forests, where the long-leaved pine also gave a new tree sensation to the visitor from the north, who at first could hardly imagine what those lovely little green fountains of foliage were that he saw along the roadside and in the woods. the georgia oaks seem to me to have a richness of foliage, a color and substance and shine, that compare only with the excellence of two other products of the same state--the peach and the watermelon. the long summer and the plenitude of sunshine seem to weave into these products luxuriance found nowhere else; and when one sees for the first time a happy, rollicking bunch of round-eyed negro children, innocent alike of much clothing or any trouble, mixing up with the juicy georgia melon under the shade of a luxuriant oak, he gets a new conception of at least one part of the race problem! one of the things i wanted much to see when i first traveled south was the famed live-oak, the majesty and the mournfulness of which had been long sung into me. perhaps i expected too much, as i did of the palmetto, another part of my quest, but surely there was disappointment when i was led, on the banks of the manatee river in florida, to see a famous live-oak. it was tall and grand, but its adornment of long, trailing gray spanish moss, which was to have attached the sadness to it, seemed merely to make it unkempt and uncomfortable. i was instantly reminded of a tree at home in the far north that i had never thought particularly beautiful, but which now, by comparison, took on an attractiveness it has never since lost. imagine a great spreading weeping willow turned dingy gray, and you have a fair picture of a moss-covered live-oak; but you will prefer it green, as is the willow, i believe. one day a walk about savannah, which city has many splendid live-oaks in its parks and squares, involved me in a sudden shower, when, presto! the weeping willow of the north was reincarnated before my eyes, for the falling rain turned the dingy moss pendants of the live-oak to the whitish green that makes the willow such a delightful color-note in early spring. i have been thankful often for that shower, for it gave a better feeling about the live-oak, and made me admire the weeping willow. the live-oak, by the way, has a leaf very little like the typical oak--it is elliptical in shape and smooth in outline. the curious parasitic moss that so frequently covers the tree obscures the really handsome foliage. the english oak, grand tree that it is, grows well in america, as everything english should by right, and there are fine trees of this _quercus robur_ on long island. the acorns are of unusual elegance, as the photograph which shows them will prove. the red oak, the black oak, the scarlet oak, all splendid forest trees of the northeast, are in the group of confusion that can be readily separated only by the timber-cruiser, who knows every tree in the forest for its economic value, or by the botanist, with his limp-bound gray's manual in hand. i confess to bewilderment in five minutes after the differences have been explained to me, and i enjoyed, not long ago, the confusion of a skilful nurseryman who was endeavoring to show me his young trees of red oak which the label proved to be scarlet! but the splendidly effective trees themselves can be fully appreciated, and the distinctions will appear as one studies carefully the features of these living gifts of nature's greenness. the trees wait on one, and once the habit of appreciation and investigation is formed, each walk afield, in forest or park, leads to the acquirement of some new bit of tree-lore, that becomes more precious and delightful as it is passed on and commented upon in association with some other member of the happily growing fraternity of nature-lovers. [illustration: acorns of the english oak] these oak notes are not intended to be complete, but only to suggest some points for investigation and appreciation to my fellows in the brotherhood. i have never walked between trenton and new york, and therefore never made the desired acquaintance with the scrub-oaks along the way. nor have i dipped as fully into the oak treasures of the arnold arboretum as i want to some day. but my camera is yet available and the trees are waiting; the tree love is growing and the tree friends are inviting, and together we will add to the oak knowledge and to that thankfulness for god and life and love and friends that the trees do most constantly cause to flourish. the pines in popular estimation, the pines seem to belong to the north, not quite so exclusively as do the palms to the south. the ragged, picturesque old pines, spruces and hemlocks of our remembrance carry with them the thought of great endurance, long life and snowy forests. we think of them, too, as belonging to the mountains, not to the plains; as clothing steep slopes with their varied deep greens rather than as standing against the sky-line of the sea. yet i venture to think that the most of us in the east see oftenest the pines peculiar to the lowlands, as we flit from city to city over the steel highways of travel, and have most to do, in an economical sense, with a pine that does not come north of the carolinas--the yellow pine which furnishes our familiar house-flooring. the pine family, as we discuss it, is not all pines, in exactitude--it includes many diverse trees that the botanist describes as conifers. these cone-bearing trees are nearly all evergreens--that is, the foliage persists the year round, instead of being deciduous, as the leaf-dropping maples, oaks, birches, and the like are scientifically designated. historically the pines are of hoary age, for they are closely related to the growths that furnished the geologic coal measures stored up in the foundations of the earth for our use now. economically, too, all the pine family together is of vast importance--"the most important order of forest trees in the economy of civilized man," says dr. fernow; for, as he adds, the cone-bearing trees "have furnished the bulk of the material of which our civilization is built." as usual, civilization has destroyed ruthlessly, thoughtlessly, almost viciously, in using this material; wherefore the devastation of the forests, moving them back from us farther and farther until in many regions they are but a thin fringe, has left most of us totally unfamiliar with these trees, of the utmost beauty as well as of the greatest value. [illustration: a lone pine on the indian river] to know anything at all of the spruces, pines and hemlocks is to love them for the refreshment there is in their living presence, rather than to consider them merely for the timber value. but the point of view differs immensely with one's occupation. i remember finding in the depths of an alleghany forest a comparatively rare native orchid, then new to me--the round-leaved _or orbicular habenaria_. while i was gloating over it with my camera a gray-haired native of the neighborhood joined me, and, to my surprise, assisted in the gloating--he, too, loved the woods and the plants. coming a little later to a group of magnificent hemlocks, with great, clean, towering trunks reaching up a hundred feet through the soft maples and yellow birches and beeches which seemed dwarfed by these veterans, i exclaimed in admiration. "yes," he said, "them's mighty fine hemlocks. i calc'late thet one to the left would bark near five dollars' wuth!" on the rare plant we had joined in esthetic appreciation, but the hemlock was to the old lumberman but a source of tan-bark. this search for tannin, by the way, is to blame for much wanton destruction. young hemlocks, from four to six inches in diameter, are felled, stripped of their bark, and left cumbering the ground, to invite fire and to make of the woods an unkempt cemetery. the fall of a tree from natural causes is followed by the interesting and beauty-making process of its mossy decay and return to the forest floor, furnishing in the process nourishment for countless seedlings and plants. a tree felled in maturity under enlightened forest management is all removed for its timber, and leaves the ground clear; but the operations of the bark-hunter leave only hideous destruction and a "slash" that is most difficult to clear in later years. this same hemlock makes a most impressive forest. to walk among primeval hemlocks brings healing to the mind and peace to the soul, as one realizes fully that "the groves were god's first temples," and that god is close to one in these beneficent solitudes, where petty things must fall away, vexations cease, and man's spiritual nature absorb the message of the forest. [illustration: hemlock hill, arnold arboretum (boston)] i wonder how many of my readers realize that an exquisite bit of real hemlock forest lies not five miles from boston common? at the arnold arboretum, that noble collection of trees and plants, "hemlock hill" is assuming deeper majesty year after year as its trees gain age and size. it presents exactly the pure forest conditions, and makes accessible to thousands the full beauty and soothing that nothing but a coniferous forest can provide for man. there is the great collateral advantage, too, that to reach hemlock hill, the visitor must use a noble entrance, and pass other trees and plants which, in the adequate setting here given, cannot but do him much good, and prepare him for the deep sylvan temple of the hemlocks he is seeking. to visit the arboretum at the time when the curious variety of the apple relatives--pyruses and the like--bloom, is to secure a great benefit of sight and scent, and it is almost certain to make one resolve to return when these blossoms shall, by nature's perfect work, have become fruit. here the fruit is grown for its beauty only, and thus no gastronomic possibilities interfere with the appreciation of color, and form, and situation! but again, to come to the arboretum some time during the reign of the lilacs is to experience an even greater pleasure, perhaps, for here the old farm garden "laylock" assumes a wonderful diversity of form and color, from the palest wands of the persian sorts to the deepest blue of some of the french hybrids. the pines themselves will well repay any investigation and appreciation. seven species are with us in the new england and middle atlantic states, seven more are found south, while the great west, with its yet magnificent forests, has twenty-five pines of distinct character. the white pine is perhaps most familiar to us, because of its economic importance, and it is as well the tallest and most notable of all those we see in the east. from its first essay as a seedling, with its original cluster of five delicate blue-green leaflets, to its lusty youth, when it is spreading and broad, if given room to grow, it is a fine object, and i have had some thrills of joy at finding this splendid common thing planted in well-placed groups on the grounds of wealthy men, instead of some japanese upstart with a name a yard long and a truly crooked oriental disposition! in age the white pine dominates any landscape, wearing even the scars of its long battle with the elements with stately dignity. a noble pair of white pines on the shore of lake champlain i remember especially--they were the monarchs of the lakeside as they towered above all other trees. ragged they were, their symmetry gone long years ago through attacks of storms and through strife with the neighboring trees that had succumbed while they only suffered and stood firm. yet they seemed all complete, of proved strength and staying power, and their aspect was not of defiance or anger, but rather indicative of beneficent strength, as if they said, "here we stand; somewhat crippled, it is true, but yet pointing upright to the heavens, yet vigorous, yet seed-bearing and cheerful!" another group of these white pines that stood close to some only less picturesque red pines on the shores of a pond deep in the adirondacks emphasized again for me one may day the majesty of this beneficent friend of mankind; and yet another old pine monarch against the sunset sky pointed the westward way from the picturesque cornell campus, and alas! also pointed the danger to even this one unreplaceable tree when modern "enterprise" constructs a trolley line on a scenic route, ruthlessly destroying the very features that make the route desirable, rather than go to any mechanical trouble! my readers will easily recall for themselves just the same sort of "old pine" groups they have record of on memory's picture-gallery, and will, i am sure, agree with me as to the informality, dignity and true beauty of these survivors of the forest, all of which deserve to be appreciatively cared for, against any encroachment of train, trolley or lumberman. i am ashamed to say i have not yet seen the blossoms of the white pine, which the botanists tell us come in early spring, minute and light brown, to be followed by the six-inch-long cones which mature the second year. i promise my camera that another spring it shall be turned toward these shy blossoms. [illustration: the long-leaved pines of the south] [illustration: the fountain-like effect of the young long-leaved pine] any one who has traveled south of virginia, even by the pullman way of not seeing, cannot fail to have noted the lovely green leaf-fountains springing up from the ground along the railroads. these are the young trees of the long-leaved or southern yellow pine. how beautiful they are, these narrow leaves of vivid green, more than a foot long, drooping gracefully from the center outward, with none of the stiffness of our northern species! in some places they seem to fairly bubble in green from all the surface of the ground, so close are they. and the grand long-leaved pine itself, maintained in lusty vigor above these greeneries, is a tree of simple dignity, emphasized strongly when seen at its best either in the uncut forest, or in a planted avenue. we of the north are helping to ruin the next generation of southern pines by lavish use, for decorations, of the young trees of about two feet high, crowded with the long drooping emerald needles. the little cut-off pine lasts a week or two, in a parlor--it took four or five years to grow! all pine-cones are interesting, and there is a great variation between the different species. the scrub-pine one sees along the railroads between new york and philadelphia has rather stubby cones, while the pitch-pine, beloved of the fireplace for its "light-knots," has a somewhat pear-shaped and gracefully disposed cone. a most peculiar cone is that of a variety of the norway pine, which, among other species brought from europe, is valued for ornament. the common jack-pine of the middle states hillsides wears symmetrical and handsome cones with dignity. cones are, of course, the fruits or seed-holders of the pine, but the seeds themselves are found at the base of the scales, or parts of the cones, attached in pairs. each cone, like an apple, has in its care a number of seeds, which it guards against various dangers until a kindly soil encourages the rather slow germination characteristic of the order. the nurserymen have imported many pines from europe, which give pleasing variety to our ornamental plantings, and aid in enriching the winter coloring. the austrian pine and the scotch pine are welcome additions to our own pine family. in these days of economic chemistry and a deficient rag supply, every reader of these words is probably in close proximity to an important spruce product--paper. the manufacturers say, with hand on heart, that they do not use _much_ wood pulp, but when one has passed a great paper-mill flanked on all sides by piles of spruce logs, with no bales of rags in sight anywhere, he is tempted to think otherwise! modern forestry is now planting trees on waste lands for the pulp "crop," and the common poplar is coming in to relieve the spruces. beautiful trees are these spruces and firs, either in the forest or when brought by the planter to his home grounds. the leaves are much shorter than those of most pines, and clothe the twigs closely. there is a vast variety in color, too, from the wonderful whitish or "glaucous" blue of the colorado blue spruce, to the deep shining green of nordmann's fir, a splendid introduction from the caucasus. look at them, glistening in the winter sun, or drooping with the clinging snow; walk in a spruce wood, inhaling the bracing balsamic fragrance which seems so kindly to the lungs; hark to the music of the wind in their tops, telling of health and purity, of god's love and provision for man's mind and heart, and you will begin to know the song of the firs. to really hear this grand symphony, for such it then becomes, you must listen to the wind playing on the tops of a great primeval coniferous forest, of scores and hundreds of acres or miles in extent. and even then, many visits are needed, for there are movements to this symphony--the allegro of the gale, the scherzo of the easy morning breeze, the deep adagio of a rain-storm, and the andante of warm days and summer breezes, when you may repose prone upon a soft carpet of pine needles, every sense made alert, yet soothed, by the master-theme you are hearing. there is a little wood of thick young pines, interspersed with hard maple and an occasional birch, close by the lake of the eagles, where my summers are made happy. the closeness of the pines has caused their lower branches to die, as always in the deep forest, and the falling needles, year by year, have deepened the soft brown carpet that covers the forest floor. some one, years ago, struck by the aisles that the straight trunks mark out so clearly, called this the "cathedral woods." the name seems appropriate at all times, but especially when, on a warm sunday afternoon, i lie at ease on the aromatic carpet, hearing the soft organ tones in the pine tops, and drinking in god's forest message. [illustration: an avenue of white pines] i have visited these pine woods at midnight, when a full moon, making brilliant the near-by lake, gave but a ghostly gloom in the deep, deep silence of the cathedral; but, more impressive, i have often trodden through in a white fog, when the distance was misty and dim, and the aisles seemed longer and higher, and to lead one further away from the trifles of temper and trial. indeed, i do not believe that any one who has but once fully received from the deep forest that which it gives out so freely and constantly can ever think of things trivial, or of minor annoyances, while again within its soothing portals. but of the trees of the forest of pine and spruce it must be noted that sometimes the deepest, glossiest green of the leaves as presented to the eye only hides the dainty, white-lined interior surface of those same leaves. to the outside, a somber dignity, unassailable, untouched by frost or sun, protective, defenseful, as nature often appears to the careless observer; but inside is light, softly reflected, revealing unsuspected delicacies of structure and finish. to us who are not woodsmen or "timber-cruisers" the most familiar of all the spruces is the introduced form from norway. its yellowish green twigs are bright and cheerful, and in specimens that have reached the fruiting age the crown of cones, high up in the tree, is an additional charm, for these soft brown "strobiles," as the botanist calls them, are smooth and regular, and very different from those of the rugged pines. i have often been told that the norway spruce was short-lived, and that it became unkempt in age; but now that i have lived for ten years and more beside a noble specimen, i know that the change from the upreaching push of youth to the semi-drooping sedateness of maturity is only a taking on of dignity. there stands on the home grounds of a true tree-lover in pennsylvania a norway spruce that has been untouched by knife or disaster since its planting many years ago. no pruning has shortened in its "leader" or top, no foolish idea of "trimming it up" has been allowed to deprive it of the very lowest branches, which, in consequence, now sweep the ground in full perfection, while the unchecked point of the tree still aspires upward forty feet above. a beautiful object is this tree--perhaps the most beautiful of all the conifers in my friend's great "pinetum," with its scores of rare species. let me ask, then, those who would set this or any other tree of evergreen about the home, to see to it that the young tree from the nursery has all its lower branches intact, and that its top has never been mutilated. with care, such specimens may be obtained and successfully transplanted, and will grow in time to a lovely old age of steady greenness. the balsam fir is almost indistinguishable from the norway spruce when young, but soon grows apart from it in habit, and is hardly as desirable, even though a native. it is rich in the true balsamic odor; and this, again, is its destruction; for one "spruce pillow" may destroy a half dozen trees! [illustration: cones of the white spruce] the white cedar, our common juniper, with its aromatic blue berries or fruits, is perhaps the most familiar of all the native evergreens. it comes to us of pennsylvania all too freely at christmas time, when the tree of joy and gifts may mean, in the wholesale, sad forest destruction. this juniper i have associated particularly with the dogwood and the red-bud, to the bloom of which it supplies a most perfect background in the favorite conewago park, a purely natural reservation of things beautiful along the pennsylvania railroad. its lead-pencil sister, the red cedar, reaches our literary senses as closely as does the pulp-making spruce! i might write much of the rare introduced cypresses from japan and china, and of the peculiar variations that have been worked out by the nurserymen among the native pines and firs; yet this would not be talk of the trees of the open ground, but rather of the nursery and the park. also, if i had but seen them, there would be much to say about the magnificent conifers of the great west, from the giant red-woods, or sequoias, of the mariposa grove in california to the richly varied pines of the rockies. but i can only suggest to my readers the intimate consideration of all this great pine family, so peculiarly valuable to mankind, and the use of some of the pines and spruces about the home for the steady cheer of green they so fully provide. apples well do i remember one of the admonitions of my youth, brought upon me by an attempt to take apple-blossoms from a tree in bloom because they were beautiful. i was told that it was wrong to pluck for any purpose the flowers of fruit trees, because the possible fruitage might thereby be reduced. that is, feeding the eye was improper, but it was always in order to conserve all the possibilities for another organ of the body. in those days we had not learned that nature provides against contingencies, and that not one-tenth of all the blossoms would be needed to "set" as much fruit as the tree could possibly mature. the apple, well called the king of fruits, is worthy of all admiration as a fruit; but i do not see why that need interfere in the least with its consideration as an object of beauty. on the contrary, such consideration is all the better for the apple, which is not only most desirable and pleasing in its relation to the dessert, the truly celebrated american pie, the luscious dumpling of the housewife, and the italian's fruit-stand of our cities, but is at the same time a benefaction to the eye and the sense of beauty, in tree, in blossom, and in fruit. it is of the esthetic value of the apple i would write, leaving its supreme place in pomology unassailed. look at the young apple tree in the "nursery row," where it has been growing a year since it was "budded"--that is, mysteriously changed from the wild and untamed fruit of nature to the special variety designed by the nurseryman. it is a straight, shapely wand, in most varieties, though it is curious to find that some apples, notably the favorite rhode island greening, start in promptly to be picturesquely crooked and twisty. as it grows and branches under the cultivation and guidance of the orchardist, it maintains a lusty, hearty aspect, its yellowish, reddish or brownish twigs--again according to variety--spreading out to the sun and the air freely. a decade passes, and the sparse showing of bloom that has decorated it each spring gradually gives place to a great glory of flowers. the tree is about to bear, and it assumes the character of maturity; for while it grows on soberly for many years, there is now a spreading, a sort of relaxation, very different from the vigorous upshooting of its early youth. after a crop or two, the tree has become, to the eye, the familiar orchard member, and it leans a little from the blasts of winter, twists aside from the perpendicular, spreads comfortably over a great expanse of ground, and settles down to its long, useful, and truly beautiful life. while the young orchard is trim and handsome, i confess to a greater liking for the rugged old trees that have followed blossom with fruit in unstinted profusion for a generation. there is a certain character of sturdy good-will about these substantial stems that the clinging snows only accentuate in winter. the framework of limb and twig is very different from that of the other trees, and the twisty lines seem to mean warmth and cheer, even against a frosty sky. and these old veterans are house trees, too--they do not suggest the forest or the broad expanse of nature, but, instead, the proximity of man and the home, the comfortable summer afternoon under their copious leafage, the great piles of ruddy-cheeked fruit in autumn. [illustration: an apple orchard in winter] i need hardly say anything of the apple-blossoms, for those who read these words are almost certain to have long appreciated their delicately fragrant blush and white loveliness. the apricot and the cherry are the first of the fruit trees to sing the spring song, and they cover themselves with white, in advance of any sign of green leaves on their twigs. the apple has an advantage; coming more deliberately, the little pink buds are set amidst the soft greens of the opening foliage, and the leaves and flowers expand together in their symphony of color and fragrance. the grass has grown lush by this time, the dandelions are punctuating it with gold, and everything is in the full riot of exuberant springtime. but there are apples and apples and apples. even the plain orchard gives us a difference in flowers, as well as in tree aspect. notice the trees this coming may; mark the flat, white flowers on one tree, the cup-shaped, pink-veined blooms on another. follow both through the fruiting, and see whether the sweeter flower brings the more sugary fruit. this fact ascertained, perhaps it may be followed up by observation of the distinctive color of the twigs and young branches--for there are wide differences in this respect, and the canny tree-grower knows his pets afar. perhaps there is a "crab" in the old orchard, ready to give the greatest burst of bloom--for the crab-apple flower is usually finer and more fragrant than any other of the cultivated forms. it is an especial refuge of the birds and the bees, you will find, and it invites them with its rare fragrance and deeper blush, so that they may work all the more earnestly at the pollination without which all this richness of bloom would be ineffective in nature's reproductive scheme. [illustration: when the apple trees blossom] this same crab-apple is soon to be, as its brilliant fruit matures, a notable object of beauty, for few ornamental trees can vie with its display of shining color. there was a great old crab right in the flower garden of my boyhood home, amid quaint box-trees, snowballs and lilacs. lilies-of-the-valley flourished in its shadow, the delicate bleeding-heart mingled with old-fashioned irises and peonies at its feet. from early spring until mid-august the crab-apple held court of beauty there--and an always hungry boy often found something in addition to beauty in the red and yellow fruits that were acid but aromatic. with a little attention, if one would plant crab-apples for their loveliness of fruit hue and form, a fine contrast of color may be had; for some varieties are perfect in clear yellow, against others in deepest scarlet, bloom-covered with blue haze, and yet others which carry all the colors from cream to crimson--the latter as the warm sun paints deeper. why do we not plant more fruit trees for beauty? not one of our familiar fruits will fail us in this respect, if so considered. the apricot will often have its white flowers open to match the purity of the last snow, the cherry will follow with a burst of bloom, the apples and crab-apples will continue the show, aided by plum and pear and peach, and the quince--ah, there's a flower in a green enamel setting!--will close the blooming-time. but the cherry fruits now redden in shining roundness, the earlier apples throw rich gleams of color to the eye, and there is chromatic beauty until frost bids the last russets leave their stems, leaving bare the framework of the trees, to teach us in lines of symmetry and efficiency how strength and elegance are combined in nature's handiwork. do you fear that some of the fruit may be taken? what of it? plant for beauty, and the fruit is all extra--give it away freely, and pass on to others some of god's good gifts, to your own true happiness! there is another crab-apple that is distinctive in its elegance, color and fragrance. it is the true "wild crab" of eastern north america, and one who makes its acquaintance in blooming time will never forget it. the tree is not large, and it is likely to be set with crooked, thorny branches; but the flowers! deep pink or rosy red chalices, rather longer than the commonplace apple-blossom, and hanging on long and slender stems in a certain picturesquely stiff disposition, they are a joy for the senses of sight and fragrance. this notable native may be found on rich slopes and in dry glades--it is not fond of swamps. it is grown by some enlightened nurserymen, too, and can well be planted in the home grounds to their true adornment. the blossoms give way to form handsome yellow fruits, about an inch in diameter, which are themselves much more ornamental than edible, for even the small boy will not investigate a second time the bitter flesh. i have heard that a cider of peculiar "hardness" and potency, guaranteed to unsettle the firmest head, is made from these acid fruits--but i have not found it necessary to extend my tree studies in that direction. [illustration: the spectabilis crab in bloom] the states west of kansas do not know this lovely wild crab, to which the botanists give a really euphonious designation as _pyrus coronaria_. there is a prairie-states crab-apple, which i have never seen, but which, i am told, has nothing like the beauty of our exquisite eastern native. this western species lacks the long stem and the bright color of the flowers of our favorite, and its fruits, while quite as viciously sour, are a dull and greasy green. the great west has many other things, but we have the wild crab-apple. rather between, as to beauty, is the native crab-apple of the southland, which is known as the soulard crab. it is not as attractive as our own eastern gem, a pure native possession, and one which our foreign friends envy us. curiously enough, our own fruiting apple is not a native of america. it was at a meeting of a new england pomological association that i heard, several years ago, an old man of marvelous memory and power of observation tell of his recollections of seventy years, notable among which was his account of seeing the first good apples, as a boy, during a visit in the state of new york. think of it! the most widely grown and beautiful of all our fruits hardly older than the railroad in america! we owe the apples we eat to europe, for the start, the species being probably of himalayan origin. america has greatly developed the apple, however, as one who has looked over the fruit tables at any great exposition will promptly testify, and nearly all our really good varieties are of american origin. moreover, we are the greatest apple-growers in the world, and the yearly production probably exceeds a hundred millions of barrels. [illustration: fruits of the wild crab] the curious story of "johnny appleseed" is given us by historians, who tell us of this semi-religious enthusiast who roamed barefoot over the wilds of ohio and indiana a century ago, sowing apple-seeds in the scattered clearings, and living to see the trees bearing fruit, selections from which probably are interwoven among the varieties of today. new varieties of apples, by the way, come from seeds sown, and trees grown from them, with a bare chance that one in ten thousand may be worth keeping. when a variety seems thus worthy, "buds" or "scions" from the original tree are "budded" or "grafted" by the nurseryman into young seedling trees, which are thus changed into the selected sort. to sow the seeds of your favorite baldwin does not imply that you will get baldwin trees, by any means; you will more likely have a partial reversion to the acid and bitter original species. it is not only for the fruit that we are indebted to the old world, but also for some distinctively beautiful and most ornamental varieties of the apple, not by any means as well known among us as they ought to be. the nurserymen sell as an ornamental small tree a form known as "parkman's double-flowering crab," which produces blooms of much beauty, like delicate little roses. few of them, however, know of the glorious show that the spring brings where there is a proper planting of the chinese and japanese crab-apples, with some other hybrids and varieties. to readers in new england a pilgrimage to boston is always in order. in the public gardens are superb specimens of these crab-apples from the orient, as well as those native to this continent, and for several weeks in may they may be enjoyed. they _are_ enjoyed by the bostonians, who are in this, as in many things, better served by their authorities than is any other american city. what other city, for instance, gives its people such a magnificent spring show of hyacinths, tulips, daffodils and the like? it is at the wonderful arnold arboretum, that mecca of tree-lovers just outside of boston and really within its superbly managed park system, that the greatest show of the "pyrus family," as the apples and pears are botanically called, may be found. here have been gathered the lovely blooming trees of all the hardy world, to the delight of the eye and the nose, and the education of the mind. to me the most impressive of all was a wonderful siberian crab (one must look for _pyrus baccata_ on the label, as the arboretum folks are not in love with "common" names) close by the little greenhouses. its round head was purely white, with no hint of pink, and the mass of bloom that covered it was only punctuated by the green of the expanding leaves. the especial elegance of this crab was in its whiteness, and that elegance was not diminished by the later masses of little yellow and red, almost translucent, fruits. a somewhat smaller tree is commonly called the chinese flowering apple, and its early flowers remind one strongly of the beauty of our own wild crab, as they are deeper in color than most of the crabs, being almost coral-red in bud. this "spectabilis," as it is familiarly called, is a gem, as it opens the season of the apple blooms with its burst of pink richness. the beauty-loving japanese have a festival at the time of the cherry-blooming--and it is altogether a festival of beauty, not connected with the food that follows the flowers. they actually dare to cut the blossoms, too, for adornment, and all the populace take time to drink in the message of the spring. will we workaday americans ever dare to "waste" so much time, and go afield to absorb god's provision of soul and sense refreshment in the spring, forgetting for the time our shops and desks, our stores and marts? [illustration: the beauty of a fruiting apple branch] professor sargent, that deep student of trees who has built himself a monument, which is also a beneficence to all mankind, in the great volumes of his "silva of north america," lives not far from boston, and he loves especially that jewel of the apple family which, for want of a common name, i must designate scientifically as _pyrus floribunda_. on his own magnificent estate, as well as at the arboretum, this superb shrub or small tree riots in rosy beauty in early spring. while the leaves do come with these flowers, they are actually crowded back out of apparent sight by the straight wands of rose-red blooms, held by the twisty little tree at every angle and in indescribable beauty. if the visitor saw nothing but this floribunda apple--"abundant flowering" sure enough--on his pilgrimage, he might well be satisfied, especially if he then and there resolved to see it again, either as he planted it at home or journeyed hither another spring for the enlargement of his soul. there are other of these delightful crabs or apples to be enjoyed--ringo, kaido, toringo--nearly all of japanese origin, all of distinct beauty, and all continuing that beauty in handsome but inedible fruits that hang most of the summer. my tree-loving friends can well study these, and, i hope, plant them, instead of repeating continually the monotonously familiar shrubs and trees of ordinary commerce. but i have not spoken enough of one notable feature of the every-day apple tree that we may see without a journey to the east. the fully set fruiting branch of an apple tree in health and vigor, properly nurtured and protected against fungous disease by modern "spraying," is a thing of beauty in its form and color. see those deep red baldwins shine overhead in the frosty air of early fall; note the elegance of form and striping on the leathery-skinned ben davis; appreciate true apples of gold set in green enamel on a tree of the sunny bellefleur! these in the fall; but it is hardly full summer before the closely set branches of early harvest are as beautiful as any orange-tree, or the more upright red astrachan is ablaze with fruit of red and yellow. truly, an apple orchard might be arranged to give a series of pictures of changing beauty of color and growth from early spring until fall frost, and then to follow with a daily panorama of form and line against snow and sky until the blossoms peeped forth again. let us learn, if we do not already love the apple tree, to love it for its beauty all the year! [illustration] willows and poplars "by the rivers of babylon, there we sat down, yea, we wept, when we remembered zion. upon the willows in the midst thereof we hanged our harps." thus sang the psalmist of the sorrows of the exiles in babylon, and his song has fastened the name of the great and wicked city upon one of the most familiar willows, while also making it "weep"; for the common weeping willow is botanically named _salix babylonica_. it may be that the forlorn jews did hang their harps upon the tree we know as the weeping willow, that species being credited to asia as a place of origin; but it is open to doubt, for the very obvious reason that the weeping willow is distinctly unadapted to use as a harp-rack, and one is at a loss to know just how the instruments in question would have been hung thereon. it is probable that the willows along the rivers of babylon were of other species, and that the connection of the city of the captivity and the tears of the exiles with the long, drooping branches of the noble tree which has thus been sorrowfully named was a purely sentimental one. indeed, the weeping willow is also called napoleon's willow, because the great corsican found much pleasure in a superb willow of the same species which stood on the lonely prison isle of st. helena, and from twigs of which many trees in the united states have been grown. the willow family presents great contrasts, both physical and sentimental. it is a symbol both of grief and of grace. the former characterization is undoubtedly because of the allusion of the one hundred and thirty-seventh psalm, as quoted above, thoughtlessly extended through the centuries; and the latter, as when a beautiful and slender woman is said to be of "willowy" form, obviously because of the real grace of the long, swinging wands of the same tree. i might hint that a better reason for making the willow symbolize grief is because charcoal made from its twigs and branches is an important and almost essential ingredient of gunpowder, through which a sufficiency of grief has undoubtedly entered the world! willow twigs seem the very essence of fragility, as they break from the parent tree at a touch; and yet one of the willows furnishes the tough, pliable and enduring withes from which are woven the baskets of the world. the willows, usually thin in branch, sparse of somewhat pale foliage, of so-called mournful mien, are yet bursting with vigor and life; indeed, the spread and the value of the family is by reason of this tenacity and virility, which makes a broken twig, floating on the surface of a turbid stream, take root and grow on a sandy bank where nothing else can maintain itself, wresting existence and drawing strength and beauty from the very element whose ravages of flood and current it bravely withstands. apparently ephemeral in wood, growing quickly and perishing as quickly, the willows nevertheless supply us with an important preservative element, extracted from their bitter juices. salicylic acid, made from willow bark, prevents change and arrests decay, and it is an important medical agent as well. [illustration: a weeping willow in early spring] flexible and seemingly delicate as the little tree is when but just established, there is small promise of the rugged and sturdy trunk that in a few years may stand where the chance twig lodged. and the color of the willows--ah! there's a point for full enthusiasm, for this family of grief furnishes a cheerful note for every month in the year, and runs the whole scale of greens, grays, yellows and browns, and even adds to the winter landscape touches of blazing orange and bright red across the snow. before ever one has thought seriously of the coming of spring, the long branchlets of the weeping willow have quickened into a hint of lovely yellowish green, and those same branchlets will be holding their green leaves against a wintry blast when most other trees have given up their foliage under the frost's urgency. often have the orange-yellow twigs of the golden osier illumined a somber countryside for me as i looked from the car window; and close by may be seen other willow bushes of brown, green, gray, and even purple, to add to the color compensation of the season. then may come into the view, as one flies past, a great old weeping willow rattling its bare twigs in the wind; and, if a stream is passed, there are sure to be seen on its banks the sturdy trunks of the white and the black willows at least. think of an average landscape with the willows eliminated, and there will appear a great vacancy not readily filled by another tree. the weeping willow has always made a strong appeal to me, but never one of simple grief or sorrow. its expression is rather of great dignity, and i remember watching in somewhat of awe one which grew near my childhood's home, as its branches writhed and twisted in a violent rain-storm, seeming then fairly to agonize, so tossed and buffeted were they by the wind. but soon the storm ceased, the sun shone on the rounded head of the willow, turning the raindrops to quickly vanishing diamonds, and the great tree breathed only a gentle and benignant peace. when, in later years, i came to know the moss-hung live-oak of the southland, the weeping willow assumed to me a new dignity and value in the northern landscape, and i have strongly resented the attitude of a noted writer on "art out of doors" who says of it: "i never once have seen it where it did not hurt the effect of its surroundings, or at least, if it stood apart from other trees, where some tree of another species would not have looked far better." one of the great merits of the tree, its difference of habit, its variation from the ordinary, is thus urged against it. [illustration: the weeping willow in a storm] i have spoken of the basket willow, which is scientifically _salix viminalis_, and an introduction from europe, as indeed are many of the family. in my father's nursery grew a great patch of basket willows, annually cut to the ground to make a profusion of "sprouts," from which were cut the "tying willows" used to bind firmly together for shipment bundles of young trees. it was an achievement to be able to take a six-foot withe, and, deftly twisting the tip of it under the heel to a mass of flexible fiber, tie this twisted portion into a substantial loop; and to have this novel wooden rope then endure the utmost pull of a vigorous man, as he braced his feet against the bundle of trees in binding the withe upon it, gave an impression of anything but weakness on the part of the willow. who has not admired the soft gray silky buds of the "pussy" willow, swelling with the spring's impulse, and ripening quickly into a "catkin" loaded with golden pollen? nowadays the shoots of this willow are "forced" into bud by the florists, and sold in the cities in great quantities; but really to see it one must find the low tree or bush by a stream in the woods, or along the roadside, with a chance to note its fullness of blossom. it is finest just when the hepaticas are at their bluest on the warm hillsides; and, one sunny afternoon of a spring journey along the north branch of the susquehanna river, i did not know which of the two conspicuous ornaments of the deeply wooded bank made me most anxious to jump from the too swiftly moving train. this pussy-willow has pleasing leaves, and is a truly ornamental shrub or small tree which will flourish quite well in a dry back yard, as i have reason to know. one bright day in february i found a pussy-willow tree, with its deep purple buds showing not a hint of the life within. the few twigs brought home quickly expanded when placed in water, and gave us their forecast of the spring. one twig was, out of curiosity, left in the water after the catkins had faded, merely to see what would happen. it bravely sent forth leaves, while at the base little white rootlets appeared. its vigor appealing to us, it was planted in an arid spot in our back yard, and it is now, after a year and a half, a handsome, slender young tree that will give us a whole family of silken pussy-buds to stroke and admire another spring. [illustration: a pussy-willow in a park] this same little tree is called also the glaucous willow, and it is botanically _salix discolor_. it is more distinct than some others of the family, for the willow is a great mixer. the tree expert who will unerringly distinguish between the red oak and the scarlet oak by the precise angle of the spinose margins of the leaves (how i admire an accuracy i do not possess!) will balk at which is crack willow, or white willow, or yellow or blue willow. the abundant vigor and vitality and freedom of the family, and the fact that it is of what is known as the dioecious habit--that is, the flowers are not complete, fertile and infertile flowers being borne on separate trees--make it most ready to hybridize. the pollen of the black willow may fertilize the flower of the white willow, with a result that certainly tends to grayness on the worrying head of the botanist who, in after years, is trying to locate the result of the cross! [illustration: blossoms of the white willow] there is much variety in the willow flowers--and i wonder how many observers really notice any other willow "blossoms" than those of the showy pussy? a superb spring day afield took me along a fascinatingly crooked stream, the conodoguinet, whose banks furnish a congenial and as yet protected (because concealed from the flower-hunting vandal) home for wild flowers innumerable and most beautiful, as well as trees that have ripened into maturity. an earlier visit at the time the bluebells were ringing out their silent message on the hillside, in exquisite beauty, with the lavender phlox fairly carpeting the woods, gave a glimpse of some promising willows on the other side of the stream. twilight and letters to sign--how hateful the desk and its work seem in these days of springing life outside!--made a closer inspection impossible then, but a golden saturday afternoon found three of us, of like ideals, hastening to this tree and plant paradise. a mass of soft yellow drew us from the highway across a field carpeted thickly with bluet or "quaker lady," to the edge of the stream, where a continuous hum showed that the bees were also attracted. it was one splendid willow in full bloom, and i could not and as yet cannot safely say whether it is the crack willow or the white willow; but i can affirm of a certainty that it was a delight to the eye, the mind and the nostrils. the extreme fragility of the smaller twigs, which broke away from the larger limbs at the lightest shake or jar, gave evidence of one of nature's ways of distributing plant life; for it seems that these twigs, as i have previously said, part company with the parent tree most readily, float away on the stream, and easily establish themselves on banks and bars, where their tough, interlacing roots soon form an almost impregnable barrier to the onslaught of the flood. only a stone's throw away there stood a great old black willow, with a sturdy trunk of ebon hue, crowned with a mass of soft green leafage, lighter where the breeze lifted up the under side to the sunlight. many times, doubtless, the winds had shorn and the sleet had rudely trimmed this old veteran, but there remained full life and vigor, even more attractive than that of youth. most of the willows are shrubs rather than trees, and there are endless variations, as i have before remarked. further, the species belonging at first in the eastern hemisphere have spread well over our own side of the globe, so that it seems odd to regard the white willow and the weeping willow as foreigners. at niagara falls, in the beautiful park on the american side, on the islands amid the toss of the waters, there are many willows, and those planted by man are no less beautiful than those resulting from nature's gardening. in spring i have had pleasure in some splendid clumps of a form with lovely golden leaves and a small, furry catkin, found along the edge of the american rapids. i wonder, by the way, how many visitors to niagara take note of the superb collection of plants and trees there to be seen, and which it is a grateful relief to consider when the mind is wearied with the majesty and the vastness of nature's forces shown in the cataract? the birds are visitors to goat island and the other islets that divide the niagara river, and they have brought there the plants of america in wonderful variety. [illustration: a white willow in a characteristic position] there is one willow that has been used by the nurserymen to produce a so-called weeping form, which, like most of these monstrosities, is not commendable. the goat willow is a vigorous tree introduced from europe, having large and rather broad and coarse leaves, dark green above and whitish underneath. it is taken as a "stock," upon which, at a convenient height, the skilled juggler with trees grafts a drooping or pendulous form known as the kilmarnock willow, thus changing the habit of the tree so that it then "weeps" to the ground. fortunately, the original tree sometimes triumphs, the graft dies, and a lusty goat willow rears a rather shapely head to the sky. this kilmarnock willow is a favorite of the peripatetic tree agent, and i have enjoyed hugely one notable evidence of his persuasive eloquence to be seen in a lebanon valley town, inhabited by the quaint folk known as pennsylvania germans. all along the line of the railroad traversing this valley may be seen these distorted willows decorating the prim front yards, and they are not so offensive when used with other shrubs and trees. in this one instance, however, the tree agent evidently found a customer who was persuaded that if one kilmarnock willow was a good thing to have, a dozen of them was twelve times better; wherefore his dooryard is grotesquely adorned with that many flourishing weepers, giving an aspect that is anything but decorous or solemn. some time the vigilance of the citizen will be relaxed, it may be hoped; he will neglect to cut away the recurring shoots of the parent trees, and they will escape and destroy the weeping form which provides so much sarcastic hilarity for the passers-by. the willow, with its blood relation, the poplar, is often "pollarded," or trimmed for wood, and its abundant vigor enables it to recover from this process of violent abbreviation more satisfactorily than do most trees. the result is usually a disproportionately large stem or bole, for the lopping off of great branches always tends to a thickening of the main stem. the abundant leafage of both willow and poplar soon covers the scars, and there is less cause to mourn than in the case of maples or other "hard-wooded" trees. if my readers will only add a willow section to their mental observation outfit, there will be much more to see and appreciate. look for and enjoy in the winter the variation in twig color and bark hue; notice how smoothly lies the covering on one stem, all rugged and marked on another. in the earliest spring examine the swelling buds, of widely differing color and character, from which shortly will spring forth the catkins or aments of bloom, followed by the leaves of varied colors in the varied species, and with shapes as varied. vivid green, soft gray, greenish yellow; dull surface and shining surface above, pale green to almost pure white beneath; from the long and stringy leaf of the weeping willow to the comparatively broad and thick leaf of the pussy-willow--there is variety and interest in the foliage well worth the attention of the tree-lover. when winter comes, there will be another set of contrasts to see in the way the various species lose their leaves and get ready for the rest time during which the buds mature and ripen, and the winter colors again shine forth. [illustration: clump of young white willows] these observations may be made anywhere in america, practically, for the willow is almost indifferent to locality, growing everywhere that its far-reaching roots can find the moisture which it loves, and which it rapidly transpires to the thirsty air. as miss keeler well remarks, "the genus salix is admirably fitted to go forth and inhabit the earth, for it is tolerant of all soils and asks only water. it creeps nearer to the north pole than any other woody plant except its companion the birch. it trails upon the ground or rises one hundred feet in the air. in north america it follows the water-courses to the limit of the temperate zone, enters the tropics, crosses the equator, and appears in the mountains of peru and chili.... the books record one hundred and sixty species in the world, and these sport and hybridize to their own content and to the despair of botanists. then, too, it comes of an ancient line; for impressions of leaves in the cretaceous rocks show that it is one of the oldest of plants." common it is, and therefore overlooked; but the reader may well resolve to watch the willow in spring and summer, with its bloom and fruit; to follow its refreshing color through winter's chill; to observe its cheer and dignity; and to see the wind toss its slender wands and turn its graceful leaves. the poplars and the willows are properly considered together, for together they form the botanical world family of the _salicaceæ_. many characteristics of bloom and growth, of sap and bark, unite the two, and surely both, though alike common to the world, are common and familiar trees to the dwellers in north america. [illustration: white poplars in spring-time] one of my earliest tree remembrances has to do with a spreading light-leaved growth passed under every day on the way to school--and, like most school-boys, i was not unwilling to stop for anything of interest that might put off arrival at the seat of learning. this great tree had large and peculiar winter buds, that always seemed to have advance information as to the coming of spring, for they would swell out and become exceedingly shiny at the first touch of warm sun. soon the sun-caressing would be responded to by the bursting of the buds, or the falling away of their ingenious outer protecting scales, which dropped to the ground, where, sticky and shining, and extraordinarily aromatic in odor, they were just what a curious school-boy enjoyed investigating. "balm of gilead" was the name that inquiry brought for this tree, and the resinous and sweet-smelling buds which preceded the rather inconspicuous catkins or aments of bloom seemed to justify the biblical designation. nearly a world tree is this poplar, which in some one of its variable forms is called also tacamahac, and balsam poplar as well. its cheerful upright habit, really fine leaves and generally pleasing air commend it, but there is one trouble--it is almost too vigorous and anxious to spread, which it does by means of shoots or "suckers," upspringing from its wide area of root-growth, thus starting a little forest of its own that gives other trees but small chance. but on a street, where the repression of pavements and sidewalks interferes with this exuberance, the balsam poplar is well worth planting. the poplars as a family are pushing and energetic growers, and serve a great purpose in the reforestation of american acres that have been carelessly denuded of their tree cover. here the trembling aspen particularly, as the commonest form of all is named, comes in to quickly cover and shade the ground, and give aid to the hard woods and the conifers that form the value of the forest growth. this same american aspen, a consideration of the lightly hung leaves of which has been useful to many poets, is a well-known tree of graceful habit, particularly abundant in the forests north of pennsylvania and new jersey, and occupying clearings plentifully and quickly. its flowers are in catkins, as with the rest of the family, and, like other poplars, they are in two kinds, male and female, or staminate and pistillate, which accounts for some troubles the inexperienced investigator has in locating them. there is another aspen, the large-toothed form, that is a distinct botanical species; but i have never been able to separate it, wherefore i do not try to tell of it here, lest i fall under condemnation as a blind leader, not of the blind, but of those who would see! in many cities, especially in cities that have experienced real-estate booms, and have had "extensions" laid out "complete with all improvements," there is to be seen a poplar that has the merit of quick and pleasing growth and considerable elegance as well. alas, it is like the children of the tropics in quick beauty and quick decadence! the carolina poplar, it is called, being a variety of the wide-spread cottonwood. grow? all that is needed is to cut a lusty branch of it, point it, and drive it into the earth--it will do the rest! this means cheap trees and quick growth, and that is why whole new streets in west philadelphia, for instance, are given up to the carolina poplar. its clear, green, shining leaves, of good size, coming early in spring; its easily guided habit, either upright or spreading; its very rapid growth, all commend it. but its coarseness and lack of real strength, and its continual invitation to the tree-butcher and the electric lineman, indicate the undesirability of giving it more than a temporary position, to shade while better trees are growing. [illustration: the carolina poplar as a street tree] but i must not get into the economics of street-tree planting. i started to tell of the blossoms of this same carolina poplar, which are decidedly interesting. just when the sun has thoroughly warmed up the air of spring there is a sudden, rapid thickening of buds over one's head on this poplar. one year the tree under my observation swelled and swelled its buds, which were shining more and more in the sun, until i was sure the next day would bring a burst of leaves. but the weather was dry, and it was not until that wonderful solvent and accelerator of growing things, a warm spring rain, fell softly upon the tree, that the pent-up life force was given vent. then came, not leaves, but these long catkins, springing out with great rapidity, until in a few hours the tree glowed with their redness. a second edition of the shower, falling sharply, brought many of the catkins to the ground, where they lay about like large caterpillars. the whole process of this blooming was interesting, curious, but hardly beautiful, and it seemed to fit in with the restless character of the poplar family--a family of trees with more vigor than dignity, more sprightliness than grace. as professor bailey says of the cottonwood, "it is cheerful and restive. one is not moved to lie under it as he is under a maple or an oak." yet there are not wanting some poplars of impressive character. one occurs to me, growing on a wide street of my home town, opposite a church with a graceful spire. this white or silver-leaved poplar has for many years been a regular prey of the gang of tree-trimmers, utterly without knowledge of or regard for trees, that infests this town. they hack it shamefully, and i look at it and say, "well, the old poplar is ruined now, surely!" but a season passes, and i look again, to see that the tremendous vigor of the tree has triumphed over the butchers; its sores have been concealed, new limbs have pushed out, and it has again, in its unusual height, assumed a dignity not a whit inferior to that of the church spire opposite. [illustration: winter aspect of the cottonwood tree] this white poplar is at its best on the bank of a stream, where its small forest of "suckers" most efficiently protects the slope against the destructive action of floods. one such tree with its family and friends i saw in full bloom along the susquehanna, and it gave an impression of solidity and size, as well as of lusty vigor, and i have always liked it since. the cheerful bark is not the least of its attractions--but it is a tree for its own place, and not for every place, by reason of the tremendous colonizing power of its root-sprouts. i wonder, by the way, if many realize the persistence and vigor of the roots of a tree of the "suckering" habit? some years ago an ailanthus, a tree of vigor and beauty of foliage but nastiness of flower odor, was cut away from its home when excavation was being made for a building, which gave me opportunity to follow a few of its roots. one of them traveled in search of food, and toward the opportunity of sending up a shoot, over a hundred feet! the impending scarcity of spruce logs to feed the hungry maws of the machines that make paper for our daily journals has turned attention to several forms of the rapid-growing poplar for this use. the aspen is acceptable, and also the carolina poplar, and these trees are being planted in large quantities for the eventual making of wood-pulp. even today, many newspapers are printed on poplar, and exposure to the rays of the truth-searching sun for a few hours will disclose the yellowness of the paper, if not of the tree from which it has been ground. [illustration: lombardy poplar] few whose eyes are turned upward toward the trees have failed to note that exclamation-point of growth, the lombardy poplar. originating in that portion of europe indicated by its common name, and, indeed, a botanical form of the european black poplar, it is nevertheless widely distributed in america. when it has been properly placed, it introduces truly a note of distinction into the landscape. towering high in the air, and carrying the eye along its narrowly oval contour to a skyward point, it is lofty and pleasing in a park. it agreeably breaks the sky-line in many places, and is emphatic in dignified groups. to plant it in rows is wrong; and i say this as an innocent offender myself. in boyhood i lived along the banks of the broad but shallow susquehanna, and enjoyed the boating possible upon that stream when it was not reduced, as graphically described by a disgusted riverman, to merely a heavy dew. many times i lost my way returning to the steep bluff near my home after the sun had gone to rest, and a hard pull against the swift current would ensue as i skirted the bank, straining eyes for landmarks in the dusk. it occurred to me to plant six lombardy poplars on the top of the bluff, which might serve as easily recognized landmarks. four of them grew, and are now large trees, somewhat offensive to a quickened sense of appropriateness. long since the old home has been swallowed up by the city's advance, and i suppose none who now see those four spires of green on the river-bank even guess at the reason for their existence. the poplar family, as a whole, is exuberant with vigor, and interesting more on that account than by reason of its general dignity or strength or elegance. it is well worth a little attention and study, and the consideration particularly of its bloom periods, to which i commend the tree-sense of my readers as they take the tree walks that ought to punctuate these chapters. the elm and the tulip america has much that is unique in plant and tree growth, as one learns who sees first the collections of american plants shown with pride by acute gardeners and estate owners in england and on the european continent. many a citizen of our country must needs confess with some shame that his first estimation of the singular beauty of the american laurel has been born in england, where the imported plants are carefully nurtured; and the european to whom the rhododendrons of his own country and of the himalayas are familiar is ready to exclaim in rapture at the superb effect and tropical richness of our american species, far more lusty and more truly beautiful here than the introductions which must be heavily paid for and constantly coddled. for no trees, however, may americans feel more pride than for our american elms and our no less american tulip, the latter miscalled tulip "poplar." both are trees practically unique to the country, both are widespread over eastern north america, both are thoroughly trees of the people, both attain majestic proportions, both are long-lived and able to endure much hardship without a full giving up of either beauty or dignity. the american elm--how shall i properly speak of its exceeding grace and beauty! in any landscape it introduces an element of distinction and elegance not given by any other tree. looking across a field at a cluster of trees, there may be a doubt as to the identity of an oak, a chestnut, a maple, an ash, but no mistake can be made in regard to an elm--it stands alone in the simple elegance of its vase-like form, while its feathery branchlets, waving in the lightest breeze, add to the refined and classic effect. i use the word "classic" advisedly, because, although apparently out of place in describing a tree, it nevertheless seems needed for the form of the american elm. the elm is never rugged as is the oak, but it gives no impression of effeminacy or weakness. its uprightness is forceful and strong, and its clean and shapely bole impresses the beholder as a joining of gently outcurving columns, ample in strength and of an elegance belonging to itself alone. if i may dare to compare man-made architectural forms with the trees that graced the garden of eden, i would liken the american elm (it is also the water elm and the white elm, and botanically _ulmus americana_) to the grecian types, combining stability with elegance, rather than to the more rugged works of the goths. yet the free swing of the elm's wide-spreading branches inevitably suggests the pointed gothic arch in simplicity and obvious strength. it is difficult to say when the american elm is most worthy of admiration. in summer those same arching branches are clothed and tipped with foliage of such elegance and delicacy as the form of the tree would seem to predicate. the leaf itself is ornate, its straight ribs making up a serrated and pointed oval form of the most interesting character. these leaves hang by slender stems, inviting the gentlest zephyr to start them to singing of comfort in days of summer heat. the elm is fully clothed down to the drooping tips of the branchlets with foliage, which, though deepest green above, reflects, under its dense shade, a soft light from the paler green of the lower side. it is no wonder that new england claims fame for her elms, which, loved and cared for, arch over the long village streets that give character to the homes of the descendants of the puritan fathers. the fully grown elm presents to the sun a darkly absorbent hue, and to the passer-by who rests beneath its shade the most grateful and restful color in all the rainbow's palette. [illustration: a mature american elm] then, too, the evaporative power of these same leaves is simply enormous, and generally undreamed of. who would think that a great, spreading elm, reaching into the air of august a hundred feet, and shading a circle of nearly as great diameter, was daily cooling the atmosphere with tons of water, silently drawn from the bosom of mother earth! like many other common trees, the american elm blooms almost unnoticed. when the silver maple bravely pushes out its hardy buds in earliest spring--or often in what might be called latest winter--the elm is ready, and the sudden swelling of the twigs, away above our heads in march or april, is not caused by the springing leaves, but is the flowering effort of this noble tree. the bloom sets curiously about the yet bare branches, and the little brownish yellow or reddish flowers are seemingly only a bunch of stamens. they do their work promptly, and the little flat fruits, or "samaras," are ripened and dropped before most of us realize that the spring is fully upon us. these seeds germinate readily, and i recall the great pleasure with which a noted horticultural professor showed me what he called his "elm lawn," one summer. it seemed that almost every one of the thousands of seeds that, just about the time his preparations for sowing a lawn were completed, had softly fallen from the great elm which guards and shades his dooryard, had found good ground, and the result was a miniature forest of tiny trees, giving an effect of solid green which was truly a tree lawn. [illustration: the delicate tracery of the american elm in winter] but, after all, i think it is in winter that the american elm is at its finest, for then stand forth most fully revealed the wonderful symmetry of its structure and the elegance of its lines. it has one advantage in its great size, which is well above the average, for it lifts its graceful head a hundred feet or more above the earth. the stem is usually clean and regular, and the branches spread out in closely symmetrical relation, so that, as seen against the cold sky of winter, leafless and bare, they seem all related parts of a most harmonious whole. other great trees are notable for the general effect of strength or massiveness, individual branches departing much from the average line of the whole structure; but the american elm is regular in all its parts, as well as of general stateliness. as i have noted, the people of the new england states value and cherish their great elms, and they are accustomed to think themselves the only possessors of this unique tree. we have, however, as good elms in pennsylvania as there are in new england, and i hope the day is not far distant when we shall esteem them as highly. the old elm monarch which stands at the gingerbread brownstone entrance of the capitol park in pennsylvania's seat of government has had a hard battle, defenseless as it is, against the indifference of those whom it has shaded for generations, and who carelessly permitted the telegraph and telephone linemen to use it or chop it at their will. but latterly there has been an awakening which means protection, i think, for this fine old landmark. the two superb elms, known as "paul and virginia," that make notable the north shore of the susquehanna at wilkesbarre, are subjects of local pride; which seems, however, not strong enough to prevent the erection of a couple of nasty little shanties against their great trunks. there can be no doubt, however, that the sentiment of reverence for great trees, and of justice to them for their beneficent influence, is spreading westward and southward from new england. it gives me keen pleasure to learn of instances where paths, pavements or roadways have been changed, to avoid doing violence to good trees; and a recent account of the creation of a trust fund for the care of a great oak, as well as a unique instance in georgia, where a deed has been recorded giving a fine elm a quasi-legal title to its own ground, show that the rights of trees are coming to be recognized. i have said little of the habitat, as the botanist puts it, of the american elm. it graces all north america east of the rockies, and the specimens one sees in michigan or canada are as happy, apparently, as if they grew in connecticut or in virginia. our increasingly beautiful national capital, the one city with an intelligent and controlled system of tree-planting, shows magnificent avenues of flourishing elms. but i must not forget some other elms, beautiful and satisfactory in many places. it is no discredit to our own american elm to say that the english elm is a superb tree in america. it seems to be characteristically british in its sturdy habit, and forms a grand trunk. [illustration: the english elm in winter] the juicy inner bark of the red or "slippery" elm was always acceptable, in lieu of the chewing-gum which had not then become so common, to a certain ever-hungry boy who used to think as much of what a tree would furnish that was eatable as he now does of its beauty. later, the other uses of the bark of this tree became known to the same boy, but it was many years before he came really to know the slippery elm. one day a tree branch overhead showed what seemed to be remarkable little green flowers, which on examination proved to be, instead, the very interesting fruit of this elm, each little seed securely held inside a very neat and small flat bag. looking at it earlier the next spring, the conspicuous reddish brown color of the bud-scales was noted. i have never seen the "wahoo," or winged elm of the south, and there are several other native elms, as well as a number of introductions from the eastern hemisphere, with which acquaintance is yet to be made. all of them together, i will maintain with the quixotic enthusiasm of lack of knowledge, are not worth as much as one-half hour spent in looking up under the leafy canopy of our own preëminent american elm--a tree surely among those given by the creator for the healing of the nations. the tulip-tree, so called obviously because of the shape of its flowers, has a most mellifluous and pleasing botanical name, _liriodendron tulipifera_--is not that euphonious? just plain "liriodendron"--how much better that sounds as a designation for one of the noblest of american forest trees than the misleading "common" names! "tulip-tree," for a resemblance of the form only of its extraordinary blooms; "yellow poplar," probably because it is not yellow, and is in no way related to the poplars; and "whitewood," the western name, because its wood is whiter than that of some other native trees. "liriodendron" translated means "lily-tree," says my learned friend who knows greek, and that is a fitting designation for this tree, which proudly holds forth its flowers, as notable and beautiful as any lily, and far more dignified and refined than the gaudy tulip. i like to repeat this smooth-sounding, truly descriptive and dignified name for a tree worthy all admiration. liriodendron! away with the "common" names, when there is such a pleasing scientific cognomen available! by the way, why should people who will twist their american tongues all awry in an attempt to pronounce french words in which the necessary snort is unexpressed visually and half the characters are "silent," mostly exclaim at the alleged difficulty of calling trees and plants by their world names, current among educated people everywhere, while preferring some misleading "common" name? very few scientific plant names are as difficult to pronounce as is the word "chrysanthemum," and yet the latter comes as glibly from the tongue as do "geranium," "rhododendron," and the like. let us, then, at least when we have as good a name as liriodendron for so good a tree, use it in preference to the most decidedly "common" names that belie and mislead. i have said that this same tulip-tree--which i will call liriodendron hereafter, at a venture--is a notable american tree, peculiar to this country. so believed the botanists for many years, until an inquiring investigator found that china, too, had the same tree, in a limited way. we will still claim it as an american native, and tell the chinamen they are fortunate to have such a superb tree in their little-known forests. they have undoubtedly taken advantage, in their art forms, of its peculiarly shaped leaves, if not of the flowers and the curious "candlesticks" that succeed them. [illustration: winter effect of tulip trees] let us consider this liriodendron first as a forest tree, as an inhabitant of the "great woods" that awed the first intelligent observers from europe, many generations back. few of our native trees reach such a majestic height, here on the eastern side of the continent, its habitat. ordinarily it builds its harmonious structure to a height of seventy or a hundred feet; but occasional individuals double this altitude, and reach a trunk diameter of ten feet. while in the close forest it towers up with a smooth, clean bole, in open places it assumes its naturally somewhat conical form very promptly. utterly dissimilar in form from the american elm, it seems to stand for dignity, solidity and vigor, and yet to yield nothing in the way of true elegance. the botanists tell us it prefers deep and moist soil, but i know that it lives and seems happy in many soils and in many places. always and everywhere it shows a clean, distinct trunk, its brown bark uniformly furrowed, but in such a manner as to give a nearly smooth appearance at a little distance. the branches do not leave the stem so imperceptibly as do those which give the elm its very distinct form, but rather start at a right angle, leaving the distinct central column of solid strength unimpaired. the winter tracery of these branches, and the whole effect of the liriodendron without foliage, is extremely distinct and pleasing. i have in mind a noble group of great liriodendrons which i first saw against an early april sky of blue and white. the trees had grown close, and had interlaced their somewhat twisty branches, so that the general impression was that of one great tree supported on several stems. the pure beauty of these very tall and very stately trees, thus grouped and with every twig sharply outlined, i shall always remember. the liriodendron is more fortunate than some other trees, for it has several points of attractiveness. its stature and its structure are alike notable, its foliage entirely unique, and its flowers and seed-pods even more interesting. the leaf is very easily recognized when once known. it is large, but not in any way coarse, and is thrust forth as the tree grows, in a peculiarly pleasing way. sheathed in the manner characteristic of the magnolia family, of which the liriodendron is a notable member, the leaves come to the light practically folded back on themselves, between the two protecting envelopes, which remain until the leaf has stretched out smoothly. yellowish green at first, they rapidly take on the bright, strong green of maturity. the texture is singularly refined, and it is a pleasure to handle these smooth leaves, of a shape which stamps them at once on the memory, and of a coloring, both above and below, that is most attractive. they are maintained on long, slender stems, or "petioles," and these stems give a great range of flexibility, so that the leaves of the liriodendron are, as henry ward beecher puts it, "intensely individual, each one moving to suit himself." [illustration: a great liriodendron in bloom] of course all this moving, and this out-breaking of the leaves from their envelopes, take place far above one's head, on mature trees. it will be found well worth while, however, for the tree-lover to look in the woods for the rather numerous young trees of the tulip, and to observe the very interesting way in which the growth proceeds. the beautiful form and color of the leaves may also be thus conveniently noted, as also in the autumn the soft, clear yellow early assumed. it is the height and spread of the liriodendron that keep its truly wonderful flowers out of the public eye. if they were produced on a small tree like the familiar dogwood, for instance, so that they might be nearer to the ground, they would receive more of the admiration so fully their due. in washington, where, as i have said, trees are planted by design and not at random, there are whole avenues of liriodendrons, and it was my good fortune one may to drive between these lines of strong and shapely young trees just when they were in full bloom. the appearance of these beautiful cups, each one held upright, not drooping, was most striking and elegant. some time, other municipalities will learn wisdom from the example set in washington, and we may expect to see some variety in our street trees, now monotonously confined for the most part to the maples, poplars, and a few good trees that would be more valued if interspersed with other equally good trees of different character. the pin-oak, the elm, the sweet-gum, or liquidambar, the ginkgo, and a half-dozen or more beautiful and sturdy trees, do admirably for street planting, and ought to be better known and much more freely used. [illustration: flowers of the liriodendron] i have seen many rare orchids brought thousands of miles and petted into a curious bloom--indeed, often more curious than beautiful. if the bloom of the liriodendron, in all its delicate and daring mingling of green and yellow, cream and orange, with its exquisite interior filaments, could be labeled as a ten-thousand-dollar orchid beauty from borneo, its delicious perfume would hardly be needed to complete the raptures with which it would be received into fashionable flower society. but these lovely cups stand every spring above our heads by millions, their fragrance and form, their color and beauty, unnoticed by the throng. as they mature into the brown fruit-cones that hold the seeds, and these in turn fall to the ground, to fulfil their purpose of reproduction, there is no week in which the tree is not worthy of attention; and, when the last golden leaf has been plucked by the fingers of the winter's frost, there yet remain on the bare branches the curious and interesting candlestick-like outer envelopes of the fruit-cones, to remind us in form of the wonderful flower, unique in its color and attractiveness, that gave its sweetness to the air of may and june. these two trees--the elm and the liriodendron--stand out strongly as individuals in the wealth of our american trees. let all who read and agree in my estimate, even in part, also agree to try, when opportunity offers, to preserve these trees from vandalism or neglect, realizing that the great forest trees of our country are impossible of replacement, and that their strength, majesty and beauty are for the good of all. nut-bearing trees what memories of chestnutting parties, of fingers stained with the dye of walnut hulls, and of joyous tramps afield in the very heart of the year, come to many of us when we think of the nuts of familiar knowledge! hickory-nuts and butternuts, too, perhaps hazelnuts and even beechnuts--all these american boys and girls of the real country know. in the far south, and, indeed, reaching well up into the middle west, the pecan holds sway, and a majestic sway at that, for its size makes it the fellow of the great trees of the forest, worthy to be compared with the chestnut, the walnut, and the hickory. but it has usually been of nuts to eat that we have thought, and the chance for palatable food has, just as with some of the best of the so-called "fruit" trees--all trees bear fruit!--partially closed our eyes to the interest and beauty of some of these nut-bearers. my own tree acquaintance has proceeded none too rapidly, and i have been--and am yet--as fond of the toothsome nuts as any one can be who is not a devotee of the new fad that attempts to make human squirrels of us all by a nearly exclusive nut diet. i think that my regard for a nut tree as something else than a source of things to eat began when i came, one hot summer day, under the shade of the great walnut at paxtang. huge was its trunk and wide the spread of its branches, while the richness of its foliage held at bay the strongest rays of the great luminary. how could i help admiring the venerable yet lusty old tree, conferring a present benefit, giving an instant and restful impression of strength, solidity, and elegance, while promising as well, as its rounded green clusters hung far above my head, a great crop of delicious nut-fruit when the summer's sun it was so fully absorbing should have done its perfect work! alas for the great black walnut of paxtang! it went the way of many another tree monarch whose beauty and living usefulness were no defense against sordid vandalism. in the course of time a suburb was laid out, including along its principal street, and certainly as its principal natural ornament, this massive tree, around which the indians who roamed the "great vale of pennsylvania" had probably gathered in council. the sixty-foot "lot," the front of which the tree graced, fell to the ownership of a man who, erecting a house under its beneficent protection, soon complained of its shade. then came a lumber prospector, who saw only furniture in the still flourishing old black walnut. his offer of forty dollars for the tree was eagerly accepted by the philistine who had the title to the land, and although there were not wanting such remonstrances as almost came to a breaking of the peace, the grand walnut ended its hundreds of years of life to become mere lumber for its destroyers! the real estate man who sold the land greatly admired the tree himself, realizing also its great value to the suburb, and had never for one moment dreamed that the potential vandal who bought the tree-graced parcel of ground would not respect the inherent rights of all his neighbors. he told me of the loss with tears in his eyes and rage in his language; and i have never looked since at the fellow who did the deed without reprobation. more than that, he has proven a theory i hold--that no really good man would do such a thing after he had been shown the wrong of it--by showing himself as dishonest in business as he was disregardful of the rights of the tree and of his neighbors. [illustration: the wide-spreading black walnut] the black walnut is a grand tree from any point of view, even though it so fully absorbs all water and fertility as to check other growth under its great reach of branches. the lines it presents to the winter sky are as rugged as those of the oak, but there is a great difference. and this ruggedness is held far into the spring, for the black walnut makes no slightest apparent effort at growth until all the other trees are greening the countryside. then with a rush come the luxuriant and tropical compound leaves, soon attaining their full dignity, and adding to it also a smooth polish on the upper surface. the walnut's flowers i have missed seeing, i am sorry to say, while registering a mental promise not to permit another season to pass without having that pleasure. late in the year the foliage has become scanty, and the nut-clusters hang fascinatingly clear, far above one's head, to tempt the climb and the club. the black walnut is a tree that needs our care; for furniture fashion long used its close-grained, heavy, handsome wood as cruelly as the milliners did the herons of florida from which were torn the "aigrets," now happily "out of style." though walnut furniture is no longer the most popular, the deadly work has been done, for the most part, and but few of these wide-spread old forest monarchs yet remain. scientific forestry is now providing, in many plantings, and in many places, another "crop" of walnut timber, grown to order, and using waste land. it is to such really beneficent, though entirely commercial work, that we must look for the future of many of our best trees. the butternut, or white walnut, has never seemed so interesting to me, nor its fruit so palatable, probably because i have seen less of it. the so-called "english" walnut, which is really the persian walnut, is not hardy in the eastern part of the united states, and, while a tree of vast commercial importance in the far west, does not come much into the view of a lover of the purely american trees. [illustration: the american sweet chestnut] of the american sweet chestnut as a delightful nut-fruit i need say nothing more than that it fully holds its place against "foreign intervention" from the east; even though these european and japanese chestnuts with their california-bred progeny give us fruit that is much larger, and borne on trees of very graceful habit. no one with discrimination will for a moment hesitate, after eating a nut of both, to cheerfully choose the american native as best worth his commendation, though he may come to understand the food value, after cooking, of the chestnuts used so freely in parts of europe. [illustration: sweet chestnut blossoms] as a forest tree, however, our american sweet chestnut has a place of its own. naturally spreading in habit when growing where there is room to expand, it easily accommodates itself to the more cramped conditions of our great woodlands, and shoots upward to light and air, making rapidly a clean and sturdy stem. what a beautiful and stately tree it is! and when, late in the spring, or indeed right on the threshold of summer, its blooming time comes, it stands out distinctly, having then few rivals in the eye of the tree-lover. the locust and the tulip are just about done with their floral offering upon the altar of the year when the long creamy catkins of the sweet chestnut spring out from the fully perfected dark green leaf-clusters. peculiarly graceful are these great bloom heads, high in the air, and standing nearly erect, instead of hanging down as do the catkins of the poplars and the birches. the odor of the chestnut flower is heavy, and is best appreciated far above in the great tree, where it may mingle with the warm air of june, already bearing a hundred sweet scents. there stands bright in my remembrance one golden june day when i came through a gateway into a wonderful american garden of purely native plants maintained near philadelphia, the rock-bound drive guarded by two clumps of tall chestnuts, one on either side, and both in full glory of bloom. there could not have been a more beautiful, natural, or dignified entrance; and it was just as beautiful in the early fall, when the deep green of the oblong-toothed leaves had changed to clear and glowing yellow, while the flowers had left their perfect work in the swelling and prickly green burs which hid nuts of a brown as rich as the flesh was sweet. did you, gentle reader, ever saunter through a chestnut grove in the later fall, when the yellow had been browned by the frosts which brought to the ground alike leaves and remaining burs? there is something especially pleasant in the warmth of color and the crackle of sound on the forest floor, as one really shuffles through chestnut leaves in the bracing november air, stooping now and then for a nut perchance remaining in the warm and velvety corner of an opened bur. here in pennsylvania, and south of mason and dixon's line, there grows a delightful small tree, brother to the chestnut, bearing especially sweet little nuts which we know as chinquapins. they are darker brown, and the flesh is very white, and rich in flavor. i could wish that the chinquapin, as well as the chestnut, was included among the trees that enlightened americans would plant along roadsides and lanes, with other fruit trees; the specific secondary purpose, after the primary enjoyment of form, foliage and flower, being to let the future passer-by eat freely of that fruit provided by the creator for food and pleasure, and costing no more trouble or expense than the purely ornamental trees more frequently planted. both chestnut and chinquapin are beautiful ornamental trees; and some of the newer chestnut hybrids, of parentage between the american and the european species, are as graceful as the most highly petted lawn trees of the nurserymen. indeed, the very same claim may be made for a score or more of the standard fruit trees, alike beautiful in limb tracery, in bloom, and in the seed-coverings that we are glad to eat; and some time we shall be ashamed not to plant the fruit trees in public places, for the pleasure and the refreshing of all who care. [illustration: the chinquapin] one of the commonest nut trees, and certainly one of the most pleasing, is the hickory. there are hickories and hickories, and some are shellbarks, while others are bitternuts or pignuts. the form most familiar to the eastern states is the shagbark hickory, and its characteristic upright trees, tall and finely shaped, never wide-spreading as is the chestnut under the encouragement of plenty of room and food, are admirable from any standpoint. there is a lusty old shagbark in wetzel's swamp that has given me many a pleasant quarter-hour, as i have stood at attention before its symmetrical stem, hung with slabs of brown bark that seem always just ready to separate from the trunk. the aspect of this tree is reflected in its very useful timber, which is pliant but tough, requiring less "heft" for a given strength, and bending with a load easily, only to instantly snap back to its position when the stress slackens. good hickory is said to be stronger than wrought iron, weight for weight; and i will answer for it that no structure of iron can ever have half the grace, as well as strength, freely displayed by this same old shagbark of the lowlands near my home. curious as i am to see the blooms of the trees i am getting acquainted with, there are many disappointments to be endured--as when the favorite tree under study is reached a day too late, and i must wait a year for another opportunity. it was, therefore, with much joy that i found that a trip carefully timed for another fine old hickory along the conodoguinet--an indian-named stream of angles, curves, many trees and much beauty--had brought me to the quickly passing bloom feast of this noble american tree. the leaves were about half-grown and half-colored, which means that they displayed an elegance of texture and hue most pleasing to see. and the flowers--there they were, hanging under the twigs in long clusters of what i might describe as ends of chenille, if it were not irreverent to compare these delicate greenish catkins with anything man-made! [illustration: a shagbark hickory in bloom] this fine shagbark was kind to the cameraman, for some of its lower branches drooped and hung down close enough to the "bars" of the rail fence to permit the photographic eye to be turned on them. then came the tantalizing wait for stillness! i have frequently found that a wind, absolutely unnoticeable before, became obtrusively strong just when the critical moment arrived, and i have fancied that the lightly hung leaflets i have waited upon fairly shook with merriment as they received the gentle zephyr, imperceptible to my heated brow, but vigorous enough to keep them moving. often, too--indeed nearly always--i have found that after exhausting my all too scanty stock of patience, and making an "exposure" in despair, the errant blossoms and leaflets would settle down into perfect immobility, as if to say, "there! don't be cross--we'll behave," when it was too late. but the shagbark at last was good to me, and i could leave with the comfortable feeling that i was carrying away a little bit of nature's special work, a memorandum of her rather private processes of fruit-making, without injuring any part of the inspected trees. it has been a sorrow to me that i have not seen that great hickory later in the year, when the clusters of tassels have become bunches of husk-covered nuts. to get really acquainted with any tree, it should be visited many times in a year. starting with the winter view, one observes the bark, the trend and character of the limbs, the condition of the buds. the spring opening of growth brings rapid changes, of both interest and beauty, to be succeeded by the maturity of summer, when, with the ripened foliage overhead, everything is different. again, when the fruit is on, and the touch of jack frost is baring the tree for the smoother passing of the winds of winter, there is another aspect. i have great respect for the tree-lover who knows unerringly his favorites at any time of the year, for have i not myself made many mistakes, especially when no leaves are at hand as pointers? the snow leaves nothing to be seen but the cunning framework of the tree--tell me, then, is it ash, or elm, or beech? which is sugar-maple, and which red, or sycamore? one summer walk in the deep forest, my friend the doctor, who knows many things besides the human frame, was puzzled at a sturdy tree bole, whose leaves far overhead mingled so closely with the neighboring greenery of beech and birch that in the dim light they gave no help. first driving the small blade of his pocket-knife deep into the rugged bark of the tree in question, he withdrew it, and then smelled and tasted, exclaiming, "ah, i thought so; it _is_ the wild cherry!" and, truly, the characteristic prussic-acid odor, the bitter taste, belonging to the peach and cherry families, were readily noted; and another sherlock holmes tree fact came to me! of other hickories i know little, for the false shagbark, the mockernut, the pignut, and the rest of the family have not been disclosed to me often enough to put me at ease with them. there are to be more tree friends, both human and arborescent, and more walks with the doctor and the camera, i hope! we of the cold north, as we crack the toothsome pecan, hardly realize its kinship with the hickory. it is full brother to our shellbark, which is, according to botany, _hicoria ovata_, while the southern tree is _hicoria pecan_. a superb tree it is, too, reaching up amid its vigorous associates of the forests of georgia, alabama and texas to a height exceeding one hundred and fifty feet. its upright and elegant form, of a grace that conceals its great height, its remarkable usefulness, and its rather rapid growth, commend it highly. the nut-clusters are striking, having not only an interesting outline, but much richness of color, in greens and russets. [illustration: the american beech in winter] it may seem odd to include the beech under the nut-bearing trees, to those of us who know only the nursery-grown forms of the european beech, "weeping" and twisted, with leaves of copper and blood, as seen in parks and pleasure-grounds. but the squirrels would agree; they know well the sweet little triangular nuts that ripen early in fall. the pure american beech, uncontaminated and untwisted with the abnormal forms just mentioned, is a tree that keeps itself well in the eye of the woods rambler; and that eye is always pleasured by it, also. late in winter, the light gray branches of a beech thicket on a dry hillside on the edge of my home city called attention to their clean elegance amid sordid and forbidding surroundings, and it was with anger which i dare call righteous that i saw a hideous bill-board erected along the hillside, to shut out the always beautiful beeches from sight as i frequently passed on a trolley car! i have carefully avoided buying anything of the merchants who have thus set up their announcements where they are an insult; and it might be noted that these and other offensive bill-boards are to others of like mind a sort of reverse advertising--they tell us what _not_ to purchase. [illustration: the true nut-eater] years ago i chanced to be present at a birth of beech leaves, up along paxton creek. it was late in the afternoon, and our reluctant feet were turning homeward, after the camera had seen the windings of the creek against the softening light, when the beeches over-arching the little stream showed us this spring marvel. the little but perfectly formed leaves had just opened, in pairs, with a wonderful covering of silvery green, as they hung downward toward the water, yet too weak to stand out and up to the passing breeze. the exquisite delicacy of these trembling little leaves, the arching elegance of the branches that had just opened them to the light, made it seem almost sacrilegious to turn the lens upon them. often since have i visited the same spot, in hope to see again this awakening, but without avail. the leaves show me their silky completeness, rustling above the stream in softest tree talk; the curious staminate flower-clusters hang like bunches of inverted commas; the neat little burs, with their inoffensive prickles, mature and discharge the angular nuts--but i am not again, i fear, to be present at the hour of the leaf-birth of the beech's year. the beech, by the way, is tenacious of its handsome foliage. long after most trees have yielded their leaves to the frost, the beech keeps its clothing, turning from the clear yellow of fall to lightest fawn, and hanging out in the forest a sign of whiteness that is cheering in the winter and earliest spring. these bleached-out leaves will often remain until fairly pushed off by the opening buds of another year. [illustration: the witch-hazel] of the hazelnut or filbert, i know nothing from the tree side, but i cannot avoid mentioning another botanically unrelated so-called hazel--the witch-hazel. this small tree is known to most of us only as giving name to a certain soothing extract. it is worthy of more attention, for its curious and delicately sweet yellow flowers, seemingly clusters of lemon-colored threads, are the very last to bloom, opening bravely in the very teeth of jack frost. they are a delight to find, on the late fall rambles; and the next season they are followed by the still more curious fruits, which have a habit of suddenly opening and fairly ejaculating their seeds. a plucked branch of these fruits, kept in a warm place a few hours, will show this--another of nature's efficient methods for spreading seeds, in full operation--if one watches closely enough. the flowers and the fruits are on the tree at the same time, just as with the orange of the tropics. speaking of a tropical fruit, i am reminded that the greatest nut of all, though certainly not an american native, is nevertheless now grown on american soil. some years ago a grove of lofty cocoanut palms in yucatan fascinated me, and the opportunity to drink the clear and refreshing milk (not milky at all, and utterly different from the familiar contents of the ripened nut of commerce) was gladly taken. now the bearing trees are within the bounds of the united states proper, and the grand trees in southern florida give plenty of fruit. the african citizens of that neighborhood are well aware of the refreshing character of the "juice" of the green cocoanut, and a friend who sees things for me with a camera tells with glee how a "darky" at palm beach left him in his wheel-chair to run with simian feet up a sloping trunk, there to pull, break open, and absorb the contents of a nut, quite as a matter of course. i have myself seen the africans of the bahamas in the west indies climbing the glorious cocoa palms of the coral keys, throwing down the mature nuts, and then, with strong teeth, stripping the tough outer covering to get at the refreshing interior. all these nut trees are only members of the great family of trees given by god for man's good, i firmly believe; for man first comes into biblical view in a garden of trees, and the city and the plain are but penances for sin! some other trees in preceding chapters of this series i have treated of trees in a relationship of family, or according to some noted similarity. there are, however, some trees of my acquaintance of which the family connections are remote or unimportant, and there are some other trees of individual merit with the families of which i am not sufficiently well acquainted to speak familiarly as a whole. yet many of these trees, looked at by themselves, are as beautiful, interesting, and altogether worthy as any of which i have written, and they are also among the familiar trees of america. therefore i present a few of them apart from the class treatment. * * * * * one day in very early spring--or was it very late in winter?--i walked along the old canal road, looking for some evidence in tree growth that spring was really at hand. buds were swelling, and here and there a brave robin could be heard telling about it in song to his mate (i think that settled the season as earliest spring!); but beyond the bud evidences the trees seemed to be silent on the subject. various herbs showed lusty beginnings, and the skunk-cabbage, of course, had pushed up its tropical richness in defiance of any late frost, pointing the way to its peculiar red-purple flowers, long since fertilized and turning toward maturity. the search seemed vain, until a glint of yellow just ahead, too deep to proceed from the spice-bush i was expecting to find, drew me to the very edge of the water, there to see hanging over and reflected in the stream a mass of golden catkins. looking closely, and touching the little tree, i disengaged a cloud of pollen and a score of courageous bees, evidently much more pleased with the sweet birch than with the near-by skunk-cabbage flowers. sweet birch it was; the stiff catkins, that had all winter held themselves in readiness, had just burst into bloom with the sun's first warmth, introducing a glint of bright color into the landscape, and starting the active double work of the bees, in fertilizing flowers while gathering honey, that was not to be intermitted for a single sunshine hour all through the season. a little later, along the great susquehanna, i found in full bloom other trees of this same birch, beloved of boys--and of girls--for its aromatic bark. certainly picturesque and bright, the little trees were a delight to the winter-wearied eye, the mahogany twigs and the golden catkins, held at poise over the water, being full of spring suggestion. all of the birches--i wish i knew them better!--are good to look at, and i think the bees, the woodpeckers, the humming-birds and other wood folk must find some of them good otherwise. at eagles mere there was a yellow birch in the bark of which scores of holes had been drilled by the woodpeckers or the bees, at regularly spaced intervals, to let the forest life drink at will of the sweet sap. i remember also that my attempt to photograph a score of bees, two large brown butterflies and one humming-bird, all in attendance upon this birch feast, was a surprising failure. i secured a picture of the holes in the bark, to be sure, but the rapidly moving insect and bird life was too quick for an exposure of even a fraction of a second, and my negative was lifeless. these same yellow birches, picturesque in form, ragged in light-colored bark, give a brightness all their own to the deep forest, mostly of trees with rather somber bark. a woodsman told me one summer of the use of old birch bark for starting a fire in the wet woods, and i have since enjoyed collecting the bark from fallen trees in the forest. it strips easily, in large pieces, from decayed stems, and when thrown on an open fire, produces a cheery and beautiful blaze, as well as much heat; while, if cunningly handled, by its aid a fire can be kindled even in a heavy rain. [illustration: sweet birch in early spring] the great north woods show us wonderful birches. paddling through one of the spectacle ponds, along the racquette river, one early spring day, i came upon a combination of white pine, red pine, and paper-birch that was simply dazzling in effect. this birch has bark, as every one knows, of a shining creamy white. not only its color, but its tenacity, resistance to decay, and wonderful divisibility, make this bark one of the most remarkable of nature's fabrics. to the indian and the trapper it has long been as indispensable as is the palm to the native of the tropics. [illustration: yellow birches] there are other good native birches, and one foreigner--the true white birch--whose cut-leaved form, a familiar lawn tree of drooping habit, is worth watching and liking. the name some of the nurserymen have given it, of "nine-bark," is significantly accurate, for at least nine layers may be peeled from the glossy whiteness of the bark of a mature tree. i intend to know more of the birches, and to see how the two kinds of flowers act to produce the little fruits, which are nuts, though they hardly look so. and i would urge my tree-loving friends to plant about their homes these cheery and most elegantly garbed trees. the spice-bush, of which i spoke above, is really a large shrub, and is especially notable for two things--the way it begins the spring, and the way it ends the fall. about my home, it is the first of wild woods trees to bloom, except perhaps the silver maple, which has a way of getting through with its flowers unnoticed before spring is thought of. one finds the delicate little bright yellow flowers of the spice-bush clustered thickly along the twigs long before the leaves are ready to brave the chill air. after the leaves have fallen in the autumn, these flowers stand out in a reincarnation of scarlet and spicy berries, which masquerade continually as holly berries when cunningly introduced amid the foliage of the latter. between spring and fall the spice-bush is apparently invisible. [illustration: flowers of the spice-bush] [illustration: leaves and berries of the american holly] how many of us, perfectly familiar with "the holly berry's glow" about christmas time, have ever seen a whole tree of holly, set with berries? yet the trees, sometimes fifty feet high, of american holly--and this is very different from the english holly in leaf--grow all along the atlantic sea-board, from maine to florida, and are especially plenty south of maryland and delaware. there is one superb specimen in trenton, new jersey's capital, which is of the typical form, and when crowded with scarlet berries it is an object of great beauty. one reason why many of us have not seen holly growing in the wild is that it seems to prefer the roughest and most inaccessible locations. years ago i was told that i might see plenty of holly growing freely in the pennsylvania county of my home. "but," my informant added, "you will need to wear heavy leather trousers to get to it!" the nurserymen are removing this difficulty by growing plants of all the hollies--american, japanese, english and himalayan--so that they may easily be set in the home grounds, with their handsome evergreen foliage and their berries of red or black. [illustration: american holly tree at trenton, n. j.] one spring, the season and my opportunities combined to provide a most pleasing feast of color in the tree quest. it was afforded by the juxtaposition at conewago of the bloom-time of the deep pink red-bud, miscalled "judas tree," and the large white dogwood,--both set against the deep, almost black green of the american cedar, or juniper. these two small trees, the red-bud and the dogwood, are of the class of admirable american natives that are notable rather for beauty and brightness of bloom than for tree form or size. the common dogwood--_cornus florida_ of the botany--appears in bloom insidiously, one might say; for the so-called flowers open slowly, and they are green in color, and easily mistaken for leaves, after they have attained considerable size. gradually the green pales to purest white, and the four broad bracts, with the peculiar little pucker at the end of each, swell out from the real flowers, which look like stamens, to a diameter of often four inches. with these flowers clustered thickly on the usually flat, straight branches, the effect against the green or brown of near-by trees is startling. the dogwood's horizontal branching habit makes every scrap of its lovely white blooms effective to the beholder on the ground below, but far more striking if one may see it from above, as looking down a hillside. though the dogwood blooms before its leaves are put forth, the foliage sometimes catches up with the flowers; and this foliage is itself a pleasure, because of its fineness and its regular venation, or marking with ribs. in the fall, when the flowers of purest white have been succeeded by oblong berries of brightest scarlet, the foliage remains awhile to contrast with the brilliance of the fruit. the frosts soon drop the leaves, and then the berries stand out in all their attractiveness, offering food to every passing bird, and thus carrying out another of nature's cunning provisions for the reproduction of the species. seeds in the crops of birds travel free and far, and some fall on good ground! is it not sad to know that the brave, bold dogwood, holding out its spring flag of truce from arduous weather, and its autumn store of sustenance for our feathered friends, is in danger of extinction from the forest because its hardy, smooth, even-grained white wood has been found to be especially available in the "arts"? i feel like begging for the life of every dogwood, as too beautiful to be destroyed for any mere utility. [illustration: floral bracts or involucres of the dogwood] i have been wondering as to the reason for the naming of the cornuses as dogwoods, and find in bailey's great cyclopedia of horticulture the definite statement that the name was attached to an english red-branched species because a decoction of the bark was used to wash mangy dogs! this is but another illustration of the inadequacy and inappropriateness of "common" names. there are many good dogwoods--the cornus family is admirable, both in its american and its foreign members--but i must not become encyclopedic in these sketches of just a few tree favorites. i will venture to mention one shrub dogwood--i never heard its common name, but it has three botanical names (_cornus sericea_, or _coerulea_, or _amomum_, the latter preferred) to make up for the lack. it ought to be called the blue-berried dogwood, by reason of its extremely beautiful fruit, which formed a singular and delightful contrast to the profusion of red and scarlet fruits so much in evidence, one september day, in boston's berry-full franklin park. [illustration: the red-bud in bloom] the red-bud, as i have said, is miscalled judas-tree, the tradition being that it was on a tree of this family, but not of the american branch, happily and obviously, that the faithless disciple hanged himself after his final interview with the priests who had played upon his cupidity. indeed, tradition is able to tell even now marvelous stories to travelers, and not long ago i was more amused than edified to hear an eloquent clergyman just returned from abroad tell how he had been shown the fruits of the judas-tree, "in form like beautiful apples, fair to the eye, but within bitter and disappointing;" and he moralized just as vigorously on this fable as if it had been true, as he thought it. he didn't particularly relish the suggestion that the pulpit ought to be fairly certain of its facts, whether of theology or of science, in these days; but he succumbed to the submission of authority for the statement that the eastern so-called judas-tree, _cercis siliquastrum_, bore a small pod, like a bean, and was not unpleasant, any more than the pod was attractive. i mention this only in reprobation of the unpleasant name that really hurts the estimation of one of the most desirable and beautiful of america's smaller trees. the american red-bud is a joy in the spring about dogwood time, for it is all bloom, and of a most striking color. deep pink, or purplish light red, or clear bright magenta--all these color names fit it approximately only. one is conscious of a warm glow in looking toward the little trees, with every branch clear down to the main stem not only outlined but covered with richest color. there is among the accompanying illustrations (page ) a photograph of a small but characteristic red-bud in bloom, looking at which reminds me of one of the pleasantest experiences of my outdoor life. with a cameristic associate, i was in a favorite haunt, seeing dogwoods and red-buds and other things of spring beauty, when a sudden warm thunder shower overtook us. somewhat protected in our carriage--and it would have been more fun if we had stood out to take the rain as comfortably as did the horse--we saw the wonder of the reception of a spring shower by the exuberant plant life we were there to enjoy. when the clouds suddenly obscured the sky, and the first drops began to fall, the soft new umbrellas of the may-apples, raised to shield the delicate white flowers hidden under them from the too ardent sunshine, reversed the usual method by closing tightly and smoothly over the blooms, thus protecting perfectly their pollen hearts, and offering little resistance to the sharp wind that brought the rain. at our very feet we could see the open petals of the spring beauty coil up into tight little spirals, the young leaves on the pin-oaks draw in toward the stems from which they had been expanding. over the low fence, the blue phlox, that dainty carpeting of the may woods, shut its starry flowers, and lay close to the ground. quiet as we were, we could see the birds find sheltered nooks in the trees about us. but soon the rain ceased, the clouds passed away, and the sun shone again, giving us a rainbow promise on the passing drops. everything woke up! the birds were first to rejoice, and a veritable oratorio of praise and joyfulness sounded about our ears. the leaves quickly expanded, fresher than ever; the flowers uncurled and unfolded, the may-apple umbrellas raised again; and all seemed singing a song as joyous as that of the birds, though audible only to the nerves of eye and brain of the human beings who had thus witnessed another of nature's interior entertainments. how much we miss by reason of fear of a little wetting! many of the finest pictures painted by the master of all art are visible only in rain and in mist; and the subtlest coloring of tree leaf and tree stem is that seen only when the dust is all washed away by the shower that should have no terrors for those who care for the truths of nature. in these days of rain-proof clothing, seeing outdoors in the rain is not even attended by the slightest discomfort, and i have found my camera quite able to stand a shower! another of the early spring-flowering small trees--indeed, the earliest one that blooms in white--is the shad-bush, or service-berry. again the "common" names are trifling and inadequate; shad-bush because the flowers come when the shad are ascending the rivers along which the trees grow, and service-berry because the pleasant fruits are of service, perhaps! june-berry, another name, is better; but the genus owns the mellifluous name of amelanchier, and the term canadensis belongs to the species with the clouds of little white flowers shaped like a thin-petaled star. the shad-bush blooms with the trilliums--but i may not allow the spring flowers to set me spinning on another hank! [illustration: blooms of the shad-bush] searching for early recollections of trees, i remember, when a boy of six or seven, finding some little green berries or fruits, each with its long stem, on the pavement under some great trees in the capitol park of my home town. i could eat these; and thus they pleased the boy as much as the honey-sweet flowers that gave rise to them now please the man. the noble american linden, one of the really great trees of our forests, bears these delicate whitish flowers, held in rich clusters from a single stem which is attached for part of its length to a curious long green bract. if these flowers came naked on the tree, as do those of the norway maple, for instance, they would be easily seen and admired of men, but being withheld until the splendid heart-shaped foliage is well out, the blooms miss the casual eye. but the bees see them; they know the linden for their own, and great stores of sweetest honey follow a year when abundant pasture of these flowers is available. [illustration: flowers of the american linden] a kindly tree is this linden, or lime, or basswood, to give it all its common names. kindly as well as stately, but never rugged as the oak, or of obvious pliant strength as the hickory. the old tree invites to shade under its limbs crowded with broad leaves; the young tree is lusty of growth and clean of bark, a model of rounded beauty and a fine variant from the overworked maples of our streets. again, the tale of woe! for the great lindens of our forests are nearly all gone. too useful for timber; too easy to fell; its soft, smooth, even wood too adaptable to many uses! cut them all; strip the bark for "bast," or tying material; america is widening; the sawmills cannot be idle; scientific and decent forestry, so successful and so usual in europe, is yet but a dream for future generations here in america! but other lindens, those of europe especially, are loved of the landscape architect and the germans. "unter den linden," berlin's famous street, owes its name, fame and shade to the handsome european species, the white-lined leaves of which turn up in the faintest breeze, to show silvery against the deep green of their upper surfaces. very many of these fine lindens are being planted now in america by landscape architects, and there are some lindens on long island just as prim and trim as any in berlin. indeed, there is a sort of german "offiziere" waxed-mustache air of superiority about them, anyway! [illustration: the american linden] there is an all-pervading middle states tree that i might give a common name to as the "fence-post tree," because it is so often grown for that use only, by reason of its enduring timber and its exceeding vigor under hard usage. yet the common black locust is one of the most distinct and pleasing american trees of moderate height. distinct it is in its framework in winter, mayhap with the twisted pods of last season's fruits hanging free; distinct again in its long-delayed late-coming acacia-like foliage; but fragrant, elegant and beautiful, as well as distinct, when in june it sets forth its long, drooping racemes of whitest and sweetest flowers. these come only when warm weather is an assured fact, and the wise pennsylvania germans feel justified in awaiting the blooming of the locust before finally discarding their winter underclothing! for years a family of my knowledge has held it necessary, for its proper conduct, to have in order certain floral drives. first the apple blossom drive introduces the spring, and the lilac drive confirms the impression that really the season is advancing; but the locust drive is the sweetest of all, taking these nature lovers along some shady lanes, beside the east bank of a great river, and in places where, the trees planted only for the fence utility of the hard yellow wood, these fragrant flowers, hanging in grace and elegance far above the highway, have redeemed surroundings otherwise sordid and mean. [illustration: flowers of the black locust] i want americans to prize the american locust for its real beauty. the french know it, and show with pride their trifling imported specimens. we cannot exterminate the trees, and there will be plenty for posts, too; but let us realize its sweetness and elegance, as well as the durability of its structure. [illustration: young trees of the black locust] there are fashions in trees, if you please, and the nurserymen set them. suddenly they discover the merits of some long-forgotten tree, and it jumps into prominence. thus, only a few years ago, the pin-oak came into vogue, to the lasting benefit of some parks, avenues and home grounds. then followed the sycamore, but it had to be the european variety, for our own native "plane tree," or "button-ball," is too plentiful and easy to sing much of a tree-seller's song about. this oriental plane is a fine tree, however, and the avenue in fairmount park that one may see from trains passing over the schuylkill river is admirable. the bark is mottled in green, and especially bright when wet with rain. as the species is free from the attacks of a nasty european "bug," or fungus, which is bothering the american plane, it is much safer to handle, commercially. but our stately american sycamore is in a different class. one never thinks of it as a lawn tree, or as bordering a fashionable roadway; rather the expectation is to find it along a brook, in a meadow, or in some rather wild and unkempt spot. as one of the scientific books begins of it, "it is a tree of the first magnitude." i like that expression; for the sycamore gives an impression of magnitude and breadth; it spreads out serenely and comfortably. my friend professor bailey says _platanus occidentalis_, which is the truly right name of this tree, has no title to the term sycamore; it is properly, as his cyclopedia gives it, buttonwood, or plane. hunting about a little among tree books, i find the reason for this, and that it explains another name i have never understood. the sycamore of the bible, referred to frequently in the old testament, traditionally mentioned as the tree under which joseph rested with mary and the young child on the way to egypt, and into which zaccheus climbed to see what was going on, was a sort of fig tree--"pharaoh's fig," in fact. when the mystery-plays of the centuries gone by were produced in europe, the tree most like to what these good people thought was the real sycamore furnished the branches used in the scene-setting--and it was either the oriental plane, or the sycamore-leaved maple that was chosen, as convenient. the name soon attached itself to the trees; and when homesick immigrants looked about the new world of america for some familiar tree, it was easy enough to see a great similarity in our buttonwood, which thus soon became sycamore. [illustration: the sycamore, or button-ball] so much for information, more or less legendary, i confess; but the great tree we are discussing is very tangible. indeed, it is always in the public eye; for it carries on a sort of continuous disrobing performance! the snake sheds his skin rather privately, and comes forth in his new spring suit all at once; the oak and the maple, and all the rest of them continually but invisibly add new bark between the splitting or stretching ridges of the old; but our wholesome friend the sycamore is quite shamelessly open about it, dropping off a plate or a patch here and there as he grows and swells, to show us his underwear, which thus at once becomes overcoat, as he goes on. at first greenish, the under bark thus exposed becomes creamy white, mostly; and i have had a conceit that the colder the winter, the whiter would be those portions of mr. buttonball's pajamas he cared to expose to us the next spring! [illustration: button-balls--fruit of the sycamore] the leaves of the sycamore are good to look at, and efficient against the sun. the color above is not as clear and sharp as that of the maple; underneath the leaves are whitish, and soft, or "pubescent," as the botanical term goes. quite rakishly pointed are the tips, and the whole effect, in connection with the balls,--which are first crowded clusters of flowers, and then just as crowded clusters of seeds--is that of a gentleman of the old school, dignified in his knee-breeches and cocked hat, fully aware that he is of comfortable importance! those little button-balls that give name to this good american tree follow the flower clusters without much change of form--they _were_ flowers, they _are_ seeds--and they stay by the tree persistently all winter, blowing about in the sharp winds. after a while one is banged often enough to open its structure, and then the carrying wind takes on its wings the neat little cone-shaped seeds, each possessed of its own silky hairs to help float it gently toward the ground--and thus is another of nature's curious rounds of distribution completed. a tree is never without interest to those whose eyes have been opened to some of the wonders and perfections of nature. nevertheless, there is a time in the year's round when each tree makes its special appeal. it may be in the winter, when every twig is outlined sharply against the cold sky, and the snow reflects light into the innermost crevices of its structure, that the elm is most admirable. when the dogwood has on its white robe in may and june, it then sings its song of the year. the laden apple tree has a pure glory of the blossoms, and another warmer, riper glory of the burden of fruit, but we think most kindly of its flowering time. some trees maintain such a continuous show of interest and beauty that it is difficult to say on any day, "_now_ is this tulip or this oak at its very finest!" again, the spring redness of the swamp maple is hardly less vivid than its mature coloring of the fall. but as to the liquidambar, or sweet-gum, there can be no question. interesting and elegant the year round, its autumn covering of polished deep crimson starry leaves is so startlingly beautiful and distinct as to almost take it out of comparison with any other tree. others have nearly the richness of color, others again show nearly the elegance of leaf form, but no one tree rivals completely the sweet-gum at the time when the autumn chill has driven out all the paleness in its leaf spectrum, leaving only the warm crimson that seems for awhile to defy further attacks of frost. as to shape, the locality settles that; for, a very symmetrical small to maximum-sized tree in the north and on high dry places, in the south and in wet places north it becomes another "tree of the first magnitude," wide-spreading and heavy. a stellar comparison seems to fit, because of these wonderful leaves. they struck me at first, hunting photographs one day, as some sort of a maple; but what maple could have such perfection of star form? a maple refined, perfected, and indeed polished, one might well think, for while other trees have shining leaves, they are dull in comparison with the deep-textured gloss of these of the sweet-gum. [illustration: the liquidambar] here, too, is a tree for many places; an adaptable, cosmopolitan sort of arboreal growth. at its full strength of hard, solid, time-defying wooded body on the edge of some almost inaccessible swamp of the south, where its spread-out roots and ridgy branches earn for it another common name as the "alligator tree," it is in a park or along a private driveway at the north quite the acme of refined tree elegance, all the summer and fall. it takes on a rather narrow, pyramidal head, broadening as it ages, but never betraying kin with its fellow of the swamp, save perhaps when winter has bared its peculiar winged and strangely "corky" branches. [illustration: the star-shaped leaves and curious fruits of the liquidambar, late in the summer.] these odd branches bear, on some trees particularly, a noticeable ridge, made up of the same substance which in the cork-oak of europe furnishes the bottle-stoppers of commerce. it makes the winter structure of the sweet-gum most distinct and picturesque, which appearance is accentuated by the interesting little seed-balls, or fruits, rounded and spiny, that hang long from the twigs. these fruits follow quickly an inconspicuous flower that in april or may has made its brief appearance, and they add greatly to the general attractiveness of the tree on the lawn, to my mind. years ago i first made acquaintance with the liquidambar, as it ought always to be called, one wet september day, when an old tree-lover took me out on his lawn to see the rain accentuate the polish on the starry leaves and drip from the little many-pointed balls. i found that day that a camera would work quite well under an umbrella, and i obtained also a mind-negative that will last, i believe, as long as i can think of trees. the next experience was in another state, where a quaint character, visited on business, struck hands with me on tree-love, and took me to see his pet liquidambar at the edge of a mill-pond. that one was taller, and quite stately; it made an impression, deepened again when the third special showing came, this time on a college campus, the young tree being naked and corky, and displayed with pride by the college professor who had gotten out of his books into real life for a joyous half day. he wasn't the botany professor, if you please; that dry-as-dust gentleman told me, when i inquired as to what i might find in early bloom, or see with the eyes of an ignorant plant-lover, that there was "nothing blooming, and nothing of interest." he added that he had a fine herbarium where i might see all the plants i wanted, nicely dried and spread out with pins and pasters, their roots and all! look at _dead_ plants, their roots indecently exposed to mere curiosity, on a bright, living early april day? not much! i told my trouble to the professor of agriculture, whose eyes brightened, as he informed me he had no classes for that morning, and--"we would see!" we _did_ see a whole host of living things outdoors,--flowers peeping out; leaves of the willows, just breaking; buds ready to burst; all nature waiting for the sun's call of the "grand entrée." it was a good day; but i pitied that poor old dull-eyed herbarium specimen of a botanical professor, in whose veins the blood was congealing, when everything about called on him to get out under the rays of god's sun, and study, book in hand if he wanted, the bursting, hurrying facts of the imminent spring. but a word more about the liquidambar--the name by which i hope the tree we are discussing may be talked of and thought of. old linnæus gave it that name, because it described euphoniously as well as scientifically the fact that the sap which exudes from this fine american tree _is_ liquid amber. now isn't that better than "gum" tree? with trees in general as objects of interest, i have always felt a special leaning toward tropical trees, probably because they were rare, and indeed not to be seen outside of the conservatory in our middle states. my first visit to florida was made particularly enjoyable by reason of the palms and bananas there to be seen, and i have by no means lost the feeling of admiration for the latter especially. in yucatan there were to be seen other and stranger growths and fruits, and the novelty of a great cocoanut grove is yet a memory not eclipsed by the present-day floridian and bahamian productions of the same sort. it was, therefore, with some astonishment that i came to know, a few years ago, more of a little tree bearing a fruit that had been familiar from my boyhood, but which i was then informed was the sole northern representative of a great family of tropical fruits, and which was fairly called the american banana. the papaw it was; a fruit all too luscious and sweet, when fully ripe in the fall, for most tastes, but appealing strongly to the omnivorous small boy. i suppose most of my readers know its banana-like fruits, four or five inches long, green outside, but filled with soft and sweet aromatic yellow pulp, punctuated by several fat bean-like seeds. [illustration: the papaw in bloom] but it is the very handsome and distinct little tree, with its decidedly odd flowers, i would celebrate, rather than the fruits. this tree, rather common to shady places in eastern america as far north as new york, is worth much attention, and worth planting for its spreading richness of foliage. the leaves are large, and seem to carry into the cold north a hint of warmth and of luxuriant growth not common, by any means--i know of only one other hardy tree, the cucumber magnolia, with an approaching character. the arrangement of these handsome papaw leaves on the branches, too, makes the complete mass of regularly shaped greenery that is the special characteristic of this escape from the tropics; and, since i have seen the real papaw of the west indies in full glory, i am more than ever glad for the handsomer tree that belongs to the regions of cold and vigor. [illustration: flowers of the papaw] the form of our papaw, or _asimina triloba_--the botanical name is rather pleasing--is noticeable, and as characteristic as its leafage. see these side branches, leaving the slender central stem with a graceful up-curve, but almost at once swinging down, only to again curve upward at the ends! are they not graceful? such branches as these point nature's marvelous engineering, to appreciate which one needs only to try to imagine a structure of equal grace and efficiency, made with any material of the arts. how awkward and clumsy steel would be, or other metal! along these swinging curved branches, as we see them in the april winds, there appear hints of the leaf richness that is to come--but something else as well. these darkest purple-red petals, almost black, as they change from the green of their opening hue, make up the peculiar flowers of the papaw. there is gold in the heart of the flower, not hid from the bees, and there is much of interest for the seeker for spring knowledge as well; though i advise him not to smell the flowers. almost the exact antithesis of the dogwood is the bloom of this tree; for, both starting green when first unfolded from the buds, the papaw's flowers advance through browns and yellows, dully mingled, to the deep vinous red of maturity. the dogwood's final banner of white is unfolded through its progress of greens, about the same time or a little later. a pleasant and peculiar small tree is this papaw, not nearly so well known or so highly esteemed as it ought to be. another tree with edible fruits--but here there will be a dispute, perhaps!--is the persimmon. i mean the american persimmon, indissolubly associated in our own southland with the darky and the 'possum, but also well distributed over eastern north america as far north as connecticut. the botanical name of the genus is diospyros, liberally translated as "fruit of the gods," or "jove's fruit." if his highness of olympus was, by any chance, well acquainted with our 'simmon just before frost, he must have had a copper-lined mouth, to choose it as his peculiar fruit! making a moderate-sized tree of peculiar and pleasing form, its branches twisting regardless of symmetry, the persimmon in pennsylvania likes the country roadsides, especially along loamy banks. here it has unequaled opportunity for hanging out its attractively colored fruits. as one drives along in early fall, just before hard frost, these fine-looking little tomato-like globes of orange and red are advertised in the wind by the absence of the early dropping foliage. they look luscious and tempting; indeed, they _are_ tempting! past experience--you need but one--had prepared me for this "bunko" fruit; but my friend would not believe me, one day in early october--he must taste for himself. taste he did, and generously, for the first bite is pleasing, and does not alarm, wherefore he had time, before his insulted nerves of mouth and tongue gave full warning, to absorb two of the 'simmons. whew! what a face he made when the puckering juice got to work, and convinced him that he had been sucking a disguised lump of alum. choking and gasping, he called for the water we were far from; and _he_ won't try an unfrosted persimmon again! my clerical friend who brought home the fairy tale about the red-bud, or judas-tree, might well have based his story on the american persimmon, but for the fact that this puckery little globe, so brilliant and so deceptive before frost, loses both its beauty and its astringency when slightly frozen. then its tender flesh is suave and delicious, and old jove might well choose it for his own. [illustration: the persimmon tree in fruiting time] but the tree--that is a beauty all summer, with its shining leaves, oblong, pointed and almost of the magnolia shape. it will grace any situation, and is particularly one of the trees worth planting along highways, to relieve the monotony of too many maples, ashes, horse-chestnuts and the like, and to offer to the passer-by a tempting fruit of which he will surely not partake too freely when it is most attractive. i read that toward the western limit of its range the persimmon, in louisiana, eastern kansas and the indian territory, becomes another tree of the first magnitude, towering above a hundred feet. this would be well worth seeing! there is another persimmon in the south, introduced from japan, the fruits of which are sold on the fruit-stands of philadelphia, boston and new york. this, the "kaki" of japan, is a small but business-like tree, not substantially hardy north of georgia, which provides great quantities of its beautiful fruits, rich in coloring and sweet to the taste, and varying greatly in size and form in its different varieties. these 'simmons do not need the touch of frost, nor do they ever attain the fine, wild, high flavor of the frost-bitten virginian fruits; the tree that bears them has none of the irregular beauty of our native persimmon, nor does it approach in size to that ornament of the countryside. * * * * * and now, in closing these sketches, i become most keenly sensible of their deficiencies. purely random bits they are, coming from a busy man, and possessing the one merit of frankness. deeply interested in trees, but lacking the time for continuous study, i have been turning my camera and my eyes upon the growths about me, asking questions, mentally recording what i could see, and, while thankful for the rest and the pleasure of the pursuit, always sorry not to go more fully into proper and scientific tree knowledge. at times my lack in this respect has made me ashamed to have written at all upon trees; but with full gratitude to the botanical explorers whose labors have made such superficial observations as mine possible, i venture to send forth these sketches, without pretension as to the statement of any new facts or features. [illustration: berries of the spice-bush] if anything i have here set down shall induce among those who have looked and read with me from nature's open book the desire to go more deeply into the fascinating tree lore that always awaits and inevitably rewards the effort, i shall cry heartily, "god-speed!" index illustrations are indicated by a prefixed asterisk (*). for botanical names, see page . acorn, beginning of, . alligator tree, . amelanchier, . american trees in europe, . apple blossoms, , . apple, beauty of fruiting branch, apple, chinese flowering, . apple, crab, . apple trees, fruiting, ; in blossom, * . apples, . apples, ben davis, bellefleur, baldwin, early harvest, red astrachan, ; rhode island greening, ; winesap, fruit, * . apple orchard in winter, * . apples, crab, fruit-cluster, * . apples, propagation of, . arnold arboretum, , . aspen, american, . aspen, large-toothed, . aspen, trembling (poplar), . bailey, prof. l. h., quoted, . balm of gilead, . beech, american, * , . beech, birth of leaves, . bill-boards, . birch-bark for fuel, . birch, paper, . birch, sweet, , * , * . birch, white, . birch, yellow, , * . butternut, . buttonball, * . buttonwood, . cathedral woods (pines), . cedar, white, . cherry, wild, . chestnut, american sweet, , * . chestnut burs, * . chestnut grove in fall, . chestnut, sweet, blossoms, * . chinquapin, , * . cocoanut, . common names, . cones of the pines, . cornus sericea, . cottonwood (poplar), . crab-apple, ; floribunda, ; parkman's, ; siberian, ; spectabilis, * . crab-apple, wild, . crab-apples, chinese and japanese, ; ringo, kaido, toringo, . crab, wild, . crab, soulard, . crab, wild, fruit, * . cypress, . diospyros, . dogwood berries, * . dogwood, blue-berried, . dogwood, white, , * . elkwood, . elm and the tulip, . elm, american, *ix, , * , , . elm at capitol park, . elm, english, ; * . elm lawn, . elm, slippery, ; seed-pods, * . elm, wahoo or winged, . elms, paul and virginia, . fence-post tree (locust), . fernow, dr., on pines, . filbert, . fir, balsam, . fir, nordmann's, . firs, . fruit trees for beauty, . goat island, plants on, . habenaria, round-leaved, . hazelnut, . hemlock, . hemlock hill, * . hickory, false shagbark, . hickory, mockernut, . hickory, pignut, . hickory, shagbark, , * . hollies, japanese, english, himalayan, . holly, american, , * . holly, leaves and berries, * . johnny appleseed, . judas-tree, . judas-tree, eastern, . june-berry, . juniper, common, . kaki, . keeler, miss, quoted, . linden, american, ; flowers, * , * . linden, european, . liquidambar, , * ; fruits, * . liriodendron, ; candlesticks, ; buds opening, ; flowers of, * , . liriodendrons in washington, . locust, black, ; flowers, * . locust, young trees, * . maple, ash-leaved, box-elder, or negundo, ; flowers, * ; in bloom, * . maple, black, . maple, japanese, . maple, large-leaved, . maple, mountain, . maple, norway, ; bloom, * ; samaras, * . maple, red, scarlet or swamp, ; young leaves, * . maple, silver, ; flowers, * ; samaras, * . maple, striped, , * . maple, sugar, ; samaras, * . maple, sycamore, * , ; blossoms, * . maples, a story of some, . moosewood, . niagara, plants and trees, . nut-bearing trees, . oak, chestnut, ; flowers, * . oak, english, , ; acorns, * . oak, the growth of the, . oak, laurel, . oak, live, . oak, mossy cup or bur, . oak, pin, ; acorns, * ; flowers, * . oak, post, * , . oak, swamp white, ; flowers, * ; in early spring, * ; in winter, * . oak, white, . oak, willow, . oaks, blooming of, . oaks in georgia, . oaks, red, black, scarlet, . orchard, apple, . papaw, ; flowers, * ; in bloom, * . paxtang walnut, . pecan, ; nuts, * . persimmons, american, . persimmon, japanese, *v, . persimmon tree in fruit, * . pine, austrian, . pine, jack, . pine, long-leaved or southern, ; forest, * ; young trees, * . pine on indian river, * . pine, pitch, . pine, red, . pine, scrub, . pine, white, *vii, ; cone, * . pines of america, . pines, the, . pines, white, avenue of, * . plane, oriental, . plane-tree, . poplar, aspen, . poplar, balsam, or balm of gilead, . poplar, carolina, ; as street tree, * ; blooming of, ; flowers, * . poplar, cottonwood, ; in winter, * . poplar, lombardy, , * . poplar, white or silver-leaved, . poplar, yellow, . poplars (and willows), , . poplars for pulp-making, . poplars, white, in spring, * . pyrus family, . rain, flowers in, . red-bud, ; in bloom, * . red-woods, . salicylic acid from willows, . salix, genus (willows), . sargent, prof. charles s., . sequoias, . service-berry, . shad-bush, ; flowers, * . skunk-cabbage, . some other trees, . spice-bush, ; flowers, * ; berries, . spruce, colorado blue, . spruce, norway, ; cones, * . spruce, white, cones, * . spruces, . squirrels as nut-eaters, * . strobiles (cones) of spruce, . sweet-gum, . sycamore, , * ; fruits, * . tree-warden law, . tropical trees, . tulip (and elm), , . tulip flowers, * ; structure of, . tulip tree in winter, * . walnut, black, ; in winter, * . walnut, english or persian, . walnut, white, . washington, tree planting in, . whitewood, . willow, basket, . willow, black, . willow family, contrasts of, . willow, glaucous (pussy), . willow, goat, . willow, golden, . willow, kilmarnock, . willow, napoleon's, . willow, pussy, ; blooms, * ; in park, * . willow, weeping, ; in early spring, * ; in storm, * . willow, white, ; blossoms, * , ; clump, * ; tree by stream, * . willows and poplars, . willows, colors of, . willows, crack, yellow, blue, . willows of babylon, . witch-hazel, ; flowers, * . botanical names the standard used in determining the botanical names is bailey's "cyclopedia of american horticulture." common name botanical name page amelanchier amelanchier canadensis aspen, american populus tremuloides aspen, large-toothed populus grandidentata beech, american fagus ferruginea birch, paper betula papyrifera birch, sweet betula lenta birch, white betula populifolia birch, yellow betula lutea butternut juglans cinerea buttonball } { buttonwood }platanus occidentalis { chestnut, american sweet castanea americana chinquapin castanea pumila cocoanut cocos nucifera cottonwood (poplar) populus deltoides crab-apple, siberian pyrus baccata crab-apple, wild pyrus coronaria crab, soulard pyrus soulardi dogwood, blue-berried cornus sericea dogwood, white cornus florida elm, american ulmus americana elm, english ulmus campestris elm, slippery or red ulmus fulva elm, wahoo or winged ulmus alata filbert corylus americana fir, balsam abies balsamea fir, nordmann's abies nordmanniana habenaria, round-leaved habenaria orbiculata hazelnut corylus americana hemlock tsuga canadensis hickory, false shagbark hicoria glabra, var. microcarpa hickory, mockernut hicoria alba hickory, pignut hicoria glabra hickory, shagbark hicoria ovata holly, american ilex opaca judas-tree cercis canadensis judas-tree, eastern cercis siliquastrum june-berry amelanchier botryapium juniper, common juniperus communis kaki diospyros kaki linden, american tilia americana linden, european tilia tomentosa liquidambar liquidambar styraciflua liriodendron liriodendron tulipifera locust, black robinia pseudacacia maple, ash-leaved, box-elder or negundo acer negundo maple, black acer nigrum maple, japanese acer palmatum maple, large-leaved acer macrophyllum maple, mountain acer spicatum maple, norway acer platanoides maple, red, scarlet acer rubrum or swamp maple, silver, white acer saccharinum or soft maple, striped, acer pennsylvanicum of pennsylvania maple, sugar acer saccharum maple, sycamore acer pseudo-platanus oak, chestnut quercus prinus oak, english quercus pedunculata , oak, laurel quercus laurifolia oak, live quercus virginiana oak, mossy cup or bur quercus macrocarpa oak, pin quercus palustris oak, post quercus stellata oak, swamp white quercus bicolor oak, white quercus alba oak, willow quercus phellos papaw asimina triloba pecan hicoria pecan persimmon, american diospyros virginiana persimmon, japanese diospyros kaki pine, austrian pinus laricio, var. austriaca pine, long-leaved or pinus palustris southern pine, pitch pinus rigida pine, red pinus resinosa pine, scrub pinus virginiana pine, white pinus strobus plane, oriental platanus orientalis plane-tree platanus occidentalis poplar, aspen populus tremuloides poplar, balsam, or populus balsamifera balm of gilead poplar, carolina populus deltoides, var. caroliniana poplar, cottonwood populus deltoides poplar, lombardy populus nigra, , * var. italica poplar, white or populus alba silver-leaved poplar, yellow liriodendron tulipifera red-bud cercis canadensis service-berry amelanchier vulgaris shad-bush amelanchier canadensis skunk-cabbage spathyema foeetida spice-bush benzoin oderiferum spruce, colorado blue picea pungens spruce, norway picea excelsa sweet-gum liquidambar styraciflua sycamore platanus occidentalis walnut, black juglans nigra walnut, english or juglans regia persian walnut, white juglans cinerea whitewood liriodendron tulipifera willow, basket salix viminalis willow, black salix nigra willow, goat salix caprea willow, golden salix vitellina willow, kilmarnock. salix caprea, var. pendula willow, pussy salix discolor willow, weeping salix babylonica willow, white salix alba witch-hazel hamamelis virginiana * * * * * the following pages are advertisements of +------------------------------+ |the macmillan standard library| | | |the macmillan fiction library | | | |the macmillan juvenile library| | | |the macmillan standard library| +------------------------------+ this series has taken its place as one of the most important popular-priced editions. the "library" includes only those books which have been put to the test of public opinion and have not been found wanting,--books, in other words, which have come to be regarded as standards in the fields of knowledge--literature, religion, biography, history, politics, art, economics, sports, sociology, and belles lettres. together they make the most complete and authoritative works on the several 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one-ninth of what mr. clark tells him in this book, he would be able to save money every year on repairs, etc."--_chicago tribune._ conyngton--how to help: a manual of practical charity by mary conyngton "an exceedingly comprehensive work with chapters on the homeless man and woman, care of needy families, and the discussions of the problems of child labor." coolidge--the united states as a world power by archibald cary coolidge "a work of real distinction ... which moves the reader to thought."--_the nation._ croly--the promise of american life by herbert croly "the most profound and illuminating study of our national conditions which has appeared in many years."--theodore roosevelt. devine--misery and its causes by edward t. devine "one rarely comes across a book so rich in every page, yet so sound, so logical, and thorough."--_chicago tribune._ earle--home life in colonial days by alice morse earle "a book which throws new light on our early history." ely--evolution of industrial society by richard t. ely "the benefit of competition and the improvement of the race, municipal ownership, and concentration of wealth are treated in a sane, helpful, and interesting manner."--_philadelphia telegraph._ ely--monopolies and trusts by richard t. ely "the evils of monopoly are plainly stated, and remedies are proposed. this book should be a help to every man in active business life."--_baltimore sun._ french--how to grow vegetables by allen french "particularly valuable to a beginner in vegetable gardening, giving not only a convenient and reliable planting-table, but giving particular attention to the culture of the vegetables."--_suburban life._ goodyear--renaissance and modern art w. h. goodyear "a thorough and scholarly interpretation of artistic development." hapgood--abraham lincoln: the man of the people by norman hapgood "a life of lincoln that has never been surpassed in vividness, compactness, and homelike reality."--_chicago tribune._ haultain--the mystery of golf by arnold haultain "it is more than a golf book. these is interwoven with it a play of mild philosophy and of pointed wit."--_boston globe._ hearn--japan: an attempt at interpretation by lafcadio hearn "a thousand books have been written about japan, but this one is one of the rarely precious volumes which opens the door to an intimate acquaintance with the wonderful people who command the attention of the world to-day."--_boston herald._ hillis--the quest of happiness by rev. newell dwight hillis "its whole tone and spirit is of a sane, healthy optimism."--_philadelphia telegraph._ hillquit--socialism in theory and practice by morris hillquit "an interesting historical sketch of the movement."--_newark evening news._ hodges--everyman's religion by george hodges "religion to-day is preëminently ethical and social, and such is the religion so ably and attractively set forth in these pages."--_boston herald._ home--david livingstone by silvester c. horne the centenary edition of this popular work. a clear, simple, narrative biography of the great missionary, explorer, and scientist. hunter--poverty by robert hunter "mr. hunter's book is at once sympathetic and scientific. he brings to the task a store of practical experience in settlement work gathered in many parts of the country."--_boston transcript._ hunter--socialists at work by robert hunter "a vivid, running characterization of the foremost personalities in the socialist movement throughout the world."--_review of reviews._ jefferson--the building of the church by charles e. jefferson "a book that should be read by every minister." king--the ethics of jesus by henry churchill king "i know no other study of the ethical teaching of jesus so scholarly, so careful, clear and compact as this."--g. h. palmer, harvard university. king--rational living by henry churchill king "an able conspectus of modern psychological investigation, viewed from the christian standpoint."--_philadelphia public ledger._ london--the war of the classes by jack london "mr. london's book is thoroughly interesting, and his point of view is very different from that of the closest theorist."--_springfield republican._ london--revolution and other essays by jack london "vigorous, socialistic essays, animating and insistent." lyon--how to keep bees for profit by everett d. lyon "a book which gives an insight into the life history of the bee family, as well as telling the novice how to start an apiary and care for it."--_country life in america._ mclennan--a manual of practical farming by john mclennan "the author has placed before the reader in the simplest terms a means of assistance in the ordinary problems of farming."--_national nurseryman._ mabie--william shakespeare: poet, dramatist, and man by hamilton w. mabie "it is rather an interpretation than a record."--_chicago standard._ mahaffy--rambles and studies in greece by j. p. mahaffy "to the intelligent traveler and lover of greece this volume will prove a most sympathetic guide and companion." mathews--the church and the changing order by shailer mathews "the book throughout is characterized by good sense and restraint.... a notable book and one that every christian may read with profit."--_the living church._ mathews--the gospel and the modern man by shailer mathews "a succinct statement of the essentials of the new testament."--_service._ patten--the social basis of religion by simon n. patten "a work of substantial value"--_continent._ peabody--the approach to the social question by francis greenwood peabody "this book is at once the most delightful, persuasive, and sagacious contribution to the subject."--_louisville courier-journal._ pierce--the tariff and the trusts by franklin pierce "an excellent campaign document for a non-protectionist."--_independent._ rauschenbusch--christianity and the social crisis by walter rauschenbusch "it is a book to like, to learn from, and to be charmed with."--_new york times._ riis--the making of an american by jacob riis "its romance and vivid incident make it as varied and delightful as any romance."--_publisher's weekly._ riis--theodore roosevelt, the citizen by jacob riis "a refreshing and stimulating picture."--_new york tribune._ ryan--a living wage; its ethical and economic aspects by rev. j. a. ryan "the most judicious and balanced discussion at the disposal of the general reader."--_world to-day._ st. maur--a self-supporting home by kate v. st. maur "each chapter is the detailed account of all the work necessary for one month--in the vegetable garden, among the small fruits, with the fowls, guineas, rabbits, and in every branch of husbandry to be met with on the small farm."--_louisville courier-journal._ sherman--what is shakespeare? by l. a. sherman "emphatically a work without which the library of the shakespeare student will be incomplete."--_daily telegram._ sidgwick--home life in germany by a. sidgwick "a vivid picture of social life and customs in germany to-day." smith--the spirit of american government by j. allen smith "not since bryce's 'american commonwealth' has a book been produced which deals so searchingly with american political institutions and their history."--_new york evening telegram._ spargo--socialism by john spargo "one of the ablest expositions of socialism that has ever been written."--_new york evening call._ tarbell--history of greek art by t. b. tarbell "a sympathetic and understanding conception of the golden age of art." valentine--how to keep hens for profit by c. s. valentine "beginners and seasoned poultrymen will find in it much of value."--_chicago tribune._ van dyke--the gospel for a world of sin by henry van dyke "one of the basic books of true christian thought of to-day and of all times."--_boston courier._ van dyke--the spirit of america by henry van dyke "undoubtedly the most notable interpretation in years of the real america. it compares favorably with bryce's 'american commonwealth.'"--_philadelphia press._ veblen--the theory of the leisure class by thorstein b. veblen "the most valuable recent contribution to the elucidation of this subject."--_london times._ wells--new worlds for old by h. g. wells "as a presentation of socialistic thought as it is working to-day, this is the most judicious and balanced discussion at the disposal of the general reader."--_world to-day._ white--the old order changeth by william allen white "the present status of society in america. an excellent antidote to the pessimism of modern writers on our social system."--_baltimore sun._ the macmillan fiction library a new and important series of some of the best popular novels which have been published in recent years. these successful books are now made available at a popular price in response to the insistent demand for cheaper editions. _each volume, cloth, mo, cents net; postage, cents extra_ allen--a kentucky cardinal by james lane allen "a narrative, told with naïve simplicity, of how a man who was devoted to his fruits and flowers and birds came to fall in love with a fair neighbor."--_new york tribune._ allen--the reign of law _a tale of the kentucky hempfields_ by james lane allen "mr. allen has style as original and almost as perfectly finished as hawthorne's.... and rich in the qualities that are lacking in so many novels of the period."--_san francisco chronicle._ atherton--patience sparhawk by gertrude atherton "one of the most interesting works of the foremost american novelist." child--jim hands by richard washburn child "a big, simple, leisurely moving chronicle of life. commands the profoundest respect and admiration. jim is a real man, sound and fine."--_daily news._ crawford--the heart of rome by marion crawford "a story of underground mysterie." crawford--fair margaret: a portrait by marion crawford "a story of modern life in italy, visualizing the country and its people, and warm with the red blood of romance and melodrama."--_boston transcript._ davis--a friend of cæsar by william stearns davis "there are many incidents so vivid, so brilliant, that they fix themselves in the memory."--nancy huston banks in _the bookman._ drummond--the justice of the king by hamilton drummond "read the story for the sake of the living, breathing people, the adventures, but most for the sake of the boy who served love and the king."--_chicago record-herald._ elizabeth and her german garden "it is full of nature in many phases--of breeze and sunshine, of the glory of the land, and the sheer joy of living."--_new york times._ gale--loves of pelleas and etarre by zona gale "... full of fresh feeling and grace of style, a draught from the fountain of youth."--_outlook._ herrick--the common lot by robert herrick "a story of present-day life, intensely real in its picture of a young architect whose ideals in the beginning were, at their highest, æsthetic rather than spiritual. it is an unusual novel of great interest." london--adventure by jack london "no reader of jack london's stories need be told that this abounds with romantic and dramatic incident."--_los angeles tribune._ london--burning daylight by jack london "jack london has outdone himself in 'burning daylight.'"--_the springfield union._ loti--disenchanted by pierre loti "it gives a more graphic picture of the life of the rich turkish women of to-day than anything that has ever been written."--_brooklyn daily eagle._ lucas--mr. ingleside by e. v. lucas "he displays himself as an intellectual and amusing observer of life's foibles with a hero characterized by inimitable kindness and humor."--_the independent._ mason--the four feathers by a. e. w. mason "'the four feathers' is a first-rate story, with more legitimate thrills than any novel we have read in a long time."--_new york press._ norris--mother by kathleen norris "worth its weight in gold."--_catholic columbian._ oxenham--the long road by john oxenham "'the long road' is a tragic, heart-gripping story of russian political and social conditions."--_the craftsman._ pryor--the colonel's story by mrs. roger a. pryor "the story is one in which the spirit of the old south figures largely; adventure and romance have their play and carry the plot to a satisfying end." remington--ermine of the yellowstone by john remington "a very original and remarkable novel wonderful in its vigor and freshness." roberts--kings in exile by charles g. d. roberts "the author catches the spirit of forest and sea life, and the reader comes to have a personal love and knowledge of our animal friends."--_boston globe._ robins--the convert by elizabeth robins "'the convert' devotes itself to the exploitation of the recent suffragist movement in england. it is a book not easily forgotten, by any thoughtful reader."--_chicago evening post._ robins--a dark lantern by elizabeth robins a powerful and striking novel, english in scene, which takes an essentially modern view of society and of certain dramatic situations. ward--david grieve by mrs. humphrey ward "a perfect picture of life, remarkable for its humor and extraordinary success at character analysis." wells--the wheels of chance by h. g. wells "mr. wells is beyond question the most plausible romancer of the time."--_the new york tribune._ the macmillan juvenile library this collection of juvenile books contains works of standard quality, on a variety of subjects--history, biography, fiction, science, and poetry--carefully chosen to meet the needs and interests of both boys and girls. _each volume, cloth, mo, cents net; postage, cents extra_ altsheler--the horsemen of the plains by joseph a. altsheler "a story of the west, of indians, of scouts, trappers, fur traders, and, in short, of everything that is dear to the imagination of a healthy american boy."--_new york sun._ bacon--while caroline was growing by josephine daskam bacon "only a genuine lover of children, and a keenly sympathetic observer of human nature, could have given us a book as this."--_boston herald._ carroll--alice's adventures, and through the looking glass by lewis carroll "one of the immortal books for children." dix--a little captive lad by marie beulah dix "the human interest is strong, and children are sure to like it."--_washington times._ greene--pickett's gap by homer greene "the story presents a picture of truth and honor that cannot fail to have a vivid impression upon the reader."--_toledo blade._ lucas--slowcoach by e. v. lucas "the record of an english family's coaching tour in a great old-fashioned wagon. a charming narrative, as quaint and original as its name."--_booknews monthly._ mabie--book of christmas by h. w. mabie "a beautiful collection of christmas verse and prose in which all the old favorites will be found in an artistic setting."--_the st. louis mirror._ major--the bears of blue river by charles major "an exciting story with all the thrills the title implies." major--uncle tom andy bill by charles major "a stirring story full of bears, indians, and hidden treasures."-_cleveland leader._ nesbit--the railway children by e. nesbit "a delightful story revealing the author's intimate knowledge of juvenile ways."--_the nation._ whyte--the story book girls by christina g. whyte "a book that all girls will read with delight--a sweet, wholesome story of girl life." wright--dream fox story book by mabel osgood wright "the whole book is delicious with its wise and kindly humor, its just perspective of the true value of things." wright--aunt jimmy's will by mabel osgood wright "barbara has written no more delightful book than this." the best new books at the least prices each volume in the macmillan libraries sells for cents, never more, wherever books are sold. the macmillan standard library addams--the spirit of youth and the city streets. bailey--the country life movement in the united states. bailey & hunn--the practical garden book. campbell--the new theology. clark--the care of a house. conyngton--how to help: a manual of practical charity. coolidge--the united states as a world power. croly--the promise of american life. devine--misery and its causes. earle--home life in colonial days. ely--evolution of industrial society. ely--monopolies and trusts. french--how to grow vegetables. goodyear--renaissance and modern art. hapgood--lincoln, abraham, the man of the people. haultain--the mystery of golf. hearn--japan: an attempt at interpretation. hillis--the quest of happiness. hillquit--socialism in theory and practice. hodges--everyman's religion. horne--david livingstone. hunter--poverty. hunter--socialists at work. jefferson--the building of the church. king--the ethics of jesus. king--rational living london--the war of the classes. london--revolution and other essays. lyon--how to keep bees for profit. mclennan--a manual of practical farming. mabie--william shakespeare: poet, dramatist, and man. mahaffy--rambles and studies in greece. mathews--the church and the changing order. mathews--the gospel and the modern man. patten--the social basis of religion. peabody--the approach to the social question. pierce--the tariff and the trusts. rauschenbusch--christianity and the social crisis. riis--the making of an american citizen. riis--theodore roosevelt, the citizen. ryan--a living wage: its ethical and economic aspects. st. maur--a self-supporting home. sherman--what is shakespeare? sidgwick--home life in germany. smith--the spirit of the american government. spargo--socialism. _the best new books at the least prices_ each volume in the macmillan libraries sells for cents, never more, wherever books are sold. tarbell--history of greek art. valentine--how to keep hens for profit. van dyke--the gospel for a world of sin. van dyke--the spirit of america. veblen--the theory of the leisure class. wells--new worlds for old. white--the old order changeth. the macmillan fiction library allen--a kentucky cardinal. allen--the reign of law. atherton--patience sparhawk. child--jim hands. crawford--the heart of rome. crawford--fair margaret: a portrait davis--a friend of cæsar. drummond--the justice of the king. elizabeth and her german garden. gale--loves of pelleas and etarre. herrick--the common lot. london--adventure. london--burning daylight loti--disenchanted. lucas--mr. ingleside. mason---the four feathers. norris--mother. oxenham--the long road. pryor---the colonel's story. remington--ermine of the yellowstone. roberts--kings in exile. robins---the convert. robins--a dark lantern. ward--david grieve. wells--the wheels of chance. the macmillan juvenile library altsheler--the horsemen of the plains. bacon--while caroline was growing. carroll--alice's adventures and through the looking glass. dix--a little captive lad. greene--pickett's gap. lucas--slow coach. mabie--book of christmas. major--the bears of blue river. major--uncle tom andy bill. nesbit--the railway children. whyte--the story book girls. wright--dream fox story book. wright--aunt jimmy's will. janet blenkinship and the online distributed proofreaders europe at http://dp.rastko.net the ~botanical magazine;~ or, ~flower-garden displayed:~ in which the most ornamental foreign plants, cultivated in the open ground, the green-house, and the stove, are accurately represented in their natural colours. to which are added, their names, class, order, generic and specific characters, according to the celebrated linnÆus; their places of growth, and times of flowering: together with the most approved methods of culture. a work intended for the use of such ladies, gentlemen, and gardeners, as wish to become scientifically acquainted with the plants they cultivate. by _william curtis_, author of the flora londinensis. ~vol. iv.~ observe the rising lily's snowy grace, observe the various vegetable race; they neither toil nor spin, but careless grow, yet see how warm they blush! how bright they glow! what regal vestments can with them compare! what king so shining, or what queen so fair. thomson. london: printed by couchman and fry, throgmorton-street. for w. curtis, no , _st. george's-crescent_, black-friars-road; and sold by the principal booksellers in great-britain and ireland. m dcc xci. * * * * * [ ] lavatera trimestris. annual lavatera. _class and order_. monadelphia polyandria. _generic character._ _calyx_ duplex: exterior -fidus. _arilli_ plurimi, monospermi. _specific character and synonyms._ lavatera _trimestris_ caule scabro herbaceo, foliis glabris, pedunculis unifloris, fructibus orbiculo tectis. _linn. sp. pl. ._ _hort. kew. v. . p. ._ lavatera _(althææfolia)_ foliis infimis cordato-orbiculatis, caulinis trilobis acuminatis glabris, pedunculis unifloris, caule herbaceo. _miller's gard. dict. ed. . to._ malva folio vario. _bauh. pin. ._ malva hispanica flore carneo amplo. the spanish blush mallow. _park. parad. p. ._ [illustration: no ] our plant is undoubtedly the _spanish blush mallow_ of parkinson, and the _lavatera althææfolia_ of miller according to the former, it is a native of spain, according to the latter, of syria. mr. miller considers it as distinct from the _trimestris_; mr. aiton has no _althææfolia_ in his _hort. kew._ we are therefore to conclude that the _althææfolia_ of miller, and the _trimestris_ of linnÆus are one and the same species. of the annuals commonly raised in our gardens, this is one of the most shewy, as well as the most easily cultivated; its seeds are to be sown in march, on the borders where they are to remain, the plants, thinned as they come up, and kept clear of weeds. it varies with white blossoms, and flowers from july to september. [ ] mimosa verticillata. whorl'd-leav'd mimosa. _class and order._ polygamia monoecia. _generic character._ hermaphrod. _cal._ -dentatus. _cor._ -fida. _stam._ . f. plura. _pist._ . _legumen._ masc. _cal._ -dentatus. _cor._ -fida. _stam._ . . plura. _specific character and synonyms._ mimosa _verticillata_ intermis, foliis verticillatis linearibus pungentibus. _l'herit. fert. angl. t. ._ _hort. kew. p. ._ [illustration: no ] the radical leaves of plants usually differ in shape from those of the stalk, in some plants remarkably so; the _lepidium perfoliatum_ figured in the _flora austriaca_ of professor jacquin is a striking instance of this dissimilarity: the _lathyrus aphaca_, a british plant, figured in the _flora lond._ is still more such, as large entire leaf-like stipulæ grow in pairs on the stalk, instead of leaves, while the true leaves next the root, visible when the plant first comes up from seed, are few in number, and those pinnated. the present plant no less admirably illustrates the above remark, the leaves which first appear on the seedling plants being pinnated, as is represented in the small figure on the plate, while those which afterwards come forth grow in whorls. we have observed the same disposition to produce dissimilar leaves in several other species of _mimosa_, which have arisen from botany-bay seeds, lately introduced. this singular species, on the authority of mr. david nelson, is a native of new south wales, and was introduced to the royal garden at kew by sir joseph banks, bart. we first saw it in flower, and have since seen it with ripe seed-pods, at mr. malcolm's, kennington. it is properly a green-house plant, and propagated only by seeds, which are to be sown on a gentle hot-bed. it is some years in arriving at its flowering state. [ ] lathyrus tuberosus. tuberous lathyrus, or pease earth-nut. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _stylus_ planus, supra villosus, superne latior. _cal._ laciniæ superiores breviores. _specific character and synonyms._ lathyrus _tuberosus_ pedunculis multifloris, cirrhis diphyllis: foliolis ovalibus, internodiis nudis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ lathyrus arvensis repens tuberosus. _bauh. pin. ._ lathyrus arvensis sive terræ glandes. pease earth-nuts. _parkins. theat. p. ._ [illustration: no ] grows spontaneously in various parts of france and germany; mr. philip hurlock lately shewed me some dried specimens of this plant, which he gathered in the corn fields, on the _luneburgh heide_, in _upper lusatia_, where it grew plentifully, and afforded a pleasing appearance to the curious traveller:--not so to the husbandman, to whom it is as noxious as the _convolvulus arvensis_ (_small bindweed_) is with us, and equally difficult to extirpate, having powerfully creeping roots, which somewhat like the _helianthus tuberosus_ (commonly called _jerusalem artichoke_) produce large tubera, and which like those of that plant, are in high esteem with some as an article of food, and as such even cultivated abroad. it flowers from june to the end of august. it is certainly a beautiful hardy perennial, similar to (but of more humble growth) than the everlasting pea, yet must be cautiously introduced on account of its creeping roots, by which it is most readily propagated, rarely ripening its seeds with us. it is, perhaps, better suited to decorate the unclip'd hedge of the pleasure-ground, than the border of the flower-garden. [ ] cistus ladaniferus. gum cistus. _class and order._ polyandria monognia. _generic character._ _corolla_ -petala. _calyx_ -phyllus: foliolis duobus minoribus. _capsula_. _specific character and synonyms._ cistus _ladaniferus_ arborescens ex stipulatus, foliis lanceolatis supra lævibus, petiolis basi coalitis vaginantibus. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ cistus ladanifera hispanica incana. _bauh. pin. ._ cistus ledon. the gum cistus or sweete holly rose. _park. parad. p. ._ [illustration: no ] one of the most ornamental hardy shrubs we possess; at once pleasing to the eye, and grateful to the smell; for, as miller observes, the whole plant in warm weather exudes a sweet glutinous substance, which has a very strong balsamic scent, so as to perfume the circumambient air to a great distance. its blossoms, which appear in june and july in great profusion, exhibit a remarkable instance of quickly-fading beauty, opening and expanding to the morning sun, and before night strewing the ground with their elegant remains: as each succeeding day produces new blossoms, this deciduous disposition of the petals, common to the genus, is the less to be regretted. is a native of spain and portugal, prefers a dry soil and warm sheltered situation, and in very severe seasons requires some kind of covering. cultivated , by mr. john tradescant, jun. _ait. hort. kew._ is readily increased from cuttings; but miller remarks, that the best plants are raised from seeds. varies with waved leaves, and in having petals without a spot at the base. is not the plant from whence the ladanum of the shops is produced, though affording in warmer countries than ours a similar gum, hence its name of _ladanifera_ is not strictly proper. [ ] convolvulus purpureus. purple bindweed, or convolvulus major. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ campanulata, plicata. _stigmata_ . _capsula_ -locularis; loculis dispermis. _specific character and synonyms._ convolvulus _purpureus_ foliis cordatis indivisis, fructibus cernuis, pedicellis incrassatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ convolvulus purpureus folio subrotundo. _bauh. pin. ._ convolvulus cæruleus major rotundifolius. the greater blew bindweede or bell-flower with round leaves. _park. parad. p. ._ [illustration: no ] "is an annual plant which grows naturally in asia and america, but has been long cultivated for ornament in the english gardens, and is generally known by the title of convolvulus major. of this there are three or four lasting varieties; the most common hath a purple flower, but there is one with a white, another with a red, and one with a whitish-blue flower, which hath white seeds. all these varieties i have cultivated many years, without observing them to change. if the seeds of these sorts are sown in the spring, upon a warm border where the plants are designed to remain, they will require no other culture but to keep them clear from weeds, and place some tall stakes down by them, for their stalks to twine about, otherwise they will spread on the ground and make a bad appearance. these plants, if they are properly supported, will rise ten or twelve feet high in warm summers: they flower in june, july, and august, and will continue till the frost kills them. their seeds ripen in autumn." _miller's gard. dict. ed. to. ._ [ ] silene pendula. pendulous catchfly. _class and order._ decandria trigynia. _generic character._ calyx ventricosus. petala , unguiculata coronata ad faucem, capsula -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ silene _pendula_ calycibus fructiferis pendulis inflatis: angulis decem scabris. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ viscago hirsuta sicula, lychnidis aquaticæ facie, supina. _dill. hort. elth. . t. . f. ._ [illustration: no ] grows spontaneously in sicily and crete; is an annual of humble growth, and hence a suitable plant for the borders of the flower garden, or the decoration of rock-work, as its blossoms are shewy, and not of very short duration. it flowers in june and july, and if once permitted to scatter its seeds, will come up yearly without any trouble. [ ] lathyrus sativus. blue-flower'd lathyrus, or chichling-vetch. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _stylus_ planus, supra villosus, superne latior. _calycis_ laciniæ superiores breviores. _specific character and synonyms._ lathyrus _sativus_ pedunculis unifloris, cirrhis diphyllis tetraphyllisque, leguminibus ovatis compressis dorso bimarginatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ lathyrus sativus, flore fructusque albo. _bauh. pin. ._ [illustration: no ] a native of france, spain, and italy, and distinguishable when in flower by the blue colour of its blossoms, which are sometimes, however, milk-white; but its seed-pods afford a more certain mark of distinction, being unusually short, broad, and winged on the back. this species grows to the height of about two feet, and is usually sown in the spring with other annuals; though not so beautiful, it forms a contrast to the sweet and tangier pea, and may be introduced where there is plenty of room, or a desire of possessing and knowing most of the plants of a genus. it flowers in june and july. cultivated , by mr. philip miller. _ait. hort. kew._ [ ] limodorum tuberosum. tuberous-rooted limodorum. _class and order._ gynandria diandria. _generic character._ nectarium monophyllum, concavum, pedicellatum, intra petalum infimum. _specific character and synonyms._ limodorum _tuberosum_ floribus subspicatis barbatis. _ait. hort. kew. p. ._ [illustration: no ] for this rare plant i am indebted to the very laudable exertions of a late gardener of mine, james smith, who, in the spring of the year , examining attentively the bog earth which had been brought over with some plants of the _dionæa muscipula_, found several small tooth-like knobby roots, which being placed in pots of the same earth, and plunged into a tan-pit having a gentle heat, produced plants the ensuing summer, two of which flowered, and from the strongest of those our figure was taken. from this circumstance we learn, that this species is a native of south carolina, and properly a bog plant, growing spontaneously with the _dionæa muscipula_. both mr. dryander and dr. j. e. smith assure me, that it is the true _limodorum tuberosum_ of linnÆus; the one usually called by that name is a native of the west-indies, and treated as a stove plant. from the little experience we have had of the management of this species, it appears to us to be scarcely hardy enough for the open border, yet not tender enough to require a stove. we have succeeded best by treating it in the manner above mentioned; we may observe, that the tan-pit spoken of was built in the open garden, not in a stove, and was for the purpose of raising plants or seeds by a gentle heat, as well as for striking cuttings and securing plants from cold in the winter. our figure will make a description of the plant unnecessary, its flowering stem with us has arisen to the height of a foot and a half, the number of flowers has not exceeded five. in its most luxuriant state it will probably be found much larger, and to produce more flowers. [ ] campanula carpatica. carpatian bell-flower. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ campanulata fundo clauso valvis staminiferis. _stigma_ trifidum. _capsula_ infera poris lateralibus dehiscens. _specific character and synonyms._ campanula _carpatica_ foliis glabris cordatis serratis petiolatis, pedunculis elongatis, calyce reflexo glutinoso. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. . suppl. p. ._ _jacq. hort. v. i. t. ._ [illustration: no ] this species of bell-flower, which takes its name from its place of growth, is a native of the carpatian alps, and was introduced into the royal garden at kew, by _professor_ jacquin, of _vienna_, in the year . it flowers in june and july. as yet it is scarce in our gardens, but deserves to be more generally known and cultivated; its flowers, in proportion to the plant, are large and shewy: like many other alpine plants, it is well suited to decorate certain parts of rock-work, or such borders of the flower garden, as are not adapted for large plants. it is a hardy perennial, and propagated by parting its roots in autumn. our figure, from a deficiency in the colouring art, gives a very inadequate idea of its beauty. [ ] sedum anacampseros. evergreen orpine. _class and order._ decandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus. _cor._ -petala. _squamæ_ nectariferæ , ad basin germinis. _caps._ . _specific character and synonyms._ sedum _anacampseros_ foliis cuneiformibus basi attenuatis subsessilibus, caulibus decumbentibus, floribus corymbosis. _ait. hort. kew. p. ._ sedum _anacampseros_ foliis cuneiformibus integerrimis caulibus decumbemtibus, floribus corymbosis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. murr. p. ._ telephium repens folio deciduo. _bauh. pin. ._ telephium tertium. _dodon. pempt. p. ._ [illustration: no ] grows spontaneously out of the crevices of the rocks in the south of france; flowers in our gardens in july and august; is a very hardy perennial, and in sheltered situations retains its leaves all the year. the singular manner in which the leaves are attached to the flowering stem, deserves to be noticed. as many of the succulent plants are tender, and require a green-house in the winter, cultivators of plants are apt indiscriminately to extend the same kind of care to the whole tribe, hence it is not uncommon to find this and many other similar hardy plants, nursed up in the green-house or stove, when they would thrive much better on a wall or piece of rock-work, for the decoration of which this plant in particular is admirably adapted. like most of the sedum tribe it may readily be propagated by cuttings, or parting its roots in autumn. dodonÆus' figure admirably represents its habit. according to the _hort. kew._ it was cultivated in this country by gerard, in . +------------------------------------------------------+ |transcriber's note: | |there is a departure from the usual format here with | |strelitzia reginÆ having two illustrations, no and| |no , thus creating a gap in the sequence. | +------------------------------------------------------+ [ ] strelitzia reginÆ. canna-leaved strelitzia. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _spathæ. cal._ . _cor._ -petala. _nectarium_ triphyllum, genitalia involvens. _peric._ -loculare, polyspermum. strelitzia _reginæ ait. hort. kew. v. i. p. . tab. ._ heliconia _bibai j. mill. ic. tab. , ._ [illustration: no ] in order that we may give our readers an opportunity of seeing a coloured representation of one of the most scarce and magnificent plants introduced into this country, we have this number deviated from our usual plan, with respect to the plates, and though in so doing we shall have the pleasure of gratifying the warm wishes of many of our readers, we are not without our apprehensions least others may not feel perfectly well satisfied; should it prove so, we wish such to rest assured that this is a deviation in which we shall very rarely indulge and never but when something uncommonly beautiful or interesting presents itself: to avoid the imputation of interested motives, we wish our readers to be apprized that the expences attendant on the present number, in consequence of such deviation, have been considerably _augmented_, not lowered. it is well known to many botanists, and others, who have experienced sir joseph banks's well known liberality, that previous to the publication of the _hortus kewensis_ he made a new genus of this plant, which had before been considered as a species of _heliconia_, and named it _strelitzia_ in honour of our most gracious queen charlotte; coloured engravings of which, executed under his direction, he presented to his particular friends; impressions of the same plate have been given in the aforesaid work, in which we are informed that this plant was introduced to the royal garden at kew, by sir joseph banks, bart. in the year , where it lately flowered--of some other plants introduced after that period from the cape, of which it is a native, one flowered in the pine stove of bamber gascoyne, esq. several years ago, from whence mr. millar drew his figure, and the plant from which our drawing was made flowered this spring, in the bark stove of the garden belonging to the apothecaries company, at chelsea, where it will also soon flower again. this plant has usually been confined to the stove, where it has been placed in a pot, and plunged into the tan, as the plants in such situations usually are; it has been found that when the roots have been confined to the narrow limits of a pot, the plant has rarely or never flowered, but that when the roots have by accident extended into the rotten tan, it has readily thrown up flowering stems, the best practice therefore, not only with this, but many other plants, is to let the roots have plenty of earth to strike into. as it is a cape plant it may perhaps be found to succeed best in the conservatory. it has not, that we know of, as yet ripened its seeds in this country; till it does, or good seeds of it shall be imported, it must remain a very scarce and dear plant, as it is found to increase very slowly by its roots: plants are said to be sold at the cape for three guineas each. _general description of the strelitzia reginÆ._ [illustration: no ] from a perennial stringy root shoot forth a considerable number of leaves, standing upright on long footstalks, front a sheath of some one of which, near its base, springs the flowering stem, arising somewhat higher than the leaves, and terminating in an almost horizontal long-pointed spatha, containing about six or eight flowers, which becoming vertical as they spring forth, form a kind of crest, which the glowing orange of the corolla, and fine azure of the nectary, renders truly superb. the outline in the third plate of this number, is intended to give our readers an idea of its general habit and mode of growth. _particular description of the same._ root perennial, stringy, somewhat like that of the tawny day-lily (hemerocallis fulva); strings the thickness of the little finger, blunt at the extremity, extending horizontally, if not confined, to the distance of many feet. leaves numerous, standing upright on their footstalks, about a foot in length, and four inches in breadth, ovato-oblong, coriaceous, somewhat fleshy, rigid, smooth, concave, entire on the edges, except on one side towards the base, where they are more or less curled, on the upper side of a deep green colour, on the under side covered with a fine glaucous meal, midrib hollow above and yellowish, veins unbranched, prominent on the inside, and impressed on the outside of the leaf, young leaves rolled up. leaf-stalks about thrice the length of the leaves, upright, somewhat flattened, at bottom furnished with a sheath, and received into each other, all radical. scapus or flowering stem unbranched, somewhat taller than the leaves, proceeding from the sheath of one of them, upright, round, not perfectly straight, nearly of an equal thickness throughout, of a glaucous hue, covered with four or five sheaths which closely embrace it. two or more flowering stems spring from the same root, according to the age of the plant. spatha terminal, about six inches in length, of a glaucous hue, with a fine bright purple at its base, running out to a long point, opening above from the base to within about an inch of the apex, where the edges roll over to one side, forming an angle of about forty-five degrees, and containing about six flowers. flowers of a bright orange colour, becoming upright, when perfectly detached from the spatha, which each flower is a considerable time in accomplishing. in the plant at chelsea, the two back petals, or, more properly segments of the first flower, sprang forth with the nectary, and while the former became immediately vertical, the latter formed nearly the same angle as the spatha; four days afterwards the remaining segment of the first flower, with the two segments and nectary of the second came forth, and in the same manner at similar intervals all the flowers, which were six in number, continued to make their appearance. corolla deeply divided into three segments, which are ovato-lanceolate, slightly keeled, and somewhat concave, at the base white, fleshy, and covered with a glutinous substance flowing in great quantities from the nectary. nectary of a fine azure blue and most singular form, composed of two petals, the upper petal very short and broad, with a whitish mucro or point, the sides of which lap over the base of the other petal; inferior petal about two inches and a half in length, the lower half somewhat triangular, grooved on the two lowermost sides, and keeled at bottom, the keel running straight to its extremity, the upper half gradually dilating towards the base, runs out into two lobes more or less obtuse, which give it an arrow-shaped form, bifid at the apex, hollow, and containing the antheræ, the edges of the duplicature crisped and forming a kind of frill from the top to the bottom. stamina five filaments arising from the base of the nectary, short and distinct; antheræ long and linear, attached to and cohering by their tips to the apex of the nectary. style filiform, white, length of the nectary. stigma three quarters of an inch long, attached to, and hitched on as it were to the tip of the nectary, roundish, white, awl-shaped, very viscid, becoming as the flower decays of a deep purple brown colour, and usually splitting into three pieces, continuing attached to the nectary till the nectary decays. mr. fairbairn, to whose abilities and industry the companies garden at chelsea is indebted for its present flourishing state, being desirous of obtaining ripe seeds, i had no opportunity of examining the germen. such were the appearances which presented themselves to us in the plant which flowered at the chelsea garden; that they are liable to considerable variation is apparent from the figure of mr. millar, which appears to have been drawn from a very luxuriant specimen, as two spathæ grow from one flowering stem, the stigma is also remarkably convoluted, many other appearances are likewise represented, which our plant did not exhibit: in the figure given in the _hortus kewensis_, the stigma appears to have separated from the nectary on the first opening of the flower, and to be split into three parts, neither of which circumstances took place in our plant till they were both in a decaying state. [ ] narcissus incomparabilis. peerless daffodil. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _petala_ æqualia: _nectario_ infundibuliformi, -phyllo: _stamina_ intra nectarium. _specific character and synonyms._ narcissus _incomparabilis_ spatha uniflora, nectario campanulato plicato crispo petalis dimidio breviore, foliis planis. narcissus latifolius omnium maximus amplo calice flavo sive nompareille. the great nonesuch daffodil, or incomparable daffodil. _park. par. p. ._ [illustration: no ] this species of narcissus, though well described and figured by the old botanists, especially parkinson; has been overlooked by linnÆus. it is undoubtedly the _incomparable daffodil_ of parkinson, figured in his garden of pleasant flowers; and the _incomparabilis_ of miller's _dict. ed. . to._ the latter informs us, that he received roots of it from spain and portugal, which fixes its place of growth. it is a very hardy bulbous plant, and flowers in april; in its single state it is very ornamental, the petals are usually pale yellow, and the nectary inclined to orange, which towards the brim is more brilliant in some than in others; in its double state, it is well known to gardeners, by the name of butter and egg narcissus, and of this there are two varieties, both of which produce large shewy flowers, the one with colours similar to what we have above described, which is the most common, the other with petals of a pale sulphur colour, almost white, and the nectary bright orange; this, which is one of the most ornamental of the whole tribe, is named in the dutch catalogues, the _orange phoenix_; its blossoms are so large as frequently to require supporting; its bulbs may be had of many of the nurseries about london, and of those who, profiting by the supineness of our english gardeners, import bulbs from abroad. like most of the tribe, this species will grow well without any care, the bulbs of the double sort should be taken up yearly, otherwise they are apt to degenerate. [ ] hyacinthus racemosus. starch hyacinth. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ corolla campanulata: pori melliferi germinis. _specific character and synonyms._ hyacinthus _racemosus_ corollis ovatis, summis sessilibus, foliis laxis. _linn. syst. veg. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _sp. pl. ._ hyacinthus racemosus cæruleus minor juncifolius. _bauh. pin. p. ._ hyacinthus botryodes . _car clus. hist. p. ._ hyacinthus racemosus. _dodon. pempt. p. ._ hyacinthus botroides minor cæruleus obscurus. the darke blew grape-flower. _park. par. p. ._ [illustration: no ] the _hyacinthus racemosus_ and _botryoides_ are both cultivated in gardens, but the former here figured is by far the most common; _racemosus_ and _botryoides_, though different words, are expressive of the same meaning, the former being derived from the latin term _racemus_, the latter from the greek one [greek: votrus], both of which signify a bunch of grapes, the form of which the inflorescence of these plants somewhat resembles, and hence they have both been called grape hyacinths, but as confusion thereby arises, we have thought it better to call this species the starch hyacinth, the smell of the flower in the general opinion resembling that substance, and leave the name of grape hyacinth for the _botryoides_. the _hyacinthus racemosus_ grows wild in the corn fields of germany, in which it increases so fast by offsets from the root as to prove a very troublesome weed, and on this account it must be cautiously introduced into gardens. it flowers in april and may. we have found the nurserymen very apt to mistake it for the _botryoides_, a figure of which it is our intention to give in some future number. [ ] anemone hortensis. star anemone, or broad-leav'd garden anemone. _class and order._ polyandria polygynia. _generic character._ cal. . petala - . semina plura. _specific character and synonyms._ anemone _hortensis_ foliis digitalis, feminibus lanatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed murr. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. vol. . p. ._ anemone geranii rotundo folio, purpurascens. _bauh. pin. ._ anemone prima. _dodon. pempt. ._ anemone latifolia purpurea stellata sive papaveracea. the purple star-anemone or windflower. _park. parad. p. ._ [illustration: no ] we are more and more convinced, that in our eagerness, for novelties, we daily lose plants by far more ornamental than the new ones we introduce; the present, a most charming spring plant, with which the gardens abounded in the time of parkinson, is now a great rarity; its blossoms, which are uncommonly brilliant, come forth in april, and, like those of many other plants, appear to advantage only when the sun shines. it may be propagated either by seeds, or by parting its roots in autumn, in the former way we may obtain many beautiful varieties. it prefers a light loamy soil and moderately exposed situation. roots of a variety of this plant with scarlet double flowers are imported from holland, under the name, of _anemonoides_, and sold at a high price. [ ] iberis gibraltarica. gibraltar candy-tuft. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliculosa. _generic character._ _corolla_ irregularis: petalis exterioribus majoribus. _silicula_ polysperma, emarginata. _specific character and synonyms._ iberis _gibraltarica_ frutescens foliis apice dentatis. _linn. syst. veg. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ thlaspidium hispanicum, ampliore flore folio crasso dentato. _dill. elth. . t. . f. ._ [illustration: no ] the flowers of this plant, a native of gibraltar, bear some resemblance to those of the common candy-tuft, but when they blow in perfection, they are usually twice as large; hence they are highly ornamental in the green-house, which early in the spring, the time of their coming forth, stands in need of some such shewy flowers. this plant is easily raised from cuttings, and easily preserved; it may be kept through the winter in a common hot-bed frame, and in mild winters will stand abroad, especially if sheltered amongst rock-work; its greatest enemy is moisture in the winter season, this often proves fatal to it, as indeed a long continued damp atmosphere does to many others; the nurserymen about london complain of losing more plants the last mild winter, from this cause, than they generally do from severe frosts. in a little green-house which i had in my late garden, lambeth-marsh, most of the plants became absolutely mouldy; in such seasons then, though in point of cold the plants may not require it, we must dissipate the superfluous moisture by a gentle heat. [ ] alstroemeria ligtu. striped-flower'd alstroemeria. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ -petala, sub-bilabiata: petalis inferioribus basi tubulosis. _stamina_ declinata. _specific character and synonyms._ alstroemeria _ligtu_ caule erecto, foliis spathulato-oblongis, pedunculis umbellæ involucro longioribus, corolla bilabiata. _linn. syst. veget. ed. ._ _murr. suppl. p. ._ _amoen. acad. v. . p. ._ hemerocallis floribus purpurascentibus striatis. _few. peruv. . p. . t. ._ [illustration: no ] this plant receives its generic name from claudius alstroemer (son of sir jonas alstroemer, a most respectable swedish merchant) who first found the other most beautiful species the _pelegrina_ in spain, whither it had been transmitted from peru; its trivial name _ligtu_ is a provincial one. according to fewillee, who has written on the plants of peru, this species is found on the banks of the rivers in chili: we treat it, and successfully, as a stove plant; its flowers, which usually make their appearance in february and march, emit a fragrance scarcely inferior to mignonet; its leaves, contrary to most others, grow inverted, which is effected by a twist of the footstalk, and afford an excellent example of linnÆus's _folium resupinatum_; the filaments, after the pollen is discharged, turn upwards, and the antheræ become almost globular. it is usually propagated by parting its roots in autumn. our figure was drawn from a plant which flowered extremely well in the stove of messrs. grimwood and co. kensington. [ ] alyssum deltoideum. purple alyssum. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliculosa. _generic character._ _filamenta_ quædam introrsum denticulo notata. _silicula_ emarginata. _specific character and synonyms._ alyssum _deltoideum_ caulibus suffrutescentibus prostratis, foliis lanceolato-deltoidibus, siliculis hirtis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. ._ _sp. pl. ._ leucojum saxatile thymifolio hirsutum cæruleo-purpureum. _bauh. pin. ._ [illustration: no ] plants which flower early, and continue a long while in bloom, are deservedly preferred, more especially by those who content themselves with a partial collection; of that number is the present species of alyssum, which begins to flower in march, and continues to blossom through april, may, and june, and, if favourably situated, during most of the summer. it is properly a rock plant, being hardy, forming with very little care a neat tuft of flowers, and not apt to encroach on its neighbours. may be propagated by parting its roots in autumn, or by cuttings. is a native of the levant, according to mr. aiton; and cultivated by mr. miller, in , but omitted in the th to. edition of his dictionary: has usually been considered by the nurserymen about london as the _hyperboreum_. [ ] ixia flexuosa. bending-stalk'd ixia. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ -partita, campanulata, regularis. _stigmata_ . _specific character and synonyms._ ixia _flexuosa_ foliis linearibus, racemo flexuoso multifloro. _linn. sp. pl. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. p. ._ [illustration: no ] the ixias are a numerous tribe, chiefly natives of the cape, and in general remarkable either for their delicacy, or brilliant colours. the one here figured appears to be a variety of the _flexuosa_ with a purple eye, its blossoms are fragrant, and come forth in april or may. "all the sorts multiply very fast by offsets, so that when once obtained, there will be no occasion to raise them from seeds: for the roots put out offsets in great plenty, most of which will flower the following season, whereas those from seeds are three or four years before they flower. these plants will not thrive through the winter in the full ground in england, so must be planted in pots, and placed under a frame in winter, where they may be protected from frost, but in mild weather should enjoy the free air; but they must be guarded from mice, who are very fond of these roots, and if not prevented will devour them." _millers gard. dict._ [ ] scilla campanulata. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ -petala, patens, decidua. _filamenta_ filiformia. _specific character and synonyms._ scilla _campanulata_ bulbo folido, racemo multifloro oblongo-subconico, corollis campanulatis erectis, bracteis bipartitis, pedunculo longioribus, foliis lanceolatis. _ait. hort. kew. p. ._ hyacinthus hispanicus major flore campanulæ instar. the greater spanish bell-flowred jacinth. _park. par. ._ [illustration: no ] there are few old gardens which do not abound with this plant; it bears great affinity to our hare-bell, with which it appears to have been confounded by most botanists. _parkinson_ thus discriminates it: "this spanish bell-flowred jacinth is very like the former english or spanish jacinth, but greater in all parts, as well of leaves as flowers, many growing together at the toppe of the stalke; with many short greene leaves among them, hanging doune their heads with larger, greater, and wider open mouths, like unto bels of a darke blew colour, and no good sent." _park. parad._ though not remarkable for the fineness of its colours, or pleasing from its fragrance, it contributes with other bulbous plants to decorate the flower border or plantation in the spring, when flowers are most wanted. it is very hardy, and increases abundantly by offsets; its seeds also ripen well. [ ] amaryllis vittata. superb amaryllis. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ hexapetaloidea, irregularis. _filamenta_ fauci tubi inserta, declinata, inæqualia proportione vel directione, _linn. fil._ _specific character and synonyms._ amaryllis floribus pedicellatis, corollis cuneiformi-infundibuliformibus, petalorum exteriorum rachibus interiorum margini adnatis, scapo tereti, stigmatibus sulcatis. _linn. fil._ amaryllis _vittata._ _l'herit. sert. angl. t. ._ _ait. hort. kew. p. ._ [illustration: no ] linnÆus, the son, took much pains in new modelling the generic and specific characters of this genus; as may be seen in the _hort. kew_: mons. l'heritier, when in england a few years since, saw this species, described and named it _vittata_[ ]. of what country it is a native is not known with certainty, most probably of the cape, was first introduced into england by mr. malcolm. our figure was drawn from a fine specimen which flowered this spring with messrs. grimwood and co. kensington. it usually flowers in april or may, but may be forwarded by artificial heat. it rarely puts forth offsets from the root, but readily produces seeds, by which it is propagated without difficulty. when it blossoms in perfection it truly deserves the name of superb, which mr. aiton has given it, the stem rising to the height of three feet or more, and producing from two to five flowers. [ ] alyssum utriculatum. bladder-podded alyssum. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliculosa. _generic character._ _filamenta_ quædam introrsum denticulo notata. _silicula_ emarginata. _specific character and synonyms._ alyssum _utriculatum_ caule herbaceo erecto, foliis lævibus lanceolatis integerrimis, filiculis inflatis. _linn. syst. veget. ed. . murr._ alyssoides fruticosum, leucoji folio viridi. _tourn. inst. ._ [illustration: no ] a native of the levant, and cultivated by mr. miller in the year . is a hardy and beautiful perennial, flowering from april to june, at which time it begins to form its curiously inflated pods. like the _alyssum deltoideum_, it is well adapted to the decorating of walls, or rock-work, and is readily propagated either by seeds or slips. [ ] catesbÆa spinosa. thorny catesbÆa, or lily-thorn. _class and order._ tetrandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ -petala, infundibuliformis, longissima, supera. stamina intra faucem. _bacca_ polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ catesbÆa _spinosa._ _linn. syst. vegetab, ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _sp. pl. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. p. ._ frutex spinosus, buxi foliis plurimis simul nascentibus, flore tetrapetaloide pendulo sordide flavo, tubo longissimo, fructu ovali croceo semina parva continente. _catesb. carol. . p. . t. ._ [illustration: no ] of this genus there is only one species described by authors, and which linnÆus has named in honour of our countryman mark catesby, author of the natural history of carolina. "this shrub was discovered by mr. catesby, near nassau-town, in the island of providence, where he saw two of them growing, which were all he ever saw; from these he gathered the seeds and brought them to england. "it is propagated by seeds, which must be procured from the country where it naturally grows. if the entire fruit are brought over in sand, the seeds will be better preserved; the seeds must be sown in small pots filled with light sandy earth, and plunged into a moderate hot-bed of tanner's-bark. if the seeds are good, the plants will appear in about six weeks; these plants make little progress for four or five years. if the nights should prove cold the glasses must be covered with mats every evening. as these plants grow slowly, so they will not require to be removed out of the seed-pots the first year, but in the autumn the pots should be removed into the stove, and plunged into the tan-bed; in spring the plants should be carefully taken up, and each planted in a separate small pot, filled with light sandy earth, and plunged into a fresh hot-bed of tanner's-bark. in summer when the weather is warm, they should have a good share of air admitted to them, but in autumn must be removed into the stove; where they should constantly remain, and must be treated afterwards in the same manner as other tender exotic plants." _miller's dict._ it is more usual with nurserymen to increase this plant by cuttings. our drawing was made from a plant which flowered this spring, with mr. colvill, nurseryman, king's-road, chelsea. it flowers most part of the summer, but not so freely as many other stove-plants. [ ] rubus arcticus. dwarf bramble. _class and order._ icosandria polygynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus. petala . _bacca_ composita acinis monospermis. _specific character and synonyms._ rubus _arcticus_ foliis ternatis, caule inermi unifloro. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. ._ rubus humilis flore purpureo. _buxb. cent. . p. . t. ._ rubus trifolius humilis non spinosus, sapore et odore fragariæ, fructu rubro polycocco. _amm. ruth. ._ [illustration: no ] the rubus arcticus grows wild in the northern parts of europe and america, in moist, sandy, and gravelly places. linnÆus has figured and minutely described it in his _flora lapponica_, out of gratitude, as he expresses himself, for the benefits reaped from it in his lapland journey, by the nectareous wine of whose berries he was so often recruited when sinking with hunger and fatigue; he observes that the principal people in the north of sweden make a syrup, a jelly, and a wine, from the berries, which they partly consume themselves, and partly transmit to stockholm, as a dainty of the most delicious kind; and truly he adds, of all the wild swedish berries this holds the first place. our figure does not correspond altogether with linnÆus's description, but it is drawn as the plant grew; culture doubtless made it produce more than its usual number of flowering stems and petals. it grows readily and increases rapidly in bog-earth, on a north border, and flowers in may and june, but very rarely ripens its fruit in gardens. [ ] hyacinthus comosus. two coloured, or, tassel hyacinth. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ campanulata: pori -melliferi germinis. _specific character and synonyms._ hyacinthus _comosus_ corollis angulato-cylindricis: summis sterilibus longius pedicellatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. ._ hyacinthus comosus major purpureus. _bauh. pin. ._ the purple faire haired jacinth; or purse tassels. _park. parad. p. ._ [illustration: no ] most of the old botanists arranged this plant, the _racemosus_, and others having almost globular flowers with the hyacinths. tournefort, struck with the difference of their appearance, made a distinct genus of them under the name of _muscari_, in which he is followed by miller, and should have been by linnÆus, for they differ so much that no student would consider the present plant as belonging to the same genus with the hare-bell. this species grows wild in the corn-fields of spain, portugal, and some parts of germany, and flowers in may and june. it is distinguished more by its singularity than beauty, the flowers on the summit of the stalk differing widely in colour from the others, and being mostly barren: parkinson says, "the whole stalke with the flowers upon it, doth somewhat resemble a long purse tassell, and thereupon divers gentlewomen have so named it." it is a hardy bulbous plant, growing readily in most soils and situations, and usually propagated by offsets. [ ] adonis vernalis. _class and order._ polyandria polygynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _petala_ quinis plura absque nectario. _sem._ nuda. _specific character and synonyms._ adonis _vernalis_ flore dodecapetalo, fructu ovato. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. murr. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. vol. . p. ._ helleborus niger tenuifolius, buphthalmi flore. _bauh. pin. ._ buphthalmum _dodon. pempt. ._ helleborus niger ferulaceus sive buphthalmum. the great ox-eye, or the great yellow anemone. _parkins. parad. p. . f. ._ [illustration: no ] of this plant linnÆus makes two species, viz. the _vernalis_ and _appennina_, differing in their specific character merely in the number of their petals, which are found to vary from situation and culture; as the first name taken from its time of flowering is the most expressive, we have followed mr. miller and mr. aiton in adopting it. it is an old inhabitant of the english gardens, and a most desirable one, as it flowers in the spring; produces fine shewy blossoms, which expand wide when exposed to the sun, is hardy and readily cultivated. grows wild on the mountainous pastures of some parts of germany. it may be increased by parting its roots in autumn or spring, or by seed. miller recommends the latter mode. [ ] gladiolus cardinalis. superb gladiolus; or, corn-flag. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ -partita, irregularis, inæqualis, _stigmata_ . _specific character._ gladiolus _cardinalis_ corollæ erectæ limbo campanulato, floribus secundis, scapo multifloro, foliis ensiformibus multinerviis. [illustration: no ] this new species of gladiolus, of whose magnificence our figure can exhibit but an imperfect idea, was introduced into this country from holland, a few years since, by mr. graffer, at present gardener to the king of naples; and first flowered with messrs. lewis and mackie, nurserymen, at kingsland; a very strong plant of it flowered also this summer at messrs. grimwoods and co. which divided at top into three branches, from one of which our figure was drawn. it obviously differs from the other more tender plants of this genus, in the colour of its flowers, which are of a fine scarlet, with large white somewhat rhomboidal spots, on several of the lowermost divisions of the corolla; strong plants will throw up a stem three or four feet high. it is most probably a native of the cape, flowers with us in july and august, and is increased by offsets from the bulbs; must be treated like the ixias and other similar cape plants. [ ] pelargonium tetragonum. square stalked geranium. _class and order._ monadelphia heptandria. _generic character._ _cal._ -partitus, lacinia suprema definente in tubulum capillarem, nectariferum, secus pedunculum decurrentem. _cor._ -petala, irregularis. _filamenta_ , inæqualia: quorum (raro ) castrata. _fructus_ -coccus, rostratus: _rostra_ spiralia, introrsum barbata. _specific character and synonyms._ pelargonium _tetragonum_ pedunculis bifloris, ramis tetragonis carnosis, corollis tetrapetalis, _l'herit. n. . t. ._ geranium _tetragonum_. _linn. suppl. p. ._ [illustration: no ] a vein of singularity runs through the whole of this plant, its stalks are unequally and obtusely quadrangular, sometimes more evidently triangular; its leaves few, and remarkably small; its flowers, on the contrary, are uncommonly large, and what is more extraordinary have only four petals; previous to their expansion they exhibit also an appearance somewhat outrè, the body of the filaments being bent so as to form a kind of bow, in which state we have represented one of the blossoms in our figure. when it flowers in perfection, which it is not apt to do in all places, the largeness of its blossoms renders it one of the most ornamental of the genus. there is a variety of it with beautifully coloured leaves, of which we have availed ourselves in its representation. it flowers from june, to august, and september; requires the same treatment as the more common geraniums, and is readily propagated by cuttings. was first introduced to the royal garden at kew, by mr. masson, in , from the cape, of which, it is a native. _ait. hort. kew._ [ ] hypericum balearicum. warty st. john's-wort. _class and order._ polyadelphia polyandria. _generic character._ _calyx_ -phyllus. _petala_ . _nectarium_ . _capsula_. _specific character and synonyms._ hypericum _balearicum_ floribus pentagynis, caule fruticoso foliis ramisque cicatrizatis. _linn. syst. veget. p. ._ myrto-cistus pennæi _clus. hist. . p. ._ [illustration: no ] is according to linnÆus a native of _majorca_; miller says that it grows naturally in the island of _minorca,_ from whence the seeds were sent to england by mr. salvador, an apothecary at barcelona, in the year . the stalks of this species are usually of a bright red colour, and covered with little warts; the leaves are small with many depressions on their upper sides like scars; the flowers are not always solitary, but frequently form a kind of corymbus. it is a hardy green-house plant, and readily propagated by cuttings. it flowers during most of the summer. clusius informs us in his _hist. pl. rar. p. ._ that he received from thomas penny, a physician of london, in the year , a figure of this elegant plant, and who the next year shewed a dried specimen of the same in london, which had been gathered in the island of majorca, and named by him [greek: murto kison], or myrtle-cistus[ ] it appears therefore that this plant has long been known, if not cultivated in this country. we may remark that clusius's figure of this plant is not equally expressive with many of his others. [ ] kalmia hirsuta. hairy kalmia. _class and order._ decandria monogynia. _generic character._ _calyx_ -partitus. _corolla_ hypocrateriformis: limbo subtus quinquecorni _caps._ -locularis. _specific character._ kalmia _hirsuta_ foliis ovato-lanceolatis hirsutis sparsis, floribus racemosis. [illustration: no ] this new species of kalmia which we have called _hirsuta,_ the stalk, leaves, and calyx, being covered with strong hairs, was imported from carolina in the spring of , by mr. watson, nurseryman at islington, with whom several plants of it flowered this present autumn, about the middle of september, from one of which our drawing was made. the plants were brought over with their roots enclosed in balls of the earth in which they naturally grew, which on being examined appeared of a blackish colour, and full of glittering particles of sand; similar indeed to the bog-earth which we find on our moors and heaths; there is therefore little doubt (for no account accompanied the plants) but this kalmia grows on moorish heaths, or in swamps. in its general appearance it bears some resemblance to the _andromeda daboecii_; from the specimens we have seen its usual height would appear to be from two to three feet; it grows upright; the flowers which are about the size of those of the _kalmia glauca_, are of a purple colour, and contrary to all the other known kalmia's grow in racemi. it is propagated by layers, and requires the same treatment as the rest of the genus, that is, to be planted in bog-earth, on a north border: as this however is a new, and of course a dear plant, it will be most prudent till we know what degree of cold it will bear, to keep it in a pot of the same earth, plunged in the same situation, which may be removed in the winter to a green-house or hot-bed frame. [ ] alstroemeria pelegrina. spotted-flower'd alstroemeria. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ -petala, supera, irregularis. _stamina_ declinata. _specific character and synonyms._ alstroemeria _pelegrina_ caule erecto, corollis campanulatis rectis, foliis lineari-lanceolatis sessilibus. _linn. syst. veg. p. . ed. murr._ _amoen. acad. . p. . cum icone._ hemerocallis floribus purpurascentibus maculatis vulgo pelegrina. _feuill. peruv. . p. . t. ._ [illustration: no ] father feuillee[ ] figures and describes three species of _alstroemeria_, viz. _pelegrina_, _ligtu_, and _salsilla_, common names by which they are severally distinguished in peru: the present species, which is much valued by the natives on account of its beauty, he informs us is found wild on a mountain to the north of, and a mile distant from lima. from peru, as might be expected, the present plant found its way into spain, from whence by the means of his beloved friend alstroemer, linnÆus first received seeds of it; the value he set on the acquisition is evident from the great care he took of the seedling plants, preserving them through the winter in his bed-chamber. according to mr. aiton, this species was introduced to the royal garden at kew, by messrs. kennedy and lee, as long ago as the year . being a mountainous plant, it is found to be much more hardy than the _ligtu_ already figured, and is generally treated as a green-house plant; it is found, however, to flower and ripen its seeds better under the glass of a hot-bed frame, where air is freely admitted. it flowers from june to october, and, though a perennial, is generally raised from seeds, yet may sometimes be increased by parting its roots, which somewhat resemble those of the asparagus: the seeds should be sown in the spring, in a pot of light earth, on a gentle hot-bed, either of dung or tan. [ ] lupinus luteus. yellow lupine. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _calyx_ -labiatus. _antheræ_ oblongæ, subrotundæ. _legumen_ coriaceum. _specific character and synonyms._ lupinus _luteus_ calycibus verticillatis appendiculatis: labio superiore bipartito; inferiore tridentato. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ lupinus sylvestris, flore luteo. _bauh. pin. ._ the yellow lupine. _park. parad. p. ._ [illustration: no ] the present, with many other species of lupine, is very generally cultivated in flower gardens, for the sake of variety, being usually sown in the spring with other annuals; where the flower-borders are spacious, they may with propriety be admitted, but as they take up much room, and as their blossoms are of short duration, they are not so desirable as many other plants. it is a native of sicily, and flowers in june and july. we have often thought that the management of the kitchen garden, in point of succession of crops, might be advantageously transplanted to the flower garden; in the former, care is taken to have a regular succession of the annual delicacies of the table, while in the latter, a single sowing in the spring is thought to be all-sufficient; hence the flower garden, which in august, september, and part of october, might be covered with a profusion of bloom, exhibits little more than the decayed stems of departed annuals. [ ] heliotropium peruvianum. peruvian turnsole. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ hypocrateriformis, -fida, interjectis dentibus: fauce clausa fornicibus. _specific character and synonyms._ heliotropium _peruvianum_ foliis lanceolato-ovatis, caule fruticoso, spicis numerosis aggregato-corymbosis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. ._ heliotropium foliis ovato-lanceolatis, spicis plurimis; confertis, caule fruticoso. _mill. dict. ed. . to. icon. t. ._ [illustration: no ] this plant recommends itself by its fragrance rather than its beauty, so delicious indeed is the odour it diffuses, that it is considered as essential to every green-house and stove. "it grows naturally in peru, from whence the seeds were sent by the younger jussieu to the royal garden at paris, where the plants produced flowers and seeds; and from the curious garden of the duke d'ayen, at st. germain's, i was supplied with some of the seeds, which have succeeded, in the chelsea garden, where the plants have flowered and perfected their seeds for some years." _miller's gard. dict._ you may consider it either as a stove or a green-house plant, the former is more congenial to it in the winter season. a pure atmosphere is essential to its existence, as i experienced at lambeth-marsh, where i in vain endeavoured to cultivate it. it is propagated by cuttings as easily as any geranium, and requires a similar treatment; in hot weather it must be well supplied with water, and in winter carefully guarded against frost, so fatal to most of the natives of peru. [ ] scorzonera tingitana. tangier scorzonera, or poppy-leav'd vipers grass. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia Æqualis. _generic character._ _receptaculum_ nudum. _pappus_ plumosus. _calyx_ imbricatus, squamis margine scariosis. _specific character and synonyms._ scorzonera _tingitana_ foliis omnibus runcinatis amplexicaulibus. _linn. syst. veg. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ sonchus tingitanus papaveris folio _raii suppl. ._ chondrilla tingitana, floribus luteis papaveris hortensis folio. _herm. lugdb. . t. ._ [illustration: no ] i am indebted for seeds of this plant to my very worthy and liberal friend nich. gwyn, m. d. of ipswich, to whose penetrating genius, and learned researches, botany owes much. as its name implies, it is a native of the province of tangier, on the barbary coast; appears to have been cultivated here, according to the _hort. kew._ in , but is not mentioned in the th to. edit. of miller's dictionary. it may be considered as forming a valuable addition to our stock of annuals, being a beautiful plant, and easily cultivated: it thrives best on a moderately dry soil, warmly situated: should be sown in the spring with other annuals. i have observed, that in the middle of summer, a hot unclouded sun, which is favourable to the expansion of most of the flowers of this class, is too powerful for those of the present plant, which then appear to the greatest advantage in warm hazy weather. [ ] pelargonium glutinosum. clammy crane's bill. _class and order._ monadelphia heptandria. _generic character._ _calyx_ -partitus: lacinia suprema definente in tubulum capillare nectariferum fecus pedunculum decurrentem. _corolla_ pentapetala, irregularis. _filamenta_ inæqualia, quorum raro castrata. _fructus_ pentacoccus, rostratus, rostra spiralia introrsum barbata. _specific character and synonyms._ pelargonium _glutinosum_ umbellis paucifloris foliis cordatis hastato-quinquangulis viscosis. _l'herit. ger. ait. hort. kew. v. . p. ._ geranium _glutinosum_. _jacq. ic. collect. . p. ._ geranium _viscosum_. _cavanill. diss. . p. . t. . f. ._ [illustration: no ] the leaves of this species exhibit, on being touched, a manifest viscidity, or clamminess, which, independent of their shape, serves to characterize the species; the middle of the leaf is also in general stained with purple, which adds considerably to its beauty; but this must be regarded rather as the mark of a variety, than of the species. with most of its congeners, it is a native of the cape, and of modern date in this country, being introduced to the royal garden at kew, by messrs. kennedy and lee, in the year . it flowers from may to september; is readily propagated by cuttings, and sometimes raised from seeds, from whence several varieties have been produced. [ ] ferraria undulata. curled ferraria. _class and order._ gynandria triandria. _generic character._ monogyna. _spathtæ_ unifloræ. _petala_ , undulato-crispata. _stigmata_ cucullata. _caps._ -locularis, infera. _specific character and synonyms._ ferraria _undulata_ caule multifloro. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. . ed. ._ _murr. ait. kew. p. . v. ._ flos indicus e violaceo fuscus radice tuberosa. _i. b. ferrar. flora, ed. nov. p. . t. ._ gladiolus indicus e violaceo fuscus radice tuberosa nobis. _moris. hist. f. . t. . f. ._ narcissus indicus flore saturate purpureo. _rudb. elys. . t. . f. ._ iris stellata cyclamine radice pullo flore. _barrel. icon. ._ [illustration: no ] the old botanists appear to have been wonderfully at a loss to what family they should refer this very singular plant, as will appear on consulting the synonyms; burman at length made a distinct genus of it, naming it _ferraria_ in honour of joh. baptista ferrarius, by whom it was described, and very well figured, in his _flora feu de florum cultura_, published at amsterdam, in . mr. miller informs us, that he received roots of this plant from dr. job baster, f. r. s. of zirkzee, who obtained it from the cape, of which it is a native. in the vegetable line, it is certainly one of the most singular and beautiful of nature's productions; much it is to be regretted that its flowers are of very short duration, opening in the morning and finally closing in the afternoon of the same day; a strong plant will, however, throw out many blossoms in succession. in its structure and oeconomy, it approaches very near to the _sisyrinchium_. it flowers very early in the spring, from february to may, and is usually propagated by offsets, which its bulbs produce in tolerable plenty. it requires a treatment similar to the ixias and other cape bulbs. our figure was drawn from a plant which flowered this spring, in the possession of r. forster, esq. of turnham-green. index. in which the latin names of the plants contained in the _fourth volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ adonis vernalis. alstroemeria ligtu. ------------ pelegrina. alyssum deltoideum. ------- utriculatum. amaryllis vittata. anemone hortensis. campanula carpatica. catesbæa spinosa. cistus ladaniferus. convolvulus purpureus. ferraria undulata. gladiolus cardinalis. heliotropium peruvianum. hyacinthus racemosus. ---------- comosus. hypericum balearicum. iberis gibraltarica. ixia flexuosa. kalmia hirsuta. lathyrus tuberosus. -------- sativus. lavatera trimestris. limodorum tuberosum. lupinus luteus. mimosa verticillata. narcissus incomparabilis. pelargonium tetragonum. ----------- glutinosum. rubus arcticus. scilla campanulata. scorzonera tingitana. sedum anacampseros. silene pendula. strelitzia reginæ. index. in which the english names of the plants contained in the _fourth volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ adonis spring. alstroemeria striped-flowered. ------------ spotted-flowered. amaryllis superb. alyssum bladder-podded. ------- purple. anemone star. bell-flower carpatian. bindweed purple. bramble dwarf. candy-tuft gibraltar. catchfly pendulous. catesbæa thorny. cistus gum. crane's-bill clammy. daffodil peerless. ferraria curled. geranium square-stalked. gladiolus superb. hyacinth starch. -------- two-coloured. ixia bending-stalked. kalmia hairy. lathyrus tuberous. -------- blue-flowered. lavatera annual. limodorum tuberous-rooted. lupine yellow. mimosa whorl'd-leaved. orpine evergreen. scorzonera tangier. st. john's-wort warty. strelitzia canna-leaved. squill bell-flowered. turnsole peruvian. footnotes [ ] from the gaiety of its flowers, which, from their stripes, appear like an object decorated with ribbands.--_vitta_, a ribband; _vittata_, dressed with ribbands. _ainsw._ [ ] the leaves being somewhat like those of the myrtle, and a gummy substance exuding from the plant as in the gum cistus. [ ] in his journal des observations physiques, mathematiques, et botaniques, faites sur les côtes orientales de l'amerique meridionale, &c. printed in . note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h.zip) transcriber's note: text enclosed between equal signs was in bold face in the original (=bold=). an em-dash or double hyphen (--) is used in this e-text to indicate ranges. in chemical formulas, a subscriped number is preceded by and underscore (h_ o). a detailed transcriber's note is at the end of the text. studies of american fungi, mushrooms, edible, poisonous, etc. by george francis atkinson professor of botany in cornell university, and botanist of the cornell university agricultural experiment station recipes for cooking mushrooms, by mrs. sarah tyson rorer chemistry and toxicology of mushrooms, by j. f. clark with illustrations from photographs by the author, and colored plates by f. r. rathbun second edition [illustration: plate . fig. .--amanita muscaria. fig. .--a. frostiana. copyright .] [illustration: printer's logo.] new york henry holt and company copyright, , , by geo. f. atkinson. introduction. since the issue of my "studies and illustrations of mushrooms," as bulletins and of the cornell university agricultural experiment station, there have been so many inquiries for them and for literature dealing with a larger number of species, it seemed desirable to publish in book form a selection from the number of illustrations of these plants which i have accumulated during the past six or seven years. the selection has been made of those species representing the more important genera, and also for the purpose of illustrating, as far as possible, all the genera of agarics found in the united states. this has been accomplished except in a few cases of the more unimportant ones. there have been added, also, illustrative genera and species of all the other orders of the higher fungi, in which are included many of the edible forms. the photographs have been made with great care after considerable experience in determining the best means for reproducing individual, specific, and generic characters, so important and difficult to preserve in these plants, and so impossible in many cases to accurately portray by former methods of illustration. one is often asked the question: "how do you tell the mushrooms from the toadstools?" this implies that mushrooms are edible and that toadstools are poisonous, and this belief is very widespread in the public mind. the fact is that many of the toadstools are edible, the common belief that all of them are poisonous being due to unfamiliarity with the plants or their characteristics. some apply the term mushroom to a single species, the one in cultivation, and which grows also in fields (_agaricus campestris_), and call all others toadstools. it is becoming customary with some students to apply the term mushroom to the entire group of higher fungi to which the mushroom belongs (_basidiomycetes_), and toadstool is regarded as a synonymous term, since there is, strictly speaking, no distinction between a mushroom and a toadstool. there are, then, edible and poisonous mushrooms, or edible and poisonous toadstools, as one chooses to employ the word. a more pertinent question to ask is how to distinguish the edible from the poisonous mushrooms. there is no single test or criterion, like the "silver spoon" test, or the criterion of a scaly cap, or the presence of a "poison cup" or "death cup," which will serve in all cases to distinguish the edible from the poisonous. two plants may possess identical characters in this respect, i. e., each may have the "death cup," and one is edible while the other is poisonous, as in _amanita cæsarea_, edible, and _a. phalloides_, poisonous. there are additional characters, however, in these two plants which show that the two differ, and we recognize them as two different species. to know several different kinds of edible mushrooms, which occur in greater or less quantity through the different seasons, would enable those interested in these plants to provide a palatable food at the expense only of the time required to collect them. to know several of the poisonous ones also is important, in order certainly to avoid them. the purpose of this book is to present the important characters which it is necessary to observe, in an interesting and intelligible way, to present life-size photographic reproductions accompanied with plain and accurate descriptions. by careful observation of the plant, and comparison with the illustrations and text, one will be able to add many species to the list of edible ones, where now perhaps is collected "only the one which is pink underneath." the chapters to should also be carefully read. the number of people in america who interest themselves in the collection of mushrooms for the table is small compared to those in some european countries. the number, however, is increasing, and if a little more attention were given to the observation of these plants and the discrimination of the more common kinds, many persons could add greatly to the variety of their foods and relishes with comparatively no cost. the quest for these plants in the fields and woods would also afford a most delightful and needed recreation to many, and there is no subject in nature more fascinating to engage one's interest and powers of observation. there are also many important problems for the student in this group of plants. many of our species and the names of the plants are still in great confusion, owing to the very careless way in which these plants have usually been preserved, and the meagerness of recorded observations on the characters of the fresh plants, or of the different stages of development. the study has also an important relation to agriculture and forestry, for there are numerous species which cause decay of valuable timber, or by causing "heart rot" entail immense losses through the annual decretion occurring in standing timber. if this book contributes to the general interest in these plants as objects of nature worthy of observation, if it succeeds in aiding those who are seeking information of the edible kinds, and stimulates some students to undertake the advancement of our knowledge of this group, it will serve the purpose the author had in mind in its preparation. i wish here to express my sincere thanks to mrs. sarah tyson rorer for her kindness in writing a chapter on recipes for cooking mushrooms, especially for this book; to professor i. p. roberts, director of the cornell university agricultural experiment station, for permission to use certain of the illustrations (figs. -- , -- , -- ) from bulletins and , studies and illustrations of mushrooms; to mr. f. r. rathbun, for the charts from which the colored plates were made; to mr. j. f. clark and mr. h. hasselbring, for the chapters on chemistry and toxicology of mushrooms, and characters of mushrooms, to which their names are appended, and also to dr. chas. peck, of albany, n. y., and dr. g. bresadola, of austria-hungary, to whom some of the specimens have been submitted. geo. f. atkinson, ithaca, n. y., october, . cornell university. second edition. in this edition have been added plates of mushrooms of which i did not have photographs when the first edition was printed. it was possible to accomplish this without changing the paging of any of the descriptive part, so that references to all of the plants in either edition will be the same. there are also added a chapter on the "uses of mushrooms," and an extended chapter on the "cultivation of mushrooms." this subject i have been giving some attention to for several years, and in view of the call for information since the appearance of the first edition, it seemed well to add this chapter, illustrated by several flashlight photographs. g. f. a. september, . table of contents. page chapter i. form and characters of the mushrooms, chapter ii. development of the mushroom, chapter iii. gill bearing fungi; agaricaceæ, chapter iv. the purple-brown-spored agarics, chapter v. the black-spored agarics, chapter vi. the white-spored agarics, chapter vii. the rosy-spored agarics, chapter viii. the ochre-spored agarics, chapter ix. the tube bearing fungi; polyporaceæ, chapter x. hedgehog fungi; hydnaceæ, chapter xi. coral fungi; clavariaceæ, chapter xii. the trembling fungi; tremellineæ, chapter xiii. thelephoraceæ, chapter xiv. puff-balls; lycoperdaceæ, chapter xv. stinkhorn fungi; phalloideæ, chapter xvi. morels, cup-fungi, helvellas, etc., discomycetes, chapter xvii. collection and preservation of the fleshy fungi, chapter xviii. selection and preparation of mushrooms for the table, chapter xix. uses of mushrooms, fungi in the arts, chapter xx. cultivation of mushrooms, the cave culture of mushrooms in america, the house culture of mushrooms, curing the manure, making up the beds, what spawn is, spawning the beds, chapter xxi. recipes for cooking mushrooms (mrs. sarah tyson rorer), chapter xxii. chemistry and toxicology of the fungi (j. f. clark), chapter xxiii. description of terms applied to certain structural characters of mushrooms (h. hasselbring), appendix. analytical keys (the author), glossary of technical terms (the author), index to genera and illustrations, index to species, corrections. page , th line, for [greek: _kornos_] read [greek: _kopros_]. page , lines and , for _gyromytra_ read gyromitra. chapter i. form and characters of the mushroom. =value of form and characters.=--the different kinds of mushrooms vary in form. some are quite strikingly different from others, so that no one would have difficulty in recognizing the difference in shape. for example, an umbrella-shaped mushroom like the one shown in fig. or is easily distinguished from a shelving one like that in fig. or . but in many cases different species vary only slightly in form, so that it becomes a more or less difficult matter to distinguish them. in those plants (for the mushroom is a plant) where the different kinds are nearly alike in form, there are other characters than mere general form which enable one to tell them apart. these, it is true, require close observation on our part, as well as some experience in judging of the value of such characters; the same habit of observation and discrimination we apply to everyday affairs and to all departments of knowledge. but so few people give their attention to the discrimination of these plants that few know the value of their characters, or can even recognize them. it is by a study of these especial characters of form peculiar to the mushrooms that one acquires the power of discrimination among the different kinds. for this reason one should become familiar with the parts of the mushroom, as well as those characters and markings peculiar to them which have been found to stamp them specifically. =parts of the mushroom.=--to serve as a means of comparison, the common pasture mushroom, or cultivated form (_agaricus campestris_), is first described. figure illustrates well the principal parts of the plant; the cap, the radiating plates or gills on the under side, the stem, and the collar or ring around its upper end. =the cap.=--the cap (technically the _pileus_) is the expanded part of the mushroom. it is quite thick, and fleshy in consistency, more or less rounded or convex on the upper side, and usually white in color. it is from -- cm. thick at the center and -- cm. in diameter. the surface is generally smooth, but sometimes it is torn up more or less into triangular scales. when these scales are prominent they are often of a dark color. this gives quite a different aspect to the plant, and has led to the enumeration of several varieties, or may be species, among forms accredited by some to the one species. =the gills.=--on the under side of the pileus are radiating plates, the gills, or _lamellæ_ (sing. _lamella_). these in shape resemble somewhat a knife blade. they are very thin and delicate. when young they are pink in color, but in age change to a dark purple brown, or nearly black color, due to the immense number of spores that are borne on their surfaces. the gills do not quite reach the stem, but are rounded at this end and so curve up to the cap. the triangular spaces between the longer ones are occupied by successively shorter gills, so that the combined surface of all the gills is very great. [illustration: figure. .--agaricus campestris. view of under side showing stem, annulus, gills, and margin of pileus. (natural size.)] =the stem or stipe.=--the stem in this plant, as in many other kinds, is attached to the pileus in the center. the purpose of the stem seems quite surely to be that of lifting the cap and the gills up above the ground, so that the spores can float in the currents of air and be readily scattered. the stem varies in length from -- cm. and is about -- - / cm. in diameter. it is cylindrical in form, and even, quite firm and compact, though sometimes there is a central core where the threads are looser. the stem is also white and fleshy, and is usually smooth. =the ring.=--there is usually present in the mature plant of _agaricus campestris_ a thin collar (_annulus_) or ring around the upper end of the stem. it is not a movable ring, but is joined to the stem. it is very delicate, easily rubbed off, or may be even washed off during rains. =parts present in other mushrooms--the volva.=--some other mushrooms, like the _deadly amanita_ (_amanita phalloides_) and other species of the genus _amanita_, have, in addition to the cap, gills, stem, and ring, a more or less well formed cup-like structure attached to the lower end of the stem, and from which the stem appears to spring. (figs. , , etc.) this is the _volva_, sometimes popularly called the "death cup," or "poison cup." this structure is a very important one to observe, though its presence by no means indicates in all cases that the plant is poisonous. it will be described more in detail in treating of the genus _amanita_, where the illustrations should also be consulted. [illustration: figure .--agaricus campestris. "buttons" just appearing through the sod. some spawn at the left lower corner. soil removed from the front. (natural size.)] =presence or absence of ring or volva.=--of the mushrooms which have stems there are four types with respect to the presence or absence of the ring and volva. in the first type both the ring and volva are absent, as in the common fairy ring mushroom, _marasmius oreades_; in the genus _lactarius_, _russula_, _tricholoma_, _clitocybe_, and others. in the second type the ring is present while the volva is absent, as in the common mushroom, _agaricus campestris_, and its close allies; in the genus _lepiota_, _armillaria_, and others. in the third type the volva is present, but the ring is absent, as in the genus _volvaria_, or _amanitopsis_. in the fourth type both the ring and volva are present, as in the genus _amanita_. =the stem is absent in some mushrooms.=--there are also quite a large number of mushrooms which lack a stem. these usually grow on stumps, logs, or tree trunks, etc., and one side of the cap is attached directly to the wood on which the fungus is growing. the pileus in such cases is lateral and shelving, that is, it stands out more or less like a shelf from the trunk or log, or in other cases is spread out flat on the surface of the wood. the shelving form is well shown in the beautiful _claudopus nidulans_, sometimes called _pleurotus nidulans_, and in other species of the genus _pleurotus_, _crepidotus_, etc. these plants will be described later, and no further description of the peculiarities in form of the mushrooms will be now attempted, since these will be best dealt with when discussing species fully under their appropriate genus. but the brief general description of form given above will be found useful merely as an introduction to the more detailed treatment. chapter xxi should also be studied. for those who wish the use of a glossary, one is appended at the close of the book, dealing only with the more technical terms employed here. [illustration: figure .--agaricus campestris. soil washed from the "spawn" and "buttons," showing the young "buttons" attached to the strands of mycelium. ( - / natural size.)] chapter ii. development of the mushroom. when the stems of the mushrooms are pulled or dug from the ground, white strands are often clinging to the lower end. these strands are often seen by removing some of the earth from the young plant, as shown in fig. . this is known among gardeners as "spawn." it is through the growth and increase of this spawn that gardeners propagate the cultivated mushroom. fine specimens of the spawn of the cultivated mushroom can be seen by digging up from a bed a group of very young plants, such a group as is shown in fig. . here the white strands are more numerous than can readily be found in the lawns and pastures where the plant grows in the feral state. [illustration: figure .--agaricus campestris. sections of "buttons" at different stages, showing formation of gills and veil covering them. (natural size.)] =nature of mushroom spawn.=--this spawn, it should be clearly understood, is not spawn in the sense in which that word is used in fish culture; though it may be employed so readily in propagation of mushrooms. the spawn is nothing more than the vegetative portion of the plant. it is made up of countless numbers of delicate, tiny, white, jointed threads, the _mycelium_. =mycelium of a mold.=--a good example of mycelium which is familiar to nearly every one occurs in the form of a white mold on bread or on vegetables. one of the molds, so common on bread, forms at first a white cottony mass of loosely interwoven threads. later the mold becomes black in color because of numerous small fruit cases containing dark spores. this last stage is the fruiting stage of the mold. the earlier stage is the growing, or vegetative, stage. the white mycelium threads grow in the bread and absorb food substances for the mold. [illustration: figure .--agaricus campestris. nearly mature plants, showing veil stretched across gill cavity. (natural size.)] =mushroom spawn is in the form of strands of mycelium.=--now in the mushrooms the threads of mycelium are usually interlaced into definite strands or cords, especially when the mycelium is well developed. in some species these strands become very long, and are dark brown in color. each thread of mycelium grows, or increases in length, at the end. each one of the threads grows independently, though all are intertwined in the strand. in this way the strand of mycelium increases in length. it even branches as it extends itself through the soil. =the button stage of the mushroom.=--the "spawn" stage, or strands of mycelium, is the vegetative or growing stage of the mushroom. these strands grow through the substance on which the fungus feeds. when the fruiting stage, or the mushroom, begins there appear small knobs or enlargements on these strands, and these are the beginnings of the button stage, as it is properly called. these knobs or young buttons are well shown in fig. . they begin by the threads of mycelium growing in great numbers out from the side of the cords. these enlarge and elongate and make their way toward the surface of the ground. they are at first very minute and grow from the size of a pinhead to that of a pea, and larger. now they begin to elongate somewhat and the end enlarges as shown in the larger button in the figure. here the two main parts of the mushroom are outlined, the stem and the cap. at this stage also the other parts of the mushroom begin to be outlined. the gills appear on the under side of this enlargement at the end of the button, next the stem. they form by the growth of fungus threads downward in radiating lines which correspond in position to the position of the gills. at the same time a veil is formed over the gills by threads which grow from the stem upward to the side of the button, and from the side of the button down toward the stem to meet them. this covers the gills up at an early period. [illustration: figure .--agaricus campestris. under view of two plants just after rupture of the veil, fragments of the latter clinging both to margin of the pileus and to stem. (natural size.)] =from the button stage to the mushroom.=--if we split several of the buttons of different sizes down through the middle, we shall be able to see the position of the gills covered by the veil during their formation. these stages are illustrated in fig. . as the cap grows in size the gills elongate, and the veil becomes broader. but when the plant is nearly grown the veil ceases to grow, and then the expanding cap pulls so strongly on it that it is torn. figure shows the veil in a stretched condition just before it is ruptured, and in fig. the veil has just been torn apart. the veil of the common mushroom is very delicate and fragile, as the illustration shows, and when it is ruptured it often breaks irregularly, sometimes portions of it clinging to the margin of the cap and portions clinging to the stem, or all of it may cling to the cap at times; but usually most of it remains clinging for a short while on the stem. here it forms the annulus or ring. [illustration: figure .--agaricus campestris. plant in natural position just after rupture of veil, showing tendency to double annulus on the stem. portions of the veil also dripping from margin of pileus. (natural size.)] =the color of the gills.=--the color of the gills of the common mushroom varies in different stages of development. when very young the gills are white. but very soon the gills become pink in color, and during the button stage if the veil is broken this pink color is usually present unless the button is very small. the pink color soon changes to dark brown after the veil becomes ruptured, and when the plants are quite old they are nearly black. this dark color of the gills is due to the dark color of the spores, which are formed in such great numbers on the surface of the gills. [illustration: figure .--agaricus campestris. section of gill showing _tr_==trama; _sh_==sub-hymenium; _b_==basidium, the basidia make up the hymenium; _st_==sterigma; _g_==spore. (magnified.)] =structure of a gill.=--in fig. is shown a portion of a section across one of the gills, and it is easy to see in what manner the spores are borne. the gill is made up, as the illustration shows, of mycelium threads. the center of the gill is called the _trama_. the trama in the case of this plant is made up of threads with rather long cells. toward the outside of the trama the cells branch into short cells, which make a thin layer. this forms the _sub-hymenium_. the sub-hymenium in turn gives rise to long club-shaped cells which stand parallel to each other at right angles to the surface of the gill. the entire surface of the gill is covered with these club-shaped cells called _basidia_ (sing. _basidium_). each of these club-shaped cells bears either two or four spinous processes called _sterígmata_ (sing. _sterígma_), and these in turn each bear a spore. all these points are well shown in fig. . the basidia together make up the _hymenium_. [illustration: figure .--polyporus borealis, showing wound at base of hemlock spruce caused by falling tree. bracket fruit form of polyporus borealis growing from wound. ( / natural size.)] =wood destroying fungi.=--many of the mushrooms, and their kind, grow on wood. a visit to the damp forest during the summer months, or during the autumn, will reveal large numbers of these plants growing on logs, stumps, from buried roots or rotten wood, on standing dead trunks, or even on living trees. in the latter case the mushroom usually grows from some knothole or wound in the tree (fig. ). many of the forms which appear on the trunks of dead or living trees are plants of tough or woody consistency. they are known as shelving or bracket fungi, or popularly as "fungoids" or "fungos." both these latter words are very unfortunate and inappropriate. many of these shelving or bracket fungi are perennial and live from year to year. they may therefore be found during the winter as well as in the summer. the writer has found specimens over eighty years old. the shelves or brackets are the fruit bodies, and consist of the pileus with the fruiting surface below. the fruiting surface is either in the form of gills like _agaricus_, or it is honey-combed, or spinous, or entirely smooth. [illustration: figure .--polyporus borealis. strands of mycelium extending radially in the wood of the same living hemlock spruce shown in fig. . (natural size.)] =mycelium of the wood destroying fungi.=--while the fruit bodies are on the outside of the trunk, the mycelium, or vegetative part of the fungus, is within the wood or bark. by stripping off the bark from decaying logs where these fungi are growing, the mycelium is often found in great abundance. by tearing open the rotting wood it can be traced all through the decaying parts. in fact, the mycelium is largely if not wholly responsible for the rapid disintegration of the wood. in living trees the mycelium of certain bracket fungi enters through a wound and grows into the heart wood. now the heart wood is dead and cannot long resist the entrance and destructive action of the mycelium. the mycelium spreads through the heart of the tree, causing it to rot (fig. ). when it has spread over a large feeding area it can then grow out through a wound or old knothole and form the bracket fruit body, in case the knothole or wound has not completely healed over so as to imprison the fungus mycelium. [illustration: plate , figure .--mycelium of agaricus melleus on large door in passage coal mine, wilkesbarre, pa. ( / natural size.)] =fungi in abandoned coal mines.=--mushrooms and bracket fungi grow in great profusion on the wood props or doors in abandoned coal mines, cement mines, etc. there is here an abundance of moisture, and the temperature conditions are more equable the year around. the conditions of environment then are very favorable for the rapid growth of these plants. they develop in midwinter as well as in summer. =mycelium of coal mine fungi.=--the mycelium of the mushrooms and bracket fungi grows in wonderful profusion in these abandoned coal mines. so far down in the moist earth the air in the tunnels or passages where the coal or rock has been removed is at all times nearly saturated with moisture. this abundance of moisture, with the favorable temperature, permits the mycelium to grow on the surface of the wood structures as readily as within the wood. in the forest, while the air is damp at times, it soon dries out to such a degree that the mycelium can not exist to any great extent on the outer surface of the trunks and stumps, for it needs a great percentage of moisture for growth. the moisture, however, is abundant within the stumps or tree trunks, and the mycelium develops abundantly there. so one can understand how it is that deep down in these abandoned mines the mycelium grows profusely on the surface of doors and wood props. figure is from a flashlight photograph, taken by the writer, of a beautiful growth on the surface of one of the doors in an abandoned coal mine at wilkesbarre, pa., during september, . the specimen covered an area eight by ten feet on the surface of the door. the illustration shows very well the habit of growth of the mycelium. at the right is the advancing zone of growth, marked by several fan-shaped areas. at the extreme edge of growth the mycelium presents a delicate fringe of the growing ends where the threads are interlaced uniformly over the entire area. but a little distance back from the edge, where the mycelium is older, the threads are growing in a different way. they are now uniting into definite strands. still further back and covering the larger part of the sheet of mycelium lying on the surface of the door, are numerous long, delicate tassels hanging downward. these were formed by the attempt on the part of the mycelium at numerous places to develop strands at right angles to the surface of the door. there being nothing to support them in their attempted aerial flight, they dangle downward in exquisite fashion. the mycelium in this condition is very soft and perishable. it disappears almost at touch. on the posts or wood props used to support the rock roof above, the mycelium grows in great profusion also, often covering them with a thick white mantle, or draping them with a fabric of elegant texture. from the upper ends of the props it spreads out over the rock roof above for several feet in circumference, and beautiful white pendulous tassels remind one of stalactites. [illustration: figure .--agaricus campestris. spore print. (natural size.)] =direction in growth of mushrooms.=--the direction of growth which these fungi take forms an interesting question for study. the common mushroom, the _agaricus_, the amanitas, and other central stemmed species grow usually in an upright fashion; that is, the stem is erect. the cap then, when it expands, stands so that it is parallel with the surface of the earth. where the cap does not fully expand, as in the campanulate forms, the pileus is still oriented horizontally, that is, with the gills downward. even in such species, where the stems are ascending, the upper end of the stem curves so that the cap occupies the usual position with reference to the surface of the earth. this is beautifully shown in the case of those plants which grow on the side of trunks or stumps, where the stems could not well grow directly upward without hugging close to the side of the trunk, and then there would not be room for the expansion of the cap. this is well shown in a number of species of _mycena_. in those species where the stem is sub-central, i. e., set toward one side of the pileus, or where it is definitely lateral, the pileus is also expanded in a horizontal direction. from these lateral stemmed species there is an easy transition to the stemless forms which are sessile, that is, the shelving forms where the pileus is itself attached to the trunk, or other object of support on which it grows. where there is such uniformity in the position of a member or part of a plant under a variety of conditions, it is an indication that there is some underlying cause, and also, what is more important, that this position serves some useful purpose in the life and well being of the plant. we may cut the stem of a mushroom, say of the _agaricus campestris_, close to the cap, and place the latter, gills downward, on a piece of white paper. it should now be covered securely with a small bell jar, or other vessel, so that no currents of air can get underneath. in the course of a few hours myriads of the brown spores will have fallen from the surface of the gills, where they are borne. they will pile up in long lines along on either side of all the gills and so give us an impression, or spore print, of the arrangement of the gills on the under side of the cap as shown in fig. . a white spore print from the smooth lepiota (_l. naucina_) is shown in fig. . this horizontal position of the cap then favors the falling of the spores, so that currents of air can scatter them and aid in the distribution of the fungus. [illustration: figure .--lepiota naucina. spore print. (natural size.)] but some may enquire how we know that there is any design in the horizontal position of the cap, and that there is some cause which brings about this uniformity of position with such entire harmony among such dissimilar forms. when a mushroom with a comparatively long stem, not quite fully matured or expanded, is pulled and laid on its side, or held in a horizontal position for a time, the upper part of the stem where growth is still taking place will curve upward so that the pileus is again brought more or less in a horizontal position. [illustration: figure .--amanita phalloides. plant turned to one side by directive force of gravity, after having been placed in a horizontal position. (natural size.)] in collecting these plants they are often placed on their side in the collecting basket, or on a table when in the study. in a few hours the younger, long stemmed ones have turned upward again. the plant shown in fig. (_amanita phalloides_) was placed on its side in a basket for about an hour. at the end of the hour it had not turned. it was then stood upright in a glass, and in the course of a few hours had turned nearly at right angles. the stimulus it received while lying in a horizontal position for only an hour was sufficient to produce the change in direction of growth even after the upright position had been restored. this is often the case. some of the more sensitive of the slender species are disturbed if they lie for only ten or fifteen minutes on the side. it is necessary, therefore, when collecting, if one wishes to keep the plants in the natural position for photographing, to support them in an upright position when they are being carried home from the woods. the cause of this turning of the stem from the horizontal position, so that the pileus will be brought parallel with the surface of the earth, is the stimulus from the force of gravity, which has been well demonstrated in the case of the higher plants. that is, the force which causes the stems of the higher plants to grow upward also regulates the position of the cap of the pileated fungi. the reason for this is to be seen in the perfection with which the spores are shed from the surfaces of the gills by falling downward and out from the crevices between. the same is true with the shelving fungi on trees, etc., where the spores readily fall out from the pores of the honey-combed surface or from between the teeth of those sorts with a spiny under surface. if the caps were so arranged that the fruiting surface came to be on the upper side, the larger number of the spores would lodge in the crevices between the extensions of the fruiting surface. singularly, this position of the fruiting surface does occur in the case of one genus with a few small species. interesting examples of the operation of this law are sometimes met with in abandoned coal mines, or more frequently in the woods. in abandoned mines the mushrooms sometimes grow from the mycelium which spreads out on the rock roof overhead. the rock roof prevents the plant from growing upright, and in growing laterally the weight of the plant together with the slight hold it can obtain on the solid rock causes it to hang downward. the end of the stem then curves upward so that the pileus is brought in a horizontal position. i have seen this in the case of _coprinus micaceus_ several times. [illustration: figure .--polyporus applanatus. from this view the larger cap is in the normal position in which it grew on the standing tree. turn one fourth way round to the right for position of the plant after the tree fell. ( / natural size.)] in the woods, especially in the case of the perennial shelving fungi, interesting cases are met with. figure illustrates one of these peculiar forms of _polyporus (fomes) applanatus_. this is the species so often collected as a "curio," and on account of its very white under surface is much used for etching various figures. in the figure the larger cap which is horizontal represents the position of the plant when on the standing maple trunk. when the tree fell the shelf was brought into a perpendicular position. the fungus continued to grow, but its substance being hard and woody it cannot turn as the mushroom can. instead, it now grows in such a way as to form several new caps, all horizontal, i. e., parallel with the surface of the earth, but perpendicular to the old shelf. if the page is turned one-fourth way round the figure will be brought in the position of the plant when it was growing on the fallen log. [illustration: plate , figure .--dædalea ambigua. upper right-hand shows normal plant in normal position when on tree. upper left-hand shows abnormal plant with the large cap in normal position when growing on standing tree. lower plant shows same plant in position after the tree fell, with new caps growing out in horizontal direction. (lower plant / natural size.)] another very interesting case is shown in the ambiguous trametes (_trametes ambigua_), a white shelving fungus which occurs in the southern states. it is shown in fig. . at the upper right hand is shown the normal plant in the normal position. at the upper left hand is shown an abnormal one with the large and first formed cap also in the normal position as it grew when the tree was standing. when the tree fell the shelf was on the upper side of the log. now numerous new caps grew out from the edge as shown in the lower figure, forming a series of steps, as it were, up one side and down the other. chapter iii. gill bearing fungi: agaricaceae.[a] the gill bearing fungi are known under the family _agaricaceæ_, or popularly the agarics. they are distinguished by the fruiting area being distributed over the surface of plate-like or knife-like extensions or folds, usually from the under surface of the cap. these are known as the gills, or lamellæ, and they usually radiate from a common point, as from or near the stem, when the stem is present; or from the point of attachment of the pileus when the stem is absent. the plants vary widely in form and consistency, some being very soft and soon decaying, others turning into an inky fluid, others being tough and leathery, and some more or less woody or corky. the spores when seen in mass possess certain colors, white, rosy, brown or purple brown, black or ochraceous. while a more natural division of the agarics can be made on the basis of structure and consistency, the treatment here followed is based on the color of the spores, the method in vogue with the older botanists. while this method is more artificial, it is believed to be better for the beginner, especially for a popular treatment. the sections will be treated in the following order: . the purple-brown-spored agarics. . the black-spored agarics. . the white-spored agarics. . the rosy-spored agarics. . the ochre-spored agarics. footnotes: [a] for analytical keys to the families and genera see chapter xxiv. chapter iv. the purple-brown-spored agarics.[b] the members of this subdivision are recognized at maturity by the purple-brown, dark brown or nearly black spores when seen in mass. as they ripen on the surface of the gills the large number give the characteristic color to the lamellæ. even on the gills the purple tinge of the brown spores can often be seen. the color is more satisfactorily obtained when the spores are caught in mass by placing the cap, gills downward, on white paper. agaricus linn. (psalliota fr.) in the genus _agaricus_ the spores at maturity are either purple-brown in mass or blackish with a purple tinge. the annulus is present on the stem, though disappearing soon in some species, and the stem is easily separated from the substance of the pileus. the gills are free from the stem, or only slightly adnexed. the genus is closely related to _stropharia_ and the species of the two genera are by some united under one genus (_psalliota_, hennings). peck, th report, n. y. state mus., p. -- , describes species. lloyd mycol. notes, no. , describes species. c. o. smith, rhodora, i: -- , , describes species. =agaricus (psalliota) campestris= linn. =edible.=--this plant has been quite fully described in the treatment of the parts of the mushroom, and a recapitulation will be sufficient here. it grows in lawns, pastures, by roadsides, and even in gardens and cultivated fields. a few specimens begin to appear in july, it is more plentiful in august, and abundantly so in september and october. it is -- cm. high ( -- inches), the cap is -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is first rounded, then convex and more or less expanded. the surface at first is nearly smooth, presenting a soft, silky appearance from numerous loose fibrils. the surface is sometimes more or less torn into triangular scales, especially as the plants become old. the color is usually white, but varies more or less to light brown, especially in the scaly forms, where the scales may be quite prominent and dark brown in color. sometimes the color is brownish before the scales appear. the flesh is white. the =gills= in the young button stage are white. they soon become pink in color and after the cap is expanded they quickly become purple brown, dark brown, and nearly black from the large number of spores on their surfaces. the gills are free from the stem and rounded behind (near the stem). the =stem= is white, nearly cylindrical, or it tapers a little toward the lower end. the flesh is solid, though the central core is less firm. the =veil= is thin, white, silky, and very frail. it is stretched as the cap expands and finally torn so that it clings either as an annulus around the stem, or fragments cling around the margin of the cap. since the =annulus= is so frail it shrivels as the plant ages and becomes quite inconspicuous or disappears entirely (see figs. -- ). [illustration: figure .--agaricus rodmani. entirely white, showing double veil or ring. (natural size.) copyright.] variations in the surface characters of the cap and stem have led some to recognize several varieties. this is known as the common mushroom and is more widely known and collected for food than any other. it is also cultivated in mushroom houses, cellars, caves, abandoned mines, etc. =agaricus (psalliota) rodmani= pk. =edible.=--rodman's mushroom, _agaricus rodmani_, grows in grassy places along streets of cities, either between the curbing and the walk, or between the curbing and the pavement. it is entirely white or whitish and sometimes tinged with yellowish at the center of the pileus. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad and the stem -- cm. in thickness. [illustration: figure .--agaricus arvensis, fairy ring.] the =pileus= is rounded, and then convex, very firm, compact and thick, with white flesh. the =gills= are crowded, first white, then pink, and in age blackish brown. the =stem= is very short, solid, nearly cylindrical, not bulbous. the =annulus= is quite characteristic, being very thick, with a short limb, and double, so that it often appears as two distinct rings on the middle or lower part of the stem as shown in fig. . this form of the annulus is probably due to the fact that the thick part of the margin of the pileus during the young stage rests between the lower and upper part of the annulus, i. e., the thick veil is attached both to the inner and outer surface of the margin of the cap, and when it is freed by the expansion of the pileus it remains as a double ring. it is eagerly sought and much relished by several persons at ithaca familiar with its edible qualities. the plant closely resembles a. campestris var., edulis, vittad. (see plate , bresadola, i funghi mangerecci e velenosi, ) and is probably the same. [illustration: figure .--agaricus silvicola. white to cream color, or yellow stains. (natural size.) copyright.] =agaricus (psalliota) arvensis= schaeff. =edible.=--the field mushroom, or horse mushroom, _agaricus arvensis_, grows in fields or pastures, sometimes under trees and in borders of woods. one form is often white, or yellowish white, and often shows the yellow color when dried. the plant sometimes occurs in the form of a fairy ring as shown in fig. . it is -- cm. high, the cap from -- cm. broad and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is smooth, quite thick and firm, convex to expanded. the =gills= are first white, then tinged with pink and finally blackish brown. the =stem= is stout, nearly cylindrical, hollow, bulbous. the veil is double like that of _agaricus placomyces_, the upper or inner layer remaining as a membrane, while the lower or outer layer is split radially and remains in large patches on the lower surface of the upper membrane. [illustration: figure .--agaricus silvicola, showing radiately torn lower part of veil. (natural size.) copyright.] =agaricus (psalliota) silvicola= vittad. =edible.=--the _agaricus silvicola_ grows in woods, groves, etc., on the ground, and has been found also in a newly made garden in the vicinity of trees near the woods. it is an attractive plant because of its graceful habit and the delicate shades of yellow and white. it ranges from -- cm. high, the cap is -- cm. broad and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= becomes convex, and expanded or nearly flat, and often with an elevation or umbo in the center. it is thin, smooth, whitish and often tinged more or less deeply with yellow (sulfur or ochraceous) and is sometimes tinged with pink in the center. the flesh is whitish or tinged with pink. the =gills= when very young are whitish, then pink, and finally dark brown or blackish brown, much crowded, and distant from the stem. the =stem= is long, nearly cylindrical, whitish, abruptly enlarged below into a bulb. it is often yellowish below, and especially in drying becomes stained with yellow. the =ring= is thin, membranaceous, delicate, sometimes with broad, soft, floccose patches on the under side. the ring usually appears single, but sometimes the =veil= is seen to be double, and the outer or lower portion tends to split radially as in _a. arvensis_ or _a. placomyces_. this is well shown in large specimens, and especially as the veil is stretched over the gills as shown in fig. . from the form of the plant as well as the peculiarities of the veil in the larger specimens, it is related to _a. arvensis_ and _a. placomyces_, more closely to the former. it occurs during mid-summer and early autumn. figure is from plants (no. c. u. herbarium) collected in open woods at ithaca. [illustration: figure . figure . plate .--agaricus placomyces. figure .--upper view of cap, side view of stem. figure .--under view of plant showing radiately torn under side of the double veil. ( / natural size.) copyright.] [illustration: plate , figure .--agaricus placomyces. three different views, see text for explanations. dark scales on cap. (natural size.) copyright.] =agaricus (psalliota) subrufescens= pk. =edible.=--the _agaricus subrufescens_ was described by dr. peck from specimens collected on a compost heap composed chiefly of leaves, at glen cove, long island. it occurs sometimes in greenhouses. in one case reported by peck it appeared in soil prepared for forcing cucumbers in a greenhouse in washington, d. c. according to the description the =pileus= becomes convex or broadly expanded, is covered with silky hairs and numerous minute scales. the color is whitish, grayish or dull reddish brown, the center being usually smooth and darker, while the flesh is white. the =gills= change from white to pinkish and blackish brown in age. the =stem= is long, nearly cylindrical or somewhat enlarged or bulbous at the base, first stuffed, then hollow, white. the =annulus= is thick, and the under side marked by loose threads or scales. this plant is said to differ from the common mushroom (_a. campestris_) in the more deeply hemispherical cap of the young plant, the hollow and somewhat bulbous stem, and in the scales on the under side of the annulus. in fresh plants the flesh has also a flavor of almonds. it is closely related to =a. silvaticus= schaeff., p. , t. , icones fung. bav. etc., , if not identical with it. _a. silvaticus_ has light ochraceous or subrufescent scales on the cap, a strong odor, and occurs in gardens as well as in the woods. =agaricus (psalliota) fabaceus= berk., was described in hooker's london journal of botany, = =: , , from specimens collected in ohio. the plant is white and is said to have a strong but not unpleasant odor. _agaricus amygdalinus_ curt., from north carolina, and of which no description was published, was so named on account of the almond-like flavor of the plant. dr. farlow suggests (proc. bost. soc. nat. hist. = =: -- , ) that _a. fabaceus_, _amygdalinus_, and _subrufescens_ are identical. =agaricus (psalliota) placomyces= pk. =edible.=--the flat-cap mushroom, _agaricus placomyces_ pk., occurs in borders of woods or under trees from june to september. according to peck it occurs in borders of hemlock woods, or under hemlock trees. at ithaca it is not always associated with hemlock trees. the largest specimens found here were in the border of mixed woods where hemlock was a constituent. it has been found near and under white pine trees in lawns, around the norway spruce and under the norway spruce. the plants are from -- cm. high, the cap from -- cm. in diameter, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= when young is broadly ovate, then becomes convex or fully expanded and flat in age, and is quite thin. the ground color is whitish, often with a yellowish tinge, while the surface is ornamented with numerous minute brownish scales which are scattered over a large part of the cap, but crowded or conjoined at the center into a large circular patch. this gives to the plant with its shapely form a beautiful appearance. in the young stage the entire surface of the pileus is quite evenly brown. as it expands the outer brown portion is torn asunder into numerous scales because the surface threads composing this brown layer cease to grow. these scales are farther apart toward the margin of the cap, because this portion of the cap always expands more than the center, in all mushrooms. the =gills= are at first white, or very soon pink in color, and in age are blackish brown. spores -- × -- µ. the =stem= is nearly cylindrical, hollow or stuffed, white or whitish, smooth, bulbous, and the bulb is sometimes tinged with yellow. the =veil= is very handsome, and the way in which the annulus is formed from it is very interesting. the veil is quite broad, and it is double, that is, it consists of two layers which are loosely joined by threads. in the young stage the veil lies between the gills and the lower two-thirds of the stem. as the pileus expands the lower (outer part) layer of the veil is torn, often in quite regular radiating portions, as shown in fig. . an interesting condition of the veil is shown in the middle plant in fig. . here the outer or lower layer of the veil did not split radially, but remained as a tube surrounding the stem, while the two layers were separated, the inner one being still stretched over the gills. it is customary to speak of the lower part of the veil as the outer part when the cap is expanded and the veil is still stretched across over the gills, while the upper portion is spoken of as the inner layer or part. it is closely related to _a. arvensis_, and may represent a wood inhabiting variety of that species. =agaricus (psalliota) comtulus= fr.--this pretty little agaric seems to be rather rare. it was found sparingly on several occasions in open woods under pines at ithaca, n. y., during october, . lloyd reports it from ohio (mycolog. notes, no. , nov. ), and smith from vermont (rhodora i, ). fries' description (epicrisis, no. ) runs as follows: "pileus slightly fleshy, convex, plane, obtuse, nearly smooth, with appressed silky hairs, stem hollow, sub-attenuate, smooth, white to yellowish, annulus fugacious; gills free, crowded, broad in front, from flesh to rose color. in damp grassy places. stem inches by lines, at first floccose stuffed. pileus -- - / inch diameter. color from white to yellowish." [illustration: figure .--agaricus comtulus (natural size, sometimes larger). cap creamy white with egg-yellow stains, smoky when older. stem same color; gills grayish, then rose, then purple brown. copyright.] the plants collected at ithaca are illustrated in fig. from a photograph of plants (no. c. u. herbarium). my notes on these specimens run as follows: plant -- cm. high, pileus . -- cm. broad, stem -- mm. in thickness. =pileus= convex to expanded, fleshy, thin on the margin, margin at first incurved, creamy white with egg yellow stains, darker on the center, in age somewhat darker to umber or fuliginous, moist when fresh, surface soon dry, flesh tinged with yellow. the =gills= are white when young, then grayish to pale rose, and finally light purple brown, rounded in front, tapering behind (next the stem) and rounded, free from the stem, -- mm. broad. =basidia= clavate, -- × -- µ. =spores= small, oval, -- × -- µ, in mass light purple brown. the =stem= tapers above, is sub-bulbous below, yellowish and stained with darker yellowish threads below the annulus, hollow, fibrous, fleshy. the =veil= whitish stained with yellow, delicate, rupturing irregularly, portions of it clinging to margin of the pileus and portions forming a delicate ring. when parts of the plant come in contact with white paper a blue stain is apt to be imparted to the paper, resembling the reaction of iodine on starch. this peculiarity has been observed also in the case of another species of _agaricus_. the species is regarded with suspicion by some. i collected the plant also at blowing rock, n. c., in september, . the caps of these specimens measure cm. in diameter. =agaricus diminutivus= pk., is a closely related species. it is distinguished chiefly by its somewhat larger size, and purplish to reddish brown hairs on the surface of the pileus, and by the somewhat larger spores, which, however, are small. i have found it at ithaca, the surface of the pileus hairy, with beautiful, triangular, soft, appressed, purplish scales. hypholoma fr. in the genus _hypholoma_ the spores are purple brown, the gills attached to the stem, and the veil when ruptured clings to the margin of the cap instead of to the stem, so that a ring is not formed, or only rarely in some specimens. the stem is said to be continuous with the substance of the cap, that is, it is not easily separated from it. the genus is closely related to _agaricus (psalliota)_ and _stropharia_, from both of which it differs in the veil not forming a ring, but clinging to the margin of the cap. it further differs from _agaricus_ in the stem being continuous with the substance of the cap, while _stropharia_ seems to differ in this respect in different species. the plants grow both on the ground and on wood. there are several species which are edible and are very common. peck gives a synopsis of six species in the th report new york state mus., page , , and morgan describes species in jour. cinn. soc. nat. hist. = =: -- . =hypholoma sublateritium= schaeff. =edible=, _bitter sometimes_. the name of this species is derived from the color of the cap, which is nearly a brick red color, sometimes tawny. the margin is lighter in color. the plants grow usually in large clusters on old stumps or frequently appearing on the ground from buried portions of stumps or from roots. there are from six to ten, or twenty or more plants in a single cluster. a single plant is from -- cm. high, the cap is -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is convex to expanded, smooth, or sometimes with loose threads from the veil, especially when young, even, dry. the flesh is firm, whitish, and in age becoming somewhat yellowish. the =gills= are adnate, sometimes decurrent by a little tooth, rather crowded, narrow, whitish, then dull yellow, and becoming dark from the spores, purplish to olivaceous. the =stem= usually tapers downward, is firm, stuffed, smooth, or with remnants of the veil giving it a floccose scaly appearance, usually ascending because of the crowded growth. the =veil= is thin and only manifested in the young stage of the plant as a loose weft of threads. as the cap expands the veil is torn and adheres to the margin, but soon disappears. [illustration: plate , figure .--hypholoma sublateritium. cap brick-red or tawny. (natural size, often larger.) copyright.] [illustration: plate , figure .--hypholoma appendiculatum (natural size, often larger). white floccose scales on cap (var. coroniferum) and appendiculate veil; caps whitish or brown, tawny, or tinge of ochre. gills white, then purple-brown. copyright.] the flesh of this plant is said by european writers to be bitter to the taste, and it is regarded there as poisonous. this character seems to be the only distinguishing one between the _hypholoma sublateritium_ schaeff., of europe, and the _hypholoma perplexum_ pk., of this country which is edible, and probably is identical with _h. sublateritium_. if the plant in hand agrees with this description in other respects, and is not bitter, there should be no danger in its use. according to bresadola, the bitter taste is not pronounced in _h. sublateritium_. the taste probably varies as it does in other plants. for example, in _pholiota præcox_, an edible species, i detected a decided bitter taste in plants collected in june, . four other persons were requested to taste the plants. two of them pronounced them bitter, while two did not detect the bitter taste. there is a variety of _hypholoma sublateritium_, with delicate floccose scales in concentric rows near the margin of the cap, called _var. squamosum_ cooke. this is the plant illustrated in fig. , from specimens collected on rotting wood in the cascadilla woods, ithaca, n. y. it occurs from spring to autumn. _hypholoma epixanthum_ fr., is near the former species, but has a yellow pileus, and the light yellow gills become gray, not purple. =hypholoma appendiculatum= bull. =edible.=--this species is common during late spring and in the summer. it grows on old stumps and logs, and often on the ground, especially where there are dead roots. it is scattered or clustered, but large tufts are not formed as in _h. sublateritium_. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is ovate, convex to expanded, and often the margin elevated, and then the cap appears depressed. it is fleshy, thin, whitish or brown, tawny, or with a tinge of ochre, and becoming pale in age and when dry. as the plant becomes old the pileus often cracks in various ways, sometimes splitting radially into several lobes, and then in other cases cracking into irregular areas, showing the white flesh underneath. the surface of the pileus when young is sometimes sprinkled with whitish particles giving it a mealy appearance. the =gills= are attached to the stem, crowded, becoming more or less free by breaking away from the stem, especially in old plants. they are white, then flesh colored, brownish with a slight purple tinge. the =stem= is white, smooth, or with numerous small white particles at the apex, becoming hollow. the =veil= is very delicate, white, and only seen in quite young plants when they are fresh. it clings to the margin of the cap for a short period, and then soon disappears. [illustration: figure .--hypholoma appendiculatum (natural size), showing appendiculate veil. copyright.] sometimes the pileus is covered with numerous white, delicate floccose scales, which give it a beautiful appearance, as in fig. , from specimens (no. c. u. herbarium), collected on the campus of cornell university among grass. the entire plant is very brittle, and easily broken. it is tender and excellent for food. i often eat the caps raw. =hypholoma candolleanum= fr., occurs in woods on the ground, or on very rotten wood. it is not so fragile as _h. appendiculatum_ and the gills are dark violaceous, not flesh color as they are in _h. appendiculatum_ when they begin to turn, and nearly free from the stem. =hypholoma lacrymabundum= fr.--this plant was found during september and october in wet grassy places in a shallow ditch by the roadside, and in borders of woods, ithaca, n. y., . the plants are scattered or clustered, several often joined at the base of the stem. they are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. [illustration: figure .--hypholoma lacrymabundum (natural size). cap and stem tawny or light yellowish, with intermediate shades or shades of umber, surface with soft floccose scales. copyright.] the =pileus= is convex to expanded, sometimes broadly umbonate in age, and usually with radiating wrinkles extending irregularly. on the surface are silky or tomentose threads not much elevated from the surface, and as the plant ages these are drawn into triangular scales which are easily washed apart by the rains. the color is tawny or light yellowish with intermediate shades, darker on the umbo and becoming darker in age, sometimes umber colored, and stained with black, especially after rains where the spores are washed on the pileus. the flesh is tinged with light yellow, or tawny, or brown, soft, and easily broken. the =gills= are sinuate, adnate, somewhat ventricose, very rarely in abnormal specimens anastomosing near the margin of the pileus, at first light yellowish, then shading to umber and spotted with black and rusty brown as the spores mature, easily breaking away from the stipe, whitish on the edge. drops of moisture sometimes are formed on the gills. =basidia= abruptly clavate, -- × -- µ. =cystidia= hyaline, thin walled, projecting above the hymenium µ, and -- µ broad. spores black, purple tinged, broadly elliptical and somewhat curved, -- × -- µ. the =stem= is fleshy to fibrous, the same color as the pileus, floccose scaly more or less up to the veil, smooth or white pruinose above the veil, straight or curved, somewhat striate below. the =veil= in young plants is hairy, of the same texture as the surface of the pileus, torn and mostly clinging to the margin of the pileus, and disappearing with age. the general habit and different stages of development as well as some of the characters of the plant are shown in fig. (no. cornell university herbarium). the edible qualities of this plant have not been tested. =hypholoma rugocephalum= atkinson.--this interesting species grows in damp places in woods. the plants are tufted or occur singly. they are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is convex to expanded, and the margin at last revolute (upturned). the surface is marked by strong wrinkles (rugæ), which radiate irregularly from the center toward the margin. the pileus is broadly umbonate, fleshy at the center and thinner toward the margin, the flesh tinged with yellow, the surface slightly viscid, but not markedly so even when moist, smooth, not hairy or scaly, the thin margin extending little beyond ends of the gills. the color is tawny (near fulvus). the =gills= are adnate, slightly sinuate, -- mm. broad, in age easily breaking away from the stem and then rounded at this end, spotted with the black spores, lighter on the edge. the =spores= are black in mass (with a suggestion of a purple tinge), oval to broadly elliptical, inequilateral, pointed at each end, echinulate, or minutely tuberculate, -- × -- µ. the =basidia= are short, cylindrical; =cystidia= cylindrical, somewhat enlarged at the free end, hyaline, delicate, thin-walled, in groups of two to six or more (perhaps this is partly responsible for the black spotted condition of the gills). the =stem= is cylindrical, even, somewhat bulbous, of the same color as the pileus, but lighter above the annulus, irregular, smooth, fleshy, hollow, continuous with the substance of the pileus. the =annulus= is formed of a few threads, remnants of the veil, which are stained black by the spores. figure is from plants (no. c. u. herbarium) collected near ithaca, july , . [illustration: plate , figure .--hypholoma rugocephalum ( / natural size). cap tawny, gills purple black, spotted. copyright.] stropharia fr. the genus _stropharia_ has purple-brown spores, the gills are attached to the stem, and the veil forms a ring on the stem. [illustration: figure .--stropharia semiglobata (natural size). cap and stem light yellow, viscid, gills brownish purple. copyright.] =stropharia semiglobata= batsch.--this species is rather common and widely distributed, occurring in grassy places recently manured, or on dung. the plants are scattered or clustered, rarely two or three joined at the base. they are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stems -- mm. in thickness. the entire plant is light yellow, and viscid when moist, the gills becoming purplish brown, or nearly black. stevenson says it is regarded as poisonous. the =pileus= is rounded, then hemispherical (semi-globate), smooth, fleshy at the center, thinner toward the margin, even, very viscid or viscous when moist, light yellow. the =gills= are squarely set against the stem (adnate), broad, smooth, in age purplish brown to blackish, the color more or less clouded. the =spores= in mass, are brownish purple. the =stem= is slender, cylindrical, becoming hollow, straight, even or bulbous below, yellowish, but paler at the apex where there are often parallel striæ, marks from the gills in the young stage. the stem is often viscid and smeared with the glutinous substance which envelopes the plant when young, and from the more or less glutinous veil. the =ring= is glutinous when moist. figure is from plants (no. c. u. herbarium) collected on one of the streets of ithaca. =stropharia stercoraria= fr., is a closely related plant, about the same size, but the pileus, first hemispherical, then becoming expanded and sometimes striate on the margin, while the stem is stuffed. the gills are said to be of one color and the ring floccose, viscose, and evanescent in drying. it occurs on dung, or in grassy places recently manured. =stropharia æruginosa= curt., the greenish _stropharia_, is from -- cm. high, and the pileus -- cm. broad. the ground color is yellowish, but the plant is covered with a greenish slime which tends to disappear with age. it is found in woods and open places during late summer and in autumn. according to stevenson it is poisonous. footnotes: [b] for analytical key to the genera see chapter xxiv. chapter v. the black-spored agarics. the spores are black in mass, not purple tinged. for analytical keys to the genera see chapter xxiv. coprinus pers. the species of _coprinus_ are readily recognised from the black spores in addition to the fact that the gills, at maturity, dissolve into a black or inky fluid. the larger species especially form in this way an abundance of the black fluid, so that it drops from the pileus and blackens the grass, etc., underneath the plant. in some of the smaller species the gills do not wholly deliquesce, but the cap splits on top along the line of the longer gills, this split passing down through the gill, dividing it into two thin laminæ, which, however, remain united at the lower edge. this gives a fluted appearance to the margin of the pileus, which is very thin and membranaceous. [illustration: figure .--coprinus comatus, "shaggy-mane," in lawn.] the plants vary in size, from tiny ones to those which are several inches high and more than an inch broad. their habitat (that is, the place where they grow) is peculiar. a number of the species grow on dung or recently manured ground. from this peculiarity the genus received the name _coprinus_ from the greek word [greek: kopros], meaning dung. some of the species, however, grow on decaying logs, on the ground, on leaves, etc. =coprinus comatus= fr. =edible.=--one of the finest species in this genus is the shaggy-mane, or horse-tail mushroom, as it is popularly called. it occurs in lawns and other grassy places, especially in richly manured ground. the plants sometimes occur singly, or a few together, but often quite large numbers of them appear in a small area. they occur most abundantly during quite wet weather, or after heavy rains, in late spring or during the autumn, and also in the summer. from the rapid growth of many of the mushrooms we are apt to be taken by surprise to see them all up some day, when the day before there were none. the shaggy-mane often furnishes a surprise of this kind. in our lawns we are accustomed to a pretty bit of greensward with clumps of shrubbery, and here and there the overhanging branches of some shade tree. on some fine morning when we find a whole flock of these shaggy-manes, which have sprung up during the night, we can imagine that some such kind of a surprise must have come to browning when he wrote these words: "by the rose flesh mushroom undivulged last evening. nay, in to-day's first dew yon sudden coral nipple bulged, where a freaked, fawn colored, flaky crew of toadstools peep indulged." [illustration: figure .--coprinus comatus. "buttons," some in section showing gill slits and hollow stem; colors white and black. (natural size.)] the plant is called shaggy-mane because of the very shaggy appearance of the cap, due to the surface being torn up into long locks. the illustrations of the shaggy mane shown here represent the different stages of development, and the account here given is largely taken from the account written by me in bulletin of the cornell university agr. exp. station. [illustration: figure .--coprinus comatus (natural size).] in fig. are shown two buttons of the size when they are just ready to break through the soil. they appear mottled with dark and white, for the outer layer of fungus threads, which are dark brown, is torn and separated into patches or scales, showing between the delicate meshes of white threads which lie beneath. the upper part of the button is already forming the cap, and the slight constriction about midway shows the lower boundary or margin of the pileus where it is still connected with the undeveloped stem. at the right of each of these buttons in the figure is shown a section of a plant of the same age. here the parts of the plant, though still undeveloped, are quite well marked out. just underneath the pileus layer are the gills. in the section one gill is exposed to view on either side. in the section of the larger button the free edge of the gill is still closely applied to the stem, while in the small one the gills are separated a short distance from the stems showing "gill slits." here, too, the connection of the margin of the pileus with the stem is still shown, and forms the veil. this kind of a veil is a marginal veil. [illustration: figure .--coprinus comatus (natural size). this one entirely white, none of the scales black tipped.] the stem is hollow even at this young stage, and a slender cord of mycelium extends down the center of the tube thus formed, as is shown in the sections. the plants are nearly all white when full grown. the brown scales, so close together on the buttons, are widely separated except at the top or center of the pileus, where they remain close together and form a broad cap. a study of the different stages, which appear from the button stage to the mature plant, reveals the cause of this change in color and the wide separation of the dark brown scales. the threads of the outer layer of the pileus, and especially those in the brown patches seen on the buttons, soon cease to grow, though they are firmly entangled with the inner layers. now the threads underneath and all through the plant, in the gills and in the upper part of the stem, grow and elongate rapidly. this pulls on the outer layer, tearing it in the first place into small patches, and causing them later to be more widely separated on the mature plant. some of these scales remain quite large, while others are torn up into quite small tufts. [illustration: figure .--coprinus comatus, sections of the plants in fig. (natural size).] as the plant ages, the next inner layers of the pileus grow less rapidly, so that the white layer beneath the brown is torn up into an intricate tangle of locks and tufts, or is frazzled into a delicate pile which exists here and there between well formed tufts. while all present the same general characters there is considerable individual variation, as one can see by comparing a number of different plants. figure shows one of the interesting conditions. there is little of the brown color, and the outer portion of the pileus is torn into long locks, quite evenly distributed and curled up at the ends in an interesting fashion which merits well the term "shaggy." in others the threads are looped up quite regularly into triangular tresses which appear to be knotted at the ends where the tangle of brown threads holds them together. [illustration: figure .--coprinus comatus, early stages of deliquescence; the ring is lying on the sod (natural size).] there is one curious feature about the expansion of the pileus of the shaggy-mane which could not escape our attention. the pileus has become very long while comparatively little lateral expansion has taken place. the pileus has remained cylindrical or barrel-shaped, while in the case of the common mushroom the pileus expands into the form of an umbrella. [illustration: figure .--coprinus comatus, later stage of deliquescence, pileus becoming more expanded (natural size).] the cylindrical or barrel-shaped pileus is characteristic of the shaggy-mane mushroom. as the pileus elongates the stem does also, but more rapidly. this tears apart the connection of the margin of the pileus with the base of the stem, as is plainly shown in fig. . in breaking away, the connecting portion or veil is freed both from the stem and from the margin of the pileus, and is left as a free, or loose, ring around the stem. in the shaggy-mane the veil does not form a thin, expanded curtain. it is really an annular outer layer of the button lying between the margin of the cap and the base of the stem. it becomes free from the stem. as the stem elongates more rapidly than the cap, the latter is lifted up away from the base of the stem. sometimes the free ring is left as a collar around the base of the stem, still loosely adherent to the superficial layer of the same, or it remains for a time more or less adherent to the margin of the pileus as shown in the plant at the left hand in fig. . it is often lifted higher up on the stem before it becomes free from the cap, and is then left dangling somewhere on the stem, or it may break and fall down on the sod. in other instances it may remain quite firmly adherent to the margin of the pileus so that it breaks apart as the pileus in age expands somewhat. in such cases one often searches for some time to discover it clinging as a sterile margin of the cap. it is interesting to observe a section of the plants at this stage. these sections can be made by splitting the pileus and stem lengthwise through the middle line with a sharp knife, as shown in fig. . here, in the plant at the right hand, the "cord" of mycelium is plainly seen running through the hollow stem. the gills form a large portion of the plant, for they are very broad and lie closely packed side by side. they are nowhere attached to the stem, but at the upper end round off to the cap, leaving a well defined space between their ends and the stem. the cap, while it is rather thick at the center, i. e., where it joins the stem, becomes comparatively thin where it spreads out over the gills. at this age of the plant the gills are of a rich salmon color, i. e., before the spores are ripe, and the taste when raw is a pleasant nutty flavor, reminding one of the meat of fresh green hickory nuts. in a somewhat earlier stage the edges of all the gills are closely applied to the stem which they surround. so closely are they applied to the stem in most cases that threads of mycelium pass from the stem to the edge of the gills. as the cap expands slightly in ageing, these threads are torn asunder and the stem is covered with a very delicate down or with flocculent particles which easily disappear on handling or by the washing of the rains. the edges of the gills are also left in a frazzled condition, as one can see by examining them with a good hand lens. the spores now begin to ripen and as they become black the color of the gills changes. at the same time the gills and the cap begin to dissolve into an inky fluid, first becoming dark and then melting into a black liquid. as this accumulates it forms into drops which dangle from the cap until they fall away. this change takes place on the margin of the cap first, and advances toward the center, and the contrast of color, as the blackening invades the rich salmon, is very striking. the cap now begins to expand outward more, so that it becomes somewhat umbrella shaped. the extreme outer surface does not dissolve so freely, and the thin remnant curls upward and becomes enrolled on the upper side as the cap with wasted gills becomes nearly flat. =coprinus atramentarius= (bull.) fr. =edible.=--the ink-cap (_coprinus atramentarius_) occurs under much the same conditions as the shaggy-mane, and is sometimes found accompanying it. it is usually more common and more abundant. it springs up in old or newly made lawns which have been richly manured, or it occurs in other grassy places. sometimes the plants are scattered, sometimes two or three in a cluster, but usually large clusters are formed where ten to twenty or more are crowded closely together (fig. ). the stems are shorter than those of the shaggy-mane and the cap is different in shape and color. the cap is egg-shaped or oval. it varies in color from a silvery grey, in some forms, to a dark ashen grey, or smoky brown color in others. sometimes the cap is entirely smooth, as i have seen it in some of the silvery grey forms, where the delicate fibres coursing down in lines on the outer surface cast a beautiful silvery sheen in the light. other forms present numerous small scales on the top or center of the cap which are formed by the cleavage of the outer surface here into large numbers of pointed tufts. in others, the delicate tufts cover more or less the entire surface, giving the plant a coarsely granular aspect. this is perhaps the more common appearance, at least so far as my observation goes. but not infrequently one finds forms which have the entire outer surface of the cap torn into quite a large number of coarse scales, and these are often more prominent over the upper portion. fine lines or striations mark also the entire surface of all the forms, especially toward the margin, where the scales are not so prominent. the marginal half of the cap is also frequently furrowed more or less irregularly, and this forms a crenate or uneven edge. [illustration: plate , figure . coprinus comatus, drops of inky fluid about to fall from wasted pileus (natural size).] [illustration: plate , figure .--coprinus atramentarius, nearly smooth form, gray color (natural size).] [illustration: figure .--coprinus atramentarius, scaly form (natural size).] the annulus or ring on the stem of the ink-cap is very different from that of the shaggy-mane. it forms an irregularly zigzag elevated line of threads which extend around the stem near the base. it is well shown in fig. as a border line between the lower scaly end of the stem and the smooth white upper part. it is formed at the time of the separation of the margin of the cap from the stem, the connecting fibres being pulled outward and left to mark the line of junction, while others below give the scaly appearance. it is easily effaced by rough handling or by the washing of the rains. a section of a plant is illustrated by a photograph in fig. . on either side of the stem is shown the layer of fibres which form the annulus, and this layer is of a different texture from that of the stem. the stem is hollow as seen here also. in this figure one can see the change in color of the gills just at the time when they begin to deliquesce. this deliquescence proceeds much in the same way as in the shaggy-mane, and sometimes the thin remnant of the cap expands and the margin is enrolled over the top. [illustration: figure .--coprinus atramentarius, showing annulus as border line between scaly and smooth part of the stem (natural size).] =coprinus micaceus= (bull.) fr. =edible.=--the glistening coprinus received its name because of the very delicate scales which often cover the surface of the cap, and glisten in the light like particles of mica. this plant is very common during the spring and early summer, though it does appear during the autumn. it occurs about the bases of stumps or trees or in grassy or denuded places, from dead roots, etc., buried in the soil. it occurs in dense tufts of ten to thirty or more individuals; sometimes as many as several hundred spring up from the roots of a dead tree or stump along the streets or in lawns, forming large masses. more rarely it occurs on logs in the woods, and sometimes the plants are scattered in lawns. from the different habits of the plant it is sometimes difficult to determine, especially where the individuals are more or less scattered. however, the color, and the markings on the cap, especially the presence of the small shining scales when not effaced, characterize the plant so that little difficulty is experienced in determining it when one has once carefully noted these peculiarities. [illustration: figure .--coprinus atramentarius, section of one of the plants in fig. (natural size).] figure is from a group of three young individuals photographed just as the margin of the pileus is breaking away from the lower part of the stem, showing the delicate fibrous ring which is formed in the same way as in _coprinus atramentarius_. the ring is much more delicate and is rarely seen except in very young specimens which are carefully collected and which have not been washed by rains. the mature plants are -- cm. high ( -- inches), and the cap varies from -- cm. in diameter. the stem is quite slender and the cap and gills quite thin as compared with the shaggy-mane and ink-cap. the gills are not nearly so crowded as they are in the two other species. the cap is tan color, or light buff, or yellowish brown. except near the center it is marked with quite prominent striations which radiate to the margin. these striations are minute furrows or depressed lines, and form one of the characters of the species, being much more prominent than on the cap of the ink-cap. [illustration: figure .--coprinus micaceus, young stage showing annulus, on the cap the "mica" particles (natural size).] [illustration: figure .--coprinus micaceus, plants natural size, from floor of coal mine at wilkesbarre. caps tan color. copyright.] in wet weather this coprinus melts down into an inky fluid also, but in quite dry weather it remains more or less firm, and sometimes it does not deliquesce at all, but dries with all parts well preserved, though much shrunken of course, as is the case with all the very fleshy fungi. [illustration: plate , figure .--panæolus retirugis, group of plants from lawn along street, showing veil in young plants at the left, which breaks into v-shaped loops and clings to margin of the cap. cap dark smoky color at first, becoming grayish in age (natural size). copyright.] panaeolus fr. in _panæolus_, the pileus is somewhat fleshy, or thin, the margin even, that is, not striate. the margin extends beyond the gills, and the gills are not uniform in color, being clouded or spotted with black and brown colors, the edge of the gills often white in contrast. the spores are black. the stem is usually smooth, sometimes floccose scaly, often long, firm, generally hollow. the veil is of interwoven threads, sometimes quite compact, especially when the plants are young. peck, rd report n. y. state mus., p. et seq., gives a synopsis of five species. [illustration: figure .--panæolus retirugis, section of caps showing form and position of gills (natural size).] =panæolus retirugis= fr.--the color of this plant is not attractive, but it is one of the most beautiful species i have studied, if one regards form and the general features in its development. it is said to occur on dung. i have found it in lawns or grassy places, especially freshly made lawns or greenswards which have been heavily manured. the illustrations in figs. -- were made from photographs of plants which grew in a newly made boulevard along buffalo street, ithaca, n. y. (no. c. u. herbarium). the plants are from -- cm. high, the cap from -- cm. in diameter, and the stem is -- mm. in thickness. the size of the plants varies greatly according to the environment, being larger in moist soil and wet weather and smaller in dry soil and dry weather. it occurs in late spring and during the summer. [illustration: figure .--panæolus retirugis, showing rugose character of cap in left-hand plant (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is oval to ovate and conic, and in some cases it becomes more or less expanded, but never, so far as i have observed, does it become depressed or even plane. in wet weather it is usually at first dark smoky in color, viscid, becoming grayish in age, and as the pileus dries it becomes shining. in lighter colored forms the pileus is at first light leather color to cream color. toward the center of the pileus are irregular wrinkles or shallow pits, the wrinkles anastomosing more or less, and it is because of this character of the surface of the pileus that the plant receives its specific name. during dry weather there is a tendency for the pileus to crack, separating the dark color of the surface into patches showing the white flesh beneath. the pileus is often umbonate or gibbous, and the center is often darker than the margin. the pileus in rare cases is entirely white. the =gills= are adnate, broad in the middle, and in the more expanded forms as the gills separate more and more from the stem there is a tendency for them to become somewhat triangular. the =spores= are black in mass, are elliptical or short fusiform, and measure from -- × -- µ. the =stem= is cylindrical, sometimes tortuous, smoky gray, light reddish brown, or paler, sometimes entirely white, the lighter forms of the stem accompanying the light forms of the pileus; cartilaginous in texture, becoming hollow, always darker below and paler above, smooth, granulate with minute darker points, bulbous. the =veil= is very prominent and stout when the plant is young, and extends from the margin of the pileus to the stem when the plant is very young and the stem has not elongated. as the stipe elongates the veil separates from the stipe as a ring, and then, as the pileus expands, it is broken quite regularly into short segments which become arranged regularly around the margin of the pileus in the form of the letter v, which gives a beautiful appearance to this stage of the plant. it is only when the plants are fresh and moist that this condition of the veil can be seen, for on drying the veil collapses. water is sometimes caught under the veil before the pileus separates far from the stem, and the spores falling thus float against the stem at this point and make a dark ring around the stem, which, however, should not be mistaken for the annulus. in no case was the veil observed to cling to the stem, and many plants have been observed to see if this variation might present itself. [illustration: figure .--panæolus retirugis, showing cracked surface of cap in the left-hand plant, also in same plant the ring mark of black spores which lodged before veil ruptured, in other plants showing well the v-shaped loops of veil on margin of cap (natural size). copyright.] this peculiarity of the veil in clinging to the margin of the pileus has led hennings to place the plant in karsten's genus (engler and prantl, pflanzenfamilien) _chalymotta_, as _chalymotta retirugis_. the plants have several times been eaten raw by me, and while they have a nutty flavor and odor, the taste is not entirely agreeable in this condition, because of the accompanying slimy sensation. a number of smaller species, among them =p. fimicola= fr., and =p. papilionaceus= fr., occur in similar places. =panæolus solidipes= pk., is a large species with a long, solid stem, growing on dung. =psilocybe foenisecii=, abundant in lawns and grassy places during late spring and summer, resembles a panæolus. the cap shows zones of light and dark color, due to different amounts of water, which disappear as the plant matures. it belongs to the purple-brown-spored agarics. psathyrella fr. the pileus is thin, membranaceous, striate, the margin not extending beyond the edge of the gills, and when young the margin of the pileus lies straight against the stem. the gills are black to fuliginous, of a uniform color, i. e., not spotted as in _panæolus_ and _anellaria_. the spores are black. the plants are all fragile. only one species is mentioned here. in appearance the species are like _psathyra_ of the purple-brown-spored agarics, but much thinner. peck describes three species in the d report n. y. state mus., p. et seq. only one species is described here. [illustration: figure .--psathyrella disseminata (natural size), caps whitish, grayish, or grayish-brown. copyright.] =psathyrella disseminata= pers.--this is a very common and widely distributed species, appearing from late spring until late autumn. it sometimes appears in greenhouses throughout the year. the plants are -- cm. high, and the caps -- mm. broad. the plants are crowded in large tufts, often growing on decaying wood, but also on the ground, especially about much decayed stumps, but also in lawns and similar places, where buried roots, etc., are decaying. they resemble small specimens of a _coprinus_. the =pileus= is whitish or gray, or grayish brown, very thin, oval, then bell-shaped, minutely scaly, becoming smooth, prominently silicate or plicate, plaited. the =gills= are adnate, broad, white, gray, then black. the =spores= are black, oblong, × µ. the =stem= is very slender, becoming hollow, often curved. the entire plant is very fragile, and in age becomes so soft as to suggest a _coprinus_ in addition to the general appearance. figure is from plants collected on decaying logs at ithaca. gomphidius fr. the genus _gomphidius_ has a slimy or glutinous universal veil enveloping the entire plant when young, and for a time is stretched over the gills as the pileus is expanding. the gills are somewhat mucilaginous in consistency, are distant and decurrent on the stem. the gills are easily removed from the under surface of the pileus in some species by peeling off in strips, showing the imprint of the gills beneath the projecting portions of the pileus, which extended part way between the laminæ of the gills. the spores in some species are blackish, and for this reason the genus has been placed by many with the black-spored agarics, while its true relationship is probably with the genus _hygrophorus_ or _paxillus_. =gomphidius nigricans= pk.--the description given by peck for this plant in the th report, p. , , reads as follows: "pileus convex, or nearly plane, pale, brownish red, covered with a tough gluten, which becomes black in drying, flesh firm, whitish; lamellæ distant, decurrent, some of them forked, white, becoming smoky brown, black in the dried plant; stem subequal, longer than the diameter of the pileus, glutinous, solid, at first whitish, especially at the top, soon blackish by the drying of the gluten, whitish within, slightly tinged with red toward the base; spores oblong fusoid, -- µ long, -- µ broad. pileus -- inches broad; stem . -- . inches long, -- lines thick." "this species is easily known by the blackening gluten which smears both pileus and stem, and even forms a veil by which the lamellæ in the young plant are concealed. in the dried state the whole plant is black." "under pine trees, westport, september." [illustration: figure .--gomphidius nigricans. side and under view showing forked gills, and reticulate collapsed patches of dark slime on stem. cap flesh color, gills dark gray; entire plant black when dried (natural size). copyright.] what appears to be the same plant was collected by me at blowing rock, n. c., under a pine tree, in september, (no. c. u. herbarium). the notes taken on the fresh plant are as follows: very viscid, with a thick, tough viscid cuticle, cortina or veil viscid, and collapsing on the stem, forming coarse, walnut-brown or dark vinaceous reticulations, terminating abruptly near the gills, or reaching them. the =stem= is white underneath the slimy veil covering, tough, fibrous, continuous, and not separable from the hymenophore, tapering below. the =pileus= is convex, the very thin margin somewhat incurved, disk expanded, uneven, near the center cracked into numerous small viscid brownish areoles; pileus flesh color, flesh same color except toward the gills. gills dark drab gray, arcuate, distant, decurrent, many of them forked, separating easily from the hymenophore, peeling off in broad sheets, and leaving behind corresponding elevations of the hymenophore which extended between the laminæ of the lamellæ. pileus cm. in diameter; stem -- cm. long by cm. diameter. in drying, the entire plant as well as the gluten becomes black, on the pileus a shining black. the =spores= are rusty to dark brown, or nearly black, fusoid or oblong, and measure -- × -- µ. [illustration: figure .--gomphidius nigricans. under view with portion of gills stripped off from hymenophore, showing forked character of gills (natural size). copyright.] in fig. a side and under view of the plant are given, and in fig. a view after a portion of the lamellæ have been peeled off, showing how nicely the separation takes place, as well as showing the forked character of the lamellæ and the processes of the pileus, which extend between the laminæ of the lamellæ. this plant seems to be very near _gomphidius glutinosus_ (schaeff.), fr., if not identical with it, though the illustrations cited in schaeffer and in krombholz seem to indicate a stouter plant. the descriptions say nothing as to the appearance of the dried plant. chapter vi. the white-spored agarics. the spores are white in mass, or sometimes with a faint yellowish or lilac tinge. for analytical keys to the genera see chapter xxiv. amanita pers. the genus _amanita_ has both a volva and a veil; the spores are white, and the stem is easily separable from the cap. in the young stage the volva forms a universal veil, that is, a layer of fungus tissue which entirely envelops the young plant. in the button stage, where this envelope runs over the cap, it is more or less free from it, that is, it is not "concrete" with the surface of the pileus. as the pileus expands and the stem elongates, the volva is ruptured in different ways according to the species. in some the volva splits at the apex and is left as a "cup" at the base of the stem. in others it splits circularly, that is, transversely across the middle, the lower half forming a shallow cup with a very narrow rim, or in other cases it is closely fitted against the stem, while the upper half remains on the cap and is broken up into patches or warts. in still other cases the volva breaks irregularly, and only remnants of it may be found on either the base of the stem or on the pileus. for the various conditions one must consult the descriptions of the species. the genus is closely related to _lepiota_, from which it is separated by the volva being separate from the pileus. this genus contains some of the most deadly poisonous mushrooms, and also some of the species are edible. morgan, jour. mycol. = =: -- , describes species. peck, d report n. y. state mus., pp. -- , describes species. lloyd, a compilation of the volvæ of the u. s., cincinnati, , gives a brief synopsis of our species. =amanita muscaria= linn. =poisonous.=--this plant in some places is popularly known as the fly agaric, since infusions of it are used as a fly poison. it occurs during the summer and early autumn. it grows along roadsides near trees, or in groves, and in woods, according to some preferring a rather poor gravelly soil. it attains its typical form usually under these conditions in groves or rather open woods where the soil is poor. it is a handsome and striking plant because of the usually brilliant coloring of the cap in contrast with the white stems and gills, and the usually white scales on the surface. it usually ranges from -- cm. high, and the cap from -- cm. broad, while the stem is -- . cm. in thickness, or the plant may be considerably larger. [illustration: plate , figure .--amanita muscaria, "buttons," showing different stages of rupture of the volva or universal veil, and formation of inner veil (natural size). copyright.] [illustration: plate , figure .--amanita muscaria. further stages in opening of plant, formation of veil and ring. cap yellowish, or orange. scales on cap and at base of stem white; stem and gills white (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= passes from convex to expanded and nearly flat in age, the margin when mature is marked by depressed lines forming parallel striations, and on the surface are numbers of scattered floccose or rather compact scales, formed from the fragments of the upper part of the volva or outer veil. these scales are usually white in color and are quite easily removed, so that old plants are sometimes quite free from them. the scales are sometimes yellowish in color. the color of the pileus varies from yellow to orange, or even red, the yellow color being more common. late in the season the color is paler, and in old plants also the color fades out, so that white forms are sometimes found. the flesh is white, sometimes yellowish underneath the cuticle. the =gills= in typical forms are white, in some forms accredited to this species they are yellowish. the =stem= is cylindrical, hollow, or stuffed when young, and enlarged below into a prominent bulb. it is white, covered with loose floccose scales, or more or less lacerate or torn, and the lower part of the stem and upper part of the bulb are marked usually by prominent concentric scales forming interrupted rings. these are formed by the splitting of the outer veil or volva, and form the remnants of the volva present on the base of the stem. the main features in the development of the plant are shown in figs. -- , where a series from the button stage to the mature plant is represented. in the youngest specimens the outline of the bulb and the young convex or nearly globose cap are only seen, and these are covered with the more or less floccose outer veil or volva. the fungus threads composing this layer cease to grow, and with the expansion of the cap and the elongation of the stem, the volva is torn into patches. the upper and lower surface of the inner veil is attached to the edge of the gills and to the outer surface of the stem by loose threads, which are torn asunder as the pileus expands. floccose scales are thus left on the surface of the stem below the annulus, as in the left hand plant of fig. . the veil remains attached longer to the gills and is first separated from the stem. again, as in the right hand plant, it may first be separated from the gills when it is later ripped up from the stem. the fly agaric is one of the well known poisonous species and is very widely distributed in this country, as well as in other parts of the world. in well developed forms there should be no difficulty in distinguishing it from the common mushroom by even a novice. nor should there be difficulty in distinguishing it from the royal agaric, or cæsar's agaric (_amanita cæsarea_), by one who has become reasonably familiar with the characters and appearance of the two. but small and depauperate specimens of the two species run so nearly together in form, color, and surface characters, that it becomes a matter of some difficulty for even an expert to distinguish them. [illustration: figure .--amanita muscaria. view of upper side of cap (natural size). colors as in fig. . copyright.] figures -- are from plants (no. c. u. herbarium) collected in an open woods near ithaca. for the poisonous property of the plant see chapter xx. =amanita frostiana= pk. =poisonous.=--according to dr. peck, who published the first description of this plant, it grows in company with _amanita muscaria_, but seems to prefer more dense woods, especially mixed or hemlock woods, and occurs from june to october. the plant is -- cm. high, the caps -- cm. broad, and the stems -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is "convex to expanded, bright orange or yellow, warty, sometimes nearly or quite smooth, striate on the margin; =lamellæ= white or tinged with yellow; =stem= white or yellowish, stuffed, bearing a slight, sometimes evanescent annulus, bulbous at the base, the bulb _slightly margined_ by the volva; spores globose," . -- µ in diameter. he notes that it appears like a small form of _a. muscaria_, to which it was first referred as _var. minor_,--"the only characters for distinguishing it are its small size and its globose spores." it is near _a. muscaria var. puella_ pers. i have several times found this plant in the adirondack mountains, n. y., and ithaca, and also at blowing rock, n. c. the volva is often yellowish, so that the warts on the pileus are also yellow, and sometimes the only remnants of the volva on the base of the stem are yellow or orange particles. the annulus is also frequently yellow. in our plants, which seem to be typical, the spores are nearly globose, varying to oval, and with the minute point where the spore was attached to the sterigma at the smaller end, the spores usually being finely granular, -- µ in diameter, and rarely varying towards short elliptical, showing a tendency to approach the shape of the spores of _a. muscaria_. the species as i have seen it is a very variable one, large forms being difficult to separate from _a. muscaria_, on the one hand, and others difficult to separate from the depauperate forms of _a. cæsarea_. in the latter, however, the striæ are coarser, though the yellow color may be present only on portions of the pileus. the spores of _a. cæsarea_ are from globose to oval, ovate or short elliptical, the globose ones often agreeing in size with the spores of _a. frostiana_, but they usually contain a prominent oil drop or "nucleus," often nearly filling the spore. in some specimens of _a. frostiana_ the spores are quite variable, being nearly globose, ovate to elliptical, approaching the spores of _a. muscaria_. these intermediate forms should not in themselves lead one to regard all these three species as representing variations in a single variable species. with observations in the field i should think it possible to separate them. =amanita phalloides= fr. =deadly poisonous.=--the _amanita phalloides_ and its various forms, or closely related species, are the most dangerous of the poisonous mushrooms. for this reason the _a. phalloides_ is known as the _deadly agaric_, or _deadly amanita_. the plant is very variable in color, the forms being pure white, or yellowish, green, or olive to umber. variations also occur in the way in which the volva ruptures, as well as in the surface characters of the stem, and thus it is often a difficult matter to determine whether all these forms represent a single variable species or whether there are several species, and if so, what are the limits of these species. whether these are recognized as different forms of one species or as different species, they are all very poisonous. the plant usually occurs in woods or along the borders of woods. it does, however, sometimes occur in lawns. it varies from -- cm. high, the cap from -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. [illustration: figure .--amanita phalloides, white form, showing cap, stem, ring, and cup-like volva with a free, prominent limb (natural size).] the =pileus= is fleshy, viscid or slimy when moist, smooth, that is, not striate, orbicular to bell-shaped, convex and finally expanded, and in old specimens more or less depressed by the elevation of the margin. the cap is often free from any remnants of the volva, while in other cases portions of the volva or outer veil appear on the surface of the cap in rather broad patches, or it may be broken up into a number of smaller ones quite evenly distributed over the surface of the cap. the presence or absence of these scales on the cap depends entirely on the way in which the volva ruptures. when there is a clean rupture at the apex the pileus is free from scales, but if portions of the apex of the volva are torn away they are apt to remain on the cap. [illustration: plate , figure .--amanita phalloides, brownish, umber, or olive-brown form (natural size). caps brownish or whitish, and streaked with brown, scales white, gills and stem white, stem slowly turning dull brown where bruised. copyright.] the white form is common in this country, and so is the olive or umber form. the yellow form is rarer. sometimes there is only a tinge of yellow at the center of the white pileus, while in other cases a large part of the pileus may be yellow, a deeper shade usually on the center. the green form is probably more common in europe than in this country. the olive form varies considerably also in the depth of the color, usually darker on the center and fading out to light olive or gray, or whitish, on the margin. in other cases the entire pileus may be dark olive or umber color. the =gills= in all the forms are white, and free from the stem or only joined by a narrow line. the stem is stuffed when young, but in age is nearly or quite hollow. it is cylindrical, -- cm. long × -- mm. in thickness. in the larger specimens the bulb is quite prominent and abrupt, while in the smaller specimens it is not always proportionally so large. the =stem= is usually smooth and the color is white, except in the dark forms, when it is dingy or partakes more or less of the color of the pileus, though much lighter in shade. there is a tendency in these forms to a discoloration of the stem where handled or bruised, and this should caution one in comparing such forms with the edible _a. rubescens_. [illustration: figure .--amanita phalloides, volva circumscissile, cap scaly, limb of volva not prominent, cap dark, scales white (natural size). copyright.] perhaps no part of the plant is more variable than the outer veil or volva. where the volva is quite thick and stout it usually splits at the apex, and there is a prominent free limb, as shown in fig. . sometimes thin portions of the volva are caught, and remain on the surface of the pileus. but when the volva is thinner and of a looser texture, it splits transversely about the middle, circumscissile, and all or a large part of the upper half of the volva then clings to the cap, and is separated into patches. between this and the former condition there seem to be all gradations. some of these are shown in fig. , which is from a photograph of dark olive and umber forms, from plants collected in the blue ridge mountains, at blowing rock, n. c., during september, . in the very young plant the volva split transversely (in a circumscissile fashion) quite clearly, and the free limb is quite short and distant from the stem on the margin of the saucer-like bulb. in the large and fully expanded plant at the center, the volva ruptured irregularly at the apex, and portions of the thin upper half remain as patches on the cap while the larger part remains as the free limb, attached at the margin of the broad saucer-shaped bulb, and collapsed up against the base of the stem. [illustration: figure .--amanita phalloides, volva circumscissile, concave bulb margined by definite short limb of volva; upper part of volva has disappeared from cap; cap whitish, tinged with brown.] figure and the small plant in fig. , both from photographs of the sooty form of _amanita phalloides_, show in a striking manner the typical condition of the circumscissile volva margining the broad saucer-like bulb as described for _amanita mappa_. the color of _a. mappa_ is usually said to be straw color, but fries even says that the color is as in _a. phalloides_, "now white, now green, now yellow, now dark brown" (epicrisis, page ). according to this, fig. would represent _a. mappa_. the variable condition in this one species _a. phalloides_, now splitting at the apex, now tearing up irregularly, now splitting in a definitely circumscissile manner, seems to bid defiance to any attempt to separate the species of _amanita_ into groups based on the manner in which the volva ruptures. while it seems to be quite fixed and characteristic in certain species, it is so extremely variable in others as to lead to the suspicion that it is responsible in some cases for the multiplication and confusion of species. at the same time, the occurrence of some of these forms at certain seasons of the year suggests the desirability of prolonged and careful study of fresh material, and the search for additional evidence of the unity of these forms, or of their definite segregation. [illustration: figure .--amanita verna, white (natural size). copyright.] since the _amanita phalloides_ occurs usually in woods, or along borders of woods, there is little danger of confounding it with edible mushrooms collected in lawns distant from the woods, and in open fields. however, it does occur in lawns bordering on woods, and in the summer of i found several of the white forms of this species in a lawn distant from the woods. this should cause beginners and those not thoroughly familiar with the appearance of the plant to be extremely cautious against eating mushrooms simply because they were not collected in or near the woods. furthermore, sometimes the white form of the deadly amanita possesses a faint tinge of pink in the gills, which might lead the novice to mistake it for the common mushroom. the bulb of the deadly amanita is usually inserted quite deep in the soil or leaf mold, and specimens are often picked leaving the very important character of the volva in the ground, and then the plant might easily be taken for the common mushroom, or more likely for the smooth lepiota, _lepiota naucina_, which is entirely white, the gills only in age showing a faint pink tinge. it is very important, therefore, that, until one has such familiarity with these plants that they are easily recognized in the absence of some of these characters, the stem should be carefully dug from the soil. in the case of the specimens of the deadly amanita growing in the lawn on the campus of cornell university, the stems were sunk to three to four inches in the quite hard ground. =amanita verna= bull. =deadly poisonous.=--the _amanita verna_ is by some considered as only a white form of the _amanita phalloides_. it is of a pure white color, and this in addition to its very poisonous property has led to its designation as the "destroying angel." [illustration: figure .--amanita verna, "buttons," cap bursting through the volva; left hand plant in section (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is smooth and viscid when moist; the gills free; the =stem= stuffed or hollow in age; the =annulus= forms a broad collar, and the =volva= is split at the apex, and being quite stout, the free limb is prominent, and it hugs more or less closely to the base of the stem. figure represents the form of the plant which gillet recognizes as _a. verna_; the pileus convex, the annulus broad and entire, and the stem scaly. these floccose scales are formed as a result of the separation of the annulus from the outer layer of the stem. the characters presented in the formation of the veil and annulus in this species are very interesting, and sometimes present two of the types in the formation of the veil and annulus found in the genus _amanita_. in the very young plant, in the button stage, as the young gills lie with their edges close against the side of the stem, loose threads extend from the edges of the gills to the outer layer of the stem. this outer layer of the stem forms the veil, and is more or less loosely connected with the firmer portion of the stem by loose threads. as the pileus expands, the threads connecting the edges of the gills with the veil are stronger than those which unite the veil with the surface of the stem. the veil is separated from the stem then, simultaneously, or nearly so, throughout its entire extent, and is not ripped up from below as in _amanita velatipes_. as the pileus expands, then, the veil lies closely over the edges of the gills until finally it is freed from them and from the margin of the pileus. as the veil is split off from the surface of the stem, the latter is torn into numerous floccose scales, as shown in fig. . in other cases, in addition to the primary veil which is separated from the stem in the manner described above, there is a secondary veil formed in exactly the same way as that described for _amanita velatipes_. [illustration: figure .--amanita verna, small form, white (natural size). copyright.] in such cases there are two veils, or a double veil, each attached to the margin of the pileus, the upper one ascending over the edges of the gills and attached above on the stem, while the lower one descends and is attached below as it is being ripped up from a second layer of the stem. figures -- are from plants collected at blowing rock, n. c., in september, . =amanita virosa= fr. =deadly poisonous.=--this plant also by some is regarded as only a form of _amanita phalloides_. it is a pure white plant and the pileus is viscid as in the _a. verna_ and _a. phalloides_. the volva splits at the apex as in _a. verna_, but the veil is very fragile and torn into shreds as the pileus expands, portions of it clinging to the margin of the cap as well as to the stem, as shown in fig. . the stem is also adorned with soft floccose scales. gillet further states that the pileus is conic to campanulate, not becoming convex as in _a. verna_ and _a. phalloides_. the variability presented in the character of the veil and in the shape of the pileus suggests, as some believe, that all these are but forms of a single variable species. on the other hand, we need a more careful and extended field study of these variations. doubtless different interpretations of the specific limits by different students will lead some to recognize several species where others would recognize but one. since species are not distinct creations there may be tolerably good grounds for both of these views. [illustration: figure .--amanita virosa, white (natural size). copyright.] =amanita floccocephala= atkinson. =probably poisonous.=--this species occurs in woods and groves at ithaca during the autumn. the plants are medium sized, -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stems -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is hemispherical to convex, and expanded, smooth, whitish, with a tinge of straw color, and covered with torn, thin floccose patches of the upper half of the circumscissile volva. the =gills= are white and adnexed. the =spores= are globose, -- µ. the =stem= is cylindrical or slightly tapering above, hollow or stuffed, floccose scaly and abruptly bulbous below. the =annulus= is superior, that is, near the upper end of the stem, membranaceous, thin, sometimes tearing, as in _a. virosa_. the =volva= is circumscissile, the margin of the bulb not being clear cut and prominent, because there is much refuse matter and soil interwoven with the lower portion of the volva. the bulb closely resembles those in cooke's figure (illustrations, ) of _a. mappa_. figure shows these characters well. [illustration: figure .--amanita floccocephala (natural size). copyright.] =amanita velatipes= atkinson. =properties unknown.=--this plant is very interesting since it shows in a striking manner the peculiar way in which the veil is formed in some of the species of _amanita_. though not possessing brilliant colors, it is handsome in its form and in the peculiar setting of the volva fragments on the rich brown or faint yellow of the pileus. it has been found on several occasions during the month of july in a beech woods on one of the old flood plains of six-mile creek, one of the gorges in the vicinity of ithaca, n. y. the mature plant is from -- cm. high, the cap from -- cm. broad, and the stem -- . cm. in thickness. the =pileus= is viscid when moist, rounded, then broadly oval and convex to expanded, striate on the margin, sometimes in old plants the margin is elevated. it is smooth throughout, and of a soft, rich hair brown, or umber brown color, darker in the center. sometimes there is a decided but dull maize yellow tinge over the larger part of the pileus, but even then the center is often brown in color, shading into the yellow color toward the margin; the light yellow forms in age, often thinning out to a cream color. the flesh of the pileus is rather thin, even in the center, and becomes very thin toward the margin, as shown in fig. . the scales on the pileus are more or less flattened, rather thin, clearly separated from the pileus, and easily removed. they are more or less angular, and while elongated transversely at first, become nearly isodiametric as the pileus becomes fully expanded, passing from an elongated form to rectangular, or sinuous in outline, the margin more or less upturned, especially in age, when they begin to loosen and "peel" from the surface of the cap. they are lighter in color than the pileus and i have never observed the yellow tint in them. the =gills= are white, broad at the middle, about cm., and taper gradually toward each end. the =spores= are usually inequilaterally oval, -- × -- µ, granular when young, when mature with a large oil drop. [illustration: plate , figure .--amanita velatipes ( / natural size). cap hair-brown, or umber-brown, sometimes with tinge of lemon yellow, or entirely maize-yellow. scales, gills, and stem white. copyright.] [illustration: figure .--amanita velatipes. different stages of "buttons," in the right-hand plant the upper part of the volva separating to form the scales (natural size). copyright.] the =stem= is cylindrical, somewhat bulbous, the bulb often tapering abruptly, as shown in figs. , . the stem is white, smooth, or floccose scaly where the veil has been ripped off from it. it is hollow and stuffed with loose cottony threads, as shown in fig. . the =veil= is formed by the ripping up of the outer layer of the stem as the latter elongates and as the pileus expands. when it is freed from the margin of the cap it collapses and hangs downward as a broad collar (fig. ). the =annulus= is inferior, its position on the stem being due to the peculiar way in which it is formed. [illustration: figure .--amanita velatipes. three plants natural size, the left-hand one sectioned, showing stuffed center of stem. others show how veil is ripped up from the stem. for other details see text. copyright.] some of the stages of development are illustrated in figs. -- . the buttons are queer looking objects, the bulb being the most prominent part. it tapers abruptly below, and on the upper side is the small rounded young cap seated in the center. the volva is present as a rough floccose layer, covering the upper part of the bulb and the young cap. as the stem elongates and the pileus enlarges and expands, the volva is torn into areolate patches. the lower patches, those adjoining the margin of the cap and the upper part of the bulb, are separated in a more or less concentric manner. one or more of them lie on the upper part of the bulb, forming the "limb" of the "ocreate" volva. others lie around the margin of the pileus. sometimes an annular one bordering the pileus and bulb is left clinging part way up on the stem, as shown in fig. . the concentric arrangement on the pileus is sometimes shown for a considerable time, as in fig. , the elongated areas being present in greater number at this age of the pileus. however, as the pileus expands more, these are separated into smaller areas and their connection with the surface of the pileus becomes less firm. the formation of the veil and annulus can be easily followed in these figures. the margin of the cap in the button stage is firmly connected with the outer layer of the stem at its lower end. this probably occurs by the intermingling growth of the threads from the lower end of the stem and the margin of the cap, while the edges of the gills are quite free from the stem. now as the stem elongates and the cap expands the veil is "ripped" up from the outer part of the stem. this is very clearly shown in fig. , especially where two strips on the stem have become disconnected from the margin of the cap and are therefore left in position on the outside of the stem. this species is related to _a. excelsa_ fr., which is said to have a superior ring. [illustration: plate , figure .--amanita velatipes. the right-hand plant shows how the veil is ripped up from the stem and also shows the transversely elongate scales on the cap. for details see text (natural size). copyright.] =amanita cothurnata= atkinson. =probably poisonous.=--the booted amanita, _amanita cothurnata_, i have found in two different years in the blue ridge mountains at blowing rock, n. c., once in , during the first week of september, and again during the three first weeks in september, . it occurs sparingly during the first week or so of september, and during the middle of the month is very abundant. the species seems to be clearly distinct from other species of _amanita_, and there are certain characters so persistent as to make it easily recognizable. it ranges in height from -- cm. and the caps are -- cm. or more broad, while the stems are -- mm. in thickness. the entire plant is usually white, but in some specimens the cap has a tinge of citron yellow, or in others tawny olive, in the center. [illustration: plate , figure .--amanita cothurnata. different stages of development; for details see text. entire plant white, sometimes tinge of umber at center of cap, and rarely slight tinge of lemon-yellow at center (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is fleshy, and passes, in its development, from nearly globose to hemispherical, convex, expanded, and when specimens are very old sometimes the margin is elevated. it is usually white, though specimens are found with a tinge of citron yellow in the center, or of tawny olive in the center of other specimens. the pileus is viscid, strongly so when moist. it is finely striate on the margin, and covered with numerous, white, floccose scales from the upper half of the volva, forming more or less dense patches, which may wash off in heavy rains. the =gills= are rounded next the stem, and quite remote from it. the edge of the gills is often eroded or frazzly from the torn out threads with which they were loosely connected to the upper side of the veil in the young or button stage. the =spores= are globose or nearly so, with a large "nucleus" nearly filling the spore. [illustration: figure .--amanita cothurnata. different stages opening up of plant, the two center ones showing veil being ripped from stem, but veil narrow. the right-hand illustration has been scratched transversely, these marks not being characteristic of the plant (natural size). copyright.] the =stem= is cylindrical, even, and expanded below into quite a large oval bulb, the stem just above the bulb being margined by a close fitting roll of the volva, and the upper edge of this presenting the appearance of having been sewed at the top like the rolled edge of a garment or buskin. the surface of the stem is minutely floccose scaly or strongly so, and decidedly hollow even from a very young stage, or sometimes when young with loose threads in the cavity. figures -- , from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., during september, , illustrate certain of the features in the form and development of this plant. [illustration: figure .--amanita cothurnata. two plants in section showing clearly hollow stem, veil attachment, etc. (natural size). copyright.] in _amanita frostiana_ the remains of the volva sometimes form a similar collar, but not so stout, on the base of the stem. the variations in _a. frostiana_ where the stem, annulus and gills are white might suggest that there is a close relationship between _a. frostiana_ and _a. cothurnata_, and that the latter is only a form of the former. from a careful study of the two plants growing side by side the evidence is convincing that the two are distinct. _amanita frostiana_ occurs also at blowing rock, appearing earlier in the season than _a. cothurnata_, and also being contemporary with it. _a. frostiana_ is more variable, not nearly so viscid, nor nearly so abundant, the stem is solid or stuffed, the annulus is more frail and evolved from the stem in a different manner. the volva does not leave such a constant and well defined roll where it separated on the stem transversely, and the pileus is yellow or orange. when _a. cothurnata_ is yellowish at all it is a different tint of yellow and then only a tinge of yellow at the center. albino or faded forms of _a. frostiana_ might occur, but we would not expect them to appear at a definite season of the year in great abundance while the normal form, showing no intergrading specimens in the same locality, continued to appear in the same abundance and with the same characters as before. the dried plants of _a. cothurnata_ are apt to become tinged with yellow on the gills, the upper part of the stem and upper part of the annulus during the processes of drying, but the pileus does not change in like manner, nor do these plants show traces of yellow on these parts when fresh. the spores are also decidedly different, though the shape and size do not differ to any great extent. in _a. frostiana_ and the pale forms of the species the spores are nearly globose or oval, rarely with a tendency to become elliptical, but _the content is quite constantly finely granular_, while the spores of _a. cothurnata_ are perhaps more constantly globose or nearly so, but the spore is _nearly filled with a highly refractive oil globule or "nucleus."_ the pileus of _a. frostiana_ is also thinner than that of _a. cothurnata_. it is nearer, in some respects, to specimens of _amanita pantherina_ received from bresadola, of austria-hungary. [illustration: figure .--amanita spreta. the two outside plants show the free limb of the volva lying close against the stem (natural size, often larger). copyright.] =amanita spreta= pk. =said to be poisonous.=--according to peck this species grows in open or bushy places. the specimens illustrated in fig. grew in sandy ground by the roadside near trees in the edge of an open field at blowing rock, n. c., and others were found in a grove. the plants are -- cm. high, the caps -- cm. broad, and the stems -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is convex to expanded, gray or light drab, and darker on the center, or according to dr. peck it may be white. it is smooth, or with only a few remnants of the volva, striate on the margin, and --. cm. thick at the center. the =gills= are white, adnexed, that is they reach the stem by their upper angle. the =stem= is of the same color as the pileus, but somewhat lighter, white to light gray or light drab, cylindrical, not bulbous, hollow or stuffed. the =annulus= is thin and attached above the middle of the stem. the =volva= is sordid white, and sheathes the stem with a long free limb of -- lobes. it splits at the apex, but portions sometimes cling to the surface of the pileus. figure is from plants (no. , c. u.) collected at blowing rock, n. c., september, . =amanita cæsarea= scop. =edible=, _but use great caution_.--this plant is known as the orange amanita, royal agaric, cæsar's agaric, etc. it is one of the most beautiful of all the agarics, and is well distributed over the earth. with us it is more common in the southern states. it occurs in the summer and early autumn in the woods. it is easily recognized by its usually large size, yellow or orange color of the cap, gills, stem and ring, and the prominent, white, sac-like volva at the base of the stem. it is usually -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stems -- mm. in thickness, though it may exceed this size, and depauperate forms are met with which are much smaller. the =pileus= is ovate to bell-shaped, convex, and finally more or less expanded, when the surface may be nearly flat or the center may be somewhat elevated or umbonate and the margin curved downward. the surface is smooth except at the margin, where it is prominently striate. the color varies from orange to reddish or yellow, usually the well developed and larger specimens have the deeper and richer colors, while the smaller specimens have the lighter colors, and the color is usually deeper on the center of the pileus. the =gills= are yellow, and free from the stem. the =stem= is hollow, even in young plants, when it may be stuffed with loose threads. it is often very floccose scaly below the annulus. it is cylindrical, only slightly enlarged below, where it is covered by the large, fleshy, sac-like white volva. the =annulus= is membranaceous, large, and hangs like a broad collar from the upper part of the stem. the stem and ring are orange or yellow, the depth of the color varying more with the size of the plant than is the case with the color of the cap. in small specimens the stem is often white, especially in depauperate specimens are the stem and annulus white, and even the gills are white when the volva may be so reduced as to make it difficult to distinguish the specimens from similar specimens of the poisonous fly agaric. [illustration: plate , figure .--amanita cæsarea. different stages of development ( / natural size). cap, stem, gills, veil orange or yellow. volva white. copyright.] in the button stage the plant is ovate and the white color of the volva, which at this time entirely surrounds the plants, presents an appearance not unlike that of an egg. the volva splits open at the apex as the stem elongates. the veil is often connected by loose threads with the outer portion of the stem and as the pileus expands this is torn away, leaving coarse floccose scales on the stem. some of the different stages in the opening of the plant are shown in fig. . this illustration is taken from a photograph of plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., september, . the plant is said to be one of the best esculents, and has been prized as an article of food from ancient times. great caution should be used in distinguishing it from the fly agaric and from other amanitas. [illustration: plate . fig. .--amanita rubescens fig. .--a. cæsarea. copyright .] =amanita rubescens= fr. =edible=, _but use great caution_.--the reddish amanita, _amanita rubescens_, is so called because of the sordid reddish color diffused over the entire plant, and especially because bruised portions quickly change to a reddish color. the plant is often quite large, from -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad and the stem -- mm. in thickness, but it is sometimes much smaller. it occurs during the latter part of the summer and in early autumn, in woods and open places. [illustration: figure .--amanita rubescens. plant partly expanded. dull reddish brown, stains reddish when bruised; for other details see text (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is oval to convex, and becoming expanded when old. it is smooth or faintly striate on the margin, and covered with numerous scattered, thin, floccose, grayish scales, forming remnants of the larger part of the volva or outer veil. the color of the cap varies correspondingly, but is always tinged more or less distinctly with pink, red, or brownish red hues. the =gills= are white or whitish and free from the stem. the =stem= is nearly cylindrical, tapering some above, and with a prominent bulb which often tapers abruptly below. in addition to the suffused dull reddish color the stem is often stained with red, especially where handled or touched by some object. there are very few evidences of the volva on the stem since the volva is so floccose and torn into loose fragments, most of which remain on the surface of the cap. sometimes a few of these loose fragments are seen on the upper portion of the bulb, but they are easily removed by handling or by rains. the =annulus= is membranous, broad, and fragile. since the plant has become well known it is regarded as excellent and wholesome for food and pleasant to the taste. in case of the larger specimens there should be no difficulty in distinguishing it from others by those who care to compare the descriptions closely with the fresh specimens. but as in all cases beginners should use extreme caution in eating plants they have not become thoroughly familiar with. small specimens of this species sometimes show but little of the reddish color, and are therefore difficult to determine. figures and are from plants (no. c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., during september, . =amanita solitaria= bull. =edible=, _but use caution_.--the solitary amanita, like many other plants, is not always true to its name. while it often occurs solitary, it does occur sometimes in groups. it is one of the largest of the amanitas. its large size, together with its chalky white or grayish white color, and ragged or shaggy appearance, makes it a striking object in the woods, or along roadsides in woods where it grows. frequently parts of the cap, the entire stem and the gills are covered with a white, crumbly, floccose substance of a mealy consistency which often sticks to the hands or other objects. the plant ranges from -- cm. or more high, the cap from -- cm. broad, and the stems are -- cm. or more in thickness. in form the =pileus= ranges from nearly globose in the button stage, to hemispherical, convex and expanded, when quite old the margin becoming more or less elevated. it is covered either with flaky or floccose portions of the volva, or with more or less distinct conic white scales, especially toward the center. the conic scales are easily rubbed off in handling or are easily washed off by rains. many of them are loosened and fall because of the tension produced by the expanding pileus on the surface of which they rest. these scales vary in size from quite small ones, appearing like granules, to those fewer in number and larger, mm. high and nearly as broad at the base. in other cases the scales are harder and stouter and dark colored. these forms will be discussed after the description of the other parts of the plant. [illustration: plate , figure .--amanita rubescens. under and side view. dull reddish brown, stains reddish where bruised ( / natural size). copyright.] [illustration: plate , figure .--amanita solitaria. entirely white, or cap and scales sordid buff, dull brown, or grayish in some plants. for details see text ( / natural size). copyright.] the =gills= are free, or are only attached by the upper inner angle; the edges are often floccose where they are torn from the slight union with the upper surface of the veil. the =stem= is cylindrical, solid or stuffed when old, enlarged usually below into a prominent bulb which then tapers into a more or less elongated root-like process, sometimes extending -- cm. in the ground below the bulb. in rare cases the bulb is not present, but the cylindrical stem extends for a considerable distance into the ground. the =veil= is a very interesting part of the plant and the manner in which it forms and disappears as the cap expands is worth a careful study. this is well shown in figs. , , from photographs of plants (no. c. u. herbarium) made at blowing rock, n. c., during september, . during the latter part of august and the first three weeks of september the plants were quite common in the mountain woods at blowing rock. in certain features there was close agreement in the case of all the specimens examined, especially in the long rooting character of the base of the stem. the veil and annulus were also quite constant in their characters, though sometimes a tendency was manifested to split up more irregularly than at other times. in the character of the warts of the pileus there was great variation, showing typical forms of _amanita solitaria_ and grading into forms which might be taken for typical _amanita strobiliformis_. especially is this so in the case of some of my specimens (no. ), where the scales are pyramidal, dark brown, surrounded by a sordid buff or grayish area, and these latter areas separated by narrow chinks whitish in color. the scales in this specimen are fixed quite firmly to the surface of the pileus. in other specimens (no. ) these hard scales remove quite easily, while in still another the pileus is almost smooth, even the floccose scales having been obliterated, while a very few of the hard angular warts are still present. in another half expanded plant (of no. ) the warts are pyramidal, -- mm. long at the center of the pileus and rather closely imbricated, hard, and firmly joined to the surface of the cap. in nos. and the spores measure -- × -- µ. in they are longer, varying from -- µ. the specimens with the long hard scales suggest _amanita strobiliformis_ vittad., but the long rooting base of the stem does not agree with the description of that plant, but does clearly agree with _amanita solitaria_ bull. a study of the variations in these plants suggests that _amanita solitaria_ and _strobiliformis_ vittad., represent only variations in a single species as bulliard interpreted the species more than a century ago. forms of the plant are also found which suggest that _a. polypyramis_ b. & c., collected in north carolina, is but one of the variations of _a. solitaria_. figures , show well certain stages in the development of this plant. the conical or pyramidal warts are formed in a very young stage of the plant by the primary separation of the outer part of the volva, and as the pileus expands more, and the cessation of growth of the outer veil proceeds inward, the scales become more widely separated at the apex and broader at the base. in some cases the volva is probably thinner than in others, and with the rapid expansion of the pileus in wet weather the scales would be smaller, or more floccose. but with different conditions, when it is not so wet, the plant expands less rapidly, the surface of the pileus becomes drier, the volva layer does not separate so readily and the fissures between the scales proceed deeper, and sometimes probably enter the surface of the pileus, so that the size of the warts is augmented. a similar state of things sometimes takes place on the base of the stem at the upper margin of the bulb, where the concentric fissures may extend to some distance in the stem, making the scales here more prominent in some specimens than in others. a similar variation in the character of the scales on the bulb of _amanita muscaria_ is sometimes presented. the veil is often loosely attached to the edges of the gills, and so is stripped off from the stem quite early. sometimes it is more strongly adherent to the stem, or portions of it may be, when it is very irregularly ruptured as it is peeled off from the stem, as shown in the plant near the left side in fig. . the veil is very fragile and often tears a little distance from the margin of the cap, while the portion attached to the stem forms the annulus. this condition is shown in the case of three plants in fig. . the plant is said to be edible. amanitopsis roze. this genus has white spores, and a volva, but the annulus and inner veil are wanting. in other respects it agrees with _amanita_. it is considered as a sub-genus of _amanita_ by some. [illustration: plate , figure .--amanita solitaria. three plants, / natural size. copyright.] =amanitopsis vaginata= (bull.) roz. =edible.=--the sheathed amanitopsis, _a. vaginata_, is a quite common and widely distributed plant in woods. it is well named since the prominent volva forms a large sheath to the cylindrical base of the stem. the plant occurs in several forms, a gray or mouse colored form, and a brownish or fulvous form, and sometimes nearly white. these forms are recognized by some as varieties, and by others as species. the plants are -- cm. high, the caps -- cm. broad, and the stems -- mm. in thickness. [illustration: plate , figure .--amanitopsis vaginata. tawny form (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is from ovate to bell-shaped, then convex and expanded, smooth, rarely with fragments of the volva on the surface. the margin is thin and marked by deep furrows and ridges, so that it is deeply striate, or the terms sulcate or pectinate sulcate are used to express the character of the margin. the term pectinate sulcate is employed on account of a series of small elevations on the ridges, giving them a pectinate, or comb-like, appearance. the color varies from gray to mouse color, brown, or ochraceous brown. the flesh is white. the =gills= are white or nearly so, and free. the =spores= are globose, -- µ in diameter. the =stem= is cylindrical, even, or slightly tapering upward, hollow or stuffed, not bulbous, smooth, or with mealy particles or prominent floccose scales. these scales are formed by the separation of the edges of the gills from the surface of the stem, to which they are closely applied before the pileus begins to expand. threads of mycelium growing from the edge of the lamellæ and from the stem intermingle. when the pileus expands these are torn asunder, or by their pull tear up the outer surface of the stem. the =volva= forms a prominent sheath which is usually quite soft and easily collapses (fig. ). the entire plant is very brittle and fragile. it is considered an excellent one for food. i often eat it raw when collecting. authors differ as to the number of species recognized in the plant as described above. secretan recognized as many as ten species. the two prominent color forms are quite often recognized as two species, or by others as varieties; the gray or mouse colored form as _a. livida_ pers., and the tawny form as _a. spadicea_ pers. according to fries and others the _livida_ appears earlier in the season than _spadicea_, and this fact is recognized by some as entitling the two to specific rank. plowright (trans. brit. mycol. soc., p. , -- ) points out that in european forms of _spadicea_ there is a second volva inside the outer, and in _livida_ there are "folds or wrinkles of considerable size on the inner surface of the volva." he thinks the two entitled to specific rank. at ithaca and in the mountains of north carolina i have found both forms appearing at the same season, and thus far have been unable to detect the differences noted by plowright in the volva. but i have never found intergrading color forms, and have not yet satisfied myself as to whether or not the two should be entitled to specific rank. some of the other species of _amanitopsis_ found in this country are =a. nivalis= grev., an entirely white plant regarded by some as only a white form of =a. vaginata=. another white plant is =a. volvata= pk., which has elliptical spores, and is striate on the margin instead of sulcate. [illustration: figure .--amanitopsis farinosa. cap grayish (natural size). copyright.] =amanitopsis farinosa= schw.--the mealy agaric, or powdery amanita, is a pretty little species. it was first collected and described from north carolina by de schweinitz (synop. fung. car. no. , ), and the specimens illustrated in fig. were collected by me at blowing rock, n. c., during september, . peck has given in the rd report n. y. state mus., p. , an excellent description of the plant, though it often exceeds somewhat the height given by him. it ranges from -- or cm. high, the cap from -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is from subglobose to convex and expanded, becoming nearly plane or even depressed by the elevation of the margin in old specimens. the color is gray or grayish brown, or mouse colored. the pileus is thin, and deeply striate on the margin, covered with a grayish floccose, powdery or mealy substance, the remnant of the evanescent volva. this substance is denser at the center and is easily rubbed off. the =gills= are white and free from the stem. the =spores= are subglobose and ovate to elliptical, -- µ long. the =stem= is cylindrical, even, hollow or stuffed, whitish or gray and very slightly enlarged at the base into a small rounded bulb which is quite constant and characteristic, and at first is covered on its upper margin by the floccose matter from the volva. [illustration: plate , figure .--lepiota naucina. entirely white (natural size).] at blowing rock the plants occurred in sandy soil by roadsides or in open woods. in habit it resembles strikingly forms of _amanitopsis vaginata_, but the volva is entirely different (fig. ). although _a. vaginata_ was common in the same locality, i searched in vain for intermediate forms which i thought might be found. sometimes the floccose matter would cling together more or less, and portions of it remained as patches on the lower part of the stem, while depauperate forms of _a. vaginata_ would have a somewhat reduced volva, but in no case did i find intermediate stages between the two kinds of volva. lepiota fr. the genus _lepiota_ lacks a volva, but the veil is present forming a ring on the stem. the genus is closely related to _amanita_, from which it differs in the absence of the volva, or perhaps more properly speaking in the fact that the universal veil is firmly connected (concrete with) with the pileus, and with the base of the stem, so that a volva is not formed. the gills are usually free from the stem, some being simply adnexed, but in some species connected with a collar near the stem. the stem is fleshy and is easily separable from the cap. a number of the species are edible. peck, th report n. y. state mus., p. -- , describes species. lloyd, mycol. notes, november, , describes species. =lepiota naucina= fr. (_lepiota naucinoides_ pk., _annularia lævis_ krombh.) =edible.=--the smooth lepiota, _l. naucina_, grows in lawns, in pastures and by roadsides, etc. it occurs during the latter part of summer and during autumn, being more abundant in september and early october. it is entirely white, or the cap is sometimes buff, and in age the gills become dirty pink in color. it is from -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is very fleshy, nearly globose, then convex to nearly expanded, smooth, or rarely the surface is broken into minute scales. the =gills= are first white, free from the stem, and in age assume a dull pink tinge. the =spores= are usually white in mass, but rarely when caught on white paper they show a faint pink tinge. the spores are elliptical to oval. the =stem= is nearly cylindrical, gradually enlarging below so that it is clavate, nearly hollow or stuffed with loose threads. [illustration: figure .--lepiota naucina.--section of three plants, different ages.] since the plant occurs in the same situations as the _agaricus campestris_ it might be mistaken for it, especially for white forms. but of course no harm could come by eating it by mistake for the common mushroom, for it is valued just as highly for food by some who have eaten it. if one should look at the gills, however, they would not likely mistake it for the common mushroom because the gills become pink only when the plant is well expanded and quite old. there is much more danger in mistaking it for the white amanitas, _a. phalloides_, _a. verna_, or _a. virosa_, since the gills of these deadly plants are white, and they do sometimes grow in lawns and other grassy places where the smooth lepiota and the common mushroom grow. for this reason one should study the descriptions and illustrations of these amanitas given on preceding pages, and especially should the suggestions given there about care in collecting plants be followed, until one is so certainly familiar with the characters that the plants would be known "on sight." [illustration: plate , figure .--lepiota procera. grayish brown to reddish brown, gills and flesh white ( / natural size). copyright.] the pink color of the gills of this lepiota has led certain students of the fungi into mistakes of another kind. this pink color of the gills has led some to place the plant among the rosy spored agarics in the genus _annularia_, where it was named _annularia lævis_ by krombholtz (vide bresadola funghi mangerecci e velenosi, p. , ). it fits the description of that plant exactly. the pink color of the gills, as well as the fact that the gills turn brownish when dry, has led to a confusion in some cases of the _lepiota naucina_ with the chalky agaric, _agaricus cretaceus_. the external resemblance of the plants, as shown in various illustrations, is very striking, and in the chalky agaric the gills remain pink very late, only becoming brown when very old. =lepiota procera= scop. =edible.=--the parasol mushroom, _lepiota procera_, grows in pastures, lawns, gardens, along roadsides, or in thin woods, or in gardens. it is a large and handsome plant and when expanded seems not inappropriately named. it is from -- cm. or more high, the cap expands from -- cm., while the stem is -- mm. in thickness. it occurs during summer and in early autumn. the =pileus= is oval, then bell-shaped, convex and nearly expanded, with usually a more or less prominent elevation (umbo) at the center. sometimes it is depressed at the center. it is grayish brown or reddish brown in color on the surface and the flesh is whitish. as the cap expands the surface layer ceases to grow and is therefore cracked, first narrow chinks appearing, showing white or grayish threads underneath. as the cap becomes more expanded the brown surface is torn into scales, which give the cap a more or less shaggy appearance except on the umbo, where the color is more uniform. the torn surface of the pileus shows numerous radiating fibres, and it is soft and yielding to the touch. the =gills= are remote from the stem, broad and crowded. the =spores= are long, elliptical, -- µ long. the =stem= is cylindrical, hollow, or stuffed, even, enlarged below into a prominent bulb, of the same color as the pileus, though paler, especially above the annulus. the surface is usually cracked into numerous small scales, the chinks between showing the white inner portion of the stem. the =ring= is stout, narrow, usually quite free from the stem, so that it can be moved up and down on the stem, and is called a movable ring. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected in a garden at blowing rock, n. c., during september, . a closely related plant, _lepiota rachodes_ vitt., has smaller spores, -- × -- µ. it is also edible, and by some considered only a variety of _l. procera_. it is rare in this country, but appears about boston in considerable quantities "in or near greenhouses or in enriched soil out of doors," where it has the appearance of an introduced plant (webster, rhodora, : , ). it is a much stouter plant than _l. procera_, the pileus usually depressed, much more coarsely scaly, and usually grows in dense clusters, while _l. procera_ usually occurs singly or scattered, is more slender, often umbonate. _l. rachodes_ has a veil with a double edge, the edges more or less fringed. the veil is fixed to the stem until the plant is quite mature, when it becomes movable. the flesh of the plant on exposure to the air becomes a brownish orange tint. [illustration: figure .--lepiota americana. scales and center of cap reddish or reddish brown. entire plant turns reddish on drying (natural size). copyright.] =lepiota morgani= pk.--this plant occurs from ohio, southward and west. it grows in grassy places, especially in wet pastures. it is one of the largest of the lepiotas, ranging from -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem about cm. in thickness. the =pileus=, when fully expanded, is whitish, with large dark scales, especially toward the center. the =ring= is large, sometimes movable, and the =gills= and =spores= are greenish. some report the plant as edible, while others say illness results from eating it. =lepiota americana= pk. =edible.=--this plant is widely distributed in the united states. the plants occur singly or are clustered, -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the cap is adorned with reddish or reddish brown scales except on the center, where the color is uniform because the surface is not broken up into scales. the flesh is white, but changes to reddish when cut or bruised, and the whole plant becomes reddish on drying. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at ithaca. the european plant, _l. badhami_, also reported in this country, changes to a brownish red. it is believed by some to be identical with _l. americana_. [illustration: figure .--lepiota cristata. entirely white, but scales grayish or pinkish brown, stem often flesh color (natural size). copyright.] =lepiota acutesquamosa= weinm.--this is a medium or small sized plant with a floccose pileus adorned with small, acute, erect scales, and has a loose, hairy or wooly veil which is often torn irregularly. the erect scales fall away from the pileus and leave little scars where they were attached. =lepiota cristata= a. & s. =edible.=--the crested lepiota, _lepiota cristata_, occurs in grassy places and borders of woods, in groves, etc., from may to september, and is widely distributed. the plant is small, -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. it grows in clusters or is scattered. the =pileus= is ovate, bell-shaped, then convex and expanded, and thin. the surface is at first entirely dull reddish or reddish brown, but soon cracks into numerous scales of the same color arranged in a crested manner, more numerous between the margin and the center, and often arranged in a concentric manner. the center of the cap often preserves the uniform reddish brown color because the pileus at this point does not expand so much and therefore the surface does not crack, while the margin often becomes white because of the disappearance of the brown covering here. the =gills= are free from the stem, narrow, crowded, and close to the stem. the =spores= are more or less angular, elongated, more narrowed at one end, and measure -- × -- µ. the =stem= is slender, cylindrical, hollow, whitish, smooth. the =ring= is small, white, and easily breaks up and disappears. the characters of the plant are well shown in fig. from plants collected at ithaca. _lepiota angustana_ britz. is identical, and according to morgan _l. miamensis_ morgan is a white form of _l. angustana_. =lepiota asperula= atkinson.--this lepiota resembles _a. asper_ in some respects, but it is smaller and the spores are much smaller, being very minute. the plant is -- cm. high, the pileus -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. it grows in leaf mould in the woods and has been found at ithaca, n. y., twice during july and september, . the =pileus= is convex and bell-shaped, becoming nearly or quite expanded. it is hair brown to olive brown in color. the surface is dry, made up of interwoven threads, and is adorned with numerous small, erect, pointed scales resembling in this respect _a. asper_ fr. the =gills= are white or yellowish, free, but rather close to the stem, narrow, often eroded on the edge, sometimes forked near the stem, and some of them arranged in pairs. the spores are oblong, smooth, and very minute, measuring × µ. the =stem= is the same color as the pileus, cylindrical, hollow, with loose threads in the cavity, enlarged into a rounded bulb below, minutely downy to pubescent. the outer portion of the bulb is formed of intricately interwoven threads, among which are entangled soil and humus particles. the =veil= is white, silky, hairy, separating from the stem like a dense cortina, the threads stretched both above and below as shown in fig. from plants (no. c. u. herbarium), collected at ithaca. in some specimens, as the pileus expands, the spaces between the pointed scales are torn, thus forming quite coarse scales which are often arranged in more or less concentric rows, showing the yellow-tinged flesh in the cracks, and the coarse scales bearing the fine point at the center. a layer connecting the margin of the pileus with the base of the stem and covered with fine brown points, sometimes separates from the edge of the cap and the base of the stem, and clings partly to the cortina and partly to the stem in much the same way that portions of the volva cling to the stem of certain species of _amanita_, as seen in _a. velatipes_ (fig. ). sometimes this is left on the base of the stem and then resembles a short, free limb of a volva, and suggests a species of _amanita_. the scales, however, are concrete with the pileus, and the species appears to show a closer relationship with _lepiota_. [illustration: plate , figure .--lepiota asperula. cap hair-brown to olive-brown, scales minute, pointed, gills and stem white (natural size). copyright.] armillaria fr. in the genus _armillaria_ the inner veil which forms a ring on the stem is present. the stem is fibrous, or the outer portion cartilaginous in some species, and not easily separable from the substance of the pileus (continuous with the hymenophore), and the gills are attached to the stem, sinuate, or decurrent, spores white. peck, rd report n. y. state mus., p. -- , describes species. some of the species resemble very closely certain species of _amanita_ or _lepiota_, but can be distinguished by the firm continuity of the substance of the stem and cap. =armillaria mellea= vahl. =edible.=--this is one of the most common of the late summer and autumn fungi, and is widely distributed over the world. it grows about the bases of old stumps or dead trees, or from buried roots. sometimes it is found attached to the living roots of trees. the plant occurs in tufts or clusters, several to many individuals growing together, the bases of their stems connected with a black rope-like strand from which they arise. the entire plant is often more or less honey colored, from which the plant gets its specific name. its clustered habit, the usually prominent ring on the stems, and the sharp, blackish, erect scales which usually adorn the center of the cap, mark it as an easy plant to determine in most cases. the colors and markings, however, vary greatly, so that some of the forms are very puzzling. the plant varies in height from -- cm., the cap from -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is oval to convex and expanded, sometimes with a slight umbo or elevation at the center. the color varies from honey color to nearly white, or yellowish brown to dull reddish brown, usually darker on the center. in typical forms the pileus is adorned with pointed dark brown, or blackish, erect, scales especially abundant over the center, while the margin is often free from them, but may be marked with looser floccose, brownish, or yellowish scales. sometimes there are no blackish pointed scales anywhere on the cap, only loose floccose colored scales, or in some forms the cap is entirely smooth. the margin in old specimens is often striate. the pileus is usually dry, but webster cites an instance in which it was viscid in wet weather. the =gills= are attached to the stem squarely (adnate) or they are decurrent (extend downward on the stem), are white, or whitish, becoming in age more or less dingy or stained. the spores are rounded or elliptical, -- µ. the =stem= is elastic, spongy within and sometimes hollow. it is smooth or often floccose scaly below the ring, sometimes with prominent transverse bands of a hairy substance. it is usually whitish near the upper end, but dull brown or reddish brown below the annulus, sometimes distinctly yellowish. the =veil= varies greatly also. it may be membranaceous and thin, or quite thick, or in other cases may be absent entirely. the =ring= of course varies in a corresponding manner. as shown in fig. it is quite thick, so that it appears double on the edge, where it broke away from the inner and outer surfaces of the margin of the cap. it is frequently fixed to the stem, that is, not movable, but when very thin and frail it often disappears. the honey colored agaric is said by nearly all writers to be edible, though some condemn it. it is not one of the best since it is of rather tough consistency. it is a species of considerable economic importance and interest, since it is a parasite on certain coniferous trees, and perhaps also on certain of the broad-leaved trees. it attacks the roots of these trees, the mycelium making its way through the outer layer, and then it grows beneath the bark. here it forms fan-like sheets of mycelium which advance along both away from the tree and towards the trunk. it disorganizes and breaks down the tissues of the root here, providing a space for a thicker growth of the mycelium as it becomes older. in places the mycelium forms rope-like strands, at first white in color, but later becoming dark brown and shining. these cords or strands, known as _rhizomorphs_, extend for long distances underneath the bark of the root. they are also found growing in the hollow trunks of trees sometimes. in time enough of the roots are injured to kill the tree, or the roots are so weakened that heavy winds will blow the trees over. the fruiting plants always arise from these rhizomorphs, and by digging carefully around the bases of the stems one can find these cords with the stems attached, though the attachment is frail and the stems are easily separated from the cords. often these cords grow for years without forming any fruit bodies. in this condition they are often found by stripping off the bark from dead and rotting logs in the woods. these cords were once supposed to be separate fungi, and they were known under the name _rhizomorpha subcorticalis_. [illustration: plate , figure .--armillaria mellea. showing double ring present in some large specimens; cap honey colored, scales minute, more numerous at center, blackish, often floccose, and sometimes wanting ( / natural size, often smaller). copyright.] =armillaria aurantia= schaeff. (_tricholoma peckii_ howe) =suspected.=--this is a very pretty species and rare in the united states. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. it occurs in woods. it is known by its viscid pileus, the orange brown or ochraceous rufus color of the pileus and stem, and the color of the stem being confined to the superficial layer, which becomes torn into concentric floccose scales, forming numerous minute floccose irregular rings of color around the stem. [illustration: figure .--armillaria aurantia schaeff. (=tricholoma peckii howe). cap orange-brown or ochraceous rufus, viscid; floccose scales on stem same color (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is convex to expanded, with an umbo, and the edge inrolled, fleshy, thin, viscid, ochraceous rufus (in specimens collected by myself), darker on the umbo, and minutely scaly from tufts of hairs, and the viscid cuticle easily peeling off. the =gills= are narrow, crowded, slightly adnexed, or many free, white, becoming brown discolored where bruised, and in drying brownish or rufus. the =spores= are minute, globose to ovoid, or rarely sub-elliptical when a little longer, with a prominent oil globule usually, -- . × -- µ, sometimes a little longer when the elliptical forms are presented. the =stem= is straight or ascending, even, very floccose scaly as the pileus is unrolled from it, scales same color as the pileus, the scales running transversely, being separated perhaps by the elongation of the stem so that numerous floccose rings are formed, showing the white flesh of the stem between. the upper part of the stem, that above the annulus, is white, but the upper part floccose. [illustration: figure .--tricholoma personatum. entire plant grayish brown, tinged with lilac or purple, spores light ochraceous (natural size, often larger).] this plant has been long known in europe. there is a rather poor figure of it in schaeffer table , and a better one in gillet champignons de france, hymenomycetes, = =, opposite page , but a very good one in bresadola funghi mangerecci e velenosi, tavel , . a good figure is also given by barla, les champignons des alpes--maritimes, pl. , figs. -- . the plant was first reported from america in the st report, state museum, n. y., p. , , under the name _tricholoma peckii_ howe, from the catskill mountains, n. y. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected in the blue ridge mountains, at blowing rock, n. c., during september, . the european and american description both ascribe a bitter taste to the flesh of the pileus, and it is regarded as suspicious. there does not seem to be a well formed annulus, the veil only being present in a rather young stage, as the inrolled margin of the pileus is unrolling from the surface of the stem. it seems to be more in the form of a universal veil resembling the veil of some of the lepiotas. it shows a relationship with _tricholoma_ which possesses in typical forms a delicate veil present only in the young stage. perhaps for this reason it was referred by howe to _tricholoma_ as an undescribed species when it was named _t. peckii_. if its affinities should prove to be with _tricholoma_ rather than with _armillaria_, it would then be known as _tricholoma aurantium_. tricholoma fr. in the genus _tricholoma_ the volva and annulus are both wanting, the spores are white, and the gills are attached to the stem, but are more or less strongly notched or sinuate at the stem. sometimes the notch is very slight. the stem is fleshy-fibrous, attached to the center of the pileus, and is usually short and stout. in some specimens when young there is a slight cobwebby veil which very soon disappears. the genus is a very large one. some species are said to be poisonous and a few are known to be edible. peck, th report, n. y. state mus., pp. -- , describes species. [illustration: figure .--tricholoma personatum. section (natural size).] =tricholoma personatum= fr. =edible.=--this plant occurs during the autumn and persists up to the winter months. it grows on the ground in open places and in woods. the stem is short, usually -- cm. long × -- cm. in thickness, and the cap is from -- cm. or more broad. the entire plant often has a lilac or purple tint. the =pileus= is convex, expanded, moist, smooth, grayish to brownish tinged with lilac or purple, especially when young, fading out in age. when young the pileus is sometimes adorned with white mealy particles, and when old the margin may be more or less upturned and wavy. the =gills= are crowded, rounded next the stem, and nearly free but close to the stem, violet or lilac when young, changing to dull reddish brown when old. the =spores= when caught in mass are dull pink or salmon color. they measure -- µ long. the =stem= is solid, fibrous, smooth, deep lilac when young and retaining the lilac color longer than the pileus. sometimes the base is bulbous as in fig. . this plant is regarded by all writers as one of the best of the edible fungi. sometimes the pileus is water soaked and then the flavor is not so fine. the position of the plant is regarded as doubtful by some because of the more or less russety pink color of the spores when seen in mass, and the ease with which the gills separate from the pileus, characters which show its relationship to the genus _paxillus_. =tricholoma sejunctum= sowerb. =edible.=--this plant occurs on the ground in rather open woods during late summer and in the autumn. it is -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. [illustration: figure .--tricholoma sejunctum. cap light yellow, streaked with dark threads on the surface, viscid. stem and gills white (natural size, often larger). copyright.] the =pileus= is convex to expanded, umbonate, viscid when moist, light yellow in color and streaked with dark threads in the surface. the flesh is white, and very fragile, differing in this respect from _t. equestre_, which it resembles in general form. the =gills= are broad, rather distant, broadly notched near the stem, and easily separating from the stem. the =stem= is solid, smooth and shining white. figure is from plants collected at ithaca. it is said to be edible. [illustration: plate , figure .--clitocybe candida. entirely white (natural size). copyright.] [illustration: plate , figure .--clitocybe candida. under view of nearly lateral stemmed individual (natural size). copyright.] clitocybe fr. the volva and annulus are wanting in this genus, and the spores are white. the stem is elastic, spongy within, the outside being elastic or fibrous, so that the fibres hold together well when the stem is twisted or broken, as in _tricholoma_. the stem does not separate readily from the pileus, but the rather strong fibres are continuous with the substance of the pileus. the gills are narrowed toward the stem, joined squarely or decurrent (running down on the stem), very rarely some of them notched at the stem while others of the same plant are decurrent. in one species at least (_c. laccata_, by some placed in the genus _laccaria_) the gills are often strongly notched or sinuate. the cap is usually plane, depressed, or funnel-shaped, many of the species having the latter form. the plants grow chiefly on the ground, though a number of species occur on dead wood. the genus contains a very large number of species. peck describes ten species in the rd report, n. y. state mus., p. , et. seq., also th report, p. , several species. morgan, jour. cinn. soc. nat. hist. = =: -- , describes species. =clitocybe candida= bres. =edible.=--this is one of the large species of the genus. it occurs in late autumn in europe. it has been found on several occasions during late autumn at ithaca, n. y., on the ground in open woods, during wet weather. it occurs in clusters, though the specimens are usually not crowded. the stem is usually very short, -- cm. long, and -- cm. in thickness, while the cap is up to -- cm. broad. the =pileus= is sometimes regular, but often very irregular, and produced much more strongly on one side than on the other. it is convex, then expanded, the margin first incurved and finally wavy and often somewhat lobed. the color is white or light buff in age. the flesh is thick and white. the =gills= are white, stout, broad, somewhat decurrent, some adnate. the taste is not unpleasant when raw, and when cooked it is agreeable. i have eaten it on several occasions. figures , are from plants (no. c. u. herbarium) collected at ithaca. =clitocybe laccata= scop. =edible.=--this plant is a very common and widely distributed one, growing in woods, fields, roadsides and other waste places. it is usually quite easily recognized from the whitish scurfy cap, the pink or purplish gills, though the spores are white, from the gills being either decurrent, adnate, or more or less strongly notched, and the stem fibrous and whitish or of a pale pink color. when the plants are mature the pale red or pink gills appear mealy from being covered with the numerous white spores. the =pileus= is thin, convex or later expanded, of a watery appearance, nearly smooth or scurfy or slightly squamulose. the =spores= are rounded, and possess spine-like processes, or are prominently roughened. in the warty character of the spores this species differs from most of the species of the genus _clitocybe_, and some writers place it in a different genus erected to accommodate the species of _clitocybe_ which have warty or spiny spores. the species with spiny spores are few. the genus in which this plant is placed by some is _laccaria_, and then the plant is called _laccaria laccata_. there are several other species of _clitocybe_ which are common and which one is apt to run across often, especially in the woods. these are of the funnel form type, the cap being more or less funnel-shaped. =clitocybe infundibuliformis= schaeffer is one of these. the cap, when mature, is pale red or tan color, fading out in age. it is -- cm. high, and the cap -- cm. broad. it is considered delicious. =clitocybe cyathiformis=, as its name indicates, is similar in form, and occurs in woods. the pileus is of a darker color, dark brown or smoky in color. =clitocybe illudens= schw. =not edible.=--this species is distributed through the eastern united states and sometimes is very abundant. it occurs from july to october about the bases of old stumps, dead trees, or from underground roots. it is one of the large species, the cap being -- cm. broad, the stem -- cm. long, and -- mm. in thickness. it occurs in large clusters, several or many joined at their bases. from the rich saffron yellow color of all parts of the plant, and especially by its strong phosphorescence, so evident in the dark, it is an easy plant to recognize. because of its phosphorescence it is sometimes called "jack-my-lantern." the =pileus= is convex, then expanded, and depressed, sometimes with a small umbo, smooth, often irregular or eccentric from its crowded habit, and in age the margin of the pileus is wavy. the flesh is thick at the center and thin toward the margin. in old plants the color becomes sordid or brownish. the =gills= are broad, not crowded, decurrent, some extending for a considerable distance down on the stem while others for a less distance. the =stem= is solid, firm, smooth, and tapers toward the base. while the plant is not a dangerously poisonous one, it has occasioned serious cases of illness, acting as a violent emetic, and of course should be avoided. its phosphorescence has often been observed. another and much smaller plant, widely distributed in this country as well as europe, and belonging to another genus, is also phosphorescent. it is _panus stipticus_, a small white plant with a short lateral stem, growing on branches, stumps, trunks, etc. when freshly developed the phosphorescence is marked, but when the plants become old they often fail to show it. [illustration: figure .--clitocybe illudens. entire plant rich saffron yellow, old plants become sordid brown sometimes; when fresh shows phosphorescence at night ( / natural size, often much larger). copyright.] =clitocybe multiceps= peck. =edible.=--this plant is not uncommon during late summer and autumn. it usually grows in large tufts of to or more individuals. the caps in such large clusters are often irregular from pressure. the plants are -- cm. high, the caps -- cm. broad, and the stems -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is white or gray, brownish gray or buff, smooth, dry, the flesh white. the =gills= are white, crowded, narrow at each end. the =spores= are smooth, globose, -- µ in diameter. the stems are tough, fibrous, solid, tinged with the same color as cap. fig. is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at ithaca, october , . collybia fr. in the genus _collybia_ the annulus and volva are both wanting, the spores are white, the gills are free or notched, or sinuate. the stem is either entirely cartilaginous or has a cartilaginous rind, while the central portion of the stem is fibrous, or fleshy, stuffed or fistulose. the pileus is fleshy and when the plants are young the margin of the pileus is incurved or inrolled, i. e., it does not lie straight against the stem as in _mycena_. many of the species of _collybia_ are quite firm and will revive somewhat after drying when moistened, but they are not coriaceous as in _marasmius_, nor do they revive so thoroughly. it is difficult, however, to draw the line between the two genera. twenty-five of the new york species of collybia are described by peck in the th report n. y. state mus., p. et seq. morgan describes twelve species in jour. cinn. soc. nat. hist., : -- . =collybia radicata= rehl. =edible.=--this is one of the common and widely distributed species of the genus. it occurs on the ground in the woods or groves or borders of woods. it is quite easily recognized by the more or less flattened cap, the long striate stem somewhat enlarged below and then tapering off into a long, slender root-like process in the ground. it is from this "rooting" character that the plant gets its specific name. it is -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is fleshy, thin, convex to nearly plane, or even with the margin upturned in old plants, and the center sometimes umbonate. it is smooth, viscid when moist, and often with wrinkles on the surface which extend radially. the color varies from nearly white in some small specimens to grayish, grayish brown or umber. the flesh is white. the =gills= are white, broad, rather distant, adnexed, i. e., joined to the stem by the upper angle. the =spores= are elliptical and about × µ. the =stem= is the same color as the pileus though paler, and usually white above, tapers gradually above, is often striate or grooved, or sometimes only mealy. the long tapering "root" is often attached to some underground dead root. fig. is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at ithaca, august, . [illustration: plate , figure .--clitocybe multiceps. plants white or gray to buff or grayish brown. (three-fourths natural size.) copyright.] [illustration: plate , fig. .--collybia radicata. caps grayish-brown to grayish and white in some small forms. (natural size.) copyright.] [illustration: plate , fig. .--collybia velutipes. cap yellowish or reddish yellow, viscid, gills white, stem dark brown, velvety hairy (natural size). copyright.] =collybia velutipes= curt. =edible.=--this is very common in woods or groves during the autumn, on dead limbs or trunks, or from dead places in living ones. the plants are very viscid, and the stem, except in young plants, is velvety hairy with dark hairs. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at ithaca, october, . =collybia longipes= bull., is a closely related plant. it is much larger, has a velvety, to hairy, stem, and a much longer root-like process to the stem. it has been sometimes considered to be merely a variety of _c. radicata_, and may be only a large form of that species. i have found a few specimens in the adirondack mountains, and one in the blue ridge mountains, which seem to belong to this species. =collybia platyphylla= fr. =edible.=--this is a much larger and stouter plant than _collybia radicata_, though it is not so tall as the larger specimens of that species. it occurs on rotten logs or on the ground about rotten logs and stumps in the woods from june to september. it is -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem about cm. in thickness. the =pileus= is convex becoming expanded, plane, and even the margin upturned in age. it is whitish, varying to grayish brown or dark brown, the center sometimes darker than the margin, as is usual in many plants. the surface of the pileus is often marked in radiating streaks by fine dark hairs. the =gills= are white, very broad, adnexed, and usually deeply and broadly notched next the stem. in age they are more or less broken and cracked. the =spores= are white, elliptical, -- × -- µ. the plant resembles somewhat certain species of _tricholoma_ and care should be used in selecting it in order to avoid the suspected species of _tricholoma_. mycena fr. the genus _mycena_ is closely related to _collybia_. the plants are usually smaller, many of them being of small size, the cap is usually bell-shaped, rarely umbilicate, but what is a more important character the margin of the cap in the young stage is straight as it is applied against the stem, and not at first incurved as it is in _collybia_, when the gills and margin of the pileus lie against the stem. the stem is cartilaginous as in _collybia_, and is usually hollow or fistulose. the gills are not decurrent, or only slightly so by a tooth-like process. some of the species are apt to be confused with certain species of _omphalia_ in which the gills are but slightly decurrent, but in _omphalia_ the pileus is umbilicate in such species, while in _mycena_ it is blunt or umbonate. the spores are white. a large number of the plants grow on leaves and wood, few on the ground. some of those which grow on leaves might be mistaken for species of _marasmius_, but in _marasmius_ the plants are of a tough consistency, and when dried will revive again if moistened with water. some of the plants have distinct odors, as alkaline, or the odor of radishes, and in collecting them notes should be made on all these characters which usually disappear in drying. a few of the plants exude a colored or watery juice when bruised, and should not be confounded with species of _lactarius_. =mycena galericulata= scop. =edible.=--_mycena galericulata_ grows on dead logs, stumps, branches, etc., in woods. it is a very common and very widely distributed species. it occurs from late spring to autumn. the plants are clustered, many growing in a compact group, the hairy bases closely joined and the stems usually ascending. the plants are from -- cm. high, the caps from -- cm. broad, and the slender stems -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is conic to bell-shaped, sometimes umbonate, striate to near the center, and in color some shade of brown or gray, but variable. the =gills= are decurrent by a tooth, not crowded, connected by veins over the interspaces, white or flesh colored. the slender =stems= are firm, hollow, and hairy at the base. [illustration: figure .--mycena polygramma, long-stemmed form growing on ground (= m. prælonga pk.). cap dark brown with a leaden tint, striate on margin; stem finely and beautifully longitudinally striate (natural size). copyright.] =mycena polygramma= bull.--this plant is very closely related to _m. galericulata_, and has the same habit. it might be easily mistaken for it. it is easily distinguished by its peculiar bright, shining, longitudinally striate to sulcate stem. it usually grows on wood, but does occur on the ground, when it often has a very long stem. in this condition it was described by peck in the rd report, n. y. state mus., p. , as _mycena prælonga_, from plants collected in a sphagnum moor during the month of june. this form was also collected at ithaca several times during late autumn in a woods near ithaca, in . the plants are from -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is first nearly cylindrical, then conic, becoming bell-shaped and finally nearly expanded, when it is umbonate. it is smooth, striate on the margin, of a dark brown color with a leaden tint. the =gills= are narrow, white, adnate and slightly decurrent on the stem by a tooth. the very long =stem= is smooth, but marked with parallel grooves too fine to show in the photograph, firm, hollow, somewhat paler than the pileus, usually tinged with red, and hairy at the base. figure is from plants (no. c. u. herbarium), collected in a woods near ithaca in damp places among leaves. a number of the specimens collected were attacked by a parasitic mucor of the genus _spinellus_. two species, _s. fusiger_ (link.) van tiegh., and _s. macrocarpus_ (corda) karst., were found, sometimes both on the same plant. the long-stalked sporangia bristle in all directions from the cap. [illustration: figure .--mycena pura. entire plant rose, rose purple, violet, or lilac. striate on margin of pileus (natural size, often much larger).] =mycena pura= pers.--this plant is quite common and very widely distributed, and occurs in woods and grassy open places, during late summer and in the autumn. the entire plant is nearly of a uniform color, and the color varies from rose, to rose purple, violet, or lilac. plants from the blue ridge mountains of north carolina were chiefly rose purple, very young plants of a much deeper color (auricula purple of ridgeway), while those collected at ithaca were violet. the plants vary from -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. stout. the plants are scattered or somewhat clustered, sometimes occurring singly, and again many covering a small area of ground. the =pileus= is thin, conic, bell-shaped to convex and nearly expanded, sometimes with a small umbo, smooth, and finely striate on the margin, in age the striæ sometimes rugulose from the upturning of the margin. sometimes the pileus is rugose on the center. the =gills= vary from white to violet, rose, etc., they are adnate to sinuate, and in age sometimes become free by breaking away from the stem. they are broad in the middle, connected by vein-like elevations over the surface, and sometimes wavy and crenate on the edge, the edge of the gills sometimes white. the =spores= are white, oblong, . -- . × -- µ, smooth. the =basidia= are cylindrical, -- × -- µ, four-spored. there are a few =cystidia= in the hymenium, colorless, thin walled, clavate, the portion above the hymenium cylindrical, and -- × -- µ. the =stem= is sometimes white when young, but later becomes of the same color as the pileus, often a lighter shade above. it is straight, or ascending, cylindrical, even, smooth, hollow, with a few white threads at the base. sometimes on drying the pileus becomes deeper in color than when fresh. the gills also become deeper in color in drying, though the edge remains white if white when fresh. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., in august, . the plants are often considerably larger than shown in the figure. [illustration: figure .--mycena epipterygia. cap viscid, grayish, often tinged with yellowish or reddish in age, gills white, sometimes tinged with blue or red, stem yellowish, or same color as cap (natural size). copyright.] =mycena epipterygia= scop.--this pretty little species is quite readily distinguished by the gray, conic or bell-shaped cap, the long, hollow, slender stem, and the viscid pellicle or skin which is quite easily peeled off from the stem or cap when moist. it grows in woods or grassy places, or among moss, etc., on the ground or on very rotten wood. the plants are from -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem about mm. in thickness. it is widely distributed in europe, america, and other north temperate countries. the =pileus= is viscid when moist, ovate to conic or campanulate, and later more or less expanded, obtuse, the margin striate, and sometimes minutely toothed. the usual color is grayish, but in age it often becomes reddish. the =gills= are decurrent by a small tooth, and quite variable in color, whitish, then gray, or tinged with blue or red. the =stem= is very slender, flexuous, or straight, fistulose, tough, with soft hairs at the base, usually yellowish, sometimes the same color as the cap, and viscid like the cap when moist. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at ithaca in august, . =mycena vulgaris= pers.--this common and pretty species is easily recognized by its smoky or grayish color, the umbilicate pileus and very slimy stem. it grows on decaying leaves, sticks, etc., in woods. it occurs in clusters. the plants are small, -- cm. high, the cap -- mm. broad, and the stem about . mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is thin, bell-shaped, then convex, and depressed at the center, with a papilla usually in the center, finely striate on the margin, and slightly viscid. the =gills= are white, thin, and finally decurrent, so that from the form of the cap and the decurrent gills the plant has much the appearance of an _omphalia_. the =stem= is very viscid, grayish in color, often rooting at the base, and with white fibrils at the base, becoming hollow. figure is from plants collected in woods near ithaca, during august, . [illustration: figure .--mycena vulgaris. entirely white, center of cap grayish, entire plant very slimy when moist (natural size). copyright.] =mycena acicula= schaeff.--this is one of the very small mycenas, and with the brilliant red pileus and yellow gills and stem it makes a very pretty object growing on leaves, twigs, or rotten wood in the forest. it occurs during summer and autumn. it is -- cm. high, the cap -- mm. broad, and the stem is thread-like. [illustration: figure .--mycena acicula. cap brilliant red, gills and stem yellowish (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is very thin, membranaceous, bell-shaped, then convex, when the pointed apex appears as a small umbo. it is smooth, striate on the margin, and of a rich vermilion or orange color. the =gills= are rounded at the stem and adnexed, rather broad in the middle, distant, yellow, the edge white, or sometimes the gills are entirely white. the =stem= is very slender, with a root-like process entering the rotten wood, smooth except the hairs on the root-like process, yellow. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected in a woods near ithaca. it has been found here several times. =mycena cyanothrix= atkinson.--this is a very pretty plant growing on rotting wood in clusters, often two or three joined at the base, the base of the stem inserted in the rotten wood for -- cm., and the base is clothed with blue, hair-like threads. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem not quite mm. in diameter. the =pileus= is ovate to convex, viscid when young. the color is bright blue when young, becoming pale and whitish in age, with a tendency to fuscous on the center. the cap is smooth and the margin finely striate. after the plants have dried the color is nearly uniform ochraceous or tawny. the =gills= are close, free, narrow, white, then grayish white, the edge finely toothed or fimbriate. the =spores= are globose, smooth, -- µ. the =stem= is slender, hollow, faintly purple when young, becoming whitish or flesh color, flexuous, or nearly straight, even, often two united at the base into a root-like extension which enters the rotten wood. the base of the stem is covered with deep blue mycelium which retains its color in age, but disappears on drying after a time. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at ithaca, in woods, june , . =mycena hæmatopa= pers.--this is one of the species of _mycena_ with a red juice which exudes in drops where wounds occur on the plant. it is easily recognized by its dense cespitose habit, the deep blood red juice, the hollow stem, and the crenate or denticulate sterile margin of the cap. numbers of the plant occur usually in a single cluster, and their bases are closely joined and hairy. the stems are more or less ascending according to the position of the plant on the wood. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap is -- . cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. [illustration: figure .--mycena cyanothrix. cap viscid when young, blue, becoming pale and whitish in age, and fuscous in center; gills white; stem faintly purple when young, then flesh color or white, blue, clothed with blue hairs at base (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is conic, then bell-shaped, and as the margin of the cap expands more appears umbonate, obtuse, smooth, even or somewhat striate on the margin. the color varies from whitish to flesh color, or dull red, and appears more or less saturated with a red juice. the thin margin extends a short distance beyond the ends of the gills, and the margin is then beautifully crenate. the =gills= are adnate, and often extend down on the stem a short distance by a little tooth. the =stem= is firm, sometimes smooth, sometimes with minute hairs, at the base with long hairs, hollow, in color the same as that of the pileus. [illustration: figure .--mycena hæmatopa. dull red or flesh color, or whitish, a dull red juice exudes where broken or cut, margin of cap serrate with thin sterile flaps (natural size). copyright.] the color varies somewhat, being darker in some plants than in others. in some plants the juice is more abundant and they bleed profusely when wounded, while in other cases there is but little of the juice, sometimes wounds only showing a change in color to a deep red without any free drops exuding. figure is from plants collected at ithaca, in august, . it is widely distributed in europe and north america. =mycena succosa= pk., another species of _mycena_ with a juice, occurs on very rotten wood in the woods. it is a small plant, dull white at first, but soon spotted with black, and turning black in handling or where bruised, and when dried. wounds exude a "serum-like juice," and the wounds soon become black. it was described by peck under _collybia_ in the th report, p. . omphalia fr. the genus _omphalia_ is closely related to _mycena_ and _collybia_. it differs from these mainly in the decurrent gills. in the small species of _mycena_ where the gills are slightly decurrent, the pileus is not umbilicate as it is in corresponding species of _omphalia_. in some of the species of _omphalia_ the pileus is not umbilicate, but here the gills are plainly decurrent. the stem is cartilaginous. [illustration: plate , figure .--omphalia campanella. watkin's glen, n. y., august, . caps dull reddish-yellow. gills yellow. stem brownish, hairy at base. (natural size.) copyright.] =omphalia campanella= batsch.--one of the most common and widely distributed species of the genus is the little bell-omphalia, _omphalia campanella_. it occurs throughout the summer and autumn on dead or rotten logs, stumps, branches, etc., in woods. it is often clustered, large numbers covering a considerable surface of the decaying log. it is -- cm. high, the cap -- mm. broad, and the stem very slender. the =pileus= is convex, umbilicate, faintly striate, dull reddish yellow, in damp weather with a watery appearance. the =gills= are narrow, yellow, connected by veins, strongly curved because of the form of the pileus, and then being decurrent on the stem. the =stem= is slender, often ascending, brownish hairy toward the base, and paler above. [illustration: figure .--omphalia epichysium. entire plant smoky or dull gray in color (natural size). copyright.] =omphalia epichysium= pers.--this plant occurs during the autumn in woods, growing usually on much decayed wood, or sometimes apparently on the ground. the smoky, or dull gray color of the entire plant, the depressed or funnel-shaped pileus, and short, slender stem serve to distinguish it. the cap is -- cm. broad, the plant is -- cm. high, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is convex, becoming expanded, umbilicate or depressed at the center or nearly funnel-shaped, smooth, smoky or gray with a saturated watery appearance, light gray or nearly white when dry. the =gills= are narrow, crowded, or a little decurrent. the slender =stem= is smooth, hollow, equal. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected in woods near ithaca, n. y., in the autumn of . pleurotus fr. [illustration: figure .--pleurotus ulmarius. cap white, or with shades of yellow or brown near the center (natural size). copyright.] the genus _pleurotus_ is usually recognized without difficulty among the fleshy, white-spored agarics, because of the eccentric (not quite in the center of the pileus) or lateral stem, or by the pileus being attached at one side in a more or less shelving position, or in some species where the upper side of the pileus lies directly against the wood on which the plant is growing, and is then said to be _resupinate_. the gills are either decurrent (extending downward) on the stem, or in some species they are rounded or notched at the junction with the stem. there is no annulus, though sometimes a veil, and the genus resembles both _tricholoma_ and _clitocybe_, except for the position of the stem on the pileus. in _tricholoma_ and _clitocybe_ the stem is usually attached at the center, and the majority of the species grow on the ground, while the species of _pleurotus_ are especially characterized by growing on wood. some species, at least, appear to grow from the ground, as in pleurotus petaloides, which is sometimes found growing on buried roots or portions of decayed stumps which no longer show above ground. on the other hand species of _clitocybe_, as in c. candida (fig. ), often have an eccentric stem. this presents to us one of the many difficulties which students, especially beginners, of this group of fungi meet, and also suggests how unsatisfactory any arrangement of genera as yet proposed is. =pleurotus ulmarius= bull. =edible.=--the elm pleurotus is so called because it is often found growing on dead elm branches or trunks, or from wounds in living trees, but it is not confined to the elm. it is a large species, easily distinguished from the oyster agaric and the other related species by its long stem attached usually near the center of the cap, and by the gills being rounded or notched at their inner extremity. the cap is -- cm. broad, the stem -- cm. long, and -- cm. in thickness. [illustration: figure .--pleurotus ulmarius. under view and section (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is convex, the margin incurved, then nearly expanded, smooth, firm, white or whitish, or with shades of yellow or brown on the center, and the flesh is white. the =gills= are broad, rather distant, sinuate, white or nearly so. the =spores= are globose, -- µ in diameter. the =stem= is firm, eccentric, usually curved because of its lateral attachment on the side of the tree, and the horizontal position of the pileus. the elm pleurotus has been long known as an edible fungus, and is regarded as an excellent one for food on account of its flavor and because of its large size. it occurs abundantly during the late autumn, and at this season of the year is usually well protected from the attacks of insects. it occurs in the woods, or fields, more frequently on dead trees. on shade trees which have been severely pruned, and are nearly or quite dead, it sometimes appears at the wounds, where limbs have been removed, in great abundance. in the plants shown in fig. the stems are strongly curved because the weight of the cap bore the plant downward. sometimes when the plant is growing directly on the upper side of a branch or log, the stem may be central. =pleurotus ostreatus= jacq. =edible.=--this plant is known as the oyster agaric, because the form of the plant sometimes suggests the outline of an oyster shell, as is seen in fig. . it grows on dead trunks and branches, usually in crowded clusters, the caps often overlapping or imbricated. it is large, measuring -- cm. or more broad. the =pileus= is elongated and attached at one side by being sessile, or it is narrowed into a very short stem. it is broadest at the outer extremity, where it becomes quite thin toward the margin. it is more or less curved in outline as seen from the side, being depressed usually on the upper side near the point of attachment, and toward the margin convex and the margin incurved. the color is white, light gray, buff or dark gray, often becoming yellowish on drying. the =gills= are white, broad, not much crowded, and run down on the stem in long elevated lines resembling veins, which anastomose often in a reticulate fashion. the =spores= are white, oblong, -- µ long. the =stem= when present is very short, and often hairy at the base. the oyster agaric has long been known as an edible mushroom, but it is not ranked among the best, because, like most _pleuroti_, it is rather tough, especially in age. it is well to select young plants. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at ithaca, n. y. [illustration: plate , figure .--pleurotus ostreatus. under view showing decurrent and anastomosing gills on the stem. cap white, light gray, buff, or dark gray in color. spores white (natural size, often larger). copyright.] =pleurotus sapidus= kalchb. =edible.=--this plant usually grows in large clusters from dead trunks or branches or from dead portions of living trees. it grows on a number of different kinds of trees. the stems are often joined at the base, but sometimes the plants are scattered over a portion of the branch or trunk. the cap is from -- cm. broad. the plants occur from june to november. [illustration: plate , figure .--pleurotus sapidus. color of cap white, yellowish, gray, or brownish, with lilac tints sometimes. spores lilac tinted in mass ( / natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is convex, the margin incurved when young, and more or less depressed in age, smooth, broadened toward the margin and tapering into the short stem, which is very short in some cases and elongated in others. often the caps are quite irregular and the margin wavy, especially when old. it is quite firm, but the margin splits quite readily on being handled. the color varies greatly, white, yellowish, gray, or brownish and lilac tints. the flesh is white. the =stems= are usually attached to the pileus, at or near one edge. the =gills= are white, broad, not at all crowded, and extend down on the stem as in the oyster agaric. they are white or whitish, and as in the other related species are sometimes cracked, due probably to the tension brought to bear because of the expanding pileus. the =spores= are tinged with lilac when seen in mass, as when caught on paper. the color seems to be intensified after the spores have lain on the paper for a day or two. it is very difficult to distinguish this species from the oyster agaric. the color of the spores seems to be the only distinguishing character, and this may not be constant. peck suggests that it may only be a variety of the oyster agaric. i have found the plant growing from a dead spot on the base of a living oak tree. there was for several years a drive near this tree, and the wheels of vehicles cut into the roots of the tree on this side, and probably so injured it as to kill a portion and give this fungus and another one (_polystictus pergamenus_) a start, and later they have slowly encroached on the side of the tree. figure represents the plant (no. , c. u. herbarium) from a dead maple trunk in a woods near ithaca, collected during the autumn of . this plant compares favorably with the oyster agaric as an edible one. neither of these plants preserve as well as the elm pleurotus. =pleurotus dryinus= pers. =edible.=--_pleurotus dryinus_ represents a section of the genus in which the species are provided with a veil when young, but which disappears as the pileus expands. this species has been long known in europe on trunks of oak, ash, willow, etc., and occurs there from september to october. it was collected near ithaca, n. y., in a beech woods along six-mile creek, on october th, , growing from a decayed knothole in the trunk of a living hickory tree, and again in a few days from a decayed stump. the pileus varies from -- cm. broad, and the lateral or eccentric stem is -- cm. long by -- cm. in thickness, the length of the stem depending on the depth of the insertion of the stem in a hollow portion of the trunk. the plant is white or whitish, and the substance is quite firm, drying quite hard. the =pileus= is convex to expanded, more or less depressed in the center, the margin involute, and the surface at first floccose, becoming in age floccose scaly, since the surface breaks up into triangular scales more prominent in and near the center, smaller and inconspicuous toward the margin. the prevailing color is white, but in age the scales become cream color or buff (in european plants said to become fuscous). the pileus is either definitely lateral (fig. ) or eccentric when the stem is attached near the center as in fig. . the =gills= are white, becoming tinged with yellow in age, decurrent (running down on the stem) in striæ for short distances, -- mm. broad, not crowded. the =stem= is nearly central (fig. ), or definitely lateral (fig. ), the length varying according to conditions as stated above. it is firm, tough, fibrous. the =veil= is prominent in young and medium plants, floccose, tearing irregularly as the pileus expands. figure is from plants (no. a c. u. herbarium) growing from knothole in living hickory tree, and fig. from plants (no. b) growing on a dead stump, near ithaca. according to the descriptions of _p. dryinus_ as given by persoon, and as followed by fries and most later writers, the pileus is definitely lateral, and more or less dimidiate, while in _p. corticatus_ fr., the pileus is entire and the stem rather long and eccentric. stevenson suggests (p. ) that corticatus is perhaps too closely allied to dryinus. the plants in our fig. agree in all respects with _p. corticatus_, except that possibly the lamellæ do not anastomose on the stem as they are said to in _corticatus_. according to the usual descriptions _corticatus_ is given as the larger species, while fig. of our plant, possessing the typical characters of _dryinus_, is the larger. the form of the pileus, the length and position of the stem, depends, as we know, to a large extent on the position of the plant on the tree. when growing from the upper side, so that there is room above for the expansion of the cap, the pileus is apt to be more regular, just as is the case in _pleurotus ulmarius_, and the stem more nearly central. when the plant grows from a hollow place in the trunk as those shown in fig. did, then there is an opportunity for them to grow more or less erect, at least until they emerge from the hollow, and then the pileus is more nearly equal in its expansion and the stem is longer. berkeley describes specimens of p. dryinus with long stems growing from a hollow in an ash, and stevenson (p. ) reports the same condition. [illustration: plate , figure .--pleurotus dryinus. side and upper view. plant entirely white, scales sometimes buff or cream colored in age (natural size). copyright.] =pleurotus sulfureoides= pk.--this rare species, first collected in the catskill mountains , and described by peck in the rd report, n. y. state mus., p. , , was found by me on two different occasions at ithaca, n. y., during the autumn of , on rotting logs, ithaca flats, and again in enfield gorge, six miles from ithaca. the plants are from -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness, and the entire plant is of a dull, or pale, yellow. [illustration: plate , figure .--pleurotus dryinus, form corticatus. entire plant white, scales cream or buff in age sometimes. the ruptured veil shows in the small plant below (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is nearly regular, fleshy, thin toward the margin, convex, umbonate, smooth or with a few small scales. the =gills= are rather crowded, broad, rounded or notched at the stem, pale yellow. the =spores= are elliptical, -- × -- µ. the =stem= is ascending and curved, nearly or quite central in some specimens in its attachment to the pileus, whitish or yellowish, mealy or slightly tomentose at the apex. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) on rotting log, ithaca flats, october, . [illustration: figure .--pleurotus sulfureoides. entire plant dull or pale yellow (natural size). copyright.] =pleurotus petaloides= bull. =edible.=--the petal-like agaric is so called from the fancied resemblance of the plant to the petal of a flower. the plant usually grows in a nearly upright or more or less ascending position, or when it grows from the side of a trunk it is somewhat shelving. it is somewhat spathulate in form, i. e., broad at the free end and tapering downward into the short stem in a wedge-shaped manner, and varies from -- cm. long and -- cm. in breadth. it grows on fallen branches or trunks, on stumps, and often apparently from the ground, but in reality from underground roots or buried portions of decayed stumps, etc. [illustration: figure .--pleurotus petaloides. color pale reddish brown or brown, sometimes entirely white; gills white (natural size). copyright.] [illustration: figure .--pleurotus petaloides. more irregular form than that shown in figure ; color same as there described (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= varies from a regular wedge-shape to spathulate, or more or less irregularly petaloid, or conchoid forms, the extremes of size and form being shown in figs. , . the margin is at first involute, finally fully expanded, and the upper surface is nearly plane or somewhat depressed. the color is often a pale reddish brown, or brown, and sometimes pure white. the margin is sometimes marked with fine striations when moist. the upper portion near the union with the stem is sometimes tomentose, sometimes smooth. the =gills= are narrow, white, or yellowish, crowded and strongly decurrent. while the plant varies greatly in form and size, it is easily recognized by the presence of numerous short whitish =cystidia= in the hymenium, which bristle over the surface of the hymenium and under a pocket lens present a "fuzzy" appearance to the lamellæ. they are -- × -- µ. the spores are white. figures , are from plants collected at ithaca. =pleurotus serotinus= schrad. this is an interesting plant and occurs during the autumn on dead trunks, branches, etc., in the woods. the stem is wanting, and the cap is shelving, dimidiate, reniform or suborbicular. the plants occur singly or are clustered and overlapping, about the same size and position as _claudopus nidulans_, from which it is readily told by its white gills and spores. the color varies from dull yellow to brownish, often with shades of olive or green. =pleurotus applicatus= batsch.--this is a pretty little species and usually occurs on much decayed wood, lying close to the ground so that it is usually directly on the under side of the log or branch. it does occur, however, on the side of the log when it is more or less shelving, because of the tendency of the pileus always to be more or less horizontal. [illustration: figure .--pleurotus applicatus. color gray to dark bluish gray, or black with a bluish tinge (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is -- mm. broad, its upper surface closely applied to the wood or bark on which it is growing when it appears directly on the under side. the margin is sometimes free and involute. sometimes it is attached only by the center of the pileus. there is then often a short process. when it grows on the side of the log it is attached laterally, or on the upper side of one margin, while the greater portion of the pileus is free and shelving. the surface is smooth or somewhat hairy. the color varies from gray to dark bluish gray, or black with a bluish tinge. the =gills= are thick, broad in proportion to the size of the cap, distant, and are said by some to be paler than the pileus. in plants collected at ithaca, the gills are often as dark as the pileus. the entire plant is rather tough, and revives after being dried if placed in water, resembling in this respect _marasmius_, _panus_, or _trogia_, and it may be more nearly related to one of these. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at ithaca. hygrophorus fries. [illustration: figure .--hygrophorus chrysodon. entirely white with golden yellow granules on cap and stem (natural size). copyright.] the genus _hygrophorus_ is one which presents some difficulties in the case of some of the species, especially to beginners, and plants need to be studied in the fresh condition to understand the most important character which separates it from certain of the other white-spored agarics. the substance of the pileus is continuous with that of the stem, that is, the stem is not easily separated from the cap at the point of junction, but is more or less tenacious. the gills may be adnexed, adnate, sinuate, or decurrent, but what is important they are usually rather distant, the edge is acute or sharp, and gradually thickened toward the junction with the cap, so that a section of the gill is more or less triangular. this is brought about by the fact that the substance of the cap extends downward into the gill between the laminæ or surfaces of the gill. but the most important character for determining the genus is the fact that the surfaces of the gills become rather of a waxy consistency at maturity, so that they appear to be full of a watery substance though they do not bleed, and the surface of the gill can be rather easily removed, leaving the projecting line of the _trama_. this is more marked in some species than in others. the waxy consistency of the gills then, with the gills acute at the edge, broad at the point of attachment to the pileus, and the gills being rather widely separated are the important characters in determining the species which belong to this genus. the nearest related genus is cantharellus, which, however, has blunt and forked gills. a number of the plants are brilliantly colored. [illustration: plate , figure .--hygrophorus eburneus. entirely white, slimy (natural size). copyright.] =hygrophorus chrysodon= (batsch.) fries. =edible.=--this plant has about the same range as _hygrophorus eburneus_, though it is said to be rare. it is a very pretty plant and one quite easily recognised because of the uniform white ground color of the entire plant when fresh, and the numerous golden floccules or squamules scattered over the cap and the stem. the name _chrysodon_ means golden tooth, and refers to these numerous golden flecks on the plant. a form of the plant, variety _leucodon_, is said to occur in which these granules are white. the plant is -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the plants grow on the ground in the woods, or rather open places, during late summer and autumn. the =pileus= is convex, then expanded, the margin strongly involute when young, and unrolling as the cap expands, very viscid, so that particles of dirt and portions of leaves, etc., cling to it in drying. the golden or light yellow granules on the surface are rather numerous near the margin of the pileus, but are scattered over the entire surface. on the margin they sometimes stand in concentric rows close together. the =gills= are white, distant, decurrent, -- mm. broad, white, somewhat yellowish in age and in drying, and connected by veins. the =spores= white, oval to ovate, the longer ones approaching elliptical, -- × -- µ. the =stem= is soft, spongy within, nearly equal, white, the yellowish granules scattered over the surface, but more numerous toward the apex, where they are often arranged in the form of a ring. when the plant is young these yellow granules or squamules on the stem and the upper surface of the inrolled margin of the pileus meet, forming a continuous layer in the form of a veil, which becomes spread out in the form of separated granules as the pileus expands, and no free collar is left on the stem. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected in october, , in woods, and by roadsides, ithaca, n. y. =hygrophorus eburneus= (bulliard) fries. =edible.=--this plant is widely distributed in europe and america. it is entirely white, of medium size, very viscid or glutinous, being entirely covered with a coating of gluten, which makes it very slippery in handling. the odor is mild and not unpleasant like that of a closely related species, _h. cossus_. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap is from -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. it grows on the ground in woods, or in open grassy places. the =pileus= is fleshy, moderately thick, sometimes thin, convex to expanded, the margin uneven or sometimes wavy, smooth, and shining. when young the margin of the cap is incurved. the =gills= are strongly decurrent, distant, with vein-like elevations near the stem. =spores= rather long, oval, -- × -- µ, granular. the =stem= varies in length, it is spongy to stuffed within, sometimes hollow and tapers below. the slime which envelops the plant is sometimes so abundant as to form a veil covering the entire plant and extending across from the margin of the cap to the stem, covering the gills. as the plant dries this disappears, and does not leave an annulus on the stem. [illustration: figure .--hygrophorus fuligineus. cap and stem dull reddish brown or smoky brown, very viscid when moist; gills white (natural size). copyright.] figure is from a photograph of plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected in enfield gorge near ithaca, n. y., nov. th, . =hygrophorus fuligineus= frost. =edible.=--the smoky hygrophorus was described in the th report of the n. y. state museum, p. . it is an american plant, and was first collected at west albany, during the month of november. it is one of the largest species of the genus, and grows on the ground in woods, in late autumn. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap from -- cm. broad, and the stem -- cm. in thickness. the large size of the plant together with the smoky, brown, viscid cap aid in the recognition of the plant. the =pileus= is convex, becoming expanded, smooth, very viscid, dull reddish brown or smoky brown, darker on the center; the margin of the pileus is even in young specimens, becoming irregular in others; and in age often elevated more or less. the =gills= are broad, distant, usually decurrent, often connected by veins, white, with yellowish tinge in drying. the =spores= oval to elliptical, -- × -- µ. the =stem= is stout, sometimes ascending, equal, or enlarged in the middle, or tapering toward the base, solid, viscid like the pileus, usually white, sometimes tinged with the same color as pileus, somewhat yellowish tinged in drying. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected in enfield gorge near ithaca, nov. , . =hygrophorus pratensis= (pers.) fr. =edible.=--this hygrophorus grows on the ground in pastures, old fields, or in waste places, or in thin and open woods, from mid-summer to late autumn. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. or more broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the cap being thick at the center, and the stem being usually stouter at the apex, often gives to the plant a shape like that of a top. the =pileus= is hemispherical, then convex, then nearly or quite expanded, white, or with various shades of yellow or tawny, or buff, not viscid, often cracking in dry weather. flesh very thick at the center, thinner at the margin. the flesh is firm and white. the =gills= are stout, distant, long decurrent, white or yellowish, and arcuate when the margin of the pileus is incurved in the young state, then ascending as the pileus takes the shape of an inverted cone. the =gills= are connected across the interspaces by vein-like folds, or elevations. the =spores= are nearly globose to ovate or nearly elliptical, white, -- × -- µ. the =stem= is smooth, firm outside and spongy within, tapering downward. =hygrophorus miniatus= fr. the vermilion hygrophorus is a very common plant in the woods during the summer. the cap and stem are bright red, sometimes vermilion. the gills are yellow and often tinged with red. the gills are adnate or sinuate. the plant is a small one but often abundant, and measures from -- cm. high, and the cap -- cm. broad. =hygrophorus coccineus= (schaeff.) fr., is a somewhat larger plant and with a scarlet cap, which becomes yellowish in age, and the gills are adnate. =hygrophorus conicus= (scop.) fr., is another bright red plant with a remarkable conical pileus, and the gills are annexed to free. =hygrophorus psittacinus= fr., is a remarkably pretty plant, the cap being from bell-shaped to expanded, umbilicate, striate, and covered with a greenish slime. it occurs in woods and open places. the prevailing color is yellow, tinged with green, but it varies greatly, sometimes yellow, red, white, etc., but nearly always is marked by the presence of the greenish slime, the color of this disappearing as the plant dries. it occurs in pastures, open woods, etc., from mid-summer to autumn. =hygrophorus hypothejus= fr., is another very variable plant in color as well as in size, varying from yellow, orange, reddish, sometimes paler, usually first grayish when covered with the olive colored slime. the gills are decurrent, white, then yellow. it occurs in autumn. lactarius fr. the genus _lactarius_ is easily distinguished from nearly all the other agarics by the presence of a milky or colored juice which exudes from wounded, cut, or broken places on the fresh plant. there are a few of the species of the genus _mycena_ which exude a watery or colored juice where wounded, but these are easily told from _lactarius_ because of their small size, more slender habit, and bell-shaped cap. by careful observation of these characters it is quite an easy matter to tell whether or not the plant at hand is a _lactarius_. in addition to the presence of this juice or milk as it is commonly termed, the entire plant while firm is quite brittle, especially the gills. there are groups of rounded or vesiculose cells intermingled with thread-like cells in the substance of the cap. this latter character can only be seen on examination with the microscope. the brittleness of the plant as well as the presence of these groups of vesiculose cells is shared by the genus _russula_, which is at once separated from _lactarius_ by the absence of a juice which exudes in drops. in determining the species it is a very important thing to know the taste of the juice or of the fresh plant, whether it is peppery, or bitter, or mild, that is, tasteless. if one is careful not to swallow any of the juice or flesh of the plant no harm results from tasting any of the plants, provided they are not tasted too often during a short time, beyond the unpleasant sensation resulting from tasting some of the very "hot" kinds. it is important also to know the color of the milk when it first exudes from wounds and if it changes color on exposure to the air. these tests of the plant should be made of course while it is fresh. the spores are white, globose or nearly so in all species, and usually covered with minute spiny processes. there are a large number of species. peck, th report, n. y. state mus., pp. -- , describes american species. [illustration: figure .--lactarius corrugis. showing corrugated cap, and white milk exuding. dark tawny brown, gills orange brown (natural size, often larger). copyright.] =lactarius volemus= fr. =edible.=--this species is by some termed the orange brown lactarius because of its usual color. it was probably termed _lactarius volemus_ because of the voluminous quantity of milk which exudes where the plant is broken or bruised, though it is not the only species having this character. in fresh, young plants, a mere crack or bruise will set loose quantities of the milky juice which drops rapidly from the plant. the plant is about the size of _lactarius deliciosus_ and occurs in damp woods, where it grows in considerable abundance from july to september, several usually growing near each other. the =pileus= is convex, then expanded, often with a small elevation (umbo) at the center, or sometimes plane, and when old a little depressed in the center, smooth or somewhat wrinkled. the cap is dull orange or tawny, the shade of color being lighter in some plants and darker in others. the flesh is white and quite firm. the =gills= are white, often tinged with the same color as the pileus, but much lighter; they are adnate or slightly decurrent. the =stem= is usually short, but varies from -- × -- cm. it is colored like the pileus, but a lighter shade. the milk is white, abundant, mild, not unpleasant to the taste, but sticky as it dries. this plant has also long been known as one of the excellent mushrooms for food both in europe and america. peck states that there are several plants which resemble _lactarius volemus_ in color and in the milk, but that no harm could come from eating them. there is one with a more reddish brown pileus, _lactarius rufus_, found sparingly in the woods, but which has a very peppery taste. it is said by some to be poisonous. =lactarius corrugis= pk. =edible.=--this species occurs with _lactarius volemus_ and very closely resembles it, but it is of a darker color, and the pileus is more often marked by prominent wrinkles, from which character the plant has derived its specific name. it is perhaps a little stouter plant than _l. volemus_, and with a thicker cap. the surface of the =pileus= seems to be covered with a very fine velvety tomentum which glistens as the cap is turned in the light. the =gills= are much darker than in _l. volemus_. the plants are usually clearly separated on account of these characters, yet there are occasionally light colored forms of _l. corrugis_ which are difficult to distinguish from dark forms of _l. volemus_, and this fact has aroused the suspicion that _corrugis_ is only a form of _volemus_. the milk is very abundant and in every respect agrees with that of _l. volemus_. i do not know that any one has tested _l. corrugis_ for food. but since it is so closely related to _l. volemus_ i tested it during the summer of in the north carolina mountains. i consider it excellent. the methods of cooking there were rather primitive. it was sliced and fried with butter and salt. it should be well cooked, for when not well done the partially raw taste is not pleasant. the plant was very abundant in the woods, and for three weeks an abundance was served twice a day for a table of twelve persons. the only disagreeable feature about it is the sticky character of the milk, which adheres in quantity to the hands and becomes black. this makes the preparation of the plant for the broiler a rather unpleasant task. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected in the woods at blowing rock, during september, . just before the exposure was made to get the photograph several of the plants were wounded with a pin to cause the drops of milk to exude, as is well shown in the illustration. the dark color of the lamellæ in _l. corrugis_ is due to the number of brown cystidia or setæ, in the hymenium, which project above the surface of the gills, and they are especially abundant on the edge of the gills. these setæ are long fusoid, -- × -- µ. the variations in the color of the gills, in some plants the gills being much darker than in others, is due to the variations either in the number of these setæ or to the variation in their color. where the cystidia are fewer in number or are lighter in color the lamellæ are lighter colored. typical forms of _lactarius volemus_ have similar setæ, but they are very pale in color and not so abundant over the surface of the gills. in the darker forms of _l. volemus_ the setæ are more abundant and darker in color, approaching those found in _l. corrugis_. these facts, supported by the variation in the color of the pileus in the two species and the variations in the rugosities of the pileus, seem to indicate that the two species are very closely related. [illustration: figure .--lactarius lignyotus. cap and stem sooty, cap wrinkled, gills white, then tinged with ochre (natural size, sometimes larger). copyright.] =lactarius lignyotus= fr.--this is known as the sooty lactarius and occurs in woods along with the smoky lactarius. it is distinguished from the latter by the dark brown color of the pileus and by the presence usually of rugose wrinkles over the center of the cap. in size it agrees with the smoky lactarius. the =pileus= is convex, then plane, or somewhat depressed in the center, dry, sometimes with a small umbo, dark brown or sooty (chocolate to seal brown as given in ridgeway's nomenclature of colors), covered with a very fine tomentum which has the appearance of a bloom. the margin of the cap, especially in old plants, is somewhat wavy or plicate as in _lactarius fuliginosus_. the =gills= are moderately crowded when young, becoming distant in older plants, white, then cream color or yellow, changing to reddish or salmon color where bruised. the =spores= are yellowish in mass, faintly so under the microscope, globose, strongly echinulate, -- µ. the taste is mild, or sometimes slowly and slightly acrid. the plants from north carolina showed distinctly the change to reddish or salmon color when the gills were bruised, and the taste was noted as mild. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected in the blue ridge mountains, at blowing rock, n. c., september, . =lactarius fuliginosus= fr.--the smoky or dingy lactarius occurs in woods and open grassy places. it is widely distributed. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the light smoky color of the cap and stem, the dull yellowish white color of the gills, and in old plants the wavy margin of the cap make it comparatively easy to recognize the species. [illustration: figure .--lactarius fuliginosus. cap and stem smoky, cap usually not wrinkled; gills white, then light ochre, distant (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is thin, at first firm, becoming soft, convex, then plane and often somewhat depressed in the center, usually even, dry, the margin in old plants crenately wavy, dull gray or smoky gray in color, with a fine down or tomentum. the =gills= are adnate, distant, more so in old plants, white, then yellowish, sometimes changing to salmon color or reddish where bruised. the =spores= are yellowish in mass, faintly yellow under the microscope, strongly echinulate or tuberculate, globose, -- µ. the =stem= is usually paler than the pileus, firm, stuffed. the milk is white, slowly acrid to the taste. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., during september, . =lactarius gerardii= pk.--this plant was described by dr. peck in the th report, n. y. state mus., p. , and in the th rept. p. . according to the descriptions it differs from _lactarius fuliginosus_ only in the spores being white, the gills more distant, and the taste being constantly mild. since the taste in _l. fuliginosus_ is sometimes mild, or slowly acrid, and the lamellæ in the older plants are more distant, the spores sometimes only tinged with yellow, there does not seem to be a very marked difference between the two species. in fact all three of these species, _fuliginosus_, _lignyotus_ and _gerardii_, seem to be very closely related. forms of _fuliginosus_ approach _lignyotus_ in color, and the =pileus= sometimes is rugose wrinkled, while in _lignyotus_ pale forms occur, and the pileus is not always rugose wrinkled. the color of the bruised lamellæ is the same in the two last species and sometimes the change in color is not marked. [illustration: figure .--lactarius torminosus. cap ochraceous and pink hues, with zones of darker color, margin of cap wooly (natural size, often much larger). copyright.] =lactarius torminosus= (schaeff.) fr.--this plant is widely distributed in europe, asia, as well as in america. it is easily recognised by the uneven mixture of pink and ochraceous colors, and the very hairy or tomentose margin of the cap. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap about the same breadth, and the stem -- cm. in thickness. it occurs in woods on the ground during late summer and autumn. the =pileus= is convex, depressed in the center, and the margin strongly incurved when young, the abundant hairs on the margin forming an apparent veil at this time which covers up the gills. the upper surface of the pileus is smooth, or sometimes more or less covered with a tomentum similar to that on the margin. the color is an admixture of ochraceous and pink hues, sometimes with concentric zones of darker shades. the =gills= are crowded, narrow, whitish, with a tinge of yellowish flesh color. the =stem= is cylindrical, even, hollow, whitish. the milk is white, unchangeable, acrid to the taste. figure , left hand plants, is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected in the blue ridge mountains, n. c., in september, , and the right hand plant (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at ithaca, n. y. [illustration: figure .--lactarius piperatus. entirely white, milk very peppery (natural size, often larger). copyright.] =lactarius piperatus= (scop.) fr.--this species is very hot and peppery to the taste, is of medium size, entirely white, depressed at the center, or funnel-shaped, with a short stem, and very narrow and crowded gills, and abundant white milk. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- cm. in thickness. it grows in woods on the ground and is quite common, sometimes very common in late summer and autumn. the =pileus= is fleshy, thick, firm, convex, umbilicate, and then depressed in the center, becoming finally more or less funnel-shaped by the elevation of the margin. it is white, smooth when young, in age sometimes becoming sordid and somewhat roughened. the =gills= are white, very narrow, very much crowded, and some of them forked, arcuate and then ascending because of the funnel-shaped pileus. the =spores= are _smooth_, oval, with a small point, -- × -- µ. the =stem= is equal or tapering below, short, solid. the milk is white, unchangeable, very acrid to the taste and abundant. the plant is reported as edible. a closely related species is _l. pergamenus_ (swartz) fr., which resembles it very closely, but has a longer, stuffed stem, and thinner, more pliant pileus, which is more frequently irregular and eccentric, and not at first umbilicate. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., during september, . [illustration: figure .--lactarius resimus. entire plant white, in age scales on cap dull ochraceous (natural size). copyright.] =lactarius resimus= fr.?--this plant is very common in the woods bordering a sphagnum moor at malloryville, n. y., ten miles from ithaca, during july to september. i have found it at this place every summer for the past three years. it occurs also in the woods of the damp ravines in the vicinity of ithaca. it was also abundant in the blue ridge mountains of north carolina, during september, . the plants are large, the caps -- cm. broad, the stem -- cm. long, and -- cm. in thickness. the =pileus= is convex, umbilicate, then depressed and more or less funnel-shaped in age, white, in the center roughened with fibrous scales as the plant ages, the scales becoming quite stout in old plants. the scales are tinged with dull ochraceous or are light brownish in the older plants. the ochre colored scales are sometimes evident over the entire cap, even in young plants. in young plants the margin is strongly involute or inrolled, and a loose but thick veil of interwoven threads extends from the surface of the roll to the stem. this disappears as the margin of the cap unrolls with the expanding pileus. the margin of the pileus is often sterile, that is, it extends beyond the ends of the gills. the =gills= are white, stout, and broad, decurrent, some of them forked near the stem. when bruised, the gills after several hours become ochraceous brown. the spores are subglobose, minutely spiny, -- µ. the =stem= is solid, cylindrical, minutely tomentose, spongy within when old. [illustration: figure .--lactarius resimus. section of young plant showing inrolled margin of cap, and the veil (natural size). copyright.] the taste is very acrid, and the white milk not changing to yellow. while the milk does not change to yellow, broken portions of the plant slowly change to flesh color, then ochraceous brown. figures , are from plants collected in one of the damp gorges near ithaca, during september, . the forked gills, the strongly inrolled margin of the cap and veil of the young plants are well shown in the illustration. =lactarius chrysorrheus= fr.--this is a common and widely distributed species, from small to medium size. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- . cm. in thickness. it grows in woods and groves during late summer and autumn. the =pileus= is fleshy, of medium thickness, convex and depressed in the center from the young condition, and as the pileus expands the margin becomes more and more upturned and the depression deeper, so that eventually it is more or less broadly funnel-form. the color varies from white to flesh color, tinged with yellow sometimes in spots, and marked usually with faint zones of brighter yellow. the zones are sometimes very indistinct or entirely wanting. the =gills= are crowded, white then yellow, where bruised becoming yellowish, then dull reddish. the =stem= is equal or tapering below, hollow or stuffed, paler than the pileus, smooth (sometimes pitted as shown in the fig. ). [illustration: figure .--lactarius chrysorrheus. cap white or flesh color, often tinged with yellowish, and with darker zones (natural size). copyright.] the plant is acrid to the taste, the milk white changing to citron yellow on exposure. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected in the blue ridge mountains at blowing rock, n. c., september, . the species was quite abundant in this locality during august and september, in chestnut groves, mixed woods, and borders of woods. =lactarius deliciosus= (l.) fr. =edible.=--_lactarius deliciosus_ grows in damp woods, is widely distributed and sometimes is quite common. it occurs from july to october. it is one of the medium or large sized species, being -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- cm. in thickness. it is easily recognized by its orange color and the concentric zones of light and dark orange around on the pileus, and by the orange milk which is exuded where wounded. the =pileus= is first convex, then slightly depressed in the center, becoming more expanded, and finally more or less funnel-shaped by the elevation of the margin. it is usually more or less orange in color or mottled with varying shades, and with concentric bands of a deeper color. the =gills= are yellowish orange often with darker spots. the =stem= is of the same color as the pileus but paler, sometimes with darker spots. the flesh of the plant is white, shaded with orange. in old plants the color fades out somewhat and becomes unevenly tinged with green, and bruised places become green. peck states that when fresh the plant often has a slight acrid taste. being a widely distributed and not uncommon plant, and one so readily recognized, it has long been known in the old world as well as here. all writers on these subjects concur in recommending it for food, some pronouncing it excellent, some the most delicious known. its name suggests the estimation in which it was held when christened. =lactarius chelidonium= pk. =edible.=--this pretty little _lactarius_ was described by peck in the th report, n. y. state mus., p. . it is closely allied to _lactarius deliciosus_, from which it is said to differ in its "more narrow lamellæ, differently colored milk, smaller spores." the plant is about cm. high, the cap about cm. broad, and the stem -- . cm. in thickness. the =pileus= is fleshy, firm, convex and depressed in the center, smooth, slightly viscid when moist, "of a grayish green color with blue and yellow tints, and a few narrow zones on the margin." the =gills= are crowded, narrow, some of them forked at the base, and sometimes joining to form reticulations. the =spores= are yellowish. the short =stem= is nearly equal, smooth, hollow, and the same color as the pileus. the taste is mild, the milk not abundant, and of a yellowish color, "resembling the juice of celandine or the liquid secreted from the mouth of grasshoppers." wounds on the plant are first of the color of the milk, changing on exposure to blue, and finally to green. the plant occurs during late summer and in the autumn in woods. peck reported it first from saratoga, n. y. it has been found elsewhere in the state, and it has probably quite a wide distribution. i found it during september, , in the blue ridge mountains of n. c. figure , plate , is from some of the water color drawings made by mr. franklin r. rathbun. [illustration: plate . fig. .--lactarius deliciosus. fig. .--l. chelidonium. fig. .--l. indigo. copyright .] =lactarius indigo= (schw.) fr.--the indigo blue lactarius is a very striking and easily recognized plant because of the rich indigo blue color so predominant in the entire plant. it is not very abundant, but is widely distributed in north america. the plant is -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem is -- cm. in thickness. the plants occur during late summer and in the autumn. the =pileus= when young is umbilicate, the margin involute, and in age the margin becomes elevated and then the pileus is more or less funnel-shaped. the indigo blue color is deeply seated, and the surface of the pileus has a silvery gray appearance through which the indigo blue color is seen. the surface is marked by concentric zones of a darker shade. in age the color is apt to be less uniformly distributed, it is paler, and the zones are fainter. the _gills_ are crowded, and when bruised, or in age, the indigo blue color changes somewhat to greenish. the milk is dark blue. russula pers. the species of _russula_ are very characteristic, and the genus is easily recognized in most cases after a little experience. in the very brittle texture of the plants the genus resembles _lactarius_, and many of them are more brittle than the species of this genus. a section of the pileus shows under the microscope a similar vesicular condition, that is the grouping of large rounded cells together, with threads between. but the species of _russula_ are at once separated from those of _lactarius_ by the absence of a juice which exudes in drops from bruised parts of _lactarius_. while some of the species are white and others have dull or sombre colors, many of the species of _russula_ have bright, or even brilliant colors, as red, purple, violet, pink, blue, yellow, green. in determining many of the species, however, it is necessary to know the taste, whether mild, bitter, acrid, etc., and in this respect the genus again resembles _lactarius_. the color of the gills as well as the color of the spores in mass should also be determined. the genus is quite a large one, and the american species are not well known, the genus being a difficult one. in jour. mycolog., = =: -- , , the characters of the tribes of russula with descriptions of species are quoted from stevenson, with notes on their distribution in n. a. by macadam. =russula alutacea= fr. =edible.=--this handsome _russula_ differs from the others described here in the color of the gills and spores. the plant is common and occurs in mixed woods during the summer and early autumn. it is -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem . -- . cm. in thickness. the =pileus= is fleshy, oval to bell-shaped, becoming plane, and sometimes umbilicate. it is red or blood red in color, sometimes purple, and becoming pale in age, especially at the center. it is viscid when moist, the margin thin and striate-tuberculate. the =gills= are free from the stem, stout, broad, first white, becoming yellow, and in age ochraceous. the gills are all of the same length, not crowded, and they are connected by vein-like elevations over the surface. the =stem= is stout, solid, even, white, portions of the stem are red, sometimes purple. the taste is mild, and the plant is regarded as one of the very good ones for food. =russula lepida= fr. =edible.=--this elegant _russula_ occurs in birch woods or in mixed woods during late summer and autumn. it is -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- cm. in thickness. the =pileus= is fleshy, convex, then expanded, obtuse, not shining, deep red, becoming pale in age, often whitish at the center, silky, in age the surface cracking, the margin blunt and not striate. the =gills= are rounded next the stem, thick, rather crowded, and sometimes forked, white, sometimes red on the edge near the margin of the pileus. the gills are often connected by vein-like elevations over the surface. the =stem= is equal, white or rose color. the taste is mild. =russula virescens= (schaeff.) fr. =edible.=--this plant grows on the ground in woods or in grassy places in groves from july to september. the stem is short, -- cm. long × -- cm. thick, and the cap is -- cm. broad. the plant is well known by the green color of the pileus and by the surface of the pileus being separated into numerous, quite regular, somewhat angular areas or patches, where the green color is more pronounced. the =pileus= is first rounded, then convex and expanded, and when old somewhat depressed in the center. it is quite firm, dry, greenish, and the surface with numerous angular floccose areas or patches of usually a deeper green. sometimes the pileus is said to be tinged with yellow. the =gills= are adnate, nearly free from the stem, and crowded. the =stem= is white and firm. the greenish russula, _russula virescens_, like a number of other plants, has long been recommended for food, both in europe and in this country. there are several species of _russula_ in which the pileus is green, but this species is readily distinguished from them by the greenish floccose patches on the surface of the pileus. =russula furcata= is a common species in similar situations, with forked gills, and the cap very variable in color, sometimes reddish, purple, purple brown, or in one form green. i know of the _russula furcata_ having been eaten in rather small quantities, and while in this case no harm resulted the taste was not agreeable. [illustration: plate . fig. .--russula virescens. fig. .--r. alutacea. fig. .--r. lepida. fig. .--r. emetica. fig. .--yellow russula. fig. .--r. adusta. copyright .] =russula fragilis= (pers.) fr.--this plant is very common in damp woods, or during wet weather from july to september. it is a small plant and very fragile, as its name suggests, much more so than most other species. it is -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem about cm. in thickness. the =pileus= is convex, sometimes slightly umbonate, then plane, and in age somewhat depressed. the cuticle peels off very easily. the color is often a bright red, or pink, sometimes purple or violet, and becomes paler in age. it is somewhat viscid when moist, and the margin is very thin and strongly striate and tuberculate, i. e., the ridges between the marginal furrows are tuberculate. the =gills= are lightly adnexed, thin, crowded, broad, all of the same length, white. the =stem= is usually white, sometimes more or less pink colored, spongy within, becoming hollow. the taste is very acrid. =russula emetica= fr. =poisonous.=--this _russula_ has a very wide distribution and occurs on the ground in woods or open places during summer and autumn. it is a beautiful species and very fragile. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- cm. in thickness. the =pileus= is oval to bell-shaped when young, becoming plane, and in age depressed. it is smooth, shining, the margin furrowed and tuberculate. the color is from pink or rosy when young to dark red when older, and fading to tawny or sometimes yellowish in age. the cuticle is easily separable as in _r. fragilis_, the flesh white, but reddish just beneath the cuticle. the =gills= are nearly free, broad, not crowded, white. the stem is stout, spongy within, white or reddish, fragile when old. the plant is very acrid to the taste and is said to be poisonous, and to act as an emetic. =russula adusta= (pers.) fr.--this plant occurs on the ground in woods during late summer and in autumn. it is -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem is -- . cm. in thickness. the =pileus= is fleshy, firm, convex, depressed at the center, and when old more or less funnel-shaped from the upturning of the margin, which is at first incurved and smooth. it varies from white to gray and smoky color. the =gills= are adnate, or decurrent, thin, crowded, of unequal lengths, white, then becoming dark. the =stem= is colored like the pileus. the entire plant becomes darker in drying, sometimes almost black. it is near _russula nigricans_, but is smaller, and does not have a red juice as _r. nigricans_ has. cantharellus adanson. from the other white-spored agarics of a fleshy consistency _cantharellus_ is distinguished by the form of the gills. the gills are generally forked, once or several times, in a dichotomous manner, though sometimes irregularly. they are blunt on the edge, not acute as in most of the other genera. the gills are usually narrow and in many species look like veins, folds, or wrinkles, but in some species, as in _cantharellus aurantiacus_, they are rather thin and broad. [illustration: figure .--cantharellus cibarius. under view showing forked gills with veins connecting them. entire plant rich chrome yellow (natural size).] =cantharellus cibarius= fr. =edible.=--this plant is known as the _chanterelle_. it has a very wide distribution and has long been regarded as one of the best of the edible mushrooms. many of the writers on fungi speak of it in terms of high praise. the entire plant is a uniform rich chrome yellow. sometimes it is symmetrical in form, but usually it is more or less irregular and unsymmetrical in form. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem short and rather thick. [illustration: plate , figure .--cantharellus aurantiacus. color orange yellow, and cap varies ochre, raw sienna, tawny, in different specimens (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is fleshy, rather thick, the margin thick and blunt and at first inrolled. it is convex, becoming expanded or sometimes depressed by the margin of the cap becoming elevated. the margin is often wavy or repand, and in irregular forms it is only produced at one side, or more at one side than at the other, or the cap is irregularly lobed. the =gills= are very narrow, stout, distant, more or less sinuous, forked or anastomosing irregularly, and because of the pileus being something like an inverted cone the gills appear to run down on the stem. the =spores= are faintly yellowish, elliptical, -- µ. figure represents but a single specimen, and this one with a nearly lateral pileus. [illustration: figure .--cantharellus aurantiacus, under view, enlarged nearly twice, showing regularly forked gills.] =cantharellus aurantiacus= fr.--this orange cantharellus is very common, and occurs on the ground or on very rotten wood, logs, branches, etc., from summer to very late autumn. it is widely distributed in europe and america. it is easily known by its dull orange or brownish pileus, yellow gills, which are thin and regularly forked, and by the pileus being more or less depressed or funnel-shaped. the plants are from -- cm. high, the cap from -- cm. broad, and the stem about -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is fleshy, soft, flexible, convex, to expanded, or obconic, plane or depressed, or funnel-shaped, the margin strongly inrolled when young, in age simply incurved, the margin plane or repand and undulate. the color varies from ochre yellow to dull orange, or orange ochraceous, raw sienna, and tawny, in different specimens. it is often brownish at the center. the surface of the pileus is minutely tomentose with silky hairs, especially toward the center, and sometimes smooth toward the margin. the flesh is -- mm. at the center, and thin toward the margin. the gills are arcuate, decurrent, thin, the edge blunt, but not so much so as in a number of other species, crowded, regularly forked several times, at length ascending when the pileus is elevated at the margin. the color of the =gills= is orange to cadmium orange, or sometimes paler, cadmium yellow or deep chrome. the =stem= is clay color to ochre yellow, enlarged below, spongy, stuffed, fistulose, soft, fibrous, more or less ascending at the base. the taste is somewhat nutty, sometimes bitterish. the plants in fig. (no. , c. u. herbarium) were collected near ithaca, october , . marasmius fr. in this genus the plants are tough and fleshy or membranaceous, leathery and dry. they do not easily decay, but shrivel up in dry weather, and revive in wet weather, or when placed in water. this is an important character in distinguishing the genus. it is closely related to _collybia_, from which it is difficult to separate certain species. on the other hand, it is closely related to _lentinus_ and _panus_, both of which are tough and pliant. in _marasmius_, however, the substance of the pileus is separate from that of the stem, while in _lentinus_ and _panus_ it is continuous, a character rather difficult for the beginner to understand. the species of _marasmius_, however, are generally much smaller than those of _lentinus_ and _panus_, especially those which grow on wood. the stem in _marasmius_ is in nearly all species central, while in _lentinus_ and _panus_ it is generally more or less eccentric. many of the species of the genus _marasmius_ have an odor of garlic when fresh. besides the fairy ring (_m. oreades_) which grows on the ground, _m. rotula_ is a very common species on wood and leaves. it has a slender, black, shining stem, and a brownish pileus usually with a black spot in the depression in the center. the species are very numerous. peck, rd report, n. y. state mus., p. -- , describes species. morgan jour. cinn. soc. nat. hist. = =: -- , describes species. =marasmius oreades= fr. =edible.=--this is the well known "fairy ring" mushroom. it grows during the summer and autumn in grassy places, as in lawns, by roadsides, in pastures, etc. it appears most abundantly during wet weather or following heavy rains. it is found usually in circles, or in the arc of a circle, though few scattered plants not arranged in this way often occur. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. [illustration: figure .--marasmius oreades. caps buff, tawny, or reddish.] the =pileus= is convex to expanded, sometimes the center elevated, fleshy, rather thin, tough, smooth, buff color, or tawny or reddish, in age, or in drying, paler. when moist the pileus may be striate on the margin. the =gills= are broad, free or adnexed, rounded near the stem, white or dull yellowish. the =spores= are elliptical, -- µ long. the =stem= is tough, solid, whitish. this widely distributed fungus is much prized everywhere by those who know it. it is not the only fungus which appears in rings, so that this habit is not peculiar to this plant. several different kinds are known to appear in rings at times. the appearance of the fungus in rings is due to the mode of growth of the mycelium or spawn in the soil. having started at a given spot the mycelium consumes the food material in the soil suitable for it, and the plants for the first year appear in a group. in the center of this spot the mycelium, having consumed all the available food, probably dies after producing the crop of mushrooms. but around the edge of the spot the mycelium or spawn still exists, and at the beginning of the next season it starts into growth and feeds on the available food in a zone surrounding the spot where it grew the previous year. this second year, then, the plants appear in a small ring. so in succeeding years it advances outward, the ring each year becoming larger. where the plants appear only in the arc of a circle, something has happened to check or destroy the mycelium in the remaining arc of the circle. it has been noted by several observers that the grass in the ring occupied by the mushrooms is often greener than that adjoining. this is perhaps due to some stimulus exerted by the mycelium of the fungus on the grass, or possibly the mycelium may in some way make certain foods available for the grass which gives an additional supply to it at this point. fig. is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected in a lawn, october , , ithaca. illustrations of some fine large rings formed by this fungus appeared in circular no. by mr. coville, of the division of botany in the u. s. dept. agr. =marasmius cohærens= (fr.) bres. (_mycena cohærens_ fr. _collybia lachnophylla_ berk. _collybia spinulifera_ pk.)--this plant grows in dense clusters, ten to twenty individuals with their stems closely joined below and fastened together by the abundant growth of threads from the lower ends. from this character the name _cohærens_ was derived. the plants grow on the ground or on very rotten wood in woods during late spring and in the summer. the plant is not very common in this country, but appears to be widely distributed both in europe and here, having been collected in carolina, ohio, vermont, new york, etc. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- . cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is fleshy, tough, convex or bell-shaped, then expanded, sometimes umbonate, or in age sometimes the margin upturned and more or less wavy, not viscid, but finely striate when damp, thin. the color varies from vinaceous cinnamon to chestnut or light leather color, or tawny, paler in age, and sometimes darker on the center. the =gills= are sometimes more or less crowded, narrow, -- mm. broad, adnate, but notched, and sometimes becoming free from the stem. the color is light leather color, brick red or bay, the color and color variations being due to numbers of colored cystidia or spicules scattered over the surface of the gills and on the edge. the =cystidia= are fulvous, fusoid, -- µ long. the =spores= are oval, white, small, × µ. the =stem= is long and slender, nearly cylindrical, tapering somewhat above, slightly enlarged below, and rooting. the color is the same as that of the pileus or dark bay brown, and shining, and seems to be due to large numbers of spicules similar to those on the gills. the color is paler below in some cases, or gradually darker below in others. the stems are bound together below by numerous threads. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected in woods near freeville, n. y. the plants have been collected near ithaca on three different occasions, twice near freeville about nine miles from ithaca, and once in the woods at ithaca. it is easily distinguished by its color and the presence of the peculiar setæ or cystidia. [illustration: figure .--marasmius cohaerens (fr.) bres. (= mycena cohaerens fr. = collybia lachnophylla berk. = c. spinulifera pk.) color chestnut, light leather color, tawny or vinaceous cinnamon, darker in center, stems dark, shining, gills leather color, or fulvous, or wine color, brick red or bay, varying in different specimens (natural size). copyright.] although the plant has been collected on several different occasions in america, it does not seem to have been recognized under this name until recently, save the record of it from carolina by de schweinitz (synop. fung. car. no. . p. ). lentinus fr. the plants of this genus are tough and pliant, becoming hard when old, unless very watery, and when dry. the genus differs from the other tough and pliant ones by the peculiarity of the gills, the gills being notched or serrate on the edges. sometimes this appearance is intensified by the cracking of the gills in age or in drying. the nearest ally of the genus is _panus_, which is only separated from _lentinus_ by the edge of the gills being plane. this does not seem a very good character on which to separate the species of the two genera, since it is often difficult to tell whether the gills are naturally serrate or whether they have become so by certain tensions which exist on the lamellæ during the expansion and drying of the pileus. schroeter unites _panus_ with _lentinus_ (cohn's krypt. flora, schlesien, = =, ; , ). the plants are usually very irregular and many of them shelving, only a few grow upright and have regular caps. =lentinus vulpinus= fr.--this is a large and handsome species, having a wide distribution in europe and in this country, but it does not seem to be common. it grows on trunks, logs, stumps, etc., in the woods. it was quite abundant during late summer and in the autumn on fallen logs, in a woods near ithaca. the =caps= are shelving, closely overlapping in shingled fashion (imbricated), and joined at the narrowed base. the surface is convex, and the margin is strongly incurved, so that each of the individual caps is shell-shaped (conchate). the surface of the pileus is coarsely hairy or hispid, the surface becoming more rough with age. many coarse hairs unite to form coarse tufts which are stouter and nearly erect toward the base of the cap, and give the surface a tuberculate appearance. toward the margin of the cap these coarse hairs are arranged in nearly parallel lines, making rows or ridges, which are very rough. the hairs and tubercles are dark in color, being nearly black toward the base, especially in old plants, and sometimes pale or of a smoky hue, especially in young plants. the pileus is flesh color when young, becoming darker when old, and the flesh is quite thin, whitish toward the gills and darker toward the surface. the =gills= are broad, nearly white, flesh color near the base, coarsely serrate, becoming cracked in age and in drying, narrowed toward the base of the pileus, not forked, crowded, -- mm. broad. the cap and gills are tough even when fresh. the plant has an intensely pungent taste. figures , represent an upper, front, and under view of the pilei (no. , c. u. herbarium). [illustration: plate , figure .--lentinus vulpinus. the coarse, hairy scales are black in old plants, paler, of a smoky hue, in younger ones (natural size). copyright.] =lentinus lecomtei= fr., is a very common and widely distributed species growing on wood. when it grows on the upper side of logs the pileus is sometimes regular and funnel-shaped (cyathiform), but it is often irregular and produced on one side, especially if it grows on the side of the substratum. in most cases, however, there is a funnel-shaped depression above the attachment of the stem. the =pileus= is tough, reddish or reddish brown or leather color, hairy or sometimes strigose, the margin incurved. the =stem= is usually short, hairy, or in age it may become more or less smooth. the =gills= are narrow, crowded, the spores small, ovate to elliptical -- × -- µ. according to bresadola this is the same as _panus rudis_ fr. it resembles very closely also _panus cyathiformis_ (schaeff.) fr., and _p. strigosus_ b. & c. =lentinus lepideus= fr., [_l. squamosus_ (schaeff.) schroet.] is another common and widely distributed species. it is much larger than _l. lecomtei_, whitish with coarse brown scales on the cap. it is -- cm. high, and the cap is often as broad. the stem is -- cm. long and -- cm. in thickness. it grows on wood. [illustration: figure .--lentinus vulpinus, front and under view (natural size). copyright.] =lentinus stipticus= (bull.) schroet. (_panus stipticus_ bull.) is a very small species compared with the three named above. it is, however, a very common and widely distributed one, growing on wood, and may be found the year around. the pileus is -- cm. in diameter, whitish or grayish, very tough, expanded in wet weather, and curled up in dry weather. the stem is very short, and attached to one side of the cap. when freshly developed the plant is phosphorescent. schizophyllum fr. this is a very interesting genus, but the species are very few. the plants are tough, pliant when fresh, and dry. the gills are very characteristic, being split along the edge and generally strongly revolute, that is, the split edges curve around against the side of the gill. this character can be seen sometimes with the aid of a hand lens, but is very evident when a section of the cap and gills is made and then examined with a microscope. the spores are white. [illustration: figure .--schizophyllum alneum (==s. commune). view of under side (natural size). copyright.] =schizophyllum alneum= (l.) schroet.--this species usually goes by the name of _schizophyllum commune_, but the earlier name is _s. alneum_. it is a very common plant and is world wide in its distribution, growing on wood, as on branches, trunks, etc. it is white, and the =pileus= is very hairy or tomentose, with coarse white hairs. it is -- cm. in diameter, and the cap is sessile, either attached at one side when the cap is more produced on one side than on the other, or it may be attached at or near the center of the top, when the cap is more evenly developed on all sides. it is often crenate or lobed on the margin, the larger plants showing this character more prominently. the margin is incurved. the =gills= are white, wooly, branched and extend out toward the margin of the cap like the radiations of a fan. the gills are deeply split along the edge, and strongly revolute. it is a very pretty plant, but one becomes rather tired of collecting it because it is so common. it may be found at all seasons of the year on dead sticks and branches, either in the woods or elsewhere, if the branches are present. it is very coriaceous, and tough. during dry weather it is much shrunken and curled up, but during rains it expands quickly and then it is seen in its beauty. [illustration: plate , figure .--trogia crispa. large cluster of caps, view of underside (natural size). copyright.] figure shows the plant in the expanded condition, from the under side. the plants were growing on a hickory branch, and were dry and shrunken when brought in the laboratory. the branch and the fungus were placed in water for a few hours, when the fungus expanded, and was then photographed in this condition. trogia fr. this genus is characterized, according to fries, by the gills being channeled along the edge, but singularly the only species attributed to the genus in europe and in our country has not channeled gills, but only somewhat crisped along the edges. it is usually, therefore, a difficult matter for a beginner to determine the plant simply from this description. the gills are furthermore narrow, irregular, and the plants are somewhat soft and flabby when wet, but brittle and persistent when dry, so that when moistened they revive and appear as if fresh. =trogia crispa= fr.--this species is the principal if not only one in europe and america. it is widely distributed, and sometimes not very uncommon. it occurs on trunks, branches, etc., often on the birch. the plants are from . -- cm. broad, usually sessile. the upper surface is whitish or reddish yellow toward the attachment, sometimes tan color, and when young it is sometimes covered with whitish hairs. the gills are very narrow, vein-like, irregular, interrupted or continuous, and often more or less branched. the gills are very much crisped, hence the name, blunt at the edge and white or bluish gray. the caps are usually much crowded and overlapped in an imbricated fashion as shown in fig. ; a photograph of a fine specimen after being moistened. chapter vii. the rosy-spored agarics. the spores are rosy, pink, salmon colored, flesh colored, or reddish. for analytical keys to the genera see chapter xxiv. pluteus fr. in the genus _pluteus_ the volva and annulus are both wanting, the gills are usually free from the stem, and the stem is easily broken out from the substance of the cap, reminding one in some cases of a ball and socket joint. the substance of the cap is thus said to be not continuous with that of the stem. the spores seen in mass are flesh colored as in other genera of this subdivision of the agarics. [illustration: figure .--pluteus cervinus. cap grayish brown, or sooty, smooth or sometimes scaly, rarely white, stem same color, but paler; gills first white, then flesh color (natural size, often larger). copyright.] =pluteus cervinus= schaeff. =edible.=--this is one of the very common species of the higher fungi, and is also very widely distributed. it varies considerably in size and appearance. it is -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. it occurs on the ground from underground roots or rotten wood, or grows on decaying stumps, logs, etc., from spring until late autumn. sometimes it is found growing in sawdust. the =pileus= is fleshy, bell-shaped, then convex, and becoming expanded, the surface usually smooth, but showing radiating fibrils, grayish brown, or sometimes sooty, sometimes more or less scaly. the =gills= are not crowded, broad, free from the stem, white, then becoming flesh color with the maturity of the spores. one very characteristic feature of the plant is the presence of =cystidia= in the hymenium on the gills. these are stout, colorless, elliptical, thick-walled, and terminate in two or three blunt, short prongs. the =stem= is nearly equal, solid, the color much the same as that of the pileus, but often paler above, smooth or sometimes scaly. in some forms the plant is entirely white, except the gills. in addition to the white forms occurring in the woods, i have found them in an old abandoned cement mine growing on wood props. [illustration: figure .--pluteus tomentosulus. cap and stem entirely white, gills flesh color, stem furrowed and tomentose (natural size). copyright.] =pluteus tomentosulus= pk.--this plant was described by peck in the d report, n. y. state mus., page , . it grows on decaying wood in the woods during july and august. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the description given by peck is as follows: "pileus thin, convex or expanded, subumbonate, dry, minutely squamulose-tomentose, white, sometimes pinkish on the margin; lamellæ rather broad, rounded behind, free, crowded, white then flesh colored; stem equal, solid, striate, slightly pubescent or subtomentose, white; spores subglobose, µ in diameter, generally containing a large single nucleus." from the plant collected at ithaca the following notes were made. the =pileus= and stem are entirely white, the gills flesh color. the pileus is expanded, umbonate, thin except at the umbo, minutely floccose squamulose, no pinkish tinge noted; the flesh is white, but on the umbo changing to flesh color where wounded. the =gills= are free, with a clear white space between stem and rounded edges, crowded, narrow (about -- mm. broad) edge finely fimbriate, probably formed by numerous bottle-shaped cystidia on the edge, and which extend up a little distance on the side of the gills, but are not distributed in numbers over the surface of the gills; =cystidia= thin walled, hyaline. the =spores= are flesh colored, subglobose, -- µ. =stem= cylindrical, even, twisted somewhat, white, striate and minutely squamulose like the pileus, but with coarser scales, especially toward the base, solid, flesh white. the species received its name from the tomentose, striate character of the stem. the plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) illustrated in fig. were collected in enfield gorge, vicinity of ithaca, july , . volvaria fr. this genus takes its name from the volva, which means a wrapper, and which, as we know from our studies of _amanita_, entirely envelops the plant at a young stage. the genus is characterized then by the rosy or reddish spores, the presence of a volva, and the annulus is wanting. the stem is easily separable from the pileus at its junction, in this respect being similar to _amanita_, _amanitopsis_, _lepiota_ and others. the gills are usually, also, free from the stem. the species grow on rotting wood, on leaf mould and on richly manured ground, etc. they are of a very soft texture and usually soon decay. =volvaria bombycina= (pers.) fr. =edible.=--the silky volvaria is so called because of the beautiful silky texture of the surface of the cap. it is not very common, but is world wide in its distribution, and occurs on decayed wood of logs, stumps, etc., during late summer and in autumn. it is usually of a beautiful white color, large, the volva large and thick, reminding one of a bag, and the stem is ascending when the plant grows on the side of the trunk, or erect when it grows on the upper side of a log or stump. the plant is from -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- . cm. thickness. the =pileus= is globose, then bell-shaped, and finally convex and somewhat umbonate, white, according to some becoming somewhat reddish. the entire surface is silky, and numerous hairs stand out in the form of soft down, when older the surface becoming more or less scaly, or rarely becoming smooth at the apex. the flesh is white. the =gills= are crowded, very broad along the middle, flesh colored, the edge sometimes ragged. the =spores= are rosy in mass, oval to broadly elliptical, -- × -- µ, smooth. the =stem= tapers from the base to the apex, is solid, smooth. the =volva= is large and bag-like. the plant is considered edible by some. figure is from a plant (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected on a log of acer rubrum in cascadilla woods, ithaca, on august th, . [illustration: figure .--volvaria bombycina. cap, stem and volva entirely white, gills flesh color (natural size). copyright.] =volvaria speciosa= fr.--this plant seems to be rare, but it has a wide distribution in europe and the united states. it occurs on richly manured ground, on dung, etc. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- cm. in thickness. the entire plant is white or whitish, sometimes grayish, especially at the center, where it is also sometimes darker and of a smoky color. the =pileus= is globose when young, then bell-shaped, and finally more or less expanded, and umbonate, smooth, very viscid, so that earth, leaves, etc., cling to it. the flesh is white and very soft. the =gills= are free, flesh colored to reddish or fulvous, from the deeply colored spores. the =spores= are broadly elliptical, or oval, -- × -- µ. the =stem= is nearly cylindrical, or tapering evenly from the base, when young more or less hairy, becoming smooth. the =volva= is large, edge free, but fitting very close, flabby and irregularly torn. the species is reported from california by mcclatchie, and from wisconsin by bundy. specimens were received in june, , from dr. post of lansing, mich., which were collected there in a potato patch. it was abundant during may and june. plants which were sent in a fresh condition were badly decayed by the time they reached ithaca, and the odor was very disagreeable. it is remarkable that the odor was that of rotting potatoes! in this connection might be mentioned dr. peck's observation (bull. torr. bot. club : p. , ) that _agaricus maritimus_ pk., which grows near the seashore, possessed "a taste and odor suggestive of the sea." mcclatchie reports that it is common in cultivated soil, especially grain fields and along roads, and that it is "a fine edible agaric and our most abundant one in california." clitopilus fr. in the rosy-spored agarics belonging to this genus the gills are decurrent, that is, extend for some distance down on the stem. the stem is fleshy. the gills are white at first and become pink or salmon color as the plants mature, and the spores take on their characteristic color. the plants should thus not be confused with any of the species of _agaricus_ to which the common mushroom belongs, since in those species the gills become dark brown or blackish when mature. the genus corresponds with _clitocybe_ among the white-spored ones. =clitopilus prunulus= scop. =edible.=--this species grows on the ground in the woods from mid-summer to autumn. it is not very common, but sometimes appears in considerable quantities at one place. during the autumn of quite a large number of specimens were found in a woods near ithaca, growing on the ground around an old stump. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and stem -- cm. in thickness. [illustration: plate , figure .--clitopilus prunulus, cap whitish or dark gray, gills flesh color (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is fleshy, firm, convex and becoming nearly plane, and sometimes as the plants become old the center may be slightly depressed. it is whitish in color, or dark gray, or with a leaden tint, dry, sometimes with a distinct bloom on the surface, and the margin is often wavy. the cap is sometimes produced more on one side than on the other. the =gills= are not close, at first whitish, then salmon colored as the spores mature, and they are decurrent as is characteristic of the genus. the =spores= are elliptical or nearly so, and measure -- µ long. figure is from plants collected near ithaca, in the autumn of . this species is considered to be one of the excellent mushrooms for food. when fresh it has a mealy odor and taste, as do several of the species of this genus. it is known as the prune mushroom. =clitopilus orcella= bull. =edible.=--this plant is sometimes spoken of as the sweet-bread mushroom. it is much like the prune mushroom just described, in odor and taste, and sometimes resembles it in form and other characters. it is white in color, and the plants are usually considerably smaller, and the pileus is, according to my observations, sometimes more irregular, lobed and wavy on the margin. the flesh is also softer, and the cap is said to be slightly viscid in wet weather. the plant grows in the woods and sometimes in open fields. entoloma fr. the volva and annulus are absent in this genus, the spores are rosy, the gills adnate to sinuate or adnexed, easily separating from the stem in some species. the stem is fleshy or fibrous, sometimes waxy, and the pileus is fleshy with the margin incurved, especially when young. the spores are prominently angular. the genus corresponds with _tricholoma_ of the white-spored agarics, and also with _hebeloma_ and _inocybe_ of the ochre-spored ones. _entoloma repandum_ bull., is an _inocybe_ [_i. repandum_ (bull.) bres.] and has angular spores resembling those of an _entoloma_, but the spores are not rosy. =entoloma jubatum= fr.--growing on the ground in woods. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is conic in some plants, to convex and umbonate, thin, minutely scaly with blackish hairy scales, dull heliotrope purple, darker on the umbo. the =gills= are vinaceous rufus to deep flesh color, strongly sinuate, and irregularly notched along the edge. the =spores= are irregularly oval to short oblong, coarsely angular, with an oil drop, -- angled, -- × -- µ. the =stem= is of the same color as the pileus, sometimes deeply rooting, hollow. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., during september, . =entoloma grayanum= pk.--this plant grows on the ground in woods. it is from -- cm. high, the cap is -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. [illustration: figure .--entoloma jubatum. entire plant dull heliotrope purple, gills later flesh color (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is convex to expanded, sometimes broadly umbonate, drab in color, the surface wrinkled or rugose, and watery in appearance. the flesh is thin and the margin incurved. the =gills= are first drab in color, but lighter than the pileus, becoming pinkish in age. the =spores= on paper are very light salmon color. they are globose or rounded in outline, -- angled, with an oil globule, -- µ in diameter. the =stem= is the same color as the pileus, but lighter, striate, hollow, somewhat twisted, and enlarged below. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., during september, . [illustration: figure .--entoloma grayanum. cap and stem drab, gills flesh color (natural size). copyright.] =entoloma strictius= pk.--the plants grow in grassy places, pastures, etc. they are clustered, sometimes two or three joined at the base of the stem. they are -- cm. high, the caps -- cm. broad, and the stems -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is convex, the disk expanded, and the margin incurved and more or less wavy or repand on the extreme edge. it is umbonate at the center with usually a slight depression around the umbo, smooth, watery (hygrophanous) in appearance, not viscid, of an umber color, shining, faintly and closely striate on the margin. in drying the surface of the pileus loses some of its dark umber color and presents a silvery sheen. the flesh is fibrous and umber color also. the =gills= are grayish white, then tinged with flesh color, slightly sinuate, the longer ones somewhat broader in the middle (ventricose), rather distant, and quite thick as seen in cross section, the center of the gill (trama) presenting parallel threads. the sub-hymenium is very thin and composed of small cells; the =basidia= are clavate, -- × -- µ, and four-spored. the =spores= are dull rose color on paper, subgloblose, -- µ in diameter, angular with -- angles as seen from one side. the =stem= is the same color as the pileus, but considerably lighter. it is hollow with white fibers within, fibrous striate on the surface, twisted, brittle, and somewhat cartilaginous, partly snapping, but holding by fibers in places, cylindrical, even, ascending, with delicate white fibers covering the lower end. [illustration: figure .--entoloma strictius. cap umber or smoky, stem paler, gills grayish, then flesh color (natural size). copyright.] figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected near ithaca, october, . leptonia fr. in _leptonia_ the stem is cartilaginous, hollow or stuffed, smooth and somewhat shining. the pileus is thin, umbilicate or with the center darker, the surface hairy or scaly, and the margin at first incurved. the gills are adnate or adnexed at first, and easily separating from the stem in age. many of the species are bright colored. [illustration: figure .--leptonia asprella. cap hair brown (mouse colored), minute dark scales at center, stem same color, but sometimes reddish brown, green or blue, gills flesh color.] =leptonia asprella= fr.--this species occurs on the ground in woods or in open grassy places. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is convex, then more or less expanded, umbilicate, rarely umbonate, hair brown (mouse colored), with dark scales on the center and minute scales over the surface, striate. the =gills= are sinuate to adnexed. the =spores= are strongly -- angled, -- × -- µ. the =stem= is smooth, even, usually the same color as the cap, but sometimes it is reddish brown, green, or blue. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., during september, . =leptonia incana= fr., is a more common species, and is characterized by an odor of mice. eccilia fr. the genus _eccilia_ corresponds with _omphalia_ of the white-spored agarics. the stem is cartilaginous, hollow or stuffed. the pileus is thin and somewhat membranaceous, plane or depressed at the center, and the margin at first incurved. the gills are more or less decurrent. =eccilia polita= pers.--this plant occurs on the ground in woods. it is -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem is -- mm. in thickness. [illustration: figure .--eccilia polita. cap hair brown to olive, stem lighter, gills flesh color, notched and irregular (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is convex and umbilicate, somewhat membranaceous, smooth, watery in appearance, finely striate on the margin, hair brown to olive in color. the =gills= are decurrent. in the specimens illustrated in fig. the gills are very irregular and many of them appear sinuate. the =spores= are strongly -- angled, some of them square, -- µ in diameter, with a prominent mucro at one angle. the =stem= is cartilaginous, becoming hollow, lighter in color than the pileus, and somewhat enlarged below. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., during september, . [illustration: plate , figure .--claudopus nidulans, view of under side. cap rich yellow or buff, gills flesh color (natural size). copyright.] claudopus w. smith. in the genus _claudopus_, recognized by some, the pileus is eccentric or lateral, that is, the stem is attached near the side of the cap, or the cap is sessile and attached by one side to the wood on which the plant is growing; or the plants are resupinate, that is, they may be spread over the surface of the wood. the genus is perhaps not well separated from some of the species of _pleurotus_ with lilac spores like _p. sapidus_. in fact, a number of the species were formerly placed in _pleurotus_, while others were placed in _crepidotus_ among the ochre-spored agarics. several species are reported from america. peck in th report n. y. state mus., p. , _et seq._, , describes five species. =claudopus nidulans= (pers.) pk.--this is one of the very pretty agarics growing on dead branches and trunks during the autumn, and is widely distributed. it has, however, been placed in the genus _pleurotus_, as _p. nidulans_. but because of the pink color of the spores in mass, peck places it in the genus _claudopus_, where fries suggested it should go if removed from _pleurotus_. it seems to be identical with _panus dorsalis bosc_. it is usually sessile and attached to the side of dead branches, logs, etc., in a shelving manner, or sometimes it is resupinate. the =pileus= is sessile, or sometimes narrowed at the base into a short stem, the caps often numerous and crowded together in an overlapping or imbricate manner. it is nearly orbicular, or reniform, and -- cm. broad. the margin is at first involute. the surface is coarsely hairy or tomentose, or scaly toward the margin, of a rich yellow or buff color. it is soft, but rather tough in consistency. the =gills= are broad, orange yellow. the =spores=, pink in mass, are smooth, elongated, somewhat curved, -- µ long. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected in woods near ithaca. chapter viii. the ochre-spored agarics. the spores are ochre yellow, rusty, rusty-brown, or some shade of yellow. for analytical keys to the genera see chapter xxiv. pholiota fr. the genus _pholiota_ has ferruginous or ferruginous brown spores. it lacks a volva, but has an annulus; the gills are attached to the stem. it then corresponds to _armillaria_ among white-spored agarics, and _stropharia_ among the purple-brown-spored ones. there is one genus in the ochre or yellow-spored plants with which it is liable to be confused on account of the veil, namely _cortinarius_, but in the latter the veil is in the form of loose threads, and is called an arachnoid veil, that is, the veil is spider-web-like. many of the species of _pholiota_ grow on trunks, stumps, and branches of trees, some grow on the ground. =pholiota præcox= pers. =edible.=--_agaricus candicans_ bull. t. , : _pholiota candicans_ schroeter, krypt, flora, schlesien, p. , . this plant occurs during late spring and in the summer, in pastures, lawns and grassy places, roadsides, open woods, etc. sometimes it is very common, especially during or after prolonged or heavy rains. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap from -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the plants are scattered or a few sometimes clustered. the =pileus= is convex, then expanded, whitish to cream color or yellowish, then leather color, fleshy, the margin at first incurved, moist, not viscid. sometimes the pileus is umbonate. the surface is sometimes uneven from numerous crowded shallow pits, giving it a frothy appearance. in age the margin often becomes upturned and fluted. the =gills= are adnate or slightly decurrent by a tooth, -- mm. broad, a little broader at or near the middle, crowded, white, then ferruginous brown, edge sometimes whitish. there is often a prominent angle in the gills at their broadest diameter, not far from the stem, which gives to them, when the plants are young or middle age, a sinuate appearance. the =spores= are ferruginous brown, elliptical. =cystidia= abruptly club-shaped, with a broad apiculus. the =stem= is stuffed, later fistulose, even, fragile, striate often above the annulus. the stem is whitish or sometimes flesh color. the veil is whitish, large, frail, and sometimes breaks away from the stem and clings in shreds to the margin of the cap. [illustration: plate , figure .--pholiota praecox. cap whitish, to cream, or leather color, stem white, gills white then ferruginous brown (natural size). copyright.] figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected on the campus of cornell university, june, . the taste is often slightly bitter. =pholiota marginata= batsch.--this is one of the very common species, a small one, occurring all during the autumn, on decaying trunks, etc., in the woods. the plants are usually clustered, though appearing also singly. they are from -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- µ in thickness. [illustration: plate , figure .--pholiota adiposa. cap very viscid, saffron-yellow or burnt umber or wood-brown in center, scales wood-brown to nearly black, stem whitish then yellowish; gills brownish, edge yellow (natural size, sometimes larger). copyright.] the =pileus= is convex, then plane, tan or leather colored, darker when dry. it has a watery appearance (hygrophanous), somewhat fleshy, smooth, striate on the margin. the =gills= are joined squarely to the stem, crowded, at maturity dark reddish brown from the spores. [illustration: figure .--pholiota marginata. cap and stem tan or leather color, gills dark reddish brown when mature (natural size). copyright.] the =stem= is cylindrical, equal, smooth, fistulose, of the same color as the pileus, becoming darker, and often with whitish fibrils at the base. the =annulus= is distant from the apex of the stem, and often disappears soon after the expansion of the pileus. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected near ithaca. =pholiota unicolor= vahl, is a smaller plant which grows in similar situations. the plants are usually clustered, -- cm. high, and the caps -- mm. in diameter, the annulus is thin but entire and persistent. the entire plant is bay brown, becoming ochraceous in color, and the margin of the cap in age is striate, first bell-shaped, then convex and somewhat umbonate. the gills are lightly adnexed. =pholiota adiposa= fr.--the fatty pholiota usually forms large clusters during the autumn, on the trunks of trees, stumps, etc. it is sometimes of large size, measuring up to cm. and the pileus up to cm. broad. specimens collected at ithaca during october, , were -- cm. high, the pileus -- cm. broad, and the stems -- mm. in thickness. the plants grew eight to ten in a cluster and the bases of the stems were closely crowded and loosely joined. the =pileus= is convex, then expanded, the margin more or less inrolled, then incurved, prominently umbonate, very viscid when moist, the ground color a saffron yellow or in the center burnt umber to wood brown. the cuticle of the pileus is plain or torn into scales which are wood brown, or when close together they are often darker, sometimes nearly black. the flesh is saffron yellow, thick at the center of the cap, thinning out toward the margin, spongy and almost tasteless. the =gills= are adnate, and sometimes a little notched, brown (mars brown), and the edge yellow, -- mm. broad. the =spores= are × µ. the =stem= tapers downward, is compact, whitish then yellow, saffron yellow, flesh vinaceous, viscid, and clothed more or less with reflexed (pointing downward) scales. the stem is somewhat cartilaginous, tough, but snapping off in places. the veil is thin floccose and sometimes with coarse scales, soon disappearing. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected on the ithaca flats from a willow trunk, oct. , . =pholiota aurivella= batsch, which has been found in the united states, is closely related to _p. adiposa_. =pholiota squarrosa= müll., widely distributed and common in the autumn, both in europe and america, on stumps and trunks, is a large, clustered, scaly plant, the scales "squarrose", and abundant over the pileus and on the stem below the annulus. it is brownish or ferruginous in color. =pholiota squarrosoides= pk., as its name indicates, is closely related to _p. squarrosa_. it has erect, pointed, persistent scales, especially when young, and has a similar habit to _squarrosa_, but differs chiefly in the pileus being viscid, while that of _p. squarrosa_ is dry. _p. subsquarrosa_ fr., occurring in europe, and also closely related to _p. squarrosa_, is viscid, the scales are closely appressed to the surface of the cap, while in _squarrosa_ they are prominent and revolute. =pholiota cerasina= pk., occurs on decaying trunks of trees during late summer. the plants grow in tufts. they are -- cm. high, the caps -- cm. in diameter, and the stems -- mm. in thickness. the pileus is smooth, watery when damp, cinnamon in color when fresh, becoming yellowish in drying, and the flesh is yellowish. the stem is solid, and equal, the apex mealy. the annulus is not persistent, and the gills are crowded and notched. the spores are elliptical, and rugose, × µ. [illustration: plate , figure .--pholiota squarrosoides. entire plant brownish or reddish brown; pileus viscid (three-fourths natural size). copyright.] [illustration: plate , figure .--pholiota johnsoniana. cap yellowish to yellowish brown, stem whitish, gills grayish then rust-brown (natural size). copyright.] =pholiota johnsoniana= pk. =edible.=--this species was described from specimens collected at knowersville, n. y., in , by peck, in the rd report n. y. state mus., p. , as _agaricus johnsonianus_. i found it at ithaca, n. y., for the first time during the summer of , and it was rather common during september, , in the blue ridge mountains at blowing rock, n. c. it grows in woods or in pastures on the ground. the larger and handsomer specimens i have found in rather damp but well drained woods. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is fleshy, very thick at the center, convex, then expanded and plane, smooth, sometimes finely striate on the thin margin when moist, yellowish, or fulvous, the margin whitish. the =gills= are attached to the stem by the upper angle (adnexed), rounded, or some of them angled, some nearly free. in color they are first gray, then rusty brown. they appear ascending because of the somewhat top-shaped pileus. the =spores= are irregularly ovoid, -- × -- . µ. the =stem= is cylindrical or slightly tapering upward, smooth, slightly striate above the annulus, whitish, solid, with a tendency to become hollow. the =veil= is thick, and the annulus narrow and very thick or "tumid," easily breaking up and disappearing. the plant is quite readily distinguished by the form of the pileus with the ascending gills and the tumid annulus. peck says it has a "somewhat nutty flavor." figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., during september, . naucoria fr. this genus, with ferruginous spores, corresponds with _collybia_ among the white-spored agarics. the gills are free or attached, but not decurrent, and the stem is cartilaginous. the plants grow both on the ground and on wood. peck, rd report n. y. state mus., p. , _et seq._, gives a synopsis of seven species. =naucoria semi-orbicularis= bull. =edible.=--this is one of the common and widely distributed species. it occurs in lawns, pastures, roadsides, etc., in waste places, from june to autumn, being more abundant in rainy weather. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is convex to expanded, and is remarkably hemispherical, from which the species takes the name of _semi-orbicularis_. it is smooth, viscid when moist, tawny, and in age ochraceous, sometimes the surface is cracked into areas. the =gills= are attached, sometimes notched, crowded, much broader than the thickness of the pileus, pale, then reddish brown. the =stem= is tough, slender, smooth, even, pale reddish brown, shining, stuffed with a whitish pith. peck says that the plants have an oily flavor resembling beechnuts. =naucoria vernalis= pk.--_naucoria vernalis_ was described by peck in rd report n. y. state mus., p. , from plants collected in may. the plants described here appeared in woods in late autumn. the specimens from which this description is drawn were found growing from the under side of a very rotten beech log, usually from deep crevices in the log, so that only the pileus is visible or exposed well to the view. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the taste is bitter. [illustration: figure .--naucoria vernalis. cap hair brown to clay color; gills grayish brown to wood brown; stem clay color (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is convex, then the center is nearly or quite expanded, the margin at first inrolled and never fully expanded, hygrophanous, smooth (not striate nor rugose), flesh about -- mm. thick at center, thin toward the margin. the color changes during growth, it is from ochraceous rufus when young ( -- mm. broad), then clove brown to hair brown and clay color in age. the =gills= are grayish brown to wood brown, at first adnate to slightly sinuate, then easily breaking away and appearing adnexed. the =spores= are wood brown in color, oval to short elliptical and inequilateral -- × -- µ. =cystidia= hyaline, bottle shaped, -- × -- µ. the =stem= is somewhat hollow and stuffed, rather cartilaginous, though somewhat brittle, especially when very damp, breaking out from the pileus easily though with fragments of the gills remaining attached, not strongly continuous with the substance of the pileus. the color is buff to pale clay color; the stem being even, not bulbous but somewhat enlarged below, mealy over the entire length, which may be washed off by rains, striate at apex either from marks left by the gills or remnants of the gills as they become freed from the stem. base of stem sometimes with white cottony threads, especially in damp situations. in the original description the stem is said to be "striate sulcate." figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected in woods near ithaca, october , . galera fr. _galera_ with ochraceous (ochraceous ferruginous) spores corresponds to _mycena_ among the white-spored agarics. the pileus is usually bell-shaped, and when young the margin fits straight against the stem. the stem is somewhat cartilaginous, but often very fragile. the genus does not contain many species. peck gives a synopsis of five american species in the rd report n. y. state mus., p. , _et seq._, and of twelve species in the th report, p. , _et seq._ one of the common species is =galera tenera= schaeff. it occurs in grassy fields or in manured places. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- mm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is oval to bell-shaped, and tawny in color, thin, smooth, finely striate, becoming paler when dry. the =gills= are crowded, reddish-brown, adnexed and easily separating. the =stem= is smooth, colored like the pileus but a little paler, sometimes striate, and with mealy whitish particles above. =galera lateritia= is a related species, somewhat larger, and growing on dung heaps and in fields and lawns. =galera ovalis= fr., is also a larger plant, somewhat shorter than the latter, and with a prominent ovate cap when young. =galera antipoda= lasch., similar in general appearance to g. _tenera_, has a rooting base by which it is easily known. =galera flava= pk., occurs among vegetable mold in woods. the pileus is membraneous, ovate or campanulate, moist or somewhat watery, obtuse, plicate, striate on the margin, yellow. the plants are -- cm. high, the caps -- mm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the plant is recognized by the pale yellow color of the caps and the plicate striate character of the margin. the plicate striate character of the cap is singular among the species of this genus, and is shared by another species, =g. coprinoides= pk. flammula fr. in the genus _flammula_, the pileus is fleshy, stem fleshy-fibrous, and the gills adnate to decurrent. [illustration: figure .--flammula polychroa, under view. cap vinaceous buff to orange buff, scales lilac, purple or lavender; gills drab to hair brown (natural size). copyright.] =flammula polychroa= berk.--this is a beautiful plant with tints of violet, lavender, lilac and purple, especially on the scales of the pileus, on the veil and on the stem. it occurs in clusters during late summer and autumn, on logs, branches, etc., in the woods. the plants occur singly, but more often in clusters of three to eight or more. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is convex, and in the young stage the margin strongly incurved, later the cap becomes expanded and has a very broad umbo. it is very viscid. the surface is covered with delicate hairs which form scales, more prominent during mid-age of the plant, and on the margin of the cap. these scales are very delicate and vary in color from vinaceous-buff, lilac, wine-purple, or lavender. the ground color of the pileus is vinaceous-buff or orange-buff, and toward the margin often with shades of beryl-green, especially where it has been touched. in the young plants the color of the delicate hairy surface is deeper, often phlox-purple, the color becoming thinner as the cap expands. the =gills= are notched (sinuate) at the stem, or adnate, sometimes slightly decurrent, crowded. before exposure by the rupture of the veil they are cream-buff in color, then taking on darker shades, drab to hair brown or sepia with a purple tinge. the =stem= is yellowish, nearly or quite the color of the cap, often with a purplish tinge at the base. it is covered with numerous small punctate scales of the same color, or sulphur yellow above where they are more crowded and larger. the scales do not extend on the stem above the point where the veil is attached. the stem is slightly striate above the attachment of the veil. it is somewhat tough and cartilaginous, solid, or in age stuffed, or nearly hollow. the =veil= is floccose and quite thick when the plant is young. it is scaly on the under side, clinging to the margin of the pileus in triangular remnants, appearing like a crown. the color of the veil and of its remnants is the same as the color of the scales of the cap. the spores in mass are light brown, and when fresh with a slight purple tinge. (the color of the spores on white paper is near walnut brown or hair brown of ridgeway's colors.) under the microscope they are yellowish, oval or short oblong, often inequilateral, -- × -- µ. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., september, , on a fallen maple log. the plants sometimes occur singly. it has been collected at ithaca, n. y., and was first described from plants collected at waynesville, ohio. =flammula sapinea= fr., is a common plant growing on dead coniferous wood. it is dull yellow, the pileus -- cm. in diameter, and with numerous small scales. hebeloma fr. in _hebeloma_ the gills are either squarely set against the stem (adnate) or they are notched (sinuate), and the spores are clay-colored. the edge of the gills is usually whitish, the surface clay-colored. the veil is only seen in the young stage, and then is very delicate and fibrillose. the stem is fleshy and fibrous, and somewhat mealy at the apex. the genus corresponds with _tricholoma_ of the white-spored agarics. all the species are regarded as unwholesome, and some are considered poisonous. the species largely occur during the autumn. few have been studied in america. =hebeloma crustuliniforme= bull.--this plant is usually common in some of the lawns, during the autumn, at ithaca, n. y. it often forms rings as it grows on the ground. it is from -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. in diameter, and the stem is -- mm. in thickness. [illustration: figure .--hebeloma crustuliniforme, var. minor. cap whitish or tan color, or reddish-brown at center; gills clay color (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is convex and expanded, somewhat umbonate, viscid when moist, whitish or tan color, darker over the center, where it is often reddish-brown. the =gills= are adnexed and rounded near the stem, crowded, whitish, then clay color and reddish-brown, the edge whitish and irregular. the =gills= are said to exude watery drops in wet weather. the =stem= is stuffed, later hollow, somewhat enlarged at the base, white, and mealy at the apex. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected in lawns on the cornell university campus. the plants in this figure seem to represent the variety _minor_. inocybe fr. in the genus _inocybe_ there is a universal veil which is fibrillose in character, and more or less closely joined with the cuticle of the pileus, and the surface of the pileus is therefore marked with fibrils or is more or less scaly. sometimes the margin of the pileus possesses remnants of a veil which is quite prominent in a few species. the gills are adnate, or sinuate, rarely decurrent, and in one species they are free. it is thus seen that the species vary widely, and there may be, after a careful study of the species, grounds for the separation of the species into several genera. one of the most remarkable species is _inocybe echinata_ roth. this plant is covered with a universal veil of a sooty color and powdery in nature. the gills are reddish purple, and the stem is of the same color, the spores on white paper of a faint purplish red color. some place in it _psalliota_. collected at ithaca in august, . tubaria w. smith. in the genus _tubaria_ the spores are rust-red, or rusty brown (ferruginous or fuscous-ferruginous), the stem is somewhat cartilaginous, hollow, and, what is more important, the gills are more or less decurrent, broad next to the stem, and thus more or less triangular in outline. it is related to _naucoria_ and _galera_, but differs in the decurrent gills. the pileus is convex, or with an umbilicus. =tubaria pellucida= bull.--this species grows by roadsides in grassy places. the plants are from -- cm. high, and the cap -- cm. in diameter, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. [illustration: figure .--tubaria pellucida. dull reddish brown (natural size).] the =pileus= is conic, then bell-shaped, often expanded and with a slight umbo; the color is dull, reddish brown, and it has a watery appearance. the plant is sometimes enveloped with a loose and delicate universal or outer veil, which remains on the margin of the cap in the form of silky squamules as shown in the figure. the margin of the pileus is faintly striate. the =gills= are only slightly decurrent. figure is from plants (no. c. u. herbarium) collected along a street in ithaca. the stem is at first solid, becoming hollow, tapering above, and the apex is mealy. crepidotus fr. in _crepidotus_ the pileus is lateral, or eccentric, and thus more or less shelving, or it is resupinate, that is, lying flat or nearly so on the wood. the species are usually of small size, thin, soft and fleshy. the spores are reddish brown (ferruginous). the genus corresponds to _pleurotus_ among the white-spored agarics, or to _claudopus_ among the rosy-spored ones. peck describes eleven species in the th report, n. y. state mus., p. et seq., . =crepidotus versutus= pk.--this little _crepidotus_ has a pure white pileus which is covered with a soft, whitish down. the plants grow usually on the underside of rotten wood or bark, and then the upper side of the cap lies against the wood, and is said to be resupinate. sometimes where they grow toward the side of the log the cap has a tendency to be shelving. in the resupinate forms the cap is attached usually near one side, and then is produced more at the opposite side, so that it is more or less lateral or eccentric. as the plant becomes mature the edge is free from the wood for some distance, only being attached over a small area. the cap is somewhat reniform, thin, and from -- cm. in diameter. the =gills= radiate from the point where the cap is attached to the substratum, are not crowded, rounded behind, that is, at the lateral part of the cap where they converge. they are whitish, then ferruginous from the spores. the =spores= are sub-elliptical, sometimes inequilateral, and measure from -- × -- µ. [illustration: figure .--crepidotus versutus. cap white, downy; gills whitish, then rusty (twice natural size) copyright.] =crepidotus herbarum= pk., is a closely related species, separated on account of the smaller spores. both species grow either on herbs or decaying wood. as suggested by peck they are both closely related to _c. chimonophilus_ berk., which has "oblong elliptical" spores. the shape of the spores does not seem to differ from the specimens which i have taken to be _c. versutus_. =crepidotus applanatus= fr., is a larger species, shelving and often imbricated. =crepidotus fulvotomentosus= pk., is a pretty species with a tomentose cap and tawny scales, usually occurring singly. it is closely related to _c. calolepis_ fr. figure is from plants of _crepidotus versutus_ pk., (no. c. u. herbarium) collected on rotting wood at freeville, n. y., eight miles from ithaca. the plants are represented twice natural size. cortinarius fr. the genus _cortinarius_ is chiefly distinguished from the other genera of the ochre-spored agarics by the presence of a spider-web-like (arachnoid) veil which is separate from the cuticle of the pileus, that is, superficial. the gills are powdered by the spores, that is, the spores fall away with difficulty and thus give the gills a pulverulent appearance. the plants are fleshy and decay easily. it is necessary to have plants in the young as well as the old state to properly get at the characters, and the character of the veil is only seen in young or half developed specimens. the species are to be distinguished from other ochre-spored agarics with a cobwebby veil by the fact that the veil in _cortinarius_ is superficial and the gills powdery. the number of species is very large, and they are difficult to determine. they mostly occur in northern countries and in the autumn or late summer; some species, however, occur during early summer. peck, d report, n. y. state mus., p. -- , describes species. =cortinarius (inoloma) violaceus= (l.) fr. =edible.=--this species is known by the violet or dark violet color which pervades all parts of the plant. the plants are -- cm. high, the pileus -- cm. broad, and the stem is bulbous, -- mm. in thickness. the veil is single. it occurs in woods and open places during late summer and in the autumn. the flesh of the plant is also violet, and this color is imparted to the liquid when the plant is cooked. the flavor is said to be something like that of _agaricus campestris_. =cortinarius (myxacium) collinitus= (pers.) fr. =edible.=--this is known as the smeared cortinarius because of the abundant glutinous substance with which the plant is smeared during moist or wet weather. it grows in woods. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. in diameter, and the stem is -- mm. in thickness. it is usually known by the smooth, even, tawny cap, the great abundance of slimy substance covering the entire plant when moist, and when dry the cracking of the gluten on the stem into annular patches. the =pileus= is convex to expanded, smooth, even, glutinous when wet, shining when dry, tawny. the =gills= are adnate with a peculiar bluish gray tinge when young, and clay color to cinnamon when old. the =spores= are nearly elliptical, and -- × -- µ. the =stem= is cylindrical, even, and with patches of the cracked gluten when dry. =cortinarius (dermocybe) cinnamomeus= (l.) fr. =edible.=--the cinnamon cortinarius is so called because of the cinnamon color of the entire plant, especially of the cap and stem. it grows in the woods during summer and autumn. it is a very pretty plant, and varies from -- cm. high, the cap from -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is conic, or convex, and nearly expanded, sometimes nearly plane, and again with a prominent blunt or conic umbo. sometimes the pileus is abruptly bent downward near the margin as shown in the plants in fig. , giving the appearance of a "hip-roof." the surface is smooth, silky, with innate fibrils. sometimes there are cinnabar stains on parts of the pileus, and often there are concentric rows of scales near the margin. the flesh is light yellowish and with stains of cinnabar. the =gills= are adnate, slightly sinuate, and decurrent by a tooth, easily separating from the stem, rather crowded, slightly ventricose. the color of the gills varies greatly; sometimes they are the same color as the pileus, sometimes reddish brown, sometimes blood red color, etc. this latter form is a very pretty plant, and is var. _semi-sanguineus_ fr. [illustration: figure .--cortinarius cinnamomeus var. semi-sanguineus. cap and stem cinnamon, gills blood red color (natural size). copyright.] figure is from plants (no. c. u. herbarium) collected at ithaca. the species is widely distributed in this country as well as in europe. [illustration: plate , figure .--cortinarius ochroleucus. entire plant pale ochre color, gills later ochre yellow (natural size). copyright.] =cortinarius (dermocybe) ochroleucus= (schaeff.) fr.--this is a very beautiful plant because of the soft, silky appearance of the surface of pileus and stem, and the delicate yellowish white color. it occurs in woods, on the ground among decaying leaves. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem above is -- mm. in thickness, and below from -- cm. in thickness. [illustration: plate , figure .--cortinarius ochroleucus. colors same as in figure , this represents older plants.] the =pileus= is convex to nearly expanded, and sometimes a little depressed, usually, however, remaining convex at the top. it is dry, on the center finely tomentose to minutely squamulose, sometimes the scales splitting up into concentric rows around the cap. the cap is fleshy at the center, and thin at the margin, the color is from cream buff to buff, darker on the center. the =gills= are sinuate or adnate, slightly broader in the middle (ventricose) in age, pale at first, then becoming ochre yellow, and darker when the plant dries. the =spores= are tawny in mass, oval, elliptical, minutely tuberculate when mature, -- × -- µ. the =stem= is clavate, pale cream buff in color, solid, becoming irregularly fistulose in age, bulbous or somewhat ventricose below, the bulb often large and abrupt, . -- cm. in diameter. the =veil= is prominent and attached to the upper part of the stem, the abundant threads attached over an area cm. in extent and forming a beautiful cortina of the same color as the pileus and stem, but becoming tawny when the spores fall on it. the stem varies considerably in length and shape, being rarely ventricose, and then only at the base; the bulbous forms predominate and the bulb is often very large. figures , are from plants (no. c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., during september, . bolbitius fries. the genus _bolbitius_ contains a few species with yellowish or yellowish brown spores. the plants are very fragile, more or less mucilaginous when moist, usually with yellowish colors, and, what is the most characteristic feature beside the yellowish color of the spores, the gills are very soft, and at maturity tend to dissolve into a mucilaginous consistency, though they do not deliquesce, or only rarely dissolve so far as to form drops. the surface of the gills at maturity becomes covered with the spores so that they appear powdery, as in the genus _cortinarius_, which they also resemble in the color of the spores. in the mucilaginous condition of the gills the genus approaches _coprinus_. it is believed to occupy an intermediate position between _coprinus_ and _cortinarius_. the species usually grow on dung or in manured ground, and in this respect resemble many of the species of _coprinus_. some of the species are, however, not always confined to such a substratum, but grow on decaying leaves, etc. [illustration: figure .--bolbitius variicolor. cap viscid, various shades of yellow, or smoky olive; gills yellowish, then rusty (natural size).] =bolbitius variicolor= atkinson.--this plant was found abundantly during may and june, , in a freshly manured grass plat between the side-walk and the pavement along buffalo street, ithaca, n. y. the season was rainy, and the plants appeared each day during quite a long period, sometimes large numbers of them covering a small area, but they were not clustered nor cespitose. they vary in height from -- cm., the pileus from -- cm. broad, and the stem is -- mm. in thickness. the colors vary from smoky to fuliginous, olive and yellow, and the spores are ferruginous. the =pileus= is from ovate to conic when young, the margin not at all incurved, but lies straight against the stem, somewhat unequal. in expanding the cap becomes convex, then expanded, and finally many of the plants with the margin elevated and with a broad umbo, and finely striate for one-half to two-thirds the way from the margin to the center. when young the pileus has a very viscid cuticle, which easily peels from the surface, showing the yellow flesh. the cuticle is smoky olive to fuliginous, darker when young, becoming paler as the pileus expands, but always darker on the umbo. sometimes the fibres on the surface of the cap are drawn into strands which anastomose into coarse reticulations, giving the appearance of elevated veins which have a general radiate direction from the center of the cap. as the pileus expands the yellow color of the flesh shows through the cuticle more and more, especially when young, but becoming light olive to fuliginous in age. in dry weather the surface of the pileus sometimes cracks into patches as the pileus expands. the =gills= are rounded next the stem, adnate to adnexed, becoming free, first yellow, then ferruginous. the basidia are abruptly club-shaped, rather distant and separated regularly by rounded cells, four spored. the =spores= are ferruginous, elliptical, -- × -- µ, smooth. the =stem= is cylindrical to terete, tapering above, sulphur and ochre yellow, becoming paler and even with a light brown tinge in age. the stem is hollow, and covered with numerous small yellow floccose scales which point upward and are formed by the tearing away of the edges of the gills, which are loosely united with the surface of the stem in the young stage. the edges of the gills are thus sometimes finely fimbriate. at maturity the gills become more or less mucilaginous, depending on the weather. plants placed in a moist chamber change to a mucilaginous mass. when the plants dry the pileus is from a drab to hair brown or sepia color (ridgeway's colors). figure is from plants (no. c. u. herbarium). paxillus fr. in the genus _paxillus_ the gills are usually easily separated from the pileus, though there are some species accredited to the genus that do not seem to possess this character in a marked degree. the spores are ochre or ochre brown. often the gills are forked near the stem or anastomose, or they are connected by veins which themselves anastomose in a reticulate fashion so that the meshes resemble the pores of certain species of the family _polyporaceæ_. the pileus may be viscid or dry in certain species, but the plant lacks a viscid universal veil. the genus is closely related to _gomphidius_, where the gills are often forked and easily separate from the pileus, but _gomphidius_ possesses a viscid or glutinous universal veil. peck in the bull. n. y. state mus. nat. hist. : -- , describes five species. =paxillus involutus= (batsch.) fr. =edible.=--this plant is quite common in some places and is widely distributed. it occurs on the ground in grassy places, in the open, or in woods, and on decaying logs or stumps. the stem is central, or nearly so, when growing on the ground, or eccentric when growing on wood, especially if growing from the side of a log or stump. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- cm. in thickness. the plant occurs from august to october. [illustration: figure .--paxillus involutus. cap and stem gray, olive-brown, reddish brown or tawny (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is convex to expanded, and depressed in the center. in the young plant the margin is strongly inrolled, and as the pileus expands it unrolls in a very pretty manner. the young plant is covered with a grayish, downy substance, and when the inrolled margin of the cap comes in contact with the gills, as it does, it presses the gills against this down, and the unrolling margin is thus marked quite prominently, sometimes with furrows where the pressure of the gills was applied. the color of the pileus varies greatly. in the case of plants collected at ithaca and in north carolina mountains the young plant when fresh is often olive umber, becoming reddish or tawny when older, the margin with a lighter shade. as dr. peck states, "it often presents a strange admixture of gray, ochraceous, ferruginous, and brown hues." the flesh is yellowish and changes to reddish or brownish where bruised. the =gills= are decurrent, when young arcuate, then ascending, and are more or less reticulated on the stem. they are grayish, then greenish yellow changing to brown where bruised. the =spores= are oval, -- × -- µ. the =stem= is short, even, and of the same color as the cap. [illustration: plate , figure .--paxillus rhodoxanthus. cap reddish brown, stem paler, gills yellow (natural size). copyright.] at ithaca, n. y., the plant is sometimes abundant in late autumn in grassy places near or in groves. the figure is from plants (no. c. u. herbarium) growing in such a place in the suburbs of ithaca. at blowing rock, n. c., the plant is often very abundant along the roadsides on the ground during august and september. =paxillus rhodoxanthus= (schw.)--this species was first described by de schweinitz as _agaricus rhodoxanthus_, p. no. , synopsis fungorum carolinæ superioris, in schriften der naturforschenden gesellschaft : -- , . it was described under his third section of _agaricus_ under the sub-genus _gymnopus_, in which are mainly species now distributed in _clitocybe_ and _hygrophorus_. he remarks on the elegant appearance of the plant and the fact that it so nearly resembles _boletus subtomentosus_ as to deceive one. the resemblance to _boletus subtomentosus_ as one looks upon the pileus when the plant is growing on the ground is certainly striking, because of the reddish yellow, ochraceous rufus or chestnut brown color of the cap together with the minute tomentum covering the surface. the suggestion is aided also by the color of the gills, which one is apt to get a glimpse of from above without being aware that the fruiting surface has gills instead of tubes. but as soon as the plant is picked and we look at the under surface, all suggestion of a _boletus_ vanishes, unless one looks carefully at the venation of the surface of the gills and the spaces between them. the plant grows on the ground in woods. at blowing rock, n. c., where it is not uncommon, i have always found it along the mountain roads on the banks. it is -- cm. high, the cap from -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is convex, then expanded, plane or convex, and when mature more or less top-shaped because it is so thick at the middle. in age the surface of the cap often becomes cracked into small areas, showing the yellow flesh in the cracks. the flesh is yellowish and the surface is dry. the =gills= are not very distant, they are stout, chrome yellow to lemon yellow, and strongly decurrent. a few of them are forked toward the base, and the surface and the space between them are marked by anastomosing veins forming a reticulum suggestive of the hymenium of the _polyporaceæ_. this character is not evident without the use of a hand lens. the surface of the gills as well as the edges is provided with clavate =cystidia= which are filled with a yellow pigment, giving to the gills the bright yellow color so characteristic. these cystidia extend above the basidia, and the ends are rounded so that sometimes they appear capitate. the yellow color is not confined to the cystidia, for the sub-hymenium is also colored in a similar way. the =spores= are yellowish, oblong to elliptical or spindle-shaped, and measure -- × -- µ. the =stem= is the same color as the pileus, but paler, and more yellow at the base. it is marked with numerous minute dots of a darker color than the ground color, formed of numerous small erect tufts of mycelium. figure is from plants (no. c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., during september, . as stated above, the plant was first described by de schweinitz as _agaricus rhodoxanthus_ in . in (synop. fung. am. bor. p. , ) he listed it under the genus _gomphus_ fries (syst. mycolog. , ). since fries changed _gomphus_ to _gomphidius_ (epicrisis, , -- ) the species has usually been written _gomphidius rhodoxanthus_ schweinitz. the species lacks one very important characteristic of the genus _gomphidius_, namely, the slimy veil which envelops the entire plant. its relationship seems rather to be with the genus _paxillus_, though the gills do not readily separate from the pileus, one of the characters ascribed to this genus, and possessed by certain species of _gomphidius_ in even a better degree. (in paxillus involutus the gills do not separate so readily as they do in certain species of _gomphidius_.) berkeley (decades n. a. fungi, ) has described a plant from ohio under the name _paxillus flavidus_. it has been suggested by some (see peck, th report, p. ; lloyd, mycolog. notes, where he writes it as _flammula rhodoxanthus_!) that _paxillus flavidus_ berk., is identical with _agaricus rhodoxanthus_ schw. _paxillus rhodoxanthus_ seems also to be very near if not identical with _clitocybe pelletieri_ lev. (gillet, hymenomycetes = =: ), and schroeter (cohn's krypt, flora schlesien, = =, : , ) transfers this species to _paxillus_ as _paxillus pelletieri_. he is followed by hennings, who under the same section of the genus, lists _p. flavidus_ berk., from n. a. the figure of _clitocybe pelletieri_ in gillet hymenomycetes, etc., resembles our plant very closely, and saccardo (syll. fung. = =: ) says that it has the aspect of _boletus subtomentosus,_ a remark similar to the one made by de schweinitz in the original description of _agaricus rhodoxanthus_. _flammula paradoxa_ kalch. (fung. hung. tab. xvii, fig. ) seems to be the same plant, as well as _f. tammii_ fr., with which patouillard (tab. anal. n. ) places _f. paradoxa_ and _clitocybe pelletieri_. =paxillus atro=tomentosus= (batsch) fr.--this plant is not very common. it is often of quite large size, -- cm. high, and the cap -- cm. broad, the stem very short or sometimes long, from -- . cm. in thickness. the plant is quite easily recognized by the stout and black hairy stem, and the dark brown or blackish, irregular and sometimes lateral cap, with the margin incurved. it grows on wood, logs, stumps, etc., during late summer and autumn. [illustration: figure .--paxillus atro-tomentosus, form hirsutus. cap and stem brownish or blackish (natural size, small specimens, they are often larger). copyright.] the =pileus= is convex, expanded, sometimes somewhat depressed, lateral, irregular, or sometimes with the stem nearly in the center, brownish or blackish, dry, sometimes with a brownish or blackish tomentum on the surface. the margin is inrolled and later incurved. the flesh is white, and the plant is tough. the =gills= are adnate, often decurrent on the stem, and easily separable from the pileus, forked at the base and sometimes reticulate, forming pores. =spores= yellowish, oval, -- × -- µ. stevenson says that the gills do not form pores like those of p. involutus, but fig. (no. c. u. herbarium) from plants collected at ithaca, shows them well. there is, as it seems, some variation in this respect. the =stem= is solid, tough and elastic, curved or straight, covered with a dense black tomentum, sometimes with violet shades. on drying the plant becomes quite hard, and the gills blackish olive. =paxillus panuoides= fr.--this species was collected during august, , on a side-walk and on a log at ithaca. the specimens collected were sessile and the =pileus= lateral, somewhat broadened at the free end, or petaloid. the entire plant is pale or dull yellow, the surface of the pileus fibrous and somewhat uneven but not scaly. the plants are -- cm. long by -- cm. broad, often many crowded together in an imbricated manner. the =gills= are pale yellow, and the =spores= are of the same color when caught on white paper, and they measure -- × -- µ, the size given for european specimens of this species. the gills are forked, somewhat anastomosing at the base, and sinuous in outline, though not markedly corrugated as in the next form. from descriptions of the european specimens the plants are sometimes larger than these here described, and it is very variable in form and often imbricated as in the following species. =paxillus corrugatus= atkinson.--this very interesting species was collected at ithaca, n. y., on decaying wood, august , . the pileus is lateral, shelving, the stem being entirely absent in the specimens found. the =pileus= is -- cm. broad, narrowed down in an irregular wedge form to the sessile base, convex, then expanded, the margin incurved (involute). the color of the cap is yellow, maize yellow to canary yellow, with a reddish brown tinge near the base. it is nearly smooth, or very slightly tomentose. the flesh is pale yellow, spongy. the =gills= are orange yellow, -- mm. broad, not crowded, regularly forked several times, thin, blunt, very wavy and crenulate, easily separating from the hymenophore when fresh; the entire breadth of the gills is fluted, giving a corrugated appearance to the side. the =spores= in these specimens are faintly yellow, minute, oblong, broadly elliptical, short, sometimes nearly oval, × . -- µ. the =basidia= are also very minute. the spores are olive yellow on white paper. the plant has a characteristic and disagreeable odor. this odor persists in the dried plant for several months. figure is from the plants (no. c. u. herbarium) collected as noted above on decaying hemlock logs in woods. a side and under view is shown in the figure, and the larger figure is the under-view, from a photograph made a little more than twice natural size, in order to show clearly the character of the gills. the two smaller plants are natural size. when dry the plant is quite hard. [illustration: plate , figure .--paxillus corrugatus. cap maize yellow to orange yellow, reddish brown near the base; gills orange yellow. two lower plants natural size; upper one - / times natural size. copyright.] [illustration: plate , figure .--paxillus panuoides, pale yellow; natural size. copyright.] [illustration: plate . fig. .--boletus felleus. fig. .--b. edulis. copyright .] chapter ix. the tube-bearing fungi. polyporaceae. the plants belonging to this family are characterized especially by a honey-combed fruiting surface, that is, the under surface of the plants possesses numerous tubes or pores which stand close together side by side, and except in a very few forms these tubes are joined by their sides to each other. in _fistulina_ the tubes are free from each other though standing closely side by side. in _merulius_ distinct tubes are not present, but the surface is more or less irregularly pitted, the pits being separated from each other by folds which anastomose, forming a network. these pits correspond to shallow tubes. the plants vary greatly in consistency, some are very fleshy and soft and putrify readily. others are soft when young and become firmer as they age, and some are quite hard and woody. many of the latter are perennial and live for several or many years, adding a new layer in growth each year. the larger number of the species grow on wood, but some grow on the ground; especially in the genus _boletus_, which has many species, the majority grow on the ground. some of the plants have a cap and stem, in others the stem is absent and the cap attached to the tree or log, etc., forms a shelf, or the plant may be thin and spread over the surface of the wood in a thin patch. in the genus _dædalea_ the tubes become more or less elongated horizontally and thus approach the form of the gills, while in some species the tubes are more or less toothed or split and approach the spine-bearing fungi at least in appearance of the fruit-bearing surface. only a few of the genera and species will be described. the following key is not complete, but may aid in separating some of the larger plants: tubes or pores free from each other, though standing closely side by side, _fistulina_. tubes or pores not free, joined side by side, . --plants soft and fleshy, soon decaying, . plants soft when young, becoming firm, some woody or corky, stipitate, shelving, or spread over the wood, _polyporus_. tubes or pores shallow, formed by a network of folds or wrinkles, plants thin, sometimes spread over the wood, and somewhat gelatinous, _merulius_. --mass (stratum) of tubes easily separating from the cap when peeled off, cap not with coarse scales, tubes in some species in radiating lines, _boletus_. stratum of tubes separating, but not easily, cap with coarse, prominent scales, _strobilomyces_. stratum of tubes separating, but not easily, tubes arranged in distinct radiating lines. in one species (_b. porosus_) the tubes do not separate from the cap, _boletinus_. this last genus is apt to be confused with certain species of boletus which have a distinct radiate arrangement of the tubes. it is questionable whether it is clearly distinguished from the genus boletus. boletus dill. of the few genera in the _polyporaceæ_ which are fleshy and putrescent, _boletus_ contains by far the largest number of species. the entire plant is soft and fleshy, and decays soon after maturity. the stratum of tubes on the under side of the cap is easily peeled off and separates as shown in the portion of a cap near the right hand side of fig. . in the genus _polyporus_ the stratum of tubes cannot thus be separated. in the genera _strobilomyces_ and _boletinus_, two other fleshy genera of this family, the separation is said to be more difficult than in _boletus_, but it has many times seemed to me a "distinction without a difference." the larger number of the species of _boletus_ grow on the ground. some change color when bruised or cut, so that it is important to note this character when the plant is fresh, and the taste should be noted as well. =boletus edulis= bull. =edible.= [_ag. bulbosus_ schaeff. tab. , . _boletus bulbosus_ (schaeff.) schroeter. cohn's krypt, flora. schlesien, p. , ].--this plant, which, as its name implies, is edible, grows in open woods or their borders, in groves and in open places, on the ground. it occurs in warm, wet weather, from july to september. it is one of the largest of the boleti, and varies from -- cm. high, the cap from -- cm. broad, and the stem -- cm. in thickness. [illustration: plate , figure .--boletus edulis. cap light brown, tubes greenish yellow or yellowish; stem in this specimen entirely reticulate (natural size, often larger). copyright.] the =pileus= is convex to expanded, smooth, firm, quite hard when young and becoming soft in age. the color varies greatly, from buff to dull reddish, to reddish-brown, tawny-brown, often yellowish over a portion of the cap, usually paler on the margin. the flesh is white or tinged with yellow, sometimes reddish under the cuticle. the =tubes= are white when young and the mouths are closed (stuffed), the lower surface of the tubes is convex from the margin of the cap to the stem, and depressed around the stem, sometimes separating from the stem. while the tubes are white when young, they become greenish or greenish-yellow, or entirely yellow when mature. the =spores= when caught on paper are greenish-yellow, or yellow. they are oblong to fusiform, -- µ long. the =stem= is stout, even, or much enlarged at the base so that it is clavate. the surface usually shows prominent reticulations on mature plants near the tubes, sometimes over the entire stem. this is well shown in fig. from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at ithaca, n. y. [illustration: plate , figure .--cap light brown, tubes greenish yellow or yellowish; stem in these specimens not reticulate ( / natural size). copyright.] figure represents plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., in september, . the plant is widely distributed and has long been prized as an esculent in europe and america. when raw the plant has an agreeable nutty taste, sometimes sweet. the caps are sometimes sliced and dried for future use. it is usually recommended to discard the stems and remove the tubes since the latter are apt to form a slimy mass on cooking. =boletus felleus= bull. =bitter.=--this is known as the bitter boletus, because of a bitter taste of the flesh. it usually grows on or near much decayed logs or stumps of hemlock spruce. it is said to be easily recognized by its bitter taste. i have found specimens of a plant which seems to have all the characters of this one growing at the base of hemlock spruce trees, except that the taste was not bitter. at ithaca, however, the plant occurs and the taste is bitter. it is one of the large species of the genus, being from -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- . cm. in thickness. the =pileus= is convex becoming nearly plane, firm, and in age soft, smooth, the color varying from pale yellow to various shades of brown to chestnut. the flesh is white, and where wounded often changes to a pink color, but not always. the =tubes= are adnate, long, the under surface convex and with a depression around the stem. the tubes are at first white, but become flesh color or tinged with flesh color, and the mouths are angular. the =stem= is stout, tapering upward, sometimes enlarged at the base, usually reticulated at the upper end, and sometimes with the reticulations over the entire surface (fig. ). the color is paler than that of the cap. the =spores= are oblong to spindle-shaped, flesh color in mass, and single ones measure -- × -- µ. the general appearance of the plant is somewhat like that of the _boletus edulis_, and beginners should be cautioned not to confuse the two species. it is known by its bitter taste and the flesh-colored tubes, while the taste of the _b. edulis_ is sweet, and the tubes are greenish-yellow, or yellowish or light ochre. plate represents three specimens in color. =boletus scaber= fr. =edible.=--this species is named the rough-stemmed boletus, in allusion to the rough appearance given to the stem from numerous dark brown or reddish dots or scales. this is a characteristic feature, and aids one greatly in determining the species, since the color of the cap varies much. the cap is sometimes whitish, orange red, brown, or smoky in color. the plant is -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the =pileus= is rounded, becoming convex, smooth, or nearly so, sometimes scaly, and the flesh is soft and white, sometimes turning slightly to a reddish or dark color where bruised. the =tubes= are small, long, the surface formed by their free ends is convex in outline, and the tubes are depressed around the stem. they are first white, becoming darker, and somewhat brownish. the =stem= is solid, tapering somewhat upward, and roughened as described above. the plant is one of the common species of the genus _boletus_. it occurs in the woods on the ground or in groves or borders of woods in grassy places. writers differ as to the excellence of this species for food; some consider it excellent, while others regard it as less agreeable than some other species. it is, at any rate, safe, and peck considers it "first-class." =boletus retipes= b. & c.--this species was first collected in north carolina by curtis, and described by berkeley. it has since been reported from ohio, wisconsin, and new england (peck, boleti of the u. s.). peck reported it from new york in the d report, n. y. state mus., p. . later he recognized the new york plant as a new species which he called _b. ornatipes_ ( th report, n. y. state mus., p. ). i collected the species in the mountains of north carolina, at blowing rock, in august, . during the latter part of august and in september, , i had an opportunity of seeing quite a large number of specimens in the same locality, for it is not uncommon there, and two specimens were photographed and are represented here in fig. . the original description published in grevillea = =: , should be modified, especially in regard to the size of the plant, its habit, and the pulverulent condition of the pileus. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem . -- . cm. in thickness. [illustration: plate , figure .--boletus felleus. cap light brown, tubes flesh color, stem in this specimen entirely reticulate (natural size, often larger). copyright.] [illustration: figure .--boletus retipes. cap yellowish brown, to olive-brown or nearly black, stem yellow, beautifully reticulate, tubes yellow (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is convex, thick, soft and somewhat spongy, especially in large plants. the cap is dry and sometimes, especially when young, it is powdery; at other times, and in a majority of cases according to my observations, it is not powdery. it is smooth or minutely tomentose, sometimes the surface cracked into small patches, but usually even. the color varies greatly between yellowish brown to olive brown, fuliginous or nearly black. the =tubes= are yellow, adnate, the tube surface plane or convex. the spores are yellowish or ochraceous, varying somewhat in tint in different specimens. the =stem= is yellow, yellow also within, and beautifully reticulate, usually to the base, but sometimes only toward the apex. it is usually more strongly reticulate over the upper half. the stem is erect or ascending. the plant grows in woods, in leaf mold or in grassy places. it is usually single, that is, so far as my observations have gone at blowing rock. berkeley and curtis report it as cespitose. i have never seen it cespitose, never more than two specimens growing near each other. =boletus ornatipes= pk., does not seem to be essentially different from _b. retipes_. peck says (boleti u. s., p. ) that "the tufted mode of growth, the pulverulent pileus and paler spores separate this species" (_retipes_) "from the preceding one" (_ornatipes_). inasmuch as i have never found _b. retipes_ tufted, and the fact that the pileus is not always pulverulent (the majority of specimens i collected were not), and since the tint of the spores varies as it does in some other species, the evidence is strong that the two names represent two different habits of the same species. the tufted habit of the plants collected by curtis, or at least described by berkeley, would seem to be a rather unusual condition for this species, and this would account for the smaller size given to the plants in the original description, where the pileus does not exceed cm. in diameter, and the stem is only cm. long, and -- mm. in thickness. plants which normally occur singly do on some occasions occur tufted, and then the habit as well as the size of the plant is often changed. a good illustration of this i found in the case of _boletus edulis_ during my stay in the north carolina mountains. the plant usually occurs singly and more or less scattered. i found one case where there were -- plants in a tuft, the caps were smaller and the stems in this case considerably longer than in normal specimens. a plant which agrees with the north carolina specimens i have collected at ithaca, and so i judge that _b. retipes_ occurs in new york. =boletus chromapes= frost.--this is a pretty boletus, and has been reported from new england and from new york state. during the summer of it was quite common in the blue ridge mountains, north carolina. the plant grows on the ground in woods. it is -- cm. high, the cap is -- cm. in diameter, and the stem is -- mm. in thickness. it is known by the yellowish stem covered with reddish glandular dots. [illustration: plate , figure .--boletus chromapes. cap pale red, rose or pink, tubes flesh color, then brown, stem yellowish either above or below, the surface with reddish or pinkish dots (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is convex to nearly expanded, pale red, rose pink to vinaceous pink in color, and sometimes slightly tomentose. the flesh is white, and does not change when cut or bruised. the =tube= surface is convex, and the tubes are attached slightly to the stem, or free. they are white, then flesh color, and in age become brown. the =stem= is even, or it tapers slightly upward, straight or ascending, whitish or yellow above, or below, sometimes yellowish the entire length. the flesh is also yellowish, especially at the base. the entire surface is marked with reddish or pinkish dots. [illustration: plate , figure .--boletus vermiculosus. cap brown to gray or buff; tubes yellowish with reddish brown mouths; flesh quickly changes to blue where wounded (natural size, sometimes larger). copyright.] figure is from plants (no. c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., during september, . =boletus vermiculosus= pk.--this species was named _b. vermiculosus_ because it is sometimes very "wormy." this is not always the case, however. it grows in woods on the ground, in the eastern united states. it is from -- cm. high, the cap from -- cm. broad, and the stem -- cm. in thickness. the =pileus= is thick, convex, firm, smooth, and varies in color from brown to yellowish brown, or drab gray to buff, and is minutely tomentose. the flesh quickly changes to blue where wounded, and the bruised portion, sometimes, changing to yellowish. the =tubes= are yellowish, with reddish-brown mouths, the tube surface being rounded, free or nearly so, and the tubes changing to blue where wounded. the =stem= is paler than the pileus, often dotted with short, small, dark tufts below, and above near the tubes abruptly paler, and sometimes the two colors separated by a brownish line. the stem is not reticulated. figure is from a photograph of plants (no. c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., during september, . =boletus obsonium= (paul.) fr.--this species was not uncommon in the woods at blowing rock, n. c., during the latter part of august and during september, . it grows on the ground, the plants usually appearing singly. it is from -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- cm. in thickness, considerably broader at the base than at the apex. the =pileus= is convex to expanded, vinaceous cinnamon, to pinkish vinaceous or hazel in color. it is soft, slightly tomentose, and when old the surface frequently cracks into fine patches showing the pink flesh beneath. the thin margin extends slightly beyond the tubes, so that it is sterile. the flesh does not change color on exposure to the air. the =tubes= are plane, adnate, very slightly depressed around the stem or nearly free, yellowish white when young, becoming dark olive green in age from the color of the spores. the tube mouths are small and rotund. the =spores= caught on white paper are dark olive green. they are elliptical usually, with rounded ends, -- × -- µ. the =stem= is white when young, with a tinge of yellow ochre, and pale flesh color below. it is marked with somewhat parallel elevated lines, or rugæ below, where it is enlarged and nearly bulbous. in age it becomes flesh color the entire length and is more plainly striate rugose with a yellowish tinge at the base. the stem tapers gradually and strongly from the base to the apex, so that it often appears long conic. the plant is often badly eaten by snails, so that it is sometimes difficult to obtain perfect specimens. figure is from a photograph of plants (no. c. u. herbarium) from blowing rock, n. c. =boletus americanus= pk.--this species occurs in woods and open places, growing on the ground in wet weather. it occurs singly or clustered, sometimes two or three joined by their bases, but usually more scattered. it is usually found under or near pine trees. the plant is -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem is -- mm. in thickness. it is very slimy in wet weather, the cap is yellow, streaked or spotted with faint red, and the stem is covered with numerous brown or reddish brown dots. the =pileus= is rounded, then convex, becoming nearly expanded and sometimes with an umbo. it is soft, very slimy or viscid when moist, yellow. when young the surface gluten is often mixed with loose threads, more abundant on the margin, and continuous with the veil, which can only be seen in the very young stage. as the pileus expands the margin is sometimes scaly from remnants of the veil and of loose hairs on the surface. the cap loses its bright color as it ages, and is then sometimes streaked or spotted with red. the =tube= surface is nearly plane, and the tubes join squarely against the stem. the tubes are rather large, angular, yellowish, becoming dull ochraceous. the =stem= is nearly equal, yellow, and covered with numerous brownish or reddish brown glandular dots. no ring is present. this species grows in the same situations as the _b. granulatus_, sometimes both species are common over the same area. figure is from plants (no. c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., september, . the species is closely related to _b. flavidus_ fr., and according to some it is identical with it. =boletus granulatus= l. =edible.=--this species is one of the very common and widely distributed ones. it grows in woods and open places on the ground. like _b. americanus_, it is usually found under or near pines. it occurs during the summer and autumn, sometimes appearing very late in the season. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap is -- cm. broad, and the stem is -- mm. in thickness. the plants usually are clustered, though not often very crowded. [illustration: plate , figure .--boletus obsonium. cap cinnamon to pink or hazel in color, slightly tomentose; stem white, then pale flesh color (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is convex to nearly expanded, flat. when moist it is very viscid and reddish brown, paler and yellowish when it is dry, but very variable in color, pink, red, yellow, tawny, and brown shades. the flesh is pale yellow. the =tubes= are joined squarely to the stem, short, yellowish, and the edges of the tubes, that is, at the open end (often called the mouth), are dotted or granulated. the =stem= is dotted in the same way above. the =spores= in mass are pale yellow; singly they are spindle-shaped. [illustration: figure .--boletus americanus. cap slimy, yellow, sometimes with reddish spots, tubes yellowish (natural size). copyright.] the species is edible, though some say it should be regarded with suspicion. peck has tried it, and i have eaten it, but the viscid character of the plant did not make it a relish for me. there are several species closely related to the granulated boletus. _b. brevipes_ pk., is one chiefly distinguished by the short stem, which entirely lacks the glandular dots. it grows in sandy soil, in pine groves and in woods. =boletus punctipes= pk.--this species has been reported from new york state by peck. during september, , i found it quite common in the blue ridge mountains of north carolina, at an elevation of between and feet. it grows on the ground in mixed woods. the plants are -- cm. high, the caps -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. [illustration: figure .--boletus punctipes. cap viscid when moist, reddish brown, pink, yellow, tawny, etc., tubes yellowish, stem dark punctate (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is convex, sometimes becoming nearly plane, and it is quite thick in the center, more so than the granulated boletus, while the margin is thin, and when young with a minute gray powder. the margin often becomes upturned when old; the cap is viscid when moist, dull yellow. the =tubes= are short, their lower surface plane, and they are set squarely against the stem. they are small, the mouths rounded, brownish, then dull ochraceous, and dotted with glandules. the =stem= is rather long, proportionately more so than in the granulated boletus. it distinctly tapers upwards, is "rhubarb yellow," and dotted with glandules. this character of the stem suggested the name of the species. the =spores= are -- × -- µ. figure is from plants (no. c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c. it is closely related to _b. granulatus_ and by some is considered the same. =boletus luteus= linn. (_b. subluteus_ pk.) this species is widely distributed in europe and america, and grows in sandy soil, in pine or mixed woods or groves. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. in diameter, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. the general color is dull brown or yellowish brown, and the plants are slimy in moist weather, the stem and tubes more or less dotted with dark points. these characters vary greatly under different conditions, and the fact has led to some confusion in the discrimination of species. [illustration: figure .--boletus luteus. cap viscid when moist, dull yellowish to reddish brown, tubes yellowish, stem punctate both above and below the annulus (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is convex, becoming nearly plane, viscid or glutinous when moist, dull yellowish to reddish brown, sometimes with the color irregularly distributed in streaks. the flesh is whitish or dull yellowish. the =tube= surface is plane or convex, the tubes set squarely against the stem (adnate), while the tubes are small, with small, nearly rounded, or slightly angular mouths. the color of the tubes is yellowish or ochre colored, becoming darker in age, and sometimes nearly brown or quite dark. the =stem= is pale yellowish, reddish or brownish, and more or less covered with glandular dots, which when dry give a black dotted appearance to the stem. in the case of descriptions of _b. luteus_ the stem is said to be dotted only above the annulus, while the description of _b. subluteus_ gives the stem as dotted both above and below the annulus. the =spores= are yellowish brown or some shade of this color in mass, lighter yellowish brown under the microscope, fusiform or nearly so, and -- × -- µ. the =annulus= is very variable, sometimes collapsing as a narrow ring around the stem as in fig. , from plants collected at blowing rock, n. c., september, (_b. subluteus_ pk.), and sometimes appearing as a broad, free collar, as in fig. . the veil is more or less gelatinous, and in an early stage of the plant may cover the stem as a sheath. the lower part of the stem is sometimes covered at maturity with the sheathing portion of the veil, the upper part only appearing as a ring. in this way, the lower part of the stem being covered, the glandular dots are not evident, while the stem is seen to be dotted above the annulus. but in many cases the veil slips off from the lower portion of the stem at an early stage, and then in its slimy condition collapses around the upper part of the stem, leaving the stem uncovered and showing the dots both above and below the ring (_b. subluteus_). [illustration: plate , figure .--boletus luteus. cap drab to hair-brown with streaks of the latter, viscid when moist, tubes tawny olive to walnut-brown, stem black dotted both above and below the broad, free annulus (natural size). copyright.] an examination of the figures of the european plant shows that the veil often slips off from the lower portion of the stem in _b. luteus_, especially in the figures given by krombholtz, t. . in some of these figures the veil forms a broad, free collar, and the stem is then dotted both above and below, as is well shown in the figures. in other figures where the lower part of the veil remains as a sheath over the lower part of the stem, the dots are hidden. i have three specimens of the _b. luteus_ of europe from dr. bresadola, collected at trento, austria-hungary: one of them has the veil sheathing the lower part of the stem, and the stem only shows the dots above the annulus; a second specimen has the annulus in the form of a collapsed ring near the upper end of the stem, and the stem dotted both above and below the annulus; in the third specimen the annulus is in the form of a broad, free collar, and the stem dotted both above and below. the plants shown in fig. (no. , c. u. herbarium) were collected at blowing rock, n. c., during september, . they were found in open woods under kalmia where the sun had an opportunity to dry out the annulus before it became collapsed or agglutinated against the stem, and the broad, free collar was formed. my notes on these specimens read as follows: "the =pileus= is convex, then expanded, rather thick at the center, the margin thin, sometimes sterile, incurved. in color it runs from ecru drab to hair-brown with streaks of the latter, and it is very viscid when moist. when dried the surface of the pileus is shining. the =tubes= are plane or concave, adnate, tawny-olive to walnut-brown. the tubes are small, angular, somewhat as in _b. granulatus_, but smaller, and they are granulated with reddish or brownish dots. the =spores= are walnut brown, oblong to elliptical, -- × -- µ. the =stem= is cylindrical, even, olive yellow above, and black dotted both above and below the annulus." [illustration: figure .--boletinus pictus. cap reddish, tinged with yellowish between the scales, stem same color, tubes yellow, often changing to reddish brown where bruised (natural size). copyright.] =boletinus pictus= pk.--this very beautiful plant is quite common in damp pine woods. it is easily recognized by the reddish cottony layer of mycelium threads which cover the entire plant when young, and form a veil which covers the gills at this time. as the plant expands the reddish outer layer is torn into scales of the same color, showing the yellowish, or pinkish, flesh beneath, and the flesh often changes to pink or reddish where wounded. the tubes are first pale yellow, but become darker in age, often changing to pinkish, with a brown tinge where bruised. the stem is solid, and is thus different from a closely related species, _b. cavipes_ kalchb. the stem is covered with a coat like that on the pileus and is similarly colored, though often paler. the spores are ochraceous, -- × -- µ. the plants are -- cm. high, the caps -- cm. broad, and the stems -- mm. in thickness. figure is from plants collected in the blue ridge mountains, blowing rock, n. c., september, . =boletinus porosus= (berk.) pk.--this very interesting species is widely distributed in the eastern united states. it resembles a _polyporus_, though it is very soft like a _boletus_, but quite tenacious. the plants are dull reddish-brown, viscid when moist, and shining. the cap is more or less irregular and the stem eccentric, the cap being sometimes more or less lobed. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the short stem -- mm. in thickness. it occurs in damp ground in woods. the =pileus= is fleshy, thick at the middle, and thin at the margin. the =tubes= are arranged in prominently radiating rows, the partitions often running radiately in the form of lamellæ, certain ones of them being more prominent than others as shown in fig. . these branch and are connected by cross partitions of less prominence. this character of the hymenium led berkeley to place the plant in the genus _paxillus_, with which it does not seem to be so closely related as with the genus _boletus_. the stratum of tubes, though very soft, is very tenacious, and does not separate from the flesh of the pileus, thus resembling certain species of _polyporus_. figure is from plants collected at ithaca. [illustration: plate , figure .--boletinus porosus. viscid when moist, dull reddish brown (natural size). copyright.] =strobilomyces strobilaceus= berk. =edible.=--this plant has a peculiar name, both the genus and the species referring to the cone-like appearance of the cap with its coarse, crowded, dark brown scales, bearing a fancied resemblance to a pine cone. it is very easily distinguished from other species of _boletus_ because of this character of the cap. the plant has a very wide distribution though it is not usually very common. the plant is -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- cm. in thickness. the =pileus= is hemispherical to convex, shaggy from numerous large blackish, coarse, hairy, projecting scales. the margin of the cap is fringed with scales and fragments of the veil which covers the tubes in the young plants. the flesh is whitish, but soon changes to reddish color, and later to black where wounded or cut. the =tubes= are adnate, whitish, becoming brown and blackish in the older plants. the mouths of the tubes are large and angular, and change color where bruised, as does the flesh of the cap. the stem is even, or sometimes tapers upward, often grooved near the apex, very tomentose or scaly with soft scales of the same color as the cap. the =spores= are in mass dark brown, nearly globose, roughened, and -- µ long. figs. -- are from plants collected at ithaca, n. y. another european plant, _s. floccopus_ vahl, is said by peck to occur in the united states, but is much more rare. the only difference in the two noted by peck in the case of the american plants is that the tubes are depressed around the stem in _s. floccopus_. [illustration: plate , figure .--strobilomyces strobilaceus. scales of cap dark brown or black, flesh white but soon changing to reddish and later to black where wounded, stem same color but lighter (natural size). copyright.] [illustration: figure .--strobilomyces strobilaceus. sections of plants. copyright.] [illustration: figure .--strobilomyces strobilaceus. under view. copyright.] fistulina bull. in the genus _fistulina_ the tubes, or pores, are crowded together, but stand separately, that is, they are not connected together, or grown together into a stratum as in _boletus_ and other genera of the family _polyporaceæ_. when the plant is young the tubes are very short, but they elongate with age. =fistulina hepatica= fr. =edible.=--this is one of the largest of the species in the genus and is the most widely distributed and common one. it is of a dark red color, very soft and juicy. it has usually a short stem which expands out into the broad and thick cap. when young the upper side of the cap is marked by minute elevations of a different color, which suggest the papillæ on the tongue; in age the tubes on the under surface have also some such suggestive appearance. the form, as it stands outward in a shelving fashion from stumps or trees, together with the color and surface characters, has suggested several common names, as beef tongue, beef-steak fungus, oak or chestnut tongue. the plant is -- cm. long, and -- cm. broad, the stem very short and thick, sometimes almost wanting, and again quite long. i have seen some specimens growing from a hollow log in which the stems were -- cm. long. the =pileus= is very thick, cm. or more in thickness, fleshy, soft, very juicy, and in wet weather very clammy and somewhat sticky to the touch. when mature there are lines of color of different shades extending out radially on the upper surface, and in making a longitudinal section of the cap there are quite prominent, alternating, dark and light red lines present in the flesh. the =tubes=, short at first, become -- mm. long, they are yellowish or tinged with flesh color, becoming soiled in age. the =spores= are elliptical, yellowish, and -- µ long. the plant occurs on dead trunks or stumps of oak, chestnut, etc., in wet weather from june to september. i have usually found it on chestnut. the beef-steak fungus is highly recommended by some, while others are not pleased with it as an article of food. it has an acid flavor which is disagreeable to some, but this is more marked in young specimens and in those not well cooked. when it is sliced thin and well broiled or fried, the acid taste is not marked. [illustration: plate . fig. .--fistulina hepatica. fig. .--f. pallida. copyright .] =fistulina pallida= b. & rav. (_fistulina firma_ pk.)--this rare and interesting species was collected by mrs. a. m. hadley, near manchester, new hampshire, october, , and was described by dr. peck in the bulletin of the torrey botanical club, = =: , , as _fistulina firma_. but two plants were then found, and these were connected at the base. during august and september it was quite common in a small woods near ithaca, n. y., and was first collected growing from the roots of a dead oak stump, august (no. c. u. herbarium), and afterward during october. during september i collected it at blowing rock, n. c., in the blue ridge mountains, at an elevation of nearly feet, growing from the roots of a dead white oak tree. it was collected during september, , by mr. frank rathbun at auburn, n. y. it was collected by ravenel in the mountains of south carolina, around a white oak stump by peters in alabama, and was first described by berkeley in , in =grev. =: , notices of n. a. f. no. . growing from roots or wood underneath the surface of the ground, the plant has an erect stem, the length of the stem depending on the depth at which the root is buried, just as in the case of _polyporus radicatus_, which has a similar habitat. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap is -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. [illustration: plate , figure .--fistulina pallida. cap wood-brown to fawn or clay color, tubes and lower part of the stem whitish (natural size). copyright.] the =pileus= is wood brown to fawn, clay color or isabelline color. it is nearly semi-circular to reniform in outline, and the margin broadly crenate, or sometimes lobed. the stem is attached at the concave margin, where the cap is auriculate and has a prominent boss or elevation, and bent at right angles with a characteristic curve. the pileus is firm, flexible, tough and fibrous, flesh white. the surface is covered with a fine and dense tomentum. the pileus is -- mm. thick at the base, thinning out toward the margin. the =tubes= are whitish, -- mm. long and -- in the space of a millimeter. they are very slender, tubular, the mouth somewhat enlarged, the margin of the tubes pale cream color and minutely mealy or furfuraceous, with numerous irregular, roughened threads. the tubes often stand somewhat separated, areas being undeveloped or younger, so that the surface of the under side is not regular. the tubes are not so crowded as is usual in the _fistulina hepatica_. they are not decurrent, but end abruptly near the stem. the =spores= are subglobose, µ in diameter. the stem tapers downward, is whitish below, and near the pileus the color changes rather abruptly to the same tint as the pileus. the stem is sometimes branched, and two or three caps present, or the caps themselves may be joined, as well as the stems, so that occasionally very irregular forms are developed, but there is always the peculiar character of the attachment of the stem to the side of the cap. figure is from plants (no , c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., september, . figures on the colored plate represent this plant. =polyporus frondosus= fr. =edible.=--this plant occurs in both europe and america, and while not very common seems to be widely distributed. it grows about old stumps or dead trees, from roots, often arising from the roots below the surface of the ground, and also is found on logs. the plant represents a section of the genus _polyporus_, in which the body, both the stem and the cap, are very much branched. in this species the stem is stout at the base, but it branches into numerous smaller trunks, which continue to branch until finally the branches terminate in the expanded and leaf-like caps as shown in figs. -- . the plants appear usually during late summer and in the autumn. the species is often found about oak stumps. some of the specimens are very large, and weigh to pounds, and the mass is sometimes to cm. ( -- feet) in diameter. the plant, when young and growing, is quite soft and tender, though it is quite firm. it never becomes very hard, as many of the other species of this family. when mature, insects begin to attack it, and not being tough it soon succumbs to the ravages of insects and decay, as do a number of the softer species of the _polyporaceæ_. the caps are very irregular in shape, curved, repand, radiately furrowed, sometimes zoned; gray, or hair-brown in color, with a perceptibly hairy surface, the hairs running in lines on the surface. sometimes they are quite broad and not so numerous as in plate , and in other plants they are narrow and more numerous, as in plate . the tubes are more or less irregular, whitish, with a yellowish tinge when old. from the under side of the cap they extend down on the stem. when the spores are mature they are sometimes so numerous that they cover the lower caps and the grass for quite a distance around as if with a white powder. this species is edible, and because of the large size which it often attains, the few plants which are usually found make up in quantity what they lack in numbers. since the plant is quite firm it will keep several days after being picked, in a cool place, and will serve for several meals. a specimen which i gathered was divided between two families, and was served at several meals on successive days. when stewed the plant has for me a rather objectionable taste, but the stewing makes the substance more tender, and when this is followed by broiling or frying the objectionable taste is removed and it is quite palatable. the plants represented in plates and were collected at ithaca. [illustration: plate , figure .--polyporus frondosus. caps hair-brown or grayish, tubes white ( / natural size, masses often -- cm. in breadth). the caps in this specimen are quite broad, often they are narrower as in fig. . copyright.] [illustration: plate , figure .--polyporus frondosus. side and under view of a larger cluster ( / natural size). copyright.] there are several species which are related to the frondose polyporus which occur in this country as well as in europe. =polyporus intybaceus= fr., is of about the same size, and the branching, and form of the caps is much the same, but it is of a yellowish brown or reddish brown color. it grows on logs, stumps, etc., and is probably edible. it is not so common at ithaca as the frondose polyporus. [illustration: figure .--polyporus umbellatus. caps hair-brown (natural size, often much larger). copyright.] =polyporus umbellatus= fr.--this species is also related to the frondose polyporus, but is very distinct. it is more erect, the branching more open, and the caps at the ends of the branches are more or less circular and umbilicate. the branches are long, cylindrical and united near the base. the spreading habit of the branching, or the form of the caps, suggests an umbel or umbrella, and hence the specific name _umbellatus_. the tufts occur from -- cm. in diameter, and the individual caps are from -- cm. in diameter. it grows from underground roots and about stumps during summer. it is probably edible, but i have never tried it. figure is from a plant (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected in cascadilla woods, ithaca. =polyporus sulphureus= (bull.) fr. =edible.= (_boletus caudicinus_ schaeff. t. , : _polyporus caudicinus_ schroeter, cohn's krypt. flora, schlesien, p. , ).--the sulphur polyporus is so-called because of the bright sulphur color of the entire plant. it is one of the widely distributed species, and grows on dead oak, birch, and other trunks, and is also often found growing from wounds or knot-holes of living trees of the oak, apple, walnut, etc. the mycelium enters at wounds where limbs are broken off, and grows for years in the heart wood, disorganizing it and causing it to decay. in time the mycelium has spread over a considerable area, from which nutriment enough is supplied for the formation of the fruiting condition. the caps then appear from an open wound when such an exit is present. the color of the plant is quite constant, but varies of course in shades of yellow to some extent. in form, however, it varies greatly. the caps are usually clustered and imbricated, that is, they overlap. they may all arise separately from the wood, and yet be overlapping, though oftener several of them are closely joined or united at the base, so that the mass of caps arises from a common outgrowth from the wood as shown in fig. . the individual caps are flattened, elongate, and more or less fan-shaped. when mature there are radiating furrows and ridges which often increase the fan-like appearance of the upper surface of the cap. sometimes also there are more or less marked concentric furrows. the caps may be convex, or the margin may be more or less upturned so that the central portion is depressed. when young the margin is thick and blunt and of course lighter in color, but as the plant matures the edge is usually thinner. in some forms of the plant the caps are so closely united as to form a large rounded or tubercular mass, only the blunt tips of the individual caps being free. this is well represented in fig. , from a photograph of a large specimen growing from a wound in a butter-nut tree in central new york. the plant was cm. in diameter. the plants represented in plate grew on an oak stump. the tree was affected by the fungus while it was alive, and the heart wood became so weakened that the tree broke, and later the fruit form of the fungus appeared from the dead stump. [illustration: plate , figure .--polyporus sulphureus, on oak stump. entirely sulphur-yellow ( / natural size). copyright.] the tubes are small, and the walls thin and delicate, and are sometimes much torn, lacerated, and irregular. when the mycelium has grown in the interior of a log for a number of years it tends to grow in sheets along the line of the medullary rays of the wood or across in concentric layers corresponding to the summer wood. also as the wood becomes more decomposed, cracks and rifts appear along these same lines. the mycelium then grows in abundance in these rifts and forms broad and extensive sheets which resemble somewhat chamois skin and is called "punk." similar punk is sometimes formed in conifers from the mycelium of _fomes pinicola_. [illustration: plate , figure .--polyporus sulphureus. caps joined in a massive tubercle ( / natural size).] _polyporus sulphureus_ has long been known as an edible fungus, but from its rather firm and fibrous texture it requires a different preparation from the fleshy fungi to prepare it for the table, and this may be one reason why it is not employed more frequently as an article of food. it is common enough during the summer and especially during the autumn to provide this kind of food in considerable quantities. [illustration: plate , figure .--polyporus brumalis. cap and stem brown, tubes white. lower three plants natural size, upper one enlarged twice natural size. copyright.] =polyporus brumalis= (pers.) fr.--this pretty plant is found at all seasons of the year, and from its frequency during the winter was named _brumalis_, from _bruma_, which means winter. it grows on sticks and branches, or on trunks. it usually occurs singly, sometimes two or three close together. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. in diameter, and the stem is -- mm. in thickness. the =cap= is convex, then plane, and sometimes depressed at the center or umbilicate. when young it is somewhat fleshy and pliant, then it becomes tough, coriaceous, and hard when dry. during wet weather it becomes pliant again. being hard and firm, and tough, it preserves long after mature, so that it may be found at any season of the year. the cap is smoky in color, varying in shade, sometimes very dark, almost black, and other specimens being quite light in color. the surface is hairy and the margin is often fimbriate with coarse hairs. the =stem= is lighter, hairy or strigose. the =tubes= are first white, then become yellowish. the tubes are very regular in arrangement. figure represents well this species, three plants being grouped rather closely on the same stick; two show the under surface and one gives a side view. the upper portion of the plate represents two of the plants enlarged, the three lower ones being natural size. the plant is very common and widely distributed over the world. those illustrated in the plate were collected at ithaca. this species is too tough for food. many of the thin and pliant species of _polyporus_ are separated by some into the genus =polystictus=. the species are very numerous, as well as some of the individuals of certain species. they grow on wood or on the ground, some have a central stem, and others are shelving, while some are spread out on the surface of the wood. one very pretty species is the =polystictus perennis= fr. this grows on the ground and has a central stem. the plant is -- cm. high, and the cap -- cm. broad. the =pileus= is thin, pliant when fresh and somewhat brittle when dry. it is minutely velvety on the upper surface, reddish brown or cinnamon in color, expanded or umbilicate to nearly funnel-shaped. the surface is marked beautifully by radiations and fine concentric zones. the =stem= is also velvety. the =tubes= are minute, the walls thin and acute, and the mouths angular and at last more or less torn. the margin of the cap is finely fimbriate, but in old specimens these hairs are apt to become rubbed off. the left hand plant in fig. is _polyporus perennis_. =polystictus cinnamomeus= (jacq.) sacc., (_p. oblectans_ berk. hook. jour. p. , , dec. n. a. f. no. : _p. splendens_ pk., th report n. y. state mus., p. ) is a closely related species with the same habit, color, and often is found growing side by side with _p. perennis_. the margin of the cap is deeply and beautifully lacerate, as shown in the three other plants in fig. . _polystictus connatus_ schw., grows in similar situations and one sometimes finds all three of these plants near each other on the ground by roadsides. _p. connatus_ has much larger pores than either of the other two, and it is a somewhat larger plant. figure is from a photograph of plants collected at blowing rock, n. c., during september, . [illustration: figure .--left-hand plant polystictus perennis; right-hand three plants polystictus cinnamomeus. all natural size. copyright.] =polystictus versicolor= (l.) fr., is a very common plant growing on trunks and branches. it is more or less shelving, with a leaf-like pileus, marked by concentric bands of different colors. =p. hirsutus= fr., is a somewhat thicker and more spongy plant, whitish or grayish in color, with the upper surface tomentose with coarse hairs. =p. cinnabarinus= (jacq.) fr., is shelving, spongy, pliant, rather thick, cinnabar colored. it grows on dead logs and branches. it is sometimes placed in the genus _trametes_ under the same specific name. =polystictus pergamenus= fr., is another common one growing on wood of various trees. it is thin and very pliant when fresh, somewhat tomentose above when young, with faint bands, and the tubes are often violet or purple color, and they soon become deeply torn and lacerate so that they resemble the teeth of certain of the hedgehog fungi. [illustration: plate , figure .--polyporus lucidus. caps bright red or chestnut color, with a hard shiny crust ( / natural size). copyright.] =polyporus lucidus= (leys.) fr. [_fomes lucidus_ (leys.) fr.]--this species is a very striking one because of the bright red or chestnut color, the hard and brittle crust over the surface of the cap, which has usually the appearance of having been varnished. it grows on trunks, logs, stumps, etc., in woods or groves. the cap is -- cm. in diameter, and the stem is -- cm. long, and -- cm. in thickness. the stem is attached to one side of the pileus so that the pileus is lateral, though the stem is more or less ascending. the =cap= is first yellowish when young, then it becomes blood red, then chestnut color. the =stem= is the same color, and the =tubes= are not so bright in color, being a dull brown. the substance of the plant is quite woody and tough when mature. when dry it is soon attacked and eaten by certain insects, which are fond of a number of fungi, so that they are difficult to preserve in good condition in herbaria without great care. the surface of the pileus is quite uneven, wrinkled, and coarsely grooved, the margin sometimes crenate, especially in large specimens. figure represents the plant growing on a large hemlock spruce stump in the woods. the surface character of the caps and the general form can be seen. this photograph was taken near ithaca, n. y. =polyporus applanatus= (pers.) fr. [_fomes applanatus_ (pers.) wallr.]--this plant is also one of the very common woody _polyporaceæ_. it grows on dead trunks, etc., and sometimes is found growing from the wounds of living trees. it is very hard and woody. it has a hard crust, much harder than that of the _polyporus lucidus_. the surface is more or less marked by concentric zones which mark off the different years' growth, for this plant is perennial. at certain seasons of the year the upper surface is covered with a powdery substance of a reddish brown color, made up of numerous colored spores or conidia which are developed on the upper surface of this plant in addition to the smaller spores developed in the tubes on the under surface. the plant varies in size from -- cm. or more in diameter, and -- cm. in thickness, according to the rapidity of growth and the age of the fungus. the fruiting surface is white, and the tubes are very minute. they scarcely can be seen with the unaided eye. bruises of the tubes turn brown, and certain "artists" often collect these plants and sketch with a pointed instrument on the tube surface. for other peculiarities of this plant see page . the age of the plant can usually be told by counting the number of the broader zones on the upper surface, or by making a section through the plant and counting the number of tube strata on the lower surface of the cap at its base. =polyporus leucophæus= mont., is said to differ from this species in being more strongly zonate, and in the crust being whitish instead of reddish brown. =polyporus fomentarius= (l.) fr. [_fomes fomentarius_ (l.) fr.,] is hoof-shaped, smoky in color, or gray, and of various shades of dull brown. it is strongly zoned and sulcate, marking off each year's growth. the margin is thick and blunt, and the tube surface concave, the tubes having quite large mouths so that they can be readily seen, the color when mature being reddish brown. sections of the plant show that the tubes are very long, the different years' growth not being marked off so distinctly as in _p. applanatus_ and _leucophæus_. the plant grows on birch, beech, maple, etc. the inner portion was once used as tinder. =polyporus pinicola= (swartz.) fr. [_fomes pinicola_ (swartz.) fr.] occurs on dead pine, spruce, balsam, hemlock spruce, and other conifers. the cap is about the width of the _f. applanatus_, but it is stouter, and does not have the same hard crust. the young growth at the margin, which is very thick, is whitish yellow, while the old zones are reddish. the tubes are yellowish, and sections show that they are in strata corresponding to the years' growth. =polyporus igniarius= (l.) fr. [_fomes igniarius_ (l.) fr.] is a black species, more or less triangular, or sometimes hoof-shaped. the yearly zones are smaller, become much cracked, and the tubes are dark brown. one of these plants which i found on a birch tree in the adirondacks was over years old. the genus _merulius_ has a fruiting surface of irregular folds or wrinkles, forming shallow, irregular pits instead of a deeply honey-combed surface. =merulius lacrymans= (jacq.) fr., the "weeping" merulius, or "house fungus," often occurs in damp cellars, buildings, conduit pipes, etc. it is very destructive to buildings in certain parts of europe (see figs. , ). =merulius tremellosus= schrad., is very common in woods during autumn. it is of a gelatinous consistency, and spread on the under surface of limbs or forms irregular shelves from the side (see figs. , ). [illustration: plate .--merulius lacrymans. figure .--upper plant in conduit pipe leading from wash room, gymnasium c. u., autumn, . figure .--lower plant from under surface decaying hemlock spruce log in woods near freeville, n. y., october, . margin of plants white, fruiting surface a network of irregular folds, golden brown, or brown. copyright.] [illustration: plate .--merulius tremellosus. figure .--natural size.] [illustration: figure .--enlarged to show character of fruiting surface. fruiting surface yellowish; margin and upper surface in shelving forms, white, hairy. copyright.] [illustration: plate , figure .--phlebia merismoides. on rotting log, woods near ithaca, november , (no. c. u. herbarium). various shades of orange, yellow or yellow brown when old. copyright.] [illustration: plate , figure .--phlebia merismoides. portion of a plant - / times natural size, to show interrupted folds of fruiting surface. for colors see fig. . copyright.] chapter x. hedgehog fungi: hydnaceae. the plants belonging to this family vary greatly in size, form, and consistency. some of them are very large, some quite small, some are fleshy in consistency, some are woody, corky; some membranaceous; and if we include plants formerly classed here, some are gelatinous, though there is a tendency in recent years on the part of some to place the gelatinous ones among the trembling fungi. the special character which marks the members of this family is the peculiarity of the fruiting surface, just as a number of the other families are distinguished by some peculiarity of the fruiting surface. in the _hydnaceæ_ it covers the surface of numerous processes in the form of spines, teeth, warts, coarse granules, or folds which are interrupted at short intervals. these spines or teeth always are directed toward the earth when the plant is in the position in which it grew. in this way the members of the family can be distinguished from certain members of the club fungi belonging to the family _clavariaceæ_, for in the latter the branches or free parts of the plant are erect. in form the _hydnaceæ_ are shelving, growing on trees; or growing on the ground they often have a central or eccentric stem, and a more or less circular cap; some of them are rounded masses, growing from trees, with very long spines extending downward; others have ascending branches from which the spines depend; and still others form thin sheets which are spread over the surface of logs and sticks, the spines hanging down from the surface, or roughened with granules or warts, or interrupted folds (see _phlebia_, figs. , ). in one genus there is no fruit body, but the spines themselves extend downward from the rotten wood, the genus _mucronella_. this is only distinguished, so far as its family position is concerned, from such a species as _clavaria mucida_ by the fact that the plant grows downward from the wood, while in _c. mucida_ it grows erect. hydnum linn. the only species of the _hydnaceæ_ described here are in the genus _hydnum_. in this genus the fruiting surface is on spine, or awl-shaped processes, which are either simple or in some cases the tips are more or less branched. the plants grow on the ground or on wood. the species vary greatly in form. some are provided with a more or less regular cap and a stem, while others are shelving or bracket shaped, and still others are spread out over the surface of the wood (resupinate). [illustration: figure .--hydnum coralloides. entirely white (natural size). copyright.] =hydnum coralloides= scop. =edible.=--among the very beautiful species of the genus _hydnum_ is the coral one, _hydnum coralloides_. it grows in woods forming large, beautiful, pure white tufts on rotten logs, branches, etc. the appearance of one of these tufts is shown in fig. . there is a common stem which arises from the wood, and this branches successively into long, ascending, graceful shoots. the spines are scattered over the entire under side of these branches and hang down for -- mm. they are not clustered at the ends of the branches, as in the bear's head hydnum, and the species can be easily distinguished by giving attention to the form of the branching and the distribution of the spines on the under side of the branches. figure represents a plant collected at ithaca, and it is natural size. they grow, however, much larger than this specimen. the species is widely distributed, and not uncommon. it is excellent for food. [illustration: plate , figure .--hydnum caput-ursi. entirely white (natural size). copyright.] =hydnum caput-ursi= fr. =edible.=--this plant is also a beautiful one. it is more common than the coral hydnum so far as my observation goes. it is known by the popular name of "bear's head hydnum" in allusion to the groups of spines at the ends of the branches. it occurs in woods with a similar habit of growing on trunks, branches, etc. this plant also arises from the wood with a single stout stem, which then branches successively, the ends of the branches having groups of long pendant spines appearing like numerous heads. sometimes the spines on the top of the group are twisted or curled in a peculiar way. large tufts are sometimes formed, varying from -- or more centimeters in diameter. figure is from a plant collected at ithaca. [illustration: figure .--hydnum erinaceus. entirely white (natural size, often larger).] =hydnum caput-medusæ= bull. =edible.=--the medusa's head hydnum is a rarer species than either of the above in this country. it forms a large, tubercular mass which does not branch like the coral hydnum or the bear's head, but more like the satyr's beard hydnum, though the character of the spines will easily separate it from the latter. the spines cover a large part of this large tubercle, and hang downward. the plant is known by the additional character, that, on the upper part of the tubercle, the spines are twisted and interwoven in a peculiar fashion. =hydnum erinaceus= bull. =edible.=--this plant is sometimes called "satyr's beard." it grows on dead trunks in the woods or groves, and is often found growing from wounds in living trees. it forms a large, tubercular mass which does not branch. the spines are very long and straight and hang downward in straight parallel lines from the sides of the mass. the spines are from -- cm. or more long. figure represents one of the plants, showing the long spines. =hydnum repandum= l. =edible.=--this plant is not uncommon, and it is widely distributed. it grows usually in woods, on the ground. it varies greatly in size, from very small specimens, -- cm. high to others -- cm. high. the cap is -- cm. broad, and the stem -- mm. in thickness. [illustration: plate , figure .--hydnum repandum. cap whitish or yellowish, or pale yellowish brown; spines whitish or yellowish (natural size, often smaller). copyright.] it is entirely white or the cap varies to buff, dull yellow reddish or dull brown. it is very brittle, and must be handled with the utmost care if one wishes to preserve the specimen intact. the pileus is more or less irregular, the stem being generally eccentric, so that the pileus is produced more on one side than on the other, sometimes entirely lateral at the end of the stem. the margin is more or less wavy or repand. the spines are white, straight, and very brittle. the stem is even or clavate. figure is from plants collected at ithaca during august, , and represents one of the large specimens of the species. in one plant the pileus is entirely lateral on the end of the long clavate stem, and is somewhat reniform, the stem being attached at the sinus. in the other plant the stem is attached near the center. this species is considered one of the best mushrooms for the table. [illustration: plate , figure .--hydnum putidum. caps whitish then buff, then brownish or nearly black in older parts, edge white (natural size). copyright.] =hydnum imbricatum= l. =edible.=--this is a very variable species both in size and in the surface characters of the pileus. it occurs in woods, groves, or in open places under trees. the plants are -- cm. high, and the pileus varies from -- cm. broad, the stem from . -- . cm. in thickness. the pileus is convex and nearly expanded, fleshy, thinner at the margin, regular or very irregular. the color is grayish in the younger and smaller plants to umber or quite dark in the larger and older ones. the surface is cracked and torn into triangular scales, showing the whitish color of the flesh between the scales. the scales are small in the younger plants and larger in the older ones. figure is from plants collected at ithaca, and the pileus in these specimens is irregular. the species is edible, but bitter to the taste. [illustration: figure .--hydnum imbricatum. caps brownish, spines whitish (natural size, often larger).] =hydnum putidum= atkinson.--this plant grows on the ground in woods, and was collected in the blue ridge mountains at blowing rock, n. c., at an elevation of about feet. it is remarkable for its peculiar odor, resembling, when fresh, that of an ethiopian; for its tough, zonate pileus with a prominent white edge, and the stout irregular stem, resembling the stem of _hydnum velutinum_. the plants are -- cm. high, the cap -- cm. broad, and the stem -- cm. in thickness. the plants grow singly, or sometimes a few close together, and then two or more may be conjoined. the =pileus= is first umbilicate or depressed, becoming depressed or infundibuliform, irregular, eccentric, the margin repand, and sometimes lobed, and lobes appearing at times on the upper surface of the cap. the surface is first tomentose or pubescent, becoming smooth, with prominent concentric zones probably marked off by periodical growth; the color is first white, so that the edge is white, becoming cream color to buff, and in age dull brown and sometimes blackish brown in the center of the old plants. the pubescence disappears from the old portions of the cap, so that it is smooth. the pubescence or tomentum is more prominent on the intermediate zones. the margin is rather thick, somewhat acute or blunt, the upper portion of the flesh is spongy and the middle portion tough and coriaceous, and darker in color. the pileus is somewhat pliant when moist or wet, and firm when dry, the dark inner stratum hard. the =spines= are first white or cream color, in age changing through salmon color, or directly into grayish or grayish brown. the spines when mature are long, slender, crowded, and decurrent on the upper part of the stem. the =spores= are white, globose, echinulate, -- µ. the =stem= is stout and irregular, very closely resembling the stem of _hydnum velutinum_, with a thick, spongy, outer layer and a central hard core. the odor, which resembles that of a perspiring darkey, before the plant is dry, disappears after drying, and then the plant has the same agreeable odor presented by several different species of hydnum. the odor suggests _h. graveolens_, but the characters of the stem and surface of the pileus separate it from that species, while the tough and pliant character of the cap separates it from _h. fragile_. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., during september, . chapter xi. coral fungi: clavariaceae. this family is a very characteristic one, and very interesting from the large number of beautiful species in one genus, the genus _clavaria_. the plants all are more or less erect, or at least stand out from the substratum, that is, the substance on which they are growing. the fruiting surface covers the entire upper part of the plant, all but the bases of the stems. some of the branched species of the _thelephoraceæ_ resemble the branched species of the _clavariaceæ_, but in the former there is a more or less well defined upper portion on the tips of the branches which is flat, or truncate, and sterile, that is, lacks the fruiting surface. some of the species are simple, elongate and clavate bodies. some stand singly, others are clustered, or others are joined by their bases, and others still are very much branched. all of the species are said to be edible, that is, they are not poisonous. a few are rather tough, but they are mostly the small species which would not be thought of for food. the spores are borne on club-shaped basidia, as in the common mushrooms. [illustration: plate , figure .--clavaria formosa. yellowish, red tipped when young, red disappearing in age (natural size, sometimes twice this size). copyright.] clavaria vaill. the genus _clavaria_ is one of the most common ones in the family, and is one of the most attractive from the variety and beauty of several of the species. all of the plants are more or less erect, and at least stand out from the substratum on which they grow. they are either long and simple and more or less club-shaped, as the name implies, or they are branched, some but a few times, while others are very profusely branched. the plants vary in color, some are white, some yellow, some red, and some are red-tipped, while others are brownish in color. [illustration: figure .--clavaria botrytes. branches red tipped (natural size).] =clavaria formosa= pers. =edible.=--this is one of the handsomest of the genus. it is found in different parts of the world, and has been collected in new england and in the carolinas in this country. it is usually from -- cm. high, and because of the great number of branches is often broader in extent. there is a stout stem from -- cm. in diameter, deep in the ground. this branches into a few stout trunks, which then rapidly branch into slender and longer branches, terminating into numerous tips. the entire plant is very brittle, and great care is necessary to prevent its breaking, both before drying and afterward. when the plant is young and is just pushing out of the ground, the branches, especially the tips, are bright colored, red, pink, or orange, the color usually brighter when young in the younger plants. as the plant becomes older the color fades out, until at maturity the pink or red color has in many cases disappeared, and then the entire plant is of a light yellowish, or of a cream buff color. the spores are in mass light yellow, and the spores on the surface of the plant probably give the color to the plant at this stage. the spores are long, oval or oblong, -- × . -- µ, and are minutely spiny. figure is from a plant (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., in september, . the plant is very common in the mountain woods of north carolina. [illustration: figure .--clavaria pistillaris. dull whitish, tan or reddish (natural size).] specimens of this clavaria were several times prepared for table use during my stay in the mountains, but the flavor was not an agreeable one, possibly due to the fact that it needs some special preparation and seasoning. =clavaria botrytes= pers. =edible.=--this plant is much smaller than _c. formosa_, but has much the same general habit and color, especially when _c. formosa_ is young. the plant has a stout stem which soon dissolves into numerous branches, which are red tipped. the spores are white, and in this way it may be distinguished from _c. formosa_, or from _clavaria aurea_ (schaeff.), which has yellow or ochre spores, and which has also much the same habit as _c. botrytes_, and is nearer in size. [illustration: figure .--clavaria mucida. white (natural size). copyright.] =clavaria pistillaris= linn. =edible.=--this plant is a characteristic one because of its usually large size and simple form. it is merely a club-shaped body, growing from the ground. it has a wide range, both in europe and north america, but does not seem to be common, though i have found it more common in the mountain woods of north carolina than in new york. the plant is -- cm. high, and -- cm. thick at the upper end. it is smooth, though often irregularly grooved and furrowed, due probably to unequal tensions in growth. the apex in typical specimens is rounded and blunt. it is dull white or tan color or rufescent. the flesh is white, and very spongy, especially in age, when it is apt to be irregularly fistulose. figure is from plants collected at blowing rock, n. c., during september . there is what seems to be an abnormal form of this species figured by schaeffer, table , which fries separated as a distinct species and placed in the genus _craterellus_, one of the _thelephoraceæ_, and called by him _craterellus pistillaris_. this plant has been found at ithaca, and the only difference between this and the _clavaria pistillaris_ l., seems to be in the fact that in _craterellus pistillaris_ the end is truncate or in some specimens more or less concave. the spores seem to be the same, and the color and general habit of the two plants are the same. it is probably only a form of _clavaria pistillaris_. =clavaria mucida= pers.--this is one of the smallest species of the genus _clavaria_. it grows on rotten wood, and appears throughout the year. it is usually simple and clavate, but sometimes branched. the plant is white, or yellowish, or sometimes rose color, and measures from . to cm. in height, though i have usually found it from . -- cm. in height. it is soft and watery. figure is from plants (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at ithaca in october, . chapter xii. the trembling fungi: tremellineae. these fungi are called the trembling fungi because of their gelatinous consistency. the colors vary from white, yellow, orange, reddish, brownish, etc., and the form is various, often very irregular, leaf-like, or strongly folded and uneven. they are when fresh usually very soft, clammy to the touch, and yielding like a mass of gelatine. they usually grow on wood, but some species grow on the ground, and some are parasitic. the fruit surface usually covers the entire outer surface of the plant, but in some it is confined to one side of the plant. the basidia are peculiar to the order, are deeply seated in the substance of the plant, rounded or globose, and divided into four cells in a cruciate manner. from each one of these cells of the basidium a long, slender process (sterigma) grows out to the surface of the plant and bears the spore. a few species only are treated of here. tremella dill. in this genus the plants are gelatinous or cartilaginous. the form of the plant is usually very much contorted, fold-like or leaf-like, and very much branched. the fruiting surface extends over the entire upper surface of the plant. [illustration: figure .--tremella mycetophila, on collybia dryophila (natural size).] =tremella lutescens= pers.--this plant is entirely yellow, and occurs on branches. it is -- cm. in diameter, and is strongly folded, somewhat like the folds of a brain (gyrose). it is very soft and inclined to be watery and fluid, and is of a bright yellow color, spread out on the surface of rotten wood. it is of world-wide distribution, and appears from mid-summer to late autumn. =tremella mycetophila= pk.--this plant is interesting from the fact that it is parasitic on a mushroom, _collybia dryophila_. it grows on the stem or on the top of the cap of the _collybia_, and it is white, or yellowish, very much contorted (gyrose-plicate), nearly rounded, and -- mm. in diameter. figure represents this _tremella_ growing on the _collybia dryophila_, from plants collected at freeville woods near ithaca. [illustration: figure .--tremella frondosa. pinkish yellow or pinkish vinaceous (natural size). copyright.] =tremella frondosa= fr.--this is said to be the largest species of the genus. it grows on rotten wood. it occurs in europe, has been collected in new york state, and the fig. is from a plant (no. , c. u. herbarium) collected at blowing rock, n. c., in september, . the plant figured here was cm. long and about cm. high. it is very much twisted and contorted, leaf-like, and the middle and base all united. it is of a pinkish yellow color, one plant being vinaceous pink and another cream buff in color. when young the leaf-like lobes do not show well, but as it expands they become very prominent. several other species of tremella are probably more common than the ones illustrated here. one of the commonest of the _tremellineæ_ probably is the =exidia glandulosa=, which in dry weather appears as a black incrustation on dead limbs, but during rains it swells up into a large, black, very soft, gelatinous mass. it is commonly found on fallen limbs of oak, and occurs from autumn until late spring. it is sometimes called "witch's butter." [illustration: figure .--tremella fuciformis. entirely white (natural size). copyright.] =tremella fuciformis= berk.--this is a very beautiful white tremella growing in woods on leaf mold close to the ground. it forms a large white tubercular mass resting on the ground, from the upper surface of which numerous stout, short, white processes arise which branch a few times in a dichotomous manner. the masses are -- cm. in diameter, and nearly or quite as high. the flesh is very soft, and the parts are more or less hollow. the basidia are like those of the genus, globose, sunk in the substance of the plant, and terminate with four long, slender, sterigmata which rise to the surface and bear the spores. the spores are white, nearly ovoid, but inequilateral and somewhat reniform, continuous, -- × -- µ. figure is from a plant collected in a woods near ithaca, in august, . gyrocephalus pers. the genus _gyrocephalus_ differs from the other _tremellineæ_ in having the fruiting surface on the lower side of the fruit body, while the upper side is sterile. [illustration: figure .--gyrocephalus rufus. reddish or reddish yellow (natural size). copyright.] =gyrocephalus rufus= (jacq.) bref.--this species is sometimes very abundant. it grows on the ground, generally from buried wood, or from dead roots. it is erect, stout at the base, and the upper end flattened and thinner. it is more or less spatulate, the upper side somewhat concave, and the lower somewhat convex. in some plants the pileus is more regular and there is then a tendency to the funnel form. it is reddish, or reddish yellow in color, smooth, clammy, watery, and quite gelatinous. when dry it is very hard. figure represents the form of the plant well, from plants collected at ithaca. the plant is quite common in the damp glens and woods at ithaca during the autumn. chapter xiii. thelephoraceae. many of the species of the thelephoraceæ to which the following two species belong are too tough for food. a large number of these grow on wood. they are known by their hard or membranaceous character and by the fruiting surface (under surface when in the position in which they grew) being smooth, or only slightly uneven, or cracked. =craterellus cantharellus= (schw.) fr., is an edible species. in general appearance it resembles the _cantharellus cibarius_. the color is the same, and the general shape, except that the former is perhaps more irregular in form. it may, however, be in most cases easily distinguished from _c. cibarius_ by the absence of folds on the under or fruiting surface, since the fruiting surface is smooth, especially when the plants are young or middle age. however, when the plants get quite large and old, in some cases the fruiting surface becomes very uneven from numerous folds and wrinkles, which, however, are more irregular than the folds of _c. cibarius_. =craterellus cornucopioides= (l.) pers., is another edible species. it grows on the ground in woods. it is of a dusky or dark smoky color, and is deeply funnel-shaped, resembling a "horn of plenty," though usually straight. the fruiting surface is somewhat uneven. the genus _stereum_ is a very common one on branches, etc., either entirely spread out on the wood, or with the margin or a large part of the pileus free. _hymenochæte_ is like _stereum_, but has numerous small black spines in the fruiting surface, giving it a velvety appearance. _corticium_ is very thin and spread over the wood in patches. [illustration: plate , figure .--lycoperdon cyathiforme (natural size).] chapter xiv. puff-balls: lycoperdaceae. this is not the place for a discussion of the different genera of the puff-balls, etc., but it might be well to say that in recent years the old genus _lycoperdon_ has been divided into several genera. the giant puff-ball, and the _l. cyathiforme_, where the wall or peridium ruptures irregularly, have been placed in a genus called _calvatia_; certain other species which are nearly globose, and in which the wall is of a papery texture at maturity, are placed in the genus _bovista_. there is one genus belonging to the same family as the lycoperdons, the species of which are very interesting on account of the peculiar way in which the wall is ruptured. this is the genus _geaster_, that is, "earth star." the wall, or peridium, is quite thick in the members of this genus, and when it matures it separates into several layers which need not all be discussed here. a thick outer portion which separates from a thinner inner portion further splits radially into several star-like divisions, which spread outward and give to the plant the form of a star. since the plants lie on the earth the name earth star was applied to them. this opens out in dry weather, even curving around under the plant, so that the plant is raised above the ground. then in wet weather it closes up again. the inner portion of the wall opens at the apex in various ways, in the different species, so that the spores may escape. a closely related genus has several small perforations like a pepper box in the upper surface of the inner wall, _myriostoma_. lycoperdon tourn. to this genus belong most of the "puff-balls," as they are commonly called, or, as they are denominated in the south, "devil's snuff box." all, or a large portion, of the interior of the plant at maturity breaks down into a powdery substance, which with the numerous spores is very light, and when the plant is squeezed or pressed, clouds of this dust burst out at the opening through the wall. the wall of the plant is termed the _peridium_. in this genus the wall is quite thin, and at maturity opens differently in different species. in several species it opens irregularly, the entire wall becoming very brittle and cracking up into bits, as in the giant puff-ball. in the remaining species it opens by a distinct perforation at the apex, and the remainder of the wall is more or less pliant and membranous. all of the puff-balls are said to be edible, at least are harmless, if eaten when the flesh is white. they should not be eaten when the flesh is dark, or is changing from the white color. =lycoperdon giganteum= batsch. =edible.=--this, the giant puff-ball, is the largest species of the genus. sometimes it reaches immense proportions, two to three or even four feet, but these large sizes are rare. it is usually to cm. ( -- in.) in diameter. it grows on the ground in grassy places during late summer and in the autumn. it is a large rounded mass, resting on the ground, and near or at the center of the under side, it is attached to the cords of mycelium in the ground. it is white in color until it is ripe, that is, when the spores are mature, and it should be gathered for food before it is thus ripe. when it is maturing it becomes yellowish, then dusky or smoky in color. the flesh, which is white when young, changes to greenish yellow and finally brownish, with usually an olivaceous tinge, as the spores ripen. the plant is so large that it may be sliced, and should be sliced before broiling. a single specimen often forms enough for a meal for a large family, and some of the larger ones would serve for several meals. =lycoperdon cyathiforme= bosc. =edible.=--this is called the beaker-shaped puff-ball because the base of the plant, after the spores have all been scattered, resembles to some extent a beaker, or a broad cup with a stout, stem-like base. these old sterile bases of the plant are often found in the fields long after the spores have disappeared. the plants are somewhat pear-shaped, rounded above, and tapering below to the stout base. they are -- cm. in diameter, and white when young. at maturity the spore mass is purplish, and by this color as well as by the sterile base the plant is easily recognized. of course these characters cannot be recognized in the young and growing plant at the time it is wanted for food, but the white color of the interior of the plant would be a sufficient guarantee that it was edible, granted of course that it was a member of the puff-ball family. sometimes, long before the spores mature, the outer portion of the plant changes from white to pinkish, or brownish colors. at maturity the wall, or peridium, breaks into brittle fragments, which disappear and the purplish mass of the spores is exposed. the plant grows in grassy places or even in cultivated fields. =lycoperdon gemmatum= batsch. =edible.=--this puff-ball is widely distributed throughout the world and is very common. it grows in the woods, or in open places on the ground, usually. it is known from its characteristic top shape, the more or less erect scales on the upper surface intermingled with smaller ones, the larger ones falling away and leaving circular scars over the surface, which gives it a reticulate appearance. the plants are white, becoming dark gray or grayish brown when mature. they vary in size from -- cm. high to -- cm. broad. they are more or less top-shaped, and the stem, which is stout, is sometimes longer than the rounded portion, which is the fruiting part. the outer part of the wall (outer peridium) when quite young separates into warts or scales of varying size, large ones arranged quite regularly with smaller ones between. these warts are well shown in the two plants at the left in fig. , and the third plant from the left shows the reticulations formed of numerous scars on the inner peridium where the larger scales have fallen away. [illustration: figure .--lycoperdon gemmatum. entirely white except when old (natural size). copyright.] the plant at the extreme right is mature, and the inner peridium has ruptured at the apex to permit the escape of the spores. the spore mass, together with brownish threads which are intermingled, are greenish yellow with an olive tinge, then they become pale brown. the spores are rounded, . -- . µ in diameter, smooth or minutely warted. another small puff-ball everywhere common in woods is the _lycoperdon pyriforme_, so called because of its pear shape. it grows on very rotten wood or on decaying logs in woods or groves, or in open places where there is rotting wood. it is somewhat smaller than the gem-bearing lycoperdon, is almost sessile, sometimes many crowded very close together, and especially is it characterized by prominent root-like white strands of mycelium which are attached to the base where the plant enters the rotten wood. while these small species of puff-balls are not injurious to eat, they do not seem to possess an agreeable flavor. there are quite a number of species in this country which cannot be enumerated here. related to the puff-balls, and properly classed with them, are the species of _scleroderma_. this name is given to the genus because of the hard peridium, the wall being much firmer and harder than in _lycoperdon_. there are two species which are not uncommon, _scleroderma vulgare_ and _s. verrucosum_. they grow on the ground or on very rotten wood, and are sessile, often showing the root-like white strands attached to their base. they vary in size from -- cm. and the outer wall is cracked into numerous coarse areas, or warts, giving the plant a verrucose appearance, from which one of the species gets its specific name. =calostoma cinnabarinum= desv.--this is a remarkably beautiful plant with a general distribution in the eastern united states. it has often been referred to in this country under the genus name _mitremyces_, and sometimes has been confused with a rarer and different species, _calostoma lutescens_ (schw.) burnap. it grows in damp woods, usually along the banks of streams and along mountain roads. it is remarkable for the brilliant vermilion color of the inner surface of the outer layer of the wall (_exoperidium_), which is exposed by splitting into radial strips that curl and twist themselves off, and by the vermilion color of the edges of the teeth at the apex of the inner wall (_endoperidium_). the plant is -- cm. high, and -- cm. in diameter. when mature the base or stem, which is formed of reticulated and anastomosing cords, elongates and lifts the rounded or oval fruiting portion to some distance above the surface of the ground, when the gelatinous volva ruptures and falls to the ground or partly clings to the stem, exposing the peridium, the outer portion of which then splits in the manner described. when the plant is first seen above the ground it appears as a globose or rounded body, and in wet weather has a very thick gelatinous layer surrounding it. this is the volva and is formed by the gelatinization of the outer layer of threads which compose it. this gelatinous layer is thick and also viscid, and when the plants are placed on paper to dry, it glues them firmly to the sheet. when the outer layer of the peridium splits, it does so by splitting from the base toward the apex, or from the apex toward the base. of the large number of specimens which i have seen at blowing rock, n. c., the split more often begins at the apex, or at least, when the slit is complete, the strips usually stand out loosely in a radiate manner, the tips being free. at this stage the plant is a very beautiful object with the crown of vermilion strips radiating outward from the base of the fruit body at the top of the stem, and the inner peridium resting in the center and terminated by the four to seven teeth with vermilion edges. at this time also the light yellow spore mass is oozing out from between the teeth. the spores are oblong to elliptical, marked with very fine points, and measure -- × -- µ. [illustration: plate , figure .--calostoma cinnabarinum. see text for colors (natural size).] figure is from plants collected at blowing rock, n. c., in september, . the _mytremyces lutescens_ reported in my list of "some fungi of blowing rock, n. c.," in jour. elisha mitchell sci. soc. : -- , , is this _calostoma cinnabarinum_. chapter xv. the stink-horn fungi: phalloideae fries. most of the stink-horn fungi are characterized by a very offensive odor. some of them at maturity are in shape not unlike that of a horn, and the vulgar name is applied because of this form and the odor. the plants grow in the ground, or in decaying organic matter lying on the ground. the spawn or mycelium is in the form of rope-like strands which are usually much branched and matted together. from these cords the fruit form arises. during its period of growth and up to the maturity of the spores, the fruit body is oval, that is, egg form, and because of this form and the quite large size of these bodies they are often called "eggs." the outer portion of the egg forms the volva. it is always thick, and has an outer thin coat or membrane, and an inner membrane, while between the two is a thick layer of gelatinous substance, so that the wall of the volva is often -- mm. in thickness, and is very soft. the outline of the volva can be seen in fig. , which shows sections of three eggs in different stages. inside of the volva is the short stem (_receptacle_) which is in the middle portion, and covering the upper portion and sides of this short stem is the pileus; the fruit-bearing portion, which is divided into small chambers, lies on the outside of the pileus. in the figure there can be seen cross lines extending through this part from the pileus to the wall of the volva. these represent ridges or crests which anastomose over the pileus, forming reticulations. the stem or receptacle is hollow through the center, and this hollow opens out at the end so that there is a rounded perforation through the upper portion of the pileus. the spores are borne on club-shaped basidia within the chambers of the fruit-bearing portion (_gleba_), and at maturity of the spores the stem or receptacle begins to elongate. this pushes the gleba and the upper part of the receptacle through the apex of the volva, leaving this as a cup-shaped body at the base, much as in certain species of _amanita_, while the gleba is borne aloft on the much elongated stem. during this elongation of the receptacle a large part of the substance of the gleba dissolves into a thick liquid containing the spores. this runs off and is washed off by the rains, leaving the inner surface of the gleba exposed, and showing certain characters peculiar to the various genera. among the stink-horns are a number of genera which are very interesting from the peculiarities of development; and some of which are very beautiful and curious objects, although they do possess offensive odors. in some of the genera, the upper part of the plant expands into leaf-like--or petal-like, bodies, which are highly colored and resemble flowers. they are sometimes called "fungus flowers." dictyophora desvaux. =dictyophora= means "net bearer," and as one can see from fig. it is not an inappropriate name. the stem or receptacle, as one can see from the illustrations of the two species treated of here, possesses a very coarse mesh, so that not only the surface but the substance within is reticulated, pitted and irregularly perforated. in the genus _dictyophora_ an outer layer of the receptacle or stem is separated as it elongates, breaks away from the lower part of the stem, is carried aloft, and hangs as a beautiful veil. this veil is very conspicuous in some species and less so in others. =dictyophora duplicata= (bosc.) ed. fischer.--this species is illustrated in fig. , made from plants collected at ithaca. the plants are from -- cm. high, the cap about cm. in diameter, and the stem -- cm. in thickness. according to burt (bot. gaz. = =: , ) it is a common species in the eastern united states. the cap is more or less bell-shaped and the sculptured surface is marked in a beautiful manner with the reticulations. [illustration: plate , figure .--dictyophora duplicata. white (natural size). copyright.] [illustration: plate , figure .--dictyophora ravenelii. mature plants showing volva at base; elongated receptacle, cap at the top, and veil surrounding the receptacle under the cap (natural size). copyright.] [illustration: figure .--dictyophora ravenelii. egg stage, caps just bursting through the volva (natural size). copyright.] [illustration: figure .--dictyophora ravenelii. sections of eggs, and showing cords of mycelium (natural size). copyright.] =dictyophora ravenelii= (b. & c.) burt.--this plant also has a wide distribution in the eastern united states. the stem is more slender than in the other species, _d. duplicata_, the pileus more nearly conic, and the surface of the pileus is merely granular or minutely wrinkled after the disappearance of the gleba, and does not present the strong reticulating ridges and crests which that species shows. the plants are from to cm. high. it grows in woods and fields about rotting wood, and in sawdust. the veil is very thin and delicate, forming simply a membrane, and does not possess the coarse meshes present in the veil of _d. duplicata_. the figs. , represent the different stages in the elongation of the receptacle of this plant, and the rupture of the volva. this elongation takes place quite rapidly. while photographing the plant as it was bursting through the volva, i had considerable difficulty in getting a picture, since the stem elongated so rapidly that the plant would show that it had moved perceptibly, and the picture would be blurred. in a woods near ithaca a large number of these plants have appeared from year to year in a pile of sawdust. one of the most vile smelling plants of this family is the _ithyphallus impudicus_. chapter xvi. morels, cup-fungi, helvellas, etc.: discomycetes. the remaining fungi to be considered belong to a very different group of plants than do the mushrooms, puff-balls, etc. nevertheless, because of the size of several of the species and the fact that several of them are excellent for food, some attention will be given to a few. the entire group is sometimes spoken of as _discomycetes_ or _cup-fungi_, because many of the plants belonging here are shaped something like a disk, or like a cup. the principal way in which they differ from the mushrooms, the puff-balls, etc., is found in the manner in which the spores are borne. in the mushrooms, etc., the spores, we recollect, are borne on the end of a club-shaped body, usually four spores on one of these. in this group, however, the spores are borne inside of club-shaped bodies, called sacs or asci (singular, ascus). these sacs, or asci, are grouped together, lying side by side, forming the fruiting surface or hymenium, much as the basidia form the fruiting surface in the mushrooms. in the case of the cup or disk forms, the upper side of the disk, or the upper and inner surface of the cap, is covered with these sacs, standing side by side, so that the free ends of the sacs form the outer surface. in the case of the morel the entire outer surface of the upper portion of the plant, that where there are so many pits, is covered with similar sacs. since so few of the genera and species of the morels and cup-fungi will be treated of here, i shall not attempt to compare the genera or even to give the characters by which the genera are known. in most cases the illustrations will serve this purpose so far as it is desirable to accomplish it in such a work as the present. certain of the species will then be described and illustrated. [illustration: plate , figure .--morchella esculenta (natural size). copyright.] morchella dill. the morels are all edible and they are usually easy to recognize. the plant consists of two distinct, prominent parts, the cap and the stem. the cap varies in form from rounded, ovate, conic or cylindrical, or bell-shaped, but it is always marked by rather broad pits, covering the entire outer surface, which are separated from each other by ridges forming a network. the color of the plants does not differ to any perceptible extent in our species. the cap is usually buff or light ochre yellow, becoming darker with age and in drying. the stem in all our species is usually quite stout, though it varies to some extent in some of the different species, in proportion to the thickness of the cap. the stem is marked in some of the species by large wrinkles or folds extending irregularly but with considerable uniformity over the surface. the surface is further minutely roughened by whitish or grayish elevations, giving it a granular appearance. sometimes these granules are quite evenly distributed over the surface, and in some species they are more or less separated into small areas by narrow lines. the morels appear early in the season, during may and june. they grow usually in damp situations, and are more abundant during rainy weather. three species are illustrated here. =morchella esculenta= pers. =edible.=--the name of this species, the esculent morel, indicates that it has been long known as an edible plant, especially since the man who named it lived a century ago. the plant is from -- cm. high, the stem is -- cm. in thickness, and the cap is broader than the stem. the cap is somewhat longer than broad, and is more or less oval or rounded in outline. the arrangement of the pits on the surface of the cap is regarded by some as being characteristic of certain species. in this species the pits are irregularly arranged, so that they do not form rows, and so that the ridges separating them do not run longitudinally from the base toward the apex of the cap, but run quite irregularly. this arrangement can be seen in fig. , which is from a photograph of this species. the stem is hollow. =morchella conica= pers. =edible.=--this species is very closely related to the preceding one, and is considered by some to be only a form of the _morchella esculenta_. the size is about the same, the only difference being in the somewhat longer cap and especially in the arrangement of the pits. these are arranged more or less in distinct rows, so that the ridges separating them run longitudinally and parallel from the base of the cap to the apex, with connecting ridges extending across between the pits. the cap is also more or less conic, but not necessarily so. figure illustrates this species. the plant shown here is branched, and this should not be taken to be a character of the species, for it is not, this form being rather rare. [illustration: figure .--morchella conica (natural size). copyright.] [illustration: plate , figure .--morchella crassipes (natural size). copyright.] =morchella crassipes= (vent.) pers. =edible.=--this species differs from the two preceding in the fact that the stem is nearly equal in width with the cap. figure illustrates a handsome specimen which was cm. high. the granular surface and the folds of the stem show very distinctly and beautifully. collected at ithaca. =morchella deliciosa= fr. =edible=, has the cap cylindrical or nearly so. it is longer than the stem, and is usually two or three times as long as it is broad. the plant is smaller than the preceding, though large ones may equal in size small ones of those two. the plant is from -- cm. high. =morchella semilibera= dc., and =m. bispora= sor., [_verpa bohemica_ (kromb.) schroet.] occur in this country, and are interesting from the fact that the cap is bell-shaped, the lower margin being free from the stem. in the latter species there are only two spores in an ascus. helvella l. the helvellas are pretty and attractive plants. they are smaller than the morels, usually. they have a cap and stem, the cap being very irregular in shape, often somewhat lobed or saddle-shaped. it is smooth, or nearly so, at least it is not marked by the large pits present in the cap of the morel, and this is one of the principal distinguishing features of the helvellas as compared with the morels. in one species the thin cap has its lower margin free from the stem. this is =helvella crispa= fr., and it has a white or whitish cap, and a deeply furrowed stem. it occurs in woods during the summer and autumn, and is known as the white helvella. [illustration: figure .--helvella lacunosa (natural size). copyright.] another species which has a wide range is the =helvella lacunosa=, so called because of the deep longitudinal grooves in the stem. the cap is thin, but differs from the _h. crispa_ in that the lower margin is connected with the stem. this species is illustrated in fig. from plants collected at blowing rock, n. c., during september, . the genus _gyromitra_ is very closely related to _helvella_, and is only distinguished by the fact that the cap is marked by prominent folds and convolutions, resembling somewhat the convolutions of the brain. its name means _convoluted cap_. the =gyromitra esculenta= fr., is from -- cm. high, and the cap from -- cm. broad. while this species has long been reported as an edible one, and has been employed in many instances as food with no evil results, there are known cases where it has acted as a poison. in many cases where poisoning has resulted the plants were quite old and probably in the incipient stages of decay. however, it is claimed that a poisonous principle, called _helvellic acid_, has been isolated by a certain chemist, which acts as a violent poison. this principle is very soluble in hot water, and when care is used to drain off first water in which they have been cooked, squeezing the water well from the plants, they are pronounced harmless. the safer way would be to avoid such suspicious species. [illustration: figure .--spathularia velutipes (natural size). copyright.] =spathularia velutipes= cooke & farlow.--this species represents another interesting genus of the _discomycetes_. it is in the form of a "spatula," and from this shape of the plant the genus takes its name. there are several species known in this country, and this one is quite common. the stem extends the entire length of the plant, running right through the cap, or perhaps it would be better to say that the cap or fruiting portion forms two narrow blades or wings on opposite sides of the upper part of the stem. these wing-like expansions of the cap on the opposite sides of the stem give the spathulate form to the plant. figure is from plants collected in the woods near ithaca. [illustration: figure .--leotia lubrica (natural size). copyright.] =leotia lubrica= pers.--the genus _leotia_ is quite readily recognized by its form, and because the plants are usually slimy. this species is called _lubrica_ because of the slippery character of the entire plant. it is dull yellowish or olive yellow in color. the cap, as can be seen from the figure ( ), is irregularly rounded, and broader than the stem. the plant is illustrated natural size from specimens collected near ithaca. the true cup-fungi. by far the larger number of the _discomycetes_ are cup-shaped, and are popularly called "cup-fungi." they vary from plants of very minute size, so small that they can be just seen with the eye, or some of the larger ones are several inches in breadth. they grow on the ground, on leaves, wood, etc. the variety of form and color is great. they may be sessile, that is, the cup rests immediately on the ground or wood, or leaves, or they may possess a short, or rather long stalk. the only species illustrated here has a comparatively long stalk, and the cap is deep cup-shaped, almost like a beaker. this plant is technically known as _sarcoscypha floccosa_. it is represented here natural size (fig. ). the stem is slender, and the rim of the cup is beset with long, strigose hairs. the inner surface of the cup is lined with the sacs (asci) and sterile threads (paraphyses), spoken of on a former page, when treating of the fruiting character of the morels and cup-fungi. in this plant the color of the inside of the cup is very beautiful, being a bright red. another species, _sarcoscypha coccinea_, the scarlet sarcoscypha, is a larger plant which appears in very early spring, soon after the frost is out of the ground. it grows on rotting logs and wood in the woods or in groves. the inside of the cup in this species is a rich scarlet, and from this rich color the species takes its name. [illustration: figure .--sarcoscypha floccosa (natural size). copyright.] chapter xvii. collection and preservation of the fleshy fungi. in the collection of the higher fungi it is of the utmost importance that certain precautions be employed in obtaining all parts of the plant, and furthermore that care be exercised in handling, in order not to remove or efface delicate characters. not only is it important for the beginner, but in many instances an "expert" may not be able to determine a specimen which may have lost what undoubtedly seem, to some, trivial marks. the suggestions given here should enable one to collect specimens in such a way as to protect these characters while fresh, to make notes of the important evanescent characters and to dry and preserve them properly for future study. for collecting a number of specimens under a variety of conditions the following list of "apparatus" is recommended: one or two oblong or rectangular hand baskets, capacity from -- quarts. or a rectangular zinc case with a closely fitting top (not the ordinary botanical collecting case). half a dozen or so tall pasteboard boxes, or tins, × , or × , × inches deep, to hold certain species in an upright position. a quantity of tissue paper cut × or × inches. smaller quantity of waxed tissue paper for wrapping viscid or sticky plants. trowel; a stout knife; memorandum pad and pencil. =collecting.=--during the proper season, and when rains are abundant, the mushrooms are to be found in open fields, waste places, groves and woods. they are usually more abundant in the forests. especially in dry weather are specimens more numerous in rather damp woods, along ravines or streams. in collecting specimens which grow on the ground the trowel should be used to dig up the plant carefully, to be sure that no important part of the plant is left in the ground. after one has become familiar with the habit of the different kinds the trowel will not be necessary in all cases. for example, most species of _russula_, _lactarius_, _tricholoma_, _boletus_, etc., are not deeply seated in the soil, and careful hand-picking will in most cases secure specimens properly, especially if one does not object to digging in the soil with the fingers. but in the case of most species of _amanita_, certain species of _lepiota_, _collybia_, etc., a trowel is necessary to get up the base of the plant in such a way as to preserve essential characters. even then it is possible, if the ground is not too hard, to dig them out with the fingers, or with a stout knife, but i have often found specimens which could only be taken up with a trowel or spade. species growing on sticks or leaves are easily collected by taking a portion of the substratum on which they grow. specimens on the larger limbs or trunks or stumps can sometimes be "picked," but until one is accustomed to certain individualities of the plant it is well to employ the knife and to cut off a portion of the wood if necessary, to avoid cutting off the base of the stem. it is necessary also to handle the specimens with the greatest care to avoid leaving finger marks where the surface of the stem or cap is covered with a soft and delicate outer coat, especially if one wishes to photograph the plant, since rubbed or marked places spoil the plant for this purpose. also a little careless handling will remove such important characters as a frail annulus or volva, which often are absolutely necessary to recognize the species. having collected the specimens, they should be properly placed in the basket or collecting case. those which are quite firm, and not long and slender, can be wrapped with tissue paper (waxed tissue paper if they are viscid or sticky), and placed directly in the basket, with some note or number to indicate habitat or other peculiarity which it is desirable to make at the time of collection. the smaller, more slender and fragile, specimens can be wrapped in tissue paper (a cluster of several individuals can be frequently rolled up together) made in the form of a narrow funnel and the ends then twisted. the shape of the paper enables one to wrap them in such a way as to protect certain delicate characters on the stem or cap. these can then be stood upright in the small pasteboard boxes which should occupy a portion of the basket. a number of such wrappers can be placed in a single box, unless the specimens are of considerable size and numerous. in these boxes they are prevented from being crushed by the jostling of the larger specimens in the basket. these boxes have the additional advantage of preserving certain specimens entire and upright if one wishes later to photograph them. =field notes.=--the field notes which may be taken upon the collection will depend on circumstances. if one goes to the sorting room soon after the collection is made, so that notes can be made there before the more delicate specimens dry, few notes will answer in the field, and usually one is so busy collecting or hunting for specimens there is not much inclination to make extended notes in the field. but it is quite important to note the _habitat_ and _environment_, i. e., the place where they grow, the kind and character of the soil, in open field, roadside, grove, woods, on ground, leaves, sticks, stumps, trunks, rotting wood, or on living tree, etc. it is very important also that different kinds be kept separate. the student will recognize the importance of this and other suggestions much more than the new "fungus hunter." =sorting room.=--when one returns from a collecting trip it is best to take the plants as soon as possible to a room where they can be assorted. an hour or so delay usually does not matter, but the sooner they are attended to the better. sometimes when they are carefully placed in the basket, as described above, they may be kept over night without injury, but this will depend on the _kinds_ in the collection. _coprini_ are apt to deliquesce, certain other specimens, especially in warm weather, are apt to be so infested with larvæ that they will be ruined by morning, when immediate drying might save them. other thin and delicate ones, especially in dry weather, will dry out so completely that one loses the opportunity of taking notes on the fresh specimen. specimens to be photographed should be attended to at once, unless it is too late in the day, when they should be set aside in an upright position, and if necessary under a bell-jar, until the following day. as far as possible good specimens should be selected for the photograph, representing different stages of development, and one to show the fruiting surface. sometimes it will be necessary to make more than one photograph to obtain all the stages. also on different days one is apt to obtain a specimen representing an important stage in development not represented before. the plants should be arranged close together to economize space, but not usually touching nor too crowded. they should be placed in their natural position as far as possible, and means for support, if used, should be hidden behind the plant. they should be so arranged as to show individual as well as specific character and should be photographed if possible natural size, or at least not on a plate smaller than × inches unless the plants are small; while larger ones are better on × or larger. some very small ones it may be necessary to enlarge in order to show the character of the fruiting surface, and even large specimens can sometimes have a portion of the hymenium enlarged to good advantage if it is desirable to show the characters clearly. the background should be selected to bring out the characters strongly, and in the exposure and developing it is often necessary to disregard the effect of the background in order to bring out the detail of texture on the plant itself. the background should be renewed as often as necessary to have it uniform and neat. there is much more that might be said under this head, but there is not space here. =to obtain spore prints.=--in many cases it is desirable to obtain spores in a mass on paper in order to know the exact tint of color produced by the species. often the color of the spores can be satisfactorily determined by an examination of them under the microscope. one cannot always depend on the color of the lamellæ since a number of the species possess colored cystidia or spines in the hymenium which disguise the color of the spores. the best way to determine the color of the spores in mass is to catch them as they fall from the fruiting surface on paper. for the ordinary purpose of study and reference in the herbarium the spores caught on unprepared paper, which later may be placed in the packet with the specimen, will answer. this method has the advantage of saving time, and also the danger of injury to the spores from some of the fixatives on prepared paper is avoided. if for purposes of illustration one wishes pretty spore prints, perfect caps must be cut from the stem and placed fruiting surface downward on paper prepared with some gum arable or similar preparation spread over it, while the paper is still moist with the fixative, and then the specimen must be covered with a bell-jar or other receiver to prevent even the slightest draft of air, otherwise the spores will float around more or less. the spores may be caught on a thin, absorbent paper, and the paper then be floated on the fixative in a shallow vessel until it soaks through and comes in contact with the spores. i have sometimes used white of egg as a fixative. these pieces of paper can then be cut out and either glued to card-boards, or onto the herbarium sheet. =sorting the plants.=--this should be done as soon as possible after collection. a large table in the sorting room is convenient, upon which the specimens may be spread, or grouped rather, by species, the individuals of a species together, on sheets of paper. surplus dirt, or wood, leaves, etc., can be removed. a few of the specimens can be turned so that spores can be caught on the papers. if only one or a few specimens of a given species have been found, and it is desirable not to cut off the cap from the stem, the plant can be supported in an upright position, a small piece of paper slit at one side can be slipped around the stem underneath the cap, on which the spores will fall. sometimes it will be necessary to cover the plant with a bell-jar in order to prevent it from drying before the spores are shed. experience with different species will suggest the treatment necessary. =taking notes on the specimens.=--very few probably realize the desirability of making notes of certain characters while the plants are fresh, for future reference, or for use by those to whom the plants may be sent for determination. it is some trouble to do this, and when the different kinds are plentiful the temptation is strong to neglect it. when one has available books for determination of the species, as many as possible should be studied and determined while fresh. but it is not always possible to satisfactorily determine all. some may be too difficult for ready recognition, others may not be described in the books at hand, or poorly so, and further the number of kinds may be too great for determination before they will spoil. on these as well as on some of the interesting ones recognized, it is important to make a record of certain characters. these notes should be kept either with the specimen, or a number should be given the specimen and the notes kept separately with the corresponding number. memoranda. =no.=____. locality, date. name of collector. =weather.= =habitat.=--if on ground, low or high, wet or dry, kind of soil; on fallen leaves, twigs, branches, logs, stumps, roots, whether dead or living, kind of tree; in open fields, pastures, etc., woods, groves, etc., mixed woods or evergreen, oak, chestnut, etc. =plants.=--whether solitary, clustered, tufted, whether rooting or not, taste, odor, color when bruised or cut, and if a change in color takes place after exposure to the air. =cap.=--whether dry, moist, watery in appearance (hygrophanous), slimy, viscid, glutinous; color when young, when old; whether with fine bloom, powder; kind of scales and arrangement, whether free from the cuticle and easily rubbed off. shape of cap. =margin of cap.=--whether straight or incurved when young, whether striate or not when moist. =stem.=--whether slimy, viscid, glutinous, kind of scales if not smooth, whether striate, dotted, granular, color; when there are several specimens test one to see if it is easily broken out from the cap, also to see if it is fibrous, or fleshy, or cartilaginous (firm on the outside, partly snapping and partly tough). shape of the stem. =gills or tubes.=--color when young, old, color when bruised, and if color changes, whether soft, waxy, brittle, or tough; sharp or blunt, plane or serrate edge. =milk.=--color if present, changing after exposure, taste. =veil.=--(inner veil.) whether present or not, character, whether arachnoid, and if so whether free from cuticle of pileus or attached only to the edge; whether fragile, persistent, disappearing, slimy, etc., movable, etc. =ring.=--present or absent, fragile, or persistent, whether movable, viscid, etc. =volva.=--present or absent, persistent or disappearing, whether it splits at apex or is circumscissile, or all crumbly and granular or floccose, whether the part on the pileus forms warts, and then the kind, distribution, shape, persistence, etc. =spores.=--color when caught on white paper. to the close observer additional points of interest will often be noted. =to dry the specimens.=--frequently the smaller specimens will dry well when left in the room, especially in dry weather, or better if they are placed where there is a draft of air. some dry them in the sun. but often the sun is not shining, and the weather may be rainy or the air very humid, when it is impossible to dry the specimens properly except by artificial heat. the latter method is better for the larger specimens at all times. during the autumn when radiators are heated the fungi dry well when placed on or over them. one of the best places which i have utilized is the brick work around a boiler connected with a mountain hotel. two other methods are, however, capable of wider application. st.--a tin oven about × feet, and two or several feet high, with one side hinged as a door, and with several movable shelves of perforated tin, or of wire netting; a vent at the top, and perforations around the sides at the bottom to admit air. the object being to provide for a constant current of air from below upwards between the specimens. this may be heated, if not too large, with a lamp, though an oil stove or gas jet or heater is better. the specimens are placed on the shelves with the accompanying notes or numbers. the height of this box can be extended where the number of specimens is great. d.--a very successful method which i employed at a summer resort at blowing rock, n. c., in the mountains of north carolina, during september, , was as follows: an old cook stove was set up in an unoccupied cottage, with two wire screens from × feet, one above the other, the lower one about one foot above the top of the stove. large numbers can be dried on these frames. care of course must be taken that the plants are not burned. in all cases the plants must be so placed that air will circulate under and around them, otherwise they are apt to blacken. when the plants are dry they are very brittle and must be handled carefully. when removed from the drier many kinds soon absorb enough moisture to become pliant so that they are not easily broken. others remain brittle. they may be put away in small boxes; or pressed out nearly flat, _not so as to crush the gills_, and then put in paper packets. the plants which do not absorb sufficient moisture from the air, so that they are pliant enough to press, can be placed in small boxes or on paper in a large box with peat moss in the bottom, and the box then closed tightly until they absorb enough moisture to become flexible. the plants must not get wet, and they should be examined every half hour or so, for some become limp much sooner than others. if the plants get too moist the gills crush together when pressed, and otherwise they do not make such good specimens. when the specimens are dried and placed in the herbarium they must be protected from insects. some are already infested with insects which the process of drying does not kill. they must be either poisoned with corrosive sublimate in alcohol, or fumigated with carbon disulphide, and if the latter it must be repeated one or two times at an interval of a month to catch those which were in the egg state the first time. when placed in the herbarium or in a box for storage, naphtha balls can be placed with them to keep out insects, but it should be understood that the naphtha balls will not kill or drive away insects already in the specimens. where there are enough duplicates, some specimens preserved in per cent. alcohol, under the same number, are of value for the study of structural characters. chapter xviii. selection and preparation of mushrooms for the table. in the selection of mushrooms to eat, great caution should be employed by those who are not reasonably familiar with the means of determination of the species, or those who have not an intimate acquaintance with certain forms. rarely should the beginner be encouraged to eat them upon his own determination. it is best at first to consult some one who knows, or to send first specimens away for determination, though in many cases a careful comparison of the plant with the figures and descriptions given in this book will enable a novice to recognize it. in taking up a species for the first time it would be well to experiment cautiously. =no certain rule to distinguish the poisonous from the edible.=--there is no certain test, like the "silver spoon test," which will enable one to tell the poisonous mushroom from the edible ones. nor is the presence of the so-called "death cup" a sure sign that the fungus is poisonous, for the _amanita cæsarea_ has this cup. for the beginner, however, there are certain general rules, which, if carefully followed, will enable him to avoid the poisonous ones, while at the same time necessarily excluding many edible ones. = st.=--reject all fungi which have begun to decay, or which are infested with larvæ. = d.=--reject all fungi when in the button stage, since the characters are not yet shown which enable one to distinguish the genera and species. buttons in pasture lands which are at the surface of the ground and not deep-seated in the soil, would very likely not belong to any of the very poisonous kinds. = d.=--reject all fungi which have a cup or sac-like envelope at the base of the stem, or which have a scaly or closely fitting layer at the base of the stem, and rather loose warts on the pileus, especially if the gills are white. _amanita cæsarea_ has a sac-like envelope at the base of the stem, and yellow gills as well as a yellow cap, and is edible. _amanita rubescens_ has remnants of a scaly envelope on the base of the stem and loose warts on the cap, and the flesh where wounded becomes reddish. it is edible. (see plate .) = th.=--reject all fungi with a milky juice unless the juice is reddish. several species with copious white milk, sweet or mild to the taste, are edible (see _lactarius volemus_ and _corrugis_). = th.=--reject very brittle fungi with gills nearly all of equal length, where the flesh of the cap is thin, especially those with bright caps. = th.=--reject all boleti in which the flesh changes color where bruised or cut, or those in which the tubes have reddish mouths, also those the taste of which is bitter. _strobilomyces strobilaceus_ changes color when cut, and is edible. = th.=--reject fungi which have a cobwebby veil or ring when young, and those with slimy caps and clay-colored spores. in addition, proceed cautiously in all cases, and make it a point to become very familiar with a few species first, and gradually extend the range of species, rather than attempt the first season to eat a large number of different kinds. all puff-balls are edible so long as they are white inside, though some are better than others. all coral-like or club fungi are edible. =to clean and prepare the specimens.=--the mushrooms having been collected, all tough stems, the parts to which earth clings, should be removed. after the specimens are selected, if there is danger that some of them may be infested with larvæ, it is well to cut off the stem close to the cap, for if the insects are in the stem and have not yet reached the cap they may thus be cast away. some recommend that the tubes of all boleti be removed, since they are apt to make a slimy mass in cooking. where the plants are small they may be cooked entire. large ones should be quartered, or cut, or sliced, according to the size and form of the plant, or method of cooking. chapter xix. uses of mushrooms.[c] the most prominent and at present important use of mushrooms from the standpoint of the utilitarian is as an article of food. we have now learned that their food value as a nutrient substance is not so great as has been fondly supposed, but, as mr. clark points out in chapter xxii, in addition to the value they certainly do possess as food, they have very great value as condiments or food accessories, and "their value as such is beyond the computation of the chemist or physiologist. they are among the most appetizing of table delicacies, and add greatly to the palatability of many foods when cooked with them." mushrooms undoubtedly possess a food value beyond that attributed to them by the chemist or physiologist, since it is not possible in laboratory analysis to duplicate the conditions which exist in the natural digestion and assimilation of foods. probably the larger number of persons, in america, at present interested in mushrooms, are chiefly concerned with them as an article of food, but a great many of these persons love to tramp to the fields and woods in quest of them just as the sportsman loves to hunt his game with dog and gun. it is quite likely that there will always be a large body of persons who will maintain a lively interest in the collection of _game_ mushrooms for food. there are several reasons for this. the zest of the search, the pleasure of discovery, and the healthfulness of the outdoor recreation lend an appetizing flavor to the fruits of the chase not to be obtained by purchasing a few pounds of cultivated mushrooms on the market. it cultivates powers of observation, and arouses a sympathetic feeling toward nature, and with those outdoor environments of man which lend themselves so happily in bettering and brightening life, as well as in prolonging it. many others are discovering that the observation of form and habits of mushrooms is a very interesting occupation for those who have short periods of time at their disposal weekly. it requires but a little observation to convince one that there is an interesting variety of form among these plants, that their growth and expansion operate in conformity with certain laws which result in great variation in form and habit of the numerous kinds on the ground, on leaves, on branches, on tree trunks, etc. another very favorable indication accompanying the increasing interest in the study of these plants, is the recognition of their importance as objects for nature study. there are many useful as well as interesting lessons taught by mushrooms to those who stop to read their stories. the long growth period of the spawn in the ground, or in the tree trunk, where it may sometimes be imprisoned for years, sometimes a century, or more, before the mushroom appears, is calculated to dispel the popular notion that the mushroom "grows in a night." then from the button stage to the ripe fruit, several days, a week, a month, or a year may be needed, according to the kind, while some fruiting forms are known to live from several to eighty or more years. the adjustment of the fruit cap to a position most suitable for the scattering of the spores, the different ways in which the fruit cap opens and expands, the different forms of the fruit surface, their colors and other peculiarities, suggest topics for instructive study and observation. the inclination, just now becoming apparent, to extend nature study topics to include mushrooms is an evidence of a broader and more sympathetic attitude toward nature. a little extension of one's observation on the habits of these plants in the woods will reveal the fact that certain ones are serious enemies of timber trees and timber. it is quite easy in many cases for one possessing no technical knowledge of the subject to read the story of these "wood destroying" fungi in the living tree. branches broken by snow, by wind, or by falling timber provide entrance areas where the spores, lodging on the heart wood of broken timber, or on a bruise on the side of the trunk which has broken through the living part of the tree lying just beneath the bark, provide a point for entrance. the living substance (_protoplasm_) in the spawn exudes a "juice" (_enzyme_) which dissolves an opening in the wood cells and permits the spawn to enter the heart of the tree, where decay rapidly proceeds as a result. but very few of these plants can enter the tree when the living part underneath the bark is unbroken. these observations suggest useful topics for thought. they suggest practical methods of prevention, careful forestry treatment and careful lumbering to protect the young growth when timber trees are felled. they suggest careful pruning of fruit and shade trees, by cutting limbs smooth and close to the trunk, and then painting the smooth surface with some lead paint. while we are thus apt to regard many of the mushrooms as enemies of the forest, they are, at the same time, of incalculable use to the forest. the mushrooms are nature's most active agents in the disposal of the forest's waste material. forests that have developed without the guidance of man have been absolutely dependent upon them for their continued existence. where the species of mushrooms are comparatively few which attack living trees, there are hundreds of kinds ready to strike into fallen timber. there is a degree of moisture present on the forest floor exactly suited to the rapid growth of the mycelium of numbers of species in the bark, sap wood, and heart wood of the fallen trees or shrubs. in a few years the branches begin to crumble because of the disorganizing effect of the mycelium in the wood. other species adapted to growing in rotting wood follow and bring about, in a few years, the complete disintegration of the wood. it gradually passes into the soil of the forest floor, and is made available food for the living trees. how often one notices that seedling trees and shrubs start more abundantly on rotting logs. the fallen leaves, too, are seized upon by the mycelium of a great variety of mushrooms. it is through the action of the mycelium of mushrooms of every kind that the fallen forest leaves, as well as the trunks and branches, are converted into food for the living trees. the fungi, are, therefore, one of the most important agents in providing available food for the virgin forest. the spawn of some fungi in the forest goes so far, in a number of cases, as to completely envelop those portions of the roots of certain trees as to prevent the possibility of the roots taking up food material and moisture on their own account. in such cases, the oaks, beeches, hornbeams, and the like, have the younger parts of their roots completely enveloped with a dense coat of mycelium. the mycelium in these cases absorbs the moisture from the soil or forest floor and conveys it over to the roots of the tree, and in this way supplies them with both food and water from the decaying humus, the oak being thus dependent on the mycelium. in the fields, however, where there is not the abundance of humus and decaying leaves present in the forest, the coating of mycelium on the roots of these trees is absent, and in this latter case the young roots are provided with root hairs which take up the moisture and food substances from the soil in the ordinary way. the mushrooms also prevent the forest from becoming choked or strangled by its own fallen members. were it not for the action of the mushroom mycelium in causing the decay of fallen timber in the forest, in time it would be piled so high as to allow only a miserable existence to a few choked individuals. the action of the mushrooms in thus disposing of the fallen timber in the forests, and in converting dead trees and fallen leaves into available food for the living ones, is probably the most important role in the existence of these plants. mushrooms, then, are to be given very high rank among the natural agencies which have contributed to the good of the world. when we contemplate the vast areas of forest in the world we can gain some idea of the stupendous work performed by the mushrooms in "house cleaning," and in "preparing food," work in which they are still engaged. fungi in the arts. a number of different species of mushrooms have been employed in the manufacture of useful articles. their use for such purposes, however, was more common in the past than at present, and it is largely therefore a matter of interest at the present time, though some are still employed for purposes of this kind. =tinder mushroom, or amadou.=--the _polyporus fomentarius_, or "tinder mushroom" or, as it is sometimes called, "german tinder," was once employed in the manufacture of tinder. the outer hard coat was removed and the central portion, consisting almost entirely of the tube system of several years' growth, was cut into strips and beaten to a soft condition. in this form it was used as tinder for striking fire. the inner portion was also used in making caps, chest-protectors, and similar articles. a process now in vogue in some parts of germany, is to steam the fruit bodies, remove the outer crust, and then, by machinery constructed for the purpose, shave the fruit body into a long, thin strip by revolving it against a knife in much the same way that certain woods are shaved into thin strips for the manufacture of baskets, plates, etc. some articles of clothing made from this fungus material are worn by peasants in certain parts of europe. =mushrooms for razor strops.=--the beech polyporus (_p. betulinus_) several centuries ago was used for razor strops. the fruit body after being dried was cut into strips, glued upon a stretcher, and smoothed down with pumice stone (asa gray bull. : , ). the sheets of the weeping merulius (see fig. ) were also employed for the same purpose, as were also the sheets of "punk" formed from mycelium filling in cracks in old logs or between boards in lumber piles. sometimes extensive sheets of this punk are found several feet long and a foot or more wide. these sheets of pure mycelium resemble soft chamois skin or soiled kid leather. =mushrooms employed for flower pots.=--in bohemia (according to cooke, fungi, etc., p. ) hoof-shaped fruit bodies of _polyporus fomentarius_ and _igniarius_ are used for flower pots. the inner, or tube portion, is cut out. the hoof-shaped portion, then inverted and fastened to the side of a building or place of support, serves as a receptacle for soil in which plants are grown. =curios.=--the _polyporus applanatus_ is much sought by some persons as a "curio," and also for the purpose of etching. in the latter case they serve as pastels for a variety of art purposes. the under surface of the plant is white. all collectors of this plant know that to preserve the white fruiting surface in a perfect condition it must be handled very carefully. a touch or bruise, or contact with other objects mars the surface, since a bruise or a scratch results in a rapid change in color of the injured surface. beautiful etchings can thus be made with a fine pointed instrument, the lines of color appearing as the instrument is drawn over the surface. =fungi for medicinal purposes.=--a number of the fungi were formerly employed in medicine for various purposes, but most of them have been discarded. some of the plants were once used as a purgative, as in the case of the officinal polyporus, the great puff ball, etc. the internal portion of the great puff ball has been used as an anodyne, and "formidable surgical operations have been performed under its influence." it is frequently used as a narcotic. some species are employed as drugs by the chinese. the anthelmintic polyporus is employed in burmah as a vermifuge. the ergot of rye is still employed to some extent in medicine, and the ripe puff balls are still used in some cases to stop bleeding of wounds. =luminosity of fungi.=--while the luminosity possessed by certain fungi cannot be said to be of distinct utility, their phosphorescence is a noteworthy phenomenon. that decaying wood often emits this phosphorescent light has been widely observed, especially in wooded districts. it is due to the presence of the mycelium of one of the wood destroying fungi. the luminosity is often so bright that when brought near a printed page in the dark, words can be read. hawthorne "reported the light from an improvised torch of mycelium infected wood, to have carried him safely several miles through an otherwise impassable forest." (asa gray, bull. = =: , ). the sulphur polyporus is said sometimes to be phosphorescent. the _clitocybe illudens_ (see fig. ) has long been known to emit a strong phosphorescent light, and has been called "jack-my-lantern." this plant often occurs in great abundance. at mountain hotels it is often brought in by day, and the guests at night, discovering its luminosity, trace grotesque figures, or monograms, on the ground by broken portions, which can be seen at a considerable distance. _lentinus stipticus_ in this country is also phosphorescent. in europe, the _pleurotus olearius_ (very closely related to our _clitocybe illudens_) on dead olive trunks is one of the best known of the phosphorescent species. other phosphorescent species are, according to tulasne, _a. igneus_ from amboyna, _a. noctileucus_ in manila, and _a. gardneri_ in brazil. the use of certain mushrooms in making intoxicant beverages is referred to in chapter xxii. since the artificial cultivation of mushrooms for food is becoming quite an industry in this country with some, the following chapter is devoted to a treatment of the subject. mention may be made here, however, of the attempts in parts of france to cultivate truffles, species of subterranean fungi belonging to the ascomycetes (various species of the genus _tuber_). it had long been observed that truffles grow in regions forested by certain trees, as the oak, beech, hornbeam, etc. efforts were made to increase the production of truffles by planting certain regions to these trees. especially in certain calcareous districts of france (see cooke, fungi, etc., p. ) young plantations of oak, beech, or beech and fir, after the lapse of a few years, produced truffles. the spores of the truffles are in the soil, and the mycelium seems to maintain some symbiotic relation with the roots of the young trees, which results in the increase in the production of the fruit bodies. dogs and pigs are employed in the collection of truffles from the ground. comparatively few of the truffles, or other subterranean fungi, have been found in america, owing probably to their subterranean habit, where they are not readily observed, and to the necessity of special search to find them. in california, however, dr. harkness (proc. calif. acad. sci.) has collected a large number of species and genera. recently (shear. asa gray bull. : , ) reports finding a "truffle" (_terfezia oligosperma_ tul.) in maryland, and _t. leonis_ occurs in louisiana. footnotes: [c] there is not room here to discuss the uses of other fungi than the "mushrooms." chapter xx. cultivation of mushrooms. the increasing interest in mushrooms during the past few years has not been confined to the kinds growing spontaneously in fields and woods, but the interest aroused in the collection and study of the wild varieties has been the means of awakening a general interest in the cultivation of mushrooms. this is leading many persons to inquire concerning the methods of cultivation, especially those who wish to undertake the cultivation of these plants on a small scale, in cellars or cool basements, where they may be grown for their own consumption. at somewhat frequent intervals articles appear in the newspapers depicting the ease and certainty with which mushrooms can be grown, and the great profits that accrue to the cultivator of these plants. while the profits in some cases, at least in the past, have been very great to cultivators of mushrooms, the competition has become so general that through a large part of the year the market price of mushrooms is often not sufficient to much more than pay expenses. in fact, it is quite likely that in many cases of the house cultivation of mushrooms the profits are no larger, taking the season through, than they are from the cultivation of tomatoes or other hothouse vegetables. occasionally some persons, who may be cultivating them upon a small scale in houses erected for some other purpose, or perhaps partly used for some other purpose, may succeed in growing quite a large crop from a small area with little expenditure of time and money. the profits figured from such a crop grown on a small scale where the investment in houses, heating apparatus, and time, is not counted, may appear to be very large, but they do not represent the true conditions of the industry where the expense of houses and the cost of time and labor are taken into consideration. probably the more profitable cultivation of mushrooms in this country is where the cultivation is practiced on quite a large scale, in tunnels, or caves, or abandoned mines, where no expense is necessary in the erection of houses. the temperature throughout the year is favorable for the growth of the mushrooms without artificial heating. it is possible, also, to grow them on a large scale during the warm summer months when it is impossible to grow them under the present conditions in heating house structures, and also when the market price of the mushrooms is very high, and can be controlled largely by the grower. for this reason, if it were possible to construct a house with some practical system of cooling the air through the summer, and prevent the drip, the cultivation in houses would probably be more profitable. [illustration: figure .--view in akron "tunnel," n. y. mushroom co. beds beginning to bear. copyright.] for the past few years the writer has been giving some attention to the different methods of the cultivation of mushrooms in america, and in response to the growing interest for information concerning the artificial cultivation of these plants, it has seemed well to add this chapter on the cultivation of mushrooms to the second edition of the present work. the cultivation as practiced in america exists under a great variety of conditions. all of these conditions have not been thoroughly investigated, and yet a sufficient number of them have been rather carefully studied to warrant the preparation of this chapter. the illustrations which have been made from time to time, by flash light, of the cave culture of mushrooms in america, as well as of the house culture, will serve to illustrate graphically some of the stages in the progress of the work. for present purposes we will consider, first, the conditions under which the cultivation is carried on, followed by a discussion of the principles involved in the selection and preparation of the material, the selection and planting of the spawn, as well as the harvesting of the crop. the cave culture of mushrooms in america. [illustration: figure .--view in akron "tunnel," n. y. mushroom co. beds beginning to bear. copyright.] this has been practiced for a number of years in different parts of the eastern united states, but perhaps only a small portion of the available caves or tunnels are at present used for this purpose. these subterranean mushroom farms are usually established in some abandoned mine where, the rock having been removed, the space is readily adapted to this purpose, if portions of the mine are not wet from the dripping water. the most extensive one which i have visited is located at akron, new york, and is operated by the new york mushroom company. in a single abandoned cement mine there are to acres of available space; about to acres of this area are used in the operations of the culture and handling of materials. the dry portions of the mine are selected, and flat beds are made upon the bottom rock, with the use of hemlock boards, making the beds usually feet long by feet wide, the boards being inches wide. in this case, the beds, after soiling or finishing, are inches deep, the material resting directly upon the rock, the boards being used only to hold the material on the edges in position. figures and illustrate the position of the beds and their relation to each other, as well as showing the general structural features of the mine. the pillars of rock are those which were left at the time of mining, as supports for the rock roof above, while additional wood props are used in places. in this mine all of the beds are constructed upon a single plan. [illustration: figure .--view in wheatland cave, showing ridge beds, and one flat bed. copyright.] at another place, wheatland, new york, where the wheatland cave mushrooms are grown, beds of two different styles are used, the flat beds supported by boards as described in the previous case, and the ridge beds, where the material, without any lateral support, is arranged in parallel ridges as shown in fig. . this is the method largely, if not wholly employed in the celebrated mushroom caves at paris, and is also used in some cases in the outdoor cultivation of mushrooms. as to the advantage of one system of bed over the other, one must consider the conditions involved. some believe a larger crop of mushrooms is obtained where there is an opportunity, as in the ridge beds, for the mushrooms to appear on the sides as well as on the upper surface of the beds. in the flat beds the mushrooms can appear only at the upper surface, though occasionally single ones crop out in the crevice between the side board and the rock below. [illustration: figure .--single mushroom house (wm. swayne, kennett square, pa.), "curing" shed at left. this house is heated in connection with other hothouses.] probably at paris, and perhaps also at some other places where the system of ridge beds is used, the question of the cost of the lumber is an important one, and the system of ridge beds avoids the expense of this item of lumber. in other cases, where the flat beds are used with the board supports, the cost of lumber is considered a small item when compared with the additional labor involved in making the ridge bed. the flat beds are very quickly made, and the material in some cases is not more than inches deep, allowing a large surface area compared with the amount of food material, for the growth of the mushrooms. it may be possible, with the flat, shallow bed system, that as many or more mushrooms are obtained from the same amount of manure, as in the case of the ridge beds. when we consider the cost of the manure in some places, this item is one which is well worth considering. the house culture of mushrooms. where this method of cultivation is employed, as the main issue, houses are constructed especially for the purpose. in general the houses are of two kinds. those which are largely above the ground, and those where a greater or lesser pit is excavated so that the larger part of the house is below ground. between these extremes all gradations exist. probably it is easier to maintain an equable temperature when the house is largely below ground. where it is largely above ground, however, the equability of the temperature can be controlled to a certain extent by the structure of the house. in some cases a wall air space is maintained around the sides and also over the roof of the building. and in some cases even a double air space of a foot or inches each is maintained over the roof. in some cases, instead of an air space, the space is filled with sawdust, single on the sides of the house, and also a or -inch space over the roof. the sides of the house are often banked with earth, or the walls are built of stone or brick. [illustration: figure .--double mushroom house (l. s. bigony's mushroom plant.) packing room at left, "curing" shed at right, next to this is boiler room.] all of these houses, no matter what the type of construction, require ventilation. this is provided for by protected openings or exits through the roof. in some cases the ventilators are along the side of the roof, when there would be two rows of ventilators upon the single gable roof. in other cases a row of ventilators is placed at the peak, when a single row answers. these ventilators are provided with shut-offs, so that the ventilation can be controlled at will. the size of the house varies, of course, according to the extent of the operations which the grower has in mind. the usual type of house is long and rather narrow, varying from to feet long by to or feet wide. in some cases the single house is constructed upon these proportions, as shown by fig. , with a gable roof. if it is desired to double the capacity of a house, two such houses are built parallel, the intercepting wall supporting the adjacent roof of the two houses, as shown in fig. . a still further increase in the capacity of the house is often effected by increasing the number of these houses side by side. this results in a series of or houses forming one consolidated block of houses, each with its independent ridge roof and system of ventilation. the separating walls between the several houses of such a block are probably maintained for the purpose of better controlling the temperature conditions and ventilation in various houses. if desired, communication from one house to another can be had by doors. =interior structure and position of the beds.=--the beds are usually arranged in tiers, one above the other, though in some houses the beds are confined only to the floor space. where they are arranged in tiers in a house of the proportions given above, there are three tiers of beds. there is one tier on either side, and a tier through the middle; the middle tier, on account of the peak of the roof at this point, has one more bed than the tiers on the side. the number of beds in a tier will depend on the height of the house. usually the house is constructed of a height which permits three beds in the side tier and four in the center tier, with an alley on either side of the center tier of beds, giving communication to all. if the house is very long and it is desirable, for convenience in passing from one house to another, to have cross alley-ways, they can be arranged, but the fewer cross alleys the larger surface area there is for beds. [illustration: figure .--view in mushroom house (wm. swayne), showing upper bed in left hand tier. copyright.] the size of the beds is governed by convenience in making the beds and handling the crop. the beds on the side tiers, therefore, are often three to three and one-half feet in width, affording a convenient reaching distance from the alley. the beds of the center tier have access from the alley on either side and are usually seven feet in width. the width of the alley varies according to the mind of the owner, from two to three or three and one-half feet. the narrow alley economizes space in the structure of a house; the wide alley, while slightly increasing the cost of the structure, makes it much more convenient in handling the material, and in moving about the house. the beds are constructed of one-inch boards. various kinds of lumber are used, the hemlock spruce, the oak, georgia pine, and so on. the beds are supported on framework constructed of upright scantling and cross stringers upon which the bottom boards are laid. these occur at intervals of three to four feet. the board on the side of each bed is to inches in width. the bottom bed, of course, is made on the ground. the upper beds in the tier are situated so that the distance is about three feet from the bottom of one bed to the bottom of the next above. figs. to show the general structure of the beds. =heating.=--one portion of the house is set apart for the boiler room, where a small hot water heater is located. the position of the heater in one of these houses is shown in fig. . in other cases, where the plant is quite a large one, a small separate or connecting boiler apartment is often constructed. in other cases, where the house is connected with or adjoining a system of greenhouses devoted to hothouse vegetables, the water pipes may run from the general boiler house which supplies the heat for all the houses. the water pipes in the mushroom houses are sometimes run beneath the boards or the walk in the alley, or in other cases are run just beneath the roof of the building. =cultivation of mushrooms under benches in greenhouses.=--this method is practiced to quite a large extent by some growers. in the house of mr. william swayne, kennett square, pa., a number of large houses, devoted through the winter to the growing of carnations, are also used for the cultivation of mushrooms, a single long bed being made up underneath the beds of carnations. in these houses the water pipes providing heat for the building run along the sides of the building underneath the carnation beds at this point. under these beds, where the water pipes run, no mushroom beds are made, since the heat would be too great, but under the three middle rows of beds in the house, mushroom beds are located. in this way, in a number of houses, several thousand square feet of surface for mushroom beds can be obtained. the carnations are grown, not in pots, but in a general bed on a bench. in watering the carnations, care is used in the distribution of the water, and in the amount used, to prevent a surplus of water dripping through on the mushrooms below. =cellar culture.=--for the cultivation of mushrooms on a small scale, unoccupied portions of cellars in a dwelling house are often used. the question is sometimes asked if it is injurious to the health of the family in a dwelling house when mushrooms are grown in the cellar. probably where the materials used in making up the beds are thoroughly cured before being taken into the cellar, no injurious results would come from the cultivation of the plant there. in case the manure is cured in the cellar, that is, is there carried through the process of heating and fermentation in preparation for the beds, the odors arising from the fermenting material are very disagreeable to say the least, and probably are not at all beneficial to one's general health. [illustration: figure .--view in mushroom house (wm. swayne). view down alley on right hand side. copyright.] in the cellar culture of mushrooms the places selected are along the sides of the cellar in unused portions. floor beds alone may be made by using the boards to support one side, while the wall forms the support on the other side as in the arrangement of beds on the side tiers in the mushroom houses; or tiers of beds may be arranged in the same way, one bed on the bottom, and one or two beds above. the number of beds will vary according to the available space. sometimes, where it is not convenient to arrange the larger beds directly on the bottom of the cellar, or in tiers, boxes three or four feet, or larger, may be used in place of the beds. these can be put in out of the way places in the cellar. the use of boxes of this description would be very convenient in case it was desired to entirely do away with the possibility of odors during the fermentation of the manure, or in the making up of the bed. even though the manure may be cured outside of the cellar, at the time it is made in the beds the odors released are sometimes considerable, and for several days might be annoying and disagreeable to the occupants of the dwelling, until such a time as the temperature of the manure had dropped to the point where the odors no longer were perceptible. in this case, with the use of boxes, the manure can be cured outside, made into beds in the boxes and taken into the cellar after the temperature is down to a point suitable for spawning, and very little odor will be released. if there is a furnace in the cellar it should be partitioned off from the portion devoted to mushroom culture. =cultivation in sheds or out of the way places.=--it is possible to grow mushrooms in a number of places not used for other purposes. in sheds where the beds may be well protected from the rain and from changing currents of air, they may be grown. in open sheds the beds could be covered with a board door, the sides of the bed being high enough to hold the door well above the mushrooms. in the basements of barns, or even in stables where room can be secured on one side for a bed, or tier of beds, they are often grown successfully. =garden and field culture of mushrooms.=--in europe, in some cases, mushrooms are often grown in the garden, ridge beds being made up in the spring and spawned, and then covered with litter, or with some material similar to burlaps, to prevent the complete drying out of the surface of the beds. sometimes they are cultivated along with garden crops. field culture is also practiced to some extent. in the field culture rich and well drained pastures are selected, and spawned sometime during the month of may. the portions of spawn are inserted in the ground in little t-shaped openings made by two strokes of the spade. the spade is set into the ground once, lifted, and then inserted again so that this first slit is on one side of the middle of the spade and perpendicular to it. the spade is inserted here and then bent backwards partly so as to lift open the sod in the letter t. in this opening the block of spawn is inserted, then closed by pressure with the foot. the spawn is planted in this way at distances of to feet. it runs through the summer, and then in the autumn a good crop often appears. curing the manure. =selection of manure.=--horse manure is the material which is most generally used, though sometimes a small percentage of other manures, as sheep manure, is added. in the selection of the manure it is desirable to obtain that which is as fresh as possible, which has not passed through the stage of fermentation, and which contains some straw, usually as litter, but not too large a percentage of straw. where there is a very large percentage of straw the manure is usually shaken out with a fork, and the coarser portion removed. if there is not too much of this coarse material the latter is often cured in a separate pile and used for the bottom of the beds, the finer portions of the manure, which have been separated, are used for the finishing and for the bulk of the bed. [illustration: figure .--view in mushroom house (l. s. bigony). view on top of fourth bed, middle tier. copyright.] where manure is obtained on a large scale for the cultivation in houses or in caves, it is usually obtained by the carload from liveries in large cities. it is possible to contract for manure of certain livery stables so that it may be obtained in a practically fresh condition, and handled by the liverymen according to directions, which will keep it in the best possible condition for the purpose. in the cave culture of mushrooms the manure is usually taken directly into the caves, and cured in some portion of the cave. in the house cultivation of mushrooms there is usually a shed constructed with an opening on one or two sides, at the end of the house connected with the beds, where the manure may be cured. in curing it, it is placed in piles, the size of which will depend upon the amount of manure to be cured, and upon the method employed by the operator. the usual size, where considerable manure is used, is about three feet in depth by ten or twelve feet wide, and fifteen to twenty feet long. the manure is laid in these piles to heat, and is changed or turned whenever desirable to prevent the temperature from rising too high. the object of turning is to prevent the burning of the material, which results at high degrees of temperature in fermentation. it is usually turned when the temperature rises to about ° f. at each turning the outside portions are brought to the center of the pile. the process is continued until the manure is well fermented and the temperature does not rise above to degrees, and then it is ready for making into beds. there are several methods used in the process of curing, and it does not seem necessary that any one method should be strictly adhered to. the most important things to be observed are to prevent the temperature from rising too high during the process of fermentation, to secure a thorough fermentation, and to prevent the material from drying out, or burning, or becoming too wet. the way in which the material is piled influences the rapidity of fermentation, or the increase of temperature. where the material is rather loosely piled it ferments more rapidly, and the temperature rises quickly. watering the manure tends to increase the rapidity of fermentation and the elevation of the temperature. it is necessary, though, sometimes to water the material if the heat has reached such a point that it is becoming too dry, or if there is a tendency for it to burn. the material is then turned, and watered some, but care should be used not to make it too wet, since the spawn will not run in wet material. in general we might speak of three different methods in the curing of the manure. _first, the slow process of curing._ according to this method, which is practiced by some, the time of fermentation may extend from four to five weeks. in this case the manure is piled in such a way that the temperature does not rise rapidly. during the four or five weeks the manure is turned four or five times. the turning occurs when the temperature has arisen to such a point as to require it. _another method, used by some, might be called a rapid process of curing._ according to this, the time for curing the manure extends over a period of about a week, or five to ten days. the material is piled in such a way as to cause rapid fermentation and rapid rising of temperature, the material sometimes requiring to be turned every day or two, sometimes twice a day, in order to lower the temperature and prevent the material from burning or drying out. between this rapid process of curing, and the slow process of curing, the practice may extend so that, according to the method of different operators, the period of curing extends from one week to a month or five weeks. [illustration: figure .--view in mushroom house (l. s. bigony's mushroom plant, lansdale, pa.), showing alley and side tier of beds. copyright.] _the third method of curing_ consists in putting the material at once into the beds before curing, and mixing in with the manure, as it is placed in the bed, about one part of loam or garden soil to four or five parts of the fresh manure. the material is then left in this condition to cure without changing or turning, the temperature rising perhaps not above ° f. with some experience in determining the firmness with which the bed should be made to prevent a too high rise of temperature, this practice might prove to be successful, and would certainly save considerable labor and expense in the making of the beds. mr. william swayne of kennett square, pa., in the winter of -- , made up a portion of one of his beds in this way, and no difference could be seen in the results of the crop, the crop from the beds made in this way being as good as that of the adjoining beds, and he intends the following year to make up all of his beds in the same way. =mixing soil with the manure at the time of fermentation.=--while in the cave culture of mushrooms the manure is usually fermented and used without the admixture of soil, usually in the house or cellar culture rich loam soil, or rotted sod, is mixed with the manure at the time of turning it, during the process of fermentation. at the time of the first turning, soil is mixed in, a layer of the manure being spread out on the ground, and then a sprinkling of soil over this. then another layer of the manure is added with another sprinkling of soil, and so on as the new pile is built up. in the first turning of the manure, about one part of soil is used to eight or nine parts of manure. then at the last turning another mixture of soil is added, so that there is about one-fifth part soil in the mixture. the soil aids somewhat in lowering the temperature, and also adds some to the bulk, so that more beds can be made up with the same amount of manure. =horse droppings free from straw.=--for growing mushrooms on a small scale, as in cellars or boxes, some prefer to select the horse droppings free from straw. making up the beds. =making up beds without the addition of soil.=--in the cave culture of mushrooms the beds are usually made from manure alone, there being no addition of soil. this is perhaps partly due to the expense of getting the soil in and out from the caves as well as to the low temperature prevailing there. it is believed by many that the results are equally as good in beds from the manure alone as in those which contain an admixture of soil. the method of making the beds in the akron cave, or "tunnel," is as follows: the manure, immediately after it has passed through the process of fermentation and curing in the pile, is carted to the district in the mine where the beds are to be made and is dumped in a long windrow on the ground. the length of the windrow depends of course upon the amount of material which is ready, as well as upon the amount necessary for making up the beds for that distance. two hemlock boards, sixteen feet long and ten inches wide, and two, four feet long and the same width, are then hastily nailed into the form of a rectangular frame. this is placed upon the rock bottom at one end of the row of material, perpendicular to it usually. [illustration: figure .--view in akron "tunnel," n. y. mushroom co. making up the beds. copyright.] the workmen then, with forks, distribute the material in this frame. if there is coarser material which has been separated from the finer material, this is placed in the bottom of the bed and the finer material is then filled on top. a layer of material is distributed over the bottom and then tamped down by striking with the back of the fork, as shown in fig. . in this figure the material is shown to be off at one end of the bed. this was in a section of the mine where it was not convenient to follow the beds in the direction of the pile of manure, so that the material is distributed on from the end of the bed instead of from the side, as is the usual method. after several inches have been distributed in this way and tamped down with the back of the fork, the operator tramps over the material with his feet and presses it down more firmly. another layer of material is distributed over this, and tamped and tramped down in a similar manner. the operation is repeated until the depth of the manure after tramping down is about seven inches. it is then left for the completion of the curing process and for the lowering of the temperature to the desired point. usually, after making the bed in this way, there is a rise in the temperature for several days, gradually lowering until finally it reaches the point favorable for planting the spawn. where the beds are made successively, one after another, following the windrow of manure, the material used for the first bed removes from the windrow a sufficient amount to make room for the second bed, and in like manner room for the successive beds is provided for as the material is taken for each one, so that the frames are put together and the beds are formed rapidly and easily. =making ridge beds in caves.=--in the making of the ridge beds in caves there are two methods which might be spoken of. one method is the well known one practiced in certain of the caves near paris, where the material is taken by workmen in large baskets and distributed in rows. the ridge is gradually formed into shape by walking astride of it, as additional material is emptied on from the baskets, the workmen packing and shaping the ridge by pressure from their limbs as they stand astride of the row. in this way the ridges are made as high or somewhat higher than their breadth at the base, and quite near together, so that there is just room in many cases to walk between the beds. in one cave in america, where the ridge system is used to some extent, the ridges are made with the aid of a board frame the length of the bed and the width of the base of the ridge. the long boards of this frame are slanting so that they are more or less the shape of the ridge, but not equal to its height. this frame is placed on the rock bottom, filled with manure and tramped on by the workmen. then the frame is lifted on the ridge and more material is added and tramped on in like manner, until the bulk of the ridge bed is built up in this way and compressed into shape. =beds in houses constructed for the purpose of growing mushrooms.=--where only the floor of the house is used, a middle bed and two side beds are sometimes formed in the same manner as described in the construction of the house for the tiers of beds, with an alley on either side of the large center bed, giving access to all. in some cases the entire surface of the bottom is covered with material, but divided into sections of large beds by framework of boards, but with no alleys between. access to these beds is obtained by placing planks on the top of the boards which make the frame, thus forming walks directly over portions of the bed. in some cases ridge beds, as described for cave cultivation, are made on the floor of these houses. the beds are filled in the same way as described for the cave culture of mushrooms, but usually, in the beds made in houses built for the purpose of growing mushrooms, a percentage of soil is mixed in with the manure, the soil being usually mixed in at the time of turning the manure during the process of fermentation. garden soil or rich loam is added, say at the first time the manure is turned while it is fermenting. then, some time later during the process of fermenting, another admixture of soil is added. the total amount of soil added is usually equal to about one-fifth of the bulk of the manure. as this material, formed of the manure with an admixture of soil, is placed in the beds it is distributed much in the same manner as described for the making of flat beds in caves or tunnels. usually, however, if there is coarse material which was separated from the manure at the first sorting, this without any mixture of soil is placed in the bottom of the bed, and then the manure and soil is used for the bulk of the bed above. this coarser material, however, is not always at hand, and in such cases the beds are built up from the bottom with the mixture of manure and soil. the depth of the material in the beds in these houses varies according to the experience of the operator. some make the beds about eighteen inches in depth, while others do not make the beds more than eight or ten or twelve inches in depth. where there are tiers of beds, that is, one bed above the other, very often the lowest bed, the one which rests directly upon the ground, is made deeper than the others. while it is the general custom to use material consisting of an admixture of manure and soil in the proportions described, this custom is not always followed. in the case of the beds which are made up in the summer for the fall and early winter crop, soil, being easily obtained at that season of the year, is mixed with the manure. some growers, however, in making the beds in midwinter for the spring crop, do not use any soil since it is more difficult to obtain it at that season. in such cases the beds are made up of manure alone. the experience in some cases shows that the crop resulting from this method is equally as good as that grown where soil has been added. in the experience of some other growers a bin of soil is collected during the summer or autumn which can be used in the winter for mixing in with the manure and making the beds for the spring crop. where sod is used this is collected in pastures or fence rows in june, piled, and allowed to rot during the summer. in distributing the material in the beds, the methods of packing it vary according to the wishes or experience of the grower. it is often recommended to pack the material very firmly. the feeling that this must be packed very thinly has led to the disuse of beds in tiers by some, because it is rather difficult to pack the material down very firmly where one bed lies so closely above another. where the practice is followed of packing the material very firmly in the bed, some instrument in the form of a maul is used to tamp it down. where there are tiers of beds an instrument of this kind cannot well be used. here a brick or a similar heavy and small instrument is used in the hand, and the bed is thus pounded down firmly. this is a tedious and laborious operation. many growers do not regard it as essential that the beds should be very firmly packed. in such cases the material is distributed on the beds and the successive layers are tamped down as firmly as can well be done with the back of a fork or an ordinary potato digger, which can be wielded with the two hands in between the beds. in the experience of these growers the results seem to be just as good as where the beds are more firmly packed down. it is the practice in some cases where the bed lies against the side of the house to build up the material of the bed at the rear, that is, at the side of the house, much deeper than at the front, so that the depth of the bed at the back may be eighteen to twenty inches or two feet, while the front is eight to ten or twelve inches. this provides a slightly increased surface because of the obliquity of the upper surface of the bed, but it consumes probably a greater amount of material. it probably is not advantageous where the operations are carried on on a large scale, where abundant room is available, where the material for making the beds is expensive, and it is desirable to obtain from the material all that can be drawn in a single crop. the same practice is sometimes recommended and followed in the case of the beds made in cellars. in the making of beds with fresh material, that is, with unfermented manure, as was done by mr. william swayne of kennett square, pa., one season, the coarser material is put in the bottom of the bed, and then as the manure is distributed in the bed the soil is sprinkled on also, so that finally when the bed is completed the proportions of soil and manure are the same as when it is mixed in at the time of fermentation. in making the beds in this way, should any one be led to attempt it, it would be necessary to guard against a too high temperature in the fermentation of this fresh material; the temperature should not run above degrees. it would also require a longer time from the making of the bed to planting the spawn than in the case of those beds where the manure is fermented and cured before being made up. probably the total amount of time from the beginning to the completion of the preparation of the bed for spawning would not be greater, if it would be so great. the beds all having been made, they are left until they are in a suitable condition for spawning. the determination of this point, that is, the point when the beds are ready for planting the spawn, seems to be one of the most important and critical features of the business. the material must be of a suitable temperature, preferably not above ° f., and not below °. the most favorable temperature, according to some, other conditions being congenial, ranges from ° to ° f., while many prefer to spawn at ° to °. many of the very successful growers, however, do not lay so much stress upon the temperature of the bed for the time of spawning as they do upon the ripeness, or the cured condition, of the material in the bed. this is a matter which it is very difficult to describe to one not familiar with the subject, and it is one which it is very difficult to properly appreciate unless one has learned it by experience. some judge more by the odor, or the "smell," as they say, of the manure. it must have lost the fresh manure "smell," or the "sour smell," and possess, as they say, a "sweet smell." sometimes the odor is something like that of manure when spawn has partly run through it. it sometimes has a sweetish smell, or a smell suggestive of mushrooms even when no spawn has run through it. another important condition of the material is its state of dryness or moisture. it must not be too dry or the spawn will not run. in such cases there is not a sufficient amount of moisture to provide the water necessary for the growth of the mycelium. on the other hand, it must not be too wet, especially at the time of spawning and for a few weeks after. some test the material for moisture in this way. take a handful of the material and squeeze it. if on releasing the hold it falls to pieces, it is too dry. by squeezing a handful near the ear, if there is an indication of running water, even though no water may be expressed from the material, it is too wet. if on pressure of the material there is not that sense of the movement of water in it on holding it to the ear, and if on releasing the pressure of the hand the material remains in the form into which it has been squeezed, or expands slightly, it is considered to be in a proper condition so far as moisture is concerned for planting the spawn. what spawn is. the spawn of the mushroom is the popular word used in speaking of the mycelium of the mushroom. the term is commonly used in a commercial sense of material in which the mycelium is growing. this material is horse manure, or a mixture of one or two kinds of manure with some soil, and with the threads of the mycelium growing in it. the mycelium, as is well known, is the growing or vegetative part of the mushroom. sometimes the word "fiber" is used by the mushroom growers in referring to the mycelium which appears in the spawn, or in the mushroom bed. the mycelium is that portion of the plant which, in the case of the wild varieties, grows in the soil, or in the leaf mold, in the tree trunk or other material from which the mushroom derives its food. the threads of mycelium, as we know, first originated from the spore of the mushroom. the spore germinates and produces delicate threads, which branch and increase by growth in extent, and form the mycelium. so the term spawn is rarely applied to the pure mycelium, but is applied to the substratum or material in which spawn is growing; that is, the substratum and mycelium together constitute the spawn. =natural spawn or virgin spawn.=--this is termed natural spawn because it occurs under natural conditions of environment. the original natural spawn was to be found in the fields. in the early history of mushroom culture the spawn from the pastures and meadows where mushrooms grew was one of the sources of the spawn used in planting. the earth containing the spawn underneath clumps of mushrooms was collected and used. it occurs more abundantly, however, in piles of horse manure which have stood for some time in barn yards, or very often in stalls where the manure is allowed to accumulate, has been thoroughly tramped down and then has been left in this condition for some time. it occurs also in composts, hothouse beds, or wherever accumulations of horse manure are likely to occur, if other conditions are congenial. the origin of the natural spawn under these conditions of environment is probably accounted for in many cases by the presence of the spores which have been in the food eaten by the horse, have passed through the alimentary canal and are thus distributed through the dung. the spores present in the food of the horse may be due to various conditions. horses which go out to pasture are likely to take in with the food obtained in grazing the spores scattered around on the grass, and in the upper part of the sod, coming from mushrooms which grew in the field. in other cases, the spores may be present in the hay, having been carried by the wind from adjacent fields, if not from those which have grown in the meadow. in like manner they may be present in the oats which have been fed to the horse. in the case of stable-fed animals, the inoculation of the manure in this way may not always be certain or very free. but in the case of pasture-fed horses which are stalled at night probably the inoculation is very certain and very abundant, so that a large number of spores would be present in the manure from horses fed in this way. the natural spawn also may originate from spores which are carried by the wind from the pasture or meadow mushrooms upon manure piles, or especially from spores which may lodge in the dust of the highways or street. many of these spores would cling to the hoofs of the horses and at night, or at times of feeding, would be left with the manure in the stall. at other times horse droppings may be gathered from roads or streets where spores may be present in the dust. the piles of the droppings accumulated in this way, if left a sufficient time, may provide natural spawn by this accidental inoculation from the spores. probably few attempts have been made to grow the natural spawn with certainty in this country, though it does not appear to be an impracticable thing to do, since formerly this was one source of the virgin spawn in europe. it is usually obtained by search through stables and barn yards or other places where piles of horse manure have accumulated and have remained for several months. in some cases the growers keep men employed through the summer season searching the yards and stables over a considerable area for the purpose of finding and gathering this natural spawn. it is probably termed virgin spawn because of its origin under these natural conditions, and never having been propagated artificially. the natural spawn, as indicated above, is employed for a variety of purposes. it is used for inoculating the bricks in the manufacture of brick spawn. it is used for propagating once or twice in the mushroom beds, for the purpose of multiplying it, either in the manufacture of brick spawn, or for flake spawn, which is planted directly in the beds to be used for the crop. in some places in america it is collected on a large scale and relied on as the chief source of spawn for planting beds. in such cases the natural or virgin spawn is used directly and is of the first and most vigorous generation. it is believed by growers who employ it in this way that the results in the quality and quantity of the crop exceed those produced from the market spawn. but even these growers would not always depend on the natural spawn, for the reason, that collecting it under these conditions, the quantity is certain to vary from year to year. this is due probably to varying conditions of the season and also to the varying conditions which bring about the chance inoculation, or the accumulation of the material in the yard for a sufficient amount of time to provide the mycelium. it would be interesting, and it might also prove to be profitable to growers, if some attempt were made to grow natural spawn under conditions which would perhaps more certainly produce a supply. this might be attempted in several different ways. stall-fed horses might be fed a ripe mushroom every day or two. or from the cap of ripe mushrooms the spores might be caught, then mixed with oats and fed to the horse. again, the manure piles might be inoculated by spores caught from a number of mushrooms. manure might also be collected during the summer months from the highways and aside from the probable natural inoculation which this material would probably have from the spores blown from the meadow and pasture mushrooms, additional inoculation might be made. the manure obtained in this way could be piled under sheds, packed down thoroughly, and not allowed to heat above ° f. these piles could then be left for several months, care being used that the material should have the proper moisture content, not too dry nor too wet. this is given only as a suggestion and it is hoped that some practical grower will test it upon a small scale. in all cases the temperature should be kept low during the fermentation of these piles, else the spawn will be killed. one of the methods of obtaining natural spawn recommended by cuthill ("treatise on the cultivation of the mushroom") is to collect horse droppings all along the highways during the summer, mixing it with some road sand and piling it in a dry shed. here it is packed down firmly to prevent the heat rising too high. a "trial" stick is kept in the pile. when this is pulled out, if it is so hot as to "burn the hand," the heat is too great and would kill the spawn. in several months an abundance of the spawn is generated here. =mill-track spawn.=--"mill-track" spawn originated from the spawn found in covered roadways at mills or along tram-car tracks where horses were used. the accumulation of manure trodden down in these places and sometimes mixed with sawdust or earth, provided a congenial place for the growth of the mycelium. the spawn was likely introduced here through spores taken in with the food of the horse, or brought there from highways, if they were not already in the soil from mushrooms grown there. it would be then multiplied by the growth of the spawn, and from spores of mushrooms which might appear and ripen. the well tramped material in which the mycelium grew here, when broken up, formed convenient blocks of spawn for storage and transportation, and probably led to the manufacture of brick spawn. =manufactured spawn.=--the manufactured spawn, on the other hand, is that which is propagated artificially by the special preparation of the substratum or material in which the mycelium is to grow. this material is inoculated either with a piece of natural spawn, or with pieces of previously manufactured spawn. it is put upon the market in two different forms; the brick spawn, and the flake spawn. the latter is sometimes known as the french spawn, while the former, being largely manufactured in england, is sometimes spoken of as the english spawn. [illustration: figure .--brick spawn. three "bricks," one marked to show into how many pieces one brick may be broken.] =brick spawn.=--the brick spawn is so called because the material in which the mycelium is present is in the form of bricks. these bricks are about by inches by - / inches in thickness, and weigh about - / pounds each when dried. the proportions of different kinds of material used in the manufacture of brick spawn probably vary with different manufacturers, since there is a difference in the size and texture of bricks from different sources. one method of making the brick spawn is as follows: equal parts of horse dung, and cow dung, and loam soil are thoroughly mixed together to a consistency of mortar. this is pressed into the form of bricks and stood on edge to dry. when partly dry, a piece of spawn about an inch in diameter is pressed into one side of each brick. the bricks are then stood up again until thoroughly dried. they are then piled upon a layer of fresh horse manure about inches deep, the pile of bricks being about feet high. this pile is then covered over loosely with fresh horse manure, a sufficient amount to produce, when heating, a temperature of about ° f. they are left in this condition until the mycelium or "fiber" has thoroughly permeated the bricks. the spawn is now completed, and the bricks are allowed to dry. in this condition they are put upon the market. the bricks made with a very high percentage of soil often have the appearance of dried soil, with a slight admixture of vegetable matter. brick spawn from other sources presents a very different texture and contains probably a much larger percentage of horse manure, or, at least, a much smaller percentage of soil. the appearance of the brick is not that of soil with a slight admixture of vegetable materials, but has much the appearance of a dried and compressed mixture of horse dung and cow dung, with an abundance of the "fiber" or mycelium, "the greyish moldy, or thready matter," which constitutes the vital part of the spawn. in the selection of spawn this is an important item, that is, the presence of an abundance of "fiber" or mycelium. it can be seen on the surface, usually showing an abundance of these whitish threads or sheets, or a distinct moldy appearance is presented. on breaking the brick the great abundance of the "fiber" or whitish mycelium is seen all through it. this indicates that the brick possesses a high percentage of the "fiber," an important part of the spawn. one not accustomed to the quality of spawn can therefore judge to a certain extent by the appearance of the bricks as to the quality, at least they can judge as to the presence of an abundance or a scanty quantity of the "fiber." since the spawn remains in good condition for several years, there is usually no danger in the use of spawn which may be one or two years old. but it does deteriorate to some extent with age, and young spawn is therefore to be preferred to old spawn, provided the other desirable qualities are equal. those who attempt to cultivate mushrooms, and depend on commercial or manufactured spawn, should see to it that the spawn purchased possesses these desirable qualities of texture, and the presence of an abundance of the mycelium. that which appears devoid of an abundance of mycelium should be rejected, and good spawn should be called for. there is no more reason why a grower should accept a worthless spawn from his seedsman than that he should accept "addled" eggs from his grocer. in this business, that is, the manufacture and sale of spawn, poor material is apt to be thrown on the market just as in the case of seeds, poor material may find its way upon the market. sometimes this occurs through unscrupulous dealers, at other times through their ignorance, or through their failure to know the quality of the product they are handling. there are some brands of spawn, that is, those manufactured by certain houses, which rank very high among those who know the qualities and the value of good spawn. some large growers send direct to the manufacturer for their spawn, and where it is to be obtained in large quantities this is a desirable thing to do, since the cost is much less. where obtained from seedsmen in large quantities, the prices are much lower than where small quantities are purchased. one of these brands of spawn, the barter spawn, is for sale by several different dealers, by mr. h. e. hicks, kennett square, pa., by henry f. michell, market street, philadelphia, and by henry dreer, chestnut street, philadelphia. another brick spawn, known as "watson prolific," is for sale by george c. watson, juniper and walnut streets, philadelphia. james vicks sons, rochester, n. y., and peter henderson & co., new york city, have their spawn manufactured expressly for their trade. the barter spawn is said to be made fresh every year, or every other year. instead of the "continued culture" of spawn, that is, inoculating the bricks each succeeding year from the same line of spawn, which is, as it were, used over and over again, a return is made each year, or in the alternate years, to the natural or virgin spawn, which is obtained from old manure heaps. in this way, the barter spawn[d] is within two to three, or four, generations of the natural spawn. the number of generations distant the brick is from the natural spawn, depends upon the number of times it may have been multiplied before it is inoculated into the bricks. that is, the natural spawn is probably first grown in large beds in order to multiply, to produce a sufficiently large quantity for the inoculation of the immense number of bricks to be manufactured. for it is likely that a sufficient amount of natural spawn could not be obtained to inoculate all the bricks manufactured in one year. if a sufficient amount of the natural or virgin spawn could be obtained to inoculate all the bricks of one year's manufacture, this would produce a spawn removed only one generation from that of natural spawn. if the natural spawn were first grown in beds, and from here inoculated into bricks, this particular brick spawn would be removed two generations from the natural spawn. so the number of times that successive inoculations are made to multiply the spawn, the manufactured products are removed that many generations from the natural spawn. where recourse is had to the natural, or virgin spawn only once in two years, the second year's product would then be further removed from the natural spawn than the first year's product. where we know that it is removed but one or a few generations from the natural spawn, it is a more desirable kind. for the nearer it is to the natural spawn, other things being equal, the more vigorous the mycelium, and the finer will be the mushrooms produced. the brick spawn is sometimes manufactured in this country by growers for their own use, but at present it is manufactured on such a large scale in england that little or no saving is effected by an attempt to manufacture one's own brick spawn in this country. =flake spawn.=--the flake spawn, or "flakes," is commonly known as the french spawn, because it is so extensively manufactured in france. it is made by breaking down beds through which the mycelium has run, and before the crop of mushrooms appears. that is, the bed is spawned in the ordinary way. when the mycelium has thoroughly permeated the bed, it is taken down and broken into irregular pieces, six to eight inches in diameter. thus, the french spawn, where the beds are made entirely of horse manure, with no admixture of soil, consist merely of the fermented and cured manure, through which the mycelium has run, the material, of course, being thoroughly dried. this spawn may be removed one or several generations from the natural spawn. [illustration: figure .--french spawn, or "flakes," ready to plant.] the french growers depend on natural spawn much more than american growers do. the natural spawn is collected from old manure heaps. beds made up in the ordinary way for the cultivation of mushrooms are planted with this. the mycelium is allowed to run until it has thoroughly permeated the manure. these beds are broken down and used to spawn the beds for the crop. in this case the crop would be grown from spawn only one generation removed from the virgin spawn. if a sufficient amount of natural spawn could not be obtained, to provide the amount required one generation old, it might be run through the second generation before being used. from the appearance of any spawn, of course, the purchaser cannot tell how many generations it is removed from the natural spawn. for this quality of the spawn one must depend upon the knowledge which we may have of the methods practiced by the different producers of spawn, if it is possible even to determine this. spawning the beds. the beds for growing the mushrooms having been made up, the spawn having been selected, the beds are ready for planting whenever the temperature has been sufficiently reduced and the material is properly cured. it is quite easy to determine the temperature of the beds, but it is a more difficult problem for the inexperienced to determine the best stage in the curing of the material for the reception of the spawn. some growers rely more on the state of curing of the manure than they do upon the temperature. they would prefer to spawn it at quite a low temperature, rather than to spawn at what is usually considered an optimum temperature, if the material is not properly cured. the temperature at which different treatises and growers recommend that the bed should be spawned varies from ° to ° f. ninety degrees f. is considered by many rather high, while ° f. is considered by others to be rather low; ° to ° is considered by many to be the most favorable temperature, provided of course the other conditions of the bed are congenial. but some, so far as temperature is concerned, would prefer to spawn the bed at ° f. rather than at °, while many recommend spawning at ° to °. in some cases, i have known the growers to allow the temperature of the beds to fall as low as ° before spawning, because the material was not, until that time, at the proper state of curing. yet an experienced grower, who understands the kind of spawn to plant in such a bed, can allow the temperature to go down to ° without any very great risk. fresh spawn in an active state, that is, spawn which is in a growing condition, as may be obtained by tearing up a bed, or a portion of one, through which the spawn has run, is better to plant in a bed of such low temperature. or, a bed of such low temperature, after spawning, might be "warmed up," by piling fresh horse manure over it loosely for a week or ten days, sufficient to raise the temperature to ° or °. [illustration: figure .--pieces of brick spawn ready to plant.] when the brick spawn is used, the method of planting varies, of course, with the methods of different operators. some break the bricks into the desired size and plant the pieces directly in the bed, without any special preparation. the brick is broken into pieces about two or three inches in diameter. some recommend breaking the brick of the ordinary size into about twelve pieces, some into nine pieces, so the custom varies with different operators. these pieces are planted from seven to nine inches apart in the bed. for example, if they are to be planted nine inches apart in the bed, holes are made, either with the hand or with some instrument, by pressing the material to one side sufficiently to admit of the piece of spawn being pressed in tightly. these openings are made, say, the first row on one side of the bed, about four and one-half inches from the side, and nine inches apart in the row. the second row is made nine inches from the first row, and so on. the pieces of spawn are inserted in the opening in the bed, and at a slight distance, two to three inches, below the surface. some, however, insert the piece of spawn just at the level of the bed, the opening being such that the piece of spawn pressed into the opening is crowded below in place, and the surrounding material fits snugly on the sides. thus, when the bed is spawned, the pieces may be a slight distance below the top of the bed when they can be covered by some material, or in other cases, where the operator varies the method, they would lie just at the surface of the bed. the bed is now firmed down according to the custom of the operator, either tamped down with some instrument very firmly, or by others, with the back of the fork or other similar instrument, the bed is made firm, but not quite so hard. the object in firming it down after spawning is to make the surface of the bed level, and also to bring the material in the bed very closely in touch on all sides with the spawn with which it is impregnated. [illustration: figure . piece of natural spawn. piece of french spawn. "flakes" many generations old, "running out."] some growers follow the method of giving the spawn some little preparation before putting it into the bed. this preparation varies with different operators. its object, however, is to slightly moisten the dry spawn, and perhaps, also, to very slightly start the growth. to accomplish this, some will cover the bricks, before breaking them, with fresh horse manure, and allow this to remain several days, so that the warmth and moisture generated here penetrate the material and soften somewhat the brick. some pile it in a room or compartment where there is little moisture, until the bricks are permeated to some extent with the moisture, so that they are a little easier broken. they should not, under any circumstances, be wet or soft in the sense of having absorbed an excess of water, nor should they be stored for any length of time where they will be damp. still others break the bricks into the desired pieces and place these directly on the top of the bed, at the place where they wish to plant the piece of spawn. they are left here for two or three days on the surface of the beds. these pieces absorb some moisture and take up some warmth from the bed. then they are planted in the ordinary way. =spawning with flake spawn, or natural spawn.=--in the use of the flake or natural spawn, the planting is accomplished in a similar way, but larger pieces of the spawn are used, two or three times the size of the pieces of brick employed. some use a large handful. in some few cases, the growers use a flake spawn from their own crop. that is, each year a few beds are spawned from material which has been kept over from the previous season. this is often kept in boxes, in cool places, where it does not thoroughly dry out. in this way, the spawn is used over and over again, until it becomes much less vigorous than natural spawn, or a spawn which is only one or only a few generations distant from the natural spawn. this is seen in the less certainty with which the spawn runs through the bed, in the smaller crop of mushrooms, and their gradual deterioration in size. some few practice the method of breaking down the bed after the crop has been nearly gathered, using this weak spawn to inoculate fresh beds. this practice is objectionable for the same reason that long cultivated spawn is objectionable. =soiling the beds.=--after the beds have been planted with the spawn, the next thing is to soil them. that is, the manure in the bed is covered with a layer of loam soil, or garden soil, to the depth of two inches, then spread evenly over the bed, leveled off, and tamped down, though not packed too hard, and the surface is smoothed off. the time at which the soiling is done, varies also with different operators. some soil immediately after planting the spawn. others believe that the spawn will most certainly fail to run if the beds are soiled immediately after planting. these operators wait two or three weeks after the spawn has been planted to soil it. others wait until the temperature of the bed has fallen from ° or ° at the time of spawning, to ° or ° f. soiling at this temperature, that is, at ° or ° f., probably prevents the rapid cooling down of the bed, and it is desirable to soil, at least at this temperature, for that purpose. when the beds are soiled, they are then left until the crop is ready to gather. some operators give no further attention to the beds after soiling, other than to water the beds, if that becomes necessary. it is desirable to avoid watering, if the bed can be kept at the right state of moisture without. in watering the beds while the spawn is running, there is danger of killing the young spawn with the water. wherever it is necessary, however, if the material in the bed becomes too dry, lukewarm water should be used, and it should be applied through a fine rose of a watering pot. while some operators after soiling the bed give no further care to it until the bed is bearing, others cover the beds with some litter, in the form of straw or excelsior. this is done for the purpose of conserving the moisture in the bed, and especially the moisture on the surface of the bed. sometimes where there is a tendency for the material in the bed to become too dry, this litter on the surface retards the loss of moisture. also, the litter itself may be moistened and the bed can absorb some moisture in this way, if it is desirable to increase the moisture content of the bed slightly. when the spawn has once run well through the bed, watering can be accomplished with less danger of injury, yet great care must be used even now. the spawn will run through a bed with a somewhat less moisture content in the material than is necessary for drawing off the crop of mushrooms, though, of course, the spawn will not run if the bed is too dry. the only way to see if the spawn has run satisfactorily is to open up the bed at one or two points to examine the material, opening it up slightly. if the spawn has run well, a very delicate white "fiber," the mycelium, can be seen penetrating all through the material. this handful can be replaced in the bed, packed down, and the soil covered over and firmed again at this point. when the mushrooms begin to appear, if the bed is a little dry, it should be watered from time to time through the fine rose of a watering pot. lukewarm water should be used. nearly all growers water the beds during the picking of the crop, or during the period of gathering the crop. at the first few waterings, water should not be sprinkled on the beds to wet them entirely through. enough water is applied to diffuse a short distance only through the upper surface of the bed. at the next watering, several days later, the moisture is carried further down in the bed, and so on, through the several weeks, or months, over which the harvesting season extends. the object of thus gradually moistening the bed from above, is to draw the crop from the spawn at the surface of the bed first, and then, as the moisture extends downward, to gradually bring on the crop from the "fiber" below. =gathering the mushrooms.=--in artificial cultivation, the mushrooms usually formed are very near, or on, the surface of the bed. in the case of the meadow or pasture mushrooms, they are formed further below the surface. this is probably due to the fact that the conditions under which the mushrooms grow in cultivation are such that the surface of the bed is more moist, and is less subject to variations in the content of moisture, than is the surface of the ground in pastures. although there may be abundant rains in the fields, the currents of air over the surface of the ground, at other times, quickly dries out the upper layers of the soil. but indoors the mycelium often runs to the surface of the bed, and there forms the numerous pinheads which are the beginnings of the mushrooms. the beds at this stage often present numerous clusters of the mycelium and these minute pinheads crowded very closely together. hundreds or perhaps thousands of these minute beginnings of mushrooms occur within a small space. there are very few of these, however, that reach the point of the mature mushroom. few only of the pinheads grow to form the button, and the others abort, or cease to grow. others are torn out while the larger ones are being picked. the time at which the mushrooms are picked varies within certain limits, with the different growers. most cultivators, especially those who grow the mushrooms in houses, consider ° f. the desirable temperature for the growth of mushrooms, that is, at a room temperature of ° (while some recommend °). the temperature of the beds themselves will be slightly above this. under these conditions, that is, where the mushrooms are grown at a room temperature of about °, they open very quickly. it is necessary here to gather the mushrooms before they open, that is, before the veil on the under surface breaks to expose the gill surface. this practice is followed, of course, within certain limits. it is not possible in all cases, to pick every mushroom before the veil breaks. they are collected once a day usually. at the time of collection all are taken which are of suitable size. many of them may not yet have opened. but in the case of some of the older or more rapidly growing ones, the veil may have broken, although they have not expanded very much. some follow the method of having the fireman, on his round at night, when he looks after the fires in the heating room, gather the mushrooms. he passes through all parts of the house and picks the mushrooms which are of suitable size. these are gathered by grasping a single mushroom by the cap, or where there is a cluster of mushrooms close together, several are taken in the hand. the plant is twisted slightly to free the stem from the soil, without tearing it up to any great extent. they are thrown in this condition into baskets. the collector then takes them to the packing room, and the following morning the plants are trimmed, that is, the part of the stems to which the earth is attached is cut away, the plants are weighed, put in baskets, and prepared for the markets. in other cases, the mushrooms are gathered early in the morning, in the same way, taken to the packing room, where the lower part of the stem is cut away, the plants are weighed, placed into the baskets and shipped to market. [illustration: figure .--view in packing room (h. e. hicks' mushroom house, kennett square, pa.) copyright.] in some of the caves, or abandoned mines, which i have visited, where the mushrooms are grown on a large scale, the practice in picking the mushrooms varies somewhat from that just described. in the first place, the mushrooms are allowed to stand on the bed longer, before they are picked. they are rarely, if ever, picked before they open. mushrooms may be quite large, but if they have not opened, they are not picked. very frequently, the plant may open, but, the operator says, it is not open enough. it will grow more yet. the object of the grower, in this case, is to allow the mushrooms to grow as long as it is possible, before picking, for the larger the mushroom, the more water it will take from the bed, and the more it weighs. this may seem an unprofessional thing for a grower to do, and yet it must be remembered that a large water content of the mushroom is necessary. the mushrooms grown in these mines are very firm and solid, qualities which are desired, not only by the consumer, but are desirable for shipment. these mushrooms are much thicker through the center of the cap than those usually grown in houses at a room temperature of ° f. for this reason, the mushrooms in these caves spread out more, and the edges do not turn up so soon. since the cap is so thick and firm at the center, it continues to grow and expand for some little time after having opened, without turning up on the edges, and without becoming black and unsightly underneath. these large and firm mushrooms are not only desirable for their shipping qualities, but also, if they are not too large, they are prized because they are of such a nice size for broiling. it is quite likely that one of the important conditions in producing mushrooms of this character is the low temperature of the mine. the temperature here, in july and august, rises not higher than ° f., that is, the room temperature of the mines; while in the winter it falls not lower than °. the growth of mushrooms, under these conditions, may not be quite so rapid as in a house maintaining a room temperature of °. the operator may not be able to grow so many crops from the same area, during the same length of time; but the very fact that this low temperature condition retards the growth of the mushrooms is perhaps an important item in producing the firm and more marketable product, which can be allowed to grow longer before it is picked. it is possible, also, that another condition has something to do with the firmness and other desirable qualities of these mushrooms. it is, perhaps, to be found in the fact that natural spawn is largely used in planting the beds, so that the spawn is more vigorous than that which is ordinarily used in planting, which is several or many generations distant from the virgin condition. the methods of picking in this mine differ, also, from those usually employed by growers of mushrooms. the mushrooms are pulled from the bed in the same way, but the operator carries with him two baskets and a knife. as fast as the mushrooms are pulled, and while they are still in hand, before the dirt can sift upon the other mushrooms, or fall in upon the gills of those which are open, the lower part of the stem is cut off. this stem end is then placed in one basket, while the mushrooms which have been trimmed are placed in another basket. in cutting off the stems, just enough is cut to remove the soil, so that the length of the stem of the mushroom varies. the mushrooms are then taken to the packing room in the cleanest possible condition, with no soil scattering therefrom or falling down among the gills, as occurs to a greater or lesser extent where the mushrooms are picked and thrown indiscriminately into baskets. =packing the mushrooms.=--in the packing room the mushrooms are prepared for shipment to market. the method at present usually employed is to ship them in baskets. the baskets vary in size, according to the market to which the mushrooms are to be shipped. they hold from three, to four, five, six, or ten pounds each. the larger baskets are only used where the mushrooms are shipped directly to the consumers. when the customer requires a large number of mushrooms, they can be shipped in these larger baskets. where they are shipped to commission merchants, and the final market is not known to the packer, they are usually packed in small baskets, three to four or five pounds. the baskets are sometimes lined with paper; that is, at the time of the packing the paper is placed in the basket, one or two thicknesses of paper. the number of layers of paper depends somewhat upon the conditions of transportation. the greater amount of paper affords some protection from cold, in cold weather, and some protection from the evaporation of the moisture, in dry weather. when the basket is filled with the required quantity of mushrooms, which is usually determined first by weight, the surplus paper is folded over them. this is covered in most cases by thin board strips, which are provided for basket shipment of vegetables of this kind. in some cases, however, where shipped directly to customers so that the baskets soon reach their destination, additional heavy paper, instead of the board, may be placed over and around the larger part of the basket, and then tied down neatly with cord. =placing the mushrooms in the basket.=--some growers do not give any attention to placing the mushrooms in the baskets. the stems are cut off in the packing room, they are thrown into the weighing pan, and when the beam tips at three, or four, or five pounds, as the case may be, the mushrooms are emptied into the baskets, leveled down, and the baskets closed for shipment. others use more care in the packing of the mushrooms; especially is this the case on the part of those who pick the mushrooms when they are somewhat larger and more open, though the practice of placing the mushrooms in a basket is followed even by those who pick before the mushrooms are open. in placing them, one mushroom is taken at a time and put stem downward into the basket, until the bottom is covered with one layer, and then successive layers are placed on top of these. the upper layers in the basket then present a very neat and attractive appearance. in thus placing the mushrooms in the basket, if there are any mushrooms which are quite large, they are placed in the bottom. the custom of the operator here is different from that of the grower of apples, or of other fruit, where the larger and finer samples are often placed on top, the smaller ones being covered below. it is a curious fact, however, that this practice of placing the largest mushrooms below in the basket is due to the fact that usually the larger mushrooms are not considered so marketable. [illustration: figure .--view in packing room, akron "tunnel," n. y. mushroom co.; placing mushrooms in basket. copyright.] there are several reasons why the larger mushrooms are not considered so desirable or marketable as the medium-sized or smaller ones. in the first place, the larger mushrooms, under certain conditions, especially those grown in house culture at a comparatively high temperature, are apt to be very ripe, so that the gills are black from over-ripe spores, and are thus somewhat unsightly. those grown at a lower temperature, as is the case in some mines, do not blacken so soon, and are therefore apt to be free from this objection. another objection, however, is on the part of the restaurant owner where mushrooms are served. in serving the mushrooms broiled on toast, the medium-sized one is more desirable from the standpoint of the restaurant owner, in that two medium-sized ones might be sufficient to serve two persons, while one quite large one, weighing perhaps the same as the two medium ones, would only be sufficient to serve one person at the same price, unless the large mushroom was cut in two. if this were done, however, the customer would object to being served with half a mushroom, and the appearance of a half mushroom served in this way is not attractive. =resoiling.=--once or twice a week during the harvesting period all loose earth, broken bits of spawn, free buttons, etc., should be cleaned out where the mushrooms have been picked. these places should be filled with soil and packed down by hand. all young mushrooms that "fog off" should be gathered up clean. some persons follow the practice of growing a second crop on the same bed from which the first crop has been gathered. the bed is resoiled by placing about two inches of soil over the old soil. the bed is then watered, sometimes with lukewarm water to which a small quantity of nitrate of soda has been added. the large growers, however, usually do not grow a second crop in this way, but endeavor to exhaust the material in the bed by continuous growth. =use of manure from beds which have failed.=--manure in which the spawn has failed to run is sometimes removed from the bed and mixed with fresh manure, the latter restoring the heat. if the manure was too wet, the moisture content can now be lessened by the use of dry soil. =cleaning house to prepare for successive crops.=--when the crop is harvested, all the material is cleaned out to prepare the beds for the next crop. the material is taken out "clean," and the floors, beds, walls, etc., swept off very clean. in addition, some growers whitewash the floors and all wood-work. some whitewash only the floors, depending on sweeping the beds and walls very clean. still others whitewash the floors and wash the walls with some material to kill out the vermin. some trap or poison the cockroaches, wood-lice, etc., when they appear. some growers who succeed well for several years, and then fail, believe that the house "gets tired," as they express it, and that the place must rest for a few years before mushrooms can be grown there again. others grow mushrooms successfully year after year, but employ the best sanitary methods. =number of crops during a year.=--in caves or mines, where the temperature is low, the beds are in process of formation and cropping continuously. so soon as a bed has been exhausted the material is cleaned out, and new beds are made as fast as the fresh manure is obtained. in houses where the mushrooms cannot be grown during the summer, the crops are grown at quite regular periods, the first crop during fall and early winter, and the second crop during spring. some obtain the manure and ferment it during august and september, spawning the beds in september and october. others begin work on the fermentation of the manure in june or july, make up the beds in july and august, spawn, and begin to draw off the crop somewhat earlier. the second crop is prepared for whenever the first one is drawn off, and this varies even in the experience of the same grower, since the rate of the running of the spawn varies from time to time. sometimes the crop begins to come four or five weeks from the time of planting the spawn. at other times it may be two or three months before the spawn has run sufficiently for the crop to appear. usually the crop begins to come on well in six to eight weeks. the crop usually lasts for six weeks to two months, or longer. =productivity of the beds.=--one pound of mushrooms from every two square feet of surface is considered a very good crop. sometimes it exceeds this, the beds bearing one pound for every square foot, though such a heavy yield is rare. oftener the yield is less than half a pound for a square foot of surface. =causes of failure.=--the beginner should study very carefully the conditions under which he grows his crops, and if failure results, he should attempt to analyze the results in the light of the directions given for the curing of the manure, its moisture content, "sweetness," character of the spawn, temperature, ventilation, etc. while there should be good ventilation, there should not be drafts of air. a beginner may succeed the first time, the second or third, and then may fail, and not know the cause of the failure. but given a good spawn, the right moisture content of the material at time of planting and running of the spawn, the sweet condition, or proper condition of the curing of the manure, proper sanitary conditions, there should be no failure. these are the most important conditions in mushroom culture. after the spawn has run and the crop has begun to come, the beds have been known to freeze up during the winter, and in the spring begin and continue to bear a good crop. after the spawn has run well, beds have accidentally been flooded with water so that manure water would run out below, and yet come on and bear as good a crop as adjoining beds. =volunteer mushrooms in greenhouses.=--volunteer mushrooms sometimes appear in greenhouses in considerable quantity. these start from natural spawn in the manure used, or sometimes from the spawn remaining in "spent" mushroom beds which is mixed with the soil in making lettuce beds, etc., under glass. one of the market gardeners at ithaca used old spawn in this way, and had volunteer mushrooms among lettuce for several years. in making the lettuce beds in the autumn, a layer of fresh horse manure six inches deep is placed in the bottom, and on this is placed the soil mixed with the old, spent mushroom beds. the following year the soil and the manure at the bottom, which is now rotten, is mixed up, and a fresh layer of manure is placed below. in this way the lettuce bed is self-spawned from year to year. about every six years the soil in the bed is entirely changed. this gardener, during the winter of -- , sold $ . to $ . worth of volunteer mushrooms. another gardener, in a previous year, sold over $ . worth. =planting mushrooms with other vegetables.=--in some cases gardeners follow the practice of inserting a forkful of manure here and there in the soil where other vegetables are grown under glass, and planting in it a bit of spawn. =mushroom and vegetable house combined.=--some combine a mushroom house and house for vegetables in one, there being a deep pit where several tiers of beds for mushrooms can be built up, and above this the glass house where lettuce, etc., is grown, all at a temperature of about ° f. three methods suggested for growing mushrooms in cellars and sheds. =first method.=--obtain fresh stable horse manure mixed with straw used in bedding the animals. shake it out, separating the coarse material from the droppings. put the droppings in a pile two to three feet deep. pack down firmly. when the heat rises to near ° f., turn and shake it out, making a new pile. make the new pile by layers of manure and loam soil, or rotted sod, one part of soil to eight or nine parts of manure. turn again when the heat rises to near ° f., and add the same amount of soil. when the temperature is about ° f., the material is ready for the beds. =preparing the beds.=--make the beds as described under the paragraph on pages -- , or use boxes. place the coarse litter in the bottom three to four inches deep. on this place three to four inches of the cured material, pack it down, and continue adding material until the bed is ten to fifteen inches deep. allow the beds to stand, covering them with straw or excelsior if the air in the cellar or shed is such as to dry out the surface. test the moisture content according to directions on page . watch the temperature. do not let it rise above ° f. when it is down to ° f. or ° f., if the manure has a "sweetish" or "mushroomy" smell it is ready to spawn. spawn according to directions on page . soil according to directions on page ; cover bed with straw or excelsior. =second method.=--use horse droppings freed from the coarser material. proceed as in _first_ method. =third method.=--use horse droppings freed from coarser material. pile and _pack firmly_. do not let temperature rise above ° f. when it has cooled to ° f., make up the beds, at the same time mixing in an _equal quantity_ of rich loam or rotted sod. spawn in a day or two. in beginning, practice on a small scale and study the conditions thoroughly, as well as the directions given in this chapter. footnotes: [d] i have not learned the history of the other kinds of spawn referred to above. chapter xxi. recipes for cooking mushrooms. by mrs. sarah tyson rorer. as varieties of mushrooms differ in analysis, texture and density of flesh, different methods of cooking give best results. for instance, the _coprinus micaceus_, being very delicate, is easily destroyed by over-cooking; a dry, quick pan of the "mushroom bells" retains the best flavor; while the more dense _agaricus campestris_ requires long, slow cooking to bring out the flavor, and to be tender and digestible. simplicity of seasoning, however, must be observed, or the mushroom flavor will be destroyed. if the mushroom itself has an objectionable flavor, better let it alone than to add mustard or lemon juice to overcome it. mushrooms, like many of the more succulent vegetables, are largely water, and readily part with their juices on application of salt or heat; hence it becomes necessary to put the mushroom over the fire usually without the addition of water, or the juices will be so diluted that they will lack flavor. they have much better flavor cooked without peeling, with the exception of puff-balls, which should always be pared. as they lose their flavor by soaking, wash them quickly, a few at a time; take the mushroom in the left hand and with the right hand wash the top or pileus, using either a very soft brush or a piece of flannel; shake them well and put them into a colander to dry. agaricus.[e] the wild or uncultivated _agaricus campestris_, which is usually picked in open fields, will cook in less time than those grown in caves and sold in our markets during the winter and spring. cut the stems close to the gills; these may be put aside and used for flavoring sauces or soups. wash the mushrooms carefully, keeping the gills down; throw them into a colander until drained. =stewed.=--to each pound, allow two ounces of butter. put the butter into a saucepan, and when melted, not brown, throw in the mushrooms either whole or cut into slices; sprinkle over a teaspoonful of salt; cover the saucepan closely to keep in the flavor, and cook very slowly for twenty minutes, or until they are tender. moisten a rounding tablespoonful of flour in a little cold milk; when perfectly smooth, add sufficient milk to make one gill; stir this into the mushrooms, add a saltspoon of white pepper, stir carefully until boiling, and serve at once. this makes a fairly thick sauce. less flour is required when they are to be served as a sauce over chicken, steak, or made dishes. =broiled.=--cut the stems close to the gills; wash the mushrooms and dry them with a soft piece of cheesecloth; put them on the broiler gills up. put a piece of butter, the size of a marrowfat pea, in the center of each; sprinkle lightly with salt and pepper. put the broiler over the fire skin side down; in this way, the butter will melt and sort of baste the mushrooms. have ready squares of neatly toasted bread; and, as soon as the mushrooms are hot on the skin side, turn them quickly and broil about two minutes on the gill side. five minutes will be sufficient for the entire cooking. dish on toast and serve at once. =panned on cream toast.=--cut the stem close to the gills; wash and dry as directed for broiling. put them into a pan, and pour over a very little melted butter, having gill sides up; dust with salt and pepper, run into a hot oven for twenty minutes. while these are panning, toast sufficient bread to hold them nicely; put it onto a hot platter, and just as the mushrooms are done, cover the bread with hot milk, being careful not to have too much or the bread will be pasty and soft. dish the mushrooms on the toast, putting the skin side up, pour over the juices from the pan, and serve at once. these are exceedingly good served on buttered toast without the milk, and will always take the place of broiled mushrooms. =in the chafing dish.=--wash, dry the mushrooms, and cut them into slices. to each pound allow two ounces of butter. put the butter in the chafing dish, when hot put in the mushrooms, sprinkle over a teaspoonful of salt, cover the dish, and cook slowly for five minutes, stirring the mushrooms frequently; then add one gill of milk. cover the dish again, cook for three minutes longer, add the beaten yolks of two eggs, a dash of pepper, and serve at once. these must not be boiled after the eggs are added; but the yolk of egg is by far the most convenient form of thickening when mushrooms are cooked in the chafing dish. =under the glass cover or "bell" with cream.=--with a small biscuit cutter, cut rounds from slices of bread; they should be about two and a half inches in diameter, and about a half inch in thickness. cut the stems close to the gills from fresh mushrooms; wash and wipe the mushrooms. put a tablespoonful of butter in a saucepan; when hot, throw in the mushrooms, skin side down; cook just a moment, and sprinkle them with salt and pepper. arrange the rounds of bread, which have been slightly toasted, in the bottom of your "bell" dish; heap the mushrooms on these; put a little piece of butter in the center; cover over the bell, which is either of glass, china, or silver; stand them in a baking pan, and then in the oven for twenty minutes. while these are cooking, mix a tablespoonful of butter and one of flour in a saucepan, add a half pint of milk, or you may add a gill of milk and a gill of chicken stock; stir until boiling, add a half teaspoonful of salt and a dash of pepper. when the mushrooms have been in the oven the allotted time, bring them out; lift the cover, pour over quickly a little of this sauce, cover again, and send them at once to the table. =another method.=--wash and dry the mushrooms; arrange them at once on the "bell plate." the usual plates will hold six good sized ones. dust with pepper and salt; put in the center of the pile a teaspoonful of butter; pour over six tablespoonfuls of cream or milk; cover with the bell; stand the dish in a baking pan, and then in a hot oven for twenty minutes. these are arranged for individual bells. where one large bell is used, the mushrooms must be dished on toast before they are served. the object in covering with the bell is to retain every particle of the flavor. the bell is then lifted at the table, that the eater may get full aroma and flavor from the mushroom. =puree.=--wash carefully a half pound of mushrooms; chop them fine, put them into a saucepan with a tablespoonful of butter, and if you have it, a cup of chicken stock; if not, a cup of water. cover the vessel and cook slowly for thirty minutes. in a double boiler, put one pint of milk. rub together one tablespoonful of butter and two tablespoonfuls of flour; add it to the milk; stir and cook until thick; add the mushrooms, and press the whole through a sieve; season to taste with salt and pepper only. =cream of mushroom soup.=--this will be made precisely the same as in the preceding recipe, save that one quart of milk will be used instead of a pint with the same amount of thickening, and the mushrooms will not be pressed through a sieve. coprinus comatus and coprinus atramentarius. as these varieties usually grow together and are sort of companion mushrooms, recipes given for one will answer for the cooking of the other. being soft and juicy, they must be handled with care, and are much better cooked with dry heat. remove the stems, and wash them carefully; throw them into a colander until dry; arrange them in a baking pan; dot here and there with bits of butter, allowing a tablespoonful to each half pound of mushrooms; dust with salt and pepper, run them into a very hot oven, and bake for thirty minutes; dish in a heated vegetable dish, pouring over the sauce from the pan. the _c. micaceus_ may also be cooked after the same fashion--after dishing the mushrooms boil down the liquor. =stewed.=--wash and dry them; put them into a large, flat pan, allowing a tablespoonful of butter to each half pound of mushrooms; sprinkle at once with salt and pepper; cover the pan, and stew for fifteen minutes. moisten a tablespoonful of flour in a little cold milk; when smooth, add a half cup of cream, if you have it; if not, a half cup of milk. push the mushrooms to one side; turn in this mixture, and stir until boiling. do not stir the mushrooms or they will fall apart and become unsightly. dish them; pour over the sauce, and serve at once. or they may be served on toast, the dish garnished with triangular pieces of toast. coprinus micaceus. wash and dry the mushrooms; put them into a deep saucepan with a tablespoonful of butter to each quart; stand over a quick fire, sort of tossing the saucepan. do not stir, or you will break the mushrooms. as soon as they have reached the boiling point, push them to the back part of the stove for five minutes; serve on toast. these will be exceedingly dark, are very palatable, and perhaps are the most easily digested of all the varieties. lepiota. these mushrooms, having very thin flesh and deep gills, must be quickly cooked to be good. remove the stem, take the mushrooms in your hand, gill side down, and with a soft rag wash carefully the top, removing all the little brown scales. put them into a baking pan, or on a broiler. melt a little butter, allow it to settle, take the clear, oily part from the top and baste lightly the mushrooms, gill sides up; dust with salt and pepper. place the serving dish to heat. put the mushrooms over a quick fire, skin side down, for just a moment; then turn and boil an instant on the gill side, and serve at once on the heated plate. in this way _lepiota procera_ is most delicious of all mushrooms; but if cooked in moist heat, it becomes soft, but tough and unpalatable; if baked too long, it becomes dry and leathery. it must be cooked quickly and eaten at once. all the edible forms may be cooked after this recipe. these are perhaps the best of all mushrooms for drying. in this condition they are easily kept, and add so much to an ordinary meat sauce. oyster mushrooms (pleurotus). wash and dry the mushrooms; cut them into strips crosswise of the gills, trimming off all the woody portion near the stem side. throw the mushrooms into a saucepan, allowing a tablespoonful of butter to each pint; sprinkle over a half teaspoonful of salt; cover, and cook slowly for twenty minutes. moisten a tablespoonful of flour in a half cup of milk; when perfectly smooth, add another half cup; turn this into the mushroom mixture; bring to boiling point, add just a grating of nutmeg, a few drops of onion juice, and a dash of pepper. serve as you would stewed oysters. to make this into à la poulette, add the yolks of two eggs just as you take the mixture from the fire, and serve on toast. =mock oysters.=--trim the soft gill portion of the _pleurotus ostreatus_ into the shape of an oyster; dust with salt and pepper; dip in beaten egg, then in bread crumbs, and fry in smoking hot fat as you would an oyster, and serve at once. this is, perhaps, the best method of cooking this variety. russula. while in this group we have a number of varieties, they may all be cooked after one recipe. the stems will be removed, the mushrooms carefully washed, always holding the gill side down in the water, drained in a colander; and while they apparently do not contain less water than other mushrooms, the flesh is rather dense, and they do not so quickly melt upon being exposed to heat. they are nice broiled or baked, or may be chopped fine and served with mayonnaise dressing, stuffed into peeled tomatoes, or with mayonnaise dressing on lettuce leaves, or mixed with cress and served with french dressing, as salads. the "green" or _russula virescens_ may be peeled, cut into thin slices, mixed with the leaves of water-cress which have been picked carefully from the stems, covered with french dressing, and served on slices of tomato. it is well to peel all mushrooms if they are to be served raw. to bake, follow recipes given for baking _campestris_. in this way they are exceedingly nice over the ordinary broiled steak. one of the nicest ways, however, of preparing them for steak is to wash, dry and put them, gills up, in a baking pan, having a goodly quantity; pour over just a little melted butter; dust with salt and pepper, and put them into the oven for fifteen minutes. while you are broiling the steak, put the plate upon which it is to be served over hot water to heat; put on it a tablespoonful of butter, a little salt, pepper, and some finely chopped parsley. take the mushrooms from the oven, put some in the bottom of the plate, dish the steak on top, covering the remaining quantity over the steak. add two tablespoonfuls of stock or water to the pan in which they were baked; allow this to boil, scraping all the material from the pan; baste this over the steak, and serve at once. _agaricus campestris_ and many other varieties may also be used in this same way. lactarii. remove the stems, and wash the mushrooms. put them into a saucepan, allowing a tablespoonful of butter and a half teaspoonful of salt to each pint. add four tablespoonfuls of stock to the given quantity; cover the saucepan, and _cook slowly_ three-quarters of an hour. at the end of this time you will have a rich, brown sauce to which you may add a teaspoonful of worcestershire sauce, and, if you like, a tablespoonful of sherry. serve in a vegetable dish. =lactarius deliciosus stewed.=--wash the mushrooms; cut them into slices; put them into a saucepan, allowing a half pint of stock to each pint of mushrooms; add a half teaspoonful of salt; cover and stew slowly for three-quarters of an hour. put a tablespoonful of butter in another saucepan, mix with it a tablespoonful of flour; add the mushrooms, stir until they have reached the boiling point; add a teaspoonful of kitchen bouquet, a dash of pepper, and serve it at once in a heated vegetable dish. a nice combination for a steak sauce is made by using a dozen good sized _lactarius deliciosus_ with four "beefsteak" mushrooms, using then the first recipe. beefsteak smothered with mushrooms. wash a dozen good sized mushrooms, either _lactarii_ or _agarici_, also wash and remove the spores from half a dozen good sized "beefsteak" mushrooms, cutting them into slices. put all these into a baking pan, sprinkle over a half teaspoonful of salt, add a tablespoonful of butter, and bake in a moderate oven three-quarters of an hour. broil the steak until it is nearly done; then put it into the pan with the mushrooms, allowing some of the mushrooms to remain under the steak, and cover with the remaining portion; return it to the oven for ten minutes; dish and serve at once. boleti. these are more palatable baked or fried. wash the caps and remove the pores. dip the caps in beaten egg, then in bread crumbs, and fry them in smoking hot fat; oil is preferable to butter; even suet would make a drier fry than butter or lard. serve at once as you would egg plant. =baked.=--wash and remove the pores; put the mushrooms into a baking pan; baste them with melted butler, dust with salt and pepper, and bake in a moderately hot oven three-quarters of an hour; dish in a vegetable dish. put into the pan in which they were baked, a tablespoonful of butter. mix carefully with a tablespoonful of flour and add a half pint of stock, a half teaspoonful of kitchen bouquet or browning, the same of salt, and a dash of pepper; pour this over the mushrooms, and serve. =in fritter batter.=--beat the yolk of one egg slightly, and add a half cup of milk; stir into this two-thirds of a cup of flour; stir in the well beaten white of the egg and a teaspoonful of olive oil. wash and remove the pores from the boleti. have ready a good sized shallow pan, the bottom covered with smoking hot oil; dip the mushrooms, one at a time, into this batter, drain for a moment, and drop them into the hot fat. when brown on one side, turn and brown on the other. drain on soft paper and serve at once. =boleti in brown sauce.=--wash and dry the boleti; remove the pores; cut them into small pieces. to each pound allow a tablespoonful of butter. put the butter into a saucepan with the mushrooms; add a half teaspoonful of salt; cover the pan, and stew slowly for twenty minutes; then dust over a tablespoonful of flour; add a half cup of good beef stock; cook slowly for ten minutes longer, and serve. hydnum. as these mushrooms are slightly bitter, they must be washed, dried, and thrown into a little boiling water, to boil for just a moment; drain, and throw away this water, add a tablespoonful of butter, a teaspoonful of salt, a dash of pepper, and a half cup of milk or stock; cover the pan, and cook slowly for twenty minutes. as the milk scorches easily, cook over a very slow fire, or in a double boiler. pour the mixture over slices of toast, and serve at once. a tablespoonful or two of sherry may be added just as they are removed from the fire. clavaria. wash, separating the bunches, and chop or cut them rather fine, measure, and to each quart allow a half pint of supreme sauce. throw the clavaria into a saucepan, cover, and allow it to stew gently for fifteen minutes while you make the sauce. put a tablespoonful of butter and one of flour in the saucepan; mix, and add a half pint of milk or chicken stock; or you may add half of one and half of the other; stir until boiling; take from the fire, add a half teaspoonful of salt, a saltspoonful of pepper, and the yolks of two eggs. take the clavaria from the fire, and when cool stir it into the sauce. turn into a baking dish, sprinkle the top with crumbs, and brown in a quick oven. do not cook too long, as it will become watery. =pickled clavaria.=--wash the clavaria thoroughly without breaking it apart; put into a steamer; stand the steamer over a kettle of boiling water, and steam rapidly, that is, keep the water boiling hard for fifteen minutes. take from the fire, and cool. put over the fire sufficient vinegar to cover the given quantity; to each quart, allow two bay leaves, six cloves, a teaspoonful of whole mustard, and a dozen pepper corns, that is, whole peppers. put the clavaria into glass jars. bring the vinegar to boiling point, and pour it over; seal and put aside. this may be served alone as any other pickle, or on lettuce leaves with french dressing as a salad. =escalloped clavaria.=--wash, separate and cut the clavaria as in first recipe. to each quart allow a half pint of chicken stock, a teaspoonful of salt, a tablespoonful of chopped parsley. put a layer of bread crumbs in the bottom of the dish, then a layer of chopped clavaria, and so continue until you have the dish filled. pour over the stock, which you have seasoned with salt and pepper; dot bits of butter here and there over the top, and bake in a moderate oven thirty minutes. this recipe is excellent for the young or button _hypholoma_, except that the time of baking must be forty-five minutes. puff-balls. to be eatable, the puff-balls must be perfectly white to the very center. pare off the skin; cut them into slices; dust with salt and pepper. have ready in a large, shallow pan a sufficient quantity of hot oil to cover the bottom. throw in the slices and, when brown on one side, turn and brown on the other; serve at once on a heated dish. =a la poulette.=--pare the puff-balls; cut them into slices and then into dice; put them into a saucepan, allowing a tablespoonful of butter to each pint of blocks. cover the saucepan; stew gently for fifteen minutes; lift the lid; sprinkle over a teaspoonful of salt and a dash of pepper. beat the yolks of three eggs until light; add a half cup of cream and a half cup of milk; pour this into the hot mixture, and shake until smoking hot. do not allow them to boil. serve in a heated vegetable dish, with blocks of toast over the top. =puff-ball omelet.=--pare and cut into blocks sufficient puff-balls to make a pint. put a tablespoonful of butter into a saucepan; add the puff-balls, cover and cook for ten minutes. beat six eggs without separating, until thoroughly mixed, but not too light; add the cooked puff-balls, a level teaspoonful of salt and a dash of pepper. put a tablespoonful of butter into your omelet pan; when hot, turn in the egg mixture; shake over the hot fire until the bottom has thoroughly set, then with a limber knife lift the edge, allowing the soft portion to run underneath; continue this operation until the omelet is cooked through; fold and turn onto a heated dish. serve at once. other delicate mushrooms may be used in this same manner. =puff-balls with agaricus campestris.=--as the _agaricus campestris_ has a rather strong flavor and the puff-balls are mild, both are better for being mixed in the cooking. take equal quantities of _agaricus campestris_ and puff-balls; pare and cut the puff-balls into blocks; to each half pound allow a tablespoonful of butter. put the butter in a saucepan, add the mushrooms, sprinkle over the salt (allowing a half teaspoonful always to each pint); cover the saucepan and stew slowly for twenty minutes. moisten a tablespoonful of flour in a half cup of milk, add it to the mixture, stir and cook for just a moment, add a dash of pepper, and serve in a heated dish. this recipe may be changed by omitting the flour and adding the yolks of a couple of eggs; milk is preferable to stock, for all the white or light-colored varieties. morchella. select twelve large-sized morels; cut off the stalks, and throw them into a saucepan of warm water; let them stand for fifteen minutes; then take them on a skimmer one by one, and drain carefully. chop fine sufficient cold boiled tongue or chicken to make one cupful; mix this with an equal quantity of bread crumbs, and season with just a suspicion of onion juice, not more than ten drops, and a dash of pepper. fill this into the mushrooms, arrange them neatly in a baking pan, put in a half cup of stock and a tablespoonful of butter, bake in a moderate oven thirty minutes, basting frequently. when done, dish neatly. boil down the sauce that is in the pan until it is just sufficient to baste them on the dish; serve at once. =a second method.=--select large-sized morels; cut off the stalk; wash well through several waters. put into a frying pan a little butter, allowing about a tablespoonful to each dozen mushrooms. when hot, throw in the mushrooms, and toss until they are thoroughly cooked; then add a half pint of milk or stock; cover the vessel, and cook slowly twenty minutes; dust with salt and pepper, and serve in a vegetable dish. this method gives an exceedingly palatable and very sightly dish if garnished with sweet spanish peppers that have been boiled until tender. =another method.=--remove the stems, and wash the morels as directed in the preceding recipe. make a stuffing of bread crumbs seasoned with salt, pepper, chopped parsley, and sufficient melted butter to just moisten. place them in a baking pan; add a little stock and butter; bake for thirty minutes. when done, dish. into the pan in which they were cooked, turn a cupful of strained tomatoes; boil rapidly for fifteen minutes until slightly thickened; pour this over the mushrooms; garnish the dish with triangular pieces of toasted bread, and serve. general recipes. in the following recipes one may use _agaricus campestris_, _silvicola_, _arvensis_, or _pleurotus ostreatus_, or _sapidus_, or _coprinus comatus_, or any kindred mushrooms. the _agaricus campestris_, however, are to be preferred. =to serve with a boiled leg of mutton=, wash well the mushrooms and dry them; dip each into flour, being careful not to get too much on the gill side. in a saucepan have a little hot butter or oil; drop these in, skin side down; dust them lightly with salt and pepper. after they have browned on this side, turn them quickly and brown the gills; add a half pint of good stock; let them simmer gently for fifteen minutes. take them up with a skimmer, and dish them on a platter around the mutton. boil the sauce down until it is the proper consistency; pour it over, and serve at once. these are also good to serve with roasted beef. =mushroom sauce for game.=--wash well one pound of fresh mushrooms; dry, and chop them very fine. put them into a saucepan with one and a half tablespoonfuls of butter; cover, and cook slowly for eight minutes; then add a half cup of fresh rubbed bread crumbs, a half teaspoonful of salt, a saltspoon of white pepper; cover and cook again for five minutes; stir, add a tablespoonful of chopped parsley, and, if you like, two tablespoonfuls of sherry; turn into a sauce-boat. =a nice way to serve with fricassee of chicken.=--wash and dry the mushrooms; sprinkle them with salt and pepper. put some oil or butter in a shallow pan; when hot, throw in the mushrooms, skin side down; cover the pan, put in the oven for fifteen minutes; baste them once during the baking. lift them carefully and put them on a heated dish. add to the fat in the pan two tablespoonfuls of finely chopped mushrooms, a half cup of good stock; boil carefully for five minutes. have ready rounds of bread toasted; dish the mushrooms on these; put on top a good sized piece of carefully boiled marrow; season the sauce with salt, and strain it over. use these as a garnish around the edge of the plate, or you may simply dish and serve them for breakfast, or as second course at lunch. =oysters and mushrooms.=--wash and remove the stems from a half pound of fresh mushrooms; chop them fine; put them into a saucepan with a tablespoonful of butter, a half teaspoonful of salt, and a dash of pepper; cover closely, and cook over a slow fire for ten minutes. have ready, washed and drained, twenty-five good sized fat oysters; throw them perfectly dry into this mushroom mixture. pull the saucepan over a bright fire; boil, stirring carefully, for about five minutes. serve on squares of carefully toasted bread. =tomatoes stuffed with mushrooms.=--wash perfectly smooth, solid tomatoes; cut a slice from the stem end, and remove carefully the seeds and core. to each tomato allow three good sized mushrooms; wash, dry, chop them fine, and stuff them into the tomatoes; put a half saltspoon of salt on the top of each and a dusting of pepper. into a bowl put one cup of soft bread crumbs; season it with a half teaspoonful of salt and a dash of pepper; pour over a tablespoonful of melted butter; heap this over the top of the tomato, forming a sort of pyramid, packing in the mushrooms; stand the tomatoes in a baking pan and bake in a moderate oven one hour. serve at once, lifting them carefully to prevent breaking. or, the mushrooms may be chopped fine, put with a tablespoonful of butter into a saucepan and cooked for five minutes before they are stuffed into the tomatoes; then the bread crumbs packed over the top, and the whole baked for twenty minutes. each recipe will give you a different flavor. footnotes: [e] the recipes for agaricus are intended for the several species of this genus (psalliota). chapter xxii. chemistry and toxicology of mushrooms. by j. f. clark. regarding the chemical composition of mushrooms, we have in the past been limited largely to the work of european chemists. recently, however, some very careful analyses of american mushrooms have been made. the results of these investigations, while in general accord with the work already done in europe, have emphasized the fact that mushrooms are of very variable composition. that different species should vary greatly was of course to be expected, but we now know that different specimens of the same species grown under different conditions may be markedly different in chemical composition. the chief factors causing this variation are the composition, the moisture content, and the temperature of the soil in which they grow, together with the maturity of the plant. the temperature, humidity, and movement of the atmosphere and other local conditions have a further influence on the amount of water present. the following table, showing the amounts of the more important constituents in a number of edible american species, has been compiled chiefly from a paper by l. b. mendel (amer. jour. phy. = =: -- ). this article is one of the most recent and most valuable contributions to this important study, and anyone wishing to look into the methods of research, or desiring more detailed information than is here given, is referred to the original paper. table i. ===================================================================+ | fresh | in water-free material. | | material.| | -------------------------------------------------------------------| | w | d m | t n| p n| e e| s i p a| f | a | | a | r a | o i| r i| t x| o n e l| i | s | | t | y t | t t| o t| h t| l r c| b | h | | e | t | a r| t r| e r| u o| r | | | r | e | l o| e o| r a| b c h| e | | | | r | g| i g| c| l e o| | | | | | e| d e| t| e n l| | | | | | n| n| | t | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------| | % | % | % | % | % | % | % | % | coprinus comatus | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | | | | | | | | | | morchella esculenta | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | | | | | | | | | | polyporus sulphureus | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | | | | | | | | | | pleurotus ostreatus | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | | | | | | | | | | clitocybe multiceps | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | | | | | | | | | | hypholoma | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | candolleanum | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | agaricus campestris | . | . | . | . | . | -- | -- | . | ===================================================================+ =water.=--like all growing plants, the mushroom contains a very large proportion of water. the actual amount present varies greatly in different species. in the above table it will be seen that _polyporus sulphureus_, with over per cent. of water, has the least of any species mentioned, while the species of _coprinus_ and _agaricus_ have usually fully per cent. water. the amount of water present, however, varies greatly in the same species at different seasons and in different localities, and with variations in the moisture content of soil and atmosphere, also with the age and rapidity of development of the individual plant. =total nitrogen.=--the proportion of nitrogen in the dry matter of different species varies from per cent. to per cent. this comparatively high nitrogen content was formerly taken to indicate an unusual richness in proteid substances, which in turn led to very erroneous ideas regarding the nutritive value of these plants. the nitrogenous substances will be more fully discussed later, when we consider their nutritive value. =ether extract.=--this consists of a variety of fatty substances soluble in ether. it varies greatly in quality and quantity in different species. the amount is usually from per cent. to per cent. of the total dry matter. it includes, besides various other substances, several free fatty acids and their glycerides, the acids of low melting point being most abundant. these fatty substances occur in the stem, but are much more abundant in the cap, especially in the fruiting portion. just what nutritive value these fatty matters may have has never been determined. =carbohydrates.=--the largest part of the dry matter of the mushrooms is made up of various carbohydrates, including cellulose or fungocellulose, glycogen, mycoinuline, trehalose, mannite, glucose, and other related substances. the cellulose is present in larger proportion in the stem than in the cap, and in the upper part of the cap than in the fruiting surface. this is doubtless related to the sustaining and protective functions of the stem and the upper part of the cap. starch, so common as a reserve food in the higher plants, does not occur in the mushrooms. as is the case with the fats, no determination of the nutritive value of these substances has been made, but it may be assumed that the soluble carbohydrates of the mushrooms do not differ greatly from similar compounds in other plants. =ash.=--the ash of mushrooms varies greatly. _polyporus officinalis_ gives but . per cent. of ash in dry matter, _pleurotus ulmarius_ gives . per cent., and _clitopilus prunulus_ gives per cent. the average of twelve edible species gave per cent. ash in the stem and . per cent. in the cap. in regard to the constituents of the ash, potassium is by far the most abundant--the oxide averaging about per cent. of the total ash. phosphoric acid stands next to potassium in abundance and importance, constituting, on an average, about one-third of the entire ash. oxides of manganese and iron are always present; the former averaging about per cent. and the latter per cent. to per cent. of the ash. sodium, calcium, and chlorine are usually present in small and varying quantities. sulphuric acid occurs in the ash of all fungi, and is remarkable for the great variation in quantity present in different species; e. g., ash of _helvella esculenta_ contains . per cent. h_ so_ while that of _agaricus campestris_ contains the relatively enormous amount of . per cent. any discussion of the bare composition of a food is necessarily incomplete without a consideration of the nutritive value of the various constituents. this is especially desirable in the case of the mushrooms, for while they are frequently overestimated and occasionally ridiculously overpraised by their friends, they are quite generally distrusted and sometimes held in veritable abhorrence by those who are ignorant of their many excellent qualities. on the one hand, we are told that "gastronomically and chemically considered the flesh of the mushroom has been proven to be almost identical with meat, and possesses the same nourishing properties." we frequently hear them referred to as "vegetable beefsteak," "manna of the poor," and other equally extravagant and misleading terms. on the other hand, we see vast quantities of the most delicious food rotting in the fields and woods because they are regarded by the vast majority of the people as "toadstools" and as such particularly repulsive and poisonous. foods may be divided into three classes according to the functions they perform: (_a_) to form the material of the body and repair its wastes. (_b_) to supply energy for muscular exertion and for the maintenance of the body heat. (_c_) relishes. the formation of the body material and the repair of its wastes is the function of the proteids of foods. it has been found by careful experiment that a man at moderately hard muscular exertion requires . lb. of digestible proteids daily. the chief sources of our proteid foods are meats, fish, beans, etc. it has been as a proteid food that mushrooms have been most strongly recommended. referring to table i, it will be seen that nitrogen constituted . per cent. of the total dry substance of _coprinus comatus_. this high nitrogen content, which is common to the mushrooms in general, was formerly taken to indicate a very unusual richness in proteid materials. it is now known, however, that there were several sources of error in this assumption. much of the nitrogen is present in the form of non-proteid substances of a very low food value. another and very considerable portion enters into the composition of a substance closely related to cellulose. a third source of error was the assumption that all the proteid material was digestible. it is now known that a very considerable portion is not digestible and hence not available as food. thus, notwithstanding the . per cent. of nitrogen in _coprinus comatus_, we find but . per cent. in the form of actually available (i. e., digestible) proteids, or approximately one-seventh of what was formerly supposed to be present. the digestibility of the proteids varies very greatly with the species. mörner found the common field mushroom, _agaricus campestris_, to have a larger amount of proteids available than any other species studied by him. unfortunately, the digestibility of the american plant has not been tested. there is great need for further work along this line. enough has been done, however, to demonstrate that mushrooms are no longer to be regarded as a food of the proteid class. the energy for the muscular exertion and heat is most economically derived from the foods in which the carbohydrates and fats predominate. the common way of comparing foods of the first two classes scientifically is to compare their heat-giving powers. the unit of measurement is termed a _calorie_. it represents the amount of heat required to raise a kilogram of water ° centigrade. (this is approximately the heat required to raise one pound of water ° fahrenheit.) a man at moderately hard muscular labor requires daily enough food to give about _calories_ of heat-units. the major part of this food may be most economically derived from the foods of the second class, any deficiency in the . lb. of digestible protein being made up by the addition of some food rich in this substance. in the following table the value of ten pounds of several food substances of the three classes has been worked out. especial attention is called to the column headed "proteids" and to the last column where the number of heat-units which may be purchased for one cent at current market rates has been worked out. table ii. nutritive value of ten pounds of several foods. ========================================================================+ |proteids.|fats.| carbo- |calories.|cost.|calories| | | |hydrates.| | | for one| | | | | | | cent. | ------------------------------------------------------------------------| a. {beef (round) | . | . | ----| |$ . | .| | | | | | | | {beans (dried) | . | . | . | | . | .| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | b. {cabbage | . | . | . | | . | .| | | | | | | | {potatoes | . | . | . | | . | .| | | | | | | | {flour (roller | . | . | . | | . | .| process) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | c. {coprinus comatus | . | . | . | | . | . | | | | | | | | {pleurotus | . | . | . | | . | . | ostreatus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {morchella | . | . | . | | . | . | esculenta | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {agaricus | . | . | . | | . | . | campestris | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {oysters | . | . | . | | . | . | ========================================================================+ the mushrooms have been valued at cents per pound, which is probably considerably below the average market price for a good article. it should also be remarked that the amounts given in this table are the digestible and hence available constituents of the foods. the only exception to this is in the case of the fats and carbohydrates of the mushrooms, no digestion experiments having been reported on these constituents. in the absence of data we have assumed that they were entirely digested. the beef and beans are typical animal and vegetable foods of the proteid class. a glance at the table will show how markedly they differ from the mushrooms. the latter are nearest the cabbage in composition and nutritive value. the similarity between the cabbage and the _agaricus campestris_ here analyzed is very striking. the potato is somewhat poorer in fat, but very much richer than the mushroom in carbohydrates. the figures in the last column will vary of course with fluctuations in the market price, but such variation will not interfere at any time with the demonstration that _purchased_ mushrooms are not a poor man's food. here we find that one cent invested in cabbage at - / cents per pound, gives _calories_ of nutrition, while the same amount invested in _agaricus campestris_--the common mushroom of our markets--would give but . _calories_, although they are almost identical so far as nutritive value is concerned. the same sum invested in wheat flour, with its high carbohydrate and good proteid content, would yield _calories_ or one-sixth the amount necessary to sustain a man at work for one day. the amount of mushrooms necessary for the same result is a matter of simple computation. mushrooms, however, have a distinct and very great value as a food of the third class, that is, as condiments or food accessories, and their value as such is beyond the computation of the chemist or the physiologist, and doubtless varies with different individuals. they are among the most appetizing of table delicacies and add greatly to the palatability of many foods when cooked with them. it is surely as unfair to decry the mushroom on account of its low nutritive value, as it is wrong to attribute to it qualities which are nothing short of absurd in view of its composition. in some respects its place as a food is not unlike that of the oyster, celery, berries, and other delicacies. worked out on the basis of nutritive value alone they would all be condemned; the oyster for instance presents a showing but little better than the mushroom, and vastly inferior, so far as economy is concerned, to the common potato. this, too, for oysters purchased by the quart. the nutritive value of one cent's worth of oysters "on the half shell" would be interesting! the question of the toxicology of the higher fungi is one of very great theoretical and practical interest. but on account of the great difficulties in the way of such investigations comparatively little has yet been accomplished. a few toxic compounds belonging chiefly to the class termed alkaloids have, however, been definitely isolated. =choline.=--this alkaloid is of wide occurrence in the animal and vegetable kingdoms. it has been isolated from _amanita muscaria_, _a. pantherina_, _boletus luridus_, and _helvella esculenta_. it is not very toxic, but on uniting with oxygen it passes over to muscarine. according to kobert the substance formed from choline on the decay of the mushrooms containing it is not muscarine, but a very closely related alkaloid, _neurin_. this transformation of a comparatively harmless alkaloid to an extremely deadly one simply by the partial decay of the plant in which the former is normally found, emphasizes very much the wisdom of rejecting for table use all specimens which are not entirely fresh. this advice applies to all kinds of mushrooms, and to worm-eaten and otherwise injured, as well as decayed ones. neurin is almost identical in its physiological effects with muscarine, which is described below. =muscarine.=--this is the most important because the most dangerous alkaloid found in the mushrooms. it is most abundant in _amanita muscaria_, it is also found in considerable quantity in _amanita pantherina_, and to a lesser, but still very dangerous extent in _boletus luridus_ and _russula emetica_. it is quite probably identical with bulbosine, isolated from _amanita phalloides_ by boudier. _muscarine_ is an extremely violent poison, . to . of a gram (. grain) being a very dangerous dose for a man. like other constituents of mushrooms, the amount of muscarine present varies very greatly with varying conditions of soil and climate. this, indeed, may account for the fact that _boletus luridus_ is regarded as an edible mushroom in certain parts of europe, the environment being such that little or no muscarine is developed. according to kobert, _amanita muscaria_ contains, besides choline and muscarine, a third alkaloid, _pilz-atropin_. this alkaloid, like ordinary atropin, neutralizes to a greater or less extent the muscarine. the amount of pilz-atropin present varies, as other constituents of mushrooms vary, with varying conditions of soil, climate, etc., and it may be that in those localities where the _amanita muscaria_ is used for food the conditions are favorable for a large production of pilz-atropin which neutralizes the muscarine, thus making the plant harmless. be this as it may, _amanita muscaria_, so deadly as ordinarily found, is undoubtedly used quite largely as food in parts of france and russia, and it has been eaten repeatedly in certain localities in this country without harm. fortunately muscarine has a very unpleasant taste. it is interesting in this connection to note that the _amanita muscaria_ is said to be used by the inhabitants of northern russia--particularly the koraks--as a means of inducing intoxication. to overcome the extremely unpleasant taste of the plant they swallow pieces of the dried cap without chewing them, or boil them in water and drink the decoction with other substances which disguise the taste. the symptoms of poisoning with muscarine are not at once evident, as is the case with several of the less virulent poisons. they usually appear in from one-half to two hours. for the symptoms in detail we shall quote from mr. v. k. chestnut, dept. of agr., washington (circular no. , div. of bot.): "vomiting and diarrhoea almost always occur, with a pronounced flow of saliva, suppression of the urine, and various cerebral phenomena beginning with giddiness, loss of confidence in one's ability to make ordinary movements, and derangements of vision. this is succeeded by stupor, cold sweats, and a very marked weakening of the heart's action. in case of rapid recovery the stupor is short and usually marked with mild delirium. in fatal cases the stupor continues from one to two or three days, and death at last ensues from the gradual weakening and final stoppage of the heart's action." the treatment for poisoning by muscarine consists primarily in removing the unabsorbed portion of the mushroom from the alimentary canal and in counteracting the effect of muscarine on the heart. the action of this organ should be fortified at once by the subcutaneous injection, by a physician, of atropine in doses of from one one-hundredth to one-fiftieth of a grain. the strongest emetics, such as sulphate of zinc or apomorphine, should be used, though in case of profound stupor even these may not produce the desired action. freshly ignited charcoal or two grains of a one per cent. alkaline solution of permanganate of potash may then be administered, in order, in the case of the former substance, to absorb the poison, or, in the case of the latter, to decompose it. this should be followed by oils or oleaginous purgatives, and the intestines should be cleaned and washed out with an enema of warm water and turpentine. experiments on animals poisoned by _amanita muscaria_ and with pure muscarine show very clearly that when the heart has nearly ceased to beat it may be stimulated to strong action almost instantly by the use of atropine. its use as thus demonstrated has been the means of saving numerous lives. we have in this alkaloid an almost perfect physiological antidote for muscarine, and therefore in such cases of poisoning its use should be pushed as heroically as the symptoms of the case will warrant. the presence of phallin in _amanita muscaria_ is possible, and its symptoms should be looked for in the red color of the blood serum discharged from the intestines. =phallin.=--the exact chemical nature of this extremely toxic substance is not certainly known, but it is generally conceded to be of an albuminous nature. that it is an extremely deadly poison is shown by the fact that . grain per lbs. weight of the animal is a fatal dose for cats and dogs. it is the active principle of the most deadly of all mushrooms, the _amanita phalloides_, or death-cup fungus. we quote again from mr. chestnut's account of phallin and its treatment: "the fundamental injury is not due, as in the case of muscarine, to a paralysis of the nerves controlling the action of the heart, but to a direct effect on the blood corpuscles. these are quickly dissolved by phallin, the blood serum escaping from the blood vessels into the alimentary canal, and the whole system being rapidly drained of its vitality. no bad taste warns the victim, nor do the preliminary symptoms begin until nine to fourteen hours after the poisonous mushrooms are eaten. there is then considerable abdominal pain and there may be cramps in the legs and other nervous phenomena, such as convulsions, and even lockjaw or other kinds of tetanic spasms. the pulse is weak, the abdominal pain is rapidly followed by nausea, vomiting, and extreme diarrhoea, the intestinal discharges assuming the 'rice-water' condition characteristic of cholera. the latter symptoms are persistently maintained, generally without loss of consciousness, until death ensues, which happens in from two to four days. there is no known antidote by which the effects of phallin can be counteracted. the undigested material, if not already vomited, should, however, be removed from the stomach and intestines by methods similar to those given for cases of poisoning by _amanita muscaria_. "after that the remainder of the poison, if the amount of phallin already taken up by the system is not too large, may wear itself out on the blood and the patient may recover. it is suggested that this wearing-out process may be assisted by transfusing into the veins blood freshly taken from some warm-blooded animal. the depletion of the blood serum might be remedied by similar transfusions of salt and warm water." =helvellic acid.=--this very deadly poison is sometimes found in _helvella esculenta_ persoon (gyromitra esculenta), particularly in old or decaying specimens. it has been studied and named by boehm. it is quite soluble in hot water, and in some localities this species of _helvella_ is always parboiled--the water being thrown away--before it is prepared for the table. it seems to be quite generally agreed that young and perfectly fresh specimens are free from the poison. as the poison is very violent, however, this plant should be carefully avoided. the symptoms resemble in a very marked degree those of the deadly phallin, the dissolution of the red corpuscles of the blood being one of the most marked and most dangerous; this is accompanied by nausea, vomiting, jaundice, and stoppage of the kidneys. there is no known antidote for this poison, hence the little that can be done would be similar to that mentioned under phallin. when poisoning by mushrooms is suspected, one cannot too strongly urge that the services of a competent physician should be secured with the least possible delay. chapter xxiii. description of terms applied to certain structural characters of mushrooms. by h. hasselbring. in fungi, as in higher plants, each organ or part of the plant is subject to a great number of variations which appeal to the eye of the student, and by which he recognizes relationship among the various individuals, species, and genera of this group. for the purpose of systematic studies of mushrooms or even for the recognition of a few species, it is of primary importance to be acquainted with terms used in describing different types of variation. only a few of the more important terms, such as are employed in this book, together with diagrams illustrating typical cases to which they are applied, will be given here. =the pileus.=--the _pileus_ or _cap_ is the first part of a mushroom which attracts the attention of the collector. it is the fleshy fruit body of the plant. this, like all other parts of the mushroom, is made up, not of cellular tissue as we find it in flowering plants, but of numerous interwoven threads, called _hyphæ_, which constitute the flesh or _trama_ of the pileus. ordinarily, the filamentous structure of the flesh is very obvious when a thin section of the cap is examined under the microscope, but in certain genera, as _russula_ and _lactarius_, many branches of the _hyphæ_ become greatly enlarged, forming little vesicles or bladders. these vesicles lie in groups all through the flesh of the pileus, sometimes forming the greater part of its substance. the filamentous _hyphæ_ pass around and through these groups, filling up the interstices. in cross section this tissue resembles parenchyma, and appears as if it were made up of rounded cells. such a trama is said to be _vesiculose_ to distinguish it from the ordinary or _floccose_ trama. the threads on the outer surface of the pileus constitute the cortex or cuticle. they are thick walled and often contain coloring matter which gives the plants their characteristic color. in many species their walls become gelatinized, covering the outside of the pileus with a viscid, slimy, or glutinous layer, often called _pellicle_. in other instances the corticle layer ceases to grow with the pileus. it is then torn and split by the continued expanding of the rest of the plant, and remains on the surface in the form of hairs, fibers, scales, etc. [illustration: figure . portion of vesiculose trama in the pileus of a russula.] [illustration: figure . portion of a floccose trama.] as an example of the most usual form of the pileus, we may take that of the common mushroom (_agaricus campestris_) when it is nearly expanded. the pileus is then quite regular in outline and evenly _convex_ (fig. ). many mushrooms during the early stages of their development have this form, which is variously changed by later growth. the convex pileus usually becomes _plane_ or _expanded_ as it grows. if the convexity is greater it is said to be _campanulate_ (fig. ), _conical hemispherical_, etc., terms which need no explanation. the pileus is _umbilicate_ when it has an abrupt, sharp depression at the center (fig. ), _infundibuliform_ when the margin is much higher than the center, so that the cap resembles a funnel (fig. ), and _depressed_ when the center is less, or irregularly, sunken. when the center of the pileus is raised in the form of a boss or knob it is _umbonate_ (fig. ). the umbo may have the form of a sharp elevation at the center, or it may be rounded or obtuse, occupying a larger part of the disc. when it is irregular or indistinct the pileus is said to be _gibbous_ (fig. ). [illustration: figure . figure . figure . figure .--omphalia campanella, pileus umbilicate, gills decurrent. figure .--lepiota procera, pileus convex, umbonate; annulus free, movable; gills free. figure .--agaricus campestris, pileus convex, gills free.] =the gills.=--the _gills_ or _lamellæ_ are thin blades on the under side of the pileus, radiating from the stem to the margin. when the pileus is cut in halves the general outline of the gills may be observed. in outline they may be broad, narrow, lanceolate, triangular, etc. in respect to their ends they are _attenuate_ when gradually narrowed to a sharp point, _acute_ when they end in a sharp angle, and _obtuse_ when the ends are rounded. again, the gills are _arcuate_ when they arch from the stem to the edge of the pileus, and _ventricose_ when they are bellied out vertically toward the earth. [illustration: figure . clitocybe infundibuliformis, pileus infundibuliform, gills decurrent.] [illustration: figure . mycena galericulata, pileus conic to campanulate, gills decurrent by a tooth, stem fistulose.] the terms given above are often used in descriptive works, but the most important feature to be noted in the section of the plant is the relation of the gills to the stem. this relation is represented by several distinct types which are sometimes used to limit genera or sub-genera, since the mode of attachment is usually constant in all species of a group. the principal relations of the gills to the stem are described as follows: _adnate_ when they reach the stem and are set squarely against it (fig. ); _decurrent_ when they run down the stem (fig. ); _sinuate_ or _emarginate_ when they have a notch or vertical curve at the posterior end (fig. ); and _free_ when they are rounded off without reaching the stem (fig. ). in all cases when the lamellæ reach the stem and are only attached by the upper angle they are said to be _adnexed_. this term is often used in combination with others, as _sinuate-adnexed_ (fig. , small figure), or _ascending adnexed_ (fig. , larger plant). sometimes the lamellæ are adnate, adnexed, etc., and have a slight decurrent process or tooth as in _mycena galericulata_ (fig. ). in many plants the gills separate very readily from the stem when the plants are handled. sometimes merely the expansion of the pileus tears them away, so that it is necessary to use great caution, and often to examine plants in different stages of development to determine the real condition of the lamellæ. [illustration: figure . figure . figure . figure .--tricholoma, gills sinuate, stipe solid. figure .--panæolus papilionaceus, gills adnate. figure .--left-hand small plant, hygrophorus, gills sinuate, adnexed. right-hand plant panæolus retirugis, gills ascending adnexed, veil appendiculate.] in certain genera the gills have special characteristics which may be noted here. usually the edge of the lamellæ is _acute_ or sharp like the blade of a knife, but in _cantharellus_ and _trogia_ the edges are very blunt or obtuse. in extreme forms the lamellæ are reduced to mere veins or ridges. again, the edge is generally _entire_, i. e., not noticeably toothed, but in _lentinus_ it is often toothed or cut in various ways. in some other plants the edges are _serrulate_, _crenulate_, etc. in _schizophyllum alneum_, a small whitish plant very common on dead sticks, the gills are split lengthwise along the edge with the halves revolute, i. e., rolled back. in _coprinus_ the gills and often a large part of the pileus melt at maturity into a dark, inky fluid. [illustration: figure .--section of portion of gill of marasmius cohærens. _t_, trama of gill; _sh_, sub-hymenium; _h_, hymenium layer. the long, dark cells are brown cystidia, termed spicules by some to distinguish them from the colorless cystidia. the long cells bearing the oval spores are the basidia.] [illustration: figure .--inocybe repanda (bull.) bres. (= entoloma repandum bull.). _t_, trama of pileus; _sh_, sub-hymenium; _h_, the hymenial layer; the long cells with a drop of moisture at the ends are cystidia (sing. cystidium).] =the hymenium.=--the term _hymenium_ is applied to the spore-bearing tissue of many fungi. in the _agaricaceæ_ the hymenium covers the entire surface of the gills and usually the portion of the pileus between the gills. it originates in the following manner: the threads forming the trama of the gills grow out from the lower side of the pileus and perpendicular to its under surface. as growth advances many branches of the threads turn outward toward either surface of the gill and finally terminate in club-shaped cells. these cells, therefore, lie side by side, perpendicular to the surface, forming a pavement, as it were, over the entire surface of the gills. some of them put out four little prongs, on each of which a spore is borne, while others simply remain as sterile cells (figs. , ). the spore-bearing cells are _basidia_; the others are called _paraphyses_. they resemble each other very much, except that the basidia bear four _sterigmata_ and a spore on each. in a few species the number of sterigmata is reduced to two and in some low forms the number is variable. the layer just beneath the basidia is usually more or less modified, being often composed of small cells different from the rest of the trama. this is called the _sub-hymenial_ layer or _sub-hymenium_ (fig. ). other cells called _cystidia_ occur in the hymenia of various species distributed through nearly all the genera of the agarics. cystidia are large, usually inflated, cells which project above the rest of the hymenium (fig. ). they originate either like the basidia, from the sub-hymenial cells (fig. ), or from special hyphæ deeper down in the trama of the gill (fig. ). they are scattered over the entire surface of the hymenium, but become more numerous on the edge of the lamellæ. their number is much smaller than that of the basidia, but in some species where they are colored they may greatly change the appearance of the gills. cystidia often secrete moisture which collects in drops at their tips, a phenomenon common to all free fungous cells. =the stem.=--the stem is usually fixed to the center of the pileus, but it may be _eccentric_, i. e., fixed to one side of the center, or entirely lateral. when the stem is wanting the pileus is _sessile_. with regard to its interior the stem is _solid_, when it is evenly fleshy throughout (fig. ), or _hollow_ when the interior is occupied by a cavity (fig. ). if the cavity is narrow and tubular the stem is _fistulose_ (fig. ); and if the center is filled with a pithy substance it is _stuffed_ (fig. ). these terms apply only to the natural condition of the stem, and not the condition brought about by larvæ, which eat out the interior of the stem, causing it to be hollow or fistulose. the terms applicable to the consistency of the stem are difficult to define. in general, stems may be either _fleshy_ or _cartilaginous_. the meaning of these terms can best be learned by careful study of specimens of each, but a few general characters can be given here. fleshy, fibrous stems occur in the genera _clitocybe_ and _tricholoma_, among the white-spored forms. their consistency is like that of the pileus, namely, made up of fleshy, fibrous tissue. they are usually stout, compared with the size of the plant, and when bent or broken they seem to be more or less spongy or tough, fibrous, so that they do not snap readily. cartilaginous stems have a consistency resembling that of cartilage. their texture is always different from that of the pileus, which is fleshy or membranous. in general such stems are rather slender, in many genera rather thin, but firm. when bent sufficiently they either snap suddenly, or break like a green straw, without separating. in regard to their external appearance some resemble fibrous stems, while others are smooth and polished as in _mycena_ and _omphalia_. =the veil.=--in the young stages of development the margin of the pileus lies in close contact with the stipe, the line of separation being indicated by a kind of furrow which runs around the young button mushroom. in many genera, as _collybia_, _mycena_, _omphalia_, etc., the pileus simply expands without having its margin ever united to the stipe by any special structure, but in other forms, which include by far the greater number of genera of the _agaricaceæ_ and some _boleti_, the interval between the stem and pileus is bridged over by threads growing from the margin of the pileus and from the outer layers of the stem. these threads interlace to form a delicate membrane, known as the _veil_, which closes the gap between the stem and pileus and covers over the young hymenium. the veil remains firm for a time, but it is finally torn by the expanding pileus, and its remnants persist on the cap and stem in the form of various appendages, whose character depends on the character of the veil. in _cortinarius_ the veil is made up of delicate threads extending radially from the stem to the margin of the cap without forming a true membrane. from its resemblance to a spider's web such a veil is said to be _arachnoid_. at maturity mere traces of it can be found on the stem. in many genera the veil consists of a delicate membrane which tears away from the stem and hangs in flakes to the margin of the pileus. in these cases the veil is _appendiculate_ (fig. ). frequently it is so delicate that no trace of it remains on the mature plant. where the veil is well developed it usually remains on the stem as a _ring_ or _annulus_ which becomes free and movable in species of _lepiota_ (fig. ) and _coprinus_, or forms a hanging annular curtain in _amanita_, or a thick, felty ring in _agaricus_, etc. in some plants (species of _lepiota_) the annulus is continuous with the outer cortex of the stem, which then appears as if it were partially enclosed in a sheath, with the annulus forming a fringe on the upper end of the sheath, from which the apex of the stem projects. no reference is here made to the _volva_, which encloses the entire plant, and which is described in connection with the genera in which it occurs. the few typical characters described here will help the student to become familiar with terms applied to them. in nature, however, typical cases rarely exist, and it is often necessary to draw distinction between differences so slight that it is almost impossible to describe them. only by patient study and a thorough acquaintance with the characters of each genus can one hope to become familiar with the many mushrooms growing in our woods and fields. chapter xxiv. analytical keys. by the author. class fungi. sub-class basidiomycetes.[f] plants of large or medium size; fleshy, membranaceous, leathery, woody or gelatinous; growing on the ground, on wood or decaying organic matter; usually saprophytic, more rarely parasitic. fruiting surface, or hymenium, formed of numerous crowded perpendicular basidia, the apex of the latter bearing two to six (usually four) basidiospores, or the basidiospores borne laterally; in many cases cystidia intermingled with the basidia. hymenium either free at the beginning, or enclosed either permanently or temporarily in a more or less perfect peridium or veil. basidiospores continuous or rarely septate, globose, obovoid, ellipsoidal to oblong, smooth or roughened, hyaline or colored, borne singly at the apex of sterigmata. order _gasteromycetes_. plants membranaceous, leathery or fleshy, furnished with a peridium and gleba, the latter being sometimes supported on a receptacle. hymenium on the surface of the gleba which is enclosed within the peridium up to the maturity of the spores or longer; spores continuous, sphæroid or ellipsoid, hyaline or colored. puff-balls, etc. order _hymenomycetes_. hymenium, at the beginning, borne on the free outer surface of the compound sporophore, or if at first enclosed by a pseudo-peridium or veil it soon becomes exposed before the maturity of the spores; mushrooms, etc. hymenomycetes. analytical key of the families. plants not gelatinous; basidia continuous. plants gelatinous or sub-gelatinous, basidia forked, or divided longitudinally or transversely. = =--hymenium uneven, i. e., in the form of radiating plates, or folds; or a honey-combed surface, or reticulate, warty, spiny, etc. hymenium smooth (not as in b, though it may be convolute and irregular, or ribbed, or veined). = =--hymenium usually on the under side, in the form of radiating plates, or strong folds. the genus phlebia in the hydnaceae has the hymenium on smooth, somewhat radiating veins which are interrupted and irregular. one exotic genus has the hymenium on numerous irregular obtuse lobes (rhacophyllus). =agaricaceæ.= hymenium usually below (or on the outer surface when the plant is spread over the substratum), honey-combed, porous, tubulose, or reticulate; in one genus with short, concentric plates. =polyporaceæ.= hymenium usually below (or on the outer surface when the plant is spread over the substratum), warted, tuberculate, or with stout, spinous processes; or with interrupted vein-like folds in resupinate forms. =hydnaceæ.= = =--plants somewhat corky or membranaceous, more or less expanded; hymenium on the under surface (upper surface sterile), or on the outer or exposed surface when the plant is spread over the substratum (margin may then sometimes be free, but upper surface, i. e., that toward the substratum, sterile). (minute slender spines are sometimes intermingled with the elements of the hymenium, and should not be mistaken for the stouter spinous processes of the hydnaceæ). =thelephoraceæ.= plants more or less fleshy, upright (never spread over the surface of the substratum), simple or branched. hymenium covering both sides and the upper surface. =clavariaceæ.= = =--basidia forked or longitudinally divided; or if continuous then globose, or bearing numerous spores; or if the plant is leathery, membranous, or floccose, then basidia as described. hymenium covering the entire free surface or confined to one portion; smooth, gyrose, folded or lobed; or hymenium lamellate, porous, reticulate or toothed forms which are gelatinous and provided with continuous basidia may be sought here. =tremellineæ.= family agaricaceae. pileus more or less expanded, convex, bell-shaped; stipe central or nearly so; or the point of attachment lateral, when the stipe may be short or the pileus sessile and shelving. fruiting surface usually on the under side and exposed toward the earth, lamellate, or prominently folded or veined. lamellæ or gills radiating from the point of attachment of the pileus with the stipe or with the substratum in the sessile forms; lamellæ simple or branched, rarely anastomosing behind, clothed externally on both surfaces with the basidia, each of which bears four spores (rarely two), cystidia often present. key to the north american genera. the white-spored agarics. (sometimes there is a faint tinge of pink or lilac when the spores are in bulk, but the color is not seen under the microscope.) =plants= soft, fleshy or nearly so, usually soon decaying; dried plants do not revive well when moistened. =plants= tough, either fleshy or gelatinous, membranaceous, corky or woody, persistent, reviving when moistened. = =--=gills= acute on the edge. =edge= of the gills obtuse, or gills fold-like, or vein-like, but prominent. = =--=trama= of the pileus of interwoven threads, not vesiculose. =trama= of the pileus vesiculose, plants rigid but quite fragile. = =--=gills= thin, not much broadened toward the pileus. =gills= broadened toward the pileus, of waxy consistency. =hygrophorus.= = =--=stipe= central or sub-central. (some species of pleurotus are sub-central, but the gills are usually not decurrent.) =stipe= on one side of the pileus, or none, rarely with the stipe sub-central. (some species of clitocybe are sub-central.) =pleurotus.= = =--=stipe= fleshy, pileus easily separating from the stipe, gills usually free. =stipe= fleshy or fibrous and elastic, pileus confluent with the stipe and of the same texture. =stipe= cartilaginous, pileus confluent with the stipe, but of a different texture. = =--=volva= and annulus present on the stipe. =amanita.= =volva= present, annulus wanting. =amanitopsis.= =volva= wanting, annulus present. =lepiota.= = =--=annulus= and volva wanting. =annulus= usually present (sometimes vague), volva wanting, gills attached to the stipe. =armillaria.= = =--=gills= sinuate. =tricholoma.= =gills= decurrent, not sinuate. =clitocybe.= = =--=gills= decurrent, pileus umbilicate. =omphalia.= =gills= not decurrent. = =--=margin= of pileus at first involute, pileus flat or nearly so, somewhat fleshy (some plants rather tough and tending toward the consistency of marasmius). =collybia.= =margin= of the pileus at first straight, pileus slightly bell-shaped, thin. =mycena.= =gills= usually free, pileus deeply plicate so that the gills are split where they are attached to the pileus, pileus membranaceous, very tender but not diffluent. =hiatula.= = =--=plants= where bruised exuding a milky or colored juice. =lactarius.= =plants= not exuding a juice where bruised. =russula.= = =--=gills= decurrent, dichotomous, edge blunt. =cantharellus.= =gills= not decurrent, plants parasitic on other mushrooms. =nyctalis.= = =--=edge= of gills not split into two laminæ. =edge= of gills split into two laminæ and revolute. =schizophyllum.= = =--=plants= leathery, either fleshy, membraneous, or gelatinous. =plants= corky or woody (placed by some in polyporaceæ). =lenzites.= = =--=stipe= separate from the pileus (hymenophore), easily separating. =stipe= continuous with hymenophore. = =--=plants= tough and fleshy, membranaceous or leathery. =marasmius.= =plants= gelatinous and leathery. =heliomyces.= = =--=edge= of the gills acute. =edge= of the gills obtuse. = =--=edge= of gills usually serrate. =lentinus.= =edge= of gills entire. =panus.= = =--=gills= dichotomous. =xerotus.= =gills= fold-like, irregular. =trogia.= there are only a few rare species of hiatula, nyctalis, heliomyces and xerotus in the united states. none are here described. the ochre-spored agarics. (the spores are yellowish brown or rusty brown.) =gills= not separating readily from =gills= sometimes separating readily from the pileus, forked or anastomosing at the base, or connected with vein-like reticulations. =paxillus.= = =--=universal veil= not arachnoid (i. e., not cobwebby). =universal veil= arachnoid, distinct from the cuticle of the pileus, gills powdery from the spores. =cortinarius.= = =--=stipe= central. =stipe= eccentric or none. =crepidotus.= = =--=volva= or annulus present on stipe. =volva= and annulus wanting. = =--=stipe= with an annulus. =pholiota.= =stipe= with a volva. =locellina= (not reported in u. s.). = =--=gills= free from the stem. =pluteolus.= =gills= attached. = =--=gills= not dissolving nor becoming powdery. =gills= dissolving into a gelatinous or powdery condition, not diffluent as in coprinus. =bolbitius.= = =--=stipe= fleshy. =stipe= cartilaginous or sub-cartilaginous. = =--=gills= somewhat sinuate. =gills= adnate or decurrent. =flammula.= = =--=cuticle= of the pileus silky or bearing fibrils. =inocybe.= =cuticle= of pileus smooth, viscid. =hebeloma.= = =--=gills= decurrent. =tubaria.= =gills= not decurrent. = =--=margin= of pileus inflexed. =naucoria.= =margin= of pileus straight, from the first. =galera.= no species of pluteolus are here described. the rosy-spored agarics. (the spores are rose color, pink, flesh or salmon color.) =stipe= central. =stipe= eccentric or none and pileus lateral. =claudopus.= = =--=pileus= easily separating from the stipe, gills free. =pileus= confluent with the stipe and of the same texture, gills attached, in some becoming almost free. = =--=volva= present and distinct, annulus wanting. =volvaria.= =volva= and annulus wanting. =pluteus.= = =--=stipe= fleshy to fibrous, margin of pileus at first incurved. =stipe= cartilaginous. = =--=gills= sinuate. =entoloma.= =gills= decurrent. =clitopilus.= = =--=gills= not decurrent (or if so only by a minute tooth), easily separating from the stipe. =gills= decurrent, pileus umbilicate. =eccilia.= = =--=pileus= slightly convex, margin at first incurved. =leptonia.= =pileus= bell-shaped, margin at first straight and pressed close against the stipe. =nolanea.= no species of nolanea are described here. the brown-spored agarics. (the spores are dark brown or purplish brown.) =pileus= easily separating from the stem; gills usually free. =pileus= continuous with the stem; gills attached. = =--=volva= wanting, annulus present. (psalliota fr.) =agaricus.= =volva= present, annulus wanting. =chitonia.= =volva= and annulus wanting. =pilosace.= = =--=veil= present. =veil= wanting or obsolete. = =--=annulus= present, gills attached. =stropharia.= =annulus= wanting, veil remaining attached to margin of pileus. =hypholoma.= = =--=stipe= tenacious, margin of pileus first incurved. =stipe= fragile, margin of pileus at first straight. =psathyra.= = =--=gills= sub-triangularly decurrent. =deconica.= =gills= not decurrent. =psilocybe.= but few species of psathyra, deconica, chitonia and pilosace are noted from the united states. none are here described. the black-spored agarics. =pileus= present to which the gills are attached. =pileus= wanting, gills attached to a disk at apex of stem from which they radiate. =montagnites.=[g] = =--=gills= more or less deliquescing, or pileus thin, membranous and splitting between the laminæ of the gills and becoming more or less plicate. =coprinus.= =gills= not deliquescing, etc. = =--=spores= globose, ovoid. =spores= elongate, fusiform (in some species brown), plants with a slimy envelope. =gomphidius.= = =--=pileus= somewhat fleshy, not striate, projecting beyond the gills at the margin; gills variegated in color from groups of dark spores on the surface. =pileus= somewhat fleshy, margin striate, gills not variegated. =psathyrella.= = =--=annulus= wanting, but veil often present. =panæolus.= =annulus= wanting, veil appendiculate on margin of cap. =chalymotta.= =annulus= present. =anellaria.= glossary of the more technical terms used in this work. abbreviations: cm. = centimeter (about - / cm. make one inch). mm. = millimeter (about mm. make inch). µ = one micron ( µ = mm.). adnate, said of the gills when they are attached squarely, or broadly, to the stem. adnexed, said of gills when they are attached only slightly or only by the upper angle of the stem. anastomose, running together in a net-like manner. annulus, the ring or collar around the stem formed from the inner or partial veil. appendiculate, said of the veil when it clings in fragments to the margin of the pileus. arachnoid, said of the veil when it is cobwebby, that is, formed of loose threads. ascus, the club-shaped body which bears the spores inside (characteristic of the ascomycetes). basidium (pl. basidia) the club-shaped body which bears the spores in the basidiomycetes. these stand parallel, and together make up the entire or large part of the hymenium or fruiting surface which covers the gills, etc. paraphyses (sterile cells) and sometimes cystidia (longer sterile cells) or spines are intermingled with the basidia. bulbous, said of the enlarged lower end of the stem in some mushrooms. circumscissile, splitting transversely across the middle, used to indicate one of the ways in which the volva ruptures. cortina, a cobwebby veil. cuticle, the skin-like layer on the outside of the pileus. decurrent, said of the gills when they extend downward on the stem. diffluent, said of the gills when they dissolve into a fluid. dimidiate, halved, said of a sessile pileus semi-circular in form and attached by the plane edge directly to the wood. echinulate, term applied to minute spinous processes, on the spores for example. eccentric, said of a stem when it is attached to some other point than the center of the pileus. fimbriate, in the form of a delicate fringe. fistulose, becoming hollow. floccose, term applied to indicate delicate and soft threads, cottony extensions from the surface of any part of the mushroom. flocculose, minutely floccose. fugacious, disappearing. fuliginous (or fuligineous), dark brown, sooty or smoky. fulvous, tawny, reddish yellow. fusiform, spindle-shaped. fusoid, like a spindle. furfuraceous, with numerous minute scales. gleba, the chambered tissue forming the hymenium (fruiting surface) in the puff-balls and their allies. hygrophanous, appearing to be water soaked. hymenium, the fruiting surface of the mushrooms and other fungi. hymenomycetes, the subdivision of the basidiomycetes in which the fruiting surface is exposed before the spores are ripe. hymenophore, the portion of the fruit body which bears the hymenium. hypha (pl. hyphæ), a single mycelium thread. imbricate, overlapping like the shingles on a roof. involute, folded or rolled inward. lamella (pl. lamellæ), the gills of the mushroom. mycelium, the vegetative or growing portion of the mushrooms, and other fungi, made up of several or many threads. ocreate, applied to the volva where it fits the lower part of the stem, as a stocking does the leg. pectinate, like the teeth of a comb. peridium, the wall of the puff-balls, etc. pileus (pl. pilei), the cap of the mushroom. plicate, plaited, or folded like a fan. punctate, with minute points. pulverulent, with a minute powdery substance. repand, wavy. resupinate, spread over the matrix, the fruiting surface external and the pileus next the wood. revolute, rolled backward. rugose, wrinkled. rugulose, with minute wrinkles. saprophytic, growing on dead organic matter. sessile, where the pileus is attached directly to the matrix without any stem. sinuate, said of the gills when they are notched at their junction with the stem. stipe, the stem. sulcate, furrowed. squamulose, with minute scales. squarrose, with prominent reflexed scales. tomentose, with a dense, matted, hairy or woolly surface. trama, the interior portion of the gills or pileus. umbo, with a prominent boss or elevation, in the center of the pileus. umbilicate, with a minute abrupt depression in the center of the cap. veil, a layer of threads extending from the margin of the cap to the stem (partial veil or marginal veil). a universal veil envelops the entire plant. veins, elevated lines or folds running over the surface of the lamellæ in some species, and often connected so as to form reticulations. ventricose, enlarged or broadened at the middle, bellied. vesiculose, full of small rounded vesicles, as the trama of the pileus of a russula. volva, a wrapper or envelope, which in the young stage completely surrounds the plant, same as universal veil. at maturity of the plant it may be left in the form of a cup at the base of the stem, or broken up into fragments and distributed over the cap and base of the stem. footnotes: [f] the sub-class ascomycetes includes the morels, helvellas, cup fungi, etc., and many microscopic forms, in which the spores are borne inside a club-shaped body, the ascus. only a few of the genera are described in this book, and the technical diagnosis will be omitted. see page . [g] one american species in texas. index of genera, and illustrations. note.--in this index the generic and specific names have been divided into syllables, and the place of the primary accent has been indicated, with the single object of securing a uniform pronunciation in accordance with the established rules of english orthoepy. agaricus (a-gar'i-cus), -- . arvensis (ar-ven'sis), , fig. . campestris (cam-pes'tris), -- , , figs. -- , . comtulus (com'tu-lus), , fig. . cretaceus (cre-ta'ce-us), . diminutivus (di-min-u-ti'vus), . echinatus (ech-i-na'tus), . fabaceus (fa-ba'ce-us), . maritimus (ma-rit'i-mus), . placomyces (pla-com'y-ces), , pl. , , figs. , , . rodmani (rod'ma-ni), , fig. . silvaticus (sil-vat'i-cus), . silvicola (sil-vic'o-la), , figs. , . subrufescens (sub-ru-fes'cens), . amanita (am-a-ni'ta), . cæsarea (cæ'-sa're-a), , pls. , , fig. . cothurnata (coth-ur-na'ta), , pl. , figs. -- . floccocephala (floc-co-ceph'a-la), , fig. . frostiana (fros-ti-a'na), , , , pl. . mappa (map'pa), . muscaria (mus-ca'ri-a), -- , pls. , , , figs. -- . pantherina (pan-the-ri'na), . phalloides (phal-loi'des), , , -- , , pl. , figs. -- . polypyramis (pol-y-pyr'a-mis), . rubescens (ru-bes'cens), , , pls. , , figs. , . spreta (spre'ta), , , fig. . solitaria (sol-i-ta'ri-a), -- , pls. , , figs. , . strobiliformis (strob-i-li-for'mis), . velatipes (ve-lat'i-pes), -- , pls. , , figs. -- . verna (ver'na), , , , figs. -- . virosa (vi-ro'sa), , , fig. . amanitopsis (a-man-i-top'sis), . farinosa (far-i-no'sa), , , fig. . livida (liv'i-da), . nivalis (ni-va'lis), . spadicea (spa-dic'e-a), . vaginata (vag-i-na'ta), -- , pl. , fig. . volvata (vol-va'ta), . armillaria (ar-mil-la'ri-a), . aurantia (au-ran'ti-a), -- , fig. . mellea (mel'le-a), , , pl. , fig. . annularia lævis (an-nu-la'ri læ'vis), . ascomycetes (as-co-my-ce'tes), . basidiomycetes (ba-sid-i-o-my-ce'tes), . black-spored agarics, . bolbitius (bol-bit'i-us), . variicolor (va-ri-ic'o-lor), , fig. . boletinus (bo-le-ti'nus), . pictus (pic'tus), , fig. . porosus (po-ro'sus), , pl. , fig. . boletus (bo-le'tus), . americanus (a-mer-i-ca'nus), , fig. . brevipes (brev'i-pes), . bulbosus (bul-bo'sus), . chromapes (chro'ma-pes), , pl. , fig. . edulis (e-du'lis), , , , pls. , , , figs. , . felleus (fel'le-us), , pl. , fig. . flavidus (flav'i-dus), . granulatus (gran-u-la'tus), . luteus (lu'te-us), , , pl. , figs. , . obsonium (ob-so'ni-um), , pl. , fig. . ornatipes (or-nat'i-pes), , . punctipes (punc'ti-pes), , fig. . retipes (re'ti-pes), -- , fig. . scaber (sca'ber), . subluteus (sub-lu'te-us), , . subtomentosus (sub-tom-en-to'sus), , . vermiculosus (ver-mic-u-lo'sus), , pl. , fig. . bovista (bo-vis'ta), . calostoma (ca-los'to-ma), . cinnabarinum (cin-na-ba-ri'num), , , pl. , fig. . lutescens (lu-tes'cens), . calvatia (cal-va'ti-a), . cantharellus (can-tha-rel'lus), . aurantiacus (au-ran-ti'a-cus), , , pl. , figs. , . cibarius (ci-ba'ri-us), , fig. . chalymotta retirugis (chal-y-mot'ta re-ti-ru'gis), . clavaria (cla-va'ri-a), . botrytes (bo-try'tes), , fig. . formosa (for-mo'sa), , pl. , fig. . mucida (mu'ci-da), , fig. . pistillaris (pis-til-la'ris), , fig. . clavariaceæ (cla-va-ri-a'ce-æ), . coral fungi, . clitocybe (cli-toc'y-be), . candida (can'di-da), , pls. , , figs. , . cyathiformis (cy-a-thi-for'mis), . illudens (il-lu'dens), , fig. . infundibuliformis (in-fun-dib-u-li-for'mis), , fig. . laccata (lac-ca'ta), . multiceps (mul'ti-ceps), , pl. , fig. . pelletieri (pel-let-i-e'ri), . clitopilus (cli-top'i-lus), . orcella (or-cel'la), . prunulus (pru'nu-lus), , pl. , fig. . collybia (col-lyb'i-a), . dryophila (dry-oph'i-la), , fig. . longipes (lon'gi-pes), . lachnophylla (lach-no-phyl'la), . platyphylla (plat-y-phyl'la), . radicata (rad-i-ca'ta), , pl. , fig. . spinulifera (spin-u-lif'e-ra), . velutipes (ve-lu'ti-pes), , pl. , fig. . coprinus (co-pri'nus), . atramentarius (a-tra-men-ta'ri-us), -- , pl. , figs. -- . comatus (co-ma'tus), -- , pl. , figs. -- . micaceus (mi-ca'ce-us), , -- , figs. , . corticium (cor-tic'i-um), . cortinarius (cor-ti-na'ri-us), . cinnamomeus (cin-na-mo'me-us), , fig. . collinitus (col-li-ni'tus), . ochroleucus (och-ro-leu'cus), , pls. , , figs. , . violaceus (vi-o-la'ce-us), . craterellus (crat-e-rel'lus), . cantharellus (can-tha-rel'lus), . cornucopioides (cor-nu-co-pi-oi'des), . pistillaris (pis-til-la'ris), . crepidotus (crep-i-do'tus), . applanatus (ap-pla-na'tus), . calolepis (ca-lol'e-pis), . chimonophilus (chi-mo-noph'i-lus), . fulvotomentosus (ful-vo-tom-en-to'sus), . herbarum (her-ba'rum), . versutus (ver-su'tus), , fig. . dædalea ambigua (dæ-da'le-a am-big'u-a), , , pl. , fig. . dictyophora (dic-ty-oph'o-ra), . duplicata (du-pli-ca'ta), , pl. , fig. . ravenelii (rav-e-nel'li-i), , , pl. , figs. -- . discomycetes (dis-co-my-ce'tes), . eccilia (ec-cil'i-a), . polita (po-li'ta), , fig. . entoloma (en-to-lo'ma), . grayanum (gray-a'num), , , fig. . jubatum (ju-ba'tum), , , fig. . repandum (re-pan'dum), , , fig. . strictius (stric'ti-us), , , fig. . exidia glandulosa (ex-id'ia glan-du-lo'sa), . fistulina (fis-tu-li'na), , . firma (fir'ma), . hepatica (he-pat'i-ca), , pl. . pallida (pal'li-da), , , pls. , , fig. . flammula (flam'mu-la), . paradoxa (par-a-dox'a), . polychroa (po-lych'ro-a), , , fig. . rhodoxanthus (rhod-o-xan'thus), . sapinea (sa-pin'e-a), . tammii (tam'mi-i), . fomes (fo'mes), , . galera (ga-le'ra), . antipoda (an-tip'o-da), . coprinoides (cop-rin-oi'des), . flava (fla'va), . lateritia (lat-e-ri'ti-a), . tenera (ten'e-ra), . geaster (ge-as'ter), . gomphidius (gom-phid'i-us), . glutinosus (glu-ti-no'sus), . nigricans (nig'ri-cans), -- , figs. , . rhodoxanthus (rhod-o-xan'thus), . gomphus (gom'phus), . gyrocephalus (gy-ro-ceph'a-lus), . rufus (ru'fus), , fig. . gyromitra esculenta (gy-rom'i-tra es-cu-len'ta), . hebeloma (he-be-lo'ma), . crustuliniforme (crus-tu-lin-i-for'me), , fig. . hedgehog fungi, . helvella (hel-vel'la), . crispa (cris'pa), . lacunosa (lac-u-no'sa), , fig. . hydnaceæ (hyd-na'ce-æ), . hydnum (hyd'num), . caput-medusæ (ca'put--me-du'sæ), . caput-ursi (ca'put--ur'si), , pl. , fig. . coralloides (cor-al-loi'des), , fig. . erinaceus (er-i-na'ce-us), , fig. . fragile (frag'i-le), . graveolens (gra-ve'o-lens), . imbricatum (im-bri-ca'tum), , fig. . repandum (re-pan'dum), , pl. , fig. . putidum (pu'ti-dum), , pl. , fig. . velutinum (ve-lu'ti-num), . hygrophorus (hy-groph'o-rus), . chrysodon (chrys'o-don), , fig. . coccineus (coc-cin'e-us), . conicus (con'i-cus), . eburneus (e-bur'ne-us), , pl. , fig. . fuligineus (fu-li-gin'e-us), , fig. . hypothejus (hy-po-the'jus), . miniatus (min-i-a'tus), , . pratensis (pra-ten'sis), . psittacinus (psit-ta-ci'nus), . hymenochæte (hy-me-no-chæ'te), . hymenomycetes (hy-me-no-my-ce'tes), . hypholoma (hyph-o-lo'ma), . appendiculatum (ap-pen-dic-u-la'tum), , , pl. , figs. , . candolleanum (can-dol-le-a'num), . lachrymabundum (lach-ry-ma-bun'dum), -- , fig. . perplexum (per-plex'um), . rugocephalum (ru-go-ceph'a-lum), , pl. , fig. . sublateritium (sub-la-te-ri'ti-um), , pl. , fig. . inocybe (i-noc'y-be), . echinata (ech-i-na'ta), . repanda (re-pan'da), , fig. . ithyphallus impudicus (ith-y-phal'lus im-pu-di'cus), . lactarius (lac-ta'ri-us), . chelidonium (chel-i-do'ni-um), , pl. . chrysorrheus (chrys-or'rhe-us), , fig. . corrugis (cor-ru'gis), , fig. . deliciosus (de-lic-i-o'sus), , pl. . fuliginosus (fu-lig-i-no'sus), , fig. . gerardii (ge-rar'di-i), . indigo (in'di-go), , pl. . lignyotus (lig-ny-o'tus), , fig. . pergamenus (per-ga-me'nus), . piperatus (pip-e-ra'tus), , fig. . resimus (re-si'mus), , figs. , . torminosus (tor-mi-no'sus), , fig. . volemus (vo-le'mus), . lentinus (len-ti'nus), . lecomtei (le-comt'e-i), . lepideus (le-pid'e-us), . stipticus (stip'ti-cus), , . vulpinus (vul-pi'nus), , pl. , figs. , . leotia lubrica (le-o'ti-a lu'bri-ca), , fig. . lepiota (lep-i-o'ta), . acutesquamosa (a-cu-te-squa-mo'sa), . americana (a-mer-i-ca'na), , , fig. . asperula (as-per'u-la), , , pl. , fig. . badhami (bad'ham-i), . cristata (cris-ta'ta), , fig. . naucina (nau-ci'na), , -- , pl. , figs. , . naucinoides (nau-ci-noi'des), . procera (pro-ce'ra), , pl. , figs. , . rachodes (ra-cho'des), . leptonia (lep-to'ni-a), . asprella (as-prel'la), , fig. . incana (in-ca'na), . lycoperdaceæ (ly-co-per-da'ce-æ), . lycoperdon (ly-co-per'don), . cyathiforme (cy-a-thi-for'me), , pl. , fig. . gemmatum (gem-ma'tum), , fig. . giganteum (gi-gan'te-um), . pyriforme (pyr-i-for'me), . marasmius (ma-ras'mi-us), . cohærens (co-hæ'rens), , , figs. , . oreades (o-re'a-des), , fig. . rotula (rot'u-la), . merulius (me-ru'li-us), , , . lacrymans (lac'ry-mans), , pl. , figs. , . tremellosus (trem-el-lo'sus), , pl. , figs. , . mitremyces lutescens (mi-trem'y-ces lu-tes'cens), . morchella (mor-chel'la), . bispora (bis'po-ra), . conica (con'i-ca), , fig. . crassipes (cras'si-pes), , pl. , fig. . deliciosa (de-lic-i-o'sa), . esculenta (es-cu-len'ta), , pl. , fig. . semilibera (sem-i-lib'e-ra), . mucronella (mu-cro-nel'la), . mycena (my-ce'na), . acicula (a-cic'u-la), , , fig. . cyanothrix (cy-an'o-thrix), , fig. . epipterygia (e-pip-te-ryg'i-a), , , fig. . galericulata (gal-e-ric-u-la'ta), , . hæmatopa (hæ-mat'o-pa), -- , fig. . polygramma (pol-y-gram'ma), , fig. . prælonga (præ-lon'ga), , . pura (pu'ra), , , fig. . succosa (suc-co'sa), . vulgaris (vul-ga'ris), , fig. . myriostoma (myr-i-os'to-ma), . naucoria (nau-co'ri-a), . semiorbicularis (sem-i-or-bic-u-la'ris), , . vernalis (ver-na'lis), , fig. . ochre-spored agarics, . omphalia (om-pha'li-a), . campanella (cam-pa-nel'la), , , pl. , figs. , . epichysium (ep-i-chys'i-um), , fig. . panæolus (pa-næ'o-lus), . fimicola (fi-mic'o-la), . papilionaceus (pa-pil-i-o-na'ce-us), , fig. . retirugis (re-ti-ru'gis), -- , pl. , figs. -- , . solidipes (so-lid'i-pes), . panus (pa'nus), . cyathiformis (cy-a-thi-for'mis), . rudis (ru'dis), . strigosus (stri-go'sus), . stipticus (stip'ti-cus), , . paxillus (pax-il'lus) . atro-tomentosus (at-ro-tom-en-to'sus), , fig. . corrugatus (cor-ru-ga'tus), , pl. , fig. . flavidus (flav'i-dus), . involutus (in-vo-lu'tus), , , fig. . panuoides (pan-u-oi'des), , pl. , fig. . rhodoxanthus (rhod-o-xan'thus), , , pl. , fig. . phalloideæ (phal-loid'e-æ), . phlebia (phle'bi-a), . merismoides (mer-is-moi'des), pls. , , figs. , . pholiota (pho-li-o'ta), . adiposa (ad-i-po'sa), , , pl. , fig. . aurivella (au-ri-vel'la), . cerasina (ce-ras'i-na), . johnsoniana (john-so-ni-a'na), , pl. , fig. . marginata (mar-gi-na'ta), , fig. . præcox (præ'cox), , , pl. , fig. . squarrosa (squar-ro'sa), . squarrosoides (squar-ro-soi'des), , pl. , fig. . subsquarrosa (sub-squar-ro'sa), . unicolor (u-nic'o-lor), . pleurotus (pleu-ro'tus), . applicatus (ap-pli-ca'tus), , , fig. . corticatus (cor-ti-ca'tus), , pl. , fig. . dryinus (dry'i-nus), , , pl. , figs. , . ostreatus (os-tre-a'tus), , pl. , fig. . petaloides (pet-a-loi'des), -- , figs. , . sapidus (sap'i-dus), , , pl. , fig. . serotinus (se-rot'i-nus), . sulfureoides (sul-fu-re-oi'des), , fig. . ulmarius (ul-ma'ri-us), -- , figs. , . pluteus (plu'te-us), . cervinus (cer-vi'nus), , , fig. . tomentosulus (to-men-tos'u-lus), , fig. . polyporaceæ (pol-y-po-ra'ce-æ), . polyporus (po-lyp'o-rus), , -- . applanatus (ap-pla-na'tus), , fig. . borealis (bo-re-a'lis), , , figs. , . brumalis (bru-ma'lis), , pl. , fig. . fomentarius (fo-men-ta'rius), . frondosus (fron-do'sus), , pls. , , figs. , . igniarius (ig-ni-a'ri-us), . intybaceus (in-ty-ba'ce-us), . leucophæus (leu-co-phæ'us), . lucidus (lu'ci-dus), , pl. , fig. . sulphureus (sul-phu're-us), , pls. , , figs. , . umbellatus (um-bel-la'tus), , fig. . polystictus (pol-y-stic'tus), . cinnabarinus (cin-na-ba-ri'nus), . cinnamomeus (cin-na-mo'me-us), , fig. . connatus (con-na'tus), . hirsutus (hir-su'tus), . oblectans (ob-lec'tans), . perennis (pe-ren'nis), , fig. . pergamenus (per-ga-me'nus), , . splendens (splen'dens), . versicolor (ver-sic'o-lor), . psalliota (psal-li-o'ta), -- , . psathyrella (psath-y-rel'la), . disseminata (dis-sem-i-na'ta), , , fig. . psilocybe foenisecii (psi-loc'y-be foe-ni-se'ci-i), . purple-brown-spored agarics, . rosy-spored agarics, . russula (rus'su-la), . adusta (ad-us'ta), , pl. . alutacea (al-u-ta'ce-a), , , pl. . emetica (e-met'i-ca), , pl. . fragilis (frag'i-lis), . furcata (fur-ca'ta), . lepida (lep'i-da), , pl. . nigricans (nig'ri-cans), . virescens (vi-res'cens), , pl. . sarcoscypha floccosa (sar-cos'cy-pha floc-co'sa), , , fig. . schizophyllum (schiz-o-phyl'lum), . alneum (al'ne-um), , , fig. . commune (com-mu'ne), . scleroderma (scler-o-der'ma), . verrucosum (ver-ru-co'sum), . vulgare (vul-ga're), . spathularia velutipes (spath-u-la'ri-a ve-lu'ti-pes), , fig. . spinellus fusiger (spi-nel'lus fu'si-ger) . macrocarpus (mac-ro-car'pus), . sterium (ste'ri-um), . strobilomyces (strob-i-lom'y-ces), . floccopus (floc'co-pus), . strobilaceus (strob-i-la'ce-us), , pl. , figs. -- . stropharia (stro-pha'ri-a), . æruginosa (æ-ru-gi-no'sa), . semiglobata (sem-i-glo-ba'ta), , fig. . stercoraria (ster-co-ra'ri-a), . thelephoraceæ (thel-e-pho-ra'ce-æ), . trametes (tra-me'tes), , . ambigua (am-big'u-a), , . trembling fungi, . tremellineæ (trem-el-lin'e-æ), . tremella (tre-mel'la), . frondosa (fron-do'sa), , fig. . fuciformis (fu-ci-for'mis), , fig. . lutescens (lu-tes'cens), . mycetophila (my-ce-toph'i-la), , fig. . tricholoma (trich-o-lo'ma), . peckii (peck'i-i), , . personatum (per-so-na'tum), , figs. , . sejunctum (se-junc'tum), , fig. . trogia (tro'gi-a), . crispa (cris'pa), , pl. , fig. . tubaria (tu-ba'ri-a), . pellucida (pel-lu'ci-da), , fig. . tube-bearing fungi, . verpa bohemica (ver'pa bo-hem'i-ca), . volvaria (vol-va'ri-a), . bombycina (bom-byc'i-na), , , fig. . speciosa (spe-ci-o'sa), , . white-spored agarics, . index to species. acicula (mycena), . acutesquamosa (lepiota), . adiposa (pholiota), . adusta (russula), . æruginosa (stropharia), . alneum (schizophyllum), . alutacea (russula), . ambigua (dædalea), . ambigua (trametes), . americana (lepiota), . americanus (boletus), . antipoda (galera), . applanatus (crepidotus), . applanatus (polyporus), . appendiculatum (hypholoma), . applicatus (pleurotus), . arvensis (agaricus), . asperula (lepiota), . asprella (leptonia), . atramentarius (coprinus), . atro-tomentosus (paxillus), . aurantia (armillaria), . aurantiacus (cantharellus), . aurivella (pholiota), . badhami (lepiota), . bispora (morchella), . bohemica (verpa), . bombycina (volvaria), . botrytes (clavaria), . brevipes (boletus), . brumalis (polyporus), . bulbosus (boletus), . cæsarea (amanita), . calolepis (crepidotus), . campestris (agaricus), . campanella (omphalia), . candida (clitocybe), . candolleanum (hypholoma), . cantharellus (craterellus), . caput-medusæ (hydnum), . caput-ursi (hydnum), . caudicinus (polyporus), . cerasina (pholiota), . cervinus (pluteus), . chelidonium (lactarius), . chimonophilus (crepidotus), . chromapes (boletus), . chrysodon (hygrophorus), . chrysorrheus (lactarius), . cibarius (cantharellus), . cinnabarinum (calostoma), . cinnabarinus (polystictus), . cinnamomeus (cortinarius), . cinnamomeus (polystictus), . coccinea (sarcoscypha), . coccineus (hygrophorus), . cohærens (marasmius), . cohærens (mycena), . collinitus (cortinarius), . comatus (coprinus), . commune (schizophyllum), . comtulus (agaricus), . conica (morchella), . conicus (hygrophorus), . connatus (polystictus), . coprinoides (galera), . coralloides (hydnum), . cornucopioides (craterellus), . corrugatus (paxillus), . corrugis (lactarius), . corticatus (pleurotus), . cothurnata (amanita), . cretaceus (agaricus), . crassipes (morchella), . crispa (helvella), . crispa (trogia), . cristata (lepiota), . crustuliniforme (hebeloma), . cyanothrix (mycena), . cyathiforme (lycoperdon), . cyathiformis (clitocybe), . cyathiformis (panus), . deliciosa (morchella), . deliciosus (lactarius), . diminutivus (agaricus), . disseminata (psathyrella), . dryinus (pleurotus), . dryophila (collybia), . duplicata (dictyophora), . eburneus (hygrophorous), . echinata (inocybe), . edulus (boletus), . emetica (russula), . epichysium (omphalia), . epipterygia (mycena), . erinaceus (hydnum), . esculenta (gyromitra), . esculenta (morchella), . farinosa (amanitopsis), . felleus (boletus), . fimicola (panæolus), . firma (fistulina), . flava (galera), . flavidus (boletus), . flavidus (paxillus), . floccocephala (amanita), . floccopus (strobilomyces), . floccosa (sarcoscypha), . foenisecii (psilocybe), . fomentarius (polyporus), . formosa (clavaria), . fragile (hydnum), . fragilis (russula), . frondosa (tremella), . frondosus (polyporus), . frostiana (amanita), . fuciformis (tremella), . fuligineus (hygrophorus), . fuliginosus (lactarius), . fulvotomentosus (crepidotus), . furcata (russula), . fusiger (spinellus), . galericulata (mycena), . gemmatum (lycoperdon), . gerardii (lactarius), . giganteum (lycoperdon), . glandulosa (exidia), . glutinosus (gomphidius), . granulatus (boletus), . graveolens (hydnum), . grayanum (entoloma), . hæmatopa (mycena), . hepatica (fistulina), . herbarum (crepidotus), . hirsutus (polystictus), . hypothejus (hygrophorus), . igniarius (polyporus), . illudens (clitocybe), . imbricatum (hydnum), . impudicus (ithyphallus), . incana (leptonia), . indigo (lactarius), . infundibuliformis (clitocybe), . intybaceus (polyporus), . involutus (paxillus), . johnsoniana (pholiota), . jubatum (entoloma), . laccata (clitocybe), . lachnophylla (collybia), . lachrymabundum (hypholoma), . lacrymans (merulius), . lacunosa (helvella), . lævis (annularia), . lateritia (galera), . lecomtei, (lentinus), . lepida (russula), . lepideus (lentinus), . lignyotus (lactarius), . livida (amanitopsis), . longipes (collybia), . lubrica (leotia), . lucidus (polyporus), . leucophæus (polyporus), . lutescens (calostoma), . lutescens (mitremyces), . lutescens (tremella), . luteus (boletus), . macrocarpus (spinellus), . mappa (amanita), . marginata (pholiota), . maritimus (agaricus), . merismoides (phlebia), . mellea (armillaria), . micaceus (coprinus), . miniatus (hygrophorus), . morgani (lepiota), . mucida (clavaria), . muscaria (amanita), . mycetophila (tremella), . naucina (lepiota), . nigricans (gomphidius), . nigricans (russula), . nivalis (amanitopsis), . oblectans (polystictus), . obsonium (boletus), . ochroleucus (cortinarius), . orcella (clitopilus), . oreades (marasmius), . ornatipes (boletus), . ostreatus (pleurotus), . pallida (fistulina), . pantherina (amanita), . panuoides (paxillus), . papilionaccus (panæolus), . paradoxa (flammula), . peckii (tricholoma), . pelletieri (clitocybe), . pellucida (tubaria), . perennis (polystictus), . pergamenus (lactarius), . pergamenus (polystictus), . perplexum (hypholoma), . personatum (tricholoma), . petaloides (pleurotus), . phalloides (amanita), . pictus (boletinus), . pinicola (polyporus), . piperatus (lactarius), . pistillaris (clavaria), . pistillaris (craterellus), . placomyces (agaricus), . platyphylla (collybia), . polita (eccilia), . polychroa (flammula), . polygramma (mycena), . polypyramis (amanita), . porosus (boletinus), . præcox, (pholiota), . prælonga (mycena), . pratensis (hygrophorus), . procera (lepiota), . prunulus (clitopilus), . psittacinus (hygrophorus), . punctipes (boletus), . pura (mycena), . putidum (hydnum), . pyriforme (lycoperdon), . rachodes (lepiota), . radicata (collybia), . ravenelii (dictyophora), . repanda (inocybe), . repandum (entoloma), . repandum (hydnum), . resimus (lactarius), . retirugis (chalymotta), . retirugis (panæolus), . rhodoxanthus (flammula), . rhodoxanthus (gomphidius), . rhodoxanthus (paxillus), . rodmani (agaricus), . rotula (marasmius), . rubescens (amanita), . rudis (panus), . rufus (gyrocephalus), . rugocephalum (hypholoma), . sapidus (pleurotus), . sapinea (flammula), . scaber (boletus), . sejunctum (tricholoma), . semiglobata (stropharia), . semilibera (morchella), . semiorbicularis (naucoria), . serotinus (pleurotus), . silvaticus (agaricus), . silvicola (agaricus), . solidipes (panæolus), . solitaria (amanita), . spadicea (amanitopsis), . speciosa (volvaria), . spinulifera (collybia), . splendens (polystictus), . spreta (amanita), . squarrosa (pholiota), . squarrosoides (pholiota), . stercoraria (stropharia), . stipticus (lentinus), . stipticus (panus), . strictius (entoloma), . strigosus (panus), . strobilaceus (strobilomyces), . strobiliformis (amanita), . sublateritium (hypholoma), . subluteus (boletus), . subrufescens (agaricus), . subsquarrosa (pholiota), . subtomentosus (boletus), . succosa (mycena), . sulphureus (polyporus), . sulfureoides (pleurotus), . tammii (flammula), . tenera (galera), . tomentosulus (pluteus), . tomninosus (lactarius), . tremellosus (merulius), . ulmarius (pleurotus), . umbellatus (polyporus), . unicolor (pholiota), . vaginata (amanitopsis), . variicolor (bolbitius), . velutinum (hydnum), . velatipes (amanita), . velutipes (collybia), . velutipes (spathularia), . vermiculosus (boletus), . verna (amanita), . vernalis (naucoria), . verrucosum (scleroderma), . versicolor (polystictus), . versutus (crepidotus), . violacens (cortinarius), . virescens (russula), . virosa (amanita), . volemus (lactarius), . volvata (amanitopsis), . vulgare (scleroderma), . vulgaris (mycena), . vulpinus (lentinus), . * * * * * * transcriber's notes: page [a] for analytical keys to the families and genera see chapter xxii. changed chapter xxii to xxiv. apparently chapters were added making these references outdated. page [b] for analytical key to the genera see chapter xxii. changed chapter xxii to xxiv. page the spores are black in mass, not purple tinged. for analytical keys to the genera see chapter xxii. changed xxii to xxiv. page changed kornos to kopros in accordance with printed correction list. page the spores are white in mass, or sometimes with a faint yellowish or lilac tinge. for analytical keys to the genera see chapter xxii. changed xxii to xxiv. page figures -- are from plants (no. c. u. herbarium) collected in an open woods near ithaca. for the poisonous property of the plant see chapter xx. changed chapter xx to chapter xxii. page condition of the circumsissle changed to circumscissile. page as _a. verna_; the pilus convex, the annulus broad and entire, changed to pileus. page a few remnants of the volva, striate on the margin, and -. cm. unchanged, although - . cm. may have been intended. page facing plate fig. .--a. cæsaria. changed to cæsarea. page often in a recticulate fashion. the =spores= are white, oblong, -- µ changed to 'reticulate'. page variations being due to numbers of colored cystida changed to cystidia. page the spores are rosy, pink, salmon colored, flesh colored, or reddish. for analytical keys to the genera see chapter xxii. changed chapter xxii to xxiv. page the =pileus= is convex and umbilcate, somewhat membranaceous, smooth, changed to umbilicate. page the spores are ochre yellow, rusty, rusty-brown, or some shade of yellow. for analytical keys to the genera see chapter xxii. changed xxii to xxiv. page membraneous, ovate or companulate changed to campanulate. page during may and june, , in a freshly manured grass plat between plat = a portion of flat, even ground. page were found in open woods under kalmia were the sun had an opportunity changed to 'where the sun'. page giant buff-ball, and the _l. cyathiforme_, where the wall or peridium changed to 'puff-ball'. page changed gyromytra to gyromitra in accordance with the corrections list. page then the specimen must be covered with a bell-bar or other receiver changed to 'bell-jar'. page or compartment where there is little moisture, until the bricks are unchanged. although, 'a little moisture' seems to make more sense. page also wash and remove the pores from half a dozen good sized "beefsteak" changed to 'spores'. page made, but it may be assumed that the soluble cabohydrates changed to carbohydrates. page honey-combed surface, or recticulate, changed to 'reticulate'. page =gills= not decurrent, plants parastic on other mushrooms. changed to parasitic. page = =--=stipe= tenaceous, margin of pileus first incurved. changed to tenacious. page carnucopioides (craterellus), . changed to cornucopioides. page spreta (amanita), . relocated alphbetically lines up from original. hyphenation some hyphenation is inconsistent depending on whether it is used in text or in an index/glossary. accents some accents are inconsistent between text and illustration captions. produced by core historical literature in agriculture (chla), cornell university) the genus pinus publications of the arnold arboretum no. the genus pinus by george russell shaw [illustration: printer's logo.] es giebt jedoch auch arten--und dieses ist für den systematiker wie für den physiologen gleich wichtig--welche sich den wechselnden bedingungen der feuchtigkeit so vollkommen anpassen, dass ihre extremen formen zu ungleichen arten zu gehören scheinen. _schimper._ cambridge printed at the riverside press reprinted by the murray printing company forge village, massachusetts contents page plate part characters of the genus cotyledon, primary leaf, bud and branchlet , i secondary leaves ii external characters internal characters flowers and conelet iii cone iv phyllotaxis v cone-tissues and seeds - vi wood vii bark part classification of the species sections, subsections and groups section haploxylon subsection cembra group cembrae pinus koraiensis, cembra, albicaulis , viii group flexiles pinus flexilis, armandi , ix group strobi pinus ayacahuite, lambertiana , x parviflora, peuce, excelsa , xi monticola, strobus , xii subsection paracembra group cembroides pinus cembroides, pinceana, nelsonii , xiii group gerardianae pinus bungeana, gerardiana , xiv group balfourianae pinus balfouriana, aristata , xv section diploxylon subsection parapinaster group leiophyllae pinus leiophylla, lumholtzii , xvi group longifoliae pinus longifolia, canariensis , xvii group pineae pinus pinea xviii subsection pinaster group laricionea pinus resinosa, tropicalis , xix massoniana, densiflora xx sylvestris, montana xxi luchuensis, thunbergii, nigra , xxii merkusii, sinensis, insularis , xxiii group australes pinus pseudostrobus xxiv montezumae xxv ponderosa xxvi teocote, lawsonii xxvii occidentalis, palustris xxviii caribaea xxix taeda, glabra, echinata , xxx group insignes pinus pringlei, oocarpa , xxxi halepensis, pinaster , xxxii virginiana, clausa xxxiii rigida, serotina, pungens , xxxiv banksiana, contorta xxxv greggii, patula xxxvi muricata, attenuata, radiata , xxxvii group macrocarpae pinus torreyana, sabiniana xxxviii coulteri xxxix index introduction this discussion of the characters of pinus is an attempt to determine their taxonomic significance and their utility for determining the limits of the species. a systematic arrangement follows, based on the evolution of the cone and seed from the comparatively primitive conditions that appear in pinus cembra to the specialized cone and peculiar dissemination of pinus radiata and its associates. this arrangement involves no radical change in existing systems. the new associations in which some of the species appear are the natural result of another point of view. experience with mexican species has led me to believe that a pine can adapt itself to various climatic conditions and can modify its growth in response to them. variations in dimensions of leaf or cone, the number of leaves in the fascicle, the presence of pruinose branchlets, etc., which have been thought to imply specific distinctions, are often the evidence of facile adaptability. in fact such variations, in correlation with climatic variation, may argue, not for specific distinction, but for specific identity. the remarkable variation in the species may be attributed partly to this adaptability, partly to a participation, more or less pronounced, in the evolutionary processes that culminate in the serotinous pines. part i characters of the genus the cotyledon. plate i, figs. - . the upper half of the embryo in pinus is a cylindrical fascicle of to cotyledons (fig. ). the cross-section of a cotyledon is, therefore, a triangle whose angles vary with the number composing the fascicle. sections from fascicles of and of cotyledons are shown in figs. and . apart from this difference cotyledons are much alike. their number varies and is indeterminate for all species, while any given number is common to so many species that the character is of no value. the primary leaf. plate i, figs. - . primary leaves follow the cotyledons immediately (fig. ) and assume the usual functions of foliage for a limited period, varying from one to three years, secondary fascicles appearing here and there in their axils. with the permanent appearance of the secondary leaves the green primaries disappear and their place is taken by bud-scales, which in the spring and summer persist as scarious bracts, each subtending a fascicle of secondary leaves. at this stage the bracts present two important distinctions. . the bract-base is non-decurrent, like the leaf-base of abies fig. . . the bract-base is decurrent, like the leaf-base of picea fig. . the two sections of the genus, haploxylon and diploxylon, established by koehne on the single and double fibro-vascular bundle of the leaf, are even more accurately characterized by these two forms of bract-insertion. the difference between them, however, is most obvious on long branchlets with wide intervals between the leaf-fascicles. the bracts of spring-shoots are the scarious bud-scales of the previous winter; but the bracts of summer-shoots have the form and green color of the primary leaf. the bud. plate i, figs. - . the winter-bud is an aggregate of minute buds, each concealed in the axil of a primary leaf converted into a scarious, more or less fimbriate, bud-scale. buds from which normal growth develops appear only at the nodes of the branches. on uninodal branchlets they form an apical group consisting of a terminal bud with a whorl of subterminal buds about its base. on multinodal branchlets the inner nodes bear lateral buds which may be latent. fig. represents a magnified bud of p. resinosa, first immersed in alcohol to dissolve the resin, then deprived of its scales. this bud contains both fascicle-buds, destined for secondary leaves, and larger paler buds at its base. these last are incipient staminate flowers, sufficiently developed for recognition. such flower-bearing buds are characteristic of the hard pines in distinction from the soft pines whose staminate flowers cannot be identified in the bud. the want of complete data leaves the invariability of this distinction in question, but with all species that i have examined, the flowers of hard pines are further advanced at the end of the summer. in the following year they open earlier than those of soft pines in the same locality. the staminate flowers of some hard pines (resinosa, sylvestris, etc.,) are not apparent without removing the bud-scales, but, with most hard pines, they form enlargements of the bud (fig. ). invisible or latent buds are present at the nodes and at the apex of dwarf shoots. the former are the origin of the numerous shoots that cover the trunk and branches of p. rigida, leiophylla and a few other species (fig. ). the latter develop into shoots in the centre of a leaf-fascicle (fig. ) when the branchlet, bearing the fascicle, has been injured. the size, color and form of buds, the presence of resin in quantity, etc., assist in the diagnosis of species. occasionally a peculiar bud, like that of p. palustris, may be recognized at once. the branchlet. plate i, figs. - . the branchlet, as here understood, is the whole of a season's growth from a single bud, and may consist of a single internode (uninodal, fig. -a) or of two or more internodes (multinodal, fig. ), each internode being defined by a leafless base and a terminal node of buds. the spring-shoot is uninodal in all soft pines and in many hard pines, but, in p. taeda and its allies and in species with serotinous cones, it is more or less prevalently multinodal. the uninodal spring-shoot may remain so throughout the growing season and become a uninodal branchlet. or a summer-shoot may appear on vigorous branches of any species with the result of converting a uninodal spring-shoot into an imperfect multinodal branchlet. the summer-shoot may be recognized, during growth, by its green, not scarious bracts and, at the end of the season, by the imperfect growth of its wood and foliage (fig. ). the perfect multinodal branchlet is formed in the winter-bud (fig. -a) and the spring-shoot is multinodal. it is gradually evolved among the hard pines, where it may be absent, rare, frequent or prevalent, according to the species. in fact there is, in pinus, an evolutionary tendency toward multinodal growth, with its beginnings in the summer-shoot and its culmination in the multinodal winter-bud, most prevalent among the serotinous pines. the multinodal shoot is never invariable in a species, but is rare, common or prevalent. this condition prevents its employment for grouping species. for pines are not sharply divided into multinodal and uninodal species, and no exact segregation of them, based on this difference, is possible. in fact the character is unequally developed among closely related species, such as p. palustris and caribaea. both produce multinodal shoots, but the former so rarely that it should be classed as a uninodal species, while the latter is characteristically multinodal. the multinodal spring-shoot, however, has a certain correlative value in its relation to other evolutionary processes that are obvious in the genus. the length of the branchlet is much influenced by different soils and climates. in species able to adapt themselves to great changes, the length of the internode may vary from cm. or more to cm. or less. in the latter case the branch is a series of very short leafless joints terminated by a crowded penicillate tuft of leaves (fig. -b). such a growth may be seen on any species (ponderosa, albicaulis, resinosa, etc.) that can survive exposure and poor nourishment. the presence of wax, as a bloom on the branchlet, is associated with trees in arid localities, especially mexico, where it is very common. with several species the character is inconstant, apparently dependent on environment, and is a provision against too rapid transpiration. the branchlet furnishes evidence of the section to which the species belongs, for the bract-bases persist after the bracts have fallen away. the color of the branchlet, its lustre, the presence of minute hairs, etc., are often suggestions for determining species. [illustration: plate i. primary leaf, bud and branchlet] the secondary leaf. plate ii. secondary leaves, the permanent foliage of pines, are borne on dwarf-shoots in the axils of primary leaves. they form cylindrical fascicles, rarely monophyllous, prevalently of , or leaves, occasionally of , , , or leaves. the scales of the fascicle-bud elongate into a basal sheath, deciduous (fig. ) in all soft pines except p. nelsonii, persistent (fig. ) in all hard pines except p. leiophylla and lumholtzii. inasmuch as these three species are easily recognized, the fascicle-sheath is useful for sectional distinctions. external characters. the number of leaves in the fascicle is virtually constant in most species, the variations being too rare to be worthy of consideration. with some species, however, heteromerous fascicles are normal. the influences that cause this variation are not always apparent (echinata, etc.), but with p. ponderosa, leiophylla, sinensis and others, the number of leaves in the fascicle is, in some degree, dependent on climatic conditions, the smaller number occurring in colder regions. in mexico, for example, where snow-capped mountains lie on subtropical table-lands and extremes of temperature are in juxtaposition, the conditions are favorable for the production of species with heteromerous fascicles, and the number of leaves in the fascicle possesses often climatic rather than specific significance. among conifers, the leaf of pinus attains extraordinary length with great variation, from cm. or less to cm. or more, the maximum for each species being usually much more than twice the minimum. climate is the predominating influence; for the shortest leaves occur on alpine and boreal species, the longest leaves on species in or near the tropics. the length of the leaf is complicated by the peculiarities of individual trees and by pathological influences; as a general rule, however, the length of leaves is less or greater according to unfavorable or favorable conditions of temperature, moisture, soil and exposure. therefore the dimensions of the leaf may be misleading. it can be said, however, that certain species always produce short leaves, others leaves of medium length, and others very long leaves. persistence of the leaf varies with the species and with the individual tree. but it is noteworthy that the longest persistence is associated with short leaves (balfouriana, albicaulis, montana, etc.). internal characters. since the leaf-fascicle is cylindrical, the cross-section of a leaf is a sector, its proportional part, of a circle. theoretically the leaf, in section, should indicate the number of leaves composing its fascicle. this is absolutely true for fascicles of two leaves only. no fascicle of five leaves, that i have examined, is equally apportioned among its five members. it may be divided in various ways, one of which is shown in fig. , where the leaf (a) might be mistaken for one of a fascicle of , and the leaf (b) for one of a fascicle of . therefore if absolute certainty is required, a fascicle of triquetral leaves is best determined by actual count. the transverse section of a leaf may be conveniently divided into three distinct parts-- , the dermal tissues, epiderm, hypoderm and stomata (fig. -a)-- , the green tissue, containing the resin-ducts (fig. -b)-- , the stelar tissues, enclosed by the endoderm and containing the fibro-vascular bundle (fig. -c). the dermal tissues of the leaf. the stomata of pine leaves are depressed below the surface and interrupt the continuity of epiderm and hypoderm. they are wanting on the dorsal surface of the leaves of several soft pines, constantly in some species, irregularly in others. in hard pines, however, all surfaces of the leaf are stomatiferous. in several species of the soft pines the longitudinal lines of stomata are very conspicuous from the white bloom which modifies materially the general color of the foliage. under the action of hydrochloric acid the hypoderm is sharply differentiated from the epiderm by a distinct reddish tint, but without the aid of a reagent the two tissues do not always differ in appearance. the cells of epiderm and hypoderm may be so similar that they appear to form a single tissue. in most species, however, the epiderm is distinct, while the cells of the hypoderm are either uniform, with equally thin or thick walls--or biform, with very thin walls in the outer row of cells and very thick walls in the inner row or rows of cells--or multiform, with cell-walls gradually thicker toward the centre of the leaf. these conditions may be tabulated as follows-- cells of epiderm and hypoderm similar fig. . cells of epiderm and hypoderm distinct. cells of hypoderm uniform, thin or thick figs. , . cells of hypoderm biform fig. . cells of hypoderm multiform fig. . the biform hypoderm is not always obvious (clausa, banksiana, etc.) where in some leaves there is but one row of cells. but with the examination of other leaves one or more cells of a second row will be found with very thick walls. among hard pines there is no old world species with a biform hypoderm. but there are a few american species with uniform hypoderm (resinosa, tropicalis, patula and greggii); while, in some leaves of the few american hard pines with multiform hypoderm, the uniform hypoderm is a variation. the green tissue. in this tissue are the resin-ducts, each with a border of cells, corresponding in appearance and in chemical reaction with the cells of the hypoderm and with thinner or thicker walls. with reference to the green tissue the foliar duct may be in one of four positions. . external against the hypoderm fig. . . internal against the endoderm fig. . . medial in the green tissue, touching neither hypoderm nor endoderm fig. . . septal touching both endoderm and hypoderm, forming a septum fig. . among the soft pines the external duct is invariable in the subsection paracembra. it is also characteristic of the strobi, where it is sometimes associated with a medial duct. in the cembrae and the flexiles, however, the ducts are external in some species, or medial or both in others, without regard to the affinities of these species. among the hard pines the external duct is characteristic of the old world, there being but two american pines with this character (resinosa and tropicalis). the internal duct is peculiar to hard pines of the new world, its presence in old world species being extremely rare. the medial duct is common to species of both hemispheres, either alone or in association with ducts in other positions (figs. , ). the septal duct is peculiar to a few species (oocarpa, tropicalis, and less frequently pringlei and merkusii). i have also seen it in a leaf of p. canariensis. the internal and septal ducts appear to be confined to the species of warm-temperate or tropical countries. the number of resin-ducts of a single leaf may be limited to two or three (strobus, koraiensis, etc.), but in many species it is exceedingly variable and often large (pinaster, sylvestris, etc.). eighteen or more ducts in a single leaf have been recorded. such large numbers are peculiar to pinus. occasionally a single leaf, possibly the leaves of a single tree, may be without ducts, but this is never true of all the leaves of a species. the stelar tissues. the walls of the endoderm are, in most species, uniform, but, with p. albicaulis and some species of western north america, the outer walls of the cells are conspicuously thickened (fig. ). both thin and thick walls may be found among the leaves of the group macrocarpae and of the species longifolia. the fibro-vascular bundle of the leaf is single in soft pines, double in hard pines. this distinction is employed by koehne as the basis of his two sections, haploxylon and diploxylon. the double bundle is usually obvious even when the two parts are contiguous, but they are sometimes completely merged into an apparently single bundle. this condition, however, is never constant in a hard pine, and a little investigation will discover a leaf with a true double bundle. some cells about the fibro-vascular bundle acquire thick walls with the appearance and chemical reaction of the hypoderm cells. among the soft pines this condition is most obvious in the group cembroides. among the hard pines it appears in all degrees of development, being absent (figs. , ), sometimes in irregular lines above and below the bundle (figs. , , , ), or forming a conspicuous tissue between and partly enclosing the two parts of the bundle (figs. , ). the leaf-section furnishes sectional and other lesser distinctions. it is often decisive in separating species otherwise difficult to distinguish (nigra and resinosa or thunbergii and sinensis, etc.). sometimes it is sufficiently distinct to determine a species without recourse to other characters (tropicalis, oocarpa, merkusii, etc.). an intimate knowledge of the leaf-section, with an understanding of the limits of its variation, is a valuable equipment for recognizing species. [illustration: plate ii. secondary leaves] the flowers. plate iii, figs. - . the flowers in pinus are monoecious, the pistillate in the position of a long shoot, taking the place of a subterminal or lateral bud, the staminate in the position of a dwarf-shoot, taking the place of a leaf-fascicle but confined to the basal part of the internode. pistillate flowers are single or verticillate. on multinodal shoots they are often multiserial, appearing on two or more nodes of the same spring-shoot (fig. ). on uninodal shoots they are necessarily subterminal (fig. ), the lateral pistillate flower being possible only on multinodal shoots (fig. ) where it is often associated with the subterminal flower (fig. ). like the multinodal shoot, on which its existence depends, the lateral pistillate flower cannot be employed for grouping the species. it is merely the frequent, but not the essential, evidence of condition of growth that is more perfectly characterized by the shoot itself. staminate catkins are in crowded clusters, capitate or elongate (figs. , ), but with much variation in the number of catkins in each cluster. in p. rigida i have found single catkins or clusters of all numbers from two to seventy or more. in p. massoniana and p. densiflora a cluster attains such unusual length (fig. ) that this character becomes a valuable distinction between these species and p. sinensis, which has short-capitate clusters. the catkins differ much in size, the largest being found among the hard pines. in the connective of the binate pollen-sacs there is a notable difference (figs. , ), the smaller form being characteristic of the soft pines. but this is not invariable (excelsa, sylvestris, etc.), and the absence of complete data does not permit an accurate estimate of its importance. the conelet. plate iii, figs. - . after pollination the pistillate flower closes and becomes the conelet, the staminate flowers withering and falling away. the conelet makes no appreciable growth until the following year. like the pistillate flower it may be subterminal or lateral, but a subterminal pistillate flower may become a pseudolateral conelet by reason of a summer-growth (fig. -a). such a condition may be recognized on the branchlets of the present, and of the previous year (fig. -b), by the very short internode and short leaves beyond the fruit. the conelet offers some distinctions of form, of color, and of length of peduncle, while in some species (sylvestris, caribaea, etc.) its reflexed position is an important specific character. the most important distinctions, however, are found in its scales, which may be . entire subsection cembra fig. . . tuberculate tropicalis, etc. fig. . . short-mucronate sylvestris, glabra, etc. fig. . . long-mucronate aristata, contorta, etc. fig. . . spinescent taeda, pungens, etc. fig. . [illustration: plate iii. flowers and conelet] the cone. plate iv. the cone of pinus shows great differences of color, form and tissue; these are useful for specific and sectional distinctions, while the gradual change from the primitive conditions of the cembrae to the elaborate form, structure and mode of dissemination of some serotinous species are obvious evidence of an evolution among the species of remarkable taxonomic range. a form new among coniferae appears, the oblique cone, and a new condition, the serotinous cone, both appearing at first alone and, finally, in constant association. color of the cone. with few exceptions the color of the ripe cone may be classified under one of the following shades of brown or yellow. nut-brown the stain of the walnut-husk. rufous brown a pronounced reddish nut-brown. fulvous brown a yellowish nut-brown. tawny yellow the color of the lion. orange ochre-yellow to red-orange. these colors may be paler or deeper. they may be obscured by a fuscous shade or may be modified by a dull or lustrous surface. the presence of two or more of these shades in a single species and the inherent difficulties of color description lessen the value of the character. nevertheless certain allied species, such as p. nigra and thunbergii, or p. densiflora and massoniana, may be distinguished by the prevalent difference in the color of their cones. dimensions of the cone. the cone is small, medium or large in different species, but varies greatly under the influences of environment or of individual peculiarities. the character possesses relative value only, for great variation is possible in the same locality and even on the same tree. the peduncle. all conelets are pedunculate, but in some species the peduncle, even when long (patula), may become overgrown and concealed by the basal scales of the ripe cone. articulation usually takes place between the peduncle and the branch, sometimes with the loss of a few basal scales which remain temporarily on the tree (ponderosa, palustris, etc.). with p. nelsonii, and to a less degree with p. armandi, there is articulation between the cone and its peduncle. there are several species bearing persistent cones with no articulation. this condition appears in other genera, such as larix and picea, but without obvious significance. in pinus, however, the gradual appearance of the persistent cone, for it is rare, common, prevalent or invariable in different species, and its essential association with the serotinous cone, suggest an evolution toward a definite end. the umbo. the exposed part of the scale of the conelet is the umbo of the ripe cone, a small definite area representing the earlier part of the biennial growth of the cone. the position of the umbo on the apophysis is the basis of koehne's subdivision of the section haploxylon. . umbo terminal subsection cembra fig. -a. . umbo dorsal subsection paracembra fig. -b. two other characters assist in establishing these subsections--the conelet, unarmed in cembra, armed in paracembra--the pits of the ray-cells of the wood, large in cembra, small in paracembra. the apophysis. the apophysis represents the later and larger growth of the cone-scale. with a terminal umbo the margin of the apophysis is free and may be rounded (fig. ) or may taper to a blunt point (fig. ), and any extension of the scale is a terminal extension. with the dorsal umbo all sides of the apophysis are confined between other apophyses, and any extension is a dorsal thickening of the apophysis or a dorsal protuberance. the outline of an apophysis with a dorsal umbo is quadrangular, or it is irregularly pentagonal or hexagonal, the different forms depending on the arrangement of the contiguous scales, whether of definite or indefinite phyllotactic order, a distinction to be considered later. the two positions of the umbo result from the relative growth of the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the cone-scale. with the terminal umbo the growth of both surfaces is uniform, with the dorsal umbo the growth is unequal. a true terminal umbo rests on the surface of the underlying scale, although several species with terminal umbos show the first stages of the dorsal umbo. the umbo of p. lambertiana or of p. flexilis does not touch the surface of the scale below, and a small portion of the under side of the apophysis is brought into view on the closed cone. the cone of p. albicaulis (plate viii, fig. ) shows all degrees of development between a terminal umbo near the apex of the cone and a dorsal umbo near its base. the growth of the apophysis may be limited and constant (strobus, echinata, etc.) or exceedingly variable, ranging from a slight thickness to a long protuberance (pseudostrobus, montana, etc.). the protuberance is usually reflexed from the unequal growth of the two surfaces. with the terminal umbo the protuberance lengthens the scale, with the dorsal umbo it thickens the scale. it is sometimes a specific character (ayacahuite, longifolia) appearing on all cones of the species, sometimes a varietal form, associated in the same species with an unprolonged apophysis (sylvestris, montana). on different parts of the same cone, base, centre or apex, the dimensions of the apophyses differ, but at each level the scales may be uniform on all sides of the cone. that is to say, the cone is symmetrical with reference to any plane passing through its axis. this, the symmetrical cone, is characteristic of all other genera of the abietineae, and is invariable among the soft pines and in many hard pines (figs. , , , ). but among the hard pines there is gradually developed a new form of cone with smaller flatter apophyses on the anterior, and larger thicker apophyses on the posterior surface. this is the peculiar oblique cone of pinus (figs. , , ), symmetrical with reference to one plane only, which includes the axis of both cone and branch. the oblique cone is a gradual development among the hard pines; in some species it is associated as a varietal form with the symmetrical cone, and finally, in some serotinous species, it is the constant form. the oblique cone. when the oblique cone is merely a varietal form (halepensis, etc.), it gives the impression of an accident, resulting from the reflexed position of the cone and the consequent greater development of the scales receiving a greater amount of light and air. but with the serotinous cones (radiata, attenuata), the advantages of this form become apparent. the cones of these species are in crowded nodal clusters, reflexed against the branch (fig. ). the inner, anterior scales are perfectly protected by their position, while the outer, posterior scales are exposed to the weather. these last only are very thick; that is to say, there is an economical distribution of protective tissue, with the greatest amount where it is most needed. the oblique form is peculiarly adapted for a cone destined to remain on the tree for twenty years or more and to preserve its seeds unimpaired. like the persistent cone, the oblique cone finds in association with the serotinous cone a definite reason for existence. [illustration: plate iv. the cone] phyllotaxis. plate v. there is an obvious difference between the cones of the two sections of the genus. those of the soft pines (figs. , ) have larger and fewer scales, those of the hard pines (figs. , ) have more numerous and smaller scales, in proportion to the size of the cone. the former condition represents a lower, the latter condition represents a higher, order of phyllotaxis. definite phyllotaxis. on a cylindrical axis with scales of the same size, the spiral arrangement would appear as in fig. , where the scales are quadrangular and any four adjacent scales are in mutual contact at their sides or angles. these four scales lie on four obvious secondary spirals (fig. , a-a, b-b, c-c, d-d). according to the phyllotactic order of the scales these may be the spirals of , , , or of , , , or of , , , etc., etc., from which combinations the primary spiral, on which the scales are inserted on the cone-axis, can be easily deduced. four quadrangular scales in mutual contact represent the condition of definite phyllotaxis. if the cone is conical, definite phyllotaxis would be possible among all the scales only when the size of the scales diminishes in equal measure with the gradual diminution of the cone's diameter. such a hypothetical cone is shown in fig. . indefinite phyllotaxis. on an imaginary cone of conical form and with scales of equal size throughout, there must be more scales about the base than about the apex of the cone. the phyllotactic conditions must differ, and the obvious spirals, in passing from base to apex, must undergo readjustment. if the scales at the base are in definite phyllotactic order and those at the apex are in the next lower order, it is evident that intermediate scales, in the gradual change from one condition to the other, must represent different conditions of indefinite phyllotaxis, while those in a central position on the cone may belong equally to either of two orders. a pine cone is never absolutely cylindrical nor do its scales vary in size proportionately to the change of diameter. most of the scales of a cone are in indefinite phyllotactic relation, while definite phyllotaxis is found only at points on the cone. as an extreme illustration, the cone of p. pinaster (fig. ) shows four mutually contiguous quadrangular apophyses at (a), lying on the obvious spirals , , , , at (b) four similar apophyses on the spirals , , , , and at (c) four others on the spirals , , , . between these three points are apophyses of irregular pentagonal or hexagonal outline, with three scales only in mutual contact (figs. , ). such are the majority of the scales of the cone and represent more or less indefinite conditions of phyllotaxis. the cones of hard pines, by reason of relatively more and smaller scales and of a more conical form, attain a higher phyllotaxis and a more complex condition, two or even three orders being represented on a single cone; while the cones of soft pines, by reason of relatively fewer and larger scales and a more cylindrical form, are of lower phyllotaxis, with one order only more or less definitely presented. therefore phyllotaxis furnishes another distinction between the two sections of the genus, but its further employment is exceedingly restricted on account of the constant repetition of the same orders among the species. [illustration: plate v. phyllotaxis of the cone] the cone-tissues. plate vi. the axis of the cone is a woody shell, enclosing a wide pith and covered by a thick cortex traversed by resin-ducts. by removing the scales and cortex from the axis (fig. ) the wood is seen to be in sinuous strands uniting above and below fusiform openings, the points of insertion of the cone-scales. from the wood, at each insertion, three stout strands enter the scale, dividing and subdividing into smaller tapering strands whose delicate tips converge toward the umbo. fig. represents a magnified cross-section of half the cone-scale of p. greggii; at (a) is a compact dorsal plate of bast cells; at (e) is a ventral plate of the same tissue but of less amount; at (b) is the softer brown tissue enclosing the wood-strands (d, d) (the last much more magnified in fig. ) and the resin-ducts (e, e). wood strands. the wood-strands, forming the axis of the cone, differ in tenacity in the two sections of the genus. those of the soft pines are easily pulled apart by the fingers, those of the hard pines are tougher in various degrees and cannot be torn apart without the aid of a tool. this difference is correlated with differences in other tissues, all of them combining in a gradual change from a cone of soft yielding texture to one of great hardness and durability. if a cone scale of p. ayacahuite is stripped of its brown and bast tissues (fig. ) and is immersed in water and subsequently dried, there is at first a flexion toward the cone-axis (fig. ) and then away from it (fig. ). the wood-strands are hygroscopic and coöperate with the bast tissues in opening and closing the cone. this appears to be true of all species excepting the three species of the cembrae, whose strands are so small and weak that they are not obviously affected by hygrometric changes. bast tissue. with the exception of the three species of the cembrae the inner part of the cone-scales is protected by sclerenchymatous cells forming hard dorsal and ventral plates (fig. , a, c). in soft pines these cells are subordinate to the more numerous parenchymatous cells, but in hard pines the sclerenchyma increases in amount until, among the serotinous species, it is the predominating tissue of the cone-scale, giving to these cones their remarkable strength and durability. this bast tissue is hygroscopic and, with its greater thickness on the dorsal surface, there is a much greater strain on that side of the scale, tending to force the scales apart when they are ripe and dry, and subsequently closing and opening the cone on rainy and sunny days. the cone, during the second season's growth, is completely closed, its scales adhering together with more or less tenacity. in most species the hygroscopic energy of the scales is sufficient to open the cone under the dry condition of its maturity, but with several species the adhesion is so persistent that some of the cones remain closed for many years. these are the peculiar serotinous cones of the genus. the serotinous cone. as an illustration of the area to which the adhesion is confined, a section may be sawed from a cone of p. attenuata (fig. ). the axis and the scales that have been severed from their apophyses (b) can be easily pushed out of the annulus (a), which is composed wholly of apophyses so firmly adherent that they will successfully resist a strong effort to break them apart. when immersed in boiling water, however, the ring falls to pieces. an examination of these pieces discovers adhesion only on a narrow ventral border under the apophysis and on a corresponding dorsal border back of the apophysis. the rest of the scale is not adherent, so that the seed is free to fall at the opening of the cone. the serotinous cone is a gradual development, wanting in most species, rare in a few, less or more frequent in others. a similar evolution of the persistent cone, of the oblique cone and of the cone-tissues has been already discussed. all these progressive characters culminate in mutual association in p. radiata and its allies. the result is a highly specialized fruit that should convey taxonomic significance of some kind. with all serotinous species that i have seen, some of the trees open their cones at maturity, others at indefinite intervals. that is to say, the seed of a prolific year is not at the mercy of a single, perhaps unfavorable season. the chances of successful germination are much increased by the intermittent seed-release peculiar to these pines. such a method of dissemination must accrue to the advantage of a species. in other words, this intermittent dissemination and the oblique form of cone with its perfected tissues all mark the highest development of the genus. the seed. plate vi. figs. - . the seed of pinus contains an embryo, with the cotyledons clearly defined, embedded in albumen, which is protected by a bony testa with an external membranous spermoderm, produced, in most species, into an effective wing. while the seed of other genera of the abietineae shows no striking difference among the species, that of pinus is remarkably variable, presenting alike the most primitive and the most elaborate forms among the conifers. these differences are valuable for the segregation of kindred species and for some specific distinctions. wingless seeds. with wingless seeds the main distinction is found in the spermoderm, which is entire in one species only, p. koraiensis. in p. cembra it is wanting on the ventral surface of the nut, but on the dorsal surface, it is adnate partly to the nut, partly to the cone-scale. the nut of p. albicaulis and that of p. cembroides are quite bare of membranous cover. the spermoderm of p. flexilis is reduced to a marginal border, slightly produced into a rudimentary wing adnate to the nut. the adnate wing. in p. strobus, longifolia and their allies and in p. balfouriana the spermoderm is prolonged into an effective wing-blade from a marginal adnate base like that of p. flexilis. this adnate wing cannot be detached without injury. the articulate wing. the articulate wing can be removed from the nut and can be replaced without injury. an ineffective form of this wing is seen in the gerardianae and in p. pinea, where the blade is very short and the base has no effective grasp on the nut. the base of the effective articulate wing contains hygroscopic tissue which acts with the hygroscopic tissue of the cone-scales. the dry conditions that open the cone and release the seeds cause the bifurcate base of the wing to grasp the nut more firmly. this articulate wing is found in p. aristata and in all hard pines except p. pinea, longifolia and canariensis. the wing-blade is usually membranous throughout, but in some species there is a thickening of the base of the blade that meets the membranous apical part in an oblique line along which the wing is easily broken apart. this last condition attains in p. coulteri and its associates a remarkable development. plate vi, fig. shows the wingless seed of p. cembroides; fig. represents the seed of p. flexilis, with a rudimentary wing; fig. shows two seeds of p. strobus, intact and with the wing broken away; fig. represents the articulate wing, whose bifurcate base when wet (fig. ) tends to open and release the nut. when dry (fig. ) the forks of the base, in the absence of the nut, close together and cross their tips; figs. , show the peculiar reinforced articulate wing of p. coulteri. such wide variation in so important an organ suggests generic difference. but here we are met by the association of the different forms in species evidently closely allied. the two foxtail pines are so similar in most characters that they have been considered, with good reason, to be specifically identical; yet the seed-wing of p. balfouriana is adnate, that of p. aristata articulate. p. ayacahuite produces not only the characteristic wing of the strobi, adnate, long and effective, but also, in the northern variety, a seed with a rudimentary wing, the exact counterpart of the seed of p. flexilis. in both sections of the genus are found the effective adnate wing (strobi and longifoliae) and the inefficient articulate wing (gerardianae and pineae). a little examination of all forms of the seed will show that they blend gradually one into another. the color of the wing is occasionally peculiar, as in the group longifoliae. there is usually no constancy in this character, for the wing may be uniform in color or variously striated in seeds of the same species. the length and breadth of the seed-wing, being dependent on the varying sizes of the cone-scale, differ in the same cone. they are also inconstant in different cones of the same species, and of this inconstancy the seed of p. ayacahuite furnishes the most notable example. [illustration: plate vi. cone-tissues and seeds] the wood. plate vii. with the exception of the medullary rays, a very small proportion of the whole, the wood of pinus, as seen in cross-section (fig. ), is a homogeneous tissue of wood-tracheids with interspersed resin-ducts. in tangential section the medullary rays appear in two forms, linear, without a resin-duct, and fusiform, with a central resin-duct. in radial section the cells of the linear rays are of two kinds, ray-tracheids, forming the upper and lower limits of the ray, characterized by small bordered pits, and ray-cells, between the tracheids, characterized by simple pits. the walls of the ray-tracheids may be smooth or dentate; the pits of the ray-cells may be large or small. these conditions admit of four combinations, all of which appear in the medullary rays of pinus, and of which a schematic representation is given in plate vii. these combinations are ray-tracheids with smooth walls. soft pines. ray-cells with large pits subsection cembra fig. . ray-cells with small pits subsection paracembra fig. . ray-tracheids with dentate walls. hard pines. ray-cells with large pits group lariciones fig. . ray-cells with small pits other hard pines fig. . this, the simplest classification of pine-wood, is not without exceptions. p. pinea of the hard pines resembles, in its wood-characters, p. gerardiana and p. bungeana of the soft pines. the dentate ray-tracheids of p. longifolia are not always obvious. the tracheids of p. luchuensis, according to bergerstein (wiesner festschr. ), have smooth walls. my specimen shows dentate tracheids. there is also evidence of transition from small to large pits (i. w. bailey in am. nat. xliv. ). both large and small pits appear in my specimen of p. merkusii. of other wood-characters, the presence or absence of tangential pits in the tracheids of the late wood establishes a distinction between soft and hard pines. these pits, however, while always present in soft pines, are not always absent in hard pines. the single and multiple rows of resin-ducts in the wood of the first year may prove to be a reliable sectional distinction, but this character has not been sufficiently investigated to test its constancy. the wood-characters, therefore, however decisive they may be for establishing the phylogenetic relations of different genera, must be employed in the classification of the pines with the same reservations that apply to external characters. ray-tracheids with dentate walls and ray-cells with large pits are peculiar to pinus. therefore the presence of these characters, alone or in combination, is sufficient evidence for the recognition of pine-wood. but the combination of smooth tracheids with small pits (subsection paracembra) pinus shares with picea, larix and pseudotsuga. among hard pines the size of the pits has a certain geographical significance. the large pits are found in all species of the old world except p. halepensis and p. pinaster; the small pits in all species of the new world except p. resinosa and p. tropicalis. the asiatic p. merkusii with both large and small pits is not strictly an exception to this geographical distinction. the four exceptional species by this and by other characters unite the hard pines of the two hemispheres. the bark. bark is the outer part of the cortex that has perished, having been cut off from nourishment by the thin hard plates of the bark-scales. in the late and early bark-formation is found a general but by no means an exact distinction between soft and hard pines. in the soft pines the cortex remains alive for many years, adjusting itself by growth to the increasing thickness of the wood. the trunks of young trees remain smooth and without rifts. in the hard pines the bark-formation begins early and the trunks of young trees are covered with a scaly or rifted bark. the smooth upper trunk of older trees is invariable in soft pines, but in hard pines there are several exceptions to early bark-formation. these exceptions are easily recognized in the field, and the character is of decisive specific importance (glabra, halepensis, etc.). among species with early bark-formation are two forms of bark: , cumulative, sufficiently persistent to acquire thickness and the familiar dark gray and fuscous-brown shades of bark long exposed to the weather; , deciduous, constantly falling away in thin scales and exposing fresh red inner surfaces. the latter are commonly known as red pines, as distinguished from black pines with dark cumulative bark. deciduous bark changes after some years to cumulative bark, and the upper trunk only of mature trees is red. red pines, although usually recognizable by their bark, are by no means constant in this character. oecological or pathological influences may check the fall of the bark-scales, and then the distinction between the upper and lower parts of the trunk becomes lost. [illustration: plate vii. the wood] summary the various characters that have been considered in the previous pages may be classified under different heads, some of them applicable to the whole genus, others to larger or smaller groups of species. generic characters several characters, quite distinct from those of other genera, are common to all the species. . the primary leaf--appearing as a scale or bract throughout the life of the tree. . the bud--its constant position at the nodes. . the internode--its three distinct divisions. . the secondary leaves--in cylindrical fascicles with a basal sheath. . the pistillate flower--its constant nodal position and its verticillate clusters. . the staminate flower--its constant basal position on the internode and its compact clusters. . the cone--its clearly defined annual growths. pinus is also peculiar in the dimorphism of shoots and leaves and in their constant interrelations with the diclinous flowers. evolutionary processes develop features peculiar to pinus alone (the oblique cone, etc.), but confined to a limited number of species. sectional characters there are several characters that actually or potentially divide the genus into two distinct sections, popularly known as soft and hard pines. . the fibro-vascular bundle of the leaf, single or double. . the base of the bract subtending the leaf-fascicle, non-decurrent or decurrent . the phyllotaxis of the cone, simple or complex. . the flower-bud, its less or greater development. some characters indicate the same distinction but are subject each to a few exceptions. . the fascicle-sheath, deciduous or persistent. . the walls of the ray-tracheids, smooth or dentate. . the connective of the pollen-sacs, large or small. . the formation of bark, late or early. subsectional characters an exact subdivision of the soft pines is possible on the following characters. . the umbo of the cone-scales, terminal or dorsal. . the scales of the conelet, mutic or armed. . the pits of the ray-cells, large or small. evolutional characters the progressive evolution of the fruit of pinus, from a symmetrical cone of weak tissues, bearing a wingless seed, to an indurated oblique cone with an elaborate form of winged seed and an intermittent dissemination, appears among the species in various degrees of development as follows-- the seed . wingless. . with a rudimentary wing. . with an effective adnate wing. . with an ineffective articulate wing. . with an effective articulate wing. . with an articulate wing, thickened at the base of the blade. the cone . indehiscent. . dehiscent and deciduous. . dehiscent and persistent. . persistent and serotinous. and as to its form . symmetrical. . subsymmetrical. . oblique. these different forms of the seed and, to some extent, of the cone, are available for segregating the species into groups of closely related members; while the gradual progression of the fruit, from a primitive to a highly specialized form of cone and method of dissemination, points to a veritable taxonomic evolution which is here utilized as the fundamental motive of the systematic classification of the species. specific characters all aspects of vegetative and reproductive organs may contribute toward a determination of species, but the importance of each character is often relative, being conclusive with one group of species, useless with another. characters considered by earlier authors to be invariable with species, such as the dimensions of leaf or cone, the number of leaves in the fascicle, the position of the resin-ducts, the presence of pruinose branchlets, etc., prove to be inconstant in some species. in fact, as the botanical horizon enlarges, the varietal limits of the species broaden and many restrictions imposed by earlier systems are gradually disappearing. variation is the preliminary step toward the creation of species, which come into being with the elimination of intermediate forms. variation in a species may be the result of its participation in the evolutionary processes culminating in the serotinous pines, or it may result from the ability of the species to adapt itself to various environments by sympathetic modifications of growth, or it may arise from some peculiarity of the individual tree. evolutionary variation is associated with the gradual appearance of the persistent, the oblique and the serotinous cone, and of the multinodal spring-shoot. for these conditions appear in less or greater prevalence among the species of the genus. variation induced by environment finds familiar illustrations among the species that can survive at the limits of vegetation and can meet these inhospitable conditions by a radical change of all growing parts. such variations are mainly of dimensions, but, with some species, the number of fascicle-leaves is affected and the shorter growing-season may modify the cone-tissues. in mexico and central america are found extremes of climate within small areas and easily within the range of dissemination from a single tree. the cause of the bewildering host of varietal forms, connecting widely contrasted extremes, seems to lie in the facile adaptability of those pines, which are able to spread from the tropical base of a mountain to a less or greater distance toward its snow-capped summit. the peculiarities of individual trees that induce abnormally short or long growths, the dwarf or other monstrous forms, the variegations in leaf-coloring, etc., etc., are not available for classification, for they may appear in any species, in fact in any genus of conifers. these variations are artificially multiplied for commercial and decorative purposes. but inasmuch as they are repeated in all species and genera of the coniferae that have been long under the observation of skillful gardeners, their significance has a broader scope than that imposed by the study of a single genus. part ii classification of the species the following classification is based on the gradual evolution of the fruit from a cone symmetrical in form, parenchymatous in tissue, indehiscent and deciduous at maturity, releasing its wingless seed by disintegration--to a cone oblique in form, very strong and durable in tissue, persistent on the tree, intermittently dehiscent, releasing its winged seeds partly at maturity, partly at indefinite intervals during several years. this evolution embraces two extreme forms of fruit, one the most primitive, the other the most elaborate, among conifers. two sections of the genus, soft and hard pines, are distinguished by several correlated characters, and moreover are distinct by obvious differences in the tissues of their cones as well as in the quality and appearance of their wood. with the soft pines the species group naturally under two subsections on the position of the umbo, the anatomy of the wood and the armature of the conelet. in one subsection (cembra) are found three species, p. cembra and its allies, with the cone-tissues so completely parenchymatous that the cones cannot release the seeds except by disintegration. in both subsections there is a gradual evolution from a wingless nut to one with an effective wing, adnate in one subsection, adnate and articulate in the other. the different stages of this evolution are so distinct that the soft pines are easily separated into definite groups. among the hard pines a few species show characters that are peculiar to the soft pines. these exceptional species form a subsection (parapinaster) by themselves. with the remaining species, the majority of the pines, the distinctions that obtain among soft pines have disappeared. the dorsal umbo, the articulate seed-wing, the persistent fascicle-sheath, the dorsal and ventral stomata of the leaf and its serrate margins, the dentate walls of the ray-tracheids have become fixed and constant. but a new form of seed-wing appears, with a thickened blade, assuming such proportions in p. sabiniana and its two allies that these three constitute a distinct group, remarkable also for the size of its cones. here also appear a new form of fruit, the oblique cone, and a new method of dissemination, the serotinous cone. associated with the latter are the persistent cone and the multinodal spring-shoot. these characters do not develop in such perfect sequence and regularity that they can be employed for grouping the species without forcing some of them into unnatural association. the oblique cone first appears sporadically here and there and without obvious reason. the persistent cone, the first stage of the serotinous cone, is equally sporadic in the earlier stages of evolution. the same may be said of the multinodal shoot. nevertheless these characters show an obvious progression toward a definite goal, where they are all united in a small group of species remarkable for the form and texture of their cones, for a peculiar seed-release and for the vigor and rapidity of their growth. it is possible, with the assistance of other characters, to segregate these species in three groups in which the affinities are respected and the general trend of their evolution is preserved. the first group, the lariciones, contains species with large ray-pits, cones dehiscent at maturity, and uninodal spring-shoots. they are, with two exceptions, p. resinosa and p. tropicalis, old world species. the second group, the australes, contains species with small ray-pits, cones dehiscent at maturity and spring-shoots gradually changing, among the species, from a uninodal to a multinodal form. they are, without exception, species of the new world. the third group, the insignes, contains the serotinous species. the ray-pits are small and the spring-shoots are, with two exceptions, multinodal. with two exceptions, p. halepensis and p. pinaster, they are new world species. these three groups, being the progressive sequence of a lineal evolution, are not absolutely circumscribed, but are more or less connected through a few intermediate species of each group. the systematic position of these intermediate species is determined by their obvious affinities. it cannot be expected that the variations, which take an important part in the evolution of the species, progress with equal step or in perfect correlation with each other. as to specific determinations, a little experience in the field discloses an amount of variation in species that does not always appear in the descriptions of authors; and species that are under the closest scrutiny of botanists, foresters or horticulturalists, attest by their multiple synonymy their wide variation. the possibilities of variation are indefinite and, with adaptable pines, the range of variation is somewhat proportionate to change of climate. in mountainous countries, where there are warm sheltered valleys with rich soil below cold barren ledges, the most variable pines are found. the western species of north america, for instance, are much more variable than the eastern species, while in mexico, a tropical country with snow-capped mountains, the variation is greatest. therefore in the limitation of species undue importance should not be given to characters responsive to environment, such as the dimensions of leaf or cone, the number of leaves in the fascicle, etc. moreover, there are familiar examples (p. sylvestris, etc.) that show the possibility of wide differences in the cone of the same species. in the following classification species only are considered without attempting to determine varietal or other subspecific forms. but varieties are often mentioned as one of the factors illustrating the scope of species. synonymy serves a like purpose, but synonyms not conveying useful information are omitted, roezl's list of mexican species, for instance, and variations in the orthography of specific names. pinus pinus duhamel, traité des arbres, ii. . apinus necker, elem. bot. iii. . cembra opiz, seznam, . strobus opiz, lotos, iv. . caryopitys small, fl. southeast. u. s. . leaves and shoots dimorphous, primary leaves on long shoots, secondary leaves on dwarf shoots. flowers diclinous, the pistillate taking the place of long shoots, the staminate taking the place of dwarf shoots. growth of wood and fruit emanating from the nodes; buds, branchlets and cones, therefore, in verticillate association. leaves and staminate flowers in internodal position, the primary leaves along the whole length of the internode, subtending secondary leaf-fascicles on the apical, staminate flowers on the basal part. buds compounded of minute buds in the axils of bud-scales, becoming the bracts of the spring-shoot. branchlets of one or more internodes, each internode in three parts--a length without leaves, a length bearing leaves and a node of buds. cone requiring two, rarely three years to mature, displaying its annual growths by distinct areas on each scale. seeds wingless or winged, edible and nutritious. the pines are confined to the northern hemisphere, but grow in all climates and under all conditions of soil, temperature and humidity where trees can grow. some of the species are of very restricted range, but others are adaptable and can cover wide areas. the sixty-six species are distributed as follows-- eastern hemisphere, . exclusively african (canary islands). exclusively european. about the mediterranean basin. common to europe and northern asia. exclusively asiatic. western hemisphere, . in western north america, of which are confined to mexico and central america. in eastern north america, of which are exclusively west indian. the two sections of the genus correspond with those of koehne (deutsch. dendrol. [ ]) and his two names, haploxylon and diploxylon, are adopted here, together with his two subsections of haploxylon, cembra and paracembra. of the two subsections of diploxylon, pinaster has been employed by endlicher (syn. conif. [ ]) and later authors for smaller or larger groups of hard pines. the subsection parapinaster is now proposed. the names of groups, cembrae, strobi, cembroides, gerardianae, balfourianae, pineae, lariciones and australes, are taken from engelmann's revision of the genus pinus (trans. acad. sci. st. louis, iv. - [ ]). the remainder, flexiles, leiophyllae, longifoliae, insignes and macrocarpae, are here proposed. in order to bring the illustrations within the limits of the page the dimensions of cone and leaf, as shown on the plates, are a little smaller than life. in plates x and xxv the reproductions of the cones are reduced to / life-size. sections, subsections, and groups bases of the fascicle-bracts non-decurrent a--haploxylon umbo of the cone-scale terminal a--cembra seeds wingless. cones indehiscent i. cembrae cones dehiscent ii. flexiles seed with an adnate wing iii. strobi umbo of the cone-scale dorsal b--paracembra seeds wingless iv. cembroides seed-wing short, ineffective v. gerardianae seed-wing long, effective vi. balfourianae bases of the fascicle-bracts decurrent b--diploxylon fascicle-sheath or seed of haploxylon c--parapinaster fascicle-sheath deciduous vii. leiophyllae fascicle-sheath persistent. seed-wing of the strobi viii. longifoliae seed-wing of the gerardianae ix. pineae fascicle-sheath persistent, seed-wing articulate, effective d--pinaster base of wing-blade thin or slightly thickened. cones dehiscent at maturity. pits of ray-cells large x. lariciones pits of ray-cells small xi. australes cones serotinous, pits of ray-cells small xii. insignes base of wing-blade very thick xiii. macrocarpae haploxylon bases of the bracts subtending leaf-fascicles not decurrent. staminate flowers not sufficiently developed in the bud to be apparent. spring-shoots uninodal. fibro-vascular bundle of the leaf single. cone symmetrical, of relatively fewer larger scales, its tissues softer. bark-formation late, the trunks of young trees smooth. wood soft and with little resin, of uniform color and with relatively obscure definition of the annual rings. tracheids of the medullary rays with smooth walls. all the species of this section, except p. nelsonii, have deciduous fascicle-sheaths. there are but two species of diploxylon with deciduous sheaths, p. leiophylla and p. lumholtzii, both of them easily recognized. the deciduous sheath, therefore, is an obvious and useful means for recognizing the soft pines. on the characters of the fruit and the wood haploxylon can be divided into two subsections. a. cembra umbo of the cone-scale terminal. b. paracembra umbo of the cone-scale dorsal. =cembra= umbo of the cone-scale terminal. scales of the conelet unarmed. leaves in fascicles of , the sheath deciduous, the two dermal tissues distinct, the hypoderm-cells uniform. pits of the cells of the wood-rays large. seeds wingless. cones indehiscent i. cembrae. cones dehiscent ii. flexiles. seeds with an adnate wing iii. strobi. =i. cembrae= seeds wingless. cones indehiscent, deciduous at maturity. in this group of species there is no segregation of sclerenchyma into an effective tissue. the cones are inert under hygrometric changes and may always be recognized in herbaria by their persistent occlusion and soft tissues. the seeds are released only by the disintegration of the fallen cone. there is, however, a vicarious dissemination by predatory crows (genus nucifraga) and rodents. leaves serrulate, their stomata ventral only. cones relatively larger, the apophyses protuberant . koraiensis. cones relatively smaller, the apophyses appressed . cembra. leaves entire, their stomata ventral and dorsal . albicaulis. . pinus koraiensis p. strobus thunberg, fl. jap. (not linnaeus). p. koraiensis siebold & zuccarini, fl. jap. ii. . p. mandschurica ruprecht in bull. acad. sci. st. pétersb. xv. . spring-shoots more or less densely tomentose. leaves from to cm. long, serrulate, stomata ventral only, resin-ducts medial and confined to the angles. conelets large, subterminal, or on young trees often pseudolateral. cones indehiscent, from to cm. long, short-pedunculate, ovoid-conical or subcylindrical; apophyses dull pale nut-brown, rugose, shrinking much in drying and exposing the seeds, prolonged and tapering to a more or less reflexed tip, the umbo inconspicuous; seeds large, wingless, the spermoderm entire. a species of the mountains of northeastern asia with valuable wood and large edible nuts; hardy and often cultivated in cool-temperate climates. the p. koraiensis of beissner (in nuov. giorn. bot. ital. n. ser. iv. ) and of masters (in gard. chron. ser. , xxxiii. , ff.) are p. armandi and have led to an erroneous extension of the range of this species into shensi and hupeh. in the original description of the species the authors call attention to an error in the plate, where a cone of another species has been substituted. p. koraiensis resembles p. cembra in leaf and branchlet but not in the cone. it is often confused with p. armandi, but can easily be distinguished by its tomentose branchlets, indehiscent cone and peculiar seed. the two species, moreover, do not always agree in the position of the foliar resin-ducts. plate viii. fig. , cone and seed. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. . pinus cembra p. cembra linnaeus, sp. pl. . p. montana lamarck, fl. franç. iii. (not miller). p. pumila regel in index sem. hort. petrop. . p. mandschurica lawson, pinet. brit. i. , ff. (not ruprecht). p. sibirica mayr, fremdl. wald- & parkb. . p. coronans litvinof in trav. mus. bot. acad. st. pétersb. xi. , f. spring-shoots densely tomentose. leaves from to cm. long, serrulate; stomata ventral only; resin-ducts medial or, in the dwarf form, often external. conelets short-pedunculate, purple during their second season. cone from to cm. long, ovate or subglobose, subsessile; apophyses dull nut-brown, thick, slightly convex, the margin often a little reflexed, the umbo inconspicuous; seeds wingless, large, the dorsal spermoderm adnate partly to the nut, partly to the cone-scale, the ventral spermoderm wanting. the swiss stone pine attains a height of or metres and occupies two distinct areas, the alps, from savoy to the carpathians at high altitudes, and the plains and mountain-slopes throughout the vast area from northeastern russia through siberia. beyond the lena and lake baikal it becomes a dwarf (var. pumila) with its eastern limit in northern nippon and in kamchatka. it is successfully cultivated in the cool-temperate climates of europe and america. the wood is of even, close grain, peculiarly adapted to carving. the nuts are gathered for food and confections, but are destroyed in great numbers by squirrels, mice and a jay-like crow, the european nutcracker. it is generally conceded, however, that these enemies assist in dissemination. plate viii. fig. , cone, seed and magnified leaf-section. fig. , tree at arolla, switzerland. fig. , cone, leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section of var. pumila. . pinus albicaulis p. flexilis balfour in bot. exped. oregon, , f. (not james). p. cembroides newberry in pacif. r. r. rep. vi- , , f. (not zuccarini). p. albicaulis engelmann in trans. acad. sci. st. louis, ii. . p. shasta carrière, trait. conif. ed. , . spring-shoots glabrous or pubescent. branchlets pliant and tough. leaves from to cm. long, entire, stout, persistent for several years; stomata dorsal and ventral; resin-ducts external. conelets short-pedunculate, dark purple during the second season, their scales often tapering to an acute apex. cones from to cm. long, subsessile, oval or subglobose; apophyses nut-brown or fulvous brown, dull or slightly lustrous, very thick, the under surface conspicuous, meeting the upper surface in an acute margin, and terminated by a salient, often acute umbo; seed wingless, the testa bare of spermoderm. this species ranges from british columbia through washington and oregon, over the mountains of northern california and the sierras as far south as mt. whitney, and, on the rocky mountains, through idaho and montana to northern wyoming. it is found at the timber-line of many stations and forms, in exposed situations, flat table-like masses close to the ground. it is a species of no economical importance and is too inaccessible for the profitable gathering of its large nuts, which are devoured in quantity by squirrels and by clark's crow, a bird of the same genus with the pinivorous nutcracker of europe. p. albicaulis is distinguished from its allies by its entire leaves with both dorsal and ventral stomata, from p. flexilis by its indehiscent cone, and from all of these species by its seed without membranous cover or rudimentary wing. it was united with p. flexilis by parlatore and gordon, and, later, was referred to that species as a varietal form by engelmann (in brewer & watson, bot. calif. ii. ). parrish's p. albicaulis (in zoe, iv. ), extending its range to the mountains of southern california, proves to be p. flexilis (jepson, silva calif. ). plate viii. fig. , two cones and seed. fig. , leaf-fascicle. fig. , magnified leaf-section. [illustration: plate viii. p. koraiensis ( , ), cembra ( - ), albicaulis ( - )] =ii. flexiles= seeds wingless, the spermoderm forming a narrow border with a rudimentary prolongation. cones dehiscent at maturity. the dehiscent cone distinguishes this group from the cembrae. therefore confusion of p. koraiensis with p. armandi, or p. albicaulis with p. flexilis should be impossible. the peculiar seed is found again only in the northern variety of p. ayacahuite. leaves usually entire, the stomata dorsal and ventral . flexilis. leaves serrulate, the stomata ventral only . armandi. . pinus flexilis p. flexilis james in long's exped. ii. . p. reflexa engelmann in bot. gaz. vii. . p. strobiformis sargent, silva n. am. xi. , tt. , (not engelmann). spring-shoots pubescent; branchlets very tough and pliant. leaves from to cm. long, entire, or serrulate in the southern variety, persistent for five or six years; stomata dorsal and ventral or, in the south, sometimes ventral only; resin-ducts external. cones from to cm. long, ovate or subcylindrical, short-pedunculate; apophyses pale tawny yellow, or yellow ochre, lustrous, often prolonged and more or less reflexed, thick, the margin together with the umbo raised above the surface of the cone. this species grows on the rocky mountains from alberta in the dominion of canada to chihuahua in northern mexico and ranges westward to the eastern slope of the sierras and to the southern mountains of california. the wood, where accessible, is manufactured into lumber. it may be seen in the arnold arboretum and in the royal gardens at kew. p. flexilis is recognized by its lustrous yellow cones. this and the constantly external ducts of its usually entire leaves distinguish it from p. armandi. from p. albicaulis, with similar leaves, it differs by its dehiscent cone. at one extreme the cone of p. flexilis is not unlike that of p. albicaulis, at the other extreme it approaches the characteristic cone of p. ayacahuite, with prolonged reflexed scales. hence the confusion of p. albicaulis with p. flexilis (murray, parlatore and others) and of p. flexilis with engelmann's p. strobiformis. sargent's p. strobiformis, illustrated in the silva of north america, is the form of this species known as var. reflexa of engelmann. plate ix. fig. , two cones and seed. fig. , leaf-fascicle. fig. , magnified leaf-section. . pinus armandi p. armandi franchet in nouv. arch. mus. paris, sér. , vii. , , t. . p. scipioniformis masters in bull. herb. boiss. vi. . p. koraiensis masters in gard. chron. ser. , xxxiii. , ff. , (not siebold & zuccarini). p. mastersiana hayata in gard. chron. ser. , xliii, . spring-shoots glabrous; branches and most of the trunk covered with a smooth gray cortex. leaves from to cm. long, serrulate; stomata ventral only; resin-ducts external, external and medial, or medial, all three conditions sometimes occurring in leaves of the same branchlet. cones from to cm. in length, pendent on peduncles of various lengths, the peduncle often remaining on the tree after the fall of the cone; apophyses fulvous brown, dull or sublustrous, the margin rounded or tapering to an acute apex, sometimes a little prolonged and reflexed, the umbo inconspicuous. a tree of the mountains of central, southern and western china with an outlying station on the island of formosa. recently planted in europe and america, it has so far proved hardy. the nuts are gathered for food and some use is made of the wood. the glabrous shoots of p. armandi distinguish it from p. flexilis and p. koraiensis. from the latter it is also distinct in its dehiscent cone and in its seed. the section of its leaf, with dorsal ducts often in two positions, is peculiar to this species among soft pines. plate ix. fig. , two cones and seed. fig. , leaf-fascicle. figs. , , magnified sections of three leaves. [illustration: plate ix. p. flexilis ( - ), armandi ( - )] =iii. strobi= seed with a long effective wing adnate to the nut. the base of the seed-wing corresponds to the marginal spermoderm of the flexiles but is prolonged into an effective adnate wing. this form of wing appears again in the species balfouriana and in the group longifoliae. cones very long, usually exceeding cm. cone-scales prolonged and reflexed . ayacahuite. cone-scales appressed . lambertiana. cones less than cm. long. cone-scales prominently convex. leaves less than cm. long . parviflora. leaves - cm. long . peuce. leaves - cm. long . excelsa. cone-scales thin, conforming to the surface of the cone. cone relatively longer, its phyllotaxis / . monticola. cone relatively shorter, its phyllotaxis / . strobus. . pinus ayacahuite p. ayacahuite ehrenberg in linnaea, xii. . p. strobiformis engelmann in wislizenus, tour mex. . p. veitchii roezl, cat. graines conif. mex. . p. bonapartea roezl in gard. chron. . p. loudoniana gordon, pinet. . spring-shoots glabrous or pubescent. leaves from to cm. long, serrulate, their stomata ventral only, their resin-ducts external, often numerous. cones from to cm. long, pendent on long stalks, subcylindrical or tapering, often curved; apophyses pale nut-brown, dull or sublustrous, varying much in thickness, prolonged in various degrees, the prolongations patulous, reflexed, recurved or revolute; seeds of the southern typical form with a long wing, the wing diminishing and the nut increasing in relative size northward. the white pine of mexico and guatemala grows on mountain-slopes and at the head of ravines. it is not very hardy in cultivation except in the milder parts of great britain and in northern italy, where the forms of central and northern mexico have been very successful. the species is best recognized by the prolonged apophyses of its large cone. the variations in the size of the cone and in the prolongations of its scales are many, but of far more significance is the remarkable variation of the seed-wing, which is long in the southern part of the range, short and broad in central mexico, and rudimentary, like the seed of p. flexilis, in the north. this makes it possible to establish two well defined varieties--veitchii and brachyptera. the three forms of the species present a gradation from the long effective wing of the strobi to the rudimentary form of the flexiles. many of the seed-wings of the var. veitchii correspond, in their short broad form and opaque coloring, with the characteristic wing of p. lambertiana. plate x. (leaves and cones much reduced). fig. , cone and cone-scale of var. veitchii. fig. , cone and seed of var. brachyptera. fig. , cone-scale of the typical form. figs. , , leaf-fascicles and magnified leaf-sections. . pinus lambertiana p. lambertiana douglas in trans. linn. soc. xv. . spring-shoots pubescent. leaves from to cm. long, serrulate; stomata dorsal and ventral; resin-ducts external or with one or two ventral medial ducts. cones from to cm. long, pendent, subcylindrical, tapering to a rounded apex; apophyses pale nut-brown, thick, a narrow border of the under surface showing on the closed cone, the margin rounded or tapering to a blunt slightly reflexed tip; seed with a large nut and a broad short opaque wing. the sugar pine is the tallest of the genus and attains a height of or metres. it grows on mountain slopes and the sides of ravines. its southern limit is in lower california on the plateau of san pedro martir, its northern limit is in western oregon. the wood is valuable, its nuts are eaten by native indians, and the sweet exudation, which gives the tree its popular name, is a manna-like substance of some officinal value. p. lambertiana is recognized by its long cone and by the constant dorsal stomata of its leaves. plate x. (leaves and cone much reduced). fig. , cone and seed. fig. , conelet. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. [illustration: plate x. p. lambertiana ( - ), ayacahuite ( - )] . pinus parviflora p. cembra thunberg, fl. jap. . (not linnaeus). p. parviflora siebold and zuccarini, fl. jap. ii. , t. . p. pentaphylla mayr, mon. abiet. jap. , , t. . p. morrisonicola hayata in gard. chron. ser. , xliii. . p. formosana hayata in jour. linn. soc. xxxviii. , t. . spring-shoots pubescent or glabrous; branches becoming studded with prominent resin-cells of the cortex. leaves from to cm. long, slender, serrulate; stomata ventral only; resin-ducts external and dorsal. cones subsessile, often persistent, from to cm. long, patulous or horizontal, short-ovate, or elongate and slightly conical; apophyses nut-brown, abruptly convex near the apex, or irregularly warped, varying much in size, the umbo confluent with the thin margin of the scale and resting on the apophysis beneath; seeds with a large nut and a short broad wing, often temporarily adherent to the cone-scale and breaking apart at the fall of the nut. a tree of the mountains of japan and formosa, cultivated extensively. it is recognized by its very short quinate leaves and by its nearly sessile cones. the frequent but not invariable retention of the seed-wing in the cone is due to adhesion. many seeds fall with their wings intact, others break away from the wing which, after a while, loosens and also falls. plate xi. figs. , , three cones and seed. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. . pinus peuce p. peuce grisebach, spicil. fl. rumel. ii. . p. excelsa hooker in jour. linn. soc. viii. . (not wallich). spring-shoots glabrous. leaves from to cm. long, erect, serrulate; stomata ventral only; resin-ducts external. connective of pollen-sacs small and narrow. cones deciduous, from to cm. long, subcylindrical, often curved, the peduncle short; apophyses tawny yellow, prominently and abruptly convex, the umbo against the scale beneath; seed-wing long. a tree of the balkan mountains, very hardy and bearing abundant fruit in the gardens of both hemispheres. the cone resembles that of p. excelsa, but is prevalently much shorter and with a relatively shorter peduncle. its leaves are also much shorter and are always erect. a curious difference is found in the connectives of the pollen-sacs, small in peuce (fig. ), large in excelsa (fig. ). the convexity of its apophyses distinguishes the cone from those of p. monticola and p. strobus. beissner followed hooker and named this species excelsa, var. peuce, in the first edition of his handbuch ( ), but in the second edition he restored the balkan pine to specific standing. plate xi. fig. , cone and seed. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. fig. , pollen-sacs and connective magnified. . pinus excelsa p. excelsa wallich ex lambert, gen. pin. ii, , t. . p. nepalensis de chambray, arbr. résin. . p. griffithii mcclelland in griffith, notul. pl. asiat. iv, ; icon. pl. asiat. t. . spring-shoots glabrous. leaves from to cm. long, drooping, serrulate; stomata ventral only; resin-ducts external but often with a medial ventral duct. connective of the pollen-sacs large. cones from to cm. long, narrow-cylindrical; apophyses tawny yellow or pale fulvous brown, prominently convex, the umbo against the apophysis beneath; seeds with a long wing. a tree with gray-green drooping foliage, found, with some interruptions, along the himalayas. it furnishes resin, tar and wood of considerable value. it is cultivated in all temperate climates and is a familiar tree of american and european gardens. madden states that the foliage of p. excelsa is sometimes erect and is occasionally bright green. such variations are often met in other species of pinus. usually the drooping gray-green foliage and the peculiar cone are sufficient for the recognition of this species. the not infrequent presence of a medial duct and the large connective are valuable aids for identifying it. plate xi. fig. , cone and seed. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified section of two leaves. fig. , pollen-sacs and connective magnified. [illustration: plate xi. p. excelsa ( - ), peuce ( - ), parviflora ( - )] . pinus monticola p. monticola douglas ex lambert, gen. pin. iii. t. p. porphyrocarpa lawson, pinet. brit. i, , ff. spring-shouts pubescent. leaves from to cm. long, serrulate; stomata ventral or rarely with a few dorsal stomata; resin-ducts external. cones from to cm. long, cylindrical or tapering, sometimes curved; apophyses brown-ochre or fulvous brown, thin, smooth, conforming to the surface of the cone, the apex sometimes slightly prolonged and reflexed, the umbo not quite touching the surface of the scale below. the western white pine grows in southern british columbia and on vancouver island, on the rocky mountains of montana and idaho, in washington, on the blue mountains, cascades and coast range of oregon, across northern california and along the sierras to the mountains of southern california. where it is abundant and accessible it furnishes valuable timber. it is hardy in new england and in northern and central europe. it differs from p. strobus in the higher phyllotaxis of its cone, an obvious difference that may be seen by comparing cones of the two species of the same length (figs. , ), the number of scales on the cone of p. monticola being much greater than that on the cone of p. strobus. nuttall (sylva, iii, ) followed hooker in considering it to be a variety of p. strobus. plate xii. fig. , cone and cone-scale. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. . pinus strobus p. strobus linnaeus, sp. pl. . p. nivea booth ex carrière, trait. conif. . p. alba-canadensis provancher, fl. canad. ii. . strobus strobus small, fl. southeast. u. s. . spring-shoots pubescent. leaves from to cm. long, serrulate; stomata ventral only; resin-ducts external. cones from to cm. long, narrow cylindrical, sometimes curved; apophyses fulvous brown, or rufous brown, thin, the smooth or slightly rugose surface conforming to the general surface of the cone; seed with a long wing. a valuable timber-tree of singular beauty and rapid growth. the northern limit of its range extends from newfoundland to manitoba; it grows throughout the northern states from minnesota to the atlantic, and, south of pennsylvania, along the appalachians to northern georgia. its tractable and reliable wood, its adaptability to various soils and climates, its early maturity and stately habit, recommend it to the forester and gardener. mature trees of p. strobus tower above the evergreens associated with it. it is also recognized by the color and horizontal massing of its foliage. the cone, when closed, is very narrow; its thin flat scales distinguish it from the cone of p. peuce, and its phyllotaxis from the cone of p. monticola. to illustrate the possibilities of variation in the size of pine cones, i once collected several in tamworth, n. h., on the estate of mr. augustus hemenway, on the same slope and within an area of one square kilometre. these cones varied in length from to cm., with all intermediate sizes. also on each tree were cones of various lengths, but the longest were confined to two or three trees among the several hundred examined. dimensions of leaves also varied with individual trees; not infrequently the leaves of a tree were twice the length of those of an adjacent tree. such variations appear in many species and in many localities. plate xii. fig. , two cones. fig. , leaf-fascicle. fig. , magnified leaf-section. fig. , conelets. fig. , a cultivated tree in massachusetts. [illustration: plate xii. p. monticola ( , ), strobus ( - )] =paracembra= umbo of the cone-scale dorsal. scales of the conelet mucronate or aristate. epiderm and hypoderm of the leaf similar, appearing as a single tissue; resin-ducts external. pits of the ray-cells small. the wood of this subsection differs from that of other species, except that of p. pinea, in the picea-like characters of the medullary rays--tracheids with smooth walls combined with the thick walls and small pits of the ray-cells. on the character of the seeds the species may be divided into three groups. seeds wingless iv. cembroides. seeds with a short, ineffective, articulate wing v. gerardianae. seeds with a long and effective wing vi. balfourianae. =iv. cembroides= seeds wingless, the nut large, wholly or partly bare of membranous cover. cones varying from yellow-ochre to deep red-orange in color. these are the nut pines, growing on the arid slopes and table-lands above the great plateau of northern mexico and its extension into the southwestern united states. there are three distinct species. leaves entire, the sheath deciduous. cones subglobose, subsessile . cembroides. cones cylindrical, pedunculate . pinceana. leaves serrulate, the sheath persistent . nelsonii. . pinus cembroides p. cembroides zuccarini in abh. akad. münch. i. . p. llaveana schiede in linnaea, xii. . p. monophylla torrey in frémont's rep. , t. . p. fremontiana endlicher, syn. conif. . p. edulis engelmann in wislizenus, tour. mex. . p. osteosperma engelmann in wislizenus, tour. mex. . p. parryana engelmann in am. jour. sci. ser. , xxxiv. (not gordon). p. quadrifolia sudworth, bull. , u. s. dep. agric. . caryopitys edulus small, fl. southeast. u. s. . spring-shoots pruinose. leaves from to cm. long, in fascicles of to , the sheath-scales revolute at the apex, then deciduous; stomata ventral, or ventral and dorsal; resin-ducts external. scales of the conelet armed with a minute prickle. cones from to cm. long, subglobose, subsessile; apophyses lustrous ochre-yellow, crowned with a quadrilateral umbo bearing the minute prickle of the conelet; seed flaxen yellow when fresh, its testa bare, the spermoderm adnate to the cone-scale. a broad tree with a round head, similar in size and form, but not in ramification, to the cultivated apple-tree; growing on arid slopes and table-lands. its eastern limit is in southwestern wyoming, central colorado, texas, western tamaulipas and northwestern vera cruz. it ranges over utah, nevada, arizona and the northern states of mexico to the southern sierras of california and to the northern and southern extremities of lower california. it is recognized by its small cone, which expands, when open, into an irregular flat aggregate of loosely attached scales. the leaves are shorter than those of the other pines of this group. the cone of this species always retains its peculiar character. the variations are mainly in the number of leaves in the fascicle. on this character this nut pine is divided by many authors into four species--cembroides, with three slender leaves--edulis, with two stout leaves--monophylla, with one leaf and--parryana, with four stout leaves. but there are intermediate forms that may be either cembroides or edulis, edulis or monophylla etc., and voss's reduction of the four to a single species with three varieties seems to be justified (mitt. deutsch. dendrol. ges. xvi. ). plate xiii. fig. , cone, cone-scale and seed. fig. , open cone. fig. , branchlet with leaves and magnified leaf-section. . pinus pinceana p. cembroides gordon in jour. hort. soc. lond. i. , f. (not zuccarini). p. pinceana gordon, pinet. . p. latisquama engelmann in gard. chron. ser. , xviii. . f. (as to cone only). spring-shoots slender, pruinose. leaves in fascicles of three, the sheath revolute at the base, then deciduous; stomata ventral, or ventral and dorsal; resin-ducts external. scales of the conelet minutely mucronate. cones from to cm. long, cylindrical, pendent on long peduncles; apophyses lustrous ochre-yellow, elevated in the centre, the umbo usually retaining the small prickle; seed large, bearing on its dorsal surface remnants of the spermoderm. a small bushy tree with long slender branchlets, clear gray cortex, persistently smooth except on the lower part of the trunk, and glaucous-green foliage. it grows along water-courses, dry in autumn and winter, from southern coahuila to central hidalgo, and is associated with p. cembroides, from which it may be distinguished by its longer leaves and much longer cylindrical cone. plate xiii. fig. , cone, cone-scale and seed. fig. , branchlet with leaves. fig. , magnified leaf-section. . pinus nelsonii p. nelsonii shaw in gard. chron. ser. , xxxvi. , f. . spring-shoots slender, pruinose; branchlets very pliant and tough, summer-shoots abundant. leaves with a persistent sheath, from to cm. long, united in threes along a portion of their ventral surface into pseudomonophyllous fascicles, serrulate on the two margins of the dorsal surface, entire on the ventral margin; stomata dorsal and with one row along the free portion of each ventral face. conelets usually, if not always, pseudolateral by reason of the summer growth of the branchlets, and attaining in their first season an unusually large size. cones from to cm. long, on very long stout and curved peduncles, cylindrical, deciduous by an articulation between the cone and its peduncle, leaving the latter for several years on the tree; apophyses dark lustrous orange-red, rugose, elevated along a sharp transverse keel, the umbo obscurely defined, the mucro usually broken away; nuts large, flaxen yellow, the spermoderm adnate to the cone-scale. a small bushy tree with long pliant branches, clear gray cortex all over the limbs and trunk, and sparse gray-green foliage. it grows, together with p. cembroides, on the lower slopes of the northeastern sierras of mexico, near the boundary between the states of tamaulipas and nuevo leon. it is apparently confined to a small area near the latitude of the city of victoria, the capital of tamaulipas, where its nuts are often exposed for sale. in many characters this species is unique. it can be recognized at once by the connate leaves that form the fascicle or by the remarkable stout curved peduncle of its cone. such seeds as i have seen differ from those of p. cembroides by a reddish area at one end, but this can be seen with fresh seeds only. plate xiii. fig. , cone, cone scale and seed. fig. , branchlet with leaves. fig. , magnified section of a leaf-fascicle. [illustration: plate xiii. p. nelsonii ( - ), pinceana ( - ), cembroides ( - )] =v. gerardianae= seeds with a very short ineffective articulate wing. leaves in fascicles of , serrulate, the sheath deciduous. bark exfoliating in large scales, leaving parti-colored areas. these asiatic nut pines are alike in leaf and cortex as well as in the peculiar seed-wing. the last often remains in the cone after the nut falls. the mechanical nature of this adhesion is apparent in p. gerardiana, where the wing adheres not to its own, but to the adjacent scale. the two species are alike in their leaves but distinct in their cones and seeds. cones smaller, the nut short-ovate . bungeana. cones larger, the nut long-cylindrical . gerardiana. . pinus bungeana p. bungeana zuccarini ex endlicher, syn. conif. . spring-shoots glabrous, summer-shoots common on fruiting branches of young trees. leaves from to cm. long, serrulate; stomata dorsal and ventral; resin-ducts external. conelets subterminal or often pseudolateral, their scales gradually narrowed into a spine. cones from to cm. long, short-pedunculate, short-ovate; apophyses dull pale nut-brown, elevated along a transverse keel, the dark brown umbo forming a spine with a broad base; seeds with a short loosely attached wing, sometimes remaining in the cone when the short-ovate nut falls. a tree cultivated about the temples of china and recently found by wilson growing on the mountains of hupeh. the earlier parti-colored bark changes to chalky white on old trunks, by which the tree is recognized from a great distance. the stem of the tree is often multiple by the vertical growth of some of the lower branches. it is very hardy and is cultivated in europe and america, although these cultivated trees are not yet of sufficient age to show the remarkable white trunk. plate xiv. fig. , cone and cone-scale with adhering wing. fig. , seed and wing. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. fig. , parti-colored bark. fig. , tree with white trunk. . pinus gerardiana p. gerardiana wallich ex lambert, gen. pin. ed. vo, ii. t. . spring-shoots glabrous. leaves from to cm. long, serrulate; stomata dorsal and ventral; resin-ducts external. scales of the conelet armed with a short spine. cones from to cm. long, short-pedunculate, ovoid or oblong; apophyses fulvous brown, very thick, with a prominent reflexed or erect protuberance culminating in an umbo on which the spine is more or less persistent; nuts remarkably long, narrow, terete, the shell fragile, the short wing falling with the nut or adhering to the adjacent scale. a tree of the northwestern himalayas found on the borders of cashmere and thibet and in kafiristan and north afghanistan, and so highly prized for its nuts that it is rarely felled for its wood. it grows in dry regions and rarely attains a height of metres. attempts to cultivate this species, even in the milder parts of great britain, have generally failed. the apophysis of the cone varies much in prominence (figs. , ), but the peculiar seed is invariable and quite unlike that of any other pine. the general color of the trunk at a distance is silver-gray. plate xiv. fig. , cone. fig. , cone-scale with adhering seed-wing. fig. , cone-scale of flatter form. fig. , seed and wing. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. [illustration: plate xiv. p. gerardiana ( - ), bungeana ( - )] =vi. balfourianae= seeds with long effective wings. leaves entire, in fascicles of , the sheath deciduous. the two species known as foxtail pines are alike in their short entire falcate leaves, persisting for many years and forming long dense foliage-masses. they differ in the armature of their cones and in their seed-wings. the presence of both adnate and articulate wings in these closely related species suggests that these two forms of wing are not fundamentally distinct. cone-scales short-mucronate, the seed-wing adnate . balfouriana. cone-scales long-aristate, the seed-wing articulate . aristata. . pinus balfouriana p. balfouriana balfour in bot. exp. oregon, , f. spring-shoots somewhat puberulent. leaves from to cm. long, persistent for many years; stomata ventral only; resin-ducts external. scales of the conelet short-mucronate. cones from to cm. long, tapering to a rounded apex, short-pedunculate; apophyses dark terracotta-brown, tumid, the umbo bearing a short recumbent prickle; seed with a long adnate wing. an alpine species growing often at the timber-limit. it is found in two distinct stations in california, on the northern coast range and on the southern sierras. it is not often cultivated, but young plants may be seen in the arnold arboretum and in the royal gardens at kew. plate xv. fig. , cone, seed and enlarged cone-scale. fig. , leaf-fascicle. fig. , magnified leaf-section. fig. , a branch with persistent leaves. . pinus aristata p. aristata engelmann in am. jour. sci. ser. , xxxiv. . p. balfouriana watson in king's rep. v. (not balfour). spring-shoots glabrous or temporarily pubescent. leaves from to cm. long, persistent for many years; stomata ventral only; resin-ducts external. scales of the conelet prolonged into long slender bristles. cones from to cm. long, subcylindrical or tapering to a rounded apex, short-pedunculate; apophyses terracotta or purple-brown, tumid, the long bristles of the umbo often partly or wholly broken away; seeds with a long articulate wing. a bushy tree, similar in foliage to the preceding species, growing at the timber-limit from colorado through utah, central and southern nevada and northern arizona into southeastern california, but separated from the nearest station of p. balfouriana by an arid treeless desert. engelmann (in brewer and watson, bot. calif. ii. ) considered it to be a variety of p. balfouriana. plate xv. fig. , cone. fig. , seed and enlarged cone-scale. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. fig. , conelet. [illustration: plate xv. p. aristata ( - ), balfouriana ( - )] diploxylon bases of the bracts subtending leaf-fascicles decurrent. leaves serrulate; fibro-vascular bundle double; stomata dorsal and ventral. cones with a dorsal umbo, the phyllotaxis complex. wood hard, with dark resinous bands, the annual rings clearly defined. in this section there are a few species combining the essential characters of diploxylon with important characters of haploxylon. a subsection, parapinaster, is established for these exceptional species. c. parapinaster species with the fascicle-sheath or seed-wing of haploxylon. d. pinaster sheath persistent, seed-wing articulate, effective. =parapinaster= sheath of the leaf-fascicle deciduous vii. leiophyllae. sheath of the leaf-fascicle persistent. seed-wing of the strobi viii. longifoliae. seed-wing of the gerardianae ix. pineae. =vii. leiophyllae= sheath of the leaf-fascicles deciduous. leaves short, erect, the fructification triennial . leiophylla. leaves long, pendent, the fructification biennial . lumholtzii. . pinus leiophylla p. leiophylla schlechtendal and chamisso in linnaea, vi. . p. chihuahuana engelmann in wislizenus, tour. mex. . spring-shoots uninodal. leaves in fascicles of , or , the sheath deciduous, from to cm. long; resin-ducts medial with an occasional internal duct. conelets single or verticillate, their scales mucronate; conelets of the second year only slightly enlarged. cones maturing the third year, not exceeding cm. in length, ovate or ovate-conic, subsymmetrical, more or less reflexed, persistent for several years on some trees, sometimes serotinous; apophyses lighter or darker brown, often with an olive or fuscous shade, thin or tumid, the umbo double, the mucro more persistent near the apex of the cone. this species grows at subtropical or warm-temperate altitudes in mexico, from oaxaca through the central and western states to southern arizona and new mexico. as it approaches the northern part of its range the leaves become thicker and more rigid and the number in the fascicle is reduced to or (var. chihuahuana, shaw, pines mex. ). like p. rigida it sprouts freely along the branches and trunk, and stumps of felled trees put out shoots in great numbers. the species is easily recognized by the deciduous sheath and triennial cone. plate xvi. fig. , branch with fruit of first, second and third years. fig. , leaf-fascicles. fig. , magnified leaf-section of the species. fig. , magnified leaf-section of the variety. . pinus lumholtzii p. lumholtzii robinson & fernald in proc. am. acad. xxx. . spring-shoots uninodal, sometimes multinodal. leaves in fascicles of , the sheath deciduous, from to cm. long, absolutely pendent; resin-ducts medial and internal. conelets subterminal, or lateral and subterminal, mucronate. cones not exceeding cm. in length, symmetrical, pendent on slender peduncles, ovate-conic, early deciduous; apophyses sublustrous, nut-brown, tumid at the margins, flat on the surface, the umbo large, the mucro rarely persistent. a remarkable pine with long pendent bright green foliage, confined to the western states of mexico and ranging on the mountains from southern jalisco to the latitude of the city of chihuahua. each season's growth of leaves hangs from the branchlet like a long beard, from which the tree receives, in some localities, the name "pino barba caida." in the herbarium the long leaves, deciduous sheaths, and the decurrent bases of the bracts, present a combination of characters not found in other species. plate xvi. fig. , cone. fig. , cone. fig. , leaf-fascicle. fig. , magnified leaf-section. fig. , tree at ferraria de tula. [illustration: plate xvi. p. leiophylla ( - ), lumholtzii ( - )] =viii. longifoliae= seed-wing adnate to the nut. leaves long, in fascicles of , the sheath persistent. apophysis of the cone prolonged and reflexed . longifolia. apophysis of the cone low-pyramidal . canariensis. . pinus longifolia p. longifolia roxburgh ex lambert, gen. pin. i. , t. . p. roxburghii sargent, silva n. am. xi. . spring-shoots uninodal. leaves in fascicles of , the sheath persistent, from to cm. long; resin-ducts external, the hypoderm often in large masses, some or all of the endoderm cells with thick outer walls. cones from to cm. long, short-pedunculate, ovoid-conic; apophyses lustrous brown-ochre or fuscous brown, elevated into thick, often reflexed, beaks with obtuse mutic umbos; seeds with large nuts and adnate striated dark gray or fuscous brown wings. of the three pines of the himalayas this species is the most important. it grows on the outer slopes and foot-hills from bhotan to afghanistan. the wood is used for construction and for the manufacture of charcoal, the thick soft bark is valuable for tanning, the resin is abundant and of commercial importance, and the nuts are gathered for food. the tree is not hardy in cool-temperate climates, but has been successfully grown in northern italy. it differs from p. canariensis in the usually protuberant apophysis of the cone, in the thick outer walls of the leaf-endoderm and in the nearly smooth walls of the ray-tracheids of the wood. in the dimensions of cone and leaf, in the dermal tissues and resin-ducts of the leaf and in the peculiar coloring of the seed-wing, the two species are alike. plate xvii. fig. , cone. fig. , leaf-fascicle. fig. , magnified leaf-section. . pinus canariensis p. canariensis smith in buch, canar. ins. . spring-shoots uninodal, pruinose. bud-scales with conspicuously long free fimbriate margins. leaves in fascicles of , the sheath persistent, from to cm. long; the hypoderm often in large masses, the resin-ducts external, the endoderm with thin outer walls. cones from to cm. long, short-pedunculate, ovoid-conic; apophyses lustrous or sublustrous nut-brown, more or less pyramidal, the umbo unarmed; seeds as in the last species. a species confined to the canary islands, but cultivated in northern italy. the stately habit of this tree is seen in schröter's portrait (exc. canar. ins. t. ). plate xvii. fig. , cone and seed. fig. , magnified leaf-section. fig. , habit of the tree. [illustration: plate xvii. p. longifolia ( - ), canariensis ( - )] =ix. pineae= seed-wing articulate, short, ineffective. leaves binate, the sheath persistent. one species only. . pinus pinea p. pinea linnaeus, sp. pl. . p. sativa lamarck, fl. franç. ii. . p. maderiensis tenore in ann. sci. nat. sér. , ii. . spring-shoots uninodal. leaves from to cm. long; resin-ducts external. conelet mutic, slightly larger in the second year. cones triennial, from to cm. long, ovoid or subglobose; apophyses lustrous nut-brown, convex, of large size, the umbo double; seeds large with a short, loosely articulated, deciduous wing. a species of the mediterranean basin, from portugal to syria. its northern limit is in southern france and northern italy, but it is cultivated in the southern parts of the british isles and is a familiar ornament of park and garden in southern europe, and is valued for its peculiar beauty and for its large savory nuts. in wood anatomy as well as in the seed it agrees with the gerardianae of the soft pines. plate xviii. fig. , fruit of three seasons. fig. , cone-scales and seed. fig. , magnified leaf-section. fig. , habit of the tree. [illustration: plate xviii. pinus pinea] =pinaster= bases of the bracts subtending leaf-fascicles decurrent. seeds with an effective articulate wing. umbo of the cone-scales dorsal. leaves serrulate, stomatiferous on all faces, the sheath persistent. walls of the tracheids of the medullary rays dentate. forty-two of the sixty-six species of pinus are included in this subsection. as a group they are clearly circumscribed by several correlated characters and are more closely interrelated than the twenty-four species previously described. the distinctions of umbo and seed have disappeared. the umbo here is invariably dorsal, the seed-wing invariably articulate. new forms, however, are gradually evolved--the seed with a thick wing-blade, the indurated oblique cone, the serotinous cone with its intermittent seed-release, and the multinodal spring-shoot. there are, moreover, new forms of leaf-hypoderm and a new position of the resin-duct. of these new characters, the thick wing-blade attains such proportions in the three species of the macrocarpae that they can be grouped apart. but the characters that finally culminate in a lateral oblique serotinous cone are so gradually and irregularly developed that they offer no divisional distinctions. with the aid of wood and leaf characters, however, groups can be established which preserve the evolutionary sequence and, at the same time, the obvious affinity of the species. wing-blade thin or slightly thickened at the base. cones dehiscent at maturity. pits of the ray-cells large x. lariciones pits of the ray-cells small xi. australes cones serotinous, pits of the ray-cells small xii. insignes wing-blade very thick xiii. macrocarpae the species of this subsection are very difficult, if not impossible, to classify by the usual method, which groups all species under a few characters assumed to be invariable and of fundamental importance. such a method can be successfully applied to the soft pines and to some of the hard pines, but cannot be applied to all the hard pines without forcing some of them into unnatural associations. to take an example, the group pseudostrobus, characterized by pentamerous leaf-fascicles, appears in many systems. in this group are placed p. torreyana and p. leiophylla. another group, with trimerous fascicles, contains p. sabiniana and p. taeda. now there are no two species more obviously related by important peculiarities than p. torreyana and p. sabiniana; nevertheless they are, by this method, kept apart and associated with species which they resemble in no important particular. an attempt is made here to avoid such incongruities. groups x, xi and xii represent different stages of evolution. in the lariciones the cone is symmetrical, and dehiscent and deciduous at maturity, while the spring-shoot is uninodal. in the australes there is a similar cone, but the spring-shoot gradually becomes multinodal. in the insignes the cone is oblique, persistent and serotinous, and the spring-shoot is multinodal. these definitions state the degree of evolution attained by each group, but not all the species of a group conform exactly with its definition. in each group are species with a characteristic of another group. among the lariciones are a few species with both symmetrical and oblique cones, and two with persistent cones. similar exceptions occur among the australes. among the insignes are a few species with symmetrical cones, and two with cones that are rarely, if ever, serotinous. there is, however, no difficulty in fixing the systematic position of these exceptional species through other characters which show their true affinity. they are placed with the species which they most resemble. their exceptional characters are merely the evidence of the evolution that pervades and unites the groups. therefore the definition of a group is not necessarily the exact definition of its species, and a species is placed in a group because all its characters, specific and evolutional, show a closer affinity with that group than with the species of any other. =x. lariciones= pits of the ray-cells large. cells of the leaf-hypoderm uniform. spring-shoots uninodal. cones dehiscent at maturity. this group represents the first stage in the evolution of the hard pines. all the species, like the soft pines, are uninodal and the cones are dehiscent at maturity, but the trend toward the serotinous species is shown in the occasional appearance of the oblique cone as a varietal form of a few species, and in the persistent cone of the last two species of this group. all the species of this group are of the old world except p. resinosa and p. tropicalis. these two are the only american pines combining large pits with dentate tracheids, and are the only american hard pines with external resin-ducts of the leaf. cones deciduous at maturity. cones ovate or ovate-conic. conelet with tuberculate or entire scales. resin-ducts external and medial . resinosa resin-ducts septal and external . tropicalis conelet with mucronate scales. resin-ducts mostly external. conelet pedunculate, erect. cone nut-brown . massoniana cone dull tawny yellow . densiflora conelet pedunculate, reflexed . sylvestris conelet subsessile, erect . montana resin-ducts mostly medial. bark-formation late . luchuensis bark-formation early. cone nut-brown . thunbergii cone lustrous tawny yellow . nigra cones narrow cylindrical . merkusii cones tenaciously persistent. leaves stout, relatively short . sinensis leaves slender, relatively long . insularis . pinus resinosa p. resinosa aiton, hort. kew. iii. . p. rubra michaux f. hist. arbr. am. i. , t. . spring-shoots uninodal. leaves binate, from to cm. long; resin-ducts external or external and medial; hypoderm uniform and inconspicuous. scales of the conelet mutic. cones from to cm. long, subsessile, symmetrical, deciduous the third year, leaving a few basal scales on the tree; apophyses sublustrous, nut-brown, somewhat thickened along a transverse keel. from nova scotia and lake st. john this species ranges westward to the winnipeg river and southward into minnesota, michigan, northern new york and eastern massachusetts, with rare occurrence on the mountains of pennsylvania. under cultivation it is a beautiful tree, adapted to cold-temperate climates. it was considered by loiseleur ( ) and by spach ( ) to be a variety of p. nigra (laricio). the two species vary in the color of the cone, the anatomy of the leaves, the buds, and in the armature of the conelet. a fallen cone of this species is moreover usually imperfect from the loss of a few basal scales. plate xix. fig. , cone and enlarged conelet. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. . pinus tropicalis p. tropicalis morelet in rev. hort. côte d'or, i. . p. terthrocarpa shaw in gard. chron. ser. , xxxv. , f. . spring-shoots uninodal. leaves binate, sometimes ternate, from to cm. long, rigid, erect; hypoderm of uniform thick-walled cells; resin-ducts of remarkable size, septal, or not quite touching the endoderm and technically external. scales of the conelet minutely tuberculate. cones from to cm. long, short-pedunculate, erect or patulous; ovate-conic, symmetrical; apophyses rufous brown, low-pyramidal, the umbo mutic. growing at sea-level within the tropics and confined to western cuba and the isle of pines. on the island it is associated with p. caribaea. this species needs no other means of identification than its peculiar leaf-section. septal ducts are found in p. oocarpa, pringlei, merkusii and rarely in other species, but they never attain the extraordinary size that appears to be invariable in p. tropicalis. plate xix. fig. , cone and enlarged conelet. fig. , branch with leaves, much reduced. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. fig. , trees on the isle of pines. [illustration: plate xix. p. resinosa ( , ), tropicalis ( - )] . pinus massoniana p. massoniana lambert, gen. pin. i. , t. . p. canaliculata miquel in jour. bot. neerland. i. . spring-shoots uninodal. leaves binate, rarely ternate, from to cm. long, slender and pliant; hypoderm inconspicuous; resin-ducts external. staminate catkins often in long dense clusters. conelets partly tuberculate or mucronate, partly mutic. cones symmetrical, from to cm. long, ovate-conic, short-pedunculate, early deciduous; apophyses sublustrous, nut-brown, flat or somewhat elevated, the umbo usually mutic. the chinese red pine is found in warm-temperate climates. it is native to southeastern china and follows the valley of the yangtse river into szech'uan. it has been confused by london with p. pinaster, which it resembles in no respect, by siebold with p. thunbergii, from which it differs in leaf-dimensions and in leaf-section, and by mayr with his p. luchuensis, whose peculiar cortex and whose leaf-section has no counterpart among chinese hard pines. its nearest relative is p. densiflora, from which it differs in its longer leaves, in the color of its cone and in its conelet (plate xx, figs. , ). plate xx. fig. , cone and enlarged conelet. fig. , two leaf-fascicles. fig. , magnified leaf-section. . pinus densiflora p. densiflora siebold & zuccarini, fl. jap. ii. , t. . p. scopifera miquel in zollinger, syst. verz. ind. archip. . spring-shoots more or less pruinose, uninodal. leaves binate, from to cm. long, slender; hypoderm of few inconspicuous cells; resin-ducts external. staminate catkins in long dense clusters. scales of the conelet conspicuously mucronate. cones symmetrical, from to cm. long, ovate-conic, often persistent for a few years but with a weak hold on the branch; apophyses dull pale tawny yellow, flat or slightly elevated, the mucro more or less persistent. the japanese red pine forms extensive forests on the mountains of central japan. it is perfectly hardy in cold-temperate climates. wild specimens of china, ascribed to this species, are forms of the variable p. sinensis. from p. massoniana it differs in its shorter leaves and yellow cone, but particularly in the more prominent prickles and thicker scales of its conelet (figs. , ). plate xx. fig. , cones and enlarged conelet. fig. , leaf-fascicles. fig. , magnified leaf-section and more magnified dermal tissues of the leaf. [illustration: plate xx. p. massoniana ( - ), densiflora ( - )] . pinus sylvestris p. sylvestris linnaeus, sp. pl. (excl. var.). p. rubra miller, gard. dict. ed. . p. tatarica miller, gard. dict. ed. . p. mughus jacquin, icon. pl. rar. i. t. (not scopoli). p. resinosa savi, fl. pisa. ii. (not aiton). p. humilis link in abhandl. akad. berlin, . p. kochiana klotzsch in linnaea, xxii. . p. armena koch in linnaea, xxii. . p. pontica koch in linnaea, xxii. . p. frieseana wichura in flora, xlii. . p. lapponica mayr, fremdl. wald- & parkb. . spring-shoots uninodal. leaves binate, from to cm. long; hypoderm inconspicuous; resin-ducts external. conelet reflexed, minutely mucronate. cones from to cm. long, reflexed, symmetrical or sometimes oblique, ovate-conic, deciduous; apophyses dull pale tawny yellow of a gray or greenish shade, flat, elevated or protuberant and often much more prominent on the posterior face of the cone, the umbo with a minute prickle or its remnant. a tree of great commercial value, with a very extended range, from norway, scotland and southern spain to northeastern siberia. a vigorous hardy species and extensively cultivated. the red upper trunk, characteristic of this pine, is not invariable. the dark upper trunk is sufficiently common to be considered a varietal form (mathieu, flore forest. ed. , ). in various localities may be found trees bearing oblique cones, their apophyses showing various degrees of protuberance up to the extreme development represented in loudon's illustration of the variety uncinata (arb. brit. iv, f. ). this cone is the beginning of the changes that culminate in species with oblique cones only. in p. sylvestris, however, the purpose of this form of cone is not apparent except in connection with this evolution. plate xxi. figs. , , cones. fig. , leaf-fascicle, magnified leaf-section and more magnified dermal tissues of the leaf. fig. , habit of the tree. . pinus montana p. montana miller, gard. dict. ed. . p. mughus scopoli, fl. carn. ii. . p. pumilio haenke in jirasek, beobacht. . p. mugho poiret in lamarck, encycl. méth. v. . p. uncinata ramond ex de candolle, lamarck, fl. franç. ed. , iii. . p. sanguinea lapeyrouse, hist. pl. pyren. . p. rotundata link in abhandl. akad. berlin, . p. obliqua sauter ex reichenbach, fl. germ. exc. . p. uliginosa neumann ex wimmer, arb. schles. ges. . spring-shoots uninodal. leaves binate, from to cm. long, the epiderm very thick, hypoderm weak; resin-ducts external. conelets mucronate, nearly sessile. cones from to cm. long, subsessile, ovate or ovate-conic, symmetrical or oblique, often persistent; apophyses lustrous tawny-yellow or dark brown, both colors often shading into each other on the same cone, flat, prominent or prolonged into uncinate beaks of various lengths, the last much more developed on the posterior face of the cone, the umbo bordered by a narrow dark ring and bearing the remnant of the mucro. p. montana grows as a bush or as a small tree, the two forms often associated. it ranges from central spain through the pyrenees, alps and apennines to the balkan mountains, associated with p. cembra at higher, with p. sylvestris at lower altitudes. it grows indifferently in bogs and on rocky slopes. its dwarf form, under the name of the mugho pine, is extensively cultivated as a garden ornament. on the differences of the cone this species has been divided into three subspecies: uncinata, with an oblique cone and protuberant apophyses; pumilio, with a symmetrical cone and an excentric umbo; mughus, with a symmetrical cone and a concentric umbo. other segregations based on the degree of development of the apophysis and on the size and color of the cone, have received names of four or even five terms--pinus montana pumilio applanata--or pinus montana uncinata rostrata castanea etc., etc. these elaborations may be seen in the tharand jahrbuch of , p. , and with them appear also hartig's specifications of forms of this species, each dignified with a latin name. plate xxi. fig. , cone of var. uncinata. figs. , , cones. fig. , leaf-fascicles, magnified leaf-section and more magnified dermal tissues of the leaf. fig. , tree and dwarf-form of the pyrenees. [illustration: plate xxi. p. sylvestris ( - ), montana ( - )] . pinus luchuensis p. luchuensis mayr in bot. centralbl. lviii. , f. spring-shoots uninodal. bark-formation late, the upper trunk covered with a smooth cortex. leaves binate, from to cm. long, the epiderm thick, hypoderm of two or three rows of cells; resin-ducts medial or with an occasional external duct. conelets mucronate toward the apex. cones from to cm. long, ovate-conic, symmetrical; apophyses lustrous nut-brown, transversely carinate, the umbo unarmed. this pine is known to me through mayr's description and a single dried specimen. the smooth cortex of young trees distinguishes it from all other east-asiatic hard pines. mayr includes under this species the pine of hong kong. but in this he must be mistaken, for there is no species yet found in china that agrees with the description of p. luchuensis. plate xxii. fig. , cone. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. . pinus thunbergii p. sylvestris thunberg, fl. jap. (not linnaeus). p. massoniana siebold & zuccarini. fl. jap. ii. , t. (not lambert). p. thunbergii parlatore in dc. prodr. xvi- , . spring-shoots uninodal. buds of leading-shoots white and conspicuous. leaves binate, from to cm. long, the epiderm thick, hypoderm strong, resin-ducts medial. conelets with short-mucronate scales. cones from to cm. long, ovate or ovate-conic, symmetrical; apophyses nut-brown, flat or convex and transversely carinate, the prickle of the umbo more or less persistent. the black pine of japan has been cultivated for centuries, and by skillful japanese gardeners has been trained into dwarf and other curious forms. it is hardy in cold-temperate climates. it is distinct from p. densiflora by the medial ducts of its leaf, from p. nigra by the fewer, larger, brown scales of its cone, and from p. resinosa by the armature of its conelet. it appears in most determinations of chinese collections, but there is no chinese pine with the white buds and the medial leaf-ducts of this species. plate xxii. fig. , two cones. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. . pinus nigra p. nigra arnold, reise n. mariaz. , t. p. laricio poiret in lamarck, encycl. méth. v. . p. halepensis bieberstein, fl. taur. cauc. ii. (not miller). p. pinaster besser, fl. galic. ii. (not aiton). p. maritima aiton, f. hort. kew. v. (not lambert). p. sylvestris baumgarten, stirp. transsilv. ii. (not linnaeus). p. pyrenaica lapeyrouse, hist. pl. pyren. suppl. . p. pallasiana lambert, gen. pin. ii. , t. . p. austriaca höss in flora, viii- , beil. . p. nigricans host, fl. austr. ii. . p. dalmatica visiani, fl. dalmal. , note. p. salzmanni dunal in mém. acad. montp. ii. , tt. p. heldreichii christ in verh. nat. ges. basel, iii. . p. leucodermis antoine in oesterr. bot. zeitschr. xiv. . p. pindica formanek in verh. nat. ver. brünn, xxxiv. . spring-shoots uninodal. leaves binate, from to cm. long, the epiderm thick, hypoderm conspicuous, resin-ducts medial. conelets mucronate. cones from to cm. long, subsessile, symmetrical; apophyses lustrous, tawny yellow, transversely carinate, the keel strongly convex, the mucro of the umbo more or less persistent. a valuable tree unequally distributed over the mountain slopes of central and southern europe and asia minor. the typical form, under the name of the austrian pine, is a familiar exotic of the middle and eastern states of america. as mathieu states (flore forest., ed. , ), this species is quite constant in cone and bark. it may be added that the anatomy of the leaf is also constant, while the dimensions of both leaf and cone present no unusual variations. the varieties generally accepted are founded on the habit of the tree, a character of forestal or horticultural rather than of botanical importance. plate xxii. fig. , two cones. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. fig. , magnified dermal tissues of the leaf. [illustration: plate xxii. p. luchuensis ( , ), nigra ( - ), thunbergii ( , )] . pinus merkusii p. sylvestris loureiro, fl. cochinch. ii. (not linnaeus). p. merkusii de vriese, pl. nov. ind. bat. , t. . p. finlaysoniana wallich ex blume, rumphia, iii. . p. latteri mason in jour. asiat. soc. i. . spring-shoots uninodal. leaves binate, slender, from to cm. long, the hypoderm of uniform thick-walled cells, resin-ducts medial, or with internal or septal ducts, endoderm-cells very unequal in size, some of them large. conelets unarmed. cones from to cm. long, peculiarly narrow-cylindrical, symmetrical; apophyses lustrous, rufous brown, radially carinate, the transverse keel prominent. of the habit of this pine i know nothing. as a species it is very clearly defined by its peculiar cone and leaf-section. it grows in the philippines, sumatra, lower burmah and western indo-china. in my specimen the pits of the ray-cells of the wood are both large and small. in this particular it may belong in either of two groups of species. its uniform leaf-hypoderm associates it with this group or with p. halepensis of the insignes. i have assumed the cone to be dehiscent at maturity and have placed it with the lariciones, but if further information shows the cone to be serotinous, this species should be transferred to the serotinous group. plate xxiii. fig. , cone. fig. , magnified sections of two leaves. fig. , leaf-fascicle. . pinus sinensis p. sinensis lambert, gen. pin. ed. vo. i. , t. . p. tabulaeformis carrière, trait. conif. ed. , . p. leucosperma maximowicz in bull. acad. st. pétersb. xxvii. . p. yunnanensis franchet in jour. de bot. xiii. . p. funebris komarow in act. hort. petrop. xx. . p. henryi masters in jour. linn. soc. xxvi. . p. densata masters in jour. linn. soc. xxxvii. . p. prominens masters in jour. linn. soc. xxxvii. . p. wilsonii shaw in sargent, pl. wilson. i. . spring-shoots uninodal, pruinose. leaves binate, ternate, or both, from to cm. long, stout and rigid; resin-ducts external, or external and medial. staminate catkins in short capitate clusters. conelets mucronate. cones from to cm. long, ovate, symmetrical or oblique, tenaciously persistent, dehiscent at maturity; apophyses lustrous, pale tawny yellow at first, gradually changing to a dark nut-brown, tumid, the posterior scales often larger and more prominent. a tree of cold-temperate and subalpine levels, growing on the mountains of central and western china, and at lower altitudes in the north and in corea. it is recognized by its tenaciously persistent cones with a remarkable change in color. it is constantly confused with p. thunbergii and p. densiflora, neither of which grows spontaneously in china. from the former it differs in leaf-section and bud (the bud of p. sinensis is never white), from the latter in the lustre and the color variation of its cone, and from both in the frequent obliquity of its cone and in the frequent presence of trimerous leaf-fascicles. of the two varieties of this species, densata and yunnanensis (shaw in sargent, pl. wilson. ii. ), the former represents the extreme oblique form of cone, the latter represents the longest dimensions of cone and leaf. the effect of environment on this species can be seen in figs. , , from a lower slope and rich soil, and fig. , from a high rocky ledge in the same locality. plate xxiii. fig. , cone of var. densata. fig. , cone of var. yunnanensis. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section of var. yunnanensis. fig. , cone and leaf-fascicle from a rocky ledge. fig. , cone, leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section of the typical form. fig. , seeds. fig. , conelet and its enlarged scale. . pinus insularis p. taeda blanco, fl. filip. (not linnaeus). p. insularis endlicher, syn. conif. . p. khasiana griffith, notul. pl. asiat. iv. ; icon. pl. asiat. tt. , . p. kasya royle ex parlatore in dc. prodr. xvi- , . spring-shoots uninodal, glabrous. leaves from to cm. long, in fascicles of , rarely of , very slender; resin-ducts external, rarely with a medial duct. conelets mucronate. cones from to cm. long, ovate-conic, symmetrical or oblique, tenaciously persistent; apophyses lustrous, nut-brown, convex or elevated along a transverse keel, the posterior scales of some cones larger and more prominent than the anterior scales, the mucro usually deciduous. a species of the philippines and of northern burmah. in both countries it is locally exploited for wood and resin. it differs from the common form of p. sinensis by its much longer leaves, and from its var. yunnanensis, which it more resembles, by its much more slender and pliant leaves. moreover its cone, so far as i can learn, is not yellow at maturity, but brown. plate xxiii. figs. , , three cones. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. [illustration: plate xxiii. p. merkusii ( - ), sinensis ( - ), insularis ( - )] =xi. australes= pits of the ray-cells small. leaf-hypoderm biform or variable. spring-shoots uninodal in some, multinodal in other species. cones dehiscent at maturity. this group combines the dehiscent cone of the lariciones with the wood-anatomy of the serotinous pines. also the multinodal spring-shoot first appears here and is gradually developed among the species, absent in nos. - , sometimes present in nos. - , and prevalent in nos. - . all the species are of the western hemisphere, and among them may be found the biform hypoderm of the leaf, the internal resin-duct, and the total absence of external resin-ducts, characters common in american hard pines. the eastern species are quite constant in their characters and present no varietal forms; the western species, on the other hand, are very variable. this difference may be due to the even level and slight climatic differences of the atlantic states and to the remarkable diversity of altitude and climate of the western states and mexico. outer walls of the leaf-endoderm thick. cones large, attaining cm. or more in length. prickles of the cone inconspicuous. bark-formation late . pseudostrobus bark-formation early . montezumae prickle of the cone conspicuous . ponderosa cones small, cm. or less in length . teocote outer walls of the leaf-endoderm thin. spring-shoots mostly uninodal. prickle of the cone slender, sometimes deciduous. cones mostly oblique . lawsonii cones symmetrical . occidentalis prickles of the cone stout and persistent . palustris spring-shoots multinodal. resin-ducts internal . caribaea. resin-ducts mostly medial. prickle of the cone stout . taeda prickle of the cone slender. bark-formation late . glabra bark-formation early . echinata . pinus pseudostrobus p. pseudostrobus lindley in bot. reg. xxv. misc. . p. apulcensis lindley in bot. reg. xxv. misc. . p. tenuifolia bentham, pl. hartw. . p. orizabae gordon in jour. hort. soc. lond. i. , f. spring-shoots uninodal, conspicuously pruinose. bark-formation late, the cortex of young trees smooth. leaves in fascicles of , sometimes of , from to cm. long, drooping; resin-ducts medial, hypoderm variable in amount, often in very large masses, the outer walls of the endoderm thick. conelets mucronate. cones from to cm. long, ovate or ovate-conic, symmetrical or oblique, deciduous and often leaving a few basal scales on the trees; apophyses rufous or fulvous brown, flat, elevated or, in one variety, prolonged in various degrees, the prolongations nearly uniform or much more prominent on the posterior face of the cone, the mucro usually deciduous. a species of the subtropical and warm-temperate altitudes of mexico and central america. its range includes both eastern and western slopes of the northern plateau. its northern limit is in nuevo leon, and it probably reaches in nicaragua the southern limit of pines in the western hemisphere. it is distinguished from all its associates by the smooth gray trunk of the young trees, by their long internodes, and by their drooping gray-green foliage. some cones of this species develop protuberances of all degrees of prominence up to the curious cone collected in oaxaca by nelson (var. apulcensis, shaw, pines mex. t. , fig. ). there is also a remarkable difference in the amount of leaf-hypoderm. on many trees of the western part of the range this tissue forms septa across the green mesophyll. such partitions are sometimes met in other species, p. pringlei or p. canariensis, where the hypoderm is abundant. but in p. pseudostrobus they appear in some leaves of weak, as well as of strong hypoderm (var. tenuifolia, shaw, pines mex. t. , ff. , , , , ). plate xxiv. fig. , cone. fig. , two cones of var. tenuifolia. figs. , , two cones of var. apulcensis. fig. , magnified section of leaves of var. tenuifolia. fig. , magnified section of leaves of the species. fig. , bud destined to produce staminate flowers. fig. , ten-year old branch showing smooth cortex. fig. , young and mature trees in open growth. [illustration: plate xxiv. pinus pseudostrobus] . pinus montezumae p. occidentalis h. b. & k. nov. gen. ii. (not swartz). p. montezumae lambert, gen. pin. ed. vo, i. , t. . p. devoniana lindley in bot. reg. xxv. misc. . p. hartwegii lindley in bot. reg. xxv. misc. . p. russelliana lindley in bot. reg. xxv. misc. . p. macrophylla lindley in bot. reg. xxv. misc. . p. filifolia lindley in bot. reg. xxvi. misc. . p. sinclairii hooker & arnott, bot. beechy voy. , t. (as to cone). p. radiata hooker & arnott, bot. beechy voy. (as to leaves). p. grenvilleae gordon in jour. hort. soc. lond. ii. , f. p. gordoniana hartweg in jour. hort. soc. lond. ii. , f. p. wincesteriana gordon in jour. hort. soc. lond. ii. , f. p. rudis endlicher, syn. conif. . p. ehrenbergii endlicher, syn. conif. . p. lindleyana gordon, pinet. . p. donnell-smithii masters in bot. gaz. xvi. . spring-shoots uninodal, slightly or not at all pruinose. bark-formation early, the branches becoming dark and rough. leaves prevalently in fascicles of , but varying from to , extremely variable in length, attaining cm. at subtropical levels; resin-ducts medial, hypoderm sometimes uniform, more commonly multiform, the outer walls of the endoderm thick. conelet mucronate, the prickle often reflexed. cones of many sizes, attaining in warm localities cm. in length, ovate-conic or long-conic, symmetrical, often curved, deciduous and often leaving a few scales on the tree; apophyses dull, rarely lustrous, nut-brown, or of various shades of fuscous brown to nearly black, flat, tumid, pyramidal or sometimes slightly protuberant, the prickle rarely persistent. this species ranges from the mountains of northern durango to the volcanoes of guatemala, or possibly farther south. it is found at all altitudes where pines can grow except on the tropical levels of guatemala. its more hardy forms have been successfully grown in the milder parts of great britain and northern italy. it is felled for lumber in many parts of mexico. this sturdy pine and its numberless variations present the most remarkable example of adaptation in the genus. the variations are mostly those associated with changes of environment--dimensions of cone and leaf and the number of leaves in the fascicle. these are so accurately correlated with altitude and exposure, and are so imperceptibly graded, that no specific segregations among them have yet been successfully established. the type-specimen figured by lambert does not show the longest cone and leaf of this species. they are better represented by specimens which have been named p. filifolia. such dimensions prevail in subtropical localities. at temperate altitudes these dimensions are much reduced, but here are found a longer form of cone and leaf (var. lindleyi, loudon) and a shorter form (var. rudis, shaw). at still higher altitudes and up to the timber-limit the var. hartwegii, engelmann, with short leaves and a small nearly black cone is found. among these varieties there is no such sharp distinction as these definitions imply. all dimensions of fruit and foliage and the various brown and black shades of the cone blend into each other through endless intergradations. a monograph of this species, by one who could devote some years to it on the superb volcanoes and in the delightful climates where this tree abounds, would be a valuable contribution to science. plate xxv. (cones and leaves much reduced.) fig. , cone and leaves of lambert's plate. figs. , , longer cones and leaves of the species. fig. , cone and leaves of var. lindleyi. fig. , cones and leaves of var. rudis. fig. , cone and leaves of var. hartwegii. fig. , magnified leaf-sections. figs. , , two forms of the dermal tissues of the leaf, magnified. fig. , habit of the tree. [illustration: plate xxv. pinus montezumae] . pinus ponderosa p. ponderosa douglas ex lawson's agric. man. . p. benthamiana hartweg in jour. hort. soc. lond. ii. . p. brachyptera engelmann in wislizenus, tour mex. . p. macrophylla engelmann in wislizenus, tour mex. (not lindley). p. jeffreyi balfour in bot. exp. oregon, , f. p. engelmanni carrière in rev. hort. . p. beardsleyi murray in edinb. phil. jour. ser. , i. , t. . p. craigana murray in edinb. phil. jour. ser. , i. , t. . p. parryana gordon, pinet. (not engelmann). p. deflexa torrey in emory's rep. ii. , , t. . p. arizonica engelmann in wheeler's rep. vi. . p. latifolia sargent in gar. & for. ii. , f. . p. apacheca lemmon in erythea, ii. , t. . p. mayriana sudworth in bull. , u. s. dept. agric. . p. scopulorum lemmon in gar. & for. x. . p. peninsularis lemmon, w. am. conebear. . spring-shoots uninodal, sometimes pruinose. bark-formation early. leaves prevalently in fascicles of , but varying from to or more, from to cm. long; resin-ducts medial, hypoderm uniform or multiform, outer walls of the endoderm thick. conelet mucronate, the mucro often reflexed. cones from to cm. long, ovate-conic, symmetrical, deciduous and usually leaving a few basal scales on the tree; apophyses tawny yellow to fuscous brown, lustrous, elevated along a transverse keel, sometimes protuberant and reflexed, the umbo salient and forming the base of a pungent, persistent prickle. this species ranges from southern british columbia over the mountains between the pacific and the eastern foot-hills of the rocky mountains, including the black hills of south dakota, to the northeastern sierras of mexico, to northern jalisco and lower california, forming, in many localities, large forests and furnishing the best hard pine timber of the western united states. it attains its best growth on the sierras of california and is, next to p. lambertiana, the tallest of the pines. like p. montezumae, and under like influences, it shows much dimensional variation, and the leaf-fascicles are heteromerous, with the larger number in the southern part of its range. many authors consider the variety jeffreyi vasey to be a distinct species; but here, it seems to me, too much importance is attached to the pruinose branchlet, clearly a provision against transpiration and associated rather with a dry environment than with a species. most observers discover many intermediate forms between this variety and the species. the var. scopulorum engelm. is the rocky mountain form with leaves in 's and 's and with small cones passing into p. arizonica, engelm., a more southern form with small cones and leaves in fascicles of to . the var. macrophylla (shaw, pines mex. ), in addition to its long and stout leaves, bears a cone with protuberant apophyses, somewhat comparable to the intermediate forms of p. pseudostrobus var. apulcensis shaw (l. c.). fascicles of and leaves are sometimes found, and specimens that i have collected in sandia, durango (issued by pringle, through a misunderstanding, under the name p. roseana, ined.) show such fascicles on the fertile branches. plate xxvi. fig. , cone and seed of var. jeffreyi. fig. , cone of var. macrophylla. fig. , cone of var. scopulorum. fig. , magnified leaf-section and cells of leaf-endoderm. fig. , magnified dermal tissues of the leaf, showing uniform and multiform hypoderm. [illustration: plate xxvi. pinus ponderosa] . pinus teocote p. teocote schlechtendal & chamisso in linnaea, v. . spring-shoots uninodal, or sometimes multinodal. leaves prevalently in fascicles of , but varying from to , from to cm. long; resin-ducts medial, sometimes with an internal duct, hypoderm biform, endoderm with thick outer walls. conelets mucronate. cones usually very small, from to cm. long, but with a larger varietal form, ovate to long-conic, symmetrical; apophyses nut-brown, flat or tumid, the mucro usually deciduous. this species grows at temperate altitudes from chiapas to nuevo leon, associated with temperate mexican species such as p. patula, p. leiophylla and others, and is easily recognized by its small cone. the variety with a larger cone (var. macrocarpa, shaw, pines mex. t. ) i have found growing in mixed groves of p. teocote and p. leiophylla. it resembles the latter in cone and leaf, but lacks the peculiar character that distinguishes p. leiophylla from all other mexican species--the triennial cone. some of the specimens of hartweg no. belong here, as well as pringle's specimens, nos. , , distributed as p. eslavae, ined. plate xxvii. fig. , two cones of the species and the larger cone of the variety. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified sections of two leaves. fig. a, dermal tissues of the leaf magnified; b, magnified cells of the leaf-endoderm. fig. , habit of the tree. . pinus lawsonii p. lawsonii roezl ex gordon, pinet. suppl. . p. altamirani shaw in sargent, trees & shrubs, i. , t. . spring-shoots conspicuously pruinose, uninodal or not infrequently multinodal. leaves in fascicles of , or , not exceeding cm. in length; resin-ducts internal, often with one or two medial ducts, hypoderm biform, endoderm usually with thin outer walls. conelets mucronate. cones from to cm. long on pliant peduncles, ovate or ovate-conic, oblique or sometimes symmetrical, deciduous, or persistent with a weak hold on the branch; apophyses nut-brown, flat or tumid, often protuberant on the posterior face of the cone, the umbo usually large and salient, forming a rounded button-like projection, on which the mucro is wanting. a subtropical species of central and western mexico, growing alone or associated with p. oocarpa, p. pringlei and the subtropical forms of p. montezumae and p. pseudostrobus. it is recognized among its associate species by its conspicuously glaucous foliage. the cone is very variable on trees of the same grove, both in size and in the protuberance of its apophyses. gordon's specimen in the kew herbarium consists of a single detached cone and a few leaves. the leaves differ from all that i have examined in showing thick-walled endoderm cells, but the cone corresponds with many of my own collection. plate xxvii. fig. , three cones. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. fig. , magnified cells of the leaf-endoderm. [illustration: plate xxvii. p. teocote ( - ), lawsonii ( - )] . pinus occidentalis p. occidentalis swartz, nov. gen. & sp. pl. . p. cubensis grisebach in mem. am. acad. ser. , viii. . p. wrightii engelmann in trans. acad. sci. st. louis, iv. . spring-shoots uninodal, pruinose. leaves in fascicles of to , from to cm. long; resin-ducts internal, hypoderm biform, endoderm with thin outer walls. conelets erect, aristate. cones from to cm. long, reflexed, ovate, symmetrical, deciduous; apophyses nut-brown, lustrous, flat or tumid, the umbo often thin and, together with the slender prickle, bent sharply downward. this species is confined to san domingo, hayti and eastern cuba. its erect conelet and reflexed cone distinguish it from p. caribaea, which has both its conelet and cone reflexed. moreover the conelet is usually, perhaps always, subterminal in p. occidentalis. plate xxviii. fig. , cone. fig. , conelet and enlarged aristate scales. fig. , magnified sections of two leaves and more magnified dermal tissues. . pinus palustris p. palustris miller, gard. dict. ed. . p. australis michaux f. hist. arbr. am. i. , t. . spring-shoots uninodal, rarely multinodal. buds peculiarly large, white, and conspicuously fringed with the long free cilia of the bud-scales. leaves in fascicles of , from to cm. long, rigid; resin-ducts internal, hypoderm biform, endoderm with thin outer walls. conelets short-mucronate. cones from to cm. long, narrow, tapering from a rounded base to a blunt point, symmetrical, deciduous and usually leaving a few scales on the tree; apophyses dull nut-brown, elevated along a transverse keel, the umbo salient and forming the broad base of a small persistent prickle. its thin sap-wood, its very strong heavy wood of large dimensions with abundant resin of excellent quality make this the most valuable species of the genus. it ranges over the sandy plain that borders the atlantic and the gulf of mexico, from southeastern virginia to eastern texas. the northern limit is approximately the centre of the southern and gulf states, with a northern extension in alabama to the base of the appalachian mountains and to northwestern louisiana. its southern limit lies near the centre of the florida peninsula. among its associates this species is recognized by its large white fringed bud and its elongated cone. its leaves attain, on vigorous trees, the maximum length among pines, but on most trees the leaves do not differ in length from the longer forms of those of p. caribaea or p. taeda. a peculiarity, which it shares with p. caribaea, is the deciduous scaly bark of mature trees, constantly falling away in thin irregular scales. plate xxviii. figs. , , cones and seed. fig. , bud. fig. , magnified leaf-section. fig. , magnified cells of the leaf-endoderm. the dermal tissues of fig. also apply to this species. [illustration: plate xxviii. p. palustris ( - ), occidentalis ( - )] . pinus caribaea p. caribaea morelet in rev. hort. côte d'or, i. . p. bahamensis grisebach, fl. brit. w. ind. . p. elliottii engelmann in trans. acad. st. louis, iv. , tt. - . p. cubensis sargent in rep. th. cens. u. s. ix. (not grisebach). p. heterophylla sudworth in bull. torrey bot. club, xx. . p. recurvata rowley in bull. torrey bot. club, xxx. . spring-shoots multinodal, more or less pruinose. buds pale chestnut-brown. leaves in fascicles of and , or more in its southern range, from to cm. long; resin-ducts internal, hypoderm biform, endoderm with thin outer walls. conelets reflexed on long peduncles, mucronate. cones from to cm. long, ovate or oblong-ovate, symmetrical, deciduous and leaving often a few basal scales on the branch; apophyses lustrous, rufous-brown, tumid, the umbo somewhat salient and minutely mucronate. the northern limit of the range of p. caribaea extends from the coast of southeastern s. carolina through southeastern georgia and southern alabama to southeastern louisiana. it is associated with p. palustris, taeda, serotina, echinata and glabra in this part of its range. it continues through florida, where it encounters p. clausa. on the bahamas it is the only pine. on the isle of pines it finds in p. tropicalis another associate. it also grows in honduras and guatemala. the wood and resin of this species are of such excellent quality that no commercial distinction is made between p. caribaea and p. palustris. plate xxix. fig. , cone from the isle of pines. fig. , small form of cone. fig. , large form of cone and binate leaf-fascicle. fig. , conelet. fig. , magnified sections of leaves from binate and ternate fascicles. fig. , habit of the tree, contrasted with a tree of p. palustris in the middle-distance. [illustration: plate xxix. pinus caribaea] . pinus taeda p. taeda linnaeus, sp. pl. . p. lutea walter fl. carol. . p. heterophylla small, fl. southeast. u. s. (not sudworth). spring-shoots multinodal. leaves in fascicles of , from to cm. long; resin-ducts medial, sometimes with an internal duct, hypoderm biform, endoderm with thin outer walls. conelets erect, their scales prolonged into a sharp point. cones from to cm. long, ovate-conic, symmetrical; apophyses dull pale nut-brown, rarely lustrous, elevated along a transverse keel, the whole umbo forming a stout triangular spine with slightly concave sides. the species ranges from southern new jersey to southern arkansas, oklahoma, eastern texas and southwestern tennessee, but does not occur in the lower half of the florida peninsula. it is an important timber-tree, manufactured into all descriptions of scantlings, boarding and finish, but the wood is of various qualities. it may be recognized by the spine of its cone in both years of growth. excepting the formidable armature of the cone of p. pungens, the spines are the strongest and most persistent of all the species of eastern north america. plate xxx. fig. , cone. fig. , leaf-fascicle. fig. , magnified leaf-section. fig. . magnified scales of the conelet. . pinus glabra p. glabra walter, fl. carol. . spring-shoots multinodal. bark-formation late, the upper trunks of mature trees smooth. leaves in fascicles of , from to cm. long; resin-ducts medial, hypoderm weak, sometimes of a single row, biform when of two rows, endoderm with thin outer walls. conelets reflexed, mucronate. cones from to cm. long, reflexed, ovate, symmetrical, deciduous on some trees, persistent on others; apophyses pale dull nut-brown, thin or slightly thickened, the prickle usually deciduous. a tree that sometimes attains important dimensions, growing singly or in small groves from the neighborhood of charleston, s. c., to eastern louisiana and central mississippi, most abundant in a strip of territory on either side of the northern boundary of florida. among the pines of the southeastern united states it is the only species with late bark-formation, and is therefore easily identified. plate xxx. fig. , cone. fig. , enlarged scale of the conelet. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. fig. , dermal tissues of the leaf magnified, with a double row of hypoderm cells. . pinus echinata p. echinata miller, gard. dict. ed. . p. squarrosa walter, fl. carol. . p. mitis michaux, fl. bor. am. ii. . p. variabilis lambert, gen. pin. i. , t. . p. royleana jamieson in jour. hort. soc. lond. ix. , f. spring-shoots multinodal, somewhat pruinose. bark forming early, rough on the upper trunk. leaves in fascicles of and , from to cm. long; resin-ducts medial, with an occasional internal duct, hypoderm weak, biform when of two rows of cells, endoderm with thin outer walls. conelets mucronate. cones from to cm. long, ovate-conic, symmetrical, often persistent; apophyses dull pale nut-brown, thin or somewhat thickened along a transverse keel, the umbo salient, the mucro more or less persistent. this species ranges from southeastern new york to northern florida, to west virginia and eastern tennessee, and through the gulf states to eastern louisiana, eastern texas, southern missouri and southwestern illinois. it is extensively manufactured into material of all kinds that enters into the construction of buildings. it differs from p. virginiana in its longer leaves, brittle branches, and much greater height, from p. glabra in its rough upper trunk, and from both by the frequent presence of trimerous leaf-fascicles. of the six or seven pines of the southeastern united states, this species covers a larger area and ascends the slopes of the alleghany mountains far enough to meet the northern species, p. virginiana, p. rigida, and p. strobus. unlike the western members of this group, p. echinata and its associates are not variable. their characters are singularly constant, as their limited synonymy and total lack of varietal names attest. plate xxx. fig. , cone. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section from a ternate fascicle. fig. , magnified leaf-section from a binate fascicle. fig. , multinodal branchlet bearing lateral and subterminal conelets and a ripe cone. figs. , showing mucronate scales of the conelet, and , showing dermal tissues of the leaf, are applicable also to this species. [illustration: plate xxx. p. glabra ( - ), echinata ( - ), taeda ( - )] =xii. insignes= pits of the ray-cells small. cones tenaciously persistent, serotinous in various degrees. conelets mucronate or spinose. spring-shoots uninodal. resin-ducts mostly internal . pringlei resin-ducts mostly septal . oocarpa spring-shoots multinodal. cones symmetrical. leaf-hypoderm not biform. bark-formation late . halepensis bark-formation early . pinaster leaf-hypoderm biform. cones with slender spines. leaves binate. cones dehiscent at maturity . virginiana cones serotinous . clausa leaves ternate. cones dehiscent at maturity . rigida cones serotinous . serotina cones with stout spines . pungens cones oblique or unsymmetrical. cones and leaves very short, not exceeding cm. cones curved or warped . banksiana cones straight . contorta cones and leaves much longer, more than cm. posterior cone-scales gradually larger than anterior scales. bark-formation late . greggii bark-formation early . patula posterior cone-scales abruptly larger than anterior scales. cones with very stout spines . muricata cones with minute or deciduous prickles. bark-formation late . attenuata bark-formation early . radiata . pinus pringlei p. pringlei shaw in sargent, trees & shrubs, i. , t. . spring-shoots uninodal, sometimes pruinose. leaves ternate, from to cm. long; resin-ducts internal or with an occasional septal duct, hypoderm biform, in thick masses, often projecting far into the green tissue and sometimes touching the endoderm. conelets mucronate. cones from to cm. long, reflexed on a rigid peduncle, subsymmetrical or more or less oblique, tenaciously persistent, often serotinous; apophyses sublustrous tawny yellow or fulvous brown, convex, the posterior scales often more prominently developed, the mucro usually wanting; seed with a perceptibly thickened wing-blade. a tree with long erect bright green foliage, confined, so far as known, to the subtropical altitudes of western mexico. as it grows in uruapan, michoacan, there are two forms of the cone, large and small, both with the same long rigid leaf. plate xxxi. figs. , . three cones and seed. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. . pinus oocarpa p. oocarpa schiede in linnaea, xii. . p. oocarpoides lindley ex loudon, encycl. . spring-shoots uninodal, pruinose. leaves in fascicles of , or , from to cm. long, erect; resin-ducts mostly septal, sometimes internal, hypoderm biform or multiform. conelets on very long peduncles, mucronate. cones from to cm. long, long-pedunculate, broad-ovate to ovate-conic, symmetrical or sometimes oblique, persistent, more or less serotinous; apophysis gray-yellow or greenish yellow of high lustre, flat or variously convex, delicately and radially carinate, the umbo often salient, the prickle usually broken away; seed-wing appreciably thickened at the base of the blade. a subtropical species, ranging from guatemala to the northern border of sinaloa in northern mexico; remarkable for the length of the peduncle of the cone and for the prevalence of septal resin-ducts in the leaf. plate xxxi. fig. , three cones and seed. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. fig. , cone from northern part of the range. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section from near the northern limit. [illustration: plate xxxi. p. pringlei ( - ), oocarpa ( - )] . pinus halepensis p. sylvestris gouan, hort. reg. monspel. (not linnaeus). p. halepensis miller, gard. dict. ed. . p. maritima lambert, gen. pin. i. , t. . p. resinosa loiseleur, nouv. duham. v. , t. (not aiton). p. brutia tenore, cat. hort. neap. appx. , . p. arabica sieber ex sprengel, syst. veg. iii. . p. pyrenaica david in ann. soc. hort. paris, (not lapeyrouse). p. hispanica cook, sketches in spain, ii. . p. pityusa steven in bull. soc. nat. mosc. xi. . p. carica don in ann. mag. nat. hist. vii. . p. persica strangways ex endlicher, syn. conif. . p. abasica carrière, trait. conif. . p. loiseleuriana carrière, trait. conif. . p. parolinii visiani in mem. ist. venet. vi. , t. . p. eldarica medwejew in act. hort. tiflis. vi- , , f. spring-shoots often multinodal. bark-formation late, the branches ashen gray and smooth for several years. leaves binate, from to cm. long; resin-ducts external, hypoderm uniform. conelets obscurely mucronate near the apex. cones from to cm. long, ovate-conic, symmetrical or subsymmetrical, persistent, often serotinous; apophyses red with a lighter or deeper brownish shade, lustrous, flat, convex or low-pyramidal, radially carinate, the umbo often ashen gray and unarmed. a tree ranging from portugal to afghanistan, and from algeria to dalmatia and to northern italy and southern france. it is a vigorous species in its own home, growing readily in poor soils, but not successful in colder climates. the wood is resinous and valuable for fuel. the turpentine industry, once associated with this species, has gradually been abandoned for the more copious product of p. pinaster. it is recognized by its lustrous red cones and by the ashen gray cortex of its branches and upper trunk. tenore's p. brutia (pyrenaica of some authors) is founded on a difference in the length of the leaf and on an erect cone with a shorter peduncle. to recognize species on such distinctions would not be consistent with the purpose and spirit of this discussion. plate xxxii. fig. , two cones. fig. , cone. fig. , lateral conelet. fig. , magnified leaf-section. fig. , dermal tissues of the leaf magnified. . pinus pinaster p. sylvestris miller, gard. dict. ed. (not linnaeus). p. pinaster aiton, hort. kew. iii. . p. laricio savi, fl. pisa. ii. (not poiret). p. maritima poiret in lamarck, encycl. méth. v. (not lambert). p. escarena risso, hist. nat. ii. . p. lemoniana bentham in trans. hort. soc. lond. ser. , i. , t. p. hamiltonii tenore, cat. ort. nap. . spring-shoots sometimes multinodal. bark-formation early. leaves binate, from to cm. long, stout and rigid; resin-ducts medial, hypoderm multiform, the inner cells gradually larger, remarkably large in the angles of the leaf. conelets minutely mucronate. cones from to cm. long, nearly sessile, ovate-conic, symmetrical or subsymmetrical, persistent, sometimes serotinous; apophyses lustrous nut-brown or rufous brown, conspicuously pyramidal, the umbo salient and pungent. a maritime tree corresponding nearly, in its range, with the preceding species, but more hardy in cooler climates. it grows from portugal to greece, and from algeria to dalmatia, but its area has been much extended by cultivation. under favorable conditions it attains large dimensions, but its exploitation for resin and turpentine tends to diminish its size and disfigure its habit (mathieu, fl. forest, ed. , ). its rapid growth, strong root-system, and its ability to thrive on poor sandy soil, have led to the employment of this species for the forestation of sand-dunes in france. the tree can be recognized by its long stout leaves and persistent brown cones. its leaf-section is peculiar in the remarkable size of the inner cells of the hypoderm, especially in the angles of the leaf. plate xxxii. figs. , , cones. fig. , magnified leaf-section. fig. , magnified dermal tissues in the angle of the leaf. [illustration: plate xxxii. p. pinaster ( - ), halepensis ( - )] . pinus virginiana p. virginiana miller, gard. dict. ed. . p. inops aiton, hort. kew. iii. . spring-shoots multinodal, pruinose; branchlets pliant and tough. bark-formation slow, the cortex not rifted for some years. leaves binate, from to cm. long; resin-ducts medial, or with an occasional internal duct; hypoderm biform. conelets with long tapering sharp scales. cones from to cm. long, ovate or oblong-ovate, symmetrical, persistent, dehiscent at maturity; apophyses lustrous nut-brown, somewhat elevated along a transverse keel, the umbo salient, forming a long slender prickle with a broad base. western long island to central georgia and north alabama, and from eastern tennessee to southern indiana and southeastern ohio. it is a low bushy tree in the north, but in the south and west it attains small timber-size and is locally exploited. it is hardy beyond the limits of its natural range, growing readily in the vicinity of boston. its short binate leaves, the persistent long prickles of its cone, and its tough branches, combine to distinguish this pine from its associates. the obvious relationship of p. virginiana and p. clausa places the former in this, rather than in the preceding group. plate xxxiii. fig. , cones. fig. , conelet and its enlarged spinose scale. fig. , leaf-fascicle, magnified leaf-section and more magnified dermal tissues of the leaf. fig. , buds. . pinus clausa p. clausa vasey ex sargent, rep. th cens. u. s. ix. . spring-shoots multinodal. bark-formation slow, as in the preceding species. leaves binate, from to cm. long; resin-ducts medial, or with an occasional internal duct, hypoderm biform when of two rows of cells. conelets with long tapering acute scales. cones from to cm. long, reflexed, ovate-conic, symmetrical, persistent, often serotinous; apophyses lustrous nut-brown, elevated along a transverse keel, the umbo forming a triangular persistent spine. a species of limited range, confined to the sandy coast of alabama and to florida. it sometimes attains timber-size, but is usually a low spreading tree of no commercial importance and never seen in cultivation. it is recognized by its smooth branches, binate leaves and numerous, often multiserial, clusters of persistent, often closed, cones. it is associated with p. caribaea and, in the northern part of its range, it grows with the other southern species. by its close resemblance it may be considered the serotinous form of p. virginiana. plate xxxiii. fig. , three nodal groups of cones of the same year. fig. , conelet and its enlarged scale. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. fig. , larger form of the tree. [illustration: plate xxxiii. p. virginiana ( - ), clausa ( - )] . pinus rigida p. rigida miller, gard. dict. ed. . p. serotina long, in bartonia, ii. (not michaux). spring-shoots multinodal. leaves ternate, from to cm. long; resin-ducts medial, or with an occasional internal duct, hypoderm biform. scales of the conelet abruptly prolonged into a spine. cones from to cm. long, ovate-conic, symmetrical, persistent, dehiscent at maturity or rarely serotinous; apophyses lustrous tawny yellow, elevated along a transverse keel, the umbo salient and forming the broad base of a slender sharp prickle. a tree with bright green foliage in spreading tufts. the northern limit of its range is in southwestern new brunswick, southern maine, central new hampshire and vermont, the thousand islands of the st. lawrence river and central ohio. it ranges into pennsylvania and delaware at low levels and thence over the alleghanies into northern georgia. it is associated with p. strobus and p. resinosa and, further south, with p. virginiana. the cones are rarely serotinous, but it is remarkably like p. serotina in many characters, and is therefore placed in this group. plate xxxiv. fig. , cones. fig. , leaf-fascicle, magnified section through a fascicle, and magnified dermal tissues of the leaf. fig. , upper part of a tree. . pinus serotina p. serotina michaux, fl. bor. am. ii. . spring-shoots multinodal. leaves ternate, from to cm. long; resin-ducts medial or medial and internal, hypoderm biform. conelet long-mucronate. cones from to cm. long, subglobose or short-ovate, symmetrical, persistent, serotinous; apophyses lustrous tawny yellow, slightly elevated along a transverse keel, the umbo forming the broad base of a slender, rather fragile prickle. this species is confined to low wet lands from southeastern virginia to northern florida and central alabama. it is one of the associated six timber-pines of the southern states and the only one of them with serotinous cones. its wood is of like value with that of p. taeda, the two species being constantly confused by lumbermen. it is never associated with p. rigida, but its resemblance to that pine is so great that it may be regarded as its serotinous form. its leaf is longer, its cone usually more orbicular and the prickle weaker. plate xxxiv. fig. , cone. fig. , conelet and its enlarged scale. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. . pinus pungens p. taeda lambert, gen. pin. i. t. , (as to cone). (not linnaeus). p. pungens lambert in ann. bot. ii. . p. montana noll, bot. class book, . (not miller). spring-shoots multinodal. leaves binate or ternate, from to cm. long; resin-ducts medial, or with an occasional internal duct, hypoderm biform. scales of the conelet much prolonged into a very acute triangle. cones from to cm. long, symmetrical or subsymmetrical, tenaciously persistent, serotinous; apophyses lustrous or sublustrous fulvous brown, much elevated along a transverse keel, the umbo forming a stout formidable spine, uniform or nearly uniform on all faces of the cone. a mountain species ranging from central pennsylvania to northern georgia, with isolated stations in western new jersey and maryland. it is remarkable among the pines of eastern north america for the size and strength of the spines of its cone. the armature resembles that of the cone of the western p. muricata, but with the difference that the western cone is strongly oblique, the anterior and posterior spines varying greatly in size. plate xxxiv. fig. , cone. fig. , conelet and its enlarged scale. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. [illustration: plate xxxiv. p. rigida ( - ), serotina ( - ), pungens ( - )] . pinus banksiana p. banksiana lambert, gen. pin. i. . t. . p. hudsonia poiret in lamarck, encycl. méth. v. . p. rupestris michaux f. hist. arbr. am. i. , t. . p. divaricata dumont de courset, bot. cult. ed. , vi. . spring-shoots multinodal. leaves binate, from to cm. long; resin-ducts medial, hypoderm biform. conelets minutely mucronate. cones from to cm. long, erect, ovate-conic, oblique, much curved or variously warped from the irregular development of the scales, serotinous; apophyses lustrous tawny yellow, concave, flat or convex, the umbo small and unarmed. the most northern american pine, growing near the arctic circle in the valley of the mackenzie river, whence it ranges southeasterly to central minnesota and the south shore of lake michigan, and easterly through the dominion of canada to northern vermont, southern maine, and nova scotia. in the northern part of its range it is the only pine, but further south it is associated with p. strobus and p. resinosa. it is easily identified by its curious curved or deformed cones. plate xxxv. fig. , cones. fig. , biserial cones of the same year. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. fig. , habit of the tree. . pinus contorta p. inops bongard in mém. acad. sci. st. pétersb. ii. , (not aiton). p. contorta douglas ex loudon, arb. brit. iv. , f. . p. murrayana balfour in bot. exp. oregon, , f. p. boursieri carrière in rev. hort. , ff. , . p. bolanderi parlatore in dc. prodr. xvi- , . p. tamrac murray in gard. chron. , ff. - . p. tenuis lemmon in erythea, vi. . spring-shoots multinodal. leaves binate, from to cm. long; resin-ducts medial, hypoderm biform. conelets long-mucronate. cones from to cm. long, sessile, ovate-conic, symmetrical or very oblique, persistent, serotinous; apophyses lustrous tawny-yellow, flat or protuberant, on oblique cones abruptly larger on the posterior face; the umbo armed with a slender fragile prickle. it grows from the valley of the yukon, near the alaskan boundary, along the pacific coast to mendocino county, california. it covers the plains and slopes of british columbia and follows the rocky mountains into western colorado, with an outlying station on the black hills of south dakota. it grows on the sierras and mountains of southern california and in northern lower california. on the seashore this pine is of low dense growth, but inland it is a slender tree with a long tapering stem. it is easily recognized by its very short leaves and very small cone. plate xxxv. fig. , cones. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. [illustration: plate xxxv. p. banksiana ( - ), contorta ( , )] . pinus greggii p. greggii engelmann ex parlatore in dc. prodr. xvi- , . spring-shoots uninodal and multinodal, pruinose. bark-formation late, the branches and upper trunk smooth. leaves ternate, from to cm. long, erect; resin-ducts medial, hypoderm of uniform thin-walled cells. conelets mucronate. cones from to cm. long, ovate-conic, oblique, serotinous, reflexed; apophyses lustrous tawny yellow, convex, the posterior gradually larger and more prominent than the anterior scales, the umbo flat or depressed, the mucro deciduous. this species is known, at present, from specimens collected in the vicinity of the city of saltillo, in northeastern mexico. were it not for the difference of bark it might be considered to be a northern variety of p. patula with shorter erect leaves. with both species the long peduncle of the conelet becomes overgrown by the basal scales of the ripe cone, which appears to be sessile. with both, the cones are in crowded nodal clusters, reflexed against the branch. they are so much alike that earlier descriptions of p. patula included the smooth gray bark of p. greggii. the first correct description of the scaly red bark of p. patula appeared in the second edition of veitch's manual of conifers. plate xxxvi. fig. , cone. fig. , conelet. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. fig. , branch showing erect leaves. . pinus patula p. patula schlechtendal & chamisso in linnaea, vi. . spring-shoots multinodal, more or less pruinose. bark-formation early, the scales deciduous, the upper trunk and branches red. leaves prevalently ternate but sometimes in fascicles of or , from to cm. long, slender and gracefully drooping; resin-ducts medial or with an occasional internal duct, hypoderm weak, of uniform thin-walled cells. conelets mucronate. cones from to cm. long, in crowded verticillate clusters, sessile, reflexed, ovate-conic, oblique, persistent and serotinous; apophyses lustrous nut-brown, more or less tumid, the posterior gradually larger than the anterior scales, the umbo flat or depressed, the mucro wanting. patula grows in the warm-temperate climates of hidalgo, puebla and vera cruz, in eastern and central mexico. it can be at once recognized by its slender drooping foliage, its persistent cones, and its red upper trunk. it is cultivated in northern italy and in the warmer parts of great britain. plate xxxvi. fig. , cone. fig. , conelet. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. fig. , branchlet with drooping leaves. [illustration: plate xxxvi. p. patula ( - ), greggii ( - )] . pinus muricata p. muricata d. don in trans. linn. soc. xvii. . p. edgariana hartweg in jour. hort. soc. lond. iii. . spring-shoots multinodal. leaves binate, from to cm. long; resin-ducts medial, hypoderm biform. scales of the conelet prolonged into a triangular spine. cones from to cm. long, in verticillate clusters, sessile, reflexed, ovate-conic, oblique, serotinous; apophyses lustrous nut-brown, abruptly much larger on the posterior face of the cone, each armed with a formidable spine varying in size with the varying size of the apophysis. this species grows on the coast of california, in scattered stations between mendocino and san luis obispo counties, and on the northwest coast of lower california and on cedros island. it is recognized by its oblique cones, conspicuously spinose, indefinitely persistent and very serotinous. the unequal development of its cone-scales distinguishes the cone from the more symmetrically developed cone of p. pungens. fruiting trees of p. muricata may be seen in the royal gardens at kew. plate xxxvii. fig. , cone. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. . pinus attenuata p. californica hartweg in jour. hort. soc. lond. ii. , (not? p. californiana, loiseleur). p. tuberculata gordon in jour. hort. soc. lond. iv. , f. (not d. don). p. attenuata lemmon in mining & sci. press, lxiv. . spring-shoots multinodal. bark-formation late, the branches and upper trunk smooth. leaves ternate, from to cm. long; resin-ducts medial or with one or more internal ducts, hypoderm biform. scales of the conelet prolonged into a triangular spine. cones from to cm. long, in verticillate clusters, sessile, reflexed, long-ovate, oblique, persistent and remarkably serotinous; apophyses lustrous tawny yellow, abruptly larger and more prominent on the posterior face of the cone, where they are usually prolonged into acute pyramids with a small incurved spine. a tree of slender habit and gray-green foliage, the trunk studded with persistent nodal cone-clusters; growing on dry mountain slopes, from southwestern oregon over the foot-hills of the northern mountains of california and its coastal ranges as far as the southern slopes of the san bernardino mountains. it attains its best development in the northern part of its range, but is never a tree of importance. the serotinous habit is more pronounced in this than in any other species. it is distinct from p. radiata, its nearest relative, by the color of the cone, by its smooth upper trunk and by its much smaller size. the possibility of identifying p. californiana loiseleur (nouv. duham. v. ), through a cone said to have been sent to the museum at paris, may cause this name to be applied, by reason of its early date ( ), to some existing species. don's radiata and tuberculata, although considered to be the same species, were nevertheless founded on different forms of the cone. under a very narrow conception of specific limits tuberculata don might therefore acquire specific rank. these considerations seem to make it advisable to abandon for this species the names californica hartw. and tuberculata gord. for the later name attenuata. plate xxxvii. fig. , cone. fig. , magnified leaf-section. . pinus radiata p. radiata d. don in trans. linn. soc. xvii. . p. tuberculata d. don in trans. linn. soc. xvii. . p. insignis douglas ex loudon, arb. brit. iv. , f. . p. sinclairii hooker & arnott in bot. beechy voy. , t. (as to leaves). spring-shoots multinodal. bark formation early, the branches and upper trunk rough. leaves ternate or binate, from to cm. long; resin-ducts medial or with an occasional internal duct, hypoderm biform. conelets mucronate, the mucro small and dorsal. cones from to cm. long, in verticillate clusters, sessile, reflexed, ovate or oblong, oblique, serotinous; apophyses nut-brown, lustrous, tumid in various degrees, the posterior scales abruptly larger and very prominent, the umbo bearing the minute prickle or its remnant. a tall tree with rich green foliage, growing on a strip of coast south of san francisco, particularly in monterey county. it grows also on the islands forming the santa barbara channel and on the island of guadeloupe, lower california. it is remarkably successful in the warmer climates of europe and of australasia. the species is distinct in its peculiar cone with rounded apophyses. plate xxxvii. figs. , , cones. fig. , leaf-fascicle and magnified leaf-section. fig. , leaf-section from a binate fascicle. fig. , magnified dermal tissues of the leaf. [illustration: plate xxxvii. p. muricata ( , ), attenuata ( , ), radiata ( - )] =xiii. macrocarpae= pits of the ray-cells small. wing-blade of the seed thick. cones large. leaves long and stout. this group is remarkable for the size of leaf, conelet, and cone. the peculiar thick seed-wing is more or less obscurely present among the species of the insignes, but never attains the development that differentiates this group from all other pines. the leaf-section is notable for the large amount of hypoderm and for the presence of both thick and thin outer walls of the endoderm-cells, both forms appearing in the same leaf. wing-blade with a short membranous extension. leaves in fascicles of . torreyana leaves in fascicles of . sabiniana wing-blade with a long membranous extension, leaves in fascicles of . coulteri . pinus torreyana p. torreyana parry ex carrière, trait. conif. . p. lophosperma lindley in gard. chron. . spring-shoots uninodal, pruinose. leaves in fascicles of , from to cm. long, very stout; resin-ducts medial, hypoderm uniform or somewhat multiform and of many cells. conelets large, mucronate. cones from to cm. long, on stout peduncles, broad-ovate, symmetrical, somewhat persistent; apophyses chocolate-brown, prominently pyramidal, the umbo salient and capped with a small mucro; seed-wing short, very thick, the dorsal surface of the nut spotted with the black remnants of the spermoderm. a tree or metres high, often semi-prostrate in exposed positions, confined to a restricted area on the coast north of san diego, california, and to the island of santa rosa. this species resembles p. sabiniana in the length of its seed-wing and in the color of its cone, but is distinct in the short triangular umbo, in its pentamerous leaf-fascicles and in the mottled dorsal surface of its nut. plate xxxviii. fig. , cone and seed. fig. , magnified leaf-section. . pinus sabiniana p. sabiniana douglas in trans. linn. soc. xvi. . spring-shoots multinodal, pruinose. leaves in fascicles of , from to cm. long; resin-ducts medial, hypoderm multiform. conelets large, their scales tapering to a sharp point. cones from to cm. long, reflexed, ovate, slightly oblique, persistent; apophyses chocolate-brown, very prominent, the curved umbo confluent with the apophysis and with it forming a very large talon-like armature with a sharp apex and a broad thick base; seed-wing very thick, with a short membranous margin, the dorsal surface of the nut uniform in color. a tree with sparse gray-green foliage, growing in small groves on the foot-hills of the sierra nevada and coast ranges of california. its three leaves and the uniform color of the nut distinguish it from p. torreyana. from p. coulteri it differs in the length of the membranous portion of the seed-wing and in its gray-green leaves. plate xxxviii. fig. , cone. fig. , seed, nut and wing. fig. , magnified leaf-section. [illustration: plate xxxviii. p. torreyana ( , ), sabiniana ( - )] . pinus coulteri p. coulteri d. don in trans. linn. soc. xvii. . p. macrocarpa lindley in bot. reg. xxvi. misc. . spring-shoots multinodal, pruinose. leaves in fascicles of , from to cm. long, very stout; resin-ducts medial, or with an occasional internal duct, hypoderm multiform and of many cells. conelet very large, the scales tapering to a long sharp point. cones from to cm. long, reflexed, ovate or oblong-ovate, somewhat oblique, persistent; apophyses sublustrous tawny yellow, very protuberant, with a narrow shoulder from which springs the umbo in the form of a large stout curved talon; seed-wing nearly equally divided between the very thick base and the membranous apex. remarkable among pines for the size and weight of its cones, many times heavier than the longer cones of p. lambertiana, illustrating the great change that the cone-tissues undergo in the gradual evolution of the species. it is a tree with dark-green foliage, growing from northern lower california over the mountains of southern california to the santa lucia range and to mt. diablo. it is of no value except for fuel and for its large nuts. it is best recognized by its seed. the cone differs from the others of this group in its yellow color, not unlike that of boxwood. plate xxxix. fig. , cone of small size. fig. , seed, nut and wing. fig. , magnified leaf-section. fig. , conelet. [illustration: plate xxxix. pinus coulteri] index adnate wing, apinus, neck.--pinus, apophysis of cone, armature of conelet, articulate wing, australes-group, balfourianae-group, bark, bases of bracts decurrent and non-decurrent, bast-tissue of cone, biform hypoderm, bloom on branchlet, bracts, bases of, branchlet, multinodal, uninodal, bud, latent, leaf, staminate, caryopitys, small = pinus, caryopitys edulis small = pinus cembroides, cembra, opiz = pinus, cembra-subsection, cembrae-group, cembroides-group, characters of the genus, classification of species, color of cone, cone, apophysis of, bast tissues of, color of, dimensions of, oblique, peduncle of, persistent, phyllotaxis of, serotinous, symmetrical, conelet, lateral, pseudolateral, subterminal, conspectus of sections &c., connective of pollen-sacs, cotyledons, decurrent bases, definite phyllotaxis, dermal tissue of leaf, dimensions of cone, leaf, diploxylon-section, dorsal umbo, endoderm, evolutional characters, external resin-ducts, fibro-vascular bundle, flexiles-group, flowers, lateral, pistillate, staminate, subterminal, generic characters, genus, characters of, geographical distribution, gerardianae-group, green tissue of leaf, haploxylon-section, hypoderm, biform, multiform, uniform, indefinite phyllotaxis, insignes-group, internal resin-ducts, lariciones-group, latent buds, lateral flowers, conelet, leaf, dermal tissues of, dimensions of, fibro-vascular bundle of, green tissue of, persistence of, primary, resin-ducts of, secondary, stelar tissues of, stomata of, tissues of, leiophyllae-group, longifoliae-group, macrocarpae-group, medial resin-ducts, multiform hypoderm, multinodal branchlet, spring-shoot, non-decurrent bases, oblique cone, paracembra-subsection, parapinaster-subsection, peduncle of cone, persistence of leaf, persistent cone, phyllotaxis, of cone, definite, indefinite, pinaster-subsection, pineae-group, pinus, pinus abasica carr. = halepensis, alba-canadensis prov. = strobus, albicaulis engelm., altamirani shaw = lawsonii, apacheca lemm. = ponderosa, apulcensis lindl. = pseudostrobus, arabica sieb. = halepensis, aristata engelm., arizonica engelm. = ponderosa, armandi franch., armena koch = sylvestris, attenuata lemm., australis michx. = palustris, austriaca höss = nigra, ayacahuite ehrenb., bahamensis grise. = caribaea, balfouriana balf., balfouriana wats. = aristata, banksiana lamb., beardsleyi murr. = ponderosa, benthamiana hartw. = ponderosa, bolanderi parl. = contorta, bonapartea roezl = ayacahuite, boursieri carr. = contorta, brachyptera engelm. = ponderosa, brutia ten. = halepensis, bungeana zucc., californica hartw. = attenuata, canaliculata miq. = massoniana, canariensis smith, caribaea mor., carica don = halepensis, cembra l., cembra thunb. = parviflora, cembroides gord. = pinceana, cembroides newb. = albicaulis, cembroides zucc., chihuahuana engelm. = leiophylla, clausa vasey, contorta dougl., coronans litv. = cembra, coulteri d. don, craigana murr. = ponderosa, cubensis grise. = occidentalis, cubensis sarg. = caribaea, dalmatica vis. = nigra, deflexa torr. = ponderosa, densata mast. = sinensis, densiflora sieb. & zucc., devoniana lindl. = montezumae, divaricata dum. cours. = banksiana, donnell-smithii mast. = montezumae, echinata mill., edgariana hartw. = muricata, edulis engelm. = cembroides, ehrenbergii endl. = montezumae, eldarica medw. = halepensis, elliottii engelm. = caribaea, engelmanni carr. = ponderosa, escarena riss. = pinaster, excelsa hook. = peuce, excelsa wall., filifolia lindl. = montezumae, finlaysoniana wall. = merkusii, flexilis james, flexilis balf. = albicaulis, formosana hay. = parviflora, fremontiana endl. = cembroides, frieseana wich. = sylvestris, funebris kom. = sinensis, gerardiana wall., glabra walt., gordoniana hartw. = montezumae, greggii engelm., grenvilleae gord. = montezumae, griffithii mcclell. = excelsa, halepensis bieb. = nigra, halepensis mill., hamiltonii ten. = pinaster, hartwegii lindl. = montezumae, heldreichii chr. = nigra, henryi mast. = sinensis, heterophylla small = taeda, heterophylla sudw. = caribaea, hispanica cook = halepensis, hudsonia poir. = banksiana, humilis link = sylvestris, inops ait. = virginiana, inops bong. = contorta, insignis dougl. = radiata, insularis endl., jeffreyi balf. = ponderosa, kasya royle = insularis, khasiana griff. = insularis, kochiana klotzsch = sylvestris, koraiensis mast. = armandi, koraiensis sieb. & zucc., lambertiana dougl., lapponica mayr = sylvestris, laricio poir. = nigra, laricio savi = pinaster, latifolia sarg. = ponderosa, latisquama engelm. = pinceana, latteri mason = merkusii, lawsonii roezl., leiophylla schl. & cham., lemoniana benth. = pinaster, leucodermis ant. = nigra, leucosperma max. = sinensis, lindleyana gord. = montezumae, llaveana schiede = cembroides, loiseleuriana carr. = halepensis, longifolia roxb., lophosperma lindl. = torreyana, loudoniana gord. = ayacahuite, luchuensis mayr, lumholtzii rob. & fern., lutea walt. = taeda, macrocarpa lindl. = coulteri, macrophylla engelm. = ponderosa, macrophylla lindl. = montezumae, maderiensis ten. = pinea, mandschurica laws. = cembra, mandschurica rupr. = koraiensis, maritima ait. = nigra, maritima lamb. = halepensis, maritima poir. = pinaster, massoniana lamb., massoniana sieb. & zucc. = thunbergii, mastersiana hay. = armandi, mayriana sudw. = ponderosa, merkusii de vriese, mitis michx. = echinata, monophylla torr. = cembroides, montana lam. = cembra, montana mill., montana noll = pungens, montezumae lamb., monticola dougl., morrisonicola hay. = parviflora, mugho poir. = montana, mughus jacq. = sylvestris, mughus scop. = montana, muricata d. don, murrayana balf. = contorta, nelsonii shaw, nepalensis de chamb. = excelsa, nigra arnold, nigricans host = nigra, nivea booth = strobus, obliqua saut. = montana, occidentalis h. b. k. = montezumae, occidentalis swartz, oocarpa schiede, oocarpoides lindl. = oocarpa, orizabae gord. = pseudostrobus, osteosperma engelm. = cembroides, pallasiana lamb. = nigra, palustris miller, parolinii vis. = halepensis, parryana engelm. = cembroides, parryana gord. = ponderosa, parviflora sieb. zucc., patula schl. & cham., peninsularis lemm. = ponderosa, pentaphylla mayr = parviflora, persica strangw. = halepensis, peuce grise., pinaster ait., pinaster bess. = nigra, pinceana gord., pindica form. = nigra, pinea linn., pityusa stev. = halepensis, ponderosa dougl., pontica koch = sylvestris, porphyrocarpa laws. = monticola, pringlei shaw, prominens mast. = sinensis, pseudostrobus lindl., pumila regel = cembra, pumilio haenke = montana, pungens lamb., pyrenaica david = halepensis, pyrenaica lap. = nigra, quadrifolia sudw. = cembroides, radiata d. don, radiata hook. & arn. = montezumae, recurvata rowl. = caribaea, reflexa engelm. = flexilis, resinosa ait., resinosa loise. = halepensis, resinosa savi = sylvestris, rigida mill., rotundata link = montana, roxburghii sarg. = longifolia, royleana jam. = echinata, rubra michx.= resinosa, rubra mill. = sylvestris, rudis endl. = montezumae, rupestris michx. = banksiana, russelliana lindl. = montezumae, sabiniana dougl., salzmanni dun. = nigra, sanguinea lap. = montana, sativa lam. = pinea, scipioniformis mast. = armandi, scopifera miq. = densiflora, scopulorum lemm. = ponderosa, serotina long = rigida, serotina michx., shasta carr. = albicaulis, sibirica mayr = cembra, sinclairii hook. & arn. = montezumae, = radiata, sinensis lamb., squarrosa walt. = echinata, strobiformis engelm. = ayacahuite, strobiformis sarg. = flexilis strobus linn., strobus thunb. = koraiensis, sylvestris baumg. = nigra, sylvestris gouan = halepensis, sylvestris linn., sylvestris lour. = merkusii, sylvestris mill. = pinaster, sylvestris thunb. = thunbergii, tabulaeformis carr. = sinensis, taeda blanco = insularis, taeda lamb. = pungens, taeda linn., tamrac murr. = contorta, tatarica mill. = sylvestris, tenuifolia benth. = pseudostrobus, tenuis lemm. = contorta, teocote schl. & cham., terthrocarpa shaw = tropicalis, thunbergii parl., torreyana parry, tropicalis mor., tuberculata d. don = radiata, tuberculata gord. = attenuata, uliginosa neum. = montana, uncinata ram. = montana, variabilis lamb. = echinata, veitchii roezl = ayacahuite, virginiana mill., wilsonii shaw = sinensis, wincesteriana gord. = montezumae, wrightii engelm. = occidentalis, yunnanensis franch. = sinensis, pistillate flower, primary leaf, pseudolateral conelet, resin-ducts of the leaf external, internal, medial, septal, secondary leaf, sectional characters, seed, wing of, winged, wingless, septal resin-ducts, serotinous cone, species, classification of, specific characters, spring-shoot, staminate flowers, stelar tissues of leaf, stomata of leaf, strobi-group, strobus, opiz = pinus, strobus strobus small = pinus strobus, subsectional characters, subterminal conelet, flower, symmetrical cone, terminal umbo, tissues of the cone, leaf, wood, umbo of the cone dorsal, terminal, uninodal branchlet, spring-shoot, uniform hypoderm, variation, wing of seed, adnate, articulate, winged seed, wingless seed, wood, wood-strands of the cone, wood-tissues, transcriber's notes: . the position of plates was changed to the end of the section referencing each. . species names appear to be capitalized when they are names of persons or places in this book, as in other material of this period. none none none none seed dispersal by w. j. beal, m.s., ph.d. professor of botany and forestry in michigan agricultural college ginn & company boston . new york . chicago . london copyright, by william j. beal all rights reserved . the athenæum press ginn & company . proprietors . boston . u.s.a. preface. this little book is prepared with the thought of helping young botanists and teachers. unless the reader has followed in detail, by actual experience, some of the modes of plant dispersion, he can have little idea of the fascination it affords, or the rich rewards in store for patient investigation. a brief list of contributions to the subject is given; but, with very few exceptions, the statements here made, unless otherwise mentioned in the text, are the results of observations by the author. i am under obligations for suggestions by my colleague, prof. w. b. barrows; my assistant, prof. c. f. wheeler; and a former instructor of botany, l. h. dewey, now of the united states department of agriculture. b. o. longyear, instructor in botany, with very few exceptions, has made the drawings. w. j. beal. agricultural college, michigan. contents. chapter i.--how animals get about. page . most of the larger animals move about freely . . . . . . . . . some animals catch rides in one way or another . . . . . . . chapter ii.--plants spread by means of roots. . fairy rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . how nature plants lilies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . roots hold plants erect like ropes to a mast . . . . . . . . . how oaks creep about and multiply . . . . . . . . . . . . . chapter iii.--plants multiply by means of stems. . two grasses in fierce contention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . runners establish new colonies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . branches lean over and root in the soil . . . . . . . . . . . living branches snap off and are carried by water or wind . chapter iv.--water transportation of plants. . some green buds and leaves float on water . . . . . . . . . . fleshy buds drop off and sprout in the mud . . . . . . . . . . seeds and fruits as boats and rafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . bits of cork around the seeds prevent them from sinking . . . an air-tight sack buoys up seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . fruit of basswood as a sailboat, and a few others as adapted to the water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . chapter v.--seeds transported by wind. . how pigweeds get about . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tumbleweeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . thin, dry pods, twisted and bent, drift on the snow . . . . . seeds found in melting snowdrifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . nuts of the basswood carried on the snow . . . . . . . . . . . buttonwood balls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . seeds that tempt the wind by spreading their sails . . . . . . why are some seeds so small? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . seeds with parachutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a study of the dandelion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . how the lily sows its seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . large pods with small seeds to escape from small holes . . . . seeds kept dry by an umbrella growing over them . . . . . . . shot off by wind or animal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . seed-like fruits moved about by twisting awns . . . . . . . . grains that bore into sheep or dogs or the sand . . . . . . . winged fruits and seeds fall with a whirl . . . . . . . . . . plants which preserve a portion of their seeds for an emergency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . chapter vi.--plants that shoot off their spores or seeds. . dry pods twist as they split open and throw the seeds . . . . a seed case that tears itself from its moorings . . . . . . chapter vii.--plants that are carried by animals. . squirrels leave nuts in queer places and plant some of them . birds scatter nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . do birds digest all they eat? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . color, odor, and pleasant taste of fruits are advertisements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the meddlesome crow lends a hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ants distribute some kinds of seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . cattle carry away living plants and seeds . . . . . . . . . . water-fowl and muskrats carry seeds in mud . . . . . . . . . . why some seeds are sticky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . three devices of virginia knotweed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hooks rendered harmless till time of need . . . . . . . . . . diversity of devices in the rose family for seed sowing . . . grouse, fox, and dog carry burs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . seeds enough and to spare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . chapter viii.--man disperses seeds and plants. . burs stick to clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . man takes plants westward, though a few migrate eastward . . chapter ix.--some reasons for plant migration. . plants are not charitable beings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . plants migrate to improve their condition . . . . . . . . . . fruit grown in a new country is often fair . . . . . . . . . . much remains to be discovered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . seed dispersal. chapter i. how animals get about. . most of the larger animals move about freely.--when danger threatens, the rabbit bounds away in long jumps, seeking protection in a hollow tree, a log, or a hole in the ground. when food becomes scarce, squirrels quickly shift to new regions. coons, bears, skunks, and porcupines move from one neighborhood to another. when the thickets disappear and hunters abound, wild turkeys and partridges retreat on foot or by wing. when the leaves fall and the cold winds blow, wild geese leave the lakes in secluded northern homes, and with their families, reared during the summer, go south to spend the winter. turtles swim from pond to pond or crawl from the water to the sand bank, where they lay and cover their eggs. fishes swim up or down the creek with changing seasons, or seek deep or shallow water as their needs require. beetles and butterflies, when young, crawl about for food and shelter, and when older use their wings in going long distances. these examples only serve to recall to mind what every boy or girl knows and has known ever since he can remember--that most animals move about whenever they want to, or whenever other animals will let them. . some animals catch rides in one way or another.--some small animals, like lice, ticks, and tiny spiders, walk slowly and only for short distances. if, because of scarcity of food, they are suddenly seized with the desire to move for a long distance, what are they to do? on such occasions ticks and lice watch quietly the first opportunity, catch on to the feet of birds or flying insects or other animals which may happen to come their way, and, like a boy catching on to a farmer's sleigh, ride till they get far enough, then jump off or let go, to explore the surrounding country and see whether it is fit to live in. if for some reason a spider grows dissatisfied and wants to leave the home spot, she climbs to the top of some object and spins out a fine, long web; this floats in the air, and after a while becomes so long and light that the wind will bear the thread and the spinner for a considerable distance, no one knows how far. these facts about lice and spiders show how wingless insects can go long distances without wings of their own. how is it with plants? the woods, fields, marshes, roadsides ever abound with interesting objects provided with strange devices waiting to be studied by inquisitive girls and boys in and out of school, and this finding out of nature's puzzles is one of the deepest pleasures of life. how quickly a mould attacks and creeps or spreads through a basin of berries every one knows. the mould is as much a plant as the bush that produced the berries; it comes from a small spore, which takes the place of a bud or sprout or seed. the decay of a tree begins where a limb or root has been injured, and whether the timber is living or dead, this decay results from the growth of some one or more low forms of plant life which enter the timber in certain places and slowly or quickly penetrate and affect other portions more or less remote. chapter ii. plants spread by means of roots. . fairy rings.--several low forms of plant life, such as _marasmius oreades_, _spathularia flavida_, and some of the puffballs, start in isolated spots in the grass of a lawn or pasture, and spread each year from a few inches to a foot or more in every direction, usually in the form of a circle; at the end of fifteen years some of these circles acquire a diameter of fifteen to twenty feet or more. these are known as fairy rings. before science dispelled the illusion they were believed to have been the work of witches, elves, or evil spirits, from which arose the name. several kinds of lichens and mosses and the like, growing on the barks of trees, fence boards, and low ground, spread slowly in the manner of fairy rings. however, the spreading is not always a slow, creeping process, for sometimes these low plants spread over an incredible distance in a short space of time. in some instances they appear suddenly almost anywhere, and at any season of the year. they are all minute and exist in countless numbers, and their devices for securing wide dispersion are so various as to entitle them to first rank in this respect. some send off spores with a sharp puff, as if shot from a little gun. some of these spores float on water, and some are sticky and thus gain free rides. it is not at all improbable that some are carried by the winds across oceans and continents. it is well known that many of the lower species of plants are more widely distributed over the earth than most of the higher plants. every cloud from a ripe puffball consists of thousands of spores started on the wings of the wind for an unknown journey. their habits are not past finding out, but to examine them a person needs a good microscope. most of them have no special common name, and with one or two exceptions further mention of the mode of distribution of this fascinating portion of plant life cannot here be made. in our botanic garden was planted a patch six feet across of what is known as oswego tea, bee balm, or red-flowered bergamot, an interesting plant with considerable beauty. it grew well for a year, the next year it failed to some extent, and on the third most of the plants died, or nearly died, excepting the spreading portion all around the margin. this is a fairy ring of another type, and represents a very slow mode of travel. as further illustrations of this topic study common yarrow, betony, several mints, common iris, loosestrife, coreopsis, gill-over-the-ground, several wild sunflowers, horehound, and many other perennials that have grown for a long time without transplanting. the roots of plants are seldom much observed, because they are out of sight. in soft ground the roots of the common or black locust extend from twenty to forty feet in each direction, and almost anywhere along these roots buds may appear, and a shoot spring up and become a tree. this peculiarity is worth as much to locusts in the matter of spreading as though the parent trees were able to move about. a number of kinds of poplars and willows, ailanthus, some of the elms, ashes, sweet potatoes, milkweeds, canada thistles, and others behave in a similar manner. little bits of canada-thistle root half an inch long may send forth buds, and each bud grow to be an independent plant. [illustration: fig. .--buds and shoots sprouting from roots of the common locust.] roots have a peculiarity not usually known. they stretch out and crook about here and there, penetrating the crevices of the soil wherever there is the least chance, and the matured portions begin to shorten, reminding one somewhat of an angleworm when one end has been stepped on. by this shortening process the top or crown of a dandelion or plantain is pulled down beneath the surface of the ground. . how nature plants lilies.--lilies grow from bulbs which are planted six inches beneath the surface. do you know how nature plants them? a seed starts and becomes a small plant on the surface of the leaf mould or a little beneath; little roots push downward and to right and left; and later, after getting a good hold below with numerous branchlets, the slender roots shorten and tug away at the tiny bulb above, as much as to say, "come down a little into mother earth, for cold winter is approaching and there will be danger from frost." the young bulb is drawn down an inch more or less, the slender roots perish with the growing year, but the bulb is preserved. the seedling was well planned; for while it had yet tender leaves during its first year, starch and protoplasm were stored up in the thickened scales of the bulb. during the second spring some of this food in store is used to send down another set of slender roots with the message to gather in more water, potash, phosphorus, nitrogen, and other substances to help grow a larger bulb. in late summer and autumn the new roots contract and pull away at the greater bulb, and down it goes into the ground another inch or so. i have a theory as to how it finally comes to be drawn down just deep enough and no more, but i will not venture to give it. this process is repeated from year to year till the proper depth is reached for preserving the full-grown bulb. and this is the way nature plants bulbs. in a similar manner young slender roots well anchored in the soil, at or near the close of the growing season, pull downward and outward large numbers of bulblets that form around a parent bulb of some kinds of leeks, tulips, star-of-bethlehem, globe hyacinth, and monkshood. the pull of the roots is much greater to one side than downward, because most of the longest roots extend sidewise. marilaun reports that a certain lawn in vienna was mown so frequently that tulips could not go to seed, but after twenty years, from a very few bulbs planted near each other, a space twenty paces in diameter was well covered by tulips. and this is one way tulips travel, slow and sure. . roots hold plants erect like ropes to a mast.--did you ever lift vines of cucumbers, squashes, and the like, where they had rooted at the joints, and observe how forlorn they looked after the operation, with leaves tipped over, unable to remain erect? while growing, the stem zigzags or winds about more or less, and thus enables it to hold the leaves erect; besides, the tendrils catch on to weeds and curl up tight, and the roots at the joints are drawn taut on each side after the manner mentioned above, and act like ropes to a mast to hold the stem in its place, and thus help to hold the leaf above erect. . how oaks creep about and multiply.--oaks come from acorns; everybody knows that. the nuts are produced in abundance, and those of the white oak send out pretty good tap roots on the same year they fall. some of the nuts roll down the knoll or are carried about by squirrels or birds, as mentioned elsewhere. let me tell you one thing that i discovered the white oaks were doing in the sand of the jack-pine plains of michigan. in dry weather the dead grass, sticks, and logs are often burned, which kills much or all that is growing above ground. in this way little maples, ashes, witch-hazels, willows, huckleberries, blackberries, sweet ferns, service berries, aspens, oaks, and others are often killed back, but afterward sprout up again and again, and, after repeated burnings, form each a large rough mass popularly known as a _grub_. the grubs of the oak are well known; the large ones weighing from to pounds each. to plow land where grubs abound requires a stout plow and several pairs of horses or oxen. a small white oak, after it has been many times killed to the ground, dies in the middle and sprouts at the margins, and finally the main root perishes, and two roots, with branches a little distance apart, support each a cluster of stems above ground. [illustration: fig. .--small tree, "grub," of white oak many times killed back; finally dead at the middle and sprouting on the margins.] [illustration: fig. .--grub, or remains of a white oak, doubtless at one time much like fig. , but now decayed in the middle, including its main root; sprouting on the margins, farther and farther out after the tops were killed, to the ground.] [illustration: fig. .--grub, or remains of a white oak, still older than the one represented in fig. . a hole appears where the tap root has rotted away. the right-hand portion is already dividing, and in time, if often killed back, we might find several distinct oaks as descendants from one acorn.] there can be no doubt that young oak trees slowly move in this manner from one place to another. if in fifty years we have two distinct grubs or branches, three or four feet apart, where the connecting part has finally died out, i see no reason why in another fifty years each one of the two may not again have spread and divided, giving us at least four grubs, or clusters of sprouts, all originally coming from one acorn; and so the matter might go on. this is slow traveling, i admit, but there is nothing to hinder nature from taking all the time she wants. [illustration: fig. .--part of a grub of white oak, still alive and spreading over the ground, the central portions dying, the margins alive and spreading.] chapter iii. plants multiply by means of stems. . two grasses in fierce contention.--in growing a lawn at the michigan agricultural college, a little bermuda grass was scattered with june grass, and the struggle has been most interesting. in the spring and for six weeks in autumn, when moisture usually abounds and the weather is cool, june grass thrives and little else is seen. in the dry, hot weeks of july and august, june grass rests and the bermuda, which continues to spread, assumes control of the lawn, with but little of the june grass in sight. each struggles for possession and does the best it can, and to some extent one supplements the other, with the result that at all times from spring to fall there is a close mat of living green which delights the eye and is pleasant to the feet that tread upon it. in soft ground, with plenty of room, a bit of quick or quack grass, or bermuda, will extend in a year three to five feet or more in one direction. [illustration: fig. .--rootstock of quick grass which has grown through a potato, and in this way may be carried to another field or another farm.] june grass, quick grass, bermuda grass, redtop, and white clover, wherever opportunity offers, spread by means of jointed stems, creeping and rooting at every joint on the surface of the ground or a little way below. these are not roots at all, but true stems somewhat in disguise. here may also be mentioned, as having similar habit, artichokes, peppermint, spearmint, barberry, indian hemp, bindweed, toadflax, matrimony vine, bugle-weed, ostrich fern, eagle fern, sensitive fern, coltsfoot, st. john'swort, sorrel, great willow-herb, and many more. . runners establish new colonies.--the spreading of strawberries by runners must be familiar to every observer. in a student reported that a wild strawberry plant in the botanic garden had produced in that year plants. weeds were all kept away, the season was favorable, the soil sandy; but on one side, within a foot and a half, progress was checked by the presence of a large plant of another kind. the multiplication of this plant by seeds, in addition to that by runners, would have covered a still greater area of land. other plants with runners much like the strawberry are: several kinds of crowfoot, barren strawberry, cinquefoil, strawberry geranium, and orange hawkweed. plants of the star cucumber, one-seeded cucumber, grapes, morning-glories, and others, spread more or less over bushes or over the ground, and are thus enabled to scatter seeds in every direction. [illustration: fig. .--the runner of a strawberry plant.] . branches lean over and root in the soil.--a black raspberry grows fast in the ground and has to stay in one spot for life. it has neither legs, feet, nor wings, and yet it can travel. the bush takes deep root and spreads out its branches, which are sometimes ten feet or more in length; the tips of these branches curve over to the ground six feet away, and finally take root; from these roots new colonies are formed, five to twenty in a year from one bush. true, the old roots do not get far, and the new plants only get about six feet in one season, but they have made some progress. this is rather slow locomotion, you say; but let us look a little farther, remembering that a seed is a little plant packed ready for transportation. this second mode of spreading will be described on a future page. [illustration: fig. .--plant of a black raspberry showing one branch (stolon) with several tips rooting.] . living branches snap off and are carried by water or wind.--some trees and shrubs among the willows are called snap-willows, because their branches are very brittle; on the least strain from wind, rain, sleet, or snow, the smaller branches snap off near the larger branches or the main trunk, and fall to the ground. at first thought this brittleness of the wood might seem to be a serious defect in the structure of the tree or shrub, although they seem to produce branches enough for their own use. but the branches which are strewn all around after a storm often take root in the low ground where they fall; some of them are carried down stream by the current, and, lodging on the shore below, produce new trees or bushes. during the winter of and a group of seven white willows, near a brook on the campus of the michigan agricultural college, was at one time loaded with sleet. there was considerable snow on the ground, which, of course, was covered with an icy crust. in a little while the sleet melted from the fallen branches strewn about, and a moderate breeze then drifted the smallest of the twigs in considerable numbers over the icy snow. some of these were found thirty rods distant from the parent trees--not down stream in the valley of the brook, but up the stream. had not the low ground been covered with a dense growth of grass, some of these branches might have started new trees where the wind had left them.[ ] [footnote : c. d. lippincott believes that this is a provision of nature to dispose of the now unnecessary branchlets without leaving a knot. _plant world_, vol. i, p. .] [illustration: fig. .--branch of snap-willow rooting at one end.] the branches on slow-growing limbs of cottonwood and large-toothed aspen are much enlarged at the nodes, and at these places are brittle, often separating from the tree and breaking up into pieces. under a small cottonwood were picked up a bushel or more of such limbs, all yet alive. these trees are common on low land, and, like snap-willows, the severed twigs may find a chance to grow on moist soil.[ ] [footnote : the brittle branches of salix were noticed by the author in _bull. torr. bot. club_, vol. ix ( ), p. .] [illustration: fig. .--portion of a branch of the cottonwood as it fell from the tree.] in a greenhouse a potted plant of _selaginella emiliana_(?) was placed on the bench near the aisle, where it was often brushed by people in passing. small branches, not being firmly attached, were frequently broken from the main plant and fell upon the moist sand, where they rooted in abundance. chapter iv. water transportation of plants. . some green buds and leaves float on water.--loosely floating on slow streams of the northern states, in water not the purest, may often be found the common bladderwort, _utricularia vulgaris_, producing in summer a few yellow flowers on each stem, rising from six to twelve inches above the water. the lax, leafy branches in the water are from six inches to a foot long. the leaves, or thread-like branches, are about half an inch long, more or less, and several times divided. [illustration: fig. .--a free branch and two buds of bladderwort.] scattered about are large numbers of flattened scales, or bladders, sometimes one-sixth of an inch long, which give the plant one of its names. for a long time the bladders were thought to serve merely as life-preservers; it was supposed that they were constructed to keep the plant from sinking to the bottom. in reality these bladders help preserve the plant in another sense, by catching and killing large numbers of minute animals, on which the plant lives in part. the tips of the stems at all times of the year are rather compact, made up of young leaves and stems, and in the middle of the summer, as well as at other times, many may be seen severed from the parent plant, floating in the water, ready to accept the assistance of any favorable current or breeze and start out for homes of their own to found new colonies. these olive-green tips, or buds, vary much in size, but the largest are the size of the end of one's little finger. late in autumn or early winter, when cold threatens, the tender buds contract a little, and, having thus become heavier than water, slowly go to the bottom to spend the winter safely protected in the soft mud. all the plant perishes except these buds. with the lengthening days of spring the melting ice disappears, and genial sunshine gives notice to the dormant buds that it is safe to come out again. the buds begin to expand, become lighter than water, and are soon seen spreading out at the surface and producing branches and leaves. ducks and other water-fowl not infrequently carry some of these wet buds sticking to their feathers or legs. in this connection the following plants may be examined from time to time: _lemna_, _wolffia_, _anacharis_ (_elodea_), _myriophyllum_, _cabomba_, and several species of _potamogeton_. i have seen the leaves of lake cress, _nasturtium lacustre_, often spontaneously separate from the stem, possibly carrying at the base the rudiments of a small bud, which draws on the floating leaf for nourishment and produces a small plant near its base. these plants, floated and nourished by the mother leaf, may drift down a creek or across a pond and establish new settlements. in a similar manner behave leaves of the following, and perhaps others: _cardamine pratensis_, horse-radish, celandine, some water lilies, and other plants not grown in wet land. [illustration: fig. .--floating leaf of lake cress, _nasturtium lacustre_, with a young plant growing from the base.] gardeners often propagate certain species by placing leaves on wet sand or mud, when buds spring from the margins of the leaves or from some other portion. one of the buttercups, _ranunculus multifidus_, and very likely others, spread over the mud by producing runners, much after the manner of a strawberry plant. if, as in case of a freshet, the plants should be covered with water, they show their enterprise by taking advantage of the "tide"; some of the runners are quickly severed, and are then at liberty to go as they please. . fleshy buds drop off and sprout in the mud.--one of the loosestrifes, _lysimachia stricta_, a plant growing in bogs, besides reproducing itself by rootstocks and seeds, bears fleshy buds half an inch long, which separate from the stems and take root in the mud near the parent plant, or often float to another spot. the buds on the stems of _cicuta bulbifera_ develop into small bulbs, which readily separate from the plant. they then float on the water and produce new plants. the tiger lily also produces bulblets, which scatter about and promptly take root. every person of good understanding must have heard or read about seeds carried by ocean currents or transported by lake, pond, creek, or by muddy current, during, and after, a shower of rain; in most of these the wind is also a prominent factor. many seeds and fruits, in some cases parts, and even the whole, of plants seem to be purposely designed for this mode of travel, while an innumerable host of others occasionally make use of it, although it may seem from their structure and place of growth that they were made especially to be transported by the wind or by some animal. as has been seen in examples previously mentioned, one portion of a plant is transported in one way, and another portion by one or two other methods. [illustration: fig. .--branch of loosestrife bearing tuber bulblets.] [illustration: fig. .--one of the tubers enlarged.] . seeds and fruits as boats and rafts.--an excellent place in which to begin investigating this part of the subject is to pay a visit to the flats of a creek or river late in autumn or in the spring, after the water has retired to its narrow channel, and examine piece after piece of the rubbish that has been lodged here and there against a knoll or some willows, a patch of rushes or dead grass. we are studying the different modes by which plants travel. in the driftwood may be found dry fruits of the bladder nut, brown and light, an inch and a half in diameter. see how tough they are; they seem to be perfectly tight, and even if one happens to have a hole punched in its side, there are probably two cells that are still tight, for there are three in all. within are a few seeds, hard and smooth. why are they so hard? will it not be difficult for such seeds to get moist enough and soft enough to enable them to germinate? the hard coats enable the seeds to remain uninjured for a long time in the water, in case one or two cells of the papery pods are broken open; and after the tough pod has decayed and the seeds have sunken to the moist earth among the sticks and dead leaves, they can have all the time they need for the slow decay of their armor. sooner or later a tiny plant is likely to appear and produce a beautiful bush. engineers are boasting of their steel ships as safe and not likely to sink, because there are several compartments each in itself water-tight. in case of accident to one or two chambers, the one or two remaining tight will still float the whole and save the passengers. [illustration: fig. .--fruit of bladder nut with three tight cells.] i wonder if the engineers have not been studying the fruit of the bladder nut? but this is not all. many of the dry nuts hang on all winter, or for a part of it, rattling in the wind, as though loath to leave. some of them are torn loose, and in winter there will be a better chance than at any other time for the wind to do the seeds a favor, especially when there is snow on the ground, for then they will bound along before the breeze till something interrupts them. here among the rubbish are some shriveled wild grapes also. as we shall see elsewhere, their best scheme is to be eaten by certain birds, which do not digest their bony seeds; but in case some of them are left there is another mode of travel, not by wings of a bird, but by floating on water. [illustration: fig. .--shriveled wild grapes overlooked by birds, now ready to float on water, and a clean seed not able to float.] clean grape seeds sink at once, but covered by the dry skin and pulp, they float. in a similar manner the dry seeds of several dogwoods are eaten for the pulp by birds, but in case any are left they behave after the manner of grapes. . bits of cork around the seeds prevent them from sinking.--narrow-leaved dock is a prominent weed, and is especially at home on river bottoms and on low land that is flooded once in a while. [illustration: fig. .--fruit and adherent calyx of narrow-leaved dock; a cross section and a naked, seed-like fruit (enlarged).] did you ever wonder what could be the object of a round, spongy tubercle on the outside of each of these sepals which hold the ripened seed closely? i did not know their use for a long time, but now think i have discovered their meaning. they are not exactly life-preservers, but the next thing to it. the naked, seed-like fruit, the shape of the fruit of buckwheat, sinks at once when free from everything else, but with the dry calyx still attached, it floats with the stream. . an air-tight sack buoys up seeds.--here are several dry fruits of sedges--plants looking considerably like grasses. there are a good many kinds, and most of them grow in wet places. the seed-like fruit of those we examine are surrounded each by a sack which is considerably too large for it, as one would be likely to say, but in reality it serves to buoy the denser portion within, much after the plan of the bladder nut. in some instances the sack is rather small, but a corky growth below the grain helps to buoy it on water. [illustration: fig. .--fruit of asa-gray sedge with an inflated sack about it.] sedges that grow on dry land usually have the sack fitted closely, instead of inflated, and the whole mass sinks readily in water. now we see the probable reason why the sack is inflated in some species of sedges and not in others. [illustration: fig. .--fruit of _carex communis_, an upland sedge, that readily sinks when placed in water; the sack fits closely.] here are some small, seed-like fruits, _achenes_, not likely to be recognized by every one. they belong to the arrowhead, _sagittaria_, found in shallow ponds or slow streams. they are flattened, and on one edge, or both, and at the apex is a spongy ridge. very likely, by this time, the reader has surmised that this serves the purpose of a raft to float the small seed within, which would sink at once if separated from the boat that grew on its margins. in this connection may be studied achenes of water plantain, _alisma_, bur reed, cat-tail flag, arrow grass, burgrass, numerous pondweeds, several buttercups, the hop, nettles, wood nettle, false nettle, cinquefoil, avens, ninebark, buttonbush, and in fact a large number and variety of plants usually found on river bottoms. [illustration: fig. .--seed-like fruit of arrowhead with corky margins to float on water.] [illustration: fig. .--seed-like fruit of bur reed with corky lining ready to float on water, and a naked seed, such as sinks promptly.] one of the lyme grasses, _elymus virqinicus_, is a stiff, short grass, growing along streams. each spikelet with its chaff adheres to two empty glumes, stout, thick, and spongy, which make a safe double boat for transportation down stream whenever the water is high enough. the grains of rice-cut grass, grown in ditches and spring brooks, sink if separated, but in the chaff, as they fall when ripe, they are good floaters. [illustration: fig. .--grains of lyme grass with two corky empty glumes attached, which serve as a raft.] in the driftwood, which we still have under consideration, are some fruits of maple, beech, oak, tulip tree, locust, and basswood. maples are well scattered by the wind, but these seed-like fruits have taken to the water, and a few still retain vitality. an acorn, while yet alive, sinks readily, and is not suited for water navigation, unless by accident it rides on some driftwood. the fruits of the tulip tree, locust, and basswood behave well on the water, as though designed for the purpose, though we naturally, and with good reason, class them with plants usually distributed by wind. . fruit of basswood as a sailboat, and a few others as adapted to the water.--in spring, when the bracts and fruits of the basswood are dry and still hanging on the tree, if a quantity of them are shaken off into the water which overflows the banks of a stream, many of these, as they reach the water, will assume a position as follows: the nuts spread right and left and float; the free portion of the bract extends into the water, while the portion adhering to the peduncle rises obliquely out of the water and serves as a sail to draw along the trailing fruit. after sailing for perhaps fifteen minutes, the whole bract and stem go under water, the nuts floating the whole as they continue to drift with the wind. noticeable among seeds in the flood wood are some of the milkweeds, which every one would say at a glance were especially fitted for sailing through the air, aided by their numerous long, silky hairs. these hairs are no hindrance to moving by water. i discovered one little thing in reference to the seed which makes me think the designer intended it should to some extent be carried by water. the flat seed has a margin, or hem, which must be an aid to the wind in driving it about; but this margin is thickened somewhat by a spongy material. [illustration: fig. .--seed of milkweed with a corky margin enabling it to float; a seed with such margin removed sinks at once.] with the margin it floats, without it the seed sinks in fresh water. a few cranberries were found in the driftwood. these contain considerable air in the middle, near where the seeds are placed, as though the air was intended to support them on top of water. [illustration: fig. .--cranberry containing an air space which helps it to float.] these berries are colored and edible--qualities that attract the birds. and here we find in several places the bulblets of a wild garlic, _allium canadense_, which grows on the river bottom. these bulblets are produced on top of the stem with the flowers, and float on the water. the seeds of the white water lilies, and yellow ones also, by special arrangement float about on the water with the current or the wind. the coffee tree grows rather sparingly along some of the streams, and on moist land as far north as clinton county, michigan. the stout, hard pods are three to four inches long, one and one-quarter to one and one-half inches wide, and one-half inch thick. the very hard seeds are surrounded with sweet pulp, which most likely made it an inducement for some of our native animals to devour them and thus transport the undigested seeds to remote localities. the pods often remain on the trees all winter, and when dry, will float on the water of overflowed streams without any injury resulting to the hard seeds. by themselves the seeds sink at once. chapter v. seeds transported by wind. . how pigweeds get about.--in winter we often see dead tops of lamb's-quarters and amaranths--the smooth and the prickly pigweeds--still standing where they grew in the summer. these are favorite feeding grounds for several kinds of small birds, especially when snow covers the ground. many of the seeds, while still enclosed in the thin, dry calyx, and these clustered on short branches, drop to the snow and are carried off by the wind. notwithstanding the provision made for spreading the seeds by the aid of birds and the wind, the calyx around each shiny seed enables it to float also; when freed from the calyx, it drops at once to the bottom. many kinds of dry fruits and seeds in one way or another find their way during winter to the surface of the ice-covered rivers. when the rivers break up, the seeds are carried down stream, and perhaps left to grow on dry land after the water has retired. most of the commonest plants, the seeds of which are usually transported by water, are insignificant in appearance and without common names, or with names that are not well understood. this is one reason for omitting the description of others which are ingeniously fitted in a great variety of different ways for traveling by water. . tumbleweeds.--incidentally, the foregoing pages contain some account of seeds and fruits that are carried by the aid of wind, in connection with their distribution by other methods; but there are good reasons for giving other examples of seeds carried by the wind. there is a very common weed found on waste ground and also in fields and gardens, which on good soil, with plenty of room and light, grows much in the shape of a globe with a diameter of two to three feet. it is called _amaranthus albus_ in the books, and is one of the most prominent of our tumbleweeds. it does not start in the spring from seed till the weather becomes pretty warm. the leaves are small and slender, the flowers very small, with no display, and surrounded by little rigid, sharp-pointed bracts. when ripe in autumn, the dry, incurved branches are quite stiff; the main stem near the ground easily snaps off and leaves the light ball at the mercy of the winds. such a plant is especially at home on prairies or cleared fields, where there are few large obstructions and where the wind has free access. the mother plant, now dead, toiled busily during the heat of summer and produced thousands of little seeds. the best portion of her substance went to produce these seeds, giving each a portion of rich food for a start in life and wrapping each in a glossy black coat. now she is ready to sacrifice the rest of her body to be tumbled about, broken in pieces, and scattered in every direction for the good of her precious progeny, most of whom will find new places, where they will stand a chance the next summer to grow into plants. sometimes the winds are not severe enough or long enough continued, and these old skeletons are rolled into ditches, piled so high in great rows or masses against fences that some are rolled over the rest and pass on beyond. occasionally some lodge in the tops of low trees, and many are entangled by straggling bushes. in a day or two, or in a week, or a month, the shifting wind may once more start these wrecks in other directions, to be broken up and scatter seeds along their pathway. during the middle ages in southern egypt and arabia, and eastward, a small plant, with most of the peculiarities of our tumbleweed just described, was often seen, and was thought to be a great wonder. it was called the "rose of jericho," though it is not a rose at all, but a first cousin to the mustard, and only a small affair at that, scarcely as large as a cabbage head. a number of other plants of this habit are well known on dry plains in various parts of the world; one of the most prominent in the northern united states is called the russian thistle, which was introduced from russia with flaxseed. in dakota, often two, three, or more grow into a community, making when dry and mature a stiff ball two to three feet or more in diameter. [illustration: fig. .--mature dry plant of russian thistle as a tumbleweed. (one-seventh natural size.)] one of our peppergrasses, _lepidium intermedium_, sometimes attains the size and shape of a bushel basket; when ripe, it is blown about, sowing seeds wherever it goes. the plants of the evening primrose sometimes do likewise, also a spurge, _euphorbia_ [_preslii_] _nutans_, a weed a foot to a foot and a half high. low hop clover, an annual with yellow flowers, which has been naturalized from europe, has developed recently on strong clay land into a tumbleweed six inches in diameter. the tops of old witch grass, _panicum capillare_, and hair grass, _agrostis hyemalis_, become very brittle when ripe, and snap from the parent stem and tumble about singly or in masses, scattering seeds by the millions. i have seen piles of these thin tops larger than a load of hay where they had blown against a grove of trees, and in some cases many were caught in the tops of low trees. [illustration: fig. .--the top of old witch grass as a tumbleweed. (reduced two thirds.)] bug seed and buffalo bur are tumbleweeds. in autumn the careful observer with an eye to this subject will be rewarded by finding many other plants that behave more or less as tumbleweeds. especially is this the case on prairies. these are annuals, and perish at the close of the growing season. there are numerous other devices by which seeds and fruit secure transportation by the wind. . thin, dry pods, twisted and bent, drift on the snow.--the common locust tree, _robinia pseudacacia_, blossoms and produces large numbers of thin, flat pods, which remain of a dull color even when the seeds are ripe. the pods of the locust may wait and wait, holding fast for a long time, but nothing comes to eat them. they become dry and slowly split apart, each half of the pod usually carrying every other seed. some of the pods with the seeds still attached are torn off by the wind and fall to the ground sooner or later, according to the force of the wind. each half-pod as it comes off is slightly bent and twisted, and might be considered a "want-advertisement" given to the wind: "here i am, thin, dry, light and elastic, twisted and bent already; give me a lift to bear these precious seeds up the hill, into the valley, or over the plain." [illustration: fig. .--two views of a half-pod of common locust, dry, twisted, and bent, ready for a breeze.] and the wind is sure to come along, a slight breeze to-day tossing the half-pod a few feet, leaving it perhaps to be again and again moved farther forward. the writer has seen these half-pods transported by this means more than a block. but many of the pods stick to the limbs till winter comes. then a breeze tears off a few pods and they fall on the snow, which has filled up all the crevices in the grass and between the dead leaves and rubbish. each half-pod, freighted with every other seed, is admirably constructed; like an ice boat, it has a sail always spread to the breeze. in this way there is often nothing to hinder some of the seeds from going a mile or two in a few minutes, now and then striking some object which jars off a seed or two. the seeds are very hard, and no doubt purposely so, that they may not be eaten by insects or birds; but once in moist soil, the covering slowly swells and decays, allowing the young plant to escape. thus the locust seeds are provided with neither legs, wings, fins, nor do they advertise by brilliant hue and sweet pulp; but they travel in a way of their own, which is literally on the wings of the wind. . seeds found in melting snowdrifts.--it will interest the student of nature to collect a variety of seeds and dry fruits, such as can be found still on the trees and other plants in winter, and try some of them when there is snow on the ground and the wind blows, to see how they behave. again, when the first snow banks of the early winter are nearly gone, let him collect and melt a quantity of snow and search for seeds. by this means he can see, as he never saw before, how one neighbor suffers from the carelessness of another. . nuts of the basswood carried on the snow.--here are some notes concerning the distribution of the spherical nuts of basswood. the small clusters of fruit project from a queer bract which remains attached before and after falling from the tree. [illustration: fig. .--fruit and bract of basswood well adapted for moving before the wind on the snow.] this bract, when dead, is bent near the middle and more or less twisted, with the edges curving toward the cluster of nuts. from two to five nuts about the size of peas usually remain attached till winter, or even a few till spring. this bract has attracted a good deal of attention, and for a long time everybody wondered what could be its use. we shall see. the cluster of nuts and the bract hang down, dangling about with the least breath of wind, and rattling on the trees because the enlarged base of the stem has all broken loose excepting two slender, woody threads, which still hold fast. these threads are of different degrees of strength; some break loose after a few hard gales, while others are strong enough to endure many gales, and thus they break off a few at a time. the distance to which the fruit can be carried depends on the form of the bract, the velocity of the wind, and the smoothness of the surface on which the fruit falls. when torn from the tree the twist in the bract enables the wind to keep the cluster rapidly whirling around, and by whirling it is enabled to remain longer suspended in the air and thus increase the chances for a long journey. in throwing some of these from a third-story window, it was found that a bract with no fruit attached would reach the ground sooner than a bract that bore from two to four solid nuts. the empty or unloaded bracts tumble and slide through the air endwise, with nothing to balance them or steady their descent, while the fruit on other bracts holds them with one side to the air, which prolongs their descent. the less a loaded bract whirls, the faster its descent, and the more a bract whirls when the wind blows, the farther it is carried. the bract that is weighted with a load of fruit acts as a kite held back by a string, and when in this position the wind lifts the whole as well as carries it along. before snow had fallen in , by repeated moves on a well-mowed lawn, fruit and bracts were carried about two hundred feet, while with snow on the ground the distance was almost unlimited, excepting where there were obstructions, such as bushes and fences. when there is a crust on the snow and a good wind, the conditions are almost perfect. over the snow the wind drives the bracts, which drag along the branch of fruit much as a sail propels a boat. the curving of the edges of the bract toward the fruit enables the wind to catch it all the better, and to lift it more or less from the snow. with changes in the direction of the wind, there is an opportunity for the fruit of a single tree, if not too much crowded by others, to spread in all directions. after watching these maneuvers, no one could doubt the object of the bent bracts of the basswood, and as these vary much in length and width and shape on different trees, it would seem that perhaps nature is still experimenting with a view to finding the most perfect structure for the purpose. about one hundred and thirty paces west of the house in which i live stand two birch trees. one windy winter day i made some fresh tracks in the snow near my house, and within a few minutes the cavities looked as though some one had sprinkled wheat bran in them, on account of the many birch seeds there accumulated. other fruits in winter can be experimented with, such as that of box elder, black ash, birches, tulip tree, buttonwood, ironwood, blue beech, and occasionally a maple. . buttonwood balls.--nature seems to have no end of devices for sowing seeds to advantage. here is one which always interests me. the fruit of the buttonwood, or sycamore, which grows along streams, is in the form of balls an inch and a half in diameter. these balls grow on the tops of the highest branches, and hold on into winter or longer. the stems are about two inches long, and soon after drying, through the action of the winds, they become very flexible, each resembling a cluster of tough strings. the slightest breeze moves them, and they bob around against each other and the small branches in an odd sort of way. after so much threshing that they can hold no longer, the little nuts become loosened and begin to drop off a few at a time. certain birds eat a few and loosen others, which escape. the illustration shows some of these nuts, each supplied with a ring of bristles about the base, which acts as a parachute to permit the wind the easier to carry them for some distance before falling, or to drift them on the surface of the snow or ice. [illustration: fig. .--(a) lax stem, supporting (b) fruit of the buttonwood, or sycamore; (c) a single fruit separated, ready for the wind or water.] . seeds that tempt the wind by spreading their sails.--on low lands in the cool, temperate climate of europe, asia, and north america, is a common plant here known as great willow-herb, a kind of fireweed (_epilobium angustifolium_). there are several kinds of fireweeds. this one grows from three to five feet high, and bears pretty pink flowers. in mellow soil the slender rootstocks spread extensively, and each year new sprouts spring up all around, six to eight feet distant. below each flower ripens a long, slender pod, which splits open from the top into four parts, that slowly curve away from a central column. the apex of each seed is provided with a cluster of white silky hairs nearly half an inch long. [illustration: fig. .--fruit of willow-herb exposing seeds for distribution by the wind.] the tips of the hairs stick slightly to the inside of the recurved valves, some hairs to one valve, and often others to the adjacent valve, thus spreading them apart with the seed suspended between. four rows of the seeds are thus held out at one time. often not over half, or even a tenth part, of the seeds are well developed, yet the silky hairs are present and float away in clusters, thus helping to buoy those that are heavy. this is a capital scheme, for when the pods are dry and unfurled, they silently indicate to the slightest breath of air that they are ready for a flight, and it doesn't take much to carry them for a long distance. as an active boy delights to venture again and again over thin ice on a shallow pond in the pasture, half fearing, yet half hoping, that he may become a hero by breaking through and escaping, so likewise many of these seeds and seed-like fruits spread themselves out, as if to tempt the wind to come along and attack them. the twin fruits of the parsnip and some of its near relatives are light and thin and split apart, each holding on lightly to the top of a slender stem. in this position they are sure to be torn off sooner or later. somewhat after the manner of the willow-herb behave the pods and seeds of willows, poplars, milkweeds, indian hemp, and cotton. [illustration: fig. .--dry twin fruits of the parsnip held by slender stems ready to be blown away. (much enlarged.)] . why are some seeds so small?--do you know why so many kinds of plants produce very small and light seeds? would it not be better if they produced fewer and larger seeds, which would then be stronger and better able to grow under adverse conditions? but a large number of small seeds cost the plant no more effort than a small number of large ones, and the lighter and smaller the seeds and the more there are of them, the better their chances for distribution, especially for long distances. the minute size of spores of most of the fungi are given as reasons why so many of them are so widely distributed. why is a boy or man of light weight chosen to ride the horse on the race track? that the animal may have less weight to carry and thereby use his surplus strength in making better time. the less weight the parachute of the seed of the willow-herb has to carry, the greater the chances for success in making a long journey. of the willow-herb it takes one hundred seeds to weigh a milligram, including the hairs attached to them, and it would take thirty thousand to weigh as much as an ordinary white bean. . seeds with parachutes.--many years ago large portions of huron and sanilac counties of eastern michigan were swept by a fire so severe that the timber was all killed. fifteen years later the woody growth consisted mostly of willows, poplars, and birches. the seeds of all kinds of willows and poplars are very light, and are produced in immense quantities. like those of the great willow-herb, they are beautifully constructed for making long journeys through the air--a fact that explains the frequency of these trees in burned districts. a considerable number of seeds and fruits grow with a parachute attached at one end, not to prevent injury by falling from the tree top, but to enable the wind to sustain and transport them for a longer distance. . a study of the dandelion.--in spring the dandelion is almost everywhere to be found; every one knows it--the child to admire, the gardener to despise. from each cluster of leaves spreading flat in the grass come forth several hollow stems, short or tall, depending on the amount of sunshine and shade. each stem bears, not one flower, but a hundred or more small ones. around and beneath each yellow cluster are two rows of thin, green, smooth scales (involucre). [illustration: fig. .--heads of the dandelion in fruit, closed and open.] the short outer row soon curls back, as though for rest or ornament, or for watching the progress of the colony above; but the inner row has a very important duty yet to perform in guarding the large family within. at night, or in daytime, if the day be wet, the long scales press like a blanket closely about the flowers, and do not permit them to come out; but when the sun is bright, it shrinks the outer side of these scales, which then curl apart, leaving the yellow flowers ready for bees to visit or boys to admire and study. for several days the flowers of a head blossom in succession, each night to be snugly wrapped by the scales, and the next day to be again left open, if the weather be fine. after each flower in turn has been allowed to see the light, and after all have been crawled over by bee and wasp to distribute the yellow pollen that seeds may be produced, there is nothing else to do but patiently wait for a week or two while receiving food from the mother plant to perfect each little fruit and seed. during all this period of maturing, day and night, rain or shine, the scales hold the cluster closely; the stem bends over to one side, and the rain and dew is kept from entering. after a while, on some bright morning, the dandelion stalk is seen standing erect again, and is probably surrounded by many others in a similar position. the dry air shrinks the outside of the scales, and they turn downward; the circle of feathers at the top of the slender support attached to the seed-like fruit below spreads out, and the community, which now looks like a white ball of down, is ready for a breeze. the feathery top is now ready to act as a parachute, and invites the wind to catch up the whole and float it away. if there is no breeze, the moist air of night closes the outer scales; each of the feathery tips closes, and all are secure till the next bright day. of a like nature are fruits of thistles, fireweed, prickly lettuce, sow thistles, scabiosa, valerian, cat-tail flag, cotton grass, some anemones, smoke tree, virgin's bower, and some of the grasses. . how the lily sows its seeds.--ripened pods of lilies usually stand straight up on a stiff, elastic stem; beginning at the top, each one slowly splits into three parts, which gradually separate from each other. why do they not burst open all of a sudden, like pea pods, and shoot the seeds all about and have the job done with? or why does not the pod burst open at the lower end first, instead of the upper? [illustration: fig. .--at the left a dry fruit of a lily opening to permit seeds to dry and the wind to enter; to the right, a fruit later in the season. two views of a flat seed.] observe that the three opening cells are lashed together loosely with a latticework. no slight breeze can dislodge the seeds, but just see how they behave in a good gale! the elastic stems are swayed back and forth against each other, and some of the upper seeds are tossed out by the wind that passes through the lattice, and at such times are often carried to some distance. the seeds at the top having escaped, the dry pods split down farther and still farther and open still wider, till the bottom is reached. as the seeds are not all carried away the first or even the second time, and as succeeding breezes may come from different directions, it is thus possible for the lily to scatter its seeds in all directions. the seeds of the lily are flat, very thin, and rather light, not designed to be shot out like bullets, but to be carried a little way by the wind; the pods are erect, and open at the top, that the seeds need not escape when there is no wind or unless some animal gives the stem a strong shake. the latticework was made for a purpose, and the gradual opening of the pods prevents the supply from all going in one direction or in one day, for a better day may arrive. the student will look for and compare the following: iris, figwort, wild yam, catalpa, trumpet-creeper, centauria, mulleins, foxglove, beardtongue, and many other fruits. . large pods with small seeds to escape from small holes.--the large ripe pod of the poppy stands erect on a stiff stem, with a number of small openings near the top. the seeds are nearly spherical, and escape, a few at a time, when the stem is shaken by the wind or some animal, thus holding a reserve for a change of conditions. here is an illustration of ripe pods of a bellflower, _campanula turbinata_, nodding instead of erect. [illustration: fig. .--ripe pod of poppy on an erect, stiff stem, ready for wind or animal to shake out a few seeds at the top.] [illustration: fig. .--ripe pods of bellflower bent over; the holes opening when dry to allow seeds to be shaken out.] the small holes are still uppermost, but to be uppermost in this case it is necessary for them to be at the base of the pod. . seeds kept dry by an umbrella growing over them.--when mature, the apple of peru, _nicandra_, keeps every dry bursting fruit covered with a hood, umbrella, or shed, so that seeds may be kept continually dry and may be spread with every shake by the wind, or by an animal, in rainy weather as well as in dry. in the words of dr. gray, "the fruit is a globular dry berry, enclosed by a five-parted, bladdery inflated calyx." the margins of the lobes of the calyx curl upwards and outwards as the berry hangs with the apex downward. [illustration: fig. .--mature fruit of apple of peru covered by an enlarged calyx.] [illustration: fig. .--the same with the calyx removed.] [illustration: fig. .--the same as fig. , except that it is older and somewhat changed.] the berry is as large as one's thumb, and when ripe, bursts open irregularly on the upper side as it hangs up under the calyx. as the covering of the pod opens more and more, a few seeds at a time may be rattled out by wind or animal. the numerous large and light fruits, with calyx surrounding them, are each supported on a nodding stem, stiff and elastic, which gives the wind a good chance to sway them about. water does not seem to get into the berries even when they are torn open, for when it is poured over the branches it rolls off the calyx roof as freely as from a duck's back. the fruits of _physalis_ are apparently kept dry in a manner similar to the apple of peru, although when first mature they are soft and juicy, considerably like a ripe tomato. . shot off by wind or animal.--the calyx of sage, bergamot, and most other mints, remains dry and stiff, as a cup to hold one to four little round nutlets as they ripen. the figure shows two of these in section, as they are attached to the main stem of the plant, or one of its branches. observe the direction taken by the upper and by the lower points of the calyx. when dry, the plant behaves somewhat as follows: when the wind jostles the branches against each other, or when an animal of some kind hits the plant, this movement causes many of these cups to get caught; but the elastic stem comes suddenly back to its place, and in so doing flips a nutlet or more from its mouth one to six feet, somewhat as a boy would flip a pea with a pea-shooter. in our garden, july , when plants of sage, _salvia interrupta_, were ripening their fruit, we found it difficult to collect any seeds, but seedlings were observed in abundance on every side of the plant, some to the distance of six feet. plants dispersing seeds in this manner have been called catapult fruits. examine ripening fruits of blue curls, pennyroyal, germander, balm, horehound, dittany, hyssop, basil, marjoram, thyme, savory, catmint, skullcap, self-heal, dragon's head, motherwort, and various dry fruits of several chickweeds. [illustration: fig. .--ripe calyx of sage, first as pushed down; second as let loose throwing nutlets.] . seed-like fruits moved about by twisting awns.--most of the grains of grasses are invested with glumes, or chaff, and a considerable per cent of the chaff has awns, some of which are well developed and some poorly developed. the distribution of such grasses depends on several agents--wind, water, and animals. the chaff and awns of all are hygroscopic; that is, are changed by differences caused by variation of moisture in the air. sweet vernal grass, tall oat grass, holy grass, redtop, animated or wild oats, blue-joint, and porcupine grass are among them. when mature, the grain and glumes drop off, or are pushed off, and go to the ground. when moist, these awns untwist and straighten out, but when dry they coil up again; with each change they seem to crawl about on the ground and work down to low places or get into all sorts of cracks and crevices, where the first rain is likely to cover them more or less with earth, after which they are ready for growth. . grains that bore into sheep or dogs or the sand.--porcupine grass, _stipa spartea_, grows in dry soil in the northern states, but more particularly on the dry prairies of the central portion of the united states. this grass, when ripe, has a very bad reputation among ranchmen for the annoyance the bearded grain causes them. the grains are blown into the stubble among grasses with the bearded point down, sticking into the soil. the first rain or heavy dew straightens out the awns, which are twisted again as they dry. the bearded point works a little farther with each change, and after twisting and untwisting a number of times it gets down three or four inches into the sand, often to moisture, where the awns decay and the grain germinates. here is an admirable scheme for moving about and for boring into the ground. but this is not all. the grains are quick to catch fast to clothing, as people move among the plants, and they are admirably fitted for attaching themselves to dogs and sheep, which they annoy very much. these animals transport the grains for long distances. the twisting and untwisting of the awns enable the grain to bore through the fleeces, and even to penetrate the skins and make wounds which sometimes cause the death of the animal. examine also seeds of pin clover, alfilerilla, which is becoming abundant in many parts of the world. [illustration: fig. .--ripe fruit of pin clover, or alfilerilla, ready to twist into fleeces of sheep or into loose soil.] . winged fruits and seeds fall with a whirl.--the large fruit of the silver maple falls in summer. as these trees are most abundant along the margins of streams, the fruit often drops into the water and is carried down stream to some sand drift or into the mud, where more sand is likely to cover them. thus sown and planted and watered, they soon grow and new trees spring up. but in many instances a strong breeze, sometimes a whirlwind, has been seen to carry these mature fruits from the tree to a distance of thirty rods. [illustration: fig. .--single fruit of silver maple.] a thin sheet of paper descends more slowly than the same material put in the form of a ball. on the same principle, many seeds and fruits are flattened, apparently for a purpose; not that they may be easily shot through the air by some elastic force, not to increase their chances for attachment to animals, but to enable the wind to sustain them the longer and carry them farther. some seeds and dry fruits are said to have wings, with the general understanding that they are by this means better fitted to be sustained in air. we shall find that all or nearly all flattened seeds and dry fruits, also winged seeds and fruits, are one-sided, unbalanced, and more or less twisted; consequently, in falling to the ground they whirl about, and are thus kept much longer in the air than they would be if shaped more like a winged arrow. even the wings on the fruit of some of the ashes are twisted, though many of them are flat. experiments with these things are sure to interest inquisitive children, or even older persons, when once started right; they are likely to prove as interesting as flying kites, skating, fishing, or coasting on the hillside. try experiments with seeds of catalpa, trumpet-creeper, wild yam, pine, spruce, arbor vitæ, and fruits of maple, box elder, birch, hop tree, blue beech, ailanthus, ash, tulip tree,--in fact, anything of this nature you can find, whether the name is familiar or not. no two of them will behave in all respects alike. [illustration: fig. . winged seed of pine. want of symmetry causes it to whirl about while falling.] . plants which preserve a portion of their seeds for an emergency.--many a great general or business man has learned by experience and observation that it is usually unwise to exhaust all resources in one effort. if possible, he always plans to have something in reserve for an emergency--a loophole for escape from difficulty. we have seen in many instances that plants are endowed with the same trait. this is well illustrated by the way in which the jack-pine, _pinus_ [_banksiana_] _divaricata_, holds in reserve a portion of its seeds, to be used in case the parent trees are killed by fire. in i made a study of this tree as it lives on the sandy plains of michigan. the tree is often killed by fire, and never sprouts from the stump, as do oaks, willows, cherries, and most other trees. the jack-pine grows readily and rapidly from seed dropped on the sand, and begins to bear cones and seeds in abundance while it is yet only a few years old, perhaps as young as five years in some instances. the cones open slowly to liberate their seeds, some of them only after months or even years, and in some cases they never open at all. i have seen cones containing good seeds that had been nearly grown over by the tree. dry weather, the dryer and hotter the better, causes many of these stubborn old cones to open their scales and allow the seeds to escape. what can be the advantage in cones of this nature? let us see. a brisk fire passes over the ground at irregular intervals, usually of from one to ten years; it licks up all dry leaves and sticks, and kills the pine trees and all else above ground. the soil and the trunks of trees are blackened, and by lack of reflection the heat of the sun is rendered more intense; besides, the heat of the fire acts slowly on the unburned cones as they are left on the dead trees. by the time the quick hot fire has passed over, the cones have slowly opened and begun scattering seeds on the vacant and newly burned ground, at a time when there is the best possible chance for them to grow. i picked a few unopened cones which, according to my judgment, were from two to four years old. they were placed under glass in a dark sheet-iron dish and exposed to the sun. the extra heat caused the cones to open; many seeds were obtained and sown, and in five days they began to come up, per cent germinating. from the same tree i selected at the same time older cones, which i believe to be from four to six years old at least. from these, seeds were sown, of which germinated--about per cent. [illustration: fig. .--cone of jack-pine closely covering its seeds, often for several years.] [illustration: fig. .--cone of jack-pine as opened by heat, sowing seeds.] chapter vi. plants that shoot off their spores or seeds. by numerous devices a large number of the lower plants send off their ripe spores with considerable force. some call them sling fruits. one in particular, _pilobolus cristallinus_, found about damp stables, i have observed to shoot black masses of spores to a spot on a wall six feet above the ground, with enough force to have carried them not less than twelve feet. when ripe and dry, the spores of most ferns are shot from the parent plant by a motion forcible enough not only to burst the _sporangium_, the vessel that contains the spores, but also to turn it inside out. [illustration: fig. .--spores of _pilobolus_ before and while shooting its spores.] . dry pods twist as they split open and throw the seeds.--in december, while absent from home, i collected for future study some pods of the chinese wistaria, and left them on my desk in the library for the night. the house was heated by a hot-air furnace. in the morning the pods were in great confusion; most of them had split and curled up, and the seeds were scattered all about the room. as usual the little daughter, an only child, was accused of spoiling my specimens, but she showed her innocence. a little investigation and a few experiments with some pods not yet opened explained the whole matter satisfactorily. the stout pods grow and ripen in a highly strained condition, with a strong tendency to burst spirally, the two half-pods being ready to coil and spring in opposite directions; when the valves can no longer hold together, they snap with a sharp noise and sling the heavy seeds, giving them a good send-off into the world. as a pair of birds build a nest, hatch eggs, rear their young, and then send them forth to seek their fortunes, so for months the mother plant had labored, had produced and matured seeds, which at last it scattered broadcast. goethe, kerner von marilaun, each independently, and very likely others, had an experience with ripe pods brought to a warm room very similar to my own. in many cases the ripe and drying fruits are "touched off" by wind jostling the branches or by animals passing among them; in the latter case there is a chance that a portion of the discharges will be lodged somewhere on the animal and be carried along with it. . a seed case that tears itself from its moorings.--the perennial phlox in cultivation distributes its seeds in the following manner: when ripe, the calyx becomes dry and paper-like, and spreads out in the form of a saucer. the thick-walled dry pistil opens from the top into three pieces with a snap, spreading open so far against the calyx that it is torn from the brittle attachment; away go the seeds, mingled with the fragments of the pistil, no longer of any use. [illustration: fig. .--a dry pod of wild bean bursting spirally to throw the seeds.] [illustration: fig. .--fruit of violet partially dried and split into three pieces, each piece pinching the seeds so closely that sooner or later all are thrown out.] fruits that sling their seeds are to be found in every neighborhood, and are first-class objects for the curious person to see and handle. very fortunate is the girl or boy who is never fully satisfied with what he reads and sees pictured, but has a strong desire to learn how plants are made and how they behave. a considerable number of seed pods have been illustrated with notes in recent schoolbooks. here are some of them: peas and vetches, and some kinds of beans, violets, balsams, wood sorrel, geranium, castor bean, some of the mustards and cresses and their cousins, alfilerilla, richweed, _pilea_, witch-hazel, and others. each of those will well repay study, especially the fruit and seeds of oxalis. the witch-hazel bears a hard, woody, nut-like fruit, as large as a hazelnut; when ripe, the apex gaps open more and more, the sides pressing harder against each smooth seed, till finally it is shot, sometimes for a distance of thirty feet. the girl who has shot an apple seed or lemon seed with pressure of thumb and finger across a small room, can understand the force needed to shoot a seed but little heavier than that of the apple two or three times that distance. [illustration: fig. .--dry fruit of witch-hazel shooting seeds.] chapter vii. plants that are carried by animals. with the frosts of autumn ripe acorns, beechnuts, bitternuts, butternuts, chestnuts, hickory nuts, hazelnuts, and walnuts are severed from the parent bush or tree and fall to the ground among the leaves. . squirrels leave nuts in queer places and plant some of them.--even before the arrival of frosts many of these are dropped by the aid of squirrels, gray and red, which cut the stems with their teeth. the leaves, with the help of the shifting winds, gently cover the fruit, or some portions of it, and make the best kind of protection from dry air and severe cold; and they come just in the nick of time. dame nature is generous. she produces an abundance; enough to seed the earth and enough to feed the squirrels, birds, and some other animals. the squirrels eat many nuts, but i have seen them carry a portion for some distance in several directions, and plant one or two or three in a place, covering them well with soil. it may be the thought of the squirrel--i cannot read his thoughts--to return at some future time of need, as he often does. but in some cases he forgets the locality, or does not return because he has stored up more than he needs; or in some cases the squirrels leave that locality or are killed; in any such case the planted nuts are not disturbed. at all events, some of the nuts--one now and then is all that is needed--are allowed to remain where planted. in this way the squirrel is a benefit to the trees and pays for the nuts he eats. he has not lived in vain, for he is a tree planter and believes in arboriculture. his arbor day comes in autumn, and he needs no message from the governor to stimulate him to work. after some red squirrels had been given black walnuts, a member of my family saw them hide the nuts in all conceivable places, and in some instances place them above a cluster of small branches of a tree for support where three or more twigs spread from nearly the same place. here the nuts, one in a place, were left till perhaps shaken to the ground by a severe wind or by some other cause. in one winter, without hunting for them, six to ten places were found in one neighborhood of michigan, where something had placed a single walnut or acorn in the forks of small branches. in some cases a severe wind could have dislodged the nut. [illustration: fig. .--a black walnut as left by a red squirrel on a small oak tree.] on february , , i found a single black walnut held by small branches of a red oak. the oak was an inch and a half in diameter, and the nut was about six feet from the ground. the nearest bearing tree was fully three hundred long steps distant. we can imagine that, through fright or other causes, a squirrel might be suddenly interrupted while carrying nuts, and might then drop them to the ground, where later a tree would be started. . birds scatter nuts.--the work of birds in scattering seeds and fruits has long been recognized.[ ] [footnote : in the fall of , prof. c. f. wheeler saw a blue jay fly from a white oak tree with an acorn in its mouth. the bird went to the ground four or five rods distant and crowded the acorn into the soil as far as it could, covering the spot with a few leaves. a member of my family saw a blue jay leave half of a black walnut in the forks of several small branches.] some friends of mine collected a quantity of hazelnuts, while yet the green husks enclosed the nuts, and placed them near the house to dry. at once they were discovered by a blue jay, which picked out a nut at a time, flew away, held the nut between its toes, cracked it from the small end, and ate the contents. in this operation a number of nuts slipped away and were lost. but it seems that all were not eaten, for the next season half a dozen or more hazel shoots came up, and to-day a new patch of hazel bushes is growing in the yard. doubtless many acorns are carried from place to place and dropped in an aimless way by woodpeckers, blue jays, and crows; also beechnuts by these birds, and by nuthatches, and by pigeons, before the latter became nearly extinct. woodpeckers and blue jays place beechnuts and small acorns in the crevices of bark on standing trees. if left there very long, the nuts will become too dry to grow, but in the act of transporting them some of the nuts may be accidentally dropped in various places. . do birds digest all they eat?--to determine whether seeds would lose their vitality in passing through the digestive organs of birds, kerner von marilaun fed seeds of two hundred and fifty different species of plants to each of the following: blackbird, song thrush, robin, jackdaw, raven, nutcracker, goldfinch, titmouse, bullfinch, crossbill, pigeon, fowl, turkey, duck, and a few others; also to marmot, horse, ox, and pig, making five hundred and twenty separate experiments. as to the marmot, horse, ox, and pig, almost all the fruits and seeds were destroyed. from the ox grew a very few seeds of millet, and from the horse one or two lentils and a few oats; from the pig a species of dogwood, privet, mallow, radish, and common locust. under ordinary conditions, no seed was found to germinate after passing through the turkey, hen, pigeon, crossbill, bullfinch, goldfinch, nutcracker, titmouse, and the duck. ravens and jackdaws passed without injury seeds of stone fruits and others with very hard coats. of seeds that passed through the blackbird per cent germinated, per cent in the case of the thrush, per cent in the case of the robin.[ ] [footnote : it should be noted that the blackbird here mentioned is not the same as either of our blackbirds, but a thrush much like our robin; that the robin mentioned is a ground warbler nearly related to our bluebird. it should also be noted that jackdaws, ravens, thrushes, and probably many others eject thousands of seeds by the mouth for one which passes through the intestines.] . color, odor, and pleasant taste of fruits are advertisements.--in summer, buds are formed on bushes of black raspberry, blossoms appear, and these are followed by small, green, and bitter berries, which hardly anything cares to eat. they grow slowly, become soft and pulpy, and finally good to eat. how is bird or boy or girl to know where they are and when they are fit to eat? the plant has enterprise and has displayed two want advertisements by painting the berries first dark red, and then dark purple, when they are good to eat. but is the plant made expressly to produce berries, just to feed birds and children? if that be all, why are seeds formed in the berries in such large numbers? no! they produce berries that contain seeds, and from these seeds are to grow more bushes. then why should not the berries always remain bitter or hard, so that nothing would touch them? if we may say so, the plant produces sweet and showy berries on purpose to be eaten, that the seeds may be carried away. what becomes of the seeds? each one is enclosed in a hard, tough covering, which protects it from destruction in the stomachs of many birds and some other animals. the seeds are well distributed by the animals that eat the berries. the brilliant colors of ripe berries say to bird and child: "here we are; eat us, for we are good." the sweet pulp pays the birds for distributing the seeds, else they would not be so distributed. the seeds are as well provided for locomotion as the ticks, the mites, and the spiders, and when ready to go, the berries flaunt their colors to attract attention. you see, then, that although the old parent bush cannot change its place, young bushes grow from the tips of the branches, and seedlings spring up at long distances from their old homes. [illustration: fig. .--raspberry, ripened, picked, and ready to be eaten.] sparrows, finches, and similar birds in the winter eat and destroy seeds of grasses and weeds, while the same birds in summer and autumn eat bushels of blueberries, huckleberries, elderberries, raspberries, strawberries, and similar fruits, and distribute their unharmed seeds over thousands of acres, which otherwise might never support a growth of these species. the downy woodpecker, among other things, devours berries of three kinds of dogwood, virginia creeper, service berry, strawberry, pokeberry, poison ivy, poison sumac, stag-horn sumac, and blue beech. the hairy woodpecker devours many of the above fruits, as well as those of spicebush, sour gum, cherries, grapes, blackberries. the flicker devours most of the fruits listed for the two woodpeckers named above, also hackberry, black alder, green brier, bayberries. a number of other woodpeckers possess habits much the same as the three above named. the cedar bird devours many species of hard-seeded fruits. the various shades of red appear to good advantage among green leaves. as illustrations of such, we have the wintergreen, partridge berry, bush cranberry, bearberry, service berry, currant, holly, strawberry, red-berried elder, winter berry, honeysuckle, and many more. where the leaves are liable to become red in autumn the berries are often blue. of such, notice wild grapes, blueberries, and berries of sassafras, though the flowering dogwood has red leaves as well as red berries. there is a reason for prickles on rosebushes. when ripe, rosehips are usually red or yellow, and thus attract birds which are fond of the fleshy portion outside; but the seed-like nuts are too hard and dry to suit their taste, and are rejected and sown in the vicinity, where the ripened hips are picked in pieces and eaten. mice and red squirrels are also fond of the seed-like nutlets of roses, but seldom secure them from the bushes. why, do you ask? because the prickles were most likely placed on the rosebushes to prevent this very thing, and not to annoy the lover of flowers, or to prevent her from cutting what she needs. . the meddlesome crow lends a hand.--"one of the most industrious and persistent seed-transporting agencies i know of is that ubiquitous, energetic, rollicking, meddlesome busybody, the crow. i have seen crows gather by hundreds and have a regular powwow, a mass convention, where they seemed to discuss measures and appoint officers. at length they get through, and as they start to fly away many, if not all, will drop something. i have found these to be acorns, walnuts, hickory nuts, buckeyes, sycamore balls, sticks, eggshells, pebbles, etc. as a crow leaves an oak he will pluck an acorn, which he may carry five miles and light on a beech tree where something else will attract his attention, when he will drop the acorn and maybe pluck a pod of beechnuts and fly away somewhere else."--_prof. w. b. barrows_. the number of seeds distributed by crows is enormous, and consists of many species, including poison ivy and poison sumac, wild cherry, dogwood, red cedar, sour gum, and virginia creeper. the hard, undigested seeds are mostly expelled from the mouth in pellets, shown in the illustration, and germinate more promptly than those untouched by birds. [illustration: fig. .--two views of a pellet of seeds and rubbish from a crow. from bulletin no. , united states department of agriculture, division of ornithology and mammology.] bears are very fond of berries, and will scatter the seeds of service berries, elder berries, chokecherries, raspberries, and blackberries. . ants distribute some kinds of seeds.--ants are numerous, strong, skillful, and in suitable weather are always very busy. their habits have been investigated, and it has been found that in some respects they are genuine farmers on a small scale. they have their slaves (not hired help); they feed their plant lice, remove them from place to place, and otherwise care for them, because the lice constitute one of the chief sources of their supply of sweet. they build roads and houses, and enjoy society after their fashion. they have use for certain kinds of seeds, portions or all of which they eat at once or carry to their homes. a number of persons in different countries and at different times have seen ants carrying seeds. some young student of botany may have noticed along one side of the glossy seeds of the bloodroot a delicate, fleshy ridge, and wondered what could be its use. the answer can now be given with a good degree of confidence. the ants either eat this fleshy ridge at once, or, as more frequently happens, carry such seeds to their homes. the smooth seeds they do not eat, but cast them out of their nests after using the part they like; after being rejected the seed may stand a chance to germinate. the seeds cannot be carried so well unless this ridge, _caruncle_, be present. other seeds of this nature are those of wild ginger, celandine, cyclamen, violet, periwinkle, some euphorbias, bellwort, trillium, prickly poppy, dutchman's breeches, squirrel-corn, several species of corydalis, seneca snakeroot, and other species of milkworts. [illustration: fig. .--seed of bloodroot with caruncle or crest, which serves as a handle for ants to hold on to. ant ready to take the seed.] [illustration: fig. .--a view of a seed of euphorbia with a soft bunch at one end, a handle for ants.] in his work on _vegetable mold and earthworms_, p. , darwin states that earthworms are in the habit of lining their holes, using seeds among other things, and that these sometimes grow. in this way the worms aid in spreading plants. . cattle carry away living plants and seeds.--in arizona, where cacti abound, professor toumey finds that many of them are broken in pieces by cattle, which eat a portion, while other portions often adhere to the legs or noses and are carried from place to place. these fragments are usually capable of growing. the unicorn plant, _martynia proboscidia_, common in the southwestern portion of the united states, is sometimes seen in cultivation. when ripe, the fruit is hard, carrying two stout beaks with recurved tips. experiments show it to be admirably adapted to catch on to the feet of sheep, goats, and cattle, or hold to the fleeces of the two former. [illustration: fig. .--dry fruit of the unicorn plant adapted to catching on to the feet of large animals or the wool of sheep.] . water-fowl and muskrats carry seeds in mud.--seeds and fruits of aquatic and bog plants that are floating, or in the mud of shallow water, are often carried by ducks, herons, swallows, muskrats, and other frequenters of such places, on their feet, beaks, or feathers, as they hastily leave one place for another. in this way seeds of water plantain, sedges, grasses, rushes, docks, arrowhead, pondweeds, duckweed, cat-tail flag, bur reed, bladderwort, water crowfoot, and many others are transported from one pond, lake, or stream, to another. in some cases enough of a living plant may be detached and carried away to keep on growing. darwin found on the feet of some birds six and three-quarter ounces of mud, in which were five hundred and thirty-seven seeds that germinated. mud may be carried on the feet of land animals as well as on aquatic animals, not only from ponds and bogs, but from the fields where seeds may have accumulated in the earth or washed down the slopes. . why some seeds are sticky.--some seeds and fruits are sticky; in some instances the mucilaginous substance is normally moist enough to adhere to anything that touches it, while in other cases it requires to be wetted before it will adhere. the seeds of flax, plantain, peppergrass, basil, sage, dracocephalum, groundsel, drop-seed grass, and many others less familiar, possess this peculiarity. the berries of some plants, when fully ripe, burst very easily when touched, and some of the seeds are then likely to adhere to animals and be carried away. some berries of several plants belonging to the nightshade family have this peculiarity, as well as some of the cucurbits. when the outer covering of seeds of water lilies, arums, and others are broken, the gummy secretion is very likely to adhere to the feathers, or fur, or feet of animals. a number of fruits, and even the upper fruit-bearing branches, have sticky glands with which to catch on to any passing object. among these are some kinds of sedges, chickweeds, and catchflies. the sticky substance on seeds and fruits not unfrequently serves another good turn besides enabling them to adhere to animals. the slime holds them to the spot where they are to grow, or it enables some to float or to sink in water, according to the amount of the mucilage. . three devices of virginia knotweed.--a perennial plant, four to five feet high, grows on low land, usually in the shade. it is _polygonum virginicum_, and so far without a common name, unless virginia knotweed be satisfactory. it is a near relative of knot grass and smartweed and prince's feather. the small flowers are borne on a long, elastic, and rather stiff stem, and each flower stalk has a joint just at the base. as this fruit matures, the joint becomes very easy to separate. it dries with a tension, so that, if touched, the fruit goes with a snap and a bound for several feet. the shaking produced by the wind jostling several against each other is sufficient to send off a number of ripe fruits in every direction. like many other plants we have seen, this has more than one way of scattering seeds, and often more than two ways. observe the slender, stiff beak, terminating in two recurved points. let a person or some animal pass into a patch of these plants, and at once numerous fruits catch on wherever there is a chance, and some are shot upon or into the fleeces of animals, there to find free transportation for uncertain distances. should there be a freshet, some of these fruits will float; or, in case of shallow currents after a rain, some of them are washed away from the parent plant. any inquisitive person cannot fail to be pleased if he experiment with the plant when the fruit is ripe. [illustration: fig. .--fruit of virginia knotweed ready to shoot off when shaken, or to let go of stem and catch on to passing animal.] . hooks rendered harmless till time of need.--there are a number of rather weedy-looking herbs, common to woods or low land, known as avens, _geum_. they are closely allied to cinquefoil, and all belong to the rose family. the slender stiles above the seed-like ovaries of some species of avens are described as not jointed, but straight and feathery, well adapted, as we might suppose, to be scattered by the aid of wind; while others are spoken of as having, when young, stiles jointed and bent near the middle. in ripening, the lower part of the stile becomes much longer and stouter. when a whole bunch of pistils has drawn all the nourishment possible, or all that is needed, from the plant mother, the upper part of each stile drops off, leaving a sharp, stiff hook at the end. at this time each pistil loosens from the torus and can be easily removed, especially if some animal touch the hooks. to help in holding fast to animals, there are a number of slender hairs farther down the stile, which are liable to become more or less entangled in the animal's hair, fur, wool, or feathers. even in the small number of plants here noticed, we have seen that scarcely any two of them agree in the details of their devices for securing transportation of seeds. i know of nothing else like the geum we are now considering. when young and green, the tip of each hook is securely protected by a knob or bunch, with a little arm extending above, which effectually prevents the hook from catching on to anything; but, when the fruit is ripe, the projecting knob with its little attachment disappears. the figures make further description unnecessary. to keep the plow from cutting into the ground while going to or from the field, the farmer often places a wooden block, or "shoe," over the point and below the plow. sometimes we have known persons to place knobs of brass or wood on the tips of the sharp horns of some of their most active or vicious cattle, to prevent them from hooking their associates or the persons having them in charge. nature furnishes the points of the young fruits of some species of avens with knobs, or shoes, for another purpose, to benefit the plants without reference to the likes or dislikes of animals. [illustration: fig. .--the pistil of avens in three stages of its growth.] . diversity of devices in the rose family for seed sowing.--all botanists now recognize plants as belonging to separate families, the plants of each family having many points of structure in common. among these families of higher plants, over two hundred in number, is one known as the rose family. notwithstanding their close relationship, the modes of seed dispersion are varied. the seeds of plums and cherries and hawthorns are surrounded by a hard pit, or stone, which protects the seeds, while animals eat the fleshy portion of the fruit. when ripe, raspberries leave the dry receptacle and look like miniature thimbles, while the blackberry is fleshy throughout. the dry, seed-like fruits of the strawberry are carried by birds that relish the red, fleshy, juicy apex of the flower stalk. each little fruit of some kinds of avens has a hook at the apex, while in agrimony many hooks grow on the outside of the calyx and aid in carrying the two or three seeds within. plants of some other families illustrate the great diversity of modes of dispersion as well as the roses. . grouse, fox, and dog carry burs.--to the feathers of a ruffed grouse killed in the molting stage, early in september, were attached fifty or more nutlets of _echinospermum virginicum_ lehm. a student tells of a tame fox kept near his home, on the tail of which were large numbers of sand burs, and a smaller number on his legs and feet. another student has seen dogs so annoyed by these burs on their feet that they gave up all attempts to walk. many wild animals unwillingly carry about such fruits, and after a while most of them remove what they can with claws, hoof, or teeth. many of these plants have no familiar common names, but who has not heard of some of these? enchanter's nightshade, bedstraw, wild liquorice, hound's tongue, beggar-ticks, beggar's lice, stick-tights, pitchforks, tick-trefoil, bush clover, motherwort, sand bur, burdock, cocklebur, sanicle, avens, agrimony, carrot, horse nettle, buffalo bur, russian thistle. besides these, a very large number of small seeds and fruits are rubbed off and carried away by animals. some of these stick by means of the pappus, as, for instance, the dandelion, thistle, prickly lettuce; others by means of hairs on the seed, such as those of the willow-herb and milkweeds and willows; or by hairs on the fruit, as virgin's bower, anemone, cotton grass, and cat-tail flag. these last named are apparently designed to be wafted by the wind, but they are ever ready to improve any other opportunity offered, whether it be by water or by clinging to passing animals. [illustration: fig. .--whole ripe fruit of the common carrot.] [illustration: fig. .--nutlet of stickseed, _echinospermum_.] [illustration: fig. .--fruit of pitchforks, _bidens_, with two barbed points.] [illustration: fig. .--a fruit of tick-trefoil, _desmodium_, and a few of the grappling hooks enlarged.] [illustration: fig. .--a head of the fruits of burdock.] [illustration: fig. .--fruit of cocklebur.] . seeds enough and to spare.--in producing seeds nature is generous, often lavish. most seeds are eaten by animals, or fall in places where they cannot germinate and produce plants, or fall in such numbers that most of them in growing are crowded and starved to death. a very small proportion fall on good ground, and succeed in becoming fruiting plants. a large plant of purslane produces one million two hundred and fifty thousand seeds; a patch of daisy fleabane, three thousand seeds to each square inch of space covered by a plant. the genuine student will not be satisfied till he has selected several different kinds of plants and counted, or estimated, the number of seeds produced by each, or the number of seeds furnished to the area covered by one or by several plants. chapter viii. man disperses seeds and plants. in describing the various means by which plants are dispersed, people are very likely not to mention the aid supplied by man, or to speak of his efforts as artificial or unnatural, forgetting for the time that man so far appears to be the crown of earthly existence, and that his works are a necessary part of a complete world. . burs stick to clothing.--late in summer or in autumn, who is there who has not returned from a walk along the river or from a tramp through thickets or the open woods, to find large numbers of half a dozen kinds of seed-like fruits sticking to his clothes? when ripe, these fruits usually separate from the parent plant very easily, by a joint or brittle place well provided for in the early part of the season. in pursuing your way you rub off a portion of these fruits, and at the end of the journey, or before, you sit down in some comfortable spot and deliberately pick off the unwelcome stick-tights. at such times you have been the means of transporting seeds, and you have left them scattered about ready to grow. if you ever were so fortunate as to live on a farm, you must have seen your father or his hired help carefully look about the field or the wood lot and remove all the bur-bearing plants that could be found before turning in his flock of sheep or the colts and cattle; for if this were not done, he knows that hair and mane will surely be disfigured, and that the wool will be rendered unsalable. in removing the weeds he defeated the plans of nature in her devices for sowing seeds. the agency of man in the distribution of plants exceeds in importance that of all other means combined. he buys and sells seeds and plants, and sends them to all parts of the habitable globe. he exterminates many plants in large areas, and substitutes in large measure those of his choice. mixed with seeds of grasses, clovers, or grains, he introduces many weeds and sows them to grow with his crops. [illustration: fig. .--seed of cockle (enlarged).] [illustration: fig. .--grain of wheat (enlarged), scarcely larger than a seed of cockle.] l. h. dewey, in the yearbook of the department of agriculture for the year , p. , says: "cockle seeds are normally somewhat smaller than wheat grains. in some parts of the northwest, where wheat for sowing has been cleaned year after year by steam threshers, all the cockle seeds except the largest ones have been removed, and these have been sown until a large-seeded strain has been bred which is very difficult to separate from the wheat." for illustration, some years ago i purchased of a dealer in michigan a small quantity of what was being sold on the market as seed of red clover; this specimen contained per cent of seeds of rib-grass or narrow-leaved plantain. [illustration: fig. .--two seeds of narrow-leaved plantain such as are becoming common in clover seed. the lower one and the one at the left are seeds of red clover.] man introduces some seeds of weeds with unground feed stuff. he introduces some with barnyard manure drawn from town. he gets some in the packing of nursery stock, crockery, baled hay and straw. for example, in , baled hay from kansas or that vicinity examined at the missouri agricultural college was found to contain fifteen species of weeds. others from the west were examined in michigan and found to contain much foul stuff. some are carried from farm to farm by wagons, sleighs, or threshing machines; or they are spread by plows, cultivators, and harrows. a few are introduced to grow for ornament or food, and afterwards spread as weeds. a number have been shipped to distant lands in the earth of ballast, which is often unloaded and reloaded at wharves where freight is changed. they are carried along the highway, strung along the towpath of canals, or are carried in the trucks or in the cars of railroads. they are imported and exported around the world in fleeces of wool. they float down irrigating ditches from farm to farm, and with the water are well distributed. . man takes plants westward, though a few migrate eastward.--so far as man's agency is concerned, the direction for plant migration is generally westward, in the course taken by himself. in case of two hundred kinds of weeds named by the united states department of agriculture, one hundred and eight species are of foreign origin. three notable samples of weeds in the united states have gone from the west to the east, carried in seeds of grasses or clovers. these are _rudbeckia hirta_, _artemisia biennis_, _plantago aristata_. to these mr. dewey adds buffalo bur, _solanum rostratum_, squirreltail, _hordeum jubatum_, false ragweed or marsh elder, _iva xanthifolia_, _franseria hookeriana_, alfalfa dodder, _cuscuta epithymum_. above i have barely mentioned a few of the methods by which man is an unwilling agent in distributing plants. large volumes could be filled with statements of man's more or less carefully planned attempts to transport seeds and living plants from one part of the world to another. chapter ix. some reasons for plant migration. . plants are not charitable beings.--man uses to his advantage a large number of plants, but there appears to be no evidence that the schemes for their dispersion were designed for anything except to benefit the plants themselves. the elegant foliage and beautiful flowers, the great diversity of attractive seeds and fruits, all point to plants as strictly selfish beings, if i may so use the term; and not to plants as works of charity, to be devoured by animals without any compensation. by fertilizing flowers, by distributing plants, and by other helpful acts, animals pay for at least a portion of the damage they do. by an almost infinite number of devices, we have seen that seeds and fruits flee from the parental spot on the wings of the wind, float on currents of ocean, lake, and river. they are shot by bursting pods and capsules in every direction. with hooks, barbs, and glands they cling to the covering of animals. allured by brilliant colors, birds and other animals seek and devour the fruits of many plants, the seeds of which are preserved from harm by a solid armor; these seeds are then sown broadcast over the land, ready to start new colonies. nuts are often carried by squirrels for long distances, and there securely buried, a few in a place. by a slow process, which, however, covers a considerable space, in a few years many plants send forth roots, rootstalks, stolons, and runners, and thus increase their possessions or find new homes. . plants migrate to improve their condition.--the various devices by which plants are shifted from place to place are not merely to extend and multiply the species, and reach a fertile soil, but to enable them to flee from the great number of their own kind, and from their enemies among animals and parasitic plants. the adventurers among plants often meet with the best success, not because the seeds are larger, or stronger, or better, but because they find, for a time, more congenial surroundings. we must not overlook the fact, so well established, that one of the greatest points to be gained by plant migration is to enable different stocks of a species to be cross fertilized, and thereby improved in vigor and productiveness. . fruit grown in a new country is often fair.--every horticulturist knows that apples grown in a new country, that is suited to them, are healthy and fair; but, sooner or later, the scab, and codling moth, and bitter rot, and bark louse arrive, each to begin its particular mode of attack. peach trees in new places, remote from others, are often easily grown and free from dangers; but soon will arrive the yellows, borers, leaf curl, rot, and other enemies. for a few years plums may be grown, in certain new localities, without danger from curculio, or rot, or shot-hole fungus. it has long been known that the nicest way to grow a few cabbages, radishes, squashes, cucumbers, or potatoes is to plant a few here and there in good soil, at considerable distances from where any have heretofore been grown. for a time enemies are not likely to find them. i have often noticed that, while pear-blight decimated or swept large portions of a pear orchard, a few isolated trees, scattered about the neighborhood, usually remain healthy. the virgin soil of the dakotas produced, at a trifling cost, healthy, clean wheat, but it was not long before the russian thistle, false flax, and other pests followed, to contest their rights to the soil. as animals starve out, in certain seasons when food is scarce, or more likely migrate to regions which can afford food, so plants desert worn-out land and seek fresh fields. as animals retreat to secluded and isolated spots to escape their enemies, so, likewise, many plants accomplish the same thing by sending out scouts in all directions to find the best places; these scouts, it is needless to say, are seeds, and when they have found a good place, they occupy it, without waiting for further instructions. . much remains to be discovered.--"in this, as in other branches of science, we have made a beginning. we have learned just enough to perceive how little we know. our great masters in natural history have immortalized themselves by their discoveries, but they have not exhausted the field; and if seeds and fruits cannot vie with flowers in the brilliance and color with which they decorate our gardens and our fields, still they surely rival them--it would be impossible to excel them--in the almost infinite variety of the problems they present to us, the ingenuity, the interest, and the charm of the beautiful contrivances which they offer for our study and our admiration."[ ] [footnote : _flowers, fruits, and leaves_, by sir john lubbock, p. .] frequent rotations seem to be the rule for many plants, when left to themselves in a state of nature. confining to a permanent spot invites parasites and other enemies, and a depleted soil, while health and vigor are secured by frequent migrations. the more we study in detail the methods of plant dispersion, the more we shall come to agree with a statement made by darwin concerning the devices for securing cross-fertilization of flowers, that they "transcend, in an incomparable degree, the contrivances and adaptations which the most fertile imagination of the most imaginative man could suggest with unlimited time at his disposal."[ ] [footnote : _fertilization of orchids_, p. .] let no reader think that the topics here taken up are treated exhaustively, for if he will go over any part of this work and verify any observation or experiment, he will be sure to find something new, and very likely something different from what is here stated. bibliography. means of plant dispersion. by e. j. hill. _am. nat._ vol. xvii, pp. , . . why certain kinds of timber prevail in certain localities. by john t. campbell. _am. nat._ vol. xix, p. . . report of the u. s. commissioner of agriculture for . article on the "food of crows." by w. b. barrows. p. . report of the u. s. secretary of agriculture for . article on "seed planting by birds." by w. b. barrows. p. . report of the u. s. secretary of agriculture for . article on "food habits of the kingbird, or bee martin." by w. b. barrows. p. . bulletin no. , u. s. department of agriculture. division of ornithology and mammology. "the common crow of the united states." by w. b. barrows and e. a. schwarz. . bulletin no. , u. s. department of agriculture. division of ornithology and mammology. "food of woodpeckers." by f. e. l. beal. causes of forest rotation. by john t. campbell. _am. nat._ vol. xx, p. . . seeds of the violet and other plants as projectiles. by moses n. elrod, m.d. _am. nat._ vol. xiii, p. . . the natural history of plants. by kerner and oliver. henry holt & co., new york. . flowers, fruits, and leaves. by sir john lubbock. macmillan & co., new york. origin of cultivated plants. by alphonse de candolle. d. appleton & co., new york. distribution of weed seeds by winter winds. by h. l. bolley. bulletin no. . fargo, north dakota. weeds of california. by e. w. hilgard. report of the experiment station, pp. - . . migration of weeds. by l. h. dewey. yearbook of the u. s. department of agriculture, pp. - . . washington, d. c. squirrels carrying nuts. _nature_. vol. xv, p. . macmillan & co., new york. natural history of plants. by kerner and oliver. distribution of species. vol. ii, pp. - . henry holt & co., new york. . the botanist's companion, or an introduction to the knowledge of practical botany, and the uses of plants. either growing wild in great britain, or cultivated for the puroses of agriculture, medicine, rural oeconomy, or the arts. by william salisbury, of the botanic garden of sloane-street. "behold i have given you every herb bearing seed, and every tree yielding fruit, and to you it shall be for meat." vol. ii. preface to the second volume in demonstrating the plants which occur in our annual herborizing excursions, i have found it necessary to put into the hands of my pupils some manual of botany; and in so doing i have found all that have yet been published, deficient in one or two essential points, and particularly as relating to the uses to which each plant is adapted; with out which, although the charms of the flora are in themselves truly delightful, yet the real value of botanic knowledge is lost. the study of plants, so far as regards their uses and culture, has engaged my particular attention for the last twenty-five years, during which time i had the honour of conducting a series of experiments on the growth of plants, for the board of agriculture, which gave me an opportunity of ascertaining many facts relative to our grasses, &c. an account of which, i have had some time ready for publication. the necessity of a work of this kind in my present profession, has therefore induced me to abridge it and put it to press; as such i offer it to the public. to the subscribers to my botanic garden this will also prove of great service; it being intended to arrange the plants in their several departments, so as to make it a general work of reference both in the fields or garden. in the department which treats of the vegetables used for medicinal purposes, i have given as ample descriptions as the nature of the work will admit of, having in view the very necessary obligation which the younger branch of the profession are under, of paying attention to the subject. in prosecuting this work, i have been more actuated by a desire to render to my pupils and others, useful in-formation, than that of commencing author on such a subject; and writing for the press has been but very little my employment, i trust that an ample excuse will be granted for any errors that may appear, or for the want of that happiness of diction with which more able and accomplished authors may be endowed. botanic garden, sloane street, may . contents of the second volume plants useful in agriculture. sect. . observations on saving grass-seeds and the use of the british grasses in general, as fodder, &c. sect. . observations on artificial grasses sect. . observations on plants affording fodder from leaves and roots sect. . observations on grains sect. . observations on miscellaneous articles plants useful in the arts. sect. . observations on british trees and shrubs sect. . observations on medicinal plants contained in the london, edinburgh, and dublin pharmacopoeias sect. . observations on medicinal plants not in the pharmacopoeias of the present day observations on drying and preserving plants for medicinal use, &c. sect. . observations on plants cultivated for culinary purposes sect. . observations on wild plants useful for culinary purposes, which are not in cultivation sect. . observations on plants useful for dyeing sect. . observations on plants used in rural oeconomy poisonous plants growing in great britain, and their best recommended antidotes. sect. . observations on nauseous poisonous plants observations on acrid poisonous vegetables observations on stupefying poisonous vegetables observations on foetid poisons observations on drastic poisons observations on poisonous fungi, mushrooms, &c. noxious plants. sect. . observations on plants noxious to cattle sect. . observations on annual weeds, or such as grow wild and do not produce food for cattle observations on weeds with creeping roots observations on perennial weeds sect. . observations on exotic trees and shrubs, and the soil to which each is best adapted sect. . observations on foreign hardy herbaceous plants, with the soil which each is found to thrive best in sect. . observations on hardy annual flowers, with the seasons for sowing each sect. . observations on hardy biennial flowers, with their culture sect. . observations on tender annual flowers sect. . observations on foreign alpine plants, or such as are adapted to the decoration of rock-work, with the best soils for each denoted appendix. british plants cultivated for ornamental purposes miscellaneous articles not mentioned under the foregoing heads on extracting sugar from beet-root on liquid sugar made from apple-juice on the urtica canadensis, or canadian hemp-plant on the bleeding of trees and obtaining sap for the purposes of making wine and brewing ale plants useful in agricultue. observations on the culture of grasses, and on saving seeds, &c. it is now fifty years since the celebrated stillingfleet observed, "that it was surprising to see how long mankind had neglected to make a proper advantage of plants, of so much importance to agriculture as the grasses, which are in all countries the principal food of cattle." the farmer, for want of distinguishing and selecting the best kinds, fills his pastures either with weeds or improper plants, when by making a right choice he would not only procure a more abundant crop from his land, but have a produce more nourishing for his flock. one would therefore naturally wonder, after this truth has been so long published, and that in an age when agriculture and the arts have so much improved, that select seeds of this tribe of plants are scarcely to be produced. from the experience i have had on this subject, i find their culture is attended with certain difficulties, which arise not so much from the nature of the plants, as from the labour requisite to this purpose, great attention being necessary for saving grass-seeds at the seasons when the farmer must exert all the strength of his husbandmen to get his other business accomplished. the only mode by which this can be effected is by selecting a proper soil for the kinds intended to be saved. the seeds should be drilled into the ground at about one foot distance; and care taken that the plants are duly weeded of all other kinds that may intrude themselves, before they get too firm possession of the soil. the hoe should be frequently passed between the drills, in order both to keep the land clean and to give vigour to the young plants. the sowing may be done either in the spring or in the month of september, which will enable the crop to go to seed the following spring. in order to preserve a succession of crops, it is necessary every season to keep the ground clean all the summer months, to dig or otherwise turn up the land between the drills early in the spring, and to be particular in the other operations until the seeds ripen. now this business being so inconvenient to the farmer, it is not to be wondered at, that, wherever attempts of this kind have been made, they should fail from want of the necessary care as above stated, without which it is needless to speculate in such an undertaking. there is nevertheless still an opportunity, for any one who would give up his land and time to the pursuit, to reap a rich and important harvest; as nothing would pay him better, or redound more to his credit, than to get our markets regularly supplied with select seeds of the best indigenous grasses, so that a proper portion of them may be used for forming pasture and meadow-land. the above hints are not thrown out by a person who wishes to speculate in a theory which is new, but by one who has cultivated those plants himself both for seed and fodder, and who would readily wish to promote their culture by stating a mode which has proved to him a profitable pursuit, and for which he has, already, been honoured with a reward form the society of arts. the following observations are intended to embrace such kinds only as are likely to be cultivated, with those that are distinguished for some particular good properties; as it would be impossible within the limits of this small memorandum to enumerate all the plants that are eaten by cattle. the same mode shall be pursued under all the different heads in this department. plants usefull in agriculture. sect. i.--grasses. . anthoxanthum odoratum. sweet-scented vernal-grass.--this is found frequently in all our best meadows, to which it is of great benefit. it is an early, though not the most productive grass, and is much relished by all kinds of cattle. it is highly odoriferous; if bruised it communicates its agreeable scent to the fingers, and when dry perfumes the hay. it will grow in almost any soil or situation. about three pounds of seed should be sown with other grasses for an acre of land. . alopecurus pratensis. meadow fox-tail-grass.--one of our most productive plants of this tribe: it grows best in a moist soil, is very early, being often fit for the scythe by the middle of may. about two bushels of seed will sow an acre, with a proportionate quantity of clover; which see. . alopecurus geniculatus. flote fox-tail-grass.--is very good in water meadows, being nutritive, and cattle in general are fond of it. we do not know if the cultivation of this plant has as yet been attempted. . agrostis capillaris. fine bent-grass.--dr. walker, in his history of the hebrides, speaks very favourably of this grass. i have therefore noticed it here, but i do not think it so good as many others. it grows on the sandy hills near combe wood in surrey, and forms the principal part of the pasturage; but it is neither very productive, nor are cattle observed to thrive on it. the seeds are very small; one peck would sow an acre. . agrostis pyramidalis. fiorin-grass [footnote: fiorin is the irish name of butter].--no plant has engaged the attention of the farmer more than this grass, none ever produced more disputes, and none is perhaps so little understood. it is perfectly distinct from any species of agrostis indigenous to this country: it is introduced by dr. richardson, and to that gentleman's extraordinary account of it we are indebted for numerous mistakes that have been made respecting it. it is an amphibious plant, thriving only in water or wet soils, is very productive, and the stalks after a summer's growth secrete a large quantity of sugar. it has the power, when the stalks are ripe, of resisting putrefaction, and will become blanched and more nutritious by being cut and laid in heaps in the winter season, at which time only it is useful. the cultivator of this plant must not expect to graze his land, but allow all the growth to be husbanded as above; and although it will not be found generally advantageous on this account, it nevertheless may be grown to very great advantage either in wet soils, or where land can be flooded at pleasure. the seeds are often barren; and the only mode is to plant the shoots or strings in drills at nine inches apart, laying them lengthways along the drills, the ends of one touching the other. . aira aquatica. water hair-grass.--this is an aquatic, and very much relished by cattle, but cannot be propagated for fodder. water-fowl are very fond of the young sweet shoots, as also of the seeds; it may therefore be introduced into decoys and other places with good effect. pulling up the plants and throwing them into the water with a weight tied to them, is the best mode of introducing it. . arundo arenaria. sea-side reed-grass.--this is also of no value as fodder, but it possesses the property of forming by its thick and wiry roots considerable hillocks on the shores where it naturally grows: hence its value on all new embankments. if it be planted in a sandy place, during its growth in the summer the loose soil will be collected in the herbage, and the grass continues to grow and form roots in it; and thus is the hillock increased. local acts of parliament have been passed, and now exist, for preventing its destruction on the sea-coast in some parts of great britain, on this account. . arundo phragmites. common reed.--is useful for thatching, and making slight fences; it grows best in ponds near streams of water; it does not often seed, but it could easily be introduced to such places by planting its roots in spring: it is a large-growing plant; and where herbage may be wanted either for beauty or shelter for water-fowl, nothing can be more suitable, and the reeds are of great value. . avena flavescens. yellow oat-grass.--is much eaten by cattle, and forms a good bottom. it has the property of throwing up flowerstalks all the summer; hence its produce is considerable, and it appears to be well adapted to pasture. the seeds of this grass are not to be obtained separately; hence it is not in cultivation. it is however worthy of attention, as the seeds are produced very abundantly in its native places of growth. it will grow either in wet or dry soils. . avena pubescens. rough oat-grass.--this appears to have some merits, but the foliage is extremely bitter. it grows in dry soils. . avena elatior. tall oat-grass.--from the good appearance of this grass some persons have recommended it as likely to be useful for forming meadows; but it is excessively bitter, and is not liked by cattle generally, though when starved they are sometimes observed to eat of it. there is a variety of it with knobby roots which is found to be a most troublesome and noxious weed in arable lands, particularly in some parts of the coast of hampshire where it abounds. this variety was some years ago introduced into the island of st. kitts, and it has since taken such firm possession of the land as to render a large district quite useless. persons should be cautious how they speculate with weeds from appearances only. . briza media. quaking-grass.--is common in meadow land, and helps to make a thick bottom; it does not however appear to be worth the trouble of select culture. it is bitter to the taste. . bromus mollis. soft brome-grass.--mr. curtis has given a very clear account of this grass, which he says predominates much in the meadows near london, but that the seeds are usually ripe and the grass dried up before the hay time: hence it is lost; and he in consequence considered it only in the light of a weed. it has seldom occurred to me to differ in opinion from this gentleman, who certainly has given us, as far as it goes, a most perfect description of our useful grasses: but experience has convinced me that the soft brome-grass, which seeds and springs up so early, makes the chief bulk of most of our meadows in march and april; and although it is ripe and over, or nearly so, by the hay harvest, yet the food it yields at this early season is of the greatest moment, as little else is found fit for the food of cattle before the meadow is shut up for hay, and this plant being eaten down at that season is not any loss to the hay crop. whoever examines the seeds of this grass will be led to admire how wonderfully it is fitted to make its way into the soil at the season of its ripening, when the land is thus covered with the whole produce of a meadow. i notice this curious piece of mechanism [footnote: many seeds of the grasses are provided with awns which curl up in dry weather and relax with moisture. thus by change of atmosphere a continued motion is occasioned, which enables the seeds to find their way through the foliage to the soil, where it buries itself in a short time in a very curious manner.], not that it is altogether peculiar to this plant, but to show that nature has provided it means of succeeding in burying itself in the ground, when all the endeavours of man could not sow the land with any other to answer a similar purpose. if the seeds of this grass were collected and introduced in some meadows where it is not common, i am sure the early feeding would be thereby improved. the seeds are sometimes mixed with those of rye-grass at market, and it is known by the name of cocks: it has the effect of reducing such samples in value, but i should not hesitate in preferring such to any other. if any one should be inclined to make the above experiment, two pecks of the seed sown on an acre will be sufficient.---see treatise on brit. grasses by mr. curtis, edit. . . cynosurus cristatus. crested dog's-tail-grass.--a very fine herbage, and much relished by sheep, &c.; it grows best in fine upland loam, where it is found to be a most excellent plant both for grazing and hay. the seeds are to be purchased sometimes at the seedshops. about twelve pounds will sow an acre.---see observations on laying land to grass, in the appendix to this work. . cynosurus coeruleus. blue dog's-tail-grass.--dr. walker states this plant to be remarkably agreeable to cattle, and that it grows nearly three feet high in mountainous situations and very exposed places. as this grass does not grow wild in this part of the country, we have no opportunity of considering its merits. in our botanic garden it seldom exceeds the height of ten inches or a foot. it is the earliest grass of all our british species, being often in bloom in february. the above intelligent gentleman, who seems to have studied the british gramina to a considerable extent, says that the following kinds give considerable food to sheep and cattle in such situations; i shall therefore mention their names, as being with us of little esteem and similar to the above. phleum alpinum. eriophorum polystachion. festuca decumbens. carex flavescens. carex gigantea, probably pseudocyperus. carex trigona, probably vulpina. carex elata, probably atrata. carex nemorosa, probably pendula. and he is of opinion that the seeds may be sown to advantage. be this as may, the observation can only apply to situations in the north of britain, where he has seen them wild; in this part of the island we have a number of kinds much better adapted to soil, climate, and fodder. . dactylis glomerata. rough cock's-foot-grass.--has a remarkable rough coarse foliage, and is of little account as a grass for the hay-stack; but from its early growth and great produce it is now found to be a useful plant, and is the only grass at this time known that will fill up the dearth experienced by graziers from the time turnips are over until the meadows are fit for grazing. every sheep-farm should be provided with a due portion of this on the land; but no more should be grown than is wanted for early feed, and what can be kept closely eaten down all the season. if it is left to get up it forms large tufts, and renders the field unsightly, and scarcely any animal will eat it when grown old or when dried in the form of hay. the seed is to be bought; two bushels per acres is sown usually alone. . festuca elatior. tall fescue-grass.--this in its wild state has been considered as a productive and nutritive grass; it grows best in moist places; but the seeds have been found in general abortive, and the grass consequently only to be propagated by planting the roots, a trouble by far too great to succeed to any extent.--see poa aquatica. . festuca duriuscula. hard fescue-grass.--a very excellent grass both for green fodder and hay, and would be well worth cultivating; but the seeds have not hitherto been saved in any quantity. i have seen a meadow near bognor where it formed the principal part of the herbage; and it was represented to me by the owner as the best meadow in the neighbourhood, and the hay excellent [footnote: mr. curtis observes that this grass grows thin on the ground after a time. i have sometimes observed this to be the case in the botanic garden, but it is otherwise in its native state of growth. nothing stands the dry weather better, or makes a more firm sward.]. the seeds of this grass are small, and about one bushel would sow an acre of ground. . festuca rubra. red or creeping fescue-grass.--a fine grass, very like duriuscula; but it is not common in this part of the country; it grows plentifully on the mountains in wales. it does not produce fertile seeds with us in the garden. . festuca pratensis. meadow fescue-grass.--no plant whatever deserves so much the attention of the graziers as this grass. it has been justly esteemed by mr. curtis and all other persons practically acquainted with the produce of our meadows. it will grow in almost any soil that is capable of sustaining a vegetable, from the banks of rivulets to the top of the thin-soiled calcareous hills, where it produces herbage equal to any other plant of the kind; and all descriptions of cattle eat it, and are nourished by the food. the plant is of easy culture, as it yields seeds very abundantly, and they grow very readily. i have made some excellent meadows with this seed, which after a trial of ten years are now equal to any in the kingdom. the culture of the seed selected is now nearly lost, which is a misfortune, i had almost ventured to say a disgrace, to our agriculture. if the farmer could get his land fit for meadow laid down with one bushel of this seed, one bushel of alopecurus pratensis, three pounds of anthoxanthum, and a little bromus mollis, with clover, i will venture to predict experience will induce him to say, "i will seek no further." . festuca ovina.--sheep's fescue-grass.--this is very highly spoken of in all dissertations that have hitherto been written on the merits of our grasses; but its value must be confined to alpine situations, for its diminutive size added to its slow growth renders it in my opinion very inferior to the duriuscula. in fact, i am of opinion that these are often confounded together, and the merits of the former applied to this, although they are different in many respects. those who wish to obtain more of its history may consult stillingfleet's observations on grasses, p. . . festuca vivipara. viviparous fescue-grass.--this affords a striking instance of the protection that nature has contrived for keeping up the regular produce of the different species of plants; as when the festuca ovina is found in very high mountainous situations, places not congenial to the ripening seeds of so light a nature, the panicle is found to become viviparous, i.e. producing perfect plants, which being beaten down with heavy rains in the autumn, readily strike root in the ground. this plant was introduced into our garden many years ago, and still preserves this difference; otherwise it is in all respects the same as the festuca ovina. . festuca pinnata. spiked fescue-grass.--i have observed this near the thames side to be the principal grass in some of the most abundant meadows; and as the seeds are very plentiful, i am of opinion it might be very easily propagated: it is, however, not in cultivation at present. . festuca loliacea. darnel fescue-grass.--this in appearance is very like the lolium perenne, but is a more lasting plant in the ground. where i have seen it wild, it is certainly very good; but it is liable to the objection of festuca elatior, the seeds grow but sparingly. . holcus lanatus. yorkshire grass, or meadow soft-grass.--this has been much recommended as fit for meadow-land. i am not an advocate for it. it is late in blooming, and consequently not fit for the scythe at the time other grasses are; and i find the lower foliage where it occurs in meadows to be generally yellow and in a state of decay, from its tendency to mat and lie prostrate. i hear it has been cultivated in yorkshire; hence probably its name. two bushels of the seed would sow an acre; and it is sometimes met with in our seed-shops. it will grow in any soil, but thrives best in a moist loam. . holcus mollis. creeping soft-grass.--mr. curtis in the third edition of his treatise on grasses says, he is induced to have a better opinion than formerly of this grass, and that mr. dorset also thinks it may be cultivated to advantage in dry sandy soils. i have never seen it exhibit any appearance that has indicated any such thing, and do not recommend it. . hordeum pratense. meadow barley-grass.--this is productive, and forms a good bottom in battersea meadows: but although i have heard it highly recommended, i should fear it was much inferior to many others. one species of barley-grass, which grows very commonly in our sea-marshes, the hordeum maritimum, is apt to render cattle diseased in the mouth, from chewing the seeds, which are armed with a strong bristly awn not dissimilar to the spike of this grass. . lolium perenne. ray- or rye-grass.--this has been long in cultivation, and is usually sown with clover under a crop of spring corn. it forms in the succeeding autumn a good stock of herbage, and the summer following it is commonly mown for hay, or the seed saved for market, after which the land is usually ploughed and fallowed, to clear it of weeds, or as a preparation for wheat, by sowing a crop of winter tares or turnips. the seed is about six or eight pecks per acre, and ten pounds of clover mixt as the land best suits. although this is a very advantageous culture for such purposes, and when the land is not to remain in constant pasture; yet it is by no means a fit grass for permanent meadow, as it exhausts the soil, and presently goes into a state of decay for want of nourishment, when other plants natural to the soil are apt to overpower it. there are several varieties of this grass. some i have seen with the flowers double, others with branched panicles; some that grow very luxuriantly, and others that are little better than annuals; and there is also a variety in cultivation called pacey's rye-grass, much sought for. but i am of opinion that nothing but a fine rich soil will produce a very good crop, and that the principal difference, after all, is owing more to cultivation or change of soil, than to any real difference in the plant itself. . melica coerulea. blue melic-grass.--this is common on all our heaths; it appears coarse, and not a grass likely to be useful. yet this kind is spoken of by dr. walker under the name of fly-bent, who says it is one of the most productive and best grasses for sheep-feed in the highlands of scotland, where it grows to the height of three feet, a size to which it never attains in this part of the country. it is found in all soils, both in dry and boggy places. . panicum germanicum. german panic, or mohar.--i notice this plant here, although it is not a native of this country; neither is it in cultivation. it was introduced some years since by sir thomas tyrrwhit from hungary. it is said there to be the best food of all others for horses; and i think it might be cultivated to advantage on high sandy soils, as a late crop of green fodder. the seeds are similar to millet [footnote: the hungarian horses are remarked for their sleekness, and it is said that it is in consequence of being fed on mohar.]. . panicum crus galli. cock's-foot-panic-grass.--this plant has, i believe, never been recommended for cultivation; but it possesses qualities which render it worth attention: it will sometimes grow to the height of four feet, is very fine food for cattle, and will no doubt make excellent hay. it stands dry weather better than most other grasses i know. the seeds will not vegetate before may, and the crop not in perfection till late september. in dry soils i think it could be cultivated to advantage if sown among a crop of tares or rye in the autumn; and after they are cut in summer, this would spring up and be a valuable acquisition in a dry autumn, as it would seldom fail producing an abundant crop. it grows thick, and would tend to clear the land as a smothering crop over weeds: it is annual. . phalaris arundinacea. reed canary-grass.--this is not in cultivation, but grows plentyfully on the muddy banks of the thames; it will also grow very well in a moderately dry soil; and i have observed that cattle eat it when it is young. as it is early and very productive, as well as extremely hardy, i think it might become valuable as early feed. the seeds of this plant do not readily grow, but it might easily be introduced by planting the roots in the spring. the striped or ribbon grass of the flower garden is only a variety of this. see poa aquatica. . phleum pratense. timothy-grass, or meadow-cat's-tail-grass.--is very coarse and late, and consequently not equal to many of our grasses either for hay or pasture. it has been highly recommended in america, where it may probably have been found to answer better than it has done with us in cultivation. the seed used to be imported from new york, and met with a ready sale; but i believe it is seldom imported at this time. dr. walker says the seeds were taken from south carolina (where it was first cultivated) to that state, by one timothy hanson, from whence it acquired its name. the same gentleman supposes it may be introduced into the highlands of scotland with good effect, but is of my opinion as to its utility in england.--rural economy of the hebrides, vol. ii. p. . . phleum nodosum. bulbous cat's-tail-grass. (phleum pratense var. ? hudson.)--this affects a drier soil than the timothy-grass: it grows very frequently in dry thin soils, where it maintains itself against the parching sun by its bulbous roots, which lie dormant for a considerable time, but grow again very readily when the wet weather sets in,--a curious circumstance, which gives us an ample proof of the wise contrivance of the great author of nature to fertilize all kinds of soil for the benefit of his creatures here below. there is another instance of this in the poa bulbosa, bulbous meadow-grass, which grows on the steine at brighton, and which i have kept in papers two years out of ground, and it has vegetated afterwards. . poa annua. annual meadow-grass.--this is the most general plant in all nature: it grows in almost every situation where there is any vegetation. it has been spoken of as good in cultivation, and has had the term suffolk grass applied to it, from its having been grown in that county. i have never seen it in such states, neither can i say i should anticipate much benefit to arise from a plant which is not only an annual, but very diminutive in size. . poa aquatica. water meadow-grass.--this is quite an aquatic, but is eaten when young by cattle, and is very useful in fenny countries: it is highly ornamental, and might be introduced into ponds for the same purpose as arundo phragmites: it might also be planted with festuca elatior and phalaris arundinacea, in wet dug out places, where it would be useful as fodder, and form excellent shelter for game. . poa fluitans. flote fescue-grass.--this would be of all others the most nutritive and best plant for feeding cattle; but it thrives only in water. i have noticed it only because it is highly recommended by the editor of mr. curtis's observations on british grasses, th edit. the cattle are very fond of it; but it is not to be cultivated, unless it be in ponds, being perfectly aquatic. linnaeus speaks of the seeds being collected and sold in poland and germany as a dainty for culinary purposes; but i have never seen it used here, neither are the seeds to be collected in great quantities. stillingfleet, on the authority of a mr. dean, speaks highly of its merits in a water-meadow, and also quotes mr ray's account of the famous meadow at orchiston near salisbury. there this, as well as poa trivialis, most certainly is in its highest perfection; but the real and general value of grasses or other plants must not be estimated by such very local instances, when our object is to direct the student to a general knowledge of the subject. see curtis, art. poa trivialis. . poa trivialis. rough-stalked meadow-grass.--those who have observed this grass in our best watered meadows, and in other low pasture-land, have naturally been struck with its great produce and fine herbage. in some such places it undoubtedly appears to have every good quality that a plant of this nature can possess; it is a principal grass in the famous orchiston meadow near salisbury, and its amazing produce is mentioned in the bath agricultural papers, vol. i. p. : but persons should not be altogether caught by such appearances; for i have seen it in some lands, and such as would produce good red clover, a very diminutive and insignificant plant indeed. when persons wish to introduce it, they should carefully examine their neighbouring pastures, and see how it thrives in such places. the seeds are small, and six pounds would be sufficient for an acre, with others that affect a similar soil. . poa pratensis. smooth-stalked meadow-grass.--this is also a grass of considerable merit when it suits the soil; it affects a dry situation, and in some such places it is the principal herbage; but i have cultivated this by itself for seed in tolerably good land, and after some time i found it matted so much by its creeping roots as to become quite unproductive both of herbage and seed. care should therefore be taken that only a proper portion of this be introduced. the seeds of this and poa trivialis are the same in bulk, and probably the same proportion should be adopted. the seeds of both species hang together by a substance like to cobwebs, when thrashed, and require to be rubbed either in ashes or dry sand to separate them before sowing. * * * * * sect. ii.--artificial grasses [footnote: this technical term is generally known to farmers. it is applied to clovers, and such plants as usually grow in pastures, and not strictly gramina.]. under this term are included such plants as are sown for fodder, either with a view to form permanent pastures when mixed with the grasses, or as intermediate crops on arable land. in those cases they are usually sown with a spring crop of oats or barley, and the artificial grasses are protected after the harvest by the stubble left on the ground, affording the succeeding season a valuable crop, either for pasturage or hay. . achillea millefolium. yarrow.--this has been much recommended for sheep feed; but i observe it is frequently left untouched by them if other green herbage is found on the land. it will thrive in almost any soil, but succeeds best in good loam. the seed used is about twelve pounds per acre. . anthyllis vulneraria. kidney vetch.--this plant is not in cultivation, but it has been noticed that where it grows naturally the cows produce better milk and in greater quantity. it grows best in calcareous soils: the seeds are large, and easily collected. this plant well deserves attention. . cichorium intybus. cichory, or blue succory.-much has been said of the good properties of this plant; and if it has them to the full extent mentioned by different authors, i wonder there is not little else than cichory grown in this country. it is very prolific, and will grow extremely quick after the scythe during the summer months: but i fear, from the observations i have made, that it does not possess the fattening quality it is said to have. the plant is so extremely bitter, that although cattle may be inclined to feed on it early in the spring, yet as the season advances and other herbage more palatable is to be met with, it is left with its beautiful blue flowers and broad foliage to rob the soil and adorn our fields, to the regret of the farmer. it grows wild in great abundance in battersea fields, where my late friend mr. curtis used ludicrously to say that bad husbandry was exhibited to perfection. this plant is there continually seen in the greatest abundance, where the ground has not been lately disturbed, even under the noses of all the half-starved cattle of that neighbourhood that are turned in during the autumn. the root dried and ground to a powder will improve coffee, and is frequently drunk therewith, especially in germany, where it is prepared in cakes and sold for that purpose. . hedysarum onobrychis. saint-foin.--this is certainly one of the most useful plants of this tribe, and in the south of england is the life and support of the upland farmer: in such places it is the principal fodder, both green and in hay, for all his stock. i have not observed it to be cultivated in worcestershire or herefordshire, where there appears to be much land that would grow it, and which is under much inferior crops. the seed sown is about four bushels per acre. a mistake is often made in mentioning this plant. the newspapers, in quoting prices from mark lane, call it cinquefoil, a very different plant, (potentilla) of rather a noxious quality. see gleanings on works of agriculture and gardening, p. , where a curious blunder occurs of this kind. . lathyrus pratensis. meadow vetchling.--abounds much in our natural meadows, particularly in the best loamy soils, where it is very productive and nutritious. it is not in cultivation, for the seeds do not readily vegetate; a circumstance much to be regretted, but unfortunately the case with several of our other tares, which would otherwise be a great acquisition to our graziers. . lotus corniculatus. bird's-foot-lotus.--there are several varieties of this plant; one growing on very dry chalky soils, and which in such places helps to make a good turf, and is much relished by cattle. the other varieties grow in marshy land, and make much larger plants than the other. here it is also much eaten; and i have also noticed it in hay, where it appears to be a good ingredient. as it thus appears to grow in any situation, there is no doubt, if the seeds were collected, that it might be cultivated with ease, and turn to good account in such land as is too light for clover. in wet and boggy situations it becomes very hairy, and in this state its appearance is very different from that which it has when growing in chalk, where it is perfectly smooth. this plant should not be overlooked by the experimental farmer. it is very highly spoken of in dr. anderson's essays on agriculture, under the mistaken name of astragalus glycophyllos, p. ; but a truly practical account is given of it by ellis in his husbandry, p. , by the old name lady-finger-grass. . medicago falcata. yellow medic.--is nearly allied to lucerne, and is equally good for fodder; it will grow on land that is very dry, and hence is likely to become a most useful plant; its culture has, however, been tried but partially. some experiments were made with this plant by thomas le blanc, esq., in suffolk, which are recorded by professor martyn. martyn's miller's dict. art. medicago. . medicago polymorpha. variable medic.--this is also a plant much relished by cattle, but is not in cultivation: it is an annual, and perhaps inferior in many respects to the nonsuch, which it in some measure resembles. there are many varieties of this plant cultivated in flower gardens on account of the curious shapes of the seed-pods, some having a distant resemblance to snails' horns, cater-pillars, &c. under which names they are sold in the seed-shops. it grows in sandy hilly soils; the wild kind has flat pods. . medicago sativa. lucerne.--too much cannot be said in praise of this most useful perennial plant: it is every thing the farmer can wish for, excepting that it will not grow without proper culture. it should be drilled at eighteen inches distance, and kept constantly hoed all summer, have a large coat of manure in winter, and be dug into the ground between the drills. six or seven pounds of seed will sow an acre in this mode. i have known lucerne sown with grass and clover for forming meadow land; but as it does not thrive well when encumbered with other plants, i see no good derived from this practice. no plant requires, or in fact deserves, better cultivation than this, and few plants yield less if badly managed. . medicago lupulina. trefoil, or nonsuch.--a biennial plant, very usefully cultivated with rye-grass and clover for forming artificial meadows. trefoil when left on the ground will seed, and these will readily grow and renew the plant successively; which has caused some persons to suppose it to be perennial. about eight or ten pounds of seed are usually sown with six or eight pecks of rye-grass for an acre, under a crop of barley or oats. . plantago lanceolata. rib-grass.--this is a perennial plant, and very usefully grown, either mixed with grasses or sometimes alone: it will thrive in any soil, and particularly in rocky situations. it is much grown on the hills in wales, where by its roots spreading from stone to stone it is often found to prevent the soil from being washed off, and has been known to keep a large district fertile which would otherwise be only bare rock. sheep are particularly fond of it. about four pounds sown with other seeds for pasture, will render a benefit in any situation that wants it. twenty-four pounds is usually sown on an acre when intended for the sole crop, and sown under corn. . poterium sanguisorba. burnet.--this plant grows in calcareous soils, and is in some places much esteemed. on the thin chalky soils near alresford in hampshire, i have observed it to thrive better than almost any other plant that is cultivated. sheep are particularly fond of it; and i have heard it said that the flavour of the celebrated lansdown mutton arises from the quantity of burnet growing there. it is also the favourite food of deer. this will grow well in any soil, and there are few pastures without it but would be benefited by its introduction. twenty-five pounds per acre are sown alone: eight pounds mixed with other seeds would be sufficient to give a good plant on the ground. . sanguisorba officinalis. great canada burnet.--cattle will eat this when young; and it has been supposed to be a useful plant, but i do not think it equal to burnet. it is perennial, and is often found wild, but has not yet been cultivated. . trifolium pratense. red clover.--this is a very old plant in cultivation, and perhaps, with little exception, one of the most useful. it is very productive and nutritive, but soon exhausts the soil; and unless it is in particular places it presently is found to go off, which with the grazier is become a general complaint of all our cultivated clovers. it is also well known, that if the crop is mown the plant is the sooner exhausted. seeds of clover have the property of remaining long in the ground after it has become thus in a manner exhausted; and it frequently occurs that ashes being laid on will stimulate the land afresh, and cause the seeds to vegetate; which has given rise to the erroneous opinion with many persons, that ashes, and particularly soap ashes, will, when sown on land, produce clover. red clover is usually cultivated in stiff clays or loamy soils; and when sown alone, about sixteen or eighteen pounds of seed are used for the acre. . trifolium medium. zigzag, or mountain-clover.--is in some degree like the preceeding; it produces a purple flower, and the foliage is much the same in appearance: but this is a much stronger perennial, and calculated from its creeping roots to last much longer in the land. it is equally useful as a food for cattle, and does not possess that dangerous quality of causing cattle to be hove, or blown, by eating it when fresh and green. this plant is, however, only to be met with in upland pastures, and there in its wild state; for it does not seed very abundantly, and is not in cultivation. in the london seed-markets we often hear of a species of red clover termed cow-grass, and it generally sells for more money, and is said to differ in having the characters ascribed to it of this plant, namely, a hollow stem; the leaves more sharply pointed; the plant being a stronger perennial, and having the property of not causing the above-mentioned disorder to cows that eat of it. it is said to be cultivated in hampshire, from whence i have often received the seeds which have been purchased purposely for the experiment; but on growing them, i never could discover these differences to exist. it is a circumstance worthy notice, that the very exact character of the trifolium medium should thus be said to belong to the supposed variety of red clover. i have endeavoured for the last twenty years to find out the true cow-grass, and am of opinion that it has been from some cause mistaken for this plant. the trifolium medium is, at all events, a plant worth attention, and i think it might be easily brought into cultivation; for although it does not seed so abundantly as the t. pratense, i have observed it in places where a considerable quantity has been perfected, and where it might have been easily collected by gathering the capsules. . trifolium repens. dutch clover.--this is not so robust a plant as either of the former kinds, but it creeps on the ground and forms a fine bottom in all lands wherever it occurs, either cultivated or wild. this has not the property of blowing the cattle in so great a degree as the other sorts have. this disease is said to be accelerated by clover being eaten whilst the dew is on it: and when green clover is intended to be used as fodder, it is always best to mow it in the heat of the day, and let it lie till it is whithered, when it may be given to cows with safety. clover seeds of all kinds are necessary ingredients in laying down land to pasture; and the usual quantity is about twelve pounds per acre mixt in proportion at the option of the grower. this kind remains longer in slight soils than the red does; but although both are perennial plants, they are apt to go off, for the reason pointed out under the head of t. pratense. this plant, as well as the t. medium and other perennial kinds, is sometimes found in old pastures on loamy soils; and whenever this is the case, it is a certain indication of the goodness of the soil, and such as a judicious gardener would make choice of for potting his exotic plants in, as he may rest assured that the soil which will maintain clover for a succession of seasons will be fit loam for such purposes. . trifolium procumbens. yellow suckling.--an annual very like the nonsuch; it is a very useful plant, seeding very freely in pastures and growing readily, by which means it is every year renewed, and affords a fine bite for sheep and cattle. i have now and then seen the seeds of this in the shops, but it is not common. there is a gentleman who cultivates this plant very successfully near horsham, and who, i am informed, states it to be the best kind of clover for that land. it grows very commonly amongst the herbage on horsham common, so that it is probably its native habitat. the seeds are the smallest of all the cultivated clovers, and of course less in weight will be necessary for the land. . trifolium ochroleucum. yellow clover.--this is not a common plant, but it deserves the attention of the grazier. i believe it is not in cultivation. in the garden it stands well, and is a large plant. the herbage appears to be as good as that of any other kind of clover, and it might, if introduced, be cultivated by similar means. . trifolium agrarium. hop trefoil.--this is also a good plant, but not in cultivation; it is eaten by cattle in its wild state, is a perennial, and certainly deserves a trial with such persons who may be inclined to make experiments with these plants. buffalo clover is a kind similar to trifolium agrarium and trifolium repens, and appears to me to be a hybrid plant. this has been sometimes sent to this country from america, and is a larger plant than either. it has, however, as far as i have grown it, the same property of exhausting the soil as all the other species possess, and is soon found to go off: it is not in cultivation to any large extent. . vicia cracca. tufted vetch.--persons who have most noticed this plant have imagined it might be introduced into cultivation. it is hardy, durable, nutritious, and productive; but, like the yellow vetchling, the seeds do not readily vegetate; the only way to cultivate it, therefore, would be by planting out the roots; which might be done, as they are easily parted and are to be procured in great plenty in the places where it grows wild. . vicia sativa. vetches, fetch, or tare.--a very useful and common plant, of which we have two varieties known to the farmer by the name of spring and winter tares: they are both annuals. the spring variety is a more upright growing plant, and much tenderer than the other: it is usually sown in march and april, and affords in general fine summer fodder. the winter tares are usually sown at the wheat seed-time, remain all winter, and are usually cut in the spring, generally six weeks before the spring crop comes in. the winter tares are now considered a crop worth attention by the farmers near london, who sow them, and sell the crop in small bundles in the spring at a very good price. tares are usually sown broadcast, about three bushels and a half to the acre. persons should be careful in procuring the true variety for the winter sowing; for i have frequently known a crop fail altogether by sowing the spring tares, which is a more tender variety, at that season. it should be noticed that the seeds of both varieties are so much alike that the kinds are not to be distinguished; but the plants are easily known as soon as they begin to grow and form stems; the spring kind having a very upright habit, and the winter tares trail on the ground. it is usual for persons wanting seeds of such to procure a sample; and by growing them in a hothouse, or forcing frame, they may soon be able to ascertain the kinds. ellis in his husbandry says, that if ewes are fed on tares, the lambs they produce will invariably have red flesh. . vicia sylvatica. wood vetch.--a perennial plant growing in the shade; it seems to have all the good properties in general with the other sorts of tares; but it is not in cultivation. . vicia sepium. bush vetch.--is also a species much eaten by cattle in its wild state, but has not yet been cultivated: it nevertheless would be an acquisition if it could be got to grow in quantity. so much having been said of the different kinds of tares, perhaps some persons may be inclined to think that it would be superfluous to have more in cultivation than one or two sorts. to this i would beg leave to reply, that they do not all grow exactly in the same situations wild; and if they were cultivated, some one of them might be found to suit in certain lands better than others; and perhaps we never shall see our agriculture at the height of improvement, till by some public-spirited measure all those things shall be grown for the purposes of fair comparative experiment--an institution much wanted in this country. * * * * * hints as to the laying down land to permanent pasture. having endeavoured to explain as nearly as possible the nature and uses of the plants which are likely to improve our meadows and pastures; i shall proceed to describe the best approved mode of sowing the land, on which depends, in a great measure, the future success of the husbandman's labour. under the head lolium perenne i observed the practice of sowing clovers and that grass with a crop of barley or oats, which is intended as an intermediate crop for a season or two, and then the land to be again broken up and used for arable crops. and this is a common and useful practice; for although neither the clover or rye-grass will last long, yet both will be found to produce a good crop whilst the land will bear it, or until it is overpowered by the natural weeds of the ground [footnote: it is not an uncommon opinion amongst farmers, that rye-grass produces couch; and this is not extraordinary; for, if the land is at all furnished with this weed, it receives great encouragement under this mode of culture.], which renders it necessary to the farmer to break it up. i am aware of the difficulty of persuading persons (farmers in particular) to adopt any new systems; and i have often, when speaking of this subject amongst men of enlightened understandings, been told it would be next to madness, to sacrifice the benefit of a crop of oats or barley when the land is in fine tilth, and whilst we can grow grass seeds underneath it. "to this i reply, that there is no land whatever, when left for a few months in a state of rest, but will produce naturally some kind of herbage, good and bad; and thus we find the industry of man excited, and the application of the hoe and the weeder continually among all our crops, this being essential to their welfare. i cannot help, therefore, observing how extremely absurd it is to endeavour to form clean and good pasturage under a crop hat gives as much protection to every noxious weed as to the young grass itself. weeds are of two descriptions, and each requires a very different mode of extermination: thus, if annual, as the charlock and poppy, they will flower among the corn, and the seeds will ripen and drop before harvest, and be ready to vegetate as soon as the corn is removed; and if perennial, as thistles, docks, couch-grass, and a long tribe of others in this way, well known to the farmer, they will be found to take such firm possession of the ground that they will not be got rid of without great trouble and expense. "although the crop of corn thus obtained is valuable, yet when a good and permanent meadow is wanted, and when all the strength of the land is required to nurture the young grass thus robbed and injured, the proprietor is often at considerable expense the second year for manure, which, taking into consideration the trouble and disadvantage attending it, more than counterbalances the profit of the corn crop. "to accomplish fully the formation of permanent meadows, three things are necessary: namely to clean the land, to produce good and perfect seeds adapted to the nature of the soil, and to keep the crop clean by eradicating all the weeds, till the grasses have grown sufficiently to prevent the introduction of other plants. the first of these matters is known to every good farmer,--the second may be obtained,--and the third may be accomplished by practising the modes in which i have succeeded at a small comparative expense and trouble, and which is instanced in a meadow immediately fronting brompton crescent, the property of angus macdonald, esq. which land was very greatly encumbered with noxious weeds of all kinds: but, by the following plan, the grasses were encouraged to grow up to the exclusion of all other plants; and though it has been laid down more than ten years, the pasturage is now at least equal to any in the county. "grass seeds may be sown with equal advantage both in spring and autumn. the land above mentioned was sown in the latter end of august, and the seed made use of was one bushel of meadow-fescue, and one of meadow fox-tail-grass, with a mixture of fifteen pounds of white clover and trefoil per acre; the land was previously cleaned as far as possible with the plough and harrows, and the seeds sown and covered in the usual way. in the month of october following, a most prodigious crop of annual weeds of many kinds having grown up, were in bloom, and covered the ground and the sown grasses; the whole was then mowed and carried off the land, and by this management all the annual weeds were at once destroyed, as they do not spring again if cut down when in bloom. thus, whilst the stalks and roots of the annual weeds were decaying, the sown grasses were getting strength during the fine weather, and what few perennial weeds were amongst them were pulled up by hand in their young state. the whole land was repeatedly rolled, to prevent the worms and frost from throwing the plants out of the ground; and in the following spring it was grazed till the latter end of march, when it was left for hay, and has ever since continued a good field of grass. "several meadows at roehampton, belonging to the late b. goldsmid, esq., were laid down with two bushels of meadow fescue-grass and fifteen pounds of mixed clover, and sown in the spring along with one peck and a half of barley, intended as a shade to the young grasses. the crop was thus suffered to grow till the latter end of june, and then the corn, with the weeds, was mowed and carried off the land; the ground was then rolled, and at the end of july the grasses were so much grown as to admit good grazing for sheep, which were kept thereon for several weeks. it should be observed, that the corn is to be mowed whilst in bloom, and when there is an appearance of, or immediately after rain; which will be an advantage to the grasses, and occasion them to thrive greatly. "i sowed some fields for the same gentleman in autumn in the same way, and found them to succeed equally well." the above remarks are part of a communication i gave six years since to the society of arts, for which i was honoured with their prize medal; and i have great pleasure in transcribing it [footnote: see transactions of the society of arts, vol. xxvii. p. .], as i frequently visit the meadows mentioned above, and have the satisfaction of hearing them pronounced the best in their respective neighbourhoods. thus are my opinions on this head borne out by twelve years experience. let the sceptic compare this improvement with his pretended advantage of a crop of barley. it should be observed that our agricultural efforts are intended only to assist the operations of nature, and that in all our experiments we should consult the soil as to its spontaneous produce, from whence alone we can be enabled to adapt, with propriety, plants to proper situations. the kinds of selected grass-seeds that are at this time to be purchased are few, and consist of lolium perenne, festuca pratensis, alopecurus pratensis; dactylis glomeratus, cynosurus cristatus; with the various kinds of clovers: and it is not easy to lay down any rule as to the mixture or proportion of each different kind that would best suit particular lands. attention however should, in all cases, be paid to the plants growing wild in the neighbouring pastures, or in similar soils, and the greater portion used of those which are observed to thrive best. in certain instances i have mentioned particular quantities of seeds to be mixed with others; but in general i have stated how much it would require to sow an acre with each kind separately; from which a person may form a criterion, when several sorts are used, as to what quantity of each sort should be adopted. taking into view, therefore, that nothing but a mixture of proper kinds of grasses, &c. will make good pasturage, and that our knowledge is very imperfect on this head at the present season, we must advise that particular attention be paid to the subject, or little good can be hoped for from all our endeavours. * * * * * sect. iii.--fodder from leaves and roots. the student in agriculture will find in this department a wide field for speculation, which, although it has been greatly improved during the last century, still affords much room for experiments. during the last thirty-five years i have had opportunity of observing the great difference in the quantity of cattle brought to one of our largest beast-markets in the south of england; and it is well known that this has increased in a ratio of more than double; and i am informed by a worthy and truly honourable prelate, who has observed the same for twenty-five years previously, that it has nearly quadrupled. i have also made it my business, as a subject of curiosity, to inquire if the increase at other markets has been the same, and from all accounts i am convinced of the affirmative. now as we have ample proofs from the statistical accounts of our husbandry, that less corn has not been grown in the same period, we shall naturally be inclined to give the merit of this increase to the introduction of the turnip husbandry, which, although it is now become so general, is, comparatively speaking, but in its infancy; and it is from that branch of our agriculture that has sprung the culture of the great variety of fodder of the description which i am now about to explain. and here it may not prove amiss to observe to the botanical student, should he hereafter be destined to travel, that by making himself thus acquainted with the nature of such vegetables, he may have it in his power to render great benefit to society by the introduction of others of still superior virtues, for the use both of man and the brute creation. when sir walter raleigh undertook his expedition to south america, the object of which failed, he had the good fortune from his taste for botany to render to his country, and to the world at large, a more essential service, by the introduction of one single vegetable, than was ever achieved by the military exploits performed before or since that period [footnote: the potatoe was introduced by sir walter raleigh, on his return from the river plate, in the year .]. it has not only been the means of increasing the wealth and strength of nations, but more than once prevented a famine in this country when suffering from a scarcity of bread-corn and when most of the ports which could afford us a supply were shut by the ambition of a powerful enemy. . brassica napus. turnip.--turnips afford the best feed for sheep in the autumn and winter months. it is usual to sow them as a preparatory crop for barley, and now very frequently for a crop of spring wheat. turnips are not easily raised but where some kind of manure is used to stimulate the land. in dry seasons the crop is often destroyed by the ravages of a small beetle, which perforates the cotyledons of the plants, and destroys the crop on whole fields in a few hours. many remedies against this evil are enumerated in our books on husbandry. the best preventative, however, appears to be the putting manure on the ground in a moist state and sowing the seeds with it, in order to excite the young plant to grow rapidly; for the insect does not hurt it when the rough leaf is once grown. i have this season seen a fine field of turnips, sown mixt with dung out of a cart and ploughed in ridges. the seeds which were not too deeply buried grew and escaped the fly; when scarcely a field in the same district escaped the ravages of that insect. turnips are sown either broad-cast or in drills. it takes about four pounds of seed per acre in the first mode, and about half the quantity in the second. there are several varieties of turnips grown for cattle; the most striking of which are, the white round norfolk; the red round ditto; the green round ditto; the tankard; the yellow. these varieties are nearly the same in goodness and produce: the green and red are considered as rather more hardy than the others. the tankard is long-rooted and stands more out of the ground, and is objected to as being more liable to the attack of early frosts. the yellow is much esteemed in scotland, and supposed to contain more nutriment [footnote: the usual season for sowing the above varieties is within a fortnight or three weeks after midsummer.]. the stone and dutch turnips are grown for culinary purposes, and are also sometimes sown after the corn is cleared, as being small and of early growth; these in such cases are called stubble turnips, and often in fine autumns produce a considerable quantity of herbage. for a further account of the culture &c. see dickson's modern husbandry, vol. ii. p. . there is nothing in husbandry requiring more care than the saving seeds of most of the plants of this tribe, and in particular of the genus brassica. if two sorts of turnips or cabbages are suffered to grow and bloom together, the pollen of each kind will be sufficiently mixed to impregnate each alternately, and a hybrid kind will be the produce, and in ninety-nine times out of a hundred a worse variety than either. although this is generally the result of an indiscriminate mixture, yet by properly adapting two different kinds to grow together, new and superior varieties are sometimes produced. one gentleman having profited by this philosophy, has succeeded in producing some fine new varieties of fruits and vegetables, much to the honour of his own talents and his country's benefit [footnote: see mr knight on the apple-tree.]. it is well known to gardeners that the cabbage tribe are liable to sport thus in their progeny; and to some accidental occurrence of this nature we are indebted for the very useful plant called the . roota-baga. swedish turnip.--which is a hybrid plant par-taking of the turnip and cabbage, and what has within these few years added so much to the benefit of the grazier. this root is much more hardy than any of the turnips; it will stand our winters without suffering injury from frosts, and is particularly ponderous and nutritious. it is usually cultivated as the common trunip, with this difference, that it requires to be sown as early in some lands as the month of may, it being a plant which requires a longer time to come to maturity. every judicious farmer who depends on turnips for foddering his stock in the winter, will do well to guard against the loss sometimes occasioned by the failure of his turnips from frost and wet. various ways of doing this are recommended, as stacking &c. but if he has a portion of his best land under swedish turnip, he will have late in the winter a valuable crop that will be his best substitute. another advantage is this, that it will last a fortnight longer in the spring, and consequently be valuable on this account. the quantity of seed usually sown is the same as for the common kinds of turnip. there are two varieties of this plant, one white and the other yellow: the latter is the most approved. . brassica napo brassica. kohlrabbi.--a hardy kind of turnip cabbage, grown much in germany for fodder: it is very nutritive, and has the property of resisting frost better than either the turnips or cattle-cabbage. the seed and culture of this are the same as of drum-head cabbage. there are two varieties of this plant, the green and the purple; the latter is generally most esteemed. . brussels sprouts.--this is a large variety of cabbage, very productive and hardy. the culture is the same as for cattle-cabbage. . brassica oleracea. drum-head cabbage.--this is usually sown in march and the plants put out into beds, and then transplanted into the fields; this grows to a most enormous size, and is very profitable. about four pounds of seed is sufficient for an acre. * * * * * sec. iv.--grains. . avena sativa. common oats.--a grain very commonly known, of which we have a number of varieties, from the thin old black oats to the fine poland variety and the celebrated potatoe-oats. these give the farmer at all times the advantage of a change of seeds, a measure allowed on all hands to be essential to good husbandry. the culture is various; thin soils growing the black kind in preference, which is remarkably hardy, where the finer sorts affecting a better soil will not succeed. it is applicable both to the drill and broad-cast. the seed is from six pecks to four bushels per acre, and the crop from seven to fourteen quarters. . carum carui. caraway seeds.--the seeds of this are in demand both by druggists and confectioners. it is cultivated in kent and essex; where it, being a biennial plant, is sown with a crop of spring corn, and left with the stubble during the succeeding winter, and after clearing the land in the spring is left to go to seed. it requires a good hot dry soil; but although the crop is often of great value, it so much exhausts the land as to be hazardous culture in many light soils where the dunghill is not handy. the seed is about ten pounds per acre, and the crop often five or six sacks. . coriandrum sativum. coriander.--is grown in the stiff lands, in essex, and is an annual of easy but not of general culture. the seeds are used by druggists and rectifiers of spirits, and form many of the cordial drinks. the quantity of seed and produce are similar to those of caraway. . ervum lens. lentils.--once cultivated here for the seeds, which are used for soups; but it is furnished principally from spain, and can at all times be purchased for less than it can be grown for. . hordeum distichon. common two-rowed barley.--a grain now in very general cultivation, and supposed to be the best kind grown for malting. the season for sowing barley is in the spring, and the crop varies according to soil and culture; it is sown either broad-cast, drilled, or dibbled. the quantity of seed sown is from three pecks to three bushels per acre, and the produce from three to eleven quarters. as the process of malting may not be generally understood by that class of readers for which this work is mostly intended, i shall give a short sketch of it.--it is a natural principle of vegetation, that every seed undergoes a change before it is formed into the young plant. the substance of the cotyledons, which when ground forms the nutritious flower of which bread is made, changes into two particular substances, i. e. sugar and mucilage; and whilst mankind form from it the principal staff of life as an edible commodity, the same parts of the seed in barley are by certain means made into malt, which is only another term for the sugar of that grain. to effect this, the barley is steeped in water, and afterwards laid in heaps, in which state it vegetates in a few days, and the saccharine fermentation is by that means carried on to a certain pitch, when it is put on a kiln to which a fire is applied, and it is by that means dried. it is then perfect malt, and fit for the purpose of brewing. pearl and scotch barley, used for soup and medicinal purposes, are made from the grain by being put into a mill, which merely grinds off the husk. the pearl barley is mostly prepared in holland, but the scotch is made near edinburgh in considerable quantities. a description of an improved mill for this purpose is to be seen in the edinburgh encyclopaedia, p. . . hordeum vulgare. bere, big, or winter barley.--this is a coarser grain than the two-rowed barley, and hence it is not so well adapted to the purpose of malting. it is grown on cold thin soils, being much hardier than the former. it is now often sown in october, and in the month of may or june following it is mown and taken off the land for green fodder. the plants will notwithstanding this produce in august a very abundant crop of grain. hence this is a valuable mode of culture for the farmer. the other varieties of barley are, . hordeum hexastichon. six-rowed barley.--this is also a coarse grain; and although it was once in cultivation here, it has been altogether superseded by the bere, which is a better kind. . hordeum zeocriton. battledore barley.--this is a fine grain, but very tender, and not now in cultivation in this country. naked barley. the two first species sometimes produce a variety which thrashes out of the husks similar to wheat: these are very heavy and fine grain, but they are not in cultivation: for what reason i know not. . panicum miliaceum. millet.--millet is of two kinds, the brown and yellow. they are sometimes sown in this country for feeding poultry, and also for dressing; i. e. it is divested of the husk by being passed through a mill, when it is equal to rice for the use of the pastrycook. the seed used is from one to two bushels per acre. this is more commonly grown in italy, and on the shores of the mediterranean sea, from which large quantities are annually exported to the more northern countries. . papaver somniferum. maw-seed.--the large white opium poppy is grown for seed for feeding birds, and also for pressing the oil, which is used by painters. the heads are also used by the apothecaries; which see under the head medicinal plants. about two pounds of seed to the acre. . phalaris canariensis. canary-seed.--this is grown mostly in the isle of thanet, and sent to london &c. for feeding canary and other song-birds, and considered a very profitable crop to the farmer. it is sown in april, and the quantity of seed is about one bushel and a half per acre. . pisum sativum. the pea [footnote: at the request of sir john sinclair i made an experiment, from directions given by a french emigrant, of mixing pease with urine in which had been steeped a considerable quantity of pigeon's dung. in the course of twenty-four hours they had swoln very much, when they were put into the ground. an equal quantity were steeped in water; and the same quantity also that had not been steeped, were sown in three adjoining spots of land. there was a difference in the coming up of the crops, of some days in each; but that with the above preparation took the lead, and was by far the best crop on the ground. this is an experiment worth attending to. it is usual to prepare wheat in a similar way, but no other grain that i have ever heard of.].--the gray hog-pea used to be the only one considered sufficiently hardy for culture in the fields; but since the improvement in our agriculture we have all the finer varieties cultivated in large quantities. the seed used is about two bushels and a half per acre, and the produce varies from three to ten quarters. the varieties of peas are many, but the principal ones used in agriculture are the early charlton pea; the dwarf marrow; the prussian blue. all these are dwarf kinds; and as the demand for this article in time of war is great for the navy and army, if the farmer's land will suit, and produce such as will boil, they will fetch a considerably greater price in proportion. the varieties that are found to boil are either used whole, or split, which is done by steeping them in water till the cotyledons swell, after which they are dried on a kiln and passed through a mill; which just breaking the husk, the two cotyledons fall apart. . polygonum fagopyrum. buck-wheat.--this is usually sown in places where pheasants are bred, as the seed is the best food for those birds; it is also useful for poultry and hogs. i have eaten bread and cakes made of the flower, which are also very palatable. two bushels are usually sown per acre. the season is may; and it is often sown on foul land in the summer, as it grows very thick on the land, and helps to clean it by smothering all the weeds. the crop does not stand on the ground more than ten or twelve weeks. . secale cereale. rye.--this is often grown for a spring crop of green food, by sowing it early in the autumn, as it is very hardy and is not affected by frost. it grows fast in the spring months, and affords a very luxuriant crop of green fodder. tares and rye are frequently sown mixed together for the same purpose, and the tares find a support in the stalks of the rye, by which means they produce a larger crop than they make by themselves. the grain is the next in estimation to wheat, and is frequently used for making bread. the quantity sown per acre is the same as wheat. . sinapis nigra. black mustard.--this is grown in essex in great quantities for the seeds, which are sold to the manufacturers of flower of mustard, and is considered better flavoured, stronger, and capable of keeping better, than the white kind for such purpose. it is also in use for various medicinal preparations; which see. about two bushels of seed sown broad-cast are sufficient for an acre. this plant affords another striking instance of the care of providence in preserving the species of the vegetable kingdom, it being noticed in the isle of ely and other places, that wherever new ditches are thrown out, or the earth dug to any unusual depth, the seeds of black mustard immediately throw up a crop. in some places it has been proved to have lain thus embalmed for ages. flower of mustard, which is now become so common on our tables, and which is an article of very considerable trade, is but a new manufacture. a respectable seedsman who lived in pall-mall was the first who prepared it in this state for sale. the seeds of the white sort had been used to be bruised in a mortar and eaten sometimes as a condiment, but only in small quantities. when used fresh it is weak, and has an unpleasant taste; but after standing a few hours the essential oil unites with the water which is used, and it then becomes considerably stronger, and the flavour is improved. it is prepared by drying the seeds on a kiln and grinding them to a powder. as this article is become of considerable importance from the demand, it has occasioned persons to speculate in its adulteration, which is now i believe often practised. real flower of mustard will bear the addition of an equal quantity of salt without its appearing too much in the taste. in an old work, hartman's treasure of health, i find it to have been practised by a noble lady of that time to make mustard for keeping, with sherry wine with the addition of a little sugar, and sometimes a little vinegar. query, is this, with the substitution of a cheaper wine, the secret of what is called patent mustard? . triticum aestivum. spring wheat.--wheat is a grain well known in most countries in europe. it has been in cultivation for many ages. this species was introduced some years ago from the barbary coast, and has been found very beneficial for sowing in the spring, when it often produces a large crop. it takes a shorter time to come to maturity than the other sorts; and as it is a more profitable crop to the farmer on good soils than barley, it is frequently sown after turnips are over. this has, perhaps, been one of the best improvements in grain husbandry that was ever introduced, as it gives the grower great advantages which he could not have under the common culture of wheat at the usual seed-time. this is little different in appearance from the common white wheat. but there was a small variety of it with rounder grains sent to the board of agriculture from the cape of good hope about the year , of which i saved a small quantity of seeds which was distributed among the members; and i have lately seen a sample of it in the hands of a gentleman in devonshire, who speaks very highly of it as producing a large crop in a short time, and that the flower was so much esteemed, that the millers gave him a higher price for it than the finest samples at market of the other kinds would sell for. i believe this variety is very scarce. it is now twelve years since i grew it, from which what i saw, and all other in cultivation, if any there are, have sprung. . triticum compositum. egyptian wheat.--this is a species with branched ears, and commonly having as many as three and four divisions. it is much cultivated in the eastern countries, but has not been found to answer so well in this country as the common cultivated species. . triticum hybernum. common wheat.--of this grain we have a number of varieties, which are grown according to the fashion of countries, differing in the colour of the ear and also of the grain. the most esteemed sorts are the hertfordshire white and the essex red wheat, which are both much cultivated and equally esteemed. the season for growing these kinds is usually september and october. the drill, dibble, and broad-cast modes are all used, as the land and convenience of the farmer happen to suit, and the produce varies accordingly; as does also the quantity of seed sown. from two pecks to two bushels and a half are sown on an acre. wheat is liable to the ravages of many terrestrious insects which attack its roots; and also some very curious diseases. one of these has been very clearly elucidated by our munificent patron of science, sir joseph banks, in the investigation of a parasitical plant which destroys the blood of the stalk and leaves, renders the grain thin, and in some cases quite destroys the crop, which has done that gentleman's penetration great credit [footnote: sir joseph banks on the blight in corn.]. an equally extraordinary disease is the smut, which converts the farinaceous parts of the grain to a black powder resembling smut: a cirumstance too well known to many farmers. those who wish to consult the remedies recommended against this, may refer to the annals of agriculture, and most other books on the subject. it is usual with farmers to mix the wheat with stale urine or brine, and to dry it by sifting it with slaked lime, which has the effect of causing it to vegetate quickly, and to prevent the attacks of many insects when the seed is first put into the ground. this is considered as productive of great benefit to the crop; but it is also to be remarked, that it is almost the only grain that is ever prepared with this mixture, although it might be applied with equal propriety to all others. see article pisum sativum. . triticum turgidum. cone wheat.--this a fine grain, and cultivated much in the strong land in the vale of evesham, where it is found to answer better than any other sorts. it is distinguished by the square and thick spike, and having a very long arista or beard. the following sorts of wheat are mentioned as being in cultivation. but i have not seen them, neither do i think any of them equal to the sorts enumerated above: triticum nigrum. black-grained wheat. triticum polonicum. polish wheat. triticum monococcon. one-grained wheat. triticum spelta. spelt wheat. besides the use of wheat for bread and other domestic purposes, large quantities are every season consumed in making starch, which is the pure fecula of the grain obtained by steeping it in water and beating it in coarse hempen bags, by which means the fecula is thus caused to exude and diffuse through the water. this, from being mixed with the saccharine matter of the grain, soon runs into the acetous fermentation, and the weak acid thus formed by digesting on the fecula renders it white. after setting, the precipitate is washed several times, and put by in square cakes and dried on kilns. these in drying part into flakes, which gives the form to the starch of the shops. starch is soluble in hot water, and becomes of the nature of gum. it is however insoluble in cold water, and on this account when pulverized it makes most excellent hair-powder. . vicia faba. the bean.--several kinds of beans are cultivated by farmers. the principal are the horse-bean or tick-bean; the early mazagan; and the long-pods. beans grow best in stiff clayey soils, and in such they are the most convenient crop. the season for planting is either the winter or spring month, as the weather affords opportunity. they are either drilled, broad-cast sown, or put in by the dibble, which is considered not only the most eligible mode but in ge-neral affording the best crops. the seed is from one to three bushels per acre. . zea mays. indian corn, or maize. in warmer climates, as the south of france, and the east and west indies, this is one of the most useful plants; the seeds forming good provender for poultry, hogs and cattle, and the green tops excellent fodder for cattle in general. i once saw a small early variety, that produced a very good crop, near uxbridge; but i believe it is not in cultivation. * * * * * sect. v.--miscellaneous articles. . cannabis sativa. hemp.--this plant is cultivated in some parts of this country. it is usually sown in march, and is fit to harvest in october. it is then pulled up and immersed in water; when the woody parts of the stalks separating from the bark, which sloughs off and undergoes a decomposition by which the fibres are divided, it is then combed (hackled), dried, and reduced to different fineness of texture, and spun for various purposes. it requires good land, and the seed is usually two bushels and a half per acre. the seed, which ripens about the time the hemp is pulled, is useful for feeding birds and poultry, and very nourishing. . dipsacus fullonum. fuller's teavel.--the heads of this plant are used for combing kerseymeres and finer broad cloths. the heads are generally fit to cut about the latter end of august, and are then separated and made up into bundles, and sold to the clothiers. the large heads are called kings; the next size middlings; and the smaller minikins. the reason they are separated before sending to market is, that the large and small will not fit together on the frame in which they are fixed to the water-wheel, so that it is usual for the proprietor of the fulling-mills to purchase all of either one or the other size. the crop is considered very valuable, but the culture is confined to a small district in somersetshire. the plant is biennial, and is usually sown in may, and the crop kept hoed during that season. in the following spring the plants bloom, and when the seeds are ripe the heads are fit for cutting; when they are assorted as above for the dealers. three pounds of seed are used to an acre, and the plants at the last stirring are left from two feet to two feet and a half apart. . humulus lupulus. the hop.--the hop is cultivated for brewing, being the most wholesome bitter we have, though the brewers are in the habit of using other vegetable bitters, which are brought from abroad and sold at a much cheaper rate. there is, however, a severe penalty on using any other than hops for such purpose. the hops are distinguished by several varieties grown in kent, worcestershire, and at farnham. the last place produces the best kind. for its culture more at length see agriculture of surry, by mr. stevenson. . isatis tinctoria. woad.--is cultivated in the county of somersetshire. it is used, after being prepared, for dyeing &c. it is said to be the mordant used for a fine blue on woollen. the foliage, which is like spinach, is gathered during the summer months, and steeped in vats of water. after some time a green fecula is deposited in the bottom of the water, which is washed, and made into cakes and sold for use. it is a perennial plant, and found wild in great abundance near guildford, where great quantities might be gathered for use, and where a great deal of the seed could be collected. its culture is very similar to that of the teazle, with this difference, it requires the hoe at work constantly all the summer months. the two plants weld and woad from the similarity of names are frequently confounded with each other, and some of the best agricultural writers have fallen into this error. they are two very different plants, and ought to be well defined, being each of them of very material consequence in this country. . linum usitatissimum. flax, or lint-seed.--is grown for the purpose of making cloth, and has been considered a very profitable crop. the culture and management is similar to that of hemp, and the seeds are in great demand for pressing. lintseed oil, which it produces, is much used by painters, and is the only vegetable oil that is found fit for such purposes in general. the seeds are of several uses to the farmer; a tea is made of it, and mixed with skimmed milk, for fattening house-lambs and calves. oxen are often fattened on the seed itself; but the cakes after the oil is expressed are a very common and most excellent article for fattening both black cattle and sheep. these are sold at from l. to l. per thousand. it will require three bushels of flax-seed for one acre, as it must be sown thick on the land. lintseed cake has been used also for manure; and i have seen fine crops of turnips where it has been powdered and sown in the drills with the seed. . reseda luteola. dyer's-weed, or weld.--is often confounded with woad, but is altogether a very different plant. weld is cultivated on the chalky hills of surry, being sown under a crop of barley, and the second year cleaned by hoeing, and then left to grow till it blooms, when it is pulled and tied up in small bundles, and after drying is sent to market, where it is purchased for dyeing yellow, and is in great request. . rubia tinctoria. madder.--this very useful dyeing drug used to be grown in this country in considerable quantities, but it is not cultivated here at the present time. the principal part of what is used now is brought from holland, and affords a considerable article of trade to the dutch farmers. those who wish to be informed of the mode of culture may consult professor martyn's edition of miller's dictionary. some years since sir henry englefield, bart., obtained a premium from the society of arts for the discovery of a fine tint drawn from madder, called the adrianople red. it was found that it was to be obtained from a variety of the rubia brought from smyrna; and mr. smyth, our consul at that city, was prevailed on by dr. charles taylor to procure seeds from thence, which the society did me the honour of committing to my care; and i have now a considerable stock of that kind, from whence i have myself obtained the same beautiful and superior tint. see trans. soc. arts. vol. , p. . . ulex europaeus. furze, gorse, or whin.--is used in husbandry for fences, and is also much cultivated for fuel for burning lime, heating ovens, &c. cattle and sheep relish it much; but it cannot be eaten by them except when young, in consequence of its strong spines; to obviate which an implement has been invented for bruising it. when it grows wild on our waste land, it is common to set it on fire in the summer months, and the roots and stems will throw up from the ground young shoots, which are found very useful food for sheep and other animals. it is readily grown from seeds, six pounds of which will be enough for an acre of land. * * * * * plants useful in the arts. sect. vi.--british trees and shrubs. . acer pseudo-platanus. sycamore.--the wood of this tree is soft and of little use, unless it is for the turners' purposes, who make boxes and other small toys of it. it is not of value as timber. . acer campestre. the maple.--before the introduction of mahogany and other fine woods the maple was the principal wood used for all kinds of cabinet work, and was much esteemed: the knobs which grow on those trees in an old state afforded the most beautiful specimens, and according to evelyn were collected by the curious at great prices. the maple trees in this country are none of them at the present day old enough to afford that fine-veined variegation in the timber which is alluded to in this account. . arbutus unedo. the strawberry-tree.--is a native of the islands in the celebrated lake of killarney in ireland, where it grows to a large size. we know of no particular use to which it is applied. it is however one of our most ornamental evergreen shrubs, producing beautiful flowers, which vary from transparent white to deep red, in the winter months, at which season also the fruit appears; which taking twelve months to come to maturity affords the singular phaenomenon in plants, of having lively green leaves, beautiful flowers, and fruit as brilliant as the richest strawberry, in the very depth of our winter. we have a fine variety of this plant with scarlet blossoms, and also one with double flowers, both of which are singularly ornamental to the shrubbery. . arbutus uva ursi. bear-berries.--a small trailing plant of great repute as a medicine, but of no use in any other respect. . berberis vulgaris. barberry.--this has long been cultivated in gardens for its fruit, which is a fine acid, and it is used as a conserve, and also for giving other sweeter fruits a flavour. the common wild kind has stones in the fruit, which renders it disagreeable to eat. there is a variety without stones called the male barberry, which is preferred on this account. this tree is subject to a disease in the summer, caused apparently from a yellow fungus growing on the leaves and young shoots; and it is said that where it grows near corn fields it imparts its baneful influence to the grain, for which reason it is recommended in some of our books on agriculture to exterminate the trees. . betula alba. birch-tree.--is in great use and of considerable value on some estates for making brooms, and the timber for all purposes of turnery-ware and carving. the sap of the birch-tree is drawn by perforating the bark in the early state of vegetation. it is fermented, and makes a very pleasant and potent beverage called birch wine. . betula alnus. alder-tree.--this is a valuable tree for planting in moors and wet places. the wood is used for making clogs, pattens, and other such purposes; and the bark for dyeing and manufacturing some of the finer kinds of leather. this wood is of considerable value for making charcoal for gunpowder. in charring it a considerable quantity of acetic acid is extracted, which is of great value for the purpose of bleaching, &c. &c. . buxus sempervirens. box-tree.--the wood of box is of great value for musical instruments, and for forming the handles of many tools: being very hard, it admits of a fine polish. this tree is growing in quantity at box-hill in surry, and has given name to that place. this was planted by a late duke of norfolk, and has succeeded so well, that the wood has been cut twice, and sold each time for treble the value of the fee-simple of the land. it forms a better cover for game than any other plant; and being very bitter, is not liable to be destroyed by any animal eating it down. an infusion of the leaves is frequently given as a vermifuge with good effect. there is a smaller variety of this, much used for making edging to gravel walks in gardens. . carpinus betulus. the hornbeam.--this grows to a large tree, but is not of much account as timber: it is however very useful in forming ornamental fences, and is well adapted to this purpose from the tendency of its young branches to grow thick. . clematis vitalba. traveller's joy.--a beautiful creeping shrub very useful to the farmers for making shackles for gates and hurdles, or withs for tying faggots and other articles. whenever this plant is found in the hedges, &c. it is a certain indication of a ckalky under stratum in the soil. . cornus sanguinea. dog-wood.--this is planted in pleasuregrounds as an ornamental shrub, and from the red appearance of the wood in the winter forms a beautiful constrast in plantations. it is also used by butchers for making skewers. . corylus avellana. the hazel.--is a well known shrub of large growth producing nuts, which are much admired. the filbert is an improved variety of this plant. the farmers in kent are the best managers of filberts, and it is the only place where they are grown with any certainty; which appears to be owing principally to the trees being regularly pruned of the superfluous wood. it is performed in the month of march when the plants are in bloom, and is the only time when the fruit-bearing wood can be distinguished. . crataegus aria. white beam-tree.--is a beautiful tree producing very hard wood, and is much in esteem for cogs of millwork and various other purposes. . crataegus oxyacantha. the quickset, or white-thorn.--this is in great request for making fences, and is the best plant we know for such purposes if properly managed. it is readily propagated by sowing the hips, or fruit, which does not readily grow the first season; it is therefore usual to bury them mixed with saw-dust, or sand, one year, and then to sow them in beds. . daphne laureola. spurge- or wood-laurel.--is used in medicine; which see. we have many species of daphne which are very ornamental to our shrubberies and green-houses: these are propagated principally by grafting; and the wood-laurel being hardy and of ready growth forms the stock principally used. it is readily propagated by seeds, which in three years will make plants large enough for this purpose. the plant in all its parts is excessively acrid. i remember a man being persuaded to take the leaves reduced to powder, as a remedy for syphilis, and he died in consequence in great agony in a few hours. . daphne mezerium. mezerion.--is a very beautiful shrub, and is one of the earliest productions of flora, often exhibiting its brilliant scarlet flowers in january and february. we have also a white variety of this shrub in the gardens. the bark and roots are extremely acrimonious, and are used in medicine. . erica vulgaris. the common heath, heather, or ling.---this spontaneous produce of most of our sandy waste lands is of much usin rural oeconomy. it is of considerable value for making brooms, and affords food to sheep, goats, and other animals; particularly to the grouse and heath-cock. the branches of heath placed upright in a wooden frame form the couch of repose to the brave highlander. it is also stated that an excellent beverage was brewed from the tops of this plant, but the art of making it is now lost. this is the most common of the species, but all the others have similar properties. they are very ornamental plants. a numerous variety of heaths are brought from the cape of good hope, and afford great pleasure to the amateur of exotic plants, being the greatest ornaments to our green-houses. . euonymus europaeus. spindle-tree.--an ornamental shrub. the wood is in great request for making skewers for butchers, as it does not impart any unpleasant taste to the meat. . fagus castanea. the spanish chesnut.--this tree produces timber similar to oak in point of durability, and the bark also contains a considerable quantity of tannin. the chesnut was in greater plenty in this country many years ago than at the present day; large forests are represented to have been in the neighbourhood of london; and we are led to believe such may have been the case, as many of the old buildings when examined have been found to be built of this timber. the fruit is used as a dainty at table; but the variety which is brought from portugal and spain is much larger than what are grown in this country. the large kind imported from those countries is grafted, and kept on purpose for the fruit. it is an improvement to graft this variety by taking the scions from trees in bearing, and they will produce fruit in a few years and in a dwarf state. . fagus sylvatica. the beech.--the timber of the beech is valuable for making wheels, and is applied to many other useful purposes in domestic oeconomy. the seeds of the beech are very useful for fattening hogs. this tree affords many beautiful varieties in foliage, the handsomest of which is the copper beech, whose purple leaves form a fine contrast in colour with the lively green of the common sort. . fraxinus excelsior. the ash.--the wood of the ash is considered the best timber for all purposes of strong husbandry utensils. the wheels and axle-trees of carriages, the shafts for carts, and the cogs for mill-work, are principally made of this timber. the young wood when gown in coppices is useful for hop-poles, and the small underwood is said to afford the best fuel of any when used green. coppice-land usually sells for a comparatively greater price according as this wood prevails in quantity, on account of its good quality as fuel alone. . hedera helix. ivy.--a common plant in woods, and often planted in shady places to hide walls and buildings. the leaves are good food for deer and sheep in winter. the irish ivy, which was brought from that country, is a fine variety with broad leaves. it was introduced by earl camden. . hippophae rhamnoides. sea buckthorn.--this is a scarce shrub; but is very useful as a plant for forming shelter on the hills near the sea-coast, it having been found to stand the sea-breeze better than any plant of the kind that is indigenous to this country. . ilex aquifolium. holly.--a well-known evergreen of singular beauty, of which we have many varieties, both striped, and of different colours in the leaf. birdlime is made from the inner bark of this tree, by beating it in a running stream and leaving it to ferment in a close vessel. if iron be heated with charcoal made of holly with the bark on, the iron will be rendered brittle; but if the bark be taken off, this effect will not be produced. ray's works and travels by scott. . juniperus communis. juniper.--an evergreen shrub, very common on waste lands. the berries are used in preparing the well-known spiritous liquor gin, and have been considered of great use in medicine. . ligustrum vulgare. privet.--a shrub of somewhat humble growth, very useful for forming hedges where shelter is wanted more than strength. it bears clipping, and forms a very ornamental fence. there is a variety of this with berries, and another nearly evergreen. . mespilus germanica. the medlar.--is cultivated for its fruit, and of which we have a variety called the dutch medlar; it is larger than our english one, but i do not think it better flavoured. . pinus sylvestris. the scotch fir.--a very useful tree in plantations for protecting other more tender sorts when young. it is also now very valuable as timber:--necessity, the common parent of invention, has taught our countrymen its value. when foreign deal was worth twenty pounds per load, they contrieved to raise the price of this to about nine or ten pounds, and it was then thought proper for use; before which period, and when it could be bought for little money, it was deemed only fit for fuel. on the south downs i know some plantations of this tree, which have been sold, after twenty-five years growth, at a price which averaged a profit of twenty shillings per annum per acre, on land usually let for sheep-pasture at one shilling and six-pence. . populus alba. white poplar. this is a very ornamental tree. the leaves on the under surface are of a fine white, and on the reverse of a very dark green; and when growing on large trees are truly beautiful, as every breath of air changes the colour as the leaves move. the wood of all the species of poplar is useful for boards, or any other purposes if kept dry. it is much in demand for floor-boards for rooms, it not readily taking fire; a red-hot poker falling on a board, would burn its way through it, without causing more combustion than the hole through which it passed. . populus monilifera. canada poplar.--this is also known by the name of black italian poplar, but from whence it had this name i do not know. this species, which is the finest of all the kinds, grows very commonly in woods and hedges in many parts of worcestershire and herefordshire, where it reaches to prodigious sizes. perhaps no timber is more useful than this; it is very durable, and easy to be converted to all purposes in building. the floors of a great part of downton castle, the seat of r. payne knight, esq. are laid with this wood, which have been used forty years and are perfectly sound. trees are now growing on his estate which are three and four feet in diameter. i have one growing in my botanic garden which is eight years old, and measures upwards of six cubic feet of timber. the parent of this tree which grew at brompton i converted into boards. it was nineteen years growing; and when cut down it was worth upwards of fourteen pounds, rating it at the then price of deal, for which it was a good substitute. some fine specimens of this tree are also to be seen at garnins, the seat of sir j. g. cotterell, bart. the present worthy member for the county of hereford. . prunus domestica. the common plum-tree.--this is the parent of our fruit of this name. . prunus cerasus. wild cherry-tree.--is the parent of our fine cherries. it is cultivated much in scotland for the timber, which is hard, and of use for furniture and other domestic purposes. it is the best and most lasting stock for grafting on. persons who are about to plant this fruit would do well to inquire into the nature of the stock, as no fruit-tree is so liable to disease and become gummy as cherries are, and that is often much owing to the improved kinds being sown for stocks, which are of a more tender texture and of course less hardy than this. . prunus insititia. sloe-tree.--is of little use except when it occurs in fences. the fruit is a fine acid, and is much used by the common people, mixed with other fruits less astringent and acid, to flavour made wines. it is believed that much port wine is improved by the same means. . pyrus communis. pear-tree.--this is the parent of all our fine varieties of this fruit, and is used as the stock for propagating them; these are raised from seeds for that purpose. the wood of the peartree is in great esteem for picture frames, it receiving a stain better than almost any other timber known. . pyrus malus. crab-tree.--a tree of great account, as being the parent of all our varieties of apples, and is the stock on which the fine varieties are usually grafted. a dwarf variety of this tree, called the paradise apple, is used for stocks for making dwarf apple trees for gardens. the juice of the crab is called verjuice, which is in considerable demand for medicinal and other purposes. . quercus robur. the oak.--is a well known tree peculiar to great britain, and of the greatest interest to us as a nation. it is of very slow growth; but the timber is very strong and lasting, and hence it is used for building our shipping. the bark is supposed to contain more tannin than that of any other tree, and is valuable on that account. the acorns, or fruit, are good food for hogs, which are observed to grow very fat when turned into the forests at the season when they are ripe. the tree is raised from the acorn, which grows very readily. we have accounts of oak trees growing to great ages, and to most enormous sizes. one instance is mentioned by evelyn, of one growing at cowthorp, near weatherby, in , which within three feet of the ground was sixteen yards in circumference, and its height about eighty-five feet. hunter's evelyn's sylva, p. . . rosa rubiginosa. sweet-briar.--is a very fragrant shrub, for which it has long been cultivated in the gardens. there are several varieties in the nurseries; as the double-flowering, evergreen, &c. which are much esteemed. . rubus idaeus. the raspberry.--produces a well known fruit in great esteem, and of considerable use both as food and for medicine. . rubus fruticosus. bramble.--produces a black insipid fruit, but which is used by the poor people for tarts and to form a made wine: when mixt with the juice of sloes it is rendered very palatable. . rubus caesius.--is a dwarf kind of bramble, and produces fruit of a pleasant acid, and where it grows in plenty it is used by the poor people for pies and other purposes of domestic oeconomy. . salix russelliana. the willow.--no trees in this country are of more use than the species of this genus: many are grown for basket-makers in form of osiers, and other larger sorts serve for stakes, rails, hop-poles, and many other useful purposes. the bark of several species has been considered as useful for tanning leather. the charcoal of the willow is also much in demand for making gunpowder. . salix viminalis. the osier.--these are cultivated in watery places for making baskets, which are become a profitable article, and are the shoots of one season's growth cut every winter. the species best adapted to this purpose, besides the common osier, are the salix vitellina. golden willow. the salix monandria. monandrous willow. the salix triandria. triandrous willow. the salix mollissima. silky-leaved willow. the salix stipularis. auriculated osier. the salix purpurea. bitter purple willow. the salix helix. rose willow. the salix lambertiana. boyton willow. the salix forbyana. basket osier. the salix rubra. green osier. the salix nigricans. dark purple osier. . sambucus nigra. elder.--the timber of the elder is useful for making musical instruments, and the berries made into wine and fermented make a useful and valuable beverage. a variety with green berries is much esteemed for wine also. . sorbus aucuparia. quicken-tree, or mountain-ash.--in this part of britain we usually find this tree in plantations, where it is very ornamental; and the berries, which are of a fine scarlet, are the food of many species of birds. the wood is also useful for posts, &c. and is considered lasting. . sorbus domestica. true service.--produces a fruit much like the medlar, and when ripe is in great esteem. the only tree in this country in a wild state, is growing in bewdley forest, worcester-shire. . spartium scoparium. broom.--is a very ornamental plant, and is used for making besoms. it was once considered as a specific in the cure of dropsy, but is now seldom used for medicial purposes. . staphylea pinnata. bladder-nut.--this is not a common plant in this country. i know of no other use to which it is applied, but its being cultivated in nurseries and sold as an ornamental shrub. the seed-vessel, from whence it takes its name, is a curious example of the inflated capsule. . tamarix gallica. a shrub of large growth; and being less affected by the sea breeze than any others, is useful to form a shelter in situations where the bleak winds will not admit of trees of more tender kinds to flourish. . taxus baccata. the yew.--was formerly much esteemed for making bows: but since those instruments of war and destruction have given place to the more powerful gun-powder, it is not so much in request. the wood is very hard and durable, and admits of a fine polish. the foliage of yew is poisonous to cattle, who will readily eat it, if cut and thrown in their way in frosty weather. . tilia europaea. the lime or linden-tree.--is a very ornamental tree in plantations, and from its early putting forth its leaves is much esteemed. the flowers emit a very fine scent, and the inhabitants of switzerland make a favourite beverage from them. the wood is very soft, though white and beautiful. it is much used for the ornamental boxes, &c. so well known by the name of turnbridge-ware. . vaccinium uliginosum. great bilberry. vaccinium vitis idaea, red whortle-berry, and vaccinium oxycoccos, cranberry, are all edible fruits, but do not grow in this part of the kingdom. great quantities of cranberries are imported every winter and spring from russia; they are much esteemed by the confectioners for tarts, &c. and are sold at high prices. these three kinds grow only in wet boggy places. a species which is native of america, called vaccinium macrocarpon, has been very successfully cultivated at spring grove by sir joseph banks, bart. and which has also been attempted in various other places, but not with the same success. the fruit of this species is larger and of better flavour than either of the other kinds. . vaccinium myrtillus. whorts, or bilberries.--to a common observer this would appear to be a very insignificant shrub; it is not uncommonly met with on our heaths: but it is only in particular places where it fruits in abundance, and in such districts it is of considerable value. the waste lands on hindhead and blackdown in surry and sussex are noticed for producing this fruit, which is similar to black currants. they are gathered in the months of august and september, and sold at the neighbouring markets. in a calculation of the value of this plant with an intelligent nurseryman in that county, we found that from l. to l. were earned and realized annually by the neighbouring poor, who employed their families in this labour, and who are in the habit of travelling many miles for this purpose. the fruit is ripe in august, and at that season is met with in great plenty in all the neighbouring towns. . viscum album. misselto.--a parasitical plant well known, and formerly of much repute in medicine, but wholly disregarded in the present practice. birdlime is made from the berries. dr. pulteney in tracing the history of botanic science quotes pliny for an account of the veneration in which this plant was held by the druids, who attributed almost divine efficacy to it, and ordained the collecting it with rites and ceremonies not short of the religious strictness which was countenanced by the superstition of the age. it was cut with a golden knife, and when the moon was six days old gathered by the priest, who was clothed with white for the occasion, and the plant received on a white napkin, and two white bulls sacrificed. thus consecrated, misselto was held to be an antidote to poison, and prevented sterility. query, has not the custom of hanging up misselto at merry-makings, and the ceremony so well known among our belles, some relation to above sacrifice? . ulex europaeus. common furze.--the culture of this shrub is given in the agricultural plants, being good for feeding cattle; its principal use however is for fuel, and it is frequently grown for such purposes. it is common on most of our waste lands. it also forms good fences, but should always be kept short and young, otherwise it becomes thin, especially in good land where it grows up and makes large bushes. . ulmus campestris. the elm.--we have a number of varieties of the elm; the most esteemed is that with the smooth bark. the timber has been long in request for water-pipes, and for boards, which are converted into various uses in domestic oeconomy. . ulmus montana. broad-leaved elm.--this has not been considered of so great value as the common sort, but it is of much more free growth; and i have been informed that in the west of england the timber has been found to be good and lasting. * * * * * sect. vii.--plants useful in medicine. the initial letters in this class distinguish the pharmacopoeia in which each plant is inserted. "by the wise and unchangeable laws of nature established by a being infinitely good and infinitely powerful,--not only man, the lord of the creation, 'fair form who wears sweet smiles, and looks erect on heaven,' but every subordinate being becomes subject to decay and death: pain and disease, the inheritance of mortality, usually accelerate his dissolution. to combat these, to alleviate when it has not the power to avert, medicine, honoured art! comes to our assistance. "it will not be expected that we should here give a history of this ancient practice, or draw a parallel betwixt the success of former physicians and those of modern times: all that concerns us to remark is, that the ancients were infinitely more indebted to the vegetable kingdom for the materials of their art than the moderns. not so well acquainted with the oeconomy of nature, which teaches us that plants were chiefly destined for the food of various animals, they sought in every herb some latent healing virtue, and frequently endeavoured to make up the want of efficacy in one by the combination of numbers: hence the extreme length of their farraginous prescriptions. more enlightened ideas of the operations of medicine have taught the moderns greater simplicity and conciseness in practice. perhaps there is a danger that this simplicity may be carried to far, and become finally detrimental to the practice." the above is quoted from the preface to a catalogue of medicinal plants published by my predecessor in : and it may be observed, that the medical student has, at the present season, a still less number of plants to store up in memory, owing, probably, to the great advances that chemistry has made in the mean time, through which mineral articles in many instances have superseded those of the vegetable kingdom. but, nevertheless, as dr. woodville has justly observed, "it would be difficult to show that this preference is supported by any conclusive reasoning drawn from a comparative superiority of the former;" or that the more general use of them has led to greater success in the practice of the healing art. it is however evident, that we have much to regret the almost total neglect of the study of medical botany by the younger branches of the professors of physic, when we are credibly informed that cow-parsley has been administered for hemlock, and foxglove has been substituted for coltsfoot [footnote: see the account of a dreadful accident of this nature, in gent. mag. for sept. .], from which circumstance, some valuable lives have been sacrificed. it is therefore high time that those persons who are engaged in the business of pharmacy should be obliged to become so far acquainted with plants, as to be able to distinguish at sight all such as are useful in diet or medicine, and more particularly such as are of poisonous qualities. the medical student has so many subjects for his consideration, that it is not desirable he should have a greater number of vegetables to consult than are necessary. and we cannot help lamenting the difficulty he has to struggle with in consequence of the great difference of names which the pharmacopoeias of the present day exhibit. the london, edinburgh, and dublin, in many instances, enforce the necessity of learning a different term in each for the same thing, and none of which are called by the same they were twenty years ago. surely it would be the means of forwarding the knowledge of drugs, if each could be distinguished by one general term. the candidate for medical knowledge, however, is not the only one who has at times to regret this confusion of names. the linnaean system is an easy and delightful path to the knowledge of plants; but, like all other human structures, it has its imperfections, and some of which have been modified by judicious alterations. yet the teachers of this science, as well as the students, have often to deprecate the unnecessary change in names which has been made by many writers, though., in many cases, no more reason appears for it than there generally would be to change christian and surnames of persons. in the following section, i shall enumerate and describe those plants which are contained in the lists of the three colleges; and afterwards a separate list of those which, although they have been expunged, are still sometimes used by medical men. i shall also endeavour to give such descriptions as are concise, at the same time sufficient for general knowledge, and for which reason i have taken lewis's materia medica for my text, unless where improvements have been made in certain subjects i have consulted more modern authorities. it should be observed, that writers on medical plants, with few exceptions, have copied from one another: or with a little alteration as to words only. and as some vegetables, from their affinitiy, may be confounded with others, whereby those possessing medical qualities may be substituted for others having none, or even poisonous ones, i shall in some instances enumerate a list of similar plants, which, with attention to their botanical characters, it is hoped will prevent those dangerous errors we have lately witnessed. as it is our business, in demonstrating plants, to guard the student against such confusion, it will be proper that specimens of such as come under this head be preserved, as a work for reference and contrast wherever doubts may arise. . aconitum napellus. common blue monkshood. the leaves. l. e.--every part of the fresh plant is strongly poisonous, but the root is unquestionably the most powerful, and when chewed at first imparts a slight sensation of acrimony, and a pungent heat of the lips, gums, palate and fauces, which is succeeded by a general tremor and sensation of chilliness. this plant has been generally prepared as an extract or inspissated juice, after the manner directed in the edinburgh and many of the foreign pharmacopoeias, and, like all virulent medicines, it should be first administered in small doses. stoerck recommends two grains of the extract to be rubbed into a powder with two drums of sugar, and as a dose to begin with ten grains of this powder two or three times a-day. similar plants.--aconitum japonicum; a. pyrenaicum; delphinium elatum; d. exallatum. instead of the extract, a tincture has been made of the dried leaves macerated in six times their weight of spirit of wine, and forty drops given for a dose.--woodville's med. bot. . the dublin college has ordered the aconitum neomontanum, which is not common in this country [footnote: in plants of so very poisonous a nature as the aconite, it is the duty of every one who describes them to be particular. here seems to have been a confusion. the a. neomontanum is figured in jacquin's fl. austriaca, fasc. . p. ; and the first edition of hortus kewensis under a. napellus erroneously quotes that figure: but both gmelin in syst. vegetabilium, p. , and wildenow in spec. plant. p. , quote it under its proper name, a. neomontanum. now the fact is, that the napellus is the common blue monkshood; and the neomontanum is altogether left out of the second edition of the hortus kewensis for the best of all reasons, it is not in this country; or, if it is, it must be very scarce, and, of course, not the plant used in medicine.]. . acorcus calamus. sweet rush. the root. l.--it is generally looked upon as a carminative and stomachic medicine, and as such is sometimes made use of in practice. it is said by some to be superior in aromatic flavour to any other vegetable that is produced in these northern climates; but such as i have had an opportunity of examining, fell short, in this respect, of several of our common plants. it is, nevertheless, a sufficiently elegant aromatic. it used to be an ingredient in the mithridate and theriaca of the london pharmacopoeia, and in the edinburgh. the fresh root candied after the manner directed in our dispensatory for candying eryngo root, is said to be employed at constantinople as a preservative against epidemic diseases. the leaves of this plant have a sweet fragrant smell, more agreeable, though weaker, than that of the roots.--lewis's mat. med. . aesculus hippocastanum. horse-chesnut. the bark and seed. e. d.-- with a view to its errhine power, the edinburgh college has introduced the seeds into the materia medica, as a small portion of the powder snuffed up the nostrils readily excites sneezing; even the infusion or decoction of this fruit produces this effect; it has therefore been recommended for the purpose of producing a discharge from the nose, which, in some complaints of the head and eyes is found to be of considerable benefit. on the continent, the bark of the horse chesnut-tree is held in great estimation as a febrifuge; and, upon the credit of several respectable authors, appears to be a medicine of great efficacy.--woodville's med. bot. . . agrimonia eupatoria. common agrimony. the herb. d.--the leaves have an herbaceous, somewhat acrid, roughish taste, accompanied with an aromatic flavour. agrimony is said to be aperient, detergent, and to strengthen the tone of the viscera: hence it is recommended in scorbutic disorders, in debility and laxity of the intestines, &c. digested in whey, it affords an useful diet-drink for the spring season, not ungrateful to the palate or stomach. . allium porrum. leek. the root. l.--this participates of the virtues of garlic, from which it differs chiefly in being much weaker. see the article allium. . allium sativum. garlic. the root. l. e. d.--this pungent root warms and stimulates the solids, and attenuates tenacious juices. hence in cold leucophelgmatic habits it proves a powerful expectorant, diuretic, and emmenagogue; and, if the patient is kept warm, sudorific. in humoral asthmas, and catarrhous disorders of the breast, in some scurvies, flatulent colics, hysterical and other diseases proceeding from laxity of the solids, and cold sluggish indisposition of the fluids, it has generally good effects: it has likewise been found serviceable in some hydropic cases. sydenham relates, that he has known the dropsy cured by the use of garlic alone; he recommends it chiefly as a warm strengthening medicine in the beginning of the disease. garlic made into an unguent with oils, &c. and applied externally, is said to resolve and discuss cold tumors, and has been by some greatly esteemed in cutaneous diseases. it has likewise sometimes been employed as a repellent. sydenham assures us, that among all the substances which occasion a derivation or revulsion from the head, none operate more powerfully than garlic applied to the soles of the feet: hence he was led to make use of it in the confluent small-pox about the eighth day, after the face began to swell; the root cut in pieces, and tied in a linen cloth, was applied to the soles, and renewed once a day till all danger was over. . allium cepa. onion. the root. d.--these roots are considered rather as articles of food than of medicine: they are supposed to afford little or no nourishment, and when eaten liberally they produce flatulencies, occasion thirst, headachs, and turbulent dreams: in cold phlegmatic habits, where viscid mucus abounds, they doubtless have their use; as by their stimulating quality they tend to excite appetite, attenuate thick juices, and promote their expulsion: by some they are strongly recommended in suppressions of urine and in dropsies. the chief medicinal use of onions in the present practice is in external applications, as a cataplasm for suppurating tumours, &c. . althaea officinalis. marsh-mallow. the leaves and root. l.--this plant has the general virtues of an emollient medicine; and proves serviceable in a thin acrimonious state of the juices, and where the natural mucus of the intestines is abraded. it is chiefly recommended in sharp defluxions upon the lungs, hoarseness, dysenteries, and likewise in nephritic and calculous complaints; not, as some have supposed, that this medicine has any peculiar power of dissolving or expelling the calculus; but as, by lubricating and relaxing the vessels, it procures a more free and easy passage. althaea root is sometimes employed externally for softening and maturing hard tumours: chewed, it is said to give ease in difficult dentition of children. the officinal preparations are:-decoctio althaeae officinalis, and syrupus althaeae. similar plants.--malva officinalis; m. rotundifolia; m. mauritanica; lavatera arborscens. this root gives name to an officinal syrup [l. e.] and ointment [l.] and is likewise an ingredient in the compound powder of gum tragacanth [l. e.] and the oil and plaster of mucilages [l.] though it does not appear to communicate any particular virtue to the two last, its mucilaginous matter not being dissoluble in oils.--lewis's mat. med. . amygdalus communis. sweet and bitter almonds. l. e. d.--the oils obtained by expression from both sorts of almonds are in their sensible qualities the same. the general virtues of these oils are, to blunt acrimonious humours, and to soften and relax the solids: hence their use internally, in tickling coughs, heat of urine, pains and inflammations: and externally in tension and rigidity of particular parts. . anchusa tinctoria. alkanet-root. e. d.--alkanet-root has little or no smell: when recent, it has a bitterish astringent taste, but when dried scarcely any. as to its virtues, the present practice expects not any from it. its chief use is for colouring oils, unguents, and plasters. as the colour is confined to the cortical part, the small roots are best, these having proportionally more bark than the large. . anethum graveolens. dill. the seeds. l.--their taste is moderately warm and pungent; their smell aromatic, but not of the most agreeable kind. these seeds are recommended as a carminative, in flatulent colics proceeding from a cold cause or a viscidity of the juices. the most efficacious preparations of them are, the distilled oil, and a tincture or extract made with rectified spirit. the oil and simple water distilled from them are kept in the shops.--lewis. . anethum foeniculum. fennel. seeds. e.--these are supposed to be stomachic and carminative; but this, and indeed all the other effects ascribed to them, as depending upon their stimulant and aromatic qualities, must be less considerable than those of dill, aniseed, or caraway, though termed one of the four greater hot seeds.--woodville's med. bot. p. . . angelica archangelica. garden angelica. the root, leaves, and seeds. e.--all the parts of angelica, especially the roots, have a fragrant aromatic smell, and a pleasant bitterish warm taste, glowing upon the lips and palate for a long time after they have been chewed. the flavour of the seeds and leaves is very perishable, particularly that of the latter, which, on being barely dried, lose greatest part of their taste and smell: the roots are more tenacious of their flavour, though even these lose part of it upon keeping. the fresh root, wounded early in the spring, yields and odorous yellow juice, which slowly exsiccated proves an elegant gummy resin, very rich in the virtues of the angelica. on drying the root, this juice concretes into distinct moleculae, which, on cutting it longitudinally, appear distributed in little veins: in this state they are extracted by pure spirit, but not by watery liquors. this resin is considered one of the most elegant aromatics of european growth, though little regarded in the present practice, and is rarely met with in prescription; neither does it enter any officinal composition. . anthemis nobilis. chamomile. the flowers. l.e.d.--these have a strong not ungrateful, aromatic smell, but a very bitter nauseous taste. they are accounted carminative, aperient, emollient, and in some measure anodyne: and stand recommended in flatulent colics, for promoting the uterine purgations, in spasmodic affections, and the pains of women in child-bed: sometimes they have been employed in intermittent fevers, and the nephritis. these flowers are also frequently used externally in discutient and antiseptic fomentations, and in emollient glysters. the double-flowered variety is usually cultivated for medicine, but the wild kind with single flowers is preferable. similar plants.--anthemis arvensis; a. cotula; pyrethrum maritimum. . anthemis pyrethrum. pellitory of spain. the root. l.--the principal use of pyrethrum in the present practice is as a masticatory, for promoting the salival flux, and evacuating viscid humours from the head and neighbouring parts: by this means it very generally relieves the tooth-ach, pains of the head, and lethargic complaints. if a piece of the root, the size of a pea, be placed against the tooth, it instantly causes the saliva to flow from the surrounding glands, and gives immediate relief in all cases of that malady. . apium petroselium. common parsley. the root. e.--both the roots and seeds of parsley are directed by the london college for medicinal use: the former have a sweetish taste, accompanied with a slight warmth of flavour somewhat resembling that of a carrot; the latter are in taste warmer and more aromatic than any other part of the plant, and also manifest considerable bittenress. these roots are said to be aperient and diuretic, and have been employed in apozems to relieve nephritic pains, and obstructions of urine. although parsley is commonly used at table, it is remarkable that facts have been adducted to prove, that in some constitutions it occasions epilepsy, or at least aggravates the epileptic fit in those who are subject to this disease. it has been supposed also to produce inflammation in the eyes.--woodville's med. bot. p. . a variety which produces larger roots, called hamburgh parsley, is commonly grown for medicinal uses. . arbutus uva ursi. trailing arbutus or bear-berry. the leaves.--this first drew the attention of physicians as an useful remedy in calculous and nephritic affections; and in the years and , by the concurrent testimonies of different authors, it acquired remarkable celebrity, not only for its efficacy in gravelly complaints, but in almost every other to which the urinary organs are liable, as ulcers of the kidneys and bladder, cystirrhoea, diabetes, &c. it may be employed either in powder or decoction; the former is most commonly preferred, and given in doses from a scruple to a dram two or three times a-day.-- woodville's med. botany. . arnica montana. mountain arnica. the whole plant. e. d.--the odour of the fresh plant is rather unpleasant, and the taste acrid, herbaceous, and astringent; and the powdered leaves act as a strong sternutatory. this plant, according to bergius, is an emetic, errhine, diuretic, diaphoretic, emmenagogue; and from its supposed power of attenuating the blood, it has been esteemed so peculiarly efficacious in obviating the bad consequences occasioned by falls and bruises, that it obtained the appellation of panacea lapsorum.--woodville's med. bot. p. . . artemisia absinthium. wormwood, the herb. l.--wormwood is a strong bitter; and was formerly much used as such against weakness of the stomach, and the like, in medicated wines and ales. at present it is rarely employed in these intentions, on account of the ill relish and offensive smell which it is accompanied with. these it may be in part freed from by keeping, and totally by long coction, the bitter remaining entire. an extract made by boiling the leaves in a large quantity of water, and evaporating the liquor with a strong fire, proves a bitter sufficiently grateful, without any disgustful flavour. . artemisia abrotanum. southernwood. leaves. d.--southernwood has a strong, not very disagreeable smell; and a nauseous, pungent, bitter taste; which is totally extracted by rectified spirit, less perfectly by watery liquors. it is recommended as an anthelmintic; and in cold lencophlegmatic habits, as a stimulant, detergent, aperient, and sudorific. the present practice has almost entirely confined its use to external applications. the leaves are frequently employed in discutient and antiseptic fomentations; and have been recommended also in lotions and unguents for cutaneous eruptions, and the falling off of the hair. . artemisia maritima. sea wormwood. tops. d.--in taste and smell, it is weaker and less unpleasant than the common worm-wood. the virutes of both are supposed to be of the same kind, and to differ only in strength. the tops used to enter three of our distilled waters, and give name to a conserve. they are an ingredient also in the common fomentation and green oil. . artemisia santonica. roman wormwood. seeds. e. d.--it is a native of the warmer countries, and at present difficultly procurable in this, though as hardy and as easily raised as any of the other sorts. sea wormwood has long supplied its place in the markets, and been in general mistaken for it. roman wormwood is less ungrateful than either of the others: its smell is tolerably pleasant: the taste, though manifestly bitter, scarcely disagreeable. it appears to be the most eligible of the three as a stomachic; and is likewise recommended by some in dropsies. . arum maculatum. biting arum. fresh root. l. e.--this root is a powerful stimulant and attenuant. it is reckoned a medicine of great efficacy in some cachectic and chlorotic cases; in weakness of the stomach occasioned by a load of viscid phlegm, and in such disorders in general as proceed from a cold sluggish indisposition of the solids and lentor of the fluids. i have experienced great benefit from it in rheumatic pains, particularly those of the fixed kind, and which were seated deep. in these cases i have given from ten grains to a scruple of the fresh root twice or thrice a day, made into a bolus or emulsion with unctuous and mucilaginous substances, which cover its pungency, and prevent its making any painful impression on the tongue. it generally excited a slight tingling sensation through the whole habit, and, when the patient was kept warm in bed, produced a copious sweat. the only officinal preparation, in which this root was an ingredient, was a compound powder; in which form its virtues are very precarious. some recommend a tincture of it drawn with wine; but neither wine, water, nor spirit, extract its virtues.--lewis's mat. med. . asarum europaeum, asarabacca. the leaves. l. e. d.--both the roots and leaves have a nauseous, bitter, acrimonious, hot taste; their smell is strong, and not very disagreeable. given in substance from half a dram to a dram, they evacuate powerfully both upwards and downwards. it is said that tinctures made in spirituous menstrua possess both the emetic and cathartic virtues of the plant: that the extract obtained by inspissating these tinctures acts only by vomit, and with great mildness: that an infusion in water proves cathartic, rarely emetic: that aqueous decoctions made by long boiling, and the watery extract, have no purgative or emetic quality, but prove notable diaphoretics, diuretics, and emmenagogues. its principal use at present is as a sternutatory. the root of asarum is perhaps the strongest of all the vegetable errhines, white hellebore itself not excepted. snuffed up the nose, in the quantity of a grain or two, it occasions a large evacuation of mucus, and raises a plentiful spitting. the leaves are considerably milder, and may be used to the quantity of three, four, or five grains. geoffroy relates, that after snuffing up a dose of this errhine at night, he has frequently observed the discharge from the nose to continue for three days together; and that he has known a paralysis of the mouth and tongue cured by one dose. he recommends this medicine in stubborn disorders of the head, proceeding from viscid tenacious matter, in palsies, and in soporific distempers. the leaves are an ingredient in the pulvis sternutatoris of the shops. . aspidium filix-mas. polypodium, linn. male fern. the roots. l. e. d.--they are said to be aperient and anthelmintic. simon pauli tells us, that they have been the grand secret of some empirics against the broad kind of worms called taenia; and that the dose is one, two, or three drams of the powder. two other kinds of ferns used to be recommended; but this, being the strongest, has therefore been made choice of in preference, though the college of edinburgh still retain them in their catalogue of simples.--lewis's mat. med. . astragalus tragacanthus. goats-thorn. the gum. l. e. d.--this gum is of a strong body, and does not perfectly dissolve in water. a dram will give to a pint of water the consistence of a syrup, which a whole ounce of gum arabic is scarce sufficient to do. hence its use for forming troches, and the like purposes, in preference to the other gums. it is used in an officinal powder, and is an ingredient in the compound powders of ceruss and amber.--lewis's mat. med. . atropa belladonna. deadly nightshade. the leaves, l. e. d.-- belladonna was first employed as an external application, in the form of fomentation, to scirrhus and cancer. it was afterwards administered internally in the same affections; and numerous cases, in which it had proved successful, were given on the authority of the german practitioners. it has been recommended, too, as a remedy in extensive ulceration, in paralysis, chronic rheumatism, epilepsy, mania, and hydrophobia, but with so little discrimination, that little reliance can be placed on the testimonies in its favour; and, in modern practice, it is little employed. it appears to have a peculiar action on the eye: hence it has been used in amaurosis; and from its power of causing dilatation of the pupil, when topically applied under the form of infusion, it has been used before performing the operation for cataract. a practice which is hazardous, as the pupil, though much dilated by the application, instantly contracts when the instrument is introduced. when given internally, its dose is from one to three grains of the dried leaves, or one grain of the inspissated juice.--murray's mat. med. p. . i have had a cancer of the lip entirely cured by it: a scirrhosity in a woman's breast, of such kind as frequently proceeds to cancer, i have found entirely discussed by the use of it. a sore, a little below the eye, which had put on a cancerous appearance, was much mended by the internal use of the belladonna; but the patient having learned somewhat of the poisonous nature of the medicine, refused to continue the use of it; upon which the sore grain spread, and was painful; but, upon a return to the use of the belladonna, was again mended to a considerable degree; when the same fears again returning, the use of it was again laid aside, and with the same consequence, the sore becoming worse. of these alternate states, connected with the alternate use of and abstinence from the belladonna, there were several of these alterations which fell under my own observation [footnote: see the poisonous plants, in a future page].--cullen's mat. med. vol. ii. p. . . cardamine pratensis. ladies smock. the leaves. l. e. d.--long ago it was employed as a diuretic; and, of late, it has been introduced in nervous diseases, as epilepsy, hysteria, choraea, asthma, &c. a dram or two of the powder is given twice or thrice a-day. it has little sensible operation. . carum carui. caraway. the seeds. l. e. d.--these are in the number of the four greater hot seeds; and frequently employed as a stomachic and carminative in flatulent colics, and the like. their officinal preparations are an essential oil and a spiritous water; they were used as ingredients also in the compound juniper water, tincture of sena, stomachic tincture, oxymel of garlic, electuary of bayberries and of scammony, and the cummin-seed plaster. . centaurea benedicta. blessed thistle. the leaves. e. d.--the herb should be gathered when in flower, great care taken in drying it, and kept in a very dry airy place, to prevent its rotting or growing mouldy, which it is very apt to do. the leaves have a penetrating bitter taste, not very strong or very durable, accompanied with an ungrateful flavour, which they are in great measure freed from by keeping. the virtues of this plant seem to be little known in the present practice. we have frequently experienced excellent effects from a light infusion of carduus in loss of appetite, where the stomach was injured by irregularities. a stronger infusion made in cold or warm water, if drunk freely, and the patient kept warm, occasions a plentiful sweat, and promotes all the secretions in general. the seeds of this plant are also considerably bitter, and have been sometimes used for the same purposes as the leaves. . chironia centaurium. lesser centaury. the tops. l. e. d.--this is justly esteemed to be the most efficacious bitter of all the medicinal plants indigenous to this country. it has been recommended as a substitute for gentian, and, by several, thought to be a more useful medicine: experiments have also shown it to possess an equal degree of antiseptic power. many authors have observed, that, along with the tonic and stomachic qualities of a bitter, centaury frequently proves cathartic; but it is possible that this seldom happens, unless it be taken in very large doses. the use of this, as well as of the other bitters, was formerly common in febrile disorders previous to the knowledge of peruvian-bark, which now supersedes them perhaps too generally; for many cases of fever occur which are found to be aggravated by the cinchona, yet afterwards readily yield to the simple bitters.--woodville, p. . . cochlearia officinalis. scurvy-grass. the herb. e.--is antiseptic, attenuant, aperient, and diuretic, and is said to open obstructions of the viscera and remoter glands, without heating or irritating the system. it has long been considered as the most effectual of all the antiscorbutic plants; and its sensible qualities are sufficiently powerful to confirm this opinion. in the rheumatismus vagus, called by sydenham rheumatismus scorbuticus, consisting of wandering pains of long continuance, accompanied with fever, this plant, combined with arum and wood-sorrel, is highly commended both by sydenham and lewis. we have testimony of its great use in scurvy, not only from physicians, but navigators; as anson, linschoten, maartens, egede, and others. and it has been justly noticed, that this plant grows plentifully in those high latitudes where the scurvy is most obnoxious. forster found it in great abundance in the islands of the south seas.--woodville, p. . . cochlearia armoracia. horse-radish. the root. e.-the medical effects of this root are, to stimulate the solids, attenuate the juices, and promote the fluid secretions: it seems to extend its action through the whole habit, and affect the minutest glands. it has frequently done great service in some kinds of scurvies and other chronic disorders proceeding from a viscidity of the juices, or obstructions of the excretory ducts. sydenham recommends it likewise in dropsies, particularly those which sometimes follow intermittent fevers. both water and rectified spirit extract the virtues of this root by infusion, and elevate them in distillation: along with the aqueous fluid an essential oil arises, possessing the whole taste and pungency of the horse-radish. the college have given us a very elegant compound water, which takes its name from this root. . colchicum autumnale. meadow-saffron. the roots. l. e. d.--the roots, freed from the outer blackish coat and fibres below, are white, and full of a white juice. in drying they become wrinkled and dark coloured. applied to the skin, it shows some signs of acrimony; and taken internally, it is said sometimes to excite a sense of burning heat, bloody stools, and other violent symptoms. in the form of syrup, however, it has been given to the extent of two ounces a-day without any bad consequence. it is sometimes employed as a diuretic in dropsy. it is now supposed to be a principal ingredient in the celebrated french gout medicine l'eau medicinale. . conium maculatum. hemlock. the leaves. l. e. d.--physicians seem somewhat in dispute about the best mode of exhibiting this medicine; some recommending the extract, as being most easily taken in the form of pills; others the powder, as not being subject to that variation which the extract is liable to, from being made in different ways. with respect to the period, likewise, at which the plant should be gathered, they seem not perfectly agreed; some recommending it when in its full vigour, and just coming into bloom, and others, when the flowers are going off. an extract of the green plant is ordered by the college in their last list. dr. cullen has for many years commended the making it from the unripe seeds; and this mode the college of physicians at edinburgh have thought proper to adopt in their late pharmacopoeia. similar plants.--aethusa cynapium; apium petroselium; oenanthe crocata; oe. fistulosa; phellandrium aquaticum. . coriandrum sativum. coriander. the seeds. l. e. d.-these, when fresh, have a strong disagreeable smell, which improves by drying, and becomes sufficiently grateful. they are recommmended as carminative and stomachic. . crocus sativus. true saffron. the stigmata. l. e. d.--there are three sorts of saffron met with in the shops, two of which are brought from abroad, the other is the produce of our own country. this last is greatly superior to the two former. this medicine is particularly serviceable in hysteric depressions proceeding from a cold cause, or obstruction of the uterine secretions, where other aromatics, even those of the more generous kind, have little effect. saffron imparts the whole of its virtue and colour to rectified spirit, proof spirit, wine, vinegar, and water: a tincture used to be drawn with vinegar, but it looses greatly its colour in keeping. there can be little use for preparations of saffron, as the drug itself will keep good for any length of time. . cuminum cymini. cummin. the seeds. l.--cummin seeds have a bitterish warm taste, accompanied with an aromatic flavour, not of the most agreeable kind. they are accounted good carminatives, but not very often made use of. an essential oil of them used to be kept in the shops, and they gave name to a plaster and cataplasm.--lewis's mat. med. . cynara scolymus. artichoke. the leaves. e.--the bitter juice of the leaf, mixed with an equal part of madeira wine, is recommended in an ounce dose night and morning, as a powerful diuretic in dropsy. an infusion of the leaf may likewise be used. . daphne mezereum. the mezereon. the roots. l. e. d.--this plant is extremely acrid, especially when fresh, and, if retained in the mouth, excites great and long continued heat and inflammation, particularly of the throat and fauces. the bark and berries of mezereon in different forms have been long externally used to obstinate ulcers and ill conditioned sores. in france, the former is strongly recommended as an application to the skin, which, under certain management, produces a continued serious discharge without blistering, and is thus rendered useful in many chronic diseases of a local nature answering the purpose of what has been called a perpetual blister, while it occasions less pain and inconvenience. in this country mezereon is principally employed for the cure of some siphylitic complaints; and in this way dr. donald monro was the first who gave testimony of its efficacy in the successful use of the lisbon diet drink. the considerable and long-continued heat and irritation that is produced in the throat when mezereon is chewed, induced dr. withering to think of giving it in a case of difficulty of swallowing, seemingly occasioned by a paralytic affection. the patient was directed to chew a thin slice of the root as often as she could bear it, and in about a month recovered her power of swallowing. this woman had suffered the complaint three years, and was greatly reduced, being totally unable to swallow solids, and liquids but very imperfectly.--woodville's med. bot. p. . . datura stramonium. thorn apple. the whole plant. e.--dr. woodville informs us, that an extract of this plant has been the preparation usually employed, and from one to ten grains and upwards a-day: but the powdered leaves after the manner of those directed for hemlock would seem, for the reason given, to be a preparation more certain and convenient. it has been much celebrated as a medicine in epilepsy and convulsions and mania; but it is of a violent narcotic quality, and extremely dangerous in its effects. stramonium has been recommended, as being of considerable use in cases of asthma, on the authority of some eminent physicians of the east indies; and the late dr. roxburgh has stated to me many instances wherein it had performed wonders in that dreadful malady. the datura metal, purple-flowered thorn-apple, is much like the stramonium, except in the flowers and the stalks being of a purple colour. i have made particular inquiry of dr. roxburgh if any particular kind was used in preference, and he said not; that both the above sorts were used; and, in fact, not only these, but the datura tatula, another species which grows wild there, and is cultivated in our stoves for the sake of its beautiful flowers, is also used for the same purposes. the mode of using it was by cutting the whole plant up after drying, and smoking it in a common tobacco-pipe; and which, in some cases in this country also, has given great ease in severe attacks; and i know several persons who use it with good effect to this day. in vegetables of such powerful effects as this is known to have, great care ought to be taken in their preparation, which, i fear, is not always so much attended to as the nature of this subject requires [footnote: see observations on and directions for preparing and preserving herbs in general, et the end of this section.]. . daucus sylvestris. wild carrot. the seeds. l.--these seeds possess, though not in a very considerable degree, the aromatic qualities common to those of the umbelliferous plants, and hence have long been deemed carminative and emmenagogue; but they are chiefly esteemed for their diuretic powers, and for their utility in calculus and nephritic complaints, in which an infusion of three spoonfuls of the seeds in a pint of boiling water has been recommended; or the seeds may be fermented in malt liquor, which receives from them an agreeable flavour resembling that of the lemon-peel.--woodville's med. bot. p. . similar plants.--sison amonum; daucus carota. . daucus carota. cultivated carrot. the roots. l. e. d.--the expressed juice, or a decoction of these roots, has been recommended in calculous complaints, and as a gargle for infants in aphtous affections or excoriations of the mouth; and a poultice of scraped carrots has been found an useful application to phagedenic ulcers, and to cancerous and putrid sores. . delphinium staphis agria. staves agria. the seeds. l. d.-- stavesacre was employed by the ancients as a cathartic, but it operates with so much violence both upwards and downwards, that its internal use has been, among the generality of practitioners, for some time laid aside. it is chiefly employed in external applications for some kinds of cutaneous eruptions; and for destroying lice and other insects; insomuch that it has from this virtue received its name in different languages, herba pedicularis, herbe aux poux, lauskraut, lousewort. . dianthus caryophyllus. clove-pink. the petals. e.--these flowers are said to be cardiac and alexipharmac. simon paulli relates, that he has cured many malignant fevers by the use of a de-coction of them; which he says powerfully promoted sweat and urine without greatly irritating nature, and also raised the spirits and quenched thirst. the flowers are chiefly valued for their pleasant flavour, which is entirely lost even by light coction. lewis says, the college directed the syrup, which is the only officinal preparation of them, to be made by infusion. . digitalis purpurea. foxglove. the leaves. l. e. d.--the leaves of foxglove have a nauseous taste, but no remarkable smell. they have been long used externally to sores and scrophulous tumours with considerable advantage. its diuretic effects, for which it is now so deservedly received into the materia medica, were entirely overlooked. to this discovery dr. withering has an undoubted claim; and the numerous cures of dropsy related by him and other practitioners of established reputation, afford incontestable proofs of its diuretic powers, and of its practical importance in the cure of those diseases. the dose of dried leaves in powder is from one grain to three twice a-day; but if a liquid medicine be preferred, a dram of the dried leaves is to be infused for four hours in half a pint of boiling water, adding to the strained liquor an ounce of any spiritous water. one ounce of this infusion given twice a-day is a medium dose; it is to be continued in these doses till it either acts upon the kidneys; the stomach, or the pulse, (which it has a remarkable power of lowering,) or the bowels.-- woodville's med. bot. p. . this is now become a very popular medicine, but if used incautiously is attended with danger. medical practitioners should make themselves perfectly acquainted with this plant, as the leaves are the only part used; and their not being readilly discriminated when separated from the flowers, several accidents have occurred. in the gent. mag. for september is recorded a very extraordinary mistake, where the life of a child was sacrificed to the ignorance of a person who administered this instead of coltsfoot; a plant so very dissimilar, that, had it not been well authenticated, i should not have believed the fact. similar plants.--verbascum nigrum; v. thapsus; cynoglossum officinale, or, after the above mistake, any other plant with a lanceolate leaf, we fear, may be confounded with it. . eryngium maritimum. sea-holly. roots. d.--the roots are slender, and very long; of a pleasant sweetish taste, which on chewing for some time is followed by a light degree of aromatic warmth and acrimony. they are accounted aperient and diuretic, and have also been celebrated as aphrodisiac: their virtues, however, are too weak to admit them under the head of medicines. the candied root is ordered to be kept in the shops.--lewis's mat. med. . ferula assafoetida. assafoetida. gum. l. e. d.--this drug has a strong fetid smell, somewhat like that of garlick; and a bitter, acrid, biting taste. it looses with age of its smell and strength, a circumstance to be particularly regarded in its exhibition. it consists of about one-third part pure resin, and two-thirds of gummy matter; the former soluble in rectified spirit, the other in water. proof-spirit dissolves almost the whole into a turbid liquor; the tincture in rectified spirit is transparent. assafoetida is the strongest of the fetid gums, and of frequent use in hysteric and different kinds of nervous complaints. it is likewise of considerable efficacy in flatulent colics; and for promoting all the fluid secretions in either sex. the ancients attributed to this medicine many other virtues which are at present not expected from it.--lewis's mat. med. . ficus carica. common fig. fruit. l. d.--the recent fruit completely ripe is soft, succulent, and easily digested, unless eaten in immoderate quantities, when it is apt to occasion flatulency, pain of the bowels, and diarrhoea. the dried fruit is pleasanter to the taste, and is more wholesome and nutritive. figs are supposed to be more nutritious by having their sugar united with a large portion of mucilaginous matter, which, from being thought to be of an oily nature, has been long esteemed an useful demulcent and pectoral; and it is chiefly with a view of these effects that they have been medicinally employed. . fraxinus ornus. manna. l. e. d.--there are several sorts of manna in the shops. the larger pieces, called flake manna, are usually preferred; though the smaller grains are equally as good, provided they are white, or of a pale yellow colour, very light, of a sweet not unpleasant taste, and free from any visible impurities. manna is a mild agreeable laxative, and may be given with saftey to children and pregnant women: nevertheless, in some particular constitutions it acts very unkindly, producing flatulencies and distension of the viscera.--lewis's mat. med. . gentiana lutea. yellow gentian. root. l. d.--this root is a strong bitter, and, as such, very frequently made use of in practice: in taste it is less exceptionable than most of the other substances of this class: infusions of it, flavoured with orange peel, are sufficiently grateful. it is the capital ingredient in the bitter wine; and a tincture and infusion of it are kept in the shops. lewis mentions a poisonous root being mixed among some of the gentian brought to london; the use of which occasioned in some instances death. this was internally of a white colour, and void of bitterness. there is no doubt but this was the root of the veratrum album, a poisonous plant so similar, that it might readily be mistaken for it.--lewis's mat. med. . geum urbanum. common avens. root. d.--this has a warm, bitterish, astringent taste, and a pleasant smell, somewhat of the clove kind, especially in the spring, and when produced in dry warm soils. parkinson observes, that such as is the growth of moist soils has nothing of this flavour. this root has been employed as a stomachic, and for strengthening the tone of the viscera in general: it is still in some esteem in foreign countries, though not taken notice of among us. it yields, on distillation, an elegant odoriferous essential oil, which concretes into a flaky form.--lewis's mat. med. similar plants.--geum rivale; g. intermedium. . glycyrrhiza glabra. liquorice. root. l. d.--this is produced plentifully in all the countries of europe: that which is the growth of our own is preferable to such as comes from abroad; this last being generally mouldy, which this root is very apt to become, unless kept in a dry place. the powder of liquorice usually sold is often mingled with flower, and, i fear, too often with substances not quite so wholesome. the best sort is of a brownish yellow colour (the fine pale yellow being generally sophisticated) and of a very rich sweet taste, much more agreeable than that of the fresh root. liquorice is almost the only sweet that quenches thirst. this root is a very useful pectoral, and excellently softens acrimonious humours, at the same time that it proves gently detergent: and this account is warranted by experience. it is an ingredient in the pectoral syrup, pectoral troches, the compound lime waters, decoction of the woods, compound powder of gum tragacanth, lenitive electuary, and theriaca. an extract is directed to be made from it in the shops; but this preparation is brought chiefly from abroad, though the foreign extract is not equal to such as is made with proper care among ourselves.--lewis's mat. med. . gratiola officinalis. hedge-hyssop. herb. e. d.--the leaves have a very bitter disagreeable taste: an infusion of a handful of them when fresh, or a dram when dried, is said to operate strongly as a cathartic. kramer reports that he has found the root of this plant a medicine similar in virtue to ipecacuanha. similar plants.--lythrum salicaria; scutellaria galericulata. . helleborus niger. black hellebore. root. l.--the tase of hellebore is acrid and bitter. its acrimony, as dr. grew observes, is first felt on the tip of the tongue, and then spreads immediately to the middle, without being much perceived on the intermediate part: on chewing it for a few minutes, the tongue seems benumbed, and affected with a kind of paralytic stupor, as when burnt by eating any thing too hot. our hellebore is at present looked upon principally as an alterative, and in this light is frequently employed, in small doses, for attenuating viscid humours, promoting the uterine and urinary discharges, and opening inveterate obstructions of the remoter glands: it often proves a very powerful emmenagogue in plethoric habits, where steel is ineffectual or improper. an extract made from this root with water, is one of the mildest, and for the purposes of a cathartic the most effectual preparation of it: this operates sufficiently, without occasioning the irritation which the pure resin is accompanied with. a tincture drawn with proof-spirit contains the whole virtue of the hellebore, and seems to be one of the best preparations of it: this tincture, and the extract, used to be kept in the shops. the college of edinburgh used to make this root an ingredient in the purging cephalic tincture, and compound tincture of jalap; and its extract, in the purging deobstruent pills, gamboge pills, the laxative mercurial pills, and the compound cathartic extract.--lewis's mat. med. similar plant.--helleborus viridis. . helleborus foetidus. bearsfoot. leaves. l.--the root is a strong cathartic; it destroys worms, and is recommended in different species of mania. it is commonly substituted for that of the helleborus viridis, which is a more dangerous medicine. hill's herbal, p. . great care ought to be used in the administering this plant: many instances of its dreadful effects are related. (see poisonous plants.) similar plant.--helleborus viridis. . hordeum distichon. pearl barley. seeds. l. e.--barley, in its several states, is more cooling, less glutionous, and less nutritious than wheat or oats; among the ancients, decoctions of it were the principal aliment, and medicine, in acute diseases. the london college direct a decoction of pearl barley; and both the london and edinburgh make common barley an ingredient in the pectoral decoction. . humulus lupulus. the hop.--the flowers and seed-vessels are used in gout and rheumatism, under the form of infusion in boiling-water. the powder formed into an ointment with lard, is said to ease the pain of open cancer. a pillow stuffed with hops is an old and successful mode of procuring sleep in the watchfulness of delirious fever. . hyoscyamus niger. henbane. leaves and seeds. l. e.--henbane is a strong narcotic poison, and many instances of its deleterious effects are recorded by different authors; from which it appears, that any part of the plant, when taken in sufficient quantity, is capable of producing very dangerous and terrible symptoms. it is however much employed in the present days as an anodyne. dr. withering found it of great advantage in a case of difficult deglutition. stoerck and some others recommend this extract in the dose of one grain or two; but dr. cullen observes, that he seldom discovered its anodyne effects till he had proceeded to doses of eight or ten grains, and sometimes to fifteen and even to twenty. the leaves of henbane are said to have been applied externally with advantage, in the way of poultice, to resolve scirrhous tumours, and to remove some pains of the rheumatic and arthritic kind. similar plants.--verbascum lychnites; v. nigrum. the roots of the henbane are to be distinguished by their very powerful and narcotic scent. . hyssopus officinalis. hyssop. the herb. l. e. d.--the leaves of hyssop have an aromatic smell, and a warm pungent taste. besides the general virtues of aromatics, they are particularly recommeded in humoral asthmas, coughs, and other disorders of the breast and lungs; and said to notably promote expectoration. . inula helenium. elecampane. root. d.--elecampane root possesses the general virtues of alexipharmics: it is principally recommended for promoting expectoration in humoural asthmas and coughs; in which intention, it used to be employed in the edinburgh pharmacopoeia: liberally taken, it is said to excite urine, and loosen the belly. in some parts of germany, large quantities of this root are candied, and used as a stomachic, for strengthening the tone of the viscera in general, and for attenuating tenacious juices. spiritous liquors extract its virtues in greater perfection than watery ones: the former scarce elevate any thing in distillation: with the latter, an essential oil arises, which concretes into white flakes; this possesses at first the flavour of the elecampane, but is very apt to lose it in keeping. . juniperus sabina. savine. the tops. l. e. d.--savine is a warm irritating aperient medicine, capable of promoting all the glandular secretions. the distilled oil is one of the most powerful emmenagogues; and is found of good service in obstructions of the uterus, or other viscra, proceeding from a laxity and weakness of the vessels, or a cold sluggish indisposition of the juices. similar plants.--juniperus oxycedrus; j. phoenicea. these should be particularly distinguished, as savine is attended with danger when taken immoderately. . juniperus communis. juniper. berries. l. e. d.--juniper berries have a strong, not disagreeable smell; and a warm, pungent sweet taste, which, if they are long chewed, or previously well bruised, is followed by a bitterish one. the pungency seems to reside in the bark; the sweet in the juice; the aromatic flavour in oily vesicles, spread through the substance of the pulp, and distinguishable even by the eye; and the bitter in the seeds: the fresh berries yield, on expression, a rich, sweet, honey-like, aromatic juice; if previously pounded so as to break the seeds, the juice proves tart and bitter. . lactuca virosa. wild lettuce. leaves. e.--dr. collin at vienna first brought the lactuca virosa into medical repute; and its character has lately induced the college of physicians at edinburgh to insert it in the catalogue of the materia medica. more than twenty-four cases of dropsy are said by collin to have been successfully treated, by employing an extract prepared from the expressed juice of this plant, which is stated not only to be powerfully diuretic, but, by attenuating the viscid humours, to promote all the secretions, and to remove visceral obstructions. in the more simple cases proceeding from debility, the extract in doses of eighteen to thirty grains a-day, proved sufficient to accomplish a cure; but when the disease was inveterate, and accompanied with visceral obstructions, the quantity of extract was increased to three drams; nor did larger doses, though they excited nausea, ever produce any other bad effect; and the patients continued so strong under the use of this remedy, that it was seldom necessary to employ any tonic medicines.--woodville's med. bot. p. . similar plants.--sonchus arvensis; lactuca scariola. . lavandula spica. lavender. flowers. l. d.--lavender has been an officinal plant for a considerable time, though we have no certain accounts of it given by the ancients. its medical virtue resides in the essential oil, which is supposed to be a gentle corroborant and stimulant of the aromatic kind; and is recommended in nervous debilities, and various affections proceeding from a want of energy in the animal functions.--woodville's med. bot. p. . . laurus nobilis. bay-tree. leaves and berries. l.--in distillation with water, the leaves of bay yield a small quantity of very fragrant essential oil; with rectified spirit, they afford a moderately warm pungent extract. the berries yield a larger quantity of essential oil: they discover likewise a degree of unctuosity in the mouth; give out to the press an almost insipid fluid oil; and on being boiled in water, a thicker butyraceous one of a yellowish-green colour, impregnated with the flavour of the berry. an infusion of the leaves is sometimes drunk as tea; and the essential oil of the berries may be given from one to five or six drops on sugar, or dissolved by means of mucilages, or in spirit of wine.--woodville's med bot. p. , . . laurus sassafras. sassafras-tree. bark. l. e. d.--its medical character was formerly held in great estimation; and its sensible qualities, which are stronger than any of the woods, may have probably contributed to establish the opinion so generally entertained of its utility in many inveterate diseases: for, soon after its introduction into europe, it was sold at a very high price, and its virtues were extolled in publications professedly written on the subject. it is now, however, thought to be of very little importance, and seldom employed but in conjunction with other medicines of a more powerful nature. dr. cullen found that a watery infusion of it taken warm and pretty largely, was very effectual in promoting sweat; but he adds, "to what particular purpose this sweating was applicable, i have not been able to determine." in some constitutions sassafras, by its extreme fragrance, is said to produce headache: to deprive it of this effect, the decoction ought to be employed.--woodville's mat. med. p. . . leontodon taraxicum. n ebion. root. l.--the roots contain a bitter milky juice; they promise to be of use as asperient and detergent medicines; and have sometimes been directed in this intention with good success. boerhaave esteems them capable, if duly continued, of resolving almost all kinds of coagulations, and opening very obstinate obstructions of the viscera. . linum usitatissimum. flax. the seeds. l. e.--linseed yields to the press a considerable quantity of oil; and boiled in water, a strong mucilage: these are occasionally made use of for the same purposes as other substances of that class; and sometimes the seeds themselves in emollient and maturating cataplasms. they have also been employed in asia, and, in times of scarcity, in europe, as food: but are not agreeable, or in general wholesome. . linum catharticum. purging-flax. the herb. l. d.-this is a very small plant, not above four or five inches high, found wild upon chalky hills, and in dry pasture-grounds. its virtue is expressed in its title: an infusion in water or whey of a handful of the fresh leaves, or a dram of them in substance when dried, is said to purge without inconvenience. . lobelia siphylitica. blue cardinal flower. the root. e.--every part of the plant abounds with a milky juice, and has a rank smell. the root, which is the part directed for medicinal use, in taste resembles tobacco, and is apt to excite vomiting. it derived its name, siphylitica, from its efficacy in the cure of siphylis, as experienced by the north american indians, who considered it a specific to that disease. a decoction was made of a handful of the roots in three measures of water. of this, half a measure is taken in the morning fasting, and repeated in the evening; and the dose is gradually increased till its purgative effects become too violent, when the decoction is to be intermitted for a day or two, and then renewed till a perfect cure is effected. but it does not appear that the antisiphylitic powers of lobelia have been confirmed by any instances of european practice.-- woodville's med. bot. p. . . lythrum salicaria. willow herb. the herb. d.--this is used internally in dropsies, obstinate gleets, and leucorrhoea. similar plants.--epilobium palustre; epilob. angustifolium; epilob. hirsutum. . malva sylvestris. common mallow. herb. l. e.--the leaves are ranked the first of the four emollient herbs: they were formerly of some esteem, in food, for loosening the belly; at present, decoctions of them are sometimes employed in dysenteries, heat and sharpness of urine, and in general for obtunding acrimonious humours: their principal use is in emollient glysters, cataplasms, and fomentations. . marrubium vulgare. horfhound. herb. e. d.--it is greatly extolled for its efficacy in removing obstructions of the lungs and other viscera. it has chiefly been employed in humoural asthmas. mention is made of its successful use in scirrhous affections of the liver, jaundice, cachexies, and menstrual suppressions.--woodville's med. bot. p. . similar plants.--ballota nigra; b. alba. . melissa officinalis. balm. herb. l. e.--this herb, in its recent state, has a weak roughish aromatic taste, and a pleasant smell, somewhat of the lemon kind. on distilling the fresh herb with water, it impregnates the first runnings pretty strongly with its grateful flavour. prepared as tea, however, it makes a grateful diluent drink in fevers; and in this way it is commonly used, either by itself, or acidulated with the juice of lemons.--woodville's med. bot. p. , . . mentha viridis. spear-mint. leaves. l. d.--the virtues of mint are those of a warm stomachic and carminative: in loss of appetite, nauseae, continual retchings to vomit, and (as boerhaave expresses it) almost paralytic weakness of the stomach, there are few simples perhaps of equal efficacy. in colicky pains, the gripes to which children are subject, lienteries, and other kinds of immoderate fluxes, this plant frequently does good service. it likewise proves beneficial in sundry hysteric cases, and affords an useful cordial in languors and other weaknesses consequent upon delivery. the best preparations for these purposes are, a strong infusion made from the dry leaves in water (which is much superior to one from the green herb) or rather a tincture or extract prepared with rectified spirit. the essential oil, a simple and spirituous water, and a conserve, are kept in the shops: the edinburgh college directs an infusion of the leaves in the distilled water. this herb is an ingredient also in the three alexitereal waters; and its essential oil in the stomach plaster and stomach pills.--lewis's mat. med. . mentha piperita. pepper-mint. herb. l. e. d.--the leaves have a more penetrating smell than any of the other mints, and a much warmer, pungent, glowing taste like pepper, sinking as it were into the tongue. the principal use of this herb is in flatulent colics, languors, and other like disorders; it seems to act as soon as taken, and extends its effects through the whole system, instantly communicating a glowing warmth. water extracts the whole of the pungency of this herb by infusion, and elevates it in distillation. its officinal preparations are an essential oil, and a simple and spirituous water. . mentha pulegium. pennyroyal. herb. l. e. d.--pennyroyal is a warm pungent herb of the aromatic kind, similar to mint, but more acrid and less agreeable. it has long been held in great esteem, and not undeservedly, as an aperient and deobstruent, particularly in hysteric complaints, and suppressions of the uterine purgations. for these purposes, the distilled water is generally made use of, or, what is of equal efficacy, an infusion of the leaves. it is observable, that both water and rectified spirit extract the virtues of this herb by infusion, and likewise elevate greatest part of them in distillation.--lewis's mat. med. . menyanthes trifoliata. buck-bean. leaves. l. e. d.--this is an efficacious aperient and deobstruent; it promotes the fluid secretions, and, if liberally taken, gently loosens the belly. it has of late gained great reputation in scorbutic and scrophulous disorders; and its good effects in these cases have been warranted by experience: inveterate cutaneous diseases have been removed by an infusion of the leaves, drunk to the quantity of a pint a-day, at proper intervals, and continued some weeks. boerhaave relates, that he was relieved of the gout by drinking the juice mixed with whey. . momordica elaterium. spirting cucumber. fruit l. e. d.--elaterium is a strong cathartic, and very often operates also upwards. two or three grains are accounted in most cases a sufficient dose. simon paulli relates some instances of the good effects of this purgative in dropsies: but cautions practitioners not to have recourse to it till after milder medicines have proved ineffectual; to which caution we heartily subscribe. medicines indeed in general, which act with violence in a small dose, require the utmost skill to manage them with any tolerable degree of safety: to which may be added, that the various manners of making these kinds of preparations, as practised by different hands, must needs vary their power. . morus nigra. mulberry. fruit. l.--it has the common qualities of the other sweet fruits, abating heat, quenching thirst, and promoting the grosser secretions; an agreeable syrup made from the juice is kept in the shops. the bark of the roots has been in considerable esteem as a vermifuge; its taste is bitter, and somewhat astringent.--lewis's mat. med. . nicotiana tabacum. tobacco. leaves. l. e. d.--tobacco is sometimes used externally in unguents for destroying cutaneous insects, cleansing old ulcers, &c. beaten into a mash with vinegar or brandy, it has sometimes proved serviceable for removing hard tumours of the hypochondres. . origanum majorana. sweet marjoram. herb. l. e.-it is a moderately warm aromatic, yielding its virtues both to aqueous and spirituous liquors by infusion, and to water in distillation. it is principally celebrated in disorders of old people. an essential oil of the herb is kept in the shops. the powder of the leaves proves an agreeable errhine. . origanum vulgare. pot marjoram. herb. l. d.--it has an agreeable aromatic smell approaching to that of marjoram, and a pungent taste much resembling thyme, to which it is likewise thought to be more nearly allied in its medicinal qualities than to any of the other verticillatae, and therefore deemed to be emmenagogue, tonic, stomachic, &c. the dried leaves used instead of tea are said to be extremely grateful. they are also employed in medicated baths and fomentations.--woodville's med. bot. p. . . oxalis acetosella. wood sorrel. herb. l.--in taste and medical qualities it is similar to the common sorrel, but considerably more grateful, and hence is preferred by the london college. boiled with milk, it forms an agreeable whey; and beaten with sugar, a very elegant conserve.--lewis's mat. med. . papaver rhoeas. red poppy. petals. l. e. d.--the flowers of this plant yield upon expression a deep red juice, and impart the same colour by infusion to aqueous liquors. a syrup of them is kept in the shops: this is valued chiefly for its colour; though some expect from it a lightly anodyne virtue. . papaver somniferum. opium poppy. gum. l. e. d.-poppy heads, boiled in water, impart to the menstruum their narcotic juice, together with the other juices which they have in common with vegetable matters in general. the liquor strongly pressed out, suffered to settle, clarified with whites of eggs, and evaporated to a due consistence, yields about one-fifth or one-sixth the weight of the heads, of extract. this possesses the virtues of opium; but requires to be given in double its dose to answer the same intention, which it is said to perform without occasioning nausea and giddiness, the usual consequences of the other. the general effects of this medicine are, to relax the solids, ease pain, procure sleep, promote perspiration, but restrain all other evacuations. when its operation is over, the pain, and other symptoms which it had for a time abated, return; and generally with greater violence than before, unless the cause has been removed by the diaphoresis or relaxation which it occasioned. the operation of opium is generally attended with a slow, but strong and full pulse, a dryness of the mouth, a redness and light itching of the skin: and followed by a degree of nausea, a difficulty of respiration, lowness of the spirits, and a weak languid pulse. with regard to the dose of opium, one grain is generally sufficient, and often too large a one; maniacal persons, and those who have been long accustomed to take it, require three or more grains to have the due effect. among the eastern nations, who are habituated to opium, a dram is but a moderate dose: garcias relates, that he knew one who every day took ten drams. those who have been long accustomed to its use, upon leaving it off, are seized with great lowness, languor, and anxiety; which are relieved by having again recourse to opium, and, in some measure, by wine or spirituous liquors. similar plants.--papaver hybridum; p. argemone. . pastinaca opoponax. opoponax, or candy carrot. gum opoponax. l.-- the juice is brought from turkey and the east indies, sometimes in round drops or tears, but more commonly in irregular lumps, of a reddish-yellow colour on the outside, with specks of white, inwardly of a paler colour, and frequently variegated with large white pieces. boerhaave frequently employed it, along with ammoniacum and galbanum, in hypochondriacal disorders, obstructions of the abdominal viscera from a sluggishness of mucous humours, and a want of due elasticity of the solids. . pimpinella anisum. aniseed. the seeds. l. e. d.-these seeds are in the number of the four greater hot seeds: their principal use is in cold flatulent disorders, where tenacious phlegm abounds, and in the gripes to which young children are subject. frederick hoffman strongly recommends them in weakness of the stomach, diarrhoeas, and for strengthening the tone of the viscera in general; and thinks they well deserve the appellation given them by helmont, intestinorum solamen. . pinus sylvestris. scotch fir. tar, yellow resin, and turpentine. l. d.--tar, which is well known from its oeconomical uses, is properly an empyreumatic oil of turpentine, and has been much used as a medicine, both internally and externally. tar-water, or water impregnated with the more soluble parts of tar, was some time ago a very popular remedy in various obstinate disorders, both acute and chronic, especially in small-pox, scurvy, ulcers, fistulas, rheumatisms, &c. turpentine is an extract also from the same tree, which is used for various purposes of medicine and the arts. . pinus abies. spruce-fir. burgundy pitch. l. e. d.--this is entirely confined to external use, and was formerly an ingredient in several ointments and plasters. in inveterate coughs, affections of the lungs, and other internal complaints, plasters of this resin, by acting as a tropical stimulus, are frequently found of considerable service.-- woodville's med. bot. . polygonum bistorta. bistort. the roots. l. e. d.--all the parts of bistort have a rough austere taste, particularly the root, which is one of the strongest of the vegetable stringents. it is employed in all kinds of immoderate haemorrhages and other fluxes, both internally and externally, where astringency is the only intention. it is certainly a very powerful styptic, and is to be looked on simply as such; the sudorific, antipestilential, and other like virtues attributed to it, it has no other claim to, than in consequence of this property, and of the antiseptic power which it has in common with other vegetable styptics. the largest dose of the root in powder is one dram. . prunus domestica. french prunes. the fruit. l. e. d.--the medical effects of the damson and common prunes are, to abate heat, and gently loosen the belly: which they perform by lubricating the passage, and softening the excrement. they are of considerable service in costiveness accompanied with heat or irritation, which the more stimulating cathartics would tend to aggravate: where prunes are not of themselves sufficient, their effects may be promoted by joining with them a little rhubarb or the like; to which may be added some carminative ingredient, to prevent their occasioning flatulencies. prunelloes have scarce any laxative quality: these are mild grateful refrigerants, and, by being occasionally kept in the mouth, usefully allay the thirst of hydropic persons. . punica granatum. pomegranate. rind of the fuit. l. e. d.--this fruit has the general qualities of the other sweet summer fruits, allaying heat, quenching thirst, and gently loosening the belly. the rind is a strong astringent, and as such is occasionally made use of. . pyrus cydonia. quince. the kernels. l.--the seeds abound with a mucilaginous substance, of no particular taste, which they readily impart to watery liquors: an ounce will render three pints of water thick and ropy like the white of an egg. a syrup and jelly of the fruit, and mucilage of the seeds, used to be kept in the shops. . querous pedunculata. oak. bark. l. e. d.--this bark is a strong astringent; and hence stands recommended in haemorrhagies, alvine fluxes, and other preternatural or immoderate secretions. . rhamnus catharticus. buckthorn. berries. l. e.--buckthorn-berries have a faint disagreeable smell, and a nauseous bitter taste. they have long been in considerable esteem as cathartics; and celebrated in dropsies, rheumatisms, and even in the gout; though in these cases they have no advantage above other purgatives, and are more offensive, and operate more churlishly, than many which the shops are furnished with: they generally occasion gripes, sickness, dry the mouth and throat, and leave a thirst of long duration. the dose is about twenty of the fresh berries in substance, and twice or thrice this number in decoction, an ounce of the expressed juice, or a dram of the dried berries. . rheum palmatum. turkey rhubarb. roots. l. e. d.--rhubarb is a mild cathartic, which operates without violence or irritation, and may be given with safety even to pregnant women and to children. in some people, however, it always occasions severe griping. besides its purgative quality, it is celebrated for an astringent one, by which it strengthens the tone of the stomach and intestines, and proves useful in diarrhoea and disorders proceeding from a laxity of the fibres. rhubarb in substance operates more powerfully as a cathartic than any of the preparations of it. watery tinctures purge more than the spirituous ones; whilst the latter contain in greater perfection the aromatic, astringent, and corroborating virtues of the rhubarb. the dose, when intended as a purgative, is from a scruple to a dram or more. the turkey rhubarb is, among us, universally preferred to the east india sort. the plant is common in our gardens, but their medicinal powers are much weaker than in those from abroad. rhododendron chrysanthemum. yellow-flowered rhododendron. see no. . . rhus toxicodendron. poison-oak. leaves. l. e.--of considerable use in paralytic affections, and is much used in the present day. it is, however, often substituted by the rhus radicans, which has not the medical properties that this plant has; and it is to be regretted that the leaves of both species are so much alike, that, when gathered, they are not to be distinguished. . ricinus communis. palma christi. seeds and oil. l. e. d.--the oil, commonly called nut or castor oil, is got by expression, retains somewhat of the mawkishness and acrimony of the nut; but is, in general, a safe and mild laxative in cases where we wish to avoid irritation, as in those of colic, calculus, gonorrhoea, &c. and some likewise use it as a purgative in worm-cases. half an ounce or an ounce commonly answers with an adult, and a dram or two with an infant. the castor oil which is imported is not so good as the expressed oil from the nut made in this country. the disagreeable taste is from the coats of the seeds; the best kind is pressed out after the seeds are decorticated. . rosa centifolia. damask rose. petals. l. e. d.--in distillation with water, it yields a small portion of a butyraceous oil, whose flavour exactly resembles that of the roses. this oil, and the distilled water, are very useful and agreeable cordials. hoffmann strongly recommends them as of singular efficacy for raising the strength, cheering and recruiting the spirits, and allaying pain; which they perform without raising any heat in the constitution, rather abating it when inordinate. although the damask rose is recommended by dr. woodville, yet, having grown this article for sale, i find that the preference is always given to the provence rose by those who distil them. . rosa gallica. red officinal rose. petals. l. e. d.-this has very little of the fragrance of the foregoing sort; it is a mild and grateful astringent, especially before the flower has opened: this is considerably improved by hasty exsiccation, but both the astringency and colour are impaired by slow drying. in the shops are prepared a conserve and a tincture. . rosa canina. dog-rose. the pulp of the fruit. l. e.-the fruit, called heps or hips, has a sourish taste, and obtains a place in the london pharmacopoeia in the form of a conserve: for this purpose, the seeds and chaffy fibres are to be carefully removed; for, if these prickly fibres are not entirely scraped off from the internal surface of the hips, the conserve is liable to produce considerable irritation on the primae viae. . rosmarinus officinalis. rosemary. tops. l. e. d.--rosemary has a fragrant smell and a warm pungent bitterish taste, approaching to those of lavender: the leaves and tender tops are strongest; next to these the cup of the flower; the flowers themselves are considerably the weakest, but most pleasant. aqueous liquors extract great share of the virtues of rosemary leaves by infusion, and elevate them in distillation: along with the water arises a considerable quantity of essential oil, of an agreeable strong penetrating smell. pure spirit extracts in great perfection the whole aromatic flavour of the rosemary, and elevates very little of it in distillation: hence the resinous mass left upon abstracting the spirit, proves an elegant aromatic, very rich in the peculiar qualities of the plant. the flowers of rosemary give over great part of their flavour in distillation with pure spirit; by watery liquors, their fragrance is much injured; by beating, destroyed. . rubia tinctorum. madder. roots. l. e. d.--it has little or no smell; a sweetish taste, mixed with a little bitterness. the virtues attributed to it are those of a detergent and aperient; whence it has been usually ranked among the opening roots, and recommended in obstructions of the viscera, particularly of the kidneys, in coagulations of the blood from falls or bruises, in the jaundice, and beginning dropsies. it is observable, that this root, taken internally, tinges the urine of a deep red colour; and in the philosophical transactions we have an account of its producing a like effect upon the bones of animals which had it mixed with their food: all the bones, particularly the more solid ones, were changed, both externally and internally, to a deep red, but neither the fleshy nor cartilaginous parts suffered any alteration: some of these bones macerated in water for many weeks together, and afterwards steeped and boiled in spirit of wine, lost none of their colour, nor communicated any tinge to the liquors. . rumex acetosa. sorrel. leaves. l.--these have an agreeable acid taste. they have the same medicinal qualities as the oxalis acetosella, and are employed for the same purposes. sorrel taken in considerable quantities, or used prepared for food, will be found of great advantage when a refrigerant and antiscorbutic regimen is required.--woodville's med. bot. . ruta graveolens. rue. leaves. l. e. d.--these are powerfully stimulating, attenuating, and detergent: and hence, in cold phlegmatic habits, they quicken the circulation, dissolve tenacious juices, open obstructions of the excretory glands, and promote the fluid secretions. the writers on the materia medica in general have entertained a very high opinion of the virtues of this pant. boerhaave is full of its praises; particularly of the essential oil, and the distilled water cohobated or redistilled several times from fresh parcels of the herb: after somewhat extravagantly commending other waters prepared in this manner, he adds, with regard to that of rue, that the greatest commendations he can bestow upon it fall short of its merit: "what medicine (says he) can be more efficacious for promoting perspiration, in cases of epilepsies, and for expelling poison?" whatever service rue may be of generally, it undoubtedly has its use in the two last cases: the cohobated water, however, is not the most efficacious preparation. . salix fragilis. crack willow. bark. l. d.-the bark of the branches of this tree manifests a considerable degree of bitterness to the taste, and is also astringent; hence it has been thought a good substitute for the peruvian bark, and, upon trial, was found to stop the paroxysms of intermittents: it is likewise recommended in other cases requiring tonic or astringent remedies. not only the bark of this species of salix, but that of several others, possess similar qualities, particularly of the salix alba pentandria, and capraea, all of which are recommended in foreign pharmacopoeias. but, in our opinion, the bark of the salix triandria is more effectual than that of any other of this genus; at least, its sensible qualities give it a decided preference.--woodville's med bot. . salvia officinalis. green and red sage. herb. e. d.--its effects are, to moderately warm and strengthen the vessels; and hence, in cold phlegmatic habits, it excites appetite, and proves serviceable in debilities of the nervous system. the red sage, mixed with honey and vinegar, is used for a gargle in sore throats. aqueous infusions of the leaves, with the addition of a little lemon juice, prove an useful diluting drink in febrile disorders, of an elegant colour, and sufficiently acceptable to the palate. . sambucus nigra. common elder. flowers and berries. l. e. d.--the parts of the sambucus which are proposed for medicinal use in the pharmacopoeias, are the inner bark, the flowers, and the berries. the flowers have an agreeable flavour, which they give over in distillation with water, and impart by infusion, both to water and rectified spirit: on distilling a large quantitiy of them with water, a small portion of a butyraceous essential oil separates. infusions made from the fresh flowers are gently laxative and aperient; when dry, they are said to promote chiefly the cuticular excretion, and to be particularly serviceable in erysipetalous and eruptive disorders.--woodville's med. bot. . . scilla maritima. squill. root. l. e. d.--this root is to the taste very nauseous, intensely bitter and acrimonious; much handled, it exulcerates the skin. with regard to its medical virtues, it powerfully stimulates the solids, and attenuates viscid juices; and by these qualities promotes expectoration, urine, and perspiration: if the dose is considerable, it proves emetic, and sometimes purgative. the principal use of this medicine is where the primae viae abound with mucous matter, and the lungs are oppressed by tenacious phlegm. . scrophularia nodosa. knotty figwort. herb. d.--the roots are of a white colour, full of little knobs or protuberances on the surface: this appearance gained it formerly some repute against scrophulous disorders and the piles; and from hence it received its name: but modern practitioners expect no such virtues from it. it has a faint unpleasant smell, and a somewhat bitter disagreeable taste. . sinapis nigra. black mustard. seeds. l. e. d.--by writers on the materia medica, mustard is considered to promote appetite, assist digestion, attenuate viscid juices, and, by stimulating the fibres, to prove a general remedy in paralytic and rheumatic affections. joined to its stimulant qualities, it frequently, if taken in considerable quantity, opens the body, and increases the urinary discharge; and hence has been found useful in dropsical complaints.--woodville's med. bot. p. . . sinapis alba. white mustard. seeds. l. e. d.--these have been recommended to be taken whole in cases of rheumatism and have been known to produce considerable relief. . sisymbrium nasturtium. water-cresses. herb. e.-hoffman recommends this as of singular efficacy for accelerating the circulation, strengthening the viscera, opening obstructions of the glands, promoting the fluid secretions, and purifying the blood and humours: for these purposes, the expressed juice, which contains the peculiar taste and pungency of the herb, may be taken in doses of an ounce or two, and continued for a considerable time. . sium nodiflorum. creeping water-parsnep. the root. d.-this plant has not been admitted into the materia medica of any of the pharmacopoeias which we have seen, except that of the london college, into which it was received in the character of an antiscorbutic, or rather as the corrector of acrid humours, especially when manifested by cutaneous eruptions and tumours in the lymphatic system, for which we have the testimony of beirie and ray; but the best proofs of its efficacy are the following given by dr. withering: "a young lady, six years old, was cured of an obstinate disease by taking three large spoonfuls of the juice twice-a-day; and i have repeatedly given to adults three or four ounces every morning in similar complaints with the greatest advantage. it is not nauseous; and children take it readily if mixed with milk. in the dose i have given, it neither affects the head, the stomach, nor the bowels." woodville's med. bot. . . smilax sarsaparilla. sarsaparilla. root. l. e. d.--this root was first brought into europe by the spaniards, about the year , with the character of a specific for the cure of the lues venerea, which made its appearance a little before that time, and likewise of several obstinate chronic disorders. whatever good effects it might have produced in the warmer climates, it proved unsuccessful in this. it appears, however, from experience, that though greatly unequal to the character which it bore at first, it is in some cases of considerable use as a sudorific, where more acrid medicines are improper. . solanum dulcamara. bittersweet. stalk. l. d.--the taste of the twigs and roots, as the name of the plant expresses, is both bitter and sweet; the bitterness being first perceived, and the sweet afterwards. they are commended for resolving coagulated blood, and as a cathartic, diuretic, and deobstruent. . solidago virga aurea. golden rod. flowers and leaves. d.--the leaves have a moderately astringent bitter taste, and hence prove serviceable in debility and laxity of the viscera, and disorders proceeding from that cause. . spartium scoparium. broom. tops and seeds. l. d.-these have a nauseous bitter taste: decoctions of them loosen the belly, promote urine, and stand recommended in hydropic cases. the flowers are said to prove cathartic in decoction, and emetic in substance, though in some places, as lobel informs us, they are commonly used, and in large quantity, in salads, without producing any effect of this kind. the qualities of the seeds are little better determined: some report that they purge almost as strongly as hellebore, in the dose of a dram and a half; whilst the author above mentioned relates, that he has given a decoction of two ounces of them as a gentle emetic. . spigella marylandica. worm grass. root. l. e. d.-about forty years ago, the anthelmintic virtues of the root of this plant were discovered by the indians; since which time it has been much used here. i have given it in hundreds of cases, and have been very attentive to its effects. i never found it do much service, except when it proved gently purgative. its purgative quality naturally led me to give it in febrile diseases which seem to arise from viscidity in the primae viae; and in these cases it succeeded to admiration, even when the sick did not void worms. to a child of two years of age who had been taking ten grains of the root twice a-day without having any other effect than making her dull and giddy, i prescribed twenty-two grains morning and evening, which purged her briskly, and brought away five large worms. [communications from dr. gardner.]-woodville's med. bot. . tanacetum vulgare. tansy. herb. e. d.--considered as a medicine, it is a moderately warm bitter, accompanied with a strong, not very disagreeable flavour. some have had a great opinion of it in hysteric disorders, particularly those proceeding from a deficiency or suppression of the usual course of nature. . teucrium marum. cat thyme. herb. d.--the leaves have an aromatic bitterish taste; and, when rubbed betwixt the fingers, a quick pungent smell, which soon affects the head, and occasions sneezing: distilled with water, they yield a very acrid, penetrating essential oil, resembling one obtained by the same means from scurvy-grass. these qualities sufficiently point out the uses to which this plant might be applied; at present, it is little otherwise employed than in cephalic snuffs. . teucrium chamaedrys. germander. herb. d.--the leaves, tops, and seeds, have a bitter taste, with some degree of astringency and aromatic flavour. they were recommended as sudorific, diuretic, and emmenagogue, and for strengthening the stomach and viscera in general. with some they have been in great esteem in intermittent fevers; as also in scrophulous and other chronic disorders. . tormentilla erecta. tormentil, or upright septfoil. root. l. e. d. --the root is the only part of this plant which is used medicinally; it has a strong styptic taste, but imparts no peculiar sapid flavour. this has been long held in great estimation as an astringent. dr. cullen has used it with gentian with great effect in intermittent fevers. lewis recommends an ounce and a half of the powdered root to be boiled in three pints of water to a quart, adding towards the end of the boiling a dram of cinnamon. of the strained liquor, sweetened with an ounce of any agreeable syrup, two ounces or more may be taken four or five times a-day. . tussilago farfara. coltsfoot. herb. l. e. d.--tussilago stands recommended in coughs and other disorders of the breast and lungs: the flowers were an ingredient in the pectoral decoction of the edinburgh pharmacopoeia. . valeriana officinalis. valerian. root. l. e. d.--valerian is a medicine of great use in nervous disorders, and is particularly serviceable in epilepsies proceeding from a debility in the nervous system. it was first brought into esteem in these cases by fabius columna, who by taking the powdered root, in the dose of half a spoonful, was cured of an inveterate epilepsy after many other medicines had been tried in vain. repeated experience has since confirmed its efficacy in this disorder; and the present practice lays considerable stress upon it. . veratrum album. white hellebore. root. l. e. d.-the root has a nauseous, bitterish, acrid taste, burning the mouth and fauces: wounded when fresh, it emits an extremely acrimonious juice, which mixed with the blood, by a wound, is said to prove very dangerous: the powder of the dry root, applied to an issue, occasions violent purging: snuffed up the nose, it proves a strong, and not always a safe, sternutatory. this root, taken internally, acts with extreme violence as an emetic, and has been observed, even in a small dose, to occasion convulsions and other terrible disorders. the ancients sometimes employed it in very obstinate cases, and always made this their last resource. similar plant.--gentiana lutea, which see. . veronica beccabunga. brooklime. herb. l. d.--this plant was formerly considered of great use in several diseases, and was applied externally to wounds and ulcers; but if it have any peculiar efficacy, it is to be derived from its antiscorbutic virtue. as a mild refrigerant juice, it is preferred where an acrimonious state of the fluids prevails, indicated by prurient eruptions upon the skin, or in what has been called the hot scurvy.--woodville's med. bot. . . vitis vinifera. grape vine. raisins and different wines. l. e.-- these are to cheer the spirits, warm the habit, promote perspiration, render the vessels full and turgid, raise the pulse, and quicken the circulation. the effects of the full-bodied wines are much more durable than those of the thinner; all sweet wines, as canary, abound with a glutinous nutritious substance; whilst the others are not nutrimental, or only accidentally so by strengthening the organs employed in digestion: sweet wines in general do not pass off freely by urine, and heat the constitution more than an equal quantity of any other, though containing full as much spirit: red port, and most of the red wines, have an astringent quality, by which they strengthen the tone of the stomach and intestines, and thus prove serviceable for restraining immoderate secretions: those which are of an acid nature, as renish, pass freely by the kidneys, and gently loosen the belly: it is supposed that these last exasperate, or occasion gout and calculous disorders, and that new wines of every kind have this effect. the ripe fruit of grapes, of which there are several kinds, properly cured and dried, are the raisins and currants of the shops: the juice of these also, by fermentation, affords wine as well as vinegar and tartar. the medical use of raisins is, their imparting a very pleasant flavour both to aqueous and spiritous menstrua. the seeds or stones are supposed to give a disagreeable relish, and hence are generally directed to be taken out: nevertheless i have not found that they have any disagreeable taste.--lewis's mat. med. . ulmus campestris. elm. bark. l. e. d.--the leaves have a bitterish astringent taste, and are recommended in powder, to the extent of at least two drams a-day, in ulcerations of the urinary passages and catarrhus vesicae. the powder has been used with opium, the latter being gradually increased to a considerable quantity, in diabetes, and it is said with advantage. some use it for alleviating the dyspeptic symptoms in nephritic calculous ailments.--lewis's mat. med. . rhododendron chrysanthemum. yellow-flowered rho-dodendron. e. the leaves.--this species of rhododendron has lately been introduced into britain: it is a native of siberia, affecting mountainous situations, and flowering in june and july. little attention was paid to this remedy till the year , when it was strongly recommended by koelpin as an efficacious medicine, not only in rheumatism and gout, but even in venereal cases; and it is now very generally employed in chronic rheumatisms in various parts of europe. the leaves, which are the part directed for medicinal use, have a bitterish subastringent taste, and, as well as the bark and young branches, manifest a degree of acrimony. taken in large doses they prove a narcotic poison, producing those symptoms which we have described as occasioned by many of the order solanaceae. dr. home, who tried it unsuccessfully in some cases of acute rheumatism, says, it appears to be one of the most powerful sedatives which we have, as in most of the trials it made the pulse remarkably slow, and, in one patient, reduced it beats. and in other cases in which the rhododendron has been used at edinburgh, it has been productive of good effects; and, accordingly, it is now introduced into the edinburgh pharmacopoeia. the manner of using this plant by the siberians was, by putting two drams of the dried leaves in an earthen-pot with about ten ounces of boiling-water, keeping it near a boiling heat for a night, and this they took in the morning; and by repeating it three or four times it generally affected a cure. it is said to occasion heat, thirst, a degree of delirium, and a peculiar sensation of the parts affected.-- woodville's med. bot. p. . * * * * * sect. viii.--medicinal plants not contained in either of the british dispensatories. for the use of the medical student i selected in the foregoing section such plants as are contained in the pharmacopoeias of the present day: but there are many mentioned in woodville's medical botany, lewis's dispensatory, &c. which, although discarded from the college list, are nevertheless still used by medical practitioners and others. it would be difficult to give a full history of all the plants that have from time to time been recommended for medical uses. the old writers, as gerard, parkinson, lyte, &c. attributed medical virtues to all the plants which came under their notice; and, on the other hand, as we observed above, the vegetable department of the pharmacopoeias has from time to time been reduced so much, that, if we had confined ourselves to that alone, we fear our little treatise on this head would, by many persons, be thought defective. the following list is therefore given, as containing what are used, though probably not so much by practitioners in medicine, as by our good housewives in the country, who, without disparagement to medical science, often relieve the distresses of their families and neighbours by the judicious application of drugs of this nature, and many of which are also sold for the same purposes in the london herb-shops. . acanthus mollis. smooth bears-breech. the leaves.--are of a soft sweetish taste, and abound with a mucilaginous juice: its virtues do not seem to differ from those of althea and other mucilaginous plants. . achilla ptarmica. sneezewort. the root.--the roots have and acrid smell, and a hot biting taste: chewed, they occasion a plentiful discharge of saliva; and when powdered and snuffed up the nose, provoke sneezing. these are sold at the herb-shops as a substitute for pellitory of spain. . achillea ageratum. maudlin. the leaves and flowers.--this has a light agreeable smell; and a roughish, somewhat warm and bitterish taste. these qualities point out its use as a mild corroborant; but it has long been a stranger in practice, and is now omitted both by the london and edinburgh colleges. it is however in use by the common people. . achillea millefolium. yarrow. the leaves.--the leaves have a rough bitterish taste, and a faint aromatic smell. their virtues are those of a very mild astringent, and as such they stand recommended in haemorrhages both internal and external, diarrhoeas, debility and laxity of the fibres; and likewise in spasmodic hysterical affections. . ajuga reptans. bugle. the leaves.--these have at first a sweetish taste, which gradually becomes bitterish and roughish. they are recommended as vulnerary medicines, and in all cases where mild astringents or corroborants are proper. . alchemilla vulgaris. lady's mantle. the leaves.--these discover to the taste a moderate astringency, and were formerly much esteemed in some female weaknesses, and in fluxes of the belly. they are now rarely made use of; though both the fresh leaves and roots might doubtless be of service in cases where mild astringents are required. . ammi majus. bishops-weed. the seeds.--the seeds of common bishops-weed are large and pale-coloured: their smell and taste are weak, and without any thing of the origanum flavour of the true ammi, which does not grow in this country. they are ranked among the four lesser hot seeds, but are scarcely otherwise made use of than as an ingredient in the theriaca.--lewis's mat. med. . amygdalus persica. almonds. flowers.--they have a cathartic effect, and especially to children have been successfully given in the character of a vermifuge for this purpose; an infusion of a dram of the flowers dried, or half an ounce in their recent state, is the requisite dose. the expressed oil of almonds has been for a long time, and is at present, in use for many purposes in medicine. the concentrated acid of the bitter almond is a most dangerous poison to man and all other animals. . anagallis arvensis. pimpernel. the leaves.--many extraordinary virtues have been attributed to them. geoffroy esteems them cephalic, sudorific, vulnerary, anti-maniacal, anti-epileptic, and alexiteral. . anchusa angustifolia. bugloss. the roots, leaves, and flowers.-- bugloss has a slimy sweetish taste, accompanied with a kind of coolness: the roots are the most glutinous, and the flowers the least so. these qualities point out its use in hot bilious or inflammatory distempers, and a thin acrimonious state of the fluids. the flowers are one of the four called cordial flowers: the only quality they have that can entitle them to this appellation, is, that they moderately cool and soften, without offending the palate or stomach; and thus in warm climates, or in hot diseases, may in some measure refresh the patient. . anemone hepatica. hepatica. the leaves.--it is a cooling gently restringent herb; and hence recommended in a lax state of the fibres as a corroborant. . antirrhinium elatine. fluellin. the root, bark, and leaves.--they were formerly accounted excellent vulneraries, and of great use for cleansing and healing old ulcers and cancerous sores: some have recommended them internally in leprous and scrophulous disorders; as also in hydropic cases. . antirrhinium linaria. toad flax. the flowers.--an infusion of them is said to be very efficacious in cutaneous disorders; and hammerin gives an instance in which these flowers, with those of verbascum, used as tea, cured an exanthematous disorder, which had resisted various other remedies tried during the course of three years.--woodville's med. bot. p. . . aquilegia vulgaris. columbine. the leaves, flowers, and seeds.--it has been looked upon as aperient; and was formerly in great esteem among the common people for throwing out the small-pox and measles. a distilled water, medicated vinegar, and conserve, were prepared from the flowers; but they have long given place to medicines of greater efficacy. . aristolochia longa. long birthwort. the roots.--this is a tuberous root, sometimes about the size of the finger, sometimes as thick as a man's arm: great virtues used to be ascribed to this plant as a specific in most uterine obstructions and gout: the outside is of a brownish colour; the inside yellowish. . artemisia vulgaris. mugwort. the leaves.--these have a light aromatic smell, and an herbaceous bitterish taste. they are principally celebrated as uterine and anti-hysteric: an infusion of them is sometimes drunk, either alone or in conjunction with other substances, in suppressions of immoderate fluxes. this medicine is certainly a very mild one, and considerably less hot than most others to which these virtues are attributed. . asclepias vincetoxium. swallow wort. the root.--this root is esteemed sudorific, diuretic, and emmenagogue, and frequently employed by the french and german physicians as an alexipharmic, sometimes as a succedaneum to contrayerva; whence it has received the name of contrayerva germanorum. among us it is rarely made use of. . asperula odorata. sweet woodroof. the flowers.--it has an exceedingly pleasant smell, which is improved by moderate exsiccation; the taste is sub-saline, and somewhat austere. it imparts its flavour to vinous liquors. asperula is supposed to attenuate viscid humours, and strengthen the tone of the bowels: it was recommended in obstructions of the liver and biliary ducts, and by some in epilepsies and palsies: modern practice has nevertheless rejected it. . asplenium ceterach. spleenwort.--it is recommended as a pectoral, and for promoting urine in nephritic cases. the virtue which it has been most celebrated for, is that which it has the least title to, i. e. diminish the spleen. . asplenium scolophendrium. harts-tongue. the leaves.--these have a roughish, somewhat mucilaginous taste. they are recommended in obstructions of the viscera, and for strengthening their tone; and have sometimes been made use of for these intentions, either alone, or in conjunction with maiden-hair, or the other plants of similar properties. . atropa mandragora. mandrake. the leaves.--the qualities of this plant are very doubtful: it has a strong disagreeable smell resembling that of the narcotic herbs, to which class it is usually referred. it has rarely been any otherwise made use of in medicine, than as an ingredient in one of the old officinal unguents. both that composition and the plant itself are rejected from our pharmacopoeias. . ballota nigra. base horehound. the leaves.--these are doubtless an useful aperient and deobstruent; promote the fluid secretions in general, and liberally taken loosen the belly. they are an ingredient only in the theriaca. . bellis perennis. daisies. the leaves.--they have a subtile subacrid taste, and are recommended as vulneraries, and in asthmas and hectic fevers, and such disorders as are occasioned by drinking cold liquors when the body has been much heated. . berberis vulgaris. berberry. the bark and fruit.--the outward bark of the branches and the leaves have an astringent acid taste; the inner yellow bark, a bitter one: this last is said to be serviceable in the jaundice; and by some, to be an useful purgative. the berries, which to the taste are gratefully acid, and moderately restringent, have been given with good success in bilious fluxes, and diseases proceeding from heat, acrimony, or thinness of the juices. . betonica officinalis. wood betony. the leaves.--these and the flowers have an herbaceous, roughish, somewhat bitterish taste, accompanied with a very weak aromatic flavour. this herb has long been a favourite among writers on the materia medica, who have not been wanting to attribute to it abundance of good qualities. experience does not discover any other virtue in betony than that of a mild corroborant: as such, an infusion or light decoction of it may be drunk as tea, or a saturated tincture in rectified spirit given in suitable doses, in laxity and debility of the viscera, and disorders proceeding from thence. . betula alba. birch tree. the bark and sap.--upon deeply wounding or boring the trunk of the tree in the beginning of spring, a sweetish juice issues forth, sometimes, as is said, in so large quantity, as to equal in weigth to the whole tree and root: one branch will bleed a gallon or more a day. this juice is chiefly recommended in scorbutic disorders, and other foulnesses of the blood: its most sensible effect is to promote the urinary discharge. . borago officinalis. borage. the flowers.--an exhilarating virtue has been attributed to the flowers of borage, which are hence ranked among the so called cordial flowers: but they appear to have very little claim to any virtue of this kind, and seem to be altogether insignificant. . bryonia alba. white bryony. the roots.--this is a strong irritating cathartic; and as such has sometimes been successfully exhibited in maniacal cases, in some kinds of dropsies, and in several chronical disorders, where a quick solution of viscid juices, and a sudden stimulus on the solids, were required. . calendula officinalis. marigold. the flowers.--these are supposed to be aperient and attenuating; as also cardiac, alexipharmic, and sudorific: they are principally celebrated in uterine obstructions, the jaundice, and for throwing out the small-pox. their sensible qualities give little foundation for these virtues: they have scarcely any taste, and no considerable smell. the leaves of the plant discover a viscid sweetishness, accompanied with a more durable saponaceous pungency and warmth: these seem capable of answering some useful purposes, as a stimulating, aperient, antiscorbutic medicine. . cannabis sativa. hemp. the seeds.--these have some smell of the herb; their taste is unctuous and sweetish; on expression they yield a considerable quantity of insipid oil: hence they are recommended (boiled in milk, or triturated with water into an emulsion) against coughs, heat of urine, and the like. they are also said to be useful in incontinence of urine; but experience does not warrant their having any virtues of this kind. . carthamus tinctorius. safflower. the seeds.--these have been celebrated as a cathartic: they operate very slowly, and for the most part disorder the bowels, especially when given in substance; triturated with aromatic distilled waters, they form an emulsion less offensive, yet inferior in efficacy to more common purgatives. . centaurea cyanus. blue-bottle. the flowers.--as to their virtues, notwithstanding the present practice expects not any from them, they have been formerly celebrated against the bites of poisonous animals, contagious diseases, palpitations of the heart, and many other distempers. . centaurea rhapontica. greater centaury. the root.--it has a rough somewhat acrid taste, and abounds with a red viscid juice; its rough taste has gained it some esteem as an astringent; its acrimony as an aperient; and its glutinous quality as a vulnerary: the present practice takes little notice of it in any intention. . chelidonium majus. great celandine. the leaves and juice.--this is an excellent medicine in the jaundice; it is also good against all obstructions of the viscera, and, if continued a time, will do great service against the scurvy. the juice also is used successfully for sore eyes, removing warts, &c. it should be used fresh, for it loses the greatest part of its virtue in drying. . chenopodium olidum. stinking goosefoot. the leaves.--its smell has gained it the character of an excellent anti-hysteric; and this is the only use it is applied to. tournefort recommends a spiritous tincture, others a decoction in water, and others a conserve of the leaves, as of wonderful efficacy in uterine disorders. . chrysanthemum leucanthemum. ox-eye daisy. the leaves.--geoffroy relates that the herb, gathered before the flowers have come forth, and boiled in water, imparts an acrid taste, penetrating and subtile like pepper; and that this decoction is an excellent vulnerary and diuretic. . cistus ladanifetus. gum cistus.--the gum labdanum is procured from this shrub, and is its only produce used in medicine. this is an exudation from the leaves and twigs in the manner of manna, more than of any thing else. they get it off by drawing a parcel of leather thongs over the shrubs. it is not much used, but it is a good cephalic.--hill's herbal, p. . . clematis recta. upright virgin's bower.--the whole plant is extremely acrid. it was useful for dr. stoerck to employ the leaves and flowers in ulcers and cancers, as well as an extract prepared from the former; yet the preparation which he chiefly recommended was an infusion of two or three drams of the leaves in a pint of boiling water, of which he gave four ounces three times a-day, while the powdered leaves were applied as an escharotic to the ulcers.--wood-ville's med. bot. p. . . cochlearia coronopus. swines-cress.--this is an excellent diuretic, safe and yet very powerful. the juice may be taken; and it is good for the jaundice, and against all inward obstructions, and against the scurvy: the leaves may also be eaten as sallet, or dried and given in decoction.--hill's hebal, p. . . convallaria polygonatum. solomon's seal. the root.--the root has several joints, with some flat circular depressions, supposed to resemble the stamp of a seal. it has a sweetish mucilaginous taste. as to its virtues, practitioners do not now expect any considerable ones from it, and pay very little regard to the vulnerary qualities which it was formerly celebrated for. it is used by pugilists to remove the black appearance occasioned from extravasated blood, and for curing bruises on the face, particularly black-eyes obtained by boxing. . convallaria majalis. may lily. the roots and flowers.--the roots of this abound with a soft mucilage, and hence they have been used externally in emollient and maturating cataplasms: they were an ingredient in the suppurating cataplasm of the edinburgh pharmacopoeia. those of the wild plant are very bitter: dried, they are said to prove a gentle errhine; as also are the flowers. . convolvulus sepium. bind-weed.--the poor people use the root of this plant fresh gathered and boiled in ale as a cathartic; and it is found generally to answer that purpose. it would, however, nauseate a delicate stomach; but for people of strong constitutions there is not a better medicine. . cuscuta europaea. dodder. the whole plant gathered green is to be boiled in water with a little ginger and allspice, and this decoction operates as a cathartic; it also opens obstructions of the liver, and is good in the jaundice and many other disorders arising from the like cause.--hill's herbal. . cynoglossum officinale. hounds-tongue. the root.--the virtues of this root are very doubtful: it is generally supposed to be narcotic, and by some to be virulently so: others declare that it has no virtue of this kind, and look upon it as a mere glutinous astringent. . cyperus longus. long cyperus. the root.--this is long, slender, crooked, and full of knots: outwardly of a dark-brown or blackish colour, inwardly whitish; of an aromatic smell, and an agreeable warm taste: both the taste and smell are improved by moderate exsiccation. cyperus is accounted a good stomachic and carminative, but is at present very little regarded. . dictamnus albus. white or bastard dittany. the root.--the cortical part of the root, dried and rolled up into quills, is sometimes brought to us. this is of a white colour, a weak, not very agreeable smell; and a durable bitter, lightly pungent taste. it is recommended as an alexipharmic. . equisetum palustre. horse-tail. the herb.--it is said to be a very strong astringent: it has indeed a manifest astringency, but in a very low degree. . erysimum officinale.--it is said to be attenuant, expectorant, and diuretic; and has been strongly recommended in chronical coughs and hoarseness. rondeletius informs us that the last-mentioned complaint, occasioned by loud speaking, was cured by this plant in three days. other testimonies of its good effects in this disorder are recorded by writers on the materia medica, of whom we may mention dr. cullen; who for this purpose recommends the juice of the erysimum to be mixed with an euqal quantity of honey and sugar; in this way also it is said to be an useful remedy in ulcerations of the mouth and throat.--woodville's med. bot. p. . . erysimum alliaria. sauce alone.--the leaves of this plant are very acrimonious, and have a strong flavour of onions. it is considered as a powerful diaphoretic, diuretic, and antiscorbutic.--woodville's med. bot. . eupatorium cannabinum. hemp agrimony, &c. leaves.--they are greatly recommended for strengthening the tone of the viscera, and as an aperient; and said to have excellent effects in the dropsy, jaundice, cachexies, and scorbutic disorders. boerhaave informs us, that this is the common medicine of the turf-diggers in holland, against scurvies, foul ulcers, and swellings in the feet, which they are subject to. the roof of this plant is said to operate as a strong cathartic. . euphorbia esula. spurge flax. its berries.--these are useful in removing warts and excrescences, if bruised and laid thereon. they are so acrid in their nature as to be altogether unfit for internal use. . euphrasia officinalis. eyebright. leaves.--it was formerly celebrated as an ophtalmic, both taken internally and applied externally. hildanus says he has known old men of seventy, who had lost their sight, recover it again by the use of this herb. . fragaria vesca. the strawberry. the leaves and fruit.--they are somewhat styptic, and bitterish; and hence my be of some service in debility and laxity of the viscera, and immoderate secretions, or a suppression of the natural evacuations depending thereon: they are recommended in haemorrhages and fluxes; and likewise as aperients, in suppressions of urine, obstructions of the viscera, in the jaundice, &c. the fruit is in general very grateful both to the palate and stomach: like other fruits of the dulco-acid kind, they abate heat, quench thirst, loosen the belly, and promote urine. . fumaria officinalis. fumitory. the leaves.--the medical effects of this herb are, to strengthen the tone of the bowels, gently loosen the belly, and promote the urinary and other natural secretions. it is principally recommended in melancholic, scorbutic, and cutaneous disorders; for opening obstructions of the viscera, attenuating and promoting the evacuations of viscid juices. . galega officinalis. goat's rue. the herb.--this is celebrated as an alexipharmic; but its sensible qualities discover no foundation for any virtues of this kind: the taste is merely leguminous; and in italy (where it grows wild) it is said to be used as food. . galium aparine. goosegrass, or cleavers. the leaves.--it is recommended as an aperient, and in chronic eruptions; but practice has little regard to it. . galium verum. ladies bedstraw, or cheese-rennet. the herb.--this herb has a subacid taste, with a very faint, not disagreeable smell: the juice changes blue vegetable infusions to a red colour, and coagulates milk, thus exhibiting marks of acidity. it stands recommended as a mild styptic, and in epilepsy; but has never been much in use. . geranium robertianum. herb robert. the leaves.--they have an austere taste, and have hence been recommended as astringent: but they have long been disregarded in practice. . glechoma hederacea. ground-ivy. the leaves.--this herb is an useful corroborant, aperient, and detergent; and hence stands recommended against laxity, debility, and obstructions of the viscera: some have had a great opinion of it for cleansing and healing ulcers of the internal parts, even of the lungs; and for purifying the blood. it is customary to infuse the dried leaves in malt liquors, to which it readily imparts its virtues; a practice not to be commended, unless it is for the purpose of medicine. . hedera helix. ivy. the leaves and berries.--the leaves have very rarely been given internally; notwithstanding they are recommended (in the ephem. natur. curios. vol. ii. obs. .) against the atrophy of children; their taste is nauseous, acrid, and bitter. externally they have sometimes been employed for drying and healing ichorous sores, and likewise for keeping issues open. the berries were supposed by the ancients to have a purgative and emetic quality; later writers have recommended them in small doses, as diaphoretics and alexipharmics; and mr. boyle tells us, that in the london plague the powder of them was given with vinegar, with good success, as a sudorific. it is probable the virtue of the composition was rather owing to the vinegar than to the powder. . herniaria glabra. rupturewort. the leaves.--it is a very mild restringent, and may, in some degree, be serviceable in disorders proceeding from a weak flaccid state of the viscera: the virtue which it has been most celebrated for, it has little title to, that of curing hernias. . hypericum perforatum. st. john's wort. the leaves and flowers.--its taste is rough and bitterish; the smell disagreeable. hypericum has long been celebrated as a corroborant, diuretic, and vulnerary; but more particularly in hysterical and maniacal disorders: it has been reckoned of such efficacy in these last, as to have thence received the name of fuga daemonum. . jasminum officinale. jasmine. the flowers.--the flowers have a strong smell, which is liked by most people, though to some disagreeable: expressed oils extract their fragrance by infusion; and water elevates somewhat of it in distillation, but scarcely any essential oil can be obtained from them: the distilled water, kept for a little time, loses its odour. . iris pseudoacorus. flower-de-luce. the root.--the roots, when recent, have a bitter, acrid, nauseous taste, and taken into the stomach prove strongly cathartic; and hence the juice is recommended in dropsies, in the dose of three or four scruples. by drying they lose this quality, yet still retain a somewhat pungent, bitterish taste: their smell in this state is of the aromatic kind. . iris florentina. florentine iris, or orris-root.--the roots grown in this country have neither the odour nor the other qualities that those possess which are grown in warmer climates: so that, for the purposes of medicine, they are usually imported from leghorn. the root in its recent state is extremely acrid, and, when chewed, excites a pungent heat in the mouth which continues several hours; but on being dried, this acrimony is almost wholly dissipated, the taste becomes slightly bitter, and the smell approaching to that of violets. it is now chiefly used in its dried state, and ranked as a pectoral or expectorant. the principal use of the roots is, however, for the purposes of perfumery, for which it is in considerable demand. . lactuca sativa. garden lettuce. the leaves and seeds.--it smells strongly of opium, and resembles it in its effects; and its narcotic power, like that of the poppy heads, resides in its milky juice. an extract from the expressed juice is recommended in small doses in dropsy. in those diseases of long standing proceeding from visceral obstructions, it has been given to the extent of half an ounce a-day. it is said to agree with the stomach, to quench thirst, to be greatly laxative, powerfully diuretic, and somewhat diaphoretic. . lamium album. white archangel, or dead nettle. the flowers.--the flowers have been particularly celebrated in female weaknesses, as also in disorders of the lungs; but they appear to be of very weak powers. . lavendula stoechas. arabian stoechas, or french laven-der. the flowers.--they have a very fragrant smell, and a warm, aromatic, bitterish, subacrid taste: distilled with water, they yield a considerable quantity of a fragrant essential oil; to rectified spirit it imparts a strong tincture, which inspissated proves an elegant aromatic extract, but is seldom used in medicine. . leonurus cardiaca. motherwort. the leaves.--these have a bitter taste, and a pretty strong smell: they are supposed to be useful in hysteric disorders, to strengthen the stomach, to promote urine; and indeed it may be judged from their smell and taste, that their medical virtues are considerable, though they are now rejected both from the london and edinburgh pharmacopoeias. . lilium candidum. white lily. the roots.--these are used in poultices. the good housewife doctors cut the roots in slices and steep them in brandy; and they are said to be an excellent remedy for all bruises and green wounds: for which purposes it is applied by them with considerable effect. . lithospermum officinale. gromwell. the seeds.--these are roundish, hard, and of a whitish colour, like little pearls. powdered, they have been supposed peculiarly serviceable in calculous disorders. their taste is merely farinaceous. . lysimachia nummularia. moneywort, or herb twopence. the leaves.-- their taste is subastringent, and very slightly acid: hence they stand recommended by boerhaave in the hot scurvy, and in uterine and other haemorrhagies. but their effects are so inconsiderable, that common practice takes no notice of them. . malva alcea. vervain-mallow. the leaves.--alcea agrees in quality with the althaea and malva vulgaris; but appears to be less mucilaginous than either. . matricaria parthenium. common wild feverfew. the leaves and flowers.--simon pauli relates, that he has experienced most happy effects from it in obstructions of the uterine evacuations. i have often seen, says he, from the use of a decoction of matricaria and chamomile flowers with a little mugwort, hysteric complaints instantly relieved, and the patient from a lethargic state, returned as it were into life again. matricaria is likewise recommended in sundry other disorders, as a warm stimulating bitter: all that bitters and carminatives can do, says geoffroy, may be expected from this. it is undoubtedly a medicine of some use in these cases, though not perhaps equal to chamomile flowers alone, with which the matricaria agrees in sensible qualities, except in being weaker. . nepeta calamintha. field calamint. the leaves.--this is a low plant, growing wild about hedges and highways, and in dry sandy soils. the leaves have a quick warm taste, and smell strongly of pennyroyal: as medicines, they differ little otherwise from spearmint, than in being somewhat hotter, and of a less pleasant odour; which last circumstance has procured calamint the preference in hysteric cases. . nepeta cataria. nep, or catmint. the leaves.--this is a moderately aromatic plant, of a strong smell, not ill resembling a mixture of mint and pennyroyal; it is also recommended in hysteric cases. . nigella romana. fennel-flower. the seeds.--they have a strong, not unpleasant smell; and a subacrid, somewhat unctuous disagreeable taste. they stand recommended as aperient, diuretic, &c. but being suspected to have noxious qualities should be used with caution. . nymphaea alba. white water-lily. the root and flowers.--these have a rough, bitterish, glutinous taste, (the flowers are the least rough,) and when fresh a disagreeable smell, which is in great measure lost by drying: they are recommended in alvine fluxes, gleets, and the like. the roots are supposed by some to be in an eminent degree narcotic. . ocymum basilicum. basil. the leaves.--these have a soft, somewhat warm taste; and when rubbed, a strong unpleasant smell, which by moderate drying becomes more agreeable. they are said to attenuate viscid phlegm, promote expectoration, and the uterine secretions. . ophioglossum vulgatum. adders-tongue. the leaf.--an ointment is made of the fresh leaves, and it is a good application to green wounds. it is a very antient application, although now discarded from the apothecary's shop. . paeonia corolloides. male peony. the seeds.--these are strong, and worn round the neck to assist detention, and are probably as good as other celebrated anodyne beads which have been so long recommended for the same purpose. . phellandrium aquaticum. water hemlock.--the seeds of this plant, according to dr. lange, when taken in large doses, produce a remarkable sensation of weight in the head, accompanied with giddiness, intoxication, &c. it may probably prove, however, an active medicine, especially in wounds and inveterate ulcers of different kinds, and even in cancers; also in phthisis pulmonalis, asthma, dyspepsia, intermittent fevers, &c. about two scruples of the seed, two or three times a-day, was the ordinary dose given. medicines of this kind should be used with great caution.--woodville's med. bot. p. , . . pimpinella saxifraga. burnet saxifrage. the root, leaves, and seeds.--this root promises from its sensible qualities, to be a medicine of considerable utility, though little regarded in common pratice. stahl, hoffman, and other german physicians, are extremely fond of it, and recommend it as an excellent stomachic, resolvent, detergent, diuretic, diaphoretic, and alexipharmic. . plantago major. common broad-leaved plantain.--the leaves are slightly astringent, and the seeds said to be so; and hence they stand recommended in haemorrhages, and other cases where medicines of this kind are proper. the leaves bruised a little, are the usual application of the common people to slight flesh wounds. the edinburgh college used to direct an extract to be made from the leaves. . potentilla anserina. silverweed. the leaves.--the sensible qualities of anserina promise no great virtue of any kind, for to the taste it discovers only a slight roughness, from whence it was thought to be entitled to a place among the milder corroborants. as the astringency of tormentil is confined chiefly to its root, it might be thought that the same circumstance would take place in this plant; but the root is found to have no other than a pleasant sweetish taste, like that of parsnip, but not so strong. . potentilla reptans. cinquefoil, or five-leaved grass. root.--the root is moderately astringent: and as such is sometimes given internally against diarrhoeas and other fluxes; and employed in gargarisms for strengthening the gums, &c. the cortical part of the root may be taken, in substance, to the quantity of a dram: the internal part is considerably weaker, and requires to be given in double the dose to produce the same effect. it is scarcely otherwise made use of than as an ingredient in venice treacle.--lewis's mat. med. . populus niger. the black poplar. its buds.--the young buds or rudiments of the leaves, which appear in the beginning of spring, abound with a yellow, unctuous odorous juice. they have hitherto been employed chiefly in an ointment, which received its name from them; though they are certainly capable of being applied to other purposes: a tincture of them made in rectified spirit, yields upon being isnpissated, a fragrant resin superior to many of those brought from abroad. . primula officinalis. cowslip. the flowers.--the flowers appear in april; they have a pleasant sweet smell, and a subacrid, bitterish, subastringent taste. an infusion of them, used as tea, is recommended as a mild corroborant in nervous complaints. a strong infusion of them, with a proper quantity of sugar, forms an agreeable syrup, which for a long time maintained a place in the shops. by boiling, even for a little time, their fine flavour is destroyed. a wine is also made of the flowers, which is given as an opiate. . prunella vulgaris. selfheal. the leaves.--it has an herbaceous roughish taste, and hence stands recommended in haemorrhages and alvine fluxes. it has been principally celebrated as a vulnerary, whence its name; and in gargarisms for aphthae and inflammations of the fauces. . pulmonaria officinalis. spotted lungwort. the leaves.--they stand recommended against ulcers of the lungs, phthisis, and other like disorders.--lewis's mat. med. . ranunculus ficaria. pilewort. the leaves and root.--the roots consist of slender fibres, with some little tubercles among them. these, with the leaves, are considered of considerable eficacy in the cure of haemorrhoids; for which purpose, considerable quantities are sold at herb-shops in london. . ranunculus flammula. small spearwort.--it has been lately discovered that this plant possesses very active powers as an emetic, and it is supposed to be useful in some cases of vegetable poisons. . rhamnus frangula. the black or berry-bearing alder. its bark.--the internal bark of the trunk or root of the tree, given to the quantity of a dram, purges violently, occasioning gripes, nausea, and vomiting. these may be in good measure prevented by the addition of aromatics; but we have plenty of safer and less precarious purgatives. . rhus coriaria. elm-leaved sumach.--both the leaves and berries have been employed in medicine; but the former are more astringent and tonic, and have been long in common use, though at present discarded from the pharmacopoeias. . ribes nigrum.--the juice of black currants boiled up with sugar to a jelly, is an excellent remedy against sore throats. . rumex hydrolapathum. the great water dock.--the leaves of the docks gently loosen the belly, and have sometimes been made ingredients in decoctions for removing a costive habit. the roots, in conjunction with other medicines, are celebrated for the cure of scorbutic and cutaneous disorders, for which the following receipt is given by lewis. six ounces of the roots of the water dock, with two of saffron; and of mace, cinnamon, gentian root, liquorice root, and black pepper, each three ounces, (or, where the pepper is improper, six ounces of liquorice,) are to be reduced into coarse powder, and put into a mixture of two gallons of wine, with half a gallon of strong vinegar, and the yolks of three egs; and the whole digested, with a moderate warmth, for three days, in a glazed vessel close stopped: from three to six ounces of this liquor are to be taken every morning on an empty stomach, for fourteen or twenty days, or longer. . salvia sclarea. garden clary. the leaves and seeds.--these have a warm, bitterish, pungent taste; and a strong, not very agreeable smell: the touch discovers in the leaves a large quantity of glutinous or resinous matter. they are principally recommended in female weaknesses, in hysteric disorders, and in flatulent colics. . sambucus ebulus. dwarf elder, or danewort. the root, bark, and leaves.--these have a nauseous, sharp, bitter taste, and a kind of acrid ungrateful smell: they are all strong cathartics, and as such are recommended in dropsies, and other cases where medicines of that kind are indicated. the bark of the root is said to be strongest: the leaves the weakest. but they are all too churlish medicines for general use: they sometimes evacuate violently upwards, almost always nauseate the stomach, and occasion great uneasiness of the bowels. by boiling they become (like the other drastics) milder, and more safe in operation. fernelius relates, that by long coction they entirely lose their purgative virtue. the berries of this plant are likewise purgative, but less virulent than the other parts. a rob prepared from them may be given to the quantity of an ounce, as a cathartic; and in smaller ones as an aperient and deobstruent in chronic disorders: in this last intention, it is said by haller to be frequently used in switzerland, in the dose of a dram. . sanicula officinalis. sanicle. the leaves.--these have an herbaceous, roughish taste: they have long been celebrated for sanative virtues, both internally and externally; nevertheless their effects, in any intention, are not considerable enough to gain them a place in the present practice. . saponaria officinalis. soapwort. the herb and root.--the roots taste sweetish and somewhat pungent; and have a light smell like those of liquorice: digested in rectified spirit they yield a strong tincture, which loses nothing of its taste or flavour in being inspissated to the consistence of an extract. this elegant root has not come much into practice among us, though it promises, from its sensible qualities, to be a medicine of considerable utility: it is greatly esteemed by the german physicians as an aperient, corroborant, and sudorific; and preferred by the college of wirtemberg, by stahl, neumann, and others, to sarsaparilla. . saxifraga granulata.--linnaeus describes the taste of this plant to be acrid and pungent, which we have not been able to discover. neither the tubercles of this root, nor the leaves, manifest to the organs of taste any quality likely to be of medicinal use; and therefore, though this species of saxifraga has been long employed as a popular remedy in nephritic and gravelly disorders, yet we do not find, either from its sensible qualities or from any published instances of its efficacy, that it deserves a place in the materia medica.--woodville's med. bot. p. . . scabiosa succisa. devil's bit. the leaves and roots.--these stand recommended as alexipharmics, but they have long given place to medicines of greater efficacy. . scandix cerefolium. chervil. the leaves.--geoffroy assures us, that he has found it from experience to be of excellent service in dropsies: that in this disorder it promotes the discharge of urine when suppressed, renders it clear when feculent and turbid, and when high and fiery of a paler colour; that it acts midly without irritation, and tends rather to allay than excite inflammation. he goes so far as to say, that dropsies which do not yield to this medicine are scarce capable of being cured by any other. he directs the juice to be given in the dose of three or four ounces every fourth hour, and continued for some time, either alone, or in conjunction with nitre and syrup. . sedum telephium. orpine. the leaves.--this is a very thick-leaved juicy plant, not unlike the houseleeks. it has a mucilaginous roughish taste, and hence is recommended as emollient and astringent, but has never been much regarded in practice. . sempervivum tectorum. greater house-leek. the leaves.--these are principally applied in cases of erysipelatous and other hot eruptions of the skin, in which they are of immediate service in allaying the pain arising therefrom: great quantities are cultivated in surrey, and brought to the london markets. it is remarkable of this plant, that its juice, when purified by filtration, appears of a dilute yellowish colour upon the admixture of an equal quantity of rectified spirit of wine; but forms a beautiful white, light coagulum, like the finer kinds of pomatum: this proves extremely volatile; for when freed from the aqueous phlegm, and exposed to the air, it altogether exhales in a very little time. . senecio jacobaea. ragwort. the leaves.--their taste is roughish, bitter, pungent, and extremely unpleasant: they stand strongly recommended by simon pauli against dysenteries; but their forbidding taste has prevented its coming into practice. . solanum nigrum. common nightshade. the leaves and berries.--in the year , mr. gataker, surgeon to the westminster hospital, called the attention of the faculty to this plant, by a publication recommending its internal use in old sores, srophulous and cancerous ulcers, cutaneous eruptions, and even dropsies; all of which were much relieved or completely cured of it. . spiraea ulmaria. meadow-sweet. the leaves and flowers.--the flowers have a very pleasant flavour, which water extracts from them by infusion, and elevates in distillation. . spiraea filipendula. dropwort. the root.--the root consists of a number of tubercles, fastened together by slender strings; its taste is rough and bitterish, with a slight degree of pungency. these qualities point out its use in a flaccid state of the vessels, and a sluggishness of the juices: the natural evacuations are in some measure restrained or promoted by it, where the excess or deficiency proceeds from this cause. hence some have recommended it as an astringent in dysenteries, a diuretic, and others as an aperient and deobstruent in scrophulous habits. . symphytum officinale. comfrey. the root.--the roots are very large, black on the outside, white within, full of a viscid glutinous juice, of no particular taste. they agree in quality with the roots of althaea; with this difference, that the mucilage of it is somewhat stronger-bodied. many ridiculous histories of the consolidating virtues of this plant are related by authors. . tamus communis. black bryony.--the root is one of the best diuretics known in medicine. it is an excellent remedy in the gravel and all obstructions of urine, and other disorders of the like nature. . tanacetum vulgare. tansy. the leaves.--these have a bitterish warm aromatic taste; and a very pleasant smell, approaching to that of mint or a mixture of mint and maudlin. water elevates their flavour in distillation; and rectified spirit extracts it by infusion. they have been recommended in hysteric cases. . teucrium chamaepitys. ground pine. the leaves.--these are recommended as aperient and vulnerary, as also in gouty and rheumatic pains. . thymus vulgaris. thyme. the leaves and flowers.--a tea made of the fresh tops of thyme is good in asthmas and diseases of the lungs. it is recommended against nervous complaints; but for this purpose the wild thyme is preferable. there is an oil made from thyme that cures the tooth-ache, a drop or two of it being put upon lint and applied to the tooth; this is commonly called oil of origanum. . trigonella foenum-graecum. foenugreek. the seeds.--they are of a yellow colour, a rhomboidal figure; have a disagreeable strong smell, and a mucilaginous taste. their principal use is in cataplasms, fomentations, and the like, and in emollient glysters. . verbascum thapsus. mullein. the leaves and flowers.--their taste discovers a glutinous quality; and hence they stand recommended as an emollient, and is in some places held in great esteem in consumptions. the flowers of mullein have an agreeable, honeylike sweetness: an extract prepared from them by rectified spirit of wine tastes extremely pleasant. . verbena officinalis. common wild vervain. the leaves and root.-- this is one of the medicines which we owe to the superstition of former ages; the virtue it has been celebrated for is as an amulet, on which a pamphlet was some years ago published. it was recommended to wear the root by a ribband tied round the neck for the cure of the scrophula, and for which purpose, even now, much of the root is sold in london. as the age of superstition is passing by, it will be needless to say more on the subject at present. . veronica officinalis. male speedwell. the leaves.--hoffman and joh. francus have written express treatises on this plant, recommending infusions of it, drunk in the form of tea, as very salubrious in many disorders, particularly those of the breast. * * * * * observations on the drying and preserving of herbs, &c. for medicinal purposes. the student who has paid attention to the subject described in the foregoing sections, will be struck with the admirable contrivance of divine wisdom; that has caused such astringent substances as are contained in the oak and peruvian bark, to be produced from the same soil, and in a similar way to those mucilaginous and laxative ones which we find in the juice of the marsh-mallow, and the olive oil. it is not intended in this small elementary work to enter into any investigation of the primitive parts of the vegetable creation, or how such different particles are secreted. it may therefore suffice, that, although the science of vegetable physiology admits of many very beautiful and instructing illustrations, yet they only go so far as to prove to us, that the first and grand principle of vegetable life and existence, as well as of the formation of all organic substances, consists in a system of attraction and combination of the different particles of nature, as they exist and are imbibed from the soil and the surrounding atmosphere. thus, during their existence, we observe a continual series of aggregation of substance; but no sooner does the principle of life become extinct, than the agents of decomposition are at work, dividing and selecting each different substance, and carrying it back from whence it came:--"from dust thou comest, and to dust thou shalt return." this, therefore, seems to be the sum total of existence; the explanation of which, with all its interesting ramifications, is more fully explained by the learned professors in what is called the science of chemistry. as plants of all descriptions, and their several parts, form a link of that chain by which the welfare of the universe is connected, the industry of mankind is excited to preserve them for the different purposes to which they are applicable, in the oeconomy of human existence, to whose use the greater part of the animal and vegetable creation appears to be subservient. as men, then, and rational beings, it becomes our duty so to manage those things, when necessary, as to counteract as much as possible the decomposition and corruption which are natural to all organized bodies when deprived of the living principle. we find that some vegetables are used fresh, but the greater part are preserved in a dry state; in which, by proper management, they can be kept for a considerable time afterwards, both for our own use as well as for that of others who reside at a distance from the place of their production. in the preparation of the parts of plants for medicinal purposes, we should always have in view the extreme volatility of many of those substances, and how necessary it therefore is, that the mode of preparation and drying should be done as quickly as possible, in order to counteract the effects of the air and light, which continue to dissipate, without intermission, these particles, during the whole time that any vegetable, either fresh or dried, is left to its influence. if we consider the nature of hops, which i shall take as an example, as being prepared in this way on the largest scale, we shall find they consist of three different principles; namely, an aroma, combined with an agreeable bitter taste, and a yellow colour; all of which properties are, by the consumers and dealers therein, expected to exist in the article after drying. the art of drying hops, therefore, has been a subject of speculation for many years; and although we find the kiln apparatus for preserving them differ in many places, from the various opinions of the projectors, yet they are all intended for the same mode of action, i. e. the producing of a proper degree of heat, which must be regulated according to the state of the atmosphere at the gathering season, and the consequent quantity of the watery extract that the hops contain at the time: thus it is usual to have two kilns of different temperatures at work at the same time. it should, however, be observed, that the principal art of drying hops is in doing it as quickly as possible, so as not to injure them in their colour. as soon as they are dried, it is considered necessary to put them up into close and thick bags. it should be observed, that all vegetables contain at every period of their growth two distinct species of moiture: the one called by naturalists the common juice, which is the ascending sap, and is replete with watery particles: the other is termed the proper juice, which having passed up through the leaves, and being there concocted and deprived of the watery part, contains the principle on which various properties and virtues of the plant depend. we therefore find that the operations above described only go to this, that the watery particles in the common juice should be evaporated, as being a part necessary to be got rid of; and the proper juice being of a volatile nature, the less time the plants are exposed for that purpose, the less of this precious material will be lost: and as those parts are flying off continually from all dried vegetables, there should be one general rule made with regard to their peparation; for, if we instance mint, balm, pennyroyal, &c., the longer these are kept in the open air, the weaker are they found to be in their several parts. from hence we may naturally infer, that the usual mode in which the generality of herbs are dried, is not so good for the purpose, as one would be if contrived on similar principles, as, during the length of time necessary for the purpose, a great deal of the principal parts of the plants must of course be evaporated and lost; for little else is regarded than to dry them so as to prevent putrefaction. although the generality of herbs met with are prepared as above described, yet in such articles as digitalis, hyoscyamus, conium, toxicodendron, &c., where the quantity necessary for a dose is so small, and so much depends on its action, practitioners are often obliged to prepare it themselves. i shall therefore relate the following mode as the best adapted to that purpose. the digitalis is prepared by collecting the leaves in the summer, and stripping them off from the foot-stalks; these should be then carefully exposed to a slow heat, and the watery extract slowly thrown off; in which they should not be exposed to any great degree of heat, which by its action will deprive them of their fine green colour. when this is effected, the whole may be put in contact with a heat that will enable the operator to reduce it to a fine powder. and in order to keep it with its virtues perfect, it will be necessary to deprive it as much as possible of the influence of air and light. hence it is preserved in close glass bottles which are coated, and also placed in a dark part of the elaboratory. now, it is necessary that all plants intended to be used in a dried state, should be prepared and protected in a similar manner; and although it may be considered as a superfluous trouble, so far as regards the more common kinds, particular attention should be paid to these, when a small quantity is a dose, and an over-dose a certain poison. other kinds of vegetables require a certain degree of fermentation, as tobacco. the prinicpal art of preserving it consists in this operation being duly performed; for which purpose, as soon as the leaves of the herb are fit, the foot-stalks are broken, and the leaves left on, in order for the moisture in part to be evaporated. afterwards these are gathered and tied in handfuls, and hung up in the shade to dry; and when sufficiently divested of moisture, the bundles are collected together and laid in large boxes or tubs, in which these are fermented, and afterwards taken out again and dried; when it is found fit to pack up for the market. the properties of stramonium, which has been so much recommended for curing asthma, consist pricipally in the aroma, which is only to be preserved in a similar manner: and i have found from experience, that if the leaves are separated from the plant in a manner similar to that of tobacco, and the rest of the plant, noth roots, stalks, and seed-vessels, be slit and sufficiently dried in the sun or in an oven, and the whole fermented together, a very different article is the produce than what it is when dried in the usual way, and left entirely to the chance influence of the atmosphere. in the common operation of hay-making it may also be observed, that the continued turning it over and admitting its parts to the action of the sun and the air, is for the purpose of getting rid of the watery particles contained in it; and the quicker this is done, the better it is. and although this operation is so essentially necessary, yet care should be taken at the same time, that it be not made too dry, so as to prevent a due degree of fermentation being allowed to take place in the rick. and it may be observed that the best grasses, or other plants used for hay, if made too dry, so as to prevent the natural fermentation which their proper juices will excite, can never make either palatable or nutritive food for cattle. neither can the same be effected if the article is used in too small quantities. it should be observed, that herbs of all kinds should be gathered for peserving when in full bloom; but when roots or barks are recommended, these should be collected in the autumn months. the principles laid down for preserving dried plants generally, will apply to these parts also. * * * * * section ix.--plants used for culinary purposes. "man's first great ruling passion is to eat." in the following section i have confined myself principally to such as are in cultivation. there are many of our indigenous plants which, in times of scarcity, and in other cases of necessity, are used as food by the people in the neighbourhood where they grow. but of these i shall make a separate list. . artichoke. cynara scolymus.--we have several varieties of this plant in cultivation; but the most approved are the large green and the globe. they are propagated by taking off the young suckers from the old roots in may, and planting them in a piece of rich land. artichokes have been raised from seed, but they are seldom perfected in this country. . artichoke, jerusalem. helianthus tuberosus.--is cultivated for the sake of its tubers, similar to the potatoe; but they are not generally esteemed. . asparagus. asparagus officinalis.--a very delicious vegetable in the spring, and well known to all amateurs of gardening. there is a variety called the gravesend asparagus, and another called the battersea; but it is the richness of the soil and manure that makes the only difference. . basil, sweet. ocymum basilicum.--a pot-herb of considerable use for culinary purposes. it is an annual; and the seeds should be sown in a hot-bed in march, and transplanted into the open ground. it is usually dried as other pot-herbs. . beans. vicia faba.--the varieties of the garden-beans are as follow:-- the early mazagan and longpod are planted in november. these will usually be fit for use in june. the windsor. the toker. the sword longpod. the green toker. the white-blossomed. these are sown usually in succession from january to march, and afford a continuance of crop during the season. . beans, french or kidney. phaseolus vulgaris.--the kidney beans are of two kinds; such as run up sticks and flower on the tops. of this description we have in cultivation the following:-- the scarlet runner. the dutch runner. both these are much esteemed. of dwarf kinds we have many varieties. the pollen of these plants is very apt to become mixed; and, consequently, hybrid kinds differing in the colour of the seeds are often produced. the season for sowing these is from april till june. the black, or negro beans. the blue dwarf. the early yellow. the black speckled. the red speckled. the magpie. the canterbury. all these varieties are good and early beans. the white canterbury is the kind most esteemed for pickling; the other sorts being all of them more or less discoloured: and this kind is the sort generally sold for such purpose in the london markets. . beet, red. beta vulgaris v. rubra.--the roots of this variety are used both in soups and for early spring salads: it is cultivated by sowing the seeds in march; and the roots are usually kept all winter. the white beet is only a variety of the other; and it is the tops that are usually eaten of this kind as a substitute for spinach. its culture is the same as that of the red kind. . borecole. brassica rapa.--of borecole we have two varieties; the purple, and green. the former is in much esteem amongst the germans, who make a number of excellent dishes from it in the winter. the culture is the same as for winter cabbage of other kinds. . brussels sprouts. brassica rapa.--this is also a useful variety of the cabbage species, which is very productive, forming a large number of beautiful small close-headed cabbages on their high stalks in the winter season. the seeds are sown in march. . burnet. poterium sanguisorba.--the young leaves of this plant are eaten with other tender herbs in the spring, and are considered a wholesome addition to mustard, cress, corn-salad, &c. . cabbage. brassica oleracea.--the varieties of cabbage are numerous. the most esteemed are, the early york. the early sugar-loaf. the early battersea. the early russia. they are all sown in august, and planted out for an early summer-crop, and are usually in season in may and june. the large battersea. the red cabbage. the green savoy. the white savoy. these are usually sown in march, and planted for a winter crop. the use and qualities of the cabbage are too well known to need any further description. . cauliflower. brassica oleracea var.--the varieties are, the early. the late. the early cauliflower is sown in the first week in september, and usually sheltered under bell or hand glasses during the winter. by this means the crop is fit for table in the months of may and june. the late sort is usually sown in the month of march, and planted out for a succession to the first crop. . capers. capparis spinosa.--this is the flower-pod before it opens of the above shrub, and is only kept as an ornamental plant here. i am induced to notice this plant, as i have known some things used in mistake for capers that are dangerous. i once saw an instance of this, in the seed-vessels of the euphorbia lathyris (which is a poisonous plant) being pickled by an ignorant person. . capsicum. capsicum annuum.--cayenne pepper is made from a small variety of this plant. we have many varieties cultivated here in hot-beds; namely, yellow and red, of various shapes, as long, round, and heart-shaped. all these are very useful, either pickled by themselves, or mixed with any other substances, as love-apple, radish pods, &c. to which they impart a very fine warm flavour. . carrot. daucus carota.-- the orange carrot.--for winter use. the early horn ditto.--for summer use.--the former is usually sown in march; the latter being smaller, and more early, is commonly raised on hot-beds. the early horn carrot may likewise be sown in august, and is good all winter. . celery. apium graveolens.--celery is now so generally known as to render a description of the plant useless; nor need it be told, that the stalks blanched are eaten raw, stewed, &c. it should be used with great caution, if grown in wet land, as it has been considered poisonous in such cases. the season of sowing celery is in april. we have a variety of this, which is red, and much esteemed. . celeriac. this is a variety of the apium graveolens. it is hollow in the stem, and the roots are particularly large: although this is much used in germany, it is not so much esteemed by us as the celery. . champignon. agaricus pratensis.--this plant is equal in flavour to the mushroom when boiled or stewed: it is rather dry, and has little or no scent whatever. . chardoons. cynara cardunculus.--the gardeners blanch the stalks as they do celery; and they are eaten raw with oil, pepper, and vinegar; or, if fancy directs, they are also either boiled or stewed. . chervil. scandix cerefolium.--this plant is so much used by the french and dutch, that there is scarcely a soup or salad but what chervil makes part of it: it is grateful to the taste. see article oenanthe crocata in the poisonous plants. . cives. allium schoenoprasum.--this is an excellent herb for salads in the spring: it is also useful for soups, &c. &c. it is perennial, and propagated by its roots, which readily part at any season. . clary. salvia sclarea.--the seeds are sown in autumn. it is biennial. the recent leaves dipped in milk, and then fried in butter, were formerly used as a dainty dish; but now it is mostly used as a pot-herb, and for making an useful beverage called clary wine, viz.--put four pounds of sugar to five gallons of water, and the albumen of three eggs well beaten; boil these together for about sixteen minutes, then skim the liquor; and when it is cool, add of the leaves and blossoms two gallons, and also of yeast half a pint; and when this is completed, put it all together into a vessel and stir it two or three times a-day till it has done fermenting, and then stop it close for two months: afterwards draw it into a clean vessel, adding to it a quart of good brandy. in two months it will be fit to bottle. . colewort. brassica oleracea var.--this is a small variety of the common cabbage, which is sown in june, and planted out for autumn and winter use. these are often found to stand the severe frosts of our winter when the large sort of cabbages are killed; but its principal use with gardeners is, to have a crop that will occupy the land after the beans and pease are over, and perhaps colewort is the most advantageous for such purposes. . corn salad. valeriana locusta.--an annual, growing wild in battersea fields, and many other parts of this kingdom. it is usually sown in august, and stands the winter perfectly well; it is very similar to lettuce, and is a good substitute for it in the spring and winter seasons. . costmary tanacetum balsamita.--is used as a herb in salad. this is a perennial plant of easy culture. . cress. lepidium sativum.--there are two varieties of cress, the curled and common. this is an ingredient with mustard in early salads. . cress, american. erysimum barbarea.--this is cultivated for salads, and is much esteemed. it is increased by sowing the seeds in the spring. this is only good in the winter and spring seasons. . cucumbers. cucumis sativus.--many sorts of cucumbers are cultivated by gardeners. the most esteemed are, the southgate cucumber. the long prickly. the long turkey. the white spined. the early crop is usually sown in hot-beds in the spring, and is a crop on which most gardeners have always prided themselves, each on his best mode of management of this crop. they will also grow if sown in april, and planted out in the open ground. the short prickly cucumber is grown for gerkins. . dill. anethum graveolens.--this is similar to fennel, and used in pickling. it is esteemed useful as a medicinal herb also; which see. . endive. cichorium endivia.--of this we have three varieties in cultivation. the green curled. the white curled. the batavian, or broad-leaved. these are sown usually in june and july, and planted out for use in the autumn and winter. endive is well known as forming a principal part of our winter salads; for which purpose, it is usual with gardeners to blanch it, by tying the plants up together, and laying them in dry places. . eschalot. allium ascalonium.--this species of allium is very pungent: its scent is not unpleasant, but is very strong, and, in general, it is preferred to the onion for making soups and gravies. it is propagated by planting the bulbs in september and october: they are fit to take up in may and june, when they are dried and kept for use. . fennel. anethum foeniculum.--the use of this plant is so well knwon in the kitchen, as to render an account of it useless. it is propagated by sowing seeds in the spring. . garlick. allium sativum.--this is used in the art of cookery in various ways, for soups, pickles, &c. it is cultivated by planting the small cloves or roots in the month of october. it is fit to pull up in spring; and the roots are dried for use. . gourd. cucurbita melopepo.--the inhabitants of north america boil the squash or melon gourds when about the size of small oranges, and eat them with their meat. the pulp is used with sour apples to make pies. in scarcity it is a good substitute for fruit. . kohlrabbi, or turnep-rooted cabbage. brassica rapa var.--we have two kinds of this in cultivation; but although these are both much eaten in germany, they are not esteemed with us: in fact, we have so many varieties of the cabbage kind all the year round for culinary purposes, that nothing could much improve them. in countries further north than we are, this is probably an acquisition, as, from its hardiness, it is likely to stand the frost better than some of the more delicate varieties. . leeks. allium porrum.--there are two kinds of leeks: the welsh and london. leeks are used principally in soups; they partake much of the nature of onions, but for this purpose are in general more esteemed. this plant has been so long cultivated in this country, that its native place is not known. the seeds are sown in the spring, and it is in use all the winter. . lettuce. lactuca sativa.--the varieties of lettuce are many. they are, green coss. white do. silesia do. brown do. egyptian do. brown dutch. white cabbage. imperial. hammersmith hardy. tennis-ball. these are sown every summer month. the brown and egyptian coss are sown in august, and commonly stand the winter; and in the spring are fit for use. . love-apple. solanum lycopersicum.--the portuguese and spaniards are so very fond of this fruit, that there is not a soup or gravy but what this makes an ingredient in; and it is deemed cooling and nutritive. it is also called tomatas, or tomatoes. the green fruit makes a most excellent pickle with capsicums and other berries. it is annual, and raised in hot-bed, and planted out. . marjoram, winter. origanum vulgare.--this is used as a sweet herb, and is a good appendage to the usual ingredients in stuffing, &c. it is a perennial plant, and propagated by planting out its roots in the spring of the year. . marjoram, sweet. origanum marjorana.--this is also used for the same purpose as the last mentioned. it is an annual, and not of such easy culture as the last, requiring to be raised from seeds in an artificial heat. it is usually dried and kept for use. . marygold. calendula officinalis.--an annual plant usually sown in the spring. the petals of the flowers are eaten in broths and soups, to which they impart a very pleasant flavour. . mushroom. agaricus campestris.--is cultivated and well known at our tables for its fine taste and utility in sauces. these plants do not produce seeds that can be saved; they are therefore cultivated by collecting the spawn, which is found in old hot-beds and in meadow lands. various methods have been lately devised for raising mushrooms artificially: but none seem to be equal to those raised in beds, as is described in all our books of gardening. raising this vegetable in close rooms by fire heat has been found to produce them with a bad flavour; and they are not considered so wholesome as those grown in the open air, or when that element is admitted at times freely to the beds. . mustard, white. sinapis alba.--this is sown early in the spring; to be eaten as salad with cress and other things of the like nature; it is of easy culture. a salad of this kind may be readily raised on a piece of thick woollen-cloth, if the seeds are strewed thereon and kept damp; a convenient mode practised at sea on long voyages. cress and rap may be raised in the same manner. . onion. allium oleraceum.--the kinds of onions in cultivation are, the deptford. the reading. the white spanish. the portugal. the globe, and the silver skinned. all these varieties are usually sown in the spring of the year, and are good either eaten in their young state, or after they are dried in the winter. the silver skinned kind is mostly in use for pickling. the globe and deptford kinds are remarkable for keeping late in the spring. a portion of all the other sorts should be sown, as they are all very good, and some kinds will keep, when others will not. . onion, welsh. allium fistulosum.--this is sown in august for the sake of the young plants, which are useful in winter salads, and are more hardy than the other cultivated sorts. . parsley. petroselium vulgare.--a well known potherb sown in the spring; and the plants, if not suffered to go to seed, will last two years. see aethusa cynapium, in poisonous plants. . parsnep. pastinaca sativa.--this is a well known esculent root, and is raised by sowing the seeds in the spring. . pea. pisum sativum.--this is a well known dainty at our tables during spring and summer. the varieties in cultivation are, turner's early frame. early charlton. golden hotspur. double dwarf. these are usually sown in november and december, and will succeed each other in ripening in june, if the season is fine, and afford a crop all that month. the dwarf marrow-fat. the royal dwarf. the prussia blue. the spanish dwarf. these varieties are usually sown in gardens when it is not convenient to have them grow up sticks, being all of a dwarf kind. the tall marrow-fat. the green marrow-fat. the imperial egg pea. the rose, or crown pea. the spanish morotto. knight's marrow pea. the grey rouncival. the sickle pea. this last variety has no skin in the pods. these are used as kidney beans, as also in the usual way. these varieties are of very large growth, and are only to be cultivated when there is considerable room, and must be supported on sticks placed in the ground for that purpose. the grey pea is usually eaten when in a dry state boiled. hot grey peas used to be an article of common sale among our itinerant traders in london streets, but it has been dropped for some years. one or other of the different kinds of the larger varieties should be put into the ground every three weeks from march to the st week in june, and a crop is thereby insured constantly till the beginning of october. it should be remarked, that peas, as well as all vegetable seeds, are liable to sport and become hybrid sorts; some of which are at times saved for separate culture, and are called, when found good, by particular names; so that every twenty or thirty years many of the kinds are changed. thus briant, in his flora diaetetica, enumerates fourteen varieties, a few only of which bear the same name as those now in the list of the london seedsmen. . pompion. cucurbita pepo.--this is of the gourd species, and grows to a large size. it is not much in use with us: but in the south of europe the inhabitants use the pulp with some acid fruits for pastry, and it is there very useful. it is also sometimes used in a similar manner here with apples. almost all the gourd species are similar in taste and nutriments when used this way. . purslane. portulaca oleracea.--two kinds of purslane, the green and the golden, are cultivated. these are eaten with vinegar, &c. the same as other salad oils, and are a fine vegetable in warm weather. the seeds are usually sown in the spring. . radish. raphanus sativus.--the varieties in cultivation are, the early scarlet. the early purple short-top. the salmon radish. the white turnip radish. the red turnip radish. the black spanish. the above are sown almost every month in the year, and when the weather is fine, every good garden may have a supply all the year of those useful and wholesome vegetables. the black spanish radish is a large rooted variety usually sown in august, and is eaten in the winter season. the poor labouring man's fare, which is usually eaten under the hedge of the field of his employment, is often accompanied with a dried onion; and was this root more known than it generally is, it would yield him, at the expense of two-pence, with a little labour in his cottage garden, an equally pleasant and more useful sauce to his coarse but happy meals. i have observed many instances of this oeconomy amongst the labouring classes in my youth, but fear it is not quite so commonly made use of in the present day. . radish, horse. cochlearia armoracea.--the root of this vegetable is a usual accompaniment to the loyal and standard english dishes, the smoking baron and the roast surloin; with which it is most generally esteemed. it should not be passed unnoticed here, that this very grateful and wholesome root is not at all times to be eaten with impunity. one or two instances of its deleterious effects have been witnessed by my much esteemed friend dr. taylor, the worthy secretary at the society of arts, and which he has communicated to me. i shall insert his own words, particularly as it may be the means of preventing the botanical student from falling into the same error, after arriving with the usual good appetite, from his recreative task of herborizing excursions. "some gentlemen having ordered a dinner at a tavern, of which scraped horse-radish was one; some persons in company took a small quantity, and, dipping it in salt, ate of it: these were soon seized with a suppression of urine, accompanied with inflammation of the kidneys, which shortly after proved fatal to one of the company. the doctor was consulted; but not knowing exactly the cause of the complaint, of course was at a loss to apply a remedy in time. but another circumstance of the like nature having come under his notice, and being apprized of it, by a well applied corrective medicine he recovered the patient. it should, therefore, be made a general observation, under such circumstances, and those are not the most unpleasant we meet with in our researches, 'never to eat horse-radish on an empty stomach.'" . rampion. campanula rapunculus.--this plant is remarkable for its milky juice. in france, it is cultivated for its roots, which are boiled and eaten with salads; but in england it is little noticed, except by the french cooks, who use it as an ingredient in their soups and gravies. it is propagated by planting its roots in the spring. . rhapontic rhubarb. rheum rhaponticum.--the radical leaf-stalks of this plant being thick and juicy, and having an acid taste, are frequently used in the spring as a substitute for gooseberries before they are ripe, in making puddings, pies, tarts, &c. if they are peeled with care, they will bake and boil very well, and eat agreeably. . rocambole. allium sativum.--the rocambole is merely the bulbs on the top of the flower-stalk of the garlic, it being a viviparous plant. the flavour of this being somewhat different, is used in the kitchen under the above name. . sage. salvia officinalis.--of this we have two varieties, green and red. the latter is considered the best for culinary purposes: it is the well-known sauce for geese and other water-fowl. it is propagated by cuttings in the spring. . salsafy. tragopogon porrifolium.--a biennial, sown in march, and is usually in season during winter. the roots are the parts used, which are very sweet, and contain a large quantity of milky juice: it is a good vegetable plain boiled, and the professors of cookery make many fine dishes of it. . savory, summer. satureja hortensis. . savory, winter. satureja montana. both sorts are used for the same purposes, as condiments among other herbs for stuffing, and are well known to cooks. the former is an annual, and raised by sowing the seeds in march and april. the other, being perennial, is propagated either by the same means or by cuttings in the spring of the year. it is also dried for winter use. . savoy cabbage. brassica oleracea, (var.) the green savoy. the white or yellow savoy. a well-known species of cabbage grown for winter use, and is one of our best vegetables of that season. it is raised by sowing the seeds in may, and planting the plants in any spot of ground in july after a crop of peas or beans. savoys stand the frost better than most other kinds of cabbages with close heads. . scorzonera. scorzonera tingitana.--the roots of this are very similar to salsafy, and its culture and use nearly the same. . sea kale. crambe maritima.--this grows wild on our sea-coasts, particularly in devonshire, where it has long been gathered and eaten by the inhabitants thereabouts. it was used also to be cultivated; but was in general lost to our gardens, till my late partner, mr. curtis, having paid a visit to his friend dr. wavell at barnstaple, found it at that gentleman's table; and on his return he collected some seeds, and planted a considerable spot of ground with it at brompton in ; at which time it was again introduced to covent-garden, but with so little successs, that no person was found to purchase it, and consequently the crop was useless. this celebrated botanist, however, published a small tract on its uses and culture, which met with a considerable sale, and introduced it again to general cultivation. the seeds should be sown in march, and the following year the plants are fit for forming plantations, when they should be put out in rows about three feet apart, and one foot in the row. the vegetable is blanched either by placing over the crowns of the root an empty garden-pot, or by earthing it up as is usually done with celery. it is easily forced, by placing hot dung on the pots; and is brought forward in january, and from thence till may. it has been noticed of sea-kale, that, on eating it, it does not impart to the urine that strong and unpleasant scent which asparagus and other vegetables do. . skirrets. sium sisarum.--the roots of this plant are very similar to parsneps, both in flavour and quality; they are rather sweeter, and not quite so agreeable to some palates. it is a biennial sown in march, and used all the winter. . sorrel, common. rumex acetosa.--bryant says the irish, who are particularly fond of acids, eat the leaves with their milk and fish; and the laplanders use the juice of them as rennet to their milk. the greenlanders cure themselves of the scurvy, with the juice mixed with that of the scurvy-grass. the seeds may be sown, or the roots planted, in spring or autumn; it is not in general cultivation, but is to be found abundantly wild in meadows, &c. . sorrel, round-leaved, or french. rumex scutatus.--the leaves of the plant have more acidity in them than the common; and although not in general use, it is one of the best salad-herbs in the early part of the year: it is propagated in the same mode as the common sort. . spinach, spinacia oleracea.---two sorts of this vegetable are cultivated. the round-leaved, which is very quick in its growth, is sown for summer use; and if the seeds are put into the ground every three weeks, a constant succession is obtained while the weather is warm; but frost will soon destroy it. the prickly spinach is not so quick in growth, and is hardy enough to stand our winters: it is therefore sown in august, and succeeds the round-leaved sort; and is a good vegetable all our winter months. . tarragon. artemisia dracunculus.--the leaves of this make a good ingredient with salad in the spring; and it also makes an excellent pickle. it is propagated by planting the small roots in spring or autumn, being a perennial. . thyme. thymus vulgaris.--this is a well-known potherb used in broths and various modes of cookery: it is propagated by seeds and cuttings early in the spring. . truffles. lycoperdon tuber.--not in cultivation. the poor people in this country find it worth their while to train up dogs for the purpose of finding them, which, by having some frequently laid in their way, become so used to it, that they will scrape them up in the woods; hence they are called truffle-dogs. the french cooks use them in soups, &c. in the same manner as mushrooms. the truffle is mostly found in beech woods: i have mentioned this, because it is very generally met with at table, although it is not in cultivation. . turneps. brassica rapa.--the varieties in use for garden culture are, the early dutch, the early stone, and the mouse-tail turnep. the culture and uses of the turnep are too well known to require any description. the country people cut a raw turnep in thin slices, and a lemon in the same manner: and by placing the slices alternately with sugar-candy between each, the juice of the turnep is extracted, and is used as a pleasant and good remedy in obstinate coughs, and will be found to relieve persons thus afflicted, if taken immediately after each fit. although this is one of the remedies my young medical friends may be led to despise, yet i would, nevertheless, advise them to make use of it when need occasions. the yellow turnep is also much esteemed as a vegetable; but is dry, and very different in taste from any of the common kinds. * * * * * section x.--culinary plants not in cultivation. the following section cannot be too closely studied by people in all ranks of life. many of our most delicate vegetables are found growing wild; and in times of scarcity, and after hard winters, many articles of this department will be found highly acceptable to all, and the condition of the poorer classes would be bettered by a more intimate knowledge of those plants. in fact, these and the medicinal plants ought to be known to every one: and in order to facilitate the study of them, i have been thus particular in my description of the different kinds. . agaric, orange. agaricus deliciosus.--this agaric well boiled and seasoned with pepper and salt, has a flavour similar to that of a roasted muscle. in this way the french, in general, make use of it. it is in high perfection about september, and is chiefly to be found in dry woods. . alexanders. smyrnium olustratum.--if the poorer people were aware of the value of this plant, which is now quite neglected, it might be turned to good account as an article of food, and that, in all likelihood, of the most wholesome kind. bryant thinks it was much esteemed by the monks, and states that it has, ever since the destruction of the abbeys in this country, remained in many places growing among the rubbish; hence the reason of its being found wild in such places. . alexanders, round-leaved. smyrnium perfoliatum.---it is said that the leaves and stalks boiled are more pleasant to the taste than the other kind of alexanders. . arrowhead. sagittaria sagittifolia.--the roots of this plant are said to be very similar to the west-india arrow-root. they are sometimes dried and pounded, but are reported to have an acrid unpleasant taste; but this might perhaps be got rid of by washing the powder in water. . blackberry. rubus fruticosus.--the berries of this plant are well known in the country; but if too many be eaten, they are apt to cause swelling in the stomach, sickness, &c. . briony, black. tamus communis.--although this is considered a poisonous plant, the young leaves and shoots are eaten boiled by the common people in the spring. . burdock. arctium lappa.--mr. bryant in his flora diaetetica says that many people eat the tenders talks of this plant boiled as asparagus. . burnet. sanguisorba officinalis.--the young leaves form a good ingredient in salads. they have somewhat the flavour of cucumbers. . butterwort. pinguicula vulgaris.--the inhabitants of lapland and the north of sweden give to milk the consistence of cream by pouring it warm from the cow upon the leaves of this plant, and then instantly straining it and laying it aside for two or three days till it acquires a degree of acidity. this milk they are extremely fond of; and once made, they need not repeat the use of the leaves as above, for a spoonful or less of it will turn another quantity of warm milk, and make it like the first, and so on, as often as they please to renew their food.--lightfoot's flor. scot. p. . . champignon. agaricus pratensis.--there is little or no smell to be perceived in this plant, and it is rather dry; yet when boiled or stewed it communicates a good flavour, and is equal to the common mushroom. . chantarelle. agaricus chantarellus.--this agaric, when broiled with pepper and salt, has a taste very similar to that of a roasted cockle, and is considered by the french a great delicacy. it is found principally in woods and old pastures, and is in good perfection about the middle of september. . charlock. sinapis arvensis.--the young plant is eaten in the spring as turnep-tops, and is considered not inferior to that vegetable. the seeds of this have sometimes been saved and sold for feeding birds instead of rape; but being hot in its nature, it has been known to cause them to be diseased. . chickweed. alsine media.--this is a remarkably good herb boiled in the spring; a circumstance not sufficiently attended to. . cloud-berry. rubus chamaemorus.--this plant grows wild in some parts of the north of england: the fruit has nearly the shape of the currant, and is reckoned in norway, where it grows abundantly, a favourite dish. . cotton-thistle. onopordon acanthium.--the tender stalks of this plant, peeled and boiled, are by some considered good; but it has a peculiar taste which is not agreeable to all. bryant in his flora diaetetica says that the bottoms of the flowers are eaten as artichokes. . cow-parsnep. heracleum sphondylium.--the inhabitants of kamschatka about the beginning of july collect the foot-stalks of the radical leaves of this plant, and, after peeling off the rind, dry them separately in the sun; and then tying them in bundles, they lay them up carefully in the shade. in a short time afterwards, these dried stalks are covered over with a yellow saccharine efflorescence tasting like liquorice, and in this state they are eaten as a delicacy. the russians, not content with eating the stalks thus prepared, contrive to get a very intoxicating spirit from them, by first fermenting them in water with the greater bilberry (vaccinium uliginosum), and then distilling the liquor to what degree of strength they please; which gmelin says is more agreeable to the taste than spirits made from corn. this may, therefore, prove a good succedaneum for whisky, and prevent the consumption of much barley, which ought to be applied to better purposes. swine and rabbits are very fond of this plant.---lightfoot's fl. scot. . dandelion. leontodum taraxacum.--this is a good salad when blanched in the spring. the french, who eat more vegetables than our country people do, use this in the spring as a common dish: it is similar to endive in taste. . dewberry. rubus caesius.--the dewberry is very apt to be mistaken for the blackberry; but it may be easily distinguished by its fruit being not so large, and being covered with blue bloom similar to that seen on plums: it has a very pleasant taste, and is said to communicate a grateful flavour to red wine when steeped in it. . earth-nut. bunium bulbocastanum.--the roots are eaten raw, and considered a delicacy here, but thought much more of in sweden, where they are an article of trade: they are eaten also stewed as chesnuts. . elder. sambucus nigra.--the young shoots of elder are boiled with other herbs in the spring and eaten; they are also very good pickled in vinegar. lightfoot says, in some countries they dye cloth of a brown colour with them. . fat-hen. chenopodium viride et album.--these are boiled and eaten as spinach, and are by no means inferior to that vegetable. . fucus, sweet. fucus saccharatus.--this grows upon rocks and stones by the sea-shore. it consists of a long single leaf, having a short roundish foot-stalk, the leaf representing a belt or girdle. this is collected and eaten the same as laver, as are also the two following kinds. . fucus, palmated. fucus palmatus.--this plant also grows by the sea-side, and has a lobed leaf. . fucus, fingered. fucus digitatus.--this is also to be found by the sea-side, growing upon rocks and stones; it has long leaves springing in form of fingers when spread. . good king henry. chenopodium bonus-henricus.--the leaves and stalk of this plant are much esteemed. the plant was used to be cultivated, but of late years it has been superseded by the great number of other esculent vegetables more productive than this. the young shoots blanched were accounted equal to asparagus, and were made use of in a similar manner. . heath. erica vulgaris.--formerly the young tops are said to have been used alone to brew a kind of ale; and even now, i am informed, the inhabitants of isla and jura (two islands on the coast of scotland) continue to brew a very potable liquor, by mixing two-thirds of the tops of heath with one of malt.--lightfoot's fl. scot. . hops. humulus lupulus.--independently of the great use of hops in making beer, and for medicinal uses, where the plant grows wild, it affords the neighbours a dainty in the spring months. the young shoots, called hop-tops, when boiled, are equal in flavour to asparagus, and are eagerly sought after for that purpose. . ladies-smock. cardamine pratensis.--this is good as a salad herb. . laver. fucus esculentus.--this is collected by sailors and people along the sea-coasts; is eaten both raw and boiled, and esteemed and excellent antiscorbutic. the leaves of this fucus are very sweet, and, when washed and hanged up to dry, will exude a substance like that of sugar. . maple. acer pseudo-platanus.--by tapping this tree it yields a liquor not unlike that of the birch-tree, from which the americans make a sugar, and the highlanders sometimes an agreeable and wholesome wine. --lightfoot's fl. scot. . marsh marigold. caltha palustris.--the flower-buds, before opening, are picked, and are considered a good substitute for capers. . meadow-sweet. spiraea filipendula.--the roots of this, in sweden, are ground and made into bread. . milk-thistle. carduus marianus.--the young leaves in the spring, cut close to the root with part of the stalks on, are said to be good boiled. . morel. phallus esculentus.--the morel grows in wet banks and moist pastures. it is used by the french cooks, the same as the truffle, for gravies, but has not so good a flavour: it is in perfection in may and june. . mushroom, violet. agaricus violaceus.--this mushroom requires more broiling than all the rest; but when well done and seasoned, it is very good. it is found in dry woods, old pastures, &c. where it grows to a large size. . mushroom, brown. agaricus cinnamomeus.--the whole of this plant has a nice smell, and when stewed or broiled has a pleasant flavour. it is to be found as the one above, and is fit for use in october. . orpine. sedum telephium.--the leaves are eaten in salads, and are considered equal to purslane. . ox-tongue, common. picris echioides.--the leaves are said to be good boiled. . peas, earth-nut. orobus tuberosus.--the roots of this, when boiled, are said to be nutritious. the scotch highlander chews the root as a substitute for tobacco. . pilewort. ranunculus ficaria.--the young leaves in spring are boiled by the common people in sweden, and eaten as greens. the roots are sometimes washed bare by the rains, so that the tubercles appear above ground; and in this state have induced the ignorant in superstitious times to fancy that it has rained wheat, which these tubercles sometimes resemble. . salep. orchis morio.--the powder of these roots is used for a beverage of that name. this is imported chiefly from turkey. it grows in this country, although it is never noticed: the roots are smaller than those imported, but will answer the purpose equally well. . saltwort. salicornia europaea.--this is gathered on the banks of the thames and medway, and brought to london, where it is sold as samphire. it makes a very good pickle, but by no means equal to the true kind. . samphire. crithmum maritimum.--this has long been in much esteem as a pickle: it grows on the high cliffs on the kentish coast, where people make a trade of collecting it by being let down from the upper part in baskets. a profession of great danger. . scurvy-grass. cochlearia officinalis.--the leaves are hot and pungent, but are considered very good, and frequently eaten between bread and butter. . sauce alone. erysimum alliaria.--this is very good boiled with salt-meat in the spring, when other vegetables are scarce. it is valuable to the poor people; and is, in general, a common plant under hedges. . sea bindweed. convolvulus soldanella.--this plant is to be found plentifully on our maritime coasts, where the inhabitants plucks the tender stalks, and pickle them. it is considered to have a cathartic quality. . sea-peas. pisum maritimum.--these peas have a bitterish disagreeable taste, and are therefore rejected when more pleasant food is to be got. in the year there was a great famine in england, when the seeds of this plant were used as food, and by which thousands of families were preserved. . sea-wormwood. artemisia maritima.--those who travel the country in searching after and gathering plants, if they chance to meet with sour or ill-tasted ale, may amend it by putting an infusion of sea-wormwood into it, whereby it will be more agreeable to the palate, and less hurtful to the stomach.--threlkeld. syn. pl. hibern. this is an ingredient in the common purl, the usual morning beverage of our hardy labouring men in london. . sea-orach, grass-leaved. atriplex littoralis.--this plant is eaten in the same manner as the chenopodium. . sea-beet. beta maritima.--this is a common plant on some of our sea-coasts. the leaves are very good boiled, as are also the roots. . silver-weed. potentilla anserina.--the roots of this plant taste like parsneps, and are frequently eaten in scotland either roasted or boiled. in the islands of tiras and col they are much esteemed, as answering in some measure the purposes of bread, they having been known to support the inhabitants for months together during a scarcity of other provisions. they put a yoke on their ploughs, and often tear up their pasture-grounds with a view to get the roots for their use; and as they abound most in barren and impoverished soils, and in seasons when other crops fail, they afford a most seasonable relief to the inhabitants in times of the greatest scarcity. a singular instance this of the bounty of providence to these islands.--lightfoot's fl. scot. . solomon's-seal. convallaria polygonatum.--the roots are made into bread, and the young shoots are eaten boiled. . spatling-poppy. cucubalus behen.--our kitchen-gardens scarcely afford a better-flavoured vegetable than the young tender shoots of this when boiled. they ought to be gathered when they are not above two inches long. if the plant was in cultivation, no doubt but what it would be improved, and would well reward the gardener's trouble: it sends forth a vast quantity of sprouts, which might be nipped off when of a proper size; and there would be a succession of fresh ones for at least two months. it being a perennial too, the roots might be transplanted into beds like those of asparagus.--bryant's fl. diaetetica, p. . . speedwell. veronica spicata.--this is used by our common people as a substitute for tea, and is said to possess a somewhat astringent taste, like green tea. . spotted hawkweed. hypochaeris maculata.--the leaves are eaten as salad, and are also boiled. . stinging-nettle. urtica dioica.--the young shoots in the spring are eaten boiled with fat meat, and are esteemed both wholesome and nutritive. . shrubby strawberry. rubus arcticus.--the fruit of this plant is very similar in appearance to a strawberry: its odour is of the most grateful kind; and its flavour has that delicate mixture of acid and sweet, which is not to be equalled by our best varieties of that fruit. . sweet cicely. scandix odorata.--the leaves used to be employed in the kitchen as those of cervil. the green seeds ground small, and used with lettuce or other cold salads, give them an agreeable taste. it also grows in abundance in some parts of italy, where it is considered as a very useful vegetable. . water-cress. sisymbrium nasturtium.--a well known herb in common use, but is not in cultivation, although it is one of our best salads. . willow-herb. epilobium angustifolium.--the young shoots of these are eaten as asparagus. * * * * * section xi.--plants useful in dyeing. there is no department of the oeconomy of vegetables in which we are more at a loss than in the knowledge of their colouring principles; and as this subject presents to the student an opportunity of making many interesting and useful experiments, i trust i shall stand excused, if i enter more fully into the nature of it than i have found it necessary to do in some of the former sections. the following list of plants, which is given as containing colours of different kinds, are the same as have been so considered for many years past: for, latterly, little has been added to our stock of knowledge on this head. it may however be proper to observe, that a great number of vegetables still contain this principle in a superior degree, and only want the proper attention paid to the abstracting it. most of our dyeing drugs are from abroad; and even the culture of madder, which was once so much grown by our farmers, is now lost to us, to the great advantage of the dutch, who supply our markets. but there is no reason why the agriculturist, or the artisan, should be so much beholden to a neighbouring nation, as to pay them enormous prices for articles which can be so readily raised at home; and, according to the general report of the consumers, managed in a way far superior to what it generally is when imported. let the botanical student therefore pay attention to this particular; for it is a wide field, in which great advantages may be reaped, either in this country or in any other part of the world where he may hereafter become an inhabitant. the art of dyeing, generally considered, is kept so great a secret, that few persons have had the opportunity of making experiments. the extracting colours from their primitive basis is a chemical operation, and cannot be expected in this place; but as some persons may be inclined to ascertain these properties of vegetables, i shall go just so far into the subject as to give an idea of the modes generally used; and to state the principles on which the colouring property is fixed when applied to the purposes of dyeing cloth. in the article madder, page , i mentioned having made an extract similar to the adrianople red. for which purpose, a sufficient quanitity of the roots should be taken fresh out of the ground, washed clean from the dirt, bruised in a mortar, and then boiled in rain-water till the whole becomes tinged of a red colour, then put into a cloth and all the colouring matter pressed out. this should again be put into hot water in a clean glazed earthen-pan, to which should be added a small quantity of water in which alum had been dissolved, and the whole stirred up together; then immediately add a lump of soda or pot-ash, stirring the whole up, when an effervescence will take place, the allum that had united with the juice of the madder will be found to become neutralized by the pot-ash, and the result will be a precipitate of the red fecula. this may be washed over in different waters, and either put by for use in a liquid state, or filtered and dried in powder or cakes. most vegetable colours will not, however, admit of being extracted by water, and it is necessary to use an acid for that purpose: vinegar is the most common. but in making the extract from roots with acids, great care should be taken that they are sufficiently cleared from mould, sand, &c.; for, if the same should contain either iron, or any metallic substance, its union with the acid will cause a blackness, and of course spoil the tint. in a similar mode are all the different colouring principles extracted, either from leaves, flowers, fruits, or woods. the preparation of woad is a curious process on similar principles; which see in page . weld, or dyers weed, is generally used after it is dried. the whole plant is ground in a mill, and the extract made by boiling it. it is then managed with alum and acids agreeably to the foregoing rules, which are necessary for throwing out the colour. instructions how substances may be tried, whether they are serviceable in dyeing, from hopson's translation of weigleb's chemistry. "in order to discover if any vegetable contains a colouring principle fit for dyeing, it should be bruised and boiled in water, and a bit of cotton, linen, or woollen stuff, which has previously been well cleaned, boiled in this decoction for a certain time, and rinsed out and dried. if the stuff becomes coloured, it is a sign that the colour may be easily extracted; but if little or no colour be perceived, we are not immediately to conclude that the body submitted to the trial has no colour at all, but must first try how it will turn out with the addition of saline substances. it ought, therefore, to be boiled with pot-ash, common salt, sal ammoniac, tartar, vinegar, alum, or vitriol, and then tried upon the stuff: if it then exhibit no colour, it may safely be pronounced to be unfit for dyeing with. but if it yields a dye or colour, the nature of this dye must then be more closely examined, which may be done in the following manner:-- let a saturated decoction of the colouring substance be well clarified, distributed into different glass vessels, and its natural colour observed. then to one portion of it let there be added a solution of common salt; to the second, some sal ammoniac; and to the third, alum; to the fourth, pot-ash; to the fifth, vitriolic or marine acid; and to the sixth, some green vitriol: and the mixtures be suffered to stand undisturbed for the space of twenty-four hours. now in each of these mixtures the change of colour is to be observed, as likewise whether it yields a precipitate or not. if the precipitate by the pure acid dissolve in an alkaline lixivium entirely, and with a colour, they may be considered as resino- mucilaginous particles, in which the tingeing property of the body must be looked for, which, in its natural state, subsists in an alkalino-saponaceous compound. but if the precipitate be only partly dissolved in this manner, the dissolved part will then be of the nature of a resinous mucilage, which in the operation has left the more earthy parts behind. but if nothing be precipitated by the acids, and the colour of the decoction is rendered brighter, it is a mark of an acido-mucilaginous compound, which cannot be separated by acids. in this there are mostly commonly more earthy parts, which are soon made to appear by the addition of an alkali. when, in the instances in which green vitriol has been added, a black precipitate is produced, it indicates an astringent earthy compound, in which there are few mucilaginous particles. the more the colour verges to black, the more of this acid and mucilaginous substance will be found in it. the mixture of alum with a tingeing decoction shows by the coloured precipitate that ensues from it, on the one hand, the colour it yields, and on the other hand, by the precipitate dissolving either partly or entirely in a strong alkaline lixivium, whether or not some of the earth of alum has been precipitated together with the colouring particles. such substances as these must not, in general, be boiled with alum, although this latter ingredient may be very properly used in the preparation of the stuff. when a tingeing decoction is precipitated by an alkaline lixivium, and the precipitate is not redissolved by any acid, for the most part neither one nor the other of these saline substances ought to be used, but the neutral salts will be greatly preferable. in all these observations that are made with respect to the precipitation effected by means of different saline substances, attention must be paid at the same time to the change of colour which ensues, in order to discover whether the colour brightens, or entirely changes. when the colour of a decoction is darkened by the above-mentioned additions without becoming turbid, it shows that the colouring matter is more concentrated and inspissated. when the colour is brightened, a greater degree of solution and attenuation has taken place in the colouring matter in consequence of the addition. if the colour becomes clearer, and after a little time some of the tingeing substance is separated, it shows that part of the colour is developed, but that another part has been set loose from its combination by the saline substance. but if the colouring matter is separated in great abundance by the saline addition, (the colour being brightened at the same time,) it may be considered as a sign that the colouring substance is entirely separated from the decoction, and that only an inconsiderable part, of a gummy nature, remains behind united with the additaments, which is in a very diluted state.--this is an effect of the solution of tin, as also sometimes of the pure acids. if, indeed, a portion of the colouring substance be separated by a saline addition, but the rest of the colouring decoction becomes not-withstanding darker, it shows that the rest of the colouring particles have been more concentrated, and hence have acquired a greater power of tingeing. with regard to the proportion of the addition, the following circumstances may serve by way of guide: when the colour of a decoction is darkened by the addition, without any precipitate being produced, no detriment can easily arise from using a redundancy of it, because the colour will not be further darkened by it. but if the colour be required to be brighter, the trial must first be made, which is the proportion by which the colour is darkened the most, and then less of it must be employed. when the colour of a decoction is brightened by an addition without a precipitation ensuing, this addition can never be used in a larger quantity without hurting the colouring particles; because the colouring particles would be made too light, and almost entirely destroyed.--such is the consequence of too large an addition of the solution of tin or of a pure acid. when the addition produces a brighter colour, and part only of the colouring substance is separated without a further addition occasioning a fresh separation, somewhat more of it than what is wanted may be added to produce the requisite shading; because experience shows that, by this means, a greater quantity of tingeing particles is united with the woolly fibres of the cloth, and is capable of being, as it were, concentrated in them: for which purpose, however, these barks must be boiled down. this effect is chiefly observed with sal ammoniac and wine vinegar. when by an addition which causes a separation of the colouring substance the colour becomes brighter in proportion the more there is used of it, it must be employed in a moderate quantity only; because otherwise, more and more of the colouring substance will be separated, and its tingeing power diminished. but when a colour is rendered dark at first by an addition, and afterwards, upon more of the same substance being added, becomes brighter, and this in proportion to the quantity that is added, it will be found that the darkening power has its determined limits; and that, for producing the requisite degree of darkness, neither too much nor too little must be taken. --- to the before-mentioned principles also, the different proofs bear a reference, by which the fixity and durability of the colour with which a stuff has been dyed may be tried. of these, some may be called natural, other artificial. the natural proof consists in exposing the dyed stuff to the air, sun, and rain. if the colour is not changed by this exposure in twelve or fourteen days, it may be considered as genuine; but if it is, the contrary is allowed. this proof, however, is not adapted to every colour; because some of them resist it, and yet will fade in consequence of the application of certain acids; others, on the contrary, that can not resist the natural proof remain unchanged by the latter. colours, therefore, may be arranged in three classes; and to each of these a particular kind of artificial proof allotted. the first class is tried with alum, the second with soap, and the third with tartar. for the proof with alum: half an ounce of this is dissolved in one pound of boiling water in an earthenware vessel; into this is put, for instance, a drachm of yarn or worsted, or a piece of cloth of about two fingers breadth; this is suffered to boil for the space of five minutes, and is then washed in clean water. in this manner are tried crimson, scarlet, flesh-colour, violet, ponceau, peach-blossom colour, different shades of blue, and other colours bordring upon these. for the proof with soap: two drachms of this substance are boiled in a pint of water, and the small piece of dyed stuff that is to be tried is put into it, and likewise suffered to boil for the space of five minutes. with this all sorts of yellow, green, madder-red, cinnamon, and similar colours, are tried. in the same manner is made the proof with tartar; only this should be previously pounded very small, in order that it may be more easily dissolved. with this all colours bordering upon the fawn are tried. from the above we discover that the art of applying and fixing colours in dyeing depends on the chemical affinity between the cloth and the dyeing principle: and accordingly as this is more or less strong, so is the facility with which the substance is coloured, and on this the deepness of the dye depends: for frequently one kind of cloth will be found to receive no colour at all, whilst another will receive from the same composition a deep tinge. cotton, for instance, receives scarcely any tinge from the same bath that will dye woollen a deep scarlet. wool is that which appears to have the strongest affinity to colouring matter; next to it is silk; then linen; and cotton the weakest, and is therefore the most difficult of all to dye perfectly. thus, if a piece of linen cloth be dipped into a solution of madder, it will come out just tinged with the colour; but if a piece of the same be previously dipped into a solution of alum or copperas, and dried previously to being dipped in the madder, the alum will become so far impregnated with the colouring principle, that the cloth will receive a perfect dye, and be so fixed that it cannot be separated by any common means. thus it will be observed, that the art of dyeing permanent colours depends on this intermediate principle, which is termed a mordant. these mordants are very numerous; and on a knowledge of them appears to rest the principal secret of dyeing. the following mode is, however, a very convenient one for makig experiments on fixing the colouring principles of any vegetable extract: to have several pieces of cloth, woollen, cotton, silk, and linen, dipped in the different mordants, and by keeping a small vessel filled with the colouring solution on a fire in a state a little below boiling, by cutting small pieces of each, and immersing them in the colour, and examining and comparing with each other. experiments of this kind are well worth the attention of persons; for, when we refer to this department, we shall find very few plants which are either now, or ever have been, cultivated for this purpose, although it is well known that so many contain this principle. i have inserted the following, as being known to contain the different colours mentioned; but there are many other plants equally productive of this principle that remain quite unnoticed at present. . acanthus mollis. bear's-breech.--this gives a fine yellow, which was in use among the ancients. . actaea spicata. baneberry.--the juice of the berries affords a deep black, and is fixed with alum. . anchusa officinalis. yellow anchusa, or blue-flowered bugloss.--the juice of the corolla gives out to acids a beautiful green. . anthemis tinctoria.--the flowers afford a shining yellow. . anthyllis vulneraria. kidney-vetch.--the whole plant gives out a yellow, which is in use for colouring the garments of the country- people.--linn. . arbutus uva-ursi. bear's-berry.--the leaves boiled in an acid will dye a brown. . asperula tinctoria. woodroof.--the roots give a red similar to madder. . anemone pulsatilla. pasque-flower.--the corolla, a green tincture. . arundo phragmites. common reed-grass.--the pamicle, a green. . berberis vulgaris. barberries.--the inner bark, a yellow. . bromus secalinus. brome-grass.--the panicle, a green. . bidens tripartita. hemp agrimony..--the herb, a good yellow. . betula alba. birch.--the leaves, a yellow. . betula nana. dwarf-birch.--the leaves, a yellow. . betula alnus. alder.--the bark affords a brown colour; which with the addition of copperas becomes black. . calendula officinalis. common marigold.--the radius of the corolla, if bruised, affords a fine orange. the corolla dried and reduced to powder will also afford a yellow pigment. . caltha palustris. marsh-marigold.--the juice of the corolla, with alum, gives a yellow. . campanula rotundifolia. round-leaved bell-flower.--a blue pigment is made from the corolla; with the addition of alum it produces a green colour. . carpinus betulus. hornbeam.--the bark, a yellow. . chaerophyllum sylvestre. cow-parsley.--the umbels produce a yellow colour, and the juice of the other parts of the plant a beautiful green. . carthamus tinctorius. safflower.--the radius of the corolla, prepared with an acid, affords a fine rose-coloured tint. . centaurea cyanus. blue-bottle.--the juice of the corolla gives out a fine blue colour. . comarum palustre. marsh-cinquefoil.--the dried root forms a red pigment. it is also used to dye woollens of a red colour. . cuscuta europaea. dodder.--the herb gives out a lightish red. . crataegus oxycantha. hawthorn.--the bark of this plant, with copperas, is used by the highlanders to dye black. . datisca cannabina. bastard-hemp.--this produces a yellow; but is not easily fixed, therefore it presently fades to a light tinge. . delphinium consolida. branching larkspur.--the petals bruised yield a fine blue pigment, and with alum make a permanent blue ink. . fraxinus excelsior. manna.--the bark immersed in water gives a blue colour. . galium boreale. cross-leaved bedstraw.--the roots yield a beautiful red, if treated as madder. . galium verum. yellow bedstraw.--the flowers treated with alum produce a fine yellow on woollen. the roots, a good red. . genista tinctoria.--the flowers are in use among the country-people for dyeing cloth yellow. . geranium sylvaticum. mountain cranesbill.--the icelanders use the flowers of this plant to dye a violet colour. . hieracium umbellatum. hawkweed.--the whole herb bruised and boiled in water gives out a yellow dye. . humulus lupulus. hop.--the strobiles are used for dyeing; but although they yield a yellow colour, the principal use is as a mordant. . hypericum perforatum. perforated st. john's wort.--the flowers dye a fine yellow. . iris germanica. german iris.--the juice of the corolla treated with alum makes a good permanent green ink. . isatis tinctoria. woad.--the leaves steeped in water till the parts are decomposed, produces a fine blue fecula, which is made into cakes, and sold to the woollen-dyers. for its culture, see p. . . lichen roccella. orchil.--the fine purple called orchil is extracted from this moss. . lithospermum officinale. gromwell.--the roots afford a fine red, which is used by the young girls in sweden to colour their faces. . lycopodium complanatum. club-moss.--the juice of this plant extracted by an acid forms a most beautiful yellow. . lycopus europaeus. water-horehound.--the juice of this gives out a black colour, and is sometimes used by the common people for dyeing woollen cloth. the gypsies are said to use the juice of this plant to colour their faces with. . lysimachia vulgaris. loosestrife.--the juice of the whole herb is used to dye woollen yellow. . myrica gale. sweet gale.--the whole shrub tinges woollen of a yellow colour. . nymphaea alba. white water-lily.--the highlanders make a dye with it of a dark chesnut colour.--light. fl. sc. . origanum vulgare. wild marjoram.--the tops and flowers contain a purple colour, but it is not to be fixed. . phytolacca decandra. virginian pokeweed.--the leaves and berries produce a beautiful rose-colour, but it is very fugacious. . prunus domestica. plum.--the bark is used by the country people to dye cloth yellow. . pyrus malus. apple,-the bark of this plant, also, produces a yellow colour. . quercus robur. oak.--the juice of the oak mixed with vitriol forms a black ink; the galls ar employed for the same purpose. . reseda luteola. dyer's weed, or weld.--the most usual plant from which the yellow dye is extracted. for its culture, see p. . . rhamnus frangula. buckthorn.--the bark produces a slight yellow, and the unripe berries impart to wool a green colour. . rhamnus catharticus. purging buckthorn.--the bark yields a most beautiful yellow colour; and the ripe berries in the autumn produce a brilliant scarlet. . rhus cotinus. venus's sumach.--the bark of the stalks produces a yellow colour; the bark of the roots produces a red. . rhus coriaria. elm-leaved sumach.--this plant is possessed of the same qualities as the one above. . rubia tinctorum.--the root produces a red colour. for its culture, see p. . . rumex maritima. dock.--the whole herb gives out a yellow colour. . salix pentandra. willow.--the leaves produce a yellow colour. . scabiosa succisa. devil's bit scabius.--the dried leaves produce a yellow colour. . serratula tinctoria. saw-wort.--the whole herb produces a yellow tincture. . senecio jacobaea. ragwort.--the roots, stalks, and leaves, before the flowering season, give out a green colour which can be fixed on wool. . stachys sylvatica. hedge-horehound.--the whole herb is said to dye a yellow colour. . thalictrum flavum. yellow meadow-rue.--the roots and leaves both give out a fine yellow colour. . thapsia villosa. deadly carrot.--the umbels are employed by the spanish peasants to dye yellow. . tormentilla erecta. erect tormentil.--this root is red, and might probably be usefully employed. . trifolium pratense. meadow-clover.--the inhabitants of scania employ the heads to dye their woollen cloth green. . urtica dioica. nettle.--the roots of bettles are used to dye eggs of a yellow colour against the feast of easter by the religious of the greek church, as are also madder and logwood for the same purpose. . xanthium strumarium. lesser burbock.--the whole herb with the fruit dyes a most beautiful yellow. * * * * * section xii.---plants used in rural oeconomy. the following few plants are such as are used for domestic purposes which do not fall under any of the foregoing heads, and i therefore have placed them together here. . conferva.--this green thready substance has the power of rendering foetid water sweet; for which purpose, when water is scarce, it is usually put into water-tubs and reservoirs. . corylus avellana. hazel nut.--the young shoots of hazel put into casks with scalding water, render them sweet if they are musty, or contain any bad flavour. . crocus vernus. spring crocus.--is well kown as a spring flower, producing one of the most cheerful ornaments to the flower-garden early in the spring. it affords a great variety in point of beauty and colour, and is an article of considerable trade among the dutch gardeners, who cultivate a great number of varieties, which every year are imported into this and other countries. . equisetum hyemale. dutch rush.--of this article great quantities are brought from holland for the purpose of polishing mahogany. the rough parts of the plant are discovered to be particles of flint. . eriophorum polystachion. cotton grass.--the down of the seeds has been used, instead of feathers, for beds and cushions; and the foliage in the north of scotland is considered useful as fodder. . galium verum. yellow ladies' bedstraw.--the foliage affords the dairy-maid a fine rennet for making cheese. * * * * * section xiii.--poisonous plants growing in great britain. "on the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die." i have found it necessary to be particular in my description of the articles in this section, as i find that, although the knowledge of botany has in some measure increased, yet, in general, we are not better acquainted with the poisonous vegetables than we were thirty years ago. many and frequent are the accidents which occur in consequence of mistakes being made with those plants; but it in general happens that, from feelings easily appreciated, persons do not like to detail such misfortunes; which not only hides the mischief, but prevents, in a great measure, the antidotes becoming so well known as for the good of society we could wish they were. this i experienced in my researches after several facts which i wished to ascertain regarding this subject. however, whilst we have in common use such plants as foxglove, hemlock, and henbane, and which are now so generally sold in our herb-shops, people who sell them ought to be particularly careful not to let such fall into the hands of ignorant persons, and thereby be administered either in mistake or in improper quantities. our druggists and apothecaries are careful in not selling to strangers the more common preparations of mercury, or arsenic, drugs which in themselves carry fear and dismay in their very names; yet we can get any poisonous vegetables either in the common market, or of herb-dealers, which are more likely to be abused in their application than other poisons which are of not more dangerous tendencies. the effects of vegetable poisons on the human frame vary according to circumstances. the most usual are: that of disturbing the nervous function, producing vertigo, faintness, delirium, madness, stupor, or apoplexy, with a consequent loss of understanding, of speech, and of all the senses; and, frequently, this dreadful scene ends in death in a short period. it is, however, fortunate that these dangerous plants, which either grow wild, or are cultivated in this country, are few in number; and it is not less so, that the most virulent often carry with them their own antidote, as many of them, from their disagreeable taste, produce nausea and sickness, by which their mischief is frequently removed; and when this is not the case, it points out that the best and most effectual one is the application of emetics: and it may be almost considered a divine dispensation, that a plant, very common in all watery places, should be ready at hand, which has from experience proved one of the most active drugs of this nature, and this is the ranunculus flammula, water- spearwort. the juice of this plant, in cases of such emergency, may be given in the quantity of a table-spoonful, and repeated every three minutes until it operates, which it usually will do before the third is taken into the stomach. after the vomiting is over, the effects often remain, by part of the deleterious qualities being absorbed by the stomach; and as it often happens, in such cases, that medical assistance may not be at hand, i shall, under the head of each class, give their proper antidote, which should be in all cases applied as soon as possible, even before medical assistance is procured. and it should not be forgotten that, in dreadful cases where the medicine cannot be forced down through the usual channel, recourse should be had to the use of clysters. under each of the following heads i shall describe such cases as have come under my notice; as they may be useful for comparison: and shall put under each of the more dangerous the plantae affines, describing as accurately as possible the differences. * * * * * bitter nauseous poisons. these are much altered by vegetable acids in general, and especially by oxymuriatic acid; but they still retain much of their poisonous quality, which appears to be rendered more active by alkalies. the tanning decoctions of nut-galls, acacia, and other strong astringents, venice treacle, wine, spiritous liquors, and spices, are useful. . chelidonium majus. celandine.--the yellow juice of this plant is extremely acrid and narcotic. it is not at all like any plant used for culinary purposes, and therefore there is not any great danger likely to arise from its being confounded with any useful vegetable. . cicuta virosa. cowbane.--two boys and six girls, who found some roots of this plant in a water-meadow, ate of them. the two boys were soon seized with pain of the pericardia, loss of speech, abolition of all the senses, and terrible convulsions. the mouth closely shut, so that it could not be opened by any means. blood was forced from the ears, and the eyes were horribly distorted. both the boys died in half an hour from the first accession of the symptoms. the six girls, who had taken a smaller quantity of the roots than the boys, were likewise seized with epileptic symptoms; but in the interval of the paroxysms, some venice-treacle dissolved in vinegar was given to them; in consequence of which they vomited, and recovered: but one of them had a very narrow escape for her life. she lay nine hours with her hands and feet outstretched, and cold: all this time she had a cadaverous countenance, and her respiration could scarcely be perceived. when she recovered, she complained a long time of a pain in her stomach, and was unable to eat any food, her tongue being much wounded by her teeth in the convulsive fits. plantae affines. celery is smaller than this plant. parsley is also smaller in all its parts. alexanders differs from it, as a plant not of so high growth. angelica may be mistaken for this, but has a more agreeable scent. all the water parsneps may be confounded with it: but these are known by the smallness of the umbels; and they are generally in bloom, so that this circumstance is a good criterion. care should at all times be taken, not to make use of any umbelliferous plants growing in water, as many of them are, if not altogether poisonous, very unwholesome. . colchicum autumnale. meadow-saffron.--baron stoerch asserts, that on cutting the fresh root into slices, the acrid particles emitted from it irritated the nostrils, fauces, and breast; and that the ends of the fingers with which it had been held became for a time benumbed; that even a single grain in a crumb of bread taken internally produced a burning heat and pain in the stomach and bowels, urgent strangury, tenesmus, colic pais, cephalalgia, hiccup, &c. from this relation, it will not appear surprising that we find several instances recorded, in which the colchicumproved a fatal poison both to man, and brute animals. two boys, after eating this plant, which they found growing in a meadow, died in great agony. violent symptoms have been produced by taking the flowers. the seeds, likewise, have been known to produce similar effects. . oenanthe crocata. hemlock. water dropwort.--eleven french prisoners had the liberty of walking in and about the town of pembroke; three of them being in the fields a little before noon, found and dug up a large quantity of this plant with its roots, which they took to be wild celery, to eat with their bread and butter for dinner. after washing it a while in the fields they all three ate, or rather tasted of the roots. as they were entering the town, without any previous notice of sickness at the stomach or disorder in the head, one of them was seized with convulsions. the other two ran home, and sent a surgeon to him. the surgeon first endeavoured to bleed, and then to vomit him; but those endeavours were fruitless, and the soldier died in a very short time. ignorant yet of the cause of their comrade's death, and of their own danger, they gave of these roots to the other eight prisoners, who all ate some of them with their dinner: the quantity could not be ascertained. a few minutes after, the remaining two who gathered the plant were seized in the same manner as the first; of which one died: the other was bled, and a vomit forced down, on account of his jaws being as it were locked together. this operated, and he recovered; but he was for some time affected with a giddiness in his head; and it is remarkable, that he was neither sick nor in the least disordered in his stomach. the others being bled and vomited immediately, were secured from the approach of any bad symptoms. upon examination of the plant which the french prisoners mistook for wild celery, mr. howell discovered it to be this plant, which grows very plentifully in the neighbourhood of haverfordwest. although the above account, which mr. wilmer has so minutely described, seems well attested, and corroborated by the above gentleman, yet i was informed by the late mr. adams, comptroller of the customs at pembroke, that the oenanthe does not, that he could find, grow in that part of the country; but that what the above unfortunate french officers did actually eat was the wild celery, which grows plentifully in all the wet places near that town. i take the liberty of mentioning this circumstance; as it will serve to keep in mind the fact, that celery, when found wild, and growing in wet places, shold be used cautiously, it being in such situations of a pernicious tendency. for such whose curiosity may lead them to become acquainted with the oenanthe crocata, it grows in plenty near the red house in battersea fields on the thames' bank. the water-courses on the marsh at northfleet have great quantities of the apium graveolens growing in them. plantae affines. cultivated celery differs from it when young, first in the shape and size of its roots. the oenanthe is perennial, and has a large root, which on being cut is observed to be full of juice, which exudes in form of globules. the celery, on the contrary, has roots in general much smaller, particularly when in a wild state. the leaves of celery have somewhat the same flavour, but are smaller; the nerves on the lobes of the leaves are also very prominent, and somewhat more pointed. when the two plants are in bloom, a more conspicuous difference is apparent in the involucrum and seeds, the character of which should be consulted. it may be mistaken for parsley; but it is both much larger in foliage and higher in growth; it is also different from it in the shape of the roots. these are the two plants most likely to be confounded with it. but the student should also consult the difference existing between this plant and the following, which, although somewhat alike in appearance, may be confounded. angelica. chervil. alexanders. hemlock. skirret. cow parsley. lovage. wild parsnep. fool's parsley. hamburgh parsley. . prunus lauro-cerasus. the comon laurel.--the leaves of the laurel have a bitter taste, with a flavour resembling that of the kernels of the peach or apricot; they communicate an agreeable flavour to aqueous and spirituous fluids, either by infusion or distillation. the distilled water applied to the organs of smelling strongly impresses the mind with the same ideas as arise from the taste of peach blossoms or apricot kernels: it is so extremely deleterious in its nature, and sometimes so sudden in its operation, as to occasion instantaneous death; but it more frequently happens that epileptic symptoms are first produced. this poison was discovered by accident in ireland in the year : before which, it was no uncommon practice there, to add a certain quantity of laurel water to brandy, or other spirituous liquors, to render them agreeable to the palate. at that time three women drank some laurel-water; and one of them a short time afterwards became violently disordered, lost her speech, and died in about an hour. a gentleman at guildford, some few years back, also, by making an experiment as he intended on himself, was poisoned by a small dose: he did not survive the taking it more than two hours. in consequence of the above poisonous principle existing in the laurel, it has been recommended to persons to be cautious hwo they make use of the leaves of that shrub, which is a usual practice with cooks for giving flavour to custards, blanch-mange, and other made-dishes, lest the narcotic principle should be also conveyed, to the detriment of the health of persons who eat of them. and the same may be said of the kernels of all stone-fruits; for the flavours given to noyau, ratafia, and other liquors which are highly prized by epicures, are all of them derived from the same principle as laurel-water, and which, on chemical investigation, is found to be prussic acid. this exists in considerable quantities in the bitter almond, and which when separated proves to be the most active poison known, to the human as well as all other animal existence. this principle, and its mode of extraction, should not be made more public than the necessity of scientific research requires. we cannot with propriety accuse either this tree or the laurel as being poisonous, because the ingenuity of mankind has found out a mode of extracting this active acidulous principle, and which is so very small in proportion to the wholesome properties of the fruit, as not to be suspected of any danger but for this discovery. as well might we accuse wheat of being poisonous, because it yields on distillation brandy, which has been known to kill many a strong-bodied fellow who has indulged in this favourite beverage to excess. an eminent chemist informs me, that he has made experiments with the oxalic acid, and found that when this was also concentrated, it has similar effects; insomuch that no animal can contain a grain of it if taken into the throat or stomach: and thus might we also be led to consider the elegant, and in itself harmless, wood-sorrel, as a poisonous plant. * * * * * acrid poisons. these should be attacked by strong decoctions of oak-bark, gall-nuts, and peruvian bark; after which soft mucilaginous matters should be used, as milk, fat broth, or emulsions. . aconitum napelhus. blue monkshood.--this is a very poisonous plant; and many instances have been adduced of its dangerous effects. it has probably obtained the name of wolfsbane, from a tradition that wolves, in searching for particular roots which they in part subsist upon in winter, frequently make a mistake, and eat of this plant, which proves fatal to them. a weaver in spitalfields, having supped upon some cold meat and salad, was suddenly taken ill; and when the surgeon employed upon this occcasion visited him, he found him in the following situation:--"he was in bed, with his head supported by an assistant, his eyes and teeth were fixed, his nostrils compressed, his hands, feet, and forehead cold, no pulse to be perceived, his respiration short, interrupted, and laborious." soon after he had eaten of the above, he complained of a sensation of heat affecting the tongue and fauces; his teeth appeared loose; and it was very remarkable, although a looking-glass was produced, and his friends attempted to reason him out of the extravagant idea, yet he imagined that his face was swelled to twice its usual size. by degrees the heat, wich at first only seemed to affect the mouth and adjacent parts, diffused itself over his body and extremities: he had an unsteadiness and lassitue in his joints, particularly of the knees and ancles, with an irritable twitching of the tendons, which seemed to deprive him of the power of walking; and he thought that in all his limbs he perceived an evident interruption to the circulation of the blood. a giddiness was the next symptom, which was not accompanied with nausea. his eyes became watery, and he could not see distinctly; a kind of humming noise in his ears continually disturbed him, until he was reduced to the state of insensibility before described. plantae affines. although the mischief which is recited above occurred from the root having been purchased at market, i do not know of any vegetable in common use likely to be confounded with this. it might by chance be mistaken for the smaller tubers of jerusalem artichoke. in foliage it comes near to the other species of aconitum, and to the perennial larkspurs. however, as this is a plant much grown in pleasure-grounds on account of its beautiful blue flowers, great care should be taken not to use any roots taken from such places that cannot be well ascertained. . aconitum lycoctonum. yellow wolfsbane.--every part of this plant is accounted poisonous. in fact, i think it is proper that all the species should be considered as such, and never be made use of, either in medicine or otherwise, without great care in their administration. . actaea spicata. baneberry.--this plant is also considered as a deadly poison; but we have no authentical accounts of its mischievous effects, although parkinson has mentioned it in these words:-- "the inhabitants of all the mountaines and places wheresoever it groweth, as some writers say, do generally hold it to be a most dangerous and deadly poison, both to man and beast; and they used to kill the wolves herewith very speedily." this is not a common plant, growing only in some particular situa-tions, as near ingleborough in yorkshire. . rhus toxicodendron. poison-ash.-the juice of the leaves of this plant is so very acrid as often to corrode the skin, if the leaves are gathered when the dew is on them. great care should certainly be taken in the giving such a medicine internally, as also in its preparation, it being usually administered in a dried state. planta affinis. rhus radicans differs from this in having a more trailing habit of growth; otherwise it is scarcely different, so little so, as to baffle a distinction being made by description alone. * * * * * stupefying poisons. the substances that deaden the effects of the poisons of this class are vegetable acids, which should be thrown into the stomach in large quantities. after the operation of emetics, cream of tartar is also considered of great use, as also oxymuriatic acid, infusions of nut-gall, oak bark; warm spices are considered also of use, for they may separate some part of the deleterious matter, as is shown by their effect when mixed with decoction of these plants; acerb and astringent wines are also of great use. . aethusa cynapium. fool's parsley.--fool's parsley seems generally allowed to be a plant which possesses poisonous qualities. baron haller has taken a great deal of pains to collect what has been said concerning it, and quotes many authorities to show that this plant has been productive of the most violent symptoms; such as anxiety, hiccough, and a delirium even for the space of three months, stupor, vomiting, convulsions, and death. where much parsley is used, the mistress of the house therefore would do well to examine the herbs previous to their being made use of; but the best precaution will be, always to sow that variety called curled parsley, which cannot be mistaken for this or any other plant. we might also observe, that the scent is strong and disagreeable in the aethusa: but this property, either in the plant or the poison, is not at all times to be trusted in cases of this nature. plantae affines. parsley. the lobes of the leaves are larger in this plant, and are not quite so deep a green. the leaves of fool's parsley are also finer cleft, and appear to end more in a short point. celery, being much larger, cannot easily be confounded with it. chervil. fool's parsley, when young, differs from this plant but very little, being much the same in size, and the laciniae of the leaves of a similar form. chervil, however, is much lighter in colour, and the flavour more pleasant, both to the taste and smell. hemlock is commonly a larger plant; and, exclusive of the generic distinctions, may be generally known by its spotted stalk. when fool's parsley is in bloom, it is readily known by the length of the involucrum. . atropa belladonna. deadly nightshade.--some boys and girls perceiving in a garden at edinburgh the beautiful berries of the deadly nightshade, and unacquainted with their poisonous quality, ate several. in a short time dangerous symptoms appeared; a swelling of the abdomen took place; they became convulsed. the next morning one of them died, and another in the evening of the same day, although all possible care was taken of them. another case is related by dr. lambert, who was desired to visit two children at newburn, in scotland, who the preceding day had swallowed some of the berries of the deadly nightshade. he found them in a deplorable situation. the eldest (ten years of age) was delirious in bed, and affected with convulsive spasms: the younger was not in a much better condition in his mother's arms. the eyes of both the children were particularly affected. the whole circle of the cornea appeared black, the iris being so much dilated as to leave no vestige of the pupil. the tunica conjunctiva much inflamed. these appearances, accompanied with a remarkable kind of staring, exhibited a very affecting scene. the symptoms came on about two hours after they had eaten the berries: they appeared at first as if they had been intoxicated, afterwards lost the power of speaking, and continued the whole night so unruly, that it was with much difficulty they were kept in bed. neither of these ever recovered. . datura stramonium. thorn-apple.--the seeds and leaves of the thorn-apple received into the human stomach produce first a vertigo, and afterwards madness. if the quantity is large, and vomiting is not occasioned, it will undoubtedly prove fatal. boerhaave informs us, that some boys eating some seeds of the thorn-apple which were thrown out of a garden, were seized with giddiness, horrible imaginations, terrors, and delirium. those that did not soon vomit, died. . hyoscyamus niger. henbane.--henbane is a very dangerous poison. the seeds, leaves, and root, received into the human stomach, are all poisonous. the root in a superior degree produces sometimes madness; and if taken in large quantity, and the stomach does not reject it by vomiting, a stupor and apopleptic symptoms, terminating in death, are the usual consequences. a case of the bad effects of the roots of this plant, which occurred in ireland, is mentioned by dr. threlkeld. in the winter season, some men working in a garden threw up some roots which were supposed to be skirrets, and those were cooked for dinner. about two hours after they were eaten, a person who partook of them was taken with an unusual lassitude, as if being much fatigued, heat and dryness both in the mouth an the throat, a giddiness accompanied with dimness of sight, and a partial stoppage in his urine. several others who had eaten at the same table, as also servants who had partaken, were subjected to the like influence. medical assistance being at hand, by the use of emetics they were relieved; but it was many days before the whole of them had recovered from those dreadful symptoms. two children having both eaten of the berries of this plant, the one a boy (who recovered) being taken ill, vomitted, and was supposed to have thrown them off his stomach: the other, a little girl, died in convulsions the next morning. as mothers and kindred souls do not like names to be made public in these cases, i cannot help feeling some desire to suppress a publicity of a fact in which a near and dear relative was materially interested. in justice, however, to the public, i must mention that i can vouch for the fact, and trust it may not pass without notice, so far as to let the berries be supposed anything but wholesome. plantae affines. the idea of skirrets being confounded with this plant, is, i think, erroneous, if it has leaves on, as they are not pinnated, and very different from it. when the hyoscyamus is in bloom, it has curiously-formed flowers of an uncommonly disgusting hue. the scent of this plant, on bruising it, and its general appearance, render it almost impossible that any one should mistake it. the roots, in the winter season, when destitute of leaves, may, however, be mistaken for those of parsnep, parsley, skirret, and many others of similar shape, and of which it is out of our power to give a distinguishing character. . lactuca virosa. strong-scented wild lettuce.--the juice of this plant is a very powerful opiate, and care should be taken how it is made use of. i have not heard of any dangerous effects having been produced by it. the strong and disagreeable scent and bitter nauseous taste will most likely always operate as a preservative to its being used for food; and as a medicine, it is hoped its use will be confined to the judicious hand of a medical botanist. plantae affines. all the kinds of garden lettuce; but it may be distinguished by its spines on the back of the leaves. it may be remarked, that the milky juice of all lettuce has similar properties to the above; but the juice is not milky till such time as the plant produces seed-stalks, and then the taste in general is too nauseous for it to be eaten. . solanum dulcamara. bittersweet.--the berries of this plant have been sometimes eaten by children, and have produced very alarming effects. it is common in hedges, and should be at all times as much extirpated as possible. . solanum nigrum. deadly nightshade.--webfer has given us an account of some children that were killed in consequence of having eaten the berries of this plant for black currants. and others have spoken of the direful effects of the whole plant so much, that, from the incontestable proofs of its deleterious qualities, persons cannot be too nice in selecting their pot-herbs, particularly those who make a practice of gathering from dunghills and gardens fat-hen, &c. as there is some distant similitude betwixt these plants, and their places of growth are the same.--curtis's fl. lond. fasc. . plantae affines. all the chenopodia grow with this plant wild, and are somewhat alike in appearance; but the solanum may at all times be distinguished by its disagreeable strong scent. * * * * * foetid poisons. these come near to the stupefying poisons; but they are not treated in the same manner; for ether, wine, or acids combined with spirits, appear the properest things to destroy their deleterious properties: spices are then indicated, except for savine, which requires instead thereof acids. . conium maculatum. hemlock.--two soldiers quartered at waltham abbey collected in the fields adjoining to that town a quantity of herbs sufficient for themselves and two others for dinner when boiled with bacon. these herbs were accordingly dressed, and the poor men ate of the broth with bread, and afterwards the herbs with bacon: in a short time they were all seized with vertigo. soon after they were comatose, two of them became convulsed, and died in about three hours. plantae affines. parsley differs from this except in size and colour of the leaves. celery is also much like this plant, and particularly so if found wild; but which, for reasons given before, should never be collected to be eaten. fool's parsley is very like it; and when the hemlock is in a small state, and this plant luxuriant, i have been in some doubt as to pointing out a perfect difference, especially when they are not in fructification. the spots on hemlock form generally a distinguishing mark. . digitalis purpurea. foxglove.--a few months ago, a child was ill of a pulmonary complaint, and the apothecary had desired the nurse to procure a small quantity of coltsfoot and make it a little tea; and accordingly the good woman went to a shop in london, where she procured, as she supposed, three pennyworth of that herb, and made a decoction, of which she gave the patient a tea-cupful; a few minutes after which she found symptoms of convulsions make their appearance, and sent for the apothecary: but who, unfortunately, was so totally ignorant of botany as not to know the plant, but supposing it to be coltsfoot, after the infant died, took his leave, without ay remark further, than that the disorder which occasioned its death had arisen from some accidental and unusual cause. the nurse, however, did not feel perfectly satisfied of this fact, and carried the remainder of the herb to apothecaries-hall; and having applied there for information, was referred to mr. leffler, a gentleman who had from his botanical researches that season obtained the sloanean prize; who told her the mistake. he also went and saw the body, and investigated the whole case in a way that has done that young gentleman great credit; and from him i have been favoured with this account. had the medical attendant but known the difference between the two plants when he was called in first, there was a chance of the child being saved to its distressed parents. and here was certainly a striking instance of medical men neglecting so far the study of botany, as not to know one of the most useful as well as one of the most dangerous plants of the present pharmacopoeia. . helleborus foetidus. bearsfoot.--the country-people are in the habit of chopping up the leaves of this plant and giving it to children for removing worms; but it is a dangerous medicine, and should be made use of with great caution. it is also recommended as a medicine for the same purpose in horses. as much of the chopped leaves as will lie on a crown-piece, given amongst a feed of corn for three days, and remitted three days, and repeated thus for nine doses, has been known to remove this disease. "i heard a melancholy story of a mother in this city; viz. that a country colleagh gave some of this plant to her two sons, one of six, the other of four years of age, to kill worms; and that before four in the afternoon they were both corpses."-dr. threlkeld, in a short account of the plants in the neighbourhood of dublin. . juniperus salvina. savine.--the expressed juice of this plant is very poisonous, and often known to produce the most violent effects. it is sometimes used by persons for expelling worms in children, but should be used with great caution; for, if the quantity taken into the stomach is more than it can digest, all the dreadful effects of the poisons of this class are certain to be the immediate consequence. . scrophularia aquatica. water-betony.--every part of this plant is said to be violently narcotic; but its very disagreeable strong scent and extremely bitter taste render it not likely to be used in mistake for any culinary vegetable; and although we know what its effects are from report, we do not think it of so dangerous a tendency as some of our poisonous vegetables. * * * * * drastic poisons. these purge both upwards and downwards with great violence by means of their acrid poisonous resin, which also violently affects the throat and passages. although alkalies have been recommended in this case, in order to divide this resin, and that a solution of soap is proper, yet the vegetable acids are also very useful, and have a great effect in diminishing the purgative effect. besides this, it appears still more advantageous to give astringents: venice treacle, decoctions of bark or cascarilla, pomegranate rind, and balaustines; all which certainly precipitate this drastic principle. . asclepias syriaca. syrian dogsbane.--all the species of asclepias have a white acrid juice which is considered poisonous. it is observed to be very acrid when applied to any sensible part of the mouth or throat. . bryonia alba. wild vine, or white bryony.--the berries of this plant, when hanging on the hedges, have the appearance of white grapes, and have been eaten by children. they are known to produce dreadful effects; but it frequently happens that they produce nausea on the stomach, by which they operate as an emetic of themselves. . euphorbia lathyris. caper spurge.--a plant common in old gardens, but not indigenous. the seed-vessels are much in shape of caper-buds: hence its name. people have been in the habit of pickling these berries, from which some dangerous symptoms have arisen; it is probable that the vinegar may have been the means of checking its bad effects. it should, however, never be used as food. . euphorbia amygdaloides. wood spurge.--the juice of this plant has been known to produce very dangerous swellings in the mouth and throat of persons who have occasionally put it into their mouths. we do not know that it is very dangerous; and nothing is likely to tempt any persons to use it as food or otherwise. . mercurialis perennis. dog's mercury.--this plant is of a soporific deleterious nature, and is said to be noxious to both man and beast. many instances are recorded of its fatal effects. mr. ray acquaints us with the case of a man, his wife, and three children, who were poisoned by eating it fried with bacon: and a melancholy instance is related in the philosophical transactions, number cciii., of its pernicious effects upon a family who ate at supper the herb boiled and fried. it produced at first nausea and vomiting, and comatose symptoms afterwards; two of the children slept twenty-four hours; when they awoke, they vomited again, and recovered. the other girl could not be awakened during four days; at the expiration of which time she opened her eyes and expired. plantae affines. it appears that the different species of chenopodium have been mistaken for this plant. i do not see myself any very near likeness: but as all the species of chenopodium have been called english mercury, it is possible that the name may have been the cause of the mistake. . mercurialis annua. annual dog's mercury.--persons who are in the habit of gathering wild herbs to cook, should be careful of this. it grows plentifully in all rich grounds, and is common with fat hen and the other herbs usually collected for such purposes in the spring, and from which it is not readily distinguished: at least, i cannot describe a difference that a person ignorant of botany can distinguish it by. . periploca graeca.--this is an ornamental creeping plant, and commonly grown in gardens for covering verandas, and other places for shade. i once witnessed a distressing case. a nurse walking in a garden gathered flower of this plant, and gave it to a child which she had in her arms. the infant having put it to its mouth, it caused a considerable swelling and inflammation, which came on so suddenly, that, had it not been that one of the labourers had met with a similar accident, no one would have known the cause. the child was several days before it was out of danger, as the inflammation had reached the throat. . veratrum album. white hellebore.--the roots of this plant, and also of the veratrum nigrum, have been imported mixed with the roots of yellow gentian, and have proved poisonous.--lewis's materia medica. * * * * * poisonous fungi. the deleterious effects of these generally show themselves soon after they are in the stomach. vomiting should be immediately excited, and then the vegetable acids should be given; either vinegar, lemon-juice, or that of apples; after which, give ether and antispasmodic remedies, to stop the excessive bilious vomiting. infusions of gall-nut, oak-bark, and peruvian bark, are recommended as capable of neutralizing the poisonous principle of mushrooms. it is however the safest way not to eat any of these plants until they have been soaked in vinegar. spirit of wine, and ether, extract some part of their poison; and tanning matter decomposes the greatest part of it. agaricus bulbosus. -------- necator. -------- mamosus. -------- piperitus. -------- campanulatus. -------- muscarius. these are kown to be poisonous. but the fungi should all be used with great caution; for i believe even the champignon and edible mushroom to possess deleterious qualities when grown in certain places. * * * * * section xiv.--plants noxious to cattle. the foregoing lists of poisonous plants are most of them of less dangerous tendency to cattle than to the human species: for although many of them may be mistaken for wholesome, yet, when they are growing wild, it will be observed, that the discriminating powers of the brute creation in this point are so correct, that very few have been known to be eaten by them. the following are a few of a different class, which, as not containing any thing particularly disagreeable to the taste of cattle, are frequently eaten by them to their injury. the agricultural student should make himself perfectly acquainted with those. . cicuta virosa. cowbane.--linnaeus observes, that cattle have died in consequence of eating the roots. it is fortunate that this plant is not very plentiful: it is poisonous to all kinds of cattle except goats. the flower of this plant is not unlike that of water-parsneps, which cows at some seasons will eat great quantities of. . bear's garlick. allium ursinum. . crow garlick. allium vineale. these plants very frequently occur in meadow-land, and have property of giving a strong garlick flavour to the milk yielded by cows that feed there; and which is often also communicated to the butter. . darnell grass. lolium temulentum.--this grass has the faculty of causing poultry or birds to become intoxicated, and so much so that it causes their death. . lousewort. pedicularis palustris.--this plant, which abounds in wet meadows, is said to produce a lousy disease in cows if they eat of it. . mayweed. anthemis cotula.--this is altogether of such an acrid nature, that the hands of persons employed in weeding crops and reaping, are often so blistered and corroded as to prevent their working. it also has been known to blister the mouths and nostrils of cattle when feeding where it grows. . colchicum autumnale. meadow-saffron.--this is a common plant in pasture-land in worcestershire, herefordshire, and other counties. many are the instances that have occurred of the bad effects of it to cattle. i have this last autumn known several cows that died in consequence of eating this plant. . melilot. trifolium officinale.--this plant when eaten by cows communicates a disagreeable taste to milk and butter. . round-leaved sun-dew. drosera rotundifolia.--very common on marshy commons, and is said to be poisonous to sheep, and to give them the disease called the rot. . sea barley-grass. hordeum maritimum.--this grass has been known in the isle of thanet and other places to produce a disease in the mouths of horses, by the panicles of the grass penetrating the skin. . water-hemlock. phellandrium aquaticum.--linnaeus informs us that the horses in sweden by eating of this plant are seized with a kind of palsy, which he supposes is brought upon them, not so much by any noxious qualities in the plant itself, as by a certain insect which breeds in the stalks, called by him for that reason curculio paraplecticus [syst. nat. ]. the swedes give swine's dung for the cure. . yew. taxus baccata.--this is poisonous to cattle: farmers and other persons should be careful of this being thrown where sheep or cattle feed in snowy weather. it is particularly dangerous to deer, for they will eat of it with avidity when it comes in their way. * * * * * section xv.--plants noxious in agriculture. annual weeds, or such as grow wild in fields, and that do not produce any food for cattle. many weeds are troublesome to the farmer amongst his crops; but which, by affording a little fodder at some season or other, in some degree compensate for their intrusion. but as the following are not of this description, they ought at all times to be extirpated: for it should be recollected, that the space occupied by such a plant would, in many instances, afford room for many ears of wheat, &c. the following are annuals, and chiefly grow among arable crops, as corn, &c. as these every year spring up from seeds, it is a very difficult matter for the farmer to prevent their increase, especially since the practice of fallowing land has become almost obsolete. it is a fact worthy notice, that the seeds of most of the annual weeds will lie in the ground for many years, if they happen to be place deep: so that all land is more or less impregnated with them, and a fresh supply is produced every time the land is ploughed. it is therefore proper that annual weeds of every description should be prevented as much as possible can be from going to seed, for one year's crop will take several seasons to eradicate. the only effectual mode we are acquainted with of getting rid of annual weeds is, either by hoeing them up when young, or by cutting the plants over with any instrument whilst in bloom; for it should be observed, that those never spring from the roots if cut over at that period of their growth, which oftentimes may be easily accomplished. i once observed a crop of burnet, in which bromus secalius (lob grass) was growing, whose spike stood a considerable height above the crop, and several acres of which a boy or woman might have cut over in a short space of time: but it was not so: the grass seeds and burnet were suffered to ripen together, and no means could be devised to separate the two when threshed. for this reason the burnet seeds never could find a market, and consequently the trouble of saving it, as well as the crop, was lost to the grower. i mention this as an instance of many that frequently occur. how many times do we see with crops of winter tares wild oats seeding in them? or carduus mutans standing so high above those crops that they might be thus extirpated with great ease? it may be observed, that it is in culture of this nature where annual seeds multiply. a regular crop of wheat will, by its thickness on the ground, retard their growth by smothering them; but the other gives them every facility, and particularly autumnal-sown crops. . blue-bottle - - - centaurea cyanus. . white-blite - - - chenopodium album. . charlock - - - sinapis arvensis. . chickweed - - - alsine media. . cockle - - - agrostemma githago. . cleavers - - - galium aparine. . corn marigold - - - chrysanthemum segetum. . corn crowfoot - - - ranunculus arvensis. . corn chamomile - - - matricaria chamomilla. . weak-scented do - - ---------- inodora. . grass, lob - - - bromus secalinus. . ----- bearded oat - - acena fatua. . ----- field foxtail - alopecurus agrestis. . ----- darnel - - - lolium temulentum. . groundsel, common - - senecio vulgaris. . wall barley - - - hordeum murinum. . mallow, common - - - malva sylvestris. . mayweed, stinking 	 - - anthemis cotula. . melilot - - - trifolium officinale. . mustard, white - - - sinapis alba. . -------, hedge - - - erysimum barbarea. . nettle, stinging, small - urtica urens. . ------, dead - - - lamium albium. . nipplewort - - - lapsana communis. . orach, wild - - - atriplex hastata. . -----, spreading 	 - - -------- patulata. . pilewort - - - ranunculus ficaria. . persicaria, spotted-leaved polygonum ficaria. . ----------, pale-flowered --------- pensylvanicum. . ----------, climbing - --------- convolvulus. . pheasant-eye - - - adonis autumnalis. . poppy, common red 	 - - papaver rhoeas. . poppy, long rough-headed - papaver argemone. . radish, wild - - - raphanus raphanistrum. . shepherd's needle - - scandix pecten veneris. . spearwort - - - ranunculus flammula. . spurry, corn - - - spergula arvensis. . thistle, spear - - - carduus lanceolatus. . ------- star - - - centaurea calcitrapa. . ------- marsh - - - carduus palustris. . ------- dwarf - - - ------- acaulis. . tine tare, smooth-podded - ervum tetraspermum. * * * * * creeping-rooted weeds. the following are such as are perennial, and are of the most troublesome nature, being xtremely difficult to get rid of in consequence of their creeping roots. it unfortunately appens that, where the land is the most worked, and the roots the more broken thereby, the more the crop of weeds increases on the land. therefore, the only effectual mode of extirpating plants of this nature, is by picking out the roots after the plough, or by digging them up at every opportunity by some proper instrument. where weeds of this nature occur, there is too often thought to be more labour than profit in their extirpation. and although this is an argument of some propriety, where a farmer is tenant at will, or where his strength is not proportionate to the land: yet if land is worth any thing at all, that, whatever it may be, is lost, if it is suffered thus to become barren. and as prevention is in most cases considered preferable to cure, more care ought to be taken than generally is, of all our hedges and waste pieces of land by road sides, &c. many of these plants are found growing in such places, and their seeds are of that nature that they are calculated to fly to considerable distances,--a contrivance in nature to fertilize the ground in her own way; but which, as agriculturists, it is the business of men to check. . bindweed, small - - convolvulus arvensis. . bindweed, large - - ----------- sepium. . bistort - - - polygonum bistorta. . brakes - - - pteris aquilina. . clown's woundwort - - stachys palustris. . cammock - - - ononis arvensis. . coltsfoot - - - tussilago farfara. . crowfoot, creeping - - ranunculus repens. . goutweed - - - aegopodium podagraria. . grass, garden couch - triticum repens. . -----, couchy-bent - agrostis stolonifera. . -----, couch oat, or knot avena elatior. . -----, creeping-soft - holcus mollis. . horsetail, corn - - equisetum arvense. . persicaria, willow-leaved polygonum amphibium. . rest harrow - - - ononis spinosa. . sow-thistle, corn - - sonchus arvensis. . spatling poppy - - cucubalus behen. . stinging-nettle, large - urtica dioica. . silverweed - - - potentilla anserina. . sneezewort - - - achillea ptarmica. . thistle, melancholy - carduus heterophyllus. . -------, cursed - - ------- arvensis. . water horehound - - lycopus europaeus. * * * * * perennial weeds. this enumeration of noxious plants contains principally those which, although they are very troublesome, are more easy of extirpation than the last: for although the most of them are perennial, yet, as their roots do not spread as those of the above list do, they are to be effectually removed by taking up the plants by their roots. it should, however, be always noticed, that it is to little account to endeavour to clear any land of such incumbrances, if any waste places which are separated only by a hedge are allowed to grow these things with impunity; for the seeds will invariably find their way. the contrivance of nature in their formation is a curious and pleasant subject for the philosophical botanist; at the same time it is one of those curses which was impelled on human labour. . butter-bur - - - tussilago petasites. . burdock - - - arctium lappa. . bugloss, small - - lycopis arvensis. . crowfoot, round-rooted - ranunculus bulbosus. . --------, tall - - ranunculus acris. . dock, curdled - - - rumex crispus. . ----, broad-leaved - - ----- obtusifolius. . ----, sharp-pointed - ----- acutus. . fleabane, common - - inula dysenteria. . garlick, crow - - - allium vineale. . -------, bear - - - ------ ursinum. . grass, turfy hair - - aira caespitosa. . -----, meadow soft - - holcus lanatus. . -----, carnation - - carex caespitosa. . knapweed, common - - centaurea nigra. . --------, great - - --------- scabiosa. . mugwort - - - artemisa vulgaris. . meadow-sweet - - - spiraea ulmaria. ox-eye daisy chrysanthemum leucanthe-mum . plantain, great - - plantago major. . ragwort, common - - senecio jacobaea. . -------, marsh - - ------- aquaticus. . rush, common - - - juncus conglomeratus. . ----, blueish - - - ------ glaucus. . ----, flat-jointed - - ------ squarrosus. . ----, round-jointed - ------ articulatus. . ----, bulbous - - - ------ bulbosus. . scabious, common - - scabiosa avensis. . thistle, milk - - - carduus marianus. . -------, meadow - - ------- pratensis. * * * * * section xvi.-exotic trees and shrubs. the fashionable rage for planting ornamental trees and shrubs having so much prevailed of late years, that we meet with them by the road sides, &c. almost as common as we do those of our native soil, i have therefore enumerated them in this section. our limits will not admit of giving any particular descriptions of each; but as persons are often at a loss to know what soil each tree is known to thrive in best, we have endeavoured to supply that information; which will be understood by applying to the following abbreviated characters. c.m. read common garden mould. b.m. - bog mould. l. - loam. b.l. - bog and loam, the greater part bog. l.b. - loam and bog, the greater part loam. s. - sheltered situation. a. - annual. bi. - biennial. p. - perennial. shr. - tree or shrub. c. - creeper. w. - adapted to covering walls. as the soils recommended may not be generally understood; a little attention to the following rules will enable persons to discover what is fit for their purposes. loam--the kind best adapted to the purpose of growing plants, is of a moderately close texture, between clay and sand, differing from the former in want of tenacity when wet; and not becoming hard when dry; nor is it loose and dusty like the latter; but in both states possesses somewhat of a saponaceous quality. it varies in colour from yellow to brown, and is commonly found in old pastures: it may also be remarked, that where any perennial species of clover (trifolium) are found wild, it is almost a certain indication of a fertile loam, and such as contains the proper food of plants in abundance. bog-mould--is frequently found on waste lands, where heaths (ericae) are produced: it is composed of decayed vegetable matter and white sand. the best sort is light when dry, of a black colour, and easily reduced to powder. care should be taken to distinguish it from peat, which is hard when dry, destitute in a great measure of the sand, and mostly of a red colour. this contains in great quantities sulphureous particles and mineral oil, which are known to be highly destructive to vegetation. the mould formed from rotten leaves is a good substitute for bog-mould if mixed with sand, and is often made use of for the same purposes. these earths should be dug from the surface to the depth of a few inches and laid in heaps, that the roots, &c. contained therein may be decomposed: and before they are used should be passed through a coarse screen, particularly if intended for plants in pots. as loam has been found to contain the greatest portion of the real pabulum of plants, it has long been used for such as are planted in pots; and the component parts of bog-earth being of a light nature, a mixture of the two in proper proportions will form a compost in which most kinds of plants will succeed. attention should be paid to the consistence of the loam; as the more stiff it is, the greater portion of the other is necessary. diandria monogynia. jasminum officinale. w. common white jasmine c.m. -------- v. argen. variegat. w. silver-striped ditto c.m. -------- v. aureo variegat. w. gold-striped ditto c.m. -------- fruticans, w. yellow ditto c.m. -------- humile, w. dwarf yellow ditto b.l. phillyrea media, w. privet-leaved phillyrea c.m. --------- v. virgata twiggy ditto c.m. --------- v. pendula pendulous ditto c.m. --------- oleaefolia olive-leaved ditto c.m. -------- buxifolia box-leaved ditto c.m. -------- angustifolia narrow-leaved ditto c.m. -------- v. rosmarinifolia rosemary-leaved ditto c.m. -------- brachiata dwarf ditto c.m. -------- v. latifolia broad-leaved ditto c.m. -------- v. laevis smooth broad-leaved ditto c.m. -------- v. spinosa prickly broad-leaved ditto c.m. -------- v. obliqua hex-leaved ditto c.m. chionanthus virginicus fringe tree b.m. syringa vulgaris blue lilac c.m. ------- v. alba white ditto c.m. -------- persica persian ditto c.m. -------- v. lacinita cut-leaved ditto c.m. -------- latifolia broad-leaved ditto c.m. tetrandria monogynia. cephalanthus occidentalis button-wood b.l. houstonia coccinea scarlet houstonia b.l.s. buddlea globosa globe-flowered buddlea b.l.s. cornus florida great-flowering dog-wood c.m. ------ mascula cornelian cherry c.m. ------ sericea blue-berried ditto c.m. ------ alba white-berried ditto c.m. ------ stricta upright ditto c.m. ------ sibirica siberian ditto c.m. ------ paniculata panicled ditto c.m. ------ alternifolia alternate-leaved ditto c.m. ------ v. virescens green-twigged ditto c.m. ptelea trifoliata shrubby bean-trefoil c.m. elaeagnus angustifolia narrow-leaved oleaster c.m. -------- v. latifolia broad-leaved ditto c.m. tetrandria digynia. hamamelis virginica witch hazel c.m. tetrandria tetragynia. ilex opaca carolina holly b.l. ---- v. angustifolia narrow-leaved ditto b.l. ---- primoides deciduous ditto b.l. ---- cassine dahoon ditto l. ---- vomitoria south sea tea tree l. pentandria monogynia. azalea pontica yellow azalea b.s. ------ nudiflora red ditto b.s. ------ v. coccinea scarlet ditto b.s. ------ v. carnea flesh-coloured ditto b.s. ------ v. alba early white ditto b.s. ------ v. bicolor red and white ditto b.s. ------ v. papilionacea variegated ditto b.s. ------ v. partita downy ditto b.s. ------ v. aurantia orange ditto b.s. ------ v. viscosa late white ditto b.s. ------ v. vittata white striped ditto b.s. ------ v. fissa narrow petalled ditto b.s. ------ v. floribunda cluster-flowered ditto b.s. ------ v. glauca glaucus-leaved ditto b.s. ------ v. scabra rough-leaved ditto b.s. lonicera dioica. c. glaucous honeysuckle c.m. -------- sempervirens. c. trumpet ditto l. -------- grata. c. evergeen honeysuckle c.m. -------- implexa. c. minorca ditto l. -------- nigra black-berried ditto c.m. -------- tatarica tartarian ditto c.m. -------- pyrenaica pyrenean ditto c.m. -------- alpigena red-berried ditto c.m. lonicera caerulea blue-berried ditto c.m. -------- symphoricarpos st. peter's wort c.m. -------- diervilla yellow-flowered honeysuckle c.m. -------- caprifolium c. italian white ditto c.m. -------- v. rubra c. italian early red ditto c.m. -------- periclym. v. serotina c. late red ditto c.m. -------- v. quercifolia oak-leaved ditto c.m. -------- v. belgica dutch ditto c.m. lycium barbarum. w. willow-leaved boxthorn c.m. ------ europaeum. w. european ditto c.m. sideroxylon lycoides willow-leaved iron-wood b.l. rhamnus latifolius broad-leaved ditto c.m. ------- alpinus alpine ditto b.m. ------- theezans tea ditto c.m. ------- alnifolius alder-leaved ditto c.m. ------- paliurus christ's thorn c.m. ------- volubilis. c. supple-jack tree c.m. ------- ziziphus shining-leaved ditto c.m. ------- alaternus common alaternus c.m. ------- fol. argen. var. silver-striped ditto c.m.s. ------- fol. aureo var. gold-striped ditto c.m.s. ------- v. angustifolius jagged-leaved ditto c.m. celastrus scandeus climbing staff-tree c.m. ceanothus americanus new jersey tea tree c.m. euonymus latifolius broad-leaved spindle-tree c.m. -------- verrucosus warted ditto c.m. -------- atro-purpureus purple-flowered ditto c.m. -------- americanus evergreen ditto c.m. itea virginica virginian itea b.l. ---- buxifolia box-leaved ditto b.l. ribes glandulosum glandulous currant c.m. ----- petraeum rock ditto c.m. ---- floridum large-flowered ditto c.m. ---- diacanthum two-spined gooseberry c.m. ---- oxyacanthoides hawthorn-leaved ditto c.m. ---- canadense canadian ditto c.m. ---- cynosbatea prickly-fruited currant c.m. ---- prostratum procumbent ditto c.m. ---- alpinum alpine ditto c.m. hedera quinquefolia. w. virginian creeper c.m. ----- helix v. latifolia broad-leaved ivy. c. c.m. vitis vitifera. c. common grape c.m. ----- labrusca. c. downy-leaved ditto c.m. ----- vulpina. c. fox grape c.m. ----- laciniata. c. parsley-leaved vine c.m. ----- arborea. c. pepper vine c.m. pentandria digynia. periploca graeca. c. virginian silk-tree c.m. salsola prostrata trailing saltwort c.m. ulmus americana american elm c.m. ----- v. alba white american ditto c.m. ----- v. pendula drooping ditto c.m. ----- nemoralis twiggy ditto c.m. ----- pumila dwarf ditto c.m. ----- crispa curled-leaved ditto c.m. bupleurum fruticosum shrubby hare's-ear c.m. pentandria trigynia. rhus typhinum virginian sumach c.m. ---- glabrum smooth ditto c.m. ---- vernix varnish tree c.m. ---- copallinum lentiscus-leaved sumach c.m. ---- radicans. c. upright poison ash c.m. ---- toxicodendron. c. trailing or officinal ditto c.m. ---- cotinus venus's sumach c.m. ---- coriaria elm-leaved ditto c.m. viburnum tinus laurustinus c.m. -------- fol. variegat. striped-leaved ditto c.m. -------- lucidum shining-leaved ditto c.m. -------- strictum upright ditto c.m. -------- nudum oval-leaved viburnum c.m. -------- cassinoides thick-leaved ditto l.s. -------- nitidum shining-leaved ditto b.l. -------- laevigatum cassioberry bush b.l. -------- prunifolium thick-leaved viburnum c.m. -------- lentago pear-leaved ditto c.m. -------- dentatum tooth-leaved ditto c.m. -------- v. pubescens downy-leaved ditto c.m. ------- -acerifolium maple-leaved ditto c.m. -------- opulus v. americana american gelder rose c.m. -------- v. rosea snow-ball ditto c.m. -------- alnifolium alder-leaved ditto c.m. sambucus canadensis canadian elder c.m. -------- nigra v. laciniata cut-leaved ditto c.m. -------- racemosa clustered-flowered ditto c.m. staphylea trifolia three-leaved bladder-nut c.m. tamarix germanica german tamarisk c.m. pentandria pentagynia. aralia spinosa angelica tree b.l. pentandria polygynia. zanthorhiza apifolium parsley-leaved zanthorhiza b. hexandria monogynia. prinos verticillatus whorl-leaved winter-berry b.l. ------ glaber smooth ditto b.l. ------ lanceolatus lanceolate-leaved ditto b.l. ------ laevigatus spear-leaved ditto b.l. berberis canadensis canadian barberry b.l. -------- cretica cretan ditto b.l. -------- sibirica siberian ditto b.l. heptandria monogynia. aesculus hippocastanum common horse chesnut c.m. ------- flava yellow-flowered ditto c.m. ------- pavia scarlet-flowered ditto c.m. ------- parviflora small-flowered ditto c.m. octandria monogynia. koelreuteria paniculata panicled koelreuteria b.l. vaccinium stamineum green-twigged bleaberry b.m. --------- diffusum shining-leaved ditto b.m. --------- fuscatum brown ditto b.m. --------- angustifolium narrow-leaved ditto b.m. --------- frondosum obtuse-leaved ditto b.m. --------- venustum red-twigged ditto b.m. --------- resinosum clammy ditto b.m. --------- amoenum broad-leaved ditto b.m. --------- virgatum twiggy-leaved ditto b.m. --------- tenellum gale-leaved ditto b.m. --------- macrocarpon large-fruited ditto b.m. --------- nitidum shining-leaved ditto b.m. --------- ligustrinum privet-leaved ditto b.m. --------- pumilum dwarf ditto b.m. erica ciliaris ciliated heath b.m.s. ----- mediterranea mediterranean ditto b.m.s. ----- australis spanish ditto b.m.s. ----- herbacea herbaceous ditto b.m. ----- arborea tree ditto b.m.s. daphne alpina alpine daphne b.l. ------ pontica two-flowered ditto b.l.s. ------ cneorum trailing ditto b.l. ------ tartonraira silver-leaved daphne b.l.s. ------ collina hairy ditto b.l.s. ------ gnidium flax-leaved ditto b.l.s. dirca palustris marsh leatherwood b.m. octandria digynia. polygonum frutescens shrubby polygonum b.s. enneandria monogynia. laurus benzoin benjamin tree c.m. ------ nobilis sweet bay c.m. sassafras sassafras tree b.l. decandria monogynia. sophora japonica japan sophora c.m. cercis siliquastrum european judas tree c.m. ------ canadensis american ditto c.m. guilandina dioica canadian bonduc c.m. ruta graveolens common rue c.m. ---- montana mountain ditto c.m. kalmia latifolia broad-leaved kalmia b.s. ------ angustifolia narrow-leaved ditto b.s. ------ v. carnea pale-flowered ditto b.s. ------ glauca glaucus-leaved ditto b.s. ledum palustre marsh rosemary b.s. ----- v. decumbens dwarf ditto b.s. ----- latifolium labrador tea b.s. ----- buxifolium box-leaved ledum b.s. rhodora canadensis canadian rhodora b.m. rhodorendron ferrugineum rusty-leaved rhododendron b.m. ------------ dauricum dauric ditto b.m. ------------ hirsutum hairy ditto b.m. ------------ ponticum pontic ditto b.m. ------------ fol. variegat. striped-leaved ditto b.m. ------------ cataubiense large ditto b.m. ------------ maximum large-leaved ditto b.m. ------------ punctatum dotted ditto b.m. andromeda mariana maryland andromeda b.m. --------- v. oblonga oval-leaved ditto b.m. --------- ferruginea rusty-leaved ditto b.m. --------- polyfolia, v. major broad-leaved rusty ditto b.m. --------- paniculata panicled ditto b.m. --------- arborea tree ditto b.m. --------- racemosa branching ditto b.m. --------- axillaris notch-leaved ditto b.m. --------- coriacea thick-leaved ditto b.m. --------- acuminata acute-leaved ditto b.m. --------- calyculata globe-flowered ditto b.m. --------- v. latifolia broad box-leaved ditto b.m. --------- v. angustifolia narrow-leaved ditto b.m. --------- catesbaei catesby's ditto b.m. epigaea repens creeping epigaea b.s. gualtheria procumbens procumbent gualtheria b.s. arbutus unedo common strawberry tree b.l. ------- v. fl. rubro scarlet-flowered ditto b.l. ------- v. flore pleno double-flowered ditto b.l. ------- v. angustifolia narrow-leaved ditto b.l. ------- v. crispa curled-leaved ditto b.l. ------- andrachne eastern ditto b.l. clethra alnifolia alder-leaved clethra b.l. ------- v. pubescens pubescent ditto b.l. styrax officinale officinal styrax b.l. ------ grandifolium large-leaved ditto l. ------ laevigatum smooth-leaved ditto l. decandria digynia. hydrangea arborescens tree hydrangea c.m. --------- hortensis changeable-flowered ditto c.m. --------- glauca glaucous-leaved ditto b.l. --------- radiata rayed-flowered ditto b.l. dodecandria monogynia. halesia tetraptera wing-seeded snow-drop tree c.m. dodecandria trigynia. euphorbia spinosa shrubby euphorbia b.l. aristotelia macqui shining-leaved aristotelia b.s. icosandria monogynia. philadelphus coronarius common syringa c.m. ------------ nanus dwarf ditto c.m. punica granatum. w. pomegranata l.w.s. ------ flore pleno. w. double-flowered ditto l.w.s. ------ flore luteo. w. yellow-flowered ditto l.w.s. ------ flore albo. w. white-flowered ditto l.w.s. ------ nana. w. dwarf ditto l.w.s. amygdalus persica peach tree c.m. --------- v. flore pleno double-flowering ditto c.m. --------- v. nectarina nectarine c.m. --------- nana rough-leaved almond c.m. --------- pumila dwarf ditto c.m. --------- communis common ditto c.m. --------- fol. variegat. striped-leaved ditto c.m. --------- chinensis chinese ditto c.m. --------- orientalis silvery-leaved ditto c.m. --------- sibirica siberian ditto c.m. prunus virginiana virginian bird-cherry c.m. ------ caroliniana carolinian ditto c.m. ------ lusitanica portugal laurel c.m. lauro-cerasus common laurel c.m. ----- maheleb perfumed cherry c.m. ----- armeniaca apricot tree c.m. ----- pumila dwarf bird-cherry c.m. ----- pendula weeping cherry c.m. ----- pennsylvanica pennsylvanian bird-cherry c.m. ----- nigra black ditto c.m. ----- cerasifera mirobalum plum-tree c.m. ----- rubra cornish bird-cherry c.m. ----- cerasus, v. flore pleno double-flowering ditto c.m. ----- domestica common plum c.m. ----- v. flore pleno double-flowering ditto c.m. ----- sibirica siberian ditto c.m. icosandria digynia. crataegus crus galli cockspur thorn c.m. -------- v. pyracanthifolia pyracanthus-leaved ditto c.m. -------- salicifolia willow-leaved ditto c.m. -------- aria, v. suecica swedish white beam tree c.m. -------- coccinea american hawthorn c.m. -------- sanguinea bloody ditto c.m. -------- cordata maple-leaved ditto c.m. -------- pyrifolia pear-leaved ditto c.m. -------- elliptica oval-leaved ditto c.m. -------- glandulosa hollow-leaved ditto c.m. -------- flava yellow-berried ditto c.m. -------- parviflora gooseberry-leaved ditto c.m. -------- punctata great-fruited ditto c.m. -------- v. aurea great yellow-fruited ditto c.m. -------- azarolus parsley-leaved ditto c.m. -------- monogynia, v. coc. scarlet thorn c.m. -------- tomentosa woolly-leaved ditto c.m. -------- odoratissima sweet-scented ditto c.m. icosandria pentagynia. mespillus pyracantha evergreen thorn c.m. --------- chamae mespillus bastard quince c.m. --------- canadensis snowy service c.m. --------- cotoneaster dwarf mespilus c.m. --------- arbutifolia arbutus-leaved ditto c.m. --------- fructu rubro red-fruited ditto c.m. --------- fructu albo white-fruited ditto c.m. --------- tomentosa woolly ditto c.m. --------- amelanchier alpine ditto c.m. --------- pennsylvanica pennsylvanian ditto c.m. pyrus pollveria woolly-leaved pear-tree c.m. ----- spectabilis chinese apple-tree c.m. ----- prunifolia large siberian crab c.m. pyrus baccata small siberian crab c.m. ----- coronaria sweet-scented ditto c.m. ----- angustifolia narrow-leaved ditto c.m. ----- cydonia common quince c.m. ----- salicifolia willow-leaved crab c.m. ----- praecox early-flowering ditto c.m. spiraea laevigata smooth-leaved spiraea c.m. ------ salicifolia willow-leaved ditto c.m. ------ v. paniculata panicled ditto c.m. ------ v. latifolia broad-leaved ditto c.m. ------ tomentosa woolly-leaved ditto c.m. ------ hypericifolia hypericum-leaved ditto c.m. ------ crenata crenated ditto c.m. ------ chamaedrifolia germander-leaved ditto c.m. ------ thalictroides meadow rue leaved ditto l. ------ opulifolia guelder rose leaved ditto c.m. ------ sorbifolia mountain ash-leaved ditto b.m. ------ sibirica siberian ditto c.m. icosandria polygynia. rosa lutea single yellow rose l. ---- bicolor red and yellow austrian ditto l. ---- sulphurea double yellow ditto l.s. ---- blanda hudson's bay ditto l. ---- cinnamonema. fl. pl. double cinnamon ditto c.m. ---- pimpinellifolia small burnet-leaved ditto c.m. ---- spinosissima v. striped-flowered scotch rose c.m. ---- v. ruberrima red scotch ditto c.m. ---- v. flore pleno double scotch ditto c.m. ---- v. altissima tall scotch ditto c.m. ---- v. versicolor marbled scotch ditto c.m. ---- carolina single burnet-leaved ditto c.m. ---- v. flore-pleno double burnet-leaved ditto c.m. ---- v. pimpinellifolia single pennsylvanian ditto c.m. ---- v. pimpinellifol. fl. pl. double pennsylvanian ditto b.m. ---- v. diffusa spreading carolina ditto c.m. ---- v. stricta upright carolina rose c.m. ---- villosa, v. flore pleno double apple-bearing ditto c.m. ---- provincialis common provins ditto c.m. ---- v. ruberrima scarlet provins ditto c.m. ---- v. pallida blush provins ditto c.m. ---- v. alba white provins ditto c.m. ---- v. multiflora rose de meaux c.m. ---- v. bicolor rose de pompone c.m. ---- v. humilis rose de rheims c.m. ---- v. prolifera childing's provins ditto c.m. ---- v. lusitanica blandford or portugal ditto c.m. ---- v. ---------- rose st. francis c.m. rosa provincialis v. ---- shailer's provins ditto c.m. ---- ferox hedgehog ditto c.m. ---- brancteata ld. macartney's white rose c.m. ---- centifolia dutch hundred-leaved ditto c.m. ---- v. rubicans blush hundred-leaved ditto c.m. ---- v. singletoniae singleton's hundred-leaved do. c.m. ---- v. holosericea single velvet ditto c.m. ---- v. holoserica fl. pl. double velvet ditto c.m. ---- v. sultana sultan rose c.m. ---- v. stebennensis stepney ditto c.m. ---- v. ------------ lisbon ditto c.m. ---- v. ------------ bishop ditto c.m. ---- v. ------------ cardinal ditto c.m. ---- v. ------------ blush royal ditto c.m. ---- v. ------------ petit hundred-leaved ditto c.m. ---- v. ------------ pluto ditto c.m. ---- v. ------------ monstrous hundred-leaved do. c.m. ---- v. ------------ fringe ditto c.m. ---- v. ------------ plicate ditto c.m. ---- v. ------------ two-coloured hund.-leaved do. c.m. ---- v. ------------ shell ditto c.m. ---- parvifolia burgundy rose b.m. ---- gallica red officinal rose c.m. ---- v. versicolor rosa mundi c.m. ---- v. marmorea marbled rose c.m. ---- v. royal virgin ditto c.m. ---- v. major giant ditto c.m. ---- damascena red damask ditto c.m. ---- v. rubicans blush damask ditto c.m. ---- v. versicolor york and lancaster ditto c.m. ---- v. menstrualis red monthly ditto c.m. ---- v. menstrualis alba white monthly ditto c.m. ---- v. belgica blush belgic ditto c.m. ---- v. ------- great royal ditto c.m. ---- v. ------- blush monthly ditto c.m. ---- v. ------- red belgic ditto c.m. ---- v. ------- goliah rose c.m. ---- v. ------- imperial blush ditto c.m. ---- multiflora many-flowered ditto c.m. ---- sempervirens. c. evergreen rose c.m. ---- turbinata frankfort ditto c.m. ---- rubiginosa v. semidoule sweet briar c.m. ---- v. muscosa mossy ditto c.m. ---- v. sempervirens manning's blush ditto c.m. ---- v. flore pleno double red ditto c.m. ---- v. royal ditto c.m. ---- muscosa moss provence rose c.m. ---- moschata single musk ditto c.m. rosa v. flore pleno double musk rose c.m. ---- alpina alpine rose c.m. ---- v. rubro red alpine ditto c.m. ---- canina, v. flore pleno double dog-rose c.m. ---- pendulina rose without thorns c.m. ---- alba single white rose c.m. ---- v. flore pleno double white ditto c.m. ---- v. prolifera cluster maiden's blush ditto c.m. ---- v. major great maiden's blush ditto c.m. ---- procera tall rose c.m. ---- americana american yellow ditto c.m. rubus occidentalis american bramble c.m. ----- odoratus flowering ditto c.m. ----- fruticosus inermis. c. bramble without thorns c.m. ----- v. laciniata. c. cut-leaved bramble c.m. ----- v. flore pleno double-flowered ditto c.m. calycanthus floridus carolina allspice l. ----------- v. oblongus long-leaved ditto l. ----------- praecox. w. early-flowered chinese ditto l.s. polyandria monogynia. tilia americana broad-leaved american lime c.m. ----- v. corallina red-twigged ditto c.m. ----- pubescens pubescent ditto c.m. ----- alba white-leaved ditto c.m. cistus populifolius poplar-leaved cistus l.s. ------ v. minor small poplar-leaved ditto l.s. ------ laurifolius laurel-leaved ditto l.s. ------ ladaniferus gum cistus c.m. ------ monspeliensis montpellier cistus l.s. ------ laxus waved-leaved ditto l.s. ------ salvifolius sage-leaved ditto l.s. ------ incanus hoary ditto l.s. ------ albidus white-leaved ditto l.s. ------ crispus curled-leaved ditto l.s. ------ halimifolius sea purslane-leaved ditto l.s. ------ halimifol. v. angustifol. narrow-leaved cistus l.s. ------ umbellatus umbelled-flowered ditto l.s. ------ roseus red-leaved ditto l.s. ------ marifolius marum-leaved ditto l.s. ------ tuberaria plantain-leaved ditto l.s. ------ apenninus apennine ditto c.m. ------ mutabilis changeable ditto l.s. polyandria digynia. fothergillia alnifolia alder-leaved fothergillia b.s. polyandria digynia. liriodendron tulipifera common tulip tree c.m. magnolia grandiflora laurel-leaved magnolia b.l.s. -------- v. obovata broad-leaved ditto b.l.s. -------- v. lanceolata long-leaved ditto b.l.s. -------- v. ferruginea ferrugineous ditto b.l.s. -------- glauca swamp ditto b.l.s. -------- acuminata blue-flowering ditto b.l.s. -------- tripetala umbrella tree b.l.s. -------- auriculata large-leaved ditto b.l.s. -------- purpurea purple chinese ditto b.l.s. annona triloba trifid-fruited custard apple b.l.s. atragena alpina. c. alpine atragena b.l. -------- austriaca. c. austrian ditto b.l. clematis cirrhosa. c. evergreen virgin's bower b.l. -------- florida. c. large-flowered ditto b.l. -------- flore pleno double ditto c.m. -------- viticella. c. purple-flowered ditto b.l. -------- v. fl. pleno. c. double purple-flowered ditto c.m. -------- crispa. c. curled-flowered ditto b.l. -------- orientalis. c. eastern ditto b.l. -------- virginiana. c. virginian ditto c.m. -------- flammula. c. sweet-scented ditto c.m. didynamia gymnospermia. teucrium flavum yellow teucrium l.s. satureja montana winter savory c.m. hyssopus officinalis common hyssop c.m. lavandula spica lavender c.m. --------- v. flore albo white-flowered ditto c.m. --------- stoechas french ditto c.m.s. phlomis fruticosa jerusalem sage c.m. thymus vulgaris common thyme c.m. ------ v. fol. variegat. silver thyme c.m. ------ vulgaris. latifolia broad-leaved thyme c.m. ------ zygis linear-leaved ditto c.m. didynamia angiospermia. bignonia catalpa common catalpa c.m. -------- radicans great trumpet flower c.m. -------- v. minor small ditto c.m. -------- capreolata four-leaved ditto l.s. vitex agnus castus chaste tree c.m. ----- v. latifolia broad-leaved ditto c.m. tetradynamia siliculosa. vella pseudo-cytisus shrubby vella l.s. monadelphia polyandria. hibiscus syriacus althaea frutex c.m. -------- v. ruber red-flowered ditto c.m. -------- v. albus white-flowered ditto c.m. -------- v. fol. variegat. striped-leaved ditto c.m. -------- v. flore pleno double white-flowered ditto c.m. stuartia malacodendron common stuartia b.l.s. -------- marilandia maryland ditto b.l.s. gordonia pubescens loblolly bay b.l.s. diadelphia octandria. polygala chamaebuxus box-leaved milkwort b.m. diadelphia decandria. spartium junceum spanish broom c.m. -------- flore pleno double-flowered ditto l.s. -------- decumbens trailing broom c.m. -------- scorpius scorpion ditto c.m. -------- multiflorum portugal white ditto c.m. -------- patens woolly-podded ditto c.m. -------- purgans purging ditto c.m. -------- radiatum starry ditto b.m. genista candicans evergreen genista c.m. ------- triquetra triangular ditto c.m. ------- sagittalis jointed ditto l. ------- sibirica siberian ditto c.m. ------- germanica german ditto l. ------- hispanica spanish ditto l. ------- lusitanica portugal ditto l. amorpha fruticosa bastard indigo c.m. ononis rotundifolia round-leaved rest-harrow l. ------ fruticosa shrubby ditto l. glycine frutescens shrubby kidney-bean tree c.m. cytisus laburnum common laburnum c.m. ------- v. latifolium scotch ditto c.m. ------- alpinus alpine cytisus c.m. ------- nigricans black ditto c.m. ------- divaricatus divaricated ditto c.m. ------- sessifolius sessile-leaved ditto c.m. ------- hirsutus hairy evergreen ditto c.m.s. ------- purpureus purple-flowered ditto b.l. ------- austriacus austrian ditto l. ------- supinus trailing ditto l. ------- capitatus large yellow-flowered ditto c.m. ------- biflorus two-flowered ditto c.m. robinia pseudo-acacia common acacia c.m. ------- hispida rose acacia c.m. robinia glutinosa glutinous acacia c.m. ------- caragana caragana ditto c.m. ------- altagana siberian ditto l. ------- chamlagu shining-leaved ditto l. ------- spinosa thorny ditto l. ------- halodendron salt tree l. ------- frutescens shrubby robinia l. ------- pygmea dwarf ditto l. ------- jubata bearded ditto l. colutea arborescens common bladder senna c.m. ------- cruenta eastern ditto c.m. ------- pococki pocock's ditto c.m. coronilla emeris scorpion senna c.m. astralagus tragacantha goat's thorn l. polyadelphia polyandria. hypericum calycinum great-flowered st. john's-wort c.m. --------- hircinum foetid ditto c.m. --------- v. minus lesser foetid ditto c.m. --------- elatum tall ditto c.m. --------- prolificum proliferous ditto c.m. --------- olympicum olympian ditto l.s. --------- kalmianum kalmia-leaved ditto c.m. syngenesia polygamia aequalis. santolina chamaecyparissus lavender cotton c.m. --------- rosmarinifolius rosemary-leaved ditto c.m. syngenesia polygamia superflua. gnaphalium stoechas narrow-leaved everlasting l.s. baccharis halimifolia groundsel tree c.m. cineraria maritima sea rag-wort l.s. gynandria pentandria. passiflora caerulea. c. blue passion flower c.m.s. gynandria hexandria. aristolochia sipho. c. tree birthwort l. monoecia triandria. axyris ceratoides shrubby axyris l.s. comptonia asplenifolia fern-leaved gale b.s. monoecia tetrandria. aucuba japonica blotched-leaved aucuba l.b.s. betula populifolia poplar-leaved birch c.m. ------ nigra black ditto c.m. ------ papyracea paper ditto c.m. ------ pumila hairy-leaved dwarf ditto b.m. ------ oblongata oblong-leaved ditto c.m. ------ laciniata cut-leaved alder c.m. ------ incana glaucous-leaved alder c.m. ------ v. angulata elm-leaved ditto c.m. buxus balearicus minorca box l.s. ----- semperv. v. variegat. striped-leaved ditto c.m. ----- v. angustifolia narrow-leaved ditto c.m. morus alba white mulberry c.m. ----- nigra black ditto c.m. ----- papyracea paper ditto c.m. ----- rubra red ditto c.m. monoecia pentandria. iva frutescens bastard jesuit's-bark tree c.m. monoecia polyandria. quercus phellos willow-leaved oak l. ------- v. serioea dwarf willow-leaved ditto l. ------- ilex evergreen oak c.m. ------- v. serrata sawed-leaved evergreen ditto c.m. ------- v. oblonga oblong-leaved evergreen do. c.m. ------- suber cork tree c.m. ------- virens live oak c.m. ------- prinos chesnut-leaved oak l.s. ------- v. oblonga long-leaved ditto l. ------- aquatica water oak l. ------- v. heterophylla various-leaved water oak l. ------- v. elongata long-leaved water ditto l. ------- v. indivisa entire-leaved water ditto l. ------- v. attenuata narrow-leaved water ditto l. ------- nigra black oak c.m. ------- rubra red ditto c.m. ------- v. coccinea scarlet ditto c.m. ------- v. montana mountain red ditto c.m. ------- discolor downy-leaved ditto c.m. ------- alba white oak c.m. ------- aegilops large prickly-cupped ditto l. ------- cerris turkey oak c.m. fagus pumila chinquapin chesnut l.s. ----- ferruginea copper beech c.m. ----- sylvatica v. purpurea purple ditto c.m. ----- v. asplenifolia fern-leaved ditto c.m. carpinus virginiana virginian hornbeam c.m. carpinus ostrya hop hornbeam c.m. corylus rostrata american cuckold nut c.m. ------- colurna constantinople ditto c.m. platanus orientalis palmated plane tree c.m. -------- v. acerifolia maple-leaved ditto c.m. -------- v. undulata waved-leaved ditto c.m. -------- occidentalis lobed-leaved ditto c.m. liquidamber styraciflua maple-leaved gum tree l. monoecia monadelphia. pinus pinaster pinaster c.m. ----- inops jersey pine l. ----- resinosa pitch ditto l. ----- halepensis aleppo pine l. ----- pinea stone pine l. ----- taeda frankincense ditto l. ----- v. rigida three-leaved ditto l. ----- v. variabilis two and three-leaved ditto l. ----- v. alopecuroides fox-tail ditto l. ----- v. cembra siberian stone ditto c.m. ----- strobus weymouth ditto c.m. ----- cedrus cedar of lebanon c.m. ----- larix red larch c.m. ----- v. pendula black larch c.m. ----- picea silver fir c.m. ----- balsamea balm of gilead fir c.m. ----- canadensis hemlock spruce fir c.m. ----- nigra black ditto c.m. ----- alba white ditto c.m. ----- abies red or common ditto c.m. ----- sylvestris v. tatarica tartarian pine l. ----- v. montana mountain ditto l. ----- v. divaricata hudson's bay ditto l. ----- v. maritima sea pine l. thuja occidentalis american arbor-vitae c.m. ----- orientalis chinese ditto c.m. cupressus sempervirens upright cypress c.m. --------- v. horizontalis male spreading ditto c.m. --------- disticha deciduous ditto c.m. --------- v. nutans long-leaved deciduous ditto l. --------- thyoides arbor-vitae-leaved ditto c.m. --------- pendula cedar of goa l.s. dioecia diandria. salix phylicaefolia phylica-leaved willow c.m. ----- babylonica weeping willow c.m. ----- retusa blunt-leaved ditto c.m. salix incubacea spreading willow c.m. ----- ulmifolia elm-leaved ditto c.m. ----- hastata halbert-leaved ditto c.m. ----- myrtilloides myrtle-leaved ditto c.m. ----- lapponum lapland ditto c.m. ----- tristis narrow-leaved american ditto c.m. dioecia triandria. empetrum rubrum red crow berry b.m. hippophaë canadensis canada sea buck-thorn b.l.s. myrica cerifera candleberry myrtle b.l. ------ v. latifolia broad-leaved ditto b.l. dioecia pentandria. pistachia terebinthus pistachia nut tree l.s. xanthoxylum clava herculis tooth-ach tree c.m. dioecia hexandria. smilax aspera. c. rough bindweed l.b. ------ lanceolata. c. spear-leaved ditto l.b. ------ rotundifolia. c. round-leaved ditto l.b. ------ bona nox. c. ciliated ditto l.b. ------ laurifolia. c. laurel-leaved ditto l.b. ------ sassaparilla. c. sassaparilla ditto l.b. ------ tamnoides. c. briony-leaved ditto l.b. ------ caduca. c. deciduous ditto l.b. dioecia octandria. populus dilatata lombardy poplar c.m. ------- balsamifera tacamahac ditto c.m. ------- candicans white-leaved ditto c.m. ------- laevigata smooth-leaved ditto c.m. ------- monilifera canadian ditto c.m. ------- graeca athenian ditto c.m. ------- heterophylla various-leaved ditto c.m. ------- angulata carolina ditto c.m. dioecia decandria. coriaria myrtifolia myrtle-leaved sumach c.m. dioecia dodecandria. menispermum canadense. c. canada moon-seed l.b. ----------- carolinianum. c. carolina ditto l.b. dioecia monadelphia. juniperus thuifera spanish juniper c.m. --------- sabina common savin c.m. --------- v. tamariscifolia tamarisk-leaved ditto c.m. juniperus v. fol. variegat. variegated savin c.m. --------- virginiana red cedar c.m. --------- repens creeping ditto c.m. --------- oxycedrus brown-berried ditto l.b.s. --------- phoenicea phoenicean ditto l.b.s. --------- bermudiana bermudian ditto l.b.s. --------- communis v. suecica swedish ditto c.m. --------- montana alpine ditto l.b. ephedra monostachya shrubby horse tail l.b. ------- distachya greater ditto l.b. cissampelos smilacina smilax-leaved cissampelos l.b. dioecia syngenesia. ruscus hypoglossum broad-leaved alexandrian laurel c.m. ------ hypophyllum double-leaved ditto b.m. ------ racemosus common ditto b.m. polygamia monoecia. atriplex halimus sea purslane c.m. acer tataricum tartarian maple c.m. ---- rubrum scarlet ditto c.m. ---- v. pallidum pale ditto c.m. ---- saccharinum sugar maple c.m. ---- platanoides plane-leaved ditto c.m. ---- v. laciniatum cut-leaved ditto c.m. ---- montanum mountain ditto c.m. ---- pensylvanicum pennsylvanian ditto c.m. ---- monspessulanum montpellier ditto c.m. ---- creticum cretan ditto c.m. ---- negundo ash-leaved ditto c.m. ---- opalus italian ditto c.m. polygamia dioecia. gleditsia triacanthos three-thorned acacia c.m. --------- v. horrida strong-spined ditto c.m. --------- v. monosperma single-seeded ditto c.m. fraxinus rotundifolia round-leaved ash c.m. -------- excelsior v. crispa curled-leaved ditto c.m. -------- v. diversifolia various-leaved ditto c.m. -------- v. pendula weeping ash c.m. -------- v. striata striped-barked ditto c.m. -------- v. variegata blotch-leaved ditto c.m. -------- ornus flowering ditto c.m. -------- americana american ditto c.m. -------- chinensis chinese ditto c.m. -------- rotundifolia round-leaved ditto c.m. diospyrus lotus date plum tree c.m. diospyrus virginiana virginian plum tree c.m. nyssa integrifolia mountain tupello l.b. ----- denticulata water ditto l.b. polygamia trioecia. ficus garica common fig-tree c.m. * * * * * foreign hardy herbaceous plants. in enumerating the foregoing, as well as the plants of the present section, i have had more than one object in view; being desirous to put in only such plants as were ornamental or curious, at the same time to insert none but what are perfectly hardy; yet, independently of this, to make it sufficiently general, to give to such persons who might wish to study plants scientifically, a sufficient number for examples in every genus. for this purpose i have retained a portion of the umbelliferous and other plants. although not to be distinguished for their general beauty or appearance, yet they are calculated to afford the student the best plants for comparison, and for that reason i have arranged them according to the linnaean system. diandria monogynia. veronica sibirica siberian speedwell c.m. -------- virginica virginian ditto c.m. -------- spuria bastard ditto c.m. -------- maritima blue-flowered sea ditto c.m. -------- longifolia long-leaved ditto c.m. -------- incana hoary ditto c.m. -------- incicisa cut-leaved ditto c.m. -------- allioni creeping ditto c.m. -------- teucrium hungarian ditto c.m. -------- urticaefolia nettle-leaved ditto c.m. -------- orientalis oriental ditto c.m. -------- candida white-leaved ditto c.m. -------- multifida multifid ditto c.m. -------- latifolia broad-leaved ditto c.m. verinoca prostrata trailing sea speedwell c.m. -------- austriaca austrian ditto c.m. -------- pinnata wing'd-leaved ditto c.m. -------- paniculata panicled ditto c.m. -------- gentianoides gentian-leaved ditto c.m. gratiola officinalis hedge-hyssop c.m. verbena urticaefolia nettle-leaved vervain c.m. lycopus virginicus virginian lycopus c.m. monarda fistulosa hollow-stalked monarda l. ------- didyma scarlet ditto l. ------- purpurea purple ditto l. salvia lyrata lyre-leaved sage l.b. ------ virgata twiggy-branched ditto c.m. ------ sylvestris spotted-stalked ditto c.m. ------ nemorosa spear-leaved ditto c.m. ------ austriaca austrian ditto c.m. ------ disermas long-spiked ditto c.m. ------ verticillata whorl-flowered ditto c.m. ------ glutinosa yellow-flowered ditto c.m. ------ lineata flax-leaved ditto l.b. collinsonia canadensis nettle-leaved collinsonia c.m. triandria monogynia. valeriana phu garden valerian c.m. ixia chinensis chinese ixia l.b. galdiolus communis common red corn-flag c.m. --------- byzantinus larger ditto c.m. iris susiana chalcedonian iris l.b. ---- florentina florentine ditto c.m. ---- germanica german ditto c.m. ---- lurida dingy ditto c.m. ---- sambucina elder-scented ditto c.m. ---- dalmatica dalmatian ditto c.m. ---- variegata variegated-flowered ditto c.m. ---- biflora two-flowered ditto l.b. ---- pumila dwarf ditto c.m. ---- sibirica siberian ditto c.m. ---- squalens brown-flowered ditto c.m. ---- versicolor various coloured ditto c.m. ---- spuria spurious ditto c.m. ---- ochroleuca pale yellow ditto c.m. ---- graminea grass-leaved ditto c.m. ---- ephium spanish bulbous ditto c.m. ---- ephioides english bulbous ditto c.m. ---- persica persian ditto l.b. ---- halophila long-leaved ditto c.m. ---- subbiflora one- and two-flowered ditto c.m. ---- virginica virginian ditto c.m. iris aphylla naked-stalked iris c.m. ---- flexuosa bending-stalked ditto c.m. commelina erecta upright commelina c.m. tetrandria monogynia. scabiosa alpina alpine scabious c.m. -------- leucantha snowy ditto c.m. -------- sylvatica broad-leaved ditto c.m. -------- ochroleuca pale white ditto c.m. crucianella anomala anomalous crucianella c.m. asperula taurina broad-leaved woodroof c.m. plantago maxima broad-leaved plantain c.m. -------- v. rosea rose ditto c.m. -------- altissima tall ditto c.m. -------- asiatica asiatic ditto c.m. sanguisorba media short-spiked burnet-saxifrage c.m. -------- canadensis canadian ditto c.m. pentandria monogynia. anchusa angustifolia narrow-leaved bugloss c.m. pulmonaria angustifolia narrow-leaved lungwort l.b. ---------- virginica virginian ditto l.b. borago orientalis eastern borage l.b. symphytum orientale eastern comfrey l.b. --------- asperrimum siberian ditto c.m. hydrophyllum virginicum virginian water-leaf l.b. ------------ canadense canadian ditto l.b. lysimachia ephemeron willow-leaved loose-strife l. ---------- stricta bulb-bearing ditto b.s. ---------- ciliata ciliated ditto c.m. plumbago europaea european lead-wort c.m. phlox paniculata panicled lychnidea c.m. ----- undulata wave-leaved ditto c.m. ----- suaveolens white-flowered ditto c.m. ----- carolina carolina ditto c.m. ----- maculata spotted-stalked ditto c.m. ----- glaberrima smooth-stalked ditto c.m. convolvulus americanus american bind-weed c.m. polemonium reptans creeping greek valerian c.m. campanula persicifolia peach-leaved campanula l. --------- pyramidalis pyramidal ditto l. --------- lilifolia lily ditto c.m. --------- rapunculoides nettle-leaved ditto c.m. -------- americana american ditto l. -------- versicolor various-coloured ditto l.b. -------- sibirica siberian ditto l.b. phyteuma spicata spike-flowered horn-rampion c.m. triosteum perfoliatum fever wort l.b. verbascum ferrugineum rusty-leaved mullein l. -------- phoeniceum purple-flowered ditto l. hyoscyamus scopolia nightshade-leaved henbane b. physalis alkekengi winter cherry c.m. atropa mandragora mandrake l.s. viola montana mountain violet c.m. tabernamonta amsonia alternate-leaved taberna montana ------------ angustifolia narrow-leaved ditto l.s. pentandria digynia. apocynum venetum spear-leaved dog's-bane c.m. -------- androsaemifolium fly-catching ditto l.b. -------- cannabium hemp-leaved ditto c.m. asclepius syriaca syrian swallow-wort c.m. --------- amoena oval-leaved ditto c.m. --------- incarnata flesh-coloured ditto c.m. --------- sibirica siberian ditto l.b. --------- vincetoxicum officinal ditto c.m. --------- exaltata tall ditto l.b. --------- tuberosa orange apocynum or ditto l.b. --------- nigra black ditto c.m. heuchera americana american spanicle c.m. gentiana lutea yellow gentian l.b. -------- saponaria soapwort-leaved ditto l.b. --------- cruciata cross-wort ditto l.b. eryngium planum flat-leaved eryngo l. -------- amethystinum amethystian ditto l. -------- bourgati cut-leaved ditto l. -------- alpinum alpine ditto l. astrantia major great black masterwort c.m. ferrula communis gigantic fennel l. ------- nodiflora knotted ditto l. laserpitium latifolium broad-leaved laser-wort l. heracleum elegans elegant-leaved cow parsnep c.m. ligusticum laevisticum common lovage c.m. ---------- peloponnese hemlock-leaved ditto c.m. angelica archangelica garden angelica c.m. sium falcaria creeping-rooted skirret l.b. phellandrium mutellina mountain phellandrium l.b. chaerophyllum bulbosum bulbous-rooted chaerophyllum c.m. ------------ hirsutum hairy ditto c.m. ------------ aromaticum sweet-scented ditto c.m. sesseli montanum long-leaved meadow-saxifrage c.m. thapsia villosa deadly carrot c.m. smyrnium aureum golden alexanders l.b. pentandria pentagynia. aralia racemosa berry-bearing aralia c.m. aralia nudicaulis naked-stalk'd atalia l.b. statice cephalotes large single-stalk'd statice l. ------- speciosa plaintain-leaved ditto l. ------- tatarica tartarian ditto l. hexandria monogynia. tradescantia virginica virginian spider-wort c.m. narcissus angustifolius narrow-leaved narcissus c.m. --------- biflorus two-flowered ditto c.m. --------- majalis late-flowering white ditto c.m. narcissus incomparabilis peerless daffodil c.m. --------- major large ditto c.m. --------- orientalis oriental ditto c.m. --------- tazetta polyanthus narcissus c.m. --------- odorus sweet-scented ditto c.m. --------- jonquilla jonquil c.m. --------- hispanicus spanish-white ditto c.m. --------- bulbocodium hoop petticoat ditto l.b. --------- minor lesser daffodil c.m. amaryllis lutea yellow amaryllis l. allium victorialis long rooted garlick c.m. ------ sphaerocephalon small round-headed ditto c.m. ------ descendens purple-headed ditto c.m. ------ nutans nodding ditto c.m. ------ senescens narcissus-leaved garlick c.m. ------ multibulbosum broad-leaved ditto c.m. ------ flavum yellow garlick c.m. ------ moly yellow moly c.m. ------ tartaricum tartarian garlick c.m. ------ subhirsutum hairy ditto c.m. ------ pallens pale-flowered ditto c.m. lilium candidum white lilly c.m. ------ bulbiferum orange ditto c.m. ------ pomponium pomponian ditto b.m. ------ chalcedonium scarlet martagon ditto c.m. ------ superbum superb ditto b.m. ------ martagon common martagon ditto c.m. ------ canadense canada-martagon ditto b.m. ------ tigrinum tiger lily l.b. ------ philadelphicum philadelphia lily b.m.s. ------ catesbaei catesby's lily b.m.s. fritillaria imperialis crown imperial c.m. ----------- persica persian fritillary l. ----------- pyrenaica pyrenean fritillary c.m. uvularia perfoliata perfoliate uvularia l.b. -------- amplexifolia heart-leaved ditto l.b. -------- grandiflora large-flowered ditto c.m. erythronium dens canis dog's-tooth violet c.m. tulipa sylvestris italian yellow tulip c.m. ------ gesneriana common garden ditto c.m. hypoxis erecta upright hypoxis c.m. ornithogalum nutans nodding star of bethlehem c.m. ------------ pyrenaicum pyrenean ditto c.m. ------------ latifolium broad-leaved ditto c.m. scilla peruviana peruvian-hyacinth c.m. ------ campanulata spansh squill c.m. ------ bifolia two-leaved ditto l.b. ------ praecox siberian ditto l.b. ------ italica italian ditto c.m. ------ amoena early-flowering ditto c.m. asphodelus luteus yellow asphodel c.m. ---------- ramosus branching ditto c.m. anthericum ramosum branching anthericum c.m. ---------- liliago grass-leaved ditto c.m. ---------- liliastrum st. bruno's lily c.m. convallaria verticillata verticillate solomon's seal l. ----------- racemosa branching ditto l. ----------- stellata starry ditto l. hyacinthus orientalis garden hyacinth c.m. ---------- romanus roman ditto l. ---------- cernuus nodding ditto c.m. ---------- muscaria musk ditto c.m. ---------- monstrosus feathered ditto c.m. ---------- comosus purple-grape or tassel ditto c.m. ---------- botryoides blue-grape ditto c.m. ---------- racemosus starch ditto c.m. aletris uvaria orange-flowered aletris l.s. yucca gloriosa superb adam's needle l.s. ----- filamentosa thready ditto c.m. hemerocallis flava yellow day lily c.m. ------------ coerulea blue ditto l.s. ------------ alba white ditto l.s. ------------ fulva tawny ditto c.m. ------------ graminea grass-leaved ditto c.m. hexandria trigynia. rumex patentia patience dock c.m. ----- italicus italian ditto c.m. ----- alpinus alpine ditto c.m. hexandria tetragynia. saururus cernuus lizard's tail c.m. -------- lucidus shining-leaved ditto c.m. octandria monogynia. oenothera fruticosa shrubby oenothera c.m. oenothera misouriensis misour oenothera l.b. --------- fraseri fraser's ditto l.b. --------- angustifolia narrow-leaved shrubby ditto c.m. epilobium angustissimum narrowest-leaved willow-herb c.m. --------- dodonaei dodonaeus's ditto l.b. octandria trigynia. polygonum divaricatum divaricated polygonum c.m. --------- scandens climbing ditto c.m. --------- undulatum waved-leaved ditto c.m. --------- ochreatum spear-leaved ditto c.m. --------- virginicum virginian ditto c.m. enneandria tetragynia. rheum rhaponticum rhapontic rhubarb c.m. ----- undulatum waved-leaved ditto c.m. ----- palmatum palmated-leaved ditto c.m. ----- tataricum tartarian ditto c.m. ----- hybridum bastard ditto c.m. ----- compactum compact ditto c.m. decandria monogynia. sophora flavescens siberian sophora l.b. ------- alopecuroides fox-tail ditto l.b. ------- australis blue australian ditto l.b. ------- alba white ditto l.b. cassia marilandica maryland cassia l. dictamnus rubra fraxinella c.m. decandria digynia. saxifraga crassifolia oval-leaved saxifrage c.m. --------- cordifolia heart-leaved ditto c.m. --------- geum kidney-leaved ditto c.m. --------- geranoides crane's-bill-leaved ditto c.m. --------- pensylvanica pennsylvanian ditto l.b. --------- hieracifolia hawkweed-leaved ditto c.m. gypsophila paniculata panicled gypsophila c.m. ---------- altissima tall ditto c.m. dianthus barbatus common sweet william c.m. -------- hybridus mule pink c.m. -------- superbus superb ditto c.m. decandria trigynia. cucabulus viscosus clammy bladder campion c.m. --------- tataricus tartarian ditto c.m. --------- stellatus starry ditto l.b. silene longiflora long-flowered catchfly c.m. decandria pentagynia. sedum majus great stonecrop c.m. ----- aizoon yellow ditto c.m. agrostemma coronaria common rose campion c.m. ---------- flos jovis umbell'd ditto c.m. lychnis chalcedonia scarlet lychnis c.m. cerastium repens creeping mouse-ear chickweed c.m. --------- dioicum spanish ditto c.m. --------- tomentosum wooly-leaved ditto c.m. --------- sufruticosum shrubby ditto c.m. --------- strictum upright ditto c.m. decandria decagynia. phytolacca decandra branching phytolacca l.b. dodecandria monogynia. lythrum virgatum fine-branched willow-herb c.m. dodecandria digynia. agrimonia odorata sweet-scented agrimony c.m. --------- repens creeping ditto c.m. --------- agrimonoides three-leaved ditto c.m. dodecandria trigynia. euphorbia coralloides coral-stalk'd spurge l. --------- pilosa hairy ditto l. --------- esula gromwell-leaved ditto l. --------- falcata sickle-leaved ditto l. --------- cyparissias cypress ditto c.m. --------- palustris marsh ditto l.b. --------- verrucosa warted ditto l. --------- multicorymbosa flax-leaved ditto c.m. dodecandria pentagynia. spiraea aruncus goat's-beard meadow sweet c.m. ------ lobata lobe-leaved ditto l. ------ trifoliata three-leaved ditto l.b. icosandria polygynia. fragaria monophylla one-leaved strawberry c.m. -------- virginiana virginian ditto c.m. -------- grandiflora pine ditto c.m. -------- chiliensis chili or white ditto c.m. potentilla pensylvanica pensylvanian cinquefoil c.m. ---------- recta upright ditto c.m. ---------- hirta hairy ditto c.m. ---------- mutlifida cut-leaved ditto c.m. ---------- norwegica norway ditto c.m. potentilla grandiflora great-flowered cinquefoil c.m. ---------- monspeliensis montpelier ditto c.m. geum virginicum virginian avens c.m. ---- strictum upright ditto c.m. ---- potentilloides cinquefoil ditto c.m. ---- montanum mountain ditto c.m. polyandria monogynia. actea racemosa american herb-christopher c.m. podophyllum peltatum duck's-foot, or may-apple c.m. chelidonium laciniatum cut-leaved celandine c.m. papaver orientale oriental poppy c.m. polyandria digynia. paeonia coralloides female paeony l. ------ humilis dwarf ditto l. ------ albiflora white-flowered ditto l. ------ officinalis common or male ditto c.m. ------ tenuiflora fine-leaved ditto c.m. ------ fimbriata fringed-flowered ditto c.m. ------ anomala siberian ditto c.m. polyandria trigynia. delphinium intermedium palmate-leaved bee larkspur c.m. ---------- hybridum bastard ditto l. ---------- elatum common ditto c.m. ---------- exaltatum american ditto c.m. ---------- grandiflorum large-flowered ditto c.m. aconitum lycoctonum great yellow wolf's-bane c.m. --------- napellus common blue wolf's-bane c.m. --------- pyrenaicum pyrenean ditto c.m. --------- japonicum japan ditto l.b. --------- anthora wholesome ditto c.m. --------- variegatum variegated ditto c.m. --------- ochroleucum tall ditto c.m. --------- album white-flowered ditto l. --------- volubile twining ditto l.b. --------- uncinatum hook-seeded ditto c.m. --------- cammarum purple ditto c.m. polyandria pentagynia. aquilegia canadensis canadian columbine c.m. --------- montana mountain ditto l. --------- sibirica siberian ditto l. --------- viridiflora green-flowered ditto l. polyandria pentagynia. anemone pratensis meadow anemone l.b. anemone coronaria common garden ditto l. ------- sylvestris snow-drop ditto c.m. ------- virginiana virginian ditto c.m. ------- pensylvanica pensylvanian ditto c.m. clematis recta upright virgin's-bower c.m. -------- ochroleuca yellow ditto l. -------- viorna leathery-flowered ditto l. -------- integrifolia intire-leaved ditto c.m. thalictrum aquilegifolium feathered columbine c.m. ---------- simplex simple-stalked ditto c.m. ---------- lucidum shining-leaved meadow rue c.m. ---------- nigricans black-flowered ditto c.m. ---------- elatum tall ditto c.m. ---------- foetidum stinking ditto c.m. ---------- purpurascens purple-stalked ditto c.m. ---------- medium german ditto c.m. ---------- atropurpureum dark-purple-flowered ditto c.m. ---------- rugosum rough-leaved ditto c.m. ---------- dioicum dioicous ditto c.m. ---------- sibiricum siberian ditto c.m. ---------- tuberosum tubrous-rooted ditto c.m. ---------- angustifolium narrow-leaved ditto c.m. ---------- contortum twisted-stalked ditto c.m. ---------- cornuti canadian ditto c.m. thalictrum speciosum glaucous-leaved meadow rue c.m. ranunculus aconitifolius fair maids of france c.m. ---------- platanifolius plane-leaved ranunculus c.m. ---------- illyricus illyrian ditto l.b. ---------- asiaticus common persian ditto c.m. trollius asiaticus asiatic globe-flower l.b.s. -------- americanus american ditto l.b.s. helleborus niger christmas rose l.s. ---------- lividus livid hellebore l.b.s. didynamia gymnosperma. teucrium lucidum shining-leaved germander c.m. -------- multiflorum many-flowered ditto c.m. hyssopus nepetoides square-stalked hyssop l. nepeta pannonica hungarian cat-mint c.m. ------ incana hoary ditto c.m. ------ violacea violet-flowered ditto c.m. ------ nepetella small ditto c.m. ------ nuda spanish ditto c.m. ------ tuberosa tuberous-rooted ditto c.m. sideritis hyssopifolia hyssop-leaved iron-wort l. --------- scordioides crenated ditto l. --------- hirsuta hairy ditto mentha crispa curled-leaved mint c.m. mentha niliaca white mint c.m. ------ auriculata ear-leaved ditto c.m. lamium orvala balm-leaved archangel l. ------ rugosum wrinkled-leaved ditto c.m. ------ garganicum wolly ditto c.m. ------ molle pellitoria-leaved ditto c.m. betonica stricta danish betony c.m. ------- incana hoary ditto c.m. ------- orientalis oriental ditto c.m. ------- hirsuta hairy ditto c.m. stachys circinata blunt-leaved stachys c.m. ------- lanata woolly-leaved ditto c.m. ------- cretica cretan ditto c.m. ------- recta upright ditto c.m. marrubium supinum procumbent base horehound c.m. --------- hispanicum spanish ditto c.m. --------- peregrinum saw-leaved ditto c.m. phlomis tuberosa tuberous-rooted phlomis c.m. ------- herba venti rough-leaved ditto l.b. origanum hybridum bastard ditto l.b. -------- heracloticum winter ditto c.m. thymus virginicus virginian thyme l. melissa grandiflora great-flowered balm c.m. ------- graeca grecian ditto c.m. dracocephalum virginicum virginian dragon's-head l. ------------- ruyschianum hyssop-leaved ditto c.m. ------------- sibiricum siberian ditto c.m. scutellaria albida hairy skull-cap c.m. ----------- integrifolia entire-leaved ditto l.b. ----------- lupulina great-flowered ditto l.b. didynamia angiospermia. chelone glabra white-flowered chelone l.b. ------- obliqua red ditto l.b. ------- ruelloides scarlet ditto l.b. ------- formosa tall ditto l.b. antirrhinum purpureum purple toad-flax c.m. ----------- genistifolium broom-leaved ditto l. ----------- triornithophorum whorl-leaved ditto l.b. scrophularia betonicaefolia betony-leaved figwort l. ------------ orientalis oriental ditto l. digitalis lutea yellow foxglove c.m. --------- ambigua great ditto c.m. --------- ferruginea iron-coloured ditto c.m. dodartia orientalis eastern dodartia l. penstemon pubescens american penstemon l.b. -------- iaevigatum smooth-leaved ditto l.b. mimulus ringens oblong-leaved monkey-flower l. mimulus guttatus yellow monkey-flower l.b. acanthus mollis smooth bear's-breech c.m. -------- spinosa prickly ditto c.m. tetradynamia siliculosa. myagrum perenne perennial gold-of-pleasure c.m. cochlearia draba draba-leaved scurvy-grass c.m. iberis sempervirens evergreen candy-tuft c.m. alyssum saxatile shrubby madwort c.m. lunaria rediviva perennial honesty c.m. tetradynamia siliquosa. sisymbrium strictissimum spear-leaved sisymbrium c.m. hesperis matronalis single garden rocket c.m. bunias orientalis oriental bunias c.m. monadelphia decandria. geranium aconitifolium aconite-leaved crane's-bill c.m. -------- angulosum angular-stalked ditto c.m. -------- maculatum spotted ditto c.m. -------- macorhizum long-rooted ditto c.m. -------- palustre marsh ditto l. -------- reflexum reflexed-flowered ditto c.m. -------- striatum striped-flowered ditto c.m. -------- lividum wrinkled ditto c.m. monadelphia polyandria. althaea cannabina hemp-leaved marsh-mallow c.m. lavatera thuringiacea large-flowered lavatera c.m. alcea rosa common holyoak c.m. hibiscus palutris marsh hibiscus l.b. kitiabella vitifolia vine-leaved kitiabella c.m. diadelphia decandria. ononis antiquorum tall rest-harrow l. lupinus perennis perennial lupine l.b. glycine apios tuberous-rooted glycine l. orobus lathyroides upright bitter-vetch c.m. ------ angustifolius narrow-leaved ditto l.b. ------ niger black-flowered ditto c.m. ------ vernus spring ditto l. lathyrus tuberosus tuberous-rooted lathyrus c.m. -------- heterophyllus various-leaved ditto c.m. -------- pisiformis siberian ditto c.m. vicia pisiformis pale-flowered vetch c.m. glycyrrhiza echinata prickly-leaved liquorice c.m. ----------- glabra common ditto c.m. coronilla varia purple coronilla c.m. hedysarum canadense canada saintfoin c.m. galega officinalis officinal goat's-rue c.m. ------ montana mountain ditto l.b. phaca alpina alpine phaca, or bastard-vetch l.b. astralagus alopecuroides foxtail milk-vetch l.b. --------- virescens green-flowered ditto c.m. --------- galegiformis goat's-rue-leaved ditto c.m. --------- cicer bladder-podded ditto l.b. --------- onobrichis purple-spiked ditto c.m. trifolium hybridum bastard trefoil, or clover c.m. --------- rubens long-spiked ditto c.m. --------- alpestre oval-spiked ditto c.m. --------- lupinaster bastard lupine c.m. lotus maritimus sea bird's-foot trefoil c.m. medicago karstiensis creeping-rooted medick c.m. -------- prostrata procumbent ditto c.m. polyadelphia polyandria. hypericum calycinum great-flowered st. john's-wort c.m.s. --------- perfoliatum perfoliate ditto c.m.s. --------- ascyron red-leavedditto c.m.s. syngenesia polygamia aequalis. scorzonera hispanica spanish viper's-grass c.m. sonchus sibiricus siberian sow-thistle c.m. prenanthes purpurea purple prenanthes l. hieracium amplexicaule heart-leaved hawkweed c.m. --------- pyrenaicum pyrenean ditto c.m. crepis pontica roman crepis c.m. catananche caerulea blue catananche c.m. serratula praealta tall saw-wort c.m. --------- coronata lyre-leaved ditto c.m. --------- spicata spike-flowered ditto b.l. carduus canus hoary thistle c.m. ------- ciliatus ciliated ditto c.m. ------- tuberosus tuberous-rooted ditto c.m. ------- serratuloides saw-wort ditto c.m. cnicus oleraceus pale-flowered cnicus c.m. ------ ferox prickly ditto c.m. ------ centauroides centaury ditto c.m. cynara scolymus french artichoke c.m. carthamus corymbosus umbelled carthamus l.b. carline acaulis stemless carline l.b.s. cacalia hastata spear-leaved cacalia c.m. ------ suaveolens sweet-scented ditto c.m. ------ saracenica creeping-rooted ditto c.m. eupatorium maculatum spotted eupatorium c.m. ---------- altissimum tall ditto c.m. eupatorium trifoliatum three-leaved eupatorium c.m. ---------- perfoliatum perfoliate ditto l.b. ---------- ageratoides nettle-leaved ditto b.l. chrysocoma linosyris german goldy-locks c.m. ---------- biflora two-flowered ditto c.m. syngenesia polygamia superflua. tanacetum macrophyllum various-leaved tansy c.m. --------- balsamita cost-mary c.m. artemisia abrotanum common southernwood c.m. --------- santonicum tartarian ditto or wormseed c.m. --------- pontica roman ditto c.m. --------- dracunculus tarragon c.m. conyza linifolia flax-leaved flea-bane c.m. tussilago paradoxa downy-leaved coltsfoot c.m. --------- lobata lobated ditto c.m. --------- alba white ditto c.m. senecio luridus dingy-coloured groundsel c.m. ------- coriaceus thick-leaved ditto c.m. dahlia superflua purple dahlia c.m. ------ v. rosea c.m. ------ frustranea red ditto c.m. ------ v. lutea yellow ditto c.m. ------ v. violacea violet ditto c.m. boltonia asteroides aster-leaved boltonia c.m. aster hyysopifolius hyssop-leaved aster c.m. ----- dumosus purple-flowered ditto c.m. ----- ericoides heath-leaved ditto c.m. ----- multiflorus many-flowered ditto c.m. ----- linearifolus linear-leaved ditto c.m. ----- foliolosus many-leaved ditto c.m. ----- salicifolius willow-leaved ditto c.m. ----- linifolius flax-leaved ditto c.m. ----- rigidus rough-leaved ditto c.m. ----- acris biting ditto c.m. ----- umbellatus umbel'd ditto c.m. ----- novae anglicae new england ditto c.m. ----- grandiflorus great-flowered ditto c.m. ----- patens spreading ditto c.m. ----- aestivus labrador ditto c.m. ----- undulatus wave-leaved ditto c.m. ----- concolor woolly ditto c.m. ----- amellus italian ditto c.m. ----- sibiricus siberian ditto c.m. ----- flexuosus bending-stalk'd ditto c.m. ----- divaricatus divaricated ditto c.m. ----- longifolius long-leaved ditto c.m. ----- cordifolius heart-leaved ditto c.m. aster corymbosus purple-stalk aster c.m. ----- paniculatus smooth-stalked panicled ditto c.m. ----- puniceus small purple-stalked ditto c.m. ----- laevis smooth ditto c.m. ----- novi belgii new-holland ditto c.m. ----- tradescanti tradescant's ditto c.m. ----- pendulus pendulous ditto c.m. ----- diffusus diffuse red-flowered ditto c.m. ----- divergens spreading downy-leaved ditto c.m. ----- tardiflorus spear-leaved ditto c.m. ----- spectabilis showy ditto c.m. ----- mutabilis variable ditto c.m. ----- macrophyllus broad-leaved-white ditto c.m. ----- fragilis brittle ditto c.m. ----- junceus slender-stalked ditto c.m. ----- elegans elegant ditto c.m. ----- glaberrimus smooth ditto c.m. ----- lucidus shining ditto c.m. ----- sessiliflorus sessil-flowered ditto c.m. ----- altissimus tallest ditto c.m. solidago viminea twiggy golden rod c.m. -------- mexicana mexican ditto c.m. -------- sempervirens narrow-leaved evergreen do. c.m. -------- elliptica oval-leaved ditto c.m. -------- stricta willow-leaved ditto c.m. -------- latifolia broad-leaved ditto c.m. -------- laevigata fleshy-leaved ditto c.m. -------- caesia maryland ditto c.m. -------- lateriflora red-stalked ditto c.m. -------- altissima tall ditto c.m. -------- arguta sharp notched ditto c.m. -------- canadensis canadian ditto c.m. -------- procera great ditto c.m. -------- reflexa reflexed ditto c.m. -------- lanceolata grass-leaved ditto c.m. -------- serotina upright ditto c.m. -------- nemoralis woolly-stalked ditto c.m. -------- bicolor two-cloured ditto c.m. -------- aspera rough-leaved ditto c.m. -------- flexicaulis crooked-stalked ditto c.m. -------- ambigua angular-stalked ditto c.m. -------- rigida hard-leaved ditto c.m. cineraria sibirica heart-leaved cineraria c.m. inula squarrosa net-leaved inula c.m. ----- salicina willow-leaved ditto l.b. ----- ensifolia sword-leaved ditto c.m. helenium autumnale smooth helenium c.m. chrysanthemum corymbosum large white chrysanthemum c.m. chrysanthemum indicum purple indian chrysanthemum c.m. ------------- millefoliatum tansy-leaved ditto c.m. ------------- v. ----- a quilled white. ------------- v. ----- b double white. ------------- v. ----- c bright yellow. ------------- v. ----- d straw-coloured ------------- v. ----- e quilled straw-coloured. ------------- v. ----- f purple quilled. ------------- v. ----- g lilac-coloured. ------------- v. ----- h spanish brown. ------------- v. ----- i copper-coloured. ------------- v. ----- j quilled lilac. achillea alpina alpine millefoil or maudlin c.m. -------- cristata slender-branched ditto c.m. -------- serrata saw'd-leaved ditto c.m. -------- impatiens impatient ditto c.m. -------- santolina lavender-cotton-leaved ditto c.m. -------- tanacetifolia tansy-leaved ditto c.m. -------- nobilis showy ditto c.m. -------- abrotanifolia southernwood-leaved ditto c.m. buphthalmum grandiflorum great-flowered ox-eye l. ----------- salicifolium willow-leaved ditto l. syngenesia polygamia frutranea. helianthus multiflorus perennial sun-flower c.m. ---------- tuberosus jerusalem artichoke c.m. ---------- divaricatus rough-leaved sun-flower c.m. ---------- decapetalus ten-petal'd ditto c.m. ---------- altissimus tall ditto c.m. ---------- giganteus gigantic ditto c.m. rudbeckia laciniata broad-jagged-leaved rudbeckia c.m. --------- digitata narrow-jagged-leaved do. c.m. --------- fulgida bright purple do. l.b. --------- purpurea common purple do. l.b. coreopsis verticillata whorl-leaved coreopsis c.m. --------- tripteris three leaved ditto c.m. --------- aurea hemp-leaved ditto c.m. coreopsis procera tall coreopsis c.m. --------- alternifolia alternate-leaved ditto c.m. --------- auriculata ear-leaved ditto c.m. --------- minima least ditto l.b. centaurea cenaureum great centaury c.m. --------- alpina alpine ditto l.b. --------- montana mountain ditto c.m. --------- sempervirens evergreen ditto c.m. --------- sibirica siberian ditto c.m. --------- phrygia austrian ditto c.m. centaurea glastifolia woad-leaved centaury l.b. --------- rhapontica swiss ditto l.b. --------- sonchifolia sow-thistle-leaved ditto l.b. --------- aurea great yellow ditto l.b. syngenesia polygamia necessaria. silphium scabrum rough-leaved silphium c.m. -------- terebinthinum broad-leaved ditto c.m. -------- perfoliatum perfoliate ditto c.m. -------- connatum round-stalked ditto c.m. -------- asteriscus hairy-stalked ditto c.m. -------- trifoliatum three-leaved ditto c.m. syngenesia polygamia segregata. echinops ritro small globe thistle c.m. -------- sphaerocephalus great ditto c.m. syngenesia monogamia. lobelia cardinalis scarlet cardinal flower l. ------- siphylitica blue ditto l. gynandria triandria. sisyrinchium striatum striated sisyrinchium l. gynandria polyandria. arum dracunculus long-sheathed arum c.m. ---- venosum varied ditto c.m. monoecia pentandria. parthenium integrifolium intire-leaved parthenium c.m. urtica nivea snowy nettle c.m. dioecia hexandria. smilax herbacea herbaceous smilax b.l.s. dioecia dodecandria. datisca cannabina bastard hemp c.m. dioecia monadelphia. napaea laevis smooth napaea l.b. ----- scabra rough ditto c.m. polygamia monoecia. veratrum album white hellebore l.b.s. -------- nigrum dark-flowered veratrum l.b.s. * * * * * section xviii.-hardy annual flowers. these are cultivated by sowing their seeds, in the months of march or april, in the places where they are to remain and flower during the summer months. english names. latin names. alyssum sweet alyssum halimifolium alkekengi physalis alkakengi arctotus annual arctotus anthemoides argemone or devil's fig argemone mexicana asphodel annual anthericum anuum aster china quilled ----- red aster chinensis ----- white aster chinensis ----- purple aster chinensis ---- superb aster chinensis ---- bonnet aster chinensis ---- striped aster chinensis balm moldavian dracocephalon moldavicum ---- white dracocephalon moldavicum ---- hoary dracocephalon moldavicum belvidera chenopodium scoparium bladder ketmia hibiscus trionum candytuft purple iberis umbellata --------- white iberis umbellata --------- normandy iberis umbellata caterpillar scorpiurus vermiculata catchfly pendulous silene pendula -------- lobel's armeria cyanus major centaurea crupina ------ minor centaurea cyanus clary purple topped salvia hormium ----- red ditto salvia hormium chrysamthemum white-quill'd chrysamthemum coronarium ----------- yellow ditto chrysamthemum tricolor hawkweed red crepis rubra -------- yellow crepis barbata hedgehogs medicago polymorpha, v. intertexta honeywort great cerinthe major --------- small cerinthe minor indian corn zea mays jacobaea senecio elegans larkspur tall rocket delphinium ajacis -------- dwarf rocket delphinium ajacis -------- rose larkspur delphinium ajacis -------- branching ditto delphinium ajacis lavatera red lavatera trimestris -------- white lavatera trimestris lobel's catchfly red silene armeria ---------------- white silene armeria love-lies-bleeding amaranthus caudatus lupine yellow lupinus luteus ------ straw-coloured lupinus luteus ------ large blue lupinus hirsutus ------ small ditto lupinus varius ------ rose lupinus pilosus ------ blue dutch lupinus var ------ white lupinus albus mallow-curled malva crispa marigold french tagetes patula -------- african tagetes erecta -------- small cape calendula pluvialis -------- great cape calendula hybrida -------- starry calendula stellata mignionette reseda odorata nasturtium great tropaeolum majus ---------- small tropaeolum minus nettle roman urtica pilulifera nigella roman nigella romana ------- spanish nigella hispanica ------- small nigella sativa nolana trailing noalan prostrata noli-me-tangere impatiens noli-me-tangere oenothera purple oenothera purpurea pea sweet purple lathyrus odoratus --------- scarlet lathyrus odoratus --------- white lathyrus odoratus --------- black lathyrus odoratus --------- striped lathyrus odoratus --------- painted lady lathyrus odoratus pea jointed-podded lathyrus articulatus --- anson's lathyrus magellanicus --- painted lady crown lathyrus sativus --- tangier scarlet lathyrus tingitanus --- purple lathyrus tingitanus --- red-winged lotus tetragonolobus --- yellow ditto lotus tetragonolobus persicaria red polygonum orientale ---------- white polygonum orientale poppy carnation papaver somniferum ----- dwarf rhoeas quaking-grass briza maxima saltwort rose salsola rosacea scabious starry scabiosa stellata snails medicago scutella soapwort saponaria vaccaria stock purple -week cheiranthus annuus ----- scarlet -week cheiranthus annuus ----- white -week cheiranthus annuus ----- white prussian cheiranthus annuus ----- purple ditto cheiranthus annuus stock virginian white cheiranthus maritimus --------------- red cheiranthus annuus stramonium purple datula tatula ---------- white datula stramonium spinage strawberry blitum virgatum sunflower tall helianthus annuus --------- dwarf helianthus annuus --------- double helianthus annuus sultan sweet purple centaurea moschata ------ white centaurea moschata ------ yellow centaurea suaveolens toadflax three-leaved antirrhinium triphyllum trefoil crimson trifolium incarnatum venus's looking-glass campanula speculum -----navelwort cynoglossum linifolium xeranthemum yellow shining xeranthemum lucidum ----------- white xeranthemum annuum ----------- purple double xeranthemum annuum zinnia yellow zinnia pauciflora ------ red zinnia multiflora ------ elegant zinnia elegans ------ violet-coloured zinnia tenniflora ------ whorl-leaved zinnia verticillata * * * * * section xix.-biennial flowers. biennial flowers, i.e. such as do not bloom the same year they are raised from seeds. these should be sown in the month of may or june, and let remain in the place till the month of september, when they should be planted into beds, and in the following spring placed out where they are to flower. canterbury bells campanula media iron-coloured foxglove digitalis ferruginea hollyoak alcea rosa honesty lunaria rediviva stocks red brompton cheiranthus incanus ------ white ditto cheiranthus incanus ------ purple ditto cheiranthus incanus ------ queen cheiranthus incanus ------ twickenham cheiranthus incanus wallflower	 cheiranthus fruticulosus * * * * * section xx.-tender annual flowers. such as are usually sown in hot-beds in the months of february or march, and grown in the stove or green-house after the removal of the plants in the summer months, for which purpose they are very ornamental. english names latin names amaranthus three-coloured amaranthus tricolor ---------- two-coloured ---------- bicolor ---------- globe white gomphrena globosa ---------- purple gomphrena globosa balsam impatiens balsamita ------ scarlet impatiens coccinea striped double white browallia blue browallia elata --------- white browallia elata cacalia scarlet cacalia coccinea capsicum large red capsicum annuum -------- yellow capsicum annuum -------- small red horn capsicum annuum -------- yellow ditto capsicum annuum -------- cherry capsicum annuum -------- cayenne capsicum annuum calceolaria wing-leaved calceolaria pinnata convolvulus large-flowered convolvulus major ----------- minor ----------- tricolor cockscomb dwarf celosia cristata --------- tall celosia cristata --------- branching celosia cristata --------- buff or yellow celosia cristata egg plant white solanum melongena --------- purple solanum melongena impomaea scarlet impomaea coccinea ------- wing-leaved ------- quamoclit ice plant mesembryanthemum crystallinum love apple solanum lycopersicum sensitive plant mimosa pudica stramonium double purple datura metel ---------- double white ------ v. flore albo * * * * * section xxi.-foreign alpine plants. adapted to the decoration of rock-work. the following list comprises a number of plants of great beauty and interest; but, being in general too small for the open borders, are only to be preserved either in pots; planted in rock-work, or in such other places where they are not overgrown by plants of larger size. there are many others of a similar kind that we grow in gardens, but which, being difficult to keep, we have thought fit not to insert; as persons who try to cultivate such in the open ground have in general the mortification to find that they do not compensate for the care and trouble necessary for preserving them. ancistrum lucidum shining ancistrum b.l. --------- laevigatum smooth ditto b.l. --------- latebrosum hairy ditto b.l. veronica aphylla naked-stalked speedwell b.l. -------- bellidoides daisy-leaved ditto b.l. triandria monogynia. trichonema bulbocodium crocus-leaved trichonema b.l. tetrandria monogynia. asperula crassifolia thick-leaved woodroofe b.l. houstonia caerulea blue houstonia l. mitchella repens creeping mitchella l. plantago alpina alpine plantain l. -------- subulata awl-leaved ditto l. cornus canadensis herbaceous dog-wood b. alchemilla pentaphylla five-leaved lady's mantle b.l. ---------- argentata silvery-leaved ditto b.l. pentandria monogynia. cynoglossum omphaloides blue venus's navelwort b.l. aretia vitaliana primrose aretia l. androsace villosa hairy androsace l. primula cortusoides bear's-ear primrose b.l. ------ villosa hairy primula b.l. ------ nivea snowy ditto b.l. ------ marginata margined ditto b.l. ------ auricula common yellow auricula b.l. ------ lonigfolia long-leaved ditto b.l. ------ helvetica swiss ditto b.l. primula integrifolia entire-leaved auricula b.l. cortusa mathioli siberian bear's-ear sanicle b. soldanella alpina alpine soldanella b.l. dodecatheon meadia american cowslip b.l. cyclamen coum round-leaved cyclamen l. -------- hederaefolium ivy-leaved ditto l. lysimachia dubia purple loosestrife l. phlox pilosa hairy lychnidea l. ----- ovata oval-leaved ditto l. ----- suffruticosa shrubby ditto l. ----- stolonifera creeping ditto l. ----- subulata awl-leaved ditto l. ----- setacea bristly ditto l. convulvulus lineatus dwarf bindweed l. campanulla pulla dark-flowered bell-flower b.l. ---------- carpatica carpasian ditto b.l. ---------- pumila purple-dwarf ditto b.l. ---------- v. alba white-dwarf ditto b.l. ---------- nitida shining-leaved ditto b.l. ---------- barbata bearded ditto b.l. ---------- azurea azure-coloured ditto b.l. phyteuma hemisphaerica small rampion b.l. verbascum myconi borage-leaved mullein l. pentandria digynia. gentiana acaulis gentianella l. -------- asclepiadea swallow-wort gentian l. bupleurum petraeum rock thorough-wax l. pentandria trigynia. telephium imperati true orphine l. pentandria pentagynia. statice cordata heart-leaved thrift l. ------- flexuosa zigzag ditto l. linum flavum yellow flax l. ----- austriacum austrian ditto l. hexandria monogynia. convallaria bifolia two-leaved lilly of the valley l.b. hexandria trigynia. trillium cernuum drooping-flowered trillium b. -------- sessile sessile-flowered ditto b. helonias bullata spear-leaved helonias b. -------- asphodeloides grass-leaved ditto b. octandria monogynia. rhexia mariana hairy rexia b. oenothera rosea rose-flowered tree primrose l.b. --------- pumila dwarf yellow ditto l.b. epilobium cordifolium heart-leaved willow-herb b.l. octandria digynia. moehringia muscosa mossy moehringia l. decandria digynia. saxifraga cotyledon pyramidal saxifrage l. --------- aizoon margined ditto c.m. --------- ligulata strap-leaved ditto c.m. --------- rosularis rose-leaved ditto c.m. --------- mutata house-leek ditto c.m. --------- androsace blunt-leaved ditto c.m. --------- caesia gray ditto c.m. --------- pilosa hairy ditto c.m. --------- sarmentosa creping ditto c.m. --------- cuneifolia wedge-leaved ditto c.m. --------- aspera rough-leaved ditto c.m. --------- rotundifolia round-leaved ditto c.m. --------- ajugaefolia ground pine-leaved ditto c.m. --------- sibirica siberian pine-leaved ditto c.m. --------- adscendens ascending saxifrage c.m. --------- viscosa clammy ditto c.m. tiarella cordifolia heart-leaved tiarella c.m. mitella diphylla two-leaved mitella c.m. gypsophila repens creeping gypsophila l.b. ---------- prostrata trailing ditto l.b. saponaria acymoides basil-leaved soap-wort l. -------- superbus feathered ditto l. -------- pungens pungent ditto l. -------- alpinus alpine ditto l. -------- capitatus headed-flowered ditto l. -------- glaucus glaucous ditto l. -------- virgineus maiden ditto l. decandria trigynia. silene anemoena siberian catchfly l. ------ alpestris mountain ditto l. ------ rupestris rock ditto l. ------ saxifraga saxifrage ditto l. ------ vallesia downy ditto l. stellaria scapigera naked-stalk'd stitch-wort l. arenaria tetraquetra square sand-wort l. ------- balearica small ditto l. ------- saxatilis rock ditto l. ------- striata striated ditto l. ------- grandiflora great-flowered ditto l. ------- liniflora flax-flowered ditto l. decandria pentagynia. sedum aizoon yellow stonecrop c.m. ----- anacampseros evergreen orpine c.m. ----- hybridum bastard sedum c.m. ----- populifolium poplar-leaved ditto c.m. ----- virens green ditto c.m. ----- glaucum glaucous ditto c.m. ----- deficiens round-leaved ditto c.m. ----- hispanicum spanish ditto l. lychnis quadridentata small-flowering lychnis l.b. dodecandria monogynia. asarum canadense canadian asarabaca l.b. dodecandria digynia. sempervivum globiferum globular house-leek l. ----------- arachnoideum cobweb ditto l. ----------- hirtum hairy ditto l. ----------- montanum mountain ditto l. ----------- cuspidatum prickly-leaved ditto l. ----------- sediforme stone-crop-leaved ditto l. icosandria polygynia. rubus arcticus dwarf bramble l.b. potentilla sericea silky cinquefoil l.b. ---------- multifida multifid ditto l. ---------- bifurca bifid ditto l. ---------- tridentata trifid-leaved ditto l. geum potentilloides cinquefoil avens l. ---- reptans creeping ditto l. polyandria monogynia. sanguinaria canadensis canada puccoon l.b. papaver nudicaule naked-stalked poppy l. cistus grandiflorus great-flowered cistus l. polyandria polygynia. anemone hepatica common liverwort c.m. ------- hortensis star anemone l.b. ------- dichotoma forked ditto l.b. adonis vernalis spring adonis flower c.m. ranunculus amplexicaulus plaintain-leaved crow-foot l.b. ---------- alpestris alpine ditto l.b. ---------- glacialis two-flowered ditto l.b. isopyrum thalictroides thalictrum-leaved isopyrum c.m. didynamia gymnosperma. teucrium multiflorum many-flowered germander c.m. -------- pyrenaicum pyrenean ditto c.m. dracocephalum denticulatum tooth-leaved dragon's-head c.m. ------------- austriacum austrian ditto b.l. ------------- grandiflorum great-flowered ditto l. scutellaria alpina alpine skull-cap l. ----------- grandiflora large-flowered ditto l. prunella laciniata cut-leaved self-heal c.m. -------- grandiflora large-flowered ditto c.m. -------- hyssopifolia hyssop-leaved ditto c.m. -------- latifolia broad-leaved ditto c.m. didynamia angiosperma. erinus alpinus alpine erinus l.b. tetradynamia siliculosa. draba aizoides hairy-leaved willow-grass l.b. lepidium alpinum mountain pepper-wort l.b. iberis saxatilis rock candy-tuft l.b. alyssum montanum mountain mad-wort l. ------- utriculatum bladder-podded ditto l. ------- deltoideum purple-flowered ditto l. ------- campestre small yellow ditto l. tetradynamia siliquosa. cardamine asarifolia heart-leaved lady's smock l. --------- bellidifolia daisy-leaved ditto l. --------- trifolia three-leaved ditto l.b. cheiranthus alpinus alpine stock l. arabis alpina alpine wall-cress l. ----- lucida shining-leaved ditto l. ----- bellidifolia daisy-leaved ditto l. ----- sibirica siberian ditto l.b. monadelphia pentandria. erodium reichardi dwarf erodium c.m. diadelphia hexandria. fumaria cucullaria naked-stalked fumitory l. ------- nobilis great-flowered ditto l. fumaria cava hollow-rooted fumitory l. ------- solida solid-rooted ditto l. ------- spectabilis scarlet ditto l. diadelphia decandria. hedysarum obscorum creeping-rooted hedysarum l.b. astragalus pilosus hairy milk-vetch l. ---------- falcatus sickle-podded ditto l. ---------- uliginosus marsh ditto l. ---------- monspessulanus montpelier ditto l. ---------- exscapus stalkless ditto l. ---------- campestris field ditto l. syngenesia polygamia aequais. leontodon aureum golden dandelion l. polygamia superflua. artemisia glacialis creeping wormwood c.m. gnaphalium plantagineum plaintain-leaved everlasting l. erigeron philadelphicum philadelphia erigeron l. -------- purpureum purple ditto l.b. syngenesia monogamia. lobelia minuta least cardinal flower viola palmata palmated violet b. ----- cucullata hollow-leaved ditto l. ----- canadensis canadian ditto l.b. ----- striata striated ditto l.b. ----- pubescens downy ditto l.b. ----- biflora two-flowered ditto l.b. ----- grandiflora great-flowered ditto l.b. ----- calcarata alpine ditto l.b. ----- cornuta pyrenean ditto l.b. ----- obliqua oblique-leaved ditto l.b. tussilago alpina alpine colt's-foot c.m. senecio abrotanifolia southernwood-leaved grounsel c.m. aster alpinus alpine star-wort l.b. doronicum bellidiastrum daisy-leaved leopard's-bane l.b. bellis lusitania portugal daisy l.b. bellium minutum bastard daisy l.b. anthemis pyrethrum pellitory of spain l.b. achillea tomentosa woolly milfoil l.b. -------- clavannae silvery-leaved ditto l.b. gynandria diandria. cypripedium album white ladies-slipper b. gynandria triandria. sisyrinchum anceps small sisyrinchum c.m. arum tenuifolium fine-leaved arum c.m. cryptogamia filices. polypodium marginale margin-flowered polypody b.l. ---------- auriculatum eared ditto b.l. onoclea sensibilis sensitive fern b. equisetum filiforme fine horse-tail l. * * * * * appendix british plants cultivated for ornamental purposes. . alisma plantago. i cannot pass over this beautiful aquatic without giving it a place amongst the ornamental plants with which our country abounds. in pieces of water this is of considerable interest both as to flowers and foliage, and no place of the kind should ever be destitute of such a beauty. it is of easy culture; the plant taken from its place of growth and sunk into the water with a stone to keep it in its place, is a ready and easy mode of planting it, and there is no fear when once introduced but it will succeed. . andromeda polifolia. this is a beautiful little shrub, and grown in gardens for the sake of its flowers; it is also an evergreen. this plant will not succeed unless it is planted in bog earth,--for a description of which see page of this volume. . aquilegia vulgaris. columbine.--we have scarcely a plant affording more beauty or greater variety than this. it is commonly, when found wild, of a blue colour, but when the seeds are sown in the garden a variety of tints is produced. it is a perennial, but easily raised from seed, which should be sown in the spring. . anthemis maritima. a double-flowering variety of this plant used to be common in the gardens near london, but is now scarce: it is very beautiful, and constantly in bloom during summer. it is propagated by planting the roots in the spring and autumn. . antirrhinum linaria, v. peloria.--i cannot pass over this singular and beautiful flower without notice. there is a fine figure of it in the flora londinensis: it is very ornamental, and the structure of the bloom is truly interesting. it is easily propagated by planting the roots in the spring months, but it is not common. . antirrhinum majus. snapdragon.--this is also a plant deserving the attention of the lover of flowers: it is capable of culture into many very beautiful and interesting varieties. . bellis perennis. daisy.--this plant affords us many very beautiful varieties for the flower garden. the large red daisy and all the other fine kinds are only this plant improved by culture. . butomis umbellatus. this is an aquatic, and well adapted to ornament pieces of water. its beautiful flowers in the summer months are inferior to scarcely any plants growing in such places, and its foliage will form protection for any birds, &c., which are usually kept in such places. it is easily propagated by planting it in such places. . caltha palustris. marsh marigold.--this fine yellow flower is also made double by culture, and finds a place in the flower garden. . cheiranthus fruticulosus. wallflower.--is a plant possessing great beauty, and very interesting on account of its fine scent. we have this plant also improved by culture, making many fine double varieties. it is a biennial, and easily raised from seeds, which should be sown in june. the double varieties are cultivated by cuttings of the branches. . cypripedium calceolus. ladies slipper.--a flower of the most uncommon beauty, but is now become scarce; it is a native of the woods near skipton in yorkshire, but has been so much sought for by the lovers of plants as to become almost extinct. it is difficult to propagate; but when the plants have been for some years growing, will admit of being parted, so that it may be increased in that way: it will not bear to be often removed, and should be left to grow in the same place for several years without being disturbed. it succeeds best in bog earth or rotten leaves. . delphinium ajacis. larkspur.--this is also an annual flower, affording a pleasing variety in the flower garden in the summer months. for it culture, see p. . . dianthus caryophyllus. the carnation.--all our fine varieties of the carnation are the produce of this plant. the common single variety produces seed in great abundance, but the improved double varieties are sparing in produce: the fine kinds of this flower are reared by layers put down about the month of july; they may also be propagated by cuttings, but the other is the most eligible and certain mode. . epilobium angustifolium. a plant of singular ornament. there is also a white variety of this found in gardens. . erica vulgaris. there is now in cultivation in the gardens a double-flowering variety of this plant, which is highly interesting and of singular beauty. it grows readily in bog earth, and is raised by layers. . erica daboeica. irish heath.--a plant of singular beauty and of easy culture; and being of small growth and almost constantly in bloom, has also obtained a place in the shrubbery. . fritillaria meleagris. a very ornamental bulbous plant, of which the dutch gardeners have many improved varieties, varying in the colour and size of the blossoms: these are usually imported in august, and should be immediately planted, as the bulbs will not keep long when out of ground, unless they are covered with sand. . galanthus nivalis. snowdrop.--the first of the productions of flora which reminds us of the return of spring after the dark and dreary days of winter. this plant is also made double by cultivation, but is not handsomer than the common wild one. the best time for planting the bulbs of snowdrops is in the month of september. . gentiana verna. vernal gentian.--a delightful little plant of the finest blue colour the flora exhibits in all her glory: its scent is also delightful: it is somewhat scarce and difficult to procure; but if more generally known, few gardens would be destitute of such a treasure. it is of tolerably easy culture, and grows well in loam: it is small, and is best kept in a pot. . gentiana pneumonanthe. marsh gentian.--is also a beautiful plant, and grows well in any moist place. from its beautiful blue flowers it is well adapted to the flower garden; it delights in bog earth. . geranium phaeum. black-flowered geranium.--this is a perennial, and makes a fine ornamental plant for the shrubbery: it will grow in any soil and situation. . glaucum phoeniceum. purple horn poppy.--an annual flower of singular beauty, and deserving a place in the flower garden. . gnaphalium margaritaceum. american cudweed.--this plant affords beautiful white flowers, which drying and keeping their colour, it is worth attention on that account, as it affords a pleasing variety with the different xeranthema, and others of the like class in winter. . hieracum aurantiacum. grim-the-collier.--this is an old inhabitant of our gardens, and affords a pleasing variety. . hottonia palustris. water violet.--this is a plant of singular beauty in spring; it is an aquatic, and makes a fine appearance in our ponds in the time of its bloom. . iberis amara. candytuft.--an annual flower of considerable beauty and interest. we have several varieties of this sold in the seed-shops. . impatiens noli me tangere.--a very curious flower which is grown as an annual. the construction of the seed-vessel causing the seeds to be discharged with an elastic force is a pleasing phaenomenon. . lathyrus sylvestris.--everlasting pea.--this is also a great ornament, and frequently found in gardens; it grows very readily from seeds sown in the spring of the year. . leucojum aestivum. summer snow flake.--this is a very noxious plant in the meadows where it grows wild. i have seen it in the neighbourhood of wooking in surrey quite overpower the grass with its herbage in the spring, and no kind of that animal that we know of will eat it. it is however considered an ornamental plant, and is often found in our flower gardens. it is of easy culture: the roots may be planted in any of the autumn or winter months. . malva moschata. musk mallow.--this makes a fine appearance when in bloom, for which purpose it is often propagated in gardens: its scent, which is strong of vegetable musk, is also very pleasant. . mellitis mellyssophyllum. mellitis grandiflora. bastard balm.--both these plants are very beautiful, and are deserving a place in the flower garden: they are of easy culture, and will grow well under the shade of trees, a property that will always recommend them to the notice of the curious. . menyanthes nymphoides. round-leaved bog bean.--this is a beautiful aquatic, and claims a place in all ornamental pieces of water. . narcissus poeticus. narcissus pseudo narcissus.--these are much cultivated in gardens for the sake of the flowers. the florists have by culture made several varieties, as double blossoms which are great ornaments. the season for planting the bulbs of narcissus of all kinds is the month of october: they will grow well in any soil, and thrive best under the shade of trees. . nuphar minima is also beautiful, but it is not common. it will form an ornament for pieces of water. . nymphaea alba. nymphaea lutea.--these are aquatics, and scarcely any plant is more deserving of our attention. the fine appearance of the foliage floating on the surface, which is interspersed with beautiful flowers, will render any piece of water very interesting: it should also be observed that gold-fish are found to thrive best when they have the advantage of the shade of these plants. it is difficult in deep water to make them take root, being liable to float on the surface, in which state they will not succeed. but if the plants are placed in some strong clay or loam tied down in wicker baskets and then placed in the water, there is no fear of their success: they should be placed where the water is sufficiently deep to inundate the roots two feet or a little more. . ophrys apifera. bee orchis.--there are few plants that are more generally admired than all the orchideae for their singular beauty and uncommon structure. the one in question so very much resembles the humble-bee in appearance, that i have known persons mistake this flower for the animal. it is unfortunate for the amateurs of gardening that most plants of this tribe are difficult of propagation, and are not of easy culture. i have sometimes succeeded with this and other species, by the following method:--to take up the roots from their native places of growth as early as they can be found, and then procure some chalk and sift it through a fine sieve, and also some good tenacious loam; mix both in equal quantities in water; a large garden-pot should then be filled with some rubble of chalk, about one third deep, and then the above compost over it, placing the roots in the centre, at the usual depth they grew before. as the water drains away, the loam and chalk will become fixed closely round the bulbs, and they will remain alive and grow. by this method i have cultivated these plants for some years together. in this way all those kinds growing in chalk may be made to grow; but such as the orchis moryo, maculata, and pyramidalis, may be grown in loam alone, planted in pots in the common way. care should be taken that the pots in which they are planted are protected from wet and frost in the winter season. . ornithogalum latifolium and umbellatum are also ornamental, and are often cultivated for their beautiful flower. the season for planting the bulbs is about the month of september. . papaver somniferum. greater poppy. papaver rhoeas. carnation poppy. --these are made by culture into numerous varieties, and are very beautiful; but the aroma, which is pregnant with opium, renders too many of them unpleasant for the garden. . polemonium coeruleum. greek valerian, or jacob's ladder.--is also a beautiful perennial, and claims the notice of the gardener. its variety, with white flowers, is also ornamental. it is raised from seeds, which are sold in plenty in our seed-shops. . primula officinalis. cowslip. primula vulgaris. primrose. primula elatior. oxlip. primula farinose. bird's eye.--all well known ornaments of numerous varieties, double and single. the third species is the parent of the celebrated polyanthus. the last is also an interesting little plant with a purple flower. it grows best in bog earth. . rosa rubiginosa. sweet briar.--this lovely and highly extolled shrub has long claimed a place in our gardens. we have several varieties with double flowers, which are highly prized by the amateurs of gardening. . saxifraga umbrosa. london pride.---a beautiful little plant for forming edgings to the flower garden, or for decorating rock-work. . saxifraga oppositifolia. purple saxifrage.--perhaps we have few flowers early in the spring that deserve more attention than this. it blooms in the months of february and march, and in that dreary season, in company with the snow-drop, crocus, and hepaticas, will form a most delightful group of flora's rich production. the saxifrage is a native of high mountains, and it can only be propagated by being continually exposed to the open and bleakest part of the garden: it succeeds best in pots. it should be parted every spring, and a small piece about the size of a shilling planted in the centre of a small pot, and it will fill the surface by the autumn. the soil bestsuited to it is loam. . sedum acre. stone crop. sedum rupestre. rock ginger.--all the species of sedums are very ornamental plants, and are useful for covering rocks or walls, where they will generally grow with little trouble. the easiest mode of propagating and getting them to grow on such places is first to make the place fit for their reception, by putting thereon a little loam made with a paste of cow-dung; then chopping the plants in small pieces, and strowing them on the place: if this is done in the spring, the places will be well covered in a short time. . statice armeria. thrift.--this plant is valuable for making edgings to the flower garden. it should be parted, and planted for this purpose either in the months of august and september, or april and may. . stipa pinnata. feather grass.--we have few plants of more interest than this; its beautiful feathery bloom is but little inferior to the plumage of the celebrated bird of paradise. it is frequently worn in the head-dress of ladies. . swertia perennis. marsh swertia.--this is a beautiful little plant, and worth the attention of all persons who are fond of flowers that will grow in boggy land. it is a perennial, and of easy culture. . trollius europaeus. globe flower.--this is also a fine plant: when cultivated in a moist soil its beautiful yellow flowers afford a pleasing accompaniment to the flower border and parterre in the spring of the year. it is easily raised by parting its roots. . tulipa sylvestris.--this beautiful flower is also an inhabitant of our flower-gardens; it is called the sweet-scented florentine tulip. it has a delightful scent when in bloom, and is highly worthy the attention of amateurs of flower gardens. it should be planted in september, and will grow in almost any soil or situation. . typha latifolia. typha angustifolia. typha minor.--these are all very fine aquatics, and worth a place in all pieces of water; the foliage forms a fine shelter for water-fowl. . viola tricolor. heart's-ease.--is an annual of singular beauty, and forms many pleasing and interesting varieties. . viola odorata must not be passed over among our favourite native flowers. this is of all other plants in its kind the most interesting. it forms also several varieties; as double purple, double white, and the neapolitan violet. the latter one is double, of a beautiful light blue colour, and flowers early; it is rather tender, and requires the protection of a hot-bed frame during winter. it is best cultivated in pots. . vinca minor. lesser periwinkle.--this is also a beautiful little evergreen, of which the gardeners have several varieties in cultivation; some with double flowers, others with white and red-coloured corols, which form a pleasing diversity in summer. . vinca major. great periwinkle.-i know of no plant of more beauty, when it is properly managed, than this. it is an evergreen of the most pleasing hue, and will cover any low fences or brick-work in a short space of time. the flowers, which are purple, form a pleasing variety in the spring months. * * * * * miscellaneous articles . beta vulgaris. i have noticed this plant before, both as to its culinary uses and for feeding cattle: but having received a communication from a friend of mine who resides in the interior of russia, relative to his establishment for extracting sugar from this root, i cannot omit relating it here, as it appears to be an interesting part of agricultural oeconomy. "i have here two extensive fabrics for the purpose of making sugar from the red beet, and we find that it yields us that useful article in great abundance; i. e. from every quarter of the root (eight bushels winchester measure) i obtain ten pounds weight of good brown sugar; and this when refined produces us four pounds of the finest clarified lump sugar, and the molasses yield good brandy on distillation. this is not all; for while we are now working the article the cows are stall-fed on the refuse from the vats after mashing; and those animals give us milk in abundance, and the butter we are making is equal to any that is made in the summer, when those animals are foraging our best meads."-- dashkoff, in the government of orel, miles from st. petersburgh, jan , . the above account, which is so extremely flattering, may no doubt lead persons to imagine that the culture of the beet for the same purpose in this country might be found to answer: and as it is our aim in this little work to give the best information on these subjects without prejudice, i shall beg leave to make use of the following observation, which is not my own, but one that was made on this subject by a russian gentleman, whom i have long had the honour of enumerating among my best friends; and who is not less distinguished for his application both to the arts and oeconomy, than he is for his professional duties, and his readiness at all times to communicate information for the general good. "the land where the beet is grown is of an excellent quality, very deep and fertile, and such as will grow any crop for a series of years without manure. such soils are seldom found in this country but what may be cultivated to more advantage. in such land, and such alone, will this vegetable imbibe a large quantity of the saccharine fluid; for it would be in vain to look for it in such beet roots as have been grown on poor land made rich by dint of manure. "it may also be a circumstance worth remarking, that although the sugar thus obtained is very good for common use, it by no means answers the purpose of the confectioner, as it is not fit for preserving; and for this purpose the cane sugar alone is used; so that although great merit may attach to the industry of a person who in times of scarcity can produce such an useful article as sugar from a vegetable so easily grown, yet when cane sugar can be imported at a moderate rate, it will always supersede the use of the other." . pyrus malus. the apple.--this useful fruit, now growing so much to decay in this country, which was once so celebrated for its produce, is grown in great perfection in all the northern provinces of france; and she supplied the london markets with apples this season, for which she was paid upwards of , l.; and can most likely offer us good cyder on moderate terms. the french people, ever alive to improvement and invention, having discovered a mode of extracting sugar in considerable quantity from this fruit, i shall transcribe the particulars of it. on the preparation of liquid sugar from apples or pears. by m. dubuc. (ann. de chim. vol. lxviii.)--"several establishments have been made in the south of france for making sugar from grapes; it is therefore desired to communicate the same advantage to the north of france, as apples and pears will produce sugar whose taste is equally agreeable as that of grapes, and equally cheap. "eight quarts of the full ripe juice of the orange apples was boiled for a quarter of an hour, and forty grammes of powdered chalk added to it, and the boiling continued for ten minutes longer. the liquor was strained twice through flannel, and afterwards reduced by boiling to one half of its former bulk, and the operation finished by a slow heat until a thick pellicle rose on the surface, and a quart of the syrup weighed two pounds. by this method two pounds one ounce of liquid sugar was obtained, very agreeable in flavour, and which sweetened water very well, and even milk, without curdling it. "eight quarts of the juice of apples called doux levesque, yielded by the same process two pounds twelve ounces of liquid sugar. "eight quarts of the juice of the sour apples called blanc mollet, yielded two pounds ten ounces of good sugar. "eight quarts of the juice of the watery apples called girard, yielded two pounds and a half. "twenty-five chilogrammes, or fifty-pounds of the above four apples, yielded nearly fourty-two pounds of juice; which took three ounces of chalk and the white of six eggs, and produced more than six pounds of excellent liquid sugar. "in order to do without the white of eggs, twenty pounds of the juice of the above apples were saturated with eleven drachms of chalk, and repeatedly strained through flannel, but it was still thick and disagreeable to the taste; twelve drachms of charcoal powder were then added, and the whole boiled for about ten minutes, and then strained through flannel; it was then clear, but higher-coloured than usual; however, it produced very good sugar. six quarts of apple-juice were also treated with seven drachms of chalk, and one ounce of baker's small-coal previously washed until it no longer coloured the water, with the same effect. "eight quarts of apple juice, of several different kinds and in different stages of ripeness, of which one-third was still sour, were saturated with twelve drachms of chalk, and clarified with the whites of six eggs; some malate of lime was deposited in small crystals towards the end, and separated by passing the syrup very hot through the flannel. very near two pounds of sugar were obtained. "ten pounds of bruised apples, similar to the last, were left to macerate for twenty-four hours, and four quarts of the juice were treated with five drachms of chalk and the white of an egg: it yielded one pound six ounces of liquid sugar; so that the maceration had been of service. "twenty-four pounds of the pear called pillage, yielded nine quarts of juice, which required eighteen drachms of chalk and the whites of two eggs, and yielded about twenty-four ounces of sugar, which was less agreeable to the taste than that of ripe apples. "six quarts of juice from one part of the above pears, and two of ripe apples, (orange and girard,) treated with eight drachms of chalk and the whites of two eggs, yielded twenty-six ounces of very fine-tasted sugar, superior to the preceding. "six quarts of juice, of an equal quantity of apples and pears, treated with ten drachms of chalk and thirteen of prepared charcoal, deposited some malate of lime, and yielded a sugar rather darker than the preceding, but very well tasted. "cadet de vaux says, that apple juice does not curdle milk, and that a small quantity of chalk added to it destroys some part of the saccharine principle. but eight quarts of juice from ripe apples called orange, which was evidently acid, as it curdled milk and reddened infusion of turnsole and that of violet, were treated with four drachms of chalk and the white of an egg: it yielded twenty-two ounces of syrup, between thirty-two and thirty-three degrees of the hydrometer, which did not curdle milk. another eight quarts of the same juice evaporated to three-fourths of its volume, and strained, yielded twenty-three ounces of clear syrup, which curdled milk, and was browner than that of the neutralized juice, and approached towards treacle in smell and taste. perhaps the apple called jean-hure, used by mr. cadet, possesses the valuable properties of furnishing good sugar by mere evaporation. it is necessary to observe, that unless the fire is slackened towards the end the syrup goes brown, and acquires the taste and smell of burnt sugar. "a hundred weight of apples yield about eighty-four pounds of juice, which produce nearly twelve pounds of liquid sugar. supposing, therefore, the average price of apples to be one franc twenty cents (tenpence) the hundred-weight, and the charge amounts to forty cents (four-pence), good sugar may be prepared for three or four sols (two- pence) per pound [footnote: a gramme, fifteen grains english.-a drachm, one-eighth of an ounce.]. the only extra apparatus necessary is a couple of copper evaporating pans."--retrospect, vol. vi. p. . the distressed state of our orchards in the cider counties has lately much engaged the attention of all persons who are accustomed to travel through them; and no one can possibly view the miserable condition of the trees, without being forcibly struck with their bad appearance: the principal case of which, i am sorry to say, has arisen from mismanagement [footnote: vide observations on orchards, lately published by the author of this work.]; and it certainly does in a great measure tarnish the laurels of our boasted agriculturists, when we find such great quantities of this useful fruit produced in france, that very country which we have been taught to believe so greatly behind us in the general oeconomy of life. . spergula arvensis.--this plant has been recommended as a crop for feeding cattle, and is stated to be cultivated for that purpose in some parts of germany and flanders: but i believe we have many other plants better calculated for the purpose here. . viola odorata.--this is a very useful plant in medicine, affording a syrup which has long been used in the practice. it is however discarded from the london pharmacopoeia. . urtica canadensis. canadian hemp nettle.--during the late war, when, from unfortunate circumstances and misunderstandings amongst the potentates of europe, the commercial intercourse was checked, great speculations were made among the people to discover substitutes for such articles as were of certain demand; and one of the principal was of course the article hemp, which, although it can be partially cultivated in this country, is a plant of that nature that we should find the article at a most enormous price were we dependent on our own supply alone. the great growth that supplies all the markets in the world is russia, where land is not only cheap, but of better quality than here; but with which country we were once unhappily deprived of the advantage of trade. this caused persons to seek for substitutes: and i once saw one that was made from bean-stalks, not to be despised; but it is probable that none has reached so high in perfection as that produced from the plant above named. a person has grown and manufactured this article in canada, and has exhibited some samples in london, which it is said have obtained the sanction of government, and that the same person is now engaged in growing in north america a considerable quantity of this article. as this, therefore, is a subject of great interest to us as a maritime nation, i shall insert the following account that is given of this plant. i am, however, quite unacquainted with its culture or manufacture, and cannot pledge myself for the accuracy of the detail. "perennial hemp. cultivation.--affects wet mellow land, but may be cultivated with advantage on upland black mould or loam, if moist and of middling good quality. manure will assist the produce. it may be planted from the beginning of october to the latter end of march, in drills about fifteen inches asunder and nine inches distance in the drills. "propagation.--sow the seeds in a bed in the month of march, and transplant the roots next autumn twelvemonth, as above directed; or divide the old roots, which is the quickest way of obtaining a crop. "time of harvesting.--if a fine quality of hemp is desired, mow the crop when it is in full bloom; but should a greater produce of inferior quality be more desirable, it should stand until the seeds are nearly ripe. it should remain in the field about a week after it is mown, and when sufficiently dry gathered in bundles and stacked as hemp. "separation of hemp from the pulps.--rot it in water, as practised with hemp. "the perennial hemp grows to the height of from four to six feet. "the root inclines horizontally with numerous fleshy fibres at the extremity. "the buds many, and resembling the buds of the lily of the valley. "it is the urtica canadensis of kalm, one of which was brought over and planted by the side of this plant, and we could not find any difference." . lapsana communis. nipple-wort.--this plant is considered by the country people as a sovereign remedy for the piles. the plant is immersed in boiling water, and the cure is effected by applying the steam arising therefrom to the seat of the disease; and this, with cooling medicine and proper regimen, is seldom known to fail in curing this troublesome disease. . daphne laureola. wood laurel.--the leaves of this plant have little or no smell but a very durable nauseous acrid taste. if taken internally in small doses, as ten or twelve grains, they are said to operate with violence by stool and sometimes by vomit, so as not to be ventured on with safety, unless their virulence be previously abated by long boiling, and even then they are much to precarious to be trusted to. the flowers are of a different nature, being in taste little other than mucilaginous and sweetish, and of a light pleasant smell. the pulpy part of the berries appears also to be harmless. the bark macerated in water has of late been much employed in france as a topical application to the skin for the purpose of excoriating and exciting a discharge. . rumex acutus. sharp-pointed dock.--the root of this plant has long been used in medicine, and considered as useful in habitual costiveness, obstructions of the viscera, and in scorbutic and cutaneous maladies; in which case both external and internal applications have been made of it. a decoction of half or a whole drachm of the dry roots has been considered a dose.--lewis's mat. medica. . elymus arenarius. elymus geniculatus. lime grass.--the foliage of these grasses make excellent mats and baskets; and where they grow in quantity afford a livelihood to many industrious persons who manufacture these articles. . salsola kali. glass-wort, or kelp. soda and barilla are yielded by this plant. the ashes of this vegetable yield an alkaline salt, which is of considerable use for making glass, soap, &c. the small quantity grown in this country is by no means equal to the demand, and spain has the advantage of trade in this article, where the plant grows wild in the greatest abundance. an impure alkali similar to these is obtained from the combustion of other marine plants, as the fuci, &c. by the people in scotland. . borago officinalis. borage--a fine cooling beverage is made from this herb, called cool tankard. it is merely an infusion of the leaves and flowers put into water, with the addition of wine, nutmeg, &c. &c. * * * * * observations on the bleeding trees, and procuring the sap for making wine, and brewing ale. in the article birch tree, (p. , no. , of this volume,) we have mentioned the abstracting the sap for the purpose of making wine; and as this is practicable, and may be obtained in some places at little expense and trouble, i shall take the liberty of transcribing the following curious paper on the subject. "to obtain the greatest store of sap in the shortest time from the body of a tree, bore it quite through the pith, and the very inner rind on the other side, leaving only the bark unpierced on the north-east side. this hole to be made sloping upwards with a large auger, and that under a large arm near the ground. this way the tree will in a short time afford liquor enough to brew with; and with some of these sweet saps, one bushel of malt will make as good ale as four bushels with ordinary water. the sycamore yields the best brewing sap. "the change of weather has a great effect on the bleeding of plants. when the weather changes from warm to cold, birch ceases to bleed, and upon the next warmth begins again: but the contrary obtains in the walnut-tree, and frequently in the sycamore, which upon a fit of cold will bleed plentifully, and, as that remits, stop. a morning sun after frost will make the whole bleeding tribe bleed afresh. "from the latter end of january to the middle of may trees will bleed. those that run first, are the poplar, asp, abele, maple, sycamore. some, as willows and the birch, are best to tap about the middle of the season, and the walnut towards the latter end of march. "when a large walnut will bleed no longer in the body or branches, it will run at the root, and longer on the south or sunny side than on the north or shady side. "a culinary fire will have the same or greater effect than the sun, and immediately set trees a-bleeding in the severest weather. branches of maple or willow cut off at both ends, will bleed and cease at pleasure again and again as you approach them to or withdraw them from the fire, provided you balance them in your hand, and often invert them to prevent the falling and expence of the sap; but at length they cease. "a birch will not bleed however deeply the bark only may be wounded: it is necessary to pierce into the substance of the wood."--dr. tonge in phil. trans. no. . the end distributed proofreaders [illustration: a fern lover] the fern lover's companion a guide for the northeastern states and canada by george henry tilton, a.m. "this world's no blot for us nor blank; it means intensely and it means good to find its meaning is my meat and drink." [illustration] dedication to alice d. clark, engraver of these illustrations, who has spared no pains to promote the artistic excellence of this work, and to encourage its progress, these pages are dedicated with the high regards of the author. contents list of illustrations preface introduction key to genera classification of ferns the polypodies the bracken group: bracken cliff brakes rock brake the lip ferns (_cheilanthes_) the cloak fern (_notholæna_) the chain ferns the spleenworts: the rock spleenworts. _asplenium_ the large spleenworts. _athyrium_ hart's tongue and walking leaf the shield ferns: christmas and holly fern marsh fern tribe the beech ferns the fragrant fern the wood ferns the bladder ferns the woodsias the boulder fern (_dennstædtia_) sensitive and ostrich ferns the flowering ferns (_osmunda_) curly grass and climbing fern adder's tongue the grape ferns: key to the grape fern moonwort little grape fern lance-leaved grape fern matricary fern common grape fern rattlesnake fern filmy fern noted fern authors fern literature time list for fruiting of ferns glossary note: meaning of genus and species checklist list of illustrations a fern lover prothallium diagram pinnate frond bipinnate frond pinnatifid frond spore cases linen tester curly grass. _schizæa_ cinnamon fern. _osmunda cinnamomea_ sensitive fern. _onoclea sensibilis_ ostrich fern. _onoclea struthiopteris_ interrupted fern. _osmunda claytoniana_ climbing fern. _lygodium_ flowering fern. _osmunda regalis spectabilis_ adder's tongue. _ophioglossum_ grape fern. _botrychium_ polypody. _polypodium_ beech fern. _phegopteris_ cloak fern. _notholæna_ filmy fern. _trichomanes_ bracken. _pteris_ maidenhair. _adiantum_ cliff brake. _pellæa_ lip fern. _cheilanthes_ rock brake. _cryptogramma_ chain fern. _woodwardia_ shield fern. _polystichum_ wood fern. _aspidium_ bladder fern. _cystopteris_ woodsia hayscented fern. _dennstædtia_ hart's tongue. _scolopendrium_ walking fern. _camptosorus_ asplenium type athyrium type sporangia of the five families indusium common polypody. _polypodium vulgare_ sori of polypody polypody in mass (greenwood) gray polypody. _polypodium incanum_ brake. bracken. sterile frond bracken. fertile frond bracken, var. _pseudocaudata_ spray of maidenhair sori of maidenhair maidenhair. _adiantum pedatum_ alpine maidenhair venus-hair fern. _adiantum capillus-veneris_ purple cliff brake. _pellæa atropurpurea_ dense cliff brake. _cryptogramma densa_ slender cliff brake. _cryptogramma stelleri_ parsley fern. _cryptogramma acrostichoides_ alabama lip fern. _cheilanthes alabamensis_ hairy lip fern. _cheilanthes lanosa_ slender lip fern. _cheilanthes féei_ pinnæ of slender lip fern powdery cloak fern. _notholæna dealbata_ common chain fern. _woodwardia virginica_ net-veined chain fern. _woodwardia areolata_ the spleenworts pinnatifid spleenwort. _asplenium pinnatifidum_ scott's spleenwort. _asplenium ebenoides_ green spleenwort. _asplenium viride_ maidenhair spleenwort. _asplenium trichomanes_ maidenhair spleenwort. _asplenium trichomanes_ (fernery) ebony spleenwort. _asplenium platyneuron_ bradley's spleenwort. _asplenium bradleyi_ mountain spleenwort. _asplenium montanum_ rue spleenwort. _asplenium ruta-muraria_ rootstock of lady fern (two parts) sori of lady fern. _athyrium angustum_ varieties of lady fern lowland lady fern. _athyrium asplenioides_ silvery spleenwort. _athyrium acrostichoides_ narrow-leaved spleenwort. _athyrium angustifolium_ pinnæ and sori of _athyrium angustifolium_ sori of _scolopendrium vulgare_ hart's tongue. _scolopendrium vulgare_ walking fern. _camptosorus rhizophyllus_ christmas fern. _polystichum acrostichoides_ varieties of christmas fern braun's holly fern. _polystichum braunii_ holly fern. _polystichum lonchitis_ marsh fern. _aspidium thelypteris_ marsh fern, in the mass massachusetts fern. _aspidium simulatum_ new york fern. _aspidium noveboracense_ sori of _aspidium noveboracense_ pinnæ and sori of _aspidium noveboracense_ oak fern. _phegopteris dryopteris_ northern oak fern. _phegopteris robertiana_ broad beech fern. _aspidium hexagonoptera_ long beech fern. _aspidium polypedioides_ fragrant fern. _aspidium fragrans_ marginal shield fern. _aspidium marginale_ crown of fronds of _aspidium marginale_ sori of _aspidium marginale_ male fern. _aspidium filix-mas_ _aspidium filix-mas_ and details goldie's shield fern. _aspidium goldianum_ _aspidium goldianum_, in the mass crested shield fern. _aspidium cristatum_ crested shield fern. _aspidium cristatum_ (no. ) clinton's shield fern. _aspidium cristatum_ var. _clintonianum_ crested marginal fern. _aspidium cristatum × marginale_ _aspidium cristatum × marginale_, in the mass boott's shield fern. _aspidium boottii_ spinulose shield fern. _aspidium spinulosum_ _aspidium spinulosum_ var. _intermedium_ _aspidium spinulosum_ var. _americanum_ bulblet bladder fern. _cystopteris bulbifera_ _cystopteris bulbifera_ with sprouting bulb fragile bladder fern. _cystopteris fragilis_ rusty woodsia. _woodsia ilvensis_ northern woodsia. _woodsia alpina_ details of alpine woodsia blunt-lobed woodsia. _woodsia obtusa_ smooth woodsia. _woodsia glabella_ hayscented fern. _dennstædtia punctilobula_ forked variety of _dennstædtia punctilobula_ field view of _dennstædtia punctilobula_ pinnæ and sori of _dennstædtia punctilobula_ meadow view of sensitive fern obtusilobata forms of sensitive fern, leaf to fruit sori of sensitive fern sensitive fern. _onoclea sensibilis_ sensitive fern, fertile and sterile fronds on same plant ostrich fern. _onoclea struthiopteris_. fertile fronds ostrich fern. sterile fronds sori and sporangia of ostrich fern royal fern. _osmunda regalis spectabilis_ sori of royal fern interrupted fern. _osmunda claytoniana_ interrupted fern. fertile pinnules spread open cinnamon fern. _osmunda cinnamomea_ cinnamon fern. leaf gradations two varieties of cinnamon fern _osmunda cinnamomea glandulosa_ curly grass. _schizæa pusilla_ sporangia of curly grass climbing fern. _lygodium palmatum_ adder's tongue. _ophioglossum vulgatum_ moonwort. _botrychium lunaria_ moonwort, details little grape fern. _botrychium simplex_ lance-leaved grape fern. _botrychium lanceolatum_ matricary grape fern. _botrychium ramosum_ common grape fern. _botrychium obliquum_ _botrychium obliquum_ var. _dissectum_ _botrychium obliquum_ var. _oneidense_ ternate grape fern. _botrychium ternatum_ var. _intermedium_ ternate grape fern. _b. ternatum_ var. _intermedium_ rattlesnake fern. _botrychium virginianum_ filmy fern. _trichomanes boschianum_ fruiting pinnules of filmy fern crosiers noted fern authors spray of the bulblet bladder fern preface a lover of nature feels the fascination of the ferns though he may know little of their names and habits. beholding them in their native haunts, adorning the rugged cliffs, gracefully fringing the water-courses, or waving their stately fronds on the borders of woodlands, he feels their call to a closer acquaintance. happy would he be to receive instruction from a living teacher: his next preference would be the companionship of a good fern book. such a help we aim to give him in this manual. if he will con it diligently, consulting its glossary for the meaning of terms while he quickens his powers of observation by studying real specimens, he may hope to learn the names and chief qualities of our most common ferns in a single season. our most productive period in fern literature was between , when williamson published his "ferns of kentucky," and , when clute issued, "our ferns in their haunts." between these flourished d.c. eaton, davenport, waters, dodge, parsons, eastman, underwood, a.a. eaton, slosson, and others. all their works are now out of print except clute's just mentioned and mrs. parsons' "how to know the ferns." both of these are valuable handbooks and amply illustrated. clute's is larger, more scholarly, and more inclusive of rare species, with an illustrated key to the genera; while mrs. parsons' is more simple and popular, with a naive charm that creates for it a constant demand. we trust there is room also for this unpretentious, but progressive, handbook, designed to stimulate interest in the ferns and to aid the average student in learning their names and meaning. its geographical limits include the northeastern states and canada. its nomenclature follows in the main the seventh edition of gray's manual, while the emendations set forth in _rhodora_, of october, , and also a few terms of later adoption are embodied, either as synonyms or substitutes for the more familiar latin names of the manual, and are indicated by a different type. in every case the student has before him both the older and the more recent terms from which to choose. however, since the book is written primarily for lovers of nature, many of whom are unfamiliar with scientific terms, the common english names are everywhere given prominence, and strange to say are less subject to change and controversy than the latin. there is no doubt what species is meant when one speaks of the christmas fern, the ostrich fern, the long beech fern, the interrupted fern, etc. the use of the common names will lead to the knowledge and enjoyment of the scientific terms. a friend unfamiliar with latin has asked for pointers to aid in pronouncing the scientific names of ferns. following gray, wood, and others we have marked each accented syllable with either the grave (`) or acute (´) accent, the former showing that the vowel over which it stands has its long sound, while the latter indicates the short or modified sound. let it be remembered that any syllable with either of these marks over it is the accented syllable, whose sound will be long or short according to the slant of the mark. we have appropriated from many sources such material as suited our purpose. our interest in ferns dates back to our college days at amherst, when we collected our first specimens in a rough, bushy swamp in hadley. we found here a fine colony of the climbing fern (_lygodium_). we recall the slender fronds climbing over the low bushes, unique twiners, charming, indeed, in their native habitat. we have since collected and studied specimens of nearly every new england fern, and have carefully examined most of the other species mentioned in this book. by courtesy of the librarian, mr. william p. rich, we have made large use of the famous davenport herbarium in the massachusetts horticultural library, and through the kindness of the daughter, miss mary e. davenport, we have freely consulted the larger unmounted collection of ferns at the davenport homestead, at medford,[ ] finding here a very large and fine assortment of _botrychiums_, including a real _b. ternatum_ from japan. [footnote : recently donated to the gray herbarium.] for numerous facts and suggestions we are indebted to the twenty volumes of the _fern bulletin_, and also to its able editor, mr. willard n. clute. to him we are greatly obligated for the use of photographs and plates, and especially for helpful counsel on many items. we appreciate the helpfulness of the _american fern journal_ and its obliging editor, mr. e.j. winslow. to our friend, mr. c.h. knowlton, our thanks are due for the revision of the checklist and for much helpful advice, and we are grateful to mr. s.n.f. sanford, of the boston society of natural history, for numerous courtesies; but more especially to mr. c.a. weatherby for his expert and helpful inspection of the entire manuscript. the illustrations have been carefully selected; many of them from original negatives bequeathed to the author by his friend, henry lincoln clapp, pioneer and chief promoter of school gardens in america. some have been photographed from the author's herbarium, and from living ferns. a few are from the choice herbarium of mr. george e. davenport, and also a few reprints have been made from fern books, for which due credit is given. the scott's spleenwort, on the dedication page, is reprinted from clute's "our ferns in their haunts." introduction thoreau tells us, "nature made a fern for pure leaves." fern leaves are in the highest order of cryptogams. like those of flowering plants they are reinforced by woody fibres running through their stems, keeping them erect while permitting graceful curves. their exquisite symmetry of form, their frequent finely cut borders, and their rich shades of green combine to make them objects of rare beauty; while their unique vernation and method of fruiting along with their wonderful mystery of reproduction invest them with marked scientific interest affording stimulus and culture to the thoughtful mind. by peculiar enchantments these charming plants allure the ardent nature-lover to observe their haunts and habits. "oh, then most gracefully they wave in the forest, like a sea, and dear as they are beautiful are these fern leaves to me." as a rule the larger and coarser ferns grow in moist, shady situations, as swamps, ravines, and damp woods; while the smaller ones are more apt to be found along mountain ranges in some dry and even exposed locality. a tiny crevice in some high cliff is not infrequently chosen by these fascinating little plants, which protect themselves from drought by assuming a mantle of light wool, or of hair and chaff, with, perhaps, a covering of white powder as in some cloak ferns--thus keeping a layer of moist air next to the surface of the leaf, and checking transpiration. some of the rock-loving ferns in dry places are known as "resurrection" ferns, reviving after their leaves have turned sere and brown. a touch of rain, and lo! they are green and flourishing. ferns vary in height from the diminutive filmy fern of less than an inch to the vast tree ferns of the tropics, reaching a height of sixty feet or more. reproduction ferns are propagated in various ways. a frequent method is by perennial rootstocks, which often creep beneath the surface, sending up, it may be, single fronds, as in the common bracken, or graceful leaf-crowns, as in the cinnamon fern. the bladder fern is propagated in part from its bulblets, while the walking leaf bends over to the earth and roots at the tip. [illustration: male shield fern. fern reproduction by the prothallium] ferns are also reproduced by spores, a process mysterious and marvellous as a fairy tale. instead of seeds the fern produces spores, which are little one-celled bodies without an embryo and may be likened to buds. a spore falls upon damp soil and germinates, producing a small, green, shield-shaped patch much smaller than a dime, which is called a prothállium (or prothallus). on its under surface delicate root hairs grow to give it stability and nutriment; also two sorts of reproductive organs known as antherídia and archegònia, the male and female growths analogous to the stamens and pistils in flowers. from the former spring small, active, spiral bodies called ántherozòids, which lash about in the moisture of the prothállium until they find the archegònia, the cells of which are so arranged in each case as to form a tube around the central cell, which is called the òösphere, or egg-cell, the point to be fertilized. when one of the entering ántherozòids reaches this point the desired change is effected, and the canal of the archegònium closes. the empty òösphere becomes the quickened òösphore whose newly begotten plant germ unfolds normally by the multiplication of cells that become, in turn, root, stem, first leaf, etc., while the prothállium no longer needed to sustain its offspring withers away.[ ] [footnote : in the accompanying illustration, it should be remembered that the reproductive parts of a fern are microscopic and cannot be seen by the naked eye.] fern plants have been known to spring directly from the prothállus by a budding process apart from the organs of fertilization, showing that nature "fulfills herself in many ways."[ ] [footnote : the scientific term for this method of reproduction is apógamy (apart from marriage). sometimes the prothallus itself buds directly from the frond without spores, for which process the term apóspory is used. (meaning, literally, without spores.)] vernation all true ferns come out of the ground head foremost, coiled up like a watch-spring, and are designated as "fiddle-heads," or crosiers. (a real crosier is a bishop's staff.) some of these odd young growths are covered with "fern wool," which birds often use in lining their nests. this wool usually disappears later as the crosier unfolds into the broad green blade. the development of plant shoots from the bud is called vernation (latin, _ver_ meaning spring), and this unique uncoiling of ferns, "circinnate vernation." veins the veins of a fern are free, when, branching from the mid-vein, they do not connect with each other, and simple when they do not fork. when the veins intersect they are said to anastomose (greek, an opening, or network), and their meshes are called arèolæ or áreoles (latin, _areola_, a little open space). explanation of terms a frond is said to be pinnate (latin, _pinna_, a feather), when its primary divisions extend to the rachis, as in the christmas fern (fig. ). a frond is bipinnate (latin, _bis_, twice) when the lobes of the pinnæ extend to the midvein as in the royal fern (fig. ). these divisions of the pinnæ are called pinnules. when a frond is tripínnate the last complete divisions are called ultimate pinnules or segments. a frond is pinnátifid when its lobes extend halfway or more to the rachis or midvein as in the middle lobes of the pinnátifid spleenwort (fig. ). the pinnæ of a frond are often pinnátifid when the frond itself is pinnate; and a frond may be pinnate in its lower part and become pinnátifid higher up as in the pinnátifid spleenwort just mentioned (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the divisions of a pinnátifid leaf are called segments; of a bipinnátifid or tripinnátifid leaf, ultimate segments. sporÁngia and fruit dots fern spores are formed in little sacs known as spore-cases or sporángia (fig. ). they are usually clustered in dots or lines on the back or margin of a frond, either on or at the end of a small vein, or in spike-like racemes on separate stalks. sori (singular _sorus_, a heap), or fruit dots may be naked as in the polypody, but are usually covered with a thin, delicate membrane, known as the indusium (greek, a dress, or mantle). the family or genus of a fern is often determined by the shape of its indusium; e.g., the indusium of the woodsias is star-shaped; of the dicksonias, cup-shaped; of the aspleniums, linear; of the wood ferns, kidney-shaped, etc. [illustration: fig. ] in many ferns the sporangia are surrounded in whole or in part by a vertical, elastic ring (annulus) reminding one of a small, brown worm closely coiled (fig. ). as the spores mature, the ring contracts and bursts with considerable force, scattering the spores. the spores of the different genera mature at different times from may to september. a good time to collect ferns is just before the fruiting season. (for times of fruiting see individual descriptions or chronological chart on page .) helpful hints the following hints may be helpful to the young collector: . a good lens with needles for dissecting is very helpful in examining the sori, veins, glands, etc., as an accurate knowledge of any one of these items may aid in identifying a given specimen. bausch and lomb make a convenient two-bladed pocket glass for about two dollars.[ ] [footnote : in the linen tester here figured (cost $ . ) the lens is mounted in a brass frame which holds it in position, enabling the dissector to use both hands. a tripod lens will also be found cheap and serviceable.] [illustration] . do not exterminate or weaken a fern colony by taking more plants than it can spare. in small colonies of rare ferns take a few and leave the rest to grow. it is decidedly ill-bred to rob a locality of its precious plants. pick your fern leaf down close to the root-stock, including a portion of that also, if it can be spared. place your fronds between newspaper sheets and lay "dryers" over them (blotting paper or other absorbent paper). cover with a board or slat frame, and lay on this a weight of several pounds, leaving it for twenty-four hours; if the specimens are not then cured, change the dryers. mount the prepared specimens on white mounting sheets. the regulation size is - / by - / inches. the labels are usually - / by - / inches. a sample will suggest the proper inscription. herbarium of john doe _ophioglóssum vulgatum_, l. (adder's tongue) willoughby lake, vt. august , . wet meadow. coll. x.y.z. rather common but often overlooked place the label at the lower right-hand corner of the sheet, which is now ready to be laid in the genus cover, usually of manila paper - / by inches. it is well to jot down important memoranda at the time of collecting. this is the method in use at the gray herbarium in cambridge. it can, of course, be modified to suit one's own taste or convenience. the young collector can begin by simply pressing his specimens between the leaves of a book, the older and coarser the better; and he can mount them in a blank book designed for the purpose, or if he has only a common blank book, he can cut out some of the leaves, alternately with others left in place, as is often done with a scrap book, that when the book is full it may not be crowded at the back. or he can use sheets of blank paper of any uniform size and mount the specimens on these with gummed strips, and then group them, placing those of the same genus together. such an extemporized herbarium, though crude, will serve for a beginning, while stimulating his interest, and advancing his knowledge of the ferns. let him collect, press, and mount as many varieties as possible, giving the name with date and place of collecting, etc. such a first attempt may be kept as a reminder of pleasant hours spent in learning the rudiments of a delightful study. we cannot insist too strongly upon the necessity of handling and studying the living plant. every student needs to observe for himself the haunts, habits, and structure of real ferns. we would say to the young student, while familiarizing yourself with the english names of the ferns, do not neglect the scientific names, which often hold the key to their meaning. repeat over and over the name of each genus in soliloquy and in conversation until your mind instantly associates each fern with its family name--"_adiantum_," "_polystichum_," "_asplenium_," and all the rest. fix them in the memory for a permanent asset. with hard study and growing knowledge will come growing attachment. how our great expert, mr. davenport, loved the ferns! he would handle them with gentle touch, fondly stroke their leaves, and devoutly study their structure, as if inspired by the all-wise interpreter. "move along these shades in gentleness of heart: with gentle hand touch--for there is a spirit in the woods." key to the genera this key, in illustrating each genus, follows the method of clute in "our ferns in their haunts," but substitutes other and larger specimens. five of these are from waters' "ferns" by permission of henry holt & co. as the indusium, which often determines the name of a fern, is apt in some species to wither early, it is important to secure for study not only a fertile frond, but one in as good condition as possible. for convenience the ferns may be considered in two classes. i those which have the fruiting portion in greenish, berry-like structures and not on the back of fronds a. fruiting fronds wholly fertile (fertile and sterile fronds entirely unlike) [illustration] . fruit in a one-sided spike in two ranks; plants very small; sterile fronds thread-like and tortuous. curly grass. _schizæa_. [illustration] . fruit in a club-shaped, brown or cinnamon-colored spike loaded with sporangia; fruit in early spring. cinnamon fern. _osmunda cinnamomea_. [illustration] . fruit in berry-like, greenish structures in a twice pinnate spike, which comes up much later than the broad and coarse pinnátifid sterile fronds. wet ground. sensitive fern. _onoclea_. [illustration] . fruit in pod-like or necklace-like pinnæ; fertile frond pinnate; sterile frond tall, pinnátifid; fruit late. ostrich fern. _onoclea struthiopteris_. b. fruiting fronds partly sterile [illustration] . fruiting portion in the middle of the frond; two to four pairs of fertile pinnæ. interrupted fern. _osmunda claytoniana_. [illustration] . fruiting portion at the apex of the frond. sterile pinnæ palmate; rachis twining. climbing fern. _lygodium_. [illustration] sterile pinnæ pinnate; fronds large, fertile portion green, turning brown, forming a panicle at the top. royal fern. _osmunda regalis_. [illustration] . fruiting portion seemingly on a separate stock a few inches above the sterile. sterile part an entire, ovate, green leaf near the middle; fertile part a spike. adder's tongue. _ophioglossum_. [illustration] sterile portion more or less divided; fruit in racemes or panicles, rarely in spikes. grape ferns. moonwort. _botrychium_. ii those which have the fruiting portion on the back or margin of fronds a. indusium wanting [illustration] . fruit-dots large, roundish; fronds evergreen. rock species. polypody. _polypodium_. [illustration] . fruit-dots small, roundish; fronds triangular. beech ferns. _phegopteris_. [illustration] . fruit in lines on the margin of the pinnules; under surface of the fronds covered with whitish powder. cloak ferns. _notholæna_. b. indusium present [illustration] . sori on the edge of a pinnule terminating a vein; sporangia at the base of a long, bristle-like receptacle surrounded by a cup-shaped indusium. filmy fern. _trichomanes_. [illustration] . indusium formed by the reflexed margin of the pinnules. ( ) sporangia on a continuous line; fronds large, ternate; indusium narrow. bracken. brake. _pteris_. [illustration] ( ) sporangia in oblong sori under a reflexed tooth of a pinnule; indusium broad; rachis dark and shining. maidenhair. _adiantum_. [illustration] ( ) sori in roundish or elongated masses. indusium broad, nearly continuous, fronds mostly smooth, somewhat leathery, pinnate. rock species. cliff brakes. _pellæa_. [illustration] indusium narrow, seldom continuous, formed by the margin of separate lobes or of the whole pinnules; often inconspicuous, fronds usually hairy. lip ferns. _cheilanthes_. [illustration] indusium of the reflexed edges, at first reaching to the midrib, or nearly so; later opening out nearly flat; fruiting pinnules pod-like; sterile fronds broad. rock brakes. _cryptogramma_. [illustration] . indusium never formed of the margin of the frond. sori various. ( ) fruit-dots oblong, parallel with the midrib, somewhat sunken in the tissues of the frond. water-loving species. chain ferns. _woodwardia_. [illustration] ( ) fruit-dots and indusium roundish. indusium shield-shaped, fixed by the center. evergreen glossy ferns in rocky woods. shield ferns. _polystichum_. [illustration] indusium cordate, fixed by the sinus. wood ferns. _aspidium_. [illustration] indusium hood-shaped, fixed centrally behind the sorus and arching over it, soon withering, often illusive. fronds two to three pinnate, very graceful. moisture-loving species. bladder ferns. _cystopteris_. [illustration] indusium star-shaped, of a few irregular segments fixed beneath the sorus, often obscure. mostly small, rock-loving plants, usually rather chaffy, at least at the base, and growing in tufts. _woodsia_. [illustration] indusium cup-shaped, fixed beneath the sorus, supported by the tooth of a leaf; sporangia borne in an elevated, globular receptacle open at the top. fronds finely cut. hayscented fern. _dennstædtia_. [illustration] ( ) fruit-dots and indusium linear. (but see _athyrium_.) very long, nearly at right angles to the midrib, double; blade thick oblong-lanceolate, entire; heart-shaped at the base. hart's tongue. _scolopendrium_. [illustration] shorter and irregularly scattered on the under side of the frond, some parallel to the midrib, others oblique to it, and often in pairs or joined at the ends; blade tapering to a slender tip. walking fern. _camptosorus_. [illustration] short, straight, mostly oblique to the midrib. indusium rather narrow, opening toward the midrib, fronds lobed or variously divided. spleenworts. _asplenium_. [illustration] short, indusium usually more or less curved and frequently crossing a vein. the large spleenworts including lady fern. _athyrium_. descriptive text of the ferns in this manual our native ferns are grouped scientifically under five distinct families. by far the largest of these groups, and the first to be treated, is that of the _real ferns (polypodiàceæ)_ with sixty species and several chief varieties. then follow the _flowering ferns (osmundàceæ)_ with three species; the _curly grass_ and _climbing ferns (schizæàceæ)_ with two species; the _adder's tongue_ and _grape ferns (ophioglossàceæ)_ with seven species; and the _filmy ferns (hymenophyllàceæ)_ with one species. corresponding with these five families, the sporangia or spore cases of ferns have five quite distinct forms on which the families are founded. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] . the fern family proper (_polypodiàceæ_) has the spore cases stalked and bound by a vertical, elastic ring (fig. ). the clusters of fruit-dots containing the spore cases may be open and naked as in polypody (fig. ), or covered by an indusium, as in the shield ferns (fig. ). . the royal fern family (_osmunda_) has the spore cases stalked with only a rudimentary ring on one side, which opens longitudinally (fig. ). . the climbing fern family (_lygodium, schizæa_) has the spore cases sessile in rows; they are small, nut-like bodies with the elastic ring around the upper portion (fig. ).[ ] [footnote : these figures are enlarged.] . the adder's tongue family (_ophioglóssum, botrýchium_) has simple spore cases without a ring, and discharges its spores through a transverse slit (fig. ). . the filmy fern family (_trichómanes_) has the spore cases along a bristle-like receptacle and surrounded by an urn-shaped, slightly two-lipped involucre; ring transverse and opening vertically (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the fern family proper or real ferns _polypodiÀceÆ_ green, leafy plants whose spores are borne in spore-cases (sporangia), which are collected in dots or clusters (fruit-dots or sori) on the back of the frond or form lines along the edge of its divisions. sporangia surrounded by vertical, elastic rings bursting transversely and scattering the spores. fruit-dots (sori) often covered, at least when young, by a membrane called the indusium. spores brown. the polypodies . polypody. _polypodium_ (from the greek meaning many-footed, alluding to the branching rootstocks.) simple ferns with stipes articulated to the creeping rootstocks, which are covered with brown, chaffy scales. fruit-dots round, naked, arranged on the back of the frond in one or more rows each side of the midrib. sporangia pedicelled, provided with a vertical ring which bursts transversely. a large genus with about species, widely distributed, mostly in tropical regions. ( ) common polypody. _polypodium vulgare_ fronds somewhat leathery in texture, evergreen, four to ten inches tall, smooth, oblong, and nearly pinnate. the large fruit-dots nearly midway between the midrib and the margin, but nearer the margin. [illustration: common polypody. _polypodium vulgare_] common everywhere on cliffs, usually in half shade, and may at times spring out of decaying logs or the trunks of trees. as the jointed stipes, harking back to some ancient mode of fern growth, fall away from the rootstocks after their year of greenness, they leave behind a scar as in solomon's seal. the polypody is a gregarious plant. by intertwining its roots the fronds cling together in "cheerful community," and a friendly eye discovers their beauty a long way off. august. abounds in every clime, including europe and japan. in transplanting, sections should be cut, not pulled from the matted mass. var. _cambricum_ has segments broader and more or less strongly toothed. var. _cristatum_ has the segments forked at the ends. several other forms are also found. [illustration: fruited frond] [illustration: the common polypody. _polypodium vulgare_ (photographed by miles greenwood, melrose, mass.)] ( ) gray or hoary polypody _polypodium incànum. p. polypodiòides_ fronds oblong, two to seven inches long, deeply pinnátifid, gray and scurfy underneath with peltate scales having a dark center. fruit-dots rather small, near the margin and obscured by the chaff. [illustration: gray or hoary polypody. _polypodium incanum_] in appearance the gray polypody is much like the common species, as the greek ending _oides_ (like) implies. in florida and neighboring states it often grows on trees; farther north mostly on rocks. reported as far north as staten island. it is one of the "resurrection" ferns, reviving quickly by moisture after seeming to be dead from long drouth. july to september. widely distributed in tropical america. often called tree-polypody. the bracken group sporangia near or on the margin of the segments, the reflexed portions of which serve as indusia. . bracken or brake _ptèris aquilina_. pterÍdium latiÚsculum[ ] [footnote : the use of small capitals in the scientific names indicates in part the newer nomenclature which many botanists are inclined to adopt.] fronds broadly triangular, ternate, one to three feet high or more, the widely spreading branches twice pinnate, the lower pinnules more or less pinnátifid. sporangia borne in a continuous line along the lower margin of the ultimate divisions whose reflexed edges form the indusium. (greek, _pteron_, a wing, the feathery fronds suggesting the wings of a bird.) [illustration: common bracken or brake, a sterile frond. _pteris aquilina_ (providence county, r.i.)] [illustration: a fertile frond of common bracken. _pteris aquilina_ (suffolk county, mass.)] "the heath this night must be my bed, the bracken curtain for my head." scott. the outlines of the young bracken resemble the little oak fern. it flourishes in thickets and open pastures, often with poor soil and scant shade. it is found in all parts of the world, and is said to be the most common of all our north american ferns. in a cross section of the mature stipe superstition sees "the devil's hoof" and "king charles in the oak," and any one may see or think he sees the outlines of an oak tree. it was the bracken, or eagle fern, as some call it, which was supposed to bear the mysterious "fern seed," but only on midsummer eve (st. john's eve). "but on st. john's mysterious night, confest the mystic fern seed fell." this enabled its possessor to walk invisible. "we have the receipt for fern-seed, we walk invisible." shakespeare. the word brake or bracken is one of the many plant names from which some of our english surnames are derived, as brack, breck, brackenridge, etc., and fern (meaning the bracken) is seen in fern, fearns, fernham, fernel, fernside, farnsworth, etc. also, in names of places as ferney, ferndale, fernwood, and others. although the bracken is coarse and common, it makes a desirable background for rockeries, or other fern masses. the young ferns should be transplanted in early spring with as much of the long, running rootstock as possible. var. _pseudocaudàta_ has longer, narrower and more distant pinnules, and is a common southern form. [illustration: var. _pseudocaudata_] . maidenhair. _adiantum_ ferns with much divided leaves and short, marginal sori borne at the ends of free-forking veins, on the under side of the reflexed and altered portion of the pinnules, which serves as an indusium. stipes and branches of the leaves very slender and polished. (greek, unwetted, because drops of water roll off without wetting the leaves.) ( ) common maidenhair. _adiantum pedatum_ a graceful fern of shady glen and rocky woodland, nine to eighteen inches high, the black, shining stalks forked at the top into two equal, recurved branches, the pinnæ all springing from the upper side. pinnules triangular-oblong, bearing short sori on their inwardly reflexed margins which form the indusium. [illustration: a spray of maidenhair] [illustration: fruiting pinnæ of maidenhair] the maidenhair has a superficial resemblance to the meadow rue, which also sheds water, but it may be known at once by its black, shining stalks with their divisions all borne on one side. it is indeed a most delicate fern, known and admired by every one. the term maidenhair may have been suggested by the black, wiry roots growing from the slender rootstock, or by the dark, polished stems, or, as clute explains it, "because the black roots, like hair, were supposed, according to the 'doctrine of signatures' to be good for falling hair, and the plant was actually used in the 'syrup of capillaire'[a] (_am. botanist_, november, ). while the maidenhair is not very common, it is widely distributed, being found throughout our section, westward to california, and northward to the british provinces. "though the maidenhair has a wide range, and grows abundantly in many localities, it possesses a quality of aloofness which adds to its charm. its chosen haunts are dim, moist hollows in the woods, or shaded hillsides sloping to the river. in such retreats you find the feathery fronds tremulous on their glistening stalks, and in their neighborhood you find, also, the very spirit of the woods." mrs. parsons. [footnote a: it may be stated that capillaire syrup besides the use here indicated was highly esteemed as a pectoral for the relief of difficult breathing.] [illustration: common maidenhair. _adiantum pedatum_ (reading, mass., kingman)] [illustration: alpine maidenhair. _adiantum pedatum_, var. _aleuticum_ (fernald and collins, gaspé county, quebec, ) (from the gray herbarium)] the fern is not hard to cultivate if allowed sufficient moisture and shade. along with the ostrich fern it makes a most excellent combination in a fern border. var. aleuticum, or alpine maidenhair. a beautiful northern form especially abundant on the high tableland of the gaspé peninsula, quebec, where it is said to cover hundreds of acres. in the east it is often dwarfed--six to ten inches high, growing in tufts with stout rootstocks, having the pinnules finely toothed instead of rounded and the indusia often lunate, rarely twice as long as broad. (fernald in _rhodora_, november, .) also found in northern vermont, and to the northwestward. ( ) the venus-hair fern. _adiantum capíllus-veneris_ fronds with a continuous main rachis, ovate-lanceolate, twice pinnate below. pinnules, fan-shaped on slender, black stalks, long, deeply and irregularly incised. veins extending from the base of the pinnules like the ribs of a fan. [illustration: venus hair fern. _adiantum capillus-veneris_] while our common maidenhair is a northern fern, the venus-hair fern is confined to the southern states. it is rarely found as far north as virginia, where it meets, but scarcely overlaps its sister fern. the medicinal properties of _adiantum pedatum_ were earlier ascribed to the more southern species, which is common in great britain, but, like many another old remedy, "the syrup of capillaire" is long since defunct. . cliff brakes. _pellàea_ sporangia borne on the upper part of the free veins inside the margins, in dot-like masses, but may run together, as in the continuous fruiting line of the bracken. indusium formed of the reflexed margins of the fertile segments which are more or less membranous. (pellæa, from the greek _pellos_, meaning dusky, in allusion to the dark stipes.) ( ) purple cliff brake. _pellæa atropurpùrea_ stipes dark purple or reddish-brown, polished and decidedly hairy and harsh to the touch, at least on one side. fronds coriaceous, pale, simply pinnate, or bipinnate below; the divisions broadly linear or oblong, or the sterile sometimes oval, chiefly entire, somewhat heart-shaped, or else truncate at the stalked base. veins about twice forked. basal scales extending into long, slender tips, colorless or yellow. [illustration: purple cliff brake. _pellæa atropurpurea_] another name is "the winter brake," as its fronds remain green throughout the winter, especially in its more southern ranges. it grows on rocky ledges with a preference for limestone, and often in full sun. in large and mature fronds its pinnæ are apt to be extremely irregular. while its stipes are purplish, its leaves are bluish-green, and its scales light-brown or yellow. strange to say, this brake of the cliffs thrives in cultivation. woolson says of it, "this fern is interesting and valuable. it is not only beautiful in design, but unique in color, a dark blue-green emphasizing all the varying tints about it--a first-class fern for indoor winter cultivation. it is a rapid grower, flourishing but a few feet from coal fire or radiator, in a north or south window. it quickly forgives neglect, and if allowed to dry up out of doors or indoors, recovers in due time when put in a moist atmosphere. it makes but one imperative demand, and that is the privilege of standing still. overzealous culturists usually like to turn things around, but revolving cliffs are not in the natural order of things. the slender black stipes are very susceptible to changes of light and warped and twisted fronds result." dry, calcareous rocks, southern new england and westward. rare. var. _cristata_ has forked pinnæ somewhat crowded toward the summit of the frond. missouri. ( ) smooth cliff brake _pellàea glabella. pellàea atropurpùrea_, var. _bushii_ naked with a few, scattered, spreading hairs, smooth surface and dark polished stipes. rhizome short with membranous, orange or brown scales having a few bluntish teeth on each edge. pinnæ sub-opposite, divergent, narrowly oblong, obtuse; base truncate, cordate or clasping, occasionally auricled; lower pinnæ often with orbicular or cordate pinnules. sterile pinnæ broader, bluish or greenish glaucous above, often crowded to overlapping. the smooth cliff brake has a decidedly northern range, growing from northern vermont to missouri, and northwestward, but found rarely, if at all, in southern new england. [illustration: dense cliff brake. _cryptogramma densa_ (from waters's "ferns," henry holt & co.)] ( ) dense cliff brake _cryptográmma densa. pellaèa densa_ modern botanists are inclined to place the dense cliff brake and the slender cliff brake under the genus _cryptográmma_, which is so nearly like _pellaea_ that one hesitates to choose between them. the word cryptográmma means in greek a _hidden line_, alluding to the line of sporangia hidden beneath the reflexed margin. the dense cliff brake may be described as follows: stipes three to nine inches tall, blades one to three inches, triangular-ovate, pinnate at the summit, and tripinnate below. segments linear, sharp-pointed, mostly fertile, having the margins entire and recurved, giving the sori the appearance of half-open pods. sterile fronds sharply serrate. stipes in dense tufts ("_densa_") slender, wiry, light-brown. this rare little fern is a northern species and springs from tiny crevices in rocks, preferring limestone. like many other rock-loving species, it produces spores in abundance, having no other effective means of spreading, and its fertile fronds are much more numerous than the sterile ones, and begin to fruit when very small. gaspé and mt. albert in the province of quebec, grey county, ontario, and in the far west. ( ) slender cliff brake _cryptográmma stellèri. pellaèa grácilis_ fronds (including stipes) three to six inches long, thin and slender with few pinnæ. the lower pinnæ pinnately parted into three to five divisions, those of the fertile fronds oblong or linear-oblong; those of the sterile, obovate or ovate, crenulate, decurrent at the base. confined to limestone rocks. quebec and new brunswick, to vermont, connecticut, pennsylvania, and to the northwest. [illustration: slender cliff brake. _cryptogramma stelleri_] we have collected this dainty and attractive little fern on the limestone cliffs of mt. horr, near willoughby lake, vt. it grew in a rocky grotto whose sides were kept moist by dripping water. how we liked to linger near its charming abode high on the cliff! and we liked also to speak of it by its pleasing, simple name, "pellæa gracilis," now changed for scientific reasons, but we still like the old name better. ( ) the rock brake. parsley fern _cryptográmma acrostichòides_ sterile and fertile fronds very dissimilar; segments of the fertile, linear and pod-like; of the sterile, ovate-oblong, obtuse, and toothed. the plants spring from crevices of rocks and are from six to eight inches high. stipes of the fertile fronds are about twice as long as the sterile, making two tiers of fronds. [illustration: parsley fern or rock brake. _cryptogramma acrostichoides_ (california and oregon) (herbarium of geo. e. davenport)] the parsley fern is the typical species of the genus _cryptográmma_. the indusium is formed of the altered margin of the pinnule, at first reflexed to the midrib, giving it a pod-like appearance, but at length opening out flat and exposing the sporangia. clute, speaking of this fern as "the rock brake," calls it a border species, as its home is in the far north--arctic america to lake huron, lake superior, colorado and california. . lip ferns. _cheilánthes_ mostly small southern ferns growing on rocks, pubescent or tomentose with much divided leaves. sori at the end of the veins at first small and roundish, but afterwards more or less confluent. the indusium whitish and sometimes herbaceous, formed of the reflexed margin of the lobes or of the whole pinnule. veins free, but often obscure. most of the ferns of this genus grow in dry, exposed situations, where rain is sometimes absent for weeks and months. for this reason they protect themselves by a covering of hairs, scales or wool, which hinders the evaporation of water from the plant by holding a layer of more or less saturated air near the surface of the frond. (in greek the word means _lip flower_, alluding to the lip-like indusia.) ( ) alabama lip fern. _cheilánthes alabaménsis_ fronds smooth, two to ten inches long, lanceolate, bipinnate. pinnæ numerous, oblong-lanceolate, the lower usually smaller than those above. pinnules triangular-oblong, mostly acute, often auricular or lobed at the base. indusia pale, membranous and continuous except between the lobes. stipes black, slender and tomentose at the base. [illustration: alabama lip fern. _cheilanthes alabamensis_ (from waters's "ferns," henry holt & co.)] this species of lip fern may be distinguished from all the others within our limits by its smooth pinnæ. on rocks--mountains of virginia to kentucky, and alabama, and westward to arizona. ( ) hairy lip fern. _cheilánthes lanòsa, c. véstita_ [illustration: hairy lip fern] fronds twice pinnate, lanceolate with oblong, pinnátifid pinnules; seven to fifteen inches tall, slender and rough with rusty, jointed hairs. pinnæ triangular-ovate, usually distant, the ends of the rounded lobes reflexed and forming separate involucres which are pushed back by the ripening sporangia. this species like the other lip ferns is fond of rocks, springing from clefts and ledges. while hairy it is much less tomentose than the two following species. unlike most of the rock-loving ferns this species is not partial to limestone, but grows on other rocks as well. it has been found as far north as new haven, conn., also near new york, and in new jersey, georgia, and westward to wyoming and southward. ( ) woolly lip fern. _cheilánthes tomentòsa_ fronds eight to eighteen inches long, lanceolate-oblong, tripinnate. pinnæ and pinnules ovate-oblong, densely woolly especially beneath, with slender, whitish, obscurely jointed hairs. of the ultimate segments the terminal one is twice as long as the others. pinnules distant, the reflexed, narrow margin forming a continuous, membranous indusium. stipe stout, dark brown, densely woolly. by donning its thick coat of wool this species is prepared to grow in the most exposed situations of the arid southwest. it is said to be the "rarest, tallest and handsomest of the lip ferns." mountains of virginia and kentucky to georgia, and west to missouri, texas and arizona. ( ) slender lip fern _cheilánthes féei, c. lanuginòsa_ stipes densely tufted, slender, at first hairy, dark brown, shining. fronds three to eight inches long, ovate-lanceolate, with thickish, distinctly articulated hairs, twice or thrice pinnate. pinnæ ovate, the lowest deltoid. pinnules divided into minute, densely crowded segments, the herbaceous margin recurved and forming an almost continuous indusium. [illustration: slender lip fern] the slender lip fern, known also as fée's fern, is much the smallest of the lip ferns, averaging, clute tells us, "but two inches high." this is only one-third as tall as the woolly lip fern and need not be mistaken for it. the fronds form tangled mats difficult to unravel. it grows on dry rocks and cliffs--illinois and minnesota to british columbia, and south to texas, new mexico and arizona. [illustration: pinnæ of slender lip fern. _cheilanthes féei_ (from waters's "ferns," henry holt & co.)] . cloak fern. _notholàena_ small ferns with fruit-dots borne beneath the revolute margin of the pinnules, at first roundish, but soon confluent into a narrow band without indusium. veins free. fronds one to several times pinnate, the lower surface hairy, or tomentose or powdery. includes about forty species, mostly american, but only one within our limits. (greek name means _spurious cloak_, alluding to the rudimentary or counterfeit indusium.) ( ) powdery cloak fern. _notholàena dealbàta_ fronds two to six inches long, triangular-ovate, acute, broadest at the base, tripinnate. stalks tufted, wiry, shining, dark brown. upper surface of the very small segments green, smooth, the lower densely coated with a pure, white powder; hence, the specific name _dealbata_, which means whitened. sori brown at length; veins free. there are several species of cloak ferns, but only one within our limits. the dry, white powder which covers them doubtless is designed to protect them from too rapid evaporation of moisture, as they all inhabit dry and sunny places. this delicate rock-loving fern is found in the clefts of dry limestone rocks in missouri, kansas, colorado, and southwestward. the chain ferns. _woodwardia_ large and somewhat coarse ferns of swampy woods with pinnate or nearly two-pinnate fronds, and oblong or linear fruit-dots, arranged in one or more chain-like rows, parallel to and near the midribs. indusium fixed by its outer margin to a veinlet and opening on the inner side. in our section there are two species. (named for thomas j. woodward, an english botanist.) [illustration: powdery cloak fern. _notholaena dealbata_ (kansas) (g.e. davenport)] [illustration: the common chain fern. _woodwardia virginica_] ( ) the common chain fern. _woodwardia virgínica_ sterile and fertile fronds similar in outline, two to four feet high, once pinnate, the pinnæ deeply incised with oblong segments. fruit-dots oblong in chain-like rows along the midrib both of the pinnæ and the lobes, confluent when ripe. veins forming narrow rows of net-like spaces (areoles) beneath the fruit-dots, thence free to the margin. the spores ripen in july. the sterile fronds resemble those of the cinnamon fern, but the latter grow in crowns, with a single frond in the center, while the fronds of the chain fern rise singly from the creeping rootstock, which sends them up at intervals all summer. the sori are borne on the backs of fertile fronds. there are usually more sterile than fertile blades, especially in dense shade. we have waded repeatedly through a miry swamp in melrose, mass., where the wild calla flourishes along with the blueberry and other swamp bushes, and have found the chain fern in several shaded spots, but every frond was sterile. it is said that when exposed to the sun it always faces the south. swamps, maine to florida, especially along the atlantic coast, and often in company with the narrow-leaved species. [illustration: net-veined chain fern. _woodwardia areolata_ (stratford, conn.)] ( ) net-veined chain fern narrow-leaved chain fern _woodwardia areolàta. w. angustifòlia_ root stocks creeping and chaffy. sterile and fertile fronds unlike; sterile ones nine to twelve inches tall, deltoid-ovate. broadest at the base, with lanceolate, serrulate divisions united by a broad wing. veins areolate; fertile fronds taller, twelve to twenty inches high with narrowly linear divisions, the areoles and fruit-dots in a single row each side of the secondary midrib, the latter sunk in the tissues. this species is less common than the virginia fern, but they often grow near each other. we have collected both in the blue hill reservation near boston, and both have been found in hingham, medford, and reading, and doubtless in other towns along the coast. mrs. parsons speaks of finding them in the flat, sandy country near buzzard's bay. the net-veined species has some resemblance to the sensitive fern, but in the latter the spore cases are shut up in small pods formed by the contracting and rolling up of the lobes, whereas the chain fern bears its sori on the under side of long, narrow pinnæ. besides, the sterile fronds of the latter have serrulate segments. as in the sensitive fern there are many curious gradations between the fertile and sterile fronds, both in shape and fruitfulness. waters calls them the "_obtusilobàta_ form." [illustration: the spleenworts . narrow-leaved . ebony . rue . scott's . maidenhair . green . mountain] the spleenworts a. the rock spleenworts. _asplènium_ small, evergreen ferns. fruit-dots oblong or linear, oblique, separate when young. indusium straight or rarely curved, fixed lengthwise on the upper side of a fertile veinlet, opening toward the midrib. veins free. scales of rhizome and stipes narrow, of firm texture and with thick-walled cells. ( ) pinnÁtifid spleenwort. _asplenium pinnatífídum_ fronds four to six inches long, lanceolate, pinnátifid or pinnate near the base, tapering above into a slender prolongation. lobes roundish-ovate, or the lower pair acuminate. fruit-dots irregular, numerous. stipes tufted, two to four inches long, brownish beneath, green above. although this fern, like all the small spleenworts, is heavily fruited, it is extremely rare. it is found as far north as sharon, conn., thence southward to georgia, to arkansas and missouri. on cliffs and rocks. resembles the walking fern, and its tip sometimes takes root. ( ) scott's spleenwort. _asplenium ebenòides_ fronds four to ten inches long, broadly lanceolate, pinnátifid or pinnate below, tapering to a prolonged and slender apex. divisions lanceolate from a broad base. fruit-dots straight or slightly curved. stipe and rachis brown. [illustration: pinnatifid spleenwort. _asplenium pinnatifidum_ a, small plants from harper's ferry; b, sori on young fronds (from waters's "ferns," henry holt & co.)] [illustration: scott's spleenwort. _asplenium ebenoides_ a, from virginia; b, from alabama; c, from maryland (from waters's "ferns," henry holt & co.)] resembles the last, and like that has been known to root at the tip. it is a hybrid between the walking fern and the ebony spleenwort, as proved by miss margaret slosson, and may be looked for in the immediate vicinity of its parents. it was discovered by r.r. scott, in , at manayunk, pa., a suburb of philadelphia, and described by him in the gardener's monthly of september, . vermont to alabama, missouri, and southward. rare, but said to be plentiful in a deep ravine near havana, ala. [illustration: green spleenwort. _asplenium víride_] ( ) green spleenwort. _asplenium víride_ fronds two to ten inches long, linear, pinnate, pale green. pinnæ roundish-ovate, crenate, with indistinct and forking midveins. stalks tufted, short, brownish below, green above. rachis green. discovered at smuggler's notch, mt. mansfield, vt., by c.g. pringle in . found sparingly at willoughby lake, high on the cliffs of mt. horr. this rare and delicate little plant bears a rather close resemblance to the maidenhair spleenwort, which, however, has dark stipes instead of green. northern new england, west and northwest on shaded limestone rocks. [illustration: maidenhair spleenwort. _asplenium trichomanes_] ( ) maidenhair spleenwort. _asplenium trichómanes_ stipes densely tufted, purple-brown, shining. fronds three to eight inches long, linear, dark green, rather rigid. pinnæ roundish-oblong or oval, entire or finely crenate, attached at the base by a narrow point. midveins forking and evanescent. not very common, but distributed almost throughout north america. may be looked for wherever there are ledges, as it does not require limestone. july. [illustration: maidenhair spleenwort. _asplenium trichomanes_ (from woolson's "ferns," doubleday, page & co.)] ( ) small spleenwort _asplenium párvulum. a. resíliens_ fronds four to ten inches tall, narrowly linear, rather firm, erect. pinnæ opposite, oblong, entire or finely crenate, and auricled at the base. stipes and rachis black and shining. midveins continuous. this small fern is a southern species half way between the maidenhair and ebony spleenworts, but rather more like the latter from which it differs in being smaller and thicker, and in having the fertile and sterile fronds of the same size. mountains of virginia to kansas and southward. ( ) ebony spleenwort _asplenium platynèuron. a. ebèneum_ fronds upright, eight to eighteen inches high, linear-lanceolate, the fertile ones much taller, and pinnate. pinnæ scarcely an inch long, the lower ones very much shorter, alternate, spreading, finely serrate or incised, the base auricled. sori numerous, rather near the midvein, stipe and rachis lustrous brown. ("ebony.") this rigidly upright but graceful fern flourishes in rocky, open woods, and on rich, moist banks, often in the neighborhood of red cedars. having come upon it many times in our rambles, we should say it was not uncommon. a lightly incised form of the pinnæ has been described as var. _serratum_. a handsome form discovered in vermont in by mrs. horton and named _hortonæ_ (also called _incisum_) has plume-like fronds with the pinnæ cut into oblique lobes, which are coarsely serrate. [illustration: ebony spleenwort. _asplenium platyneuron_ (melrose, mass., g.e. davenport)] [illustration: bradley's spleenwort. _asplenium bradleyi_ a, from maryland; b, from kentucky (from waters's "ferns," henry holt & co.)] ( ) bradley's spleenwort. _asplenium brádleyi_ fronds oblong-lanceolate, pinnate, three to ten inches long. pinnæ oblong-ovate, obtuse, incised or pinnátifid into oblong, toothed lobes. the basal pinnæ have broad bases, and blunt tips and are slightly stalked. stipes and rachis dark brown and the sori short, near the midrib. a rare and beautiful fern growing on rocks preferring limestone and confined mostly to the southern states. newburg, n.y., to kentucky and alabama, westward to arkansas. ( ) mountain spleenwort. _asplenium montanum_ fronds ovate-lanceolate from a broad base, two to eight inches long, somewhat leathery, pinnate. pinnæ ovate-oblong, the lowest pinnately cleft into oblong or ovate cut-toothed lobes, the upper ones less and less divided. rachis green, broad, and flat. [illustration: mountain spleenwort (from the "fern bulletin")] small evergreen ferns of a bluish-green color, growing in the crevices of rocks and cliffs. connecticut to ohio, kentucky, arkansas and southwest. july. rare. williams, in his "ferns of kentucky," says of this species, "common on all sandstone cliffs and specimens are large on sheltered rocks by the banks of streams." ( ) rue spleenwort. _asplenium ruta-murària_ fronds evergreen, small, two to seven inches long, deltoid-ovate, two to three pinnate below, simply pinnate above, rather leathery in texture. divisions few, stalked, from cuneate to roundish-ovate, toothed or incised at the apex. veins forking. rachis and stipe green. sori few, soon confluent. [illustration: the rue spleenwort. _a. ruta-muraria_ (top, lake huron--lower left, mt. toby, mass.--lower right, vermont) (from herbarium of geo. e. davenport)] this tiny fern grows from small fissures in the limestone cliffs, and is rather rare in this country; but in great britain it is very common, growing everywhere on walls and ruins. from mt. toby, mass., and willoughby mountain, vt., to michigan, missouri, kentucky and southward. b. the large spleenworts. _athýrium_ the following species, which are often two to three feet high and grow in rich soil, are quite different in appearance and habits from the small rock spleenworts just described. some botanists have kept them in the genus _asplenium_ because their sori are usually rather straight or only slightly curved, but others are inclined to follow the practice of the british botanists and put them into a separate group under _athýrium_. nearly all agree that the lady fern, with its variously curved sori, should be placed here, and many others would place the silvery spleenwort in the same genus, partly because of its frequently doubled sori. in regard to the last member of the group, the narrow-leaved spleenwort, there is more doubt. the sori taken separately would place it with the _aspleniums_, but considering its size, structure, habits of growth and all, it seems more closely allied to the two larger ferns than to the little rock species. we shall group the three together as the large spleenworts, or for the sake of being more definite adopt clute's felicitous phrase. the lady fern and its kin . the lady ferns fronds one to three feet high, broadly lanceolate, or ovate-oblong, tapering towards the apex, bipinnate. pinnæ lanceolate, numerous. pinnules oblong-lanceolate, cut-toothed or incised. fruit-dots short, variously curved. indusium delicate, often reniform, or shaped like a horseshoe, in some forms confluent at maturity. widely distributed, common and varying greatly in outline. the newer nomenclature separates the lady fern of our section into two distinct species, which should be carefully studied.[a] [footnote a: see monograph by f.k. butters in _rhodora_ of september, .] ( ) the upland lady fern. athÝrium angÚstum _asplènium fìlix-femina_ the rootstock or rhizome of the upland lady fern here pictured shows how the thick, fleshy bases of the old fronds conceal the rootstock itself. in the lowland lady fern the rootstock is but slightly concealed by old stipe bases, and so may be distinguished from its sister fern. one design of such rootstocks is to store up food (mostly starch), during the summer to nourish the young plants as they shoot forth the next spring. the undecayed bases of the old stipes are also packed with starch for the same purpose. [illustration: rootstock of the upland lady fern] [illustration: the same split lengthwise (from waters's "ferns," henry holt & co.)] [illustration: sori of lady fern. _athyrium angustum_] rootstocks horizontal, quite concealed by the thick, fleshy bases of old fronds. scales of the long, tufted stipes dark brown. indusium curved, often horseshoe-shaped, usually toothed or fringed with fine hairs, but without glands. fronds bipinnate, one to three feet high, widest near the middle. this is the common species of northern new england and the canadian provinces. the fronds differ very widely in form and a great many varieties have been pointed out, but the fern student, having first learned to identify the species, will gradually master the few leading varieties as he meets them. those growing in warm, sunny places where the fruit-dots when mature incline to cover the whole back of the frond are called "sun forms." these are varieties tÝpicum and elÀtius, both with the pinnæ obliquely ascending (including variety _angustum_ of d.c. eaton), but the latter has broader fronds with the pinnules of the sterile fronds oblong-lanceolate, somewhat acute and strongly toothed or pinnatifid. [illustration: varieties of lady fern left to right-- st and nd, var. _typicum; d, elatius; th, rubellum; th, uncertain, perhaps confertum_] var. rubÉllum has the sori distinct even when mature; its pinnules stand at a wide angle from the rachis of the pinna and are strongly toothed or pinnatifid with obtuse teeth. this variety favors regions with cool summers, or dense shade in warmer regions. the term rubÉllum alludes to the reddish stems so often seen but this sign alone may not determine the variety. it occurs throughout the range of the species, being a common new england fern. fernald remarks that this is also a common form of the species in southern nova scotia. among other varieties named by butters are confÉrtum, having the pinnules irregularly lobed and toothed; joined by a membranous wing, the lobes of the pinnules broad and overlapping, giving the fern a compact appearance; laciniÀtum with pinnules very irregular in size and shape, with many long, acute teeth, which project in various directions. "an abnormal form which looks as if it had been nibbled when young." these varieties are represented in the gray herbarium. ( ) the lowland lady fern athÝrium aspleniÒides rootstocks creeping, not densely covered with the persistent bases of the fronds. stipes about as long as the blade. scales of the stipe very few, seldom persistent, rarely over - of an inch long. fronds narrowly deltoid, lanceolate, widest near the base, the second pair of pinnæ commonly longest. indusia ciliate, the cilia (hairs) ending in glands. spores dark, netted or wrinkled. [illustration: lowland lady fern. athyrium asplenioides (from the gray herbarium)] the following two forms are named by butters: f. tÝpicum. the usual form frequent in eastern massachusetts, rhode island, connecticut, new york, pennsylvania, north carolina, ohio, and missouri. f. subtripinnÀtum. an unusually large and rare form with triangular, lanceolate, and pinnatifid pinnules, having blunt, oblong segments. wet situations in half shade. massachusetts, west virginia, and virginia. our lowland or southern lady fern flourishes in the southern states, comes up the atlantic coast until it meets the upland or northern species in pennsylvania and southern new england, and their identification can hardly fail to awaken in the student a keen interest. our american botanists are inclined to think that the real _athýrium fìlix-fémina_ is not to be found in the northeastern united states, but is rather a western species, with its habitat in california and the rocky mountain region and identical with _athýrium cyclosòrum_. but whatever changes may occur in the scientific name of the old _athýrium fìlix-fémina_, the name lady fern will not change, but everywhere within our limits it will hold its own as a familiar term. underwood, writing of the lady fern under the genus _asplenium_, mentions the form "_exìle_, small, starved specimens growing in very dry situations and often fruiting when only a few inches high." he also mentions eaton's "_angústum_," and alludes to the "remaining sixty-three varieties equally unimportant that have been described of this species." the lady fern is common in moist woods, by walls and roadsides, and at its best is a truly handsome species, although, like mrs. parsons, we have noticed that in the late summer it loses much of its delicacy. "many of its forms become disfigured and present a rather blotched and coarse appearance." the lady fern has inspired several poems, which have been quoted more or less fully in the fern books. the following lines are from the pen of calder campbell: "but not by burne in wood or dale grows anything so fair as the palmy crest of emerald pale of the lady fern when the sunbeams turn to gold her delicate hair." referring, perhaps, to the fair colors of the unfolding crosiers revealing stipes of a clear wine color in striking contrast with the delicate green of the foliage. in identifying this fern the novice should bear in mind the tendency of the curved sori of youth to become straightened and even confluent with age, although such changes are rather unreliable. possibly the suggestion of the poetic davenport may be helpful to some that there is "an indefinable charm about the various forms of the lady fern, which soon enables one to know it from its peculiarly graceful motion by merely gently swaying a frond in the hand." spores ripen in august. the lady fern is very easy to cultivate and when once established is apt to crowd aside its neighbors. ( ) silvery spleenwort. athÝrium acrostichÒides _asplènium acrostichòides. asplènium thelypteròides_ fronds two to four feet tall, pinnate, tapering both ways from the middle. pinnæ deeply pinnatifid, linear-lanceolate, acuminate. lobes oblong, obtuse, minutely toothed, each bearing two rows of oblong or linear fruit-dots. indusium silvery when young. [illustration: silvery spleenwort. _athyrium acrostichoides_] [illustration: silvery spleenwort. athyrium acrostichoides] the sterile fronds come up first and the taller, fertile ones do not appear until late in june. where there are no fruit-dots the hairs on the upper surface of the fronds will help to distinguish it from specimens of the marsh fern tribe, which it somewhat resembles. the regular rows of nearly straight, clear-cut sori of the fertile fronds are very attractive, and the lower ones, as well as those at the slender tips of the pinnæ, are frequently double. rich woods and moist, shady banks, new england to kentucky and westward. generally distributed but hardly common. ( ) narrow-leaved spleenwort athÝrium angustifÒlium. _asplenium angustifòlium_ fronds one to four feet tall, pinnate. pinnæ numerous, thin, short-stalked, linear-lanceolate, acuminate, those of the fertile fronds narrower. fruit-dots linear. indusium slightly convex. [illustration: narrow-leaved spleenwort. _athyrium angustifolium_ (vermont) (geo. e. davenport)] in rich woods from southern canada and new hampshire to minnesota and southward. september. not common. mt. toby, mass., berlin and meriden, conn., and danville, vt. can be cultivated but should not be exposed to severe weather, as its thin and delicate fronds are easily injured. woolson writes of it, "there is nothing in the fern kingdom which looks so cool and refreshing on a hot day as a mass of this clear-cut, delicately made-up fern." [illustration: pinnæ and sori of _athyrium angustifolium_] hart's tongue _scolopéndrium_. phyllÌtis sori linear, a row on either side of the midvein, and at right angles to it, the indusium appearing to be double. (_scolopendrium_ is the greek for centipede, whose feet the sori were thought to resemble. _phyllitis_ is the ancient greek name for a fern.) only one species in the united states. [illustration: sori of _scolopendrium vulgare_] ( ) _scolopendrium vulgàre_ phyllÌtis scolopÉndrium fronds thick and leathery, oblong-lanceolate from an auricled, heart-shaped base, ten to twenty inches long and one to two inches wide. margin entire, bright green. in shaded ravines under limestone cliffs. chittenango falls, and scolopendrium lake, central new york, and tennessee. also, locally in ontario and new brunswick. one of the rarest of our native ferns, although very common in great britain. this plant is said to be easily cultivated, and to produce numerous varieties. according to woolson, "no rockery is complete without the hart's tongue, the long, glossy, undulating fronds of which are sufficiently unique to distinguish any collection." in cultivation it "needs light protection through the winter in northern new england." [illustration: hart's tongue. _scolopendrium vulgare_ (base of calcareous rocks, owen sound, ontario, canada)] walking fern. walking leaf _camptosòrus_ fruit-dots oblong or linear as in _asplènium_, but irregularly scattered on either side of the reticulated veins of the simple frond, the outer ones sometimes confluent at their ends, forming crooked lines (hence, the name from the greek meaning crooked sori). only one species within our limits. _camptosòrus rhizophyllus_ fronds evergreen, leathery, four to eighteen inches long, heart-shaped at the base, but tapering towards the apex, which often roots and forms a new plant. veins reticulated. the auricles of this species are sometimes elongated and may even take root. this curious and interesting fern is one of the finest for rockeries, the tips taking root in rock-fissures. shaded limestone, or sometimes other rocks. shapleigh and winthrop, me., rarely in new hampshire (lebanon), and connecticut, mt. toby, mass., and western new england; also canada to georgia and westward. [illustration: walking fern. _camptosorus rhizophyllus_] the shield ferns the christmas and holly ferns _polýstichum_ these have been grouped with the wood ferns, but are now usually placed under the genus _polýstichum_, which has the sori round and covered with a circular indusium fixed to the frond by its depressed center. the wood ferns, on the other hand, have a kidney-shaped indusium attached to the fronds by the sinus. (_polýstichum_ is the greek for many rows, the sori of some species being in many ranks.) ( ) the christmas fern _polýstichum acrostichòides. aspídium acrostichòides_ stipes clothed with pale, brown scales. frond rigid and evergreen, one to two feet long, lanceolate, pinnate. pinnæ linear-lanceolate, scythe-shaped, auricled on the upper side, and with bristly teeth; fertile pinnæ contracted toward the top, bearing two rows of sori, which soon become confluent and cover the entire surface. indusium orbicular, fixed by its depressed center. _f. incìsum_ is a form in which the pinnæ are much incised. _f. críspum_ has the edges of its pinnæ crisped and ruffled. the name christmas fern, due to john robinson, of salem, mass., suggests its fitness for winter decoration. its deep green and glossy fronds insure it a welcome at christmas time. "its mission is to cheer the winter months and enhance the beauty of the other ferns by contrast." in transplanting, a generous mass of earth should be included and its roots should not be disturbed. [illustration: christmas fern. _polystichum acrostichoides_] [illustration: christmas fern. _polystichum acrostichoides_] [illustration: christmas fern. _polystichum acrostichoides_ top, forked form; bottom, incised form (maine)] ( ) braun's holly fern _polystichum bráunii. aspídium aculeàtum bráunii_ fronds thick, rigid, one to two feet long, spreading, lanceolate, tapering both ways, bipinnate. pinnules ovate or oblong, truncate, nearly rectangular at the base, sharply toothed and covered beneath with chaff and hairs. fruit-dots small and near the mid veins. indusium orbicular, entire. stipes chaffy with brown scales. [illustration: braun's holly fern. _polystichum braunii_ (willoughby mountain, vt.) (herbarium of g.h.t.)] this handsome fern is rather common in northern new england. we have collected it in the willoughby lake region, vt., and it is found at mt. mansfield, randolph, and elsewhere in that state; also at gorham, n.h., and fernald reports it as common in northern maine. it also grows in the mountains of new york and pennsylvania, and westward. it was formerly thought to be a variety of the prickly shield fern (_p. aculeàtum_), which has a very wide range and numerous varieties. the fronds remain green through the winter but the stipes weaken and fall over. ( ) holly fern. _polystichum lonchìtis_ fronds linear-lanceolate, short-stalked and rigid, eight to fifteen inches long. pinnæ broadly lanceolate-falcate or the lowest triangular, strongly auricled on the upper side, densely spinulose-toothed. sori midway between the margin and midrib. [illustration: holly fern. polystichum lonchitis (nottawasaga, canada, west, right, alaska, left) (herbarium of c.e. davenport)] the name holly fern suggests its resemblance to holly leaves with their bristle-tipped teeth. the specific name lonchìtis (like a spear) refers to its sharp teeth. a northern species growing in rocky woods from labrador to alaska, and south to niagara falls, lake superior and westward. its southern limits nearly coincide with the northern limits of the christmas fern. the marsh fern tribe under this designation clute has grouped three of the shield ferns, which have a close family resemblance, and has thus distinguished them from the wood ferns, which also belong to the shield fern family. ( ) the marsh fern _aspídium thelýpteris_. thelÝpteris palÚstris _dryópteris thelýpteris. nephròdium thelýpteris_ [illustration: the marsh fern] these are all good names and each one is worthy to be chosen. _aspídium_, greek for shield, in use for a century, adopted in all the seven editions of gray's manual, is still the most familiar and pleasing term to its friends. _dryópteris_, greek for oak fern, has been chosen by underwood and britton and brown and has grown in favor. _nephròdium_, meaning kidney-like, favored by davenport, waters and, of late, clute, is a most fitting name. thelÝpteris, meaning lady fern, is found to be the earliest name in use and according to rule the correct one. [illustration: the marsh fern. _aspidium thelypteris_] fronds pinnate, lanceolate, slightly or not at all narrowed at the base. pinnæ horizontal or slightly recurved, linear-lanceolate and deeply pinnatifid. lobes obtuse, but appear acute when their margins are reflexed over the sori. veins once forked. indusium minute. stipes tall, lifting the blades ten to fifteen inches above the mud, whence they spring. the fronds of the marsh fern are apt to be sterile in deep shade. it may be readily distinguished from the new york fern by its broad base, instead of tapering to very small pinnæ; by its long stalk, lifting the blade up into the sunlight, and by the revolute margins of the fertile fronds, which have suggested for it the name of "snuff-box" fern. it is separated from the massachusetts fern by its forked veins. common in marshes and damp woodlands; canada to florida and westward. while the marsh fern loves moisture and shade it is sometimes found in dry, open fields. miss lilian a. cole, of union, me., reports a colony as growing on land above the swale in which twayblade and adder's tongue are found, "around rock heaps in open sunlight on clay soil, but homely and twisted," as if a former woodsy environment had been long since cleared away while the deserted ferns persisted. ( ) massachusetts fern _aspidium simulàtum_. thelÝpteris simulÀta _dryópteris simulata. nephròdium simulàtum_ fronds pinnate, one to three feet long, oblong-lanceolate, somewhat narrowed at the base. pinnæ lanceolate, deeply pinnatifid, the lower most often turned inward. veins simple. indusium glandular. sori rather large. resembles the marsh fern, of which it was once thought to be a variety. in some respects it is also like the new york fern, and is in fact intermediate between the two. [illustration: massachusetts fern. _aspidium simulatum_ . sterile frond. . a fruiting pinnule. . pinnule enlarged showing venation (from the "fern bulletin")] that it is a distinct species was first pointed out by raynal dodge in , and it later was named _simulàtum_ by geo. e. davenport because of its similarity to a form of the lady fern. it may be identified by its thin texture and particularly by its simple veins. on account of its close resemblance to the marsh fern, clute would call it "the lance-leaved marsh fern," instead of the irrelevant name of massachusetts fern. woodland swamps usually in deep shade, new england to maryland and westward. often found growing with the marsh fern. ( ) new york fern _aspidium noveboracénse_. thelÝpteris noveboracÉnsis _dryópteris noveboracénsis. nephròdium noveboracénse_ fronds pinnate, tapering both ways from the middle. pinnæ lanceolate, pinnatifid, the lowest pairs gradually shorter and deflexed. veins simple. indusium minute and beset with glands. [illustration: new york fern. _aspidium noveboracense_] very common in woodlands, preferring a dryer soil than the marsh fern. august. the fronds are pale green, delicate and hairy beneath along the midrib and veins. [illustration: sori of new york fern (from waters's "ferns," henry holt & co.)] [illustration: new york fern. _aspidium noveboracense_] when bruised its resinous glands give out a pleasing, ferny odor. this species can be distinguished from every other by the greatly reduced pinnæ at its base. throughout north america east of the mississippi. the beech ferns the beech ferns are often classed with the polypodies, because, like them, they have no indusium; but in other ways they are more akin to the wood ferns. their stipes are not jointed to the root stock, nor are their sori at the ends of the veins as in the polypodies. we here place them with the wood ferns, retaining the familiar name _phegópteris_ but giving thelÝpteris as a synonym. the fruit-dots are small, round and naked, borne on the back of the veins below the apex. stipe continuous with the rootstock. veins free. (the name _phegópteris_ in greek means oak or beech fern.) ( ) oak fern _phegópteris dryópteris_. thelÝpteris dryÓpteris fronds glabrous, broadly triangular, ternate, four to seven inches broad, the divisions widely spreading, each division pinnate at the base. segments oblong, obtuse, entire or toothed. fruit-dots near the margin. rootstock slender and creeping from which fronds are produced all summer, in appearance like the small, ternate divisions of the bracken. this dainty fern has fronds of a delicate yellow-green, "the greenest of all green things growing." its ternate character is shown even in the uncoiling of the fronds, the three round balls suggesting the sign of the pawnbroker. the parts of the oak fern develop with great regularity, each pinna, pinnule and lobe having another exactly opposite to it nearly always. in rocky woods, common northward; also in virginia, kansas and colorado. a fine species for cultivation at the base of the artificial rockery. [illustration: oak fern. _phegopteris dryopteris_] ( ) the northern oak fern _phegopteris robertiana. phegopteris calcàrea_ thelÝpteris robertiÀna resembles the oak fern, but with fronds rather larger, especially the terminal segment; also more rigid and coarser in appearance. stalks and fronds minutely glandular beneath. lower pinnules of the lateral divisions scarcely longer than the others. often called "limestone polypody," the beech ferns having formerly been classed with the polypodies. britton and brown designate it as the "scented oak fern." canada and the northwestern states. rare. [illustration: northern oak fern. _phegopteris robertiana_ (from water's "ferns," henry holt & co.)] [illustration: broad beech fern. phegopteris hexagonoptera] ( ) broad beech fern _phegopteris hexagonóptera_ thelÝpteris hexagonÓptera fronds triangular, broader than long, seven to twelve inches broad, spreading more or less horizontally at the summit of the stipe; pubescent and often glandular beneath; pinnæ fragrant, lanceolate, the lowest pair usually much larger than those above, having the segments elongated and cut into lobes. basal segments decurrent and forming a many-angled wing along the main rachis. fruit-dots small, near the margin. the broad beech fern is usually larger than its sister, the long beech fern, and extends farther south, ranging from new england to minnesota and southward to florida. it is sometimes called "six-angled polypody." according to dodge it is most common in rhode island and connecticut. it prefers rather dry, open woods. it is said to have a pleasant, ferny odor when bruised. august. ( ) long beech fern _phegopteris polypodiòides_. thelÝpteris phegÓpteris fronds triangular, longer than broad, four to six inches long, twice pinnatifid. pinnæ lanceolate, acuminate, the lowest pair deflexed and standing forward; cut into oblong, obtuse segments. fruit-dots near the margin. compared with the broad beech fern this is the more northern species. while usually quite distinct in structure, it sometimes approaches its sister fern rather closely. it prefers deep woods and shaded banks. newfoundland to alaska and southward to the mountains of virginia. july. [illustration: long beech fern. _phegopteris polypodioides_] [illustration: the long beech fern] the fragrant fern _aspídium fràgrans. nephròdium fràgrans_ thelÝpteris frÀgrans. _dryópteris fràgrans_ fronds four to twelve inches high, glandular-aromatic, narrowly lanceolate and twice pinnate or nearly so. pinnæ oblong-lanceolate, pinnate or deeply pinnatifid. pinnules toothed or entire nearly covered beneath with the large, thin, imbricated indusia which are orbicular with a narrow sinus, having the margins ragged and sparingly glanduliferous. stipe short and chaffy. the fragrant fern grows on high cliffs among the mountains of northern new england. it is reported from scattered stations in northern maine, from north of the white mountains and from sunapee lake in new hampshire, and in the green mountains south to central vermont, new brunswick and to minnesota. found also in alaska and greenland. this much-coveted fern has a singularly sweet and lasting fragrance, compared by some to strawberries, by others to new-mown hay and sweet brier leaves. we have seen herbarium specimens that were mildly and pleasantly odorous after several years. when growing the fern may be tested "by its fragrance, its stickiness and its beautiful brown curls." evergreen. spores ripen the middle of august. [illustration: fragrant fern. _aspidium fragrans_ (mt. mansfield. vt.)] key to the wood ferns aspidium fronds pinnate, the pinnæ pinnatifid; blade soft and thin, not evergreen; lower pinnæ reduced to mere lobes new york fern lower pinnæ but slightly reduced; veins simple......................massachusetts fern veins forked..............................marsh fern blade rather thick (subcoreaceous) mostly evergreen; fronds small, narrow, glandular, rock species fragrant fern fronds large, two or more feet high; lower pinnæ short, broadly triangular crested shield fern lower pinnæ longer; sori close to the margin.... marginal shield fern sori nearer the midvein; frond lanceolate....................male fern frond ovate..............goldie's shield fern fronds twice pinnate with the lower pinnules pinnatifid boott's shield fern fronds nearly thrice pinnate................spinulose shield fern [illustration: marginal shield fern. _aspidium marginale_] the wood ferns the ferns of this group, not counting the small fragrant fern, prefer the woods or at least shady places. although the genus _polýstichum_ represents the true shield ferns, the wood ferns are also thus designated, as their indusia have nearly the shape of small, roundish shields. the old generic name for them all was _aspídium_ (meaning shield), first published in . for a long time its chief rival was _nephròdium_ (kidney-like), . many modern botanists have preferred the earlier name _dryópteris_ ( ), meaning oak fern, alluding, perhaps, to its forest-loving habits. thelÝpteris, still earlier ( ), may supersede the others. [illustration: marginal shield fern. aspidium marginale (from woolson's "ferns," doubleday, page & co.)] [illustration: sori of marginal shield fern] ( ) marginal shield fern, evergreen wood fern _aspídium marginàle_. thelÝpteris marginÀlis _dryópteris marginàlis. nephròdium marginàle_ fronds from a few inches to three feet long, ovate-oblong, somewhat leathery, smooth, twice pinnate. pinnæ lanceolate, acuminate, broadest just above the base. pinnules oblong, often slightly falcate, entire or toothed. fruit-dots large, round, close to the margin. rocky hillsides in rich woods, rather common throughout our area. the heavy rootstock rises slightly above the ground and is clothed at the crown with shaggy, brown scales. its rising caudex, often creeping for several inches over bare rocks, suggests the habit of a tree fern. in early spring it sends up a graceful circle of large, handsome, bluish-green blades. the stipes are short and densely chaffy. no other wood fern endures the winter so well. the fronds burdened with snow lop over among the withered leaves and continue green until the new ones shoot up in the spring. it is the most valuable of all the wood ferns for cultivation. ( ) the male fern _aspídium fìlix-mas_. thelÝpteris fÌlix-mas _dryópteris fìlix-mas. nephròdium fìlix-mas_ fronds lanceolate, pinnate, one to three feet high growing in a crown from a shaggy rootstock. pinnæ lanceolate, tapering from base to apex. pinnules oblong, obtuse, serrate at the apex, obscurely so at the sides, the basal incisely lobed, distant, the upper confluent. fruit-dots large, nearer the mid vein than the margin, mostly on the lower half of each fertile segment. the male fern resembles the marginal shield fern in outline, but the fronds are thinner, are not evergreen, and the sori are near the midvein. its use in medicine is of long standing. its rootstock produces the well-known _fìlix-mas_ of the pharmacist. this has tonic and astringent properties, but is mainly prescribed as a vermifuge, which is one of the names given to it. in europe it is regarded as the typical fern, being oftener mentioned and figured than any other. in rocky woods, canada, northfield, vt., and northwest to the great lakes, also in many parts of the world. [illustration: the male fern. _aspidium filix-mas_ (vermont)] [illustration: fig. g. _aspidium filix mas_ , illustration exhibiting general habit; a, young leaves: , transverse section of rhizome showing the conducting bundles a: , portion of the leaf bearing sori; a indusium b, sporangia; , longitudinal; , transverse section of a soris; a, leaf; b, indusium; c, sporangia: , a single sporangium; a, stalk; c, annulus; d, spores. (after wossidlo officinal) from a german print, giving details] ( ) goldie's fern _aspidium goldiànum_. thelypteris goldiÀna _dryopteris goldiàna. nephrodium goldiànum_ fronds two to four feet high and often one foot broad, pinnate, broadly ovate, especially the sterile ones. pinnæ deeply pinnatifid, broadest in the middle. the divisions (eighteen or twenty pairs) oblong-linear, slightly toothed. fruit-dots very near the midvein. indusium large, orbicular, with a deep, narrow sinus. scales dark brown to nearly black with a peculiar silky lustre. a magnificent species, the tallest and largest of the wood ferns. it delights in rich woodlands where there is limestone. its range is from canada to kentucky. while not common, there are numerous colonies in new england. it is reported from fairfield, me., spencer and mt. toby, mass., and frequently west of the connecticut river. we have often admired a large and beautiful colony of it on the west side of willoughby mountain in vermont. it is easily cultivated and adds grace and dignity to a fern garden. [illustration: goldie's shield fern. _aspidium goldianum_ (vermont, . c.g. pringle) (herbarium of g.e. davenport)] [illustration: goldie's fern (from woolson's "ferns," doubleday, page & co.)] ( ) the crested fern _aspidium cristàtum_. thelÝpteris cristÀta _dryopteris cristàta. nephrodium cristàtum_ fronds one to two feet long, linear-oblong or lanceolate, pinnate, acute. pinnæ two to three inches long, broadest at the base, triangular-oblong, or the lowest triangular. divisions oblong, obtuse, finely serrate or cut-toothed, those nearest the rachis sometimes separate. fruit-dots large, round, half way between the midvein and the margin. indusium smooth, naked, with a shallow sinus. the short sterile fronds, though spreading out gracefully, are conspicuous only in winter; while the fertile fronds, tall, narrow and erect, are found only in summer. it is one of our handsomest evergreen ferns and even the large sori, with their dark spore cases and white indusia, are very attractive. the fertile pinnæ have a way of turning their faces upward toward the apex of the frond for more light. in moist land, canada to kentucky. var. _clintoniànum_. clinton's wood fern. resembles the type, but is in every way larger. divisions eight to sixteen pairs. fruit-dots near the midvein, the sides of the sinus often overlapping. south central maine to new york and westward. "rare in new england attaining its best development in western sections." (dodge.) mt. toby, mass., hanover, n.h. july. fine for cultivation. [illustration: crested shield fern. _aspidium cristatum_ (reading, mass., kingman)] [illustration: the crested shield fern. _aspidium cristatum_] [illustration: clinton's wood fern. _aspidium cristatum_, var. _clintonianum_ (gray herbarium)] crested marginal fern _aspídium cristàtum x marginàle_ both the crested fern and clinton's fern appear to hybridize with the marginal shield fern with the result that the upper part of the frond is like _marginale_ and the lower like _cristàtum_, including the veining and texture. this form was discovered by raynal dodge, verified by margaret slosson and described by geo. e. davenport, who had a small colony under cultivation in his fern garden at medford, mass., and to him the writer and other friends are indebted for specimens. found occasionally throughout new england and new jersey. other supposed hybrids have been found between the marginal shield and the spinulose fern and its variety _intermèdium_, and with goldie's fern; also between the crested fern, including clinton's variety and each of the others mentioned; and, in fact, between almost all pairs of species of the wood ferns, although we do not think they have been positively verified. still other species of ferns are known to hybridize more or less, as we saw in the case of scott's spleenwort. [illustration: crested marginal fern. a hybrid. _aspidium cristatum x marginale_ (fernery of geo. e. davenport)] [illustration: _aspidium cristatum x marginale_ one of the very best for cultivation] ( ) boott's shield fern _aspidium boottii_. thelÝpteris boottii _dryopteris boottii. nephrodium boottii_ fronds one to three feet high, oblong-lanceolate, bipinnate, the upper pinnæ lanceolate, the lower triangular with spinulose teeth. sori in rows each side of the midvein, one to each tooth and often scattering on the lower pinules. indusium large, minutely glandular, variable. this fern has been thought to be a hybrid between the crested and spinulose ferns, but is now regarded as distinct. like the crested fern its fertile fronds wither in autumn, while its sterile blades remain green throughout the winter. it differs from it, however, by being twice pinnate below, and from the typical spinulose fern by its glandular indusium; but from the intermediate variety it is more difficult to separate it, as that also has indusiate glands. the collector needs to study authentic specimens and have in mind the type, with its rather long, narrow blade as an aid to the verbal description, and even then he will often find it an interesting puzzle. shaded swamps throughout our area. [illustration: _aspidium boottii_] ( ) spinulose shield fern _aspidium spinulòsum. thelÝpteris spinulÒsa dryopteris spinulòsa. nephrodium spinulòsum_ stipes with a few pale brown deciduous scales. fronds one to two and one-half feet long, ovate-lanceolate, twice pinnate. pinnæ oblique to the rachis, the lower ones broadly triangular, the upper ones elongated. pinnules on the inferior side of the pinnæ often elongated, especially the lower pair, the pinnule nearest the rachis being usually the longest, at least in the lowest pinnæ. pinnules variously cut into spinulose-toothed segments. indusium smooth, without marginal glands. the common european type, but in this country far less common than its varieties. they all prefer rich, damp woods, and because of their graceful outline and spiny-toothed lobes are very attractive. they can be transplanted without great difficulty, and the fern garden depends upon them for its most effective lacework. var. _intermèdium_ has the scales of the stipe brown with darker center. fronds ovate-oblong, often tripinnate. pinnæ spreading, oblong-lanceolate. pinnules pinnately cleft, the oblong lobes spinulose-toothed at the apex. margin of the indusium denticulate and beset with minute, stalked glands. in woods nearly everywhere--our most common form. millions of fronds of this variety are gathered in our northern woods, placed in cold storage and sent to florists to be used in decorations.[a] as long as the roots are not disturbed the crop is renewed from year to year, and no great harm seems to result. canada to kentucky and westward. [footnote a: _horticulture_ reports that twenty-eight million fern leaves have been shipped from bennington, vt., in a single season; and that nearly $ , were paid out in wages.] [illustration: spinulose shield fern. _aspidium spinulosum_ (maine, , herbarium of geo. e. davenport)] [illustration: _aspidium spinulosum_, var. _intermedium_] [illustration: _aspidium spinulosum_, var. americanum] a tripinnate form of this variety discovered at concord, mass., by henry purdie, has been named var. concordiÀnum. it has small, elliptical, denticulate pinnules and a glandular-pubescent indusium. var. americÀnum (=_dilatàtum_, syn.). fronds broader, ovate or triangular-ovate in outline. a more highly developed form of the typical plant, the lower pinnæ being often very broad, and the fronds tripinnate. inferior pinnules on the lower pair of pinnæ conspicuously elongated. a variety preferring upland woods; northern new england, greenland to the mountains of north carolina, pennsylvania, michigan and northward. the bladder ferns. _cystópteris_ "mark ye the ferns that clothe these dripping rocks, their hair-like stalks, though trembling 'neath the shock of falling spraydrops, rooted firmly there." the bladder ferns are a dainty, rock-loving family partial to a limestone soil. (the greek name _cystópteris_ means bladder fern, so called in allusion to the hood-shaped indusium.) ( ) the bulblet bladder fern _cystópteris bulbífera. fìlix bulbífera_ fronds lanceolate, elongated, one to three feet long, twice pinnate. pinnæ lanceolate-oblong, pointed, horizontal, the lowest pair longest. rachis and pinnæ often bearing bulblets beneath. pinnules toothed or deeply lobed. indusium short, truncate on the free side. stipe short. [illustration: bulblet bladder fern. _cystopteris bulbifera_ (willoughby, vt., , g.h.t.)] [illustration: bulblet bladder fern. _cystopteris bulbifera_] one of the most graceful and attractive of our native ferns; an object of beauty, whether standing alone or massed with other growths. it is very easily cultivated and one of the best for draping. "we may drape our homes by the yard," says woolson, "with the most graceful and filmy of our common ferns, the bladder fern." this fern and the maidenhair were introduced into europe in by john tradescant, the first from america. it delights in shaded ravines and dripping hillsides in limestone districts. while producing spores freely it seems to propagate its species mainly by bulblets, which, falling into a moist soil, at once send out a pair of growing roots, while a tiny frond starts to uncoil from the heart of the bulb. mt. toby, mass., willoughby mountain, vt., calcareous regions in maine, and west of the connecticut river, newfoundland to manitoba, wisconsin and iowa; south to northern georgia, alabama and arkansas. ( ) the common bladder fern _cystopteris frágilis. filix frágilis_ stipe long and brittle. fronds oblong-lanceolate, five to twelve inches long, twice pinnate, the pinnæ often pinnatifid or cut-toothed, ovate-lanceolate, decurrent on the winged rachis. indusium appearing acute at the free end. very variable in the cutting of the pinnules. the fragile bladder fern, as it is often called, and which the name _frágilis_ suggests, is the earliest to appear in the spring, and the first to disappear, as by the end of july it has discharged its spores and withered away. often, however, a new crop springs up by the last of august, as if nature were renewing her youth. in outline the fragile bladder fern suggests the blunt-lobed woodsia, but in the latter the pinnæ and pinnules are usually broader and blunter, and its indusium splits into jagged lobes. rather common in damp, shady places where rocks abound. in one form or another, found nearly throughout the world though only on mountains in the tropics. [illustration: fragile bladder fern, fruited portion] [illustration: fragile bladder fern. _cystopteris fragilis_ (wakefield, mass.)] key to the woodsias stipes not jointed: indusium ample, segments broad, frond without hairs. obtuse woodsia. pinnæ hispidulous, with white jointed hairs beneath. rocky mountain woodsia. fronds bright green, pinnæ glabrous, oblong. oregon woodsia. fronds dull green, lanceolate, glandular beneath. cathcart's woodsia. stipes obscurely jointed near the base: fronds more or less chaffy, pinnæ oblong to ovate, crowded. rusty woodsia. fronds linear, smooth, pinnæ deltoid or orbicular. smooth woodsia. fronds lanceolate, a few white scales beneath; pinnæ deltoid-ovate. alpine woodsia. the woodsias small, tufted, pinnately divided ferns. fruit-dots borne on the back of simply forked, free veins. indusium fixed beneath the sori, thin and often evanescent, either small and open, or early bursting at the top into irregular pieces or lobes. (named for james woods, an english botanist.) ( ) rusty woodsia. _woódsia ilvénsis_ fronds oblong-lanceolate, three to ten inches high, rather smooth above, thickly clothed underneath with rusty, bristle-like chaff. pinnate, the pinnæ crowded, sessile, cut into oblong segments. fruit-dots near the margin often confluent at maturity. indusium divided nearly in the center into slender hairs which are curled over the sporangia. stipes jointed an inch or so above the rootstock. [illustration: rusty woodsia, _woodsia ilvensis_] the rusty woodsia is decidedly a rock-loving fern, and often grows on high cliffs exposed to the sun; its rootstock and fronds are covered with silver-white, hair-like scales, especially underneath. these scales turn brown in age, whence the name, rusty. as the short stipes separate at the joints from the rootstock, they leave at the base a thick stubble, which serves to identify the fern. exposed rocks, labrador to north carolina and westward. rather common in new england. said to be very abundant on the trap rock hillocks about little falls, n.j., where it grows in dense tufts. ( ) northern woodsia. alpine woodsia _woodsia alpìna. woodsia hyperbòrea_ fronds narrowly lanceolate, two to six inches long, smooth above, somewhat hairy beneath, pinnate. pinnæ triangular-ovate, obtuse, lobed, the lobes few and nearly entire. fruit-dots rarely confluent. indusium as in _woodsia ilvensis_. [illustration: details of northern woodsia. _woodsia alpina_] thought by some botanists to be a smooth form of _woodsia ilvensis_. it was discovered in the united states by horace mann, in , at willoughby lake, vt. twenty years or more later it was collected by c.h. peck in the adirondacks, who supposed it to be _woodsia_ _glabélla_. in it was rediscovered at willoughby lake by c.h. pringle. new york, vermont, maine, and british america. rare. [illustration: northern woodsia, _woodsia alpina_ (from waters' "ferns," henry holt & co.)] ( ) blunt-lobed woodsia. _woodsia obtùsa_ fronds broadly lanceolate, ten to eighteen inches long, nearly twice pinnate, often minutely glandular. pinnæ rather remote, triangular-ovate or oblong, pinnately parted into obtuse, oblong, toothed segments. veins forked. fruit-dots on or near the margin of the lobes. indusium conspicuous, at length splitting into several spreading, jagged lobes. [illustration: blunt-lobed woodsia. _woodsia obtusa_] this is our most common species of woodsia and it has a wider range than the others, extending from maine and nova scotia to georgia and westward. on rocky banks and cliffs. the sori of this species have a peculiar beauty on account of the star-shaped indusium, as it splits into fragments. var. _angústa_ is a form with very narrow fronds and pinnæ. highlands, new york. the type grows in middlesex county, mass., but is rare. ( ) smooth woodsia. _woodsia glabélla_ fronds two to five inches high, very delicate, linear, pinnate. pinnæ remote at the base, roundish-ovate, very obtuse with a few crenate lobes. stipes jointed, straw-colored. hairs of the indusium few and minute. [illustration: smooth woodsia. _woodsia glabella_ (willoughhy mountain, vt. g.h.t.)] on moist, mossy, mostly calcareous rocks, northern new england, mount mansfield, willoughby, and bakersfield ledge, vt., gorham, n.h., also newfoundland, new york, and far to the northwest. not very common. it differs from the alpine species by the absence of scales above the joint. as the name implies, the plant is smooth, except for the chaffy scales at or near the rootstock, which mark all the woodsias, and many other ferns, and which serve as a protective covering against sudden changes in extremes of heat and cold. ( ) oregon woodsia. _woódsia oregàna_ fronds two to ten inches high, smooth, bright green, glandular beneath, narrowly lance-oblong, bipinnatifid. pinnse triangular-oblong, obtuse, pinnatifid. segments ovate or oblong, obtuse, crenate, the teeth or margin nearly always reflexed. indusium minute, concealed beneath the sorus, divided into a few beaded hairs. like the obtuse woodsia this fern has no joint near the base of the stipe, but is much smaller and has several points of difference. limestone cliffs, gaspé peninsula, southern shore of lake superior, colorado, oregon to the northwest. its eastern limit is northern michigan. ( ) rocky mountain woodsia. _woódsia scopulìna_ fronds six to fifteen inches long [smooth], lanceolate, pinnatifid. pinnæ triangular-ovate, the lowest pair shortened. under surface of the whole frond hispidulous with minute, white hairs and stalked glands. indusium hidden beneath the sporangia, consisting mostly of a few hair-like divisions. in crevices of rocks, mountains of west virginia, gaspé peninsula, rocky mountains, and westward to oregon and california. ( ) cathcart's woodsia. _woodsia cathcartiàna_ fronds eight to twelve inches high, lanceolate, bipinnatifid, finely glandular-puberulent. pinnse oblong; the lower distant segments oblong, denticulate, separated by wide sinuses. rocky river banks, west michigan to northeast minnesota. dennstaÉdtia. _dicksònia_ fruit-dots small, globular, marginal, each on the apex of a vein or fork. sporangia borne on an elevated, globular receptacle in a membranous, cup-shaped indusium which is open at the top. (named in honor of august wilhelm dennstaed.) hayscented fern. boulder fern dennstaÉdtia punctilÓbula[a] _dicksònia punctilóbula. dicksònia pilosiúscula_ [footnote a: we again remind our readers that the latin names in small capitals represent the newer nomenclature.] fronds one to three feet high, minutely glandular and hairy, ovate-lanceolate, pale green, very thin and mostly bipinnate. primary pinnæ in outline like the frond; the secondary, pinnatifid into oblong and obtuse, cut-toothed lobes. fruit-dots minute, each on a recurved toothlet, usually one at the upper margin of each lobe. indusium fixed under the sporangia, appearing like a tiny green cup filled with spore cases. [illustration: hayscented fern. _dennstædtia punctilobula_ (sudbury, mass. g.e.d.)] [illustration: forked variety of hayscented fern] [illustration: hayscented fern. _dennstædtia punctilobula_] while _dennstaédtia_ is the approved scientific name of this species, the name _dicksònia_ has come to be used almost as commonly as hay scented fern or boulder fern. it is one of our most graceful and delicate species, its long-tapering outline suggesting the bulblet bladder fern. it delights to cluster around rocks and boulders in upland fields and pastures and in the margin of rocky woods. it is sweet-scented in drying. a fine species for the fernery and one of the most decorative of the entire fern family. the effect of the shimmering fronds, so delicately wrought, flanked by evergreens, is highly artistic. fine-haired mountain fern, pasture fern, and hairy _dicksònia_ are other names. canada to tennessee and westward. var. _cristata_ has the fronds more or less forked at the top. [illustration: pinnule and sori] [illustration: mass of sensitive fern] the sensitive and ostrich ferns _onoclèa_. pterÉtis. _mattèuccia_. _struthiópteris_ (last three names applied to ostrich fern only.) it is a question whether the sensitive and ostrich fern should be included in the same genus. they are similar in many respects, but not in all. the sensitive fern has a running rootstock, scattered fronds, and netted veins; while the ostrich fern has an upright rootstock, fronds in crowns, and free veins. [illustration: sensitive fern. gradations from leaf to fruit. _obtusilobata_ form] ( ) sensitive fern. _onoclèa sensíbilis_ fronds one to three feet high, scattered along a creeping rootstock, broadly triangular, deeply pinnatifid, with segments sinuately lobed or nearly entire. veins reticulated with fine meshes. the fertile fronds shorter, closely bipinnate with the pinnules rolled up into berry-like structures which contain the spore cases. (the name in greek means a closed vessel, in allusion to the berry-like fertile segments.) the sensitive fern is so called from its being very sensitive to frost. the sterile and fertile fronds are totally unlike, the latter not coming out of the ground until about july, when they appear like rows of small, green grapes or berries, but soon turn dark and remain erect all winter, and often do not discharge their spores until the following spring. the little berry-like structures of the fertile frond represent pinnules, bearing fruit-dots, around which they are closely rolled. as waters remarks, "most ferns hold the sori in the open hand, but the sensitive fern grasps them tightly in the clenched fist." var. _obtusilobatà_ is an abortive form with the fertile segments only partially developed. the illustration shows several intermediate forms. [illustration: sori of sensitive fern] [illustration: sensitive fern. _onoclea sensibilis_] [illustration: sensitive fern, fertile and sterile fronds on one stock _onoclea sensibilis_ (from the collection of mr. and mrs. l.p. breckenridge)] [illustration: ostrich fern. _onoclea struthiopteris_. fertile fronds] ( ) ostrich fern _onoclea struthiópteris_. pteretis nodulosa _struthiópteris germánica_. _matteùccia struthiópteris_ fronds two to eight feet high, growing in a crown; broadly lanceolate, pinnate, the numerous pinnæ deeply pinnatifid, narrowed toward the channeled stipe. fertile fronds shorter, pinnate with margins of the pinnæ revolute into a necklace form containing the sori. [illustration: ostrich fern. sterile fronds (new hampshire)] the rootstocks send out slender, underground stolons which bear fronds the next year. sterile fronds appear throughout the summer, fertile ones in july. seen from a distance its graceful leaf-crowns resemble those of the cinnamon fern. an intermediate form between the fertile and sterile fronds is sometimes found, as in the sensitive fern. this handsome species thrives under cultivation. for grace and dignity it is unrivaled, and for aggressiveness it is, perhaps, equaled only by the lady fern. for the climax of beauty it should be combined with the maidenhair. the ostrich fern is fairly common in alluvial soil over the united states and canada. [illustration: sori and sporangia of ostrich fern] ii the flowering fern family _osmundÀceae_ this family is represented in north america by three species, all of which belong to the single genus. osmÚnda the _osmundas_ are tall swamp ferns growing in large crowns from strong, thickened rootstocks; the fruiting portion of the fertile frond much contracted and quite unlike the sterile. sporangia large, globular, short-stalked, borne on the margin of the divisions and opening into two valves by a longitudinal slit. ring obscure. (from osmunder, a name of the god thor.) ( ) flowering fern, royal fern _osmúnda regàlis. osmunda regàlis_, var. spectÁbilis fronds pale green, one to six feet high; sterile part bipinnate, each pinna having numerous pairs of lance-oblong, serrulate pinnules alternate along the midrib. fruiting panicle of the frond six to twelve inches long, brown when mature and sometimes leafy. a magnificent fern, universally admired. well named by the great linnæus, _regalis_, royal, indeed, in its type of queenly beauty. the wine-colored stipes of the uncoiling fronds shooting up in early spring, lifting gracefully their pink pinnæ and pretty panicles of bright green spore cases, throw an indescribable charm over the meadows and clothe even the wet, stagnant swamps with beauty nor is the attraction less when the showy fronds expand in summer and the green sporangia are turned to brown. the stout rootstocks are often erect, rising several inches to a foot above the ground, as if in imitation of a tree fern. the poet wordworth hints at somewhat different origin of the name from that given here. "fair ferns and flowers and chiefly that tall fern so stately of the queen osmanda named." [illustration: royal or flowering fern _osmunda regalis_] the royal fern may be transplanted with success if given good soil, sufficient shade and plenty of water. common in swamps and damp places. newfoundland to virginia and northwestward. [illustration: sori of _osmunda regalis_ (from waters's "ferns," henry holt & co.)] ( ) interrupted fern. clayton's fern osmunda claytoniàna fronds pinnate, one to five feet high. pinnæ cut into oblong, obtuse lobes. fertile fronds taller than the sterile, having from one to five pairs of intermediate pinnæ contracted and bearing sporangia. [illustration: interrupted fern. _osmunda claytoniàna_] the fronds have a bluish-green tint; they mature their spores about the last of may. the sterile fronds may be distinguished from those of the cinnamon fern by not having retained, like those, a tuft of wool at the base of each pinna. besides, in clayton's fern the fronds are broader, blunter and thinner in texture, and the segments more rounded; the fronds are also more inclined to curve outwards. they turn yellow in the fall, at times "flooding the woods with golden light," but soon smitten by the early frosts they wither and disappear. the interrupted fern is rather common in damp, rocky woods and pastures; newfoundland to minnesota, south to north carolina and missouri. although fond of moisture it is easily cultivated and its graceful outlines make it worthy of a prominent place in the fern garden. var. _dubia_ has the pinnules of the sterile frond widely separated, and the upper-middle ones much elongated. southern vermont. [illustration: interrupted fern with the fertile pinnules spread open] ( ) cinnamon fern. brakes _osmunda cinnamomea_ fronds one to six feet long, pinnate. pinnæ lanceolate, pinnatifid with oblong, obtuse divisions. fertile pinnæ on separate fronds, which are contracted and covered with brown sporangia. [illustration: cinnamon fern. leaf gradations] [illustration: cinnamon fern. gradations from sterile to fertile fronds] [illustration: cinnamon fern, var. _frondosa_] each fertile frond springs up at first outside the sterile ones, but is soon surrounded and overtopped by them and finds itself in the center of a charming circle of green leaves curving gracefully outwards. in a short time, however, it withers and hangs down or falls to the ground. the large, conspicuous clusters of cinnamon ferns give picturesqueness to many a moist, hillside pasture and swampy woodyard. in its crosier stage it is wrapped in wool, which falls away as the fronds expand, but leaves, at the base of each pinna, a tiny tuft, as if to mark its identity. [illustration: cinnamon fern, var. _incisa_ (maine)] many people in the country call the cinnamon fern the "buckhorn brake," and eat with relish the tender part which they find deep within the crown at the base of the unfolding fronds. this is known as the "heart of osmund." the fern, itself, with its tall, recurving leaves makes a beautiful ornament for the shady lawn, and like the interrupted fern is easy to cultivate. the spores of all the _osmundas_ are green, and need to germinate quickly or they lose their vitality. common in low and swampy grounds in eastern north america and south america and japan. may. some think it was this species which was coupled with the serpent in the old rhyme, "break the first brake you see, kill the first snake you see, and you will conquer every enemy." [illustration: osmunda cinnamomea, var. _glandulosa_ (from waters's "ferns," henry holt & co.)] var. _frondòsa_ has its fronds partly sterile below and irregularly fertile towards the summit. var. _incìsa_ has the inner pinnules of some of the pinnæ more or less cut-toothed. var. _glandulòsa_ has glandular hairs on the pinnæ, rachis and even the stipes of the sterile frond. this is known only on the coastal plain from rhode island to maryland. iii curly grass family schizÆÀceÆ curly grass. _schizàea pusílla_ small, slender ferns with linear or thready leaves, the sterile, one to two inches high and tortuous or "curled like corkscrews"; fertile fronds longer, three to five inches, and bearing at the top about five pairs of minute, fruited pinnæ. sporangia large, ovoid, sessile in a double row along the single vein of the narrow divisions of the fertile leaves, and provided with a complete apical ring. (_schizæa_, from a greek root meaning to split, alluding to the cleft leaves of foreign species.) [illustration: curly grass. _schizæa pusilla_] the curly grass is so minute that it is difficult to distinguish it when growing amid its companion plants, the grasses, mosses, sundews, club mosses, etc. the sterile leaves are evergreen. pine barrens of new jersey, grand lake, nova scotia, and in new brunswick. several new stations for the curly grass have recently been discovered in the southwest counties of nova scotia by the gray herbarium expedition, mostly in bogs and hollows of sandy peat or sphagnum. [illustration: sporangia of curly grass] climbing fern. hartford fern _lygòdium palmàtum_ "and where upon the meadow's breast the shadow of the thicket lies." bryant. fronds slender, climbing or twining, three to five feet long. the lower pinnæ (frondlets) sterile, roundish, five to seven lobed, distant in pairs with simple veins; the upper fertile, contracted, several times forked, forming a terminal panicle; the ultimate segments crowded, and bearing the sporangia, which are similar to those of curly grass, and fixed to a veinlet by the inner side next the base, one or rarely two covered by each indusium. (from the greek meaning like a willow twig [pliant], alluding to the flexible stipes.) [illustration: climbing fern. _lygodium palmatum_] fifty years ago this beautiful fern was more common than at present. there was a considerable colony in a low, alluvial meadow thicket at north hadley, mass., not far from mt. toby, where we collected it freely in . many used to decorate their homes with its handsome sprays, draping it gracefully over mirrors and pictures. it was known locally as the hartford fern. greedy spoilers ruthlessly robbed its colonies and it became scarce, at least in the mt. toby region. in connecticut a law was enacted in for its protection and with good results. but as mr. c.a. weatherby states in the american fern journal (vol. ii, no. ), the encroachments of tillage (mainly of tobacco, which likes the same soil), are forcing it from its cherished haunts, thus jeopardizing its survival. doubtless an aggressive agriculture is in part responsible for its scarcity in the more northern locality. it is still found here and there in new england, new york and new jersey; also in kentucky, tennessee and florida, but is nowhere common. the fertile portion dies when the spores mature, but the sterile frondlets remain green through the winter. a handsome species for the fernery in the house or out of doors. iv adder's tongue family _ophioglossÀceÆ_ plants more or less fern-like consisting of a stem with a single leaf. in _ophioglóssum_ the leaf or sterile segment is entire, the veins reticulated and the sporangia in a simple spike. in _botrýchium_ the sterile segment is more or less incised, the veins free, and the sori in a panicle or compound or rarely simple spike. sporangia naked, opening by a transverse slit. spores copious, sulphur-yellow. adder's tongue. _ophioglóssum vulgàtum_ rootstock erect, fleshy. stem simple, two to ten inches high, bearing one smooth, entire leaf about midway, and a terminal spike embracing the sporangia, coherent in two ranks on its edges. (generic name from the greek meaning the tongue of a snake, in allusion to the narrow spike of the sporangia.) in moist meadows or rarely on dry slopes. "overlooked rather than rare." new england states and in general widely distributed. july. often grows in company with the ragged orchis. the ancient ointment known as "adder's speare ointment" had the adder's tongue leaves as a chief ingredient, and is said to be still used for wounds in english villages. "for them that are with newts or snakes or adders stung, he seeketh out a herb that's called adder's tongue." [illustration: adder's tongue. _ophioglossum vulgatum_] var. _minus_, smaller; fronds often in pairs. the sterile segment yellowish-green, attached usually much below the middle of the plant. sandy ground, new hampshire to new jersey. var. _engelmánni_. (given specific rank in gray.) has the sterile segment thicker and cuspidate, the stipe slender and the secondary veins forming a fine network within the meshes of the principal ones. virginia and westward. var. _arenàrium_. (from the latin, _arèna_, meaning sand, being found in a sandy soil.) probably a depauperate form of _ophióglossum vulgàtum_ and about half as large. a colony of these ferns was discovered growing in poor soil at holly beach, new jersey. key to the grape ferns (_botrýchium_) plant large, fruiting in june, sterile part much divided: rattlesnake fern. plant smaller: fruiting in autumn, sterile part long-stalked, triangular. common grape fern. fruiting in summer: plant fleshy, sterile part mostly with lunate segments. moonwort. plant less fleshy, segments not lunate: sterile part short-stalked above the middle of the stem. matricary fern. sterile part stalked usually below middle of stem. little grape fern. sterile part sessile near the top of the stem. lance-leaved grape fern. grape ferns _botrýchium_ rootstock very short, erect with clustered fleshy roots; the base of the sheathed stalk containing the bud for the next year's frond. fertile frond one to three pinnate, the contracted divisions bearing a double row of sessile, naked, globular sporangia, opening transversely into two valves. sterile segment of the frond ternately or pinnately divided or compound. veins free. spores copious, sulphur yellow. (the name in greek means a cluster of grapes, alluding to the grape-like clusters of the sporangia.) ( ) moonwort. _botrýchium lunària_ very fleshy, three to ten inches high, sterile segment subsessile, borne near the middle of the plant, oblong, simple pinnate with three to eight pairs of lunate or fan-shaped divisions, obtusely crenate, the veins repeatedly forking; fertile segment panicled, two to three pinnate. [illustration: moonwort _botrychium lunaria_] [illustration: moonwort. _botrychium lunaria_. details] the moonwort was formerly associated with many superstitions and was reputed to open all locks at a mere touch, and to unshoe all horses that trod upon it. "unshoe the horse" was one of the names given to it by the country people. "horses that feeding on the grassy hills, tread upon moonwort with their hollow heels, though lately shod, at night go barefoot home their maister musing where their shoes be gone." in dry pastures, lake superior and northward, but rare in the united states. willoughby, vt., where the author found a single plant in , and st. johnsbury, vt. also new york, michigan and westward. in england said to be local rather than rare. sometimes called lunary. "then sprinkled she the juice of rue with nine drops of the midnight dew from lunary distilling." drayton. ( ) little grape fern. _botrychium símplex_ fronds two to four inches high, very variable. sterile segment short-petioled, usually near the middle, simple and roundish or pinnately three to seven lobed. veins all forking from the base. fertile segments simple or one to two pinnate, apex of both segments erect in the bud. in moist woods and fields, canada to maryland and westward; conway and plainfield, mass., berlin and litchfield, conn. rare. according to pringle it is "abundantly scattered over vermont, its habitat usually poor soil, especially knolls of hill pastures." may or june. ( ) lance-leaved grape fern _botrychium lanceolàtum_ botrÝchium angustisegmÉntum frond two to nine inches high, both sterile and fertile segments at the top of the common stalk. sterile segment triangular, twice pinnatifid, the acute lobes lanceolate, incised or toothed, scarcely fleshy, resembling a very small specimen of the rattlesnake fern. fertile segment slightly overtopping the sterile, two to three pinnate and spreading. one of the constant companions of the rattlesnake fern. new england to lake superior. july. [illustration: little grape fern _botrychium simplex_] [illustration: lance-leaved grape fern _botrychium lanceolatum botrychium angustisegmentum_] ( ) matricary fern _botrychium ramòsum. botrychium matricariæfòlium_ fronds small, one to twelve inches high. sterile segment above the middle, usually much divided. fertile segment twice or thrice pinnate. apex of both segments turned down in the bud, the sterile overtopping and clasping the fertile one. [illustration: the matricary fern _botrychium ramòsum_] the matricary fern differs from the preceding in ripening its spores about a month earlier, in having its sterile frond stalked, besides being a taller and fleshier plant. it may also be noted that in the lance-leaved species the midveins of the larger lobes are continuous, running to the tip; whereas in the matricary fern the midveins fork repeatedly and are soon indistinguishable from the veinlets. the two are apt to grow near each other, with the rattlesnake fern as a near neighbor. june. note. in a.a. eaton discovered certain _botrychia_ in a sphagnum swamp in new hampshire, to which he gave the specific name of _botrychium tenebròsum_. the plants were very small, not averaging above two or three inches high, with the sterile blade sessile or slightly stalked. many botanists prefer to place this fern as a variety of the matricary, but others regard it as a form of _botrychium símplex_. borders of maple swamps, vermont, new hampshire, massachusetts, and new york. ( ) common grape fern _botrychium oblìquum_. _botrychium ternàtum_, var. _oblìquum_ botrychium dissÉctum, var. oblÌquum rootstock short, its base including the buds of succeeding years. fronds two to twelve inches or more high. leafy or sterile segment triangular, ternate, long-petioled, springing from near the base of the plant, and spreading horizontally. from the main leafstock grow several pairs of stalked pinnæ, with the divisions ovate-oblong, acutish, crenate-serrulate, obliquely cordate or subcordate. fertile segment taller, erect, about three times pinnate, maturing its fruit in autumn. occasionally two or three fertile spikes grow on the same plant. in vernation the apex of each segment is bent down with a slight curve inward. [illustration: common grape fern. _botrychium obliquum_] new england to virginia, westward to minnesota and southward. _botrychium obliquum_, var. _dissectum_. similar to the type, but with the divisions very finely dissected or incisely many-toothed, the most beautiful of all the grape ferns. there is considerable variety in the cutting of the fronds. maine to florida and westward. _botrychium oblìquum_, var. _oneidénse_. ultimate segments oblong, rounded at the apex, crenulate-serrate, less divided than any of the others and, perhaps, less common. vermont to central new york. _botrychium oblìquum_, var. _elongàtum_. divisions lanceolate, elongated, acute. [illustration: _botrychium obliquum_ var. _oneidense_] note: a botrychium not uncommon in georgia and alabama, named by swartz b. lunarioides, deserves careful study. it is known as the "southern botrychium." [illustration: _botrychium obliquum, var. dissectum_] ( ) ternate grape fern _botrýchium ternàtum_, var. _intermèdium_ _botrýchium oblìquum_, var. _intermèdium_ leaf more divided than in _oblìquum_ and the numerous segments not so long and pointed, but large, fleshy, ovate or obovate (including var. _austràle_), crenulate, and more or less toothed. sandy soil, pastures and open woods. more northerly in its range--new england and new york. var. _rutaefòlium_. more slender, rarely over six or seven inches high; sterile segment about two inches broad, its divisions few, broadly ovate, the lowest sublunate. the first variety passes insensibly into the second. [illustration: ternate grape fern _botrychium ternatum_ var. _intermedium_ (reduced)] [illustration: ternate grape fern _botrychium ternatum_ var. _intermedium_ (two stocks, reduced)] ( ) rattlesnake fern. _botrychium virginiànum_ fronds six inches to two feet high. sterile segment sessile above the middle of the plant, broadly triangular, thin, membranaceous, ternate. pinnules lanceolate, deeply pinnatifid; ultimate segments oblong or lanceolate and scarcely or not at all spatulate. fertile part long-stalked, two to three pinnate, its ultimate segments narrow and thick, nearly opaque in dried specimens. mature sporangia varying from dark yellow-brown to almost black. open sporangia close again and are flattened or of a lenticular form. in rich, deciduous woods, rather common and widely distributed. [illustration: rattlesnake fern. _botrychium virginianum_ (from waters's "ferns," henry holt & co.)] prince edward island, minnesota, south to florida and texas, and north to newfoundland and labrador. var. _grácilis_. a form much reduced in size. var. laurentiÀnum. a conspicuous variety having thick and heavy sterile fronds less finely divided than the type, with the segments crowded to overlapping. pinnules shorter than the type, tending to be ovate, outer segments strongly spatulate. fertile spike relatively short and stout, strongly paniculate when well developed. ultimate segments flat, folaceous, one mm. wide. mostly confined to the limestone district near the gulf of st. lawrence, labrador, newfoundland, quebec, maine, and michigan. var. intermedium. segments of sterile fronds ultimately much spatulate, previously ovate, not overlapping. segments of fertile fronds ultimately narrowly flattened. (for this and the other varieties see rhodora of september, .) nova scotia, maine, vermont, massachusetts, connecticut, northern new york, illinois, and missouri. var. europÀeum. fertile frond less finely dissected than in type. ultimate segments more obtuse than in type; has but very slight tendency towards the spatulate form of the two previous varieties. pinnules lanceolate, strongly decurrent so that the pinnæ are merely pinnatifid. in coniferous forests of canada, and confined to calcareous regions. quebec, new brunswick, new hampshire, vermont, new york, ontario, montana, and british columbia. said to be rare even in europe. v the filmy fern family _hymenophyllÀceÆ_ the filmy ferns are small, delicate plants with membranaceous, finely dissected fronds from slender, creeping rootstocks. sporangia sessile on a bristle-like receptacle. there are about one hundred species, mostly tropical, only one of which grows as far north as kentucky. [illustration: filmy fern _trichomanes boschianum_ (from waters' "ferns", henry holt & co.)] filmy fern. bristle fern _trichómanes boschiànum. trichómanes rádicans_ rootstocks creeping, filiform, stipes ascending, one to three inches long, thin, very delicate, pellucid, much divided, oblong-lanceolate, bipinnatifid. rachis narrowly winged. sporangia clustered around the slender bristle, which is the prolongation of a vein, and surrounded by a vase-like, slightly two-lipped involucre. on moist, dripping sandstone cliffs, kentucky to alabama. often called the "killarney fern," as it grows about the lakes of killarney in ireland. [illustration: fruiting pinnules of filmy fern (from waters's "ferns." henry holt & co.)] [illustration: ostrich fern] [illustration: cinnamon fern] [illustration: marginal shield fern] [illustration: lady fern crosiers] [illustration: fiddleheads or crosiers of christmas fern] noted fern authors biographical sketches [the works of these authors are listed under "fern literature" in the following pages.] eaton, daniel cady. born at gratiot, mich., september , . his grandfather was amos eaton, noted botanist and author. studied botany under his friend, prof. asa gray, who had studied with prof. john torrey, who in turn was a pupil of amos eaton. daniel c. was professor of botany in yale college, for more than thirty years. a man of graceful and winsome personality, an authority on ferns, and widely known by his writings. his masterpiece was "the ferns of north america" in two large, quarto volumes, beautifully illustrated. he died june , . clute, willard nelson. born at painted post, n.y., february , . education informal; common schools, university lectures and private study. manifested early a keen interest in birds and flowers. was founder and first president of the american fern society. collected in jamaica more than three hundred species of ferns. has written extensively on the ferns and their allies, besides publishing several standard volumes. his great distinction is in founding and editing the _fern bulletin_ through its twenty volumes, when he combined this publication with _the american botanist_, which is now on its twenty-eighth volume, the whole a prodigious achievement of great scientific value. [illustration: noted writers on ferns w.n. clute, d.c. eaton, f.t. parsons, g. davenport, j. williamson, l.m. underwood, w.r maxon, a.a. eaton, c.e. waters, r. dodge] underwood, lucius marcus. born at new woodstock, n.y., october , . spent early life on a farm. was graduated from syracuse university in . after teaching several years in his alma mater and elsewhere, he became professor of botany in columbia university. he contributed numerous articles to the _torrey bulletin_, _fern bulletin_, and other scientific journals. his scholarly book, "our native ferns and their allies," continued unexcelled through six editions. he died november , . davenport, geo. edward. born in boston, august , . a promoter and officer of the middlesex institute. an accurate and diligent student of the ferns, his numerous articles were published in the _fern bulletin_, in the _torrey bulletin_, _rhodora_, and in separate monographs. he was a leading authority on the pteridophyta, and collected a large and choice herbarium of the native ferns, which he donated to the massachusetts horticultural society. by his gentle manners and kindly spirit he won many friends, all of whom were proud to recognize his distinguished ability. he cultivated many of our rare native ferns in his fellsway home, at medford, mass., and freely gave specimens to his friends. he died suddenly of heart failure, november , . waters, campbell easter. born in baltimore county, md., september , . was graduated at johns hopkins university in . ph.d. in . was for a time a close student of ferns, and issued his notable book, "ferns," in , containing his "analytical key based on the stipes." a chemist by profession, he has pursued that branch of science for the last eighteen years. his address is bureau of standards, washington, d.c. maxon, william ralph. born at oneida, n.y., february , . was graduated at syracuse university in . began as aid in cryptogamic botany, united states national herbarium, , and is now associate curator of the same. has specialized in scientific work on the pteridophyta, distinguishing himself by the excellence as well as by the large number of his publications, the more important being "studies of tropical american ferns," nos. to . the _fern bulletin_, _torrey bulletin_, _american fern journal_, _fernwort papers_, et al., have profited from his expert and up-to-date knowledge. he is president of the american fern society. parsons, frances theodora. born in new york, december , . _née_ smith. married commander william starr dana of the united states navy, who was lost at sea. as mrs. dana, she published, "how to know the wild flowers," in , and within ten years more than seventy thousand copies of the book had been sold. "according to season" appeared in . in february, , she married prof. james russell parsons, treasurer of the university of the state of new york. in she published, "how to know the ferns." she combined a thorough knowledge of her subject with an easy and graceful style. dodge, raynal. born at newburyport, mass., september , . civil war veteran. wounded at port hudson, june , . a machinist by trade. a careful observer and student of nature, he discovered _aspidium simulatum_ at follymill, seabrook, n.h., in . (whittier's "my playmate," verse .) he discovered also the hybrid _aspidium cristatum × marginale_. he published his little book, "ferns and fern allies of new england," in . died october , . eaton, alvah augustus. born at seabrook, n.h., november , . studied at the putnam school in newburyport, but was largely self-educated. he took up teaching for several years, spending three years in california. returning east, he became a florist and began to write for various fern journals, giving special attention to the fern allies. he prepared the genera _equisetum_ and _isoetes_ for the seventh edition of "gray's manual." he proved the keenness of his observing powers by discovering several ferns new to the united states. died at his home in north easton, mass., september , . williamson, john. born in abernathy, scotland, about the year . he came to louisville, ky., to live in . a wood-carver by trade, he could work skillfully in wood or metal, and after a time established a brass foundry. his friend, george e. davenport, writes of him: "he caught as by some divine gift or inspiration the innermost life and feelings of the wild flowers and ferns, and his marvelously accurate needle transfixed them with revivifying power on paper or metal." his "ferns of kentucky," issued in , was the first handbook on ferns published in the united states. he died june , , in the mountains of west virginia, whither he had gone for his health. fern literature american fern journal. . the american fern society. (annual subscription, $ . .) belairs, nona. hardy ferns. smith, elder and co. london, . british fern gazette. britten, james. european ferns. colored plates. cassell & co. london. quarto. butters, f.k. athyrium. study of the american lady ferns. rhodora, september, . campbell, d.h. structure and development of the mosses and ferns. macmillan & co. . ed. . clute, willard n. our ferns in their haunts. frederick a. stokes co. new york, . fern collector's guide. frederick a. stokes co. new york, . the fern allies. frederick a. stokes co. new york, . the fern bulletin. founder and editor. vols. - . combined with the american botanist. joliet, ill. . conard, henry s. structure and history of hayscented fern. washington, . cook, m.c. fern-book for everybody. e. warne & co. london. davenport, geo. e. catalog of davenport herbarium, massachusetts horticultural society. . numerous monographs and notes on new england ferns in torrey bulletin, fern bulletin, and rhodora. the following monographs are in single booklets by massachusetts horticultural society. aspidium cristatum × marginale, aspidium simulatum, aspidium spinulosum and its varieties, botrychium ternatum and its varieties, notes on botrychium simplex. dodge, raynal. the ferns and fern allies of new england--very small volume, now out of print. w.n. clute & co. . druery, charles t. british ferns and their varieties. routledge & son. london. eastman, helen. new england ferns and their common allies. houghton mifflin & co. boston, . out of print. eaton, daniel c. the ferns of north america. vols. - . s.e. cassino, salem. drawings by j.h. emerton and c.e. faxon. eaton, a.a. specialist in fern allies. prepared equisetum and isoetes for gray's manual, th ed. . gilbert, benj. d. list of north american pteridophytes. . utica, n.y. hervey, alphaeus b. wayside flowers and ferns. page & co. boston, . hemsley, alfred. book of fern culture. john lane. london, . hibbard, shirley. the fern garden. groombridge & sons. paternoster row, london. . hooker, sir w.j. genera filicum. large vo. london, . contains fine plates which include all american genera. costs about $ . species filicum. vols. vo. london, - . vol. ii contains seventeen and vol. ill contains two plates of american ferns with descriptions of more species. cost about $ . hooker, sir w.j., & baker. synopsis filicum d ed. . vo. describes all ferns then known, including the american species. has also figures illustrating each genus. costs about $ . lowe, edward j. ferns british and exotic. vols. vo. bell & daldy. london, . plates, some very poor. some american ferns are represented. "the descriptions," says john robinson, "are worthless, and the synonymy is often incorrect." maxon, william r. a list of ferns and fern allies of north america, north of mexico, etc. national museum, : - . . numerous monographs and notes on american ferns in current magazines. studies of tropical american ferns. united states national herbarium, : +. pteridophyta (excepting equisitaceæ and isoetaceæ) of the northern united states, canada and the british possessions. in britton and brown, illustrated flora, etc., ed. , pp. - . . new york. meehan, thomas. native flowers and ferns of the united states. boston, - . moore, thomas. nature-printed british ferns. vols. london, . parsons, frances t. how to know the ferns. charles scribner's sons. new york, . pratt, anne. the ferns of great britain and their allies. f. warne & co. london. no date. redfield, john. geographical distribution of the ferns of north america. torrey bulletin, vi, - . ( ). rhodora. journal of the new england botanical club. january, , to date. robinson, john. ferns in their homes and ours. s.e. cassino. salem, . out of print. sachs, julius. text book of botany. (translated.) macmillan & co. london. vo. slosson, margaret. how ferns grow. henry holt & co. new york. . out of print. small, john k. ferns of tropical florida. new york, . smith, john. historia filicum. london, . amply illustrated, reliable. step, edward. wayside and woodland ferns. f. warne & co. london, . tidestrom, ivar. elysium marianum. washington, d.c. underwood, lucien m. our native ferns and their allies. henry holt & co. edition . . valuable. out of print. waters, campbell e. ferns. henry holt & co. . out of print. scarce. weatherby, c.a. changes in the nomenclature of the gray's manual of ferns. important article in the rhodora of october, . williamson, john. ferns of kentucky. j.p. morton & co. louisville, ky. . fern etchings. j.p. morton & co. . both out of print. woolson, grace a. ferns and how to grow them. doubleday, page & co. new york, . wright, mabel o. flowers and ferns in their haunts. macmillan & co. new york, . [illustration: "fringing the stream at every turn, swung low the waving fronds of fern." whittier.] times of the fruiting of ferns "ah! well i mind the calendar faithful through a thousand years of the painted race of flowers."--emerson. compiled from dodge's "ferns and fern allies of new england" may . little grape fern. interrupted fern. may . cinnamon fern. june . ostrich fern. june . frondosa variety of cinnamon fern. june . matricary grape fern. june . royal fern. interrupted fern. june . rattlesnake fern. june . oak fern. spinulose wood fern and varieties. july . fragile bladder fern. christmas fern. july . long beech fern. crested shield fern. boott's shield fern. july . moonwort. virginia chain fern. adder's tongue. crested marginal shield fern. july . slender cliff brake. blunt-lobed woodsia. july . purple cliff brake. bulblet bladder fern. mountain spleen wort. july . goldie's shield fern. marginal shield fern. clinton's wood fern. august . wall rue. walking fern. lady fern. august . alpine woodsia. smooth woodsia. common polypody. maidenhair fern. fragrant shield fern. scott's spleenwort. braun's holly fern. august . rusty woodsia. silvery spleen wort. lance-leaved grape fern. august . ebony and maidenhair spleenworts. hayscented fern. new york fern. august . broad beech fern. august . marsh fern. september . bracken or brake. september . climbing fern. narrow-leaved spleenwort. september . massachusetts fern. green spleenwort. sensitive fern. ternate grape fern. september . narrow-leaved chain fern. glossary acÙminate. gradually tapering to a point. acÙleate. prickly. beset with prickles. acute. sharp pointed, but not tapering. adventÍtious. irregular, incidental. growing out of the usual or normal position. anÁstomosing. connected by cross veins and forming a network as in the sensitive ferns. Ánnulus. a jointed, elastic ring surrounding the spore cases in most ferns. antherÍdia. the male organs on a prothallium. apex the top or pointed end of leaf or frond. (plu. apices). archegÒnia. the female organs on a prothallium. arÈola. a space formed by intersecting veins; a mesh. auricle. an ear-shaped lobe at the base. artÍculate. jointed; having a joint or node. axil. the angle formed by a leaf or branch with the stem. bi (latin, two, twice, doubly. _bis_, twice). blade. the expanded, leafy portion of a frond. bulblet. a small bulb, borne on a leaf or in its axil. caudate. with a slender, tail-like appendage. caudex. a trunk or stock of a plant; especially of a tree fern. chaff. thin, dry scales of a yellowish-brown color. chlÒrophyll. the green coloring matter of plants. cÍliate. fringed with fine hairs. cÍrcinate. coiled downward from the apex, as in the young fronds of a fern. clavate. club-shaped. compound. divided into two or more parts. confluent. blended together. cordate. heart-shaped. crenate. scalloped with rounded teeth; said of margins. crÒsier. an uncoiling frond. cÙneate. wedge-shaped. cÚspidate. hard pointed, tipped with a cusp. deciduous. falling away when done growing--not evergreen. decompound. more than once compounded or divided. decurrent. running down the stem below the point of insertion, as the bases of some pinnæ. decumbent. not erect; trailing, bending along the ground, but with the apex ascending. deflexed. bent or turned abruptly downward. dentate. toothed. having the teeth of a margin directed outward. dichÓtomous. forking regularly in pairs. dimÓrphous. of two forms; said of ferns whose fertile fronds are unlike the sterile. emÁrginate. notched at the apex. entire. without divisions, lobes, or teeth. falcate. scythe-shaped, slightly curved upward. fertile. bearing spores. fÍliform. thread-like; long, slender, and terete. filmy. having a thin membrane; gauzy; said of the filmy fern fronds. flabellate. fan-shaped; broad and rounded at the summit and narrow at the base. frond. a fern leaf or blade; may include both stipe and blade, or only the latter--called also lamina. glabrous. smooth; not rough or hairy. gland. a small secreting organ, globular or pear-shaped; it is often stalked. glaucous. covered with a fine bloom, bluish-white and powdery, in appearance like a plum. hastate. like an arrowhead with the lobes spreading. imbricate. overlapping, like shingles on a roof. incÌsed. cut irregularly into sharp lobes. indÙsium. the thin membrane covering the sori in some ferns. involucre. in ferns, an indusium; in filmy ferns, cup-shaped growths encircling the sporangia. lÁmina. a blade; the leafy portion of a fern. lacÍniate. slashed; cut into narrow, irregular lobes. lanceolate. lance-shaped; broadest above the base and tapering to the apex. lobe. a small rounded segment of a frond. midrib. the main rib or vein of a segment, pinnule, pinna, or frond; a midvein. mÙcronate. ending abruptly in a short, sharp point. oblong. from two to four times longer than broad and with sides nearly parallel. obtuse. blunt or rounded at the end. oÌdes. a greek ending, meaning _like_, or _like to_, as polypodioides--like to a polypody. ÒÖsphere. the egg-cell in fern reproduction--becoming the oöspore when fertilized. ovate. egg-shaped with the broader end downward. palmate. having lobes radiating like the fingers of a hand. panicle. a loose compound cluster of flowers or sporangia with irregular stems. pedicel. a tiny stalk, especially the stalk of the sporangia. pellucid. clear, transparent. persistent. remaining on the plant for a long time, as leaves through the winter. pÉtiole. the same as stalk or stipe. pinna. one of the primary divisions of a frond. pinnate. feather-like; with the divisions of the frond extending fully to the rachis. pinnÁtifid. having the divisions of the frond extend halfway or more to the rachis or mid vein. pinnule. a secondary pinna. in a bipinnate frond one of the smaller divisions extending to the secondary midvein. procumbent. lying on the ground. prothÁllium. (or prothállus.) a delicate, cellular, leaf-like structure produced from a fern spore, and bearing the sexual organs. pteridÓphyta. a group of flowerless plants embracing ferns, horsetails, club mosses, etc. pubescent. covered with fine, soft hairs; downy. rÀchis. the continuation of the stipe through the blade or leafy portion of the fern. reflexed. bent abruptly downward or backward. reniform. kidney-shaped. revolute. rolled backward from the margin or apex. rootstock. (or rhizome.) an underground stem, from which the fronds are produced. scape. a naked stem rising from the ground. segment. one of the smaller divisions of a pinnatifid frond. serrate. having the margin sharply cut into teeth pointing forward. sÉrrulate. the same only with smaller teeth. sessile. without a stalk. sinus. a cleft or rounded curve between two lobes. sÍnuate. with strongly wavy margins. sorus a cluster of sporangia; a fruit dot. (plu. sori). spÁtulate. shaped like a druggist's spatula or a flattened spoon. spike. an elongated cluster of sessile sporangia. spÍnulose. spiny; set with small, sharp spines. sporange (plu. a spore case. a tiny globe in which sporangia). the spores are produced. stipe. the stem of a fern from the ground up to the leafy portion; the leaf stalk. stolon. an underground branch or runner. sÚbulate. awl-shaped. tÉrnate. with three nearly equal divisions. truncate. ending abruptly as if cut off. tuft. things flexible, closely grouped into a bunch or cluster. venation. the veining of a frond or leaf. vernation. the arrangement of leaves in the bud. whorl. a circle of leaves around a stem. winged. margined by a thin expansion of the rachis. note the student should have some idea of the terms _genus_, _species_ and _variety_, although they are not capable of exact definition. a _species_, or kind, is in botany the unit of classification. it embraces all such individuals as may have originated in a common stock. such individuals bear an essential resemblance to each other, as well as to their common parent in all their parts. e.g., the cinnamon fern is a kind or species of fern with the fronds evidently of one kind, and of a common origin, and all producing individuals of their own kind by their spores or rootstocks. when such individuals differ perceptibly from the type in the shape of the pinnæ, or the cutting of the fronds, we have _varieties_ as _frondòsum_, _incìsum_, etc. or if the difference is less striking the word _form_ is used instead of variety, but in any given case opinions may differ in respect to the more fitting term. a _genus_ is an assemblage of species closely related to each other, and having more points of resemblance than of difference; e.g., the royal fern, the cinnamon fern, and the interrupted fern are alike in having similar spore cases borne in a somewhat similar manner on the fronds, and forming the genus _osmunda_. in like manner certain members of the clover group--red, white, yellow, etc., make up the genus _trifolium_. thus individuals are grouped into species and species are associated into genera, and the two groups are united to give each fern or plant its true name, the generic name being qualified by that of the species; as in the cinnamon fern _osmúnda_ (genus), _cinnamòmea_ (species). check list of the ferns of northeastern america in the following list the first name is usually the one adopted in the text, and those that follow are synonyms. names printed in small capitals are those of the newer nomenclature, now adopted at the gray herbarium but not in the manual. adiantum l. . adiantum capillus-veneris l. . adiantum pedatum l. var. aleuticum rupr. aspidium sw. . aspidium boottii. tuckerm. dryopteris boottii. (tuckerm.) underw. thelypteris boottii. (tuckerm.) nieuwl. . aspidium cristatum. (l.) sw. dryopteris cristata. (l.) a. gray. thelypteris cristata. (l.) nieuwl. . aspidium cristatum var. clintonianum. d.c. eaton. dryopteris cristata var. clintoniana. (d.c. eaton.) underw. thelypteris cristata var. clintoniana. (d.c. eaton.) weatherby. . aspidium cristatum × marginale. davenp. . aspidium filix-mas. (l.) sw. dryopteris filix-mas. (l.) sw. thelypteris filix-mas. (l.) nieuwl. . aspidium fragrans. (l.) sw. dryopteris fragrans. (l.) schott. thelypteris fragrans. (l.) nieuwl. . aspidium goldianum. hook. dryopteris goldiana. (hook.) a. gray. thelypteris goldiana. (hook.) nieuwl. . aspidium marginale. (l.) sw. dryopteris marginalis. (l.) a. gray. thelypteris marginalis. (l.) nieuwl. . aspidium noveboracense. (l.) sw. dryopteris noveboracensis. (l.) a. gray. thelypteris noveboracensis. (l.) nieuwl. . aspidium simulatum. davenp. dryopteris simulata. davenp. thelypteris simulata. (davenp.) nieuwl. . aspidium spinulosum. (o.f. muell.) sw. dryopteris spinulosa. (o.f. muell.) kuntze. thelypteris spinulosa. (o.f. muell.) nieuwl. . aspidium spinulosum var. intermedium. (muhl.) d.c. eaton. dryopteris spinulosa var. intermedia. (muhl.) underw. thelypteris spinulosa var. intermedia. (muhl.) nieuwl. . aspidium spinulosum var. concordianum. (davenp.) eastman. thelypteris spinulosa var. concordiana. (davenp.) weatherby. . aspidium spinulosum var. dilatatum. (hoff.) gray. dryopteris spinulosa var. dilatata. (hoff.) underw. thelypteris spinulosa var. americana. (fisch.) weatherby. . aspidium thelypteris. (l.) sw. dryopteris thelypteris. (l.) a. gray. thelypteris palustris. schott. asplenium l. . asplenium bradleyi. d.c. eaton. . asplenium platyneuron. (l.) oakes. asplenium ebeneum. ait. . asplenium ebenoides. r.r. scott. . asplenium montanum. willd. . asplenium parvulum. mart, and gal. asplenium resiliens. kze. . asplenium pinnatifidum. nutt. . asplenium ruta-muraria. l. . asplenium trichomanes. l. . asplenium viride. huds. athyrium. roth . athyrium acrostichoides. (sw.) diels. asplenium acrostichoides. sw. asplenium thelypteroides. michx. . athyrium angustifolium. (michx.) milde. asplenium angustifolium. michx. asplenium pycnocarpon. spreng. . athyrium angustum. (willd.) presl. athyrium filix-femina. american authors not roth. asplenium filix-femina. american authors not bernh. . athyrium asplenioides. (michx.) desv. botrychium. sw. . botrychium lanceolatum. (gmel.) angstroem. botrychium angustisegmentum. (pease and moore.) fernald. . botrychium dissectum. spreng. botrychium obliquum var. dissectum. (spreng.) clute. . botrychium obliquum. muhl. botrychium dissectum var. obliquum. (muhl.) clute. . botrychium lunaria. (l.) sw. . botrychium ramosum. (roth.) aschers. botrychium matricariæfolium. a. br. botrychium neglectum. wood. . botrychium simplex. e. hitchcock. . botrychium ternatum. (thunb.) sw. var. intermedium. d.c. eaton. botrychium obliquum var. intermedium. (d.c. eaton.) underw. . botrychium virginianum. (l.) sw. camptosorus. link . camptosorus rhizophyllus. (l.) link. cheilanthes. sw. . cheilanthes alabamensis. (buckley.) kunze. . cheilanthes féei. moore. cheilanthes lanuginosa. nutt. . cheilanthes lanosa. (michx.) watt. cheilanthes vestita. sw. . cheilanthes tomentosa. link. cryptogramma.r. br. . cryptogramma densa. (brack.) diels. pellæa densa. (brack.) hook. . cryptogramma stelleri. (gmel.) prantl. pellæa gracilis. (michx.) hook. . cryptogramma acrostichoides. r. br. cystopteris. bernh. . cystopteris bulbifera. (l.) bernh. filix bulbifera. (l.) underw. . cystopteris fragilis. (l.) bernh. filix fragilis. (l.) underw. dennstÆdtia l'her. . dennstÆdtia punctilobula. (michx.) moore. dicksonia pilosiuscula. willd. lygodium sw. . lygodium palmatum. (bernh.) sw. notholÆna.r. br. . notholæna dealbata. (pursh.) kunze. notholæna nivea var. dealbata. (pursh.) davenp. onoclea l. . onoclea sensibilis. l. . onoclea struthiopteris. (l.) hoff. struthiopteris germanica. willd. matteuccia struthiopteris. (l.) todaro. pteretis nodulosa. (michx.) nieuwl. ophioglossum. (tourn.) l. . ophioglossum vulgatum. l. ophioglossum vulgatum var. minus. moore. . ophioglossum engelmanni. prantl. osmunda.l. . osmunda cinnamomea. l. . osmunda claytoniana. l. . osmunda regalis. l. osmunda regalis var. spectabilis. (willd.) gray. pellÆa. link . pellæa atropurpurea. (l.) link. . pellæa glabella. mett. phegopteris fÉe . phegopteris dryopteris. (l.) fée. thelypteris dryopteris. (l.) slosson. . phegopteris hexagonoptera. (michx.) fée. thelypteris hexagonoptera. (michx.) weatherby. . phegopteris polypodioides fée. thelypteris phegopteris. (l.) slosson. phegopteris phegopteris. (l.) underw. . phegopteris robertiana. (hoff.) a. br. phegopteris calcarea. fée. thelypteris robertiana. (hoff.) slosson. polypodium.l. . polypodium vulgare. l. . polypodium polypodioides. (l.) watt. polypodium incanum. sw. polystichum. roth . polystichum acrostichoides. (michx.) schott. aspidium acrostichoides. sw. dryopteris acrostichoides. (michx.) kuntze. . polystichum braunii. (spenner.) fée. dryopteris braunii. (spenner.) underw. aspidium aculeatum var. braunii. doel. . polystichum lonchitis. (l.) roth. aspidium lonchitis. sw. dryopteris lonchitis. kuntze. pteris.l. . pteris aquilina. l. pteridium aquilinum. (l.) kuhn. pteridium latiusculum. (desv.) maxon. pteridium latiusculum var. pseudocaudatum. (clute.) maxon. schizÆa.j.e. smith . schizæa pusilla. pursh. . scolopendrium vulgare. j.e. smith. phyllitis scolopendrium. (l.) newman. trichomanes.l. . trichomanes radicans. sw. trichomanes boschianum. sturm. woodsia.r. by. . woodsia glabella. r. br. . woodsia alpina. (bolton.) s.f. gray. woodsia hyperborea. r. br. . woodsia ilvensis. (l.) r. br. . woodsia cathcartiana. b.l. robinson. . woodsia obtusa. (spreng.) torr. . woodsia oregana. d.c. eaton. . woodsia scopulina. d.c. eaton. woodwardia.j.e. smith . woodwardia virginica. sm. . woodwardia areolata. (l.) moore. woodwardia angustifolia. sm. the petrified fern in a valley, centuries ago, grew a little fern-leaf green and slender, veining delicate and fibers tender, waving when the wind crept down so low; rushes tall and moss and grass grew round it, playful sunbeams darted in and found it, drops of dew stole down by night and crowned it. but no foot of man e'er came that way-- earth was young and keeping holiday. monster fishes swam the silent main, stately forests waved their giant branches, mountains hurled their snowy avalanches, mammoth creatures stalked across the plain, nature reveled in grand mysteries; but the little fern was not of these, did not slumber with the hills and trees, only grew and waved its wild, sweet way; no one came to note it day by day. earth, one time, put on a frolic mood, heaved the rocks and changed the mighty motion of the deep, strong currents of the ocean; moved the plain and shook the haughty wood, crushed the little fern in soft, moist clay, covered it and hid it safe away. oh, the long, long centuries since that day! oh, the changes! oh, life's bitter cost! since the useless little fern was lost. useless? lost? there came a thoughtful man searching nature's secrets far and deep; from a fissure in a rocky steep he withdrew a stone o'er which there ran fairy pencilings, a quaint design, leafage, veining, fibers clear and fine, and the fern's life lay in every line! so, i think, god hides some souls away, sweetly to surprise us the last day!--m.b. branch. transcriber's note: a few typographical errors have been corrected: they are listed at the end of the text. original page numbers are shown as { }. proserpina. studies of wayside flowers, while the air was yet pure _among the alps, and in the scotland and england which my father knew_. by john ruskin, ll.d., honorary student of christ church, and slade professor of fine art. "oh--prosérpina! for the flowers now, which frighted, thou let'st fall from dis's waggon." volume i. new york: john wiley & sons, astor place. . * * * * * press of j. j. little & co., astor place, new york. * * * * * contents of vol. i page introduction, chapter i. moss, chapter ii. the root, chapter iii. the leaf, chapter iv. the flower, chapter v. papaver rhoeas, chapter vi. the parable of joash, chapter vii. the parable of jotham, chapter viii. the stem, chapter ix. outside and in, chapter x. the bark, chapter xi. genealogy, chapter xii. cora and kronos, chapter xiii. the seed and husk, chapter xiv. the fruit gift, index i. descriptive nomenclature, index ii. english names, index iii. latin or greek names, * * * * * { } proserpina. introduction. brantwood, _ th march, ._ yesterday evening i was looking over the first book in which i studied botany,--curtis's magazine, published in at no. , st. george's crescent, blackfriars road, and sold by the principal booksellers in great britain and ireland. its plates are excellent, so that i am always glad to find in it the picture of a flower i know. and i came yesterday upon what i suppose to be a variety of a favourite flower of mine, called, in curtis, "the st. bruno's lily." i am obliged to say "what i suppose to be a variety," because my pet lily is branched,[ ] while this is drawn as unbranched, and especially stated to be so. and the page of text, in which this statement is made, is so characteristic of botanical books, and botanical science, not to say all science as hitherto taught for the blessing of mankind; { } and of the difficulties thereby accompanying its communication, that i extract the page entire, printing it, opposite, as nearly as possible in facsimile. now you observe, in this instructive page, that you have in the first place, nine names given you for one flower; and that among these nine names, you are not even at liberty to make your choice, because the united authority of haller and miller may be considered as an accurate balance to the single authority of linnæus; and you ought therefore for the present to remain, yourself, balanced between the sides. you may be farther embarrassed by finding that the anthericum of savoy is only described as growing in switzerland. and farther still, by finding that mr. miller describes two varieties of it, which differ only in size, while you are left to conjecture whether the one here figured is the larger or smaller; and how great the difference is. farther, if you wish to know anything of the habits of the plant, as well as its nine names, you are informed that it grows both at the bottoms of the mountains, and the tops; and that, with us, it flowers in may and june,--but you are not told when, in its native country. the four lines of the last clause but one, may indeed be useful to gardeners; but--although i know my good father and mother did the best they could for me in buying this beautiful book; and though the admirable plates of it did their work, and taught me much, i cannot wonder that neither my infantine nor boyish mind was irresistibly attracted by the text of which this page is one of the most favourable specimens; nor, in consequence, that my botanical studies were--when i had attained the age of fifty--no farther advanced than the reader will find them in the opening chapter of this book. { } * * * * * [ ] anthericum liliastrum, savoy anthericum, or st. bruno's lily. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ -petala, patens. _caps._ ovata. _specific character and synonyms._ anthericum _liliastrum_ foliis planis, scapo simplicissimo, corollis campanulatis, staminibus declinatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. _i._ p. ._ hemerocallis floribus patulis secundis. _hall. hist. n. ._ phalangium magno flore. _bauh. pin. ._ phalangium allobrogicum majus. _clus. cur. app. alt._ phalangium allobrogicum. the savoye spider-wort. _park. parad. p. . tab. . f. ._ * * * * * botanists are divided in their opinions respecting the genus of this plant; linnÆus considers it as an _anthericum_, haller and miller make it an _hemerocallis_. it is a native of switzerland, where, haller informs us it grows abundantly in the alpine meadows, and even on the summits of the mountains; with us it flowers in may and june. it is a plant of great elegance, producing on an unbranched stem about a foot and a half high, numerous flowers of a delicate white colour, much smaller but resembling in form those of the common white lily, possessing a considerable degree of fragrance, their beauty is heightened by the rich orange colour of their antheræ; unfortunately they are but of short duration. miller describes two varieties of it differing merely in size. a loamy soil, a situation moderately moist, with an eastern or western exposure, suits this plant best; so situated, it will increase by its roots, though not very fast, and by parting of these in the autumn, it is usually propagated. parkinson describes and figures it in his _parad. terrest._, observing that "divers allured by the beauty of its flowers, had brought it into these parts." * * * * * { } which said book was therefore undertaken, to put, if it might be, some elements of the science of botany into a form more tenable by ordinary human and childish faculties; or--for i can scarcely say i have yet any tenure of it myself--to make the paths of approach to it more pleasant. in fact, i only know, of it, the pleasant distant effects which it bears to simple eyes; and some pretty mists and mysteries, which i invite my young readers to pierce, as they may, for themselves,--my power of guiding them being only for a little way. pretty mysteries, i say, as opposed to the vulgar and ugly mysteries of the so-called science of botany,--exemplified sufficiently in this chosen page. respecting which, please observe farther;--nobody--i can say this very boldly--loves latin more dearly than i; but, precisely because i do love it (as well as for other reasons), i have always insisted that books, whether scientific or not, ought to be written either in latin, or english; and not in a doggish mixture of the refuse of both. linnæus wrote a noble book of universal natural history in latin. it is one of the permanent classical treasures of the world. and if any scientific man thinks his labors are worth the world's attention, let him, also, write { } what he has to say in latin, finishedly and exquisitely, if it take him a month to a page.[ ] but if--which, unless he be one chosen of millions, is assuredly the fact--his lucubrations are only of local and temporary consequence, let him write, as clearly as he can, in his native language. this book, accordingly, i have written in english; (not, by the way, that i _could_ have written it in anything else--so there are small thanks to me); and one of its purposes is to interpret, for young english readers, the necessary european latin or greek names of flowers, and to make them vivid and vital to their understandings. but two great difficulties occur in doing this. the first, that there are generally from three or four, up to two dozen, latin names current for every flower; and every new botanist thinks his eminence only to be properly asserted by adding another. the second, and a much more serious one, is of the devil's own contriving--(and remember i am always quite serious when i speak of the devil,)--namely, that the most current and authoritative names are apt to be founded on some unclean or debasing association, so that to interpret them is to defile the reader's mind. i will give no instance; too many will at once occur to any { } learned reader, and the unlearned i need not vex with so much as one: but, in such cases, since i could only take refuge in the untranslated word by leaving other greek or latin words also untranslated, and the nomenclature still entirely senseless,--and i do not choose to do this,--there is only one other course open to me, namely, to substitute boldly, to my own pupils, other generic names for the plants thus faultfully hitherto titled. as i do not do this for my own pride, but honestly for my reader's service, i neither question nor care how far the emendations i propose may be now or hereafter adopted. i shall not even name the cases in which they have been made for the serious reason above specified; but even shall mask those which there was real occasion to alter, by sometimes giving new names in cases where there was no necessity of such kind. doubtless i shall be accused of doing myself what i violently blame in others. i do so; but with a different motive--of which let the reader judge as he is disposed. the practical result will be that the children who learn botany on the system adopted in this book will know the useful and beautiful names of plants hitherto given, in all languages; the useless and ugly ones they will not know. and they will have to learn one latin name for each plant, which, when differing from the common one, i trust may yet by some scientific persons be accepted, and with ultimate advantage. the learning of the one latin name--as, for instance, gramen striatum--i hope will be accurately enforced { } always;--but not less carefully the learning of the pretty english one--"ladielace grass"--with due observance that "ladies' laces hath leaves like unto millet in fashion, with many white vaines or ribs, and silver strakes running along through the middest of the leaves, fashioning the same like to laces of white and green silk, very beautiful and faire to behold." i have said elsewhere, and can scarcely repeat too often, that a day will come when men of science will think their names disgraced, instead of honoured, by being used to barbarise nomenclature; i hope therefore that my own name may be kept well out of the way; but, having been privileged to found the school of art in the university of oxford, i think that i am justified in requesting any scientific writers who may look kindly upon this book, to add such of the names suggested in it as they think deserving of acceptance, to their own lists of synonyms, under the head of "schol. art. oxon." the difficulties thrown in the way of any quiet private student by existing nomenclature may be best illustrated by my simply stating what happens to myself in endeavouring to use the page above facsimile'd. not knowing how far st. bruno's lily might be connected with my own pet one, and not having any sufficient book on swiss botany, i take down loudon's encyclopædia of plants, (a most useful book, as far as any book in the present state of the science _can_ be useful,) and find, under the head of anthericum, the savoy lily indeed, but only the { } following general information:--" . anthericum. a name applied by the greeks to the stem of the asphodel, and not misapplied to this set of plants, which in some sort resemble the asphodel. plants with fleshy leaves, and spikes of bright _yellow_ flowers, easily cultivated if kept dry." hunting further, i find again my savoy lily called a spider-plant, under the article hemerocallis, and the only information which the book gives me under hemerocallis, is that it means 'beautiful day' lily; and then, "this is an ornamental genus of the easiest culture. the species are remarkable among border flowers for their fine _orange_, _yellow_, or _blue_ flowers. the hemerocallis coerulea has been considered a distinct genus by mr. salisbury, and called saussurea." as i correct this sheet for press, however, i find that the hemerocallis is now to be called 'funkia,' "in honour of mr. funk, a prussian apothecary." all this while, meantime, i have a suspicion that my pet savoy lily is not, in existing classification, an anthericum, nor a hemerocallis, but a lilium. it is, in fact, simply a turk's cap which doesn't curl up. but on trying 'lilium' in loudon, i find no mention whatever of any wild branched white lily. i then try the next word in my specimen page of curtis; but there is no 'phalangium' at all in loudon's index. and now i have neither time nor mind for more search, but will give, in due place, such account as i can { } of my own dwarf branched lily, which i shall call st. bruno's, as well as this liliastrum--no offence to the saint, i hope. for it grows very gloriously on the limestones of savoy, presumably, therefore, at the grande chartreuse; though i did not notice it there, and made a very unmonkish use of it when i gathered it last:--there was a pretty young english lady at the table-d'hôte, in the hotel du mont blanc at st. martin's,[ ] and i wanted to get speech of her, and didn't know how. so all i could think of was to go half-way up the aiguille de varens, to gather st. bruno's lilies; and i made a great cluster of them, and put wild roses all around them as i came down. i never saw anything so lovely; and i thought to present this to her before dinner,--but when i got down, she had gone away to chamouni. my fors always treated me like that, in affairs of the heart. i had begun my studies of alpine botany just eighteen years before, in , by making a careful drawing of wood-sorrel at chamouni; and bitterly sorry i am, now, that the work was interrupted. for i drew, then, very delicately; and should have made a pretty book if i could have got peace. even yet, i can manage my point a little, and would far rather be making outlines of flowers, than writing; and i meant to have drawn every english and scottish wild flower, like this cluster of bog heather opposite,[ ]--back, and profile, and front. but 'blackwood's { } magazine,' with its insults to turner, dragged me into controversy; and i have not had, properly speaking, a day's peace since; so that in my botanical studies were advanced only as far as the reader will see in next chapter; and now, in , must end altogether, i suppose, heavier thoughts and work coming fast on me. so that, finding among my notebooks, two or three, full of broken materials for the proposed work on flowers; and, thinking they may be useful even as fragments, i am going to publish them in their present state,--only let the reader note that while my other books endeavour, and claim, so far as they reach, to give trustworthy knowledge of their subjects, this one only shows how such knowledge may be obtained; and it is little more than a history of efforts and plans,--but of both, i believe, made in right methods. one part of the book, however, will, i think, be found of permanent value. mr. burgess has engraved on wood, in reduced size, with consummate skill, some of the excellent old drawings in the flora danica, and has interpreted, and facsimile'd, some of his own and my drawings from nature, with a vigour and precision unsurpassed in woodcut illustration, which render these outlines the best exercises in black and white i have yet been able to { } prepare for my drawing pupils. the larger engravings by mr. allen may also be used with advantage as copies for drawings with pen or sepia. rome, _ th may_ (_my father's birthday_). i found the loveliest blue asphodel i ever saw in my life, yesterday, in the fields beyond monte mario,--a spire two feet high, of more than two hundred stars, the stalks of them all deep blue, as well as the flowers. heaven send all honest people the gathering of the like, in elysian fields, some day! * * * * * { } chapter i. moss. denmark hill, _ rd november, ._ . it is mortifying enough to write,--but i think thus much ought to be written,--concerning myself, as 'the author of modern painters.' in three months i shall be fifty years old: and i don't at this hour--ten o'clock in the morning of the two hundred and sixty-eighth day of my forty-ninth year--know what 'moss' is. there is nothing i have more _intended_ to know--some day or other. but the moss 'would always be there'; and then it was so beautiful, and so difficult to examine, that one could only do it in some quite separated time of happy leisure--which came not. i never was like to have less leisure than now, but i _will_ know what moss is, if possible, forthwith. . to that end i read preparatorily, yesterday, what account i could find of it in all the botanical books in the house. out of them all, i get this general notion of a moss,--that it has a fine fibrous root,--a stem surrounded with spirally set leaves,--and produces its fruit in a small case, under a cap. i fasten especially, however, on a { } sentence of louis figuier's, about the particular species, hypnum:-- "these mosses, which often form little islets of verdure at the feet of poplars and willows, are robust vegetable organisms, which do not decay."[ ] . "qui ne pourrissent point." what do they do with themselves, then?--it immediately occurs to me to ask. and, secondly,--if this immortality belongs to the hypnum only? it certainly does not, by any means: but, however modified or limited, this immortality is the first thing we ought to take note of in the mosses. they are, in some degree, what the "everlasting" is in flowers. those minute green leaves of theirs do not decay, nor fall. but how do they die, or how stop growing, then?--it is the first thing i want to know about them. and from all the books in the house, i can't as yet find out this. meanwhile i will look at the leaves themselves. . going out to the garden, i bring in a bit of old brick, emerald green on its rugged surface,[ ] and a thick piece of mossy turf. first, for the old brick: to think of the quantity of pleasure one has had in one's life from that emerald green velvet,--and yet that for the first time to-day i am verily going to look at it! doing so, through a pocket { } lens of no great power, i find the velvet to be composed of small star-like groups of smooth, strong, oval leaves,--intensely green, and much like the young leaves of any other plant, except in this;--they all have a long brown spike, like a sting, at their ends. [illustration: fig. .] . fastening on that, i take the flora danica,[ ] and look through its plates of mosses, for their leaves only; and i find, first, that this spike, or strong central rib, is characteristic;--secondly, that the said leaves are apt to be not only spiked, but serrated, and otherwise angry-looking at the points;--thirdly, that they have a tendency to fold together in the centre (fig. [ ]); and at last, after an hour's work at them, it strikes me suddenly that they are more like pineapple leaves than anything else. and it occurs to me, very unpleasantly, at the same time, that i don't know what a pineapple is! stopping to ascertain that, i am told that a pineapple belongs to the 'bromeliaceæ'--(can't stop to find out what that means)--nay, that of these plants "the pineapple is the representative" (loudon); "their habit is acid, their leaves rigid, and toothed with spines, their { } bracteas often coloured with scarlet, and their flowers either white or blue"--(what are their flowers like?) but the two sentences that most interest me, are, that in the damp forests of carolina, the tillandsia, which is an 'epiphyte' (_i.e._, a plant growing on other plants,) "forms dense festoons among the branches of the trees, vegetating among the black mould that collects upon the bark of trees in hot damp countries; other species are inhabitants of deep and gloomy forests, and others form, with their spring leaves, an impenetrable herbage in the pampas of brazil." so they really seem to be a kind of moss, on a vast scale. . next, i find in gray,[ ] bromeliaceæ, and--the very thing i want--"tillandsia, the black _moss_, or long moss, which, _like most bromelias_, grows on the branches of trees." so the pineapple is really a moss; only it is a moss that flowers but 'imperfectly.' "the fine fruit is caused by the consolidation of the imperfect flowers." (i wish we could consolidate some imperfect english moss-flowers into little pineapples then,--though they were only as big as filberts.) but we cannot follow that farther now; nor consider when a flower is perfect, and when it is not, or we should get into morals, and i don't know where else; we will go back to the moss i have gathered, for i begin to see my way, a little, to understanding it. { } . the second piece i have on the table is a cluster--an inch or two deep--of the moss that grows everywhere, and that the birds use for nest-building, and we for packing, and the like. it is dry, since yesterday, and its fibres define themselves against the dark ground in warm green, touched with a glittering light. note that burnished lustre of the minute leaves; they are necessarily always relieved against dark hollows, and this lustre makes them much clearer and brighter than if they were of dead green. in that lustre--and it is characteristic of them--they differ wholly from the dead, aloe-like texture of the pineapple leaf; and remind me, as i look at them closely, a little of some conditions of chaff, as on heads of wheat after being threshed. i will hunt down that clue presently; meantime there is something else to be noticed on the old brick. [illustration: fig. .] . out of its emerald green cushions of minute leaves, there rise, here and there, thin red threads, each with a little brown cap, or something like a cap, at the top of it. these red threads shooting up out of the green tufts, are, i believe, the fructification of the moss; fringing its surface in the woods, and on the rocks, with the small forests of brown stems, each carrying its pointed cap or crest--of infinitely varied 'mode,' as we shall see presently; and, which is one of their most blessed functions, carrying high the dew in the morning; every spear balancing its own crystal globe. . and now, with my own broken memories of moss { } and this unbroken, though unfinished, gift of the noble labour of other people, the flora danica, i can generalize the idea of the precious little plant, for myself, and for the reader. all mosses, i believe, (with such exceptions and collateral groups as we may afterwards discover, but they are not many,) that is to say, some thousands of species, are, in their strength of existence, composed of fibres surrounded by clusters of dry _spinous_ leaves, set close to the fibre they grow on. out of this leafy stern descends a fibrous root, and ascends in its season, a capped seed. we must get this very clearly into our heads. fig. , a, is a little tuft of a common wood moss of norway,[ ] in its fruit season, of its real size; but at present i want to look at the central fibre and its leaves accurately, and understand that first. . pulling it to pieces, we find it composed of seven little company-keeping fibres, each of which, by itself, appears as in fig. , b: but as in this, its real size, it { } is too small, not indeed for our respect, but for our comprehension, we magnify it, fig. , c, and thereupon perceive it to be indeed composed of, _a_, the small fibrous root which sustains the plant; _b_, the leaf-surrounded stem which is the actual being, and main creature, moss; and, _c_, the aspirant pillar, and cap, of its fructification. . but there is one minor division yet. you see i have drawn the central part of the moss plant (_b_, fig. ,) half in outline and half in black; and that, similarly, in the upper group, which is too small to show the real roots, the base of the cluster is black. and you remember, i doubt not, how often in gathering what most invited gathering, of deep green, starry, perfectly soft and living wood-moss, you found it fall asunder in your hand into multitudes of separate threads, each with its bright green crest, and long root of blackness. that blackness at the root--though only so notable in this wood-moss and collateral species, is indeed a general character of the mosses, with rare exceptions. it is their funeral blackness;--that, i perceive, is the way the moss leaves die. they do not fall--they do not visibly decay. but they decay _in_visibly, in continual secession, beneath the ascending crest. they rise to form that crest, all green and bright, and take the light and air from those out of which they grew;--and those, their ancestors, darken and die slowly, and at last become a mass of mouldering ground. in fact, as i perceive farther, their final duty is so to die. the main work of other leaves is { } in their life,--but these have to form the earth out of which all other leaves are to grow. not to cover the rocks with golden velvet only, but to fill their crannies with the dark earth, through which nobler creatures shall one day seek their being. . "grant but as many sorts of mind as moss." pope could not have known the hundredth part of the number of 'sorts' of moss there are; and i suppose he only chose the word because it was a monosyllable beginning with m, and the best english general expression for despised and minute structures of plants. but a fate rules the words of wise men, which makes their words truer, and worth more, than the men themselves know. no other plants have so endless variety on so similar a structure as the mosses; and none teach so well the humility of death. as for the death of our bodies, we have learned, wisely, or unwisely, to look the fact of that in the face. but none of us, i think, yet care to look the fact of the death of our minds in the face. i do not mean death of our souls, but of our mental work. so far as it is good _art_, indeed, and done in realistic form, it may perhaps not die; but so far as it was only good _thought_--good, for its time, and apparently a great achievement therein--that good, useful thought may yet in the future become a foolish thought, and then die quite away,--it, and the memory of it,--when better thought and knowledge come. but the better thought could not have come if the weaker thought had not come first, and died in sustaining the { } better. if we think honestly, our thoughts will not only live usefully, but even perish usefully--like the moss--and become dark, not without due service. but if we think dishonestly, or malignantly, our thoughts will die like evil fungi,--dripping corrupt dew. . but farther. if you have walked moorlands enough to know the look of them, you know well those flat spaces or causeways of bright green or golden ground between the heathy rock masses; which signify winding pools and inlets of stagnant water caught among the rocks;--pools which the deep moss that covers them--_blanched_, not black, at the root,--is slowly filling and making firm; whence generally the unsafe ground in the moorland gets known by being _mossy_ instead of heathy; and is at last called by its riders, briefly, 'the moss': and as it is mainly at these same mossy places that the riding is difficult, and brings out the gifts of horse and rider, and discomfits all followers not similarly gifted, the skilled crosser of them got his name, naturally, of 'moss-rider,' or moss-trooper. in which manner the moss of norway and scotland has been a taskmaster and maker of soldiers, as yet, the strongest known among natural powers. the lightning may kill a man, or cast down a tower, but these little tender leaves of moss--they and their progenitors--have trained the northern armies. . so much for the human meaning of that decay of the leaves. now to go back to the little creatures themselves. it seems that the upper part of the moss fibre is { } especially _un_decaying among leaves; and the lower part, especially decaying. that, in fact, a plant of moss-fibre is a kind of persistent state of what is, in other plants, annual. watch the year's growth of any luxuriant flower. first it comes out of the ground all fresh and bright; then, as the higher leaves and branches shoot up, those first leaves near the ground get brown, sickly, earthy,--remain for ever degraded in the dust, and under the dashed slime in rain, staining, and grieving, and loading them with obloquy of envious earth, half-killing them,--only life enough left in them to hold on the stem, and to be guardians of the rest of the plant from all they suffer;--while, above them, the happier leaves, for whom they are thus oppressed, bend freely to the sunshine, and drink the rain pure. the moss strengthens on a diminished scale, intensifies, and makes perpetual, these two states,--bright leaves above that never wither, leaves beneath that exist only to wither. . i have hitherto spoken only of the fading moss as it is needed for change into earth. but i am not sure whether a yet more important office, in its days of age, be not its use as a colour. we are all thankful enough--as far as we ever are so--for green moss, and yellow moss. but we are never enough grateful for black moss. the golden would be nothing without it, nor even the grey. it is true that there are black lichens enough, and { } brown ones: nevertheless, the chief use of lichens is for silver and gold colour on rocks; and it is the dead moss which gives the leopard-like touches of black. and yet here again--as to a thing i have been looking at and painting all my life--i am brought to pause, the moment i think of it carefully. the black moss which gives the precious velasquez touches, lies, much of it, flat on the rocks; radiating from its centres--powdering in the fingers, if one breaks it off, like dry tea. is it a black species?--or a black-parched state of other species, perishing for the sake of velasquez effects, instead of accumulation of earth? and, if so, does it die of drought, accidentally, or, in a sere old age, naturally? and how is it related to the rich green bosses that grow in deep velvet? and there again is another matter not clear to me. one calls them 'velvet' because they are all brought to an even surface at the top. our own velvet is reduced to such trimness by cutting. but how is the moss trimmed? by what scissors? carefullest elizabethan gardener never shaped his yew hedge more daintily than the moss fairies smooth these soft rounded surfaces of green and gold. and just fancy the difference, if they were ragged! if the fibres had every one of them leave to grow at their own sweet will, and to be long or short as they liked, or, worse still, urged by fairy prizes into laboriously and agonizingly trying which could grow longest. fancy the surface of a spot of competitive moss! . but how is it that they are subdued into that { } spherical obedience, like a crystal of wavellite?[ ] strange--that the vegetable creatures growing so fondly on rocks should form themselves in that mineral-like manner. it is true that the tops of all well-grown trees are rounded, on a large scale, as equally; but that is because they grow from a central stem, while these mossy mounds are made out of independent filaments, each growing to exactly his proper height in the sphere--short ones outside, long in the middle. stop, though; _is_ that so? i am not even sure of that; perhaps they are built over a little dome of decayed moss below.[ ] i must find out how every { } filament grows, separately--from root to cap, through the spirally set leaves. and meanwhile i don't know very clearly so much as what a root is--or what a leaf is. before puzzling myself any farther in examination either of moss or any other grander vegetable, i had better define these primal forms of all vegetation, as well as i can--or rather begin the definition of them, for future completion and correction. for, as my reader must already sufficiently perceive, this book is literally to be one of studies--not of statements. some one said of me once, very shrewdly, when he wants to work out a subject, he writes a book on it. that is a very true saying in the main,--i work down or up to my mark, and let the reader see process and progress, not caring to conceal them. but this book will be nothing but process. i don't mean to assert anything positively in it from the first page to the last. whatever i say, is to be understood only as a conditional statement--liable to, and inviting, correction. and this the more because, as on the whole, i am at war with the botanists, i can't ask them to help me, and then { } call them names afterwards. i hope only for a contemptuous heaping of coals on my head by correction of my errors from them;--in some cases, my scientific friends will, i know, give me forgiving aid;--but, for many reasons, i am forced first to print the imperfect statement, as i can independently shape it; for if once i asked for, or received help, every thought would be frostbitten into timid expression, and every sentence broken by apology. i should have to write a dozen of letters before i could print a line, and the line, at last, would be only like a bit of any other botanical book--trustworthy, it might be, perhaps; but certainly unreadable. whereas now, it will rather put things more forcibly in the reader's mind to have them retouched and corrected as we go on; and our natural and honest mistakes will often be suggestive of things we could not have discovered but by wandering. on these guarded conditions, then, i proceed to study, with my reader, the first general laws of vegetable form. * * * * * { } chapter ii. the root. . plants in their perfect form consist of four principal parts,--the root, stem, leaf, and flower. it is true that the stem and flower are parts, or remnants, or altered states, of the leaves; and that, speaking with close accuracy, we might say, a perfect plant consists of leaf and root. but the division into these four parts is best for practical purposes, and it will be desirable to note a few general facts about each, before endeavouring to describe any one kind of plant. only, because the character of the stem depends on the nature of the leaf and flower, we must put it last in order of examination; and trace the development of the plant first in root and leaf; then in the flower and its fruit; and lastly in the stem. . first, then, the root. every plant is divided, as i just said, in the main, into two parts, and these have opposite natures. one part seeks the light; the other hates it. one part feeds on the air; the other on the dust. the part that loves the light is called the leaf. it is an old saxon word; i cannot get at its origin. the part that hates the light is called the root. { } in greek, [greek: rhiza], rhiza.[ ] in latin, radix, "the growing thing," which shortens, in french, into race, and then they put on the diminutive 'ine,' and get their two words, race, and racine, of which we keep race for animals, and use for vegetables a word of our own saxon (and dutch) dialect,--'root'; (connected with rood--an image of wood; whence at last the holy rood, or tree). . the root has three great functions: st. to hold the plant in its place. nd. to nourish it with earth. rd. to receive vital power for it from the earth. with this last office is in some degree,--and especially in certain plants,--connected, that of reproduction. but in all plants the root has these three essential functions. first, i said, to hold the plant in its place. the root is its fetter. you think it, perhaps, a matter of course that a plant is not to be a crawling thing? it is not a matter of course at all. a vegetable might be just what it is now, as compared with an animal;--might live on earth and water instead of on meat,--might be as senseless in life, as calm in death, and in all its parts and apparent structure { } unchanged; and yet be a crawling thing. it is quite as easy to conceive plants moving about like lizards, putting forward first one root and then another, as it is to think of them fastened to their place. it might have been well for them, one would have thought, to have the power of going down to the streams to drink, in time of drought;--of migrating in winter with grim march from north to south of dunsinane hill side. but that is not their appointed fate. they are--at least all the noblest of them, rooted to their spot. their honour and use is in giving immoveable shelter,--in remaining landmarks, or lovemarks, when all else is changed: "the cedars wave on lebanon, but judah's statelier maids are gone." . its root is thus a form of fate to the tree. it condemns, or indulges it, in its place. these semi-living creatures, come what may, shall abide, happy, or tormented. no doubt concerning "the position in which providence has placed _them_" is to trouble their minds, except so far as they can mend it by seeking light, or shrinking from wind, or grasping at support, within certain limits. in the thoughts of men they have thus become twofold images,--on the one side, of spirits restrained and half destroyed, whence the fables of transformation into trees; on the other, of spirits patient and continuing, having root in themselves and in good ground, capable of all persistent { } effort and vital stability, both in themselves, and for the human states they form. . in this function of holding fast, roots have a power of grasp quite different from that of branches. it is not a grasp, or clutch by contraction, as that of a bird's claw, or of the small branches we call 'tendrils' in climbing plants. it is a dead, clumsy, but inevitable grasp, by swelling, _after_ contortion. for there is this main difference between a branch and root, that a branch cannot grow vividly but in certain directions and relations to its neighbour branches; but a root can grow wherever there is earth, and can turn in any direction to avoid an obstacle.[ ] . in thus contriving access for itself where it chooses, a root contorts itself into more serpent-like writhing than branches can; and when it has once coiled partly round a rock, or stone, it grasps it tight, necessarily, merely by swelling. now a root has force enough sometimes to split rocks, but not to crush them; so it is compelled to grasp by _flattening_ as it thickens; and, as it must have room somewhere, it alters its own shape as if it were made of { } dough, and holds the rock, not in a claw, but in a wooden cast or mould, adhering to its surface. and thus it not only finds its anchorage in the rock, but binds the rocks of its anchorage with a constrictor cable. . hence--and this is a most important secondary function--roots bind together the ragged edges of rocks as a hem does the torn edge of a dress: they literally stitch the stones together; so that, while it is always dangerous to pass under a treeless edge of overhanging crag, as soon as it has become beautiful with trees, it is safe also. the rending power of roots on rocks has been greatly overrated. capillary attraction in a willow wand will indeed split granite, and swelling roots sometimes heave considerable masses aside, but on the whole, roots, small and great, bind, and do not rend.[ ] the surfaces of mountains are dissolved and disordered, by rain, and frost, and chemical decomposition, into mere heaps of loose stones on their desolate summits; but, where the forests grow, soil accumulates and disintegration ceases. and by cutting down forests on great mountain slopes, not only is the climate destroyed, but the danger of superficial landslip fearfully increased. . the second function of roots is to gather for the plant the nourishment it needs from the ground. this is { } partly water, mixed with some kinds of air (ammonia, etc.,) but the plant can get both water and ammonia from the atmosphere; and, i believe, for the most part does so; though, when it cannot get water from the air, it will gladly drink by its roots. but the things it cannot receive from the air at all are certain earthy salts, essential to it (as iron is essential in our own blood), and of which when it has quite exhausted the earth, no more such plants can grow in that ground. on this subject you will find enough in any modern treatise on agriculture; all that i want you to note here is that this feeding function of the root is of a very delicate and discriminating kind, needing much searching and mining among the dust, to find what it wants. if it only wanted water, it could get most of that by spreading in mere soft senseless limbs, like sponge, as far, and as far down, as it could--but to get the _salt_ out of the earth it has to _sift_ all the earth, and taste and touch every grain of it that it can, with fine fibres. and therefore a root is not at all a merely passive sponge or absorbing thing, but an infinitely subtle tongue, or tasting and eating thing. that is why it is always so fibrous and divided and entangled in the clinging earth. . "always fibrous and divided"? but many roots are quite hard and solid! no; the active part of the root is always, i believe, a fibre. but there is often a provident and passive part--a savings bank of root--in which nourishment is laid up for the plant, and which, though it may be underground, is no { } more to be considered its real root than the kernel of a seed is. when you sow a pea, if you take it up in a day or two, you will find the fibre below, which is root; the shoot above, which is plant; and the pea as a now partly exhausted storehouse, looking very woful, and like the granaries of paris after the fire. so, the round solid root of a cyclamen, or the conical one which you know so well as a carrot, are not properly roots, but permanent storehouses,--only the fibres that grow from them are roots. then there are other apparent roots which are not even storehouses, but refuges; houses where the little plant lives in its infancy, through winter and rough weather. so that it will be best for you at once to limit your idea of a root to this,--that it is a group of growing fibres which taste and suck what is good for the plant out of the ground, and by their united strength hold it in its place; only remember the thick limbs of roots do not feed, but only the fine fibres at the ends of them which are something between tongues and sponges, and while they absorb moisture readily, are yet as particular about getting what they think nice to eat as any dainty little boy or girl; looking for it everywhere, and turning angry and sulky if they don't get it. . but the root has, it seems to me, one more function, the most important of all. i say, it seems to me, for observe, what i have hitherto told you is all (i believe) ascertained and admitted; this that i am going to tell you has not yet, as far as i know, been asserted by men of { } science, though i believe it to be demonstrable. but you are to examine into it, and think of it for yourself. there are some plants which appear to derive all their food from the air--which need nothing but a slight grasp of the ground to fix them in their place. yet if we were to tie them into that place, in a framework, and cut them from their roots, they would die. not only in these, but in all other plants, the vital power by which they shape and feed themselves, whatever that power may be, depends, i think, on that slight touch of the earth, and strange inheritance of its power. it is as essential to the plant's life as the connection of the head of an animal with its body by the spine is to the animal. divide the feeble nervous thread, and all life ceases. nay, in the tree the root is even of greater importance. you will not kill the tree, as you would an animal, by dividing its body or trunk. the part not severed from the root will shoot again. but in the root, and its touch of the ground, is the life of it. my own definition of a plant would be "a living creature whose source of vital energy is in the earth" (or in the water, as a form of the earth; that is, in inorganic substance). there is, however, one tribe of plants which seems nearly excepted from this law. it is a very strange one, having long been noted for the resemblance of its flowers to different insects; and it has recently been proved by mr. darwin to be dependent on insects for its existence. doubly strange therefore, it seems, that in some cases this race of plants all but reaches the independent life of { } insects. it rather _settles_ upon boughs than roots itself in them; half of its roots may wave in the air. . what vital power is, men of science are not a step nearer knowing than they were four thousand years ago. they are, if anything, farther from knowing now than then, in that they imagine themselves nearer. but they know more about its limitations and manifestations than they did. they have even arrived at something like a proof that there is a fixed quantity of it flowing out of things and into them. but, for the present, rest content with the general and sure knowledge that, fixed or flowing, measurable or immeasurable--one with electricity or heat or light, or quite distinct from any of them--life is a delightful, and its negative, death, a dreadful thing, to human creatures; and that you can give or gather a certain quantity of life into plants, animals, and yourself by wisdom and courage, and by their reverses can bring upon them any quantity of death you please, which is a much more serious point for you to consider than what life and death are. . now, having got a quite clear idea of a root properly so called, we may observe what those storehouses, refuges, and ruins are, which we find connected with roots. the greater number of plants feed and grow at the same time; but there are some of them which like to feed first and grow afterwards. for the first year, or, at all events, the first period of their life, they gather material for their future life out of the ground and out { } of the air, and lay it up in a storehouse as bees make combs. of these stores--for the most part rounded masses tapering downwards into the ground--some are as good for human beings as honeycombs are; only not so sweet. we steal them from the plants, as we do from the bees, and these conical upside-down hives or treasuries of atreus, under the names of carrots, turnips, and radishes, have had important influence on human fortunes. if we do not steal the store, next year the plant lives upon it, raises its stem, flowers and seeds out of that abundance, and having fulfilled its destiny, and provided for its successor, passes away, root and branch together. . there is a pretty example of patience for us in this; and it would be well for young people generally to set themselves to grow in a carrotty or turnippy manner, and lay up secret store, not caring to exhibit it until the time comes for fruitful display. but they must not, in after-life, imitate the spendthrift vegetable, and blossom only in the strength of what they learned long ago; else they soon come to contemptible end. wise people live like laurels and cedars, and go on mining in the earth, while they adorn and embalm the air. . secondly, refuges. as flowers growing on trees have to live for some time, when they are young in their buds, so some flowers growing on the ground have to live for a while, when they are young, _in_ what we call their { } roots. these are mostly among the drosidæ[ ] and other humble tribes, loving the ground; and, in their babyhood, liking to live quite down in it. a baby crocus has literally its own little dome--domus, or duomo--within which in early spring it lives a delicate convent life of its own, quite free from all worldly care and dangers, exceedingly ignorant of things in general, but itself brightly golden and perfectly formed before it is brought out. these subterranean palaces and vaulted cloisters, which we call bulbs, are no more roots than the blade of grass is a root, in which the ear of corn forms before it shoots up. . thirdly, ruins. the flowers which have these subterranean homes form one of many families whose roots, as well as seeds, have the power of reproduction. the succession of some plants is trusted much to their seeds: a thistle sows itself by its down, an oak by its acorns; the companies of flying emigrants settle where they may; and the shadowy tree is content to cast down its showers of nuts for swines' food with the chance that here and there one may become a ship's bulwark. but others among plants are less careless, or less proud. many are anxious for their children to grow in the place where they grew themselves, and secure this not merely by letting their fruit fall at their feet, on the chance of its growing up { } beside them, but by closer bond, bud springing forth from root, and the young plant being animated by the gradually surrendered life of its parent. sometimes the young root is formed above the old one, as in the crocus, or beside it, as in the amaryllis, or beside it in a spiral succession, as in the orchis; in these cases the old root always perishes wholly when the young one is formed; but in a far greater number of tribes, one root connects itself with another by a short piece of intermediate stem; and this stem does not at once perish when the new root is formed, but grows on at one end indefinitely, perishing slowly at the other, the scars or ruins of the past plants being long traceable on its sides. when it grows entirely underground it is called a root-stock. but there is no essential distinction between a root-stock and a creeping stem, only the root-stock may be thought of as a stem which shares the melancholy humour of a root in loving darkness, while yet it has enough consciousness of better things to grow towards, or near, the light. in one family it is even fragrant where the flower is not, and a simple houseleek is called 'rhodiola rosea,' because its root-stock has the scent of a rose. . there is one very unusual condition of the root-stock which has become of much importance in economy, though it is of little in botany; the forming, namely, of knots at the ends of the branches of the underground stem, where the new roots are to be thrown out. of these knots, or 'tubers,' (swollen things,) one kind, belonging to { } the tobacco tribe, has been singularly harmful, together with its pungent relative, to a neighbouring country of ours, which perhaps may reach a higher destiny than any of its friends can conceive for it, if it can ever succeed in living without either the potato, or the pipe. . being prepared now to find among plants many things which are like roots, yet are not; you may simplify and make fast your true idea of a root as a fibre or group of fibres, which fixes, animates, and partly feeds the leaf. then practically, as you examine plants in detail, ask first respecting them: what kind of root have they? is it large or small in proportion to their bulk, and why is it so? what soil does it like, and what properties does it acquire from it? the endeavour to answer these questions will soon lead you to a rational inquiry into the plant's history. you will first ascertain what rock or earth it delights in, and what climate and circumstances; then you will see how its root is fitted to sustain it mechanically under given pressures and violences, and to find for it the necessary sustenance under given difficulties of famine or drought. lastly you will consider what chemical actions appear to be going on in the root, or its store; what processes there are, and elements, which give pungency to the radish, flavour to the onion, or sweetness to the liquorice; and of what service each root may be made capable under cultivation, and by proper subsequent treatment, either to animals or men. . i shall not attempt to do any of this for you; i { } assume, in giving this advice, that you wish to pursue the science of botany as your chief study; i have only broken moments for it, snatched from my chief occupations, and i have done nothing myself of all this i tell you to do. but so far as you can work in this manner, even if you only ascertain the history of one plant, so that you know that accurately, you will have helped to lay the foundation of a true science of botany, from which the mass of useless nomenclature,[ ] now mistaken for science, will fall away, as the husk of a poppy falls from the bursting flower. * * * * * { } chapter iii. the leaf. . in the first of the poems of which the english government has appointed a portion to be sung every day for the instruction and pleasure of the people, there occurs this curious statement respecting any person who will behave himself rightly: "he shall be like a tree planted by the river side, that bears its fruit in its season. his leaf also shall not wither; and you will see that whatever he does will prosper." i call it a curious statement, because the conduct to which this prosperity is promised is not that which the english, as a nation, at present think conducive to prosperity: but whether the statement be true or not, it will be easy for you to recollect the two eastern figures under which the happiness of the man is represented,--that he is like a tree bearing fruit "in its season;" (not so hastily as that the frost pinch it, nor so late that no sun ripens it;) and that "his leaf shall not fade." i should like you to recollect this phrase in the vulgate--"folium ejus non defluet"--shall not fall _away_,--that is to say, shall not fall so as to leave any visible bareness in winter time, but { } only that others may come up in its place, and the tree be always green. . now, you know, the fruit of the tree is either for the continuance of its race, or for the good, or harm, of other creatures. in no case is it a good to the tree itself. it is not indeed, properly, a part of the tree at all, any more than the egg is part of the bird, or the young of any creature part of the creature itself. but in the leaf is the strength of the tree itself. nay, rightly speaking, the leaves _are_ the tree itself. its trunk sustains; its fruit burdens and exhausts; but in the leaf it breathes and lives. and thus also, in the eastern symbolism, the fruit is the labour of men for others; but the leaf is their own life. "he shall bring forth fruit, in his time; and his own joy and strength shall be continual." . notice next the word 'folium.' in greek, [greek: phullon], 'phyllon.' "the thing that is born," or "put forth." "when the branch is tender, and putteth forth her leaves, ye know that summer is nigh." the botanists say, "the leaf is an expansion of the bark of the stem." more accurately, the bark is a contraction of the tissue of the leaf. for every leaf is born out of the earth, and breathes out of the air; and there are many leaves that have no stems, but only roots. it is 'the springing thing'; this thin film of life; rising, with its _edge_ out of the ground--infinitely feeble, infinitely fair. with folium, in latin, is rightly associated the word flos; for the flower is only a group of { } singularly happy leaves. from these two roots come foglio, feuille, feuillage, and fleur;--blume, blossom, and bloom; our foliage, and the borrowed foil, and the connected technical groups of words in architecture and the sciences. . this _thin_ film, i said. that is the essential character of a leaf; to be thin,--widely spread out in proportion to its mass. it is the opening of the substance of the earth to the air, which is the giver of life. the greeks called it, therefore, not only the born or blooming thing, but the spread or expanded thing--"[greek: petalon]." pindar calls the beginnings of quarrel, "petals of quarrel." recollect, therefore, this form, petalos; and connect it with petasos, the expanded cap of mercury. for one great use of both is to give shade. the root of all these words is said to be [greek: pet] (pet), which may easily be remembered in greek, as it sometimes occurs in no unpleasant sense in english. . but the word 'petalos' is connected in greek with another word, meaning, to fly,--so that you may think of a bird as spreading its petals to the wind; and with another, signifying fate in its pursuing flight, the overtaking thing, or overflying fate. finally, there is another greek word meaning 'wide,' [greek: platus] (platys); whence at last our 'plate'--a thing made broad or extended--but especially made broad or 'flat' out of the solid, as in a lump of clay extended on the wheel, or a lump of metal extended by the hammer. so the first we call platter; the second plate, when of the precious metals. then putting _b_ for { } _p_, and _d_ for _t_, we get the blade of an oar, and blade of grass. . now gather a branch of laurel, and look at it carefully. you may read the history of the being of half the earth in one of those green oval leaves--the things that the sun and the rivers have made out of dry ground. daphne--daughter of enipeus, and beloved by the sun,--that fable gives you at once the two great facts about vegetation. where warmth is, and moisture--there, also, the leaf. where no warmth--there is no leaf; where there is no dew--no leaf. . look, then, to the branch you hold in your hand. that you _can_ so hold it, or make a crown of it, if you choose, is the first thing i want you to note of it;--the proportion of size, namely, between the leaf and _you_. great part of your life and character, as a human creature, has depended on that. suppose all leaves had been spacious, like some palm leaves; solid, like cactus stem; or that trees had grown, as they might of course just as easily have grown, like mushrooms, all one great cluster of leaf round one stalk. i do not say that they are divided into small leaves only for your delight, or your service, as if you were the monarch of everything--even in this atom of a globe. you are made of your proper size; and the leaves of theirs: for reasons, and by laws, of which neither the leaves nor you know anything. only note the harmony between both, and the joy we may have in this division and mystery of the frivolous and tremulous petals, { } which break the light and the breeze,--compared to what with the frivolous and tremulous mind which is in us, we could have had out of domes, or penthouses, or walls of leaf. . secondly; think awhile of its dark clear green, and the good of it to you. scientifically, you know green in leaves is owing to 'chlorophyll,' or, in english, to 'greenleaf.' it may be very fine to know that; but my advice to you, on the whole, is to rest content with the general fact that leaves are green when they do not grow in or near smoky towns; and not by any means to rest content with the fact that very soon there will not be a green leaf in england, but only greenish-black ones. and thereon resolve that you will yourself endeavour to promote the growing of the green wood, rather than of the black. . looking at the back of your laurel-leaves, you see how the central rib or spine of each, and the lateral branchings, strengthen and carry it. i find much confused use, in botanical works, of the words vein and rib. for, indeed, there are veins _in_ the ribs of leaves, as marrow in bones; and the projecting bars often gradually depress themselves into a transparent net of rivers. but the _mechanical_ force of the framework in carrying the leaf-tissue is the point first to be noticed; it is that which admits, regulates, or restrains the visible motions of the leaf; while the system of circulation can only be studied through the microscope. but the ribbed leaf bears itself to the wind, as the webbed foot of a bird does to the { } water, and needs the same kind, though not the same strength, of support; and its ribs always are partly therefore constituted of strong woody substance, which is knit out of the tissue; and you can extricate this skeleton framework, and keep it, after the leaf-tissue is dissolved. so i shall henceforward speak simply of the leaf and its ribs,--only specifying the additional veined structure on necessary occasions. . i have just said that the ribs--and might have said, farther, the stalk that sustains them--are knit out of the _tissue_ of the leaf. but what is the leaf tissue itself knit out of? one would think that was nearly the first thing to be discovered, or at least to be thought of, concerning plants,--namely, how and of what they are made. we say they 'grow.' but you know that they can't grow out of nothing;--this solid wood and rich tracery must be made out of some previously existing substance. what is the substance?--and how is it woven into leaves.--twisted into wood? . consider how fast this is done, in spring. you walk in february over a slippery field, where, through hoar-frost and mud, you perhaps hardly see the small green blades of trampled turf. in twelve weeks you wade through the same field up to your knees in fresh grass; and in a week or two more, you mow two or three solid haystacks off it. in winter you walk by your currant-bush, or your vine. they are shrivelled sticks--like bits of black tea in the canister. you pass again in may, and { } the currant-bush looks like a young sycamore tree; and the vine is a bower: and meanwhile the forests, all over this side of the round world, have grown their foot or two in height, with new leaves--so much deeper, so much denser than they were. where has it all come from? cut off the fresh shoots from a single branch of any tree in may. weigh them; and then consider that so much weight has been added to every such living branch, everywhere, this side the equator, within the last two months. what is all that made of? . well, this much the botanists really know, and tell us,--it is made chiefly of the breath of animals: that is to say, of the substance which, during the past year, animals have breathed into the air; and which, if they went on breathing, and their breath were not made into trees, would poison them, or rather suffocate them, as people are suffocated in uncleansed pits, and dogs in the grotta del cane. so that you may look upon the grass and forests of the earth as a kind of green hoar-frost, frozen upon it from our breath, as, on the window-panes, the white arborescence of ice. . but how is it made into wood? the substances that have been breathed into the air are charcoal, with oxygen and hydrogen,--or, more plainly, charcoal and water. some necessary earths,--in smaller quantity, but absolutely essential,--the trees get from the ground; but, i believe all the charcoal they want, and most of the water, from the air. now the question is, where and how do they take it in, and digest it into wood? { } . you know, in spring, and partly through all the year, except in frost, a liquid called 'sap' circulates in trees, of which the nature, one should have thought, might have been ascertained by mankind in the six thousand years they have been cutting wood. under the impression always that it _had been_ ascertained, and that i could at any time know all about it, i have put off till to-day, th october, , when i am past fifty, the knowing anything about it at all. but i will really endeavour now to ascertain something, and take to my botanical books, accordingly, in due order. ( ) dresser's "rudiments of botany." 'sap' not in the index; only samara, and sarcocarp,--about neither of which i feel the smallest curiosity. ( ) figuier's "histoire des plantes."[ ] 'sêve,' not in index; only serpolet, and sherardia arvensis, which also have no help in them for me. ( ) balfour's "manual of botany." 'sap,'--yes, at last. "article . course of fluids in exogenous stems." i don't care about the course just now: i want to know where the fluids come from. "if a plant be plunged into a weak solution of acetate of lead,"--i don't in the least want to know what happens. "from the minuteness of the tissue, it is not easy to determine the vessels through which the sap moves." who said it was? if it had been easy, i should have done it myself. "changes take place in the composition of the { } sap in its upward course." i dare say; but i don't know yet what its composition is before it begins going up. "the elaborated sap by mr. schultz has been called 'latex.'" i wish mr. schultz were in a hogshead of it, with the top on. "on account of these movements in the latex, the laticiferous vessels have been denominated cinenchymatous." i do not venture to print the expressions which i here mentally make use of. . stay,--here, at last, in article , is something to the purpose: "it appears then that, in the case of exogenous plants, the fluid matter in the soil, containing different substances in solution, is sucked up by the extremities of the roots." yes, but how of the pine trees on yonder rock?--is there any sap in the rock, or water either? the moisture must be seized during actual rain on the root, or stored up from the snow; stored up, any way, in a tranquil, not actively sappy, state, till the time comes for its change, of which there is no account here. . i have only one chance left now. lindley's "introduction to botany." 'sap,'--yes,--'general motion of.' ii. . "the course which is taken by the sap, after entering a plant, is the first subject for consideration." my dear doctor, i have learned nearly whatever i know of plant structure from you, and am grateful; and that it is little, is not your fault, but mine. but this--let me say it with all sincere respect--is not what you should have told me here. you know, far better than i, that 'sap' never does enter a plant at all; but only salt, or earth and water, { } and that the roots alone could not make it; and that, therefore, the course of it must be, in great part, the result or process of the actual making. but i will read now, patiently; for i know you will tell me much that is worth hearing, though not perhaps what i want. yes; now that i have read lindley's statement carefully, i find it is full of precious things; and this is what, with thinking over it, i can gather for you. . first, towards the end of january,--as the light enlarges, and the trees revive from their rest,--there is a general liquefaction of the blood of st. januarius in their stems; and i suppose there is really a great deal of moisture rapidly absorbed from the earth in most cases; and that this absorption is a great help to the sun in drying the winter's damp out of it for us: then, with that strange vital power,--which scientific people are usually as afraid of naming as common people are afraid of naming death,--the tree gives the gathered earth and water a changed existence; and to this new-born liquid an upward motion from the earth, as our blood has from the heart; for the life of the tree is out of the earth; and this upward motion has a mechanical power in pushing on the growth. "_forced onward_ by the current of sap, the plumule ascends," (lindley, p. ,)--this blood of the tree having to supply, exactly as our own blood has, not only the forming powers of substance, but a continual evaporation, "approximately seventeen times more than that of the human body," while the force of motion in the sap "is { } sometimes five times greater than that which impels the blood in the crural artery of the horse." . hence generally, i think we may conclude thus much,--that at every pore of its surface, under ground and above, the plant in the spring absorbs moisture, which instantly disperses itself through its whole system "by means of some permeable quality of the membranes of the cellular tissue invisible to our eyes even by the most powerful glasses" (p. ); that in this way subjected to the vital power of the tree, it becomes sap, properly so called, which passes downwards through this cellular tissue, slowly and secretly; and then upwards, through the great vessels of the tree, violently, stretching out the supple twigs of it as yon see a flaccid waterpipe swell and move when the cock is turned to fill it. and the tree becomes literally a fountain, of which the springing streamlets are clothed with new-woven garments of green tissue, and of which the silver spray stays in the sky,--a spray, now, of leaves. . that is the gist of the matter; and a very wonderful gist it is, to my mind. the secret and subtle descent--the violent and exulting resilience of the tree's blood,--what guides it?--what compels? the creature has no heart to beat like ours; one cannot take refuge from the mystery in a 'muscular contraction.' fountain without supply--playing by its own force, for ever rising and falling all through the days of spring, spending itself at last in gathered clouds of leaves, and iris of blossom. very wonderful; and it seems, for the present, that { } we know nothing whatever about its causes;--nay, the strangeness of the reversed arterial and vein motion, without a heart, does not seem to strike anybody. perhaps, however, it may interest you, as i observe it does the botanists, to know that the cellular tissue through which the motion is effected is called parenchym, and the woody tissue, bothrenchym; and that parenchym is divided, by a system of nomenclature which "has some advantages over that more commonly in use,"[ ] into merenchyma, conenchyma, ovenchyma, atractenchyma, cylindrenchyma, colpenchyma, cladenchyma, and prismenchyma. . take your laurel branch into your hand again. there are, as you must well know, innumerable shapes and orders of leaves;--there are some like claws; some like fingers, and some like feet; there are endlessly cleft ones, and endlessly clustered ones, and inscrutable divisions within divisions of the fretted verdure; and wrinkles, and ripples, and stitchings, and hemmings, and pinchings, and gatherings, and crumplings, and clippings, and what not. but there is nothing so constantly noble as the pure leaf of the laurel, bay, orange, and olive; numerable, sequent, perfect in setting, divinely simple and serene. i shall call these noble leaves 'apolline' leaves. they characterize many orders of plants, great and small,--from the magnolia to the myrtle, and exquisite 'myrtille' { } of the hills, (bilberry); but wherever you find them, strong, lustrous, dark green, simply formed, richly scented or stored,--you have nearly always kindly and lovely vegetation, in healthy ground and air. . the gradual diminution in rank beneath the apolline leaf, takes place in others by the loss of one or more of the qualities above named. the apolline leaf, i said, is strong, lustrous, full in its green, rich in substance, simple in form. the inferior leaves are those which have lost strength, and become thin, like paper; which have lost lustre, and become dead by roughness of surface, like the nettle,--(an apolline leaf may become dead by _bloom_, like the olive, yet not lose beauty); which have lost colour and become feeble in green, as in the poplar, or _crudely_ bright, like rice; which have lost substance and softness, and have nothing to give in scent or nourishment; or become flinty or spiny; finally, which have lost simplicity, and become cloven or jagged. many of these losses are partly atoned for by gain of some peculiar loveliness. grass and moss, and parsley and fern, have each their own delightfulness; yet they are all of inferior power and honour, compared to the apolline leaves. [illustration: fig. .] . you see, however, that though your laurel leaf has a central stem, and traces of ribs branching from it, in a vertebrated manner, they are so faint that we cannot take it for a type of vertebrate structure. but the two figures of elm and alisma leaf, given in modern painters (vol. iii.), and now here repeated, fig. , will clearly enough { } show the opposition between this vertebrate form, branching again usually at the edges, _a_, and the softly opening lines diffused at the stem, and gathered at the point of the leaf _b_, which, as you almost without doubt know already are characteristic of a vast group of plants, including especially all the lilies, grasses, and palms, which for the most part are the signs of local or temporary moisture in hot countries;--local, as of fountains and streams; temporary, as of rain or inundation. but temporary, still more definitely in the day, than in the year. when you go out, delighted, into the dew of the morning, have you ever considered why it is so rich upon the grass;--why it is _not_ upon the trees? it _is_ partly on the trees, but yet your memory of it will be always chiefly of its gleam upon the lawn. on many { } trees you will find there is none at all. i cannot follow out here the many inquiries connected with this subject, but, broadly, remember the branched trees are fed chiefly by rain,--the unbranched ones by dew, visible or invisible; that is to say, at all events by moisture which they can gather for themselves out of the air; or else by streams and springs. hence the division of the verse of the song of moses: "my doctrine shall drop as the rain; my speech shall distil as the dew: as the _small_ rain upon the tender _herb_, and as the showers upon the grass." . next, examining the direction of the veins in the leaf of the alisma, _b_, fig. , you see they all open widely, as soon as they can, towards the thick part of the leaf; and then taper, apparently with reluctance, pushing each other outwards, to the point. if the leaf were a lake of the same shape, and its stem the entering river, the lines of the currents passing through it would, i believe, be nearly the same as that of the veins in the aquatic leaf. i have not examined the fluid law accurately, and i do not suppose there is more real correspondence than may be caused by the leaf's expanding in every permitted direction, as the water would, with all the speed it can; but the resemblance is so close as to enable you to fasten the relation of the unbranched leaves to streams more distinctly in your mind,--just as the toss of the palm leaves from their stem may, i think, in their likeness to the springing of a fountain, remind you of their relation to the desert, and their necessity, therein, to life of man and beast. { } . and thus, associating these grass and lily leaves always with fountains, or with dew, i think we may get a pretty general name for them also. you know that cora, our madonna of the flowers, was lost in sicilian fields: you know, also, that the fairest of greek fountains, lost in greece, was thought to rise in a sicilian islet; and that the real springing of the noble fountain in that rock was one of the causes which determined the position of the greatest greek city of sicily. so i think, as we call the fairest branched leaves 'apolline,' we will call the fairest flowing ones 'arethusan.' but remember that the apolline leaf represents only the central type of land leaves, and is, within certain limits, of a fixed form; while the beautiful arethusan leaves, alike in flowing of their lines, change their forms indefinitely,--some shaped like round pools, and some like winding currents, and many like arrows, and many like hearts, and otherwise varied and variable, as leaves ought to be,--that rise out of the waters, and float amidst the pausing of their foam. . brantwood, _easter day_, .--i don't like to spoil my pretty sentence, above; but on reading it over, i suspect i wrote it confusing the water-lily leaf, and other floating ones of the same kind, with the arethusan forms. but the water-lily and water-ranunculus leaves, and such others, are to the orders of earth-loving leaves what ducks and swans are to birds; (the swan is the water-lily of birds;) they are _swimming_ leaves; not properly watery creatures, or able to live under water like fish, (unless { } when dormant), but just like birds that pass their lives on the surface of the waves--though they must breathe in the air. and these natant leaves, as they lie on the water surface, do not want strong ribs to carry them,[ ] but have very delicate ones beautifully branching into the orbed space, to keep the tissue nice and flat; while, on the other hand, leaves that really have to grow under water, sacrifice their tissue, and keep only their ribs, like coral animals; ('ranunculus heterophyllus,' 'other-leaved frog-flower,' and its like,) just as, if you keep your own hands too long in water, they shrivel at the finger-ends. . so that you must not attach any great botanical importance to the characters of contrasted aspects in leaves, which i wish you to express by the words 'apolline' and 'arethusan'; but their mythic importance is very great, and your careful observance of it will help you completely to understand the beautiful greek fable of apollo and daphne. there are indeed several daphnes, and the first root of the name is far away in another field of thought altogether, connected with the gods of light. but etymology, the best of servants, is an unreasonable master; and professor max müller trusts his deep-reaching knowledge of the first ideas connected with the names of athena { } and daphne, too implicitly, when he supposes this idea to be retained in central greek theology. 'athena' originally meant only the dawn, among nations who knew nothing of a sacred spirit. but the athena who catches achilles by the hair, and urges the spear of diomed, has not, in the mind of homer, the slightest remaining connection with the mere beauty of daybreak. daphne chased by apollo, may perhaps--though i doubt even this much of consistence in the earlier myth--have meant the dawn pursued by the sun. but there is no trace whatever of this first idea left in the fable of arcadia and thessaly. . the central greek daphne is the daughter of one of the great _river_ gods of arcadia; her mother is the earth. now arcadia is the oberland of greece; and the crests of cyllene, erymanthus, and mænalus[ ] surround it, like the swiss forest cantons, with walls of rock, and shadows of pine. and it divides itself, like the oberland, into three regions: first, the region of rock and snow, sacred to mercury and apollo, in which mercury's birth on cyllene, his construction of the lyre, and his stealing the oxen of apollo, are all expressions of the enchantments of cloud and sound, mingling with the sunshine, on the cliffs of cyllene. "while the mists flying, and rainy vapours, call out shapes { } and phantoms from the crags and solid earth as fast as a musician scatters sounds out of his instrument." then came the pine region, sacred especially to pan and mænalus, the son of lycaon and brother of callisto; and you had better remember this relationship carefully, for the sake of the meaning of the constellations of ursa major and the mons mænalius, and of their wolf and bear traditions; (compare also the strong impression on the greek mind of the wild leafiness, nourished by snow, of the boeotian cithæron,--"oh, thou lake-hollow, full of divine leaves, and of wild creatures, nurse of the snow, darling of diana," (phoenissæ, )). how wild the climate of this pine region is, you may judge from the pieces in the note below[ ] out of colonel leake's diary in { } crossing the mænalian range in spring. and then, lastly, you have the laurel and vine region, full of sweetness and elysian beauty. . now as mercury is the ruling power of the hill enchantment, so daphne of the leafy peace. she is, in her first life, the daughter of the mountain river, the mist of it filling the valley; the sun, pursuing, and effacing it, from dell to dell, is, literally, apollo pursuing daphne, and _adverse_ to her; (not, as in the earlier tradition, the sun pursuing only his own light). daphne, thus hunted, cries to her mother, the earth, which opens, and receives her, causing the laurel to spring up in her stead. that is to say, wherever the rocks protect the mist from the sunbeam, and suffer it to water the earth, there the laurel and other richest vegetation fill the hollows, giving a better glory to the sun itself. for sunshine, on the torrent spray, { } on the grass of its valley, and entangled among the laurel stems, or glancing from their leaves, became a thousandfold lovelier and more sacred than the same sunbeams, burning on the leafless mountain-side. and farther, the leaf, in its connection with the river, is typically expressive, not, as the flower was, of human fading and passing away, but of the perpetual flow and renewal of human mind and thought, rising "like the rivers that run among the hills"; therefore it was that the youth of greece sacrificed their hair--the sign of their continually renewed strength,--to the rivers, and to apollo. therefore, to commemorate apollo's own chief victory over death--over python, the corrupter,--a laurel branch was gathered every ninth year in the vale of tempe; and the laurel leaf became the reward or crown of all beneficent and enduring work of man--work of inspiration, born of the strength of the earth, and of the dew of heaven, and which can never pass away. . you may doubt at first, even because of its grace, this meaning in the fable of apollo and daphne; you will not doubt it, however, when you trace it back to its first eastern origin. when we speak carelessly of the traditions respecting the garden of eden, (or in hebrew, remember, garden of delight,) we are apt to confuse milton's descriptions with those in the book of genesis. milton fills his paradise with flowers; but no flowers are spoken of in genesis. we may indeed conclude that in speaking of every herb of the field, flowers are included. but they { } are not named. the things that are _named_ in the garden of delight are trees only. the words are, "every tree that was pleasant to the sight and good for food;" and as if to mark the idea more strongly for us in the septuagint, even the ordinary greek word for tree is not used, but the word [greek: xulon],--literally, every 'wood,' every piece of _timber_ that was pleasant or good. they are indeed the "vivi travi,"--living rafters, of dante's apennine. do you remember how those trees were said to be watered? not by the four rivers only. the rivers could not supply the place of rain. no rivers do; for in truth they are the refuse of rain. no storm-clouds were there, nor hidings of the blue by darkening veil; but there went up a _mist_ from the earth, and watered the face of the ground,--or, as in septuagint and vulgate, "there went forth a fountain from the earth, and gave the earth to drink." . and now, lastly, we continually think of that garden of delight, as if it existed, or could exist, no longer; wholly forgetting that it is spoken of in scripture as perpetually existent; and some of its fairest trees as existent also, or only recently destroyed. when ezekiel is describing to pharaoh the greatness of the assyrians, do you remember what image he gives of them? "behold, the assyrian was a cedar in lebanon, with fair branches; and his top was among the thick boughs; the waters nourished him, and the deep brought him up, with her rivers { } running round about his plants. under his branches did all the beasts of the field bring forth their young; and under his shadow dwelt all great nations." . now hear what follows. "the cedars _in the garden of god_ could not hide _him_. the fir trees were not like his boughs, and the chestnut trees were not like his branches; nor any tree in the garden of god was like unto him in beauty." so that you see, whenever a nation rises into consistent, vital, and, through many generations, enduring power, _there_ is still the garden of god; still it is the water of life which feeds the roots of it; and still the succession of its people is imaged by the perennial leafage of trees of paradise. could this be said of assyria, and shall it not be said of england? how much more, of lives such as ours should be,--just, laborious, united in aim, beneficent in fulfilment, may the image be used of the leaves of the trees of eden! other symbols have been given often to show the evanescence and slightness of our lives--the foam upon the water, the grass on the housetop, the vapour that vanishes away; yet none of these are images of true human life. that life, when it is real, is _not_ evanescent; is _not_ slight; does _not_ vanish away. every noble life leaves the fibre of it interwoven for ever in the work of the world; by so much, evermore, the strength of the human race has gained; more stubborn in the root, higher towards heaven in the branch; and, "as a teil tree, and as an oak,--whose substance is in them { } when they cast their leaves,--so the holy seed is in the midst thereof." . only remember on what conditions. in the great psalm of life, we are told that everything that a man doeth shall prosper, so only that he delight in the law of his god, that he hath not walked in the counsel of the wicked, nor sat in the seat of the scornful. is it among these leaves of the perpetual spring,--helpful leaves for the healing of the nations,--that we mean to have our part and place, or rather among the "brown skeletons of leaves that lag, the forest brook along"? for other leaves there are, and other streams that water them,--not water of life, but water of acheron. autumnal leaves there are that strew the brooks, in vallombrosa. remember you how the name of the place was changed: "once called 'sweet water' (aqua bella), now, the shadowy vale." portion in one or other name we must choose, all of us,--with the living olive, by the living fountains of waters, or with the wild fig trees, whose leafage of human soul is strewed along the brooks of death, in the eternal vallombrosa. * * * * * { } chapter iv. the flower. rome, _whit monday, _. . on the quiet road leading from under the palatine to the little church of st. nereo and achilleo, i met, yesterday morning, group after group of happy peasants heaped in pyramids on their triumphal carts, in whit-sunday dress, stout and clean, and gay in colour; and the women all with bright artificial roses in their hair, set with true natural taste, and well becoming them. this power of arranging wreath or crown of flowers for the head, remains to the people from classic times. and the thing that struck me most in the look of it was not so much the cheerfulness, as the dignity;--in a true sense, the _becomingness_ and decorousness of the ornament. among the ruins of the dead city, and the worse desolation of the work of its modern rebuilders, here was one element at least of honour, and order;--and, in these, of delight. and these are the real significances of the flower itself. it is the utmost purification of the plant, and the utmost discipline. where its tissue is blanched fairest, dyed purest, set in strictest rank, appointed to most chosen office, { } there--and created by the fact of this purity and function--is the flower. . but created, observe, by the purity and order, more than by the function. the flower exists for its own sake,--not for the fruit's sake. the production of the fruit is an added honour to it--is a granted consolation to us for its death. but the flower is the end of the seed,--not the seed of the flower. you are fond of cherries, perhaps; and think that the use of cherry blossom is to produce cherries. not at all. the use of cherries is to produce cherry blossoms; just as the use of bulbs is to produce hyacinths,--not of hyacinths to produce bulbs. nay, that the flower can multiply by bulb, or root, or slip, as well as by seed, may show you at once how immaterial the seed-forming function is to the flower's existence. a flower is to the vegetable substance what a crystal is to the mineral. "dust of sapphire," writes my friend dr. john brown to me, of the wood hyacinths of scotland in the spring. yes, that is so,--each bud more beautiful, itself, than perfectest jewel--_this_, indeed, jewel "of purest ray serene;" but, observe you, the glory is in the purity, the serenity, the radiance,--not in the mere continuance of the creature. . it is because of its beauty that its continuance is worth heaven's while. the glory of it is in being,--not in begetting; and in the spirit and substance,--not the change. for the earth also has its flesh and spirit. every day of spring is the earth's whit sunday--fire { } sunday. the falling fire of the rainbow, with the order of its zones, and the gladness of its covenant,--you may eat of it, like esdras; but you feed upon it only that you may see it. do you think that flowers were born to nourish the blind? fasten well in your mind, then, the conception of order, and purity, as the essence of the flower's being, no less than of the crystal's. a ruby is not made bright to scatter round it child-rubies; nor a flower, but in collateral and added honour, to give birth to other flowers. two main facts, then, you have to study in every flower: the symmetry or order of it, and the perfection of its substance; first, the manner in which the leaves are placed for beauty of form; then the spinning and weaving and blanching of their tissue, for the reception of purest colour, or refining to richest surface. . first, the order: the proportion, and answering to each other, of the parts; for the study of which it becomes necessary to know what its parts are; and that a flower consists essentially of--well, i really don't know what it consists essentially of. for some flowers have bracts, and stalks, and toruses, and calices, and corollas, and discs, and stamens, and pistils, and ever so many odds and ends of things besides, of no use at all, seemingly; and others have no bracts, and no stalks, and no toruses, and no calices, and no corollas, and nothing recognizable for stamens or pistils,--only, when they come to be reduced to this kind of poverty, one doesn't call { } them flowers; they get together in knots, and one calls them catkins, or the like, or forgets their existence altogether;--i haven't the least idea, for instance, myself, what an oak blossom is like; only i know its bracts get together and make a cup of themselves afterwards, which the italians call, as they do the dome of st. peter's, 'cupola'; and that it is a great pity, for their own sake as well as the world's, that they were not content with their ilex cupolas, which were made to hold something, but took to building these big ones upside-down, which hold nothing--_less_ than nothing,--large extinguishers of the flame of catholic religion. and for farther embarrassment, a flower not only is without essential consistence of a given number of parts, but it rarely consists, alone, of _itself_. one talks of a hyacinth as of a flower; but a hyacinth is any number of flowers. one does not talk of 'a heather'; when one says 'heath,' one means the whole plant, not the blossom,--because heath-bells, though they grow together for company's sake, do so in a voluntary sort of way, and are not fixed in their places; and yet, they depend on each other for effect, as much as a bunch of grapes. . and this grouping of flowers, more or less waywardly, is the most subtle part of their order, and the most difficult to represent. take that cluster of bog-heather bells, for instance, line-study . you might think at first there were no lines in it worth study; but look at it more carefully. there are twelve bells in the { } cluster. there may be fewer, or more; but the bog-heath is apt to run into something near that number. they all grow together as close as they can, and on one side of the supporting branch only. the natural effect would be to bend the branch down; but the branch won't have that, and so leans back to carry them. now you see the use of drawing the profile in the middle figure: it shows you the exactly balanced setting of the group,--not drooping, nor erect; but with a disposition to droop, tossed up by the leaning back of the stem. then, growing as near as they can to each other, those in the middle get squeezed. here is another quite special character. some flowers don't like being squeezed at all (fancy a squeezed convolvulus!); but these heather bells like it, and look all the prettier for it,--not the squeezed ones exactly, by themselves, but the cluster altogether, by their patience. then also the outside ones get pushed into a sort of star-shape, and in front show the colour of all their sides, and at the back the rich green cluster of sharp leaves that hold them; all this order being as essential to the plant as any of the more formal structures of the bell itself. . but the bog-heath has usually only one cluster of flowers to arrange on each branch. take a spray of ling (frontispiece), and you will find that the richest piece of gothic spire-sculpture would be dull and graceless beside the grouping of the floral masses in their various life. but it is difficult to give the accuracy of attention { } necessary to see their beauty without drawing them; and still more difficult to draw them in any approximation to the truth before they change. this is indeed the fatallest obstacle to all good botanical work. flowers, or leaves,--and especially the last,--can only be rightly drawn as they grow. and even then, in their loveliest spring action, they grow as you draw them, and will not stay quite the same creatures for half an hour. . i said in my inaugural lectures at oxford, § , that real botany is not so much the description of plants as their biography. without entering at all into the history of its fruitage, the life and death of the blossom _itself_ is always an eventful romance, which must be completely told, if well. the grouping given to the various states of form between bud and flower is always the most important part of the design of the plant; and in the modes of its death are some of the most touching lessons, or symbolisms, connected with its existence. the utter loss and far-scattered ruin of the cistus and wild rose,--the dishonoured and dark contortion of the convolvulus,--the pale wasting of the crimson heath of apennine, are strangely opposed by the quiet closing of the brown bells of the ling, each making of themselves a little cross as they die; and so enduring into the days of winter. i have drawn the faded beside the full branch, and know not which is the more beautiful. . this grouping, then, and way of treating each other in their gathered company, is the first and most subtle { } condition of form in flowers; and, observe, i don't mean, just now, the appointed and disciplined grouping, but the wayward and accidental. don't confuse the beautiful consent of the cluster in these sprays of heath with the legal strictness of a foxglove,--though that also has its divinity; but of another kind. that legal order of blossoming--for which we may wisely keep the accepted name, 'inflorescence,'--is itself quite a separate subject of study, which we cannot take up until we know the still more strict laws which are set over the flower itself. . i have in my hand a small red poppy which i gathered on whit sunday on the palace of the cæsars. it is an intensely simple, intensely floral, flower. all silk and flame: a scarlet cup, perfect-edged all round, seen among the wild grass far away, like a burning coal fallen from heaven's altars. you cannot have a more complete, a more stainless, type of flower absolute; inside and outside, _all_ flower. no sparing of colour anywhere--no outside coarsenesses--no interior secrecies; open as the sunshine that creates it; fine-finished on both sides, down to the extremest point of insertion on its narrow stalk; and robed in the purple of the cæsars. literally so. that poppy scarlet, so far as it could be painted by mortal hand, for mortal king, stays yet, against the sun, and wind, and rain, on the walls of the house of augustus, a hundred yards from the spot where i gathered the weed of its desolation. . a pure _cup_, you remember it is; that much at least { } you cannot but remember, of poppy-form among the cornfields; and it is best, in beginning, to think of every flower as essentially a cup. there are flat ones, but you will find that most of these are really groups of flowers, not single blossoms; and there are out-of-the-way and quaint ones, very difficult to define as of any shape; but even these have a cup to begin with, deep down in them. you had better take the idea of a cup or vase, as the first, simplest, and most general form of true flower. the botanists call it a corolla, which means a garland, or a kind of crown; and the word is a very good one, because it indicates that the flower-cup is made, as our clay cups are, on a potter's wheel; that it is essentially a _revolute_ form--a whirl or (botanically) 'whorl' of leaves; in reality successive round the base of the urn they form. . perhaps, however, you think poppies in general are not much like cups. but the flower in my hand is a--poverty-_stricken_ poppy, i was going to write,--poverty-_strengthened_ poppy, i mean. on richer ground, it would have gushed into flaunting breadth of untenable purple--flapped its inconsistent scarlet vaguely to the wind--dropped the pride of its petals over my hand in an hour after i gathered it. but this little rough-bred thing, a campagna pony of a poppy, is as bright and strong to-day as yesterday. so that i can see exactly where the leaves join or lap over each other; and when i look down into the cup, find it to be composed of four leaves altogether,--two smaller, set within two larger. { } [illustration: fig. .] . thus far (and somewhat farther) i had written in rome; but now, putting my work together in oxford, a sudden doubt troubles me, whether all poppies have two petals smaller than the other two. whereupon i take down an excellent little school-book on botany--the best i've yet found, thinking to be told quickly; and i find a great deal about opium; and, apropos of opium, that the juice of common celandine is of a bright orange colour; and i pause for a bewildered five minutes, wondering if a celandine is a poppy, and how many petals _it_ has: going on again--because i must, without making up my mind, on either question--i am told to "observe the floral receptacle of the californian genus eschscholtzia." now i can't observe anything of the sort, and i don't want to; and i wish california and all that's in it were at the deepest bottom of the pacific. next i am told to compare the poppy and waterlily; and i can't do that, neither--though i should like to; and there's the end of the article; and it never tells me whether one pair of petals is always smaller than the other, or not. only i see it says the corolla has four petals. perhaps a celandine may be a double poppy, and have eight, i know they're tiresome irregular things, and i mustn't be stopped by them;[ ]--at { } any rate, my roman poppy knew what it was about, and had its two couples of leaves in clear subordination, of which at the time i went on to inquire farther, as follows. . the next point is, what shape are the petals of? and that is easier asked than answered; for when you pull them off, you find they won't lie flat, by any means, but are each of them cups, or rather shells, themselves; and that it requires as much conchology as would describe a cockle, before you can properly give account of a single poppy leaf. or of a single _any_ leaf--for all leaves are either shells, or boats, (or solid, if not hollow, masses,) and cannot be represented in flat outline. but, laying these as flat as they will lie on a sheet of paper, you will find the piece they hide of the paper they lie on can be drawn; giving approximately the shape of the outer leaf as at a, that of the inner as at b, fig. ; which you will find very difficult lines to draw, for they are each composed of two curves, joined, as in fig. ; all above the line _a b_ being the outer edge of the leaf, but joined so subtly to the side that the least break in drawing the line spoils the form. . now every flower petal consists essentially of these two parts, variously proportioned and outlined. it { } expands from c to _a b_; and closes in the external line, and for this reason. [illustration: fig. .] considering every flower under the type of a cup, the first part of the petal is that in which it expands from the bottom to the rim; the second part, that in which it terminates itself on reaching the rim. thus let the three circles, a b c, fig ., represent the undivided cups of the three great geometrical orders of flowers--trefoil, quatrefoil and cinquefoil. [illustration: fig. .] draw in the first an equilateral triangle, in the second a square, in the third a pentagon; draw the dark lines from centres to angles; (d e f): then (_a_) the third part of d; (_b_) the fourth part of e, (_c_) the fifth part of f, are the normal outline forms of the petals of the three { } families; the relations between the developing angle and limiting curve being varied according to the depth of cup, and the degree of connection between the petals. thus a rose folds them over one another, in the bud; a convolvulus twists them,--the one expanding into a flat cinquefoil of separate petals, and the other into a deep-welled cinquefoil of connected ones. i find an excellent illustration in veronica polita, one of the most perfectly graceful of field plants because of the light alternate flower stalks, each with its leaf at the base; the flower itself a quatrefoil, of which the largest and least petals are uppermost. pull one off its calyx (draw, if you can, the outline of the striped blue upper petal with the jagged edge of pale gold below), and then examine the relative shapes of the lateral, and least upper { } petal. their under surface is very curious, as if covered with white paint; the blue stripes above, in the direction of their growth, deepening the more delicate colour with exquisite insistence. a lilac blossom will give you a pretty example of the expansion of the petals of a quatrefoil above the edge of the cup or tube; but i must get back to our poppy at present. . what outline its petals really have, however, is little shown in their crumpled fluttering; but that very crumpling arises from a fine floral character which we do not enough value in them. we usually think of the poppy as a coarse flower; but it is the most transparent and delicate of all the blossoms of the field. the rest--nearly all of them--depend on the _texture_ of their surfaces for colour. but the poppy is painted _glass_; it never glows so brightly as when the sun shines through it. wherever it is seen--against the light or with the light--always, it is a flame, and warms the wind like a blown ruby. in these two qualities, the accurately balanced form, and the perfectly infused colour of the petals, you have, as i said, the central being of the flower. all the other parts of it are necessary, but we must follow them out in order. . looking down into the cup, you see the green boss divided by a black star,--of six rays only,--and surrounded by a few black spots. my rough-nurtured poppy contents itself with these for its centre; a rich one would have had the green boss divided by a dozen of rays, and surrounded by a dark crowd of crested threads. { } this green boss is called by botanists the pistil, which word consists of the two first syllables of the latin pistillum, otherwise more familiarly englished into 'pestle.' the meaning of the botanical word is of course, also, that the central part of a flower-cup has to it something of the relations that a pestle has to a mortar! practically, however, as this pestle has no pounding functions, i think the word is misleading as well as ungraceful; and that we may find a better one after looking a little closer into the matter. for this pestle is divided generally into three very distinct parts: there is a storehouse at the bottom of it for the seeds of the plant; above this, a shaft, often of considerable length in deep cups, rising to the level of their upper edge, or above it; and at the top of these shafts an expanded crest. this shaft the botanists call 'style,' from the greek word for a pillar; and the crest of it--i do not know why--stigma, from the greek word for 'spot.' the storehouse for the seeds they call the 'ovary,' from the latin ovum, an egg. so you have two-thirds of a latin word, (pistil)--awkwardly and disagreeably edged in between pestle and pistol--for the whole thing; you have an english-latin word (ovary) for the bottom of it; an english-greek word (style) for the middle; and a pure greek word (stigma) for the top. . this is a great mess of language, and all the worse that the words style and stigma have both of them quite different senses in ordinary and scholarly english from this forced botanical one. and i will venture therefore, { } for my own pupils, to put the four names altogether into english. instead of calling the whole thing a pistil, i shall simply call it the pillar. instead of 'ovary,' i shall say 'treasury' (for a seed isn't an egg, but it _is_ a treasure). the style i shall call the 'shaft,' and the stigma the 'volute.' so you will have your entire pillar divided into the treasury, at its base, the shaft, and the volute; and i think you will find these divisions easily remembered, and not unfitted to the sense of the words in their ordinary use. . round this central, but, in the poppy, very stumpy, pillar, you find a cluster of dark threads, with dusty pendants or cups at their ends. for these the botanists' name 'stamens,' may be conveniently retained, each consisting of a 'filament,' or thread, and an 'anther,' or blossoming part. and in this rich corolla, and pillar, or pillars, with their treasuries, and surrounding crowd of stamens, the essential flower consists. fewer than these several parts, it cannot have, to be a flower at all; of these, the corolla leads, and is the object of final purpose. the stamens and the treasuries are only there in order to produce future corollas, though often themselves decorative in the highest degree. these, i repeat, are all the essential parts of a flower. but it would have been difficult, with any other than the poppy, to have shown you them alone; for nearly all other flowers keep with them, all their lives, their nurse { } or tutor leaves,--the group which, in stronger and humbler temper, protected them in their first weakness, and formed them to the first laws of their being. but the poppy casts these tutorial leaves away. it is the finished picture of impatient and luxury-loving youth,--at first too severely restrained, then casting all restraint away,--yet retaining to the end of life unseemly and illiberal signs of its once compelled submission to laws which were only pain,--not instruction. . gather a green poppy bud, just when it shows the scarlet line at its side; break it open and unpack the poppy. the whole flower is there complete in size and colour,--its stamens full-grown, but all packed so closely that the fine silk of the petals is crushed into a million of shapeless wrinkles. when the flower opens, it seems a deliverance from torture: the two imprisoning green leaves are shaken to the ground; the aggrieved corolla smooths itself in the sun, and comforts itself as it can; but remains visibly crushed and hurt to the end of its days. [illustration: fig. .] . not so flowers of gracious breeding. look at these four stages in the young life of a primrose, fig. . first confined, as strictly as the poppy within five pinching green leaves, whose points close over it, the little thing is content to remain a child, and finds its nursery large enough. the green leaves unclose their points,--the little yellow ones peep out, like ducklings. they find the light delicious, and open wide to it; and grow, and grow, { } and throw themselves wider at last into their perfect rose. but they never leave their old nursery for all that; it and they live on together; and the nursery seems a part of the flower. . which is so, indeed, in all the loveliest flowers; and, in usual botanical parlance, a flower is said to consist of its calyx, (or _hiding_ part--calypso having rule over it,) and corolla, or garland part, proserpina having rule over it. but it is better to think of them always as separate; for this calyx, very justly so named from its main function of concealing the flower, in its youth is usually green, not coloured, and shows its separate nature by pausing, or at least greatly lingering, in its growth, and modifying itself very slightly, while the corolla is forming { } itself through active change. look at the two, for instance, through the youth of a pease blossom, fig. . [illustration: fig. .] the entire cluster at first appears pendent in this manner, the stalk bending round on purpose to put it into that position. on which all the little buds, thinking themselves ill-treated, determine not to submit to anything of the sort, turn their points upward persistently, and determine that--at any cost of trouble--they will get nearer the sun. then they begin to open, and let out their corollas. i give the process of one only (fig. ).[ ] it chances to be engraved the reverse way from the bud; but that is of no consequence. [illustration: fig. .] at first, you see the long lower point of the calyx thought that _it_ was going to be the head of the family, and curls upwards eagerly. then the little corolla steals out; and soon does away with that impression on the mind of the calyx. the corolla soars up with widening wings, the abashed calyx retreats beneath; and finally the great upper leaf of corolla--not pleased at having its back still { } turned to the light, and its face down--throws itself entirely back, to look at the sky, and nothing else;--and your blossom is complete. keeping, therefore, the ideas of calyx and corolla entirely distinct, this one general point you may note of both: that, as a calyx is originally folded tight over the flower, and has to open deeply to let it out, it is nearly always composed of sharp pointed leaves like the segments of a balloon; while corollas, having to open out as wide as possible to show themselves, are typically like cups or plates, only cut into their edges here and there, for ornamentation's sake. . and, finally, though the corolla is essentially the floral group of leaves, and usually receives the glory of colour for itself only, this glory and delight may be given to any other part of the group; and, as if to show us that there is no really dishonoured or degraded membership, the stalks and leaves in some plants, near the blossom, flush in sympathy with it, and become themselves a part of the { } effectively visible flower;--eryngo--jura hyacinth, (comosus,) and the edges of upper stems and leaves in many plants; while others, (geranium lucidum,) are made to delight us with their leaves rather than their blossoms; only i suppose, in these, the scarlet leaf colour is a kind of early autumnal glow,--a beautiful hectic, and foretaste, in sacred youth, of sacred death. i observe, among the speculations of modern science, several, lately, not uningenious, and highly industrious, on the subject of the relation of colour in flowers, to insects--to selective development, etc., etc. there _are_ such relations, of course. so also, the blush of a girl, when she first perceives the faltering in her lover's step as he draws near, is related essentially to the existing state of her stomach; and to the state of it through all the years of her previous existence. nevertheless, neither love, chastity, nor blushing, are merely exponents of digestion. all these materialisms, in their unclean stupidity, are essentially the work of human bats; men of semi-faculty or semi-education, who are more or less incapable of so much as seeing, much less thinking about, colour; among whom, for one-sided intensity, even mr. darwin must be often ranked, as in his vespertilian treatise on the ocelli of the argus pheasant, which he imagines to be artistically gradated, and perfectly imitative of a ball and socket. if i had him here in oxford for a week, and could force him to try to copy a feather by bewick, or to draw for himself a boy's thumbed marble, his notions of feathers, and balls, { } would be changed for all the rest of his life. but his ignorance of good art is no excuse for the acutely illogical simplicity of the rest of his talk of colour in the "descent of man." peacocks' tails, he thinks, are the result of the admiration of blue tails in the minds of well-bred peahens,--and similarly, mandrills' noses the result of the admiration of blue noses in well-bred baboons. but it never occurs to him to ask why the admiration of blue noses is healthy in baboons, so that it develops their race properly, while similar maidenly admiration either of blue noses or red noses in men would be improper, and develop the race improperly. the word itself 'proper' being one of which he has never asked, or guessed, the meaning. and when he imagined the gradation of the cloudings in feathers to represent successive generation, it never occurred to him to look at the much finer cloudy gradations in the clouds of dawn themselves; and explain the modes of sexual preference and selective development which had brought _them_ to their scarlet glory, before the cock could crow thrice. putting all these vespertilian speculations out of our way, the human facts concerning colour are briefly these. wherever men are noble, they love bright colour; and wherever they can live healthily, bright colour is given them--in sky, sea, flowers, and living creatures. on the other hand, wherever men are ignoble and sensual, they endure without pain, and at last even come to like (especially if artists,) mud-colour and black, and to dislike rose-colour and white. and wherever it is unhealthy for { } them to live, the poisonousness of the place is marked by some ghastly colour in air, earth, or flowers. there are, of course, exceptions to all such widely founded laws; there are poisonous berries of scarlet, and pestilent skies that are fair. but, if we once honestly compare a venomous wood-fungus, rotting into black dissolution of dripped slime at its edges, with a spring gentian; or a puff adder with a salmon trout, or a fog in bermondsey with a clear sky at berne, we shall get hold of the entire question on its right side; and be able afterwards to study at our leisure, or accept without doubt or trouble, facts of apparently contrary meaning. and the practical lesson which i wish to leave with the reader is, that lovely flowers, and green trees growing in the open air, are the proper guides of men to the places which their maker intended them to inhabit; while the flowerless and treeless deserts--of reed, or sand, or rock,--are meant to be either heroically invaded and redeemed, or surrendered to the wild creatures which are appointed for them; happy and wonderful in their wild abodes. nor is the world so small but that we may yet leave in it also unconquered spaces of beautiful solitude; where the chamois and red deer may wander fearless,--nor any fire of avarice scorch from the highlands of alp, or grampian, the rapture of the heath, and the rose. * * * * * { } chapter v. papaver rhoeas. brantwood, _july th, _. . chancing to take up yesterday a favourite old book, mavor's british tourists, (london, ,) i found in its fourth volume a delightful diary of a journey made in through various parts of england, by charles p. moritz of berlin. and in the fourteenth page of this diary i find the following passage, pleasantly complimentary to england:-- "the slices of bread and butter which they give you with your tea are as thin as poppy leaves. but there is another kind of bread and butter usually eaten with tea, which is toasted by the fire, and is incomparably good. this is called 'toast.'" i wonder how many people, nowadays, whose bread and butter was cut too thin for them, would think of comparing the slices to poppy leaves? but this was in the old days of travelling, when people did not whirl themselves past corn-fields, that they might have more time to walk on paving-stones; and understood that { } poppies did not mingle their scarlet among the gold, without some purpose of the poppy-maker that they should be looked at. nevertheless, with respect to the good and polite german's poetically-contemplated, and finely æsthetic, tea, may it not be asked whether poppy leaves themselves, like the bread and butter, are not, if we may venture an opinion--_too_ thin,--im-_properly_ thin? in the last chapter, my reader was, i hope, a little anxious to know what i meant by saying that modern philosophers did not know the meaning of the word 'proper,' and may wish to know what i mean by it myself. and this i think it needful to explain before going farther. . in our english prayer-book translation, the first verse of the ninety-third psalm runs thus: "the lord is king; and hath put on glorious apparel." and although, in the future republican world, there are to be no lords, no kings, and no glorious apparel, it will be found convenient, for botanical purposes, to remember what such things once were; for when i said of the poppy, in last chapter, that it was "robed in the purple of the cæsars," the words gave, to any one who had a clear idea of a cæsar, and of his dress, a better, and even _stricter_, account of the flower than if i had only said, with mr. sowerby, "petals bright scarlet;" which might just as well have been said of a pimpernel, or scarlet geranium;--but of neither of these latter should i have said "robed in purple of cæsars." what i meant was, first, that the poppy leaf { } looks dyed through and through, like glass, or tyrian tissue; and not merely painted: secondly, that the splendour of it is proud,--almost insolently so. augustus, in his glory, might have been clothed like one of these; and saul; but not david, nor solomon; still less the teacher of solomon, when he puts on 'glorious apparel.' . let us look, however, at the two translations of the same verse. in the vulgate it is "dominus regnavit; decorem indutus est;" he has put on 'becomingness,'--decent apparel, rather than glorious. in the septuagint it is [greek: euprepeia]--_well_-becomingness; an expression which, if the reader considers, must imply certainly the existence of an opposite idea of possible '_ill_-becomingness,'--of an apparel which should, in just as accurate a sense, belong appropriately to the creature invested with it, and yet not be glorious, but inglorious, and not well-becoming, but ill-becoming. the mandrill's blue nose, for instance, already referred to,--can we rightly speak of this as '[greek: euprepeia]'? or the stings, and minute, colourless blossoming of the nettle? may we call these a glorious apparel, as we may the glowing of an alpine rose? you will find on reflection, and find more convincingly the more accurately you reflect, that there is an absolute sense attached to such words as 'decent,' 'honourable,' 'glorious,' or '[greek: kalos],' contrary to another absolute sense in the words 'indecent,' 'shameful,' 'vile,' or '[greek: aischros].' { } and that there is every degree of these absolute qualities visible in living creatures; and that the divinity of the mind of man is in its essential discernment of what is [greek: kalon] from what is [greek: aischron], and in his preference of the kind of creatures which are decent, to those which are indecent; and of the kinds of thoughts, in himself, which are noble, to those which are vile. . when therefore i said that mr. darwin, and his school,[ ] had no conception of the real meaning of the word 'proper,' i meant that they conceived the qualities of things only as their 'properties,' but not as their becomingnesses;' and seeing that dirt is proper to a swine, malice to a monkey, poison to a nettle, and folly to a fool, they called a nettle _but_ a nettle, and the faults of fools but folly; and never saw the difference between ugliness and beauty absolute, decency and indecency absolute, glory or shame absolute, and folly or sense absolute. [illustration: fig. .] whereas, the perception of beauty, and the power of defining physical character, are based on moral instinct, and on the power of defining animal or human character. nor is it possible to say that one flower is more highly developed, or one animal of a higher order, than another, without the assumption of a divine law of perfection to which the one more conforms than the other. . thus, for instance. that it should ever have been an open question with me whether a poppy had always { } two of its petals less than the other two, depended wholly on the hurry and imperfection with which the poppy carries out its plan. it never would have occurred to me to { } doubt whether an iris had three of its leaves smaller than the other three, because an iris always completes itself to its own ideal. nevertheless, on examining various poppies, as i have walked, this summer, up and down the hills between sheffield and wakefield, i find the subordination of the upper and lower petals entirely necessary and normal; and that the result of it is to give two distinct profiles to the poppy cup, the difference between which, however, we shall see better in the yellow welsh poppy, at present called meconopsis cambrica; but which, in the oxford schools, will be 'papaver cruciforme'--'crosslet poppy,'--first, because all our botanical names must be in latin if possible; greek only allowed when we can do no better; secondly, because meconopsis is barbarous greek; thirdly, and chiefly, because it is little matter whether this poppy be welsh or english; but very needful that we should observe, wherever it grows, that the petals are arranged in what used to be, in my young days, called a diamond shape,[ ] as at a, fig. , the two narrow inner ones at right angles to, and projecting farther than, the two outside broad ones; and that the two broad ones, when the flower is seen in profile, as at b, show their margins folded back, as indicated by the thicker lines, and have a profile curve, which is only the softening, or melting away into each other, of two straight lines. indeed, when the flower is younger, and quite strong, both its { } profiles, a and b, fig. , are nearly straight-sided; and always, be it young or old, one broader than the other, so as to give the flower, seen from above, the shape of a contracted cross, or crosslet. [illustration: fig. .] . now i find no notice of this flower in gerarde; and in sowerby, out of eighteen lines of closely printed descriptive text, no notice of its crosslet form, while the petals are only stated to be "roundish-concave," terms equally applicable to at least one-half of all flower petals in the { } world. the leaves are _said_ to be very deeply pinnately partite; but _drawn_--as neither pinnate nor partite! [illustration: fig. .] and this is your modern cheap science, in ten volumes. now i haven't a quiet moment to spare for drawing this morning; but i merely give the main relations of the petals, a, and blot in the wrinkles of one of the lower ones, b, fig. ; and yet in this rude sketch you will feel, i believe, there is something specific which could not belong to any other flower. but all proper description is { } impossible without careful profiles of each petal laterally and across it. which i may not find time to draw for any poppy whatever, because they none of them have well-becomingness enough to make it worth my while, being all more or less weedy, and ungracious, and mingled of good and evil. whereupon rises before me, ghostly and untenable, the general question, 'what is a weed?' and, impatient for answer, the particular question, what is a poppy? i choose, for instance, to call this yellow flower a poppy, instead of a "likeness to poppy," which the botanists meant to call it, in their bad greek. i choose also to call a poppy, what the botanists have called "glaucous thing," (glaucium). but where and when shall i stop calling things poppies? this is certainly a question to be settled at once, with others appertaining to it. . in the first place, then, i mean to call every flower either one thing or another, and not an 'aceous' thing, only half something or half another. i mean to call this plant now in my hand, either a poppy or not a poppy; but not poppaceous. and this other, either a thistle or not a thistle; but not thistlaceous. and this other, either a nettle or not a nettle; but not nettlaceous. i know it will be very difficult to carry out this principle when tribes of plants are much extended and varied in type: i shall persist in it, however, as far as possible; and when plants change so much that one cannot with any conscience call them by their family name any more, i shall put them aside somewhere among families of poor relations, not { } to be minded for the present, until we are well acquainted with the better bred circles; i don't know, for instance, whether i shall call the burnet 'grass-rose,' or put it out of court for having no petals; but it certainly shall not be called rosaceous; and my first point will be to make sure of my pupils having a clear idea of the central and unquestionable forms of thistle, grass, or rose, and assigning to them pure latin, and pretty english, names,--classical, if possible; and at least intelligible and decorous. . i return to our present special question, then, what is a poppy? and return also to a book i gave away long ago, and have just begged back again, dr. lindley's 'ladies' botany.' for without at all looking upon ladies as inferior beings, i dimly hope that what dr. lindley considers likely to be intelligible to _them_, may be also clear to their very humble servant. the poppies, i find, (page , vol. i.) differ from crowfeet in being of a stupifying instead of a burning nature, and in generally having two sepals and twice two petals; "but as some poppies have three sepals, and twice three petals, the number of these parts is not sufficiently constant to form an essential mark." yes, i know that, for i found a superb six-petaled poppy, spotted like a cistus, the other day in a friend's garden. but then, what makes it a poppy still? that it is of a stupifying nature, and itself so stupid that it does not know how many petals it should have, is surely not enough distinction? . returning to lindley, and working the matter { } farther out with his help, i think this definition might stand. "a poppy is a flower which has either four or six petals, and two or more treasuries, united into one; containing a milky, stupifying fluid in its stalks and leaves, and always throwing away its calyx when it blossoms." and indeed, every flower which unites all these characters, we shall, in the oxford schools, call 'poppy,' and 'papaver;' but when i get fairly into work, i hope to fix my definitions into more strict terms. for i wish all my pupils to form the habit of asking, of every plant, these following four questions, in order, corresponding to the subject of these opening chapters, namely, "what root has it? what leaf? what flower? and what stem?" and, in this definition of poppies, nothing whatever is said about the root; and not only i don't know myself what a poppy root is like, but in all sowerby's poppy section, i find no word whatever about that matter. . leaving, however, for the present, the root unthought of, and contenting myself with dr. lindley's characteristics, i shall place, at the head of the whole group, our common european wild poppy, papaver rhoeas, and, with this, arrange the nine following other flowers thus,--opposite. i must be content at present with determining the latin names for the oxford schools; the english ones i shall give as they chance to occur to me, in gerarde and the classical poets who wrote before the english revolution. when no satisfactory name is to be found, i must try to invent one; as, for instance, just now, i don't like gerarde's 'corn-rose' for papaver rhoeas, and must coin another; but this can't be done by thinking; it will come into my head some day, by chance. i might try at it straightforwardly for a week together, and not do it. { } name in oxford catalogue. dioscorides. in present botany. . papaver rhoeas [greek: mêkôn rhoias] papaver rhoeas . p. hortense [greek: m. kêpeutê][ ] p. hortense . p. elatum [greek: m. thulakitis][ ] p. lamottei . p. argemone p. argemone . p. echinosum p. hybridum . p. violaceum roemeria hybrida . p. cruciforme meconopsis cambrica . p. corniculatum [greek: m. keratitis] glaucium corniculatum . p. littorale [greek: m. paralios] glaucium luteum . p. chelidonium chelidonium majus { } the latin names must be fixed at once, somehow; and therefore i do the best i can, keeping as much respect for the old nomenclature as possible, though this involves the illogical practice of giving the epithet sometimes from the flower, (violaceum, cruciforme), and sometimes from the seed vessel, (elatum, echinosum, corniculatum). guarding this distinction, however, we may perhaps be content to call the six last of the group, in english, urchin poppy, violet poppy, crosslet poppy, horned poppy, beach poppy, and welcome poppy. i don't think the last flower pretty enough to be connected more directly with the swallow, in its english name. . i shall be well content if my pupils know these ten poppies rightly; all of them at present wild in our own country, and, i believe, also european in range: the head and type of all being the common wild poppy of our cornfields for which the name 'papaver rhoeas,' given it by dioscorides, gerarde, and linnæus, is entirely authoritative, and we will therefore at once examine the meaning, and reason, of that name. . dioscorides says the name belongs to it "[greek: dia to tacheôs to anthos apoballein]," "because it casts off its bloom { } quickly," from [greek: rheô,] (rheo) in the sense of shedding.[ ] and this indeed it does,--first calyx, then corolla;--you may translate it 'swiftly ruinous' poppy, but notice, in connection with this idea, how it droops its head _before_ blooming; an action which, i doubt not, mingled in homer's thought with the image of its depression when filled by rain, in the passage of the iliad, which, as i have relieved your memory of three unnecessary names of poppy families, you have memory to spare for learning. "[greek: mêkôn d' hôs heterôse karê balen, hêt' eni kêpôi] [greek: karpôi brithomenê, notiêisi te eiarinêisin] [greek: hôs heterôs' êmuse karê pêlêki barunthen.]" "and as a poppy lets its head fall aside, which in a garden is loaded with its fruit, and with the soft rains of spring, so the youth drooped his head on one side; burdened with the helmet." and now you shall compare the translations of this passage, with its context, by chapman and pope--(or the school of pope), the one being by a man of pure english temper, and able therefore to understand pure greek temper; the other infected with all the faults of the falsely classical school of the renaissance. first i take chapman:-- "his shaft smit fair gorgythion of priam's princely race who in Æpina was brought forth, a famous town in thrace, { } by castianeira, that for form was like celestial breed. and as a crimson poppy-flower, surcharged with his seed, and vernal humours falling thick, declines his heavy brow, so, a-oneside, his helmet's weight his fainting head did bow." next, pope:-- "he missed the mark; but pierced gorgythio's heart, and drenched in royal blood the thirsty dart: (fair castianeira, nymph of form divine, this offspring added to king priam's line). as full-blown poppies, overcharged with rain, decline the head, and drooping kiss the plain, so sinks the youth: his beauteous head, depressed beneath his helmet, drops upon his breast." . i give you the two passages in full, trusting that you may so feel the becomingness of the one, and the gracelessness of the other. but note farther, in the homeric passage, one subtlety which cannot enough be marked even in chapman's english, that his second word, [greek: êmuse], is employed by him both of the stooping of ears of corn, under wind, and of troy stooping to its ruin;[ ] and otherwise, in good greek writers, the word is marked as having such specific sense of men's drooping under weight; or towards death, under the burden of fortune which they have no more strength to sustain;[ ] compare the passage { } i quoted from plato, ('crown of wild olive,' p. ): "and bore lightly the burden of gold and of possessions." { } and thus you will begin to understand how the poppy became in the heathen mind the type at once of power, or pride, and of its loss; and therefore, both why virgil represents the white nymph nais, "pallentes violas, et summa papavera carpens,"--gathering the pale flags, and the highest poppies,--and the reason for the choice of this rather than any other flower, in the story of tarquin's message to his son. . but you are next to remember the word rhoeas in another sense. whether originally intended or afterwards caught at, the resemblance of the word to 'rhoea,' a pomegranate, mentally connects itself with the resemblance of the poppy head to the pomegranate fruit. and if i allow this flower to be the first we take up for careful study in proserpina, on account of its simplicity of form and splendour of colour, i wish you also to remember, in connection with it, the cause of proserpine's eternal captivity--her having tasted a pomegranate seed,--the pomegranate being in greek mythology what the apple is in the mosaic legend; and, in the whole { } worship of demeter, associated with the poppy by a multitude of ideas which are not definitely expressed, but can only be gathered out of greek art and literature, as we learn their symbolism. the chief character on which these thoughts are founded is the fulness of seed in the poppy and pomegranate, as an image of life: then the forms of both became adopted for beads or bosses in ornamental art; the pomegranate remains more distinctly a jewish and christian type, from its use in the border of aaron's robe, down to the fruit in the hand of angelico's and botticelli's infant christs; while the poppy is gradually confused by the byzantine greeks with grapes; and both of these with palm fruit. the palm, in the shorthand of their art, gradually becomes a symmetrical branched ornament with two pendent bosses; this is again confused with the greek iris, (homer's blue iris, and pindar's water-flag,)--and the florentines, in adopting byzantine ornament, read it into their own fleur-de-lys; but insert two poppyheads on each side of the entire foil, in their finest heraldry. . meantime the definitely intended poppy, in late christian greek art of the twelfth century, modifies the form of the acanthus leaf with its own, until the northern twelfth century workman takes the thistle-head for the poppy, and the thistle-leaf for acanthus. the true poppy-head remains in the south, but gets more and more confused with grapes, till the renaissance carvers are content with any kind of boss full of seed, but insist on such boss { } or bursting globe as some essential part of their ornament;--the bean-pod for the same reason (not without pythagorean notions, and some of republican election) is used by brunelleschi for main decoration of the lantern of florence duomo; and, finally, the ornamentation gets so shapeless, that m. violet-le-duc, in his 'dictionary of ornament,' loses trace of its origin altogether, and fancies the later forms were derived from the spadix of the arum. . i have no time to enter into farther details; but through all this vast range of art, note this singular fact, that the wheat-ear, the vine, the fleur-de-lys, the poppy, and the jagged leaf of the acanthus-weed, or thistle, occupy the entire thoughts of the decorative workmen trained in classic schools, to the exclusion of the rose, true lily, and the other flowers of luxury. and that the deeply underlying reason of this is in the relation of weeds to corn, or of the adverse powers of nature to the beneficent ones, expressed for us readers of the jewish scriptures, centrally in the verse, "thorns also, and thistles, shall it bring forth to thee; and thou shalt eat the herb of the field" ([greek: chortos], grass or corn), and exquisitely symbolized throughout the fields of europe by the presence of the purple 'corn-flag,' or gladiolus, and 'corn-rose' (gerarde's name for papaver rhoeas), in the midst of carelessly tended corn; and in the traditions of the art of europe by the springing of the acanthus round the basket of the canephora, strictly the basket _for bread_, the idea of bread { } including all sacred things carried at the feasts of demeter, bacchus, and the queen of the air. and this springing of the thorny weeds round the basket of reed, distinctly taken up by the byzantine italians in the basketwork capital of the twelfth century, (which i have already illustrated at length in the 'stones of venice,') becomes the germ of all capitals whatsoever, in the great schools of gothic, to the end of gothic time, and also of all the capitals of the pure and noble renaissance architecture of angelico and perugino, and all that was learned from them in the north, while the introduction of the rose, as a primal element of decoration, only takes place when the luxury of english decorated gothic, the result of that licentious spirit in the lords which brought on the wars of the roses, indicates the approach of destruction to the feudal, artistic, and moral power of the northern nations. for which reason, and many others, i must yet delay the following out of our main subject, till i have answered the other question, which brought me to pause in the middle of this chapter, namely, 'what is a weed?' * * * * * { } chapter vi. the parable of joash. . some ten or twelve years ago, i bought--three times twelve are thirty-six--of a delightful little book by mrs. gatty, called 'aunt judy's tales'--whereof to make presents to my little lady friends. i had, at that happy time, perhaps from four-and-twenty to six-and-thirty--i forget exactly how many--very particular little lady friends; and greatly wished aunt judy to be the thirty-seventh,--the kindest, wittiest, prettiest girl one had ever read of, at least in so entirely proper and orthodox literature. . not but that it is a suspicious sign of infirmity of faith in our modern moralists to make their exemplary young people always pretty; and dress them always in the height of the fashion. one may read miss edgeworth's 'harry and lucy,' 'frank and mary,' 'fashionable tales,' or 'parents' assistant,' through, from end to end, with extremest care; and never find out whether lucy was tall or short, nor whether mary was dark or fair, nor how miss annaly was dressed, nor--which was my own chief point of interest--what was the colour of { } rosamond's eyes. whereas aunt judy, in charming position after position, is shown to have expressed all her pure evangelical principles with the prettiest of lips; and to have had her gown, though puritanically plain, made by one of the best modistes in london. . nevertheless, the book is wholesome and useful; and the nicest story in it, as far as i recollect, is an inquiry into the subject which is our present business, 'what is a weed?'--in which, by many pleasant devices, aunt judy leads her little brothers and sisters to discern that a weed is 'a plant in the wrong place.' 'vegetable' in the wrong place, by the way, i think aunt judy says, being a precisely scientific little aunt. but i can't keep it out of my own less scientific head that 'vegetable' means only something going to be boiled. i like 'plant' better for general sense, besides that it's shorter. whatever we call them, aunt judy is perfectly right about them as far as she has gone; but, as happens often even to the best of evangelical instructresses, she has stopped just short of the gist of the whole matter. it is entirely true that a weed is a plant that has got into a wrong place; but it never seems to have occurred to aunt judy that some plants never _do_! who ever saw a wood anemone or a heath blossom in the wrong place? who ever saw nettle or hemlock in a right one? and yet, the difference between flower and weed, (i use, for convenience sake, these words in their { } familiar opposition,) certainly does not consist merely in the flowers being innocent, and the weed stinging and venomous. we do not call the nightshade a weed in our hedges, nor the scarlet agaric in our woods. but we do the corncockle in our fields. . had the thoughtful little tutoress gone but one thought farther, and instead of "a vegetable in a wrong place," (which it may happen to the innocentest vegetable sometimes to be, without turning into a weed, therefore,) said, "a vegetable which has an innate disposition to _get_ into the wrong place," she would have greatly furthered the matter for us; but then she perhaps would have felt herself to be uncharitably dividing with vegetables her own little evangelical property of original sin. . this, you will find, nevertheless, to be the very essence of weed character--in plants, as in men. if you glance through your botanical books, you will see often added certain names--'a troublesome weed.' it is not its being venomous, or ugly, but its being impertinent--thrusting itself where it has no business, and hinders other people's business--that makes a weed of it. the most accursed of all vegetables, the one that has destroyed for the present even the possibility of european civilization, is only called a weed in the slang of its votaries;[ ] but in the finest and truest english we call so the plant which { } has come to us by chance from the same country, the type of mere senseless prolific activity, the american water-plant, choking our streams till the very fish that leap out of them cannot fall back, but die on the clogged surface; and indeed, for this unrestrainable, unconquerable insolence of uselessness, what name can be enough dishonourable? . i pass to vegetation of nobler rank. you remember, i was obliged in the last chapter to leave my poppy, for the present, without an english specific name, because i don't like gerarde's 'corn-rose,' and can't yet think of another. nevertheless, i would have used gerarde's name, if the corn-rose were as much a rose as the corn-flag is a flag. but it isn't. the rose and lily have quite different relations to the corn. the lily is grass in loveliness, as the corn is grass in use; and both grow together in peace--gladiolus in the wheat, and narcissus in the pasture. but the rose is of another and higher order than the corn, and you never saw a cornfield overrun with sweetbriar or apple-blossom. they have no mind, they, to get into the wrong place. what is it, then, this temper in some plants--malicious as it seems--intrusive, at all events, or erring,--which brings them out of their places--thrusts them where they thwart us and offend? . primarily, it is mere hardihood and coarseness of make. a plant that can live anywhere, will often live where it is not wanted. but the delicate and tender ones { } keep at home. you have no trouble in 'keeping down' the spring gentian. it rejoices in its own alpine home, and makes the earth as like heaven as it can, but yields as softly as the air, if you want it to give place. here in england, it will only grow on the loneliest moors, above the high force of tees; its latin name, for _us_ (i may as well tell you at once) is to be 'lucia verna;' and its english one, lucy of teesdale. . but a plant may be hardy, and coarse of make, and able to live anywhere, and yet be no weed. the coltsfoot, so far as i know, is the first of large-leaved plants to grow afresh on ground that has been disturbed: fall of alpine débris, ruin of railroad embankment, waste of drifted slime by flood, it seeks to heal and redeem; but it does not offend us in our gardens, nor impoverish us in our fields. nevertheless, mere coarseness of structure, indiscriminate hardihood, is at least a point of some unworthiness in a plant. that it should have no choice of home, no love of native land, is ungentle; much more if such discrimination as it has, be immodest, and incline it, seemingly, to open and much-traversed places, where it may be continually seen of strangers. the tormentilla gleams in showers along the mountain turf; her delicate crosslets are separate, though constellate, as the rubied daisy. but the king-cup--(blessing be upon it always no less)--crowds itself sometimes into too burnished flame of inevitable gold. i don't know if there was anything in the { } darkness of this last spring to make it brighter in resistance; but i never saw any spaces of full warm yellow, in natural colour, so intense as the meadows between reading and the thames; nor did i know perfectly what purple and gold meant, till i saw a field of park land embroidered a foot deep with king-cup and clover--while i was correcting my last notes on the spring colours of the royal academy--at aylesbury. . and there are two other questions of extreme subtlety connected with this main one. what shall we say of the plants whose entire destiny is parasitic--which are not only sometimes, and _im_pertinently, but always, and pertinently, out of place; not only out of the right place, but out of any place of their own? when is mistletoe, for instance, in the right place, young ladies, think you? on an apple tree, or on a ceiling? when is ivy in the right place?--when wallflower? the ivy has been torn down from the towers of kenilworth; the weeds from the arches of the coliseum, and from the steps of the araceli, irreverently, vilely, and in vain; but how are we to separate the creatures whose office it is to abate the grief of ruin by their gentleness, "wafting wallflower scents from out the crumbling ruins of fallen pride, and chambers of transgression, now forlorn," from those which truly resist the toil of men, and conspire against their fame; which are cunning to consume, and { } prolific to encumber; and of whose perverse and unwelcome sowing we know, and can say assuredly, "an enemy hath done this." . again. the character of strength which gives prevalence over others to any common plant, is more or less consistently dependent on woody fibre in the leaves; giving them strong ribs and great expanding extent; or spinous edges, and wrinkled or gathered extent. get clearly into your mind the nature of those two conditions. when a leaf is to be spread wide, like the burdock, it is supported by a framework of extending ribs like a gothic roof. the supporting function of these is geometrical; every one is constructed like the girders of a bridge, or beams of a floor, with all manner of science in the distribution of their substance in the section, for narrow and deep strength; and the shafts are mostly hollow. but when the extending space of a leaf is to be enriched with fulness of folds, and become beautiful in wrinkles, this may be done either by pure undulation as of a liquid current along the leaf edge, or by sharp 'drawing'--or 'gathering' i believe ladies would call it--and stitching of the edges together. and this stitching together, if to be done very strongly, is done round a bit of stick, as a sail is reefed round a mast; and this bit of stick needs to be compactly, not geometrically strong; its function is essentially that of starch,--not to hold the leaf up off the ground against gravity; but to stick the edges out, stiffly, in a crimped frill. and in beautiful work of { } this kind, which we are meant to study, the stays of the leaf--or stay-bones--are finished off very sharply and exquisitely at the points; and indeed so much so, that they prick our fingers when we touch them; for they are not at all meant to be touched, but admired. . to be admired,--with qualification, indeed, always, but with extreme respect for their endurance and orderliness. among flowers that pass away, and leaves that shake as with ague, or shrink like bad cloth,--these, in their sturdy growth and enduring life, we are bound to honour; and, under the green holly, remember how much softer friendship was failing, and how much of other loving, folly. and yet--you are not to confuse the thistle with the cedar that is in lebanon; nor to forget--if the spinous nature of it become too cruel to provoke and offend--the parable of joash to amaziah, and its fulfilment: "there passed by a wild beast that was in lebanon, and trode down the thistle." . then, lastly, if this rudeness and insensitiveness of nature be gifted with no redeeming beauty; if the boss of the thistle lose its purple, and the star of the lion's tooth, its light; and, much more, if service be perverted as beauty is lost, and the honied tube, and medicinal leaf, change into mere swollen emptiness, and salt brown membrane, swayed in nerveless languor by the idle sea,--at last the separation between the two natures is as great as between the fruitful earth and fruitless ocean; and between the living hands that tend the garden of herbs where { } love is, and those unclasped, that toss with tangle and with shells. * * * * * . i had a long bit in my head, that i wanted to write, about st. george of the seaweed, but i've no time to do it; and those few words of tennyson's are enough, if one thinks of them: only i see, in correcting press, that i've partly misapplied the idea of 'gathering' in the leaf edge. it would be more accurate to say it was gathered at the central rib; but there is nothing in needlework that will represent the actual excess by lateral growth at the edge, giving three or four inches of edge for one of centre. but the stiffening of the fold by the thorn which holds it out is very like the action of a ship's spars on its sails; and absolutely in many cases like that of the spines in a fish's fin, passing into the various conditions of serpentine and dracontic crest, connected with all the terrors and adversities of nature; not to be dealt with in a chapter on weeds. . here is a sketch of a crested leaf of less adverse temper, which may as well be given, together with plate iii., in this number, these two engravings being meant for examples of two different methods of drawing, both useful according to character of subject. plate iii. is sketched first with a finely-pointed pen, and common ink, on white paper; then washed rapidly with colour, and retouched with the pen to give sharpness and completion. { } this method is used because the thistle leaves are full of complex and sharp sinuosities, and set with intensely sharp spines passing into hairs, which require many kinds of execution with the fine point to imitate at all. in the drawing there was more look of the bloom or woolliness on the stems, but it was useless to try for this in the mezzotint, and i desired mr. allen to leave his work at the stage where it expressed as much form as i wanted. the leaves are of the common marsh thistle, of which more anon; and the two long lateral ones are only two different views of the same leaf, while the central figure is a young leaf just opening. it beat me, in its delicate bossing, and i had to leave it, discontentedly enough. plate iv. is much better work, being of an easier subject, adequately enough rendered by perfectly simple means. here i had only a succulent and membranous surface to represent, with definite outlines, and merely undulating folds; and this is sufficiently done by a careful and firm pen outline on grey paper, with a slight wash of colour afterwards, reinforced in the darks; then marking the lights with white. this method is classic and authoritative, being used by many of the greatest masters, (by holbein continually;) and it is much the best which the general student can adopt for expression of the action and muscular power of plants. the goodness or badness of such work depends absolutely on the truth of the single line. you will find a thousand botanical drawings which will give you a { } delicate and deceptive resemblance of the leaf, for one that will give you the right convexity in its backbone, the right perspective of its peaks when they foreshorten, or the right relation of depth in the shading of its dimples. on which, in leaves as in faces, no little expression of temper depends. meantime we have yet to consider somewhat more touching that temper itself, in next chapter. * * * * * { } chapter vii. the parable of jotham. . i do not know if my readers were checked, as i wished them to be, at least for a moment, in the close of the last chapter, by my talking of thistles and dandelions changing into seaweed, by gradation of which, doubtless, mr. darwin can furnish us with specious and sufficient instances. but the two groups will not be contemplated in our oxford system as in any parental relations whatsoever. we shall, however, find some very notable relations existing between the two groups of the wild flowers of dry land, which represent, in the widest extent, and the distinctest opposition, the two characters of material serviceableness and unserviceableness; the groups which in our english classification will be easily remembered as those of the thyme, and the daisy. the one, scented as with incense--medicinal--and in all gentle and humble ways, useful. the other, scentless--helpless for ministry to the body; infinitely dear as the bringer of light, ruby, white and gold; the three colours of the day, with no hue of shade in it. therefore i { } take it on the coins of st. george for the symbol of the splendour or light of heaven, which is dearest where humblest. . now these great two orders--of which the types are the thyme and the daisy--you are to remember generally as the 'herbs' and the 'sunflowers.' you are not to call them lipped flowers, nor composed flowers; because the first is a vulgar term; for when you once come to be able to draw a lip, or, in noble duty, to kiss one, you will know that no other flower in earth is like that: and the second is an indefinite term; for a foxglove is as much a 'composed' flower as a daisy; but it is composed in the shape of a spire, instead of the shape of the sun. and again a thistle, which common botany calls a composed flower, as well as a daisy, is composed in quite another shape, being on the whole, bossy instead of flat; and of another temper, or composition of mind, also, being connected in that respect with butterburs, and a vast company of rough, knotty, half-black or brown, and generally unluminous--flowers i can scarcely call them--and weeds i will not,--creatures, at all events, in nowise to be gathered under the general name 'composed,' with the stars that crown chaucer's alcestis, when she returns to the day from the dead. but the wilder and stronger blossoms of the hawk's-eye--again you see i refuse for them the word weed;--and the waste-loving chicory, which the venetians call "sponsa solis," are all to be held in one class with the { } sunflowers; but dedicate,--the daisy to alcestis alone; others to clytia, or the physician apollo himself: but i can't follow their mythology yet awhile. . now in these two families you have typically use opposed to beauty in _wildness_; it is their wildness which is their virtue;--that the thyme is sweet where it is unthought of, and the daisies red, where the foot despises them: while, in other orders, wildness is their crime,--"wherefore, when i looked that it should bring forth grapes, brought it forth wild grapes?" but in all of them you must distinguish between the pure wildness of flowers and their distress. it may not be our duty to tame them; but it must be, to relieve. . it chanced, as i was arranging the course of these two chapters, that i had examples given me of distressed and happy wildness, in immediate contrast. the first, i grieve to say, was in a bit of my own brushwood, left uncared-for evidently many a year before it became mine. i had to cut my way into it through a mass of thorny ruin; black, birds-nest like, entanglement of brittle spray round twisted stems of ill-grown birches strangling each other, and changing half into roots among the rock clefts; knotted stumps of never-blossoming blackthorn, and choked stragglings of holly, all laced and twisted and tethered round with an untouchable, almost unhewable, thatch, a foot thick, of dead bramble and rose, laid over rotten ground through which the water soaked ceaselessly, undermining it into merely unctuous { } clods and clots, knitted together by mossy sponge. it was all nature's free doing! she had had her way with it to the uttermost; and clearly needed human help and interference in her business; and yet there was not one plant in the whole ruinous and deathful riot of the place, whose nature was not in itself wholesome and lovely; but all lost for want of discipline. . the other piece of wild growth was among the fallen blocks of limestone under malham cove. sheltered by the cliff above from stress of wind, the ash and hazel wood spring there in a fair and perfect freedom, without a diseased bough, or an unwholesome shade. i do not know why mine is all encumbered with overgrowth, and this so lovely that scarce a branch could be gathered but with injury;--while underneath, the oxalis, and the two smallest geraniums (lucidum and herb-robert) and the mossy saxifrage, and the cross-leaved bed-straw, and the white pansy, wrought themselves into wreaths among the fallen crags, in which every leaf rejoiced, and was at rest. . now between these two states of equally natural growth, the point of difference that forced itself on me (and practically enough, in the work i had in my own wood), was not so much the withering and waste of the one, and the life of the other, as the thorniness and cruelty of the one, and the softness of the other. in malham cove, the stones of the brook were softer with moss than any silken pillow--the crowded oxalis leaves yielded to the pressure of the hand, and were not felt--the cloven { } leaves of the herb-robert and orbed clusters of its companion overflowed every rent in the rude crags with living balm; there was scarcely a place left by the tenderness of the happy things, where one might not lay down one's forehead on their warm softness, and sleep. but in the waste and distressed ground, the distress had changed itself to cruelty. the leaves had all perished, and the bending saplings, and the wood of trust;--but the thorns were there, immortal, and the gnarled and sapless roots, and the dusty treacheries of decay. . of which things you will find it good to consider also otherwise than botanically. for all these lower organisms suffer and perish, or are gladdened and flourish, under conditions which are in utter precision symbolical, and in utter fidelity representative, of the conditions which induce adversity and prosperity in the kingdoms of men: and the eternal demeter,--mother, and judge,--brings forth, as the herb yielding seed, so also the thorn and the thistle, not to herself, but _to thee_. . you have read the words of the great law often enough;--have you ever thought enough of them to know the difference between these two appointed means of distress? the first, the thorn, is the type of distress _caused by crime_, changing the soft and breathing leaf into inflexible and wounding stubbornness. the second is the distress appointed to be the means and herald of good,--thou shalt see the stubborn thistle bursting, into glossy purple, which outredden, all voluptuous garden roses. { } . it is strange that, after much hunting, i cannot find authentic note of the day when scotland took the thistle for her emblem; and i have no space (in this chapter at least) for tradition; but, with whatever lightness of construing we may receive the symbol, it is actually the truest that could have been found, for some conditions of the scottish mind. there is no flower which the proserpina of our northern sicily cherishes more dearly: and scarcely any of us recognize enough the beautiful power of its close-set stars, and rooted radiance of ground leaves; yet the stubbornness and ungraceful rectitude of its stem, and the besetting of its wholesome substance with that fringe of offence, and the forwardness of it, and dominance,--i fear to lacess some of my dearest friends if i went on:--let them rather, with bailie jarvie's true conscience,[ ] take their scott from the inner shelf in their heart's library which all true scotsmen give him, and trace, with the swift reading of memory, the characters of fergus m'ivor, hector m'intyre, mause headrigg, alison wilson, richie { } moniplies, and andrew fairservice; and then say, if the faults of all these, drawn as they are with a precision of touch like a corinthian sculptor's of the acanthus leaf, can be found in anything like the same strength in other races, or if so stubbornly folded and starched moni-plies of irritating kindliness, selfish friendliness, lowly conceit, and intolerable fidelity, are native to any other spot of the wild earth of the habitable globe. . will you note also--for this is of extreme interest--that these essential faults are all mean faults;--what we may call ground-growing faults; conditions of semi-education, of hardly-treated homelife, or of coarsely-minded and wandering prosperity. how literally may we go back from the living soul symbolized, to the strangely accurate earthly symbol, in the prickly weed. for if, with its bravery of endurance, and carelessness in choice of home, we find also definite faculty and habit of migration, volant mechanism for choiceless journey, not divinely directed in pilgrimage to known shrines; but carried at the wind's will by a spirit which listeth _not_--it will go hard but that the plant shall become, if not dreaded, at least despised; and, in its wandering and reckless splendour, disgrace the garden of the sluggard, and possess the inheritance of the prodigal: until even its own nature seems contrary to good, and the invocation of the just man be made to it as the executor of judgment, "let thistles grow instead of wheat, and cockle instead of barley." . yet to be despised--either for men or flowers--may { } be no ill-fortune; the real ill-fortune is only to be despicable. these faults of human character, wherever found, observe, belong to it as ill-trained--incomplete; confirm themselves only in the vulgar. there is no base pertinacity, no overweening conceit, in the black douglas, or claverhouse, or montrose; in these we find the pure scottish temper, of heroic endurance and royal pride; but, when, in the pay, and not deceived, but purchased, idolatry of mammon, the scottish persistence and pride become knit and vested in the spleuchan, and your stiff covenanter makes his covenant with death, and your old mortality deciphers only the senseless legends of the eternal gravestone,--you get your weed, earth-grown, in bitter verity, and earth-devastating, in bitter strength. . i have told you, elsewhere, we are always first to study national character in the highest and purest examples. but if our knowledge is to be complete, we have to study also the special diseases of national character. and in exact opposition to the most solemn virtue of scotland, the domestic truth and tenderness breathed in all scottish song, you have this special disease and mortal cancer, this woody-fibriness, literally, of temper and thought: the consummation of which into pure lignite, or rather black devil's charcoal--the sap of the birks of aberfeldy become cinder, and the blessed juices of them, deadly gas,--you may know in its pure blackness best in the work of the greatest of these ground-growing scotchmen, adam smith. { } . no man of like capacity, i believe, born of any other nation, could have deliberately, and with no momentary shadow of suspicion or question, formalized the spinous and monstrous fallacy that human commerce and policy are _naturally_ founded on the desire of every man to possess his neighbour's goods. _this_ is the 'release unto us barabbas,' with a witness; and the deliberate systematization of that cry, and choice, for perpetual repetition and fulfilment in christian statesmanship, has been, with the strange precision of natural symbolism and retribution, signed, (as of old, by strewing of ashes on kidron,) by strewing of ashes on the brooks of scotland; waters once of life, health, music, and divine tradition; but to whose festering scum you may now set fire with a candle; and of which, round the once excelling palace of scotland, modern sanitary science is now helplessly contending with the poisonous exhalations. . i gave this chapter its heading, because i had it in my mind to work out the meaning of the fable in the ninth chapter of judges, from what i had seen on that thorny ground of mine, where the bramble was king over all the trees of the wood. but the thoughts are gone from me now; and as i re-read the chapter of judges,--now, except in my memory, unread, as it chances, for many a year,--the sadness of that story of gideon fastens on me, and silences me. _this_ the end of his angel visions, and dream-led victories, the slaughter of all his { } sons but this youngest,[ ]--and he never again heard of in israel! you scottish children of the rock, taught through all your once pastoral and noble lives by many a sweet miracle of dew on fleece and ground,--once servants of mighty kings, and keepers of sacred covenant; have you indeed dealt truly with your warrior kings, and prophet saints, or are these ruins of their homes, and shrines, dark with the fire that fell from the curse of jerubbael? * * * * * { } chapter viii. the stem. . as i read over again, with a fresh mind, the last chapter, i am struck by the opposition of states which seem best to fit a weed for a weed's work,--stubbornness, namely, and flaccidity. on the one hand, a sternness and a coarseness of structure which changes its stem into a stake, and its leaf into a spine; on the other, an utter flaccidity and ventosity of structure, which changes its stem into a riband, and its leaf into a bubble. and before we go farther--for we are not yet at the end of our study of these obnoxious things--we had better complete an examination of the parts of a plant in general, by ascertaining what a stem proper is; and what makes it stiffer, or hollower, than we like it;--how, to wit, the gracious and generous strength of ash differs from the spinous obstinacy of blackthorn,--and how the geometric and enduring hollowness of a stalk of wheat differs from the soft fulness of that of a mushroom. to which end, i will take up a piece of study, not of black, but white, thorn, written last spring. { } . i suppose there is no question but that all nice people like hawthorn blossom. i want, if i can, to find out to-day, th may, , what it is we like it so much for: holding these two branches of it in my hand--one full out, the other in youth. this full one is a mere mass of symmetrically balanced--snow, one was going vaguely to write, in the first impulse. but it is nothing of the sort. white,--yes, in a high degree; and pure, totally; but not at all dazzling in the white, nor pure in an insultingly rivalless manner, as snow would be; yet pure somehow, certainly; and white, absolutely, in spite of what might be thought failure,--imperfection--nay, even distress and loss in it. for every little rose of it has a green darkness in the centre--not even a pretty green, but a faded, yellowish, glutinous, unaccomplished green; and round that, all over the surface of the blossom, whose shell-like petals are themselves deep sunk, with grey shadows in the hollows of them--all above this already subdued brightness, are strewn the dark points of the dead stamens--manifest more and more, the longer one looks, as a kind of grey sand, sprinkled without sparing over what looked at first unspotted light. and in all the ways of it the lovely thing is more like the spring frock of some prudent little maid of fourteen, than a flower;--frock with some little spotty pattern on it to keep it from showing an unintended and inadvertent spot,--if fate should ever inflict such a thing! undeveloped, thinks mr. darwin,--the poor { } short-coming, ill-blanched thorn blossom--going to be a rose, some day soon; and, what next?--who knows?--perhaps a pæony! . then this next branch, in dawn and delight of youth, set with opening clusters of yet numerable blossom, four, and five, and seven, edged, and islanded, and ended, by the sharp leaves of freshest green, deepened under the flowers, and studded round with bosses, better than pearl beads of st. agnes' rosary,--folded, over and over, with the edges of their little leaves pouting, as the very softest waves do on flat sand where one meets another; then opening just enough to show the violet colour within--which yet isn't violet colour, nor even "meno che le rose," but a different colour from every other lilac that one ever saw;--faint and faded even before it sees light, as the filmy cup opens over the depth of it, then broken into purple motes of tired bloom, fading into darkness, as the cup extends into the perfect rose. this, with all its sweet change that one would so fain stay, and soft effulgence of bud into softly falling flower, one has watched--how often; but always with the feeling that the blossoms are thrown over the green depth like white clouds--never with any idea of so much as asking what holds the cloud there. have each of the innumerable blossoms a separate stalk? and, if so, how is it that one never thinks of the stalk, as one does with currants? . turn the side of the branch to you;--nature never meant you to see it so; but now it is all stalk below, and { } stamens above,--the petals nothing, the stalks all tiny trees, always dividing their branches mainly into three--one in the centre short, and the two lateral, long, with an intermediate extremely long one, if needed, to fill a gap, so contriving that the flowers shall all be nearly at the same level, or at least surface of ball, like a guelder rose. but the cunning with which the tree conceals its structure till the blossom is fallen, and then--for a little while, we had best look no more at it, for it is all like grape-stalks with no grapes. these, whether carrying hawthorn blossom and haw, or grape blossom and grape, or peach blossom and peach, you will simply call the 'stalk,' whether of flower or fruit. a 'stalk' is essentially round, like a pillar; and has, for the most part, the power of first developing, and then shaking off, flower and fruit from its extremities. you can pull the peach from its stalk, the cherry, the grape. always at some time of its existence, the flower-stalk lets fall something of what it sustained, petal or seed. in late latin it is called 'petiolus,' the little foot; because the expanding piece that holds the grape, or olive, is a little like an animal's foot. modern botanists have misapplied the word to the _leaf_-stalk, which has no resemblance to a foot at all. we must keep the word to its proper meaning, and, when we want to write latin, call it 'petiolus;' when we want to write english, call it 'stalk,' meaning always fruit or flower stalk. { } i cannot find when the word 'stalk' first appears in english:--its derivation will be given presently. . gather next a hawthorn leaf. that also has a stalk; but you can't shake the leaf off it. it, and the leaf, are essentially one; for the sustaining fibre runs up into every ripple or jag of the leaf's edge: and its section is different from that of the flower-stalk; it is no more round, but has an upper and under surface, quite different from each other. it will be better, however, to take a larger leaf to examine this structure in. cabbage, cauliflower, or rhubarb, would any of them be good, but don't grow wild in the luxuriance i want. so, if you please, we will take a leaf of burdock, (arctium lappa,) the principal business of that plant being clearly to grow leaves wherewith to adorn fore-grounds.[ ] [illustration: fig. .] . the outline of it in sowerby is not an intelligent one, and i have not time to draw it but in the rudest way myself; fig. , _a_; with perspectives of the elementary form below, _b_, _c_, and d. by help of which, if you will construct a burdock leaf in paper, my rude outline (_a_) may tell the rest of what i want you to see. [illustration: fig. .] take a sheet of stout note paper, fig. , a, double it sharply down the centre, by the dotted line, then give it the two cuts at _a_ and _b_, and double those pieces sharply back, as at b; then, opening them again, cut the whole { } into the form c; and then, pulling up the corners _c d_, stitch them together with a loose thread so that the points _c_ and _d_ shall be within half an inch of each other; and you will have a kind of triangular scoop, or shovel, with a stem, by which you can sufficiently hold it, d. . and from this easily constructed and tenable model, you may learn at once these following main facts about all leaves. { } [i.] that they are not flat, but, however slightly, always hollowed into craters, or raised into hills, in one or another direction; so that any drawable outline of them does not in the least represent the real extent of their surfaces; and until you know how to draw a cup, or a mountain, rightly, you have no chance of drawing a leaf. my simple artist readers of long ago, when i told them to draw leaves, thought they could do them by the boughfull, whenever they liked. alas, except by old william hunt, and burne jones, i've not seen a leaf painted, since those burdocks of turner's; far less sculptured--though one would think at first that was easier! of which we shall have talk elsewhere; here i must go on to note fact number two, concerning leaves. { } . [ii.] the strength of their supporting stem consists not merely in the gathering together of all the fibres, but in gathering them essentially into the profile of the letter v, which you will see your doubled paper stem has; and of which you can feel the strength and use, in your hand, as you hold it. gather a common plantain leaf, and look at the way it puts its round ribs together at the base, and you will understand the matter at once. the arrangement is modified and disguised in every possible way, according to the leaf's need: in the aspen, the leaf-stalk becomes an absolute vertical plank; and in the large trees is often almost rounded into the likeness of a fruit-stalk;--but, in all,[ ] the essential structure is this doubled one; and in all, it opens at the place where the leaf joins the main stem, into a kind of cup, which holds next year's bud in the hollow of it. . now there would be no inconvenience in your simply getting into the habit of calling the round petiol of the fruit the 'stalk,' and the contracted channel of the leaf, 'leaf-stalk.' but this way of naming them would not enforce, nor fasten in your mind, the difference between the two, so well as if you have an entirely different name for the leaf-stalk. which is the more desirable, because the limiting character of the leaf, botanically, is--(i only learned this from my botanical friend the other day, just { } in the very moment i wanted it,)--that it holds the bud of the new stem in its own hollow, but cannot itself grow in the hollow of anything else;--or, in botanical language, leaves are never axillary,--don't grow in armpits, but are themselves armpits; hollows, that is to say, where they spring from the main stem. . now there is already a received and useful botanical word, 'cyme' (which we shall want in a little while.) derived from the greek [greek: kuma], a swelling or rising wave, and used to express a swelling cluster of foamy blossom. connected with that word, but in a sort the reverse of it, you have the greek '[greek: kumbê],' the _hollow_ of a cup, or bowl; whence [greek: kumbalou], a cymbal,--that is to say, a musical instrument owing its tone to its _hollowness_. these words become in latin, cymba, and cymbalum; and i think you will find it entirely convenient and advantageous to call the leaf-stalk distinctively the 'cymba,' retaining the mingled idea of cup and boat, with respect at least to the part of it that holds the bud; and understanding that it gathers itself into a v-shaped, or even narrowly vertical, section, as a boat narrows to its bow, for strength to sustain the leaf. with this word you may learn the virgilian line, that shows the final use of iron--or iron-darkened--ships: "et ferrugíneâ subvectat corpora cymbâ." the "subvectat corpora" will serve to remind you of the office of the leafy cymba in carrying the bud; and make { } you thankful that the said leafy vase is not of iron; and is a ship of life instead of death. . already, not once, nor twice, i have had to use the word 'stem,' of the main round branch from which both stalk and cymba spring. this word you had better keep for all growing, or advancing, shoots of trees, whether from the ground, or from central trunks and branches. i regret that the words multiply on us; but each that i permit myself to use has its own proper thought or idea to express, as you will presently perceive; so that true knowledge multiplies with true words. . the 'stem,' you are to say, then, when you mean the _advancing_ shoot,--which lengthens annually, while a stalk ends every year in a blossom, and a cymba in a leaf. a stem is essentially round,[ ] square, or regularly polygonal; though, as a cymba may become exceptionally round, a stem may become exceptionally flat, or even mimic the shape of a leaf. indeed i should have liked to write "a stem is essentially round, and constructively, on occasion, square,"--but it would have been too grand. the fact is, however, that a stem is really a roundly minded thing, throwing off its branches in circles as a trundled mop throws off drops, though it can always order the branches to fly off in what order it likes,--two at a time, opposite to each other; or three, or five, in a spiral coil; or one here and one there, on this side and that; { } but it is always twisting, in its own inner mind and force; hence it is especially proper to use the word 'stem' of it--[greek: stemma], a twined wreath; properly, twined round a staff, or sceptre: therefore, learn at once by heart these lines in the opening iliad: "[greek: stemmat' echôn en chersin hekêbolou apollônos,] [greek: chruseôi ana skêptrôi;]" and recollect that a sceptre is properly a staff to lean upon; and that as a crown or diadem is first a binding thing, a 'sceptre' is first a _supporting_ thing, and it is in its nobleness, itself made of the stem of a young tree. you may just as well learn also this: "[greek: nai ma tode skêptron, to men oupote phulla kai ozous] [greek: phusei, epeidê prôta tomên en oressi leloipen,] [greek: oud' anathêlêsei; peri gar rha he chalkos elepse] [greek: phulla te kai phloion; nun aute min huies achaiôn] [greek: en palamêis phoreousi dikaspoloi, hoi te themistas] [greek: pros dios eiruatai;]" "now, by this sacred sceptre hear me swear which never more shall leaves or blossoms bear, which, severed from the trunk, (as i from thee,) on the bare mountains left its parent tree; this sceptre, formed by tempered steel to prove an ensign of the delegates of jove, from whom the power of laws and justice springs (tremendous oath, inviolate to kings)." . the supporting power in the tree itself is, i doubt not, greatly increased by this spiral action; and the fine { } instinct of its being so, caused the twisted pillar to be used in the lombardic gothic,--at first, merely as a pleasant variety of form, but at last constructively and universally, by giotto, and all the architects of his school. not that the spiral form actually adds to the strength of a lombardic pillar, by imitating contortions of wood, any more than the fluting of a doric shaft adds to its strength by imitating the canaliculation of a reed; but the perfect action of the imagination, which had adopted the encircling acanthus for the capital, adopted the twining stemma for the shaft; the pure delight of the eye being the first condition in either case: and it is inconceivable how much of the pleasure taken both in ornament and in natural form is founded elementarily on groups of spiral line. the study in our fifth plate, of the involucre of the waste-thistle,[ ] is as good an example as i can give of the more subtle and concealed conditions of this structure. . returning to our present business of nomenclature, we find the greek word, 'stemma,' adopted by the latins, { } becoming the expression of a growing and hereditary race; and the branched tree, the natural type, among all nations, of multiplied families. hence the entire fitness of the word for our present purposes; as signifying, "a spiral shoot extending itself by branches." but since, unless it is spiral, it is not a stem, and unless it has branches, it is not a stem, we shall still want another word for the sustaining 'sceptre' of a foxglove, or cowslip. before determining that, however, we must see what need there may be of one familiar to our ears until lately, although now, i understand, falling into disuse. . by our definition, a stem is a spirally bent, essentially living and growing, shoot of vegetation. but the branch of a tree, in which many such stems have their origin, is not, except in a very subtle and partial way, spiral; nor, except in the shoots that spring from it, progressive forwards; it only receives increase of thickness at its sides. much more, what used to be called the _trunk_ of a tree, in which many branches are united, has ceased to be, except in mere tendency and temper, spiral; and has so far ceased from growing as to be often in a state of decay in its interior, while the external layers are still in serviceable strength. . if, however, a trunk were only to be defined as an arrested stem, or a cluster of arrested stems, we might perhaps refuse, in scientific use, the popular word. but such a definition does not touch the main idea. branches usually begin to assert themselves at a height above the { } ground approximately fixed for each species of tree,--low in an oak, high in a stone pine; but, in both, marked as a point of _structural change in the direction of growing force_, like the spring of a vault from a pillar; and as the tree grows old, some of its branches getting torn away by winds or falling under the weight of their own fruit, or load of snow, or by natural decay, there remains literally a 'truncated' mass of timber, still bearing irregular branches here and there, but inevitably suggestive of resemblance to a human body, after the loss of some of its limbs. and to prepare trees for their practical service, what age and storm only do partially, the first rough process of human art does completely. the branches are lopped away, leaving literally the 'truncus' as the part of the tree out of which log and rafter can be cut. and in many trees, it would appear to be the chief end of their being to produce this part of their body on a grand scale, and of noble substance; so that, while in thinking of vegetable life without reference to its use to men or animals, we should rightly say that the essence of it was in leaf and flower--not in trunk or fruit; yet for the sake of animals, we find that some plants, like the vine, are apparently meant chiefly to produce fruit; others, like laurels, chiefly to produce leaves; others chiefly to produce flowers; and others to produce permanently serviceable and sculptural wood; or, in some cases, merely picturesque and monumental masses of vegetable rock, "intertwisted { } fibres serpentine,"--of far nobler and more pathetic use in their places, and their enduring age, than ever they could be for material purpose in human habitation. for this central mass of the vegetable organism, then, the english word 'trunk' and french 'tronc' are always in accurate scholarship to be retained--meaning the part of a tree which remains when its branches are lopped away. . we have now got distinct ideas of four different kinds of stem, and simple names for them in latin and english,--petiolus, cymba, stemma, and truncus; stalk, leaf-stalk, stem, and trunk; and these are all that we shall commonly need. there is, however, one more that will be sometimes necessary, though it is ugly and difficult to pronounce, and must be as little used as we can. and here i must ask you to learn with me a little piece of roman history. i say, to _learn_ with me, because i don't know any roman history except the two first books of livy, and little bits here and there of the following six or seven. i only just know enough about it to be able to make out the bearings and meaning of any fact that i now learn. the greater number of modern historians know, (if honest enough even for that,) the facts, or something that may possibly be like the facts, but haven't the least notion of the meaning of them. so that, though i have to find out everything that i want in smith's dictionary, like any schoolboy, i can usually tell you the { } significance of what i so find, better than perhaps even mr. smith himself could. . in the th page of mr. smith's volume, you have it written that 'calvus,' bald-head, was the name of a family of the licinia gens; that the man of whom we hear earliest, as so named, was the first plebeian elected to military tribuneship in b.c. ; and that the fourth of whom we hear, was surnamed 'stolo,' because he was so particular in pruning away the stolons (stolones), or useless young shoots, of his vines. we must keep this word 'stolon,' therefore, for these young suckers springing from an old root. its derivation is uncertain; but the main idea meant by it is one of uselessness,--sprouting without occasion or fruit; and the words 'stolidus' and 'stolid' are really its derivatives, though we have lost their sense in english by partly confusing them with 'solid' which they have nothing to do with. a 'stolid' person is essentially a 'useless sucker' of society; frequently very leafy and graceful, but with no good in him. [illustration: fig. .] . nevertheless, i won't allow our vegetable 'stolons' to be despised. some of quite the most beautiful forms of leafage belong to them;--even the foliage of the olive itself is never seen to the same perfection on the upper branches as in the young ground-rods in which the dual groups of leaves crowd themselves in their haste into clusters of three. but, for our point of latin history, remember always { } that in b.c., just a year before the death of socrates at athens, this family of stolid persons manifested themselves at rome, shooting up from plebeian roots into places where they had no business; and preparing the way for the degradation of the entire roman race under the empire; their success being owed, remember also, to the faults of the patricians, for one of the laws passed by calvus stolo was that the sibylline books should be in custody of ten men, of whom five should be plebeian, "that no falsifications might be introduced in favour of the patricians." . all this time, however, we have got no name for the prettiest of all stems,--that of annual flowers growing high from among their ground leaves, like lilies of the valley, and saxifrages, and the tall primulas--of which this pretty type, fig. , was cut for me by mr. burgess years ago; admirable in its light outline of the foamy globe of flowers, supported and balanced in the meadow breezes on that elastic rod of slenderest life. what shall we call it? we had better rest from our study of terms a little, and do a piece of needful classifying, before we try to name it. . my younger readers will find it easy to learn, and convenient to remember, for a beginning of their science, { } the names of twelve great families of cinquefoiled flowers,[ ] of which the first group of three, is for the most part golden, the second, blue, the third, purple, and the fourth, red. and their names, by simple lips, can be pleasantly said, or sung, in this order, the two first only being a little difficult to get over. roof-foil, lucy, pea, pink, rock-foil, blue-bell, pansy, peach, primrose. bindweed. daisy. rose. which even in their latin magniloquence will not be too terrible, namely,-- stella, lucia, alata, clarissa, francesca, campanula, viola, persica, primula. convoluta. margarita. rosa. . i do not care much to assert or debate my reasons for the changes of nomenclature made in this list. the { } most gratuitous is that of 'lucy' for 'gentian,' because the king of macedon, from whom the flower has been so long named, was by no means a person deserving of so consecrated memory. i conceive no excuse needed for rejecting caryophyll, one of the crudest and absurdest words ever coined by unscholarly men of science; or papilionaceæ, which is unendurably long for pease; and when we are now writing latin, in a sentimental temper, and wish to say that we gathered a daisy, we shall not any more be compelled to write that we gathered a 'bellidem perennem,' or, an 'oculum diei.' i take the pure latin form, margarita, instead of margareta, in memory of margherita of cortona,[ ] as well as of the great saint: also the tiny scatterings and sparklings of the daisy on the turf may remind us of the old use of the word 'margaritæ,' for the minute particles of the host sprinkled on the patina--"has particulas [greek: meridas] vocat euchologium, [greek: margaritas] liturgia chrysostomi."[ ] my young german readers will, i hope, call the flower gretschen,--unless they would uproot the daisies of the rhine, lest french girls should also count their love-lots by the marguerite. i must be so ungracious to my fair young readers, however, as to warn them that this trial of their lovers is a very favourable one, for, in nine blossoms out of { } ten, the leaves of the marguerite are odd, so that, if they are only gracious enough to begin with the supposition that he loves them, they must needs end in the conviction of it. . i am concerned, however, for the present, only with my first or golden order, of which the roof-foil, or house-leek, is called in present botany, sedum, 'the squatter,' because of its way of fastening itself down on stones, or roof, as close as it can sit. but i think this an ungraceful notion of its behaviour; and as its blossoms are, of all flowers, the most sharply and distinctly star-shaped, i shall call it 'stella' (providing otherwise, in due time, for the poor little chickweeds;) and the common stonecrop will therefore be 'stella domestica.' the second tribe, (at present saxifraga,) growing for the most part wild on rocks, may, i trust, even in protestant botany, be named francesca, after st. francis of assisi; not only for its modesty, and love of mountain ground, and poverty of colour and leaf; but also because the chief element of its decoration, seen close, will be found in its spots, or stigmata. in the nomenclature of the third order i make no change. . now all this group of golden-blossoming plants agree in general character of having a rich cluster of radical leaves, from which they throw up a single stalk bearing clustered blossoms; for which stalk, when entirely leafless, i intend always to keep the term 'virgula,' the { } 'little rod'--not painfully caring about it, but being able thus to define it with precision, if required. and these are connected with the stems of branching shrubs through infinite varieties of structure, in which the first steps of transition are made by carrying the cluster of radical leaves up, and letting them expire gradually from the rising stem: the changes of form in the leaves as they rise higher from the ground being one of quite the most interesting specific studies in every plant. i had set myself once, in a bye-study for foreground drawing, hard on this point; and began, with mr. burgess, a complete analysis of the foliation of annual stems; of which line-studies ii., iii., and iv., are examples; reduced copies, all, from the beautiful flora danica. but after giving two whole lovely long summer days, under the giesbach, to the blue scabious, ('devil's bit,') and getting in that time, only half-way up it, i gave in; and must leave the work to happier and younger souls. . for these flowering stems, therefore, possessing nearly all the complex organization of a tree, but not its permanence, we will keep the word 'virga;' and 'virgula' for those that have no leaves. i believe, when we come to the study of leaf-order, it will be best to begin with these annual virgæ, in which the leaf has nothing to do with preparation for a next year's branch. and now the remaining terms commonly applied to stems may be for the most part dispensed with; but several are interesting, and must be examined before dismissal. { } . indeed, in the first place, the word we have to use so often, 'stalk,' has not been got to the roots of, yet. it comes from the greek [greek: stelechos,] (stelechos,) the 'holding part' of a tree, that which is like a handle to all its branches; 'stock' is another form in which it has come down to us: with some notion of its being the mother of branches: thus, when athena's olive was burnt by the persians, two days after, a shoot a cubit long had sprung from the 'stelechos,' of it. . secondly. few words are more interesting to the modern scholarly and professorial mind than 'stipend.' (i have twice a year at present to consider whether i am worth mine, sent with compliments from the curators of the university chest). now, this word comes from 'stips,' small pay, which itself comes from 'stipo,' to press together, with the idea of small coin heaped up in little towers or piles. but with the idea of lateral pressing together, instead of downward, we get 'stipes,' a solid log; in greek, with the same sense, [greek: stupos,] (stupos,) whence, gradually, with help from another word meaning to beat, (and a side-glance at beating of hemp,) we get our 'stupid,' the german stumph, the scottish sumph, and the plain english 'stump.' refining on the more delicate sound of stipes, the latins got 'stipula,' the thin stem of straw: which rustles and ripples daintily in verse, associated with spica and spiculum, used of the sharp pointed ear of corn, and its fine processes of fairy shafts. { } . there are yet two more names of stalk to be studied, though, except for particular plants, not needing to be used,--namely, the latin cau-dex, and cau-lis, both connected with the greek [greek: kaulos], properly meaning a solid stalk like a handle, passing into the sense of the hilt of a sword, or quill of a pen. then, in latin, caudex passes into the sense of log, and so, of cut plank or tablet of wood; thus finally becoming the classical 'codex' of writings engraved on such wooden tablets, and therefore generally used for authoritative manuscripts. lastly, 'caulis,' retained accurately in our cauliflower, contracted in 'colewort,' and refined in 'kail,' softens itself into the french 'chou,' meaning properly the whole family of thick-stalked eatable salads with spreading heads; but these being distinguished explicitly by pliny as 'capitati,' 'salads with a head,' or 'captain salads,' the mediæval french softened the 'caulis capitatus' into 'chou cabus;'--or, to separate the round or apple-like mass of leaves from the flowery foam, 'cabus' simply, by us at last enriched and emphasized into 'cabbage.' . i believe we have now got through the stiffest piece of etymology we shall have to master in the course of our botany; but i am certain that young readers will find patient work, in this kind, well rewarded by the groups of connected thoughts which will thus attach themselves to familiar names; and their grasp of every language they learn must only be esteemed by them secure when they recognize its derivatives in these homely associations, { } and are as much at ease with the latin or french syllables of a word as with the english ones; this familiarity being above all things needful to cure our young students of their present ludicrous impression that what is simple, in english, is knowing, in greek; and that terms constructed out of a dead language will explain difficulties which remained insoluble in a living one. but greek is _not_ yet dead: while if we carry our unscholarly nomenclature much further, english soon will be; and then doubtless botanical gentlemen at athens will for some time think it fine to describe what we used to call caryophyllaceæ, as the [greek: hedlêphides]. . for indeed we are all of us yet but school-boys, clumsily using alike our lips and brains; and with all our mastery of instruments and patience of attention, but few have reached, and those dimly, the first level of science,--wonder. for the first instinct of the stem,--unnamed by us yet--unthought of,--the instinct of seeking light, as of the root to seek darkness,--what words can enough speak the wonder of it. look. here is the little thing, line-study v. (a), in its first birth to us: the stem of stems; the one of which we pray that it may bear our daily bread. the seed has fallen in the ground with the springing germ of it downwards; with heavenly cunning the taught stem curls round, and seeks the never-seen light. veritable 'conversion,' miraculous, called of god. and here is the oat { } germ, (b)--after the wheat, most vital of divine gifts; and assuredly, in days to come, fated to grow on many a naked rock in hitherto lifeless lands, over which the glancing sheaves of it will shake sweet treasure of innocent gold. and who shall tell us how they grow; and the fashion of their rustling pillars--bent, and again erect, at every breeze. fluted shaft or clustered pier, how poor of art, beside this grass-shaft--built, first to sustain the food of men, then to be strewn under their feet! we must not stay to think of it, yet, or we shall get no farther till harvest has come and gone again. and having our names of stems now determined enough, we must in next chapter try a little to understand the different kinds of them. the following notes, among many kindly sent me on the subject of scottish heraldry, seem to be the most trustworthy:-- "the earliest known mention of the thistle as the national badge of scotland is in the inventory of the effects of james iii., who probably adopted it as an appropriate illustration of the royal motto, _in defence_. "thistles occur on the coins of james iv., mary, james v., and james vi.; and on those of james vi. they are for the first time accompanied by the motto, _nemo me impune lacesset_. "a collar of thistles appears on the gold bonnet-pieces of james v. of ; and the royal ensigns, as depicted in sir david lindsay's armorial register of , are surrounded by a collar formed entirely of golden thistles, with an oval badge attached. { } "this collar, however, was a mere device until the institution, or as it is generally but inaccurately called, the revival, of the order of the thistle by james vii. (ii. of england), which took place on may , ." date of james iii.'s reign - . * * * * * { } chapter ix. outside and in. . the elementary study of methods of growth, given in the following chapter, has been many years written, (the greater part soon after the fourth volume of 'modern painters'); and ought now to be rewritten entirely; but having no time to do this, i leave it with only a word or two of modification, because some truth and clearness of incipient notion will be conveyed by it to young readers, from which i can afterwards lop the errors, and into which i can graft the finer facts, better than if i had a less blunt embryo to begin with. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] . a stem, then, broadly speaking, (i had thus began the old chapter,) is the channel of communication between the leaf and root; and if the leaf can grow directly from the root there is no stem: so that it is well first to conceive of all plants as consisting of leaves and roots only, with the condition that each leaf must have its own quite particular root[ ] somewhere. { } let a b c, fig. , be three leaves, each, as you see, with its own root, and by no means dependent on other leaves for its daily bread; and let the horizontal line be the surface of the ground. then the plant has no stem, or an underground one. but if the three leaves rise above the ground, as in fig. , they must reach their roots by elongating their stalks, and this elongation is the stem of the plant. if the outside leaves grow last, and are therefore youngest, the plant is said to grow from the outside. you know that 'ex' means out, and that 'gen' is the first syllable of genesis (or creation), therefore the old botanists, putting an o between the two syllables, called plants whose outside leaves grew last, ex-o-gens. if the inside leaf grows last, and is youngest, the plant was said to grow from the inside, and from the greek endon, within, called an 'endo-gen.' if these names are persisted in, the greek botanists, to return the compliment, will of course call endogens [greek: inseidbornides], and exogens [greek: houtseidbornides]. in the oxford school, they will be called simply inlaid and outlaid. [illustration: fig. .] . you see that if the outside leaves are to grow last, they may conveniently grow two at a time; which they accordingly do, and exogens always start with two little { } leaves from their roots, and may therefore conveniently be called two-leaved; which, if you please, we will for our parts call them. the botanists call them 'two-suckered,' and can't be content to call them _that_ in english; but drag in a long greek word, meaning the fleshy sucker of the sea-devil,--'cotyledon,' which, however, i find is practically getting shortened into 'cot,' and that they will have to end by calling endogens, monocots, and exogens, bicots. i mean steadily to call them one-leaved and two-leaved, for this further reason, that they differ not merely in the single or dual springing of first leaves from the seed; but in the distinctly single or dual arrangement of leaves afterwards on the stem; so that, through all the complexity obtained by alternate and spiral placing, every bicot or two-leaved flower or tree is in reality composed of dual groups of leaves, separated by a given length of stem; as, most characteristically in this pure mountain type of the ragged robin (clarissa laciniosa), fig. ; and compare a, and b, line-study ii.; while, on the other hand, the monocot plants are by close analysis, i think, always resolvable into successively climbing leaves, sessile on one another, and sending their roots, { } or processes, for nourishment, down through one another, as in fig. . [illustration: fig. .] . not that i am yet clear, at all, myself; but i do think it's more the botanists' fault than mine, what 'cotyledonous' structure there may be at the outer base of each successive bud; and still less, how the intervenient length of stem, in the bicots, is related to their power, or law, of branching. for not only the two-leaved tree is outlaid, and the one-leaved inlaid, but the two-leaved tree is branched, and the one-leaved tree is not branched. this is a most vital and important distinction, which i state to you in very bold terms, for though there are some apparent exceptions to the law, there are, i believe, no real ones, if we define a branch rightly. thus, the head of a palm tree is merely a cluster of large leaves; and the spike of a grass, a clustered blossom. the stem, in both, is unbranched; and we should be able in this respect to classify plants very simply indeed, but for a provoking species of intermediate creatures whose branching is always in the manner of corals, or sponges, or arborescent minerals, irregular and accidental, and essentially, therefore, distinguished from the systematic anatomy of a truly branched tree. of these presently; we must go on by very short steps: and i find no step can be taken without check from existing generalizations. sowerby's definition of monocotyledons, in his ninth volume, begins thus: "herbs, (or rarely, and only in exotic genera,) trees, in which the wood, pith, and bark are indistinguishable." { } now if there be one plant more than another in which the pith is defined, it is the common rush; while the nobler families of true herbs derive their principal character from being pithless altogether! we cannot advance too slowly. . in the families of one-leaved plants in which the young leaves grow directly out of the old ones, it becomes a grave question for them whether the old ones are to lie flat or edgeways, and whether they must therefore grow out of their faces or their edges. and we must at once understand the way they contrive it, in either case. [illustration: fig. .] among the many forms taken by the arethusan leaf, one of the commonest is long and gradually tapering,--much broader at the base than the point. we will take such an one for examination, and suppose that it is growing on the ground as in fig. , with a root to its every fibre. cut out a piece of strong paper roughly into the shape of this arethusan leaf, a, fig. . now suppose the next young leaf has to spring out of the front of this one, at about the middle of its height. give it two nicks with the scissors at b b; then roll up the lower part into a cylinder, (it will overlap a good deal at the bottom,) and tie it fast with a fine thread: so, you will get the form at c. then bend the top of it back, so that, seen sideways, it appears as at d, and you see you have made quite a little flower-pot to plant your { } new leaf in, and perhaps it may occur to you that you have seen something like this before. now make another, a little less wide, but with the part for the cylinder twice as long, roll it up in the same way, and slip it inside the other, with the flat part turned the other way, e. surely this reminds you now of something you have seen? or must i draw the something (fig. )? [illustration: fig. .] . all grasses are thus constructed, and have their leaves set thus, opposite, on the sides of their tubular stems, alternately, as they ascend. but in most of them there is also a peculiar construction, by which, at the base of the sheath, or enclosing tube, each leaf articulates itself with the rest of the stem at a ringed knot, or joint. { } [illustration: fig. .] before examining these, remember there are mainly two sorts of joints in the framework of the bodies of animals. one is that in which the bone is thick at the joints and thin between them, (see the bone of the next chicken leg you eat), the other is that of animals that have shells or horny coats, in which characteristically the shell is thin at the joints, and thick between them (look at the next lobster's claw you can see, without eating). you know, also, that though the crustaceous are titled only from their crusts, the name 'insect' is given to the whole insect tribe, because they are farther jointed almost into _sect_ions: it is easily remembered, also, that the projecting joint means strength and elasticity in the creature, and that all its limbs are useful to it, and cannot conveniently be parted with; and that the incised, sectional, or insectile joint means more or less weakness,[ ] and necklace-like laxity or license in the creature's make; and an ignoble power of shaking off its legs or arms on occasion, coupled also with modes of growth involving occasionally quite astonishing transformations, and beginnings of new life under new circumstances; so that, until very lately, no mortal knew what a crab was like in its youth, the very existence { } of the creature, as well as its legs, being jointed, as it were and made in separate pieces with the narrowest possible thread of connection between them; and its principal, or stomachic, period of life, connected with its sentimental period by as thin a thread as a wasp's stomach is with its thorax. . now in plants, as in animals, there are just the same opposed aspects of joint, with this specialty of difference in function, that the animal's limb bends at the joints, but the vegetable limb stiffens. and when the articulation projects, as in the joint of a cane, it means not only that the strength of the plant is well carried through the junction, but is carried farther and more safely than it could be without it: a cane is stronger, and can stand higher than it could otherwise, because of its joints. also, this structure implies that the plant has a will of its own, and a position which on the whole it will keep, however it may now and then be bent out of it; and that it has a continual battle, of a healthy and humanlike kind, to wage with surrounding elements. but the crabby, or insect-like, joint, which you get in seaweeds and cacti, means either that the plant is to be dragged and wagged here and there at the will of waves, and to have no spring nor mind of its own; or else that it has at least no springy intention and elasticity of purpose, but only a knobby, knotty, prickly, malignant stubbornness, and incoherent opiniativeness; crawling about, and coggling, and grovelling, and aggregating { } anyhow, like the minds of so many people whom one knows! . returning then to our grasses, in which the real rooting and junction of the leaves with each other is at these joints; we find that therefore every leaf of grass may be thought of as consisting of two main parts, for which we shall want two separate names. the lowest part, which wraps itself round to become strong, we will call the 'staff,' and for the free-floating outer part we will take specially the name given at present carelessly to a large number of the plants themselves, 'flag.' this will give a more clear meaning to the words 'rod' (virga), and 'staff' (baculus), when they occur together, as in the rd psalm; and remember the distinction is that a rod bends like a switch, but a staff is stiff. i keep the well-known name 'blade' for grass-leaves in their fresh green state. . you felt, as you were bending down the paper into the form d, fig. , the difficulty and awkwardness of the transition from the tubular form of the staff to the flat one of the flag. the mode in which this change is effected is one of the most interesting features in plants, for you will find presently that the leaf-stalk in ordinary leaves is only a means of accomplishing the same change from round to flat. but you know i said just now that some leaves were not flat, but set upright, edgeways. it is not a common position in two-leaved trees; but if you can run out and look at an arbor vitæ, it may interest you { } to see its hatchet-shaped vertically crested cluster of leaves transforming themselves gradually downwards into branches; and in one-leaved trees the vertically edged group is of great importance. [illustration: fig. .] . cut out another piece of paper like a in fig. , but now, instead of merely giving it nicks at a, b, cut it into the shape a, fig. . roll the lower part up as before, but instead of pulling the upper part down, pinch its back at the dotted line, and bring the two points, a and b, forward, so that they may touch each other. b shows the look of the thing half-done, before the points a and b have quite met. pinch them close, and stitch the two edges neatly together, all the way from a to the point c; then roll and tie up the lower part as before. you will find then that the back or spinal line of the whole leaf is bent forward, as at b. now go out to the garden and gather the green leaf of a fleur-de-lys, and look at it and your piece of disciplined paper together; and i fancy you will probably find out several things for yourself that i want you to know. . you see, for one thing, at once, how _strong_ the fleur-de-lys leaf is, and that it is just twice as strong as a blade of grass, for it is the substance of the staff, with its sides flattened together, while the grass blade is a staff cut { } open and flattened out. and you see that as a grass blade necessarily flaps down, the fleur-de-lys leaf as necessarily curves up, owing to that inevitable bend in its back. and you see, with its keen edge, and long curve, and sharp point, how like a sword it is. the botanists would for once have given a really good and right name to the plants which have this kind of leaf, 'ensatæ,' from the latin 'ensis,' a sword; if only sata had been properly formed from sis. we can't let the rude latin stand, but you may remember that the fleur-de-lys, which is the flower of chivalry, has a sword for its leaf, and a lily for its heart. . in case you cannot gather a fleur-de-lys leaf, i have drawn for you, in plate vi., a cluster of such leaves, which are as pretty as any, and so small that, missing the points of a few, i can draw them of their actual size. you see the pretty alternate interlacing at the bottom, and if you can draw at all, and will try to outline their curves, you will find what subtle lines they are. i did not know this name for the strong-edged grass leaves when i wrote the pieces about shield and sword leaves in 'modern painters'; i wish i had chanced in those passages on some other similitude, but i can't alter them now, and my trustful pupils may avoid all confusion of thought by putting gladius for ensis, and translating it by the word 'scymitar,' which is also more accurate in expressing the curvature blade. so we will call the ensatæ, instead, 'gladiolæ,' translating, 'scymitar-grasses.' and having { } now got at some clear idea of the distinction between outlaid and inlaid growth in the stem, the reader will find the elementary analysis of forms resulting from outlaid growth in 'modern painters'; and i mean to republish it in the sequel of this book, but must go on to other matters here. the growth of the inlaid stem we will follow as far as we need, for english plants, in examining the glasses. florence, _ th september, _. as i correct this chapter for press, i find it is too imperfect to be let go without a word or two more. in the first place, i have not enough, in distinguishing the nature of the living yearly shoot, with its cluster of fresh leafage, from that of the accumulated mass of perennial trees, taken notice of the similar power even of the annual shoot, to obtain some manner of immortality for itself, or at least of usefulness, _after_ death. a tuscan woman stopped me on the path up to fiesole last night, to beg me to buy her plaited straw. i wonder how long straw lasts, if one takes care of it? a leghorn bonnet, (if now such things are,) carefully put away,--even properly taken care of when it is worn,--how long will it last, young ladies? i have just been reading the fifth chapter of ii. esdras, and am fain to say, with less discomfort than otherwise i might have felt, (the example being set me by the archangel uriel,) "i am not sent to tell thee, for i do not know." how old is the oldest straw known? the oldest { } linen? the oldest hemp? we have mummy wheat,--cloth of papyrus, which is a kind of straw. the paper reeds by the brooks, the flax-flower in the field, leave such imperishable frame behind them. and ponte-della-paglia, in venice; and straw street, of paris, remembered in heaven,--there is no occasion to change their names, as one may have to change 'waterloo bridge,' or the 'rue de l'impératrice.' poor empress! had she but known that her true dominion was in the straw streets of her fields; not in the stone streets of her cities! but think how wonderful this imperishableness of the stem of many plants is, even in their annual work: how much more in their perennial work! the noble stability between death and life, of a piece of perfect wood? it cannot grow, but will not decay; keeps record of its years of life, but surrenders them to become a constantly serviceable thing: which may be sailed in, on the sea, built with, on the land, carved by donatello, painted on by fra angelico. and it is not the wood's fault, but the fault of florence in not taking proper care of it, that the panel of sandro botticelli's loveliest picture has cracked, (not with heat, i believe, but blighting frost), a quarter of an inch wide through the madonna's face. but what is this strange state of undecaying wood? what sort of latent life has it, which it only finally parts with when it rots? nay, what is the law by which its natural life is measured? what makes a tree 'old'? one sees the { } spanish-chesnut trunks among the apennines growing into caves, instead of logs. vast hollows, confused among the recessed darknesses of the marble crags, surrounded by mere laths of living stem, each with its coronal of glorious green leaves. why can't the tree go on, and on,--hollowing itself into a fairy--no--a dryad, ring,--till it becomes a perfect stonehenge of a tree? truly, "i am not sent to tell thee, for i do not know." the worst of it is, however, that i don't know one thing which i ought very thoroughly to have known at least thirty years ago, namely, the true difference in the way of building the trunk in outlaid and inlaid wood. i have an idea that the stem of a palm-tree is only a heap of leaf-roots built up like a tower of bricks, year by year, and that the palm tree really grows on the top of it, like a bunch of fern; but i've no books here, and no time to read them if i had. if only i were a strong giant, instead of a thin old gentleman of fifty-five, how i should like to pull up one of those little palm-trees by the roots--(by the way, what are the roots of a palm like? and, how does it stand in sand, where it is wanted to stand, mostly? fancy, not knowing that, at fifty-five!)--that grow all along the riviera; and snap its stem in two, and cut it down the middle. but i suppose there are sections enough now in our grand botanical collections, and you can find it all out for yourself. that you should be able to ask a question clearly, is two-thirds of the way to getting it answered; and i think this chapter of mine will at { } least enable you to ask some questions about the stem, though what a stem is, truly, "i am not sent to tell thee, for i do not know." knaresborough, _ th april, _. i see by the date of last paragraph that this chapter has been in my good aylesbury printer's type for more than a year and a half. at this rate, proserpina has a distant chance of being finished in the spirit-land, with more accurate information derived from the archangel uriel himself, (not that he is likely to know much about the matter, if he keeps on letting himself be prevented from ever seeing foliage in spring-time by the black demon-winds,) about the year . in the meantime, feeling that perhaps i _am_ sent to tell my readers a little more than is above told, i have had recourse to my botanical friend, good mr. oliver of kew, who has taught me, first, of palms, that they actually stitch themselves into the ground, with a long dipping loop, up and down, of the root fibres, concerning which sempstress-work i shall have a month's puzzlement before i can report on it; secondly, that all the increment of tree stem is, by division and multiplication of the cells of the wood, a process not in the least to be described as 'sending down roots from the leaf to the ground.' i suspected as much in beginning to revise this chapter; but hold to my judgment in not cancelling it. for this multiplication of the cells is at least compelled by an influence which passes from the leaf to the ground, and vice versa; and which is at present best { } conceivable to me by imagining the continual and invisible descent of lightning from electric cloud by a conducting rod, endowed with the power of softly splitting the rod into two rods, each as thick as the original one. studying microscopically, we should then see the molecules of copper, as we see the cells of the wood, dividing and increasing, each one of them into two. but the visible result, and mechanical conditions of growth, would still be the same as if the leaf actually sent down a new root fibre; and, more than this, the currents of accumulating substance, marked by the grain of the wood, are, i think, quite plainly and absolutely those of streams flowing only from the leaves downwards; never from the root up, nor of mere lateral increase. i must look over all my drawings again, and at tree stems again, with more separate study of the bark and pith in those museum sections, before i can assert this; but there will be no real difficulty in the investigation. if the increase of the wood is lateral only, the currents round the knots will be compressed at the sides, and open above and below; but if downwards, compressed above the knot and open below it. the nature of the force itself, and the manner of its ordinances in direction, remain, and must for ever remain, inscrutable as our own passions, in the hand of the god of all spirits, and of all flesh. "drunk is each ridge, of thy cup drinking, each clod relenteth at thy dressing, { } thy cloud-borne waters inly sinking, fair spring sproutes forth, blest with thy blessing; the fertile year is with thy bounty crouned, and where thou go'st, thy goings fat the ground. plenty bedews the desert places, a hedge of mirth the hills encloseth. the fields with flockes have hid their faces, a robe of corn the valleys clotheth. deserts and hills and fields and valleys all, rejoice, shout, sing, and on thy name do call." * * * * * { } chapter x. the bark. . philologists are continually collecting instances, like our friend the french critic of virgil, of the beauty of finished language, or the origin of unfinished, in the imitation of natural sounds. but such collections give an entirely false idea of the real power of language, unless they are balanced by an opponent list of the words which signally fail of any such imitative virtue, and whose sound, if one dwelt upon it, is destructive of their meaning. . for instance. few sounds are more distinct in their kind, or one would think more likely to be vocally reproduced in the word which signified them, than that of a swift rent in strongly woven cloth; and the english word 'rag' and ragged, with the greek [greek: rhêgnumi], do indeed in a measure recall the tormenting effect upon the ear. but it is curious that the verb which is meant to express the actual origination of rags, should rhyme with two words entirely musical and peaceful--words, indeed, which i always reserve for final resource in passages which i want to be soothing as well as pretty,--'fair,' and { } 'air;' while, in its orthography, it is identical with the word representing the bodily sign of tenderest passion, and grouped with a multitude of others,[ ] in which the mere insertion of a consonant makes such wide difference of sentiment as between 'dear' and 'drear,' or 'pear' and 'spear.' the greek root, on the other hand, has persisted in retaining some vestige of its excellent dissonance, even where it has parted with the last vestige of the idea it was meant to convey; and when burns did his best,--and his best was above most men's--to gather pleasant liquid and labial syllabling, round gentle meaning, in "bonnie lassie, will ye go, will ye go, will ye go, bonnie lassie, will ye go, to the birks of aberfeldy?" he certainly had little thought that the delicately crisp final k, in birk, was the remnant of a magnificent greek effort to express the rending of the earth by earthquake, in the wars of the giants. in the middle of that word 'esmarag[=e]se,' we get our own beggar's 'rag' for a pure root, which afterwards, through the latin frango, softens into our 'break,' and 'bark,'--the 'broken thing'; that idea of its rending around the tree's stem having been, in the very earliest human efforts at botanical description, { } attached to it by the pure aryan race, watching the strips of rosy satin break from the birch stems, in the aberfeldys of imaus. . that this tree should have been the only one which "the aryans, coming as conquerors from the north, were able to recognize in hindustan,"[ ] and should therefore also be "the only one whose name is common to sanskrit, and to the languages of europe," delighted me greatly, for two reasons: the first, for its proof that in spite of the development of species, the sweet gleaming of birch stem has never changed its argent and sable for any unchequered heraldry; and the second, that it gave proof of a much more important fact, the keenly accurate observation of aryan foresters at that early date; for the fact is that the breaking of the thin-beaten silver of the birch trunk is so delicate, and its smoothness so graceful, that until i painted it with care, i was not altogether clear-headed myself about the way in which the chequering was done: nor until fors today brought me to the house of one of my father's friends at carshalton, and gave me three birch stems to look at just outside the window, did i perceive it to be a primal question about them, what it is that blanches that dainty dress of theirs, or, anticipatorily, weaves. what difference is there between the making of the corky excrescence of other { } trees, and of this almost transparent fine white linen? i perceive that the older it is, within limits, the finer and whiter; hoary tissue, instead of hoary hair--honouring the tree's aged body; the outer sprays have no silvery light on their youth. does the membrane thin itself into whiteness merely by stretching, or produce an outer film of new substance?[ ] . and secondly, this investiture, why is it transverse to the trunk,--swathing it, as it were, in bands? above all,--when it breaks,--why does it break round the tree instead of down? all other bark breaks as anything would, naturally, round a swelling rod, but this, as if the stem were growing longer; until, indeed, it reaches farthest heroic old age, when the whiteness passes away again, and the rending is like that of other trees, downwards. so that, as it were in a changing language, we have the great botanical fact twice taught us, by this tree of eden, that the skins of trees differ from the skins of the higher animals in that, for the most part, they won't stretch, and must be worn torn. so that in fact the most popular arrangement of vegetative adult costume is irish; a normal investiture in honourable rags; and decorousness of tattering, as of a banner borne in splendid ruin through storms of war. . now therefore, if we think of it, we have five { } distinct orders of investiture for organic creatures; first, mere secretion of mineral substance, chiefly lime, into a hard shell, which, if broken, can only be mended, like china--by sticking it together; secondly, organic substance of armour which grows into its proper shape at once for good and all, and can't be mended at all, if broken, (as of insects); thirdly, organic substance of skin, which stretches, as the creatures grows, by cracking, over a fresh skin which is supplied beneath it, as in bark of trees; fourthly, organic substance of skin cracked symmetrically into plates or scales which can increase all round their edges, and are connected by softer skin, below, as in fish and reptiles, (divided with exquisite lustre and flexibility, in feathers of birds); and lastly, true elastic skin, extended in soft unison with the creature's growth,--blushing with its blood, fading with its fear; breathing with its breath, and guarding its life with sentinel beneficence of pain. . it is notable, in this higher and lower range of organic beauty, that the decoration, by pattern and colour, which is almost universal in the protective coverings of the middle ranks of animals, should be reserved in vegetables for the most living part of them, the flower only; and that among animals, few but the malignant and senseless are permitted, in the corrugation of their armour, to resemble the half-dead trunk of the tree, as they float beside it in the tropical river. i must, however, leave the scale patterns of the palms and other inlaid tropical { } stems for after-examination,--content, at present, with the general idea of the bark of an outlaid tree as the successive accumulation of the annual protecting film, rent into ravines of slowly increasing depth, and coloured, like the rock, whose stability it begins to emulate, with the grey or gold of clinging lichen and embroidering moss. * * * * * { } chapter xi. genealogy. . returning, after more than a year's sorrowful interval, to my sicilian fields,--not incognisant, now, of some of the darker realms of proserpina; and with feebler heart, and, it may be, feebler wits, for wandering in her brighter ones,--i find what i had written by way of sequel to the last chapter, somewhat difficult, and extremely tiresome. not the less, after giving fair notice of the difficulty, and asking due pardon for the tiresomeness, i am minded to let it stand; trusting to end, with it, once for all, investigations of the kind. but in finishing this first volume of my school botany, i must try to give the reader some notion of the plan of the book, as it now, during the time for thinking over it which illness left me, has got itself arranged in my mind, within limits of possible execution. and this the rather, because i wish also to state, somewhat more gravely than i have yet done, the grounds on which i venture here to reject many of the received names of plants; and to substitute others for them, relating to entirely different attributes { } from those on which their present nomenclature is confusedly edified. i have already in some measure given the reasons for this change;[ ] but i feel that, for the sake of those among my scholars who have laboriously learned the accepted names, i ought now also to explain its method more completely. . i call the present system of nomenclature _confusedly_ edified, because it introduces,--without, apparently, any consciousness of the inconsistency, and certainly with no apology for it,--names founded sometimes on the history of plants, sometimes on their qualities, sometimes on their forms, sometimes on their products, and sometimes on their poetical associations. on their history--as 'gentian' from king gentius, and funkia from dr. funk. on their qualities--as 'scrophularia' from its (quite uncertified) use in scrofula. on their forms--as the 'caryophylls' from having petals like husks of nuts. on their products--as 'cocos nucifera' from its nuts. and on their poetical associations,--as the star of bethlehem from its imagined resemblance to the light of that seen by the magi. . now, this variety of grounds for nomenclature might patiently, and even with advantage, be permitted, { } provided the grounds themselves were separately firm, and the inconsistency of method advisedly allowed, and, in each case, justified. if the histories of king gentius and dr. funk are indeed important branches of human knowledge;--if the scrophulariaceæ do indeed cure king's evil;--if pinks be best described in their likeness to nuts;--and the star of bethlehem verily remind us of christ's nativity,--by all means let these and other such names be evermore retained. but if dr. funk be not a person in any special manner needing either stellification or florification; if neither herb nor flower can avail, more than the touch of monarchs, against hereditary pain; if it be no better account of a pink to say it is nut-leaved, than of a nut to say it is pink-leaved; and if the modern mind, incurious respecting the journeys of wise men, has already confused, in its bradshaw's bible, the station of bethlehem with that of bethel,[ ] it is certainly time to take some order with the partly false, partly useless, and partly forgotten literature of the fields; and, before we bow our children's memories to the burden of it, ensure that there shall be matter worth carriage in the load. . and farther, in attempting such a change, we must be clear in our own minds whether we wish our nomenclature to tell us something about the plant itself, or only to tell us the place it holds in relation to other plants: as, for instance, in the herb-robert, would it be well to { } christen it, shortly, 'rob roy,' because it is pre-eminently red, and so have done with it;--or rather to dwell on its family connections, and call it 'macgregoraceous'? . before we can wisely decide this point, we must resolve whether our botany is intended mainly to be useful to the vulgar, or satisfactory to the scientific élite. for if we give names characterizing individuals, the circle of plants which any country possesses may be easily made known to the children who live in it: but if we give names founded on the connexion between these and others at the antipodes, the parish school-master will certainly have double work; and it may be doubted greatly whether the parish school-boy, at the end of the lecture, will have half as many ideas. . nevertheless, when the features of any great order of plants are constant, and, on the whole, represented with great clearness both in cold and warm climates, it may be desirable to express this their citizenship of the world in definite nomenclature. but my own method, so far as hitherto developed, consists essentially in fastening the thoughts of the pupil on the special character of the plant, in the place where he is likely to see it; and therefore, in expressing the power of its race and order in the wider world, rather by reference to mythological associations than to botanical structure. . for instance, plate vii. represents, of its real size, an ordinary spring flower in our english mountain fields. it is an average example,--not one of rare size under rare { } conditions,--rather smaller than the average, indeed, that i might get it well into my plate. it is one of the flowers whose names i think good to change; but i look carefully through the existing titles belonging to it and its fellows, that i may keep all i expediently can. i find, in the first place, that linnæus called one group of its relations, ophryds, from ophrys,--greek for the eyebrow,--on account of their resemblance to the brow of an animal frowning, or to the overshadowing casque of a helmet. i perceive this to be really a very general aspect of the flower; and therefore, no less than in respect to linnæus, i adopt this for the total name of the order, and call them 'ophrydæ,' or, shortly, 'ophryds.' . secondly: so far as i know these flowers myself, i perceive them to fall practically into three divisions,--one, growing in english meadows and alpine pastures, and always adding to their beauty; another, growing in all sorts of places, very ugly itself, and adding to the ugliness of its indiscriminated haunts; and a third, growing mostly up in the air, with as little root as possible, and of gracefully fantastic forms, such as this kind of nativity and habitation might presuppose. for the present, i am satisfied to give names to these three groups only. there may be plenty of others which i do not know, and which other people may name, according to their knowledge. but in all these three kinds known to me, i perceive one constant characteristic to be _some_ manner of _distortion_ and i desire that fact,--marking a { } spiritual (in my sense of the word) character of extreme mystery,--to be the first enforced on the mind of the young learner. it is exhibited to the english child, primarily, in the form of the stalk of each flower, attaching it to the central virga. this stalk is always twisted once and a half round, as if somebody had been trying to wring the blossom off; and the name of the family, in proserpina, will therefore be 'contorta'[ ] in latin, and 'wreathe-wort' in english. farther: the beautiful power of the one i have drawn in its spring life, is in the opposition of its dark purple to the primrose in england, and the pale yellow anemone in the alps. and its individual name will be, therefore, 'contorta purpurea'--_purple_ wreathe-wort. and in drawing it, i take care to dwell on this strength of its color, and to show thoroughly that it is a _dark_ blossom,[ ] before i trouble myself about its minor characters. . the second group of this kind of flowers live, as i said, in all sorts of places; but mostly, i think, in disagreeable ones,--torn and irregular ground, under alternations of unwholesome heat and shade, and among swarms of nasty insects. i cannot yet venture on any bold general statement about them, but i think that is mostly their way; and at all events, they themselves are in the { } habit of dressing in livid and unpleasant colors; and are distinguished from all other flowers by twisting, not only their stalks, but one of their petals, not once and a half only, but two or three times round, and putting it far out at the same time, as a foul jester would put out his tongue: while also the singular power of grotesque mimicry, which, though strong also in the other groups of their race, seems in the others more or less playful, is, in these, definitely degraded, and, in aspect, malicious. . now i find the latin name 'satyrium' attached already to one sort of these flowers; and we cannot possibly have a better one for all of them. it is true that, in its first greek form, dioscorides attaches it to a white, not a livid, flower; and i dare say there are some white ones of the breed: but, in its full sense, the term is exactly right for the entire group of ugly blossoms of which the characteristic is the spiral curve and protraction of their central petal: and every other form of satyric ugliness which i find among the ophryds, whatever its color, will be grouped with them. and i make them central, because this humour runs through the whole order, and is, indeed, their distinguishing sign. . then the third group, living actually in the air, and only holding fast by, without nourishing itself from, the ground, rock, or tree-trunk on which it is rooted, may of course most naturally and accurately be called 'aeria,' as it has long been popularly known in english by the name of air-plant. { } thus we have one general name for all these creatures, 'ophryd'; and three family or group names, contorta, satyrium, and aeria,--every one of these titles containing as much accurate fact about the thing named as i can possibly get packed into their syllables: and i will trouble my young readers with no more divisions of the order. and if their parents, tutors, or governors, after this fair warning, choose to make them learn, instead, the seventy-seven different names with which botanist-heraldries have beautifully ennobled the family,--all i can say is, let them at least begin by learning them themselves. they will be found in due order in pages , of loudon's cyclopædia.[ ] . but now, farther: the student will observe that the name of the total order is greek; while the three family ones are latin, although the central one is originally greek also. i adopt this as far as possible for a law through my whole plant nomenclature. . farther: the terminations of the latin family names will be, for the most part, of the masculine, { } feminine, and neuter forms, us, a, um, with these following attached conditions. (i.) those terminating in 'us,' though often of feminine words, as the central arbor, will indicate either real masculine strength (quereus, laurus), or conditions of dominant majesty (cedrus), of stubbornness and enduring force (crataegus), or of peasant-like commonalty and hardship (juncus); softened, as it may sometimes happen, into gentleness and beneficence (thymus). the occasional forms in 'er' and 'il' will have similar power (acer, basil). (ii.) names with the feminine termination 'a,' if they are real names of girls, will always mean flowers that are perfectly pretty and perfectly good (lucia, viola, margarita, clarissa). names terminating in 'a' which are not also accepted names of girls, may sometimes be none the less honourable, (primula, campanula,) but for the most part will signify either plants that are only good and worthy in a nursy sort of way, (salvia,) or that are good without being pretty, (lavandula,) or pretty without being good, (kalmia). but no name terminating in 'a' will be attached to a plant that is neither good nor pretty. (iii.) the neuter names terminating in 'um' will always indicate some power either of active or suggestive evil, (conîum, solanum, satyrium,) or a relation, more or less definite, to death; but this relation to death may sometimes be noble, or pathetic,--"which { } to-day is, and to-morrow is cast into the oven,"--lilium. but the leading position of these neuters in the plant's double name must be noticed by students unacquainted with latin, in order to distinguish them from plural genitives, which will always, of course, be the second word, (francesca fontium, francesca of the springs.) . names terminating in 'is' and 'e,' if definitely names of women, (iris, amaryllis, alcestis, daphne,) will always signify flowers of great beauty, and noble historic association. if not definitely names of women, they will yet indicate some specialty of sensitiveness, or association with legend (berberis, clematis). no neuters in 'e' will be admitted. . participial terminations (impatiens), with neuters in 'en' (cyclamen), will always be descriptive of some special quality or form,--leaving it indeterminate if good or bad, until explained. it will be manifestly impossible to limit either these neuters, or the feminines in 'is' to latin forms; but we shall always know by their termination that they cannot be generic names, if we are strict in forming these last on a given method. . how little method there is in our present formation of them, i am myself more and more surprised as i consider. a child is shown a rose, and told that he is to call every flower like that, 'rosaceous';[ ] he is next { } shown a lily, and told that he is to call every flower like that, 'liliaceous';--so far well; but he is next shown a daisy, and is not at all allowed to call every flower like that, 'daisaceous,' but he must call it, like the fifth order of architecture, 'composite'; and being next shown a pink, he is not allowed to call other pinks 'pinkaceous,' but 'nut-leafed'; and being next shown a pease-blossom, he is not allowed to call other pease-blossoms 'peasaceous,' but, in a brilliant burst of botanical imagination, he is incited to call it by two names instead of one, 'butterfly-aceous' from its flower, and 'pod-aceous' from its seed;--the inconsistency of the terms thus enforced upon him being perfected in their inaccuracy, for a daisy is not one whit more composite than queen of the meadow, or jura jacinth;[ ] and 'legumen' is not latin for a pod, but 'siliqua,'--so that no good scholar could remember virgil's 'siliqua quassante legumen,' without overthrowing all his pisan nomenclature. . farther. if we ground our names of the higher orders on the distinctive characters of _form_ in plants, these are so many, and so subtle, that we are at once involved in more investigations than a young learner has ever time to follow successfully, and they must be at all times liable to dislocations and rearrangements on the discovery of any new link in the infinitely entangled { } chain. but if we found our higher nomenclature at once on historic fact, and relative conditions of climate and character, rather than of form, we may at once distribute our flora into unalterable groups, to which we may add at our pleasure, but which will never need disturbance; far less, reconstruction. . for instance,--and to begin,--it is an historical fact that for many centuries the english nation believed that the founder of its religion, spiritually, by the mouth of the king who spake of all herbs, had likened himself to two flowers,--the rose of sharon, and lily of the valley. the fact of this belief is one of the most important in the history of england,--that is to say, of the mind or heart of england: and it is connected solemnly with the heart of italy also, by the closing cantos of the paradiso. i think it well therefore that our two first generic, or at least commandant, names heading the out-laid and in-laid divisions of plants, should be of the rose and lily, with such meaning in them as may remind us of this fact in the history of human mind. it is also historical that the personal appearing of this master of our religion was spoken of by our chief religious teacher in these terms: "the grace of god, that bringeth salvation, hath appeared unto all men." and it is a constant fact that this 'grace' or 'favor' of god is spoken of as "giving us to eat of the tree of life." . now, comparing the botanical facts i have to express, with these historical ones, i find that the rose tribe { } has been formed among flowers, not in distant and monstrous geologic æras, but in the human epoch;--that its 'grace' or favor has been in all countries so felt as to cause its acceptance everywhere for the most perfect physical type of womanhood;--and that the characteristic fruit of the tribe is so sweet, that it has become symbolic at once of the subtlest temptation, and the kindest ministry to the earthly passion of the human race. "comfort me with apples, for i am sick of love." . therefore i shall call the entire order of these flowers 'charites,' (graces,) and they will be divided into these five genera, rosa, persica, pomum, rubra, and fragaria. which sequence of names i do not think the young learner will have difficulty in remembering; nor in understanding why i distinguish the central group by the fruit instead of the flower. and if he once clearly master the structure and relations of these five genera, he will have no difficulty in attaching to them, in a satellitic or subordinate manner, such inferior groups as that of the silver-weed, or the tormentilla; but all he will have to learn by heart and rote, will be these six names; the greek master-name, charites, and the five generic names, in each case belonging to plants, as he will soon find, of extreme personal interest to him. . i have used the word 'order' as the name of our widest groups, in preference to 'class,' because these widest groups will not always include flowers like each other in form, or equal to each other in vegetative rank; { } but they will be 'orders,' literally like those of any religious or chivalric association, having some common link rather intellectual than national,--the charites, for instance, linked by their kindness,--the oreiades, by their mountain seclusion, as sisters of charity or monks of the chartreuse, irrespective of ties of relationship. then beneath these orders will come, what may be rightly called, either as above in greek derivation, 'genera,' or in latin, 'gentes,' for which, however, i choose the latin word, because genus is disagreeably liable to be confused on the ear with 'genius'; but gens, never; and also 'nomen gentile' is a clearer and better expression than 'nomen generosum,' and i will not coin the barbarous one, 'genericum.' the name of the gens, (as 'lucia,') with an attached epithet, as 'verna,' will, in most cases, be enough to characterize the individual flower; but if farther subdivision be necessary, the third order will be that of families, indicated by a 'nomen familiare' added in the third place of nomenclature, as lucia verna,--borealis; and no farther subdivision will ever be admitted. i avoid the word 'species'--originally a bad one, and lately vulgarized beyond endurance--altogether. and varieties belonging to narrow localities, or induced by horticulture, may be named as they please by the people living near the spot, or by the gardener who grows them; but will not be acknowledged by proserpina. nevertheless, the arbitrary reduction under ordines, gentes, and familiæ, { } is always to be remembered as one of massive practical convenience only; and the more subtle arborescence of the infinitely varying structures may be followed, like a human genealogy, as far as we please, afterwards; when once we have got our common plants clearly arranged and intelligibly named. . but now we find ourselves in the presence of a new difficulty, the greatest we have to deal with in the whole matter. one new nomenclature, to be thoroughly good, must be acceptable to scholars in the five great languages, greek, latin, french, italian, and english; and it must be acceptable by them in teaching the native children of each country. i shall not be satisfied, unless i can feel that the little maids who gather their first violets under the acropolis rock, may receive for them Æschylean words again with joy. i shall not be content, unless the mothers watching their children at play in the ceramicus of paris, under the scarred ruins of her kings' palace, may yet teach them there to know the flowers which the maid of orleans gathered at domremy. i shall not be satisfied unless every word i ask from the lips of the children of florence and rome, may enable them better to praise the flowers that are chosen by the hand of matilda,[ ] and bloom around the tomb of virgil. { } . now in this first example of nomenclature, the master-name, being _pure_ greek, may easily be accepted by greek children, remembering that certain also of their own poets, if they did not call the flower a grace itself, at least thought of it as giving gladness to the three in their dances.[ ] but for french children the word 'grâce' has been doubly and trebly corrupted; first, by entirely false theological scholarship, mistaking the 'favor' or grace done by god to good men, for the 'misericordia,' or mercy, shown by him to bad ones; and so, in practical life, finally substituting 'grâce' as a word of extreme and mortal prayer, for 'merci,' and of late using 'merci' in a totally ridiculous and perverted power, for the giving of thanks (or refusal of offered good): while the literally derived word 'charite' has become, in the modern mind, a gift, whether from god or man, only to the wretched, never to the happy: and lastly, 'grâce' in its physical sense has been perverted, by their social vulgarity, into an idea, whether with respect to form or motion, commending itself rather to the ballet-master than either to the painter or the priest. for these reasons, the master name of this family, for my french pupils, must be simply 'rhodiades,' which will bring, for them, the entire group of names into easily remembered symmetry; and the english form of { } the same name, rhodiad, is to be used by english scholars also for all tribes of this group except the five principal ones. . farther, in every gens of plants, one will be chosen as the representative, which, if any, will be that examined and described in the course of this work, if i have opportunity of doing so. this representative flower will always be a wild one, and of the simplest form which completely expresses the character of the plant; existing divinely and unchangeably from age to age, ungrieved by man's neglect, and inflexible by his power. and this divine character will be expressed by the epithet 'sacred,' taking the sense in which we attach it to a dominant and christened majesty, when it belongs to the central type of any forceful order;--'quercus sacra,' 'laurus sacra,' etc.,--the word 'benedicta,' or 'benedictus,' being used instead, if the plant be too humble to bear, without some discrepancy and unbecomingness, the higher title; as 'carduus benedictus,' holy thistle. . among the gentes of flowers bearing girls' names, the dominant one will be simply called the queen, 'rose regina,' 'rose the queen' (the english wild rose); 'clarissa regina,' 'clarissa the queen' (mountain pink); 'lucia regina,' 'lucy the queen' (spring gentian), or in simpler english, 'lucy of teesdale,' as 'harry of monmouth.' the ruling flowers of groups { } which bear names not yet accepted for names of girls, will be called simply 'domina,' or shortly 'donna.' 'rubra domina' (wild raspberry): the wild strawberry, because of her use in heraldry, will bear a name of her own, exceptional, 'cora coronalis.' . these main points being understood, and concessions made, we may first arrange the greater orders of land plants in a group of twelve, easily remembered, and with very little forcing. there must be _some_ forcing always to get things into quite easily tenable form, for nature always has her ins and outs. but it is curious how fitly and frequently the number of twelve may be used for memoria technica; and in this instance the greek derivative names fall at once into harmony with the most beautiful parts of greek mythology, leading on to early christian tradition. . their series will be, therefore, as follows: the principal subordinate groups being at once placed under each of the great ones. the reasons for occasional appearance of inconsistency will be afterwards explained, and the english and french forms given in each case are the terms which would be used in answering the rapid question, 'of what order is this flower?' the answer being, it is a 'cyllenid,' a 'pleiad,' or a 'vestal,' as one would answer of a person, he is a knight of st. john or monk of st. benedict; while to the question, of what gens, we answer, a stella or an erica, as one would answer of a person, a stuart or plantagenet. { } i. charites. eng. charis. fr. rhodiade. rosa. persica. pomum. rubra. fragaria. ii. uranides. eng. uranid. fr. uranide. lucia. campanula. convoluta. iii. cyllenides. eng. cyllenid. fr. nephelide. stella. francesca. primula. iv. oreiades. eng. oreiad. fr. oreade. erica. myrtilla. aurora. v. pleiades. eng. pleiad. fr. pleiade. silvia. anemone. vi. artemides. eng. artemid. fr. artemide. clarissa. lychnis. scintilla. mica. vii. vestales. eng. vestal. fr. vestale. mentha. melitta. basil. salvia. lavandula. thymus. viii. cytherides. eng. cytherid. fr. cytheride. viola. veronica. giulietta. { } ix. heliades. eng. alcestid. fr. heliade. clytia. margarita. alcestis. falconia. carduus. x. delphides. eng. delphid. fr. delphide. laurus. granata. myrtus. xi. hesperides. eng. hesperid. fr. hesperide. aurantia. aglee. xii. athenaides. eng. athenaid. fr. athenaide. olea. fraxinus. i will shortly note the changes of name in their twelve orders, and the reasons for them. i. charites.--the only change made in the nomenclature of this order is the slight one of 'rubra' for 'rubus': partly to express true sisterhood with the other charites; partly to enforce the idea of redness, as characteristic of the race, both in the lovely purple and russet of their winter leafage, and in the exquisite bloom of scarlet on the stems in strong young shoots. they have every right to be placed among the charites, first because the raspberry is really a more important fruit in domestic economy than the strawberry; and, secondly, because the wild bramble is often in its wandering sprays even more graceful than the rose; and in blossom and { } fruit the best autumnal gift that english nature has appointed for her village children. ii. uranides.--not merely because they are all of the color of the sky, but also sacred to urania in their divine purity. 'convoluta' instead of 'convolvulus,' chiefly for the sake of euphony; but also because pervinca is to be included in this group. iii. cyllenides.--named from mount cyllene in arcadia, because the three races included in the order alike delight in rocky ground, and in the cold or moist air of mountain-clouds. iv. oreiades.--described in next chapter. v. pleiades.--from the habit of the flowers belonging to this order to get into bright local clusters. silvia, for the wood-sorrel, will i hope be an acceptable change to my girl-readers. vi. artemides.--dedicate to artemis for their expression of energy, no less than purity. this character was rightly felt in them by whoever gave the name 'dianthus' to their leading race; a name which i should have retained if it had not been bad greek. i wish them, by their name 'clarissa' to recall the memory of st. clare, as 'francesca' that of st. francis.[ ] the { } 'issa,' not without honour to the greatest of our english moral story-tellers, is added for the practical reason, that i think the sound will fasten in the minds of children the essential characteristic of the race, the cutting of the outer edge of the petal as if with scissors. vii. vestales.--i allow this latin form, because hestiades would have been confused with heliades. the order is named 'of the hearth,' from its manifold domestic use, and modest blossoming. viii. cytherides.--dedicate to venus, but in all purity and peace of thought. giulietta, for the coarse, and more than ordinarily false, polygala. ix. heliades.--the sun-flowers.[ ] in english, alcestid, in honour to chaucer and the daisy. x. delphides.--sacred to apollo. granata, changed from punica, in honor to granada and the moors. xi. hesperides.--already a name given to the order. { } aegle, prettier and more classic than limonia, includes the idea of brightness in the blossom. xii. athenaides.--i take fraxinus into this group, because the mountain ash, in its hawthorn-scented flower, scarletest of berries, and exquisitely formed and finished leafage, belongs wholly to the floral decoration of our native rocks, and is associated with their human interests, though lightly, not less spiritually, than the olive with the mind of greece. . the remaining groups are in great part natural; but i separate for subsequent study five orders of supreme domestic utility, the mallows, currants, pease,[ ] cresses, and cranesbills, from those which, either in fruit or blossom, are for finer pleasure or higher beauty. i think it will be generally interesting for children to learn those five names as an easy lesson, and gradually discover, wondering, the world that they include. i will give their terminology at length, separately. . one cannot, in all groups, have all the divisions of equal importance; the mallows are only placed with the other four for their great value in decoration of cottage gardens in autumn: and their softly healing { } qualities as a tribe. they will mentally connect the whole useful group with the three great Æsculapiadæ, cinchona, coffea, and camellia. . taking next the water-plants, crowned in the drosidÆ, which include the five great families, juncus, jacinthus, amaryllis, iris, and lilium, and are masculine in their greek name because their two first groups, juncus and jacinthus, are masculine, i gather together the three orders of tritonides, which are notably trefoil; the naiades, notably quatrefoil, but for which i keep their present pretty name; and the batrachides,[ ] notably cinqfoil, for which i keep their present ugly one, only changing it from latin into greek. . i am not sure of being forgiven so readily for putting the grasses, sedges, mosses, and lichens together, under the great general head of demetridæ. but it seems to me the mosses and lichens belong no less definitely to demeter, in being the first gatherers of earth on rock, and the first coverers of its sterile surface, than the grass which at last prepares it to the foot and to the food of man. and with the mosses i shall take all the especially moss-plants which otherwise are homeless or companionless, drosera, and the like, and as a connecting link with the flowers belonging to the dark { } kora, the two strange orders of the ophryds and agarics. . lastly will come the orders of flowers which may be thought of as belonging for the most part to the dark kora of the lower world,--having at least the power of death, if not its terror, given them, together with offices of comfort and healing in sleep, or of strengthening, if not too prolonged, action on the nervous power of life. of these, the first will be the dionysidÆ,--hedera, vitis, liana; then the draconidÆ,--atropa, digitalis, linaria; and, lastly, the moiridÆ,--conîum, papaver, solanum, arum, and nerium. . as i see this scheme now drawn out, simple as it is, the scope of it seems not only far too great for adequate completion by my own labour, but larger than the time likely to be given to botany by average scholars would enable them intelligently to grasp: and yet it includes, i suppose, not the tenth part of the varieties of plants respecting which, in competitive examination, a student of physical science is now expected to know, or at least assert on hearsay, _something_. so far as i have influence with the young, myself, i would pray them to be assured that it is better to know the habits of one plant than the names of a thousand; and wiser to be happily familiar with those that grow in the nearest field, than arduously cognisant of all that plume the isles of the pacific, or illumine the mountains of the moon. { } nevertheless, i believe that when once the general form of this system in proserpina has been well learned, much other knowledge may be easily attached to it, or sheltered under the eaves of it: and in its own development, i believe everything may be included that the student will find useful, or may wisely desire to investigate, of properly european botany. but i am convinced that the best results of his study will be reached by a resolved adherence to extreme simplicity of primal idea, and primal nomenclature. . i do not think the need of revisal of our present scientific classification could be more clearly demonstrated than by the fact that laurels and roses are confused, even by dr. lindley, in the mind of his feminine readers; the english word laurel, in the index to his first volume of ladies' botany, referring them to the cherries, under which the common laurel is placed as 'prunus laurocerasus,' while the true laurel, 'laurus nobilis,' must be found in the index of the second volume, under the latin form 'laurus.' this accident, however, illustrates another, and a most important point to be remembered, in all arrangements whether of plants, minerals, or animals. no single classification can possibly be perfect, or anything _like_ perfect. it must be, at its best, a ground, or _warp_ of arrangement only, through which, or over which, the cross threads of another,--yes, and of many others,--must be woven in our minds. thus the almond, though in { } the form and colour of its flower, and method of its fruit, rightly associated with the roses, yet by the richness and sweetness of its kernel must be held mentally connected with all plants that bear nuts. these assuredly must have something in their structure common, justifying their being gathered into a conceived or conceivable group of 'nuciferæ,' in which the almond, hazel, walnut, cocoa-nut, and such others would be considered as having relationship, at least in their power of secreting a crisp and sweet substance which is not wood, nor bark, nor pulp, nor seed-pabulum reducible to softness by boiling;--but quite separate substance, for which i do not know that there at present exists any botanical name,--of which, hitherto, i find no general account, and can only myself give so much, on reflection, as that it is crisp and close in texture, and always contains some kind of oil or milk. . again, suppose the arrangement of plants could, with respect to their flowers and fruits, be made approximately complete, they must instantly be broken and reformed by comparison of their stems and leaves. the three _creeping_ families of the charites,--rosa, rubra, and fragaria,--must then be frankly separated from the elastic persica and knotty pomum; of which one wild and lovely species, the hawthorn, is no less notable for the massive accumulation of wood in the stubborn stem of it, than the wild rose for her lovely power of wreathing her garlands at pleasure wherever they are { } fairest, the stem following them and sustaining, where they will. . thus, as we examine successively each part of any plant, new sisterhoods, and unthought-of fellowships, will be found between the most distant orders; and ravines of unexpected separation open between those otherwise closely allied. few botanical characters are more definite than the leaf structure illustrated in plate vi., which has given to one group of the drosidæ the descriptive name of ensatæ, (see above, chapter ix., § ,) but this conformation would not be wisely permitted to interfere in the least with the arrangement founded on the much more decisive floral aspects of the iris and lily. so, in the fifth volume of 'modern painters,' the sword-like, or rather rapier-like, leaves of the pine are opposed, for the sake of more vivid realization, to the shield-like leaves of the greater number of inland trees; but it would be absurd to allow this difference any share in botanical arrangement,--else we should find ourselves thrown into sudden discomfiture by the wide-waving and opening foliage of the palms and ferns. . but through all the defeats by which insolent endeavors to sum the orders of creation must be reproved, and in the midst of the successes by which patient insight will be surprised, the fact of the _confirmation_ of species in plants and animals must remain always a miraculous one. what outstretched sign of constant omnipotence can be more awful, than that the susceptibility to { } external influences, with the reciprocal power of transformation, in the organs of the plant; and the infinite powers of moral training and mental conception over the nativity of animals, should be so restrained within impassable limits, and by inconceivable laws, that from generation to generation, under all the clouds and revolutions of heaven with its stars, and among all the calamities and convulsions of the earth with her passions, the numbers and the names of her kindred may still be counted for her in unfailing truth;--still the fifth sweet leaf unfold for the rose, and the sixth spring for the lily; and yet the wolf rave tameless round the folds of the pastoral mountains, and yet the tiger flame through the forests of the night. * * * * * { } chapter xii. cora and kronos. . of all the lovely wild plants--and few, mountain-bred, in britain, are other than lovely,--that fill the clefts and crest the ridges of my brantwood rock, the dearest to me, by far, are the clusters of whortleberry which divide possession of the lower slopes with the wood hyacinth and pervenche. they are personally and specially dear to me for their association in my mind with the woods of montanvert; but the plant itself, irrespective of all accidental feeling, is indeed so beautiful in all its ways--so delicately strong in the spring of its leafage, so modestly wonderful in the formation of its fruit, and so pure in choice of its haunts, not capriciously or unfamiliarly, but growing in luxuriance through all the healthiest and sweetest seclusion of mountain territory throughout europe,--that i think i may without any sharp remonstrance be permitted to express for this once only, personal feeling in my nomenclature, calling it in latin 'myrtilla cara,' and in french 'myrtille chérie,' but retaining for it in english its simply classic name, 'blue whortle.' { } . it is the most common representative of the group of myrtillæ, which, on reference to our classification, will be found central between the ericæ and auroræ. the distinctions between these three families may be easily remembered, and had better be learned before going farther; but first let us note their fellowship. they are all oreiades, mountain plants; in specialty, they are all strong in stem, low in stature, and the ericæ and auroræ glorious in the flush of their infinitely exulting flowers, ("the rapture of the heath"--above spoken of, p. .) but all the essential loveliness of the myrtillæ is in their leaves and fruit: the first always exquisitely finished and grouped like the most precious decorative work of sacred painting; the second, red or purple, like beads of coral or amethyst. their minute flowers have rarely any general part or power in the colors of mountain ground; but, examined closely, they are one of the chief joys of the traveller's rest among the alps; and full of exquisiteness unspeakable, in their several bearings and miens of blossom, so to speak. plate viii. represents, however feebly, the proud bending back of her head by myrtilla regina:[ ] an action as beautiful in _her_ as it is terrible in the kingly serpent of egypt. . the formal differences between these three families are trenchant and easily remembered. the ericæ { } are all quatrefoils, and quatrefoils of the most studied and accomplished symmetry; and they bear no berries, but only dry seeds. the myrtillæ and auroræ are both cinqfoil; but the myrtillæ are symmetrical in their blossom, and the auroræ unsymmetrical. farther, the myrtillæ are not absolutely determinate in the number of their foils, (this being essentially a characteristic of flowers exposed to much hardship,) and are thus sometimes quatrefoil, in sympathy with the ericæ. but the auroræ are strictly cinqfoil. these last are the only european form of a larger group, well named 'azalea' from the greek [greek: aza], dryness, and its adjective [greek: azalea], dry or parched; and _this_ name must be kept for the world-wide group, (including under it rhododendron, but not kalmia,) because there is an under-meaning in the word aza, enabling it to be applied to the substance of dry earth, and indicating one of the great functions of the oreiades, in common with the mosses,--the collection of earth upon rocks. . neither the ericæ, as i have just said, nor auroræ bear useful fruit; and the ericæ are named from their consequent worthlessness in the eyes of the greek farmer; they were the plants he 'tore up' for his bed, or signal-fire, his word for them including a farther sense of crushing or bruising into a heap. the westmoreland shepherds now, alas! burn them remorselessly on the ground, (and a year since had nearly set the copse of brantwood on fire just above the house.) the sense of { } parched and fruitless existence is given to the heaths, with beautiful application of the context, in our english translation of jeremiah xvii. ; but i find the plant there named is, in the septuagint, wild tamarisk; the mountains of palestine being, i suppose, in that latitude, too low for heath, unless in the lebanon. . but i have drawn the reader's thoughts to this great race of the oreiades at present, because they place for us in the clearest light a question which i have finally to answer before closing the first volume of proserpina; namely, what is the real difference between the three ranks of vegetative humility, and noblesse--the herb, the shrub, and the tree? . between the herb, which perishes annually, and the plants which construct year after year an increasing stem, there is, of course, no difficulty of discernment; but between the plants which, like these oreiades, construct for themselves richest intricacy of supporting stem, yet scarcely rise a fathom's height above the earth they gather and adorn,--between these, and the trees that lift cathedral aisles of colossal shade on andes and lebanon,--where is the limit of kind to be truly set? . we have the three orders given, as no botanist could, in twelve lines by milton:-- "then herbs of every leaf, that sudden flow'r'd op'ning their various colours, and made gay her bosom smelling sweet; and, these scarce blown, forth flourish'd thick the clust'ring vine, forth crept { } the swelling gourd, up stood the corny reed embattel'd in her field; and th' _humble shrub,_ _and bush with frizzled hair implicit_: last rose, as in dance, the stately trees, and spread their branches hung with copious fruits, or gemm'd their blossoms; with high woods the hills were crown'd; with tufts the valleys and each fountain side; with borders long the rivers." only to learn, and be made to understand, these twelve lines thoroughly would teach a youth more of true botany than an entire cyclopædia of modern nomenclature and description: they are, like all milton's work, perfect in accuracy of epithet, while consummate in concentration. exquisite in touch, as infinite in breadth, they gather into their unbroken clause of melodious compass the conception at once of the columbian prairie, the english cornfield, the syrian vineyard, and the indian grove. but even milton has left untold, and for the instant perhaps unthought of, the most solemn difference of rank between the low and lofty trees, not in magnitude only, nor in grace, but in duration. . yet let us pause before passing to this greater subject, to dwell more closely on what he has told us so clearly,--the difference in grace, namely, between the trees that rise 'as in dance,' and 'the bush with frizzled hair.' for the bush form is essentially one taken by vegetation in some kind of distress; scorched by heat, discouraged by darkness, or bitten by frost; it is the form in which isolated knots of earnest plant life stay { } the flux of fiery sands, bind the rents of tottering crags, purge the stagnant air of cave or chasm, and fringe with sudden hues of unhoped spring the arctic edge of retreating desolation. on the other hand, the trees which, as in sacred dance, make the borders of the rivers glad with their procession, and the mountain ridges statelier with their pride, are all expressions of the vegetative power in its accomplished felicities; gathering themselves into graceful companionship with the fairest arts and serenest life of man; and providing not only the sustenance and the instruments, but also the lessons and the delights, of that life, in perfectness of order, and unblighted fruition of season and time. . 'interitura'--yet these not to-day, nor to-morrow, nor with the decline of the summer's sun. we describe a plant as small or great; and think we have given account enough of its nature and being. but the chief question for the plant, as for the human creature, is the number of its days; for to the tree, as to its master, the words are forever true--"as thy day is, so shall thy strength be." . i am astonished hourly, more and more, at the apathy and stupidity which have prevented me hitherto from learning the most simple facts at the base of this question! here is this myrtille bush in my hand--its cluster of some fifteen or twenty delicate green branches knitting themselves downwards into the stubborn brown { } of a stem on which my knife makes little impression. i have not the slightest idea how old it is, still less how old it might one day have been if i had not gathered it; and, less than the least, what hinders it from becoming as old as it likes! what doom is there over these bright green sprays, that they may never win to any height or space of verdure, nor persist beyond their narrow scope of years? . and the more i think the more i bewilder myself; for these bushes, which are pruned and clipped by the deathless gardener into these lowly thickets of bloom, do not strew the ground with fallen branches and faded clippings in any wise,--it is the pining umbrage of the patriarchal trees that tinges the ground and betrays the foot beneath them: but, under the heather and the alpine rose.--well, what _is_ under them, then? i never saw, nor thought of looking,--will look presently under my own bosquets and beds of lingering heather-blossom: beds indeed they were only a month since, a foot deep in flowers, and close in tufted cushions, and the mountain air that floated over them rich in honey like a draught of metheglin. . not clipped, nor pruned, i think, after all,--nor dwarfed in the gardener's sense; but pausing in perpetual youth and strength, ordained out of their lips of roseate infancy. rose-trees--the botanists have falsely called the proudest of them; yet not trees in any wise, they, nor doomed to know the edge of axe at their { } roots, nor the hoary waste of time, or searing thunderstroke, on sapless branches. continual morning for them, and _in_ them; they themselves an aurora, purple and cloudless, stayed on all the happy hills. that shall be our name for them, in the flushed phoenician colour of their height, in calm or tempest of the heavenly sea; how much holier than the depth of the tyrian! and the queen of them on our own alps shall be 'aurora alpium.'[ ] . there is one word in the miltonian painting of them which i must lean on specially; for the accurate english of it hides deep morality no less than botany. 'with hair _implicit_.' the interweaving of complex band, which knits the masses of heath or of alpine rose into their dense tufts and spheres of flower, is to be noted both in these, and in stem structure of a higher order like that of the stone pine, for an expression of the instinct of the plant gathering itself into protective unity, whether against cold or heat, while the forms of the trees which have no hardship to sustain are uniformly based on the effort of each spray to _separate_ itself from its fellows to the utmost, and obtain around its own leaves the utmost space of air. in vulgar modern english, the term 'implicit' used of trust or faith, has come to signify only its serenity. but the miltonian word gives the _reason_ of serenity: { } the root and branch intricacy of closest knowledge and fellowship. . i have said that milton has told us more in these few lines than any botanist could. i will prove my saying by placing in comparison with them two passages of description by the most imaginative and generally well-trained scientific man since linnæus--humboldt--which, containing much that is at this moment of special use to us, are curious also in the confusion even of the two orders of annual and perennial plants, and show, therefore, the extreme need of most careful initial work in this distinction of the reign of cora from that of kronos. "the disk of the setting sun appeared like a globe of fire suspended over the savannah; and its last rays, as they swept the earth, illumined the extremities of the grass, strongly agitated by the evening breeze. in the low and humid places of the equinoxial zone, even when the gramineous plants and reeds present the aspect of a meadow, of turf, a rich decoration of the picture is usually wanting. i mean that variety of wild flowers which, scarcely rising above the grass, seem to lie upon a smooth bed of verdure. between the tropics, the strength and luxury of vegetation give such a development to plants, that the smallest of the dicotyledonous family become shrubs.[ ] it would seem as if the { } liliaceous plants, mingled with the gramina, assumed the place of the flowers of our meadows. their form is indeed striking; they dazzle by the variety and splendor of their colours; but, too high above the soil, they disturb that harmonious relation which exists among the plants that compose our meadows and our turf. nature, in her beneficence, has given the landscape under every zone its peculiar type of beauty. "after proceeding four hours across the savannahs, we entered into a little wood composed of shrubs and small trees, which is called el pejual; no doubt because of the great abundance of the 'pejoa' (gaultheria odorata,) a plant with very odoriferous leaves. the steepness of the mountain became less considerable, and we felt an indescribable pleasure in examining the plants of this region. nowhere, perhaps, can be found collected together in so small a space of ground, productions so beautiful, and so remarkable in regard to the geography of plants. at the height of a thousand toises, the lofty savannahs of the hills terminate in a zone of shrubs, which by their appearance, their tortuous branches, their stiff leaves, and the dimensions and beauty of their purple flowers, remind us of what is called in the cordilleras of the andes the vegetation of the _paramos_[ ] and the _punas_. we find there the { } family of the alpine rhododendrons, the thibaudias, the andromedas, the vacciniums, and those befarias[ ] with resinous leaves, which we have several times compared to the rhododendron of our european alps. "even when nature does not produce the same species in analogous climates, either in the plains of isothermal parallels, or on table-lands the temperature of which resembles that of places nearer the poles, we still remark a striking resemblance of appearance and physiognomy in the vegetation of the most distant countries. this phenomenon is one of the most curious in the history of organic forms. i say the history; for in vain would reason forbid man to form hypotheses on the origin of things: he is not the less tormented with these insoluble problems of the distribution of beings." . insoluble--yes, assuredly, poor little beaten phantasms of palpitating clay that we are--and who asked us to solve it? even this humboldt, quiet-hearted and modest watcher of the ways of heaven, in the real make of him, came at last to be so far puffed up by his vain science in declining years that he must needs write a kosmos of things in the universe, forsooth, as if he knew all about them! when he was not able meanwhile, (and does not seem even to have desired the ability,) to put the slightest kosmos into his own 'personal narrative'; but leaves one to gather what one wants out of { } its wild growth; or rather, to wash or winnow what may be useful out of its débris, without any vestige either of reference or index; and i must look for these fragmentary sketches of heath and grass through chapter after chapter about the races of the indian and religion of the spaniard,--these also of great intrinsic value, but made useless to the general reader by interspersed experiment on the drifts of the wind and the depths of the sea. . but one more fragment out of a note (vol. iii., p. ) i must give, with reference to an order of the rhododendrons as yet wholly unknown to me. "the name of vine tree, 'uvas camaronas' (shrimp grapes?) is given in the andes to plants of the genus thibaudia on account of their _large succulent fruit_. thus the ancient botanists give the name of bear's vine, 'uva ursi,' and vine of mount ida, 'vitis idea,' to an arbutus and myrtillus which belong, like the thibaudiæ, to the family of the ericineæ." now, though i have one entire bookcase and half of another, and a large cabinet besides, or about fifteen feet square of books on botany beside me here, and a quantity more at oxford, i have no means whatever, in all the heap, of finding out what a thibaudia is like. loudon's cyclopædia, the only general book i have, tells me only that it will grow well in camellia houses, that its flowers develope at christmas, and that they are beautifully varied like a fritillary: whereupon i am very anxious to see them, and taste their fruit, and be able to { } tell my pupils something intelligible of them,--a new order, as it seems to me, among my oreiades. but for the present i can make no room for them, and must be content, for england and the alps, with my single class, myrtilla, including all the fruit-bearing and (more or less) myrtle-leaved kinds; and azalea for the fruitless flushing of the loftier tribes; taking the special name 'aurora' for the red and purple ones of europe, and resigning the already accepted 'rhodora' to those of the andes and himalaya. . of which also, with help of earnest indian botanists, i hope nevertheless to add some little history to that of our own oreiades; but shall set myself on the most familiar of them first, as i partly hinted in taking for the frontispiece of this volume two unchecked shoots of our commonest heath, in their state of full lustre and decline. and now i must go out and see and think--and for the first time in my life--what becomes of all these fallen blossoms, and where my own mountain cora hides herself in winter; and where her sweet body is laid in its death. think of it with me, for a moment before i go. that harvest of amethyst bells, over all scottish and irish and cumberland hill and moorland; what substance is there in it, yearly gathered out of the mountain winds,--stayed there, as if the morning and evening clouds had been caught out of them and woven into flowers; 'ropes of sea-sand'--but that is child's magic { } merely, compared to the weaving of the heath out of the cloud. and once woven, how much of it is forever worn by the earth? what weight of that transparent tissue, half crystal and half comb of honey, lies strewn every year dead under the snow? i must go and look, and can write no more to-day; nor to-morrow neither. i must gather slowly what i see, and remember; and meantime leaving, to be dealt with afterwards, the difficult and quite separate question of the production of _wood_, i will close this first volume of proserpina with some necessary statements respecting the operations, serviceable to other creatures than themselves, in which the lives of the noblest plants are ended: honourable in this service equally, though evanescent, some,--in the passing of a breeze--or the dying of a day;--and patient some, of storm and time, serene in fruitful sanctity, through all the uncounted ages which man has polluted with his tears. * * * * * { } chapter xiii. the seed and husk. . not the least sorrowful, nor least absurd of the confusions brought on us by unscholarly botanists, blundering into foreign languages, when they do not know how to use their own, is that which has followed on their practice of calling the seed-vessels of flowers 'egg-vessels,'[ ] in latin; thus involving total loss of the power of the good old english word 'husk,' and the good old french one, 'cosse.' for all the treasuries of plants (see chapter iv., § ) may be best conceived, and described, generally, as consisting of 'seed' and 'husk,'--for the most part two or more seeds, in a husk composed of two or more parts, as pease in their shell, pips in an orange, or kernels in a walnut; but whatever their number, or the method of their enclosure, let the student keep clear in his mind, for the base of all study of fructification, the broad distinction between the seed, as one thing, and the husk as another: the seed, essential to the continuance of the plant's race; and the husk, { } adapted, primarily, to its guard and dissemination; but secondarily, to quite other and far more important functions. . for on this distinction follows another practical one of great importance. a seed may serve, and many do mightily serve, for the food of man, when boiled, crushed, or otherwise industriously prepared by man himself, for his mere _sustenance_. but the _husk_ of the seed is prepared in many cases for the delight of his eyes, and the pleasure of his palate, by nature herself, and is then called a 'fruit.' . the varieties of structure both in seed and husk, and yet more, the manner in which the one is contained, and distributed by, the other, are infinite; and in some cases the husk is apparently wanting, or takes some unrecognizable form. but in far the plurality of instances the two parts of the plant's treasury are easily distinguishable, and must be separately studied, whatever their apparent closeness of relation, or, (as in all natural things,) the equivocation sometimes taking place between the one and the other. to me, the especially curious point in this matter is that, while i find the most elaborate accounts given by botanists of the stages of growth in each of these parts of the treasury, they never say of what use the guardian is to the guarded part, irrespective of its service to man. the mechanical action of the husk in containing and scattering the seeds, they indeed often notice and insist on; but they do not tell { } us of what, if any, nutritious or fostering use the rind is to a chestnut, or an orange's pulp to its pips, or a peach's juice to its stone. . putting aside this deeper question for the moment, let us make sure we understand well, and define safely, the separate parts themselves. a seed consists essentially of a store, or sack, containing substance to nourish a germ of life, which is surrounded by such substance, and in the process of growth is first fed by it. the germ of life itself rises into two portions, and not more than two, in the seeds of two-leaved plants; but this symmetrical dualism must not be allowed to confuse the student's conception, of the _three_ organically separate parts,--the tough skin of a bean, for instance; the softer contents of it which we boil to eat; and the small germ from which the root springs when it is sown. a bean is the best type of the whole structure. an almond out of its shell, a peach-kernel, and an apple-pip are also clear and perfect, though varied types. . the husk, or seed-vessel, is seen in perfect simplicity of type in the pod of a bean, or the globe of a poppy. there are, i believe, flowers in which it is absent or imperfect; and when it contains only one seed, it may be so small and closely united with the seed it contains, that both will be naturally thought of as one thing only. thus, in a dandelion, the little brown grains, which may be blown away, each with its silken parachute, are every one of them a complete husk and { } seed together. but the majority of instances (and those of plants the most serviceable to man) in which the seed-vessel has entirely a separate structure and mechanical power, justify us in giving it the normal term 'husk,' as the most widely applicable and intelligible. . the change of green, hard, and tasteless vegetable substance into beautifully coloured, soft, and delicious substance, which produces what we call a fruit, is, in most cases, of the husk only; in others, of the part of the stalk which immediately sustains the seed; and in a very few instances, not properly a change, but a distinct formation, of fruity substance between the husk and seed. normally, however, the husk, like the seed, consists always of three parts; it has an outer skin, a central substance of peculiar nature, and an inner skin, which holds the seed. the main difficulty, in describing or thinking of the completely ripened product of any plant, is to discern clearly which is the inner skin of the husk, and which the outer skin of the seed. the peach is in this respect the best general type,--the woolly skin being the outer one of the husk; the part we eat, the central substance of the husk; and the hard shell of the stone, the inner skin of the husk. the bitter kernel within is the seed. . in this case, and in the plum and cherry, the two parts under present examination--husk and seed--separate naturally; the fruity part, which is the body of the husk, adhering firmly to the shell, which is its inner { } coat. but in the walnut and almond, the two outer parts of the husk separate from the interior one, which becomes an apparently independent 'shell.' so that when first i approached this subject i divided the general structure of a treasury into _three_ parts--husk, shell, and kernel; and this division, when we once have mastered the main one, will be often useful. but at first let the student keep steadily to his conception of the two constant parts, husk and seed, reserving the idea of shells and kernels for one group of plants only. . it will not be always without difficulty that he maintains the distinction, when the tree pretends to have changed it. thus, in the chestnut, the inner coat of the husk becomes brown, adheres to the seed, and seems part of it; and we naturally call only the thick, green, prickly coat, the husk. but this is only one of the deceiving tricks of nature, to compel our attention more closely. the real place of separation, to _her_ mind, is between the mahogany-coloured shell and the nut itself, and that more or less silky and flossy coating within the brown shell is the true lining of the entire 'husk.' the paler brown skin, following the rugosities of the nut, is the true sack or skin of the seed. similarly in the walnut and almond. . but, in the apple, two new tricks are played us. first, in the brown skin of the ripe pip, we might imagine we saw the part correspondent to the mahogany skin of the chestnut, and therefore the inner coat of the { } husk. but it is not so. the brown skin of the pips belongs to them properly, and is all their own. it is the true skin or sack of the seed. the inner coat of the husk is the smooth, white, scaly part of the core that holds them. then,--for trick number two. we should as naturally imagine the skin of the apple, which we peel off, to be correspondent to the skin of the peach; and therefore, to be the outer part of the husk. but not at all. the outer part of the husk in the apple is melted away into the fruity mass of it, and the red skin outside is the skin of its _stalk_, not of its seed-vessel at all! . i say 'of its stalk,'--that is to say, of the part of the stalk immediately sustaining the seed, commonly called the torus, and expanding into the calyx. in the apple, this torus incorporates itself with the husk completely; then refines its own external skin, and colours _that_ variously and beautifully, like the true skin of the husk in the peach, while the withered leaves of the calyx remain in the 'eye' of the apple. but in the 'hip' of the rose, the incorporation with the husk of the seed does not take place. the torus, or,--as in this flower from its peculiar form it is called,--the tube of the calyx, alone forms the frutescent part of the hip; and the complete seeds, husk and all, (the firm triangular husk enclosing an almond-shaped kernel,) are grouped closely in its interior cavity, while the calyx remains on the top in a large and scarcely withering star. { } in the nut, the calyx remains green and beautiful, forming what we call the husk of a filbert; and again we find nature amusing herself by trying to make us think that this strict envelope, almost closing over the single seed, is the same thing to the nut that its green shell is to a walnut! . with still more capricious masquing, she varies and hides the structure of her 'berries.' the strawberry is a hip turned inside-out, the frutescent receptacle changed into a scarlet ball, or cone, of crystalline and delicious coral, in the outside of which the separate seeds, husk and all, are imbedded. in the raspberry and blackberry, the interior mound remains sapless; and the rubied translucency of dulcet substance is formed round each separate seed, _upon_ its husk; not a part of the husk, but now an entirely independent and added portion of the plant's bodily form. . what is thus done for each seed, on the _out_side of the receptacle, in the raspberry, is done for each seed, _in_side the calyx, in a pomegranate; which is a hip in which the seeds have become surrounded with a radiant juice, richer than claret wine; while the seed itself, within the generous jewel, is succulent also, and spoken of by tournefort as a "baie succulente." the tube of the calyx, brown-russet like a large hip, externally, is yet otherwise divided, and separated wholly from the cinque-foiled, and cinque-celled rose, both in number of petal and division of treasuries; the calyx has eight points, and nine cells. { } . lastly, in the orange, the fount of fragrant juice is interposed between the seed and the husk. it is wholly independent of both; the aurantine rind, with its white lining and divided compartments, is the true husk; the orange pips are the true seeds; and the eatable part of the fruit is formed between them, in clusters of delicate little flasks, as if a fairy's store of scented wine had been laid up by her in the hollow of a chestnut shell, between the nut and rind; and then the green changed to gold. . i have said '_lastly_'--of the orange, for fear of the reader's weariness only; not as having yet represented, far less exhausted, the variety of frutescent form. but these are the most important types of it; and before i can explain the relation between these, and another, too often confounded with them--the _granular_ form of the seed of grasses.--i must give some account of what, to man, is far more important than the form--the gift to him in fruit-food; and trial, in fruit-temptation. * * * * * { } chapter xiv. the fruit gift. . in the course of the preceding chapter, i hope that the reader has obtained, or may by a little patience both obtain and secure, the idea of a great natural ordinance, which, in the protection given to the part of plants necessary to prolong their race, provides, for happier living creatures, food delightful to their taste, and forms either amusing or beautiful to their eyes. whether in receptacle, calyx, or true husk,--in the cup of the acorn, the fringe of the filbert, the down of the apricot, or bloom of the plum, the powers of nature consult quite other ends than the mere continuance of oaks and plum trees on the earth; and must be regarded always with gratitude more deep than wonder, when they are indeed seen with human eyes and human intellect. . but in one family of plants, the _contents_ also of the seed, not the envelope of it merely, are prepared for the support of the higher animal life; and their grain, filled with the substance which, for universally understood name, may best keep the latin one of farina,--becoming in french, 'farine,' and in english, 'flour,'--both in the perfectly nourishing elements of it, and its { } easy and abundant multiplicability, becomes the primal treasure of human economy. . it has been the practice of botanists of all nations to consider the seeds of the grasses together with those of roses and pease, as if all could be described on the same principles, and with the same nomenclature of parts. but the grain of corn is a quite distinct thing from the seed of pease. in _it_, the husk and the seed envelope have become inextricably one. all the exocarps, endocarps, epicarps, mesocarps, shells, husks, sacks, and skins, are woven at once together into the brown bran; and inside of that, a new substance is collected for us, which is not what we boil in pease, or poach in eggs, or munch in nuts, or grind in coffee;--but a thing which, mixed with water and then baked, has given to all the nations of the world their prime word for food, in thought and prayer,--bread; their prime conception of the man's and woman's labor in preparing it--("whoso putteth hand to the _plough_"--two women shall be grinding at the _mill_)--their prime notion of the means of cooking by fire--("which to-day is, and to-morrow is cast into the _oven_"), and their prime notion of culinary office--the "chief _baker_," cook, or pastrycook,--(compare bedreddin hassan in the arabian nights): and, finally, to modern civilization, the saxon word 'lady,' with whatever it imports. . it has also been the practice of botanists to confuse all the ripened products of plants under the general term { } 'fruit.' but the essential and separate fruit-gift is of two substances, quite distinct from flour, namely, oil and wine, under the last term including for the moment all kinds of juice which will produce alcohol by fermentation. of these, oil may be produced either in the kernels of nuts, as in almonds, or in the substance of berries, as in the olive, date, and coffee-berry. but the sweet juice which will become medicinal in wine, can only be developed in the husk, or in the receptacle. . the office of the chief butler, as opposed to that of the chief baker, and the office of the good samaritan, pouring in oil and wine, refer both to the total fruit-gift in both kinds: but in the study of plants, we must primarily separate our notion of their gifts to men into the three elements, flour, oil, and wine; and have instantly and always intelligible names for them in latin, french, and english. and i think it best not to confuse our ideas of pure vegetable substance with the possible process of fermentation:--so that rather than 'wine,' for a constant specific term, i will take 'nectar,'--this term more rightly including the juices of the peach, nectarine, and plum, as well as those of the grape, currant, and apple. our three separate substances will then be easily named in all three languages: farina. oleum. nectar. farine. huile. nectare. flour. oil. nectar. { } there is this farther advantage in keeping the third common term, that it leaves us the words succus, jus, juice, for other liquid products of plants, watery, milky, sugary, or resinous,--often indeed important to man, but often also without either agreeable flavor or nutritious power; and it is therefore to be observed with care that we may use the word 'juice,' of a liquid produced by any part of a plant, but 'nectar,' only of the juices produced in its fruit. . but the good and pleasure of fruit is not in the juice only;--in some kinds, and those not the least valuable, (as the date,) it is not in the juice at all. we still stand absolutely in want of a word to express the more or less firm _substance_ of fruit, as distinguished from all other products of a plant. and with the usual ill-luck,--(i advisedly think of it as demoniacal misfortune)--of botanical science, no other name has been yet used for such substance than the entirely false and ugly one of 'flesh,'--fr., 'chair,' with its still more painful derivation 'charnu,' and in england the monstrous scientific term, 'sarco-carp.' but, under the housewifery of proserpina, since we are to call the juice of fruit, nectar, its substance will be as naturally and easily called ambrosia; and i have no doubt that this, with the other names defined in this chapter, will not only be found practically more convenient than the phrases in common use, but will more securely fix in the student's mind a true conception of { } the essential differences in substance, which, ultimately, depend wholly on their pleasantness to human perception, and offices for human good; and not at all on any otherwise explicable structure or faculty. it is of no use to determine, by microscope or retort, that cinnamon is made of cells with so many walls, or grape-juice of molecules with so many sides;--we are just as far as ever from understanding why these particular interstices should be aromatic, and these special parallelopipeds exhilarating, as we were in the savagely unscientific days when we could only see with our eyes, and smell with our noses. but to call each of these separate substances by a name rightly belonging to it through all the past variations of the language of educated man, will probably enable us often to discern powers in the thing itself, of affecting the human body and mind, which are indeed qualities infinitely more its _own_, than any which can possibly be extracted by the point of a knife, or brayed out with a mortar and pestle. . thus, to take merely instance in the three main elements of which we have just determined the names,--flour, oil, and ambrosia;--the differences in the kinds of pleasure which the tongue received from the powderiness of oat-cake, or a well-boiled potato--(in the days when oat-cake and potatoes were!)--from the glossily-softened crispness of a well-made salad, and from the cool and fragrant amber of an apricot, are indeed distinctions between the essential virtues of things which { } were made to be _tasted_, much more than to be eaten; and in their various methods of ministry to, and temptation of, human appetites, have their part in the history, not of elements merely, but of souls; and of the soul-virtues, which from the beginning of the world have bade the barrel of meal not waste, nor the cruse of oil fail; and have planted, by waters of comfort, the fruits which are for the healing of nations. . and, again, therefore, i must repeat, with insistance, the claim i have made for the limitation of language to the use made of it by educated men. the word 'carp' could never have multiplied itself into the absurdities of endo-carps and epi-carps, but in the mouths of men who scarcely ever read it in its original letters, and therefore never recognized it as meaning precisely the same thing as 'fructus,' which word, being a little more familiar with, they would have scarcely abused to the same extent; they would not have called a walnut shell an intra-fruct--or a grape skin an extra-fruct; but again, because, though they are accustomed to the english 'fructify,' 'frugivorous'--and 'usufruct,' they are unaccustomed to the latin 'fruor,' and unconscious therefore that the derivative 'fructus' must always, in right use, mean an _enjoyed_ thing, they generalize every mature vegetable product under the term; and we find dr. gray coolly telling us that there is no fruit so "likely to be mistaken for a seed," as a grain of corn! a grain, whether of corn, or any other { } grass, being precisely the vegetable structure to which frutescent change is forever forbidden! and to which the word _seed_ is primarily and perfectly applicable!--the thing to be _sown_, not grafted. . but to mark this total incapability of frutescent change, and connect the form of the seed more definitely with its dusty treasure, it is better to reserve, when we are speaking with precision, the term 'grain' for the seeds of the grasses: the difficulty is greater in french than in english: because they have no monosyllabic word for the constantly granular 'seed'; but for us the terms are all simple, and already in right use, only not quite clearly enough understood; and there remains only one real difficulty now in our system of nomenclature, that having taken the word 'husk' for the seed-vessel, we are left without a general word for the true fringe of a filbert, or the chaff of a grass. i don't know whether the french 'frange' could be used by them in this sense, if we took it in english botany. but for the present, we can manage well enough without it, one general term, 'chaff,' serving for all the grasses, 'cup' for acorns, and 'fringe' for nuts. . but i call this a _real_ difficulty, because i suppose, among the myriads of plants of which i know nothing, there may be forms of the envelope of fruits or seeds which may, for comfort of speech, require some common generic name. one _un_real difficulty, or shadow of difficulty, remains in our having no entirely comprehensive { } name for seed and seed-vessel together than that the botanists now use, 'fruit.' but practically, even now, people feel that they can't gather figs of thistles, and never speak of the fructification of a thistle, or of the fruit of a dandelion. and, re-assembling now, in one view, the words we have determined on, they will be found enough for all practical service, and in such service always accurate, and, usually, suggestive. i repeat them in brief order, with such farther explanation as they need. . all ripe products of the life of flowers consist essentially of the seed and husk,--these being, in certain cases, sustained, surrounded, or provided with means of motion, by other parts of the plant; or by developments of their own form which require in each case distinct names. thus the white cushion of the dandelion to which its brown seeds are attached, and the personal parachutes which belong to each, must be separately described for that species of plants; it is the little brown thing they sustain and carry away on the wind, which must be examined as the essential product of the floret;--the 'seed and husk.' . every seed has a husk, holding either that seed alone, or other seeds with it. every perfect seed consists of an embryo, and the substance which first nourishes that embryo; the whole enclosed in a sack or other sufficient envelope. three essential parts altogether. { } every perfect husk, vulgarly pericarp, or 'round-fruit,'--(as periwig, 'round-wig,')--consists of a shell, (vulgarly endocarp,) rind, (vulgarly mesocarp,) and skin, (vulgarly epicarp); three essential parts altogether. but one or more of these parts may be effaced, or confused with another; and in the seeds of grasses they all concentrate themselves into bran. . when a husk consists of two or more parts, each of which has a separate shaft and volute, uniting in the pillar and volute of the flower, each separate piece of the husk is called a 'carpel.' the name was first given by de candolle, and must be retained. but it continually happens that a simple husk divides into two parts corresponding to the two leaves of the embryo, as in the peach, or symmetrically holding alternate seeds, as in the pea. the beautiful drawing of the pea-shell with its seeds, in rousseau's botany, is the only one i have seen which rightly shows and expresses this arrangement. . a fruit is either the husk, receptacle, petal, or other part of a flower _external to the seed_, in which chemical changes have taken place, fitting it for the most part to become pleasant and healthful food for man, or other living animals; but in some cases making it bitter or poisonous to them, and the enjoyment of it depraved or deadly. but, as far as we know, it is without any definite office to the seed it contains; and the change takes { } place entirely to fit the plant to the service of animals.[ ] in its perfection, the fruit gift is limited to a temperate zone, of which the polar limit is marked by the strawberry, and the equatorial by the orange. the more arctic regions produce even the smallest kinds of fruit with difficulty; and the more equatorial, in coarse, oleaginous, or over-luscious masses. . all the most perfect fruits are developed _from exquisite forms either of foliage or flower_. the vine leaf, in its generally decorative power, is the most important, both in life and in art, of all that shade the habitations of men. the olive leaf is, without any rival, the most beautiful of the leaves of timber trees; and its blossom, though minute, of extreme beauty. the apple is essentially the fruit of the rose, and the peach of her only rival in her own colour. the cherry and orange blossom are the two types of floral snow. . and, lastly, let my readers be assured, the economy of blossom and fruit, with the distribution of water, { } will be found hereafter the most accurate test of wise national government. for example of the action of a national government, rightly so called, in these matters, i refer the student to the mariegolas of venice, translated in fors clavigera; and i close this chapter, and this first volume of proserpina, not without pride, in the words i wrote on this same matter eighteen years ago. "so far as the labourer's immediate profit is concerned, it matters not an iron filing whether i employ him in growing a peach, or in forging a bombshell. but the difference to him is final, whether, when his child is ill, i walk into his cottage, and give it the peach,--or drop the shell down his chimney, and blow his roof off." * * * * * { } index i. descriptive nomenclature. plants in perfect form are said, at page , to consist of four principal parts: root, stem, leaf, and flower. (compare chapter v., § .) the reader may have been surprised at the omission of the fruit from this list. but a plant which has borne fruit is no longer of 'perfect' form. its flower is dead. and, observe, it is further said, at page , (and compare chapter iii., § ,) that the use of the fruit is to produce the flower: not of the flower to produce the fruit. therefore, the plant in perfect blossom, is itself perfect. nevertheless, the formation of the fruit, practically, is included in the flower, and so spoken of in the fifteenth line of the same page. each of these four main parts of a plant consist normally of a certain series of minor parts, to which it is well to attach easily remembered names. in this section of my index i will not admit the confusion of idea involved by alphabetical arrangement of these names, but will sacrifice facility of reference to clearness of explanation, and taking the four great parts of the plant in { } succession, i will give the list of the minor and constituent parts, with their names as determined in proserpina, and reference to the pages where the reasons for such determination are given, endeavouring to supply, at the same time, any deficiencies which i find in the body of the text. i. the root. page origin of the word root the offices of the root are threefold: namely, tenure, nourishment, and animation - the essential parts of a root are two: the limbs and fibres i. the limb is the gathered mass of fibres, or at least of fibrous substance, which extends itself in search of nourishment ii. the fibre is the organ by which the nourishment is received the inessential or accidental parts of roots, which are attached to the roots of some plants, but not to those of others, (and are, indeed, for the most part absent,) are three: namely, store-houses, refuges, and ruins iii. store-houses contain the food of the future plant { } iv. refuges shelter the future plant itself for a time v. ruins form a basis for the growth of the future plant in its proper order root-stocks, the accumulation of such ruins in a vital order general questions relating to the office and chemical power of roots /# the nomenclature of roots will not be extended, in proserpina, beyond the five simple terms here given: though the ordinary botanical ones--corm, bulb, tuber, etc.--will be severally explained in connection with the plants which they specially characterize. #/ ii. the stem. derivation of word the channel of communication between leaf and root in a perfect plant it consists of three parts: i. the stem (stemma) proper.--a growing or advancing shoot which sustains all the other organs of the plant it may grow by adding thickness to its sides without advancing; but its essential characteristic is the vital power of advance { } it may be round, square, or polygonal, but is always roundly minded its structural power is spiral it is essentially branched; having subordinate leaf-stalks and flower-stalks, if not larger branches it developes the buds, leaves, and flowers of the plant. this power is not yet properly defined, or explained; and referred to only incidentally throughout the eighth chapter - ii. the leaf-stalk (cymba) sustains, and expands itself into, the leaf , it is essentially furrowed above, and convex below it is to be called in latin, the cymba; in english, the leaf-stalk iii. the flower-stalk (petiolus): it is essentially round it is usually separated distinctly at its termination from the flower , it is to be called in latin, petiolus; in english, flower-stalk these three are the essential parts of a stem. but { } besides these, it has, when largely developed, a permanent form: namely, iv. the trunk.--a non-advancing mass of collected stem, arrested at a given height from the ground /# the stems of annual plants are either leafy, as of a thistle, or bare, sustaining the flower or flower-cluster at a certain height above the ground. receiving therefore these following names:--- #/ v. the virga.--the leafy stem of an annual plant, not a grass, yet growing upright vi. the virgula.--the leafless flower-stem of an annual plant, not a grass, as of a primrose or dandelion vii. the filum.--the running stem of a creeping plant /# it is not specified in the text for use; but will be necessary; so also, perhaps, the stelechos, or stalk proper ( ), the branched stem of an annual plant, not a grass; one cannot well talk of the virga of hemlock. the 'stolon' is explained in its classical sense at page , but i believe botanists use it otherwise. i shall have occasion to refer to, and complete its explanation, in speaking of bulbous plants. #/ viii. the caudex.--the essentially ligneous and compact part of a stem { } /# this equivocal word is not specified for use in the text, but i mean to keep it for the accumulated stems of inlaid plants, palms, and the like; for which otherwise we have no separate term. #/ ix. the avena.--not specified in the text at all; but it will be prettier than 'baculus,' which is that i had proposed, for the 'staff' of grasses. see page . /# these ten names are all that the student need remember; but he will find some interesting particulars respecting the following three, noticed in the text:--- #/ stips.--the origin of stipend, stupid, and stump stipula.--the subtlest latin term for straw caulis (kale).--the peculiar stem of branched eatable vegetables canna.--not noticed in the text; but likely to be sometimes useful for the stronger stems of grasses. iii. the leaf. derivation of word the latin form 'folium' the greek form 'petalos' veins and ribs of leaves, to be usually summed under the term 'rib' chemistry of leaves { } /# the nomenclature of the leaf consists, in botanical books, of little more than barbarous, and, for the general reader, totally useless attempts to describe their forms in latin. but their forms are infinite and indescribable except by the pencil. i will give central types of form in the next volume of proserpina; which, so that the reader sees and remembers, he may _call_ anything he likes. but it is necessary that names should be assigned to certain classes of leaves which are essentially different from each other in character and tissue, not merely in form. of these the two main divisions have been already given: but i will now add the less important ones which yet require distinct names. #/ i. apolline.--typically represented by the laurel ii. arethusan.--represented by the alisma /# it ought to have been noticed that the character of serration, within reserved limits, is essential to an apolline leaf, and absolutely refused by an arethusan one. #/ iii. dryad.--of the ordinary leaf tissue, neither manifestly strong, nor admirably tender, but serviceably consistent, which we find generally to be the substance of the leaves of forest trees. typically represented by those of the oak. iv. abietine.--shaft or sword-shape, as the leaves of firs and pines. v. cressic.--delicate and light, with smooth tissue, as the leaves of cresses, and clover. { } vi. salvian.--soft and woolly, like miniature blankets, easily folded, as the leaves of sage. vii. cauline.--softly succulent, with thick central ribs, as of the cabbage. viii. aloeine.--inflexibly succulent, as of the aloe or houseleek. /# no rigid application of these terms must ever be attempted; but they direct the attention to important general conditions, and will often be found to save time and trouble in description. #/ iv. the flower. its general nature and function consists essentially of corolla and treasury has in perfect form the following parts:-- i. the torus.--not yet enough described in the text. it is the expansion of the extremity of the flower-stalk, in preparation for the support of the expanding flower , ii. the involucrum.--any kind of wrapping or propping condition of leafage at the base of a flower may properly come under this head; but the manner of prop or protection differs in different kinds, and i will not at present give generic names to these peculiar forms. { } iii. the calyx (the hiding-place).--the outer whorl of leaves, under the protection of which the real flower is brought to maturity. its separate leaves are called sepals iv. the corolla (the cup).--the inner whorl of leaves, forming the flower itself. its separate leaves are called petals v. the treasury.--the part of the flower that contains its seeds. vi. the pillar.--the part of the flower above its treasury, by which the power of the pollen is carried down to the seeds it consists usually of two parts--the shaft and volute when the pillar is composed of two or more shafts, attached to separate treasury-cells, each cell with its shaft is called a carpel vii. the stamens.--the parts of the flower which secrete its pollen they consist usually of two parts, the filament and anther, not yet described. viii. the nectary.--the part of the flower containing its honey, or any other special product of its inflorescence. the name has often been { } given to certain forms of petals of which the use is not yet known. no notice has yet been taken of this part of the flower in proserpina. /# these being all the essential parts of the flower itself, other forms and substances are developed in the seed as it ripens, which, i believe, may most conveniently be arranged in a separate section, though not logically to be considered as separable from the flower, but only as mature states of certain parts of it. #/ v. the seed. i must once more desire the reader to take notice that, under the four sections already defined, the morphology of the plant is to be considered as complete, and that we are now only to examine and name, farther, its _product_; and that not so much as the germ of its own future descendant flower, but as a separate substance which it is appointed to form, partly to its own detriment, for the sake of higher creatures. this product consists essentially of two parts: the seed and its husk. i. the seed.--defined it consists, in its perfect form, of three parts /# these three parts are not yet determinately named in the text: but i give now the names which will be usually attached to them. #/ a. _the sacque_.--the outside skin of a seed { } b. _the nutrine_.--a word which i coin, for general applicability, whether to the farina of corn, the substance of a nut, or the parts that become the first leaves in a bean c. _the germ_.--the origin of the root ii. the husk.--defined consists, like the seed when in perfect form, of three parts. a. _the skin_.--the outer envelope of all the seed structures b. _the rind_.--the central body of the husk. - c. _the shell_.--not always shelly, yet best described by this general term; and becoming a shell, so called, in nuts, peaches, dates, and other such kernel-fruits the products of the seed and husk of plants, for the use of animals, are practically to be massed under the three heads of bread, oil, and fruit. but the substance of which bread is made is more accurately described as farina; and the pleasantness of fruit to the taste depends on two elements in its substance: the juice, and the pulp containing it, which may properly be called nectar and ambrosia. we have therefore in all four essential products of the seed and husk-- { } a. farina. flour b. oleum. oil c. nectar. fruit-juice d. ambrosia. fruit-substance besides these all-important products of the seed, others are formed in the stems and leaves of plants, of which no account hitherto has been given in proserpina. i delay any extended description of these until we have examined the structure of wood itself more closely; this intricate and difficult task having been remitted (p. ) to the days of coming spring; and i am well pleased that my younger readers should at first be vexed with no more names to be learned than those of the vegetable productions with which they are most pleasantly acquainted: but for older ones, i think it well, before closing the present volume, to indicate, with warning, some of the obscurities, and probable fallacies, with which this vanity of science encumbers the chemistry, no less than the morphology, of plants. looking back to one of the first books in which our new knowledge of organic chemistry began to be displayed, thirty years ago, i find that even at that period the organic elements which the cuisine of the laboratory had already detected in simple indigo, were the following:-- { } isatine, bromisatine, bidromisatine; chlorisatine, bichlorisatine; chlorisatyde, bichlorisatyde; chlorindine, chlorindoptene, chlorindatmit; chloranile, chloranilam, and, chloranilammon. and yet, with all this practical skill in decoction, and accumulative industry in observation and nomenclature, so far are our scientific men from arriving, by any decoctive process of their own knowledge, at general results useful to ordinary human creatures, that when i wish now to separate, for young scholars, in first massive arrangement of vegetable productions, the substances of plants from their essences; that is to say, the weighable and measurable body of the plant from its practically immeasurable, if not imponderable, spirit, i find in my three volumes of close-printed chemistry, no information what ever respecting the quality of volatility in matter, except this one sentence:-- "the disposition of various substances to yield vapour is very different: and the difference depends doubtless on the relative power of cohesion with which they are endowed."[ ] even in this not extremely pregnant, though extremely { } cautious, sentence, two conditions of matter are confused, no notice being taken of the difference in manner of dissolution between a vitally fragrant and a mortally putrid substance. it is still more curious that when i look for more definite instruction on such points to the higher ranks of botanists, i find in the index to dr. lindley's 'introduction to botany'--seven hundred pages of close print--not one of the four words 'volatile,' 'essence,' 'scent,' or 'perfume.' i examine the index to gray's 'structural and systematic botany,' with precisely the same success. i next consult professors balfour and grindon, and am met by the same dignified silence. finally, i think over the possible chances in french, and try in figuier's indices to the 'histoire des plantes' for 'odeur'--no such word! 'parfum'--no such word. 'essence'--no such word. 'encens'--no such word. i try at last 'pois de senteur,' at a venture, and am referred to a page which describes their going to sleep. left thus to my own resources, i must be content for the present to bring the subject at least under safe laws of nomenclature. it is possible that modern chemistry may be entirely right in alleging the absolute identity of substances such as albumen, or fibrine, whether they occur in the animal or vegetable economies. but i do not choose to assume this identity in my nomenclature. it may, perhaps, be very fine and very instructive to { } inform the pupils preparing for competitive examination that the main element of milk is milkine, and of cheese, cheesine. but for the practical purposes of life, all that i think it necessary for the pupil to know is that in order to get either milk or cheese, he must address himself to a cow, and not to a pump; and that what a chemist can produce for him out of dandelions or cocoanuts, however milky or cheesy it may look, may more safely be called by some name of its own. this distinctness of language becomes every day more desirable, in the face of the refinements of chemical art which now enable the ingenious confectioner to meet the demands of an unscientific person for (suppose) a lemon drop, with a mixture of nitric acid, sulphur, and stewed bones. it is better, whatever the chemical identity of the products may be, that each should receive a distinctive epithet, and be asked for and supplied, in vulgar english, and vulgar probity, either as essence of lemons, or skeletons. i intend, therefore,--and believe that the practice will be found both wise and convenient,--to separate in all my works on natural history the terms used for vegetable products from those used for animal or mineral ones, whatever may be their chemical identity, or resemblance in aspect. i do not mean to talk of fat in seeds, nor of flour in eggs, nor of milk in rocks. pace my prelatical friends, i mean to use the word 'alb' for vegetable albumen; and although i cannot without pedantry avoid { } using sometimes the word 'milky' of the white juices of plants, i must beg the reader to remain unaffected in his conviction that there is a vital difference between liquids that coagulate into butter, or congeal into india-rubber. oil, when used simply, will always mean a vegetable product: and when i have occasion to speak of petroleum, tallow, or blubber, i shall generally call these substances by their right names. there are also a certain number of vegetable materials more or less prepared, secreted, or digested for us by animals, such as wax, honey, silk, and cochineal. the properties of these require more complex definitions, but they have all very intelligible and well-established names. 'tea' must be a general term for an extract of any plant in boiling water: though when standing alone the word will take its accepted chinese meaning: and essence, the general term for the condensed dew of a vegetable vapour, which is with grace and fitness called the 'being' of a plant, because its properties are almost always characteristic of the species; and it is not, like leaf tissue or wood fibre, approximately the same material in different shapes; but a separate element in each family of flowers, of a mysterious, delightful, or dangerous influence, logically inexplicable, chemically inconstructible, and wholly, in dignity of nature, above all modes and faculties of form. * * * * * { } index ii. to the plants spoken of in this volume, under their english names, accepted by proserpina. apple, ash, , aspen, asphodel, , bay, bean, bed-straw, bindweed, birch, blackthorn, , blaeberry, , bluebell, bramble, , burdock, , burnet, butterbur, cabbage, , captain-salad, carrot, , cauliflower, , cedar, , , celandine, cherry, , chestnut, " spanish, chicory, clover, colewort, coltsfoot, corn-cockle, corn-flag, , cowslip, crocus, , daffodil, { } daisy, , , dandelion, devil's bit, dock, elm, fig, flag, flax, foils, rock, " roof, , foxglove, , , frog-flower, grape, , grass, , , , , , , hawk's-eye, hazel, heath, , , , hemlock, herb-robert, holly, , houseleek, , hyacinth, , ivy, jacinth, , king-cup, laurel, , , " leaves, , , lichen, lilac, lily, , , , , lily, st. bruno's, , , , lily of the valley, lily, water, , ling, , lion's-tooth, liquorice, lucy, , mistletoe, moss, , , mushroom, , myrtle, nettle, , , nightshade, oak, , " blossom, olive, , , onion, orange, pæony, palm, , , , , , { } pansy, , papilionaceæ, papyrus, pea, , peach, , pine, pineapple, pink, plantain, pomegranate, poplar, poppy, , , , primrose, , radish, , ragged robin, rhubarb, rice, rock-foil, roof-foil, , rose, , , , , , , , , rush, saxifrage, , , scabious, sedum, sorrel-wood, spider plant, sponsa solis, stella, , " domestica, stonecrop, sweetbriar, thistle, , , , , , , _note_, thistle, creeping, " waste, thorns, , " black, , thyme, tobacco, , tormentilla, turnip, vine, , , , viola, wallflower, wheat, , wreathewort, * * * * * { } index iii. to the plants spoken of in this volume, under their latin or greek names, accepted by proserpina. acanthus, alata, alisma, amaryllis, , anemone, artemides, asphodel, aurora, azalea, cactus, campanula, carduus, charites, cistus, clarissa, , contorta, convoluta, cyclamen, drosidæ, , ensatæ, ericæ, , eryngo, fragaria, francesca, , fraxinus, geranium, , gladiolus, , , hyacinthus, hypnum, iris, , lilium (_see_ lily), lucia, , { } magnolia, margarita, myrtilla, narcissus, ophrys, papaver, , persica, pomum, primula, rosa, rubra, , satyrium, stella, , veronica, viola, * * * * * notes [ ] at least, it throws off its flowers on each side in a bewilderingly pretty way; a real lily can't branch, i believe: but, if not, what is the use of the botanical books saying "on an unbranched stem"? [ ] i have by happy chance just added to my oxford library the poet gray's copy of linnæus, with its exquisitely written latin notes, exemplary alike to scholar and naturalist. [ ] it was in the year , in june. [ ] admirably engraved by mr. burgess, from my pen drawing, now at oxford. by comparing it with the plate of the same flower in sowerby's work, the student will at once see the difference between attentive drawing, which gives the cadence and relation of masses in a group, and the mere copying of each flower in an unconsidered huddle. [ ] "histoire des plantes." ed. , p. . [ ] the like of it i have now painted, number , case xii., in the educational series of oxford. [ ] properly, floræ danicæ, but it is so tiresome to print the diphthongs that i shall always call it thus. it is a folio series, exquisitely begun, a hundred years ago; and not yet finished. [ ] magnified about seven times. see note at end of this chapter. [ ] american,--'system of botany,' the best technical book i have. [ ] 'dicranum cerviculatum,' sequel to flora danica, tab. mmccx. [ ] the reader should buy a small specimen of this mineral; it is a useful type of many structures. [ ] lucca, _aug. th, ._--i have left this passage as originally written, but i believe the dome is of accumulated earth. bringing home, here, evening after evening, heaps of all kinds of mosses from the hills among which the archbishop ruggieri was hunting the wolf and her whelps in ugolino's dream, i am more and more struck, every day, with their special function as earth-gatherers, and with the enormous importance to their own brightness, and to our service, of that dark and degraded state of the inferior leaves. and it fastens itself in my mind mainly as their distinctive character, that as the leaves of a tree become wood, so the leaves of a moss become earth, while yet a normal part of the plant. here is a cake in my hand weighing half a pound, bright green on the surface, with minute crisp leaves; but an inch thick beneath in what looks at first like clay, but is indeed knitted fibre of exhausted moss. also, i don't at all find the generalization i made from the botanical books likely to have occurred to me from the real things. no moss leaves that i can find here give me the idea of resemblance to pineapple leaves; nor do i see any, through my weak lens, clearly serrated; but i do find a general tendency to run into a silky filamentous structure, and in some, especially on a small one gathered from the fissures in the marble of the cathedral, white threads of considerable length at the extremities of the leaves, of which threads i remember no drawing or notice in the botanical books. figure represents, magnified, a cluster of these leaves, with the germinating stalk springing from their centre; but my scrawl was tired and careless, and for once, mr. burgess has copied _too_ accurately. [ ] learn this word, at any rate; and if you know any greek, learn also this group of words: "[greek: hôs rhiza en gê dipsôsêi]," which you may chance to meet with, and even to think about, some day. [ ] "duhamel, botanist of the last century, tells us that, wishing to preserve a field of good land from the roots of an avenue of elms which were exhausting it, he cut a ditch between the field and avenue to intercept the roots. but he saw with surprise those of the roots which had not been cut, go down behind the slope of the ditch to keep out of the light, go under the ditch, and into the field again." and the swiss naturalist bonnet said wittily, apropos of a wonder of this sort, "that sometimes it was difficult to distinguish a cat from a rosebush." [ ] as the first great office of the mosses is the gathering of earth, so that of the grasses is the binding of it. theirs the enchanter's toil, not in vain,--making ropes out of sea-sand. [ ] drosidæ, in our school nomenclature, is the general name, including the four great tribes, iris, asphodel, amaryllis, and lily. see reason for this name given in the 'queen of the air,' section ii. [ ] the only use of a great part of our existing nomenclature is to enable one botanist to describe to another a plant which the other has not seen. when the science becomes approximately perfect, all known plants will be properly figured, so that nobody need describe them; and unknown plants be so rare that nobody will care to learn a new and difficult language, in order to be able to give an account of what in all probability he will never see. [ ] an excellent book, nevertheless. [ ] lindley, 'introduction to botany,' vol. i., p. . the terms "wholly obsolete," says an authoritative botanic friend. thank heaven! [ ] "you should see the girders on under-side of the victoria water-lily, the most wonderful bit of engineering, of the kind, i know of."--('botanical friend.') [ ] roughly, cyllene , feet high; erymanthus , ; mænalus , . [ ] _march rd._--we now ascend the roots of the mountain called kastaniá, and begin to pass between it and the mountain of alonístena, which is on our right. the latter is much higher than kastaniá, and, like the other peaked summits of the mænalian range, is covered with firs, and deeply at present with snow. the snow lies also in our pass. at a fountain in the road, the small village of bazeníko is half a mile on the right, standing at the foot of the mænalian range, and now covered with snow. saetá is the most lofty of the range of mountains, which are in face of levídhi, to the northward and eastward; they are all a part of the chain which extends from mount khelmós, and connects that great summit with artemisium, parthenium, and parnon. mount saetá is covered with firs. the mountain between the plain of levídhi and alonístena, or, to speak by the ancient nomenclature, that part of the mænalian range which separates the orchomenia from the valleys of helisson and methydrium, is clothed also with large forests of the same trees; the road across this ridge from lavídhi to alonístena is now impracticable on account of the snow. i am detained all day at levídhi by a heavy fall of snow, which before the evening has covered the ground to half a foot in depth, although the village is not much elevated above the plain, nor in a more lofty situation than tripolitzá. _march th._--yesterday afternoon and during the night the snow fell in such quantities as to cover all the plains and adjacent mountains; and the country exhibited this morning as fine a snow-scene as norway could supply. as the day advanced and the sun appeared, the snow melted rapidly, but the sky was soon overcast again, and the snow began to fall. [ ] just in time, finding a heap of gold under an oak tree some thousand years old, near arundel, i've made them out: eight, divided by three; that is to say, three couples of petals, with two odd little ones inserted for form's sake. no wonder i couldn't decipher them by memory. [ ] figs. and are both drawn and engraved by mr. burgess. [ ] of vespertilian science generally, compare 'eagles' nest,' pp. and . [ ] the mathematical term is 'rhomb.' [ ] [greek: hês to sperma artopoieitai.] [ ] [greek: epimêkes echousa to kephalion.] dioscorides makes no effort to distinguish species, but gives the different names as if merely used in different places. [ ] it is also used sometimes of the garden poppy, says dioscorides, "[greek: dia to rhein ex autês ton opon]"--"because the sap, opium, flows from it." [ ] see all the passages quoted by liddell. [ ] i find this chapter rather tiresome on re-reading it myself, and cancel some farther criticism of the imitation of this passage by virgil, one of the few pieces of the Æneid which are purely and vulgarly imitative, rendered also false as well as weak by the introducing sentence, "volvitur euryalus leto," after which the simile of the drooping flower is absurd. of criticism, the chief use of which is to warn all sensible men from such business, the following abstract of diderot's notes on the passage, given in the 'saturday review' for april th, , is worth preserving. (was the french critic really not aware that homer _had_ written the lines his own way?) "diderot illustrates his theory of poetical hieroglyphs by no quotations, but we can show the manner of his minute and sometimes fanciful criticism by repeating his analysis of the passage of virgil wherein the death of euryalus is described:-- 'pulchrosque per artus it cruor, inque humeros cervix collapsa recumbit; purpureus veluti cum flos succisus aratro languescit moriens; lassove papavera collo demisere caput, pluvia cum forte gravantur.' "the sound of 'it cruor,' according to diderot, suggests the image of a jet of blood; 'cervix collapsa recumbit,' the fall of a dying man's head upon his shoulder; 'succisus' imitates the use of a cutting scythe (not plough); 'demisere' is as soft as the eye of a flower; 'gravantur,' on the other hand, has all the weight of a calyx, filled with rain; 'collapsa' marks an effort and a fall, and similar double duty is performed by 'papavera,' the first two syllables symbolizing the poppy upright, the last two the poppy bent. while thus pursuing his minute investigations, diderot can scarcely help laughing at himself, and candidly owns that he is open to the suspicion of discovering in the poem beauties which have no existence. he therefore qualifies his eulogy by pointing out two faults in the passage. 'gravantur,' notwithstanding the praise it has received, is a little too heavy for the light head of a poppy, even when filled with water. as for 'aratro,' coming as it does after the hiss of 'succisus,' it is altogether abominable. had homer written the lines, he would have ended with some hieroglyph, which would have continued the hiss or described the fall of a flower. to the hiss of 'succisus' diderot is warmly attached. not by mistake, but in order to justify the sound, he ventures to translate 'aratrum' into 'scythe,' boldly and rightly declaring in a marginal note that this is not the meaning of the word." [ ] and i have too harshly called our english vines, 'wicked weeds of kent,' in fors clavigera, xxvii. . much may be said for ale, when we brew it for our people honestly. [ ] has my reader ever thought,--i never did till this moment,--how it perfects the exquisite character which scott himself loved, as he invented, till he changed the form of the novel, that his habitual interjection should be this word;--not but that the oath, by conscience, was happily still remaining then in scotland, taking the place of the mediæval 'by st. andrew,' we in england, long before the scot, having lost all sense of the puritanical appeal to private conscience, as of the catholic oath, 'by st. george;' and our uncanonized 'by george' in sonorous rudeness, ratifying, not now our common conscience, but our individual opinion. [ ] 'jotham,' 'sum perfectio eorum,' or 'consummatio eorum.' (interpretation of name in vulgate index.) [ ] if you will look at the engraving, in the england and wales series, of turner's oakhampton, you will see its use. [ ] general assertions of this kind must always be accepted under indulgence,--exceptions being made afterwards. [ ] i use 'round' rather than 'cylindrical,' for simplicity's sake. [ ] carduus arvensis. 'creeping thistle,' in sowerby; why, i cannot conceive, for there is no more creeping in it than in a furzebush. but it especially haunts foul and neglected ground; so i keep the latin name, translating 'waste-thistle.' i could not show the variety of the curves of the involucre without enlarging; and if, on this much increased scale, i had tried to draw the flower, it would have taken mr. allen and me a good month's more work. and i had no more a month than a life, to spare: so the action only of the spreading flower is indicated, but the involucre drawn with precision. [ ] the florets gathered in the daisy are cinquefoils, examined closely. no system founded on colour can be very general or unexceptionable: but the splendid purples of the pansy, and thistle, which will be made one of the lower composite groups under margarita, may justify the general assertion of this order's being purple. [ ] see miss yonge's exhaustive account of the name, 'history of christian names,' vol. i., p. . [ ] (du cange.) the word 'margarete' is given as heraldic english for pearl, by lady juliana berners, in the book of st. albans. [ ] recent botanical research makes this statement more than dubitable. nevertheless, on no other supposition can the forms and action of tree-branches, so far as at present known to me, be yet clearly accounted for. [ ] not always in muscular power; but the framework on which strong muscles are to act, as that of an insect's wing, or its jaw, is never insectile. [ ] it is one of the three cadences, (the others being of the words rhyming to 'mind' and 'way,') used by sir philip sidney in his marvellous paraphrase of the th psalm. [ ] lectures on the families of speech, by the rev. f. farrer longman, . page . [ ] i only profess, you will please to observe, to ask questions in proserpina. never to answer any. but of course this chapter is to introduce some further inquiry in another place. [ ] see introduction, pp. - . [ ] see sowerby's nomenclature of the flower, vol. ix., plate . [ ] linnæus used this term for the oleanders; but evidently with less accuracy than usual. [ ] "[greek: anthê porphuroeidê]" says dioscorides, of the race generally,--but "[greek: anthê de hupoporphura]" of this particular one. [ ] i offer a sample of two dozen for good papas and mammas to begin with:-- angraecum. anisopetalum. brassavola. brassia. caelogyne. calopogon. corallorrhiza. cryptarrhena. eulophia. gymnadenia. microstylis. octomeria. ornithidium. ornithocephalus. platanthera. pleurothallis. pogonia. polystachya. prescotia. renanthera. rodriguezia. stenorhyncus. trizeuxis. xylobium. [ ] compare chapter v., § . [ ] "jacinthus jurae," changed from "hyacinthus comosus." [ ] "cantando, e scegliendo fior di fiore onde era picta tutta la sua via."--_purg._, xxviii. . [ ] "[greek: kai theoisi terpna.]" [ ] the four races of this order are more naturally distinct than botanists have recognized. in clarissa, the petal is cloven into a fringe at the outer edge; in lychnis, the petal is terminated in two rounded lobes and the fringe withdrawn to the top of the limb; in scintilla, the petal is divided into two _sharp_ lobes, without any fringe of the limb; and in mica, the minute and scarcely visible flowers have simple and far separate petals. the confusion of these four great natural races under the vulgar or accidental botanical names of spittle-plant, shore-plant, sand plant, etc., has become entirely intolerable by any rational student; but the names 'scintilla,' substituted for stellaria, and 'mica' for the utterly ridiculous and probably untrue sagina, connect themselves naturally with lychnis, in expression of the luminous power of the white and sparkling blossoms. [ ] clytia will include all the true sun-flowers, and falconia the hawkweeds; but i have not yet completed the analysis of this vast and complex order, so as to determine the limits of margarita and alcestis. [ ] the reader must observe that the positions given in this more developed system to any flower do not interfere with arrangements either formerly or hereafter given for memoria technica. the name of the pea, for instance (alata), is to be learned first among the twelve cinqfoils, p. , above; then transferred to its botanical place. [ ] the amphibious habit of this race is to me of more importance than its outlaid structure. [ ] "arctostaphylos alpina," i believe; but scarcely recognize the flower in my botanical books. [ ] 'aurora regina,' changed from rhododendron ferrugineum. [ ] i do not see what this can mean. primroses and cowslips can't become shrubs; nor can violets, nor daisies, nor any other of our pet meadow flowers. [ ] 'deserts.' punas is not in my spanish dictionary, and the reference to a former note is wrong in my edition of humboldt, vol. iii., p. . [ ] "the alpine rose of equinoctial america," p. . [ ] more literally "persons to whom the care of eggs is entrusted." [ ] a most singular sign of this function is given to the chemistry of the changes, according to a french botanist, to whose carefully and richly illustrated volume i shall in future often refer my readers, "vers l'époque de la maturité, les fruits _exhalent de l'acide carbonique_. ils ne presentent plus dès lors aucun dégagement d'oxygène pendant le jour, et _respirent, pour ainsi dire, à la façon des animaux_."--(figuier, 'histoire des plantes,' p. . vo. paris. hachette. .) [ ] 'elements of chemistry,' p. . by edward turner; edited by justus liebig and william gregory. taylor and walton, . * * * * * corrections made to printed original. p. . "in greek, [greek: rhiza]" - "[greek: riza]" with soft breath mark in original. p. . "shall it not be said of england?" - "no be said" in original. ibid. "beneficent in fulfilment" - "benet ficent" (across lines) in original. p. . "flaunting breadth of untenable purple" - "untenabie" in original. p. . "to warn them that this trial of their lovers" - "warm them" in original. p. . "xi. hesperides." - "ii." in original. p. . "at page " - "at page " in original. ibid. "at page " - "at page " in original. index ii. "celandine" - "calendine" in original. ibid. "thistle, ... ." " note" in original. ibid. "thistle, waste, " - " " in original. index iii. "fraxinus" - "frarinus" in original. cactus culture for amateurs: being descriptions of the various cactuses grown in this country. with full and practical instructions for their successful cultivation. by w. watson, assistant curator of the royal botanic gardens, kew. profusely illustrated. london: l. upcott gill, , strand, w.c. . [illustration: fig. .--a collection of cactuses. frontispiece.] preface the idea that cactuses were seldom seen in english gardens, because so little was known about their cultivation and management, suggested to the publisher of this book that a series of chapters on the best kinds, and how to grow them successfully, would be useful. these chapters were written for and published in the bazaar, in and following years. some alterations and additions have been made, and the whole is now offered as a thoroughly practical and descriptive work on the subject. the descriptions are as simple and complete as they could be made; the names here used are those adopted at kew; and the cultural directions are as full and detailed as is necessary. no species or variety is omitted which is known to be in cultivation, or of sufficient interest to be introduced. the many excellent figures of cactuses in the botanical magazine (bot. mag.) are referred to under each species described, except in those cases where a complete figure is given in this book. my claims to be heard as a teacher in this department are based on an experience of ten years in the care and cultivation of the large collection of cactuses at kew. whatever the shortcomings of my share of the work may be, i feel certain that the numerous and excellent illustrations which the publisher has obtained for this book cannot fail to render it attractive, and, let us also hope, contribute something towards bringing cactuses into favour with horticulturists, professional as well as amateur. w. watson. contents. introduction botanical characters cultivation propagation the genus epiphyllum the genus phyllocactus the genus cereus the genus echinocactus the genus echinopsis the genus melocactus the genus pilocereus the genus mamillaria the genus leuchtenbergia the genus pelecyphora the genus opuntia the genus pereskia the genus rhipsalis temperatures dealers in cactuses index of species cactus culture for amateurs chapter i. introduction. the cactus family is not popular among english horticulturists in these days, scarcely half a dozen species out of about a thousand known being considered good enough to be included among favourite garden plants. probably five hundred kinds have been, or are, in cultivation in the gardens of the few specialists who take an interest in cactuses; but these are practically unknown in english horticulture. it is not, however, very many years ago that there was something like a cactus mania, when rich amateurs vied with each other in procuring and growing large collections of the rarest and newest kinds. "about the year , cacti began to be specially patronised by several rich plant amateurs, of whom may be mentioned the duke of bedford, who formed a fine collection at woburn abbey, the duke of devonshire, and mr. harris, of kingsbury. mr. palmer, of shakelwell, had become possessed of mr. haworth's collection, to which he greatly added by purchases; he, however, found his rival in the rev. h. williams, of hendon, who formed a fine and select collection, and, on account of the eagerness of growers to obtain the new and rare plants, high prices were given for them, ten, twelve, and even twenty and thirty guineas often being given for single plants of the echinocactus. thus private collectors were induced to forward from their native countries--chiefly from mexico and chili--extensive collections of cacti." (quoting j. smith. a.l.s., ex-curator of the royal gardens. kew). this reads like what might be written of the position held now in england by the orchid family, and what has been written of tulips and other plants whose popularity has been great at some time or other. why have cactuses gone out of favour? it is impossible to give any satisfactory answer to this question. no doubt they belong to that class of objects which is only popular whilst it pleases the eye or tickles the fancy; and the eye and the fancy having tired of it, look to something different. the general belief with respect to cactuses is that they are all wanting in beauty, that they are remarkable only in that they are exceedingly curious in form, and as a rule very ugly. it is true that none of them possess any claims to gracefulness of habit or elegance of foliage, such as are usual in popular plants, and, when not in flower, very few of the cactuses would answer to our present ideas of beauty with respect to the plants we cultivate. nevertheless, the stems of many of them (see frontispiece, fig. ) are peculiarly attractive on account of their strange, even fantastic, forms, their spiny clothing, the absence of leaves, except in very few cases, and their singular manner of growth. to the few who care for cactuses there is a great deal of beauty, even in these characters, although perhaps the eye has to be educated up to it. if the stems are more curious than beautiful, the flowers of the majority of the species of cactuses are unsurpassed, as regards size and form, and brilliancy and variety in colour, by any other family of plants, not even excluding orchids. in size some of the flowers equal those of the queen of water lilies (victoria regia), whilst the colours vary from the purest white to brilliant crimson and deep yellow. some of them are also deliciously fragrant. those kinds which expand their huge blossoms only at night are particularly interesting; and in the early days of cactus culture the flowering of one of these was a great event in english gardens. of the many collections of cactuses formed many years ago in england, that at kew is the only one that still exists. this collection has always been rich in the number of species it contained; at the present time the number of kinds cultivated there is about . mr. peacock, of hammersmith, also has a large collection of cactuses, many of which he has at various times exhibited in public places, such as the crystal palace, and the large conservatory attached to the royal horticultural society's gardens at south kensington. other smaller collections are cultivated in the botanic gardens at oxford, cambridge, glasnevin, and edinburgh. a great point in favour of the plants of the cactus family for gardens of small size, and even for window gardening--a modest phase of plant culture which has made much progress in recent years--is the simpleness of their requirements under cultivation. no plants give so much pleasure in return for so small an amount of attention as do these. their peculiarly tough-skinned succulent stems enable them to go for an extraordinary length of time without water; indeed, it may be said that the treatment most suitable for many of them during the greater portion of the year is such as would be fatal to most other plants. cactuses are children of the dry barren plains and mountain sides, living where scarcely any other form of vegetation could find nourishment, and thriving with the scorching heat of the sun over their heads, and their roots buried in the dry, hungry soil, or rocks which afford them anchorage and food. in beauty and variety of flowers, in the remarkable forms of their stems, in the simple nature of their requirements, and in the other points of special interest which characterise this family, and which supply the cultivator and student with an unfailing source of pleasure and instruction, the cactus family is peculiarly rich. chapter ii. botanical characters. although strictly botanical information may be considered as falling outside the limits of a treatise intended only for the cultivator, yet a short account of the principal characters by which cactuses are grouped and classified may not be without interest. from the singular form and succulent nature of the whole of the cactus family, it might be inferred that, in these characters alone, we have reliable marks of relationship, and that it would be safe to call all those plants cactuses in which such characters are manifest. a glance at some members of other families will, however, soon show how easily one might thus be mistaken. in the euphorbias we find a number of kinds, especially amongst those which inhabit the dry, sandy plains of south africa, which bear a striking resemblance to many of the cactuses, particularly the columnar ones and the rhipsalis. (the euphorbias all have milk-like sap, which, on pricking their stems or leaves, at once exudes and thus reveals their true character. the sap of the cactuses is watery). amongst stapelias, too, we meet with plants which mimic the stem characters of some of the smaller kinds of cactus. again, in the cactuses themselves we have curious cases of plant mimicry; as, for instance, the rhipsalis, which looks like a bunch of mistletoe, and the pereskia, the leaves and habit of which are more like what belong to, say, the gooseberry family than to a form of cactus. from this it will be seen that although these plants are almost all succulent, and curiously formed, they are by no means singular in this respect. the characters of the order are thus defined by botanists: cactuses are either herbs, shrubs, or trees, with soft flesh and copious watery juice. root woody, branching, with soft bark. stem branching or simple, round, angular, channelled, winged, flattened, or cylindrical; sometimes clothed with numerous tufts of spines which vary in texture, size, and form very considerably; or, when spineless, the stems bear numerous dot-like scars, termed areoles. leaves very minute, or entirely absent, falling off very early, except in the pereskia and several of the opuntias, in which they are large, fleshy, and persistent. flowers solitary, except in the pereskia, and borne on the top or side of the stem; they are composed of numerous parts or segments; the sepals and petals are not easily distinguished from each other; the calyx tube is joined to, or combined, with the ovary, and is often covered with scale-like sepals and hairs or spines; the calyx is sometimes partly united so as to form a tube, and the petals are spread in regular whorls, except in the epiphyllum. stamens many, springing from the side of the tube or throat of the calyx, sometimes joined to the petals, generally equal in length; anthers small and oblong. ovary smooth, or covered with scales and spines, or woolly, one-celled; style simple, filiform or cylindrical, with a stigma of two or more spreading rays, upon which are small papillae. fruit pulpy, smooth, scaly, or spiny, the pulp soft and juicy, sweet or acid, and full of numerous small, usually black, seeds. tribe i.--calyx tube produced beyond the ovary. stem covered with tubercles, or ribs, bearing spines. . melocactus. stem globose; flowers in a dense cap-like head, composed of layers of bristly wool and slender spines, amongst which the small flowers are developed. the cap is persistent, and increases annually with the stem. . mamillaria. stems short, usually globose, and covered with tubercles or mammae, rarely ridged, the apex bearing spiny cushions; flowers mostly in rings round the stem. . pelecyphora. stem small, club-shaped; tubercles in spiral rows, and flattened on the top, where are two rows of short scale-like spines. . leuchtenbergia. stem naked at the base; tubercles on the upper part large, fleshy, elongated, three-angled, bearing at the apex a tuft of long, thin, gristle-like spines. . echinocactus. stem short, ridged, spiny; calyx tube of the flower large, bell-shaped; ovary and fruit scaly. . discocactus. stem short; calyx tube thin, the throat filled by the stamens; ovary and fruit smooth. . cereus. stem often long and erect, sometimes scandent, branching, ridged or angular; flowers from the sides of the stem; calyx tube elongated and regular; stamens free. . phyllocactus. stem flattened, jointed, and notched; flowers from the sides, large, having long, thin tubes and a regular arrangement of the petals. . epiphyllum. stem flattened, jointed; joints short; flowers from the apices of the joints; calyx tube short; petals irregular, almost bilabiate. tribe ii.--calyx-tube not produced beyond the ovary. stem branching, jointed. . rhipsalis. stem thin and rounded, angular, or flattened, bearing tufts of hair when young; flowers small; petals spreading; ovary smooth; fruit a small pea-like berry. . opuntia. stem jointed, joints broad and fleshy, or rounded; spines barbed; flowers large; fruit spinous, large, pear-like. . pereskia. stem woody, spiny, branching freely; leaves fleshy, large, persistent; flowers medium in size, in panicles on the ends of the branches. the above is a key to the genera on the plan of the most recent botanical arrangement, but for horticultural purposes it is necessary that the two genera echinopsis and pilocereus should be kept up. they come next to cereus, and are distinguished as follows: echinopsis. stem as in echinocactus, but the flowers are produced low down from the side of the stem, and the flower tube is long and curved. pilocereus. stem tall, columnar, bearing long silky hairs as well as spines; flowers in a head on the top of the stem, rarely produced. with the aid of this key anyone ought to be able to make out to what genus a particular cactus belongs, and by referring to the descriptions of the species, he may succeed in making out what the plant is. for the classification of cactuses, botanists rely mainly on their floral organs and fruit. we may, therefore, take a plant of phyllocactus, with which most of us are familiar, and, by observing the structure of its flowers, obtain some idea of the botanical characters of the whole order. phyllocactus has thin woody stems and branches composed of numerous long leaf-like joints, growing out of one another, and resembling thick leaves joined by their ends. along the sides of these joints there are numerous notches, springing from which are the large handsome flowers. on looking carefully, we perceive that the long stalk-like expansion is not a stalk, because it is above the seed vessel, which is, of course, a portion of the flower itself. it is a hollow tube, and contains the long style or connection between the seed vessel and the stigma, a (fig. ). this tube, then, must be the calyx, and the small scattered scale-like bodies, b (fig. ), which clothe the outside, are really calyx lobes. [illustration: fig. .--flower of phyllocactus, cut lengthwise. a, calyx tube. b, calyx lobes. c, ditto, assuming the form of petals. d, stamens. e, style. f, ovary or seed vessel.] nearer the top of the flower, these calyx lobes are better developed, until, surrounding the corolla, we find them assuming the form and appearance of petals, c (fig. ). the corolla is composed of a large number of long strap-shaped pointed petals, very thin and delicate, often beautifully coloured, and generally spreading outwards. springing from the bases of these petals, we find the stamens, d (fig. ), a great number of them, forming a bunch of threads unequal in length, and bearing on their tips the hay-seed-like anthers, which are attached to the threads by one of their points. the style is a long cylindrical body, e (fig. ), which stretches from the ovary to the top of the flower, where it splits into a head of spreading linear rays, ½ in. in length. when the flower withers, the seed vessel, f (fig. ), remains on the plant and expands into a large succulent fruit, inside which is a mass of pulpy matter, inclosing the numerous, small, black, bony seeds. it must not be supposed that all the genera into which cactuses are divided are characterised by large flowers such as would render their study as easy as the genus taken as an illustration. in some, such for instance as the rhipsalis, the flowers are small, and therefore less easy to dissect than those of phyllocactus. the stems of cactuses show a very wide range of variation in size, in form, and in structure. in size, we have the colossal cereus giganteus, whose straight stems when old are as firm as iron, and rise with many ascending arms or rear their tall leafless trunks like ships' masts to a height of ft. or ft. from this we descend through a multitude of various shapes and sizes to the tiny tufted mamillarias, no larger than a lady's thimble, or the creeping rhipsalis, which lies along the hard ground on which it grows, and looks like hairy caterpillars. in form, the variety is very remarkable. we have the mistletoe cactus, with the appearance of a bunch of mistletoe, berries and all; the thimble cactus; the dumpling cactus; the melon cactus; the turk's cap cactus; the rat's-tail cactus; the hedgehog cactus; all having a resemblance to the things whose names they bear. then there is the indian fig, with branches like battledores, joined by their ends; the epiphyllum and phyllocactus, with flattened leaf-like stems; the columnar spiny cereus, with deeply channelled stems and the appearance of immense candelabra. totally devoid of leaves, and often skeleton-like in appearance, these plants have a strange look about them, which is suggestive of some fossilised forms of vegetation belonging to the past ages of the mastodon, the elk, and the dodo, rather than to the living things of to-day. by far the greater part of the species of cactuses belong to the group with tall or elongated stems. "it is worthy of remark that as the stems advance in age the angles fill up, or the articulations disappear, in consequence of the slow growth of the woody axis and the gradual development of the cellular substance; so that, at the end of a number of years, all the branches of cactuses, however angular or compressed they originally may have been, become trunks that are either perfectly cylindrical, or which have scarcely any visible angles." a second large group is that of which the melon and hedgehog cactuses are good representatives, which have sphere-shaped stems, covered with stout spines. we have hitherto spoken of the cactuses as being without leaves, but this is only true of them when in an old or fully-developed state. on many of the stems we find upon their surface, or angles, small tubercles, which, when young, bear tiny scale-like leaves. these, however, soon wither and fall off, so that, to all appearance, leaves are never present on these plants. there is one exception, however, in the barbadoes gooseberry (pereskia), which bears true and persistent leaves; but these may be considered anomalous in the order. the term "succulent" is applied to cactuses because of the large proportion of cellular tissue, i.e., flesh, of their stems, as compared with the woody portion. in some of them, when young, the woody system appears to be altogether absent, and they have the appearance of a mass of fleshy matter, like a vegetable marrow. this succulent mass is protected by a tough skin, often of leather-like firmness, and almost without the little perforations called breathing and evaporating pores, which in other plants are very numerous. this enables the cactuses to sustain without suffering the full ardour of the burning sun and parched-up nature of the soil peculiar to the countries where they are native. nature has endowed cactuses with a skin similar to what she clothes many succulent fruits with, such as the apple, plum, peach, &c., to which the sun's powerful rays are necessary for their growth and ripening. the spiny coat of the majority of cactuses is no doubt intended to serve as a protection from the wild animals inhabiting with them the sterile plains of america, and to whom the cool watery flesh of the cactus would otherwise fall a prey. indeed, these spines are not sufficient to prevent some animals from obtaining the watery insides of these plants, for we read that mules and wild horses kick them open and greedily devour their succulent flesh. it has also been suggested that the spines are intended to serve the plants as a sort of shade from the powerful sunshine, as they often spread over and interlace about the stems. chapter iii. cultivation. by noting the conditions in which plants are found growing in a natural state, we obtain some clue to their successful management, when placed under conditions more or less artificial; and, in the case of cactuses, knowledge of this kind is of more than ordinary importance. in the knowledge that, with only one or two exceptions, they will not exist in any but sunny lands, where, during the greater part of the year, dry weather prevails, we perceive what conditions are likely to suit them when under cultivation in our plant-houses. cactuses are all american (using this term for the whole of the new world) with only one or two exceptions (several species of rhipsalis have been found wild in africa, madagascar, and ceylon), and, broadly speaking, they are mostly tropical plants, not-withstanding the fact of their extending to the snow-line on some of the andean mountains of chili, where several species of the hedgehog cactus were found by humboldt on the summit of rocks whose bases were planted in snow. in california, in mexico and texas, in the provinces of central and south america, as far south as chili, and in many of the islands contiguous to the mainland, the cactus family has become established wherever warmth and drought, such as its members delight in, allowed them to get established. in many of the coast lands, they occur in very large numbers, forming forests of strange aspect, and giving to the landscape a weird, picturesque appearance. humboldt, in his "views of nature," says: "there is hardly any physiognomical character of exotic vegetation that produces a more singular and ineffaceable impression on the mind of the traveller than an arid plain, densely covered with columnar or candelabra-like stems of cactuses, similar to those near cumana, new barcelona, cora. and in the province of jaen de bracamoros." this applies also to some of the small islands of the west indies, the hills or mountains of which are crowned with these curious-looking plants, whose singular shapes are alone sufficient to remind the traveller that he has reached an american coast; for these cactuses are as peculiar a feature of the new world as the heaths are in the old, or as eucalypti are in australia. although the cactus order is, in its distribution by nature, limited to the regions of america, yet it is now represented in various parts of the old world by plants which are apparently as wild and as much at home as when in their native countries. the indian figs are, perhaps, the most widely distributed of cactuses in the old world-a circumstance due to their having been introduced for the sake of their edible fruits, and more especially for the cultivation of the cochineal insect. in various places along the shores of the mediterranean, and in south africa, and even in australia, the opuntias have become naturalised, and appear like aboriginal inhabitants. it is, however, only in warm sunny regions that the naturalisation of these plants is possible. from these facts, we are able to form some general idea of the conditions suitable for cactuses when cultivated in our greenhouses; for, although we seldom have, or care to have, any but diminutive specimens of many of these plants as compared with their appearance when wild, yet we know that the same conditions as regards heat, light, and moisture are necessary for small cactuses as for full-grown ones. although the places in which cactuses naturally abound are, for the greater portion of the year, very dry and warm, heavy rains are more or less frequent during certain periods, and these, often accompanied by extreme warmth and bright sunshine, have an invigorating and almost forcing effect on the growth of cactuses. it is during this rainy period that the whole of the growth is made, and new life is, as it were, given to the plant, its reservoir-like structure enabling it to store up a large amount of food and moisture, so that on the return of dry weather the safety of the plant is insured. it is to the management of cactuses in a small state, such as is most convenient for our plant-houses, and not to the cultivation of those colossal species referred to above, that the instructions given here will be for the most part devoted; but, as in the case of almost every one of our cultivated plants, it is important to the cultivator to know something of the conditions which nature has provided for cactuses in those lands where they are native. there is nothing in the nature or the requirements of cactuses that should render their successful management beyond the means of anyone who possesses a small, heated greenhouse, or even a window recess to which sunlight can be admitted during some portion of the day. in large establishments, such as kew, it is possible to provide a spacious house specially for the cultivation of an extensive collection, where many of them may attain a good size before becoming too big. and it will be evident that where a house such as that at kew can be afforded, much more satisfactory results may generally be obtained, than if plants have to be provided for in a house containing various other plants, or in the window of a dwelling-room. apart altogether from size, it is, however, possible to grow a collection of cactuses, and to grow them well, in a house of small dimensions--given the amount of sunlight and heat which are required by these plants. we sometimes see cactuses--specimens, too, of choice and rare kinds--which have been reared in a cottager's window or in a small greenhouse, and which in health and beauty have at least equalled what has been accomplished in the most elaborately prepared houses. it may be said that these successes, under conditions of the most limited kind, are accidental rather than the result of properly understood treatment; but however they have been brought about, these instances of good cultivation are sufficient to show that success is possible, even where the means are of the simplest or most restricted kind. whether it be in a large house, fitted with the best arrangements, or in the window of the cottager, the conditions essential to the successful cultivation of cactuses are practically the same. in wardian cases.--many of our readers will be acquainted with the neat little glass cases, like greenhouses in shape, and fitted up in much the same way, which are sometimes to be seen in our markets, filled with a collection of miniature cactuses. to the professional gardener, these cases are playthings, and are looked upon by him as bearing about the same relation to gardening as a child's doll's house does to housekeeping. not-withstanding this, they are the source of much interest, and even of instruction, to many of the millions to whom a greenhouse or serious gardening is an impossibility. in these little cases--for which we are indebted to mr. boller, a dealer in cactaceous plants--it is possible to grow a collection of tiny cactuses for years, if only the operations of watering, potting, ventilating, and other matters connected with ordinary plant growing, are properly attended to. in window recesses.--in the window recess larger specimens may be grown, and here it is possible to grow and flower successfully many of the plants of the cactus family. in a window with a south aspect, and which lights a room where fires are kept, at least during cold weather, specimens of phyllocactus, cereus flagelliformis, epiphyllum, and, in fact, of almost every kind of cactus, are sometimes to be met with even in england; whilst in germany they are as popular among the poorer classes as the fuchsia, the pelargonium, and the musk are with us. one of the commonest of cactuses in the latter country is the rat's-tail cactus (cereus flagelliformis), and it is no unusual thing to see a large window of a cottager's dwelling thickly draped on the inside with the long, tail-like growths and handsome rose-coloured flowers of this plant. this is only one among dozens of species, all equally useful for window gardening, and all as interesting and beautiful as those above described. in greenhouses.--for the greenhouse proper, cactuses are well adapted, either as the sole occupants or as suitable for such positions as are afforded by shelves or baskets placed near the roof glass. if the greenhouse is not fitted with heating arrangements, then, by selecting only those species of cactus that are known to thrive in a position where, during winter, they are kept safe out of the reach of frost (of which a large number are known) a good collection of these plants may be grown. in heated structures the selection of kinds may be made according to the space available, and to the conditions under which they will be expected to grow. fig. represents a section of a house for cactuses, which will afford a good idea of the kind of structure best suited for them. the aspect is due south. [illustration: fig. . section of house for cactuses--a,a, hot-water pipes; b,b, ventilators.] when grown on their own roots, the epiphyllums, as well as the pendent-growing kinds of rhipsalis, and several species of cereus, may be placed in baskets and suspended from the roof. the baskets should be lined with thin slices of fibrous peat, and the whole of the middle filled with the compost recommended for these plants under "soil". when well managed, some very pretty objects are formed by the epiphyllums grown as basket plants. the climbing cactuses are usually planted in a little mound composed of loam and brick rubble, and their stems either trained along rafters or allowed to run up the back wall of a greenhouse, against which they root freely, and are generally capable of taking care of themselves with very little attention from the gardener. in frames.--for cultivation in frames, the conditions are the same as for greenhouses. even when grown in the latter, it will be found conducive to the health and flowering of the plants if, during the summer months, they can be placed in a frame with a south aspect, removing them back to the house again on the decline of summer weather. wherever the place selected for cactuses may be, whether in a large plant-house, or a frame, or a window, it is of vital importance to the plants that the position should be exposed to bright sunshine during most of the day. without sunlight, they can no more thrive than a pelargonium could without water. in germany, many growers of almost all the kinds of cactuses place their young plants in frames, which are prepared as follows: in april or may a hot-bed of manure and leaves is prepared, and a frame placed upon it, looking south. six inches of soil is put on the top of the bed, and in this, as soon as the temperature of the bed has fallen to about deg., the young plants are placed in rows. the frames are kept close even in bright weather, except when there is too much moisture inside, and the plants are syringed twice daily in dry, hot weather. the growth they make under this treatment is astonishing. by the autumn the plants are ready to be ripened by exposure to sun and air, and in september they are lifted, planted in pots, and sent to market for sale. this method may be adopted in england, and if carefully managed, the growth the plants would make would far exceed anything ever accomplished when they are kept permanently in pots. out-of-doors.--there are some kinds which may be grown out of doors altogether, if planted on a sunny, sheltered position, on a rockery. the most successful plan is that followed at kew, where a collection of the hardier species is planted in a rockery composed of brick rubble and stones. during summer the plants are exposed; but when cold weather and rains come, lights are placed permanently over the rockery, and in this way it is kept comparatively dry. no fire-heat or protection of any other kind is used, and the vigorous growth, robust health, and floriferousness of the several species are proofs of the fitness of the treatment for this class of plants. in any garden where a few square yards in a sunny, well-drained position can be afforded for a raised rockery, the hardy cactuses may be easily managed. to make a suitable rockery, proceed as follows: find a position against the south wall of a house, greenhouse, or shed, and against this wall construct a raised rockery of brick rubble, lime rubbish, stones (soft sandstone, if possible), and fibrous loam. the rockery when finished should be, say, ft. wide, and reach along the wall as far as required; the back of the rockery would extend about ft. above the ground level, and fall towards the front. fix in the wall, ft. or so above the rockery, a number of hooks at intervals all along, to hold in position lights sufficiently long to cover the rockery from the wall to the front, where they could be supported by short posts driven in the ground. the lights should be removed during summer to some shed, and brought out for use on the approach of winter. treated in this manner, the following hardy species could not fail to be a success: opuntia rafinesquii and var. arkansana, o. vulgaris, o. brachyarthra, o. picolominiana, o. missouriensis, o. humilis, cereus fendleri, c. engelmanni, c. gonacanthus, c. phoeniceus, echinocactus simpsoni, e. pentlandii, mamillaria vivipara. having briefly pointed out the various positions in which cactuses may be cultivated successfully, we will now proceed to treat in detail the various operations which are considered as being of more or less importance in their management. these are potting, watering, and temperatures, after which propagation by means of seeds, cuttings, and grafting, hybridisation, seed saving, &c., and diseases and noxious insects will be treated upon. soil.--the conditions in which plants grow naturally, are what we usually try to imitate for their cultivation artificially. at all events, such is supposed to be theoretically right, however difficult we may often find it to be in practice. soil in some form or other is necessary to the healthy existence of all plants; and we know that the nature of the soil varies with that of the plants growing in it, or, in other words, certain soils are necessary to certain plants, whether in a state of nature or cultivated in gardens. but, whilst admitting that nature, when intelligently followed, would not lead us far astray, we must be careful not to follow her too strictly when dealing with the management of plants in gardens. there are other circumstances besides the nature of the soil by which plants are influenced. soil is only one of the conditions on which plants depend, and where the other conditions are not exactly the same in our gardens as in nature, it is often found necessary to employ a different soil from that in which the plants grow when wild. it has been stated that plants do not grow naturally in the soil best suited for them, and that the reason why many plants are found in peculiar places is not at all because they prefer them, but because they alone are capable of existing there, or because they take refuge there from the inroads of stouter neighbours who would destroy them or crowd them out. there are, as every gardener knows, numerous plants that succeed equally well in widely different soils, and a soil which may be suitable for a plant in one place, may prove totally unsuited in another. hence it is why we find one gardener recommending one kind of soil, and another a different one, for the same plant, both answering equally well because of other conditions fitting better with each soil. this helps us to understand how it is that many garden subjects grow much better when planted in composts often quite different from those the plants are found in when wild. few plants have a particular predilection for soil, and some have what we may call the power to adapt themselves to conditions often widely different. in cactuses we have a family of plants for which special conditions are necessary; and, as regards soil, whether we are guided by nature or by gardening experience, we are led to conclude that almost all of them thrive only when planted in one kind, that soil being principally loam. plants which are limited in nature to sandy, sun-scorched plains or the glaring sides of rocky hills and mountains, where scarcely any other form of vegetation can exist, are not likely to require much decayed vegetable humus, but must obtain their food from inorganic substances, such as loam, sand, or lime. so it is with them when grown in our houses. they are healthiest and longest-lived when planted in a loamy soil; and although they may be grown fairly well for a time when placed in a compost of loam and leaf mould, or loam and peat, yet the growth they make is generally too sappy and weak; it is simply fat without bone, which, when the necessary resting period comes round, either rots or gradually dries up. in preparing soil, therefore, for all cactuses (except epiphyllum and rhipsalis, which will be treated separately) a good, rather stiff loam, with plenty of grass fibre in it, should form the principal ingredient, sand and, if obtainable, small brick rubble being added--one part of each of the latter to six parts of the former. the brick rubble should be pounded up so that the largest pieces are about the size of hazel nuts. lime rubbish, i.e., old plaster from buildings, &c., is sometimes recommended for cactuses, but it does not appear to be of any use except as drainage. at kew its use has been discontinued, and it is now generally condemned by all good cultivators. of course, the idea that lime was beneficial to cactuses sprang from the knowledge that it existed in large quantities in the soil in which the plants grew naturally, and it is often found in abundance, in the form of oxalate of lime, in the old stems of the plants. but in good loam, lime, in the state of chalk, is always present, and this, together with the lime contained in the brick rubble, is sufficient to supply the plants with as much as they require. for epiphyllums and rhipsalis, both of which are epiphytal naturally, but which are found to thrive best in pots in our houses, a mixture of equal parts of peat and loam with sand and brick rubble in the same proportion as before recommended, will be found most suitable. leaf mould is sometimes used for these plants; but unless really good it is best left out of the soil. the finest epiphyllums have been grown in a soil which consists almost wholly of a light fibry loam, with the addition of a little crushed bones. potting.--cactuses, when healthy, are injuriously affected by frequent disturbance at the roots. on the arrival of the potting season, which for these plants is in april and may, established plants should be examined at the root, and if the roots are found to be in a healthy condition, and the soil sweet, they should be replaced in the same pots to continue in them another year. if the roots are decayed, or the soil has become sour, it should be shaken away from the roots, which must be examined, cutting away all decayed portions, and shortening the longest roots to within a few inches of the base of the plant. cactuses are so tenacious of life, and appear to rely so little on their roots, that it will be found the wisest plan, when repotting them, to cut the roots thoroughly. the size of pots most suitable is what would be considered small in comparison with other plants, cactuses preferring to be somewhat cramped in this respect. this, indeed, is how they are found when wild, the roots generally fixing themselves in the crevices of the rocks or stones about which the plants grow, so that a large specimen is often found to have only a few inches of space in the cleft of a rock for the whole of its roots. when thus limited, growth is firmer and the flowers are produced in much greater profusion than when a liberal amount of root space is afforded. the pots should be well drained-about one-fifth of their depth filled with drainage when intended for large, strong-growing kinds, and one-third for the smaller ones, such as mamillarias. a layer of rough fibry material should be placed over the crocks to prevent the finer soil from stopping the drainage. when filling in the soil, press it down firmly, spreading the roots well amongst it, and keeping the base of the plant only an inch or so below the surface. for plants with weak stems, stakes will be necessary, and even stout-stemmed kinds, when their roots are not sufficient to hold them firmly, will do best if fastened to one or two strong stakes till they have made new roots and got firm hold of the soil. epiphyllums, when grown as standards, should be tied to strong wire supports, those with three short, prong-like legs being most desirable, as, owing to the weight of the head of the plant, a single stake is not sufficient to hold the whole firmly. after potting, no water should be given for a few weeks. in fact, if the atmosphere in which the plants are placed be kept a little moist, it will not be necessary to water them till signs of fresh growth are perceived. for epiphyllums and rhipsalis, water will be required earlier than this; but even they are best left for a few days without water, after they have been repotted. as soon as fresh growth is perceived, the plants may be well watered, and from this time water may be supplied as often as the soil approaches dryness. newly-imported plants, which on arrival are usually much shrivelled and rootless, should be potted in rather dry soil and small pots, and treated as recommended above. cactuses, we must remember, contain an abundance of nourishment stored up in their stems, and upon this they will continue to exist for a considerable time without suffering; and, when their growing season comes round, root action commences whether the soil is wet or dry, the latter being the most favourable. plants altogether exposed to the air will push roots in due time. a remarkable instance of this has been recorded by mr. j. r. jackson, curator of the museums at kew. a plant of pilocereus senilis, which had grown too tall for the house, was cut off at the base, and placed in the museum as a specimen. here it gradually dried up to within ft. of the top, where a fracture across the stem had been made. above this the stem remained fresh and healthy, and, on examining it some months afterwards, it was found that not only had the top of the stem remained green, but it had formed roots of its own, which had grown down the dead lower portion of the stem, and were in a perfectly healthy state. when it is remembered that all this happened in the dry atmosphere of a museum, it will be apparent how exceptional cactuses are in their manner of growth, and in the wonderful tenacity of life they exhibit under conditions which would destroy the majority of plants in a very short time. we sometimes find, when examining the bases of cactus stems, that decay has commenced; this is carefully cut out with a sharp knife, and the wound exposed to the action of the air till it is perfectly dry, or, as we term it, "callused." watering.--it will have peen gathered from what has been previously said in relation to the conditions under which the majority of the plants of the cactus family grow when wild, that during their season of growth they require a good supply of moisture, both at the root and overhead; and afterwards a somewhat lengthened period of rest, that is, almost total dryness, accompanied by all the sunlight possible, and generally a somewhat high temperature. the growing season for all those kinds which require to be kept dry when at rest is from the end of april to the middle of august, and during this time they should be kept moderately moist, but not constantly saturated, which, however, is not likely to occur if the water is not carelessly supplied, and the drainage and soil are perfect. this treatment corresponds with what happens to cactuses in a wild state, the frequent and heavy rains which occur in the earlier part of the summer in the american plains supplying the amount of moisture necessary to enable these plants to make fresh growth, and produce their beautiful flowers and spine-clothed fruits. after august, little or no rain falls, and the cactuses assume a rather shrivelled appearance, which gives them an unhealthy look, but which is really a sign of ripeness, promising a plentiful crop of flowers when the rainy season again returns. as the sun in england is not nearly so powerful as in the hot plains of central america and the southern states of north america, where cactuses are found in greatest abundance, it will be evident that, if flowers are to be produced, we must see that our plants have a sufficiency of water in early summer, and little or none during the autumn and winter, whilst the whole year round they should be exposed to all the sunlight possible, the temperature, of course, varying with the requirements of the species, whether it is a native of tropical or of temperate regions. it is important that the cultivator should understand that if water is liberally supplied all through the summer, the plants cannot obtain the rest which is necessary to their ripening and producing flowers, as dryness at the root alone is not sufficient to provide this, but must be accompanied by exposure to bright sunlight, which is not possible in england during winter, so that the ripening process must begin before the summer is over. it is possible to preserve most cactuses alive by keeping them constantly growing; but, with very few exceptions, such treatment prevents the plants from flowering. the following is what is practised in the gardens where cactuses are successfully cultivated. for the genera cereus, echinopsis, echinocactus, mamillaria, opuntia, and melocactus, a moist tropical house is provided, and in april the plants are freely watered at the root, and syringed overhead both morning and afternoon on all bright days. this treatment is continued till the end of july, when syringing is suspended, and the water supplied to the roots gradually reduced. by the end of august, the plants are placed in a large light frame with a south aspect, except the tall-growing kinds, which are too bulky to remove. in this frame the plants are kept till the summer is over, and are watered only about once a week should the sun be very powerful. the lights are removed on all bright sunny days, but are kept on during wet or dull weather, and at night. under this treatment, many of the species assume a reddish appearance, and the thick fleshy-stemmed kinds generally shrivel somewhat. there is no occasion for alarm in the coloured and shrivelled appearance of the plants: on the contrary, it may be hailed as a good sign for flowers. a common complaint in relation to cacti as flowering plants is that they grow all right but rarely or never flower. the explanation of this is shown by the fact that the plants must be properly ripened and rested before they can produce flowers. on the approach of cold weather the plants which were removed to a frame to be ripened should be brought back into the house for the winter, and kept quite dry at the roots till the return of spring, when their flowers will be developed either before or soon after the watering season again commences. hitherto we have been dealing with those genera which have thick fleshy stems; but there still remain the genera rhipsalis, epiphyllum, and phyllocactus, which are not capable of bearing the long period of drought advised for the former. the last-mentioned genus should, however, be kept almost dry at the root during winter, and, if placed in a light, airy house till the turn of the year, the branches will ripen, and set their flower buds much more readily than when they are wintered in a moist, partially-shaded house. during summer all the phyllocactuses delight in plenty of water, and, when growing freely, a weak solution of manure affords them good food. epiphyllums must be kept always more or less moist at the root, though, of course, when growing freely, they require more water than when growth has ceased for the year, which happens late in autumn. the same rule applies to rhipsalis, none of the species of which are happy when kept long dry. for the several species of opuntia and echinopsis, which are sufficiently hardy to be cultivated on a sunny rockery out of doors, it will be found a wise precaution to place either a pane of glass or a handlight over the plants in wet autumns and during winter, not so much to serve as protection from cold as to shield them from an excess of moisture at a time when it would prove injurious. temperature.--as the amount of heat required by the different species of cactus varies very considerably, and as the difference between the summer and winter temperatures for them is often as great as it is important, it will be as well if we mention the temperature required by each when describing the species. it is true that the majority of cactuses may be kept alive in one house where all would be subjected to the same temperature, but many of the plants would merely exist, and could not possibly flower. it would be easy to point to several instances of this unsatisfactory state of things. at kew, for example, owing to the arrangements necessary for the public, it is found convenient to have the majority of the large collection of cactuses in one house, where the plants present an imposing appearance, but where, as might be expected, a good number of the species very rarely produce flowers. the cactuses which inhabit the plains of the southern united states are subjected to a very high summer temperature, and a winter of intense cold; whilst on the other hand the species found in central and south america do not undergo nearly so wide an extreme, the difference between the summer and winter temperatures of these countries being generally much less marked. a word will be said under each species as to whether it is tropical, temperate, or hardy, a tropical temperature for cacti being in summer degs., rising to degs. with sun heat, night temperature degs. to degs., in winter degs. to degs. temperate: in summer degs., rising to degs. with sun heat, night degs. to degs., in winter degs. to degs. the hardy species will, of course, bear the ordinary temperatures of this country; but, to enable them to withstand a very cold winter, they must be kept as dry as possible. in the colder parts of england it is not advisable to leave any of these plants outside during winter. insect pests.--notwithstanding the thickness of skin characteristic of almost every one of the cactuses, they are frequently attacked by various kinds of garden pests when under cultivation, and more especially by mealy bug. there is, of course, no difficulty in removing such insects from the species with few or no spines upon their stems; but when the plants are thickly covered with clusters of spines and hairs, the insects are not easily got rid of. for cactuses, as well as for other plants subject to this most troublesome insect, various kinds of insecticide have been recommended; but the best, cheapest, and most effectual with which we are acquainted is paraffin, its only drawback being the injury it does to the plants when applied carelessly, or when not sufficiently diluted. a wineglassful of the oil, added to a gallon of soft water, and about oz. of soft soap, the whole to be kept thoroughly mixed by frequently stirring it, forms a solution strong enough to destroy mealy bug. in applying this mixture, a syringe should be used, or, if the plants are to be dipped overhead, care must be taken to have the oil thoroughly diffused through the water, or the plant, when lifted out, will be covered with pure paraffin, which does not mix properly with water, but swims upon the surface if allowed to stand for a few moments. the plants should be laid on their sides to be syringed with the mixture, and after they have been thoroughly wetted, they may be allowed to stand for a few minutes before being syringed with pure water. plants that are badly infested with mealy bug should be syringed with the paraffin mixture once a day, for about a week. it is easy to do serious harm to these plants by using a stronger solution than is here recommended, and also by not properly mixing the oil with the soap and water; and the amateur cannot, therefore, be too careful in his use of this excellent insecticide. it would be easy to recommend other insecticides, so called, for cactuses; but whilst they are less dangerous to the plants, they are often as harmless as pure water to the insects. for scale, which sometimes infests these plants, and which is sometimes found upon them when wild, the paraffin may be used with good effect. thrips attack phyllocactus, rhipsalis, and epiphyllum, especially when the plants are grown in less shade, or in a higher temperature, than is good for them. fumigation with tobacco, dipping in a strong solution of tobacco, or sponging with a mixture of soap and water, are either of them effectual when applied to plants infested with thrips. the same may be said of green-fly, which sometimes attacks the epiphyllums. a blight, something similar to mealy bug, now and again appears on the roots of some of the varieties of echinocactus and cereus. this may be destroyed by dipping the whole of the roots in the mixture recommended for the stems when infested by mealy bug, and afterwards allowing them to stand for a few minutes immersed in pure water. they may then be placed where they will dry quickly, and finally, in a day or two, repotted into new compost, first removing every particle of the old soil from the roots. diseases.--when wild and favourably situated as regards heat and moisture, the larger kinds of cactus are said to live to a great age, some of the tree kinds, according to humboldt, bearing about them signs of having existed several hundred years. the same remarkable longevity, most likely, is found in the smaller kinds when wild. under artificial cultivation there are, however, many conditions more or less unfavourable to the health of plants, and, in the case of cactuses, very large specimens, when imported from their native haunts to be placed in our glass houses, soon perish. at kew, there have been, at various times, very fine specimens of some of the largest-growing ones, but they have never lived longer than a year or so, always gradually shrinking in size till, finally, owing to the absence of proper nourishment, and to other untoward conditions, they have broken down and rotted. this rotting of the tissue, or flesh, of these plants is the great enemy to their cultivation in england. when it appears, it should be carefully cut out with a sharp knife, and exposed to the influence of a perfectly dry atmosphere for a few days till the wound has dried, when the plant should be potted in a sandy compost and treated as for cuttings. sometimes the decay begins in the side of the stem of the plant, in which case it should be cut away, and the wound exposed to a dry air. the cause of this decay at the base or in the side of the stems of cactuses is no doubt debility, which is the result of the absence of some necessary condition when the plants are cultivated in houses or windows in this country. grafted plants, especially epiphyllums, when worked on to pereskia stocks, are apt to grow weak and flabby through the stem wearing out, or through the presence of mealy bug or insects in the crevices of the part where the stock and scion join, in which case it is best to prepare fresh stocks of pereskia, and graft on to them the best of the pieces of epiphyllum from the old, debilitated plant. it is no use trying to get such plants to recover, as, when once this disease or weakness begins, it cannot easily be stopped. chapter iv. propagation. cactuses may be multiplied from cuttings of the stems, from seeds, and also by means of grafting; this last method being adopted for those species which, under cultivation, are not easily kept in health when growing upon their own roots, or, as in the case of epiphyllums, when it offers a means of speedily forming large and shapely specimens. from seeds the plants are generally freer in growth than when cuttings are used, although the seedlings are longer in growing into flowering specimens than large cuttings would be. to the amateur, the process of germination and development from the seedling to the mature stage, is full of interest and attraction, the changes from one form to another as the plant develops being very marked in most of the genera. seeds.--good fresh seeds of cactaceous plants germinate in from two to four weeks after sowing, if placed in a warm house or on a hotbed with a temperature of degs. if sown in a lower temperature, the time they take to vegetate is longer; but, unless in a very low degree of heat, the seeds, if good, and if properly managed as regards soil and water, rarely fail to germinate. for all the kinds, pots or pans containing drainage to within in. of the top, and then filled up with finely sifted loam and sand, three parts of the former to one of the latter, and pressed down moderately firm, will be found to answer. if the soil be moist at the time of sowing the seeds, it will not be necessary to water it for a day or two. the seeds should be scattered thinly over the surface of the soil, and then covered with about / in. of soil. over this, a pane of glass may be placed, and should remain till the seedlings appear above the soil. should the position where the seeds are to be raised be in a room window, this pane of glass will be found very useful in preventing the dry air of the room from absorbing all the moisture from the soil about the seeds. for the germination of cactus, and indeed of all seeds, a certain amount of moisture must be constantly present in the soil; and after a seed has commenced to grow, to allow it to get dry is to run the risk of killing it. [illustration: fig. .--seedlings of cereus. a, one month after germination. b, two months after germination. c, three months after germination. (magnified six times,).] the seeds of cactuses may be sown at anytime in the year; but it is best to sow in spring, as, after germinating, the young plants have the summer before them in which to attain sufficient strength to enable them to pass through the winter without suffering; whereas plants raised from autumn-sown seeds have often a poor chance of surviving through the winter, unless treated with great care. the seeds of all cactuses are small, and therefore the seedlings are at first tiny globular masses of watery flesh, very different from what we find in the seedlings of ordinary garden plants. the form of the seedling of a species of cereus is shown at fig. , and its transition from a small globule-like mass of flesh to the spine-clothed stem, which characterises this genus, is also represented. at a we see the young plant after it has emerged from the seed, the outer shell of which was attached to one of the sides of the aperture at the top till about a week before the drawing was made. at b, the further swelling and opening out, as it were, of what, in botanical language, is known as the cotyledon stage of development, will be seen; a month afterwards, this will have assumed the shape of a very small cereus. it is interesting to note how the soft fleshy mass which first grows out of the seed is nothing more than a little bag of food with a tiny growing point fixed in its top, and that, as the growing point increases, the food bag decreases, till finally the whole of the latter becomes absorbed into the young stem, which is now capable of obtaining nourishment by means of its newly-formed roots. [illustration: fig. .--seedlings of opuntia, showing mode of germination. (magnified three times).] in the genus opuntia, the cotyledon stage (see fig. ) of the plant is different from that of the cereus, and is more like that of a cucumber. still, though the form is different, the purpose of the two cotyledons and the juicy stem in the seedling opuntia is the same as in the cereus; and, as the growing point develops, the cotyledons shrivel up and fall off, the plant food they contained having passed into that part of the young seedling which was to be permanent. the seedlings of these two genera serve as an illustration of the process of germination from seed of all the cactuses; and it must be evident that there is much that is singular and full of interest in raising these plants from seeds. as soon as the seedlings are large enough to be handled, they may be planted separately in small pots, using a compost similar to, but slightly coarser than, that in which the seeds were sown. the soil should be kept moist till the summer is over; and after that, till the return of warm sunny weather, it will be found safest to keep the seedlings on the dry side, a little water only to be given at intervals of a week, and only when the sun is shining upon the plants. to obtain seeds from cultivated plants, it is necessary, in order to insure fertilisation that the top of the stigma (see fig. ) should be dusted over with the dust-like pollen from the anthers. this may be done by means of a small camel-hair brush, which should be moistened in the mouth and then pushed among the anthers till covered with pollen, which may then be gently rubbed on to the stigma. a warm, sunny morning is the most suitable time for this operation, as fertilisation takes place much more readily under the influence of bright sunshine than at any other time. some of the kinds have their floral organs so arranged as to be capable of self-fertilisation; still, it is always as well to give them some assistance. the night-flowering species must, of course, be fertilised either at night or very early in the morning. by using the pollen from one kind for dusting on to the stigma of another, hybrids may be obtained, and it is owing to the readiness with which the plants of this family cross with each other, that so many hybrids and forms of the genera epiphyllum and phyllocactus have been raised. it would be useless to attempt such a cross as epiphyllum with cereus giganteus, because of their widely different natures; but such crosses as epiphyllum with phyllocactus, and cereus flagelliformis with c. speciosissimus, have been brought about. to an enthusiast, the whole order offers a very good field for operations with a view to the production of new sorts, as the different kinds cross freely with each other, and the beautiful colours of the flowers would most likely combine so as to present some new and distinct varieties. cuttings.--no plants are more readily increased from stem-cuttings than cactuses; for, be the cutting ft. high, or only as large as a thimble, it strikes root readily if placed in a warm temperature and kept slightly moist. we have already seen how, even in the dry atmosphere of a museum, a stem of cereus, instead of perishing, emitted roots and remained healthy for a considerable time, and it would be easy to add to this numerous other instances of the remarkable tenacity of life possessed by these plants. at kew, it is the common practice, when the large-growing specimens get too tall for the house in which they are grown, to cut off the top of the stem to a length of ft. or ft., and plant it in a pot of soil to form a new plant. the old base is kept for stock, as it often happens that just below the point where the stem was severed, lateral buds are developed, and these, when grown into branches, are removed and used as cuttings. large opuntias are treated in the same way, with the almost invariable result that even the largest branches root freely, and are in no way injured by what appears to be exceedingly rough treatment. large cuttings striking root so freely, it must follow that small cuttings will likewise soon form roots, and, so far as our experience--which consists of some years with a very large collection of cactuses--goes, there is not one species in cultivation which may not be easily multiplied by means of cuttings. the nature of a cactus stem is so very different from the stems of most other plants, that no comparison can be made between them in respect of their root-developing power; the rooting of a cactus cutting being as certain as the rooting of a bulb. the very soft, fleshy stems of some of the kinds such as the echinocactus, should be exposed to the air for a time, so that the cut at the base may dry before it is buried in the soil. if the base of a plant decays, all that is necessary is the removal of the decayed portion, exposure of the wound to the air for two or three days, and then the planting of the cutting in a dry, sandy soil, and placing it in a warm moist house till rooted. all cuttings of cactuses may be treated in this way. if anything proves destructive to these cuttings, it is excessive moisture in the soil, which must always be carefully guarded against. grafting.--the object of grafting is generally either to effect certain changes in the nature of the scion, by uniting it with a stock of a character different from its own, which usually results in the better production of flowers, fruit, &c., or to multiply those plants which are not readily increased by the more ordinary methods of cuttings or seeds. in the case of cactuses, however, we resort to grafting, not because of any difficulty in obtaining the kinds thus treated from either cuttings or seeds, as we have already seen that all the species of cactuses grow freely from seed, or are easily raised from cuttings of their stems, nor yet to effect any change in the characters of the plants thus treated, but because some of the more delicate kinds, and especially the smaller ones, are apt to rot at the base during the damp, foggy weather of our winters; and, to prevent this, it is found a good and safe plan to graft them on to stocks formed of more robust kinds, or even on to plants of other genera, such as cereus or echinocactus. by this means, the delicate plants are raised above the soil whence the injury in winter usually arises, and they are also kept well supplied with food by the more robust and active nature of the roots of the plant upon which they are grafted. grafting is also adopted for some of the cactuses to add to the grotesqueness of their appearance; a spherical echinocactus or mamillaria being united to the columnar stem of another kind, so as to produce the appearance of a drum stick; or a large round-growing species grafted on to three such stems, which may then be likened to a globe supported upon three columns. as the species and genera unite freely with each other, it is possible to produce, by means of grafting, some very extraordinary-looking plants, and to a lover of the incongruous and "queer," these plants will afford much interest and amusement. besides the above, we graft epiphyllums, and the long drooping cereuses, such as c. flagelliformis, because of their pendent habit, and which, therefore, are seen to better advantage when growing from the tall erect stem of some stouter kind, than if allowed to grow on their own roots. by growing a pereskia on into a large plant, and then cutting it into any shape desired, we may, by grafting upon its spurs or branches a number of pieces of epiphyllum, obtain large flowering specimens of various shapes in a comparatively short time. for general purposes, it is usual to graft epiphyllums on to stems, about ft. high, of pereskia aculeata; pretty little standard plants being in this way formed in about a year from the time of grafting, as an instance of how easily some kinds may be grafted, we may note what was done with a large head of the rat's-tail cactus which had been grown for some years on the stem of cereus rostratus, but which last year rotted off just below the point of union. on re-grafting this head on to the cereus a little lower down, it failed to unite, and, attributing the failure to possible ill-health in the stock, we determined to transfer the rat's-tail cactus to a large stem of pereskia aculeata, the result being a quick union and rapid, healthy growth since. upon the same stock some grafts of epiphyllum had previously been worked, so that it is probable these two aliens will form on their nurse-stem, the pereskia, an attractive combination. in fig. we have a fine example of this kind of grafting. it represents a stem of pereskia bleo upon which the rat's-tail cactus and an epiphyllum have been grafted. [illustration: fig. . pereskia bleo, with epiphyllum and cereus flagelliformis grafted upon it.] for most plants the operation of grafting must be carefully and skilfully performed, but in the case of cactuses very little skill is necessary if one or two rules, which apply to all kinds of grafting, are observed. the period of vigorous growth, and while the sap of both the stock and the scion is in motion, is the most favourable time for the operation. it is then only necessary, in order to bring about a speedy union, that the parts grafted should be cut so as to fit each other properly, and then bound or in some way fastened together so that they will remain in close contact with each other till a union is effected. a close atmosphere and, if possible, a little shade should be afforded the worked plants till the grafts have taken. the ligature used should not be bound round the graft too tightly, or it will prevent the flow of the sap; if bound tightly enough to hold the parts together and to prevent their slipping, that will be found quite sufficient. epiphyllums are treated as follows: cuttings of pereskia are rooted and grown on to the required size, and in the month of september they are headed down, the tops being used as cuttings. grafts of epiphyllum are then prepared by cutting them to the required length, usually about in., and removing a thin slice of the fleshy stem on each side so as to form a flat wedge. the stem of pereskia is then split down about in. with a sharp knife, and into this the wedge of the graft is inserted, and fastened either by means of a small pin passed through the stem and graft about half-way up the slit, or by binding round them a little worsted or matting, the former being preferred. the worked plants are then placed in a close handlight or propagating frame, having a temperature of about degs., where they are kept moist by sprinkling them daily with water; they must be shaded from bright sunlight. as soon as a union has been effected, which will be seen by the grafts beginning to grow, the ligature and pin should be removed, and the plants gradually hardened off by admitting air to the box, till finally they may be removed to the house where it is intended to grow them. in a cottage window this operation may be successfully performed if a box with a movable glass top, or a large bell glass, be used to keep the grafts close till they have taken. for the spherical-stemmed kinds of mamillaria, cereus, echinocactus, &c., a different method is found to answer. instead of cutting the base of the graft to a wedge shape, it is simply cut across the base horizontally, or, in other words, a portion of the bottom of the graft is sliced off, and a stock procured which, when cut across the top, will about fit the wound at the base of the scion; the two sliced parts are placed together, and secured either by passing a piece of matting a few times over the top of the graft and under the pot containing the stock, or by placing three stakes around it in such a way that, when tied together at the top, they will hold the graft firmly in position. another method is that of cutting the base of the scion in the form of a round wedge, and then scooping a hole out in the centre of the stock large enough to fit this wedge; the scion is pressed into this, and then secured in the manner above mentioned. to graft one spherical-stemmed kind on to three columnar-stemmed ones, the latter must first be established in one pot and, when ready for grafting, cut at the top into rounded wedges, three holes to correspond being cut into the scion. when fixed, the top should be securely fastened by tying it to the pot, or by means of stakes. for this last operation, a little patience and care are necessary to make the stocks and scions fit properly; but if the rules that apply to grafting are properly followed, there will be little fear of the operation failing. in the accompanying illustrations, we have a small mamillaria stem grafted on to the apex of the tall quadrangular-stemmed, night-flowering cereus (fig. ), and also a cylindrical-stemmed opuntia worked on a branch of the flat, battledore-like indian fig (fig. .) [illustration: fig. .--graft of mamillaria recurva on cereus nycticalus.] [illustration: fig. .--graft of opuntia decipiens on o. ficus-indica.] in the hands of a skilful cultivator, the different cactuses may be made to unite with one another almost as easily as clay under the moulder's hands; whilst even to the amateur, cactuses afford the easiest of subjects for observing the results of grafting. chapter v. the genus epiphyllum. (from epi upon, and phyllon, a leaf). it is now about a century since some of the most beautiful of cactaceous plants came into cultivation in this country, and amongst them was the plant now known as e. truncatum, but then called cactus epiphyllum; the name cactus being used in a generic sense, and not, as now, merely as a general term for the natural order. introduced so early, and at once finding great favour as a curious and beautiful flowering plant, e. truncatum has been, and is still, extensively cultivated, and numerous varieties of it have, as a consequence, originated in english gardens. we do not use the seeds of these plants for their propagation, unless new varieties are desired, when we must begin by fertilising the flowers, and thus obtain seeds, which should be sown and grown on till the plants flower. epiphyllums have already "broken" from their original or wild characters, and are, therefore, likely to yield distinct varieties from the first sowing. in the forests which clothe the slopes of the organ mountains, in brazil, the epiphyllums are found in great abundance, growing upon the trunks and branches of large trees, and occasionally on the ground or upon rocks, up to an elevation of ft. it was here that gardner, when travelling in south america, found e. truncatum growing in great luxuriance, and along with it the species known as e. russellianum, which he sent to the duke of bedford's garden, at woburn, in . these two species are the only ones now recognised by botanists, all the other cultivated kinds being either varieties of, or crosses raised from, them. the character by which epiphyllums are distinguished from other cactuses, is their flattened, long, slender branches, which are formed of succulent, green, leaf-like branchlets, growing out of the ends of each other, to a length of from ft. to ft. as in the majority of cactuses, the stems of epiphyllum become woody and almost cylindrical with age, the axes of the branchlets swell out, and the edges either disappear or remain attached, like a pair of wings. cultivation.--epiphyllums require the temperature of an intermediate house in winter, whilst, in summer, any position where they can be kept a little close and moist, and be shaded from bright sunshine, will suit them. remembering that their habit, when wild, is to grow upon the trunks of trees, where they would be afforded considerable shade by the overhanging branches, we cannot be wrong in shading them from direct sunshine during summer. some growers recommend placing these plants in a hot, dry house; but we have never seen good specimens cultivated under such conditions. all through the summer months, the plants should be syringed both morning and evening; but by the end of august they will have completed their growth, and should, therefore, be gradually exposed to sunshine and air. it is advisable to discontinue the use of the syringe from september till the return of spring, but the plants should always be kept supplied with a little moisture at the root and in the air about them during the winter months. in this respect, these plants and the rhipsalis are exceptions among cactuses, as all the others are safest when kept dry during the cold, dull weather between september and april. the soil most suitable for them is a mixture of peat, loam, and sand, unless a light and fibrous loam be obtainable, which is, perhaps, the best of all soils for these plants, requiring only the addition of a little rotted manure or leaf-mould, silver sand, and some small brick rubble. the pereskia stock is not a stout-rooted plant, and does not, therefore, require much root-room, although, by putting in plenty of broken crocks as drainage, the soil space in the pots may be reduced to what is considered sufficient for the plant. if small pots are used, the head of the plant is apt to overbalance the whole. the stems should be secured to stout stakes, and, if large, umbrella-like specimens are wanted, a frame should be made in the form of an umbrella, and the stem and branches fastened to it. smaller plants may be kept in position by means of a single upright stake, which should be long enough to stand an inch or two above the head of the plant, so that the stoutest branches may be supported by attaching a piece of matting to them, and fastening it to the top of the stake. in the remarks upon grafting we mentioned the large pyramidal specimens of epiphyllum which are grown by some cultivators for exhibition purposes; and, although these plants are much rarer at exhibitions now than they were a few years ago, yet they do sometimes appear, especially in the northern towns, such as liverpool and manchester. it would not be easy to find a more beautiful object during winter than an epiphyllum, ft. or ft. high, and nearly the same in width at the base, forming a dense pyramid of drooping, strap-like branches bearing several hundreds of their bright and delicate coloured blossoms all at one time, and lasting in beauty for several weeks. with a little skill and patience, plants of this size may be grown by any amateur who possesses a warm greenhouse; and, although it is not easy to manage such large plants in a room window, handsome little specimens of the same form may be grown if the window is favourably situated and the room kept warm in winter. mr. j. wallis, gardener to g. tomline, esq., of ipswich, has become famous for the size and health of the specimens he has produced. writing on the cultivation of epiphyllums, mr. wallis gives the following details, which are especially valuable as coming from one of the most successful cultivators of these beautiful plants: "the epiphyllums here are grown for flowering in the conservatory, and are usually gay from the first week in november till february. during the remainder of the year, they occupy a three-quarter span-roof house, in which an intermediate temperature is maintained. all our epiphyllums are grafted on the pereskia aculeata. we graft a few at intervals of two or three years, so, if any of the older plants become sickly or shabby, they are thrown away, and the younger ones grown on. some of the stocks are worked to form pyramids, and some to form standards. the height of the pyramids is ft., and, to form these, six or eight scions are inserted. the heads of the standards are on stems ranging in height from ½ ft. down to ½ ft. to form these heads, only one scion is put on the stock. some of our oldest pyramids are ft. or ft. through at the base, and the heads of the standards quite as much. when in flower, the heads of the latter droop almost to the pots. the pyramids occupy no. and no. sized pots, the standards 's and 's. each plant is secured to a strong iron stake, with three prongs fitting the inside of the pot, and the epiphyllum is kept well supported to the stake by ties of stout wire. after the plants are well established, they are easily managed, and go many years without repotting; but, of course, we top-dress them annually, previously removing as much of the old soil as will come away easily. we grow these plants with plenty of ventilation on all favourable occasions, and they are seldom shaded. during active growth, water is given freely, occasionally liquid manure; they are also syringed daily. after the season's growth is completed, water is given more sparingly, and syringing is dispensed with." when grown on their own roots, epiphyllums are useful for planting in wire baskets intended to hang near the glass; large and very handsome specimens form in a few years, if young rooted plants are placed rather thickly round the sides of the baskets, and grown in a warm house. epiphyllums are employed with good effect for covering walls, which are first covered with peaty soil by means of wire netting, and then cuttings of the epiphyllums are stuck in at intervals of about ft. the effect of a wall of the drooping branches of these plants is attractive even when without their beautiful flowers; but when seen in winter, clothed with hundreds of sparkling blossoms, they present a most beautiful picture. large plants of pereskia may be trained over pillars in conservatories and afterwards grafted with epiphyllums; in fact, there are many ways in which these plants may be effectively employed in gardens. species. e. truncatum (jagged); bot. mag. .--branchlets from in. to in. long, and in. wide, with two or three distinct teeth along the edges, and a toothed or jagged apex (hence the specific name). the flowers are in. long, curved above and below, not unlike the letter s; the petals and sepals reflexed, and exposing the numerous yellow anthers, through which the club-headed stigma protrudes; colour, a deep rose-red, the base of the petals slightly paler. the varieties differ in having colours which vary from almost pure white, with purplish tips, to a uniform rich purple, whilst such colours as salmon, rose, orange, and scarlet, are conspicuous among them. [illustration: fig. .--epiphyllum russellianum.] e. russellianum (russell's); fig. .--this has smaller branchlets than the type plant (e. truncatum), and is thus easily distinguished; they do not exceed in. in length and ½ in. in width, whilst the edges are irregularly and faintly notched, not distinctly toothed, as in e. truncatum. the flowers are a little larger than in the older kind, and are not curved, whilst the petals are narrower; their colour is bright rosy-red. this species flowers rather later in the year than e. truncatum, and may be had in blossom so late as the month of may or june. there are several varieties of it which have either larger and darker, or smaller and variously tinted flowers. both the species will cross with each other, and probably many of the varieties enumerated by nurserymen have been obtained in this way. varieties. the following is a selection of the best varieties, with a short description of the flowers of each: e. bicolor (two-coloured).--tube of flower white; petals purple, becoming almost white towards the base. e. bridgesii (bridges').--tube violet; petals dark purple. e. coccineum (scarlet).--bright scarlet, paler at the base of the petals. e. cruentum (bloody).--tube purplish-scarlet; petals bright scarlet. e. gaertneri (gaertner's).--this is an interesting and beautiful hybrid, raised from epiphyllum and a cereus of some kind. the branchlets are exactly the same as those of e. truncatum, but the flowers are not like epiphyllum at all, resembling rather those of cereus or phyllocactus. they are brilliant scarlet in colour, shaded with violet. e. magnificum (magnificent).--tube rosy-violet; petals dark red. e. salmoneum (salmon-coloured).--tube and base of petals white, rest salmon-red, shaded with purple. e. spectabile (remarkable).--tube and base of petals white; tips of petals carmine. e. tricolor (three-coloured).--tube salmon-red; petals red, centre purplish. e. violaceum (violet).--tube white; petals carmine, margined with violet-purple. chapter vi. the genus phyllocactus. (from phyllon, a leaf, and cactus). as in the case of the epiphyllums, the principal character by which the phyllocactus is distinguished is well described by the name, the difference between it and epiphyllum being that in the former the flowers are produced along the margins of the flattened branches, whereas in the latter they are borne on the apices of the short, truncate divisions. if we compare any of the phyllocactuses with cereus triangularis, or with c. speciosissimus, we shall find that the flowers are precisely similar both in form and colour, and sometimes also in size. in all the kinds the stem is compressed laterally, so as to look as if it had been hammered out flat; or sometimes it is three-angled, and the margins are deeply notched or serrated. these notches are really the divisions between one leaf and another, for the flat, fleshy portions or wings of the stems of these plants are simply modified leaves--not properly separated from each other and from the stem, but still to all intents and purposes leaves--which, as the plant increases and matures, gradually wither away, leaving the central or woody portion to assume the cylindrical stem which we find in all old phyllocactuses. it is from these notches that the large, showy flowers are developed, just as in plants the flowers of which are borne from the axils of the leaves. under the names "spleenwort-leaved indian figs," and "winged torch-thistles," as well as those here adopted, the most beautiful perhaps of all cactuses, and certainly the most useful in a garden sense, have been cultivated in english gardens for more than years; for it was in that the flowering of e. phyllanthus was first recorded in english horticulture. philip miller grew it with many other cactuses in the botanical garden at chelsea which was founded by sir hans sloane, in , to be maintained "for the manifestation of the power, wisdom, and glory of god in the works of creation," and which still exists as the botanical emporium of the apothecaries' society. the majority of the gorgeous phyllocactuses which we now possess are of only recent introduction, or are the result of cultivation and crossing. the species are natives of various parts of tropical america, chiefly mexico and central america, where they are found generally growing, in company with bromeliads and orchids, upon the trunks of gigantic forest-trees. phyllocactuses are therefore epiphytes when in a wild state, but under cultivation with us, they thrive best when planted in pots or in baskets--the latter method being adapted for one or two smaller kinds. it is easy to imagine the gorgeousness of a group of these plants when seen enveloping a large tree-trunk, clothing it, as it were, with balls of brilliant or pure white flowers. we are told by travellers of the splendours of a cactus haunt during the flowering season, and those who have seen a well-managed pot specimen of phyllocactus when covered with large, dazzling flowers, can form some idea of what wild plants are like when seen by hundreds together, and surrounded by the green foliage and festooning climbers which associate with them in the forests where they abound. cultivation.--for the following cultural notes we are indebted to a most successful grower of cactuses in germany, whose collection of phyllocactuses is exceptionally rich and well managed: the growing season for these plants is from about the end of april, or after the flowers are over, till the end of august. as soon as growth commences, the plants should be repotted. a light, rich soil should be used, a mixture of loam, peat, and leaf-mould, or rotten manure with a little sand, being suitable. small plants should have a fair shift; larger ones only into a size of pot which just admits of a thin layer of fresh soil. when pot-bound, the plants flower most freely, and it is not necessary to repot large specimens more often than about once every three years. when potted they should be placed in a sunny position in a close house or frame, and be kept freely watered. in bright weather they may be syringed overhead twice a day. for the first few days after repotting it is advisable to shade the plants from bright sunshine. a stove temperature is required until growth is finished. after this they should be gradually ripened by admitting more air and exposing to all the sunlight possible. during winter very little water is needed, just sufficient to prevent shrivelling being safest. excess of moisture in winter is ruinous, as it often kills the roots, and sometimes causes the plant to rot off at the collar. the lowest temperature in winter should be degs., lower than this being unsafe, whilst in mild weather it might be degs. higher. it is a bad plan to turn these plants round, in order, as some think, to ripen the growths properly. as a matter of fact, it does no good, but often does harm, by suddenly exposing the tender parts to the full force of sunlight. the stems may be trained either in the form of a fan or as a bush. old branches which have flowered and are shrivelling may be cut away in the spring. some fine specimens have been grown in pockets on old walls inside lean-to greenhouses, where the conditions have been favourable to the healthy growth and flowering of most of the species. when grown in this way, water must be supplied exactly as advised for plants grown in pots; if the pockets are not within easy reach of the watering pot, the plants can be watered by means of a heavy syringing. propagation.--for the propagation of the phyllocactus either the whole plant may be divided at the base, or cuttings of the branches may be used; the latter, after having dried by remaining with their bases exposed to the air for a day or two, should be planted in small pots filled with very sandy soil; they may be placed on a dry, sunny shelf near the glass, and be slightly sprinkled overhead daily till rooted. seeds, which sometimes ripen on cultivated plants, should be gathered as soon as the fleshy fruits have turned to a purplish colour, dried for a day or so, then sown in a light, porous soil, and placed in a warm frame or house to germinate. species. p. akermanni (named after a mr. akermann, who introduced it from mexico in ); fig. .--stem becoming cylindrical at an early age, and clothed with little clusters of spiny hairs; the branches are flattened out, and form broad, rather thin, blade-like growths, with the margins sinuately lobed (waved and notched). the flowers are large--over in. in diameter--the petals, very acutely pointed and undulated along the edges; flower tube in. long, with a few small scales scattered over its surface; stamens curved, clustered around the stigma, and almost hiding it. colour of whole flower a rich scarlet, with a satin-like lustre. flowers in june and july. [illustration: fig. . phyllocactus akermanni.] this is one of the best-known kinds, having been extensively cultivated as an ornamental greenhouse plant till within the last few years. it was grown by several nurserymen for covent garden market about eight years ago; small plants, about ft. high, and bearing each from two to six flowers, finding much favour among the costermongers, as the plants could be bought at a low price, and, owing to their large, brilliant flowers, always sold well at a good profit. this species has been employed by the hybridists for the obtaining of new kinds, and some very handsome and distinct varieties have consequently been raised. as well as crossing with other species of phyllocactus, p. akermanni has been used in combination with several species of cereus, good hybrids having been the result. as a compact-growing and free-flowering species, this may be specially recommended. p. anguliger (angle-stemmed); fig. .--the branches of this kind are distinguished by having the notches along their margins more like the teeth of a saw than the others. the habit is rather stiff and erect. the flowers are produced near the apex of the branches, and are composed of a curved tube in. long, spreading out at the top to a width of in., and surmounted by a whorl of pure white petals, in the centre of which are the stamens, rather few in number, and the large, ten-rayed stigma. the flowers are developed in december and january, and have a powerful and delicious odour. introduced, in , from west mexico, where it is said to grow in oak forests. [illustration: fig. .--phyllocactus anguliger.] p. (disocactus) biformis (two-formed); fig. .--this is a small plant, and is intermediate between this genus and the epiphyllums. it possesses no particular beauty or distinctive character such as would render it of much value for garden purposes. the branches are short, rather narrow and drooping, the margins notched and tinged with red. the flowers are borne generally on the ends of the branches, and are drooping in habit; in form they are more like the epiphyllums than the ordinary phyllocactuses, as they have their petals arranged in a sort of tube about in. long. the fruit is a red berry as large as a gooseberry. honduras, . [illustration: fig. .--phyllocactus biformis.] p. crenatus (toothed); bot. reg. .--a large-flowered and very beautiful species, rivalling, in the size and fragrance of its blossoms, the gigantic night-flowering cereus grandiflorus. it grows to a height of about ft., with round-based branches, the upper portion flattened out and the margins serrated. the flower tube is in. long, brownish-green, as also are the sepals; petals in. long, in a whorl, the points curving inwards; stamens and pistil erect, forming along with the petals a large star of a pale cream-colour. the beauty and fragrance of these flowers, which open in june, render them specially valuable for cutting and placing in rooms, where, notwithstanding their short duration, they never fail to win much admiration. introduced from honduras, in . this fine species is one of the parents of the hybrids which have been raised both in this country and in america, where mr. hovey succeeded in obtaining some of the choicest as regards colour and size. some of these latter were exhibited in london two or three years ago, and were much admired. p. grandis (large-flowered).--the large, creamy-white flowers of this plant are like those of the night-flowering cereus; and, in addition to the similarity in form and size between these two, there is a further one in the time when the flowers expand, this species, along with one or two others, opening its flowers after sunset; and although they remain in good condition till late on in the day following, and sometimes even longer, we may suppose that the proper flowering time is at night. the delicious almond scent of the flowers of this fine cactus is so strong, that during the flowering period the atmosphere of the large cactus-house at kew gardens is permeated with it, the large specimens there having usually a score or more flowers open together, the effect of which is truly grand. even this number of flowers is, for this species, by no means extraordinary, specimens having been grown elsewhere, in pots only in. across, with as many flowers open on each. from this it will be seen that p. grandis is one of the most useful kinds, its large, sweet-scented flowers, and its free-growing nature, rendering it of exceptional value as a decorative plant. its branches are broad and notched along the margins, and the flowers are ft. in length, including the tube, whilst across the broad, spreading petals they measure almost as much. honduras. introduced (?). time of flowering, summer and autumn. p. hookeri (hooker's); bot. mag. , under cactus phyllanthus.--a robust-growing kind, often attaining to the size of a good shrub. its flowers expand in the evening, and are sweet-scented. they are produced along the margins of the broad, flat, deeply-notched branches, the serratures being rounded instead of angled, as in some of the kinds. the tube of the flower is long and slender, no thicker than a goose quill, and covered with reddish scales; the petals are spreading, and form a cup in. across; they are narrow, pointed, and pure white, the outer whorl, as well as the sepals, being tinged on the under side with a tawny colour. the stamens form a large cluster in the centre, and are bright yellow, the style being red and yellow. it is probable that this plant has been in cultivation for many years, as it was figured in the work quoted above under the name of one of the first introduced kinds of phyllocactus, from which, however, it is abundantly distinct, as will be seen by a comparison of the descriptions of the two. there are, in the kew collection, several large plants of p. hookeri that flower annually during the summer and autumn. brazil. p. latifrons (broad-stemmed); bot. mag. .--this is another large-growing species, as large at least as p. hookeri, to which, indeed, it bears a close resemblance, both in flowers and in habit. like that species, too, its date of introduction is not known, though it appears to have been cultivated in england at an early period. it may be grown so as to form a large shrub in a few years; or by cutting it back annually, or growing on young plants from cuttings every two years, nice little pot plants may be obtained; and as the plant produces flowers freely when in a small state, it is available for small greenhouses as well as for large ones. a fine specimen, such, for instance, as that at kew, which is over ft. in height, and well furnished with branches, is an attractive object when clothed with numerous creamy-white flowers, here and there tinged with red. the branches are from in. to in. broad, and deeply notched; the flowers are about in. in length, and the same across the spreading petals. mexico. spring. p. phyllanthus (leaf-flowering).--this species is now rarely seen in cultivation. as the oldest of the garden kinds it is, however, deserving of a little notice. philip miller grew it in his collection in . the branches are broad and flat, the edges waved, not notched, and the flowers are composed of a thin tortuous tube, in. in length, bearing at the top a whorl of recurved greenish petals, in. long, with a cluster of whitish stamens and a green, club-shaped style and stigma. brazil. p. phyllanthoides (phyllanthus-like); bot. mag. .--for the introduction of this handsome-flowered kind we are indebted to the great travellers and naturalists, humboldt and bonpland, who discovered it growing in the woods upon the trunks of old trees around cartagena in south america. plants of it were forwarded by them to france, where they flowered for the first time in . from that time till now this species has been in favour as a garden plant, though it is, at the present time, much less common in english gardens than it deserves to be. the branches are broad, triangular when young, flat when old, about ft. long by in. wide, with shallow incisions, the serrations rather sharply angled. the height of the plant is from ft. to ft. the flowers are produced on the margins of the young branches, and are composed of a short, thick tube, not more than in. in length, and short, dark, recurved scales; the petals are broad, pointed, and form a stellate cluster about in. across; they are of a bright rose-colour, streaked with white, and shaded here and there with a darker colour of red. the stamens are numerous and pure white. the flowers open in the day-time, and are scentless; they last in perfection for two or three days, and may, therefore, be employed as cut flowers for vases, &c. early summer. hybrids and varieties. in addition to the cultivated species of phyllocactus there are numerous hybrids and varieties, many of which are beautiful and distinct either in colour or in size of blossom. the following is a selection of the best of them: p. albus superbus (superb white).--the most beautiful of white-flowered kinds. flowers fragrant, in. across, resembling those of the night-blossoming cereus grandiflorus; sepals greenish-white, petals pure white. p. aurantiacus superbus (superb orange).--a compact plant, with numerous large, brick-red flowers, in. to in. in diameter. p. conway's giant.--flowers full, deep scarlet, about in. in diameter. p. cooperi (cooper's).--an english hybrid, remarkable for its large, beautiful yellow flowers. p. franzi (franz's).--flowers in. to in. across; petals numerous, outer ones scarlet, inner violet. p. general garibaldi.--flowers very large, scarlet, tinged with orange on the reflex side. p. grandiflorus (large-flowered).--flowers bell-shaped, in. across; sepals narrow, scarlet; petals incurved and of a fiery orange-scarlet colour. p. haagei (haage's); fig. .--flowers about in. across, flesh-coloured when first expanded, becoming carmine before fading. [illustration: fig. .--phyllocactus haagei.] p. ignescens (fiery).--flowers in. across, almost flat when expanded; petals numerous, deep brilliant scarlet. p. jenkinsoni (jenkinson's).--flowers medium in size, colour cherry-red. p. johnstonei (johnstone's).--flowers large, with broad scarlet petals. p. kaufmanni (kaufmann's).--flowers purplish-red, very large. p. kermesina magnus (large scarlet).--an enormous-flowered kind, having produced blossoms which measured in. across; petals vivid orange with a tip and central stripe of red; sepals blood-red. p. pfersdorffii. (pfersdorff's).--flowers as in cereus grandiflorus, in. to in. across, very fragrant; petals white; sepals yellow, brownish outside. p. rempleri (rempler's).--branches three-angled; flowers with short, linear, incurved sepals; petals long, broad, arranged like a tube, colour salmon-red. p. roseus grandiflorus (large rose-flowered); fig. .--flowers in. long and broad, nodding, white. [illustration: fig. .--phyllocactus roseus grandiflorus.] p. schlimii (schlim's).--branches three-angled; flowers large, sepals bright purple; petals broad, purple, tinged with scarlet. p. splendens (splendid).--flowers in. across, purple-pink. p. wrayi (wray's).--flowers in. long by in. in diameter; sepals brown on the outside, yellow inside; petals yellowish-white, fragrant when first expanded. chapter vi. the genus cereus. (from cereus, pliant; in reference to the stems of some species.) over distinct species of cereus are, according to botanists, distributed over the tropical and temperate regions of america and the west indies, extending to the galapagos, or "tortoise" islands, miles off the coast of peru. it was in these islands that the late charles darwin found several small kinds of cereus, some of them growing near the snow-line in exposed situations on the highest mountains. in mexico, c. giganteus, the most colossal of all cacti, is found rearing its tall, straight, columnar stems to a height of ft., and branching near the top, "like petrified giants stretching out their arms in speechless pain, whilst others stand like lonely sentinels keeping their dreary watch on the edge of precipices." in the west indies most of the night-flowering kinds are common, their long, creeping stems clinging by means of aerial roots to rocks, or to the exposed trunks of trees, where their enormous, often fragrant, flowers are produced in great abundance, expanding only after the sun has set. between these three distinct groups we find among the plants of this elegant genus great variety both in size and form of the stem and in the flower characters of the different species. a large proportion of the kinds known are not cultivated in european gardens, and perhaps for many of them it is not possible for us to provide in our houses the peculiar conditions they require for their healthy existence. but there are a good many species of cereus represented in gardens, even in this country, and among them we shall have no difficulty in finding many useful and beautiful kinds, such as may be cultivated with success in an ordinary greenhouse or stove. lemaire, a french writer on cactuses, groups a number of species under the generic name of echinocereus; but as this name is not adopted in england, it is omitted here, all the kinds being included under cereus. the night-flowering species. the most interesting group is that of the climbing night-flowering kinds, on account of their singular habit of expanding their flowers in the dark and of the very large size and brilliant colours of their flowers. in habit the plants of this set are trailers or climbers, their stems are either round or angled, and grow to a length of many feet, branching freely as they extend. by means of their roots, which are freely formed upon the stems, and which have the power of attaching themselves to stones or wood in the same way as ivy does, these kinds soon spread over and cover a large space; they are, therefore, useful for training over the back walls in lean-to houses, or for growing against rafters or pillars--in fact, in any position exposed to bright sunlight and where there is a good circulation of air. soil does not appear to play an important part with these plants, as they will grow anywhere where there is a little brick rubble, gravel, or cinders for their basal roots to nestle in. they have been grown in the greatest luxuriance and have produced flowers in abundance with nothing more than their roots buried in the crumbling foundations of an old wall, upon which the stems were clinging. the chief consideration is drainage, as, unless the roots are kept clear of anything like stagnation, they soon perish through rot. during the summer, the stems should be syringed morning and evening on all bright days, whilst in winter little or no water will be required. like all other cactuses, these plants may be propagated by means of large branches, which, if placed in a porous soil, will strike root in a few weeks. we saw a very large specimen of c. triangularis, which last autumn suddenly rotted at the base, from some cause or other, and to save the specimen, a mound was built up of brick rubble and soil, high enough to surround the base of the plant above the rotted part. in a few weeks there was a good crop of new roots formed, and the plant has since flowered most satisfactorily. with almost any other plant, this course would have proved futile; but cactuses are singularly tenacious of life, the largest and oldest stems being capable of forming roots as freely and as quickly as the young ones. c. extensus (long-stemmed); bot. mag. .--this has long rope-like stems, bluntly triangular, less than in. thick, with very short spines, arranged in pairs or threes, about in. apart along the angles, and aerial roots. the flowers are developed all along the stems, and are composed of a thick, green, scale-clothed tube, about in. long; the larger scales yellow and green, tipped with red, and a spreading cup formed of the long-pointed sepals and petals, the former yellow, green, and red, the latter white, tinted with rose. the flower is about in. across. when in blossom, this plant equals in beauty the finest of the climbing cactuses, but, unfortunately, it does not flower as freely as most of its kind. it is cultivated at kew, where it has flowered once during the last five years. a native of trinidad, whence it was introduced, and first flowered in august, . judging by the conditions under which it grows and blossoms in its native haunts, no doubt its shy-flowering nature under cultivation here is owing to the absence of a long continuance of bright sunshine and moisture, followed by one of drought and sunlight. if placed in a favourable condition as regards light, and carefully treated in respect of water, it ought to flower. c. fulgidus (glittering); bot. mag. .--in the brilliant deep scarlet of its large buds, and the bright orange-scarlet of the expanded flowers, this species stands quite alone among the night-flowering, scandent-stemmed cereuses. its one drawback is its shy-flowering nature, as it is rarely seen in blossom even when liberally treated, and along with the other kinds which flower so freely. the history of this plant is not known; but it is supposed to be a hybrid between c. pitajayi or variabilis and one of the scarlet-flowered phyllocactuses, or, possibly, c. speciosissimus. it first flowered at kew, in july, . stems bright green, slow-growing, three or four-angled, about in. wide; angles much compressed, so that a section of the stem shows a cross; margins notched, with clusters of short, hair-like spines at each notch. flowers in. long, and about the same across the top; tube covered with soft hairs and short deep-red scales, which are enlarged towards the top, where they spread out, and form, along with the petals, a large rosette of several whorls, arranged as in a semi-double rose, the centre being occupied by a brush-like cluster of greenish stamens, with the radiating stigma standing erect in the middle. it is to be regretted that the flowers are not more freely produced by cultivated plants. c. grandiflorus (large-flowered); bot. mag. .--there is scarcely any plant that makes a more magnificent appearance when in full blossom than this. a strong plant will produce many flowers together, but they do not remain long expanded, opening at seven or eight o'clock in the evening, and fading at sunrise the next morning; nor do they ever open again, even when cut and placed in warm water in a dark place. the closing of the flowers may, however, be retarded for a whole day by removing the bud before it is fully open and placing it in water. the stems are almost cylindrical, with four to seven slight ridges, or angles, which bear numerous tufts of wool and short stiff spines. roots are thrown out from all parts of the stem, even when not in contact with anything. the flowers are developed on the sides of the stems, principally the younger, shorter ones; the flower tube is about in. long by in. in diameter, and is covered with short brown scales and whitish hairs; the calyx is ft. across, and is composed of a large number of narrow sepals of a bright yellow colour inside, brown on the outside; the petals are broad, pure white, and arranged in a sort of cup inclosing the numerous yellow stamens and the club-shaped stigma. the flower has a delicious vanilla-like odour, which perfumes the air to a considerable distance. flowers in july. native of the west indies. introduced , at which time it is said to have been cultivated in the royal gardens at hampton court. c. lemairii (lemaire's); bot. mag. .--in the size and fragrance of its blossoms, and also in the brilliancy of its colours, this species rivals c. grandiflorus; differing in the following particulars: the tube is covered with large green, crimson-edged scales instead of small brown scales and white hairs; the sepals do not spread out in a star-like manner, as in c. grandiflorus, and they are tinged with crimson; the stem of the plant shows a bluntly triangular section, and the angles are marked with a row of distant spines instead of the clusters of spines and wool in c. grandiflorus. in all other particulars, these two species are almost identical, so that where space is limited either the one or the other will be sufficient to represent both. c. lemairii was introduced into england through kew, whither a plant was sent in from the royal botanical garden of hanover, under the name of c. rostratus. it blossoms in the kew collection every june, the flowers lasting for several hours after sunrise. seeds are freely ripened by this plant. native of antigua (?) c. macdonaldiae (mrs. macdonald's); bot. mag. .--a magnificent cactus, producing flowers often in. in diameter, with the same brilliant colours as are described under c. lemairii. the stems are slender, cylindrical, not ridged or angled, bearing at irregular intervals rather fleshy tubercles instead of spines, and branching freely. its flowers are produced on both young and old stems, several crops appearing in the course of the summer when the treatment is favourable. roots are not so freely thrown out from the stems of this kind, and as the latter are slender and very pliant, they may be trained round a balloon trellis, so as to form handsome pot specimens, which, when in flower, may be carried into the house, where their large, beautiful flowers may be enjoyed. writing of this species over thirty years ago, sir wm. hooker said: "certainly, of the many floral spectacles that have gratified lovers of horticulture at the royal gardens, kew, of late years, few have been more striking than this to those who were privileged to see the blossoms in bud and fully expanded. the plant was received from honduras through the favour of mrs. macdonald, and was planted at the back of the old cactus-house, and trained against a wall. it first showed symptoms of blossoming in july, . a casual observer might have passed the plant as an unusually large form of the 'night-blooming cereus' (c. grandiflorus), but the slightest inspection of the stems and flowers, the latter in. in diameter by in. long, shows this to be a most distinct species." c. napoleonis (napoleon's); bot. mag. .--this is very like c. grandiflorus, and is slightly and not very agreeably perfumed. the flowers sometimes open very early in the morning and fade in the afternoon, so that they may be enjoyed during the day-time. the flower tube is in. long, curved upwards, and clothed with rose-tinted scales, which become gradually larger towards the top, where they widen out into a whorl of greenish-yellow sepals, above which are the white petals forming a broad shallow cup, in. across, with a cluster of yellow stamens in the centre. the stems are three-angled, light green, and bear clusters of short stiff spines along the angles at intervals of in. flowers in autumn. mexico (?), . c. nycticalus (flowering at night); fig. .--stems four to six-angled, in. wide, dark green, bearing little tufts of hair and thin white spines along the angles, and a profusion of aerial roots. flowers as large as those of c. grandiflorus; tube covered with tufts of white hairs; sepals or outer whorl of segments bright orange, the inner pure white, and arranged like a cup. they open at about seven o'clock in the evening, and fade at seven on the following morning. this plant may still be met with in some old-fashioned gardens, but only rarely as compared with its popularity a generation ago, when it was to be found in almost every collection of stove plants. at that time, the flowering of this cactus was looked upon as an event, and it was customary for the owner to invite his friends to meet and watch the development of the flowers, and enjoy to the full their almost over-powering but delicious fragrance. so bright are the colours of the flowers, that a sort of luminosity seems to surround them when at their best. flowers in autumn. mexico, . [illustration: fig. .--cereus nycticalus.] c. triangularis (three-angled); bot. mag. .--this plant is easily recognised because of its stout triangular stems, which increase at a rapid rate and bear roots freely; by means of these roots they cling to almost any substance with which they come in contact. there are large examples of it in the kew collection, where it bears numerous flowers annually, which open in the evening and close at about eight o'clock next morning. the flowers measure ft. in length by about the same in width of cup, and are composed of a whorl of long narrow green sepals, with pale brown points, a cluster of pure white petals, bright yellow stamens, and a large club-like stigma; they appear in autumn. mexico. this species was cultivated at hampton court in . c. speciosissimus (most beautiful).--although not a night-flowering kind, nor yet a climber, yet this species resembles in habit the above rather than the columnar-stemmed ones. it is certainly the species best adapted for cultivation in small greenhouses or in the windows of dwelling-houses, as it grows quickly, remains healthy under ordinary treatment, is dwarf in habit, and flowers freely--characters which, along with the vivid colours and large size of the blossoms, render it of exceptional value as a garden plant. its stems are slender, and it may be grown satisfactorily when treated as a wall plant. for its cultivation, the treatment advised for phyllocactuses will be found suitable. when well grown and flowered it surpasses in brilliancy of colours almost every other plant known. specimens with thirty stems each ft. high, and bearing from sixty to eighty buds and flowers upon them at one time, may be grown by anyone possessing a warm greenhouse. the stems are three to five angled, spiny, the tufts of spines set in little disks of whitish wool. the flowers are as large as tea saucers, with tubes about in. long, the colour being an intense crimson or violet, so intense and bright as to dazzle the eyes when looked at in bright sunlight. when cut and placed in water they will last three or four days. april and may. mexico, . "numberless varieties have been raised from this cereus, as it seeds freely and crosses readily with other species. many years ago, mr. d. beaton raised scores of seedlings from crosses between this and c. flagelliformis, and has stated that he never found a barren seedling. much attention was given to these plants about fifty years ago, for sir e. antrobus is said to have exhibited specimens with from to flowers each. i have been informed that an extremely large plant of this cereus, producing hundreds of flowers every season, is grown on the back wall of a vinery at the grange, barnet, the residence of sir charles nicholson, bart." (l. castle). the semi-scandent species. these are characterised by a thin, drooping or trailing stem, and, though not strictly climbers, they may most fittingly be considered in a group by themselves. some botanists have made a separate genus for them, viz., cleistocactus, but for all practical purposes they may be grouped under the above heading, whilst popularly they are known as the rat's-tail or whipcord cactuses. two of them--viz., c. flagelliformis and c. mallisoni--are generally grafted on the stem of some erect, slender cereus or pereskia, or they may be worked on to the stem of a climbing cereus, such as c. triangularis, in such a way as to hang from the roof of a house. a large specimen of c. flagelliformis, growing from the climbing stem of c. rostratus, was, for a long time, conspicuous among the cactuses at kew, but owing to the decay of the "stock" plant, this fine specimen no longer exists. a large pereskia, trained along the roof in the cactus-house at kew, has recently been grafted with a number of pieces of c. flagelliformis, which in a few years will, no doubt, form a handsome specimen. in the same establishment a specimen of c. mallisoni is grafted on the stem of another kind, and is very attractive when in flower. c. serpentinus thrives well upon its own roots. for the cultivation of this little group, the instructions given for the climbing and other kinds may be followed. c. flagelliformis (whip-formed).--stems prostrate, or, when grafted on a tall stem, pendent, ½ in. in diameter, round, with numerous ridges almost hidden by the many clusters of fine bristle-like hairs. flowers in. long and in. wide; colour bright rosy-red. in some parts of germany this plant is one of the commonest of window ornaments, and it is so well grown by the peasants there, that the whole window space is completely screened by the numerous long, tail-like stems, ft. or ft. long, which hang from baskets. it is sometimes cultivated by cottagers in england, and we have seen a very fine specimen in a cottager's window in gunnersbury. without its pretty bright-coloured flowers, this cactus has the charm of novelty in the form and habit of its stems, and as it is easily cultivated in a window through which the sun shines during most of the day, it is just the plant to grow for the double purpose of a screen and a curiosity. if planted in baskets, it should be potted in a porous loamy soil, and kept moist in the summer and perfectly dry in winter. summer. peru. introduced . c. mallisoni ( mallison's); bot. mag. .--this is supposed to be of hybrid origin, a mr. mallison having sent it to dr. lindley to be named, and stating that he obtained it by fertilising flowers of c. speciosissimus with pollen from c. flagelliformis. whatever its origin, it is a distinct kind, with stems similar to those of the last-named, but thicker and slightly less spiny, and flowers in. long by in. across the spreading petals, the whole being bright red with a cluster of pale yellow stamens protruding in. beyond the throat. the flowers are produced from the sides of the stems, a few inches from the apex, and as they are borne in abundance and last three or four days each, a large specimen makes a very attractive display for several weeks in the summer. the plant at kew, a large one, is grafted on the stem of c. macdonaldiae, which is trained along a rafter, so that the stems of c. mallisoni hang conspicuously from the roof. c. serpentinus (serpent-like); fig. .--when young, the stems of this plant are erect and stout enough to support themselves; but as they lengthen they fall over and grow along the ground, unless supported by a stake or wire; they have numerous ridges, with clusters of hair-like spines, which are usually purplish. flowers large, handsome, fragrant; tube in, long, green; petals and sepals spreading and forming a star in. in diameter, the petals purplish on the outside, and pinkish-white inside; stamens arranged in a sort of cup in. deep. this plant rarely produces aerial roots. small specimens are ornamental even when not in flower, the bright green, regularly ridged stem, with its numerous little clusters of fine spines, at the base of which are short tufts of a white woolly substance, being both curious and pretty. it flowers freely every summer. south america, . [illustration: fig. .--cereus serpentinus.] the globose and columnar stemmed species. many of these are unsuited for culture in ordinary plant-houses, whilst others are so rare that, although cultivated in botanical collections, they are not available for ordinary gardens, not being known in the trade. there are, however, a good many species that may be obtained from dealers in cactuses, and to these we shall confine ourselves here. at kew, the collection of cereuses is large and diversified, some of the specimens being as tall as the house they are in will allow them to be, and the appearance they present is, to some eyes at least, a very attractive one. such plants are: c. candicans, which is a cluster-stemmed kind, very thick and fleshy, and in shape like an indian club; c. chilensis;--with tall hedgehog-skinned stems, the numerous ridges being thickly clothed with clusters of yellowish spines, which become dark brown with age; c. dyckii, ft. high, the stems thick and fleshy, with ridges ½ in. deep; c. gemmatus, a hexagonal, almost naked-stemmed species ft. high; c. strictus, c. peruvianus, c. geometrizans, and c. jamacaru, which are tall, weird-looking plants, ft. or more high, some of them freely branched. the following is a selection of the largest-flowered and handsomest kinds: c. berlandieri (berlandier's); fig. .--a distinct and beautiful plant, of dwarf, creeping habit, forming a tuft of short branchlets springing from the main procumbent stems, none of which exceed in. in length by ¾ in. in thickness. they are almost round when old, the younger ones being slightly angled, and bearing, along the ridges, little tubercles, crowned with short spines. even old stems are very soft and watery, and, on this account, it is necessary for the safety of the plant, in winter, that it should be kept absolutely dry. the flowers are produced on the young upright stems, and they are as much as in. across. they are composed of a regular ring of strap-shaped, bright purple petals, springing from the erect bristly tube, and in the centre a disk-like cluster of rose-coloured stamens, the stigma standing well above them. in form the flowers are not unlike some of the sunflowers or mutisia decurrens. they are developed in summer, and on well-grown plants the display of blossom is exceptionally fine. this species is sometimes known as c. repens and c. deppii. it is a native of south texas and mexico, where it is found growing in sandy or gravelly soils, on dry, sunny hill-sides. it should be grown in a cool greenhouse or frame, in a position where it would get plenty of sunshine to ripen its growth and induce it to flower. in winter it should be placed close to the glass, where the sun can shine full on it, and where it will be safe from frost. it will not thrive if wintered in a warm house. in april, it should be examined, repotted if the soil is sour, and kept watered as growth commences. [illustration: fig. .--cereus berlandieri.] c. blankii (blank's); fig. .--this is very similar to the c. berlandieri in habit and stem characters, differing only in having longer, broader, less spreading petals, a club-shaped stigma, and in the colour, which is a deep rose, flushed in the throat with crimson. a comparison of the figures here given will show the differences better than any description. c. blankii comes from mexico at high elevations, and thrives under cultivation with the same treatment as the preceding. it is very common in continental gardens, where it is grown out-of-doors, being protected from cold in winter by a handlight and straw. it flowers in summer. [illustration: fig. .--cereus blankii.] c. caerulescens (blue-stemmed); bot. mag. .--an erect-growing, tall cactus, rarely branching unless made to do so by cutting off the top of the stem; furrows and ridges about eight, the ridges prominent, waved, and bearing tufts of blackish wool, in which are set about a dozen black spines, ½ in. long; the stem when young and in good health is bluish in colour. flowers springing from the ridges, about in. long, the tube covered with reddish-grey scales, which pass upwards into the sepals; petals spreading, white, the margins toothed, and forming a spreading top, not unlike a large white single camellia; the stamens are arranged in a sort of cup, and are yellow-anthered, with a large rayed yellow stigma in the middle. in the botanical magazine it is stated that the flowers of this species are equal and even superior to those of c. grandiflorus; but we have not seen flowers such as would bear out that statement. this species is too tall-stemmed to be recommended for windows or small greenhouses; but where room can be afforded it, the attractive colour of its stems, together with the size and beauty of its flowers, should win it favour. it blossoms in summer, generally about july, and is a native of mexico. introduced in . c. caespitosus (tufted); fig. .--a dwarf species, the stem not more than in. high by about in. in diameter, sometimes branched, or bearing about its base a number of lateral growths, which ultimately form a cluster of stems--hence the name. the bark or skin of the stem is greyish-green, and the ribs, of which there are from a dozen to eighteen, are thickly covered with clusters of whitish wool and spines, the latter rose-tinted, and radiating in all directions. the flowers are produced on the top of the stems, and are short-tubed, the tube clothed with little bundles of spines; spread of the petals (from thirty to forty in each flower), in.; colour deep rose; anthers and stigma forming an eye-like cluster, the former yellow, and the latter bright green. flowered at kew for the first time in , but, although new to cultivation, it is becoming plentiful. native of new mexico and texas. for windows or small greenhouses this is a most suitable plant, as it flowers freely and keeps in good health in an ordinary greenhouse temperature, always, however, requiring plenty of sunlight and rest during winter. by placing it upon a shelf near the glass from october to march, allowing it to remain perfectly dry, and afterwards watering it freely, the flowers should make their appearance early in summer. a plant with several stems, each bearing a large bright rose blossom, sometimes two, presents an attractive appearance. [illustration: fig. .--cereus caespitosus.] c. cirrhiferus (tendril-bearing).--a prostrate, branching-stemmed, small-growing kind, very proliferous, with roots along the main stems; branchlets upright, five-angled, with slightly raised points, or tubercles, upon which are ten short hair-like spines, arranged in a star, and surrounding three or four central erect spines, all whitish and transparent. flowering branches erect, in. high, by about in. in diameter, bearing, near the apex, the large bright red flowers, nearly in. in diameter, regular as a sunflower, and lasting about a week. this species was introduced from mexico in . it is one of the best-known and handsomest of this group. it requires similar treatment to c. berlandieri. c. ctenoides (comb-like); fig. .--stem in. to in. high, and about in. in diameter, egg-shaped, unbranched, rarely producing offsets at the base. ribs fifteen or sixteen, spiral, with closely-set cushions of stiff, whitish spines, which interlace and almost hide the stem; there are from fourteen to twenty-two spines to each cushion, and they are ¼ in. long. flowers produced on the ridges near the top of the stem; tube short, spiny; petals spreading, like a convolvulus, in. to in. across, bright yellow; stamens yellow, pistil white. the flowers expand at about a.m., and close again soon after noon. they are developed in june or july. this species is a native of texas, and is rare in cultivation. when not in flower it might easily be mistaken for echinocactus pectinatus. it should be grown in a sunny position, in a warm house or pit, all summer, and wintered on a shelf, near the glass, in a temperature of from degs. to degs. during winter. under cultivation it is apt to rot suddenly at the base, more especially when old. should this happen, the rotten parts must be cut away, and the wound exposed to the air in a dry house for a week or two. [illustration: fig. .--cereus ctenoides.] c. enneacanthus (eight-spined); fig. .--stem seldom more than in. high by less than in. in diameter, cylindrical in shape, bright green, simple when young, tufted in old specimens. ribs shallow, broad, irregular on the top, with spine-cushions on the projecting parts; spines straight, yellowish-white, semi-transparent, variable in length, longest about in. there are frequently as many as twelve spines in a tuft, although the specific name implies eight spines only. flowers on the ridges near the top of the stem, with spiny tubes, spreading petals of a deep purple colour, and yellow stamens and pistil. they are developed freely in june and july. this is a soft-fleshed species, from texas; it is not easily kept in health, and is therefore rarely seen. it should be treated as advised for c. ctenoides. neither of these plants will flower unless it is grown in a sunny position as near to the roof-glass as is possible. [illustration: fig. .--cereus enneacanthus.] c. fendleri (fendler's).--one of the best of the dwarf-stemmed kinds. it has a pale green stem, about in. high, rarely branching at the base, but often found growing in clusters. ridges nine to twelve, running spirally round the stem, and bearing clusters of brown spines, some of them nearly in. in length. flowers composed of a tube in. long, green, fleshy, and spiny, with a spreading cup-like arrangement of petals and sepals, in. in diameter, and of a bright purple colour; stigma and anthers green. it produces its flowers in june. it was introduced from the mountainous region of new mexico about five years ago, and has blossomed freely in several collections, notably in that of mr. loder, of northampton, who has cultivated this and several other species from the same region in a sunny sheltered position out of doors, where, for several years, they have withstood winter's cold with no other protection than that afforded by an over-hanging wall. mr. loder says of c. fendleri that it is the best of all cactuses for cool treatment, as the flowers last more than a week, closing at night, and opening only in sunshine, when its rich purple colour is quite dazzling to the eye. it also blossoms freely under glass; but the colour of the flowers is not so vivid as when they are produced in full sunshine out of doors. c. giganteus (gigantic); fig. .--this is the most colossal of all cactuses, in which respect it is chiefly interesting. its stem, when young, is very similar to that of other dwarfer species, whilst, so far as is known, its flowers have not been produced under cultivation. it grows very slowly, a plant in. high being eight or ten years old, so that, to attain its full development, a very long time indeed is necessary. when young, the stems are globose, afterwards becoming club-shaped or cylindrical. it flowers at the height of ft. or ft., but grows up to four or five times that height, when it develops lateral branches, which curve upwards, and present the appearance of immense candelabra. the flowers are in. or in. long, and about the same in diameter. there is a small specimen, about ft. high, in the succulent collection at kew. the appearance of a number of tall specimens of this wonderful cactus, when seen towering high above the rocks and scrub with which it is associated, is described by travellers as being both weird and grand. judging by the slowness of its growth, the prospect of seeing full-sized specimens of this species in english gardens is a very remote one, unless full-grown stems are imported, and this is hardly possible. native of mexico and california. [illustration: fig. .--flower of cereus giganteus.] c. leeanus (lee's); bot. mag. .--a dwarf plant, the stems not more than ft. in height, and about in. in diameter at the base, tapering gradually towards the top, so that it forms a cone; the furrows number about a dozen, and the ridges are ½ in. high, the angles sharp, and clothed with clusters of pale brown spines, the central one in. long, the others much shorter. the flowers are produced on the top of the stem, four or five together, and are large, handsome, brick-red in colour, the tube in. long, clothed with yellowish, green-tipped scales, and little clusters of hair-like bristles. the arrangement of the petals, and the cluster of yellow anthers in the centre, give the flowers the appearance of camellias, if looked at from above. introduced from mexico by mr. lee, of hammersmith, in , and flowered soon afterwards at kew, in summer. being a native of the higher, more northerly regions of mexico, this species needs only to be protected from severe frosts; it has been known to bear a little frost without injury. for windows and greenhouses it is a very desirable plant. c. leptacanthus (slender-spined); fig. .--one of the most beautiful of all cactuses, and one of the easiest to cultivate, the only drawback being that it rarely flowers under cultivation. in habit it is similar to c. berlandieri. a plant in. across bears about twenty short branches, each of which, under careful cultivation will produce several flowers in the months of may and june, and these, when expanded, last about eight days before withering; they close every afternoon, opening about ten o'clock in the morning. the petals are arranged in a single series, spreading so as to form a shallow cup, and are notched on the edges near the upper end. they are coloured a deep purple-lilac on the upper half, the lower part being white, like a large pied daisy. the stamens are pure white; the anthers orange-coloured, as also is the star-shaped stigma. the plant is a native of mexico, and was introduced in . it requires the same treatment as the preceding kinds. the illustration is sufficient to show the beauty of this little creeping cactus, which, although so long known, is not grown in english gardens, though it is common enough in continental collections. [illustration: fig. .--cereus leptacanthus.] c. multiplex (proliferous); fig. .--a globose-stemmed species, becoming pear-shaped with age; height in., by in. in diameter; ridges angled, clothed with clusters of about a dozen spines, the central one longest. flowers in. to in. long, and about the same across the spreading petals; tube clothed with small, hairy scales; the sepals long and pointed; petals in. or more long, in. wide, spreading out quite flat; stamens arranged in a ring, with the whitish-rayed stigma in the middle. this species flowers in autumn. it is a native of south brazil, and was introduced in . it thrives best when kept in a warm, sunny position in a window or heated greenhouse. [illustration: fig. .--cereus multiplex.] at fig. is a curious variety of the above, the stem being fasciated and divided into numerous crumpled, flattened branches. it is remarkable as a monster form of the type plant. so far as is known, neither this nor any other of the monster cactuses produces flowers. [illustration: fig. .--cereus multiplex cristatus.] c. paucispinus (few-spined); bot. mag. .--a dwarf-stemmed species of recent introduction, and one which, owing to the beauty of its flowers and the hardy nature of the plant, is certain to find much favour among growers of cactuses. the stem is about in. high, by in. to in. in diameter, the base much wider than the apex, the ridges irregular, very thick and rounded, giving the stem a gouty or tumid appearance. upon the prominent parts of these ridges are stellate tufts of long, pale brown spines, some of them nearly in. long, and each tuft containing about eight spines. when young, the stems are more like some of the mamillarias than the cereuses. the flowers are developed near the top of the stem, two or three opening together; they are composed of a tube in. long, clothed with long spines and large, green, scaly sepals below, the latter gradually enlarging till at the top they become as large as the petals, which are in. long, with a spread of nearly in., rounded at the tips, and coloured deep blood-red, tinged with orange inside. the stamens are clustered together sheaf-like, with the dark green stigmas protruding through them. this is a native of new mexico, whence it was introduced in , and flowered in may. mr. loder, of northampton, has successfully cultivated it in a cool frame in the open air, and it has also grown well in the kew collection when treated in a similar way. this suggests its hardiness and fitness for window cultivation. owing to the watery nature of the stems, it is necessary that they should be kept quite dry during the winter. c. pentalophus (five-winged); bot. mag. .--as the name denotes, the stem of this erect-growing, somewhat slender species has five very prominent sharp-edged ridges, along which are little clusters of small spines about ½ in. apart; the stem is in. in diameter, and the angles are wavy. the flowers are about in. wide, spreading, the petals, broad and overlapping, rose-coloured, except in the centre of the flower, where they become almost pure white; the anthers are yellow, whilst the colour of the rayed stigma is purplish-blue. a native of mexico, introduced and flowered in . for its cultivation, the temperature of a warm greenhouse is required, though during summer it may be placed in a sunny position in a frame out of doors. if grown in windows, it should be kept through the winter in a room where there is a fire constantly. c. peruvianus (peruvian).--a tall-grower, the stems fleshy when young, and very spiny. the ridges on the stem number from five to eight, with stellate bundles, about in. apart, of small, stiff black spines. the flowers appear upon the upper portion of the stem, and are in. across, the petals pure white above, tinged with red below, and forming a large saucer, in the middle of which the numerous stamens, with yellow anthers, are arranged in a crown. there is something incongruous in the tall, spine-clothed, pole-like stem, upon which large, beautiful, water-lily-like flowers are developed, looking quite out of place on such a plant. flowers in spring and early summer. it requires warm greenhouse or stove treatment. there are some fine examples of this species at kew. a variety of this species, with a fasciated or monstrous habit, is sometimes cultivated. introduced in . c. pleiogonus (twisted-angled); fig. .--an erect cylindrical-stemmed species, from in. to ft. high by in. in diameter, with from ten to fourteen angles or ridges; these are somewhat tumid, and marked with depressions, from which the star-like clusters of spines spring, about a dozen spines in each cluster, the central one much the largest. the flowers are about in. long, the tube being rather thick and cylinder-like, expanding at the top, so as to form a sort of cup, in which the petals are arranged in several rows, with the middle filled by the numerous stamens, surmounted by the club-like pistil. the colour of the flowers is purple-red. this species appears to have first found its way into cultivation through some continental garden, its native country being unknown. it thrives only in a warm house, developing its flowers in summer. [illustration: fig. .--cereus pleiogonus.] c. polyacanthus (many-spined).--a newly-introduced species, from el paso, in mexico, where it is common on the sand ridges and stony hills. stem in. high, in. to in. wide, pale green or glaucous, with about eight ridges, the spines being placed along the angles in clusters of half a dozen or so, and about ½ in. apart. the flowers are in. to in. long; the tube spiny; the petals semi-erect and concave, rounded at the tip, and forming a shallow cup or wine-glass-like flower; the colour of the petals is deep blood-red. this beautiful cactus is exceptional in the length of time its flowers remain expanded and fresh, lasting a week or more; and as the plant is very free flowering, there is usually a beautiful display of rich red blossoms for about six weeks. it may be grown in a cool greenhouse or window, requiring no artificial heat beyond what would be necessary to insure its protection from frost. it flowers in spring. c. procumbens (trailing); fig. .--this is a very pretty little cactus, with spreading prostrate stems, from which upright branches grow to a height of in. or in.; they are ½ in. thick, generally only four-angled or square, with small spines in tufts along the angles. the flowers are developed on the ends of the branches, and are in. long and wide, the sepals spreading and recurved, as in a paris daisy, their colour being bright rose purple. the anthers form a corona-like ring, inclosing the upright, rayed stigma. a native of mexico; flowers in may and june. in its native haunts we learn that this little cactus is very free-flowering, but under cultivation in this country it flowers only rarely. it thrives best when grown in a dry, sunny greenhouse, and kept perfectly dry during autumn and winter. if allowed to get wet in that season, it is apt to rot, the stems being soft and watery. [illustration: fig. .--cereus procumbens.] c. reductus (dingy); bot. mag. .--stem erect, sometimes ft. high, and about in. wide, deeply furrowed, the furrows usually numbering about fourteen; the ridges tumid and irregular, and coloured a dingy glaucous-green. spines embedded in a tuft of grey wool, about a dozen spines in each cluster, in. long, a few of them only half that length. flowers on the top of the stem, three or four opening together, each being in. long and wide; the tube short and scaly, with overlapping sepals and saw-edged petals, which are white, slightly tinged with rose. stamens filling the whole of the flower-cup, bright yellow. a native of mexico, introduced in , flowering in summer. this species was evidently a favourite many years ago, but it is rare with us now. it thrives in a house where the winter temperature does not fall below deg., requiring no water at that time, but a liberal supply in the summer when growth is being made, and all the sunlight possible. when without its star-shaped, handsome flowers, the stem is remarkably ferocious-looking, the spines upon it being quite as thick and as strong as on a hedgehog. c. repandus (undulated); fig. .--stem erect, ft. or more high, unbranched, unless compelled to do so by the removal of the top. ribs eight or nine in number, rounded, somewhat undulated, and bearing spine-tufts nearly in. apart; each tuft contains about ten spines, which are almost equal in length, fine, stiff, brown, and persistent; there is a little cushion of white wool about the base of the spines. flowers produced on the side, within a few inches of the top of the stem; they are composed of a scaly tube, in. long, a circular row of spreading, incurved, pale brown sepals, and two rows of broad, overlapping, snow-white petals; stamens white, with yellow anthers; stigma yellow. the flowers, developed in summer, are very beautiful, but, unfortunately, each lasts only a few hours. a native of the west indies, and an old introduction to english gardens ( ), but rare in cultivation now. it requires the treatment of a stove all the year round. [illustration: fig. .--cereus repandus.] c. royeni (royen's); bot. mag. .--this plant is not one of the handsomest as regards flowers; but its stems are ornamental, and the form of the flowers is such as would please those who admire the curious. the stem is erect, several feet high, in. in diameter, with about ten acute ridges, along which are little tufts of white wool about the base of the clustering spines, which are dark brown and in. long. the flower-tube is in. long, thick, spineless, scaly, the scales becoming large near the top of the flower, where they form a cup-like whorl, enclosing the small rose-coloured petals, the stamens being white. introduced from new grenada, in . it flowers in spring and summer. it should be grown in a stove. c. variabilis (variable); bot. mag. , under the name of c. pitajaya. --a tall-growing plant, rather straggling in habit, branching freely, the stems usually four-winged, but sometimes with three, five, or more, constricted at intervals, as in phyllocactus, the wings spiny along the edges; spines in. long. flowers on the sides of the stems, rather low down, long-tubed; large, showy; tube in. long, smooth, fleshy, with a few scales near the top, and a whorl of greenish, strap-shaped, pointed sepals, the petals spreading, with toothed margins and a long acute point, white or cream-coloured; anthers yellow. a native of various parts of south america and the west indies, but always close to the sea. it flowers in july; the flowers, which open generally in the evening, remain expanded all night, and close before noon the day following. this species requires tropical or warm house treatment. there are some old plants of it in the kew collection, where it flowers annually. except for large houses, this species is not recommended for general cultivation, as it blossoms only after attaining a good size, and the stems, when old, are not at all ornamental. chapter vii. the genus echinocactus. (from echinos, a hedgehog, and cactus.) many of the plants included in the genus echinocactus are very similar in habit and stem-characters to the cereus. botanists find characters in the seed vessel (ovary) and in the seeds by which the two genera are supposed to be easily separable; but, so far as can be made out by a comparison of their more conspicuous characters, there is very little indeed to enable one to distinguish the two genera from each other when not in flower. a comparison of the figures given in these pages will show that such is the case. the name echinocactus was given to e. tenuispinus, which was first introduced into english gardens in . the spiny character of this species is surpassed by that of many of the more recently introduced kinds; still it is sufficient to justify its being compared to a hedgehog. some of the kinds have spines in. long, broad at the base, and hooked towards the point, the hooks being wonderfully strong, whilst in others the spines are long and needle-like, or short and fine as the prickles on a thistle. the stems vary much in size and form, being globose, or compressed, or ovate, a few only being cylindrical, and attaining a height of from ft. to ft. they are almost always simple--that is, without branches, unless they are compelled to form such by cutting out or injuring the top of the stem; the ridges vary in number from about five to ten times that number, and they are in some species very firm and prominent, in others reduced to mere undulations, whilst in a few, they are separated into numerous little tubercles or mammae. the species are nearly all possessed of spines, which are collected in bundles along the ridges of the stem. generally, the flowers are about as long as wide, and the ovary is covered with scales or modified sepals. the fruit is succulent, or sometimes dry, and, when ripe, is covered with the persistent calyx scales, often surrounded with wool, and usually bearing upon the top the remains of the withered flower. the position of the flowers is on the young part of the stem, usually being perched in the centre, never on the old part, as in some of the cereuses. the flowers open only under the influence of bright sunlight, generally closing soon after it leaves them. the geographical distribution of the species, of which over have been described, extends from texas and california to peru and brazil; they are in greatest abundance in mexico, whence most of the garden kinds have been introduced. the conditions under which they grow naturally vary considerably in regard to temperature and soil; but they are all found in greatest numbers and most robust health where the soil is gravelly or sandy, and even where there is no proper soil at all, the roots finding nourishment in the clefts or crevices of the rocks. as a rule, the temperature in the lands where they are native is very high during summer, and falls to the other extreme in winter, some of the species being found even where frost and snow are frequent; the majority of them, however, require what we would call stove treatment. turning now to a consideration of those kinds known as garden plants, we find that comparatively few of the species known to botanists are represented in english collections, though, perhaps, we may safely say that not one of the kinds known would be considered unworthy of cultivation except by those who despise cactuses of whatever kind. their flowers are conspicuous both in size and brilliancy of colour; and in the curious, grotesque, and even beautifully symmetrical shapes of their stems, one finds attractions of no ordinary kind. the stem of e. visnaga shown at fig. may be taken as an instance of this--apart from the cluster of star-like, bright yellow flowers seen nestling upon the top of their spine-protected dwelling, the whole suggesting a nest of young birds. this plant is indeed one of the most remarkable of the echinocactuses, owing to the size and number of its spines--which are in. long, almost as firm as steel, and are used by the mexicans as toothpicks--and to the gigantic size and great weight of the stem. the following account of a large specimen of this species introduced to kew in , is taken from an article from the pen of the late sir wm. hooker in the gardeners' chronicle of that year. this gigantic plant was presented to the nation, in other words to kew, by f. staines, esq., of san luis potosi. such was its striking appearance, that it was stated that, if exhibited in the egyptian hall, piccadilly, some hundreds of pounds might be realised by it. in a letter from mr. staines, here quoted, our readers will perceive how difficult it often is to obtain living specimens of these plants from their native habitats. he writes: "i mean to have a large specimen of e. visnaga deposited in a strong box, sending the box first to the mountain where the monsters grow, and placing it on the springs of a carriage which i shall despatch for that purpose. my monstrous friend cannot travel any other way, from his stupendous size and immense ponderosity, which cannot be adequately calculated for here, where the largest machine for conveying weights does not exceed sixteen arrobes, or lb. this enormous plant will require twenty men at least to place it upon the vehicle, with the aid of such levers as our indians can invent. it grows in the deep ravines of our loftiest mountains, amongst huge stones; the finest plants are inaccessible to wheeled vehicles, and even on horseback it is difficult to reach them. i shall pack him carefully in mats before applying to his roots the crowbars destined to wrench him from his resting place of unknown centuries. he will have to travel leagues before he reaches vera cruz." being too large to be packed in a box, it was first surrounded with a dense clothing of the old man's beard or spanish moss (tillandsia usneoides)--and a better covering could not have been devised--and well corded. fifteen mats, each as large and as thick as an ordinary doormat, formed the exterior envelope. when unpacked on its arrival at kew, this monster cactus was seen as perfect, as green, and as uninjured as if it had been that morning removed from its native rocks, its long, rope-like roots arranged in coils like the cable of a ship. when placed in scales it weighed lb., its circumference at ft. from the ground was ½ ft., and its total height, ft. in.; the number of ridges was forty-four, and on each ridge were fifty bundles of spines, four spines to each bundle. thus there were spines or toothpicks, enough for the supply of an army. a still larger specimen was a year or so later successfully brought to kew, and which weighed ton; but this, as well as the smaller one, survived only a short time. there have been numerous other large specimens of this cactus in english gardens lately, all of them, however, succumbing to the unfavourable conditions of our climate. mr. peacock, of hammersmith, recently possessed two large plants of e. visnaga, one of which weighed nearly cwt., and measured ft. in. in circumference. cultivation.--the soil for echinocactuses should be similar to that recommended for the cereuses, as also should be the treatment as regards sunlight and rest. it cannot be too clearly understood that during the period between october and march these plants should be kept perfectly dry at the root, and in a dry house, where the temperature would not fall below deg. there is no occasion for re-potting the echinocactuses every year, it being by far the safest plan to allow them to remain in the same pots several years, should the soil be fresh and the drainage perfect. all the larger-stemmed kinds may be kept in health when grown on their own roots; but for some of the smaller species it is a good plan to graft them upon the stem of some of the cereuses, c. tortuosus or c. colubrinus being recommended for the smaller kinds, and for the larger c. peruvianus, c. gemmatus, or any one the stem of which is robust, and of the right dimensions to bear the species of echinocactus intended to be grafted. some growers prefer to graft all the small echinocactuses upon other kinds, find certainly, when properly grafted, they are safer thus treated than if grown on their own roots. in grafting, the two stems (stock and scion) must be cut so that their edges meet, and in securing them two or three stakes must be placed in such a way as to afford support to the graft and hold it firmly in position. propagation.--besides grafting, cuttings of the stems may be utilised for the multiplication of echinocactuses, first removing the upper portion of the stem and putting it into soil to root, and afterwards, as lateral stems develop on the old stock, they may be cut away with a sharp knife, and treated in a similar manner. should a plant become sickly, and look shrivelled and cankered at the base, it is always best to cut away the healthy part of the stem, and induce it to form fresh roots, thus giving it a new lease of life. seeds of these plants may be obtained from dealers, more especially continental nurserymen, and to watch the gradual development of the plant from the seedling is both interesting and instructive. the seeds should be sown in soil, and kept moist and warm; in about a month after sowing, the little pea-like, green balls will be seen pushing their way through the thin covering of soil, and gradually but slowly increasing in size, their spines also increasing in number and strength, the ridges forming according to the character of the species, till, finally, they assume the mature characters of the plant, both in stem and habit. the flowers, of course, appear according to the length of time it takes for the species to grow to flowering size. species. e. brevihamatus (short-hooked).--several kinds of echinocactus are distinguished from the rest in having the ridges divided into tubercles, which are often globular and arranged in a spiral round the stem, as in the genus mamillaria; to this section the present species belongs. the stem is almost sphere-shaped, from in. to in. high, the tuberculated ridges about ¼ in. deep, and upon each tubercle is a tuft of about a dozen brown, radiating spines, with a long central one hooked at the point. the flowers are borne in clusters on the top of the stem, three or four opening together; they are in. in length, and the same across the spreading petals, which are pink, shaded with deep rose. a native of the mountainous regions of south brazil; introduced about . flowers in summer. this pretty little plant will thrive if placed upon a shelf in a greenhouse where it will have full sunshine during the greater part of the day. it grows very slowly, especially when on its own roots, but succeeds better when grafted on another kind. e. centeterius (many-spined); bot. mag. .--this has a conical-shaped stem, in. high by in. wide, with about fourteen ridges, which are notched, and bear star-shaped clusters of pale brown spines, ½ in. long. the blossoms are borne rather thickly on the summit of the stem, from six to nine flowers being sometimes open together; and as they are each nearly in. across, and of good substance, they present an attractive appearance. the petals are of a deep straw-colour, with a reddish streak down the centre, and ½ in. long, with the apex notched or toothed. the stamens are spirally coiled round the stigma, which is club-shaped and white. this species is probably a native of mexico, and was first flowered in england at kew, in . a cool, dry greenhouse suits it best; or it may be grown in a sunny room window where frost would not be allowed to reach it in winter. unless subjected to very dry treatment during the winter months, and also kept in a position where all the sunlight possible would reach it--even when at rest--there is not much chance of this plant producing its large flowers. it may be kept alive by giving it uniform treatment all the year round, but it would never flower. e. cinnabarinus (cinnabar-flowered); bot. mag. .--this is another of the mamillaria-like kinds, and is remarkable for the depressed form of its stem, which may be likened to a sea urchin, both in size and shape. old plants are from in. to in. in diameter, and about in. high; the spiral formed by the tubercles rises very gradually, and each of the latter is surmounted by a tuft of strong, brown, radiating spines, imbedded in a little cushion of wool. the flowers spring from the outside of the depressed top of the stem, two or three opening together and forming a beautiful picture, both as to size and colour. the tube is short and green, with a row of long green sepals at the top, and above these the petals, which are in. long, overlapping, recurved, the edges toothed, and the colour a brilliant cinnabar-red. the stamens are in two series, very numerous, and the anthers are bright yellow. looking at the flattened, spiny stem, it seems impossible that such large, handsome flowers should be produced by it. a native of bolivia; introduced about . it blossoms in july, and may be grown on a shelf in a cool greenhouse, as advised for the e. centeterius. e. concinnus (neat); fig. .--a small species with a globose stem, in. high and in. wide, and about twenty ridges, which are rounded, rather broad, each bearing about half-a-dozen little bunches of spines arranged in a star. the flowers are numerous, as large as, or larger than, the stem, being in. long and broad, the tube covered with brown hair-like spines, and having a few reddish scales, whilst the petals are in several rows, overlapping, with pointed tips, and are coloured dark yellow with a red streak down the centre. several flowers are sometimes developed together on a little stem, when they have the appearance of being much too large for so small a plant to support. the pale green of the stem and its brown spines contrast prettily with the handsome yellow flowers, which are brightened by the streaks of red on the petals and the clear red colour of the stigma. it is a native of mexico, and was introduced about , flowering early in summer. it requires a warm greenhouse temperature all the year round, with, of course, plenty of sunshine. it may be grafted on the stem of an erect-growing cereus, such as c. serpentinus or c. napoleonis, the stock to be not higher than in., and about as wide as the plant of e. concinnus is at the base. [illustration: fig. .--echinocactus concinnus.] e. coptonogonus (wavy-ribbed); fig. .--stem globose, seldom more than in. in diameter, depressed on the top, with from ten to fourteen strong, sharp-edged, wavy ribs, the furrows also being wavy. spine tufts set in little depressions along the margins of the ribs, five spines in each tuft, the two upper in. long and four-angled, the two lower flattened and shorter, the fifth, which is the longest, being placed in the top of the cushion. flowers in. across, daisy-like, produced in april and may; tube very short; sepals and petals linear, spreading, white, with a purple stripe down the centre; stamens red, with yellow anthers; pistil purple, with an eight-rayed, yellow stigma. a native of mexico. (syn. e. interruptus.) [illustration: fig. .--echinocactus coptonogonus.] e. cornigerus (horn-bearing).--this remarkable plant, of which a portion is represented at fig. , has the stoutest spines of all cultivated cactuses, and their arrangement on the ridges of the stem is such as would withstand the attacks of all enemies. the broad tongue-like spine is purple in colour, and as strong as iron; the three erect horn-like spines yellow, and as firm as the horns of an antelope, to which they bear a resemblance. the stem is sphere-shaped, grey-green in colour, and is divided into from fourteen to twenty-one stout wavy ribs, upon which the spine tufts occur at intervals of about in. the arrangement of the spines is shown in the illustration, as also is the position of the flowers, which are small, with narrow purple petals and brown-red sepals. the plant is a native of mexico and guatemala, and would require stove treatment. we have seen only small living examples, but according to descriptions and figures, the most interesting character it possesses is its spiny armament. it has been called melocactus latispinus and echinocactus latispinus. [illustration: fig. .--echinocactus cornigerus.] e. corynodes (club-like); fig. .--the stem of this is about as large as a keswick codlin apple, with the broad end uppermost, and the sides cut up into about a dozen and a half rather prominent sharp ridges, with bunches of stout yellow spines arranged, at intervals of about in., along the edges. the flowers, which are produced in a cluster on the top of the stem, form a crown of bright yellow petals, studded with scarlet eye-like stigmas. each flower is in. in diameter when fully spread out, cup-shaped, and composed of two or three rows of over-lapping petals. in the middle of these nestle the short stamens, and projecting well beyond them is the bright scarlet stigma, forming a beautiful contrast to the petals. this plant is a native of mexico, and was introduced about the year . it is also known in gardens under the names of e. rosaceus and e. sellowianus. there was a pretty little specimen of this flowering in the kew collection last year, and the opening and closing of the flowers, as the sunlight reached or receded from them, was almost as rapid as that observed in the daisy. the whole plant is so small, and, when in flower, so charming, that no one could fail to admire it. it requires similar treatment to e. concinnus. [illustration: fig. .--echinocactus corynodes.] e. crispatus (curled); fig. .--the flattened, wavy or curled ridges of this species are characteristic of several other kinds of echinocactus. its long, stout, ferocious-looking spines, directed upwards, have a very forbidding aspect. the stem grows to a height of about in., and is said to produce its large, long-tubed, purple flowers in the summer months. it has been introduced by a continental nurseryman, but, so far as is known, has not yet flowered in any english collection. it is apparently closely allied to e. longihamatus. [illustration: fig. .--echinocactus crispatus.] e. cummingii (cumming's); bot. mag. .--a pretty little species, with a globose stem about in. in diameter, the ridges divided into tubercles, and running spirally round the stem. from each tubercle springs a radiating cluster of yellowish, hair-like spines. the flowers are numerous, in. long and wide, the scales on the tube tipped with red, whilst the petals stamens, and stigma are an uniform bright ochre-yellow; so that, looked at from above, they suggest the flowers of the common marigold. a well-managed plant produces as many as half-a-dozen of these flowers together, which open out widely under the influence of bright sunlight. it is one of the hardiest of the genus, thriving well in a frost-proof house or frame. during winter, the atmosphere surrounding it should be as dry as possible; but in summer it likes plenty of moisture, and exposure to full sunshine. a variety of e. cummingii was raised from seeds a few years ago by mr. daniel, of epsom, the flowers of which were pale almost to whiteness. the type is said to attain a height of in. in its native country, bolivia, whence plants were introduced to kew in , and flowered in july. e. cylindraceus (cylindrical).--a large-growing kind, attaining a height of several feet, very broad, and, as the name denotes, cylindrical in shape. when large, the stem often develops lateral branches about its base. cultivated plants of it are in. high, the sides marked with about a score of ridges, upon which, arranged in a dense cluster, are the stout, strong spines, the longest of them in. long, hooked, and projecting outwards, the shorter spreading and interlacing so as to form a sort of spiny network all round the stem. the flowers are yellow, in. long, and are composed of a short, thick tube bearing from forty to fifty fringed sepals, and about half that number of petals, which are also fringed. there are as many as a dozen flowers opened together on stout, aged plants; it is, however, more because of the densely spinous stems than the flowers that this species has found its way into cultivation. it cannot be recommended for any except large collections, and where it can be grown in a stove temperature. it is a native of the hot deserts of colorado, and was introduced about ten years ago. there are several healthy young specimens of it in the kew collection. e. echidne (viper; probably in allusion to the fang-like spines).--this species is remarkable in having a stout cylindrical stem, in. high by in. wide, with about a dozen deep ridges; these are disposed spirally, and bear tufts of rigid, broad spines, in. or more long, spreading, so as to interlace and form a wire-like network all round the stem. it may be mentioned here that an american naturalist has recently suggested that the object of these iron-like spines on the stems of many cactuses, and more especially on the majority of the hedgehog kinds, is not so much to defend the fleshy stems from browsing animals as to afford protection from the scorching rays of the sun, which would otherwise cause the stems to blister and shrivel; and the nature of the spiny covering of e. echidne seems to support such a view. as in many others, the clusters of spines in this plant have their bases embedded in a tuft of whitish wool. the flowers are developed near the centre of the top of the stem, and are of medium size, bright yellow, with whitish stamens; they are produced two or three together, in summer. this species is a native of mexico; it thrives in a greenhouse where frost is excluded, but only rarely flowers with us under cultivation. e. emoryi (emory's); fig. .--this is a very large-stemmed kind, specimens having been found nearly ft. in height and about ft. in diameter. smaller plants, such as are in english collections, have globose stems ft. through, with about thirteen ribs, the ribs tuberculated, the tubercles large, and rounded; the spines are borne on the apex of the tubercles in star-shaped bundles of eight or nine, and are angled, often flat on the top side, articulated, with hooked points, whilst in length they vary from in. to in. the flowers are in. long, the tube clothed with heart-shaped scales or sepals; the petals are red, with yellowish margins, spreading so as to form a beautiful, large, cup-like flower, with a cluster of deep yellow stamens in the centre. the flowering period is in the autumn, and the plant is a native of the lower colorado and california. living plants of it have only recently been introduced into english collections. at kew, it is cultivated in a warm greenhouse, where it is in good health. from accounts of it in its native haunts, it will, however, probably prefer a cool house in winter, and as much sun and warmth as possible in spring and summer; for we are told that during winter it is often subjected to severe frosts and heavy snowfalls, whilst in summer the fierce heat of the sun is such as to burn up all vegetation, except cactuses and other similar plants. [illustration: fig. .--flower and spines of echinocactus emoryi.] e. gibbosus (humped).--a small apple-like plant, not more than in. high, with a depressed top, the lower part being narrowed. it has sixteen ribs or ridges, composed of rows of thick fleshy tubercles, upon every other of which are six or eight horny spines, in. long. the flowers are pushed out from the edge of the depression on the top of the stem, and are large; the tube ½ in. long. the petals spread to a width of in., and are arranged in several rows, overlapping each other, becoming smaller towards the centre of the flower, as in an aster; they are pure white, except for a tinge of red on the tips of the outer ones, the stamens being bright yellow. two flowers are usually developed on a plant, generally in june. this species was introduced from jamaica about , by a nurseryman in hammersmith; but as no echinocactuses are wild in the west indian islands, it must have been introduced into jamaica from some of the central american states, or probably from mexico. it may be grafted on to another free-growing kind with advantage, as it does not always keep healthy when on its own roots. it should be grown in a cool greenhouse, or in the window of a dwelling-room, always, however, in a position where it would get plenty of sunlight. e. haynii (hayne's); fig. .--an upright cylindrical-stemmed species, very much like a mamillaria in the form and position of the tubercles and the numerous greyish hair-like spines arranged in a radiating ring on the top of each tubercle. the flowers are much longer than in any yet described, the tube being in. in length, clothed with large sepals on the upper portion, and the petals are semi-erect with recurved points, and coloured a brilliant purple-red. a native of peru, where it is found at high elevations, growing in crevices of rocks and exposed to full sunlight. with us it thrives in a warm greenhouse, producing its beautiful flowers in summer. introduced about . [illustration: fig. .--echinocactus haynii.] e. hexaedrophorus (tubercles six-sided); fig. .--this plant is distinguished by the gouty-looking tubercles into which its broad, spiral ridges are divided, and which look as if they would suddenly burst like a blister if pricked with a pin. it grows about in. in height, and is similar in form to what is shown in the accompanying figure, except that the top is usually flatter than here represented. the whole stem has a glaucous hue, and the spines are reddish-brown. the flowers, which are produced freely in june and july, are short-tubed, spreading to a width of in.; the petals toothed at the tips, and arranged in several rows, overlapping each other, the colour being white, tinted with rose, with a disk-like cluster of yellow stamens in the centre, and a white-rayed stigma. a native of north mexico, introduced about . it is very slow-growing, attaining full size in not less than six years from seed; indeed, it is stated that in twelve years a plant of it did not grow more than in. still, slow as it is, it remains in good health when kept in a sunny position on a shelf in a greenhouse or in a dwelling-room, so that it may be recommended for places where space is very limited. like e. gibbosus, it does best when grafted on to another kind. we have seen perfect "drum-sticks" formed by grafting a full-grown plant of this on the stem of a cereus. [illustration: fig. .--echinocactus hexaedrophorus.] e. horizonthalonis (spreading-spined); fig. .--stem globose, usually flattened on the top, and divided into eight or nine large ribs or ridges, grey-green in colour. spines in crowded star-shaped clusters along the apex of the ribs, seven spines in each cluster, all of them strong, slightly curved, horn-like, and marked with numerous rings; they are yellow, tipped with red when young, ash-coloured when old; the longest are about in. in length. flowers terminal, springing from the young spine tufts, each in. across, with two rows of petals arranged regularly in the form of a cup; colour deep rose, paler on the inside of the cup; stamens very numerous, with white filaments and yellow anthers. the flowers expand at sunrise and close again in the evening, each one lasting about a week; they are very agreeably scented. flowering season, may and june. the plant is a native of mexico, and was introduced in . (syns. e. equitans, e. horizontalis.) [illustration: fig. .--echinocactus horizonthalonis.] e. le contei (le conte's); fig. .--another of the large-stemmed kinds, which have only recently found their way into english gardens, although long since discovered and described by american travellers. the illustration represents a young plant. when full-grown, this species has a stem ft. high by ft. wide, with broad deep channels and ridges, wrinkled and covered with a thick network of stout spines, which are set in clusters in a cushion of whitish wool, the longest being about in. in length, with curved or slightly hooked points, and distinctly angular. the flowers are in. long, bell-shaped; the petals shining lemon-yellow, with a tinge of brown on the outside, whilst the sepals are like a number of fish-scales, overlapping each other down the outside of the campanulate tube. the stamens and pistil are almost hidden inside the flower. flowers are borne by quite young plants, whilst upon full-grown specimens they are so numerous as to form a large yellow cap to the immense, prickly, conical stems. they are developed in august and september. a native of mexico, where it is found wild on the rocky or gravelly plains and ravines, and often in crevices of perpendicular rocks. it requires warm greenhouse treatment, and plenty of water during the summer, care being taken that the soil it is planted in is perfectly drained. [illustration: fig. .--echinocactus le contei.] e. leeanus (lee's); bot. mag. .--this species has many characters in common with e. hexaedrophorus and e. gibbosus, the stem being no larger than a small orange, with plump globose tubercles, bearing star-shaped clusters of short brown spines. the flowers are ½ in. long and wide, and are composed of a green fleshy tube, with a few whitish scales, which gradually enlarge till, with the white, rose-tipped petals, they form a spreading cup, the large cluster of pale yellow stamens occupying the whole of the centre. this pretty little cactus was raised from seeds by messrs. lee, of the hammersmith nursery, in . it is a native of the argentine provinces, and flowers in may. the treatment recommended for e. gibbosus will be found suitable for this. it is happiest when grafted on to another kind. for the amateur whose plants are grown in a room window or small plant-case, these tiny hedgehog cactuses are much more suitable than larger kinds, as they keep in health under ordinary treatment, and flower annually; whereas, the larger kinds, unless grown in properly-constructed houses, rarely blossom. e. longihamatus (long-hooked); fig. .--we heartily wish all species of cactaceous plants were as readily distinguished and as easily defined in words as in the present remarkably fine and handsome one--remarkable in the very prominent ridges, the large and regularly-arranged spines, the central one very long, flattened, and usually hooked at the end, and handsome in the size and colouring of its flowers, both in the bud and when fully expanded. the stem is globose, in. or more high; it has about thirteen prominent rounded ridges with waved tumid edges, from which, about ½ in. apart, spring clusters of spines, about a dozen in each cluster, dark red when young, becoming brown with age. in length, these spines vary from in. to in., the latter being the length of the central, hooked one, which is broad and flattened at the base. the flowers are in. broad and long, the tube short, green, and bearing reddish scales, which gradually pass into bright yellow petals blotched with red on the outside, the inner ones spreading and forming a shallow cup, in the centre of which are the short yellow stamens and large pistil. plants of this species have been grown with stems in. high; but it takes a great number of years for the development of such specimens. the flowers are produced on the apex of the stem in july. this species was introduced from mexico about ; it thrives only when grown in a warm greenhouse, where the temperature in summer may be allowed to run up to degs. with sun heat. for large collections it is one of the most desirable. [illustration: fig. .--portion of plant of echinocactus longihamatus.] e. mackieanus (mackie's); bot. mag. .--a small plant, not more than about in. high, and in. broad at the base, widening slightly upwards. the ridges are broken up into numerous fleshy, rounded, green tubercles, crowned with a tuft of thin brown spines from ½ in. to in. long, their bases set in a small pad of yellow wool: as the stem gets older, it loses its tubercles at the base, which are changed into brown wrinkles. the flowers are developed on the top of the stem, generally two or three together, egg-shaped and scaly when in bud, ½ in. across when expanded; the petals white, tipped with brown; the stigma green, club-shaped. this curious little cactus is one of about a dozen species found in the chilian andes. it was introduced in by the gentleman whose name it bears, and who, at that time, possessed a famous collection of cacti. like the rest of the chilian kinds, it should be cultivated in a cool greenhouse in full sunshine, where it will produce its flowers in summer. e. mamillarioides (mamillaria-like); bot. mag. .--this is another small, tubercled species, which, like the preceding, is a native of chili. its stem is very irregular in form, owing to the crowding of the tubercles, which look as if they were filled with water. the spines are small, in tufts of about half a dozen, set in a little cushion of yellowish wool. in size, the whole plant is like e. mackieanus, but it blossoms more freely, as many as sixteen flowers having been borne at one time by a plant at kew. these were short-tubed, the calyx clothed with green scales, and the petals in. long, recurved at the apex, forming a beautiful cup-like flower of a bright yellow colour, with a band of red down the centre of each petal; the stamens and pistil yellow. the number of flowers developed on the small stem formed by this plant is quite extraordinary. it grows and flowers freely in an ordinary greenhouse, and would thrive in a sunny window if kept dry during the winter. e. mamillosus (nipple-bearing).--a short, dumpy plant, with numerous tubercled ridges, bearing bunches of dark brown hair-like spines, which form a close network about the stem. the flowers are developed on the top of the stem, and are about in. in diameter, with a thick tube; the petals are spreading, bright yellow in colour, and arranged in a regular, bell-like whorl. inside this bell is a circle of purple filaments or stamens, forming a pretty contrast with the clear yellow of the petals. this is a recent introduction, which flowered in the kew collection for the first time in june, . it is one of the most beautiful of the large-flowered kinds, and, as it thrives in a warm greenhouse and is very free-flowering, it may be expected to become a favourite with cactus growers. owing to the lack of information respecting the conditions under which many of the cactuses are found wild, and to the fact that little in the way of experimental culture has been done by growers of this family, cultivators are sometimes in the dark as regards the lowest temperature in which the rarer kinds can be safely grown. many of the species of the present genus, for instance, were grown in stoves years ago but are now known to thrive in a cool greenhouse where frost alone is excluded. e. multiflorus (many-flowered); bot. mag. .--a well-named cactus, as its small stem (seldom more than in. high, and the same in width) often bears a large cap-like cluster of beautiful white flowers, except for a slight tinge of brown on the tips of the petals. each flower is composed of a green, scaly tube, and several rows of reflexed petals, which form a shallow cup ½ in. across. the stamens are tipped with orange-coloured anthers, and the stigma is rayed and snow-white. the stem is ridged with rows of fleshy mammae or tubercles, which are curiously humped, and each bears a cluster of spreading, brown spines, in. long. the number of flowers this little plant annually produces seems more than could be possible without proving fatal to its health; but we have seen it blossom year after year, and in no way has its health appeared impaired. it may be grown on a shelf in a warm greenhouse, or in the window of a heated dwelling-room. introduced, probably from mexico, in . this, like all the small, globular-stemmed kinds, may be grafted on the stem of a cereus of suitable thickness. some cultivators believe that grafting causes the plants to flower more freely, but we have not observed any difference in this respect between grafted and ungrafted plants. e. myriostigma. (many-dotted); fig. .--in the form of the stem of this species we have a good illustration of how widely a plant may differ from others of the same genus in certain of its characters, for the spines are almost totally suppressed, and the ridges are regular, deep, and smooth. there are usually five or six ridges, a transverse section of the stem revealing a form exactly like the common star-fish (astrophyton), a resemblance to which the name astrophytum, sometimes applied to this plant, owed its origin. the form of the stem is well represented in the figure. the white dots shown on the bark, and which look like scales, are composed of very fine interwoven hairs, which, under a microscope, are very pretty objects. this species was introduced from mexico along with the large plant of e. visnaga described at the beginning of this chapter, and was first flowered at kew, in july, . stems ft. in length were received, along with shorter ones; but only the small ones were established. the flowers are daisy-like, ½ in. across, and are straw-coloured, the petals being tipped with black. it thrives under warm greenhouse treatment. when without its flowers, it looks more like a piece of chiselled stone than a living plant. [illustration: fig. .--echinocactus myriostigma.] e. obvallatus (fortified); fig. .--the form of stem in this species is shown in the figure. it grows very slowly plants in. through taking about ten years to reach that size from seeds. the spines are stout, all deflexed, and arranged along the edges of the numerous ribs into which the stem is divided. the flowers are developed from the centre of the plant, and are surrounded by the erect spines, which crown the, as yet, undeveloped tubercles. two or three flowers are produced at about the same time, each one being composed of a short, spiny tube, and a whorl of erect petals, which are pointed, purple-coloured, paler at the margin, the stamens being yellow. native of mexico. it requires a stove temperature, and flowers in summer. [illustration: fig. .--echinocactus obvallatus.] e. ottonis (otto's); bot. mag. .--a dwarf kind, with a balloon-shaped stem, rarely exceeding in. in height, and divided into a dozen wide ridges with sharp, regular edges, along which are clusters of small, brown spines, set in little tufts of wool, and looking like an array of spiders. the flowers are borne on the tops of the ridges, and are pale yellow in colour, with a band of red hair-like spines surrounding the calyx just below the petals, which are narrow, spreading, and look not unlike the flowers of the yellow marguerite; the stigma is bright red. the symmetrical form of the stem, with its rows of spider-like spines, renders this plant attractive, even when without its bright and pretty flowers. it thrives only in a warm stove. introduced from brazil in , flowering in the month of july. as it produces young plants about its base, it may be easily propagated by removing them and planting them in soil; or they may be grafted as advised for other of the small, globose-stemmed kinds. e. pectiniferus (comb-bearing); bot. mag. .--one of the most striking of the plants of this genus, owing to the character of its stem, and the large size and beauty of its flowers. the former resembles a pear with the thin end downwards; its height is from in. to in., and it has about twenty ridges, which are sharply defined and bear along their angles little cushions of white wool ½ in. apart, with a radiating cluster of brown spines springing from each. the arrangement of the spines in rows is not unlike the teeth of a comb. the flowers are borne near the top of the stem, and consist of a green, fleshy tube, clothed with spines and little tufts of white wool; the sepals form a row beneath the petals, and are yellowish, tinged with purple; petals in. long, broad, with the upper margins toothed and the tip acute, their colour being bright rose, tinged with greenish-white at the base; stamens yellow; stigma large, green. the form of the flowers is that of a cup, nearly in. across. introduced from mexico in . flowering season, april and may. it requires warm-house treatment. e. polycephalus (many-headed); fig. .--stem globose when young, becoming cylindrical with age; number of ribs varying from twelve to twenty, sharply defined, and bearing, at intervals of in., clusters of stout, reddish spines, somewhat flattened on the upper side, and marked with raised rings, or, as it is termed, annulated, the central ones attaining a length of over in. on old plants, and sometimes curved. the flowers are enveloped at the base in a dense mass of white wool, which hides the tube, its spines only showing through; petals narrow, in. long, spreading like a saucer, and coloured bright yellow; stamens numerous, yellow, as also is the large rayed stigma. california and colorado, on stony and gravelly hills. flowers in spring; introduced to kew in . this new plant is remarkable in that it is often found wild with as many as twenty to thirty stems or heads springing from the same base, and even young plants show early a disposition to develop several heads. the largest stems are from ½ ft. to ½ ft. high, and have a somewhat forbidding appearance, owing to the size and strength of their numerous spines. for its cultivation, a warm-house temperature appears most suitable; it bears a close resemblance to e. texensis. [illustration: fig. .--ridge, with spines, of echinocactus polycephalus.] e. pottsii (potts').--the stem of this is shown in fig. . full-sized plants are ½ ft. in diameter, and have about a dozen ridges with acute sinuses, the ridges being rounded and even. the spines are in. long, bristle-like, and are arranged in clusters of seven or nine, with a cushion of white wool at the base of each cluster. flowers short-tubed, about in. across, and coloured yellow; they are produced on the top of the stem in summer, several expanding together. the plant is a native of california, and was introduced about . under cultivation this species proves to be a shy-flowering cactus, although in a warm house it grows freely, and remains in good health. it is well adapted for grafting on to the stem of some kind of cereus, and in this way may be made to look very singular, as was shown in mr. peacock's collection of succulents some years ago, when a fine specimen, over ft. across, was successfully grafted on to three stems of c. tortuosus, and had much the appearance of a melon elevated on a short tripod. [illustration: fig. .--echinocactus pottsii.] e. rhodophthalmus (red-eyed); bot. mag. , .--stem cone-shaped, in. to ft. high, deeply furrowed; ridges about nine, in. high, the angles bearing closely-set clusters of radiating spines, with a projecting one in the middle of each cluster, which contains nine spines in. long, purple when young, becoming white when old. the flowers are produced from the summit of the stem, and have a thick, green, scaly calyx tube, upon which the spreading, rose-coloured petals are arranged in a regular series, and form a shallow bell nearly in. across. the throat of the flower is coloured a deep crimson, against which the little sheaf of white stamens and the star-shaped yellow stigma form a pretty contrast. three or more flowers are expanded together on a plant. it is a native of mexico; introduced in . it thrives in a house or frame where it is protected from frost, and during summer gets plenty of sunlight and air. it flowers in august. during the months of april and may, when it starts into growth, it should be kept close; but by the end of june, it should be exposed to the open air and allowed to ripen, so that its flowers may be produced in the autumn. the plant called e. v. ellipticus does not differ from the type, owing its name to the form of the stem of the first plant that flowered at kew. e. scopa. (brush-like); fig. .--the stem of this species, when seen covered with numerous tufts of bristly spines, has been compared to a brush, a comparison not, however, applicable to the form represented in the figure. in height the stems sometimes reach l½ ft., with from thirty to forty ribs, bearing little discs of white wool at the bases of the clusters of spines. the flowers spring from the upper part of the stem (the nodules shown in the illustration represent the places where flowers have been developed at an earlier stage of growth), from four to six being borne in the same season; they are ½ in. long and wide, the tube short and brown, bristly; the petals are arranged in several overlapping series, rather wide for their length, toothed at the ends; their colour is a bright sulphur-yellow, as also are the stamens, whilst the stigma, which is rayed, is bright crimson. native of brazil. introduced about ; it is more like a cereus, in the form of its stem, than an echinocactus. it flowers in june, and requires stove treatment. the stems, when dried carefully and stuffed with wadding, form pretty ornaments. [illustration: fig. .--echinocactus scopa.] e. scopa cristata. (crested variety); fig. .--this curious monstrosity owes its origin to fasciation similar to what occurs in the celosias or cockscombs, in some echeverias, &c. these monster varieties of cactuses do not flower, but they are nevertheless interesting, and worth growing on account of their curious shapes. the plant shown in fig. is grafted on the stem of a cereus, and it is remarkable that a portion of the crest of the echinocactus will, if grafted on to another plant, develop the abnormal form of its parent, proving that the variation, whatever its cause, has become fixed. [illustration: fig. .--echinocactus scopa cristata.] e. simpsoni (simpson's).--one of the smallest plants in the genus, and one of the prettiest. it produces tufts of irregularly-formed stems about in. high, and composed of numerous rounded tubercles over ½ in. wide, bearing on the top of each a tuft of about twelve spines ½ in. long. the flowers are borne from the apex of the young tubercles, and are in. wide and long, cup-shaped; petals pale purple, the stamens yellow. native of mexico and colorado, where it is found at elevations of ft. to , ft., in great abundance, forming large patches on gravelly morains, where the climate during the summer is dry, whilst in winter a thick covering of snow protects the plants from severe frosts. in england, this species is said to have withstood degs. of frost without being injured. it has been grown out of doors in a garden at northampton, where it passed several winters planted in a raised border at the foot of a south wall with a natural coping of ivy. in new york, where the frosts of winter are severer than in england, it is cultivated out of doors. in this country it is apt to be injured by excessive moisture and fogs; but by protecting it with a handlight from november to march or april, this is overcome. if grown in pots, it should be kept in a position where it can enjoy all the sunlight possible. e. sinuatus (undulated).--stem about in. wide and long; globose, bearing fourteen to sixteen ridges, the edges of which are wavy or undulated, the prominent points crowned with tufts of thin, flexuous, yellow spines, the longest ½ in., and hooked, the shorter ¾ in., and straight. the stem of e. longihamatus is very similar to this. flowers developed on the top of the stem; tube short, scaly, green; petals yellow, spreading, and forming a cup in. across, which is greenish outside. a native of mexico, where it flowers in april. a recently-introduced kind, not yet flowered in this country. it is described as being a distinct, large-flowered, handsome species. e. tenuispinus (thin-spined); bot. mag. .--stem globular, depressed, with ridges and spines similar to those of e. ottonis; indeed, by some these two are considered forms of the same species. in the number and size of the flowers, their colour and form, and the time of flowering, there is no difference between them. native of mexico (and brazil ?). e. texensis (texan); fig. .--a short-stemmed plant, with a thick, leathery skin and broad-based ridges of irregular form, crowned with tufts of stout horny spines, the central one much the longest, flattened at the base, and strong as steel. the flowers are produced near the centre of the top, from the tufts of whitish wool which accompany the spines on the young parts of the ridges. they are ½ in. long and wide; the tube short and woolly; the petals spreading, beautifully fringed, and rose-coloured. native of north-east mexico, where it grows on stony hillsides in full exposure to sunshine, and where, during winter, it has to endure weather verging on to frost. it thrives in a greenhouse under cultivation. like several of the stout-spined, robust-stemmed kinds, this may find favour as a garden plant because of the character of its stem, and the extraordinary strength of its large iron-like spines. [illustration: fig. .--echinocactus texensis.] e. turbiniformis (top-shaped).--a very distinct dwarf kind, with globular stems in. high and about in. wide, clothed with spirally-arranged rows or ridges of tubercles, similar to those shown in the figure of e. hexaedrophorus, except that, in the former, there are no spines on the mature tubercles, although, when young, they have each a little cluster of fine spines. the flowers expand in june, several together, from the top of the stem; they are round, in. across, the petals being numerous, pale yellow in colour, tinged with red on the outside. introduced from mexico, . this curious little plant requires stove treatment, and thrives when grafted on the stem of some other kind. it is sometimes known as mamillaria turbinata. e. uncinatus (hooked); fig. .--a small species, with oval stems when young, older plants becoming cylindrical, as shown in the accompanying figure. the height of the largest plant does not exceed in., so that, when wild, it is often hidden by the long grass in which it is frequently found on stony hillsides at high elevations, in mexico. the ridges are broken up into large tubercles, upon each of which is a tuft of short straight spines, arranged in a circle, and a long hooked one springing from the centre, and often attaining a length of about in. in old plants the spines are almost white, whilst in young ones they are purplish. the flowers are borne in a cluster on the apex of the stem, and are nearly in. long, the tube being short and spiny, and the petals numerous, arranged in a cup, their colour dark purplish-red, the tips pointed; the stamens are yellow, with orange tips. the flowers expand only when the sun shines on them, closing up again in dull light, but opening again, and remaining fresh for about a week. introduced in . flowers in march and april. this plant may be grown in a cool, sunny greenhouse, or window, requiring only protection from frost in winter, and in summer plenty of light, with a moderate amount of water. there are several varieties of it described, their differences being chiefly in the shape of the stem. [illustration: fig. .--echinocactus uncinatus.] e. viridescens (greenish).--stem ft. high and in. across, young plants being broader than high; the sides split up into about twenty ridges, which are again divided into knotty tubercles or waves. the spines are remarkable for their size and strength, those on large plants being in. long by ½ in. broad at the base, gradually narrowing to a stiff point; there are four central spines of this size, the others, of which there are about a dozen, being shorter and thinner, and arranged stellately. the flowers, which are rarely produced, are poor in comparison with the majority of the flowers of this genus. as the name denotes, their colour is yellowish-green; and they are about ½ in. wide and high. there are often as many as a dozen flowers expanded together on a stem of this plant when wild, and they are arranged in a circle around the growing point. the interest in this species, however, centres in its spines rather than its flowers. it is a native of the dry hills of california, extending sometimes down to the sea-beach. there is a plant of it at kew in. high and about fifteen years old; it has not been known to flower there. mr. peacock also possesses a large plant of it. e. visnaga. (visnaga means a toothpick among the mexican settlers); fig. .--of the most remarkable features of this truly wonderful cactus we have already spoken earlier in this chapter. in , sir w. j. hooker described, in the illustrated london news, a large plant of it, which had been successfully introduced alive to kew, and which, a year or so later, flowered, and was figured in the botantical magazine ( ). its height was ft., and it measured ½ ft. in circumference; its weight a ton. afterwards, it exhibited symptoms of internal injury. the inside became a putrid mass, and the crust, or shell, fell in by its own weight. the shape of the stem is elliptical, with numerous ridges and stout brown spines arranged in tufts along their edges. the flowers are freely produced from the woolly apex; the tube is scaly and brown, and the petals are arranged like a saucer about the cluster of orange-coloured stamens. the colour of the petals is bright yellow, and the width of the flower is nearly in. this plant is a native of mexico, and is usually cultivated in a tropical temperature, but it would probably thrive in a warm greenhouse. it flowers in summer. as we have stated, large specimens do not live long in this country; and as the flowers are only borne by such, the plant, except only for its stems, is not to be recommended for ordinary collections. [illustration: fig. .--echinocactus visnaga.] e. williamsii (williams's); bot. mag. .--a very distinct dwarf species, often called the "dumpling cactus," from the puffed-out, tumid appearance of its stems, which frequently branch at the base, so as to form a tuft of several heads; these are turbinate, in. or in. high, and in. across the top, where the smooth, pale green flesh is divided into about half-a-dozen rounded tubercles, pressed closely together, and suggesting a number of small green potatoes joined by their bases. each tubercle bears several tufts of short hairs. the flowers proceed from the young tubercles near the centre of the crown, their bases being enveloped in pale brown wool, the petals spreading out daisy-like to the width of in., with a short disk of stamens in the middle; they are white, tinged with rose, and are developed in the summer months. native of the rocky hills of mexico, whence it was introduced in . the stems of this plant are its most distinctive feature. it thrives on a shelf in a warm greenhouse, if kept perfectly dry in winter, and it should be potted in a compost consisting of broken brick two-thirds, loam one-third. e. wislizeni (wislizen's); fig. .--a large-stemmed kind, second only in size to e. visnaga. young plants have depressed stems, those in older specimens being cylinder-shaped. a specimen at kew is in. high by in. in diameter, with twenty-one ridges, which are regular and sharp-edged, and bear bunches of spines at regular intervals, the outer and shorter ones being spreading and white, whilst from the middle of each tuft arise four longer and stouter spines, three of them in. long, and one in., with the point hooked, and as strong as if made of steel. the flowers, which are developed only on large plants, are greenish-yellow, about in. long and wide, and expand during summer and autumn. the juice of the stems is said to serve as a substitute for water when the latter is scarce, and instances have been known among the white trappers where the lives of men have been saved by this plant. a novel use the stems are put to by the indians is that of boilers, a purpose which they are said to answer well. the fleshy inside is scooped out, and the tough skin, with its iron-like spine protection, is then filled with vegetables and water and placed on the fire. as there is a plentiful supply of plants, the indians do not trouble to carry this "boiler" about with them, but make a fresh one at every stage of their journeyings. [illustration: fig. .--spines and flowers of echinocactus wislizenii.] chapter viii. the genus echinopsis. (from echinos, a hedgehog, and opsis, like.) no less than three sections of cactuses, viz., the above, echinocactus, and echinocereus, owe their names to their hedgehog-like stems. from a horticultural point of view, there is perhaps no good reason for keeping the above three genera and cereus separate; but we follow kew in the arrangement adopted here. the genus echinopsis, as now recognised by most english botanists and cultivators, comprises about thirty species, most of which have been, or are still, in cultivation. they are distinguished from echinocactuses by the length of their flower tube, from cereuses by the form and size of their stems, and from both in the position on the stem occupied by the flowers. they are remarkable for the great size, length of tube, and beauty of their flowers, which, borne upon generally small and dumpy stems, appear very much larger and handsomer than would be expected. the distribution of echinopsis is similar to that of echinocactus, species being found in chili, bolivia, peru, brazil, mexico, &c. they grow only in situations where the soil is sandy or gravelly, or on the sides of hills in the crevices of rocks. cultivation.--the growing and resting seasons for echinopsis are the same as for echinocactus, and we may therefore refer to what is said under that genus for general hints with regard to the cultivation of echinopsis in this country. the following is from the notes of the late curator of the royal gardens, kew (mr. j. smith), as being worthy the attention of cactus growers. writing about echinopsis cristata, which he grew and flowered exceptionally well, he says: "this showy plant is a native of chili, and, like its mexican allies, thrives if potted in light loam, with a little leaf mould and a few nodules of lime rubbish. the latter are for the purpose of keeping the soil open; it is also necessary that the soil should be well drained. in winter, water must be given very sparingly, and the atmosphere of the house should be dry; the temperature need not exceed degs. during the night, and in very cold weather it may be allowed to fall degs. lower, provided a higher temperature ( degs.) be maintained during the day. as the season advances, the plants should receive the full influence of the increasing warmth of the sun; and during hot weather, they will be benefited by frequent syringing overhead, which should be done in the evening. it is, however, necessary to guard against the soil becoming saturated, for the soft fibrous roots suffer if they continue in a wet state for any length of time." none of the species require to be grafted to grow freely and remain healthy, as the stems are all robust enough and of sufficient size to take care of themselves. the only danger is in keeping the plants too moist in winter, for although a little water now and again keeps the stems fresh and green, it deprives them of that rest which is essential to the development of their large, beautiful flowers in summer. species. e. campylacantha. (curved-spined); bot. mag. .--stem ft. or l½ ft. high, globe-shaped, with a somewhat pointed top, the sides divided into from fourteen to sixteen ridges, with tubercled edges, bearing clusters of about ten strong brown spines, which are stellately arranged, a central one projecting outwards, then suddenly curving upwards, and measuring in. in length. the flowers are developed from the ridges on the side of the stem; they are in. long, the tube shaped like a trumpet, brownish in colour, and clothed with tufts of short black hairs; petals arranged in three rows, spreading so as to form a limb ½ in. across, pale rose-coloured, with a large cluster of yellow-tipped stamens, forming a disk-like centre. this species is a native of chili, and was introduced in . it blossoms in spring and summer. the long curving central spine and remarkable length of the flower-tube distinguish it from the other kinds. it may be grown in a cool greenhouse, where it will thrive, if kept freely watered during summer and rested on a dry, sunny shelf in winter. it is rare in english collections, but frequently occurs in continental gardens. e. cristata (crested); bot. mag. .--stem globe-shaped, ft. high, slightly narrowed towards the top; ridges fifteen, in. deep, sharply angular, the edges bearing tufts of spreading, yellowish spines, over in. long, slightly curved, and tipped with red. flowers creamy-white, springing from the ridges on the top of the stem; tube in. long, clothed with tufts of black hairs, and surmounted by a whorl of reddish-yellow sepals, above which are two rows of broad-spreading petals. the width of the flower is over in., and the stamens are arranged in a corona-like whorl inside the petals. this very fine cactus is a native of bolivia, whence it was introduced in . when in flower, the broad, long-tubed, pale-coloured blossoms equal in beauty those of the night-flowering cereus. it blossoms in july. it thrives if kept in a warm, sunny greenhouse, but must be liberally treated in summer, so as to induce vigorous growth, and then be subjected to complete rest in winter in full sunlight, or it will not flower. e. c. purpurea (purple ).--this variety differs from the type in having deep rose-coloured flowers and a slightly longer tube. it is impossible to find among all the species of the cereus section a more beautiful plant than this; the size of the flowers, their rich colour, their developing three or four together in the month of july, being almost exceptional, even among cactuses. a splendid example of it was flowered at kew in for the first time. it thrives under the conditions recommended for e. cristata. this variety is often made very sickly by treating it as a tropical cactus, and, like most of these plants, if once it gets into a bad condition, it remains so a long time, in spite of liberal and careful treatment. so many of the cactuses found in cool regions are ruined by an excess of heat in winter, and a close atmosphere during their season of growth, that too much attention cannot be given to the question of temperature in relation to their cultivation in english gardens. e. decaisneanus (decaisne's).--as represented in fig. , this plant appears to have a columnar stem, but this is owing to the specimen having been formed by cutting off the upper portion of an old plant and striking it. naturally, the stem in this species is globular or slightly egg-shaped, and bears about fourteen ridges, upon which are tufts of short spines, springing from little cushions of whitish wool. the position of the flowers is shown in the figure. the tube is covered with tufts of hair-like spines, and the petals and sepals are broad, spreading, and white, tinged with yellow, as in e. cristata. the native country of this plant is not known; but it is a well-known garden cactus, and thrives in a warm, airy greenhouse in summer, and on a dry, sunny shelf in winter. the swollen base of the tube is a good example of the nature of what is usually termed the flower-stalk in these plants. it is, as has been pointed out, the elongated calyx, and the swollen portion is the ovary or seed vessel. if, therefore, seeds are desired, the withering flowers should be allowed to remain, and, in time, the upper portion of the tube will fall away, leaving the base, which continues to grow till it attains the proportions of a hen's egg. [illustration: fig. .--echinopsis decaisneanus.] e. eyriesii (eyries').--stem no larger than an orange, with about a dozen ridges, the edges sharp, and bearing little globular tufts of whitish wool and red, hair-like spines. flower exceedingly large for the size of the stem, the tube being more than in. long, funnel-shaped, pale green, with tufts of brown hairs, which look very much like insects, scattered over the surface. the petals are numerous, narrow-pointed, spreading, pure white, the stamens pale yellow, and the star-like stigma white. this species is a native of mexico, and was introduced by the late sir john lubbock, about . it blossoms at various seasons, generally in summer. "independently of the large size of the flowers, which rival in dimensions those of the cereuses, it is remarkable for the rich, delicate odour they exhale at night, at which time its glorious blossoms expand. when young, they resemble long, sooty-grey horns, covered over with a thick, shaggy hairiness, and would never be suspected to conceal a form of the utmost beauty and a clear and delicate complexion. when the hour of perfection has arrived, and the coarse veil of hair begins to be withdrawn by the expansion of the unfolding petals, one is amazed at the unexpected loveliness which stands revealed in the form of this vegetable star, whose rays are of the softest white" (lindley). for its cultivation, this plant requires a warm house always; but care should be taken to give it plenty of fresh air and as much light as possible. the soil best suited for it is a rich loam with a little sand and charcoal. it likes liberal watering in summer. e. e. flore-pleno (double-flowered); fig. .--a form with several rows of petals, which give the flowers a doubled appearance. [illustration: fig. .--echinopsis eyriesii flore-pleno.] e. e. glauca (hoary-grey). this variety differs from the type in the absence of the dark brown hairs from the flower-tube, which is also shorter than in e. eyriesii. probably a native of mexico. e. oxygonus (sharp-angled).--this is very similar to e. eyriesii. stem globular in shape, and divided into about fourteen acute-edged ridges, upon which are tufts of brown spines, varying from ½ in. to ½ in. in length. flower in. long, the tube slightly curved, covered with little scales and hairs, and coloured green and red. the petals form an incurved cup, and are broad, with pointed tips; their colour a bright rose, with a lighter shade towards the centre of the flower. as in e. eyriesii, the flowers of this kind are borne several together from the ridges near the growing centre of the stem. it is a native of brazil, whence it was introduced nearly half a century ago. it thrives in an intermediate house, if treated as advised for e. eyriesii, and its flowers will develop in summer. the extraordinary size and beauty of the blossoms are sufficient to compensate for their comparatively short duration after expanding; it is also interesting to watch the gradual development of the tiny, hairy cone, which is the first sign of the flower, and which increases in length and size at a surprising rate. e. pentlandi (pentland's); fig. .--a pretty little species, with a globose stem in. in diameter, divided into about a dozen rounded ridges, which are undulated or broken up into irregular tubercles, when the ridges do not run parallel with each other. each tubercle is crowned with a tuft of brown, bristle-like spines, ½ in. or so long. the flowers are large in proportion to the size of the plant, the tube being in. long, and trumpet-shaped; petals arranged in several overlapping rows and forming a cup in. across, the lowest whorl turning downwards; in colour, they are a brilliant red, the stamens white, and the stigmas yellow. three or four flowers are often expanded together on the same stem, springing from the side instead of the top of the plant. native of mexico (?); introduced about . there are several distinct seedling or hybrid forms of this species, remarkable in having the colour of their flowers either red, yellow and white, or white, whilst some, such as the one known as flammea, have flowers only in. long. these kinds may all be grown in a sunny greenhouse or window, as they only require protection from frost. they may be placed out of doors in summer, and be kept under glass only during winter, treatment which will result in better growth and more flowers than if the plants were kept permanently under glass. [illustration: fig. .--echinopsis pentlandi.] e. p. longispinus (long-spined); fig. .--this is a long-spined form, and differs also in the shape of the stem, which is oblong, rather than globose. [illustration: fig. .--echinopsis pentlandi longispinus.] e. tubiflorus (tube-flowered).--this species has an orange-shaped stem, about in. high, and divided into about twelve prominent, sharp-angled ridges, along which are tufts of blackish spines, ½ in. long, and set in little cushions of white wool. the flower springs from the side of the stems, where it replaces a tuft of spines, and, as in e. eyriesii, the tube is remarkably long, whilst the size of the whole flower much exceeds that of the rest of the plant, the length of the tube being about in., and the width of the flower over in. the petals are pure white, recurved, displaying the crown of yellow stamens, arranged in a ring about the rather small, rayed stigma. the tube is uniformly green, except that the scale-like bracts are edged with long, blackish, silky hairs. a native of mexico; introduced about fifty years ago, when it was figured in the botanical magazine and elsewhere as a species of echinocactus. e. tubiflorus may be placed along with e. eyriesii and e. oxygonus, as it requires similar treatment. the three kinds here mentioned may be recommended as a trio of very fine-flowered, small-stemmed cacti, which may be grown successfully in any ordinary greenhouse. chapter ix. the genus melocactus. (from melon, a melon, and kaktos, a name applied by theophrastus to a spiny plant; the species are melon-formed, and their angles are beset with tufts of spines.) this genus forms a group of well-marked and curious plants, with stems similar to those of the globose echinocactuses and floral characters quite distinct from all other genera. they cannot be said to possess any particular beauty, as their stems are stiff and dumpy, their spines large and rigid, and their flowers small and unattractive. but what is wanting in beauty of form or colour is atoned for in the cap which crowns the stem, and forms the flower-head, growing taller and taller whilst the stem remains stationary, till, under favourable circumstances, a cylindrical mass of spines and hairs, not unlike a large bottle-brush, and ft. or more in length, is developed before the whole plant succumbs to old age. this character belongs more particularly to m. communis, the commonest species, and the one best known in english gardens. additional interest attaches to this species, from the fact of its having been the first cactus introduced into europe, for we are informed that in the year living plants of the melon cactus were known in london. fifty years later, gerard, the adam of english gardening, wrote: "who can but marvel at the care and singular workmanship shown in this thistle, the melocarduus echinatus, or hedgehog thistle? it groweth upon the cliffes and gravelly grounds neere unto the seaside in the islands of the west indies, called st. margaret's and st. john's isle, neere unto puerto rico, and other places in these countries, by the relation of divers that have journied into these parts who have brought me the plant itself with his seed, the which would not grow ill my garden, by reason of the coldnesse of the clymate." after this, the plant appears to have been frequently cultivated in gardens in this country, and it has only been in recent years that this and similar curiosities have almost disappeared from all except botanical collections. the most prominent distinctive characters of melocactus reside in the cap or cluster of spines, wool, and flowers on the summit of the stem. thirty species are included in the genus, their stems ranging from ft. to ft. in height, the ridges straight, and, as a rule, large; whilst all have stiff stout spines in clusters about in. apart. the small flowers are succeeded by bright red, cherry-like berries, containing numerous black, shining seeds. the distribution of the species is over the hottest parts of some of the west indian islands and a few places in central and south america. cultivation.--the cultivation of the several kinds known in gardens is as follows: a tropical temperature all the year round, with as much sunlight as possible, and a moist atmosphere for about three months during summer, when growth is most active. very little soil is required, as the largest stems have comparatively few roots; indeed, imported stems have been known to live, and even make growth, nearly two years without pushing a single root; but, of course, this was abnormal, and was no other than the using-up of the nourishment stored up in the stem before it was removed from its native home. m. louis de smet, a well-known ghent nurseryman, who grows a fine collection of cactuses, stated that he had kept m. communis a long time in robust health and growth by feeding it with a very weak solution of salt. tried at kew, this treatment did not appear to make any perceptible difference; but, bearing in mind that the turk's-cap cactus is found in great abundance within the reach of sea spray, in some of the west indian islands, there seems much reason in m. de smet's treatment. the same gentleman informed us that he had a specimen of this cactus bearing no less than thirteen heads. there is, at the time of writing, a specimen at kew bearing four fine heads. large imported plants are very rarely, established; and even when established, they do not thrive long, owing to the fact that, after the cap has commenced to form, no further stem-growth is made. young plants grow very slowly, a plant ft. across taking, according to sir w. hooker, from to years to reach that size. it has been stated that grafting is a good plan to adopt for the melocactus, mr. f. t. palmer, in "culture des cactées", recommending the following treatment for m. communis: take a cereus peruvianus of about the same diameter as that of the base of the melocactus, cut off the head of the former, but not so low as to come upon the hard, ligneous axis, and then pare off the hard epidermis and ribs for about in. then take off a slice from the base of the melocactus, also paring off about in. of the epidermis all round; place the two together, and bind on firmly with strong worsted. in warm weather, a union should take place in about two months, but it will be safest to allow the ligature to remain till growth commences. the precaution of paring off the hard skin and ribs is absolutely necessary, as the juicy centre contracts, and the rind, or epidermis, does not. there would, therefore, be a cavity formed sufficient to prevent all cohesion, be the graft tied on ever so tightly. large imported stems should be kept perfectly dry for about a fortnight, and, if they show any signs of rottenness, they should be carefully examined and the bad portions cut away; exposure to the air for a few days will generally cause these pared places to callus over. at all times, even when the stems appear to be in good health, a sharp look-out should be kept for patches of rottenness in the stem, and especially about its base. propagation.--this is effected by means of seeds, which usually follow quickly after the flowers produced on cultivated specimens. multiplication is also possible by means of offsets, which are formed about the base of the stem if the top of a growing plant is cut out. the thirteen-headed plant mentioned above was the result of the removal of the top of a stem which had developed these lateral growths, and thus formed a family of red-capped stems; this had, however, taken place before the plant was removed from its native home. as the cap is the most remarkable part of m. communis, the purchase of large imported stems, in preference to young ones raised from seeds, is recommended; for, as the cap does not form till the stem attains a large size, there would be small hope of seedlings reaching the flowering stage during a lifetime. species. m. communis (common); fig. .--stem from ft. to ft. in diameter, globose, with from twelve to twenty ridges, and armed with numerous clusters of strong, short spines, the clusters placed closely together. on the summit of the stem is a cylindrical crown, about in. broad, and varying in height from in. to in. this cylinder is composed of a thick pad of whitish, cotton-like substance, through and beyond which a great number of bristle-like red spines are developed, the whole being not unlike a bottle-brush. about the top of this brush-like growth the flowers are produced. these are small, red, fleshy, and tube-shaped, the calyx and corolla forming a regular flower, as in a hyacinth. they are borne at various times in the year, as long as the cap is growing; afterwards the latter falls off; and the stem rots. we have a cap that was cast by an old plant, and which has stood as an ornament on a shelf in a room for about four years, and is still in perfect condition. in addition to the name of turk's-cap cactus this plant is also known as "englishman's head" and "pope's head." it is a native of several of the islands of the west indies, being very abundant in st. kitt's island, where it grows in very dry, barren places, often on bare porous rocks. [illustration: fig. . melocactus communis.] m. depressus (flattened); bot. mag. .--stem broader than high, deeply cut into about ten broad furrows, along the sharp angles of which are clusters of pale brown spines, from ½ in. to in. long, arranged in a star, each cluster in. apart. instead of the cylinder-like cap of the turk's-cap species, this one has a short, broad tuft of white wool and red spines, like a skull-cap. the flowers are small, and soon wither, but remain attached to the oblong berries, which stand erect in a dense cluster in the centre of the cap, and are of a delicate rose-colour. the first introduced plant of this was sent home by mr. gardner, who introduced the epiphyllums and other cactuses. it flowered on the way to england, and matured its seeds soon after its arrival. it is a native of pernambuco. m. miquelii (miquel's); fig. .--this species appears to have been introduced in , when two plants of it were sent from the west indian island, st. croix, to the hamburg botanic gardens. the stem is oval, dark green, with fourteen well-defined ribs, as regular as if they had been carved with a knife. the spine-tufts are small; spines short, black-brown, about nine in each tuft, one of which is central, the others radiating; they are less than ½ in. long. the "cap" is cylindrical, in. high by in. in diameter, and composed of layers of snow-white threads, mixed with short reddish bristles. [illustration: fig. . melocactus miquelii.] these three are the only species of melocactus that have become known in english gardens, although various other kinds, named m. lehmanni, m. zuccarini, m. ellemeetii, m. schlumbergerianus, &c., occur in books. chapter x. the genus pilocereus. (from pilos, wool, and cereus, in allusion to the long hairs on the spine cushions, and the affinity of the genus.) one of the most striking plants in this order is the "old man cactus," botanically known as pilocereus senilis, which is the only member of this genus that has become at all known in english gardens. in continental gardens, however, more than a dozen species are to be found in collections of succulent plants; and of these one of the most remarkable is that represented at fig. . the limits of the genus pilocereus are not definitely fixed, different botanists holding different views with respect to the generic characters. recent writers, and among them the late mr. bentham, sunk the genus under cereus; but there are sufficiently good characters to justify us in retaining, for garden purposes, the name pilocereus for the several distinct plants mentioned here. the botanist who founded the genus gives the following general description of its members: stems tall, erect, thick, simple or branched, fleshy, ridged; the ridges regular, slightly tubercled, and placed closely together. tubercles generally hairy, with bunches of short spines; the hairs long and white, especially about the apex of the stem, where they form a dense mass. flowers on the extreme top of the matured stems, and arranged in a cluster as in the melon cactus, small, tubular; the petals united at the base, and the stamens attached to the whole face of the tube thus formed, expanding only at night, and fading in a few hours. these flowers have a disagreeable odour, not unlike that of boiled cabbage. fruit fleshy, round, persistent, usually red when ripe. the species are natives of tropical america, and are generally found in rocky gorges or the steep declivities of mountainous regions. cultivation.--these plants require distinctly tropical treatment. during summer, they must have all the sunlight possible, and be supplied with plenty of water, both at the root and by means of the syringe. air should be given on very hot days, but the plants should be encouraged to make all the growth possible before the approach of winter. in winter, they may be kept quite dry, and the temperature of the house where they stand should be maintained at about degs., rising to degs. or degs. in the day. in march, the plants should be repotted into as small pots as convenient, employing a good, loamy soil and ample drainage. should the hairs become soiled or dusty, the stems may be laid on their sides and then syringed with a mixture of soft soap and warm water, to be followed by a few syringefuls of pure water; this should cleanse the hairs and give them the white appearance to which the plants owe their attractiveness. species. p. houlletianus (houllet's); fig. .--stem robust, glaucous-green; ridges about eight, broad, prominent, obscurely tubercled; spines in bundles of nine, radiating, straight, less than in. long, and pale yellow. upon the growing part of the stem, the spines are intermingled with long, white, cottony hairs, often matted together like an unkempt head; these hairs fall off as the stem matures. flowers funnel-shaped, resembling canterbury bells, borne in a cluster on the summit of the plant; ovary short and scaly; petals joined at the base, and coloured a rosy-purple, dashed with yellow; the stamens fill the whole of the flower-tube and are white; style a little longer than the flower-tube, and bearing a ray of about a dozen stigmas. fruit globose, as large as a plum, and coloured cherry-red. the pulp is bright, crimson, and contains a few brownish seeds. in the engraving the fruit is shown on the left, and a flower-bud on the right. this species is often known in continental collections as p. fosterii. [illustration: fig. . pilocereus houlletianus.] p. senilis (old-man).--stem attaining a height of ft., with a diameter of about ft.; ridges from twenty-five to thirty on plants ft. high; the furrows mere slits, whilst the tufts of thin, straight spines, in. long, which crown each of the many tubercles into which the ridges are divided, give young stems a brushy appearance. about the upper portion of the stem, and especially upon the extreme top, are numerous white, wiry hairs, in. or more long, and gathered sometimes into locks. to this character, the plant owes it name old-man cactus; but, by a curious inversion of what obtains in the human kind, old plants are less conspicuous by their white hairs than the younger ones. some years ago, there were three fine stems of this cactus among the cultivated plants at kew, the highest of which measured ½ ft. there was also, however, a fine specimen in the oxford botanic gardens, with a stem ft. high; and it is stated that this plant has been in cultivation in england a hundred years at least. a plant twenty-five years old is very small, and, from its slowness of growth, as well as from the reports of the inhabitants of mexico, where this species is found wild, there is reason to believe that a stem ft. high would be several hundred years old. the flowers of p. senilis are not known in english collections, the plant being grown only for its shaggy hairiness. other species are: p. chrysomallus, which has a branching habit, p. brünnonii (fig. ), p. celsianus, p. columna, p. tilophorus, known only in a young state, and several others, all very remarkable plants, but not known in english collections, unless, perhaps at kew. [illustration: fig. . pilocereus brÜnnonii.] chapter xi. the genus mamillaria. (from mamilla, a little teat; in allusion to the tubercles.) something over different kinds of mamillaria are known, but only a small proportion of these may be considered as garden plants. they are characterised generally by short, symmetrically-formed stems, sometimes aggregated together and forming a dense tuft, but, as a rule, each plant has only one stem. the generic name is descriptive of the chief feature in these stems, namely, the closely-set, spirally-arranged tubercles or mamillae, which vary considerably in the different kinds, but are always present in some form or other. some kinds have stems only in. high by / in. in diameter, and the tubercles hidden from view by the star-shaped cushions of reddish or white spines. in some, the spines are erect and hair-like, giving the plant the appearance of tiny sea-urchins; another group has the principal spines hooked at the tip, and the points in these so sharp that if the hand comes in contact with them they hook into it and stick like fish-hooks. the purpose of these hooked spines seems doubtful; certainly, they cannot serve as any protection to the plant itself, as they are so strong that the plant must be torn up by the roots before the hooks will give way. the spines in m. macromeris are straight, and measure in. in length; in m. multiceps they are in two series, the one fine, white, and short, the other yellow and stout. the most marked section of this genus, however, is that represented by m. fissurata (fig. ), in which the tubercles are large, spreading horizontally, and angular, resembling most closely the foliage and habit of some of the haworthias. no one who had not read up the botany of mamillarias would suspect that this plant belonged to them, or even to the cactus order at all. there is a good specimen of it in the kew collection. when in flower the family resemblance is easily seen; but as this species does not flower freely, it will be known by its remarkable foliage-like tubercles, rather than as a flowering cactus. and the same remark applies to many of the mamillarias; their stems thickly beset with tubercles and spines, always regular in arrangement, and neat and attractive in appearance. the following remarks made by dr. lindley when describing m. tenuis, give a good idea of the singular, yet pretty, stems of some of these plants: "gentle reader, hast thou never seen in a display of fireworks a crowd of wheels all in motion at once, crossing and intersecting each other in every direction; and canst thou fancy those wheels arrested in their motion by some magic power--their rays retained, but their fires extinguished and their brightness gone? then mayst thou conceive the curious beauty of this little herb--a plant so unlike all others that we would fain believe it the reanimated spirit of a race that flourished in former ages, with those hideous monsters whose bones alone remain to tell the history of their existence." it is quite true that in the cultivated mamillarias there is nothing unsightly, or rough, or unfinished. without foliage, their stems globose, or short cylinders, or arranged in little cushion-like tufts, and enveloped in silky spines, like tiny red stars, always looking the same, except when in flower, and never looking in the least like ordinary plants. characters such as these ought to find many admirers. in the succulent house at kew, there is a long shelf upon which a great many plants of this genus may be seen. but the flowers in some of the species of mamillaria are quite as attractive as the stems. those of m. macromeris are in. long and wide, their colour a deep rose; m. scheerii has equally large flowers, and coloured bright yellow, as also are the flowers of m. pectinata. this last is remarkable on account of the clock-like regularity with which its flowers expand. while fresh, they open every day between eleven and twelve o'clock, and close again about one, however strong the sunlight shining upon them may be. some of the kinds (more especially the small-flowered ones) are often prettily studded over with bright red, coral-like berries, which are the little fruits, and contain, as a rule, matured seeds capable of reproducing the parent plant. the headquarters of the genus mamillaria is mexico, and the countries immediately to the north, a few being scattered over the west indies, bolivia, brazil, and chili. many of them grow on mountains where the temperature is moderate, but where the sunlight is always intense. others are found on limestone or gravelly hills, among short herbage, or on grassy prairies. a small silvery-spined kind has recently been found near the snow line in chili. m. vivipara is quite hardy in new york, as also are several other kinds, whilst we learn that by planting them out in summer, and protecting them by means of a frame from heavy rain, dews, fogs, and sudden changes of weather, a good many species of both mamillaria and echinocactus are successfully managed in the neighbourhood of that town. cultivation.--particulars with respect to cultivation are given along with the descriptions of most of the species, but a few general principles may here be noted. with only a few exceptions, all the cultivated mamillarias may be grown in a warm, sunny greenhouse, or they may be placed in a frame with a south aspect, during our summer, removing them into artificially heated quarters for the winter. they do not like a large body of soil about their roots, but always thrive best when in comparatively small pots. if a sweet, new, fibry loam, mixed with broken bricks or cinders, be used to pot these plants in, they may then be left undisturbed at the root for several years. much harm is often done to the more delicate kinds of cactuses by repotting them annually; the best-managed collection i have seen had not been repotted for four years. this would not be safe if a poor and exhausted soil were used in the first instance. the pots should be well drained with crocks, and these covered with a layer of fibre sifted from loam. in summer, the soil should be kept moist, but never saturated; and after a bright warm day, the stems may be moistened over by syringing them with tepid water. a point of much importance in connection with these, and indeed all tropical and extra-tropical plants, is, that the water used for watering or syringing them should be rain-water if possible, and never more than a degree or so colder than the plants themselves would be. thus, a plant which had been standing in the full glare of a midsummer sun all day, would be much endangered by watering it with cold tap-water. where proper arrangements for water are not made in a greenhouse or stove, it is a good plan to place the water wanted for the day's use in the sun along with the plants. a little bag filled with soot and tightly tied at the neck, and water, is a good method for rendering hard tap-water suitable for watering the roots of plants. in winter, mamillarias may be kept quite dry at the roots, except in mild sunny weather, when a little water may be given. a collection of the most distinct kinds may be successfully managed in a glass case in a room window, providing the sun shines through it for a few hours in the day. propagation.--this is usually effected by means of seeds, which may be procured from continental seedsmen as well as from our own. the treatment required by the seeds is similar to what has been already advised for those of other cactuses. the tufted kinds are easily multiplied by separating the stems, or even by cutting off the tops and planting them in small pots of sandy soil. species. the following kinds are selected from those known to be in cultivation; of course, it is out of the question here to enumerate all the species known. m. angularis (angular-tubercled).--a robust kind, with stems in. to in. high, and branching somewhat freely; tubercles prism-shaped, rather thick at the base, and slightly angular, ¼ in. long, their tops tufted with short white spines; at the base of the tubercles are little tufts of white wool. flowers are only rarely produced by cultivated plants; they are small, tubular, rosy-purple, the stamens yellow. introduced from mexico in ; flowers in summer. when happily situated, it forms a specimen ft. in diameter, owing to its freely produced arm-like branches, which spread out and curve upwards. it requires a warm greenhouse temperature during winter, and exposure to bright sunshine at all times. m. applanata (flattened).--in this, the stem is broader than high, and has a squat appearance; tubercles ¾ in. long, cone-shaped, with stellate tufts of straight, hair-like spines, white when young, yellowish when aged. flowers springing from the outside of the stem-top, white, tinged with red. it is a native of mexico, and blossoms in summer. a specimen, in. through at the base, may be seen at kew, where it has been for many years, without altering perceptibly in size. all the larger-stemmed mamillarias are exceedingly slow growers after they have reached a certain size, although, in the seedling stage, they grow freely. the treatment for this kind should resemble that advised for the last. m. atrata (blackened).--stem oval in shape, broad at the base, in. high, unbranched; tubercles swollen, ½ in. long, deep green, cone-shaped, becoming flattened through pressure of growth. spines set in a tuft of white hairs, falling off from the lowest mammae, as happens in many of the thick-stemmed kinds. flowers numerous, and developed all round the outside of the stem, stalkless, nestling closely between the tubercles, and when expanded looking like starry buttons of a rosy-pink colour. native of chili, flowering in autumn. this species is rare in england, but is worth attention because of the prettiness of its flowers, the attractive form of its stem, and its reputed hardiness. it will thrive in a cold frame, and requires protection from excessive wet only, rather than from cold. grown in a warm house, it becomes sickly, and is short-lived. m. bicolor (two-coloured).--one of the commonest of the cactuses grown in english gardens, and one of the most distinct, owing to its short, silvery hair-like spines, thickly crowded on the ends of the small tubercles, completely hiding the stem from view. the latter is from in. to ft. high, in. in diameter, cylindrical, often branching into several thick arms, when it has a quaint appearance. if kept free from dust, which may be done by covering the plant with a bell glass, there is much beauty in the stem; indeed, it is owing to this, rather than as a flowering cactus, that this species finds favour as a garden plant. the flowers are less than in. in length and width, stellate, their colour deep purple; they are developed in june. although a native of elevated regions in mexico ( - ft.), this plant thrives best when grown in a warm house. there are several handsome and very old specimens of it in the tropical collection of succulents at kew. it is one of the easiest to manage, and will thrive in a warm room-window if exposed to bright sunlight and kept dry in winter. m. nivea and m. nobilis are both varieties of this species. m. chlorantha (greenish-yellow).--a newly-introduced species with erect, cylinder-shaped stems, in. high, clothed with numerous tubercles, which are tipped with clusters of long, silvery, interlacing, hair-like spines, and a few stouter blackish ones. the flowers are described as greenish-yellow, so that they are not likely to add much to the beauty of the plant, which is recommended because of the attractiveness of its stem and spines. it is a native of mexico and texas, whence it was introduced some two years ago. it requires cool-house treatment, and should be kept free from dust, which disfigures the white spines. m. cirrhifera (twisted).--like m. bicolor, this species owes its frequent occurrence in gardens to the symmetry and neatly-chiselled form of its stems, and not to any attraction possessed by its flowers. it will thrive anywhere where the sun can shine upon it, if sheltered from severe cold and wet. in a cottage window it may be grown, and kept for many years, without losing health or, on the other hand, increasing much in size. its usual height is about in., by in. in diameter. the tubercles are angular at the base, and bear tufts of yellowish spines on their pointed apices. the flowers are small, and bright rose-coloured, but only rarely produced on cultivated plants. introduced from mexico in . m. clava (club-shaped); bot. mag. .--in the size of its stem, and the large, brightly-coloured flowers it bears, this species may be compared with some of the echinocactuses. the stem is from ft. to ½ ft. high, in. wide at the base, narrowing slightly upwards; the tubercles are in. long, and nearly as much through at the base, their shape that of little pyramids, and their tips bear each from eight to eleven stout, straight spines, pale brown, with a little wool at the base. the flowers are borne on the top of the stem, two or three of them together; the sepals are green and red, and the spreading petals are straw-coloured and glossy, their edges near the top being toothed. in the centre of the shallow cup formed by the petals, and which measures nearly in. across, the orange-coloured stamens are clustered, in a kind of disk, through the middle of which the yellow stigma projects. it is a native of mexico, at an altitude of ft. introduced in , when it flowered at kew, in june, at which time it flowers almost every year now. a warm greenhouse affords the most suitable conditions for it; but, unless it is kept in full sunshine both summer and winter, and perfectly dry during the latter season, it will not produce any flowers. as a flowering plant, it ranks amongst the very best of the mamillarias. it is easily propagated from seeds ripened on cultivated plants. m. dasyacantha (thick-spined).--stem in. to in. high, almost globular, and covered with spiral whorls of tiny tubercles, in the grooves of which is a little whitish wool, which falls away as the tubercles ripen. the spines upon the tubercles are arranged in little stars, with an erect central one. the flowers are small, and spring from the centre of the stem. this is one of the thimble cactuses, and is too small to have any great attractions, either in stem or flowers. it is, however, a pretty plant, especially when studded with its ruby-like flowers, which look like coloured daisies growing upon a dense tuft of hairs. it is a native of mexico, where it grows on high mountains among short grass and other herbage. m. discolor (spines two-coloured).--stem globose, about in. in diameter; tubercles smooth, egg-shaped, their bases embedded in white wool, their tips crowned with stellate tufts of short, reddish spines. flowers numerous, and borne from almost all parts of the stem, less than in. wide, and composed of a single whorl of narrow, reflexed, rose-purple petals, surrounding a large, disk-like cluster of yellow stamens. the flowers are so short that they are half hidden by the tubercles. it is a native of mexico, where it grows on rocks, in warm, sheltered places. under cultivation it thrives when grown on a dry shelf in a warm house, and kept moist in summer, but perfectly dry in winter. m. dolichocentra (long-spurred); fig. .--apparently this is a variable species; at all events, plants of widely different habit are found under this name, one of them represented in the figure here, another in the garden, vol. xvii., whilst others are figured or described in other books. what is known at kew as the true plant is that here figured. this has a stout stem, about in. high and in. wide, and covered with smooth cone-shaped mammae, with woolly bases and stellate tufts of spines on their tips. the flowers are produced about in. from the top of the stem, and are less than in. wide; they are, however, often very numerous, sometimes a closely-set ring of them surrounding the stem, like a daisy chain, their colour being pale purple. below the flowers there is often a whorl of club-shaped fruits, ¾ in. long, and rose-coloured. these contain numerous little black seeds, which, when ripe, may be sown in pots of very sandy loam. the plant is a native of mexico, and flowers in summer. it thrives in a tropical temperature, and enjoys a daily syringing overhead on bright days in summer, but in winter requires little or no water. [illustration: fig. . mamillaria dolichocentra.] m. echinata (hedgehog-like).--a charming little plant, with very small stems, clustered together in a cushion-like tuft, each stem less than in. wide; but a well-grown specimen is composed of dozens of these, packed almost one on top of the other. the tubercles are hidden by the star-like spine clusters which cap them, and look like a swarm of insects. flowers very small, rose-coloured, and lasting only about a day. these are succeeded by numerous currant-like red berries, so numerous, in fact, that the plants look as if thickly studded all over with coral beads. the central stem is sometimes about in. high, those surrounding it being shorter and shorter, till the outside ones rise only just above the soil. a well-grown plant of this is strikingly pretty, even when not in fruit. it is a native of mexico, and requires the treatment of a warm house. a few pieces of broken brick should be placed upon the surface of the soil about the base of the plant, as the stems like to press against, or grow upon, anything in the nature of rocky ground. m. echinus (hedgehog-like); fig. .--a distinct and pretty little plant, the largest specimen having a stem about the size and shape of a small hen's-egg, completely hidden under the densely interwoven radial spines, which crown the thirteen spiral rows of tubercles, and are almost white when mature. the tubercles are ½ in. long, and, in addition to these white radiating spines, they also bear each a stout spike-like spine, growing from the centre of the others. this spine gives the plant an appearance quite distinct from all other cultivated mamillarias. the flowers are produced two or three together, on the top of the stem, and they are nearly in. long, cup-shaped, and coloured yellow; they usually appear about june. as yet this species is rare in cultivated collections. it comes from mexico, where it is found growing on limestone hills, in hot and arid localities. under cultivation it requires a warm greenhouse temperature, exposure to bright sunshine all the year round, with a moderate supply of water in summer, and none at all during winter. a few large pieces of broken brick or sandstone placed in the soil, just under the base of the stem, afford the roots conditions suitable to their healthy growth. [illustration: fig. . mamillaria echinus.] m. elegans (elegant).--a small species, grown only for the prettiness of its stem, flowers rarely, if ever, being borne by it under cultivation. the stem is in. high and wide, globose, with small conical tubercles, which, when young, are woolly at the tips. spines short and slender, about twenty, arranged in a star on each tubercle, with four central ones a little longer than those which surround them; the colour of the spines is whitish, with brown tips. native country mexico, on high exposed hills; in this country it requires greenhouse treatment. introduced about . m. elephantidens (elephant's-tooth); fig. .--one of the largest and most remarkable of all garden mamillarias. stem globose, depressed, in. to in. in diameter, and bright shining green. tubercles smooth, round, ½ in. long, furrowed across the top, which is at first filled with wool, but when old is naked. at the base of the tubercles there is a dense tuft of white wool, and springing from the furrows are eight radiating recurved spines, and three short central ones, all strong, stiff, and ivory-white, tipped with brown. the flowers are in. wide, and are composed of a circle of violet-coloured sepals, with white margins, and a second circle of petals which are bright rose, pale purple at the base, a line of the same colour extending all down the middle. the stamens are numerous, with long purple filaments and yellow anthers, and the pistil is stout, erect, projecting above the stamens, with a radiating stigma. flowers in autumn; native country, paraguay. under cultivation, it grows quicker than is usual with plants of this genus, and it is also exceptional in the regular and abundant production of its flowers. it has been a rarity in european collections for many years, and, although easily grown, it is often killed through wrong treatment. a cool greenhouse or sunny frame in summer, plenty of water whilst growth is active, and a light, well-drained soil, suit it best; whilst during winter it must be kept perfectly dry, and protected only from frost. in a tropical house, it is invariably sickly, and altogether unsatisfactory. [illustration: fig. . mamillaria eliphantidens.] m. elongata (elongated).--a small, cushion-like kind, with the stems in tufts, owing to their producing offsets freely from the base, the tallest of them being about as high and as thick as a man's thumb. the tubercles are short, crowded, and hidden under the star-clusters of reddish-yellow spines. there are no central spines in this kind. the flowers are produced in the axils of the tubercles from all parts of the stem, a large tuft of stems being thickly studded with circles of tawny yellow petals, which are only about ½ in. long. the berries are bright coral-red, and about the size of a date stone. there are several varieties of this species, under the names of intertexta, rufescens, rutila, subcrocea, and supertexta. these differ only slightly either in the length or thickness of the stems or in the colour of the spines. all of them may be grown in a cold frame, or in a window where the sun can shine upon them; or they may be grown along with tropical kinds. for small cases in windows, these little thimble cactuses are amongst the most suitable. they are natives of high mountains in mexico, and have been cultivated in europe over forty years. m. fissurata (fissured); fig. .--in appearance, this rare species mimics some of the gasterias, and is so different from all the kinds hitherto described, that very few people unacquainted with it would suspect that it belonged to the same genus as m. elongata or m. dolichocentra. indeed, some botanists have made a separate genus of this and several other plants of the same peculiar appearance, calling them anhalonium. m. fissurata is like a whip-top in shape, the root being thick and woody, and the tubercles arranged in a thick layer, spreading from the centre, rosette-like. a living plant in the kew collection is in. high by in. wide, the tubercles being triangular in shape, ½ in. thick, wrinkled, with an irregular furrow on the upper surface. the flowers grow from the middle of the stem, and are ½ in. wide, and rose-coloured. native of mexico, on hard gravel or limestone soils. we know of no plant in english collections, except that at kew, which was introduced from mexico in . it flowers in september and october. [illustration: fig. . mamillaria fissurata.] m. floribunda (free-flowering).--a french writer on cactuses, m. labouret, calls this a species of echinocactus, but it resembles so closely another species included by him in mamillaria, viz., m. atrata, that we see no good reason for separating the two into different genera. m. floribunda has an irregular conical stem, about in. high by in. wide at the base, round nut-like tubercles the size of filberts, crowned with star-tufts of spines ¾ in. long, stiff, and brown, about ten spines being set with their bases in a small disc-like pad of dirty-white wool. the flowers are very numerous, covering the whole of the stem-top, from which they stand erect, so as to form a dense bouquet of rose-coloured petals. each flower is in. long. native of chili; introduced about . flowers in summer. this handsome kind will thrive in a window, and, if well supplied with fresh air, sunshine, and sufficient water to keep the soil moist, it will flower almost every year. it must have no water in winter. m. gracilis (slender).--a small thimble cactus, remarkable for its proliferous stems, a single stem in. high producing all round its upper half numerous, offshoots, which fall to the ground and grow. in this way a tuft of stems is soon developed round the first one. if these offshoots are removed as they appear, the stem will grow longer and stouter than it does when they are left. tubercles small, green, crowded; spines in a stellate tuft, short, curved, pale yellow or white. flowers as in m. elongata, to which this species is closely allied. in window cases, or on a shelf in a cool greenhouse, it will grow and multiply rapidly. like the bulk of the caespitose, or thimble cactuses, it does not make much show when in flower; and it is only its stems, with their white stars of spines and clusters of little offsets hanging about them, that are attractive. native of mexico; introduced about . there is a variety known as pulchella, in which the spines are of a yellow hue. m. grahami (graham's).--a pretty little species, with globose stems, scarcely in. high, and nearly the same in diameter, branching sometimes when old; tubercles ¼ in. long, egg-shaped, corky when old, and persistent. spines in tufts of about twenty, all radiating except one in the centre, which is hooked; they are about ½ in. long. flowers in. long, usually produced in a circle round the stem. fruit a small, oval berry, ½ in. long. this is a native of colorado, in mountainous regions. it is very rare in cultivation. the flowers are developed in june and july. m. haageana (haage's); fig. .--the habit of this is shown in the figure, which is reduced to about one-fourth the natural size. as the stem gets older, it becomes more elongated. tubercles small, four-sided at the base, pointed at the top, where the spines are arranged in a star, about twenty of them on each tubercle, with two central ones, which are longer, stiffer, and much darker in colour than those on the outside; flowers small, almost hidden beneath the spines, bright carmine-rose; they are produced on the sides of the upper portion of the stem in june. there is a close resemblance between this and m. cirrhifera, and the treatment for both should be the same. mexico, . [illustration: fig. . mamillaria haageana.] m. longimamma (long-tubercled); fig. .--a well-marked species in the size of its mammae, or tubercles, which are at least in. long by / in. in diameter, terete, slightly curved, and narrowed to a pointed apex, the texture being very soft and watery. each tubercle bears a radiating tuft of about twelve spines, one central and projecting outwards; they are pale brown when old, and white when young; their length is about ½ in. a tuft of short, white wool is developed at the base of the spines on the young mammae. the stem is seldom more than in. in height, and it branches at the base when old. flowers large and handsome, citron-yellow; the tube short, and hidden in the mammae; the petals ½ in. long, narrow, pointed, and all directed upwards; stamens numerous, short. flowering season, early summer. native country, mexico. it requires greenhouse treatment, or it may be placed in a sunny frame out of doors during summer. it is not easily multiplied from seeds, but is free in the production of offsets from the base of the stem. [illustration: fig. . mamillaria longimamma.] m. macromeris (large-flowered); fig. .--stem about in. high, naked at the base, woody and wrinkled when old. tubercles as in m. longimamma, but with curving radial spines, like needles, often in. in length, white or rose-tinted when young, almost black when old. flowers from the centre of the stem, in. long, and about the same in width; the petals regular and spreading, as in the ox-eye daisy; stamens numerous, short, forming a disk; colour carmine, almost purple just before fading. flowering season, august. native of mexico, where it is found in loose, sand on hillocks, generally about the roots of acacias. it is one of the most beautiful of all mamillarias; but it is, as yet, rare in collections. it requires the same treatment as m. longimamma, except that, owing to the woody nature of its rootstock, and its long, tap-like roots, it should be planted in pans instead of pots, using a compost of rough loam, mixed with lumps of broken brick or limestone. [illustration: fig. . mamillaria macromeris.] m. macrothele (large-nippled); bot. mag. , as m. lehmanni.--this belongs to the same group as m. cirrhifera, but is distinguished by its large mammae, which are four-angled at the base, ¾ in. long, narrowed to a point, upon which is a tuft of wool and a cluster of about eight spines, ½ in. long, spreading, reddish-brown in colour, the central one being almost black, in. long, and pointing downwards. in the axils of the mammae are tufts of white wool. flowers on the top of the stern, erect, spreading, about ½ in. across when expanded; the petals overlapping, and pale yellow; the stamens red at the base, arranged in a dense cluster, and the rays of the stigma spreading over them. flowering time, early summer. native country, mexico, on prairie lands, at high elevations. this species is almost hardy in the warmer parts of this country, suffering from damp rather than frost in winter. the stem is not particularly handsome, but the flowers are large and bright, and they are produced annually by plants which are grown in a cool, well-aired greenhouse or frame, with the sun shining on them all day. m. micromeris (small-flowered); fig. .--a small, cushion-like plant, with a stem never more than ½ in. across by about in. in height, so that it has the appearance of a small, flattened ball, with a raised, disk-like portion on the top. the mammae are very small, and they are completely hidden by the numerous fine, white, silky spines and wool which spring in tufts from the apex of each mamma, and interlace so as to form a spider-web-like net all over the stem. the flowers are small, and they spring from the centre of the disk-like top of the stern; they are composed of from three to five sepals, and five petals, which are whitish or pink, and measure about ¼ in. across when open. native country, mexico, where it is found only in naked places on mountain tops or sides where limestone is plentiful. it requires much care under cultivation, water in excess being fatal to it, and a soil of the wrong sort soon killing all its roots. it is cultivated at kew in a small pot, in a mixture of loam and lime rubbish, and grown in a warm greenhouse. [illustration: fig. . mamillaria micromeris.] m. multiceps (many-branched).--stem short, with numerous branches, which again push forth other branches, so that a dense tuft of dumpy, globose stems is formed. the mammae are small, and arranged closely together, and they each bear a tuft of whitish wool, with a radiating cluster of spines, which are soft, almost hair-like in texture, the inner ones being stiffer, and coloured dull yellow. the flowers are small, and almost hidden by the spines and tubercles; they are pale yellow, with a line of red down the middle of each petal. native country, mexico. this plant should be grown on a shelf in a cool greenhouse--anything like a stove temperature being fatal to it. as a flowering plant it is of no value, but the compact tuft formed by its numerous stems, with their attractive spines, renders it worthy of cultivation. m. neumanniana (neumann's).--this is a member of the group with angular tubercles and comparatively small flowers. it has a stem about in. high, cylindrical, the tubercles arranged spirally, their bases compressed, four or five-angled, and with a tuft of white wool in their axils. the areoles or tufts on the tops of the mammae are large, and the spines are about seven in number, ½ in. long, and of a tawny-yellow colour. the flowers are produced near the top of the stem; they are about ½ in. long, and rose-red in colour. native country, mexico. it requires the same treatment as m. cirrhifera. m. ottonis (ottoni's); fig. .--a very distinct and pretty plant is cultivated under the name at kew; but there are, apparently, two different species under the same name--the one being spiny and large in the stem; the other, which is here shown, having a small, compressed stem, in. across, numerous compressed tubercles, and short, hair-like spines. the flowers, which are large for the size of the plant, are white, and are developed in may and june. native country, mexico; introduced in . it requires similar treatment to m. micromeris. [illustration: fig. . mamillaria ottonis.] m. pectinata (comb-like); fig. .--stems globose, from in. to in. in diameter; the rootstock woody; the tubercles arranged in about thirteen spiral rows, swollen at the base, and bearing each a star-like tuft of about twenty-four stiff, brown, radial spines, without a central one; the length varies from ½ in. to in., and they are comb-like in their regular arrangement. when not in flower, this species bears a close resemblance to small plants of cereus pectinatus. flowers terminal, solitary, large, their width quite in. when fully expanded; sepals reddish-green; petals rich sulphur-yellow; filaments reddish, very numerous; the flowers open at noon, and close after about two hours, even although the sun be shining full upon them. flowering season, june to august. native country, mexico, on slopes of limestone hills. although long since known to botanists, this pretty species has only lately found its way into english gardens. it is attractive even when not in flower. it requires warm greenhouse treatment, with exposure to full sunshine; during late autumn it should have plenty of air to ripen the new growth made whilst flowering. in winter it should have a dry position near the glass. [illustration: fig. . mamillaria pectinata.] m. phellosperma (corky-seeded).--a pretty plant, resembling m. grahami in all points except the seed, which, as is denoted by the name, is half enveloped in a corky covering, suggesting acorns. stems simple, sometimes proliferous at the base, globose when young, afterwards almost cylinder or pear-shaped, in. high, in. in diameter; tubercles ½ in. long, arranged in twelve spiral rows, slightly woolly in axils. spines radiating, in two rows, about fifty on each tubercle, the three or four central ones being hooked at the tips or sometimes straight; length, ½ in. to ½ in. flowers (only seen in the dried state) in. long and wide. native of the dry gravelly hills and sand ridges in california and colorado, and, therefore, requiring greenhouse treatment. this plant is cultivated in the kew collection, but it has not been known to flower there. it is one of the most ornamental of the very spinous species, the radial spines being almost white, whilst the central ones are black, and look like tiny fish-hooks. a large proportion of these mamillarias are far more interesting in the form and arrangement of their tubercles and spines than in any floral character, and it is on this account that so many which are insignificant as flowering plants are included here. m. pulchra (handsome).--stem globose when young and cylindrical when old, flattened at the top; height from in. to in.; tubercles large, egg-shaped, arranged in from eleven to thirteen spiral rows; spines in compact tufts, their bases set in whitish wool, irregular in length, and almost covering the whole of the stem. flowers medium in size, developed near the top of the stem from the woolly axils of the tubercles; colour bright rose. native of mexico. flowering season, june. introduced in . a rare kind nowadays, though one of the prettiest. it should always be grown in a warm house. it has been also called m. pulcherrima. m. pusilla (small).--a tiny tufted plant, belonging to the group known as thimble cactuses. it has stems in. high; short, dark green tubercles, with tufts of whitish wool in the axils; spines thin and bristle-like, twisted, nearly in. long, almost hiding the stem; they are whitish, with black tips. the flowers are yellowish-white, with streaks of red. common in mexico. flowering season, may. it should be grown in a frame in summer, and wintered on a shelf in a warm greenhouse. it would, no doubt, thrive in a window if kept in a sunny position and placed under a glass shade. a variety known as texana differs in being more densely clothed with spines. we have seen it grown into large clumps, covering a space ft. in diameter, with dozens of erect little pyramids of whitish spines. m. pycnacantha (densely spined); bot. mag. .--the name for this kind is rather misleading, the spines being both fewer and less conspicuous than in many other species of mamillaria. stem about in. high, nearly globose; tubercles--rather large, swollen, with tufts of short white wool in their axils, and stellate clusters of spines springing from disks of white wool on the top. the spines are ½ in. long, slightly recurved, flattened, and pale brown. flowers large, clustered on the top of the stem, about half a dozen opening together; width in.; petals numerous, narrow, toothed at the tips, spreading; colour a deep sulphur-yellow, anthers orange. native of oaxaca, mexico. flowering season, july. introduced . this is a beautiful flowering plant, more like an echinocactus than a mamillaria. it should be grown in a warm greenhouse all the year round. old stems develop offsets from the base, by which the species may be multiplied. m. sanguinea (bloody); fig. .--this is closely related to m. bicolor, but differs in having an unbranched stem and numerous richly-coloured flowers. the stem is stout, in. high, and in. through; tubercles crowded, short, bearing stellate tufts of shortish spines, and projecting longer ones, all being bristly and pale yellow, except those on the youngest tubercles, which are golden. the flowers are borne in a crowded circle on the top of the stem, just outside the cluster of young yellow spines, a strong plant having about forty flowers open together. each flower is about ½ in. long and wide, and coloured bright crimson, with yellow anthers. native of mexico. flowers in june. it should be grown along with m. bicolor. the plant figured is a young one, showing the spines much longer than is usual on mature specimens. [illustration: fig. . mamillaria sanguinea.] m. scheerii (scheer's).--stem in. high, and in. in diameter at the base; tubercles large, swollen, somewhat flattened, pale green, watery, woolly in the axils, the tops crowned with about a dozen brown spines, in. long, one central, the others radial. flowers terminal, erect, with several whorls of spreading, recurved petals, the lower ones tinged with crimson, the upper pale yellow, and forming a shallow cup, in. across; anthers forming a compact sheaf in the centre. flowers in summer. this distinct and very pretty species was introduced many years ago from mexico, where it was discovered in by a mr. potts, to whose love for these plants we are indebted for a great many choice kinds collected and sent to england by him. it grows naturally in a red, sandy loam, and under cultivation requires warm-house treatment, except during the autumn, when it may be placed in a frame and exposed to full sunshine and plenty of air. m. schelhasii (schelhas').--a pretty little tufted kind, its habit and size being shown in fig. . the stem produces offsets freely at the base, which grow into full-sized stems, and develop young ones, till a compact cushion is formed. tubercles closely arranged, cylindrical, shining green, with fifteen to twenty radial, white, hair-like spines, ½ in. long, and three inner ones, which are thicker, purplish in colour, usually only one being hooked. flowers white, with a line of rose down the middle of each petal, ¾ in. across. flowering season, beginning of summer. native of mexico. it may be grown out of doors in a sunny position in summer, and wintered on a shelf in a greenhouse. [illustration: fig. . mamillaria schelhasii.] m. schiedeana (schiede's).--stem globose, in. to in. high, thickly clothed with long, narrow, pointed tubercles, the bases of which are set in white wool, whilst the apices are crowned with tiny stars of white silky spines; more like the pappus of a composite than the spines usually found on cactuses. a healthy plant has a very pretty and silky appearance which cannot well be described. the flowers are small and unattractive; they are succeeded by the red fruits, which remain on the plant a long time, and add to its beauty. native country, mexico. introduced . should be grown in a greenhouse where frost is excluded, and where there is plenty of sunlight at all times. it is easily increased, either from seeds or by means of the offsets developed at the base of old stems. m. semperviva (ever-living); fig. .--stem pear-shaped, in. wide, the top slightly depressed. tubercles conical, ¼ in. long, their bases set in a cushion of white wool, their tips bearing tiny tufts of wool, and four small spines, which fall away on the tubercles becoming ripe, leaving two short, diverging, central spines. flowers small, not ornamental, and scantily developed near the outside of the top. native of mexico; in meadows and thickets near zimapan, at ft. elevation. it thrives with us when grown in a frame in summer, and wintered in a cool greenhouse or frame. [illustration: fig. . mamillaria semperviva.] m. senilis (hoary).--stem about in. high, spherical, unbranched, except when very old, when it becomes proliferous at the base; tubercles crowded, small, arranged spirally, and crowned with clusters of long, radiating spines, which are almost white, hair-like, and become thickly interwoven, as in the old man cactus (pilocereus senilis). the central spine is black, and hooked at the tip. flowers on the top of the stem, near the centre; the petals toothed, spreading, and forming a deep cup, with a cluster of tall stamens standing erect in the middle; colour bright scarlet. the flowers, which appear in summer, remain open about eight hours. native country unknown; cultivated in france in . this plant is difficult to preserve in health, the best method being that of grafting it on to a short cereus, or a robust kind of mamillaria, such as m. cirrhifera. it is a pretty plant at all times, even when dead, for we have seen plants of it preserve the appearance of live specimens long after they have rotted and dried up in the centre, nothing remaining but the shell formed by the skin and silvery spines. there is a close resemblance between this species and m. grahami. m. stella-aurata (golden star).--this little plant obtains its name from the rich golden-yellow of its stellate clusters of spines, which are arranged thickly on the tips of the small, pointed tubercles. it belongs to the group called thimble cactuses, of which it is one of the prettiest. the stems are tufted, branching freely at the base, and rising to a height of about in. flowers small, whitish, and much less ornamental than the berry-like fruits which succeed them, and which are egg-shaped, ½ in. long, and a deep rose-colour. m. tenuis is a variety of this, with almost white spines. native of mexico. introduced . may be cultivated under a bell-glass in a room window, the only danger being damp during winter, which must be carefully avoided. m. sub-polyhedra (usually many-sided); fig. .--stem simple till it becomes old, when it develops offsets at the base, broadly cylindrical, in. high, in. in diameter. tubercles four-sided at base, prism-shaped, bearing pads of white wool in the corners at the base, and crowned with tufts of from four to seven spines, usually all radial, sometimes one central. the flowers, which usually appear in may, are arranged in a zone on the top of the old stems; sepals greenish-yellow, petals bright red. fruit in. long, pear-shaped, scarlet. native of south mexico, at high elevations. it may be grown outside in summer, and wintered in a heated greenhouse or frame. this is a singular-looking plant, the tubercles having an appearance suggestive of carving. it is a slow grower, and requires careful attention in winter, when sometimes the roots all perish and the base of the stem rots. [illustration: fig. . mamillaria sub-polyhedra.] m. sulcolanata (woolly-grooved); fig. .--stem simple when young, proliferous at the sides when old, the young plants developing from the apices of the tubercles, and not in the axils, as is usual. the tubercles are nut-shaped, large, the bases surrounded by white wool, the points bearing eight to ten rigid, brown spines, all radiating from a little pad of wool. flowers large, nearly in. across, bright yellow, poppy-scented, the spread of the petals suggesting paris daisies; they are freely developed on the apex of the stem in june, and on till august. fruit egg-shaped, glaucous-green. native country, south mexico; introduced . this charming little plant should be grown in a frame exposed to full sunshine all summer, and removed to a shelf in a warm greenhouse in winter. with such treatment it grows and flowers freely. grafted on to a cereus or opuntia it is healthier than when on its own roots. [illustration: fig. . mamillaria sulcolanata.] m. tetracantha (four-spined); bot. mag. .--stem the size and shape of an ostrich's egg, thickly studded with small, conical tubercles, woolly at the base, the apices bearing each four spreading spines, ¾ in. long, rather stout, straight, brown when young, becoming almost white with age. flowers numerous, small, arranged as in m. sanguinea, to which and m. cirrhifera this species is closely related. they are bright rose in colour, with orange-yellow anthers, and are developed in july. native of mexico. requires the same treatment as m. cirrhifera. m. tuberculosa (tubercled).--this is a very pretty and distinct plant, of recent introduction, and easily cultivated. it has a central stem, in. high by in. in diameter, conical in shape, and surrounded at the base by globose branches or offsets. the tubercles are closely set in numerous spiral rows, and are ½ in. long, rather narrow, pointed, with a crown of radial spines, very slender, hair-like, white, and ½ in. long; central spines three or four, ½ in. long. at the base of each tubercle is a pea-like tuft of white wool. in this kind the spines fall from the old tubercles, which are persistent, gradually hardening to a cork-like substance. the flowers are produced in the apex of the stem, and are in. long and wide, daisy-like, pale purple in colour; they are succeeded by red, oval berries, which are as pretty as the flowers. about five flowers are developed on each stem annually--may and june. native of mexico, in the mountains. it thrives when grown in an ordinary greenhouse, on a shelf, in full sunshine. m. turbinata (top-shaped); bot. mag. .--stem globose, depressed at top, about in. in diameter, pale glaucous-green; tubercles quadrangular, flattened at the apex, and bearing, when young, from three to five erect, slender, hair-like spines, which fall off soon after the tubercles ripen, exposing little depressions or umbilica, and giving the stem a bald, pudding-like appearance, quite distinct from any other kind. flowers from the centre of the stem, short, about in. across, pale yellow, with a reddish tint outside; anthers yellow. two or three flowers are usually expanded together in the month of june. native country, mexico. m. uncinata (hooked).--stem globose, simple, about in. in diameter; tubercles closely pressed against each other at the base, where they are four-angled; in length they are ¼ in., and they are blue-green in colour. apex bearing four short spines, arranged crosswise, and ¼ in. long; central spine slightly longer, yellow, and hooked. the flowers are in. long and wide, erect, the tube hidden by the young mammae, amongst which they appear in may and june; they are purple in colour, a line of deeper tint running down the middle of each petal. like all the kinds with short, angular tubercles, this species is easily managed, flowers freely and profusely, and always ripens seeds. native of mexico. it may be grown in a frame, or even out of doors, all through the summer, removing it to a greenhouse for the winter. m. vetula (old).--one of the small thimble cactuses, its stems seldom exceeding in. in height by ½ in. in diameter. tubercles ¼ in. long, conical, with a radial crown of fine, hair-like yellow spines, ¼ in. long, and a solitary central spine, ½ in. in length, and coloured red. flowers terminal, just peeping above the tubercles; sepals and petals acute, yellow, ¾ in. long; anthers yellow; stigma white. an old garden plant, introduced from mexico. it flowers in may and june. for its cultivation it may be treated as recommended for m. pusilla. m. villifera (hair-bearing).--stem similar to the last, but usually proliferous at the base; tubercles angular, short, woolly in the axils, and bearing four rigid, short, reddish-brown spines on the apex. flowers pale rose, with a line of purple down the middle of each petal; they are developed near the top of the stem, in may. native country, mexico. this plant thrives if treated as recommended for m. pusilla. there are several varieties known, distinguished by their paler or darker flowers, or by a difference in the length and arrangement of the spines. m. viridis (green).--stem in. high by in. in diameter, proliferous at the base; tubercles short, four-angled, crowded in spiral rows, woolly at the base, bearing each five or six radiating hair-like spines on the apex, and one central erect one, none more than ¼ in. long. flowers erect, on top of stem, with recurved, pale yellow petals, in., long; they are produced in may and june. introduced from mexico in . it may be grown in a sunny frame out of doors during summer, and on a dry, warm greenhouse shelf in winter. m. vivipara (stem--sprouting).--a tufted, free-growing thimble cactus, producing its small stems in such profusion as to form a cluster as much as ft. in diameter. the small tubercles are hidden by the numerous radial spines, which are in clusters of about twenty; they are white, hair-like, stiff and ½ in. long; the central spines, numbering from four to six, are a little longer. flowers from apex of stem, ½ in. long and wide, and composed of about thirty fimbriated sepals and twenty-five to forty narrow petals; colour bright purple. fruit ½ in. long, pale green when ripe. the flowers, which appear in may and june, usually expand after mid-day. native of louisiana. in the north-west plains and rocky mountains of north america this plant is abundant, often forming wide cushion-like tufts, which, when covered with numerous purple, star-like flowers, have a pretty effect. in utah and new york it is commonly cultivated as a hardy garden plant, bearing exposure to keen frosts and snow without suffering; but it would not thrive out of doors in winter with us, unless covered by a handlight during severe weather, and protected from heavy rains in winter. it likes a strong, clayey soil. m. v. radiosa (fig. ).--this variety is distinguished by its larger flowers and shorter spines. [illustration: fig. . mamillaria vivipara radiosa.] m. wildiana (wild's).--an old garden cactus, and one of the prettiest of the tufted, small-stemmed kinds. its largest stems are in. high by about ½ in. in diameter, and bear spiral rows of clavate, dark green, crystallised tubercles, ½ in. long, with about ten radial white spines, ½ in. long, the three upper spines, together with the solitary central hooked one, being yellow. flowers small, numerous on the apices of the stems, rose-coloured, lined with purple; they are developed in summer. this also forms dense tufts of stems. a specimen at kew, only a few years old, has already over thirty heads. it is a native of mexico, at an altitude of ft., growing on lava and basalt, and even on the trunks of trees. for its cultivation, a shelf in a sunny greenhouse is a most suitable position, both in winter and summer. introduced . m. wrightii (wright's).--this is a charming little plant, of something the same character as m. dolichocentra. it has not long been cultivated in gardens, but being easy to manage, and exceptionally pretty, it is sure to become a favourite as it gets known. stem rounded above, narrowed and peg-top-like at the base, the top flattened, about in. across, height about the same. tubercles conical, ½ in. long, shining green, and bearing a tuft of six or eight spines, which are straight, hair-like, white, and ½ in. long; there are two central spines, of same length, and hooked. flowers in the top of the stem, in. long and wide, bright purple; they are succeeded by egg-shaped, purple berries, in. long, and prettily arranged among the tubercles. in england a warm house seems most suitable for this species. it likes plenty of moisture and sunlight during the summer, whilst making new growth; but in winter, when at rest, it ought to be kept on a shelf, and just moistened overhead in bright weather. there are healthy examples of it at kew. flowering season, may and june. native country, mexico. introduced about . m. zucchariniana (zuccharini's).--stem simple, globose, often attaining a height of in. by about in. in diameter. tubercles dark green, conical, / in. long, ½ in. broad at base, naked at the point, but with four to six spines springing from the areole a little below the point; spines ash-coloured, stiff, black-tipped. flowers in a ring about the top of the stem, length in., the tube enveloped in long, black, twisted hairs; sepals brown-purple; petals narrow, sharp-pointed, purple-rose coloured; stamens white and yellow; stigma rose-coloured. flowers in june and july. native of mexico. a large, handsome-stemmed kind, easily kept in health, and flowering freely if grown on a shelf in a cool greenhouse in winter, and placed in a warm, sunny position out of doors in summer. it produces seeds freely, and pretty plants, in. or more in diameter, may be obtained in two years from seeds. by grafting it, when young, on the stem of a cereus or cylindrical opuntia, a healthy, drumstick-like plant is easily obtained. chapter xii. the genus leuchtenbergia. (named in honour of prince leuchtenberg.) among the many instances of plant mimicry that occur in the cactus order, the most remarkable is the plant here figured. remove the flower from leuchtenbergia, and very few people indeed would think of calling it a cactus, but would probably consider it a short-leaved yucca. in habit, in form, in leaf, and in texture, it more resembles a yucca or an agave than anything else, and when first introduced it was considered such by the kew authorities until it flowered. the leaves, or rather tubercles, are sometimes longer and slenderer than in fig. . the nearest approach to this plant is mamillaria longimamma, in which the tubercles are in. or more long, finger-shaped, and crowned with a few hair-like spines. but the leuchtenbergia bears its flowers on the ends of the tubercles, and not from the axils, as in all others. this peculiarity leads one to infer that tubercles are modified branches, the spines representing the leaves. some species of mamillaria and echinocactus develop young plants from the tops of their tubercles; and this also points to the probability that the latter are branches. in leuchtenbergia, the tubercles fall away as the plant increases in height, leaving a bare, woody stem similar to that of a yucca. cultivation.--the leuchtenbergia has always been difficult to keep in health. it thrives best when kept in a warm, sunny house during winter, and in an exposed, airy, warm position under a frame during summer. it may be watered regularly whilst growing--that is, from april to september--and kept quite dry all winter. the soil should be well-drained loam, and the roots should have plenty of room. a specimen may be seen in the kew collection. propagation.--this may be effected from seeds, or by removing the head from an old plant, putting the former in sand, and placing it under a bell-glass to root, watering it only about once a week till roots are formed. the old stem should be kept dry for about two months, and then watered and placed in a sunny, moist position, where it can be syringed once a day. a shelf in a stove is the best position for it. here it will form young buds in the axils of the withered tubercles, and on the edges of the persistent parts of the tubercles themselves. they first appear in the form of tiny tufts of yellowish down, and gradually develop till the first leaf-like tubercle appears. when large enough, the buds may be removed and planted in small pots to root. if an old plant is dealt with in this way in april, a batch of young ones should be developed and rooted by october. grafting does not appear to have ever been tried for this plant. when sick, the plant should be carefully washed, and all decayed parts cut away; it may then be planted in very sandy loam, and kept under a bell-glass till rooted. [illustration: fig. . leuchtenbergia principis.] species. l. principis (noble); fig. .--this, the only species known, was introduced from mexico to kew in , and flowered the following year. the plant attains a height of ft. or more, the stem being erect, stout, clothed with the persistent, scale-like bases of the old, fallen-away tubercles, the bases having dried up and tightened round the stem. the upper part is clothed with the curved, leaf-like tubercles, from in. to in. long, grey-green in colour, succulent, with a tough skin, triangular, and gradually narrowed to a blunt point, upon which are half a dozen or more thin, flexuous, horny filaments, neither spines nor hairs in appearance, but almost hay-like; the central one is about in. long, and the others about half that length. the flowers are borne on the ends of the young, partly-developed tubercles, near the centre of the head; they are erect, tubular, in. to in. long, scaly, gradually widening upwards; the sepals and petals are numerous, and form a beautiful flower of the ordinary cactus type, quite in. across, and of a rich, clear yellow colour. the anthers, which also are yellow, form a column in the centre, through which the nine-rayed stigma protrudes. strong plants sometimes produce two flowers together. chapter xiii. the genus pelecyphora. (from pelekyphoros, hatchet-bearing; referring to the shape of the tubercles.) ike leuchtenbergia, this genus is monotypic, and it is also rare, difficult to cultivate, and exceptionally interesting in structure. it is closely related to the mamillarias, as may be seen, by comparing the figure here given with some of them; indeed, it was once known as m. asellifera, having been described under that name when first introduced, in . from mamillaria, however, it differs in the form of its tubercles, which are hatchet-shaped, and cleft at the apex, where each division is clothed with small, horny, overlapping scales, not unlike the back of a woodlouse--hence the specific name. cultivation.--the hatchet cactus grows very slowly, specimens such as that represented in our illustration being many years old. we have seen healthy plants, freshly imported, grow for a few months, and then suddenly die, the inside of the stem rotting whilst outside it looked perfectly healthy. it is always grown on its own roots, but probably it would thrive better if grafted on the stem of some dwarf cereus or echinocactus. [illustration: fig. . pelecyphora aselliformis.] propagation.--the propagation of pelecyphora is easiest effected by means of seeds, which, however, are not always procurable. it is stated by labouret, a french writer on cactuses, that the first plants introduced arrived dead, but a few seeds were found in a withered fruit on one of the dead stems, and from these the first plants grown in europe were raised. m. de smet of ghent, had a large stock of this cactus a few years ago, and a german nurseryman, h. hildmann, of oranienberg, near berlin, usually has many young plants of it for sale. species. p. aselliformis (woodlouse-like); fig. .--the size, habit, and structure of this plant are so well represented in the figure that little description is necessary. the stems are simple till they get about in. high, when they develop offsets about the base, which may either be removed to form new plants, or allowed to remain and grow into a specimen like that in the illustration. the flowers are large for the size of the plant, and they are developed freely in the apex of the stems in the early part of the summer. the tube is very short, naked, and completely hidden by the young mammae; sepals and petals in four series, the outer one pale purple, the inner of a deep purple colour; stamens very numerous, and the stigma has only four erect lobes. the plant was first described from examples cultivated in berlin in , but the flowers were not known till . there are several varieties known, viz., p. a. concolor, which is distinguished by the whole of the flower being deep purple in colour; p. a. pectinata has larger scales (spine-tufts); and p. a. cristata is, as its name denotes a kind of cockscomb or crested form. they are all natives of mexico. chapter xiv. the genus opuntia. (the old latin name used by pliny, and said to have been derived from the city of opus.) there are about species of opuntia known, all of them natives of the american continent and the west indies, though a considerable number have become naturalised in many other parts of the world. they are, with very few exceptions, easily distinguished from all other cactuses by the peculiar character of their stems and spines; they are also well marked in the structure of their flowers. they vary in size from small, trailing, many-branched plants, never exceeding in. in height, to large shrubs ft. to ft. high. (humboldt states that he saw "opuntias and other cactuses ft. to ft. high.") generally the branches are nearly flat when young, and shaped like a racquet or battledore; but in some species the branches are round (i.e., in o. cylindrica, o. subulata, o. arborescens, &c.). all the kinds have fleshy stems, which ultimately become cylindrical and woody. at first they consist of fleshy joints, superposed upon one another, the joints varying considerably in size and shape. when young they bear small fleshy leaves along with the spine-tufts; but the former fall off at an early stage, whilst the spines are altered in length or number as the joints get old. in one or two kinds the spines fall away when the joints begin to harden, and in o. subulata the leaves are large and persistent. the nature of the spines of opuntias is of a kind that is not likely to be forgotten by anyone coming into contact with them. every spine, from the tiny bristles, hardly perceptible to the naked eye, to the stout, needle-like spears which are found on the branches of some kinds, is barbed, and they are so very sharp and penetrating that even a gentle touch is sufficient to make them pierce the skin. once in they are very difficult to get out; the very fine ones can only be shaved level with the skin, and left to grow out, whilst the larger must be cut out if they have penetrated to any depth. this horrid character in opuntias, whilst rendering them disagreeable to the gardener, has been turned to good account in many of our colonies, where they are commonly used as fences. a good hedge of such kinds as o. tuna or o. horrida is absolutely impassable to both man and beast, and as the stems are too watery to be easily destroyed by fire, their usefulness in this way could not be surpassed. as all the opuntias will grow in the very poorest of soils, and even on bare rocks, and as they grow very rapidly, they have been largely employed in africa, australia, and india for fences. it is reported that when an island in the west indies was divided between the french and english, the boundary was marked by three rows of o. tuna. the flowers of opuntias are not, as a rule, particularly attractive. in many of the kinds they are large and well-formed, but the colours are tawny-yellow, greenish-white, or dull red. these plants cannot, therefore, be recommended for any floral beauty, although it is probable that the same flowers, on plants of less repulsive appearance than opuntias are, as a rule, would be admired. there are a few exceptions to this in such species as o. rafinesquii, o. missouriensis, and o. basilaris, which are compact and dwarf, and bear numerous large, brightly-coloured flowers. the fruits of opuntias, or, at least, some of them, are edible, and to some palates they are very agreeable. we have tasted them, and consider they are mawkish and insipid--not much better than very poor gooseberries. sir joseph hooker has compared them to pumpkins. they are pear-shaped, with a thick, spine-covered rind, containing green, yellow, or red pulp, with small, hard seeds scattered through it. the fruit of opuntia differs in character and structure from the ordinary kind of fruit, such as apples, pears, &c. it consists of a branch, or joint, modified in form, and bearing on its flattened apex a flower, with the ovary buried in a slight depression in the fleshy joint. after becoming fertilised, the ovary grows down into the joint, and, ultimately the whole joint is changed into a succulent, juicy, often coloured "fruit." that this is the case has been proved by planting the unripe "fruit" of opuntias in pots of sandy soil, and treating them as cuttings, when they have developed buds at the apex and roots at the base, ultimately forming plants. the vitality in the branches of most of the species is very great, the smallest piece, as a rule, emitting roots and developing into a plant in a comparatively short time. the branches are soft, and easily broken, so that, in gathering the fruits, many pieces are broken off and cast aside; these soon grow into plants, and in a short time an extensive "colony" of opuntias springs up where previously only one had been. the seeds, too, are a ready means of increase, being distributed by birds and other animals, which eat the fruits. in consequence of this free vegetative character, the opuntias introduced into some of our colonies have become a pest almost as difficult to deal with as the rabbit scourge in australia. in english gardens, however, there is no danger of opuntias getting the upper hand. the adaptability of the majority of the kinds for cultivation under what may be termed adverse conditions for other plants, and the ease with which they may be propagated, render the management of a collection of these plants an easy matter. amongst other cactuses, opuntias have a striking effect, and a selection of them should be grown in even the smallest collections. a few of them may be recommended specially as attractive plants for a sheltered, sunny rockery. cultivation.--the cultural requirements of the opuntias may more conveniently be referred to under the description of each kind. propagation.--this entails no exceptional treatment; the numerous seeds contained in each fruit germinate freely if sown in sandy soil, and placed on a shelf in a warm house; and the smallest branches root quickly if planted in pots of open soil and kept in the cactus-house. large branches root just as freely as small ones. at kew an enormous specimen, which had grown tall, and developed a thicket of branches too great for the house where it grew, was reduced most summarily by simply cutting off the head of branches and planting it in the ground where the original specimen had been. in a short time this "cutting" was well rooted, and made better growth than it had before the operation was performed. as stocks for grafting, many of the more robust kinds of opuntia are well adapted, and very singular-looking specimens may be obtained by making the most of this fact. one of the crested or monstrous forms, when grafted on a flat-stemmed kind, presents the queerest of appearances, looking like a large green cockscomb growing out of the top of a bladdery kind of stem. equally odd combinations may be made by grafting a flat-stemmed kind on one whose stem is cylindrical. as all the kinds unite with the greatest ease, a taste for oddities among plants may easily be gratified by making use of opuntias in this way. the time most favourable for the operation is spring-say, the month of april. for full information on how to graft cactuses, see chapter iv., on propagation. species. o. arborescens (tree-like).--this species is known as the walking-stick or elk-horn cactus, from its cylindrical, woody stems being made into very curious-looking walking-sticks (examples of which may be seen in the museum at kew), whilst the arrangement of the branches is suggestive of elk horns. habit erect; joints cylindrical, branching freely, and forming trees from ft. to ft. high. stems covered with oblong tubercles and tufts of long, needle-like spines, which give the plant a very ferocious aspect. flowers on the ends of the young branches, in. to in. in diameter, bright purple in colour, developing in june. it is a native of mexico, &c., and requires greenhouse or stove treatment. the skeletons of this species, as seen scattered over the desert places where it is wild, have a very singular and startling appearance. they stand in the form of trees, quite devoid of leaves, spines, or flesh, and, owing to the peculiar arrangement of the ligneous layers, nothing remains except a hollow cylinder, perforated with mesh-like holes, indicating the points where the tubercles and small branches had been. these skeletons are said to stand many years. o. arbuscula (small tree).--another of the cylindrical kinds, with a solid, woody trunk, about in. through, and clothed with smooth, green bark; it grows to a height of ft. or ft. branches very numerous, slender, copiously jointed, the ultimate joints about in. long and ½ in. thick; they are slightly tuberculated, and bear tufts of spines nearly in. long. flowers ½ in. in diameter, produced in june; petals few, greenish-yellow, tinged with red. it is a native of mexico, and requires stove treatment. a pretty plant, or, rather, a very remarkable one, even when not in flower, the thin branches, with their hundreds of long, whitish spines, being singular. unfortunately, it is not easily grown. o. arenaria (sand-loving).--stems spreading, forming a tuft ft. through and about ft. high. joints ½ in. to in. long, and a little less in width, terete, with very prominent tubercles and numerous tawny bristles; upper spines in. to ½ in. long, white, with a yellow point, shorter ones hair-like and curled. flowers in. in diameter, produced in may. fruit in. long, bearing a few short spines. mexico. a strong-rooted plant, which should be grown in very loose, sandy soil. it would probably thrive best when planted out on a stage near the glass in a stove. o. auberi (auber's).--an erect-growing plant, ft. or more high, not unlike o. ficus-indica in the form of its joints, but with long spines springing from the cushions, whereas the latter has none. the joints are oblong-ovate, glaucous-green, the cushions few and scattered; spines white, flattened, of various lengths. flowers tawny yellow, small for the size of the plant. a native of cuba, and requiring stove treatment. being very brittle, this plant should be supported with stakes. o. aurantiaca (orange).--a dwarf, cylindrical-stemmed kind, branching freely. joints short, ¾ in. in diameter; cushions of reddish spines, one about in. long, the others shorter; bases of spines enveloped in white wool. flowers bright orange, in. to in. across. this species is a native of chili, whence it was introduced in . it should be grown in a warm greenhouse all winter, and placed in a sunny position outside during summer. o. basilaris (branching at the base); fig. .--a dwarf, compact plant, of peculiar habit. stem short, branching into a number of stout, obovate, often fan-shaped joints, which usually spring from a common base, and curve inwards, suggesting an open cabbage. joints in. to in. long, about in. thick, covered all over with dot-like cushions of very short, reddish spines, set in slight depressions or wrinkles. flowers of a beautiful and rich purple colour, about ½ in. in diameter, and produced in may. this distinct plant is a native of mexico, and is of recent introduction. plants of it may be seen in the kew collection. it is apparently easily kept in health in an ordinary stove temperature along with other cactuses. it varies in the form of its joints and in its manner of branching, but it seems never to develop the joints one on the top of the other, as do most opuntias. this species is certain to become a favourite when it becomes better known. [illustration: fig. . opuntia basilaris.] o. bigelovii (bigelow's).--a cylinder-stemmed, tall-growing plant, with a stout, woody stem, bearing a dense head of branches. joints in. to in. long, in. to in. in diameter, light green, covered with small tubercles and little spine-cushions, with larger spines in. long. when wild, the young joints are often shaken off by the wind, and cover the soil around, where they take root or stick to the clothes of the passers-by like burrs. flowers not known. a native of mexico, where it forms a tree ft. high; it requires stove treatment. the skeleton of the trunk is a hollow cylinder, perforated with numerous holes, which occur in a regular spiral. the appearance of a full-grown specimen is very striking, the oval joints, thickly covered with long, needle-like spines, hanging in clusters, more suggestive of spiny fruit than branches. o. boliviana (bolivian); fig. .--stems ft. high, erect, branching, and composed of roundish, pale green joints, with small, round tubercles, and long, white, flexible spines, sometimes as much as in. in length; cushions about in. apart. flowers ½ in. across, yellowish. this is a fat, gouty-looking plant, from bolivia, requiring stove treatment. it often assumes a yellow hue on the older joints, even when in good health. [illustration: fig. . opuntia boliviana.] o. brachyarthra (short-jointed); fig. .--a dwarf-growing, singular-looking plant, with short, tumid joints from in. to in. long and wide, and nearly the same in thickness. the shortness of the joints, together with their growing on the top of each other, has been not inaptly compared to a jointed finger. cushions very close together, composed of short, white and yellowish bristles, and stout, terete spines, in. or more long, set on little tubercles. flowers in. in diameter, with about five sepals, eight or nine petals, and a five-rayed stigma; they are borne on the apices of the topmost joints. this species is worth growing on account of its peculiar stems and the length of its white spines. it is a native of new mexico, and has been recently introduced to kew, where it is cultivated among the hardy kinds, and also in the greenhouse. [illustration: fig. . opuntia brachyarthra.] o. braziliensis (brazilian).--the peculiar habit and mode of growth at once distinguish this species. it rises with a perfectly straight, erect, slender, but firm and stiff, round stem, to a height of from ft. to ft., tapering from the base upwards, and furnished all the way up with short, horizontal branches, spreading about ft. all round, like an immense candelabrum. spines long, subulate, very sharp, ash-coloured, in clusters. joints broadly oblong, margins wavy; they resemble leaves, or the thin, leaf-like joints of a phyllocactus, with the addition of long, whitish spines on both sides. flowers ½ in. in diameter, lemon-yellow, very freely produced on the younger joints during may and june. fruit as large as a walnut, spiny, yellow when ripe. this species is a native of brazil, whence it was introduced in . it may be recommended for large, airy houses, as it grows freely, and forms a striking object when arranged with foliage and flowering plants of the ordinary kind. its fruits are edible. o. candelabriformis (candelabrum-shaped).--stems erect, ft. to ft. high; joints flat, almost circular, about in. in diameter, glaucous-green, densely clothed with numerous cushions of white, bristle-like spines, a few in each cushion being long and thread-like. flowers not known on cultivated plants. this sturdy species is a native of mexico, and succeeds well if planted on a little rockery or raised mound in a warm house, where, properly treated, it branches freely, and forms a dense mass of circular joints. it is one of the most useful of the larger opuntias for cultivation in large houses. o. clavata (club-shaped).--stem short; joints club-shaped, in. long and in. wide, narrowed almost to a point at both ends. cushions ¼ in. apart, composed of numerous spines, varying from short and bristle-like to in. in length, stout, flattened, and spear-like. leaves ¼ in. long. flowers yellow, ½ in. across. fruit ½ in. long, lemon-yellow when ripe, and covered with stellate clusters of white, bristle-like spines. new mexico, . a stove species, remarkable for the strength and form of its central spines, which are spear or dagger-shaped. o. cochinellifera (cochineal-bearing); bot. mag. .--an erect-growing plant, attaining a height of ft. or more, and branching freely, the older parts of the stem and branches being woody and cylindrical; young joints flat, oblong-ovate, varying in length from in. to ft., deep green, rather soft and watery, spineless, the cushions distant, and sometimes bearing a few very short bristles. flowers at the extremities of the branches, ½ in. long, composed of numerous imbricating, scale-like petals, curving inwards, and coloured crimson. fruit flat-topped, in. long, red; pulp reddish; seeds black. it is a native of tropical south america, whence it was introduced in . it requires stove treatment, and blossoms in august. this is one of the most useful of the genus, on account of its being the kind chiefly employed in the cultivation of cochineal. it is one of the easiest to manage, requiring only a rather dry atmosphere, plenty of light, and a temperature not lower than degs. in winter. syn. nopalea cochinellifera. o. corrugata (wrinkled).--stem not more than ft. high; joints cylindrical, wrinkled all over, about in. long, covered with cushions of white hair or bristle-like spines. flowers ½ in. across, reddish-yellow, produced in august. a native of chili, whence it was introduced in . it may be grown in an ordinary greenhouse, on a shelf near the glass, and exposed to full sunshine. o. curassavica (curassoa); pin-pillow.--branches spreading; joints cylindrical or club-shaped, dark green, bearing numerous cushions of woolly bristles, and long, white, very sharp-pointed spines. flowers in. across, greenish-yellow, borne on the young joints in june. introduced from curassoa in . a free-growing plant under favourable conditions, and one requiring stove treatment. it has been cultivated in gardens almost as long as any species of cactus. there are several varieties of it known, differing from the type in habit, length of spine, or shade of colour in the flower. o. cylindrica (cylindrical).--stem and joints cylindrical, the latter covered with spindle-shaped tubercles, each one crowned with a tuft of fine, hair-like, whitish spines, one or two in each tuft being stiff, and sharp as needles. the leaves are fleshy, cylindrical, in. or more long, and they remain on the joints longer than is usual in opuntias. flowers crowded on the ends of the branches, each in. in diameter, scarlet; they are developed in june. this plant is said to grow to a height of ft. or more in its native habitat, but under cultivation it is rarely seen more than ft. high; it was introduced in . it is handsome and distinct enough to be worth growing. it requires stove or greenhouse treatment, but rarely flowers under cultivation. o. c. cristata (crested).--a dwarf, cockscomb-like variety, with the leaves and white hairs growing all along the wrinkled top of the comb. it is a very singular example of a "monster" cactus. it requires stove treatment. o. davisii (davis'); bot. mag. .--stems somewhat horizontal, not exceeding ½ ft. in height; joints in. to in. in length, and about ½ in. in thickness; wood dense, and hard when old; tubercles not prominent, bearing cushions of very slender bristles, forming a kind of brush, from amongst which the spines spring. the longest spines are ½ in., and they are covered with a loose, glistening sheath. flowers in. in diameter, greenish-brown. the plant is a native of new mexico, and was introduced in . it forms a compact, shrubby little plant if grown in an intermediate house during winter, and placed in the open in full sunshine during summer. it was flowered for the first time in england in , and although not what we should call an attractive plant, in america it is described as being "a well-marked and pretty species." it is named after jefferson davis, the american statesman. o. decumana (great-oblong). this is the largest-growing species in cultivation. at kew it is represented by a plant ft. high (it would grow still taller if the house were higher). it has a hard, woody, brown-barked stem, bearing an enormous head of very large, elliptical, flat joints, in. to in. long, and about ft. broad, smooth, grey-green, with a few scattered cushions of very tiny bristles, and sometimes, though rarely, a spine or two. flowers large, orange-coloured, produced in summer. fruit oval, in. long, spiny, brownish-red, very watery when ripe; flesh red, sweet. a native of brazil, and requiring stove treatment. this is said to be what is known in malta as the indian fig. the plant is chiefly interesting here on account of the extraordinary size of the joints. o. diademata (diademed).--a small, remarkable, and extremely rare little species, with a short, erect stem, composed of globose, superposed joints, grey-green in colour, and very succulent. the topmost joint is pear-shaped, with a tuft of whitish hair and spines on the apex, out of which the new growth pushes. cushions large, about in. apart, furnished with a tuft of short, grey hairs and short spines, with a large one at the base. the character of this large spine is exceptional, being broad, flat, cartilaginous, whitish, and curving downwards. on healthy large examples these spines are in. long, and nearly ¼ in. wide at the base. flowers and fruit not known. native of mendoza (la plata). this little plant requires to be cultivated in a warm greenhouse or stove, but it grows very slowly. it is certainly a most interesting cactus; examples of it may be seen at kew, where there is a plant which, although over ten years old, is only in. high. syns. o. platyacantha and cereus syringacanthus. o. dillenii (dillenius'); fig. .--an erect-growing, robust species, attaining a height of ft., with flattened, ovate joints, about in. long by in. broad. cushions composed of short, white, hair-like bristles, and numerous long, stout, yellow spines. flowers yellow, tinged with red, in. in diameter, freely produced on the ends of the youngest joints all summer. fruits similar to those of o. ficus-indica. a native of the west indies, now naturalised in all warmer parts of the world. in india it is so plentiful and widespread that roxburgh, an indian botanist, said it was a native. in india, its fruits are eaten by the poor natives, and it is often planted as a hedge. it is also a great pest in the open lands of that country, and large sums are annually expended in cutting it down and burying it. this species, which requires warm greenhouse treatment, is also employed in the cultivation of cochineal. [illustration: fig. . opuntia dillenii.] o. echinocarpa (spiny-fruited).--a low, straggling shrub, not exceeding ½ ft. in height. joints cylindrical, from in. to in. long, less than in. thick. cushions of rather coarse bristles and numerous spines, from ½ in. to in. in length. flowers in. in diameter, yellow, produced in summer. fruit short, depressed, almost saucer-shaped, and bearing spines nearly in. long. a native of colorado, &c. it requires stove treatment. the variety major has stems ft. high, joints in. to in. long, and long, sheathed spines. this species is closely related to o. bigelovii and o. davisii. o. emoryi (emory's).--a prostrate, spreading plant, less than ½ ft. high. joints cylindrical, curved, in. long, ½ in. thick. tubercles very prominent, longitudinally attached to the stem, the apices crowned with pea-shaped cushions of short bristles, and numerous radiating spines, some of which are fully in. long, very strong and needle-like. flowers ½ in. in diameter, sulphur-yellow, tinged with purple, produced in august and september. fruit ½ in. long and in. thick, covered with cushions of bristles and spines. a native of mexico, on dry, sandy soils, where its prostrate stems, clothed with powerful spines, form a hiding-place for the small animals, snakes, &c. stove or warm greenhouse treatment is best for this species. o. engelmanni (engelmann's).--a stout, coarse-looking plant, ft. high, with woody stems and large, flat, green joints, ft. long and in. in diameter. cushions ½ in. apart, composed of coarse bristles, and one or two spines over in. long, and pointing downwards. flowers in. in diameter, yellow, produced in may and june. fruit nearly round, in. long, purplish both in rind and pulp, the latter rather nauseous to the taste. mexico. this is a greenhouse plant which grows freely and flowers annually under cultivation. it is very similar to o. monacantha, a much better known species. according to american botanists, it is probably the most widely spread of the whole cactus tribe. o. ficus-indica (indian fig); fig. .--branches erect, ft. to ft. high; joints flat, oval or obovate, about ft. long by in. in width, and in. in thickness. stems hard and woody with age. cushions ½ in. apart, composed of short, yellowish bristles, and very rarely one spine. flowers in. to in. across, sulphur-yellow, produced all through the summer. fruit in. to in. long, pear-shaped, covered with tufts of bristles, white, yellow, or red when ripe. it is a native of central america, whence it was introduced about years ago. it is now widely spread, in tropical and temperate regions all over the world. in many parts it is cultivated for the sake of its fruits, which in some of our colonies are used for dessert. in england it must be protected from damp and cold; it is, therefore, best cultivated in a sunny greenhouse during winter, and placed outside in a position exposed to full sunshine all summer. tenore, an italian botanist, named this species o. vulgaris, and this mistake has led others to consider the north american o. vulgaris (true) and o. ficus-indica as one and the same species. [illustration: fig. . fruiting branch of opuntia ficus-indica.] o. filipendula (hanging filaments); fig. .--stems prostrate, about ft. high, spreading; joints flat, round or oval, about in. long, often less, milky-green in colour. cushions ½ in. apart, composed of a little tuft of white woolly hair, a cluster of erect, rather long bristles, like a small shaving-brush, and all pointing upwards; spines usually only one in each cushion, and this is slender, deflexed, white, and from in. to in. long. sometimes the joints are wholly spineless. flowers ½ in. in diameter, purplish, very handsome, produced in may and june. fruit not known. the roots of this species bear tubers often in. in thickness, and several inches in length, and these tubers will grow into plants if severed and planted. it requires stove treatment. native country, mexico. [illustration: fig. . opuntia filipendula.] o. frutescens (shrubby).--a thin-stemmed, copiously-branched species. joints almost continuous, like ordinary branches, from in. to in. long, the thickest not exceeding ¼ in. cushions on raised points or tubercles, each consisting of a small tuft of hair, inclosed in a row of bristles, and one long, central spine, often exceeding in. in length. when young, the spines are inclosed in a thin, bony sheath. flowers scattered along the younger branches, in. across, greenish-yellow, borne in june. fruit in. long, pear-shaped, smooth, scarlet, with tufts of bristles all over it, and a depression in the apex. mexico. this forms an interesting pot-plant when properly cultivated. it should be grown in a warm greenhouse. o. grahami (graham's).--this is one of several species of opuntia which are remarkable in having thick, fleshy roots, not unlike those of the dahlia. the joints are in. long and in. in diameter, cylindrical, with adpressed tubercles, ½ in. or more long, each tubercle bearing a tuft of long, straight, radiating spines. flowers in. across, yellow, borne on the ends of the ripened joints in june. fruits ½ in. long and ¾ in. wide, covered with stellate clusters of short, bristle-like spines. this plant is a native of mexico, and is a recent introduction. from the nature of its roots, which are no doubt intended to serve as reservoirs for times of extreme drought, it should be grown in well-drained, sandy soil, and kept quite dry all winter. it requires stove treatment. o. horrida (horrid).--an erect, stout-stemmed plant, with flattened, green joints, about in. long by in. wide. cushions in. apart, composed of short, reddish bristles, and long, tawny red spines, about eight in each cushion, and of a peculiarly ferocious appearance--hence the specific name. the stoutest spines are in. long, and are sharp and strong as needles. this species (which is probably a native of mexico) is deserving of a place in collections of cactuses because of the character of its spines. probably it is only a variety of o. tuna. it requires warm-house treatment. o. hystricina (porcupine-like).--this beautiful species was discovered in the san francisco mountains mixed with o. missouriensis, to which it is nearly allied. it is spreading in habit, the joints in. to in. long and broad; cushions ½ in. apart, rather large, with numerous spines, varying in length from ½ in. to in., and short, yellowish bristles. flowers large, yellow. fruit in., long, spiny. this plant is not known in english collections, but it is described by american botanists as being attractive and a free grower. as it is found along with o. missouriensis, it ought to prove hardy in england. o. leptocaulis (slender-stemmed).--this little mexican species is chiefly remarkable for its fragile, numerous, twig-like joints, thickly dotted with tubercles and numerous spirally-arranged cushions of reddish bristles, with long, grey spines. it does not flower under cultivation. requires stove treatment. o. leucotricha (white-haired).--an erect-stemmed kind, with flattened joints, ovate or oblong in shape, and bearing numerous cushions, ½ in. apart, of short bristles, with a large, central spine, and a few others rather shorter. when young these spines are rigid and needle-like; but as they get older they increase in length, and become soft, and curled like stiff, white hair. young plants are noticeable for their small, subulate leaves of a bright red colour, whilst old examples are almost as interesting as the old man cactus (pilocereus senilis), the long, white, hair-like spines of the opuntia hanging from the older joints in much the same manner as they do from the upper part of the stem of the pilocereus. flowers yellow, produced in june. this species is a native of mexico, and requires stove treatment. seeds of this, and, indeed, of a large proportion of the cultivated opuntias, may be procured from seedsmen, and as they germinate quickly, and soon produce handsome little plants, a collection of opuntias is thus very easily obtained. o. macrocentra (large-spurred).--a flat-jointed species, growing to a height of ft.; the joints large, almost circular, thinly compressed, and usually purplish in colour. cushions about in. apart, with spines often in. long, of a greyish colour, and generally pointing downwards. flowers in. across, bright yellow; they are developed in may and june, on the upper edges of the youngest joints. this plant is a native of mexico; it is at present rare, but the unusual colour of the joints, its compact, freely-branched habit, the extraordinary length of its spines, and the size of its flowers, ought to win for it many admirers. it is easily grown if kept in an intermediate house. plants of it may be seen in the kew collection. o. macrorhiza (large-rooted); figs. , .--in this texan species we have a combination of the principal characters for which the genus opuntia is remarkable: the thick, fleshy roots, which are a supposed source of food, and which look like potatoes; the cylinder-shaped older stems, and the flattened, battledore-like joints; the tufts of bristles on the stems, and deciduous, longer spines on the joints; the large, beautiful, yellow flowers; and the small leaves on the newly-formed joints. in habit and flowers this kind resembles o. rafinesquii; and if not quite hardy in england, it is nevertheless sufficiently so to thrive in any sunny position where it would be protected from frost and excessive wet. the accompanying illustrations represent the characters of this species so well that further description is not needed. the flowers are developed in early summer. [illustration: fig. . flowering branches of opuntia macrorhiza.] [illustration: fig. . roots of opuntia macrorhiza.] o. microdasys (small, thick).--this is a handsome little mexican plant. its flattened joints, which are nearly circular in outline, are thickly covered with little cushions of bright orange-yellow bristles, the cushions being so close together that the short bristles almost hide the green joints from view. the stems are semi-decumbent, and they branch somewhat freely. flowers not seen. it thrives in a warm greenhouse temperature. the best examples of this pretty opuntia are grafted on a robust-growing kind, the stock being about ft. long, and the scion forming a compact head of pretty, healthy-looking joints. treated in this way, this species is most interesting and attractive. it may also be grown on its own roots. there is a variety of it, named rufida, in which the bristles are reddish-brown. o. missouriensis (missouri).--a stout, prostrate kind, forming large, spreading masses under favourable conditions. joints broad, flattened, obovate, about in. long by in. wide, light green; spine-cushions less than in. apart, and composed of numerous small, white spines, with from one to four longer ones; these latter fall away when the joints get old. leaves very short, with a little wool about their bases. flowers in. in diameter, appearing from may onwards; petals yellow, dashed with rose, sometimes wholly rose-coloured or brick-red. stamens deep red; pistil yellow, with a conical stigma. fruit nearly round, spiny, about in. long. a native of wisconsin, and westward to the san francisco mountains; introduced in . this species is as hardy as o. rafinesquii, and thrives under similar treatment. it has stood degs. of frost without suffering, requiring only protection from rain in winter. in north america it forms large, spreading masses on gravelly hillsides, and is much dreaded by travellers, and especially by horses; there it is usually covered with snow from christmas to the following may. o. monacantha (one-spined).--a tall, robust plant, not unlike o. dillenii in general habit. it has flat, large joints, oblong or ovate in outline, rather thinly compressed, and bearing grey cushions over in. apart, with a solitary spine, ½ in. long, springing from the centre of each cushion, and pointing downwards. flowers sulphur-yellow, ½ in. across, borne on the last-ripened joints in may, and abundant on well-grown plants. fruits ovate, in. long, green, with tufts of short, brown bristles; pulp edible. the species is a native of brazil, but is now common in many tropical and sub-tropical countries. it is a free-growing kind, soon forming a large specimen if planted in a bed of old brick-rubble, or other light, well-drained soil, and kept in warm greenhouse temperature. o. nigricans (blackish); bot. mag. .--stem stout, erect, becoming hard and woody when old. joints flat, oval in outline, in. to in. long. cushions ½ in. apart, composed of short reddish-brown bristles and two or three long stout spines, which are yellow when young, but almost black when ripe. flowers produced on the young, ripened joints, orange-red, about in. across and developed in august and september. fruit pear-shaped, rich crimson when ripe. introduced from brazil in . this well-marked species thrives in a warm greenhouse. it branches freely, and has a healthy aspect at all times. it is represented at kew by very large specimens; one of them, which was recently cut down, had a stem ft. high and an enormous head of dark, green joints. its head was planted as a cutting. o. occidentalis (western).--stem stout, woody, with innumerable branches, wide-spreading, often bent to the ground. joints in. to in. long by about in. broad, flattened, as many as on one plant. cushions nearly in. apart, with small, closely-set bristles and straight spines from ½ in. to l½ in. long. flowers produced in june on the ripened joints, nearly in. in diameter, orange-yellow. fruit in. long, "very juicy, but of a sour and disagreeable taste." this is an exceptionally fine plant when allowed sufficient space to develop its enormous branches and joints; it is a native of the western slopes of the californian mountains. it should be planted in a bed of rough, stony soil, in a dry greenhouse. possibly it is hardy, but it does not appear to have been grown out of doors in england. o. parmentieri (parmentier's).--stem erect. joints cylindrical, "like little cucumbers." cushions about in. apart, arranged in spiral rows, and composed of short, reddish bristles, with two or three straw-coloured spines, in. long. flowers reddish, small. the plant is a native of paraguay, and is rarely heard of in cultivation. it requires stove treatment. o. parryi (parry's).--stem short. joints club-shaped, in. to in. long, very spiny, the cushions elevated on ridge-like tubercles. bristles few, coarse, and long. spines very numerous, varying in length from ¼ in. to ½ in.; central one in each cushion much the broadest, and flattened like a knife-blade, the others being more or less triangular. flowers yellowish-green, on the terminal joints, which are clothed with star-shaped clusters of bristle-like spines, the flowers springing from the apex of the joint, and measuring ½ in. across. a native of mexico, where it grows on gravelly plains. this distinct plant is in cultivation at kew, in a warm greenhouse, but it has not yet flowered. o. rafinesquii (rafinesque's); fig. .--a low, prostrate, spreading plant, seldom exceeding ft. in height, the main branches keeping along the ground, the younger ones being erect. the latter are composed of flat, obovate joints, in. to in. long by in. in width, fresh green in colour; spines very few, mostly only on the upper edge of the last-made joints, single, or sometimes two or three from each spine-cushion, in. long, straight, whitish, soon falling off; cushion composed of very fine reddish bristles and whitish wool; leaves very small, falling early. the branches become cylindrical and woody with age. flowers in. to in. in diameter, bright sulphur-yellow, with a reddish tint in the centre; in form they are like a shallow cup, the numerous stamens occupying the middle. they are produced in great abundance on the margins of the youngest joints, as many as fifty open flowers having been counted on a single specimen at one time. fruit pear-shaped, ½ in. to in. long, naked, edible, somewhat acid and sweetish. the flowering season is from july to september; the native country, wisconsin to kentucky, and westward to arkansas and missouri. this species, introduced about twenty years ago, has only recently been brought prominently before english gardeners. it is a very ornamental and interesting plant for outdoor cultivation, and when once established gives no trouble. for the first year or two after planting it requires watching, as, until the basal joints harden and become woody, they are liable to rot in wet weather. a large-flowered form, known as grandiflora, is cultivated in american gardens. [illustration: fig. . opuntia rafinesquii.] o. rosea (rose-coloured); fig. .--stem erect, branching freely. joints varying in length from in. to in., not flattened, with ridge-like tubercles, bearing on their points small cushions of very fine bristles and tufts of pale yellowish spines about ½ in. long, and all pointing upwards. flowers on the ends of the ripened growths of the year, usually clustered, in. across, bright rose-coloured; they are developed in june. a rare species from brazil, and one which, as the illustration shows, is both distinct and handsome enough to be classed amongst the most select. it requires a stove temperature. [illustration: fig. . opuntia rosea.] o. salmiana (prince salm-dyck's).--stem erect, branching freely, the branches at right angles to the stem. joints from in. to in. long, cylindrical, smooth, ½ in. in diameter, clothed with small cushions of soft, short bristles, and one or two longish spines. flowers produced in september, in. across, yellow, streaked with red, of short duration. fruit egg-shaped, in. long, crimson. this species is a native of brazil, whence it was introduced in . it requires to be grown in an intermediate house. it is a charming little cactus, and quite exceptional among opuntias in the colour and abundance of its flowers, and in the rich colour of its numerous fruits, which usually remain on the plant several months. the plant, too, has the merit of keeping dwarf and compact. the small joints separate very easily from the branches, and every one of them will root and grow into a plant. there is something very remarkable in the development of the fruits of this kind. a small branch, or joint, grows to its full length, and a flower-bud appears in the apex. if examined at this stage, it will be seen that the ovary occupies only a very shallow cavity in the top of the branch. after flowering, this ovary grows into the branch, and ultimately the whole branch is transformed into a pulpy fruit, with the seeds scattered all through the pulp. this peculiarity is well shown in o. salmiana, and the development of the fruit can be very easily watched. many of the small branches do not flower, although they change to a red colour like the fruits. o. spinosissima (very spiny).--stem erect, woody. joints very flat and thin, deep green, ovate or rotund, from in. to ft. long. cushions in. apart. bristles very short. spines in clusters of about five, the longest in. in length, brownish-yellow. flowers reddish-orange, small, usually only in. across, produced in june. a native of south america; naturalised in many parts of the old world. the stem becomes cylindrical with age, and sometimes is devoid of branches for about ft. from the ground. the plant requires stove treatment. probably this kind is only a form of o. tuna. o. subulata (awl-shaped).--stem erect, cylindrical, even below, channelled and tubercled above, about in. in diameter. joints long and branch-like, with tufts of short, white hair on the apices of the tubercles, and one or two white, needle-like spines from ½ in. to in. long. at the base of each tuft, from the apex to ft. or more down the younger branches, there is a fleshy, green, awl-shaped leaf, from in. to in. long. ultimately the leaves and spines fall away, the tubercles are levelled down, and the mature stem is regular and cylindrical, with tufts of white setae scattered over it. flowers small, produced in spring; sepals in. long, green, deciduous; petals small, dull purple, usually about eight in each flower. fruit pear-shaped, in. long; seeds very large, nearly ½ in. long and wide. this handsome south american species was the subject of an interesting communication to the gardeners' chronicle, in , from dr. engelmann. it had previously been known as a pereskia from the fact of its leaves being persistent and very large. in its leaves, flowers, and seeds, o. subulata is one of the most interesting of the genus. it is easily grown in a warm greenhouse, and deserves a place in all collections of cactuses. o. tuna (native name); fig. .--an erect-stemmed, flat-jointed, robust-growing species. joints ovate, in. to in. long, with cushions in. apart, composed of short, fulvous bristles, and several long, needle-shaped, unequal, yellowish spines. flowers borne on the upper edges of the last-ripened joints, in. across, reddish-orange, produced in july. fruit rich carmine, about in. long, pear-shaped. the plant is a native of the west indies, &c., and was introduced in . it has already been stated, under o. spinosissima, that there is a close similarity between that species and o. tuna. we suspect, also, that o. nigricans is another near relation of these two. they are much alike in all characters, and they require the same treatment. o. tuna has been seen as much as ft. in height. [illustration: fig. . opuntia tuna.] o. tunicata (coated-spined).--stem sub-erect, cylindrical. joints club-shaped, variable in length, about in. in diameter. when young the surface is broken up into numerous oblong tubercles, each bearing a small cushion of whitish, short hairs, and about half a dozen white spines, unequal in length, the longest stout, and inclosed in a hard sheath, which becomes broken and ragged when old. flowers not known. a native of mexico, and introduced in . it requires stove treatment. o. vulgaris (common); bot. mag. .--a low, prostrate, spreading plant. joints short, oval, flattened, thicker than in o. missouriensis, in. long by about in. broad. spine-cushions ¾ in. apart; tufts very small, with, occasionally, a long spine. leaves fleshy, very small. flowers in. across, pale sulphur-yellow. fruits nearly smooth, ½ in. long, brown when ripe, with a strong disagreeable odour. the flowers are produced freely in june. the plant grows wild in mexico, and extends up to new york, usually near the coast. it is now common in many parts of europe, where it has become naturalised. in madeira it has taken possession of all waste land, and is perfectly at home there. in england it was cultivated by gerard nearly years ago. it grows rapidly if planted in stony soil, in a position exposed to full sunshine, where it will creep along the ground, and root all along its stems, which rarely get elevated more than in. from the ground. this species and o. ficus-indica are confused by some authors, owing, no doubt, to the name o. vulgaris having been given by a botanist to the latter, which is a much larger and very different-looking plant. o. vulgaris is capable of withstanding our winters out of doors. o. whipplei (captain whipple's).--stem usually prostrate, with slender, elongated branches, which are cylindrical when old, broken up into short joints when young. joints varying in length from in. to ft., less than in. in diameter. cushions small, round. spines white, variable in number, and arranged in tufts on the ends of the tubercles, one being in. long, the others shorter. flowers nearly in. in diameter, red, borne in a cluster on the ends of the last-ripened joints in june. fruit in. long, with a cavity in the top. a compact, mexican species, with crowded branches, and very free-flowering. it requires stove treatment. o. whipplei is related to o. arborescens, from which, however, it is easily distinguished by the latter having a stout central spine and numerous radiating ones. of the species of opuntia known, about one-third have been selected for description here, and amongst these will be found all the best-marked kinds in the genus, and most of those of which we have any knowledge. botanists find good specific characters in the size and structure of the seeds, in the character of the fruits, &c.; but for horticultural purposes these are of little or no value. chapter xv. the genus pereskia. (named in honour of nicholas f. peresk, a botanist of provence.) the thirteen species included in the genus pereskia differ so markedly from all other kinds of cactus, that at first sight one can scarcely believe they are true cactuses, closely related to cereus and epiphyllum. they have erect or trailing stems and branches, and usually form dense, large bushes; the branches are woody and thin, and bear large, laurel-like leaves, which remain on the plants several years--so that they may be termed evergreen. they have, however, the spine-cushions, the tufts of woolly hair and stout spines, and the floral characters which distinguish cactuses from other plants; they are also succulent, the leaves and young branches being soft and fleshy. they appear to have the same peculiar provision for enabling them to bear long periods of drought without suffering that characterises the more familiar forms of cactuses. the development of the spines in this genus is different from what takes place in all other spiny plants of this order. in the latter the spines are stoutest and most numerous on the younger parts of the plant, the older or woody parts being either spineless, through having cast them, or much less spiny than when they were younger. thus, in opuntia we find few or no spines on the old parts of the stems of even such species as o. horrida, o. nigricans, &c. in echinocactus, too, the spines about the base of old plants are much fewer, if not entirely cast off, than on the upper part. in pereskia the contrary is the case. taking p. aculeata as an example, this is best known in gardens as having branches about as thick as a goose-quill, with ovate leaves, at the base of which there is a pair of curved spines, ¼ in. long, and shaped like cats' claws. but this plant when it gets old has a stem in. in diameter, and clothed down to the ground with cushions of spines fixed firmly in the bark, each cushion composed of from twenty to fifty spines, and each spine in. or more in length. from two to six new spines are developed in the centre of each healthy cushion annually. it would be absolutely impossible for any animal to climb an old stem of a pereskia. in p. bleo the spines are in. long, and the cushions are much larger. the flowers of pereskias are borne singly or in panicles, at the ends of the young, ripened branches. in shape, each flower may be compared to a single rose, the petals being flat and spreading, and the numerous stamens forming a compact cluster in the centre. the stigma is erect, and divided at the top into four or more rays. the fruit is a berry shaped like a gooseberry, and covered with minute clusters of short bristles. all the species are found in tropical america and the west indies. cultivation.--although several of the kinds of pereskia are sufficiently ornamental to be deserving of a place in gardens as flowering plants, yet they are rarely cultivated--in england, at least --for any other purpose than that of forming stocks upon which epiphyllums and other cacti are grafted. only two species are used, viz., p. aculeata and p. bleo, the former being much the more popular of the two; whilst p. bleo, on account of the stoutness of its stems, is employed for only the most robust kinds of grafts. propagation.--both the above-named species may be propagated to any extent, as every bit of branch with a leaf and eye attached is capable of rooting and soon forming a stock. the practice among those who use pereskias as stocks for epiphyllums is as follows: cuttings of p. aculeata are planted in sandy soil, in boxes, and placed on a shelf in a stove till rooted. in about a month they are ready to be planted singly in in. pots, any light soil being used; and each plant is fastened to a stake ft. long. they are kept in a warm, moist house, all lateral shoots being cut away, and the leader encouraged to grow as tall as possible in the year. from december the plants are kept dry to induce the wood to ripen, preparatory to their being used for grafting in february. stocks in. or ft. high are thus formed. if taller stocks are required, the plants must be grown on till of the required length and firmness. large plants may be trained against a wall or along the rafters in a warm house; and when of the required size, the branches may be spurred back, and epiphyllums, slender cereuses, and similar plants, grafted upon them. in this way very fine masses of the latter may be obtained in much less time than if they were grown from small plants. species. p. aculeata (prickly); west indian or barbados gooseberry.--stem woody, more or less erect, branching freely, and forming a dense bush about ft. high. young branches leafy; old ones brown, leafless, clothed with large cushions of long, stout, brown spines, sometimes in. in length. leaves alternate, with very short petioles, at the base of which is a pair of short spines, and a small tuft of wool in the axil; blade in. long by in. broad, soft, fleshy, shining green. flowers semi-transparent, white, in terminal panicles; sepals and petals ¾ in. long by ¼ in. wide; stamens in a large, spreading cluster, white, with yellow anthers. ovary covered with small cushions of short bristles, with sometimes a solitary spine in the centre of each cushion. fruit in. long, egg-shaped, red, edible. there is a large plant of this in the succulent house at kew which flowers almost annually, but it has never ripened fruits. in the west indies it is a very common shrub, whilst at the cape of good hope it is used for fences--and a capital one it makes. p. a. rubescens (reddish).--this variety has narrower, longer leaves, which are glaucous-green above and tinged with red below; the spines on the old stems are shorter and more numerous in each cushion. this requires the same treatment as the type. p. bleo (native name); fig. .--a stout, branching shrub, having an erect stem, in. or more in diameter, with green bark and very large cushions of spines; cushion a round, hard mass of short, woolly hair, from which the spines--about fifty in each cushion--radiate in all directions; longest spines in. or more in length; one or two new ones are developed annually, and these are bright red when young, almost black when ripe; young branches ¼ in. to ½ in. in diameter. leaves ½ in. apart, in. to in. long by in. to in. wide, oblong, pointed, with short petioles, and a small tuft of short, brown hair, with three or more reddish spines, in the axil of each. flowers on the ends of the young, ripened branches, clustered in the upper leaf-axils, each flower in. across, and composed of a regular circle of rosy-red petals, with a cluster of whitish stamens in the centre. they remain on the plant several weeks. native of new grenada. probably p. grandiflora is the same as this, or a slightly different form of it. a large specimen may be obtained in a year or two by planting it in a well-drained bed of loam, in a warm, sunny house. it blossoms almost all summer if allowed to make strong growth. pretty little flowering plants may be had by taking ripened growths from an old plant, and treating them as cuttings till rooted. in the following spring they are almost certain to produce flowers. plants ft. high, bearing a cluster of flowers, are thus annually obtained at kew. fig. represents a short, stunted branch, probably from a specimen grown in a pot. when planted out, the leaves and spine-cushions are farther apart. [illustration: fig. . pereskia bleo.] p. zinniaeflora (zinnia-flowered); fig. .--stem erect, woody, branching freely, the branches bearing oval, acuminate, fleshy, wavy-edged, green leaves, with short petioles, and a pair of spines in the axil of each. spine-cushions on old stems crowded with stout, brown spines. flowers rosy-red, terminal on the ripened young shoots, and composed of a whorl of broad, overlapping petals, with a cluster of stamens in the centre, the whole measuring nearly in. across. this species is a native of mexico; it grows and flowers freely if kept in a warm house. [illustration: fig. . pereskia zinniaeflora.] chapter xvi. the genus rhipsalis. (from rhips, a willow-branch; referring to the flexible, wand-like branches of some of the kinds.) about thirty species of rhipsalis are known, most of them more peculiar than ornamental, although everyone is in some way interesting. they are remarkable for the great variety in form and habit presented by the different kinds, some of them much less resembling cactuses than other plants. thus, in r. cassytha, the long, fleshy, whip-like branches and white berries are very similar to mistletoe; r. salicornoides, with its leafless, knotty branches, resembles a salicornia, or marsh samphire; another is like a mesembryanthemum; and so on. the flowers are usually small, and composed of numerous linear sepals and petals, arranged more or less like a star, with a cluster of thin stamens in the centre, and an erect, rayed stigma. in the flat-jointed kinds, the flowers are developed singly, in notches along the margins of the young, ripened joints; in the knotted, samphire-like kinds, they are borne on the ends of the branches; and in those with short, fleshy, leaf-like joints, they are usually placed on what appear to be flower-joints. although the branches of these plants are usually altogether unlike the rest of the order, yet occasionally they develop joints which are furrowed, and bear clusters of spines exactly as in the commoner forms of cactuses. the geographical distribution of rhipsalis is exceptional. it is the only genus of cactuses that has representatives in the old world, excluding, of course, those which have been introduced by man. the bulk of the kinds of rhipsalis occur in central and south america, and the west indies; but one--viz., r. cassytha--is also found in africa, mauritius, madagascar, and ceylon, as well as in tropical america. several other species are found in madagascar, some of them only recent discoveries. the occurrence of similar or even identical plants in tropical america and madagascar has its analogy in the animal kingdom as represented in the two countries. cultivation.--all the species appear to grow well and flower freely under cultivation, the slowest grower being, perhaps, r. sarmentacea. in their natural homes they are invariably found either on trees or rocks, seldom or never on the ground; but in greenhouses they may be grown in pots, a few being happiest when suspended near the glass. they do not like bright sunshine, nor should they be kept in a very shaded, moist position. there is a good collection of kinds in the succulent-house at kew. propagation.--seeds of rhipsalis ripen freely, and these, if sown on sandy soil, and placed on a shelf in a warm house, germinate in a few days. the development of the seedlings is exceptionally interesting, as the vegetative organs of all the kinds are very similar, and cactus-like; the gradual transition from this character to the diverse forms which many of the species assume when mature is quite phenomenal. cuttings will strike at almost any time, if planted in sandy soil and kept in a close, warm house till rooted. some of the kinds thrive best when grafted on to a thin-stemmed cereus. treated in this way, r. sarmentacea makes in. of growth in a season; whereas, on its own roots it would take about five years to grow as much. the following is a selection of the species cultivated in gardens. the genus lepismium is now included in rhipsalis. species. r. cassytha (derivation not known).--a pendent shrub, ft. or more high, growing on rocks and the mossy trunks of trees. branches numerous, flexuous, with small branchlets or joints springing from the ends in clusters, smooth, round, the thickness of whipcord, leafless, with numerous brown, dot-like marks scattered over the surface; under a lens these dots are seen to be tufts of very fine hairs. flowers on the sides of the young branches, small, greenish-white, short-lived; they are developed in september, and are succeeded by white berries, exactly like those of the mistletoe, whence the name mistletoe cactus, by which this species is known. an interesting and easily-grown warm greenhouse plant, native of tropical america, africa, &c. it was introduced in . r. commune (common); bot. mag. .--stem straggling, branching freely, growing to a length of several feet. branches jointed; joints varying in length, triangular, the angles compressed, and notched along the margins; notches regular, and bearing tufts of whitish hair. strong plants produce joints over in. in width. flowers white, tinged with purple, springing singly from the notches, and composed of eight to twelve sepals and petals. stamens and stigma erect, white, the latter four-rayed. this species is a native of brazil, and was introduced in ; flowering-season, october to december. it may be grown in a warm greenhouse, and treated as a basket-plant or as a small pot-shrub. syn. lepismium commune. r. crispata (curled).--stem branching freely. branches jointed and flat, like epiphyllum. margins of joints notched, and slightly curled. flowers small, white, produced singly, in november and december, in the notches on the younger joints. fruits white, pea-like, rather rarely ripened. a free-growing, compact stove shrub, with a bright green, healthy appearance. the similarity of its branches to epiphyllum led to its being included in that genus by haworth. r. c. purpurea (purple).--this variety has larger, broader joints, which are bronzy-purple in colour. r. fasciculata (cluster-branched); bot. mag. .--stems terete, as thick as a goose-quill. branches usually in clusters, and sometimes jointed, green, with small red dots and little tufts of fine, hair-like bristles. flowers white, produced in march, springing irregularly from the older branches, small, star-like. fruit a white berry. from its habit of growing on trees, and the character of its stems and fruit, this plant has been called parasitical. it is, however, only indebted to the tree on which is grows for moisture, for it thrives if planted in a pot or basket in ordinary soil, and kept in a stove temperature. it is a native of brazil, and was introduced in . r. floccosa (woolly).--stems as in r. cassytha, but thicker, longer, and with the branchlets in compact clusters on the ends of the long, arching branches. the dots marking the position of the microscopic hair-tufts are in small depressions. flowers and fruit as in r. cassytha, of which this might reasonably be called a variety. this species requires warm-house temperature. r. funalis (cord-like); fig. .--stem straggling, branched. branches numerous, composed of long, terete joints, rather thicker than a goose-quill, glaucous-green, slightly roughened on the surface, with depressions for the dot-like cushions. branchlets usually fascicled and spreading. flowers white, produced in spring, on the sides of the young joints, in. across, large for the genus. introduced from central america about . an easily-grown plant, sturdy, rather straggling, but very free-flowering. in old specimens the branches become semi-pendulous. it grows best when kept in a warm house. syn. r. grandiflora. [illustration: fig. . rhipsalis funalis.] r. houlletii (houllet's); bot. mag. .--stems long, graceful, branching freely, round and twig-like, or with broad wings, as in phyllocactus. winged or flattened portions notched, and bearing a flower in each notch. flowers stalkless, with pointed, straw-coloured petals, forming a shallow cup about ¾ in. across the top. stamens and pistil white, with a tinge of red at the base. flowering-season, november. under cultivation, this brazilian species forms a small, straggling shrub, about ft. high, but in its native woods its stems are many feet long, and pendulous from the branches of trees. it may be grown in a warm house, in a pot, and its branches supported by a stake; or its lower stems may be fastened against a piece of soft fern-stem, into which its numerous stem-roots penetrate freely. in the winter it should be kept almost dry. the flowers remain fresh for several days, and are fragrant. a well-grown plant, when in flower, is an interesting and pretty object. it is the most ornamental kind. r. knightii (knight's).--stems and joints as in r. commune. wings of joints usually broad, with red margins, and the hair in the notches in a dense tuft, nearly in. long, pure white, and silk-like. flowers small, white. this species, which thrives best under warm-house treatment, is a native of brazil, and is usually grown only for its curious, cereus-like stems. it forms a straggling plant about ft. high. syn. lepismium knightii, cereus knightii. r. mesembryanthemoides (mesembryanthemum-like); bot. mag. o .--a small, compact plant, with woody stems, densely covered with little fleshy, conical joints, resembling very closely the leaves of some of the mesembryanthemums. they are green, with a few red dots, each bearing a very small tuft of the finest hair-like spines. the flowers are developed in march, from the sides of the small joints; they are ½ in. across, and yellowish-white. fruit a small, white, round berry. native of south america, whence it was introduced in . when grown in a warm house, in a small, round, wire basket, filled with peat and sphagnum, this little cactus forms a pretty tuft, which in the spring produces large numbers of white, star-like flowers. r. myosurus (mouse-tailed); bot. mag. .--stems dependent, several feet long, branching freely, jointed, with three or four angles or wings; the angles flattened, reddish, notched in the margin, and bearing a tuft of white, silky hairs in each notch. flowers small, yellow, tinged with red, springing from the notches; produced in july. fruit not seen. a native of brazil; introduced in . this species resembles some of the angular-stemmed kinds of cereus. it grows freely and flowers annually, if planted in a basket of fibrous soil, and suspended near the glass in a warm greenhouse or stove. it is attractive even when not in flower, owing to the form of its stems and the tufts of long, silky, white hair which spring from the notches. syn. lepismium myosurus. r. pachyptera (thick-winged); bot. mag. .--stem woody; branches jointed, flattened as in phyllocactus, with deep notches; width of joints, in. or more. flowers small, yellowish-white, borne singly in the notches in november. fruit a small, white berry, rarely ripened. a sturdy, comparatively uninteresting stove plant, introduced from brazil in . syn. cactus alatus. r. paradoxa (paradoxical).--stems trailing, with numerous long branches of most extraordinary form. imagine a three-angled, fleshy branch, often several feet in length, the angles winged, about ½ in. deep, green, with smooth, reddish margins. at intervals of about in. the branch has the appearance of having been twisted half round. there is no other plant with branches anything like these. flowers produced in november, in the apex of the interrupted angles, small, white. fruit seldom ripened. a native of brazil, whence it was introduced in . there is a fine example of this trained along a rafter in the succulent-house at kew. the numerous branches hang down several feet from the rafter, and have a most extraordinary appearance. this species requires stove treatment. r. penduliflora (pendulous-flowered).--a small, thin-stemmed plant, with smooth, green branches, no thicker than whipcord, and numerous fascicled or clustered, small joints, ½ in. long, green, with red dots, angular when young. flowers on the tips of the terminal joints, pale yellow, ½ in. across, developing in august. fruit white, mistletoe-like. this species was introduced from tropical america in , and requires stove treatment. r. p. laxa (loose).--this variety has the branches curving, and more pendulous; in other respects it resembles the type, and requires the same treatment. r. pentaptera (five-winged).--stems erect; branches stiff, long-jointed, with five wing-like angles, slightly spiral, the angles notched at intervals of in. flowers in the notches, ½ in. across, white, produced in august. fruit a white, mistletoe-like berry. a curious plant from brazil, and introduced in . in stove temperature it forms a compact pot-shrub, ft. high, and is worth growing on account of its singular stems. r. rhombea (diamond-branched).--stems and branches as in r. crispata, but without the wavy margins, and with more elongated joints. flowers small, white, produced in the notches of the joints in november. fruit a shining, milk-white berry. a compact plant from brazil, worth growing for its bright green, leaf-like stems. it should be grown in pots, in stove temperature, and encouraged to form a globose bush. r. saglionis (saglio's); bot. mag. .--a tiny plant, similar in habit to r. penduliflora, but with brown branches, the small joints angled, and bearing silky hairs. the branches and joints are set at zigzag angles. flowers pale yellow, produced in autumn on the younger joints. fruits white, mistletoe-like. a small, delicate plant from buenos ayres, not more than in. high. this species requires stove treatment. r. salicornoides (glasswort-like); bot. mag. .--stem woody when old, brown, jointed like hens' toes, not quite as thick as a goose-quill. branches in clusters; joints ½ in. to in. long, the lower half much thinner than the upper, so that the joints look like a number of superposed, miniature clubs. flowers pretty, on the ends of the terminal joints, yellow, becoming red with age. an erect plant, ft. or more high, introduced from brazil in . the joints are clustered on the upper part of the stem. when in flower in spring this is an attractive and very remarkable-looking plant. it thrives best in stove temperature. r. s. stricta (straight).--this variety has the joints all pointing upwards, and is much more compact than the type. r. sarmentacea (runner-stemmed); fig. .--a creeping, prostrate plant, with round stems as thick as a goose-quill, and attaching themselves to tree-trunks or other bodies by means of numerous adventitious roots, which spring from the under side of the stems. surface of stem furrowed, and covered with numerous small clusters of short, hair-like, whitish spines. flowers in. across, springing from the sides of the stems, with pointed, creamy-white petals; stamens spreading; stigma erect, four-lobed. fruit small, currant-like. this is a pretty little species, introduced from brazil in ; it is, however, a very slow grower, plants ten years old being only a few inches in diameter. it should be grown in stove temperature, in a basket of peat fibre, or, better still, on a piece of soft fern-stem. it is always found on the branches or trunks of trees when growing wild. [illustration: fig. . rhipsalis sarmentacea.] r. swartziana (swartz's).--older stems three-angled, young ones flattened, jointed; joints in. broad, stiff with deep notches. flowers in the notches, small, white, produced in june. this species is a native of jamaica, and was introduced in . a stiff, ungraceful plant, about ft. high, very similar in its branches to a phyllocactus. this species requires the temperature of a stove. r. trigona (triangular).--habit straggling; branches usually in forks, ¼ in. in diameter, three-angled; angles wavy or slightly notched, grey-green. flowers small, produced in spring in the notches of the angles, white. fruit a white berry. a thin, brazilian plant, not unlike a lepismium, but without the silky hairs in the notches of the angles. this species also requires to be grown in stove temperature. chapter xvii. temperatures. to enable growers to make a selection of species according to the accommodation that can be afforded for cactuses, all that are described in this book are here classified in three groups: ( ) species which thrive in a cool-house or frame; ( ) species which can only be successfully grown in a warm house or stove; and ( ) species which are hardy in the more favoured portions of the united kingdom. cool-house or frame. temperature: summer, that of the open air. temperature: winter--day, deg. to deg.; night, deg. to deg. cereus berlandieri. " blankii. " caespitosus. " cirrhiferus. " ctenoides. " enneacanthus. " flagelliformis. " leeanus. " leptacanthus. " multiplex. " paucispinus. " pentalophus. " polyacanthus. " procumbens. " reductus. cereus speciosissimus echinocactus brevihamatus " centeterius. " cinnabarinus. " cummingii. " echidne. " emoryi. " gibbosus. " hexaedrophorus. " leeanus. " mackieanus. " mamillarioides. " rhodophthalmus. " texensis. " uncinatus. echinocactus viridescens. echinopsis, all the kinds. mamillaria atrata. " chlorantha. " dasyacantha. " elegans. " elephantidens. " elongata. " fissurata. " floribunda. " gracilis. " longimamma. " macromeris. " macrothele. " multiceps. " phellosperma. " schelhasii. " schiedeana. mamillaria semperviva. " stella-aurata. " tuberculosa. " uncinata. " viridis. " wildiana. " zucchariniana. opuntia arborescens. " aurantiaca. " corrugata. " cylindrica. " davisii. " engelmanni. " ficus-indica. " hystricina. " macrorhiza " occidentalis. warm-house or stove. it is possible that some of those included in this division will eventually prove hardier than is at present supposed. many of the species now classed as cool-house plants, and even some of those which are hardy, were formerly grown in the stove. temperature: summer-day, deg. to deg.; night, deg. to deg. temperature: winter-day, deg. to deg.; night, deg. to deg. cereus caerulescens. " extensus. " fulgidus. " giganteus. " grandiflorus. " lemairii. " macdonaldiae. " mallisoni. " napoleonis. " nycticalus. " peruvianus. " pleiogonus. " repandus. " serpentinus. " royeni. " triangularis. " variabilis. echinocactus concinnus. " coptonogonus. echinocactus cornigerus. " corynodes. " cylindraceus. " haynii. " horizonthalonis. " le contei. " longihamatus. " mamillosus. " multiflorus. " myriostigma. " obvallatus. " ottonis. " pectiniferus. " polycephalus. " pottsii. " scopa. " sinuatus. " tenuispinus. " turbiniformis. echinocactus visnaga. " williamsii. " wislizeni. epiphyllum, all the kinds. leuchtenbergia. mamillaria, all not mentioned under "cool-house or frame." melocactus, all the kinds. opuntia, all not included under "cool-house or frame." pelecyphora. pereskia, all the kinds. phyllocactus, " pilocereus, " rhipsalis, " outdoor. the following may be grown out of doors in the more favoured parts of england. for directions as to culture, see the chapter on cultivation :-- cereus fendleri. echinocactus simpsoni. mamillaria vivipara. opuntia brachyarthra. opuntia missouriensis. " rafinesquii. " r. arkansana. " vulgaris. chapter xviii. dealers in cactuses. the difficulty experienced by amateurs in procuring plants of many kinds of cactus has suggested to us that a list of some of the principal dealers in these plants would prove of service to english growers. so far as we know, there is no nurseryman in england who makes a specialty of cactuses. plants of such well-known genera as epiphyllum, phyllocactus, and cereus in part, may be obtained in england, but for a collection of representative kinds we must perforce apply to continental nurserymen. the most reliable of these for cactuses are: germany. messrs. haage & schmidt, erfurt. herr f. a. haage, junior, erfurt. messrs. mÜller & sauber, kassel, hanover. herr h. hildmann, oranienburg, brandenburg. herr ernst berge, leipsic. france. m. eberle, avenue de st. ouen, , paris. m. jamin, rue lafontaine, , à st. ouen, paris. belgium. m. louis de smet, ledeberg, ghent. m. bettes, borgerhont, antwerp. m. f. vermuelen, rue van peet, antwerp. america. mr. c. runge, san antonio, texas. messrs. reasoner brothers, florida. species index species are listed alphabetically according to watson's nomenclature. the name(s) that is more likely to be recognised by modern readers is listed in brackets. i have used anderson's book--the cactus family (timber press, )--as my main guide. monographs by craig and by pilbeam were invaluable in identifying 'mamillarias'. * plants illustrated in the text. cereus berlandieri (echinocereus berlandieri) * cereus blankii (echinocereus berlandieri) * cereus caerulescens (cereus aethiops) cereus caespitosus (echinocereus reichenbachii ssp. caespitosus) * cereus cirrhiferus (echinocereus cinerascens) cereus ctenoides (echinocereus dasyacanthus) * cereus enneacanthus (echinocereus enneacanthus)* cereus extensus (selenicereus sp.?) cereus fendleri (echinocereus fendleri) cereus flagelliformis (aporocactus (disocactus) flagelliformis) cereus fulgidus (gymnocalycium gibbosum) cereus giganteus (carnegiea gigantea) * cereus grandiflorus (selenicereus grandiflorus) cereus leeanus (echinocereus polyacanthus) cereus lemairii (hylocereus lemairei) cereus leptacanthus (echinocereus pentalophus)* cereus macdonaldiae (selenicereus macdonaldiae) cereus mallisoni (x helioporus smithii) cereus multiplex (echinopsis oxygona) * cereus multiplex cristatus (echinopsis oxygona fa. cristata) * cereus napoleonis (hylocereus trigonus) cereus nycticalus (selenicereus pteranthus) * cereus paucispinus (echinocereus coccineus ssp. paucispinus) cereus pentalophus (echinocereus pentalophus) cereus peruvianus (cereus repandus) cereus pleiogonus (echinocereus sp.--no longer identifiable)* cereus polyacanthus (echinocereus polyacanthus) cereus procumbens (echinocereus pentalophus ssp. procumbens) * cereus reductus (hybrid with selenicereus sp. as one probable parent) cereus repandus (cereus repandus) * cereus royeni (pilosocereus royenii) cereus serpentinus (peniocereus (nyctocereus) serpentinus) * cereus speciosissimus (disocactus speciosus) cereus triangularis (hylocereus triangularis) cereus variabilis (acanthocereus tetragonus) echinocactus brevihamatus (parodia (notocactus) alacriportana ssp. brevihamata) echinocactus centeterius (eriosyce (neoporteria) curvispina--possibly?) echinocactus cinnabarinus (echinopsis (lobivia) cinnabarina) echinocactus concinnus (parodia (notocactus) concinna) * echinocactus coptonogonus (stenocactus (echinofossulocactus) coptonogonus) * echinocactus cornigerus (ferocactus latispinus) * echinocactus corynodes (parodia (notocactus) sellowii) * echinocactus crispatus (stenocactus (echinofossulocactus) crispatus) * echinocactus cummingii (rebutia (weingartia) neocummingii) echinocactus cylindraceus (ferocactus cyclindraceus (acanthodes)) echinocactus echidne (ferocactus echidne) echinocactus emoryi (ferocactus emoryi) * echinocactus gibbosus (gymnocalycium gibbosus) echinocactus haynii (matucana haynei) * echinocactus hexaedrophorus (thelocactus hexaedrophorus) * echinocactus horizonthalonis (echinocactus horizonthalonius) * echinocactus le contei (ferocactus cyclindraceus (acanthodes) ssp. lecontei) * echinocactus leeanus (gymnocalycium leeanum) echinocactus longihamatus (ferocactus hamatacanthus) * echinocactus mackieanus (gymnocalycium mackieanum) echinocactus mamillarioides (eriosyce (neoporteria) curvispina--possibly?) echinocactus mamillosus (echinopsis mamillosa) echinocactus multiflorus (gymnocalycium monvillei) echinocactus myriostigma (astrophytum myriostigma) * echinocactus obvallatus (stenocactus (echinofossulocactus) obvallatus) * echinocactus ottonis (parodia (notocactus) ottonis) echinocactus pectiniferus (probably echinocereus pectinatus) echinocactus polycephalus (echinocactus polycephalus)* echinocactus pottsii (ferocactus pottsii) echinocactus rhodophthalmus (thelocactus bicolor) echinocactus scopa (parodia (notocactus) scopa) * echinocactus scopa cristata (parodia (notocactus) scopa fa. cristata) * echinocactus simpsonii (pediocactus simpsonii) echinocactus sinuatus (ferocactus hamatacanthus ssp. sinuatus) echinocactus tenuispinus (parodia (notocactus) ottonis) echinocactus texensis (echinocactus texensis) * echinocactus turbiniformis (strombocactus disciformis) echinocactus uncinatus (sclerocactus uncinatus) * echinocactus viridescens (ferocactus viridescens) echinocactus visnaga (echinocactus platyacanthus) * echinocactus williamsii (lophophora williamsii) echinocactus wislizenii (ferocactus wislizenii) * echinopsis campylacantha (echinopsis leucantha) echinopsis cristata (echinopsis obrepanda) echinopsis cristata purpurea (echinopsis obrepanda v. purprea) echinopsis decaisneanus (identification now uncertain) * echinopsis eyriesii (echinopsis eyriesii) echinopsis eyriesii flore-pleno (echinopsis eyriesii) * echinopsis eyriesii glauca (echinopsis eyriesii) echinopsis oxygonus (echinopsis oxygona) echinopsis pentlandi (echinopsis (lobivia) pentlandii) * echinopsis pentlandi longispinus (echinopsis (lobivia) pentlandii) * echinopsis tubiflorus (echinopsis tubiflora) epiphyllum russellianum (schlumbergera russelliana) * epiphyllum truncatum (schlumbergera truncata) leuchtenbergia principis (leuchtenbergia principis) * mamillaria angularis (mammillaria compressa) mamillaria applanata (mammillaria heyderi ssp. hemisphaerica) mamillaria atrata (eriosyce (neoporteria) subgibbosa) mamillaria bicolor (mammillaria geminispina) mamillaria chlorantha (escobaria deserti) mamillaria cirrhifera (mammillaria compressa) mamillaria clava (coryphantha clava) mamillaria dasyacantha (escobaria dasyacantha) mamillaria discolor (mammillaria discolor) mamillaria dolichocentra (mammillaria polythele) * mamillaria echinata (mammillaria elongata ssp. echinaria) mamillaria echinus (coryphantha echinus) * mamillaria elegans (mammillaria haageana (elegans)) mamillaria elephantidens (coryphantha elephantidens) * mamillaria elongata (mammillaria elongata) mamillaria fissurata (ariocarpus fissuratus) * mamillaria floribunda (eriosyce (neoporteria) subgibbosa) mamillaria gracilis (mammillaria vetula ssp. gracilis) mamillaria grahami (mammillaria grahamii) mamillaria haageana (mammillaria haageana) * mamillaria longimamma (mammillaria longimamma) * mamillaria macromeris (coryphantha macromeris) * mamillaria macrothele (coryphantha octacantha) mamillaria micromeris (epithelantha micromeris) * mamillaria multiceps (mammillaria prolifera ssp. texana) mamillaria neumanniana (mammillaria magnimamma) mamillaria ottonis (coryphantha ottonis) mamillaria pectinata (mammillaria pectinifera) * mamillaria phellosperma (mammillaria tetrancistra) mamillaria pulchra (mammillaria rhodantha) mamillaria pusilla (mammillaria prolifera) mamillaria pycnacantha (coryphantha pycnacantha) mamillaria sanguinea (mammillaria spinosissima) * mamillaria scheerii (coryphantha poselgeriana) mamillaria schelhasii (mammillaria crinita) * mamillaria schiedeana (mammillaria schiedeana) mamillaria semperviva (mammillaria sempervivi) * mamillaria senilis (mammillaria senilis) mamillaria stella-aurata (mammillaria elongata) mamillaria sub-polyhedra (mammillaria polyedra) * mamillaria sulcolanata (coryphantha sulcolanata) mamillaria tetracantha (mammillaria polythele) mamillaria tuberculosa (escobaria tuberculosa) mamillaria turbinata (strombocactus disciformis ?) mamillaria uncinata (mammillaria uncinata) mamillaria vetula (mammillaria vetula) mamillaria villifera (mammillaria polyedra) mamillaria viridis (mammillaria karwinskiana) mamillaria vivipara (escobaria vivipara) mamillaria vivipara v. radiosa (escobaria vivipara) * mamillaria wildiana (mammillaria crinita ssp. wildii) mamillaria wrightii (mammillaria wrightii) mamillaria zucchariniana (mammillaria magnimamma) melocactus communis (melocactus intortus) * melocactus depressus (melocactus violaceus) melocactus miquelii (melocactus intortus) * opuntia arborescens (cylindropuntia imbricata) opuntia arbuscula (cylindropuntia arbuscula) opuntia arenaria (opuntia polyacantha v. arenaria) opuntia auberi (opuntia auberi) opuntia aurantiaca (opuntia aurantiaca) opuntia basilaris (opuntia basilaris) * opuntia bigelovii (cylindropuntia bigelovii) opuntia boliviana (cumulopuntia boliviana) * opuntia brachyarthra (opuntia fragilis) * opuntia braziliensis (brasiliopuntia brasiliensis) opuntia candelabriformis (opuntia spinulifera) opuntia clavata (grusonia clavata) opuntia cochinellifera (opuntia cochenillifera) opuntia corrugata (tunilla corrugata) opuntia curassavica (opuntia curassavica) opuntia cylindrica (austrocylindropuntia cylindrica) opuntia cylindrica cristata (austrocylindropuntia cylindrica fa. cristata) opuntia davisii (cylindropuntia davisii) opuntia decumana (opuntia ficus-indica) opuntia diademata (tephrocactus articulatus) opuntia dillenii (opuntia dillenii) * opuntia echinocarpa (cylindropuntia echinocarpa) opuntia emoryi (grusonia emoryi) opuntia engelmanni (opuntia engelmannii) opuntia ficus-indica (opuntia ficus-indica) * opuntia filipendula (opuntia macrorhiza v. pottsii) * opuntia frutescens (cylindropuntia leptocaulis) opuntia grahami (grusonia grahamii) opuntia horrida (opuntia tuna) opuntia hystricina (opuntia polyacantha v. hystricina) opuntia leptocaulis (cylindropuntia leptocaulis) opuntia leucotricha (opuntia leucotricha) opuntia macrocentra (opuntia macrocentra) opuntia macrorhiza (opuntia macrorhiza) * opuntia microdasys (opuntia microdasys) opuntia missouriensis (opuntia polyacantha) opuntia monacantha (opuntia monacantha) opuntia nigricans (opuntia elatior) opuntia occidentalis (opuntia x occidentalis) opuntia parmentieri (opuntia longispina var. brevispina?) opuntia parryi (cylindropuntia californica) opuntia rafinesquii (opuntia humifusa) * opuntia rosea (cylindropuntia rosea) * opuntia salmiana (opuntia salmiana) opuntia spinosissima (consolea spinosissima) opuntia subulata (austrocylindropuntia subulata) opuntia tuna (opuntia tuna) * opuntia tunicata (cylindropuntia tunicata) opuntia vulgaris (opuntia ficus-indica) opuntia whipplei (cylindropuntia whipplei) pelecyphora aselliformis (pelecyphora aselliformis) * pereskia aculeata (pereskia aculeata) pereskia aculeata rubescens (pereskia aculeata) pereskia bleo (pereskia bleo) * pereskia zinniaeflora (pereskia zinniiflora) * phyllocactus ackermannii (disocactus ackermannii or hybrid) * phyllocactus anguliger (epiphyllum anguliger) * phyllocactus biformis (disocactus biformis) * phyllocactus crenatus (epiphyllum crenatum) phyllocactus grandis (epiphyllum oxypetalum) phyllocactus hookeri (epiphyllum hookeri) phyllocactus latifrons (epiphyllum oxypetalum) phyllocactus phyllanthus (epiphyllum phyllanthus) phyllocactus phyllanthoides (disocactus phyllanthoides) pilocereus brünnonii (oreocereus celsianus) * pilocereus houlletianus (pilosocereus leucocephalus) * pilocereus senilis (cephalocereus senilis) rhipsalis cassytha (rhipsalis baccifera) rhipsalis commune (lepismium cruciforme) rhipsalis crispata (rhipsalis crispata) rhipsalis crispata purpurea (rhipsalis crispata) rhipsalis fasciculata (rhipsalis baccifera) rhipsalis floccosa (rhipsalis floccosa) rhipsalis funalis (rhipsalis grandiflora) * rhipsalis houlletii (lepismium houlletianum) rhipsalis knightii (lepismium cruciforme) rhipsalis mesembryanthemoides (rhipsalis mesembryanthemoides) rhipsalis myosurus (lepismium cruciforme) rhipsalis pachyptera (rhipsalis pachyptera) rhipsalis paradoxa (rhipsalis paradoxa) rhipsalis penduliflora (rhipsalis cereuscula) rhipsalis penduliflora laxa (rhipsalis cereuscula) rhipsalis pentaptera (rhipsalis pentaptera) rhipsalis rhombea (identification now uncertain) rhipsalis saglionis (rhipsalis cereuscula) rhipsalis salicornoides (hatiora salicornioides) rhipsalis salicornoides stricta (hatiora salicornioides) rhipsalis sarmentacea (lepismium lumbricoides) * rhipsalis swartziana (pseudorhipsalis alata) rhipsalis trigona (rhipsalis trigona) outlines of lessons in botany. part i.: from seed to leaf for the use of teachers, or mothers studying with their children. by jane h. newell. illustrated by h.p. symmes . part i table of contents i. plants and their uses . food . clothing . purification of the air . fuel ii. seedlings . directions for raising in the schoolroom . study of morning-glory, sunflower, bean, and pea . comparison with other dicotyledons . nature of the caulicle . leaves of seedlings . monocotyledons . food of seedlings iii. roots . study of the roots of seedlings . fleshy roots . differences between stem and root . root-hairs . comparison of a carrot, an onion, and a potato iv buds and branches . horsechestnut magnolia lilac beech american elm balm of gilead tulip-tree cherry red maple norway spruce . vernation . phyllotaxy v stems . forms . movements . structure vi leaves . forms and structure . descriptions . transpiration . assimilation . respiration preface. in this study, as in all scientific teaching, the teacher's aim should be to foster in his pupils the power of careful observation and clear expression. the actual amount of knowledge gained at school must needs be small, and often quickly forgotten, but the habit of right study is an invaluable possession. the former method of teaching botany was confined almost wholly to dry, technical classification. the pupil learned to find the name and order of a plant, but its structure, its habits, its life in short, were untouched by him. we know now that nature is the best text-book. the pupil should first ask his questions of her and try to interpret her answers; then he may learn with profit what those who better understand her speech have to tell him. this method of teaching, however, requires much, very much, of the teacher. he must be himself intelligent, well trained, and able to give time to the preparation of his lessons. it seems to us, who are but amateurs, as if it were impossible to teach thus without a thorough comprehension of the whole field. our own ignorance oppresses us so much that we feel tempted to say that we cannot attempt it. but if the work of leading children to observe the wonders about them is to be done at all, it must be done by us, who are not masters of our subject, and we must find out for ourselves how we can best accomplish this result, since we have so little to guide us. it is with the hope that the experience of one who has tried to do this with some fair amount of success may be of use to other puzzled experimenters, that i venture to write out some outlines of lessons in botany for beginners. the method of beginning with the simpler forms of life is one that appeals to the scientific tendencies of the day. it seems logical to begin with lower forms and work up to the higher. but this method is only suitable for mature minds. we do not teach a child english by showing him the sources of the language; he learns it by daily use. so also the beginning of the study of any natural science by the young should be the observation of the most obvious things about them, the things which they can see, and handle, and experiment upon naturally, without artificial aids. therefore this book concerns itself only with the flowering plants. the author believes that the simplest botanical study should afford the means of identifying plants, as a large part of the student's pleasure in the science will be the recognition of the things about him. the present volume affords the basis for future classification, which part ii, on flowers, will develop. it is, doubtless, as good a way, perhaps the best, to begin with a single plant, and study root, stem, leaves, and flowers as belonging to a whole, but the problem is complicated by practical difficulties. in our climate there are but two months of the school year when flowers are easily obtained. on the other hand, the material for these lessons can be got throughout the winter, and the class, well trained in methodical work, will begin the study of flowers at the season when every day brings some fresh wonder of beauty. the author will receive gladly any criticisms or suggestions. jane h. newell. brattle st., cambridge introduction. the lessons here outlined are suitable for children of twelve years of age, and upwards. for younger pupils they would require much adaptation, and even then they would not be so good as some simpler method, such as following the growth of one plant, and comparing it with others at every step. the little ones profit most by describing the very simple things that they see, without much reference to theories. the outlines follow the plan of dr. gray's first lessons and how plants grow, and are intended to be used in connection with either of those books. the necessary references will be found at the end of every section. the book contains also references to a course of interesting reading in connection with the subjects of the lessons. the lessons may begin, like the text-books, with the subject of germination, if the seeds are planted before they are required for use, but it is generally preferable to use the first recitation with the class for planting the seeds, in order to have them under the direct care of the pupils. some general talks about plants are therefore put at the beginning to occupy the time until the seedlings are ready for study. some nasturtiums (_tropæolum majus_) and morning-glories should be planted from the first in boxes of earth and allowed to grow over the window, as they are often used for illustrations. i. plants and their uses.[ ] [footnote : this section may be omitted, and the lessons begun with seedlings, if the teacher prefer.] what is botany? the pupils are very apt to say at first that it is learning about _flowers_. the teacher can draw their attention to the fact that flowers are only a part of the plant, and that botany is also the study of the leaves, the stem, and the root. botany is the science of _plants_. ask them what the geranium is. tell them to name some other plants. the teacher should keep a few growing plants in the schoolroom for purposes of illustration. ask them what else there is in the world besides plants. by this question the three kingdoms, animal, vegetable, and mineral, are brought up. it will give occasion for a discussion of the earth and what it contains, the mountains, formed of rocks and soil, the plants growing on the earth, and the animals that inhabit it, including man. let them name the three kingdoms with some example of each. which of these kingdoms contain living things? the words _organic_ and _inorganic_ can be brought in here. an _organ_ ([greek: ergon], meaning work) is any part that does a special work, as the leaves, the stem of a plant, and the eye, the ear of animals. an _organism_ is a living being made up of such organs. the inorganic world contains the mineral kingdom; the organic world includes the vegetable and animal kingdoms. one's aim in these lessons should always be to tell the pupils as little as possible. try to lead them to think out these things for themselves. ask them how plants differ from animals. they will say that plants are fixed to one place, while animals can move about; that plants have no will or consciousness, and that animals have. these answers are true when we compare the higher animals with plants, but the differences become lost as we descend in the scale and approach the border land where botanist and zoologist meet on a common ground. sea-anemones are fixed to the rock on which they grow, while some of the lower plants are able to move from place to place, and it is hardly safe to affirm that a jelly-fish is more conscious of its actions than is a sensitive plant, the leaves of which close when the stem is touched. there is no real division between animals and plants. we try to classify the objects about us into groups, according to the closeness of their relationships, but we must always remember that these hard lines are ours, not nature's. we attempt, for purposes of our own convenience, to divide a whole, which is so bound together that it cannot be separated into parts that we can confidently place on different sides of a dividing line. . _plants as food-producers_.--the chief distinguishing characteristic of plants is one that the pupils may be led to think out for themselves by asking them what animals feed upon. to help them with this, ask them what they had for breakfast. oatmeal is mentioned, perhaps. this is made from oats, which is a plant. coffee and tea, bread made from wheat, potatoes, etc., all come from plants.[ ] beef, butter and milk come from the cow, but the cow lives upon grass. the plant, on the other hand, is nourished upon mineral or inorganic matter. it can make its own food from the soil and the air, while animals can only live upon that which is made for them by plants. these are thus the link between the mineral and animal kingdoms. ask the scholars if they can think of anything to eat or drink that does not come from a plant. with a little help they will think of salt and water. these could not support life. so we see that animals receive all their food through the vegetable kingdom. one great use of plants is that they are _food-producers_. [footnote : reader in botany, for use in schools. selected and adapted from well-known authors. ginn & co., boston, new york and chicago, . i. origin of cultivated plants.] this lesson may be followed by a talk on food and the various plants used for food.[ ] [footnote : the flour mills of minneapolis: century magazine, may, . maize: popular science news, nov. and dec., .] . _clothing_.--plants are used for clothing. of the four great clothing materials, cotton, linen, silk, and woollen, the first two are of vegetable, the last two of animal origin. cotton is made from the hairs of the seed of the cotton plant.[ ] linen is made of the inner fibre of the bark of the flax plant. it has been cultivated from the earliest historical times. [footnote : reader in botany. ii. the cotton plant.] . _purification of the air_.--the following questions and experiments are intended to show the pupils, first, that we live in an atmosphere, the presence of which is necessary to support life and combustion ( ) and ( ); secondly, that this atmosphere is deprived of its power to support life and combustion by the actions of combustion ( ), and of respiration ( ); thirdly, that this power is restored to the air by the action of plants ( ). we have the air about us everywhere. a so-called empty vessel is one where the contents are invisible. the following experiment is a good illustration of this. ( ) wrap the throat of a glass funnel with moistened cloth or paper so that it will fit tightly into the neck of a bottle, and fill the funnel with water. if the space between the funnel and the bottle is air-tight, the water will not flow into the bottle. [illustration: fig. .] do not explain this in advance to the pupils. ask them what prevents the water from flowing into the bottle. if they are puzzled, loosen the funnel, and show them that the water will now flow in. in the first case, as the air could not escape, the water could not flow in; in the second, the air was displaced by the heavier water. ask the pupils why the air in a crowded room becomes so difficult to breathe. could a person live if he were shut up in an air-tight room for a long time? fresh air is necessary to life. the teacher may explain that it is the oxygen in the air that supports life. air is composed one-fifth of this gas and four-fifths of nitrogen. the gases are mixed and the nitrogen simply dilutes the oxygen, as it were. fresh air is necessary to support combustion as well as life. ask them why we put out a fire by throwing a blanket or a rug over it. the following experiment illustrates this. ( ) take a small, wide-mouthed bottle, covered with a card or cork. to this cover fasten a piece of bent wire with a taper on the end. light the taper and lower it into the jar. it will burn a few seconds and then go out. raise and light it again, and it will be extinguished as soon as it is plunged into the bottle. this shows that the oxygen of the air is used up by burning substances, as it is by breathing animals. [illustration: fig. .] the following experiment shows that fire will not burn in an atmosphere of gas from our lungs. ( ) fill a bottle with gas by breathing into it through a bit of glass tubing, passed through a card or cork, and reaching to the bottom of the bottle. the bottle will be dimmed with moisture, showing the presence of aqueous vapor. a lighted match plunged into the bottle will be immediately extinguished. a better way, which, however, takes some skill in manipulation, is to fill the bottle with water, cover it with a flat piece of glass, and invert the bottle in a dish of water, taking care that no air bubbles enter. then, through a bit of glass tubing, blow into the bottle till the water is expelled. cover the mouth with the glass under water, and holding it tightly down, invert the bottle quickly. set it down, light a match, take away the glass, and at the same instant plunge in the match. if no air has been allowed to enter, the match will go out at once. no animal could live in an atmosphere which could not support combustion. from these experiments the pupils have seen that the life-sustaining quality of the air is used up by combustion and respiration. to bring in the subject of purification by plants, ask them why all the oxygen in the world is not exhausted by the people and the fires in it. after the subject has been explained, the following experiment can be prepared and put aside till the next lesson. ( ) fill two bottles with air from the lungs, as in ( ) having previously introduced a cutting from a plant into one of the bottles. allow them to stand in the sun for a day or two. then test both bottles with a burning match. if properly done, the result will be very striking. the end of the cutting should be in the water of the dish. this experiment will not succeed excepting with bottles such as are used for chemicals, which have their mouths carefully ground. common bottles allow the air to enter between the bottle and the glass.[ ] [footnote : see note on page .] [illustration: fig. .] . _fuel_.--light a match and allow it to burn until half charred. blow it out gently, so as to leave a glowing spark. when this spark goes out it will leave behind a light, gray ash. we have to consider the flame, the charred substance, and the ash. flame is burning gas. in all ordinary fuels, carbon and hydrogen, in various combinations and free, make the principal part. the first effect of the heat is to set free the volatile compounds of carbon and hydrogen. the hydrogen then begins to unite with the oxygen of the air, forming water, setting free the carbon, which also unites with oxygen, forming carbonic acid gas. the burning gases cause the flame. the following experiment will illustrate this. [illustration: fig. .] ( ) fit a test-tube with a tight cork, through which a bit of glass tubing, drawn out into a jet, is passed, the tubing within being even with the cork. place some bits of shaving in the tube, cork it, and make the cork perfectly air-tight by coating it with bees wax or paraffine. heat the test-tube gently over an alcohol lamp. the wood turns black, and vapor issues from the jet, which may be lighted (fig. ). care should be taken to expel all the air before lighting. ( ) that the burning hydrogen forms water by uniting with the oxygen of the air, may be shown by holding a cold glass tumbler over the jet, or over any flame. the glass will be dimmed by drops of moisture. the charred part of the wood is charcoal, which is one form of carbon. our ordinary charcoal is made by driving off all the gases from wood, by burning it under cover where only a little air can reach it. the volatile gases burn more readily than the carbon, and are the first substances to be driven off, so that the carbon is left behind nearly pure. in the same way we have driven off all the gases from the half-burned match and left the carbon. the teacher should have a piece of charcoal to show the pupils. it still retains all the markings of the wood. if the combustion is continued, the carbon also unites with the oxygen of the air, till it is all converted into carbonic acid gas. this was the case with the match where we left the glowing spark. the gray ash that was left behind is the mineral matter contained in the wood. ( ) we can show that this gas is formed by pouring lime water into a bottle in which a candle has been burned as in ( ). the water becomes milky from a fine white powder formed by the union of the carbonic acid gas with the lime, forming carbonate of lime. this is a chemical test. the wood of the match is plainly of vegetable origin; so also is the charcoal, which is nearly pure carbon. coal is also carbon, the remains of ancient forests, from which the gases have been slowly driven off by heat and pressure. all the common fuels are composed principally of carbon and hydrogen. when these elements unite with oxygen, carbonic acid gas and water are formed.[ ] [footnote : [transcriber's note: this note is missing from original text.]] ( ) the same products are formed by respiration. we breathe out carbonic acid gas and water from our lungs. breathe on a cold glass. it is bedewed exactly as it is by the candle flame. breathe through a bit of glass tubing into a bottle of lime water. it becomes milky, showing the presence of carbonic acid gas. why is this? every act or thought is accompanied by a consumption of material in the body, which thus becomes unfit for further use. these waste substances, composed chiefly of carbon and hydrogen, unite with oxygen breathed in from the air, forming carbonic acid gas and water, which are breathed out of the system. the action is a process of slow combustion, and it is principally by the heat thus evolved that the body is kept warm. as we are thus constantly taking oxygen from the air, a close room becomes unfit to live in and a supply of fresh air is indispensable. the cycle of changes is completed by the action of plants, which take in carbonic acid gas, use the carbon, and return most of the oxygen to the atmosphere. apparatus for experiments.[ ] [footnote : the glass apparatus required, including an alcohol lamp, may be obtained for one dollar by sending to the educational supply co., no. hamilton place, boston.] two small wide-mouthed bottles. a narrow-necked bottle. a glass funnel. a bit of bent glass-tubing. a bit of straight glass-tubing. a flat piece of glass. a test-tube, with jet. an alcohol lamp. a bent wire with taper. a card. a slip of a plant. a dish and pitcher of water. beeswax or paraffine. shavings. lime water. matches. _gray's first lessons. revised edition_. sect. xvi, - , . _how plants grow_. chap. iii, - . ii. seedlings. . _directions for raising in the schoolroom_.--the seeds should be planted in boxes tilled with clean sand. plates or shallow crockery pans are also used, but the sand is apt to become caked, and the pupils are likely to keep the seeds too wet if they are planted in vessels that will not drain. the boxes should be covered with panes of glass till the seedlings are well started, and should be kept at a temperature of from ° to ° fahr. it is very important to keep them covered while the seeds are germinating, otherwise the sand will be certain to become too dry if kept in a sufficiently warm place. light is not necessary, and in winter time the neighborhood of the furnace is often a very convenient place to keep them safe from frost. they should not be in the sun while germinating. when the first sprouts appear above the ground let another set be planted, and so on, till a series is obtained ranging from plants several inches high to those just starting from the seed. the seeds themselves should be soaked for a day and the series is then ready for study. the time required for their growth varies according to the temperature, moisture, etc. dr. goodale says they should be ready in ten days.[ ] [footnote : concerning a few common plants, by g.l. goodale, boston, d.c. heath & co. this little book, which is published, in pamphlet form, for fifteen cents, will be found exceedingly useful.] i have never been able to raise them so quickly in the schoolroom, nor have the pupils to whom i have given them to plant done so at home. generally, it is three weeks, at least, before the first specimens are as large as is desirable. germinating seeds need warmth, moisture and air. the necessary conditions are supplied in the very best way by growing them on sponge, but it would be difficult to raise enough for a large class in this manner. place a piece of moist sponge in a jelly-glass, or any glass that is larger at the top, so that the sponge may not sink to the bottom, and pour some water into the glass, but not so much as to touch the sponge. the whole should be covered with a larger inverted glass, which must not be so close as to prevent a circulation of air. the plants can thus be watched at every stage and some should always be grown in this way. the water in the tumbler will keep the sponge damp, and the roots, after emerging from the sponge, will grow well in the moist air. seeds can also be grown on blotting paper. put the seeds on several thicknesses of moist blotting paper on a plate, cover them with more moist paper, and invert another plate over them, taking care to allow the free entrance of air. if possible, it is by far the best way to have the seeds growing in the schoolroom, and make it a regular custom for the pupils to observe them every morning and take notes of their growth. these lessons on seeds are suitable for pupils of every age, from adults to the youngest children who go to school. the difference should be only in the mode of treatment; but the same principles should be brought out, whatever the age and power of comprehension of the pupil. for these lessons the following seeds should be planted, according to the above directions: morning-glory, sunflower or squash, bean, pea, red clover, flax, corn, wheat, and oats.[ ] if they can be procured plant also acorns, pine-seeds, maple-seeds, and horsechestnuts. [footnote : a package of these seeds may be obtained for fifty cents, from joseph breck & son, boston, mass. they will be sent by mail, postage paid.] . _study of morning-glory, sunflower, bean, and pea_.--for reasons hereafter given, i consider the morning-glory the best seedling to begin upon. having a series, as above described, before them, the pupils should draw the seedlings. when the drawings are made, let them letter alike the corresponding parts, beginning with the plantlet in the seed, and using new letters when a new part is developed. the seed coats need not be lettered, as they do not belong to the plantlet. [illustration: fig. .--germination of morning glory, _a_, caulicle; _b_, cotyledons; _c_, plumule; _d_, roots.] [illustration: fig. .--germination of sunflower.] after drawing the morning-glory series, let them draw the sunflower or squash in the same way, then the bean, and finally the pea. let them write answers to the following questions: morning-glory.[ ] [footnote : it has been objected that the morning-glory seed is too small to begin upon. if the teacher prefer, he may begin with the squash, bean, and pea. the questions will require but little alteration, and he can take up the morning-glory later.] tell the parts of the morning-glory seed. what part grows first? what becomes of the seed-covering? what appears between the first pair of leaves? was this to be seen in the seed? how many leaves are there at each joint of stem after the first pair? how do they differ from the first pair? sunflower or squash. what are the parts of the seed? what is there in the morning-glory seed that this has not? how do the first leaves change as the seedling grows? bean. what are the parts of the seed? how does this differ from the morning-glory seed? how from the sunflower seed? how do the first pair of leaves of the bean change as they grow? how many leaves are there at each joint of stem?[ ] [footnote : there are two simple leaves at the next node to the cotyledons; after these there is one compound leaf at each node.] how do they differ from the first pair? pea. what are the parts of the seed? compare it with the morning-glory, sunflower, and bean. how does it differ in its growth from the bean? what have all these four seeds in common? [illustration: fig. .--germination of pea. _a_, caulicle; _b_, cotyledons; _c_, plumule; _d_, roots.] [illustration: fig. .--germination of bean.] what has the morning-glory seed that the others have not? what have the bean and pea that the morning-glory has not? how does the pea differ from all the others in its growth? what part grows first in all these seeds? from which part do the roots grow? what peculiarity do you notice in the way they come up out of the ground?[ ] [footnote : this question refers to the arched form in which they come up. in this way the tender, growing apex is not rubbed.] the teacher must remember that, unless the pupils have had some previous training, they will first have to learn to use their eyes, and for this they will need much judicious help. they should be assisted to see what is before them, not told what is there. it is absolutely necessary that these questions should be thoroughly understood and correctly answered before any conclusions are drawn from them. for this purpose abundant material is indispensable. it is better not to attempt these lessons on seeds at all, unless there is material enough for personal observation by all the pupils. after this preliminary work has been done, the names of the parts can be given to the pupils. they may be written under each drawing thus,--a=caulicle;[ ] b=cotyledons; c=roots; d=plumule. the whole plantlet in the seed is the _embryo_ or _germ_, whence the sprouting of seeds is called _germination_. [footnote : the term radicle is still in general use. the derivation (little root) makes it undesirable. dr. gray has adopted caulicle (little stem) in the latest edition of his text-book, which i have followed. other writers use the term hypocotyl, meaning under the cotyledons.] i consider this the best order to study the seeds because in the morning-glory the cotyledons are plainly leaves in the seed; and in the squash or sunflower[ ] the whole process is plainly to be seen whereby a thick body, most unlike a leaf, becomes an ordinary green leaf with veins.[ ] in the sunflower the true leaves are nearly the same shape as the cotyledons, so that this is an especially good illustration for the purpose. thus, without any hint from me, my pupils often write of the bean, "it has two thick leaves and two thin leaves." in this way the bean and pea present no difficulty. the cotyledons in the first make apparently an unsuccessful effort to become leaves, which the second give up altogether. [footnote : the large russian sunflower is the best for the purpose.] [footnote : these lessons are intended, as has been said, for children over twelve years of age. if they are adapted for younger ones, it is especially important to begin with a seed where the leaf-like character of the cotyledons is evident, or becomes so. maple is excellent for the purpose. morning-glory is too small. squash will answer very well. i think it characteristic of the minds of little children to associate a term with the first specimen to which it is applied. if the term cotyledon be given them first for those of the bean and pea they will say when they come to the morning-glory, "but those are _leaves_, not cotyledons. cotyledons are large and round." it will be very difficult to make them understand that cotyledons are the first seed-leaves, and they will feel as if it were a forced connection, and one that they cannot see for themselves.] the teacher's object now is to make the pupils understand the meaning of the answers they have given to these questions. in the first place, they should go over their answers and substitute the botanical terms they have just learned for the ones they have used. comparison of the parts of the soaked seeds. _morning-glory_. a seed covering. some albumen. two cotyledons. a caulicle. _sunflower_. an outer covering.[ ] an inner covering. two cotyledons. a caulicle.[ ] [footnote : the so-called seed of sunflower is really a fruit. the outer covering is the wall of the ovary, the inner the seed-coat. such closed, one-seeded fruits are called akenes.] [footnote : the plumule is sometimes visible in the embryo of the sunflower.] _bean_. a seed covering. two cotyledons. a caulicle. a plumule. _pea_. the same as the bean. they have also learned how the first leaves in the last three differ from those of the morning-glory, being considerably thicker in the sunflower, and very much thicker in the bean and pea. why should the morning-glory have this jelly that the others have not? why do the first leaves of the sunflower change so much as the seedling grows? what becomes of their substance? why do those of the bean shrivel and finally drop off? by this time some bright pupil will have discovered that the baby-plant needs food and that this is stored around it in the morning-glory, and in the leaves themselves in the others. it is nourished upon this prepared food, until it has roots and leaves and can make its own living. the food of the morning-glory is called _albumen_; it does not differ from the others in kind, but only in its manner of storage.[ ] [footnote : reader in botany. iii. seed-food.] also the questions have brought out the fact that the bean and pea have the plumule ready formed in the seed, while the morning-glory and sunflower have not. why should this be? it is because there is so much food stored in the first two that the plumule can develop before a root is formed, while in the others there is only nourishment sufficient to enable the plantlet to form its roots. these must make the second leaves by their own labor. . _comparison with other dicotyledons_.--the pupils should now have other seeds to compare with these four. let them arrange flax, four o-clock, horsechestnut, almond, nasturtium, maple-seeds, etc., under two heads. _seeds with the food stored _seeds with the food stored outside the plantlet in the embryo itself (albuminous)_. (exalbuminous)_. flax. four-o'clock. acorn. horsechestnut. almond. morning-glory. maple. sunflower. squash. bean. pea. nasturtium. they may also be divided into those with and without the plumule. _without plumule_. _with plumule_. flax. maple. sunflower. acorn. horsechestnut. four-o'clock. almond. bean. pea. morning-glory. squash. nasturtium. those with plumules will be seen to have the most abundant nourishment. in many cases this is made use of by man. these last can be again divided into those in which the cotyledons come up into the air and those where they remain in the ground. _in the air_. _in the ground_. bean. almond. squash. acorn. horsechestnut. pea. nasturtium. in the latter the cotyledons are so heavily gorged with nourishment that they never become of any use as leaves. as darwin points out, they have a better chance of escaping destruction by animals by remaining in the ground. the cotyledons are very good illustrations of the different uses to which a single organ may be put, and the thorough understanding of it will prepare the pupils' minds for other metamorphoses, and for the theory that all the various parts of a plant are modified forms of a very few members. . _nature of the caulicle_.--probably some of the pupils will have called the caulicle the root. it is, however, of the nature of stem. the root grows only at the end, from a point just behind the tip; the stem elongates throughout its whole length. this can be shown by marking the stem and roots of a young seedling with ink. india ink must be used, as common ink injures the plants. dip a needle in the ink and prick a row of spots at equal distances on a young root. corn is very good for this purpose, but morning-glory or bean is better for experiments on the stem. the plants should then be carefully watched and the changes in the relative distance of the spots noted. the experiment is very easily conducted with the seedlings growing on sponge, with their roots in the moist air of the tumbler, as before described. dr. goodale says of this experiment,--"let a young seedling of corn be grown on damp paper in the manner described in no. ,[ ] and when the longest root is a few centimetres long let it be marked very carefully by means of india ink, or purple ink, put on with a delicate camel's-hair pencil just one centimetre apart. plants thus marked are to be kept under favorable conditions with respect to moisture and warmth, so that growth will be as rapid as possible. the marks on the older part of the root will not change their relative distance, but the mark at the tip will be carried away from the one next it, showing that the growth has taken place only at this point. such experiments as the one described are perfectly practicable for all classes of pupils except the very youngest. how far the details of these experiments should be suggested to the pupils, or rather how far they should be left to work out the problem for themselves, is a question to be settled by the teacher in each case. the better plan generally is to bring the problem in a very clear form before the whole class, or before the whole school, and ask whether anybody can think of a way in which it can be solved; for instance, in this case how can it be found out whether roots grow only at their tip or throughout their whole length. if the way is thought out by even a single pupil the rest will be interested in seeing whether the plan will work successfully." [footnote : concerning a few common plants, page .] i have been more successful in pricking the roots than in marking them with a brush. the caulicle can be proved by the manner of its growth to be of the nature of stem, not root. the main root grows from its naked end. roots can also grow from the sides of the caulicle, as in indian corn. in this, it acts precisely as does the stem of a cutting. it can be prettily shown with the seedlings by breaking off a bean at the ground and putting the slip in water. it will throw out roots and the pupil will readily understand that the caulicle does the same thing. darwin has made very interesting experiments on the movements of seedlings. if the teacher wishes to repeat some of the experiments he will find the details very fully given in "the power of movement of plants."[ ] the pupils can observe in their growing seedlings some of the points mentioned and have already noticed a few in their answers. they have said that the caulicle was the part to grow first, and have spoken of the arched form of the young stem. their attention should also be drawn to the root-hairs, which are well seen in corn, wheat, and oats. they absorb the liquid food of the plants. a secondary office is to hold the seed firmly, so that the caulicle can enter the ground. this is shown in red clover, which may be sown on the surface of the ground. it puts out root-hairs, which attach themselves to the particles of sand and hold the seed. these hairs are treated more fully in the lessons on roots. [footnote : the power of movement in plants. by charles darwin. london. john murray, .] [footnote : reader in botany. iv. movements of seedlings.] . _leaves of seedlings_.--coming now to the question as to the number of leaves at each joint of the stem, the morning-glory, sunflower, and bean will present no difficulty, but probably all the pupils will be puzzled by the pea. the stipules, so large and leaf-like, look like two leaves, with a stem between, bearing other opposite leaves, and terminating in a tendril, while in the upper part it could not be told by a beginner which was the continuation of the main stem. for these reasons i left this out in the questions on the pea, but it should be taken up in the class. how are we to tell what constitutes a single leaf? the answer to this question is that buds come in the _axils_ of single leaves; that is, in the inner angle which the leaf makes with the stem. if no bud can be seen in the pea, the experiment may be tried of cutting off the top of the seedling plant. buds will be developed in the axils of the nearest leaves, and it will be shown that each is a compound leaf with two appendages at its base, called stipules, and with a tendril at its apex. buds can be forced in the same way to grow from the axils of the lower scales, and even from those of the cotyledons, and the lesson may be again impressed that organs are capable of undergoing great modifications. the teacher may use his own judgment as to whether he will tell them that the tendril is a modified leaflet. [illustration: fig. . . grain of indian corn. . vertical section, dividing the embryo, _a_, caulicle: _b_, cotyledon; _c_, plumule. . vertical section, at right angles to the last.] . _monocotyledons_.--these are more difficult. perhaps it is not worth while to attempt to make the pupils see the embryo in wheat and oats. but the embryo of indian corn is larger and can be easily examined after long soaking. removing the seed-covering, we find the greater part of the seed to be albumen. closely applied to one side of this, so closely that it is difficult to separate it perfectly, is the single cotyledon. this completely surrounds the plumule and furnishes it with food from the albumen. there is a line down the middle, and, if we carefully bend back the edges of the cotyledon, it splits along this line, showing the plumule and caulicle within. the plumule consists of successive layers of rudimentary leaves, the outer enclosing the rest (fig. , , _c_). the latter is the first leaf and remains undeveloped as a scaly sheath (fig. , , _c_). in wheat and oats the cotyledon can be easily seen in the largest seedlings by pulling off the dry husk of the grain. the food will he seen to have been used up. [illustration: fig. . . germination of indian corn. . same more advanced. _a_, caulicle; _c_ , first leaf of the plumule, sheathing the rest; _c_ , second leaf; _c_ , third leaf of the plumule; _d_, roots.] the series of corn seedlings, at least, should be drawn as before and the parts marked, this time with their technical terms. the following questions should then be prepared. corn. what are the parts of the seed? compare these parts with the morning-glory, sunflower, bean, and pea. where is the food stored? how many cotyledons have corn, wheat, and oats? how many have bean, pea, morning-glory, and sunflower? compare the veins of the leaves of each class and see what difference you can find. this will bring up the terms dicotyledon and monocotyledon. _di_ means two, _mono_ means one. this difference in the veins, netted in the first class, parallel in the second, is characteristic of the classes. pupils should have specimens of leaves to classify under these two heads. flowering plants are divided first into these two classes, the dicotyledons and the monocotyledons. if pine-seeds can be planted, the polycotyledonous embryo can also be studied. . _food of seedlings_.--the food of the wheat seedling may be shown in fine flour. [ ]"the flour is to be moistened in the hand and kneaded until it becomes a homogeneous mass. upon this mass pour some pure water and wash out all the white powder until nothing is left except a viscid lump of gluten. this is the part of the crushed wheat-grains which very closely resembles in its composition the flesh of animals. the white powder washed away is nearly pure wheat-starch. of course the other ingredients, such as the mineral matter and the like, might be referred to, but the starch at least should be shown. when the seed is placed in proper soil, or upon a support where it can receive moisture, and can get at the air and still be warm enough, a part of the starch changes into a sort of gum, like that on postage stamps, and finally becomes a kind of sugar. upon this sirup the young seedling feeds until it has some good green leaves for work, and as we have seen in the case of some plants it has these very early." [footnote : concerning a few common plants, page .] the presence of starch can be shown by testing with a solution of iodine. starch is turned blue by iodine and may thus be detected in flour, in seeds, in potatoes, etc. after all this careful experimental work the subject may be studied in the text-book and recited, the recitation constituting a thorough review of the whole. a charming description of the germination of a seed will be found in the reader. v. the birth of picciola. _gray's lessons_. sect. ii, - . iii. _how plants grow_. sect. i, , . ii. iii roots. this subject can be treated more conveniently while the young seedlings are still growing, because their roots are very suitable for study. it seems best, therefore, to take it up before examining the buds. . _study of the roots of seedlings_.--one or two of the seedlings should be broken off and the slips put into a glass of water. they will be studied later. bean and sunflower are the best for the purpose. begin by telling the pupils to prepare for their first lesson a description of the roots of their seedlings. those grown on sponge or paper will show the development of the root-hairs, while those grown on sand are better for studying the form of the root. give them also some fleshy root to describe, as a carrot, or a radish; and a spray of english ivy, as an example of aërial roots. throughout these lessons, the method is pursued of giving pupils specimens to observe and describe before teaching them botanical terms. it is better for them to name the things they see than to find examples for terms already learned. in the first case, they feel the difficulty of expressing themselves and are glad to have the want of exact terms supplied. this method is discouraging at first, especially to the younger ones; but, with time and patience, they will gradually become accustomed to describe whatever they can see. they have, at any rate, used their eyes; and, though they may not understand the real meaning of anything they have seen, they are prepared to discuss the subject intelligently when they come together in the class. if they will first write out their unassisted impressions and, subsequently, an account of the same thing after they have had a recitation upon it, they will be sure to gain something in the power of observation and clear expression. it cannot be too strongly urged that the number of facts that the children may learn is not of the slightest consequence, but that the teacher should aim to cultivate the quick eye, the ready hand, and the clear reason. the root of the morning-glory is _primary_; it is a direct downward growth from the tip of the caulicle. it is about as thick as the stem, tapers towards the end, and has short and fibrous branches. in some plants the root keeps on growing and makes a _tap-root_; in the bean, it soon becomes lost in the branches. these are all simple, that is, there is but one primary root. sometimes there are several or many, and the root is then said to be _multiple_. the pumpkin is an example of this. the root of the pea is described in the older editions of gray's lessons as being multiple, but it is generally simple. indian corn, also, usually starts with a single root, but this does not make a tap-root, and is soon followed by many others from any part of the caulicle, or even from the stem above, giving it the appearance of having a multiple root. the root of the radish is different from any of these; it is _fleshy_. often, it tapers suddenly at the bottom into a root like that of the morning-glory with some fibres upon it. it is, in fact, as the morning-glory would be if the main root were to be thickened up by food being stored in it. it is a primary tap-root. the radish is _spindle-shaped_, tapering at top and bottom, the carrot is _conical_, the turnip is called _napiform_; some radishes are shaped like the turnip. the aërial roots of the english ivy answer another purpose than that of giving nourishment to the plant. they are used to support it in climbing. these are an example of _secondary_ roots, which are roots springing laterally from any part of the stem. the sweet potato has both fleshy and fibrous roots and forms secondary roots of both kinds every year.[ ] some of the seedlings will probably show the root-hairs to the naked eye. these will be noticed hereafter. [footnote : gray's lessons, p. , fig. .] [illustration: fig. .-- . tap-root. . multiple root of pumpkin. . napiform root of turnip. . spindle-shaped root of radish. . conical root of carrot. . aërial roots of ivy.] it is my experience that pupils always like classifying things under different heads, and it is a good exercise. the following table may be made of the roots they have studied, adding other examples. dr. gray says that ordinary roots may be roughly classed into fibrous and fleshy.[ ] thomé classes them as woody and fleshy.[ ] [footnote : gray's lessons, p. .] [footnote : text-book of structural and physiological botany. otto thomé. translated and edited by alfred w. bennett, new york. john wiley and sons. . page .] roots. | ------------------------------------------ | | _primary_. _secondary_. | | -------------------------------- | | | | _fibrous_. _fleshy_. roots of cuttings | aërial roots. ------------------- sweet potatoes.[ ] | | _simple_. _multiple_. _simple_. morning glory. pumpkin carrot. sunflower. radish. pea. turnip. bean. beet. corn. corn. [footnote : the irish potato will very likely be mentioned as an example of a fleshy root. the teacher can say that this will be explained later.] . _fleshy roots_.--the scholars are already familiar with the storing of food for the seedling in or around the cotyledons, and will readily understand that these roots are storehouses of food for the plant. the turnip, carrot, and beet are _biennials_; that is, their growth is continued through two seasons. in the first year, they make a vigorous growth of leaves alone, and the surplus food is carried to the root in the form of a syrup, and there stored, having been changed into starch, or something very similar. at the end of the first season, the root is filled with food, prepared for the next year, so that the plant can live on its reserve fund and devote its whole attention to flowering. these roots are often good food for animals. there are some plants that store their surplus food in their roots year after year, using up in each season the store of the former one, and forming new roots continually. the sweet potato is an example of this class. these are _perennials_. the food in perennials, however, is usually stored in stems, rather than in roots, as in trees. _annuals_ are generally fibrous-rooted, and the plant dies after its first year. the following experiment will serve as an illustration of the way in which the food stored in fleshy roots is utilized for growth. cut off the tapering end of a carrot and scoop out the inside of the larger half in the form of a vase, leaving about half of the flesh behind. put strings through the upper rim, fill the carrot cup with water, and hang it up in a sunny window. keep it constantly full of water. the leaf-buds below will put forth, and grow into leafy shoots, which, turning upwards, soon hide the vase in a green circle. this is because the dry, starchy food stored in the carrot becomes soft and soluble, and the supply of proper food and the warmth of the room make the leaf-buds able to grow. it is also a pretty illustration of the way in which stems always grow upward, even though there is enough light and air for them to grow straight downwards. why this is so, we do not know. . _differences between the stem and the root.--_ask the pupils to tell what differences they have found. _stems_. _roots_. ascend into the air. descend into the ground. grow by a succession of similar grow only from a point parts, each part when young just behind the tip. elongating throughout. bear organs. bear no organs. there are certain exceptions to the statement that roots descend into the ground; such as aërial roots and parasitic roots. the aërial roots of the ivy have been mentioned. other examples of roots used for climbing are the trumpet creeper _(tecoma radicans)_, and the poison ivy _(rhus toxicodendron)_. parasitic roots take their food ready-made from the plants into which they strike. the roots of air-plants, such as certain orchids, draw their nourishment from the air. the experiment of marking roots and stem has been already tried, but it should be repeated. repetition of experiments is always desirable, as it fixes his conclusions in the pupil's mind. the stem grows by a succession of similar parts, _phytomera_, each part, or _phyton_, consisting of node, internode, and leaf. thus it follows that stems must bear leaves. the marked stems of seedlings show greater growth towards the top of the growing phyton. it is only young stems that elongate throughout. the older parts of a phyton grow little, and when the internode has attained a certain length, variable for different stems and different conditions, it does not elongate at all. the root, on the contrary, grows only from a point just behind the tip. the extreme tip consists of a sort of cap of hard tissue, called the root-cap. through a simple lens, or sometimes with the naked eye, it can be distinguished in most of the roots of the seedlings, looking like a transparent tip. "the root, whatever its origin in any case may be, grows in length only in one way; namely, at a point just behind its very tip. this growing point is usually protected by a peculiar cap, which insinuates its way through the crevices of the soil. if roots should grow as stems escaping from the bud-state do,--that is, throughout their whole length--they would speedily become distorted. but, since they grow at the protected tips, they can make their way through the interstices of soil, which from its compactness would otherwise forbid their progress."[ ] [footnote : concerning a few common plants, p. .] the third difference is that, while the stem bears leaves, and has buds normally developed in their axils, roots bear no organs. the stem, however, especially when wounded, may produce buds anywhere from the surface of the bark, and these buds are called _adventitious_ buds. in the same manner, roots occasionally produce buds, which grow up into leafy shoots, as in the apple and poplar.[ ] [footnote : see gray's structural botany, p. .] it should be made perfectly clear that the stem is the axis of the plant, that is, it bears all the other organs. roots grow from stems, not steins from roots, except in certain cases, like that of the poplar mentioned above. this was seen in the study of the seedling. the embryo consisted of stem and leaves, and the roots were produced from the stem as the seedling grew. for illustration of this point, the careful watching of the cuttings placed in water will be very instructive. after a few days, small, hard lumps begin to appear under the skin of the stem of the broken seedling bean. these gradually increase in size until, finally, they rupture the skin and appear as rootlets. roots are always thus formed under the outer tissues of the stem from which they spring, or the root from which they branch. in the bean, the roots are in four long rows, quartering the stem. this is because they are formed in front of the woody bundles of the stem, which in the seedling bean are four. in the sunflower the roots divide the circumference into six parts. in some of my cuttings of beans, the stem cracked in four long lines before the roots had really formed, showing the parenchyma in small hillocks, so to speak. in these the gradual formation of the root-cap could be watched throughout, with merely a small lens. i do not know a better way to impress the nature of the root on the pupil's mind. these forming roots might also be marked very early, and so be shown to carry onward their root-cap on the growing-point. . _root-hairs_. these are outgrowths of the epidermis, or skin of the root, and increase its absorbing power. in most plants they cannot be seen without the aid of a microscope. indian corn and oats, however, show them very beautifully, and the scholars have already noticed them in their seedlings. they are best seen in the seedlings grown on damp sponge. in those grown in sand, they become so firmly united to the particles of soil, that they cannot be separated, without tearing the hairs away from the plant. this will suggest the reason why plants suffer so much from careless transplanting. the root-hairs have the power of dissolving mineral matters in the soil by the action of an acid which they give out. they then absorb these solutions for the nourishment of the plant. the acid given out was first thought to be carbonic acid, but now it is supposed by some experimenters to be acetic acid, by others to vary according to the plant and the time. the action can be shown by the following experiment, suggested by sachs. [illustration: fig. . i. seedling of _sinapis alba_ showing root-hairs. ii. same, showing how fine particles of sand cling to the root-hairs. (sachs.)] cover a piece of polished marble with moist sawdust, and plant some seeds upon it. when the seedlings are somewhat grown, remove the sawdust, and the rootlets will be found to have left their autographs behind. wherever the roots, with their root-hairs have crept, they have eaten into the marble and left it corroded. the marks will become more distinct if the marble is rubbed with a little vermilion. in order that the processes of solution and absorption may take place, it is necessary that free oxygen should be present. all living things must have oxygen to breathe, and this gas is as needful for the germination of seeds, and the action of roots and leaves, as it is for our maintenance of life. it is hurtful for plants to be kept with too much water about their roots, because this keeps out the air. this is the reason why house-plants are injured if they are kept too wet. a secondary office of root-hairs is to aid the roots of seedlings to enter the ground, as we have before noticed. the root-hairs are found only on the young parts of roots. as a root grows older the root-hairs die, and it becomes of no further use for absorption. but it is needed now for another purpose, as the support of the growing plant. in trees, the old roots grow from year to year like stems, and become large and strong. the extent of the roots corresponds in a general way to that of the branches, and, as the absorbing parts are the young rootlets, the rain that drops from the leafy roof falls just where it is needed by the delicate fibrils in the earth below.[ ] [footnote : reader in botany. vi. the relative positions of leaves and rootlets.] . _comparison of a carrot, an onion, and a potato_.--it is a good exercise for a class to take a potato, an onion, and a carrot or radish to compare, writing out the result of their observations. the carrot is a fleshy root, as we have already seen. the onion consists of the fleshy bases of last year's leaves, sheathed by the dried remains of the leaves of former years, from which all nourishment has been drawn. the parallel veining of the leaves is distinctly marked. the stem is a plate at the base, to which these fleshy scales are attached. in the centre, or in the axils of the scales, the newly-forming bulbs can be seen, in onions that are sprouting. if possible, compare other bulbs, as those of tulip, hyacinth, or snowdrop, and the bulb of a crocus, in which the fleshy part consists of the thickened base of the stem, and the leaves are merely dry scales. this is called a _corm_. the potato is a thickened stem. it shows itself to be a stem, because it bears organs. the leaves are reduced to little scales (eyelids), in the axils of which come the buds (eyes). the following delightful experiment has been recommended to me. in a growing potato plant, direct upwards one of the low shoots and surround it with a little cylinder of stiff carpet paper, stuffed with sphagnum and loam. cut away the other tuber-disposed shoots as they appear. the enclosed shoot develops into a tuber which stands more or less vertical, and the scales become pretty little leaves. removing the paper, the tuber and leaves become green, and the latter enlarge a little. a better illustration of the way in which organs adapt themselves to their conditions, and of the meaning of morphology, could hardly be found. _gray's first lessons_. sect. v, - . _how plants grow_. chap. i, - . iv. buds and branches. . there is an astonishing amount to be learned from naked branches, and, if pursued in the right way, the study will be found exceedingly interesting. professor beal, in his pamphlet on the new botany,[ ] says:-- "before the first lesson, each pupil is furnished or told where to procure some specimen for study. if it is winter, and flowers or growing plants cannot be had, give each a branch of a tree or shrub; this branch may be two feet long. the examination of these is made during the usual time for preparing lessons, and not while the class is before the teacher. for the first recitation each is to tell what he has discovered. the specimens are not in sight during the recitation. in learning the lesson, books are not used; for, if they are used, no books will contain a quarter of what the pupil may see for himself. if there is time, each member of the class is allowed a chance to mention anything not named by any of the rest. the teacher may suggest a few other points for study. the pupils are not told what they can see for themselves. an effort is made to keep them working after something which they have not yet discovered. if two members disagree on any point, on the next day, after further study, they are requested to bring in all the proofs they can to sustain their different conclusions. for a second lesson, the students review the first lesson, and report on a branch of a tree of another species which they have studied as before. now they notice any point of difference or of similarity. in like manner new branches are studied and new comparisons made. for this purpose, naked branches of our species of elms, maples, ashes, oaks, basswood, beech, poplars, willows, walnut, butternut, hawthorns, cherries, and in fact any of our native or exotic trees or shrubs are suitable. a comparison of the branches of any of the evergreens is interesting and profitable. discoveries, very unexpected, are almost sure to reward a patient study of these objects. the teacher must not think time is wasted. no real progress can be made, till the pupils begin to learn to see; and to learn to see they must keep trying to form the habit from the very first; and to form the habit they should make the study of specimens the main feature in the course of training." [footnote : the new botany. by w.j. beal. philadelphia, c.h. marot, chestnut st., . page .] horsechestnut (_Æsculus hippocastanum_). we will begin with the study of a branch of horsechestnut.[ ] the pupils should examine and describe their specimens before discussing them in the class-room. they will need some directions and hints, however, to enable them to work to any advantage. tell them to open both large and small buds. it is not advisable to study the horsechestnut bud by cutting sections, as the wool is so dense that the arrangement cannot be seen in this way. the scales should be removed with a knife, one by one, and the number, texture, etc., noted. the leaves and flower-cluster will remain uncovered and will be easy to examine. the gum may be first removed by pressing the bud in a bit of paper. the scholars should study carefully the markings on the stem, in order to explain, if possible, what has caused them. the best way to make clear the meaning of the scars is to show them the relation of the bud to the branch. they must define a bud. ask them what the bud would have become the next season, if it had been allowed to develop. it would have been a branch, or a part of one. a bud, then, is an undeveloped branch. they can always work out this definition for themselves. conversely, a branch is a developed bud, or series of buds, and every mark on the branch must correspond to something in the bud. let them examine the specimens with this idea clearly before their minds. the lesson to prepare should be to write out all they can observe and to make careful drawings of their specimens. ask them to find a way, if possible, to tell the age of the branch. [footnote : the pupils should cut their names on their branches and keep them. they will need them constantly for comparison and reference.] at the recitation, the papers can be read and the points mentioned thoroughly discussed. this will take two lesson-hours, probably, and the drawing may be left, if desired, as the exercise to prepare for the second recitation. [ ]the buds of horsechestnut contain the plan of the whole growth of the next season. they are scaly and covered, especially towards the apex, with a sticky varnish. the scales are opposite, like the leaves. the outer pairs are wholly brown and leathery, the succeeding ones tipped with brown, wherever exposed, so that the whole bud is covered with a thick coat. the inner scales are green and delicate, and somewhat woolly, especially along the lapping edges. there are about seven pairs of scales. the larger terminal buds have a flower-cluster in the centre, and generally two pairs of leaves; the small buds contain leaves alone, two or three pairs of them. the leaves are densely covered with white wool, to protect them from the sudden changes of winter. the use of the gum is to ward off moisture. the flower-cluster is woolly also. [footnote : all descriptions are made from specimens examined by me. other specimens may differ in some points. plants vary in different situations and localities.] the scars on the stem are of three kinds, leaf, bud-scale, and flower-cluster scars. the pupils should notice that the buds are always just above the large triangular scars. if they are still in doubt as to the cause of these marks, show them some house-plant with well-developed buds in the axils of the leaves, and ask them to compare the position of these buds with their branches. the buds that spring from the inner angle of the leaf with the stem are _axillary_ buds; those that crown the stems are _terminal_. since a bud is an undeveloped branch, terminal buds carry, on the axis which they crown, axillary buds give rise to side-shoots. the leaf-scars show the leaf-arrangement and the number of leaves each year. the leaves are opposite and each pair stands over the intervals of the pair below. the same is observed to be true of the scales and leaves of the bud.[ ] all these points should be brought out by the actual observation of the specimens by the pupils, with only such hints from the teacher as may be needed to direct their attention aright. the dots on the leaf-scar are the ends of woody bundles (fibro-vascular bundles) which, in autumn, separated from the leaf. by counting these we can tell how many leaflets there were in the leaf, three, five, seven, nine, or occasionally six or eight. [footnote : bud-scales are modified leaves and their arrangement is therefore the same as the leaves. this is not mentioned in the study of the horsechestnut bud, because it cannot be proved to the pupils, but the transition is explained in connection with lilac, where it may be clearly seen. the scales of the bud of horsechestnut are considered to be homologous with petioles, by analogy with other members of the same family. in the sweet buckeye a series can be made, exhibiting the gradual change from a scale to a compound leaf. see the botanical text-book, part i, structural botany. by asa gray. ivison, blakeman, taylor and co., new york, . plate , p. .] [illustration: fig. .--horsechestnut. i. branch in winter state: _a_, leaf-scars; _b_, bud-scars; _c_, flower-scars. . an expanding leaf-bud. . same, more advanced.] _the bud scale-scars_. these are rings left by the scales of the bud and may be seen in many branches. they are well seen in horsechestnut. if the pupils have failed to observe that these rings show the position of former buds and mark the growth of successive years, this point must be brought out by skilful questioning. there is a difference in the color of the more recent shoots, and a pupil, when asked how much of his branch grew the preceding season, will be able to answer by observing the change in color. make him see that this change corresponds with the rings, and he will understand how to tell every year's growth. then ask what would make the rings in a branch produced from one of his buds, and he can hardly fail to see that the scales would make them. when the scholars understand that the rings mark the year's growth, they can count them and ascertain the age of each branch. the same should be done with each side-shoot. usually the numbers will be found to agree; that is, all the buds will have the same number of rings between them and the cut end of the branch, but occasionally a bud will remain latent for one or several seasons and then begin its growth, in which case the numbers will not agree; the difference will be the number of years it remained latent. there are always many buds that are not developed. "the undeveloped buds do not necessarily perish, but are ready to be called into action in case the others are checked. when the stronger buds are destroyed, some that would else remain dormant develop in their stead, incited by the abundance of nourishment which the former would have monopolized. in this manner our trees are soon reclothed with verdure, after their tender foliage and branches have been killed by a late vernal frost, or consumed by insects. and buds which have remained latent for several years occasionally shoot forth into branches from the sides of old stems, especially in certain trees."[ ] [footnote : structural botany, p. .] the pupils can measure the distance between each set of rings on the main stem, to see on what years it grew best. _the flower-cluster scars_. these are the round, somewhat concave, scars, found terminating the stem where forking occurs, or seemingly in the axils of branches, on account of one of the forking branches growing more rapidly and stoutly than the other and thus taking the place of the main stem, so that this is apparently continued without interruption. if the pupils have not understood the cause of the flower-cluster scars, show them their position in shoots where they are plainly on the summit of the stem, and tell them to compare this with the arrangement of a large bud. the flower-cluster terminates the axis in the bud, and this scar terminates a branch. when the terminal bud is thus prevented from continuing its growth, the nearest axillary buds are developed.[ ] one shoot usually gets the start, and becomes so much stronger that it throws the other to one side. the tendency of the horsechestnut to have its growth carried on by the terminal buds is so strong that i almost feel inclined to say that vigorous branches are never formed from axillary buds, in old trees, except where the terminal bud has been prevented from continuing the branch. this tendency gives to the tree its characteristic size of trunk and branches, and lack of delicate spray. on looking closely at the branches also, they will be seen to be quite irregular, wherever there has been a flower-cluster swerving to one side or the other. [footnote : the first winter that i examined horsechestnut buds i found, in many cases, that the axillary shoots had from a quarter of an inch to an inch of wood before the first set of rings. i could not imagine what had formed this wood, and it remained a complete puzzle to me until the following spring, when i found in the expanding shoots, that, wherever a flower-cluster was present, there were one or two pairs of leaflets already well developed in the axils, and that the next season's buds were forming between them, while the internodes of these leaflets were making quite a rapid growth. subsequently, i found the leaflets also in the buds themselves. i found these leaflets developed on the tree only in the shoots containing flower-clusters, where they would be needed for the future growth of the branches. i suppose the reason must be that the flower-cluster does not use all the nourishment provided and that therefore the axillary buds are able to develop. it would be interesting to know what determines the stronger growth of the one which eventually becomes the leader.] there is one thing more the pupils may have noticed. the small round dots all over the young stem, which become long rifts in the older parts, are breaks in the epidermis, or skin of the stem, through which the inner layers of bark protrude. they are called lenticels. they provide a passage for gases in and out of the stem. in some trees, as the birch, they are very noticeable. after discussing the subject thoroughly in the class-room, the pupils should rewrite their papers, and finally answer the following questions, as a species of review. i have thus spent three recitations on the horsechestnut. the work is all so new, and, if properly presented, so interesting, that a good deal of time is required to exhaust its possibilities of instruction. if the teacher finds his scholars wearying, however, he can leave as many of the details as he pleases to be treated in connection with other branches. questions on the horsechestnut. how many scales are there in the buds you have examined? how are they arranged? how many leaves are there in the buds? how are they arranged? where does the flower-cluster come in the bud? do all the buds contain flower-clusters? what is the use of the wool and the gum? where do the buds come on the stem? which are the strongest? how are the leaves arranged on the stem? do the pairs stand directly over each other? what are the dots on the leaf-scars? how old is your branch? how old is each twig? which years were the best for growth? where were the former flower-clusters? what happens when a branch is stopped in its growth by flowering? what effect does this have on the appearance of the tree? in some parts of the country the horsechestnut is not so commonly planted as in new england. in the southern states the magnolia may be used in its stead, but it is not nearly so simple an example of the main points to be observed.[ ] [footnote : reader in botany. vii. trees in winter.] magnolia umbrella. the bud may be examined by removing the scales with a knife, as in horsechestnut, and also by cutting sections. the outer scales enfold the whole bud, and each succeeding pair cover all within. they are joined, and it is frequently difficult to tell where the suture is, though it can generally be traced at the apex of the bud. on the back is a thick stalk, which is the base of the leaf-stalk. remove the scales by cutting carefully through a single pair, opposite the leaf-stalk, and peeling them off. the scales are modified stipules, instead of leaf-stalks, as in horsechestnut. the outer pair are brown and thick, the inner green, and becoming more delicate and crumpled as we proceed toward the centre of the bud. the leaves begin with the second or third pair of scales. the first one or two are imperfect, being small, brown, and dry. the leaves grow larger towards the centre of the bud. they are covered with short, silky hairs, and are folded lengthwise, with the inner surface within (_conduplicate_). in the specimens i have examined i do not see much difference in size between the buds with flowers and those without. in every bud examined which contained a flower, there was an axillary bud in the axil of the last, or next to the last, leaf. this bud is to continue the interrupted branch in the same way as in horsechestnut. there are from six to ten good leaves, in the buds that i have seen. those without flowers contain more leaves, as in horsechestnut. in the centre of these buds the leaves are small and undeveloped. the flower is very easy to examine, the floral envelopes, stamens and pistils, being plainly discernible. the bud may also be studied in cross-section. this shows the whole arrangement. the plan is not so simple as in horsechestnut, where the leaves are opposite. the subject of leaf-arrangement should be passed over until phyllotaxy is taken up. the scars on the stem differ from horsechestnut in having no distinct bands of rings. the scales, being stipules, leave a line on each side of the leaf-scar, and these are separated by the growth of the internodes. in the beech, the scales are also stipules; but, whereas in the magnolia there are only one or two abortive leaves, in the beech there are eight or nine pairs of stipules without any leaves at all. the rings thus become separated in magnolia, while in the beech the first internodes are not developed, leaving a distinct band of rings, to mark the season's growth. the magnolia is therefore less desirable to begin upon. the branches are swollen at the beginning of a new growth, and have a number of leaf-scars crowded closely together. the leaf-scars are roundish, the lower line more curved. they have many dots on them. from each leaf-scar runs an irregular line around the stem. this has been left by the stipules. the flower-scar is on the summit of the axis, and often apparently in the axil of a branch, as in horsechestnut. sometimes the nearest axillary bud is developed; sometimes there are two, when the branch forks. the axillary buds seldom grow unless the terminal bud is interrupted. the tree therefore has no fine spray. lilac _(syringa vulgaris_). ask the scholars to write a description of their branches and to compare them with horsechestnut. these papers should be prepared before coming into the class, as before. the buds are four-sided. the scales and leaves are opposite, as in horsechestnut. the outer pair sometimes have buds in their axils. remove the scales one by one with a knife, or better, with a stout needle. the scales gradually become thinner as we proceed, and pass into leaves, so that we cannot tell where the scales end and leaves begin. after about six pairs are removed, we come, in the larger buds, to leaves with axillary flower-clusters. the leaves grow smaller and the flower-clusters larger till we come to the centre, where the axis is terminated by a flower-cluster. there is a great difference in the buds on different bushes and on shoots of the same bush, some being large, green, and easy to examine, others small, hard, and dark-colored. it is better, of course, to select as soft and large buds as possible for examination. [illustration: fig. .--lilac. i. branch in winter state: _a_, leaf-scar; _b_, bud-scar (reduced). . same, less reduced. . branch, with leaf-buds expanded. . series in a single bud, showing the gradual transition from scales to leaves.] that the scales are modified leaves is plainly shown by the gradual transition they undergo, and also by the fact that buds are developed in their axils. if any of these can be shown to the pupils, remind them of the experiment where the top of a seedling pea was cut off and buds forced to develop in the axils of the lower scales.[ ] the transition from scales to leaves can be well studied by bringing branches into the house, where they will develop in water, and towards spring may even be made to blossom. cherry, apple, forsythia, and other blossoming trees and shrubs can be thus forced to bloom. place the branches in hot water, and cut off a little of their ends under water. if the water is changed every day, and the glass kept near the register or stove, they will blossom out very quickly. these expanded shoots may be compared with the buds. the number of leaves in the bud varies. [footnote : see p. .] the leaf-scars of lilac are horseshoe-shaped and somewhat swollen. it can often be plainly seen that the outer tissue of the stem runs up into the scar. it looks as if there were a layer of bark, ending with the scar, fastened over each side of the stem. these apparent layers alternate as well as the scars. the epidermis, or skin of the leaves, is in fact always continuous with that of the stem. there are no dots on the leaf-scars. the rings are not nearly so noticeable as in horsechestnut, but they can be counted for some years back. the flower-cluster can often be traced by a dried bit of stem remaining on the branch. the terminal bud in the lilac does not usually develop, and the two uppermost axillary buds take its place, giving to the shrub the forked character of its branching. in all these bud studies, the pupil should finish by showing how the arrangement of the buds determines the growth of the branches. questions on the lilac. how do the scales differ from those of horsechestnut? how many scales and leaves are there? how are they arranged? where does the flower-cluster come in the bud? do all the buds contain flower-clusters? how does the arrangement of leaves and flower-clusters differ from that of horsechestnut? how old is your branch? which buds develop most frequently? how does this affect the appearance of the shrub? copper beech (_fagus sylvatica, var. purpurea_). the buds are long and tapering, the scales thin and scarious, the outer naked, the inner with long, silky hairs. remove the scales one by one, as in lilac. the outer four or six pairs are so minute that the arrangement is not very clear, but as we proceed we perceive that the scales are in alternate pairs, as in horsechestnut; that is, that two scales are exactly on the same plane. but we have learned in the lilac that the scales are modified leaves, and follow the leaf-arrangement of the species. the beech is alternate-leaved, and we should therefore expect the scales to alternate. the explanation is found as we go on removing the scales. at the eighth or ninth pair we come upon a tiny, silky leaf, directly between the pair of scales, and, removing these, another larger leaf, opposite the first but higher up on the rudimentary stem, and so on, with the rest of the bud. there are five or more leaves, each placed between a pair of scales. our knowledge of the parts of a leaf shows us at once that the scales must be modified stipules, and that therefore they must be in pairs.[ ] other examples of scales homologous with stipules are the american elm, tulip-tree, poplar and magnolia. the leaves are plaited on the veins and covered with long, silky hairs. the venation is very distinct. the outer leaves are smaller and, on examining the branch, it will be seen that their internodes do not make so large a growth as the leaves in the centre of the bud. [footnote : see the stipules of the pea, p. .] [illustration: fig. .--copper beech. . branch in winter state: _a_, leaf-scar; _b_, bud-scar. . branch, with leaf-buds expanding, showing the plicate folding of the leaves.] the leaf-scars are small, soon becoming merely ridges running half round the stem. the bud-rings are very plain and easily counted. for this reason, and because it branches freely, it is a good tree for measurements of growth, as is seen in the following tables. nos. , , and : were made by a class of girls, from fourteen to sixteen, from a tree on my lawn. no. was made by a pupil, whom i taught by correspondence, from a tree of the same species in another town. no. was made by myself from my own tree. the measurements of the first four tables were somewhat revised by me, as they were not perfectly accurate. the pupils should always be cautioned to measure from the beginning of one set of rings to the beginning of the next.[ ] [footnote : care must be taken to select branches well exposed to the light. of course there are many circumstances that may aid or hinder the growth of any particular branch.] no. . years. growth of st branch. nd branch. rd branch th branch. main axis. ---------------------------------------------------------------- in. ' - / -- -- -- -- ' - / - / -- -- ' - / - / - / -- -- ' / - / - / -- ' - / - / - / - / ' / / / - / ' / / / / ' - / / - / - / no. . years. growth of st nd rd th th main axis. branch branch branch branch branch ---------------------------------------------------------------- in. ' -- -- -- -- -- -- ' - / - / - / - / -- -- -- ' - / / / - / -- -- ' - / / / / / -- ' - / - / - / - / - / - / -- ' / / / / / ' - / - / - / / / - / - / - / ' - / - / - / - / - / no. . years. growth of st nd rd th th main axis. branch branch branch branch branch ----------------------------------------------------- in. ' - / -- -- -- -- -- ' - / - / - / -- -- -- ' - / / - / -- -- ' - / - / - / / - / ' - / / / / ' / - / / / / ' - / - / - / - / - / - / no. . years growth st nd rd th of main branch branch branch branch axis ----------------------------------------- in. ' - / -- -- -- -- ' - / -- -- ' - / - / - / - / ' - / / - / - / - / ' / / / ' - / - / / - / - / no. . (cont.) years th th th th th branch branch branch branch branch ----------------------------------- in. ' -- -- -- -- -- ' -- -- -- -- -- ' -- -- -- -- -- ' / - / -- -- -- ' / / / / -- ' - / - / - / - / no. . years growth st nd rd th th th of main branch branch branch branch branch branch axis ----------------------------------------------------- in. ' - / --- --- --- --- --- --- ' - / - / - / --- --- --- --- ' - / / - / - / --- --- --- ' - / / - / - / --- --- ' - / - / - / - / - / - / --- ' - / - / - / - / - / no. . years main st nd nd nd rd th axis branch branch branch branch branch branch ----------------------------------------------------- in. st nd side side ' - / --- --- shoot. shoot. --- --- ' - / - / --- --- --- --- --- ' - / - / - / --- --- --- . ' - / - / - / --- --- . ' - / - / - / --- --- - / / ' - / / - / - / --- ' + - / - / - / - / - / - / ' bough - / - / - / - / - / - / broken. one question brought up by these measurements is whether there is any correspondence in growth between the main axis and its branches. it appears in these tables that there is a general correspondence, in this tree at least. in the recitation of the class, whose tables are given above (nos. , , and ), we took all the measurements of these four branches for the year and added them. we did the same for , and compared the results. the total growth for was - / inches; for , leaving out the measurement of the twig whose entire growth was in that year, - / inches or nearly - / times as much. the proportion held in a general way throughout, there being only a single case of a branch where the growth was greater in the first year.[ ] but there is a point that must not be overlooked in this connection. the branches of the beech seem to grow about equally well in the first, second, third, or any succeeding year. in some trees, as the ash, the axillary buds make a large growth, and the succeeding terminal buds carry on the branch much more slowly; in other trees, as the cherry, a branch grows very slowly in the first few years and then suddenly takes a start. these facts would appear in tables of growth, made from branches of these trees, but the addition of results for any particular year would have no significance. [footnote : the spring of was a remarkably early one. thus i find in my diary of that year the following entries:-- april . the red maples are in full bloom, the elms almost over. the leaves of the horsechestnut are quite large. the lilacs are nearly in leaf. april . we went up to waverley and found bloodroot up, spice bush out, violets, dog-tooths and anemones, also caltha. april . all the cherries are in full bloom. april . picked an apple blossom in bud, beautifully pink. the season was nearly three weeks earlier than usual. on the other hand was a late spring.] in table no. , the addition of the measurements for and shows the growth in the latter year to be about twice that of the former. this branch came from a tree in another town. we have tried also to discover whether the number of leaves each year has any relation to growth. i cannot see that it has, but it requires many experiments to determine these points. to study this, make tables of the number of leaves on the branch each year. i think teachers would find it interesting to keep all data of this kind of work done by their classes, with a view to tabulation and comparison. the scholars themselves are exceedingly interested in anything that partakes of the nature of an original investigation.[ ] [footnote : the class, previously mentioned, were much interested in the addition of their results. one of them asked me whether this subject of measurements had been treated in any book. i replied that i had never seen it mentioned. my attention was afterwards called to "what may be learned from a tree," by prof. harlan couitas. d. appleton & co., new york, . i found, greatly to my surprise, that he had not only given diagrams of growth, but that he also had selected a copper beech as his example.] the leaf-arrangement of the beech is alternate, on the one-half plan. the small twigs turn upwards, so that all the spray is on the upper side, giving a flat appearance to the branch.[ ] this gives the leaves a better exposure to the light. both the terminal and axillary buds grow freely, thus forming long, straight limbs, with many branches and much fine spray. [footnote : phyllotaxy is treated later, by a comparison and study of many branches, but the teacher can draw the pupils' attention to the fact that each beech leaf and twig is on exactly the opposite side of the branch from the preceding one. this allows all the twigs to grow towards one side of the branch, whereas in trees on the two-fifths plan, as the apple, poplar, oak, etc., no such regularity would be possible, on account of their many different angles with the stem.] the bark of the beech is beautifully smooth. the extreme straightness of the trunk and limbs is very striking, and may be compared to the crooked limbs of the horsechestnut, where the branch is continually interrupted by the flower-cluster. in the beech the flowers are axillary. questions on the beech. how are the scales of the beech bud arranged? how many leaves are there in the bud? how does the arrangement of the scales and leaves in the bud differ from that of the horsechestnut? how are the leaves folded in the bud? what is the arrangement of the leaves on the stem? how does this differ from horsechestnut and lilac? how old is your branch? how old is each twig? what years were the best for growth? how does the growth of the branches differ from that of horsechestnut? from lilac? explain these differences with reference to the growth and arrangement of the buds? in what direction do the twigs grow? how does this affect the appearance of the tree? compare the amount of spray of the beech and horsechestnut and explain the reason of the difference. these questions are only intended for review, they are never to be used for the first study of the specimen. american elm (_ulmus americana_). the buds are covered with brown scales, which are hairy on the edges. the flower-buds are larger than the leaf-buds and are in the axils of the lower leaves of the preceding year. each leaf in the bud is enclosed by a pair of scales. they are so small that the pupils, unused to delicate work, will hardly discover them. under a glass they can be seen to be ovate, folded on the midrib with the inner face within (_conduplicate_), and with an ovate scale joined to the base of the leaf on either side. the scales thus show themselves to be modified stipules. the venation of the leaves is very plain. the scales are much larger than the leaves. the flower-buds contain a cluster of flowers, on slender green pedicels. the calyx is bell-shaped, unequal, and lobed. the stamens and pistil can be seen. the flower-clusters do not seem to leave any mark which is distinguishable from the leaf-scar. [illustration: fig. .--american elm. . branch in winter state: _a_, leaf-scars; _b_, bud-scars; _d_, leaf-buds; _e_, flower-buds. . branch, with staminate flower-buds expanding. . same, more advanced. . branch, with pistillate flowers, the leaf-bud also expanding.] the leaf-scars are small and extend about half around the stem. the arrangement is alternate on the one-half plan. there are three dots on the scar. the rings are quite plain. the tree can be used to make tables of growth, like those of the beech. the buds will probably be too small for examination by the pupils, at present, but their position and development can be studied, and are very instructive. as the leaf-buds are all on the ends of the branchlets, the twigs and branches will be just below the bud-rings, and then there will be a space where no twigs nor branches will be found, till the next set of rings is reached. this gives the branches more room to develop symmetrically. the terminal buds do not develop in the elm, in old trees, the bud axillary to the last leaf of the season taking its place, and most of the other axillary buds growing also. this makes the tree break out into very fine spray. a tree like the elm, where the trunk becomes lost in the branches, is called _deliquescent_; when the trunk is continued to the top of the tree, as in the spruce, it is _excurrent_. the small, feathery twigs and branches that are often seen on the trunks and great limbs of the elm grow from buds which are produced anywhere on the surface of the wood. such buds are called _adventitious_ buds. they often spring from a tree when it is wounded. "the american elm is, in most parts of the state, the most magnificent tree to be seen. from a root, which, in old trees, spreads much above the surface of the ground, the trunk rises to a considerable height in a single stem. here it usually divides into two or three principal branches, which go off by a gradual and easy curve. theses stretch upwards and outwards with an airy sweep, become horizontal, the extreme half of the limb, pendent, forming a light and regular arch. this graceful curvature, and absence of all abruptness, in the primary limbs and forks, and all the subsequent divisions, are entirely characteristic of the tree, and enable an observer to distinguish it in the winter and even by night, when standing in relief against the sky, as far as it can be distinctly seen."[ ] [footnote : a report on the trees and shrubs growing naturally in the forests of massachusetts. by geo. b. emerson, boston, little, brown and co., . this book will be found very useful, containing careful descriptions of many trees and shrubs, and interesting facts about them.] questions on the american elm. how do the flower-buds differ from the leaf-buds in position and appearance? what is the arrangement of the leaves? what other tree that you have studied has this arrangement? how old is your branch? where would you look to see if the flower-cluster had left any mark? why is it that several twigs grow near each other, and that then comes a space without any branches? what buds develop most frequently? how does this affect the appearance of the tree? what is a tree called when the trunk is lost in the branches? balm of gilead (_populus balsamifera, var. candicans_). the buds are pointed: the terminal slightly angled, the axillary flattened against the stem.[ ] some of the axillary buds contain leaves and some flowers; the appearance of the leaf-buds and flower-buds being the same. the scales of the bud are modified stipules. the terminal buds have about three pairs of the outer scales brown and leathery. the inner scales, as well as the leaves, are coated with resinous matter, which has a strong odor and a nauseous taste. the smaller outer scales have no corresponding leaf, and apparently are modified stipules of the leaves of the preceding year, but the larger ones have a leaf to each pair of scales. the outer and inner leaves are small, the middle ones larger. comparing the branch, it will be seen that these leaves make the largest growth of internode. the leaves are rolled towards the midrib on the upper face (_involute_). there are about ten which are easily seen and counted, the inner ones being very small, with minute scales. the axillary buds have a short thick scale on the outer part of the bud, then about three pairs of large scales, each succeeding one enwrapping those within, the outer one brown and leathery. the scales of the flower-buds are somewhat gummy, but not nearly so much so as those of the leaf-buds. within is the catkin. each pistil, or stamen (they are on separate trees, _dioecious_) is in a little cup and covered by a scale, which is cut and fringed. [footnote : these buds cannot be satisfactorily examined in cross section, on account of the resin. the scales must be removed one by one, with a knife, with a complete disregard of the effect upon the hands.] the leaf-scars are somewhat three-lobed on the young parts, with three dots, indicating the fibro-vascular bundles, which ran up into the leaf. the scars are swollen, making the young branches exceedingly rough. in the older parts the scars become less noticeable. strong young shoots, especially those which come up from the root, are strongly angled, with three ridges running up into each leaf-scar, making them almost club-shaped. there are often from twenty to thirty leaves in one year's growth, in such shoots, and all the leaves are not rudimentary in the bud. the growth in this case is said to be _indefinite_. usually in trees with scaly buds the plan of the whole year's growth is laid down in the bud, and the term _definite_ is applied. branches, like the rose, that go on growing all summer grow indefinitely. the bud-scale scar is quite different from the other trees which we have examined. it is not composed of definite rings, but of leaf-scars with long ridges running from each side of them, showing the scales to be modified stipules. the leaf-scars have become somewhat separated by the growth of the internodes. in the beech, there are eight, or more, pairs of scales with no leaves, so that the internodes do not develop, and a ring is left on the branch. the flower-cluster leaves a concave, semicircular scar, in the leaf-axil. [illustration: fig. .--balm-of-gilead. . branch in winter state: _a_, leaf-scar; _b_, bud-scar. . branch, with leaf-buds expanded. . branch, with catkin appearing from the bud.] the terminal buds are the strongest and not very many axillary buds develop, so that the tree has not fine spray. the leaf-arrangement is alternate, on the / plan. phyllotaxy is not yet to be taken up, but the pupils should be shown the different angles of the branching of the twigs, and told to compare them with beech and elm. questions on the balm of gilead. in which buds are the flower-clusters? are there flowers and leaves in the same buds? what are the scales of the bud? how are the leaves folded in the bud? how do the axillary and terminal buds differ? what are the dots on the leaf-scars? why is there no distinct band of rings as in beech? how old is your branch? where do you look for flower-cluster scars? which buds are the strongest? how does this affect the appearance of the tree? what makes the ends of the branches so rough? compare the arrangement of the twigs and branches with beech and elm, with horsechestnut and lilac. tulip-tree (_liriodendron tulipifera_). the buds are small, flat, and rounded at the apex. they are sheathed by scales, each leaf being covered by a pair, whose edges cohere. the outer pair are brown and are the stipules of the last leaf of the preceding year. the leaves are conduplicate, as in magnolia, and have the blade bent inwards on the petiole (_inflexed_). their shape is very clearly to be seen, and no bud is more interesting in the closeness of its packing. axillary buds are often found within. the flowers grow high upon the trees and towards the ends of the branches. the leaf-scars are round with many dots. the scar of the stipules is a continuous line around the stem, as in magnolia. cherry _(prunus cerasus_). the leaf-buds are terminal, or in the axils of the upper leaves of the preceding year; the flower buds are axillary. there is but one bud in each axil, and usually two or three flowers in each bud, but the leaves on the twigs are crowded and the flowers therefore appear in clusters. the blossom-buds are larger and more rounded than the leaf-buds. the buds of the tree develop very easily in the house, and as they are so small they can be better studied in watching them come out, than by attempting to dissect them, unless the scholars are sufficiently advanced to use the microscope easily. it is always bad for a pupil to attempt to describe what he sees but imperfectly. he will be sure to jump at any conclusions which he thinks ought to be correct. the leaf-scars are semicircular, small and swollen. the bud-rings are plain. the twigs make a very small growth in a season, so that the leaf-scars and rings make them exceedingly rough. the flower-cluster scars are small circles, with a dot in the centre, in the leaf-axils. the flowers come before the leaves. the leaf-arrangement is alternate on the / plan. the pupils may compare the branching with that of their other specimens. red maple (_acer rubrum_). this is a good specimen for the study of accessory buds. there is usually a bud in the axil of each lower scale of the axillary buds, making three side by side. we have already noticed this as occurring sometimes in lilac. it is habitually the case with the red maple. the middle bud, which is smaller and develops later, is a leaf-bud. the others are flower-buds. the leaf-scars are small, with three dots on each scar. the rings are very plain. the flower-cluster leaves a round scar in the leaf-axil, as in cherry. the leaves are opposite and the tree branches freely. the twigs seem to be found just below the bud-rings, as the upper leaf-buds usually develop best and the lower buds are single, containing flowers only. norway spruce (_picea excelsa_). the buds are terminal, and axillary, from the axils of the leaves of the preceding year, usually from those at the ends of the branchlets. they are covered with brown scales and contain many leaves. [illustration: fig. .--branch of cherry in winter state: _a_, leaf-scar; _b_, bud-scar; _c_, flower-scar.] [illustration: fig. .--branch of red maple in winter state (reduced). . flower-buds] the leaves are needle-shaped and short.[ ] they are arranged densely on the branches, alternately on the / plan (see section on phyllotaxy). when they drop off they leave a hard, blunt projection which makes the stem very rough. as the terminal bud always develops unless injured, the tree is excurrent, forming a straight trunk, throwing out branches on every side. the axillary buds develop near the ends of the branchlets, forming apparent whorls of branches around the trunk. in the smaller branches, as the tree grows older, the tendency is for only two buds to develop nearly opposite each other, forming a symmetrical branch. [footnote : the pupils should observe how much more crowded the leaves are than in the other trees they have studied. the leaves being smaller, it is necessary to have more of them. large-leaved trees have longer internodes than those with small leaves.] the bud-scales are persistent on the branches and the growth from year to year can be traced a long way back. the cones hang on the ends of the upper branches. they are much larger than in our native species of black and white spruce. the evergreens are a very interesting study and an excellent exercise in morphology for the older scholars. . _vernation_. this term signifies the disposition of leaves in the bud, either in respect to the way in which each leaf is folded, or to the manner in which the leaves are arranged with reference to each other. the pupils have described the folding of the leaves in some of their specimens. in the beech, the leaf is _plicate_, or plaited on the veins. in the elm, magnolia, and tulip-tree, it is _conduplicate_, that is, folded on the midrib with the inner face within. in the tulip-tree, it is also _inflexed_, the blade bent forwards on the petiole. in the balm of gilead, the leaf is _involute_, rolled towards the midrib on the upper face. other kinds of vernation are _revolute_, the opposite of involute, where the leaf is rolled backwards towards the midrib; _circinate_, rolled from the apex downwards, as we see in ferns; and _corrugate_, when the leaf is crumpled in the bud. [illustration: fig. .--branch of norway spruce.] in all the trees we have studied, the leaves simply succeed each other, each leaf, or pair of leaves, overlapping the next in order. the names of the overlapping of the leaves among themselves, _imbricated, convolute, etc_., will not be treated here, as they are not needed. they will come under _æstivation_, the term used to describe the overlapping of the modified leaves, which make up the flower.[ ] [footnote : reader in botany. viii. young and old leaves.] . _phyllotaxy_. the subject of leaf-arrangement is an extremely difficult one, and it is best, even with the older pupils, to touch it lightly. the point to be especially brought out is the disposition of the leaves so that each can get the benefit of the light. this can be seen in any plant and there are many ways in which the desired result is brought about. the chief way is the distribution of the leaves about the stem, and this is well studied from the leaf-scars. the scholars should keep the branches they have studied. it is well to have them marked with the respective names, that the teacher may examine and return them without fear of mistakes. in the various branches that the pupils have studied, they have seen that the arrangement of the leaves differs greatly. the arrangement of leaves is usually classed under three modes: the _alternate_, the _opposite_, and the _whorled_; but the opposite is the simplest form of the whorled arrangement, the leaves being in circles of two. in this arrangement, the leaves of each whorl stand over the spaces of the whorl just below. the pupils have observed and noted this in horsechestnut and lilac. in these there are four vertical rows or ranks of leaves. in whorls of three leaves there would be six ranks, in whorls of four, eight, and so on. when the leaves are alternate, or single at each node of the stem, they are arranged in many different ways. ask the pupils to look at all the branches with alternate leaves that they have studied, and determine in each case what leaves stand directly over each other. that is, beginning with any leaf, count the number of leaves passed on the stem, till one is reached that stands directly over the first.[ ] in the beech and the elm the leaves are on opposite sides of the stem, so that the third stands directly over the first. this makes two vertical ranks, or rows, of leaves, dividing the circle into halves. it is, therefore, called the / arrangement. another way of expressing it is to say that the angular divergence between the leaves is °, or one-half the circumference. [footnote : the pupils must be careful not to pass the bud-rings when they are counting the leaves.] the / arrangement, with the leaves in three vertical ranks, is not very common. it may be seen in sedges, in the orange-tree, and in black alder _(ilex verticillata)_. in this arrangement, there are three ranks of leaves, and each leaf diverges from the next at an angle of °, or one-third of the circumference. by far the commonest arrangement is with the leaves in five vertical ranks. the cherry, the poplar, the larch, the oak, and many other trees exhibit this. in this arrangement there are five leaves necessary to complete the circle. we might expect, then, that each leaf would occupy one-fifth of the circle. this would be the case were it not for the fact that we have to pass twice around the stem in counting them, so that each leaf has twice as much room, or two-fifths of the circle, to itself. this is, therefore, the / arrangement. this can be shown by winding a thread around the stem, passing it over each leaf-scar. in the beech we make one turn of the stem before reaching the third leaf which stands over the first. in the apple the thread will wind twice about the stem, before coming to the sixth leaf, which is over the first. another arrangement, not very common, is found in the magnolia, the holly, and the radical leaves of the common plantain and tobacco. the thread makes three turns of the stem before reaching the eighth leaf which stands over the first. this is the / arrangement. it is well seen in the marguerite, a greenhouse plant which is very easily grown in the house. look now at these fractions, / , / , / , and / . the numerator of the third is the sum of the numerators of the first and second, its denominator, the sum of the two denominators. the same is true of the fourth fraction and the two immediately preceding it. continuing the series, we get the fractions / , / , / . these arrangements can be found in nature in cones, the scales of which are modified leaves and follow the laws of leaf-arrangement.[ ] [footnote : see the uses and origin of the arrangement of leaves in plants. by chauncey wright. memoirs amer. acad., ix, p. . this essay is an abstruse mathematical treatise on the theory of phyllotaxy. the fractions are treated as successive approximations to a theoretical angle, which represents the best possible exposure to air and light. modern authors, however, do not generally accept this mathematical view of leaf-arrangement.] [ ]"it is to be noted that the distichous or / variety gives the maximum divergence, namely °, and that the tristichous, or / , gives the least, or °; that the pentastichous, or / , is nearly the mean between the first two; that of the / , nearly the mean between the two preceding, etc. the disadvantage of the two-ranked arrangement is that the leaves are soon superposed and so overshadow each other. this is commonly obviated by the length of the internodes, which is apt to be much greater in this than in the more complex arrangements, therefore placing them vertically further apart; or else, as in elms, beeches, and the like, the branchlets take a horizontal position and the petioles a quarter twist, which gives full exposure of the upper face of all the leaves to the light. the / and / , with diminished divergence, increase the number of ranks; the / and all beyond, with mean divergence of successive leaves, effect a more thorough distribution, but with less and less angular distance between the vertical ranks." [footnote : gray's structural botany, chap, iv, p. .] for directions for finding the arrangement of cones, see gray's structural botany, chap. iv, sect. . the subject appears easy when stated in a text-book, but, practically, it is often exceedingly difficult to determine the arrangement. stems often twist so as to alter entirely the apparent disposition of the leaves. the general principle, however, that the leaves are disposed so as to get the best exposure to air and light is clear. this cannot be shown by the study of the naked branches merely, because these do not show the beautiful result of the distribution.[ ] many house plants can be found, which will afford excellent illustrations (fig. ). the marguerite and tobacco, both easily grown in the house, are on the / plan. the latter shows the eight ranks most plainly in the rosette of its lower leaves. the distribution is often brought about by differences in the lengths of the petioles, as in a horsechestnut branch (fig. ) where the lower, larger leaves stand out further from the branch than the upper ones; or by a twist in the petioles, so that the upper faces of the leaves are turned up to the light, as in beech (fig. ). if it is springtime when the lessons are given, endless adaptations can be found. [footnote : reader in botany. ix. leaf-arrangement.] [illustration: fig. . branch of geranium, viewed from above.] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] _gray's first lessons_. sect. iv. vii, § . _how plants grow_. chap. i, - ; i, . v. stems. the stem, as the scholars have already learned, is the axis of the plant. the leaves are produced at certain definite points called nodes, and the portions of stem between these points are internodes. the internode, node, and leaf make a single plant-part, and the plant is made up of a succession of such parts. the stem, as well as the root and leaves, may bear plant-hairs. the accepted theory of plant structure assumes that these four parts, root, stem, leaves, and plant-hairs, are the only members of a flowering plant, and that all other forms, as flowers, tendrils, etc., are modified from these. while this idea is at the foundation of all our teaching, causing us to lead the pupil to recognize as modified leaves the cotyledons of a seedling and the scales of a bud, it is difficult to state it directly so as to be understood, except by mature minds. i have been frequently surprised at the failure of even bright and advanced pupils to grasp this idea, and believe it is better to let them first imbibe it unconsciously in their study. whenever their minds are ready for it, it will be readily understood. the chief difficulty is that they imagine that there is a direct metamorphosis of a leaf to a petal or a stamen. briefly, the theory is this: the beginnings of leaf, petal, tendril, etc., are the same. at an early stage of their growth it is impossible to tell what they are to become. they develop into the organ needed for the particular work required of them to do. the organ, that under other circumstances might develop into a leaf, is capable of developing into a petal, a stamen, or a pistil, according to the requirements of the plant, but no actual metamorphosis takes place. sometimes, instead of developing into the form we should normally find, the organ develops into another form, as when a petal stands in the place of a stamen, or the pistil reverts to a leafy branch. this will be more fully treated under flowers. the study of the different forms in which an organ may appear is the study of _morphology_. . _forms of stems_.--stems may grow in many ways. let the pupils compare the habits of growth of the seedlings they have studied. the sunflower and corn are _erect_. this is the most usual habit, as with our common trees. the morning glory is _twining_, the stem itself twists about a support. the bean, pea and nasturtium are _climbing_. the stems are weak, and are held up, in the first two by tendrils, in the last by the twining leaf-stalks. the english ivy, as we have seen, is also climbing, by means of its aërial roots. the red clover is _ascending_, the branches rising obliquely from the base. some kinds of clover, as the white clover, are _creeping_, that is, with prostrate branches rooting at the nodes and forming new plants. such rooting branches are called _stolons_, or when the stem runs underground, _suckers_. the gardener imitates them in the process called layering, that is, bending down an erect branch and covering it with soil, causing it to strike root. when the connecting stem is cut, a new plant is formed. long and leafless stolons, like those of the strawberry are called _runners_. stems creep below the ground as well as above. probably the pupil will think of some examples. the pretty little gold thread is so named from the yellow running stems, which grow beneath the ground and send up shoots, or suckers, which make new plants. many grasses propagate themselves in this way. such stems are called _rootstocks_. "that these are really stems, and not roots, is evident from the way in which they grow; from their consisting of a succession of joints; and from the leaves which they bear on each node, in the form of small scales, just like the lowest ones on the upright stem next the ground. they also produce buds in the axils of these scales, showing the scales to be leaves; whereas real roots bear neither leaves nor axillary buds."[ ] rootstocks are often stored with nourishment. we have already taken up this subject in the potato, but it is well to repeat the distinction between stems and roots. a thick, short rootstock provided with buds, like the potato, is called a _tuber_. compare again the corm of crocus and the bulb of onion to find the stem in each. in the former, it makes the bulk of the whole; in the latter, it is a mere plate holding the fleshy bases of the leaves. [footnote : gray's first lessons, revised edition, , page .] . _movements of stems.--_let a glass thread, no larger than a coarse hair, be affixed by means of some quickly drying varnish to the tip of the laterally inclined stem of one of the young morning-glory plants in the schoolroom. stand a piece of cardboard beside the pot, at right angles to the stem, so that the end of the glass will be near the surface of the card. make a dot upon the card opposite the tip of the filament, taking care not to disturb the position of either. in a few minutes observe that the filament is no longer opposite the dot. mark its position anew, and continue thus until a circle is completed on the cardboard. this is a rough way of conducting the experiment. darwin's method will be found in the footnote.[ ] [footnote : "plants growing in pots were protected wholly from the light, or had light admitted from above or on one side as the case might require, and were covered above by a large horizontal sheet of glass, and with another vertical sheet on one side. a glass filament, not thicker than a horsehair, and from a quarter to three-quarters of an inch in length, was affixed to the part to be observed by means of shellac dissolved in alcohol. the solution was allowed to evaporate until it became so thick that it set hard in two or three seconds, and it never injured the tissues, even the tips of tender radicles, to which it was applied. to the end of the glass filament an excessively minute bead of black sealing-wax was cemented, below or behind which a bit of card with a black dot was fixed to a stick driven into the ground.... the bead and the dot on the card were viewed through the horizontal or vertical glass-plate (according to the position of the object) and when one exactly covered the other, a dot was made on the glass plate with a sharply pointed stick dipped in thick india ink. other dots were made at short intervals of time and these were afterwards joined by straight lines. the figures thus traced were therefore angular, but if dots had been made every one or two minutes, the lines would have been more curvilinear."--the power of movement in plants, p. .] the use of the glass filament is simply to increase the size of the circle described, and thus make visible the movements of the stem. all young parts of stems are continually moving in circles or ellipses. "to learn how the sweeps are made, one has only to mark a line of dots along the upper side of the outstretched revolving end of such a stem, and to note that when it has moved round a quarter of a circle, these dots will be on one side; when half round, the dots occupy the lower side; and when the revolution is completed, they are again on the upper side. that is, the stem revolves by bowing itself over to one side,--is either pulled over or pushed over, or both, by some internal force, which acts in turn all round the stem in the direction in which it sweeps; and so the stem makes its circuits without twisting."[ ] [footnote : how plants behave. by asa gray. ivison, blakeman, taylor & co., new york, . page .] the nature of the movement is thus a successive nodding to all the points of the compass, whence it is called by darwin _circumnutation_. the movement belongs to all young growing parts of plants. the great sweeps of a twining stem, like that of the morning-glory, are only an increase in the size of the circle or ellipse described.[ ] [footnote : "in the course of the present volume it will be shown that apparently every growing part of every plant is continually circumnutating, though often on a small scale. even the stems of seedlings before they have broken through the ground, as well as their buried radicles, circumnutate, as far as the pressure of the surrounding earth permits. in this universally present movement we have the basis or groundwork for the acquirement, according to the requirements of the plant, of the most diversified movements. thus the great sweeps made by the stems of the twining plants, and by the tendrils of other climbers, result from a mere increase in the amplitude of the ordinary movement of circumnutation."--the power of movement in plants, p. .] when a young stem of a morning-glory, thus revolving, comes in contact with a support, it will twist around it, unless the surface is too smooth to present any resistance to the movement of the plant. try to make it twine up a glass rod. it will slip up the rod and fall off. the morning-glory and most twiners move around from left to right like the hands of a clock, but a few turn from right to left. while this subject is under consideration, the tendrils of the pea and bean and the twining petioles of the nasturtium will be interesting for comparison. the movements can be made visible by the same method as was used for the stem of the morning-glory. tendrils and leaf petioles are often sensitive to the touch. if a young leaf stalk of clematis be rubbed for a few moments, especially on the under side, it will be found in a day or two to be turned inward, and the tendrils of the cucumber vine will coil in a few minutes after being thus irritated.[ ] the movements of tendrils are charmingly described in the chapter entitled "how plants climb," in the little treatise by dr. gray, already mentioned. [footnote : reader in botany. x. climbing plants.] the so-called "sleep of plants" is another similar movement. the oxalis is a good example. the leaves droop and close together at night, protecting them from being chilled by too great radiation. the cause of these movements is believed to lie in changes of tension preceding growth in the tissues of the stem.[ ] every stem is in a state of constant tension. naudin has thus expressed it, "the interior of every stem is too large for its jacket."[ ] if a leaf-stalk of nasturtium be slit vertically for an inch or two, the two halves will spring back abruptly. this is because the outer tissues of the stem are stretched, and spring back like india-rubber when released. if two stalks twining in opposite directions be slit as above described, the side of the stem towards which each stalk is bent will spring back more than the other, showing the tension to be greater on that side. a familiar illustration of this tension will be found in the dandelion curls of our childhood. [footnote : see physiological botany. by geo. l. goodale. ivison & co., new york, . page .] [footnote : the following experiment exhibits the phenomenon of tension very strikingly. "from a long and thrifty young internode of grapevine cut a piece that shall measure exactly one hundred units, for instance, millimeters. from this section, which measures exactly one hundred millimeters, carefully separate the epidermal structures in strips, and place the strips at once under an inverted glass to prevent drying; next, separate the pith in a single unbroken piece wholly freed from the ligneous tissue. finally, remeasure the isolated portions, and compare with the original measure of the internode. there will be found an appreciable shortening of the epidermal tissues and a marked increase in length of the pith."--physiological botany, p. .] the movements of the sensitive plant are always very interesting to pupils, and it is said not to be difficult to raise the plants in the schoolroom. the whole subject, indeed, is one of the most fascinating that can be found, and its literature is available, both for students and teachers. darwin's essay on "climbing plants," and his later work on the "power of movement in plants," dr. gray's "how plants behave," and the chapter on "movements" in the "physiological botany," will offer a wide field for study and experiment. . _structure of stems_.--let the pupils collect a series of branches of some common tree or shrub, from the youngest twig up to as large a branch as they can cut, and describe them. poplar, elm, oak, lilac, etc., will be found excellent for the purpose. while discussing these descriptions, a brief explanation of plant-structure may be given. in treating this subject, the teacher must govern himself by the needs of his class, and the means at his command. explanations requiring the use of a compound microscope do not enter necessarily into these lessons. the object aimed at is to teach the pupils about the things which they can see and handle for themselves. looking at sections that others have prepared is like looking at pictures; and, while useful in opening their eyes and minds to the wonders hidden from our unassisted sight, fails to give the real benefit of scientific training. plants are built up of cells. the delicate-walled spherical, or polygonal, cells which make up the bulk of an herbaceous stem, constitute cellular tissue (_parenchyma_). this was well seen in the stem of the cutting of bean in which the roots had begun to form.[ ] the strengthening fabric in almost all flowering plants is made up of woody bundles, or woody tissue.[ ] the wood-cells are cells which are elongated and with thickened walls. there are many kinds of them. those where the walls are very thick and the cavity within extremely small are _fibres_. a kind of cell, not strictly woody, is where many cells form long vessels by the breaking away of the connecting walls. these are _ducts_. these two kinds of cells are generally associated together in woody bundles, called therefore fibro-vascular bundles. we have already spoken of them as making the dots on the leaf-scars, and forming the strengthening fabric of the leaves.[ ] [footnote : see page .] [footnote : if elements of the same kind are untied, they constitute a tissue to which is given the name of those elements; thus parenchyma cells form parenchyma tissue or simply parenchyma; cork-cells form cork, etc. a tissue can therefore be defined as a fabric of united cells which have had a common origin and obeyed a common law of growth.--physiological botany. p. .] [footnote : see page .] we will now examine our series of branches. the youngest twigs, in spring or early summer, are covered with a delicate, nearly colorless skin. beneath this is a layer of bark, usually green, which gives the color to the stem, an inner layer of bark, the wood and the pith. the pith is soft, spongy and somewhat sappy. there is also sap between the bark and the wood. an older twig has changed its color. there is a layer of brown bark, which has replaced the colorless skin. in a twig a year old the wood is thicker and the pith is dryer. comparing sections of older branches with these twigs, we find that the pith has shrunk and become quite dry, and that the wood is in rings. it is not practicable for the pupils to compare the number of these rings with the bud-rings, and so find out for themselves that the age of the branch can be determined from the wood, for in young stems the successive layers are not generally distinct. but, in all the specimens, the sap is found just between the wood and the bark, and here, where the supply of food is, is where the growth is taking place. each year new wood and new bark are formed in this _cambium-layer_, as it is called, new wood on its inner, new bark on its outer face. trees which thus form a new ring of wood every year are called _exogenous_, or outside-growing. ask the pupils to separate the bark into its three layers and to try the strength of each. the two outer will easily break, but the inner is generally tough and flexible. it is this inner bark, which makes the poplar and willow branches so hard to break. these strong, woody fibres of the inner bark give us many of our textile fabrics. flax and hemp come from the inner bark of their respective plants (_linum usitatissimum_ and _cannabis sativa_), and russia matting is made from the bark of the linden (_tilia americana_). we have found, in comparing the bark of specimens of branches of various ages, that, in the youngest stems, the whole is covered with a skin, or _epidermis_, which is soon replaced by a brown outer layer of bark, called the _corky layer_; the latter gives the distinctive color to the tree. while this grows, it increases by a living layer of cork-cambium on its inner face, but it usually dies after a few years. in some trees it goes on growing for many years. it forms the layers of bark in the paper birch and the cork of commerce is taken from the cork oak of spain. the green bark is of cellular tissue, with some green coloring matter like that of the leaves; it is at first the outer layer, but soon becomes covered with cork. it does not usually grow after the first year. scraping the bark of an old tree, we find the bark homogeneous. the outer layers have perished and been cast off. as the tree grows from within, the bark is stretched and, if not replaced, cracks and falls away piecemeal. so, in most old trees, the bark consists of successive layers of the inner woody bark. stems can be well studied from pieces of wood from the woodpile. the ends of the log will show the concentric rings. these can be traced as long, wavy lines in vertical sections of the log, especially if the surface is smooth. if the pupils can whittle off different planes for themselves, they will form a good idea of the formation of the wood. in many of the specimens there will be knots, and the nature of these will be an interesting subject for questions. if the knot is near the centre of the log, lead back their thoughts to the time when the tree was as small as the annular ring on which the centre of the knot lies. draw a line on this ring to represent the tree at this period of its growth. what could the knot have been? it has concentric circles like the tree itself. it was a branch which decayed, or was cut off. year after year, new rings of wood formed themselves round this broken branch, till it was covered from sight, and every year left it more deeply buried in the trunk. extremely interesting material for the study of wood will be found in thin sections prepared for veneers. packages of such sections will be of great use to the teacher.[ ] they show well the reason of the formation of a dividing line between the wood of successive seasons. in a cross section of oak or chestnut the wood is first very open and porous and then close. this is owing to the presence of ducts in the wood formed in the spring. in other woods there are no ducts, or they are evenly distributed, but the transition from the close autumn wood, consisting of smaller and more closely packed cells, to the wood of looser texture, formed in the following spring, makes a line that marks the season's growth. [footnote : mr. romeyn b. hough, of lowville, n.y., will supply a package of such sections for one dollar. the package will consist of several different woods, in both cross and vertical section and will contain enough duplicates for an ordinary class. he also issues a series of books on woods illustrated by actual and neatly mounted specimens, showing in each case three distinct views of the grain. the work is issued in parts, each representing twenty-five species, and selling with text at $ , expressage prepaid; the mounted specimens alone at cts. per species or twenty-five in neat box for $ . he has also a line of specimens prepared for the stereopticon and another for the microscope. they are very useful and sell at cts. per species or twenty-five for $ .] let each of the scholars take one of the sections of oak and write a description of its markings. the age is easily determined; the pith rays, or _medullary rays_, are also plain. these form what is called the silver grain of the wood. the ducts, also, are clear in the oak and chestnut. there is a difference in color between the outer and inner wood, the older wood becomes darker and is called the _heart-wood_, the outer is the _sap-wood_. in birds-eye maple, and some other woods, the abortive buds are seen. they are buried in the wood, and make the disturbance which produces the ornamental grain. in sections of pine or spruce, no ducts can be found. the wood consists entirely of elongated, thickened cells or fibres. in some of the trees the pith rays cannot be seen with the naked eye. let the pupils compare the branches which they have described, with a stalk of asparagus, rattan, or lily. a cross section of one of these shows dots among the soft tissue. these are ends of the fibro-vascular bundles, which in these plants are scattered through the cellular tissue instead of being brought together in a cylinder outside of the pith. in a vertical section they appear as lines. there are no annular rings. if possible, let the pupils compare the leaves belonging to these different types of stems. the parallel-veined leaves of monocotyledons have stems without distinction of wood, bark and pith; the netted-veined leaves of dicotyledons have exogenous stems. dicotyledons have bark, wood, and pith, and grow by producing a new ring of wood outside the old. they also increase by the growth of the woody bundles of the leaves, which mingle with those of the stem.[ ] twist off the leaf-stalk of any leaf, and trace the bundles into the stem. [footnote : see note, p. , physiological botany.] monocotyledons have no layer which has the power of producing new wood, and their growth takes place entirely from the intercalation of new bundles, which originate at the bases of the leaves. the lower part of a stem of a palm, for instance, does not increase in size after it has lost its crown of leaves. this is carried up gradually. the upper part of the stem is a cone, having fronds, and below this cone the stem does not increase in diameter. the word _endogenous_, inside-growing, is not, therefore, a correct one to describe the growth of most monocotyledons, for the growth takes place where the leaves originate, near the exterior of the stem. _gray's first lessons_. sect. vi. sect, xvi, § , - . § . § , - . _how plants grow_. chap. , , - . vi. leaves. we have studied leaves as cotyledons, bud-scales, etc., but when we speak of _leaves_, we do not think of these adapted forms, but of the green foliage of the plant. . _forms and structure_.--provide the pupils with a number of green leaves, illustrating simple and compound, pinnate and palmate, sessile and petioled leaves. they must first decide the question, _what are the parts of a leaf_? all the specimens have a green _blade_ which, in ordinary speech, we call the leaf. some have a stalk, or _petiole_, others are joined directly to the stem. in some of them, as a rose-leaf, for instance, there are two appendages at the base of the petiole, called _stipules_. these three parts are all that any leaf has, and a leaf that has them all is complete. let us examine the blade. those leaves which have the blade in one piece are called _simple_; those with the blade in separate pieces are _compound_. we have already answered the question, _what constitutes a single leaf_?[ ] let the pupils repeat the experiment of cutting off the top of a seedling pea, if it is not already clear in their minds, and find buds in the leaf-axils of other plants.[ ] [footnote : see page .] [footnote : with one class of children, i had much difficulty in making them understand the difference between simple and compound leaves. i did not tell them that the way to tell a single leaf was to look for buds in the axils, but incautiously drew their attention to the stipules at the base of a rose leaf as a means of knowing that the whole was one. soon after, they had a locust leaf to describe; and, immediately, with the acuteness that children are apt to develop so inconveniently to their teacher, they triumphantly refuted my statement that it was one leaf, by pointing to the stiples. there was no getting over the difficulty; and although i afterwards explained to them about the position of the buds, and showed them examples, they clung with true childlike tenacity to their first impression and always insisted that they could not see why each leaflet was not a separate leaf.] an excellent way to show the nature of compound leaves is to mount a series showing every gradation of cutting, from a simple, serrate leaf to a compound one (figs. and ). a teacher, who would prepare in summer such illustrations as these, would find them of great use in his winter lessons. the actual objects make an impression that the cuts in the book cannot give. [illustration: fig. .--series of palmately-veined leaves.] [illustration: fig. .--series of pinnately-veined leaves.] let the pupils compare the distribution of the veins in their specimens. they have already distinguished parallel-veined from netted-veined leaves, and learned that this difference is a secondary distinction between monocotyledons and dicotyledons.[ ] the veins in netted-veined leaves are arranged in two ways. the veins start from either side of a single midrib (_feather-veined_ or _pinnately-veined_), or they branch from a number of ribs which all start from the top of the petiole, like the fingers from the palm of the hand (_palmately-veined_). the compound leaves correspond to these modes of venation; they are either pinnately or palmately compound. [footnote : see page .] these ribs and veins are the woody framework of the leaf, supporting the soft green pulp. the woody bundles are continuous with those of the stem, and carry the crude sap, brought from the roots, into the cells of every part of the leaf, where it is brought into contact with the external air, and the process of making food (_assimilation_ ) is carried on. "physiologically, leaves are green expansions borne by the stern, outspread in the air and light, in which assimilation and the processes connected with it are carried on."[ ] [footnote : gray's structural botany, p. .] the whole leaf is covered with a delicate skin, or epidermis, continuous with that of the stem.[ ] [footnote : reader in botany. xi. protection of leaves from the attacks of animals.] . _descriptions_.--as yet the pupils have had no practice in writing technical descriptions. this sort of work may be begun when they come to the study of leaves. in winter a collection of pressed specimens will be useful. do not attach importance to the memorizing of terms. let them be looked up as they are needed, and they will become fixed by practice. the pupils may fill out such schedules as the following with any leaves that are at hand. schedule for leaves. arrangement _alternate_[ ] |simple or compound. _simple_ |(arr. and no. of leaflets) | |venation _netted and | feather-veined_ |shape _oval_ . blade < | apex _acute_ | | base _oblique_ | |margin _slightly wavy_ | |surface _smooth_ . petiole _short; hairy_ . stipules _deciduous_ remarks. veins prominent and very straight. [footnote : the specimen described is a leaf of copper beech.] in describing shapes, etc., the pupils can find the terms in the book as they need them. it is desirable at first to give leaves that are easily matched with the terms, keeping those which need compound words, such as lance-ovate, etc., to come later. the pupils are more interested if they are allowed to press and keep the specimens they have described. it is not well to put the pressed leaves in their note books, as it is difficult to write in the books without spoiling the specimens. it is better to mount the specimens on white paper, keeping these sheets in brown paper covers. the pupils can make illustrations for themselves by sorting leaves according to the shapes, outlines, etc., and mounting them. . _transpiration_.--this term is used to denote the evaporation of water from a plant. the evaporation takes place principally through breathing pores, which are scattered all over the surface of leaves and young stems. the _breathing pores_, or _stomata_, of the leaves, are small openings in the epidermis through which the air can pass into the interior of the plant. each of these openings is called a _stoma_. "they are formed by a transformation of some of the cells of the epidermis; and consist usually of a pair of cells (called guardian cells), with an opening between them, which communicates with an air-chamber within, and thence with the irregular intercellular spaces which permeate the interior of the leaf. through the stomata, when open, free interchange may take place between the external air and that within the leaf, and thus transpiration be much facilitated. when closed, this interchange will be interrupted or impeded."[ ] [footnote : gray's structural botany, page . for a description of the mechanism of the stomata, see physiological botany, p. .] in these lessons, however, it is not desirable to enter upon subjects involving the use of the compound microscope. dr. goodale says: "whether it is best to try to explain to the pupils the structure of these valves, or stomata, must be left to each teacher. it would seem advisable to pass by the subject untouched, unless the teacher has become reasonably familiar with it by practical microscopical study of leaves. for a teacher to endeavor to explain the complex structure of the leaf, without having seen it for himself, is open to the same objection which could be urged against the attempted explanation of complicated machinery by one who has never seen it, but has heard about it. what is here said with regard to stomata applies to all the more recondite matters connected with plant structure."[ ] [footnote : concerning a few common plants, p. .] there are many simple experiments which can be used to illustrate the subject. ( ) pass the stem of a cutting through a cork, fitting tightly into the neck of a bottle of water. make the cork perfectly air-tight by coating it with beeswax or paraffine. the level of the liquid in the bottle will be lowered by the escape of water through the stem and leaves of the cutting into the atmosphere. ( ) cut two shoots of any plant, leave one on the table and place the other in a glass of water.[ ] the first will soon wilt, while the other will remain fresh. if the latter shoot be a cutting from some plant that will root in water, such as ivy, it will not fade at all. also, leave one of the plants in the schoolroom unwatered for a day or two, till it begins to wilt. if the plant be now thoroughly watered, it will recover and the leaves will resume their normal appearance. [footnote : lessons in elementary botany, by daniel oliver, london. macmillan & co., , pp. - .] evaporation is thus constantly taking place from the leaves, and if there is no moisture to supply the place of what is lost, the cells collapse and the leaf, as we say, wilts. when water is again supplied the cells swell and the leaf becomes fresh. ( ) place two seedlings in water, one with its top, the other with its roots in the jar. the latter will remain fresh while the first wilts and dies. absorption takes place through the roots. the water absorbed is drawn up through the woody tissues of the stem ( ), and the veins of the leaves ( ), whence it escapes into the air ( ). ( ) plunge a cut branch immediately into a colored solution, such as aniline red, and after a time make sections in the stem above the liquid to see what tissues have been stained.[ ] [footnote : the essentials of botany, by charles e. bessey. new york, henry holt & co., . page . see also physiological botany, pp. - .] ( ) "that water finds its way by preference through the fibro-vascular bundles even in the more delicate parts, is shown by placing the cut peduncle of a white tulip, or other large white flower, in a harmless dye, and then again cutting off its end in order to bring a fresh surface in contact with the solution,[ ] when after a short time the dye will mount through the flower-stalk and tinge the parts of the perianth according to the course of the bundles."[ ] [footnote : if the stems of flowers are cut under water they will last a wonderfully long time. "one of the most interesting characteristics of the woody tissues in relation to the transfer of water is the immediate change which the cut surface of a stem undergoes upon exposure to the air, unfitting it for its full conductive work. de vries has shown that when a shoot of a vigorous plant, for instance a helianthus, is bent down under water, care being taken not to break it even in the slightest degree, a clean, sharp cut will give a surface which will retain the power of absorbing water for a long time; while a similar shoot cut in the open air, even if the end is instantly plunged under water, will wither much sooner than the first."--physiological botany, p. .] [footnote : physiological botany, p. .] ( ) let the leaves of a growing plant rest against the window-pane. moisture will be condensed on the cold surface of the glass, wherever the leaf is in contact with it. this is especially well seen in nasturtium (tropæolum) leaves, which grow directly against a window, and leave the marks even of their veining on the glass, because the moisture is only given out from the green tissue, and where the ribs are pressed against the glass it is left dry. sometimes the water is drawn up into the cells of the leaves faster than it can escape into the atmosphere.[ ] this is prettily shown if we place some of our nasturtium seedlings under a ward-case. the air in the case is saturated with moisture, so that evaporation cannot take place, but the water is, nevertheless, drawn up from the roots and through the branches, and appears as little drops on the margins of the leaves. that this is owing to the absorbing power of the roots, may be shown by breaking off the seedling, and putting the slip in water. no drops now appear on the leaves, but as soon as the cutting has formed new roots, the drops again appear. [footnote : see lectures on the physiology of plants. by sidney howard vines, cambridge, england. university press, . page .] this constant escape of water from the leaves causes a current to flow from the roots through the stem into the cells of the leaves. the dilute mineral solutions absorbed by the roots[ ] are thus brought where they are in contact with the external air, concentrated by the evaporation of water, and converted in these cells into food materials, such as starch. the presence of certain mineral matters, as potassium, iron, etc., are necessary to this assimilating process, but the reason of their necessity is imperfectly understood, as they do not enter in the products formed. [footnote : see page .] the amount of water exhaled is often very great. certain plants are used for this reason for the drainage of wet and marshy places. the most important of these is the eucalyptus tree.[ ] [footnote : reader in botany. xii. transpiration.] "the amount of water taken from the soil by the trees of a forest and passed into the air by transpiration is not so large as that accumulated in the soil by the diminished evaporation under the branches. hence, there is an accumulation of water in the shade of forests which is released slowly by drainage.[ ] but if the trees are so scattered as not materially to reduce evaporation from the ground, the effect of transpiration in diminishing the moisture of the soil is readily shown. it is noted, especially in case of large plants having a great extent of exhaling surface, such, for instance, as the common sunflower. among the plants which have been successfully employed in the drainage of marshy soil by transpiration probably the species of eucalyptus (notably _e_. _globulus_) are most efficient."[ ] [footnote : reader in botany. xiii. uses of the forests.] [footnote : physiological botany, page .] . _assimilation_.--it is not easy to find practical experiments on assimilation. those which follow are taken from "physiological botany" (p. ). fill a five-inch test tube, provided with a foot, with fresh drinking water. in this place a sprig of one of the following water plants,--_elodea canadensis, myriophyllum spicatum, m. verticillatum_, or any leafy _myriophyllum_ (in fact, any small- leaved water plant with rather crowded foliage). this sprig should be prepared as follows: cut the stem squarely off, four inches or so from the tip, dry the cut surface quickly with blotting paper, then cover the end of the stein with a quickly drying varnish, for instance, asphalt-varnish, and let it dry perfectly, keeping the rest of the stem, if possible, moist by means of a wet cloth. when the varnish is dry, puncture it with a needle, and immerse the stem in the water in the test tube, keeping the varnished larger end uppermost. if the submerged plant be now exposed to the strong rays of the sun, bubbles of oxygen gas will begin to pass off at a rapid and even rate, but not too fast to be easily counted. if the simple apparatus has begun to give off a regular succession of small bubbles, the following experiments can be at once conducted: ( ) substitute for the fresh water some which has been boiled a few minutes before, and then allowed to completely cool: by the boiling, all the carbonic acid has been expelled. if the plant is immersed in this water and exposed to the sun's rays, no bubbles will be evolved; there is no carbonic acid within reach of the plant for the assimilative process. but, ( ) if breath from the lungs be passed by means of a slender glass tube through the water, a part of the carbonic acid exhaled from the lungs will be dissolved in it, and with this supply of the gas the plant begins the work of assimilation immediately. ( ) if the light be shut off, the evolution of bubbles will presently cease, being resumed soon after light again has access to the plant. ( ) place round the base of the test tube a few fragments of ice, in order to appreciably lower the temperature of the water. at a certain point it will be observed that no bubbles are given off, and their evolution does not begin again until the water becomes warm. the evolution of bubbles shows that the process of making food is going on. the materials for this process are carbonic acid gas and water. the carbonic acid dissolved in the surrounding water is absorbed, the carbon unites with the elements of water in the cells of the leaves, forming starch, etc., and most of the oxygen is set free, making the stream of bubbles. when the water is boiled, the dissolved gas is driven off and assimilation cannot go on; but as soon as more carbonic acid gas is supplied, the process again begins. we have seen by these experiments that sunlight and sufficient heat are necessary to assimilation, and that carbonic acid gas and water must be present. the presence of the green coloring matter of the leaves (chlorophyll) is also essential, and some salts, such as potassium, iron, etc., are needful, though they may not enter into the compounds formed. the food products are stored in various parts of the plant for future use, or are expended immediately in the growth and movements of the plant. in order that they shall be used for growth, free oxygen is required, and this is supplied by the respiration of the plant. some plants steal their food ready-made. such a one is the dodder, which sends its roots directly into the plant on which it feeds. this is a _parasite_.[ ] it has no need of leaves to carry on the process of making food. some parasites with green leaves, like the mistletoe, take the crude sap from the host-plant and assimilate it in their own green leaves. plants that are nourished by decaying matter in the soil are called _saprophytes_. indian pipe and beech-drops are examples of this. they need no green leaves as do plants that are obliged to support themselves. [footnote : reader in botany. xiv. parasitic plants.] some plants are so made that they can use animal matter for food. this subject of insectivorous plants is always of great interest to pupils. if some sundew (_drosera_) can be obtained and kept in the schoolroom, it will supply material for many interesting experiments.[ ] that plants should possess the power of catching insects by specialized movements and afterwards should digest them by means of a gastric juice like that of animals, is one of the most interesting of the discoveries that have been worked out during the last thirty years.[ ] [footnote : see insectivorous plants, by charles darwin. new york: d. appleton and co., . how plants behave, chap. iii. a bibliography of the most important works on the subject will be found in physiological botany, page , note.] [footnote : reader in botany. xv. insectivorous plants.] . _respiration_.--try the following experiment in germination. place some seeds on a sponge under an air-tight glass. will they grow? what causes them to mould? seeds will not germinate without free access of air. they must have free oxygen to breathe, as must every living thing. we know that an animal breathes in oxygen, that the oxygen unites with particles of carbon within the body and that the resulting carbonic acid gas is exhaled.[ ] the same process goes on in plants, but it was until recently entirely unknown, because it was completely masked during the daytime by the process of assimilation, which causes carbonic acid to be inhaled and decomposed, and oxygen to be exhaled.[ ] in the night time the plants are not assimilating and the process of breathing is not covered up. it has, therefore, long been known that carbonic acid gas is given off at night. the amount, however, is so small that it could not injure the air of the room, as is popularly supposed. respiration takes place principally through the stomata of the leaves.[ ] we often see plants killed by the wayside dust, and we all know that on this account it is very difficult to make a hedge grow well by a dusty road. the dust chokes up the breathing pores of the leaves, interfering with the action of the plant. it is suffocated. the oxygen absorbed decomposes starch, or some other food product of the plant, and carbonic acid gas and water are formed. it is a process of slow combustion.[ ] the energy set free is expended in growth, that is, in the formation of new cells, and the increase in size of the old ones, and in the various movements of the plant. [footnote : see page .] [footnote : this table illustrates the differences between the processes. assimilation proper. respiration. takes place only in cells takes place in all active cells. containing chlorophyll. requires light. can proceed in darkness. carbonic acid absorbed, oxygen absorbed, carbonic oxygen set free. acid set free. carbohydrates formed. carbohydrates consumed. energy of motion becomes energy of position becomes energy of position. energy of motion. the plant gains in dry the plant loses dry weight. weight. physiological botany, page .] [transcriber's note: two footnote marks [ ] and [ ] above in original text, but no footnote text was found in the book] this process of growth can take place only when living _protoplasm_ is present in the cells of the plant. the substance we call protoplasm is an albuminoid, like the white of an egg, and it forms the flesh of both plants and animals. a living plant can assimilate its own protoplasm, an animal must take it ready-made from plants. but a plant can assimilate its food and grow only under the mysterious influence we call life. life alone brings forth life, and we are as far as ever from understanding its nature. around our little island of knowledge, built up through the centuries by the labor of countless workers, stretches the infinite ocean of the unknown. _gray's first lessons_. sect. vii, xvi, § , § , § , § , - . _how plants grow_. chap. i, - , chap. iii, - . the call of the wildflower _by the same author_ seventy years among savages. s. d. the flogging craze. a statement of the case against corporal punishment. with foreword by sir george greenwood. s. d. net. george allen & unwin ltd. on cambrian and cumbrian hills. pilgrimages to snowdon and scafell. revised edition. s. net. c. w. daniel ltd. animals' rights: considered in relation to social progress. revised edition. s. d. de quincey. great writers series. s. d. net. g. bell & sons ltd. the life of henry d. thoreau. s. d. net. walter scott publishing co. richard jefferies: his life and his ideals. s. d. net. jonathan cape. the life of james thomson, b.v. s. d. net. treasures of lucretius. selected passages translated into english verse. s. d. net. watts & co. [illustration: _g. p. abraham & sons._] [_photo. keswick_ the haunt of the spiderwort the devil's kitchen, carnarvonshire] the call of the wildflower by henry s. salt [illustration] london: george allen & unwin ltd ruskin house, museum street, w.c. _first published in _ (_all rights reserved_) to my friends w. j. jupp and e. bertram lloyd note i am indebted to the courtesy of the editors of the _daily news_, _pall mall gazette_, _liverpool daily post_, and _sussex daily news_, for permission to reprint in this book the substance of articles that first appeared in their columns. my obligation to jack london, in regard to the choice of a title, will be apparent. contents page i. the call of the wildflower ii. on sussex shingles iii. by ditch and dike iv. likenesses that baffle v. botanesque vi. the open downland vii. prisoners of the parterre viii. picking and stealing ix. round a surrey chalk-pit x. a sandy common xi. quaintness in flowers xii. hertfordshire cornfields xiii. the sower of tares xiv. dales of derbyshire xv. no thoroughfare! xvi. limestone coasts and cliffs xvii. on pilgrimage to ingleborough xviii. a botanophilist's journal xix. felons and outlaws xx. some marsh-dwellers xxi. a northern moor xxii. april in snowdonia xxiii. flower-gazing _in excelsis_ xxiv. coves of helvellyn xxv. great days xxvi. the last rose index the call of the wildflower i the call of the wildflower _tantus amor florum._ virgil. the "call of the wild," where the love of flowers is concerned, has an attraction which is not the less powerful because it is difficult to explain. the charm of the garden may be strong, but it is not so strong as that which draws us to seek for wildflowers in their native haunts, whether of shore or water-meadow, field or wood, moorland or mountain. a garden is but a "zoo" (with the cruelty omitted); and just as the true natural history is that which sends us to study animals in the wilds, not to coop them in cages, so the true botany must bring man to the flower, not the flower to man. that the lovers of wildflowers--those, at least, who can give active expression to their love--are not a numerous folk, is perhaps not surprising; for even a moderate knowledge of the subject demands such favourable conditions as free access to nature, with opportunities for observation beyond what most persons command; but what they lack in numbers they make up in zeal, and to none is the approach of spring more welcome than to those who are then on the watch for the reappearance of floral friends. for it is as friends, not garden captives or herbarium specimens, that the flower-lover desires to be acquainted with flowers. it is not their uses that attract him; _that_ is the business of the herbalist. nor is it their structure and analysis; the botanist will see to that. what he craves is a knowledge of the loveliness, the actual life and character of plants in their relation to man--what may be called the spiritual aspect of flowers--and this is seen and felt much more closely when they are sought in their free wild state than when they are cultivated on rockery or in parterre. the reality of this love of wildflowers is evident, but its cause and meaning are less easy to discern. is it only part of a modern "return to nature," or a sign of some latent sympathy between plant and man? we do not know; but we know that our interest in flowers is no longer utilitarian, as in the herbalism of a bygone time, or decorative and æsthetic, as in the immemorial use of the garland on festive occasions, and in the association of the wine-cup with the rose. the "great affection" that chaucer felt for the daisy marked a new era; and later poets have carried the sentiment still further, till it reached a climax in the faith that wordsworth avowed: one impulse from a vernal wood may teach you more of man, of moral evil and of good, than all the sages can. here is a new herbalism--of the heart. we smile nowadays at the credulity of the old physicians, who rated so highly the virtues of certain plants as to assert, for example, that comfrey--the "great consound," as they called it--had actual power to unite and solidify a broken bone. but how if there be flowers that can in very truth make whole a broken spirit? even in the middle ages it was recognized that mental benefit was to be gained from this source, as when betony was extolled for its value in driving away despair, and when _fuga dæmonum_ was the name given to st. john's-wort, that golden-petaled amulet which, when hung over a doorway, could put all evil spirits to flight. that, like many another flower, it can put "the blues" to flight, is a fact which no modern flower-lover will doubt. but what may be called the anthropocentric view of wildflowers is now happily becoming obsolete. "their beauty was given them for our delight," wrote anne pratt in one of the pleasantest of her books:[ ] "god sent them to teach us lessons of himself." it would somewhat spoil our joy in the beauty of wildflowers if we thought they had been "sent," like potted plants from a nursery, for any purpose whatsoever; for it is their very naturalness, their independence of man, that charms us, and our regard for them is less the prosaic satisfaction of an owner in his property, than the love of a friend, or even the worship of a devotee: the devotion to something afar from the sphere of our sorrow. [footnote : _haunts of the wild flowers._] this, i think, is the true gospel of the love of flowers, though as yet it has found but little expression in the literature of the subject. "flowers as flowers," was thoreau's demand, when he lamented in his journal that there was no book which treated of them in that light, no real "biography" of plants. the same want is felt by the english reader to-day: there is no writer who has done for the wildflower what mr. w. h. hudson has done for the bird.[ ] [footnote : unless it be canon john vaughan, in those two delightful books of his, _the wild-flowers of selborne_ and _the music of wild-flowers_.] indeed, the books mostly fail, not only to portray the life of the plant, but even to give an intelligible account of its habitat and appearance; for very few writers, however sound their technical knowledge, possess the gift of lucid description--a gift which depends, in its turn, upon that sympathy with other minds which enables an author to see precisely what instruction is needed. thus it often happens that, unless personal help is available, it is a matter of great difficulty for a beginner to learn the haunts of flowers, or to distinguish them when found; for when he refers to the books he finds much talk about inessential things, and little that goes directly to the point. one might have thought that a new and strange flower would attract the eye more readily than a known one, but it is not so; the old is detected much more easily than the new. "out of sight, out of mind," says the proverb; and conversely that which is not yet in mind will long tarry out of sight. but when once a new flower, even a rare one, has been discovered, it is curious how often it will soon be noticed afresh in another place: this, i think, must be the experience of all who have made systematic search for flowers, and it explains why the novice will frequently see but little where the expert will see much. not until the various initial obstacles have been overcome can one appreciate the true "call of the wild," the full pleasures of the chase. when we have learnt not only what plants are to be looked for, but those two essential conditions, the _when_ and the _where_; the rule of season and of soil; the flowers that bloom in spring, in summer, or in autumn; the flowers that grow by shore, meadow, bog, river, or mountain; on chalk, limestone, sand, or clay--then the quest becomes more effective, and each successive season will add materially to our widening circle of acquaintance. then, too, we may begin to discard that rather vapid class of literature, the popular flower-book, which too often deals sentimentally in vague descriptions of plants, diversified with bad illustrations, and with edifying remarks about the goodness of the creator, and may find a new and more rational interest in the published _floras_ of such counties or districts as have yet received that distinction. for dry though it is in form, a _flora_, with its classified list of plants, and its notes collected from many sources, past and present, as to their "stations" in the county, becomes an almost romantic book of adventure, when the student can supply the details from his own knowledge, and so read with illumination "between the lines." here, let us suppose it to be said, is a locality where grows some rare and beautiful flower, one of the prizes of the chase. what hopes and aspirations such an assurance may arouse! what encouragement to future enterprise! what regrets, it may be, for some almost forgotten omission in the past, which left that very neighbourhood unsearched! it is possible that a cold, matter-of-fact entry in a local _flora_ will thus throw a sudden light on some bygone expedition, and show us that if we had but taken a slightly different direction in our walk--but it is vain to lament what is irreparable! of such musings upon the might-have-been i can myself speak with feeling, for i was not so fortunate in my youth as to be initiated into the knowledge of flowers: it was not till much later in life, as i wandered among the welsh and english mountains, that the scales fell from my eyes, and looking on the beauty of the saxifrages i realized what glories i had missed. thus i was compelled to put myself to school, so to speak, and to make a study of wildflowers with the aid of such books as were available, a process which, like a botanical jude the obscure, i found by no means easy. the self-educated man, we know, is apt to be perverse and opinionated; so i trust my readers will make due allowance if they notice such faults in this book. i can truly plead, as the illiterate do, that "i'm no scholar, more's the pity." but it was my friends and acquaintances--those, at least, who had some botanical knowledge--who were the chief sufferers during this period of inquiry; and, looking back, i often marvel at the patience with which they endured the problems with which i confronted them. i remember waylaying my friend, w. j. jupp, a very faithful flower-lover, with some mutilated and unrecognizable labiate plant which i thought might be calamint, and how tactfully he suggested that my conjecture was "near enough." on another occasion it was edward carpenter, the sage of millthorpe, or wild sage, as some botanical friend once irreverently described him, who volunteered to assist me, by means of a scientific book which shows, by an unerring process, how to eliminate the wrong flowers, until at the end you are left with the right one duly named. all through the list we went; but there must have been a slip somewhere; for in the conclusion one thing alone was clear--that whatever my plant might be, it was not that which the scientific book indicated. of all my friends and helpers, bertram lloyd, whose acquaintance with wildflowers is unusually large, and to whom, in all that pertains to natural history, i am as the "gray barbarian" (_vide_ tennyson) to "the christian child," was the most constant and long-suffering: he solved many of my enigmas, and introduced me to some of his choicest flower-haunts among the chiltern hills. in the course of my researches i was sometimes referred for guidance to persons who were known in their respective home-circles as "the botanists of the family," a title which i found was not quite equivalent to that of "the complete botanist." there was one "botanist of the family" who was visibly embarrassed when i asked her the name of a plant that is common on the chalk hills, but is so carelessly described in the books as to be easily confused with other kindred species. she gazed at it long, with a troubled eye, and then, as if feeling that her domestic reputation must at all hazards be upheld, replied firmly: "hemp-nettle." hemp-nettle it was not; it was wild basil; but years after, when i began to have similar questions put to myself, i realized how disconcerting it is to be thus suddenly interrogated. it made me understand why cabinet ministers so frequently insist that they must have "notice of that question." with one complete botanist, however, i was privileged to become acquainted, mr. c. e. salmon, whose special diocese, so to speak, is the county of surrey, but whose intimate knowledge of wildflowers extends to many counties and coasts. not a few favours did i receive from him, in certifying for me some of the more puzzling plants; and very good-naturedly he bore the disappointment when, on his asking me to send him, for his _flora of surrey_, a list of the rarer flowers in the neighbourhood where i was living, i included among them the small bur-parsley (_caucalis daucoides_), a vanished native, a prodigal son of the county, whose return would have been a matter for gladness. but alas, my plant was not a _caucalis_ at all, but a _torilis_, a squat weed of the cornfields, which by its superficial resemblance to its rare cousin had grossly imposed upon my ignorance. it is when he has acquired some familiarity with the ordinary british plants that a flower-lover, thus educated late in life, finds his thoughts turning to the vanished opportunities of the past. i used to speculate regretfully on what i had missed in my early wanderings in wild places; as in the isle of skye, where i picked up the eagle's feather, but overlooked the mountain flower; or on ben lawers, a summit rich in rare alpines to which i then was stone-blind; or in a score of other localities which i can scarcely hope to revisit. but time, which heals all things, brought me a sort of compensation for these delinquencies; for with a fuller knowledge of plants i could to some extent reconstruct in imagination the sights that were formerly unseen, and with the eye of faith admire the alpine forget-me-not on the ridges of ben lawers, or the yellow butterwort in the marshes of skye. nor was it always in imagination only; for sometimes a friend would send me a rare flower from some distant spot; and then there was pleasure indeed in the opening of the parcel and in anticipating what it might contain--the pasque-flower perhaps, or the wild tulip, or the adonis, or the golden samphire, or some other of the many local treasures that make glad the flower-lover's heart. the exhibitions of wildflowers that are now held in the public libraries of not a few towns are extremely useful, and often awake a love of nature in minds where it has hitherto been but dormant. a queer remark was once made to me by a visitor at the brighton show. "this is a good institution," he said. "it saves you from tramping for the flowers yourself." i had not regarded the exhibition in that light; on the contrary, it stimulates many persons to a pursuit which is likely to fascinate them more and more. for no tramps can be pleasanter than those in quest of wildflowers; especially if one has a fellow-enthusiast for companion: failing that, it is wiser to go alone; for when a flower-lover tramps with someone who has no interest in the pursuit, the result is likely to be discomfiting--he must either forgo his own haltings and deviations, with the probability that he will miss something valuable, or he must feel that he is delaying his friend. in a company, i always pray that their number may be uneven, and that it may not be necessary to march stolidly in pairs, where "one to one is cursedly confined," as dryden said of matrimony; or worst of all, where one's yoke-fellow may insist, as sometimes happens, on walking "in step," and be forever shuffling his feet as if obeying the commands of some invisible drill-sergeant. it is not with the feet that we should seek harmony, but with the heart. my intention in this book is to speak of the more noteworthy flowers of a few distinctive localities that are known to me, starting from the coast of sussex, and ascending to the high mountains of wales and the north-west: i propose also to intersperse the descriptive chapters, here and there with discussions of such special topics as may incidentally arise. and here, at the outset, i was tempted to say a few words about my own favourite flowers--not such universally admired beauties as the primrose, violet, daffodil, hyacinth, forget-me-not, and the others, whose names will readily suggest themselves; for, lovely as they are, it would be superfluous to add to their praises; but rather of some less famous plants, the saints and anchorites of the floral world, the flower-lover's flowers--not the popular, but the best-beloved. on second thoughts, however, i will leave these choicest ones, with a single exception, to be mentioned in their due place and surroundings, and will here name but one of them, a flower which is among the first, not only in the order of merit, but in the order of the seasons. the greater stitchwort, as writers tell us, is one of "the most ornamental of our early flowers"; but surely it is something more than that. the radiance of those white stars that stud the hedge-banks and road-sides in april and may, is dearer to some of us than many of the more favoured blossoms that poets have sung of. the dull english name quite fails to do justice to the almost ethereal lustre of the flower: the latin _stellaria_ is truer and more expressive. the reappearance of the stitchwort, like that of the orange-tip butterfly, is one of the keenest joys of spring; and one of our keenest regrets in spring is that the stitchwort's flowering-season is so short. ii on sussex shingles salt and splendid from the circling brine. swinburne. where should a flower-lover begin his story if not from the sea shore? earth has been poetically described as "daughter of ocean"; and the proximity of the sea has a most genial and stimulating effect upon its grandchildren the flowers, not those only that are peculiar to the beach, but also the inland kinds. there is no "dead sea" lack of vegetation on our coasts, but a marked increase both in the luxuriance of plants and in their beauty. sussex is rich in "shingles"--flat expanses of loose pebbles formerly thrown up by the waves, and now lying well above high-water mark, or even stretching landward for some distance. one might have expected these stony tracts to be barren in the extreme; in fact they are the nursery-ground of a number of interesting flowers, including some very rare ones; and in certain places, where the stones are intersected by banks of turf, the eye is surprised by a veritable garden in the wilderness. let us imagine ourselves on one of these shingle-beds in the early summer, when the show of flowers is at its brightest: and first at shoreham--"shoreham, crowned with the grace of years," as swinburne described it. alas! the shoreham beach, which until less than twenty years ago was in a natural state, has been so overbuilt with ship-works and bungalows that it has become little else than a suburb of brighton; yet even now the remaining strip of shingle, stretching for half a mile between sea and harbour, is the home of some delightful plants. in the more favoured spots the gay mantle thrown over the stony strand is visible at the first glance in a wonderful blending of colours--the gold of horned poppy, stonecrop, melilot, and kidney vetch; the white of sea-campion; the delicate pink of thrift; and the fiery reds and blues of the gorgeous viper's bugloss--and when a nearer scrutiny is made, a number of minute plants will be found growing in close company along the grassy ridges. the most attractive of these are the graceful little spring vetch (_vicia lathyroides_), the rue-leaved saxifrage, and that tiny turquoise gem which is apt to escape notice, the dwarf forget-me-not--a trio of the daintiest blossoms, red, white, and blue, that eyes could desire to behold. shoreham has long been famous for its clovers; and some are still in great force there, especially the rigid trefoil (_trifolium scabrum_), and its congener, _trifolium striatum_, with which it is often confused, while the better-known hare's-foot also covers a good deal of the ground. but there is a sad tale to tell of the plant which once the chief pride of these shingles, the starry-headed trefoil, a very lovely pink flower fringed with silky hairs, which, though not a native, has been naturalized near the bank of the harbour since , but now, owing to the enclosures made for ship-building works, has been all but exterminated. "this," wrote the author of the _flora of sussex_ ( ) "is one of the most beautiful of our wildflowers, and is found in britain at shoreham only. fortunately it is very difficult to extirpate any of the _leguminosæ_, and it may therefore be hoped that it may long continue to adorn the beach at shoreham." the hope seems likely to be frustrated. among the rubble of concrete slabs, and piles of timber, only three or four tufts of the trefoil were surviving last year, with every likelihood of these also disappearing as the place is further "developed." the second of the shoreham rarities, the pale yellow vetch (_vicia lutea_) has fared better, owing to its wider range, and is still scattered freely over the yet unenclosed shingles. it is a charming flower; but its doom in sussex seems to be inevitable, for the bungalows, with their back-yards, tennis-courts, "tradesmen's entrances," and other amenities of villadom, will doubtless continue to encroach upon what was once a wild and unsullied tract. still sadder is the fate of the devastated coast on the brighton side of the harbour-mouth, where the low cliffs that overlook the lagoon from southwick to fisher's-gate have long been known to botanists as worthy of some attention. here, on the grassy escarpment, the rare bithynian vetch used once to grow, as we learn from mrs. merrifield's interesting _sketch of the natural history of brighton_ ( ); and here we may still find such plants as the sea-radish, a large coarse crucifer with yellow flowers and queer knotted seed-pods; the blue clary, or wild-sage, running riot in great profusion; the fragrant soft-leaved fennel; the strange star-thistle (_calcitrapa_), so-called from its fancied resemblance to an ancient and diabolical military instrument, the caltrop, an iron ball armed with sharp points, which was thrown on the ground to maim the horses in a cavalry charge; the pale-flowered narrow-leaved flax; and lastly, that rather uncanny shrub of the poisonous nightshade order, with small purple flowers and scarlet berries, which is called the "tea-tree," though the tea which its leaves might furnish would hardly make a palatable brew. below these cliffs, on an embankment that divides the waters of the lagoon from the seashore, there still flourishes in plenty the fleshy leaved samphire, once sought after for a pickle, and ever famous through the reference in _king lear_ to "one who gathers samphire, dreadful trade." in this locality there is no dreadful trade, except that of reducing a once pleasant shore to an unsightly slag-heap. let me now turn from this melancholy spectacle to those sussex shingles on which the admiralty and the contractor have not as yet laid a heavy and ruinous hand. on some of the more spacious of these pebbly beaches, as on that which lies between eastbourne and pevensey, the traveller may still experience the feeling expressed by shelley: i love all waste and solitary places, where we taste the pleasure of believing what we see is boundless, as we wish our souls to be. from langney point one looks north-east along a desolate shore, beyond which the ruins of pevensey castle are seen in the distance, and the width of the shingly belt between the sea and the high-road is at this point scarcely less than a mile. a scene that is bleak and barren enough in its general aspect; but a search soon reveals the presence of floral treasures, the first of which is a rather rare member of the pink family, the soapwort, which i had long sought in vain until i met with it growing in abundance close to the outskirts of eastbourne, where it roots so luxuriantly in the loose shingles as to make one wonder why it is so fastidious elsewhere. among other noticeable inhabitants of these flats, or of the shallow marshy depressions which they enclose, are hairy crowfoot, catmint, white melilot, stinking groundsel, strawberry-headed trefoil, and candytuft--the last-named a rather unexpected flower in such a place. still nearer to the sea, not many yards removed from the spray of the waves at their highest, the wild seakale is plentiful; a stout glabrous cabbage, with thick curly leaves and white cruciferous blossoms, it rises straight out of the bare stones, and thrives exceedingly when the folk who stroll along the shore can so far restrain their destructive tendencies as not to hack and mangle it. in its company, perhaps, or in similar situations, will be seen its first-cousin, the sea-rocket, a quaint and pleasant crucifer with zigzag stems, fleshy leaves, and pale lilac petals. the sea-pea, formerly native near pevensey, is now hardly to be hoped for. one of the most naturally attractive spots on the sussex coast is cuckmere haven, near seaford, a gap in the chalk cliffs, about half a mile in width, through which the river cuckmere finds a dubious exit to the sea. were it not for the abomination of the rifle-butts, which sometimes close the shore to the public, no more delectable nook could be desired; and to the flower-lover the little shelf of shingle which forms the beach is full of charm. here, growing along the grassy margin of brackish pools, and itself so like a flowering grass that a sharp eye is needed to detect it, one may find that singular umbelliferous plant--not at all resembling the other members of its tribe--the slender hare's-ear (_bupleurum tenuissimum_), thin, wiry, dark-green, with narrow lance-like leaves and minute yellow umbels. near by, the small sea-heath, one of the prettiest of maritime flowers, makes a dense carpet; on the corner of the adjacent cliff the lesser and rarer sea-lavender (_statice binervosa_) is plentiful, and in the late summer blooms at a considerable height on the narrow ledges. pagham "harbour," a wild estuary of some extent, between selsey and bognor, is another locality that has earned a reputation for its flowers, the most remarkable of which is the very local proliferous pink, which has long been known as abundant on that portion of the coast, though elsewhere very infrequent. a pleasant walk of about three miles leads from bognor to pagham, along a sandy shore fringed with very luxuriant tamarisk-bushes; and when one reaches the stony reef where further progress is barred by the waters or sand-shoals of the "harbour," the little pink, which bears a superficial resemblance to thrift, will be seen springing up freely among the pebbles. we are told that only one of its blossoms opens at a time; but this is the sort of statement, often copied from book to book, which is not verified by experience, or to which at least many exceptions must be admitted. what is certain is that the proliferous pink has a considerable share of the distinctive grace of its family, and that the occasion of first encountering it will live in the flower-lover's memory. i have named but a few--those personally known to me--of the rarer or more characteristic shingle-flowers; and in so wide a field there is always the chance of new discoveries: hence the unfailing interest, to the botanist, of places which, apart from their flora, are likely to be shunned as wearisome. the shore itself is seldom without visitors; but the shingles that stretch back from the shore rarely attract the footsteps even of the hardiest walkers. it is only when there has been a murder in one of those solitary spots--or at least something that the newspapers can describe as "dramatic" or "sensational"--that the holiday-folk in the neighbouring towns forsake for a day or two the pleasures of pier or parade, and sally forth over the stony wildernesses in a search for "clues"; as when the "crumbles," near eastbourne, was the scene, two years ago, of a murder, and at a later date of a ghost. to discover the foot of some partially buried victim protruding from the pebbles--_that_ is deemed a sufficient object for a pilgrimage. the gold of the sea-poppy and the pink of the thrift are trifles that are passed unseen. iii by ditch and dike on either side is level fen, a prospect wild and wide. crabbe. "levels," or "brooks," is the name commonly given in sussex to a number of grassy tracts, often of wide extent, which, though still in a state of semi-wildness, have been so far reclaimed from primitive fens as to afford a rough pasturage for horses and herds of cattle, the ground being drained and intersected by dikes and sluggish streams. in these spacious and unfrequented flats wildfowl of various kinds are often to be seen; herons stand motionless by the pools, or flap slowly away if disturbed in their meditation; pewits wheel and cry overhead; and the redshank, most clamorous of birds during the nesting-season, makes such a din as almost to distract the attention of the intruding botanist. for it is the botanist who is specially drawn to these wild water-ways, where hours may be profitably spent in strolling beside the brooks, with the certainty of seeing many interesting plants and the chance of finding some unfamiliar ones; nor is there anything to mar his enjoyment, except the possible meeting with a bull on a wide arena from which there is no ready exit, save by jumping a muddy ditch or by crossing one of the narrow and precarious planks which do duty as footbridges. these "levels," though often bordering on a tidal river, are not themselves salt marshes, nor is their flora a maritime one; in that respect they differ from the east-coast fens described by crabbe in one of his _tales_, "the lover's journey"; a passage which has been praised as one of the best pictures ever given of dike-land scenery. there are lines in it which might be quoted of the sussex as well as of the suffolk marsh-meadows; but for me the verses are spoiled by the strangely apologetic tone which the poet assumed in speaking of the local plants: the few dull flowers that o'er the place are spread partake the nature of their fenny bed. and so on. did he think that his polite readers expected to hear of sweet peas and carnations beautifying the desolate mud-banks? the "dulness" seems to be--well, not on the part of the flowers. "dull as ditchwater," they say. but ditchwater flowers are far from dull. of sussex marshes the most extensive are the pevensey levels; but the most pleasantly situated are those that lie just south of lewes, where the valley of the ouse widens into an oval plain before it narrows again towards newhaven. from the central part of this alluvial basin the view is very striking all around; for the estuary seems to be everywhere enclosed, except to seaward, by the great smooth slopes of the chalk downs. on its west side are three picturesque villages, iford, rodmell, and southease, with churches and farms lying on the very verge of the "brooks": at the head, the quaint old houses and castle of lewes rise conspicuous like a mediæval town. but to whichever of these watery wastes the flower-lover betakes himself, he will not lack for occupation. one of the first friends to greet him in the early summer, by the lewes levels, will be the charming _hottonia_, or "water-violet," as it is misnamed; for though the petals are pink, its yellow eye and general form proclaim it to be of the _primulaceæ_, and "water-primrose" should by preference be its title. there are few prettier sights than a company of these elegant flowers rising clear above the surface, their slender stems bearing whorls of the pink blossoms, while the dark green featherlike leaves remain submerged. this "featherfoil," as it is sometimes called, is as lovely as the primrose of the woods. companions or near neighbours of the _hottonia_ are the arrow-head, at once recognized by its bold sagittate leaves, and the frog-bit, another flower of three white petals, whose small reniform foliage, floating on the brooks, gives it the appearance of a dwarf water-lily. by no means common, but growing in profusion where it grows at all, the dainty little frog-bit, once met with, always remains a favourite. the true water-lilies, both the white and the yellow, are also native on the levels; so, too, is the quaint water-milfoil, with its much-cut submerged leaves resembling those of the featherfoil, and its numerous erect flower-spikes dotting the surface of the pools. all these water-nymphs may be seen simultaneously blossoming in june. more prominent than such small aquatics are the tall-growing kinds which lift their heads two or three feet above the waters. of these quite the handsomest is the flowering rush (_butomus_), stately and pink-petaled; among the rest are the two water-plantains (the lesser one rather uncommon); the water-speedwell, a gross and bulky _veronica_ which lacks the charm of its smaller relative the brook-lime; and the queer mare's-tails, which in the midst of a running stream look like a number of tiny fir-trees out of their element. the umbelliferous family is also well represented. wild celery is there; and the showy water-parsnip (_sium_); the graceful tubular water-dropwort, and its big neighbour the horse-bane, which in some places swells to an immense size in the centre of the ditches. on the margin grows the pretty trailing money-wort, or "creeping jenny"; and with it, maybe, the white-blossomed brook-weed, or water-pimpernel, which at first sight has more likeness to the crucifers than to its real relatives the primroses, and is thus apt to puzzle those by whom it has not previously been encountered. rambling beside these so-called brooks, which are mostly not brooks but channels of almost stagnant water, one cannot fail to remark the clannishness of many of the flowers: they grow in groups, monopolizing nearly the whole length of a ditch, and making a show by their united array of leaves or blossoms. in one part, perhaps, the slim water-violet predominates; then, as you turn a corner, a long vista of arrow-heads meets the eye, nothing but arrow-heads between bank and bank, their sharp, barbed foliage topping the surface in a phalanx: or again, you may come upon fifty yards of frog-bit, a multitude of small green bucklers that entirely hide the water; or a radiant colony of water-lilies, whose broad leaves make the intrusion of other aquatics scarcely possible, and provide a cool pavement for wagtail and moorhen to walk on. it is noticeable, too, that the lesser water-plantain, unlike the greater, is almost confined to one section of the levels; and in like manner the brook-weed and the burmarigold have each occupied for their headquarters the banks of a particular dike. the fringed buckbean (_villarsia_) is said to be an inhabitant of these brooks. i have not seen it there; but it may be found, sparsely, in the river ouse, a short distance above lewes, where its round leaves float on the quiet backwaters like those of a large frog-bit or a small water-lily, though the botanists tell us it is a gentian. i remember that on the first occasion when i saw it there, on a late summer day, there was only a single blossom left, and as that was on a deep pool, several yards from the bank, there was no choice but to swim for it. the great yellow cress (_nasturtium amphibium_), a glorified cousin of the familiar water-cress, is also native on the ouse above lewes, less frequently below. more spacious than the lewes levels, but drearier, and on the whole less interesting, are those of pevensey, which cover a wide tract to the east of hailsham, formerly an inlet of the sea, where the sites of the few homesteads that rise above the flat meadows, such as chilley and horse-eye, were once islands in the bay. walking north from pevensey, by a road which traverses this inhospitable flat, one sees the walls of hurstmonceux castle in front, on what was originally the coast-line; on either side of the highway is a maze of ditches and dikes, among which rare flowers are to be found, notably the broad-leaved pepperwort, the largest and most remarkable of its family, and the great spearwort, said to be locally plentiful near hurstmonceux. the bladderwort, reputed common on these marshes, seems to have become much scarcer than it was twenty years back. for other flowers, other fenny tracts may be sought; henfield common, for instance, has the bog-bean, the marsh st. john's-wort, and still better, the marsh-cinquefoil. but of all sussex water-meadows with which i am acquainted the richest are the amberley wild brooks, which lie below pulborough, adjacent to the tidal stream of the arun, a piece of partially drained bog-land which in a wet winter season is apt to be flooded anew, and to revert to its primitive state of swamp. it is a glorious place to wander over, on a sunny august afternoon, with the great escarpment of the downs, and the ever-prominent chanctonbury ring, close in view to the south; and in a long summer day the expedition can be combined with a visit to arundel park, only three miles distant, the best of parks, as being the least parklike and most natural, and having a goodly store of the wildflowers that are dwellers upon chalk hills. the amberley wild brooks possess this great merit, that in addition to most of the aquatics and dike-land plants above-mentioned, they present a fine display of the tall riverside flowers. their wet hollows that teem with frog-bit, arrow-head, water-parsnip, water-plantain, yellow cress, glaucous stitchwort, and other choice things, are fringed here and there with purple loosestrife, and with marsh-woundwort almost equal to the loosestrife in size and colour; and mingling with these in like luxuriance are yellow loosestrife, tansy, toadflax, and water-ragwort--a brilliant combination of purple flowers and gold. then, as if the better to set off this spectacle, there is in some places a background of staid and massive herbs like the great water-dock, and bulrushes, and reeds of such deep green as soothe the dazzled eye with sober sheen.[ ] one would fear that this wealth of diverse hues might even become embarrassing, were it not that the heart of the flower-lover is insatiable. [footnote : from shelley's short lyric, "the question," perhaps the most beautiful flower-poem in the language.] iv likenesses that baffle stay, stand apart; i know not which is which. _the comedy of errors._ one of the first difficulties by which those who would learn their native flora are beset is the likeness which in some cases exists between one plant and another--not the close resemblance of kindred species, such as that found, for instance, among the brambles or the hawkweeds, which is necessarily a matter for expert discrimination, but the superficial yet often puzzling similarity in what botanists call the "habit" of wildflowers. thus the horse-shoe vetch may easily be mistaken, by a beginner, for the bird's-foot trefoil, or the field mouse-ear chickweed for the greater stitchwort; and the differences between the dove's-foot crane's-bill and the less common _geranium pusillum_ are not at first sight very apparent. distinguishing features instantly recognized by an expert, who has taken, so to speak, finger-tip impressions of the plants, do not readily present themselves to the layman, whose only guide is the general testimony of structure, colour, and height. it is, moreover, unfortunate that some of the popular flower-books, owing to the slovenly way in which their descriptions are worded, are of little help; they not only fail to give the needed particulars where there is a real likeness, but often, where there is none, create confusion in the reader's mind by depicting quite dissimilar plants in almost identical terms. in johns's _flowers of the field_ (edition of ), for example, the description of hedge-woundwort hardly differs verbally from that of black horehound, and might certainly mislead a novice who was studying hedgerow flowers. the same writer had an exasperating habit of repeatedly stating that various plants are "well distinguished" by certain features, when in fact it is very difficult, from the accounts given by him, to distinguish them at all! an earlier and better writer, anne pratt, did make an effort in her _haunts of the wild flowers_ to indicate the chief characteristics, as between the sea-plantain and the sea-arrowgrass, the hemp-agrimony and the valerian; but even she, when some of the labiate flowers were in question, dismissed them, not very helpfully, as "all growing in abundance, but so much alike that it needs a knowledge of botany to distinguish them from each other"! i have known a case where, owing to a picturesque but inaccurate account, in the same book, the welsh stonecrop (_sedum forsterianum_) was confused with the marsh st. john's-wort, which has leaves that bear a curious resemblance to those of the _sedum_ tribe. even writers of botanical handbooks seem not to realize with what difficulties the uninitiated are faced, in regard to certain groups of plants where the several species, though quite distinct, bear a strong family likeness. the chamomiles, for instance, might well receive some special treatment in books; for it is no simple matter to assign their proper names to some four or five of the clan--the true chamomile, the wild chamomile, the corn chamomile, the stinking chamomile, and the "scentless" mayweed, which is _not_ scentless. many of the umbellifers also are notoriously difficult to identify; and among leguminous plants there is a bewildering similarity between black medick, or "nonsuch," and the lesser clover (_trifolium minus_), which in turn is liable to be confused with the popular hop-clover or with the slender and fairy-like _trifolium filiforme_. "small examples of _t. minus_," said a well-known botanist, mr. h. c. watson, "are so frequently misnamed _t. filiforme_, that i trust only my own eyes for it."[ ] "as like as two peas" is a saying which finds fulfilment in these and other examples. [footnote : _flora of surrey_, by j. a. brewer, .] the clovers are indeed a perplexing family; and it is not surprising that the identification of the "shamrock" has given cause for dispute. two of the smaller trefoils, for example, _trifolium scabrum_ and _striatum_, so closely resemble each other that a novice fails to appreciate the assurance given in the _flora of kent_ that they "can very easily be separated." it is doubtless easy to separate one twin from another twin, dromio of ephesus from dromio of syracuse, when once you know how to do so; but until you have acquired that knowledge there is material for a "comedy of errors." the majority of folk are much more apt to confuse plants than to distinguish them: witness such names as "fool's-parsley" and "fool's-watercress." fools there are; yet anyone who has spent time in studying wildflowers, with no better aid than that of the popular books on the subject, will hesitate to pass judgment on such folly; for as so good an observer as richard jefferies said: "if you really wish to identify with certainty, and have no botanist friend and no _magnum opus_ of sowerby to refer to, it is very difficult indeed to be quite sure."[ ] we have to be thankful for small mercies in this matter; and it may be recognized that in some cases--generally where the similarity is _not_ great, as that between the strawberry-leaved cinquefoil and the wild strawberry, or between the feverfew and the scentless mayweed--the books occasionally give a word of advice to "the young botanist." nine times out of ten, however, that young fellow, or perchance old fellow (for one may be young as a botanist, while by no means young in years), must shift for himself; and doing so, he will gradually learn by experience what a number of likenesses there are among plants, and how many mistakes may be made before a sure acquaintance is arrived at. [footnote : essay on "wild flowers," in _the open air_.] the name of "mockers" is sometimes given by gardeners to weeds that are so like certain valued plants as to be easily mistaken for them; and in the same way, in the search for wildflowers, one's attention is often distracted, as, for instance, if one is looking for the spineless meadow-thistle, the eye may be baffled by innumerable knapweed blossoms of the same hue; the clustered bell-flower will feign to be the autumnal gentian, its neighbour on the chalk downs; or the blossoms and leaves of the purple saxifrage on the high mountains are aped by the ubiquitous wild thyme. of all these likenesses the most perilous is that between the malodorous ramsons, which have a very abiding smell of garlic, and the highly esteemed lily of the valley. hence a story which i once heard from the affable keeper who presides over a wooded hill in westmorland where the lily of the valley abounds, and where visitors are permitted to pick as many flowers as they like after payment of a shilling. seeing a gentleman busily engaged in gathering a large bunch of ramsons, the keeper, suspecting error, asked him what he supposed himself to be picking. "why, lilies of the valley, of course," was the reply. when the truth was explained, the visitor thanked the keeper cordially, and added: "i was picking the flowers for my wife: but if i had brought her a present of garlic she would have had something to say to me. i myself have lost the sense of smell."[ ] [footnote : so, too, had the poet wordsworth; of whom william morris, who disliked the wordsworthian cult, used to say, in explanation of such antipathy: "the fellow couldn't smell."] likeness or unlikeness--it is all a matter of observation. to a stranger, every sheep in the flock has a face like that of her fellows: to the shepherd there are no two sheep alike. v botanesque what is it? a learned man could give it a clumsy name. let him name it who can, the beauty would be the same. tennyson. among the difficulties that waylay the beginner must be reckoned the botanical phraseology. we have heard of "the language of flowers," and of its romantic associations; but the language of botany is another matter, and though less picturesque is equally cryptic and not to be mastered without study. when, for example, we read of a certain umbelliferous plant that its "cremocarp consists of two semicircular-ovoid mericarps, constricted at the commissure"--or when, with our lives in our hands, so to speak, we experiment in fungus-eating, and learn that a particular mushroom has its stem "fistulose, subsquamulose, its pileus membranaceous, rarely subcarnose, when young ovato-conic, then campanulate, at length torn and revolute, deliquescent, and clothed with the flocculose fragments of the veil"--we probably feel that some further information would be welcome. a friend who had been reading a series of articles on botany once remarked to me that "they could scarcely be said to be written in any known language, but were in a new tongue which might perhaps be called botanesque." but it is of the botanesque nomenclature that i now wish to speak. the faculty of bestowing appropriate names is at all times a gift, an inspiration, most happy when least laboured, and often eluding the efforts of learned and scientific men. by schoolboys it is sometimes exhibited in perfection; as in a case that i remember at a public school, where three brothers of the name of berry were severally known, for personal reasons, as bilberry, blackberry, and gooseberry, the fitness of which botanical titles was never for a moment impugned. but botanists rarely invent names so well. the nomenclature of plants, like that of those celestial flowers, the stars, is a queer jumble of ancient and modern, classical learning and mediæval folk-lore, in which the really characteristic features are often overlooked. in this respect the latin names are worse offenders than the english; and one is sometimes tempted, in disgust at their pedantic irrelevance, to ignore them altogether, and to exclaim with the poet: what's in a name? that which we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet. but this would be an error; for a name does greatly enhance the interest of an object, be it boy, or bird, or flower; and the greek and latin plant-names, cumbrous and far-fetched though many of them are--as when the saintfoin is absurdly labelled _onobrychis_, on the supposition that its scent provokes an ass to bray--form, nevertheless, a useful link between botanists of different nations and a safeguard against the confusion that arises from a variety of local terms. among the english names also there are some clumsy appellations, and in a few cases the latin ones are much pleasanter: _stellaria_, for example, as i have already said, is more elegant than "stitchwort." "what have i done?" asks the small cousin of the woodruff, in edward carpenter's poem, when it justly protests against its hideous christening by man: what have i done? man came, evolutional upstart one, with the gift of giving a name to everything under the sun. what have i done? man came (they say nothing sticks like dirt), looked at me with eyes of blame, and called me "squinancy-wort." but on the whole the english names of flowers are simpler and more suggestive than the latin; certainly "monk's-hood" is preferable to _aconitum_, "rest-harrow" to _ononis_, "flowering rush" to _butomus_; and so on, through a long list: and it therefore seems rather strange that the native titles should sometimes be ousted by the foreign. i have met botanists who had quite forgotten the english, and were obliged to ask me for the scientific term before they could sufficiently recall the plant of which we were speaking. the prefix "common" is often very misleading in the english nomenclature. anyone, for example, who should go confidently searching for the "common hare's-ear" would soon find that he had got his work cut out. there are, in fact, not many plants that are everywhere common; most of those that are so described should properly be classed as _local_, because, while plentiful in some districts, they are infrequent in others. botanical names fall mainly into three classes, the medicinal, the commemorative, the descriptive. the old uses of plants by the herbalists mark the prosaic origin of many of the names; some of which, such as "goutweed," at once explain themselves, as indicating supposed remedies for ills that flesh is heir to. others, if less obvious, are still not far to seek; the "scabious," for example, derived from the latin _scabies_, was reputed to be a cure for leprosy: a few, like "eye-bright" (_euphrasia_, gladness), have a more cheerful significance. when we turn to such titles as _centaurea_, for the knapweed and cornflower, some explanation is needed, to wit, that chiron, the fabulous centaur, was said to have employed these herbs in the exercise of his healing art. the commemorative names are mostly given in honour of accomplished botanists, it being a habit of mankind, presumably prompted by the acquisitive instincts of the race, to name any object, great or small--from a mountain to a mouse--as _belonging_ to the person who discovered or brought it to notice. in the case of wildflowers this is not always a very felicitous system of distinguishing them, though perhaps better than the utilitarian jargon of the pharmacopoeia. sometimes, indeed, it is beyond cavil; as in the fit association of the little _linnæa borealis_ with the great botanist who loved it; but when a number of the less important professors of the science are immortalized in this way, there seems to be something rather irrelevant, if not absurd, in such nomenclature. why, for example, should two of the more charming crucifers be named respectively _hutchinsia_ and _teesdalia_, after a miss hutchins and a mr. teesdale? why should the water-primrose be called _hottonia_, after a professor hotton; or the sea-heath _frankenia_, after a swedish botanist named franken; and so on, in a score of other cases that might be cited? the climax is reached when the _rubi_ and the _salices_ are divided into a host of more or less dubious sub-species, so that a bloxam may have his bramble, and a hoffmann his willow, as a possession for all time! the most rational, and also the most graceful manner of naming flowers is the descriptive; and here, luckily, there are a number of titles, english or latin, with which no fault can be found. spearwort, mouse-tail, arrow-head, bird's-foot, colt's-foot, blue-bell, bindweed, crane's-bill, snapdragon, shepherd's purse, skull-cap, monk's-hood, ox-tongue--these are but a few of the well-bestowed names which, by an immediate appeal to the eye, fix the flower in the mind; they are at once simple and appropriate: in others, such as adonis, columbine, penny-cress, cranberry, lady's-mantle, and thorow-wax, the description, if less manifest at first sight, is none the less charming when recognized. the latin, too, is at times so befitting as to be accepted without demur; thus _iris_, to express the rainbow tints of the flowers, needs no english equivalent, and _campanula_ has only to be literally rendered as "bell-flower." in _campanula hederacea_, the "ivy-leaved bell-flower," we see nomenclature at its best, the petals and the foliage of a floral gem being both faithfully described. a glance at a list of british wildflowers will bring to mind various other ways in which names have been given to them--some familiar, some romantic, a few even poetical. among the homely but not unpleasing kind, are "jack by the hedge" for the garlic mustard; "john go to bed at noon" for the goat's-beard; "creeping jenny" for the money-wort; and "lady's-fingers" for the kidney-vetch. of the romantically named plants the most conspicuous example is doubtless the forget-me-not, its english name contrasting, as it does, with the more realistic latin _myosotis_, which detects in the shape of the leaves a likeness to a mouse's ear. none, perhaps, can claim to be so poetical as gerarde's name for the clematis; for "traveller's joy" was one of those happy inspirations which are unfortunately rare. vi the open downland open hither, open hence, scarce a bramble weaves a fence. meredith. when speaking of some sussex water-meadows, i mentioned as one of their many delights the views which they offer of the never distant downs. the charm of these chalk hills is to me only inferior to that of real mountains; there are times, indeed, when with clouds resting on the summits, or drifting slowly along the coombes, one could almost imagine himself to be in the true mountain presence. i have watched, on an autumn day, a long sea of vapour rolling up from the weald against the steep northern front of the downs, while their southern slopes were still basking in sunshine; and scarcely less wonderful than the clouds themselves are the cloud-shadows that may often be seen chasing each other across the wide open tracts which lie in the recesses of the hills. "majestic mountains," "exalted promontories," were among the descriptions given of the downs by gilbert white: what we now prize in them is not altitude but spaciousness. in rosamund marriott watson's words: broad and bare to the skies the great down-country lies. its openness, with the symmetry of the free curves and contours into which the chalk shapes itself, is the salient feature of the range; and to this may be added its liberal gift of solitude and seclusion. even from the babel of brighton an hour's journey on foot can bring one into regions where a perpetual armistice day is being celebrated, with something better than the two minutes of silence snatched from the townsfolk's day of din. the downs are also open in the sense of being free, to a very great extent, from the enclosures which in so many districts exclude the public from the land. in some parts, unfortunately, the abominable practice of erecting wire fences is on the increase among sheep-farmers; but generally speaking, a naturalist may here wander where he will. of all the flowering plants of the downs, the gorse is at once the earliest and the most impressive; no spectacle that english wildflowers can offer, when seen _en masse_, excels that of the numberless furze-bushes on a bright april day. there is then a vividness in the gorse, a depth and warmth of that "deep gold colour" beloved by rossetti, which far surpasses the glazed metallic sheen of a field of buttercups. it is pure gold, in bullion, the palpable wealth of croesus, displayed not in flat surfaces, but in bars, ingots, and spires, bough behind bough, distance on distance, with infinite variety of light and shade, and set in strong relief against a background of sombre foliage. thus it has the appearance, in full sunshine, almost of a furnace, a reddish underglow and heart of flame which is lacking even in the broom. to creep within one of these gorse-temples when illumined by the sun, is to enjoy an ecstasy both of colour and of scent. with the exception of the furze, the downland flowers are mostly low of stature, as befits their exposed situation, a small but free people inhabiting the wind-swept slopes and coombes, and well requiting the friendship of those who visit them in their fastnesses. one of the earliest and most welcome is the spring whitlow-grass, which abounds on ant-hills high up on the ridges, forming a dense growth like soft down on the earth's cheek. here it hastes to get its blossoming done before the rush of other plants, its little reddish stalk rising from a rosette of short leaves, and bearing the tiny terminal flowers with white deeply cleft petals and anthers of yellow hue. its near successor is the equally diminutive mouse-ear (_cerastium semidecandrum_), a white-petaled plant of a deep dark green, viscous, and thickly covered with hairs. when summer has come, the flowers of the downs are legion--yellow bird's-foot trefoil, and horse-shoe vetch; milkwort pink, white, or blue; fragile rock-rose; graceful dropwort; salad burnet; squinancy-wort, and a hundred more,[ ] of which one of the fairest, though commonest, is the trailing silverweed, whose golden petals are in perfect contrast with the frosted silver of the foliage. but the special ornament of these hills, known as "the pride of sussex," is the round-headed rampion, a small, erect, blue-bonneted flower which is no "roundhead" in the puritan sense, but rather of the gay company of cavaliers. abundant along the downs from eastbourne to brighton, and still further to the west, it is a plant of which the eye never tires. [footnote : see the beautiful chapter on "the living garment," in mr. w. h. hudson's _nature in downland_.] but it is the orchids that chiefly draw one's thoughts to downland when midsummer is approaching. "have you seen the bee orchis?" is then the question that is asked; and to wander on the lower slopes at that season without seeing the bee orchis would argue a tendency to absent-mindedness. i used to debate with myself whether the likeness to a bee is real or fanciful, till one day, not thinking of orchids at all, i stopped to examine a rather strange-looking bee which i noticed on the grass, and found that the insect was--a flower. that, so far, settled the point; but i still think that the fly orchis is the better imitation of the two. the early spider orchis is native on the eastern range of the downs, near the lonely hamlet of telscombe and in a few other localities in the heart of the hills; where, unless one has luck--and i had none--the search for a small flower on those far-stretching slopes is like the proverbial hunt for a needle in a hayloft. the only noticeable object on the hillside was an apparently dead sheep, about a hundred feet below me, lying flat on her back, with hoofs pointing rigidly to the sky; but as it was _orchis_, not _ovis_, that i was in quest of, i was about to pass on, when i saw a shepherd, who had just come round a shoulder of the down, uplift the sheep and set her on her legs, whereupon, to my surprise, she ambled away as if nothing had been amiss with her. i learnt from the shepherd that such accidents are not uncommon, and that having once "turned turtle" the sluggish creature (as mankind has made her) would certainly have perished unless he had chanced to come to the rescue. when i told the good man what had brought me to that unfrequented coombe, he said, as country people often do, that he did not "take much notice" of wildflowers; nevertheless, after inquiring about the appearance of the orchids, he volunteered to note the place for me if he chanced to see them. then, as we were parting, he called after me: "and if you see any more sheep on their backs, i'll thank you if you'll turn 'em over." this i willingly promised, on the principle not only of humanity, but that one good turn deserves another. next season, perhaps, our friendly compact may be renewed. the dingle in which telscombe lies is rich in flowers; in the maytime of which i am speaking, there was a profusion of hound's-tongue in bloom, and a good sprinkling of that charming upland plant, deserving of a pleasanter name, the field fleawort; but of what i was searching for, no trace. i had walked into the spider's "parlour," but the spider was not at home. more fortunate was a lady who on that same day brought to the hove exhibition a flower which she had casually picked on another part of the downs where she was taking a walk. sitting down for a rest, she saw an unknown plant on the turf. it was a spider orchis. much less unaccommodating, to me, was the musk orchis, a still smaller species which grows in several places where the northern face of the downs is intersected, as below ditchling beacon, by deep-cut tracks--they can hardly be called bridle-paths--that slant upward across the slope. i was told by miss robinson, of saddlescombe, to whose wide knowledge of sussex plants many flower-lovers besides myself have been indebted, that she once picked a musk orchis from horseback as she was riding along the hill side. it is a sober-garbed little flower, with not much except its rarity to signalize it; but an orchis is an orchis still; there is no member of the family that has not an interest of its own. many of them are locally common on these hills; to wit, the early purple, the fly, the frog, the fragrant, the spotted, the pyramidal, and most lovely of all, the dwarf orchis; also the twayblade, the lady's-tresses, and one or two of the helleborines. the green-man orchis, not uncommon in parts of surrey and kent, will here be sought in vain. but the downs are not wholly composed of grassy sheep-walks and furze-dotted wastes; they include many tracts of cultivated land, where, if we may judge from the botanical records of the past generation, certain cornfield weeds which are now very rare, such as the mouse-tail and the hare's-ear, were once much more frequent. it is rather strange that the improved culture, which has nearly eliminated several interesting species, should have had so little effect on the charlock and the poppy, which still colour great squares and sections of the downs with their rival tints, their yellow and scarlet rendered more conspicuous by having the quiet tones of these rolling uplands for a background. in autumn, when most of the wealden flowers are withering, the chalk hills are still decked with gentians and other late-growing kinds; and the persistence, even into sere october, of such children of the sun as the rampion and the rock-rose is very remarkable. the autumnal aspect of the downs is indeed as beautiful as any; for there are then many days when a blissful calm seems to brood over the great coombes and hollows, and the fields lie stretched out like a many-coloured map, the rich browns of the ploughlands splashed and variegated with patches of yellow and green. then, too, one sees and hears overhead the joy-flight of the rooks and daws, as round and round they circle, higher and higher, like an inverted maelstrom swirling upward, till it breaks with a chorus of exulting cries as gladdening to the ear as is the sight of those aerial manoeuvres to the eye. the final impression which the downs leave on the mind is, i repeat, one of freedom and space; and this is felt by the flower-lover as strongly as by any wanderer on these hills, these "blossoming places in the wilderness," as mr. hudson has called them, "which make the thought of our trim, pretty, artificial gardens a weariness." vii prisoners of the parterre prim little scholars are the flowers of her garden, trained to stand in rows, and asking if they please. i might love them well but for loving more the wild ones: o my wild ones! they tell me more than these. meredith. the domestication of plants, as of animals, is a concern of such practical importance that in most minds it quite transcends whatever interest may be felt in the beauty of wildflowers. but the many delights of the garden ought not to blind us to the fact that there is in the wild a peculiar quality which the domesticated can never reproduce, and that the plant which is free, even if it be the humblest and most common, has a charm for the nature-lover which the more gorgeous captives of the garden must inevitably lack. if much is gained by domestication, much is also lost. this, doubtless, is felt less strongly in the taming of plants than of animals, but in either case it holds true. to some of us, it must be owned, zoological gardens are a nightmare of confusion, and the now almost equally popular "rock-garden" a place which leaves an impression of dulness and futility; for while we fully recognize the interest, such as it is, of inducing alpines to grow under altered conditions of climate, there is an irrelevance in the assembling of heterogeneous flowers in one enclosure, which perplexes and wearies the mind. for just as a cosmopolitan city is no city at all, and a babel is no language, so a multifarious rock-garden, where a host of alien plants are grouped in unnatural juxtaposition, is a collection not of flowers but of "specimens." for scientific purposes--the determination of species, and viewing the plants in all stages of their growth--it may be most valuable: to the mere flower-lover, as he gazes on such a concourse, the thought that arises is: "what's hecuba to him, or he to hecuba?" it is a museum, a herbarium, if you like; but hardly, in any true sense, a garden. i once had the experience of living next door to a friend who was smitten with the mania for rock-gardening, and from my study window i overlooked the process from start to finish--first the arrival of many tons of limestone blocks and chips; then the construction of artificial crags and gullies, moraines and escarpments, until a line of miniature alps rose to view; and lastly the planting of various mountain flowers in the situations suited to their needs. then followed many earnest colloquies between the creator of this fair scene and a neighbour enthusiast, as they walked about the garden together and inspected it plant by plant, much as a farmer goes his rounds to examine his oats or turnips. they surveyed the world, botanically speaking, from china to peru. yet somehow i felt that, just as i would rather see a sparrow at large than an eagle in captivity, so to be shown round that well-fashioned rockery was less entertaining than to show oneself round the most barren of the adjacent moors. "herbes that growe in the fieldes," wrote a fifteenth-century herbalist, "be bettere than those that growe in gardenes."[ ] [footnote : quoted in _a garden of herbs_, by e. s. rohde.] this, however, is by no means the common opinion; on the contrary, there is in most minds a disregard or veritable contempt for wildflowers as being, with a few exceptions, "weeds," and quite unworthy of comparison with the inmates of a garden. in her _haunts of the wild flowers_, anne pratt has recorded how she was invited by a cottager to throw away a bunch of "ordinary gays" that she was carrying, and to gather some garden flowers in their stead. i once took a long walk over the moors in derbyshire in order to visit certain rare flowers of the limestone dales, among them the speedwell-leaved whitlow-grass (_draba muralis_), a specimen of which i brought home. this little crucifer is very insignificant in appearance; and the fact that anyone should plod many miles to gather it so upset the gravity of an extremely demure and respectful servant girl, when she saw it on my mantelpiece, that to her own visible shame and confusion she broke into a loud giggle, somewhat as bernard shaw's chocolate-cream soldier failed to conceal his amusement when the portrait of the hero of the cavalry charge was shown to him by its possessor. even in the case of those wildings whose beauty or scent has made them generally popular, it is thought the highest compliment to domesticate them, to bring them--poor waifs and strays that they are--from their forlorn savage state into the fold of civilization, just as a "deserving" pauper might be received into an almshouse, or an orphan child into one of dr. barnardo's homes. and strange to say, this reverential belief in the garden, as enhancing the merits of the wild, has found its way into many of the wildflower books: for instance, in johns's well-known work, _flowers of the field_ (of the _field_, be it noted), we are informed that the lily of the valley is "a universally admired garden plant, and that the sweet-brier is "deservedly" cultivated. the more refined wildflowers, it will be seen, can thus rise, as it were, from the ranks, at the cost of their freedom, which happens to be the most interesting thing about them, to be enrolled in the army of the civilized; and the result has been that some of the more distinguished plants, such as the _daphne mezereum_, are fast losing their place among british wildflowers, and becoming nothing better than prisoners and captives of the parterre. this disdain that is felt for whatever is wild, natural, and unowned, is largely responsible for the unscrupulous digging up of any attractive plants that may be discovered, a subject of which i propose to speak in the next chapter. the absurdity of the typical gardener's attitude toward wildflowers is well illustrated by some remarks in delamer's _the flower garden_ ( ) with reference to that exceedingly beautiful plant, the tutsan. "tutsan is a hardy shrubby st. john's-wort, largely employed by gardeners of the last century; but it has now, for the most part, retired from business, in consequence of the arrival of more attractive and equally serviceable newcomers. one or two tutsan bushes may be permitted to help to form a screen of shrubs, in consideration of the days of auld lang syne." fortunately the tutsan is not "retiring from business" in nature's garden. it seems to me that, instead of carrying more and more wildflowers into captivity, it would be much wiser to set at liberty the many british plants that are now under detention. i would instruct my gardener (if i had one) to lift very carefully the daphnes, the lilies of the valley, the tutsans, the cornflowers, the woodruffs, and the rest of the native clan, and to plant them out, each according to its taste, by bank or hedgerow, in field, common, or wood. viii picking and stealing flower in the crannied wall, i pluck you out of the crannies. tennyson. there is, as i have said, a positive contempt in many minds for the wildflower; that is, for the flower which is regarded as being no one's "property." but the flora of a country, rightly considered, is very far from being unowned; it is the property of the people, and when any species is diminished or extirpated the loss is not private but national. we have already reached a time, as many botanists think, when the choicer british flowers need some sort of protection. that some injury should be caused to our native flora by improved culture, drainage, building, and the extension of towns, is inevitable; though these losses might be considerably lessened if there were a more general regard for natural beauty. but that is all the stronger reason for discountenancing such damage as is done in mere thoughtlessness, or, worse, for selfish purposes; and it were greatly to be wished that some of the good folk who pray that their hands may be kept "from picking and stealing" would so far widen the scope of their sympathies as to include the rarer wildflowers. it cannot be doubted that there is an immense amount of wasteful flower-picking by children, and also by persons who are old enough to know better. nothing is commoner, in spring, than to see piles of freshly gathered hyacinths or cowslips abandoned by the roadside; and many other flowers share the same fate, including, as i have noticed, the beautiful green-winged meadow orchis. trippers and holiday-makers are often very mischievous: i have seen them, for instance, on the ramparts of conway castle, hooking and tearing the red valerian which is an ornament to the grey old walls. i was told by a friend who lives in a district where the rare meadow-sage (_salvia pratensis_) is native, that he is compelled to pluck the blue flowers just before the august bank-holiday, in order to save the plant itself from being up-rooted and carried off. primroses, abundant as they still are in many places, have nearly disappeared from others, in consequence of the depredations of flower-vendors; and there was a time when they were seriously threatened in the neighbourhood of london because a certain fashionable cult was at its height. witness the following "idyll of primrose day" by some unknown versifier: how blest was dull old peter bell, whom wordsworth sung in days of yore! a primrose by a river's brim a yellow primrose was to him, and it was nothing more. alas! 'tis something more to us; no longer nature's meekest flower, but symbol of consummate quack, who by tall talk and knavish knack could plant himself in power. for his sweet sake we mourn, each spring, our lanes and hedgerows robbed and bare, our woods despoiled by clumsy clown, that primrose-tufts may come to town for tuft-hunters to wear. and so, on snobbish primrose day, we envy peter's simple lore: a primrose, worn with fulsome fuss, a yellow primrose is to us, alas! and something more. the nurseryman and the professional gardener have also much to answer for in the destruction of wildflowers. take the following instance, quoted from the _flora of kent_, with reference to the cyclamen: "towards the end of august, , i was shown the native station of this plant. . . . the people in those parts had found out it was in request, and had almost entirely extirpated it, digging up the roots, and selling them for transplantation into shrubberies." in the same work it is recorded that, when the frog orchis was found in some abundance near canterbury, "in a wonderfully short space of time the whole of this charming colony was dug and extirpated." again, if it be permissible to call a spade a spade, what shall be said of those roving knights of the trowel, the unconscionable rock-gardeners who ride abroad in search of some new specimen for their collections? a late writer of very charming books on the subject has feelingly described how, after the discovery of some long-sought treasure, he craved a brief spell of repose, a sort of holy calm, before commencing operations. "we blessed ones," he said, referring to botanists as contrasted with ornithologists, "may sit down calmly, philosophically, beside our success, and gently savour all its sweetness, until it is time to take out the trowel after half an hour of restful rapture in our laurels."[ ] [footnote : from _my rock garden_, by reginald farrer, p. .] other flower-fanciers there are who show much less circumspection. in upper teesdale, where the rare blue gentian (_gentiana verna_) is found on the upland pastures, i was told that a "gentleman" had come with two gardeners in a motor, and departed laden with a number of these beautiful alpine flowers for transplantation to his private rockery. the nation which permits such a theft--far worse than stealing from a private garden--deserves to possess no wildflowers at all; and such a botanist, if botanist he can be called, deserves to be himself transplanted, or transported--to botany bay. the same vandalism, in varying degrees, has been at work in every part of the land, and nothing has yet been done effectively to check it, whether by legislation, education, or appeal to public opinion: it seems to be absolutely no one's business to protect what ought to be a cherished national possession. in no district, perhaps, has the greed of the collector been more unabashed than among the mountains of cumberland and north wales. "thanks to the inconsiderate rapacity of the fern-getter," wrote canon rawnsley, in an introduction to a _guide to lakeland_, "the few rarer sorts are fast disappearing. ... there has been, in the time past, quite a cruel and unnecessary uprooting of the rarer ferns and flowers;" and he went on to ask: "when will travellers learn that the fern by the wayside has a public duty to fulfil?" all such remonstrances have hitherto been in vain: neither the fear of god nor the fear of man has deterred the collector from his purpose. it is pleasant to read that in the seventeenth century a welsh guide alleged "the fear of eagles" as a reason for not leading one of the earliest english visitors to the haunts of alpine plants on the precipices of carnedd llewelyn; but unfortunately eagles are now as scarce as nurserymen and fern-filchers are numerous. ix round a surrey chalk-pit i found a deep hollow on the side of a great hill, a green concave, where i could rest and think in perfect quiet. richard jefferies. as a range of hills, the north downs are inferior to those of sussex in beauty and general interest. their outline suggests no "greyhound backs" coursing along the horizon; nor have they that "living garment" of turf, woven by centuries of pasturing, which hudson has matchlessly described. their northern side is but a gradual slope leading up to a bleak tableland; and only when one emerges suddenly on their southern front, with its wide views across the weald, do their glories begin to be realized. in this steep declivity, facing the sun at noon, there is a distinctive and unfailing charm, quite unlike that of the corresponding escarpment of the south downs: it forms, as it were, an inland riviera, a sheltered undercliff, green with long waving grasses, and sweet with marjoram and thyme, a haven where the wandering flower-lover may revel in glowing sunshine, or take a siesta, if so minded, under that most friendly of trees the white-beam. i have memories of many a pious sabbath spent in this enchanted realm, with the wind in the beeches for anthem, and for incense the scent of marjoram enriching the air. to one who knows these fragrant banks it seems strange that though the wild thyme has been so celebrated by poets and nature-writers, the marjoram, itself a glorified thyme, has by comparison gone unsung. we are told in the books that it is a potherb, an aromatic stimulant, even a remedy for toothache. it may be all that; but it is something much better, a thing of beauty which might cure the achings not of the tooth only, but of the heart. its relatives the lavender and the rosemary have not more charm. it was the _amaracus_ of virgil, the flower on whose sweetness the young iulus rested, when he was spirited away by venus to her secret abode: she o'er the prince entrancing slumber strows, and, fondling in her bosom, far away bears him aloft to high idalian bowers, where banks of marjoram sweet, in soft repose, enfold him, propped on beds of fragrant flowers.[ ] [footnote : _Æneid_, i. - .] who could wish for a diviner couch? along this range of hills the chalk-pits, used or disused, are frequent at intervals, some of such size as to form landmarks visible at the distance of twenty or thirty miles. for a botanist, these amphitheatres, large or small, have always an attraction; for though they vary much in the quality of their flowers, and some have little to show beyond the commoner plants of a calcareous soil, there are a few which present a surprising array of the choicer kinds; and to light upon one of these treasure-troves is a joy indeed. i have in mind a large semicircular disused pit, lying high among the downs, and bordered with abrupt grassy banks and coppices of beech, hazel, and fir, where during the past thirty years i have spent many long summer days, sometimes writing under the shade of the trees, at other times idling among the flowers, or watching the snakes that lie basking in the sun, or the kestrels that may often be seen hovering over the adjacent slopes. for all their unrivalled openness and sense of space, the sussex downs have no such "sun-trap" to show. one has heard of "the music of wild flowers."[ ] i used to call the floor of this chalk-pit "the orchistra," so numerous are the orchids that adorn it. the spotted orchis, the fragrant orchis, the pyramidal orchis, the bee orchis, the butterfly orchis, and the twayblade--these six are stationed there within a small compass. the marsh orchis grows below; the fly orchis is in the neighbouring thickets; in the beech-woods are the bird's-nest orchis, the broad-leaved helleborine, with its rare purple variety (_epipactis purpurata_), and the large white helleborine or egg orchis. a dozen of the family within the circuit of a short walk! the man orchis seems to be absent, though it grows in some plenty in similar places on the same line of hills. [footnote : see note on p. .] another feature of the chalk-pit is the viper's bugloss. if, as thoreau says, there is a flower for every mood of the mind, the viper's bugloss must surely belong to that mood which is associated with the pomps and splendours of the high summer noontide. gorgeous and tropical in its colouring beyond all other british flowers, as it rears its bristly green spikes, studded profusely with the pink buds that are turning to an equally vivid blue, it seems instinct with the spirit of a fiery summer day. like other members of the borage group, it has the warm southern temperament; its name, too, suits it well; for there is something viperish in the almost fierce beauty of the plant, as if some passionate-hearted exotic had sprung up among the more staid and sober representatives of our native flora. its richness never palls on us; we no more tire of its brilliance than of the summer itself. akin to the bugloss, though less striking and less abundant, is the hound's-tongue, with its long downy leaves and numerous purple-red buds of a sombre and sullen hue that is not often to be matched. it has the misfortune, so we are told, to smell of mice; were it not for this hindrance to its career, it might justly be held in high esteem. among the larger plants prominent on ledges of the chalk, or in near neighbourhood, are the mullein, the teazle, the ploughman's-spikenard, and the deadly nightshade or dwale. the buckthorn is frequent in the hedges and thickets; and the traveller's-joy is climbing wherever it can get a hold. but it is on the shelving banks that skirt the margin of the pit that the comeliest flowers are to be found; the most beautiful of all, perhaps, is the rock-rose, a plant so delicate that its small golden petals will scarcely survive a journey in the vasculum, yet so hardy that it will flower to the very latest autumn days. the wild strawberry is creeping everywhere; and the crimson of the grass vetchling may occasionally be seen among the ranker herbage, to which the stalk seems to belong; on the shorter turf is the small squinancy-wort, lovely cousin of the woodruff, its pink and white petals chiselled like the finest ivory. the elegant yellow-wort, glaucous and perfoliate, and the handsome pink centaury, are common on the downs; so, too, in the late summer, will be their less showy but always welcome relative, the autumnal gentian: all three have the firm and erect habit that is a property of the gentian tribe. it is one of the many merits of these chalk hills that their flower-season is a prolonged one. not the gentians only, with yellow-wort and centaury, are still vigorous in the autumn, but also the blue fleabane, clustered bell-flower, vervain, marjoram, basil, and many labiate herbs. even in october, when the glory has long departed from the lowlands of the weald, there remains a brave show of blossom on these delectable hills. the pilgrim's way, often no more than a grassy track, runs eastward along the base of the downs, interrupted here and there by the encroachment of parks and private estates, which now block the ancient route to canterbury; but where nature has provided so many shrines and cathedrals of her own, there is no need of any others; certainly i never lacked a holy place wherein to make my vows, many as were the pilgrimages on which i started. on one occasion that i recall, i was joined in my quest by a rather strange fellow-traveller, a man who met me, coming from the opposite direction, and eagerly asked whether i had seen anyone on the hillside. when i assured him that nobody had passed that way, he turned and walked in my company, and presently confided to me that he was an attendant at a lunatic asylum, and was in pursuit of an inmate who had escaped an hour or two before. we went a short distance together, he peering into the coombes and bushy hollows, as incongruous a pair as could be imagined; yet it occurred to me that his mission, too, might be considered a botanical one, since there is a plant named the madwort--nay, worse, the "german madwort," a title which, in those feverish war-days, would of itself have justified incarceration. nevertheless, as i always sympathize with escaped prisoners (provided, of course, that it is not _my_ bed under which they conceal themselves), i was secretly glad that my companion's search was unavailing. to return to my chalk-pit: i have mentioned but a few of the many flowers that belong there; within a mile, or less, others and quite different ones are flourishing. the rampion, though very local in surrey, is found in places along these downs; so, too, is the strange yellow bugle, or "ground pine," which is much more like a diminutive pine than a bugle; also the still stranger fir-rape (_monotropa_), which lurks in the thickest shade of the beech-woods. that interesting shrub, the butcher's-broom, or "knee holly," as it is more agreeably called, is another native: it wears its small flower daintily, like a button-hole, on the centre of the rigid leaves of deepest green. a few miles east there is another chalk-pit which, though inferior in the number of its flowers, has a sprinkling of the man orchis, whose shape, if there is any likeness at all, seems to suggest a toy man dangling from a string; a simile which i prefer to that of a dead man dangling from the gallows. in the woods that crown this pit there is a profusion of the deadly nightshade; and i noticed that during the war-summers, when there was a scarcity of belladonna, these plants were regularly harvested by some enterprising herbalist. such are a few of the delights of the surrey undercliff; but alas! they are vanishing delights, for the proximity to london has rendered all this district peculiarly liable to change. how could it be otherwise, when from the top of the ridge the dome of "smoky paul's" is visible on a clear day, and a view of the crystal palace, "that dreadful c.p." as one has heard it called, can seldom be avoided. what havoc has been wrought in the surrey hills by the advance of "civilization," may be learnt by anyone who studies the district with a sixty-year-old _flora of surrey_ for guide. between merstham and godstone, for instance, the hillsides, which were then free, open ground, have become in the saddest sense "residential," and the wildflowers have suffered in proportion. one may still find there the narrow-leaved everlasting pea, "hanging in festoons on thickets and copses," but other equally valued plants have disappeared or are disappearing. the marsh helleborine was once plentiful, it seems, in a swampy situation near merstham; but when, by dint of careful trespassing and circumnavigation of barbed wire, i reached a place which corresponded exactly with that indicated in the _flora_, not a single flower was to be seen. probably some conscientious gardener had "transplanted" them. it is impossible to doubt that this process will be continued, and that every year more wild land will be broken up in the building of villas and in the making of gardens, with the inevitable shrubberies, gravel walks, flower-borders, and lawn-tennis courts. the trim parterre with its "detested calceolarias," as a great nature-lover has described them, will more and more be substituted for the rough banks that are the favourite haunts of marjoram and rock-rose. how can the owners of such a fairyland have the heart to sell it for such a purpose? in omar's words: i often wonder what the vintners buy one half so precious as the stuff they sell. x a sandy common the common, overgrown with fern, . . . yields no unpleasing ramble; there the turf smells fresh, and rich in odoriferous herbs and fungus fruits of earth, regales the sense with luxury of unexpected sweets. cowper. stretched between the north downs and the weald, through the west part of kent and the length of surrey, runs the parallel range of greensand, which in a few places, as at toys hill and leith hill, equals or overtops its rival, but is elsewhere content to keep a lower level, as a region of high open commons and heaths. the light soil of this district shows a flora as different from that of the chalk hills on its north as of the wealden clays on its south; so that a botanist has here the choice of three kingdoms to explore. in natural beauty, these hills can hardly compare with the downs. "for my part," wrote gilbert white, "i think there is something peculiarly sweet and amusing in the shapely figured aspect of chalk hills, in preference to those of stone, which are rugged, broken, abrupt, and shapeless."[ ] the same opinion was held by william morris, who once declined to visit a friend of his (from whom i had the story) because he was living on just such a sandy common in west surrey, where the formless and lumpish outline of the land was a pain to the artistic eye. for hygienic reasons, however, a sandy soil is reputed best to dwell upon; and i have heard a tale--told as a warning to those who are over-fastidious in their choice of a site--of a pious old gentleman who, being determined to settle only where he could be assured of two conditions, "a sandy soil and the pure gospel," finally died without either in a bloomsbury hotel. [footnote : _natural history of selborne_, ch. lvi.] the gorse and broom in spring, and in autumn the heather, are the marked features of the sandy common: the foxglove, too, which has a strong distaste for lime, here often thrives in vast abundance, and makes a great splash of purple at the edge of the woods. but even apart from these more conspicuous plants, the "barren heath," as it is sometimes called, is well able to hold its own in a flower-lover's affection; though the absence of the finer orchids, and of some other flowers that pertain to the chalk, makes it perhaps less exciting as a field of adventure. in crabbe's words: and then how fine the herbage! men may say a heath is barren: nothing is so gay. from may to september the common is sprinkled with a bright succession of flowers--the slender _moenchia_, akin to the campions and chickweeds, dove's-foot, crane's-bill; tormentil; heath bedstraw; speedwells of several species; autumnal harebell, and golden rod--each in turn playing its part. among the aristocracy of this small people are the bird's-foot, an elfin creature, with tiny pinnate leaves and creamy crimson-veined blossoms; the modest milkwort, itself far from a rarity, yet so lovely that it shames us in our desire for the rare; and the trailing st. john's-wort, which we hail as the beauty of the family, until presently, meeting with its "upright" sister of the smooth heart-shaped leaves and the golden red-stained buds, we are forced to own that to her the name of _hypericum pulcrum_ most rightly belongs. but the chief prize of the sandy heath is the deptford pink, a rare annual of uncertain appearance, which bears the unmistakable stamp of nobility: it is a red-letter day for the flower-lover when he finds a small colony of these comely plants on some dry grassy margin. it was on a bank in westerham park that i first met with them; and there they reappeared, though in lessening numbers, in the two succeeding seasons. there was also a solitary flower, growing unpicked, strange to say, close beside one of the most frequented tracks that skirt the neighbouring common. in the woods of beech and fir with which the hill is fringed there are more fungi than flowers; and here too the "call of the wild" is felt, though to a feast of a less ethereal order. fungus hunting is one of the best of sports, and a joy unknown to those who imagine that the orthodox "mushroom" of the market is the only wholesome species; and it is worthy of note that, whereas the true meadow mushroom is procurable during only a few weeks of the year, the fungus-eater can pursue his quarry during six or seven months, so great is the variety at his disposal. among the delicacies that these woods produce are the red-fleshed mushroom, a brown-topped warty plant which becomes rufous when bruised; the gold-coloured chantarelle, often found growing in profusion along bushy paths and dingles; the big edible boletus, ignored in this country, but well appreciated on the continent; and best of all, deserving indeed of its latin name, the _agaricus deliciosus_, or orange-milk agaric, so called because its flesh, when broken, exudes an orange-coloured juice. it is easy to identify these and many other species with the help of a handbook, and it therefore seems strange that englishmen, as compared with other races, should be prejudiced against the use of this valuable form of food. as for the country-folk who live within easy reach of such dainties, yet would rather starve than eat a "toadstool," what can one say of them? _o fortunatos nimium, sua si bona norint!_[ ] [footnote : thrice blest, if they but knew what joys are theirs!] from the south side of these fir-woods one formerly emerged, almost at a step, on to the escarpment that overlooks the weald, and at one of the finest viewpoints in kent or surrey; but the trees were felled during the war by portuguese woodmen imported for that lamentable purpose. the spot is remembered by me for another reason; for there, in the years before the madness of europe, used to sit almost daily a very aged man, whose home was on the hillside close by, and who was brought out, by his own wish, that he might spend his declining days not in moping by a kitchen fire, but in gazing across the wide expanse of weald, where all the landmarks were familiar to him, and of which he seemed never to weary. no more truly devout old age could have been desired; for there was no mistaking his genuine love for what richard jefferies called "the pageant of summer," the open-air panorama of the seasons, as observed from that heathery watch-tower. the only cloud on his horizon, so to speak, was the flock of aeroplanes which even then were beginning to mar the sky's calmness: of these he would sagely remark that "if man had been intended to fly, the almighty would have given him wings." had the old philosopher known to what hellish uses those engines were presently to be put, he might have wondered still more at such thwarting of the divine intent. of sandpits there are several on the common, and their disused borders are favourite haunts for wildflowers. the "least" cudweed, a slender wisp of a plant, is native there; the small-flowered crane's-bill, which is liable to be confounded with the dove's-foot; also one or two curious aliens, such as the canadian fleabane, and the norwegian _potentilla_, which resembles the common cinquefoil but has smaller flowers. but what most allured me to the spot was the sheep's scabious, or, as it is more prettily named in the latin, _jasione montana_, a delightful little plant, baffling alike in name, form, and colour. it is called a scabious, yet is not one. it is classed as a campanula, and seen through a lens is found to be not one but many campanulas, a number of tiny bells united in a single head. then its hue--was there ever tint more elusive, more indefinable, than that of its many petals? is it grey, or blue, or lavender, or lilac, or what? we only know that the flower is very beautiful as it blooms on sandy bank or roadside wall. at the side of a small plantation that borders the heath there thrives the alien small-flowered balsam, which, like some of its handsomer kinsfolk, seems to be quickly extending its range. near the same spot i noticed several years ago, on a winter day, a patch of large soft pale-green leaves, which at a hasty glance i took to be those of the scented colt's-foot; but when i passed that way in the following spring i was surprised to see that several long stalks, bearing bright yellow composite flowers, had risen from the mass of foliage. it proved to be the leopard's-bane, probably an "escape" from some neighbouring garden, but already well established and thriving like any native. but the common does not consist wholly of dry ground; in one place, near the centre of the golf-course, there is a marshy depression, and in it a small pond where the water is a foot or two deep in winter, but in a hot summer almost disappears. here a double discovery awaits the inquirer. the muddy pool is full of one of the rarer mints--pennyroyal--and with it grows the curious _helosciadium inundatum_, or "least marsh-wort," a small umbelliferous plant which has more the habit and appearance of a water crowfoot, its lower leaves being cut in fine hair-like segments. nor do the fields and lanes that adjoin the heath lack their distinctive charm. the orpine, or "live-long," a handsome purple stonecrop, is not uncommon by the hedgeside; and the lovely _geranium striatum_, or striped crane's-bill, an occasional straggler from gardens, has made for itself a home; a hardy little adventurer it is, and one hopes it may yet win a place among british flowers, as many a less desirable immigrant has done. poppies and corn-marigolds are a wonder of red and gold in the cultivated fields, the poppies as usual looking their best (if agriculturists will pardon the remark) when they have a crop of wheat for a background. the queer little knawel springs up among spurrey and parsley-piert; and in one locality is the lesser snapdragon, which always commands attention, partly for its uncommonness, and partly as a scion of the romantic race of _antirrhinum_, which has a fascination not for children only, but for all lovers of the quaint. i have mentioned the golf-course. to many a common the golfers are becoming what the builders are to the downs--invaders who, by the trimming of grass and cutting down of bushes, are turning the natural into the artificial, and appropriating for the use of the few the possession of the many. to everyone his recreation ground; but are not the golf clubs getting rather more than their portion? xi quaintness in flowers throw hither all your quaint enamell'd eyes. milton. i spoke just now of a love of the quaint. quaintness, though it may exist apart from beauty, is often associated with it, and, unlike grotesqueness, has a pleasurable interest for the spectator. in flowers it is usually suggested by some abnormality of shape, as in the snapdragon; less frequently, as in the fritillary, by a singular effect of colouring. perhaps it is to the orchis group that one would most confidently apply the word; for they arrest attention not so much by their beauty as by their strangeness: one of them, indeed, the dwarf orchis, is undeniably beautiful, while another, the bird's-nest, is as ugly as a broom-rape; the others, if one tried to find a comprehensive epithet, might fairly be described as quaint. this quality in the orchids is not due solely to the odd likeness which some of them present to certain insects; for, as far as british species are concerned, the similarity, with a few exceptions, is somewhat fanciful. if it be granted that the fly, the bee, and the spider orchis are justly named--though even in these the resemblance is not always recognized when pointed out--it is no less true that one looks in vain for the semblance of a "butterfly," or of a "frog," in the plants that are so entitled, and it takes some ingenuity to discover the "man" in _aceras anthropophora_, or the "egg" in the white helleborine. but there is a charming quaintness in nearly all members of the family, owing largely to the peculiar structure of the lower lip of the corolla or the unusual length of the spur. the very name of the snapdragon is a proof of its hold upon the imagination: what mediæval romance and unfailing charm for children--and for adults--is conveyed in the word! the plant is at its best when clad in royal hue of purple; the white robe also has its glory; but the intermediate forms, striped and mottled, that are so fancied in gardens, are degenerates from a noble type. seen on the walls of some ancient ruin, the snapdragon is a wonder and a delight; it is to be regretted that its place is now so often usurped by the red valerian, in comparison a mere upstart and pretender. the lesser snapdragon or calf's-snout, with the toadflaxes and fluellens, shares in the characteristic quaintness of its tribe. i will next instance the "perfoliates," plants not confined to any one order, but alike in having a stem which passes midway through the leaf or pair of leaves, a most engaging curiosity of structure. it is by this peculiarity that the yellow-wort, a gentian with glaucous foliage and blossoms like "patines of bright gold," mainly wins its popularity. but the quaintest of perfoliates is the hare's-ear, or "thorow-wax," as it used to be called, of which, as gerarde wrote, "every branch grows thorow every leaf, making them like hollow cups or saucers." the thorow-wax owes its attractiveness to these singular glaucous leaves, which might be compared with an artist's palette; in some measure, also, to the sharp-pointed bracts by which the minute yellow flowers are enfolded--features that lend it a distinction which many much more beautiful plants do not possess. from no catalogue of quaint plants could the butterwort be omitted. "mountain-sanicle" was its old name; and all climbers are acquainted with it, as it studs the wet rocks on the lower hillsides with pale green or yellowish leaves like starfish on a seashore. its flowering-season is short, but full of interest, for lo! from its centre there rise in june one or two long and dainty stems, each bearing at its extremity a drooping purple flower that might at first glance be taken for a violet--a violet springing from a starfish! it is a long step from these conspicuous examples of the quaint to the small and modest moschatel, a hedge-flower which is likely to go unobserved unless it be made a special object of inquiry. _adoxa_, "the unknown to fame," is its greek title; but if it has little claim to beauty in the ordinary sense, there is no slight charm in its delicate configuration, and in the whimsical arrangement of its five slender flower-heads--a terminal one, facing upwards, supported by four lateral ones, with a resemblance to the faces of a clock; whence its not inappropriate nickname, "the clock-tower." a fairy-like little belfry it is, whose chimes must be listened for, if at all, in the early spring, for it hastens to get its flowering finished before it is overgrown by the rank herbage of the roadside. there are many other flowers that might claim a place in this chapter, such as the sundews and the bladderworts; the mimulus and ground pine; the samphire and sea-rocket; the mullein and the teazle; and not least, the herb paris, with that large quadruple "love-knot" into which its leaves are fashioned. but it must suffice to speak of one more. the fritillary, which shall close the list, is quaint to the point of being bizarre: its various names bear witness to the freakishness of its apparel--"guinea-flower," "turkey-hen," "chequered lily," "snake's-head," and so forth. it was aptly described by gerarde as "chequered most strangely. . . . surpassing the curiousest painting that art can set down"; and in addition to this gorgeous colouring, the bell-like shape and heavy poise of its flower-heads contribute to the striking effect. from gerarde to w. h. hudson, who has portrayed it very beautifully in his _book of a naturalist_, the fritillary has been fortunate in its chroniclers; in its name, which it shares with a handsome family of butterflies, it can hardly be said to have been fortunate. for apart from the consideration that it is no great honour to a fine insect or flower to be likened to that instrument of human folly, a dicebox (_fritillus_), there is the practical difficulty of pronouncing the word as the dictionaries tell us it must be pronounced, with the accent on the first syllable; and not the dictionaries only, but the poets, as in arnold's oft-quoted but very cacophonous line: i know what white, what purple fritillaries. . . . why must so quaintly charming a flower be so barbarously named that one's jaw is well-nigh cracked in articulating it? xii hertfordshire cornfields a gaily chequered, heart-expanding view, far as the circling eye can shoot around, unbounded tossing in a flood of corn. thomson. that part of hertfordshire where the chiltern hills, after curving proudly round from tring to dunstable, and almost rivalling the south downs in shapeliness, die away at their north-east extremity, over hitchin, to a bare expanse of ploughland, has the aspect of a broad plain swept by all winds of heaven, but is found, when explored, to be by no means devoid of charm. there, by a paradox, the very extent of the great hedgeless cornfields, reclaimed from the wild, gives the landscape a sort of wildness; it is in fact the district whence the royston crow got its name, that hooded outlaw to whose survival a wide tract of open country was indispensable; and there is a pleasure in wandering over it which is unguessed by the traveller who rushes through in an express to cambridge, and marvels at the tameness of the land. the wildflowers of cultivated fields are as distinctive as those of heath or hillside. it would be difficult to name any two more beautiful "weeds" than the succory and the corn "blue-bottle"--the light blue and the dark blue; both have deservedly won their "blues"--and when to these is added the corn-cockle (_lychnis githago_), the rich veined purple of its petals set off by the long pointed green sepals and leaves, what handsomer trio could be wished? unhappily these flowers have become much scarcer than they used to be; but in the hertfordshire fields they are still frequently to be admired. the intensive culture of which we nowadays hear so much has this drawback for the botanist, that it is robbing him of some plants which he is very loth to lose. the most striking of these, perhaps, is that quaint "perfoliate" of which i have already spoken, the thorow-wax or hare's-ear, which in gerarde's time was so plentiful in the wheatland as to be what he calls its "infirmitie": now it is decidedly rare. i have never been so fortunate (except in dreams) as to see it _in situ_; but i have for several years grown it from the seed of a specimen gathered by a friend in the cornfields near baldock, and have always been impressed by its elegance. it is a delicate and fastidious plant, thriving only, as i have noticed, when the conditions are quite favourable: this may account for its steady diminution in many counties, while coarser and hardier weeds are legion. a more abiding "infirmitie" of some hertfordshire cornfields is the crow-garlic, a wild onion whose pink umbels often surmount the crop in hundreds. wishing to learn their local name, i once asked a farm-hand at letchworth what he called the flowers. after gazing at them sternly, he said to me: "they're _not_ flowers. they're a disease." i suggested that whatever their demerits might be from the point of view of an agriculturist, they must, strictly speaking, be regarded as flowers: this he grudgingly conceded; but as if regretting to have made so large an admission, he called after me, as i left him: "they're a disease." his pertinacity on this point reminded me of the reaffirmations of old kaspar, in southey's poem, "after blenheim": "nay, nay" ... quoth he, "it was a famous victory." the crow-garlic, as it happens, is rather a pretty plant; and the opprobrious name "disease" might be much more suitably assigned to the tall broom-rape, an unwholesome-looking parasite which lives rapaciously at the expense of the great knapweed, and is occasionally met with in the district of which i am speaking. an extremely local umbellifer, said to have been formerly so abundant about baldock that pigs were turned out to fatten on its roots, is the bulbous caraway, which looks like a larger edition of the common earth-nut. none of the country-folk whom i questioned seemed to have any knowledge of its uses; from which it would appear that its virtues, like those of many once famous herbs, have been forgotten in these sceptical modern times. it is well, perhaps, that _carum bulbocastanum_ should be saved from the pigs; for in that unlovely region its white umbels serve to lighten up the monotony of the waysides. an unexpected discovery is always welcome. in a waste field, about a mile from royston, i once found a tall branching plant with an abundance of yellow cruciferous flowers, which i should not have recognized but for the fact that a year or two previously my friend edward carpenter had sent me a specimen from corsica. it was the woad, famous as the source of the blue dye with which the ancient britons stained themselves. a mere "casual" in hertfordshire, it is said to be established in a few chalk-quarries near guildford and elsewhere. thus far i have spoken of none but field flowers; but the district does not consist wholly of cultivated land, for even in that wilderness of tillage there are oases which have never felt the plough, and where the flora is of a different order. therfield heath, near royston, is one of them, a grassy slope where the handsome purple milk-vetch is plentiful, and one may find, though in less abundance, the sprightly field fleawort, which seems more familiar as an ornament of the high chalk downs. nor are water springs wanting in the bare ploughlands. the little river ivel, which leaps suddenly to light near baldock, and thence races northward to join the bedfordshire ouse, is a clear trout-stream by whose banks it is pleasant (whatever the trespass notices may threaten) to wander, and to watch the quick-glancing fish. at the hamlet of radwell, in a moist copse, there is a patch of the rare monk's-hood, a poisonous flower of which later mention will be made. a joint tributary of the ouse, and not less inviting, is the oddly named hiz, which has its source on oughton common, a boggy flat near hitchin, where both the butterwort and the grass of parnassus are recorded as having grown and may perchance be growing still: as for the marsh orchis, one cannot cross the common without seeing it. then at ickleford, a village on the banks of the hiz, there is a pond which has been "occupied" (to use a military term) by the water-soldier, a stout aquatic which takes its name from the rigid swordlike leaves enclosing the three-petaled flowers. peculiar to the eastern counties, this water-soldier is said to have been introduced at ickleford over half a century ago; and there it now makes a fine array, having thriven wonderfully in spite of the worn-out pots and pans, and other refuse, for which, in hertfordshire as elsewhere, the nearest pool or stream is thought a fit receptacle. a mile or two west of the source of the hiz at oughton head, stands high down, where begins or ends, according to the direction of the wayfarer, the northern escarpment of the chilterns, at this point crossed, recrossed, and crossed again, by the curiously indented boundary-line between hertfordshire and bedfordshire; and here on the steep front of the pirton and barton hills, in the one county or the other, may be seen in early spring the most beautiful of english anemones, the pasque-flower. on the few occasions when i have visited the place the summer was well advanced, and i was too late for that gorgeous flower; i had to content myself with the pyramidal orchis at the foot of the hills, and with great blossoming sheets of white candytuft in the fields above. for all these excursions there is no better starting-point than letchworth, first of garden cities, which has sprung rapidly into being from what was until recent years an unadorned expanse of agricultural ground with norton common as its centre. this common, originally a bit of wild fen, now almost surrounded by cottages and gardens, is to the nature-lover the most attractive feature of letchworth; and though its flora has inevitably suffered from the inroads of the juvenile population, it can still show such plants as the marsh orchis, the small valerian, and the rare sulphur-coloured trefoil. it is watered by a diminutive river--the unceremonious might say ditch--known as the pix, whose current, like that of the cam, would almost seem to be determined by the direction of the wind, but is reputed to flow northward, to join its fleeter brethren, the hiz and the ivel, in their course to the ouse. i mention this rather forlorn stream, because it has sometimes occurred to me that, as an attempt is made to protect the wild birds on norton common, it might be expedient to lend a helping hand also to the flowers, or even to embellish the banks of the pix (and so to re-invite the pixies to sport thereby), with a few hardy riverside plants, such as comfrey, tansy, hemp-agrimony, purple loosestrife, and yellow loosestrife, which were probably once native there, and would almost certainly flourish in such a spot. is it legitimate thus to come to the rescue of wild nature? that is a question on which botanists are not quite agreed, and its consideration shall therefore be reserved for the following chapter. xiii the sower of tares an enemy hath done this. the sowing of wildflowers is deprecated by some botanists, presumably as an interference with natural processes, an unauthorized attempt to play providence in the vegetable kingdom; but the subject is one that seems to call for fuller discussion than it usually receives. we are told in the parable that the man who sowed tares among the wheat was an enemy; and certainly if there was an intention to injure the crop the expression was not too strong. but i have sometimes wondered whether the reprehensible act may not have been that of some botanical enthusiast, who, loving wildflowers not wisely but too well, was trying to save from extinction some rare weed of the cornfields which was disappearing under improved methods of culture. that this way of augmenting the flora of a country is nowadays not uncommon may be guessed from the frequent occurrence in botanical works of the comment "probably planted." only a few pages back, i referred to the case of a pond in hertfordshire now strongly held by a battalion of water-soldiers, the descendants of imported plants. there is evidence, too, that the practice has occasionally been indulged in by naturalists of great distinction, an amusing instance being that of the venerable and much-respected gerarde, whose description of the peony as growing wild near gravesend drew from his editor, johnson, the following remark: "i have beene told that our author himselfe planted the peionie there, and afterwards seemed to finde it there by accident; and i doe believe it was so, because none before or since have ever seene or heard of it growing wilde in any part of this kingdome."[ ] [footnote : _the herball_, by j. gerarde. enlarged and amended by thomas johnson, .] again, it is stated in canon vaughan's _wild flowers of selborne_ that gilbert white himself "was once guilty of this misdemeanour." he sowed, not tares in wheat, but seeds of the grass of parnassus in the hampshire bogs, and sowed them according to his own statement unsuccessfully; it would appear, however, from what canon vaughan discovered that white was "more successful than he imagined." however that may be, the question that arises is whether a judicious extension of the range of wildflowers by the agency of man is really a thing to be censured. may not a flower-lover occasionally sow his "wild oats"? it must be admitted that the objections to such a practice are not retrospective, for if it be a misdemeanour, it is one that is condoned, perhaps hallowed, by time. for as it is impossible to draw a strict line between flowers that were accidentally imported or "escapes" from ancient gardens, and those that were planted deliberately, we wisely ask no questions in the case of old-established plants of foreign origin, but receive them into our flora as aliens that have become naturalized and are honourably classed as "denizens"; when they have once made good their tenure of the soil, it seems to matter little by what means they arrived. thus, for example, the starry trefoil, which colonized the shoreham shingles over a century ago, having apparently come as a stowaway on board some foreign ship, was not only tolerated but highly regarded by english botanists, and its recent destruction is felt to be a national loss. would it have detracted from its value, if, as indeed may have happened, it had been purposely sown on the beach? on the contrary, it seems desirable that it should now be restored in that manner. such planting, of course, if done at all, should be done circumspectly, and on a fixed principle, not as an amusement for irresponsible persons or children. i know a flower-lover who, in a district where that beautiful st. john's-wort, the tutsan, was dwindling through depredations, or through some unexplained malady, carefully restored the balance in a score or so of suitable spots; and surely such action was much to be commended. but it is not desired that everyone should be planting tutsan everywhere; nor is there any danger of such a fashion arising, for there is much less tendency to plant than to pluck, to create than to destroy; and for that reason it would be folly to reintroduce any rare plant like the lady's slipper, where the collector would quickly reap what the enthusiast had sown. such was the objection, it seems to me, to a proposal made some years ago by edward carpenter and others, that the diminishing numbers of the rarer butterflies should be reinforced by breeding. one would not willingly repeat the comedy of the angling craze, which solemnly stocks rivers with fish in order to pull them out again for pastime. nor, because _some_ planting of wildflowers may be unobjectionable, does it follow that all such enterprises are deserving of praise. a recent announcement that the llanberis side of snowdon, a locality rich in british mountain flowers, was being sown by kew experts with the seeds of a number of "alpines" from switzerland, was likely to be more agreeable to rock-gardeners than to mountain-lovers, who have a regard for the distinctive character of snowdon itself, and of its native flora. a country which has allowed its finest mountain to be exploited for commercial purposes, as snowdon has been, is perhaps hardly in a position to protest against a welsh hillside being planted with alien swiss flowers, and even with chinese rhododendrons; but nevertheless such schemes are thoroughly incongruous and barbaric. what sort of mountains do we desire to have? a piece of nature, or a nursery-garden? a snowdon, or a snowdon-cum-kew? be it understood, then, that the sowing of tares is by no means recommended as a practice: all that is here urged is that a sweeping condemnation of it is not warranted by the facts, inasmuch as circumstances, not dogma, must in each case decide whether it be blameworthy, or harmless, or beneficial. and apart from common sense, there is one natural safeguard which will prevent any undue growth of wildflowers, viz. the remarkable fastidiousness of the choicer plants in regard to soil and conditions: they will flourish where it suits them to flourish, not elsewhere. certain auxiliaries, too, nature has in the rabbits, water-voles, and other wild animals that are herbivorous in their tastes; for it is very interesting to observe how quickly the appearance of a strange plant will attract the attention of such gourmands. i was once the owner of a sloping meadow in which there were some springs; and thinking it would be pleasant to have a water-garden i had a small pond made, into which i introduced some aquatic plants, and among them, most accommodating of all, the water-violet, which grew lustily and sent up a number of its graceful stalks with whorls of pink blossoms. but just at that time a water-vole took up his residence there, and developing a remarkable fondness for a new savour in his salads, quickly made havoc of my _hottonia palustris_. the neighbours assured me i must trap him; but to treat a fellow-vegetarian in that way was out of the question, especially as his confidence in me was so great that he would sit nibbling my favourite aquatic, which seemed also to be _his_ favourite, while i stood within a few yards. it was clear that if the cult of the water-violet involved the killing of the water-vole it had got to be abandoned. in this way, among others, does nature protect herself against an excessive interference on man's part with the distribution of wildflowers. xiv dales of derbyshire deeper and narrower grew the dell; it seemed some mountain, rent and riven, a channel for the stream had given, so high the cliffs of limestone gray hung beetling o'er the torrent's way. scott. the limestone dales of derbyshire are narrow and deep, and their streams, when visible (for they often lurk underground), are swift, strong, and of crystal clearness. the sides of the glens are in some places precipitous with bluffs and pinnacles of grey rock; in others, ridged and streaked with terraces of alternate crag and turf; above the cliffs there is often a tableland of bleak pastures divided by stone walls, as dreary a scene as could be imagined, when contrasted with the picturesque dales below. the flowers of these limestone valleys immediately recall those of the chalk: the marjoram, the basil, the great knapweed, the traveller's-joy, the rock-rose, the musk-thistle--these and many other familiar friends make us seem, at first sight, to be back in sussex or surrey. but in reality we are a hundred and fifty miles nearer to the arctic zone, and that difference is clearly reflected in the flora; for when we look around, a number of new plants make their appearance, of which a dozen or more are very rare, or quite unknown, in the south. i once lived for several years on the hills above chesterfield, a good way to the east of this limestone country; and to visit the nearest of the dales there was a walk of seven miles, to and fro, across the intervening high moors that form the southern buttress of the pennines. stoney middleton is far from being one of the pleasantest of peakland villages; but such was the interest of its flora that the fourteen-mile trudge, and more, was often undertaken during the summer months. after traversing the great heathery moors devoted to the cult of the grouse, and descending from the rocky rampart of gritstone known as curbar edge, one crosses the valley of the derwent; and here a pause may be made to notice a patch of sweet cicely, one of the loveliest of the umbelliferous tribe. it is a charming sight, as it stands up tall in the sunshine, with its soft feathery cream-white masses of foliage and its fernlike leaflets; too fair and fragile, it would seem, for human hands, for it droops very soon if cut. every part of it--stalk, leaves, flowers, and fruit--has the same aromatic fragrance (its local name is "anise"), and so gracious is it to sight, scent, and touch, that one longs to bathe one's senses in its luxuriance. middleton dale, naturally beautiful, but sadly deformed by lime-kilns, is famous for a cliff known as the lover's leap, from which an enamoured maiden is said to have thrown herself down. had it been the love of flowers, rather than of man, that tempted her to that dizzy verge, there would have been no cause for surprise; for there are many alluring plants on the ledges of the scarp, including a brilliant show of wild wallflowers. in may and june there may be found along the northern side of the dale the yellow petals of the spring cinquefoil (_potentilla verna_), a gem of a flower, which, in mr. reginald farrer's words, "clings to the white cliff-face, and from far off you see a splash of gold on the greyness." a month later the equally attractive nottingham catch-fly (_silene nutans_) will be abundant on the rocks; a plant of nocturnal habits which expands its petals and becomes fragrant in the evening, but "nods," as its latin name avows, in the daytime, when it wears a sleepy and somewhat dissipated look, like a wassailer--a white campion that has been "on spree." by night its beauty is beyond cavil. on the lower slopes is a colony of a still stranger-looking flower, the woolly-headed thistle, whose involucre is so bulky, and its scales so densely wrapped in white down, that it has an almost grotesque appearance, as of a thistle with "swelled head." it is, however, a very handsome plant; and when growing in vast numbers, as i have seen it in one of its special haunts, near wychwood forest, in oxfordshire, it makes a glorious spectacle. of the three species of saxifrages--the rue-leaved, the meadow, and the mossy--that thrive along the bottom of the dale, the two former are southern as well as northern flowers; but the presence of the mossy saxifrage is a sign that we are in a mountainous region, and as such it is always welcome. with these grows the graceful vernal sandwort, another flower of the hills, and so often the companion of saxifrages that it is naturally associated with them in the mind. but middleton dale, the nearest to my starting-point, and therefore the most frequently visited by me, is much surpassed in floral wealth by the long valley of the wye, which in its course from buxton to bakewell bears the names successively of wye dale, chee dale, miller's dale, and monsal dale. in one or another of these four glens nearly all the rarer limestone flowers have their station. you may find, for instance, three very local crucifers: the two whitlow-grasses, _draba incana_ and _draba muralis_, remarkable only as being scarce in other parts of the kingdom; and the really beautiful little _hutchinsia_, with its tiny white blossoms and finely cut pinnate leaves. jacob's-ladder, a handsome blue flower, very uncommon in a wild state, is also native on the bluffs and slopes in chee dale and elsewhere: in fact a stroll along almost any of the limestone escarpments will bring new treasures to sight. but the flower which i best love is one which grows by the streamside--in wye dale it is in profusion--the modest water-avens, often strangely undervalued by writers who describe it as "dingy." thus in delamer's _the flower garden_ it is stated that this avens "is more remarkable for having been one of the favourites, the whims, the caprices of the great linnæus, than for anything else: it is hard to say what, in a british meadow-weed, could so take the fancy of the master." was ever such blindness of eye, such hardness of heart? and the wiseacre goes on to say that "it is impossible to account, logically, for attachments and sympathies." logic, truly, would be out of place in such a connection; but it is not difficult to understand linnæus's feelings towards the water-avens. there is a rare beauty in the droop of its bell-like head, and in its soft and subdued tints--the deep rufous brown of the long sepals, through which peep the silky petals in hues that range from creamy white to vinous red, and all steeped in a quiet radiance as of some old stained glass. i must own to thinking it the most tenderly beautiful of all english wildflowers. the hybrid between the water-avens and the common avens is occasionally found by the wye: one which i saw in miller's dale had green sepals and petals of pale yellow. the alpine penny-cress (_thlaspi alpestre_), a crucifer native on limestone rocks, may be seen on the high tor at matlock, where it grows with the vernal sandwort on débris at the mouth of caves; a graceful little plant with white flowers and a smooth unbranched stem so closely clasped by the narrow leaves as to give it the look of a perfoliate. one other limestone district shall be mentioned; the hills round castleton. cave dale, approached by a narrow gorge close to the village, is well worth the flower-lover's attention; for bleak and bare as it is, its slippery sides harbour some interesting plants, such as the mountain rue (_thalictrum minus_), and the scurvy-grass (_cochlearia alpina_), both in considerable quantity. in the winnatts, too, the steep ravine which overhangs the road from castleton to chapel-en-le-frith, one may find jacob's-ladder and other rarities on the rocks; and the gorgeous mountain pansy (_viola lutea_) is not far distant on the upland heaths and pastures. the list is far from being exhausted; but enough has been said to show that there is no lack of entertainment among these limestone dales. to enter one of them, after crossing the moorland from the dreary coal district of east derbyshire, is like stepping from penury to plenty, from wilderness to paradise: there is a change of colouring that instantly attracts the eye. even in early spring the little shining crane's-bill decks the walls and lower rocks with its rose-petaled flowers; and at midsummer the more showy stonecrop flings a veritable cloth of gold over the crags and lawns. few localities present so many charming flowers in so limited a space. and now let us turn from the limestone valleys to those of the millstone grit. the controversy as to which part of derbyshire best deserves the name of "the peak" has always seemed a vain one, not merely because there is no peak in the county at all, but because no connoisseur can doubt for a moment that the district which alone has the true characteristics of a mountain is the great triangular plateau of gritstone known as kinderscout. less beautiful than the limestone dales, with their beetling crags and wealth of flowers, the wilder region surrounding "the scout" has the advantage of being a real bit of mountain scenery, topped as it is with black "tors" and "towers" that rise out of the heather, and flanked with rocky "edges" from which its steep "cloughs" descend into the valleys below. unfortunately, this great rocky tableland has of late years become almost a _terra incognita_ to the nature-lover, as a result of the agreement which was made, after prolonged controversy, between the peak district society and the grouse-shooting landlords, inasmuch as, while permitting the traveller to skirt the shoulders of the hill, it excluded him wholly from its summit. with the exception of the heather, the bilberry, and a few kindred species, the plants of the gritstone hills are sparse; but there is one, the cloudberry--so-called, according to gerarde's rather magniloquent description, because "it groweth naturally upon the tops of high mountains ... where the clouds are lower than the tops of the same all winter long"--which well repays a pilgrimage. it is a prostrate and spineless bramble (_rubus chamæmorus_), highly valued in northern countries for its rich orange-coloured fruit. it grows thickly on the ground, making a dark-green patch in marked contrast to the coarse herbage; and towards the end of june one may see a profusion of the large white blossoms and a few early formed berries at the same time. there is a good-sized plot of it near the summit of the pass that crosses the shoulder of kinderscout from edale head. but of the plants that grow on the scout itself i am unable to speak; for my only visit to it--not reckoning an unsuccessful attempt when i was turned back by a keeper--took place in the depth of a very snowy winter. it was on the afternoon of a frosty january day, when the sun was already low, that in the company of my friend bertram lloyd, and armed with a passport, in the form of a letter of permission, given us by the courtesy of one of the owners of the shooting, i climbed from edale, through the region of right-of-way into that of flagrant trespass. we felt an unusual sense of legality, as we passed a weather-beaten notice-board, with a half-obliterated threat that trespassers would be "--cuted," whether executed, electrocuted, or prosecuted was left to the imagination of the offender; and i think the strangeness of his position was rather embarrassing to my companion, who is such a confirmed trespasser that he feels as if something must be amiss unless there is a gamekeeper to be reckoned with--like the mountain ram, in thompson-seton's story, who was so accustomed to be hunted that he became moody and restless when his pursuer was not in sight. but, at the time of our visit, no passport was demanded; for the keepers, like the grouse themselves, appeared to have deserted the heights for the valleys. indeed, hardly any life at all was to be seen, with the exception of a grey mountain hare, couched upon a stack of rock, who regarded us with a mild and curious eye as we passed some two hundred feet above him, and seemed to be satisfied that we were harmless. nor was this lack of life surprising, for a more desolate scene could hardly be imagined--a great snow-clad "moss," intersected by deep ruts, which, being choked with snow, had somewhat of the appearance of crevasses, and punctuated here and there with the black masonry of the tors. from the highest point that we reached, marked in the ordnance map as , feet, there was a wonderful sunset view, though the manchester district that lies to the west of the scout was hidden in lurid fog. it is said that snowdon, a hundred miles distant, has been seen from this point. it was certainly not visible upon the occasion to which i refer. it is impossible to visit this high mountain plateau, lying as it does at about an equal distance from manchester and sheffield, without feeling that what is now a private grouse-moor must, before many years have passed, become a nationalized park or "reservation"--a playground for the dwellers in the great midland cities, and a sanctuary for wild animals and plants. the time will assuredly come when the sport of the few will have to give way to the health and recreation of the many. xv no thoroughfare! trespassers will be prosecuted. the subject of trespassing mentioned in the preceding chapter, has a very close and personal interest for the adventurous flower-lover; for of all incentives to ignore the familiar notice-board with its hackneyed words of warning, none perhaps is more potent than the possibility that some rare and long-sought wildflower is to be found on the forbidden land. the appeal is one that no explorer can resist. if "stout cortez" himself, when with eagle eyes he stared at the pacific, had seen that ocean labelled as "strictly private and preserved," could he have desisted from his quest? there is moreover a good deal to be said in extenuation of trespassing as a summer recreation; and if landlords go on at their present rate, in closing footpaths and excluding the public from green fields and hedgerows, trespassing will perhaps establish itself as one of our recognized national diversions. hitherto, it must be confessed, it has remained to some extent in disrepute; doubtless, through its being so largely indulged in by poachers and other evil-doers, who have given a bad name to a practice which in itself is innocent and blameless enough. most people, especially landlords and gamekeepers, have a fixed belief that a trespasser's purpose must be a lawless and mischievous one. why so? is it not possible that some trespassers may have other objects than to steal pheasants' eggs or snare rabbits? if huntsmen when following the hounds are permitted, not only to trespass, but to damage crops and fences, why should the naturalist be molested when harmlessly following his own inclinations in choice of a country ramble. is the pursuit of the fox a surer proof of honest intentions than the pursuit of natural history? it appears that some landowners think so. "trespassers will be prosecuted," say the notices that everywhere stare us in the face. was there ever such a lying legend? trespassers will _not_ be prosecuted, for the sufficient reason that in english law trespassing is not an offence. of course, if any injury be done to property, the owner can sue for damages, but a harmless trespasser can only be requested to depart, though, if he be ill-advised enough to refuse to go, he may be forcibly ejected. we see, therefore, that the threatened "prosecution" of trespassers is in reality merely a _brutum fulmen_ launched by landlords at a too credulous public, a pious fraud which has been far more efficacious than such kindred notices as "beware the dog," or "beware the bull," though these, too, have done good service in their time. trespassers will not be prosecuted, provided that they do no sort of damage, and that if their presence is objected to they politely retire. with these slight precautions and limitations, a trespasser may go where he will, and enjoy the study of nature in her most secluded and "strictly private" recesses. he thus himself becomes, in one sense, a lord of the soil; but his domain is far more extensive and unencumbered than that of any actual landlord. he enjoys all that is best in park, woodland, or mountain; and if he is "warned off" one estate he can afford to smile at the prohibition, since many other regions are open to him, and he can confidently look forward to a visit to fresh woods and pastures new on the morrow. in the course of these rambles the trespasser will probably, like ulysses, have some curious experiences of men and of notice-boards. it is very instructive to observe the various types of the landlord class, and their different methods of treating the intruder whom they meet on their fields. there is the indignant landlord, who can scarcely conceal his wrath at the astounding audacity of one who is deliberately crossing his land without having come "on business." there is the despairing landlord, who has been so broken by previous invasions that he is now content with a shrug of the shoulders and a remark that the place is "quite private, you know." there is the courteous landlord, who politely assumes that you have lost your way, and naively offers to conduct you to the high-road by the shortest cut; and there is the mildly ironical, who, as in a case which i remember on a surrey hillside, remarks as he passes you: "there goes my heather." i have heard it said that one can sometimes divine the character of a landlord from the wording of his notice-boards, and i believe from my own experiences that there is truth in the idea. certainly the notice-board is the landlord's favourite method of defending the privacy of his estate, and for obvious reasons; for not only is it the least troublesome and expensive way of conveying the desired warning to would-be trespassers, but the salutary fiction regarding the "prosecution" of offenders is thus publicly and permanently impressed on the agricultural mind. there is not such entire uniformity in the wording of notice-boards as might be supposed. of course by far the commonest form is the well-known "no thoroughfare. trespassers will be prosecuted as the law directs," in which the unconscious irony contained in the last four words has always struck me as especially delightful. to this is often added the words "and all dogs shot," in which the experienced trespasser will detect signs of a certain roughness and inhumanity of temperament on the part of the owner. more original forms of expression are by no means uncommon. sometimes the warning is emphasized by the bold statement, indicating the possession by the landlord of humorous or imaginative faculties, that "the police have orders to watch." sometimes, but more rarely, the personal element is boldly introduced, as in the assertion, which might formerly be seen on a notice-board in one of the most beautiful valleys of the lake district, "this is my land. trespassers, etc." in some cases the wording has evidently been left to the care of subordinates, and hence result some curiosities of literary composition. "private. beware of dogs," is an instance of this kind, in which the ambiguity of the allusion to dogs, whether those of the landlord or the trespasser, seems almost oracular. in these and other ways a certain zest is lent to the excursions or rather the _in_cursions, of the trespasser, which lifts them above the level of ordinary walking exercise. in the case of wealthy landowners, the duty of warning off the trespasser devolves on gamekeepers, who, being less emotional than their employers, are a far less interesting study. stolid and furry, and apparently endowed with only the animal instincts of the victims whom they delight in tracking and trapping, they are by far the least intelligent people whom the trespasser encounters; they are, in fact, no better than breathing and walking notice-boards, with the disadvantage that they cannot be so absolutely disregarded. it is unwise to argue with them; for reason is at a discount in such encounters and there is the possibility, in some districts, of their having recourse to personal violence, in the knowledge that if the matter should come before local magistrates the keeper's word would be honoured in preference to that of the trespasser. there is a sanctity in the word "preserve." an experience of this sort actually befell a friend of mine, who himself narrated it in print. a devoted botanist and nature-lover, he was twice in the same day found trespassing by a gigantic gamekeeper, who, on the second occasion, ended all parley in the manner described in the following "mystical ballad," wherein the writer has ventured somewhat to idealize the circumstances, though the story is based on the facts. preserved. a poet through a haunted wood roamed fearless and serene, nor flinched when on his path there stood a form in velveteen. "gaunt shape, come you alive or dead, my footsteps shall not swerve." "you're trespassing," the vision said: "this place is a preserve." "how so? is some dark secret here preserved? some tale of shame?" the spectre scowled, but answered clear: "what we preserve is game." yet still the poet's heart was nerved with phantoms to dispute: "then tell me, why is game preserved?" the goblin yelled: "to shoot." "but game that's shot is game destroyed, not game preserved, i ween." it seemed such argument annoyed that form in velveteen; for swift it gripped him, as he spake, and, making light the load, upheaved, and flung him from the brake into the king's high-road. and as that bard, still arguing hard, high o'er the palings flew, he vows he heard this ghostly word: "we're not preserving _you_." * * * * * long time he lay on that highway, dazed by so weird a fall; then rose and cried, as home he hied: "the lord preserve us all!" i have often thought it was an error on the part of the trespassing poet not to explain to his assailant that he was a botanist; for "botanist," as i can testify, is a blessed word which has a soothing effect upon many of the most irascible landowners or their satellites. personally i never presume to call myself botanist, except when i am found trespassing, on which occasions i have rarely known it to fail. i recall a saturday afternoon when, as i was rambling in a derbyshire dale with bertram lloyd, and admiring the flowers, we were accosted by the owner in person, who inquired with a sort of suppressed fury whether we knew that we were on his estate. we said we were botanists, and the effect was magical; in less than a minute we were courteously permitted to go where we would and stay as long as we liked. for botany is regarded as a scientific study; and even sportsmen do not like to incur the reproach of being enemies to science. their better feelings may be conveyed in a familiar virgilian line: _non obtusa adeo gestamus pectora poeni._[ ] [footnote : not so obtuse of heart we tyrians are.] xvi limestone coasts and cliffs where the most beautiful wildflowers grow, there man's spirit is fed.--thoreau. a limestone soil is everywhere rich in flowers--we have seen what the midland dales can produce--but it is especially so in the close neighbourhood of the sea. two instances suggest themselves; one from a carnarvonshire promontory, the orme's head; the other from arnside knott, in westmorland. fifty years ago the great orme was a wild and picturesque headland, girdled by a footpath which made a circuit of the beetling cliffs, and crossed by a few other tracks leading to the telegraph station at the summit, st. tudno's church, and elsewhere; but in most respects still in a primitive and unimpaired condition. i knew almost every yard of it as a boy; and i remember, among other attractions, a hermit who lived in a cave, and better still a wild cat--probably a fugitive from some llandudno lodging-house--who had her home in a stack of rocks on the western side of the head. on the western shore of the isthmus there was at that time only one house; it belonged to dean liddell, famous as joint author of the greek dictionary distressfully known to generations of students as _liddell and scott._ but now, owing to the "development" of llandudno, this once beautiful foreland has become a place almost of horror, vulgarized by trams, motor-roads, golf-links, and all the appurtenances of "civilization;" and were it not for the wildflowers, it might well be shunned by those who knew it in old days. flowers, however, are very tenacious of their established haunts, and the remark made in mr. j. e. griffith's _flora of carnarvonshire_ still holds good, that "the flora of this district is quite unique, in consequence of the number of species found here, and the rarity of many of them." the luxuriance of the flowers is indeed a sight which can almost make one forget the "improvements" that have ruined the scenery. among the plants inhabiting the rocky banks above the shore are the blue vernal squill, the sea stork's-bill, sweet alyssum, hound's-tongue, hemlock, henbane, mullein, and tree-mallow: to these may be added what constitutes a herb-garden readymade--fennel, wormwood, vervain, white horehound, wild sage, succory, and alexanders. on the higher cliffs are the curious samphire, pink thrift, white scurvy-grass, and great tufts of sea-cabbage, now rarer and more local than formerly, but here waving its pale yellow pennons in abundance. most charming of all, the brilliant blood-red crane's-bill, together with two kinds of rock-rose (the hoary dwarf species as well as the common one), makes rich splashes of colour on the grey limestone ledges. a little back from the sea, among the bluffs that overhang the town, you may light upon the sleepy-looking catch-fly (_silene nutans_); the tiny hutchinsia; and in one or two places the shrub cotoneaster, which is said to be native only upon the great orme. i have, however, seen it growing apparently wild at capel curig, and at a greater distance from houses than in its llandudno station. nor is it only the great orme that shows this floral wealth: the little orme has the rare welsh stonecrop (_sedum forsterianum_); and on another height in the same district, the small circular hill known as deganwy rocks, there is a profusion of flowers. when i revisited it a few years ago, not having set foot on it for nearly half a century, i found that the villas of deganwy had crept up almost to the base of the rocks, and on another side there was--still worse--a camp of german prisoners, with armed sentries supervising their labours; yet even there, close above such scenes, were growing plants which might mark a memorable day in the annals of a flower-lover, notably the maiden pink and the milk-thistle--the "holy" thistle, as it is not inaptly called. the pinks, a lovely band, were sprinkled along the turf at the foot of the rocks; the thistles were almost at the top; between them on a stony ledge nestled a quantity of viper's bugloss, and with it some borage, two kindred plants which i had never before seen in company. nearly all the members of the borage group are interesting--lungwort, alkanet, forget-me-not, hound's-tongue, and bugloss--but the borage itself, a roadside weed in south europe, and in this country merely an immigrant and "casual," is to me the most precious of all. my earliest recollections of it, i must own, are as an ingredient of claret-cup at cambridge, its silver-grey stems floating in the wine with a pleasant roughness to the lip; but in those unregenerate days we did not know the real virtue of the herb, famous from old time, as gerarde says, for its power "to exhilarate and make the mind glad, to comfort the heart, and for driving away of sorrow." and certainly, in another and better use, it _does_ comfort the heart and drive sorrow away; for its "gallant blew flowers" are of all blues the loveliest, and the black anthers give it a peculiarly poignant look which reminds one somehow of the wistfulness of a gainsborough portrait. in the list of my best-beloved flowers it ranks among the highest. looking north-east from the orme's head, one may see on a clear day, across some sixty miles of water, the limestone hills of westmorland, reckoned as part of lakeland, but geologically, botanically, and in general character a quite separate district. arnside knott, a bluff overlooking the estuary of the river kent where it widens into morecambe bay, is the presiding genius of a tract of shore and forest to which the name of "lily-land" has been given by mr. j. a. barnes in a sketch of arnside, and which he describes as "a perfect paradise of wildflowers." let us suppose ourselves transported thither, and see how the claim holds good. the lily of the valley is one of those favoured plants which are everywhere highly esteemed; even the man who in general cares but little for wildflowers takes this one to his heart, or, what is worse, to his garden. i have already quoted mr. c. a. johns's queer appreciation of this native british wildflower as "a universally admired garden plant." on the wooded hill known as arnside park the "may lily," as it used to be called (and here it is certainly not "of the valley"), covers many acres of ground, and justifies the title "lily-land" as applied to the arnside neighbourhood. what i found still more interesting was an almost equal abundance of the stone bramble (_rubus saxatilis_), which grows intermixed with the lilies over a large portion of the wood. on these westmorland cliffs, as in those of carnarvonshire, the blood-red crane's-bill is conspicuous, but it is much less plentiful, nor are the outstanding flowers of the two localities the same. one of the commonest at arnside is the tall ploughman's spikenard, known locally as "frankincense": and on the lawns that skirt the knott one often sees the mountain-cudweed or "cat's-foot," the gromwell or "grey millet," and the beautiful little dwarf orchis. the district is rather rich in orchids; among others, i found the rare narrow-leaved helleborine (_cephalanthera ensifolia_) in the arnside woods. the deadly nightshade is frequent; so, too, is the four-leaved herb-paris, which a resident described to me as being here "almost a weed." but there are two other flowers that demand more special mention. in a lane near arnside tower, a ruin that lies below the knott on its inland side, there is a considerable growth of green hellebore, apparently at the very spot where its presence was recorded two centuries ago. though not a very rare plant, it is extremely local; and owing to its strongly marked features, the large palmate leaves and pale green flowers, is not likely to go unnoticed. but the rarest of arnside flowers is, or was, another poisonous plant of the _ranunculus_ order, the baneberry, for which the writer of "lily-land," as he tells us, "hunted for years without success; till its exact locality was at last revealed to me by one who knew, in a situation so obvious that i felt like a man who has hunted through every room in the house for the spectacles on his own nose." years later, on my certifying that i was not a knight of the trowel, mr. barnes was so kind as to confide to me this same secret that had been kept hidden from the uninitiate; but i found that the small plantation which had been the home of the baneberry, almost within arnside itself, had recently been cut down, and though a few of the plants were still growing along the side of the field, they had ceased to flower, and possibly by this time they have ceased to exist. even as it was, i felt myself fortunate to have seen the baneberry in one of its few native haunts. the pale green deeply cut leaves are much handsomer than those of its relatives the hellebore and the monk's-hood. its raceme of white flowers and its black berries are also known to me; but alas, only in a garden. where flowers are concerned, there is little truth in the saying that "comparisons are odious"; on the contrary it is both pleasant and profitable to compare not only plant with plant, but the flora of one fertile district with that of another. the natural scenery of arnside is yet unspoilt, and for that reason it now offers greater attractions to the nature-lover than the ruined charms of llandudno; but if he were asked, for botanical reasons only, to choose between a visit to the orme and a visit to the knott, the decision might be a less easy one. "how happy could i be with either!" would probably be his thought. xvii on pilgrimage to ingleborough it [rose-root] groweth very plentifully in the north of england, especially in a place called ingleborough fels. gerarde. there is a tale by herman melville which deals with the strangeness of a first meeting between the inmates of two houses which face each other, far and high away, on opposite mountain ranges, and yet, though daily visible, have remained for years as mutually unknown as if they belonged to different worlds. it was with this story in my mind that i approached for the first time the moorland mass of ingleborough, long familiar as seen from the lake mountains, a square-topped height on the horizon to the south-east, but hitherto unvisited by me owing to the more imperious claims of the great gable and scafell. but now, at last, i found myself on pilgrimage to ingleborough; the impulse, long delayed, had seized me to stand on the summit of the yorkshire fell, and, looking north-westward, to see the scene reversed. another of ingleborough's attractions was that it is the home of certain scarce and beautiful flowers, as has been pointed out in mr. reginald farrer's interesting books on alpine plants. such exceptional rarities as the baneberry (_actæa spicata_), which grows among rocky crevices high up on the fell--not to mention the _arenaria gothica_, choicest of the sandworts--the mere visitor can hardly hope to discover; but there are other and less infrequent treasures upon the hill, beyond which my ambition did not aspire. as i ascended the barren marshy slopes that form the eastern flank, i realized once again how much more the labour of an ascent depends upon the character of the ground than upon the actual height to be scaled. ingleborough is under , feet; yet it is far more toilsome to climb than many a rocky peak in wales or cumberland that rises hundreds of feet higher, and it is a relief at length to get a firm foothold on the rocks of millstone grit which form the summit. thence, from the edges which drop sharply from the flat top, one looks out on the somewhat desolate fells stretching away on three sides--pen-y-ghent to the east, whernside to the north, and to the south the more distant forest of pendle--but westward there is the gleam of sand or water in morecambe bay, and the eye hastens to greet the dim but ever glorious forms of the lakeland mountains. in the affections of the mountain-lover ingleborough can never be the rival of one of these; indeed, in the strict sense, it is not a mountain at all, but a high moor built on a base of limestone with a cap of grit. still, there is grandeur in the steep scarps that guard its central stronghold; and its dark summit, when viewed from a distance crowning the successive tiers of grey terraces, has a strength and wildness of its own, and even suggests at points a likeness to the massive tower of the great gable. to one looking down from the topmost edges on the scattered piles of limestone below, the effect is very curious. you see, perhaps, a mile or two distant, what looks at first sight like a flock of sheep at pasture, but is soon discovered to be a stone flock which has no mortal shepherd. in other parts are wide white plateaux which, when visited, turn out to be a wilderness of low flat rocks, everywhere weather-worn and water-worn, scooped and scalloped into cells and basins, and so intersected by channels filled with ferns and grasses that one has to walk warily over it as over a reef at low tide. but to return to the flowers. at the summit were mossy saxifrage and vernal sandwort; and on the cliffs just below, to the western side, the big mountain stonecrop, rose-root, not unhandsome with its yellow blossoms, flourished in some abundance, even as it did when gerarde wrote of it, nearly three hundred years ago. the purple saxifrage, an early spring flower, is also found on these rocks, but at the time when i visited the spot, in late june, its blossoming season was over, and nothing was visible but the leaves. there was little else but some hawkweeds; i turned my attention, therefore, to the flowers of the lower slopes. there is nothing more delightful, in descending a mountain, than to follow the leading of some rapid beck from its very source to the valley; and it is rather disconcerting, in these limestone regions, that the cavernous nature of the ground should make the presence of the streams so intermittent, and that one's chosen companion should not unfrequently disappear, just when his value is most appreciated, into some "gaping gill" or pot-hole. it is said of walt whitman that sometimes when a pilgrim was privileged to walk with him, and was perhaps thinking that their acquaintance was ripening to friendship, the good grey poet, with a curt nod and a careless "good-bye," would turn off abruptly and be gone. even so it is with these wayward streams that course down the sides of ingleborough. just when one is on the best of terms with them, they vanish and are no more. but with the bird's-eye primrose tinging hillsides and hollows with its tender hue of pink, no other companionship was needed. a mountain flower, it is the fairest of all the _primulaceæ_, that band of fair sisters to which it belongs--primrose, cowslip, pimpernel, loosestrife, and money-wort--all beautiful and all favourites among young and old alike, whereever there is a love of flowers. it was worth while to make the pilgrimage to ingleborough, if only to see this charming little plant in perfection on its native banks. nor were other flowers lacking; the wild geraniums especially were in force. the shining crane's-bill gleamed on the pale limestone ledges; the wood crane's-bill, a local north-country species, gave a glint of purple in the copses at the foot of the fell; and still further down, below the village of clapham, there were masses of the blue meadow crane's-bill (_geranium pratense_), the largest and not least handsome of the family. the water-avens was everywhere by the stream sides; and on a bank above the road the gladdon, or purple iris, was opening its dull-tinted flowers. xviii a botanophilist's journal he was the attorney of the indigenous plants, and owned to a preference of the weeds to the imported plants, as of the indian to the civilized man.--emerson. i have referred several times to henry thoreau, of concord, in whose _journal_ a great deal is said about wildflowers; and as the volumes are not easily accessible to english readers it may be worth while to select therefrom a few of the more interesting passages. in all that he wrote on the subject thoreau appears less as the botanist than the flower-lover; indeed, he expressly observes that he himself comes under the head of the "botanophilists," as linnæus termed them; viz. those who record various facts about flowers, but not from a strictly scientific standpoint. "i never studied botany," he said, "and do not to-day, systematically; the most natural system is so artificial. i wanted to know my neighbours, if possible; to get a little nearer to them." so great was his zest in cultivating this floral acquaintance that, as he tells us, he often visited a plant four or five miles from concord half a dozen times within a fortnight, in order to note its time of flowering. books he found, in general, unsatisfactory. "i asked a learned and accurate naturalist," he says, "who is at the same time the courteous guardian of a public library, to direct me to those works which contained the more particular popular account, or _biography_, of particular flowers--for i had trusted that each flower had had many lovers and faithful describers in past times--but he informed me that i had read all; that no one was acquainted with them, they were only catalogued like his books." it was the human aspect of the flower that thoreau craved; and he was therefore disappointed when he saw "pages about some fair flower's qualities as food or medicine, but perhaps not a sentence about its significance to the eye; as if the cowslip were better for 'greens' than for yellows." thus he complained that botanies are "the prose of flowers," instead of what they ought to be, the poetry. he made an exception, however, in favour of old gerarde's _herball_. his admirable though quaint descriptions are, to my mind, greatly superior to the modern more scientific ones. he describes not according to rule, but to his natural delight in the plants. he brings them vividly before you, as one who has seen and delighted in them. it is almost as good as to see the plants themselves. his leaves are leaves; his flowers, flowers; his fruit, fruit. they are green, and coloured, and fragrant. it is a man's knowledge added to a child's delight. . . . how much better to describe your object in fresh english words rather than in these conventional latinisms!" linnæus, too, "the man of flowers," as he calls him, is praised by thoreau. "if you would read books on botany, go to the fathers of the science. read linnæus at once, and come down from him as far as you please. i lost much time in reading the florists. it is remarkable how little the mass of those interested in botany are acquainted with linnæus." thoreau's manner of botanizing was, like most of his habits, somewhat singular. his vasculum was his straw-hat. "i never used any other," he writes, "and when some whom i visited were evidently surprised at its dilapidated look, as i deposited it on their front entry-table, i assured them it was not so much my hat as my botany-box." with this vasculum he professed himself more than content. i am inclined to think that my hat, whose lining is gathered in midway so as to make a shelf, is about as good a botany-box as i could have; and there is something in the darkness and the vapours that arise from the head--at least, if you take a bath--which preserves flowers through a long walk. flowers will frequently come fresh out of this botany-box at the end of the day, though they have had no sprinkling. the joy of meeting with a new plant, a sensation known to all searchers after flowers, is more than once mentioned in the _journal_: the discovery of a single flower hitherto unknown to him makes him feel as if he were in a wealth of novelties. "by the discovery of one new plant all bounds seem to be infinitely removed." he notes, too, the not uncommon experience, that a flower, once recognized, is likely soon to be re-encountered. seeing something blue, or glaucous, in a swamp, he approaches it, and finds it to be the _andromeda polifolia_, which had been shown him, only a few days before, in emerson's collection; now he sees it in abundance. at times he adopts the method of sitting quietly and looking around him, on the principle that "as it is best to sit in a grove and let the birds come to you, so, as it were, even the flowers will come." swamps were among thoreau's favourite haunts: he thinks it would be a luxury to stand in one, up to his chin, for a whole summer's day, scenting the sweet-fern and bilberries. "that is a glorious swamp of miles's," he remarks; "the more open parts, where the dwarf andromeda prevails. . . . these are the wildest and richest gardens that we have." the fields were less trustworthy, because of the annual vandalism of the mowing. "about these times," he writes in june, "some hundreds of men, with freshly sharpened scythes, make an irruption into my garden when in its rankest condition, and clip my herbs all as close as they can; and i am restricted to the rough hedges and worn-out fields which had little to attract them." among thoreau's best-beloved flowers, if we may judge by certain passages of the _journal_, was the large white bindweed (_convolvulus sepium_), or "morning-glory." "it always refreshes me to see it," he writes; "i associate it with holiest morning hours. it may preside over my morning walks and thoughts." not less worthily celebrated by him, in another mood, are the wild rose and the water-lily. we now have roses on the land and lilies on the water--both land and water have done their best--now, just after the longest day. nature says, "you behold the utmost i can do." the red rose, with the intense colour of many suns concentrated, spreads its tender petals perfectly fair, its flower not to be overlooked, modest yet queenly, on the edges of shady copses and meadows.... and the water-lily floats on the smooth surface of slow waters, amid rounded shields of leaves, bucklers, red beneath, which simulate a green field, perfuming the air. the highest, intensest colour belongs to the land; the purest, perchance, to the water. it was not thoreau's practice to pluck many flowers; he preferred, as a rule, to leave them where they were; but he speaks of the fitness of having "in a vase of water on your table the wildflowers of the season which are just blossoming": thus in mid-june he brings home some rosebuds ready to expand, "and the next morning they open and fill my chamber with fragrance." at another time the grateful thought of the calamint's scent suffices him: "i need not smell it; it is a balm to my mind to remember its fragrance." it was characteristic of thoreau that he loved to renew his outdoor pleasures in remembrance, by pondering over the beautiful things he had witnessed, whether through sight or sound or scent. his mountain excursions were not fully apprehended by him, until he had afterwards meditated on them. "it is after we get home," he says, "that we really go over the mountain, if ever. what did the mountain say? what did the mountain do?" so it was with his flowers: even in the long winter evenings they were still his companions and friends. i have remembered, when the winter came, high in my chamber in the frosty nights, * * * * * how, in the shimmering noon of summer past, some unrecorded beam slanted across the upland pastures where the johnswort grew. on a january date we find him writing in his _journal_: "perhaps what most moves us in winter is some reminiscence of far-off summer. how we leap by the side of the open brooks! what life, what society! the cold is merely superficial; it is summer still at the core." thus, by memory, his winters were turned into summers, and his flower-seasons were continuous. xix felons and outlaws the poisoning henbane, and the mandrake dread. drayton. that there are felonious as well as philanthropic flowers, plants that are actively malignant in their relation to mankind, has always been a popular belief. the upas-tree, for example, has given rise to many gruesome stories; and the mandrake, fabled to shriek when torn from the ground, has played a frequent part in poetry and legend; not to mention the host of noxious weeds, the "plants at whose names the verse feels loath," as shelley has it: and thistles, and nettles, and darnels rank, and the dock, and henbane, and hemlock dank. the felons, however, of whom i would now speak are not the plants that seem merely foul and repulsive, such as the docks and nettles, the broom-rapes, toothworts, and similar ill-looking parasites, but rather the bold bad outlaws and highwaymen, the "gentlemen of the road," who, however deleterious to human welfare, have a sinister beauty and distinction of their own, and are thus able to fascinate us. prominent among these is the clan of the nightshades, to which the mandrake itself belongs, and which has several well-known representatives among british flowers; above all, the deadly nightshade, or dwale, as it is better named, to distinguish it from smaller relatives that are wrongly described as "the deadly." so poisonous is the dwale that gerarde three centuries ago exhorted his readers to "banish these pernicious plants out of your gardens, and all places near to your houses, where children do resort;" and modern writers tell us that the plant is "fortunately" of rare occurrence. but threatened plants, like threatened men, live long; and the dwale, though very local, may still be found in some abundance: there are woods where it grows even in profusion, and, _pace_ gerarde, rejoices the heart of the flower-lover, for in truth it has a strange and ominous charm, this massive grave-looking plant with the large oval leaves, heavy sombre purple blossoms, and big black "wolf-cherries."[ ] [footnote : rabbits eat the leaves without harm to themselves, but their flesh becomes injurious to human beings. a case of poisoning of this sort was lately reported from oxted.] next to the dwale in the nightshade family must rank the henbane, a fallen angel among wildflowers; for its beauty is of the sickly and fetid kind, which at once attracts and repels. it is curious that in the lines from shelley's "sensitive plant" the epithet "dank" should be given to the hemlock, to which it is quite unsuited, rather than to the henbane, where its appropriateness could not be questioned; for the stalk, leaves, and flowers of the henbane are alike clammy to the touch. presumably this uncertain and sporadic herb has become rarer of late years; for whereas it is frequently stated in books to be "common in waste places," one may visit hundreds of waste places without a glimpse of it. in the _flora of the lake district_ ( ) arnside is given as one of its localities; but i was told by a resident that he had only once seen it there, and then it had sprung up in his garden. it is in similar places that the thorn-apple, another cousin to the nightshade, is apt to make its un-invited appearance; less a felon, perhaps, than a sturdy rogue and vagabond among flowers of ill repute. a year or two ago, i was told by the holder of an allotment-garden that a great number of thorn-apples were springing up in his ground; and knowing my interest in flowers he sent me a small basketful of the young plants, which, rather to my neighbours' surprise, i set out in a row, like lettuces, in a corner of my back-yard. there they flourished well, and in due course made a fine show with their trumpet-shaped white flowers and the big thorny capsules whence the plant takes its name. it is not a bad-looking fellow, but awkward and hulking, and quite devoid of the sickly grace of the henbane or of the bodeful gloom of the dwale. passing now to the handsome but acrid tribe of the _ranunculi_, and omitting the poisonous but interesting baneberry, of which i have already spoken, we come to two formidable plants, the hellebore and the monk's-hood, which have been famous from earliest times for their dangerous propensities. the green hellebore, though in westmorland named "felon grass," is a less felonious-looking flower than its close kinsman the fetid hellebore, whose general appearance, owing to the crude pale green of its purple-tipped sepals, and the reluctance of its globe-like buds to expand themselves fully, is one of insalubrity and unripeness. but it is a plant of distinction, some two or three feet in height; and as it flowers before the winter is well past, it can hardly fail to arrest attention in the few places where it is to be found: in arundel park, in sussex, it may be seen growing in close conjunction with the deadly nightshade--a noteworthy pair of desperadoes. the other malefactor of the ranunculus family is the aconite, or monk's-hood, a poisonous but very picturesque flower with deep blue blossoms, which takes its name from the hood-like appearance of the upper sepal. "it beareth," gerarde tells us, "very fair and goodly blew floures in shape like an helmet, which are so beautiful that a man would thinke they were of some excellent vertue." a traitor, a masked bandit it is, of such evil reputation that, according to pliny, it kills man, "unless it can find in him something else to kill," some disease, to wit; and thus it holds its place in the pharmacopoeia. the umbellifers include a number of outlaws such as the water-dropworts and cowbane; but among the dangerous members of the tribe there is only one that attains to real greatness, and that of course is the hemlock, a poisoner of old-established renown, as witness the death of socrates. "root of hemlock digg'd i' the dark" is one of the ingredients in the witches' cauldron in _macbeth_, and the hemlock's name has always been one to conjure with, which may account for the fact that several kindred, but less eminent plants unlawfully aspire to it, and are erroneously thus classed. but the true hemlock is unmistakable: the stout bloodspotted stem distinguishes it from the lesser crew; its finely cut fernlike leaves are exceedingly beautiful; and it is of stately habit--i have seen it growing to the height of nine feet, or more, in places where the surrounding brushwood had to be overtopped. let us give their due, then, to these outlaws of whom i have spoken, these robin hoods of the floral world. bandits and highwaymen they may be; but after all, our woods and waysides would be much duller if they were banished. xx some marsh-dwellers here are cool mosses deep. tennyson. what thoreau wrote of his massachusetts swamps is hardly less true of ours; a marsh is everywhere a great allurement for botanists. by a road which crosses a certain sussex common there is a church, and close behind the church a narrow swampy piece of ground known as "the great bog," which has all the appearance of being waste and valueless; yet whenever i visit the place i think of thoreau's words: "_my_ temple is the swamp." for that bog, ignored or despised by the dwellers round the common, except when a horse or a cow gets stuck in it and has to be hauled out with ropes, is sacred ground to the flower-lover, as being the home not only of a number of characteristic plants--lesser skull-cap, sun-dew, bog-bean, bog-asphodel, marsh st. john's-wort, and the scarcer species of marsh bedstraw--but of one of our rarest and most beautiful gentians, the calathian violet, known and esteemed by the old herbalists as the "marsh-felwort." the attention of anyone whose thoughts are attuned to flowers must at once be arrested by the colouring of this splendid plant, for its large funnel-shaped blossoms are of the rich gentian blue, striped with green bands, and as it grows not in the bog itself, but on the close-adjoining banks of heather, it is easily accessible. yet fortunately, in the locality of which i am speaking, it seems to be untouched by those who cross the common. on the afternoon in early september when i first found the place, a number of children were blackberrying there, and i dreaded every moment to see them turn aside to pick a bunch of the gentians, which doubtless would soon have been thrown aside to wither, as is the fate of so many spring flowers; but though the blue petals were conspicuous in the heather they were left entirely unmolested. for this merciful abstinence there were probably two reasons: one that the flower-picking habit is exhausted before the autumn; the other that the gentians, however beautiful, are not among the recognized favourites--daffodils, primroses, violets, forget-me-nots, and the like--that by long custom have taken hold of the imagination of childhood. had it been otherwise, this rare little annual could hardly have survived so long. in botanical usage there seems to be no difference between the terms "marsh" and "bog," nor need we, i think, follow the rather strained distinction drawn by anne pratt, a writer who, though belonging to a somewhat wordy and sentimental school, and indulging in a good deal of what might be called "anne-prattle," had so real a love of her subject that her best book, _haunts of the wild flowers_, affords very agreeable reading. "the distinction between a bog and a marsh," she says, "is simply that the latter is more wet, and that the foot sinks in; while on a bog the soft soil, though it yields to the pressure of the foot, rises again." the definition itself seems hardly to be based on _terra firma_; but we can fully agree with the writer's conclusion that, at the worst, an adventurous botanist "is often rewarded for the temporary chill by the beauty of the plant which he has gathered." that is a consolation which i have not seldom enjoyed. but a pleasanter name, in my opinion, than either "marsh" or "bog," is one which is common in the lake district, and in the northern counties generally, viz. "a moss." it sounds cool and comforting. i recall an occasion when, in the course of a visit to the newton regny moss, near penrith, "the foot sank in," and a good deal more than the foot; but the acquaintance then made for the first time with that giant of the _ranunculus_ order, the great spearwort, was sufficient recompense, for who would complain of a wetting when he met with a buttercup four feet in stature? it so happened, however, that the plant in whose quest i had ventured on the precarious surface of the newton regny moss--the great bladderwort--was not to be found on that occasion, though it is reported to make a fine show there in august; possibly, in an early season, it had already finished its flowering, and had sunk, after the inconsiderate manner of its tribe, to the bottom of the pools. nor did i see its rarer sister, the lesser bladderwort; with whom indeed i have only once had the pleasure of meeting, and that was in a rather awkward place, a deep pond lying close below a railway-bank, and overlooked by the windows of the passing trains, so that i not only had to swim for a flower, but to consult a time-table before swimming, in order to avoid having a "gallery" at the moment when seclusion was desired. our north-country "mosses" are indeed temples to the flower-lover, by virtue both of the rarer species that inhabit them, and of the unbroken succession of beautiful plants that they maintain, from the rich gold of the globe-flower in early summer to the exquisite purity of the grass of parnassus in autumn. among these bog-plants there is one which to me is very fascinating, though writers are often content to describe its strange purple blossoms as "dingy"--i allude to that wilder relative of the wild strawberry, the marsh-cinquefoil, which, though rather local, is in habit decidedly gregarious. for several years it had eluded me in a carnarvonshire valley; until one day, wandering by the riverside, i came upon a swampy expanse where it was growing in hundreds, remarkable both for the deep rusty hue of its petals, and for the large strawberry-like fruit that was just beginning to form. apart from the more extensive "mosses," the lower slopes of the mountains, both in cumberland and wales, are often rich in flowers unsuspected by the wayfarer, who, keeping to some upland track, sees nothing on either side but bare peaty moors that appear to be entirely barren. and barren in many cases they are. you may wander for miles and not see a flower; then suddenly perhaps, on rounding a rock, you will find yourself in one of these natural gardens in the wilderness, where the ground is pink with red rattle growing so thickly as to hide the grass; or white with spotted orchis, handsomer and in greater abundance than is dreamed of in the south; or, a still more glorious sight, tinged over large spaces with the yellow of the bog-asphodel, a plant which is beautiful in its fruit as well as its flower, for when the blossoms are passed the dry wiry stems turn to deep orange. sun-dews are everywhere; the quaint and affable butterwort is plastered over the wet rocks; and the marsh st. john's-wort, so unlike the rest of its family that the relationship is not always recognized, is frequent in the spongy pools. here and there, a small patch of pink on the grey heath, will be seen the delicate bog-pimpernel, which might take rank as the fairest flower of the marsh, were it not that the diminutive ivy-leaved campanula is also trailing its fairy-like form through the wet grasses, among which it might wholly escape notice unless search were made for it. to realize the perfection of its beauty--the exquisite structure of its small green leaves, slender thread-like stems, and bells of palest blue--you must go down on your knees to examine it, however damp the ground; a fitting act of homage to one of the loveliest of flora's children. better cultivation, preceded by improved drainage, is ceaselessly encroaching on our marshlands and lessening the number of their flowers. the charming little cranberry, for instance, once so plentiful that it came to market in wagonloads from the fens of the eastern counties, is now far from common; and our cranberry-tarts have to be supplied from oversea. but much more ravishing than the red berries are the rose-coloured flowers, though they are known to scarcely one in a thousand of the persons familiar with the fruit. i always think with pleasure of the day when i first saw them, on the whinlatter pass, near keswick, their small wiry stems creeping on the surface of the swamp, a feast for an epicure's eye. it is under the open air, not under a pie-crust, that such dainties are appreciated as they deserve. these, then, being some of the many attractions offered by our "mosses," is it surprising that the lover of flowers should play the part of a modern "moss-trooper," and ride out over the border in search for such imperishable spoil? his part, indeed, is a much wiser one than that of the old freebooters; for who would risk life in the forcible lifting of other persons' cattle, when at the slight expense to which anne pratt alluded--the temporary chill caused by the sinking of his foot in a marsh--he can enrich himself far more agreeably in the manner which i have described? xxi a northern moor where tees in tumult leaves his source, thundering o'er caldron and high force. scott. a first glance at the bleak and inhospitable moorland of upper teesdale would not lead one to suppose that it is famous for its flora. no more desolate-looking upland could be imagined; the great wolds stretch away monotonously, broken only by a few scars that overhang the course of the stream, and devoid of the grandeur that is associated with mountain scenery. no houses are visible, except a few white homesteads that dot the slopes--their whiteness, it is said, being of service to the farmers when they return in late evening from some distant market and are faced with the difficulty of finding their own doors. its wildness is the one charm of the place; in that it is unsurpassed. but this bare valley, botanically regarded, is a bit of the far north, interpolated between durham, westmorland, and yorkshire, where the teesdale basalt or "whinstone" affords an advanced station for many rare plants of the highland type as they trend southward; and there, for five or six miles, from the upper waterfall of caldron snout to that of high force, the banks of the tees, with the rough pastures, scars, and fells that form its border, hold many floral treasures. the first flower to attract attention on these wild lawns is that queen of violets, the mountain pansy (_viola lutea_), not uncommon on many midland and northern heaths, but nowhere else growing in such prodigality as here, or with such rich mingling of colours--orange yellow, creamy white, deep purple, and velvet black--till the eye of the traveller is sated with the gorgeous tints. to the violet tribe this pansy stands in somewhat the same relation as does the bird's-eye primrose to the _primulas_; it is a mountain cousin, at once hardier and more beautiful than its kinsfolk of wood and plain. seeing it in such abundance, we can understand why teesdale has been described as "the gardener's paradise;" but the expression is not a fitting one, for "gardener" suggests "trowel," and the nurseryman is the sort of peri to whom the gates of this paradise ought to be for ever closed. but perhaps the first stroll which a visitor to upper teesdale is likely to take, is by the bank of the river just above high force; and here the most conspicuous plant is a big cinquefoil, the _potentilla fruticosa_, a shrub about three feet in height, bearing large yellow flowers. rare elsewhere, it is in exuberance beside the tees; and i remember the amused surprise with which a dalesman regarded me, when he saw my interest in a weed that to him was so familiar and so cheap. but the smaller notabilities of the district have to be personally searched for; they do not obtrude themselves on the wayfarer's glance. on the yorkshire side of the stream stands cronkley scar, a buttress of the high moor known as mickle fell; and here, in the wet gullies, may be found such choice northern plants as the alpine meadow-rue; the scottish asphodel (_tofieldia_), a small relative of the common bog-asphodel; and the curious viviparous bistort, another highland immigrant, bearing a spike of dull white flowers and small bulbs below. the fell above the scar is a desolate tract, frequented by golden plover and other moorland birds. on one occasion when i ascended it i was overtaken by a violent storm of wind and rain, which compelled me to leave the further heights of mickle fell unexplored, and to retreat to the less exposed pastures of widdibank on the opposite side of the tees, here a broad but shallow mountain stream, which in dry weather can be forded without difficulty but becomes a roaring torrent after heavy rains. in the course of two short visits, one in mid-july, the other in the spring of the following year, i twice had the opportunity of seeing the river in either mood, first in unruffled tranquillity, then in furious spate. it is in may or early june that teesdale is at the height of its glory; for the plant which lends it a special renown is the spring gentian, perhaps the brightest jewel among all british flowers, small, but a true alpine, and of that intense blue which signalizes the gentian race. here this noble flower grows in plenty, not in wide profusion like the pansies, but in large and thriving colonies, not confined to one side of the stream. it was on the durham bank that i first saw it--one of those rare scenes that a flower-lover cannot forget, for the blue gentians were intermingled with pink bird's-eye primroses, only less lovely than themselves, and close by were a few spikes of the alpine bartsia, whose sombre purple was in marked contrast with the brilliant hues of its companions. of this rare bartsia i had plucked a single flower on my previous visit to the same spot, but then in somewhat hurried circumstances. i had been crossing the wide pastures near widdibank farm in company with a friend, who, having heard rumours of the temper of teesdale bulls, had unwisely allowed his thoughts to be somewhat distracted from the pansies. we were in the middle of a field of vast extent, when i heard my companion asking anxiously: "is _that_ one?" it certainly _was_ one; not a pansy, but a bull; and he was advancing towards us with very unfriendly noises and gestures. we therefore retired as quickly as we could, without seeming to run--he slowly following us--in the direction of the river; and there, under a high bank, over which we expected every moment the bulky head to reappear, i saw the alpine bartsia, and stooped to pick one as we fled, my friend mildly deprecating even so slight a delay. now, however, on my second visit, i was able to examine the bank at my leisure, and to have full enjoyment of as striking a group of flowers as could be seen on english soil--gentian, bird's-eye primrose, alpine bartsia--and as if these were not sufficient, the mountain pansy running riot in the pasture just above. so far, i have spoken only of the plants which i myself saw; there are other and greater rarities in teesdale which the casual visitor can hardly expect to encounter. the yellow marsh-saxifrage (_s. hirculus_) occurs in two or three places on the slopes of mickle fell; so, too, in limestone crevices does the mountain-avens (_dryas octopetala_), and the winter-green (_pyrola secunda_); while on little fell, which lies further to the south-west, towards appleby, the scarce alpine forget-me-not is reported to be plentiful. i was told by a botanist that, in crossing the moors from teesdale to westmorland, he once picked up what he took for a fine clump of the common star-saxifrage, and afterwards found to his surprise that it was the alpine snow-saxifrage (_s. nivalis_), which during the past thirty years has become exceedingly rare both in the lake district and in north wales. the haunts of the rarer flowers are not likely to be discovered in a day or two, nor yet in a week or two: it is only to him who has gone many times over the ground that such secrets will disclose themselves; but even the passing rambler must be struck, as i was, by the number of noteworthy plants that teesdale wears, so to speak, upon its sleeve. the globe-flower revels in the moist meadows; so, too, do the water-avens and the marsh-cinquefoil, nor is the butterfly orchis far to seek; and though the yellow marsh-saxifrage may remain hidden, there is no lack of the yellow saxifrage of the mountain (_saxifraga aizoides_), to console you, if it can, for the absence of its rarer cousin. the cross-leaved bedstraw (_galium boreale_), another north-country plant, luxuriates on low wet cliffs by the river. last, but not least, in the later months of summer, is the mountain thistle (_carduus heterophyllus_), or the "melancholy thistle" as it is often called--a title which seems to have small relevance, unless all plants of a grave and dignified bearing are to be so named. do men expect to gather figs of thistles, that they should demand the simple gaiety of the cowslip or the primrose from such a plant as this, whose rich purple flowers, spineless stem, and large parti-coloured leaves--deep green above, white below--mark it as one of the most handsome, as it is certainly the most gracious and benevolent of its tribe? as i walked down the valley, on a wet morning in july, to take train at middleton, twenty-four hours of rain had turned the river through which i had easily waded on the previous day, into a flood that was terrifying both in aspect and sound. it was no time for flower-hunting; but even then the wonders of the place were not exhausted; for along the hedgerows i saw in plenty that same stately thistle, which in most districts where it occurs is viewed with some interest and curiosity, but in teesdale is a roadside weed--subject, i was shocked to observe, to the insolence of the passers-by, who, knowing not what they do, maltreat it as if it were some vulgar pest of the fields, a thing to be hacked at and trampled on. even so, i saw in it a discrowned king, who "nothing common did or mean." xxii april in snowdonia it is easter sunday . . . the hills are high, and stretch away to heaven.--de quincey. so wrote de quincey in one of his finest dream-fugues. there seems, in truth, to be a certain fitness in the turning of men's thoughts at the spring season to the heights of the mountains, where, as nowhere else, the cares and ailments of the winter time are forgotten; and it is a noticeable fact that these upland districts are now as thronged with visitors during easter week as in august itself. as i write, i am sitting by a wood fire under a high rock in a sheltered nook at capel curig, with a biting north-easter blowing overhead and an occasional snow-squall whitening the hillsides around, while the upper ridges are covered in places with great fields and spaces of snow, which at times loom dim and ghostly through the haze, and then gleam out gloriously in the interludes of sunshine. the scenery at the top of snowdon, the glyders, carnedd llewelyn, and the other giants of the district has been quite alpine in character. the wind has drifted the snow in great pillowy masses among the rocks, or piled it in long cornices along the edges, and on several days when the air was at its keenest, the snow fields have been crisp and firm, and have afforded excellent footing as a change from the rough "screes" and crags; at other times, when the sun has shone out warmly, the snow has been soft and treacherous, and the spectacle has often been seen of the too trustful tourist struggling waistdeep. mid-april in snowdonia, when march has been cold and wet, shows scarcely an advance from midwinter as far as the blossoming of flowers is concerned. down by the coast the land is gay with gorse and primroses, but in the bleak upland dales that radiate from the great mountains hardly a bloom is to be seen; nor do the river banks and marshy pastures as yet show so much as a kingcup, a spearwort, or a celandine. the visitors have come in their multitudes to walk, to climb, to cycle, to motor, to take photographs, or to take fish, as the case may be; but if one of them were to confess that he had come to look for flowers he would indeed surprise the natives--still more if he were to point to the upper ramparts of the mountains, among the rocks and snows and clouds, as the place of his design. yet it is there that we must climb, if we would see the pride of the purple saxifrage, the earliest of our mountain flowers, blest by botanists with the cumbrous name of _saxifraga oppositifolia_, and often grown by gardeners, who know it as a swiss immigrant, but not as a british native. a true alpine, it is not found in this country much below , feet, and in switzerland its range is far higher, for it is a neighbour and a lover of the snows. small and slight as it may seem, when compared with some of its more splendid brethren of the alps, it has the distinction of a high-bred race, the character of the genuine mountaineer. it is a wearer of the purple, in deed as well as in name. but our approach to the home of the saxifrage is not to be accomplished without toil, in weather which is a succession of boisterous squalls. under such a gale we have literally to push our way in a five-mile walk to the foot of the hills, and as we climb higher and higher up the slopes we have a ceaselesstussle with the strong, invisible foe who buffets us from every side in turn, while he hisses against the sharp edges of the crags, or growls with dull subterranean noises under the piles of fallen rocks. as for the streams, they are blown visibly out of their steep channels and carried in light spray across the hillside, while sheets of water are lifted from the surface of the lake. not till we reach the base of the great escarpment which forms the north-east wall of the mountain are we able to draw breath in peace; for there, under the topmost precipices, flecked with patches of snow, is a strange and blissful calm. but now, just when our search begins, the mists, which have long been circling overhead, creep down and fill the upland hollow where we stand, cutting off our view not only of the valley below but of the range of cliffs above, and confining us in a sequestered cloudland of our own. still climbing along a line of snowdrifts which follows a ridge of rocks, and which serves at once as a convenient route for an ascent and a safe guide for a return, we scan the likely-looking corners and crevices for the object of our pilgrimage. at first in vain; and then fears begin to assail us that we may be doomed to disappointment. can we have come too early, even for so early a plant, in a backward season? or have some wandering tourists or roving knights of the trowel (for such there are) robbed the mountain-side of its gem--for this saxifrage, owing to the brightness of its petals on the grey and barren slopes, is so conspicuous as to be at the mercy of the passer-by. but even as we stand in doubt there is a gleam of purple through the mist, and yonder, on a boss of rock, is a cluster of the rubies we have come not to steal but to admire. what strikes one about the purple saxifrage, when seen at close quarters, its many bright flowerets peering out from a cushion of moss, is the largeness of the blossoms in proportion to the shortness of the stems; a precocious, wide-browed little plant, it looks as if the cares of existence at these wintry altitudes had given it a somewhat thoughtful cast. at a distance it makes a splash of colour on the rocks, and from the high cliffs above it hangs out, here and there, in tufts that are fortunately beyond reach.[ ] [footnote : for a charming description of the purple saxifrage, see _holidays in high lands_, by hugh macmillan ( ).] having paid our homage to the flower, we leave it on its lofty throne among the clouds, and descend by snow-slopes and scree-slides to the windy, blossomless valley beneath. a month hence, when the season of the welsh poppy, the globe-flower, and the butterwort is beginning, the reign of the purple saxifrage will be at an end. to be appreciated as it deserves, it must be seen not as a poor captive of cultivation, but in its free, wild environment, among the remotest fastnesses of the mountains. the wild animal life on the hills, so noteworthy in the later spring, seems as yet to have hardly awakened. we saw a white hare one afternoon on carnedd llewelyn, but that was the only beast of the mountains that crossed our path during eight days' climbing, nor were the birds so numerous as might have been expected. the croak of the raven was heard at times, in his high breeding-places, and on another occasion there was a triple conflict in the air between a raven, a buzzard, and a hawk. on the lower moorlands the curlew was beginning to arrive from his winter haunts by the seashore, and small flocks of gulls, driven inland by the winds, were hovering over the waters of llyn ogwen, where we saw several of them mobbing a solitary heron, who seemed much embarrassed by their onslaught, until he succeeded in getting his great wings into motion. but if bird-life is still somewhat dormant in these lofty regions, there have been plenty of human migrants on the wing. from our high watch-tower, we saw daily, far below us, the long line of motorists--those terrestrial birds of prey--speeding along the white roads, and flying past a hundred entrancing spots, as if their object were to see as little as possible of what they presumably came to see. flocks of cyclists, too, were visible here and there, avoiding the cars as best they could, and drinking not so much "the wind of their own speed," in the poet's words, as the swirl and dust of the motors; while on the bypaths and open hillsides swarmed the happier foot-travellers, pilgrims in some cases from long distances over the mountains, or skilled climbers with ropes coiled over their shoulders and faces set sternly towards some beetling crag or black gully in the escarpment above. in one respect only are they all alike--that they are birds of passage and are here only for the holiday. soon they will be gone, and then the ancient silence will settle down once more upon the hills, and buzzard and raven will be undisturbed, until july and august bring the great summer incursion. xxiii flower-gazing _in excelsis_ i gazed, and gazed, but little thought what wealth the show to me had brought. wordsworth. there is no more inspiring pastime than flower-gazing under the high crags of snowdon. the love of flowers reveals a new and delightful aspect of the mountain life, and leads its votaries into steeps and wilds which, as they lie aloof from the usual ways of the climber, might otherwise escape notice. it must be owned that our cumbrian and cambrian hills are not rich in flowers as switzerland is rich; one cannot here step out on the mountain-side and see great sheets of colour, as on some alpine slope; and not only must we search for our treasures, but we must know _where_ to search. they do not grow everywhere; much depends on the nature of the soil, much on the altitude, much on the configuration of the hills. there are great barren tracts which bear little but heather and bilberry; but there are rarer beds of volcanic ash and calcareous rock which are a joy to the heart of the flower-lover.[ ] [footnote : see _the flora of carnarvonshire_, by john e. griffith, and _a flora of the english lake district_, by j. g. baker, two books which are of great value in showing the localities of mountain plants.] again, one is apt to think that on those heights, where the winter is long and severe, it is the southern flanks that must be the haunt of the flowers; in reality, it is the north-east side that is the more favoured, owing to the fact that the hills, in both districts, for the most part rise gently from the south or the south-west, in gradual slopes that are usually dry and wind-swept, while northward and eastward they fall away steeply in broken and water-worn escarpments. it is here, among the wet ledges and rock-faces, constantly sprayed from the high cliffs above, where springs have their sources, that the right conditions of shade and moisture are attained; and here only can the alpines be found in any abundance. the precipices of cwm idwal and cwm glas, in wales, and in the lake district the east face of helvellyn, may stand as examples of such rock-gardens. the course of a climber is usually along the top of the ridge, that of the botanist at its base; his paradise is that less frequented region which may be called the undercliff, where the "screes" begin to break away from the overhanging precipice, and where, in the angle thus formed, there is often a little track which winds along the hillside, sometimes rising, sometimes falling, but always with the cliff above and the scree-slope below. following this natural guidance he may scramble around the base of the rocks, or along their transverse ledges, and feast his eyes on the many mountain flowers that are within sight, if not within reach. it is a fine sport, this flower-gazing; not only because all the plants are beautiful and many of them rare, but because it demands a certain skill to balance oneself on a steep declivity, while looking upward, through binoculars, at some attractive clump of purple saxifrage, or moss-campion, or thrift, or rose-root, or globe-flower, as the case may be.[ ] to the veteran rambler especially, this flower-cult is congenial; for it supplies--i will not say an excuse for not going to the top, but a less severe and exacting diversion, which still takes him into the inmost solitudes of the mountain, and keeps him in unfailing touch with its character and genius. [footnote : in parkinson's _theatrum botanicum_ ( ) it is remarked of rose-root that it grows "oftentimes in the ruggiest places, and most dangerous of them, scarce accessible, and so steepe that they may soon tumble downe that doe not very warily looke to their footing."] i have spoken of snowdonia in the spring; let us view it now in the fulness of june or july, when its flora is at its richest. it is not till you have climbed to a height of about two thousand feet that the true joys of the mountains begin. at first, perhaps, as you follow the course of the stream you will see nothing more than a bunch of white scurvy-grass or a spray of golden-rod; but when you reach the region where the thin cascade comes sliding down over the moist rocks, and the topmost cliffs seem to impend, then you will have your reward, for you have entered into the kingdom of the alpines. suppose, for example, that you stand at the foot of the narrow ridge of crib-y-ddysgl, a great precipice which overhangs the upper chambers of cwm glas on the northern side of snowdon, with an escarpment formed of huge slabs of rock intersected by wet gullies, narrow niches, and transverse terraces of grass. looking up, to where the crib towers above, you will see a goodly array of plants. thrift is there, in large clumps as handsome as on any sea-cliffs; rose-root, the big mountain-stonecrop; cushions of moss-campion, which bears the local name of "snowdon pink"; lady's-mantle, intermixed with the reddening leaves of mountain-sorrel; welsh poppy, not so common a flower in wales as its name would suggest; and at least three kinds of beautiful white blossoms--the starry saxifrage, the mossy saxifrage, and the shapely little sandwort (_arenaria verna_), as fair as the saxifrages themselves, and what higher praise could be given? the flower-lover can scarcely hope for greater delight than that which the starry saxifrage will yield him. it has been well said that "one who has not seen it growing, say, in some rift of the rock exposed by the wearing of the mountain torrent, cannot imagine how lovely it is, or how fitly it is named. white and starry, and saxifrage--how charming must that which has three such names be!"[ ] [footnote : _wild flowers of scotland_, by j. h. crawford.] another lofty rock-face, similar in its flora to that of snowdon, is the precipice at the head of cwm idwal, near the point where it is broken by the famous chasm of the devil's kitchen. hereabouts is the chief station of the _lloydia_, or spiderwort, a rather rare and pretty alpine, a delicate lily of the high rocks, bearing solitary white flowers veined with red, and a few exceedingly narrow leaves that resemble the legs of a spider. unlike most mountain plants, it has a considerable local reputation; and during its short flowering season in june one may observe small parties of enthusiasts from bangor or carnarvon, diligently scanning the black cliffs above llyn idwal, in the hope of spying it. the place where i first saw the _lloydia_ in blossom was cwm glas; but i had previously noticed its long thin leaves in two or three places around the devil's kitchen. the haunts of the alpine meadow-rue (_thalictrum alpinum_) are similar to those of the spiderwort; and a most elegant little plant it is, its gracefully drooping terminal cluster of small yellowish flowers being borne on a simple naked stem, whereas its less aristocratic relative, the smaller meadow-rue (_t. collinum_), which is much commoner on these rocks, is bushier and more branched. i had many disappointments, before i rightly apprehended the true alpine species; once distinguished, it cannot again be mistaken. it was to a chance meeting in ogwen cottage, at the foot of cwm idwal, with dr. lloyd williams, a skilled botanist who had brought a party of friends to visit the home of the _lloydia_, that i owed my introduction to another very beautiful inhabitant of those heights, the white mountain-avens, known to rock-gardeners as _dryas octopetala_. happy is the flower-gazer who has looked on the galaxy, the "milky way," of those fair mountain nymphs--for the plant is in truth an oread rather than a dryad--where they shed their lustre from certain favoured ledges in a spot which it is safer to leave unspecified. i must have passed close to the place many scores of times, in the forty or more years during which i had known the mountain; yet never till then did i become aware of the treasure that was enshrined in it! but of all the glories of cwm idwal--rarities apart--the greatest, when the summer is at its prime, is the array of globe-flowers. this splendid buttercup usually haunts the banks of mountain streams, or the sides of damp woods, in the west country and the north; its range is given in the _flora of the lake district_ as not rising above nine hundred feet; but in snowdonia, not content to dwell with its cousins the kingcups and spearworts in the upland valleys, it aspires to a far more romantic station, and is seen blooming in profusion at twice and almost three times that height on the most precipitous rock-ledges.[ ] one may gaze by the hour, enraptured, and never weary of the sight. [footnote : in the cairngorm mountains, the globe-flower ascends to a height of , feet (see mr. seton gordon's _wanderings of a naturalist_); in the alps to , .] i have by no means exhausted the list of notable snowdonian flowers that are native in the two localities of which i have spoken, or in a few other spots that are similarly favoured by geological conditions: the sea-plantain, the mountain-cudweed, the stone-bramble, the queer little whitlow-grass with twisted pods (_draba incana_), its still rarer congener the alpine rock-cress, and the _saussurea_, or alpine saw-wort--all these, and more, are to be found there by the pilgrim who devotedly searches the scriptures of the hills. but of the _saussurea_ some mention will have to be made in the next chapter; for it is now time to turn from cambria to cumbria, from the "cwms" and "cribs" of snowdon to the "coves" and "edges" of helvellyn. xxiv coves of helvellyn i climbed the dark brow of the mighty helvellyn. scott. so far i have spoken more of the welsh mountain flowers than of those belonging to lakeland; but the difference between the two districts, in regard to their respective floras, is not very great, and with a few exceptions the plants that are native on the one range may be looked for on the other. the _lloydia_ is found in snowdonia only; and wales can boast, not a monopoly, but a greater plenty of the moss-campion and the purple saxifrage. on the other hand, the alpine lady's-mantle and the yellow mountain-saxifrage, both abundant in cumberland, are absent from carnarvonshire; and this is somewhat of a loss, for the common lady's-mantle, charming though it is, lacks the beauty of the alpine, and the yellow saxifrages, as they hang from the rocks like a phalanx of tiny golden shields--each with bright petals and pale green sepals radiating from a central boss--are among the greatest ornaments of the fells. again, the lovely little bird's-eye primrose is a north-country plant which is not found in wales; against which may be set, perhaps, that gem of the damp mosses on certain welsh streamsides, the ivy-leaved bell-flower. more characteristic of lakeland than of snowdonia, though not peculiar to it, are those two very beautiful flowers, the one a child of the swamp, the other of the high pastures, the grass of parnassus, and the mountain-pansy; and to conclude the list, the snow-saxifrage and the mountain-avens are about equally rare in both countries--the avens, indeed, is confined to one or two stations, where fortunately it is little known. helvellyn, as a mountain, is very inferior to snowdon, nor indeed can it compete in grandeur with its own cumbrian neighbours, the great gable and scafell; but among visitors to the lakes it has nevertheless an enduring reputation, largely due to the poems in which scott and wordsworth have sung its praises. accordingly, during the tourist season, the anxious question: "is that helvellyn?" may often be overheard; and on a fine day all sorts of incongruous persons may be seen making their way up the weary slopes that lead from grasmere to its crest. i once observed a gentleman in a top-hat toiling upward in the queue; on another occasion i witnessed at the summit a violent quarrel between a married couple, the point of dispute (on which they appealed to me) being whether their little dog was, or was not, in danger of being blown over the cliffs. as the west wind was certainly very strong, and helvellyn had already been associated with the story of a dog's fidelity, i ventured to advise a retreat. on the east side, however, where its "dark brow" overlooks the red tarn, and throws out two great lateral ridges--on the right, in de quincey's words, "the awful curtain of rock called striding edge," and swirrel edge on the left--helvellyn is a very fine mountain, and what is more to the present purpose, is botanically the most interesting of all the lakeland fells. from grisedale tarn to keppelcove, a distance of full three miles, that great escarpment, with the several "coves" that nestle beneath it, is the home of many rare alpine flowers, corresponding in that respect with the welsh rock-faces of idwal and cwm glas; and though it does not offer so conspicuous a display, or such keen inducements to flower-gazing, a search along its narrow ledges, and under the impending crags, home of the hill fox, will seldom disappoint the adventurer. some years ago i spent a week of july, in two successive seasons, at patterdale, for the purpose of becoming better acquainted with the mountain flowers, but on both occasions the weather was very stormy and made it difficult to be on the fells. at first i searched chiefly under striding edge and the steep front of helvellyn, among the rocks that lie behind the red tarn, and in similar places above keppelcove tarn in the adjoining valley, hoping with good luck to light on the snow-saxifrage. in this i was unsuccessful; but i twice found a plant i had not hitherto met with--in appearance a small spineless thistle, with a cluster of light-purple scented flowers--which proved to be the alpine saw-wort, or _saussurea_, and which in later years i saw again on snowdon. a blossom which i picked and kept for several months was so little affected by its separation from the parent stem that it continued its vital processes in a vase, and passed from flowering to seeding without interruption. like the orpine, it was a veritable "live-long," or as the politicians say, "die-hard." at patterdale i was so fortunate as to make the acquaintance of mr. robert nixon, a resident who has had a long and intimate knowledge of the local flora; and he very kindly devoted a day to showing me some of his flower-haunts on helvellyn. in the course of this expedition, one of the pleasantest in my memory, a number of interesting plants were noted by us: among them the mountain-pansy; the cross-leaved bedstraw; the vernal sandwort; the alpine meadow-rue; the moss-campion; the purple saxifrage, now past flowering; the mountain willow-herb (_epilobium alsinifolium_), not the true alpine willow-herb, but a native of similar places among the higher rills; and the _salix herbacea_, or "least willow," the smallest of british trees, which when growing on the bare hill-tops is not more than two inches in height, though in the clefts of rock at the edge of the main escarpment we found it of much larger size. the moss-campion (_silene acaulis_) is especially associated with the locality of which i am speaking--the neighbourhood of grisedale tarn--and is mentioned in the "elegiac verses," composed by wordsworth "near the mountain track that leads from grasmere through grisedale": there cleaving to the ground, it lies, with multitude of purple eyes, spangling a cushion green like moss. to this the poet added in a note: "this most beautiful plant is scarce in england. the first specimen i ever saw of it, in its native bed, was singularly fine, the tuft or cushion being at least eight inches in diameter. i have only met with it in two places among our mountains, in both of which i have since sought for it in vain." the other place may have been the hill above rydal mount; for a contributor to the _flora of the lake district_ states that it was there shown to him by wordsworth. the poet's knowledge of the higher mountains, and of the mountain flora, was not great. the moss-campion though local, is much less rare than he supposed, and its "cushions" grow to a far larger bulk than that of the one described by him. in his _holidays on high lands_ ( ), hugh macmillan, paying tribute to the beauty of this flower, remarks that "a sheet of it last summer on one of the westmorland mountains measured five feet across, and was one solid mass of colour." i have seen it approaching that size in wales. another plant which i was anxious to see was the alpine _cerastium_ (mouse-ear chickweed), said to grow "sparingly" on the crags of striding edge and in a few other places. i failed to find it; but when mr. nixon had pointed out to me, in a photograph of the edge, a particular crag on which he had noticed the flower in a previous summer, i determined to renew the search. this the weather prevented; but in the following year, happening to be in borrowdale in june, i walked from keswick to the top of helvellyn, and thence descended to striding edge, where, on the very rock indicated by mr. nixon, i found the object of my journey--not yet in flower, for i was somewhat ahead of its season, but authenticated as _cerastium alpinum_ by the small oval leaves covered with dense white down. i have several times seen, high up on carnedd llewelyn, a form of _cerastium_ with larger flowers than the common kind; this i think must have been what is called _c. alpestre_ in the _flora of carnarvonshire_; but the true _alpinum_, though frequent in the scottish highlands, is decidedly rare in wales. even when the summer is far spent, there is hope for the flower-lover among these mountains, especially if he penetrate into one of those deep fissures--more characteristic of the scafell range than of helvellyn--known locally as "gills": i have in mind the upper portion of grain's gill, near the summit of the sty head pass, where, on an autumn day, one may still see, on either bank of the chasm, a goodly array of flowers. most prevalent, perhaps, are the satiny leaves of the alpine lady's-mantle, which is extraordinarily abundant in this part of the lake district, and forms a thick green carpet on many of the slopes. against this background stand out conspicuously tall spires of golden-rod, rich cushions of wild thyme, and clumps of white sea-campion, a shore plant which, like thrift, sea-plantain, and scurvy-grass, seems almost equally at home on the heights. there, too, are the mountain-sorrel, and rose-root; butterworts, with leaves now faded to a sickly yellow; tufts of harebell, northern bedstraw and hawkweed; stout stalks of angelica; and, best of all, festoons of yellow saxifrages, beautiful even in their decay. xxv great days i hearing get, who had but ears, and sight, who had but eyes before; i moments live, who lived but years. thoreau. in flower-seeking, as in other sports and sciences, the unexpected is always happening; there are rich days and poor days, surprises and disappointments; the plant which we hailed as a rarity may prove on examination to be but a gay deceiver; and contrariwise, when we think we have come home empty-handed, it may turn out that the vasculum contains some unrecognized treasure; as when, after what seemed to be a barren day on helvellyn, i found that i had brought back with me the alpine saw-wort. that in the study of flowers, as in all natural history, we should be more attracted by the rare than by the common is inevitable; it is a tendency that cannot be escaped or denied, but it may at least be kept within bounds, so that familiarity shall not breed the proverbial contempt, nor rarity a vulgar and excessive admiration.[ ] the quest for the rare, provided that it does not make us forget that the common is often no less beautiful, or lead to that selfish acquisitiveness which is the bane of "collecting," is a foible harmless in itself and even in some cases useful, as inciting us to further activities. [footnote : "this [herb] was choice, because of prime use in medicine; and that, more choice, for yielding a rare flavour to pottage; and a third choicest of all, because possessed of no merit but its extreme scarcity."--scott's _quentin durward_.] the sulphur-wort, or "sea hog's-fennel," for instance, is not especially attractive--a big coarse plant, five feet in stature, with a solid stem, uncouth masses of grass-like leaves, and large umbels of yellow flowers--yet i have a gratifying recollection of a visit which i once paid to its haunts on the essex salt marshes near hamford water. again, the twisted-podded whitlow-grass is a rather shabby-looking little crucifer; but the day when i found it under the crags of snowdon in cwm glas stands out distinguished and unforgotten. it is natural that we should observe more closely what there are fewer opportunities of observing. let me speak first of the barren days. an old friend of mine who is of an optimistic temperament once assured me for my comfort, that the flower-seeker must not feel discouraged if he fail in his pursuit; since it is not from mere success, but from the effort itself, that benefit is derived. the text should run, not "seek, and ye shall find," but, "seek, and ye shall not _need_ to find." this may be a true doctrine, but it seems rather a hard one; certainly it is not easy, at the time, to regard with entire complacency the result of a blank day; and that there will be blank days is beyond doubt, for it is strange how long some of the "wanted" plants, the de wets of the floral world, will evade discovery. i have looked into the face of many hundreds of star-saxifrages on the hills of wales and cumberland, but have never yet set eyes upon its rare sister, the snow or "clustered" saxifrage. in like manner among the innumerable flowers of the chalk fields, in the south, that elusive little annual, the mouse-tail, has hitherto remained undetected. so, too, with many other rarities: the list of the found may increase year by year, but that of the _un_found is never exhausted. it is well that it is so, and that satiety cannot chill the ardour of the flower-lover, but like ulysses, "always roaming with a hungry heart," he has ever before him an object for his pursuit. "wretched is he," says rousseau, "who has nothing left to wish for." nor is the reward a merely figurative one, such as that of the husbandmen in the fable, who, after digging the ground in search of a buried treasure, were otherwise recompensed; for the lean days are happily interspersed with the fat days, and to the botanist there is surely no joy on earth like that of discovering a flower that is new to him; it is a thrilling event which compensates tenfold for all the failures of the past. very remarkable, too, is the freakishness of fortune, which often, while denying what you crave, will toss you something quite different and unlooked for: i remember how when searching vainly for the spider orchis at the foot of the downs in kent, i stumbled on an abundance of the "green man." or perhaps, just at the moment when you are relinquishing the quest as hopeless, and have put it wholly from your mind, you will be startled to see the very flower that you sought. burningly it came on me all at once! * * * * * dotard, a-dozing at the very nonce, after a life spent training for the sight! as thoreau expressed it: "what you seek in vain for, half your life, one day you come full upon, all the family at dinner." but the great days! i have sometimes fancied that in those enterprises which are to mark the finding of a new flower, one has an inner anticipation, a sense of hopefulness and quiet satisfaction that on ordinary occasions is lacking. but this assurance must be an instinctive one; it is useless to affect a confidence that does not naturally arise; for though perseverance is essential, any presumptuous attempt to forestall a favourable issue will only lead to discomfiture. then at last, when the goal is reached, comes the devotee's reward--the knowledge that is won only by attainment, the ecstasy, the moments that are better than years. in this, as in much else, the search for flowers is symbolic of the search for truth. nothing, as they say, succeeds like success; and there are times, in this absorbing pursuit, when one piece of good fortune is linked closely with another. i shall not easily forget that day on snowdon, when, after meeting for the first time with the alpine meadow-rue, i almost immediately saw my first spiderwort some ten feet above me on the rocky cliff, and reached it by building a cairn of stones against the foot of the precipice to serve me as a ladder. among the great days that have fallen to my lot while following the call of the wildflower, one other shall be mentioned--a fair september afternoon when i had wandered for miles about the wide pastures that border the trent, in what seemed to be a fruitless search for the meadow-saffron. already it was time to turn on my homeward journey, when i struck into a field from which hay had been carried in the summer; and there, scattered around in large clusters of a score or more together, some lilac, some white, all with a satiny translucence in the warm sunshine which gave them an extraordinary and fairy-like charm, were hundreds of the leafless "autumn crocuses," as they are called, though in fact the flower is more lovely and ethereal than any crocus of the garden. not the day only, but the place itself was glorified by them; and now of all those spacious but rather desolate nottinghamshire river-meadows, i remember only that one spot: i crossed a moor, with a name of its own, and a certain use in the world, no doubt; yet a hand's-breath of it shines alone, 'mid the blank miles round about. nor are all the great days necessarily of that strenuous sort where success can only be achieved by effort; for there are some days which may also be called great, or at least memorable, when one attains by free gift of fortune to what might long have been searched for in vain. i refer to those happy occasions when a friend says: "look here! i'd like to show you that field where the elecampane grows," or, it may be, the habitat (the only one in england) of the spring snowflake; or the place on wansfell pike where the mountain-twayblade lies hidden beneath the heather. such things have befallen me now and then; nor am i likely to forget the day when bertram lloyd took me to the haunt of the creeping toadflax in oxfordshire; or when, with sydney olivier for guide, i emerged from the aisles of wychwood forest on to some rough grassy ground, where in company with meadow crane's-bill, clustered bell-flower, and woolly-headed thistle, the blue _salvia pratensis_ was flourishing in glorious abundance. for recollection plays a large part in the flower-lover's enjoyment. wordsworth and his daffodils are but a trite quotation; yet many hearts besides wordsworth's have filled with pleasure at the memory of a brave array of flowers, or even of a single gallant plant seen in some wild locality by mountain, meadow, or shore. the great days were not born to be forgotten. xxvi the last rose and summer's lease hath all too short a date. the great days were not born to be forgotten. it is well that memory should come to the aid of the flower-lover; for none is more deserving of such comfort than he, keeping constant watch as he does over the transitoriness of the seasons, and having prescience of the summer's departure while summer is still at its height. sometimes a late autumnal thought has crossed my mind in green july. it is in the prime of the year that such intimations of mortality are keenest; when the "fall" itself has arrived, there is less of regret than of resignation. i do not know where the tranquil grief for parted loveliness is so tenderly expressed as in a fragmentary poem of shelley's, "the zucca," which, though little known by the majority of readers, contains some of the most poignant, most shelleyan verses ever written. the poet relates how when the italian summer was dead, and autumn was in turn expiring, he went forth in grief for the decay of that ideal beauty--"dim object of my soul's idolatry"--of which he, above all men, was the worshipper, and in this mood of sadness found the withered gourd which was the subject of his song. and thus i went lamenting, when i saw a plant upon the river's margin lie, like one who loved beyond his nature's law. and in despair had cast him down to die. there is a fitness in such imagery; for flowers seem to serve naturally as emblems of human emotions. who has not felt the pathos of a faded blossom kept as a memorial of the past? many years ago i was given a beautifully bound copy of moxon's edition of _shelley_; and when i noticed that opposite that loveliest of poems, "epipsychidion," were a few pink petals interleaved, i was sure that their presence at such a page was not merely accidental; and it has since been a whim of mine that those tokens of some bygone incident in the life of a former owner of the book should not be displaced. there are vicissitudes in human lives with which flowers become associated in our thoughts. i recall a calm autumn day spent in company with a friend upon the surrey downs, when the marjoram and other fragrant flowers of the chalk were still as beautiful as in summer, but the sadness of a near departure from that familiar district lay heavy on my mind; and that day proved indeed to be the end of many happy years, for long afterwards, when i returned to those hills, all was changed for _me_, though nature was kindly as before. thus a date, not greatly heeded at the time, may be found to have marked one of life's turning-points, and the flowers connected with it may hold a peculiar significance in memory. it is a sad moment for a flower-lover when he sees before him "the last rose of summer" ("rose" is a term which may here be used in a general sense for any sweet and pleasing flower), and realizes that he is now face to face with the season's euthanasia, "that last brief resurrection of summer in its most brilliant memorials, a resurrection that has no root in the past, nor steady hold upon the future, like the lambent and fitful gleams from an expiring lamp." yet so gradual is this change, and the resurrection of which de quincey speaks so entrancing, that one is comforted even while he grieves. for example, there are few sights more cheering on a late september day than to find by some bare tidal river a colony of the marsh-mallow. the most admired member of the family is usually the muskmallow; and certainly it is a very pretty flower, with its bright foliage and the pink satiny sheen of its corolla; but far more charming, though less showy in appearance, is its modest sister of the salt marshes, whose leaves, overspread with hoary down, are soft as softest velvet, and her petals steeped in as tender and delicate a tint of palest rose-colour as could be imagined in dreams. there is something especially gracious about this _althæa_, or "healer"; and her virtues are not more soothing to body than to mind. it was from the sussex shingles that i started, and from the same shore my concluding picture shall be drawn--a quaint sea-posy that i picked there on an october afternoon, not so romantic, certainly, as one of violets or forget-me-nots, but in that sere season not less heartening than any nosegay of the spring. it held but three flowers, samphire, sea-rocket, and sea-heath. the samphire, at all times a singular and attractive herb, was now in fruit, and had faded to a wan yellow; the rocket was still in flower, its lilac blossoms crowning the solid glaucous stalk, and its thick fleshy leaves rivalling the texture of seaweed; the small sea-heath, with wiry reddish stems and dark-green foliage, lent itself by a natural contrast for twining around its bulkier companions. thus grouped they stood for weeks in a vase on my mantel, until the time for wildflowers was overpast, and the "black and tan" days of winter were already let loose on the earth. and even when the year is actually at its lowest, the sunnier times can be revived and re-enacted in thought; for memory is potent as that wizard in morris's poem, who in the depth of a northern christmastide could so wondrously transform the season, that through one window men beheld the spring, and through another saw the summer glow, and through a third the fruited vines a-row; while still unheard, but in its wonted way, piped the drear wind of that december day. such flowery scenes has the writing of this little book brought back to me, and has robbed at least one winter of many cheerless hours. index alpine bartsia, ; forget-me-not, ; lady's-mantle, ; meadow-rue, , , , ; mouse-ear, ; penny-cress, , ; saw-wort, , , amberley wild brooks, , arnside, - arundel park, , avens, mountain, , , ; water, , , baneberry, , , bellflower, ivy-leaved, , , , bladderwort, , , borage, butterwort, , , carpenter, edward, , , , castleton, chiltern hills, , , , cinquefoil, marsh, , , ; shrubby, , ; vernal, cloudberry, crabbe (quoted), , cranberry, crow-garlic, cuckmere haven, cwm glas, , - cwm idwal, - dwale, farrer, reginald, , , fritillary, , fungi, gentian, ; marsh, , ; vernal, , , gerarde, john, , , , , , , , , , , globe-flower, , , gorse, , hare's-ear, "common," , , , ; slender, , hellebore, , hemlock, henbane, , hound's-tongue, , hudson, w. h., , (note), , , hutchinsia, , , jefferies, richard, , johns, c. a., , , jupp, w. j., kinderscout, - lady's-mantle, , ; alpine, letchworth, , , lewes brooks, - lily of the valley, , , lloyd, e. bertram, , , , , macmillan, hugh, (note), , marjoram, , , , marsh-cinquefoil, , marsh-mallow, meadow-rue, alpine, , , , ; lesser, meadow-sage, , monk's-hood, , morris, william, (note), , , moschatel, , moss-campion, , , , mouse-ear, alpine, nightshade, deadly, , , nixon, robert, , norton common, , nottingham catch-fly, , olivier, sir sydney, orchis, - , , , , , , ; bee, ; man, ; musk, ; spider, - orme's head, , pagham harbour, pansy, mountain, , , , , perfoliates, , , pevensey, shingles, ; levels, , pilgrim's way, pink, proliferous, ; deptford, ; maiden, pratt, anne, , , , , primrose, , , ; bird's-eye, , , ; water "violet," , , rampion, , , rock-rose, , , , , , saffron, meadow, st. john's-worts, , , , , salmon, c. e., samphire, , , sandwort, vernal, , , , saw-wort, alpine, , , saxifrages, , , , ; mossy, , , ; purple, , , - ; snow, , , ; starry, , , , ; yellow, , , sheep's scabious, shelley (quoted), , , - , , shoreham shingles, - snapdragon, , snowdon, , - spiderwort, , , squinancy-wort, , stitchwort, , sweet cicely, teesdale, upper, , - thistle, "melancholy," , thoreau, h. d., , , , ; his _journal_, - thorn-apple, trefoils, , , , ; starry-headed, , vaughan, canon j., (note), vetches, , , viper's bugloss, , virgil, , water-soldier, , white, gilbert, , , wordsworth, , , , wye valley, , yellow-wort, , _printed in great britain by_ unwin brothers the gresham press, london and woking transcriber's note this plain text version of the book uses latin- symbols in addition to ascii character set. [oe] is used to represent the oe ligature. minor changes to punctuation and formatting are made without comment. changes to the text, to correct typographical errors, are listed as follows: page (paragraph on the eared sallow): changed "that" to "than" (... which are usually less than two inches long,...) * * * * * a list of the volumes in the wayside and woodland series wayside and woodland blossoms a pocket guide to british wild flowers, for the country rambler. (first and second series.) with clear descriptions of species. by edward step, f.l.s. and coloured figures of species by mabel e. step. wayside and woodland trees a pocket guide to the british sylva. by edward step, f.l.s. with plates from water-colour drawings by mabel e. step and photographs by henry irving and the author. wayside and woodland ferns a pocket guide to the british ferns, horsetails and club-mosses. by edward step, f.l.s. with coloured figures of every species by mabel e. step. and photographs by the author. the butterflies of the british isles a pocket guide for the country rambler. with clear descriptions and life histories of all the species. by richard south, f.e.s. with coloured figures photographed from nature, and numerous black and white drawings. the moths of the british isles (first and second series). a complete pocket guide to all the species included in the groups formerly known as macro-lepidoptera. by richard south, f.e.s. with upwards of coloured figures photographed from nature, and numerous black and white drawings. at all booksellers. _full prospectuses on application to the publishers--_ frederick warne and co. london: , bedford street, strand. new york: , east rd street. wayside and woodland trees. [illustration: _pl. ._ flowers of horse chestnut. _frontispiece._] wayside and woodland trees a pocket guide to the british sylva by edward step, f.l.s. author of "wayside and woodland blossoms" "the romance of wild flowers" "shell life" etc. _with one hundred and seventy-five plates from water-colour drawings by mabel e. step and photographs by henry irving and the author._ london frederick warne & co. and new york (_all rights reserved_) "_of all man's works of art, a cathedral is greatest. a vast and majestic tree is greater than that._" _henry ward beecher._ preface. the purpose of this volume is not the addition of one more to the numerous treatises upon sylviculture or forestry, but to afford a straightforward means for the identification of our native trees and larger shrubs for the convenience of the rural rambler and nature-lover. the list of british arborescent plants is a somewhat meagre one, but all that could be done in a pocket volume by way of supplementing it has been done--by adding some account of those exotics that have long been naturalized in our woods, and a few of more recent introduction that have already become conspicuous ornaments in many public and private parks. in this edition forty-eight extra plates have been added, of which twenty-four are in colours. the latter are in part reproductions of water-colour studies of flowers and fruits, and partly from photographs by a new method. for the black and white plates, the photographs, it should be explained, have been taken upon a novel plan in most cases. this consists in photographing a deciduous tree in its summer glory, and returning to the same spot in winter and photographing the same individual, so that a striking comparison may be made between the summer and winter aspects of the principal species. supplementary photographs are given, in many cases, of the bole, which exhibit the character of the bark, and should prove a valuable aid in the identification of species. others show in larger detail the flowers or fruit, and the characteristic leaf-buds in spring. the figures in the text have all been expressly drawn for the work with a view to showing at a glance the general character of the foliage, and in most cases the flower and fruit. the work is divided into two sections. part i. including those species that are generally considered to be indigenous to the british islands, with briefer notices of the introduced species that are closely related to them. part ii. being devoted to those of foreign origin, some of them introduced so long ago that they are commonly regarded as native by those who are not botanists. introductory. there are two points of view from which to regard trees--the mercantile and the æsthetic. the former is well exemplified in dumbiedyke's advice to jock: "jock, when ye hae naething else to do, ye may be aye sticking in a tree; it will be growing, jock, when ye're sleeping." the canny scot was thinking of the "unearned increment" another generation might gather in, due to the almost unceasing activity of the vegetable cells in the manufacture of timber. the other view was expressed by "the autocrat of the breakfast-table" in a letter to a friend: "whenever we plant a tree we are doing what we can to make our planet a more wholesome and happier dwelling-place for those who come after us, if not for ourselves." but, after all, it is the trees that have been planted by nature that give the greatest pleasure apart from commercial considerations--the lonely pine, that grows in rugged grandeur on the edge of the escarpment where its seed was planted in the crevice by the wind; the oak that grows outside the forest, where a squirrel or a jay dropped the acorn, and where the young tree had room all its life to throw out its arms as it would; the little cluster of birches that springs from the ferns and moss of the hillside. all trees so grown develop an individuality that is not apparent in their fellows of the timber forest; and however we may delight in the peace and quiet of the forest, with its softened light and cool fragrant air, we can there only regard the trees in a mass. we might, indeed, reverse the old saying, and declare that we cannot see the trees on account of the wood. nature and the timber-producer have different aims and pursue different methods in the making of forests, though the latter is not above taking a hint from the former occasionally. nature mixes her seeds and sows them broadcast over the land she intends to turn into forest, that the more vigorous kinds may act as nurses, sheltering and protecting the less robust. then comes the struggle for existence, with its final ending in the survival of the fittest. in the mean time the mixed forest has given shelter to an enormous population of smaller fry--plants, mammals, birds, and insects--and has been a delightful recreation ground for man. the timber-producer aims at so controlling the struggle for existence that the survival of the fit is maintained from start to finish. he plants his young trees in regular order, putting in nurses at intervals and along the borders, intending to cut them down when his purpose has been served. the timber trees are allowed no elbow-room, the putting forth of lateral branches is discouraged, but steady upward growth and the production of "canopy" is abetted. his aim is to get these timber-sticks as near alike as possible, free from individuality, and with the minimum of difference in girth at top and bottom of each pole. this means a thicker and longer balk of clean timber when the tree is felled and squared. the continuous canopy induces growth in the upward direction only, and discourages the weeds and undergrowth that add to the charm of the forest, but which unprofitably use up the wood-producing elements in the soil. this plan contrasts strongly with the views on planting formerly prevalent in this country, john evelyn, for example, making a special point of giving the oak room to stretch out its arms, "free from all incumbrances." but, then, unlike the timber-producers, evelyn had an eye for landscape beauty, and giving an opportunity for the display of such beauty. he says: "and if thus his majesty's forests and chases were stored, viz. with this spreading tree at handsome intervals, by which grazing might be improved for the feeding of deer and cattle under them (for such was the old saltus), being only visited with the gleams of the sun, and adorned with the distant landscapes appearing through the glades and frequent valleys, nothing could be more ravishing." the greater the success of the forester, the more profound is the solemn stillness of the forest--and the more monotonous. in place of the natural forest, with its varied and teeming life, we have what wordsworth called a timber factory. in the natural forest, with its mixture of many kinds of trees, the undergrowth of shrubs, and carpet of grass and weeds, the stronger trees spread out their arms in all directions, and fritter away (as the scientific forester would say) their wood-producing powers in making much firewood and little valuable timber. but the result is very beautiful, and the nature-lover can wander among it without tiring, and can study without exhausting its treasures. emerson says: "in the woods is perpetual youth. within these plantations of god a decorum and sanctity reign, a perennial festival is dressed, and the guest sees not how he should tire of them in a thousand years." to the scientific forester this is all waste land, and he pleads for the "higher culture" being applied to it. with every desire that the natural resources of our country should be properly developed, we do hope that he will not be entirely successful in his efforts, and that a few of the woods and wastes of nature's own planting may be left for the recreation of the simple folk who have not yet taken to appraising the value of everything by the price it will fetch in the market. the trees described in this volume are the really wild growths that have lived a natural life; and though many of the photographs are from planted trees, they are such as have been allowed to grow as they would, and show the characteristic branching of the species. a few words on the life of a tree may be welcomed here by those readers who have not made a study of botany. although the nurseryman makes use of suckers and cuttings for the quicker multiplication of certain species, every tree in its natural habitat produces seeds and is reproduced by them. the flowering of our forest trees is a phenomenon that does not as a rule attract attention, but their fruiting or seed-bearing becomes patent to all who visit the woods in autumn. a tree has lived many years before it is capable of producing seed. the seed-bearing age is different in each species; thus the oak begins to bear when it is between sixty and seventy years old, the ash between forty and fifty, the birch and sweet chestnut at twenty-five years. some produce seed every year after that period is reached, others every second, third, or fifth year; others, again, bear fitfully except at intervals of from six to nine years, when they produce an enormous crop. most tree-seeds germinate in the spring following their maturity, but they are not all distributed when ripe. the birch, the elm, and the aspen, for examples, retain their seeds until spring, and these germinate soon after they have been dispersed. the seeds contain sufficient nutriment to feed the seedling whilst it is developing it roots and first real leaves. we can, of course, go further back in starting our observations of the life progress of the monarch of the forest. we can dissect the insignificant greenish flower of the oak when the future seed (acorn) is but a single cell, a tiny bag filled with protoplasm. from that early stage to the period when the tree is first ripe for conversion into timber we span a century and a half, equal to two good human lives, and the oak is but at the point where a man attains his majority. the oak is built up after the fashion by which man attains to his full stature. it is a process of multiplication of weak, minute cells, which become specialized for distinct offices in the economy of the vegetable community we call a tree. some go to renew and enlarge the roots, others to the perfecting of that system of vessels through which the crude fluids from the roots are carried up to the topmost leaf, whence, after undergoing chemical transformation in the leaf laboratory, it is circulated to all parts of the organism to make possible the production of more cells. each of these has a special task, and it becomes invested with cork or wood to enable it to become part of the bark or the timber; or it remains soft and develops the green colouring matter, which enables it, when exposed to sunlight, to manufacture starch from carbon and water. this is very similar to what takes place in the human organism, where the nutriment taken in is used up in the production of new cells, which are differentiated into muscle-cells, bone-cells, epidermal-cells, and so forth, building up or renewing muscles or nerves, bones or arteries; but the mechanism of distribution is different, the heart-pump doing the work of capillary attraction and gravitation. the ancients believed in the dryads, spirits that were imprisoned in trees, and whose life was coterminous with that of the tree; and it will be seen that they had stronger physical justification for their belief than they knew. shakespeare relates how sycorax, the witch-mother of caliban, imprisoned ariel in a tree; and huxley finely tells us that "the plant is an animal confined in a wooden case; and nature, like sycorax, holds thousands of 'delicate ariels' imprisoned in every oak. she is jealous of letting us know this; and among the higher and more conspicuous forms of plants reveals it only by such obscure manifestations as the shrinking of the sensitive plant, the sudden clasp of the dionæa, or, still more slightly, by the phenomena of the cyclosis." the tree, as we have indicated, gets its food from the air and the soil. the rootlets have the power of dissolving the mineral salts in the soil in which they ramify; some authorities believing that they are materially helped in this respect--so far as organic matter is concerned--by a fungus that invests them with a mantle of delicate threads. however that may be, the fluid that is taken up by the roots is not merely water, but water plus dissolved mineral matter and nitrogen. at the same time as the roots are thus absorbing liquid nutriment, the leaves, pierced with thousands of little _stomata_, or mouths, take in atmospheric air, which is compounded chiefly of the gases oxygen and carbon. the leaf-cells containing the green colouring matter (_chlorophyll_) seize hold of the carbon and release the oxygen. the carbon is then combined with the fluid from the roots by the vital chemistry of the leaves, and is circulated all over the system for the sustenance of all the organs and tissues. the flowering of the trees varies so greatly that it can only be dealt with satisfactorily as each species is described. it may be stated, however, that all the true forest trees are wind-fertilized, and therefore have inconspicuous greenish blossoms. by true forest trees we mean those that alone or slightly mixed are capable of forming high forest. the smaller trees, such as crab, rowan, cherry, blackthorn, hawthorn, buckthorn, etc., belong more to the open woodland, to the common and the hedgerow. these, from their habitat, can be seen singly, and therefore can make use of the conspicuous flowers that are fertilized by insects. wayside and woodland trees. part i. native trees and shrubs. the oak (_quercus robur_). when good john evelyn wrote his "sylva, or a discourse of forest trees," he was greatly concerned lest our "wooden walls" should diminish in strength for want of a succession of stout oaks in our woodlands, and therefore he put the oak in the forefront of his discourse. to-day steel and teak have largely supplanted oak in the building of our navy, and our walls of defence are no longer of wood. yet in spite of these changes, and the consequent reduction of the oak's importance, we must still look upon it as the typical british tree, and, regardless of its place in botanical classifications, we shall follow the lead of our master and place it first on our list. there is no necessity for entering upon a minute description of the botanical characters of so well known a tree. the sturdy, massive trunk, firm as a rock; the broad, rounded outline of its head, caused by the downward sweeping extremities of the wide-spreading lower limbs; the wavy outline of the lobed leaves, and the equally distinct egg-and-cup-shaped fruit--these are characters that cannot be confused with those of any other tree, and are the most familiar objects in the landscape in most parts of our islands. to my mind, no wood is so awe-inspiring as one filled with old oaks, all so much alike, yet each with a distinct individuality. we regard with reverence a human centenarian, who may have nothing beyond his great age to commend him to us; but we think of the long period of history of which he has been a spectator, possibly an active maker of history. the huge oak has probably lived through ten or twenty such periods. compared with the oak, man is but of mushroom growth. it does not produce an acorn until sixty or seventy years old, and even then it is not mature. not till a century and a half have passed over its head is its timber fit for use, and as a rule it is not felled under the age of two hundred years. many trees are left to a much greater age, or we should not have still with us so many venerable specimens, and where they have not been left until partially decayed, the timber is found to be still very valuable when finally cut down. of one of these patriarchs of the forest, cut down in the year , we have figures of quantity and value from a contemporary record. it was known as the gelenos oak, and stood about four miles from newport, monmouthshire. when felled, it yielded cubic feet of sound timber, and six tons of bark. it was bought just as it stood for £ , and the purchaser had to pay £ for labour for stripping, felling, and converting into timber. five men were employed for twenty days in stripping the bark and felling the tree, and after that a pair of sawyers, working six days a week, were five months cutting it up. but the bark realized £ , and the timber about £ . the timber and bark from this one tree were about equal to the average produce of three acres of oak coppice after fifteen years growth. [illustration: _pl. ._ oak--summer.] [illustration: _pl. ._ oak--winter.] full-grown oaks vary in height from sixty to one hundred and thirty feet, the difference depending upon situation; the tallest, of course, being those that have been drawn up in forests, at the expense of their branches. trees growing freely in the open are of less height, and are made to appear comparative dwarfs by the huge proportions of the bole. in the forest this may be no more than ten feet in girth, but in isolated specimens may be as much as fifty-four feet (cowthorpe oak), with a much broader base. the thick rough bark is deeply furrowed in a large network pattern, which affords temporary hiding-places for insects. the branches are much given to turn and zig-zag from side to side--a character that makes them very useful in boat-building, as "knees" of various angles may be cut from them without having recourse to bending. the best knees are to be obtained from oaks grown in the hedgerow. [illustration: oak. a, female flower; b, male flowers.] the oak flowers in april or may, and the blossoms are of two distinct forms--male and female. the males are in little clusters, which are borne at intervals along a hanging stalk, two or three inches in length. they are green, and therefore inconspicuous; but examined separately, they will be found to have a definite calyx, whose margin is cut into an uncertain number ( - ) of lobes. there are no petals, but attached to the sides of the calyx there are ten stamens. the female flowers are fewer, and will be found on short erect stalks above the male catkins. each female flower consists of a calyx, invested by a number of overlapping scales, and enclosing an ovary with three styles. the ovary is divided into three cells, each containing two seed-eggs. an acorn should therefore contain six kernels, but, as a rule, only one of the seed-eggs develops, though occasionally an acorn contains two kernels. the overlapping scales at the base of the female flower become the rough cup that holds the acorn. the oak is subject to a considerable amount of variation, probably due to differences of situation, soil, etc., and some authors have sought to elevate certain of the varieties into species by giving them distinctive names. it does not appear to be certain, however, that these forms are at all constant, and they are connected by intermediate forms that make the identification of many individuals a matter of difficulty. in one of these forms (_sessiliflora_) the stalk of the acorns connecting them with the branch is very short, but the leaves have a distinct footstalk, from half an inch to an inch long. this form is more plentiful in the north and west, and is conspicuous in the forest of dean. a second form, known as _pedunculata_, has the leaf-stalk short or absent, the base of the leaf broad and somewhat heart-shaped, and the stalk upon which the acorns are borne very long. a third form (_intermedia_), commonly known as durmast, has short leaf-stalks, short stalks to the acorns, and the under side of the leaf downy. _pedunculata_ is found more on the lower hills and the sides of valleys, whilst _sessiliflora_ prefers higher ground, with a southern or western aspect. [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of oak.] [illustration: _pl. ._ flowers of oak.] the oak is most abundant on clay soils, but is at its best when growing in deep sandy loam, where there is also plenty of humus. its roots in such soil strike down to a depth of five feet, and therefore it thrives in association with beech, whose roots are much nearer the surface, and whose fallen leaves supply it with humus. the oak is more persistently attacked by insects than any other tree. one authority (leunis) has tabulated the species that get their living mainly or entirely from their attacks on the foliage, timber, or bark, and they number about five hundred. with some species this warfare is waged on so extensive a scale, that in some years by early summer the oaks are almost divested of their foliage, and a new crop of leaves becomes a necessity. but the reserve forces of the oak are quite equal to this drain, and the tree does not appear to suffer, though a much less thorough attack would be serious to a conifer. one of the worst of these oak-spoilers--though it by no means restricts its energies to attacks on this tree--is the mottled umber moth (_hibernia defoliaria_), whose pretty caterpillars may be seen hanging by silken threads from the leafless twigs. a striking oak insect is the stag beetle (_lucanus cervus_), which, in warm evenings in the south of england, may be seen flying round the oaks, the size and antler-like jaws of the male arousing feelings of respect in the minds of those who are not acquainted with its habits. the formidable looking "horns" are usually harmless. the beetle spends its larval stage in the wood of unhealthy oaks, and, when mature, seeks his hornless mate among its foliage. perhaps the most interesting of the oak's pensioners to the woodland rambler will be the varied forms of gall on different parts of the tree. there is the so-called oak-apple, of uneven surface and spongy to the touch, which certain people still wear on may th, in honour of charles ii.; the well-rounded hard bullet-gall of _cynips kollari_, the artichoke-gall of _cynips gemmæ_, the spangle-galls of _neuroterus lenticularis_, so plentiful on the back of the leaf, and the root-gall of _biorhiza aptera_. all these galls are abnormal growths, due to the irritation set up by the gall-wasps named, when they pierced the young tissues in order to lay their eggs in them. where any of these galls are perforated it may be known that the gall-wasp whose grub fed within has flown, but where there is no such perforation the grub is still within, feeding upon the flesh of the gall, or in the chrysalis stage, awaiting translation to the winged condition. several oaks of foreign origin are also grown in our parks and open spaces; among them the holm oak (_quercus ilex_) whose evergreen leathery leaves have toothed or plain edges, and occasionally the lower ones develop marginal spines, whence its name of holm or holly oak. it is notable for retaining its lower branches, so that its appearance, as loudon remarks, "even when fully grown, is that of an immense bush, rather than that of a timber tree." it is a native of southern europe and north africa, and appears to have been introduced about the middle of the sixteenth century. it usually attains a height of from twenty to thirty feet, but occasionally specimens are seen up to sixty feet. it has a much thinner, more even bark than that of our native oak, and of a black colour. the long brown acorns do not ripen until the second year. [illustration: _pl. ._ holm oak.] [illustration: _pl. ._ acorns of turkey oak.] the turkey oak (_quercus cerris_) is a much larger tree, attaining to similar heights to our british oak, but easily distinguishable by its more pyramidal outline, and its attenuated leaves. the lance-shaped lobes of these are unequal, sharp, and angular; and the footless acorn-cups are covered with bristly or mossy-looking scales. the acorns, which are small and exceedingly bitter, rarely ripen till their second autumn. the whole tree--trunk, branches, and twigs--is of straighter growth than _quercus robur_. it is a native of southern europe and the levant, and was introduced about one hundred and seventy years ago. the spring rambler in the woods may come upon a party of woodmen stripping young oaks of their bark, or felling them, whilst cylinders of separated bark rest across poles in the process of drying. this is the industry of barking for the purpose of the tanner. when the oaks in a coppice are about sixteen years old they are most suitable for this purpose, the bark then containing a larger percentage of _tannin_ than at any other period. the operation is best performed in may, when the sap is in flow, and should be completed between the first swelling of the leaf-buds and the unrolling of the leaves. if the weather is cold and damp the bark will peel the better, provided there is an absence of north or east winds. before the tree is cut down the bole is stripped, the first ring being taken from just above the roots to a height of two and a half feet above. when the tree is felled, it is cut into lengths and the bark stripped from them; then all branches that are an inch or more in diameter are peeled. the bark is piled to dry for a couple of weeks, and is then broken into small pieces and sent away in sacks. it is not alone in the use of the bark that the tannic acid of the oak is made evident; it is to the presence of this that the austerity of the acorn is due, and also the ink-producing properties of certain oak-galls. everything connected with the tree gets a roughness of flavour from this same principle. even that remarkable fungus, the vegetable beef-steak, that may be found on old oaks in autumn, is impregnated with it. prior regards the name oak (anglo-saxon _ac_) as originally belonging to the fruit, and only later transferred to the tree that produces it. the more obvious explanation (though we know that in etymological and other matters the obvious is not always the true interpretation) is, that acorn (ac-corn) signified the corn or fruit of the ac. selby tells us that "during the anglo-saxon rule, and even for some time after the conquest, oak-forests were chiefly valued for the fattening of swine. laws relating to pannage, or the fattening of hogs in the forest, were enacted during the heptarchy; and by ina's statutes, any person wantonly injuring or destroying an oak-tree was mulcted in a fine varying according to size, or the quantity of mast it produced." * * * * * [illustration: _pl. ._ fruit of beech.] [illustration: _pl. ._ beech--summer.] [illustration: _pl. ._ acorns of pedunculate oak.] the beech (_fagus sylvatica_). we speak of the oak as the "monarch of the woods," and to the beech the title "mother of forests" has been given. to the timber-merchant the beech has little importance, but the grower of timber freely acknowledges his heavy indebtedness to this nursing mother, for, in the words of professor gayer, the bavarian forestry expert, "without beech there can no more be properly tended forests of broad-leaved genera, as along with it would have to be given up many other valuable timber-trees, whose production is only possible with the aid of beech." quite apart from utilitarian considerations, we should be very sorry to lose the beech, with its towering, massive shaft clad in smooth grey bark, its spreading roots above the soil, and the dense shade of its fine foliage. fortunately for the lover of natural beauty, it is this luxuriant growth of leaves and the shade it gives that are the redeeming virtues of the beech in the eye of the forester. its drip destroys most of the soil-exhausting weeds, its shade protects the soil from over-evaporation, and the heavy crop of leaves enriches it by their decomposition. on these points the forestry experts of to-day join hands with john evelyn, who, nearly years ago, thus referred to it--"the shade unpropitious to corn and grass, but sweet, and of all the rest, most refreshing to the weary shepherd--_lentus in umbra_, echoing amaryllis with his oaten pipe." and, again, after giving us a long catalogue of the varied uses to which beechwood may be put, he adds--"yet for all this, you would not wonder to hear me deplore the so frequent use of this wood, if you did consider that the industry of france furnishes that country for all domestic utensils with excellent walnut, a material infinitely preferable to the best beech, which is indeed good only for shade and for the fire." in the days of open hearths and chimney corners the beech was extensively used for fuel, and it is still reputed to make good charcoal; but to-day the chairmaker and the turner are the chief users of its wood. [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of beech.] the beech well grown attains a height of about feet, and a girth of feet. there was, until recently, a beech in norbury park, surrey, feet in height. its branches horizontally spreading gave it a head of enormous proportions. hooker gives the _diameter_ of the knowle beech as feet, which means a circumference of about as many yards. it will grow in most upland places where the oak thrives, though it does not need so deep a soil, and has a preference for land containing lime. fresh mineral soils, rich in humus, are the best for it. in poor soils its growth is slow and its life is longer. it begins to bear mostly at about eighteen years of age, and thereafter gives good crops at intervals of three or five years. in spring, just before the buds expand, the twigs of the beech have a very distinct appearance. they are long and slender, placed alternately along the twig, and the brown envelopes retain their shape long after they have been cast off. it is interesting to note how well these are mimicked by a glossy spindle-shaped snail (_clausilia laminata_) that has a decided fondness for the beech. as the snails crawl up the bole or over the moss at its base, it is not easy at a glance to say which are snails and which bud-envelopes. this is one of the protective resemblances adopted by many animals to give them a chance of eluding their natural enemies--in this case the thrush and other birds. in the bud the leaf is folded fan-wise, and the folds run parallel with the nerves. they expand into an oval, smooth-faced leaf, with slightly scooped edges, and a most delicate fringe of short gossamer, which falls off later. these leaves evelyn recommended as a stuffing for beds, declaring that if "gathered about the fall, and somewhat before they are much frost-bitten, [they] afford the best and easiest mattresses in the world to lay under our quilts instead of straw.... in switzerland i have sometimes lain on them to my great refreshment." that last clause seems to imply that the authorities at home would not allow the introduction of new-fangled bed-stuffings, but remained true to straw. these leaves are rich in potash, and as they readily decay, they produce an admirable humus. in sheltered places the leaves, turned to a light ruddy-brown colour, are retained on the lower branches until cast off by the expansion of the new buds. in early summer, whilst the leaves are still pellucid, the shade of a big beech is particularly inviting. later the leaves become opaque, and their glossy surfaces throw back the heat rays. then the play of light upon the great mass of foliage is very fine; but when autumn has turned their deep green to orange and warm ruddy brown, and they catch the red rays of the westering sun, the tree appears to be turned into a blazing fire. [illustration: _pl. ._ beech--winter.] [illustration: leaves, flowers, and fruit of beech. a, female; b, male flowers.] the beech flowers in april or may. the blossoms are rather more conspicuous than is the case with the oak, for the male flowers are gathered together in a hanging purplish-brown rounded tassel with yellow anthers. the female flowers, to the number of two, three, or four, are clustered in a "cupule" of overlapping scales, like those of the oak. but in the beech the "cupule" becomes a bristly closed box, which afterwards opens by one end splitting into four triangular silk-hair-lined valves, which turn back and reveal the three-sided, sharp-edged "mast." this mast was formerly a very valuable product of the beech-woods, when herds of swine were turned in them to feed upon the fallen beech-nuts. agricultural methods have changed; but though our hogs are now confined in styes, and fed on a diet that more rapidly fattens, beech-mast is still a good food eagerly taken by such woodland denizens as badgers, deer, squirrels, and dormice. the vitality of the beech is so high that quite frequently the bole divides at its upper part into several trunks, which rise straight up, and each attains the dimensions of a complete tree. often such a tree stands on a sandy bank, and seems in imminent danger of toppling over, but its uprightness secures it against strain, and the roots that it sent down the steep side of the bank have thickened into strong props. many such trees may be found along the hollow lanes in the greensand district of surrey, and we have more than once sheltered from a storm under their roots. we have already mentioned the value of the beech as a nurse for other trees, and its frequent use for that purpose, but it should also be stated that it is a powerful competitor with other trees, and if these are left to fight their own battles unaided, the beech will be the conqueror. evelyn saw this more than two centuries ago, and pointed out that where mixed woods of oak and beech were left to themselves, they ultimately became pure beech woods. the beech appears to gain this advantage through rooting in the surface soil, and, exhausting it of food elements, suffers none to penetrate to the lower strata, where the oak has its roots. a number of insects feed upon the beech, but they are mostly more beautiful or more singular than destructive. the copper beech, which is so effectively used for ornament in parks, is merely a sub-variety of the common beech, and all the examples in cultivation are believed to be "sports" from the purple variety, which itself was a natural sport discovered in a german wood little more than a hundred years ago. the modern word beech is derived from the anglo-saxon _boc_, _bece_, _beoce_, which had very similar equivalents in all branches of the german and scandinavian family, and from the fact that the literature of these people was inscribed on tablets of beech, our word _book_ has the same origin. * * * * * [illustration: _pl. ._ birch--summer.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of birch.] [illustration: _pl. ._ catkins of birch.] the birch (_betula alba_). "the lady of the woods," as coleridge christened the birch, is at once the most graceful, the hardiest, and the most ubiquitous of our forest trees. it grows throughout the length and breadth of our islands, and seems happy alike on a london common, in a suburban garden, or far up in the scottish highlands ( feet). it penetrates farther north than any other tree, and its presence is a great boon to the natives of lapland. it will grow where it is subjected to great heat, as well as where it must endure extreme cold, with its slender roots exploring the beds of peat, the rich humus of the old wood, or the raw soil of the mountain-side, where it has to cling to rocks and a few mosses. given plenty of light, and it seems to care for little else. though a mere shrub in the far north, with us the birch has a trunk sometimes as tall as eighty, but more frequently fifty feet, and a girth of from two to three feet. in its first decade it increases in height at the rate of a foot and a half or two feet in a year; but, of course, there is little breadth to be built up at the same time. it reaches maturity in half a century, and before the other half is reached the birch will have passed away. the bark of the birch is more enduring than its timber, which may be partly due to its habit of casting off the outer layer in shreds, like fine tissue-paper, from time to time. the greater part of the bark is silvery white, which adds to the apparent slenderness of the tree, and makes it conspicuous from a long distance; for the attenuated and drooping branches, dressed in small and loosely hung leaves, sway so constantly that the trunk is scarcely hidden. the glossy, leathery leaves vary in shape from a triangular form to a pointed oval, their edges doubly toothed, and their footstalks long and slender. [illustration: birch leaves and catkins.] about april the hanging catkins of the birch, which were in evidence in the previous autumn, have matured and become dark crimson; the scales separate and expose the two stamens of each flower, which has a single sepal. the female flowers are in a short, more erect spike, which consists of overlapping scales (_bracts_), each containing two or three flowers. the flowers have neither petals nor sepals, each consisting merely of an ovary with two slender styles. after fertilization the female spike has developed into a little oblong cone. the minute nuts have a pair of delicate wings to each, and as they are set free from the cones they flutter on the breeze like a swarm of small flies. the moss that usually covers the ground beneath the birch will be found in october to be thickly speckled with these fruits, which are something more than seeds, as they are commonly termed; they are really analogous to the acorn--a nut within a thin shell. the tree sometimes begins to produce seed when only fifteen years old; but, as a rule, it is ten years older before it bears, and thereafter it has a crop every year. it is strange how so striking and graceful a tree could have been so persistently ignored by the old school of landscape painters, when one remembers with what good effect modern artists have utilized it. in this connection we need not apologize for quoting at length a description of the tree from the artist's point of view, because it also gives attention to those points one would like the rambler to notice. mr. p. g. hamerton in his _sylvan year_, says-- "the stem ... of the silver birch is one of the masterpieces of nature. everything has been done to heighten its unrivalled brilliance. the horizontal peeling of the bark, making dark rings at irregular distances, the brown spots, the dark colour of the small twigs, the rough texture near the ground, and the exquisite silky smoothness of the tight white bands above, offer exactly that variety of contrast which makes us feel a rare quality like that smooth whiteness as strongly as we are capable of feeling it. and amongst the common effects in all northern countries, one of the most brilliant is the opposition of birch trunks in sunshine against the deep blue or purple of a mountain distance in shadow. at all seasons of the year the beauty of the birch is attractive and peculiarly its own. the young beech may remind you of it occasionally under strong effects of light, and is also very graceful, but we have no tree that rivals the birch in its own qualities of colour and form, still less in that air and bearing which are so much more difficult to describe. in winter you see the full delicacy of the sprays that the lightest foliage hides, and in early spring this tree clothes itself, next after the willow, with tiny triangular leaves, inexpressibly light in the mass, so that from a distance they have the effect of a green mist rather than anything more material. when the tree is isolated sufficiently to come against the sky, you may see one of the prettiest sights in nature--the pure deep azure of heaven, with the silvery white and fresh green of the birch in opposition. and yet it is not a crude green, for there is a good deal of warm red in it, which gives one of those precious tertiaries that all true colourists value." linnæus named our common birch _betula alba_; but more than a century ago ehrhart pointed out that there were two well-defined forms of the tree, which he proposed to separate as distinct species under the names of _b. verrucosa_ and _b. pubescens_. hooker regards the first of these as the typical form, for which he properly retains the linnæan name. it is distinguished by having the base of the bole covered with coarse, rough, and blackish bark, the _smooth_ leaves looking as though their base had been cut off, and the twigs warty. the _b. pubescens_ of ehrhart appears to be a variety of fries' _b. glutinosa_, which hooker treats as a sub-species of _b. alba_. the bark at its base is smooth and white, its _downy_ leaves have a triangular base, and its twigs are free from warts. it sometimes assumes a bush-like form. the dwarf birch (_betula nana_) is a distinct species, which occurs locally in the mountainous parts of northumberland and scotland. it is not a tree, but a bush, only two or three feet in height. its firm-textured, round leaves have scalloped margins and short footstalks. [illustration: _pl. ._ birch--winter.] the foliage of the birch in autumn turns to a yellow hue. at this period--and, indeed, for a month earlier--there may be seen beneath the birch-trees one of the most striking of our toadstools, the fly agaric (_amanita muscarius_), so-called from its use as the lethal ingredient in the making of fly-papers. from a bulbous base a creamy yellow stem arises, decked about half its height with an ample hanging frill. the upper side of the spreading "cap" is painted with crimson, over which are scattered flecks of white or cream kid--the remains of an outer envelope that was ruptured by the expansion of the cap, and of which the frill represents the lower portion. this species is really poisonous, and the kamschatkans are said to make their _vodka_ superlatively intoxicating by the addition of this fungus to it. on the trunk of the birch may sometimes be found a large fungus named _polyporus betulinus_, whose root-like portion penetrates the bark and sucks up the sap. birch-bark is used for tanning certain kinds of leather, and the peculiar odour of russian leather is said to be due to the use of birch in its preparation. the birch agrees with the beech in two respects--it is of little value for timber, but as a nurse to young timber-trees it is of considerable importance. its name is from the anglo-saxon _beorc_, _birce_, and signifies the bark-tree. * * * * * [illustration: _pl. ._ alder--summer.] the alder (_alnus glutinosa_). although the alder is abundant by riversides and in all low-lying moist lands as far north as caithness, it is not so generally well known at sight as the oak, the beech, and the birch. it is a small tree ordinarily only thirty to forty feet in height, with a girth from three to six feet, though occasionally it aspires to seventy feet in height. this is when it is growing in moist loam, upon which rain or floods have washed down good layers of humus from woods at a higher elevation. if, with its roots thus well cared for, its head is in a humid atmosphere, the alder is in happy case. if it has had the misfortune to get into a porous soil, though this may be moist enough to please an ash, the alder becomes merely a big bush. [illustration: alder.] the bark of the alder is rough and black, and the wood soft. whilst the tree is alive its wood is white, but when cut and exposed to the air it becomes red; finally, on drying, it changes to a pinkish tint. as timber it has no great reputation, except for piles or other submerged purposes, when it is said to be exceedingly durable. it has also enjoyed a great reputation for making the best charcoal for the gunpowder mills, and it is largely used by the turner, the wood-carver, and the cabinet-maker. the leaves, which have short stalks, and are from two to four inches long, are roundish with a wedge-shaped base. they have a waved and toothed margin, and remain green long after the leaves of other trees have fallen. in their young condition these leaves are covered with hairs, and are sticky to the touch, and it is to this fact that the name _glutinosa_ has reference. [illustration: _pl. ._ catkins of alder.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of alder.] the flowering of the alder is very similar to that of the birch, but the male catkins have red scales, and each flower four stamens. the female spikes have the fleshy scales covered by red-brown bracts of a woody consistence, which persist after the fruit has dropped out of them. seed is not produced until the alder is twenty years old, and the crop is repeated almost every year after. the cones are ripe about october or november, when they scatter their fruit, but the empty ones persist in hanging to the branches throughout the winter in numbers sufficient to give the leafless tree a brown appearance from a little distance. the immature male catkins are in evidence at the same time. there is a variety (_incisa_) of the alder in which the leaves are so deeply toothed that they bear a close resemblance to those of the hawthorn. in some localities the tree is called the howler and aller, the latter word apparently the original name, for its anglo-saxon forms were _ælr_, _alr_, and _aler_. [illustration: _pl. ._ alder--winter.] the hornbeam (_carpinus betulus_). the hornbeam is frequently passed by as a beech, to which it has a very close superficial likeness, but a comparison of leaves, flowers, or bole would at once make the differences obvious. it is usually found in similar situations to the beech, though it does not ascend so far up the hills as that species. on dry, poor soils it does not attain its full proportions and may only be classed as a small tree; but when growing on low ground, in rich loam or good clay, it reaches a height of seventy feet, with a girth of ten feet. if two measurements of the bole's diameter be taken at right angles to each other, they will be found to differ greatly. a section of the trunk will not show a circular outline, but rather an ellipse, the bole appearing to have been flattened on two sides. it is coated with a smooth grey bark, usually spotted with white. the leaves are less symmetrical than those of beech, and are broader towards the base. they are of rougher texture, hairy on the underside, and their edges are doubly toothed. in autumn they turn yellow, then to ruddy gold, but a few days later they have settled into the rusty hue they retain throughout the winter, in those cases where they remain on the tree until spring. the wood is exceedingly tough, and not to be worked up with ease, but it is considered to make admirable fuel. evelyn says, "it burns like a candle." there are those who say that the name hornbeam has reference to the tough or hornlike character of its beams; others declare that in the days when bullocks were yoked to the plough the yoke was made of this wood, as being fitted by its toughness to stand the strain, and as it was attached to the horns, it became the horn-beam. a third theory is that the name was derived from _ornus_, the manna-ash, with which early botanists confused it, but with all respect to the authority of dr. prior, who favours it, we prefer to stand on the first suggestion, with old john gerarde, who says ("herball," ): "in time it waxeth so hard that the toughnesse and hardnesse of it may be rather compared to horn than unto wood, and therefore it was called hornbeam or hardbeam." the carpenter is not pleased who has hornbeam to work up, for his tools lose their edge far too quickly for his labour to be profitable. evelyn tells us that it was called by some the horse-beech, from the resemblance of the leaves. [illustration: _pl. ._ hornbeam--summer.] [illustration: hornbeam.] the two kinds of catkins are similar and cylindrical, but whilst the male is pendulous from the beginning, the female is erect until after the formation of the fruit, when it gradually assumes the hanging position. the bracts of the male are oval, with sharp tips, each containing an uncertain ( - ) number of stamens. in the female the bracts fall early, but their place is taken by three-lobed bracteoles, which enlarge after flowering, and become an inch or an inch and a half long. a single flower occupies each bracteole, consisting of a two-celled ovary and two styles. only one cell develops, so that the hard green fruit contains but one seed. the appearance of these fruits in autumn as they hang in a spray from the underside of the branches is quite distinct from those of any other of our native trees. the hornbeam's title to be considered indigenous has had some doubts thrown upon it because there are some records of specimens having been introduced during the fifteenth century, but that is not sufficient ground upon which to deny nationality. we have known persons to bring home from distant parts as treasures wild plants and ferns that were growing within a mile of their own homes. it appears to be a real native of the southern and midland counties of england, and of wales. a line drawn across the map from north wales to norfolk roughly marks the limit; north of that line the hornbeam appears to have been planted, as also in ireland. [illustration: _pl. ._ hornbeam--winter.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of hornbeam.] [illustration: _pl. ._ fruits of hornbeam.] the hazel (_corylus avellana_). it is rarely that the hazel is allowed in this country to develop into a tree; as a rule it is a shrub, forming undergrowth in wood or copse, or part of a hedge. as it is cut down with the copse or hedge, it cannot form a standard of any size. but that the hazel left alone will develop into a small tree is shown by an example in eastwell park, kent, whose height a few years ago was thirty feet, with a circumference of three feet round the bole. as soon as the nuts are formed the bush is easily identified by all, so that a description of its character is hardly necessary. the large, roundish, heart-shaped leaves are arranged alternately in two rows along the straight downy shoots. their margins are doubly toothed, and when in the bud they are plaited, the folds being parallel to the midrib. soon after the buds open, many of the leaves assume a purplish tint for a while; in autumn they turn brown, and finally pale to yellow. [illustration: _pl. ._ hazel catkins.] [illustration: hazel. a, female flowers; b, male flowers.] before the leaves appear the hazel is rendered conspicuous by the male catkins, which are familiar to country children under the name of lamb's-tails. these may be seen in an undeveloped condition in the autumn, when the nuts are being sought. a cluster of two or three hard, little, grey-green cylinders is all that may then be seen of them; but throughout the winter they lengthen, their scales loosen, and in february they are a couple of inches long, pliant, and yellow with the abundant pollen which blows out of them as they swing. the female flowers are by no means conspicuous, and have to be looked for. they will be found in the form of swollen buds on the upper parts of the shoots and branches, from which issue some fine crimson threads. these are the styles and stigmas, and on dissection of the budlike head, each pair of styles will be seen to spring from a two-celled ovary nestling between the bracts or scales of which the head is composed. it is only rarely that the seed-egg in each cell develops; as a rule one shrivels, and the other develops into the sweet "kernel" of the hazel-nut. the shell is the ovary that has become woody and hard; the ragged-edged leathery "shuck" is the enlarged bracts that surrounded the minute flower. the hazel likes a good soil, and will not really flourish without it, though it will _grow_ almost anywhere, except where the moisture is stagnant. its wood is said to be best when grown on a chalky subsoil. of course, as timber, the hazel does not count, but its tough and pliant rods and staves are valuable for many small uses, such as the making of hoops for casks, walking-sticks, and--divining-rods! the bark is smooth and brown. the barcelona nut, imported so largely in winter, is only a variety of the hazel; as also the cob and the filbert, so largely cultivated in kent. the name is the anglo-saxon _hæsl_, or _hæsel_, and signifies a baton of authority, from the use of its rods in driving cattle and slaves. [illustration: _pl. ._ hazel nuts.] the lime (_tilia platyphyllos_). those persons who obtain their ideas of trees mainly from the specimens they can see in suburban roads and gardens are in danger of getting quite a false impression of the lime. it is a long suffering, good-tempered tree, and like human individuals of similar temperament, is subjected to shameful treatment. the suburban gardener who has a row of limes to trim uses the saw, and amputates every arm close up to the shoulder, so that when the season of budding and burgeoning arrives the row of limes will look like an upward extension in green of the brick wall. such are the atrocities upon which suburbia has to base its ideas of one of the most imposing of trees. [illustration: _pl. ._ lime-tree--summer.] the large-leaved lime, growing in park-land or meadow, with its roots deep in good light loam, and its head eighty or ninety feet above, is quite another matter. such a tree is a thing of beauty, and one can stand long at its base looking up among the wide-spreading limbs so well clothed with leaves of fine texture and tint. the girth of such a specimen at four feet from the ground would be about fifteen feet. larger individuals have been recorded, up to twenty-seven feet. there are three kinds of lime in general cultivation in this country, but the differences between them are not great. they are the large-leaved (_tilia platyphyllos_), the small-leaved (_t. parvifolia_), and the intermediate or common lime (_t. vulgaris_). the last-named is generally admitted to be an introduced kind, and it is the one most commonly planted. respecting the claims of the other two to rank as natives, there has been some difference of opinion among authorities. the small-leaved lime, which does not occur in woods north of cumberland, was regarded by borrer as a true indigene, but h. c. watson considered its claims as open to doubt, though he had no such doubt of the large-leaved lime, which is only growing really wild in the woods of herefordshire, radnorshire, and the west riding of yorkshire. all our limes have similar straight tall stems, clad in smooth bark, and with a similar habit of growth. they are trees that demand genial climatic conditions for their proper development, and in consequence they do not put forth their leaves until may. the period of their leafy glory is comparatively short, for they are among the trees that lose their leaves earliest in autumn, after having been for a few days transmuted into gold. the leaf of the lime is heart-shaped, with one of the basal lobes larger than the other, and the edges cut into saw-like teeth. there are slight differences in those of the three species, which will be indicated below. [illustration: lime.] in its floral arrangements the lime differs from the trees previously mentioned in that it has distinct sepals and petals, an abundance of honey, and strong, sweet fragrance as of honeysuckle. unlike them, it does not trust to so rough and ready an agent of fertilization as the wind, so that it waits until its boughs are well clothed with leaves before putting forth its yellowish-white blossoms. these are in clusters (_cymes_) of six or seven, the stalks of all arising from one very long and stouter stalk, which is attached for half its length to a thin and narrow bract. individually regarded, the flowers will be found to consist of five sepals, five petals, an oval ovary with a style ending in a five-toothed stigma, and surrounded by a large number of stamens. the stamens discharge their pollen before the stigma of that flower is fitted to receive it, so that cross-fertilization is ensured by the visits of the innumerable bees that visit the flowers for the abundant nectar they contain, and which the bees convert into a first-rate honey. [illustration: _pl. ._ flowers of lime.] [illustration: _pl. ._ fruits of lime.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of lime.] [illustration: _pl. ._ lime--winter.] the flowers are succeeded by globose little fruits, each about a quarter of an inch across, yellow, and covered with pale down. in a good season these will be found to contain one or two seeds, but too often in this country the summers are too cool to ripen them. the lime does not begin to bear until about its thirty-fifth year. it flowers every year thereafter, but the question of its seed-crop depends entirely upon the weather. for the purposes to which large timber is usually put, the light white wood of the lime is not highly esteemed, not being considered of sufficient durability; yet it serves for many smaller uses, where its lightness and fine grain are strong recommendations. it must not be forgotten that the wonderful carvings of grinling gibbons were executed in this wood. it is largely used by the makers of musical instruments; and, as every one knows, it is from the inner bark of the lime that those useful bast mats, which are imported from russia in such large numbers, are made. probably owing to its lightness, again, the wood was used in old times for making bucklers. the question of its value as timber is probably never taken into account when it is planted in this country, where its ornamental appearance as an avenue or shade-tree is its great recommendation. it is one of the long-lived trees, its full life-period being certainly five centuries. those in st. james's park are popularly supposed to have been planted, at the suggestion of john evelyn, somewhere about the year . there is a fine lime avenue in bushey park, probably planted by dutch william. deer and cattle are fond of the foliage and young shoots if they can get at them. numerous insects exhibit a like partiality; of these the caterpillar of the large and handsome lime hawk-moth (_smerinthus tiliæ_) is the most characteristic. the differences between the three species may be briefly noted:-- small-leaved lime (_tilia parvifolia_). does not attain the large proportions of the others. leaves about two inches across, smooth; on the lower surface the axils of the nerves are glaucous and downy, with hairy patches between nerves. fruit thin-shelled and brittle, downy, and very faintly ribbed. the upper leaves show a tendency to lobing. large-leaved lime (_tilia platyphyllos_). bark rougher. twigs hairy. leaves larger (four inches) and rougher, downy beneath, axils of the nerves woolly. fruit of more oval shape, woody and strongly ribbed when ripe. common lime (_tilia vulgaris_). intermediate between the others. leaves larger than those of _t. parvifolia_, smaller than those of _t. platyphyllos_; downy in axils beneath. twigs smooth. fruit woody, but without ribs. the name lime was originally linde, a form which, with the addition of _n_, is in use to-day. chaucer and other english writers spell it line and lyne, and the transition from this form to that commonly used to-day has been effected by changing the _n_ to _m_. originally it meant _pliant_, and had reference to the useful bast from which cordage and other flexible things were made. the wych elm (_ulmus montana_). of the two species of elms commonly grown in these islands this alone is a native, though the common or small-leaved elm (_ulmus campestris_) was introduced from the continent by the romans, so that it has had time to get itself widely distributed over our country. other names for the wych elm are mountain elm, scots elm, and witch hazel--the last-named being now more generally applied to an american plant, the _hamamelis_. the philologists appear to be uncertain as to the origin and meaning of wych, but it seems most probably a form of witch. just as a hazel-rod is used by water-finders, who declare that its movements indicate the presence of hidden springs, so a wand of _ulmus montana_ may have furnished the witch-finder with a witch hazel for the detection of witches! [illustration: _pl. ._ wych elm--summer.] [illustration: _pl. ._ fruits of wych elm.] the names _montana_, _campestris_, and mountain elm must not be allowed to mislead us as to the habits of the two species, for though the wych elm is known to reach an altitude of feet in the alps, here it ascends only to feet (yorks.), whilst _ulmus campestris_, which might be understood to be less a hill-climber, grows at an elevation of feet in derbyshire. as a matter of fact, both species are much fonder of valleys than of mountains. the wych elm forms a trunk of large size, from to feet or more in height, with a girth of feet, and covered with rough bark that is often corky. its long slender branches spread widely with a downward tendency, the downy forking twigs bearing their leaves in a straight row along each side. the leaves are somewhat oval in general form, but the two sides of the midrib are unequal in size and shape. their edges are doubly or trebly toothed, and the surfaces are rough and harsh to the touch. the hairs that cover the strong ribs on the under surface serve for the protection of the breathing pores from dust. on leaves of the pendulous form of this tree, grown in the london parks and gardens, these hairs will be found to be quite black with the soot particles gathered from the air. trees need carbon, but in this gross form they are too often suffocated by it. in march or april the brownish flowers are produced in bunches from the sides of the branches. they are a quarter of an inch long, bell-shaped, their edges cut into lobes, and finely fringed. the ovary, with its two awl-shaped styles, is surrounded by four or five stamens with purple anthers. they appear in march or april, before the leaf-buds have opened, and are dependent on the wind for the transfer of pollen. the fruit is an oblong _samara_, about an inch long. this consists of a single seed in the centre, invested by a thin envelope, which is extended all round as a light membranous wing, which gives it buoyancy and enables it to float through the air to a little distance. these seeds are not produced until about the thirtieth year of the tree's life, and though they are ripened almost annually thereafter, good crops are biennial or triennial only. it has often been stated that the wych elm does not send up suckers, but it does, though not invariably; it does so chiefly as the result of root-pruning or some other check to the extension of the root-system. [illustration: wych elm.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of wych elm.] [illustration: _pl. ._ wych elm--winter.] [illustration: _pl. ._ common elm--summer.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of common elm.] the elm most frequently seen is the small-leaved elm (_ulmus campestris_), which is therefore entitled to its alternative name of common elm. constantly grown as a hedgerow tree, it meets us at every turn, though it is much less plentiful in scotland than in other parts of the united kingdom. it is in all respects very similar to the wych elm, but its leaves are smaller--usually from two to three inches long, the twigs often covered with a corky bark, and the seed, instead of being in the centre of the samara, is much nearer to the notched end. the leaves are proportionately narrower than those of _montana_, and it will be found that the hairs which cover the midrib below possess in minor degree the irritating qualities of the nettle's stings. this is a fact not generally known, but i became painfully aware of it a few years ago when clearing away the suckers of an elm that were encroaching too much upon my garden border. examination of these hairs shows that they are constructed much on the same plan as those of the nettle--a member of the same natural order, by the way. the fact that these leaves are browsed by cattle and deer may explain this development of the hairs, which, whilst they may serve to keep off sheep, have not yet reached a degree of acridity sufficient to protect them from the larger beasts. both flowers and samaras are about a third smaller than those of _montana_; but seed is very seldom produced in this country, and the tree seeks to reproduce itself by throwing up abundant suckers round the base of the bole, and even from root-branches at a considerable distance from the trunk. these, of course, if allowed to grow, would soon surround the tree with copse. _campestris_ often attains a greater height with its straighter trunk than _montana_, but its girth is not so great, seldom being more than twenty feet. its dark wood is harder and finer grained than that produced by the native tree. its favour as a hedgerow tree is probably due to the fact that it gives shade which is not obnoxious to the growth of grass. both species are subject to a great amount of variation, and in nurserymen's catalogues these forms have appropriate names, but they are not regarded as of sufficient permanence to merit scientific distinction. in point of age--elms are known to exceed five hundred years. [illustration: common elm.] among the insects that feed upon the elm's foliage, the most noteworthy is the caterpillar of the fine large tortoiseshell butterfly (_vanessa polychloros_). i have already mentioned the relationship subsisting between elms and nettles, and it is a point worth noting that nearly all our native species of _vanessa_ feed in the larval state upon the leaves of the nettle. in london parks and squares the elms are much infested by the caterpillars of the vapourer-moth, whose wingless females may be seen like short-legged spiders on the bark, whilst the male flutters in an apparently aimless way on wings of rich brown with central white spots. [illustration: _pl. ._ common elm--winter.] in october the leaves, which have for some time assumed a very dull dark-green tint, suddenly turn to orange, then fade to pale yellow, and fall in showers. the name elm was derived from the latin _ulmus_, and appears to indicate an instrument of punishment--probably from its rods having been used to belabour slaves. prior remarks that the word is "nearly identical in all the germanic and scandinavian dialects, but does not find its root in any of them. it plays through all the vowels ... but stands isolated as a foreign word which they have adopted." this "playing through the vowels" may be thus illustrated--alm, Ælm, and elm (anglo-saxon and english); ilme, olm, and ulme, in various german dialects. * * * * * [illustration: _pl. ._ ash--summer.] the ash (_fraxinus excelsior_). so commanding, yet at the same time so light and graceful, does a well-grown ash appear, that gilpin called it the "venus of the woods." this may appear to some to be rather too close an approach to the "lady of the woods" (birch), but in our opinion it well expresses the characteristics of the two. they are both exceedingly graceful, but the beauty of the birch is that of the nymph, whilst that of the ash is the combined grace and strength of the goddess. i have said "a well-grown" ash, a phrase by which the timberman would understand a tree that had been hemmed in so closely by other trees that it has had no chance of developing as a tree, but only as a straight stout stick of wood, from eighty to one hundred feet long. _my_ well-grown ash is in a meadow, where both soil and atmosphere are moist and cool; where it has had elbow-room to reach its long graceful arms upwards and outwards, and to cover them with the plumy circlets of long leaves. it is there, or on the outskirts of the wood, or in the hedgerow, that the ash is able to do credit to gilpin's name for it. [illustration: ash.] before the reign of iron and steel was quite so universal, ash timber was in demand for many uses where the metals have now supplanted it. it was then far more widely grown as a hedgerow tree than is now the case. selby laments the neglect of this former custom, which kept up a supply of tough and elastic timber, useful in all agricultural operations, and added much to the beauty of the country. no doubt the noxious drip and shade of the ash have had much to do with this abandonment of it, for few things can live beneath it--a condition helped by its numerous fibrous roots, which quickly exhaust and drain the soil, and so starve out other plants. although it thus drains the surface soil, it is not dependent upon these upper layers for food, for its much-branched roots extend very deeply in the porous soils it prefers. it must not be supposed from the foregoing remarks that the ash is confined to the lowlands. in yorkshire it is found growing at an elevation of feet; in mid-germany it grows as far up as feet, and in the alpine districts feet higher still. it has a preference for the northern and eastern sides of hills, where the atmosphere is moist and cool, and the soil deep and porous, for it loves free and not stagnant moisture for its roots. the bark of both trunk and branches is pale grey, and some look to this as the origin of the tree's english name. on examining the leafless branches in early spring, two things strike the observer--the blackness of the big opposite leaf-buds, and the stoutness of the twigs. this latter fact is due to the great size of the leaves they have to support, which implies a considerable strain in wind or rain. what are generally regarded as the leaves of the ash are only leaflets, though they are equal in size to the leaves of most of our trees. the largest of the leaflets are about three inches in length, and there are from four to seven--mostly six--pairs, and an odd terminal one, to each leaf. they are lance-shaped, with toothed edges. the leaves are late in appearing, but, like charles lamb and his office-hours, they make up for it by an early departure. [illustration: _pl. ._ flowers of ash.] the flowers of the ash are very poor affairs, for they have neither calyx nor corolla, though their association in large clusters makes them fairly conspicuous as they droop from the sides of the branches in april or may. stamens and pistils are borne by the same or separate flowers, and both kinds or one only may be found on the same tree. the pistil is a greenish yellow pear-shaped body, and the stamens are very dark purple. the flowers are succeeded by bunches of "keys"--each one, when ripe, a narrow-oblong scale, with a notch at one end and a seed lying within at the other. the correct name for these is samaras. in looking at a bunch of these "keys"--they are something like the keys to the primitive locks of the ancients--one is struck by the fact that they all have a little twist in the wing or sail, which causes the "key" to spin steadily on the wind and reach the earth seed-end first. they are, therefore, sometimes known as "spinners." these are ripe in october; but though the trees produce seed nearly every year after the fortieth, one may chance to look at a dozen ashes before he comes upon one that bears a seed. the reason for this lies in the fact that some trees have no female blossoms. the seeds do not germinate until the second spring after they are sown. [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of ash.] much of the ash-wood in use for carriage-poles, oars, axe and hammer shafts, and similar purposes where only small diameters are needed, are obtained from ash-coppice, which rapidly produces well-developed poles. so strong and elastic is the ash timber when taken from young trees, that it is claimed it will bear a greater strain than any other european timber of equal thickness. the ash is not one of the long-lived trees, its natural span being about two hundred years, but its wood is regarded as best between the ages of thirty and sixty years. [illustration: _pl. ._ ash--winter.] cattle and horses are fond of ash leaves, which were formerly much used for fodder, and still are in some districts; but it is said that to indulge cows in this food is fatal to the production of good butter from their milk. in some country places there is still extant a "shrew-ash"--a tree into which a hole has been bored sufficiently large to admit a living shrew-mouse, which has then been plugged in, to die of suffocation. a touch of a leaf from this tree was reputed to cure cramp, but especially that form of it supposed to be caused by a shrew passing over man or beast. then there was the ash whose bole had been cleft that it might be a "sovran" remedy for infantile hernia. it is difficult to account for the origin of these ideas, but they are deep-rooted and die hard. john evelyn remarks of this latter superstition: "i have heard it affirmed, with great confidence and upon experience, that the rupture, to which many children are obnoxious, is healed by passing the infant through a wide cleft in the bole or stem of a growing ash-tree; it is then carried a second time round the ash, and caused to repass the same aperture as before. the rupture of the child being bound up, it is supposed to heal as the cleft of the tree closes and coalesces." the origin of the name ash is uncertain, though many fanciful suggestions have been made in explanation of its meaning. its anglo-saxon form was æsc, a word used by the same people for spear, but that was because their spear-shafts were made of ash-wood. * * * * * [illustration: _pl. ._ field maple.] the maple (_acer campestre_). there are a number of maples in cultivation, but only three of them are commonly met with in the open, and of these one alone is a native. this is the small-leaved, common, or field maple (_acer campestre_), a small tree that attains a height of twenty or thirty feet in the tall hedgerow or in the wood, but is most familiar as a mere bush or as a constituent of the low field-hedge. it does not grow to any considerable thickness of bole, so has no importance as timber, but the turner, the cabinet-maker, and the artist in fancy pipes and snuff-boxes, are glad to make use of its fine-grained, pale-brown wood. this is often beautifully veined, especially the wood from the roots, and as it will take a high polish, which brings out these markings plainly, it is a very desirable wood for such purposes. the brown bark gives little clue to the character of the wood it covers, for in young trees it is rough and deeply fissured, though with age it becomes smooth. [illustration: field maple.] [illustration: _pl. ._ fruits of sycamore.] [illustration: _pl. ._ sycamore--summer.] the leaves vary greatly in size, those growing on a tree being much larger than those produced by a bush. they range from two to four inches in diameter, and are always in pairs--springing from the sides of the branch exactly opposite to each other. the general form of the leaf is kidney-shaped, but it is cut up into five lobes, which are more or less toothed. they are downy when young, of a deep green colour, but too frequently this is disguised by a thick layer of road-dust. in october they turn to a rich yellow, and the maple is then prominent even in a distant view, for the bright colour of the foliage makes the tree stand out prominently, in strong contrast with the still deep green of the oaks or firs beyond. the maples are among the trees that have complete flowers, although in this case they happen to be greenish yellow. they are about a quarter of an inch across, have narrow sepals and narrower petals, eight stamens, and a two-lobed flattened ovary, that develops into the pair of broad-winged "keys," or samaras. these are individually much like those of the ash, but unsymmetrical and curved, half an inch long, with their bases joined together. sometimes in late summer these "keys" take on a colouring of deep crimson, previous to turning brown as they ripen. as a rule the contained seeds take eighteen months to germinate, though a few may start growth the first spring. the common maple is thought to be indigenous only from the county of durham to the southern coast, and in ireland. in scotland it is only an introduced plant that has become naturalized. the great maple, sycamore, or false plane (_acer pseudo-platanus_) is not a native tree, but it appears to have been introduced from the continent as far back as the fifteenth century, so that it has had time during the intervening centuries to get well established among us, and by means of its winged seeds to distribute itself to remote corners of our islands. it appears to be fond of exposed situations, growing to a large size even near the sea, where the salt-laden gales destroy all other deciduous trees. recently in ireland we ascended a hill where the planting of pines and other trees had resulted in comparative failure, and found that the wind-borne seeds of the sycamore had produced a large number of young trees, which will probably serve later as nurses for more desirable timber-producers. the close-grained, firm wood, which can be worked with ease, is not highly esteemed. [illustration: sycamore.] [illustration: _pl. ._ leaf-buds of sycamore.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of sycamore.] its name of false plane is due to the scots calling it the plane, misled of old by the similarity of the leaves, and the fact that patches of the fine ash-grey bark flake off, as in the true plane, showing other tints. it grows to a height of sixty or even eighty feet so quickly that it is full-grown when only fifty or sixty years old, though it is supposed to live from a hundred and fifty to two hundred and fifty years. like that of the common maple, the wood of the sycamore is firm and fine-grained, which does credit to the efforts of the french-polisher. the leaves are more heart-shaped, but cut into five lobes, whose edges are unequally toothed; they are six or eight inches across. the flowers are similar to those of the common maple, but larger, and in a long hanging raceme, which has a rather fine appearance. the samaras are scimitar-shaped and red-brown, about an inch and a half long. these are produced freely after the tree is about twenty years old. like many other maples, the sycamore has sap which contains much sugar. some of this appears also to exude through the leaves, for they are often found to be quite sticky to the touch. the black patches so frequent on sycamore leaves are the work of a small fungus--_rhytisma acerinum_. the norway maple (_acer platanoides_) is a tree of much more recent ( ) introduction from the continent. its height is from thirty to sixty feet, and its early growth is very rapid. the leaves are even larger than those of sycamore, of similar shape, but the lobes are only slightly toothed. the clusters of bright yellow flowers are almost erect; the tree does not produce seed until it is between forty and fifty years old. the maple was the mapel-treow or mapulder of the anglo-saxons; it was originally the celtic _mapwl_, and the name indicated those knotty excrescences on the trunk from which the cabinet-maker got the mottled wood that was so highly prized in early times for the making of bowls and table-tops, for which fabulous prices have been paid. [illustration: _pl. ._ sycamore--winter.] the poplars (_populus_). almost everybody who has an elementary acquaintance with trees knows a poplar at sight, the foliage being so very distinct from that of other trees. but the distinctions between the several species are not so immediately obvious. five kinds of poplar are commonly grown in this country, of which only two are regarded as distinct indigenous species. these are the white poplar (_populus alba_), and the aspen (_p. tremula_). a third indigenous form, the grey poplar (_p. canescens_), is thought to be either a sub-species of _p. alba_, or a hybrid between that species and _p. tremula_. then of common introduced species we have the black poplar (_populus nigra_), and the lombardy poplar (_p. fastigiata_). [illustration: _pl. ._ white poplar, with catkins--spring.] the poplars (_populus_) and the willows (_salix_) together constitute the natural order _salicineæ_. the two genera agree broadly in the construction and arrangement of their flowers in catkins, but whereas the poplars have broad leaves and drooping catkins, the willows, with few exceptions, have long slender leaves and erect catkins. the sexes are not only in distinct flowers, but on separate trees--what botanists describe by the term _di[oe]cious_. the males appear to be far more numerous than the females. in the popular sense there are no flowers, for there are neither sepals nor petals, each set of sexual organs being protected merely by a scale. the catkins containing these flowers usually appear before the leaves. as there is nothing to attract insects to the work, the trees have to rely upon the wind for conveying the pollen to the female trees. the first three species described below have from four to twelve stamens; _p. nigra_ and _p. fastigiata_ have from twelve to twenty stamens. the poplars share the love of the willows for moist places. they are found more frequently in gardens and hedgerows than in woods. their growth is rapid, and their timber, consequently, is of little value, though its softness and lightness render it suitable for making boxes, and its whiteness and non-liability to splinter fit it for use as flooring. an additional point in favour of white poplar for the latter purpose is its unreadiness to burn. [illustration: white poplar, or abele. a, female catkin.] the white poplar, or abele (_populus alba_), grows into a large tree, something between sixty and a hundred feet high, covered with smooth grey bark. its branches spread horizontally, and its broad heart-shaped leaves, which vary from an inch to three inches long, are hung on long slender foot-stalks. in most trees the leaf-stalks are flattened from above, but in the case of the poplars they are flattened from the sides, so that when moved by the wind they flutter laterally. these leaves have a waved margin, a smooth upper surface, and are snowy white and cottony beneath. the leaf-buds are also invested by cottony filaments. the roots produce numerous suckers, even at a distance from the trunk, and the leaves on these sucker-shoots are very large--two to four inches broad--of a more triangular shape, the outline lobed and toothed. the catkins, which appear in march and april, are cylindrical; those of the male trees may be as much as four inches long, each flower containing from six to ten stamens with purple anthers. the female catkins are not nearly so long, the two yellow stigmas are slender with slit tips, and the ovaries develop into slender egg-shaped capsules, each with its fringed scale. this species is said not to produce flowers in scotland. in july, when the seed capsules open, the surrounding vegetation and ground are thickly strewn with the long white cotton filaments attached to the seeds. the wood of this tree is softer and more spongy than that of other poplars. [illustration: _pl. ._ white poplar--summer.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of white poplar.] the grey poplar (_populus canescens_), which is thought to be indigenous only in the south-eastern parts of england, is not so tall a tree as _p. alba_, though it sometimes attains to eighty or ninety feet, with a circumference between ten and twenty-four feet. its life extends to about a century, but its wood--which does not split when nails are driven through thin boards of it--is considered best between fifty and sixty years of age. the leaves on the branches are shaped like those of _p. alba_, but their under sides are either coated with grey down or are quite smooth; those of the suckers have their margins cut into angles and teeth. the female flowers mostly have four wedge-shaped purple stigmas (sometimes two), which are cleft into four at their extremities. [illustration: aspen.] the aspen or asp (_populus tremula_) does not attain either to so large a size or so moderate an age as the abele. its height, when full grown, is from forty to eighty feet, and after fifty or sixty years its heart-wood begins to decay, and its destruction is then hastened by the attacks of such internal-feeding insects as the caterpillars of the goat-moth and the wood leopard-moth. the leaves on the branches are broadly egg-shaped, approaching to round, the waved margin cut into teeth with turned-in points. in one form (var. _villosa_) the leaves are covered beneath with silky or cottony hairs; in the other form (var. _glabra_) they are almost smooth. the leaves on the suckers are heart-shaped, without teeth. the leaf-stalks of the aspen are longer than those of its congeners, so that they are constantly on the flutter--a circumstance that has led to an explanatory legend, to the effect that the cross of calvary was made of aspen-wood, and that the tree shivers perpetually in remembrance. possibly the present inferiority of aspen timber is to be explained in a similar manner. the catkins, which are two or three inches long, are similar to those of the foregoing species, but the scales have jagged edges. it is indigenous in all the british islands as far north as orkney, but, though commonly found in copses on a moist light soil, is more frequent as a planted tree in gardens and pleasure grounds. it is a characteristic tree of the plains throughout the continent, but ascends to feet in yorkshire, and in the bavarian alps is found as high as feet. it is not a deep-rooting tree, the root-branches running almost horizontally. where accessible to cattle or deer, the foliage of the suckers is eagerly browsed by them. [illustration: _pl. ._ catkins of aspen.] [illustration: _pl. ._ black poplar--summer.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of black poplar.] [illustration: _pl. ._ black poplar--winter.] [illustration: black poplar.] the black poplar (_populus nigra_) appears to be so called not by reason of any blackness of leaf or bark, but because of the absence of any white or grey down on the underside of its leaves. its bark is grey, like that of the species already mentioned, but readily distinguished from them by the great swellings and nodosities that mar the symmetry of its trunk. it is a tree of erect growth, fifty to sixty feet in height, with horizontal branches, and leaves that vary in shape from triangular and rhombic to almost circular, and in width from an inch to four inches. they have rounded teeth on the margins, which are at first also fringed, and in their young state the underside is silky. the flowers in the catkins of this and the next species are not so densely packed. those of the male are two or three inches in length, and dark red in colour; their abundance before the tree has put out its leaves makes the male tree a conspicuous object. the female catkins are shorter and do not droop. when the roundish capsules burst in may or june to distribute their seeds, the white cotton with which the latter are invested gives prominence to the female tree. the wood is chiefly used by the turner; in holland, where it is extensively cultivated, it provides the material for sabots. the black poplar is not a native of this country, but it is generally distributed throughout europe and northern asia. the date of its introduction is not known, but it has been here for many centuries, and is quite naturalized, springing up on river banks and in other moist situations. some botanists regard it as only a variety of the lombardy poplar, but apart from the very different habit of the tree--not by itself sufficient grounds for separation--there is the more important fact that the black poplar rarely produces suckers from its roots, whilst the lombardy poplar does so constantly. however, this is a point we can leave for the botanists to discuss; for the purposes of this book the two trees are sufficiently distinct to be treated separately. the lombardy poplar (_populus fastigiata_) is no more a native of italy than of england. its home is in the taurus and the himalayas, whence it has spread into persia. introduced into southern europe, it has become specially abundant along the rivers of lombardy, and so in france and england it bears the name of that country. lord rochford introduced it to england from turin in . its leaves are like those of the black poplar, but its branches, instead of spreading, all grow straight upwards, so that the fastigiate or spire shape of the tree is produced--a shape only found otherwise among coniferous trees, particularly in the cypress, the juniper and the irish yew. it is its form, great height ( to feet), and rapidity of growth that have led to its wide use here as an ornamental tree--in many cases as a mere vegetable hoarding to shut out some offensive view. its growth is extremely rapid, especially during its first score of years, when it will attain a height of sixty feet or more, provided it be grown in good, moist (but not marshy) soil. its wood is, of course, of little value, and is chiefly used for making boxes and packing-cases, where its lightness, combined with toughness and cheapness, is an advantage. the bark is rough and deeply furrowed, unlike the other species, and the trunk is twisted. like the black poplar, it has smooth shoots, and the unopened buds are sticky. it is propagated in this country by suckers and cuttings. it is said that the first trees introduced were so obtained, and that they were all from male trees; consequently, that we have no female trees here, and seed production is impossible. if the female grows here, it is certainly very scarce. the bark has been used for tanning. [illustration: _pl. ._ lombardy poplar--summer.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of lombardy poplar.] [illustration: _pl. ._ lombardy poplar--winter.] the black italian poplar (_populus monilifera_) is another misnamed tree, for it is a native of north america, though introduced to england from the continent in by dr. john hope. it has the distinction of being considered the most rapid-growing even of the poplars. loudon gives its rate of growth in the neighbourhood of london as between thirty and forty feet in seven years! even in scotland (where it has been largely planted as a substitute for larch, since the partial failure of that tree) it attains a height of feet in sixty years, when planted along the river banks. it is probably only a variety of _p. nigra_, which it resembles in most points, but is larger, and of very erect growth. the tacamahac or balsam poplar (_populus balsamifera_) is another importation from north america, introduced in . in its native country it grows to a height of eighty feet, but here forty or fifty feet is more usual. its leaves are of more slender form than those of the other poplars, egg-shaped, with a near approach to being lance-shaped. their edges are toothed, their upper surface dark green and smooth, the underside whitish with cotton. the distinctive character of the tree is the fragrance of its foliage, which scents the air on moist evenings, and makes the tacamahac a desirable tree to plant near the water, where alone it attains any moderate size. the willows (_salix_). there is not in the whole of the british flora another genus of plants that presents such difficulties of identification as the genus _salix_. even so hardened a botanist as sir j. d. hooker, in reviewing the tangle of species, varieties (natural and cultivated), and hybrids, is so far stirred from his ordinary composure that he stigmatizes it as a "troublesome genus." when sir joseph chose that mild adjective he was at kew surrounded by the national herbaria and with nicely labelled living plants at hand for comparison. what, then, can the rambling nature-lover hope to do with the willows he comes across one at a time, without much chance of comparing? he must be content to follow the "lumpers," who group a number of these uncertain forms under the name of a species to which they have evident relationship. when he has mastered the distinctions between these aggregate species, it will be early enough to attempt the segregation of the forms and varieties under each. in their natural condition willows are graceful and picturesque, but a large number of the examples met with in our rambles have been so altered for commercial reasons as to be more grotesque than beautiful. it is not the timber-man who is responsible this time, for a pollard willow, though it produces a shock-head of long slender shoots, suitable for basket-rods, lets in moisture at the top of the bole, and the wood is more or less decayed and worthless. only four of our native willows can be regarded as timber trees. these are the white willow, the crack willow, the bedford willow, and the sallow. like the poplars, their growth is very rapid, and their wood is consequently light, but it has the advantage of poplar-wood in being tougher, and therefore serving for purposes where poplar is of no value. in the present day the growers of straight-boled willows find their best market among the makers of cricket-bats. a good deal of it is also cut into thin strips for plaiting into chip-hats and hand-baskets. the osier is grown in extensive riverside beds for the production of long pliant shoots for the basket-weavers; though many of the so-called osier-rods are really stool-shoots from willows that have been pollarded, or whose leading shoot has never been allowed to grow. on those parts of our coast where the crab and lobster fishery is pursued, a regular supply of such shoots for weaving into "pots" and "hullies" is a necessity, and a "withy bed" will usually be found on some valley stream near, or on a damp terrace halfway up the cliffs. [illustration: _pl. ._ crack willow--summer.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of crack willow.] [illustration: _pl. ._ crack willow--winter.] the bark of the tree willows has long been known to be rich in an alkaloid called _salicine_, which has tonic and astringent properties, and has often been used instead of _quinine_, though it is not nearly so powerful as the peruvian drug. the bark is also used for tanning. the association of the willow with sadness is very old, but there does not appear to be any satisfactory reason for it--certainly to contemplate a naturally-grown willow that grows on the edge of a limpid stream, in which its graceful shoots and slender leaves are reflected, does not suggest sad thoughts to the average healthy mind. the association is chiefly with maidens forsaken by their false lovers, as indicated by shakespeare when he makes desdemona say-- "my mother had a maid called barbara: she was in love; and he she loved proved mad, and did forsake her; she had a song of 'willow'; an old thing 'twas, but it expressed her fortune, and she died singing it." the crack willow or withy (_salix fragilis_) is one of the two most considerable of our tree willows. in good soil it will in twenty years attain nearly its full height, which is eighty or ninety feet. its bole sometimes has a girth of twenty feet. its smooth, polished shoots afford the best ready means of distinguishing it, for instead of their base pointing to the centre of the trunk as in other trees, they grow obliquely, so that the shoots frequently cross each other. they are both tough and pliant, but if struck at the base they readily break off. this character explains the names crack willow and _fragilis_. the leaves are lance-shaped, three to six inches long, smooth, with glandular teeth, pale or glaucous on the underside, and with half-heart-shaped stipules, which, however, are soon cast off. as we have already indicated under the head of poplars, the male and female catkins of the willows are borne by different trees. in the case of the crack willow, the male catkins are an inch or two long, proportionately stout, each flower bearing two stamens (occasionally three, four, or five). the female catkin is more slender, the flowers each containing a smooth ovary, ending in a short style that divides into two curved stigmas. the catkins appear in april or may. although, like most of the willows, this species is fond of cold, wet soil in low situations, it is not restricted to the plains. in northumberland it is found at feet above the sea. its northward range extends as far as ross-shire, but it is a doubtful native in both scotland and ireland. [illustration: crack willow.] the bedford willow (_s. russelliana_) is believed to be a hybrid between _s. fragilis_ and _s. alba_. it grows to a height of fifty feet, with a girth of twelve feet. the leaves are more slender than those of _s. fragilis_, taper to a point at each end, and are very smooth on both sides. it occurs in swampy woods. [illustration: _pl. ._ white willow--summer.] [illustration: _pl. ._ flowers of white willow.] [illustration: white willow.] the white willow (_salix alba_) is so called from the appearance of the leaves as the light is reflected from their silky surfaces, which are alike above and below. it is a tree from sixty to eighty feet high, with a girth of twenty feet, covered with thick and deeply fissured bark. the leaves are from two to four inches long, of a narrow elliptical shape. in the typical form the twigs are olive-coloured, but in the variety _vitellina_ (known as the golden willow) these are yellow or reddish. in the variety _cærulea_ the old leaves become quite smooth above, but retain the glaucous appearance of the underside. the white willow is found as far north as sutherlandshire, but although it is believed to be an indigenous species, most of the modern specimens appear to have been planted. it affords good timber, and the bark is almost equal to that of oak for tanning. a great number of the old willows met with in our rambles are partially decayed, a condition frequently the result of lopping large branches, for the wound never heals, and decay setting in at that point, extends down the bole. upon such decaying specimens one may often find one of the most handsome of our native beetles--the musk-beetle, with long, slender body and long antennæ, all coloured in dark golden green, and diffusing the aroma of a rose. [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of white willow.] [illustration: _pl. ._ white willow--winter.] [illustration: _pl. ._ almond-leaved willow--summer.] [illustration: _pl. ._ almond-leaved willow--winter.] the almond-leaved or french willow (_salix triandra_) is a small tree about twenty feet high, distinguished by its bark being thrown off in flakes. its slender lance-shaped leaves are smooth green above and glaucous beneath, two to four inches long, and with half-heart-shaped stipules. the male flowers offer another distinguishing mark in their stamens being three in number. its habitats are the banks of rivers and streams, and in osier-beds. it is extensively grown on account of the long, straight shoots produced from the stump when the tree is cut down, which are of great use in wicker-work. the bay-leaved willow (_salix pentandra_) is met with either as a small upright tree about twenty feet high, or as a shrub eight feet high. its oval or elliptical leaves are rich green, smooth and sticky on the upper surface, and give out a pleasant fragrance like those of the bay-tree; they vary from an inch to four inches long, and they may or may not bear stipules, but if these are present they will be egg-shaped or oblong. the stamens are normally five in each flower, but they vary up to twelve. this is reputed to be of all our willows the latest to flower. a line drawn through york, worcester, and north wales will give roughly its southward range as a native species. south of that line it has been planted; north of it to the scottish border it is a native. it has been found growing at a height of feet in northumberland. [illustration: _pl. ._ bay-leaved willow--summer.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bay-leaved willow--winter.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of bay-leaved willow.] [illustration: sallow.] the sallow (_salix caprea_) is the only other species that can properly be considered as a tree, as it attains to a height of thirty feet, though fifteen to twenty feet is a more common measurement. its usually egg-shaped leaves vary from almost round to elliptical or lance-shaped, and from two to four inches in length. in the typical form, which occurs chiefly in woods, dry pastures, and hedgerows, they are broad, smooth, and dull-green above, covered with soft white down beneath; the stipules half-kidney-shaped. this is the earliest of all our willows to flower, and the gold (male) and silver (female) catkins are put out before the leaves. in the country, within a few miles of the larger cities, this can hardly be a desirable species to plant, for on the sunday before easter thousands who at no other period exhibit any strong religious tendency journey out to pick some "palm," as they designate the sallow bloom, and the rough pruning the sallows then get must in many cases be disastrous. he who imagines that insect life is suspended until spring is on the verge of summer should visit the woods when the sallow is in bloom; he will be astonished at the swarms of bees and moths that are collecting the abundant pollen or sipping the nectar provided for them. before the bright catkins can be seen the locality of the tree may be known by the loud hum produced by hundreds of pairs of wings. the all but invariable rule among the willows--as among oaks, beech, birch, hazel, and pines--is to depend upon the wind for the transfer of pollen from one tree to the stigmas of another of the same species, but in the sallow we find a breaking away from what was doubtless the primitive arrangement in all flowering plants, by the bribing with honey of more reliable and less wasteful winged carriers. the gray sallow (_salix cinerea_) is really a sub-species of _s. caprea_. it has a liking for moister places than the type, or perhaps it would be more accurate to say that its growth in moister situations has brought about the differences by which it is separated from the parent form. these points are, briefly--the buds and twigs are downy, the leaves smaller and proportionately narrower, the upper surface downy, grey-green beneath; the anthers of the male pale yellow, the capsule of the female smaller. the eared sallow (_s. aurita_) is probably also only another form of _s. caprea_, distinguished by its small, bushlike proportions (two to four feet high), long branches and red twigs; its small wrinkled leaves, which are usually less than two inches long, are of an almost oblong shape, downy beneath, and with large ear-shaped stipules. its likeness is much closer to _s. cinerea_ than to the type; it is fond of damp copses and moist places on heaths, where it may be found at considerable elevations. in the highlands it ascends to feet. there are willows of dwarf habit, some with long straggling branches and more or less prostrate stems, that grow upon heaths. each has a name under which it has at some time or other been ranked as a distinct species, just as the forms of bramble and rose have been. the differences between them are minute, and of little interest save to the advanced scientific botanist, who with his dried specimens spread before him often detects subtle distinctions not apparent to the outdoor student of the living plant. for the purposes of those for whom this volume is intended they may be regarded as one. dwarf silky willow (_salix repens_). it is a low bush from six to twelve inches high, the stem lying along the ground. some of the branches straggle in the same fashion, but those which bear the flowers are more or less erect. the leaf-buds and the young leaves are silky, a condition that usually endures on the lower surface, and in some forms on the upper also. they are broadly or narrowly lance-shaped, varying in the different forms alluded to above; in size they range from a half to one and a half inches in length, and may have lance-shaped stipules, or none at all. the scales of the catkins are yellowish-green or purple, with dark tips. after they have shed their pollen the anthers turn black. one form or other of this species will be found in all parts of the british islands where there are heaths or commons; in the highlands it occurs as high as feet. another group of small willows that form bushes (rarely a small tree) have been united under two species--the dark-leaved willow (_salix nigricans_), and the tea-leaved willow (_salix phylicifolia_). none of them occur south of yorkshire, and the chief distinction between the two species (?) consists in the leaves of _s. nigricans_ turning black when being dried for the herbarium, whilst those of _s. phylicifolia_ do not. [illustration: osier.] the osier (_salix viminalis_). many of the foregoing willows, when cut down low and induced to send out long, slender shoots, are known as osiers, but only two species are botanically regarded as osiers--this and the purple osier (_s. purpurea_). the present species may remain as a shrub or grow into a small tree, thirty feet high, with long, straight branches, which are silky when young, but afterwards become polished. the leaves vary in length from four to ten inches, and are slenderly lance-shaped, tapering to a point in front, and narrowing into the foot-stalk behind. they have waved margins without teeth, and the upper surface netted with veins, the under surface silvery and silky; stipules narrow lance-shaped. the osier may be seen in osier-beds and wet places generally throughout the country as far north as elgin and argyll. there are several varieties and hybrids. [illustration: _pl. ._ purple osier--summer.] the purple osier (_salix purpurea_). in all the other willows mentioned the stamens, whatever their number, all have the filaments distinct from each other. in this species alone the filaments of the two stamens are more or less united. the purple osier gets its name from the red or purple bark which clothes the thin but tough twigs. it is a shrub, and grows from five to ten feet high. the leaves, which are rather thin in texture, are from three to six inches long, of slender-lance-shape, with toothed edges, smooth and glaucous on both sides, but especially beneath, somewhat hairy when young. they are almost opposite on the twigs, and when dried for the herbarium turn black. there are several varieties of this shrub, which were formerly honoured with specific rank. [illustration: _pl. ._ purple osier--winter.] there remains a group of several small species of very local occurrence, with which we can do little more here beyond naming them. the woolly willow (_salix lanata_) is a small shrub, two or three feet high, with twisted branches, woolly twigs, and hairy black buds. the broad egg-shaped or oblong leathery leaves are also woolly, and two or three inches long. there are half-heart-shaped stipules at the base of the very short leaf-stalk. it is an alpine plant, and is found about the mountain rills of perth, forfar, inverness, and sutherland at elevations between and feet. conspicuous in spring for its rich golden catkins. sadler's willow (_s. sadleri_), of which only two or three specimens have been found (in glen callater, feet), is probably a form of this species. the lapland willow (_salix lapponum_) is of a similar proportion to the last-named, sometimes erect, sometimes trailing. its leaves are more elliptic in shape, covered above with silky hairs and below with cottony filaments. in _lanata_ the raised veins form a network pattern; in _lapponum_ they are straight. the stipules at the base of the long foot-stalk are small or altogether wanting. like the preceding species, it is restricted to scotch alpine rocks, at elevations between and feet. the whortle-leaved willow (_salix myrsinites_) is a small, wiry, creeping, or half-erect shrub, six inches to a foot high, with toothed, dark glossy leaves, an inch or less in length, whose net-veining shows on both sides. it is restricted to the alpine parts of mid-scotland, from to feet. the small tree-willow (_salix arbuscula_) is a small shrub, whose stem creeps along the ground and roots as it goes, sending up more or less erect branches a foot or two high. the downy twigs are first yellow, then reddish-brown. the small leaves vary from egg-shaped to lance-shaped, and are shining above and glaucous beneath; toothed. in the highlands of aberdeen, argyll, dumfries, forfar, and perth, between and feet. the least willow (_salix herbacea_) is not so restricted in its range, for it is found in all parts of the united kingdom where there are heights sufficiently alpine ( to feet) for its tastes. it is only an inch or two high, and has consequently the distinction of being the smallest british shrub. it is not so herbaceous as it seems, or as its name implies, for its shrubby stem and branches creep along underground, sending up only short, scantly leaved twigs. the curled, roundish leaves do not exceed half an inch in length; they are net-veined, toothed, and shining. the catkins appear after the leaves. the net-leaved willow (_salix reticulata_) is another of the scotch alpines. it is similar in habit to the last-named, but larger, its buried branches sending up twigs a foot long. the roundish-oblong, leathery leaves are not toothed; they are smooth above and glaucous beneath, strongly net-veined on either side. the purplish or yellow catkins do not develop till after the leaves. it is restricted to the mountains of aberdeen, forfar, inverness, perth, and sutherland. the weeping willow (_salix babylonica_), so conspicuous an ornament of riverside lawns, is an introduced species, whose slender branches hang downwards. it has large, lance-shaped, finely toothed leaves, smooth above and glaucous beneath. further description of so well-known a tree is unnecessary. it attains a height of forty to fifty feet. the name _babylonica_ was bestowed in the belief that its headquarters were on the banks of the euphrates. it is now known to be a native of japan, and other parts of asia. the name willow is the anglo-saxon _welig_, indicating pliancy, willingness. our native conifers. the british flora is singularly poor in coniferous plants, the scots pine, the yew, and the juniper being our only native species, and even of these some authorities will have it that the yew is not truly a conifer at all; they place it in a separate order--_taxaceæ_. for our present purpose, however, although the yew does not produce cones, it will be convenient to keep it in its old position. the principal feature distinguishing all conifers and their allies (_gymnosperms_) from other flowering plants (_angiosperms_) is briefly this: angiosperms have their incipient seeds (_ovules_) enclosed in a carpel, through which a shoot from the pollen grain has to penetrate in order to reach and fertilize the ovule. in gymnosperms the carpel takes the form of a leaf or bract, upon which the naked ovule lies open to actual contact with the pollen grain. after fertilization the carpel enlarges to protect the seed, and becomes fleshy or woody, in the latter case a group of carpels forming the well-known cones of pine or fir. [illustration: _pl. ._ yew.] in some of the groups (as the yew, for example) the male or pollen-producing flowers are borne by a separate tree from that which bears the female or cone-producing flowers. in the pines both sexes are found on the same tree; but throughout the order the pollen is carried by the wind. all the species are trees, or shrubs. they are among the most valuable of timber trees, and, in addition, yield a number of useful substances, such as pitch, tar, turpentine, etc. the leaves are always rigid, extremely narrow, and long in proportion: usually of the form that botanists term linear, with the two sides parallel. in the yews these leaves spread out in two rows from opposite sides of the twigs; in the pines they are in clusters of two, three, or five, seeming to be bound together at the base by a wisp of thin skin. the number of leaves in each bundle is often a help in distinguishing species. the yew (_taxus baccata_) lacks the graceful proportions of most of our trees, but it has for compensation a most obvious air of strength and endurance. who doubts, as he gazes at some sombre yew in the old churchyard, the story of the local antiquarian, who tells him the tree has so stood for years. he may, perhaps, mildly suggest that neither the church nor the churchyard was in existence so far back, but even then the antiquarian will probably have the last word by suggesting that the grove of yews of which this formed part was the church of the past. thousands see in cathedral aisles the reproduction in stone of the pine-forest or the beech-wood. standing before an ancient yew they may see whence came the idea for those _clustered_ columns. they actually exist in the bole of the yew, which presents the appearance not of a single trunk, but of several trunks that have coalesced. this condition is due to the yew continually pushing out new shoots from the lower part of its bole, which take an upright direction, and coalesce with the old wood. although the yew is a large tree, it is by no means a tall tree: the height of full-grown yews in this country ranging between fifteen and fifty feet, though they are said to attain a greater length in india. the bole of the yew is short but massive, covered with a thin red bark, that flakes off in patches much after the manner of plane-bark. large specimens have a girth of from twenty-five to fifty feet--or even more. such a circumference represents the growth of many centuries, for the annual growth-rings are very thin. it is this very slow growth that produces the hard, compact, and elastic wood that was so highly esteemed in the days of the long-bow. not only is the timber elastic and strong, but it is exceedingly durable, so that it is said, "a post of yew will outlast a post of iron." its branches start from the trunk at only a few feet from the ground, and, taking an almost horizontal direction, throw out a great number of leafy twigs, which provide a dense and extensive shade. these leaves are leathery in texture, curved somewhat after the manner of a reaping-hook, shiny and dark above, pale and unpolished below. [illustration: yew. a, male flowers.] we have already mentioned that the yew is a di[oe]cious tree--that is, one whose male and female blossoms are borne on separate trees--but the statement requires qualification to this extent, that occasionally a tree will be found bearing a branch or branches whose flowers are of the sex opposite to those covering the greater part of the tree. the male catkin is almost round, a quarter of an inch across, and contains about half a dozen yellow anthers, the base surrounded by dry overlapping scales. they may be found during february and march, in profusion on the underside of the boughs. the female flower is much smaller, and consists of a fleshy disk with a few scales at its base, and on this stands a single seed-egg. after fertilization of the seed-egg the disk develops into a red wax-like cup around the enlarging seed with its olive-green coat. the flesh of the cup is full of sweet mucilage, which makes the fruit acceptable to children, but the flavour is rather too mawkish to suit older tastes. yew-berries are not poisonous, as sometimes supposed; neither is the contained kernel, which has a pleasant nutty flavour. much has been said and written as to the toxic property of yew-leaves, and it appears that though cattle and goats may browse upon them with impunity, horses and human beings pay the penalty of death for such indulgence. that word toxic, by the way, owes its significance to the yew. the tree was named _taxus_ in latin, from the greek _toxon_ (a bow), because of the ancient repute of its wood for making that instrument. the tree was held to be poisonous, and so its name in the form of _toxicum_ came to designate all poisons. [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of yew.] there are some lines in _in memoriam_ which many readers of tennyson have found as obscure as the shade of the yew where they were conceived. the poet is addressing a venerable churchyard yew in these words:-- "old warder of these buried bones, and answering now my random stroke with fruitful cloud and living smoke; dark yew, that graspest at the stones and dippest towards the dreamless dead, to thee, too, comes the golden hour, when flower is feeling after flower." to any readers who have found a difficulty in understanding these lines, we would say: visit the yew groves in february or march, when the male branches are thickly covered with their yellow flowers, and strike a branch with your stick. in response to the "random stroke" the pollen will fly off in a "fruitful cloud" or "living smoke," some of it to be caught by the minute female blossoms. this is the yew-tree's "golden hour, when flower is feeling after flower." in the pre-gunpowder era, so important was it to have a sufficient supply of suitable wood for the making of the dreaded english long-bow, that the culture of the yew was made the subject of a number of royal ordinances, which, of course, were allowed to drop out of observance when the bow was displaced by the firearm. and now when men plant yews they are mostly the ornamental varieties, such as the irish or florence court yew, which originated as a wild sport on the mountains of fermanagh about a hundred and forty years ago. evelyn, it is true, revived the interest in the yew as an ornamental tree, and it is with regret we add that at his suggestion it was first put to the base use called topiary work, which had hitherto been restricted to box and juniper. evelyn showed how much more closely and continuously the yew could be clipped without affecting its vitality, and the fashion he thus set--and regarded as a "merit"--was very generally followed during the next century. many of the atrocities of those days are still with us, but only as survivals; and we can so often agree with evelyn that we may forgive him for having led our ancestors astray in this matter. evelyn was by no means blind to the good points of the tree in its natural condition, as witness this quotation, which is as true to-day as when it was written:-- "he that in winter should behold some of our highest hills in surry clad with whole woods of these two last sorts of trees [box and yew], for divers miles in circuit (as in those delicious groves of them, belonging to the honourable, my noble friend, the late sir adam brown, of bechworth castle), from box hill, might, without the least violence to his imagination, easily fancy himself transported into some new or enchanted country; for if in any spot in england, 'tis here eternal spring and summer all the year." along the chalk range of which the celebrated box hill forms part will be found many fine examples of the yew, as at cherkley court, near leatherhead, where there is an actual yew forest. there was a monstrous yew at brabourne in kent, in evelyn's time, for he tells us he measured it, and found its girth to be only one inch short of fifty-nine feet. there are numerous giants of the species still living in quiet country churchyards, where they have probably served--as tradition states of those at fountains abbey--as a shelter for the builders of the ancient church during its erection. it is reputed to be the longest-lived of all trees, and it is to be hoped that no hindrance will be put in the way of these connections of the present with the far past living to their full natural limit, whatever it may be. it is naturally a tree of the uplands and lower hills, and shows a distinct preference for soils that contain plenty of lime. the irish yew (var. _fastigiata_), to which passing reference was made, differs from the type in having all its branches growing erectly, after the manner of a lombardy poplar, and in the leaves being scattered promiscuously over the branchlets instead of being in two regular rows. it attains a height of twenty to twenty-five feet. [illustration: _pl. ._ juniper.] [illustration: _pl. ._ fruits of yew.] [illustration: _pl. ._ fruits of juniper.] the juniper (_juniperus communis_) is seldom more than a shrub a few feet in height, though it occasionally develops into a small tree from ten to twenty feet high, and with a girth of five feet. it has a fibrous red bark, which flakes off like that of the yew. the leaves are shaped like a cobbler's awl, rigid, and end in sharp points. they have thickened margins, the concave upper sides are glaucous, and they are arranged round the branches in whorls of three. the male and female flowers are on separate trees. the male catkin may be known in may by its numerous anthers and pale yellow pollen. the female catkins will be found in the axils of the leaves, and resemble buds. the scales are fleshy, and after fertilization the upper ones slowly develop into the form of a berry, which has a few undeveloped scales at its base. they do not ripen until the following year, when they are blue-black, covered with a fine glaucous bloom. they have a pungent flavour, which is utilized in concocting gin, which indeed owes its name to this fact--the word being merely a contraction of _genévrier_, the french form of juniper. the "berries" have long been known as a kidney stimulant--a fact which has been fully utilized as the justification of every gin-drinker. a beautiful little moth--_hypsilophus marginellus_--may often be taken about the juniper, upon which its caterpillar feeds. to appreciate the variety of forms assumed by the juniper according to the elevation at which it grows, it should be seen on slopes like those of the north downs in surrey--one portion of the range at mickleham is named juniper hill. in the valleys it may be found as a small shapely tree, higher up the slopes as a pyramidal shrub, and as we reach higher and more exposed positions, the juniper gradually dwindles to a low, shapeless bush. this, however, must not be confounded with a distinct variety to which the name _nana_ has been applied; it differs from the type in having shorter and broader overlapping leaves, with curved tips. var. _nana_ is confined to the mountains of the north of our islands, and ascends to feet, which is feet higher than is recorded of the type. [illustration: juniper in fruit. a, flowers.] the virginian juniper (_juniperus virginiana_), or "red cedar," as it is called on the american continent, is a much larger plant, which is frequently planted in our parks and gardens. it varies in habit, and may be low and spreading, bush-like, or tall and tapering, thirty to forty feet high. its leaves are in threes, like those of our native species, but the three are united by their bases. it is with the red heart-wood of this tree that our "cedar" pencils are covered, large quantities of the timber of _j. virginiana_, and formerly of _j. bermudiana_, being imported for the purpose. the virginian juniper has been with us for many years. it is mentioned by evelyn in his "sylva" ( ), and is believed to have been introduced by him from north america. [illustration: _pl. ._ scots pine.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of scots pine.] the scots pine (_pinus sylvestris_), commonly but incorrectly styled scotch fir, is the typical pine-tree of northern europe, where (especially in russia and northern germany) it constitutes huge forests. it is even said to cover far wider tracts of country than any other forest tree. although there is evidence that in ancient days it was pretty widely distributed over britain, to-day all those pine-woods of southern england are the results of planting, and it is only in a few places between yorkshire and sutherland, and in ireland, that it can be regarded as truly wild and indigenous. mr. john nisbet points out that the term "pine-forest" is a bit of tautology, for the old german word _forst_ was derived from _foraha_--now represented by _föhre_, a fire or pine--so that "pine-forest" is equivalent to "pine-pine." however, the etymologists will probably allow us to speak of pine-woods, and we will try to remember that when we use the word forest it must always indicate an assemblage of pine-trees. in favourable soil, at a moderate elevation, the scots pine is a fine tree a hundred feet high, with a rough-barked trunk, whose girth is twelve feet. under such conditions it develops a strong tap-root, which goes deep; but where the soil is shallow or otherwise unfavourable the tap-root is not developed. at great elevations the upward growth is checked early, and it becomes a mere evergreen bush. the branches are short and spreading, those on the lower portions of the trunk dying early, so that the tree soon gets that gaunt weather-beaten look that is so characteristic of it. then, after the growth of the leading shoot has become feeble, the upper branches continue to lengthen, and so bring about that flat-topped condition. its growth is rapid, and in twenty years it will attain a height of forty or fifty feet. the leaves, which are in bundles of two, are from two to three inches long, very slender, grooved above and convex beneath. they remain on the tree for over two years, and in their first season are of a glaucous hue, but in the second year this changes to dark deep-green. both male and female flowers are borne by the same tree. the male catkins are individually small (¼ inch), but are combined in spikes; this and the abundant pale yellow pollen makes them conspicuous. the female cones are somewhat egg-shaped, tapering to a point, which is often curved. they are usually in clusters of three, and grow to a length of two or three inches. the scales are comparatively few, and their ends are thickened into an irregular four-sided boss, at first ending in a little point. the seeds are winged, and contained beneath the scales. they take about eighteen months to ripen, when the scales separate in dry windy weather, and allow the breeze to pick out the seeds and send them flying through the air to a great distance. the pollen, too, it should be noted, is of a form specially fitted for aerial transport, each particle of pollen forming two connected spheres. it is quite a common experience in may to find little heaps of this pollen collected in hollows and at the margins of ponds in the neighbourhood of pine-woods; but, so difficult is it to get people to understand the common facts of nature, that it is generally regarded as evidence of a shower of brimstone having fallen. it is not only the ignorant rustic who falls into this error; judging from letters sent to the press by country parsons, even the universities fail to prepare their alumni to deal with such phenomena. after the eruptions of la soufriere, several wrote to say that quantities of powdered sulphur from st. vincent had descended in their surrey and hampshire parishes! their notion being that the commercial "flowers of sulphur" are the direct produce of volcanoes. [illustration: scots pine.] although the wood produced by the scots pine in this country is not considered of the highest quality, the species is certainly of equal value as a timber-producer with any other tree. owing to our mild winters and long periods of seasonal growth, the pine-wood produced in britain is coarse-grained and not very durable. in the colder parts of northern europe, where summers are short and the long winters are severe, the texture of the timber is more solid and the grain closer. and so enormous quantities of pine-wood come to us from the baltic ports every year. in addition to the timber, other valuable substances known to commerce are products of the scots pine--pitch and tar, resin and turpentine, for example. the pine is an accommodating tree, for though it likes a deep soil in which to strike its tap-root, it will grow upon rocky ground, where the roots have to become horizontal and near the surface; or it will form forests on poor sandy soils, even on the loose hot sands near the seashore. this is a valuable power, because the fall of its needles gradually forms a humus, and so provides food for other plants which could not exist on raw sand. other coniferous trees that have become more or less familiar in our plantations and parks will be found in the second division of this book. [illustration: _pl. ._ male flowers of scots pine.] the holly (_ilex aquifolium_). the holly must be regarded as one of our small trees, although many specimens attain a height of forty or fifty feet, with a girth of ten or twelve feet. it is well distributed throughout our islands, ascending to a thousand feet, and it is probable that no other tree is so well known, by its foliage at least, as the holly, or holm, to give it its ancient name. the word holm was incorporated by some of our ancestors far back in the name holmsdale, which still attaches to the stretch of country at the southern foot of the chalk hills in surrey, and whose proud motto is, "never wonne, ne never shall." at the western end of the holmsdale is holmwood, and still a little further west holmbury. in these places the holly still grows bravely, not far from the old home of john evelyn, who must be thought of whenever we talk of hollies, though the recollection has to do with sayes court, his thames-side house, where the barbarian peter wrought such havoc with his cherished holly-hedge. how evelyn must have lamented that outrage is indicated in this extract from the "sylva":-- "is there under heaven a more glorious and refreshing object of the kind, than an impregnable hedge of about four hundred feet in length, nine feet high, and five in diameter, which i can show in my now ruined gardens at say's court (thanks to the czar of moscovy) at any time of the year, glittering with its armed and varnished leaves? the taller standards at orderly distance, blushing with their natural coral. it mocks the rudest assaults of the weather, beasts, or hedge-breakers, _et illum nemo impunè lacessit_." [illustration: _pl. ._ holly.] [illustration: holly.] the bark of the holly is smooth and pale-grey in colour. time out of mind it has been used in the preparation of a viscid substance known as birdlime, which, spread on twigs, holds the feet of small birds. respecting the foliage of the holly, there is little need to say anything, but for uniformity's sake we may note that the leaves are oval in shape, of a leathery consistence, with a firmer margin, running out into long sharp spines. it is a fact worthy of note that when the holly has attained to a height of ten feet or so, it frequently clothes its upper branches in leaves that have no spines--a circumstance that robert southey sought to explain in his poem "the holly-tree," on teleological grounds. his second verse, however, contains sufficient explanation of the fact it describes:-- "below, a circling fence, its leaves are seen wrinkled and keen; no grazing cattle through their prickly round can reach to wound; but, as they grow where nothing is to fear, smooth and unarm'd the pointless leaves appear." in some places the young shoots are gathered by the peasants, dried, bruised, and used as a winter cattle-food. no doubt, in the early history of the holly, cattle found out its good qualities for themselves, and browsed upon the then-unarmed foliage. in self-defence the tree developed spines upon its leaves, and so kept its enemies at a respectful distance. above the reach of these marauders the production of spines would be a useless waste of material. [illustration: _pl. ._ flowers of holly.] the flowers of the holly, though small, are conspicuous by their great number and white colour. they are about a quarter of an inch across, with four petals and four stamens or stigmas. sometimes flowers with stamens are produced by the same tree that bears flowers with stigmas; but often the male and the female flowers are borne by separate trees, so that the possessor of a holly that is solely male is sometimes puzzled by the fact that his tree, though covered with blossom, never produces a berry. the fruit is analogous in structure to that of the plum and cherry, and is technically termed a _drupe_; but instead of the single stone of these fruits, in the holly-berry there are four bony little stones, each with its contained seed. the berries ripen about september, and are then scarlet and glossy, though here and there one finds a tree whose fruit never gets beyond the yellow stage of coloration. [illustration: _pl. ._ fruits of holly.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of holly.] most parts of the tree have had their uses in medicine; the leaves, for example, being said to have value as a febrifuge, and the berries as a purgative, or in large doses ( to ) as an emetic. the smooth bark of large hollies is often attacked by one of the most striking of our native lichens--_graphis elegans_--whose black fruiting portions look like a raised cuneiform inscription. the holly is not greatly subject to the attacks of insects, but many of its leaves will be found to have been tunnelled between the upper and lower skins by the larva of a minute moth, one of the leaf-miners. it also provides the pabulum for the caterpillar of the holly-blue butterfly (_lycæna argiolus_). the dead leaves may be examined for the minute prickly snail (_helix aculeata_). the wood of the holly has an exceedingly fine grain, due to its slow growth, and it is very hard and white. these qualities make it valuable for many purposes, often as a substitute for box-wood, and, when dyed black, in lieu of ebony. * * * * * [illustration: _pl. ._ spindle--winter.] the spindle-tree (_euonymus europæus_). the spindle is right on the borderland between trees and shrubs, for though it will grow into a tree twenty feet high, yet our hedgerow specimens are usually bushlike, and only ten or twelve feet high. until the autumn the spindle, we fear, is rarely recognized as such, but gets confused with buckthorn and dogwood. in october, however, its quaint fruits have changed to a pale crimson hue, which renders them the most conspicuous feature of a hedgerow--even of one plentifully decorated with scarlet hips and haws and bryony-berries. the unusual tint of the spindle, and the fact that it swings on a slender stalk, at once mark it out from the rigid-stalked hips and haws. the trunk of the spindle is clothed in smooth grey bark. the twigs, which are in pairs, starting from opposite sides of a branch, are four-angled. the shining leaves vary from egg-shaped to lance-shaped, with finely-toothed edges. they are arranged in pairs, and in autumn they change to yellow and red. when bruised they give off a f[oe]tid odour, the juice is acrid, and said to be poisonous--a charge which is laid against the bark, flowers, and seed as well. the small greenish-white flowers are borne in loose clusters, of the type known as cymes, from the axils of the leaves, and appear in may and june. some contain both stamens and pistil, but others are either stamenate _or_ pistillate. the calyx is cut into four or six parts, the petals and stamens agree with these parts in number, but the lobes of the stigma only range from three to five, corresponding with the cells of the ovary. the fruit is deeply lobed, and marked with grooves, indicating the lines of future division, when the lobes open and disclose the seeds, at first covered with their orange jackets, or _arils_, after the manner of the mace that encloses the nutmeg. [illustration: _pl. ._ flowers of spindle.] [illustration: _pl. ._ fruits of spindle-tree.] [illustration: spindle-tree. a, flowers.] the hardness and toughness of spindle-wood has long been esteemed in the fashioning of small wares where these qualities are essential, and the common name is a survival of the days when spinning was the occupation of every woman. then spindles were in demand for winding the spun thread upon, and no wood was more suitable than that of euonymus for making them. it shares with the cornel (_cornus sanguinea_) the name dogwood; it is also skewerwood, prickwood, and pegwood, all suggestive of uses to which it is or was applied. the young shoots make a very fine charcoal for artists' use. the spindle is indigenous throughout our islands, but cannot be said to be generally common; it is rarer in scotland and ireland than in england. among the exotic species cultivated in our parks and gardens are the handsome variegated forms of the evergreen spindle (_euonymus japonicus_) of china and japan, and the broad-leaved spindle (_e. latifolius_) from europe. the buckthorns (_rhamnus_). our two native species of buckthorn are shrubs of from five to ten feet in height. in this one respect they agree; in almost all others they differ. both are buckthorns in name, but the breaking buckthorn (_rhamnus frangula_) is quite unarmed, whilst many of the branchlets of the purging buckthorn (_rhamnus catharticus_) are hardened into spines. the purging buckthorn is distinguished by its stiff habit, and by some of the leaves being gathered into bundles at the ends of the shoots. the leaves are egg-shaped, with toothed edges, and of a yellowish-green tint, with short leaf-stalks. the yellowish-green flowers are very small, and will be found both singly and in clusters from the leaf-axils. there are a four-cleft calyx, four petals, four stamens, or four stigmas, for the sexes are usually on separate plants. the fruit is black, round, and about a quarter of an inch across, containing four stones. these so-called "berries" are ripe in september. formerly they were much used as a purging medicine, but of so violent a character that their use has come to be discouraged, and the safer syrup of buckthorn is prescribed instead. the juice of these berries is the raw material from which the artist's sap-green is prepared. it may be found in woods, thick hedgerows, and bushy places on commons southward of westmoreland, showing a decided preference for chalky soils. in ireland it only occurs rarely. [illustration: _pl. ._ breaking buckthorn.] [illustration: _pl. ._ fruits of purging buckthorn.] [illustration: _pl. ._ fruits of breaking buckthorn.] [illustration: purging buckthorn. a, flowers.] the breaking buckthorn (_rhamnus frangula_) is also known as the berry-bearing alder, its leaves, with their lateral veins, presenting something of the appearance of the alder. its more slender stems are purplish-brown in hue, and _all_ the leaves are arranged alternately up the stems. the leaves further differ from those of _r. catharticus_ in having plain, un-toothed edges, and their veins parallel one to another. the flowers are similar in size to those of the other species, but are whiter, less yellow, fewer in number, and on longer stalks. the parts of the flower, too, are in fives instead of fours; and the "berry," though similar to the previous species, is much larger (half-inch diameter). in an unripe condition these fruits yield a good green dye, much used by calico printers and others. the wood made into charcoal is said to be the best for the purposes of the gunpowder makers, who know it by the name of black dogwood. the straight shoots of both species are used for forming walking and umbrella sticks, and those of longer growth for pea and bean sticks. the brimstone butterfly (_gonepteryx rhamni_) lays its eggs on the leaves of _r. frangula_, upon which the larva feeds. the name buckthorn appears to be due to an ancient misunderstanding of the german name buxdorn, which should have been translated box-thorn. wild plums (_prunus communis_). with the single exception of the hazel, all our native fruit-trees are members of the extensive and beautiful rose family. before roman invasions brought improved and cultivated varieties, our "rude forefathers" must have been glad to eat the sloes, crabs, and wild cherries that are now regarded as too terribly crude and austere, in an uncooked condition, for any stomach but that of the natural boy, which appears capable of surviving any ill-treatment. some authors have regarded the wild plum and the bullace as being specifically distinct from the sloe and from each other; but the modern view is that their differences only entitle them to rank as sub-species of the sloe, and as such they will be regarded here. [illustration: _pl. ._ flowers of wild plum.] [illustration: _pl. ._ sloes.] [illustration: _pl. ._ blackthorn--spring.] [illustration: blackthorn. a, flowers.] the sloe or blackthorn (_prunus communis_) is the rigid many-branched shrub, with stiletto-like tips, that luxuriates on some of our commons and in our hedgerows. the blackish bark that gives its name to the shrub forms a fine foil in march or april for the pure white starry blossoms that brave the cold blasts before the leaf-buds dare unfurl their coverings. in some places--as in cornwall, where it is the principal hedge plant, and where cliffs, creeks, and river banks are bordered by it--these bare black or purple stems are almost hidden by the abundant growth of the grey lichen (_evernia prunastri_). in this, the typical form, the branches and twigs turn in every direction, so that it is impossible to thrust one's hand into a blackthorn bush without getting considerably scratched. the well-known flower consists of a five-lobed calyx, five white petals, and from fifteen to twenty stamens round the single carpel. the stigma matures in advance of the stamens, so that it has usually been fertilized by bee-borne pollen from another sloe before its own anthers have disclosed their pollen. the fruit is about half an inch across, globose in form, and held erect upon its short stalk; black, but its blackness hidden by a delicate "bloom" that gives it a purplish glaucous hue. terribly harsh are these fruits to the palate, and a mere bite at an unripe one is sufficient to set teeth on edge and contract the muscles of mouth and face. and yet, when the tight jacket of the sloe begins to relax and pucker, the juice condenses into more mealy flesh, and the acridity passes, one may _eat_ not one but a dozen, slowly, enjoying the piquancy of each before swallowing. country people make them into wine, and it used to be said that much that is sold as port had its origin in the skins of british sloes instead of portuguese grapes. and for special use "for the stomach's sake" old-wife followers of st. paul pin their faith to gin in which sloes have soaked for months. in the days of our youth it was a stock jibe against the grocer that most of his china tea had been grown on blackthorn bushes not far from home, and with tea at five or six shillings a pound there may have been some basis of truth for the belief; but with the prices of to-day it may be presumed that blackthorn leaves would cost the dealer at least as much as real tea-leaves from assam and darjeeling. the bullace (_prunus communis_, sub-sp. _insititia_) differs from the sloe in having _brown_ bark, the branches _straight_ and only a few of them ending in spines, the leaves larger, broader, more coarsely toothed, and downy on the underside. the flowers, too, have broader petals, and the fruit--which may be black or yellow--droops, and is between three-quarters and one inch in diameter. in many places where this grows it can only be regarded as an escape from cultivation. the wild plum (_prunus communis_, sub-sp. _domestica_) has also brown bark, its branches straight, and not ending in spines. the downiness noticed on the underside of the bullace leaves is here restricted to the ribs of the leaf. the fruit attains a diameter of an inch or an inch and a half. although found occasionally in hedgerows, this sub-species is not indigenous in any part of our islands. hooker says the only country in which it is really indigenous is western asia; but its numerous cultivated forms are widely distributed. it should be noted that the fruits of the blackthorn and its sub-species are formed within the flower; so are those of the cherries, to be next described, the ovary being botanically termed "superior," that is, above the base of the calyx and corolla, when the flower is in an erect position. this is a point of some importance when one seeks to understand the different formation of the fruit in so closely related a species as the apple, in which the ovary is "inferior," or below the flower. wild cherries (_prunus avium_). nature has been comparatively lavish in the matter of cherries, for she has bestowed three species upon the british islands. for the cultivated cherry it is said that we ought to thank the romans, as for many other good things in the way of food. pliny states that we had the cherry in britain by the middle of the first century a.d. evelyn tells us that the cherry orchards of kent owe their origin to "the plain industry of one richard haines, a printer to henry viii.," by whom "the fields and environs of about thirty towns, in kent only, were planted with fruit trees from flanders, to the unusual benefit and general improvement of the county to this day." it is probable, however, that our own countrymen had already effected some improvement on the wild sorts by cultivation, for even in the woods some trees are found bearing fruit much larger and of better flavour than usual, and such would be selected for cultivation. [illustration: _pl. ._ gean in flower.] [illustration: _pl. ._ flowers of gean.] our three natives are the wild or dwarf cherry (_prunus cerasus_), the gean (_p. avium_), and the bird cherry (_p. padus_). of these the gean is the species most widely distributed throughout our country, and we therefore give it precedence. [illustration: gean. a, fruit; b, flower.] the gean (_prunus avium_) is a tree that in suitable soils attains a height of thirty or forty feet, with short, stout branches, that take an upward direction. the leaves are large, broadly oval, with sharp-toothed edges, and downy on the underside. they always droop from the branches, and in spring they are of a bronzy-brown tint, which afterwards changes to pale green. soon after the leaves have unfolded they are almost hidden by the umbels of wide-open white flowers, which have soft, heart-shaped petals, and whose anthers and stigmas mature simultaneously. the firm-fleshed drupe is heart-shaped, black or red, sweet or bitter, with scanty juice which stains the fingers. this is believed to be the original wild stock from which our modern black hearts and bigarreau cherries have been evolved by the cultivator. [illustration: wild cherry. a, fruit; b, flower.] the dwarf or wild cherry (_prunus cerasus_) is more bush-like than tree-like, for it sends up a great number of suckers around the main stem. the branches are slender and drooping. the leaves, which are of similar shape to those of _p. avium_, are smooth and deep blue-green in tint, with round-toothed edges. the flowers are not so widely open as in the previous species, but retain more of the cup-shape, whilst the notched petals are firmer in consistence and oval in shape. the drupe is in this species round, with red skin and juicy flesh of a distinctly acid character. the juice does not stain as does that of _p. avium_. the morello or brandy cherry, the may duke, and the kentish cherries are considered to be derived from this species. this does not extend further north than yorkshire; in ireland it is rare. [illustration: _pl. ._ bird cherry--spring.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of bird cherry.] the bird cherry (_prunus padus_) forms a tree from ten to twenty feet in height, with more elliptic leaves, which have their edges doubly cut into fine teeth. the flowers are not clustered in umbels, as in both the foregoing, but in a loose raceme from lateral spurs of new growth. the flowers are erect when they open, and the stigmas mature before the anthers, so that cross-fertilization is favoured in this species. after fertilization the flower droops, to be out of the way of the bees in their visits to the unfertilized blossoms. the petals in this species look as if their edges had been gnawed. the drupes are small, black, and very bitter, with a wrinkled stone. this is a northern species, coming not further south than leicestershire and south wales. all three species flower in late april or early may. cherry wood is strong, fine-grained, and of a red colour. it is easily worked, and susceptible of a high polish, so that it is in request by cabinet-makers, turners, and musical instrument makers. [illustration: _pl. ._ flowers of wild apple.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bird cherry--winter.] * * * * * [illustration: _pl. ._ wild pear--spring.] the wild pear (_pyrus communis_). the wild pear is only to be found growing in the southern half of britain, its northward range not extending beyond yorkshire, and even in the south its claim to be regarded as a true native has been contested. mr. hewett c. watson regards it as more probably a denizen, that is, a species originally introduced by man, which has maintained its hold upon the new land. upon this assumption it is probable that the introduced specimens were already somewhat cultivated, but when they (or their descendants) became wild they reverted to the original condition of the species. [illustration: wild pear. a, flower.] the wild pear, or choke-pear, is a small tree, from twenty to sixty feet in height, of somewhat pyramidal form. the twigs, which are usually of a drooping tendency, are also much given to ending in spines--a character scarcely apparent in the cultivated tree. the leaves, too, of the wild tree are more distinctly toothed than those of the garden pear. they are oval in shape, with blunt-toothed edges, and downy on the lower surface. along the new shoots the leaves are arranged alternately on opposite sides, but on shoots a year old they are produced in clusters. the flowers, which measure more than an inch across, are pure white in colour, and are clustered in cymes of five to nine. they appear in april and may, and are of the wild rose type, there being numerous stamens, from three to five styles, which ripen before the stamens, five petals, and the calyx, taking the form of a pitcher with a five-lobed mouth, represents the five sepals. in speaking of the wild plums we directed attention to the fact that the ovary was within the flower; in the pear (and the other members of the genus _pyrus_) it is below the flower, hidden away in fact within the calyx-tube. when the flower opens it is ready for fertilization, but as the stamens of that flower are not yet mature this can only be accomplished by pollen brought by the bees from other flowers as they rifle the honey-glands. the effect of pollination is to cause special vegetative activity in the neighbourhood of the ovary, resulting in the thickening of the flesh of the calyx-tube around it, until it has become of the characteristic pear-shape, and an inch or two in length. a section of a pear or apple, taken lengthwise, will show a faint green outline of the ovary, and will demonstrate how much of the flesh is really belonging to the calyx-tube. the fruit of the wild pear is green until about november, when it turns yellow. it is of too harsh a character to be fit for eating. a pear formerly known as a variety (_briggsii_) of _pyrus communis_ is now regarded as a distinct species under the name of _pyrus cordata_. it is found in cornwall, and is distinguished by its more oval leaves being rounded at the base, and by its much smaller fruits being often globular. the pear is a long-lived tree, that grows singly or in small groups on dry plains. it attains a height of about fifty feet in thirty years, and its girth may then be three or four feet. the timber is fine-grained, strong and heavy, with a reddish tinge. stained with black, it is used to counterfeit ebony. [illustration: _pl. ._ wild apples.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of wild pear.] [illustration: _pl. ._ wild pear--winter.] the wild apple (_pyrus malus_). it is by no means an easy matter to decide whether the crab-trees that grow along the hedgerows are truly wild or the offspring of orchard apples. in woods, away from gardens and orchards, there is less difficulty. like the pear, the apple appears to have been the subject of cultural attention from very early times. this is proved by the philologists from the similarity of the equivalents for our word apple in all the celtic and sclavonian languages, showing by their common origin that the fruit was of sufficient importance to have a distinctive name long before the separation of the peoples of northern europe. the name of crab is of comparatively recent origin. prior regards it as a form of the lowland scotch _scrab_, derived from anglo-saxon _scrobb_, a shrub, indicating that it is an apple-bush rather than an apple-tree. the wild apple has not the pyramidal form of the wild pear, the branches spreading more widely when young and drooping when older, so that the head is rounded. in height it varies as a tree from twenty to thirty feet, though many examples of good age still retain the dimensions of a bush. owing to the spreading character of the branches, the diameter of the head often exceeds the height of the tree. the bole has seldom any pretensions to symmetry, and is usually more or less crooked like the older branches. the brown bark is not very rough, though its numerous fissures and cracks give it a rugged appearance. its wood, like that of the pear, is hard and fine-grained, but, instead of having a reddish tinge, there is a tendency to brownness. the leaves vary in shape, but are more or less oblong, smooth above, sometimes downy on the lower surface when young, and with toothed edges. [illustration: crab or wild apple. a, flower; b, fruit.] the flowers are about the same size as those of the wild pear, but their white petals are beautifully tinted and streaked with pink. the small clusters are umbels--that is to say, the footstalks of similar length start from a common base. the fruit is almost spherical, and instead of the foot-stalk gradually merging into the apple, the attachment is always in a depression of the latter. in the typical form of the wild apple the yellow and red fruit hang by their slender stalks, but there is a variety (_mitis_) in which the fruit is borne _above_ the stouter stalks. the variety may also be known by the downiness of the young leaves, the calyx-tube, and the stalks. the fruit is about an inch across, and so rich in malic acid as to be unfit for food in its natural state, though children punish their digestive organs with it. pigs are partial to crab-apples, a taste they have evidently inherited from the wild boar. a delicious preserve, called crab-jelly, is made by stewing the whole fruit, then pressing the soft flesh through a hair sieve, and boiling the pulp with sugar. cyder is made from the rotting crabs; also a kind of vinegar called verjuice, or vargis. [illustration: _pl. ._ wild apple--summer.] [illustration: _pl. ._ wild apple--winter.] the wild apple is found all over the united kingdom as far north as the clyde, and wherever it is known to occur it is worth a special visit in may, when all its crooked branches and straggling shoots are rendered beautiful by the abundance of delicately tinted and fragrant flowers. it is also far from being unattractive in the autumn, when the miniature apples hang from the boughs. [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of crab, or wild apple.] white beam (_pyrus aria_). owing to its very local occurrence, the white beam, though widely distributed, is one of the less known of our trees and shrubs. it comes into both these categories according to the situation of its growth, for whilst in exposed mountainous localities a specimen of mature age may be no more than four or five feet high, and of bush-like growth, under the lee of a wood, and on a calcareous soil, it will be an erect and graceful tree of pyramidal form, whose apex is forty feet from the ground. in its early years growth is tolerably rapid, but at the age of ten it slackens pace, and after it has attained its majority its progress is very slow. its wood is fine-grained, very hard, white, but inclining to yellow. the bark is smooth, and little subject to the cracks and fissures that mark the apple-bark. the branches, except a few of the lowest, all have an upward tendency. [illustration: _pl. ._ white beam--spring.] [illustration: white beam. a, fruits.] the leaves vary considerably in the several forms or sub-species, but in the typical form they are a broad oval, with the edges coarsely toothed or cut into lobes, the upper side smooth, and the lower side clothed with white cottony down, the almost straight nerves strongly marked. the white flowers, which appear in may or june, are only half an inch across, and gathered into loose clusters. they are succeeded by nearly round scarlet fruits, half an inch in diameter, known in lancashire and westmoreland as chess-apples. the tree is also known in the same districts as sea owler, the latter word, according to prior, being a corruption of aller or alder, probably from the resemblance of the plaited leaves to those of _alnus glutinosa_. these chess-apples are very sharp and rough to the taste, but when kept like medlars, till they "blet" or begin to decay, are far from unpleasant. birds and squirrels eagerly seek for them on the tree, and those that fall are as welcome to hedgehogs and other mammals. this form is only found from the midlands to the south of england as far west as devon, and in ireland. the sub-species _latifolia_ (_pyrus rotundifolia_ of some botanists) has broader leaves, varying from oval-oblong to almost round, divided into wedge-shaped lobes, the cottony down beneath being grey rather than white, and the nerves less prominent on the underside. this form is found in cornwall. the sub-species _scandica_ (also known as _pyrus intermedia_) has the leaves less tough, more deeply divided into rounded or oblong lobes, and the grey cotton beneath of a looser character. this form is found in scotland. it should be noted that this species must not be called the white beam-_tree_, for the word _beam_ is the saxon equivalent for tree. other names for it include hen-apple, cumberland hawthorn, hoar withy, quick beam, and whipcrop. the wild service (_pyrus torminalis_) is a small tree of local occurrence, which does not extend further north than lancashire. in general appearance it may be taken for the white beam, but closer inspection will reveal the following differences. the leaves, which are cut into tapering lobes and coarsely toothed, are heart-shaped at the base; when young they are slightly downy beneath, but when mature they are smooth on both sides. though the flowers are similar in size and colour to those of the white beam, the fruit is smaller (one-third inch in diameter), less globular, and more like a large haw, though the colour is greenish-brown. the flowers appear in april and may, and the fruit, which is of a very dry, juiceless character, is ripe in november. in some localities these fruits are marketed, but they require to be kept like medlars, until decay sets in, before they are fit to be eaten. [illustration: _pl. ._ flowers of white beam.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of white beam.] [illustration: _pl. ._ white beam--winter.] mountain ash, or rowan (_pyrus aucuparia_). little description of the mountain ash is needed, for in recent years it has come so much into favour that it is now one of the commonest of the trees planted in little suburban gardens and fore-courts. its hardiness, its indifference to the character of the soil, the fact that other plants will grow beneath it, and the absence of need for pruning--all these points unite to make it suitable and popular for growth in restricted spaces. but the wood on the hillside is the natural home of the mountain ash, and in the highlands its vertical range extends to feet above sea-level. [illustration: _pl. ._ rowan, or mountain ash--summer.] the mountain ash attains a height of from thirty to fifty feet, and has a straight clean bole, clothed in smooth grey bark, scarred horizontally as though it had been scored with a knife. all the branches have an upward tendency, and the shoots bear the long feathery leaves, whose division into six or eight pairs of slender leaflets suggests _the_ ash, from which part of its name has been borrowed. gazing on this tree either in flower or fruit, it would be quite unnecessary to explain that it is not even remotely allied to _fraxinus excelsior_, and that the similarity of leaf-division is the only point of resemblance between them. these leaflets have toothed edges, are paler on the underside, and in a young condition the midrib and nerves are hairy. the creamy-white fragrant flowers are like little hawthorn blossoms, though only half the size, and they appear in dense clusters (_cymes_) in may or june. the fruit are miniature apples, of the size of holly-berries, bright scarlet without and yellow within. they ripen in september, and are then a great attraction to thrushes, blackbirds, and their kind, who rapidly strip the tree of them. though this at first sight may appear like frustrating the tree's object in producing fruit, it is not really so, the attractive flesh being a mere bait to induce the birds to pass the seeds through their intestines, and thus get them sown far and wide. by this method the process of germination is considerably hastened, whereas by hand-sowing the seeds lie in the earth for eighteen months before shooting. all the species of _pyrus_ produce their fruits with this object, the larger more or less brownish ones being intended to attract mammals, the smaller and red-coloured to tempt birds. the seeds have leathery jackets to protect them from the action of the digestive fluids, and are further wrapped in a parchmenty, bony, or wooden "core" (_endocarp_) with a similar object. in the case of the rowan this is very like wood. [illustration: rowan, or mountain ash. a, portion of flower-cluster.] in the south of britain the mountain ash is chiefly grown as underwood and used as a nurse for oaks and other timber trees, which soon outgrow it and kill it; so that in the woods it is seldom allowed to grow into a fully developed tree, but, thanks to the birds, it comes up on the common and the hillside, and has a chance of producing its masses of ruby fruit. its wood is tough and elastic, but, owing to the smallness of its girth, it does not produce timber of any size. still, it makes admirable poles and hoops. the word rowan is one of the most interesting of tree-names, and connects the still-existing superstitious practices of our northern counties, not only with the old norsemen, but with the ancient hindus who spoke the sanskrit tongue. the word is spelled in many ways which connect it with the old norse _runa_, a charm, it being supposed to have power to ward off the effects of the evil eye. in earlier times _runa_ was the sanskrit appellation for a magician; _rûn-stafas_ were staves cut from the rowan-tree upon which runes were inscribed. until quite recently the respect for its magical properties was shown in the north by fixing a branch of rowan to the cattle-byre as a charm against the evil designs of witches, warlocks, and others of that kidney. in this connection we may quote also from evelyn's "sylva." he says: "ale and beer brewed with these berries, being ripe, is an incomparable drink, familiar in wales, where this tree is reputed so sacred that there is not a churchyard without one of them planted in it (as among us the yew); so, on a certain day in the year, everybody religiously wears a cross made of the wood; and the tree is by some authors called fraxinus cambro-britannica, reputed to be a preservative against fascinations and evil spirits; whence, perhaps, we call it witchen, the boughs being stuck about the house or the wood used for walking-staves." [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of rowan.] [illustration: _pl. ._ flowers of rowan.] among the numerous names of the mountain ash are fowler's service (or servise, from _cerevisia_, a fermented drink), cock-drunks, hen-drunks (from the belief that fowls were intoxicated by eating the "berries"), quickbeam, white ash (from the colour of the flowers), witch-wood, and witchen. quickbeam is in allusion to the constant movement of foliage, quick being the anglo-saxon _cwic_, alive. witch-wood and witchen are also forms of _cwic_. [illustration: _pl. ._ rowan--winter.] * * * * * the true service (_pyrus sorbus_) closely resembles the mountain ash in habit and foliage, but it is not a native of britain, though it used to be claimed as such, on account of its growing in the more mountainous parts of cornwall and in wyre forest, worcestershire. the latter, however, is the only service tree that could put in such a claim, for it grows--or grew?--far from habitations or cultivated land, and the presumption is that it has not owed its introduction to man. still, "one swallow does not make a summer," and a solitary wild tree does not give the species a title to be reckoned as british. it is occasionally cultivated here, and its portrait, with a brief account of its points of difference from the mountain ash, may be useful. a comparison of the photographs from the boles of the two species will show a great difference: that of the mountain ash being smooth, whilst that of the service is rugged. the leaf is similarly broken up into paired leaflets, but these are broader, and are downy on both upper and lower sides. the white flowers are as large as may-blossoms, and the fruits, which may be either apple-shaped or pear-shaped, are greenish-brown, with rusty specks, and four times the size of rowan-berries. in winter, when there are neither leaves, flowers, nor fruits to help in the distinction, the bark may be taken in conjunction with the leaf-buds, which are green and smooth in this species, whilst those of the mountain ash are black and downy. the fruit may be eaten after it has begun to decay, as in the case of the medlar. loudon describes the wood of the service as the hardest and heaviest of all the trees indigenous to europe: fine-grained, red-tinted, susceptible of a high polish, and much in request in france for all purposes where strength and durability are needed. he further says that it takes two centuries to attain its full stature (fifty to sixty feet), "and lives to so great an age that some specimens of it are believed to be upwards of years old." we have already made reference to the meaning of the name service. another name--sorb (from latin _sorbeo_)--shows closer affinity for the fermented liquor indicated by servise, for it means "drink down." a third name is chequer-tree, which dr. prior tells us is an antique pronunciation of the word _choker_, in allusion to the unpalatable fruit, fit to choke one. choke-pear, it will be remembered, is a synonym of the wild pear. britten and holland regard the name chequer-tree as having no connection with choking, but an indication of the chequered or spotted appearance of the fruit. [illustration: _pl. ._ true service tree--spring.] [illustration: _pl. ._ fruit of medlar.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of true service.] * * * * * the medlar (_pyrus germanica_) is a small tree, native of persia, asia minor, and greece, and which is generally held to occur wild in england and the channel islands only as an escape from cultivation. the theory is that the tree was introduced at some date prior to --when we have record of its being in cultivation here--and that the medlar-trees growing in the hedges of south and middle england are from seeds of these cultivated trees, which have been sown by birds, or more probably mammals who have eaten the fruit. the fact that it is not found in woods is taken as evidence that it is non-indigenous. such evidence is not the most convincing, but it is the best available. it should be noted, however, that the agents credited with its distribution along our hedgerows have free access to woods, and that if these places were favourable to the growth of the medlar, we should probably find it there, whether indigenous or exotic. much more conclusive, we think, is its restricted distribution abroad, as already indicated. one would not expect to find a tree whose nearest home is greece, leaping over the whole of europe and appearing as an indigene in britain. [illustration: medlar. a, flower.] in its wild condition the medlar is a much-branched and spiny tree, from ten to twenty feet high, in these respects resembling the hawthorn; but, like the pear, it puts off its defences when cultivated. its leaves are large and undivided, of an oblong-lance shape, downy beneath, and sometimes with the edges very finely toothed. the solitary white flowers are large--one and a half inches across--with a woolly calyx, whose five tips expand into leafy growths. they appear in may or june, and are succeeded by brown fruits, an inch or less across, which may be described as round, with a depressed top, which is ornamented with the remains of the calyx-lobes. they ripen in october or november. hawthorn (_cratægus oxyacantha_). though distributed as a wild tree throughout the length and breadth of the british islands, we are all more familiar with the hawthorn as planted material in the construction of hedges, and this is a use to which it has been put ever since land was plotted out and enclosed. for the word is anglo-saxon (_hægthorn_), and signifies hedge-thorn. the man in the street would say without hesitation that hawthorn means the thorn that produces haws, but the philologist would tell him that it is only a modern and erroneous practice to apply the name of the hedge to the fruit of the hedge-thorn. it is also whitethorn, to make the distinction between its light-grey bark and that of the blackthorn; and may because of the period when it chiefly attracts attention. [illustration: _pl. ._ fruits of hawthorn.] [illustration: _pl. ._ true service--winter.] where the hawthorn is allowed its natural growth, it attains a height of forty feet, with a circumference between three and ten feet. such a tree is represented in our photograph. on our commons, where in their youth the hawthorns have to submit to much mutilation from browsing animals, their growth is spoiled; but though some of these never become more than bushes tangled up with blackthorn into small thickets, there are others that form a distinct bole and a round head of branches from ten to twenty feet high, which in late may or (more frequently) early june look like solid masses of snow. the characteristic of the tree which makes it so valuable as fencing material is found in its numerous branches, supporting a network of twigs so dense that even a hand may not be pushed among them without incurring serious scratches. that this character is not confined to it as a hedge shrub is clearly shown by the winter photograph of the leafless tree. [illustration: hawthorn, or may. a, fruit ("haws").] the well-known lobed leaves are very variable both in size and shape, and the degree to which they are cut. they are a favourite food with horses and oxen, who would demolish the hedges that confine them to the fields but for the spines which protect the older branches at least. the white flowers are about three-quarters of an inch across, borne in numerous corymbs. the pink anthers give relief to the uniform whiteness of the petals. the flowers, though usually sweet-scented, occasionally give forth a very unpleasant odour. the familiar fruits, too, instead of their usual crimson, are yellow occasionally, as in the holly. in favourable years these are so plentiful that they quite kill the effect of the dark-green leaves, and when such a tree is seen in the october sunshine, it appears to be glowing with fire to its centre. beneath the ripe mealy flesh there is a hard bony core, in whose cells the seeds are protected from digestion when the fruit has been swallowed by a bird. the hawthorn is said to live from a century to two centuries, growing very slowly after it has reached a height of about fifteen feet. its wood is both hard and tough, and the name of the genus has reference to that fact, being derived from the greek kratos, strength. [illustration: _pl. ._ hawthorn--summer.] [illustration: _pl. ._ flowers of hawthorn--"may."] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of hawthorn.] [illustration: _pl. ._ hawthorn--winter.] the strawberry-tree (_arbutus unedo_). not in the woods or by waysides in great britain will the strawberry-tree be found, though it may be seen in parks and gardens; but in parts of the emerald isle it is native. killarney, muckross, and bantry are given by hooker as its irish stations, but we have also found it in the woods at woodstock, co. kilkenny, in a situation where it seemed unlikely such a tree would be planted. it does not attain a large size--ordinarily about ten or twelve feet--though in cultivation it may attain to twenty or even thirty feet. the bark is rough and scaly, tinged with red, and twisted. the leathery leaves are more or less oval, two or three inches long, with toothed edges and hairy stalks. although arranged alternately on the shoots, they present the appearance at a little distance of being clustered, rosette fashion, at the tips of the twigs. the creamy-white flowers are clustered in drooping racemes at the ends of the twigs, and are about one-third of an inch across, bell-shaped. when the seed-eggs have been fertilized the corollas drop off, so that in the flowering season (september and october) the ground beneath will usually be found strewn with them. the fruit is a round berry, of an orange-red hue, whose surface is completely studded with little points. as these berries do not come to maturity until about fourteen months after the flowers have dropped their corollas, we may see both flowers and almost full-formed fruit on the tree at the same time. they are not eatable until quite ripe, and even then they are not to everybody's taste, on account of their austerity. in truth, we have it on the testimony of pliny that the old latin name _unedo_, now enshrined in the specific scientific name, was given to it because to eat one of these tree strawberries was a sufficiently extensive acquaintance for most persons. [illustration: strawberry-tree.] it is perhaps unnecessary to add that, in spite of the name, there is no relationship existing between this tree and _the_ strawberry; nor is there more than a faint superficial resemblance between the fruits of the two plants. the strawberry belongs to the great rose family, whilst the nearest british connections of the arbutus are the bilberries and heaths. [illustration: _pl. ._ strawberry tree.] dogwood (_cornus sanguinea_). among the constituents of the broad hedgerow, and the copse that borders many a country road, the dogwood or cornel is apt to be overlooked as privet, to which its similar, opposite leaves and clusters of small white flowers bear a superficial resemblance. it has a great variety of local names, though it must be admitted that many of these show close connections one with another. this, however, makes them not less interesting, but indicates how ancient and general is the underlying idea which has given rise to them. dogwood had originally no connection with dogs, but was the wood of which dags, goads, and skewers were made, because, as the latin _cornus_ signifies, it was of horny hardness and toughness. when the etymology got changed by the substitution of "o" for "a" in dag, it was also called dog-tree, dog-berry, dog-timber, and houndberry-tree, and to explain the name it was said that the bark made an excellent wash for mangy dogs. gatter, gatten, gaiter, gaitre-berry, are all from the anglo-saxon _gad-treow_, or goad-tree; gadrise means goad-shrub (_gad-riis_), and gatteridge is _gaitre rouge_, from the red colour of the bare twigs. [illustration: _pl. ._ fruits of dogwood.] [illustration: dogwood, or cornel. a, flowers; b, berries.] but we must not overlook the shrub itself whilst considering its wealth of names. it grows to a height of six or eight feet, and is clothed with opposite oval leaves, which are smooth on both surfaces. the honeyed flowers are produced in june or july at the extremities of the branches in dense round cymes. individually they are small (one-third of an inch across), opaque white, with four petals and four stamens, which mature concurrently with the stigma. they give out an unpleasant odour, which appears to render them more attractive to flies and small beetles. the flowers are succeeded by small green berries, which turn purple-black about september, and are exceedingly bitter. they are said to yield an oil which is used in france for soap-making, and has been here burned in lamps. the dogwood is widely distributed over britain as far north as westmoreland. it does not occur in scotland, and is rare in ireland. it would seem as though its place in north britain was taken by a herbaceous species, the dwarf cornel (_cornus suecica_), which grows upon alpine moorlands from yorkshire as far north as sutherlandshire. the stems of this, which have as many inches to their stature as the shrub has feet, die down annually. its minute flowers are purplish instead of white, and its smaller berries red. [illustration: _pl. ._ flowers of dogwood.] wayfaring-tree (_viburnum lantana_). the wayfaring-tree has a number of names by which it is known locally, but the one we have used is generally known, though it may have the disadvantage of being a comparatively modern one whose parentage is known to us. the origin of most of these popular names is lost in the mists of antiquity. john gerarde, whose "herbal" was published in , noting its fondness for roadside hedges and thickets, called it wayfaring-tree, or wayfaringman's-tree. thereupon parkinson, nearly half a century later, remarks: "gerard calleth it in english the wayfaring tree, but i know no travailer doth take either pleasure or profit by it more than by any other hedge trees." our own experience serves to prove that wayfarers, as a class, have improved since parkinson's day, for we have frequently been questioned in the surrey chalk-districts, at various seasons, respecting the bold plant; in winter showing its large naked buds, all rough with starry hairs, which keep off frost, as well as do the many scales and thick varnish of horse-chestnut buds; in summer the broad, hairy leaves, looking as dusty as a miller's coat, whilst above them spread the slightly rounded heads of white flowers; later, when the flowers are succeeded by bunches of glowing coral beads, that in autumn become beads of jet. it is not confined to the chalk-hills, but as far north as yorkshire may be looked for wherever the soil is dry, though it finds this condition best on the chalk, and is there especially abundant. it is not indigenous in either scotland or ireland. [illustration: _pl. ._ fruits of wayfaring-tree.] [illustration: wayfaring-tree. a, portion of flower-cluster.] though it grows to a height of twenty feet in places, it can never properly be called a tree. its downy stems are never very stout. they branch a good deal, and it should be noted that the branches are always given off in pairs, a branch from each side of the stem at exactly the same height; the leaves are produced in the same order. these leaves, which are three or four inches in length, are much wrinkled, heart-shaped, with a blunt, small end, white beneath, and the edges very finely toothed. the flower-cluster is a cyme, and it should be noted that all the white flowers comprised in it are of the same size and form, the corollas being funnel-shaped, with five lobes, and the five stamens are extruded from the mouth. the flowers, which are jointed to the stalks, are out in may and june, and the flattened oval fruits that follow are, as already stated, at first red, then black. the local names for this shrub include mealy-tree, whipcrop, cotton-tree, cottoner, coventree, lithe-wort, lithy-tree, twist-wood, white-wood. mealy-tree, cotton-tree, cottoner, and white-wood all have obvious reference to the appearance of the young shoots and leaves, due to the presence of the white hairs with which they are covered. lithe-wort and lithy-tree, also twist-wood and whipcrop, indicate the supple and elastic character of the branches, which are often used instead of withy to bind up a bundle of sticks or vegetables, or to make a hoop for a gate-fastener. in germany the shoots, when only a year old, are used in basket-weaving, and, when a year or two older, serve for pipe-stems. [illustration: _pl. ._ wayfaring tree.] the guelder rose (_viburnum opulus_). although the guelder rose and the wayfaring-tree are very closely related, the differences between them are so great that there is little danger of any person with ordinary powers of observation confusing them. the guelder rose does not grow so tall as its congener, twelve feet being about the extreme height to which it attains in a wild state, and ordinarily it is several feet less. it is not so fond of dry soils, and is more frequently found in the copse, where it is not subject to the extremes of heat and cold that have produced the hairy covering of _v. lantana_. the stems and branches are quite smooth, and the leaf-buds are wrapped in scales. the young leaves, it is true, when they break from the bud, are covered with down, but they throw this off as they expand to their full size, and become smooth on either side. instead of the leaf being heart-shaped, it is divided into three deeply toothed lobes, and it will be noted that at the base of the leaf-stalk there is a pair of slender stipules, which _lantana_ never has. the cyme or flower-head is more rounded, and whilst the mass of flowers are of the same size (a quarter of an inch) as those of the wayfaring-tree, those in the outer row are three times the size--but they are entirely without stamens or pistil! it would appear that in order to make the flower-cluster more conspicuous, and thus attract insects, the material that should have gone to furnish these organs has been used up in the broader and whiter corolla. the inner and perfect flowers are creamy-white, bell-shaped, and they secrete honey. both stamens and stigma mature simultaneously. the fruits are almost round, and of a clear, translucent red. respecting these fruits, we cannot forbear from quoting a remark of hamerton's. he says, writing as the french recorder of the _sylvan year_: "for any one who enjoys the sight of red berries in the most jewel-like splendour, there is nothing in winter like the viburnum, the species we call _viorne obier_, and if you meet with a fine specimen just when it is caught by the level rays of a crimson sunset, you will behold a shrub that seems to have come from that garden of aladdin where the fruit of the trees were jewels." these fruits, though enticing to the sight, and juicy, are nauseous to the taste. [illustration: guelder rose. a, fruit; b, flowers.] the name guelder rose is a strange case of transference from a cultivated to a wild plant: the var. _sterilis_, in which _all_ the flowers are like the outer row in the normal cluster, was first cultivated in gelderland; so gerarde tells us that "it is called in dutch, _gheldersche roose_; in english, _gelder's rose_." in the cotswolds it is known as king's crown, from the "king of the may" having been crowned with a chaplet of it. another name for it is water elder, presumably given on account of the similar appearance of the flower-clusters in _viburnum_ and _sambucus_. the distribution of the guelder rose as a wild plant extends northwards to caithness, although it is rare in scotland. it occurs throughout ireland. [illustration: _pl. ._ elder.] [illustration: _pl. ._ fruits of guelder rose.] [illustration: _pl. ._ flowers of elder.] the elder (_sambucus nigra_). [illustration: elder. a, berries; b, portion of flower-cluster.] the elder is more a tree of the wayside than of the woodland, often of low bushy growth; but where it finds good loamy soil with abundant moisture it attains a height of twenty feet. none of our trees grows more rapidly in its earliest years, and any bit of its living wood will readily take root, so that its presence in the hedge is often due to planting for the purpose of rapidly erecting a live screen. its quickly grown juicy shoots soon harden into a tube of tough wood with a core of pith which is readily extracted, and renders the tube available for a peashooter, a pop-gun, or a music-pipe. such uses have been known from remote antiquity--probably one might say from the beginnings of the human race. the ancient greeks called it _sambúke_, from its wood having been used in the making of musical instruments. in the north of britain it is known as bourtree, bore-tree, or bottery, from the ease with which this clearing out of the pith is effected, and it is pretty clear that the more general name of elder also has relation to the tubular shoots. piers plowman calls the tree eller, a name that survives in kent, sussex, lincoln, east yorks, and cheshire. this word, according to prior, is derived from the anglo-saxon _eller_ and _ellarn_, and seems to mean "kindler"--"a name which we may suppose that it acquired from its hollow branches being used, like the bamboo in the tropics, to blow up a fire." it is thus probable that the housewife got her bellows, the musician his pipe, and the schoolboy his pop-gun, all from the same source. the stems are coated with a grey corky bark, and the younger divisions of the branches show an angular section when cut. when old, the wood becomes hard and heavy, and has been used as a substitute for box. the leaf is divided into five, seven, or nine oval leaflets with toothed edges. the flower is of the form that botanists describe as _rotate_, that is, the corolla forms a very short tube, from the mouth of which five petal-like lobes spread flat. this is a quarter of an inch broad, and creamy-white in colour, giving out an odour which some persons like, but which the writer considers offensive. large numbers of these small flowers are gathered into flat-topped cymes, five or six inches in diameter. the primary stalks of these cymes are five in number. the flowers are succeeded by small globular berries, ultimately of a purple-black hue, and of mawkish flavour, which are yet much sought after by country people for the making of elderberry wine, which they credit with marvellous medicinal powers. in truth, the elder still retains among rustic folk much of the reputation it had when john evelyn praised it so highly in his "sylva," where he says, "if the medicinal properties of the leaves, bark, berries, etc., were thoroughly known, i cannot tell what our countryman could ail for which he might not fetch a remedy from every hedge, either for sickness or wound." occasionally one may find in the hedgerow an elder with its leaflets deeply cut into very slender lobes, so that the leaf has resemblance to that of fool's parsley. this is an escape from cultivation--a garden variety (_laciniata_) known as the cut-leaved or parsley-leaved elder. * * * * * [illustration: _pl. ._ box trees.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of box.] the box (_buxus sempervirens_). though frequently to be met with in parks and ornamental grounds, there are only a few places in this country where the box is really indigenous. these are in the counties of surrey, kent, buckingham, and gloucester. on the famous box hill, near dorking, in surrey, it may be seen attaining its proper proportions as a small tree, and in sufficient abundance to form groves covering a considerable area. it grows to a height of fifteen or twenty feet, with a girth of about twenty inches. its slender branches are clothed with small, oblong, leathery leaves, which give out a peculiar and distinctive odour. they are about an inch in length, polished on the upper side, evergreen, and opposite. the flowers may be looked for from january to may, and will be found clustered between the leaf and the stem. these are quite small and inconspicuous, of a whitish-green colour, and the sexes are in separate flowers. the uppermost one in the centre of each cluster is a female flower; the others are males. the males consist of four petals, enclosing a rudimentary ovary, from beneath which spring four stamens. the sepals of the female flower vary in number, from four to twelve, and enclose a rounded ovary with three styles, which are ripe and protruded before the males open. this develops into the three-celled capsule with three diverging beaks, which correspond with the styles, and in each cell there are one or two black seeds. [illustration: box. a, male flowers; b, female flower.] the growth of the tree is very slow, and, in consequence, the grain of its wood is very fine. it is also very hard, and so heavy that alone among native woods it will not float in water. on account of its fine grain and hardness, it is in request by the turner and mathematical instrument maker, and was formerly largely used by the wood-engraver for "woodcuts." since the introduction of the photographic "process" blocks, the industry of preparing box-wood for the engraver must have become all but extinct, and for that reason box plantations must be less valuable assets than formerly. it is on record that when the box hill trees were cut in , the "fall" realized nearly £ , . box hill is in no sense a plantation; its slopes and summit are clothed with a natural mixed wood of box, oak, beech, and yew. beneath every box-tree will be found hundreds of seedlings of various ages. some of these may be seen in our photograph, which depicts naturally grown box-trees on the famous hill. it will be noted that their "habit" is widely different from that of the more bush-like forms so familiar in gardens. part ii. exotic trees and shrubs. we have already given descriptions and illustrations of several exotic species in part i., where it seemed more advantageous to the reader to include them with british species of the same genus; those now to be dealt with are in all cases members of genera not represented in our native flora. the plane (_platanus orientalis_). in spite of the fact that the plane is an exotic of comparatively recent introduction, it seems in a fair way of being associated in the future with london. it has taken with great kindness to london life, in spite of the drawbacks of smoke, fog, flagstones, and asphalt. its leaves get thickly coated with soot, which also turns its light-grey bark to black; but as the upper surface of the leaves is smooth and firm, a shower of rain washes them clean, and the rigid outer layer of bark is thrown off by the expansion of the softer bark beneath. this is not thrown off all at once, but in large and small flakes, which leave a smooth yellow patch behind, temporarily free from soot contamination. a variety of trees has been tried for street-planting, but none has stood the trying conditions of london so well as the plane, and therefore before many years the capital will be the city of planes. [illustration: _pl. ._ plane tree--summer.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of plane tree.] [illustration: oriental plane.] two species are recognized--the oriental plane (_platanus orientalis_) and the western plane (_p. occidentalis_); but it would probably be more accurate to regard them as geographical varieties of one species, the points in which they differ being small and not very important. thus the leaves of the oriental plane are described as being so much more deeply lobed than those of the western plane that the former are botanically described as palmate; but the two forms of leaf may often be found on the same individual. the western plane, too, does not shed its bark in small flakes like the oriental plane, but in large sheets. planes normally rise to a height of something between seventy and ninety feet, and the trunk attains a circumference of from nine to twelve feet; but there is a record of a portly plane whose waist measurement was forty feet! many persons imagine because the leaves of the plane resemble those of the sycamore that the two are closely related; but this is not so, and a comparison of the flowers and fruit will show that they are not. the catkins of the plane take the form of balls, in which male _or_ female flowers are pressed together; and the fruits, instead of being winged samaras, are the rough balls that so closely resemble an old-fashioned form of button, that the tree is known in some parts of the united states as the button-wood. (it is also known there as sycamore and cotton-tree.) the plane is supposed to have got its name _platanus_ from the greek word _platus_ (broad), in double allusion to the broad leaves and the ample shadow which the tree throws. these leaves are five-lobed, and, as already indicated, those of the oriental species are much more deeply cut. further distinction is found in the colour of the petiole or leaf-stalk, which is green in _p. orientalis_, and purplish-red in _p. occidentalis_, and in the larger and smoother seed-buttons of the latter. instead of the leaves being attached to the stem in pairs, as we saw in the sycamore, those of the plane are alternate--that is to say, leaf number two of a series will be halfway between one and three, but on the opposite side of the shoot. the outline of the tree is not so regular as in most others, the leaves being gathered in heavy masses, with broad spaces between, rather than equally distributed over the head. this is, of course, due to the freedom with which the crooked arms are flung about. the pale-brown wood is fine-grained, tough, and hard, and is extensively used by pianoforte-makers, coach-builders, and cabinet-makers, but is not highly esteemed for other purposes to which timber is put in this country. the oriental plane is popularly supposed to have been introduced to england from the levant by francis bacon, but if loudon's statement that it was "in british gardens before " rests on good evidence, bacon's claim is dismissed, for _he_ was not "introduced" until . it was nearly a hundred years later ( ) that the occidental plane was first brought from virginia by the younger tradescant, and planted in that remarkable garden of his father's in south lambeth road. the form that has done so well in london, and of which many fine examples are to be seen in the parks and squares, is a variety of the oriental plane, with leaves less deeply divided than those of the type, and therefore more nearly approaching the occidental plane in this respect. it is distinguished by the name of the maple-leaved plane (_platanus orientalis_, var. _acerifolia_). it is this variety we have chosen as the subject for our photograph. [illustration: _pl. ._ plane tree--winter.] the walnut (_juglans regia_). in the golden age, when man lived happily on a handful of acorns, the gods fed upon walnuts, and so their name was _jovis glans_--the nuts of jupiter--since contracted into _juglans_. those who delight in obvious interpretations by appealing to the modern meanings of words similar in construction may be pardoned for supposing that walnut-trees were formerly trained against walls; but, like many other obvious interpretations, this is wide of the mark. some have gone back to the anglo-saxons for help, and though the result arrived at is in all probability the correct one, it is almost certain that the anglo-saxons knew nothing of the matter, and would scarcely trouble to give a name to something they had never seen. the walnut is a native of the himalayas, the hindu kuh, persia, lebanon, and asia minor to greece. the learned roman, varro, who was born b.c. , and died b.c. , mentions it as existing in italy in his day; and pliny tells us it was brought thence from persia. the date of its introduction to britain is usually set down as about the middle of the sixteenth century, but it was probably at least a century earlier, for gerarde, writing at the close of the sixteenth century, describes it as a tree commonly to be seen in orchards, and in fields near the highways, where a very new importation was not likely to be found. but to return to the name: there can be little doubt that it is a contraction of wälsh-nut (in modern spelling, welsh-nut), meaning foreign. this is german, and while the modern sons of the vaterland write it wallnuss (occasionally wälshenuss), the dutch form is wallnoot. that this is the true derivation is made pretty certain by gerarde, who calls it "walnut, and of some walsh-nut." that the new importation was fully appreciated in europe for its fruit may be judged by the extent to which its cultivation had spread in evelyn's day, for he tells us the trees abounded in burgundy, where they stood in the midst of goodly wheat-lands. he says: "in several places betwixt hanau and frankfort in germany no young farmer is permitted to marry a wife till he bring proof that he hath planted and is a father of such a stated number of [walnut] trees, and the law is inviolably observed to this day, for the extraordinary benefit the tree affords the inhabitants." [illustration: _pl. ._ walnut--summer.] the walnut is a handsome tree, growing to a height of forty to sixty feet, with a bole twenty feet or more in circumference, and a huge spreading head. the bark is of a cool grey colour, smooth when young, but as the tree matures deep longitudinal furrows form, and it becomes very rugged. the twisted branches take a direction more upward than horizontal, but in early summer they are almost completely hidden by the masses of large and handsome leaves of warm green colour and spicy aroma. i once rejoiced in the occupation of a garden that held two walnut-trees, and though they had not attained to the fruiting age, their possession was a delight to me; but then i am one of those who enjoy their fragrance, which is unbearable to some persons. the large leaves are formed after the fashion of the ash-leaf--broken up into a variable number of lance-shaped leaflets with scarcely perceptible teeth. [illustration: walnut. a, female flowers; b, male flowers.] the flowering of the walnut is much on the plan of the oak and the hazel, the sexes being in different flowers, but borne by one tree; the males forming a long drooping catkin of slender cylindrical form, the females being solitary, or a few grouped at the end of a shoot. separated from the catkin, the males will each be seen to consist of a calyx of five greenish scales, enclosing a large number of stamens. the calyx of the female closely invests the ovary, which has two or three fleshy stigmas. the flowering takes place in early spring, before the leaf-buds have burst. the fruit is a plum-like drupe, only the enveloping green flesh becomes brown, and, splitting irregularly, discloses the "stone," which in this species takes the form of a hard but thin-shelled nut--the well-known walnut, with its wrinkled kernel of crisp white flesh, from which a fine oil is obtained. the ripening of these nuts--which is accomplished by the beginning of october--can only be relied upon in the southern half of britain, and even there the crop is often spoiled by late frosts in spring. its chief value in europe is as a fruit-tree, though the light but tough wood is much esteemed for the manufacture of furniture. owing to its rapid growth, the grain is coarse, but the dark-brown colour is esteemed, especially as it is relieved by streaks and veins of lighter tints and black. it is easily worked, and bears a high polish. the wood of young trees is white, gradually deepening to brown as maturity is approached. all the juices of the tree, whether from wood, bark, leaves, or green fruit, are rich in the brown pigment to which the hue of the timber is due. the combined lightness and toughness of the wood led to its adoption as the favourite material for making the stocks of guns and rifles. it is said that so great was the demand for this purpose during the peninsular war, that a single walnut-tree realized £ for its timber, and this created a boom that led to the cutting down of all our finest walnut-trees. some of these were doubtless the very trees referred to by evelyn, who tells us the walnut was extensively planted at leatherhead in surrey, also at cassaulton (carshalton) and godstone in the same county, where the rambler may come across fine walnut-trees to this day, and occasionally to young ones growing wild in hedgerows and wastes. [illustration: _pl. ._ fruit of walnut.] [illustration: _pl. ._ walnut--winter.] the old doggerel adage, "a dog and a wife and a walnut-tree, the more they are beaten the better they be," has reference to the manner of harvesting the ripe fruit. evelyn says: "in italy they arm the tops of long poles with nails and iron for the purpose [of loosening the fruit], and believe the beating improves the tree; which i no more believe than i do that discipline would reform a shrew." he expresses no opinion on the question of beating dogs. sweet chestnut (_castanea sativa_). until about the middle of the last century the chestnut was generally regarded as a genuine native of these islands. it is true that botanists felt that so large and longevous a tree, if native, should be found in the natural forests of this country, or even forming pure forest. these things they did not find, but, on the other hand, they were shown beams in ancient buildings, including westminster abbey, which were believed to be chestnut-wood, and this evidence seemed to point to the fact that chestnut timber was grown much more plentifully in this country at the period when these old buildings were erected. dr. lindley, however, set the matter at rest by examination of the reputed chestnut beams in the roof of westminster abbey, and proved that they were of durmast oak. a similar examination of the timbers of the old louvre in paris, which were also reputed to be chestnut, gave a similar result. a comparison of sections across the grain of oak and chestnut allows of no possibility of mistake, and it is now known that whilst the wood of young chestnuts is tough and durable, that from old trees is brittle and comparatively worthless, except for firewood, which is exactly the opposite of oak-wood. it is now generally agreed that its real home is in asia minor and greece, whence it was introduced to italy in very remote times, and has since spread over most of temperate europe, its seeds ripening and sowing themselves wherever the vine flourishes. we appear to be indebted to our friends the romans for its introduction to britain, who no doubt hoped to utilize the fruit for food, as at home--a hope that must have been disappointed, for its crops, even in the south of england, are very fitful, and the nuts quite small. [illustration: _pl. ._ sweet chestnut--summer.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of sweet chestnut.] in suitable situations the chestnut is of larger proportions and greater length of life even than the oak. in the south of england it will attain a height of from sixty to eighty feet in fifty or sixty years, and if growing in deep porous loam, free from carbonate of lime, and sheltered from strong winds and frosts, it builds up an erect massive column. hamerton has said of such a tree: "his expression is that of sturdy strength; his trunk and limbs are built, not like those of apollo, but like the trunk and limbs of hercules." under less suitable conditions the undivided trunk is little more than ten feet long; then it divides off into several huge limbs, and so the general character of the tree is altered, and it presents much the appearance of having been pollarded. the branches have a horizontal and downward habit of growth, the extremities of the lowest ones often being but little above the earth. the fine elliptical leaves are nine or ten inches in length, of a rich green, that is enhanced by the polished surface, which "brings up" the colour. their edges are cut into long pointed teeth. towards autumn they pale to light yellow, and then deepen into gold on their way to the final brown of the fallen leaf, which, by the way, is a great enricher of the soil where the chestnut is grown. [illustration: sweet chestnut. a, fruit.] the flowers, though individually small and inconspicuous, are rather striking, from their association in cylindrical yellow catkins, about six inches long, which hang from the axils of the leaves. the upper part of this catkin consists of male flowers, each with a number of stamens enclosed in a perianth or calyx of five or six green leaves. the female flowers, on the lower part of the catkin, are two or three together, in a prickly four-lobed "cupule," or involucre, and consist each of a calyx closely investing a tapering ovary, whose summit bears from five to eight radiating stigmas, the number corresponding with the cells into which the ovary is divided. each cell contains two seed-eggs, but as a rule only one in each flower develops. as development of the ovary and seeds progresses, the cupule also grows, and ultimately entirely surrounds the cluster with the hedgehog-like coat in which the nuts are contained when ripe. then it splits open and discloses the two or three glossy brown nuts. the chestnut is in flower from may to july, and the nuts drop in october. they form an important article of food in south europe, where they are produced in abundance, and there can be little doubt that the importers of the tree to this country believed it would prove equally valuable here. evelyn had this in mind when he recommended the nut as "a lusty and masculine food for rustics at all times, and of better nourishment for husbandmen than cole and rusty bacon." well, there is plenty of chestnut grown around evelyn's estate at wootton to-day, but it is chiefly as coppice, to provide hop-poles, and hoops for barrels, for which purpose the long straight shoots are split in two. grown as coppice, the chestnut also provides fine cover for pheasants and other game. the trees begin to bear when about twenty-five years old, and from thence on to the fiftieth or sixtieth year the timber is at its best, but later it develops the defect known as "ring shake," and becomes of little use. that is probably why one meets with so many hollow wrecks of what were once noble chestnuts. the young wood is covered with smooth brown bark, but later this becomes grey, and its surface splits into longitudinal fissures, which give a very distinctive character to the trunk. in older trees the fissures and the alternating ridges have a slight spiral twist, which gives the tree the appearance (shown in our third photo) of having been wrenched round by some mighty force. the average age of the chestnut is about five hundred years, but there have been in this country many old trees that were much older, if any reliance could be placed in local tradition. there was--we fear there is little of it still remaining--the great tortworth chestnut in lord ducies' park at tortworth court. in it was found to have a girth of fifty-two feet. evelyn refers to it in his "sylva," and tells us that in the reign of king stephen it already bore the title of the great chestnut of tortworth. the name chestnut appears to be a modification of the old latin name _castanea_, through the french form _chataigner_. the latin is said to be derived from kastanum, a town in thessaly, but it is more likely that the presence of chestnut-trees gave a name to the town, as has happened so many times in our own country with various trees, the chestnut included. horse chestnut (_Æsculus hippocastanum_). our placing the chestnut and the horse chestnut into juxtaposition must not be understood as a recognition of any relationship that may be implied in their names, but rather the reverse--to accentuate the differences that exist between them, and which have led botanists to separate them widely in all systems of classification. although the fruits are sufficiently similar to have suggested the name chestnut being applied to this, with a qualifying prefix, they have been produced by flowers of entirely different character. evelyn tells us that the word horse was added because of its virtues in "curing horses broken-winded and other cattle of coughs," a statement for which he was no doubt indebted to parkinson ( ), who says, "horse chestnuts are given in the east country, and so through all turkie, unto horses to cure them of the cough, shortnesse of winde, and such other diseases;" but seeing that, in this country at least, horses refuse to touch them, there can be little doubt that the name was given to indicate their inferiority to the sweet chestnut, and by a process only too well known to the student of early botanical literature, the name was afterwards held to be proof of their medicinal value to horses. [illustration: _pl. ._ flowers of sweet chestnut.] [illustration: _pl. ._ sweet chestnut--winter.] the horse chestnut is a native of the mountain regions of greece, persia, and northern india, and is believed to have been introduced to britain about . it is not a tree that will be found in the woodlands, or even by the wayside, except when it is behind a fence; yet it constantly greets the rambler who has left the suburban gardens behind him, and in the public parks--notably the magnificent avenue of bushey park--where by contrast it exhibits itself as the grandest of all flowering trees. though the stout cylindrical bole is short, its erect trunk towers to a height of eighty or a hundred feet, supporting the massive pyramid, beautiful on account of its fine foliage and handsome flowers alike. the stout branches take an upward direction at first, then stretch outward and curve downwards, though in winter, when relieved of the weight of foliage, their extremities curl sharply upward, and the great buds in spring are almost erect. these brown buds, with their numerous wraps and liberal coating of varnish, afford considerable interest to the suburban dweller in early spring. he watches their gradual swelling, and the polish that comes upon them through the daily melting of their varnish under the influence of sunshine. then the outer scales fall flat, the upper parts show green and loose; there is a perceptible lengthening of the shoot, which leaves a space between those outer wraps and the folded leaves. next the leaflets separate and assume a horizontal position as they expand. then probably there comes a frost, and next morning the leaflets are all hanging down, almost blackened, flaccid and dejected-looking. a warm southerly rain, followed by sunshine, reinvigorates them, and we see that the lengthening of the shoot has actually brought the incipient flower-spike clear into view. by about the second week in may the pyramid is clothed with bold handsome foliage, against which the conical spikes of white blossoms, tinged with crimson and dotted with yellow, stand out conspicuously. the leaves are almost circular, but broken up, finger-fashion, into seven toothed leaflets of different sizes, which appear to have started as ovals, but the necessity for not overcrowding their neighbours has necessitated the portion nearest the leaf-stalk taking a wedge shape. the large size of these leaves--as much as eighteen inches across--leads the non-botanical to regard the leaflets as being full leaves. on emerging from the bud the leaves are seen to be covered with down, but as they expand this is thrown off. [illustration: horse chestnut. a, flower; b, fruit.] the flowers consist of a bell-shaped calyx with five lobes, supporting five separate petals, pure white in colour, but splashed and dotted with crimson and yellow towards the base of the upper ones, to indicate the way to the honey-glands. there are seven curved stamens, and in their midst a longer curved style proceeding from a roundish ovary with three cells. in each cell there are two seed-eggs, but as a rule only one egg in two of the cells develops into a "nut." the ovary develops into a large fleshy bur, with short stout spines, which splits into three valves when the dark-red glossy seeds are ripe. in the sweet chestnut the brown skin of the nut is the ovary, which had been overgrown by the prickly involucre; here the spiny green shell is the ovary, and the "nut" a seed. though horses will not eat this bitter fruit, cattle, deer, and sheep are fond of it. pounded in water, it becomes one of the numerous vegetable substitutes for soap. under the name of konker, or conqueror, it affords a seasonal joy to the average boy, who first bombards the tree with sticks and stones to dislodge the fruit, and then threads the ruddy konkers on string and does battle with a chum similarly equipped, the one whose string is broken or pulled from his hand by the conflict of weapons being the vanquished. in some parts the game is led off by the recitation of the rhyme, "oblionker! my fust konker." [illustration: _pl. ._ horse chestnut--summer.] [illustration: _pl. ._ fruits of horse chestnut.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of horse chestnut.] [illustration: _pl. ._ horse chestnut--winter.] the growth of the tree is very rapid, and consequently the timber is soft and of no value where durability is required. still, its even grain and susceptibility to a high polish make it useful for indoor wood, such as cabinet-making and flooring. it is also used for making charcoal for the gunpowder mills. although salvator rosa and other landscape painters have made such good use of the sweet chestnut pictorially, they have utterly neglected the horse chestnut; and hamerton hints that the cause of this neglect is the artist's inability to represent its large flowers and leaves by the landscape painter's ordinary method of laying on masses of colour: this requires drawing. the tree begins to produce fruit about its twentieth year, and continues to do so nearly every year. its age is estimated as about two hundred years. the bark, at first smooth, breaks into irregular scales and in old trees a twist may be developed, as illustrated by our photo of the bole. the generic name _Æsculus_ (from latin _esca_, food) has no real connection with the tree, the ancients having given it to some species of oak with edible acorns (_vide_ pliny), but by some unknown means it has become transferred to a tree whose fruit is far too bitter to be eaten by man. the red-flowered horse chestnut (_Æsculus carnea_) is a smaller and less vigorous tree. its origin is unknown, but it is believed to be a garden hybrid that made its appearance about . the bay tree (_laurus nobilis_). the bay is the true laurel, of whose leaves and berries the wreaths were made in ancient days for poets and conquerors. naturally it is more of a shrub than a tree, for though it often attains a height of sixty feet, it persists in sending up so many suckers that the tree-like character is lost. in cultivation, however, it is often grown on a single stem, as well as formed by cutting into arbours and arches. we call to mind a cornish village, where a garden enclosure in its square (or "plestor," as gilbert white would say) was surrounded by about a dozen bays so grown. bays grow abundantly in the gardens of south cornwall, and we always connected their general cultivation with the pilchard fishery. certainly, these trees in the plestor were very convenient in the autumn and winter, for the leaves are an essential ingredient in the proper composition of that seductive dish, marinated pilchards, to which they impart their peculiar aromatic flavour. the bay is a native of southern europe, whence it was introduced at some date prior to . prior says the name is the old roman _bacca_ (a berry), altered "by the usual omission of 'c' between the two vowels," this plant having become the _bacca par excellence_, because its berries were articles of commerce. [illustration: bay. a, flower; b, fruit.] the evergreen leaves are lance-shaped, without teeth, and arranged alternately on the branchlets. not all the trees produce the berries, for the sexes are in distinct individuals, and all the white or yellowish four-parted flowers on one tree are stamen-bearing, whilst on another individual they all bear ovaries and no stamens. the berries, at first green, ultimately become of a dark purple hue. the flowers will be found in april or may; the ripe berries in october. the bay is grown chiefly as a shrubbery ornament, and can only survive our winters out-of-doors in the south of england. [illustration: _pl. ._ bay.] * * * * * [illustration: _pl. ._ laburnum.] laburnum (_laburnum vulgare_). although the laburnums of our parks and gardens have all come from seed, and themselves produce an abundance of it, we do not meet with wayside "escapes" as we might expect to do, having regard to the habit of the tree and the fact that it is comparatively indifferent respecting character of soil. possibly a remark of loudon's may explain this. he says that rabbits are exceedingly fond of the bark, and it may be that they destroy any young trees that are unprotected by palings or netting. the tree produces such a glorification of many an ordinary suburban road, when its flowering time comes round, that one would like to note its effect as a common object of the hillside and the woodland, against a background furnished by our more sober native trees. the laburnum is at home in the mountain forests of central and southern europe, but there is no record of its introduction to britain. we do know, however, that it has been with us for more than three centuries, for gerarde, in his "herbal," published , refers to it as growing in his garden. it belongs to the great pea and bean family (_leguminosæ_), and is very closely related to the common broom, whose solitary flowers those of the laburnum's drooping racemes nearly resemble. ordinarily it is only a low tree of about twenty feet in height, but in favourable situations it may attain to thirty feet or more. some of the larger laburnums, however, are of a distinct species (_l. alpinus_). the pale round branches are clothed with leaves that are divided into three oval-lance-shaped leaflets, covered on the underside with silvery down. both leaves and golden flowers appear simultaneously in may, but from the fact that the latter are gathered into numerous long pendulous racemes, their blaze of colour makes the leaves almost invisible. tennyson's description of its flowering--"laburnum, dropping wells of fire"--is fine, but we rather prefer cowper's "rich in streaming gold," as embodying a more exact colour idea. the flowers are succeeded by long downy legumes or pods, like those of the bean and pea, containing many seeds, which are of a dangerously violent emetic character when introduced to the human stomach. the dark wood is of coarse grain; but, in spite of this, hard and enduring, and taking a good polish. it is chiefly used by musical instrument makers, turners, and cabinet-makers. [illustration: laburnum. a, seed-pod.] laburnum is the old latin name, which is thus rather fancifully explained by prior, "an adjective from _l. labor_, denoting what belongs to the _hour of labour_, and which may allude to its closing its leaflets together at night, and expanding them by day." common local names are golden chain, suggested by the strings of flowers, and bean-trefoile and pea-tree, having reference to the leaves and legumes respectively. the locust tree (_robinia pseudacacia_). although the locust, or false acacia, is little planted now, it is only paying the penalty for having had its merits enormously exaggerated; just as human reputations sometimes sink into oblivion after a season of popularity achieved by the persistent "booming" of influential friends. the friend in this case was william cobbett, who, on his return from the united states, about , preached salvation to the timber grower through the planting of robinia; "nothing in the timber way could be so great a benefit as the general cultivation of this tree." so great was the demand thus created that cobbett himself started a nursery for the propagation and supply of robinias, and so great is the virtue of a name that people refused the locust-trees that every nurseryman had in stock and wished to sell, and would be content with nothing but cobbett's robinias, which could not be produced fast enough for the demand! they thought it was an entirely new introduction, though it had been grown in this country as an ornamental tree for nearly two centuries! its wood is hard, strong, and durable, but liable to crack, and of limited utility. the locust was introduced to europe from north america early in the seventeenth century, and was then thought to be identical with the african acacia. linnæus named the genus in honour of jean robin, a french botanist, whose son, an official at the jardin des plantes, was the first to cultivate the tree in europe. it is a tree of light and graceful proportions, its branches being long and slender, and the long narrow leaves being broken up into a large number of small oval leaflets, arranged _pinnately_, that is, featherwise. the stipules, which are found at the base of the leaf-stalk in many plants, are in this genus converted into sharp spines. the flowers, of similar pea-shape to those of the laburnum, are white and fragrant. they are in long loose racemes, which droop from the axils of the leaves in may. the legumes are very thin, and of a dark-brown hue. [illustration: false acacia, or locust tree. a, seed-pod.] [illustration: _pl. ._ locust tree--summer.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of locust tree.] [illustration: _pl. ._ locust--winter.] this was one of the first american trees introduced to europe, and its name of locust came with it, the missionaries believing it must be the tree upon whose fruit, with the addition of wild honey, john the baptist supported himself in the wilderness. it is also known as silver chain, in contradistinction to the gold chain or laburnum; also as white laburnum. the larch (_larix europæa_). an enormous number of exotic coniferous trees are at the present time commonly grown in our parks and pleasure grounds, and even our woods show a considerable variety beyond the scots pine and yew that nature has alone given us as timber trees in this order. to attempt to give even a very brief account of all these in a pocket volume, in addition to almost the entire woody flora indigenous to these islands, would be manifestly absurd. we can, however, deal with a few representative species of these exotics, and we give the larch the first place by reason of its present plentifulness in extensive unmixed woods and plantations. the larch is naturally a tree of the mountains, and ascends to a greater elevation even than the spruce fir. unmixed forests of larch in the bavarian alps occur between and feet above sea-level, and on the central swiss alps it ascends to nearly feet. a long winter of real cold is necessary for its full development and the ripening of its wood, and for that reason the timber of larch grown in england is inferior to that grown in its native countries, because our winters are either short or mild, and neither gives the tree the full rest it needs. it is a european tree, and was introduced--though not in any numbers--to england at some date prior to . for years it appears to have been cultivated here merely as an ornamental garden tree. then attention was called to its value as a timber tree, and the society of arts offered gold medals for larch planting and essays upon its economic importance. already ( ) the second duke of atholl had begun those experiments in larch growing for timber which have been continued by his successors on a vast scale, the fourth duke planting , , larch-trees on , acres of barren land. their example has been copied on a smaller scale all over the country. [illustration: larch. a, flower.] [illustration: _pl. ._ larch--summer.] [illustration: _pl. ._ larch--winter.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of larch.] the larch is a lofty tree, with a very straight tapering trunk ordinarily attaining a length between and feet, but under very favourable conditions feet, with a girth of bole from to feet. the brown bark is easily separable into thin layers, and the growth of the tree causes it to split into deep longitudinal fissures. the long lower branches are spreading, with a downward tendency, and the tips turned upward again. the twigs are mostly pendulous, and bear long and slender light-green leaves, in bundles of thirty or forty. all the other families of coniferous trees are evergreen, their leaves lasting for several years; but at the beginning of winter the larch leaves wither and fall, and the larch-wood takes on a more lifeless aspect than is assumed by any of our native trees in their leafless condition. but in spring, when the fresh green leaves are just showing in spreading tufts, and the reddish-purple female flowers--tennyson's "rosy plumelets"--hang brightly from the gaunt branches, the larch wears an entirely different appearance, and in summer the light grace of branches and foliage makes the larch a beautiful object. that is, one should say, the trees that grow on the very outer edge of the wood, or, better still, one that has been planted as a specimen tree, where it has room to fling out its arms on all sides without touching anything, and can get the abundant light it needs. the straight rows in the plantation, with every tree at an equal distance from its neighbours, and its lower branches dead, may be very pretty from the timber-merchant's point of view, but one likes to think of the tree as a living thing of beauty rather than as a detail in a factory where scaffold-poles and telegraph-posts are being grown to regulation size and shape. the brown cones are egg-shaped, little more than an inch in length, the scales with loose edges. the wood is very durable, and it has the great recommendation of being fit for ordinary use when the tree is only forty years old. it is most valuable for those purposes where exposure to all weathers is a necessity, for it endures constant change from wet to dry. larch-bark is used for tanning, and venice turpentine is a product of the tree. unlike most conifers, it has the power of sending out new shoots when the branches have been removed close up to the stem. larch plantations sometimes present the appearance of death whilst they are still covered with foliage, but the leaves are yellow and twisted. this most frequently occurs in the case of trees between the ages of ten and fourteen years, and is due to the depredations of a leaf-mining caterpillar, which ultimately changes into a minute moth, the larch-miner (_coleophora laricella_). it feeds in the interior of the larch-needles, and therefore is beyond the reach of destruction, except by felling and burning affected trees, to prevent the spread of the pest. its ravages keep the tree in ill-health, and apparently prepare the way for the deadly attack of another small enemy, known as the larch canker--the fungus _peziza willkommii_. sickly trees are also liable to the attentions of a wood-wasp (_sirex juvencus_), whose appearance is usually the cause of a little terror in nervous persons. it has two pairs of smoky transparent wings, and its stout, straight, blue body terminates in a long slender point. its large white grub spends two or three years tunnelling towards the heart of the tree and out to the bark again, but rarely attacks sound trees. it sometimes makes its appearance in a house from wood that has been used for building purposes. [illustration: _pl. ._ flowers and cone of larch.] the silver fir (_abies pectinata_). evelyn has left on record the fact that a two-year-old specimen of the silver fir was planted in harefield park, near uxbridge, in the year , and this is usually regarded as the date of its introduction to england, though the evidence is by no means conclusive. its home is in the mountain regions of central and southern europe. its highest range appears to be on the pyrenees, where it is found at an elevation of feet, forming pure forests of considerable area. specimens have been recorded in southern germany that have attained a height of nearly feet, but in this country a more usual stature is from to feet, with a bole girth between and feet. its trunk is straight and erect, tapering gently, and covered with smooth bark, of a greyish-brown colour, which in aged specimens becomes rugged and fissured longitudinally, as shown in our photo, and of a silvery grey colour. it retains its lower branches for a period of forty to fifty years, but after that age they begin to fall off. whilst the tree is growing up--which is, roughly speaking, during its first two hundred years--the crown forms a slender bush; but its vertical growth completed, the crown grows laterally, and becomes flat-topped. its life-period covers about four hundred years. [illustration: _pl. ._ silver fir.] [illustration: silver fir. a, cone.] the leaves are flat and slender, not in bundles, as in the scots pine, but arranged along the branchlets in two or three dense ranks. they are dark, rich green above, about an inch long, and on the flattened underside there is a bluish-white stripe on each side of the midrib, which gives a silvery appearance to the foliage when upturned, as is usual on the fertile branches. these leaves endure from six to nine years. the flowers appear in may at the tips of the branches. the male flowers are about three-quarters of an inch long, and consist of two or three series of overlapping scales, enclosing the yellow stamens. the cones are cylindrical, with a blunt top, always erect, to inches long, and from ¼ to inches in diameter. on the back of each of the broad scales there is a long, slender, pointed bract, which extends beyond the scale and turns downward. at first these cones are green, then become reddish, and when mature are brown; but maturity is not reached until eighteen months after their appearance. the angular seeds are furnished with a broad wing twice their length. they are shed by the cones in the spring following their maturity, the scales falling at the same time and leaving the core of the cone on the tree. as a rule, the tree does not produce fertile seeds until it is about forty years of age, but seedless cones are formed from its twentieth year. although the flowers of both sexes are found on the same tree, it may be that for a series of years only cones are produced. until the silver fir is about twelve years old its growth is slow, and its annual increase is only a few inches, but later it will be as many feet. during this early stage spring frosts often destroy the leader-shoot, but its place is taken by another shoot; and soon the symmetry of the tree is restored. if this occurs at a later stage, however, the tree bears evidence of it in a forked trunk. it is a deep-rooting species, with a branching tap-root, and succeeds best in an open soil that is moist without being wet. [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of silver fir.] the timber, which has an irregular grain, is strong, and does not warp; but it is soft, and not enduring where it is exposed to the weather. it is yellowish-white in colour, and is largely used for all interior work. * * * * * [illustration: _pl. ._ spruce firs.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of spruce fir.] the spruce fir (_picea excelsa_). although we are compelled to class the spruce among introduced species, it can lay claim to have been one of the older forest trees of britain, for the upper beds of the tertiary formations contain abundant evidence that the spruce was a native here when those strata were laid down. of its modern introduction there is no record, but from mention of it by turner in his "names of herbes in greke, latin, englishe, etc.," we know that it was at some date anterior to the publication of that work ( ). it is widely distributed as a native tree throughout the continent of europe, with the exception of denmark and holland. it is the principal forest tree on the elevated tracts of germany and switzerland, and on the central alpine ranges it reaches an altitude of feet. it is an extremely variable tree, but we cannot here deal with the varieties beyond saying that two principal forms, different in habit and in timber, are outwardly distinguished by one having red, the other green, cones. the spruce fir is a tall and graceful tree with tapering trunk, to feet in height, though in this country its more usual stature, when full-grown, would be about feet high, with a bole circumference of about feet. at first covered with thin, smooth, warm-brown bark, in later life this breaks up into irregular scales, thin layers of which are cast off. instead of a bushy crown, such as we see in the silver fir, the spruce ends in a delicate spire, so familiar in the christmas-tree, which is a spruce fir in the nursery stage. the branches are in very regular tiers from base to summit, and the branchlets go off almost opposite each other, densely clothed with the short grass-green needles. these are from a half to three-quarters of an inch in length, four-sided, and ending in a fine sharp point. they endure for six or seven years. [illustration: spruce fir.] the flowers are produced near the ends of last year's shoots, those with stamens being borne singly or in clusters of two or three. they are about three-quarters of an inch in length, and of a yellow colour, tinged with pink. the cones, which hang downwards, are almost cylindrical, about inches long and ½ inches in diameter. the pale brown scales are thin, and loosely overlap. the seeds, of which there are two under each scale, are very small, with a transparent brown wing, five times the length of the seed. the flowers appear in may, and the seeds are not ripe until nearly a year later. the tree is a shallow rooter, the roots going off horizontally in all directions a little below the surface, and becoming intimately matted with those of neighbouring trees. this surface-rooting often leads to disaster in plantations and forests of spruce, for it is least able of all the firs to withstand a gale, which will sometimes make a broad avenue through the plantation by toppling the trees one against another. the wood of the spruce fir, though light, is even grained, elastic, and durable, and the straightness of its stem makes it very valuable for all purposes where great length and straightness are required, as for the masts of small vessels, ladders, scaffolding, telegraph-poles; as well as for the varied uses the builder finds for its planks. it supplies resin and pitch, and most of the cheaper periodicals now issued largely owe their existence to the spruce, for its fibres reduced to pulp are made into the paper upon which they are printed. although its growth during the first few years is rather slow, progress during the next twenty-five years is tolerably rapid, being at the rate of two or three feet per year, if in a favourable situation, and on moist light soil. when grown in a wood the spruce loses its lower branches early, but when given sufficient "elbow-room," these remain to a good old age, so that from spire to earth the graceful cone of bright green is continuous. the name spruce is from the german _sprossen_ (a sprout), in allusion to the numerous short branchlets that are a characteristic of the tree. [illustration: _pl. ._ douglas fir.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of douglas fir.] [illustration: _pl. ._ cone of spruce fir.] the douglas fir (_pseudotsuga douglasii_). although the name of this tree in english and latin might reasonably lead one to suppose that david douglas, the intrepid botanical explorer, was the discoverer of it, that is not really so. it was archibald menzies who first made it known to science, by means of herbarium specimens collected in , when, as the companion of vancouver, he visited the western coasts of north america. but douglas, in his capacity of collector to the royal horticultural society, landed at fort vancouver on the columbia river in , and not only sent home herbarium specimens, but seeds also, of this and several previously unknown conifers. it was by means of these seeds that the douglas fir was introduced to britain. it was already known by lambert's name of _abies taxifolia_, but dr. lindley, a short time previous to douglas' untimely death, selected the tree as a suitable and enduring memorial of the enormous services douglas had rendered, and named it _abies douglasii_. since then carrière has split up the old genus _abies_ and placed _douglasii_ in the new genus _pseudotsuga_. under the most favourable natural conditions, as around puget sound and on the western slopes of the sierra nevada, the douglas fir grows to a height of feet, with a girth of to feet, but on the drier slopes of the rocky mountains it is not more than feet high. in colorado, forests of douglas fir are found at an elevation of , feet. the tree has not been sufficiently long established in this country to say what dimensions it will reach, though it appears to have taken kindly to ireland and to devon and cornwall, where the rate of growth of young trees is about inches per annum. there are plenty of trees in these islands, planted about the year , which have reached or passed feet, and there is no doubt that towards our western coasts this height will be greatly exceeded. some of these trees have long since produced cones, and from their seeds many young trees have been raised. [illustration: douglas fir. a, female flower; b, male flower.] the douglas fir is of pyramidal outline, with the lowest branches bending to the ground under their weight of branchlets and leaves; above, they spread horizontally, but the uppermost are more or less ascending. the branchlets are given off mostly in opposite pairs, densely clothed with slender, rich green leaves, ¾ to ¼ inches in length, paler beneath. they endure for six or seven years, and are arranged in three or four ranks. the male flowers will be found clustered at intervals on the underside of the previous year's shoots, whilst the cones are formed at the tips of the lateral branchlets, and hang downwards. these cones are somewhat elliptical in outline, from ½ to inches long, with large scales, and from the back of each there extends a three-clawed bract, whereof the middle claw or awn is very long. several well-marked varieties of the douglas fir are also to be met with occasionally in parks and gardens. the douglas fir produces excellent timber, and is a most valuable forest tree, not only on that account, but because of its adaptability to varying conditions of soil and climate. it is the most widely distributed of all american forest trees, and the area of its distribution is spread over thirty-two degrees of latitude, and from end to end of this range it has, in the words of sargent, "to endure the fierce gales and long winters of the north, and the nearly perpetual sunshine of the mexican cordilleras; to thrive in the rain and fog which sweep almost continuously along the pacific coast range, and on the arid mountain slopes of the interior, where for months every year rain never falls." it appears to thrive best where the air is humid and the soil well drained. it begins to bear cones about its twenty-fifth year. the straight tapering trunk is largely used for the masts and spars of ships, its suitability for this purpose being evident to all visitors to kew who have gazed at the flag-staff set up in the arboretum. this pole is feet long, with a circumference of feet at the base, tapering to feet inches at the top, and weighing about tons. it was brought from vancouver island, and an examination of its rings before it was set up showed that it represented the growth of about years. the full life of the douglas fir is estimated to be about years. * * * * * [illustration: _pl. ._ stone pine.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of stone pine.] the stone pine (_pinus pinea_). between the tall, graceful spire of the douglas fir and the squat, heavy, umbrella-like head of the stone pine, there is an enormous contrast. it must be confessed that the stone pine is less beautiful than picturesque, a point that strongly commends it to the landscape painter working in the countries bordering the mediterranean, in which region it is native. the date of its introduction to britain is not known, but it has been in cultivation here certainly for more than three centuries and a half, for turner mentions it in his "names of herbes in greke, latin, englishe, duch, and frenche," published in . in its native countries it attains a height of sixty to eighty feet, but in this country the finest examples are only about thirty-five feet, whilst ordinary british-grown examples are only half that height. its trunk, covered with rugged, and deeply fissured, thick, red-grey bark, forks at no great distance from the roots, and sends off massive spreading branches of great length. for several years the young tree produces short single leaves, but later leaves are five or six inches long, slender, and of a bright green tint, in pairs, united at their base by a pale sheath. these leaves endure for two or three years. the pollen-bearing flowers are crowded into a spike. the female flowers are about three-quarters of an inch long, composed of pale greenish scales. after fertilization, these grow to a length of four to six inches, of a rugged oval form and red-brown colour, ripening in the third year. the scales of these cones are somewhat wedge-shaped, with a stout rhomboid boss, which has a depression round the central protuberance. the seeds, which are eaten for dessert and preserved as sweetmeats in the countries where the stone pine is native, are enclosed in a bony shell, and it is from this circumstance that the tree gets its name. [illustration: stone pine, cone and leaves.] * * * * * [illustration: _pl. ._ austrian pine.] [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of austrian pine.] the austrian pine (_pinus laricio_). what is known as the austrian pine is a variety of the corsican or larch pine, and its botanical name correctly set out is _pinus laricio_, var. _austriaca_. the name has reference to the fact that its chief home as an indigenous tree is in the southern provinces of the austrian empire. the range of the type and its varieties together includes central and southern europe, and part of western asia. it is a comparatively recent addition to our sylva in both forms, for the type was introduced in , in the belief that it was a maritime form of the scots pine, but the variety _austriaca_ was first sent out by lawson and son, the edinburgh nurserymen, in . [illustration: austrian pine.] the typical species (corsican pine) is a slender tree of somewhat pyramidal form, growing to the height of to feet. the austrian pine, though a large tree, is of smaller proportions--from to feet high--but with stouter and longer branches, and denser foliage. the leaves, which vary from three to five inches in length, are sheathed in pairs, convex on the outer side, rigid, glossy, dark green, and with toothed margins. the cone is conical (!), with a rounded base, two to three inches in length, and its position on the branch is almost horizontal, the scales somewhat similar to those of the scots pine, but with stronger bosses, and of a yellowish-brown colour, polished. it takes about seventeen months to become full grown and ripen the seeds. [illustration: _pl. ._ cones of austrian pine.] the austrian pine is one of those that do well on poor soils, and takes kindly to chalk. from the density of its foliage, it makes a good shade and shelter tree. its timber, though coarse in grain, is very durable, and useful for outside work. * * * * * [illustration: _pl. ._ cedar of lebanon.] cedar of lebanon (_cedrus libani_). made familiar, by name at least, from very early times by frequent references to it in the books of the old testament, it is rather strange that so hardy a tree was not one of the first of those introduced for ornament into britain. it is true that local legends attaching to some old cedars in this country credit them with having been planted in "the spacious times of great elizabeth"--as the great cedar at whitton, middlesex, blown down in ; but, on the other hand, we have the fact that no mention is made of the cedar by john evelyn in his "sylva" ( ). this, it is true, is only negative evidence; but it is strong none the less, for it is not at all likely that so keen and pious an arboriculturist would have omitted mention of so noteworthy a tree had such been growing here when he wrote. there is reason to believe, however, that the still-existing enfield cedar was planted about the date of evelyn's publication by dr. uvedale, master of the enfield grammar school. the researches of sir j. d. hooker, subsequent to his memorable expedition to lebanon and taurus in , established the specific identity of the three cedars known as the mount atlas cedar, the cedar of lebanon, and the deodar. though the arboriculturist still treats them as distinct species, they are scientifically regarded as geographical forms of one species. for convenience we here adopt the arboriculturist's view. [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of cedar of lebanon.] [illustration: cedar of lebanon.] the cedar varies greatly--no tree more so--in height and general outline, according to situation and environment, and though the stature of well-grown trees in this country may be correctly stated as from to feet, we are not without examples of and feet where the conditions have been specially favourable. there is one of feet at strathfieldsaye, and among the numerous fine cedars at goodwood there is the celebrated great cedar, feet high, with a bole feet in circumference, and a broad conical head whose base has a diameter of feet. but the cedar, as usually seen on lawns and in parks, has a low, rounded, or flattened top, the great spreading arms having grown more rapidly than the trunk. thus grown, the huge bole has seldom any great length, throwing out these timber branches at from six to ten feet from the ground, and immediately afterwards the trunk is divided into several stems. from these the main branches take a curving direction, at first ascending, but the part furthest from the trunk becoming almost horizontal. it is chiefly at the extremity of the branches that the branchlets and leaves are produced. the evergreen leaves last for three, four, or five years, and are of needle-shape, varying in length from a little less to a little more than an inch. they are produced in a similar manner to those of the larch--in tufts that are arranged spirally round dwarf shoots, mostly on the upper side of the branchlets. the male flowers are to be found at the extremity of branchlets which, though six or seven years old, are very short, their development having been arrested. the solid, purple-brown cones are only three or four inches long, broad-topped, and with a diameter of about half the length; the scales thin and closely pressed together; they are at first greyish-green, tinged with pink. the development and maturity of these cones takes two or three seasons, and they remain on the tree for several years longer. the seeds are angular, with a wedge-shaped wing. the trees do not produce cones until they are from twenty-five to thirty years old; but they may be a century old before producing either male or female flowers. the trunk is covered with thick, rough, deeply fissured bark. on the branches the bark is smooth, and peels off in thin flakes. the cedar, in its native habitat, produces admirable timber, but that of trees grown in our own country is described by loudon as "reddish-white, light and spongy, easily worked, but very apt to shrink and warp, and by no means durable." for these reasons the tree is grown almost solely for ornament. the name cedar is supposed to be derived from the arabic _kedroum_, or _kèdre_ (power), and has reference to its majestic proportions and strong timber. * * * * * [illustration: _pl. ._ deodar.] the deodar, or indian cedar (_cedrus deodara_). although, as we have indicated, the differences between the cedar of lebanon and the cedar of himalaya are not such as can be scientifically accepted as constituting specific distinctness, they are sufficient to at once strike the ordinary observer. in proportion to the height of the trunk, for example, the main branches are much shorter, the result being a more regular pyramidal outline, terminating in a light spire. the terminal shoots of the branches are longer, more slender, and quite pendulous. these differences, though really slight, transform the rather heavy majesty of the cedar, as represented by _c. libani_, into one of graceful beauty. although the experience of sixty years has sadly falsified the high hopes entertained as to the suitability of the deodar for cultivation in this country as a timber tree, its value for ornamental purposes and in landscape gardening has not been impaired. the headquarters of the deodar are in the mountains of north-west india, where it forms forests at various altitudes above feet. its vertical distribution, indeed, extends to a height of , feet, but its principal habitat lies between and , feet. deodar timber produced in its native forests is exceedingly durable, being compact and even grained, not liable to warp or split, and standing the test of being alternately wet and dry. loudon states that when a building, which had been erected by the emperor akbar in the latter part of the sixteenth century, was pulled down between and , the deodar timber used in its construction was found to be so sound that it was again used in building a house for rajah shah. and brandis tells of very much more ancient bridges in srunagar, whose piers are of deodar wood, and appear to be as yet unaffected by decay. [illustration: deodar. a, cone.] it is to the hon. w. l. melville that we are indebted for the introduction of the deodar to britain in , and during the next ten years many young trees were raised here from seeds. favourably impressed by the rapidity of growth of these seedlings, the government, fearing a coming shortage of oak for naval purposes, imported and distributed large numbers of deodar seeds, and high estimates were formed of the future value of these trees. but in framing these estimates one important factor was omitted--the uncertainty of the british climate, with its rapid changes, "everything by turns, and nothing long." a score or two of years served to demonstrate that such conditions were opposed to the longevity and uniform development that produced sound timber on the indian mountains; and to-day the deodar is not mentioned among the trees that are to bring riches to the british timber grower. in spite of this failure, there are to be seen in many parts of these islands fine young deodars of forty or fifty years, and from fifty to seventy feet in height. [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of deodar.] there is no necessity for repeating the particulars already given respecting the cedar of lebanon, and which apply to the deodar with such modifications as are indicated in the first paragraph above. specimens grown where they have sufficient space for spreading out their long arms, retain their branches to the base of the trunk, and if these are cut off they can reproduce them. several nursery varieties--with golden (_aurea_), silvery (_argentea_), or more intense green (_viridis_) foliage than the type--have appeared as a result of european cultivation. * * * * * [illustration: _pl. ._ lawson's cypress.] lawson's cypress (_cupressus lawsoniana_). lawson's cypress belongs to that section of conifers which includes the junipers and thuias, and is a representative of the north american sylva. it is a native of south oregon and north california, where it is believed to have been first discovered by jeffrey, about . two years later seeds were received by messrs. lawson, the edinburgh nurserymen, from mr. william murray, and from these seeds were raised the first young trees of this species sent out by the firm. the name was bestowed in honour of mr. charles lawson, the then head of the firm, and by this name it is generally known in europe, but in the united states it is the port orford cypress. at port orford, on the oregon coast, according to sargent, "it forms one of the most prolific and beautiful coniferous forests of the continent, unsurpassed in the variety and luxuriance of its undergrowth of rhododendrons, vacciniums, raspberries, buckthorns, and ferns," and any one who has seen well-grown specimens in the pleasure-grounds of this country can easily realize something of the beauty of such a forest, though allowance has to be made for the fact that in forest growth the lower branches are lost at an early age. [illustration: lawson cypress.] in its native home the lawson cypress attains a height of between and feet, occasionally reaching feet, with a base circumference of feet. the thick brown bark splits into rounded scaly ridges. the short horizontal branches divide a good deal towards their leafy extremities, which are curved, and commonly drooping. the leaves are little evergreen scales, which overlap, and being closely pressed to the branchlet, completely clothe and hide it. they are bright dark-green in colour, and endure for three or four years. the male flowers are produced at the tips of short branchlets, formed a year earlier. they are of cylindric form, crimson in colour, and each stamen bears from two to six anther-cells. the small "cones" are more or less globular, but instead of a large number of spirally arranged overlapping scales, as in the pines and firs, here there are only eight, whose edges at first join to form a box. when the "cone" is ripe these scales separate, to allow the escape of the seeds. the lawson cypress produces a valuable wood, close-grained and strong, yet light. it is considered one of the most important timber trees of north america; but in this country it has been planted solely with a view to its ornamental qualities. its perfect hardiness and its freedom of growth may, with longer experience than half a century affords, lead to its being regarded as a timber producer here also. the common cypress (_cupressus sempervirens_) of the mediterranean region and the east, of which poets have sung in all ages, has been cultivated in this country for at least three hundred and fifty years. [illustration: _pl. ._ bole of lawson's cypress.] the chili pine (_araucaria imbricata_). the chili pine, or "monkey puzzle," is a familiar sight on suburban lawns, where, however, it seldom attains a large size or long retains health. the lower branches drop off, and the upper ones become brown, as though scorched. but away from the smoke-laden atmosphere and uncongenial soils, some handsome and massive araucarias may be seen rising from fair lawns, with dense branches curving at their tips, and regularly disposed in whorls from the dome-like head of the tree to the grass at its base. such was the magnificent specimen at dropmore that died in , such is the fine tree at woodstock, co. kilkenny, which now presumably takes the position of eminence in these islands hitherto held by the dropmore example. [illustration: chili pine, and cone. a, seed, with attached wing.] the chili pine is a native of southern chili, where it was discovered by a spaniard, don f. dendariarena, in , as he was prospecting for timber. about the same time two other spaniards, drs. ruiz and pavon, were botanizing in chili, and came across the araucaria, of which they sent herbarium specimens to europe. but in spite of this three-fold opportunity for spain, the actual introduction of the araucaria to europe must be credited to britain. archibald menzies, who accompanied captain vancouver as botanist on his celebrated voyage, came across the tree in chili, and brought home both seeds and young plants. one of these became a fine tree at kew, where it was for many years the object of admiration and interest, but it perished in . [illustration: _pl. ._ chili pine.] the araucaria forms extensive pure forests in the province of arauco, from which it gets its name, and to whose inhabitants the seeds are a most important item of their food-supply. not only do the trees in these forests lose their lower branches, but even those growing in the open plains of their native country have similarly bare trunks for nearly half their height. it is therefore a satisfaction to know that the finest specimens grown in this country have really surpassed those grown in their natural home. the height reached by old trees is from eighty to a hundred feet, with a trunk-girth of from sixteen to twenty-three feet. the tapering of this trunk is very slight, and a few of the stiff, spine-tipped leaves, with which its younger extremity is densely clothed, still remain attached in a dried-up condition far down the column. these leaves will have been observed to entirely cover the branches, not being restricted, as in most trees, to the newly formed branchlets and twigs. they are very hard, and endure for about fifteen years; are about an inch and a quarter long, and overlap, though their sharp-pointed ends turn away from the branch. the cylindrical male flowers are four or five inches long, borne singly or in small clusters. it was formerly supposed that the sexes were on separate trees, but though many individuals only produce flowers of one kind, this is by no means the general rule. the female flowers are about four inches long, almost round in shape, but broader at the base than above. they are covered with long, narrow, overlapping scales, beneath which are found the seeds when the flower has developed into the brown cone, which is six inches in diameter. the scales are then easily detached; in fact, when the seeds are ripe, the cone falls to pieces. the seed is about an inch and a half long, enclosed in a hard, thin shell. the chili pine does not succeed in this country unless it is given pure air, sunshine, abundant moisture, and an open subsoil to carry it off. yet it will grow to a very handsome tree if these conditions are observed. very fine effects have been obtained in some places by planting an araucaria grove. such an avenue is in fine condition at woodstock, co. kilkenny (running parallel with an avenue of _abies nobilis_), every tree with its branches intact from turf to summit, and bearing fertile cones. there is a similar, but less perfectly preserved, araucaria grove at bicton in devonshire. classified index to natural orders, genera and species _described in this work._ order tiliaceÆ. tilia platyphyllos, scop., , . _plates_ , , , , " parvifolia, ehrh., , " vulgaris, hayne, , order ilicineÆ. ilex aquifolium, l., . _plates_ , , , order celastrineÆ. euonymus europæus, l., . _plates_ , , " japonicus, thunb., " latifolius, c. bauh., order rhamneÆ. rhamnus catharticus, l., . _plate_ " frangula, l., . _plates_ , order sapindaceÆ. Æsculus hippocastanum, l., . _plates_ , , , , " carnea, willd., acer campestre, l., . _plate_ " platanoides, l., " pseudo-platanus, l., . _plates_ , , , , order leguminosÆ. laburnum vulgare, presl., . _plate_ robinia pseudacacia, l., . _plates_ , , order rosaceÆ. prunus communis, hudson, . _plates_ , " insititia, l., " domestica, l., . _plate_ " avium, l., . _plates_ , " cerasus, l., " padus, l., . _plates_ , , pyrus communis, l., . _plates_ , , " cordata, desv., " malus, l., . _plates_ , , , , " aria, ehrh., . _plates_ , , , " latifolia, syme, " scandica, syme, " torminalis, dc., " aucuparia, gaert., . _plates_ , , , " sorbus, gaert., . _plates_ , , " germanica, hook., . _plate_ cratÆgus oxyacantha, pall., . _plates_ , , , , order cornaceÆ. cornus sanguinea, l., . _plates_ , " suecica, l., order caprifoliaceÆ. sambucus nigra, l., . _plates_ , viburnum opulus, l., . _plate_ " lantana, l., . _plates_ , order ericaceÆ. arbutus unedo, l., . _plate_ order oleaceÆ. fraxinus excelsior, l., . _plates_ , , , order lauraceÆ. laurus nobilis, l., . _plate_ order euphorbiaceÆ. buxus sempervirens, l., . _plates_ , order urticaceÆ. ulmus montana, stokes, . _plates_ , , , " campestris, l., . _plates_ , , order platanaceÆ. platanus orientalis, l., . _plates_ , , " occidentalis, l., order juglandaceÆ. juglans regia, l., . _plates_ , , order cupuliferÆ. betula alba, l., . _plates_ , , , " verrucosa, ehrh., " pubescens, ehrh., " nana, l., alnus glutinosa, medic., . _plates_ , , , carpinus betulus, l., . _plates_ , , , corylus avellana, l., . _plates_ , quercus robur, l., . _plates_ , , , , " ilex, l., . _plate_ " cerris, l., . _plate_ castanea sativa, mill., . _plates_ , , , fagus sylvatica, l., . _plates_ , , , order salicineÆ. salix triandra, l., . _plates_ , " pentandra, l., . _plates_ , , " fragilis, l., . _plates_ , , " russelliana, sm., " alba, l., . _plates_ , , , " cinerea, l., " aurita, l., " caprea, l., " repens, l., " nigricans, sm., " phylicifolia, l., " arbuscula, l., " viminalis, l., " reticulata, l., " purpurea, l., . _plates_ , " lanata, l., " sadleri, syme, " lapponum, l., " myrsinites, l., " herbacea, l., " babylonica, hort., populus alba, l., . _plates_ , , " canescens, sm., " tremula, l., . _plate_ " nigra, l., . _plates_ , , " fastigiata, desf., . _plates_ , , " balsamifera, l., " monilifera, hort., order taxaceÆ. taxus baccata, l., . _plates_ , , order coniferÆ. juniperus communis, l., . _plates_ , " bermudiana, l., " virginiana, l., cupressus lawsoniana, murr., . _plates_ , araucaria imbricata, pav., . _plate_ picea excelsa, link., . _plates_ , , cedrus deodara, loud., . _plates_ , " libani, loud., . _plates_ , larix europæa, dc., . _plates_ , , , abies pectinata, dc., . _plates_ , pseudotsuga douglasii, carr, . _plates_ , pinus sylvestris, l., . _plates_ , , " laricio, poir., . _plates_ , , " pinea, l., . _plates_ , index. abele, . _plates_ , , _abies pectinata_, . _plates_ , _acer campestre_, . _plate_ " _platanoides_, " _pseudoplatanus_, . _plates_ , , _Æsculus carnea_, " _hippocastanum_, . _plates_ , , , , alder, , _plates_ , , , ; berry-bearing alder, , _plates_ , _alnus glutinosa_, . _plates_ , , , apple, wild, . _plates_ , , , , _araucaria imbricata_, . _plate_ _arbutus unedo_, . _plate_ ash, , _plates_ , , , ; mountain ash, , _plates_ , , , aspen, . _plate_ austrian pine, . _plates_ , , bay tree, . _plate_ beech, . _plates_ , , , _betula alba_, . _plates_ , , , " _nana_, birch, , _plates_ , , , ; dwarf birch, blackthorn, . _plates_ , box, . _plates_ , buckthorns, ; breaking buckthorn, , _plates_ , ; purging buckthorn, , _plate_ bullace, _buxus sempervirens_, . _plates_ , _carpinus betulus_, . _plates_ , , , _castanea sativa_, . _plates_ , , , cedar of lebanon, , _plates_ , ; indian cedar, , _plates_ , ; red cedar, _cedrus deodara_, . _plates_ , " _libani_, . _plates_ , cherry, wild, , _plates_ , ; dwarf cherry, ; bird cherry, , _plates_ , , chestnut, horse, , _plates_ , , , , ; sweet chestnut, . _plates_ , , , chili pine, . _plate_ conifers, native, ; exotic, cornel, ; dwarf cornel, _cornus sanguinea_, . _plates_ , " _suecica_, _corylus avellana_, . _plates_ , crab, . _plates_ , , , , _cratægus oxyacantha_, . _plates_ , , , , _cupressus lawsoniana_, . _plates_ , deodar, . _plates_ , dogwood, . _plates_ , douglas fir, . _plates_ , elder, . _plates_ , elms, ; wych elm, , _plates_ , , , ; common elm, , _plates_ , , _euonymus europæus_, . _plates_ , , " _japonicus_, " _latifolius_, _fagus sylvatica_, . _plates_ , , , false acacia, . _plates_ , , false plane, . _plates_ , , , , fir, douglas, . _plates_, , ; silver fir, . _plates_ , ; spruce fir, . _plates_ , , fraxinus excelsior, . _plates_ , , , gean, . _plates_ , guelder rose, . _plate_ hawthorn, . _plates_ , , , , hazel, . _plates_ , holly, . _plates_ , , , holm oak, . _plate_ hornbeam, . _plates_ , , , horse chestnut, . _plates_ , , , , ; red-flowered horse chestnut, _ilex aquifolium_, . _plates_ , , , _juglans regia_, . _plates_ , , juniper, . _plates_ , ; virginian juniper, _juniperus bermudiana_, " _communis_, . _plates_ , " _virginiana_, laburnum, . _plate_ ; white laburnum, _laburnum vulgare_, . _plate_ larch, . _plates_ , , , _larix europæa_, . _plates_ , , , _laurus nobilis_, . _plate_ lawson's cypress, . _plates_ , lime, . _plates_ , , , , locust tree, . _plates_ , , maples, ; field or common, . _plate_ ; great maple, . _plates_ , , , , ; norway maple, may, . _plates_ , , , , medlar, . _plate_ monkey puzzle, . _plate_ norway maple, oak, . _plates_ , , , , ; holm oak, . _plate_ ; turkey oak, . _plate_ osier, ; purple osier, . _plates_ , pear, wild, . _plates_ , , _picea excelsa_, . _plates_ , , pine, austrian, . _plates_, , , ; chili pine, . _plate_ ; scots pine, . _plates_ , , ; stone pine, . _plates_ , _pinus laricio_, . _plates_ , , " _pinea_, . _plates_ , " _sylvestris_, . _plates_ , , planes, ; oriental plane, ; occidental plane, ; maple-leaved plane, . _plates_ , , _platanus occidentalis_, " _orientalis_, . _plates_ , , plums, wild, , . _plates_ , , poplars, ; white poplar, . _plates_ , , ; grey poplar, ; black poplar, . _plates_ , , ; lombardy poplar, . _plates_ , , ; black italian poplar, ; balsam poplar, _populus alba_, . _plates_ , , " _balsamifera_, " _canescens_, " _fastigiata_, . _plates_ , , " _monilifera_, " _nigra_, . _plates_ , , " _tremula_, . _plate_ _prunus avium_, . _plates_ , " _cerasus_, " _communis_, . _plates_ , " _domestica_, . _plate_ " _insititia_, " _padus_, . _plates_ , , _pseudotsuga douglasii_, . _plates_ , _pyrus aria_, . _plates_ , , , " _aucuparia_, . _plates_ , , , " _communis_, . _plates_ , , " _cordata_, " _germanica_, . plate " _latifolia_, " _malus_, . _plates_ , , , , " _scandica_, " _sorbus_, . _plates_ , , " _torminalis_, _quercus cerris_, . _plate_ " _ilex_, . _plate_ " _robur_, . _plates_ , , , , _rhamnus catharticus_, . _plate_ " _frangula_, . _plates_ , _robinia pseudacacia_, . _plates_ , , rowan, . _plates_ , , , _salix alba_, . _plates_ , , , " _arbuscula_, " _aurita_, " _babylonica_, " _capræa_, " _cinerea_, " _fragilis_, . _plates_ , , " _herbacea_, " _lanata_, " _lapponum_, " _myrsinites_, " _nigricans_, _salix pentandra_, . _plates_ , , " _phylicifolia_, " _purpurea_, . _plates_ , " _repens_, " _reticulata_, " _russelliana_, " _sadleri_, " _triandra_, . _plates_ , " _viminalis_, sallow, ; grey sallow, ; eared sallow, _sambucus nigra_, . _plates_ , scots pine, . _plates_ , , service, wild, ; true service, . _plates_ , , silver fir, . _plates_ , sloe, . plates , spindle-tree, . _plates_ , , spruce fir, . _plates_ , , stone pine, . _plates_ , strawberry-tree, . _plate_ sweet chestnut, . _plates_ , , , sycamore, . _plates_ , , , , tacamahac, _tilia parvifolia_, , " _platyphyllos_, , . _plates_ , , , , " _vulgaris_, , turkey oak, . _plate_ _ulmus campestris_, . _plates_ , , " _montana_, . _plates_ , , , _viburnum lantana_, . _plates_ , " _opulus_, . _plate_ walnut, . _plates_ , , wayfaring-tree, . _plates_ , white beam, . _plates_ , , , whitethorn, . _plates_ , , , , willows, ; crack willow, . _plates_ , , ; bedford willow, ; white willow, . _plates_ , , , ; golden willow, ; almond-leaved willow, . _plates_ , ; french willow, ; bay-leaved willow, . _plates_ , , ; dwarf silky willow, ; dark-leaved willow, ; tea-leaved willow, ; woolly willow, ; sadler's willow, ; lapland willow, ; whortle-leaved willow, ; small tree willow, ; least willow, ; net-leaved willow, ; weeping willow, withy, . _plates_ , , wych elm, . _plates_ , , yew, . _plates_ , , ; irish yew, the end. printed by william clowes and sons, limited, london and beccles. +-----------------------------------------------------------+ | transcriber's note: | | | | names in bold characters are enclosed within plus signs. | +-----------------------------------------------------------+ [illustration: frontcover] state of illinois otto kerner, governor forest trees of illinois how to know them a pocket manual describing their most important characteristics revised by dr. george d. fuller, professor emeritus of botany, university of chicago, curator of botany, illinois state museum, and state forester e. e. nuuttila. (_ st. ed., , by mattoon, w. r., and miller, r. b._) _revised _ department of conservation division of forestry springfield william t. lodge, director (printed by authority of the state of illinois) table of contents page ailanthus alder, black speckled apple, crab arbor vitae ash, black blue green pumpkin red white aspen, large-tooth quaking bald cypress basswood white beech blue birch, black river white yellow black locust black walnut bois d'arc box elder buckeye, ohio buttonwood butternut catalpa cedar, northern white red cherry, black choke wild red chestnut coffee tree, kentucky cottonwood swamp crab, apple bechtel's prairie sweet cucumber, magnolia cypress, bald dogwood, alternate-leaved flowering elm, american cork red rock slippery water winged gum, cotton sour sweet tupelo hackberry southern haw, green red hawthorn, cock-spur dotted green red hedge apple hercules' club hickories, key of illinois hickory, big shell-bark bitternut buckley's king-nut mockernut pecan pignut shag-bark sweet pignut water white honey locust hornbeam, american hop horse-chestnut kentucky coffee-tree larch, american european linden, american locust, black honey water magnolia, cucumber maple, ash-leaved black norway red river silver sugar swamp mulberry, red russian white oak, basket black black jack bur chinquapin jack northern pin northern red overcup pin post red rock chestnut scarlet shingle shumard's southern red spanish swamp chestnut swamp spanish swamp white white willow yellow chestnut oaks, of illinois, a key ohio buckeye orange, osage papaw paulownia pecan persimmon pine, austrian jack scotch shortleaf white plane tree plum, canada wild wild goose yellow poplar, balsam carolina european white lombardy yellow redbud red cedar sassafras service-berry smooth shadblow sour gum spruce, norway sweet gum sumac, shining smooth staghorn sycamore european tamarack thorn, cock-spur dotted pear washington tree of heaven tulip tree tupelo gum walnut, black white willow, black crack peach-leaved weeping white see pages and for index of scientific names +white pine+ _pinus strobus_ l. [illustration: white pine two-thirds natural size.] the white pine is found along the bluffs overlooking lake michigan in lake and cook counties and is also scattered along river bluffs in jo daviess, carroll, ogle and lasalle counties. the only grove of this beautiful tree in illinois is in the white pines forest state park near oregon, ogle county, where there are trees over years old that have attained a height of feet with a diameter of inches. this tree formerly formed the most valuable forests in the northeastern united states, stretching from maine through new york to minnesota. the straight stem, regular pyramidal shape and soft gray-green foliage made it universally appreciated as an ornamental tree and it has been freely planted throughout the state. the _leaves_, or needles, are to inches in length, bluish-green on the upper surface and whitish beneath, and occur in bundles of , which distinguishes it from all other eastern pines. the pollen-bearing _flowers_ are yellow and clustered in cones, about / inch long at the base of the growth of the season. the seed-producing flowers occur on other twigs and are bright red in color. the cone, or _fruit_, is to inches long, cylindrical with thin usually very gummy scales, containing small, winged seeds which require two years to mature. the _wood_ is light, soft, durable, not strong, light brown in color, often tinged with red, and easily worked. it was formerly much used in old colonial houses where even the shingles were of white pine. it is excellent for boxes, pattern making, matches, and many other products. its rapid growth and the high quality of the wood make it one of the best trees for reforestation on light soils in the northern part of the state. the white pine blister rust was introduced into america about years ago, and has since become widespread and highly destructive of both old trees and young growth. the austrian pine, _pinus nigra_ arnold, has been naturalized in lake county and has been planted as an ornamental tree throughout the state. its leaves in 's, from to inches long, stiff and dark green. the cone is heavy, inches long with short prickles. +shortleaf pine+ _pinus echinata_ mill. [illustration: shortleaf pine leaves, one-half natural size. fruit, natural size.] the shortleaf pine, sometimes called yellow pine, occurs in very small stands in the "pine hills" of union county, in jackson county, in giant city state park, and near "piney creek" in randolph county. it forms forests on light sandy soils in tennessee, arkansas, oklahoma and texas. at maturity, the tree has a tall, straight stem and an oval crown, reaching a height of about feet and a diameter of about feet. the _leaves_ are in clusters of two or three, from to inches long, slender, flexible, and dark blue-green. the cones are the smallest of our pines, - / to - / inches long, oblong, with small sharp prickles, generally clustered, and often holding to the twigs for or years. the _bark_ is light brownish-red, broken into rectangular plates on the trunk but scaly on the branches. the _wood_ of old trees is rather heavy and hard, of yellow-brown or orange color, fine grained and less resinous than that of other important southern pines. it is used largely for interior and exterior finishing, general construction, veneers, paper pulp, excelsior, cooperage, mine props, and other purposes. the tree transplants readily, grows rapidly, succeeds on a variety of soils and has proved valuable for reforestation. a few trees of jack pine, _pinus banksiana_ lamb., are found in lake county. it is a small northern tree with leaves about an inch long, borne in 's, with cones about inches long. it is planted for reforestation in the state. the scots pine, _pinus sylvestris_ l., has been freely planted in illinois and may be known by its orange-brown bark and its twisted leaves to inches long, arranged in 's. it has become naturalized on the sand dunes in lake county. the norway spruce, _picea abies_ karst., has been freely planted throughout the state. it forms a dense conical spire-topped crown and reaches a height of to feet. the leaves are needle-shaped, about an inch long, dark green, and persist for about years. the pendulous cones are from to inches long. it is desirable for ornamental planting. +bald cypress+ _taxodium distichum_ richard [illustration: cypress natural size.] the bald cypress is a tree found exclusively in deep swamps and was found in southern illinois from the mississippi bottoms to shawneetown. its straight trunk with numerous ascending branches, and narrow conical outline makes the tree one of considerable beauty. in old age, the tree generally has a broad fluted or buttressed base, a smooth slowly tapering trunk and a broad, open, flat top of a few heavy branches and numerous small branchlets. the original-growth timber attained heights of to feet and diameters of to feet. the _bark_ is silvery to cinnamon-red and finely divided by numerous longitudinal fissures. the _leaves_ are about / to / of an inch in length, arranged in feather-like fashion along two sides of small branchlets, which fall in the autumn with the leaves still attached. the _fruit_ is a rounded cone, or "ball", about one inch in diameter, consisting of thick irregular scales. the _wood_ is light, soft, easily worked, varies in color from light to dark brown, and is particularly durable in contact with the soil. hence it is in demand for exterior trim of buildings, greenhouse planking, boat and shipbuilding, shingles, posts, poles and crossties. the tamarack, or american larch, _larix laricina_ k. koch, resembles the bald cypress in growing in swamps and in shedding its leaves in autumn. this tree is found in illinois growing in bogs in lake and mchenry counties. the leaves are flat, soft, slender, about one inch long and borne in clusters. the cones are only / to / inch long. the european larch, _larix decidua_ mill., may be distinguished from the native species by having slightly longer leaves and larger cones that are more than an inch long. +red cedar+ _juniperus virginiana_ l. red cedar, the most plentiful coniferous tree in the state, is very valuable, growing on a great variety of soils, seeming to thrive on hills where few other trees are found. it is more common in the southern counties. [illustration: red cedar natural size.] there are two kinds of _leaves_, often both kinds being found on the same tree. the commoner kind is dark green, minute and scale-like, clasping the stem in four ranks, so that the stems appear square. the other kind, often appearing on young growth or vigorous shoots, is awl-shaped, quite sharp-pointed, spreading and whitened beneath. the two kinds of _flowers_, appearing in february or march, are at the ends of the twigs on separate trees. the staminate trees assume a golden color from the small catkins, which, when shaken, shed clouds of yellow pollen. the _fruit_, ripening the first season, is pale blue with a white bloom, / inch in diameter, berry-like with sweet flesh. it is a favorite winter food for birds. the _bark_ is very thin, reddish-brown, peeling off in long, shred-like strips. the tree is extremely irregular in its growth, so that the trunk is usually more or less grooved. the _heartwood_ is distinctly red, and the sapwood white, this color combination making very striking effects when finished for cedar chests, closets, and interior woodwork. the wood is aromatic, soft, strong, and of even texture, and these qualities make it most desirable for lead pencils. it is very durable in contact with the soil, and on that account is in great demand for posts, poles and rustic work. the arbor vitae or northern white cedar, _thuja occidentalis_ l., is found occasionally on the bluffs overlooking lake michigan, on the cliffs of starved rock, in elgin city park, and in bogs in lake county. the leaves are aromatic, scale-like, / inch long, arranged to give small flat branches. the fruit is a cone / inch long. the wood is light, soft, durable, fragrant, and pale brown. +quaking aspen+ _populus tremuloides_ michx. this is one of the most widely distributed trees in north america. its range goes from labrador to british columbia and from new england and new york far south in the rocky mountains to arizona. in illinois it is common in the north, but of infrequent occurrence in the south. [illustration: aspen three-fourths natural size.] the aspen is a small tree, reaching heights of to feet and diameters of to inches. the young branches are reddish-brown soon turning gray. the _winter buds_ are about / inch long, pointed and shining. the _bark_ is thin, smooth, light gray tinged with green. the _leaves_ are on slender flat petioles, arranged alternately on the twigs, and broadly oval, short pointed and shallowly toothed. they are green, shiny above and dull below, ranging from to inches long and about the same in breadth. the _flowers_ are in catkins and appear before the leaves begin to expand. the two kinds are borne on separate trees, the staminate catkins are about inches long, but the seed-producing flowers form a long slender cluster inches in length. the _fruit_ is a conical capsule filled with tiny cottony seeds which ripen in late spring before the leaves are fully expanded. the _wood_ is light brown, almost white. it is light, weak and not durable, and is used for pulpwood, fruit-crates and berry boxes. the large-tooth aspen, _populus grandidentata_ michx., is found in the northern half of illinois and frequently grows alongside the quaking aspen. its leaves are larger than those of the quaking aspen and the edges are coarsely and irregularly toothed. the winter buds have dull chestnut-brown scales and are somewhat downy. the bark is light gray tinged with reddish-brown. +cottonwood+ _populus deltoides_ marsh. the cottonwood, or carolina poplar, is one of the largest trees in illinois, growing on flood plains along small streams and in depressions in the prairie. it is one of the best trees for forestry purposes for planting where quick shade is desired. the wood is soft, light, weak, fine-grained but tough. it is good for pulp, boxes and berry baskets. [illustration: cottonwood leaf, one-third natural size. twig, one-third natural size.] the _leaves_ are simple, alternate, broadly triangular, pointed and coarse toothed on the edges, to inches across, thick and firm supported by flattened slender petioles, to inches long. the _winter buds_ are large and covered with chestnut-brown shining resinous scales. the _flowers_ are in catkins, of two kinds, on different trees and appear before the leaves. the _fruit_ ripens in late spring, appearing as long drooping strings of ovoid capsules filled with small seeds. these strings of fruit, to inches long, give to the tree the name of "necklace poplar." the seeds are covered with white cottony hairs. the swamp cottonwood, _populus heterophylla_ l., occurs in swamps in the southern part of illinois, and may be known by its broadly ovate leaves, to inches wide and to inches long with blunt-apex and cordate base. a few trees of the balsam poplar, _populus tacamahaca_ mill., are found in lake county near the shores of lake michigan. the leaves are ovate-lanceolate, pointed, and cordate. the large buds are covered with fragrant resin. the european white poplar, _populus alba_ l., with light gray bark and leaves, white wooly beneath, is often found near old houses and along roadsides. the lombardy poplar, a tall narrow form of the european black poplar, _populus nigra_ var. _italica_ du roi, is often planted and is a striking tree for the roadside. +black willow+ _salix nigra_ marsh. the black willow is not only a denizen of the forest but it is at home on the prairies and on the plains and even invades the desert. it grows singly or in clumps along the water courses, a tree to feet in height with a short trunk. [illustration: black willow two-thirds natural size.] the _bark_ is deeply divided into broad flat ridges, often becoming shaggy. the twigs, brittle at the base, are glabrous or pubescent, bright red-brown becoming darker with age. the _winter buds_ are / inch long, covered with a single smooth scale. the _wood_ is soft, light, close-grained, light brown and weak. it is often used in the manufacture of artificial limbs. the alternate simple _leaves_ are to inches long, and one-half inch wide on very short petioles; the tips are much tapered and the margins are finely toothed. they are bright green on both sides, turning pale yellow in the early autumn. the _flowers_ are in catkins, appearing with the leaves, borne on separate trees. the staminate flowers of the black willow have to stamens each, while the white willow has flowers with stamens. the native peach-leaved willow, _salix amygdaloides_ anders., is a smaller tree with leaves to inches long, / to - / inches wide, light green and shining above, pale and glaucous beneath, on petioles about / inch long. the white willow, _salix alba_ l., and the crack willow, _salix fragilis_ l., with bright yellow twigs, are european species which are often planted for ornamental purposes. their flowers have only stamens each and their leaves are silky, bright green above and glaucous beneath. the latter has twigs that are very brittle at the base. another european species is the weeping willow, _salix babylonica_ l., which may be known by its slender drooping branches. +black walnut+ _juglans nigra_ l. [illustration: black walnut leaf, one-fifth natural size. twig, three-quarters natural size.] this valuable forest tree occurs on rich bottom lands and on moist fertile hillsides throughout the state. the black walnut is found from massachusetts westward to minnesota and southward to florida and texas. in the forest, where it grows singly, it frequently attains a height of feet with a straight stem, clear of branches for half its height. in open-grown trees, the stem is short and the crown broad and spreading. the _bark_ is thick, dark brown in color, and divided by rather deep fissures into rounded ridges. the twigs have cream-colored chambered pith and leaf-scars without downy pads above. the _leaves_ are alternate, compound, to feet long, consisting of from to leaflets of yellowish-green color. the leaflets are about inches long, extremely tapering at the end and toothed along the margin. the _fruit_ is a nut, borne singly or in pairs, and enclosed in a solid green husk which does not split open, even after the nut is ripe. the nut itself is black with a very hard, thick, finely ridged shell, enclosing a rich, oily kernel edible and highly nutritious. the _heartwood_ is of superior quality and value. it is heavy, hard and strong, and its rich chocolate-brown color, freedom from warping and checking, susceptibility to a high polish, and durability make it highly prized for a great variety of uses, including furniture, cabinet work, and gun-stocks. walnut is easily propagated from the nuts and grows rapidly on good soil, where it should be planted and grown for timber and nuts. it is the most valuable tree found in the forests of illinois and originally grew extensively throughout the state. +butternut+ _juglans cinerea_ l. the butternut, sometimes called the white walnut, is a smaller tree than the black walnut, although it may reach a height of feet and a diameter of feet. it is found all over the state, but the best is in the ravines of southern illinois. the butternut is found from maine to michigan and southward to kansas, tennessee and northern georgia. the trunk is often forked or crooked and this makes it less desirable for saw timber. [illustration: butternut twig, one-half natural size. leaf, one-third natural size.] the _bark_ differs from that of the black walnut in being light gray on branches and on the trunk of small trees, becoming darker on large trees. this tree may also be distinguished from black walnut by the velvet collars just above the scars left by last year's leaves. the twigs have chocolate-brown chambered pith and bear obliquely blunt winter buds somewhat flattened, brownish and hairy. the compound _leaves_ are to inches long, each with to sharp-pointed, oblong, finely toothed leaflets to inches long. the staminate and pistillate _flowers_ are on the same tree, the former in long yellowish-green drooping catkins and the latter are short with red-fringed stigmas. the _fruit_ is a nut enclosed in an oblong, somewhat pointed, yellowish-green husk, about inches long, which is covered with short, rusty, clammy, sticky hairs. the nut has a rough, grooved shell and an oily, edible kernel. the _wood_ is light, soft, not strong, coarse-grained, light brown, and takes a good polish. it is used for interior finish of houses and for furniture. a yellow or orange dye can be made from the husks of the nuts. a key to the illinois hickories a. bud scales opposite; appearing somewhat grooved lengthwise; leaflets usually lanceolate, generally curved backwards; nut-husks usually winged; nut thin-shelled. b. leaflets - ; leaves - inches long, winter buds bright yellow; nut gray globose, meat bitter c. cordiformis bb. leaflets - ; leaves - inches long, winter buds dark brown, nut brown, pear-shaped, meat bitter c. aquatica bbb. leaflets - ; leaves - inches long, winter buds yellow, nut elongated, meat sweet c. illinoensis aa. bud scales not in pairs; more than ; leaflets not recurved; nut husks usually not winged; nut thick-shelled. b. buds large; twigs stout; nut angled; kernel sweet. c. leaflets ; leaves - inches long, nut whitish, bark shaggy c. ovata cc. leaflets - ; leaves - inches long, nut reddish-brown c. laciniosa ccc. leaflets - ; leaves - inches long, hairy c. tomentosa bb. buds small; twigs slender; nut angled. c. leaflets usually ; leaves - inches long; fruit pear-shaped; kernel astringent c. glabra cc. leaflets usually ; leaves - inches long; fruit ovoid; shell ridged, thin; kernel sweet c. ovalis ccc. leaflets usually ; leaves - inches long; shell thin, conspicuously veined c. buckleyi +bitternut hickory+ _carya cordiformis_ k. koch the bitternut hickory is a tall slender tree with broadly pyramidal crown, attaining a height of feet and a diameter of to feet. it is found along stream banks and on moist soil, and it is well known by its roundish bitter nuts. [illustration: bitternut hickory twig, one-half natural size. leaf, one-third natural size.] the _bark_ on the trunk is granite-gray, faintly tinged with yellow and smoother than in most of the hickories, yet broken into thin plate-like scales. the _winter buds_ are compressed, scurfy, and of a bright yellow color. the _leaves_ are alternate, compound, from to inches long, and composed of from to leaflets. the individual leaflets are smaller and more slender than those of the other hickories. the _flowers_ are of two kinds on the same tree; the staminate in long pendulous green catkins, the pistillate in to flowered spikes, / inch long, brown-hairy. the _fruit_ is about inch long and thin-husked, while the nut is usually thin-shelled and brittle, and the kernel very bitter. the _wood_ is hard, strong and heavy, reddish-brown in color. from this last fact it gets its local name of red hickory. it is said to be somewhat inferior to the other hickories, but is used for the same purposes. +pecan+ _carya illinoensis_ (wang.) k. koch (_carya pecan_ (marsh.) e. & g.) the pecan is a river-bottom tree found in southern illinois extending its range northward to adams, peoria, fayette and lawrence counties. the tree is the largest of the hickories, attaining heights of over feet and, when in the open, forming a large rounded top of symmetrical shape. it makes an excellent shade tree and is also planted in orchards for its nuts. the outer _bark_ is rough, hard, tight, but broken into scales; on the limbs, it is smooth at first but later tends to scale or divide as the bark grows old. [illustration: pecan one-quarter natural size.] the _leaves_ resemble those of the other hickories and the black walnut. they are made up of to leaflets, each oblong, toothed and long-pointed, and to inches long by about inches wide. the _flowers_ appear in early spring and hang in tassels from to inches long. the _fruit_ is a nut, -winged or angled, pointed from to inches long, and one-half to inch in diameter, borne in a husk which divides along its grooved seams when the nut ripens in the fall. the nuts, which vary in size and in the thickness of the shell, have been greatly improved by selection and cultivation and are sold on the market in large quantities. the _wood_ is strong, tough, heavy and hard and is used occasionally in making handles, parts for vehicles, for fuel and for veneers. the water hickory, _carya aquatica_ nutt., is a smaller tree, found in swamps in southern illinois, with leaves made up of to leaflets; the nut is thin-shelled, angular and bitter. +shag-bark hickory+ _carya ovata_ k. koch the shag-bark hickory is well known for its sweet and delicious nuts. it is a large commercial tree, averaging to feet high and to feet in diameter. it thrives best on rich, damp soil and is common along streams, on rich uplands, and on moist hillsides throughout the state. [illustration: shag-bark hickory leaf, one-third natural size. twig, one-half natural size.] the _bark_ of the trunk is rougher than other hickories, light gray and separating into thick plates which are only slightly attached to the tree. the terminal _winter buds_ are egg-shaped, the outer bud-scales having narrow tips. the _leaves_ are alternate, compound, from to inches long, and composed of , rarely obovate to ovate leaflets. the twigs are smooth or clothed with short hairs. the _fruit_ is borne singly or in pairs and is globular. the husk is thick and deeply grooved at the seams. the nut is much compressed and pale, the shell thick, and the kernel sweet. the flowers are of two kinds, opening after the leaves have attained nearly their full size. the _wood_ is heavy, hard, tough and strong; it is white largely in the manufacture of agricultural implements and tool handles, and the building of carriages and wagons. for fuel the hickories are the most satisfactory of our native trees. the big shell bark or king-nut hickory, _carya laciniosa_ (michx. f.) loud., becomes a tall tree on the rich bottom lands in the southern half of illinois. it resembles the shag-bark hickory but the leaves are longer with to leaflets, and the nuts are inches long with a thick bony shell and a sweet kernel. +mockernut hickory+ _carya tomentosa_ nutt. the mockernut, or white hickory, is common on well-drained soils throughout the state. it is a tall, short-limbed tree often feet high and to feet in diameter. [illustration: mockernut hickory leaf, one-fifth natural size. twig, two-thirds natural size.] the _bark_ is dark gray, hard, closely and deeply furrowed often apparently cross-furrowed or netted. the winter buds are large, round or broadly egg-shaped and covered with a downy growth. the _leaves_ are large, strong-scented and hairy, composed of to obovate to oblong, pointed leaflets which turn a beautiful yellow in the fall. the _flowers_, like those of all other hickories, are of two kinds on the same tree; the staminate in three-branched catkins, the pistillate in clusters of to . the _fruit_ is oval, nearly round or slightly pear-shaped with a very thick, strong-scented husk which splits nearly to the base when ripe. the nut is of various forms, but sometimes to ridged, light brown, and has a very thick shell and small, sweet kernel. the _wood_ is heavy, hard, tough and strong; it is white excepting the comparatively small, dark-brown heart, hence the name white hickory. it is used for vehicle parts and handles. it furnishes the best of fuel. this and other hickories are very desirable both for forest and shade trees. in the southern part of illinois, the small fruited or sweet pignut, _carya ovalis_ sargent, occurs on rich hillsides. the leaves have leaflets on reddish-brown twigs, with small yellowish winter buds. the nut is an inch long, enclosed in a very thin hairy husk, the shell is thin and the kernel sweet. +pignut hickory+ _carya glabra_ sweet the pignut hickory is rare in the northern part of illinois but occurs plentifully in the rest of the state, growing to a medium sized tree on rich uplands. it has a tapering trunk and a narrow oval head with drooping branches. [illustration: pignut hickory leaf, one-third natural size. twig, one-half natural size.] the _bark_ is close, ridged and grayish, but occasionally rough and flaky. the twigs are thin, smooth and glossy brown. the _leaves_ are smooth, to inches long and composed of to leaflets. the individual leaflets are rather small and narrow. the _winter buds_ are / inch long, egg-shaped, polished, and light brown. the _fruit_ is pear-shaped or rounded, usually with a neck at the base, very thin husks splitting only half way to the base or not at all. the nut is smooth, light brown in color, rather thick-shelled, and has a somewhat astringent edible kernel. the _wood_ is heavy, hard, strong, tough and flexible. its uses are the same as those of the other hickories. buckley's hickory, _carya buckleyi_ durand, occurs on sandy uplands in the southwest. it is a small tree with spreading, contorted branches. the fruit is contained in a hairy husk, the nut is angular, marked with pale veins and has a sweet kernel. +blue beech+ _carpinus caroliniana_ walt. the blue beech, or american hornbeam, belongs to the birch family rather than to the beeches. it is a small slow-growing bushy tree, to feet tall with a diameter to inches. it is found along streams and in low ground through the state. [illustration: blue beech leaf, one-half natural size. twig, one-half natural size.] the trunk is smooth fluted with irregular ridges extending up and down the tree. the _bark_ is light brownish-gray to dark bluish-gray in color, sometimes marked with dark bands extending horizontally on the trunk. the _leaves_ are simple, alternate, oval, long-pointed, doubly-toothed along the margin, or inches in length. they resemble those of the american elm, but are smaller and thinner. the _flowers_, appearing after the leaves, are borne in catkins separately on the same tree; the staminate catkins are about - / inches long, the pistillate being only / of an inch long with small leaf-like green scales each bearing pistils with long scarlet styles. the _fruit_ ripens in midsummer, but often remains on the tree long after the leaves have fallen. it is a nutlet about / of an inch long, attached to a leaf-like halberd-shaped bract which acts as a wing in aiding its distribution by the wind. the _wood_ is tough, close-grained, heavy and strong. it is sometimes selected for use for levers, tool handles, wooden cogs, mallets, wedges, etc. another small tree of the birch family is the speckled alder, _alnus incana_ moench, which is found occasionally in wet places in the northern part of the state. the black alder, _alnus glutinosa_ gaertn., a european tree, has been planted near ponds. the flowers of the alders are in catkins and among the earliest in the spring. the fruit is a small cone which persists throughout the winter. +hop hornbeam+ _ostrya virginiana_ k. koch this tree is also called ironwood and gets its common names from the quality of its wood and the hop-like fruit. it is a small, slender, generally round-topped tree, from to feet high and to inches in diameter. the top consists of long, slender branches, commonly drooped toward the ends. it is found throughout the state. [illustration: hop hornbeam twig, one-half natural size. leaf, one-third natural size.] the _bark_ is mostly light brown or reddish-brown, and finely divided into thin scales by which the tree, after a little acquaintance, can be easily recognized. the _leaves_ are simple, alternate, generally oblong with narrowed tips, sharply toothed along the margin, sometimes doubly toothed, from to inches long. the _flowers_ are of two kinds on the same tree; the staminate in drooping catkins which form the previous summer, the pistillate, in erect catkins on the newly formed twigs. the _fruit_, which resembles that of common hop vine, consists of a branch of leafy bracts to inches long containing a number of flattened ribbed nutlets. the _wood_ is strong, hard, durable, light brown to white, with thick pale sapwood. it is often used for fence posts, handles of tools, mallets and other small articles. the white birch, _betula papyrifera_ marsh., of the north woods is rare in illinois. it is found in jo daviess and carroll counties and along the shores of lake michigan. the white papery bark distinguishes it from all other trees and was used by the northern indians for covering their canoes and for making baskets, bags and other useful and ornamental things. +river birch+ _betula nigra_ l. the river, or back birch, is at home, as the name implies, along water courses, and inhabits the deep, rich soils along the borders of the larger rivers of the state and in swamps which are sometimes inundated for weeks at a time. [illustration: river birch two-thirds natural size.] the _bark_ provides a ready means of distinguishing this tree. it varies from reddish-brown to cinnamon-red in color, and peels back in tough papery layers. these layers persist on the trunk, presenting a very ragged and quite distinctive appearance. unlike the bark of our other birches, the thin papery layers are usually covered with a gray powder. on older trunks, the bark on the main trunk becomes thick, deeply furrowed and of a dark reddish-brown color. the _leaves_ are simple, alternate, to inches long, more or less oval in shape, with double-toothed edges. the upper surface is dark green and the lower a pale yellowish-green. the _flowers_ are in catkins, the two kinds growing on the same tree. the _fruit_ is cone-shaped about inch long, and densely crowded with little winged nutlets that ripen from may to june. the _wood_ is strong and fairly close-grained. it has been used to some extent in the manufacture of woodenware, in turnery and for wagon hubs. the yellow birch, _betula lutea_ michx., one of the most valuable hardwood timber trees around the great lakes, is represented in illinois by a few small trees in lee and lake counties. it may be known by its bark becoming silvery-gray as the trunk expands and breaking into strips curled at the edges. the wood is strong and hard, close-grained, light brown tinged with red. it is used for interior finish, furniture, woodenware and turnery. it is prized as firewood. +beech+ _fagus grandifolia_ ehrh. the beech is found from maine to wisconsin south to the gulf and texas, growing along with maples, oaks and tulip trees. it occurs in the ravines of the southern illinois counties up to vermilion county. it is one of the most beautiful of all trees either in summer or winter. [illustration: beech one-half natural size.] the _bark_ is, perhaps, the most distinctive characteristic, as it maintains an unbroken light gray surface throughout its life. so tempting is this smooth expanse to the owner of a jack-knife that the beech has been well designated the "initial tree." the simple, oval _leaves_ are to inches long, pointed at the tip and coarsely toothed along the margin. when mature, they are almost leathery in texture. the beech produces a dense shade. the _winter buds_ are long, slender and pointed. the little, brown, three-sided beech-nuts are almost as well known as chestnuts. they form usually in pairs in a prickly bur. the kernel is sweet and edible, but so small as to offer insufficient reward for the pains of biting open the thin-shelled husk. the _wood_ of the beech is very hard, strong, and tough, though it will not last long on exposure to weather or in the soil. it is used to some extent for furniture, flooring, carpenter's tools, and novelty wares and extensively in southern illinois for railroad ties and car stock. the american chestnut, _castanea dentata_ borkh., extends its range from maine to michigan, and southward to delaware and tennessee. there is a stand of chestnuts in pulaski county and some trees have been planted in the southern part of the state. they are easily recognized by their alternate simple, broadly lanceolate coarsely toothed leaves, and their prickly burs about inches in diameter containing - nuts. a key to the oaks of illinois a. leaves without bristle tips; bark gray; acorns maturing at the end of season; white oaks. b. leaves lobed. c. acorn-cup not enclosing the acorn. d. acorn-cup shallow, warted q. alba dd. acorn-cup covering / of the acorn q. stellata cc. acorn-cup enclosing the acorn. d. acorn-cup not fringed q. lyrata dd. acorn-cup fringed q. macrocarpa bb. leaves not lobed, coarsely toothed. c. acorn-stalked. d. acorn-stalks longer than petioles q. bicolor dd. acorn-stalks short e. acorn-cup flat-bottomed; bark like that of white oak q. prinus ee. acorn-cup deep; bark like that of red oak q. montana cc. acorns sessile, cup deep q. muhlenbergii aa. leaves with bristle tips; bark dark; acorns mature at the end of two seasons; black and red oaks. b. leaves lobed. c. deeply lobed. d. leaves deep green on both sides. e. acorn-cup broad and shallow a. acorn large q. rubra aa. acorn small b. acorn ovoid q. shumardii bb. acorn globose q. palustris ee. acorn-cup deep a. cup-scales loosely imbricated winter buds large and hairy q. velutina aa. cup-scales tightly appressed, winter buds small and smooth b. acorn small q. ellipsoidalis bb. acorn large q. coccinea dd. leaves pale green beneath q. falcata cc. leaves shallowly lobed, winter buds rusty-hairy q. marilandica bb. leaves entire. c. leaves hairy beneath; acorn sessile q. imbricaria cc. leaves not hairy; acorn stalked q. phellos +white oak+ _quercus alba_ l. within its natural range, which includes practically the entire eastern half of the united states, the white oak is one of the most important timber trees. it commonly reaches a height of to feet and a diameter of to feet; sometimes it becomes much larger. it is found in a wide variety of upland soils. when grown in a dense stand it has a straight continuous trunk, free of side branches for over half its height. in the open, however, the tree develops a broad crown with far-reaching limbs. well-grown specimens are strikingly beautiful. [illustration: white oak twig, one-third natural size. leaf, one-quarter natural size.] the _leaves_ are alternate, simple to inches long and about half as broad. they are deeply divided into to rounded, finger-like lobes. the young leaves are a soft silvery-gray or yellow or red while unfolding, becoming later bright green above and much paler below. the _flowers_ appear with the leaves, the staminate are in hairy catkins - inches long, the pistillate are sessile in axils of the leaves. the _fruit_ is an acorn maturing the first year. the nut is / to inch long, light brown, about one-quarter enclosed in the warty cup. it is relished by hogs and other livestock. the _bark_ is thin, light ashy-gray and covered with loose scales or broad plates. the _wood_ is useful and valuable. it is heavy, strong, hard, tough, close-grained, durable, and light brown in color. the uses are many, including construction, shipbuilding, tight cooperage, furniture, wagons, implements, interior finish, flooring, and fuel. notwithstanding its rather slow growth, white oak is valuable for forest, highway and ornamental planting. the overcup oak, _quercus lyrata_ walt., is similar to the white oak, but may be distinguished by the nearly spherical cup which nearly covers the somewhat flattened acorn. this oak occurs in the river bottoms in southern illinois. +bur oak+ _quercus macrocarpa_ michx. the bur oak, which occurs throughout the state takes its name from the fringe around the cup of the acorn. it usually has a broad top of heavy spreading branches and a relatively short body. it is one of the largest trees in the state. in maturity, it attains a diameter of feet or more and a height of over feet. the _bark_ is light gray and is usually broken up into small narrow flakes. the bur oak does not often form a part of the forest stand, as do some other oaks, but occurs generally singly in open stands and in fields. it requires a moist but well-drained soil. [illustration: bur oak one-third natural size.] the _leaves_ resemble somewhat those of the common white oak, but have a pair of deep indentations on their border near the base, and wavy notches on the broad middle and upper portions of the leaf. they range from to inches long and to inches wide. the _fruit_, or acorn, is a nut set deeply in a fringed cup. it is sometimes inch or more in diameter but varies widely in respect to size and the degree to which the nut is enclosed in the mossy fringed cup. the _wood_ is heavy, hard, strong, tough and durable. it is used for much the same purposes as the other white oaks, lumber, piling, veneer logs, crossties and fuel. the swamp white oak, _quercus bicolor_ willd., occurs scattered in swamps, through the state. the leaves are obovate, coarsely toothed and wedge-shaped below. they are thick, dark green and shining above, pale and downy beneath. the acorns are borne in a deep rough scaly cup, on stems - inches long. the wood is like that of the white oak. the bark is gray-brown, separating into large, papery scales which curl back. +yellow chestnut oak+ _quercus muhlenbergii_ engelm. this oak, also called the chinquapin oak, which is an excellent timber tree, occurs throughout the state. it grows on practically all classes of soil and in all moisture conditions except in swamps, and is a very tenacious tree on shallow, dry soil. the _bark_ is light gray, and breaks up into short narrow flakes on the main trunk and old limbs. it reaches a height of to feet. the straight shapely trunk bears a round-topped head composed of small branches, which makes it an attractive shade tree. [illustration: yellow chestnut oak one-third natural size.] the _leaves_ are oblong, to inches in length, - / to inches wide, and equally toothed or notched on the edges, resembling the leaves of the chestnut oak. the _fruit_, which ripens in the fall of the first season, is light to dark brown when ripe, and edible if roasted. this acorn is from one-half to nearly an inch long, usually less than one inch in diameter, and is set in a shallow cup. the _wood_ is like that of the white oak, heavy, very hard, tough, strong, durable, and takes an excellent polish. it is used in manufacturing lumber and timbers, crossties, fence posts and fuel. a portion of the lumber no doubt goes into furniture. the basket oak, or swamp chestnut oak, _quercus prinus_ l., is found in the woods in southern illinois. it resembles the white oak in its bark and branches, but has larger acorns. the leaves resemble those of yellow chestnut oak. the rock chestnut oak, _quercus montana_ willd., is an eastern oak that is rare on the hills of union and alexander counties. +post oak+ _quercus stellata_ wang. the post oak is usually a medium-sized tree, with a rounded crown, commonly reaching a height of to feet and a diameter of to feet, but sometimes considerably larger. it occurs from mason county south to the ohio river being most common in the "post oak flats." the soil is a light gray silt loam underlaid by "tight clay." [illustration: post oak one-third natural size.] the _bark_ is rougher and darker than the white oak and broken into smaller scales. the stout young twigs and the leaves are coated at first with a thick light-colored fuzz which soon becomes darker and later drops away entirely. the _leaves_ are usually to inches long and nearly as broad, deeply -lobed with broad rounded divisions, the lobes broadest at the ends. they are thick and somewhat leathery, dark green and shiny on the upper surface, lighter green and rough hairy beneath. the _flowers_, like those of the other oaks, are of two kinds on the same tree, the male in drooping, clustered catkins, the female inconspicuous. the _fruit_ is an oval acorn, / to inch long, set in a rather small cup which may or may not be stalked. the _wood_ is very heavy, hard, close-grained, light to dark brown, durable in contact with the soil. it is used for crossties and fence posts, and along with other oaks of the white oak class for furniture and other purposes. +northern red oak+ _quercus rubra_ l. (_quercus borealis_ michx.) the red oak of the north occurs throughout the state. it usually attains a height of about feet and a diameter ranging from to feet, but is sometimes much larger. the forest-grown tree is tall and straight with a clear trunk and narrow crown. [illustration: northern red oak leaf, one-third natural size. twig, one-half natural size.] the _bark_ on young stems is smooth, gray to brown on older trees, thick and broken by shallow fissures into regular, flat smooth-surfaced plates. the _leaves_ are simple, alternate, to inches long, and to inches wide, broader toward the tip, divided into to lobes, each lobe being somewhat coarsely toothed and bristle-tipped, and firm, dull green above, paler below, often turning to a brilliant red after frost. the _winter buds_ are small, light reddish-brown and smooth. the _flowers_, as in all the oaks, are of two kinds on the same tree, the staminate in long drooping, clustered catkins, opening with the leaves, the female solitary or slightly clustered. the _fruit_ is a large acorn maturing the second year. the nut is from / to - / inches long, blunt-topped, flat at base, with only its base enclosed in the very shallow dark brown cup. the _wood_ is hard, strong, coarse-grained, with light, reddish-brown heartwood and thin lighter-colored sapwood. it is used for cooperage, interior finish, construction, furniture, and crossties. because of its average rapid growth, high-grade wood and general freedom from insect and fungus attack, it should be widely planted in the state for timber production and as a shade tree. this red oak, _quercus shumardii_ buckley, is found only in the southern counties along the borders of streams and swamps. its leaves are dark green and lustrous, paler beneath and have tufts of pale hairs in the angles of the veins. the acorns are long-oval in shape, held in thick saucer-like cups composed of closely appressed hairy scales. +black oak+ _quercus velutina_ lam. the black oak, sometimes farther north called yellow oak or yellow-barked oak, usually grows to be about feet in height and to feet in diameter. it is found commonly throughout the state. the crown is irregularly shaped and wide, with a clear trunk for feet or more on large trees. the _bark_ on the very young trees is smooth and dark brown but soon becomes thick and black, with deep furrows and rough broken ridges. the bright yellow color and bitter taste of the inner bark, due to tannic acid, are distinguishing characteristics. [illustration: black oak leaf, one-third natural size. twig, one-half natural size.] the _leaves_ are alternate, simple, to inches long and to inches wide, thick leathery shallow or deeply lobed, the shape varying greatly. when mature, the leaves are dark green and shiny on the upper surface, pale on the lower, more or less covered with down, and with conspicuous rusty brown hairs in the forks of the veins. the _winter buds_ are large, strongly angled, gray and hairy. the _fruit_ matures the second season. the light brown nut is from / to inch long, more or less hemispherical in shape, and from / to / enclosed in the thin, dark brown, scaly cup. the scales on the upper part of the cup are loosely imbricated. the kernel is yellow and extremely bitter. the _wood_ is hard, heavy, strong, coarse-grained and checks easily. it is a bright red-brown with a thin outer edge of paler sapwood. it is used for the same purposes as red oak, under which name it is put on the market. its growth is rather slow. the jack oak, _quercus ellipsoidalis_ hill, is a smaller tree found frequently alongside black oak in the northern third of the state. the acorn is ellipsoid, small and enclosed in a deep cup, whose scales are closely appressed. the winter buds are slightly angular, smooth, and red-brown in color. many small, drooping branches are sent out near the ground, which soon die, and the stubs or "pins" have given this oak the name of northern pin oak. +pin oak+ _quercus palustris_ muench. pin oak is rarely found naturally except on the rich moist soil of bottom lands and the borders of swamps. it is usually not abundant in any locality, but found scattered with other kinds of trees. it more commonly attains heights of to feet, with diameters up to feet, but sometimes larger. the tree commonly has a single, upright stem with numerous long, tough branches, the lower ones drooping, the middle horizontal, and the upper ascending. many of the lower branches soon die and their stubs are the "pins" which give the tree its name. [illustration: pin oak leaf, one-third natural size. twig, one-half natural size.] the _bark_ on young stems is smooth, shining and light brown; on old trunks light gray-brown and covered by small, close scales. because of its beauty, its hardiness, and its fairly rapid growth, pin oak makes an exceptionally fine street tree. the _leaves_ generally resemble those of the northern red oak, but they are smaller and much more deeply lobed. they are to inches long and to inches wide. the _flowers_ are of two kinds on the same tree, and appear when the leaves are about one-third grown. the _fruit_, taking two years to mature, is an acorn nearly hemispheric, about one-half inch long, light brown, often striped, enclosed only at the base in a thin, shallow, saucer-shaped cup. the _wood_ is heavy, hard, strong, and usually knotty. it is light brown, with thin, darker-colored sapwood. it is sold and has the same uses as red oak, although it is generally not so good in quality. the scarlet oak, _quercus coccinea_ muench., has deeply lobed leaves which turn brilliant scarlet in the autumn. the winter buds are reddish-brown and pubescent. the acorns are ovoid, enclosed for about half their length in a thick, deep cup. it is rarely found in the southern half of the state. +spanish oak+ _quercus falcata_ michx. this oak, one of the common southern red oaks, ranges from virginia and florida to texas and missouri, and appears in a dozen of the southern counties in illinois. it is usually called the spanish oak, or southern red oak, and has been known as _quercus rubra_ l. or _quercus digitata_ sudw. [illustration: spanish oak leaf, one-third natural size. twig, one-half natural size.] it is a variable species and hence has been known under so many names. it grows to a height of to feet, and a diameter of to feet, though larger trees are not infrequently found. its large spreading branches form a broad, round, open top. the _bark_ is rough, though not deeply furrowed and varies from light gray on younger trees to dark or almost black on older ones. the _leaves_ are of two different types: ( ) irregular-shaped lobes, mostly narrow, bristle-tipped, the central lobe often the longest; or ( ) pear-shaped with rounded lobes at the outer end. they are dark lustrous green above and gray downy beneath, the contrast being strikingly seen in a wind or rain storm. the _flowers_ appear in april while the leaves are unfolding. the _fruit_ ripens the second year. the small rounded acorn, about half an inch long, is set in a thin saucer-shaped cup which tapers to a short stem. the _wood_ is heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained and is less subject to defects than most other red oaks. it is used for rough lumber and for furniture, chairs, tables, etc. it is a desirable timber tree, especially on the poorer, drier soils. the bark is rich in tannin. _q. rubra_ var. _pagodaefolia_, called swamp spanish oak, has been collected in four southern counties of illinois. +black jack+ _quercus marilandica_ muench. the black jack oak is a tree of sandy and clayey barren lands where few other forest trees thrive. it ranges from new york to florida and westward into illinois, arkansas, and texas. it reaches its largest size in southern arkansas and eastern texas. it is found as one of the main species in the "post oak flats" in the southern half of the state and in the sands along the illinois river, near havana. the tree sometimes reaches a height of to feet and a diameter of inches, but it is usually much smaller. its hard, stiff, drooping branches form a dense crown which usually contains many persistent dead twigs. the _bark_ is rough, very dark, often nearly black, and broken into small, hard scales or flakes. [illustration: black jack oak twig, two-thirds natural size. leaf, one-third natural size.] the _leaves_ are of a leathery texture, dark green on the upper surface, lighter, hairy, and brown-scurfy below. the leaves are wedge-shaped, to inches long and about the same in width. there is a considerable difference in the leaves of this oak both in size and shape. the _fruit_ is an acorn about three-quarters of an inch long, yellow-brown and often striped, enclosed for half its length or more in a thick light brown cup. the _wood_ is heavy, hard and strong; when used at all, it is used mostly for firewood and mine props. it is also used for the manufacture of charcoal. +shingle oak+ _quercus imbricaria_ michx. this oak is found throughout the state with the exception of the extreme north portion. when growing alone, the tree develops a symmetrical rounded top, conspicuous on account of the good-sized, regular-shaped, oblong leaves which differ in shape from most other native oaks. it forms a handsome tree. it is sometimes incorrectly called "laurel" oak. [illustration: shingle oak leaf, one-third natural size. twig, three-fourths natural size.] the _bark_ is rather thin and divided by shallow fissures into broad ridges of a dark brown color. the _leaves_ are alternate in arrangement along the stem, oblong in shape, to inches long by to inches wide, leathery in texture with smooth margins sometimes wavy in outline, dark green and shiny above, and thick downy or velvety below. the _fruit_ is an acorn about one-half inch in length, borne singly or in pairs on stout stems, full or rounded at the end and faintly streaked, enclosed for about one-half its length in a thin-walled cup. like all members of the black oak group, the fruit requires two seasons to mature. the _wood_ is heavy, hard, rather coarse-grained, and used for common lumber, shingles (whence it gets its common name), posts and firewood. the willow oak, _quercus phellos_ l., is a river bottom tree rarely found in southern illinois. it is readily identified by its leaves, which as the name implies, resemble those of the willows. these leaves are from two to four inches long and one-half to one inch wide, light green, shiny above and smooth beneath. +american elm+ _ulmus americana_ l. this is a famous shade tree of new england, whose range, however, extends to the rocky mountains and southward to texas. within this vast area, it is generally common except in the high mountains. it reaches an average height of to feet and a diameter of to feet. the _bark_ is dark gray, divided into irregular, flat-topped thick ridges, and is generally firm, though on old trees it tends to come off in flakes. an incision into the inner bark will show alternate layers of brown and white. [illustration: american elm twig, one-half natural size. leaf, one-half natural size.] the _leaves_ are alternate, simple, to inches long, rather thick, somewhat one-sided, doubly toothed on the margin, and generally smooth above and downy below. the leaf-veins are very pronounced and run in parallel lines from the mid-rib to leaf edge. the _winter buds_ are pointed, brown, ovoid and smooth. the _flowers_ are small, perfect, greenish, on slender stalks sometimes an inch long, appearing before the leaves in the early spring. the _fruit_ is a light green, oval shaped samara (winged fruit) with the seed portion in the center and surrounded entirely by a wing. this wing has a conspicuous notch at the end and is hairy on the margin, a mark distinctive of the species. the seed ripens in the spring and by its wing is widely disseminated by the wind. the _wood_ is heavy, hard, strong, tough and difficult to split. it is used for hubs of wheels, saddle trees, boats, ships, barrel hoops, and veneer for baskets and crates. because of its spreading fan-shaped form, graceful pendulous branches, and long life, the white elm justly holds its place as one of the most desirable shade trees. the rock or cork elm, _ulmus thomasi_ sarg., is found occasionally in northern illinois. its excurrent branches are very different from those of other elms. its twigs often have corky ridges and the winter buds are somewhat hairy. the winged elm, _ulmus alata_ michx., a small tree, is found in the southern part of the state. the twigs have two thin corky wings. +red or slippery elm+ _ulmus rubra_ muhl. (_ulmus fulva_ michx.) the red elm, or slippery elm, is a common tree in all sections of the state. it is found principally on the banks of streams and on low hillsides in rich soil. it is a tree of small to moderate size, but noticeably wide-spreading. it is usually less than feet in height and inches in diameter although trees of larger dimensions are occasionally found. [illustration: slippery elm twig, one-half natural size. leaf, one-half natural size.] the _bark_ on the trunk is frequently one inch thick, dark grayish-brown, and broken by shallow fissures into flat ridges. the inner bark is used to some extent for medical purposes, as it is fragrant and when chewed, affords a slippery, mucilaginous substance, whence the tree gets its name. the _winter buds_ are large and conspicuously rusty-hairy. the _leaves_ are simple, alternate on the stem, to inches in length, sharp pointed, their bases unsymmetrical, doubly-toothed on the edges, thick, dark green, and rough on both sides. the _fruit_ consists of a seed surrounded by a thin, broad, greenish wing, about one-half an inch in diameter; the _flowers_ appear in early spring and the fruit ripens when the leaves are about half-grown. the _wood_ is close-grained, tough, strong, heavy, hard, moderately durable in contact with the soil. it is used for fence posts, crossties, agricultural implements, ribs for small boats and for some other purposes. the water elm, _planera aquatica_ gmel., is a small tree with slender branches forming a low broad head and is found in swamps in the valley of the wabash river in this state. it reaches its best development in arkansas and louisiana. it has dull green leaves inches long and inch wide. the fruit is an oblong, dark brown drupe. +hackberry+ _celtis occidentalis_ l. the rough-leaved hackberry is found sparsely throughout the state. it occurs most abundantly and of greatest size in the rich alluvial lands in the lower part of the state, but thrives, however, on various types of soil, from the poorest to the richest. it is usually a medium-sized tree from to feet high and to inches in diameter, but trees feet in diameter are found in the wabash bottoms in southern illinois. its limbs are often crooked and angular and bear a head made of slender, pendant branches or short, bristly, stubby twigs. in the open the crown is generally very symmetrical. it makes an excellent shade tree. [illustration: hackberry leaf, one-third natural size. twig, one-half natural size.] the _bark_ is grayish and generally rough with scale-like or warty projections of dead bark. in some instances the bark is smooth enough on the limbs to resemble that of the beech. the _leaves_ are simple, ovate, alternate, one-sided, to inches long, the edges toothed towards the long point. the _flowers_ are inconspicuous, and the two kinds are borne on the same tree. they appear in april or may, and are of a creamy, greenish color. the _fruit_ is a round, somewhat oblong drupe, or berry, from / to / of an inch in diameter. it has a thin, purplish skin, and sweet, yellowish flesh. from this characteristic it is sometimes called sugarberry. the berries frequently hang on the tree most of the winter. the _wood_ is heavy, rather soft, weak, and decays readily when exposed. it is used chiefly for fuel, but occasionally for lumber and railroad ties which are given preservative treatment. the southern hackberry, _celtis leavigata_ willd., having narrow leaves, is found occasionally along the streams in southern illinois. the fruit hangs from the axils of the leaves on slender stems. it is orange-red in color, changing to purple-black as it matures. +osage orange+ _maclura pomifera_ schneid. the osage orange, hedge apple, or mock orange, although not a native of illinois, is found distributed throughout the state, but does not as a rule occur as a forest tree. it grows chiefly in open fields along fence rows, and as a pure hedge fence. occasionally it reaches a height of feet and a diameter of inches, but more usually it is found from to feet in height and from to inches in diameter. this tree is sometimes used for shade, but mostly for hedges, and as living fence posts. the _bark_ is thin, gray, sometimes tinged with yellow, and on old trees divided into strips or flakes. the bark of the root is used as a yellow dye; that of the trunk has been used for tanning leather. [illustration: osage orange leaf and fruit, one-quarter natural size. twig, two-thirds natural size.] the _leaves_ are deciduous, with milky sap and producing stout axillary thorns. they are green on the upper surface, to inches long and to inches wide, and turn bright yellow in the autumn. the yellowish _flowers_ appear in may. they are of two kinds on the same tree--the staminate flowers in a linear cluster and the pistillate flowers in a rounded ball. the _fruit_ is globular, from to inches in diameter, somewhat resembling a very rough green orange. the _wood_ is heavy, exceedingly hard, very strong and very durable in contact with the soil. the heartwood is bright orange in color, turning brown upon exposure. the indians called it "bois d'arc", or bow-wood, and used it for their finest bows. it does not shrink with weather changes. it is largely used for posts; sometimes for wheel-stock, lumber and fuel. +red mulberry+ _morus rubra_ l. the red mulberry occurs throughout the state. it prefers the rich, moist soils of the lower and middle districts, but it is nowhere abundant. it is a small tree, rarely feet high and feet in diameter, often growing in the shade of larger trees. [illustration: red mulberry twig, two-thirds natural size. leaf, one-third natural size.] the _bark_ is rather thin, dark reddish-brown, peeling off in long narrow flakes. the _leaves_ are alternate, thin, rounded or somewhat heart-shaped, toothed, pointed, to inches long, rough hairy above and soft hairy beneath. often some of the leaves, especially on the young trees and thrifty shoots, are mitten-shaped or variously lobed. the _flowers_ are of two kinds, on the same or different trees, in drooping catkins. the catkins of the staminate flowers are about inches long; the spikes of the pistillate flowers are about half as long and stand on short stalks. the _fruit_ is dark red or black, and resembles a blackberry; however, a stalk extends through it centrally, and it is longer and narrower. the fruit is sweet and edible and greatly relished by birds and various animals. the _wood_ is rather light, soft, not strong, light orange-yellow, very durable in contact with the soil. it is chiefly used for fence posts. the tree might be planted for this purpose and to furnish food for birds. the white mulberry, _morus alba_ l., is a native of china, where its leaves are the chief food of the silkworm. several varieties are planted for ornamental purposes. its leaves are broad and smooth; its fruit is long, white, sweet, and insipid. a variety, under the name of the russian mulberry, _morus alba_ var. _tatarica_ loudon, has been introduced into this country and has been cultivated for its fruit. this fruit varies from creamy white to violet and almost black. +cucumber magnolia+ _magnolia acuminata_ l. the cucumber magnolia attains an average height of to feet and a diameter of to feet. it occurs singly among other hardwood trees throughout the richer, cooler north slopes and bottom lands of southern illinois, in union, johnson, pope, alexander and pulaski counties. [illustration: cucumber magnolia leaf, one-third natural size. twig, two-thirds natural size.] the _bark_ is aromatic and bitter; that of the young twigs is a lustrous red-brown, while the bark of the trunk is rather thin, dark brown, furrowed and broken into thin scales. the _leaves_ are alternate, oblong, short-pointed, rounded at the base, silky, hairy when unfolding, later smooth or slightly silky, to inches long, to inches wide, often with wavy edges, dark green above, lighter beneath. the _flowers_ are single, large--though smaller than those of the other magnolias-- - / to inches long. the six upright petals are whitish-green tinged with yellow. the _fruit_ is a smooth, dark red, often crooked "cone", - / to inches long, somewhat resembling, when green, a small cucumber. the seeds are / inch long, and covered with a pulpy, scarlet coat, which attracts the birds, particularly as the seeds hang by thin cords from the opening "cones." the _wood_ is light, soft, close-grained, durable, of a light yellow-brown color and is used for the same purposes as yellow poplar. it is quite desirable for roadside and ornamental planting. +tulip tree+ _liriodendron tulipifera_ l. the tulip tree, tulip poplar, is one of the tallest trees in the state with its straight trunk rising to a height of feet. it is one of the largest and most valuable hardwood trees of the united states. it reaches its largest size in the deep moist soils along streams and in the cool ravines of southern illinois. vermilion county on the east and randolph on the west side of the state represent its northern limit. as more commonly seen, it has a height of to feet and a diameter of to feet. growing with a straight central trunk like the pines, and often clear of limbs for to feet, it has a narrow pyramidal head which in older age becomes more spreading. the tree has been extensively cut, but is reproducing rapidly and remains one of the most abundant and valuable trees in our young second-growth forests. it has been planted as an ornamental and shade tree. [illustration: tulip tree leaf, one-third natural size. twig, two-thirds natural size.] the _leaves_ are simple, to inches in length and breadth, -lobed, dark green in summer, turning to a clear yellow in fall. the greenish-yellow tulip-shaped _flowers_ appear in may or june. the _fruit_ is a narrow light brown, upright cone, to inches long, made up of seeds, each enclosed in a hard bony coat and provided with a wing which makes it easily carried by the wind. the _wood_ is light, soft, easily worked, light yellow or brown, with wide cream-colored sapwood. it is extensively cut into lumber for interior and exterior trim, vehicle bodies, veneers, turnery and other high-grade uses. it is marketed under the name yellow poplar, because of the yellow color of the heartwood. the tulip tree transplants easily, grows rapidly and forms a tall stem. it is one of the best trees for forest planting on good moist soil. it can be recommended for roadside planting because it grows tall and has a deep root system. where conditions of life are not too severe, it may be used for shade tree planting. +papaw+ _asimina triloba_ dunal the papaw, which grows as a small tree or large shrub, is very well known throughout the state, except in the northern parts, and is sometimes called the "wild banana" tree. most commonly it occurs as an undergrowth in the shade of rich forests of the larger hardwood trees. its range extends from new york westward to iowa and southward to florida and eastern texas. when growing alone, however, it forms dense clumps on deep, moist soils in creek bottoms. the _bark_ is thin, dark grayish-brown, and smooth, or slightly fissured on old trees. [illustration: papaw leaf, one-quarter natural size. twig, two-thirds natural size.] the _leaves_ are alternate on the stem, pear-shaped with pointed ends and tapering bases, smooth and light green above, from to inches long, clustered toward the ends of the branches. the dark purple, attractive _flowers_ appear with the leaves singly or in two's along the branch, measure nearly inches across, and produce nectar which attracts the bees. when thoroughly ripe, the _fruit_ is delicious and nutritious. it measures from to inches in length, turns from greenish-yellow to very dark brown in color, and holds rounded or elongated seeds which separate readily from the pulp. the _wood_ is light, soft or spongy, and weak, greenish to yellowish in color, and of no commercial importance. because of its handsome foliage, attractive flowers and curious fruit, the papaw has been much used in ornamental planting. +sassafras+ _sassafras albidum_ nees. the sassafras is an aromatic tree, usually not over feet in height or a foot in diameter in illinois. it is common throughout the state on dry soils as far north as la salle county, and is one of the first broad-leaf trees to come up on abandoned fields, where the seeds are dropped by birds. its range extends from maine, southern ontario to iowa and south to florida and west to texas. in parts of its range it attains large size. [illustration: sassafras twig, one-half natural size. leaf, one-third natural size.] the _bark_ of the trunk is thick, red-brown and deeply furrowed and that of the twigs is bright green. the _leaves_ are very characteristic. it is one of the few trees having leaves of widely different shape on the same tree, or even on the same twig. some are oval and entire, to inches long; others have one lobe, resembling the thumb on a mitten; while still others are divided at the outer end into distinct lobes. the young leaves and twigs are quite mucilaginous. the _flowers_ are clustered, greenish, yellow, and open with the first unfolding of the leaves. the staminate and pistillate flowers are usually on different trees. the _fruit_ is an oblong, dark blue or black, lustrous berry, containing one seed and surrounded at the base by what appears to be a small orange-red or scarlet cup at the end of a scarlet stalk. the _wood_ is light, soft, weak, brittle, and durable in the soil; the heartwood is dull orange-brown. it is used for posts, rails, boat building, cooperage and for ox-yokes. the bark of the roots yields the very aromatic oil of sassafras much used for flavoring candies and various commercial products. the sassafras deserves more consideration than it has received as a shade and ornamental tree. the autumnal coloring of its foliage is scarcely surpassed by any tree, and it is very free from insect pests. +sweet gum+ _liquidambar styraciflua_ l. the sweet or red gum is a very common tree on low lands in southern illinois, but it is seldom found north of jackson county in the west or north of richland in the east. it is usually abundant in old fields or in cut-over woods. the _bark_ is a light gray, roughened by corky scales, later becoming deeply furrowed. after the second year the twigs often develop to corky projections of the bark, which give them a winged appearance. [illustration: sweet gum leaf, one-third natural size. twig, two-thirds natural size.] the simple, alternate star-shaped _leaf_, with its to points or lobes, is to inches across and very aromatic. in the fall its coloring is brilliant, ranging from pale yellow through orange and red to a deep bronze. the _flowers_ are of two kinds on the same tree, unfolding with the leaves. the _fruit_ at first glance reminds one of the balls of the sycamore, but on closer inspection proves to be a head. it measures an inch or more in diameter and is made up of many capsules with projecting spines. it frequently hangs on the tree by its long swinging stem late into the winter. the _wood_ is heavy, moderately hard, close-grained, and not durable on exposure. the reddish-brown heartwood, which suggests the name, red gum, is not present to any appreciable extent in logs under inches in diameter. in the south, the wood is extensively used for flooring, interior finish, paper pulp and veneers for baskets of all kinds. veneers of the heartwood are largely used in furniture, sometimes as imitation mahogany or circassian walnut. this tree should be more widely planted for ornamental use. +sycamore+ _platanus occidentalis_ l. the sycamore, also called buttonwood, is considered the largest hardwood tree in north america. it occurs throughout the state, but is most abundant and reaches its largest size along streams and on rich bottom lands. it is one of the more rapidly-growing trees. in maturity it occasionally attains a height of to feet and a diameter of to feet. it often forks into several large secondary trunks, and the massive spreading limbs form an open head sometimes feet across. [illustration: sycamore leaf, one-third natural size. twig, one-half natural size.] the _bark_ of the sycamore is a characteristic feature. on the younger trunk and large limbs it is very smooth, greenish-gray in color. the outer bark yearly flakes off in large patches and exposes the nearly white younger bark. near the base of the old trees the bark becomes thick, dark brown and divided by deep furrows. the _flowers_ are very small and arranged in dense globular green heads. the _leaves_ are simple, alternate, to inches long and about as broad, light green and smooth above, and paler below. the base of the leafstalk is hollow and in falling off exposes the winter bud. the _fruit_ is a ball about inch in diameter, conspicuous throughout the winter as it hangs on its flexible stem, which is to inches long. during early spring, the fruit ball breaks up, and the small seeds are widely scattered by the wind. the _wood_ is hard and moderately strong, but decays rapidly in the ground. it is used for butchers' blocks, tobacco boxes, furniture and interior finish. the tree grows rapidly, bears transplanting well and is often planted as a shade tree. the european sycamore or london plane tree, _platanus acerifolia_ willd., is less subject to disease than our native species and has been widely planted in this country for ornament and shade. the leaves are more deeply lobed than our sycamore and there are two or three fruit balls on each stem. +wild crab apple+ _malus ioensis_ britton the wild crab apple, or prairie crab, is found throughout illinois forming small trees to feet high with trunks from to inches in diameter. in the open it develops a broad open crown with rigid, contorted branches bearing many short, spur-like branchlets, some of which develop into sharp rigid thorns. under less favorable conditions, these crab apples often form bushy shrubs. [illustration: wild crab apple flower, fruit and leaves one-half natural size.] the _bark_ on the branches is smooth, thin and red-brown in color, while on the trunk the thicker bark often breaks into scales. the twigs are at first hoary-hairy, but soon become smooth and reddish. the _leaves_ are alternate, simple, to inches long and almost as broad. they are sometimes slightly lobed and sharply and deeply toothed. they are dark green and shiny above, but pale and hairy beneath, borne on stout, hairy petioles. the _flowers_, which are from one to two inches broad, are borne in clusters of to , on wooly pedicels about an inch long. the white or rosy petals form a cup which surrounds the numerous stamens and the five styles. the calyx is pubescent. the _fruit_ ripens in october, forming a globose, pale green, very fragrant apple with a waxy surface. it is about an inch in diameter, flattened at each end. like the other crabs, its handsome flowers have a delicious fragrance which makes the tree popular for planting for ornamental purposes. the fruit is sometimes gathered for jelly. the _wood_ is heavy, close-grained and reddish-brown. the wild sweet crab, _malus coronaria_ mill., differs from the above in having more nearly smooth leaves and calyx. it is rarely found in illinois but is common in ohio. a cultivated variety, _malus ioensis plena_ rheder, is sold under the name of bechtel's crab, and has large, double, rosy-pink blossoms. +service berry+ _amelanchier arborea_ (michx. f.) fern. (_amelanchier canadensis_ medic.) the downy service berry, or shadblow, as it is more commonly called in the east, has little economic importance except for its frequency throughout the state and the touch of beauty its flowers give to our forests early in the spring before the foliage has come out. it is a small tree to feet high and seldom over inches in diameter, with a rather narrow, rounded top but is often little more than shrub. the name shadblow was given by the early settlers who noticed that it blossomed when the shad were running up the streams. [illustration: service berry one-half natural size.] the _bark_ is smooth and light gray, and shallowly fissured into scaly ridges. the _winter buds_ are long and slender. the _leaves_ are alternate, slender-stalked, ovate, pointed, finely toothed, to inches long, densely white-hairy when young, then becoming a light green, and covered with scattered silky hairs. the white _flowers_ appear in erect or drooping clusters in early spring, before the leaves, making the tree quite conspicuous in the leafless or budding forest. the petals are slender and rather more than a half inch long. the _fruit_ is sweet, edible, rounded, reddish-purple when ripe, / to / an inch in diameter, ripening early in june. birds and denizens of the forest are very fond of the berries. the _wood_ is heavy, exceedingly hard, strong, close-grained and dark brown. it is occasionally used for handles. this is a desirable ornamental tree and should be planted for this purpose and to encourage the birds. the smooth service berry, _amelanchier leavis_ wieg., differs from the above species in having smooth leaves, dark green and slightly glaucous when mature, and they are half grown at flowering time. the fruit is sweet, purple or nearly black, glaucous and edible. +cock-spur thorn+ _crataegus crus-galli_ l. the hawthorns, or thorn-apples, are small trees or shrubs of the apple family which are widely distributed throughout the northeastern united states, with fewer species in the south and west. in north america, no less than species have been distinguished, but their proper identification is a task for the expert. there are about a dozen haws that reach tree size in illinois, attaining a height of to feet and a stem diameter of to inches. of these, perhaps the best known is the cock-spur thorn with its many strong straight spines and shining leaves. its _bark_ is pale gray and scaly. its _winter buds_ are small, globose and lustrous brown. [illustration: cock-spur thorn flowers and fruit one-half natural size.] the _leaves_ are conspicuous because of their dark green glossy surface. they are broadest toward the apex tapering to the short petiole. they vary in size in different localities, the smaller-leaved varieties seem to be more frequently met with in the southern part of the state than in the north. these leaves are alternate, wedge-shaped, notched on the edges, and from to inches long. the _flowers_ are rather small, arranged in flat-topped clusters, white in color, with about a dozen pink stamens. the _fruit_ is / inch thick, greenish-red; the flesh is hard and dry. this haw is one of the best for planting for ornamental purposes; with its spreading branches, it forms a broad, rounded crown. it is hardy and succeeds in a great variety of soils. the dotted hawthorn, _crataegus punctata_ jacq., also has wedge-shaped leaves but they are leathery, dull gray-green in color with conspicuous veins. the tree reaches a height of feet with distinctly horizontal branches forming a broad flat crown. it is often almost without thorns. the fruit is oblong, dull red with pale dots, becoming mellow. the pear-thorn, _crataegus calpodendron_ med., is a smaller tree, with broader leaves, very few thorns and pear-shaped fruit. the haw is scarlet or orange-red, the flesh is thin and sweet. +red haw+ _crataegus mollis_ scheele like almost all the hawthorns, the red haw is a tree of the pasture lands, the roadside, the open woods and the stream banks. it is the largest of our haws, occasionally reaching a height of feet, with ascending branches usually forming a low conical crown. the twigs are hairy during the first season, but are soon smooth, slender, nearly unarmed or occasionally armed with stout, curved thorns. [illustration: red haw flowers one-half natural size.] the _leaves_ are ovate or nearly orbicular, coarsely toothed nearly to the base, usually to pairs of broad, shallow lobes. both surfaces are hairy. the _flowers_ are often nearly an inch across, in compact clusters. they have about cream-colored, densely hairy stamens. the _fruit_, or the haw, is large, nearly / inch across, bright crimson or scarlet in color. the edible sweet flesh is firm but mellow, surrounding bony seeds. it is often used for making jelly. the _wood_ is strong, tough, heavy and hard, and is used for mallets, tool handles and such small articles. the washington thorn, _crataegus phaenopyrum_ med., is a smaller tree, with bright red fruit, but its broad leaves are smooth and bright green. the flowers are small, in very large clusters, followed by small bright scarlet edible haws. in the southern half of illinois, growing on moist river bottoms, the green haw, _crataegus viridis_ l., becomes a tree feet tall. the broad leaves are dark green and quite smooth. the fruit is small but produced in large clusters becoming bright red or orange-red as it ripens. +wild plum+ _prunus americana_ marsh. the common wild plum, or yellow plum, is a small tree which at a height usually of to feet divides into many spreading branches, often drooping at the ends. not uncommonly it grows in thickets where it attains only large shrub size. the value of the tree lies in its fruit from which jelly and preserves are made, and its handsome form, and foliage, pure white fragrant flowers, and showy fruit which make it desirable for ornamental planting. [illustration: wild plum three-quarters natural size.] the _leaves_ are alternate, oval, pointed, sharply toothed, (often doubly toothed) along the margin, thick and firm, to inches long by to inches wide, narrowed or rounded at the base, and prominently veined on both surfaces. the _flowers_ appear in numerous small clusters before, or simultaneously with, the leaves, and are white with small bright red portions in the center. the _fruit_, or plum, which ripens in late summer, is red or orange colored, about an inch in diameter, contains a stone or pit that is flattened and about as long as the pulpy part, and varies rather widely in its palatability. the _wood_ is heavy, hard, close-grained, reddish-brown in color and has no especial commercial uses. the canada plum, _prunus nigra_ ait., is similar to the common wild plum, but the teeth of the leaves are blunt, the leaves are thin and the fruit is orange in color, almost without bloom. the wild goose plum, _prunus hortulana_ bailey, has thin lance-shaped leaves; its flowers have short petals and it has a rather hard, small globular fruit. +black cherry+ _prunus serotina_ ehrh. a common tree in illinois and attaining sizes up to about feet in height and to feet in diameter, black cherry as a tree is found all over the state. the forest-grown trees have long clear trunks with little taper; open-grown trees have spreading crowns. the _bark_ on branches and young trees is smooth and bright reddish-brown, marked by conspicuous, narrow white, horizontal lines, and has a bitter-almond taste. on the older trunks the bark becomes rough and broken into thick, irregular plates. [illustration: black cherry twig, two-thirds natural size. leaf, one-third natural size.] the _leaves_ are alternate, simple, oval to lance-like in shape, with edges broken by many fine incurved teeth, thick and shiny above, and paler beneath. the _fruit_ is dull purplish-black, about as large as a pea, and is borne in long hanging clusters. it ripens in late summer, and is edible, although it has a slightly bitter taste. the _wood_ is reddish-brown with yellowish sapwood, moderately heavy, hard, strong, fine-grained, and does not warp or split in seasoning. it is valuable for its lustre and color and is used for furniture, interior finish, tools, and implement handles. with the exception of black walnut, black cherry lumber has a greater unit value than any other hardwood of the eastern united states. the wild cherry, _prunus pennsylvanica_ l., is a small tree, growing on light soils, in the northern part of the state. the bark is a dark reddish-brown; the leaves are lance-shaped bright green and shiny above, while the fruit is round and bright red in color. the choke cherry, _prunus virginiana_ l., is common along fences and under larger trees in the forest in the northern half of the state. it seldom becomes a tree but it bears a fruit which is sweet but very astringent and is dark purple when ripe. +honey locust+ _gleditsia triacanthos_ l. the honey locust occurs scattered throughout the state. it grows under a wide variety of soil and moisture conditions. it sometimes occurs in the forest, but more commonly in corners and waste places beside roads and fields. it reaches a diameter of inches and a height of feet. the _bark_ on old trees is dark gray and is divided into thin tight scales. the strong thorns--straight, brown, branched, sharp and shiny which grow on the -year-old wood and remain for many years--are sufficient to identify the honey locust. [illustration: honey locust twig, three-quarters natural size. leaf, one-quarter natural size.] the _leaf_ is pinnate, or feather-like with to leaflets; or it is twice-pinnate, consisting of to pairs of pinnae or secondary leaflets, each to inches long and somewhat resembling the leaf of the black locust. the _flowers_ which appear when the leaves are nearly full-grown are inconspicuous, greenish-yellow and rich in honey. the petals vary from to , the stamens are to and the ovary is wooly and one-celled. the _fruit_ is a pod, to inches long, often twisted, to - / inches wide, flat, dark brown or black when ripe and containing yellow sweetish pulp and seeds. the seeds are very hard and each is separated from the others by the pulp. the pods are eaten by many animals, and as the seeds are hard to digest, many are thus widely scattered from the parent tree. the _wood_ is coarse-grained, hard, strong and moderately durable in contact with the ground. it is used for fence posts and crossties. it should not be confused with the very durable wood of the black locust. the water locust, _gleditsia aquatica_ marsh., is found in river bottoms in southern illinois, becoming a medium sized tree. it may be known by its short pods, to inches long, with only or seeds. +redbud+ _cercis canadensis_ l. the redbud is a small tree occurring under taller trees or on the borders of fields or hillsides and in valleys throughout the state. it ordinarily attains a height of to feet and a diameter of to inches. its stout branches usually form a wide flat head. [illustration: redbud leaf, one-fourth natural size. twig, and flowers, two-thirds natural size.] the _bark_ is bright red-brown, the long narrow plates separating into thin scales. the _leaves_ are alternate, heart-shaped, entire to inches long and wide, glossy green turning in autumn to a bright clear yellow. the conspicuous bright purplish-red, pea-shaped _flowers_ are in clusters along the twigs and small branches and appear before or with the leaves in early spring. the _fruit_ is an oblong, flattened, many seeded pod, to inches long, reddish during the summer, and often hanging on the tree most of the winter. the _wood_ is heavy, hard, not strong, rich, dark brown in color, and of little commercial importance. the redbud is cultivated as an ornamental tree and for that purpose might be planted more generally in this state. the kentucky coffee-tree, _gymnocladus dioicus_ k. koch, though not anywhere a common tree, is found on rich bottom lands throughout the state. the much-divided leaves are to feet long. the pods are to inches long and to inches wide and contain hard seeds / inch long. it has few qualities to recommend it for ornamental planting. +black locust+ _robinia pseudoacacia_ l. the black locust is a native to the appalachian mountains but has been introduced into illinois, and now occurs throughout the entire state growing on all soils and under all conditions of moisture except in swamps. it is found generally in thickets on clay banks and waste places or along fence rows. [illustration: black locust leaf, one-third natural size. twig and flower, two-thirds natural size.] the twigs and branchlets are armed with straight or slightly curved sharp, strong spines, sometimes as much as inch in length which remain attached to the outer bark for many years. the _bark_ is dark brown and divides into strips as the tree grows older. the _leaves_ are pinnate, or featherlike, from to inches in length, consisting of from to oblong thin leaflets. the _flowers_ are fragrant, white or cream-colored, and appear in early spring in graceful pendent racemes. the _fruit_ is a pod from to inches long containing to small hard seeds which ripen late in the fall. the pod splits open during the winter, discharging the seeds. some seeds usually remain attached to each half of the pod; the pod thus acts as a wing upon which the seeds are borne to considerable distances before the strong spring winds. the _wood_ is yellow in color, coarse-grained, very heavy, very hard, strong, and very durable in contact with the soil. it is used extensively for fence posts, poles, tree nails, insulator pins and occasionally for lumber and fuel. the tree is very rapid in growth in youth but short-lived. it spreads by underground shoots and is useful for holding and reclaiming badly gullied lands. the usefulness of the black locust is, however, very greatly limited by the fact that it is subject to great damage from an insect known as the locust borer. +tree of heaven+ _ailanthus altissima_ swingle this tree is a native of china but planted in illinois because of its tropical foliage. it has escaped and become naturalized. it is a handsome, rapid-growing, short-lived tree, attaining a height of to feet, and a trunk diameter of to feet. its crown is spreading, rather loose and open. the twigs are smooth and thick with a large reddish-brown pith. the _winter buds_ are small, globular and hairy, placed just above the large leaf-scars. [illustration: tree of heaven twig, one-half natural size. leaf and fruit, one-fourth natural size.] the _leaves_ are alternate, pinnately compound and one to three feet long. the leaflets number from to , are smooth, dark green above, paler beneath, turning a clear yellow in autumn. the _flowers_ appear soon after the leaves are full grown, on different trees, borne in large upright panicles. they are small yellow-green in color with petals and stamens. the staminate flowers have a disagreeable odor. the _fruit_, ripening in october but remaining on the tree during the winter, is a one-seeded samara, spirally twisted, borne in crowded clusters. the tree of heaven is useful for landscape planting, succeeding in all kinds of soils and all kinds of growing conditions. it makes a rapid showing and is practically free from all diseases and insect injury. +smooth sumac+ _rhus glabra_ l. the smooth sumac is usually a tall shrub but occasionally it develops as a tree to feet tall with a trunk diameter of to inches. a few large spreading branches form a broad, flat, open head. the twigs are smooth and glabrous and have a thick, light brown pith with small round winter buds. [illustration: smooth sumac twig, one-half natural size. leaf and fruit, one-fourth natural size.] the compound _leaves_ are to inches long, composed of to leaflets with sharply notched margins. they are dark green above, whitish beneath, changing to red, purple and yellow early in the autumn. the _flowers_ are small and green, produced in dense terminal panicles. the _fruit_ is a small globose berry, covered with crimson hairs and has a pleasant acid taste. the conspicuous deep red panicles of fruit remain unchanged on the tree during the winter. the _wood_ is light and of a golden yellow color. either as a tree, or as a shrub, the smooth sumac is excellent for ornamental planting, being particularly desirable on terraces or hillsides, where mass effects are desired. it transplants very readily and spreads freely. the staghorn sumac, _rhus typhina_ l., is a slightly taller tree, as it reaches a height of to feet, and a stem diameter of to inches. the twigs and leaves are similar to those of the smooth sumac but are conspicuously hairy. its occurrence is limited to the northern part of the state. the shining sumac, _rhus copallina_ l., usually occurs in shrub form but it occasionally reaches a height of feet with a stem diameter of inches. the leaves are smooth above but somewhat hairy beneath with a winged rachis and about to leaflets that are slightly toothed. late in the summer its foliage turns a brilliant red. the fruit clusters are much smaller than the preceding species. it is found throughout the state. +sugar maple+ _acer saccharum_ marsh. the sugar maple is an important member of the climax forests which stretch from maine to minnesota and southward to texas and florida. it is an associate of the hemlocks and the birches in the north, with the beeches and chestnuts through the middle states, with the oaks in the west and with the tulip and the magnolias in the south. in illinois it is a common and favorite tree throughout the state. in the open it grows fairly rapidly and has a very symmetrical, dense crown, affording heavy shade. it is, therefore, quite extensively planted as a shade tree. the _bark_ on young trees is light gray and brown and rather smooth, but as the tree grows older, it breaks up into long, irregular plates or scales, which vary from light gray to almost black. the twigs are smooth and reddish-brown, and the _winter buds_ are smooth and sharp-pointed. the tree attains a height of more than feet and a diameter of feet or more. the sap yields maple sugar and maple syrup. [illustration: sugar maple leaf, one-third natural size. twig, one-half natural size.] the _leaves_ are to inches across, simple, opposite, with to pointed and sparsely-toothed lobes, the divisions between the lobes being rounded. the leaves are dark green on the upper surface, lighter green beneath, turning in autumn to brilliant shades of dark red, scarlet, orange and clear yellow. the _flowers_ are yellowish-green, on long threadlike stalks, appearing with the leaves, the two kinds in separate clusters. the _fruit_, which ripens in the fall, consists of a two-winged "samara", or "key", the two wings nearly parallel, each about inch in length and containing a seed. it is easily carried by the wind. the _wood_ is hard, heavy, strong, close-grained and light brown in color. it is known, commercially as hard maple, and is used in the manufacture of flooring, furniture, shoe-lasts and a great variety of novelties. the black maple, _acer nigrum_ michx., occurs with the sugar maple with darker bark. the leaves are usually wider than long, yellow-green and downy beneath, and the base of the petioles enlarged. the two lower lobes are very small; the lobes are undulate or entire. +silver maple+ _acer saccharinum_ l. the silver or river maple, also called the soft maple, occurs on moist land and along streams. it attains heights of feet or more and diameters of feet or over. it usually has a short trunk which divides into a number of large ascending limbs. these again subdivide, and the branches droop but turn upward at the tips. the _bark_ on the old stems is dark gray and broken into long flakes or scales; on the young shoots it is smooth and varies in color from reddish to a yellowish-gray. the silver maple grows rapidly and has been much planted as a shade tree. because of the brittleness of its wood, it is often damaged by summer storms and winter sleet. [illustration: silver maple twig, one-half natural size. leaf, one-third natural size.] the _leaves_ are opposite on the stem, have from to lobes ending in long points with toothed edges and are separated by deep angular sinuses or openings; they are pale green on the upper surface and silvery-white underneath. the buds are rounded, red or reddish-brown, blunt-pointed; generally like those of red maple. the _flowers_ appear in the spring before the leaves, in dense clusters, and are of a greenish-yellow color. the _fruit_ ripens in late spring. it consists of a pair of winged seeds or "keys" with wings to inches long on slender, flexible, threadlike stems about an inch long. the _wood_ is soft, weak, even-textured, rather brittle, easily worked, and decays readily when exposed. it is considerably used for boxboards, furniture, veneers and fuel. the red maple, or swamp maple, _acer rubrum_ l., has leaves deeply lobed with the lobes sharply toothed. the autumn color is deep red. the flowers also are red and the fruit is small reddish, maturing late in spring. +box elder+ _acer negundo_ l. the box elder is a fairly rapidly growing tree, found commonly along streams rather generally over the state. it is a tree of medium size, rarely reaching over inches in diameter and to feet in height. it has been considerably planted for shade because in good soil its growth is rapid. its limbs and branches, however, are fragile, and the tree as a whole is rather subject to disease. it is not long-lived or generally satisfactory for any purpose. it is prolific in reproduction but is largely destroyed by grazing and cultivation. [illustration: box elder twig, two-thirds natural size. leaf, one-third natural size.] the _bark_ on young branches is smooth and green to purple in color; on old trees it is thin, grayish to light brown and deeply divided. the _leaves_ are compound, with usually leaflets (rarely or ), opposite, smooth and lustrous, green, and borne on a leaf stem or petiole to inches long. the leaflets are to inches long by to inches wide, making the whole leaf to inches in length. the _fruit_ is a samara, or key, winged similarly to that of a sugar maple, but smaller. it ripens in late summer or early fall, and so is like its close relative, the sugar maple, but unlike its close relatives, the red maple and silver maple. the _wood_ is soft, light, weak, close-grained and decays readily in contact with heat and moisture. it is used occasionally for fuel. the norway maple, _acer platanoides_ l., is a european species which has been extensively planted. it forms a round, spreading crown of stout branches with coarse twigs. the leaves resemble those of the sugar maple but somewhat broader and the petioles exude a milky juice when cut. the flowers are larger than those of our native maples and fruit is large with diverging wings. it holds its leaves longer in the fall and the autumn coloring is pale yellow. it succeeds well as a city shade tree. +ohio buckeye+ _aesculus glabra_ willd. the buckeye is rare in the northern fourth of illinois, but is known in the rest of the state, forming no considerable part of the forest stand. it reaches a height of to feet and a diameter of to inches. the trunk is usually short, limby, and knotty. the crown or head, is generally open and made up of small spreading branches and twigs orange-brown to reddish-brown in color. the _bark_ is light gray and, on old trees, divided or broken into flat scales, which make the stem of the tree rough; the bark is ill-smelling when bruised. [illustration: ohio buckeye twig, two-thirds natural size. nut, one-third natural size. leaf, one-quarter natural size.] the _leaves_ are opposite on the twigs, compound and consisting of long-oval, rarely , pointed, toothed, yellow-green leaflets, set like the fingers of a hand at the top of slender petioles to inches long. they usually turn yellow and then fall early in the autumn. the _flowers_ appear after the leaves unfold; are cream-colored; in terminal panicles to inches long and to inches broad, quite downy. the _fruit_ is a thick, leathery, prickly capsule about an inch in diameter, and, breaking into or valves, discloses the bright, shiny, mahogany colored seeds, or nuts. the _wood_ is light, soft and weak, and decays rapidly when exposed. it is used for woodenware, artificial limbs, paper pulp, and for lumber and fuel. the horse-chestnut, _aesculus hippocastanum_ l., is a handsome european tree with a very symmetrical crown. the flowers are larger than those of our native species and add beauty to the foliage. it forms a desirable shade tree. +basswood+ _tilia americana_ l. the basswood, or american linden, is a rather tall tree with a broad, round-topped crown. it ranges throughout illinois and may be found wherever rich, wooded slopes, moist stream banks and cool ravines occur. it grows best in river bottoms, where it is common and forms a valuable timber tree, attaining a height of feet and a diameter of feet. the _bark_ is light brown, deeply furrowed and the inner bark furnishes bast for making mats. [illustration: basswood leaf, one-third natural size. twig, one-half natural size.] the _leaves_ are broadly heart-shaped, to inches long, coarsely saw-toothed, smooth on both sides, except for some hairs on the axils of the veins. they are dark above but light green beneath. the _flowers_ are yellowish-white, in drooping clusters opening in early summer, and flower stem is united to the middle of a long narrow leaf-like bract. they are very fragrant and from them the bees make a large amount of choice grade honey. the _fruit_ is a berry-like, dry, or seeded, rounded nutlet / to / an inch in diameter, covered with short, thick and brownish wool. it remains attached in clusters to the leafy bract, which later acts as a wing to bear it away on the wind. the _wood_ is light, soft, tough, not durable, light brown in color. it is used in the manufacture of pulp, woodenware, furniture, trunks, excelsior and many other articles. it makes a fine shade tree, grows rapidly and is easily transplanted. the white basswood, _tilia heterophylla_ vent., is similar to the preceding species, but with somewhat lighter bark. the leaves are larger, dark yellow-green above, the under surface being generally densely covered with short, silvery or gray hairs with tufts of brown hairs in the axils of the veins. it is more plentiful in the southern part of the state. +flowering dogwood+ _cornus florida_ l. the flowering dogwood is rare in the northern third of the state. it is a small tree, growing under the larger forest trees, usually to feet in height and to inches in diameter, with a rather flat and spreading crown and short, often crooked trunk. the _bark_ is reddish-brown to black and broken up into small -sided scaly blocks. [illustration: flowering dogwood leaf and flowers, one-half natural size. twig, two-thirds natural size.] the _leaves_ are opposite, ovate, to inches long, to inches wide, pointed, entire or wavy on the margin, bright green above, pale green or grayish beneath. the _flowers_, which unfold from the conspicuous round, grayish, winter flower buds before the leaves come out, are small greenish-yellow, arranged in dense heads surrounded by large white or rarely pinkish petal-like bracts, which give the appearance of large spreading flowers to inches across. the _fruit_ is a bright scarlet "berry", / inch long and containing a hard nutlet in which are or seeds. usually several fruits, or "berries", are contained in one head. they are relished by birds, squirrels and other animals. the _wood_ is hard, heavy, strong, very close-grained, brown to red in color. it is in great demand for cotton-mill machinery, turnery handles and forms. one other tree has quite similar wood--the persimmon. the dogwood, with its masses of early spring flowers, its dark red autumn foliage and its bright red berries, is probably our most ornamental native tree. it should be used much more extensively in roadside and ornamental planting. the alternate-leaved dogwood, _cornus alternifolia_ l., occasionally reaches tree size with long slender branches arranged in irregular whorls giving the tree a storied effect. the flowers are small, followed by blue-black fruit borne in loose red-stemmed clusters. +sour gum+ _nyssa sylvatica_ marsh. the sour gum, often called black gum, is found in many types of soil and in most conditions of soil moisture in southern illinois, but it becomes rare in the northern half of the state. in lowlands, it is occasionally found in year-round swamps with cypress, and in the hills on dry slopes with oaks and hickories. [illustration: sour gum one-half natural size.] the _leaves_ are simple, to inches long, entire, often broader near the apex, shiny, dark green in color. in the fall the leaves turn a most brilliant red. the _bark_ on younger trees is furrowed between flat ridges, and gradually develops into quadrangular blocks that are dense, hard and nearly black. most of the branches are nearly horizontal. the greenish _flowers_ on long slender stems appear in early spring when the leaves are about one-third grown. they are usually of two kinds, the male in many-flowered heads and the female in two to several-flowered clusters on different trees. the _fruit_ is a dark blue, fleshy berry, / of an inch long, containing a single hard-shelled seed, and is borne on long stems, to in a cluster. the _wood_ is very tough, cross-grained, not durable in contact with the soil, hard to work, and warps easily. it is used for crate and basket veneers, box shooks, rollers, mallets, rough floors, mine trams, pulpwood and fuel. the tupelo gum, or cotton gum, _nyssa aquatica_ l., is found in deep river swamps which are flooded during a part of the year. it occurs in or of the southern counties of illinois in cypress swamps. the enlarged base and the larger fruit serve to distinguish it from the sour gum. this fruit or "plum" is about an inch long, dark purple and has a tough skin enclosing a flattened stone. the wood is light, soft, and not strong and is used for woodenware, handles, fruit and vegetable packages. +persimmon+ _diospyros virginiana_ l. the persimmon, often called "simmon", is well known throughout its range. it is a small tree, rarely exceeding feet in height and inch in diameter, occurring throughout the state from the southern part north to peoria county. it seems to prefer dry, open situations, and is most abundant in the old fields, though it also occurs on rich bottom lands. the _bark_ of old trees is almost black and separated into thick nearly square blocks, much like the black gum. [illustration: persimmon leaf, one-half natural size. twig, three-quarters natural size.] the _leaves_ are alternate, oval, entire, to inches long, dark green and shining above, paler beneath. the small _flowers_, which appear in may, are yellowish or creamy white, somewhat bell-shaped, the two kinds occurring on separate trees; the male in clusters of or , the female solitary. they are visited by many insects. the _fruit_ is a pulpy, round, orange-colored or brown berry, an inch or more in diameter and containing several flattened, hard, smooth seeds. it is strongly astringent while green, but quite sweet and delicious when thoroughly ripe. the _wood_ is hard, dense, heavy, strong, the heartwood brown or black, the wide sapwood white or yellowish. it is particularly valued for shuttles, golf-stick heads, and similar special uses, but is not of sufficient commercial use to warrant its general encouragement as a timber tree. the hercules' club, _aralia spinosa_ l., grows to tree size in southern illinois, with a spiny stem to feet tall and a flat-topped head. the doubly compound leaves are often more than feet long. its small greenish-white flowers are followed by large clusters of purple juicy berries. it is desirable for ornamental planting. +white ash+ _fraxinus americana_ l. the white ash is found throughout the state, but grows to best advantage in the rich moist soils of bottom lands. it reaches an average height of to feet and a diameter of to feet, though much larger trees are found in virgin forests. the _bark_ varies in color from a light gray to a gray-brown. the rather narrow ridges are separated with marked regularity by deep, diamond-shaped fissures. [illustration: white ash twig, one-half natural size. leaf, one-third natural size.] the opposite _leaves_ of the white ash are from to inches long and have from to plainly stalked, sharp-pointed leaflets, dark green and smooth above, pale green beneath. the _flowers_ are of two kinds on different trees, the staminate in dense reddish-purple clusters and the pistillate in more open bunches. the _fruit_ of the ash is winged, to - / inches long, resembling the blade of a canoe paddle in outline, with the seed at the handle end. the fruits mature in late summer and are distributed effectively by the winds. the _wood_ of the white ash is extremely valuable on account of its toughness and elasticity. it is preferred to all other native woods for small tool handles, such athletic implements as rackets, bats, and oars, and agricultural implements. it is also used extensively for furniture and interior finish. the green ash, _fraxinus pennsylvanica lanceolata_ sarg., is common in stream valleys throughout the state. the hairy form of this tree is known as the red ash. this species differs from the white ash in having the leaves bright green or yellow-green on both sides. the fruit has the wing portion extending well down past the middle of the seed-bearing part, and with the wing sometimes square or slightly notched at the outer end. the wood is similar to that of the white ash, but is not quite so tough. +blue ash+ _fraxinus quadrangulata_ michx. the blue ash is not very common but widely distributed in the upland portions of the state, where it is limited to limestone bluffs, occasionally descending to the adjacent bottom lands. it becomes a large tree feet or more in height with a trunk feet in diameter. the young twigs are usually square, sometimes winged or -ridged between the leaf bases. [illustration: blue ash leaf, one-third natural size. fruit and twig, two-thirds natural size.] the _bark_ is light gray tinged with red, / to / inch thick, irregularly divided into large plate-like scales. macerating the inner bark in water yields a blue dye. the _leaves_ are to inches long, having to stalked leaflets, long pointed and coarsely toothed, thick and firm, smooth and yellowish-green above, paler beneath. the _flowers_ are without petals and appear in clusters when the buds begin to expand. the _fruit_ is flattened and oblong, to inches long and less than / inch wide and usually notched at the outer end. the wing is about twice the length of the seed-bearing portion and extends down the sides past the middle. the _wood_ is heavy, hard, and close-grained, light yellow, streaked with brown, with a very broad zone of lighter sapwood. it is not usually distinguished commercially from the wood of other ashes. the pumpkin ash, _fraxinus tomentosa_ michx., grows in deep river swamps in southern illinois. it is a tall slender tree, usually with a much enlarged base. the twigs are light gray. the leaves, with to leaflets, smooth above and soft downy below, are from to inches long. the black ash, _fraxinus nigra_ marsh., appears occasionally on the flood plains in the northern part of the state. it may be known by its ashy light gray bark, its very thick twigs and sessile, long-pointed sharply serrate leaflets. +catalpa+ _catalpa speciosa_ warder this is a native to the wabash valley of illinois, but has been widely planted and has spread somewhat farther as a result of cultivation. it is a medium sized tree with a short trunk and broad head with spreading branches. because of its attractive flowers and conspicuous heart-shaped leaves, it is considerably used for shade and ornament. the _bark_ varies from dark gray to brown, slightly rough, being divided in narrow shallow strips or flakes. the _leaves_ are simple, opposite, oval, long-pointed, to inches long, and heart-shaped at the base. [illustration: catalpa leaf, one-third natural size. twig, two-thirds natural size.] the _flowers_ appear in clusters or panicles in may or june. they are white with purple and yellow markings, and this makes them decidedly showy and attractive. the _fruit_ consists of a bean-like pod, to inches long. it hangs on the tree over winter and gradually splits into parts, or valves. the seeds are about inch long and terminate in wings that are rounded and short-fringed at the ends. they are freely carried by the wind. the _wood_ is rather soft, light, coarse-grained and durable in contact with the soil. it is used for fence posts, poles and fuel, and occasionally for railroad ties. the paulownia, _paulownia tomentosa_ (thumb). steud., is a large tree native of china with the aspect of the catalpa with broad opposite leaves. its upright pyramidal clusters of pale violet flowers which appear with the unfolding of the leaves are strikingly handsome. the individual flowers are bell-shaped, two inches long and spotted with darker purple. department of conservation division of forestry the state division of forestry was organized in as a division of the department of conservation. it was organized at that time as a result of an increased need for proper forestry practices within the state on the part of the owners of timber land and potential timber lands. the objectives of the division are as follows: . to promote and assist in the reforestation of idle lands unfit for agriculture. . to prevent and control woods fires. . to control erosion by the planting of trees. . to establish state forests to act as demonstration areas in timber land management. . to assist illinois farmers, landowners, and corporations in woodland management practices. . to assist in the establishment of county and community forests. . to disseminate forestry knowledge through the publication of forestry literature. reforestation illinois has within its total land area of approximately , , acres, , , acres of land that should be reforested. these lands are lying idle at present due to the fact that they are too poor for agricultural purposes. as such they provide an economic burden to their owners and to the state because they are unproductive. these same lands will grow trees profitably, therefore, it is necessary that they be planted to trees for a future timber crop which ultimately will bring a revenue to the landowners and community. to meet this situation, the department of conservation, division of forestry has developed two large forest tree nurseries capable of producing , , trees annually for reforestation and erosion control purposes. these trees are available to farmers and landowners at prices varying from $ . to $ . per thousand, dependent upon the species of trees desired. trees secured from the state must be used only for reforestation and erosion control and cannot be used for landscape or ornamental plantings. definite progress has been made in the state reforestation program of idle lands. the first major distribution of trees took place in at which time , trees were planted in the state. since the state's reforestation program has steadily been enlarged to the extent that in , , , trees were distributed from state nurseries and in , , , trees left the division's nurseries to be planted by farmers and public agencies in the state. considerable progress has been made, however, it is hoped that the reforestation program in illinois will continue to expand until all idle lands in illinois are growing a useful timber crop. forest fire protection woodland fires in illinois always present a serious problem to the future growth and quality of our forests. thousands of dollars worth of damage is done annually to our existing woodlands by fires which not only destroy our merchantable timber but also cause severe mortality to young forest seedlings. fires seriously affect the soil, destroy wildlife and disrupt the entire biological balance of the forest. every effort should be made, therefore, to prevent woods fires. in the state division of forestry inaugurated a program in forest fire protection. since that time ten fire protection districts and a forest fire protection headquarters have been established in southern illinois. fire fighting personnel has been hired, radio communication established, and ten state forest fire towers have been erected. fire protection has been established on all state forests. necessary tools and equipment for use by both forestry personnel and volunteer groups have been purchased. as a result, , , acres of state and private land are now receiving fire protection. this program will be enlarged as funds permit until all woodland acreage in need of protection will receive necessary fire protection. our forest resources are a valuable asset to illinois and one of the most valuable renewable resources that we have. they can only be so, however, if adequate forest fire protection is afforded them. woodland management illinois' total forest acreage, when our first settlers came to the state, included , , acres of the finest timber to be found in the middle west. this represented per cent of the total acreage. although illinois today is considered strictly an agricultural state, at one time we were rich in forest resources and they were the state's most valuable asset. today illinois has but , , acres of woodlands of which % is in private ownership. the trained foresters of the division of forestry are making every effort to assist farmers and landowners in their woodland management problems. it is vitally necessary that proper forestry practices be conducted on our woodlands today in order that the landowners realize an income from their forest lands and thereby make them an asset rather than a liability. advice on woodland management is available free of charge from the division. the marketing and proper utilization of our existing forest resources is the concern of the division of forestry. approximately , small sawmills are operating in the state and, of course, much timber is needed annually to keep such mills in operation. every effort is being made to advise timber landowners as to proper cutting practices and disposal of merchantable timber. state forests the state at present has , acres in state forests. it is hoped that this acreage can be enlarged in future years as state appropriations permit. the above acreage includes three state forests located in union, mason and henderson counties. illinois state forests will always be smaller than those of other states because of the unavailability of low valued land. the division's proposed state forest plan provides for a large number of small state forests throughout the state which would serve as ideal examples of proper woodland management and reforestation practices. as funds permit these will be acquired in the future. our state forests provide ideal recreational areas at present and thousands of visitors use them annually. in addition, as the timber matures on them, they will provide a revenue from timber sales and become self-sustaining. community forests community forests are the oldest type of forest lands in public ownership. some have been in existence for years in the eastern states and records of older community forests have been found in some of the european countries. the division of forestry is cooperating with counties and communities in an effort to get a large scale community forest program in illinois. to date there are community forests having a total acreage of , acres. up to the present time , trees have been planted on these areas in cooperation with the division of forestry. nine counties in the state have county forest preserve districts at present. the ratio of ten acres for each , population within the county appears to be a fair goal for county forest preserve systems in accordance with the illinois state planning commission. on this basis counties in illinois should have forest preserves. summary as a result of increased appropriations for forestry in recent years a definite well-planned forestry program is in effect in illinois. for additional information on the division's activities, write the state forester, springfield. index of scientific names page acer negundo, nigrum, platanoides, rubrum, saccharum, saccharinum, aesculus hippocastanum, glabra, ailanthus altissima, alnus glutinosa, incana, amelanchier arborea, canadensis, laevis, aralia spinosa, asimina tribola, betula lutea, nigra, papyrifera, carpinus caroliniana, carya aquatica, , buckleyi, , cordiformis, , glabra, , illinoensis, , laciniosa, , ovalis, , ovata, , pecan, tomentosa, , castanea dentata, catalpa speciosa, celtis leavigata, occidentalis, cercis canadensis, cornus alternifolia, florida, crataegus calpodendron, crus-galli, mollis, phoenopyrum, punctata, viridis, diospyros virginiana, fagus grandifolia, fraxinus americana, nigra, pennsylvanica, quadrangulata, tomentosa, gleditsia aquatica, triacanthos, gymnocladus dioicus, juglans cinerea, nigra, juniperus virginiana, larix decidua, laricina, liquidambar styraciflua, liriodendron tulipifera, maclura pomifera, magnolia acuminata, malus coronaria, iensis, morus alba, rubra, nyssa aquatica, sylvatica, ostrya virginiana, paulownia tomentosa, picea abies, pinus banksiana, echinata, nigra, strobus, sylvestris, planera aquatica, platanus acerifolia, occidentalis, populus alba, deltoides, grandidenta, nigra, heterophylla, tacamahaca, tremuloides, prunus americana, hortulana, nigra, pennsylvanica, serotina, virginiana, quercus alba, , borealis, bicolor, , coccinea, , digitata, ellipsoidalis, , falcata, , imbricaria, , lyrata, , macrocarpa, , marilandica, , montana, muhlenbergii, , pagodaefolia, palustris, , phellos, , prinus, , rubra, , shumardii, , stellata, , velutina, , rhus copallina, glabra, typhina, robinia pseudoacacia, sassafras albidum, salix alba, amygdaloides, babylonica, nigra, fragilis, taxodium distichum, thuja occidentalis, tilia americana, heterophylla, ulmus alata, americana, fulva, rubra, thomasi, [illustration: backcover] transactions of the bose research institute, calcutta, vol. ii, life movements in plants by sir jagadis chunder bose, kt., m.a., d.sc., c.s.i., c.i.e., professor emeritus, presidency college, director, bose research institute, with illustrations calcutta bengal government press published by the bose research institute, calcutta. works by the same author. response in the living and non-living. with illustrations, vo. _s._ _d._ plant response: as a means of physiological investigation. with illustrations, vo. _s._ comparative electro-physiology. a physico-physiological study. with illustrations, vo. _s._ researches on irritability of plants. with illustrations, vo. _s._ _d._ _net_ life movements in plants, vol. i. with illustrations, vo. _s._ _d._ longmans, green & co. london, new york, bombay and calcutta. preface to volume ii. i have in the present volume dealt with the intricate phenomena of different tropisms. the movements in plants under the stimuli of the environment--the twining of tendrils, the effect of temperature, the action of light inducing movements sometimes towards and at other times away from the stimulus, the diametrically opposite responses of the shoot and the root to the same stimulus of gravity, the day and night positions of organs of plants--these, and many others present such diversities that it must have appeared a hopeless endeavour to discover any fundamental reaction applicable in all cases. it has therefore been customary to assume different sensibilities especially evolved for the advantage of the plant. but teleological argument and the use of descriptive phrases, like positive and negative tropism, offer no real explanation of the phenomena. thus to quote pfeffer "when we say that an organ curves towards a source of illumination, because of its heliotropic irritability we are simply expressing an ascertained fact in a conveniently abbreviated form, without explaining why such curvature is possible or how it is produced.... many observers have unfortunately devoted their attention to artificially classifying the phenomenon observed, and have entirely neglected the explanation of causes underlying them." he also adds that in regard to the phenomenon of growth and its variations, an empirical treatment is all that is possible in the present state of our knowledge; but deduction from results of experimental investigation "still remains the ideal of physiology, and only when this ideal has been attained, shall we be able to obtain a comprehensive view of the interacting factors at work in the living organism." in my previous work on "plant response" ( ) i described detailed investigations on irritability of plants which i carried out with highly sensitive recorders. the plant was thus made to tell its own story by means of its self-made records. the results showed that there is no specific difference in physiological reaction of different organs to justify the assumption of positive and negative irritabilities. a generalisation was obtained which gave a complete explanation of diverse movements in plants. the results were fully confirmed by an independent method of inquiry, namely that of electric response, which i have been able to elaborate so as to become a very important means of research. the investigations described in the present volume not only support the conclusions reached in my earlier works, but have led to important additions. it is evident that the range of our investigation is limited only by our power of recording the rate of plant-movement, that is to say, in the measurement of length and time. in these respects the instruments that i have been able to devise have surpassed my sanguine expectations. the resonant recorder traces time-intervals as short as a thousandth part of a second, while my balanced crescograph enables us to measure variation of rate of growth as minute as / millionth of an inch per second, the sensitiveness of this apparatus thus rivals that of the spectroscope. the increasing refinement in our experimental methods cannot but lead to important advances towards a deeper understanding of underlying reactions in the living organism. i shall here draw attention to only a few of the important results given in the present volume. the tropic effect of light has been shown to have a definite relation to the quantity of incident light. a complete tropic curve has been obtained from sub-minimal to maximal stimulation which shows the inadequacy of weber's law, for the sub-minimal stimulus induces a _qualitative_ difference in physiological reaction. it has further been shown that the prevalent idea that perception and heliotropic excitation are two distinct phenomena is without any foundation. with reference to the effect of ether waves on plants, i have given an account of my discovery of the response of all plants to wireless stimulation, the results being similar to that induced by visible light. the perceptive range of the plant is thus infinitely greater than ours; for it not only perceives, but also responds to different rays of the vast ethereal spectrum. the results obtained by the method of geo-electric response show that the responsive reaction of the root is in no way different from that of the shoot, the opposite movements being due to the fact that in the shoot the stimulation is direct, and in the root it is indirect. full description is given of the new method of physiological exploration by means of the electric probe, by which the particular layer which perceives the stimulus of gravity is definitely localised. the method of electric probe is also found to be of extended application in the detection of physiological changes in the interior of an organ. an important factor of nyctitropic movements, hitherto unsuspected, is the effect of variation of temperature on geotropic curvature. this and other co-operative factors have been fully analysed, and a satisfactory explanation has been offered of various types of diurnal movement. a generalisation has been obtained which explains all the diverse movements of plants, under all modes of stimulation: _it has been shown that direct stimulation induces contraction and retardation of growth, and that indirect stimulation induces an expansion and acceleration of growth._ another generalisation of still greater importance is the establishment of identical nature of physiological reaction in the plant and the animal, leading to advances in general physiology. thus the discovery of a method for immediate enhancement or inhibition of nervous impulse in the plant led to my success in the control of nervous impulse in the animal. another important discovery was the dual nervous impulses in plants, and i have very recently been able to establish, that the nervous impulse generated in the animal nerve by stimulus is not single, but double. the study of the responsive phenomena in plants must thus form an integral part of physiological investigation into various problems relating to the irritability of all living tissues, and without such study the investigation must in future remain incomplete. _october ._ j. c. bose. contents. part iii. tropism in plants. xxii.--the balanced crescograph. page. principle of the method of balance--compensating movement-- growth-scale--sensitiveness of the crescographic balance-- effect of co_{ }--effect of anæsthetics xxiii.--on tropic movements. complexity of the problem--contradictory nature of responses--two classes of tropic responses--longitudinal transmission of effect of stimulus--transverse transmission of effect of stimulus--modification of tropic curvature by conducting power of tissues and differential excitability of the organ xxiv.--tropic curvature with longitudinal transmission of effect of stimulus. dual impulses, positive and negative, caused by stimulus-- direct and indirect stimulus--tropic effect of indirect stimulation xxv.--tropic curvature with transverse transmission of effect of stimulus. turgor variation under transverse transmission of stimulus-effect--tropic responses of pulvinated and growing organs to unilateral stimulation--direct unilateral stimulation--indirect unilateral stimulation--difference of effects induced by direct and indirect stimulation--laws of tropic curvature xxvi.--mechanotropism: twining of tendrils. anomalies of mechanotropism--effects of indirect and direct electric stimulation on growth of tendril--effect of direct and indirect mechanical stimulus--immediate and after-effect of stimulus--inhibitory action of stimulus--response of less excitable side of the tendril--relative intensities of responses of upper and under sides of tendril of _passiflora_--negative curvature of tendril xxvii.--on galvanotropism. polar effects of electric current on growth--effect of anode and cathode on growth xxviii.--on thermonastic phenomena. effect of temperature--different thermonastic organs--two types of response: positive and negative--effect of rise of temperature and of stimulus on thermonastic organs--law of thermonastic reaction xxix.--on phototropism. complexity of problem of phototropic reaction--action of light--positive phototropic curvature of pulvinated organs--positive phototropic curvature of growing organs--phenomenon of recovery--immediate and after-effect of light on growth--latent period of phototropic reaction-- growth variation induced by flash of light from a single spark--maximum positive curvature under continued action of light xxx.--dia-phototropism and negative phototropism. differential excitability of two halves of pulvinus of _mimosa_--transformation of positive to negative curvature--tropic effect under sunlight--negative phototropism of shoot and root xxxi.--relation between the quantity of light and the induced phototropic curvature. effect of increasing intensity of light on pulvinated and growing organs--effect of increasing angle--effect of duration of exposure xxxii.--the phototropic curve and its characteristics. summation of stimulus--general consideration--the general characteristic curve--characteristics of simple phototropic curve--variation of susceptibility for excitation in different parts of the curve--effect of sub-minimal stimulus--the complete phototropic curves of pulvinated and growing organs--limitation of weber's law xxxiii.--transmitted effect of photic stimulation. effect of light applied on tip of setaria--response of growing region to unilateral stimulus--effect of simultaneous stimulation of the tip and the hypocotyl-- algebraical summation of effects of direct and indirect stimuli xxxiv.--on photonastic curvatures. phototropic response of anisotropic organs--positive para-heliotropism--negative para-heliotropism--responses of pulvinated and growing organs to light xxxv.--effect of temperature on phototropic curvature. effect of temperature on excitability--effect of temperature on conduction--phototropic response of tendrils--seasonal variation of phototropic curvature--antagonistic effects of light and of rise of temperature xxxvi.--on phototropic torsion. torsional response to light--effect of different modes of lateral stimulation--effect of differential excitability on the direction of torsion--laws of torsional response-- complex torsion under light--advantages of the method of torsional response--the torsional balance--determination of the direction of stimulus xxxvii.--radio-thermotropism. effect of infra-red radiation--positive radio-thermotropism-- dia-radio-thermotropism--negative radio-thermotropism xxxviii.--response of plants to wireless stimulation. effects of different rays of spectrum on growth--the wireless system--mechanical and electrical responses of _mimosa_ to hertzian waves--effect of wireless stimulation on growth of plants xxxix.--geotropism. direction of the stimulus of gravity--the geotropic recorder--determination of the character of geotropic reaction--theory of statoliths--determination of the latent period--the complete geotropic curve--determination of effective direction of stimulus of gravity--algebraical summation of effects of geotropic and photic stimulus-- analogy between the effects of stimulus of light and of gravity--relation between the directive angle and geotropic reaction--differential geotropic excitability xl.--geo-electric response of shoot. electric response to direct and indirect stimulation-- experimental arrangement for obtaining geo-electric response--geo-electric response of the upper and lower sides of the organ--method of axial rotation--characteristics of geo-electric response--physiological character of geo-electric response--effect of differential excitability of the organ--law determining the relation between angle of inclination and geotropic effect--method of vertical rotation--electric response through an entire cycle-- relation between angle of vertical rotation and intensity of geo-tropic reaction xli.--mechanical and electrical response of root to various stimuli. mechanical and electrical response to direct stimulation-- mechanical and electrical response to indirect stimulation-- effect of unilateral stimulation applied at the root-tip xlii.--geo-electric response of root. geo-electric response of the root-tip--electric response in the growing region of root--differential effect between the tip and the growing region--geo-perception at the root-tip xliii.--localisation of geo-perceptive layer by means of the electric probe. principle of the method of electric exploration--the electric probe--electric exploration of the geo-perceptive layer--geo-electric reaction at different depths of tissues--microscopical examination of the maximally excited layer--influence of season on geo-electric response--tests of insensitive specimens--reaction at lower side of the organ--the method of transverse perforation xliv.--on geotropic torsion. arrangement for torsional response--algebraical summation of geotropic, and phototropic effects--balance of geotropic by phototropic action--comparative balancing effects of white and red lights--effect of coal gas on photo-geotropic balance xlv.--on thermo-geotropism. necessary conditions for geotropic curvature--modifying influence of temperature on geotropic curvature--magnetic analogue--tropic equilibrium under varying intensities of stimulus--effect of variation of temperature on geotropic torsion--variation of apo-geotropic curvature under thermal change--effect of variation of temperature on dia-geotropic equilibrium part iv. night and day movements in plants. xlvi.--diurnal movements in plants. complexity of the problem--the different factors involved-- autonomous movements--epinasty and hyponasty--positive and negative thermonasty--thermo-geotropism--classification of diurnal movements--discriminating tests for classification-- diurnal variation of light and of temperature xlvii.--diurnal movement due to alternation of light and darkness. experimental arrangements--the quadruplex nyctitropic recorder--diurnal movement of the leaflet of _cassia alata_---effect of variation of temperature--effect of variation of light--diurnal movement of the terminal leaflet of _desmodium gyrans_--the 'midday sleep' xlviii.--diurnal movement due to variation of temperature affecting growth. tropic and nastic movements--distinction between thermonastic and thermo-geotropic action--diurnal movement of _nymphæa_--action of light--effect of variation of temperature xlix.--daily movement in plants due to thermo-geotropism. characteristics of thermo-geotropic movements--diurnal movement of palm trees--diurnal movement of procumbent stems and of leaves--continuous diurnal record for successive thermal noon--modification of the diurnal curve--effect of fluctuation of temperature--effect of restricted pliability of the organ--effect of age--effect of season--reversal of the normal rhythm--effect of constant temperature--diurnal movement in inverted position l.--the after-effect of light. electric after-effect of light--after-effect at pre-maximum, maximum, and post-maximum--tropic response under light, and its after-effects at pre-maximum, maximum, and post-maximum li.--the diurnal movement of the leaf of _mimosa_. four different phases in the diurnal record of _mimosa_-- different factors determining its diurnal movement--diurnal variation of geotropic torsion--autonomous pulsation of the leaf of _mimosa_--the photometric recorder--effect of direct light--the evening spasmodic fall of the leaf--diurnal movement of the amputated petiole--diurnal curve of the petiole of _cassia alata_--response of _mimosa_ to darkness at different parts of the day--after-effect of light at pre-maximum, maximum, and post-maximum illustrations. figure. page. . arrangement for compensation of growth-movement by equal subsidence of plant-holder . photograph of the balanced crescograph . balanced crescographic record . record showing the effect of co_{ } . effect of ether and of chloroform . diagrammatic representation of effects of indirect and direct stimulation . tropic curvature of _crinum_ . turgor variation caused by indirect stimulation . response of _mimosa_ leaf under transverse transmission of effect of electric stimulus . diagrammatic representation of indirect and direct stimulation of tendril . record by method of balance . variation of growth under direct stimulation . positive curvature of tendril of _cucurbita_ . diagrammatic representation of effects of indirect and direct unilateral stimulation of tendril . retardation of rate of growth under cathode . acceleration of rate of growth under anode . thermonastic and radionastic responses of petal of _zephyranthes_ . the thermonastic recorder . negative thermonastic response of _nymphæa_ . successive positive responses of the terminal leaflet of bean plant . positive response and recovery under moderate phototropic stimulation . persistent positive curvature under stronger stimulation . immediate and after-effect of stimulus of light on growth . latent period for photic stimulation . effect of a single electric spark on growth . responses of _mimosa_ leaf to light from above . responses of _mimosa_ leaf to light from below . record of effect of continuous application of light on upper half of pulvinus of _mimosa_ . positive and negative phototropic response of _oryza_ . leaf of _desmodium gyrans_ . the oscillating recorder . tropic effect of increasing intensity of light on the leaflet of _desmodium gyrans_ . tropic effect of increasing intensity of light on growing organ (_crinum_) . the collimator . effect of angle of inclination of light on tropic curvature of pulvinated organ . effect of angle of inclination on growth-curvature . effect of increasing duration of exposure to light . effect of continuous electric and photic stimulation on rate of growth . characteristic curve of iron . simple characteristic curve of phototropic reaction . complete phototropic curve of pulvinated organ . complete phototropic curve of growing organ . arrangement for local application of light . response of seedling of _setaria_ to light . effect of application of light to the growing hypocotyl of _setaria_ . response to direct and indirect photic stimulus . diagrammatic representation of the effects of direct and indirect stimulation of _setaria_ . photonastic curvature of creeping stem of _mimosa pudica_ . positive phototropic response of _erythrina indica_ . response of leaflet of _mimosa_ to light . response of leaflet of _averrhoa_ to light . diagrammatic representation of different types of phototropic response . phototropic curvature of tendril of _passiflora_ . effect of rise of temperature on phototropic curvature . after-effect of rise of temperature . arrangement for record of torsional response . record of torsional response of pulvinus of _mimosa pudica_ . leaflets of _cassia alata_ . positive response to thermal radiation . record of positive, neutral, and reversed negative curvature under thermal radiation . diagrammatic representation of the wireless system . mechanical response of _mimosa_ leaf to electric waves . electric response of _mimosa_ to hertzian wave . record of responses of growing organs to wireless stimulation . the quadruplex geotropic recorder . effect of alternate application of cold on upper and lower sides of the organ . geotropic response of flower stalk of tube-rose . geotropic response of _tropæolum_ . the complete geotropic curve . diagrammatic representation of photic and geotropic stimulation . the effect of super-imposition of photic stimulus . diagrammatic representation of the mechanical and electrical response . diagrammatic representation of geo-electric response . diagrammatic representation of methods of axial and vertical rotation . diagrammatic representation of the geo-electric response of the shoot . geo-electric response of the petiole of _tropæolum_ . geo-electric response of the scape of _uriclis_ . mechanical and electric response to indirect stimulation . diagrammatic representation of mechanical and electric response of root . diagrammatic representation of geo-electric response of root-tip . diagrammatic representation of geo-electric response of growing region of root . diagrammatic representation of the geo-perceptive layer . the electric probe . transverse section showing continuous geo-perceptive layer (_bryophyllum_) . curve of geo-electric excitation in different layers of _nymphæa_ . curve of geo-electric excitation in _bryophyllum_ . diagram of arrangement of geotropic torsional response . additive effect of stimulus of gravity and light . algebraical summation of geotropic and phototropic actions . comparative balancing effects of white and red lights . effect of coal gas on photo-geotropic balance . diagram of magnetic balance . effect of variation of light on phototropic equilibrium . effect of variation of temperature on geotropic torsion . simultaneous records of variation of temperature, on up and down movement, and of torsion of the leaf of _mimosa_ . arrest of pulsatory movement of leaflet of _desmodium gyrans_ by light . effect of unilateral light on hyponastic movement . the nyctitropic recorder . effect of sudden darkness on leaflet of _casia alata_ . diurnal movement of the leaflet of _cassia alata_ . the day and night position of the petiole and terminal leaflet of _desmodium gyrans_ . diurnal record of the terminal leaflet of _desmodium gyrans_ . photograph of closed flower of _nymphæa_ during day . photograph of open flower of _nymphæa_ at night . action of light on the petal of _nymphæa_ . diurnal movement of the petal of _nymphæa_ . diurnal record of the sijbaria palm . diurnal record of inclined palm, geotropically curved procumbent stem of _tropæolum_, and dia-geotropic leaf of palm . diurnal record of leaves of _dahlia_, _papya_, and _croton_ . diurnal record of procumbent stem of _tropæolum_, and leaf of _dahlia_ for two successive days . abolition of the diurnal movement under constant temperature (_tropæolum_) . effect of inversion of plant on diurnal movement of _tropæolum_ . electric response of the leaf stalk of _bryophyllum_ under light . diagrammatic representation of electric after-effect of photic stimulation . after-effect of pre-maximum photic stimulation . after-effect of maximum photic stimulation . after-effect of post-maximum photic stimulation . diurnal record of mimosa in summer and winter . record of diurnal variation of torsion in _mimosa_ leaf . continuous record of automatic pulsation of _mimosa_ leaf . photometric record showing variation of intensity of light from morning to evening . record of leaf of _mimosa_ after amputation of sub-petioles . diurnal record of _cassia_ leaf . post-maximum after-effect of light on response of leaflet of _cassia_ . effect of periodic alternation of light and darkness on response of _mimosa_ leaf . pre-maximum after-effect of light in _mimosa_ . after-effect at maximum . post-maximum after-effect exhibiting over-shooting below position of equilibrium part iii. tropism in plants. xxii.--the balanced crescograph _by_ sir j. c. bose. we shall in the succeeding series of papers deal with the subject of tropism in general. different plant organs undergo curvature or bending, sometimes towards and at other times away from the stimulus which induces it. the problem is very intricate; the possibility of its solution will depend greatly on the accurate determination of the immediate and after-effects of various stimuli on the responding organ. the curvature induced in the growing organ is brought about by variation, often extremely slight, of the rate of growth; the result, moreover, is liable to be modified by the duration and point of application of stimulus. the difficulties connected with the problem can only be removed by the detection and measurement of the minutest variation in growth, and by securing a continuous and automatic record of the entire history of the change. in the chapter on high magnification crescograph an account is given of the apparatus which i have devised by which the rate of growth may be magnified from ten thousand to ten millions times. it is thus possible to measure the imperceptible growth of plants for a period shorter than a single second. the variation of normal rate of growth is also found by measuring successive growth records on a stationary plate at regular intervals, say of ten seconds, or from the flexure in the growth-curve taken on a moving plate (p. ). i was next desirous of exalting the sensitiveness to a still higher degree by an independent method, which would not only reveal very slight variation induced in the rate of growth, but also the latent period and time-relations of the change. for this purpose i at first devised the optical method of balance[ ] which was considered at the time to be extremely sensitive. the spot of light from the optical lever (which magnified the rate of growth) was made to fall upon a mirror to which a compensating movement was imparted so that the light-spot after double reflection remained stationary. any change of rate of growth--acceleration or retardation--was at once detected by the movement of the hitherto stationary spot of light in one direction or the other. [ ] "plant response"--p. . a very careful manipulation was required for the adjustment of the optical balance; the record moreover was not automatic. for these reasons i have been engaged for several years past in perfecting a new apparatus by which, ( ) the balance could be directly obtained with the utmost exactitude, ( ) where an attached scale would indicate the exact rate of growth, and ( ) in which the upsetting of the balance by external stimulus would be automatically recorded, the curve giving the time relations of the change. principle of the method of balance. i shall take a concrete example in explanation of the method of balance. taking the rate of growth per second of a plant to be / , inch or · µ, per second (equal to the wave length of sodium light), the tip of the plant will be maintained at the same point in space if we succeeded in making the plant-holder subside exactly at the same rate. the growth-elongation of the plant will then be exactly balanced by a compensating movement downwards. the state of exact balance is indicated when the recording lever of the crescograph traces a horizontal line on the moving plate. overbalance or underbalance will deflect the record below or above the horizontal line. [illustration: fig. .--arrangement for compensation of growth-movement by equal subsidence of plant-holder; s, adjusting screw for regulation of speed of rotation; g, governor; w, heavy weight; p, plant-holder.] compensating movement. for securing exact balance the holder of the plant p, in the given example, will have to subside at a rate of / , inch per second. this is accomplished by a system of reducing worm and pinion, also of clock wheels (fig. ). the clock at first used for this purpose was worked by the usual balance wheel. though this secured an _average_ balance yet as each tick of the clock consisted of sudden movement and stoppage, it caused minute variation in the rate of subsidence; this became magnified by the crescograph and appeared as a series of oscillations about a mean position of equilibrium. this particular defect was obviated by the substitution of a fan governor for the balance wheel. but the speed of rotation slows down with the unwinding of the main spring, and the balance obtained at the beginning was found to be insufficient later on. the difficulty was finally overcome by the use of a heavy weight w, in the place of coiled spring. the complete apparatus is seen in figure . [illustration: fig. .--photographic reproduction of the balanced crescograph. l, l', magnifying compound lever. r, recording plate. p, plant. c, clock work for oscillation of the plate and lateral movement. g, governor. m, circular growth-scale. v, plant-chamber.] for purpose of simplicity of explanation, i assumed the growth rate to have a definite value of / , inch per second. but the rate varies widely in different plants and even in the same plant at different days and seasons. in practice the rate of growth for which compensation has to be made varies from / , to / , inch, or from · µ to · µ per second. we have thus to secure some means of _continuous_ adjustment for growth, the rate of which could be continuously varied from one to six times. this range of adjustment i have been able to secure by the compound method of frictional resistance and of centrifugal governor. as regards frictional resistance the two pointed ends of a hinged fork rub against a horizontal circular plate not shown in the figure. by means of the screw head s, the free ends of the fork spread out and the circumference of the frictional circle continuously increased. the centrifugal governor is also spread out by the action of the adjusting screw. by the joint actions of the frictional control and the centrifugal governor, the speed of rotation can be continuously adjusted from to times. when the adjusting screw is set in a particular position, the speed of rotation, and therefore the rate of subsidence of plant-holder, remains absolutely constant for several hours. the attainment of this constancy is a matter of fundamental importance, and it was only by the employment or the compound system of regulation that i was able to secure it. the method of obtaining balance now becomes extremely simple. before starting the balancing movement by clock regulation, the plant is made to record its magnified growth by the crescograph. the compensation is effected as follows: the speed of the clockwork is at the beginning adjusted at its lowest value, and the pressure of a button starts the balancing movement of the plant downwards. on account of partial balance the record will be found to be less steep than before; the speed of the clock is gradually increased till the record becomes perfectly horizontal under exact balance. overbalance makes the record slope downwards. in figure is seen records of underbalance (_a_) and overbalance (_b_), to the extent of about per cent. [illustration: fig. .--balanced crescographic record: (_a_) showing effect of underbalance and (_b_) overbalance of about per cent. (magnification , times.)] it will thus be seen that the effect of an external agent may be detected by the upsetting of the balance; an up-movement indicates (unless stated to the contrary) an enhancement of the rate of growth above the normal; and a down-movement, on the other hand, a depression of the normal rate. _calibration._--the calibration of the instrument is obtained in two different ways. the rate of subsidence of the plant-holder, by which the balance is obtained, is strictly proportional to the rate of rotation of the vertical spindle and the attached train of clock-wheels. a striker is attached to one of the wheels, and a bell is struck at each complete revolution. the clockwork is adjusted at a medium speed, the bell striking times in a minute. a microscope micrometer is focussed on a mark made on the plant-holder, and the amount of subsidence of the mark determined after one minute; this was found to be · mm. as this fall occurred after strokes of the bell the subsidence per stroke was · mm. _determination of the absolute rate of growth._--if growth be found balanced at n strokes of bell per minute, the rate of subsidence per second = n × · / mm. per second = n × · mm. per second = n × · µ per second = n × ^{- } inch per second. _example._--the growth of a specimen of _zea mays_ was found balanced when the number of strokes of the bell was times in a minute. absolute rate of growth = × · µ = · µ per second or = × ^{- } inch " or = / , " " if we take the wave length of sodium light [greek: lambda] as our standard, the growth in length per second is equal to [greek: lambda]. this will give us some idea of the sensitiveness of the crescograph employed in recording the movement of growth. growth-scale. the balanced crescograph enables us not merely to determine the absolute rate of growth, but the slightest fluctuation in that rate. _indicator scale._--all necessity of calculation is obviated by the scale provided with the apparatus. the speed of clockwork which brings about the balance of growth is determined by the position of the adjusting screw s, the gradual lowering of which produces a continuous diminution of speed. a particular position of the screw therefore indicates a definite rate of subsidence for balancing growth. by a simple mechanism the up or down movement of the screw causes rotation of an index pivoted at the centre of a circular scale. each division of the scale is calibrated by counting the corresponding number of strokes of the bell per minute at different positions of the adjusting screw. the scale is calibrated in this manner to indicate different rates of growth from · µ to · µ per second. the determination of the rate of growth now becomes extremely simple. few turns of the screw bring about the balance of growth and the resulting position of the index against the circular scale automatically indicates the absolute rate. the procedure is even simpler and more expeditious than the determination of the weight of a substance by means of a balance. sensitiveness of the crescographic balance. perhaps the most delicate method of measuring lengths is that afforded indirectly by the spectrum of a light. a good spectroscope resolves differences of wave lengths of d_{ } ( = · µ) and d_{ } ( = · ) _i.e._ of part in a thousand. the average rate of growth of _zea mays_ is of this order; being about · µ per second. let us consider the question of the possibility of detecting a fractional variation of the ultra-microscopic length by means of the balanced crescograph. in reality the problem before us is more intricate than simple measurement of change of length; for we have to determine the _rate of variation_ of length. the sensitiveness of the balance will, it is obvious, depend on the magnifying power of the crescograph. by the method of magnetic amplification referred to in page , i have succeeded in obtaining a magnification of ten million times. in this method a very delicate astatic system of magnets undergoes deflection by the movement of a magnetised lever in its neighbourhood. a spot of light reflected from a small mirror attached to the astatic system, thus gives the highly magnified movement of the rate of growth, which may easily be raised to ten million times. i shall in the following describe the results obtained with this easily managed magnification of ten million times. _determination of sensitiveness: experiment ._--a seedling of _zea mays_ was placed on the crescographic balance; and the magnetic amplification, as stated above, was ten million times. with strokes of the bell per minute the spot of light had a drift of + cm. per minute to the right; this is because the growth was underbalanced. with faster rate of clock movement, _i.e._, strokes in seconds or · strokes per minute, the drift of the spot of light, owing to overbalance, was to the left at the rate of - cm. per minute. thus ( ) strokes per minute caused a drift of + cm. per minute. ( ) · strokes per minute caused a drift of - cm. per minute. hence by interpolation the exact balance is found to correspond to · strokes per minute. therefore the absolute rate of growth = · × · µ per second. = · µ per second. = · inch per second. we learn further from ( ) and ( ) that a variation of ( · - )/ · produces a change of drift of the spot of light from + to - cm., _i.e._, of cm. per minute. as it is easy to detect a drift of cm. per minute a variation of · /( · × ), or part in , may thus be detected by the method of balance. the spectroscopic method enabled us, as we saw, to detect change of wave length part in a thousand. the sensibility of the balanced crescograph is thus seen to rival, if not surpass that of the spectroscope. for obtaining a general idea of the sensitiveness, the absolute of growth in the instance given above was · inch per second, and the balanced crescograph was shown capable of discriminating a variation of part in , ; hence it is possible to detect by this means a variation of / , millionth of an inch per second. this method of unprecedented delicacy opens out a new field of investigation on the effect of changes of environment in modification of growth; instances of this will be found in subsequent chapters. i give below accounts of certain demonstrations which will no doubt appear as very striking. after obtaining the exact balance a match was struck in the neighbourhood of the plant. this produced a marked movement of the hitherto quiescent spot of light, thus indicating the perception of such an extremely feeble stimulus by the plant. breathing on the plant causes an enhancement of growth due to the joint effects of warmth and carbonic acid gas. a more striking experiment is to fill a small jar with carbonic acid and empty it over the plant. a violent movement of the spot of light to the right demonstrates the stimulating effect of this gas on growth. the method described above is excessively sensitive; for general purposes and for the method of direct record, a less sensitive arrangement is sufficient. i give below accounts of several typical experiments in which the recording form of crescograph was employed, the magnification being only , times. [illustration: fig. .--record showing the effect of co_{ }. horizontal line at beginning indicates balanced growth. application of co_{ } at arrow induces enhancement of growth shown by the up-curve followed by depression, shown by the down-curve. successive dots at intervals of seconds. (seedling of wheat.)] _effect of carbonic acid on balanced growth: experiment ._--i have already shown that carbonic acid diluted with air induces an enhancement of the rate of growth, but its long continued action induces a depression (p. ). i shall now employ the method of balance in studying the effect of co_{ } on growth. it should be remembered in this connection that the horizontal record indicates the balance of normal rate of growth. an up-curve exhibits the induced enhancement and a down-curve, a depression of growth. in the present experiment after obtaining the exact balance, pure carbonic acid gas was made to fill up the plant-chamber at the point marked with an arrow (fig. ). it will be seen that this induced an almost immediate acceleration of the rate, the latent period being less than five seconds. the acceleration continued for two and half minutes; the accelerated rate then slowed down, became enfeebled, and the growth returned for a short time to the normal as indicated by the horizontal portion at the top of the record; this proved to be the turning point of inversion from acceleration into retardation of growth. the stronger is the concentration of the gas the earlier is the point of inversion. with diluted carbonic acid the acceleration may persist for an hour or more. effect of anÆsthetics. _effect of ether: experiment ._--dilute vapour of ether is found to induce an acceleration of rate of growth which persist for a considerable length of time. this is seen in the upsetting of the balance upwards on the introduction of the vapour (fig. a.). [illustration: fig. .--(_a_) effect of ether, acceleration of growth, (_b_) effect of chloroform preliminary acceleration followed by depression.] _effect of chloroform: experiment ._--the effect of chloroform vapour is relatively more depressing than ether. application of chloroform is seen to induce at first an acceleration which persisted for seconds, but after this depression set in (fig. b). prolonged application of the anæsthetic is followed by the death of the plant. summary. in the method of balance the movement of growth upwards is compensated by an equal movement of the plant downwards, with the result that the record remains horizontal. the effect of an external agent is immediately detected by the upsetting of the balance, up-record representing acceleration above normal, a down-record the opposite effect of depression below the normal rate. the latent period and the after-effect of stimulus may thus be obtained with the highest accuracy. the sensitiveness of the method of balance may be raised so as to indicate a variation of rate of growth smaller than / millionth of an inch per second. xxiii.--on tropic movements _by_ sir j. c. bose. the diverse movements induced by external stimuli in different organs of plants are extremely varied and complicated. the forces in operation are manifold--the influence of changing temperature, the stimulus of contact, of electric current, of gravity, and of light visible and invisible. they act on organs which exhibit all degrees of physiological differentiation, from the radial to the dorsiventral. an identical stimulus may sometimes induce one effect, and at other times, the precisely opposite. thus under unilateral stimulation of light of increasing intensity, a radial organ exhibits a positive, a dia-phototropic, and finally a negative response. strong sunlight brings about para-heliotropic or 'midday sleep' movement, by which the apices of leaves or leaflets turn towards or away from the source of illumination. the teleological argument advanced, that in this position the plant is protected from excessive transpiration, does not hold good universally; for under the same reaction, the leaflets of _cassia montana_ assume positions by which the plant risks fatal loss of water. in _averrhoa carambola_ the movement is downwards, whichever side is illuminated with strong light; in _mimosa_ leaflet the movement, under similar circumstances is precisely in the opposite direction. the photonastic movement, apparently independent of the directive action of light, has come to be regarded as a phenomenon unrelated to phototropic reaction, and due to a different kind of irritability, and a different mode of response. so very anomalous are these various effects that pfeffer, after showing the inadequacy of different theories that have been advanced, came to the conclusion that "the precise character of the stimulatory action of light has yet to be determined. when we say that an organ curves towards a source of illumination because of its heliotropic irritability, we are simply expressing an ascertained fact in a conveniently abbreviated form, without explaining why such curvature is possible or how it is produced."[ ] [ ] pfeffer--_ibid_--vol. ii, p. . the contradictory nature of the various responses is however not real; the apparent anomaly had lain in the fact that two definite fundamental reactions of opposite signs induced by stimulus had not hitherto been recognised and distinguished from each other. the innumerable variations in the resultant response are due to the summation of the effects of two fluctuating factors, with further complications arising from: ( ) difference in the point of application of stimulus, ( ) the differential excitability of the different sides of the responding organ, and ( ) the effect of temperature in modifying tropic curvature. it is therefore most important to have the means for automatic record of _continuous_ change in the response brought about by various factors, which act sometimes in accord, and at other times in conflict. the autograph of the plant itself, giving a history of the change in response and its time-relations, is alone decisive in explanation of various difficulties in connection with plant movements, as against the various tentative theories that have been put forward. the analysis of the resulting effect, thus rendered possible, casts new light on the phenomena of response, proving that the anomalies which had so long perplexed us, are more apparent than real. one of the causes of uncertainty lay with the question, whether response changed with the mode of stimulation. i have, however, been able to show that _all forms of stimuli_ induce a definite excitatory reaction of contraction (p. ). tropic movements induced by unilateral action of stimulus may, broadly speaking, be divided into two classes depending on the point of application of stimulus: in the first, the point of application of unilateral stimulus is not on the responding organ itself, but at some distance from it. the question therefore relates to longitudinal transmission of effect of stimulus. in the second, unilateral stimulus acts directly on the responding organ. for the determination of the resultant movement, it is necessary to take account of effects induced on the two sides of the organ. the side adjacent to the stimulus i shall designate as the _proximal_, and the diametrically opposite as the _distal_ side. the question to be investigated in this case relates to transverse transmission of effect of stimulus. it will be shown that the resulting movement depends on:-- (_a_) whether the tissue is a conductor or a non-conductor of excitation in a transverse direction, and (_b_) whether it is the proximal, or the distal side of the organ that is the more excitable. in connection with the response to environmental changes, a source of uncertainty is traceable to the absence of sufficient knowledge of the physiological effect of heat, which has been regarded as a form of stimulus: it will be shown that heat induces two distinct effects dependent on conduction and radiation. we shall in the succeeding chapters, take up the study of the physiological effects induced by changes in the environment. xxiv.--tropic curvature with longitudinal transmission of effect of stimulus _by_ sir j. c. bose, _assisted by_ guruprasanna das. i have in previous chapters explained that the direct application of stimulus gives rise in different organs to contraction, diminution of turgor, fall of motile leaf, electro-motive change of galvanometric negativity, and retardation of the rate of growth. i have also shown that indirect stimulation (_i.e._ application of stimulus at some distance from the responding organ) gives rise to a positive or erectile response of the responding leaf or leaflet (indicative of an increase of turgor), often followed by normal negative response. the positive impulse travels quickly. the interval of time that elapses, between the application of stimulus and the erectile response of the responding leaf, depends on the distance of the point of application, and the character of the transmitting tissue: it varies in different cases from · second to about seconds. the positive is followed by a slower wave of protoplasmic excitation, which causes the excitatory fall. the velocity of this excitatory impulse is about mm. per second in the petiole of _mimosa_, and about mm. per second in _biophytum_. the positive followed by the negative thus gives rise to a diphasic response. the excitatory impulse is much enfeebled during transit: the negative impulse may thus fail to reach the responding organ, if the stimulus be feeble or if the intervening distance be long or semi-conducting. hence moderate stimulus applied at a distance gives rise only to positive response; direct application of strong stimulus gives rise, on the other hand, to the normal negative. by employing the electric method of investigation, i have obtained with ordinary tissues the positive, the diphasic, and the negative electric response, in correspondence with the responses given by a motile organ (p. ). the mechanics of propagation of the positive and the negative impulse are different. it is therefore necessary to distinguish the quick _transmission_ of the positive impulse from the slow _conduction_ of the negative impulse due to the propagation of excitatory protoplasmic change. it should be borne in mind in this connection that all responsive movements are ultimately due to protoplasmic changes which are beyond our scrutiny. we can infer the nature of the change by the concomitant outward manifestations, which are of two kinds: the _positive_, associated with increase of turgor, expansion, and galvanometric positivity, and the _negative_ with concomitant decrease of turgor, contraction, and galvanometric negativity. thus positive and negative reactions indicate the fundamental protoplasmic changes of opposite characters. the movement and curvature induced by stimulus have, for convenience, been distinguished as _positive curvature_, (movement towards stimulus), and _negative curvature_ (movement away from stimulus). though these curvatures result from protoplasmic reactions, yet the _positive curvature_ is not necessarily associated with _positive protoplasmic reaction_. it will be shown that the curvature of an organ is determined by the algebraical summation of effects induced at the proximal and distal sides of the responding organ. physiologists have not been aware of the dual character of the impulse generated by stimulus, and the term "transmission of stimulus" is thus misleading since its effect may be an expansion, or its very opposite, contraction. it is therefore necessary to discriminate the effect of one from the other: the impulse which induces an increase of turgor, expansion, and galvanometric positivity will be distinguished as positive, in the sense that it causes an enhancement of turgor. the other, which induces diminution of turgor and contraction, will be termed as the excitatory impulse. transmission of the latter is dependent on conducting power of the tissue; the positive impulse is practically independent of the conducting power. in animal physiology again, there is no essential difference between the effect of the direct and indirect stimulation. in a nerve-and-muscle preparation, for example, indirect stimulation at the nerve induces the same contraction as the direct stimulation of the muscle. the only difference lies in the latent period, which is found to be longer under indirect stimulation by the time interval necessary for the excitation to travel along the conducting nerve. it is probable that stimulus gives rise to dual impulses in the animal tissue as in the plant. but the detection of the positive impulse in the animal nerve is rendered exceedingly difficult on account of the high velocity of conduction of excitation. i have explained that the separate effects of the two impulses can only be detected if there is a sufficient lag of the excitatory negative behind the positive, so that the relatively sluggish responding organ may exhibit the two impulses one after the other. in a highly conducting tissue the lag is very slight, and the negative will therefore mask the positive by its predominant effect. in spite of the difficulty involved in the problem, i have recently been successful in demonstrating the dual impulses in the animal nerve. in any case it is important to remember the following characteristic effects of indirect stimulation. table xxii.--showing the effect of indirect stimulation. +-----------------------------------------------------------------+ | intensity of | character of intervening | responsive effect. | | stimulus. | tissue. | | +-----------------+--------------------------+--------------------+ |moderate |highly conducting | contraction. | | " |non-conducting | expansion. | | " |semi-conducting | expansion followed | | | | by contraction. | |feeble | " " | expansion. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+ these effects of indirect stimulation have been fully demonstrated in the case of pulvinated organs (p. ) and growing organs (p. ). having demonstrated the fundamental reactions of direct and indirect stimulation, we shall next study the tropic effects induced in growing organs by the effect of unilateral application of indirect stimulus. _experiment ._--i have already explained, how thermal _radiation_ is almost as effective in inducing contraction and retardation of growth as the more refrangible rays of the spectrum. the thermal radiation was produced by the heating of a platinum spiral, short of incandescence, by the passage of an electric current. the intensity of radiation is easily varied by adjustment of the current by means of a rheostat. the experimental specimen was a flower bud of _crinum_. it was held by a clamp, a little below the region of growth. stimulus was applied below the clamp so that the transmitted effect had to pass through s, the securely held tissue (fig. ). a feeble stimulus was applied on one side, at the indifferent point about cm. below the region of growth. the positive effect of indirect stimulus reached the region of growth on the same side, bringing about an acceleration of growth with expansion and convexity, the resulting movement being _negative_ or away from the stimulus. the latent period was ten seconds, and maximum negative movement was completed in the further course of ten seconds, after which there was a recovery in the course of seconds. a stronger stimulus s' gave a larger response; but when the intensity was raised still higher to s", the excitatory negative impulse overtook the positive within seconds of its commencement; the convex was thus succeeded by the concave curvature (fig. ). direct application of stimulus at the growing region gave rise to a positive curvature. [illustration: fig. .--diagrammatic representation of effects of indirect and direct stimulation. continuous arrow represents the indirect stimulation, and the curved continuous arrow above, the induced negative curvature: dotted arrow indicates the application of direct stimulus, and the dotted curve above, the induced positive curvature.] [illustration: fig. .--tropic curvature of _crinum_ to unilateral indirect stimulation of increasing intensities: s, s' of moderate intensity induced negative tropic effect (movement away from the stimulated side); stronger stimulus s" gave rise to negative followed by positive. successive dots at intervals of seconds magnification times.] the effect of feeble stimulus transmitted longitudinally is thus found always to induce convexity, a _negative curvature_ and movement away from stimulus. i have obtained similar responsive movement of negative sign with various plant organs, and under various forms of stimuli. thus in the stem of _dregea volubilis_ the longitudinally transmitted effect of light of moderate intensity was a negative curvature; direct application of light on the growing region gave, on the other hand, a positive curvature and movement towards light. thus while the effect of direct unilateral stimulation is a positive curvature, the effect of indirect stimulation is a negative curvature. the following table gives a summary of results of tropic effects under unilateral application of indirect stimulus. table xxiii.--showing tropic effect of unilateral application of indirect stimulus. +------------------------------------------------------------+ |stimulus. | character of intervening | sign of tropic | | | tissue. | response. | +----------+---------------------------+---------------------+ | moderate | conducting | positive curvature. | | " | semi-conducting | negative followed | | | | by positive. | | feeble | semi-conducting | negative curvature. | | moderate | non-conducting | " " | +----------+---------------------------+---------------------+ |direct application of unilateral stimulus induces a positive| |curvature. | +------------------------------------------------------------+ summary. in sensitive plants stimulus applied at a distance induces in the responding region an expansion indicative of increase of turgor. the effect of indirect stimulation is also exhibited by an electric change of galvanometric positivity, indicative of enhancement of turgor and expansion. indirect stimulus induces in growing organs an enhancement of rate of growth. unilateral application of stimulus causes an expansion higher up on the same side to which the stimulus is applied; the result is an induced convexity, a movement away from the stimulus, _i.e._, a negative curvature. direct stimulus applied unilaterally at the responding region induces, on the other hand, a positive curvature. xxv.--tropic curvature with transverse transmission of effect of stimulus _by_ sir j. c. bose, _assisted by_ guruprasanna das. we have next to consider a very large class of phenomena arising out of the direct stimulation of one side and its transversely transmitted effect on the opposite side. the unilateral stimuli to which the plant is naturally exposed are those of contact, of light, of thermal radiation, and of gravity. there is besides the stimulation by electric current. i shall presently show that these tropic curvatures are determined by the definite effects of direct and indirect stimulations. under unilateral stimulus, the proximal side is found to become concave and the distal side convex; the organ thus moves towards stimulus, exhibiting a positive curvature. this movement may be due: ( ) to the diminution of turgor, contraction or retardation of rate of growth of the proximal side, ( ) to the increase of turgor, expansion or acceleration of rate of growth on the distal side, or ( ) to the joint effects of contraction of the proximal and expansion of the distal side. as regards the reaction of the proximal side, it has been shown that direct stimulation induces local contraction in a pulvinated organ, and retardation of growth in a growing organ. the effect induced on the distal side had hitherto remained a matter of uncertainty. in regard to this we must bear in mind that it is the effect of indirect stimulus that reaches the distal sided, inducing an enhancement of turgor and expansion of that side. for obtaining a complete explanation of tropic curvatures in general, it is important that the induction of enhanced turgor at the distal side (by the action of stimulus at the proximal side) should be corroborated by independent methods of enquiry. one of the methods i employed for this purpose was electrical. two electric connections were made, one with the distal point (diametrically opposite to the stimulated area), and the other, with an indifferent point at a distance. on application of stimulus of various kinds, the distal point was found to exhibit galvanometric positivity, indicative of enhancement of turgor.[ ] [ ] "plant response"--p. . i have since been able to devise a new experiment by which the enhancement of turgor on the distal side is demonstrated in a very striking manner. i have shown (p. ) that the movement of the motile leaf of _mimosa_ is a reliable indicator of the state of turgor, increase of turgor inducing erection, and diminution of turgor bringing about the fall of the leaf. i shall employ the mechanical response of the leaf to demonstrate the enhancement of turgor induced by transverse transmission of effect of stimulus. [illustration: fig. .--increased turgor due to indirect stimulation, inducing erection of mimosa leaf: (_a_) diagram of the experiment, point of application of stimulus indicated by arrow. (_b_) erectile response (shown by down-curve) followed by rapid fall (up-curve) due to transverse conduction of true excitation. (successive dots at intervals of seconds.)] turgor-variation under transverse transmission of stimulus-effect. _unilateral photic stimulation: experiment ._--a _mimosa_ plant was taken, and its stem was held vertical by means of a clamp. we apply a stimulus at a point on one side of the stem, and observe the effect of this on the state of turgor at the diametrically opposite side. in my first experiment on the subject of detection of induced change of turgor i employed the stimulus of light. a narrow beam from a small arc lamp was made to fall on the stem, at a point diametrically opposite to the motile leaf, which was to serve as a indicator for induced variation of turgor at the distal side. the leaf was attached to the recording lever, the successive dots in the record being at intervals of ten seconds. stimulation by light caused a positive or erectile movement within seconds of application. the positive response afforded a conclusive proof of the induction of an increase of turgor at the distal point. when the stimulus is moderate or of short duration, the response remains positive. but with strong or prolonged stimulation, the slower excitatory negative impulse is conducted to the distal point and brings about the sudden fall of the leaf (fig. ). in the present case the excitatory impulse reached the motile organ seconds after the initiation of the positive response. the stem was thin, only mm. in diameter. the velocity of excitatory impulse in a transverse direction is thus · mm. per second; transverse transmission is, for obvious reasons, a much slower process than longitudinal transmission of excitation; in the _mimosa_ stem this is about mm. per second. [illustration: fig. .--response of leaf of _mimosa_ under transverse transmission of electric stimulus. (compare this with fig. .)] _unilateral electric stimulation: experiment ._--in order to show that the effects described above are not due to any particular mode of stimulation but to stimuli in general, i carried out an additional experiment, the stimulus employed being electrical. two fine pin-electrodes were pricked into the stem, opposite to the responding leaf of _mimosa_; these electrodes were placed vertically one above the other, mm. apart. after a suitable period, allowed for recovery from mechanical irritation, feeble tetanising electric shock was passed through the electrodes. the responsive effects at the distal side of the stem is precisely similar to those induced under unilateral photic stimulation; that is to say, the first effect was an erectile movement of the leaf, indicative of an induced enhancement of turgor; the excitatory negative impulse then reached the distal point and caused a sudden fall of the leaf (fig. ). the experiments that have just been described are of much significance. an organ like the stem of _mimosa_, since it exhibits no contraction, may appear insensitive to stimulation; but its perception of stimulus is shown by its power of transmitting two characteristic impulses, one of which is the positive, giving rise to an enhancement of turgor, and the other, the true excitatory negative, inducing the opposite reaction or diminution of turgor. unilateral stimulation gives rise to both these effects in all organs: pulvinated, growing, and non-growing. it was the fortunate circumstance of the insertion of the motile leaf on one side of the _mimosa_ stem that enabled us to demonstrate the important facts given above. the underlying reactions, which give rise to tropic curvature, could have been foretold from the laws of effects of direct and indirect stimulation, established in previous chapters (pp. , ). the resulting curvature is thus brought about by the joint effects of direct stimulation of the proximal, and indirect stimulation of the distal side. we may now recapitulate some of the important facts relating to tropic curvatures: indirect stimulation gives rise to dual impulses, positive and negative; of these the positive impulse is practically independent of the conducting power of the tissue; but the transmission of the excitatory negative impulse is dependent on the conducting power. no tissue is a perfect conductor, nor is any a perfect non-conductor of excitation, the difference is a question of degree. in a petiole or a stem the conducting power along the direction of length is considerable, but very feeble in a transverse direction. in a semi-conducting tissue, a feeble stimulus will transmit only the positive impulse; strong or long continued stimulation will transmit both positive and negative impulses, the positive preceding the negative. the transmitted positive gives rise to increase of turgor, expansion, and acceleration of rate of growth; the negative induces the opposite reaction of diminution of turgor, of contraction, and of retardation of rate of growth. transverse transmission is only a particular instance of transmission in general; the only difference is that the conducting power for _excitation_ is very much less in the transverse than in the longitudinal direction. owing to feeble transverse conductivity, the transmitted impulse to the distal side often remains positive; it is only under strong or continued stimulation that the excitatory negative reaches the distal side and neutralises or reverses the previous positive reaction. if the distal is the more excitable side, the reversed response will appear as pronounced negative. i give a table which will clearly exhibit the effects of stimulus on the proximal and distal sides of the responding organ. table xxiv.--showing responsive effects common to pulvini and growing organs under unilateral stimulation. +------------------------------------------------------------------+ |effect of direct stimulation on | effect of indirect stimulation | | proximal side. | on distal side. | +---------------------------------+--------------------------------+ |diminution of turgor | increase of turgor. | |galvanometric negativity | galvanometric positivity. | |contraction and concavity | expansion and convexity. | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | when stimulus is strong or long continued, the | | true excitatory effect isconducted to the | | distal side, neutralising or reversing the first response. | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ the diagram which i have already given (fig. ) clearly explains the different tropic effects induced by changing the point of application of stimulus. we may thus have stimulus applied at the responding region itself (direct stimulation) or at some distance from it (indirect stimulation). the final effect will be modified by the conducting power of the tissue. direct unilateral stimulation. _type i._--the tissue has little or no power of transverse conduction: stimulus remains localised, the proximal side undergoes contraction, and the distal side expansion. the result is a positive curvature. _type ii._--the tissue is transversely conducting. under strong and long continued stimulation the excitatory impulse reaches the distal side, neutralising or reversing the first effect. indirect unilateral stimulation. _type i._--the intervening tissue is an indifferent conductor: transmitted positive impulse induces expansion and convexity on the same side, thus giving rise to negative curvature (_i.e._, away from stimulus). _type ii._--intervening tissue is a fairly good conductor: the effect of positive impulse is over-powered by the predominant excitatory negative impulse, the final result is a concavity and positive curvature, with movement towards the stimulus. the following is a tabular statement of the different effects induced by direct and indirect stimulation. table xxv.--showing difference of effects induced by direct and indirect stimulation. +------------------------------------------------------------------+ |stimulation. |nature of the tissue. |final effect. | +---------------+----------------------------+---------------------+ |direct (feeble)|semi-conducting tissue. |positive curvature. | |indirect " | " " |negative curvature. | |direct (strong)|better conducting tissue. |neutral or negative | | | |curvature. | |indirect " | " " " |negative followed by | | | |positive curvature. | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ the results of investigations already described, enable us to formulate the general laws of tropic curvature applicable to all forms of stimuli, and to all types of responding organs, pulvinated or growing. laws of tropic curvature. . (_a_) direct application of unilateral stimulus of moderate intensity, induces a positive or concave curvature, by the contraction of the proximal and expansion of the distal side. (_b_) under strong or long-continued stimulation, the positive curvature is neutralised or reversed, by transverse conduction of excitation; this effect is accentuated by the differential excitability of the two sides of the organ. . (_a_) indirect application of unilateral stimulus of feeble intensity induces a negative curvature. (_b_) in a conducting tissue the excitatory effect being transmitted under strong and long continued stimulation, induces a positive curvature. it will thus be seen that the tropic effect is modified by: ( ) the point of application of stimulus, ( ) the intensity and duration of stimulus, ( ) the conducting power of tissue in the transverse direction, ( ) the relative excitabilities of the proximal and distal sides of the organ. in the following series of papers the tropic effects of various forms of stimuli will be studied in detail. summary. in a semi-conducting tissue direct stimulation induces a diminution of turgor and contraction, indirect stimulation inducing the opposite effect of increase of turgor and expansion. unilateral stimulation thus induces a positive curvature by the joint effects of contraction at the proximal, and expansion at the distal side. under strong and long continued unilateral stimulation, the excitation at the proximal side is transmitted to the distal side. transverse conduction thus neutralises or reverses the normal positive curvature. xxvi.--mechanotropism: twining of tendrils _by_ sir j. c. bose, _assisted by_ guruprasanna das. in response to the stimulus of contact a tendril twines round its support. certain tendrils are uniformly sensitive on all sides; but in other cases, as in the tendril of _passiflora_, the sensitiveness is greater on the under side. a curvature is induced when this side is rubbed with a splinter of wood, the stimulated under side becoming concave. this movement may be distinguished as a movement of _curling_. there is, as i shall presently show, a response where the under side becomes convex, and the curvature becomes reversed. as regards perception of mechanical stimulus, pfeffer discovered tactile pits in the tendrils _cucurbitaceæ_. these pits no doubt facilitate sudden deformation of the sensitive protoplasm by frictional contact. no satisfactory explanation has however been offered as regards the physiological machinery of responsive movement. the difficulty of explanation of twining movements is accentuated by a peculiarity in the response of tendrils which is extremely puzzling. this anomaly was observed by fitting in tendrils which are sensitive on the under side: "if a small part of the upper side and at the same time the whole of the under side be stimulated, curvature takes place only at the places on the under side which lie opposite to the unstimulated regions of the upper side. the _sensitiveness_ to contact is thus as well developed on the upper side as on the under side, and the difference between the two sides lies in the fact that while stimulation of the under side induces curvature, stimulation of the upper side induces _no visible result_, or simply inhibits curvature on the under side, according to circumstances."[ ] [ ] jost--_ibid_--p. . here then we have the inexplicable phenomenon of a particular tissue, itself incapable of response, yet arresting the movement in a neighbouring tissue. the problem before us may be thus stated: is the movement of the tendril due to certain specific sensibility of the organ, on account of which its reactions are characteristically different from other tropic movements? or, does the twining of tendril come under the law of tropic curvature that has been established, namely that it is brought about by the contraction of the directly stimulated proximal side, and the expansion of the indirectly stimulated distal side? i shall now describe my investigations on the effects of direct and indirect stimulus on the growth of tendril; i have in this investigation studied the effect not merely of mechanical, but also of other forms of stimuli. i shall also describe the diverse effects induced by mechanical stimulus under different conditions. from the results of these experiments i shall be able to show that the twining of the tendril comes under the general law of tropic curvature; that the curvature results from the contraction of the proximal and expansion of the distal side. finally i shall be able to offer a satisfactory explanation of the inhibition of response of the tendril by the stimulation of the opposite side of the organ. general effects of indirect and direct electric stimulation on the growth of tendril. for this experiment i took a growing tendril of _cucurbita_ in which the sensitiveness is more or less uniform on all sides. the tendril was suitably mounted on the balanced crescograph, which records the variation of the rate of growth induced by immediate and after-effect of stimulus. the specimen is held in a clamp as in the diagram (fig. ), the tip being suitably attached to the recording lever. for indirect stimulation feeble shock from an induction coil is applied at the two electric connections below the clamp. direct stimulus is applied by means of electric connections one above and the other below the clamp. [illustration: fig. .--diagrammatic representation of indirect and direct stimulation of tendril.] _effect of indirect stimulus: experiment ._--the growth of the tendril was exactly balanced, and the record became horizontal. indirect stimulus was next applied below the clamp; this is seen to upset the balance, with the resulting up-curve which indicates a sudden acceleration of growth above the normal. this acceleration took place within ten seconds of the application of stimulus, and persisted for three minutes; after this the normal rate of growth became restored, as seen by the balanced record once more becoming horizontal (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--record by method of balance, showing acceleration of growth of tendril (up-curve) induced by indirect stimulation. (_cucurbita._)] _effect of direct stimulus: experiment ._--the incipient contraction induced by direct stimulation is so great that the record obtained by the delicate method of balance cannot be kept within the plate. i, therefore, took the ordinary growth-curve on a moving plate. the first part of the curve represents normal growth; stimulus of feeble electric shock was applied at the highest point of the curve. this is seen (fig. ) to induce an immediate contraction and reversal of the curve which persisted for two and half minutes, after which growth was slowly renewed. the most interesting fact regarding the after-effect of stimulus is that the rate of growth became actually enhanced to three times the normal. this is clearly seen in the record (upper half of the figure) taken minutes after stimulation, where the curve is far more erect than that of the normal rate of growth before stimulation. [illustration: fig. .--variation of growth induced by direct stimulation. first part of the curve shows normal rate of growth. direct stimulation induces contraction (reversal of curve). after-effect of stimulus seen in highly erect curve in upper part of record, taken minutes after.] the effects of indirect and direct stimulation of the tendril are summarised below: ( ) indirect stimulation induces a sudden enhancement of rate of growth, followed by a recovery of the normal rate. ( ) direct stimulation induces a retardation of the rate of growth which may culminate into an actual contraction. _the after-effect of direct stimulus of moderate intensity is an enhancement of the rate of growth._ the experiments described above demonstrate the effects of direct and indirect electrical stimulus. i shall now proceed to show that mechanical stimulus induces effects which are similar to those of electric stimulus. effects of direct and indirect mechanical stimulus. _effect of direct mechanical stimulus: experiment ._--in this case i took a tendril of _cucurbita_, and attached it to the ordinary high magnification crescograph, the record of which gives the absolute rate of its normal growth, and the induced variation of that rate. the tendril was stimulated mechanically by simultaneous friction of its different sides. the immediate effect was a retardation of growth, the reduced rate being less than half the normal. there was a recovery on the cessation of the stimulus; the rate of growth was even slightly enhanced after an interval of minutes. table xxvi shows the immediate and after-effects of mechanical stimulation on growth. table xxvi.--showing the immediate and after-effect of mechanical stimulation on tendril (_cucurbita_). +--------------------------------------------------------------+ |normal rate of growth · µ per sec. | |retarded rate immediately after stimulation · µ " " | |recovery and enhancement after minutes · µ " " | +--------------------------------------------------------------+ the immediate and after-effects of mechanical stimulus on the tendril are therefore the same as that of electric stimulus. the incipient contraction under direct mechanical stimulus, moreover, is not the special characteristic of tendrils, but of growing plants in general. for i have shown (page ) that the growth of flower stalk of _zephyranthes_ is also retarded after mechanical friction, from the normal rate · µ to · µ after stimulation. we shall find later that different plant organs, after moderate stimulation, exhibit acceleration of growth as an after-effect. the phenomenon of responsive reaction of tendril is therefore not unique, but similar to that of other organs under all forms of stimulation. the only speciality in tendril is that owing to anatomical peculiarities, the perceptive power of the organ for mechanical stimulus is highly developed. we are now in a position to offer an explanation of the induced concavity of the stimulated side of the tendril, and its recovery after brief contact. the experiments that have been described show that: ( ) the proximal side contracts because it is directly stimulated, and the distal side, being indirectly stimulated, expands; the curvature is thus due to the joint effects of contraction of one side, and expansion of the opposite side, and ( ) the recovery of the tendril after brief contact is hastened by the after-effect of stimulus, which is expansion and acceleration of growth. the results given above will also be found to explain fitting's important observations[ ] that (_a_) the stimulated side of the tendril undergoes transient contraction with subsequent acceleration of growth, and that (_b_) the distal or convex side undergoes an immediate enhancement of growth. [ ] pfeffer--_ibid_--vol. iii, p. . i give below a record given by a tendril of _cucurbita_ in response to unilateral contact of short duration (fig. ). successive dots in the record are at intervals of three seconds. the latent period was ten seconds, and the maximum curvature was attained in the course of two and a half minutes. the curvature persisted for a further period of two minutes after which recovery was completed in the course of minutes. feeble stimulation is attended by a recovery within a short period, but under strong stimulus the induced curvature becomes more persistent. [illustration: fig. .--positive curvature of tendril of cucurbita under unilateral stimulus of contact at x.] inhibitory action of stimulus. i have referred to the remarkable observation of fitting that though the application of stimulus on the upper side of the tendril of _passiflora_ did not induce any response, yet it inhibited the normal response of the under side. the results of experiments which i have described will, however, afford a satisfactory explanation of this curious inhibition. it has been explained, that the curvature of the tendril is due to the joint effects of diminished turgor and contraction at the directly stimulated side, and an enhancement of turgor and expansion on the opposite side. in the diagram seen in figure , the left is the more excitable side, and contraction will induce concavity of the stimulated side. but if the opposite or less excitable side of the tendril be stimulated at the same time, then the transmitted effect of indirect stimulus will induce enhancement of turgor and expansion on the left side, and thus neutralise the previous effect of direct stimulus. an inhibition of response will thus result from the stimulation of the opposite side. [illustration: fig. .--diagrammatic representation of effects of indirect and direct unilateral stimulation of the tendril. indirect stimulation, i, induces movement away from stimulated side (negative curvature) represented by continuous arrow. direct stimulation, d, induces movement towards stimulus (positive curvature) indicated by dotted arrow.] a difficulty arises here from the fact that the upper side of the tendril (the right side in fig. ) is supposed to be inexcitable and non-contractile. hence there may be a misgiving that the stimulation of the non-motile side may not induce the effect of indirect stimulus (an increase of turgor and expansion) at the opposite side, which is to inhibit the response. but i have shown that even a non-contractile organ under stimulus generates both the impulses, positive and negative. this is seen illustrated in figure , where the rigid stem of _mimosa_ was subjected to unilateral stimulation; the effect of indirect stimulus was found to induce an enhancement of turgor at the diametrically opposite side, and thus caused an erectile movement of the motile leaf. electric investigations which i have carried out also corroborate the results given above. here also stimulation of a non-motile organ at any point, induces at a diametrically opposite point, a positive electric variation indicative of enhanced turgor. it will thus be seen that inhibition is possible even in the absence of contraction of the upper side of the tendril; hence the contraction of the directly stimulated side is neutralised by the effect of indirect stimulation of the distal side. response of less excitable side of the tendril. it is generally supposed that the upper side of the tendril of _passiflora_ is devoid of contractility. this is however not the case, for my experiments show that stimulation of the upper side also induces contraction and concavity of that side, though the actual movement is relatively feeble. _experiment ._--in order to subject the question to quantitative test i applied feeble stimulus of the same intensity on upper and lower side alternately. successive stimuli were kept more or less uniform by employing the following device. i took a flat strip of wood cm. in breadth, and coated cm. of its length with shellac varnish mixed with fine emery powder. on drying the surface became rough, the flat surface was gently pressed against the area of the tendril to be stimulated, and quickly drawn so that the rough surface cm.× cm. was rubbed against the tendril in each experiment. stimulation, thus produced, induced a responsive movement of each side of the organ. the extent of the maximum movement was measured by the microscope micrometer. the following results were obtained with four different specimens. table xxvii.--showing the relative intensities of responses of the upper and under side of tendril (_passiflora_). +------------------------------------------------------------+ |movement induced by | movement induced by | b | | stimulation of under | stimulation of upper | ratio ---. | | side, a. | side, b. | a | +----------------------+-------------------------------------+ |( ) divisions | divisions | / | |( ) " | " | / | |( ) " | " | / | |( ) " | " | / | +------------------------------------------------------------+ it will thus be seen that the upper side of the tendril is not totally inexcitable, its power of contraction being about one-seventh that of the under side. negative curvature of the tendril. i shall now describe certain remarkable results which show that under certain definite conditions the tendril moves away from the stimulated side. i have explained, how in growing organs the effect of unilateral stimulus longitudinally transmitted, induces an expansion higher up on the same side to which the stimulus is applied, resulting in convexity and movement away from the stimulus (cf. laws of tropic curvatures, p. ). as the reaction of tendril is in no way different from that of growing organs in general, it occurred to me that it would be possible to induce in it a negative curvature by application of indirect unilateral stimulus. _experiment ._--a tendril of _passiflora_ was held in a clamp, as in the diagram (fig. ) in which the left is the more excitable side of the organ. the responsive movement of the tendril is observed by focussing a reading microscope on a mark on the upper part of the tendril. direct mechanical stimulation at the dotted arrow makes the tendril move in the same direction, the response being _positive_. but if stimulus be applied on the same side below the clamp the tendril is found to move away from stimulus, the response being now _negative_. this reversal of response, as previously stated, is due to the fact that the transmitted effect of indirect stimulus induces an acceleration of growth higher up on the same side, which now becomes convex. the result though unexpected, is in every way parallel to the response of the flower bud of _crinum_, in which the normal positive response was converted into negative by changing the point of application of stimulus, so that it became indirect (p. ). summary. the response of tendril is in no way different from that of growing organs in general. direct stimulus, electrical or mechanical, induces an incipient contraction; the after-effect of a feeble stimulus is an acceleration of growth above the normal. indirect stimulus induces an enhancement of the rate of growth. under unilateral mechanical stimulus of short duration the directly excited proximal side undergoes contraction, the indirectly stimulated distal side exhibits the opposite effect of expansion. the induced curvature is thus due to the joint effects of the contraction of one side, and the expansion of the opposite side. as the after-effect of direct stimulus is an acceleration of growth above the normal, the stimulated side undergoes an expansion by which the recovery is hastened. unilateral application of direct stimulus induces a _positive_ curvature, but the same stimulus applied at a distance from the responding region induces a _negative_ curvature. the tendril of _passiflora_ is excitable both on the upper and under sides: the excitability of the under side is about seven times greater than that of the upper side. stimulation of one side of the tendril induces an expansion of the opposite side, even in cases where the contractility of the stimulated side is feeble. the response to stimulation of the more excitable side of the tendril is thus inhibited by the stimulation of the opposite side. this is because of the neutralisation of the effect of direct by that of indirect stimulation. xxvii.--on galvanotropism _by_ sir j. c. bose, _assisted by_ guruprasanna das. before describing the effect of unilateral application of an electrical current in inducing tropic curvature, i shall give an account of the polar effect of anode and cathode on the pulvinated and growing organs. in my previous work[ ] on the action of electrical current on sensitive pulvini i have shown that:-- ( ) at the 'make' of a current of moderate intensity a contraction takes place at the cathode; the anode induces no such contractile effect; ( ) at the 'make' of a stronger current both the anode and cathode induce contraction. [ ] "irritability of plants," p. . i have also carried out further investigations on the polar effect of current on the autonomous activity of the leaflet of _desmodium gyrans_. these rhythmic pulsations can be recorded by my oscillating recorder. each pulsation consists of a sudden contractile movement downwards, corresponding to the systole of a beating heart, and a slower up movement of diastolic expansion. application of cathode at the pulvinule was found to exert a _contractile_ reaction, exhibited either by the reduction of normal limit of diastolic expansion, or by an arrest of movement at systole. the effect of anode was precisely the opposite; the induced _expansion_ was exhibited either by reduction of normal limit of systolic contraction, or by arrest of pulsation at diastole. from the above results it is seen that with a feeble current: ( ) contraction is induced at the cathode, and ( ) expansion is brought about at the anode. these effects take place under the action of a feeble current. under strong currents, contraction takes place both at the anode and the cathode. polar effect of electrical current on growth. the object of this investigation was to determine whether anode and cathode exerted similar discriminative and opposite effects on growth. for this experiment i took a specimen of _kysoor_ and determined the region where growth was maximum. a piece of moist cloth was wrapped round this region to serve as one of the two electrodes. the second electrode was placed in the neighbouring indifferent region where there had been a cessation of growth. _effect of cathode: experiment ._--the particular specimen of _kysoor_ had a normal rate of growth of · µ per second. on application of the cathode the rate was reduced to · µ per second, or to less than a third. this will be seen in record (fig. ), where n is the normal rate of growth and k, retarded rate under the action of the cathode. [illustration: fig. .--retardation of rate of growth under the action of cathode (_kysoor_).] [illustration: fig. .--acceleration of rate of growth under anode (_kysoor_).] _effect of anode: experiment ._--if the cathode induced a retardation, the anode might be expected to induce an acceleration of growth. but in my first experiment on the action of anode, i could detect no perceptible variation of rate of growth. in trying to account for this failure, i found that the specimen employed for the experiment had normally a very rapid rate of growth. it appeared that an induced acceleration would be brought out more conspicuously by choosing a specimen in which the growth-rate was low, rather than in one in which it was near its maximum. acting on this idea, i took another specimen of _kysoor_ in which the normal rate was as slow as · µ per second. on applying the anode to the growing region, there was an enhancement to one and half times the normal rate (fig. ). table xxviii.--effect of anode and cathode on growth (_kysoor_). specimen a normal rate · µ per sec. acceleration under anode · µ per sec. specimen b normal rate · µ per sec. retardation under cathode · µ per sec. the effects given above take place under the action of a feeble current. strong current on the other hand induces a retardation or an arrest of growth. i have in the above experiments demonstrated the normal effect of anode in inducing expansion and acceleration of rate of growth; the cathode was shown to induce contraction and retardation of growth. unilateral application of anode and cathode thus induces appropriate curvatures in pulvinated and in growing organs. summary. the effects of an electric current on growth is modified by the direction of current. a feeble anodic current enhances the rate of growth; a cathodic current on the other hand induces a retardation of the rate. strong current, both anodic and cathodic, induces a retardation. xxviii.--on thermonastic phenomena _by_ sir j. c. bose, _assisted by_ surendra chandra das. in describing thermonastic curvatures pfeffer says that "a special power of thermonastic response has been developed by various flowers, in which low temperatures produce closing movements, and high temperatures, opening ones. the flowers of _crocus vernus_ and _crocus luteus_ are specially responsive, as also those of _tulipa gesneriana_ for these flowers perceptibly respond to a change of temperature of half a degree centigrade."[ ] [ ] pfeffer--_ibid_, vol. iii, p. . we have hitherto studied the response of various organs to _stimulus_; we have now to deal with the effect of thermal variation. does rise of temperature act like other forms of stimuli or is its action different? we have therefore to find: ( ) the physiological effect of variation of temperature. ( ) whether thermonastic irritability is confined only to certain classes of organs, or is it a phenomenon of very wide occurrence? ( ) whether variation of temperature induces in anisotropic organs only one type of response, or two types, positive and negative. ( ) the law which determines the direction of responsive movement. effect of rise of temperature. as regards the effect of rise of temperature we have seen that, within normal limits, it induces expansion and acceleration of the rate of growth. stimulus, on the other hand, induces precisely the opposite effect. hence the physiological reaction of steady rise of temperature is, generally speaking, antagonistic to that of stimulus. this conclusion is supported by numerous experiments which i have carried out with various plant organs. example of this will be found in the present and subsequent chapters. different thermonastic organs. the only condition requisite for the exhibition of response is the differential excitability of an anisotropic organ. it is therefore likely to be exhibited by a large variety of plant organs, such as pulvini, petioles, leaves, and flowers, and my results show that this is actually the case. this particular sensibility, moreover, is not confined to delicate structures, but is extended to rigid trees and their branches. before proceeding further, it is necessary to draw attention to the confusion which arises from the use of the common prefix '_thermo_' in thermonasty and thermo-tropism. with regard to this pfeffer says "it is not known whether radiated and conducted heat exercise a similar thermotropic reaction."[ ] i shall show that the reactions to radiant heat, and to conducted heat (rise of temperature) are of opposite character, radiation inducing contraction, and rise of temperature, expansion. it is therefore advisable to distinguish the thermal, or temperature effect, from the radio-thermal effect of infra-red radiation. [ ] pfeffer--_ibid_, vol. iii, p. . two types of response. as regards the effect of variation of temperature i shall proceed to show that there are two distinct types, which i shall, for convenience, distinguish as the _positive_ and _negative_. positive thermonastic reaction is exhibited by organs in which the upper half is the more excitable. response to rise of temperature is by _downward_ or _outward_ movement. in floral organs this finds expression by a movement of opening. in illustration of this may be cited the examples of the well known crocus and also of _zephyranthes_. negative thermonastic movement is shown by organs in which the lower half is the more excitable. here the response to rise of temperature is by an _upward_ or _inward_ movement. i shall show that an example of this is furnished by the flower of _nymphæa_ which closes under rise, and opens during fall of temperature. positive thermonastic response. _response of zephyranthes: experiment ._--viewed from the top, the inner side of the petal of a flower is the upper side. the _crocus_ flower under rise of temperature opens outwards by expansion of the inner side, which must be the more excitable. as _crocus_ was not available in calcutta, i found the flower of _zephyranthes_ (sometimes called the indian _crocus_) reacting to variation of temperature in a manner similar to that of _crocus_, that is to say, the flower opens under rise and closes with a fall of temperature. for obtaining record all the perianth segments but one was removed. this segment was attached to the recording lever. on lowering of temperature through °c. there was an up-movement, or a movement of closure. rise of temperature induced, on the other hand, a movement of opening. [illustration: fig. .--thermonastic and radionastic responses of petal of _zephyranthes_ c, closing movement due to cooling, and h, opening movement due to warming; r, closing movement due to heat-radiation. note opposite responses to rise of temperature and to thermal radiation.] _effect of thermal radiation: experiment ._--i stated that the effect of thermal radiation acts as a stimulus, inducing a reaction which is antagonistic to that of rise of temperature. in verification of this, i subjected the specimen to the action of infra-red radiation acting from all sides. the result is seen in the responsive movement of closure (fig. r). these experiments demonstrate clearly that the responses to rise of temperature and thermal radiation are of opposite signs. as a movement of closure was induced by the diffuse stimulus of thermal radiation, it is evident that this must have been brought about by the greater contraction of the inner half of the perianth; hence the inner half of the organ is relatively the more excitable. [illustration: fig. .--the thermonastic recorder. t, metallic thermometer attached to the short arm of the upper lever; the specimen of _nymphæa_, n, has one of its perianth leaves attached to the short arm of the second lever by a thread. c, clockwork for oscillation of the plate.] negative thermonastic response. _response of_ nymphæa: _experiment ._--many of the indian _nymphæaceæ_ have their sepals and petals closed during the day, and open at night. i find that the perianth leaves of this flower are markedly sensitive to variation of temperature. the thermonastic recorder employed in this investigation is shown in figure . the record given in figure shows that the perianth segment, subjected to a few degrees' rise of temperature, responded by an up-movement of closure, due to greater expansion of the outer half. the latent period was seconds, and the maximum effect was attained in the further course of seconds. this experiment shows that the thermonastic response of this flower is of the negative type. [illustration: fig. .--negative thermonastic response of _nymphæa_. application of warmth at the vertical mark induced up-movement of closure, but stimulus of electric shock at arrow induced rapid excitatory down movement of opening. successive dots at intervals of a second.] _effect of stimulus: experiment ._--in the positive type of thermonastic organs, where rise of temperature induced a movement of opening, stimulus induced the opposite movement of closure (expt. ). we shall now study the effect of stimulus on the movement of _nymphæa_, which undergoes closure during rise of temperature, as seen in the first part of the record in figure . stimulus of electric shock was applied at the point marked with an arrow; the response is seen to be by a movement of opening. here also we find the effects of rise of temperature and of stimulus to be antagonistic to each other. this will be clearly seen in the following tabular statement. table xxix.--showing the effect of rise of temperature and of stimulus on thermonastic organs. +---------------------------------------------------------------+ | specimen. | effect of rise | effect of stimulus. | | | of temperature. | | +------------------+---------------------+----------------------+ | _zephyranthes_ | movement of opening | movement of closure. | | (positive type). | | | | | | | | _nymphæa_ | movement of closure | movement of opening. | | (negative type). | | | +---------------------------------------------------------------+ in _nymphæa_ it is the outer side of the perianth that is relatively the more excitable since diffuse electric stimulus induces a movement of opening due to the greater contraction of the outer side. it is by the greater expansion of this more excitable side that the movement of closure is effected during rise of temperature. from the results of experiments given above we arrive at the following:-- law of thermonastic reaction rise of temperature induces a greater expansion of the more excitable half of an anisotropic organ. summary. thermonastic movements are induced by the differential physiological effect of variation of temperature on the two halves of an anisotropic organ. rise of temperature induces greater expansion, and enhancement of rate of growth of the more excitable half of the organ; lowering of temperature induces the opposite effect. two types of thermonastic movements are met with, the _positive_ exhibiting a movement of opening during rise of temperature; in these the inner half of the organ is relatively the more excitable. example of this is seen in the _crocus_ and in _zephyranthes_. in the _negative_ type, rise of temperature induces a movement of closure. here the outer half of the organ is the more excitable. the flower of _nymphæa_ belongs to this type. the effect of stimulus is antagonistic to that of rise of temperature. in positive thermonastic organs stimulus induces a movement of closure; in the negative type it induces a movement of opening. xxix.--on phototropism _by_ sir j. c. bose. in different organs of plants the stimulus of light induces movements of an extremely varied character. radial organs exhibit tropic movements in which the position of equilibrium is definitely related to the direction of incident stimulus. nastic movements under the action of light are, on the other hand, regarded as curvatures of the organ which show "no relation to the stimulus but is determined by the activity of the plant itself".[ ] there are thus two classes of response to light which seem to be unrelated to each other. returning to the directive action of light, radial stems often bend towards the light, while certain roots bend away from it. it may be thought that this difference is due to specific difference of irritability between shoot and root, the irritability of the former being of a positive, and of the latter, of a negative character. but there are numerous exceptions to this generalisation. certain roots bend towards the light, while a stem, under different circumstances, moves towards light or away from it. again an identical organ may exhibit a positive or a negative curvature. thus the leaflets of _mimosa pudica_ acted on by light from above fold upwards, the phototropic effect being _positive_. but the same leaflets acted on by light from below exhibit a folding upwards, the phototropic effect being now _negative_. effects precisely the opposite are found with the leaflets of _biophytum_ and _averrhoa_. they fold downwards whether light acts from above or below. finally, a radial organ in found to exhibit under light of increasing intensity or duration, a positive, a dia-phototropic, or a negative phototropic curvature. [ ] jost--_ibid_, p. . in these circumstances the theory of specific positive and negative irritabilities is untenable; in any case, it throws no light on the phenomenon of movement. the difficulties of the problem are thus clearly stated by pfeffer: "when we say that an organ curves towards a source of illumination, because of its heliotropic irritability and we are simply expressing an ascertained fact in a conveniently abbreviated form, without explaining why such curvature is possible or how it is produced.... many observers have unfortunately devoted their attention to artificially classifying the phenomenon observed, and have entirely neglected the explanation of causes underlying them."[ ] [ ] pfeffer--_ibid_, vol. ii, p. . complexity of problem of phototropic reaction. the complexity of phototropic reaction arises from the summated effects of numerous factors; for explanation of the resultant response it is therefore necessary to take full account of the individual effect of each of them. among these operative factors in phototropic reaction may be mentioned:-- ( ) the difference of effects induced by light at the proximal and distal sides of the organ. ( ) the modification of the latent period with the intensity of stimulus. ( ) the after-effect of stimulus. ( ) the modifying influence of tonic condition on response. ( ) the effect of direction of light. ( ) the effect of intensity of light. ( ) the effect of duration of stimulation. ( ) the transmitted effect of light. ( ) the effect of unequal excitability in different zones of the organ. ( ) the effect of transverse conduction in modification of the sign of response. ( ) the effect of temperature on phototropic action. ( ) the modification of response due to differential excitability of the organ. ( ) nastic and tropic reactions. ( ) the torsional effect of light. the sketch given above will give us some idea of the complexity of the problem. in this and in the following papers i shall describe the investigations i have carried out on the subjects detailed above. action of light. i have shown that there is no essential difference between the responses of pulvinated and growing organs, that diminution of turgor induced by stimulus brings about contraction in the one, and retardation of the rate of growth in the other. indirect stimulation, on the other hand, induces an expansion and acceleration of the rate of growth. the experimental investigation on the tropic effect of light may therefore be carried out both with pulvinated and growing organs. as regards the effect of direct stimulus of light on growing organs we found (p. ) that it induces an incipient contraction, seen in diminution of the rate of growth; this incipient contraction culminates in an actual contraction under increasing intensity of light. the contraction under direct stimulation is also observed in pulvinated organs. when light acts from above the upper half of the pulvinus undergoes contraction, resulting in erection of the motile leaf or leaflets. as regards the effect of indirect unilateral stimulus of light on the distal side of the organ, we found that its effect is an enhancement of turgor (p. ). hence the positive tropic curvature under light is brought about, as in the case of other forms of stimuli, by the contraction of the proximal, and expansion of the distal sides of the organ. various analogies have been noticed between phototropic and geotropic reactions, and it has been supposed that the two phenomena are closely related to each other. this has even led to assumption that there are phototropic particles which function like statoliths in geotropic organs. there is, however, certain outstanding difference between the two classes of phenomena. in the case of light, the incident energy is entirely derived from the outside. but in geotropism, the force of gravity by itself is ineffective without the intervention of the weight of cell-contents to exert pressure on the sensitive ectoplasm, and thus induce stimulation. this aspect of the subject will be treated in greater detail in a subsequent chapter. positive phototropic curvature. i shall now describe the phototropic effect of unilateral light in pulvinated, and in growing organs. from the explanation that has already been given, it will be understood that the side of the organ directly acted on by light undergoes contraction and concavity. _tropic curvature of pulvinated organs: experiment ._--for this experiment i employed the terminal leaflet of the bean plant. the source of illumination was c.p. electric lamp, enclosed in a metallic tube with circular aperture for passage of light. the leaflet was attached to an oscillating recorder. light was applied on the upper half of the pulvinus for seconds; this induced an up-movement of the leaflet, due to the contraction of the upper half of the organ. recovery took place in course of minutes (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--successive positive responses of the terminal leaflet of bean. light applied from above for seconds; complete recovery in minutes.] positive phototropic curvature of growing organs. _effect of moderate stimulation: experiment ._--i shall presently show that the intensity of phototropic reaction depends on the intensity and duration of the incident light. a moderate and effective stimulation may thus be produced by short exposure to strong light. for my present experiment i took a stem of _dregea volubilis_, and applied light from a small arc lamp to one side of the organ for minute; this induced a positive curvature followed by complete recovery on the cessation of light (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--positive curvature under moderate phototropic stimulation. note complete recovery (_dregea_).] [illustration: fig. .--persistent positive curvature under stronger stimulation (_dregea_).] _effect of strong stimulation: experiment ._--after recovery of the stem of the last experiment, the same light was applied for minutes. it is seen that the curvature is greatly increased (fig. ). thus the phototropic curvature increases, within limits, with the duration of stimulation. the curvature induced under stronger stimulation remained more or less persistent. in certain instances there was a partial recovery after a considerable length of time; in others curvature was fixed by growth. phenomenon of recovery. on the cessation of stimulus of moderate intensity the heliotropically curved organ straightens itself; similar effects are also found in other tropic curvatures. thus a tendril straightens itself after curvature induced by contact of short duration. the theory of rectipitality has been proposed to account for the recovery, which assumes the action of an unknown regulating power by which the organ is brought back to a straight line; but beyond the assumption of an unknown specific power, the theory affords no explanation of the mechanism by which this is brought about. the problem before us is to find out the means by which the organ straightens itself after brief stimulation. it will also be necessary to find out why there is no recovery after prolonged stimulation. we have thus to investigate the after-effect of stimulus of various intensities on growth, and the balanced method of recording growth offers us an unique opportunity of studying the characteristic after-effects. immediate and after-effect of light on growth. as regards the effect of light i have already shown: ( ) that a sub-minimal stimulus induces an acceleration of growth, but under long continued action the acceleration is converted into normal retardation (p. ), ( ) that a stimulus of moderate intensity induces the normal retardation of the rate of growth. it is evident that there is a _critical intensity_ of stimulus, above which there is a retardation, and below which there is the opposite reaction of acceleration. this critical intensity, i have found to be low in vigorous specimens, and high in sub-tonic specimens. thus the same intensity of stimulus may induce a retardation of growth in specimens the tonic condition of which is _above par_, and an acceleration in others, in which it is _below par_. the following experiments will demonstrate the immediate and after-effect of light of increasing intensity and duration. [illustration: fig. .--immediate and after-effect of stimulus of light on growth. (_a_) shows immediate effect of moderate light to be a transitory acceleration (down-curve) followed by retardation (up-curve). the after-effect on cessation of light is an acceleration (down-curve) followed by restoration to normal. (_b_) immediate and after-effect of stronger light: immediate effect, a retardation; after-effect, recovery to normal rate without acceleration.] _effect of light of moderate intensity: experiment ._--the source of light was a small arc lamp placed at a distance of cm., the intensity of incident light was increased or decreased by bringing the source of light nearer or further away from the plant. two inclined mirrors were placed behind the plant so that the specimen was acted on by light from all sides. a seedling of wheat was mounted on the balanced crescograph, and record was first taken under exact balance; this gives a horizontal record. the up-curve represents retardation, and down-curve acceleration of rate of growth. the source of light was at first placed at a distance of cm. from the plant, and exposure was given for minutes at the point marked with an arrow (fig. a). we shall find in the next chapter that the _intensity of phototropic effect is proportional to the quantity of incident light_. this quantity at the beginning proved to be sub-minimal, and hence there was an acceleration at the beginning. continued action induced the normal effect of retardation, as seen in the subsequent resulting up-curve. on the cessation of light, the balance was upset in an opposite direction, the resulting down-curve showing an acceleration of the rate of growth above the normal. this acceleration persisted for a time, after which the normal rate of growth was restored, as seen in the curve becoming once more horizontal. _the after-effect of light of moderate intensity is thus a temporary acceleration of rate of growth above the normal._ _effect of strong light: experiment ._--the same specimen was used as in the last experiment. by bringing the source of light to a distance of cm. the intensity of light was increased fourfold; the duration of exposure was kept the same as before. the record (fig. b) shows that a retardation of rate of growth occurred from the very beginning without the preliminary acceleration. this is for two reasons: ( ) the increased intensity was now above the critical minimum, and ( ) the tone of the organ had become improved by previous stimulation. on the cessation of light, the after-effect showed no enhancement of rate of growth, the recovery from retardation to the normal rate being gradual. in the next experiment (the result of which is not given in the record) the intensity of light was increased still further; the retardation now became very marked, and it persisted for a long time even on the cessation of light. we thus find that: ( ) the immediate effect of light of moderate intensity is a preliminary acceleration, followed by normal retardation. the acceleration is the effect of sub-minimal stimulation. the immediate after-effect is an acceleration above the normal. ( ) the immediate effect of strong light is a retardation from the beginning; the immediate after-effect shows no acceleration, the growth rate being gradually restored to the normal. ( ) under very strong light the induced retardation is very great, and this persists for a long time even on the removal of light. the experiments described explains the reasons of complete recovery after moderate stimulation, and also the absence of recovery after strong stimulation. the immediate after-effect of moderate stimulation is shown to be an acceleration of rate above the normal. returning to tropic curvature, the contraction at the proximal side induced by unilateral light is thus compensated by the accelerated rate of growth on the cessation of light. there is no such compensation in the case of strong and long continued action of light; for the after-effect of strong light shows no such acceleration as the immediate after-effect. we may perhaps go a step further in explaining this difference. stimulus was found to induce at the same time two physico-chemical reactions of opposite signs (p. ). one is the 'up' or a-change, associated with increase of potential energy of the system, and the other is associated with 'down' or d-change, by which there is a run-down or depletion of energy. with moderate stimulation the a-and-d effects are more or less comparable to each other. but under strong stimulation the down-change is relatively greater. hence on cessation of moderate stimulation the increase of potential energy, associated with a-change, finds expression in enhancement of the rate of growth. the depletion of energy under strong stimulation is, however, too great to be compensated by the a-change. latent period of phototropic reaction. with reference to the latent period jost thus summarizes the known results:[ ] "the latent period of the heliotropic stimulus has already been determined. according to czapek it amounts to minutes in the cotyledons of _avena_ and in _phycomyces_; minutes in hypocotyls of _sinapis alba_ and _beta vulgaris_, minutes in the hypocotyl of _helianthus_, and minutes in the epicotyl of _phaseolus_. if one of these organs be unilaterally illuminated for the specified time, heliotropic curvature ensues afterwards in the dark, that is to say, we meet with an after-effect in this case as in geotropism. we are quite ignorant, however, as to whether and how the latent period is dependent on the intensity of light." [ ] jost--_ibid_, p. . with regard to the question of relation of the latent period to the intensity of stimulus i have shown (p. ) that the latent period is shortened under increasing intensity of stimulus. in the case of tropic curvature induced by light, i find that the latent period is reduced under increasing intensity of light. the shortest latent period found by czapek, as stated before, was minutes. but by employing high magnification for record, i find that the latent period of phototropic action under strong light to be a question of seconds. [illustration: fig. .--latent period for photic stimulation at vertical line. successive dots at intervals of seconds. (_erythrina indica_).] _determination of the latent period: experiment ._--i give a record of response (fig. ) of the terminal leaflet of _erythrina inidca_ to light acting from above. the recording plate was made to move at a fast rate, the successive dots being at intervals of seconds. the latent period in this case is seen to be seconds. by the employment of stronger light i have obtained latent period which is very much shorter. the term latent period is used in two different sense. it may mean the interval between the application of stimulus and the initiation of response. in the experiment described above, the latent period is to be understood in this sense. but in the extract given above, jost uses the term latent period as the shortest period of exposure necessary to induce phototropic reaction as an after-effect. what then is the shortest exposure that will induce a retardation of growth? for this investigation i employed the very sensitive method of the balanced crescograph. [illustration: fig. .--effect of a single electric spark on variation of growth. record taken by balanced crescograph. up-curve shows induced retardation of growth; the after-effect is an acceleration (down-curve) followed by restoration to normal.] growth-variation by flash of light from a single spark. _experiment ._--i stated that the more intense is the light, the shorter is the latent period. the duration of a single spark discharge from a leyden jar is almost instantaneous, the duration of discharge being of the order of / , th of a second. the single discharge was made to take place between two small steel spheres, the light given out by the spark being rich in effective ultra-violet rays. the plant used for the experiment was a seedling of wheat. it was mounted on the balanced crescograph, and its normal growth was exactly compensated as seen in the first part of the record. the spark gap was placed at a distance of cm. from the plant; there was the usual arrangement of inclined mirrors for illumination of the plant. the flash of light from a single spark is seen to induce a sudden retardation of rate of growth which lasted for one and half minutes. the record (fig. ) shows another interesting peculiarity of acceleration as an after-effect of moderate stimulation. after the retardation which lasted for seconds, there is an acceleration of growth above the normal, which persisted for minutes, after which the rate of growth returned to the normal. in order to show that the induced variation is due to the action of light and not to any other disturbance, i interposed a sheet of ebonite between the spark-gap and the plant. the production of spark produced no effect, but the removal of the ebonite screen was at once followed by the characteristic response. maximum positive curvature under continued action of light. the positive curvature is, as we have seen, due to the contraction of the proximal side and expansion of the distal side. the curvature will increase with growing contraction of the proximal side; a maximum curvature is however reached since: ( ) the contraction of the cells must have a limit, ( ) the bending organ offers increasing resistance to curvature, and ( ) the induced curvature tends to place the organ parallel to the direction of light when the tropic effect is reduced to a minimum. the pulvinus of _erythrina_ exemplifies the type of reaction in which the positive curvature reaches a maximum, (see below fig. ) beyond which there is no further change. this is due to absence of transverse conductivity in the organ. the modifying effect of transverse conductivity on response will be dealt with in the next chapter. summary. the positive phototropic curvature is brought about by the joint effects of the directly stimulated proximal, and indirectly stimulated distal side. the phototropically curved organ undergoes recovery after brief stimulation. the recovery after moderate stimulation is hastened by the previously stimulated side exhibiting an acceleration of the rate of growth above the normal. the after-effects of photic and mechanical stimulation are similar. the latent period of photic reaction is shortened with the increasing intensity of light. the seedling of wheat responds to a flash of light from an electric spark, the duration of which is about a hundred thousandth part of a second. tissues in which the power of transverse conduction is negligible, the positive phototropic curvature under continued action of light attains a maximum without subsequent neutralisation or reversal. xxx.--dia-phototropism and negative phototropism _by_ sir j. c. bose, _assisted by_ guruprasanna das. i have explained how under the action of unilateral light the positive curvature attains a maximum. there are, however, cases where under the continued action of strong light the tropic movement undergoes a reversal. thus to quote jost: "each organism may be found in one of the three different conditions determined by the light intensity, _viz._ ( ) a condition of positive heliotropism, ( ) a condition of indifference, ( ) a condition of negative heliotropism"[ ]. no explanation has however been offered as to why the same organ should exhibit at different times, a positive, a neutral, and a negative irritability. these changing effects exhibited by an identical organ is thus incompatible with the theory of specific sensibility, assumed in explanation of characteristic differences in phototropic response. [ ] jost--_ibid_--p. . in regard to this i would draw attention to an important factor which modifies the tropic response, namely, the effect of transverse conduction of excitation. i shall presently describe in detail a typical experiment of the effect of unilateral stimulus of light on the responsive movement of main pulvinus of _mimosa pudica_. the results will be found of much theoretical interest, since a single experiment will give an insight to all possible types of phototropic response. before describing the experiment i shall demonstrate the tropic reactions of the two halves of the pulvinus of _mimosa_. unequal excitability of upper and lower halves of pulvinus to photic stimulation. i have by method of selective amputation shown that as regards electric stimulation the excitability of the upper half of the pulvinus is very much less than that of the lower half (p. ). i have obtained similar results with photic stimulation. _tropic effect of light acting from above: experiment ._--light of moderate intensity from an incandescent electric lamp was applied on the upper half of the pulvinus of _mimosa_ for minutes; this induced a contraction of the stimulated upper half and gave rise to an up or erectile response. on the stoppage of light recovery took place in the course of ten minutes. the phototropic curvature is thus seen to be positive. a series of such positive responses of the upper half of the pulvinus is given in figure . _effect of light acting from below: experiment ._--light was now applied from below; this also induced a contraction of the lower half of the pulvinus, causing a down-movement (fig. ). as the responsive movement is towards light, the phototropic effect must be regarded as positive. the greater excitability of the lower half of the pulvinus is shown by the fact that the response of the lower half of the pulvinus to ten seconds' exposure is even larger than that given by the upper half under the prolonged exposure of seconds. [illustration: fig. .--series of up-responses of _mimosa_ leaf to light applied on upper half of pulvinus.] [illustration: fig. .--down-responses given by the same plant on application of light from below.] transformation of positive to negative phototropic curvature. _experiment ._--a beam of light from a small arc lamp was thrown on the upper half of the pulvinus. after a latent period of seconds, a positive curvature was initiated, by the contraction of the upper and expansion of the lower side of the organ. but under continued action of light, the excitatory impulse reached the lower half of the organ, causing a rapid fall of the leaf, and a _negative_ curvature. the arrival of transmitted excitation at the more excitable distal half of the organ is clearly demonstrated by the very rapid down-movement, seen as the up-curve in the record (fig. ). in sensitive specimens this movement is so abrupt and rapid, that the writing lever is jerked off above the recording plate before making a dot on it. the thickness of the pulvinus was · mm., the distance which the excitatory impulse has to traverse to reach the lower half would thus be about · mm. the period for transverse transmission of excitation under strong light was found to vary in different cases from to seconds. the velocity of transmission of excitation in a transverse direction through the pulvinus is about · mm. per second, which is not very different from · mm. per second in the stem (p. ). [illustration: fig. .--record of effect of continuous application of light on upper half of pulvinus of _mimosa_ leaf. note erectile response (positive curvature) followed by neutralisation and pronounced reversal into negative due to transverse conduction of excitation. up-movement shown by down curve, and _vice versâ_.] returning to the main experiment we find that: ( ) as a result of unilateral action of light, there was positive phototropic curvature which lasted for seconds. ( ) owing to the internal conduction of excitation the positive effect underwent neutralisation by the excitatory contraction of the distal side. this neutralisation depends on four factors: (_a_) on the intensity of the stimulus, (_b_) on the conductivity of the organ in a transverse direction, (_c_) on the thickness of the intervening tissue, and (_d_) on the relative excitability of the distal as compared to the proximal side. the extent of positive curvature also depends on the pliability of the organ. ( ) in anisotropic organs where the distal side is physiologically the more excitable than the proximal, the internally diffused excitation brings about a greater contraction of the distal, and the _positive_ phototropic curvature becomes reversed to a very pronounced _negative_. the effect of the internally diffused stimulus is thus the same as that of external diffuse stimulus. ( ) when the stimulus is applied on the more excitable half of the organ, the result is a predominant contraction of that half, which cannot be neutralised by the excitation conducted to the less excitable half of the organ. as the curvature is towards the stimulus, the phototropic curvature thus remains positive, even under continued stimulation. the positive curvature is due to the differential action of unilateral stimulus on the proximal and distal sides. but when a strong light is made to act continuously on one side of an organ, the excitation becomes internally diffused, and the differential effect on the two sides is reduced in amount or vanishes altogether. owing to the weak transverse conductivity of the tissue, while the effect of a feeble stimulus remains localised, that of a stronger stimulus is conducted across it. oltmanns found that the seedling of _lepidium sativum_ assumed a transverse or dia-phototropic position under intense and long continued action of light of , hefner lamps. he regards this as the indifferent position. but the neutralisation of curvature is not, as explained before, due to a condition of indifference, but to the antagonistic effects of the two opposite sides of the organ, the proximal being stimulated by the direct, and the distal by the transversely conducted excitation. i obtained such neutralisation with _dregea volubilis_ under the prolonged unilateral action of arc-light. the first effect was positive; this was gradually and continuously neutralised under exposure for two hours; even then the neutralisation was not complete. i shall presently adduce instances where the neutralisation was not merely complete, but the final effect was an actual reversal into negative response. supposed phototropic ineffectiveness of sunlight. i may here consider the remarkable fact that has been observed, but for which no explanation has been forthcoming, that "direct sunlight is too bright to bring about heliotropic curvature, only diffuse, not direct sunlight has the power of inducing heliotropic movements."[ ] but we cannot conceive of light suddenly losing its phototropic effect by an increase of intensity. the experiment just described will offer full explanation for this apparent anomaly. feeble or moderate stimulus remains, as we have seen, localised, hence the contraction of the proximal side gives rise to positive curvature. but the intense excitation caused by sunlight would be transmitted to the distal side and thus bring about neutralisation. it is the observation of the final result that has misled observers as to the inefficiency of direct sunlight. a continuous record of the response of the organ shows, on the other hand, that the first effect of strong light is a positive curvature, and that under its continuous action the positive effect becomes neutralised (cf. fig. ). in the study of phototropic action, the employment of strong light has many advantages, since the period of experiment is, by this means, materially shortened. the continuous record then gives an epitome of the various phases of reaction. [ ] jost--_ibid_--p. . negative phototropism. i shall next show the continuity of responsive phototropic effects, from the positive curvature to the negative, through the intermediate phase of neutralisation. i have in the preceding paragraph described an experiment where under a given intensity and duration of exposure the excitations of the proximal and distal sides bring about neutralisation, the organ assuming a dia-phototropic position. if the intensity or duration of the stimulating light be further increased, it is easy to see that while excitation transmitted to the distal side is being increased, the excitatory contraction on the proximal side may, at the same time, be decreased owing to fatigue brought on by over-stimulation. in connection with this it should be borne in mind that the pulvinus of _mimosa_ exhibits under continuous stimulation, a fatigue relaxation instead of normal contraction. similar effects are known to take place in animal muscles. the effect of relatively greater excitation will thus give rise to negative phototropic curvature. the transverse conductivity of organs of diverse plants will necessarily be different. the neutralisation and reversal into negative will thus depend on three factors: the transverse conductivity of the organ, the intensity, and duration of stimulus. _neutralisation and reversal under increased intensity of light: experiment ._--it is advisable to employ thin specimens (in which the transverse distance is small) for the exhibition of reversal effect. i took a hypocotyl of _sinapis nigra_ and subjected it to unilateral action of light from a candle-power incandescent electric lamp placed at a distance of cm. a maximum positive curvature was induced in the course of minutes. the intensity of light was afterwards increased by bringing the lamp nearer to a distance of cm. this resulted in a process of neutralisation of the preceding response; after an exposure of minutes the specimen assumed a dia-phototropic position in which it remained in equilibrium. sunlight was next applied, and in the further course of minutes there was a pronounced reversal into negative phototropic curvature. [illustration: fig. .--positive and negative phototropic responses of _oryza_ under continued unilateral stimulus of intense light from arc lamp.] _neutralisation and reversal under continuous stimulation: experiment ._--in the last experiment the different changes in the response were brought about by successive increase in the intensity of light. in the present experiment, very strong light was applied from the beginning, and continuous record was taken of the change in the response. in order to reduce the period of experiment i employed a mercury vapour lamp which emits the most effective violet and ultra-violet rays. the specimen used was a seedling of the rice plant (_oryza sativa_). the first effect of light was a positive curvature which attained its maximum; after this there was a neutralisation in less than six minutes after the application of light. the further continuation of light induced a pronounced negative curvature (fig. ). i shall in the next chapter give other instances which will show that all organs (pulvinated and growing) possessed of power of transverse conduction, exhibit a transformation of response from positive to negative under continued action of strong light. thus an identical organ, under different conditions of intensity and duration of stimulus, exhibits _positive_ phototropic, _dia_-phototropic, and _negative_ phototropic curvatures, proving conclusively that the three effects are not due to three distinct irritabilities. the responsive movements are, on the other hand, traced to a fundamental excitatory reaction, remaining either localised or increasingly transmitted to the distal side. negative phototropism of roots. from the analogy of opposite responses of shoot and root to stimulus of gravity, it was surmised that the root would respond to light by a negative curvature. this was apparently confirmed by the negative phototropic curvature of the root of _sinapis_. the supposed analogy is however false; for while the stimulus of gravity acts, in the case of root, only on a restricted area of the tip, the stimulus of light is not necessarily restricted in the area of its action. that there is no true analogy between the action of light and gravitation is seen from the fact that while gravitation induces in the root a movement opposite to that in the stem, in the case of light, this is not always so; for though a few roots turn away from light, others move towards the light. as regards negative phototropic response of the root of _sinapis_, it will be shown (p. ) to be brought about by algebraical summation of the effects of direct and indirect photic stimulus. summary. the normal positive phototropic curvature is modified by transverse conduction of true excitation to the distal side of the organ. the extent of neutralisation or reversal due to internal conduction of excitation from the proximal to the distal side of the organ depends: (_a_) on the intensity of the incident stimulus, (_b_) on the conductivity of the organ in a transverse direction, (_c_) on the thickness of the intervening tissue, and (_d_) on the relative excitability of the distal as compared to the proximal side. the dia-phototropic position is not one of indifference, but of balanced antagonistic reactions of two opposite sides of the organ. the supposition that direct sunlight is phototropically ineffective is unfounded. the response is fully vigorous, but the first positive curvature may in certain cases be neutralised by the transmission of excitation to the distal side. under light of strong intensity and long duration, the transmitted excitation to the distal side neutralises, and finally reverses the positive into negative curvature. the _positive_-phototropic, the _dia_-phototropic, and the _negative_ phototropic curvatures are not due to three distinct irritabilities but are brought about by a fundamental excitatory reaction remaining localised or increasingly transmitted to the distal side. xxxi.--the relation between the quantity of light and the induced phototropic curvature _by_ sir j. c. bose, _assisted by_ surendra chandra das, m.a. i shall in this chapter describe experiments in support of the important proposition that _the intensity of phototropic action is dependent on the quantity of incident light_. the proportionality of the tropic effect to the quantity of light will be found to hold good for the median range of stimulation; the deviation from this proportionality at the two ends of the range of stimulation--the sub-minimal and supramaximal--is, as we shall find, capable of explanation, and will be fully dealt with in the next chapter. the quantity of light incident on the responding organ depends: ( ) on the intensity of light, ( ) on the angle of inclination or _the directive angle_,[ ] and ( ) on the duration of exposure. i shall give a detailed account of the investigation relating to the individual effects of each of these factors on the tropic reactions not merely in pulvinated but also in growing organs. [ ] the directive angle [greek: th] is the angle of inclination of the rays of light to the responding surface. the angle [greek: th] is complementary to the angle of incidence _i_ in optics. sin [greek: th] = cos i. effect of increasing intensity of light on tropic curvature. the intensity of light was increased in successive experiments, in arithmetical progression : : by suitably diminishing the distance between the plant and the source of light, and the resulting tropic curvatures recorded. [illustration: fig. .--leaf of _desmodium gyrans_, with the terminal large, and two lateral small leaflets. these latter exhibit automatic pulsations.] _effect of increasing intensity of light on the pulvinus of_ desmodium gyrans: _experiment ._--the source of light was a candle-power incandescent lamp, and the duration of exposure was minute. the specimen employed was a terminal leaflet of _desmodium gyrans_ (fig. ) the pulvinus of which is very sensitive to light. it is more convenient to manipulate a cut specimen of the leaf, instead of the whole plant. the petiole is placed in water contained in a u-tube; the depressing effect of wound passes off in the course of an hour or so. light of increasing intensity is applied from above; this induces a contraction of the upper half of the pulvinus, and the resulting response is recorded by means of the oscillating recorder (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--the oscillating recorder (from a photograph).] the first record was obtained under a given intensity, and the second, under an intensity twice as great. the tropic effects are seen to increase with the intensity (fig. ). if the tropic curvature increased proportionately to the intensity, the two responses should have been in the ratio of : ; the actual ratio was however slightly greater, _viz._ : · . in this connection it will be shown in the next chapter, that strict proportionality holds good only in the median range, and that the susceptibility for excitation undergoes an increase at the beginning of the phototropic curve. [illustration: fig. .--tropic effect of increasing intensity of light : ; on the response of terminal leaflet of _desmodium gyrans_.] [illustration: fig. .--tropic effect of increasing intensity of light : : on growing organ (_crinum_).] _effect of increasing intensity of light on the tropic curvature of growing organs._--as the tropic curvature is primarily due to the retardation of growth induced by light at the proximal side of the organ, it will be of interest to recapitulate the results i obtained (p. ) on the effects of increasing intensity of light on growth itself. the normal rate of growth of the specimen in the dark was · µ per second; this was reduced to · µ under an intensity of one unit, to · µ under two, and to · µ under three units. growth became arrested when the intensity was raised to four units. thus increasing intensity of light induces an increasing retardation of growth at the proximal side of the organ. this aided by the effect of indirect stimulus at the distal side brings about an increasing positive curvature. _experiment ._--the flower bud of _crinum_ was used for the experiment, the source of light being a small arc lamp. the duration of exposure was one minute. increasing intensity of light gave rise to increasing positive curvatures (fig. ) in the ratio of : · : under increasing intensities which varied as : : . the effect of increasing angle. the quantity of light which falls on an unit area of the responding organ varies as sin [greek: th] where [greek: th] is the directive angle _i.e._ the angle made by the rays with the surface. some allowance has to be made for the amount of light reflected from the surface, this being greater at ° than at °. [illustration: fig. .--the collimator.] _tropic response of pulvinus of_ desmodium gyrans: _experiment ._--for application of light at various angles an incandescent electric lamp was mounted at one end of a brass tube, a collimating lens being placed at the other (fig. ). the parallel beam of light from the collimator could be sent at various angles by rotating the collimator tube round an axis at right angles to the tube. the specimen employed was the terminal leaflet of _desmodium gyrans_; light was applied for a minute in the two successive experiments for the two angles of ° and °. the record (fig. ) shows that the phototropic effect increases with the directive angle. in the present case the ratio of the two effects is · : , which is not very different from the ratio sin °/sin ° = · . [illustration: fig. .--effect of angle of inclination of light on the tropic curvature of pulvinus. the first response is to light at ° and the second, to °. (_desmodium gyrans_).] [illustration: fig. .--series of tropic curvatures of growing bud of _crinum_ to alternate stimulation by light at ° and °.] _tropic response of growing organs: experiment ._--similar experiment was carried out with the flower bud of _crinum_, held vertical. light was applied alternately at ° and °, in two successive series. the object of this was to make due allowance of possible variation of excitability of the organ during the course of the experiment. i have explained (p. ), how the excitability of a tissue in a condition slightly below par, is increased by the action of previous stimulation. series of responses obtained under alternate stimulations at ° and ° enable us to find out, whether any variation of excitability occurred during the course of the experiment and make allowance for it. the records show that stimulation did enhance the excitability of the organ to a small extent. thus the first stimulation at ° induced an amplitude of response of mm.; the second stimulation at ° _i.e._ the third response of the series, induced a slightly larger response mm. in amplitude. similarly the two responses at ° gave an amplitude of mm. and mm. respectively (fig. ). taking the mean value of each pair, the ratio of tropic effects for ° and ° is = / = · nearly. effect of duration of exposure. _experiment ._--the specimen employed for the experiment was a flower bud of _crinum_ in a slightly sub-tonic condition. successive responses exhibited on this account, a preliminary negative[ ] before the normal positive curvature. the successive durations of exposure were for , , and minutes. the amplitudes of responses (fig. ) are in the ratio of : · : . [ ] an explanation of this preliminary effect will be found in the next chapter. [illustration: fig. .--effect of increasing duration of exposure : : minutes, on phototropic curvature. note preliminary negative response. (_crinum_).] we may now recapitulate the tropic effects of light of increasing intensity, directive angle, and duration of exposure. it has been shown that the tropic effect is enhanced under increasing intensity of light; it is also increased with the angle increasing from grazing to perpendicular incidence. and finally, the tropic effect is enhanced with the duration of exposure. taking into consideration the effects of these different factors we arrive at the conclusion that _phototropic effect increases with the quantity of incident light_. it will be shown in the next chapter that strict proportionality of cause and effect holds good in the median range of stimulation, and the slight deviation from this, above and below the median range, is due to the fact that susceptibility for excitation is low at these two regions. summary. increasing intensity of light induces increasing tropic curvature. tropic curvature increases with the directive angle, the effect being approximately proportional to sin [greek: th], where [greek: th] is the angle made by the rays with the responding surface. tropic curvature also increases with the duration of exposure. the intensity of induced tropic effect is determined by the quantity of incident light. xxxii.--the phototropic curve and its characteristics _by_ sir j. c. bose. when a plant organ is subjected to the continued action of unilateral stimulus of light, it exhibits increasing tropic curvature, which in certain cases reaches a limit; in other instances a reversal takes place, seen in neutralisation, or in the conversion of the positive into negative curvature. i shall in this chapter enter into a detailed study of the phototropic curve, and determine its characteristics. as the vague terminology at present in use has been the source of much confusion, it is necessary here to define clearly the various terms which will be employed in this investigation. it is first of all necessary to distinguish between cause and effect, between external stimulus and the excitation induced by it. as regards stimulus itself i have shown elsewhere[ ] that its effective intensity becomes summated by repetition. this was demonstrated by the two following typical experiments carried out with the pulvinus of _mimosa_. [ ] "irritability of plants"--p. . ( ) the intensity of a single electric shock of intensity of · unit was found to be ineffective in inducing excitation; but it became effective on being repeated four times in rapid succession. ( ) the same specimen was next subjected to a feebler stimulus of intensity of · unit, and it required a repetition of times for the stimulus to become effective. the total stimulus in the first case was · × = , and this was found to be the same as · × = in the second case. thus the intensity of stimulus is increased by repetition; in the limiting case where the interval between successive stimulus is zero, the stimulus becomes continuous. bearing in mind the additive effects of stimulus we see that its effective intensity increases with the _duration_ of application. this important conclusion found independent support from the results of experiment given in the last chapter. we shall now take up the general question of the characteristics of the phototropic curve, which gives the relation between increasing stimulus and the resulting excitation. as regards stimulus we found that its effectiveness increases with the duration of application. the induced excitation in growing organs may be measured by concomitant retardation of growth caused by stimulus. in the excitation curves which will be presently given, the abscissae represent increasing stimulus and ordinates the resulting excitation. this excitation curve may be obtained by making the plant record on a moving plate its retardation of growth by means of the high magnification crescograph. i reproduce below two records of the effects of continuous photic and electric stimulation. the ordinate of the 'excitation curve' (fig. ) exhibits increasing incipient contraction (retardation of growth) culminating in an arrest of growth; the abscissa represents increasing stimulus consequent on increased duration of application. the record shows that the incipient contraction is slight at the first stage; it increases rapidly in the second stage; finally, it declines and reaches a limit. the excitatory reaction is thus not constant throughout the entire curve of excitation, but undergoes very definite and characteristic changes. we shall find similar characteristics in the phototropic curves under unilateral stimulus which will be given presently. the explanation of the similarity is found in the fact that the tropic curvature is also due to incipient contraction or retardation of the rate of growth, which remains confined to the directly stimulated proximal side of the organ. [illustration: fig. .--effects of continuous (_a_) electric, and (_b_) photic stimulation on rate of growth. abscissa represents duration of application of stimulus. note induced retardation, and arrest of growth.] for facility of explanation of what follows, i shall have to use a new and necessary term, _susceptibility_, to indicate the relation of cause and effect, of stimulus and resulting excitation. _susceptibility_ is thus = excitation/stimulus. different organs of plants exhibit unequal susceptibilities; some undergo excitation under feeble stimulus, while others require more intense stimulus to induce excitation. but even in an identical organ the susceptibility undergoes, as we have seen, a characteristic variation, being feeble at the beginning of the excitation curve, considerable in the middle, and becoming feeble once more towards the end of the curve. the most difficult problem that faces us is an explanation of this characteristic difference in different parts of the tropic curve. general considerations. before entering into the fuller consideration of the subject, it will be helpful to form some mental picture of the phenomena of excitation, however inadequate it may be. the excitation is admitted to be due to the molecular upset induced by the shock of stimulus[ ]; the increased excitation results from increasing molecular upset brought on by enhanced stimulus. the condition of molecular upset or excitation may be detected from the record of any one of the several concomitant changes, such as the change of form, (contraction or expansion) or change of electric condition (galvanometric negativity or positivity). these means of investigation are not in principle different from those we employ in the detection of molecular distortion in inorganic matter under increasing intensities of an external force. [ ] i shall use the term _stimulus_ in preference to _stimulation_, for the latter is often taken in the sense of the resulting excitation. the characteristic curve. thus the molecular upset and rearrangement, in a magnetic substance under increasing magnetising force are inferred from the curve obtained by means of appropriate magnetometric or galvanometric methods. i reproduce the characteristic curve of iron (fig. ) in which the abscissa represents increasing magnetising force, and the ordinate, the induced magnetisation. this characteristic curve, giving the relation of cause and effect, will be found to be highly suggestive as regards the similar characteristic curve which gives the relation between increasing stimulus and the resulting enhanced tropic effect in vegetable tissues. the parallelism will be found to be very striking. inspection of figure shows that, broadly speaking, the curve of magnetisation may be divided into four parts. in the first part, under feeble magnetic force, the slope of the curve is very small; later, in the second part, as the force increases, the curve becomes very steep; in the third part the slope of the curve remains fairly constant; and finally in the fourth part, the curve rounds off and the rate of ascent again becomes very small. the _susceptibility_ for induced magnetisation is thus very feeble at the beginning; under increasing force, in the second stage, the susceptibility becomes greatly enhanced; in the third stage, the susceptibility remains approximately constant; and in the fourth stage it becomes diminished. we shall presently find that the susceptibility for excitation also undergoes a similar variation at the four different stages of stimulation. characteristics of simple phototropic curve. i have shown (fig. ) the relation between the stimulus and the resulting excitation, the latter being determined from the diminution of the rate of growth. under unilateral action of light, the excitatory contraction gives rise to tropic curvature. we may thus obtain the characteristic excitation curve, by making the plant organ record its tropic movement under continuous action of light applied on one side of the organ. [illustration: fig. .--characteristic curve of iron under increasing magnetising force. (after ewing).] [illustration: fig. .--simple characteristic curve of phototropic reaction. excitation increases slowly in the first part and rapidly in the second; it is uniform in the third, and undergoes decline in the fourth part (_erythrina indica_).] _experiment ._--i give below the characteristic curve of excitation (fig. ) of the pulvinus of _erythrina indica_, traced by the plant itself, and exactly reproduced by photomechanical process. a parallel beam of light from a nernst lamp was thrown on the upper leaf of the pulvinus, and the increasing positive curvature was recorded on a smoked glass plate which was moved at an uniform rate. the successive dots are at intervals of seconds; the horizontal distances between successive dots are equal, and represent equal increments of stimulus; the vertical distances between successive dots represent the corresponding increments of excitation. the gradient at any point of the curve--increment of excitation divided by increment of stimulus--gives the susceptibility for excitation at that point. the following table will show how the susceptibility for excitation undergoes variation through the entire range of stimulus. the average susceptibility for each point has been calculated from the data furnished by the curve. table xxx.--showing the variation of susceptibility for excitation at different points of the tropic curve. +--------------------------------------+ | successive points | susceptibility | | in the curve. | for excitation. | +-------------------+------------------+ | ... ... | | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | | ... ... | · | +--------------------------------------+ the induced excitation is seen to be increased very gradually from the zero point of susceptibility, known as the latent period at which no excitation takes place. in the second part of the excitation curve, the rate of increase is vary rapid; the maximum rate is nearly reached at point of the curve and remains fairly constant for a time. this is the median range where equal increment of stimulus induces equal increment of excitation. the susceptibility for excitation then falls rapidly, and increase of stimulus induces no further increase of tropic curvature. the maximum tropic curvature was, in the present case, reached in the course of nine minutes. the attainment of this maximum depends on the excitability of the tissue, and the intensity of incident stimulus. the characteristics that have been described are not confined to the phototropic curve but exhibited by tropic curves in general. similar characteristics have been found in the curve for electric stimulus (fig. a), and will also be met with in the curve for geotropic stimulus (fig. ). i may here refer incidentally to the three types of responses exhibited by an organ to successive stimuli of uniform intensity; these appear to correspond to the three different regions of tropic curve; in the first stage, the plant exhibits a tendency to exhibit a 'staircase' increase of response; in the intermediate stage, the response is uniform; and in the last stage, the responses show a 'fatigue' decline. for purpose of simplicity, i first selected the simple type of phototropic curve, where the specimen employed was in a favourable tonic condition, and the stimulus was, from the beginning, above the minimal. transverse conduction, which induces neutralisation or reversal into negative, was moreover absent in the specimen. i shall now take up the more complex cases: ( ) where the condition of the specimen is slightly sub-tonic, ( ) where the stimulus is gradually increased from the _sub-minimal_, and ( ) where the specimen possesses the power of transverse conduction. effect of sub-minimal stimulus. it is unfortunate that the terms in general use for description of effective stimulus should be so very indefinite. a stimulus which is just sufficient to evoke excitatory _contraction_ is termed the minimal, stimulus below the threshold being tacitly regarded as ineffective. the employment of sensitive recorders has, however, enabled me to discover the important fact that stimulus below the minimal, though ineffective in inducing excitatory _contraction_, is not below the threshold of perception. the plant not merely perceives such stimulus, but also responds to it in a definite way, by _expansion_ instead of _contraction_. i shall designate the stimulus below the minimal, as the _sub-minimal_. there is a critical point, which demarcates the sub-minimal stimulus with its expansive reaction from the minimal with its responsive contraction. the _critical_ stimulus varies in different species of plants. thus the same intensity of light which induces a retardation of growth in one species of plants will enhance the rate of growth in another. again, the critical point will vary with the _tonic_ level of the same organ; in an optimum condition of the tissue, a relatively feeble stimulus will be sufficient to evoke excitatory contraction; the critical point is therefore low for tissues in tonic condition which may be described as _above par_. in a sub-tonic condition, on the other hand, strong and long continued stimulation will be necessary to induce the excitatory reaction. the critical point is therefore high, for tissues in a condition _below par_. stimulus below the critical point will here induce the opposite physiological reaction, _i.e._, expansion. the physico-chemical reactions underlying these opposite physiological responses have, for convenience, been distinguished as the "a" and "d" change (pp. , ). the assimilatory 'building up', a change, is associated with an increase of potential energy of the system; the dissimilatory 'break down', d change, on the other hand, is attended by a run-down of energy. stimulus was shown (p. ) to give rise to _both_ these reactions, though the a effect is, generally speaking, masked by the predominant d effect. the "a" change is quicker in initiation, while the "d" effect developes later; again the "a" effect under moderate stimulation may persist longer. thus owing to the difference in their time-relations the a effect is capable of being unmasked at the onset of stimulus or on its sudden cessation. for the detection of the relatively feeble expansive a effect, a special recorder is required which combines lightness with high power of magnification. the earlier expansive reaction and acceleration of rate of growth, followed by normal retardation, are often found in the response of growing organs. the corresponding effect of unilateral stimulation, even when direct, is a transient expansion at the proximal side, inducing a convexity of that side and movement away from stimulus (negative curvature); this is followed by contraction and concavity with normal positive curvature. the interval between the a and d effects is increased with increasing sub-tonicity of the specimen. but it nearly vanishes when the excitability of the specimen is high, and the two opposite reactions succeed each other too quickly for the preliminary a reaction to become evident. it is probable that in such a case the conflict between the two opposite reactions prolongs the latent period. but in other instances a preliminary expansive response is found to herald the more pronounced contractile response. example of this is seen in figure given in page . the a effect was detected in the records referred to above by its earlier appearance. its longer persistence, after moderate stimulation, is also to be found on the cessation of moderate stimulation. this was seen in the _acceleration_ of growth which was the after-effect of stimulation (figs. , ). the presence of two conflicting physiological reactions is also made evident on sudden cessation of long continued stimulation. this particular phenomenon of "overshooting" will be more fully dealt with in a subsequent chapter. owing to the difference in the time relations of the two opposing activities, a and d, a phase difference often arises in their respective maxima. it is probably on this account that rhythmic tissues originally at standstill, exhibit under continued stimulation a periodic up and down-movement, which persists even on the cessation of the stimulus. the persistence of after-oscillation depends, moreover, on the intensity and duration of previous stimulation.[ ] [ ] "plant response"--p. , etc. the facts given above cannot be explained by the prevalent theory that stimulus acts merely as a releasing agent, to set free energy which had been previously stored up by the organism, like the pull of a trigger causing explosion of a charged cartridge. it is true that in a highly excitable tissue, the external work performed and the run down of energy are disproportionately greater than the energy of stimulus that induces it. but in a sub-tonic tissue, stimulus induces an effect which is precisely the opposite; instead of a depletion, there is an enhancement of potential energy of the system. thus the responding leaf instead of undergoing a fall becomes erected; growing organs similarly exhibit a 'building up' and an acceleration of rate of growth, in contrast with the usual 'break down' and depression of the rate. it is obvious that these new facts relating to the action of stimulus necessitate a theory more comprehensive and satisfactory than the one which has been in vogue. the complete phototropic curve. i have explained the characteristics of the simple phototropic curve in which the tropic curvature, on account of the favourable tonic condition and strong intensity of incident light, was positive from the beginning, and in which the curvature reached a maximum beyond which there was no subsequent reversal. if the intensity of the stimulus be feeble or moderate, the quantity of light incident on the responding organ at the beginning may fall below the critical value, and thus act as a sub-minimal stimulus. this induces as we have seen (p. ) a negative tropic curvature; continued action of stimulus, however, converts the preliminary negative into the usual positive. the preliminary negative curvature may be detected by the use of a moderately sensitive recorder with a magnification of about times. it is comparatively easy to obtain the preliminary negative response in specimens which are in a slightly sub-tonic condition. semi-conducting tissues exhibit under continued stimulation, a neutralisation and reversal into negative (p. ). since this reversal into negative usually takes place under prolonged exposure to exceedingly strong light, it is difficult to obtain in a single curve all the different phases of transformation. i have, however, been fortunate in obtaining a complete phototropic curve which exhibits in a single specimen all the characteristic changes from a preliminary negative to positive and subsequent reversal to negative. i shall describe two such typical curves obtained with the terminal leaflet of _desmodium gyrans_ and the growing seedling of _zea mays_. _complete phototropic curve of a pulvinated organ: experiment ._--a continuous record was taken of the action of light of a c.p. incandescent lamp, applied on the upper half of the pulvinus of the terminal leaflet of _desmodium gyrans_. this gave rise: ( ) to a negative curvature (due to sub-minimal stimulus) which lasted for minutes. the curve then proceeded upwards, at first slowly, then rapidly; it then rounded off, and reached a maximum positive value in the course of minutes; after this the curve underwent a reversal, and complete neutralisation occurred after a further period of minutes (fig. ). beyond this the induced curvature is negative. [illustration: fig. .--complete phototropic curve given by pulvinated eq. organ. positive curvature above, and negative curvature below the horizontal zero line. preliminary negative phase of response due to sub-minimal stimulus. the positive increases, attains a maximum, and undergoes a reversal. successive dots at intervals of seconds. abscissa represents duration of exposure and quantity of incident light. (terminal leaflet of _desmodium gyrans_.)] _complete phototropic curve of growing organs: experiment ._--i obtained very similar effects by subjecting the seedling of _zea mays_ to unilateral light from an arc lamp for two hours. the characteristic of this curve is similar to that given by the terminal leaflet of _desmodium gyrans_. at the first stage, the sub-minimal stimulation is seen to induce a negative curvature, transformed into positive after an interval of minutes. the maximum positive curvature is reached after minutes, and neutralisation completed in a further period of minutes (fig. ). after this the response became transformed into negative. [illustration: fig. .--complete phototropic curve of a growing organ (_zea mays_).] in a complete phototropic curve we may thus distinguish distinct stages:-- ( ) the stage of sub-minimal stimulation. ( ) the stage of increasing positive curvature culminating in a maximum. ( ) the stage of neutralisation. ( ) the stage of complete reversal into negative. the curve thus crosses the zero line of the abscissa twice; the first crossing takes places _upwards_ at the critical point of stimulation which demarcates the sub-minimal from the minimal. the second crossing downwards occurs beyond the point of complete neutralisation. in a tissue in which transverse conductivity is absent, and the stimulus applied from the beginning is above the minimal, the simple tropic curve is confined to the second stage (see fig. ). weber's law. if we neglect the preliminary negative portion under sub-minimal stimulus, the curve of excitation under increasing photic stimulation obeys what is known as weber's law. this is equally true of modes of stimulation other than that of light as is seen in figure of the contractile effect of continued electric stimulus on growth; the excitatory effect is also seen to reach a limit. weber's law is applicable for a limited range of stimulation. for the quantitative relation fails in the region of sub-minimal stimulus, where the physiological reaction is _qualitatively_ different, namely expansion instead of contraction. this holds good even in the case of animal tissues, for here also my recent experiments show that two opposite reactions--expansion and contraction--take place under stimulus, and that a very feeble stimulus tends to induce expansion instead of contraction. the responsive reaction of a kitten under gentle caressing strokes must be _qualitatively_ different from that of a blow. the psychological effects under the two treatments evidently differ qualitatively rather than quantitatively.[ ] [ ] "it has been argued by james that the feeling does not cause, but is caused by the bodily expression.... münsterberg concludes that the feeling of agreeableness is the mental accompaniment and outcome of reflexly produced movements of extension, and disagreeableness of the movement of flexion." schäfer--text book of physiology, vol. ii, p. ( ). summary. the excitation curve exhibits a slow ascent in the first part; in the second part the gradient is steep, indicating rapid rise in excitation; in the third part it is uniform; and in the last part the curve rounds off and the rate of ascent becomes very small. the susceptibility for excitation is feeble at the beginning; it increases very rapidly with increasing stimulus; finally it undergoes a fall, increase of stimulus inducing no further enhancement of excitation. in a complete phototropic curve the first part is negative; this is due to the physiological expansion induced by sub-minimal stimulus. the curve then crosses the abscissa upwards, and the positive curvature reaches a maximum. this is followed by neutralisation and reversal into negative; the curve crosses the zero line and proceeds in the negative direction. weber's law is not applicable for the entire range of stimulation. the quantitative relation fails in the region of sub-minimal stimulus, where the physiological reaction is _qualitatively_ different. xxxiii.--the transmitted effect of photic stimulation _by_ sir j. c. bose, _assisted by_ jyotiprakash sircar, m.b. plant organs exhibit, as we have already seen, a heliotropic curvature under direct stimulation. still more interesting is the transmitted effect of light giving rise to a curvature. thus if the tip of the seedling of wheat be exposed to light, the excitation is transmitted lower down into the region which acts as the responding organ. growth is very active in this particular zone, and the change of growth, induced by the transmitted effect of stimulus, brings about a curvature by which the tip of the seedling bends towards light. the seedling thus appears to be differentiated into three physiological zones subserving three different functions. the tip is the perceptive zone, the intervening distance between the tip and the growing region is the zone of conduction, and the growing region is the responsive zone. these differentiations are shown in a striking manner by certain paniceae, _setaria_ for example. in this seedling the tapering sheathing leaf or cotyledon is about mm. in length, and it is the upper part of the cotyledon that is most sensitive to light. below the sheathing leaf is a narrow length which will be distinguished as the hypocotyl, and where growth is very active. the apex of the leaf perceives the stimulus, and the effect is transmitted to the hypocotyl, which responds by becoming curved so that the seedling bends towards light. it is necessary here to make special reference to the confusion that arises from want of precision in the use of the term stimulus, used indifferently to denote both the cause and the resulting effect. an external agent, say light, causes certain excitatory change in the tissue, and we refer to the agent which induces it, as the _stimulus_. thus in the instance cited above, light is the _stimulus_, and it is the stimulus-effect that is transmitted to a distance. but in physiological literature no distinction is made between the stimulus and its effect, hence arises frequent use of the phrase 'transmission of stimulus'. it is obvious that it is not light but its effect that is transmitted. such want of precision in the use of the term stimulus would not have seriously affected the truth about the description of facts, had the transmitted effect been only of one kind. in a nerve-and-muscle preparation, the velocity of transmission of excitation is so great, that it completely masks the positive impulse (assuming the existence of such an impulse). the effect of indirect stimulation is, therefore, the same as that of direct stimulation. any indefiniteness in the use of the term stimulus for its transmitted effect does not, in animal physiology, seriously militate against the observed facts. but lack of precision in the employment of the term in plant physiology leads to hopeless confusion. for owing to the semi-conducting nature of vegetable tissue, the transmitted effect is not of a definite sign, but may be positive or negative; in the first case, the response is by expansion, in the latter, by contraction. thus the transmitted effect will be very different in the two cases, according as the intervening tissue is a good or a bad conductor. these facts accentuate the urgent necessity of revision of our existing terminology. i have shown that the effects of other forms of stimuli are also transmitted from the perceptive to the responding region along the intervening path of conduction. thus the petiole of _mimosa_ perceive any form of stimulus applied to it, and the induced excitation is conducted to the distant pulvinus to evoke the familiar responsive fall of the leaf. the pulvinus, moreover, perceives and responds to direct stimulation. in a nerve-and-muscle preparation the responding muscle is alike perceptive and responsive. but in _setaria_ we meet with certain characteristics of reaction which are quite inexplicable. thus if "the seedling be illuminated on one side, a sharp heliotropic curving takes place at the apex of hypocotyl. the curvature makes itself apparent only if the cotyledon be illuminated from one side whether the hypocotyl be exposed to light or not. if the cotyledon be shaded and the light be permitted to fall on one side of the hypocotyl, no heliotropic curving takes place. hence we may conclude that it is only the cotyledon that is sensitive to the light stimulus, and it is only the hypocotyl which can carry out the movement. the excitation which the light effects in the cotyledon must be transmitted to the hypocotyl and curvature takes place only from such a transmitted excitation. we have thus in this case a definite organ for the perception of the stimulus of light, viz., the cotyledon, and as rothert has shown, it is more specially the apex of that organ that is the sensitive part: on the other hand, the motile organ, the hypocotyl, is some distance away from the sensitive organ, and in it the power of perception is entirely absent. from the behaviour of these organs we may draw the further conclusion that perception and heliotropic excitation are two distinct phenomena, which depend on different properties of the protoplasm and which are independent of each other.... we may, therefore, conclude from this experiment that these two types of excitation are fundamentally distinct processes, for it is only after indirect or transmitted and not after direct excitation that a reaction occurs in the case of the seedlings of the paniceae".[ ] [ ] jost--_ibid_--p. . the noteworthy deductions on the above facts are:-- ( ) that the motile organ in _setaria_ is totally devoid of perception, since direct action of light induces no effect. ( ) that perception and heliotropic excitation are two distinct phenomena, which depend on different properties of the protoplasm, and which are independent of each other. though the conclusions thus arrived at appear to follow from the facts that have been observed, yet it is difficult to accept the inference, that a responding organ should be totally devoid of the power of perception, and that excitation and perception are to be regarded as dependent on different properties of protoplasm. it therefore appeared necessary to re-investigate the subject of the perceptive power of the cotyledon, and the responding characteristics of the hypocotyl. the criterion employed for test of perception is the movement induced in response to stimulus. the responsive _mechanical_ movement is rendered possible only by the contractility of the organ, and mechanical and anatomical facilities offered by it for unhampered movement. the petiole of _mimosa_ when locally stimulated does not itself exhibit any movement. the fortunate circumstance of the presence of a motile pulvinus in the neighbourhood enables us to recognise the perceptive power of the petiole, since it transmits an impulse which causes the fall of the leaf. there is no motile pulvinus in ordinary leaves, and stimulation of the petiole gives rise to no direct or transmitted motile reaction; from this we are apt to draw the inference that the petiole of ordinary leaves are devoid of perception. this conclusion is, however, erroneous, since under stimulus the petiole exhibits the electric response characteristic of excitation. moreover my electric investigations have shown that every living tissue not only perceives but also responds to stimulation.[ ] hence considerable doubt may be entertained as regards the supposed absence of perception in the hypocotyl of _setaria_. [ ] "response in the living and non-living"--p. . i shall in the present paper describe my investigations on the mechanical response of _setaria_ under direct and indirect stimulation which will be given in the following order:-- ( ) the response to unilateral stimulation of the tip of the seedling. ( ) the response of growing hypocotyl to direct stimulation. ( ) summated effects of direct and indirect stimulation. experimental arrangements. _the recorder._--the pull exerted by the tropic curvature of the seedling is very feeble; it was therefore necessary to construct a very light and nearly balanced recording lever. a long glass fibre is supported by lateral pivots on jewel bearings. the seedling is attached to the short arm of the lever by means of a cocoon thread. the recording plate oscillates to and fro once in a minute; the successive dots give therefore the time relations of the responsive movement. the positive curvature towards light is recorded as an up-curve, the negative curvature being represented by a down-curve. [illustration: fig. .--arrangement for local application of light to the tip and the growing region. o, o', apertures on a metallic screen. light is focussed by a lens on the tip, and on the growing region at o, o'. figure to the right shows front view of the shutter resting on a pivot and worked by string, t.] _arrangement for local stimulation by light._--the device of placing tin foil caps on the tip employed by some observers labours under the disadvantage, that it causes mechanical irritation of the sensitive tip. the appliance seen in figure is free from this objection and offers many advantages. a metallic screen has two holes o and o'; these apertures are illuminated by a parallel beam of light from an arc lamp. a lens focusses the light from o, on the hypocotyl, and that from o', on the tip of the cotyledon. a rectangular pivoted shutter s, lies between the apertures o and o'. in the intermediate position of the shutter, light acts on both the tip and the growing region. the shutter is tilted up by a pull on the thread t, thus cutting off light from the growing region; release of the thread cuts off light from the tip. thus by proper manipulation of the shutter, the tip or the growing hypocotyl, or both of them, may be subjected to the stimulus of light. the experiment was carried out in a dark room, special precaution being taken that light was screened off from the plant except at points of localised stimulation. [illustration: fig. .--response of seedling of _setaria_ to unilateral stimulation of the tip applied at dotted arrow. note preliminary negative curvature reversed later into positive.] effect of light at the tip of the organ. _experiment ._--if the tip of the seedling of _setaria_ be illuminated on one side, it is found that a _positive_ curvature (_i.e._, towards light) is induced in the course of an hour or more. but in obtaining record of the seedling by unilateral stimulation of the tip, i found that the immediate response was not towards, but away from light (negative curvature). the latent period was about seconds and the negative movement continued to increase for minutes (fig. ). this result, hitherto unsuspected, is not so anomalous as would appear at first sight. indirect stimulus, unilaterally applied, has been shown to give rise to two impulses: a quicker positive and a slower excitatory negative. the former induces a convexity on the same side, and a movement away from stimulus (negative curvature); the excitatory negative, on the other hand, is conducted slowly and induces contraction and concavity, and a movement towards the stimulus (positive curvature). in semi-conducting or non-conducting tissues, the excitatory negative is weakened to extinction during transit, and the positive reaction with negative curvature persists as the initial and final effect. but in _setaria_ the excitatory negative impulse is transmitted along the parenchyma which is moderately conducting; the speed of transmission of heliotropic excitation is, according to pfeffer, one or two mm. in five minutes or about · mm. per minute. thus under the continued action of light, the excitatory impulse will reach the growing region, and by its predominant reaction neutralise and reverse the previous negative curvature. inspection of figure shows that this is what actually took place; the intervening distance between the tip of the cotyledon and the growing region in hypocotyl was about mm., and the beginning of reversal from negative to positive curvature occurred minutes after application of light. the velocity of transmission of excitatory impulse under strong light is thus · mm. per minute. the positive curvature continued to increase for a very long time and became comparatively large. this is for two reasons: ( ) because the sensibility of the tip of the cotyledon is very great, and ( ) because the positive curvature induced by longitudinally transmitted excitation is not neutralised by transverse conduction (see below). [illustration: fig. .--effect of application of light to the growing hypocotyl at arrow induced positive phototropic curvature followed by neutralisation. application of indirect stimulus at dotted arrow on the tip gave rise at first to negative, subsequently to positive curvature. (seedling of _setaria_).] response to unilateral stimulus in the growing region. _experiment ._--the growing region of the hypocotyl of _setaria_ is supposed to be totally devoid of the power of perception. in order to subject the question to experimental test, i applied unilateral light on the growing region of the same specimen, after it had recovered from the effect of previous stimulation. the response now obtained was vigorous and was _ab-initio_ positive. direct stimulus has thus induced the normal effect of contraction and concavity of the excited side. the belief that the hypocotyl of _setaria_ is incapable of perceiving stimulus is thus without any foundation. the further experiment which i shall presently describe will, however, offer an explanation of the prevailing error. on continuing the action of unilateral light, the positive curvature after attaining a maximum in the course of minutes, underwent a diminution and final neutralisation (fig. ). on account of this neutralisation the seedling became erect after an exposure of minutes; in contrast with this is the increasing positive curvature under unilateral illumination of the tip (fig. ) which continues for several hours. the explanation of this neutralisation under direct stimulation of the growing region is found in the fact that transverse conduction of excitation induces contraction at the distal side of the organ and thus nullifies the positive curvature. the seeming absence of tropic effect under direct stimulation is thus not due to want of perception, but to balanced antagonistic reactions on opposite sides of the organ. effect of simultaneous stimulation of the tip and the hypocotyl. though stimulation of the hypocotyl results in neutralisation, yet the illumination of one side of the organ including the tip and hypocotyl is found to give rise to positive curvature. this will be understood from the following experiment. after the neutralisation in the last experiment light was also applied to the tip from the right side at the dotted arrow (fig. ). the record shows that this gave rise at first to a negative curvature (away from light); under the continued action of light, however, the negative was subsequently reversed to a positive curvature, towards light. inspection of the curve shows another interesting fact. the positive curvature induced by direct stimulation is very much less than that brought out by indirect stimulation. this is due to two reasons: ( ) the sensitiveness of the tip of the organ is, as is well known, greater than that of the hypocotyl, ( ) the positive curvature under direct stimulation cannot proceed very far, since it is neutralised by transverse conduction of excitation. it will be seen from the above that the illumination of the tip practically inhibits the neutralisation and thus restores the normal positive curvature. the question now arises as to how this particular inhibition is brought about. algebraical summation of the effects of direct and indirect stimulations. an instance of inhibition, though of a different kind, was noticed in the response of the tendril of _passiflora_ (p. ); the under side of the organ is highly sensitive, while the upper side is almost insensitive. stimulation of the under side of the tendril induces a marked curvature, but simultaneous stimulation of the diametrically opposite side inhibits the response. this neutralisation could not be due to the antagonistic contraction of the upper side since the irritability of that side is very slight. i have shown that the inhibition results from the two antagonistic reactions, contraction at the proximal side due to direct stimulation and expansion caused by the positive impulse from the indirectly stimulated distal side. we have in the above an algebraical summation of the effects of direct and indirect stimulations. the longitudinally transmitted effect of indirect stimulus in _setaria_ may, likewise, be summated with the effect of direct stimulus. the phenomenon of algebraical summation is demonstrated in a very striking and convincing manner in the following experiment, which i have been successful in devising. _experiment ._--i have explained, (expt. ) that unilateral application of stimulus of light on the upper half of the responding pulvinus of _mimosa_ induces an up or positive curvature, followed by a neutralisation and even a reversal into negative, the last two effects being brought about by transverse conduction of excitation to the distal side. when the incident light is of moderate intensity, the transmitted excitation only suffices to induce neutralisation without further reversal into negative; while in this state of balanced neutralisation let us apply indirect stimulus by throwing light on the stem at a point directly opposite to the leaf (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--(_a_) diagrammatic representation of direct application of light (v) on the pulvinus and the indirect application on the stem (-->) (_b_) record of effect of direct stimulus, positive curvature followed by neutralisation. superposition of the positive reaction of indirect stimulus induces erectile up-response followed by down movement due to transmitted excitatory impulse (_mimosa_).] two different impulses are thus initiated from the effect of indirect stimulus. in the present case the positive reached the responding pulvinus after seconds and induced an erectile movement of the leaf; the excitatory negative impulse reached the organ minutes later and caused a rapid fall of the leaf. the record (fig. ) shows further that the previous action of direct stimulus which brought about neutralisation, does not interfere with the effects of indirect stimulus. the individual effects of direct and indirect stimulus are practically independent of each other; hence their joint effects exhibit algebraical summation. we are now in a position to have a complete understanding of the characteristic response of paniceae to transmitted phototropic excitation. ( ) local stimulation of the tip gives rise to two impulses, positive and negative. the former induces a transient negative movement (away from light); the latter causes a permanent and increasing positive curvature towards light. ( ) local stimulation of the growing hypocotyl gives rise to positive curvature, subsequently neutralised by the transverse conduction of excitation to the distal side. the absence of tropic effect in the growing region is thus due not to lack of power of perception, but to balanced antagonistic reactions of two opposite sides of the organ. ( ) the effects of direct and indirect stimulations are independent of each other; hence, on simultaneous stimulations of the tip and the growing hypocotyl, the effects of indirect stimulus are algebraically summated with the effect of direct stimulus (neutralisation). the indirect stimulation of the tip on the right side gives rise to two impulses, of which the expansive positive reached the right side of the responding region earlier, inducing convexity and movement away from stimulus (negative curvature). this is diagrammatically shown in fig. . had the intervening tissue been non-conducting, the slow excitatory negative impulse would have failed to reach the responding region, and the negative curvature induced by the positive impulse would prove to be the initial as well as the final effect. in the case of _setaria_, however, the excitatory impulse reaches the right side of the organ after the positive impulse; the final effect is therefore an induced concavity and positive curvature (movement towards stimulus). [illustration: fig. .--diagrammatic representation of the effects of direct and indirect stimulus on the response of _setaria_. direct stimulation, represented by thick arrow gives rise to antagonistic concavities of opposite sides of responding hypocotyl, resulting in neutralisation. indirect stimulus represented by dotted arrow gives rise to two impulses, the quick positive impulse represented by a circle, and the slower negative impulse represented by crescent (concave).] the results given above enable us to draw the following generalisations:-- . in an organ, the tip of which is highly excitable, the balanced state of neutralisation, induced by direct stimulation of the responding region, is upset in two different ways by two impulses generated in consequence of indirect stimulation at the tip. hence arises two types of resultant response:-- type a.--if the intervening tissue be semi-conducting, the positive impulse alone will reach the growing region and induce convexity of the same side of the organ giving rise to a _negative_ curvature. type b.--if the intervening tissue be conducting the transmission of the excitatory impulse will finally give rise to a _positive_ curvature. type b is exemplified by the seedling of _setaria_ where the transmission of excitatory impulse from the tip upsets the neutral balance and induces the final positive curvature. example of type a is found in the negative phototropism of the root of _sinapis_. _negative phototropism of root of_ sinapis: _experiment ._--for investigation of the negative phototropism of the root of _sinapis nigra_ i took record of its movement under unilateral action of light by means of a recording microscope, devised for the purpose.[ ] when the root-tip alone was stimulated by unilateral light, the root moved away from the source of light. this was due to the longitudinal transmission of positive impulse to the growing region at some distance from the tip. the intervening distance between the tip and the growing region is practically non-conducting, hence the excitatory impulse could not be conducted from the tip. after a period of rest in darkness, i next took record of its movement under direct unilateral illumination of the growing region; the result was at first a positive movement; but this, on account of transverse conduction of excitation under continued stimulation, underwent a neutralisation and slight reversal. in taking a third record, in which both the tip and growing region were simultaneously subjected to unilateral stimulation of light, i found that a resultant responsive movement was induced which was away from light. [ ] "plant response"--p. . thus in the root of _sinapis_, the expansive effect of indirect stimulation of the tip is superposed on that of direct stimulation of the growing region (neutral or slightly negative). the final result is thus a movement away from light or a _negative_ phototropic curvature. summary. the effect induced by stimulus of light is transmitted to a distance, in a manner precisely the same as in other modes of stimulation. in the paniceae, the local unilateral stimulation of the tip of the cotyledon induces positive curvature in the growing hypocotyl, at some distance from the tip. this is due to transmitted excitatory effect of indirect stimulation; the earlier positive impulse induces a preliminary negative curvature, which is reversed later by the excitatory negative impulse into positive curvature. contrary to generally accepted view the hypocotyl not only perceives but responds to light. the positive curvature induced by direct stimulation is, however, neutralised by transverse conduction of excitation. the effects of direct and indirect stimulus are independent of each other; the final effect is determined by their algebraical summation. xxxiv.--on photonastic curvatures _by_ sir j. c. bose, _assisted by_ guruprasanna das. phototropic response, positive or negative, is determined by the directive action of light. but photonastic reaction is supposed to belong to a different class of phenomenon, where the movement is independent of the directive action of light. i shall, however, be able to establish a continuity between the tropic response of a radial and the nastic movement of a dorsiventral organ. the intermediate link is supplied by organs originally radial, but subsequently rendered anisotropic by the unilateral action of stimulus of the environment. in a dorsiventral organ, owing to anatomico-physiological differentiation, the responsive movement is constrained to take place in a direction perpendicular to the plane of separation of the two unequally excitable halves of the organ. even in such a case, it will be shown, that light does exert a directive action; the direction of movement will further be shown to be distorted by the lateral action of light. phototropic response of anisotropic organs. the different sides of a radial organ, such as the young stem of _mimosa_, are equally excitable. the response to unilateral light of moderate intensity is therefore positive; owing to equal excitabilities of the two sides the response of the opposite sides are alike. diffuse stimulation therefore induces no resultant curvature. if, however, the plant is allowed to form a creeping habit, the excitabilities of the dorsal and ventral sides will no longer remain the same. thus in the creeping stem of _mimosa_ the lower or the shaded side is, generally speaking, found to be the more excitable. in fact such anisotropic stem of _mimosa_ acts somewhat like the pulvinus of the same plant. diffuse stimulation induces, in both, a concavity of the more excitable lower half with the down movement of the leaf or the stem. _experiment ._--i took four creeping stems of _mimosa_ in vigorous condition and tied them in such a manner that their free ends should be vertical. the shaded sides of the four specimens were so turned that each faced a different point of the compass--east, west, north and south. subjected thus to diffuse stimulus of light from the sky, they all executed curvatures. the specimen whose under side faced the east, became bent towards the east; the same happened to those which faced north, south, and west, that is to say they curved towards the north, south, and west respectively (fig. ). the fundamental action by which all these were determined was the induced concavity of the under or normally shaded side, which was the more excitable. i obtained similar results with various other creeping stems. [illustration: fig. .--photonastic curvature of creeping stem of _mimosa pudica_: in the central figure the stem is seen to be vertical: action of diffuse light induced appropriate curvatures by greater contraction and concavity of the more excitable lower or shaded side, as seen in figures to the right (_b_) and left (_c_).] it has been shown that under prolonged unilateral stimulation, excitation becomes internally diffused; this gives rise to an effect similar to that of external diffuse stimulus. under strong light the shaded side becomes concave, and thus press against the ground or the support; this will be the characteristic response of creeping stems in which the shaded side is the more excitable. the facts given above will probably explain the response of midribs of leaves, of the creeping stem of _lysimachia_, all of which, in response to the action of strong light acting from above, exhibit concavity of the shaded and more excitable side. para-heliotropism. under strong sunlight, the leaflets of various plants move sometimes upwards, at other times downwards, so as to place the blades of leaflets parallel to incident light. this 'midday sleep' has been termed _para-heliotropism_ by darwin. it has been thought that para-heliotropic action has nothing to do with the directive action of light, since many leaflets either fold upwards or downwards, irrespective of the direction of incident light. i shall for convenience distinguish the leaflets which fold upwards under light as _positively_ para-heliotropic, and those which fold downwards as _negatively_ para-heliotropic. this is merely for convenience of description. there is no specific irritability which distinguishes one from the other. positive para-heliotropism. _para-heliotropic response of_ erythrina indica _and of_ clitoria ternatea: _experiment ._--for the purpose of simplicity i have described the type of movement of these leaflets as upwards; but the actual direction in which the leaflets point their apices is towards the sun. both the plants mentioned here are so remarkably sensitive that the leaflets follow the course of the sun, in such a way that the axis of the cup, formed by the folding leaflets at the end and the sides of the petiole, is coincident with the rays of light. the pulvinus makes a sharp curvature which is concave to light, the blade of the leaflet being parallel to light. i have taken record of continuous action of strong light acting on the responding pulvinus of the leaflets from above. the result is an increasing positive curvature which reached a limit (fig. ). there was no neutralisation or reversal, demonstrating the absence of transverse conduction (_cf._ fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--positive para-heliotropic response of leaflets of _erythrina indica_.] _para-heliotropic movement of leaflets of_ mimosa pudica: _experiment ._--these leaflets, as previously stated, fold themselves upwards, when strongly illuminated either from above or below. diffuse electric stimulation also induce a closing movement upwards; hence the upper half of the pulvinule of these leaflets are the more excitable. in order to obtain a continuous record of the leaflet under the action of unilateral light, i constructed a very delicate recording lever magnifying about times. light of moderate intensity from a candle-power incandescent lamp was applied on the less excitable lower side of the pulvinule. the record (fig. ) shows that the immediate response is positive, or a movement towards the light. but owing to transverse conduction, through the thin and highly conducting pulvinule, the response was quickly reversed into a very pronounced negative, or movement away from light. had a delicate means of obtaining magnified record not been available, the slight positive twitch, and the gradual transition from positive to negative phototropic curvature would have passed unnoticed. application of light from above gave, on account of the greater excitability of the upper half of the pulvinule, a pronounced positive response or movement towards light. the anomaly of an identical organ appearing as positively heliotropic when acted by light from above, and negatively heliotropic when acted from below, is now fully removed. the response of the leaflets is also seen to be determined by the directive action of light, though the short-lived response of the less excitable lower side is quickly masked by the predominant reaction of the more excitable upper side of the organ. [illustration: fig. .--response of leaflet of _mimosa_ to light applied below: transient positive followed by pronounced negative curvature.] [illustration: fig. .--response of leaflet of _averrhoa_, to light applied above: transient positive followed by pronounced negative curvature. up-curve represents up-movement, and down-curve, down-movement.] negative para-heliotropism. _response of leaflet of_ averrhoa carambola: _experiment ._--the leaflets of this plant, and also those of _biophytum sensitivum_ fold downwards under action of strong light, applied above or below. in these leaflets diffuse electric stimulation induce a fall of the leaflets demonstrating the greater excitability of the lower half of the pulvinule. the analysis of reaction under light is rendered possible from the record of response of leaflet of _averrhoa_, given in fig. . light of moderate intensity from an incandescent electric lamp acted from above: the result was a feeble and short-lived positive response, quickly reversed to strong negative by transmission of excitation to the more excitable lower side. illumination from below gave rise only to strong positive response. thus in _averrhoa_ the effect of continuous light applied above or below is a downward movement; in _mimosa_ the movement is upwards. the explanation of this difference lies in the fact, that in _mimosa_ leaflet it is the upper half of the pulvinule that is more excitable; while in _averrhoa_ and in _biophytum_ the lower is the more excitable half of the organ. [illustration: fig. .--diagrammatic representation of different types of phototropic response. (see text.)] as a summary of the tropic action of light i shall give diagrammatic representations of various types of phototropic response, including the photonastic (fig. ). the direction of the arrow indicates the direction of incident light. dotted specimens are those which possess transverse conductivity. thick lines represent the more excitable side of an anisotropic or dorsiventral organ. the size of the circles, with positive and negative signs, represents the amplitude and sign of curvature. _a._ radial thick organ, in which transverse conduction is absent. curvature is _positive_, _i.e._, movement towards light. the result will be similar when light strikes in an opposite direction, _i.e._, from right to left. _b._ radial thin organ. there is here a possibility of transverse conduction. sequence of curvature: _positive_, _neutral_, and _negative_. reversal of direction of light gives rise to similar sequence of responses as before (_e.g._, seedling of _sinapis_). _c._ anisotropic thick organ; transverse conduction possible. thick line represents the more excitable distal side. sequence of curvature: positive, neutral and pronounced negative. when light strikes from opposite direction on the more excitable side the curvature will remain positive, since the pronounced reaction of the more excitable side cannot be neutralised or reversed by transmitted excitation to the less excitable distal side (_e.g._, leaf of _mimosa_). _in the absence of transverse conduction_, the curvature remains positive (_e.g._, leaflet of _erythrina_). _d._ anisotropic thin organ with high transverse conductivity. sequence of curvature: transient positive, quickly masked by predominant negative. light striking on the more excitable side will give rise only to _positive_. the response in relation to the plant, will apparently be in the same direction whether light strikes the organ on one side or the opposite (_e.g._, leaflets of _mimosa_, _averrhoa_ and _biophytum_). i have shown that tissues in sub-tonic condition exhibit an acceleration of the rate of growth under stimulus (p. ) the corresponding tropic reaction would therefore be away from stimulus or _negative_ curvature. the tonic condition is, however, raised to the normal by the action of stimulus itself, and the tropic curvature becomes positive. i give below a table which will show at a glance all possible variations of phototropic reaction. table xxxi.--mechanical response of pulvinated and growing organs under light. +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ |description of | action. | effect observed. | | tissue. | | | +---------------+------------------------+---------------------------+ |i tissue |stimulus causes increase|expansion or enhanced rate | | sub-tonic. | of internal energy. | of growth, _e.g._, | | | | _pileus_ of _coprinus_ | | | | drooping in darkness, | | | | made re-turgid by light. | | | | renewed growth of dark | | | | rigored plant exposed to | | | | light. | |ii normally |a . moderate light, | . curvature towards light,| | excitable | causing excitatory | _e.g._, flower bud of | | organ under| contraction of proximal| _crinum_. | | unilateral | and positive expansion | | | light. | of distal. | | | a. organ |a . strong light. | . neutralisations, _e.g._,| | radial. | excitatory effect | seedling of _setaria_. | | | transmitted to distal, | | | | neutralising first. | | | |a . intense and | . reversed or negative | | | long-continued light. | response, _e.g._, seedling| | | fatigue of proximal and| of _zea mays_. | | | excitatory contraction | | | | of distal. | | | b. dorsi- |b . excitatory | . positive response, | | ventral | contraction of proximal| _e.g._, upward folding of | | organ. | predominant, owing | leaflets in so-called | | | either to greater | "diurnal sleep" of | | | excitability of | _erythrina indica_ and | | | proximal or feeble | _clitoria ternatea_. | | | transverse conductivity| | | | of tissue. | | | |b . transmission of | . negative response, | | | excitation through | _e.g._, downward folding | | | highly conducting | of leaflets in so-called | | | tissue to more | "diurnal sleep" of | | | excitable lower or | _biophytum_ and | | | distal. greater | _averrhoa_. | | | contraction of distal. | | |iii rhythmic |considerable absorption |initiation of multiple | | tissue. | of energy, immediate | response in _desmodium | | | or prior. | gyrans_ previously at | | | | standstill; multiple | | | | response under continuous | | | | action of light in | | | | _biophytum_. | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ summary. there is no line of demarcation between tropic and nastic movements. in a differentially excitable organ the effect of strong unilateral stimulus becomes internally diffused, and causes greater contraction of the more excitable side of the organ. in the absence of transverse conduction, the positive curvature reaches a maximum without neutralisation or reversal. the leaflets of _erythrina indica_ and of _clitoria ternatea_ thus fold upwards, the apices of the leaflets pointing towards the sun. internally diffused excitation under strong light induces greater contraction of the more excitable half of the pulvinule, causing upward folding of _mimosa_ leaflet, and downward folding of the leaflets of _biophytum_ and _averrhoa_. xxxv.--effect of temperature on phototropic curvature _by_ sir j. c. bose, _assisted by_ guruprasanna das. i shall in this chapter deal with certain anomalies in phototropic curvature, brought about by variation of temperature and by seasonal change; certain organs again are apparently erratic in their phototropic response. seasonal change of phototropic action. sachs observed a positive phototropic curvature in the stems of _tropæolum majus_ in autumn; but this was reversed into negative in summer; similarly in the hypocotyl of ivy, the positive curvature in autumn is converted into negative curvature in summer. certain organs are apparently insensitive to the action of light. thus no phototropic response is found in the tendril of _passiflora_ even under the action of strong light. the tendrils of _vitis_ and _ampelopsis_ exhibit, according to wiesner, positive phototropism under feeble, and negative phototropism under strong light. the anomalies referred to above may be explained by taking into consideration the modifying influence of temperature on the excitability, and the conductivity of the organ. effect of temperature on excitability. the excitability of an organ is abolished at a low temperature; it is enhanced by a rise of temperature up to an optimum. the temperature minimum and optimum varies in different tissues. the following table shows the enhancement of excitability of _mimosa_ at different temperatures, the testing stimulus being the same. table xxxii--showing variation of excitability of pulvinus of _mimosa_ at different temperatures. +-----------------------------------+ |temperature.|amplitude of response.| +------------+----------------------+ | °c. | divisions. | | °c. | " | | °c. | " | +-----------------------------------+ below °c. the excitability of the pulvinus of _mimosa_ is practically abolished. the excitability increases till an optimum temperature is reached, above which it undergoes a decline. though rise of temperature enhances excitability up to an optimum, there is an antagonistic reaction induced by it which opposes the excitatory contraction. the physiological reaction of a rise of temperature, within normal range, is expansion and this must oppose the contraction induced by stimulus. hence the effect of rise of temperature is complex; it enhances the excitability which favours contraction, while tending to oppose this contraction by the induced physiological expansion. as a result of these opposite reactions there will be a critical temperature, below which the contractile effect will relatively be greater than expansion; above the critical point, expansion will be the predominant effect. the critical temperature will obviously be different in different organs. the positive curvature may thus be increased by a slight rise, while it may be neutralised, or even reversed by a greater rise of temperature. the induced variation of excitability due to change of temperature is not the only factor in modifying tropic curvature, for variation of conductivity also exerts a marked effect. effect of temperature on conduction. the conducting power of an organ is greatly enhanced with rise of temperature. thus in _mimosa_ the velocity of transmission of excitation is doubled by a rise of temperature through °c. (p. ). an organ which is practically non-conducting at a low temperature will become conducting at a higher temperature. thus at a low temperature the organ may be non-conducting, and the excitatory contraction under unilateral stimulus will remain localised at the proximal side; this will give rise to a positive curvature. but under rising temperature, the power of transverse conduction will be increased and the excitation will be conducted to the distal side. the result of this will be a neutralisation or reversal into negative curvature (p. ). a positive curvature is thus reversed into negative by change of excitability and conductivity, induced by rise of temperature; examples of this will be given presently. phototropic response of tendrils. i shall here adduce considerations which will show that the apparent anomalies regarding the response of tendrils to light is due to the variation of transverse conductivity of the organ. in a semi-conducting tissue, while the excitatory effect of feeble stimulus remains localised at the proximal side, the effect of stronger stimulus is conducted to the distal side. this explains the positive phototropic curvature of tendrils of _vitis_ and _ampelopsis_ under feeble light, and its reversal into negative curvature under intense light. as the conducting power is increased with rise of temperature it is evident that at a certain temperature the tropic effect will be exactly neutralised by transverse conduction. lowering of temperature, by reducing the transmission of excitation to the distal side, will restore the positive curvature. enhancement of conduction under rise of temperature will, on the other hand, increase the antagonistic reaction of the distal side and give rise to a negative curvature. i shall in verification of the above, describe experiments which i have carried out on the phototropic response of the tendril of _passiflora_, supposed to be insensitive to the action of light. _phototropic response of the tendril of_ passiflora: _experiment ._--the tendril was cooled by keeping it for a long time in a cold chamber, maintained at °c. the effect of unilateral light on the cooled specimen was found to be positive; the tendril was next allowed to assume the temperature of the room which was °c. the response was now found to have undergone a change into negative. the positive and negative phototropic curvatures of an identical organ at different temperatures is seen in the two records given in figure . neutralisation takes place at an intermediate temperature, and the organ thus appears insensitive to light. seasonal variation of phototropic curvature. [illustration: fig. .--(_a_) positive curvature of tendril of _passiflora_ at °c.; (_b_) negative phototropic curvature at °c.] reference has been made of the phototropic curvature of _tropæolum_ and of ivy undergoing a change from positive in autumn to negative in summer. the experiment described above shows that rise of temperature, by enhancing transverse conductivity, transforms the positive into negative heliotropic curvature. the reversal of the phototropic curvature of _tropæolum_ and ivy, from positive in autumn to negative in summer, finds a probable explanation in the higher temperature condition of the latter season. this inference finds independent support from the fact previously described (p. ) that while the velocity of conduction of excitation in the petiole of _mimosa_ is as high as mm. per second in summer, it is reduced to about mm. in late autumn and early winter. antagonistic effects of light and of rise of temperature. i have explained the complex effect of rise of temperature on phototropic curvature. rise of temperature, within limits, enhances the excitability, and therefore the positive curvature under light. its expansive reaction, on the other hand, opposes the contraction of the proximal side, which produces the normal positive curvature. rise of temperature, as previously stated, introduces another element of variation by its effect on conductivity. transverse conduction favoured by rise of temperature promotes neutralisation and reversal; the resultant effect will thus be very complicated. i give below account of an experiment where the induced positive curvature under light underwent a reversal during rise of temperature. _reversal of tropic curvature under rise of temperature: experiment ._--the specimen employed for this experiment was a seedling of pea, enclosed in a glass chamber, the temperature of which could be gradually raised by means of an electric heater. provisions were made to maintain the chamber in a humid condition. the temperature of the chamber was originally at °c., and application of light on one side of the organ gave rise to positive curvature, followed by complete recovery on the cessation of light (fig. a). the next experiment was carried out with the same specimen; while the plant was undergoing increasing positive curvature under the continued action of light, the temperature of the chamber was gradually raised from ° to °c. at the point marked with arrow. it will be seen that the positive curvature became arrested, neutralised, and finally reversed into negative (fig. b). [illustration: fig. .--effect of rise of temperature on phototropic curvature. (_a_) normal positive curvature followed by recovery, (_b_) reversal of positive into negative curvature by rise of temperature at (h). (pea seedling).] _after-effect of rise of temperature: experiment ._--the after-effect of rise of temperature exhibited by this specimen was extremely curious. the temperature of the chamber was allowed to return to the normal, and the experiment repeated after an hour; the response was now found to be negative (fig. a). it appeared probable that the temperature in the interior of the tissue had not yet returned to the normal, and an interval of four hours was therefore allowed for the restoration of the tissue to the normal temperature of the room. the response still persisted to be negative, as seen in the series of records obtained under successive stimulations of light of short duration; these negative responses exhibited recovery on the cessation of light (fig. b). this reversal of response as an after-effect of rise of temperature was in this case found to persist for several hours. i experimented with the same specimen next day when the response was found restored to the normal positive. [illustration: fig. .--after-effect of rise of temperature, persistent negative curvature: (_a_) response one hour after rise of temperature; (_b_) series of negative responses after hours (successive stimuli applied at vertical lines).] summary. rise of temperature, within limits, enhances the general excitability of the organ. this has the effect of increasing positive phototropic curvature. but the physiological expansion induced by rise of temperature exerts an antagonistic effect. the transverse conductivity is increased with the rise of temperature; this favours neutralisation and reversal of phototropic curvature. tendrils of _passiflora_, supposed to be phototropically insensitive, exhibit positive curvature at low, and negative curvature at a moderately high temperature. the change of phototropic curvature exhibited by _tropæolum majus_ and ivy, from positive in autumn to negative in summer, is probably due to the effect of temperature. higher temperature with enhanced transverse conductivity in summer, may thus convert positive into negative curvature. the physiological effects of rise of temperature and the stimulus of light are antagonistic to each other. rise of temperature tends to neutralise or reverse the positive phototropic curvature. the after-effect of temperature is often very persistent. xxxvi.--on phototropic torsion _by_ sir j. c. bose, _assisted by_ surendra chandra das. in addition to positive or negative curvatures light induces a responsive torsion. with regard to this jost says:-- "the mechanics of the torsions have not as yet been fully explained. it has long been believed that these torsions were occasioned only by the action of a series of external factors, such as light, gravity, weight of the organ which individually led to curvatures, but in combination induced torsions; but later investigations have shown that torsions might appear when light only was the functional external factor.... if the torsions cannot generally be regarded as due to the combination of two curvatures, we are completely in the dark as to the mechanics of their production."[ ] [ ] jost--_ibid_--p. . a leaf when struck laterally by light undergoes a twist, so that the upper surface is placed, more or less, at right angles to the incident rays; as no explanation was available for this movement, the suggestion has been made that the particular reaction is for the advantage of the plant. i shall presently show, that it is possible to reverse this normal torsion and thus make the upper surface of the leaf move away from light. the experiments which i shall presently describe will, it is hoped, throw light on the obscure phenomenon. i shall be able to show: ( ) that the torsional response is not dependent on the combination of two curvatures, ( ) that it is also independent of the effect of weight, ( ) that it may be induced not merely by stimulus of light but by all forms of stimulation, ( ) that the direction of the torsional response depends on the direction of the incident stimulus and the differential excitability of the organ, and ( ) that there is a definite law which determines the torsional movement. experimental arrangements. i shall first describe a typical experiment on the responsive torsion under the action of light. we have seen that in the pulvinus of _mimosa_, light of moderate intensity and of short duration applied on the upper half induces a slow up-movement, while the stimulus of light applied below induces a more rapid down-movement. the difference is due to the fact that the lower half of the pulvinus is relatively the more excitable. vertical light thus induces a movement in a vertical plane. but an interesting variation is induced in the response under the action of lateral light. a stimulus will be called _lateral_ when it acts on either the right or left flank of a _dorsiventral_ organ. we shall presently find that a dorsiventral organ responds to lateral stimulus by torsion. the present series of experiments were carried out with the leaf of _mimosa_, and in order to eliminate the effect of weight and also for obtaining record of pure torsion, i employed the following device. the petiole was enclosed in a hooked support made of thin rod of glass, the petiole resting on the concavity of the smooth surface. friction and the effect of weight is thus practically eliminated; the looped support prevented up or down movements, and yet allowed perfect freedom for torsional response. this latter is magnified by a piece of stout aluminium wire fixed at right angles to the petiole (fig. ). the end of the aluminium wire is attached to the short arm of a recording lever; there is thus a compound magnification of the torsional movement. the oscillating recorder gave successive dots at intervals which could be varied from seconds to minutes. time-relations of the response may thus be obtained from the dotted record. [illustration: fig. .--diagrammatic representation for record of torsional response. h, thin glass hook: a, aluminium wire attached to petiole for magnification of torsional movement. t, silk thread for attachment to recording lever.] with the experimental device just described, we shall be in a position to study the effect of various stimuli applied at one flank of the pulvinus--at the junction of the upper and lower halves of the organ. the observer standing in front of the leaf is supposed to look at the stem. torsional response will then appear as a movement either with or against the hands of the clock. the torsional response, right-handed or left-handed, will presently be shown to depend on the direction of incident stimulus. in figure , anti-clockwise torsion is recorded as an up-curve; clockwise rotation is recorded as a down-curve. action of stimulus of light. _experiment ._--the pulvinus of the leaf was stimulated by a horizontal beam of light thrown in a lateral direction; the areas contiguous to line of junction of the upper and lower halves of the anisotropic organ thus underwent differential excitation. when light struck on the left flank, the responsive torsion was anti-clockwise; the responsive reaction thus made _the upper and the less excitable half of the pulvinus face the stimulus_. figure gives a record of the torsional movement when light struck the left flank of the organ; on the cessation of stimulus the response is followed by recovery. [illustration: fig. .--record of torsional response of pulvinus of _mimosa pudica_.] directive action of stimulus. _experiment ._--if now the direction of stimulus be changed so that light strikes on the right flank instead of the left, the responsive torsion is found to be reversed, the direction of movement being clockwise. here also the responsive movement is such that it is the less excitable upper half of the organ that is made to face the stimulus. it will thus be seen that the torsion, anti-clockwise or clockwise, depends on two factors, namely the direction of stimulus, and the differential excitability of the organ. effect of different modes of lateral stimulation. i shall now proceed to show that the torsional response is induced not merely by the action of light, but by all forms of stimulation. _effect of chemical stimulation: experiment ._--dilute hydrochloric acid was at first applied on the left flank of the pulvinus along the narrow strip of junction of the upper and lower halves. this gave rise to a responsive torsion against the hands of a clock. chemical stimulation of the right flank induced, on the other hand, a torsional movement with the hands of a clock. here also the direction of stimulus is found to determine the direction of responsive torsion. _effect of thermal radiation: experiment ._--i next employed thermal radiation as the stimulus; the source of radiation was a length of electrically heated platinum wire. it is advisable to interpose a narrow horizontal slit, so as to localise the stimulus at the junction of the upper and lower halves of the pulvinus. stimulus applied at the left flank induced left-handed or anti-clockwise torsion; application at the right flank gave rise to right-handed torsion. _geotropic stimulus._--the stimulus of gravity induces, as i shall show in a subsequent chapter, a similar responsive torsion, the direction of which is determined by the direction of the incident stimulus. effect of differential excitability on the direction of torsion. under normal conditions, the torsional response under light places the upper surface of the leaf or leaflets at right angles to light. that this movement is not due to some specific sensibility to light is shown by the fact that all modes of stimulation, chemical, thermal or gravitational, induce similar responsive torsion. the torsional response is, moreover, shown to be determined by the direction of incident stimulus, and the differential excitability of the organ. this latter may be reversed by the local application of various depressing agents on the normally more excitable lower half of the pulvinus. under this treatment, the lower half of the pulvinus may be rendered relatively the less excitable. lateral application of light now induces a torsional movement which is the reverse of the normal, so that the upper surface of the leaf moves away from light. the advantage of the plant cannot, therefore, be the factor which determines the directive movement; the teleological argument often advanced is, in any case, no real explanation of the phenomenon. in all the instances given above, and under every mode of stimulation, the responsive movement makes the less excitable half of the pulvinus face the stimulus. the torsional response is, in reality, the mechanical result of the differential contraction of a complex organ, which is fixed at one end and subjected to lateral stimulation. i have been able to verify this, by the construction of an artificial pulvinus consisting of a compound strip, the upper half of which is ebonite, and lower half the more contractile stretched india-rubber; if such a strip be held securely at one end in a clamp, and if the lateral flank, consisting half of ebonite and half of india-rubber, be subjected to radiation, and record taken in the usual manner, it will be found that a torsional response takes place which is similar to that of the pulvinus of _mimosa_. the above experiment was devised to offer an explanation of the mechanics of the movement. it should, however, be borne in mind in this connection that the torsional response of pulvinus is brought about by differential _physiological_ contraction of the organ, the movement being abolished at death. from the results given above, we arrive at the following:-- laws of torsional response. . an anisotropic organ, when laterally excited by any stimulus, undergoes torsion by which the less excitable side is made to face the stimulus. . the intensity of torsional response increases with the differential excitability; when the original difference is reduced, or reversed, the torsional response undergoes concomitant diminution or reversal. having thus established the laws that guide torsional response, i shall try to explain certain related phenomena which are regarded as highly obscure. i shall also describe the application of the method of torsional response in various investigations. complex torsion under light. the leaves of the so-called "compass plants" exhibit very complex movements, these being modified according to the intensity of incident light. thus in compass plants the leaves, under moderate intensity of light in the morning or in the evening, turn themselves so as to expose their surfaces to the incident rays. but under intense sun light, the leaves perform bendings and twistings so that they stand at profile at midday. i have not yet been able to secure "compass plants" at calcutta. i shall, however, describe my investigations on the complicated torsional movements exhibited by certain leaflets by the action of vertical light. the results obtained from these will show that torsional movements, even the most complex, are capable of explanation from the general laws that have been established. _torsional movement of leaflet of_ cassia alata: _experiment ._--these leaflets are closed laterally at night but place themselves in an outspread position at day time. the character of the movement is, however, modified by the intensity of light. with moderate light in the morning the leaflets open out laterally. but under more intense light, the pulvinules of the leaflets exhibit a torsion by which the formerly infolded surfaces of the leaflets are exposed at right angles to light from above (fig. ). such complicated movements, in two directions of space, are also exhibited by other leaflets which are closed at night in a lateral direction. [illustration: fig. .--leaflets of _cassia alata_: open in daytime, and closed in evening.] for obtaining an explanation of these complex movements under different intensities of light, we have first to discover the particular disposition of the two halves of the pulvinule which are unequally excitable; we have next to explain the responsive movements under the directive action of moderate and of intense light. _determination of differential excitabilities of the organ: experiment ._--in the leaflet of _cassia_ the movement of opening under diffuse stimulation of light can only be brought about by the contraction of the outer half, which must therefore be the more excitable. this is independently demonstrated by the reaction to an electric-shock. on subjecting the half closed leaflets to diffuse electric stimulation, they open outwards in a _lateral_ direction. the disposition of the unequally excitable halves of the pulvinule is thus different from that of the main pulvinus of _mimosa_. in the latter, the plane that divides the two halves is horizontal, the lower half being the more excitable. thus in the pulvinule of _cassia_ the plane that separates the two unequally excitable halves is vertical, the outer half being the more excitable than the inner. by inner half is here meant that half which is inside when the leaflets are closed. _effect of strong vertical light: experiment ._--when the plant is placed in a moderately lighted room, the leaflets open out laterally to the outmost. this is brought about by the contraction of the more excitable outer half of the organ. if strong light be thrown down from above, a new movement is superposed, namely, of torsion by which the leaflets undergo a twist and thus place their inner surface at right angles to the vertical light. in order to investigate this phenomenon in greater detail i placed the plant in a well lighted room, the leaflets being three quarters open under the diffuse light. a very light index was attached to the leaflet for magnifying the subsequent torsional movement. a strong beam of parallel light from an arc lamp was thrown down on the pulvinule from above; this fell at the junction of the more excitable outer with the less excitable inner half of the organ, the plane of separation of the two unequally excitable halves being, as previously explained, vertical. i have shown that under lateral stimulation, a differentially excitable organ undergoes torsion by which the less excitable half is made to face the stimulus. since it is the inner half of the organ that is the less excitable, the attached leaflet becomes twisted so as to expose its (former infolded) surface upwards, at right angles to the incident light. as a confirmatory test, strong light was made to strike the pulvinule from _below_ with the result that the leaflets exhibited an opposite torsion by which their surfaces faced downwards, so as to be at right angles to light that struck them from below. under normal conditions sunlight comes from above; stimulation thus takes place at the junction of the two differentially excitable halves of the organ, the plane of separation of which is vertical. the torsion induced makes the less excitable inner half turn in such a way that the inner surfaces of the leaflets are placed perpendicular to the incident light. advantages of the method of torsional response. the torsional response not only affords a new method of enquiry on the reaction of various stimuli, but it also possesses certain advantages. for instance in studying the response of the leaf of _mimosa_ under light, the records were taken of the movement of the leaf in a vertical plane. but the responsive up-movement, induced by light acting from above, is opposed by the weight of the leaf. but in the torsional response, the leaf rests on the hooked glass support and the movement is thus free from the complicating factor of the weight of the leaf. again the pulvinus of _mimosa_, for example, is sometimes subject to spontaneous variation of turgor, on account of which it exhibits an autonomous up or down movement. in the ordinary method of record the true response to external stimulus may thus be modified by natural movement of the leaf. but in the torsional method, the autonomous up or down movement is restrained by the hooked support, and the response to lateral stimulus is unaffected by the spontaneous movement of the leaf. the torsional method, moreover, opens out possibilities of inquiry in new directions, such as the comparison of the excitatory effects of different stimuli by the method of balance, and the determination of the effective direction of geotropic stimulus. the torsional balance. a beam of light falling on the left flank of the pulvinus of _mimosa_ induces a torsion against the hands of the clock. a second beam falling on the right flank opposes the first movement; the resultant effect is therefore determined by the effective stimulation of the two flanks. the pulvinus thus becomes a delicate index by which two stimuli may be compared with each other. the following experiment is cited as an example of the application of the method of phototropic balance. _experiment ._--parallel beam of light from a small arc lamp passing through blue glass falls on the left flank of the pulvinus; a beam of blue light also strikes the pulvinus from the right side, and the intensity of the latter is so adjusted that the resultant torsion is zero. blue glass is now removed from the left side, the unobstructed white light being allowed to fall on the left flank of the pulvinus. this was found to upset the balance, the resultant torsion being anti-clockwise. this showed that white light induced greater excitation than blue light. we next interpose a red glass on the left side, with the result that the balance is upset in the opposite direction. this is because the phototropic effect of red light is comparatively feeble. we may thus compare the tropic effect of one form of stimulus against a totally different form, phototropic against geotropic action for example. it is enough here to draw attention to the various investigations rendered possible by the method of balance. concrete examples of some of these will be given in a subsequent chapter. determination of the direction of stimulus. i have shown that the torsion, clockwise or anti-clockwise, is determined by the direction of incident stimulus. hence it would be possible to determine the direction of incident stimulus from the observed torsional movement. in the case of light, the direction of incident stimulus is quite apparent. but it is difficult to determine the direction of stimulus which is itself invisible. in such cases, the torsional movement gives us infallible indication of the effective direction of stimulus. the application of this principle will be found in a later chapter. summary. lateral stimulus induces a torsional response in a dorsiventral organ. this is true of all modes of stimulation. the responsive torsion is determined by the direction of incident stimulus, and the differential excitability of two halves of the organ, the torsion being such that the less excitable half of the organ is made to face the stimulus. the twist exhibited by various leaves and leaflets under light finds its explanation from the demonstrated laws of torsional response. the direction of incident stimulus may be determined from the responsive torsion of a dorsiventral organ. the method of torsional balance enables us to compare the excitatory efficiencies of two different stimuli which act simultaneously on the two flanks of the organ. xxxvii.--radio-thermotropism _by_ sir j. c. bose, _assisted by_ guruprasanna das. we have studied the tropic curvature induced by different rays of light. we saw that while the more refrangible rays of the spectrum were most effective, the less refrangible rays were ineffective. below the red, there are the thermal rays about whose tropic effect very little is definitely known. the intricacies of the problem are very great owing to the difficulty of discriminating the effect of temperature from that of radiation; to this must be ascribed the contradictory results that have been obtained by different observers, of which pfeffer gives the following summary:[ ] [ ] pfeffer--_ibid_--vol. iii, p. . "in addition to the action of ultra-red rays which are associated with the visible part of the spectrum, dark heat-rays of still greater wave length, as well as differences of temperature may produce a thermotropic curvature in certain cases. wortmann observed that seedlings of _lepidium sativum_ and _zea mays_, as well as sporangiphores of _phycomyces_ curved towards a hot iron plate emitting dark heat-rays. steyer has, however, shown that the sporangiphore of _phycomyces_ has no power of thermotropic reaction.... wortmann observed that the seedling shoot of _zea mays_ was positively, but that of _lepidium_ negatively, thermotropic.... steyer, however, found that both plants were positively thermotropic. wortmann has also investigated the radicles of seedlings by growing them in boxes of saw-dust, one side being kept hot, the other cold." it will be noted that in the investigations described above, thermotropic reaction has been assumed to be the same under variation of temperature (as in experiments with unequally heated saw-dust), and under radiation from heated plate of metal. with reference to this jost maintains that "so far as we know, thermotropism due to _radiant_ heat cannot be distinguished from thermotropism due to _conduction_."[ ] [ ] jost--_ibid_--p. . the effect of temperature, within optimum limits, is a physiological expansion and enhancement of the rate of growth. the effect of visible radiation is, on the other hand, a contraction and retardation of growth. should radiant heat act like light, the various tropic effects in the two cases would be similar; the temperature effect would in that case be opposite to the radiation effect. in order to find whether the thermal radiation produces tropic curvature similar to that of light, we have to devise a crucial experiment in which the complicating factor of rise of temperature on the responding organ is eliminated. _experiment ._--i have described the effect of light applied unilaterally to the stem of _mimosa_, at a point diametrically opposite to the indicating leaf (_expt._ ). it was shown that the effect of indirect stimulus induced at first an erectile movement of the leaf, and that this was followed by a fall of the leaf on account of transverse transmission of excitation. in the present experiment i applied thermal radiation instead of light. the source of radiation was a spiral of platinum wire heated short of incandescence by means of electric current. the intensity of incident radiation could thus be maintained constant, or increased or decreased by approach or recession of the radiating spiral. the effect of unilateral stimulus of heat-rays was found exactly similar to that of light; _i.e._, there was at first an erectile movement due to indirect stimulation, followed by the fall of the leaf due to transmitted excitation. it will be noticed that under the particular condition of the experiment, the responding pulvinus was completely shielded from temperature-variation. the reaction to thermal radiation is thus similar to that of light. as regards the effects of rise of temperature and radiation i have shown that they are antagonistic to each other (pp. , ). thus in positive types of thermonastic organs like the flower of _zephyranthes_, while rise of temperature induces a movement of opening, radiation causes the opposite movement of closure. again, in the negative type exemplified by _nymphæa_, rise of temperature induces a movement of closure; radiation on the other hand, brings about the opposite movement of opening. the tropic effect of thermal radiation thus takes place in opposition to that of rise of temperature, and the resultant effect is therefore liable to undergo some modification, depending on the relative sensibility of the organ to radiation and to variation of temperature. the facts that have been given above prove that infra-red radiation is as effective a mode of stimulation as the more refrangible rays of the spectrum. phototropic and radio-thermotropic reactions would therefore prove to be essentially similar. the following experiments fully confirm the similarity of the two reactions. positive radio-thermotropism. _experiment ._--i shall now describe the normal reaction of a growing organ to the unilateral stimulus of thermal radiation. figure gives a record of response of the stem of _dregea_ to stimulus of short duration; the induced curvature is positive or towards the source of heat. on the cessation of stimulus, there is a recovery which is practically complete, and which takes place at a slower rate than the excitatory positive curvature. repetition of stimulus gives rise to responses similar to the first. _successive stimuli of moderate intensity thus give rise to repeated responses of growth curvature._ an arbitrary distinction has been made between the responses of pulvinated and of growing organs. the former is distinguished as a movement of variation, with its supposed characteristic of repeated response. but the experiment described shows that this is also met with in the response by growth curvature. it is only under long continued stimulation that the curvature is fixed by growth. [illustration: fig. .--positive response to short exposure to thermal radiation. successive dots at intervals of seconds. (_dregea volubilis._)] dia-radio-thermotropism. the positive curvature is induced by retardation of growth at the proximal side, and enhancement of growth at the distal side. this latter effect is, as we have seen, brought about by the effect of indirect stimulation. but under long continued action of stimulus, the negative or excitatory impulse reaches the distal side, inducing diminution of turgor and retardation of the rate of growth. this leads to neutralisation, the organ placing itself at right angles to the orienting stimulus. [illustration: fig. .--record of positive, neutral and reversed negative curvature under continued action of thermal radiation. the negative response went off the plate. successive dots at intervals of seconds. (_dregea volubilis_).] _experiment ._--this neutralisation is seen in the record given in figure , where under continuous unilateral stimulation, the growing organ exhibited its maximum positive curvature, after which the movement became arrested by the arrival of the excitatory impulse at the distal side, on account of which the first positive curvature became neutralised. further continuation of stimulus caused a reversal into negative in the course of minutes. it will thus be seen that in inducing phototropic curvature, the heat rays in sunlight play as important a part as the more refrangible rays of the spectrum. summary. the effects of rise of temperature and of radiation are antagonistic to each other. under unilateral action of thermal radiation a positive curvature is induced by the retardation of growth at the proximal, and acceleration of growth at the distal side of the organ. there is a complete recovery on the cessation of stimulus of moderate intensity and short duration. repeated responses may thus be obtained similar to repeated responses in pulvinated organs. in certain tissues the power of conduction in a transverse direction is wanting; excitation remains localised at the proximal side, and the responsive curvature remains positive. in other cases, there is a slow conduction of excitation to the distal side. the result of this under different circumstances is dia-radio-thermotropic neutralization, or a reversed negative curvature. in inducing phototropic curvature, the heat rays in sunlight play as important a part as the more refrangible rays of the spectrum. xxxviii.--response of plants to wireless stimulation _by_ sir j. c. bose, _assisted by_ guruprasanna das. a growing plant bends towards light, and this is true not only of the main stem but also of its branches and attached leaves and leaflets. light affects growth, the effect being modified by the intensity of radiation. strong stimulus of light causes a diminution of the rate of growth, but very feeble stimulus induces an acceleration. the tropic effect is very strong in the ultra-violet region of the spectrum with its extremely short wave length, but the effect declines practically to zero as we move towards the less refrangible rays--the yellow and the red with their comparatively long wave length. as we proceed beyond the infra-red region, we come across the vast range of electric radiation, the wave lengths of which vary from · cm., the shortest wave i have been able to produce, to others which may be miles in length. there thus arises the very interesting question, whether plants perceive and respond to the long ether waves including those employed in signalling through space. at first sight this would appear to be very unlikely; for the most effective rays are in the ultra-violet region with wave length as short as × ^{- } cm.; but with electric waves used in wireless signalling we have to deal with waves million times as long. the perceptive power of our retina is confined within the very narrow range of a single octave, the wave lengths of which lie between × ^{- } cm. and × ^{- } cm. it is difficult to imagine that plants could perceive radiations so widely separated from each other as the visible light and the invisible electric radiation. but the subject assumes a different aspect, when we take into consideration the _total_ effect of radiation on the plant. light induces two different effects which may broadly be distinguished as external and internal. the former gives rise to movement; the latter finds no outward manifestation, but consists of an 'up' or assimilatory chemical change, with concomitant increase of potential energy. of the two reactions then, one is dynamic attended by dissimilatory 'down' change; the other is potential, associated with the opposite 'up' change. in reality the two effects take place simultaneously; but one of these becomes predominant under definite conditions. the modifying condition is the _quality_ of light; with reference to this i quote the following from pfeffer: "so far as is at present known, the action of different rays of the spectrum gives similar curves in regard to heliotropic and phototactic movements, to protoplasmic streaming and movements of the chloroplastids as well as the photonastic movements produced by growth or by changes of turgor. on the other hand, it is the less refrangible rays which are most active in photo-synthesis."[ ] the dynamic and potential manifestations are thus seen to be complementary to each other, the rays which induce photo-synthesis being relatively ineffective for tropic reaction and _vice versâ_. [ ] pfeffer--vol. ii, p. . returning to the action of electric waves, since they exert no photo-synthetic action they might conceivably induce the complementary tropic effect. these considerations led me to the investigation of the subject fourteen years ago, and my results showed that very short electric waves induce a retardation of rate of growth; they also produce responsive movements of the leaf of _mimosa_, when the plant was in a highly sensitive condition.[ ] the energy of the short electric waves is very feeble, and undergoes great diminution at a distance; hence the necessity of employment of a specimen of plant in a highly sensitive condition. [ ] "plant response"--p. ( ). i resumed my investigations on the subject at the beginning of this year. i wished to find out whether plants in general perceived and responded to the long ether waves which reached it from a distance. the perception of the wireless stimulation was to be tested not merely by the responsive movement of sensitive plants, but by diverse modes of response given by all kinds of plants. stimulus induces, as we have seen, three different types of response in plants. it causes excitation in sensitive plants like _mimosa_, in consequence of which the leaf undergoes a fall; this is the mechanical response to stimulus. stimulus also induces electric response in plants, both sensitive and ordinary, the excited tissue undergoing an electric change of galvanometric negativity. finally, the effect of stimulus on growing plants is a variation in the rate of growth, an acceleration under feeble, and a retardation under strong stimulus. i undertook to investigate the effect of electric waves on plants by the methods of mechanical and of electrical responses, and also by that of induced variation of growth. [illustration: fig. .--diagrammatic representation of method employed for obtaining response to wireless stimulation. transmitting apparatus seen to the right. receiving aerial connected to upper part of plant, the lower part of the plant or the flower-pot being connected with the earth.] the wireless system. for sending wireless signals, i had to improvise the following arrangement, more powerful means not being available. the secondary terminals of a moderate sized ruhmkorff's coil were connected with two cylinders of brass, each cm. in length; the sparking took place between two small spheres of steel attached to the cylinders. one of the two cylinders was earthed, and the other connected with the aerial meters in height. the receiving aerial was also meters in height and its lower terminal led to the laboratory, and connected by means of a thin wire to the experimental plant growing in a pot; this latter was put in electric connection with the earth (fig. ). the distance between the transmitting and receiving aerial was about meters, the maximum length permitted by the grounds of the institute. mechanical response of _mimosa_. _experiment ._--one of the leaves of _mimosa_ was connected with the aerial by means of a thin tinsel of loose wire, which did not interfere with the free movement of the leaf. this latter was attached to the recording lever. wireless signals induced a responsive fall of the leaf (fig. ) which was gradual as under action of light, and not so abrupt as under a mechanical blow. [illustration: fig. .--mechanical response of leaf of _mimosa_ to electric wave.] [illustration: fig. .--electric response of _mimosa pudica_ to wireless stimulation.] the electric response. _experiment ._--the leaf of _mimosa_ was in this experiment held securely, and two electrical connections made, one with the less excitable upper and the other with the more excitable lower half of the pulvinus. the incident ether-wave induced an electric response in the pulvinus, the more excitable lower half exhibiting galvanometric negativity. on the cessation of stimulus there was a recovery (fig. ). it is not at all necessary to employ the sensitive _mimosa_ for exhibition of electric response; for this is universally exhibited by all plants. the only condition for electric response is that the points of electric contacts should be made with two unequally excitable areas in the plant. this may be secured by artificial means as by causing 'injury' to one point of contact.[ ] it is however much better to take advantage of the natural difference of excitability of two different areas in the organ as in the pulvinus of _mimosa_. this difference of excitability is also found between the inner and outer sides of a hollow tubular organ as in the peduncles of various lilies. i was thus able to secure specimens which were far more sensitive to the action of electric waves than the pulvinus of _mimosa_. [ ] "comparative electro-physiology"--p. . effect of wireless stimulation on growth. there now remains the very interesting question as to whether the effect of long ether waves induce any variation of growth. the results given below show that growing plants not only perceive but respond to the stimulus of electric waves. the effects to be presently described are exhibited by all plants. i shall, however, content myself in describing a typical experiment carried with the seedling of wheat. the specimen was mounted on the balanced crescograph, and the growth exactly balanced. this gives a horizontal record; an acceleration of growth above the normal is, in the following records, represented by a down curve, and a retardation by an up-curve. _effect of feeble stimulus: experiment ._--i first studied the effect of feeble stimulus. this was secured by decreasing the energy of sparks of the radiator. the response was an acceleration of rate of growth as seen in figure a. the analogy of this with the accelerating effect of sub-minimal intensity of light (p. ) is very remarkable. [illustration: fig. .--record of responses to electric wave by the balanced crescograph (_a_) response to feeble stimulus by acceleration of growth, (_b_) response to strong stimulus by retardation, (_c_) responses to medium stimulation--retardation followed by recovery. down-curve represents acceleration, and up-curve retardation of growth: (seedling of wheat.)] _effect of strong stimulus: experiment ._--the maximum energy radiated by my transmitter, as stated before, was only moderate. in spite of this its effect on plants was exhibited in a very striking manner. the balance was immediately upset, indicating a retardation of the rate of growth. the latent period, _i.e._, the interval between the incident wave and the response, was only a few seconds (fig. b). the record given in the figure was obtained with the moderate magnification of , times only. but with my magnetic crescograph, the magnification can easily be raised ten million times; and the response of plant to the space signalling can be exalted in the same proportion. under an intensity of stimulus slightly above the sub-minimal, the responses exhibit retardation of growth followed by quick recovery, as seen in the series of records given in fig. c. a remarkable peculiarity in the response was noticed during the course of the experiments. strong stimulation by ether waves gives rise, as we have seen, to a very marked retardation of the rate of growth. repeated stimulation induces fatigue, and temporary insensitiveness of the organ. under moderate fatigue the effect is a prolongation of the latent period. thus in a particular experiment the plant failed to give any response to a short signal. but after an interval of five minutes a marked response occurred to the wireless stimulus that had been received previously. the plant had perceived the stimulus but on account of fatigue the latent period was prolonged, from the normal seconds to as many minutes. summary. plants not only perceive, but also respond to long ether waves employed in signalling through space. mechanical response to wireless stimulation is exhibited by the leaf of _mimosa pudica_. all plants give electric response to the stimulus of long ether waves. growing plants exhibit response to electric waves by modification of rate of growth. feeble stimulus induces an acceleration, while strong stimulus causes a retardation of the rate of growth. the perceptive range of the plant is far greater than ours; it not only perceives but responds to the different rays of the vast ethereal spectrum. xxxix.--geotropism _by_ sir j. c. bose. no phenomenon of tropic movement appears so inexplicable as that of geotropism. there are two diametrically opposite effects induced by the same stimulus of gravity, in the root a movement downwards, and in the shoot a movement upwards. the seeming impossibility of explaining effects so divergent by the fundamental reaction of stimulus, has led to the assumption that the irritability of stem and root are of opposite character. i shall, however, be able to show that this assumption is unnecessary. the difficulty of relating geotropic curvature to a definite reaction to stimulus is accentuated by the fact that the direction of the incident stimulus, and the side which responds effectively to it are not clearly understood; nor is it known, whether the reaction to this stimulus is a contraction, or its very opposite, an expansion. taking the simple case of a horizontally laid shoot, the geotropic up-curvature is evidently due to differential effect of the stimulus on upper and lower sides of the organ. the up-curvature may be explained by one or the other of two suppositions: ( ) that the stimulus of gravity induces contraction of the upper side; or ( ) that the fundamental reaction is not a contraction but an expansion and this of the lower side. the second of these two assumptions has found a more general acceptance. tropic curvatures in general are brought about by the differential effect of stimulus on two sides of the organ. thus light falling on one side of a shoot induces local contraction, the rays being cut off from acting on the further side by the opacity of the intervening tissue. but there is no opaque screen to cut off the vertical lines of gravity,[ ] which enter the upper side of a horizontally laid shoot and leave it by the lower side. though lines of force of gravity are transmitted without hindrance, yet a differential action is found to take place, for the upper side, where the lines of force enter, becomes concave, while the lower side where they emerge becomes convex. why should there be this difference? [ ] i shall in what follows take the _direction_ of vertical lines of gravity as that of movement of falling bodies, from above towards the centre of the earth. for the removal of various obscurities connected with geotropism it is therefore necessary to elucidate the following: . the sign of excitation is, as we found, a contraction and concomitant galvanometric negativity. does gravitational stimulus, like stimulus in general, induce this excitatory reaction? . what is the effective direction of geotropic stimulus? in the case of light, we are able to trace the rays of light which is incident on the proximal side and measure the angle of inclination. in the case of gravity, the invisible lines of force enter by one side of the organ and leave by the other side. assuming that the direction of stimulus is coincident with the vertical lines of gravity, is it the upper or the lower side of the organ that undergoes effective stimulation? . what is the law relating to the 'directive angle' and the resulting geotropic curvature? by the directive angle (sometimes referred to as the angle of inclination) is meant, as previously explained, the angle which direction of stimulus makes with the responding surface. . we have finally to investigate, whether the assumption of opposite irritabilities of the root and the shoot is at all justifiable. if not, we have to find the true explanation of the opposite curvatures exhibited by the two types of organs. of these the first three are inter-related. they will, however, be investigated separately; and each by more than one method of inquiry. the results will be found to be in complete harmony with each other. i propose in this and in the following chapters to carry out the investigations sketched above, employing two independent methods of enquiry, namely, of mechanical and of electrical response. i shall first describe the automatic method i have been able to devise, for an accurate and magnified record of geotropic movement and its time relations. the geotropic recorder. the recorder shown in figure is very convenient for study of geotropic movement. the apparatus is four-sided and it is thus possible to obtain four simultaneous records with different specimens under identical conditions. the recording levers are free from contact with the recording surface. by an appropriate clock-work mechanism, the levers are pressed for a fraction of a second against the recording surfaces. the successive dots in the record may, according to different requirements, be at intervals varying from to seconds. the records therefore not only give the characteristic curves of geotropic movements of different plants, but also their time durations. for high magnification, i employ an oscillating recorder, the short arm of the lever being · mm., and the long arm mm., the magnification being a hundredfold; half that magnification is, however, sufficient for general purposes. [illustration: fig. .--the quadruplex geotropic recorder.] determination of the character of geotropic reaction. the observed geotropic concavity of the upper side of a horizontally laid shoot may be due to excitatory _contraction_ of that side, or it may result from passive yielding to the active responsive _expansion_ of the lower side. the crucial test of excitatory reaction under geotropic stimulus is furnished by investigations on geo-electric response. when a shoot is displaced from vertical to horizontal position, _the upper side of the organ is found to undergo an excitatory electric change of galvanometric negativity_ indicative of diminution of turgor and _contraction_. the electric change induced on the lower side is one of galvanometric positivity, which indicates an increase of turgor and expansion. the tropic effect of geotropic stimulus is thus similar to that of any other mode of stimulation, _i.e._, a contraction of the upper (which in the present case is the proximal) and expansion of the lower or the distal side. the vertical lines of gravity impinge on the upper side of the organ which undergoes effective stimulation. in order to show that the concavity of the upper side is not due to the passive yielding to the expansion of the lower half, i restrained the organ from any movement. i have explained that excitatory electric response is manifested even in the absence of mechanical expression of excitation; and under geotropic stimulus, the securely held shoot gave the response of galvanometric negativity of the upper side. hence the fundamental reaction under geotropic stimulus is excitatory _contraction_ as under other modes of stimulation. finally, i employed the additional test of induced paralysis by application of intense cold. excitatory physiological reaction is, as we know, abolished temporarily by the action of excessive cold. _experiment ._--i obtained records of mechanical response to determine the side which undergoes excitation under geotropic stimulus, the method of discrimination being local paralysis induced by cold. i took the flower-scapes of _amarayllis_ and of _uriclis_, and holding them vertical applied fragments of ice on one of the two sides. i then laid the scape horizontal, first with cooled side below, the record showed that this did not affect the geotropic movement. but on cooling the upper side, the geotropic movement became arrested, and it was not till the plant had assumed the temperature of the surroundings that the geotropic movement became renewed. figure shows the effect of alternate application of cold, on the upper and lower sides of the organ.[ ] in the shoot, therefore, it is the upper side of the organ that becomes effectively stimulated. before proceeding further i shall make brief reference to the highly suggestive statolithic theory of gravi-perception. [ ] "plant response"--p. . [illustration: fig. .--effect of alternate application of cold on the upper and lower sides of the organ. application of cold on upper side (down-pointing arrow) induces arrest of geotropic movement. application below (up-pointing arrow) causes no arrest.] theory of statoliths. with regard to the perception of geotropic stimulus there can be no doubt that this must be due to the effect of weight of cell contents, whether of the sap itself, or of the heavy particles contained in the cells, exerting pressure on the sensitive plasma. the theory of statoliths advocated by noll, haberlandt and nemec (in spite of certain difficulties which further work may remove) is the only rational explanation hitherto offered for gravi-perception. the sensitive plasma is the ectoplasm of the entire cell, and statoliths are relatively heavy bodies, such as crystals and starch grains. haberlandt has found statoliths in the apo-geotropic organs like stems.[ ] when the cell is laid horizontal, it is the lower tangential wall which has to support the greater weight, and thus undergo excitation. in the case of multicellular plants laid horizontally, the excitation on the upper side is, as we have seen, the more effective than on the lower side. this inequality, it has been suggested, is probably due to this difference that the statoliths on the upper side press on the inner tangential walls of the cells while those on the lower side rest on the outer tangential walls. [ ] haberlandt--"physiological plant anatomy"--p. . when the organ is held erect, the action of statoliths would be symmetrical on the two sides. but when it is laid horizontal a complete rearrangement of the statoliths will take place, and the differential effects on the upper and lower sides will thus induce geotropic reaction. this _period of migration_ must necessarily be very short; but the reaction time, or the latent period, is found to be of considerable duration. "even in rapidly reacting organs there is always an interval of about one to one and a half hours, before the horizontally placed organ shows a noticeable curvature, and this latent period may in other cases be extended to several hours."[ ] this great difference between the _period of migration_ and the _latent period_ offers a serious difficulty in the acceptance of the theory of statoliths. but it may be urged that the latent period has hitherto been obtained by relatively crude methods, and i therefore undertook a fresh determination of its value by a sensitive and accurate means of record. [ ] jost--_ibid_, p. . determination of the latent period. as regards the interpretation of the record of geotropic movement, it should be borne in mind that after the perception of stimulus a certain time must elapse before the induced growth-variation will result in curvature. there is again another factor which causes delay in the exhibition of true geotropic movement; for the up-movement of stems, in response to the stimulus of gravity, has to overcome the opposite down movement, caused by weight, before it becomes at all perceptible. on account of the bending due to weight there is a greater tension on the upper side, which as we have seen (p. ), enhances the rate of growth, and thus tends to make that side convex. the exhibition of geotropic response by induced contraction of the excited upper side thus becomes greatly delayed. in these circumstances i tried to discover specimens in which the geotropic action would be quick, and in which the retarding effect of weight could be considerably reduced. _geotropic response of flower stalk of tuberose: experiment ._--for this i took a short length of flower stalk of tuberose in a state of active growth; the flower head itself was cut off in order to remove unnecessary weight. after a suitable period of rest for recovery from the shock of operation, the specimen was placed in a horizontal position, and its record taken. the successive dots in the curve are at intervals of seconds, and the geotropic up-movement is seen to be initiated (fig. ) after the tenth dot, the latent period being thus minutes and seconds, the greater part of which was spent in overcoming the down-movement caused by the weight of the organ. [illustration: fig. .--geotropic response of flower stalk of tube rose: preliminary down-movement is due to weight.] [illustration: fig. .--geotropic response of petiole of _tropæolum_: latent period shorter than seconds.] _geotropic response of petiole of_ tropæolum: _experiment ._--i expected to obtain still shorter latent period by choosing thinner specimens with less weight. i therefore took a cut specimen of the petiole of _tropæolum_, and held it at one end. the lamina was also cut off in order to reduce the considerable leverage exerted by it. the response did not now exhibit any preliminary down-movement, and the geotropic up-movement was commenced within a few seconds after placing the petiole in a horizontal position (fig. ). the successive dots in the record are at intervals of seconds and the second dot already exhibited an up-movement; the latent period is therefore shorter than seconds. it will thus be seen that the latent period in this case is of the same order as the hypothetical period of migration of the statoliths. i may state here that i have been successful in devising an electric method for the determination of the latent period, in which the disturbing effect of the weight of the organ is completely eliminated. applying this perfect method, i found that the latent period was in some cases as short as a second. the experiment will be found fully described in a later chapter. the complete geotropic curve. the characteristics of the geotropic curve are similar to those of other tropic curves. that is to say the susceptibility for excitation is at first feeble; it then increases at a rapid rate; in the third stage the rate becomes uniform; and finally the curvature attains a maximum value and the organ attains a state of geotropic equilibrium (cf. page ). the period of completion of the curve varies in different specimens from a few to many hours. _experiment ._--the following record was obtained with a bud of _crinum_, the successive dots being at intervals of minutes. after overcoming the effect of weight (which took an hour), the curve rose at first slowly, then rapidly. the period of uniformity of movement is seen to be attained after three hours and continued for nearly minutes. the final equilibrium was reached after a period of hours (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--the complete geotropic curve (_crinum_).] for studying the effect of an external agent on geotropic action, the period of uniform movement is the most suitable. acceleration of the normal rate (with enhanced steepness of curve) indicates that the external agent acts with geotropism in a concordant manner; depression of the rate with resulting flattening of the curve shows, on the other hand, the antagonistic effect of the outside agent. determination of effective direction of stimulus. the experiments which have been described show that it is the upper side (on which the vertical lines of gravity impinge) that undergoes excitation. the vertical lines of gravity must therefore be the direction of incident stimulus. this conclusion is supported by results of three independent lines of inquiry: ( ) the algebraical summation of effect with that of a different stimulus whose direction is known, ( ) the relation between the directive angle and geotropic reaction, and ( ) the torsional response under geotropic stimulus. effect of algebraical summation. _experiment ._--a flower bud of _crinum_ is laid horizontally, and record taken of its geotropic movement. on application of light on the upper side at l, the responsive movement is enhanced, proving that gravity and light are inducing similar effects. on the cessation of light, the original rate of geotropic movement is restored (fig. ). application of light of increasing intensity from below induces, on the other hand, a diminution, neutralisation, or reversal of geotropic movement. light acting vertically from above induces a concavity of the excited upper side in consequence of which the organ moves, as it were, to meet the stimulus. the geotropic response is precisely similar. in figure the arrow represents the direction of stimulus which may be rays of light or vertical lines of gravity. [illustration: fig. .--stimulus of light or gravity, represented by arrow, induces up curvature as seen in dotted figure.] [illustration: fig. .--the effect of super-imposition of photic stimulus. the first, third, and fifth parts of the curve, give normal record under geotropic stimulus. rate of up-movement enhanced under light l.] analogy between the effects of stimulus of light and of gravity. in geotropic curvature we may for all practical purposes regard the direction of stimulus as coinciding with the vertical lines of gravity. the analogy between the effects of light and of gravity is very close[ ]; in both the induced curvature is such that the organ moves so as to meet the stimulus. this will be made still more evident in the investigations on torsional geotropic response described in a subsequent chapter. the tropic curve under geotropic stimulus is similar to that under photic stimulus. the tropic reaction, both under the stimulus of light and of gravity, increases similarly with the 'directive' angle. these real analogies are unfortunately obscured by the use of arbitrary terminology used in description of the geotropic curvature of the shoot. in figure records are given of the effects of vertical light and of vertical stimulus of gravity, on the responses of the horizontally laid bud of _crinum_. in both, the upper side undergoes contraction and the movement of response carries the organ upwards so as to place it parallel to the incident stimulus. though the reactions are similar in the two cases, yet the effect of light is termed _positive_ phototropism, that of gravity _negative_ geotropism. i would draw the attention of plant-physiologists to the anomalous character of the existing nomenclature. geotropism of the shoot should, for reasons given above, be termed _positive_ instead of _negative_, and it is unfortunate that long usage has given currency to terms which are misleading, and which certainly has the effect of obscuring analogous phenomena. until the existing terminology is revised, it would perhaps be advisable to distinguish the geotropism of the shoot as _zenithotropism_ and of the root as _nadirotropism_. [ ] exception to this will be found in page , where explanation is offered for the difference. relation between the directive angle and geotropic reaction. when the main axis of the shoot is held vertical, the angle made by the surface of the organ with lines of force of gravity is zero, and there is no geotropic effect. the geotropic reaction increases with the directive angle; theoretically the geotropic effect should vary as the sine of the angle. i shall in the next chapter describe the very accurate electrical method, which i have been able to devise for determination of relative intensities of geotropic action at various angles. under perfect conditions of symmetry, the intensity of effect is found to vary as the sine of the directive angle. this quantitative relation fully demonstrates that geotropic stimulus acts in a definite direction which coincides with the vertical lines of gravity. the conditions of perfect symmetry for study of geotropic action at various angles will be fully described in the next chapter. in the ordinary method of experimentation with mechanical response the organ is rotated in a vertical plane. the geotropic movement is found increased as the directive angle is increased from zero to °. differential geotropic excitability. it has been shown that geotropic stimulus acts more effectively on the upper side of the organ. the intensity of geotropic reaction is, moreover, modified by the excitability of the responding tissue. it is easy to demonstrate this by application of depressing agents on the more effective side of the organ. the rate of geotropic up-movement will be found reduced, or even abolished by the local application of cold, anæsthetics like chloroform, and of poisonous potassium cyanide solution. the different sides of a dorsiventral organ are unequally excitable to different forms of stimuli. i have already shown (p. ) that the lower side of the pulvinus of _mimosa_, is about times more excitable to electric stimulus than the upper side. since the effect of geotropic stimulus is similar to that of other forms of stimuli, the lower side of the pulvinus should prove to be geotropically more excitable than the upper side. this i have been able to demonstrate by different methods of investigation which will be described in the following chapters. under ordinary circumstances, the upper half of the pulvinus is, on account of its favourable position, more effectively stimulated by geotropic stimulus; in consequence of this the leaf assume a more or less horizontal position of "dia-geotropic" equilibrium. but when the plant is inverted the more excitable lower half of the organ now occupies the favourable position for geotropic excitation. the leaf now erects itself till it becomes almost parallel to the stem. the response of the same pulvinus which was formerly "dia-geotropic" now becomes "negatively geotropic"; but an identical organ cannot be supposed to possess two different specific sensibilities. the normal horizontal position assumed by the leaf is, therefore, due to differential geotropic excitabilities of the two sides of a dorsiventral organ. i have explained (p. ) that when the pulvinus of _mimosa_ is subjected to lateral stimulation of any kind, it undergoes a torsion, in virtue of which the less excitable half of the organ is made to face the stimulus. experiments will be described in a subsequent chapter which show that geotropic stimulus also induces similar torsional response. the results obtained from this method of enquiry give independent proof: ( ) that the lower half of the pulvinus is geotropically the more excitable, and ( ) that the direction of incident geotropic stimulus is the vertical line of gravity which impinges on the upper surface of the organ. summary. the stimulus of gravity is shown to induce an excitatory reaction which is similar to that induced by other forms of stimulation. the direct effect of geotropic stimulus is an incipient contraction and retardation of rate of growth. the upper side of a horizontally laid shoot is more effectively stimulated than the lower side, the excited upper side becoming concave. electrical investigation also shows that it is the upper side that undergoes direct stimulation. tropic reactions are said to be positive, when the directly stimulated side undergoes contraction with the result that the organ moves to meet the stimulus. according to this test, the geotropic response of the stem is _positive_. the geotropic response is delayed by the bending down of the horizontally laid shoot. reduction of weight is found to shorten the latent period; in the case of the petiole of _tropæolum_ this is shorter than seconds. the latent period of geotropic response is found to be of the same order as the "migration period" of the hypothetical statoliths. the complete geotropic curve shows characteristics which are similar to tropic curves in general. in a dorsiventral organ the geotropic excitabilities of the upper and lower sides are different. in the pulvinus of _mimosa_ the geotropic excitability of the lower half is greater than that of the upper half. the differential excitabilities of a dorsiventral organ modifies its position of geotropic equilibrium. xl.--geo-electric response of shoot _by_ sir j. c. bose, _assisted by_ satyendra chandra guha, m.sc. the experiments that have been described in the preceding chapter show that the upper side of a horizontally laid shoot undergoes excitatory contraction, in consequence of which the organ bends upwards. the fundamental geotropic reaction is, therefore, not expansion, but contraction which results from all modes of stimulation. in confirmation of the above, i wished to discover and employ new means of detecting excitatory reaction under geotropic stimulus. in regard to this, i would refer to the fact which i have fully established that the state of excitation can be detected by the induced electromotive change of galvanometric negativity. this electrical indication of excitation may be observed even in plants physically restrained from exhibiting response by mechanical movement.[ ] [ ] "comparative electro-physiology," p. . electric response to stimulus. before giving account of the results of investigations on the detection of geotropic excitation by means of electric response, i shall describe a few typical experiments which will fully explain the method of the electrical investigation, and show the correspondence of mechanical and electric responses. i have explained how tropic curvatures are brought about by the joint effects, of contraction of the directly excited proximal side a, and the expansion of the distal side b. in the diagram of mechanical response to stimulus (fig. a) the excitatory contraction is indicated by - sign, and the expansion, by + sign. the resulting movement is, therefore, towards the stimulus as shown by the curved arrow. i shall now describe the corresponding electric effects in response to unilateral stimulus. we have to determine the induced electrical variation at the proximal side a, and at the distal side b. [illustration: fig. .--diagrammatic representation of the mechanical and electrical response to direct unilateral stimulation indicated by arrow:-- (_a_) positive mechanical response (curved arrow) due to contraction of directly stimulated a, and expansion of indirectly stimulated b. (_b_) electric response of induced galvanometric negativity of a under direct stimulation. (_c_) electric response of induced galvanometric positivity at the distal point b. (_d_) additive effects of direct and indirect stimulations; galvanometric negativity of the directly stimulated proximal a, and galvanometric positivity of the indirectly stimulated distal point b.] _electric response to direct stimulation: experiment ._--for the determination of electric response at the directly excited proximal side a, we take a shoot with a lateral leaf. the point a, which is to undergo stimulation, is connected with one terminal of the galvanometer, the other terminal being led to an indifferent or neutral point n on the leaf. application of any form stimulus at a, gives rise to an electric current which flows through the galvanometer from the neutral to the excited point a (fig. b). _the directly stimulated point a thus becomes galvanometrically negative._ the "action" current lasts during the application of stimulus and disappears on its cessation. _electric response to indirect stimulation: experiment ._--we have also seen that application of stimulus at a causes indirect stimulation of the distal point b resulting in an increase of turgor and expansion. the corresponding electric change of the indirectly stimulated point b is found in the responsive current, which flows now through the galvanometer from the indirectly stimulated b to the neutral point n (fig. c). _the indirectly stimulated point thus becomes galvanometrically positive._ having thus obtained the separate effects at a and b, we next modify the experiment for obtaining the joint effects. for this purpose the neutral point n is discarded and a and b connected directly with the indicating galvanometer. on stimulation of a that point becomes negative and b positive, and the current of response flows through the galvanometer from b to a. the deflection is increased by the joint electrical reactions at a and b (fig. d). the results may thus be summarised:-- table xxxiii.--electric response to direct unilateral stimulus. +---------------------------------------------------------+ | electrical change at the | electrical change at the | | proximal side a. | distal side b. | +----------------------------+----------------------------+ | galvanometric negativity | galvanometric positivity | | indicative of contraction | indicative of expansion | | and diminution of turgor. | and increase of turgor. | |---------------------------------------------------------+ | the corresponding tropic curvature is positive movement | | towards stimulus. | +---------------------------------------------------------+ galvanometric negativity is thus seen to indicate the effect of direct stimulus, and galvanometric positivity that of indirect stimulus. we thus see the possibility of electric detection of the effects of geotropic stimulation. this method would, moreover, enable us to discriminate the side of the organ which undergoes greater excitation. experimental arrangements for obtaining geo-electric response. returning to the investigation on electric response to geotropic stimulus, the specimen of plant is at first held erect; two electrodes connected with a sensitive galvanometer are applied, one to an indifferent point, and the other to one side of the shoot. the sensitiveness of the galvanometer was such that a current of one millionth of an ampere produced a deflection of the reflected spot of light through , divisions of the scale. an action current is produced on displacement of the plant from vertical to horizontal position. _non-polarisable electrodes._--the electrical connections with the plant are usually made by means of non-polarisable electrodes (amalgamated zinc rod in zinc-sulphate solution and kaolin paste with normal saline). i at first used this method and obtained all the results which will be presently described. but the employment of the usual non-polarisable electrodes with liquid electrolyte is, for our present purpose, extremely inconvenient in practice; for the plant-holder with the electrodes has to be rotated from vertical to horizontal through °. the reliability of the non-polarisable electrode, moreover, is not above criticism. the zinc-sulphate solution percolates through the kaolin paste and ultimately comes in contact with the plant, and seriously affects its excitability. the name non-polarisable electrode is in reality a misnomër; for the action current (whose polarising effect is to be guarded against) is excessively feeble, being of the order of a millionth of an ampere or even less; the counter polarisation induced by such a feeble current is practically negligible. the idea that non-polarisable electrodes are meant to get rid of polarisation is not thus justified by the facts of the case. the real reason for its use is very different; the electrical connections with the plant has to be made ultimately by means of two metal contacts. if we take two pieces of metal even from the same sheet, and put them in connection with the plant, a voltaic couple is produced owing to slight physical differences between the two electrodes. amalgamation of the two zinc rods with mercury reduces the electric difference but cannot altogether eliminate it. i have been able to wipe off the difference of potential between two pieces of the same metal, say of platinum, and by immersing them in dilute salt solution from a voltaic couple. the circuit is kept complete for hours, and the potential of the two electrodes by this process is nearly equalised. a perfect equality is secured by repeated warming and cooling of the solution and by sending through the circuit, alternating current which is gradually reduced to zero. i have by this means been able to obtain two electrodes which are iso-electric. the specially prepared electrodes (made of gold or platinum wire) are put in connection with the plant through kaolin paste moistened with normal saline solution. care should be taken to use opaque cover over the plant-holder, so as to guard against any possible photo-electric action; moistened blotting paper maintains the closed chamber in a uniform humid condition. the direct method of contact described above is extremely convenient in practice; the resistance of contact is considerably reduced, and there is no possibility of its variation during the necessary process of rotation of the plant for subjecting it to geotropic action. [illustration: fig. .--diagrammatic representation of geo-electric response. the middle figure represents vertical position. in figure to the right rotation through + ° has placed a above with induced electric change of galvanometric negativity of a. in the figure to the left, rotation is through - ° a being below; the electric response is by induced galvanometric positivity of a. for simplification of diagram, vertical position of sepal is not always shown in the figure.] geo-electric response of the upper and lower sides of the organ. we have next to discover the electric change induced by geotropic stimulus on the upper and lower sides of the organ. for this purpose it is necessary to find a neutral point which is not affected by the inclination of the organ from vertical to horizontal position. for the present experiment, i employed the flower of the water lily _nymphæa_, the peduncle of which is sensitive to geotropic action. one electrical contact is made with a sepal, which is always kept vertical; the other electric contact is made at the point a, on one side of the flower stalk (fig. ). on making connections with a sensitive galvanometer a very feeble current was found, which was due to slight physiological difference between the neutral point, n, and a. this natural current may be allowed to remain, the action current due to geotropism being _superposed on it_; or the natural current may be neutralised by means of a potentiometer and the reflected spot of light brought to zero of the scale. _induced electric variation on upper side of the organ: experiment ._--while the sepal is held vertical, the stalk is displaced through + ° so that the point a is above. geotropic stimulation is at once followed by a responsive current which flows through the galvanometer from n to a, the upper side of the organ thus exhibiting excitatory reaction of galvanometric negativity (right-hand figure of ). when the stalk is brought back to vertical position geotropic stimulation disappears, and with it the responsive current. _electric response of the lower side: experiment ._--the stalk is now displaced through - °; the point a, which under rotation through + ° pointed upwards, is now made to point downwards. the direction of the current of response is now found to have undergone a reversal; it now flows from a on the lower side to the neutral point n; thus under geotropic action _the lower side of the organ exhibits galvanometric positivity_ indicative of increase of turgor and expansion (left-hand figure ).[ ] [ ] for detailed account cf. chapter xliii. having thus found that the upper side of the organ under geotropic stimulus becomes galvanometrically negative, and the lower side, galvanometrically positive, we make electric connections with two diametrically opposite points of the shoot a and b, and subject the organ to alternate rotation through + ° and - °. the electro-motive changes induced at the two sides now became algebraically summated. i employ two methods for geotropic stimulation: that ( ) of axial rotation, and ( ) of vertical rotation. [illustration: fig. .--diagrammatic representation of the method of axial rotation h, and of vertical rotation v (see text).] method of axial rotation. in the method of axial rotation, the organ is held with its long axis horizontal (fig. h). we have seen that the geotropic action increases with the angle which the responding surface of the organ makes with the vertical lines of gravity. when the organ is held with its length horizontal, the angle made by its two sides, a and b, with the vertical is zero and there is thus no geotropic effect. there is, moreover, no differential effect, since the two sides are symmetrically placed as regards the vertical lines of force. the plant is next rotated round its long axis, the angle of rotation being indicated in the circular scale. when the rotation is through + °, a is above and b below; this induces a differential geotropic effect, the upper side exhibiting excitatory electric change of galvanometric negativity. _experiment ._--i shall, as a typical example, give a detailed account of experiments with the petiole of _tropæolum_ which was found so highly excitable to geotropic stimulus (p. ). the specimen was held horizontal with two symmetrical contacts at the two sides, the electrodes being connected in the usual manner with the indicating galvanometer. when the plant is rotated through + ° there is an immediate current of response, the upper side becoming _galvanometrically negative_. this excitatory reaction on the upper side finds, as we have seen, mechanical expression by contraction and concavity, with positive or up-curvature. [illustration: fig. .--diagrammatic representation of the geo-electric response of the shoot (see text).] the differential stimulation of a and b disappears on rotation of the axis back to zero position, and the induced electro-motive response also disappears at the same time. if now the axis be rotated through - °, a will become the lower, and b the upper and the excited side. the electro-motive change is now found to have undergone a reversal, b becoming galvanometrically negative. this induced electro-motive variation under geotropic stimulus is of considerable intensity often exceeding millivolts. the characteristic electric change is shown diagrammatically in figure in which the middle figure shows the symmetrical or zero position. on rotation through + ° (figure to the right) a occupies the upper and b the lower position. a is seen to exhibit induced change of galvanometric negativity. rotation through - ° reverses the current of response, as b now occupies the upper and a the lower position. characteristics of geo-electric response. there are certain phenomena connected with the electric response under geotropic stimulus which appear to be highly significant. according to statolithic theory "geotropic response begins as soon as an organ is deflected from its stable position, so that a few starch-grains press upon the ectoplasts occupying the walls which are underneath in the new position; an actual rearrangement of the starch-grains is therefore not an essential condition of stimulation. as a matter of fact, the starch-grains do very soon migrate on to the physically lower walls, when a positively or negatively geotropic organ is placed horizontally, with the result that the intensity of stimulation gradually increases attaining its maximum value when all the falling starch-grains have moved on to the lower region of the ectoplast. the time required for the complete rearrangement of the statoliths may be termed the period of migration; its average length varies from five to twenty minutes in different organs."[ ] [ ] haberlandt--_ibid_--p. . stimulation, according to the statolithic theory, is induced by the displacement of the particles. the diameter of the geotropically sensitive cells is considerably less than · mm.; and the stimulus will be perceived after the very short interval taken by the statoliths to fall through a space shorter than · mm. this may be somewhat delayed by the viscous nature of the plasma, but in any case the period for perceptible displacement of the statoliths should be very short, about a second or so, and the latent period of perception of stimulus should be of this order. the mechanical indication of response to stimulus is delayed by a period which is somewhat indefinite; for the initiation of responsive growth variation will necessarily lag behind the perception of stimulus. [illustration: fig. .--geo-electric response of the petiole of _tropæolum_.] _experiment ._--the mechanical response with its drawbacks is thus incapable of giving an accurate value of the latent period. the electrical method of investigation labours under no such disadvantage, since the excitation is here detected even in the absence of movement. the perception of stimulus will thus be followed by response without undue delay. i shall in this connection give a record of electric response of the quickly reacting petiole of _tropæolum_, when the angle of inclination is increased from zero to °. the responsive movement of the galvanometer spot of light was initiated in less than seconds and the maximum deflection was reached in the course of seconds. the angle was next reduced to zero, and the deflection practically disappeared in the further course of a minute and a half (fig. ). there was a small "excitation remainder". but with vigorous specimens the recovery is complete. [illustration: fig. .--geo-electric response of the scape of _uriclis_.] the latent period of quickly reacting petiole of _tropæolum_ is thus about seconds, a value which is more consonant with the idea of particles inducing excitation by their fall through an exceedingly short distance. in very sluggish organs latent period may be as long as a minute (fig. ), which is considerably shorter than an hour, the generally accepted value. further even in the electric response, the latent period will be delayed beyond the period of perception. for this perception takes place in some unknown sensitive layer in the interior of the tissue, while electric contact is made with the epidermis outside. it is obvious that certain time must elapse before the excitation, initiated at the sensitive layer, should reach the epidermis. under ideal conditions of experiment which will be described in a subsequent chapter, the latent period for geotropic excitation, i find, to be sometimes as short as a second. physiological character of geo-electric response. the intensity of the electro-motive variation is found to depend on the physiological vigour of the specimen. the _tropæolum_ plant, used for most of the above experiments, are at the best condition of growth in calcutta in february; after this the plants begin to decline in march and die off by the end of april. _experiment ._--in february the intensity of electric response was nearly double of that in march; it was only in march that i made quantitative determination of the induced electro-motive force between the upper and lower contacts on rotation of the specimen from zero to °. the e. m. f. was determined by the potentiometer method. i give below the following typical values obtained with two different specimens:-- specimen induced e. m. f. ( ) millivolts. ( ) " in the most favourable season the induced electro-motive force is likely to exceed the above value very considerably. _effect of age._--while a young petiole gave the above value, an old specimen from the same plant exhibited no response. the plants were in a dying condition in april and all indications of electrical reaction were found abolished. the physiological character of the response was also demonstrated by first obtaining the normal electric response in a vigorous specimen; after death, by immersion in boiling water, the plant gave no electric response to geotropic stimulus. effect of differential excitability of the organ. i have hitherto described the geo-electric effect of radial and isotropic organs. the induced e. m. f. at ° was found practically the same whether a was above and b below, and _vice versâ_. in the mechanical response of the pulvinus of _mimosa_, the geotropic excitability was, however, found to be greater in the lower half than in the upper (p. ). i wished to investigate the question of differential geotropic excitability anew, by means of electric response. _experiment ._--electric connections with the galvanometer were made with the upper and lower halves of the pulvinus, the organ being placed in the vertical or neutral position. the angle of inclination was then increased to ° in the positive and negative directions alternately. table xxxiv.--difference of geo-electric response of upper and lower halves of the pulvinus of _mimosa_. +---------------------------------------------------------+ | specimen. | position of particular | induced e. m. f. | | | half of pulvinus. | | +-----------+--------------------------+------------------+ | ( ) | { upper half above | millivolts. | | | { lower half above | " | | | | | | ( ) | { upper half above | " | | | { lower half above | " | +---------------------------------------------------------+ in the former case the upper half of the pulvinus occupied the up-position; in the second case the up-position was occupied by the lower half of the pulvinus. in both cases strong electric responses were obtained, the upper point of contact being always galvanometrically negative. there was, however, a difference between the two responses, the excitatory electro-motive variation was invariably greater when the lower half of the organ occupied the favourable up-position. this will be seen from the results of two typical experiments in table given above. the electrical mode of investigation thus leads to confirm the result obtained with mechanical method that the lower half of the pulvinus of _mimosa_ is geotropically more excitable than the upper half. relation between angle of inclination and geotropic effect. in the method of axial rotation, the condition of the experiment is ideally perfect; in the neutral position the sides a and b are both parallel to the vertical lines of gravity, and are little affected by geotropic reaction. as the specimen is rotated on its long axis the vertical component of the force of gravity increases with the angle of inclination. the hypothetical statolithic particles will become displaced all along the cell, and the vertical pressure exerted by them will also increase with the angle. the geo-electric response will then afford us a measure of the intensity of excitation induced at various angles of inclination. the mechanical response on account of its inherent defects does not afford us the true relation between the angle of inclination and intensity of geotropic reaction. but the electric method of inquiry is free from the defects of the mechanical method. _experiment ._--the specimen was rotated so that the angle of rotation was °, and the maximum electric response observed. the angle was next increased to ° and the reading for the enhanced response taken. the ratio of the geo-electric response at ° and °, thus affords us a measure of the effective stimulations at the two angles. i give below a table which gives results obtained with different specimens. table xxxv.--relation between angle of inclination and geotropic effect. +-------------------------------------------------------------+ |no. of specimen.| galvanometric deflection. |ratio b/a.| | +---------------------------------+ | | | (_a_) at ° | (_b_) at ° | | +----------------+---------------+-----------------+----------+ | | divisions | divisions | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | | | " | " | · | +-------------------------------------------------------------+ | mean ratio = · | +-------------------------------------------------------------+ the mean ratio · may thus be regarded as the relative geotropic effects at ° and °; this is practically the same as sin °/sin ° = · . hence we arrive at the following law: _the intensity on geotropic action varies as the sine of the directive angle._ method of vertical rotation. i have hitherto described results obtained with the method of axial rotation; i shall now take up the second method, that of vertical rotation, diagrammatic representation of which is given in figure v. the specimen is held vertical and two electrical contacts, a and b, made with the two lateral sides; it is then rotated round a horizontal axis perpendicular to the length of the specimen. rotation may be carried in a right-handed direction with increasing angle with the vertical. the point a is thus subjected to enhanced geotropic stimulation and exhibits increasing electric change of galvanometric negativity; continuous decrease of angle of inclination to zero by rotation in the reverse direction causes a disappearance of the induced electric change. the rotation is next continued in the negative direction by which the point b is increasingly subjected to geotropic action. b is now found to exhibit excitatory reaction, the current of response having undergone a reversal. rotation to the right and left will be distinguished by plus and minus signs. electric response through an entire cycle. _experiment ._--when the specimen is vigorous, characteristic response with its changing sign may be obtained through an entire cycle from ° to + ° to + °; then back to ° to ° to - ° to - °. with less vigorous specimens the responses becomes enfeebled under fatigue. i give below the results of a typical experiment carried out with a vigorous specimen, the response being distinguished as - when a is above, and + when a is below, the inversion bringing about a reversal direction of the responsive current. +------------------------------------------------------+ |angle of inclination |+ °|+ °|+ °| °|- °|- °| |-------------------------+----+----+----+---+----+----| |galvanometer deflection |- |- |- | |+ | + | +------------------------------------------------------+ relation between angle of vertical rotation and intensity of geotropic reaction. the relation between the angle of inclination and the resulting geotropic action has already been determined by the method of axial rotation. the ratio between the geotropic effects at ° and ° was thus found to be · , which is nearly the same as sin °/sin °. i was next desirous of determining the relative excitations at the two angles by the method of vertical rotation. it is necessary here to refer to certain differences of condition in the two methods. in the axial method, the hypothetical statoliths are distributed uniformly through the length of the cell, and rotation round the long axis causes displacement of the statoliths, the resulting pressure thus increasing with the sine of the angle of inclination. but in the case of vertical rotation through ° to the right, the statoliths originally at the base of the cell accumulate to the right hand corner of the cell; a portion of the basal side of the cell is thus subjected to pressure. when the angle is increased to ° the statoliths pass along the whole length including the basal and apical sides of the cell; but the excitability of the apical half may prove to be greater than that of the basal half. hence excitatory geotropic effect is not likely to vary strictly as in sine of angle of inclination. whatever the reason may be, i find as a result of experiments with different specimens that the mean ratio of the effects at ° and °, obtained by the method of vertical rotation, is · : which is greater than · : obtained by the method of axial rotation, this latter value being practically the same as sin °/sin °. summary. it is shown that the state of excitation under direct stimulus is exhibited by an electrical change of galvanometric negativity; the effect of indirect stimulus induces, on the other hand, an electrical change of galvanometric positivity. the negative electric change corresponds to contraction and diminution of turgor; the positive electric change indicates, on the other hand, an expansion and increase of turgor. the electric response to geotropic stimulus is studied by the two methods of axial and vertical rotation. the upper side of a horizontally laid shoot is found to undergo an excitatory change of galvanometric negativity. in quick reacting organs the latent period of geo-electric response is about seconds, and the maximum excitation is induced in the course of minutes. the geo-electric response is due to physiological reaction. the intensity of response declines with age and is abolished at the death of the plant. under symmetrical conditions, the intensity of geotropic reaction is found proportional to the sine of the angle of inclination. electric investigation shows that the lower half of the pulvinus of _mimosa_ is geotropically more excitable than the upper half. xli.--the mechanical and electrical response of root to various stimuli _by_ sir j. c. bose. in the last chapter we studied the electric response of the shoot to the stimulus of gravity, and found that the excitatory effect of that stimulus is similar to that of other forms of stimulation. before taking up the subject of the geo-electric response of the root to gravitational stimulus, i shall describe the effects of other forms of stimuli on the mechanical and electrical response of the root. in connection with this subject, it should be borne in mind that the responsive curvature in the root takes place in the sub-apical growing zone which is separated by a certain distance from the tip. the stimulus is therefore direct when applied at the responding growing region; it is indirect when applied at the tip of the root. the intervening distance between the root-tip and the responsive zone of growth is semi-conducting or non-conducting. i shall proceed to give an account of my investigations on the response of the root to direct and indirect unilateral stimulation. we shall study:-- ( ) the mechanical response to direct unilateral stimulus. ( ) the electrical response to direct unilateral stimulus. ( ) the mechanical response to indirect unilateral stimulus. ( ) the electrical response to indirect unilateral stimulus. mechanical response to direct stimulus. as the geotropic responses of the shoot and the root are opposed to each other, the object of the investigation is to find out; whether the response of the root to various stimuli is specifically different from that of the shoot. we have seen that tissues in general respond to direct unilateral stimulus by contraction of the proximal and expansion of the distal side, the tropic curvature being thus _positive_. we shall now determine whether direct unilateral stimulation of the root induces a tropic movement which is similar or dissimilar to that exhibited by the shoot. _experiment ._--in experimenting with roots of various plants i obtained results which are precisely similar to that of the shoot. the movement of the root was observed by means of a reading microscope focussed on the tip of the organ. i employed various forms of stimuli, mechanical, thermal, and chemical. unilateral application of these on one side of the growing region gave rise to a _positive_ tropic curvature, resulting in a movement towards the stimulus. these experiments confirm sachs' observation that unilateral application of stimulus in the region of growth induces positive curvature of the root. electrical response to direct stimulation. i next undertook an investigation on the electric response of the root to direct unilateral stimulation. _experiment ._--the terminals of the galvanometer were suitably connected with the two diametrically opposite points a and b in the growing region of the root. stimulus was now applied very near the point a, the various stimuli employed in different experiments being: ( ) mechanical, ( ) chemical, and ( ) thermal. in every instance the excited point a becomes galvanometrically negative. this shows that the response of the root is in no way different from that of the shoot. mechanical response to indirect stimulus. before describing the effect of indirect stimulus on the root, i shall recapitulate its effects on ordinary tissues. i have shown that the effect of indirect unilateral stimulus is to induce a movement away from stimulus. this was shown to be the case with the bud of _crinum_ (p. ) and the tendril of _passiflora_ (p. ). the mechanical and electric response to indirect stimulation in the shoot is shown in the diagrammatic representation (fig. ). i shall now proceed to describe the mechanical response induced by unilateral stimulation of the root tip. as the responding region of growth is at some distance from the tip, the stimulation is therefore indirect. [illustration: fig. .--mechanical and electrical response to indirect stimulation at dotted arrow. in figure to the left, the point a, on the same side undergoes expansion, with responsive mechanical movement away from stimulus indicated by continuous arrow. in figure to the right, indirect stimulus at dotted arrow induces electric response of galvanometric positivity at a, indicative of increase of turgor and expansion.] _experiment ._--i employed at first mechanical stimulus of moderate intensity by rubbing one side of the tip of the root of _bindweed_; this induced a movement away from stimulus. unilateral application of dilute acid gave rise to a similar response. thermal stimulus of moderate intensity also induced responsive movement away from the stimulus (fig. ). darwin in his _movements of plants_ described experiments on the responsive behaviour of the tip of the radicle. he produced unilateral stimulation in three different ways, first by attaching minute fragments of cardboard to one side of the root-tip; this moderate and constant irritation was found to induce a convexity on the same side of the growing region, with the resulting negative movement, _i.e._, away from stimulus. his second method was chemical, one side of the tip being touched with silver nitrate; the third method of stimulation was a slanting cut. all these methods induced a movement away from stimulus. electrical response to indirect stimulation. the next investigation was for the determination of the electrical change induced in the growing region by application of unilateral stimulus at the root-tip. [illustration: fig. .--diagrammatic representation of mechanical and electric response of root to indirect stimulus applied at the tip _a_. figure to the left shows responsive movement away from stimulus. the electric response to indirect stimulus is indicated in the figure to the right; the point on the same side exhibiting galvanometric positivity. the shaded part indicates the responsive region of growth at some distance from the tip.] _experiment ._--one of the two electrical connections with the galvanometer is made at one side of the growing region a, the other connection being made with the diametrically opposite point b. unilateral stimulus was applied at the root tip _a_, of the bean plant and on the same side as a. i subjected the tip to various modes of unilateral stimulation. mechanical stimulation was effected by emery-paper friction or by pin-prick; chemical stimulation was produced by application of dilute hydrochloric acid. thermal stimulation was caused by the proximity of electrically heated platinum wire. in every case the response was by _induced galvanometric positivity at a_ (fig. ). this electrical variation took place within about ten seconds of the application of stimulus; the interval would obviously depend on the length of path to be traversed by the transmitted effect of indirect stimulation. the galvanometric positivity at a indicated that there was induced at that point an increase of turgor and expansion, in consequence of which the organ would move away from stimulus. thus both by the mechanical and electrical methods of investigation we arrive at an identical conclusion that the effects of unilateral stimulus at the tip of the root gives rise to a movement, by which the organ is moved away from the source of stimulus; since tropic movement towards stimulus is termed _positive_, this opposite response must be regarded as _negative_. table xxxvi.--effect of indirect stimulus unilaterally applied at the root-tip. +--------------------------------------------------------------+ |effect at the proximal side a in the | effect at the distal| | growing region. | side b. | +--------------------------------------+-----------------------+ |galvanometric positivity, indicative | negligible. | | of increase of turgor and expansion. | | |--------------------------------------------------------------| |the corresponding tropic curvature is negative, _i.e._, a | |movement away from stimulus. | +--------------------------------------------------------------+ the root-tip when burrowing its way underground comes in contact with hard substances and moves away from the source of irritation. the irritability of the root-tip is generally regarded as being specially evolved for the advantage of the plant. but reference to experiments that, have been described shows that this reaction is not unique but exhibited by all plant organs, growing and non-growing. indirect stimulus has been shown to give rise, in both shoot and root, to a _negative_ tropic curvature in contrast to the _positive_ curvature brought about by direct stimulation; the response of the root is therefore in no way different from that of vegetable tissues in general. it will also be seen that an identical stimulus induces two opposite effects, according as the stimulus is applied at the tip or at the growing region itself. in the former case, the stimulus is indirect, and in the latter case it is direct. the results are in strict conformity with the laws of effects of direct and indirect stimulations that have been established regarding plant response in general (p. ). summary. in the root, the responsive region is in the zone of growth. the tip of the root is separated from the region of response by a semi-conducting or non-conducting tissue. direct unilateral stimulus (applied at the region of growth) induces a positive curvature by the contraction of the proximal and expansion of the distal side. the electrical response to direct unilateral stimulus is galvanometric negativity of the proximal, and galvanometric positivity of the distal side. indirect unilateral stimulus induces expansion of the proximal side resulting in negative curvature and movement away from stimulus. the corresponding electric response induced is galvanometric positivity of the proximal side. the responses of the root, to both direct and indirect stimulations, are precisely similar to those in the shoot. the assumption of specific irritability of the root as differing from that of the shoot, is without any justification. xlii.--geo-electric response of root _by_ sir j. c. bose, _assisted by_ satyendra chandra guha. the effects of various stimuli, direct and indirect, on the response of the root have been described in the last chapter. these responsive reactions have been found to be in no way different from those of the shoot. but the shoot and the root exhibit under the stimulus of gravity, responsive movements which are diametrically opposite to each other. these opposite effects of an identical stimulus have been regarded as due to specific differences of irritability in the two organs, specially evolved for the advantage of the plant. the root is thus supposed to be characterised by "positive" and the shoot by "negative" geotropism. as regards response to other forms of stimuli, the root has been shown to behave like the shoot. we have now to inquire whether the reaction of the root to gravitational stimulus is specifically different to that of the shoot. the electric method of investigation described in the last chapter, holds out the possibility of discovering the character of the responsive reaction induced in the root by its displacement from vertical to horizontal position; we shall, moreover, be able to make an electrical exploration of the root-tip and the zone of growth, and thus determine the qualitative changes of response, induced in two regions of the root under the action of gravitational stimulus. for the detection of geotropic action in the shoot, electric contacts were made at two points diametrically opposite to each other. displacement of the shoot from vertical to horizontal position induced excitatory change of galvanometric negativity at the upper side of the organ, demonstrating the effect of direct stimulation of that side; this excitatory reaction of the upper side finds independent mechanical expression in the induced contraction and concavity of that side of the organ. i employ a similar electric method for detection of geotropic excitation of the root, responses to geotropic stimulus being taken at the root-tip and also at the zone of growth in which geotropic curvature is effected. i shall now proceed to give a detailed description of the characteristic electric responses of the tip and of the growing region. the two diametrically opposite contacts at the tip will be distinguished as _a_ and _b_, the corresponding points higher up in the growing region being a and b. when the root is vertical the electric conditions of the two diametrically opposite points are practically the same. but when the root is rotated in a vertical plane through + ° a geo-electric response will be found to take place; the direction of the responsive current disappears when the root is brought back to the vertical. rotation through - ° gives rise again to a responsive current, but its direction is found reversed. geo-electric response of the root-tip. _experiment ._--i took the root of the bean plant and made two electric contacts with the diametrically opposite points, _a_ and _b_, of the root-tip at a distance of about · mm. from the extreme end. owing to the very small size of the tip this is by no means an easy operation. two platinum points tipped with kaolin paste are very carefully adjusted so as to make good electric contacts at the two opposite sides, without exerting undue pressure. for geotropic stimulation the root has to be laid horizontal, and as the root of the bean plant is somewhat long and limp, displacement from the vertical position is apt to cause a break of the electric contact. this is avoided by supporting the root from the top and also from the sides; for the latter purpose, i use paddings of cotton wool. [illustration: fig. .--diagrammatic representation of geo-electric response of root-tip. the middle figure shows root in vertical position. rotation through + ° places _a_ above, which becomes galvanometrically negative. rotation through - °, places _b_ above and makes it negative.] after due observance of these precautions the electric response obtained is found to be very definite; when the root is made horizontal, by rotation of the root through + °, the point _a_ is above, and the responsive current is found to flow from _b_ to _a_, _the upper side of the tip_ becoming galvanometrically negative; when the root is brought back to the vertical, the responsive current disappears; rotation through - ° makes the point _b_ occupy the upper position, and the responsive current is from _a_ to _b_; the upper side thus exhibits in every case, an excitatory electric change of galvanometric negativity (fig. ). the root-tip thus exhibits the characteristic response to direct stimulation. experiments carried out with different specimens gave concordant results. the following table gives the absolute values of electro-motive force induced at the tip under geotropic stimulus. table xxxvii.--geo-electric response of the root tip (_vicia faba_). +--------------------------+ |specimen.|induced e. m. f.| +---------+----------------+ | | · volt. | | | · " | | | · " | | | · " | +--------------------------+ electric response in the growing region. _experiment ._--i next undertook an investigation on the electric variation induced in the growing region under the stimulus of gravity. the experimental difficulties are here greatly reduced, since the available area of contact for galvanometric connection is not so restricted as in the case of the root-tip. the specimen is securely mounted so that the root is vertical. it is next rotated in the vertical plane through + °, so that the point a in the growing region occupied the upper position. the electric response in the growing region took place in a short time and was very distinct. the induced electric change at a was now galvanometric _positivity_ indicative of increase of _turgor and expansion_. the series of experiments were carried out in the following order. the specimen was first rotated through + ° so that a was above. the responsive electric variation rendered it galvanometrically positive. the root was rotated back to neutral position when the current disappeared. the root was next rotated through - ° and the responsive current became reversed, the upper b becoming electro-positive (fig. ). the alternative rotations through + ° and - ° were carried out six times in succession with consistent results. the interval allowed between one stimulation and the next was determined by the period of complete recovery. growing fatigue was found to increase this period; at first it was seven minutes, at the second repetition it was ten minutes, and at the third time it was prolonged to fifteen minutes. [illustration: fig. .--diagrammatic representation of geo-electric response of growing region of root. (_a_) rotation through - ° makes b, galvanometrically positive. (_b_) vertical and neutral position. (_c_) rotation through + ° places a above and renders it galvanometrically positive. (_d_) additive effect on current of response, root-tip a negative, and growing region a positive.] i give below the series of electric responses induced by alternate rotations through + ° and - °. the upper position was occupied by a in the odd series, and by b in the even series. in every case the upper side became galvanometrically positive. table xxxviii.--geo-electric response of root in the region of growth. +---------------------------------------------------------------+ | odd |galvanometer deflection| even |galvanometer deflection| |series.| a, positive. |series.| b, positive. | +-------+-----------------------+-------+-----------------------+ | | divisions. | | divisions. | | | " | | " | | | " | | " | +---------------------------------------------------------------+ additive action-current at the tip and the growing region. it has been shown that under geotropic stimulus the upper side of the tip, _a_, becomes galvanometrically negative, while the point a, higher up in the growing region, becomes galvanometrically positive. if now we make the two galvanometric connections with _a_ and a, the induced electric difference is increased, and the galvanometric response becomes enhanced. _experiment ._--the root was at first held vertical, and two electric contacts made with _a_ and a. in this neutral position there is little or no current. but as soon as the root was laid horizontal, an electro-motive response was obtained which showed that _a_ was galvanometrically negative, and a galvanometrically positive (fig. d). the induced electric response disappeared on restoration of the root to the vertical position. i give below the results of typical experiments with a vigorous specimen which gave strong electric response. it was possible to repeat the geotropic stimulation six times in succession, the results being perfectly consistent. the responses taken in succession exhibited slight fatigue, the first deflection being divisions, and the sixth divisions of the galvanometer scale. table xxxix.--induced e. m. f. variation between the tip and the growing region (_a_ negative and a positive). +-------------------------------------------------------+ |geotropic stimulation. | resulting electric response.| +------------------------+------------------------------+ |first stimulation | divisions. | |second " | " | |third " | " | |fourth " | " | |fifth " | " | |sixth " | " | +-------------------------------------------------------+ the results of experiments and are summarised as follows:-- ( ) the induced galvanometric negativity at root tip indicates direct stimulation of the tip, and ( ) the induced galvanometric positivity of the growing region shows that it is the effect of indirect stimulus that reaches it. from these facts it will be seen that the tip perceives the stimulus and thus undergoes excitation, and that owing to the intervening tissue being a semi-conductor of excitation, it is the positive impulse that reaches the growing region and induces there an expansion and a convex curvature. geo-perception at the root tip. the results given above fully confirm charles darwin's discovery that it is the root tip that perceives the stimulus of gravity[ ]; he found that removal of the tip abolished the geotropic response of the root. objection has been raised about the shock-effect of operation itself being the cause of abolition of response. but subsequent observations have shown that darwin's conclusions are in the main correct. [ ] "this view has been the subject of a considerable amount of controversy. wiesner denies the localisation of geotropic sensitiveness. czapek, on the other hand, supports darwin's theory. recently picard has attacked the problem in a new way (and) concludes that not only the root tip but also the entire growing zone is capable of perceiving gravitational stimuli.... as both picard's experimental method and his interpretation are open to criticism, the author has repeated his experiments with a more satisfactory apparatus. he finds that in _vicia faba_, _phaseolus multeflorus_ and _lupinus albus_, both apex and growing zone are geotropically sensitive, the former being by far the more sensitive of the two, and the curvature of the growing zone being without a doubt largely induced by secondary stimuli transmitted from the apical region. charles darwin's views were therefore in the main correct."--haberlandt--_ibid_, p. . the experiments which i have described on the geo-electric response of the root tip and of the growing region offer convincing proof of the perception of the stimulus at the tip, and the transmission of the effect of indirect stimulus to the growing region. these experiments exhibit in an identical _uninjured_ organ: the excitatory reaction at the upper side of the tip, the cessation of excitation, and the excitation of the opposite side of the tip, following the rotation of the organ through + °, ° and - °. the effect at the growing zone is precisely the opposite to that at the tip, _i.e._, an expansive reaction which results from the effect of indirect stimulus, in contrast to the contractile reaction due to direct stimulation. we may now proceed a step further and try to obtain some idea of the difference in the mechanics of geotropic stimulation of the shoot and of the root, to account for the different responses in the two organs. the reason of this difference lies in the fact that in the shoot the perceptive and responding region is one and the same; every cut-piece of stem exhibits the characteristic geotropic curvature. in the root the case is different; for the removal of the sensitive root-tip reduces or abolishes the geotropic action; the region of maximum geotropic perception is thus separated from that of response. it must be borne in mind _that this holds good only in the case of gravitational stimulus_, for the decapitated root still continues to respond to other forms of stimulation such as chemical or photic. the cause of this difference in the reactions to geotropic and other stimuli lies in the fact that in the latter case, energy is supplied from outside. but in geotropism the force of gravity is by itself inoperative; it is only through the weight of the cell contents that the stimulus becomes effective. want of recognition of this fundamental difference has led many observers in their far-fetched and sweeping attempt, to establish an identity of reaction of the root to geotropic and photic stimulations, in spite of facts which plainly contradict it. thus the root moves away from the incident vertical line of gravity; but under light, the root very often moves towards the stimulus. the negative phototropic response of the root of _sinapis_ is an exceptional phenomenon for which full explanation has been given in page . we shall next consider whether the particular distribution of the falling starch-grains (which offers a rational explanation of geotropic stimulation) in the shoot and in the root, is capable of furnishing an explanation of the different geotropic responses in the two organs. in this connection, the results of investigation of haberlandt and nemec are highly suggestive. haberlandt finds statoliths present in the responding region of the stem; the geotropic stimulation of the stem is therefore direct. nemec's investigation on the distribution of statoliths in the root show, on the other hand, that it is the central portion of the root cap that contains the falling starch grains, and this would account for the indirect geotropic stimulation of the root. the theory of statoliths is, however, not essential for the explanation of the opposite geotropic effects in the shoot and in the root. the observed fact, that the perceptive region in the root is separated from the responding region, is sufficient to explain the difference of geotropic action in the two organs. through whatever means the stimulus of gravity may act, it is inevitable, from the fact that the stimulation of the shoot is direct and of the root indirect, that an identical stimulus should in two cases induce responsive reactions of opposite signs. it will thus be seen that the postulation of two different irritabilities in the shoot and in the root is wholly unnecessary and unwarranted by facts. for the irritability of the root has been shown to be in no way different from that of other organs; an uniformity is thus found to exist in the reaction of all vegetable tissues. summary. on subjection of the tip of the root to the stimulus of gravity, the upper side exhibits excitatory reaction of galvanometric negativity. this shows that the root-tip undergoes direct stimulation. the electric response in the growing region above the stimulated point of the root-tip is positive, indicative of increase of turgor and expansion. this is due to the effect of indirect stimulus. the stimulus of gravity is perceived at the root-tip; it is the effect of indirect stimulus that is transmitted to the responding region of growth. in contrast with the above is the fact that the growing region of the shoot is both sensitive and responsive to geotropic stimulus. as the effects of direct and indirect stimulation on growth are antithetic, the responses of shoot and root to the direct and indirect stimulus must be of opposite signs. there is no necessity for postulating two different irritabilities for the shoot and the root, since tissues in general exhibit positive or negative curvatures according as the stimulus is direct or indirect. xliii.--localisation of geo-perceptive layer by means of the electric probe _by_ sir j. c. bose, _assisted by_ satyendra chandra guha. the obscurities which surround the phenomenon of geotropism arise: ( ) from the invisibility of the stimulating agent, ( ) from want of definite knowledge as to whether the fundamental reaction is contractile or expansive, and ( ) from the peculiar characteristic that the stimulus is only effective when the _external_ force of gravity reacts _internally_ through the mass of contents of the sensitive cells. the experiments that have been detailed in the foregoing chapters will have removed most of the difficulties. but beyond these is the question of that power possessed by plants of _perceiving_ geotropic stimulus by means of certain localised sense organs, which send out impulses in response to which neighbouring cells carry out the movement of orientation in a definite direction. are the sensitive cells diffusely distributed in the organ or do they form a definite layer? could we by the well established method of physiological response localise the sensitive cells in the interior of the organ? as the internal cells are not accessible, the problem would appear to be beyond the reach of experimental investigation. it is true that post-mortem examination of sectioned tissues under the microscope enables us to form a probable hypothesis as regards the contents of certain cells causing geotropic irritation; we have thus the very illuminating theory of statoliths propounded by noll, haberlandt and nemec. but for the clear understanding of the _physiological reaction_ which induces the orientating movement, it is necessary to get hold, as it were, of a single or a group of sensory cells _in situ_ and in a condition of fullest vital activity; to detect and follow by some subtle means the change induced in the perceptive organ and the irradiation of excitation to neighbouring cells, through the entire cycles of reaction, from the onset of geotropic stimulus to its cessation. the idea of obtaining access to the unknown geo-perceptive cell in the interior of the organ for carrying out various physiological tests would appear to be very extravagant; yet i could not altogether give up the thought that the obscure problem of geotropic action might be attacked with some chance of success, by means of an electric probe which would explore the excitatory electric distribution in the interior of the organ. but the experimental difficulties which stood in the way were so great that for a long time i gave up any serious attempt to pursue the subject. and it is only when the present volume is going through the press that the very first experiments undertaken proved so highly successful that i am able to give a short account of the more important results, which cast a flood of light on the obscurities of geotropic phenomena. the new method has opened out, moreover, a very extensive range of investigation on the activities of cells in the interior of an organ, and enabled me to localise the conducting 'nerve' which transmits excitation in plants. these and other results will be given in the next volume. [illustration: fig. .--diagrammatic representation of the geo-perceptive layer in unexcited vertical, and in excited horizontal position. (see text.).] method of exploration by the electric probe. the principle of the new method will be better understood if i first explained the steps of reasoning by which i was led to discover it. the experiments described in chapter xl showed that the upper surface of a horizontally laid shoot exhibits sign of excitation by induced galvanometric negativity; that this was due to the stimulus of gravity was made clear by restoration of the plant-organ to the vertical position, when all signs of electric excitation disappeared. now the skin of the organ on which the electrode was applied could not be the perceptive organ, for the removal of the epidermis did not abolish the geotropic action; the perceptive layer must therefore lie somewhere in the interior. as every side of a radial organ undergoes geotropic excitation, the geo-perceptive cells must therefore be disposed in a cylindrical layer, at some unknown depth from the surface. in a longitudinal section of the shoot, they would appear as two straight lines g and g´ (fig. ). in a vertical position the geo-perceptive layer will remain quiescent but rotation through + ° would initiate the excitatory reaction. let us first centre our attention to the geo-perceptive layer g, which occupies the upper position. this sensitive layer perceives the stimulus and is therefore the focus of irritation; the state of excitation is, as we have seen, detected by induced galvanometric negativity, and the electric change would be most intense at the perceptive layer itself. as the power of transverse conduction is feeble, the excitation of the perceptive layer will irradiate into the neighbouring cells in radial directions with intensity diminishing with distance. hence the intensity of responsive electric change will decline in both directions outwards and inwards. the distribution of the excitatory change, initiated at the perceptive layer and irradiated in radial directions is represented by the depth of shading, the darkest shadow being on the perceptive layer. had excitation been attended with change of light into shade, we would have witnessed the spectacle of a deep shadow (vanishing towards the edges) spreading over the different layers of cells during displacement of the organ from vertical to horizontal; the shadow would have disappeared on the restoration of the organ to the vertical position. different shades of excitation in different layers is, however, capable of discrimination by means of an insulated electric probe, which is gradually pushed into the organ from outside. it will at first encounter increasing excitatory change during its approach to the perceptive layer where the irritation will be at its maximum. the indicating galvanometer in connection with the probe will thus indicate increasing galvanometric negativity, which will reach a maximum value at the moment of contact of the probe with the perceptive layer. it will be understood that the surface electric reaction under geotropic stimulus, which we hitherto obtained, would be relatively feeble compared to the response obtained with direct contact with the maximally excited perceptive layer. when the probe passes beyond the perceptive layer the electric indication of excitation will undergo decline and final abolition. the characteristic effects described above are to be found only under the action of gravitational stimulus; they will be absent when the organ is held in a vertical position and thus freed from geotropic excitation. i have hitherto spoken of the excitatory effect of the upper layer; there must be some physiological reaction on the lower perceptive layer, though of a different character, represented diagrammatically by vertical shading. had the physiological reaction on the lower side of a radial organ been the same as on the upper, geotropic curvature would have been an impossibility, for similar reactions on opposite sides would, by their antagonistic effects, have neutralised each other. after this preliminary explanation, i shall give a detailed account of the experiments and results. it is to be borne in mind that the investigation i am going to describe presupposes no hypothesis of geotropic action. i start with the observed fact that an organ under the stimulus of gravity, exhibits responsive movement. i ascertain the nature of the underlying reaction by electric tests; i have, in my previous works, fully demonstrated that the excitatory contractile reaction is detected by electro-motive change of galvanometric negativity, and the opposite expansive reaction by a change of galvanometric positivity. with the electric probe i ascertain whether geotropic irritation is diffuse, or whether it is localised at any particular depth of the organ. i map out the contour lines of physiological reaction with its heights and depths of excitation. i shall now proceed to describe the results of electric exploration into the interior of the organ. the trouble i foresaw, related to the irritation caused by the passage of the probe, and the after-effect of wound on variation of excitability. the electric probe. [illustration: fig. .--the electric probe. figure to the left represents one electric contact made with sepal of _nymphæa_, and the other, with the flower-stalk by means of the probe; the included galvanometer is represented by a circle. figure to the right an enlarged view of the probe.] the wound-irritation is, however, reduced to a minimum by making the probe exceedingly thin. a fine platinum wire · mm. in diameter passes through a glass tubing drawn out into a fine capillary, and fused round one end of the platinum wire which protrudes very slightly beyond the point of fusion; the exploring electrode is thus insulated except at the protruded sharp point of the platinum wire. the length of the capillary is about mm., just long enough to pass the experimental plant-organ transversely from one end to the other; the average diameter of the capillary is about · mm. the other end of the platinum wire comes out of the side of the tubing and is led to one terminal of the galvanometer, the other being connected with an indifferent point in the organ. the probe can be gradually pushed into the plant-organ by rotation of a screw head, one complete rotation causing a forward movement through · mm. (fig. ). _wound-reaction._--i have shown that a prick acts as a mechanical stimulus, and in normal excitable tissues induces an excitatory change of galvanometric negativity. this wound-reaction increases with the extent of the wound, and the suddenness with which it is inflicted. on account of the fineness of the probe, it insinuates itself into the tissue rather than make any marked rupture; the probe again is introduced very gradually; with these precautions the wound-reaction is found to be greatly reduced. the immediate effect of the prick is a negative deflection of the galvanometer, which declines and attains a steady value in the course of about minutes. _effect of wound on excitability._--i have shewn (p. ) that severe wound caused by transverse section induced a temporary abolition of irritability in _mimosa_, but that the normal excitability was restored in the course of an hour. a prick from a thick pin was shown to depress temporarily the rate of growth, the normal rate being restored after an interval of minutes (p. ). in the case of geo-electric excitability, the depressing effect of the passage of the probe, i find, to disappear in the course of about minutes. for a choice of experimental material we have to find specimens which are not merely geotropically sensitive, but also exhibit large electric response under stimulus. in both these respects the shoot of _bryophyllum_ and the flower stalk of _nymphæa_ give good results. electric exploration for geo-perceptive layer by means of the probe. _experiment ._--i shall now proceed to give a detailed account of the experiments. the first specimen employed was the shoot of _bryophyllum_, one contact being made with the side of the stem, and the other with an indifferent point on the leaf which was always held vertical. in a particular experiment, the probe was introduced into the stem through · mm. and a feeble galvanometric negativity was induced as the wound-effect. after an interval of minutes, this attained a steady value of - divisions. on the rotation of stem through + °, the point a was above and a very much larger deflection of - divisions was obtained, being the result of summation of wound and geo-electric effects. on restoration of the plant to vertical position the geo-electric reaction disappeared, leaving the persistent wound reaction of - divisions unchanged. the true geo-electric reaction at a point · mm. inside the stem was thus - divisions which is the difference between - and - divisions. i obtained in this manner the excitatory reactions at different layers of the organ. the following table gives true values of geo-electric reaction at different layers of the stem as the probe entered it by steps of · mm. table xl.--showing the geo-electric reaction at different depths of the organ (_bryophyllum_). +-------------------------------------------+ |position of the| geo-electric excitation | |probe. |(galvanometric negativity).| +---------------+---------------------------+ | surface | divisions. | | · mm. | - " | | · " | - " | | · " | - " | | · " | - " | | · " | - " | | · " | - " | | · " | - " | | · " | " | +-------------------------------------------+ the results given above, typical of many others, show that there is a definite layer in the tissue which undergoes maximum excitation under the stimulus of gravity, and that this excitation irradiates with diminishing intensity in radial directions inwards and outwards. _the geo-perceptive layer may thus be experimentally localised by measuring the depth of intrusion of the probe for maximum deflection of galvanometric negativity._ _localisation of geo-perceptive layer in_ nymphæa: _experiment ._--i employed the same method for the determination of the perceptive layer of a different organ namely, that of the flower stalk of _nymphæa_. the electric reaction in _nymphæa_, even under the prevailing unfavourable condition of the season, was moderately strong, being about three times greater than in _bryophyllum_. a dozen observations made with different specimens gave very consistent results of which the following may be taken as typical. the probe was in this case, as in the last, moved by steps of · mm. at a time. other examples will be given later where readings were taken for successive steps of · mm. table xli.--showing the distribution of induced geo-electric excitation in different layers (_nymphæa_). +--------------------------------------------+ |position of probe.|galvanometric deflection.| +------------------+-------------------------+ | surface | divisions. | | · mm. | - " | | · " | - " | | · " | - " | | · " | - " | | · " | - " | | · " | " | +--------------------------------------------+ it will be seen that as in _bryophyllum_, so in _nymphæa_, the geo-electric excitation increased at first with increasing depth of the tissue till at a depth of · mm. of the particular specimen the induced excitation attained a maximum value. the excitatory effect then declines till it vanished at a depth of · mm. the depth of layer at which maximum excitation takes place varies to some extent, according to the thickness of the shoot. thus while in a thin specimen of _bryophyllum_ · mm. in diameter the geo-perceptive layer was found at a depth of · mm., it occurred at the greater depth of · mm. in a thicker specimen, mm. in diameter. in _nymphæa_ also the perceptive layer was found at a depth of · mm. in a thin and at a depth of · mm. in a thick specimen. having thus succeeded in localising the geo-perceptive layer by experimental means, it was now possible to examine the anatomical characteristics of the layer by examining it under the microscope. i also wished to find out from microscopic examination, the cause of certain differences noticed in the determinations of the perceptive layer in _bryophyllum_ and in _nymphæa_. in the former the probe always encountered the maximally excited geo-perceptive layer from whichever point of the surface it entered the organ; this indicated that the sensitive layer in _bryophyllum_ was continuous round the axis. in _nymphæa_, however, the probe occasionally missed the sensitive layer; but a new point of entry led to successful localisation of the perceptive layer; this was probably due to the particular layer not being continuous but interrupted by certain gaps. microscopic examination of the maximally excited layer. the specimens were taken out after the electric test, and the transverse sections made at the radial line of the passage of the probe. thus in a particular experiment with _bryophyllum_ the point of maximum geotropic excitation was found to be at a distance of · mm. from the surface. by means of the micrometer slide in the stage and the micrometer eye-piece, the internal layer · mm. from the surface was examined; the particular sensitive layer s was recognised as the _continuous_ 'starch sheath' or endodermis containing unusually large sized starch grains (fig. ). these often occurred in loosely cohering groups of to particles, and their appearance is very different from the small sized irregularly distributed grains in other cells. examination of the microscopic section of the flower stalk of _nymphæa_ showed that the 'starch sheath' was not continuous but occurred in crescents above the vascular bundles which are separated from each other. the occasional failure of electric detection of the perceptive layer is thus due to the probe missing one of the crescents, which with intervening gaps, are arranged in a circle. [illustration: fig. .--transverse section showing continuous geo-perceptive layer s; enlarged view s' of cell of endodermis containing group of large starch grains. (_bryophyllum_).] i give below a number of experimental determinations of the geo-perceptive layer in different specimens together with the micrometric measurement of the distance of the 'starch sheath' from the surface, the transverse section being made at the place where the probe entered the shoot. eight different determinations are given, three for _bryophyllum_ and five for _nymphæa_. table xlii.--showing the position of the geo-perceptive layer and of 'starch sheath' in different specimens. +-----------------------------------------------------------+ | specimen. | distance of | distance of the | | | geo-perceptive layer | starch sheath | | | from surface. | from surface. | | | (method of | (microscopic | | | electric probe.) | measurement.) | +---------------+----------------------+--------------------+ |_bryophyllum_: | | | | | ( ) · mm. | · mm. | | | ( ) · " | · " | | | ( ) · " | · " | | _nymphæa_: | | | | | ( ) · " | · " | | | ( ) · " | · " | | | ( ) · " | · " | | | ( ) · " | · " | | | ( ) · " | · " | +-----------------------------------------------------------+ thus in all specimens examined, the experimentally determined geo-perceptive layer coincided with the 'starch sheath.' the theory of statoliths thus obtains strong support from an independent line of experimental investigation. the statolithic theory has been adversely criticised because in simpler organs the geotropic action takes place in the absence of statoliths. there is no doubt that the weight of the cell contents may in certain cases be effective in geotropic stimulation; it may nevertheless be true that "at a higher level of adaptation, the geotropically sensitive members of the plant-body are furnished with special geotropic sense-organs--a striking instance of anatomico-physiological division of labour."[ ] [ ] haberlandt--_ibid_, p. . in the instances of _bryophyllum_ and _nymphæa_ given above, the geo-perceptive layer localised by means of the electric probe is definitely found to be the endodermis containing large sized starch grains. influence of season on geo-electric response. i shall now describe certain modifications in response, which result from the change of season and also from condition of high temperature. physiological reactions, generally speaking, are much affected by different seasons; thus the seedlings of _scirpus kysoor_ exhibit a very rapid rate of growth of mm. per hour in august, but a month later the growth-rate declines to only mm. per hour. i find similar depression of growth with the advance of season in seedlings of _zea mays_, where a very rapid fall in growth takes place in the course of a fortnight. the intensity of geotropic responses, both mechanical and electrical, of _tropæolum_ declines rapidly in the course of a month from february to march (p. ). the flowers of _nymphæa_ began to appear by the end of june when the flower stalks exhibited strong geo-electric response. but later in the season, by july and the beginning of august, the response underwent continuous decline, and by the end of august the response was nearly abolished. much time had to be spent in perfecting the apparatus, and it was not till the beginning of august that the investigations could be properly started; the responsive indications were, however, marked and definite, though relatively feeble compared to those obtained at the beginning of the season. the decline of the geo-electric response was to a certain extent also due to the prevailing high temperature. _effect of high temperature._--i shall in the next chapter describe experiments which show that geotropic response is diminished under rise of temperature. the specimens employed for localisation of geo-perceptive layer exhibited, as stated before, a decline of geo-electric response with the advance of the season. this may partly be due to unfavourable season, and partly to high temperature. in the middle of the season the responses were extremely feeble on warm days, but on cool mornings they became suddenly enhanced, to decline once more by the middle of the day. i could sometimes succeed in enhancing the sensitiveness by placing the specimen in a cold chamber. it thus appeared that certain internal change unfavourable for geo-perception takes place at high temperatures, and that the sensitive condition could sometimes be restored by artificial cooling. but later in the season, the internal change, whatever it may be, had proceeded too far, and artificial cooling did not restore the sensitiveness of the specimen. what are the physico-chemical concomitants which distinguish insensitive specimens, in which the electric indications had declined almost to the vanishing point? test of insensitive specimens. i shall now describe the various physico-chemical concomitants which accompany the condition of relative insensibility. i have found three different tests: the electric, the geotropic, and the microscopic, by which the sensitive could be distinguished from the insensitive condition. the following tests were made on insensitive specimens. _electric test: experiment ._--by the end of august the geo-electric indications given by the probe had, as stated before, almost disappeared. the tonic condition of the specimen, _below par_, was independently revealed by the response to prick of the probe: this, in vigorous specimens, is by an electric response of galvanometric negativity. but the response to prick in sub-tonic specimens is very different. i find that when the physiological condition of the tissue falls _below par_, the sign of response undergoes a reversal into one of _galvanometric positivity_. the same reversal under condition of sub-tonicity was also shown to take place in growth, where under the stimulus of light a positive acceleration took place, instead of normal retardation of growth (p. ). in the present investigation, the insensitive specimens were found to give abnormal positive electric response to the stimulus of prick made by the probe. the prick-effect in fact often gave me previous indication as to the suitability of the particular specimen for exhibition of geo-electric response. _test of geotropic reaction: experiment ._--i took four different specimens of _bryophyllum_ and _nymphæa_, and held them horizontal. these plant organs had, earlier in the season, exhibited very strong geotropic effect, the shoot curving up through ° in the course of ten hours or less. but these specimens obtained later in the season exhibited very feeble curvature, which hardly amounted to degrees, even after prolonged exposure to geotropic action for hours. _test of microscopic examination._--i next made sections of _bryophyllum_ and _nymphæa_ and on examining them under the microscope discovered certain striking changes. a fortnight ago the group of large starch grains stained with iodine were the most striking feature of the starch sheath. but now these starch grains could not be found in any of the numerous specimens examined. the presence of the starch grains thus appears to be associated with the sensitiveness of the perceptive layer. reaction at lower side of the organ. there remains now the important question of the physiological change induced on the lower side of the horizontally laid shoot. the physiological reaction of two sides of the organ must be different, since the upper side exhibits contraction and the lower side expansion. it may be urged that the effect of one of the two sides might result from the passive yielding to the definite reaction induced on the opposite side. investigation by the electric method enables us, however, to discriminate the two reactions from each other, since the electric response characteristic of the induced physiological change takes place in the organ, even under condition of restraint by which movement is prevented. we shall therefore investigate the geo-electrical reaction on the lower side of the securely held organ, and find out whether the induced electric change undergoes any variation in different layers from below upwards. there are two different ways in which the electric explorations of the lower side of the organ may be carried out. in the first method, the probe is introduced from below, and successive readings for geo-electric response taken as the probe enters the organ by successive steps. it is understood that the true geotropic effect is found from difference of galvanometer readings in vertical and horizontal positions. in the second method, the probe is introduced from above, and successive readings for the response taken for different positions of the probe as it enters the organ from the upper side and comes out ultimately at the lower side. this i shall call the method of transverse perforation. the intrusion of the probe on the upper side gives, as we have seen, increasing negative deflection of the galvanometer which reaches a maximum at the perceptive layer. passage of the probe to still greater depths give deflections which decline to zero. but when the probe comes within the influence of the perceptive layer of the under side, the electric indication, as we shall presently find, undergoes a reversal. electric exploration of the lower side of the organ. i shall first describe the results obtained from the first method, the probe entering the organ from the lower side. _experiment ._--the investigation was carried out with the stem of _bryophyllum_, and the flower stalk of _nymphæa_. the probe was made to enter the organ through · mm. and the geo-electric effect found, on rotation of the flower stalk of _nymphæa_ from the vertical to the horizontal, was a deflection of + divisions of the galvanometer. _the change induced at the lower side by geotropic stimulus is thus galvanometric positivity, indicative of enhancement of turgor, and, of expansion._ intrusion of the probe through · mm. gave rise to an increased positive geo-electric response. that the sign of electric response depended on the relation of the side of the organ to the vertical lines of gravity was demonstrated by alternate rotation of the plant through + ° and - °, the probe remaining at a definite position. rotation through + ° brought a above, and rotation through - ° brought a below. when the probe was in the _up_ position the geo-electric response was negative, but when rotation through - ° brought it _below_, the response became positive. thus with an identical contact in the plant, the electric response underwent reversal from negative to positive. this will be understood from the following table. +--------------------------------------------------+ |position of the | galvanometer | galvanometer | | probe inside | deflection: | deflection: | | the organ. | a _above_. | a _below_. | +----------------+----------------+----------------+ | · mm. | - divisions. | + divisions. | | · mm. | - " | + " | +--------------------------------------------------+ it will thus be seen that physiological change induced at any point is modified by its relation to vertical lines of gravity. when the point is above, the induced change is _negative_, when below, the induced change is _positive_. i shall next describe the variation of effect at different layers of the under side of the organ. _experiment ._--a complete set of readings of the geo-electric reaction at different layers of the organ was taken, as the probe entered the lower side by successive steps of · mm. the following table gives the results obtained with a specimen of _nymphæa_. table xliii.--electric exploration of different layers on the lower side of the organ (_nymphæa_). +-----------------------------+ |position of the|galvanometer | | probe. | deflection. | +---------------+-------------+ | surface | divisions.| | · mm. | " | | · " | " | | · " | " | | · " | " | | · mm. | " | | · | " | | · " | " | | · " | " | | · " | " | +-----------------------------+ it is thus seen that just as in the upper so also in the lower side, the electric variation undergoes at first an increase which attains a maximum; beyond this point the electric change undergoes a rapid decline. the induced electric change on the upper and lower sides are, however, different, galvanometric _negativity_ in one case and _positivity_ in the other. the maximum galvanometric _negativity_ of the upper side was found to occur at the geo-perceptive layer. we may next inquire about the anatomical characteristic of the layer in the lower side of the organ which exhibits the maximum galvanometric _positivity_. microscopic section of the specimen employed in the above experiment showed the particular layer to be the starch crescent which lies above the vascular bundle. thus the same geotropic layer which when placed above shows the maximum galvanometric negativity, exhibits maximum positivity when placed below. method of transverse perforation. _experiment ._--i next carried out a complete exploration of the interior of the organ along the diameter. the probe started from the upper surface, and came out at the lower by successive steps of · mm., the corresponding geo-electric effects being observed at each step. it has to be borne in mind that the successive readings were obtained by rotation from vertical to + ° (a above); the rotation was never carried out in the negative direction through - °. but the probe entering from above passed the central axis, and entered a region where the galvanometric indication was transformed from negative to positive. the following table gives the results obtained with the flower stalk of _nymphæa_. table xliv.--showing the induced geo-electric distribution across the flower stalk of _nymphæa_ (diameter = · mm.) +---------------------------------+ | position of | galvanometer | | probe. | deflection. | +--------------+------------------+ | surface ... | - divisions. | | · mm. ... | - " | | · " ... | - " | | · " ... | - " | | · " ... | - " | | · " ... | - " | | · " ... | - " | | · " ... | - " | | · " ... | - " | | · " ... | - " | | · " ... | - " | | · " ... | - " | | · " ... | - " | | · " ... | - " | | · " ... | - " | | · " ... | " | | · " ... | " | | · " ... | " | | · mm. ... | divisions. | | · " ... | " | | · " ... | " | | · " ... | + " | | · " ... | + " | | · " ... | + " | | · " ... | + " | | · " ... | + " | | · " ... | + " | | · " ... | + " | | · " ... | + " | | · " ... | + " | | · " ... | + " | | · " ... | + " | | · " ... | + " | | · " ... | + " | | · " ... | + " | +---------------------------------+ [illustration: fig. .--curve of geo-electric excitation in different layers of _nymphæa_. ordinate represents geo-electric excitation; abscissa, distance from upper surface of flower stalk. the diagrammatic section underneath shows the position of geo-perceptive layer (starch-sheath) corresponding to maximum induced galvanometric negativity and positivity on the two sides.] [illustration: fig. .--the curve of geo-electric excitation in different layers of _bryophyllum_.] a curve constructed from the data given above is seen in figure . the diameter of the flower stalk was · mm. the negative geo-electric reaction is seen to undergo an increase till it attains a climax at the depth of · mm. it then undergoes a continuous diminution till it becomes zero at the depth of mm.; this neutral zone extends through mm. when the probe enters a depth of · mm. measured from the upper side, it enters a region affected by the perceptive layer situated on the under side, the opposite physiological reaction being indicated by induced electric change of galvanometric positivity. this positivity reaches a climax at a depth of · mm. measured from the upper side, and · mm. when measured from the lower side. the points of maximum positivity and negativity are situated symmetrically on the opposite sides of the organ. the electric variation of maximum positivity on the lower side is comparatively feeble, less than half the corresponding maximum negativity on the upper side. microscopic section showed that the geo-perceptive layers were the same as the starch-crescents. _experiment ._--i carried out similar experiments with the shoot of _bryophyllum_. the results are given in table xlv; the curve of the electric distribution along the diameter is seen in figure . the characteristics of this curve are the same as that of _nymphæa_. the maximum galvanometric negativity occurred at the depth of · mm., and of positivity at a corresponding point on the opposite side. table xlv.--showing induced geo-electric distribution across the stem of _bryophyllum_ (diameter = · mm.). +--------------------------------+ | position of | galvanometric | | probe. | deflection | +---------------+----------------+ |surface | divisions.| | · mm. | - " | | · " | - " | | · " | - " | | · " | - " | | · " | - " | | · " | - " | | · " | - " | | · " | " | | · " | " | | · " | divisions.| | · " | " | | · " | + " | | · " | + " | | · " | + " | | · " | + " | | · " | + " | | · " | + " | | · " | " | +--------------------------------+ microscopic examination showed that the electric maxima in _bryophyllum_ coincided with the diametrically opposite points in the continuous endodermic ring. in _bryophyllum_ as in _nymphæa_, the excitatory galvanometric negativity of the upper geo-perceptive layer is greater than the induced positivity of the lower layer in the ratio of about : . but in a depressed condition of the tissue, the excitatory reaction is the first to disappear and the positive reaction persists, though with diminished intensity. the geo-electric distribution in vigorous specimens seems to indicate that under the stimulus of gravity a marked excitatory reaction (contraction) takes place in the layer of cells contiguous to the upper geo-perceptive layer, and, a less marked positive reaction (expansion) occurs in layers contiguous to the lower perceptive layer. it is remarkable that physiological reaction of opposite kinds should occur on the upper and lower sides of an organ under the identical stimulus of gravity. the difference of reaction may conceivably be connected with the fact that the vertical lines of gravity enter by the upper, and leave by the lower side of the organ. the statolithic particles rest on the inner tangential walls of the perceptive cells of the upper layer, and on the outer tangential walls of the lower layer. similar difference of physiological reactions of a polar character are also known in responses of plants under the action of an identical electric current; here with different ionic distributions, contraction takes place at the kathode, and expansion at the anode. the geo-electric reactions that have been described were obtained under unfavourable conditions of climate and of temperature. but under better conditions the reaction becomes very greatly enhanced, as would appear from the following account of results which i obtained on two separate occasions in the beginning of august. the season had not become quite as unfavourable as towards the end of the month, but the prevailing sultry weather had caused great depression of the geo-electric excitability. on the first occasion referred to, thunderstorm had broken out at night, and it was refreshingly cool in the morning. it was with the utmost surprise that i noted the astonishing violence of the geo-electric response which the plants gave that morning; the maximum response hitherto obtained was about divisions of the galvanometer scale; but on the present occasion the displacement of the plant, from vertical to horizontal position, induced responsive deflection so great that the galvanometer spot of light flew off the scale of , divisions. i was at first incredulous of the results and wasted the valuable occasion in trying to discover some hidden source of error. subsequent tests showed that my misgivings were groundless, and that the extraordinary large deflection was really due to geo-electric reaction. on the second favourable occasion, which lasted for three hours (during the cool hours of the morning), i was able to secure a number of important observations. thus displacement of the flower stalk of _nymphæa_ through + ° was immediately followed by geo-electric response, the deflection being about , divisions of the scale. the latent period hardly exceeded a second; the return of the plant to the vertical position was quickly followed by electric recovery which was complete. the above results were obtained with the same specimen time after time without a single failure. the successive responses showed no sign of fatigue. another remarkable effect was noticed during gradual increase of the angle of inclination. nothing happened till a critical angle was reached, which was roughly estimated to be about °; when this critical angle was exceeded by a single degree, there was a sudden precipitation of geo-electric response. the experiments were repeated time after time with the identical result. it appeared as if some frictional resistance obstructed the displacement of the geotropic particles accumulated at the basal end of the cell, and it was not till the organ had been tilted beyond ° that this resistance to sliding was overcome. summary. the electric distribution induced in an organ under the stimulus of gravity may be mapped out by means of an exploring electric probe. the induced galvanometric negativity of the upper side of an organ (indicative of excitation) undergoes variation in different layers of the organ. the excitatory reaction attains a maximum value at a definite layer, beyond which there is a decline. the geo-perceptive layer is experimentally localised by measuring the depth of intrusion of the probe for maximum deflection of galvanometric negativity. the geo-perceptive layer thus determined is found to be the starch sheath which contains a number of large-sized starch grains. the power of geo-perception undergoes seasonal variation. it is also lowered by high temperature. the geo-electric response undergoes decline with growing sub-tonicity of the specimen; such specimens exhibit abnormal positive electric response under the stimulus of prick and feeble curvature under geotropic stimulus. the large-sized starch-grains, normally observed in the endodermis, are found to disappear in specimens which have become geo-electrically insensitive. the electric response of the lower side of the organ to gravitational stimulus is of opposite sign to that of the upper side. the electric distribution on the lower side exhibits variations in different layers, the maximum positivity occurring at the perceptive layer. in vigorous specimens the excitatory negative electric change on the upper side is greater than the positive electric change on the lower side. depressed condition of the tissue is attended by a relatively greater decline of the negative in comparison with the positive. the induced electric variation on the upper and on the lower side indicates that the layers of tissue contiguous to the upper perceptive layer undergoes contraction, while those contiguous to the lower perceptive layer undergoes expansion. xliv.--on geotropic torsion _by_ sir j. c. bose, _assisted by_ guruprasanna das. i have explained that in a dorsiventral organ, lateral application of various stimuli induces a responsive torsion by which the less excitable side is made to face the stimulus (p. ). i shall in this chapter show that the effect of stimulus of gravity is in every respect similar to other forms of stimulation. [illustration: fig. .--diagram of arrangement for torsional response under geotropic stimulus. the less excitable upper half of pulvinus is, in the above figure, to the left and the torsional response is clockwise.] the direction of force of gravity is fixed, and we have to arrange matters in such a way that the geotropic stimulus should act on the dorsiventral organ in a lateral direction. in the following experiments the pulvinus of _mimosa_ is taken as the typical dorsiventral organ. for lateral stimulation, the plant is placed on its side, so that the vertical lines of gravity impinge on one of the two flanks of the organ. in regard to this, i shall distinguish two different positions, _a_ and _b_. in the _a-position_, the apex of the stem and the upper half of the pulvinus are to the left of the observer, and in _b-position_, the apex of the stem and the less excitable upper half of the pulvinus are to the right. the arrangement for obtaining record of the torsional response under _a-position_ is shown in figure . _torsional response in a- and b-positions: experiment ._--when the leaf is in _a-position_, the geotropic torsion is found to be with the movement of the hands of a clock. in the _b-position_, on the other hand, the torsion is against the hands of a clock. in both these cases the _geotropic torsion makes the less excitable upper half of the pulvinus face the vertical lines of gravity_. the incident stimulus is vertical, and it is the upper flank, consisting of the upper and lower halves of the pulvinus (on which the vertical lines of gravity impinge) that undergoes effective stimulation. _algebraical summation of geotropic and phototropic effects: experiment ._--we are, however, able to adduce further tests in confirmation of the above. if the direction of the incident geotropic stimulus is vertical, and should it act more effectively on the upper flank, it follows that stimulus of light acting from above would enhance the previous torsional response due to geotropism. in the above case, the lines of gravity and the rays of light coincide. the effect of rays of light acting from below should, on the other hand, oppose the geotropic torsion. the additive effect of stimulus of light and gravity is seen illustrated in figure . the first part of the curve is the record of pure geotropic torsional movement. light from above is applied at l; the rate of movement is seen to become greatly enhanced. light is next cut off, and the enhanced rate induced by it is also found to disappear, the response-curve being now due solely to geotropic action. the effect of geotropism in opposition to phototropism will be found in the following experiments, where the opposing action of light of different intensities is seen to give rise to a partial, to an exact, or to an over-balance. [illustration: fig. .--additive effect of stimulus of gravity g, and of light l. application of light at--l increases torsional response. removal of light restores original geotropic torsion.] [illustration: fig. .--algebraical summation of geotropic and phototropic actions. light applied below at--l, opposes geotropic action. cessation of light restores geotropic torsion. cessation of light is indicated by l within a circle.] balance of geotropic by phototropic action. _photo-geotropic balance: experiment ._--i shall here describe in detail the procedure for obtaining an exact balance. a parallel beam of light from a small arc lamp is reflected by means of an inclined mirror, so as to act on the pulvinus below. an iris diaphragm regulates the intensity of incident light. the first part of the curve is the record of geotropic torsional movement. light of a given intensity was applied below at a point marked -l (fig. ); this is seen to produce an over-balance, the phototropic effect being slightly in excess. the intensity of incident light was continuously diminished by regulation of the diaphragm till an exact balance was obtained as seen in the horizontal part of the record. it is with great surprise that one comes to realise the fact that the effect of one form of stimulus can be so exactly balanced by that of another, so entirely different, and that the stimulus of gravity could be measured, as it were, in candle powers of light! after securing the balance, light was cut off, and the geotropic torsion became renewed on the cessation of the counteracting phototropic action. [illustration: fig. .--application of white light at--l in opposition causes reversal of torsion. red light r, is ineffective, and geotropic torsion is restored. reapplication of white light causes once more the reversal of torsion.] _comparative balancing effects of white and red lights: experiment ._--white light was at first applied at -l in opposition to geotropic movement. the intensity of light was stronger than what was necessary for exact balance, and its effect was at first to retard and then reverse the torsional response due to geotropism. when thus overbalanced, red glass was interposed on the path of light at r. as the phototropic effect of this light is feeble or absent, the geotropic torsion became predominant as seen in the subsequent up-curve. the red glass was next removed substituting white light at -l to act once more in opposition; the result is seen in the final over-balance, and reversal of torsion (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--effect of coal gas on photo geotropic balance. geotropic torsion, g, is exactly balanced by opposing action of light -l. application of coal gas at c, at first caused enhancement of phototropic action with resulting reversal. prolonged application induced depression of phototropic reaction, geotropic action thus becoming predominant.] _effect of coal gas on the balance: experiment ._--the method of balance described above opens out new possibilities in regard to investigations on the relative modifications of geotropic and phototropic excitabilities by a given external change. traces of coal gas are known to enhance the phototropic excitability of an organ while continued absence of oxygen is found to depress it. the experiment i am going to describe shows: ( ) the enhancement of phototropic excitability on the introduction of coal gas, and ( ) the depressing effect of excess of coal gas and of the absence of oxygen. after obtaining the normal curve of geotropic torsion, light was applied below at -l, and exact balance was obtained in the course of two minutes as seen in the top of the curve becoming horizontal. coal gas was now introduced in the plant-chamber at c. this induced an enhancement of phototropic effect with resulting over-balance seen in the reversal of torsion. this enhancement persisted for more than three minutes. by this time the plant-chamber was completely filled with coal gas, and the resulting depression of phototropic action is seen in the second upset of the balance, this time in favour of geotropic torsion (fig. ). it would seem that the cells which respond to light are situated nearer the surface of the organ than those which react to geotropic stimulus. hence an agent which acts on the organ from outside, induces phototropic change earlier than variation in geotropism. summary. under lateral action of geotropic stimulus, a dorsiventral organ undergoes torsional response by which the less excitable half of the organ is made to face the stimulus. the direction of incident geotropic stimulus is the same as the direction of vertical lines of gravity. under geotropic stimulus it is the upper side of the organ that undergoes effective stimulation. the effects of gravity and of light become algebraically summated under their simultaneous action. light may be made to act in opposition to the stimulus of gravity. by suitable adjustment of the intensity of light, the two torsions become exactly balanced. this state of balance is upset by any slight variation in one of the opposing stimuli. the relative modification of geotropic and phototropic excitabilities by an external agent, is determined by the resulting upset of the photo-geotropic balance. xlv.--on thermo-geotropism _by_ sir j. c. bose. i shall in this chapter investigate the effect of variation of temperature on geotropic response. we have to bear in mind in this connection, that for the exhibition of geotropic curvature two conditions are necessary: ( ) the presence of a perceptive organ to undergo excitation under the stimulus of gravity, and ( ) the motility of the organ. a motile organ, including both the pulvinated and growing, will exhibit no geotropic effect on account of the depression of the power of perception through seasonal or other changes, or in the entire absence of the perceptive organ. the organ may, on the other hand, possess the geo-perceptive apparatus, but no visible movement can take place in the absence of motility of the tissue. as regards the modifying influence of temperature on geotropic curvature, the effect will depend on two factors: ( ) the influence of variation of temperature on geo-perception by the sensitive layer, and ( ) the modifying effect of temperature variation on the motile reaction. i have in chapter xliii adduced facts which appear to show that the power of geo-perception declines at high temperatures. as regards motile reaction, we have seen that in _mimosa_ it increases from a minimum to an optimum temperature beyond which there is a depression (p. ). as the optimum temperature for geo-perception is not necessarily the same as that for responsive curvature, the result is likely to be very complex. the case becomes simpler after the attainment of maximum curvature. enhanced temperature has a tendency to diminish the tropic curvature, as we found in the arrest and reversal of phototropic curvature under the application of warmth (p. ); it appears as if rise of temperature induced a relatively greater expansion of the contracted side of the organ. i shall now describe the effect of rising temperature on geotropic curvature in general, including torsion. a horizontally laid shoot curves upwards under geotropic action; a dorsiventral organ, owing to the differential excitabilities of its upper and lower sides, places itself in the so-called dia-geotropic position. a dorsiventral organ, moreover, exhibits a torsional movement under lateral stimulus of gravity. in the geotropic movements we are able, as stated before, to distinguish three different phases (cf. fig. ). in the first, the movement initiated undergoes an increase; in the second, the rate of movement becomes more or less uniform; and in the last phase, a balance takes place between the tropic reaction, and the increasing resistance of the curved or twisted organ to further distortion. the question now arises whether this position of geotropic equilibrium is permanent, or whether it undergoes modification in a definite way by variation of temperature. i shall proceed to show that the position of equilibrium undergoes a change in one direction by a rise, and in the opposite direction by a fall of temperature. i shall use the term _thermo-geotropism_ as a convenient phrase to indicate the effect of temperature in modification of geotropic curvature and torsion. i shall first deal with the effect of variation of temperature on geotropic torsion. under the continued action of stimulus of gravity the torsion increases till it reaches a limit; for the twisted organ resists further distortion and a balance is struck when the twisting and untwisting forces are equal and opposite. in this state of equilibrium the effect of an external agent, say of variation of temperature, will bring about an upset of the balance. the torsion will be increased if the external agent induces an enhancement of geotropic action; it will, on the other hand, be decreased when it induces a diminished reaction. [illustration: fig. .--magnet m causes deflection of the needle _n s_, suspended by a thin wire. increase of magnetisation of m increases deflection, while decrease of magnetisation diminishes the deflection.] a physical analogy will make this point clear; imagine a small magnetic needle suspended by a thin wire; the earth's directive force is supposed to be annulled by the well known device of a compensating magnet. a second and larger magnet m is now placed at right angles to the suspended needle; n will repel _n_ and attract _s_, and a deflection will be produced, the deflecting force of the magnet m being balanced by the force of torsion of suspending wire (fig. ). the state of equilibrium will however be disturbed by variation of the magnetic force of m. it is known that a rise of temperature diminishes magnetisation while lowering of temperature increases it. hence the deflecting force of the magnet will be diminished under rise of temperature with concomitant diminution of deflection of the needle and the torsion of the wire. fall of temperature, on the other hand, will cause an increase of deflection and of torsion. the physical illustration given above will help us to understand how the physiological effect of variation of temperature may bring about changes in geotropic curvature and torsion. tropic equilibrium under varying intensities of stimulus. the following experiment will show that the position of tropic equilibrium is not fixed but subject to variation under changes of effective stimulation. [illustration: fig. .--effect of variation of intensity of light on phototropic equilibrium. increase of intensity of light from l to l' produces an increased positive curvature and a new state of balance. diminished intensity of light _l_ brings about a new balance at a lower level. the cessation of light (_l_ within a circle) restores the normal position of the organ.] _experiment ._--i have explained how a maximum tropic curvature is induced under continued action of light. employing the pulvinus of _erythrina indica_ i applied light on the upper half of the pulvinus: ( ) of medium intensity l, ( ) of strong intensity l', and ( ) of feeble intensity _l_. the source of light was an arc lamp; the intensity of light was varied by means of a focussing lens, which gave a parallel, a convergent or a divergent beam, with corresponding increase or diminution of intensity of light. light was in each case continued till equilibrium was reached. inspection of figure shows that the position of equilibrium depends on the intensity of stimulation; the balance is 'raised' under increased and 'lowered' under decreased intensity. in the case of geotropism the stimulus is constant, but its tropic effect, we shall presently see, undergoes variation with changing temperature. effect of variation of temperature on geotropic torsion. _modification of geotropic torsion: experiment ._--the _mimosa_ plant was placed on its side, so that the pulvinus was subjected to lateral geotropic action. in response to this it underwent torsion, the upper half of the pulvinus tending to place itself so as to face the vertical lines of gravity. this torsional response was recorded as an up-movement; on the attainment of equilibrium the record became horizontal. the plant was now subjected to a cyclic variation of temperature, and the resulting variation of torsion recorded at the same time. the temperature of the plant chamber was gradually raised from the normal ° to ° c. and then allowed to return to the normal; finally the temperature was lowered to °c. rise of temperature was effected by means of an electrical heater placed inside the chamber with a vessel of water placed above it. care has to be taken that the rise of temperature is gradual, since a sudden variation often acts as a stimulus. the water in the vessel not only keeps the chamber in a humid condition but also prevents sudden fluctuation of temperature. after the temperature had been raised to °c., the heating current was stopped and the door of the plant chamber gradually opened, so as to allow the temperature to be restored to the normal. cooled air was next introduced into the chamber till the temperature fell to °c. figure exhibits clearly the effect of variation of temperature on geotropic torsion. the maximum torsion had been attained at °c. and the first part of the record is therefore horizontal. warmth was applied at h, and after a latent period of ten minutes, the geotropic torsion underwent a continuous diminution till a new state of equilibrium was reached at °c. this took place shortly after the stoppage of the heating current at (h). on return to normal temperature the torsional balance was restored to its original position of equilibrium. application of cold at c, is seen to bring about a new state of balance with an increase of geotropic torsion. [illustration: fig. .--effect of variation of temperature on geotropic torsion. application of warmth at h diminishes the geotropic torsion; return to normal temperature (h) restores the original torsion; cooling at c, increases the geotropic torsion.] the position of geotropic equilibrium is thus seen to be modified by variation of temperature, the tropic effect being diminished with the rise, and enhanced with the fall of temperature. it may be thought that the phenomenon just described may not be different from ordinary thermonasty, exhibited by the perianth leaves of _crocus_ and _tulip_ in which a rise of temperature induces a movement of unfolding, and a fall of temperature brings about the opposite movement of closure. in these cases the movement is determined solely by the natural anisotropy of the organ, and not by the paratonic action of a directive external force. thus the inner side of the perianth leaves undergoes an expansion with rise of temperature attended by the opening of the flower; this movement of opening does not undergo any change on holding the flower in an inverted position. but the torsional movement of the leaf of _mimosa_, and the induced variation of torsion under change of temperature are not solely determined by the natural anisotropy of the organ; it is, on the contrary, regulated by the directive action of the stimulus of gravity. the pulvinus in normal position does not exhibit any geotropic torsion and in the absence of an antecedent torsion change of temperature cannot induce any variation in it. it is only after the pulvinus had become torsioned under the lateral action of geotropic stimulus that a responsive variation is induced in it by the action of changing temperature. the change in torsion is, moreover, determined in reference to the paratonic action of incident geotropic stimulus. this will be clearly understood from the tabular statement given below. table xlvi.--showing the effect of rise of temperature on geotropic torsion. +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ |position of the organ.| geotropic effect. | effect of rise of | | | | temperature. | +----------------------+---------------------+----------------------+ |right flank above: |right-handed torsion.|left-handed torsional | | (_a_) position. | | movement (untwist). | |left flank above: |left-handed torsion. |right-handed torsional| | (_b_) position. | | movement (untwist). | +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ by right flank in the above table is meant the side of the pulvinus to the right of the observer facing the leaf of the plant held in the normal position. when the plant is laid on its left side in the _a_-position, the right flank will be above and the responsive torsion under geotropic stimulus becomes right handed or with the hands of a clock (cf. fig. ). when the plant is laid on its right side, the left flank will be above and the geotropic torsion becomes left handed or against the hands of the clock. it will be seen from the above that in whatever way the experimental condition may be varied, the movement in response to variation of temperature is determined in relation to the antecedent geotropic torsion. the geotropic effect whether left-handed or right-handed torsion is always diminished by the rise of temperature, and enhanced by the fall of temperature. variation of apo-geotropic curvature under thermal change. i shall now proceed to show that variation of temperature not merely induces variation of geotropic torsion but also of geotropic curvature. i shall first demonstrate the effect of thermal change on geotropic curvature of the shoot, and then demonstrate its effect on dia-geotropic curvature of leaves. _experiment ._--a specimen of _tropæolum majus_ grown in a small flower pot, is laid on its side. under geotropic action the shoot becomes curved, the upper side becoming concave and the lower side convex. the end of the stem is attached to the recording apparatus; when the plant is subjected to a rise of temperature, the movement induced shows that the geotropic effect has undergone a diminution, the curvature exhibiting a flattening; lowering of temperature, on the other hand, increases the geotropic curvature. other instances of this will be found in a subsequent chapter. the diurnal movement of the 'praying palm' is a striking example of the effect of variation of temperature in modification of geotropic curvature (p. ). rise of temperature is thus shown to diminish geotropic torsion of dorsiventral organs, and the apo-geotropic curvature of radial organs. we have next to study the effect of temperature variation on the dia-geotropic equilibrium of leaves. effect of variation of temperature on dia-geotropic equilibrium. in the normal position of the plant, the leaf of _mimosa_ assumes, under geotropic action, an equilibrium position which is approximately horizontal. i shall proceed to show that this position of equilibrium also undergoes appropriate variation under changing temperature, the leaf undergoing a fall during rise, and an erection during fall of temperature. i stated that the torsional response is one of the means of recording geotropic effect and its variations. in the ordinary position of the plant, the geotropic variation will be indicated by the responsive up or down movement of the leaf in a vertical plane. taking the leaf of _mimosa_, we have thus the means of studying the effect of variation of temperature by two independent means of inquiry, namely, by record of ordinary responsive movement in a vertical plane, and also by record of torsional response. the variation of temperature which induces these movements may be simultaneously recorded by means of a differential metallic thermometer. the multiplex recorder employed for this research consists of three recording levers. a photographic reproduction of the apparatus will be found in a subsequent chapter (see fig. ). the first lever is attached to the leaf of _mimosa_ placed in the normal position; the second lever records the torsional response of _mimosa_ leaf, the plant being placed on its side; the third lever attached to the differential metallic thermometer gives a continuous record of variation of temperature. [illustration: fig. .--simultaneous record (_a_) of variation of temperature, (_b_) of up or down movement of leaf of _mimosa_, and (_c_) of variation of torsion. rise of temperature is attended by fall of leaf and diminution of torsion, fall of temperature inducing the opposite effect.] _effect of variation of temperature: experiment ._--special arrangement was made for gradual variation of temperature in the plant chamber. two rectangular metallic vessels each × × cm. were placed on opposite sides of the plant chamber, and warm water was made to circulate through them; this device ensured a steady rise of temperature. the flow of warm water was then stopped and the plant chamber was allowed to cool down; the fall of temperature was at first moderately rapid, but later on the rate of cooling became extremely slow; on account of this the temperature of the plant chamber, towards the end of the experiment remained higher than the normal temperature outside. the rate of rise and fall of temperature during the entire course is illustrated in the thermo-graphic (_a_) tracing (fig. ); the record (_b_) exhibits the movement of the leaf in a vertical plane, rise of temperature being attended by a diminution of geotropic curvature resulting in the fall of the leaf, the fall of temperature inducing the opposite effect. in record (_c_) is seen the responsive variation of geotropic torsion, rise of temperature inducing a diminution and fall of temperature causing an enhancement of torsion. the results obtained by diverse methods thus prove that the geotropic effect is diminished under rise, and increased under fall of temperature. summary. the position of equilibrium under geotropic action is not fixed but undergoes change with variation of temperature. the geotropic curvature and torsion are increased by lowering of temperature, and decreased by rise of temperature. this is equally true of apo-geotropic and dia-geotropic curvatures. part iv. night and day movements in plants. xlvi.--diurnal movements in plants _by_ sir j. c. bose. the subject has long been a perplexing one, and its literature is copious. after a good many years of experimental investigation, i have succeeded in analysing the main factors concerned in the many phenomena which have been described as nyctitropism. the results of the researches are given in a sequence of five papers, which may be read separately, yet will be seen as so many chapters of what has been a single though varied investigation. the different chapters are: . daily movements in relation to light and darkness. . daily movements due to variation of temperature affecting growth. . daily movements due to variation of temperature affecting geotropic curvature. . the immediate and after-effect of light. . diurnal movement of the leaf of _mimosa_ due to combined effects of various factors. nyctitropic movements are thus described by jost[ ]: "many plant organs, especially foliage and floral leaves take up, towards evening, positions other than those they occupy by day. petals and perianth leaves, for example, bend outwards by day so as to open the flower, and inwards at night so as to close it.... many foliage leaves also may be said to exhibit opening and closing movements, not merely when they open and close in the bud but also when arranged in pairs on an axis, they exhibit movements towards and away from each other. in other cases, speaking generally, we may employ the terms _night position_ and _day position_ for the closed and open conditions respectively. the night position may also be described as the _sleep position_." after reviewing the various theories proposed, he proceeds to say "that a completely satisfactory theory of nyctitropic pulvinus movements is not yet forthcoming. such a theory can only be established after new and exhaustive experimental research." [ ] jost--_ibid_, p. . the difficulties of the experimental reinvestigation here called for towards clearing up and explanation of the subject are sufficiently great; they are further increased by the fact that these diurnal movements may be brought about by different agencies independent of each other. thus in _crocus_ and in _tulip_, the movement of opening during rise of temperature has been shown by pfeffer to be due to differential growth in the inner and outer halves of the perianth. i shall in this connection show that a precisely opposite movement of closing is induced in _nymphæa_ under similar rise of temperature. i shall for convenience distinguish the differential growth under temperature variation as _thermonasty_ proper. again certain leaflets open in light, and close in darkness in the so-called sleep position. intense light, however, produces the 'midday sleep'--an effect which is apparently similar to that of darkness. the determining factor of these movements is the variation of light. there are other instances of diurnal movement, far more numerous, which cannot be explained from considerations given above. it has therefore been suggested that the "day and night positions may arise by the combined action of geotropism and heliotropism. thus vochting ( ) observed in the case of _malva verticillatta_, that the leaves, when illuminated from below, turned their laminæ downwards during the day, but during the night became erect geotropically. the sleep movements in leaves and flowers, referred to above, cannot however be explained by assuming such a combination of heliotropism and geotropism."[ ] [ ] for further information on the subject of nyctitropism, _cf._-- pfeffer--_ibid_, vol. ii ( ), p. ; jost--_ibid_, pp. , ; vines--physiology of plants ( ), pp. , . i commenced my investigation on nyctitropism five years ago, after having perfected an apparatus for continuous record of the movements of plants throughout day and night. a contrivance, described further on, has been devised for obtaining a record of diurnal variation of temperature. i have also succeeded recently, in perfecting a device for automatic record of variation of intensity of light. it has thus been possible not only to obtain a continuous record of the diurnal movement of the plant, but also obtain simultaneous record of those changes in the environment which might have an influence on the daily movement. i have in this way collected several hundred autographs of different plants throughout all seasons of the year. the records thus obtained were extremely diverse, and it was at first impossible to discover any fundamental reaction which would explain the phenomenon. while in this perplexity my attention was directed two years ago to the extraordinary performances of the "praying palm" of faridpore, in which the geotropic curvature of the tree underwent an accentuation during fall of temperature, and a diminution during rise of temperature. the discovery of this new phenomenon led me to the inquiry whether thermo-geotropic reaction, as i may call it, was exerted only on palm trees, or whether it was a phenomenon of universal occurrence. i therefore extended my investigation on various geotropically curved procumbent stems of _ipoemia_, _basella_, and of _tropæolum majus_. here also i found that diurnal variation of temperature induced a periodic movement exactly similar to that in palm trees. i next wished to find whether the thermo-geotropic reaction observed in stems was also exhibited by lateral organs such as leaves, which being spread out in a horizontal direction are subjected to the stimulus of gravity. i found that in a large number of typical cases, a periodic movement took place which was exactly similar to that given by rigid trees and trailing stems. a standard curve was thus obtained which was found to be characteristic not only of trees and herbs, but also of leaves. the stem and leaves _fell_ continuously with the rise of temperature, from the minimum at about in the morning to the maximum at about p.m. they erected themselves with falling temperature from p.m. to a.m. next morning. in the diurnal record of _mimosa_ i met, however, with an unaccountable deviation from the standard curve, for which i could not for a long time find an adequate explanation. subsequent investigations showed that the deviation was due to the introduction of additional factors of variation, namely of immediate and after-effects of light. complexity of the problem. i have already referred to the great difficulty of explanation of nyctitropism from the fact that the diurnal movements may be brought about by different agencies independent of each other. it is, moreover, not easy to discriminate the effect of one agency from that of the other. the combined effects of different factors will evidently be very numerous. this will be understood from consideration of the number of possible combinations with only two variables, geotropism and phototropism. the effect of geotropism may be strong _g_, or feeble, _g_. similarly we may have strong effect of light _l_, or feeble effect of light _l_. light may exert positive phototropic action +_l_ or negative action -_l_. thus from two variables we obtain the following eight combinations: _g_ + _l_; _g_ - _l_; _g_ + _l_; _g_ - _l_; _g_ + _l_; _g_ - _l_; _g_ + _l_; _g_ - _l_. the number of possible variables are, however, far more numerous as will be seen from the following: _geotropism._--the effect of geotropic stimulus on horizontally placed organs is one of erection. but this stimulus, which is constant, cannot by itself give rise to periodic movements. it has however been shown that variation of temperature has a modifying influence on geotropic curvature (p. ). _phototropism._--the action of unilateral light is to induce a tropic curvature, which in some cases is positive, in others negative (p. ). in addition to these effects induced during the incidence of light, we have to take account of the after-effects on the cessation of light. _after-effects of light._--i find two very different effects, depending on the intensity and duration of previous illumination. of these the most important is the phenomenon of 'overshooting' which occurs on the cessation of light of long duration. this particular reaction, to be fully described, will be found to offer an explanation of certain anomalous effects in diurnal movement. _periodic variation of turgor._--i have shown (p. ) that artificial enhancement of turgor in the plant induces an erectile movement of the leaf of _mimosa_, diminution of turgor inducing the opposite movement of fall. kraus and millardet have shown that a diurnal variation of tension takes place in the shoot of all plants, which is presumably indicative of variation of turgor. this variation of turgor in the shoot must have some effect on the lateral leaves. but the leaves are subjected to conditions which are absent in the stem. the erect stem is, for example, free from geotropic action, whereas the lateral leaf is subject to it. the effect of turgor variation in the shoot on the movement of leaves may be, and often is, overpowered by the predominant geotropic action. i shall, later on, refer to this question in greater detail. [illustration: fig. .--arrest of pulsatory movement of leaflet of _desmodium gyrans_ by light from above and gradual restoration on cessation of light. up-movement represented by up-curve.] _autonomous movements: experiment ._--the lateral organ, say the leaf or leaflet, may have an autonomous movement of its own. in some, the autonomous movement may be relatively quick; the complete pulsation in _desmodium gyrans_ may be as short as a minute or so. i find that this autonomous movement becomes modified or even arrested by the paratonic effect of light. this is seen in figure , where light applied from above is seen to arrest the pulsation; the normal activity is, however, restored on the stoppage of light. [illustration: fig. .--effect of unilateral light on hyponastic movement of the cotyledon of _pepo_. application of light indicated by arrows; light acting from below retards, acting from above accelerates the movement. the last part of the curve in each shows recovery on the stoppage of light.] _epinasty and hyponasty: experiment ._--there are other autonomous movements which are relatively slow. even in an erect stem there may be a to and fro oscillation. in such a case the effect of an external stimulus, say of light, is one of algebraical summation. the following is the summary of results of unilateral action of light on the nutating hypocotyl of a pea seedling: +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | natural movement. | effect of light applied on the right side.| +------------------------+-------------------------------------------+ |movement to the right |acceleration of existing movement. | |movement to the left |retardation, arrest or reversal of natural | | | movement. | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ figure exhibits the effect of light applied alternately above or below the cotyledon of _cucurbita pepo_. on account of the more rapid growth of the lower side, the cotyledon was exhibiting a hyponastic up-movement. application of light from above enhanced the existing rate of movement, whereas light acting from below retarded the movement. here we have instances of photo-hyponastic modification of natural movement. similarly epinastic organs will, normally speaking, have their natural down movement retarded by light from above, and accelerated by light from below. if the periodicity of the autonomous movements coincides with the periodicity of the external stimulus, the resulting movement will be determined by algebraical summation; it will be very pronounced when the two effects are concordant. if the two periodicities do not agree, the interference effects will become extremely complicated. _positive thermonasty._--rise of temperature inducing differential growth brings about the _closure_ of the flower. fall of temperature on the other hand induces a movement of opening. example of this has already been given in the responsive movement of _nymphæa_. _negative thermonasty._--the opposite type of movement is exhibited by _crocus_ and _tulip_. pfeffer has shown that a rise of temperature induces in these flowers, a quicker rate of growth of the inner side of the perianth. rise of temperature thus induces a movement of opening, and a fall of temperature brings about the opposite movement of closure. i shall presently describe the effects of both positive and negative thermonasty, in diurnal movements of flowers. _thermo-geotropism._--i have already described the accentuation of geotropic curvature during the fall, and a flattening of curvature during the rise of temperature (p. ). the influence of this factor on diurnal movement will presently be treated in fuller detail. there are thus more than ten variables, and the resulting effect due to their combinations will exceed a thousand. this will explain why attempts at explanation of the phenomenon of nyctitropism had hitherto proved so baffling. it is indeed a difficult task to disentangle the full explanation of each given case in the vast complexity. it is, however, possible, by a process of judicious elimination, to reduce the difficulties which at first appear to be insurmountable. in the periodic movement of plants there are several factors which are predominant, others being of minor importance. the important factors are the effects of light and darkness, of variation of temperature on differential growth, and of thermal variation on geotropic curvature. for facility of treatment, i shall first take the three ideal types: ( ) where the variation of light is the important factor, ( ) where the movement is due to differential growth under variation of temperature, and ( ) where thermal variation induces changes in geotropic curvature. i shall then take up the movement of the leaf of _mimosa_ where the combined effects of numerous factors give rise to a highly complex diurnal curve. there remains now the difficulty of discriminating the three types which approximate to the ideal. discriminating tests for classification. _predominant effect of light and darkness._--turning first to the case where light exerts a predominant influence, the obvious test of keeping the plant in continuous darkness or continuous light is not practicable. one would think that if the movement was due to periodic variation of light, such movement would disappear under constant light or darkness. but owing to the persistence of after-effect, the periodic movement previously acquired is continued for a long time. there is, however, another possibility of discrimination. the effect of variation of light will be most marked at the two periods, early in the morning when the light appears, and in the evening when it disappears. in the tropics there is little twilight; in calcutta, the sun rises in summer at about - a.m., and sets at - p.m. in winter the sun rises an hour later, and the sunset is an hour earlier. the average dawn may therefore be taken approximately at a.m., and the average sunset at p.m. unlike the diurnal variation of temperature which is gradual, the change from light to darkness or from darkness to light is very abrupt. if we succeed next in obtaining a continuous curve of the diurnal movement of the plant, the phototropic action would be evidenced by some flexures of the curve in the morning and towards evening. the other two types of daily movement depend on the diurnal variation of temperature, and there is some difficulty in distinguishing the effect of variation of light from that of temperature, since both are connected with the appearance and disappearance of the sun. _diurnal variation of light and of temperature._--there are certain differences, however, which enable us to distinguish the two variations. light appears in the morning, say at a.m., becomes most intense at noon; after p.m. the light wanes, and darkness sets in quickly after p.m. and remains persistent till next morning. the course of variation of temperature is somewhat different. the minimum temperature is attained in my green house at about a.m. in summer, and at about a.m. in winter. the maximum temperature is reached at about p.m. in summer, and about p.m. in winter. the range of daily variation in summer may be taken to be from about ° c. to ° c.; in winter it is from ° c. to about ° c. the above gives the normal variation and not the sudden fluctuations that occur during uncertain weather conditions. the temperature remains constant for nearly an hour during the period of transition from falling to rising temperature, and _vice versâ_. the average period of minimum temperature may be taken at a.m., which i shall distinguish as the _thermal-dawn_. the average period for maximum temperature, the _thermal-noon_, is at p.m. variations from these average periods at different seasons do not amount to more than an hour. the light-dawn and thermal-dawn are more or less coincident, while the thermal-noon is two hours later than the light-noon. a change in the diurnal curve of movement due to thermal variation will thus be detected at about p.m. if the curve of daily movement of the plant-organ closely resemble the diurnal thermographic curve, there can then be no doubt of the causal relation of variation of temperature in the production of the periodic movement. two different classes of phenomena, as already stated, arise however from the variation of temperature, _thermonasty_ and _thermo-geotropism_. in the former, the movement is autonomous, and determined in relation to the plant; in the latter, the movement is related to the direction of external stimulus of gravity. further tests will be given later, to distinguish the phenomenon of thermonasty from that of thermo-geotropism. i shall in the succeeding papers describe the principal types of diurnal movements as sketched above. the success of the investigation greatly depends on the elaboration of automatic apparatus of precision, which gives a continuous record of the diurnal movement of different plant organs. the description of this nyctitropic recorder will be given in the next paper. summary. the obscurities in the nyctitropic movement of plants arises from the presence of numerous complicating factors. in the diurnal movement of plants the most important factors are the effects of light and darkness, of variation of temperature on differential growth, and of thermal variation on geotropic curvature. these three classes of phenomena may be discriminated from each other by the following tests. the effects of light and darkness are most pronounced in the morning when light appears, and in the evening when light disappears. a pronounced flexure in the diurnal curve at these periods indicates the dominant character of the phototropic action. the effect of light can also be distinguished from that of temperature from the fact that the period of maximum intensity of light, or _light-noon_, is about two hours earlier than the _thermal-noon_, at which the temperature is maximum. a flexure of the diurnal curve about thermal noon, at which an inversion takes place from rise to fall of temperature, indicates the effect of temperature. the additional test of the effect of temperature is furnished by the close resemblance of the diurnal curve of the plant with the thermographic record for hours. two different classes of phenomena arise from variation of temperature--thermonasty and thermo-geotropism. in the former the movement is autonomous and determined by the differential growth-activity of the two sides of an anisotropic organ. in the latter the movement is not in relation to the plant but directed by the external stimulus of gravity. xlvii.--diurnal movement due to alternation of light and darkness _by_ sir j. c. bose, _assisted by_ lalit mohan mukherji, b.sc. (_nawroji scholar_). the nyctitropic movements of the leaflet of _cassia alata_ and of the terminal leaflet of _desmodium gyrans_ furnish us with typical examples of the recurrent effects of light and darkness. the petiole of _cassia_ contains a number of paired leaflets each of which is about cm. long and · cm. broad. the leaflets are extremely sensitive to light; at night each pair of leaflets fold themselves in a forward direction (see fig. ). with the appearance of light they open at first in a lateral direction; later on there is a twist of the pulvinus by which the inner surface of the leaflets faces light coming from above (p. ). i shall show that the diurnal movements of the leaflets are predominantly due to phototropic action. before proceeding further it will be necessary to give a general description of the experimental method employed, and of the apparatus by which diurnal movements are recorded. experimental arrangements. the diurnal record is often taken continuously for several days, and it is therefore necessary to take precautions against the disturbing effect of watering the plant. the record is also liable to be affected by the twist induced by light when it acts on one side of the organ. _irrigation._--there is, as is well known, a periodic variation of turgor in the plant. this normal variation is, however, disturbed by watering the plant at irregular intervals. precaution against this was taken by placing the three flower pots on a long trough filled with water (fig. ). the height of water in the trough is always maintained constant by a syphon. _vertical illumination._--the direction of sunlight changes from morning to evening, and the leaves exhibit appropriate phototropic movements or torsions under changing directions of lateral light. in order to obviate this, a special chamber was constructed, which allowed light from the sky to fall vertically on the plant through a sheet of ground glass which covered the roof. the sides and the base of the chamber are impervious to light. a narrow slit covered with red glass allows inspection of the curve during the process of record. _the ventilator._--a revolving ventilator, acted on by the wind, sucks the air away from the chamber, thus ensuring constant supply of fresh air, without causing any disturbances of the record. _the recorder._--the oscillating recorder employed is of the quadruplex type carrying four recording plates (fig. ). the first lever records the daily variation of temperature. the other three are attached to three different specimens of the same plant, or to three different plants. in the former case, three records are obtained of the same species of plant, under identical external condition. if they agree in all essentials, the periodic curve may be taken as characteristic of the given plant. a very great saving of time is thus ensured, and it is thus possible to obtain characteristic curves of numbers of different species of plants within the short period of a season. the quadruplex recorder enables us also to obtain simultaneous records under identical external condition of leaves of different age of the same plant, or of leaves of three different species of plant. i have for the last five years taken records of numerous plants at all seasons of the year. the autograph of the plant is often so characteristic that it is possible to name it by mere inspection of its daily record. [illustration: fig. .--the nyctitropic recorder with four writing levers. the flower pots are placed in a trough filled with water to a constant height. the first two levers are shown in the figure to record movements of leaves, the third to record movement of a horizontally laid shoot; the fourth lever attached to a differential thermometer, t, records diurnal variation of temperature.] _thermograph._--for obtaining a continuous record of diurnal variation of temperature, i use a compound strip, t, made of brass and steel. variation of temperature induces a curvature of the compound strip which is recorded by means of the attached lever. the oscillation of the plate takes place once in fifteen minutes, and the successive dots thus produced give time records of the diurnal curve. the record thus consists of a series of dots. an additional device makes the plate oscillate three times in rapid succession at the end of each hour; the hourly dot is thus thicker than others. the movement of the plant, corresponding to the particular variation of temperature at any period, may thus be easily determined. i shall now give a typical example of diurnal movement induced by variation of light and darkness. diurnal movement of the leaflet of _cassia alata_. the leaflet of _cassia alata_ exhibits a movement of opening in the morning, and it remains outspread throughout the day. it then begins to close before evening and remains closed throughout the night. the problem before us is to find out the relative importance of variation of temperature and of light in the diurnal movement of the leaflets. in the daytime the light is increasing till midday; there is, on the other hand, a rapid decline of light after p.m. and uninterrupted darkness at night. as regards temperature there is a continuous rise from morning till the thermal noon at p.m., after which the fall of temperature is continuous till next morning. the opening of the leaflets in the daytime may therefore be due to the summated effects of rising temperature and increasing light, the closure, on the other hand, being due to falling temperature, and to darkness. the individual effect of each of these factors is not known and it is therefore necessary to determine the effects of variation of temperature and of light. effect of variation of temperature. _experiment ._--the plant was enclosed in a glass chamber and exposed to diffuse light. the experiment was commenced at midday, when the leaflets were open; the light was kept uniform while temperature was artificially increased by means of an electric heater placed in the chamber, and decreased by introducing cold air into the plant chamber. one of the leaflets was attached to the recording lever and its movement, up or down, indicated the movement of opening or closure. the records showed that rise of temperature induces a movement of closure, while that of fall brings about the movement of opening. [illustration: fig. .--effect of sudden darkening at arrow, produces movement of closure (up-curve). restoration of light induces opening movement (down-curve). successive dots at intervals of minutes. (leaflet of _cassia_.)] effect of variation of light. _experiment ._--this experiment was also carried out at midday, when the leaflets were open. the horizontal record in figure represents the stationary expanded condition of the leaflet; a black cloth was put over the glass chamber at p.m., and the effect of darkness was recorded for one hour. darkness is seen to initiate a movement of closure which increased at a rapid rate; the black cloth was removed after an hour, and the movement of opening under light was completed in the course of five quarters of an hour. it is thus seen that the leaflets are extremely sensitive to the action of light. the experiments that have just been described on the effects of rise of temperature, and of light, show that they are antagonistic to each other. in the forenoon the opening movement under light has to be carried out against the closure movement due to rise of temperature. light, therefore, is the predominant factor in the diurnal movement of the leaflets of _cassia_. the closure effect of darkness at night, on the other hand, overpowers the tendency of movement of opening due to fall of temperature. [illustration: fig. .--diurnal movement of the leaflet of _cassia alata_. closure movement commenced at p.m. and completed by p.m. leaflets began to open at a.m.] diurnal movement of the leaflet of _cassia alata_. _experiment ._--i next obtained the diurnal record of the leaflet, from p.m. till p.m. next day. the leaflets remain open from p.m. to p.m. and the record of this period is therefore omitted. in the diurnal record (fig. ) the first thick dot was made at p.m. and successive thick dots are at intervals of an hour, the thinner dots being at intervals of minutes. it will be seen that a rapid movement of closure was initiated at p.m. when the light is undergoing a rapid diminution. the movement of closure is completed at about p.m. the leaflets remain closed till a.m. next morning, after which they begin to open; this opening may commence even an hour earlier. it should be borne in mind in this connection, that since light and rise of temperature are antagonistic in their reactions, the effects of light and fall of temperature would be concordant; and the opening in the early hours may possibly be hastened by the low temperature in the morning. the leaflets open to their utmost by a.m., and they remain open till the afternoon. the plant is so extremely sensitive to light that any slight fluctuation is followed by responsive movement of the leaflet. thus the transitory passage of a cloud is marked in the record by a short-lived closure movement. diurnal movement of the terminal leaflet of _desmodium gyrans_. both the petiole, and the terminal leaflet of this plant exhibit very marked nyctitropic movement. the petiole is raised and becomes almost erect in the evening, while the pulvinus of the terminal leaflet exhibits a sharp curvature downwards (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--the day and night positions of the petiole and terminal leaflet of _desmodium gyrans_.] _experiment ._--the petiole was held fixed, and the terminal leaflet attached to the recording lever. i have already explained that light falling on the pulvinus from above, induces an up-movement of the leaflet, which is thus erected under light of moderate intensity. if the light be strong, the transversely conducted excitation induces a partial neutralisation; very intense light may even cause a reversal into down-movement. under natural conditions, day-light acting from above induces an up-movement; darkness, on the other hand, induces a rapid movement of fall. the leaflets sometimes exhibit autonomous pulsations; but the diurnal movement is very strong and the daily curve appears as a single large pulse on which smaller autonomous pulsations may become superposed. [illustration: fig. .--diurnal record of the terminal leaflet of _desmodium gyrans_. up-curve represents movement of closure.] the diurnal curve (fig. ) exhibits a sudden flexure at about p.m. on the rapid waning of afternoon light till, by - p.m., it becomes closely pressed against the petiole, by the rapid fall of the leaflet. the discriminating test, between effects of variation of temperature and of light, lies in the fact that the flexure of the diurnal curve takes place in the former at about p.m. when temperature undergoes change from ascent to descent; in the case of light, the change in the intensity of light begins to be marked about three hours later. in the diurnal curve of _desmodium_ the record shows little change at p.m., showing that the leaflet is not affected to any great extent by the variation of temperature; it is, however, strongly affected by change in light as seen in the rapid closure movement about p.m. the leaflet remains tightly closed throughout the night and begins to open and spread out early in the morning at about a.m. this up-movement is also very rapid and the leaflet assumes the fullest outspread position by a.m. it remains in this position till the afternoon, after which the cycle becomes repeated. as the leaflet is very sensitive to light, the position of equilibrium of the leaflet is liable to be disturbed by the slightest variation of light and the fluctuation of light from the sky often gives rise to a wavy outline in the record. the leaflet, moreover, has a tendency to exhibit rhythmic pulsations. in the leaflets of _cassia_ and _desmodium_, the daily movement is thus brought about by the predominant action of recurrent light and darkness. midday sleep. i shall here briefly recapitulate the results given in greater detail in an earlier paper (p. ). i have shown that the midday closure of leaflets is brought about by the excitatory action of strong sunlight. the responsive movement of motile pulvinus under diffuse stimulus is determined by the greater contraction of the more excitable half of the organ. under the action of the midday sun the leaflets of _mimosa_ undergo a folding upwards, whereas the leaflets of _averrhoa carambola_ a folding downwards. the explanation of the difference lies in the fact that in the leaflets of _mimosa_ it is the upper half, and in _averrhoa_ it is the lower half of the pulvinule, that is the more excitable. this difference may be demonstrated by the action of diffuse electric shock under which the leaflets of _mimosa_ exhibit an upward, and those of _averrhoa_ a downward, closure. i have also shown that conduction of excitation takes place across the pulvinule; hence the strong excitation caused by sunlight becomes internally diffused, and brings about the responsive movements, the direction of which is determined by the more excitable half of the pulvinule. summary. rise of temperature induces a movement of closure of the leaflet of _cassia_, fall of temperature inducing the opposite movement. artificial darkness induces a closure of the leaflets, the closure being completed in the course of an hour. on readmission of light, the leaflets become fully expanded in the course of one hour and a quarter. the leaflets are extremely sensitive to light, closure movement being induced by the transitory passage of a cloud. the effect of rise of temperature is antagonistic to the action of light. the movement of opening during the course of the day is due to the effect of light overpowering the effect of rise of temperature. under daily variation of light and darkness, the movement of closure is initiated at about p.m., when the light is undergoing a rapid diminution. the movement of closure is complete by p.m. the leaflets remain closed till about a.m. next morning, after which they begin to open and become fully expanded by a.m. the terminal leaflet of _desmodium gyrans_ exhibits a diurnal movement which is very similar to that of _cassia_. it begins to open early in the morning and remains outspread during the whole day; the leaflet exhibits a rapid down-movement after p.m. and becomes closely pressed against the petiole in the course of about two hours. the midday sleep of leaflets of _mimosa_ and _averrhoa_ is due to the excitatory action of strong sunlight on the pulvinule, the more excitable half becoming contracted under excitation. in _mimosa_ leaflets it is the upper, and in _averrhoa_, it is the lower half of the pulvinule that is the more excitable. it is in consequence of this that the diffuse excitation of strong sunlight causes the leaflets of _mimosa_ to fold upwards, those of _averrhoa_ to fold downwards. xlviii.--diurnal movement due to variation of temperature affecting growth _by_ sir j. c. bose, _assisted by_ lalit mohan mukerjee. it has been stated that there are two classes of diurnal movements caused by variation of temperature; one of these is due to differential growth induced on two sides of the organ, and the other is brought about by the induced variation of geotropic curvature. the former may be distinguished as _thermonastic_, and the latter as _thermo-geotropic_ movement. before laying down the criteria to distinguish the one class of phenomenon from the other, it would be advisable to refer to the somewhat arbitrary distinction that has been made between nastic and tropic reactions. tropic and nastic movements. the explanation, which i shall offer about the night and day movements in plants, has been reached through the study not only of pulvinated, but also of growing and fully grown organs. a distinction is made between the movement due to growth, and the 'variation movement' due to change of turgor. i have shown (p. ) that the same diminution of turgor which induces a contraction in a pulvinus, also induces in a growing organ an incipient contraction, and retardation of growth. enhancement of turgor, on the other hand, induces in both the opposite effect of expansion. unilateral stimulus induces curvature, and there is no essential difference in the production of such curvatures in pulvinated, growing, and fully grown organs. the exhibition of nyctitropic movement by the fully grown, and rigid 'praying palm' is a striking demonstration of the unity of response of all plant organs. as regards the distinction between the tropic and nastic movements, it will be found that there is no sharp line of demarcation between the two. a movement is said to be _tropic_, when unilateral stimulus acts on an organ and induces in it a directive movement. curvature induced by diffused stimulus on a dorsiventral or anisotropic organ (with differential excitabilities of the two halves) is termed _nastic_. daylight is supposed to act diffusely (_i.e._, equally on all sides) on leaves; this is, however, not strictly true, since the light from sky above is stronger than from ground below. moreover, the tropic action of unilateral light may become nastic by internal diffusion of excitation. this is seen in the response of the pulvinus of _mimosa_ to light acting from above. the leaf at first moves upwards towards the stimulus, the response being positively phototropic. but under the continued action of light, excitation becomes internally diffused, and the leaf undergoes a fall by the greater contraction of the more excitable lower half of the organ (p. ). no sharp distinction can therefore be made between the movements of growth and of variation, between tropic and nastic curvatures. the employment of the term 'nastic' is, however, convenient when used in a well-defined and restricted sense. "we speak of tropism when the organ takes up a resting position definitely _related to the effective stimulus_. nastic movements, on the other hand, are curvatures which bring about a particular position _in relation to the plant_, and not to the direction of the stimulus".[ ] it will sometimes be necessary, in the course of this paper, to discriminate the movements which are autonomous from others which are paratonic, _i.e._, brought about by external stimulus, to the former class belongs a large number of automatic activities ranging from the quick pulsations of _desmodium gyrans_ to the slow movements, exhibited by epinastic and hyponastic organs. under the category of nastic movements may also be included those of the flower of _crocus_ and _tulip_, in which variation of temperature induces differential growth on two sides of the organ. the direction of the movement, though initiated by change of temperature, is determined by the difference of growth-activity on the two sides. in these instances of nastic movement, the induced curvature is in relation of the plant; the opening of the flower due to rise of temperature will remain the same, whether the flower be kept in an erect or in an inverted position. had the movement, on the other hand, been paratonic, that is to say, due to the external stimulus of gravity, the responsive movement would have been determined not in relation to the plant but to the direction of external force of gravity. [ ] strasburger--"text-book of botany" ( ), p. . in the description of direction of responsive movements, confusion is likely to arise unless the point of view be carefully defined. an up-movement of a leaf or a petal means approach towards the growing point of the axis. this may be variously described as movement of closure or of folding. a down-movement may, on the other hand, be described as a movement of opening or of unfolding. if the plant be held inverted, two different effects will be noticed depending on the character of the movement, whether nastic or tropic. in the case of nastic movement, the former up-movement in erect position would appear, on inversion of the plant, to be a down-movement; but in relation to the plant the closure movement will remain closure movement, whether the plant be held in the normal position or upside down. if, on the other hand, the direction of movement be determined by the paratonic effect of external stimulus, gravity for example, an up-movement due to fall of temperature will continue to be an up-movement, whether the plant be held in its normal or inverted position. the responsive movement in relation to the plant will, however, be different; the closure movement will, on inversion, be reversed into a movement of opening. the reversal of closure into an opening movement or _vice versâ_ will thus be a test of the paratonic effect of external stimulus. we may thus distinguish thermonastic from thermo-geotropic action by the following tests: . thermonastic movements are, generally speaking, due to differential growth, and are therefore characteristically present in growing organs. thermo-geotropic action is independent of growth. . thermonastic movements take place in relation to the plant, and is not determined by external force of a directive nature. opening or closing movement will remain unchanged after inversion of the plant. but thermo-geotropic reaction being determined by the external stimulus of gravity, becomes reversed on inversion of the plant. closure movement is thus converted into opening movement, and _vice versâ_. i shall now take up the diurnal movement due to variation of growth induced by change of temperature. of this the flower of _nymphæa_ furnishes an example. [illustration: fig. .--nymphæa closed at daytime.] [illustration: fig. .--nymphæa open at night.] [illustration: fig. .--response to light applied successively for minute. down-curve shows movement of opening followed by recovery in darkness. (_nymphæa_).] diurnal movements of _nymphæa_. the flower of _nymphæa_ remains closed during the day and opens at night. figures and are from photographs of the day and night positions of the flower. the closure and opening movements of this flower have been regarded as being mainly due to recurrent variations of light and darkness.[ ] if the opening be due to darkness, closure of the flower should take place in the morning with the appearance of light. but the flowers often remain open till ten or eleven in the forenoon. i have sometimes succeeded in keeping the flower open for greater part of the day by lowering the temperature of the plant-chamber. the movement of the flower thus appeared to be associated with variation of temperature rather than of light. [ ] pfeffer--ibid, vol. iii. p. . _action of light: experiment ._--i investigated the effect of light on the movement of opening or of closing of the flower. one of the petals was attached to the recording lever; light from an arc lamp was made to act diffusely on the petal; this was done by means of two inclined mirrors by which the divergent horizontal beam of light was thrown on the upper and lower sides. the record in figure shows that light induced a movement of opening, followed by closure in darkness. since light induces a movement of opening, and darkness brings about a closure, the opening of the flower at night could not be due to darkness. we have therefore to look for a different cause for the diurnal movement of the flower. _effect of variation of temperature._--i have already described an experiment which proves that rise of temperature induces a movement of closure of the floral leaves of _nymphæa_, lowering of temperature producing the opposite effect (p. ). from the study of the action of light and of variation of temperature, it will be seen that the flower of _nymphæa_ is acted on in the evening by two antagonistic forces; darkness induces a movement of closure, and fall of temperature gives rise to a movement of opening. since the flower opens in the evening, the predominant effect is that of falling temperature. the above conclusions are fully borne out by the diurnal record which i obtained with _nymphæa_. [illustration: fig. .--diurnal record of _nymphæa_. upper record gives variation of temperature; the up-curve representing fall, and down-curve rise of temperature. the lower record exhibits the movement of the flower, up-curve representing the opening, and down-curve the closure of the flower.] _experiment ._--one of the perianth leaves was attached to one of the recording levers, the differential thermometer being attached to the other. it will be seen (fig. ) that the movement of the flower follows very closely the curve of variation of temperature. the flower was tightly closed in the day time; and the perianth leaves began to open out in the evening at first slowly, then very rapidly, and the flower becoming fully expanded by p.m. at night. though the temperature continued to fall, there was no possibility of further expansion beyond the maximum. the temperature began to rise after passing through the minimum at a.m., and the movement of closure set in with rising temperature, the flower becoming completely closed by a.m. that geotropism has little effect is seen from the fact that the inversion of flower does not interfere with the normal opening or closing of the flower. the phenomenon of diurnal movement of _nymphæa_ is therefore thermonastic, the floral leaves exhibiting movement of opening at night owing to fall of temperature. _luffa acutangula_, which opens in the afternoon, and closes early in the morning, gives a diurnal record similar to that of _nymphæa_. summary. the flower of _nymphæa_ exhibits a movement of closure during rise of temperature, and of opening during fall of temperature. it is shown further that the effects of light and of rise of temperature are antagonistic to each other. light is shown to induce in _nymphæa_ the movement of opening, and darkness to cause the movement of closure. the diurnal movement of _nymphæa_ is not therefore due to periodic variation of light and darkness, but to the predominant effect of variation of temperature. the diurnal record shows that the perianth leaves begin to open in the evening with falling temperature, and the flower becomes fully expanded by p.m. the movement of closure sets in with rising temperature in the morning, and the flower becomes fully closed by a.m. xlix.--daily movement in plants due to thermo-geotropism _by_ sir j. c. bose, _assisted by_ lalit mohan mukherji. of the vast number of daily movements perhaps the largest proportion is due to thermo-geotropic reaction and its modifications. thermo-geotropic movements have the following characteristics: . the organs are sensitive to the stimulus of gravity and the periodic movements are brought about by variation of geotropic curvature under change of temperature. . the movement is not confined to growing organs, but is also exhibited by organs which are fully grown and even by rigid trees. . the periodic movement is closely related to the diurnal variation of temperature. fall of temperature from thermal-noon (about p.m.) to thermal-dawn (about a.m.) is attended by a movement of erection; rise of temperature from thermal-dawn to thermal-noon is followed, on the other hand, by a reverse movement of fall. that the movement is primarily due to variation of temperature will be demonstrated in two different ways: (_a_) by the change of normal rhythm of movement by artificial transpositions of periods of maximum and minimum temperature, and (_b_) by the abolition of periodic movement through maintenance of constant temperature. that the phenomenon is not nastic, but paratonic will be demonstrated:-- (_a_) by the reversal of closure into opening movement and _vice versâ_, in consequence of inversion of the plant upside down, and (_b_) by the diurnal variation of torsional movement, the direction of which is dependent on the directive action of the stimulus of gravity. i shall now describe the diurnal movement of various geotropically curved plant-organs; the most striking example of this is furnished by the 'praying' palm of faridpore, already described. i shall here recapitulate some of the important features connected with the phenomenon. diurnal movement of palm trees. movements similar to that of the faridpore palm (p. ) are found in other palm trees growing at an inclination from the vertical. i reproduce once more the diurnal curve given by the sijberia palm together with the curve of daily thermal variation (fig. ). it will be seen that the two curves resemble each other so closely that the curve of movement of the tree is practically a replica of the thermographic record. there can therefore be no doubt of the movement being brought about by variation of temperature; rise of temperature is attended by the movement of fall of the tree and _vice versâ_. the record was commenced at noon; the temperature rose till the maximum was reached at about p.m. and the tree also reached its lowest position at - p.m., the lag being minutes. the temperature fell continuously after the maximum at p.m., to the minimum at a.m. next morning. in response to the falling temperature, the tree exhibited a movement of erection. the temperature rose after a.m. and the movement of the tree became reversed from ascent to descent. [illustration: fig. .--diurnal record of the sijberia palm. upper curve gives variation of temperature, and the lower curve the movement of the tree.] i have already shown: ( ) that the diurnal movement just described is due to physiological reaction, and that the movement is abolished at the death of the plant; ( ) that light has little or no effect, since the thick bark and bases of leaves screen the living tissue from the action of light; ( ) that transpiration has practically no effect on the periodic movement, since such movement takes place in other plants completely immersed under water; thus _ipomoea aquatica_, a water plant, kept under water, gave the normal diurnal curve similar to that of the palm. the modifying effect of transpiration was in this case, completely excluded. i obtained similar effect with geotropically curved stem of _basella cordifolia_ (p. ); ( ) that the weight of the plant-organ as such, has little effect on the diurnal curve, since an inverted plant continues for a few days to exhibit the periodic movement, in spite of the antagonistic effect of weight. a different experiment will be described (see p. ) where the effect of weight was completely neutralised and the plant-organ gave, nevertheless, the normal diurnal curve. [illustration: fig. .--diurnal record of inclined palm tree, of geotropically curved procumbent stem of _tropæolum_ and the dia-geotropic leaf of palm. note general similarity between diurnal curve of plants and the thermographic record.] i have also shown that the diurnal movement is determined by the modifying influence of temperature on geotropic curvature. rise of temperature opposes or neutralises the geotropic curvature; fall of temperature, on the other hand, accentuates it. the particular diurnal movement was not confined to the palm trees, but was exhibited by all plant-organs subjected to the stimulus of gravity. diurnal movement of procumbent stems and of leaves. [illustration: fig. .---diurnal records of leaves of _dahlia_, _papaya_ and _croton_.] _experiment ._--in order to demonstrate the continuity of the phenomenon of diurnal movement i took various stems growing in water or land for my experiment. the plants were laid horizontally, till the stems bent up and assumed the stable position of geotropic equilibrium. in figure is given records of the inclined palm tree, of procumbent stem of _tropæolum_, and the leaf of the palm tree. the very close relation between the temperature-variation and the movement of different plant-organs is sufficiently obvious. i shall next give a series of diurnal records of leaves of different plants such as those of _dahlia_, _papaya_ and _croton_ (fig. ). in these also fall of temperature induces an up-movement while rise of temperature causes a fall of the leaf. i shall presently refer to the 'personal equation' by which the record of one plant is distinguished from another. continuous diurnal record for successive thermal noons. _experiment ._--the diurnal record given above, was taken from ordinary noon at o'clock to noon next day. the diurnal curve becomes much simplified if the record be taken from _thermal-noon_ (at about p.m.) to the thermal noon next day. the plant-organ becomes erected during falling temperature from thermal-noon to thermal-dawn next morning, and undergoes a fall during rise of temperature from thermal-dawn to thermal-noon. the subsequent diurnal records will therefore be given for hours commencing with p.m. in figure is given diurnal records of geotropically curved stem of _tropæolum_ and the leaf of _dahlia_ for two days in succession. the thermal record shows that there was a continuous fall of temperature from thermal-noon at p.m. to the thermal-dawn at a.m. next morning, that is to say, for hours. rise of temperature through the same range occurred in hours from a.m. till p.m. the average rate of rise of temperature was thus twice as quick as that of fall. this is clearly seen from the slopes of thermal curve during thermal ascent and descent. the record of the movement of the plant shows a striking parallelism; the different plant-organs became erected from thermal-noon to thermal-dawn, and underwent a fall from thermal-dawn to thermal-noon. the descent of the curve is, as in the case of thermal curve, relatively more abrupt. the records on two successive days are very similar, the slight difference being due to the physiological depression consequent on prolonged maintenance of the plants in a closed chamber. [illustration: fig. .--diurnal curve of the procumbent stem of _tropæolum majus_, and the leaf of _dahlia_ for two successive days. in the thermographic record the up-curve represents fall, and down-curve rise of temperature.] modification of the diurnal curve. i shall now proceed to explain the modifications that may occur in the standard thermo-geotropic curve. _turning points._--in the bulky palm, the reversal of movement from fall to rise or _vice versâ_ takes place about an hour after the thermal inversion. this lag is partly due to the time taken by a mass of tissue to assume the temperature of the surrounding air. there is, moreover, the question of physiological inertia which delays the reaction. in leaves this lag may be considerably less or even absent. in certain cases the reversal of movement may take place a little earlier than the temperature inversion. it should be remembered in this connection, that in response to temperature change, the leaf is often displaced to a considerable extent from its 'mean position of equilibrium'; moreover the force of recovery is greatest at the two extreme positions. these considerations probably explain the quick return of the leaf to equilibrium position. the slow autonomous movement of the leaf may sometimes prove to be a contributory factor. _effect of irregular fluctuation of temperature._--in settled weather the diurnal rise and fall of temperature is very regular. but under less settled condition, owing to the change of direction of the wind, the temperature curve shows one or more fluctuations, specially in the forenoon. it was a matter of surprise to me to find the plant-record repeating the fluctuations of thermal record with astonishing fidelity. this common twitch in the two records is seen in the record of the sijberia palm (fig. ). certain plants are extremely sensitive to variation of temperature; so much so that these physiological indicators of thermal variation are far more delicate than ordinary thermometers. _effect of restricted pliability of the organ._--a leaf is more pliable in one direction than in the other. the pulvinus of _mimosa_, for example, allows a greater amount of bending downwards than upwards; in consequence of this the leaf in its fall becomes almost parallel to the internode below; the up-movement is, however, far more restricted. the leaf in its most erect position still makes a considerable angle with the internode of the stem above it. if the leaf-stalk of a plant be restricted in its rise the erectile movement at night will reach a limit, and the top of the curve will remain flat. this is seen, illustrated in the record of the leaf of _croton_ (fig. ), which attains its maximum erection at p.m. and the subsequent curve remains flattened till a.m.; after this the leaf begins to execute its downward movement. in other cases, the range of up-movement is very great and the plant-organ erects itself continuously till morning. in certain cases the impulse of up-movement carries the organ beyond the stable position of equilibrium; after this the leaf begins to retrace its path slowly; the down-movement due to rise of temperature is, however, far more abrupt, and easily distinguishable from the previous slow return. it will thus be seen that though the diurnal record consists of an alternating up and down curve, yet these minor characteristics or 'personal equation' of the plant confers on the record a certain stamp of individuality. _effect of age._--in the floral leaves of _nymphæa_ the thermonastic movement is of positive sign; that is to say, an erection of the petal during rise, and a fall during the lowering of temperature. the corresponding movement of leaves would therefore be an erection of the leaf in day-time, and a fall of the leaf at night. the periodic curve of such leaves would be of opposite sign to the standard thermo-geotropic curves given above. the leaf of _nicotina_ is adduced as an example of a leaf which exhibits a movement of fall at night. but the fully grown and horizontally spread leaf i find that gives the normal record. the very young growing leaves give a different and somewhat erratic curve. the difference between growing and fully grown leaves is explained by the fact that the former would be affected by thermotropism, and the latter by thermo-geotropism. young leaves exhibit moreover a pronounced hyponasty or epinasty, which would naturally modify the diurnal curve. certain interesting variation is met with in the diurnal record of sprouting leaves of _mimosa_ in spring. the movements of leaves grown later in the season, as will be explained in a later chapter, are very definite and characteristic. but the young leaves in spring exhibit no definite diurnal curve, but a series of automatic pulsations, the unsuspected presence of which in all leaves of _mimosa_ will be demonstrated in a subsequent chapter. later in the season, the leaf becomes tuned, as it were, to the periodic variation of the environment; the automatic movements become suppressed, and the diurnal periodicity becomes deeply impressed on the organism. _effect of season._--the diurnal curve may also be modified by the seasonal variation of any one of the effective factors. _tropæolum majus_, for example, exhibits positive phototropic action in one season and a negative reaction in a different season. these seasonal variations must necessarily modify the diurnal curve. i shall now proceed to demonstrate the determining influence of thermal variation, and of stimulus of gravity on the thermo-geotropic movements. the striking similarity of the thermograph, and the record of movement of plants demonstrate the causal relation between temperature variation and diurnal movement, of which the two additional tests described below offer further confirmation. reversal of normal rhythm. the normal diurnal movement is, as we have seen, a fall during rise of temperature from morning to afternoon, and a rise from afternoon till next morning. i succeeded in reversing the normal rhythm of _basella_ by reversing the normal variation of temperature at the two turning points, in the morning and in the afternoon. the plant was subjected to falling temperature in the morning and to rising temperature in the afternoon. the normal movement now became reversed, _i.e._, an erection instead of fall in the forenoon and a fall instead of rise in the afternoon (p. ). effect of constant temperature. the second test which i shall employ is the effect of maintenance of constant temperature, which should wipe off, as it were, traces of periodic movement. it was necessary for this investigation to maintain the plant chamber at constant temperature throughout day and night. the usual thermostat is virtually a recess in a double-walled chamber filled with water, the chamber being covered with a heat insulating material. but this contrivance is unsuitable for the plant chamber which is to contain good sized plants, and the recording apparatus. the problem of maintaining a large air-chamber at constant temperature presented many difficulties which were ultimately overcome by the device of an extremely sensitive thermal regulator. _the thermal regulator._--i shall in a future paper give a complete account of the large thermostatic air-chamber. the important part of the apparatus is an electro-thermic regulator which interrupts the heating electric current as soon as the temperature of the chamber is raised a hundredth part of a degree above the predetermined temperature. the automatic make and break of the current takes place in rapid succession, and the temperature of the chamber is thus maintained constant within tenth of a degree, throughout day and night. [illustration: fig. .--abolition of diurnal movement in _tropæolum_ under constant temperature, and its restoration under normal daily fluctuation. the upper record is of temperature and the lower of plant movement.] _diurnal record of_ tropæolum _under constant temperature: experiment ._--the normal record of geotropically curved _tropæolum_ is already given in figure . in repeating the record i maintained the plant at constant temperature for hours; the result of this is seen in the first part of the record (fig. ). the thermal record is practically horizontal, and the diurnal record of the plant shows no periodic movement. the thermal regulator was on the next day put out of operation, thus restoring the normal diurnal variation of temperature. the record of the plant is seen to exhibit once more its normal periodic movement. i have in the chapter on thermo-geotropism (p. ) shown that the diurnal movement of a geotropically curved organ is determined in reference to the direction of force of gravity. this will be seen demonstrated in an interesting manner in the two following experiments on the effect of inversion of the plant on daily movement. diurnal movement in inverted position. i have already referred to the distinction that is made between nastic and paratonic movements. in the former the movement is autonomous and in relation to the plant, and in the latter it is due to an external force which determines the direction of movement. in nastic reaction, closure movement would persist as a closure movement[ ]; but should the direction of movement be determined by the stimulus of gravity, closure movement would, on inversion, be reversed into an opening movement. viewed from an external point of view an up-movement in the latter case would, after readjustment on inversion, become an up-movement, though in so doing, the expansion should be transferred from the upper to the lower side of the organ. it is to be understood in this connection, that some time must lapse before this readjustment is possible, and that the former movement may continue, in certain cases, as a persistence of after-effect. [ ] by closure is meant movement of opposite pairs of leaf-organs towards each other. i succeeded in demonstrating the paratonic effect of geotropic stimulus on the periodic movement of the palm leaf, by holding the plant in an inverted position (p. ). on the first day of inversion, the diurnal record was erratic, but in the course of hours, the leaf readjusted itself to its unaccustomed position, and became somewhat erected under geotropic action. after the attainment of this new state of geotropic equilibrium, the leaf gave the record of down-movement during rise, and up-movement during fall of temperature, movements which in reference to the plant are the very opposite to those in a normal position. but seen from an external point of view, rise of temperature caused in both normal and inverted positions, a down-movement indicative of diminished geotropic curvature; fall of temperature, on the other hand, brought about an erectile movement, thus exhibiting enhancement of geotropic curvature. [illustration: fig. .--effect of inversion of the plant on diurnal movement. (_a_) normal record, (_b_) record hours after inversion and (_c_) after hours (_tropæolum_).] _experiment ._--a still more striking result exhibiting the phase of transition was given by the geotropically curved stem of _tropæolum_. its diurnal curve and the subsequent changes after inversion are given in figure . in (_a_) is seen the normal diurnal curve; the specimen was inverted, and it took an entire day for the plant to readjust itself to the new geotropic condition. the record (_b_) was recommenced on the second day after inversion; the persistence of previous movement is seen in the reversed curve during the first half of the second day; but in the second half the record became true, and the third day the inverted plant gave a record which, from an external point of view, was similar to that given by the plant in the normal position. summary. a continuity is shown to exist between the thermo-geotropic response of rigid trees, stems, and leaves of plants. the diurnal record exhibits an erectile movement from thermal-noon to thermal-dawn, and a movement of fall from thermal-dawn to thermal-noon. in contrast with thermonastic movement which takes place in growing organs, thermo-geotropic movement takes place in fully grown organs including rigid trees. the thermonastic movement is independent of the direction of gravity, while in thermo-geotropic reaction, the stimulus of gravity exerts a directive action. the effect of variation of temperature on the diurnal movement is demonstrated by induced change of normal rhythm, by artificial transposition of periods of thermal inversion, and by the abolition of periodic movement under constant temperature. the effect of stimulus of gravity on the diurnal movement is demonstrated by the effect induced on holding the plant upside down. the direction of the daily movement is found to be determined by the directive action of the stimulus of gravity. l.--the after-effect of light _by_ sir j. c. bose, _assisted by_ surendra chandra das. we have considered two types of diurnal movement, one due to the predominant action of variation of light, and the other, to that of changing temperature. there are, however, other organs which are sensitive to variations both of light and of temperature. the effect of light is, generally speaking, antagonistic to that of rise of temperature; hence the resultant of the two becomes highly complex. still greater complexity is introduced by the different factors of immediate and after-effect of light. this latter phenomenon is very obscure, and i attempted to determine its characteristics by electrical method of investigation. a fuller account of after-effect of light on the response of various plant-organs and of animal retinæ will be found elsewhere.[ ] i shall here refer only to one or two characteristic results which have immediate bearing on the present subject. [ ] "comparative electro-physiology"--p. . direct stimulation under light induces excitatory reaction, which is mechanically exhibited by contraction, and electrically by induced galvanometric negativity. under continuous stimulation, the excitatory effect, either of positive curvature or of induced galvanometric negativity, is found to attain a maximum. this is often found to undergo a decline and reversal; for under continuous stimulation there is a fatigue-decline, as seen in the relaxation following normal contraction in animal muscle. the positive tropic curvature, and the induced galvanometric negativity may thus undergo a decline, and neutralisation. this neutralisation is also favoured, in certain cases, by transverse conduction of excitation to the distal side. the character of the after-effect will presently be shown to be modified by the duration of previous stimulation, the different phases of which will for convenience, be distinguished as pre-maximum, maximum and post-maximum. since stimulus simultaneously induces positive "a" and the negative "d" changes (p. ), their intensities will undergo relative variation during the continuance and cessation of stimulus. the after-effect will therefore exhibit unequal persistence of the expansive "a" and contractile "d" reaction at different phases of stimulation. electric after-effect. confining our attention to the electric response, it is found that under continued action of light the excitatory galvanometric negativity increases to a maximum, after which there is a decline, and neutralisation. figure gives the galvanographic record of the electric response of the leaf stalk of _bryophyllum_ under light; the up-curve represents increasing negativity which, after attaining a maximum, undergoes neutralisation as seen in the down-curve. i shall, with the help of the diagram given in the next figure, describe and explain the various after-effects i observed on sudden stoppage of light: before the attainment of maximum, at the maximum, and after the maximum. [illustration: fig. .--electric response of the leaf-stalk of _bryophyllum_ under continuous photic stimulation. increasing negativity represented by up-curve; neutralisation by down-curve.] [illustration: fig. .--diagrammatic representation of electric after-effect of stimulation. pre-maximal stimulation produced by stoppage of light at _a_, gives rise to continuation of previous response followed by recovery. stoppage of light at maximum _b_ gives rise to recovery to equilibrium position. stoppage of light at post-maximum _c_, gives rise to over-shooting below zero line.] _after-effect of pre-maximum stimulation: experiment ._--light is applied at arrow and stopped in different experiments at _a_, _b_, and _c_ (fig. ). continuous stimulation induces increasing galvanometric negativity; when stimulus is stopped at _a_ before the maximum, the after-effect is a persistence of excitatory galvanometric negativity, which carries the response record higher up; after a certain interval recovery takes place and the record returns to the zero line of normal equilibrium. the after-effect of pre-maximum stimulation is thus a short-lived continuance of response followed by recovery. _after-effect at maximum: experiment ._--in this the photic stimulus was continued till the attainment of maximum, when light was suddenly removed at _b_. the after-effect was no longer a persistence of responsive movement, but disappearance of negativity and recovery to zero line of equilibrium. _post-maximum after-effect: experiment ._--in this light was continued till there was a complete neutralisation, the curve of response returning to zero line; to all outer seeming the responsive indication of the tissue is the same as before excitation. but stoppage of stimulus at _c_ causes an over-shooting at a rapid rate far _below_ the zero line; and it is after a considerable period that the curve returns to the zero line of equilibrium. the condition at post-maximum _c_ is thus one of dynamic equilibrium where two opposite activities, "a" and "d," balance each other; for had the condition of the 'neutralised' tissue been exactly the same when fresh, cessation of stimulus would have kept the galvanometric spot of light at the zero position. the electric investigation described above shows that the after-effect is modified by duration of stimulation, and that: ( ) the after-effect of pre-maximum stimulation is the continuation of response in the original direction (upward, and away from zero line), followed by recovery, ( ) the after-effect of the maximum is an electric recovery towards zero position, and ( ) the after-effect of post-maximum stimulation is an over-shooting _downward_ below the zero line. tropic response under light and its after-effect. i shall now describe the after-effect of light as seen in mechanical response, and the results will be found parallel to those given by the electric response. the specimen employed is the terminal leaflet of _desmodium gyrans_, the pulvinus of which is very sensitive to light. pulvinated organs, generally speaking, exhibit a diurnal variation of turgor in consequence of which the position of equilibrium of the leaf or leaflet undergoes a periodic change. but this equilibrium position of the organ remains fairly constant for nearly two hours about midday, the variation of temperature at this period being slight. we may therefore obtain the pure effect of light by carrying out the experiment at this period, and completing it within a short time to avoid complication arising from the autonomous variation of turgor. the period of experiment of the plant may be shortened by a choice of suitable intensity of light; a given tropic effect induced by prolonged feeble light may thus be obtained by short exposure to stronger light. the source of light for the following experiment was a c.p. incandescent lamp. the intensity was increased to a suitable value by focussing light on the upper half of the pulvinus by means of a lens. the intensity was so adjusted that the maximum positive curvature was attained in the course of about minutes, and complete neutralisation after an exposure of minutes. _pre-maximum after-effect: experiment ._--light was allowed to act on the upper half of the pulvinus for two minutes and twenty seconds; this induced an up-movement _i.e._, a positive curvature. on the stoppage of light the up-movement continued for one minute and twenty seconds, after which the down-movement of recovery was completed in six minutes and twenty seconds (fig. ). the immediate after-effect is thus a movement upward, away from the zero line of equilibrium. the result is seen to be the same as the electric after-effect of pre-maximum stimulation. [illustration: fig. .--light applied at arrow, and stopped at the second arrow within a circle. after-effect of pre-maximum stimulation is continuation of positive curvature followed by recovery.] [illustration: fig. .--after-effect at maximum; recovery towards zero position of equilibrium.] [illustration: fig. .--after-effect at post-maximum is a rapid overshooting below the position of equilibrium. light was applied in all cases on upper half of pulvinus of terminal leaflet of _desmodium gyrans_.] _after-effect at maximum: experiment ._--application of light for minutes and twenty seconds induced a maximum positive curvature. stoppage of light was followed at once by recovery which was completed in about minutes (fig. ). _after-effect at post-maximum: experiment ._--as the plant was fatigued by previous experiments, a fresh specimen was taken and light was applied continuously on the upper half of the pulvinus. this gave rise first to a maximum positive curvature, subsequently diminished by transverse transmission of excitation. neutralisation took place after application of light for minutes. on the stoppage of light, there was a sudden overshooting _below_ the zero line (fig. ), and the rate of the movement on the cessation of light was nearly twice as quick as during the process of neutralisation. summary. the after-effect of light is modified by the duration of exposure to light. under continued action of light, the electric response of galvanometric negativity in plants attains a maximum after which it undergoes decline, and neutralisation. the electrical after-effect exhibits characteristic differences depending on the duration of previous exposure to light. the pre-maximal after-effect is a temporary continuation of response under light followed by recovery. the after-effect at the maximum is a recovery to the normal equilibrium. the after-effect at post-maximum is an 'overshooting' below the position of equilibrium. the immediate and after-tropic response of light are similar to the corresponding photo-electric effects. the pre-maximum after-effect is a continuation of positive tropic movement followed by recovery; the after-effect at maximum is a recovery to the normal equilibrium position of the organ. the post-maximum after-effect is an overshooting below the position of normal equilibrium. li.--the diurnal movement of the leaf of _mimosa_ _by_ sir j. c. bose. in the standard curve of nyctitropic movement under thermo-geotropism described in a previous paper, the diurnal record consisted of an up-curve from thermal-noon to thermal-dawn, and a down-curve from the thermal-dawn to thermal-noon. the responding organ, which may be an inclined stem or a horizontally spread petiole, underwent an erection during the decline of temperature, and a fall with the rise of temperature. the diurnal record of the _mimosa_ leaf appears, however, to be totally different. [illustration: fig. .--diurnal record of _mimosa_ in summer, and in winter. leaf rises from to p.m., when there is a spasmodic fall. leaf re-erects itself from p.m. to a.m. after which there is a gradual fall till p.m. with pulsations. the upper-most record gives temperature variation, up-curve representing fall of temperature and _vice versâ_.] _experiment ._--i obtained the diurnal record of _mimosa_ (fig. ) for twenty-four hours commencing at p.m. which is the thermal-noon. the summer and winter records are essentially the same; the only difference is in the greater vigour of movement exhibited by summer specimens. the diurnal movement of the leaf is very definite and characteristic; for the curves taken five years ago do not differ in any way from those obtained this year. the record may conveniently be divided into four phases. _first phase._--the leaf erects itself after the thermal-noon up to or - p.m. the temperature, it should be remembered, is undergoing a fall during this period. _second phase._--there is a sudden fall of the leaf in the evening which continues till p.m. or thereabout. _third phase._--the leaf erects itself till thermal-dawn at about a.m. next morning. _fourth phase._--there is a fall of the leaf during the rise of temperature from thermal-dawn to thermal-noon. the uniformity of the fall is, however, interrupted by one or more pulsations in the forenoon. these pulsations are more frequent in summer than in winter. it will thus be seen that the difference between the normal thermo-geotropic curve, and the curve of _mimosa_ is not so great as appears at first sight. with the exception of the spasmodic fall in the evening, the diurnal curve shows an erectile movement during lowering of temperature, and a movement of fall during rise of temperature. i shall presently explain the reason of the sudden fall in the evening, and of the multiple pulsations in the forenoon. i have, moreover, been able to trace a continuity in _mimosa_ itself, between the standard thermo-geotropic reactions and the modification of it by the action of light. the young leaves which sprout out at the beginning of spring take some time to become adjusted to the diurnal variation. there are two intermediate stages through which the leaves pass before they exhibit their characteristic diurnal curve. slow rhythmic pulsations are at first seen to occur during day and night. at the next stage the leaves exhibit the diurnal movement of fall from thermal-dawn to thermal-noon, and movement of erection from thermal-noon to thermal-dawn next morning, the record being in every way similar to the standard thermo-geotropic curve. it is only at the final stage that there is a spasmodic fall in the evening which we shall find is the characteristic after-effect of light. before proceeding further i shall refer briefly to the theory of millardet in explanation of the diurnal movement of the leaf of _mimosa_. he found that the tension in stems, and presumably its turgor, is increased with rise and decreased with fall of temperature. the movement of the lateral leaf may, therefore, be due to the induced variation of tension in the main axis. had this been the case the minimum tension would have occurred at the minimum temperature in the morning, and the leaf should have undergone a maximum fall. the maximum temperature attained in the afternoon should have, on the other hand, brought about the maximum erection. the observed facts are, however, the very opposite to these. kraus and millardet also found that light and darkness had great influence on the tension, which increases in darkness and diminishes in light. the tension at dawn may therefore be a resultant of the depressing effect of low temperature opposed by the promoting effect of darkness, the latter being the predominant factor. the erect position of _mimosa_ leaf in the morning may thus be accounted for by the resultant increase of tension of the stem. the explanation of the movements of the leaves is thus to be attributed to the variation of tension in the main axis to which the leaves are attached; this leads to the conclusion that the leaf movement should be determined in relation to the plant, and not in relation to the external stimulus. i shall, however, describe a crucial experiment in the course of this paper, which will show that the direction of stimulus of gravity has a determining influence on the periodic movement. the sudden fall of the leaf before evening is again inexplicable from the theory of periodic variation of tension. the complexity in the diurnal movement in _mimosa_ arises from the fact that there are three factors whose fluctuating effects are different at different parts of the day. the effect at any particular hour results from the algebraical summation of the following factors: ( ) the thermo-geotropic action, ( ) the immediate effect of photic stimulus and ( ) the after-effect of light. the leaf of _mimosa_ has, moreover, as i shall show, an autonomous movement of its own. i shall take up the full consideration of the subject in the following order: . _the thermo-geotropic reaction._--a crucial experiment will be described which demonstrates the effect of thermo-geotropism in the diurnal movement of the leaf of _mimosa_. . _autonomous pulsation of mimosa._--the natural pulsation of the plant is obscured by the paratonic effect of external stimuli. i shall explain the method by which the natural pulsation of the leaf becomes fully revealed. . _the immediate effect of light._--this is not constant, but will be shown to undergo a definite variation with the intensity and duration of light. a very great difficulty in the study of effect of daylight at different parts of the day is introduced on account of the absence of any reliable recorder for measurement of fluctuation of light. i shall describe a device which gives a continuous record of photic variation for the whole day. . _the after-effect of light._--the spasmodic fall of the leaf of _mimosa_ towards the evening presents the most difficult problem for solution. i shall first describe the diurnal movement of another plant which presents characteristics similar to those of _mimosa_. i shall also demonstrate the various after-effects of light at different parts of the day. these results will offer the fullest explanation of the sudden fall of the leaf towards evening. as regards the sudden fall of the leaf about evening, pfeffer regarded it as due to increased mechanical moment of the secondary petioles moving forward on the withdrawal of light. i shall, however, in the course of this paper show, that the characteristic movements occur even after complete removal of the sub-petioles. in the following experiment, carried out with the intact plant, the effect of possible variation of weight is completely eliminated. in spite of this, the diurnal movement exhibited its characteristic phases including sudden movement in the evening. the experiment i am going to describe will exhibit the diurnal curve obtained by an entirely different method, and will clearly exhibit the thermo-geotropic effect, as well as the immediate and after-effect of light. diurnal variation of geotropic torsion. i have shown that the pulvinus of _mimosa_, subjected laterally to the action of stimulus of gravity, exhibits a torsional response. when the _mimosa_ plant is laid sideways, so that the plane of separation of the upper and lower halves of the pulvinus is vertical, geotropic stimulus acts laterally on the two halves of the differentially excitable pulvinus. when the less excitable upper half is to the left of the observer (see fig. ), the responsive torsion under geotropic stimulus will be clock-wise, the less excitable upper half of the pulvinus being thereby made to face the vertical lines of gravity. when the plant is turned over to the other side (the less excitable upper half being now to the right of the observer) the induced torsion will be counter clock-wise. the response is therefore determined by the directive action of stimulus of gravity. light has also been shown to give rise to torsion (p. ). light acting in the same direction as the stimulus of gravity, _i.e._, from above, enhances the rate of torsion, the curve of response being due to the joint effects of light and gravity. [illustration: fig. .--record of diurnal variation of torsion in _mimosa_ leaf. up-curve represents increase and down-curve decrease of geotropic torsion.] _experiment ._--i obtained hours' record of variation of torsional response of _mimosa_, commencing with thermal-noon at p.m. it is to be borne in mind that increase of torsion indicates increase of geotropic action, just as the erectile movement of the leaf in the normal position indicates the enhanced geotropic effect. inspection of figure shows that the fall of temperature after thermal-noon was attended by increase of torsion. the curve went up till about p.m., as in the ordinary record of _mimosa_. the torsion suddenly decreased with the rapid diminution of light after p.m. the torsion then increased with falling temperature from p.m. till thermal-dawn next morning. after a.m. there is a continuous diminution of torsion till p.m. we may now summarise the diurnal variation of torsion exhibited by _mimosa_. the torsion undergoes a periodic increase during the fall of temperature from afternoon till next morning, and a diminution during rising temperature from morning till afternoon. a sudden diminution of torsion occurs at about p.m. due to the disappearance of light. the torsional record is, to all intents and purposes, a replica of the record of periodic up and down movements of the leaf. this method of torsion has several advantages over the ordinary method. first, the petiole being supported by the loop of wire, the weight of the leaf has no effect on the curve of response. in the second place, the periodic variation of turgor of the stem, as suggested by millardet, will not in any way affect the record. variation of turgor can only cause a swing to and fro, in a direction perpendicular to the plane which divides the pulvinus into upper and lower halves; it can in no way induce a torsional movement, or a variation of the rate of that movement. _the automatic pulsation of the leaf of mimosa._--the occurrence of the pulsatory response in the morning record of _mimosa_ led me to search for multiple activity in the response of the pulvinus. i have in my previous investigation on the electric response of _mimosa_ obtained multiple series of responses to a single strong stimulus. blackman and paine have recently shown that an isolated pulvinus of _mimosa_ exhibit multiple mechanical twitches under excitation.[ ] [ ] blackman and paine--"annals of botany" january . even under normal conditions, the sprouting young leaves in march, as already stated, exhibit automatic pulsations throughout the day and night; in older leaves tuned to diurnal periodic movements, these natural pulsations are more or less suppressed. but in the forenoon, several pulsations are exhibited even by the old leaves. the question may now be asked: why should the pulsations occur preferably in the morning? in connection with this i shall refer to the suppression of the pulsatory activity of _desmodium gyrans_ when the leaflet was pulled up by the action of light (cf. fig. ). the leaf of _mimosa_ executes a very rapid movement of erection at night, and the natural pulsations are thereby rendered very inconspicuous. these pulsations may, however, be found in the night record of young leaves. the general occurrence of pulsations in the forenoon is probably due to the fact that the resultant force which causes the down-movement is at the time relatively feeble--the operative factors being: ( ) the action of the rising temperature which induces down-movement, and ( ) the action of light which in the forenoon opposes this movement. it will thus be seen that the forces in operation in the forenoon are more or less in a state of balance, hence conditions for exhibition of natural pulsations are more favourable in the morning than in other parts of the day. _experiment ._--i next tried to discover conditions under which the plant would exhibit its normal rhythmic activity during the whole course of hours. the external stimuli which may interfere with the exhibition of its automatic pulsations are those due to gravity and light. they act most effectively on the pulvinus, when that organ is more or less horizontal and therefore at right angles to the direction of the incident stimulus; they act least effectively on the pulvinus when the organ is parallel to the direction of the external force. this latter condition may be secured by holding the plant upside down, when the pulvinus bends up and the leaf becomes erect and almost parallel to the vertical lines of gravity and to vertical light from above. the leaf, now relatively free from the effects of external stimulus, was found to exhibit its autonomous pulsations for more than seven days. i reproduce two sets of records (fig. ) for hours each, obtained on the first and the third day. the average period of a single pulsation is slightly less than six hours; but this is likely to be modified by the age of the specimen and the temperature of the environment. one of the factors that determines the diurnal movement of the leaf is the immediate and after-effect of light. the movement under the action of light, is modified by the intensity and duration of illumination. the experimental investigation of the subject offers many difficulties, principally owing to the absence of any reliable indicator for the varying intensity of light during the course of the day. [illustration: fig. .--continuous record of automatic pulsation of _mimosa_ leaf. the two series are for the first and the third day.] the photometric recorder. this difficulty i have been able to overcome by the automatic device for continuous record of the variation of light. the electric resistance of a selenium cell undergoes diminution with the intensity of light that falls on it. the photo-sensitive cell was made the fourth arm of a wheatstone bridge, the resistance of the cell being exactly balanced when the shutter of the sensitive cell was closed. the selenium receiver was pointed upwards against the sky. precaution was taken that it was protected from the direct action of sunlight. on opening the shutter a deflection of the index of a sensitive galvanometer was produced, and the deflection increased with increasing intensity of diffuse skylight. the special difficulty was in securing automatic record of the galvanometer deflections. this was obtained by a special contrivance of an oscillating smoked glass plate, the up and down oscillation being at intervals of minutes. a detailed account of this apparatus will, with its possibilities for meteorology, be given in a future paper. i reproduce the record obtained in my greenhouse on the th march ( ), which gives a general idea of the variation of the light from morning to evening (fig. ). the record shows that the light began to be perceptible at - a.m., and that the intensity increased rapidly and continuously till it reached a climax at noon, after which it began to decline slowly. the decline of intensity of light was very abrupt after p.m., the effect being reduced to zero at - p.m. [illustration: fig. .--photometric record showing variation of intensity of light from morning to evening. successive dots are at intervals of minutes.] the effect of direct light. under natural conditions, the leaf of _mimosa_ is acted on by light from above, and it is generally supposed that the pulvinus is positively phototropic, that is to say, it curves upwards till the leaf is placed at right angles to the direction of light. my investigations show, however, that the phototropic effects vary from positive to negative through an intermediate stage of neutralisation, these depending on the intensity and duration of exposure. when light acts continuously on the upper half of the pulvinus, there follows the following sequences of reaction: ( ) the leaf is at first erected by the contraction of the upper half of the pulvinus due to direct action of light acting from above. ( ) under continuous stimulation of the upper half of the pulvinus by light, the excitation is slowly conducted to the lower half across the pulvinus. in consequence of this transmitted excitation, the lower half begins to contract and thus neutralises the first effect of erection. the upper half of the pulvinus is less contractile than the lower half, and the neutralisation is due to the full contraction of the upper half antagonised by slight contraction of the lower half. the horizontal position of the leaf under light is therefore the result of balance of the two antagonistic reactions. if the incident light be very strong, the more intense transmitted excitation induces greater contraction of the lower half, and bring about a resultant down-movement (_cf._ p. ). let us consider the effect of daily variation of light on _mimosa_; we have here to take account both of intensity and duration. the intensity of light is seen to undergo a continuous increase which reaches a climax at noon; it then begins to decline slowly and the diminution of intensity of light is very abrupt after p.m. under natural conditions the following phototropic effects are observed during the course of the day: light acting from above induces an up-movement of the leaf; but this is opposed by the thermo-geotropic fall of the leaf due to rise of temperature. as the two opposing effects are nearly balanced, any fluctuation of the relative intensity of the two gives rise to the pulsatory movements often seen in the forenoon; the _mimosa_ leaf has moreover an autonomous movement of its own. under continued action of light neutralisation begins to take place after p.m. (_cf._ _expt._ ). later in the day the phototropic effect may become negative; reversal into this negative takes place under the joint action of intensity and duration of light; it takes place earlier under strong, and later under feeble, light. the evening spasmodic fall of the leaf. i shall now deal with the difficult problem of the sudden fall of the leaf after p.m. pfeffer regarded this sudden fall in the evening as due to the increased mechanical moment of the secondary petioles moving forward on the withdrawal of light. but the following experiment shows that the increased mechanical moment cannot be the true explanation of the fall. [illustration: fig. .--record of leaf of _mimosa_ after amputation of sub-petioles. the leaf fell up to - p.m., and rose till p.m., after which there is a spasmodic fall. (successive dots at intervals of minutes.)] _diurnal movement of the amputated petiole: experiment ._--in my present experiment the possibility of variation of mechanical movement was obviated by cutting off the end of the petiole, which carried the sub-petioles. the cut end was coated with collodion flexile to prevent evaporation. the intense stimulus caused by amputation induced the excitatory fall of the leaf, but it recovered its normal activity after a period of three hours or so. the diurnal record of the leaf was commenced shortly after p.m.; it will be noticed that the leaf, though deprived of the weight of its sub-petioles, still exhibited a sudden fall at about p.m. (fig. ). the fall of the leaf cannot therefore be due to increased mechanical moment. the effect of weight was, moreover, eliminated in torsional response (_expt._ ). in spite of this the leaf exhibited a sudden movement after p.m. pfeffer has in his 'entstehung der schlafbewegung' ( ) offered another explanation of the sudden fall of the leaf of _mimosa_. this, according to him, is not the direct effect of diminished intensity of light in the evening, but is due to the release of the leaf from the phototropic action of light, which, so long as it is sufficiently intense, holds the leaf in the normal position with its upper surface at right angles to the incident rays. thus, on being set free from the strong action of light, the leaf moves in accordance with the preceding condition of tension; and as this is low the leaf falls, soon to rise again as the tension increases in prolonged darkness. the above explanation presupposes: ( ) that the tension was continuously decreasing till the evening, and ( ) that as soon as the phototropic restraint which held the leaf up was removed it fell down in accordance with the prevailing diminished tension. referring to the first point, an inspection of the diurnal curve of _mimosa_ shows that the leaf had no natural tendency to fall towards the evening. there was on the contrary a movement of erection, on account of fall of temperature after the thermal-noon (fig. ). as the natural tendency of the leaf was to erect itself, the removal of phototropic restraint cannot therefore induce a movement of fall. as regards the factor of light, the effect in the afternoon is a down-movement on account of transverse conduction of excitation; but the leaf is prevented from exhibiting this down-movement by the thermo-geotropic up-movement due to fall of temperature after the thermal noon. i shall presently describe experiments on the pure effect of light, which will show that the action of continued photic stimulus induces a down-movement of the leaf in the afternoon. the results of experiments that have been described show that the sudden fall of the leaf in the evening could not be due to: ( ) increased mechanical moment, ( ) the natural tendency of the leaf to fall towards evening against phototropic action by which the leaf is held up. the above explanations having proved unsatisfactory we have to search for other factors to account for the fall of the leaf on the cessation of light. in this connection i was struck by the extraordinary similarity of the diurnal curve of the petiole of _cassia alata_ with that of _mimosa_. [illustration: fig. .--diurnal record of _cassia_ leaf. note similarity with diurnal record of _mimosa_.] diurnal curve of the petiole of _cassia alata_. _experiment _.--the leaf of _cassia_ exhibits as in the leaf of _mimosa_ a slight erectile movement after the thermal-noon at p.m., there is next a sudden fall after p.m., which continues about p.m.; after this the leaf exhibits a continuous rise with the fall of temperature, till the climax is reached about a.m. in the morning; the leaf then undergoes a fall with rise of temperature, there being a number of pulsatory movements in the forenoon, evidently due to unstable balance under the opposing effects of light and of rise of temperature (fig. ). the reason of this similarity between the records of _cassia_ and _mimosa_ was found in the fact: ( ) that the main pulvinus of the leaf of _cassia_ is, like the pulvinus of _mimosa_, differentially excitable, the lower half being more excitable than the upper. this is demonstrated by sending a diffuse electric shock through the leaf, the response being by a fall of the leaf due to the greater contraction of the lower half of the pulvinus. the leaf recovered after an interval of minutes, the curve of response being similar to that of _mimosa_. the only difference between the two organs is in the lesser excitability of the pulvinus of _cassia_, on account of which a greater intensity of shock is necessary for producing the responsive fall. ( ) the responses to light are the same in both as will be seen in the following experiment. [illustration: fig. .--post-maximum after-effect of light on response of leaf of _cassia_. there is an over-shooting on cessation of light at arrow within a circle.] _experiment ._--in _cassia_, as in _mimosa_, light acting from above induces at first an erectile movement which reaches a maximum; after this there is a neutralisation and reversal. in the record given in figure , light from a small arc lamp acting on the upper half of the pulvinus for minutes gave the maximum positive curvature; this was completely neutralised by further exposure to light for minutes. light was cut off at neutralisation and there was a sudden fall beyond the equilibrium position, which was more rapid than the movement under light. the after-effect of prolonged exposure is thus an 'over-shooting' beyond the normal position of equilibrium. response of _mimosa_ to darkness at different parts of the day. i now tried the effect of darkness on the movement of _mimosa_, and was surprised to find that while artificial darkness caused a sudden fall of the leaf in the afternoon, it had no such effect in the forenoon. _experiment ._--successive records were taken of the effect of artificial darkness for two hours, alternating with exposure to light for two hours. the plant was subjected to darkness by placing a piece of black cloth over the glass cover from to p.m., it was exposed to light from to p.m. and darkened once more from to p.m. the record given in figure shows that the leaf had been moving upwards under the action of light (positive phototropism); darkness commenced at the point marked with a thick dot. _the after-effect on the stoppage of light is seen to be in the same direction as under light_; this persisted for ten minutes followed by recovery which was complete by p.m., as seen in the horizontal character of the curve. on restoration of light (at the point marked with the second thick dot) the leaf moved upwards till the positive phototropic movement attained a maximum in the course of an hour and twenty minutes, after which neutralisation set in, and by p.m. the positive phototropic effect had become partially neutralised. artificial darkness at the third thick dot caused a rapid down-movement which overshot the position of equilibrium. the difference of after-effect in the forenoon and in the afternoon lies in the fact that in the first case it was the pre-maximum after-effect; but in the second case the after-effect was post-maximum. i have already shown in the previous chapter that the pre-maximum after-effect of light is a short-lived movement in the same direction as under light, while post-maximum after-effect was a rapid over-shooting downwards beyond the equilibrium position. these characteristics are also found in the after-effects of light in _mimosa_. [illustration: fig. .--effect of periodic alternation of light l, and of darkness d, on the response of _mimosa_ leaf. the first darkness causes the pre-maximal after-effect of slight erection followed by recovery. the subsequent application of light from to p.m. caused erectile movement followed by partial neutralisation by p.m. stoppage of light at the third thick dot caused a sudden fall of leaf _below_ the position of equilibrium.] the responses of _mimosa_ on the cessation of light described above took place in the course of experiments which lasted for more than six hours. objection may be raised that during this long period the temperature variation must have produced certain effects on the response. in order to meet this difficulty, i carried out the following experiments which were completed in a relatively short time. i have already explained how the period of experiment could be shortened by suitable increase of the intensity of light. the experiment was commenced inside a room at noon and completed by p.m.; the temperature variation during this period was less than °c. [illustration: fig. .--pre-maximum after-effect of light in _mimosa_. fig. .--after-effect at maximum. fig. .--post-maximum after-effect exhibiting an 'over-shooting' below position of equilibrium. in the above records light was applied at arrow, and stopped at the second arrow enclosed in a circle.] _after-effect at pre-maximum: experiment ._--light from an c.p. incandescent lamp was focussed on the upper half of the pulvinus of _mimosa_ for minutes, after which the light was turned off. the after-effect was a persistence of previous movement followed by recovery (fig. ). _after-effect at maximum: experiment ._--continued action of light for minutes induced maximum positive curvature as seen in the upper part of the curve becoming horizontal. on the stoppage of light, there was a recovery to the original position of equilibrium (fig. ). _after-effect at post-maximum: experiment ._--a fresh specimen of plant was taken for this experiment; it exhibited maximum positive curvature after an exposure of minutes; continuation of light for a further period of minutes produced complete neutralisation. stoppage of light at this point, gave rise to a rapid down-movement (fig. ) below the equilibrium position. the experiments that have been described show that the rapid fall of the leaf of _mimosa_ in the afternoon is due to 'over-shooting' which is the after-effect of prolonged action of light. we are now in a position to give a full explanation of the different phases of diurnal movement of the leaf of _mimosa_. the fall of the leaf commences from its highest position at thermal-dawn at a.m. in the morning and continued till the thermal-noon at p.m. this is the thermo-geotropic reaction due to rise of temperature. in the forenoon the phototropic action is positive, and the fall of the leaf, due to rise of temperature, is brought about in opposition to the action of light. the temperature begins to fall after p.m. and the leaf begins to erect itself, and in the absence of any disturbing factor would have continued its up-movement till next morning. but light undergoes a rapid diminution after p.m. and the after-effect of light is an 'over-shooting' in a downward direction. this fall continues till about p.m., after which the leaf erects itself under thermo-geotropic action of falling temperature, the maximum erection being attained at the thermal-dawn at about a.m. summary. the very complex type of nyctitropic movement of the primary petiole of _mimosa_ results from the combined effects of thermo-geotropism and phototropism. with the exception of a small portion of the curve in the evening, the diurnal curve of _mimosa_ is similar to the standard thermo-geotropic curve, where the leaf exhibits an erectile movement from thermal-noon to thermal-dawn, and a fall from thermal-dawn to thermal-noon. investigations show that the leaf of _mimosa_ has an autonomous movement of its own, which persists throughout twenty-four hours. the torsional response of _mimosa_ exhibits a diurnal variation similar to that exhibited by the leaf in normal position. the leaf of _cassia alata_ exhibits a diurnal movement of the same type as that of _mimosa_. the spasmodic fall of the leaf towards evening is not due to the increased mechanical moment caused by the forward position of the sub-petioles. the record of the leaf with amputated sub-petioles exhibits the sudden fall in the evening as that of the intact leaf. the evening fall of the leaf of _mimosa_ is shown to be due to the post-maximum after-effect of light, which causes an 'over-shooting', the leaf undergoing a fall below the position of equilibrium. b. s. press-- - - -- j-- --r. d's. +--------------------------------------------------+ | transcriber's note: | | | | words with bold characters are enclosed between | | (+) plus signs and words in italics are enclosed | | between (_) underlines. | +--------------------------------------------------+ [illustration: a southern michigan woodlot] university bulletin new series, september, vol. xvii, no. university of michigan botanical garden and arboretum michigan trees a handbook of the native and most important introduced species _by_ charles herbert otis, formerly curator with an introduction by george plumer burns, formerly director [illustration] ann arbor published by the regents copyright, by the regents of the university of michigan third edition, revised the ann arbor press, printers ann arbor, mich. table of contents. page a southern michigan woodlot--_frontispiece_. map of michigan (showing details mentioned in the bulletin) iv introduction v acknowledgments vii how to study the trees ix artificial keys, how made and used xviii summer key to the genera xxi winter key to the genera xxvii manual of trees (description of species, with summer and winter keys to the species) xxxiii glossary index to the artificial keys index to the trees [illustration: map of michigan showing only locations mentioned in the manual] introduction the idea of a bulletin on michigan trees was first suggested by prof. volney m. spalding. it was thought that a bulletin devoted entirely to the study of certain phases of tree life in michigan would stimulate interest in the study of our trees, and influence many more people to associate themselves with the growing number of tree lovers and with the supporters of the movement for better forest conditions in the state. the bulletin has been under consideration for a number of years and much of the material given herein has been used in the classes in forest botany at the university of michigan. it remained, however, for the present curator of the botanical garden and arboretum to get the material into shape for publication, and the present bulletin is the result of his industry and perseverance. the preparation of the drawings and manuscript has been made by him in connection with his work in the garden. the distinctive feature of the bulletin lies in its keys. the keys commonly published are based upon characters which are present but a short time during the year, or which can be used only by an advanced student of botany. this bulletin presents two keys. one is based upon characters which are present all summer; the other uses the winter characters as a basis for identification. by the use of the keys any person should be able to name and learn the characteristics of the trees of michigan at any time of the year. these keys should prove of special value to our students in the public schools, to members of nature study clubs, and to the students in the forestry schools of the state. the order of arrangement and the nomenclature are essentially those of "gray's new manual of botany." following a tendency which is steadily gaining favor, all species names are printed with a small letter, regardless of their origin. for the convenience of the general reader, other scientific names which are found in botanical manuals _in common use_ are printed in parenthesis. in the case of exotics which are not included in the manual, other authorities have been followed. sudworth's "check list of the forest trees of the united states" (u. s. dept. agr., div. forestry, bul. ) is in most cases authority for the common names. they are names appearing in common use today in some part of the state. the first name given is that recommended by sudworth for general use. the drawings have been made from living or herbarium material and are original. they are accurately drawn to a scale, which is given in each case. in their preparation the author has endeavored to call attention to the salient characters. in the drawings of buds and twigs certain points, bundle-scars, etc., have been emphasized more than is natural. in the descriptions the attempt has been made to bring out those points of similarity and contrast which are most useful for identification. as the bulletin is not written especially for technical students of botany, the author thought best to use as few technical terms as possible in the descriptions. in some cases it was impossible to avoid such terms, but with the help of the glossary the meaning can be easily understood. any person desiring to get a more complete knowledge of trees should consult one of the larger manuals. the arrangement used for the illustration and discussion of each single tree makes it possible for the student to compare the drawings with the description without turning a page. it is believed that with the aid of the drawings and descriptions given in this bulletin any person will be able to name the trees which grow in his yard, park, or woodlot. if, however, any difficulty is found in naming the trees, the curator will be glad to name any specimens which may be mailed to him. he would be glad to get in touch with persons interested in michigan trees and to receive any additional information relating to the subject. data concerning the distribution of the trees in the state, and the addition of other michigan trees to the present list would be of especial value. george plumer burns. acknowledgments grateful acknowledgment is hereby made to miss sarah phelps, who has done most of the inking in and given life to the author's pencil-drawings; to mr. j. h. ehlers for his valuable assistance in the preparation of many of the drawings and in the collection of working material; to prof. henri hus, who has read all of the proof and who has at various times rendered valuable assistance; to prof. f. c. newcombe and to prof. ernst bessey for the loan of sheets, from the herbariums of the university of michigan and michigan agricultural college; and especially to prof. geo. p. burns in whose inspiration this bulletin had its inception and under whose direction the work has progressed to completion. chas. h. otis. how to study the trees people are everywhere associated with trees. trees give cooling shade in our parks and dooryards and along our highways; they lend their beauty to the landscape and relieve it of monotony; they yield many kinds of fruits, some of which furnish man and the animals of the forest with food; and they furnish vast quantities of lumber for a multitude of uses. how important it is, then, that every person, whether school-child or grown-up, should become acquainted with our trees. most people know a few of our commonest trees, but are ignorant of the great wealth of tree forms about them. some who may have wished to go further have been hindered for lack of a teacher or dismayed by the very multitude of manuals to which they have had access. in beginning a study of the trees the student should start on a solid foundation, eliminating the uncertainties and the errors which no doubt have appeared and retaining only the established facts. once started he should go slowly, assimilating each new discovery before seeking another. he should begin with the trees nearest home, and, as he gradually grows to know these in all their aspects, should extend his trips afield. not only should he be able to name the trees when they are fully clothed in their summer dress, but he should as readily know these same trees when the leaves have fallen and only the bare branches stand silhouetted against the sky. then, and only then, will he derive the utmost satisfaction from his efforts. the characters which are used in studying the trees are habit, leaves, flowers, fruit, buds, bark, distribution and habitat. these will be discussed briefly in the next few pages, the same order that is used in the detailed descriptions of species being maintained in the present discussion. a few drawings will also be added to make clear certain points and to show comparative forms. name.--every tree has one or several common names and a scientific or latin name. some of these common names are merely local, others have a more extended use. some few names apply to totally different species. thus, cottonwood in michigan is _populus deltoides_, in idaho and colorado _populus angustifolia_, in california _populus fremontii_ and in kentucky _tilia heterophylla_. while it should not be forgotten that in common speech it is proper as well as convenient to call trees by their common names, yet, in view of the many uncertainties pertaining to their use, a scientific name is at times absolutely essential to the clear understanding of what is meant. latin is the language in universal use by all scientists. no longer used by any civilized nation, it has become a dead language and consequently never changes. its vocabulary and its constructions will a thousand years hence be the same as they are today. being in universal use among scientists of all nationalities no confusion arises from the use of a latin word. the oak in germany is known as _eiche_, in france as _chêne_ and in spain as _roble_, but the latin word _quercus_ is the same for all these countries. a scientific name as applied to trees consists of at least two parts, as _quercus alba_; the first named is the genus and is always written with a capital letter, the second is the species and is written with a small letter, the two names constituting the briefest possible description of the particular tree. it is customary to add to these the name or an abbreviation of the name of the person who first gave the name to the tree, as _quercus alba l._, the abbreviation standing for linnaeus. sometimes a third name is used, as _acer saccharum nigrum_, referring in this case to a variety of the ordinary sugar maple. genera which bear a relationship to each other are placed in the same family, the family name always having the characteristic ending--_aceae_. related families are again grouped into orders, with the characteristic ending--_ales_. orders are in like manner arranged into larger groups, called classes, and the latter into still larger groups, divisions, etc., each with its characteristic ending. thus, _acer saccharum nigrum_ (_michx. f._) _britt_. is classified as follows: division--spermatophyta subdivision--angiospermae class--dicotyledoneae order--sapindales family--aceraceae genus--acer species--saccharum variety--nigrum. habit.--habit, or the general appearance of a plant, is an important character of identification, especially as we become more and more familiar with the trees. two main types are recognized, based on the manner of branching of the trunk, the upright and the spreading. in the one the trunk extends straight upwards without dividing, as is typical in most of the conifers, and in the other the trunk divides to form several large branches and the broad, spreading crown of most of our broad-leaf trees. the crown in either case may be regular in outline or very irregular, straggling or straight-limbed. moreover, the tree growing in the open, where there is no crowding and there is plenty of light, may differ very greatly from the tree in the forest, where the struggle for existence becomes very keen. a short, thick trunk and low, spreading, many-branched crown characterizes the tree in the open, whereas the forest tree has a long, slender, clean trunk and a narrow crown of few branches. in the descriptions of trees in this bulletin, unless otherwise stated, the habit in the open is the one given. again, the tree may have been injured by storm or insect at some period of its growth and its natural symmetry destroyed. moreover, the age of a tree has a great influence on its outline, young trees being generally narrow and more or less conical, broadening out as they become older. we may say, then, that each tree has an individuality of its own, little eccentricities similar to those that make people different from one another. and just as we have little difficulty in recognizing our friends at a distance by some peculiarity of walk or action, so are we able to recognize a great many trees at a distance by some peculiarity of form or habit. [illustration: i. leaf outlines lanceolate. ovate. heart-shaped. halberd-shaped. linear. elliptical. oblong. oval. orbicular. oblanceolate. spatulate. obovate.] [illustration: ii. leaf tips acuminate. acute. obtuse. emarginate. mucronate.] leaves.--with the advent of spring the buds of our broad-leaf trees swell and burst and the leaves come forth and clothe the trees with mantles of green, hiding the branches which have been bare through the cold winter months. the evergreens, too, take on new color and begin a new period of growth. it is the leaves which the beginner finds most interesting and in which he finds a ready means of identification. it must be remembered, however, that leaves vary greatly in size and shape and general appearance. how large are the leaves on a flourishing sprout and how small on a stunted tree of the same species growing near by, but under adverse circumstances. how different are the leaves of the big white oak standing in the yard; they are hardly lobed on the lowermost branches, while higher up they are deeply cut. yet, in spite of the many modifications that leaves undergo, the leaves of any one species have certain rather constant characters which are found in all forms, and the student will have little difficulty in selecting and recognizing typical leaves. [illustration: iii. leaf margins serrate. doubly serrate. crenate. undulate. sinuate. lobed. dentate.] leaves are either persistent, as in most of our conifers, which stay green all winter, or they turn various colors with the frost and fall early in autumn; often they hang dead and lifeless far into the winter. the points about leaves which we are accustomed to consider are the position or arrangement of the leaves on the branch, whether simple or compound, size, shape, texture, color, amount and character of pubescence, character of the margin, venation, etc. the following diagrams will serve to illustrate some of the ordinary forms and shapes of leaves, their margins, etc. [illustration: iv. parts of a flower perfect flower. stamen. pistil. a. sepal (calyx). b. petal (corolla). c. stamen. d. pistil. e. anther. f. filament. g. stigma. h. style. i. ovary.] flowers.--every tree when old enough bears flowers in its proper season. some of these, as the catalpas, locusts and horse-chestnuts are very showy, others, like the oaks and hickories, are comparatively inconspicuous; some are brilliantly colored, others are of the same color as the leaves. nevertheless, the flowers are very accurate means of classification, and their only drawback is that they last for such a short period of time each year. [illustration: v. types of inflorescences spike. raceme. panicle. corymb. umbel. cyme.] just as we have male and female in the animal world, so we have male and female in the plant world. a few of our trees, as the locust, basswood and cherries have perfect flowers, bearing both stamens and pistil. the great majority, however, have unisexual flowers, bearing stamens or pistils, but not both. when both male and female flowers are found on the same tree, the flowers are said to be monoecious, and when male flowers occur on one tree and the female on a different tree, the flowers are said to be dioecious. the cottonwood is dioecious, and the little seeds are surrounded by a tuft of long, white hairs which enables the wind to carry them to considerable distances from the parent tree, to the disgust of people living within range. many cities forbid the planting of cottonwood on account of the "cotton." since in some cases it is desirable to plant this rapid-growing tree, as in cities burning large amounts of soft coal, it is a distinct advantage to know that male trees are lacking in the objectionable "cotton" and may be planted safely. before trees can produce fruit their flowers must be fertilized, i.e., pollen from the anther of a stamen must come in contact with the stigma of a pistil. some flowers are self-fertilized, others are cross-fertilized. for a long time it was not known how fertilization was accomplished, but now we know that many insects, like the nectar-loving bees and butterflies, and in other cases the wind transport the pollen from one flower to another, often miles being traversed before the right kind of flower or a flower in the right stage of development is found. and many are the modifications of flowers to insure this transference of pollen. fruit.--so numerous and so varied are the forms of tree fruits that it would only be confusing to enumerate their various characters. some fruits, as the achenes of the poplars and willows, are so small and light that they are carried long distances by the wind; others, like the hickory nuts and walnuts, are too heavy to be wind-blown. many fruits are of considerable economic and commercial importance and are gathered and marketed on a large scale; such are the hickory nuts, walnuts, chestnuts, etc. some, not esteemed by man, form an important article of diet for the birds and small animals of the forest. unfortunately, there are a number of limitations to the usefulness of fruit for identification purposes. some trees require years to mature their fruit. many trees, while producing an abundance of fruit at certain intervals, bear none at all or only very small and uncertain quantities between the years of abundance. again, in the case of dioecious trees, only the female or pistillate bear fruit. notwithstanding these limitations tree fruits are a very valuable aid to the student, and he should always search closely for evidences of their presence and character. [illustration: vi. winter twig of red mulberry a. tip-scar. b. lateral bud. c. leaf-scar. d. stipule-scars.] winter-buds.--buds, with their accompanying leaf-and stipule-scars form the basis of tree identification in winter. the size, color, position with reference to the twig, number and arrangement and character of bud-scales, etc., are all characters of the greatest value in winter determinations. buds are either terminal or lateral, depending on their position on the twig. a lateral bud is one situated on the side of a twig in the axil of a leaf-scar. a terminal bud is one situated at the end of a twig, where it is ready to continue the growth of the twig the following spring. in the keys an important consideration is the presence or absence of the terminal bud. inasmuch as the determination of this point gives the beginner some trouble at first, it is hoped that the accompanying diagrams and explanatory remarks will make the distinction clear. [illustration: vii. winter twig of black walnut a. terminal bud. b. lateral bud. c. leaf-scar. d. bundle-scars. e. pith.] in the elms, willows, basswood and many other species the terminal bud and a small portion of the tip of the twig dies and drops off in late autumn, leaving a small scar at the end of the twig (a, fig. vi). the presence of this tip-scar indicates that the terminal bud is absent. often a lateral bud will be found very close to the tip-scar (b, fig. vi), which, bending into line with the twig, makes it appear terminal. however, the presence of a leaf-scar immediately below it shows it to be a lateral bud (c, fig. vi). in some large twigs the eye unaided will serve to find the tip-scar, but with the smaller twigs a hand-lens is necessary. the arrangement, size and shape of the leaf-scars (c, fig. vii) are important factors in identification by winter characters. within the leaf-scars are one or more dots (d, fig. vii), sometimes quite inconspicuous, often very prominent. these are the scars left by the fibro-vascular bundles which run through the petiole into the blade of the leaf, and are designated as bundle-scars. there may be only one as in sassafras and hackberry, two as in ginkgo, three as in the poplars and cherries, or many; and they may be arranged in a u- or v-shaped line, or they may be without definite order. often stipule-scars (d, fig. vi) occur on either side of the leaf-scar; these are scars left by the fall of a pair of small leaflets called stipules and located at the base of the leaves, and their form varies according to the form of the stipules which made them. bark.--the woodsman uses the bark of a tree more than any other character in distinguishing the trees about him, and he is often able to use this character alone with much accuracy at great distances. however, the appearance of bark differs so greatly with the age of the tree and with its environment that it is difficult to describe it accurately. some characters are distinctive, however, and serve as a ready means of identification; such characters are the peeling of the sycamore and paper birch, the "shagging" of the shagbark hickory, the spicy taste of sassafras bark and the mucilaginous inner bark of the slippery elm. wood.--it is not expected that the information given under this heading will be of any particular value in identifying living trees. often, however, the student finds himself in the midst of felling operations, when the information concerning the wood is of considerable value. distribution and habitat.--to a lesser extent do distribution and habitat of a species aid in the identification of a tree. it is a distinct aid to know that the chestnut is native in south-eastern michigan only and that the mountain ash does not extend south of ludington. so too, knowing the water-loving habit of the swamp white oak, we would not expect to find this same tree flourishing on the top of a hard, dry hill. the characters, then, which are used to identify the trees about us are many. not all will be available at any one time, not all have been mentioned in the foregoing pages nor in the manual. it is our opinion, however, that the student will not be greatly handicapped by this lack of detail, but rather that he will take great interest and genuine pleasure in discovering these things for himself. artificial keys, how made and used an artificial key is a scheme for easily and quickly identifying any unknown object under consideration. this bulletin being devoted to the trees of michigan, the keys to be found herein are intended to make it possible for any person, even if his botanical training be meager, to determine what trees grow about any home or farm, city park or woodlot in the state. with certain modifications and limitations they may prove useful in other localities as well. since many people are unfamiliar with the construction and use of keys for identification, it will be the purpose of the following paragraphs to briefly outline the principles of construction and the manner of using the keys to be found here. the keys are based on the most striking similarities and differences which the various parts of trees--twigs, buds, leaves, etc.--show, i. e., those characters which stand out in bold relief, which catch the eye at first sight. two alternatives are presented, either a character _is_ or _is not_ present; these are the only choices possible. indeed, further divisions are unnecessary and only lead to confusion and possible oversight. the two diametrically opposed characters are said to be coördinate in rank. in the keys they are preceded by the same letter or letters (_a_ and _aa_ or _b_ and _bb,_ etc.) and are set at the same distance from the left margin of the page. often _a_ and _aa,_ or _b_ and _bb_ are further divisible into other groups; in every case the characters are opposed (a positive and a negative) and are given coördinate rank. it is desirable for mechanical reasons to divide the main divisions of the key more or less evenly, but this is not always feasible, nor should it be religiously adhered to. suppose as a concrete example that it is desired to construct a key to distinguish five houses in a city block. three of these are of wood construction, two are of brick, and of the two wooden houses one is painted white and one brown. we may classify them as follows: a. houses wood. b. body paint brown. _smith's house_ bb. body paint white. c. trimmings green color. _jones' house_ cc. trimmings slate color. _brown's house_ aa. houses brick. b. roof gray slate. _johnson's house_ bb. roof red tile. _public library_ it is desirable in many cases to add other characters to lessen the liability of confusion, where the characters chosen are not distinct, and to show the user that he is on the right track. thus, in the example just given, green color and slate color under certain defects of the eye, a coating of dust or deficiencies of the light might be confused, under which circumstances we would be justified in adding to the above statements without the criticism of description being made. thus: bb. c. trimmings green color; gable roof. _jones' house_ cc. trimmings slate color; mansard roof. _brown's house_ the keys in this bulletin are constructed on the above principles. they are not in all cases as simple as the illustration just used, but if the reader has mastered the house illustration he will have little or no trouble with the larger keys. suppose that (during a summer stroll) you come across a large tree with rough, hard bark and thin, lobed leaves which you do not know. turning to the _summer key to the genera_ you find first _a. leaves simple_, and contrasted with this _aa. leaves compound._ obviously the leaf is simple and the genus sought lies in that portion of the key preceding _aa_, i.e., under _a._ _b_ and _bb_ under _a_ give you a choice between _leaves needle-shaped_, _awl-shaped_, _strap-shaped_ or _scale-like_ and _leaves broad and flat_. the leaf being broad and flat you pass to _c_ and _cc_ under _bb_. here you have a choice between _leaves alternate or clustered_ and _leaves opposite or whorled_. inspection shows the arrangement to be opposite, and you know that the genus sought lies in that portion of the key between _cc_ and _aa_. passing to _d_ and _dd_ under _cc_ gives the choice between _margin of leaves entire or only slightly undulate_ and _margin of leaves serrate to lobed_. the leaf is deeply lobed. it is then either a _viburnum_ or an _acer_, and the fact that the leaf-margin is lobed and not finely serrate brings the chase down to _acer_. before going further go back over the key and make careful note of the particular characters which were used to separate this genus from the other genera and try to fix these in mind. this done, turn to the page indicated, where you will find a _summer key to the species of acer_. you run through this key in the same manner that you did the genus key. if you have been careful in your search you will finally stop at _acer saccharum_. once more pause and go back over this key and try to fix in mind the characters which were used to separate the various species, especially the difference between your tree and _acer platanoides_, which it so closely resembles. this done, turn to the page indicated and compare the characters of your tree with the drawings and descriptions. if you are satisfied with your diagnosis, well and good. if you find that you are wrong, go over the keys again and find wherein you were led astray. before you leave the tree take a sample of leaf properly labeled which you can press between the pages of an old magazine and save for future reference. do this with other trees which you may find and when you get home lay them out side by side so that the labels will not show and compare them. a few trials of this kind will serve to form a mental picture of each leaf which you will remember. a very helpful practice for the beginner is that of making keys based upon various characters. practice keys of this kind will bring out the differences and likenesses of trees as will no other means, and characters which have hitherto escaped the eye will be prominently brought forward. nor should the student take his characters from books, but rather should he go to the woods and get his knowledge first hand. it is hardly necessary to state that the key is a valuable crutch while learning to walk, but once the leg is strong enough to bear the weight it should be discarded, lest it become a burden. a key has for its main object the guidance of the student through the preliminary steps leading to a more intimate knowledge of the trees. when once he knows a tree, instinctively, because of long acquaintance with it, just as he knows people, then the need for a key will have ceased. summer key to the genera[a] a. leaves simple. b. leaves needle-shaped, awl-shaped, strap-shaped or scale-like. c. leaves in clusters of -many. d. leaves in clusters of - , sheathed, persistent for several years. pinus, p. . dd. leaves in fascicles of -many, on short, lateral branchlets, deciduous in autumn. larix, p. . cc. leaves solitary, not clustered. d. leaves opposite. e. twigs flattened; leaves all of one kind, scale-like, decurrent on the stem; fruit a small, pale brown cone. thuja, p. . ee. twigs essentially terete; leaves of two kinds, either scale-like, or else awl-shaped, often both kinds on the same branch, not decurrent on the stem; fruit berry-like, bluish. juniperus, p. . dd. leaves alternate or spirally-whorled. e. leaves flattened, soft to the touch. f. leaves / - - / inches long, sessile, aromatic; cones - inches long; bark of trunk with raised blisters containing resin. abies, p. . ff. leaves seldom over / inch long, short-petioled, not aromatic; cones about / inch long; bark of trunk without raised blisters. tsuga, p. . ee. leaves -sided, harsh to the touch. picea, p. . bb. leaves broad and flat. c. leaves alternate or clustered, never opposite nor whorled. d. margin of leaves entire or only slightly undulate. e. leaves heart-shaped or rounded; fruit a legume. cercis, p. . ee. leaves oval, ovate or obovate; fruit not a legume. f. branches armed with stout, straight spines; fruit large, orange-like. maclura, p. . ff. branches without spines; fruit small, not orange-like. g. fruit an acorn. quercus, p. . gg. fruit a drupe or berry. h. twigs spicy-aromatic when bruised; leaves of many shapes on the same branch. sassafras, p. . hh. twigs not spicy-aromatic; leaves not of many shapes on the same branch. i. leaves thick, abruptly pointed, very lustrous above, not clustered at the ends of the branches. nyssa, p. . ii. leaves thin, long-pointed, not lustrous above, clustered at the ends of the branches. cornus, p. . dd. margin of leaves serrate, toothed or lobed. e. margin of leaves serrate to toothed. f. branches armed with stiff, sharp thorns. crataegus, p. . ff. branches not armed. g. base of leaves decidedly oblique. h. leaf-blades about as long as they are broad, heart-shaped. tilia, p. . hh. leaf-blades - / - times as long as they are broad, oval to ovate. i. leaves thin, coarsely but singly serrate; fruit a globular drupe, ripe in autumn. celtis, p. . ii; leaves thick, coarsely and doubly serrate; fruit a samara, ripe in spring. ulmus, p. . gg. base of leaves essentially symmetrical. h. teeth coarse, - per inch of margin. i. leaves very glabrous both sides; fruit a prickly bur. j. leaves - inches long, very lustrous beneath; bark close, smooth, steel-gray. fagus, p. . jj. leaves - inches long, not lustrous beneath; bark fissured, brownish. castanea, p. . ii. leaves pubescent or white-tomentose, at least beneath; fruit not a prickly bur. j. leaves - inches long, broadly ovate to suborbicular; fruit a very small capsule, falling in spring. populus, p. . jj. leaves - inches long, oblong-lanceolate to obovate; fruit an acorn, falling in autumn. quercus, p. . hh. teeth fine, -many per inch of margin. i. leaf-petioles laterally compressed; leaves tremulous. populus, p. . ii. leaf-petioles terete; leaves not tremulous. j. leaf-blades at least times as long as they are broad. k. twigs brittle; fruit a very small capsule, falling in spring. salix, p. . kk. twigs tough; fruit a fleshy drupe, falling in late summer or autumn. prunus, p. . jj. leaf-blades not more than twice as long as they are broad. k. leaf-blades about twice as long as they are broad. l. margin of leaves singly serrate; fruit fleshy. m. lenticels conspicuous; pith whitish or brownish; bark easily peeled off in papery layers; buds ovoid. prunus, p. . mm. lenticels inconspicuous; pith greenish; bark not separable into papery layers; buds narrow-conical. amelanchier, p. . ll. margin of leaves doubly serrate; fruit not fleshy. m. trunk fluted; fruit inclosed within a halberd-shaped involucre. carpinus, p. . mm. trunk not fluted; fruit not inclosed within a halberd-shaped involucre. n. bark of trunk gray-brown, broken into narrow, flattish pieces loose at the ends; fruit in hop-like strobiles. ostrya, p. . nn. bark of trunk white, yellow or dark brown, platy or cleaving off in papery layers; fruit not in hop-like strobiles. betula, p. . kk. leaf-blades almost as broad as they are long. l. lower side of leaves more or less downy; sap milky; leaves not crowded on short, spur-like branchlets; fruit berry-like, black. morus, p. . ll. lower side of leaves glabrous; sap not milky; leaves crowded on short, spur-like branchlets; fruit a large, green pome. pyrus, p. . ee. margin of leaves distinctly lobed. f. fruit an acorn. quercus, p. . ff. fruit not an acorn. g. leaves fan-shaped, with many fine veins radiating from the base of the blade. ginkgo, p. . gg. leaves not fan-shaped, without many fine veins radiating from the base of the blade. h. leaf-lobes entire. i. leaf-petioles - inches long; leaves lustrous above; twigs not aromatic when bruised. liriodendron, p. . ii. leaf-petioles about inch long; leaves dull above; twigs spicy-aromatic when bruised. sassafras, p. . hh. leaf-lobes sinuate-toothed to serrate. i. leaf-lobes coarsely sinuate-toothed. platanus, p. . ii. leaf-lobes serrate. j. branches armed with stiff, sharp thorns; sap not milky. crataegus, p. . jj. branches unarmed; sap milky. morus, p. . cc. leaves opposite or whorled. d. margin of leaves entire or only slightly undulate. e. leaves - inches long; spray fine; fruit an ovoid, scarlet drupe. cornus, p. . ee. leaves - inches long; spray coarse; fruit a long, slender-cylindrical capsule. catalpa, p. . dd. margin of leaves serrate to lobed. e. margin of leaves finely serrate. viburnum, p. . ee. margin of leaves distinctly lobed. acer, p. . aa. leaves compound. b. leaves alternate. c. leaves simple-pinnate. d. branchlets armed with short, sharp prickles. robinia, p. . dd. branchlets unarmed. e. leaflets entire with the exception of or more coarse, glandular teeth at the base. ailanthus, p. . ee. leaflets serrate the entire length. f. upper leaflets less than inch broad. g. trunk and large branches armed with stout spines; leaflets / - - / inches long. gleditsia, p. . gg. trunk and large branches unarmed; leaflets - inches long. pyrus, p. . ff. upper leaflets - inches broad. g. leaflets - ; pith homogeneous. carya, p. . gg. leaflets - ; pith chambered. juglans, p. . cc. leaves bi-pinnate. d. trunk and large branches armed with stout spines; leaflets / - - / inches long, gleditsia, p. . dd. trunk and large branches unarmed; leaflets - - / inches long. gymnocladus, p. . bb. leaves opposite. c. leaves pinnately compound; fruit a samara. d. leaflets - ; samaras paired. acer, p. . dd. leaflets - , exceptionally ; samaras not paired. fraxinus, p. . cc. leaves digitately compound; fruit a prickly bur. aesculus, p. . winter key to the genera[b] a. leaves persistent and green throughout the winter, needle-shaped, awl-shaped or scale-like. b. leaves in clusters of - , sheathed. pinus, p. . bb. leaves solitary, not clustered. c. leaves opposite. d. twigs flattened; leaves all of one kind, scale-like, decurrent on the stem; fruit a small, pale brown cone. thuja, p. . dd. twigs essentially terete; leaves of two kinds, either scale-like, or else awl-shaped, often both kinds on the same branch, not decurrent on the stem; fruit berry-like, bluish. juniperus, p. . cc. leaves alternate or spirally-whorled. d. leaves flattened, soft to the touch. e. leaves / - - / inches long, sessile, aromatic; cones - inches long; bark of trunk with raised blisters containing resin. abies, p. . ee. leaves seldom over / inch long, short-petioled, not aromatic; cones about / inch long; bark of trunk without raised blisters. tsuga, p. . dd. leaves -sided, harsh to the touch. picea, p. . aa. leaves not persistent and green throughout the winter, but deciduous in early autumn. b. twigs, branches or trunks armed with stiff, sharp prickles, spines or thorns. c. thorns or spines not exceeding / inch in length on the branches. d. spines in pairs at each node; buds rusty-hairy, - superposed; fruit a flat pod. robinia, p. . dd. spines one at each node; buds glabrous, not superposed; fruit orange-like. maclura, p. . cc. thorns or spines much exceeding / inch in length on the branches. d. thorns usually branched, situated above the nodes; lateral buds superposed, the lower covered by bark; fruit a flat pod. gleditsia, p. . dd. thorns unbranched on twigs, situated at the nodes; lateral buds not superposed, not covered by bark; fruit a small pome. crataegus, p. . bb. twigs, branches or trunks unarmed. c. leaf-scars mainly crowded on short, stout, lateral shoots. d. bundle-scar ; fruit a cone, usually present. larix, p. . dd. bundle-scars ; fruit a globose drupe falling in autumn. ginkgo, p. . cc. leaf-scars distributed along the lateral branches. d. leaf-scars (or some of them) at a node, i. e., whorled. catalpa, p. . dd. leaf-scars - at a node, i.e., not whorled. e. leaf-scars at a node, i.e., opposite. f. terminal buds / - - / inches long, resin-coated; twigs very stout. aesculus, p. . ff. terminal buds rarely exceeding / inch in length, not resin-coated; twigs not conspicuously stout. g. leaf buds with pair of scales visible. h. buds scurfy-pubescent. viburnum, p. . hh. buds glabrous. cornus, p. . gg. leaf buds with or more pairs of scales visible. h. bundle-scars usually , distinct, separated. acer, p. . hh. bundle-scars many, minute, more or less confluent in a u-shaped line. fraxinus, p. . ee. leaf-scars at a node, i.e., alternate. f. bundle-scars - . g. bundle-scar only , or appearing as . h. twigs bright green, spicy-aromatic; bundle-scar appearing as a horizontal line; terminal bud present; pith homogeneous. sassafras, p. . hh. twigs brownish, not spicy-aromatic; bundle-scar appearing as a large dot; terminal bud absent; pith chambered. celtis, p. . gg. bundle-scars or in compound, but distinct groups. h. terminal bud present. i. stipule-scars present. j. first scale of lateral bud directly in front, i.e., exactly above the center of the leaf-scar; twigs brittle; pith somewhat star-shaped in cross-section. populus, p. . jj. first scale of lateral bud not directly in front, i. e., to one side of the center of the leaf-scar; twigs not brittle; pith circular in cross-section. prunus, p. . ii. stipule-scars absent. j. buds bright to dark red, the terminal / - / inch long. k. branches contorted, bearing many short, spur-like branchlets; fruit an apple an inch or more in diameter, light green. pyrus, p. . kk. branches not contorted, not bearing short, spur-like branchlets; fruit berry-like, / inch long, blue-black. nyssa, p. . jj. buds brownish to gray, the terminal exceeding / inch in length. k. buds narrow-conical, sharp-pointed; leaf-scars small, narrowly crescent-shaped; twigs about / inch thick; pith homogeneous; fruit berry-like, not present. amelanchier, p. . kk. buds broadly conical to ovoid, blunt-pointed; leaf-scars conspicuous, broadly heart-shaped; twigs about / inch thick; pith chambered; fruit a nut, often present. juglans, p. . hh. terminal bud absent (sometimes present on short shoots of _betula_). i. stipule-scars present. j. bud-scale only visible; twigs brittle. salix; p. . jj. bud-scales or more; twigs not brittle. k. bark smooth, close, warty or peeling into papery layers, but not flaky nor rough-ridged. l. tip of bud appressed; fruit berry-like. celtis, p. . ll. tip of bud not appressed; fruit not berry-like. m. trunk fluted; catkins not present in winter; lenticels not elongated horizontally; low tree or bushy shrub. carpinus, p. . mm. trunk not fluted; catkins usually present in winter; lenticels elongated horizontally; large trees. betula, p. . kk. bark flaky or rough-ridged, not warty nor peeling off in papery layers. l. bundle-scars depressed, conspicuous; bark thick, more or less deeply furrowed. ulmus, p. . ll. bundle-scars not depressed, inconspicuous; bark thin, broken into narrow, flattish strips, loose at the ends. ostrya, p. . ii. stipule-scars absent. j. buds silky-pubescent, depressed; twigs stout, clumsy, blunt, with conspicuous leaf-scars. gymnocladus, p. . jj. buds glabrous, not depressed; twigs slender, with inconspicuous leaf-scars. k. buds / inch long, obtuse, somewhat flattened and appressed; pith with reddish longitudinal streaks. cercis, p. . kk. buds / - / inch long, acute, not flattened nor appressed; pith without reddish streaks. prunus, p. . ff. bundle-scars -many. g. bundle-scars in a single u-shaped line. h. terminal bud present; fruit berry-like; a shrub or small tree. pyrus, p. . hh. terminal bud absent; fruit not berry-like; large trees. i. stipule-scars present; twigs slender. j. stipule-scars encircling the twig; leaf-scars nearly surrounding the bud; bark peeling off in thin plates, exposing the lighter colored inner bark. platanus, p. . jj. stipule-scars not encircling the twig; leaf-scars not nearly surrounding the bud; bark thick, rough-ridged, not exposing the inner bark. ulmus, p. . ii. stipule-scars absent; twigs very stout. j. bundle-scars usually not more than . gymnocladus, p. . jj. bundle-scars usually - . ailanthus, p. . gg. bundle-scars variously grouped or scattered, but not in a single line. h. terminal bud present. i. stipule-scars present. j. stipule-scars encircling the twig; visible bud-scales , united. liriodendron, p. . jj. stipule-scars not encircling the twig; visible bud-scales more than , not united. k. buds times as long as broad, not clustered at the tips of vigorous shoots; fruit a prickly bur. fagus, p. . kk. buds not times as long as broad, usually clustered at the tips of vigorous shoots; fruit an acorn. quercus, p. . ii. stipule-scars absent. carya, p. . h. terminal bud absent (occasionally present in _castanea_). i. bud at end of twig very obliquely unsymmetrical, mucilaginous when chewed. tilia, p. . ii. bud at end of twig symmetrical, not mucilaginous when chewed. j. bud-scales - visible; pith star-shaped in cross-section; sap not milky; fruit a prickly bur, present; large tree. castanea, p. . jj. bud-scales - visible; pith not star-shaped in cross-section; sap milky; fruit berry-like, not present; small tree. morus, p. . manual of trees description of species with summer and winter keys to the species [illustration: +ginkgo. maidenhair tree+ . winter twig, × / . . leaf, × / . . staminate flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +ginkgoaceae+ +ginkgo.[c] maidenhair tree+ _ginkgo biloba l._ [_salisburia adiantifolia smith_] habit.--a slender tree in youth, with slender, upright branches, becoming broader with age and forming a symmetrical, pyramidal crown; probably - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet. leaves.--clustered at the ends of short, spur-like shoots, or scattered alternately on the long terminal branches; simple; - inches broad; more or less fan-shaped; usually bilobed and irregularly crenate at the upper extremity; thin and leathery; glabrous, pale yellow-green on both sides; petioles long, slender; turning a clear, golden yellow before falling in autumn. flowers.--may, with the leaves; dioecious; the staminate in short-stalked, pendulous catkins, to - / inches long, yellow; the pistillate more or less erect on the shoot, long-stalked, consisting of naked ovules, one of which usually aborts. fruit.--autumn; a more or less globose drupe, orange-yellow to green, about inch in diameter, consisting of an acrid, foul-smelling pulp inclosing a smooth, whitish, somewhat flattened, almond-flavored nut. winter-buds.--terminal bud about / inch long, conical, smooth, light chestnut-brown; lateral buds divergent, usually only on rapid-growing shoots. bark.--twigs gray-brown and smooth; thick, ash-gray and somewhat roughened on the trunk, becoming more or less fissured in old age. wood.--light, soft, weak, close-grained, yellow-white to light red-brown, with thin, lighter colored sapwood. notes.--origin in dispute, but probably a native of northern china. extensively cultivated in china and japan, where its fruit is esteemed. easily propagated from seed. thrives in deep, well-drained, rich soil. practically free from insect and fungous attacks, and little harmed by the smoke of cities. probably hardy throughout the southern half of the lower peninsula. +summer key to the species of pinus+ a. leaves in a cluster; cones - inches long. _p. strobus_, p. . aa. leaves in a cluster; cones less than inches long. b. leaves - inches long. c. leaves about inch long, divergent; cones sessile, pointing forward towards the tip of the branch, persistent - years, opening very unevenly. _p. banksiana_, p. . cc. leaves - / - inches long, slightly divergent; cones stout-stalked, pointing away from the tip of the branch, maturing in second season, opening evenly. _p. sylvestris_, p. . bb. leaves - inches long. c. bark of trunk red-brown; cones maturing in second season, about inches long; cone-scales thickened at the apex, but unarmed. _p. resinosa_, p. . cc. bark of trunk gray to nearly black; cones maturing in first season, - inches long; cone-scales thickened at the apex and topped with a short spine. _p. laricio austriaca_, p. . +winter key to the species of pinus+ a. leaves in a cluster; cones - inches long. _p. strobus_, p. . aa. leaves in a cluster; cones less than inches long. b. leaves - inches long. c. leaves about inch long, divergent; cones sessile, pointing forward towards the tip of the branch, persistent - years, opening very unevenly. _p. banksiana_, p. . cc. leaves - / - inches long, slightly divergent; cones stout-stalked, pointing away from the tip of the branch, maturing in second season, opening evenly. _p. sylvestris_, p. . bb. leaves - inches long. c. bark of trunk red-brown; cones maturing in second season, about inches long; cone-scales thickened at the apex, but unarmed. _p. resinosa_, p. . cc. bark of trunk gray to nearly black; cones maturing in first season, - inches long; cone-scales thickened at the apex and topped with a short spine. _p. laricio austriaca_, p. . [illustration: +white pine+ . cluster of leaves, × . . cross-sections of leaves, enlarged. . partly opened cone, × / . . cone-scale with seeds, × .] +pinaceae+ +white pine+ _pinus strobus l._ habit.--a large tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; forming a wide, pyramidal crown. formerly trees - feet in height and - feet in trunk diameter were not exceptional. leaves.--in clusters of five; - inches long; slender, straight, needle-shaped, -sided, mucronate; pale blue-green. persistent about years. flowers.--june; monoecious; the staminate oval, light brown, about / inch long, surrounded by - involucral bracts; the pistillate cylindrical, about / inch long, pinkish purple, long-stalked. fruit.--autumn of second season, falling during the winter and succeeding spring; pendent, short-stalked, narrow-cylindrical, often curved, greenish cones, - inches long; scales rather loose, slightly thickened at the apex; seeds red-brown, / inch long, with wings inch long. winter-buds.--oblong-ovoid, sharp-pointed, yellow-brown, / - / inch long. bark.--twigs at first rusty-tomentose, later smooth and light brown, finally thin, smooth, greenish; thick, dark gray on the trunk, shallowly fissured into broad, scaly ridges. wood.--light, soft, weak, compact, straight-grained, easily worked, light brown, with thin, whitish sapwood. distribution.--upper peninsula and lower peninsula north of allegan, eaton and st. clair counties. often planted as an ornamental tree farther south. habitat.--prefers a light, fertile loam; sandy soils of granite origin. notes.--rapid of growth. small seedlings easily transplanted. formerly very abundant, but rapidly nearing extinction through destructive lumbering. [illustration: +jack pine. scrub pine+ . cluster of leaves, × . . cross-section of leaf, enlarged. . branchlet with unopened cone, × . . branchlet with opened cone, × . . cone-scale with seeds, × .] +pinaceae+ +jack pine. scrub pine+ _pinus banksiana lamb._ [_pinus divaricata (ait.) du mont de cours._] habit.--usually a small tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - inches; forming a crown varying from open and symmetrical to scrubby, stunted, and variously distorted. leaves.--in clusters of two; about inch long; narrow-linear, with sharp-pointed apex; stout, curved or twisted, divergent from a short sheath; dark gray-green. persistent - years. flowers.--may-june; monoecious; the staminate in oblong clusters / inch long, composed of many sessile, yellow anthers imbricated upon a central axis; the pistillate in subglobose clusters, composed of many carpel-like, purple scales (subtended by small bracts) spirally arranged upon a central axis. fruit.--autumn of second or third season, but remaining closed for several years and persistent on the tree for - years; erect, usually incurved, oblong-conical, sessile cones, - / - inches long; scales thickened at the apex; seeds triangular, nearly black, / inch long, with wings / inch long. winter-buds.--terminal bud / inch long, ovoid, rounded, pale brown; lateral buds smaller. bark.--twigs yellow-green, becoming purple, finally dark red-brown and rough with the persistent bases of fallen leaves; thin, dark red-brown on the trunk, with shallow, rounded ridges, rough-scaly on the surface. wood.--light, soft, weak, close-grained, light brown, with thick, whitish sapwood. distribution.--common from clare county northward; occurs sparingly along the lake shore as far south as grand haven on the west and port austin on the east. habitat--sandy, sterile soil. notes.--cones open unevenly. slow of growth. difficult to transplant. [illustration: +austrian pine. black pine+ . cluster of leaves, × . . cross-section of leaf, enlarged. . unopened cone, × . . partly opened cone, × / . . cone-scale with seeds, × .] +pinaceae+ +austrian pine. black pine+ _pinus laricio austriaca endl._ [_pinus austriaca höss._] habit.--a large tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; forming a massive, spreading crown of stiff, strong branches. leaves.--in clusters of two; - inches long; slender, rigid, sharp-pointed, curved towards the twig; deep green on both faces. persistent - years. flowers.--may-june; monoecious; the staminate cylindrical, subsessile, bright yellow, about / inch long; the pistillate cylindrical, small, bright red, subsessile. fruit.--autumn of first season, opening two years after full size is attained and remaining on the tree several years; erect, sessile, long-ovoid cones - inches long; scales smooth, lustrous, thickened at the apex and topped with a short spine in the center; seeds red-brown, / inch long, with wings / inch long. winter-buds.--oblong-conical, sharp-pointed, red-brown, resinous, about / inch long. bark.--twigs brownish to olive-brown and smooth, becoming darker with age; thick, gray to nearly black on old trunks and coarsely and deeply fissured. wood.--light, strong, very resinous, red-brown, with thick, yellowish to reddish white sapwood. notes.--perfectly hardy. adapts itself to a variety of soils. well adapted for screens and wind-breaks. easily transplanted when small. grows rapidly. [illustration: +scotch pine. scotch fir+ . cluster of leaves, × . . cross-section of leaf, enlarged. . unopened cone, × . . partly opened cone, × . . cone-scale with seeds, × .] +pinaceae+ +scotch pine. scotch fir+ _pinus sylvestris l._ habit.--a large tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; the side branches persist, forming a massive, wide-spreading crown. leaves.--in clusters of two; - / - inches long; stiff, more or less twisted, spreading slightly from a short sheath; bluish-or often glaucous-green. persistent - years. flowers.--may-june; monoecious; the staminate ovoid, short-stalked, yellowish, about / inch long; the pistillate oblong, reddish, short-stalked, about / inch long. fruit.--autumn of second season, falling as soon as ripe; pendent, stout-stalked, ovoid-conical cones - / - - / inches long; scales dull gray-brown, thickened at the apex into -sided, recurved points; seeds red-brown, nearly / inch long, with wings about / inch long. winter-buds.--oblong-ovoid, sharp-pointed, red-brown, resinous, about / inch long. bark.--twigs reddish to orange-brown, becoming grayish; thick, dark orange-brown on old trunks and coarsely and deeply fissured. wood.--light, stiff, straight-grained, strong, heavy, hard, resinous, red-brown, with thick, yellow to reddish white sapwood. notes.--very rapid of growth. reaches perfection only in cold or elevated regions. adapts itself to a variety of soils. a valuable ornamental tree. very useful for screens or shelter belts. [illustration: +red pine, norway pine+ . cluster of leaves, × . . cross-section of leaf, enlarged. . opened cone, × . . cone-scale with seeds, × .] +pinaceae+ +red pine. norway pine+ _pinus resinosa ait._ habit.--a large tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; stout, horizontal branches, form a broad, rounded, rather open crown. leaves.--in clusters of two; - inches long; slender, straight, needle-shaped, sharp-pointed, flexible, from elongated, persistent sheaths; lustrous dark green. persistent - years. flowers.--april-may; monoecious; the staminate in oblong, dense clusters, / - / inch long, composed of many sessile, purple anthers imbricated upon a central axis; the pistillate single or few-clustered at the end of the branchlets, subglobose; scales ovate, scarlet, borne on stout peduncles covered with pale brown bracts. fruit.--autumn of second season, falling the next summer; ovoid-conical, nearly sessile cones, about inches long; scales thickened at the apex; seeds oval, compressed, light mottled-brown, with wings / - / inch long. winter-buds.--about / inch long, ovoid or conical, acute, red-brown, with rather loose scales. bark.--twigs orange-brown, becoming rough with the persistent bases of leaf-buds; thick and red-brown on the trunk, shallowly fissured into broad, flat ridges. wood.--light, hard, very close-grained, pale red, with thin, yellow to white sapwood. distribution.--very abundant in clare county and northward; frequent on the east side of the state as far south as port huron. habitat.--sandy plains and dry woods. notes.--rapid of growth on the better soils. difficult to transplant. [illustration: +tamarack+ . autumn branchlet, with leaves and cones, × . . cross-section of leaf, enlarged. . fruiting branchlet in winter, × . . cone-scale with seeds, × .] +pinaceae+ +tamarack+ _larix laricina (duroi) koch_ [_larix americana michx._] habit.--a tree sometimes - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; forming a broad, open, irregular crown of horizontal branches. leaves.--scattered singly along the leading shoots or clustered on the short lateral branchlets; linear, with blunt apex; rounded above, keeled beneath; about inch long; bright green; sessile. deciduous in early autumn. flowers.--april-may, with the leaves, monoecious; the staminate sessile, subglobose, yellow, composed of many short-stalked anthers spirally arranged about a central axis; the pistillate oblong, short-stalked, composed of orbicular, green scales (subtended by red bracts) spirally arranged about a central axis. fruit.--autumn of first season, but persistent on the tree for a year longer; ovoid, obtuse, light brown, short-stalked cones, / - / inch long; seeds / inch long, with pale brown wings widest near the middle. winter-buds.--small, globose, lustrous, dark red. bark.--twigs at first grayish, glaucous, later light orange-brown, and finally dark brown; red-brown and scaly on the trunk. wood.--heavy, hard, very strong, coarse-grained, very durable, light brown, with thin, nearly white sapwood. distribution.--common throughout the state. habitat.--prefers cold, deep swamps, or in the north coming out on the drier uplands. notes.--becomes a picturesque tree in old age. should be transplanted while dormant. +summer key to the species of picea+ a. leaves / - inch long, sharp-pointed; twigs glabrous. b. cones - inches long, maturing in first season; leaves ill-scented when bruised. _p. canadensis_, p. . bb. cones - inches long, maturing in second season; leaves not ill-scented when bruised. _p. abies_, p. . aa. leaves / - / inch long, blunt-pointed; twigs rusty-pubescent. _p. mariana_, p. . +winter key to the species of picea+ a. leaves / - inch long, sharp pointed; twigs glabrous. b. cones - inches long, maturing in first season; leaves ill-scented when bruised. _p. canadensis_, p. . bb. cones - inches long, maturing in second season; leaves not ill-scented when bruised. _p. abies_, p. . aa. leaves / - / inch long, blunt-pointed; twigs rusty-pubescent. _p. mariana_, p. . [illustration: +white spruce+ . winter branchlet, x. . leaves, × . . cross-section of leaf, enlarged. . unopened cone, × . . partly opened cone, × . . cone-scale with seeds, × .] +pinaceae+ +white spruce+ _picea canadensis (mill.) bsp._ [_picea alba link_] habit.--a tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; forming a rather broad, open, pyramidal crown. leaves.--spirally arranged, but crowded on the upper side of the branches by the twisting of those on the under side; awl-shaped, -sided, incurved; dark blue-green; about / inch long; ill-scented when bruised. persistent for several years. flowers.--april-may; monoecious; the staminate oblong-cylindrical, long-stalked, / - / inch long, composed of many spirally arranged, red anthers; the pistillate oblong-cylindrical, composed of broad, reddish scales (subtended by orbicular bracts) spirally arranged upon a central axis. fruit.--autumn or early winter of first season, falling soon after discharging the seeds; pendent, slender, oblong-cylindrical, nearly sessile cones, - inches long; seeds about / inch long, with large wings oblique at the apex. winter-buds.--broadly ovoid, obtuse, light brown, / - / inch long. bark.--twigs smooth, gray-green, becoming orange-brown, finally dark gray-brown; thin, light gray-brown on the trunk, separating into thin, plate-like scales. wood.--light, soft, weak, straight-grained, light yellow, with sapwood of the same color. distribution.--common in the northern half of the lower peninsula and throughout the upper peninsula. habitat.--low, damp woods; banks of streams; borders of lakes; high rocky or sandy slopes; loves the cold winters. notes.--a vigorous and beautiful tree in regions sufficiently cold. [illustration: +black spruce+ . winter branchlet, × . . leaves, × . . cross-sections of leaves, enlarged. - . opened cones, × . . cone-scale with seeds, × .] +pinaceae+ +black spruce+ _picea mariana (mill.) bsp._ [_picea nigra link_] habit.--a small tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - inches; forming a narrow-based, conical, more or less irregular crown of short, slender, horizontal branches; often small and stunted. leaves.--spirally arranged, spreading in all directions; awl-shaped, -sided, blunt at the apex, more or less incurved; stiff; dark blue-green and glaucous; / - / inch long. persistent for several years. flowers.--april-may; monoecious; the staminate subglobose, about / inch long, composed of many spirally arranged, dark red anthers; the pistillate oblong-cylindrical, composed of broad, purple scales (subtended by rounded, toothed, purple bracts) spirally arranged upon a central axis, about / inch long. fruit.--autumn of first season, but persistent on the branch for many years; pendent, ovoid, short-stalked cones, about inch long; seeds about / inch long, with pale brown wings / inch long. winter-buds.--ovoid, acute, light red-brown, puberulous, / inch long. bark.--twigs at first green and rusty-pubescent, becoming dull red-brown and rusty-pubescent; thin, gray-brown on the trunk, separating into thin, appressed scales. wood.--light, soft, weak, pale yellow-white, with thin, pure white sapwood. distribution.--occurs sparingly in southern michigan; more abundant in the northern portions. habitat.--cold, sphagnous bogs and swamps; shores of lakes. notes.--short-lived. undesirable for ornamental planting. growing to its largest size in the far north. [illustration: +norway spruce+ . branchlet with partly opened cone, × / . . leaf, × . . cross-sections of leaves, enlarged. . cone-scale with seeds, × .] +pinaceae+ +norway spruce+ _picea abies (l.) karst._ [_picea excelsa link_] habit.--a tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; forming a dense, conical, spire-topped crown of numerous, drooping branches which persist nearly to the ground. leaves.--spirally arranged along the twig; crowded; / - inch long; rigid, curved, acute; lustrous, dark green. persistent - years. flowers.--may; monoecious; the staminate ovoid to subglobose, long-stalked, reddish to yellowish, / - inch long; the pistillate cylindrical, sessile, erect, - / - inches long. fruit.--autumn of first season; sessile, cylindrical cones - inches long, pendent from the tips of the uppermost branches; sterile scales very short, toothed; seeds red-brown, rough, / inch long, with long wings. winter-buds.--ovoid, acute, red-brown, not resinous, about / inch long. bark.--twigs red- or orange-brown, smooth or corrugated; becoming thin and gray-brown on old trunks, slightly fissured, scaly. wood.--light, strong, tough, elastic, soft, fine-grained, white, with thick, indistinguishable sapwood. notes.--grows to a height of - feet in northern europe and asia. perfectly hardy in michigan. easily transplanted. adapts itself to a variety of soils and climates. grows rapidly, but is short-lived in our country. desirable for ornamental planting. useful for shelter belts. [illustration: +balsam fir+ . winter branchlet, × . - . leaves, × . . cross-section of leaf, enlarged. . unopened cone, × . . cone-scale with seeds, × .] +pinaceae+ +balsam fir+ _abies balsamea (l.) mill._ habit.--a slender tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - inches; branches in whorls of - , forming a symmetrical, open crown widest at the base and tapering regularly upward. leaves.--scattered, spirally arranged in rows, on young trees extending from all sides of the branch, on old trees covering the upper side of the branch; narrowly linear, with apex acute or rounded; / - - / inches long; lustrous, dark green above, pale beneath; sessile; aromatic. persistent - years. flowers.--may; monoecious; the staminate oblong-cylindrical, yellow, / inch long, composed of yellow anthers (subtended by scales) spirally arranged upon a central axis; the pistillate oblong-cylindrical, inch long, composed of orbicular, purple scales (subtended by yellow-green bracts) spirally arranged upon a central axis. fruit.--autumn of first season; oblong-cylindrical, erect, puberulous, dark purple cones, - inches long, about inch thick; seeds / inch long, shorter than their light brown wings. winter-buds.--globose, orange-green, resinous, / - / inch in diameter. bark.--twigs at first grayish and pubescent, becoming gray-brown and smooth; thin and smooth on young trunks, pale gray-brown and marked by swollen resin chambers; red-brown on old trunks and somewhat roughened by small, scaly plates. wood.--very light, soft, weak, coarse-grained, perishable, pale brown, with thick, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--occasional in the southern half of the lower peninsula, frequent in the northern half; abundant in the upper peninsula. habitat.--prefers cool, moist, rich soil; low, swampy ground; well-drained hillsides. notes.--grows rapidly. short-lived. easily transplanted. [illustration: +hemlock+ . fruiting branch viewed from beneath, × / . . leaf, × . . cross-section of leaf, enlarged. . branchlet with partly opened cone, × . . cone-scale with seeds, × .] +pinaceae+ +hemlock+ _tsuga canadensis (l.) carr._ habit.--a large tree - feet high, with a trunk - feet in diameter; forming a rather broad, open, somewhat irregular-pyramidal crown of slender, horizontal branches. leaves.--spirally arranged around the branch, but appearing -ranked by the twisting of their petioles; linear, flat, rounded at the apex; about / inch long; dark yellow-green and shining above, hoary beneath; short-petioled. persistent about years. flowers.--april-may; monoecious; the staminate axillary, short-stalked, light yellow, about / inch long, composed of subglobose clusters of stamens; the pistillate terminal, oblong, pale green, / inch long, the scales short, pinkish. fruit.--autumn of first season, gradually losing their seeds during the winter and falling the next spring; oblong-ovoid, acute, short-stalked, red-brown cones, about / inch long; seeds / inch long, with wings about twice as long. winter-buds.--ovoid, obtuse, red-brown, slightly puberulous, / inch long. bark.--twigs at first pale brown and pubescent, becoming glabrous, gray-brown; thick, red-brown or gray on the trunk, deeply divided into narrow, rounded, scaly ridges. wood.--light, soft, weak, brittle, coarse- and crooked-grained, not durable, ill-smelling, light red-brown, with thin, darker colored sapwood. distribution.--throughout the state, with the exception of the south-eastern portion; scarce on the east side of the state, more common on the west, becoming very abundant in emmet county. habitat.--prefers well-drained uplands and slopes of ravines. notes.--a favorite hedge plant. useful for ornamental planting in shady situations. [illustration: +arborvitae. white cedar+ . fruiting branchlet, × . . tip of branchlet, enlarged. . cone-scale with seeds, × .] +pinaceae+ +arborvitae. white cedar+ _thuja occidentalis l._ habit.--a tree - feet high, with a short, often buttressed trunk - feet in diameter, often divided into - secondary stems; forming a rather dense, wide-based, pyramidal crown. leaves.--opposite, -ranked, scale-like, appressed; ovate, obtuse or pointed, keeled in the side pairs, flat in the others; / - / inch long; yellow-green, often becoming brown in winter; strongly aromatic when crushed. persistent - years. flowers.--april-may; usually monoecious; the staminate minute, globose, yellow, composed of - stamens arranged oppositely on a short axis; the pistillate small, oblong, reddish, composed of - scales arranged oppositely on a short axis. fruit.--early autumn of first season, but persistent on the branch through the winter; erect, short-stalked, oblong-ovoid, pale brown cones, about / inch long, composed of - loose scales; seeds / inch long, ovate, acute, winged. winter-buds.--naked, minute. bark.--twigs yellow-green, becoming light red, finally smooth, lustrous, dark orange-brown; thin, light red-brown on the trunk, slightly furrowed or deciduous in ragged strips. wood.--light, soft, brittle, rather coarse-grained, durable, fragrant, pale yellow-brown, with thin, whitish sapwood. distribution.--throughout the upper peninsula, lower peninsula as far south as montcalm county. habitat.--prefers moist soil in low swamps and along river-banks. notes.--slow of growth. tolerant of all soils and exposures. especially useful for hedges or narrow evergreen screens. [illustration: +red juniper. red cedar+ . branchlet with awl-shaped leaves, × . . tip of branchlet, showing awl-shaped leaves, enlarged. . fruiting branchlet with scale-like leaves, × . . tip of branchlet, showing scale-like leaves, enlarged.] +pinaceae+ +red juniper. red cedar+ _juniperus virginiana l._ habit.--a medium-sized tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; forming an irregular, pyramidal or rounded crown. leaves.--opposite, of two kinds: ( ) sessile, scale-like, closely appressed, overlapping, -ranked, ovate, acute, / inch long, ( ) sessile, awl-shaped, loosely arranged, / - / inch long. persistent - years. flowers.--may; usually dioecious; minute; the staminate oblong-ovoid, composed of - shield-like scales, each bearing - yellow, globose pollen sacs; the pistillate ovoid, composed of about pairs of flesh, bluish scales, united at the base and bearing ovules. fruit.--autumn of first or second season; subglobose, berry-like strobile, about / inch in diameter, dark blue and glaucous; flesh sweet and resinous; seeds - . winter-buds.--naked, minute. bark.--twigs greenish to red-brown and smooth; thin, light red-brown on the trunk, exfoliating lengthwise into long, narrow, persistent strips, exposing the smooth, brown inner bark. wood.--light, soft, close-grained, brittle, weak, durable, very fragrant, dull red, with thin, whitish sapwood. distribution.--occurs sparingly throughout the state; most abundant in the southern portion. habitat.--prefers loamy soil on sunny slopes; dry, rocky hills; also borders of lakes and streams, peaty swamps. notes.--slow of growth. long-lived. should be transplanted with ball of earth. tolerant of varied soils and situations. +summer key to the species of salix+[d] a. leaf-petioles without glands. b. leaves / - / inch broad; petioles broad and flat. _s. nigra_, p. . bb. leaves / - / inches broad; petioles slender and terete. _s. amygdaloides_, p. . aa. leaf-petioles glandular above. b. leaves / - / inch broad, sharp-serrate; tree with weeping habit. _s. babylonica_, p. . bb. leaves / - - / inches broad, blunt-serrate; tree with upright habit. _s. fragilis_, p. . +winter key to the species of salix+ the classification of the willows is a task for the specialist, even when leaves and both staminate and pistillate flowers are obtainable. it is impractible for the novice to attempt the determination of species of salix with winter characters alone. consequently the usual winter key is omitted. +salicaceae+ +willow+ _salix (tourn.) l._ the genus _salix_ is represented in michigan by thirty or more distinct species, and there are many more hybrids. the majority of these are shrubs, only a few becoming truly arborescent. because of the similarity of their botanical characters, the frequency with which they hybridize, and the facility with which they respond to their environment only an expert is competent to identify the species so abundant along our water courses and on the banks of our lakes and swamps. the scope of this work being necessarily limited, it has been deemed best to describe but two of our native willows and two of our foreign neighbors which are frequently planted. [illustration: +black willow+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × . . staminate flowering branchlet, × . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flowering branchlet, × . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruiting branchlet, × .] +salicaceae+ +black willow+ _salix nigra marsh._ habit.--a tree - feet high, with a short trunk, - feet in diameter; stout, spreading branches form a broad, rather irregular, open crown. often a shrub. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, / - / inch broad; lanceolate, very long-pointed, often curved at the tip; finely serrate; thin; bright green and rather lustrous above, paler and often hairy beneath; petioles very short, more or less pubescent. flowers.--april-may, with the leaves; dioecious; borne in crowded, slender, hairy catkins, - inches long; calyx ; corolla ; scales yellow, villous, stamens - ; ovary ovoid-conical, short-stalked, with stigmas nearly sessile. fruit.--june; ovoid-conical capsule, / inch long, containing many minute seeds which are furnished with long, silky, white hairs. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds narrow-conical, acute, lustrous, red-brown, / inch long. bark.--twigs glabrous or pubescent, bright red-brown, becoming darker with age; thick, dark brown or nearly black on old trunks, deeply divided into broad, flat ridges, often becoming shaggy. wood.--light, soft, weak, close-grained, light red-brown, with thin, whitish sapwood. distribution.--common throughout the state. habitat.--banks of streams and lake-shores. notes.--branchlets very brittle at the base, and these, broken off by the wind, are carried down stream, often catching in the muddy banks and there taking root. [illustration: +almondleaf willow+ . winter twig, × . . lateral bud, enlarged. . leaf, × . . staminate flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flowering branchlet, × / . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruiting branchlet, × / .] +salicaceae+ +almondleaf willow+ _salix amygdaloides anders._ habit.--a tree - feet high, with a straight, columnar trunk - feet in diameter; straight, ascending branches form a rather narrow, rounded crown. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, / - - / inches broad; lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate, long-pointed; finely serrate; thin and firm; light green and shining above, pale and glaucous beneath; petioles slender, / - / inch long. flowers.--april, with the leaves; dioecious; borne in crowded, slender, pubescent catkins - inches long; calyx ; corolla ; scales yellow, villous both sides; stamens - ; ovary oblong-conical, with stigmas nearly sessile. fruit.--may; -celled, globose-conical capsule, / inch long, containing many minute seeds which are furnished with long, silky, white hairs. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds broadly ovoid, gibbous, lustrous, dark brown, / inch long. bark.--twigs glabrous, lustrous, dark orange or red-brown becoming darker orange-brown; thick and brown on old trunks, irregularly fissured into flat, connected ridges. wood.--light, soft, weak, close-grained, light brown, with thick, whitish sapwood. distribution.--common throughout the state. habitat.--banks of streams. notes.--hybridizes freely with other willows, making its identification difficult. [illustration: +crack willow. brittle willow+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × . . staminate flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flowering branchlet, × / . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruiting branchlet, × / .] +salicaceae+ +crack willow. brittle willow+ _salix fragilis l._ habit.--a tree - feet high, with a short, stout trunk - feet in diameter; stout, spreading branches form a broad, open crown. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, / - - / inches broad; lanceolate, long-pointed; finely glandular-serrate; thin and firm; lustrous, dark green above, paler beneath, glabrous both sides; petioles short, stout, with glands at the junction of blade and petiole. flowers.--april-may, with the leaves; dioecious; borne in slender, pubescent catkins - inches long; calyx ; corolla ; scales blunt, somewhat pubescent; stamens usually ; ovary abortive, with stigmas nearly sessile. staminate trees rare. fruit.--april-may; -celled, long-conical, short-stalked capsule, about / inch long, containing many minute seeds which are furnished with long, silky, white hairs. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds long-conical, pointed, glabrous, bright red-brown, about / inch long. bark.--twigs pubescent, yellow-green, often reddish, becoming glabrous, lustrous, brown; thick, gray on the trunk, smooth in young trees, very rough, irregularly scaly-ridged in old trees. wood.--light, soft, tough, close-grained, red-brown, with thick, whitish sapwood. notes.--a native of europe and asia, where it is a valuable timber tree. hardy throughout the state and of very rapid growth. thrives in rich, damp soil. easily grown from cuttings. the twigs are very brittle at the base and are easily broken by the wind, hence the name brittle willow. [illustration: +weeping willow. napoleon's willow+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × . . pistillate flowering branchlet, × / . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruiting branchlet, × / .] +salicaceae+ +weeping willow. napoleon's willow+ _salix babylonica l._ habit.--a tree - feet high, with a short, stout trunk - feet in diameter; the long, slender branchlets, often many feet in length, droop in graceful festoons, giving to the tree a weeping habit. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, / - / inch broad; linear to linear-lanceolate, long-pointed; finely sharp-serrate; thin and firm; glabrous, dark green above, paler beneath; petioles / inch or less in length, glandular above, often hairy. flowers.--april-may, with the leaves; dioecious; borne in slender, nearly glabrous catkins - inches long; calyx ; corolla ; scales ovate-lanceolate, slightly hairy; ovary ovoid-conical, very short-stalked, with stigmas longer than the style. staminate trees apparently do not occur in the united states. fruit.--may-june; -celled, narrow-ovoid, sessile capsule, about / inch long, containing many minute seeds which are furnished with long, silky, white hairs. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds narrow-conical, sharp-pointed, somewhat flattened, brownish, / - / inch long. bark.--twigs glabrous, olive-green; thick and gray on old trunks, rather smooth, or irregularly fissured into shallow, firm ridges. wood.--light, soft, weak, close-grained, light brown, with thick, whitish sapwood. notes.--a native of europe and asia. often grown in cemeteries. easily propagated by cuttings. rapid of growth in rich, damp soil. sometimes winter-killed because the wood is not ripened. summer key to the species of populus a. leaf-petioles essentially terete. b. petioles and lower sides of leaves pubescent; leaves heart-shaped. _p. candicans_, p. . bb. petioles and lower sides of leaves glabrous; leaves ovate-lanceolate. _p. balsamifera_, p. . aa. leaf-petioles strongly flattened. b. petioles and lower sides of leaves tomentose; twigs pubescent. _p. alba_, p. . bb. petioles and lower sides of leaves glabrous; twigs glabrous. c. leaves distinctly deltoid in shape. d. leaves broader than they are long, abruptly acuminate at the apex; marginal teeth not conspicuously incurved; branches erect and more or less appressed to the main stem, forming a narrow, spire-like crown. _p. nigra italica_, p. . dd. leaves longer than they are broad, more or less taper-pointed at the apex; marginal teeth rather conspicuously incurved; branches spreading, forming a broad crown. _p. deltoides_, p. . cc. leaves ovate to nearly orbicular in shape. d. margin of leaves coarsely sinuate-toothed; leaves - inches long. _p. grandidentata_, p. . dd. margin of leaves finely serrate; leaves less than inches long. _p. tremuloides_, p. . +winter key to the species of populus+ a. branches erect, more or less appressed to the main stem, forming a narrow, spire-like crown. _p. nigra italica_, p. . aa. branches spreading, forming a broad crown. b. terminal buds / - / inch long, not resinous. c. buds and twigs more or less conspicuously white-downy; twigs green. _p. alba_, p. . cc. buds and twigs not conspicuously white-downy; twigs usually red-brown. d. terminal buds about / inch long, puberulous, dusty-looking; lateral buds widely divergent; twigs rather coarse. _p. grandidentata_, p. . dd. terminal buds about / inch long, glabrous, lustrous; lateral buds more or less appressed; twigs rather slender. _p. tremuloides_, p. . bb. terminal buds / - inch long, sticky-resinous. c. terminal buds about / inch long; buds not fragrant; twigs usually yellow, more or less strongly angled. _p. deltoides_, p. . cc. terminal buds nearly inch long; buds fragrant; twigs usually red-brown and seldom strongly angled. _p. balsamifera_[e] p. . _p. candicans_[e] p. . [illustration: +white poplar+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × . . staminate flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flowering branchlet, × / . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +salicaceae+ +white poplar+ _populus alba l._ habit.--a large tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet, forming a large, spreading, rounded or irregular crown of large, crooked branches and sparse, stout branchlets. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long and almost as broad; broadly ovate to suborbicular; irregularly toothed, sinuate, or sometimes - -lobed; glabrous, dark green above, white-tomentose to glabrous beneath; petioles long, slender, flattened, tomentose. flowers.--april-may, before the leaves; dioecious; the staminate catkins thick, cylindrical, - inches long; the pistillate catkins slender, - inches long; calyx ; corolla ; stamens - , with purple anthers; stigmas , branched, yellow. fruit.--may-june; ovoid, -valved capsules, / - / inch long, borne in drooping catkins - inches long; seeds light brown, surrounded by long, white hairs. winter-buds.--ovoid, pointed, not viscid, downy, about / inch long. bark.--twigs greenish, covered with a white down, becoming greenish gray and marked with darker blotches; dark gray and fissured at the base of old trunks. wood.--light, soft, weak, difficult to split, reddish yellow, with thick, whitish sapwood. notes.--a native of europe and asia. hardy in michigan. grows rapidly in good soils; thrives in poor soils and exposed situations. roots deep, producing numerous suckers for a considerable distance from the tree. [illustration: +aspen+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × . . staminate flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flowering branchlet, × / . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +salicaceae+ +aspen+ _populus tremuloides michx._ habit.--a small, slender tree generally - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - inches; forming a loose, rounded crown of slender branches. leaves.--alternate, simple, - / - - / inches long and broad; broadly ovate to suborbicular; finely serrate; thin and firm; lustrous, dark green above, dull and pale beneath; petioles slender, laterally compressed. tremulous with the slightest breeze. flowers.--april, before the leaves; dioecious; the staminate catkins - / - inches long, the pistillate at first about the same length, gradually elongating; calyx ; corolla ; stamens - ; stigmas , -lobed, red. fruit.--may-june; -valved, oblong-cylindrical, short-pedicelled capsules / inch long; seeds light brown, white-hairy. winter-buds.--terminal bud about / inch long, narrow-conical, acute, red-brown, lustrous; lateral buds often appressed. bark.--twigs very lustrous, red-brown, becoming grayish and roughened by the elevated leaf-scars; thin, yellowish or greenish and smooth on the trunk, often roughened with darker, horizontal bands or wart-like excrescences, becoming thick and fissured, almost black at the base of old trunks. wood.--light, soft, weak, close-grained, not durable, light brown, with thin, whitish sapwood. distribution.--common throughout the state, but most abundant in the upper peninsula. habitat.--prefers moist, sandy soil and gravelly hillsides. notes.--one of the first trees to cover burned-over lands. grows rapidly. usually short-lived. propagated from seed or cuttings. [illustration: +largetooth aspen+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × . . staminate flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flowering branchlet, × / . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +salicaceae+ +largetooth aspen+ _populus grandidentata michx._ habit.--a medium-sized tree - feet high, with a slender trunk - inches in diameter; forming a loose, oval or rounded crown of slender, spreading branches and coarse spray. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, two-thirds as broad; orbicular-ovate; coarsely and irregularly sinuate-toothed; thin and firm; dark green above, paler beneath, glabrous both sides; petioles long, slender, laterally compressed. flowers.--april, before the leaves; dioecious; the staminate in short-stalked catkins - inches long; the pistillate in loose-flowered, long-stalked catkins at first about the same length, but gradually elongating; calyx ; corolla ; stamens - , with red anthers; stigmas , -lobed, red. fruit.--may; -valved, conical, acute, hairy capsules / inch long, borne in drooping catkins - inches long; seeds minute, dark brown, hairy. winter-buds.--terminal bud / inch long, ovoid to conical, acute, light chestnut, puberulous, dusty-looking. bark.--twigs greenish gray and at first hoary-tomentose, becoming lustrous, orange or red-brown and finally greenish gray; thick, dark red-brown or blackish at the base of old trunks, irregularly fissured, with broad, flat ridges. wood.--light, soft, weak, close-grained, light brown, with thin, whitish sapwood. distribution.--a common tree in the northern portions of the lower peninsula, but rare in the upper peninsula. habitat.--prefers rich, moist, sandy soil; borders of swamps; river-banks; hillsides. notes.--grows rapidly in many soils. easily transplanted. short-lived. useful for temporary effect. propagated from seed or cuttings. [illustration: +balm of gilead. balsam+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . staminate flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . catkin of pistillate flower, × / . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +salicaceae+ +balm of gilead. balsam+ _populus balsamifera l._ habit.--a tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; forming a rather narrow, open, pyramidal crown of few, slender, horizontal branches. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, about one-half as broad; ovate to ovate-lanceolate; finely crenate-serrate; thin and firm; lustrous, dark green above, paler beneath; petioles - / inches long, slender, terete, smooth. flowers.--april, before the leaves; dioecious; the staminate in long-stalked catkins - inches long; the pistillate in loose-flowered, long-stalked catkins - inches long; calyx ; corolla ; stamens - , with bright red anthers; ovary short-stalked; stigmas , wavy-margined. fruit.--may-june; -valved, ovoid, short-pedicelled capsules / inch long, borne in drooping catkins - inches long; seeds light brown, hairy. winter-buds.--terminal bud about inch long, ovoid, long-pointed, brownish, resin-coated, sticky, fragrant. bark.--twigs red-brown, becoming dark orange, finally green-gray; thick, grayish on old trunks, and shallowly fissured into broad, rounded ridges, often roughened by dark excrescences. wood.--light, soft, weak, close-grained, light red-brown, with thick, nearly white sapwood. distribution.--occurs throughout the entire state, but is more abundant and of greater size in the northern portions. habitat.--prefers river bottom-lands and borders of swamps. notes.--rapid in growth. spreads from the roots. most useful for shelter belts. easily transplanted. propagated from cuttings. [illustration: +hairy balm of gilead. balsam+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . staminate flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flowering branchlet, × / . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +salicaceae+ +hairy balm of gilead. balsam+ _populus candicans ait._ [_populus balsamifera candicans (ait.) gray_] habit.--a tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; more spreading branches than in _p. balsamifera_, forming a broader and more open crown. leaves.--resemble those of _p. balsamifera_, but more broadly heart-shaped and more coarsely serrate; more or less pubescent when young; petioles pubescent. flowers.--similar to those of _p. balsamifera_. fruit.--similar to that of _p. balsamifera_. winter-buds.--terminal bud about inch long, ovoid, long-pointed, dark red-brown, resinous throughout, viscid, very aromatic. bark.--twigs reddish or olive-green, with occasional longitudinal gray lines, covered with a fragrant, gummy secretion, becoming gray-green; dark gray, rough, irregularly striate and firm on old trunks. wood.--resembles that of _p. balsamifera_, but is somewhat heavier. distribution.--indigenous to the northern portions of the state, but often cultivated and occasionally escaping in the southern portion. habitat.--in a great variety of soils and situations. notes.--grows rapidly in all soils and situations. suckers readily from the roots. propagated from cuttings. [illustration: +cottonwood+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . staminate flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate catkin, × / . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +salicaceae+ +cottonwood+ _populus deltoides marsh._ [_populus monilifera ait._] habit.--a stately tree attaining a height of - feet and a trunk diameter of - feet; forming a spreading, open, symmetrical crown of massive, horizontal branches and stout, more or less angled branchlets. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, nearly as broad; broadly deltoid-ovate; coarsely crenate-serrate above the entire base; thick and firm; lustrous, dark green above, paler beneath; petioles - inches long, slender, compressed laterally. flowers.--april-may, before the leaves; dioecious; the staminate in short-stalked, densely-flowered catkins - inches long; the pistillate in short-stalked, few-flowered catkins elongating to - inches; calyx ; corolla ; stamens very numerous, with red anthers; stigmas - , spreading. fruit.--may; - -valved, short-stalked capsules, borne in drooping catkins - inches long; seeds light brown, densely cottony. winter-buds.--terminal bud / inch long, conical, acute, very resinous, shining, brownish. bark.--twigs and young stems smooth, yellow-green; old trunks ashy gray, deeply divided into straight furrows with broad, rounded ridges. wood.--light, soft, weak, close-grained, dark brown, with thick, whitish sapwood; warps badly and is difficult to season. distribution.--entire michigan; rare in the northern portions. habitat.--prefers rich, moist soil; river-banks; river-bottoms; lake-shores; grows well in drier situations. notes.--rapid of growth, consequently an excellent tree for immediate effect. propagated from cuttings. [illustration: +lombardy poplar+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . staminate flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged.] +salicaceae+ +lombardy poplar+ _populus nigra italica duroi_ [_populus fastigiata desf._] [_populus dilatata ait._] habit.--a tree - feet high, with a short, ridged and buttressed trunk - feet in diameter and a narrow, spire-like crown of erect branches. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, and usually somewhat broader than long; broad-deltoid, abruptly acuminate; finely but bluntly crenate-serrate; thick and firm; dark green and shining above, lighter and more or less lustrous beneath; petioles slender, laterally compressed, - inches long. flowers.--april-may, before the leaves; dioecious; the staminate in sessile, dark red, cylindrical catkins about inches long; the pistillate not present in the united states; calyx ; corolla ; stamens about , with white filaments and purple anthers. fruit.--not formed in the united states in the absence of pistillate flowers. winter-buds.--terminal bud conical, slightly angled, taper-pointed, glutinous, about / inch long; lateral buds smaller, appressed. bark.--twigs glabrous, shining yellow, becoming gray; thick and gray-brown on old trunks, deeply and irregularly furrowed. wood.--light, soft, easily worked, not liable to splinter, weak, not durable, light red-brown, with thick, nearly white sapwood. notes.--thought to be a native of afghanistan. very rapid in growth. short-lived. spreads by means of suckers and fallen branches. useful for ornamental purposes. because of crowding the limbs die early, which remain and cause the tree to look unsightly. +summer key to the species of juglans+ a. leaflets - , the terminal usually present; pith of twigs chocolate-brown; bark of trunk rather smooth, or fissured, with broad, flat, whitish ridges; fruit elongated, sticky-downy. _j. cinerea_, p. . aa. leaflets - , the terminal often lacking; pith of twigs cream colored; bark of trunk rough, brownish or blackish, deeply furrowed by broad, rounded ridges; fruit globose, not sticky-downy. _j. nigra_, p. . +winter key to the species of juglans+ a. pith chocolate-brown; leaf-scar with downy pad above; fruit elongated, sticky-downy; terminal bud / - / inch long; bark rather smooth, or fissured, with broad, flat, whitish ridges. _j. cinerea_, p. . aa. pith cream colored; leaf-scar without downy pad above; fruit globose, not sticky-downy; terminal bud / inch long; bark rough, brownish or blackish, deeply furrowed by broad, rounded ridges. _j. nigra_, p. . [illustration: +butternut+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . leaflet, × / . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +juglandaceae+ +butternut+ _juglans cinerea l._ habit.--a medium-sized tree - feet high, with a short trunk - feet in diameter; forming a wide-spreading crown of large, horizontal branches and stout, stiff branchlets. leaves.--alternate, compound, - inches long. leaflets - , - inches long and one-half as broad; sessile, except the terminal; oblong-lanceolate; finely serrate; thin; yellow-green and rugose above, pale and soft-pubescent beneath. petioles stout, hairy. flowers.--may, with the leaves; monoecious; the staminate in cylindrical, greenish, drooping catkins - inches long; calyx -lobed, borne on a hairy bract; corolla ; stamens - , with brown anthers; the pistillate solitary or several on a common peduncle, about / inch long, their bracts and bractlets sticky-hairy; calyx -lobed, hairy; corolla ; styles ; stigmas , fringed, spreading, bright red. fruit.--october; about - / inches long, cylindrical, pointed, greenish, sticky-downy, solitary or borne in drooping clusters of - ; nuts with rough shells, inclosing a sweet, but oily kernel; edible. winter-buds.--terminal bud / - / inch long, oblong-conical, obliquely blunt, somewhat flattened, brownish, pubescent. bark.--twigs orange-brown or bright green, rusty-pubescent, becoming smooth and light gray; gray and smoothish on young trunks, becoming brown on old trunks, narrow-ridged, with wide furrows. wood.--light, soft, weak, coarse-grained, light brown, with thin, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--of common occurrence in the southern half of the lower peninsula. habitat.--prefers low, rich woods; river-banks; low hillsides. notes.--leaves appear late and fall early. pith chambered, chocolate-brown. large trees usually unsound. not easily transplanted. [illustration: +black walnut+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . leaflet, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, back view, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +juglandaceae+ +black walnut+ _juglans nigra l._ habit.--a large tree - feet high, with a massive trunk - feet in diameter; forming an open, capacious crown of heavy branches and coarse branchlets. leaves.--alternate, compound, - feet long. leaflets - , the terminal often lacking, - inches long and one-half as broad; sessile; ovate-lanceolate, taper-pointed; sharp-serrate; thin; yellow-green and glabrous above, lighter and soft-pubescent beneath. petioles stout, pubescent. foliage aromatic when bruised. flowers.--may, with the leaves; monoecious; the staminate in cylindrical, greenish, drooping catkins - inches long; calyx -lobed, borne on a hairy bract; corolla ; stamens numerous, with purple anthers; the pistillate solitary or several on a common peduncle, about / inch long, their bracts and bractlets hairy; calyx -lobed, pubescent; corolla ; styles and stigmas . fruit.--october; globose, - / - inches in diameter, smooth, not viscid; solitary or borne in clusters of - ; nuts with irregularly furrowed shell, inclosing a sweet, edible kernel. winter-buds.--terminal bud / inch long, ovoid, obliquely blunt, slightly flattened, silky-tomentose. bark.--twigs brownish and hairy, becoming darker and smooth; thick, brownish or blackish on the trunk and deeply furrowed by broad, rounded ridges. wood.--heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, very durable in contact with the soil, rich dark brown, with thin, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--lower peninsula as far north as bay city, but more abundant in the southern portion of its range. habitat.--prefers rich bottom-lands and fertile hillsides. notes.--leaves appear late and fall early. fruit very aromatic. pith chambered, cream colored. the juices from the husk stain the hands brown. not easily transplanted. often infested with caterpillars. +summer key to the species of carya+ a. bark of trunk essentially smooth, not deeply furrowed nor shaggy; husk of fruit less than / inch thick. b. leaflets usually - , glabrous beneath; buds dome-shaped, greenish; kernel of nut sweet. c. twigs long-hairy; fruit less than inch long. _c. microcarpa_, p. . cc. twigs glabrous or nearly so; fruit - / - inches long. _c. glabra_, p. . bb. leaflets usually - , more or less downy beneath; buds elongated, bright yellow; kernel of nut bitter. _c. cordiformis_, p. . aa. bark of trunk deeply furrowed or shaggy; husk of fruit more than / inch thick. b. twigs more or less pubescent; leaflets - , more or less pubescent beneath. c. twigs brownish; buds densely hairy; fruit - / - inches long. _c. alba_, p. . cc. twigs orange; buds merely puberulous; fruit - / - - / inches long; (leaflets usually ). _c. laciniosa_, p. . bb. twigs tending to be glabrous; leaflets usually , glabrous beneath. _c. ovata_, p. . +winter key to the species of carya+ a. bark of trunk essentially smooth, not deeply furrowed nor shaggy; husk of fruit less than / inch thick. b. terminal bud narrow, long-pointed, flattish, bright yellow; kernel of nut bitter. _c. cordiformis_, p. . bb. terminal bud broad, dome-shaped, not bright yellow; kernel of nut sweet. c. buds greenish; twigs glabrous; fruit - / - inches long. _c. glabra_, p. . cc. buds red-brown; twigs long-hairy; fruit less than inch long. _c. microcarpa_, p. . aa. bark of trunk deeply furrowed or shaggy; husk of fruit more than / inch thick. b. twigs more or less pubescent; buds more or less pubescent. c. buds / - / inch long, densely hairy; outer bud-scales deciduous in autumn; twigs brownish; fruit - / - inches long. _c. alba_, p. . cc. buds about inch long, merely puberulous; outer bud-scales persistent until spring; twigs orange colored; fruit - / - - / inches long. _c. laciniosa_, p. . bb. twigs tending to be glabrous; buds glabrous or nearly so. _c. ovata_, p. . [illustration: shagbark hickory. shellbark hickory . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +juglandaceae+ +shagbark hickory. shellbark hickory+ _carya ovata (mill.) k. koch_ [_hicoria ovata (mill.) britt._] [_carya alba nutt_.] habit.--a tree - feet high, with a slender, columnar trunk - feet in diameter; forming a narrow, somewhat open crown of stout, slightly spreading limbs and stout branchlets. leaves.--alternate, compound, - inches long. leaflets usually , the upper - inches long and - inches broad; sessile, except the terminal; obovate to oblong-lanceolate; finely serrate; thick and firm; glabrous, dark green above, paler beneath and glabrous or puberulous. petioles stout, smooth or hairy. foliage fragrant when crushed. flowers.--may, after the leaves; monoecious; the staminate hairy, greenish, in pendulous, ternate catkins - inches long, on a common peduncle about inch long; scales -parted, bristle-tipped; stamens , with bearded, yellow anthers; the pistillate in - -flowered spikes, / inch long, brown-tomentose; calyx -lobed, hairy; corolla ; stigmas , large, fringed. fruit.--october; globular, - inches long, with thick husk separating completely; nut usually -ridged, with thick shell and large, sweet, edible kernel. winter-buds.--terminal bud / - / inch long, broadly ovoid, obtuse, dark brown, pale-tomentose or nearly glabrous. bark.--twigs brownish, more or less downy, becoming smooth and grayish; thick and grayish on old trunks, separating into thick strips - feet long, free at one or both ends, giving a characteristic shaggy appearance. wood.--heavy, very hard and strong, tough, close-grained, elastic, light brown, with thin, whitish sapwood. distribution.--common in the lower peninsula as far north as roscommon county. habitat.--prefers light, well-drained, loamy soil; low hillsides; river-banks. notes.--hardy throughout its range. moderately rapid in growth. difficult to transplant. [illustration: shellbark hickory. king nut . winter twig, × / . . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +juglandaceae+ +shellbark hickory. king nut+ _carya laciniosa (michx. f.) loud._ [_hicoria laciniosa (michx. f.) sarg._] [_carya sulcata nutt._] habit.--a tree - feet high, with a tall, slender trunk - feet in diameter; forming a narrow, oblong crown of small, spreading branches. leaves.--alternate, compound, - feet long. leaflets usually , the upper - inches long, - inches broad, larger than the lowest pair; sessile or short-stalked; oblong-lanceolate to obovate, taper-pointed; finely serrate; thick and firm; lustrous, dark green above, paler and soft-pubescent beneath. petioles stout, glabrous or pubescent, often persistent on the branches during the winter. foliage fragrant when crushed. flowers.--may, after the leaves; monoecious; the staminate in pendulous, ternate catkins - inches long, slender, yellow-green, on common peduncles inch long; scales -lobed, tomentose; stamens , with yellow, hairy anthers; the pistillate in crowded, - -flowered spikes, tomentose; calyx -toothed, hairy; corolla ; stigmas , light green. fruit.--october; oblong to subglobose, - / - - / inches long, with very thick, woody husk, splitting to the base; nut - -ridged, with thick, hard shell and large, sweet kernel. winter-buds.--terminal bud about inch long, ovoid, obtuse, dark brown, puberulous. bark.--twigs orange and more or less pubescent, becoming darker in the first winter, and finally grayish; on the trunk - inches thick, light gray, separating into broad, thick plates - feet long, persistent on the trunk for many years. wood.--heavy, very hard, strong, tough, close-grained, very elastic, dark brown, with thin, whitish sapwood. distribution.--occurs in the southern portion of the lower peninsula, but is rather a rare tree. habitat.--prefers deep, rich bottom-lands. notes.--rapid in growth. may be distinguished from other hickories by orange colored branchlets. [illustration: mocker nut hickory . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +juglandaceae+ +mocker nut hickory+ _carya alba (l.) k. koch_ [_hicoria alba (l.) britt._] [_carya tomentosa nutt._] habit.--a tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - - / feet; forming a wide crown of strong, upright branches and stout branchlets. leaves.--alternate, compound, - inches long. leaflets usually - , sometimes , the upper - inches long, - inches broad; sessile, except the terminal; oblong- to obovate-lanceolate; minutely or sometimes coarsely serrate; thick and firm; lustrous, dark yellow-green above, paler and more or less pubescent beneath. petioles pubescent. foliage fragrant when crushed. flowers.--may, after the leaves; monoecious; the staminate in pendulous, ternate catkins - inches long, slender, green, hairy; scales -lobed, hairy; stamens - , with red anthers; the pistillate in crowded, - -flowered, tomentose spikes; calyx toothed, hairy; corolla ; stigmas , hairy. fruit.--october; globose to globose-oblong, - / - inches long, with thick husk splitting nearly to the base; nut -ridged, red-brown, with very thick, hard shell and small, sweet kernel. winter-buds.--terminal bud / - / inch long, broadly ovoid, red-brown, pilose; outermost scales fall in early autumn. bark.--twigs at first brown-tomentose, becoming smooth and grayish; on the trunk thick, hard, grayish, slightly ridged by shallow, irregular fissures, becoming rugged on very old trunks. wood.--very heavy, hard, strong, tough, close-grained, elastic, dark brown, with thick, whitish sapwood. distribution.--southern peninsula as far north as grand rapids and flint. infrequent. habitat.--prefers rich, well-drained soil, but grows well in various situations, if they are not too wet. notes.--hardy throughout its range. difficult to transplant. [illustration: +small pignut hickory+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +juglandaceae+ +small pignut hickory+ _carya microcarpa nutt._ [_hicoria odorata (marsh.) sarg._] [_hicoria microcarpa (nutt.) britt._] [_hicoria glabra, v. odorata sarg._] habit.--a tree usually - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; forming an oblong or sometimes rounded crown of slender, spreading branches. leaves.--alternate, compound, - inches long. leaflets usually - , the upper - inches long, - - / inches broad; sessile, except the terminal; oblong to ovate-lanceolate, long-pointed; sharply serrate; thick and firm; glabrous, dark yellow-green above, lighter beneath. petioles long, glabrous. foliage fragrant when crushed. flowers.--may, after the leaves; monoecious; the staminate in pendulous, ternate catkins - inches long, slender, greenish, glabrous; stamens , with orange anthers; the pistillate in - -flowered spikes, / inch long; calyx -toothed, hairy; corolla ; stigmas , yellow. fruit.--september; subglobose or globose-oblong, less than inch long, with thin husk splitting nearly to the base; nut obscurely -ridged, with thin shell and small, sweet kernel. winter-buds.-- / - / inch long, dome-shaped, red-brown, smooth. bark.--twigs greenish, long-hairy, becoming reddish and finally gray; thick, hard and grayish on the trunk, divided by shallow fissures into narrow plates, and more or less shaggy. wood.--heavy, hard, strong, tough, close-grained, elastic, dark brown, with thick, whitish sapwood. distribution.--confined to the most southern portions of the lower peninsula. habitat.--prefers well-drained slopes and hillsides. notes.--resembles _c. glabra_, but the nut is much smaller. [illustration: +pignut hickory+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +juglandaceae+ +pignut hickory+ _carya glabra (mill.) spach._ [_hicoria glabra (mill.) britt._] [_carya porcina nutt._] habit.--a tree usually - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; forming a low, rather narrow, open crown of slender, often contorted branches. leaves.--alternate, compound, - inches long. leaflets usually - , the upper - inches long, - - / inches broad; subsessile, except the terminal; oblong to obovate-lanceolate, taper-pointed; sharply serrate; thick and firm; glabrous, dark yellow-green above, paler beneath. petioles long, slender, glabrous or pubescent. foliage fragrant when crushed. flowers.--may, after the leaves; monoecious; the staminate in pendulous, ternate catkins - inches long, slender, yellow-green, tomentose; scales -lobed, nearly glabrous; stamens , with orange anthers; the pistillate in crowded, - -flowered spikes, / inch long; calyx -toothed, hairy; corolla ; stigmas , yellow. fruit.--october; variable in size and shape, - / - inches long, with thin husk splitting half-way and sometimes nearly to the base; nut obscurely -ridged, with thin or thick, hard shell and small, sweet or slightly bitter kernel which is hard to remove. winter-buds.--terminal bud / - / inch long, dome-shaped, greenish or grayish, smooth or finely downy. bark.--twigs greenish, nearly glabrous, becoming reddish, and finally grayish; thick, hard and grayish on the trunk, with a firm, close surface divided by small fissures and sometimes broken into plates. wood.--heavy, hard, very strong, tough, close-grained, elastic, dark brown, with thick, whitish sapwood. distribution.--occurs only in the extreme southern portion of the lower peninsula. common within its range. habitat.--prefers deep, rich loam, but grows in any well-drained soil; dry ridges and hillsides. notes.--hardy and desirable for ornamental purposes. difficult to transplant. not adapted to street use. [illustration: +bitternut hickory+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +juglandaceae+ +bitternut hickory+ _carya cordiformis (wang.) k. koch_ [_hicoria minima (marsh.) britt._] [_carya amara nutt._] habit.--a tall, slender tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - - / feet; forming a broad crown of slender, stiff, upright branches, widest near the top. leaves.--alternate, compound, - inches long. leaflets - , the upper - inches long and one-fourth as broad; sessile, except the terminal; lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, long-pointed; coarsely serrate; thin and firm; glabrous, bright green above, paler and more or less downy beneath. petioles slender, hairy. foliage fragrant when crushed. flowers.--may, after the leaves; monoecious; the staminate slightly pubescent, in pendulous, ternate catkins - inches long, on a common peduncle about inch long; scales -lobed, hairy; stamens , with bearded, yellow anthers; the pistillate in - -flowered spikes / inch long, scurfy-tomentose; calyx -lobed, pubescent; corolla ; stigmas , greenish. fruit.--october; obovate to globular, about inch long, coated with yellow, scurfy pubescence, with very thin husk splitting half-way to the base, with sutures winged at the top; nut quite smooth, with thin shell and small, bitter kernel. winter-buds.--terminal bud about / inch long, long-pointed, flattish, granular-yellow; lateral buds more or less -angled. bark.--twigs greenish and more or less downy, becoming brownish, and finally grayish; gray, close, smooth on the trunk, often reticulately ridged, but rarely broken into plates. wood.--heavy, very hard, strong, tough, close-grained, dark brown, with thick, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--of common occurrence in the southern half of the lower peninsula. habitat.--prefers a rich, loamy or gravelly soil; low, wet woods; along the borders of streams; but also found on high, dry uplands. notes.--grows most rapidly of all the hickories, but is apt to show dead branches. should be propagated from the seed, as it is not easily transplanted. [illustration: +hornbeam. ironwood+ . winter twig, × / . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +betulaceae+ +hornbeam. ironwood+ _ostrya virginiana (mill.) k. koch_ habit.--a small tree usually - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - inches; forming a broad, rounded crown of many long, slender branches and a slender, stiff spray. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, about one-half as broad; oblong-ovate; sharply doubly serrate; thin and very tough; dull, dark green above, paler and more or less pubescent beneath; petioles short, slender, pubescent. flowers.--april-may, with the leaves; monoecious; the staminate in drooping, cylindrical catkins from wood of the previous season, usually in threes; stamens - , crowded on a hairy torus; the pistillate in erect, lax catkins on the season's shoots, usually in pairs, each flower inclosed in a hairy, sac-like involucre. fruit.--september; strobiles, resembling clusters of hops, - inches long, borne on slender, hairy stems; nuts small and flat, inclosed by sac-like involucres. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds / - / inch long, ovoid, acute, red-brown. bark.--twigs at first light green, becoming lustrous, red-brown, and finally dull dark brown; thin, gray-brown on the trunk, very narrowly and longitudinally ridged. wood.--heavy, very strong and hard, tough, close-grained, durable, light red-brown, with thick, whitish sapwood. distribution.--common throughout the entire state. habitat.--prefers dry, gravelly slopes and ridges. notes.--often grows in shade of other trees. not easily transplanted. rather slow of growth. too small for street use. [illustration: +blue beech. water beech+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +betulaceae+ +blue beech. water beech+ _carpinus caroliniana walt._ habit.--usually a low, bushy tree or large shrub, - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - inches; trunk short, usually fluted; slender zigzag branches and a fine spray form a close, flat-topped crown. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long and one-half as broad; ovate to oval, long-pointed; sharply doubly serrate; thin and firm; dull green above, lighter beneath, turning scarlet and orange in autumn; petioles short, slender, hairy. flowers.--may, after the leaves; monoecious; apetalous; the staminate catkins - - / inches long, their scales greenish, boat-shaped, each bearing - stamens; the pistillate catkins / - / inch long, their scales hairy, greenish, each bearing pistils with long, scarlet styles. fruit.--ripens in midsummer, but often remains on the tree long after the leaves have fallen; in loose, terminal strobiles; involucre halberd-shaped, inclosing a small, ovate, brownish nut. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds / inch long, narrow-ovoid, acute, puberulous, brownish. bark.--twigs pale green, hairy, becoming lustrous, dark red the first winter; trunk and large limbs thin, smooth, close, dark bluish gray, often mottled with lighter or darker patches. wood.--heavy, hard, tough, very strong, close-grained, light brown, with thick, whitish sapwood. distribution.--common throughout the state. habitat.--prefers a deep, rich, moist soil along the borders of streams and swamps. often found in drier situations in the shade of other trees. notes.--propagated from seed. not easily transplanted. slow of growth. seldom found in masses. +summer key to the species of betula+ a. bark of trunk white, separating freely into thin, papery layers; twigs without wintergreen taste; leaves usually solitary, not aromatic. _b. alba papyrifera_, p. . aa. bark of trunk not white, usually dark colored, not separating freely into papery layers; twigs with more or less wintergreen taste; leaves solitary or in pairs, aromatic. b. bark dirty-yellow, breaking into strips more or less curled at the edges; leaves solitary or in pairs, slightly aromatic; twigs with slight wintergreen taste. _b. lutea_, p. . bb. bark dark red-brown, cleaving off in thick, irregular plates (resembles bark of black cherry); leaves in pairs, strongly aromatic; twigs with strong wintergreen taste. _b. lenta_, p. . +winter key to the species of betula+ a. bark of trunk white, separating freely into thin, papery layers; twigs without wintergreen taste. _b. alba papyrifera_, p. . aa. bark of trunk not white, usually dark colored, not separating into papery layers; twigs with more or less wintergreen taste. b. bark dirty-yellow, breaking into strips more or less curled at the edges; twigs with slight wintergreen taste. _b. lutea_, p. . bb. bark dark red-brown, cleaving off in thick, irregular plates (resembles bark of black cherry); twigs with strong wintergreen taste. _b. lenta_, p. [illustration: +sweet birch. black birch. cherry birch+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruiting branchlet, × / . . fruit, enlarged.] +betulaceae+ +sweet birch. black birch. cherry birch+ _betula lenta l._[f] habit.--a medium-sized tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; slender, wide-spreading, pendulous branches, forming a narrow, rounded, open crown. leaves.--alternate in pairs, simple, - inches long and one-half as broad; outline variable, ovate to oblong-ovate; sharply doubly serrate, with slender, incurved teeth; dull, dark green above, light yellow-green beneath; petioles short, stout, hairy, deeply grooved above; aromatic. flowers.--april, before the leaves; monoecious; the staminate catkins - inches long, slender, pendent, yellowish; the pistillate catkins / - / inch long, erect or suberect, greenish. fruit.--ripens in autumn; sessile, glabrous, erect strobiles, - - / inches long and half as thick; scales glabrous; nuts slightly broader than their wings. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds about / inch long, conical, sharp-pointed, red-brown, divergent. bark.--twigs light green, becoming lustrous, red-brown in their first winter; very dark on old trunks, cleaving off in thick, irregular plates. resembles bark of black cherry. inner bark aromatic, spicy. wood.--heavy, very hard and strong, close-grained, dark red-brown, with thin, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--scattered throughout the state; rare in the south, more abundant and of larger size in the north. habitat.--grows in any situation, but prefers moist, rocky slopes and rich uplands. notes.--hardy throughout its range. easily transplanted. [illustration: +yellow birch. gray birch+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruiting branchlet, × / . . fruit, × .] +betulaceae+ +yellow birch. gray birch+ _betula lutea michx. f._ habit.--a tree - feet high and - feet in trunk diameter; numerous slender, pendulous branches form a broad, open, rounded crown. leaves.--alternate, solitary or in pairs, simple, - inches long and one-half as broad; ovate to oblong-ovate; sharply doubly serrate; dull dark green above, yellow-green beneath; petioles short, slender, grooved, hairy; slightly aromatic. flowers.--april, before the leaves; monoecious; the staminate catkins - inches long, slender, pendent, purplish yellow; the pistillate catkins sessile or nearly so, erect, almost inch long, greenish. fruit.--ripens in autumn; sessile or short-stalked, erect, glabrous strobiles, about inch long and half as thick; scales downy on the back and edges; nut about as broad as the wing. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds about / inch long, conical, acute, chestnut-brown, more or less appressed; bud-scales more or less pubescent. bark.--twigs, branches and young stems smooth, very lustrous, silvery gray or light orange; becoming silvery yellow-gray as the trunk expands and breaking into strips more or less curled at the edges; old trunks becoming gray or blackish, dull, deeply and irregularly fissured into large, thin plates; somewhat aromatic, slightly bitter. wood.--heavy, very strong and hard, close-grained, light brown tinged with red, with thin, whitish sapwood. distribution.--throughout the state, but more abundant and of larger size northward. habitat.--prefers rich, moist uplands, but grows in wet or dry situations. notes.--one of the largest deciduous-leaved trees of michigan. easily transplanted, but not desirable as a street tree. [illustration: +paper birch. canoe birch. white birch+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruiting branchlet, × / . . fruit, × - / .] +betulaceae+ +paper birch. canoe birch. white birch+ _betula alba papyrifera_ (_marsh._) _spach_. [_betula papyrifera marsh._] habit.--a tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet, forming in youth a compact, pyramidal crown of many slender branches, becoming in old age a long, branchless trunk with a broad, open crown, composed of a few large limbs ascending at an acute angle, with almost horizontal branches and a slender, flexible spray. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, - / - inches broad; ovate; coarsely, more or less doubly serrate; thick and firm; glabrous, dark green above, lighter beneath, covered with minute black glands; petioles stout, yellow, glandular, glabrous or pubescent. flowers.--april, before the leaves; monoecious; the staminate catkins clustered or in pairs, - inches long, slender, pendent, brownish; the pistillate catkins about - / inches long, slender, erect or spreading, greenish; styles bright red. fruit.--ripens in autumn; long-stalked, cylindrical, glabrous, drooping strobiles, about - / inches long; scales hairy on the margin; nut narrower than its wing. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds / inch long, narrow-ovoid, acute, flattish, slightly resinous, usually divergent. bark.--twigs dull red, becoming lustrous orange-brown; bark of trunk and large limbs cream-white and lustrous on the outer surface, bright orange on the inner, separating freely into thin, papery layers, becoming furrowed and almost black near the ground. wood.--light, hard, strong, tough, very close-grained, light brown tinged with red, with thick, whitish sapwood. distribution.--lansing and northward. common in central michigan as a small tree. of larger size in the upper peninsula. habitat.--prefers rich, moist hillsides; borders of streams, lakes and swamps; but is also found in drier situations. notes.--a rapid grower in youth. the bark is used by the indians and woodsmen for canoes, wigwams, baskets, torches, etc. [illustration: +beech. white beech+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . bur, opened, × . . nut, × .] +fagaceae+ +beech. white beech+ _fagus grandifolia ehrh._ [_fagus atropunicea_ (_marsh._) _sudw._] [_fagus ferruginea ait._] [_fagus americana sweet_] habit.--a beautiful tree, rising commonly to a height of - feet, with a trunk diameter of - feet; in the forest, tall and slender, with short branches forming a narrow crown, in the open with a short, thick trunk and numerous slender, spreading branches, forming a broad, compact, rounded crown. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, one-half as broad; oblong-ovate, acuminate; coarsely serrate, a vein terminating in each tooth; thin; dark blue-green above, light yellow-green and very lustrous beneath; petioles short, hairy. flowers.--april-may, with the leaves; monoecious; the staminate in globose heads inch in diameter, on long, slender, hairy peduncles, yellow-green; calyx campanulate, - -lobed, hairy; corolla ; stamens - ; the pistillate on short, hairy peduncles in -flowered clusters surrounded by numerous awl-shaped, hairy bracts; calyx urn-shaped, - -lobed; corolla ; ovary -celled; styles . fruit.--ripens in autumn; a prickly bur borne on stout, hairy peduncles, persistent on the branch after the nuts have fallen; nuts usually , / inch long, sharply tetrahedral, brownish; sweet and edible. winter-buds.--nearly inch long, very slender, cylindrical, gradually taper-pointed, brownish, puberulous. bark.--twigs lustrous, olive-green, finally changing through brown to ashy gray; close, smooth, steel-gray on the trunk, often mottled by darker blotches and bands. wood.--hard, tough, strong, very close-grained, not durable, difficult to season, light or dark red, with thin, whitish sapwood. distribution.--common in the lower peninsula, especially in the northern portions; rare in the upper peninsula. habitat.--prefers deep, rich, well-drained loam, but is found and does well on a great variety of soils. notes.--hardy throughout its range. desirable for landscape work because of its clean trunk and limbs, deep shade, and freedom from insect pests. often suckers from the roots. [illustration: +chestnut+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . prickly bur, opened, × / . . nut, × / .] +fagaceae+ +chestnut+ _castanea dentata_ (_marsh._) _borkh._ [_castanea vesca, v. americana michx._] [_castanea sativa, v. americana sarg._] habit.--a tree - feet high, forming a short, straight trunk - feet in diameter, divided not far above the ground into several stout, horizontal limbs and forming a broad, open, rounded crown. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, - inches broad; oblong-lanceolate, long-pointed at the apex; coarsely serrate with stout, incurved, glandular teeth; thin; dull yellow-green above, lighter beneath, glabrous; petioles short, stout, puberulous. flowers.--june-july, after the leaves; monoecious; the staminate catkins - inches long, slender, puberulous, bearing - -flowered cymes of yellow-green flowers; calyx -cleft, pubescent; stamens - ; the androgynous catkins - / - inches long, puberulous, bearing - prickly involucres of pistillate flowers near their base; calyx campanulate, -lobed; styles . fruit.--ripens in autumn; round, thick, prickly burs, about inches in diameter, containing - nuts; nuts compressed, brownish, coated with whitish down at the apex; sweet and edible. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds / inch long, ovoid, acute, brownish. bark.--twigs lustrous, yellow-green, becoming olive-green and finally dark brown; old trunks gray-brown, with shallow fissures and broad, flat ridges. wood.--light, soft, coarse-grained, weak, easily split, very durable in contact with the soil, red-brown, with very thin, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--south-eastern michigan, as far north as st. clair county. abundant in eastern monroe county and wayne county. habitat.--pastures; hillsides; glacial drift; well-drained, gravelly or rocky soil. notes.--a rapid grower and living to a great age. difficult to transplant. subject to a disease which threatens extermination in this country. +summer key to the species of quercus+ a. leaves deeply cut or lobed. b. leaf-lobes acute, bristle-tipped; fruit maturing in the second season. c. lower surface of leaves more or less pubescent. d. leaf-lobes usually ; buds hoary-tomentose; bark of trunk deeply furrowed and scaly; inner bark yellow; cup-scales of acorn hoary-pubescent; nut ovoid; large tree, common in michigan. _q. velutina_, p. . dd. leaf-lobes usually (at apex of the leaf only); buds rusty-hairy; bark of trunk divided into nearly square plates; inner bark not yellow; cup-scales of acorn rusty-tomentose; nut subglobose; shrubby tree, rare in michigan. _q. marilandica_, p. . cc. lower surface of leaves glabrous or nearly so. d. cup of acorn top-shaped or cup-shaped, inclosing one-third to one-half of the nut. e. kernel of nut yellow; buds glabrous, lustrous, slightly angular; inner bark of trunk yellow; trunk provided with pins or stubs of dead branches near the ground. _q. ellipsoidalis_, p. . ee. kernel of nut whitish; buds pubescent above the middle, not angular; inner bark of trunk red; trunk not provided with pins or stubs of branches near the ground. _q. coccinea_, p. . dd. cup of acorn saucer-shaped, inclosing only the base of the nut. e. upper surface of leaves usually lustrous, especially on the lower branches; lowermost branches of trees growing in the open drooping nearly to the ground; nut about / inch long _q. palustris_, p. . ee. upper surface of leaves usually dull; lowermost branches of trees growing in the open not drooping; nut about inch long. _q. rubra_, p. . bb. leaf-lobes rounded, not bristle-tipped; fruit maturing in the first season. c. leaves cut nearly to the midrib by a pair of deep sinuses near the middle of the leaf; branches corky-ridged; nut / - - / inches long, deeply seated in a large, conspicuously fringed cup. _q. macrocarpa_, p. . cc. leaves not cut by a pair of deep sinuses; branches not corky-ridged; nut about / inch long, about one-fourth covered by a thin, tomentose, warty cup. _q. alba_, p. . aa. leaves not deeply cut nor lobed. b. margin of leaf entire to sinuate-crenate, but not toothed; acorns on stalks / - inches long. c. margin of leaf entire, or only slightly undulate; acorns on peduncles / inch long, the nut about / inch long; bark on branches not breaking into large, papery scales. _q. imbricaria_, p. . cc. margin of leaf sinuate-crenate, rarely lobed; acorns on stems - inches long, the nut about inch long; bark on branches breaking into large, papery scales which curl back _q. bicolor_, p. . bb. margin of leaf coarsely toothed; acorns sessile or on stalks less than / inch long. _q. muhlenbergii_, p. . +winter key to the species of quercus+ a. terminal buds usually about / inch long. b. twigs thick-tomentose; entire bud pale-pubescent; branches corky-ridged; cup of acorn conspicuously fringed at the rim. [ ][g] _q. macrocarpa_, p. . bb. twigs glabrous; buds glabrous, or only slightly or partially pubescent; branches without corky ridges; cup of acorn not conspicuously fringed at the rim. c. bark on branches breaking into large, papery scales which curl back; buds pilose above the middle; acorns on pubescent stems - inches long. [ ] _q. bicolor_, p. . cc. bark on branches not breaking into large, papery scales; buds glabrous; acorns sessile or very short-stalked. d. bark of trunk ash-gray or nearly white, flaky; acorns maturing in autumn of first season; kernel of nut sweet. e. buds conical, acute; bud-scales scarious on the margins; nut white-downy at the apex. [ ] _q. muhlenbergii_, p. . ee. buds broadly ovoid, obtuse; bud-scales not scarious on the margins; nut not white-downy at the apex. [ ] _q. alba_, p. . dd. bark of trunk light to dark brown, smoothish or only slightly fissured; acorns maturing in autumn of second season; kernel of nut bitter. e. lateral buds widely divergent; bud-scales scarious on the margins; lowermost branches of trees growing in the open not drooping nearly to the ground. [ ] _q. imbricaria_, p. . ee. lateral buds more or less appressed; bud-scales not scarious on the margins; lowermost branches of trees growing in the open drooping nearly to the ground. [ ] _q. palustris_, p. . aa. terminal buds usually about / inch long (slightly smaller in _q. ellipsoidalis_). b. buds conspicuously hairy or tomentose. c. buds rusty-hairy, acute at the apex; cup-scales of acorn rusty-tomentose; inner bark of trunk not yellow; shrubby tree, rare in michigan. [ ] _q. marilandica_, p. . cc. buds hoary-tomentose, obtuse at the apex; cup-scales of acorn hoary-pubescent; inner bark of trunk yellow; large tree, common in michigan. [ ] _q. velutina_, p. . bb. buds glabrous, or pubescent only above the middle. c. buds strictly glabrous throughout, lustrous; inner bark of trunk yellow or whitish. d. buds obtuse at the apex; trunk provided with pins or stubs of dead branches near the ground; inner bark of trunk yellow; nut / - / inch long, inclosed for one-third to one-half of its length in a top-shaped cup; kernel of nut yellow. [ ] _q. ellipsoidalis_, p. . dd. buds acute at the apex; trunk not provided with pins or stubs of branches near the ground; inner bark of trunk whitish; nut about inch long, inclosed only at the base by a shallow, saucer-shaped cup; kernel of nut white. [ ] _q. rubra_, p. . cc. buds pale-pubescent above the middle, but usually glabrous below, not lustrous; inner bark of trunk red. [ ] _q. coccinea_, p. . [illustration: +white oak+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +fagaceae+ +white oak+ _quercus alba l._ habit.--a large tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; forming a short, thick trunk with stout, horizontal, far-reaching limbs, more or less gnarled and twisted in old age, and a broad, open crown. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, about one-half as broad; obovate to oblong; - -lobed, some with broad lobes and shallow sinuses, others with narrow lobes and deep, narrow sinuses, the lobes usually entire; thin and firm; glabrous, bright green above, pale or glaucous beneath; often persistent on the tree through the winter. flowers.--may, with the leaves; monoecious; the staminate in hairy catkins - inches long; the pistillate sessile or short-peduncled, reddish, tomentose; calyx campanulate, - -lobed, yellow, hairy; corolla ; stamens - , with yellow anthers; stigmas red. fruit.--autumn of first season; sessile or short-stalked acorns; cup with small, brown-tomentose scales, inclosing one-fourth of the nut; nut oblong-ovoid, rounded at the apex, about / inch long, light brown; kernel sweet and edible. winter-buds.--terminal bud / inch long, broadly ovoid, obtuse; scales smooth, dark red-brown. bark.--twigs at first bright green, tomentose, later reddish, and finally ashy gray; thick, light gray or whitish on old trunks, shallowly fissured into broad, flat ridges. wood.--very heavy, strong, hard, tough, close-grained, durable, light brown, with thin, light brown sapwood. distribution.--rare in the upper peninsula, common in the lower peninsula, especially in the lower half. habitat.--grows well in all but very wet soils, in all open exposures. notes.--slow and even of growth. difficult to transplant. [illustration: +bur oak+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +fagaceae+ +bur oak+ _quercus macrocarpa michx._ habit.--a large tree - feet high, with a trunk - feet in diameter; great, spreading branches form a broad, rugged crown. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long and one-half as broad; obovate to oblong, wedge-shaped at the base; crenately lobed, usually cut nearly to the midrib by two opposite sinuses near the middle; thick and firm; dark green and shining above, pale-pubescent beneath; petioles short, stout. flowers.--may, with the leaves; monoecious; the staminate in slender, hairy catkins - inches long; the pistillate sessile or short-stalked, reddish, tomentose; calyx - -lobed, yellow-green, downy; corolla ; stamens - , with yellow anthers; stigmas bright red. fruit.--autumn of first season; sessile or short-stalked acorns; very variable in size and shape; cup typically deep, cup-shaped, tomentose, fringed at the rim, inclosing one-third or all of the nut; nut broad-ovoid, / - - / inches long, brownish, pubescent; kernel white, sweet and edible. winter-buds.--terminal bud / inch long, broadly ovoid or conical, red-brown, pale-pubescent. bark.--twigs yellow-brown, thick-tomentose, becoming ash-gray or brownish; branches with corky ridges; thick and gray-brown on the trunk, deeply furrowed. wood.--heavy, hard, strong, tough, close-grained, very durable, brownish, with thin, pale sapwood. distribution.--common throughout both peninsulas. habitat.--prefers rich, moist soil; bottom-lands; but is tolerant of many soils. notes.--rather slow of growth. difficult to transplant. [illustration: +swamp white oak. swamp oak+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +fagaceae+ +swamp white oak. swamp oak+ _quercus bicolor willd._ [_quercus platanoides (lam.) sudw._] habit.--a large tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; forming a rather open, rugged crown of tortuous, pendulous branches and short, stiff, bushy spray. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, - inches broad; obovate to oblong-obovate; coarsely sinuate-crenate or shallow-lobed; thick and firm; dark green and shining above, whitish and more or less tomentose beneath; petioles stout, about / inch long. flowers.--may, with the leaves; monoecious; the staminate in hairy catkins - inches long; the pistillate tomentose, on long, tomentose peduncles, in few-flowered spikes; calyx deeply - -lobed, yellow-green, hairy; corolla ; stamens - , with yellow anthers; stigmas bright red. fruit.--autumn of first season; acorns on pubescent stems - inches long, usually in pairs; cup cup-shaped, with scales somewhat loose (rim often fringed), inclosing one-third of the nut; nut ovoid, light brown, pubescent at the apex, about inch long; kernel white, sweet, edible. winter-buds.--terminal bud / inch long, broadly ovoid to globose, obtuse; scales light brown, pilose above the middle. bark.--twigs at first lustrous, green, becoming red-brown, finally dark brown and separating into large, papery scales which curl back; thick, gray-brown on the trunk, deeply fissured into broad, flat, scaly ridges. wood.--heavy, hard, strong, tough, coarse-grained, light brown, with thin, indistinguishable sapwood. distribution.--southern half of lower peninsula. habitat.--prefers moist, rich soil bordering swamps and along streams. notes.--fairly rapid in growth and reasonably easy to transplant. [illustration: +chinquapin oak. chestnut oak. yellow oak+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +fagaceae+ +chinquapin oak. chestnut oak. yellow oak+ _quercus muhlenbergii engelm._ [_quercus acuminata (michx.) houba_] habit.--a medium-sized tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; erect, somewhat short branches form a narrow, rounded crown. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, - inches broad; oblong-lanceolate to obovate; coarsely toothed; thick and firm; lustrous, yellow-green above, pale-pubescent beneath; petioles slender, about inch long. flowers.--may, with the leaves; monoecious; the staminate in hairy catkins - inches long; the pistillate sessile or in short spikes, hoary-tomentose; calyx campanulate, - -lobed, yellow, hairy; corolla ; stamens - , with yellow anthers; stigmas red. fruit.--autumn of first season; sessile or short-stalked acorns; cup with small scales, hoary-tomentose, inclosing one-half of the nut; nut ovoid, about / inch long, light brown; kernel sweet, sometimes edible. winter-buds.--terminal bud / inch long, conical, acute; scales chestnut-brown, scarious on the margin. bark.--twigs greenish at first, becoming gray-brown, finally gray or brown; thin, silvery gray or ash colored and flaky on the trunk. wood.--heavy, very hard, strong, close-grained, durable, dark brown, with thin, pale brown sapwood. distribution.--confined to the southern half of the lower peninsula. habitat.--prefers a limestone soil; dry hillsides; rich bottom-lands; rocky river-banks. notes.--grows uniformly until maturity. leaves resemble those of the chestnut. a form which differs from the type in having broader, obovate leaves broadest above the middle and a flaky bark has been described and named _quercus alexanderi britton_. [illustration: +red oak+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +fagaceae+ +red oak+ _quercus rubra l._ habit.--a large tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; forming a broad, rounded crown of a few large, wide-spreading branches and slender branchlets. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, - inches broad; oval to obovate; - -lobed with coarse-toothed, bristle-tipped lobes tapering from broad bases and wide, oblique, rounded sinuses; thin and firm; dull dark green above, paler beneath; petioles stout, - inches long. flowers.--april-may, when the leaves are half grown; monoecious; the staminate in hairy catkins - inches long; the pistillate on short, glabrous peduncles; calyx - -lobed, greenish; corolla ; stamens - , with yellow anthers; stigmas long, spreading, bright green. fruit.--autumn of second season; sessile or short-stalked acorns; cup shallow, saucer-shaped, inclosing only the base of the nut; scales closely appressed, more or less glossy, puberulous, bright red-brown; nut oblong-ovoid with a broad base, about inch long, red-brown; kernel white, very bitter. winter-buds.--terminal bud / inch long, ovoid, acute, light brown, smooth. bark.--twigs lustrous, green, becoming reddish, finally dark brown; young trunks smooth, gray-brown; old trunks darker, shallowly fissured into thin, firm, broad ridges; inner bark light red, not bitter. wood.--heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained, light red-brown, with thin, darker colored sapwood. distribution.--southern portion of lower peninsula as far north as roscommon county. habitat.--prefers rich, moist loam; glacial drift; stream-banks. grows well in all well-drained soils. notes.--grows rapidly. a good street tree. [illustration: +pin oak+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +fagaceae+ +pin oak+ _quercus palustris muench._ habit.--a medium-sized tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; forming an oblong or pyramidal crown of many upright, spreading branches, the lowermost drooping nearly to the ground. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, - inches broad; obovate to ovate; - -lobed by deep, wide, rounded sinuses, the lobes few-toothed, bristle-tipped; thin and firm; very lustrous, dark green above, paler beneath; petioles slender. flowers.--may, with the leaves; monoecious; the staminate in hairy catkins - inches long; the pistillate tomentose, borne on short, tomentose peduncles; calyx - -lobed, hairy; corolla ; stamens - , with yellow anthers; stigmas recurved, bright red. fruit.--autumn of second season; sessile or short-stalked acorns; cup saucer-shaped with scales closely appressed, dark red-brown, inclosing only the base of the nut; nut nearly hemi-spherical, about / inch in diameter, light brown; kernel bitter. winter-buds.--terminal bud / inch long, ovoid or conical, acute, light brown, smooth. bark.--twigs dark red and tomentose at first, becoming lustrous, green, finally gray-brown; thick, gray-brown and smoothish on the trunk. wood.--heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained, light brown, with thin, darker colored sapwood. distribution.--confined to the most southern portions of the lower peninsula. habitat.--prefers moist, rich soil; river-bottoms; borders of swamps. notes.--grows rapidly and uniformly. easily transplanted. the tiny branchlets at a distance give the impression of the tree being full of pins. [illustration: +scarlet oak+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +fagaceae+ +scarlet oak+ _quercus coccinea muench._ habit.--a tree - feet high and - inches in trunk diameter; long, slender branches form a rather open, rounded crown. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long and nearly as broad; broadly obovate to oval; - -lobed by deep, wide, rounded sinuses, the lobes toothed and bristle-tipped; thin and firm; shining, bright green above, paler beneath, both sides glabrous; turning brilliant scarlet in autumn; petioles slender, - inches long. flowers.--may, with the leaves; monoecious; the staminate in glabrous catkins - inches long; the pistillate on pubescent peduncles / inch long, bright red, pubescent; calyx - -lobed, reddish, pubescent; corolla ; stamens usually , with yellow anthers; stigmas long, spreading, bright red. fruit.--autumn of second season; sessile or short-stalked acorns; cup top-shaped to cup-shaped, with closely imbricated, slightly puberulous, red-brown scales, inclosing about one-half of the nut; nut usually short-ovoid, / - / inch long, light red-brown; kernel whitish, bitter. winter-buds.--terminal bud about / inch long, broadly ovoid, acute, dark red-brown, pale-pubescent above the middle. bark.--twigs at first scurfy-pubescent, later lustrous, green, finally smooth, light brown; thick, dark gray or brown on old trunks, shallowly fissured, scaly; inner bark red, not bitter. wood.--heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained, light red-brown, with thick, darker brown sapwood. distribution.--lower peninsula, southern half. habitat.--prefers a light, dry, sandy soil. notes.--rapid of growth. desirable for ornamental planting. [illustration: +hill's oak. northern pin oak. black oak+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +fagaceae+ +hill's oak. northern pin oak. black oak+ _quercus ellipsoidalis e. j. hill_ habit.--a tree - feet high, with a short trunk - feet in diameter; forming a rather narrow, oblong crown of upright and horizontal branches. many small, drooping branches are sent out near the ground, which eventually die; and it is to the stubs or pins which persist about the trunk that the appelation pin oak is due. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long and about as broad; oval to nearly orbicular; narrowly - -lobed by deep, wide, rounded sinuses, the lobes few-toothed, bristle-tipped; thin and firm; lustrous, bright green above, paler beneath, both sides glabrous except for the tufts of hairs in the axils of the veins beneath; petioles slender, glabrous. flowers.--may, with the leaves; monoecious; the staminate in puberulous catkins - inches long; the pistillate red, tomentose, borne on stout, tomentose, - -flowered peduncles; calyx - -lobed or-parted, glabrous except at the apex, which is fringed with long, twisted hairs; corolla ; stamens - , with short filaments; stigmas , recurved, dark red. fruit.--autumn of second season; short-stalked or nearly sessile acorns; cup top-shaped, with scales thin, puberulous, inclosing one-third to one-half of the nut; nut ellipsoid, / - / inch long, light brown, puberulous; kernel yellow, bitter. winter-buds.--terminal bud / - / inch long, ovoid, rather obtuse, slightly angular, lustrous, red-brown. bark.--twigs bright red-brown, covered with matted, pale hairs, becoming glabrous, dark gray or brown; thin, dull gray to dark brown, rather smooth or closely ribbed on the trunk; inner bark yellow. wood.--heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained, red-brown, with thin, paler sapwood. distribution.--south-western part of the lower peninsula, but limits not definitely known. habitat.--well-drained uplands, especially on clays; occasionally on the borders of ponds and in low woods. notes.--a new and comparatively little known species. [illustration: +yellow oak. black oak+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +fagaceae+ +yellow oak. black oak+ _quercus velutina lam._ habit.--a medium-sized tree - feet high and - feet in trunk diameter; slender branches and stout branchlets form a wide-spreading, rounded crown. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, - inches broad; ovate to oblong; usually -lobed, some with shallow sinuses and broad, rounded, mucronate lobes, others with wide, rounded sinuses extending half-way to the midrib or farther and narrow-oblong or triangular, bristle-tipped lobes, the lobes more or less coarse-toothed, each tooth bristle-tipped; thick and leathery; dark green and shining above, pale and more or less pubescent beneath; petioles stout, yellow, - inches long. flowers.--may, when the leaves are half grown; monoecious; the staminate in pubescent catkins - inches long; the pistillate reddish, on short, tomentose peduncles; calyx acutely - -lobed, reddish, hairy; corolla ; stamens usually - , with acute, yellow anthers; stigmas , divergent, red. fruit.--autumn of second season; sessile or short-stalked acorns; cup cup-shaped or turbinate, inclosing about one-half of the nut; scales thin, light brown, hoary; nut ovoid, / - / inch long, red-brown, often pubescent; kernel yellow, bitter. winter-buds.--terminal bud / inch long, ovoid to conical, obtuse, strongly angled, hoary-tomentose. bark.--twigs at first scurfy-pubescent, later glabrous, red-brown, finally mottled gray; thick and nearly black on old trunks, deeply furrowed and scaly; inner bark thick, yellow, very bitter. wood.--heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained, bright red-brown, with thin, paler sapwood. distribution.--southern half of the lower peninsula. habitat.--prefers glacial drift; dry or gravelly uplands; poor soils. notes.--rapid of growth. undesirable for street use. [illustration: +black jack+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +fagaceae+ +black jack+ _quercus marilandica muench._ habit.--a small, shrubby tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - inches; spreading, often contorted branches form a rounded or obovoid crown. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long and broad; broad-obovate; more or less -lobed at the apex, the lobes entire or toothed, bristle-tipped, very variable in size and shape; thick and leathery; very lustrous and dark green above, yellowish and scurfy-pubescent beneath; petioles short, stout. flowers.--may, with the leaves; monoecious; the staminate in slender, hoary catkins - inches long; the pistillate rusty-tomentose, on short, rusty-tomentose peduncles; calyx - -lobed, thin, scarious, tinged with red, pale-pubescent; corolla ; stamens , with apiculate, red anthers; stigmas recurved, dark red. fruit.--autumn of second season; short-stalked acorns; cup turbinate, with large, red-brown, rusty-tomentose scales, inclosing about one-half of the nut; nut subglobose, about / inch long, yellow-brown, puberulous; kernel yellowish. winter-buds.--terminal bud / inch long, ovoid, acute, prominently angled; scales light red-brown, rusty-hairy. bark.--twigs at first light red and scurfy, later glabrous, red-brown, and finally brown or ashy gray; thick and almost black on the trunk, divided into nearly square plates. wood.--heavy, hard, strong, dark brown, with thick, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--southern michigan (ann arbor and lansing). habitat.--dry, sandy or clay barrens. notes.--rare in michigan. [illustration: +shingle oak+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +fagaceae+ +shingle oak+ _quercus imbricaria michx._ habit.--a tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; forming a rather open, rounded crown of slender, horizontal branches. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, - inches broad; oblong-lanceolate to oblong-obovate; entire or somewhat undulate; thin, very lustrous, dark green above, paler and pubescent beneath; petioles stout, pubescent, / inch long. flowers.--may, with the leaves; monoecious; the staminate in slender, hoary-tomentose catkins - inches long; the pistillate on slender, tomentose peduncles; calyx -lobed, yellow, downy; corolla ; stamens - , with yellow anthers; stigmas short, recurved, greenish yellow. fruit.--autumn of second season; acorns on stout peduncles / inch long; cup cup-shaped, with red-brown, downy scales, inclosing one-third to one-half of the nut; nut subglobose, about / inch long, dark brown, often striate; kernel very bitter. winter-buds.--terminal bud / inch long, ovoid, acute, lustrous, brown. bark.--twigs lustrous, dark green, becoming brown; thick on old trunks, light brown and slightly fissured. wood.--heavy, hard, coarse-grained, light red-brown, with thin, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--of rare occurrence in michigan. reported in kalamazoo, st. joseph and washtenaw counties, lower peninsula. habitat.--rich uplands; fertile river-bottoms. notes.--desirable for ornamental uses. hardy. rapid of growth. +summer key to the species of ulmus+ a. leaves essentially smooth on both sides; branches often with corky, wing-like ridges; lowermost branches usually short and strongly drooping; main trunk usually continuous into the crown without dividing, giving to the tree a narrow-oblong outline. _u. racemosa_, p. . aa. leaves usually rough on one or on both sides; branches without corky ridges; lowermost branches not short, not strongly drooping; main trunk usually dividing into several large limbs, giving to the tree a more or less vase-shaped outline. b. leaves usually rough above, but smooth beneath, with petioles glabrous; bark of trunk gray, deeply fissured into broad, scaly ridges; inner bark not mucilaginous. _u. americana_, p. . bb. leaves usually rough both sides, with petioles hairy; bark of trunk dark red-brown, shallowly fissured into large, loose plates; inner bark mucilaginous. _u. fulva_, p. . +winter key to the species of ulmus+ a. buds conspicuously rusty-tomentose; twigs more or less pubescent; inner bark very mucilaginous when chewed. _u. fulva_, p. . aa. buds not conspicuously rusty-tomentose; twigs glabrous; inner bark not mucilaginous. b. bundle-scars usually ; buds / inch long, glabrous; twigs without corky ridges; outline of tree vase-shaped. _u. americana_, p. . bb. bundle-scars usually - in a curved line; buds / inch long, somewhat pilose; twigs often with corky ridges; outline of tree narrow-oblong. _u. racemosa_, p. . [illustration: +slippery elm. red elm+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × . . flowering branchlet, × . . perfect flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +urticaceae+ +slippery elm. red elm+ _ulmus fulva michx._ [_ulmus pubescens walt._] habit.--a medium-sized tree - feet high, with a short trunk - feet in diameter; spreading branches form a broad, open, flat-topped crown. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, about one-half as broad; ovate-oblong; coarsely doubly serrate; thick and firm; dark green and rough above, paler and somewhat rough beneath; petioles short, stout, hairy. flowers.--march-april, before the leaves; mostly perfect; borne on short pedicels in crowded fascicles; calyx campanulate, - -lobed, green, hairy; corolla ; stamens - , with dark red anthers; stigmas , reddish purple. fruit.--may; semi-orbicular, -seeded samaras, short-stalked in dense clusters; seed cavity brown-tomentose; wings smooth, nearly / inch long. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds ovoid, obtuse, dark brown, rusty-tomentose, / inch long. bark.--twigs at first bright green and pubescent, becoming light to dark brown or grayish; thick on old trunks, dark red-brown, shallowly fissured into large, loose plates; inner bark mucilaginous. wood.--heavy, hard, strong, very close-grained, durable, easy to split while green, dark red-brown, with thin, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--of frequent occurrence throughout the state. habitat.--prefers stream-banks and bottom-lands; rich, moist hillsides; rocky ridges and slopes. notes.--grows more rapidly than _u. americana_. [illustration: +white elm. american elm. water elm+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +urticaceae+ +white elm. american elm. water elm+ _ulmus americana l._ habit.--a tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; commonly dividing - feet above the ground into a few large branches which rise upward and outward to form a vase-shaped outline. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, one-half as broad; obovate-oblong to oval; coarsely doubly serrate; thick and firm; dark green and rough above, pale and pubescent or glabrous beneath; petioles short and stout. flowers.--march-april, before the leaves; mostly perfect; small, brown to red; borne on slender pedicels in loose fascicles; calyx campanulate, - -lobed; corolla ; stamens - , with bright red anthers; ovary -celled; styles , green. fruit.--may; ovate, -seeded samaras, smooth both sides, hairy on the margin, / inch long, long-stemmed in crowded clusters. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds ovoid, acute, flattened, glabrous, brown, / inch long. bark.--twigs at first light green and downy, becoming glabrous, red-brown, finally ash-gray; on old trunks thick, ash-gray, deeply fissured into broad, scaly ridges. wood.--heavy, hard, strong, tough, difficult to split, coarse-grained, light brown, with thick, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--common throughout the state. habitat.--prefers deep, rich, moist loam; bottom-lands; stream-banks. notes.--grows rapidly. long-lived. the roots run along near the surface of the ground for a great distance. an ideal street tree. [illustration: +cork elm. rock elm+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × . . flowering branchlet, × . . flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +urticaceae+ +cork elm. rock elm+ _ulmus racemosa thomas_ [_ulmus thomasi sarg._] habit.--a large tree sometimes reaching a height of feet and a trunk diameter of feet, but usually somewhat smaller; strongly drooping lateral and lower branches form a narrow, oblong crown. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, one-half as broad; obovate to oblong-oval, more or less dished; coarsely doubly serrate; thick and firm; lustrous, dark green above, pale-pubescent beneath; petioles pubescent, / inch long. flowers.--march-april, before the leaves; mostly perfect; greenish; borne on slender, drooping pedicels in loose racemes; calyx campanulate, - -lobed; corolla ; stamens - , with purple anthers; ovary hairy, -styled. fruit.--may; ovate, -seeded samaras, pubescent all over, / inch long. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds ovoid, acute, brown, pilose, / inch long. bark.--twigs at first light brown and pubescent, becoming lustrous, red-brown, finally gray-brown with corky, wing-like ridges; thick and grayish on the trunk, with wide fissures separating broad, flat, scaly ridges. wood.--heavy, very strong and tough, close-grained, light red-brown, with thick, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--frequent in the southern third of the lower peninsula. habitat.--dry, gravelly uplands; rocky ridges and slopes; heavy clay soils; river-banks. notes.--a good street tree, but less graceful in habit than _u. americana_. [illustration: +hackberry. nettle-tree+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +urticaceae+ +hackberry. nettle-tree+ _celtis occidentalis l._ habit.--a medium-sized tree, - feet high, with a short, straight trunk - feet in diameter which branches a few feet from the ground into a few large limbs and many slender, horizontal, zigzag branches, forming a broad, rounded crown. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long and one-half as broad; ovate to ovate-lanceolate, oblique at the base, usually long-pointed; coarsely serrate above the entire base; thin; glabrous, light green above, paler beneath, turning light yellow late in autumn; petioles short, slender, hairy. flowers.--may, with or soon after the leaves; polygamo-monoecious; greenish; inconspicuous; on slender pedicels; the staminate in clusters at the base of the shoot, the pistillate usually solitary in the axils of the upper leaves; calyx greenish, deeply -lobed; corolla ; stamens ; ovary -celled. fruit.--september-october, remaining on the tree through the winter; slender-stalked, fleshy, globular drupes, / inch long, dark purple; edible. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds light brown, / inch long, ovoid, acute, flattened, the tip appressed. bark.--twigs greenish, puberulous, becoming lustrous, red-brown in their first winter; on old trunks thick, light brown or silvery gray, broken into deep, short ridges or warty excrescences. wood.--heavy, soft, coarse-grained, weak, light yellow, with thick, whitish sapwood. distribution.--common throughout the lower peninsula. habitat.--prefers rich, moist, well-drained soil, but will grow on gravelly or rocky hillsides. common along river-banks. notes.--hardy throughout its range. grows slowly and irregularly in youth. easily transplanted. not desirable as a street tree, but appears well in ornamental grounds. very tolerant of shade. [illustration: +osage orange+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . staminate flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flowering branchlet, × / . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +urticaceae+ +osage orange+ _maclura pomifera (raf.) schneider_ [_toxylon pomiferum raf._] [_maclura aurantiaca nutt._] habit.--a tree - feet high, with a short trunk - feet in diameter; divides into a few large limbs with curving branches, forming a symmetrical, rounded crown. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, - inches broad; ovate to oblong-lanceolate; entire; thick and firm; dark green and shining above, paler beneath; petioles slender, pubescent, - / - inches long. flowers.--june, after the leaves; dioecious; the staminate slender-pedicelled, borne in a dense raceme at the end of long, slender, drooping peduncles; the pistillate in dense, globose heads at the end of short, stout peduncles; calyx -lobed, hairy; corolla ; stamens ; style covered with white, stigmatic hairs. fruit.--autumn; pale green, orange-like, - inches in diameter, composed of numerous small drupes, crowded and grown together. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds depressed-globular, partly hidden in the bark, pale brown. bark.--twigs at first bright green, pubescent, becoming orange-brown and armed with stout, straight, axillary spines; dark orange-brown on the trunk and deeply furrowed. wood.--heavy, very hard and strong, flexible, coarse-grained, very durable, bright orange, with thin, lemon colored sapwood. notes.--a native of the south, but hardy throughout michigan. a desirable ornamental tree. extensively planted for hedges. [illustration: +red mulberry+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × . . spike of staminate flowers, × . . staminate flower, enlarged. . spike of pistillate flowers, × . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +urticaceae+ +red mulberry+ _morus rubra l._ habit.--a small tree - feet high, with a short trunk - inches in diameter; forming a dense, round-topped crown of stout, spreading branches and more or less zigzag, slender branchlets. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, nearly as broad; outline variable, ovate to semi-orbicular, often - -lobed; coarsely serrate; thin; dark blue-green and smooth or rough above, pale and more or less downy beneath; petioles - inches long, smooth, exuding a milky juice when cut. flowers.--may, with the leaves; monoecious or dioecious; the staminate in dense spikes - inches long, on short, hairy peduncles; the pistillate in dense spikes about inch long, on short, hairy peduncles; calyx -lobed, hairy; corolla ; stamens , with green anthers; stigmas , spreading. fruit.--july; inch long; consisting of drupes about / inch long, each inclosed in a thickened, fleshy calyx; berry-like; bright red at first, finally blackish; sweet, juicy, edible. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds ovoid, abruptly pointed, / inch long, lustrous, light brown. bark.--twigs greenish and more or less downy, becoming smooth and brownish; trunk dark brown tinged with red and more or less furrowed. wood.--light, soft, weak, rather tough, coarse-grained, very durable, pale orange, with thick, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--southern portion of the lower peninsula, as far north as the muskegon river. habitat.--prefers rich soil in river-bottoms. notes.--easily transplanted. grows rapidly in good, moist soil. [illustration: +tulip poplar. tulip-tree. white-wood+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . fruit (opened and partly disseminated), × / .] +magnoliaceae+ +tulip poplar. tulip-tree. white-wood+ _liriodendron tulipifera l._ habit.--a large tree - feet high, with a columnar trunk - feet in diameter; forming a rather open, conical crown of slender branches. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long and broad; -lobed; entire; lustrous, dark green above, pale or glaucous beneath, turning clear yellow in autumn; petioles slender, angled, - inches long. flowers.--may-june, after the leaves; perfect; terminal; solitary on stout peduncles; tulip-shaped, greenish yellow, - / - inches long; sepals , greenish, early deciduous; petals , in rows, greenish yellow with an orange spot at the base, early deciduous; stamens numerous, somewhat shorter than the petals; pistils numerous, clinging together about a central axis; ovary -celled. fruit.--september-october; a narrow, light brown cone - / - inches long, composed of numerous carpels; carpels long, flat, with a - -seeded nutlet at the base, separating from the slender spindle at maturity. winter-buds.--terminal bud / - inch long, obtuse, flattish, dark red, covered with a glaucous bloom. bark.--twigs smooth, lustrous, reddish, becoming brownish, and at length gray; ashy gray, thin and scaly on young trunks, becoming thick, brownish, and deeply furrowed with age. wood.--light, soft, brittle, weak, easily worked, light yellow or brown, with thin, cream-white sapwood. distribution.--lower peninsula south of the grand river. formerly common, but becoming rare. habitat.--prefers deep, rich, rather moist soil, but adapts itself readily to any good, light soil. notes.--difficult to transplant, but rapid of growth when once established. not disfigured by insect enemies. good for ornamental planting. [illustration: +sassafras+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaves, × / . . staminate flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flowering branchlet, × / . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +lauraceae+ +sassafras+ _sassafras variifolium (salisb.) ktse._ [_sassafras sassafras (l.) karst._] [_sassafras officinale nees & eberm._] habit.--usually a large shrub, but often a small tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - inches; stout, often contorted branches and a bushy spray form a flat, rather open crown. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, - inches broad; oval to oblong or obovate; entire or - -lobed with deep, broad sinuses and finger-like lobes; thin; dull dark green above, paler beneath; petioles slender, about inch long. flowers.--may, with the leaves; dioecious; greenish yellow; on slender pedicels, in loose, drooping, few-flowered racemes inches long; calyx deeply -lobed, yellow-green; corolla ; stamens of staminate flower , in rows, of pistillate flower , in row; ovary -celled. fruit.--september-october; an oblong-globose, lustrous, dark blue berry, / inch long, surrounded at the base by the scarlet calyx, borne on club-shaped, bright red pedicels. winter-buds.--terminal buds / inch long, ovoid, acute, greenish, soft-pubescent, flower-bearing; lateral buds much smaller, sterile or leaf-bearing. aromatic. bark.--twigs glabrous, lustrous, yellow-green, spicy-aromatic, becoming red-brown and shallowly fissured when - years old; thick, dark red-brown and deeply and irregularly fissured into firm, flat ridges on old trunks. wood.--soft, weak, brittle, coarse-grained, very durable in the soil, aromatic, dull orange-brown, with thin, light yellow sapwood. distribution.--southern portion of lower peninsula as far north as grayling. habitat.--prefers well-drained, stony or sandy soil; woods; abandoned fields; peaty swamps. notes.--rapid of growth. suckers freely. difficult to transplant. propagated easily from seed. [illustration: +sycamore. button-wood. buttonball-tree+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, side view, × . . vertical section of twig, summer bud and leaf petiole, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / . . achene, enlarged.] +platanaceae+ +sycamore. button-wood. buttonball-tree+ _platanus occidentalis l._ habit.--a large tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; commonly dividing near the ground into several large secondary trunks, forming a broad, open, irregular crown of massive, spreading branches. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long and broad; broadly ovate in outline; more or less - -lobed by broad, shallow sinuses, the lobes sinuate-toothed; thin and firm; bright green above, paler beneath, glabrous both sides; petioles stout, puberulous, - inches long. flowers.--may, with the leaves; monoecious; borne in dense heads; the staminate dark red, on short, axillary peduncles; the pistillate greenish, on long, slender, terminal peduncles; sepals - , minute; petals - , minute; stamens - , usually ; styles long, incurved, red. fruit.--october, persistent on the limbs through the winter; brown heads about inch in diameter, on slender, glabrous stems - inches long. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds / - / inch long, conical, blunt, lustrous, pale brown; forming in summer within the petiole of the leaf. bark.--twigs pale green and tomentose, becoming smooth, dark green, finally grayish; thick, red-brown on the trunk and broken into oblong, plate-like scales, separating higher up into thin plates which peel off, exposing the greenish or yellowish inner bark. wood.--heavy, tough, hard, rather weak, coarse-grained, difficult to split, light red-brown, with thick, darker colored sapwood. distribution.--lower peninsula as far north as roscommon county. habitat.--prefers rich bottom-lands along the borders of rivers and lakes. notes.--rapid of growth. bears transplanting well. often planted as a shade tree. fungous diseases disfigure it seriously. +summer key to the species of pyrus+ a. leaves simple; fruit a light green pome an inch or more in diameter; branches contorted, bearing many short, spur-like branchlets. _p. coronaria_, p. . aa. leaves compound; fruit berry-like, / inch in diameter, bright red; branches not contorted, not bearing many short, spur-like branchlets. _p. americana_, p. . +winter key to the species of pyrus+ a. bundle-scars or in compound, but distinct groups; buds / - / inch long; branches contorted, bearing many short, spur-like branchlets; fruit a pome an inch or more in diameter, light green. _p. coronaria_, p. . aa. bundle-scars -many in a single u-shaped line, not forming distinct groups; buds about / inch long; branches not contorted, not bearing many short, spur-like branchlets; fruit berry-like, / inch in diameter, bright red. _p. americana_, p. . [illustration: +sweet crab. american crab+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . vertical section of flower with petals removed, × / . . fruit, × / .] +rosaceae+ +sweet crab. american crab+ _pyrus coronaria l._ [_malus coronaria mill._] habit.--often a bushy shrub, but frequently a small tree - feet high, with a trunk - inches in diameter; forming a broad, rounded crown of rigid, contorted branches bearing many short, spur-like branchlets. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, almost as broad; ovate to nearly triangular; sharply and deeply serrate, sometimes lobed; membranaceous; bright green above, paler beneath, glabrous both sides; petioles long, slender, often with two dark glands near the middle. flowers.--may, after the leaves; perfect; - / - inches across; very fragrant; borne on slender pedicels in - -flowered umbels; calyx urn-shaped, -lobed, tomentose; petals , rose colored to white; stamens - ; ovary hairy; styles . fruit.--october; a depressed-globose pome, - - / inches in diameter, pale green, very fragrant, with a waxy surface. winter-buds.--terminal bud / - / inch long, obtuse, bright red; lateral buds smaller. bark.--twigs at first hoary-tomentose, becoming glabrous, red-brown; thin, red-brown, breaking into longitudinal fissures on the trunk. wood.--heavy, rather soft, close-grained, weak, red-brown, with thick, yellow sapwood. distribution.--southern portion of the lower peninsula as far north as roscommon county. habitat.--rich, moist, but well-drained soil in thickets and along streams. notes.--an excellent ornamental tree or shrub for small gardens and shrubberies. the fruit is sometimes gathered for making preserves. [illustration: +mountain ash+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . vertical section of flower, enlarged. . portion of a fruiting cyme, × .] +rosaceae+ +mountain ash+ _pyrus americana (marsh.) dc._ [_sorbus americana marsh._] habit.--a small tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of not over a foot; branches slender, spreading, forming a narrow, rounded crown. leaves.--alternate, compound, - inches long. leaflets - , - inches long and / - / inch broad; sessile or nearly so, except the terminal; lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, taper-pointed; finely and sharply serrate above the entire base; membranaceous; glabrous, dark yellow-green above, paler beneath, turning clear yellow in autumn. petioles slender, grooved, enlarged at the base. flowers.--may-june, after the leaves; perfect; / inch across; borne on short, stout pedicels in many-flowered, flat cymes - inches across; calyx urn-shaped, -lobed, puberulous; petals , white; stamens numerous; styles - . fruit.--october, but persistent on the tree throughout the winter; a berry-like pome, subglobose, / inch in diameter, bright red, with thin, acid flesh; eaten by birds in the absence of other food. winter-buds.--terminal bud about / inch long, ovoid, acute, with curved apex; lateral buds smaller, appressed; scales rounded on the back, purplish red, more or less pilose above, gummy. bark.--twigs at first red-brown and hairy, becoming glabrous, dark brown; thin, light gray-brown on the trunk, smooth, or slightly roughened on old trees; inner bark fragrant. wood.--light, soft, close-grained, weak, pale brown, with thick, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--ludington and northward, principally along the shore of l. michigan, but common throughout the upper peninsula. habitat.--prefers rich, moist soil on river-banks and on the borders of cold swamps; rocky hillsides and mountains. notes.--more often a shrub. easily transplanted, but slow of growth. one of the most beautiful trees of our northern forests. [illustration: +serviceberry+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × . . flowering branchlet, × / . . vertical section of flower, enlarged. . fruiting branchlet, × / .] +rosaceae+ +serviceberry+ _amelanchier canadensis (l.) medic._ habit.--a small tree - feet in height, with a tall trunk - inches in diameter; forming a narrow, rounded crown of many small limbs and slender branchlets. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long and about one-half as broad; ovate to obovate; finely and sharply serrate; glabrous, dark green above, paler beneath; petioles slender, about inch long. flowers.--april, when the leaves are about one-third grown; perfect; large, white, borne in drooping racemes - inches long; calyx -cleft, campanulate, villous on the inner surface; petals , strap-shaped, white, about inch in length; stamens numerous; styles , united below. fruit.--june-august; globular, berry-like pome, / - / inch long; turning from bright red to dark purple with slight bloom; sweet and edible when ripe. winter-buds.--yellow-brown, narrow-ovoid to conical, sharp-pointed, / - / inch long; bud-scales apiculate, slightly pubescent. bark.--twigs smooth, light green, becoming red-brown; thin, pale red-brown on the trunk, smoothish or divided by shallow fissures into narrow, longitudinal, scaly ridges. wood.--heavy, very hard, strong, close-grained, dark red-brown, with thick, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--common throughout the state. habitat.--prefers rich soil of dry, upland woods and hillsides. notes.--hardy throughout the state. grows in all soils and situations except in wet lands. [illustration: +dotted haw+ _crataegus punctata jacq._ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × . . flowering branchlet, × / . . vertical section of flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +rosaceae+ +the haws, thorns, hawthorns or thorn-apples+ _crataegus l._ owing to the complexity of the various forms in this group, the present state of uncertainty as to the value of certain characters, and the questionable validity of many of the assigned names, it is thought to be beyond the scope of this bulletin to give more than a general description of the group as a whole, recommending the more ambitious student to the various manuals and botanical journals and papers for more detailed information. the _crataegi_ are generally low, wide-spreading trees or shrubs, with strong, tortuous branches and more or less zigzag branchlets usually armed with stiff, sharp thorns. the bark varies from dark red to gray and is shallowly fissured or scaly. the leaves are alternate, simple, generally serrate, often lobed, with short or long petioles. the flowers appear in may or june, with or after the leaves, in simple or compound corymbs, whitish or pinkish, perfect. the fruit is a red to yellow, sometimes blue or black pome, subglobose to pear-shaped, with usually dry and mealy flesh and - seeds. the winter-buds are small, nearly globose, lustrous brown. _crataegus_ produces wood which is heavy, hard, tough, close-grained, red-brown, with thick, pale sapwood. the haws are trees of the pasture-lands, the roadside, the open woods and the stream-banks, and are more common in the southern than in the northern portions of the state. some of the species are desirable as ornaments in parks and gardens on account of their beautiful and abundant flowers and showy fruits. +summer key to the species of prunus+ a. leaves oblong-ovate to obovate, abruptly acuminate at the apex; marginal teeth not incurved. b. margin of leaves sharp-serrate with spreading teeth; leaves not rugose, the veins not prominent; fruit / - / inch long, bright red, racemose, july-august; bark of trunk brown, smooth or only slightly fissured; usually a large shrub. _p. virginiana_, p. . bb. margin of leaves crenate-serrate; leaves more or less rugose, the veins prominent; fruit about inch long orange-red, clustered, august-september; bark of trunk gray-brown, early splitting off in large, thick plates; a small tree. _p. nigra_, p. . aa. leaves oval to oblong-lanceolate, taper-pointed at the apex; marginal teeth incurved. b. fruit light red, clustered, july-august; twigs usually less than / inch thick; pith of twigs brown; tree northern. _p. pennsylvanica_, p. . bb. fruit black, racemose, august-september; twigs usually more than / inch thick; pith of twigs white; tree southern. _p. serotina_, p. . +winter key to the species of prunus+ a. terminal bud present; bark of young trunks rather smooth. b. buds clustered at the tips of all shoots; twigs usually less than / inch thick; pith of twigs brown. _p. pennsylvanica_, p. . bb. buds not clustered, or clustered only on short, spur-like branchlets; twigs usually more than / inch thick; pith of twigs white. c. buds usually / inch or less in length; bud-scales uniform in color, apiculate at the apex; bark on old trunks blackish, rough-scaly; small to large tree. _p. serotina_, p. . cc. buds usually / - / inch long; bud-scales grayish on the margins, rounded at the apex; bark on old trunks brown, smooth or only slightly fissured; usually a large shrub. _p. virginiana_, p. . aa. terminal bud absent; bark of young trunks early splitting off in large, thick plates. _p. nigra_, p. . [illustration: +black cherry+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . margin of leaf, enlarged. . flowering branchlet, × / . . vertical section of flower, enlarged. . fruiting branchlet, × / .] +rosaceae+ +black cherry+ _prunus serotina ehrh._ [_padus serotina (ehrh.) agardh._] habit.--a medium-sized tree - feet high and - inches in trunk diameter; branches few, large, tortuous, forming a rather spreading, oblong or rounded crown. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, about one-half as broad; oval or oblong to oblong-lanceolate; finely serrate, with teeth incurved; subcoriaceous; dark green and very lustrous above, paler beneath, glabrous both sides; petioles short, slender, usually bearing red glands near the blade. flowers.--may-june, when the leaves are half grown; perfect; / inch across; borne on slender pedicels in many-flowered, loose racemes - inches long; calyx cup-shaped, -lobed; petals , white; stamens - ; stigma thick, club-shaped. fruit.--august-september; a globular drupe, / - / inch in diameter, nearly black, with dark purple, juicy flesh; slightly bitter, edible. winter-buds.--terminal bud about / inch long, ovoid, blunt to acute; scales keeled on the back, apiculate, light brown. bark.--twigs and branches red to red-brown; young trunks dark red-brown, smooth; blackish on old trunks and rough, broken into thick, irregular plates; bitter, aromatic. wood.--light, rather hard, strong, close- and straight-grained, light brown or red, with thin, yellow sapwood. distribution.--frequent in the southern half of the lower peninsula, rare in the northern half and the upper peninsula. habitat.--prefers a rich, moist soil, but grows well on dry, gravelly or sandy soils. notes.--grows very rapidly in youth. [illustration: +choke cherry+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × . . margin of leaf, enlarged. . flowering branchlet, × / . . vertical section of flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +rosaceae+ +choke cherry+ _prunus virginiana l._ [_padus virginiana (l.) roemer_] habit.--usually a large shrub, but sometimes a small tree - feet high, with a crooked, often leaning trunk - inches in diameter; forming a spreading, somewhat rounded crown. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, one-half as broad; obovate to oblong-obovate or oval, abruptly acuminate at the apex; finely and sharply serrate; dull dark green above, paler beneath, glabrous both sides; petioles short, slender, glandular at the apex. flowers.--may, when the leaves are half grown; perfect; about / inch across; borne on short, slender pedicels in many-flowered racemes - inches long; calyx cup-shaped, -lobed; petals , white; stamens - ; stigma broad, on a short style. fruit.--july-august; a globular drupe, / - / inch in diameter, usually bright red, often yellow to almost black, with dark red flesh; astringent, but edible. winter-buds.--terminal bud / - / inch long, conical, acute; scales rounded at the apex, light brown, smooth. bark.--twigs at first light brown or greenish, becoming red-brown, finally dark brown; thin, dark brown on the trunk, slightly fissured. wood.--heavy, hard, close-grained, weak, light brown, with thick, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--common throughout the entire state. habitat.--prefers a deep, rich, moist loam, but is common on less favorable sites. notes.--the most widely distributed tree of north america, extending from the arctic circle to mexico, from the rocky mountains to the atlantic ocean. [illustration: +wild red cherry. pin cherry+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × . . margin of leaf, enlarged. . flowering branchlet, × / . . flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +rosaceae+ +wild red cherry. pin cherry+ _prunus pennsylvanica l. f._ habit.--a slender tree, seldom over feet high, with a trunk diameter of - inches; crown rather open, narrow, rounded, with slender, regular branches. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, / - - / inches broad; oblong-lanceolate; finely and sharply serrate; bright green and shining above, paler beneath; petioles slender, / - inch long, glandular near the blade. flowers.--may-june, with the leaves; perfect; about / inch across, borne on slender pedicels in - -flowered umbels, generally clustered, - together; calyx -cleft, campanulate; petals , white, / inch long; stamens - . fruit.--july-august; a globular drupe, / inch in diameter, light red, with thick skin and sour flesh. winter-buds.--terminal bud / inch long, broadly ovoid, rather blunt, brownish, smooth. bark.--twigs at first lustrous, red, marked by orange colored lenticels, becoming brownish; red-brown and thin on the trunk, peeling off horizontally into broad, papery plates; bitter, aromatic. wood.--light, soft, close-grained, light brown, with thin, yellow sapwood. distribution.--throughout the northern portion of the state, extending southward to ionia county. habitat.--abundant on sand-lands; roadsides; burned-over lands; clearings; hillsides. notes.--rapid of growth. short-lived. [illustration: +canada plum. red plum+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . vertical section of flower, × . . fruiting branchlet, × / .] +rosaceae+ +canada plum. red plum+ _prunus nigra ait._ [_prunus americana, v. nigra waugh_] habit.--a small tree - feet high and - inches in trunk diameter; usually divides - feet from the ground into a number of stout, upright branches, forming a narrow, rigid crown. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long and one-half as broad; oblong-ovate to obovate, abruptly acuminate at the apex; doubly crenate-serrate; thick and firm; glabrous, light green above, paler beneath; petioles short, stout, bearing large red glands near the blade. flowers.--may, before the leaves; perfect; slightly fragrant; about inch across; borne on slender, glabrous, red pedicels in - -flowered umbels; calyx -lobed, dark red; petals , white; stamens - , with purple anthers; ovary -celled; style ; stigma . fruit.--august-september; a fleshy drupe, about inch long, oblong-ovoid, with a tough, thick, orange-red skin nearly free from bloom, and yellow flesh adherent to the flat stone. eaten raw or cooked. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds / - / inch long, ovate, acute, chestnut-brown. bark.--twigs green, marked by numerous pale excrescences, later dark brown; thin, gray-brown and smooth on young trunks, but soon splitting off in large, thick plates, exposing the darker inner bark. wood.--heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, light red-brown, with thin, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--upper peninsula and the lower peninsula north of lansing. habitat.--prefers rich, alluvial soil along streams. notes.--suckers freely, forming low, broad thickets. [illustration: +coffeetree. kentucky coffeetree+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . leaflet, × / . . vertical section of staminate flower, enlarged. . vertical section of pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +leguminosae+ +coffeetree. kentucky coffeetree+ _gymnocladus dioica (l.) koch_ [_gymnocladus canadensis lam._] habit.--a slender tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; divides near the ground into several stems which spread slightly to form a narrow, pyramidal crown; branchlets stout, clumsy, blunt, with conspicuous leaf-scars. leaves.--alternate, bipinnately compound, - feet long. leaflets or more, - - / inches long and one-half as broad; short-stalked; ovate, acute; entire; thin and firm; dark green above, pale yellow-green and glabrous beneath. petioles stout, terete, glabrous. appear late in spring. flowers.--june, after the leaves; dioecious; greenish white; the staminate short-stalked, in racemose corymbs - inches long; the pistillate long-stalked, in racemes - inches long; calyx tubular, hairy; petals , keeled, nearly white; stamens ; ovary hairy. fruit.--ripens in autumn, but remains closed until late in winter; short-stalked, red-brown legumes - inches long, - / - inches wide, containing - large, flat seeds. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds minute, depressed, in the axil of each leaf, bronze-brown, silky-pubescent. bark.--twigs coated with short, dense, reddish pubescence, becoming light brown; thick, deeply fissured and scaly on the trunk, dark gray. wood.--heavy, somewhat soft, strong, coarse-grained, very durable in contact with the soil, light red-brown, with thin, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--southern michigan as far north as the grand river. infrequent. habitat.--prefers bottom-lands and rich soil. notes.--the seeds in early days were used as a substitute for coffee. [illustration: +honey locust. three-thorned acacia+ . winter twig, × . . vertical section through lateral buds, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . leaflet, × . . staminate flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flowering branchlet, × / . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / . . spine from trunk, × / .] +leguminosae+ +honey locust. three-thorned acacia+ _gleditsia triacanthos l._ habit.--a tree usually - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; dividing near the ground into several large, upright branches which divide again into long, slender, horizontal branchlets; both trunk and large branches armed with stout, rigid, simple or branched spines. leaves.--alternate, pinnately or bipinnately compound, - inches long. leaflets or more, / - - / inches long, one-third as broad; lanceolate-oblong; remotely crenulate-serrate; thin; lustrous, dark green above, dull yellow-green beneath. petioles and rachises pubescent. flowers.--may-june, when the leaves are nearly full grown; polygamo-dioecious; the staminate in short, many-flowered, pubescent racemes; the pistillate in slender, few-flowered racemes; on shoots of the preceding season; calyx campanulate, hairy - -lobed; petals - , greenish; stamens - ; ovary -celled, woolly. fruit.--autumn, falling in early winter; flat, pendent, twisted, brown legumes, - inches long, short-stalked in short racemes; seeds - , oval, flattened. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds minute, or more superposed, glabrous, brownish. bark.--twigs lustrous, red-brown, becoming gray-brown; thick on the trunk, iron-gray to blackish and deeply fissured into long, narrow ridges roughened by small scales. wood.--hard, strong, coarse-grained, durable in contact with the ground, red-brown, with thin, pale sapwood. distribution.--indigenous to the extreme southern portion of the state, but is planted as far north as bay city. habitat.--prefers deep, rich loam, but grows on a variety of soils. notes.--grows rapidly and is long-lived and free from disease. easily transplanted. the leaves appear late in spring and fall early in autumn. the stiff spines and long pods which litter the ground make the tree unsuitable for street or ornamental use. [illustration: +redbud. judas-tree+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, front view, enlarged. . portion of twig, side view, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × . . vertical section of flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +leguminosae+ +redbud. judas-tree+ _cercis canadensis l._ habit.--a small tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - inches; divided near the ground into stout, straggling branches to form a broad, flat crown. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long and broad; heart-shaped or rounded; entire; thick; glabrous, dark green above, paler beneath, turning bright yellow in autumn; petioles slender, terete, enlarged at the base. flowers.--april-may, before or with the leaves; perfect; / inch long; borne on short, jointed pedicels in fascicles of - ; calyx campanulate, -toothed, dark red; petals , rose color; stamens , in rows. fruit.--june-july, remaining on the tree until early winter; a short-stalked legume - / - inches long, pointed at both ends, rose color; seeds - , brownish, / inch long. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds / inch long, obtuse, somewhat flattened and appressed, brownish. bark.--twigs lustrous, brown, becoming dark or grayish brown; red-brown, deeply fissured, with a scaly surface on old trunks. wood.--heavy, hard, coarse-grained, weak, dark red-brown, with thin, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--valleys of the grand and raisin rivers and southward. habitat.--prefers the borders of streams and rich bottom-lands, often in the shade of other trees. notes.--a rapid grower. hardy within its range. can be transplanted with success only when very young. plants begin to produce flowers freely when - years old. much used in landscape gardening. [illustration: +locust. black locust+ . winter twig, × . . vertical section through lateral buds, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . raceme of flowers, × / . . flower, with part of corolla removed, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +leguminosae+ +locust. black locust+ _robinia pseudo-acacia l._ habit.--a tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; forming a narrow, oblong crown of irregular, more or less contorted branches. leaves.--alternate, compound, - inches long. leaflets - , short-petiolate, - inches long, about one-half as broad; ovate to oblong-oval; entire; very thin; dull dark green above, paler beneath, glabrous both sides. petioles slender, pubescent. flowers.--may-june, after the leaves; perfect; showy and abundant; very fragrant; borne on slender pedicels in loose, drooping racemes - inches long; about inch long; calyx short, bell-shaped, -lobed, hairy; corolla papilionaceous, white, -petaled; stamens . fruit.--late autumn, but persistent on the tree through the winter; a smooth, dark brown, flat pod - inches long, containing - small, flattish, brown seeds. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds minute, - superposed, partially sunken within the leaf-scar, rusty-hairy. bark.--twigs smooth, green, more or less rough-dotted at first, becoming red-brown and armed with prickles; dark red-brown and thick on old trunks, deeply furrowed into firm, sinuous ridges. wood.--heavy, very strong and hard, close-grained, very durable in contact with the soil, brown, with very thin, pale yellow sapwood. notes.--native to the appalachian mountains, but much planted in michigan for ornamental and economic uses. very rapid of growth in youth. short-lived. seriously attacked by borers. spreads by underground shoots. [illustration: +ailanthus. tree of heaven+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . leaflet, × / . . staminate inflorescence, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +simarubaceae+ +ailanthus. tree of heaven+ _ailanthus glandulosa desf._ habit.--a handsome, rapid-growing, short-lived tree, attaining a height of - feet and a trunk diameter of - feet, with a spreading, rather loose and open crown and a coarse, blunt spray. leaves.--alternate, pinnately compound, - feet long. leaflets - in number, - inches long and about one-third as broad; ovate-lanceolate; entire with the exception of two or more coarse, glandular teeth at the base; glabrous, dark green above, paler beneath, turning a clear yellow in autumn or falling without change; ill-scented. petioles smooth, terete, swollen at the base. flowers.--june, when the leaves are full grown; polygamo-dioecious; small, yellow-green, borne in upright panicles - inches or more in length; calyx -lobed; petals , greenish, hairy; stamens . staminate flowers ill-scented, pistillate almost free from odor. fruit.--october; -celled, -seeded samaras, spirally twisted, reddish or yellow-green, borne in crowded clusters. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds about / inch long, subglobose, brownish, downy. bark.--twigs yellowish to red-brown, velvety-downy; thin, grayish and shallowly fissured on old trunks. wood.--soft, weak, of coarse and open grain, pale yellow, satiny, with thick, lighter colored sapwood. notes.--a native of china, but naturalized in the united states and planted frequently in southern michigan as a foliage tree. only the pistillate trees should be planted, as these are almost free from the objectionable odor of the staminate trees. the smoke and dust of our large cities have little effect on the foliage, and the trees are perfectly hardy in the southern part of the state. +summer key to the species of acer+ a. leaves simple; twigs usually without whitish bloom. b. leaf-sinuses acute at the base. c. leaf-lobes long and narrow, the sides of the terminal lobe diverging; leaves silvery white beneath; twigs rank-smelling when broken. _a. saccharinum_, p. . cc. leaf-lobes short and broad, the sides of the terminal lobe converging; leaves not conspicuously white beneath; twigs not rank-smelling when broken. d. leaves - inches broad, thin, not pentagonally -lobed; wings of fruit / - inch long. e. leaves distinctly white-downy beneath; twigs appressed-hairy, at least near the tip; fruit hanging in pendulous racemes, persistent on the tree until autumn; seed portion with pit-like depression on one side; usually a shrub or bushy tree. _a. spicatum_, p. . ee. leaves not distinctly white-downy beneath; twigs glabrous; fruit hanging in clusters, falling in early summer; seed portion without pit-like depression on one side; medium-sized tree. _a. rubrum_, p. . dd. leaves - inches broad, thick, pentagonally -lobed; wings of fruit - / inches long. _a. pseudo-platanus_, p. . bb. leaf-sinuses rounded at the base. c. lower sides of leaves and petioles distinctly downy, the lobes undulate or entire; leaves very thick, drooping at the sides. _a. saccharum nigrum_, p. . cc. lower sides of leaves and petioles essentially glabrous, the lobes serrate; leaves not thick, not drooping at the sides. d. leaves coarsely and sparsely toothed or notched; bark not longitudinally white-striped; large trees. e. twigs coarse; petioles exuding a milky juice when cut; wings of fruit diverging by nearly °; bark of the trunk closely fissured, not scaly. _a. platanoides_, p. . ee. twigs slender; petioles not exuding a milky juice when cut; wings of fruit diverging only slightly; bark of the trunk deeply furrowed, often cleaving in long, thick plates. _a. saccharum_, p. . dd. leaves finely and abundantly toothed; bark longitudinally white-striped; a bushy tree or shrub. aa. leaves compound; twigs usually with whitish bloom. _a. negundo_, p. . +winter key to the species of acer+ a. terminal buds usually under / inch in length. b. buds white-woolly; twigs usually with a whitish bloom; opposite leaf-scars meeting; fruit often persistent on the tree until spring. _a. negundo_, p. . bb. buds not white-woolly; twigs without whitish bloom; opposite leaf-scars not meeting; fruit not persistent on the tree in winter. c. buds reddish or greenish; twigs bright red. d. twigs strictly glabrous; buds glabrous; spherical flower buds clustered on the sides of the shoot; pith pink; large trees. e. twigs rank-smelling when broken; tip of outer bud-scales often apiculate; tips of branches curving upwards; bark separating into long, thin flakes loose at the ends. _a. saccharinum_, p. . ee. twigs not rank-smelling when broken; tip of outer bud-scales rounded; tips of branches not conspicuously curving upwards; bark rough-ridged, but seldom forming loose flakes. _a. rubrum_, p. . dd. twigs appressed-hairy, at least near the tip; buds somewhat tomentose; spherical flower buds absent; pith brown; shrub or bushy tree. _a. spicatum_, p. . cc. buds brownish; twigs brownish or grayish. d. buds glabrous, or somewhat pubescent at the apex only; bark dark gray on the trunk. _a. saccharum_, p. . dd. buds hoary-pubescent; bark sometimes almost black on the trunk. _a. saccharum nigrum_, p. . aa. terminal buds usually / - / inch in length. b. buds reddish; opposite leaf-scars meeting. c. buds conspicuously stalked; bud-scales visible, pair; bark longitudinally white-striped; small tree or large shrub. _a. pennsylvanicum_, p. . cc. buds not conspicuously stalked; bud-scales visible, - pairs; bark not white-striped; large tree. _a. platanoides_, p. . bb. buds bright green; opposite leaf-scars not meeting. _a. pseudo-platanus_, p. . [illustration: +striped maple. moosewood. whistlewood+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . staminate flowering branchlet, × / . . vertical section of staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flowering branchlet, × / . . vertical section of pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +aceraceae+ +striped maple. moosewood. whistlewood+ _acer pennsylvanicum l._ habit.--a small tree at best, more often a large shrub, seldom attaining a height of more than feet, with a short trunk - inches through. the striped, upright branches form a rather compact crown. leaves.--opposite, simple, - inches long and nearly as broad; -lobed above the middle with short, tapering lobes; palmately -nerved; sharply doubly serrate; rounded or heart-shaped at the base; glabrous, yellow-green above, paler beneath, turning pale yellow in autumn; petioles stout, grooved. flowers.--may-june, when the leaves are nearly full grown; usually monoecious; large, bright yellow, bell-shaped, in slender, drooping racemes - inches long; calyx -parted; petals ; stamens - ; ovary downy. fruit.--ripens in autumn; glabrous, paired samaras in long, drooping, racemose clusters, the wings / inch long, widely divergent, and marked on one side of each nutlet by a small cavity. winter-buds.--bright red; terminal bud nearly / inch long, short-stalked, with bud-scales keeled; lateral buds smaller, appressed. bark.--twigs light green, mottled with black, smooth; trunk and branches red-brown, marked longitudinally by broad, pale stripes. wood.--light, soft, close-grained, pinkish brown, with thick, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--abundant in the upper peninsula, extending southward as far as roscommon county in the lower peninsula. habitat.--cool, rocky or sandy woods, usually in the shade of other trees. notes.--in the northwoods the green shoots are browsed by deer and moose. valued mostly for its aesthetic qualities. of little or no economic value. [illustration: +mountain maple+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +aceraceae+ +mountain maple+ _acer spicatum lam._ habit.--a bushy tree sometimes - feet high, with a short trunk - inches in diameter; small, upright branches form a small, rounded crown. more often a straggling shrub. leaves.--opposite, simple, - inches long and two-thirds as broad; -lobed above the middle, the lobes coarsely crenate-serrate with pointed teeth, the sinuses usually wide-angled and acute at the base; thin; glabrous, dark green above, covered with a whitish down beneath, turning scarlet and orange in autumn; veining prominent; petioles long, slender, with enlarged base. flowers.--june, after the leaves are full grown; polygamo-monoecious; small, yellow-green; in erect, slightly compound, many-flowered, long-stemmed, terminal racemes; calyx downy, -lobed; petals ; stamens - ; ovary tomentose. fruit.--july; bright red, turning brown in late autumn; small, glabrous, paired samaras, in pendulous, racemose clusters. winter-buds.--small, flattish, acute, bright red, more or less tomentose; the terminal / inch long, containing the flowers. bark.--twigs reddish, slightly hairy; very thin, red-brown, smooth or slightly furrowed on the trunk. wood.--light, soft, close-grained, light brown, with thick, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--common in the upper peninsula; extends as far south as saginaw bay. habitat.--damp forests; rocky woods; along streams; always in the shade of other trees. notes.--forms much of the undergrowth of our northern forests. little used, except for fire-wood. [illustration: +sugar maple. hard maple. rock maple+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . staminate flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flowering branchlet, × / . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +aceraceae+ +sugar maple. hard maple. rock maple+ _acer saccharum marsh._ [_acer saccharinum wang._] habit.--a stately tree - feet in height, with a trunk diameter of - feet; in the open forming stout, upright branches near the ground, in forests making remarkably clean trunks to a good height; the crown is a broad, round-topped dome. leaves.--opposite, simple, - inches long and broad; usually -lobed (sometimes -lobed), the lobes sparingly wavy-toothed, the sinuses broad and rounded at the base; thin and firm; opaque, dark green above, lighter and glabrous beneath, turning yellow and red in autumn; petioles long, slender. flowers.--may, with the leaves; polygamo-monoecious or dioecious; on thread-like, hairy pedicels in nearly sessile corymbs; greenish yellow; calyx campanulate, -lobed; corolla ; stamens - ; ovary hairy. fruit.--september-october, germinating the following spring; paired samaras, glabrous, with wings about inch long, diverging slightly. winter-buds.--small, acute, red-brown, glabrous or somewhat pubescent toward the apex, the terminal / inch long, the lateral smaller, appressed. bark.--twigs smooth, pale brown, becoming gray and smooth on the branches; old trunks dark gray, deeply furrowed, often cleaving up at one edge in long, thick plates. wood.--heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, tough, durable, light brown, with thin, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--found throughout the entire state. habitat.--prefers moist, rich soil in valleys and uplands and moist, rocky slopes. notes.--the most important hardwood in michigan. the tree which produces the bulk of the maple sugar of the market. [illustration: +black maple. black sugar maple+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +aceraceae+ +black maple. black sugar maple+ _acer saccharum nigrum (michx. f.) britt._ [_acer nigrum michx._] habit.--a stately tree, sometimes reaching a height of feet, with a trunk diameter of - feet; branches stout, forming a broad, rounded, symmetrical crown. leaves.--opposite, simple, concave, - inches across, the breadth usually exceeding the length; usually -lobed at maturity, the two lower lobes being small, often reduced to a mere curve in the outline, the pointed lobes undulate or entire and narrowed from the broad, shallow sinuses; thick and firm; glabrous above, downy beneath; petioles stout, usually pendent, tomentose. the sides of the larger leaves often droop giving to the tree an air of depression. flowers.--may, with the leaves; monoecious; in nearly sessile, umbel-like corymbs; about / inch long, yellow, on slender, hairy pedicels - inches long; calyx campanulate, pilose, -lobed; corolla ; stamens - ; ovary hairy. fruit.--ripens in autumn; glabrous, paired samaras, clustered on drooping pedicels; wings set wide apart, but only slightly diverging. winter-buds.--small, ovoid, acute, with dark red-brown, acute scales, hoary-pubescent on the outer surface. bark.--twigs smooth, pale gray; becoming thick, deeply furrowed and sometimes almost black on the trunk. wood.--hard, heavy, strong, close-grained, creamy white, with thin, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--lower peninsula, south-eastern portion. habitat.--prefers low, moist, rich soil of river-bottoms, but does well on gravelly soils and uplands. notes.--very variable. a very good shade tree because of its dense foliage. it is claimed by some that the finest grades of maple sugar are made from the sap of this tree. [illustration: +silver maple. soft maple+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . staminate flowering branchlet, × . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flowering branchlet, × . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +aceraceae+ +silver maple. soft maple+ _acer saccharinum l._ [_acer dasycarpum ehrh._] habit.--a beautiful tree, growing to a height of - feet, with a trunk diameter of - feet, usually separating near the ground into - upright stems which are destitute of branches for a considerable distance. usually the long, slender branches bend downwards, but with their tips ascending in a graceful curve. crown broad, especially in its upper portion. leaves.--opposite, simple, - inches long and nearly as broad; usually -lobed by narrow, acute sinuses which extend nearly to the midrib, the lobes often sublobed, sharply toothed; light green above, silvery white beneath, turning pale yellow in autumn; petioles long, slender, drooping. flowers.--march-april, before the leaves; polygamo-monoecious or dioecious; small, yellow-green, in crowded, sessile umbels; calyx -lobed (sometimes each lobe again divided); corolla ; stamens - ; ovary hairy. fruit.--may, germinating as soon as it reaches the ground; paired samaras, large, glabrous, curving inwards, one samara often aborted. winter-buds.--dark red, blunt; the terminal about / inch long, with bud-scales often apiculate at the apex; flower-buds clustered on side spurs. bark.--twigs smooth, red-gray, lustrous; young trunks gray, smooth; old trunks dark gray, more or less furrowed, separating into thin, loose scales. wood.--hard, strong, close-grained, rather brittle, perishable, pale brown, with thick, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--lower peninsula south of saginaw bay. habitat.--prefers low, rich bottom-lands, subject to occasional inundation, but not in swamps. notes.--a rapid grower, adapting itself to a variety of soils. does not do well on dry, elevated ground. the first tree to blossom in early spring. [illustration: +red maple. soft maple+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × . . fascicle of staminate flowers, × . . staminate flower, enlarged. . fascicle of pistillate flowers, × . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +aceraceae+ +red maple. soft maple+ _acer rubrum l._ habit.--a medium-sized tree - feet high, occasionally in swamps - feet; trunk - feet in diameter; upright branches, which form a low, rather narrow, rounded crown. leaves.--opposite, simple, - inches long and nearly as broad; - -lobed by broad, acute sinuses, the lobes irregularly doubly serrate or toothed; glabrous, green above, whitish and generally glabrous beneath, turning bright scarlet in autumn; petioles long, slender. flowers.--march-april, before the leaves; polygamo-monoecious or dioecious; in few-flowered fascicles on shoots of the previous year, the pistillate red, the staminate orange; sepals - ; petals - ; stamens - ; ovary smooth. fruit.--may-june, germinating immediately after reaching the ground; samaras small, on drooping pedicels - inches long; wings about inch long, diverging at about a right angle. winter-buds.--dark red, blunt; terminal bud about / inch long, with bud-scales rounded at the apex; flower-buds clustered on side spurs. bark.--twigs bright red, lustrous, becoming smooth and light gray on the branches; old trunks dark gray, ridged, separating into plate-like scales. wood.--heavy, close-grained, not strong, light brown, with thick, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--throughout the entire state. habitat.--prefers swamp-lands or banks of streams; rarely found on hillsides. notes.--a valuable shade and ornamental tree. sugar has been made in small quantities from the sap. [illustration: +norway maple+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . raceme of staminate flowers, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . raceme of pistillate flowers, × / . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +aceraceae+ +norway maple+ _acer platanoides l._ habit.--a tall, handsome tree, with a height of - feet, and a trunk diameter of - feet, having a round, spreading crown of stout branches, resembling _a. saccharum_. twigs coarse. leaves.--opposite, simple, - inches broad, and almost as long; thin; - -lobed at maturity, lobes remotely coarse-toothed with the teeth drawn out into filamentous points, separated by rounded, scallop-like sinuses; glabrous, bright green both sides, turning pale yellow in autumn; petioles long, slender, exuding a milky juice when cut. flowers.--may-june, before or with the leaves; dioecious; large, yellow-green, in erect, short, flat racemes; sepals ; petals ; stamens . fruit.--ripens in autumn and germinates the following spring; pendent on long stalks; large, glabrous, paired samaras, with wings inches long, diverging by nearly °. winter-buds.--yellow-green, red or dull red-brown; terminal bud about / inch long, broad, short-stalked, with bud-scales strongly keeled; lateral buds small, appressed; buds exuding a milky juice when cut. bark.--twigs lustrous, light brown to greenish; trunk dark gray, becoming closely fissured, not scaly. wood.--moderately heavy, hard, close-grained, whitish or brownish, with white sapwood. notes.--exotic from europe. extensively planted in cities for its abundant shade. the roots strike deep and spread laterally, enabling the tree to hold its own in a city environment. it holds its leaves two weeks longer in autumn than do our native maples. a rapid grower. [illustration: +sycamore maple+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . perfect flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +aceraceae+ +sycamore maple+ _acer pseudo-platanus l._ habit.--a thrifty tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; the crown roundish, spreading. leaves.--opposite, simple, - inches across, and as long as broad; thick; pentagonally -lobed, the lobes more or less ovate, separated by very narrow, acute sinuses extending about half-way to the midrib, the lobes coarsely and irregularly blunt-serrate, crenate-serrate, or slightly lobed; upper surface dark green and shining, somewhat wrinkled, but paler dull green and glaucous beneath; petioles long, stout. flowers.--april, before the leaves; polygamo-monoecious; large, greenish yellow, in pendent racemes of umbellate cymes of about three each; sepals ; petals ; stamens , hairy; ovary hairy. fruit.--ripens in autumn and germinates the following spring; pendent on long stalks; large, glabrous, paired samaras, with wings - / inches long, diverging at about a right angle. winter-buds.--bright green; terminal bud / - / inch long, ovoid to subglobose, blunt, with bud-scales more or less keeled; lateral buds small, divergent. bark.--twigs lustrous, brown or gray, becoming slate colored on the branches; trunk gray or brownish, smooth or flaking off in short scales. wood.--moderately heavy, hard, compact, brownish, with white sapwood. notes.--exotic from europe. much planted in our cities, where it is thrifty, but short-lived. the crown is rather too broad for planting anywhere except on our widest streets. the leaves last two weeks longer in autumn than do those of our native maples. [illustration: +boxelder. ash-leaved maple+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . staminate flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flowering branchlet, × / . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +aceraceae+ +boxelder. ash-leaved maple+ _acer negundo l._ [_negundo aceroides muench._] habit.--a sturdy little tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet. trunk often divides near the ground into several stout, wide-spreading branches, forming a broad, unsymmetrical, open crown. leaves.--opposite, pinnately compound. leaflets - in number, - inches long, - / - - / inches broad; ovate or oval; nearly entire, irregularly and remotely coarse-toothed above the middle, or sometimes -lobed (often giving the leaflet a jagged outline); apex acute, base variable; glabrous or somewhat pubescent at maturity, with prominent veins. petioles slender, - inches long, the enlarged base leaving prominent crescent-shaped scars partly surrounding the winter-buds. flowers.--april, before or with the leaves; dioecious; small, yellow-green; the staminate in clusters on long, thread-like, hairy pedicels; the pistillate in narrow, drooping racemes; calyx hairy, -lobed; corolla ; stamens - ; ovary pubescent. fruit.--early summer, but hanging until late autumn or early spring; narrow, flat, winged samaras, in pairs, clustered in drooping, racemose clusters. winter-buds.--terminal bud / - / inch long, acute, inclosed in two dull red scales, often hoary or minutely pubescent; lateral buds obtuse, appressed. bark.--twigs greenish to purple, glaucous; trunk pale gray or light brown, deeply cleft into broad ridges. wood.--light, soft, close-grained, weak, creamy white, with thick, hardly distinguishable sapwood. distribution.--lower peninsula as far north as saginaw bay. habitat.--banks of streams and borders of swamps. prefers deep, moist soil. notes.--accommodates itself to almost any situation. easily transplanted. much planted for shade and ornament. fast-growing, but short-lived. +summer key to the species of aesculus+ a. leaflets usually ; foliage ill-smelling when bruised; bark broken into thick plates; prickly bur about inch in diameter. _a. glabra_, p. . aa. leaflets usually ; foliage not ill-smelling when bruised; bark broken into thin plates; prickly bur about inches in diameter. _a. hippocastanum_, p. . +winter key to the species of aesculus+ a. terminal bud about / inch long; bud-scales covered with a glaucous bloom, not conspicuously resinous; bark broken into thick plates; prickly bur about inch in diameter. _a. glabra_, p. . aa. terminal bud - - / inches long; bud-scales conspicuously sticky-resinous, glistening; bark broken into thin plates; prickly bur about inches in diameter. _a. hippocastanum_, p. . [illustration: +horse-chestnut+ . winter twig, × / . . leaf, × / . . leaflet, × / . . flower, × . . fruit, × / .] +sapindaceae+ +horse-chestnut+ _aesculus hippocastanum l._ habit.--a handsome tree, with a height of - feet and a trunk diameter of - feet, forming a broad, conical crown. the regularly occurring branches ascend from the trunk at first, gradually bend downwards as they lengthen, and end in a thick, upturning spray. leaves.--opposite, digitately compound. leaflets usually , rarely , - inches long, - / - - / inches broad; obovate, wedge-shaped at the base; irregularly and bluntly serrate; thick; rough, dark green above, paler beneath, turning a rusty yellow in autumn. petioles long, grooved, swollen at the base. flowers.--may-june, after the leaves; polygamo-monoecious; large, whitish, in showy, upright, terminal thyrses - inches long; pedicels jointed, - -flowered; calyx campanulate, -lobed; petals , white, spotted with yellow and red, clawed; stamens , thread-like, longer than the petals. fruit.--october; a leathery, globular capsule about inches in diameter, roughened with short spines; containing - large, smooth, lustrous, brown nuts, marked by large, pale scars. winter-buds.--terminal buds - - / inches long, acute, brownish, covered with glistening, resinous gum; inner scales yellowish, becoming - / - inches long in spring, remaining until the leaves are nearly half grown. bark.--twigs smooth, red-brown; trunk dark brown and broken into thin plates by shallow fissures; rich in tannin, bitter. wood.--light, soft, close-grained, weak, whitish, with thin, light brown sapwood. notes.--a native of greece, extensively cultivated throughout europe and america, where it is a favorite shade tree. a double-flowered variety, _aesculus hippocastanum, v. flòre plèno_, which bears no fruit is a common garden form. [illustration: +ohio buckeye+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . leaflet, × / . . flower, × . . fruit, × / . . nut, × / .] +sapindaceae+ +ohio buckeye+ _aesculus glabra willd._ habit.--a medium-sized tree - feet in height, with a trunk not over feet in diameter; usually much smaller; slender, spreading branches, forming a broad, rounded crown; twigs thick. leaves.--opposite, digitately compound. leaflets usually , rarely , - inches long, - / - - / inches broad; ovate or oval, gradually narrowed to the entire base; irregularly and finely serrate; glabrous, yellow-green above, paler beneath, turning yellow in autumn. petioles - inches long, slender, enlarged at the base. foliage ill-smelling when bruised. flowers.--april-may, after the leaves; polygamo-monoecious; small, yellow-green, in terminal panicles - inches long and - inches broad, more or less downy; pedicels - -flowered; calyx campanulate, -lobed; petals , pale yellow, hairy, clawed; stamens , with long, hairy filaments. fruit.--october; a thick, leathery, prickly capsule, about inch in diameter, containing a single large, smooth, lustrous, brown nut. a large pale scar gives the name "buckeye". winter-buds.--terminal buds / inch long, acute, resinous, brownish; inner scales yellow-green, becoming - / - inches long in spring and remaining until the leaves are nearly half grown. bark.--twigs smooth, red-brown, becoming ashy gray; old trunks densely furrowed and broken into thick plates; ill-smelling when bruised. wood.--light, soft, close-grained, weak, whitish, with thin, light brown sapwood. notes.--a native of the mississippi river valley. occasionally planted in southern michigan for ornamental purposes, but is less popular than the horse-chestnut. [illustration: +basswood+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . cyme of flowers, with its bract, × / . . flower, with two petals, petaloid scales and stamens removed, enlarged. . stamen, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +tiliaceae+ +basswood+ _tilia americana l._ habit.--a tree usually - feet high, with a tall, straight trunk - feet in diameter; numerous slender branches form a dense, ovoid or rounded crown. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, - inches broad; obliquely heart-shaped; coarsely serrate; thick and firm; glabrous, dull dark green above, paler beneath; petioles slender, - inches long. flowers.--june-july, after the leaves; perfect, regular; yellowish white, downy, fragrant; borne on slender pedicels in loose, drooping cymes, the peduncle attached for half its length to a narrow, oblong, yellowish bract; sepals , downy; petals , creamy white; stamens numerous, in clusters; ovary -celled; stigma -lobed. fruit.--october; globose, nut-like, woody, gray, tomentose, about the size of peas. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds ovoid, acute, often lopsided, smooth, dark red, / inch long. bark.--twigs smooth, reddish gray, becoming dark gray or brown; dark gray and smooth on young stems, on old trunks thick, deeply furrowed into broad, scaly ridges. wood.--light, soft, close-grained, tough, light red-brown, with thick sapwood of nearly the same color. distribution.--common in most parts of the lower peninsula, frequent in the upper peninsula. habitat.--prefers rich, well-drained, loamy soils. notes.--rapid in growth. easily transplanted. recommended for street and ornamental planting. +summer key to the species of cornus+ a. leaves mostly alternate; branches usually greenish; flowers not surrounded by large petal-like bracts; fruit globular, blue, borne many in loose clusters. _c. alternifolia_, p. . aa. leaves opposite; branches usually reddish or yellowish; flowers surrounded by large petal-like bracts; fruit ovoid, scarlet, borne in close clusters of - . _c. florida_, p. . +winter key to the species of cornus+ a. leaf-scars mostly alternate; buds light brown; branches usually greenish. _c. alternifolia_, p. . aa. leaf-scars opposite; buds greenish; branches usually reddish or yellowish. _c. florida_, p. . [illustration: +flowering dogwood. dogwood. boxwood+ . winter twig, with leaf buds, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . winter twig, with flower bud, × . . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +cornaceae+ +flowering dogwood. dogwood. boxwood+ _cornus florida l._ habit.--a bushy tree with a height of - feet and a short trunk - inches in diameter; slender, spreading branches form a flat-topped crown. leaves.--opposite, closely clustered at the ends of the branchlets, simple, - inches long, - inches broad; ovate to elliptical; obscurely wavy-toothed; thick and firm; bright green, covered with minute, appressed hairs above, pale and more or less pubescent beneath, turning bright scarlet in autumn; petioles short, grooved. flowers.--may, with the leaves; perfect; greenish; in dense clusters, surrounded by large, white or pinkish, petal-like bracts (often mistaken for the corolla), borne on short, stout peduncles; calyx -lobed, light green; petals , yellow-green; stamens , alternate with the petals; ovary -celled. fruit.--october; an ovoid, scarlet drupe, borne in close clusters of - ; flesh is bitter. winter-buds.--leaf-buds narrow-conical, acute, greenish; flower-buds spherical or vertically flattened, grayish. bark.--twigs pale green, becoming red or yellow-green their first winter, later becoming light brown or red-gray; red-brown or blackish on the trunk, often separating into quadrangular, plate-like scales. wood.--heavy, hard, strong, tough, close-grained, brownish, with thick, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--southern michigan as far north as the grand-saginaw valley. habitat.--prefers rich, well-drained soil, usually under the shade of other trees. notes.--a valuable species for ornamental purposes. rather slow of growth. [illustration: +blue dogwood. alternate-leaved dogwood+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × / . . flower, enlarged. . fruiting branchlet, × / .] +cornaceae+ +blue dogwood. alternate-leaved dogwood+ _cornus alternifolia l. f._ habit.--a small tree or large shrub reaching a height of - feet and a trunk diameter of - inches; more often smaller than this. the long, slender branches are arranged in irregular whorls, forming flat, horizontal tiers, giving the tree a storied effect. leaves.--mostly alternate and clustered at the ends of the branchlets; simple, - inches long, - / - inches broad; oval or ovate, long-pointed, wedge-shaped at the base; obscurely wavy-toothed; thin; dark green, nearly glabrous above, paler and covered with appressed hairs beneath, turning yellow and scarlet in autumn; petioles slender, grooved, hairy, with clasping bases. flowers.--may-june, after the leaves; perfect; borne on slender pedicels in many-flowered, irregular, open cymes from the season's shoots; calyx cup-shaped, obscurely -toothed, covered with fine, silky, white hairs; petals , cream colored; stamens ; ovary -celled. fruit.--october; a globular, blue-black drupe, borne in loose, red-stemmed clusters; flesh bitter. winter-buds.--leaf-buds small, acute, light brown; flower-buds spherical or vertically flattened. bark.--twigs greenish or reddish, becoming smooth, dark green; thin, dark red-brown and shallowly fissured on the trunk. wood.--heavy, hard, close-grained, red-brown, with thick, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--scattered throughout both peninsulas. habitat.--prefers moist, well-drained soil on the borders of streams and swamps, often in the shade of other trees. notes.--hardy throughout the state. easily transplanted. the only _cornus_ with alternate leaves and branches. [illustration: +black gum. pepperidge+ . winter twig, × . . portion of twig, enlarged. . leaf, × / . . staminate flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flowering branchlet, × / . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +cornaceae+ +black gum. pepperidge+ _nyssa sylvatica marsh._ [_nyssa multiflora wang._] habit.--a medium-sized tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet, forming a rounded to cylindrical crown of slender, spreading, pendulous branches and a stiff, flat spray. leaves.--alternate, simple, - inches long, one-half as broad; oblong-obovate to oval; entire, or sometimes wavy-margined; thick and firm; very lustrous and dark green above, pale and often hairy beneath, turning bright scarlet, on the upper surface only, in autumn; petioles short. flowers.--may-june, with the leaves; polygamo-dioecious; greenish; borne on slender, downy peduncles; the staminate slender-pedicelled, in many-flowered heads; the pistillate sessile, in several-flowered clusters; calyx cup-shaped, -toothed; petals ; stamens - ; stigma stout, terete, recurved. fruit.--october; fleshy drupes, ovoid, blue-black, about / inch long, sour, in clusters of - . winter-buds.-- / - / inch long, ovoid, obtuse, dark red. bark.--twigs greenish or light brown, smooth or often downy, becoming smooth, dark red-brown; thick, red-brown on old trunks, deeply furrowed. wood.--heavy, soft, strong, very tough, difficult to split, not durable in contact with the soil, pale yellow, with thick, whitish sapwood. distribution.--frequent in the southern half of the lower peninsula. has been reported as far north as manistee. habitat.--prefers the borders of swamps and low, wet lands. rarely flourishes in exposed situations. notes.--of great ornamental value. not easily transplanted. pith of twigs with thin, transverse partitions. +summer key to the species of fraxinus+ a. lateral leaflets sessile. _f. nigra_, p. . aa. lateral leaflets petioluled. b. twigs, petioles and lower sides of leaves pubescent. _f. pennsylvanica_, p. . bb. twigs, petioles and lower sides of leaves essentially glabrous. c. twigs prominently -angled. _f. quadrangulata_, p. . cc. twigs terete. d. lower sides of leaves essentially of the same color as the upper; leaflet-margins rather finely sharp-serrate. _f. pennsylvanica lanceolata_, p. . dd. lower sides of leaves paler than the upper; leaflet-margins entire or obscurely serrate. _f. americana_, p. . winter key to the species of fraxinus a. twigs prominently -angled; fruit falling in early autumn. _f. quadrangulata_, p. . aa. twigs terete; fruit often persistent on the tree until mid-winter or the following spring. b. buds rusty-tomentose; twigs more or less downy. _f. pennsylvanica_, p. . bb. buds not tomentose; twigs not downy. c. terminal bud black or nearly so, showing pairs of scales in cross-section; bud-scales apiculate at the apex; samaras with broad wings, the seed portion flattish; bark flaky, rubbing off on the hand. _f. nigra_, p. . cc. terminal bud brownish, showing pairs of scales in cross-section; bud-scales rounded at the apex; samaras with narrow wings, the seed portion terete; bark ridged, not flaky and rubbing off on the hand. d. upper margin of leaf-scars deeply concave. _f. americana_, p. . dd. upper margin of leaf-scars not concave, but straight across or projecting upward. _f. pennsylvanica lanceolata_, p. . [illustration: +white ash+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . staminate flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flowering branchlet, × / . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +oleaceae+ +white ash+ _fraxinus americana l._ habit.--a large tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; forming an open, pyramidal crown of long, slender, lateral branches and a stout, rather sparse spray. leaves.--opposite, pinnately compound, - inches long. leaflets usually - , - inches long, - inches broad; short-stalked; ovate to oblong-lanceolate; entire or obscurely serrate; thick and firm; glabrous, dark green above, paler beneath. petioles glabrous, stout, grooved. flowers.--may, before the leaves; dioecious; borne in loose panicles on shoots of the previous season; calyx campanulate, -lobed; corolla ; stamens , rarely ; ovary -celled. fruit.--august-september, persistent on the branches until mid-winter or the following spring; samaras - inches long, in crowded, drooping, paniculate clusters - inches long. winter-buds.--short, rather obtuse; bud-scales apiculate, keeled, pairs, rusty-brown. bark.--twigs at first dark green, becoming gray or light brown, often covered with a glaucous bloom; gray, deeply furrowed into firm, narrow, flattened ridges on the trunk. wood.--heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, tough, brown, with thick, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--of common occurrence throughout the state. habitat.--prefers a rich, moist, loamy soil, but grows in any well-drained situation; common along stream-beds. notes.--grows rapidly. easily transplanted. fairly free from disease. leaves appear late in spring. [illustration: +red ash+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . staminate flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flowering branchlet, × / . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +oleaceae+ +red ash+ _fraxinus pennsylvanica marsh._ [_fraxinus pubescens lam._] habit.--a medium-sized tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; stout, upright branches and slender branchlets form a compact, broad, irregular crown. leaves.--opposite, pinnately compound, - inches long. leaflets - , - inches long, - - / inches broad; short-stalked; oblong-lanceolate to ovate; slightly serrate or entire; thin and firm; glabrous, yellow-green above, pale and silky-downy beneath. petioles stout, pubescent. flowers.--may, with the leaves; dioecious; borne in compact, downy panicles on shoots of the previous season; calyx cup-shaped, -toothed; corolla ; stamens , rarely ; ovary -celled. fruit.--early autumn, persistent on the branches throughout the winter; samaras - inches long, in open, paniculate clusters. winter-buds.--small, rounded; bud-scales rounded on the back, pairs, rusty-brown, tomentose. bark.--twigs pale-pubescent at first, lasting - years or often disappearing during the first summer, finally ashy gray or brownish and often covered with a glaucous bloom; brown or dark gray on the trunk, with many longitudinal, shallow furrows; somewhat scaly. wood.--heavy, hard, strong, brittle, coarse-grained, light brown, with thick, yellow-streaked sapwood. distribution.--not a common tree. most frequent in the southern half of the lower peninsula, but has been reported further north, i.e., drummond's island and keweenaw county, upper peninsula. habitat.--prefers wet or moist, rich loam; river-banks; swampy lowlands. notes.--a rapid grower in youth. fairly immune from insect and fungous diseases. [illustration: +green ash+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . staminate flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flowering branchlet, × / . . pistillate flower, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +oleaceae+ +green ash+ _fraxinus pennsylvanica lanceolata (borkh.) sarg._ [_fraxinus lanceolata borkh._] [_fraxinus viridis michx. f._] considered by some authors to be a distinct species, and by others a variety of _f. pennsylvanica marsh._, which it resembles. the main points of difference are: the usual absence of pubescence from the branchlets, the underside of the leaflets, and the petioles. the rather narrower, shorter, and more sharply serrate leaflets. the color of the leaves, which is bright green on both sides. a very hardy tree, of rapid growth and desirable habit, making it useful for ornamental and street planting. easily transplanted. of rare occurrence in michigan, but has been reported from several localities. [illustration: +blue ash+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . flowering branchlet, × . . flower, enlarged. . fruit, × / .] +oleaceae+ +blue ash+ _fraxinus quadrangulata michx._ habit.--a large tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; small, spreading branches and stout, -angled, more or less -winged branchlets form a narrow crown. leaves.--opposite, pinnately compound, - inches long. leaflets - , usually , - inches long, - inches broad; short-stalked; ovate-oblong to lanceolate, long-pointed; coarsely serrate; thick and firm; yellow-green above, paler beneath, glabrous. petioles slender, glabrous. flowers.--april, before the leaves; perfect; borne in loose panicles on shoots of the previous season; calyx reduced to a ring; corolla ; stamens ; ovary -celled. fruit.--september-october, falling soon after; samaras - inches long, in long, loose, paniculate clusters. winter-buds.--short, rather obtuse; bud-scales rounded on the back, pairs, dark red-brown, somewhat pubescent. bark.--twigs orange, rusty-pubescent, becoming brownish or grayish; on the trunk light gray tinged with red, irregularly divided into large, plate-like scales, often with the shaggy appearance of a shagbark hickory. wood.--heavy, hard, close-grained, brittle, light yellow-streaked with brown, with thick, light yellow sapwood. distribution.--occasionally in the southern half of the lower peninsula. nowhere abundant. habitat.--prefers rich, limestone hills, but grows well in fertile bottom-lands. notes.--hardy and grows rapidly. a blue dye is made by macerating the inner bark in water. [illustration: +black ash+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . staminate flowering branchlet, × / . . staminate flower, enlarged. . pistillate flowering branchlet, × / . . pistillate flowers, enlarged. . fruit, × .] +oleaceae+ +black ash+ _fraxinus nigra marsh._ [_fraxinus sambucifolia lam._] habit.--a tall tree - feet high, with a trunk diameter of - feet; slender, upright branches form in the forest a narrow crown, in the open a rounded, ovoid crown. leaves.--opposite, pinnately compound, - inches long. leaflets - , - inches long, - inches broad; sessile, except the terminal; oblong to oblong-lanceolate, long-pointed; remotely, but sharply serrate; thin and firm; dark green above, paler beneath, glabrous. petioles stout, grooved, glabrous. flowers.--may, before the leaves; polygamo-dioecious; borne in loose panicles on shoots of the preceeding season; calyx ; corolla ; stamens ; ovary -celled. fruit.--august-september, falling early, or sometimes hanging on the tree until the following spring; samaras - - / inches long, in open, paniculate clusters - inches long. winter-buds.--ovoid, pointed; bud-scales rounded on the back, pairs, almost black. bark.--twigs at first dark green, becoming ashy gray or orange, finally dark gray and warted; thin, soft ash-gray and scaly on the trunk. bark flakes off on rubbing with the hand. wood.--heavy, tough, coarse-grained, weak, rather soft, dark brown, with thin, lighter colored sapwood. distribution.--common throughout most portions of michigan. habitat.--prefers deep, cold swamps and low river-banks, but grows in any good soil. notes.--hardy throughout the state. not easily transplanted. foliage falls early in autumn. +summer key to the species of catalpa+ a. leaves - inches long, thick; flowers - / inches across, prominently yellow-spotted; seeds with _pointed_, fringed wings at each end; branches rather crooked and straggling; bark thin, separating into thin scales on the trunk. _c. bignonioides_, p. . aa. leaves - inches long, thin; flowers - / inches across, not prominently spotted; seeds with _rounded_, wide-fringed wings at each end; branches not crooked and straggling; bark thick, separating into thick scales on the trunk. _c. speciosa_, p. . +winter key to the species of catalpa+ a. fruiting capsules about / inch thick; seeds with _pointed_, fringed wings at each end; branches rather crooked and straggling; bark thin, separating into thin scales on the trunk. _c. bignonioides_, p. . aa. fruiting capsules about / inch thick, seeds with _rounded_, wide-fringed wings at each end; branches not crooked and straggling; bark thick, separating into thick scales on the trunk. _c. speciosa_, p. . [illustration: +hardy catalpa+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . panicle of flowers, × / . . fruit, × / . . seed, × .] +bignoniaceae+ +hardy catalpa+ _catalpa speciosa warder._ habit.--a tree - feet high, with a short, often crooked trunk and a broad, rounded crown of slender, spreading branches and thick branchlets. leaves.--opposite or whorled, simple, - inches long, - inches broad; heart-shaped; entire or sometimes slightly lobed; thick and firm; glabrous, dark green above, downy beneath, with clusters of dark, nectariferous glands in the axils of the primary veins, turning black and falling with the first severe frost; petioles long, stout, terete. flowers.--june-july, after the leaves are full grown; perfect; borne on slender, purplish pedicels in open, few-flowered panicles - inches long; calyx -lobed, purple; corolla white with inconspicuous yellow spots, campanulate, -lobed, - / inches broad; stamens , staminodia ; ovary -celled. fruit.--ripens in early autumn; slender, -celled, cylindrical capsule - inches long and about / inch thick; hangs on tree all winter, opening in spring before falling; seeds light brown, inch long, with rounded, wide-fringed wings at each end. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds brownish, globose, inconspicuous. bark.--twigs greenish, often with purple tinge, becoming orange or red-brown and covered with a slight bloom the first winter, finally darker with age; thick, red-brown, broken into thick scales on the trunk. wood.--light, soft, weak, coarse-grained, light brown, with very thin, almost white sapwood; very durable in contact with the soil. notes.--a native of illinois, indiana, and the states adjoining on the south, but much planted in michigan as a shade and ornamental tree. closely resembles _c. bignonioides_, but is a larger and hardier tree. [illustration: +catalpa+ . winter twig, × . . leaf, × / . . panicle of flowers, × / . . fruit, × / . . seed, × .] +bignoniaceae+ +catalpa+ _catalpa bignonioides walt._ [_catalpa catalpa (l.) karst._] habit.--a tree - feet high, with a short, thick trunk and a broad, irregular crown of long, crooked branches and coarse, upright branchlets. leaves.--opposite or whorled, simple, - inches long, - inches broad; heart-shaped; entire or sometimes slightly lobed; thin and firm; glabrous, light green above, downy beneath, with dark, nectariferous glands in the axils of the primary veins, turning black and falling with the first severe frost; petioles long, stout, terete. flowers.--june-july, after the leaves are full grown; perfect; borne on slender, hairy pedicels in compact, many-flowered panicles - inches long; calyx -lobed, green or purple; corolla white with yellow spots, campanulate, -lobed, - / inches broad; stamens , staminodia ; ovary -celled. fruit.--ripens in early autumn; slender, -celled, cylindrical capsule - inches long and about / inch thick; hangs on tree all winter, opening in spring before falling; seeds silvery gray, inch long, with pointed, fringed wings at each end. winter-buds.--terminal bud absent; lateral buds, brownish, globose, inconspicuous. bark.--twigs greenish purple, becoming red-brown and marked by a network of thin, flat ridges; thin, red-brown on the trunk, separating into large, thin, irregular scales. wood.--light, soft, weak, coarse-grained, light brown, with very thin, whitish sapwood; very durable in contact with the soil. notes.--a native of the lower mississippi river basin, but naturalized in southern michigan, where it is a popular shade and ornamental tree. foliage appears very tardily in spring. [illustration: +sheepberry. nannyberry+ . winter twig, with leaf buds, × . . winter twig, with flower bud, × . . leaf, × / . . flower, enlarged. . fruiting branchlet, × / .] +caprifoliaceae+ +sheepberry. nannyberry+ _viburnum lentago l._ habit.--a low tree or shrub - feet high, with a short trunk - inches in diameter; numerous tortuous branches form a wide, compact, rounded crown. leaves.--opposite, simple, - inches long, one-half as broad; ovate to suborbicular; finely and sharply serrate; thick and firm; lustrous, bright green above, pale and marked with tiny black dots beneath; petioles broad, grooved, more or less winged, about inch long. flowers.--may-june, after the leaves; perfect; small; cream-white, borne in stout-branched, scurfy, flat, terminal cymes - inches across; calyx tubular, -toothed; corolla -lobed, cream color or white, / inch across; stamens , with yellow anthers; ovary -celled, with short, thick, green style and broad stigma. fruit.--september; a fleshy drupe, / inch long, ovoid, flattened, blue-black, borne in few-fruited, red-stemmed clusters; stone oval, flat, rough; flesh sweet, edible. winter-buds.--leaf-buds narrow, acute, red, scurfy-pubescent, / inch long; flower-buds swollen at the base, with spire-like apex, grayish with scurfy pubescence, / inch long. bark.--twigs at first light green, rusty-pubescent, becoming dark red-brown; red-brown on old trunks and broken into small, thick plates. wood.--heavy, hard, close-grained, ill-smelling, dark orange-brown, with thin, whitish sapwood. distribution.--frequent throughout the state. habitat.--prefers rich, moist soil along the borders of forests; roadsides; river-banks. notes.--too small for street use. propagated from seed or by cuttings. footnotes: [footnote a: see page xviii.] [footnote b: see page xviii.] [footnote c: although formerly classed under pinaceae, recent investigations show it to be the type of a distinct family.] [footnote d: it is not intended that this key shall serve as a means of identification of any species of _salix_ found in michigan, but it has added simply to give a ready comparison of the four species which are described.] [footnote e: it is difficult to distinguish between these species in the absence of summer characters. if leaves can be found on or beneath a tree which is sufficiently segregated from similar trees as to avoid any chance for error, the summer key on the opposite page may be used.] [footnote f: a discussion has recently arisen as to whether _betula lenta_ actually exists in the state, some botanists preferring the name _b. alleghanensis britt._ for the tree we have so long called black birch. pending further investigation the authors have thought best to retain the old name. ref.--britton: north american trees, pp. - .] [footnote g: [ ] means that the acorns mature in the autumn of the first season, hence mature acorns will not be found on the tree, but on the ground beneath the tree. [ ] means that the acorns mature in the autumn of the second season, hence immature acorns will be found on the last season's twigs, and mature acorns on the ground beneath the tree.] +glossary+ _with page references to explanatory figures._ _abortion._ imperfect development or non-development of an organ or part. _acuminate._ gradually tapering to the apex. page xii. _acute._ terminating with a sharp angle. page xii. _alternate._ said of leaves, branches, buds, etc., scattered singly along the stem; not opposite. _androgynous._ composed of both staminate and pistillate flowers. _anterior._ the front side of a flower, remote from the axis of inflorescence. _anther._ the part of a stamen which bears the pollen. page xiii. _apetalous._ without petals. _apex._ the top, as the tip of a bud or the end of a leaf which is opposite the petiole. _apiculate._ ending in a short-pointed tip. _appressed._ lying close and flat against. _aromatic._ fragrant; with an agreeable odor. _axil._ the upper one of the two angles formed by the juncture of a leaf with a stem. _axillary._ situated in an axil. _bark._ the outer covering of a trunk or branch. _bearded._ bearing a long, bristle-like appendage, or furnished with long or stiff hairs. _berry._ a fruit which is fleshy throughout. _bi-pinnate._ twice pinnate. _blade._ the expanded portion of a leaf, etc. _bloom._ a powdery or waxy substance easily rubbed off. _bract._ a more or less modified leaf subtending a flower or belonging to an inflorescence. _branch._ a secondary division of a trunk. _branchlet._ a small branch. _bud._ an undeveloped stem or branch, with or without scales. _bud-scales._ modified leaves covering a bud. _bundle-scars._ dots on the surface of a leaf-scar, which are scars left by the fibro-vascular bundles which run through the petiole into the blade of the leaf. page xvi. _bur._ a spiny fruit. _calyx._ the outer part of a perianth, usually green in color. page xiii. _campanulate._ bell-shaped. _capsule._ a dry fruit of more than one carpel which splits at maturity to release the seeds. _carpel._ a simple pistil, or one member of a compound pistil. _catkin._ a spike of unisexual flowers, each subtended by a bract, and usually deciduous in one piece. _chambered._ said of pith which is interrupted by hollow spaces. _ciliate._ fringed with hairs on the margin. _cinereous._ ash-gray color. _claw._ the narrow, stalk-like base of a petal, sepal, etc. _cleft._ cut about half-way to the middle. _cluster._ a group of two or more organs (flowers, fruit, etc.) on a plant at a node or end of a stem. _compound._ composed of two or more similar parts united into a whole. _compound leaf_, one divided into separate leaflets. _cone._ a fruit with woody, overlapping scales. _conical._ cone-shaped, largest at the base and tapering to the apex. _connective._ the portion of a stamen which connects the two cells of the anther. _cordate._ heart-shaped. page xii. _coriaceous._ leather-like in texture. _corky._ made of, or like cork. _corolla._ the inner part of a perianth, usually bright colored. page xiii. _corymb._ a flower-cluster in which the axis is shortened and the pedicels of the lower flowers lengthened, forming a flat-topped inflorescence, the marginal flowers blooming first. page xiv. _corymbose._ arranged in corymbs. _crenate._ dentate, with the teeth much rounded. page xiii. _crenulate._ finely crenate. _crown._ the upper part of a tree, including the living branches with their foliage. _cutting._ a piece of the stem, root or leaf which, if cut off and placed in contact with the soil, will form new roots and buds, reproducing the parent plant. _cyme._ a broad and flattish inflorescence, the central flowers of which bloom first. page xiv. _cymose._ arranged in cymes. _deciduous._ not persistent; falling away, as the leaves of a tree in autumn. _decurrent._ said of a leaf which extends down the stem below the point of fastening. _decussate._ alternating in pairs at right angles. _dehiscent._ opening by valves or slits. _deltoid._ delta-shaped. _dentate._ toothed, with the teeth usually pointed and directed outward. page xiii. _depressed._ somewhat flattened from above. _dichotomous._ branching regularly in pairs. _digitate._ said of a compound leaf in which the leaflets are borne at the apex of the petiole; finger-shaped. _dioecious._ unisexual, with staminate and pistillate flowers on different individuals. _distribution._ the geographical extent and limits of a species. _divergent._ said of buds, cones, etc., which point away from the twig, or of pine needles, etc., which spread apart. _dorsal._ pertaining to the back or outer surface of an organ. _downy._ covered with fine hairs. _drupe._ a fleshy or pulpy fruit in which the inner portion is hard or stony. _ellipsoid._ an elliptical solid. _elliptical._ oval or oblong with regularly rounded ends. page xii. _emarginate._ notched at the apex. page xii. _entire._ without divisions, lobes or teeth. _excrescences._ warty outgrowths or protuberances. _exfoliate._ to cleave off, as of the outer layers of bark. _falcate._ scythe-shaped. _fascicle._ a compact cluster of leaves or flowers. _fascicled._ arranged in fascicles. _fastigiate._ said of branches which are erect and near together. _feather-veined._ having veins extending from the midrib to the margin, feather-wise. _fertile._ capable of bearing fruit. _fertilization._ the mingling of the contents of a male (pollen) and female (ovule) cell. _filament._ the part of a stamen which bears the anther. page xiii. _filamentose_ or _filamentous_. composed of threads or filaments. _flaky._ with loose scales easily rubbed off (bark). _fleshy._ succulent; juicy. _flower._ an axis bearing stamens or pistils or both (calyx and corolla usually accompany these). _fluted._ with rounded ridges. _fruit._ the part of a plant which bears the seed. _germinate._ to sprout, as of a seed. _gibbous._ swollen on one side. _glabrous._ neither rough, pubescent, nor hairy; smooth. _gland._ secreting surface or structure; a protuberance having the appearance of such an organ. _glandular._ bearing glands. _glaucous._ covered or whitened with a bloom. _globose._ spherical or nearly so. _globular._ nearly globose. _gregarious._ growing in groups or colonies. _habit._ the general appearance of a plant, best seen from a distance. _habitat._ the place where a plant naturally grows, as in water, clay soil, marsh, etc. _hairy._ with long hairs. _halberd-shaped._ like an arrow-head, but with the basal lobes pointing outward nearly at right angles. page xii. _heartwood._ the dead central portion of the trunk or large branch of a tree. _hirsute._ covered with rather coarse or stiff hairs. _hoary._ gray-white with a fine, close pubescence. _homogeneous._ uniform; composed of similar parts or elements. _hybrid._ a cross between two nearly related species, formed by the action of the pollen of one upon the pistil of the other, yielding an intermediate form. _imbricate._ overlapping, like the shingles on a roof. _indehiscent._ not opening by valves or slits; remaining persistently closed. _indigenous._ native and original to a region. _inflorescence._ the flowering part of a plant, and especially its arrangement. _internode._ the portion of a stem between two nodes. _involucral._ pertaining to an involucre. _involucre._ a circle of bracts surrounding a flower or cluster of flowers. _keeled._ with a central ridge like the keel of a boat. _laciniate._ cut into narrow, pointed lobes. _lanceolate._ lance-shaped, broadest above the base and tapering to the apex, but several times longer than wide. page xii. _lateral._ situated on the side of a branch. _leaf._ the green expansions borne by the branches of a tree, consisting of a blade with or without a petiole. _leaflet._ one of the small blades of a compound leaf. _leaf-scar._ the scar left on a twig by the falling of a leaf. page xvi. _legume._ a pod-like fruit composed of a solitary carpel and usually splitting open by both sutures (_leguminosae_). _lenticels._ corky growths on young bark which admit air to the interior of a twig or branch. _linear._ long and narrow, with parallel edges (as pine needles). page xii. _lobe._ any division of an organ, especially if rounded. _lobed._ provided with a lobe or lobes. page xiii. _lustrous._ glossy; shining. _membranaceous._ thin and somewhat translucent. _midrib._ the central vein of a leaf or leaflet. _monoecious._ unisexual, with staminate and pistillate flowers on the same individual. _mucilaginous._ slimy; resembling or secreting mucilage or gum. _mucronate._ tipped with a small, abrupt point. page xii. _naked_. lacking organs or parts which are normally present in related species or genera. _naturalized_. said of introduced plants which are reproducing by self-sown seeds. _nectariferous_. producing nectar. _node_. the place upon a stem which normally bears a leaf or whorl of leaves. _nut_. a hard and indehiscent, -celled, -seeded fruit. _nutlet_. a diminutive nut. _oblanceolate_. lanceolate, with the broadest part toward the apex. page xii. _oblique_. slanting, or with unequal sides. _oblong_. longer than broad, with sides approximately parallel. page xii. _obovale_. ovate, with the broadest part toward the apex. page xii. _obovoid_. an ovate solid with the broadest part toward the apex. _obtuse_. blunt or rounded at the apex. page xii. _opaque_. dull; neither shining nor translucent. _opposite_. said of leaves, branches, buds, etc., on opposite sides of a stem at a node. _orbicular_. circular. page xii. _oval_. broadly elliptical. page xii. _ovary_. the part of a pistil that contains the ovules. page xiii. _ovate_. egg-shaped, with the broad end basal. page xii. _ovoid_. solid ovate or solid oval. _ovule_. the part of a flower which after fertilization becomes the seed. _palmate_. radiately lobed or divided; hand-shaped. _panicle_. a loose, irregularly compound inflorescence with pedicellate flowers. page xiv. _paniculate_. arranged in panicles or resembling a panicle. _papilionaceous_. butterfly-like, as in flowers of the _leguminosae_. _pedicel_. the stalk of a single flower in a compound inflorescence. _pedicellate_. borne on a pedicel. _peduncle_. a primary flower-stalk, supporting either a cluster or a solitary flower. _pendent._ hanging downward. _pendulous._ more or less hanging or declined. _perfect._ said of a flower with both stamens and pistil. page xiii. _perianth._ the calyx and corolla of a flower considered as a whole. _persistent._ long-continuous, as leaves through the winter, calyx on the fruit, etc. _petal._ one of the divisions of a corolla. page xiii. _petiolate._ having a petiole. _petiole._ the stem or stalk of a leaf. _petiolulate._ having a petiolule. _petiolule._ the stem or stalk of a leaflet. _pilose._ hairy with long, soft hairs. _pinnate._ compound, with the leaflets arranged along both sides of a common petiole. _pistil._ the seed-bearing organ of a flower, normally consisting of ovary, style and stigma. page xiii. _pistillate._ provided with a pistil, but usually without stamens. _pith._ the softer central part of a twig or stem. page xvi. _pollen._ the fecundating grains borne in the anther. _polygamo-dioecious._ sometimes perfect, sometimes unisexual, both forms borne on different individuals. _polygamo-monoecious._ sometimes perfect, sometimes unisexual, both forms borne on the same individual. _polygamous._ sometimes perfect, sometimes unisexual, both forms borne on the same or on different individuals. _pome._ a fleshy fruit, as the apple. _posterior._ the back side of a flower, next to the axis of inflorescence. _prickle._ a small spine growing from the bark. _puberulent._ minutely pubescent. _puberulous._ minutely pubescent. _pubescence._ a covering of short, soft hairs. _pubescent._ covered with short, soft hairs. _punctate._ dotted with translucent or colored dots or pits. _raceme._ a simple inflorescence of flowers on pedicels of equal length arranged on a common, elongated axis (rachis). page xiv. _racemose._ resembling a raceme. _rachis._ the central axis of a spike or raceme of flowers or of a compound leaf. _recurved._ curved downward or backward. _reticulate._ netted. _rough._ harsh to the touch; pubescent. _rugose._ wrinkled. _samara._ an indehiscent winged fruit. _sapwood._ the living outer portion of a trunk or large branch of a tree between the heartwood and the bark. _scales._ small modified leaves, usually thin and scarious, seen in buds and cones; the flakes into which the outer bark often divides. _scaly._ provided with scales. _scarious._ thin, dry, membranaceous; not green. _scurfy._ covered with small bran-like scales. _seed._ the ripened ovule. _sepal._ one of the divisions of a calyx. page xiii. _serrate._ toothed, the teeth sharp and pointing forward. page xiii. _sessile._ without a stalk. _shrub._ a bushy, woody growth, usually branched at or near the base, less than feet in height. _simple._ of one piece; not compound. _sinuate._ strongly wavy. page xiii. _sinuous._ in form like the path of a snake. _sinus._ the cleft or space between two lobes. _smooth._ smooth to the touch; not pubescent. _spatulate._ wide and rounded at the apex, but gradually narrowed downward. page xii. _spike._ a simple inflorescence of sessile flowers arranged on a common, elongated axis (rachis). page xiv. _spine._ a sharp woody outgrowth from a stem. _spray._ the aggregate of smaller branches and branchlets. _stamen._ the pollen-bearing organ of a flower, normally consisting of filament and anther. page xiii. _staminate._ provided with stamens, but usually without pistils. _staminodium_. a sterile stamen. _sterile_. unproductive, as a flower without pistil, or a stamen without anther. _stigma_. the part of a pistil which receives the pollen. page xiii. _stipules_. leaf-like appendages on either side of a leaf at the base of the petiole. _stipule-scar_. the scar left by the fall of a stipule. page xv. _striate_. marked with fine longitudinal stripes or ridges. _strobile_. a cone. _style_. the part of a pistil connecting ovary with stigma. page xiii. _sub_-. a prefix applied to many botanical terms, indicating somewhat or slightly. _subtend_. to lie under or opposite to. _sucker_. a shoot arising from a subterranean part of a plant. _superposed_. placed above, as one bud above another at a node. _suture_. a junction or line of dehiscence. _terete_. circular in cross-section. _terminal_. situated at the end of a branch. _ternate_. in threes. _tetrahedral_. having, or made up of, four faces (triangles). _thorn_. a stiff, woody, sharp-pointed projection. _tolerant_. capable of enduring more or less heavy shade. _tomentose_. densely pubescent with matted wool. _toothed_. with teeth or short projections. _torus_. the part of the axis of a flower which bears the floral organs. _transverse_. said of a wood section made at right angles with the axis of the stem; across the grain. _tree_. usually defined as a plant with a woody stem, unbranched at or near the base, reaching a height of at least feet. _trunk_. the main stem of a tree. _turbinate_. top-shaped. _umbel_. a simple inflorescence of flowers on pedicels which radiate from the same point. page xiv. _umbellate_. arranged in umbels. _undulate_. with a wavy margin or surface. page xiii. _unisexual_. of one sex, either staminate or pistillate; not perfect. _veins._ threads of fibro-vascular tissue in a leaf, petal, or other flat organ. _villose_ or _villous_. covered with long, soft hairs. _viscid._ glutinous; sticky. _whorl._ an arrangement of leaves or branches in a circle round an axis. _wood._ the hard part of a stem lying between the pith and the bark. _woolly._ covered with long and matted or tangled hairs. index to the artificial keys summer keys: key to the genera, xxi. key to the species of acer, . key to the species of aesculus, . key to the species of betula, . key to the species of carya, . key to the species of catalpa, . key to the species of cornus, . key to the species of fraxinus, . key to the species of juglans, . key to the species of picea, . key to the species of pinus, . key to the species of populus, . key to the species of prunus, . key to the species of pyrus, . key to the species of quercus, . key to the species of salix, . key to the species of ulmus, . winter keys: key to the genera, xxvii. key to the species of acer, . key to the species of aesculus, . key to the species of betula, . key to the species of carya, . key to the species of catalpa, . key to the species of cornus, . key to the species of fraxinus, . key to the species of juglans, . key to the species of picea, . key to the species of pinus, . key to the species of populus, . key to the species of prunus, . key to the species of pyrus, . key to the species of quercus, . key to the species of salix, . key to the species of ulmus, . index to the trees abies balsamea, . acacia, three-thorned, . acer dasycarpum, . negundo, . nigrum, . pennsylvanicum, . platanoides, . pseudo-platanus, . rubrum, . saccharinum, , . saccharum, , . saccharum nigrum, . spicatum, . aesculus glabra, . hippocastanum, . hippocastanum, v. flòre plèno, . ailanthus, . glandulosa, . almondleaf willow, . alternate-leaved dogwood, . amelanchier canadensis, . american crab, . elm, . arborvitae, . ash, black, . blue, . green, . mountain, . red, . white, . ash-leaved maple, . aspen, . largetooth, . austrian pine, . balm of gilead, . hairy, . balsam, , . fir, . basswood, . beech, . blue, . water, . white, . betula alba papyrifera, . alleghanensis, . lenta, . lutea, . papyrifera, . birch, black, . canoe, . cherry, . gray, . paper, . sweet, . white, . yellow, . bitternut hickory, . black ash, . birch, . cherry, . gum, . jack, . locust, . maple, . oak, , . pine, . spruce, . sugar maple, . walnut, . willow, . blue ash, . beech, . dogwood, . boxelder, . boxwood, . brittle willow, . buckeye, ohio, . bur oak, . butternut, . buttonball-tree, . button-wood, . canada plum, . canoe birch, . carpinus caroliniana, . carya alba, , . amara, . cordiformis, . glabra, , . laciniosa, . microcarpa, . ovata, . porcina, . sulcata, . tomentosa, . castanea dentata, . sativa, v. americana, . vesca, v. americana, . catalpa, . bignonioides, , . catalpa, . hardy, . speciosa, . cedar, red, . white, . celtis occidentalis, . cercis canadensis, . cherry birch, . cherry, black, . choke, . pin, . wild red, . chestnut, . oak, . chinquapin oak, . choke cherry, . coffeetree, . kentucky, . cork elm, . cornus alternifolia, . florida, . cottonwood, . crab, american, . sweet, . crack willow, . crataegus, . punctata, . dogwood, . alternate-leaved, . blue, . flowering, . elm, american, . cork, . red, . rock, . slippery, . water, . white, . fagus americana, . atropunicea, . ferruginea, . grandifolia, . fir, balsam, . scotch, . flowering dogwood, . fraxinus americana, . lanceolata, . nigra, . pennsylvanica, , . pennsylvanica lanceolata, . pubescens, , quadrangulata, . sambucifolia, . virdis, . ginkgo, . biloba, . gleditsia triacanthos, . gray birch, . green ash, . gum, black, . gymnocladus canadensis, . dioica, . hackberry, . hairy balm of gilead, . hard maple, . hardy catalpa, . haw, . hawthorn, . hemlock, . hickory, bitternut, . mocker nut, . pignut, . shagbark, . shellbark, , . small pignut, . hicoria alba, . glabra, . glabra, v. odorata, . laciniosa, . microcarpa, . minima, . odorata, . ovata, . hill's oak, . honey locust, . hornbeam, . horse-chestnut, . ironwood, . jack pine, . judas-tree, . juglans cinerea, . nigra, . juniper, red, . juniperus virginiana, . kentucky coffeetree, . king nut, . largetooth aspen, . larix americana, . laricina, . liriodendron tulipifera, . locust, . black, . honey, . lombardy poplar, . maclura aurantiaca, . pomifera, . maidenhair tree, . malus coronaria, . maple, ash-leaved, . black, . black sugar, . hard, . mountain, . norway, . red, . rock, . silver, . soft, , . striped, . sugar, . sycamore, . mocker nut hickory, . moosewood, . morus rubra, . mountain ash, . maple, . mulberry, red, . nannyberry, . napoleon's willow, . negundo aceroides, . nettle-tree, . northern pin oak, . norway maple, . pine, . spruce, . nut, king, . nyssa multiflora, . sylvatica, . oak, black, , . bur, . chestnut, . chinquapin, . hill's, . northern pin, . pin, . red, . scarlet, . shingle, . swamp, . swamp white, . white, . yellow, , . ohio buckeye, . osage orange, . ostrya virginiana, . padus serotina, . virginiana, . paper birch, . pepperidge, . picea abies, . alba, . canadensis, . excelsa, . mariana, . nigra, . pignut hickory, . small, . pin cherry, . oak, . oak, northern, . pine, austrian, . black, . jack, . norway, . red, . scotch, . scrub, . white, . pinus austriaca, . banksiana, . divaricata, . laricio austriaca, . resinosa, . strobus, . sylvestris, . platanus occidentalis, . plum, canada, . red, . poplar, lombardy, . tulip, . white, . populus alba, . balsamifera, , . balsamifera candicans, . candicans, . deltoides, . dilatata, . fastigiata, . grandidentata, . monilifera, . nigra italica, . tremuloides, . prunus americana, v. nigra, . nigra, . pennsylvanica, . serotina, . virginiana, . pyrus americana, . coronaria, . quercus acuminata, . alba, . alexanderi, . bicolor, . coccinea, . ellipsoidalis, . imbricaria, . macrocarpa, . marilandica, . muhlenbergii, . palustris, . platanoides, . rubra, . velutina, . red ash, . cedar, . cherry, wild, . elm, . juniper, . maple, . mulberry, . oak, . pine, . plum, . redbud, . robinia pseudo-acacia, . rock elm, . maple, . salisburia adiantifolia, . salix, . amygdaloides, . babylonica, . fragilis, . nigra, . sassafras, . officinale, . sassafras, . variifolium, . scarlet oak, . scotch fir, . pine, . scrub pine, . serviceberry, . shagbark hickory, . sheepberry, . shellbark hickory, , . shingle oak, . silver maple, . slippery elm, . small pignut hickory, . soft maple, , . sorbus americana, . spruce, black, . norway, . white, . striped maple, . sugar maple, . black, . swamp oak, . white oak, . sweet birch, . crab, . sycamore, . maple, . tamarack, . thorn, . thorn-apple, . three-thorned acacia, . thuja occidentalis, . tilia americana, . toxylon pomiferum, . tree, maidenhair, . of heaven, . tsuga canadensis, . tulip poplar, . tulip-tree, . ulmus americana, , . fulva, , pubescens, . racemosa, . thomasi, . viburnum lentago, . walnut, black, . water beech, . elm, . weeping willow, . whistlewood, . white ash, . beech, . birch, . cedar, . elm, . oak, . oak, swamp, . pine, . poplar, . spruce, . white-wood, . wild red cherry, . willow, . almondleaf, . black, . brittle, . crack, . napoleon's, . weeping, . yellow birch, . oak, , . woodland gleanings. "attractive is the woodland scene, diversified with trees of every growth-- alike yet various.... * * * * * no tree in all the grove but has its charms." woodland gleanings: being an account of british forest-trees, indigenous and introduced. [illustration] second edition, revised and enlarged, with sixty-four illustrations. london: adam scott, charterhouse square. . glasgow: w. g. blackie and co., printers, villafield. advertisement to the second edition. to those who live in the country, or repair to it from our cities and towns for recreation or recruitment of health, we trust this will be an acceptable book, especially if they are unacquainted with forest-trees. our aim has been to produce a volume that will convey general and particular information respecting the timber-trees chiefly cultivated in the united kingdom, to induce further inquiry respecting them, and to impart a new interest to the woodland. to effect this we have briefly given their history and description, together with their botanical characters, remarks from our best authors on their habits and ornamental properties, on the usual mode of their cultivation, and on the value or utility of their timber. we have also introduced accounts of such remarkable trees as we considered of sufficient note to interest the general reader. it has been objected that a few species, not recognised as forest-trees, have been included in this work; such as the hawthorn, holly, mountain-ash, and wild cherry. but as these have been likewise admitted into a subsequent work of greater pretensions, the reason there given by its author will be here equally sufficient:--"that though aware of the secondary rank of these trees in point of dimensions, when compared with the greater denizens of the forest, he felt that the prominent station they occupy in the ornamental and picturesque departments of our native sylvia, was sufficient to compensate for this defect, and to entitle them to the situation in which they have been placed." that the thirty-two species particularly described may be the more readily identified, and their botanical characters more easily understood, there has been given a well executed wood-cut representation of the usual growth and representation of each tree, and another of the leaves, flowers, and fruit. _july , ._ list of illustrations. page . alder . leaves and catkins . ash . leaves, flowers, and fruit . beech . leaves, flowers, and fruit . birch . leaves and catkins . cedar of lebanon . foliage, cone, &c. . chestnut . leaves, catkins, &c. . elm . leaves and flowers . hawthorn . leaves, blossom, and fruit . hazel . leaves, catkins, and nuts . holly . leaves, flowers, and fruit . hornbeam . leaves, catkins, and fruit . horse-chestnut . leaves, flowers, &c. . larch . foliage, catkins, &c. . lime, or linden . leaves and flowers . maple . leaves, flowers, and seeds . mountain-ash . leaves, flowers, and fruit . mulberry . leaves and fruits . oak . leaves, flowers, and fruit . oriental plane . leaves, and globes of flowers . occidental plane . leaves and flowers . poplar . (white) leaves, flowers, and catkins . scotch fir or pine . foliage, catkins, cones, &c. . silver fir . foliage and cones . spruce fir . foliage and cones . sycamore . leaves, flowers, and samaræ . walnut . leaves, catkins, and nuts . weymouth pine . foliage, cones, &c. . whitebeam . leaves, flowers, and fruit . wild black cherry . leaves, flowers, and fruit . wild service . leaves and flowers . willow . (crack) leaves and catkins of _s. fragilis_ . yew . foliage, leaves, and fruit introduction. the forest teems with forms of majesty and beauty; some, as the light poplar, wave with every sigh of zephyr, and some scarcely bend their heads for very mightiness, when wintry storms are maddening the sea! carrington. delightful edlington! how we love to saunter up and down the broad and verdant pathway that traverses thy wild domain. there, amid the deep imbosomed thickets, we feel that we are in "the haunts of meditation"--we feel that these are, indeed, the scenes where ancient bards th' inspiring breath ecstatic felt; and wish that the kind muses that them inspired would cast their united mantles over us, and aid us to sing the beauties of the woodland. but no friendly spirit deigns to tune our lyre; we are condemned to dull prose, and are permitted only here and there to call in some bard of old to aid our feeble efforts. woodland! yea, the very name seems to revive recollections of delightful solitude--of calm and holy feelings, when the world has been, for the time, completely banished from its throne--the throne of the human heart, which, alas! it too commonly occupies. o, how agreeable and pleasant is the woodland, when the trees are half clad with their green attire! how refreshing is the appearance of the tender leaf-bud, emerging from its sheath, just visible upon the dingy gray branches, those of one tree being generally a little in advance of others! we have never yet met with that insensate being whose heart is not elated at the sight. and to look, at this time, upon the vast assemblage of giant trees, whose skeleton, character, and figure may now be plainly traced. the dense foliage does not obscure them now, but they are beheld in all their majesty. "if the contrast of gray and mossy branches," says howitt, "and of the delicate richness of young leaves gushing out of them in a thousand places be inexpressibly delightful to behold, that of one tree with another is not the less so. one is nearly full clothed; another is mottled with gray and green, struggling, as it were, which should have the predominance, and another is still perfectly naked. the pines look dim dusky amid the lively hues of spring. the abeles are covered with their clusters of alliescent and powdery leaves and withering catkins; and beneath them the pale spathes of the arum, fully expanded and displaying their crimson clubs, presenting a sylvan and unique air." in sweden, the budding and leafing of the birch-tree is considered as a directory for sowing barley; and as there is something extremely sublime and harmonious in the idea, we flatter ourselves an account of it here will be acceptable. mr. harold barck, in his ingenious dissertation upon the foliation of trees, informs us, that linnæus had, in the most earnest manner, exhorted his countrymen to observe, with all care and diligence, at what time each tree expanded its buds and unfolded its leaves; imagining, and not without reason, that his country would, some time or other, reap some new and perhaps unexpected benefit from observations of this kind made in different places. as one of the apparent advantages, he advises the prudent husbandman to watch, with the greatest care, the proper time for sowing; because this, with the divine assistance, produces plenty of provision, and lays the foundation of the public welfare of the state, and of the private happiness of the people. the ignorant farmer, tenacious of the ways and customs of his ancestors, fixes his sowing season generally to a month, and sometimes to a particular week, without considering whether the earth be in a proper state to receive the seed; from whence it frequently happens, that what the sower sowed with sweat, the reaper reaps with sorrow. the wise economist should therefore endeavour to fix upon certain signs, whereby to judge of the proper time for sowing. we see trees open their buds and expand their leaves, from whence we conclude that spring approaches, and experience supports us in the conclusion; but nobody has as yet been able to show us what trees providence has intended should be our calendar, so that we might know on what day the countryman ought to sow his grain. no one can deny but that the same power which brings forth the leaves of trees, will also make the grain vegetate; nor can any one assert that a premature sowing will always, and in every place, accelerate a ripe harvest. perhaps, therefore, we cannot promise ourselves a happy success by any means so likely, as by taking our rule for sowing from the leafing of trees. we must for that end observe in what order every tree puts forth its leaves according to its species, the heat of the atmosphere, and the quality of the soil. afterwards, by comparing together the observations of the several years, it will not be difficult to determine from the foliation of the trees, if not certainly, at least probably, the time when annual plants ought to be sown. it will be necessary, likewise, to remark what sowings made in different parts of the spring produce the best crops, in order that, by comparing these with the leafing of trees, it may appear which is the most proper time for sowing. the temperature of the season, with respect to heat and cold, drought and wet, differing in every year, experiments made one year cannot, with certainty, determine for the following. they may assist, but cannot be conclusive. the hints of linnæus, however, constitute a universal rule, as trees and shrubs, bud, leaf, and flower, shed their leaves in every country, according to the difference of the seasons. mr. stillingfleet is the only person that has made correct observations upon the foliation of the trees and shrubs of this kingdom. the following is his calendar, which was made in norfolk, in :-- honeysuckle january gooseberry march currant " elder " birch april weeping willow " raspberry " bramble " briar " plum " apricot " peach " filbert " sallow " alder " sycamore " elm " quince " marsh elder " wych elm " mountain-ash " hornbeam " apple-tree " abele " chestnut " willow " oak " lime " maple " walnut " plane " black poplar " beech " acacia robinia " ash " carolina poplar " in different years, and in different soils and expositions, these trees and shrubs vary as to their leafing; but they are invariable as to their succession, being bound down to it by nature herself. a farmer, therefore, who would use this sublime idea of linnæus, should diligently mark the time of budding, leafing, and flowering of different plants. he should also put down the days on which his respective grains were sown; and, by comparing these two tables for a number of years, he will be enabled to form an exact calendar for his spring corn. an attention to the discolouring and falling of the leaves of plants, will assist him in sowing his winter grain, and teach him how to guess at the approach of winter. towards the end of september, which is the best season for sowing wheat, he will find the leaves of various trees as follows:-- plane-tree, tawny. oak, yellowish green. hazel, yellow. sycamore, dirty brown. maple, pale yellow. ash, fine lemon. elm, orange. hawthorn, tawny yellow. cherry, red. hornbeam, bright yellow. there is a certain kind of genial warmth which the earth should enjoy at the time the seed is sown. the budding, leafing, and flowering of plants, seem to indicate this happy temperature of the earth. appearances of this sublime nature may be compared to the writing upon the wall, which was seen by many, but understood by few. they seem to constitute a kind of harmonious intercourse between god and man, and are the silent language of the deity. welcome, ye shades! ye bowery thickets, hail! ye lofty pines! ye venerable oaks! ye ashes wild, resounding o'er the steep! delicious is your shelter to the soul! yes, indeed, the woodland is an ever-pleasant place. there we may couch ourselves upon the mossy bank, and listen to the murmuring "brook that bubbles by," or to the sweet sounds that issue from every warbling throat heard in the tuneful woodlands. yea, truly, there, plunged amid the shadows brown, imagination lays him down, attentive, in his airy mood, to every murmur of the wood; the bee in yonder flowery nook, the chidings of the headlong brook, the green leaf shivering in the gale, the warbling hills, the lowing vale, the distant woodman's echoing stroke, the thunder of the falling oak. carlos wilcox sings so sweetly of vernal melody in the forest, that we shall favour our readers with his song: with sonorous notes of every tone, mixed in confusion sweet, all chanted in the fulness of delight, the forest rings. where, far around enclosed with bushy sides, and covered high above with foliage thick, supported by bare trunks, like pillars rising to support a roof, it seems a temple vast, the space within rings loud and clear with thrilling melody. apart, but near the choir, with voice distinct, the merry mocking-bird together links in one continued song their different notes, adding new life and sweetness to them all: hid under shrubs, the squirrel, that in fields frequents the stony wall, and briery fence, here chirps so shrill that human feet approach unheard till just upon him, when, with cries, sudden and sharp, he darts to his retreat, beneath the mossy hillock or aged tree; but oft, a moment after, re-appears, first peeping out, then starting forth at once with a courageous air, yet in his pranks keeping a watchful eye, nor venturing far till left unheeded. as the summer advances, forest-trees assume a beautiful variety. the oak has "spread its amber leaves out in the sunny sheen;" the ash, the maple, the beech, and the sycamore are each clad in delicate vestures of green; and the dark perennial firs are enlivened and enriched by the young shoots and the cones of lighter hue. "in the middle of summer," observes howitt, "it is the very carnival of nature, and she is prodigal of her luxuries." it is luxury to walk abroad, indulging every sense with sweetness, loveliness, and harmony. it is luxury to stand beneath the forest side, when all is still and basking, at noon; and to see the landscape suddenly darken, the black and tumultuous clouds assemble as at a signal; to hear the awful thunder crash upon the listening ear; and then, to mark the glorious bow rise on the lurid rear of the tempest, the sun laugh jocundly abroad, and every bathed leaf and blossom fair, pour out its soul to the delicious air. but of the seasons autumn is the most pleasant for a woodland ramble. the depth of gloom, the silence, the wild cries that are heard flitting to and fro; the falling leaves already rustling to the tread, and strewing the forest walk, render it particularly pleasant. "and then those breaks; those openings; those sudden emergings from shadow and silence to light and liberty; those unexpected comings out to the skirts of the forest, or to some wild and heathy tract in the very depth of the woodlands! how pleasant is the thought of it!" the appearance of woods in autumn is indeed more picturesque, and more replete with incidental beauty than at any season of the year. so evident is this, that painters have universally chosen it as the season of landscape. the leafy surface of the forest is then so varied, and the masses of foliage are yet so full, that they allow the artist great latitude in producing his tints, without injuring the breadth of his lights. --the fading, many-coloured woods, shade deepening over-shade, the country round imbrown; a varied umbrage, dusk and dun, of every hue, from wan declining green to sooty dark. of all the hues of autumn, those of the oak are commonly the most harmonious. in an oaken wood, you see every variety of green and brown, owing either to the different exposure of the tree, the difference of the soil, or its own nature. in the beechen grove, this variety is not to be found. in early autumn, when the extremities of the trees are slightly tinged with orange, it may be partially produced; but late the eye is usually fatigued with one deep monotonous shade of orange, though perhaps it is the most beautiful among all the hues of autumn. and this uniformity prevails wherever the ash and elm abound, though of a different hue; and, indeed, no fading foliage excepting that of the oak, produces harmony of colouring. even when the beauty of the landscape has departed, the charms of autumn may remain. when the raging heat of summer is abated, and ere the rigours of winter are set in, there are frequent days of such heavenly temperature, that every mind must feel their effect. thomson thus describes a day of this kind: the morning shines serene, in all its dewy beauties bright, unfolding fair the last autumnal day, o'er all the soul its sacred influence breathes; inflames imagination, through the breast infuses every tenderness, and far beyond dim earth exalts the swelling thought. we now proceed to give a detailed notice of some of the component parts of the woodland scenery, beginning with the single tree. we feel no hesitation in calling a tree the grandest and most beautiful of all the various productions of the earth. in respect to its grandeur, nothing can compete with it; for the everlasting rocks and lofty mountains are parts of the earth itself. and though we find great beauty--beauty at once perceptible and ever-varying, and consequently more universally felt and appreciated--among plants of an inferior order--among shrubs and flowers, yet these latter may be considered beautiful rather as individuals, for as they are not adapted to form the arrangement of composition in landscape, nor to receive the effect of light and shade, they must give place in point of beauty--of picturesque beauty at least--to the form, and foliage, and ramification of the tree. the tree, however, we do not place in competition with animal life. "the shape, the different coloured furs, the varied and spirited attitudes, the character and motion, which strike us in the animal creation, are unquestionably beyond still life in its most pleasing appearance." with regard to trees, nature has been more liberal to them in point of variety, than even to its living forms. "though every animal is distinguished from its fellow, by some little variation of colour, character, or shape; yet in all the larger parts, in the body and limbs, the resemblance is generally exact. in trees, it is just the reverse: the smaller parts, the spray, the leaves, the blossom, and the seed, are the same in all trees of the same kind; while the larger parts, from which the most beautiful varieties result, are wholly different." for instance, you never see two oaks with the same number of limbs, the same kind of head, and twisted in the same form. when young, trees, like striplings, shoot into taper forms. there is a lightness and an airiness about them, which is pleasing; but they do not spread and receive their just proportions, until they have attained their full growth. there is as much difference, too, in trees--that is, in trees of the same kind--in point of beauty, as there is in human figures. the limbs of some are set on awkwardly, their trunks are disproportioned, and their whole form is unpleasing. the same rules, which establish elegance in other objects, establish it in these. there must be the same harmony of parts, the same sweeping line, the same contrast, the same ease and freedom. a bough, indeed, may issue from the trunk at right angles, and yet elegantly, as it frequently does in the oak; but it must immediately form some contrasting sweep, or the junction will be awkward. generally speaking, trees when lapped and trimmed into fastidious shapes, become ugly and displeasing. thus clipped yews, lime hedges, and pollards, being rendered unnatural in form, are disagreeable; though sometimes a pollard produces a good effect, when nature has been suffered, after some years, to bring it again into shape. lightness is a characteristic of beauty in a tree; for though there are beautiful trees of a heavy, as well as of a light form, yet their extremities must in some parts be separated, and hang with a degree of looseness from the fulness of the foliage, which occupies the middle of the tree, or the whole will only be a large bush. from position, indeed, and contrast, heaviness, though in itself a deformity, may be of singular use in the composition both of natural and of artificial landscape. a tree must be well balanced to be beautiful, for it may have form and lightness, and yet lose its effect from not being properly poised; though occasionally beauty may be found in an unbalanced tree, yet this must be caused by some peculiarity in its situation. for instance, when hanging over a rock, if altogether unpoised, it may be beautiful; or bending over a road, its effect may be good. we have often admired the massy trunk of an aged forest oak; and gilpin says he frequently examined the varied tints which enriched its furrowed stem. the genuine bark of an oak is ash-coloured, though it is not easy to distinguish this, from the quantity of moss which overspreads it; for we suppose every oak has more or less of these picturesque appendages. about the roots there is a green velvet moss, which is found in a greater degree to occupy the hole of the beech, though its beauty and brilliancy lose much when in decay. as the trunk rises, you see the brimstone colour taking possession in patches. of this there are two principal kinds: a smooth sort, which spreads like a scurf over the bark, and a rougher sort, which hangs in little rich knots and fringes. this sometimes inclines to an olive hue, and occasionally to a light-green. intermixed with these mosses is frequently found a species perfectly white. here and there, a touch of it gives lustre to the trunk, and has its effect; yet, on the whole, it is a nuisance, for as it generally begins to thrive when the other mosses begin to wither, it is rarely accompanied with any of the more beautiful species of its kind. this is a sure sign that the vigour of the tree is declining. there is another species of a dark brown colour, inclining to black; another of an ashy colour; and another of a dingy yellow. touches of red are also observable, and occasionally, though rarely, a bright yellow, which is like a gleam of sunshine. these add a great richness to the trees, and when blended harmoniously, as they commonly are, the rough and furrowed trunk of an oak, thus adorned, is an object which will long detain the picturesque eye. these and other incidental appendages to a tree are greatly subservient to the uses of the pencil, and the poet will now and then deign to deck his trees with these ornaments. he sometimes calls into being some mighty agent, as guardian of the woods, who cries out, from jove i am the power of this fair wood, and live in oaken bower. i nurse my saplings tall; and cleanse their rind from vegetating filth of every kind; and all my plants i save from nightly ill of noisome winds, and blasting vapours chill. the blasted tree adds much to effect, both in artificial and natural landscape. in some scenes it is nearly essential. when the dreary heath is spread before the eye, and ideas of wildness and desolation are required, what more suitable accompaniment can be imagined, than the blasted oak, ragged, scathed, and leafless, shooting its peeled white branches athwart the gathering blackness of some rising storm? as when heaven's fire hath scathed the forest oak, or mountain pine, with singed top its stately growth, though bare, stands on the blasted heath. --beneath that oak, whose shattered majesty hath felt the stroke of heaven's own thunder--yet it proudly heaves a giant sceptre wreathed with blasted leaves-- as though it dared the elements. neale. ivy also gives great richness to an old trunk, both by its stem, which often winds round it in thick, hairy, irregular volumes; and by its leaf, which either decks the furrowed bark, or creeps among the branches, or carelessly hangs from them. it unites with the mosses, and other furniture of the trees, in adorning and enriching it. the tribes of mosses, lichens, and liver-worts, are all parasitical; it is doubted whether the ivy is or not. the former, however, are absolute retainers. the character of the ivy, too, has been misrepresented, if his feelers have not some other purpose than that of enabling him to show his attachment to his patient supporter. shakspeare asserts that he makes a property of him: he was the ivy which had hid my princely trunk, and sucked my verdure out. besides these there are others which are sustained entirely by their own means. among them we may distinguish the black and white briony. the berries of many of these little plants are variously coloured in the different stages of their growth--yellow, red, and orange. all these produce their effect. the feathered seeds of the traveller's joy are also ornamental. the wild honeysuckle comes within this class; and it fully compensates for any injury it may do by the compression of the young branches, by its winding spiral coils, and by the beauty and fragrance of its flowers: with clasping tendrils it invests the branch, else unadorned, with many a gay festoon, and fragrant chaplet; recompensing well the strength it borrows with the grace it lends. in warm climates, where vines are the spontaneous offspring of nature, nothing can have a more pleasing effect than the forest-tree adorned with their twisting branches, hanging in rich festoons from bough to bough, and laden with fruit,-- the clusters clear half through the foliage seen. in england, the hop we consider the most beautiful appendage of the hanging kind. in its rude natural state, indeed, twisting carelessly round the branches of trees, it has as good an effect as the vine. its leaf is similar; and though its bunches are not so beautiful as the clusters of the vine, it is more accommodating, hangs more loosely, and is less extravagant in its growth. the motion of trees is one source of considerable beauty. the waving heads of some, and the undulation of others, give a continual variety to their forms. in nature this is certainly a circumstance of great beauty: things in motion sooner catch the eye than what stirs not; and this also affords the chequered shade, formed under it by the dancing of the sunbeams among its playing leaves. this circumstance is of a very amusing nature, and is capable of being beautifully wrought up in poetry: the chequered earth seems restless as a flood brushed by the winds. so sportive is the light, shot through the boughs, it dances as they dance, shadow and sunshine intermingling quick, and darkening and enlightening (as the leaves play wanton) every part. the clump of trees next occupies our attention. the term, says gilpin, has rather a relative meaning, as no rule of art hath yet prescribed what number of trees form a clump. near the eye we should call three or four trees a clump, and at the same time, in distant or extensive scenery, we should apply the same term to any smaller detached portion of wood, though it may be formed of hundreds of trees. but though the term admits not of exact definition, we will endeavour to make the ideas contained under it as distinct as possible. we distinguish, then, two kinds of clumps, the smaller and the larger; confining the former chiefly to the foreground, and considering the latter as a distant ornament. with respect to the former, we apprehend its chief beauty arises from contrast in the parts. we shall attempt to enumerate some of the sources whence the beauty of contrast is produced. three trees, or more, standing in a line, are formal, but in the natural wood this formality is rarely found. and yet even three trees in a line will be greatly assisted by the lines of the several trunks taking different directions; and by the various forms, distances, and growth of the trees. if three trees do not stand in a line, they must of course stand in a triangle, which produces a great variety of pleasing forms. and if a fourth tree be added, it stands beautifully near the middle of the triangle, of whatever form the triangle may be. if the clump consist of more trees than four, a still greater variety among the stems will of course take place; double triangles, and other pleasing shapes, all of which may be seen exemplified in every wood of natural growth. the branches are not less the source of contrast than the stem. to be picturesque, they must intermingle with each other without heaviness; they must hang loosely, but yet with varied looseness on every side; and if there be one head or top of the tree above another, there may be two or three subordinate, according to the size of the clump. different kinds of trees, in the same clump, often occasion a beautiful contrast. there are few trees which will not harmonize with trees of another kind; though it may be that contrasts the most simple and beautiful are produced by the various modes of growth in the same species. two or three oaks, intermingling their branches together, have often a very pleasing effect. the beech, when fully grown, is commonly (in a luxuriant soil at least), so heavy, that it seldom blends happily, either with its own kind or any other. the silver fir, too, is a very unaccommodating tree, as also all the other firs, and indeed every kind of tree that tapers to a point. the pine race, however, being clump-headed, unite well in composition. with these also the scotch fir leagues, from little knots of which we often see beautiful contrasts arise. when they are young and luxuriant, especially if any number of them above four or five are planted together, they generally form a heavy murky spot, but as they acquire age this heaviness goes off, the inner branches decay, the outer branches hang loosely and negligently, and the whole has frequently a good effect, unless they have been planted too closely. it may be doubted how far deciduous trees mingle well in a clump with evergreens; and yet, occasionally, from the darkness of the fir contrasting agreeably with the sprightly green of a deciduous tree just coming into leaf, a natural good effect of light and shade is produced. contrasts arise, again, from the mixture of trees of unequal growth, from a young tree united with an old one, a stunted tree with a luxuriant one, and sometimes from two or three trees, which in themselves are ill-shaped, but when combined are pleasing. inequalities of all these kinds are what chiefly give nature's planting a superiority over art. the form of the foliage is another source of contrast. in one part, where the branches intermingle, the foliage will be interwoven and close; in another, where the boughs of each tree hang separately, the appearance will be light and easy. but whatever beauty these contrasts exhibit, the effect is altogether lost if the clump be not well balanced. if no side preponderate so as to offend the eye, it is enough, and unless the clump have sustained some external injury, it is seldom deficient in point of balance. nature generally conducts the stems and branches in such easy forms, wherever there is an opening, and fills up all with such nice contrivance, and with so much picturesque irregularity, that we rarely wish for an amendment in her works. so true is this, that you may not take away a tree from a clump without infallibly destroying the balance which can never again be restored. when the clump grows larger, it becomes qualified only as a remote object, combining with vast woods, and forming a part of some extensive scene, either as a first, a second, or a third distance. the great use of the larger clump is to lighten the heaviness of a continued distant wood, and connect it gently with the plain, that the transition may not be too abrupt. all we wish to find in a clump of this kind is proportion and general form. with respect to proportion, the detached clump must not encroach too much on the dignity of the wood it aids, but must observe a proper subordination. a large tract of country covered with wood, will admit several of these auxiliary clumps, of different dimensions. but if the wood be of a smaller size, the clumps must also be smaller and fewer. as the clump becomes larger and recedes in the landscape, all the pleasing contrasts we expected in the smaller clumps are lost, and we are satisfied with a general form. no regular form is pleasing. a clump on the side of a hill, or in any situation where the eye can more easily investigate its shape, must be circumscribed by an irregular line; in which the undulations, both at the base and summit of the clump, should be strongly marked, as the eye has probably a distinct view of both. but if seen only on the top of a hill, or along the distant horizon, a little variation in the line which forms the summit, so as to break any disagreeable regularity there, will be sufficient. as a large tract of wood requires a few large clumps to connect it gently with the plain, so these large clumps themselves require the same service from a single tree, or a few trees, according to their size. the copse, the glen, and the open grove next demand our notice. the copse is a species of scenery composed generally of forest-trees, intermixed with brushwood, which latter is periodically cut down in twelve, thirteen, or fourteen years. in its dismantled state, nothing can be more forlorn. the area is covered with bare roots and knobs, from which the brushwood has been cut; while the forest-trees, intermingled among them, present their ragged stems, despoiled of all their lateral branches, which the luxuriance of the surrounding thickets had choked. the copse, however, soon repairs the injury it has thus suffered. one winter only sees its disgrace. the following summer produces luxuriant shoots; and two summers more restore it almost to perfect beauty. it is of little moment what species of wood composes the copse; for we do not expect from it scenes of picturesque beauty, but are satisfied if it yields us a shady sequestered path, which it generally furnishes in great perfection. it is among the luxuries of nature, to retreat into the cool recesses of the full-grown copse from the severity of a meridian sun, and to be serenaded by the humming insects of the shade, whose continuous song has a more refreshing sound than the buzzing vagrant fly, which wantons in the glare of day, and, as milton expresses it, ----winds her sultry horn. in distant landscape the copse hath seldom any effect. the beauty of a wood in a distant view arises in some degree from its tuftings which break and enrich the lights, but chiefly from its contrast with the plain, and from the grand shapes and forms, occasioned by the retiring and advancing parts of the forest, which produce vast masses of light and shade, and give effect to the whole. these beauties appear rarely in the copse. instead of that rich and tufted bed of foliage, which the distant forest exhibits, the copse presents a meagre and unaccommodating surface. it is age which gives the tree its tufted form, and the forest its effect. a nursery of saplings produces it not, and the copse is little more, nor does the intermixture of full-grown trees assist the appearance. their clumpy heads blend ill with the spiry tops of the juniors. neither have they any connection with each other. the woodman's judgment is shown in leaving the timber-trees at proper intervals, that they may neither hinder each other's growth, nor the growth of the underwood. but the woodman does not pretend to manage his trees with a view to picturesque beauty; and from his management, it is impossible they should produce a mass of light and shade. besides, the copse forms no contrast with the plain, nor presents those beautiful projections and recesses which the skirts of the forest exhibit. a copse is a plot of ground, proportioned off for the purpose of nurturing wood. of course it must be fenced from cattle; and these fences, which are in themselves disgusting, generally form the copse into a square, or some other regular figure; so that we have not only a deformity, but a want also of a connecting tie between the wood and the plain. instead of a softened undulating line, we have a harsh fence. the best effect which the copse produces, is on the lofty banks of the river; this may be seen particularly on the wye. in navigating such a river, the deficiencies of this mode of scenery, as you view it upwards from a boat, are lost; and in almost every state it has a good effect. while it enriches the bank, its uncouth shape, unless the fence is too much in view, and all its other unpleasant appearances, are concealed. when a winding walk is carried through a copse, which must necessarily in a few years, even in point of picturesque beauty, be given to the axe, shall the whole be cut down together? or shall a border be left, as is sometimes done, on each side of the walk? this is a difficult question; but gilpin thinks it should all go together. unless the border you leave be very broad, it will have no effect, even at present. you will see through it; it will appear meagre, and will never unite happily with the neighbouring parts when they begin to grow; at least, it ought not to stand longer than two years. the rest of the copse will then be growing beautiful, and the border may be dispensed with till it is replaced. but the way, decidedly, is to cut down all together. in a little time it will recover its beauty. we now proceed to the glen. a wide and open space between hills, is called a vale. if it be of smaller dimensions, we call it a valley. but when this space is contracted to a chasm, it becomes a glen. a glen, therefore, is commonly the offspring of a mountainous country; though sometimes found elsewhere, with its usual accompaniments of woody banks, and a rivulet at the bottom. the glen may be more or less contracted. it may form one single sweep, or its deviations may be irregular. the wood may consist of full-grown trees, or of underwood, or of a mixture of both. the path winding through it may run along the upper or the lower part. or the rivulet may foam among rocks, or murmur among pebbles;--it may form transparent pools, overhung with wood;--or, which is frequently the case, it may be invisible, and an object only of the ear. all these circumstances are capable of an infinite variety. the beauties of the internal parts of the glen consist chiefly in the glades, or openings, which are found in it. if the whole were a thicket, little beauty would result. unlike the copse, its furniture is commonly of a fortuitous growth, and escapes those periodical defalcations to which the copse is subject, and generally exhibits more beautiful scenery. it abounds with frequent openings. the eye is carried down, from the higher grounds, to a sweep of the river--or to a little gushing cascade--or to the face of a fractured rock, garnished with hanging wood--or perhaps to a cottage, with its scanty area of lawn falling to the river on one side, and sheltered by a clump of oaks on the other; while the smoke, wreathing behind the trees, disperses and loses itself as it gains the summit of the glen. or, still more beautifully, the eye breaks out at some opening, perhaps into the country, enriched with all the varieties of distant landscape--plains and woods melting together--a winding river--blue mountains--or perhaps some bay of the sea, with a little harbour and shipping. as an object of distance also, the woody glen has often a good effect--climbing the sides of mountains, breaking their lines, and giving variety to their bleak and barren sides. from the glen we hasten to the open grove, which is composed of trees arising from a smooth area, and consisting either of pines or of the deciduous race. beautiful groves of both may be seen. that of the pine will always be dry, as it is the peculiar quality of its leaves to imbibe moisture: but in lightness, variety, and general beauty, that of deciduous trees excels. if, however, you wish your grove to be in the gloomy style, the pine race will serve your purpose best. the open grove rarely makes a picturesque appearance. it may, indeed, have the effect of other woods in distant scenery; for the trees of which it is formed need not be separated from each other, as in the copse, but, being well massed together, may receive beautiful effects of light. when we enter its recesses, it is not so well calculated to please. there it wants variety, and that not only from the smoothness of the surface, but from the uniformity of the furniture--at least if it be an artificial scene, in which the trees, having been planted in a nursery, grow all alike, with upright stems. and yet a walk, upon a velvet turf, winding at pleasure among these natural columns, whose twisting branches at least admit some variety, with a spreading canopy of foliage over the head, is pleasing, and in hot weather refreshing. sometimes we find the open grove of natural growth; it is then more various and irregular, and becomes, of course, a more pleasing scene. and yet, when woods of this kind continue, as they sometimes do, in unpeopled countries, through half a province, they become tiresome, and prove that it is not wood, but variety of landscape, that delights the eye. the pleasing tranquillity of groves hath ever been in high repute among the innocent and refined part of mankind: groves were planted to console at noon the pensive wanderer in their shades. at eve the moonbeam sliding softly in between the sleeping leaves, is all the light he wants for meditation. indeed, no species of landscape is so fitted for meditation. the forest attracts the attention by its grandeur, and the park scene by its beauty; while the paths through copses, dells, and thickets, are too close, devious, interrupted, and often too beautiful to allow the mind to be at perfect ease. but the uniform sameness of the grove leaves the eye disengaged; and the feet wandering at pleasure, where they are confined by no path, want little direction. the mind, therefore, undisturbed, has only to retire within itself. hence the philosopher, the devotee, the poet, all retreated to these quiet recesses; and, from the world retired, conversed with angels and immortal forms. in classic times, the grove was the haunt of gods; and in the days of nature, before art had introduced a kind of combination against her, men had no idea of worshipping god in a temple made with hands. the _templum nemorale_ was the only temple he knew. in the resounding wood, all vocal beings hymned their equal god. and to this idea, indeed, one of the earliest forms of the artificial temple seems to have been indebted. many learned men have thought the gothic arch of our cathedral churches was an imitation of the natural grove. it arises from a lofty stem, or from two or three stems, if they be slender; which being bound together, and spreading in every direction, cover the whole roof with their ramifications. in the close recesses of the beechen grove, we find this idea the most complete. the lofty, narrow aisle--the pointed arch--the clustered pillar, whose parts separating without violence, diverge gradually to form the fretted roof--find there perhaps their earliest archetype. bryant has wrought out this idea in a beautiful fragment, entitled "god's first temples:" the groves were god's first temples. ere man learned to hew the shaft, and lay the architrave, and spread the roof above them,--ere he framed the lofty vault, to gather and roll back the sound of anthems,--in the darkling wood, amidst the cool and silence he knelt down, and offered to the mightiest solemn thanks and supplication. for his simple heart might not resist the sacred influences, that, from the stilly twilight of the place, and from the gray old trunks, that, high in heaven, mingled their mossy boughs, and from the sound of the invisible breath that swayed at once all their green tops, stole over him, and bowed his spirit with the thought of boundless power and inaccessible majesty. ah, why should we, in the world's riper years, neglect god's ancient sanctuaries, and adore only among the crowd, and under roofs that our frail hands have raised! let me, at least, here in the shadow of this aged wood, offer one hymn--thrice happy, if it find acceptance in his ear. father, thy hand hath reared these venerable columns; thou didst weave this verdant roof. thou didst look down upon the naked earth, and, forthwith, rose all these fair ranks of trees. they, in thy sun, budded, and shook their green leaves in thy breeze, and shot towards heaven. the century-living crow, whose birth was in their tops, grew old and died among their branches, till at last they stood, as now they stand, massy, and tall, and dark, fit shrine for humble worshipper to hold communion with his maker. here are seen no traces of man's pomp or pride;--no silks rustle, no jewels shine, nor envious eyes encounter; no fantastic carvings show the boast of our vain race to change the form of thy fair works. but thou art here--thou fill'st the solitude. thou art in the soft winds that run along the summits of these trees in music;--thou art in the cooler breath, that, from the inmost darkness of the place, comes, scarcely felt;--the barky trunks, the ground, the fresh, moist ground, are all instinct with thee. here is continual worship;--nature, here, in the tranquillity that thou dost love, enjoys thy presence. noiselessly, around, from perch to perch, the solitary bird passes; and yon clear spring, that, 'midst its herbs, wells softly forth, and visits the strong roots of half the mighty forest, tells no tale of all the good it does. thou hast not left thyself without a witness, in these shades, of thy perfections. grandeur, strength, and grace, are here to speak of thee. this mighty oak-- by whose immovable stem i stand, and seem almost annihilated--not a prince, in all the proud old world beyond the deep, e'er wore his crown as loftily as he wears the green coronal of leaves with which thy hand has graced him. nestled at his root is beauty, such as blooms not in the glare of the broad sun. that delicate forest flower, with scented breath, and look so like a smile, seems, as it issues from the shapeless mould, an emanation of the indwelling life, a visible token of the upholding love, that are the soul of this wide universe. my heart is awed within me, when i think of the great miracle that still goes on, in silence, round me--the perpetual work of thy creation, finished, yet renewed for ever. written on thy works, i read the lesson of thy own eternity. lo! all grow old and die: but see, again, how, on the faltering footsteps of decay, youth presses--ever gay and beautiful youth, in all its beautiful forms. these lofty trees wave not less proudly than their ancestors moulder beneath them. o, there is not lost one of earth's charms: upon her bosom yet, after the flight of untold centuries, the freshness of her far beginning lies, and yet shall lie. life mocks the idle hate of his arch-enemy death--yea, seats himself upon the sepulchre, and blooms and smiles, and of the triumphs of his ghastly foe makes his own nourishment. for he came forth from thine own bosom, and shall have no end. there have been holy men, who hid themselves deep in the woody wilderness, and gave their lives to thought and prayer, till they outlived the generation born with them, nor seemed less aged than the hoary trees and rocks around them;--and there have been holy men, who deemed it were not well to pass life thus. but let me often to these solitudes retire, and, in thy presence, reassure my feeble virtue. here its enemies, the passions, at thy plainer footsteps shrink, and tremble, and are still. o god! when thou dost scare the world with tempests, set on fire the heavens with falling thunderbolts, or fill, with all the waters of the firmament, the swift, dark whirlwind, that uproots the woods, and drowns the villages; when, at thy call, uprises the great deep, and throws himself upon the continent, and overwhelms its cities;--who forgets not, at the sight of these tremendous tokens of thy power, his pride, and lays his strifes and follies by? o, from these sterner aspects of thy face, spare me and mine; nor let us need the wrath of the mad, unchained elements to teach who rules them. be it ours to meditate, in these calm shades, thy milder majesty, and, to the beautiful order of thy works, learn to conform the order of our lives. we will conclude this introduction by recommending the reader, in the words of the poet, to enjoy the sweet calmness of the woodland retreat: if thou art worn and hard beset with sorrows that thou would'st forget-- if thou would'st read a lesson that will keep thy heart from fainting, and thy soul from sleep, go to the woods and hills!--no tears dim the sweet look that nature wears. * * * * * stranger, if thou hast learnt a truth, which needs experience more than reason, that the world is full of guilt and misery, and hast known enough of all its sorrows, crimes and cares, to tire thee of it,--enter this wild wood, and view the haunts of nature. the calm shade shall bring a kindred calm, and the sweet breeze, that makes the green leaves dance, shall waft a balm to thy sick heart. thou wilt find nothing here of all that pained thee in the haunts of men. and made thee loathe thy life. the primal curse fell, it is true, upon the unsinning earth, but not in vengeance. misery is wed to guilt. and hence these shades are still the abodes of undissembled gladness: the thick roof of green and stirring branches is alive and musical with birds, that sing and sport in wantonness of spirit; while, below, the squirrel, with raised paws and form erect, chirps merrily. throngs of insects in the glade try their thin wings, and dance in the warm beam that waked them into life. even the green trees partake the deep contentment: as they bend to the soft winds, the sun from the blue sky looks in and sheds a blessing on the scene. scarce less the cleft-born wild-flower seems to enjoy existence, than the winged plunderer that sucks its sweets. the massy rocks themselves, the old and ponderous trunks of prostrate trees, that lead from knoll to knoll, a causey rude, or bridge the sunken brook, and their dark roots, with all their earth upon them; twisting high breathe fixed tranquillity. the rivulet sends forth glad sounds, and, tripping o'er its bed of pebbly sands, or leaping down the rocks, seems with continuous laughter to rejoice in its own being. softly tread the marge, lest from her midway perch thou scare the wren that dips her bill in water. the cool wind, that stirs the stream in play shall come to thee, like one that loves thee, nor will let thee pass ungreeted, and shall give its light embrace. bryant. [illustration: the alder-tree.] the alder-tree. [_alnus._[a] nat. ord.--_amentiferæ_; linn.--_monoec. tetra._] [a] _generic characters._ scales of the barren catkins, -lobed, -flowered. perianth -cleft. scales of the fertile catkin ovate, -flowered, coriaceous, persistent. styles , parallel, setiform, deciduous; stigma simple. fruit a nut, ovate, -celled. kernel solitary, ovate, acute. name, celtic, from _al_, and _lan_, a river bank. the common alder (_a. glutinosa_), is the most aquatic of european trees. it grows to the height of fifty or sixty feet, in favourable situations by the sides of streams, and is a somewhat picturesque tree in its ramification as well as its foliage. it is nearly related, in nature rather than in form, to the willow tribe; it is more picturesque than the latter, and perhaps the most so of any of the aquatic species, except the weeping willow. gilpin says, that if we would see the alder in perfection, we must follow the banks of the mole, in surrey, through the sweet vales of dorking and mickleham, into the groves of esher. the mole, indeed, is far from being a beautiful river; it is a silent and sluggish stream: but what beauty it has it owes greatly to the alder, which everywhere fringes its meadows, and in many places forms very pleasing scenes; especially in the vale between box hill and the high grounds of norbury park. spenser probably once reposed under the shade of these trees, as he mentions them in his "colin clout's come home again." one day, quoth he, i sate, as was my trade, under the foot of mole, that mountain hore, keeping my sheep among the cooly shade of the green alders on the mulla shore. some of the largest alders in england grow in the bishop of durham's park, at bishop auckland. in speaking of these, gilpin remarks, that "the generality of trees acquire picturesque beauty by age; but it is not often that they are suffered to attain this picturesque period. some use is commonly found for them long before that time. the oak falls for the greater purposes of man, and the alder is ready to supply a variety of his smaller wants. an old tree, therefore, of any kind is a curiosity; and even an alder, such as those at bishop auckland, when dignified by age, makes a respectable figure." [illustration: _specific character of a. glutinosa. common alder._ leaves roundish, cuneate, waved, serrate, glutinous, downy at the branching of the veins beneath. a moderately-sized tree, with rugged bark, and crooked, spreading, smooth branches: barren catkins long, pendulous; fertile ones short, oval. flowers in march.] the alder grows naturally in europe from lapland to gibraltar, in asia from the white sea to mount caucasus, and in the north of africa, as well as being indigenous in england. the flowers bloom in march and april; they have no gay tints or beauty to recommend them, and consequently afford pleasure only to the botanist or the curious observer of nature. the leaves begin to open about the th of april, and when fully expanded are of a deep dull green. the bark being smooth and of a purplish hue, the tree has an agreeable effect among others in all kinds of plantations of the watery tribe. the alder must have grown to a great size in days of yore; for virgil speaks of vessels made of this material: when hollow alders first the waters tried. and again: and down the rapid po light alders glide. ovid also tells us that trees rudely hollowed did the waves sustain, ere ships in triumph ploughed the watery main. abroad this tree is raised from seed, which is decidedly the best mode, and secures the finest specimens; though in this country they are generally propagated by layers or truncheons. the best time for planting the latter, is in february or march; the truncheons being sharpened at the end, the ground should be loosened by thrusting an iron crow into it, to prevent the bark from being torn off; and they should be planted at the least two feet deep. when cultivated by layers, the planting should take place in october, and they will then be ready to transplant in twelve months' time. the alder is usually planted as coppice-wood, to be cut down every five or six years, for conversion into charcoal, which is preferred in making gunpowder. the bark on the young wood is powerfully astringent, and is employed by tanners; and the young shoots are used for dyeing red, brown, and yellow; and in combination with copperas, to dye black. it is greatly cultivated in flanders and holland for piles, for which purpose it is invaluable, as when constantly under water, or in moist and boggy situations, it becomes hardened, black as ebony, and will last for ages. on this account it is also very serviceable in strengthening the embankments of rivers or canals; and while the roots and trunks are preventing the encroachment of the stream, they throw out branches which may be cut for poles every fifth or sixth year, especially if pruned of superfluous shoots in the spring. as alders in the spring, their boles extend, and heave so fiercely that the bark they rend. virgil, _ecl._ x. vitruvius informs us, that the morasses about ravenna were piled with this timber to build upon; and evelyn says that it was used in the foundations of ponte rialto, over the grand canal at venice. the wood is also valuable for various domestic purposes. besides the common alder there are introduced at least six other species:-- . _a. glutinosa_, already described. . _emarginata_, leaves nearly round, wedge-shaped, and edged with green. . _laciniata_, leaves oblong and pinnatifid, with the lobes acute. . _quercifolia_, leaves sinuated, with the lobes obtuse. . _oxyacanthoefolia_, leaves sinuated and lobed; smaller than those of the preceding variety, and somewhat resembling the common hawthorn. . _macrocarpa_, leaves and fruit larger than those of the species. . _foliis variegatis_, leaves variegated. [illustration: the ash-tree.] the ash-tree. [_fraxinus._[b] nat. ord.--_oleaceæ_; linn.--_dian. monog._] [b] _generic characters._ calyx none, or deeply -cleft. corolla none, or of petals. perianth single, or none. fruit a -celled, -seeded capsule, flattened and foliaceous at the extremity (a _samara_). name from [greek: phraxis], separation, on account of the ease with which the wood may be split. the common ash (_f. excelsior_), is one of the noblest of our forest-trees, and generally carries its principal stem higher than the oak, rising in an easy flowing line. its chief beauty, however, consists in the lightness of its whole appearance. its branches at first keep close to the trunk, and form acute angles with it; but as they begin to lengthen, they commonly take an easy sweep; and the looseness of the leaves corresponding with the lightness of the spray, the whole forms an elegant depending foliage. nothing can have a better effect than an old ash hanging from the corner of a wood, and bringing off the heaviness of the other foliage with its loose pendent branches. and yet in some soils, the ash loses much of its beauty in the decline of age. the foliage becomes rare and meagre; and its branches, instead of hanging loosely, start away in disagreeable forms; thus the ash often loses that grandeur and beauty in old age, which the generality of trees, and particularly the oak, preserve till a late period of their existence. the ash also falls under the displeasure of the picturesque eye on another account, that is, from its leaf being much tenderer than that of the oak, it sooner receives impressions from the winds and frosts. instead, therefore, of contributing its tint in the wane of the year among the many-coloured offspring of the woods, it shrinks from the blast, drops its leaf, and in each scene where it predominates, leaves wide blanks of desolated boughs, amidst foliage yet fresh and verdant. before its decay, we sometimes see its leaf tinged with a fine yellow, well contrasted with the neighbouring greens. but this is one of nature's casual beauties. much oftener its leaf decays in a dark, muddy, unpleasing tint. and yet, sometimes, notwithstanding this early loss of its foliage, we see the ash, in a sheltered situation, when the rains have been abundant and the season mild, retain its light pleasant green, when the oak and the elm, in its neighbourhood, have put on their autumnal attire. the leaves of the common ash were used as fodder for cattle by the romans, who esteemed them better for that purpose than those of any other tree: and in this country, in various districts, they were used in the same manner. the common ash is indigenous to northern and central europe, to the north of africa, and to japan. the romans, it is said, named it _fraxinus, quia facile frangitur_, to express the fragile nature of the wood, as the boughs of it are easily broken. it is supposed that the name of ash has been given to this tree, because the bark of the trunk and branches is of the colour of wood ashes. some, however, affirm that the word is derived from the saxon _Æsc_, a pike. it is recorded in the fables of the ancients, that love first made his arrows of this wood. the disciples of mars used ashen poles for lances: a lance of tough ground ash the trojan threw, rough in the rind and knotted as it grew. Æneid. virgil says that the spears of the amazons were formed of this wood, and homer sings the mighty ashen spear of achilles: the noble ash rewards the planter's toil; noble, since great achilles from her side took the dire spear by which brave hector died. rapin. it is said, in the edda, that the ash was held in high veneration, and that man was formed from its wood. hesiod, in like manner, deduces his brazen race of men from the ash. the warlike ash, that reeks with human blood. there are many remarkable ash-trees in various parts of the country. one at woburn abbey measures at the ground twenty-three feet in circumference; at twelve inches from the ground, it is twenty feet; and fifteen feet three inches at three feet from the ground. it is ninety feet high, and the ground overshadowed by its branches is one hundred and thirteen feet in diameter. the trunk of another, near kennety church, in king's county, is twenty-one feet ten inches in circumference, and seventeen feet high, before the branches break out, which are of enormous bulk. there formerly stood in the church-yard of kilmalie, in lochaber, an ash that was considered the largest and most remarkable tree in the highlands. lochiel and his numerous kindred and clan held it in great veneration for generations, which is supposed to have hastened its destruction; it being burnt to the ground by the brutal soldiery in . in one direction its diameter was seventeen feet three inches, and the cross diameter twenty-one feet; its circumference at the ground was fifty-eight feet! [illustration: _specific characters of f. excelsior. common ash._ leaves pinnate, with lanceolate, serrated leaflets: flowers destitute of calyx and corolla. in old trees, the lower branches, after bending downwards, curve upwards at their extremities. flowers, in loose panicles: anthers large, purple: capsules with a flat leaf-like termination, generally of two cells, each containing a flat oblong seed. this beautiful tree assumes its foliage later than any of our trees, and loses it early. a _variety_ occurs with simple leaves, and another with pendulous branches. flowers in april and may; grows in natural woods in many parts of scotland.] trees raised from the keys of the ash are decidedly the best. the "keys," or tongues, should be gathered from a young thriving tree when they begin to fall (which is about the end of october), laid to dry, and then sown any time betwixt that and christmas. they will remain a full year in the ground before they appear; it is therefore necessary to fence them in, and wait patiently. the ash will grow exceedingly well upon almost any soil, and indeed is frequently met with in ruined walls and rocks, insinuating its roots into the crevices of decaying buildings, covering the surface with verdure, while it is instrumental in destroying that which yields it support. its winged capsules are supposed to be deposited in those places by the wind. the ash asks not a depth of fruitful mould, but, like frugality, on little means it thrives, and high o'er creviced ruins spreads its ample shade, or in the naked rock, that nods in air, with graceful limbs depends. bidlake. southey, in _don roderick_, speaks of the ash: --amid the brook, gray as the stone to which it clung, half root, half trunk, the young ash rises from the rock, and there its parent lifts its lofty head, and spreads its graceful boughs; the passing wind with twinkling motion lifts the silent leaves, and shakes its rattling tufts. the roots of the ash are remarkably beautiful, and often finely veined, and will take a good polish. there are also certain knotty excrescences in the ash, called the _brusca_, and _mollusca_, which, when cut and polished, are very beautiful. dr. plot, in his _history of oxfordshire_ mentions a dining-table made of them, which represented the exact figure of a fish. with the exception of that of the oak, the timber of the ash serves for the greatest variety of uses of any tree in the forest. it is excellent for ploughs. tough, bending ash, gives to the humble swain his useful plough, and for the peer his prouder chariot builds. dodsley. it is also used for axle-trees, wheel-rings, harrows; and also makes good oars, blocks for pulleys, &c. it is of the utmost value to the husbandman for carts, ladders, &c., and the branches are very serviceable for fuel, either fresh or dry. the most profitable age for felling the ash, appears to be from eighty to one hundred years. it will continue pushing from stools or from pollards, for above one hundred years. though a handsome tree, it ought by no means to be planted for ornament in places designed to be kept neat, because the leaves fall off, with their long stalks, very early in the autumn, and by their litter destroy the beauty of such places; yet, however unfit for planting near gravel-walks, or pleasure-grounds, it is very suitable for woods, to form clumps in large parks, or to be set out as standards. it should never be planted on tillage land, as the dripping of the leaves injures the corn, and the roots tend to draw away all nourishment from the ground. neither should it be planted near pasture ground; for if the kine eat the leaves or shoots, the butter will become rank, and of little value. there are many varieties of the common ash, but that with pendulous branches is probably the best known: it is called the weeping ash, and is of a heavy and somewhat unnatural appearance, yet it is very generally admired. the foliage of the ash-tree becomes of a brown colour in october. like leaves on trees the race of man is found-- now green in youth, now withering on the ground; another race the following spring supplies, they fall successive, and successive rise: so generations in their course decay, so flourish these, when those are past away. pope. there are numerous species of the ash, but these are so rarely to be met with in this country, that it is not necessary to particularize any of them. [illustration: the beech-tree] the beech-tree. [_fagus._[c] nat. ord.--_amentiferæ_; linn.--_monoec. poly._] [c] _generic characters. barren_ flowers in a roundish catkin. perianth campanulate, divided into or segments. stamens to . _fertile_ flowers, together, within a -lobed prickly involucre. stigma . ovaries -cornered and -celled. nut by abortion or -seeded. named from [greek: phagô], to eat. the common beech (_f. sylvática_), is supposed to be indigenous to england, but not to scotland or ireland. according to evelyn, it is a beautiful as well as valuable tree, growing generally to a greater stature than the ash: though gilpin observes, that it does not deserve to be ranked among timber-trees; its wood being of a soft, spongy nature, sappy, and alluring to the worm. neither will gilpin allow that, in point of picturesque beauty, it should rank much higher than in point of utility. its skeleton, compared with that of the oak, the ash, or the elm, he says, is very deficient; yet its trunk is often highly picturesque, being frequently studded with bold knobs and projections, and having sometimes a sort of irregular fluting about it, which is very characteristic. it has another peculiarity, also, which is somewhat pleasing--that of a number of stems arising from the root. the bark, too, wears often a pleasant hue. it is naturally of a dingy olive; but it is always overspread, in patches, with a variety of mosses and lichens, which are commonly of a lighter tint in the upper parts, and of a deep velvet green towards the root. its smoothness, also, contrasts agreeably with these rougher appendages. no bark tempts the lover so much to make it the depository of his mistress's name. in days of yore, it seems to have commonly served as the lover's tablet. in dryden's translation of virgil's _eclogues_, we find the following:-- or shall i rather the sad verse repeat, which on the beech's bark i lately writ-- i writ, and sang betwixt. there seems to have been connected with this custom the curious idea, that as the tree increased in growth, so would the words, and also the hopes expressed thereon: the rind of every plant her name shall know, and as the rind extends the love shall grow. our own thomson, too, narrates that musidora carved, on the soft bark of a beech-tree, the confession of her attachment to damon: at length, a tender calm, hushed, by degrees, the tumult of her soul; and on the spreading beech, that o'er the stream incumbent hung, she, with the sylvan pen of rural lovers, this confession carved, which soon her damon kissed with weeping joy. the branches of the beech are fantastically wreathed and disproportioned, twining awkwardly among one another, and running often into long unvaried lines, without any of that strength and firmness which we admire in the oak, or of that easy simplicity which pleases in the ash: in short, we rarely see a beech well ramified. in full leaf, it is unequally pleasing; it has the appearance of an overgrown bush. virgil, indeed, was right in choosing the beech for its shade. no tree forms so complete a roof. if you wish either for shade or shelter, you will find it best beneath the shade which beechen boughs diffuse. its bushiness imparts a great heaviness to the tree, which is always a deformity: a gloomy grove of beech. sometimes a light branch issues from a heavy mass; and though these are often beautiful in themselves, they are seldom in harmony with the tree. they distinguish, however, its character, which will be best seen by comparing it with the elm. the latter has a rounder, the former a more pointed foliage; but the elm is always in harmony with itself. gilpin can see few beauties in the beech; but, in conclusion, he admits that it sometimes has its beauty, and often its use. in distance, it preserves the depth of the forest, and, even on the spot, in contrast, it is frequently a choice accompaniment. in the corner of a landscape, too, when a thick heavy tree is wanted, or a part of one, at least, which is often necessary, nothing answers the purpose like the beech. if we would really appreciate the beauty of this tree, we should walk in a wood of them. in its juvenility, contrary to the generality of trees, the beech is decidedly the most pleasing, not having acquired that heaviness which gilpin so loudly complains of. a light, airy young beech, with its spiry branches hanging in easy forms, is generally beautiful. and, occasionally, the forest beech, in a dry hungry soil, preserves the lightness of youth in the maturity of age. we must, however, mention its autumnal hues, which are often beautiful. sometimes it is dressed in modest brown, but commonly in glowing orange; and in both dresses its harmony with the grove is pleasing. about the end of september, when the leaf begins to change, it makes a happy contrast with the oak, whose foliage is yet verdant. some of the finest oppositions of tint which, perhaps, the forest can furnish, arise from the union of oak and beech. we often see a wonderful effect from this combination; and yet, accommodating as its leaf is in landscape, on handling, it feels as if it were fabricated with metallic rigour. [illustration: _specific character. f. sylvática. common beech._ leaves ovate, indistinctly serrate, smooth, ciliate. a large tree, varying from to feet in height, with smooth bark and spreading branches. flowers in april and may; grows in woods, particularly on calcareous soils.] the leaves are of a pleasant green, and many of them remain on the branches during winter. in france and switzerland, when dried, they are very commonly used for beds, or, instead of straw, for mattresses. its fruit consists of "two nuts joined at the base, and covered with an almost globular involucre, which has soft spines on the outside, but within is delicately smooth and silky." beech mast, as it is called, was formerly used for fattening swine and deer. it affords also a sweet oil, which the poor in france are said to eat most willingly. --the beech, of oily nuts prolific. the beech abounds especially along the great ridge of chalk-hills which passes from dorsetshire through wiltshire, hampshire, surrey, sussex, and kent; trenching out into berkshire, buckinghamshire, and hertfordshire; and it is also found on the stroudwater and cotswold hills in gloucestershire, and on the banks of the wye in herefordshire and monmouthshire. it is particularly abundant in buckinghamshire, where it forms extensive forests of great magnificence and beauty. it is seldom found mixed with other trees, even when they are coeval with it in point of age. it is rarely found in soil that is not more or less calcareous; and it most commonly abounds on chalk. the finest trees in england are said to grow in hampshire; and there is a curious legend respecting those in the forest of st. leonard, in that county. this forest, which was the abode of st. leonard, abounds in noble beech-trees; and the saint was particularly fond of reposing under their shade; but, when he did so, he was annoyed during the day by vipers, and at night by the singing of the nightingale. accordingly, he prayed that they might be removed; and such was the efficacy of his prayers, that since his time, in this forest, "the viper has ne'er been known to sting, or the nightingale e'er heard to sing." the wood of this tree, from its softness, is easy of being worked, and is consequently a favourite with the turner. beechen bowls, curiously carved, were highly prized by the ancient shepherds. indeed, we learn that their use was almost universal: hence, in the world's best years, the humble shed was happily and fully furnished: beech made their chests, their beds, and the joined stools; beech made the board, the platters, and the bowls. and it is still used for dishes, trays, trenchers, &c. and dodsley informs us that it was used for the sounding-boards of musical instruments. --the soft beech and close-grained box employ the turner's wheel; and with a thousand implements supply mechanic skill. we cannot willingly conclude this article without introducing wordsworth's beautiful description of a solitary beech-tree, which stood within "a stately fir-grove," where he was not loth to sympathize with vulgar coppice birds, that, for protection from the nipping blast, thither repaired. a single beech-tree grew within this grove of firs, and in the fork of that one beech appeared a thrush's nest: a last year's nest, conspicuously built at such small elevation from the ground, as gave sure sign that they who in that house of nature and of love had made their home, amid the fir-trees all the summer long, dwelt in a tranquil spot. the principal varieties of the beech are:-- . _purpurea_, the purple beech, which has the buds and young shoots of a rose colour; the leaves, when half developed, of a cherry red, and of so dark a purple, when fully matured, as to appear almost black. . _foliis variegatis_, having the leaves variegated with white and yellow, interspersed with some streaks of red and purple. . _pendulata_, the weeping beech, having the branches beautifully pendent. [illustration: the birch-tree.] the birch-tree. [_betula._[d] nat. ord.--_amentiferæ_; linn.--_monoec. poly._] [d] _generic characters._ _barren_ flowers in a cylindrical catkin with ternate scales. perianth none. stamens or . _fertile_ flowers in an oblong catkin, with -lobed, -flowered scales. perianth none. styles , filiform. emit an oblong nut, deciduous, winged, -celled. kernel solitary. --most beautiful of forest trees, the lady of the woods. coleridge. the common birch (_b. alba_) is a native of the colder regions of europe and asia, being found from iceland to mount etna; in siberia, as far as the altaic mountains; and also in the himalayas; but not in africa. it is known, at first sight, by the silvery whiteness of its bark, the comparative smallness of its leaves, and the lightness and airiness of its whole appearance. it is admirably calculated to diversify the scene, forming a pleasing variety among other trees, either in summer or winter. in summer it is covered over with beautiful small leaves, and the stem being generally marked with brown, yellow, and silvery touches of a peculiarly picturesque character, as they are characteristic objects of imitation for the pencil, forms an agreeable contrast with the dark green hue of the foliage, as it is waved to and fro by every breath of air. only the stem and larger branches, however, have this varied colouring: the spray is of a deep brown, which is the colour, too, of the larger branches, where the external rind is peeled off. as the tree grows old, its bark becomes rough and furrowed; it loses all its varied tints, and assumes a uniform ferruginous hue. the birch is altogether raised from roots or suckers, which, being planted at intervals of four or five feet, in small twigs, will speedily rise to trees, provided the soil suit them, and this cannot well be too barren or spongy; for it will thrive in dry and wet, sandy or stony places, in marshes or bogs. [illustration: _specific characters of b. alba._ leaves ovate, deltoid, acute, unequally serrate, nearly smooth. a moderately-sized tree, seldom exceeding fifty feet in height, with a trunk of from twelve to eighteen inches in diameter, with a white outer bark, peeling transversely, the twigs very slender, and more or less drooping. flowers in april and may; grows abundantly in extensive natural woods in various parts of the country, particularly in the highlands of scotland.] in ancient times, the birch, whose timber is almost worthless, according to evelyn, afforded the old english warriors arrows, bolts, and shafts; and in modern times, its charcoal forms a principal ingredient in the manufacture of gunpowder. in spring, the birch abounds in juices, and from these the rustic housewife makes an agreeable and wholesome wine: as warton sings: and though she boasts no charm divine, yet she can carve, and make birch wine. pomona's bard says, also, that --even afflictive birch, cursed by unlettered idle youth, distils a limpid current from her wounded bark, profuse of nursing sap. we are informed that a birch-tree has been known to yield, in the course of the season, a quantity of sap equal to its own weight. it is obtained by inserting, in the early part of spring, a fosset made of an elder stick, with the pith taken out; and setting vessels, or hanging bladders, to receive the liquor. the sooner it is boiled the better; so that, in order to procure a sufficient quantity in a short time, a number of trees should be bored on the same day, and two or three fossets inserted in each of the larger trees. sugar is now commonly used to sweeten it, in the proportion of from two to four pounds to each gallon of liquor. this is allowed to simmer so long as any scum rises, which must be cleared as fast as it appears. it is then poured into a tub to cool, after which it is turned into a cask, and bunged up when it has done working; and is ready to be drunk when a year old. as before remarked, the timber of the birch is of little value; though in the highlands, where pine is not to be had, it is used for all purposes. its stems form the rafters of cabins; "wattles of the boughs are the walls and the door; and even the chests and boxes are of this rude basket-work." light and strong canoes were formerly made of this timber in britain, and also in other parts of europe; and are even now in the northern parts of america. it also makes good fuel; and in lancashire great quantities of besoms are made for exportation from the slender twigs. the bark is used in russia and poland for the covering of houses, instead of slates or tiles; and anciently the inner white cuticle and silken bark were used for writing-paper. coleridge describes a curious picture, with a master's haste sketched on a strip of pinky-silver skin peeled from the birchen bark. there is no part of this tree, however, that is not useful for some purpose or other. even its leaves are used by the finland women, in forming a soft elastic couch for the cradle of infancy. gilpin particularly notes a beautiful variety of the white birch, _b. pendula_, sometimes called the lady birch, or the weeping birch. its spray being slenderer and longer than the common sort, forms an elegant pensile foliage, like the weeping willow, and, like it, is put in motion by the smallest breeze. when agitated, it is well adapted to characterize a storm, or to perform any office in landscape which is expected from the weeping willow. this is agreeably described in wilson's isle of palms: --on the green slope of a romantic glade we sate us down, amid the fragrance of the yellow broom, while o'er our heads the weeping birch-tree streamed its branches, arching like a fountain shower. "a weeping birch, at balloghie, in the parish of birse, in aberdeenshire, in , measured five feet in circumference; but it carried nearly this degree of thickness, with a clear stem, up to the height of about fifty feet, and it was judged to be about one hundred feet high." [illustration: the cedar of lebanon.] the cedar of lebanon. [_cedrus libani._ nat. ord.--_coniferæ_; linn.--_pinus c. monoec. monand.]_ on high the cedar stoops, like a monarch to his people bending, and casts his sweets around him. barry cornwall. the cedar of lebanon is a majestic evergreen tree, generally from fifty to eighty feet in height, extending wide its boughs and branches; and its sturdy arms grow in time so weighty, as frequently to bend the very stem and main shaft. phillips observes, that "this noble tree has a dignity and a general striking character of growth so peculiar to itself, that no other tree can possibly be mistaken for it. it is instantly recognized by its wide-extending branches, that incline their extremities downwards, exhibiting a most beautiful upper surface, like so many verdant banks, which, when agitated by the wind, play in the most graceful manner, forming one of the most elegant, as well as one of the most noble, objects of the vegetable kingdom." the cedar of lebanon was formerly supposed to grow nowhere but on that mountain; but it was discovered, in , on several mountains of the same group, and the probability is, that it extends over the whole of the tauri mountains. it has also been discovered on the atlas range of northern africa. it is generally spoken of as a lofty tree. milton, in speaking of it, says, insuperable height of loftiest shade. and rowe, in his lucan, alludes to the "tall cedar's head;" and spenser speaks of the "cedar tall;" and churchill sings, the cedar, whose top mates the highest cloud. notwithstanding these poetical authorities for the loftiness of the cedar, we are assured by evelyn, and others, that it is not lofty, but is rather remarkable for its wide-spreading branches. in prior's solomon, we read of the spreading cedar that an age had stood, supreme of trees, and mistress of the wood, cut down and carved, my shining roof adorns, and lebanon his ruined honour mourns. mason describes it as far-spreading: --cedars here, coeval with the sky-crowned mountain's self, spread wide their giant arms. the prophet ezekiel has given us the fullest description of the cedar: "behold the assyrian was a cedar in lebanon, with fair branches, and with a shadowing shroud, and of a high stature; and his top was among the thick boughs. his boughs were multiplied, and his branches became long. the fir-trees were not like his boughs, nor the chestnut-trees like his branches, nor any tree in the garden of god like unto him in beauty." in this description, two of the principal characteristics of the cedar are marked. the first is, the multiplicity and length of his branches. few trees divide so many fair branches from the main stem, or spread over so large a compass of ground. his boughs are multiplied, as ezekiel says, and his branches become long, which david calls spreading abroad. the second characteristic is his shadowing shroud. no tree in the forest is more remarkable than the cedar for its close-woven leafy canopy. ezekiel's cedar is marked as a tree of full and perfect growth, from the circumstance of its top being among the thick boughs. almost every young tree, and particularly every young cedar, has what is called a leading branch or two, which continue spiring above the rest till the tree has attained its full size; then the tree becomes, in the language of the nurseryman, clump-headed: but, in the language of eastern sublimity its top is among the thick boughs; that is, no distinction of any spiry head, or leading branch, appears; the head and the branches are all mixed together. this is generally, in all trees, the state in which they are most perfect and most beautiful. such is the grandeur and form of the cedar of lebanon. its mantling foliage, or shadowing shroud, as ezekiel calls it, is its greatest beauty, which arises from the horizontal growth of its branches forming a kind of sweeping, irregular penthouse. and when to the idea of beauty that of strength is added, by the pyramidal form of the stem, and the robustness of the limbs, the tree is complete in all its beauty and majesty. in these climates, indeed, we cannot expect to see the cedar in such perfection. the forest of lebanon is, perhaps, the only part of the world where its growth is perfect; yet we may, in some degree, conceive its beauty and majesty, from the paltry resemblances of it at this distance from its native soil. in its youth, it is often with us a vigorous thriving plant; and if the leading branch is not bound to a pole (as many people deform their cedars), but left to take its natural course, and guide the stem after it in some irregular waving line, it is often an object of great beauty. but, in its maturer age, the beauty of the english cedar is generally gone; it becomes shrivelled, deformed, and stunted; its body increases, but its limbs shrink and wither. thus it never gives us its two leading qualities together. in its youth, we have some idea of its beauty, without its strength; and in its advanced age, we have some idea of its strength, without its beauty. the imagination, therefore, by joining together the two different periods of its age in this climate, may form some conception of the grandeur of the cedar in its own climate, where its strength and beauty are united. [illustration: (leaves, cone and seeds of cedar of lebanon)] the following particular botanical description of this celebrated tree, is given by loudon in his _arboretum_:-- "the _leaves_ are generally of a dark grass green, straight, about one inch long, slender, nearly cylindrical, tapering to a point, and are on foot-stalks. the leaves, which remain two years on the branches, are at first produced in tufts; the buds from which they spring having the appearance of abortive shoots, which, instead of becoming branches, only produce a tuft of leaves pressed closely together in a whorl. these buds continue, for several years in succession, to produce every spring a new tuft of leaves, placed above those of the preceding year; and thus each bud may be said to make a slight growth annually, but so slowly, that it can scarcely be perceived to have advanced a line in length; hence, many of these buds may be found on old trees, which have eight or ten rings, each ring being the growth of one year; and sometimes they ramify a little. at length, sooner or later, they produce the male and female flowers. the _male catkins_ are simple, solitary, of a reddish hue, about two inches long, terminal, and turning upwards. they are composed of a great number of sessile, imbricated stamens, on a common axis. each stamen is furnished with an anther with two cells, which open lengthwise by their lower part; and each terminates in a sort of crest, pointing upwards. the pollen is yellowish, and is produced in great abundance. the _female catkins_ are short, erect, roundish, and rather oval; they change, after fecundation, into ovate oblong _cones_, which become, at maturity, from two and a half to five inches long. the cones are of a grayish-brown, with a plum-coloured or pinkish bloom when young, which they lose as they approach maturity; they are composed of a series of coriaceous imbricated _scales_, laid flat, and firmly pressed against each other in an oblique spiral direction. the scales are very broad, obtuse, and truncated at the summit; very thin, and slightly denticulated at the edge; and reddish and shining on the flat part. each scale contains two seeds, each surmounted by a very thin membranous _wing_, of which the upper part is very broad, and the lower narrow, enveloping the greater part of the seed. the cones are very firmly attached to the branches; they neither open nor fall off, as in the other abietinæ; but, when ripe, the scales become loose, and drop gradually, leaving the axis of the cone still fixed on the branch. the _seeds_ are of an irregular, but somewhat triangular form, nearly one and a half inch long, of a lightish brown colour. every part of the cone abounds with resin, which sometimes exudes from between the scales. the female catkins are produced in october, but the cones do not appear till the end of the second year; and, if not gathered, they will remain attached to the tree for several years. the cedar of lebanon does not begin to produce cones till it is twenty-five or thirty years old; and, even then, the seeds in such cones are generally imperfect; and it is not till after several years of bearing, that seeds from the cones of young trees can be depended upon. some cedars produce only male catkins, and these in immense abundance; others, only female catkins; and some both. there are trees of vigorous growth at various places, which, though upwards of one hundred years old, have scarcely ever produced either male or female catkins. the duration of the cedar is supposed to extend to several centuries." the cedar is cultivated from seeds and berries. any climate suits it, provided it meet with a sandy soil; though it grows better in cold than in warm climates, as its cultivation is more successful in scotland than in england. the peculiar property of its timber is extremely remarkable, being declared proof against all putrefaction of human or other bodies, serving better than all other ingredients or compositions for embalming; thus, by a singular contradiction, giving life as it were to the dead, and destroying the worms which are living, as it does, where any goods are kept in chests and presses of the wood--except woollen cloths and furs, which, it is observed, they destroy. its preservative power is attributed to the bitterness of its resinous juices. the ancients, in praising any literary work, would say, "it is worthy of being cased in cedar." it is also very durable, it being on record that in the temple of apollo, at utica, there was found timber of near two thousand years old. the most remarkable existing cedars in this country are at chelsea, at enfield, at chiswick house, at sion house, at strathfieldsaye, at charley wood near rickmansworth, at wilton, near salisbury and at osgood hanbury's near coggeshall. the largest of these, at strathfieldsaye, is one hundred and eight feet in height; diameter of the trunk, three feet, and diameter of the head, seventy-four feet. [illustration: the sweet chestnut-tree.] the sweet chestnut-tree. [_castaneæ vulgaris._ nat. ord.--_amentiferæ_; linn.--_monoec. poly._] the sweet chestnut, so called with reference to the fruit, in contradistinction to that of the horse-chestnut, which is bitter, is also called the spanish chestnut, because the best chestnuts for the table are imported from spain. in favourable situations, it becomes a magnificent tree, though it never attains a height, or diameter of head, equal to that of the oak. the trunk generally rises erect, forming, in all cases, a massy column of wood, in proportion to the expansion of the head, or the height of the tree. the branches form nearly the same angle with the trunk as those of the oak; though in thriving trees the angle is somewhat more acute. if planted in woods, by the road-side, and left untrimmed, as they should be, they will be feathered to the bottom, and will in summer, in addition to their beautiful appearance, hide the naked stems of other trees which are considered disagreeable objects; while in autumn, the golden hue of the leaves will heighten the mellow and pleasing effect produced in the woodlands by the variety of hues in the foliage of different trees, which contrast and blend together in one harmonious and pictorial aspect. the chestnut has been considered indigenous; but this is the more doubtful, that the tree rarely ripens its fruit, except in a climate that will ripen the grape in the open air. on old trees, the leaves are from four to six inches long; but on young and vigorous shoots, they are often nearly twelve inches in length, and from three to four inches in breadth. they are of a rich shining green above, and paler beneath. the flowers are produced on the wood of the current year, and are ranged along the common stalk, in lateral sessile tufts. the rate of growth of young trees, in the neighbourhood of london, averages from two to three feet for the first ten or twelve years. the tree will attain the height of from sixty to eighty feet in about sixty years; but the tree will live for several centuries afterwards, and produce abundance of fruit. the finest trees in england are said to stand on the banks of the tamer, in cornwall; and at beechworth castle, in surrey, there are seventy or eighty chestnuts, measuring from twelve to eighteen or twenty feet in girth, and some of them very picturesque in form. one, on earl durie's estate of tortworth, in gloucestershire, is proved to have stood ever since , and to have been then remarkable for its age and size. [illustration: * _generic characters of the castaneæ._ _barren_ flowers in a long cylindrical spike. perianth -cleft. stamens to . _fertile_ flowers, within a -lobed muricated involucre. stigmas to . ovary to -celled. nuts or , within the enlarged prickly involucre. _specific characters of c. vulgaris_. leaves lanceolate, acutely serrate, smooth beneath; prickles compound and entangled; stigmas .] the chestnut is cultivated best by sowing and setting: the nuts must, however, be left to sweat, and then be covered with sand; after having been thus heated for a month, plunge the nuts in water, and reject the swimmers; then dry them for thirty days, and repeat the process. in november, set them as you would beans, taking care to do it in their husks. this tree will thrive in almost all soils and situations, though it succeeds best in rich loamy land. nothing will thrive beneath its shade. among mast-bearing trees this is said to be the most valuable; since the nuts, when ripened in southern climates, are considered delicacies for princes. in this country, however, where they rarely come to maturity, they fall to the lot of hogs and squirrels. the trees cultivated for fruit are generally grafted; and, in several parts of south europe, the peasantry are mainly supported by bread made of the nut-flour. in italy, in virgil's time, they ate them with milk and cheese: chestnuts, and curds and cream shall be our fare. and again, in his second _pastoral_, thus translated by dryden: myself will search our planted grounds at home, for downy peaches and the glossy plum; and thrash the chestnuts in the neighbouring grove, such as my amaryllis used to love. the timber of the chestnut is strong and very durable; but it is often found decayed at the core, and, in working, is very brittle. the wood is preferred for the manufacture of liquor tubs and vessels, as it does not shrink after being once seasoned. this tree is now, however, chiefly grown for hop-poles, which are the straightest, tallest, and most durable. though cut at an early age for this purpose, the trees are frequently ornaments of our parks and pleasure-grounds. [illustration: the elm-tree.] the elm-tree. [_ulmus_[e] nat. ord.--_ulmaceæ_; linn.--_pentand. digy._] [e] _generic characters of the ulmi._ calyx campanulate, inferior, to -cleft, persistent. corolla none. fruit a membranous, compressed, winged capsule (a _samara_), -seeded. there stood the elme, whose shade, so mildly dim, doth nourish all that groweth under him. w. browne. the common elm (_u. campestris_), after having assumed the dignity and hoary roughness of age, is not excelled in grandeur and beauty by any of its brethren. in this latter stage, it partakes so much of the character of the oak, that it is easily mistaken for it; though the oak--such an oak as is strongly marked with its peculiar character--can never be mistaken for the elm. "this defect, however," says gilpin, "appears chiefly in the skeleton of the elm. in full foliage, its character is better marked. no tree is better adapted to receive grand masses of light. in this respect, it is superior both to the oak and the ash. nor is its foliage, shadowing as it is, of the heavy kind. its leaves are small, and this gives it a natural lightness; it commonly hangs loosely, and is in general very picturesque." the elm is not frequently met with in woods or forests, but is more commonly planted in avenues or other artificial situations. cowper very accurately sketches the variety of form in the elm, and alludes to the different sites where they are to be found. in the _task_, he first introduces them rearing their lofty heads by the river's brink: --there, fast rooted in his bank, stand, never overlooked, our favourite elms, that screen the herdsman's solitary hut. then he gives us an enchanting scene, where a lowly cot is surrounded by them: 'tis perched upon the green hill-top, but close environed with a ring of branching elms, that overhang the thatch. he then introduces us to a grove of elms: --the grove receives us next; between the upright shafts of whose tall elms we may discern the thrasher at his task. the elm is frequently referred to by the poets. wordsworth thus speaks of a grove of them: upon that open level stood a grove, the wished-for port to which my course was bound. thither i came, and there, amid the gloom spread by a brotherhood of lofty elms, appeared a roofless hut. in _the church yard among the mountains_, he introduces one that seems to be the pride of the village: --a wide-spread elm stands in our valley, named the joyful tree; from dateless usage which our peasants hold of giving welcome to the first of may, by dances round its trunk. and again: --the joyful elm, around whose trunk the maidens dance in may. dr. hunter supposes that the elm is a native of england. philips, however, does not agree with this; but, admitting that the tree was known in england as early as the saxon times, observes, that this does not prove the elm to be indigenous to the soil, confuted as it is by nature, which rarely allows it to propagate its species in this country according to her common rules; while in other countries, where the seed falls, young plants spring up as commonly as the oaks in britain. [illustration: _specific characters of u. campestris._ leaves rhomboid-ovate, acuminate, wedge-shaped, and oblique at the base, always scabrous above, doubly and irregularly serrated, downy beneath; serratures incurved. branches wiry, slightly corky; when young, bright-brown, pubescent. fruit oblong, deeply cloven, naked.] in favourable situations, the common elm becomes a large timber-tree, of considerable beauty and utility, naturally growing upright. it is the first tree to put forth its light and cheerful green in spring, a tint which contrasts agreeably with the foliage of the oak, whose leaf has generally, in its early state, more of an olive cast. we see them often in fine harmony together about the end of april and the beginning of may. the elm is also frequently found planted with the scotch fir. in spring, its light green is very discordant with the gloomy hue of its companion; but as the year advances, the elm leaf takes a darker tint, and unites in harmony with the fir. in autumn also, the yellow leaf of the elm mixes as kindly with the orange of the beech, the ochre of the oak, and many of the other fading hues of the wood. the elm was considered by the ancients of eastern nations as a funereal tree, as well as the cypress. it is celebrated in the _iliad_, for having formed a hasty bridge, by which achilles escaped the xanthus, when that river, by its overflowing, placed him in danger of being carried away. it has been suggested that the romans probably introduced it, and planted it on the graves of their departed heroes. it was well-known among the latins. virgil says, that the husbandmen bent the young elm, whilst growing, into the proper shape, for their _buris_ or plough-tail: young elms with early force in copses bow, fit for the figure of the crooked plough. dryden. the romans esteemed the elm to be the natural support and friend of the vine; and the feeling that a strong sympathy subsisted between plants, led them never to plant one without the other. the gravest of latin authors speak of the elm as husband of the vine; and pliny tells us, that that elm is a poor spouse that does not support three vines. this mode of marrying the vine to the elm gave rise to the elegant insinuation of vertumnus to pomona, whose story may be found in ovid: "if that fair elm," he cried, "alone should stand, no grapes would glow with gold, and tempt the hand: or, if that vine without her elm should grow, 'twould creep a poor neglected shrub below." this union of the vine and the elm is constantly alluded to by the poets. tasso, as translated by fairfax, says, the married elm fell with his fruitful vine. the lofty elm with creeping vines o'erspread. ovid. milton, narrating the occupations of adam and eve before the fall, sings, --they led the vine to wed her elm; she, spoused, about him twines her marriageable arms, and with her brings her dower, the adopted clusters, to adorn his barren leaves. and beaumont says, --the amorous vine did with the fair and straight-limbed elm entwine. and wordsworth, in that beautiful reflection, the _pillar of trajan_, speaks of it: so, pleased with purple clusters to entwine some lofty elm-tree, mounts the daring vine. there is a beautiful group of elms at mongewell, oxon, which are in full vigour. the principal one is seventy-nine feet high, fourteen feet in girth at three feet from the ground, sixty-five in extent of boughs, and contains two hundred and fifty-six feet of solid timber. strutt informs us, that, in , dr. barrington, the venerable bishop of durham, when in his ninetieth year, erected an urn in the midst of their shade, to the memory of two of his friends; inscribing thereon the following classical fragment: in this once-favoured walk, beneath these elms, where thickened foliage, to the solar ray impervious, sheds a venerable gloom, oft in instructive converse we beguiled the fervid time, which each returning year to friendship's call devoted. such things were; but are, alas! no more. the chipstead elm, in kent, which is an english tree, is a fine specimen; and is of an immense size. it is beautiful as to form, and its trunk is richly mantled with ivy. in henry v.'s time, the high road from rye to london passed close by it, and a fair was held annually under its branches. at sprotborough, yorkshire, stands what is justly regarded as the pride of the grounds--a magnificent english elm. this noble tree is about fifteen feet in circumference in the bole, and still thicker at the height of four feet from the ground, where it divides into five enormous boughs, each of the size of a large tree, and gracefully descending to the ground; the whole forming a splendid mass of foliage, having a diameter of about forty yards from bough to bough end. the elm is generally raised by means of suckers, rarely from seeds. it delights in a rich, loamy soil, thriving best in an open situation, and bears transplantation well. it may also be planted in good pasture grounds, as it does not injure the grass beneath; and its leaves are agreeable to cattle, which in some countries are chiefly supported by them. they will eat them before oats, and thrive well upon them. evelyn says, that in herefordshire the inhabitants gathered them in sacks for their swine and other cattle. fruitful in leaves the elm. so prolific is this tree in leaves, that it affords a constant shade during the summer months, and for this reason it has been planted in most of the public and royal gardens in europe. it is also of quick growth, as it will yield a load of timber in little more than forty years: it does not, however, cease growing--if planted in a favourable situation--neither too dry nor too moist--till it is one hundred or one hundred and fifty years old; and it will live several centuries. the wood of the elm is hard and tough, and is greatly esteemed for pipes that are constantly under ground. in london, before iron pipes were used, the consumption of this timber for water-pipes was enormous. it is also valuable for keels, and planking beneath the water-line of ships, and for mill-wheels and water-works. when long bows were in fashion it was used in their manufacture, and the statutes recommend it for that purpose. besides _u. campestris_ there are six other varieties which have been long naturalized in this country, the botanical descriptions of which are:-- . _u. suberosa_. ebr. leaves nearly orbicular, acute, obliquely cordate at the base, sharply, regularly, and doubly serrate; always scabrous above, pubescent below, chiefly hairy in the axillæ. branches spreading, bright-brown, winged with corky excrescences; when young, very hairy. fruit nearly round, deeply cloven, naked. grows in hedges, and flowers in march. . _u. major_. smith. leaves ovato-acuminate, very oblique at the base, sharply, doubly, and regularly serrate; always scabrous above, pubescent below, with dense tufts of white hairs in the axillæ. branches spreading, bright-brown, winged with corky excrescences; when young, nearly smooth. fruit obovate, slightly cloven, naked. _u. hollandica_. miller. grows in hedges, and flowers in march. . _u. carpinifolia_. lindl. leaves ovato-acuminate, coriaceous, strongly veined, simply crenate, serrate, slightly oblique and cordate at the base, shining, but rather scabrous above, smooth beneath. branches bright-brown, nearly smooth. grows four miles from stratford-on-avon, on the road to alcester. . _u. glabra_. miller. leaves ovato-lanceolate, acuminate, doubly and evenly crenate-serrate, cuneate and oblique at the base, becoming quite smooth above, smooth or glandular beneath, with a few hairs in the axillæ. branches bright-brown, smooth, wiry, weeping. fruit obovate, naked, deeply cloven. [greek: beta]. _glandulosa_. leaves very glandular beneath, [greek: gamma]. _latifolia_. leaves oblong, acute, very broad. grows in woods and hedges; [greek: beta]. near ludlow; [greek: gamma]. at west hatch, in essex. flowers in march. n. b. to this species the downton elm and scampston elm of the nurseries probably belong. . _u. stricta_. lindl. _cornish elm_. leaves obovate, cuspidate, cuneate at the base, evenly and nearly doubly crenate-serrate, strongly veined, coriaceous, very smooth and shining above, smooth beneath, with hairy axillæ. branches bright-brown, smooth, rigid, erect, very compact. [greek: beta] _parvifolia_. leaves much smaller, less oblique at the base, finely and regularly crenate, acuminate rather than cuspidate. grows in cornwall and north devon; [greek: beta] the less common. . _u. montana_. bauh. _witch elm_. leaves obovate, cuspidate, doubly and coarsely serrate, cuneate and nearly equal at the base, always exceedingly scabrous above, evenly downy beneath. branches not corky, cinereous, smooth. fruit rhomboid, oblong, scarcely cloven, naked. _u. campestris_. willd. _u. effusa_. sibth., not of others. _u. nuda_. chr. _u. glabra_, hudson, according to smith. n. b. of this, the giant elm and the chichester elm of the nurseries are varieties. [illustration: the hawthorn-tree.] the hawthorn-tree. [_cratægus_.[f] nat. ord.--_rosaceæ_; linn.--_icosand. pentag._] [f] _cratægus_. calyx superior, monosepalous, -cleft. petals . styles to . fruit a small _pome_, oval or round, concealing the upper end of the bony carpels. _flowers_ in cymes. _leaves_ lobed. the hawthorn bush, with seats beneath the shade, for talking age and whispering lovers made. high as we admit gilpin's taste for the picturesque to be, we are compelled to differ from him in his opinion of the hawthorn. he observes that it has little claim to picturesque beauty; he complains that its shape is bad, that it does not taper and point like the holly, but is a matted, round, and heavy bush. we are glad to find, however, that sir t. lauder thinks differently; he remarks, that "even in a picturesque point of view, it is not only an interesting object by itself, but produces an interesting combination, or contrast, as things may be, when grouped with other trees. we have seen it," he adds, "hanging over rocks, with deep shadows over its foliage, or shooting from their sides in the most fantastic forms, as if to gaze at its image in the deep pool below. we have seen it contrasting its tender green and its delicate leaves with the brighter and deeper masses of the holly and the alder. we have seen it growing under the shelter, though not under the shade, of some stately oak, embodying the idea of beauty protected by strength. our eyes have often caught the motion of the busy mill-wheel, over which its blossoms were clustering. we have seen it growing grandly on the green of the village school, the great object of general attraction to the young urchins, who played in idle groups about its roots, and perhaps the only thing remaining to be recognised when the schoolboy returns as the man. we have seen its aged boughs overshadowing one half of some peaceful woodland cottage, its foliage half concealing the window, whence the sounds of happy content and cheerful mirth came forth. we know that lively season when the milkmaid singeth blithe, and the mower whets his scythe, and every shepherd tells his tale under the hawthorn in the dale. and with these, and a thousand such associations as these, we cannot but feel emotions of no ordinary nature when we behold this beautiful tree." and gilpin admits, in another part of his _forest scenery_, that the hawthorn, when entangled with an oak, or mixing with other trees, may be beautiful. loudon describes "the hawthorn, _c. oxyacantha_, in its wild state, as a shrub, or small tree, with a smooth, blackish bark, and very hard wood. the branches are numerous and slender, furnished with sharp, awl-shaped spines. the leaves are of a deep smooth green, more or less deeply three-lobed, or five-lobed, cut and serrated, wedge-shaped, or rounded. the flowers have white petals, frequently pink, or almost scarlet, and sweet-scented." its fragrance indeed is great, and its bloom is spread over it in profusion. marke the faire blooming of the hawthorne tree, who, finely cloathed in a robe of white, fills full the wanton eye with may's delight. chaucer. while "in autumn," says gilpin, "the hawthorn makes its best appearance. its glowing berries produce a rich tint, which often adds great beauty to the corner of a wood, or the side of some crowded clump." [illustration: leaves, flowers, and berries of _c. oxyacantha._] there are many remarkable trees of this kind, but the only one we shall here particularly mention is queen mary's thorn, which is thus described in that splendid work, the _arboretum britannicum_:--"the parent tree is in a garden near edinburgh, which once belonged to the regent murray, and is now, , in the possession of mr. cowan, a paper manufacturer. it is very old, and its branches have somewhat of a drooping character; but whether sufficiently so to constitute a variety worth propagating as a distinct kind, appears to us very doubtful. it may be interesting, however, to some, to continue, by extension, the individual tree under which the unfortunate queen is supposed to have spent many hours. the fruit of this variety is rather above the middle size, long, fleshy, of a deep red, and good to eat. the height of the parent tree is thirty-three feet, and the diameter of the head thirty-six feet; the trunk divides into two limbs, at fifteen inches from the ground, one of which is one foot four inches in diameter, and the other one foot. the tree is healthy and vigorous, though, if it be true that queen mary sat under its shade, it must be nearly three hundred years old." the hawthorn is found in most parts of europe, and appears to have been of use in england from a very early period, as in all old works on husbandry ample directions are given for the planting and cultivation of the thorn. in tusser's _five hundred points in good husbandry_ we find the following directions: go plough or delve up, advised with skill, the breadth of a ridge, and in length as you will; where speedy quickset for a fence you will draw, to sow in the seed of the bramble and haw. if intended for seed, the haws should not be gathered until the end of october, when they become blackish; and even then they rarely vegetate before the second year. the proper mode of preparing them is as follows:--if you do not sow them immediately, as soon as they are gathered, spread them on an airy floor for five or six weeks, till the seeds are dry and firm; then plunge them into water, and divest them wholly of their pulp by rubbing them between your hands with a little sand; spread them again on the loft three or four days, till quite dry; mix them with fine loose sandy mould, in quantity not less than the bulk of the seeds, and lay them in a heap against a south wall, covering them over, three or four inches deep, with soil of the same quality as that with which they are mixed. if you do not sow them in the spring, in this situation let them remain till the second spring, as the seeds, if sown, will not appear the first year. that the berries may be as equally mixed with the soil as possible, turn over the heaps once in two months, blending the covering with the seeds, and, at every turning, give them a fresh covering in the winter months. they should be sown the first dry weather in february, or the beginning of march. separate them from the loose soil in which they were mixed, with a wire sieve. the ground should be good, dry, fresh land, well prepared, and the seeds beat down with the back of a spade, and then covered about half an inch thick with mould; or they may be dropped in drills about eight inches apart. the utility of the hawthorn is chiefly for fences. the wood is hard, and the root of an old thorn is an excellent material for boxes and combs, and is curiously and naturally wrought. it is white, but of a somewhat yellow hue, and is capable of a very high polish. [illustration: the hazel-tree.] the hazel-tree. [_corylus_.[g] nat. ord.--_amentiferæ_; linn.--_monoec. polyan._] [g] _corylus_. barren catkin long, pendulous, cylindrical. scales -lobed, middle lobe covering the lateral lobes. stamens . anther -celled. perianth none. fertile flowers, several surrounded by a scaly involucre. styles . nut -seeded, inclosed in the enlarged coriaceous laciniated involucre. the common hazel, _c. avellana_, is a native of all the temperate climates of europe and asia, and grows wild in almost every part of britain, from cornwall to caithness. although never arriving at the bulk of a timber-tree, it yet claims our notice, among the natives of the forest, on various accounts. its flowers are among the first to make their appearance, which is generally so early as the end of january, and in a month's time they are in full bloom; these are small, and of a beautiful red colour. its fruit-bearing buds make a splendid show in march, when they burst and disclose the bright crimson of their shafts. the common hazel is known at once by its bushy habit; by its roundish-cordate taper-pointed, deeply serrated, light-green, downy leaves; by its rough light-coloured bark; and by its broad leafy husks, much lacerated and spreading at the point. the nuts are a very agreeable fruit, abounding in a mild oil, which is expressed and used by artists for mixing with their colours. we must, however, caution persons against eating too freely of this fruit, as it is difficult of digestion, and often proves hurtful when eaten in large quantities. they are ripe about harvest, and we ourselves have frequently enjoyed the pleasures of a _nutting_ party, and can fully enter into the spirit of the sketch in _autumn_, by our admired bard, thomson: ye swains, now hasten to the hazel bank, where, down yon dale, the wildly-winding brook falls hoarse from steep to steep. in close array, fit for the thickets and the tangling shrub, ye virgins come. for you their latest song the woodlands raise; the clustering nuts for you the lover finds amid the secret shade; and, where they burnish on the topmost bough, with active vigour crushes down the tree, or shakes them ripe from the resigning husk. [illustration: leaves, catkins, and nuts of _c. avellana_.] we must also give here a description of the pleasures of nutting, from our favourite poet--the poet of nature--wordsworth: --it seems a day (i speak of one from many singled out) one of those heavenly days which cannot die; when in the eagerness of boyish hope, i left our cottage-threshold, sallying forth with a huge wallet o'er my shoulders slung, a nutting-crook in hand, and turned my steps toward the distant woods. * * * * * * * among the woods and o'er the pathless rocks i forced my way, until at length i came to one dear nook unvisited, where not a broken bough drooped with its withered leaves, ungracious sign of devastation! but the hazels rose tall and erect, with milk-white clusters hung, a virgin scene! a little while i stood, breathing with such suppression of the heart as joy delights in; and with wise restraint, voluptuous, fearless of a rival, eyed the banquet,--or beneath the trees i sate among the flowers, and with the flowers i played. * * * * * * * * * * * * then up i rose, and dragged on earth each branch and bough with crash and merciless ravage, and the shady nook of hazels, and the green and massy bower deformed and sullied, patiently gave up their quiet being; and unless i now confound my present feelings with the past, even then, when from the bower i turned away exulting, rich beyond the wealth of kings, i felt a sense of pain when i beheld the silent trees, and the intruding sky. the nut is a favourite food of the squirrels, which hoard them up for winter store, being careful always to select the best. it is commonly remarked, that a plentiful year for nuts is the same for wheat. in order to raise the hazel, the nuts must be gathered in autumn. these must be carefully preserved until february in a moist place; then, having the ground well ploughed and harrowed, sow them in drills drawn at one yard distance. when the young plants appear they must be kept clear from weeds, and remain under this careful cultivation till the weeds are no longer to be feared. as they grow they should not be permitted to stand too thick, but be kept thinned, until the plants are left a yard asunder each way. virgil says, hazels, from set and suckers, take. from these they thrive very well, the shoots being of the scantling of small wands and switches, or somewhat larger, and such as have divers hairy twigs, which are not to be disbranched, any more than their roots, unless by a very discreet hand. thus, a copse of hazels being planted about autumn, may be cut the next spring within three or four inches of the ground, when new shoots will soon grow up in clusters, and in tufts of fair poles of twenty, or sometimes thirty feet long. evelyn, however, recommends that these offsets should be allowed to grow two or three years, until they have taken strong hold, when they may be cut close to the very earth, the feeble ones especially. the rate of growth, under favourable circumstances, is from one to two feet for the first two or three years after planting; after which, if trained to a single stem, the tree grows slower, attaining the height of about twelve feet in ten years, and never growing much higher, unless drawn up by other trees. it is seldom, however, allowed to grow to maturity, being usually cut down before that period. [illustration: the holly-tree.] the holly-tree. [_ilex._[h] nat. ord.--_aquifoliaceæ_; linn.--_tetram. tetrag._] [h] _ilex._ calyx inferior, or -toothed, persistent. corolla rotate, or -cleft. stigmas , sessile, or nearly so; distinct or united. fruit a spherical berry, -celled, each cell -seeded. flowers sometimes polygamous. above all the evergreens which enrich our landscapes, there is none to be compared to the common holly, _i. aquifolium_. this was a favourite plant with evelyn. it grew spontaneously and luxuriantly near his own residence in surrey, in a vale anciently called holmes' dale, and famous for the flight of the danes; he expresses his wonder that britons seek so eagerly after foreign plants, and at a vast expense, while they neglect the culture of this incomparable tree, whether it be cultivated for utility or ornament. he speaks in raptures of it: "is there under heaven a more glorious and refreshing object of the kind, than an impenetrable hedge, of about four hundred feet in length, nine feet high, and five in diameter, which i can show in my gardens at say's court, deptford, at any time of the year, glittering with its armed and varnished leaves; the taller standards at orderly distances, blushing with their natural coral." the leaves of the common holly are ovate, acute, spinous, wavy, thorny, and shining; the lower leaves being very spinous, while the upper ones, especially on old trees, are entire. the flowers are white, appearing in may, and the berries, which are red, ripen in september, and remain on the tree all the winter. gilpin remarks that the holly can hardly be called a tree, though it is a large shrub, and a plant of singular beauty; but he cannot accord with the learned naturalist (evelyn) in the whole of his rapturous encomium on his hedge at say's court. he recommends it, not as a hedge, but to be planted in a forest, where, mixed with oak, or ash, or other trees of the wood, it contributes to form the most beautiful scenes; blending itself with the trunks and skeletons of the winter, or with the varied greens of summer. and as far as an individual bush can be beautiful, the holly is extremely so. it has, besides, to recommend it, that it is among the hardiest and stoutest plants of english growth. it thrives in all soils, and in all situations. at dungeness, in kent, it flourishes even among the pebbles of the beach. it abounds, more or less, in the remains of all aboriginal forests, and perhaps, at present, it prevails nowhere to a greater extent than in the remains of needwood forest, in staffordshire; there are likewise many fine trees in the new forest, in hampshire. it is also abundant on the banks of the river findhorn, in aberdeenshire; but it is not very common in ireland, except about the lakes of killarney, where it attains a large size. [illustration: leaves, flowers, and berries of _i. aquifolium._] why gilpin should hesitate about considering the holly a tree, we are at a loss to conceive, as it grows to the height of thirty feet, and, under cultivation, to sixty feet or upwards, and yields timber of considerable value. being the whitest of all hard woods, it is useful for inlaying, especially under thin plates of ivory, rendering the latter more conspicuous; and also for veneering. it is much used by the turner and mathematical instrument maker, and for handles for the best riding-rods, &c. the holly is a very valuable plant for fences; it is seldom attacked by insects, and, if shorn, becomes so impenetrable that birds cannot obtain access thereto to build their nests. on these accounts it is particularly valuable to the farmer for hedges; the chief objection to it for this purpose is, the slowness of its growth while young, and the difficulty of transplanting the plants when grown to a moderate size. mr. sang says, that holly hedges are the best for making durable fences, and afford the greatest degree of shelter, especially during the winter months; no plant endures the shears better than the holly; a hedge of it may be carried to a great height, and consequently it is well fitted for situations where strength and shelter are required; it luxuriates most in a rich sandy loam, although there are few soils in which it will not grow. after planting, the holly makes but indifferent progress for a few years; but after it becomes established in the ground, or about the third or fourth year after planting, no fence whatever will outgrow the holly. "i have seen hedges," says evelyn, "or stout walls, of holly, twenty feet high, kept upright, and the gilded sort budded low; and in two or three places one above another, shorn and fashioned into columns and pilasters, architecturally shaped, and at due distance; than which nothing can possibly be more pleasant, the berry adorning the intercolumniations with scarlet festoons and encarpa." the employment of the holly at christmas for ornamenting churches and dwelling-houses, is believed to have come down to us from the druids, who made use of it in their religious ceremonies. the name holly is supposed to be a corruption of the word _holy_, as dr. turner, one of the earliest english writers on plants, calls it holy, and holy tree, which appellation was probably given to it on account of its use in holy places; the german name, christdorn, the danish name, christorn, and the swedish name, christtorn, seem to justify this conjecture. it is also styled holy in a carol written in its praise in the time of henry vi., preserved in the harleian mss., no. , and printed in loudon's _arboretum_: nay, ivy, nay, it shall not be i wys; let holy hafe the maystry, as the maner ys, holy stond _in the halle_, fayre to behold; ivy stond _without the dore_; she is full sore a cold. holy and hys mery men they dansyn and they syng, ivy and hur maydenys they wepyn and they wryng. ivy hath a lybe; she laghtit with the cold, so mot they all hafe that wyth ivy hold. holy hath berys as red as any rose, they foster the hunter, kepe him from the doo. ivy hath berys as black as any slo; ther com the oule and ete hym as she goo. holy hath byrdys, aful fayre flok, the nyghtyngale, the poppyngy, the gayntyl laverok, good ivy! what byrdys ast thou! non but the howlet that "how! how!" the disciples of zoroaster believe that the sun never shadows the holly-tree; and there are still some followers of this king in persia, who throw water which has been in the bark of the holly in the face of new-born children. southey, in a very elegant poem, which is printed in the _sentiment of flowers_, in the article entitled foresight, of which quality the holly is considered emblematical, has noticed the circumstance of the lower leaves of large plants being spinous, while the upper are entire. [illustration: the hornbeam.] the hornbeam. [_carpinus_.[i] nat. ord.--_amentiferæ_; linn.--_monoec. polyan._] [i] _carpinus_. barren catkin long, cylindrical. scales roundish. stamens to . anther -celled. fertile flower in a lax catkin. scales large, leaf-like, -lobed, -flowered. styles . nut ovate, -seeded. the common hornbeam, _c. betulus_, is a native of england and ireland, and of the south of scotland, and is also indigenous throughout the greater part of europe and western asia, but not in africa. picturesquely considered, the hornbeam is very nearly allied to the beech. when suffered to grow it will be like it, and attain to a great height, with a fine straight trunk; it is very common in many parts of england, but is rarely allowed to become a timber-tree, being generally pollarded by the country people. it is, therefore, usually seen only in clipped hedges, where it is very obedient to the knife, and, with a little care, will never presume to appear out of form. it is excellent for forming tall hedges, or screens, in nursery grounds or ornamental gardens. that admirable _espalier_ hedge in the long middle walk of luxemburg garden at paris (than which there is nothing more graceful), is planted of this tree; and so is that cradle, or close walk, with that perplexed canopy which covers the seat in her majesty's garden at hampton court; these hedges are tonsile, but where they are maintained to fifteen or twenty feet in height (which is very frequent in the places before mentioned), they are to be cut and kept in order with a scythe of four feet long, and very little falcated; this is fixed on a long sneed, or straight handle, and does wonderfully expedite the trimming of these and the like hedges. the leaves of the hornbeam somewhat resemble those of the elm, but are smoother; they are cordate, doubly serrate, pointed, plaited when young, and have numerous parallel, transverse, hairy ribs; their colour is a darkish green, changing to a russet brown in autumn, and they remain on the tree, like those of the beech, till spring. the buds are rather long and pointed. the flowers appear at the same time as the leaves. the male catkins are loose, scaly, of a yellowish colour, and about two or three inches long; the female catkins are much smaller, and, when young, are covered with close brownish scales, which gradually increase, and form unequally three-lobed, sharply serrated, veiny, dry, pale-green bracts, each enveloping an angular nut, scarcely bigger than a grain of barley. these nuts ripen in october, and fall with the capsules. the bark of the hornbeam is light-gray and smooth, and the wood very white, tough, and strong. it is used for yokes, handles for tools, and cogs for mill-wheels; it is also much valued by the turner. it is very inflammable, and will burn like a candle, for which purpose it was formerly employed. the inner bark is much used in the north of europe for dyeing yellow. [illustration: leaves and flowers of _c. betulus_.] when raised from seed, the common hornbeam acquires the usual magnitude of the beech, to which, as before stated, it is similar in its appearance. in the neighbourhood of london the rate of growth may be considered from twelve to eighteen inches a-year for the first ten years, and the tree will attain its full size in between fifty and sixty years; its longevity may be considered as equal to that of the beech. hanbury says that this tree is peculiarly grateful to hares and rabbits; and if so, the planting of it among other trees and shrubs might be the means of saving them from being injured by these creatures. the hornbeam preserves itself from the butting of the deer, by its mode of throwing out its branches; on this account it should be cultivated in parks, as well as for its beauty and shelter. the regular growth of the hornbeam is referred to by fawkes, in his _bramham park_: here spiry firs extend their lengthened ranks, there violets blossom on the sunny banks; here hornbeam hedges regularly grow, there hawthorn whitens and wild roses blow. the hornbeam is recommended to be planted on cold, barren hills, as in such situations it will flourish where few other trees will grow; it also resists the winds much better than the generality of trees, and, at the same time, it is not slow of growth. in such situations, dr. hunter observes that he noticed some specimens nearly seventy feet high, having large, noble stems, perfectly straight and sound. there was a fine specimen of this tree at bargoly, in galloway, which measured, in , six feet two inches in circumference. it had twenty feet of clear trunk, and was seventy feet high. [illustration: the horse-chestnut tree.] the horse-chestnut tree. [_Æsculus._ nat. ord.--_Æsculaceæ_; linn.--_heptan. monog._] the common horse-chestnut, _Æ. hippocastanum_, is supposed to be a native of the north of india, and appears to have been introduced into england about the year . it is a tree of the largest size, with an erect trunk and a pyramidal head. it forms its foliage generally in a round mass, with little appearance of those breaks which are so much to be admired, and which contribute to give an airiness and lightness, at least a richness and variety, to the whole mass of foliage. this tree is, however, chiefly admired for its flower, which in itself is beautiful; but the whole tree together in flower is a glaring object, totally unharmonious and unpicturesque. in some situations, indeed, and amidst a profusion of other wood, a single horse-chestnut or two in bloom may be beautiful. as it forms an admirable shade, it may be of use, too, in thickening distant scenery, or in screening an object at hand; for there is no species of foliage, however heavy, nor any species of bloom, however glaring, which may not be brought, by some proper contrast, to produce a good effect. it is generally, however, considered one of the most ornamental trees in our plantations. evelyn styles it a tree of singular beauty and use; and miss twamley, in her elegant volume, the _romance of nature_, breaks into raptures in speaking of it. "few trees," she says, "are so magnificent in foliage as the horse-chestnut, with its large fan-like leaves, far more resembling those of some tropical plant than the garb of a forest-tree in climes like ours; but when these are crowned with its pyramids of flowers, so splendid in their distant effect, and so exquisitely modelled and pencilled when we gather and examine their fair forms--is it not then the pride of the landscape? if the oak--the true british oak--be the forest king, let us give him at least a partner in his majesty; and let the chestnut, whose noble head is crowned by the hand of spring with a regal diadem, gemmed with myriads of pearly, and golden, and ruby flowers, let her be queen of the woods in bonny england; and while we listen to the musical hum of bees, as they load themselves with her wealth of honey, we will fancy they are congratulating their noble and generous friend on her new honours." the leaves of the horse-chestnut are large, of a deep green colour, fine, and palmated, and appear very early in the spring; it is naturally uniform in its growth. in the spring it produces long spikes, with beautiful flowers white and variegated, generally in such number as to cover the whole tree, and to give it the appearance of one gigantic bouquet. no flowering shrub is rendered more gay by its blossoms than this tall tree; thus it combines beauty with grandeur, in a degree superior to any other vegetable of these climates. in howitt's _forest minstrel_, we find the following poetical allusion: for in its honour prodigal nature weaves a princely vestment, and profusely showers, o'er its green masses of broad palmy leaves, ten thousand waxen pyramidal flowers; and gay and gracefully its head it heaves into the air, and monarch-like it towers. the buds of this tree, before they shoot out leaves, become turgid and large, so that they have a good effect to the eye long before the leaves appear; and it is peculiar to the horse-chestnut, that as soon as the leading shoot is come out of the bud, it continues to grow so fast as to be able to form its whole summer's shoot in about three weeks' or a month's time: after this it grows little or nothing more in length, but thickens, and becomes strong and woody, and forms the buds for the next year's shoot; the leaves are blunt, spear-shaped, and serrated, growing by sevens on one stalk, the middle one longest. the flowers are in full blossom about may, and, on fine trees, make a pleasing appearance; they continue in bloom for a month or more. [illustration: (leaves, flowers, and nuts of _Æ. hippocastanum_)] in june that chestnut shot its blossomed spires of silver upward 'mid the foliage dark; as if some sylvan deity had hung its dim umbrageousness with votive wreaths. thus, mr. moir's horse-chestnut put forth its bloom in june. the fruit ripens about the end of september or the beginning of october. we quote the following singular fact from the _magazine of natural history_:--"the downy interior of the horse-chestnut buds are: protected from the wet by a covering of a gummy substance. miss kent says, 'that we cannot have a better specimen of the early formation of plants in their bud than in that of the horse-chestnut.' a celebrated german naturalist detached from this tree, in the winter season, a flower bud not larger than a pea, and first took off the external covering, which he found consisted of seventeen scales; having removed these scales, and the down which formed the internal covering of the bud, he discovered four branch leaves surrounding a spike of flowers, the latter of which was so distinctly visible, that, with the aid of a microscope, he not only counted sixty-eight flowers, but could discern the pollen of the stamens, and perceive that some were opaque and some transparent. this experiment may be tried by any one, as the flowers may be perceived with a common magnifying glass; but as detaching the scales requires care, it would be advisable for an unpractised student to gather the bud in early spring, when the sun is just beginning to melt away the gum with which the scales are sealed together." the horse-chestnut is extremely well adapted to parks, not only because it grows to a large size and forms a beautiful regular head, thereby becoming a pleasing object at a distance, but also on account of the quantity of nuts it yields, which are excellent food for deer, so that where great numbers of deer are kept, the planting of these trees in abundance is to be recommended. it is also very suitable for avenues, or walks, though it has been objected that its leaves fall early in the autumn. this must be admitted; yet we think it fully compensates for the loss by the exhibition of its light-brown nuts, some on the ground, some ready to fall, and others just peeping out of their cells. the finest avenue of these trees in england is that at bushy park. there are many fine specimens of this tree in various parts of the country. in suffolk, at finborough hall, one, eighty years planted, is one hundred feet high; the diameter of its trunk, at one foot from the ground, is five feet. in the church-yard at bolton-on-dearne, in yorkshire, there are some fine specimens; one sixty-six feet high, and two feet eight inches in diameter at the ground; and another sixty-eight feet high, and two feet six inches in diameter. but the largest in britain is said to be at trocton, in lincolnshire, fifty-nine feet high. loudon says this is a most magnificent tree, with immense branches extending over the space of three hundred and five feet, in circumference; and the branches are so large as to require props, so that at a little distance it looks like an indian banyan tree. the horse-chestnut is propagated from the nut, of which a sufficient quantity should be gathered as they fall from the trees, and soon afterwards either sown or mixed up with earth, until the spring; because, if exposed to the atmosphere, they will lose their germinating power in a month. after being transplanted into the nursery, and having there attained a sufficient size, the young trees must be taken out with care, the great side shoots and bruised parts of the roots lopped off, and then planted in large holes, level with the surface of the ground at the top of their roots, the fibres being all spread and lapped in the fine mould, and the turf also worked to the bottom: october is the best season for this work. like most other trees, this delights in good fat land, but it will grow exceedingly well on clayey and marly grounds; large trees have been known to look luxuriant and healthy in very cold barren earth. it will attain a very large size in a few years. the timber of this tree is not very valuable, especially where great strength is required, nor will it bear exposure to the air. it is, however, of some use to the turner, and also serviceable for flooring, linings to carts, &c. du hamel recommends it as suitable for water-pipes, which are kept constantly underground. the fruit is of a farinaceous quality, but so bitter as to be useless for food. goats, sheep, and deer are said to be very fond of them; the bark has considerable astringency, and may be used for tanning leather. a decoction of the rind will dye the hair of a golden hue. [illustration: the larch-tree.] the larch-tree. [_abies larix._[j] nat. ord.--_coniferæ_; linn.--_monoec. monand._] [j] abies larix. _lind._ pinnis l. _linn._ l. europæa. lond. the larch claims the alps and apennines for its native country, where it thrives in higher regions of the air than any known tree of its large bulk, hanging over rocks and precipices which have never been trod by human feet. it is often felled by the alpine peasant, to fall athwart some yawning chasm, where it affords an awful passage from cliff to cliff, while the roaring cataract below, is only seen in surges of vapour. the larch is first mentioned as growing in england in , but it did not become plentiful in nurseries until . it is stated, in the _transactions of the highland society_ (vol. xi. p. ), that it was first planted as a forest-tree at goodwood, the seat of the duke of richmond, near chichester; but it was not until after , on the society of arts offering gold medals and premiums for its cultivation, that it became generally planted. the following are some of the largest numbers of trees planted about that time by the respective parties:--the bishop of llandaff, , , on the high grounds near ambleside, in westmoreland; w. mellish, esq. of blythe, , ; george wright, esq. of gildingwells, , ; and the late earl of fife, , , in the county of moray, in scotland. the same spirit for planting this tree has continued to the present time, wherever the land has not been thought more valuable for other purposes. in the society for promoting arts, &c., presented his grace the duke of devonshire with the gold medal, for planting , , forest-trees, , of which were larch. of the introduction of the larch into scotland, it is stated by headrick, in his _survey of forfarshire_: "it is generally supposed that larches were brought into scotland by one of the dukes of athol; but i saw three larches of extraordinary size and age, in the garden near the mansion-house of lockhart of lee, on the northern banks of the clyde, a few miles below lanark. the stems and branches were so much covered with lichens, that they hardly exhibited any signs of life or vegetation. the account i heard of them was, that they were brought there by the celebrated lockhart of lee (who had been ambassador from cromwell to france), soon after the restoration of charles ii. (about ). after cromwell's death, thinking himself unsafe on account of having served the usurper, he retired for some time into the territories of venice; he there observed the great use the venetians made of larches in ship-building, in piles for buildings, in the construction of their houses, and for other purposes; and when he returned home, he brought a great number of large plants, in pots, in order to try if they could be gradually made to endure the climate of scotland. he nursed his plants in hot-houses, and in a greenhouse, sheltered from the cold, until they all died except the three alluded to. these, in desperation, he planted in the warmest and best sheltered part of his garden, where they attained an extraordinary height and growth." [illustration: foliage, catkins; immature and perfect cones; and scale opened showing the seeds of l. europæa.] the common larch, _a. larix_, may be described as "a tree, rising in favourable situations on the alps, and also in britain, from eighty to one hundred feet in height, with a trunk from three to four feet in diameter, and having a conical head. _branches_ subverticillate, and spreading horizontally from the straight trunk; occasionally, however, rather pendulous, particularly when old. _branchlets_ more or less pendulous. _leaves_ linear, soft, blunt, or rounded at the points, of an agreeable light green colour; single or fasciculated; in the latter case many together round a central bud; spreading, and slightly recurved. _male catkins_ without foot-stalks, globular, or slightly oblong, of a light yellow colour; and, together with the _female catkins_, or young cones, appearing in april and the beginning of may; the latter varying from a whitish to a bright red colour. _cones_ of an oblong, ovate shape, erect, full one inch in length, and of a brownish colour when ripe. _scales_ persistent, roundish, striated, and generally slightly waved, but not distinctly notched on the margin. _bracts_ generally longer than the scales, particularly towards the base of the cones. _seeds_ of an irregular or ovate form, fully one-eighth of an inch long, and more than half-surrounded by the smooth, shining, persistent pericarp. cotyledons five to seven."--_lawson's manual._ in the _memoirs of the royal society of agriculture at paris_, for the year , there is an essay by m. le president de la tour d'aigues, on the culture of the larch, in which it is celebrated as one of the most useful of all timber trees. he tells us that in his own garden he has rails which were put up in the year , partly of oak and partly of larch. the former, he says, have yielded to time, but the latter are still sound. and in his castle of tour d'aigues he has larchen beams of twenty inches square, which are sound, though above two hundred years old. the finest trees he knows of this kind, grew in some parts of dauphiny, and in the forest of baye, in provence, where there are larches, he tells us, which two men cannot encompass. the timber is valuable for many purposes. it is said, that old dry larch will take such a polish as to become almost transparent, and that, in this state, it may be wrought into very beautiful wainscot. in our encomium of the larch we must not omit that the old painters used it, more than any other wood, to paint on, before the use of canvas became general. many of raphael's pictures are painted on boards of larch. it is also used by the italians for picture-frames, because no other wood gives gilding such force and brilliancy. we are told that this is the reason why their gilding on wood is so much superior to ours. in switzerland they cover the roofs of their houses with shingles made of larch. these are usually cut about one foot square and half an inch in thickness, which they nail to the rafters. at first the roof appears white, but in the course of two or three years it becomes as black as coal, and all the joints are stopped by the resin which the sun extracts from the pores of the wood. this shining varnish renders the roof impenetrable to wind or rain: this is the chief covering, and, some say, an incombustible one. from the larch, too, is extracted what is commonly called venice turpentine. this substance, or natural balsam, flows at first without incision; when it has done dropping the poor people make incisions, at about two or three feet from the ground, into the trunk of the trees, and into these they fix narrow troughs, about twenty inches long; the end of these troughs is hollow, like a ladle, and in the middle is a small hole bored for the turpentine to run into a receiver which is placed below it. the people who gather it, visit the tree, morning and evening, from the end of may to september, to collect the turpentine out of the receivers. when it flows out of the tree the turpentine is clear like water, and of a yellowish white; but as it becomes older it thickens, and changes to a citron colour. it is procured in great abundance in the neighbourhood of lyons, and in the valley of st. martin, near lucerne, switzerland. it is only after the tree has attained the thickness of ten or twelve inches in diameter, that it is thought worth while to collect the turpentine; and if the tree remain in vigorous growth, it will continue, for forty or fifty years, to yield annually seven or eight pounds of turpentine. the cones of the larch, intended for seed, ought to be gathered towards the latter end of november, and then kept in a dry place till the following spring, when, being spread on a cloth and exposed to the sun, or laid before the fire, the scales will open and shed their seed. these should be sown on a border exposed to the east, where they will be affected by the morning sun only, as the plants do not prosper so well where the sun lies much on them. in autumn the young plants may be pricked out into other beds, as soon as they have shed their leaves, at the distance of six inches each way. in two years the young trees will be ready to plant where they are intended to stand; then they need not be more than eight or ten feet apart from each other, but at less distance on exposed situations. it is now well-known, that the larch will grow in wild and barren situations better than in a luxuriant soil; and this tree is even apt to grow top-heavy in too much shelter and nourishment. no tree has been introduced into britain with such remarkable success as the larch. phillips says, "the face of our country has, within the last thirty years, been completely changed by the numerous plantations of larch that have sprung up on every barren spot of these kingdoms, from the southern shores to the extremity of the north, and from the land's end to the mouth of the thames. so great has been the demand for young trees of this species of pine, that one nurseryman in edinburgh raised above five million of these trees in the year . we have introduced no exotic tree that has so greatly embellished the country in general. its pale and delicate green, so cheerfully enlivening the dark hue of the fir and the pine, and its elegant spiral shape, contrasting with the broad-spreading oak, is a no less happy contrast; whilst its stars of fasciculate foliage are displayed to additional advantage, when neighbouring with the broad-leaved æsculus, the glossy holly, the drooping birch, or the tremulous aspen." sir t. d. lauder considers that "the larch is unquestionably by much the most enduring timber we have. it is remarkable, that whilst red wood or heart wood is not formed at all in the other resinous trees till they have lived for many years, the larch, on the other hand, begins to make it soon after it is planted; and whilst you may fell a scotch fir of thirty years old, and find no red wood in it, you can hardly cut down a young larch large enough to be a walking-stick, without finding just such a proportion of red wood, compared to its diameter as a tree, as you will find in the largest larch in the forest, when compared to its diameter. to prove the value of the larch as a timber-tree, we believe, at the suggestion of the then duke of athol, posts of equal thickness and strength, some of larch and others of oak, were driven down facing the river-wall, where they were alternately covered with water by the effect of the tide, and left dry by its fall. this species of alternation is the most trying of all circumstances for the endurance of timber, and accordingly the oaken posts decayed, and were twice renewed in the course of a very few years, whilst those which were made of larch remained altogether unchanged." of the larch, mr. sang remarks that it "bears the ascendency over the scotch pine in the following important circumstances: that it brings double the price, at least per measurable foot; that it will arrive at a useful timber size in one half, or a third part, of the time in general which the fir requires; and, above all, that the timber of the larch, at thirty or forty years old, when planted in a soil and climate adapted to the production of perfect timber, is, in every respect, superior in quality to that of the fir at a hundred years old." on experimental observation, the larch has been found, in scotland, to increase annually, at six feet from the ground, about one inch and a half in circumference, on the trunks of trees from ten to fifty years of age. in the course of fifty years the tree will attain the height of eighty feet or upwards; and, in its native habitats, according to willdenow, "it lives from one hundred and fifty to two hundred years." "though we should least expect to find such a quality in a resinous tree like the larch, it has been proved to make a beautiful hedge, and to submit with wonderful patience to the shears. we once saw a very pretty fence of this description in a gentleman's pleasure-grounds near loch lomond. the trees were planted at equal distances from each other, and being clipped, were half cut through towards the top, and bent down over each other, and, in, many instances, the top shoot of one had insinuated itself into that adjacent to it, so as to have become corporeally united to it; and, strange as it may seem, we actually found one top that had so inserted itself, which, having been rather deeply cut originally by the hedge-bill, had actually detached itself from its parent stock, and was now growing, grafted on the other, with the lower part of it pointing upwards into the air!"--_sir t. d. lauder._ there are ten or more varieties of the larch in cultivation, but as these are probably only different forms of the same species, it is unnecessary to enumerate them. [illustration: the lime, or linden tree.] the lime, or linden tree. [_tilia._[k] _europæa._ nat. ord.--_tiliaceæ_; linn.--_polyand. monog._] [k] _generic characters_. sepals , deciduous. petals , with or without a scale at the base. stamens indefinite, free, or polyadelphous. ovary -celled, cells -seeded. style . fruit -celled, with or seeds. the common lime-tree grows naturally straight and taper, with a smooth erect trunk, and a fine spreading head, inclining to a conical form. in a good soil it arrives at a great height and size, and becomes a majestic object. thus we read that the stately lime, smooth, gentle, straight, and fair, with which no other dryad may compare, with verdant locks and fragrant blossoms decked, does a large, even, odorate shade project. this beautiful tree is a native of the middle and north of europe, and is said to have been highly esteemed among the romans for its shade. evelyn praises the lime as being the most proper and beautiful for walks; as producing an upright body, smooth and even bark, ample leaves, sweet blossom, and a goodly shade, at the distance of eighteen or twenty feet. those growing in st. james's park, london, are said to have been planted at his suggestion. there are now many avenues of limes in various parts of the country. at the termination of one at colerton, leicestershire, there is placed an urn with the following tribute to the memory of sir joshua reynolds, written by wordsworth at the request of the proprietor, sir george beaumont, bart.:-- ye lime-trees, ranged before this hallowed urn, shoot forth with lively power at spring's return; and be not slow a stately growth to rear of pillars, branching off from year to year, till they have learned to frame a darksome aisle,-- that may recal to mind that awful pile where reynolds, 'mid our country's noblest dead, in the last sanctity of fame is laid. there, though by right the excelling painter sleep, where death and glory a joint sabbath keep; yet not the less his spirit would hold dear self-hidden praise, and friendship's private tear; hence, on my patrimonial grounds, have i raised this frail tribute to his memory; from youth a zealous follower of the art that he professed, attached to him in heart; admiring, loving, and with grief and pride, feeling what england lost when reynolds died. loudon speaks of two ancient lime-trees at zoffingen, on the branches of which is placed a plank, in such a manner as to enable any one to walk from the one to the other; and thus people may not only walk, but even dance, upon the foliage of the tree. in the village of villars en morig, near fribourg, there is a large lime which existed there long before the battle of morat ( ), and which is now of extraordinary dimensions; it was, in , seventy feet high, and thirty-six feet in circumference at four feet from the ground, where it divided into large and perfectly sound branches. it must be nearly a thousand years old. and at fribourg, in the public square, there is a large lime, the branches of which are supported by pieces of wood. this tree was planted on the day when the victory was proclaimed of the swiss over the duke of burgundy, charles the bold, in the year ; and it is a monument admirably accordant with the then feebleness of the swiss republics, and the extreme simplicity of their manners. in the trunk of this tree measured thirteen feet nine inches in circumference. [illustration: leaves and flowers of t. europæa.] botanically considered, the common lime is a large and handsome tree with spreading branches, thickly clothed with leaves twice the length of their petioles, cordate at the base, serrate, pointed, smooth--except a woolly tuft at the origin of each nerve beneath--unequal and entire at the base; stipules oval, smooth, in pairs at the base of each foot-stalk; flower-stalks axillar, cymose, each bearing an oblong, pale, smooth bract, united, for half its length, with the stalk; flowers of a greenish colour, growing in clusters of four or five together, and highly fragrant, especially at night. this renders them very attractive to the bees, which is referred to by virgil, in his beautiful description of the industrious corycian, thus translated by martyn:--"he therefore was the first to abound with pregnant bees, and plentiful swarms, and to squeeze the frothing honey from the combs. he had limes, and plenty of pines; and as many fruits as showed themselves in early blossom, so many did he gather ripe in early autumn."--_geo._ iv. . the seeds of the linden-tree rarely ripen in britain; this tree is, therefore, properly propagated by layers, which must be made in the nursery in autumn; in one year they become rooted so as to allow of being removed. it will grow well in any soil or situation, but if planted in a rich loamy earth, the rapidity of its growth will be almost incredible. the timber of the lime-tree is very serviceable, and much preferable to that of the willow, being stronger yet lighter. because of its colour, which is of a pale yellow or white, and its easy working, and not being liable to split, architects form with it their models for buildings. the most elegant use to which it is applied is for carving, not only for small figures, but large statues in basso and alto relievo, as that of the stoning of st. stephen, with the structures and elevations about it; the trophies, festoons, fruitages, friezes, capitals, pedestals, and other ornaments and decorations about the choir of st. paul's, executed by gibbons, and other carvings by the same artist at chatsworth, the seat of the duke of devonshire, and in trinity college library at cambridge. it is even supposed by some that the blocks employed by holbein, for wood engravings, were of this tree. dodsley says-- smooth linden best obeys the carver's chisel; best his curious work displays, in all its nicest touches. it is used by piano-forte makers for sounding-boards, and by cabinet-makers for a variety of purposes. the wood is also said to make excellent charcoal for gunpowder, even better than alder, and nearly as good as hazel, while baskets and cradles are made with the twigs of the lime; and of the smoother side of the bark, tablets for writing; for the ancient philyra is but our tilia, of which munting affirms he saw a book, made of the inner bark, written about years ago; such another was brought to the count of st. amant, governor of arras, , for which there were given ducats by the emperor. it contains a work of cicero, _de ordinanda republica et de inveniendis orationum exordiis_, which is still unprinted, and is now in the imperial library of vienna, after having been the greatest rarity in that of the celebrated cardinal mazarin, who died in . the smoothness of the lime-tree is thus alluded to by cowper in the _task_: here the gray smooth trunks of ash, or lime, or beech, distinctly shine within the twilight of their distant shades, there lost behind a rising ground, the wood seems sunk and shortened to its topmost boughs. this peculiarity of the bark has also been noticed by leigh hunt, in the story of _rimini_: places of nestling green for poets made, where, when the sunshine struck a yellow shade, the slender trunks to inward peeping sight, thronged, in dark pillars, up the gold-green light. the leaves of the lime-tree are also useful, and were esteemed so in common with those of the elm and poplar, both in a dried and green state for feeding cattle, by the romans. the other two indigenous or naturalized species of lime are-- . _the broad-leaved, t. grandifolia._ ehrh. flowers without nectaries; leaves roundish, cordate, pointed, serrate, downy, especially beneath, with hairy tufts at the origin of the veins; capsule turbinate, with prominent angles, downy.----_flowers_ in august: found in woods and hedges. . _the small-leaved, t. parvifolia._ ehrh. flowers without nectaries; leaves scarcely longer than their petioles, roundish, cordate, serrate, pointed, glaucous beneath, with hairy tufts at the origin of the veins, and scattered hairy blotches; capsule roundish, with slender ribs, thin, brittle, nearly smooth.----_a handsome_ tree, distinguished from the former by its much smaller leaves and flowers: germen densely woolly: flowers in august: grows in woods in essex, sussex, &c.: frequent. [illustration: the maple-tree.] the maple-tree. [_acer._[l] nat. ord.--_aceraceæ_; linn. _octan. monog._] [l] _generic characters._ calyx inferior, -cleft. petals , obovate. fruit consisting of capsules, united at the base, indehiscent and winged (a _samara_). trees, with simple leaves and flowers, often polygamous, in axillary corymbs or racemes. the common maple (_a. campestre_) is found throughout the middle states of europe, and in the north of asia. it is common in hedges and thickets in the middle and south of england, but is rare in the northern counties and in scotland, and is not indigenous in ireland. it is a rather small tree, of no great figure, so that it is seldom seen employed in any nobler service than in filling up a part in a hedge, in company with thorns and briers. in a few instances, where it is met with in a state of maturity, its form appears picturesque. it is not much unlike the oak, only it is more bushy, and its branches are closer and more compact. although it seldom attains a height of more than twenty feet, yet in favourable situations it rises to forty feet, as may be seen in eastwell park, kent, and in caversham park, near reading. the rev. william gilpin, from whose _remarks on forest scenery_ we have derived much interesting matter, is buried under the shade of a very large maple in the church-yard of boldre, in the new forest, hampshire. the botanical characters of _a. campestre_ are:--_leaves_ about one and a half inch in width, downy while young, as are their foot-stalks, obtusely five-lobed, here and there notched, sometimes quite entire. flowers green, in clusters that terminate the young shoots, hairy, erect, short, and somewhat corymbose. anthers hairy between the lobes. capsules downy, spreading horizontally, with smooth, oblong, reddish wings. bark corky, and full of fissures; that of the branches smooth. flowers in may and june. the ancients held this tree in great repute. ovid compares it to the lime: the maple not unlike the lime-tree grows, like her, her spreading arms abroad she throws, well clothed with leaves, but that the maple's bole is clad by nature with a ruder stole. [illustration: leaves, flowers, and fruit of _a. campestre_.] pliny speaks as highly of its knobs and its excrescences, called the _brusca_ and _mollusca_, as dr. plot does of those of the ash. the veins of these excrescences in the maple, pliny tells us, were so variegated that they exceeded the beauty of any other wood, even of the citron; though the citron was in such repute at rome, that cicero, who was neither rich nor expensive, was tempted to give , sesterces for a citron table. the brusca and mollusca, pliny adds, were rarely of a size sufficient for the larger species of furniture, but in all smaller cabinet-work they were inestimable. indeed, the whole tree was esteemed by the ancients on account of its variegated wood, especially the white, which is singularly beautiful. this is called the french maple, and grows in northern italy, between the po and the alps; the other has a curled grain, so curiously spotted, that it was called, from a near resemblance, the peacock's tail. so mad were people formerly in searching for the representations of birds, beasts, and other objects in the bruscum of this tree, that they spared no expense in procuring it. the timber is used for musical instruments, inlaying, &c., and is reckoned superior to most woods for turnery ware. our poets generally place a maple dish in every hermitage they speak of. methinks that to some vacant hermitage my feet would rather turn,--to some dry nook scooped out of living rock, and near a brook hurled down a mountain-cave, from stage to stage, yet tempering, for my sight, its bustling rage in the soft haven of a translucent pool; thence creeping under forest arches cool, fit haunt of shapes whose glorious equipage would elevate my dreams. a beechen bowl, a maple dish, my furniture should be; crisp, yellow leaves my bed; the hooting owl my night-watch; nor should e'er the crested fowl from thorp or vil his matins sound for me, tired of the world and all its industry. wordsworth, _eccl. sk._, . wilson and cowper also furnish the hermit's cell with a maple dish, while mason notes one that lacked this article, deemed so requisite for such a habitation: --many a visitant had sat within his hospitable cave; from his maple bowl, the unpolluted spring drunk fearless, and with him partook the bread that his pale lips most reverently had blessed, with words becoming such a holy man. his dwelling a recess in some rude rock, books, beads, and maple dish his meagre stock. --it seemed a hermit's cell, yet void of hour-glass, skull, and maple dish. there is an american species of the maple, _a. saccharinum_, which yields a considerable quantity of sap, from which the canadians make sugar of an average quality. the season for tapping the trees is in february, march, and april. from a pint to five gallons of syrup may be obtained from one tree in a day; though, when a frosty night is succeeded by a dry and brilliant day, the rush of sap is much greater. the yearly product of sugar from each tree is about three pounds. trees which grow in lone and moist places, afford a greater quantity of sap than those which occupy rising ground; but it is less rich in the saccharine principle. that of insulated trees, left standing in the middle of fields, or by the side of fences, is the best. it is also remarked, that in districts which have been cleared of other trees, and even of the less vigorous sugar maples, the product of the remainder is proportionally greater. the sap is converted into sugar by boiling, till reduced to the proper consistency for being poured into moulds. there are now cultivated in england more than twenty species of maple, brought from every quarter of the globe, several of which are likely to prove hardy. they are among the most ornamental trees of artificial plantations, on account of the great beauty and variety of their foliage, which changes to a fine scarlet, or rich yellow, in autumn. the larger growing species are often many years before they come to flower, and, after they do so, they sometimes flower several years before they mature seeds. [illustration: the mountain-ash, or rowan-tree.] the mountain-ash, or rowan-tree. [_pyrus._[m] nat. ord.--_rosaceæ_; linn.--_icosand. pentag._] [m] _generic characters._ calyx superior, monosepalous, -cleft. petals . styles to . fruit a _pome_, -celled, each cell -seeded, cartilaginous. the mountain-ash (_p. aucuparia_) is a native of most parts of europe, and western asia. it is also found in japan, and in the most northern parts of north america. in britain it is common in woods and hedges in mountainous, but rather moist situations, in every part of the island, and also in ireland. it forms an erect-stemmed tree, with an orbicular head. when fully grown, like every other description of _pyrus_, it assumes a somewhat formal character, but in a young state its branches are disposed in a more loose and graceful manner. in the scottish highlands, according to lauder, "it becomes a considerable tree. there, on some rocky mountain covered with dark pines and waving birch, which cast a solemn gloom over the lake below, a few mountain-ashes, joining in a clump, and mixing with them, have a fine effect. in summer the light green tint of their foliage, and in autumn the glowing berries which hang clustering upon them, contrast beautifully with the deeper green of the pines; and if they are happily blended, and not in too large a proportion, they add some of the most picturesque furniture with which the sides of those rugged mountains are invested." the stems of the mountain-ash are covered with a smooth gray bark, and the branches, while young, have a smooth purplish bark. the leaves are pinnate, downy beneath, serrated; panicle corymbose, with downy stalks; flowers numerous, white; fruit globose, scarlet, acid, and austere. flowers in may and june. [illustration: leaves, flowers, and fruit of _p. aucuparia_.] the mountain-ash is almost always raised from seed, which may be sown any time from november to february. the tree grows rapidly for the first three or four years, attaining, in five years, the height of from eight to nine feet; after which it begins to form a head, and, in ten years, will attain the height of twenty feet. as it grows rapidly, even in the most exposed situations, it forms an admirable nurse-tree to the oak, and other slow-growing species; the more so as it is incapable of being drawn up by culture above a certain height, thereafter quietly submitting to be over-topped and destroyed, by the shade and drip of those which it was planted to shelter and protect. it is frequently planted for coppice-wood, the shoots being well adapted for poles, and for hoops, and the bark being in demand by tanners. the wood is fine-grained, hard, capable of being stained any colour, and of taking a high polish. it is much used for the husbandman's tools, goads, &c., and the wheelwright values it on account of its being homogeneous, or all heart. if the tree be large and fully grown, it will yield planks, boards, and timber. next to the yew it was useful for bows--a circumstance we ought not to omit recording, if it were only to perpetuate the celebrity of our once english ancestors. it is named in a statute of henry viii. as being serviceable for this purpose. it makes excellent fuel; though evelyn says he never observed any use, except that the blossoms are of an agreeable scent, and the berries offer such temptation to the thrushes, that, as long as they last, you may be sure of their company. ale and beer brewed with these berries, being ripe, is esteemed an incomparable drink. in wales, this tree is reputed so sacred, that there is scarcely a church-yard without one of them growing therein. and formerly--and, we believe, in some parts even now--on a certain day in the year many persons religiously wore a cross made of the wood. keats, in his early poems, notices the loftiness of this tree, and its waving head: --he was withal a man of elegance and stature tall; so that the waving of his plumes would be high as the berries of a wild ash-tree, or the winged cap of mercury. in former days, when superstition prevailed, the mountain-ash was considered an object of great veneration. often at this day a stump of it is found in some old burying-place, or near the circle of a druid temple, whose rites it formerly invested with its sacred shade. it was supposed to be, and in some places still is esteemed to be, possessed of the property of driving away witches and evil spirits, and this property is recorded in one of the stanzas of a very ancient song, called the _laidley worm of spindleston heughs:_ their spells were vain, the hags return'd to the queen, in sorrowful mood, crying that witches have no pow'r where there is roan-tree wood. that the superstition respecting the virtues of this tree does exist in yorkshire at the present day, we know, and of the truth of the following anecdote, related by waterton, the author of the celebrated _wanderings_, we have not the slightest doubt; it is printed in one of his communications to the _magazine of natural history_:--"in the village of walton," says mr. waterton, "i have two small tenants; the name of one is james simpson, and that of the other sally holloway; and sally's stands a little before the house of simpson. some three months ago i overtook simpson on the turnpike road, and i asked him if his cow was getting better, for his son had told me that she had fallen sick. 'she's coming on surprisingly, sir,' quoth he; 'the last time the cow-doctor came to see her, "jem," said he to me, looking earnestly at old sally's house; "jem," said he, "mind and keep your cowhouse door shut before the sun goes down, otherwise i won't answer for what may happen to the cow." "ay, ay, my lad," said i, "i understand your meaning; but i am up to the old slut, and i defy her to do me any harm now!"' 'and what has old sally been doing to you, james?' said i. 'why, sir,' replied he, 'we all know too well what she can do. she has long owed me a grudge; and my cow, which was in very good health, fell sick immediately after sally had been seen to look in at the door of the cowhouse, just as night was coming on. the cow grew worse, and so i went and cut a bit of wiggin (mountain-ash), and i nailed the branches all up and down the cowhouse; and, sir, you may see them there if you will take the trouble to step in. i am a match for old sally now, and she can't do me any more harm, so long as the wiggin branches hang in the place where i have nailed them. my poor cow will get better in spite of her.' alas! thought i to myself, as the deluded man was finishing his story, how much there is yet to be done in our own country by the schoolmaster of the nineteenth century!" the mountain-ash, so esteemed among our northern neighbours as a protection against the evil designs of wizards and witches, is propagated by the parisians for a very different purpose. it is used as one of the principal charms for enticing the french belles into the public gardens, where they are permitted to use all the spells and witcheries of which they are mistresses; and certainly this tree, ornamented by its brilliant scarlet fruit, has a most enchanting appearance when lighted up with lamps, in the months of august and september. the varieties of the mountain-ash are:-- . _p. fructu luteo_, with yellow berries. . _p. foliis variegatis_, with variegated leaves. . _p. fastigiata_, with the branches upright and rigid. . _p. pinnatifida_, with deeply pinnatified leaves. [illustration: the black-fruited mulberry.] the black-fruited mulberry. [_morus nigra._[n] nat. ord.--_urticaceæ_; linn.--_monoec. tetra._] [n] _morus. flowers_ unisexual; _barren_ flowers disposed in a drooping, peduncled, axillary spike; _fertile_ flowers in ovate, erect spikes. _calyx_ of equal sepals, imbricate in estivation, expanded in flowering. _stamens_ . _ovary_ -celled, one including one pendulous ovate, the other devoid of any. _stigmas_ , long. seed pendulous. the black-fruited, or common mulberry, is generally supposed to be a native of persia, where there are still masses of it found in a wild state. it was first brought to england in , when some trees were planted at sion, near london, one of which still survives. about james i. recommended by royal edict, and by letter in his own writing to the lord-lieutenant of every county, the planting of mulberry-trees and the rearing of silk-worms, which are fed upon the leaves; also offering plants at three farthings each, and packets of mulberry seeds to all who would sow them. although the king failed to naturalize the production of silk in this country, he rendered the tree so fashionable, that there is scarcely an old garden or gentleman's seat throughout the country, which can be traced back to the seventeenth century, in which a mulberry-tree is not to be found. it was at this time that shakspeare planted the one in his garden at stratford-on-avon, which was known as "shakspeare's mulberry-tree," until it was felled in ; and that it was a black mulberry we learn from mr. drake, a native of stratford, who frequently in his youth ate of its fruit, some branches of which hung over the wall which bounded his father's garden.--drake's _shakspeare_, vol. ii., p. . in this country the black-fruited mulberry always assumes something of a dwarf or stunted character, spreading into thick arms or branches near the ground, and forming a very large head. the bark is rough and thick, and the leaves cordate, unequally serrated, and very rough. the fruit is large, of a dark purple, very wholesome, and agreeable to the palate. this tree is remarkable for the slowness of its growth, and for being one of the last trees to develope its leaves, though it is one of the first to ripen its fruit. it is also wonderfully tenacious of life: "the roots of one which had lain dormant in the ground for twenty-four years, being said, after the expiration of that time, to have sent up shoots." the black-fruited mulberry will grow in almost any soil or situation that is moderately dry, and in any climate not much colder than that of london. north of york it requires a wall, except in very favourable situations. it is very easily propagated by truncheons, or pieces of branches, eight or nine feet in length, planted half their depth in tolerably good soil, when they will bear fruit the following year. it is now rarely propagated by seeds, which seldom ripen in this country. no tree, perhaps, receives more benefit from the spade and the dunghill than the mulberry; it ought, therefore, to be frequently dug about the roots, and occasionally assisted with manure. the fruit is very much improved by the tree being trained as an espalier, within the reflection of a south wall. as a standard tree, whether for ornament or the production of well-sized fruit, the mulberry requires very little pruning, or attention of any kind. [illustration: leaves and fruits of _m. nigra_.] the black-fruited mulberry has been known from the earliest records of antiquity; it is mentioned four times in the bible, sam. v. , ; chron. xiv. , . it was dedicated by the greeks to minerva, probably because it was considered as the wisest of trees; and jupiter the protector was called mored. ovid has celebrated the black mulberry in the story of pyramus and thisbe; in which he relates that its fruit was snow-white until the commingled blood of the unfortunate lovers, who killed themselves under its shade, was absorbed by its roots, when dark in the rising tide the berries grew, and white no longer, took a sable hue; but brighter crimson springing from the root, shot through the black, and purpled all the fruit. cowley, in the fifth book of his poem on plants, has given a very plain and accurate description of the apparently cautious habits of this tree. he also thus alludes to the above fable: but cautiously the mulberry did move, and first the temper of the skies would prove; what sign the sun was in, and if she might give credit yet to winter's seeming flight: she dares not venture on his first retreat, nor trust her fruit or leaves to doubtful heat; her ready sap within her bark confines, till she of settled warmth has certain signs! then, making rich amends for the delay, with sudden haste she dons her green array; in two short months her purple fruit appears, and of two lovers slain the tincture wears. her fruit is rich, but she doth leaves produce of far surpassing worth, and noble use. * * * * * * * * they supply the ornaments of royal luxury: the beautiful they make more beauteous seem, the charming sex owe half their charms to them; to them effeminate men their vestments owe; how vain the pride which insect worms bestow! besides the black-fruited mulberry, there are four other species sufficiently hardy to bear our climate without protection; but it will be here sufficient to give a short account of the white-fruited (_m. alba_) as the next best known, and as the species whose leaves are used in feeding silk-worms. _m. alba_, is only found truly wild in the chinese province of seres, or serica. it was brought to constantinople about the beginning of the sixth century, and was introduced into england in , where it is still not very common. in the south of europe it is grown in plantations by itself, like willows and fruit trees; also in hedge-rows, and as hedges, as far north as frankfort-on-the-oder. when allowed to arrive at maturity, this tree is not less beautiful than the fairest elm, often reaching thirty or forty feet in height. when cultivated to furnish food for the silk-worms, the trees are never allowed to grow higher than three or four feet being cut down to the ground every year in the same manner as a raspberry plantation. in france and italy the leaves are gathered only once a-year; and when the trees are then wholly stripped, no injury arises from the operation; but if any leaves are left on the trees, they generally receive a severe shock. the specific characters of the white-fruited mulberry are--_leaves_ with a deep scallop at the base, and either cordate or ovate, undivided or lobed, serrated with unequal teeth, glossy or smoothish, the projecting portions on the two sides of the basal sinus unequal. the _fruit_ is seldom good for human food, but is excellent for poultry. it is a tree of rapid growth, attaining the height of twenty feet in five or six years, and plants cut down producing shoots four or five feet long in one season. [illustration: the british oak.] the british oak. [_quercus_.[o] nat. ord.--_amentiferæ_; linn.--_monoec. polya._] [o] _generic characters. barren_ flowers arranged in a loose, pendulous catkin, the perianth single, the stamens - . _fertile_ flower in a cupulate, scaly involucrum, with stigmas. _fruit_ an acorn, -celled, -seeded, seated in the cupulate, scaly involucrum. the oak, when living, monarch of the wood; the english oak, when dead, commands the flood. churchill. on our entrance into the woodland, the eye first greets the majestic oak, which is represented as holding the same rank among the plants of the temperate regions throughout the world, that the lion does among quadrupeds, and the eagle among birds; that is to say, it is the emblem of grandeur, strength, and duration; of force that resists, as the lion is of force that acts. in short, its bulk, its longevity, and the extraordinary strength and durability of its timber, constitute it the king of forest trees. these and other characteristics of the oak are graphically expressed by the roman poet:-- jove's own tree, that holds the woods in awful sovereignty, requires a depth of loading in the ground, and next the lower skies a bed profound; high as his topmast boughs to heaven ascend, so low his roots to hell's dominions tend. therefore, nor winds, nor winter's rage o'erthrows his bulky body, but unmoved he grows. for length of ages lasts his happy reign, and lives of mortal men contend in vain. full in the midst of his own strength he stands, stretching his brawny arms and leafy hands; his shade protects the plains, his head the hills commands. _virgil's georgics_, ii. "the oak grows naturally in the middle and south of europe; in the north of africa; and, in asia, in natolia, the himalayas, cochin-china, and japan, in america it abounds throughout the greater part of the northern continent, more especially in the united states. in europe, the oak has been, and is, more particularly abundant in britain, france, spain, and italy. in britain two species only are indigenous; in france there are four or five sorts; and in spain, italy, and greece, six or seven sorts. the number of sorts described by botanists as species, and as natives of europe, exceed ; and as natives of north america, . the latter are all comprised between ° and ° n. lat. in europe, asia, and africa, oaks are found from ° to ° n. lat., and even in the torrid zone, in situations rendered temperate by their elevation." in britain, the oak is everywhere indigenous, the two species being generally found growing together in a wild state. it, however, requires a soil more or less alluvial or loamy to attain its full size, and to bring its timber to perfection; these being seldom attained in the highlands of scotland, where it is still abundant in an indigenous state. the two species, _q. robur_, or _pedunculata_, and _q. sessiliflora_, are readily distinguished from each other by the first having the leaves on short stalks, and the acorns on long stalks, the other by the leaves being long-stalked, and the acorns short-stalked. in full-grown trees of the two species there is little or no difference either in magnitude and general appearance, or in quality of timber. _q. robur_ being the most abundant, is called the common oak. its twigs are smooth and grayish-brown: leaves deciduous, sessile, of a thin texture, obovate-oblong, serrated, with the lobes entire, and nearly blunt, diminishing towards the base; a little blistered, and scarcely glossy, with some down occasionally on the under side: acorns oblong, obtuse, much longer than the hemispherical scaly cup, placed on long peduncles. the distinguishing characters or the less common species, _q. sessiliflora_, the sessile-fruited oak, are, leaves on longish foot-stalks, deciduous, smooth, and oblong, the sinuses opposite, and rather acute, the fruit sessile, oblong. in other respects it so closely resembles the other species, that of the numerous trees recorded for their enormous dimensions, age, and other peculiarities, the species is seldom particularized. loudon believed that no important or constant difference exists between the mode of growth of the two kinds, individuals of both being found equally pyramidal, fastigiate, or orbicular. he considered, however, that _q. sessiliflora_ could "readily be distinguished even at a distance, by the less tufted appearance, and generally palish green of its foliage in summer, and in winter by its less tortuous spray and branches, by its light coloured bark, by its large buds, and by its frequently retaining its leaves after they had withered, till the following spring." [illustration: leaves, flowers, and fruit of _q. robur_.] the oak, says mr. gilpin, is confessedly the most picturesque tree in itself, and the most accommodating in composition. it refuses no subject, either in natural or artificial landscape; it is suited to the grandest, and may with propriety be introduced into the most pastoral. it adds new dignity to the ruined tower and gothic arch; it throws its arms with propriety over the mantling pool, and may be happily introduced into the humblest scene. imperial oak, a cottage in thy shade finds safety, or a monarch in thy arms: respectful generations see thee spread, careless of centuries, even in decay majestic: thy far-shadowing boughs contend with time: the obsequious winds shall visit thee, to scatter round the children of thy age, and eternize thy latest benefits. w. tighe. the longevity of the oak is supposed to extend beyond that of any other tree. it is through age that the oak acquires its greatest beauty, which often continues increasing, even into decay, if any proportion exists between the stem and the branches. when the branches rot away, and the trunk is left alone, the tree is in its decrepitude, the last stage of life, and all the beauty is gone. spenser has given us a good picture of an oak just verging towards its last stage of decay: --a huge oak, dry and dead, still clad with reliques of its trophies old, lifting to heaven its aged, hoary head, whose foot on earth hath got but feeble hold, and, half disbowelled, stands above the ground with wreathed roots, and naked arms, and trunk all rotten and unsound. he also compares a gray-headed old man to an aged oak-tree, covered with frost: there they do find that goodly aged sire, with snowy locks adown his shoulders shed; as hoary frost with spangles doth attire the mossy branches of an oak half dead. montgomery, too, does not forget to observe the longevity of the sturdy oak: as some triumphal oak, whose boughs have spread their changing foliage through a thousand years, bows to the rushing wind its glorious head. as we before noted, the beauty of almost every species of tree increases after its prime; but unless it hath the good fortune to stand in some place of difficult access, or under the protection of some patron whose mansion it adorns, we rarely see it in that grandeur and dignity which it would acquire by age. some of the noblest oaks in england were, at least formerly, found in sussex. they required sometimes a score of oxen to draw them, and were carried on a sort of wain, which in that deep country is expressly called a _tugg_. it was not uncommon for it to spend two or three years in performing its journey to the royal dock-yard at chatham. one tugg carried the load only a little way, and left it for another tugg to take up. if the rains set in, it stirred no more that year; and frequently no part of the next summer was dry enough for the tugg to proceed: so that the timber was generally pretty well seasoned before it arrived at its destination. in this fallen state alone, it is true, the tree becomes the basis of england's glory, though we regret its fall. therefore, we must not repine, but address the children of the wood as the gallant oak, on his removal from the forest, is said to have addressed the scion by his side: where thy great grandsire spread his awful shade, a holy druid mystic circles made; myself a sapling when thy grandsire bore intrepid edward to the gallic shore. me, now my country calls: adieu, my son! and, as the circling years in order run, may'st thou renew the forest's boast and pride, victorious in some future contest ride. we are sure that all who can appreciate beautiful poetry will be gratified by the following pathetic lamentation of the elegant vanier:-- --no greater beauty can adorn the hamlet, than a grove of ancient oak. ah! how unlike their sires of elder times the sons of gallia now! they, in each tree dreading some unknown power, dared not to lift an axe. though scant of soil, they rather sought for distant herbage, than molest their groves. now all is spoil and violence. where now exists an oak, whose venerable stem has seen three centuries? unless some steep, to human footstep inaccessible, defend a favour'd plant. now, if some sire leave to his heir a forest scene, that heir, with graceless hands, hews down each awful trunk, worthy of druid reverence. there he rears a paltry copse, destined, each twentieth year, to blaze inglorious on the hearth. hence woods, which shelter'd once the stag and grisly boar, scarce to the timorous hare sure refuge lend. farewell each rural virtue, with the love of rural scenes! sage contemplation wings her flight; no more from burning suns she seeks a cool retreat. no more the poet sings, amid re-echoing groves, his moral lay. as it is thus a general complaint that noble trees are rarely to be found, we must seek them where we can, and consider them, when found, as matters of curiosity, and pay them a due respect. and yet, we should suppose, they are not so frequently found here in a state of nature as in more uncultivated countries. in the forests of america, and other scenes, they have filled the plains from the beginning of time; and where they grow so close, and cover the ground with so impervious a shade that even a weed can scarce rise beneath them, the single tree is lost. unless it stand on the outskirt of the wood, it is circumscribed, and has not room to expand its vast limbs as nature directs. when we wish, therefore, to find the most sublime sylvan character, the oak, the elm, or the ash, in perfection, we must not look for it in close, thick woods, but standing single, independent of all connections, as we sometimes find it in our own forests, though oftener in better protected places, shooting its head wildly into the clouds, spreading its arms towards every wind of heaven: --the oak thrives by the rude concussion of the storm. he seems indignant, and to feel the impression of the blast with proud disdain; but, deeply earth'd, the unconscious monarch owes his firm stability to what he scorns: more fix'd below, the more disturb'd above. again, we are told that the foliage of the oak is tenacious of the stem, and firm against the wind. the shade of the oak-tree has been a favourite theme with british poets. thomson, speaking of hagley park, the seat of his friend littleton, calls it the british tempe, and describes him as courting the muse beneath the shade of solemn oaks: --there, along the dale with woods o'erhung, and shagged with mossy rocks, whence on each hand the gushing waters play, and down the rough cascade white dashing fall, or gleam in lengthened vista through the trees, you silent steal; or sit beneath the shade of solemn oaks, that tuft the swelling mounts, thrown graceful round by nature's careless hand, and pensive listens to the various voice of rural peace: the herds, the flocks, the birds, the hollow whispering breeze, the plaint of rills, that, purling down amid the twisted roots which creep around, their dewy murmurs shake on the soothed ear. wordsworth also mentions the fine broad shade of the spreading oak: beneath that large old oak, which near their door stood, and, from its enormous breadth of shade, chosen for the shearer's covert from the sun, thence, in our rustic dialect, was called the clipping tree: a name which yet it bears. the oaks of chaucer are particularly celebrated, as the trees under which --the laughing sage caroll'd his moral song. they grew in the park at donnington castle, near newbury, where chaucer spent his latter life in studious retirement. the largest of these trees was the king's oak, and carried an erect stem of fifty feet before it broke into branches, and was cut into a beam five feet square. the next in size was called the queen's oak, and survived the calamities of the civil wars in king charles's time, though donnington castle and the country around it were so often the scenes of action and desolation. its branches were very curious: they pushed out from the stem in several uncommon directions, imitating the horns of a ram, rather than the branches of an oak. when it was felled, it yielded a beam forty feet long, without knot or blemish, perfectly straight, four feet square at the butt end, and near a yard at the top. the third of these oaks was called chaucer's, of which we have no particulars; in general only we are told, that it was a noble tree, though inferior to either of the others. not one of them, we should suppose, from this account, to be a tree of picturesque beauty. a straight stem, of forty or fifty feet, let its head be what it will, can hardly produce a picturesque form. close by the gate of the water-walk at magdalen college, oxford, grew an oak, which, perhaps, stood there a sapling when alfred the great founded the university. this period only includes a space of nine hundred years, which is no great age for an oak. it is a difficult matter indeed, to ascertain the age of a tree. the age of a castle, or abbey, is an object of history: even a common house is recorded by the family that built it. all these objects arrive at maturity in their youth, if we may so speak; but the tree, gradually completing its growth, is not worth recording in the early part of its existence. it is then only a common tree; and afterwards, when it becomes remarkable for its age, all memory of its youth is lost. this tree, however, can almost produce historical evidence for the age assigned to it. about five hundred years after the time of alfred, william of wainfleet, dr. stukely tells us, expressly ordered his college to be founded near the great oak; and an oak could not, we think, be less than five hundred years of age to merit that title, together with the honour of fixing the site of a college. when the magnificence of cardinal wolsey erected that handsome tower which is so ornamental to the whole building, this tree might probably be in the meridian of its glory, or rather, perhaps, it had attained a green old age. but it must have been manifestly in its decline at that memorable period when the tyranny of james gave the fellows of magdalen so noble an opportunity of withstanding bigotry and superstition. it was afterwards much injured in charles ii.'s time, when the present walks were laid out. the roots were disturbed, and from that period it rapidly declined, and became reduced by degrees to little more than a mere trunk. the faithful records of history have handed down its ancient dimensions. through a space of sixteen yards on every side from its trunk, it once flung its boughs; and then its magnificent pavilion could have sheltered with ease three thousand men; though, in its decayed state, it could for many years do little more than shelter some luckless individual, whom the drenching shower had overtaken in his evening walk. in the summer of the year , this magnificent ruin fell to the ground, alarming the college with its rushing sound. it then appeared how precariously it had stood for many years. its grand tap-root was decayed, and it had hold of the earth only by two or three roots, of which none was more than a couple of inches in diameter. from a part of its ruin a chair has been made for the president of the college, which will long continue its memory. near worksop grew an oak, which, in respect both to its own dignity and the dignity of its situation, deserves honourable mention. in point of grandeur, few trees equalled it. it overspread a space of ninety feet from the extremities of its opposite boughs. these dimensions will produce an area capable, on mathematical calculation, of covering a squadron of two hundred and thirty-five horse. the dignity of its station was equal to the dignity of the tree itself. it stood on a point where yorkshire, nottinghamshire, and derbyshire unite, and spread its shade over a portion of each. from the honourable station of thus fixing the boundaries of three large counties, it was equally respected through the domains of them all, and was known far and wide by the honourable distinction of the shire-oak, by which appellation it was marked among cities, towns, and rivers, in all the larger maps of england. gilpin gives us a singular account of an oak-tree that formerly stood in the new forest, hampshire, against which, according to tradition, the arrow of sir walter tyrrell glanced which killed william rufus. according to leland, and camden from him, this tree stood at a place called througham, where a chapel was erected to the king's memory. but there is now not any place of that name in the new forest, nor the remains or remembrance of any chapel. it is, however, conjectured that througham might be what is at present called fritham, where the tradition of the country seems to have fixed the spot with more credibility than the tree. it is probable that the chapel was only some little temporary oratory, which, having never been endowed, might very soon fall into decay: but the tree, we may suppose, would be noticed at the time by everybody who lived near it, and by strangers who came to see it; and it is as likely that it never could be forgotten afterwards. those who regard a tree as an insufficient record of an event so many centuries back, may be reminded that seven hundred years (and it is little more than that since the death of rufus) is no extraordinary period in the existence of an oak. about one hundred years ago, however, this tree had become so decayed and mutilated, that it is probable the spot would have been completely forgotten if some other memorial had not been raised. before the stump, therefore, was eradicated, lord delaware, who occupied one of the neighbouring lodges, caused a triangular stone to be erected, on the three sides of which the following inscriptions are engraved:-- i. here stood the oak-tree, on which an arrow, shot by sir walter tyrrel at a stag, glanced, and struck king william ii., surnamed rufus, in the breast, of which stroke he instantly died, on the d of august, . ii. king william ii., being thus slain, was laid on a cart belonging to one purkess, and drawn from hence to winchester, and buried in the cathedral church of that city. iii. that the spot where an event so memorable happened, might not hereafter be unknown, this stone was set up by john lord delaware, who has seen the tree growing in this place. lord delaware here asserts plainly that he had seen the oak-tree; and as he resided much near the place, there is reason to believe that he had other grounds for the assertion besides the mere tradition of the country. that matter, however, rests on his authority. gilpin likewise gives us the following account of the cadenham oak, in the new forest, which was remarkable for putting forth its buds in the depth of winter. cadenham is a village about three miles from lyndhurst, on the road to salisbury:-- "having often heard of this oak, i took a ride to see it on december , . it was pointed out to me among several other oaks, surrounded by a little forest stream, winding round a knoll on which they stood. it is a tall straight plant, of no great age, and apparently vigorous, except that its top has been injured, from which several branches issue in the form of pollard shoots. it was entirely bare of leaves, as far as i could discern, when i saw it, and undistinguishable from the other oaks in its neighbourhood, except that its bark seemed rather smoother, occasioned, i apprehended, only by frequent climbing. "having had the account of its early budding confirmed on the spot, i engaged one michael lawrence, who kept the white hart, a small alehouse in the neighbourhood, to send me some of the leaves to vicar's hill, as soon as they should appear. the man, who had not the least doubt about the matter, kept his word, and sent me several twigs on the morning of january , , a few hours after they had been gathered. the leaves were fairly expanded, and about an inch in length. from some of the buds two leaves had unsheathed themselves, but in general only one. "through what power in nature this strange premature vegetation is occasioned, i believe no naturalist can explain. i sent some of the leaves to one of the ablest botanists we have, mr. lightfoot, author of the _flora scotica_, and was in hopes of hearing something satisfactory on the subject. but he is one of those philosophers who are not ashamed of ignorance where attempts at knowledge are mere conjecture. he assured me he neither could account for it in any way, nor did he know of any other instance of premature vegetation, except the glastonbury thorn. the philosophers of the forest, in the meantime, account for the thing at once, through the influence of old christmas day, universally believing that the oak buds on that day, and that only. the same opinion is held with regard to the glastonbury thorn, by the common people of the west of england. but, without doubt, the vegetation there is gradual, and forwarded or retarded by the mildness or severity of the weather. one of its progeny, which grew in the gardens of the duchess dowager of portland, at bulstrode, had its flower-buds perfectly formed so early as december , , which is fifteen days earlier than it ought to flower, according to the vulgar prejudice. "this early spring, however, of the cadenham oak, is of very short duration. the buds, after unfolding themselves, make no farther progress, but immediately shrink from the season and die. the tree continues torpid, like other deciduous trees, during the remainder of the winter, and vegetates again in the spring, at the usual season. i have seen it in full leaf in the middle of summer, when it appeared, both in its form and foliage, exactly like other oaks. "i have been informed that another tree, with the same property of early vegetation, has lately been found near the spot where rufus's monument stands. if this be the case, it seems in some degree to authenticate the account which camden gives us of the scene of that prince's death; for he speaks of the premature vegetation of that very tree on which the arrow of tyrrel glanced, and the tree i now speak of, if it really exist, though i have no sufficient authority for it, might have been a descendant of the old oak, and hence inherited its virtues. "it is very probable, however, there may be other oaks in the forest which may likewise have the property of early vegetation. i have heard it often suspected, that people gather buds from other trees and carry them, on old christmas day, to the oak at cadenham, from whence they pretend to pluck them; for that tree is in such repute, and resorted to annually by so many visitants, that i think it could not easily supply all its votaries without some foreign contributions. some have accounted for this phenomenon by supposing that leaves have been preserved over the year by being steeped in vinegar. but i am well satisfied this is not the case. mr. lightfoot, to whom i sent the leaves, had no such suspicion." * * * * * in the _salisbury journal_, january , , the following paragraph appeared:-- "in consequence of a report that has prevailed in this country for upwards of two centuries, and which by many has been almost considered as a matter of faith, that the oak at cadenham, in the new forest, shoots forth leaves on every old christmas day, and that no leaf is ever to be seen on it, either before or after that day, during the winter; a lady, who is now on a visit in this city, and who is attentively curious in every thing relative to art or nature, made a journey to cadenham on monday, the d instant, purposely to inquire, on the spot, about the production of this famous tree. on her arrival near it, the usual guide was ready to attend her; but on his being desired to climb the oak, and to search whether there were any leaves then on it, he said it would be to no purpose, but that if she would come on the wednesday following (christmas day), she might certainly see thousands. however, he was prevailed on to ascend, and on the first branch which he gathered appeared several fair new leaves, fresh sprouted from the buds, and nearly an inch and a half in length. it may be imagined that the guide was more amazed at this premature production than the lady; for so strong was his belief in the truth of the whole tradition, that he would have pledged his life that not a leaf was to have been discovered on any part of the tree before the usual hour. "but though the superstitious part of this ancient legend is hence confuted, yet it must be allowed there is something very uncommon and curious in an oak constantly shooting forth leaves at this unseasonable time of the year, and that the cause of it well deserves the philosophical attention of the botanist. in some years there is no doubt that this oak may show its first leaves on the christmas morning, as probably as on a few days before; and this perhaps was the case in the last year, when a gentleman of this neighbourhood, a nice and critical observer, strictly examined the branches, not only on the christmas morn, but also on the day prior to it. on the first day not a leaf was to be found, but on the following every branch had its complement, though they were then but just shooting from the buds, none of them being more than a quarter of an inch long. the latter part of the story may easily be credited--that no leaves are to be seen on it after christmas day--as large parties yearly assemble about the oak on that morning, and regularly strip every appearance of a leaf from it." at elderslie, near paisley, upon a little knoll, there stood, near the end of the last century, the ruins of an oak, which was supposed to be the largest tree that ever grew in scotland. the trunk was then wholly decayed and hollow, but it was evident, from what remained, that its diameter could not have been less than eleven or twelve feet. as to its age, we can only conjecture, from some circumstances, that it is most likely a tree of great antiquity. the little knoll whereon it stands is surrounded by a swamp, over which a causeway leads to the tree, or rather to a circle which seems to have run round it. the vestiges of this circle, as well as the causeway, bear a plain resemblance to those works which are commonly attributed to the druids, so that this tree was probably a scene of worship consecrated by these heathen priests. but the credit of it does not depend on the dubious vestiges of druid antiquity. in a latter scene of greater importance (if tradition ever be the vehicle of truth) it bore a large share. when the illustrious and renowned hero, william wallace, roused the spirit of the scotch nation to oppose the tyranny of edward, he frequently chose the solitude of torwood as a place of rendezvous for his army. there he concealed his numbers and his designs, sallying out suddenly on the enemy's garrisons, and retreating as suddenly when he feared to be overpowered. while his army lay in those woods, the oak which we are now commemorating was commonly his head-quarters. there the hero generally slept, its hollow trunk being sufficiently capacious, not only to afford shelter to himself, but also to many of his followers. this tree has ever since been known by the name of wallace tree. in the enclosure known as the little park, in windsor forest, there is still standing the supposed oak immortalized by shakspeare as the scene of hern the hunter's exploits:-- --an old tale goes, that hern the hunter, sometime a keeper here in windsor forest, doth all the winter time, at still of midnight, walk round about this oak, with ragged horns; and then he blasts the trees, destroys the cattle, makes the milch cow yield blood, and shakes a chain in hideous, dreadful manner. _merry wives_, iv. . this tree measures about twenty-four feet in circumference, and is yet vigorous, which somewhat injures its historical credit. for though it is evidently a tree advanced in years, and might well have existed in the time of elizabeth, it seems too strong and vigorous to have been a proper tree, in that age, for hern the hunter to have danced round. fairies, elves, and that generation of people, are universally supposed to select the most ancient and venerable trees to gambol under; and the poet who should describe them dancing under a sapling, would show very little acquaintance with his subject. that this tree could not be called a venerable tree two centuries ago is evident, because it can scarcely assume that character even now. and yet an oak, in a soil it likes, will continue so many years in a vigorous state, that we must not lay more stress on this argument than it will fairly bear. it may be added, however, in its favour, that a pit, or ditch, is still shown near the tree, as shakspeare describes it, which may have been preserved with the same veneration as the tree itself. there is an oak in the grounds of sir gerrard van neck, at heveningham, in suffolk, which carries us likewise into the times of elizabeth. but this tree brings its evidence with it--evidence which, if necessary, might carry it into the saxon times. it is now falling fast into the decline of years, and every year robs it more of its honours. but its trunk, which is thirty-five feet in circumference, still retains its grandeur, though the ornaments of its boughs and foliage are much reduced. but the grandeur of the trunk consists only in appearance; it is a mere shell. in queen elizabeth's time it was hollow, and from this circumstance the tree derives the honour of being handed down to posterity. that princess, who from her earliest years loved masculine amusements, used often, it is said, in her youth, to take her stand in this tree and shoot the deer as they passed. from that time it has been known by the name of queen elizabeth's oak. the swilcar oak, in the forest of needwood, in staffordshire, was measured about , and found to be nineteen feet in girth at six feet from the ground; and when measured in it was twenty-one feet four inches and a half in circumference at the same height from the ground. this proves that the tree is slowly increasing, having gained two feet four inches in fifty-four years, and yet it is known, by historical documents, to be six hundred years old. though in decay it is still a fine, shapely, characteristic tree. it stands in an open lawn, surrounded by extensive woods. in a poem entitled _needwood forest_ the author thus addresses it:-- hail! stately oak, whose wrinkled trunk hath stood, age after age, the sovereign of the wood: you, who have seen a thousand springs unfold their ravelled buds, and dip their flowers in gold-- ten thousand times yon moon relight her horn, and that bright eye of evening gild the morn,-- * * * * * yes, stately oak, thy leaf-wrapped head sublime ere long must perish in the wrecks of time; should, o'er thy brow, the thunders harmless break, and thy firm roots in vain the whirlwinds shake, yet must thou fall. thy withering glories sunk, arm after arm shall leave thy mouldering trunk. the cowthorpe, or coltsthorpe oak, near wetherby, in yorkshire, had its principal branch rent off by a storm in the year , when it was accurately measured, and found to contain more than five tons of timber. previous to this mutilation, its branches are said to have extended over half an acre of ground. at three feet from the ground, this most gigantic of all trees is sixteen yards, or forty-eight feet, and close to the root it is twenty-six yards, or seventy-eight feet, in girth! its principal limb projects forty-eight feet from the trunk. it is still in wonderful preservation, though its foliage is thin. it has been called the king of the british sylva, and, indeed, it deserves the title, and proud we may be of such a king. there were two trees in yardley forest, called gog and magog, which demand our notice on account of one of them having been celebrated by the muse of cowper. the scenery in which they stood is hallowed by his shade. he was fond of indulging his melancholy minstrel musings among the woodland scenery there. gog, the larger of these two oaks, measured thirty-eight feet round at the roots, and was twenty-eight feet in circumference at three feet from the ground. it was fifty-eight feet high, and contained one thousand six hundred and sixty-eight feet seven inches of solid timber. magog was only forty-nine feet in height; but its circumference was fifty-four feet four inches at the ground, and thirty-one feet three at three feet high. these two trees were near each other, and although a good deal bared at the top by age, they were very picturesque. we shall quote here the whole of cowper's address to the "yardley oak"; from which it would appear that only one of them then remained:-- survivor sole, and hardly such, of all that once lived here, thy brethren, at my birth (since which i number threescore winters pass'd) a shatter'd veteran, hollow-trunk'd perhaps, as now, and with excoriate forks deform, relics of ages! could a mind, imbued with truth from heaven, created thing adore, i might with reverence kneel, and worship thee. it seems idolatry with some excuse, when our forefather druids in their oaks imagined sanctity. the conscience, yet unpurified by an authentic act of amnesty, the meed of blood divine, loved not the light; but, gloomy, into gloom of thickest shades, like adam after taste of fruit proscribed, as to a refuge, fled. thou wast a bauble once; a cup and ball, which babes might play with; and the thievish jay, seeking her food, with ease might have purloin'd the auburn nut that held thee, swallowing down thy yet close-folded latitude of boughs, and all thine embryo vastness at a gulp. but fate thy growth decreed; autumnal rains beneath thy parent tree mellow'd the soil design'd thy cradle; and a skipping deer, with pointed hoof dibbling the glebe, prepared the soft receptacle, in which, secure, thy rudiments should sleep the winter through. so fancy dreams. disprove it, if ye can, ye reasoners broad awake, whose busy search of argument, employ'd too oft amiss, sifts half the pleasure of sweet life away i thou fell'st mature; and in the loamy clod, swelling with vegetative force instinct, didst burst thine egg, as theirs the fabled twins, now stars; two lobes, protruding, pair'd exact; a leaf succeeded, and another leaf; and, all the elements thy puny growth fostering propitious, thou becamest a twig. who lived, when thou wast such? o, couldst thou speak, as in dodona once thy kindred trees oracular, i would not curious ask the future, best unknown, but at thy mouth inquisitive, the less ambiguous past. by thee i might correct, erroneous oft, the clock of history, facts and events timing more punctual, unrecorded facts recovering, and misstated setting right-- desperate attempt, till trees shall speak again! time made thee what thou wast, king of the woods; and time hath made thee what thou art--a cave for owls to roost in. once thy spreading boughs o'erhung the champaign; and the numerous flocks that grazed it, stood beneath that ample cope uncrowded, yet safe-sheltered from the storm. no flock frequents thee now. thou hast outlived thy popularity, and art become (unless verse rescue thee awhile) a thing forgotten, as the foliage of thy youth. while thus through all the stages thou hast push'd of treeship--first a seedling hid in grass; then twig; then sapling; and, as century roll'd slow after century, a giant bulk of girth enormous, with moss-cushioned root upheaved above the soil, and sides emboss'd with prominent wens globose--till at the last the rottenness, which time is charged to inflict on other mighty ones, found also thee. what exhibitions various hath the world witness'd of mutability in all that we account most durable below! change is the diet on which all subsist, created changeable, and change at last destroys them. skies uncertain now the heat transmitting cloudless, and the solar beam now quenching in a boundless sea of clouds-- calm and alternate storm, moisture and drought, invigorate by turns the springs of life in all that live--plant, animal, and man-- and in conclusion mar them. nature's threads, fine passing thought, ev'n in her coarsest works, delight in agitation, yet sustain the force that agitates, not unimpaired; but, worn by frequent impulse, to the cause of their best tone their dissolution owe. thought cannot spend itself, comparing still the great and little of thy lot, thy growth from almost nullity into a state of matchless grandeur, and declension thence, slow, into such magnificent decay. time was, when, settling on thy leaf, a fly could shake thee to the root--and time has been when tempests could not. at thy firmest age thou hadst within thy bole solid contents, that might have ribb'd the sides and plank'd the deck of some flagg'd admiral; and tortuous arms, the shipwright's darling treasure, didst present to the four-quarter'd winds, robust and bold, warp'd into tough knee-timber,[ ] many a load! but the axe spared thee. in those thriftier days oaks fell not, hewn by thousands, to supply the bottomless demands of contest, waged for senatorial honours. thus to time the task was left to whittle thee away with his sly scythe, whose ever-nibbling edge, noiseless, an atom, and an atom more, disjoining from the rest, has, unobserved, achieved a labour, which had far and wide, by man perform'd, made all the forest ring. embowell'd now, and of thy ancient self possessing naught but the scoop'd rind, that seems a huge throat, calling to the clouds for drink, which it would give in rivulets to thy root-- thou temptest none, but rather much forbidst the feller's toil, which thou couldst ill requite. yet is thy root sincere, sound as the rock, a quarry of stout spurs and knotted fangs, which, crook'd into a thousand whimsies, clasp the stubborn soil, and hold thee still erect. so stands a kingdom, whose foundation yet fails not, in virtue and in wisdom laid; though all the superstructure, by the tooth pulverised of venality, a shell stands now, and semblance only of itself! thine arms have left thee. winds have rent them off long since, and rovers of the forest wild with bow and shaft have burn'd them. some have left a splinter'd stump, bleach'd to a snowy white; and some, memorial none where once they grew. tet life still lingers in thee, and puts forth proof not contemptible of what she can, even where death predominates. the spring finds thee not less alive to her sweet force, than yonder upstarts of the neighbouring wood, so much thy juniors, who their birth received half a millennium since the date of thine. but since, although well qualified by age to teach, no spirit dwells in thee, nor voice may be expected from thee, seated here on thy distorted root, with hearers none, or prompter, save the scene--i will perform, myself the oracle, and will discourse in my own ear such matter as i may. one man alone, the father of us all, drew not his life from woman; never gazed, with mute unconsciousness of what he saw, on all around him; learn'd not by degrees, nor owed articulation to his ear; but, moulded by his maker into man at once, upstood intelligent, survey'd all creatures, with precision understood their purport, uses, properties, assign'd to each his name significant, and, fill'd with love and wisdom, render'd back to heaven, in praise harmonious, the first air he drew. he was excused the penalties of dull minority. no tutor charged his hand with the thought-tracing quill, or task'd his mind with problems. history, not wanted yet, lean'd on her elbow, watching time, whose course eventful should supply her with a theme. [ ] knee-timber is found in the crooked arms of oak, which, by reason of their distortion, are easily adjusted to the angle formed where the deck and the ship's sides meet. montgomery inscribed the following lines under a drawing of the yardley oak, celebrated in the preceding quotation from cowper:-- the sole survivor of a race of giant oaks, where once the wood bang with the battle or the chase, in stern and lonely grandeur stood. from age to age it slowly spread its gradual boughs to sun and wind; from age to age its noble head as slowly wither'd and declined. a thousand years are like a day, when fled;--no longer known than seen; this tree was doom'd to pass away, and be as if it _ne'er_ had been;-- but mournful cowper, wandering nigh, for rest beneath its shadow came, when, lo! the voice of days gone by ascended from its hollow frame. o that the poet had reveal'd the words of those prophetic strains, ere death the eternal mystery seal'd ----yet in his song the oak remains. and fresh in undecaying prime, _there_ may it live, beyond the power of storm and earthquake, man and time, till nature's conflagration-hour. there are various opinions as to the best mode of rearing oak-trees; we shall here state that which evelyn considered the best. in raising oak-trees from acorns sown in the seminary, a proper situation should be prepared by the time the seeds are ripe. the soil should be loamy, fresh, and in good heart. this should be well prepared by digging, breaking the clods, clearing it of weeds, stones, &c. the acorns should be collected from the best trees; and if allowed to remain until they fall off, they will germinate the better. sow the acorns in beds about three inches asunder, press them down gently with the spade, and rake the earth over the acorns until it is raised about two inches above them. the plants will not appear in less than two months; and here they may be allowed to remain for two years at least, without any further care than keeping them free from weeds, and occasionally refreshing them with water in dry weather. when the plants are two years old they will be of a proper size for planting out, and the best way to do this is by trenching or ploughing as deeply as the soil will allow. the sets should be planted about the end of october. this operation should be commenced by striking the plants carefully out of the seed-bed, shortening the tap-root, and topping off part of the side shoots, that there may be an equal degree of strength in the stem and the root. after planting they should be well protected from cattle, and, if possible, from hares and rabbits. they must also be kept clear from weeds. mr. evelyn was of opinion, that oaks thus raised will yield the best timber. and dr. hunter remarks, that the extensive plantations which were made towards the end of the last century, were made more with a view to shade and ornament than to the propagation of good timber; and with this object the owners planted their trees generally too old, so that many of the woods, when they come to be felled, will greatly disappoint the expectations of the purchaser. oaks are about eighteen years old before they yield any fruit, a peculiarity which seems to indicate the great longevity of the tree; for "soon ripe and soon rotten," is an adage that holds generally throughout the organic world. the oak requires sixty or seventy years to attain a considerable size; but it will go on increasing and knowing no decay for centuries, and live for more than years. in reference to the durability of oak timber when used in ship-building, the following statement has been elicited by a select committee appointed to inquire into the cause of the increased number of shipwrecks. the sub-committee addressed a letter to the lords of the admiralty, who consulted the officers of the principal dock-yards, and returned the following abstract account of the officers of the yards' opinion on the durability of oak timber:-- ---------------+-----------------------+------------+----------+ | when used for floors | when used | | | and lower futtocks |for planking|when used | oak | only. | above | for the | timber. +------------+----------+ light | upper | | in |afore and | watermark. | timbers. | | midships. | abaft. | | | ---------------+------------+----------+------------+----------| |from to |from to| from to |from to| english. | years. | years.| years. | years.| | average of | | | | | yards | - - | - - | - - | ---------------+------------+----------+------------+----------| | from to |from to| from to |from to| of the growth | years. | years. | years. | years. | of the north | average of | | | | of europe. | yards | - - | - - | - - | ---------------+------------+----------+------------+----------| of the growth | | | | | of the british | | | | | north american | from to |from to| from to |from to| colonies, | years. | years. | years. | years. | generally | average of | | | | known as quebec| yards | - - | - - | - - | white oak. | | | | | ---------------+------------+----------+------------+----------+ [illustration: the oriental plane.] the oriental plane. [_platanus[p] orientalis._ nat. ord.--_platanaceæ_; linn.--_monoec. polya._] [p] _platanus. flowers_ unisexual, the barren and fertile upon one plant, disposed many together, and densely, in globular catkins. _pistils_ numerous, approximately pairs. _ovary_ -celled, including - pendulous ovules. _stigmas_ , long, filiform, glandular in the upper part. _fruit_ autricle, densely covered with articulated hairs, including one pendulous, oblong, exalbuminous seed. the oriental plane is a native of greece, and of other parts of the levant; it is found in asia minor, persia, and eastward to cashmere; and likewise in barbary, in the south of italy, and in sicily, although probably not indigenous in these countries. it appears to have been introduced into england about the middle of the sixteenth century; but seems not to have been propagated to the extent it deserves, even as an ornamental tree; and the specimens now in existence are neither very numerous, nor are they distinguished for their dimensions. in the east, the oriental plane grows to the height of seventy feet and upwards, with widely spreading branches and a massive trunk; forming altogether a majestic tree. the trunk is covered with a smooth bark, which scales off every year in large irregular patches, often producing a pleasing variety of tint. the bark of the younger branches is of a dark brown, inclined to a purple colour. the leaves are alternate, about seven inches long and eight broad, deeply cut into five segments, and the two outer ones slightly cut into two more. these segments are acutely indented on their borders, each having a strong midrib, with numerous lateral veins. the upper side of the leaves is a deep green, the under side pale. the petioles are rather long, with an enlargement at the base which covers the nascent buds. the catkins which contain the seed are of a globular form, and from two to five in number, on axillary peduncles; they vary greatly in size, and are found from four inches to scarcely one in circumference. the flowers are very minute. the balls, which are about the size of walnuts, and fastened together often in pairs like chain-shot, appear before the leaves in spring, and the seed ripens late in autumn; these are small, not unlike the seed of the lettuce, and are surrounded or enveloped in a bristly down. [illustration: leaves and globes of flowers of _p. orientalis_.] of the oriental plane loudon remarks, "as an ornamental tree, no one which attains so large a size has a finer appearance, standing singly, or in small groups, upon a lawn, where there is room to allow its lower branches, which stretch themselves horizontally to a considerable distance, gracefully to bend toward the ground, and turn up at their extremities. the peculiar characteristics of the tree, indeed, is the combination which it presents of majesty and gracefulness; an expression which is produced by the massive, and yet open and varied character, of its head, the bending of its branches, and their feathering to the ground. in this respect it is greatly superior to the lime-tree, which comes nearest to it in the general character of the head; but which forms a much more compact and lumpish mass of foliage in summer, and, in winter, is so crowded with branches and spray, as to prevent, in a great measure, the sun from penetrating through them. the head of the oriental plane, during sunshine, often abounds in what painters call flickering lights; the consequence of the branches of the head separating themselves into what may be called horizontal undulating strata--or, as it is called in artistic phraseology, tufting--easily put in motion by the wind, and through openings in which the rays of the sun penetrate, and strike on the foliage below. the tree is by no means so suitable, as most others, for an extensive park, or for imitations of forest scenery; but, from its mild and gentle expression, its usefulness for shade in summer, and for admitting the sun in winter, it is peculiarly adapted for pleasure-grounds, and, where there is room, for planting near houses and buildings. for the latter purpose, it is particularly well adapted even in winter, for the colour of the bark of the trunk, which has a grayish white tint, is not unlike the colour of some kinds of freestone. the colour of the foliage, in dry soil, is also of a dull grayish green; which, receiving the light in numerous horizontal tuftings, readily harmonizes with the colour of stone walls. it appears, also, not to be much injured by smoke, since there are trees of it of considerable size in the very heart of london." the oriental plane thrives best on a light free soil, moist, but not wet at bottom; and the situation should be sheltered, but not shaded or crowded by other trees. it will scarcely grow in strong clays and on elevated exposed places; nor will it thrive in places where the lime-tree does not prosper. it may be propagated by seeds, layers, or cuttings. the general practice is to sow the seeds in autumn, covering them over as lightly as those of the birch and alder, or beating them in with the back of the spade, and not covering them at all, and protecting the beds with litter to exclude the frost. the plants will come up the following year, and will be fit, after two years' growth, to run into nursery lines; from whence they may be planted into their permanent stations in two or three years, according to the size considered necessary. the growth of this tree is very rapid, attaining in the climate of london, under favourable circumstances, the height of thirty feet in ten years, and arriving at the height of sixty or seventy feet in thirty years. the longevity of this tree was supposed, by the ancients, to be considerable; and there are few old trees in this country. one, still existing at lee court, in kent, was celebrated in for its age and magnitude. some of the largest trees in the neighbourhood of london are at mount grove, hampstead, where they are between seventy and eighty feet in height; and in the grounds of lambeth palace, there is one ninety feet high, with a trunk of four and a half feet in diameter. the oriental plane was held by the greeks sacred to helen; and the virgins of sparta are represented by theocritus as claiming homage for it, saying, "reverence me! i am the tree of helen." it was so admired by xerxes, that Ælian and other authors inform us, he halted his prodigious army near one of them an entire day, during its march for the invasion of greece; and, on leaving, covered it with gold, gems, necklaces, scarfs, and bracelets, and an infinity of riches. he likewise caused its figure to be stamped on a medal of gold, which he afterwards wore continually about him. among many remarkable plane-trees recorded by pliny, he mentions one in lycia, which had a cave or hollow in the trunk that measured eighty-one feet in circumference. in this hollow were stone seats, covered with moss; and there, during the time of his consulship, licinius mutianus, with eighteen of his friends, was accustomed to dine and sup! its branches spread to such an amazing extent, that this single tree appeared like a grove; and this consul, says pliny, chose rather to sleep in the hollow cavity of this tree, than to repose in his marble chamber, where his bed was richly wrought with curious needlework, and o'ercanopied with beaten gold. pausanias, also, who lived about the middle of the second century, records a plane-tree of remarkable size and beauty in arcadia, which was then supposed to have been planted by the hands of menelaus, the husband of helen, which would make the age of the tree about thirteen hundred years. at a later period magnificent examples of this umbrageous tree continued to flourish in greece, and many of these are still existing. one of the most celebrated is at buyukdère (or the great valley), about thirty miles from constantinople, which m. de candolle conjectured to be more than two thousand years old; when measured, in , by dr. walsh, it was found to be one hundred and fifty-one feet in circumference at the base, and the diameter of its head covered a space of one hundred and thirty feet. some doubt, however, seems to exist as to whether it should be considered as a single tree, or as a number of individuals which have sprung from a decayed stock, and become united at the base. the hollow contained within the stem of this enormous tree, we are told, affords a magnificent tent to the seraskier and his officers, when the turks encamp in this valley. among the turks, the planes are preserved with a devoted and religious tenderness. [illustration: the occidental or american plane.] the occidental or american plane. [_platanus occidentalis._ nat. ord.--_platanaceæ_; linn.--_monoec. polya._] the american or western plane is found over an immense area in north america, comprising the atlantic and western states, and extending beyond the mississippi. in the atlantic states, this tree is commonly known by the name of button-wood; and sometimes, in virginia, by that of water-beech, from its preferring moist localities, "where the soil is loose, deep, and fertile." on the banks of the ohio, and in the states of kentucky and tennessee, it is commonly called sycamore, and sometimes plane-tree. the button-tree is, however, the name by which this tree is most generally known in america. the western plane was first introduced into england about , and was afterwards so generally planted, in consequence of its easy propagation by cuttings and rapid growth, that it soon became more common than _p. orientalis_. this tree is now, however, rare in this country, from the greater number having been killed by a severe frost in may , and by the severe winter of - . the american plane, in magnitude and general appearance, closely resembles the oriental plane. the one species, however, can always be distinguished from the other by the following characters:--in the oriental plane, the leaves are smaller and much more deeply lobed than in the western tree, and the petioles of the leaves, which in the oriental species are green, in the american tree are purplish-red; the fruit, or ball-shaped catkins, also, of the western plane, are considerably larger, and not so rough externally as those of the other. the bark is said to scale off in larger pieces, and the wood to be more curiously veined. in all other respects, the descriptive particulars of both trees are the same. according to michang, the western plane is "the loftiest and largest tree of the united states." in , he saw one growing on the banks of the ohio, whose girth at four feet from the ground, was feet, or nearly feet in diameter. this tree, which showed no symptoms of decay, but on the contrary exhibited a rich foliage and vigorous vegetation, began to ramify at about feet from the ground, a stem of no mean length, but short in comparison to many large trees of this species that he met with, whose boles towered to a height of or feet without a single branch. even in england, specimens of the western plane, of no great age, are to be met with feet in height. the rate of growth of _p. occidentalis_, when placed near water, is so rapid, that in ten years it will attain the height of forty feet; and a tree in the palace garden at lambeth, near a pond, in twenty years had attained the height of eighty feet, with a trunk eight feet in circumference at three feet from the ground, and the diameter of the head forty-eight feet. this was in .--(see neill's _hort. tour_, p. .) as a picturesque tree, gilpin places the occidental plane after the oak, the ash, the elm, the beech, and the hornbeam, which he considers as deciduous trees of the first rank; saying of both species of platanus, that, though neither so beautiful nor so characteristic as the first-named trees, they are yet worth the notice of the eye of the admirer of the picturesque. [illustration: leaves and flowers of _p. occidentalis_.] "the occidental plane has a very picturesque stem. it is smooth, and of a light ash colour, and has the property of throwing off its bark in scales; thus naturally cleansing itself, at least its larger boughs, from moss, and other parasitical encumbrances." this would be no recommendation of it in a picturesque light, if the removal of these encumbrances did not substitute as great a beauty in their room. these scales are very irregular, falling off sometimes in one part, and sometimes in another; and, as the under bark is, immediately after its excoriation, of a lighter hue than the upper, it offers to the pencil those smart touches which have so much effect in painting. these flakes, however, would be more beautiful if they fell off in a circular form, instead of a perpendicular one: they would correspond and unite better with the round form of the bole. "no tree forms a more pleasing shade than the occidental plane. it is full-leafed, and its leaf is large, smooth, of a fine texture, and seldom injured by insects. its lower branches shooting horizontally, soon take a direction to the ground, and the spray seems more sedulous than that of any tree we have, by twisting about in various forms, to fill up every little vacuity with shade. at the same time, it must be owned that the twisting of its branches is a disadvantage to this tree, as it is to the beech. when it is stripped of its leaves, and reduced to a skeleton, it has not the natural appearance which the spray of the oak, and that of many other trees, discovers in winter; nor, indeed, does its foliage, from the largeness of the leaf and the mode of its growth, make the most picturesque appearance in summer. one of the finest occidental planes i am acquainted with stands in my own garden at vicar's hill; where its boughs, feathering to the ground, form a canopy of above fifty feet in diameter." the occidental plane is propagated by cuttings, which will hardly fail to succeed if they are taken from strong young wood, and are planted early in the autumn in a moist good mould. [illustration: the poplar tree.] the poplar tree. [_populus._[q] nat. ord.--_amentiferæ_; linn.--_dioec. octa._] [q] _generic characters._ flowers of both kinds in cylindrical catkins. _barren_ flowers consisting of numerous stamens, arising out of a small, oblique, cup-like perianth. _fertile_ flowers consisting of or stigmas, arising out of a cup-like perianth; _fruit_ a follicle, -valved, almost -celled by the rolling in of the margins of the valves. the poplars are deciduous trees, mostly growing to a large size; natives of europe, north america, some parts of asia, and the north of africa. they are all of rapid growth, some of them extremely so; and they are all remarkable for a tremulous motion in their leaves, when agitated by the least breath of wind. the species delight in a rich, moist soil, in the neighbourhood of running water, but they do not thrive in marshes or soils saturated with stagnant moisture. their wood is light, of a white or pale yellowish colour, very durable when kept dry, not liable to warp or twist when sawn up, and yields, from its elasticity, without splitting or cracking when struck with violence; that of some species is also very slow in taking fire, and burns, when ignited, in a smouldering manner, without flame, on which account it is valuable, and extensively used for the flooring of manufactories and other buildings. of the fifteen species of poplar described in loudon's _arboretum_, three are believed to be natives of this country--_p. canescens_, _p. tremula_, and _p. nigra_. _p. canescens_, the gray or common white poplar, and its different varieties, form trees of from eighty to one hundred feet high and upwards, with silvery smooth bark, upright and compact branches, and a clear trunk, to a considerable height, and a spreading head, usually in full-grown trees, but thinly clothed with foliage. the leaves are roundish, deeply waved, lobed, and toothed; downy beneath, chiefly grayish; leaves of young shoots cordate-ovate, undivided fertile catkins cylindrical. stigmas . [illustration: leaves, flowers, and catkins of _p. canescens_.] the white poplar is commonly propagated by layers, which ought to be transplanted into nursery lines for at least one year before removal to their final situation. the tree is admirably adapted for thickening or filling up blanks in woods and plantations; and, for this purpose, truncheons may be planted from three to four inches in diameter, and from ten to twelve feet high. these truncheons have the great advantage of not being overshadowed by the adjoining trees, which is almost always the case when young plants are used for filling up vacancies among old trees. in a moderately good and moist soil, the white poplar will attain in ten years, the height of thirty feet or upwards, with a trunk from six to nine inches in diameter. as an ornamental tree, the white poplar is not unworthy of a place in extensive parks and grounds, particularly when planted in lone situations, or near to water; it ought, however, to be grouped and massed with trees of equally rapid growth, else it soon becomes disproportionate, and out of keeping with those whose progress is comparatively slow. it is well adapted in our climate for a wayside tree, as it has no side branches to prevent the admission of light and free circulation of air; and also to form avenues, when an effect is wished to be produced in the shortest possible time. the aspen or trembling poplar, _p. tremula_, is inferior to few of its tribe, presenting the appearance of a tall, and, in proportion to its height, rather a slender tree, with a clean straight trunk; the head ample, and formed of horizontal growing branches, not crowded together, which assume, towards the extremities, a drooping or pendulous direction. the leaves are nearly orbicular, sinuate, or toothed, smooth on both sides; foot-stalks compressed; young branches hairy; stigmas , crested and eared at the base. the foliage is of a fine rich green; and the upper surface of the leaves being somewhat darker than the under, a sparkling and peculiar effect is produced by the almost constant tremulous motion with which they are affected by the slightest breath of air, and which is produced by the peculiar form of the foot-stalks, which in this species is flattened, or vertically compressed in relation to the plane of the leaf, causing a quivering or double lateral motion, instead of the usual waving motion, where the foot-stalk is round, or else compressed horizontally. the black poplar, _p. nigra_, is a tree of the largest size, with an ample head, composed of numerous branches and terminal shoots. the bark is ash-coloured, and becomes rough and deeply furrowed with age. the catkins are bipartite, cylindrical; the barren appear in march or april, long before the expansion, of the leaves, and, being large and of a deep red colour, produce a rich effect at that early period of the year. the capsules or seed-vessels of the fertile catkin are round, and contain a pure white cottony down, in which the seeds are enveloped. the leaves appear about the middle of may, and, when they first expand, their colour is a mixture of red and yellow; afterwards they are of a pale light green, with yellowish foot-stalks; remarkably triangular, acuminate, serrate, smooth on both sides; stigmas . there is a black poplar at alloa house, in clackmannanshire, which, in , at the height of between three and four feet from the ground, measured thirteen feet and a half in circumference. there is also a very graceful and beautiful tree of the same species at bury st. edmunds, ninety feet in height, and which measures, at the distance of three feet from the ground, fifteen feet in girth. the trunk rises forty-five feet before it divides, when it throws out a vast profusion of branches. the poplar was dedicated by the romans to hercules, in honour of his having destroyed the monster cacus in a cavern near to the aventine mount, where the poplar formerly flourished in abundance. in pitt's translation of virgil, the following reference is made to the rite of crowning with the poplar:-- from that blest hour th' arcadian tribe bestowed those solemn honours on their guardian god. potitius first, his gratitude to prove, adored alcides[ ] in the shady grove; and with the old pinarian sacred line these altars raised, and paid the rites divine,-- rites, which our sons for ever shall maintain; and ever sacred shall the grove remain. come, then, with us to great alcides pray, and crown your heads, and solemnize the day. invoke our common god with hymns divine, and from the goblet pour the generous wine. he said, and with the poplar's sacred boughs, like great alcides, binds his hoary brows. [ ] the greek name of hercules. [illustration: the scotch fir, or pine.] the scotch fir, or pine. [_pinus[r] sylvestris._ nat. ord.--_coniferæ_; linn.--_monoec. mon._] [r] _generic characters._ flowers monoecious. cones woody, with numerous -seeded scales, thickened and angular at the end. seeds with a crustaceous coat, winged. leaves acerose, in clusters of from to , surrounded by scarious scales at the base. the scotch fir or pine, and its varieties, are indigenous throughout the greater part of europe. it also extends into the north, east, and west of asia; and is found at nootka sound in vancouver's island, on the north-west coast of north america. in the south of europe it grows at an elevation of from to feet; in the highlands of scotland, at feet; and in norway and lapland, at feet. widely dispersed, however, as the species is throughout the mountainous regions of europe, it is only found in profusion between ° and ° n. lat. it occurs in immense forests in poland and russia, as well as in northern germany, sweden, norway, and lapland, up to the ° of n. lat. the indigenous forests of scotland, which formerly occupied so large a portion of its surface, have been greatly reduced within the last sixty years, chiefly on account of the pecuniary embarrassments of their proprietors. [illustration: foliage, flowers, cones; cone opened, showing the seeds.] the scotch fir, in favourable situations, attains the height of from eighty to one hundred feet, with a trunk from two to four feet in diameter, and a head somewhat conical or rounded, but generally narrow in proportion to its height, as compared with the heads of other broad-leafed trees. the bark is of a reddish tinge, comparatively smooth, scaling off in some varieties, and rough and furrowed in others. the branches are disposed in whorls from two to four together, and sometimes five or six; they are at first slightly turned upwards, but finally become somewhat pendant, with the exception of those branches which form the summit of the tree. the leaves are in sheaths, spirally disposed on the branches; they are distinguished at first sight from all other pines in which the leaves are in pairs, by being much more glaucous, more especially when in a young state, and straighter. the general length of the leaves, in vigorous young trees, is from two to three inches; but in old trees they are much shorter; they are smooth on both surfaces, stiff, obtuse at the extremities, with a small point, and minutely serrated; dark green on the upper side, and glaucous and striated on the under side. the leaves remain green on the tree during four years, and generally drop off at the commencement of the fifth year, long before this time, generally at the beginning of the second year, they have entirely lost their light glaucous hue, and have become of the dark sombre appearance which is characteristic of this tree at every season except that of summer, when the young glaucous shoots of the year give it a lighter hue. the flowers appear commonly in may and june. the barren flowers are from half an inch to upwards of an inch long, are placed in whorls at the base of the young shoots of the current year, and contain two or more stamens with large yellow anthers, which discharge a sulphur-coloured pollen in great abundance. the fertile flowers, or embryo cones, appear on the summits of the shoots of the current year, generally two on the point of a shoot, but sometimes from four to six. the colour of these embryo cones is generally purple and green; but they are sometimes yellowish or red. it requires eighteen months to mature the cones; and in a state of nature it is two years before the seeds are in a condition to germinate. the cone, which is stalked, and, when mature, begins to open at the narrow extremity, is perfectly conical while closed, rounded at the base, from one to two inches in length, and about an inch across in the broadest part; as it ripens, the colour changes from green to reddish brown. the scales of the cone are oblong, and terminate externally in a kind of depressed pyramid, which varies in shape and height. at the base of each scale, and close to the axis of the cone, two oval-winged seeds or nuts are lodged. from these nuts the young plant appears in the shape of a slender stem, with from five to six linear leaves or cotyledons. in ten years, in the climate of london, plants will attain the height of from twenty-five to thirty feet; and in twenty years, from forty to fifty feet. the great contempt in which the scotch fir is commonly held, says gilpin, "arises, i believe, from two causes--its dark murky hue is unpleasing, and we rarely see it in a picturesque state. in perfection it is a very picturesque tree, though we have little idea of its beauty. it is a hardy plant, and is therefore put to every servile office. if you wish to screen your house from the south-west wind, plant scotch firs; and plant them close and thick. if you want to shelter a nursery of young trees, plant scotch firs; and the phrase is, you may afterwards weed them out as you please. i admire its foliage, both for the colour of the leaf, and its mode of growth. its ramification, too, is irregular and beautiful, and not unlike that of the stone pine; which it resembles also in the easy sweep of its stem, and likewise in the colour of the bark, which is commonly, as it attains age, of a rich reddish brown. the scotch fir, indeed, in its stripling state, is less an object of beauty. its pointed and spiry shoots, during the first years of its growth, are formal; and yet i have sometimes seen a good contrast produced between its spiry points and the round-headed oaks and elms in its neighbourhood. when i speak, however, of the scotch fir as a beautiful individual, i conceive it when it has outgrown all the improprieties of its youth; when it has completed its full age, and when, like ezekiel's cedar, it has formed its head high among the thick branches. i may be singular in my attachment to the scotch fir. i know it has many enemies; but my opinion will weigh only with the reasons i have given." sir thomas dick lauder, in his commentary on this passage, says, "we agree with gilpin to the fullest extent in his approbation of the scotch fir as a picturesque tree. we, for our part, confess, that we have seen it towering in full majesty, in the midst of some appropriate highland scene, and sending its limbs abroad with all the unconstrained freedom of a hardy mountaineer, as if it claimed dominion over the savage regions around it; we have then looked upon it as a very sublime object. people who have not seen it in its native climate and soil, and who judge of it from the wretched abortions which are swaddled and suffocated in english plantations, in deep, heavy, and eternally wet clays, may well call it a wretched tree; but, when its foot is among its own highland heather, and when it stands freely on its native knoll of dry gravel, or thinly covered rock, over which its roots wander afar in the wildest reticulation, whilst its tall, furrowed, and often gracefully sweeping red and gray trunk, of enormous circumference, rears aloft its high umbrageous canopy, then would the greatest sceptic on this point be compelled to prostrate his mind before it with a veneration which, perhaps, was never before excited in him by any other tree." some of the most picturesque trees of this kind, perhaps, in england, adorn mr. lenthall's mansion, of basilsleigh, in berkshire. the soil is a deep rich sand, which seems to be well adapted to them. as they are here at perfect liberty, they not only become large and noble trees, but they expand themselves likewise in all the careless forms of nature. there is a remarkably fine specimen of the scotch fir at castle huntly, in perthshire. in , it measured thirteen feet six inches in girth, at three feet from the ground; and close to the ground, it measured nineteen feet, and is thought not unlikely to be the largest planted fir in the country. the word _planted_ is very properly used here, as many examples of larger _natural_ firs have been produced. professor walker observes, that few fir-trees were planted before the beginning of the present century; and that as the fir is a tree which, from the number of rings found in it, will probably grow four hundred years, it is impossible that the planted firs can have arrived at perfection. "this," says sir t. lauder, "may be all true; but as the reasoning proceeds upon the fact of a natural swedish tree, perfectly sound, having three hundred and sixty circles in it, it by no means follows that a planted fir will not rot in a premature state of disease, and die before it has sixty circles." the acerose or needle leaf of the pine seems necessary to protect the tree from injury; for if their leaves were of a broader form, the branches would be borne down, in winter, by the weight of snow in the northern latitudes, and they would be more liable to be uprooted by the mighty hurricane. it is, however, enabled thus to evade both; as the snow falls through, and the winds penetrate between, the interstices of its filiform leaf. struggling through the branches, the wind comes in contact with such an innumerable quantity of points and edges, as, even when gentle, to produce a deep murmur, or sighing; but when the breeze is strong, or the storm is raging abroad, it produces sounds like the murmuring of the ocean, or the beating of the surge and billows among the rocks:-- the loud wind through the forest wakes with sounds like ocean roaring, wild and deep, and in yon gloomy pines strange music makes, like symphonies unearthly heard in sleep; the sobbing waters wash their waves and weep: where moans the blast its dreary path along, the bending firs a mournful cadence keep, and mountain rocks re-echo to the song, as fitful raves the wind the hills and woods among. drummond. wordsworth, also, thus speaks of pine-trees moved by a gentle breeze:-- an idle voice the sabbath region fills of deep that calls to deep across the hills, broke only by the melancholy sound of drowsy bells for ever tinkling round; faint wail of eagle melting into blue beneath the cliffs, and pine-wood's steady sugh. the quality of the timber of the scotch fir, according to some, is altogether dependent on soil, climate, and slowness of growth; but, according to others, it depends jointly on these circumstances, and on the kind of variety cultivated. it is acknowledged that the timber of the scotch fir, grown on rocky surfaces, or where the soil is dry and sandy, is generally more resinous and redder in colour, than that of such as grow on soils of a clayey nature, boggy, or on chalk. at what time the sap wood is transformed into durable or red wood, has not yet been determined by vegetable physiologists. the durability of the red timber of this tree was supposed by brindley, the celebrated engineer, to be as great as that of the oak; and some of it, grown in the north highlands, is reported to have been as fresh and full of resin after having been three hundred years in the roof of an old castle, as newly-imported timber from memel. the red wood timber of the scottish forests, similar, in every respect, to the best baltic pine, is the produce of trees that have numbered from one to two or more centuries. in norway, it is not considered full-grown timber till it has reached from one hundred and thirty to two hundred years. it seems, then, rather preposterous, that any one should expect that plantation fir timber, cut down when, perhaps, not more than thirty years old, and consisting entirely of sap wood, should be adapted to all those purposes which require the best full-grown and matured timber; and yet such seems very generally to have been the case, and to the disappointment at not finding those expectations realized, may be attributed a large portion of that prejudice and dislike so generally entertained towards this tree. on hampstead heath, near london, there are a number of pines which are said to have been raised from seed brought from ravenna. if so, the cones are very different from those of the ravenna pine described by leigh hunt:-- various the trees and passing foliage there,-- wild pear, and oak, and dusky juniper, with bryony between in trails of white, and ivy, and the suckle's streaky light, and moss warm gleaming with a sudden mark, like flings of sunshine left upon the bark; and still the pine long-haired, and dark, and tall, in lordly right, predominant o'er all. much they admire that old religious tree, with shaft above the rest up-shooting free, and shaking, when its dark locks feel the wind, its wealthy fruit with rough mosaic rind. [illustration: the silver fir.] the silver fir. [_abies[s] picea._ nat. ord--_coniferæ_; linn.--_monoec. mon._] [s] for the generic characters, see p. . the silver fir is indigenous to the mountains of central europe, and to the west and north of asia, rising to the commencement of the zone of the scotch fir. it is found in france, on the pyrenees, the alps, and the vosges; in italy, spain, greece, and the south of germany; also in russia and siberia; but it is not found indigenous in britain or ireland. on the carpathian mountains it is found to the height of feet; and on the alps, to the height of from to feet. wherever it is found of a large size, as in the neighbourhood of strasburg, and in the vosges, where it has attained the height of one hundred and fifty feet, it invariably grows in good soil, and in a situation sheltered rather than exposed. it appears to have been introduced into england about the commencement of the seventeenth century; as we learn from evelyn, that in there were two silver firs growing at harefield, middlesex, which were there planted sixty years before, at two years' growth from the seed, the larger of which had risen to the height of feet, and was feet in girth below; and it was calculated that it contained feet of good timber. [illustration: foliage and cones of _a. picea_, or _picea_.] in full-grown trees, the trunk of the silver fir is from six to eight feet in diameter, covered, till its fortieth or fiftieth year, with a whitish-gray bark, tolerably smooth; but, as it increases in age, it becomes cracked and chapped. at a still greater age, the bark begins to scale off in large pieces, leaving the trunk of a dark brown colour beneath. the branches stand out horizontally, as do the branchlets and spray, with reference to the main stem of the branch. the leaves on young trees are distinctly two-rowed, and the general surface of the rows is flat; but, as the tree advances in age, and especially on cone-bearing shoots, the disposition of the leaves is less perfect. in every stage of growth they are turned up at the points; but more especially so on old trees, and on cone-bearing branches. the leaves are shorter and broader, and are set much thicker on the spray, than those of other firs and pines. the upper surface of the leaves is also of a darker and brighter green, while underneath they have two white silvery lines running lengthwise on each side of the midrib, which make a conspicuous appearance on the partially turned up leaves; whence its name. the cones of the silver fir are large and cylindrical, being from six to eight inches long, erect, and bluntly pointed at both ends. when young they are green, but, as they advance to maturity, the scales acquire a rich purplish colour, and when quite ripe are deep brown; they remain upwards of a year upon the tree, as they first appear in may, when they blossom, and do not ripen the seed till october of the following year. the scales are large, with a long dorsal bract, and fall from the axillar spindle of the cone in the spring of the second year. the seeds are irregular and angular, with a large membranaceous wing. cones with fertile seeds are seldom produced before the tree has attained its fortieth year; though without, seeds often appear before half that period has elapsed. gilpin remarks that "the silver fir has very little to boast in point of picturesque beauty. it has all the regularity of the spruce, but without its floating foliage. there is a sort of harsh, stiff, unbending formality in the stem, the branches, and the whole economy of the tree, which makes it disagreeable. we rarely see it, even in its happiest state, assume a picturesque shape." in this opinion sir t. d. lauder does not entirely coincide, for, in his remarks upon gilpin's text, he says, "as to the picturesque effect of this tree, we have seen many of them throw out branches from near the very root, that twined and swept away from them in so bold a manner, as to give them, in a very great degree, that character which is most capable of engaging the interest of the artist." the rate of growth of the silver fir is slow when young, but rapid after it has attained the age of ten or twelve years. in england, under advantageous circumstances, it attains a magnificent size, some recorded trees being from to feet in height, with trunks varying in diameter from three to six feet, and containing from two hundred to upwards of three hundred feet of timber. in scotland, also, it has reached dimensions equally great. at roseneath castle, argyleshire, there are two silver firs which sir t. d. lauder considered the finest specimens he had ever seen. when measured in , he says, "the circumference of one of them, at five feet from the ground, was fifteen feet nine inches; at three feet from the ground, it was seventeen feet six inches; and just above the roots, it was nineteen feet eight inches. the second tree was sixteen feet two inches in girth at five feet from the ground; seventeen feet eleven inches at three feet from the ground; and nineteen feet ten inches when measured immediately above the roots." the silver fir likewise grows to a large size in ireland, much more rapidly than any other tree. some planted in a wet clay, on a rock, have measured twelve feet in girth at the base, and seven feet six inches at five feet high, after a growth of forty years. [illustration: the norway spruce.] the norway spruce. [_abies[t] excelsa._ nat. ord.--_coniferæ_; linn.--_monoec. mon._] [t] _generic characters._ flowers monoecious. _barren_ catkins crowded, racemose. scales of the cone thinned away to the edge, and usually membranous or coriaceous. _leaves_ never fascicled. though a native of the mountains of europe and asia in similar parallels of latitude, the spruce fir is not considered indigenous to britain. it must, however, have been introduced at an early period, as it is mentioned by our oldest writers on arboriculture. it is most common in lapland, norway, sweden, denmark, and throughout the north of germany. it grows in the south of norway at an elevation of feet above the level of the sea, and in the north on mountains in ° n. lat. at feet. in the valleys of the swiss alps, the spruce is frequently found above one hundred and fifty feet in height, with trunks from four to five feet in diameter. this tree requires a soft moist soil. among dry rocks and stones, where the scotch fir would flourish, the spruce fir will scarcely grow. the norway spruce fir is the loftiest of european trees, attaining, in favourable situations, the enormous height of one hundred and eighty feet; with a very straight upright trunk, from two to six feet in diameter, and widely extending branches, which spread out regularly on every side, so as to form a cone-like or pyramidal shape, terminating in a straight arrow-like leading shoot. in young trees, the branches are disposed in regular whorls from the base to the summit; but in old trees the lower branches drop off. the trunk is covered with a thin bark, of a reddish colour and scaly surface, with occasional warts or small excrescences distributed over its surface. the leaves are solitary, of a dark grassy green, generally under one inch in length, straight, stiff, and sharp-pointed, disposed around the shoots, and more crowded together laterally than on the upper and under sides of the branchlets. the barren flowers, about one inch long, are cylindrical, on long catkins, curved, of a yellowish colour, with red tips, and discharging, when expanded, a profusion of yellow pollen. the fertile flowers are produced at the ends of the branches, first appearing as small pointed purplish-red catkins; they afterwards gradually assume the cone-like form, and become pendant, changing first into a green and latterly into a reddish brown, acquiring a length of from five to seven inches, and a breadth of above two inches. the scales are rhomboidal, slightly incurved, and rugged or toothed at the tip, with two seeds in each scale. the seeds, which are very small, and furnished with large membranous wings, are not shed till the spring of the second year. [illustration: foliage and cones of _a. excelsa_.] as an ornamental tree, all admirers of regularity and symmetry are generally partial to the spruce. gilpin was, however, no great admirer of the tree; but still he allows it to have had its peculiar beauties. "the spruce fir," he says, "is generally esteemed a more elegant tree than the scotch pine; and the reason, i suppose, is because it often feathers to the ground, and grows in a more exact and regular shape: but this is a principal objection to it. it often wants both form and beauty. we admire its floating foliage, in which it sometimes exceeds all other trees; but it is rather disagreeable to see a repetition of these feathery strata, beautiful as they are, reared tier above tier, in regular order, from the bottom of a tree to the top. its perpendicular stem, also, which has seldom any lineal variety, makes the appearance of the tree still more formal. it is not always, however, that the spruce fir grows with so much regularity. sometimes a lateral branch, here and there taking the lead beyond the rest, breaks somewhat through the order commonly observed, and forms a few chasms, which have a good effect. when this is the case, the spruce fir ranks among picturesque trees. sometimes it has as good an effect, and in many circumstances a better, when the contrast appears still stronger; when the tree is shattered by some accident, has lost many of its branches, and is scathed and ragged. a feathery branch, here and there, among broken stems, has often an admirable effect; but it must arise from some particular situation. in all circumstances, however, the spruce fir appears best either as a single tree, or unmixed with any of its fellows; for neither it, nor any of the spear-headed race, will ever form a beautiful clump without the assistance of other trees." the spruce fir is raised from seed, which should be chosen from healthy vigorous trees. the young plant appears with from seven to nine cotyledons, but makes little progress till after the third year, when it begins to put out lateral branches. its progress from this time, till its fifth or sixth year, is at the annual rate of about six inches, after which age its annual growth, in favourable soils, is very rapid, the leading shoot being frequently from two to three feet in length, and this increase it continues to support with undiminished vigour for forty or fifty years, many trees within that period attaining a height of from sixty to eighty feet. its growth after this period is slower, and the duration of the tree, in its native habitats, is considered to range between one hundred and one hundred and fifty years. [illustration: the sycamore, or greater maple.] the sycamore, or greater maple. [_acer[u] pseudo-platanus._ nat. ord.--_aceraceæ_; linn.--_polyg. monoec._] [u] for the generic characters, see p. . turner, who wrote in , considered the sycamore as a stranger, or tree that had been introduced. on the continent it is spread over the mountains of middle europe; and is found in switzerland, where it particularly abounds, growing at an elevation of from to feet above the level of the sea, where the soil is dry and of a good quality. [illustration: leaves, bunch of flowers, and samaræ of _a. pseudo-platanus_.] the sycamore is "certainly a noble tree," vieing, in point of magnitude, with the oak, the ash, and other trees of the first rank. it presents a grand unbroken mass of foliage, contrasting well, in appropriate situations, with trees of a lighter and more airy character. it has round spreading branches, and a smooth ash-coloured bark, frequently broken into patches of different hues, by peeling off in large flakes, like the planes. the leaves have long foot-stalks, are four or five inches broad, palmate, with five acute, unequally serrated lobes; the middle one largest, pale or shining beneath. the flowers are green, the size of a currant blossom, disposed into axillary, pendulous, compound clusters; stamens of the barren flower twice as long as the corolla. ovary downy, with broad-spreading wings. selby observes that "from the strength of its spray, and the nature of its growth, which is stiff and angular, the sycamore is especially calculated to act as a shelter or break-wind in exposed situations, whether it be upon the coast where it braves the cutting eastern blasts, or upon bleak and elevated tracts, subject to long continued and powerful winds; for even in such localities, provided the soil be dry, and of tolerable quality, it attains a respectable size, and shows an upright form, unconquered by the blast. it is, probably, for these peculiar and enduring qualities that we see it so frequently in the north of england and in scotland planted by itself, or sometimes in company with the ash, around farm houses and cottages, in high and exposed situations." this custom is evidently alluded to by the westmoreland poet, in his description of the landscape on the banks of the wye:-- once again do i behold these steep and lofty cliffs, that on a wild secluded scene impress thoughts of more deep seclusion; and connect the landscape with the quiet of the sky. the day is come when i again repose here, under the dark sycamore, and view these plots of cottage-ground, these orchard tufts, which at this season, with their unripe fruits, are clad in one green hue, and lose themselves among the woods and copses, nor disturb the wild green landscape. once again i see these hedge-rows, hardly hedge-rows, little lines of sportive wood run wild: these pastoral farms green to the very door; and wreaths of smoke, sent up, in silence, from among the trees! with some uncertain notice, as might seem of vagrant dwellers in the houseless woods, or of some hermit's cave, where by his fire the hermit sits alone. these beauteous forms, through a long absence, have not been to me as is a landscape to a blind man's eye: but oft, in lonely rooms, and 'mid the din of towns and cities, i have owed to them, in hours of weariness, sensations sweet, felt in the blood, and felt along the heart; and passing even into my purer mind, with tranquil restoration:--feelings, too, of unremembered pleasure: such, perhaps, as have no slight or trivial influence on that best portion of a good man's life, his little, nameless, unremembered acts of kindness and of love. nor less, i trust, to them i may have owed another gift, of aspect more sublime: that blessed mood, in which the burthen of the mystery-- in which the heavy and the weary weight of all this unintelligible world is lightened:--that serene and blessed mood, in which the affections gently lead us on, until the breath of this corporeal frame, and even the motion of our human blood, almost suspended, we are laid asleep in body, and become a living soul: while with an eye made quiet by the power of harmony, and the deep power of joy, we see into the life of things. if this be but a vain belief, yet, o! how oft, in darkness, and amid the many shapes of joyless daylight; when the fretful stir unprofitable, and the fever of the world, have hung upon the beatings of my heart, how oft, in spirit, have i turned to thee, o sylvan wye! thou wanderer thro' the woods, how often has my spirit turned to thee! wordsworth. the sycamore is not unfrequently planted in streets and before houses, on account of its spreading branches and thick shade, for which it bears a high reputation. of this tree sir t. d. lauder says, "the spring tints are rich, tender, glowing, and harmonious. in summer, its deep green hue accords well with its grand and massy form; and the browns and dingy reds of its autumnal tints harmonize well with the other colours of the mixed grove, to which they give a depth of tone. it is a favourite scotch tree, having been much planted about old aristocratic residences in scotland." the sycamore, in the language of flowers, signifies curiosity, because it was supposed to be the "tree on which zaccheus climbed to see christ pass on his way to jerusalem, when the people strewed leaves and branches of palm and other trees in his way, exclaiming, 'hosanna to the son of david!' the tree which is frequently called the sycamore in the bible, was not the species under description, _a. pseudo-platanus_, but a species of fig, _ficus sycomorus_, a native of egypt, where it is a timber-tree exceeding the middle size, and bearing edible fruit." the common sycamore is generally propagated by seed; and its varieties by layers, or by budding or grafting. it will also propagate freely by cuttings of the roots. it is a tree of rapid growth, frequently attaining a diameter of from four to five inches in twenty years. it arrives at its full growth in fifty or sixty years; but it requires to be eighty or one hundred years old before its wood arrives at perfection. it produces fertile seeds at the age of twenty years, but flowers several years sooner. the longevity of the tree is from one hundred and forty to two hundred years, though it has been known of a much greater age. there are many fine sycamores in different parts of the kingdom; the largest of which, one at bishopton in renfrewshire, is sixty feet in height and twenty feet in girth. this tree is known to have been planted before the reformation, and is therefore more than three hundred years old, yet it has the appearance of being perfectly sound. [illustration: the common walnut tree.] the common walnut tree. [_juglans[v] regia._ nat. ord.--_juglandaceæ_; linn.--_monoec. polya._] [v] _generic characters. flowers_ monoecious. _stamens_ to . _drupe_ with a -valved deciduous sarcocarp, or rind; and a deeply-wrinkled putamen or shell. the walnut tree is a native of persia, and is found growing wild in the north of china. it was known to the greeks and romans, and was probably introduced into this country by the latter. it is now to be met with in every part of europe, as far north as warsaw; but it is nowhere so far naturalized as to produce itself spontaneously from seed. it ripens its fruit, in fine seasons, in the neighbourhood of edinburgh, as a standard; and it lives against a wall as far north as dunrobin castle, in sutherlandshire. the walnut forms a large and lofty tree, with strong spreading branches, attaining even in this country to the height of ninety feet. the leaves have three or four pairs of oval leaflets, terminated by an odd one, which is longer than the rest. the barren catkins are pendulous, and are produced near the points of the shoots. the bark is thick and deeply furrowed on the trunk; but on the upper branches it is gray and smooth. the fruit is green and oval; and, in the wild species, contains a small hard nut. in the most esteemed cultivated varieties, the fruit is of a roundish oval, and is strongly odoriferous; nearly two inches long, and one and a half broad. the nut occupies two-thirds of the volume of the fruit. towards autumn the husk softens, and, decaying from about the nut, allows it to fall out. the nuts are used in different ways, and at various stages of their growth; when young and green, and before the shells become indurated, they make an excellent and well-known pickle, as well as a savoury kind of ketchup, and a liqueur is also made from them in this state. previous to their becoming fully ripe, and while the kernel is yet soft, they are eaten in france with a seasoning of salt, pepper, vinegar, and shallots. when fully ripe, they are both wholesome and easy of digestion, so long as they remain fresh, and part freely from the pellicle, or skin, which envelopes the kernel. an oil is expressed from the nuts, which is of great service to the artist in whites, and other colours, and also for gold size and varnish. [illustration: leaves, catkins, and nuts of _j. regia_.] when walnuts are plentiful, it has been observed that there is also a plentiful harvest. virgil mentions this observation in the first of his _georgics_, which is thus translated by martyn:--"observe also when the walnut tree shall put on its bloom plentifully in the woods, and bend down its strong, swelling branches: if it abounds in fruit, you will have a like quantity of corn, and a great threshing with much heat. but if it abounds with a luxuriant shade of leaves, in vain shall your floor thresh the corn, which abounds with nothing but chaff." the walnut is far from being an unpicturesque tree, and planted at some distance from each other they form shady and graceful avenues, and prosper well in hedge-rows. the bergstras (which extends from heidelberg to darmstadt) is planted entirely with this tree; for by an ancient law, the borderers were compelled to plant and train them up, chiefly on account of their ornament and shade, so that a man might ride for miles about that country, under a continued arbour or close walk--the traveller as well refreshed by its fruit as by its shade. amid other trees whose foliage may be of a vivid green, its warm, russet-hued leaves present a pleasing variety about the end of may; and in summer that variety is still preserved by the contrast of its yellowish hues with the darker tints of other trees. it puts forth its leaves at such an advanced period of the year, and sheds them so early, that it is never long in harmony with the grove. it, therefore, stands best alone, as the premature loss of its foliage is then of less consequence. the walnut tree is found abundantly in burgundy, where it stands in the midst of their corn fields, at distances of sixty and a hundred feet, and is said to be a preserver of the crops by keeping the ground warm. whenever a tree is felled, which is only when old and decayed, a young one is planted near it; and in evelyn's time, between hanau and frankfort, in germany, no young farmer was permitted to marry a wife, until he had brought proof that he had planted a stated number of these trees. m. sorbiere mentions the dutch plantations of walnut trees in terms of praise, remarking, that even in the very roads and common highways, they are better preserved and maintained than those about the houses and gardens belonging to the nobility and gentry of most other countries. the walnut was formerly in great request as a timber-tree; its place is generally now supplied by foreign woods, which excel that of our own growth. it was much used by cabinet-makers for bedsteads, and bureaus, for which purposes it is one of the most durable woods of english growth. it is also used for gun-stocks. near the root of the tree the wood is finely veined--suitable for inlaying and other ornamental works. the sweet-leafed walnut's undulated grain, polished with care, adds to the workman's art its varying beauties. dodsley. the walnut is propagated by the nut; which is best sown where it is finally to remain, on account of the tap-root, which will thus have its full influence on the vigour of the tree. the plant is somewhat tender when young, and apt to be injured by spring frosts: it, however, grows vigorously, and attains in the climate of london the height of twenty feet in ten years, beginning about that time to bear fruit. the walnut sometimes attains a prodigious size and a great age. scamozzi, a celebrated italian architect, who died in , mentions his having seen at st. nicholas, in lorraine, a single plank of the wood of this tree twenty-five feet wide, upon which the emperor frederick iii. had given a sumptuous feast. there is a remarkable specimen of this tree at kinross house, in kinross-shire, which measured nine feet six inches in girth, in september, , and is supposed to have been planted about . sir t. dick lauder says it is probably the oldest walnut tree in scotland, and is evidently decaying, though whether from accident or age is uncertain. collinson tells us of another, in his _history of somersetshire_, which he says grew in the abbey church-yard, on the north side of st. joseph's chapel. this was a miraculous walnut tree, which never budded forth before the feast of st. barnabas (that is, the th june), and on that very day shot forth leaves and flourished like its usual species. it is strange to say how much this tree was sought after by the credulous, and though not an uncommon walnut, queen anne, king james, and many of the nobility, even when the times of monkish superstition had ceased, gave large sums of money for small cuttings from the original. [illustration: the weymouth pine.] the weymouth pine. [_pinus_[w] _strobus_. nat. ord.--_coniferæ_; linn.--_monoec. monan._] [w] for the generic characters, see p. . this pine is a native of north america, growing in fertile soils, on the sides of hills, from canada to virginia. it was introduced about , and was soon after planted in great quantities at longleat, in wiltshire, the seat of lord weymouth, where the trees prospered amazingly, and whence the species received the name of the weymouth pine. in america, in the state of vermont, and near the commencement of the river st. lawrence, this tree is found one hundred and eighty feet in height, with a straight trunk, from about four to seven feet in diameter. the trunk is generally free from branches for two-thirds or three-fourths of its height; the branches are short, and in whorls, or disposed in tiers one above another, nearly to the top, which consists of three or four upright branches, forming a small conical head. the bark, on young trees, is smooth, and even polished; but as the tree advances in age, it splits, and becomes rugged and gray, but does not fall off in scales like that of other pines. the leaves are from three to four inches long, straight, upright, slender, soft, triquetrous, of a fine light bluish green, marked with silvery longitudinal channels; scabrous and inconspicuously serrated on the margin; spreading in summer, but in winter contracted, and lying close to the branches. the barren catkins are short, elliptic, racemose, pale purple, mixed with yellow, and turning red before they fall. the fertile catkins are ovate-cylindrical; erect, on short peduncles when young, but when full-grown pendulous, and from four to six inches long, slightly curved, and composed of thin smooth scales, rounded at the base, and partly covered with white resin, particularly on the tips of the scales; apex of the scales thick, and seeds oval, of a dull gray. the cones open to shed the seeds in october of the second year. [illustration: foliage, cones: scale opened, with two winged seeds of _p. strobus_.] gilpin is very severe upon this tree, and says that it has very little picturesque beauty to recommend it. on the contrary, this tree seems to be a great addition to a landscape: the meagreness of foliage, which gilpin considers one of its principal defects, giving to it, in our opinion, an elegant appearance. he says that it is admired for its polished bark; but he adds, the painter's eye pays little attention to so trivial a circumstance, even when the tree is considered as a single object. its stem rises with perpendicular exactness; it rarely varies, and its branches issue with equal formality from its sides. opposed to the wildness of other trees, the regularity of the weymouth pine has sometimes its beauty. a few of its branches hanging from a mass of heavier foliage, may appear light and feathery, while its spiry head may often form an agreeable apex to a clump. the weymouth pine is propagated from seed, which come up the first year, and may be treated like those of the scotch fir. the rate of growth, except in good soil and in very favourable situations, is slower than that of most european pines. nevertheless, in the climate of london, it will attain the height of twelve feet in ten years from the seed. the wood is white or very palish yellow, of a fine grain, soft, light, free from knots, and easily wrought; it is also durable, and not very liable to split when exposed to the sun: but it has little strength, gives a feeble hold to nails, and sometimes swells from the humidity of the atmosphere; while, from the very great diminution of the trunk from the base to the summit, it is difficult to procure planks of any great length and uniform diameter. the largest weymouth pine in this country is at kingston, in somersetshire. in this tree was ninety-five feet in height, with a trunk of three feet in diameter. [illustration: the whitebeam tree.] the whitebeam tree. [_pyrus aria_.[x] nat. ord.--_rosaceæ_; linn.--_icosand. pentag._] [x] _generic characters._ _calyx_ superior, monosepalous, -cleft. _petals_ . _styles_ to . fruit a _pome_, -celled, each cell -seeded, cartilaginous. the whitebeam tree is a native of most parts of europe, from norway to the mediterranean sea; and also of siberia and western asia. it is to be met with in every part of britain, varying greatly in magnitude, according to soil and situation. it seems to prefer chalky soils, or limestone rocks; and also, according to withering, loves dry hills and open exposures, and nourishes either on gravel or clay. the whitebeam rises to the height of forty or fifty feet, with a straight, erect, smooth trunk, and numerous branches, which for the most part tend upwards, and form a round or oval head. the young shoots have a brown bark, covered with a mealy down. the leaves are between two and three inches long, and one and a half broad in the middle, oval, light green above, and very white and downy beneath. the flowers, which appear in may, are terminal, in large corymbs, two inches or more in diameter, and they are succeeded by scarlet fruit. mr. loudon says that, "as an ornamental tree, the whitebeam has some valuable properties. it is of a moderate size, and of a definite shape; and thus, bearing a character of art, it is adapted for particular situations, near works of art, where the violent contrast exhibited by trees of picturesque forms would be inharmonious. in summer, when clothed with leaves, it forms a compact green mass, till it is ruffled by the wind, when it suddenly assumes a mealy whiteness. in the winter season, the tree is attractive from its smooth branches and its large green buds; which, from their size and colour, seem already prepared for spring, and remind us of the approach of that delightful season. when the tree is covered with its fruit, it is exceedingly ornamental." [illustration: leaves, flowers, and fruit of _p. avium_.] the whitebeam may be raised from seed, which should be sown as soon as the fruit is ripe; otherwise, if kept till spring, and then sown, they will not come up till the spring following. the varieties may be propagated by cuttings, or by layering; but they root, by both modes, with great difficulty. layers require to be made of the young wood, and to remain attached to the stool for two years. the rate of growth, when the tree is young, and in a good soil, is from eighteen to twenty-four inches a year: after it has attained the height of fifteen or twenty feet it grows much slower; but it is a tree of great duration. the roots descend very deep, and spread very wide; and the head of the tree is less affected by prevailing winds than almost any other. in the most exposed situations, on the highland mountains, this tree is seldom seen above ten or fifteen feet high; but it is always stiff and erect. it bears lopping, and permits the grass to grow under it. the wood is hard and tough, and of a very close grain, and will take a very high polish. it is much used for knife handles, wooden spoons, axle-trees, walking-sticks, and tool-handles. its principal use, however, is for cogs for wheels in machinery. [illustration: the wild black cherry or gean.] the wild black cherry or gean. [_prunus avium._[y] nat. ord.--_rosaceæ_; linn.--_icosand. monogy._] [y] _generic character. calyx_ inferior, -cleft. _petals_ . _drupe_ roundish, covered with bloom; the _stone_ furrowed at its inner edge. the cherry, in a wild state, is indigenous in central europe, and is also found in russia up to ° n. lat. in england, it is met with in woods and hedges; and is found apparently wild in scotland and ireland. the wild cherry has grown in this country from fifty to eighty-five feet in height. in cultivation, whether in woods or gardens, it may, in point of general appearance, be included in these forms:--large trees with stout branches, and shoots proceeding from the main stem, nearly horizontally; fastigiate trees, or with the branches appressed to the stem, of a smaller size; and small trees with weak wood, and branches divergent and drooping. the leaves vary so much in the cultivated varieties, that it is impossible to characterise the sorts by them; but, in general, those of the large trees are largest, and the lightest in colour, and those of the slender-branched trees the smallest, and the darkest in colour; the flowers are also largest on the large trees. the specific characters of the wild black cherry may be thus stated:--leaves drooping, oblong, obovate, pointed, serrated, somewhat pendant, slightly pubescent on the under side, furnished with two glands at the base, and downy beneath. flowers white, in nearly sessile umbels, not numerous. the colour of the fruit is a very deep, dark red, or black; the flesh is of the same colour, small in quantity, austere and bitter before it comes to maturity, and insipid when the fruit is perfectly ripe. the nut is oval or ovate, like the fruit, firmly adhering to the flesh, and very large in proportion to the fruit. the juice is mostly coloured: and the skin does not separate from the flesh. [illustration: leaves, flowers, and fruit of _p. avium_.] as a tree, the wild cherry is not only valuable for its timber, but for the food which it supplies to birds, by increasing the number of which, the insects which attack trees of every kind are materially kept down. this is one reason why cherry trees are generally encouraged in the forests of france and belgium: an additional reason, in britain, is the nourishment which they afford to singing birds, particularly to the blackbird and thrush, and while any are to be found on the trees, they may be said to convert them into musical bowers. as an ornamental tree it is also worth cultivating, as it produces a profusion of flowers from an early age, and at an early period of the year; these from their snowy whiteness, contrast well with the blossom of the almond and the scarlet thorn. its foliage is also handsome, though rather too uniform and unbroken to produce picturesque effect; in the autumn, when it assumes a deep purplish-red colour, it gives a great richness to the landscape, and contrasts well with the yellows and browns which predominate at that season. the wild cherry is also recommended for the copse, because it produces a strong shoot, and will shoot forth from the roots as the elm, especially if you fell lusty trees. in light ground it will increase to a goodly tall tree, of which some have been known to attain the height of more than eighty-five feet. sir t. d. lauder says, "it may very well be called a forest-tree, seeing that in many parts of scotland it is almost as numerous, and propagates itself as fast as the birch; it grows, moreover, to be a very handsome timber-tree, and the wood of it makes very pretty furniture. in form, it is oftener graceful than grand; and its foliage is rather too sparse to produce that tufty effect which gives breadth of light and depth of shadow enough to please the painter's eye. but on the cliffs of romantic rivers, such as the findhorn, and other scottish streams of the same character, where it is stinted of soil, it often shoots from the crevices of the rocks in very picturesque forms; and the scarlet of its autumnal tint, when not in excess, sometimes produces very brilliant touches in the landscape, when the neighbouring trees happen to be in harmony with it;" and if "merely considered as a natural object, nothing can be more splendid than its appearance when covered with a full blow of flowers in spring, or more gorgeous than the hue of its autumnal livery." "the cherry has always been a favourite tree with poets; the brilliant red of the fruit, the whiteness and profusion of the blossoms, and the vigorous growth of the tree, affording abundant similies. at ely, in cambridgeshire, when the cherries are ripe, numbers of people repair, on what they call cherry sunday, to the cherry orchards in the neighbourhood; where, on the payment of _d._ each, they are allowed to eat as many cherries as they choose. a similar fète is held at montmorency, in france. a festival is also celebrated annually at hamburg, called the feast of the cherries, during which troops of children parade the streets with green boughs, ornamented with cherries. the original of this fète is said to be as follows:--in , when the city of hamburg was besieged by the hussites, one of the citizens, named wolf, proposed that all the children in the city, between seven and fourteen years of age, should be clad in mourning, and sent as suppliants to the enemy. procopius nasus, chief of the hussites, was so much moved by this spectacle, that he not only promised to spare the city, but regaled the young suppliants with cherries and other fruits; and the children returned crowned with leaves, shouting 'victory!' and holding boughs laden with cherries in their hands."--_loudon._ the common wild cherry is almost always raised from seed; but, as the roots throw up suckers in great abundance, these suckers might be employed for the same purpose. when plants are to be raised from seed, the cherries should be gathered when fully ripe and sown immediately with the flesh on, and covered with about an inch of light mould. the strongest plants, at the end of the next season, will be about eighteen inches in height; these may be drawn out from among the smaller plants, and transplanted into nursery rows, from whence they will, in another season, be fit to be transferred to the plantations, or to be grafted or budded. it will grow in any soil or situation, neither too wet nor entirely a strong clay. it stands less in need of shelter than any other fruit-bearing tree whatever, and for surrounding kitchen gardens, to form a screen against high winds. dr. withering observes that it thrives best when unmixed with other trees; that it bears pruning, and suffers the grass to grow under it. [illustration: the wild service-tree.] the wild service-tree. [_pyrus[z] torminalis._ nat. ord.--_rosaceæ_; linn.--_icosand. pentag._] [z] for the generic characters, see p. . the common wild service-tree is a native of various parts of europe, from germany to the mediterranean, and of the south of russia, and western asia. it is found in woods and hedges in the middle and south of england, but not in scotland or ireland. it generally grows in strong clayey soils. this tree grows to the height of forty or fifty feet, spreading at the top into many branches, and forming a large head. the branches are well clad with leaves, and are covered when young with a purplish bark, with white spots. the leaves are on pretty long foot-stalks, and are nearly four inches in length and three in breadth in the middle, simple, somewhat cordate, serrate, seven-lobed, bright green on the upper side, and woolly underneath. the flowers are white, in large, terminal, downy panicles; they appear in may, and are succeeded by roundish compressed fruit, similar in appearance to large haws, and ripen late in autumn, when they are brown. if kept till they are soft, in the same way as medlars, they have an agreeable acid flavour. the service-tree gives the husbandman an early presage of the approaching spring, by putting forth its adorned buds; and it ventures to peep out even in the severest seasons. as an ornamental tree, its large green buds strongly recommend it in the winter and spring; as its fine large-lobed leaves do in summer, and its large and numerous clusters of rich brown fruit do in autumn. [illustration: leaves, flowers, and fruit of _p. torminalis_.] the best mode of propagating the service-tree is by suckers. of these it puts forth a goodly number: and it may also be budded with great improvement. it prospers best in good stiff ground, of a nature rather cold than hot; for where the soil is too dry, it will not yield well. this tree may either be grafted on itself, or on the white thorn and quince. to this may be added the mespilus, or medlar, being a very hard wood, and of which very beautiful walking-sticks are sometimes made. the timber of the service-tree is useful for the joiner, and it has occasionally been used for wainscoting rooms. it is also used for bows, pulleys, screws, mill and other spindles; for goads to drive oxen with; for pistol and gun-stocks; and for most of the purposes for which the wild pear-tree is serviceable. it is valued by the turner in the manufacture of various curiosities, having a very delicate grain, which makes a showy appearance; and it is very durable. when rubbed over with well-boiled linseed oil, it is an admirable imitation of ebony, or almost any indian wood. one of the finest specimens of the service-tree in england is said to be at arley hall, near bewdley. this tree is fifty-four feet six inches high; the diameter of the trunk, at a foot from the ground, is three feet six inches; and that of the head is fifty-eight feet eight inches. [illustration: the willow-tree.] the willow-tree. [_salix_[aa] nat. ord.--_amentiferæ_; linn.--_dioec. diand._] [aa] _generic characters._ _catkins_ oblong, imbricated all round, with oblong scales. _perianth_ none. _stamens_ - . fruit a -celled follicle with - glands at its base. the willow tribes that ever weep, hang drooping o'er the glassy-bosom'd wave. bidlake. the willows are chiefly natives of the colder parts of the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. more than two hundred species of this genus have been described by botanists, of which sixty-six are considered indigenous in this country. these are subdivided into scientific and economic groups. the economic groups are:--for growing as timber-trees, for coppice-wood, for hoops, for basket-rods, for hedges, and for ornamental trees or shrubs. the babylonian or weeping willow, _s. babylonica_, the portrait of which heads this article, is the most picturesque and beautiful tree of this genus. it is a native of asia, on the banks of the euphrates, near babylon, whence its name; and also of china, and other parts of asia; and of egypt, and other parts of the north of africa. it is said to have been introduced into england by the poet pope, who planted it in his garden at twickenham, where it was known until about as "pope's willow;" but it was more probably brought to europe by the botanist tournefort, before . of the weeping willow, miller says, "it grows to a considerable size. i have one in my view whilst i am writing, which is four and a half feet in circumference at three feet above the ground, and is at least thirty feet in height; the age is thirty-four years. this tree is remarkable, and generally esteemed for its long slender pendulous branches, which give it a peculiar character, and render it a beautiful object on the margin of streams or pools. the leaves are minutely and sharply serrate, smooth on both sides, glaucous underneath, with the midrib whitish; on short petioles. stipules, when present, roundish or semilunar, and very small; but more frequently wanting, and then in their stead a glandular dot on each side. catkins axillary, small, oblong; in the barren the filaments longer than the scale, with two ovate erect glands fastened to the base; the fertile on two-leafed peduncles, scarcely longer than half an inch." the light airy spray of the weeping willow is pendent. the shape of its leaf is conformable to the pensile character of the tree; and its spray, which is lighter than that of the poplar, is more easily put into motion by a breath of air. the weeping willow, however, is not adapted to sublime subjects; but the associations which are awakened in conjunction with it, by that very beautiful psalm, "by the waters of babylon we sat down and wept, when we remembered thee, o sion! as for our harps, we hanged them up upon the willows,"--are of themselves sufficient to impart to it an interest in every human breast touched by the sublime strains of the psalmist. on the willow thy harp is suspended, o salem! its sound shall be free; and the hour when thy glories were ended, but left me that token of thee. and ne'er shall its soft notes be blended, with the voice of the spoiler by me. byron. gilpin says we do not employ the willow to screen the broken buttresses and gothic windows of an abbey, nor to overshadow the battlements of a ruined castle. these offices it resigns to the oak, whose dignity can support them. the weeping willow seeks a humbler scene--some romantic foot-path bridge, which it half conceals, or some glassy pool, over which it hangs its streaming foliage, --and dips its pendent boughs, stooping, as if to drink. in these situations it appears in character, and to advantage. no poet ever mentions the weeping willow but in connection with sad and melancholy thoughts. burns, in his "braes of yarrow," thus sings: take off, take off these bridal weeds, and crown my careful head with willow. prior alludes to the afflicted daughters of israel: afflicted israel shall sit weeping down, their harps upon the neighbouring willows hung. and dr. booker refers to the same pathetic scene: silent their harps (each cord unstrung) on pendent willow branches hung. the willow is generally found growing on the borders of small streams or rivers. the sacred writers almost constantly refer to this natural habit. thus in job we read: the shady trees cover him with their shadows; the willows of the brook compass him about (xl. ). and again, isaiah, in two places, speaks of its connection with the brook: that which they have laid up, shall they carry away to the brook of the willows (xv. ). they shall spring up as among the grass, as willows by the water-courses (xliv. ). and ezekiel refers to this habit of the willow: he took also of the seed of the land, and placed it by great waters, and set it as a willow-tree (xvii. ). and in referring to profane authors, we find milton speaking of --the rushy-fringed bank where grows the willow. an anonymous writer, too, mentions the thirsty salix bending o'er the stream, its boughs as banners waving to the breeze. the pastoral poet rowe places his despairing shepherd under silken willows. thus he sings--(we will give the chorus in the first verse, and not repeat it, as it would occupy too much space): to the brook and the willow that heard him complain, ah, willow, willow; poor colin sat weeping, and told them his pain; ah, willow, willow; ah, willow, willow. sweet stream, he cry'd sadly, i'll teach thee to flow, and the waters shall rise to the brink with my woe. all restless and painful poor amoret lies, and counts the sad moments of time as it flies. to the nymph my heart loves, ye soft slumbers repair, spread your downy wings o'er her, and make her your care. dear brook, were thy chance near her pillow to creep, perhaps thy soft murmurs might lull her to sleep. let me be kept waking, my eyes never close, so the sleep that i lose brings my fair-one repose. but if i am doom'd to be wretched indeed; if the loss of my dear-one, my love is decreed; if no more my sad heart by those eyes shall be cheered; if the voice of my warbler no more shall be heard; believe me, thou fair-one; thou dear-one believe, few sighs to thy loss, and few tears will i give. one fate to thy colin and thee shall be ty'd, and soon lay thy shepherd close by thy cold side. then run, gentle brook; and to lose thyself, haste; fade thou, too, my willow; this verse is my last. chatterton, in one of his songs, has the following lines: mie love ys dedde, gon to ys deathe-bedde, al under the wyllowe-tree. in ovid we read of a hollow vale, where watery torrents gush, sinks in the plain; the osier, and the rush, the marshy sedge and bending willow nod their trailing foliage o'er its oozy sod. and churchill speaks of the willow weeping o'er the fatal wave, where many a lover finds a watery grave. shakspeare introduces it in hamlet, where he describes the place of ophelia's death: there is a willow grows ascant the brook, that shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream; there with fantastic garlands did she make, of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies, and long purples, that liberal shepherds give a grosser name, but our cold maids do dead men's fingers call them: there on the pendent boughs her coronet weeds clambering to hang, an envious silver broke; when down her weedy trophies and herself fell in the weeping brook. the willows that attain the size of trees of the first and second rank, and that produce valuable timber, are the four following:--the crack willow, the russell willow, the huntingdon willow, and the goat willow. [illustration: leaves and catkins of _s. fragilis_.] the crack or red-wood willow, _s. fragilis_, is a tall bushy tree, sometimes growing from eighty to ninety feet in height, with the branches set on obliquely, somewhat crossing each other, not continued in a straight line outwards from the trunk; by which character it may be readily distinguished even in winter. the branches are round, very smooth, "and so brittle at the base, in spring, that with the slightest blow they start from the trunk," whence the name of crack willow. its leaves are ovate-lanceolate, pointed, serrated throughout, very glabrous. foot-stalks glandular, ovary ovate, abrupt, nearly sessile, glabrous. bracts oblong, about equal to the stamens and pistils. stigmas cloven, longer than the style. the russell or bedford willow, _s. russelliana_, is frequently found from eighty to ninety feet in height. it is more handsome than _s. fragilis_ in its mode of growth, as well as altogether of a lighter or brighter hue. the branches are long, straight, and slender, not angular in their insertion, like those of _s. fragilis_. the leaves are lanceolate, tapering at each end, serrated throughout, and very glabrous. foot-stalks, glandular or leafy. ovary tapering; stalked, longer than the bracts. style as long as the stigma. dr. johnson's favourite willow, at lichfield, was of this species. in , the trunk of this tree rose to the height of nearly nine feet, and then divided into fifteen large ascending branches, which, in any numerous and crowded subdivisions, spread at the top in a circular form, not unlike the appearance of a shady oak, inclining a little towards the east. the circumference of the trunk at the bottom was nearly sixteen feet; in the middle about twelve feet; and thirteen feet at the top, immediately below the branches. the entire height of the tree was forty-nine feet; and the circumference of the branches, at their extremities, upwards of two hundred feet, overshadowing a plane not far short of four thousand feet. this species was first brought into notice for its valuable properties as a timber-tree, by the late duke of bedford; whence its name. the huntingdon, or common white willow, _s. alba_, grows rapidly, attaining the height of thirty feet in twelve years, and rising to sixty feet in height, or upwards, even in inferior soils; while, in favourable situations, it will reach the height of eighty feet, or upwards. "the bark is thick and full of cracks. the branches are numerous, spreading widely, silky when young. the leaves are all alternate, on shortish foot-stalks, lanceolate, broadest a little above the middle, pointed, tapering towards each end, regularly and acutely serrated, the lowest serrature most glandular; both sides of a grayish, somewhat glaucous, green, beautifully silky, with close-pressed silvery hairs, very dense and brilliant on the uppermost, or youngest leaves; the lowermost on each branch, like the bracts, are smaller, more obtuse, and greener. stipules variable, either roundish or oblong, small, often wanting. catkins on short stalks, with three or four spreading bracts, for the most part coming from the leaves, but a few more often appear after midsummer; they are all cylindrical, rather slender, obtuse, near one and a half inch long. scales fringed, rounded at the end; those of the barren catkins narrower towards the base; of the fertile, dilated and convolute in that part. two obtuse glands, one before, the other behind the stamens. filaments hairy in their lower part. anthers roundish, yellow. ovary very nearly sessile, green, smooth, ovate, lanceolate, bluntish, longer than the scale. style short. stigmas short, thickish, cloven. capsule ovate, brown, smooth, rather small." the goat willow, large-leafed sallow, or saugh, _s. caprea_, is distinguished from all the other willows by its large ovate, or sometimes orbicular ovate leaves, which are pointed, serrated, and waved on the margin; beneath they are of a pale glaucous colour, and clothed with down, but dark green above; varying in length from two to three inches. foot-stalks stout, downy. stipules crescent-shaped. capsules lanceolate, swelling. style very short. buds glabrous. catkins very thick, oval, numerous, nearly sessile, expanding much earlier than the foliage. the ovary is stalked, silky, and ovate in form; the stigmas are undivided, and nearly sessile. in favourable situations this tree attains a height of from thirty to forty feet, with a trunk from one to two feet in diameter. it seldom, however, possesses any considerable length of clean stem, as the branches which form the head generally begin to divide at a moderate height, and diverging in different directions, give it the bearing and appearance of a compact, round-headed tree. it grows in almost all soils and situations, but prefers dry loams, and in such attains its greatest size. there are very few existing willow-trees remarkable for age or size. the one most worthy of note is the abbot's willow, at bury st. edmunds. it grows on the banks of the lark, a small river running through the park of john benjafield, esq. it is seventy-five feet in height, and the stem is eighteen feet and a half in girth; it then divides in a very picturesque manner into two large limbs, one fifteen and the other twelve feet in girth. it shadows an area of ground two hundred and four feet in diameter, and the tree contains four hundred and forty feet of solid timber. the uses of the willow are perhaps equal to those of any other species of our native trees; it is remarked that it supports the banks of rivers, dries marshy soil, supplies bands or withies, feeds a great variety of insects, rejoices bees, yields abundance of fine wood, affords nourishment to cattle with its leaves, and yields a substitute for jesuit's bark; to which evelyn adds, all kinds of basket-work, pillboxes, cart saddle-trees, gun-stocks, and half-pikes, harrows, shoemakers' lasts, forks, rakes, ladders, poles for hop vines, small casks and vessels, especially to preserve verjuice in. to which may be added cricket-bats, and numerous other articles where lightness and toughness of wood are desirable. the wood of the willow has also the property of whetting knives like a whetstone; therefore all knife-boards should be made of this tree in preference to any other. from the earliest times, the various species of willow have been made use of by man for forming articles of utility; but as an account of our principal forest-trees is the object of this work, it would be out of place to describe those species which are cultivated for coppice-wood, hoops, basket-rods, or hedges. we may, however, remark that the shields of the ancients were made of wicker work, covered with ox-hides; that the ancient britons served up their meats in osier baskets or dishes, and that these articles were greatly admired by the romans. a basket i by painted britons wrought, and now to rome's imperial city brought. and for want of proper tools for sawing trees into planks, the britons and other savages made boats of osiers covered with skins, in which they braved the ocean in quest of plunder:-- the bending willow into barks they twined, then lined the work with spoils of slaughtered kind; such are the floats venetian fishers know, where in dull marshes stands the settling po, on such to neighbouring gaul, allured by gain, the bolder briton crossed the swelling main. rowe's _lucan_. [illustration: the yew-tree.] the yew-tree. [_taxus[ab] baccata._ nat. ord.--_taxaceæ_; linn.--_dioec. monad._] [ab] _generic characters. barren_ flowers in oval catkins, with crowded, peltate scales, bearing to anther-cells. _stamens_ numerous. _style_ . _anthers_ peltate, with several lobes. _fertile_ flowers scaly below. _ovule_ surrounded at the base by a ring, which becomes a fleshy cup-shaped disk surrounding the seed. the berried or common yew is indigenous to most parts of europe, from ° n. lat. to the mediterranean sea; also to the east and west of asia; and of north america. it is found in every part of britain, and also in ireland: on limestone cliffs, and in mountainous woods, in the south of england; on schistose, basaltic, and other rocks, in the north of england: and in scotland, it is particularly abundant on the north side of the mountains near loch lomond. in ireland, it grows in the crevices of rocks, at an elevation of feet above the level of the sea; but at that height it assumes the appearance of a low shrub. the yew is rather a solitary than a social tree; being generally found either alone or with trees of a different species. the yew-tree rises from the ground with a short but straight trunk, which sends out, at the height of three or four feet, numerous branches, spreading out nearly horizontally, and forms a head of dense foliage. when full-grown it attains the height of from thirty to fifty feet. the trunk and bark are channelled longitudinally, and are generally rough, from the protruding remains of shoots which have decayed and dropped off. the bark is smooth, thin, of a brown colour, and scales off like the pine. the branches are thickly clad with leaves, which are two-rowed, crowded, naked, linear, entire, very slightly revolute, and about one inch long; very dark green, smooth, and shining above; paler, with a prominent midrib, beneath; terminating in a point. the flowers, which appear in may, are solitary, proceeding from a scaly axillary bud; those of the barren plant are pale brown, and discharge a very abundant yellowish white pollen. the fertile flowers are green, and in form not unlike a young acorn. fruit drooping, consisting of a sweet, internally glutinous, scarlet berry, open at the top, inclosing a brown oval nut, unconnected with the fleshy part. the kernels of these nuts are not deleterious, as supposed by many, but may be eaten, and they possess a sweet and agreeable nutty flavour. [illustration: foliage, leaves, and fruit of _t. baccata_.] of all trees the yew is the most tonsile. hence all the indignities it formerly suffered. everywhere it was cut and metamorphosed into such a variety of deformities, that we could hardly conceive that it had any natural shape, or the power which other trees possess, of hanging carelessly and negligently. yet it has this power in a very eminent degree; and in a state of nature, except in exposed situations, is perhaps one of the most beautiful evergreens we have. it is now, however, seldom found in a state of perfection. not ranking among timber-trees, it is thus in a degree unprivileged, and unprotected by forest laws, and has often been made booty of by those who durst not lay violent hands on the oak or the ash. but still, in many parts of the new forest, some noble specimens of it are left. there is one which was esteemed by gilpin to be a tree of peculiar beauty. it immediately divides into several massy limbs, each of which, hanging in grand loose foliage, spreads over a large compass of ground, and yet the whole tree forms a close compact body; that is, its boughs are not so separated as to break into distinct parts. it is not equal in size to the yew at fotheringal, near taymouth, in scotland, which measures fifty-six and a half feet in circumference, nor to many others on record; but is of sufficient size for all the purposes of landscape, and is in point of picturesque beauty probably equal to any of them. it stands near the left bank of lymington river, as you look towards the sea, between roydon farm and boldre church. so long as the taste prevailed for metamorphosing the yew into obelisks, pyramids, birds, and beasts, it was very commonly planted near houses. now it is nearly banished from the precincts of our residences and pleasure-grounds; not, it would appear, from any real objection that can be urged either against its form or the effect it produces, but from now considering it as a funereal tree, and associating it with scenes of melancholy and the grave, a feeling doubtless arising from many of our most venerable and celebrated specimens growing in ancient church-yards. the origin of these locations is now considered to have arisen from churches having been erected on the sites of druidical places of worship in yew groves, or near old yew-trees. hence the planting of yews in church-yards is a custom of heathen origin, which was ingrafted on christianity on its introduction into britain. the sepulchral character of the yew is thus referred to by sir walter scott, in _rokeby_:-- but here 'twixt rock and river grew a dismal grove of sable yew. with whose sad tints were mingled seen the blighted fir's sepulchral green. seemed that the trees their shadows cast, the earth that nourished them to blast; for never knew that swathy grove the verdant hue that fairies love, nor wilding green, nor woodland flower, arose within its baleful bower. the dank and sable earth receives its only carpet from the leaves, that, from the withering branches cast, bestrewed the ground with every blast. and kirke white, in a fragment written in wilford church-yard, near nottingham, on occasion of his recovering from sickness, thus introduces it:-- here would i wish to sleep.--this is the spot which i have long marked out to lay my bones in; tired out and wearied with the riotous world, beneath this yew i would be sepulchred. while in that beautiful and pathetic elegy of gray's, which is familiar to every mind in britain, we read:-- beneath----------that yew-tree's shade, where heaves the turf in many a mouldering heap, each in his narrow cell for ever laid, the rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. poor carrington has the following lines on the yew-tree, in a poem entitled _my native village_. the author is buried in the little quiet church-yard of combehay, a sequestered village at a short distance from bath. it is situated in a deep and unfrequented valley, where some of the finest and most luxuriant scenery in the west of england may be found. it was chosen, his son tells us, because it is a spot which, when living, he would have loved full well:-- tree of the days of old--time-honour'd yew! pride of my boyhood--manhood--age, adieu! broad was thy shadow, mighty one, but now sits desolation on thy leafless bough! that huge and far-fam'd trunk, scoop'd out by age, will break, full soon, beneath the tempest's rage: few are the leaves lone sprinkled o'er thy breast, there's bleakness, blackness on thy shiver'd crest! when spring shall vivify again the earth, and yon blest vale shall ring with woodland mirth, morning, noon, eve,--no bird with wanton glee shall pour anew his poetry from thee; for thou hast lost thy greenness, and he loves the verdure and companionship of groves-- sings where the song is loudest, and the spray, fresh, fair, and youthful, dances in the ray! nor shall returning spring, o'er storms and strife victorious, e'er recal thee into life! yet stand thou there--majestic to the last, and stoop with grandeur to the conquering blast. aye, stand thou there--for great in thy decay, thou wondrous remnant of a far-gone day, thy name, thy might, shall wake in rural song, bless'd by the old--respected by the young; while all unknown, uncar'd for,--oak on oak of yon tall grove shall feel the woodman's stroke; one common, early fate awaits them all, no sympathizing eye shall mark their fall; and beautiful in ruin as they lie, for them shall not be heard one rustic sigh! since the use of the bow has been superseded by more deadly instruments of warfare, the cultivation of the yew is now less common. this, says evelyn, is to be deplored; for the barrenest ground and coldest of our mountains might be profitably replenished with them. however, in winter, we may still see some of the higher hills in surrey clad with entire woods of yew and cypress, for miles around, as we stand on box hill; and might, without any violence to the ordinary powers of imagination, fancy ourselves transported into a new or enchanted country. indeed, evelyn remarked, in his day, that if in any spot in england, --'tis here eternal spring and summer all the year. our venerable author records a yew-tree, ten yards in girth, which grew in the church-yard of crowhurst, in the county of surrey. and another standing in braburne church-yard, near scot's hall, kent; which being fifty-eight feet eleven inches in circumference, would be near feet in diameter. there are several remarkable existing church-yard yews in this country. the tallest, which is at harlington, near hounslow, is fifty-six feet in height; another at martley, worcestershire, is about twelve yards in circumference; and at ashill, somersetshire, there are two very large trees--one fifteen feet round, extending its branches north and south fifty-six feet; the other dividing into three large trunks a little above the ground, but having many of its branches decayed. there are also eleven yew-trees in the church-yard of aberystwith, the largest being twenty-four feet, and the smallest eleven feet six inches, in circumference. there is also a group of yews at fountain's abbey worthy of remark on their own account, and they are also interesting in a historical view. burton gives the following notice of them:--"at christmas the archbishop, being at ripon (anno ), assigned to the monks some lands in the patrimony of st. peter, about three miles west of that place, for the erecting of a monastery. the spot of ground had never been inhabited, unless by wild beasts, being overgrown with wood and brambles, lying between two steep hills and rocks, covered with wood on all sides, more proper for a retreat for wild beasts than the human species. this was called skeldale, or the vale of the skell, a rivulet running through it from the west to the eastward part of it. the archbishop also gave to them a neighbouring village, called sutton richard. the prior of st. mary's, at york, was chosen abbot by the monks, being the first of this monastery of fountain's, with whom they withdrew into this uncouth desert, without any house to shelter them in the winter season, or provisions to subsist on; but entirely depending on divine providence. there stood a large elm in the midst of the vale, on which they put some thatch or straw, and under that they lay, eat, and prayed, the bishop for a time supplying them with bread, and the rivulet with drink. part of the day some spent in making wattles, to erect a little oratory, whilst others cleared some ground, to make a little garden. but it is supposed that they soon changed the shelter of the elm for that of seven yew-trees, growing on the declivity of the hill, on the south side of the abbey, all standing at this present time, except the largest, which was blown down about the middle of the last century. they are of extraordinary size; the trunk of one of them is twenty-six feet six inches in circumference, at the height of three feet from the ground; and they stand so near each other, as to form a cover almost equal to a thatched roof. under these trees, we are told by tradition, the monks resided till they built the monastery, which seems to be very probable, when we consider how little a yew-tree increases in a year, and to what a bulk these are grown. and as the hill-side was covered with wood, which is now cut down, except these trees, it seems as if they were left standing to perpetuate the memory of the monks' habitation there, during the first winter of their residence." wordsworth gives us the following animated description of a noted yew in lorton vale; and also of four others--the "fraternal four,"--growing in borrowdale:-- there is a yew-tree, pride of lorton vale, which to this day stands single, in the midst of its own darkness, as it stood of yore, nor loth to furnish weapons for the bands of omfraville or percy, ere they marched to scotland's heath; or those that crossed the sea, and drew their sounding bows at agincourt, perhaps at earlier crecy, or poictiers. of vast circumference and gloom profound this solitary tree! a living thing produced too slowly ever to decay; of form and aspect too magnificent to be destroyed. but worthier still of note are these fraternal four of borrowdale, joined in one solemn and capacious grove; huge trunks! and each particular trunk a growth of intertwisted fibres serpentine up-coiling, and inveterately convolved,-- nor uninformed with phantasy, and looks that threaten the profane;--a pillared shade upon whose grassless floor of red-brown hue, by sheddings from the pining umbrage tinged perennially--beneath whose sable roof of boughs, as if for festal purpose, decked with unrejoicing berries, ghostly shapes may meet at moontide--fear and trembling hope, silence and foresight--death the skeleton, and time the shadow,--there to celebrate, as in a natural temple scattered o'er with altars undisturbed of mossy stone; united worship; or in mute repose to lie, and listen to the mountain flood murmuring from glaramara's inmost caves. the yew is easily propagated by sowing the berries as soon as they are ripe (without clearing them from the surrounding pulp), upon a shady bed of fresh soil, covering them over about half an inch with the same earth. many plants will appear in spring, while others will remain in the ground until autumn, or the spring following. when the plants come up, they should be kept free from weeds, or they will be choked and frequently destroyed. the plants may remain in the original bed two years, and then be removed early in october into beds four or five feet wide, each plant a foot apart from the next, and the same distance in the rows; taking care to lay a little muck over the ground about their roots, and to water them in dry weather. there the plants may remain two or three years, according to their growth, when they should be transplanted into nursery rows at three feet distance, and eighteen inches asunder. this operation must be performed in autumn. after remaining three or four years in the nursery, they may be planted where they are to remain, observing to remove them in autumn where the ground is very dry, and in spring where it is cold and moist. whether as an evergreen undergrowth or as a timber-tree, the yew deserves to be more extensively, cultivated than heretofore. as an underwood, it is scarcely inferior to the holly, and only so in failing to produce those sparkling effects of light which distinguish the larger and more highly glazed dark green foliage of that tree: in hardihood it is its equal, and it bears, with the same comparative impunity, the drip and shade of many of our loftier deciduous trees, a quality of great importance where an evergreen wood is desired. the great value and durable properties of its wood ought also to favour its introduction into our mixed plantations, even where profit is the chief object in view, the value of the wood well compensating for the slowness of its growth. besides, when fostered by the shelter of surrounding trees, it would be drawn up and grow much more rapidly, and with a cleaner stem. the yew is not only celebrated for its toughness and elasticity--it is a common saying among the inhabitants of the new forest, that a post of yew will outlast a post of iron. the veins of its timber exceed in beauty those of most other trees, and its roots are not surpassed by the ancient citron. the artists in box most gladly employ it; and for the cogs of mill-wheels and axle-trees, there is no wood to be compared to it. we extract the following table from the ancient laws of wales, showing the comparative worth of a yew with other trees:-- a consecrated yew, its value is a pound. an oak, its value is six score pence. a mistletoe branch, its value is three score pence. thirty pence is the value of every principal branch in the oak. three score pence is the value of every sweet apple-tree. thirty pence is the value of a sour apple-tree. fifteen pence is the value of a good yew-tree. seven pence halfpenny is the value of a thorn-tree. forests and woodlands of great britain and ireland. the british isles, like other countries of europe, were in former times abundantly covered with forests. the first general attack made upon these in england was in , when henry viii. confiscated the church lands, and distributed them, together with their woods, among numerous grantees. but it was not until between the civil war which broke out in and the restoration in , that the royal forests, as well as the woods of the nobility and gentry, were materially diminished. during these few years, however, many extensive forests so completely disappeared, that hardly any memorial was left of them but their name. these two great territorial changes were followed by increased social and national prosperity. though we have now hardly any forests or woodlands of considerable extent, there are perhaps few countries over which timber is more equably distributed, that is, in those counties where the soil and aspect are favourable to its growth. woods of small extent, coppices, clumps, and clusters of trees are very generally distributed over the face of the country, which, together with the timber scattered in the hedge-rows, constitute a mass of wood of no inconsiderable importance. in herefordshire, warwickshire, northamptonshire, and staffordshire is abundance of fine oak and elm woods. in buckinghamshire there is much birch and oak, and also fine beech. sussex, once celebrated for the extent and quality of its oak forests, has yet some good timber; at present its woodlands, including coppice-wood, occupy , acres. essex, with , acres of woodland, has some elms and oaks. surrey, hertfordshire, and derbyshire abound in coppice-woods. in worcestershire is abundance of oak and elm. in oxfordshire there are the forests of wychwood and stokenchurch, chiefly of beech, with some oak, ash, birch, and aspen. berkshire contains a part of windsor forest; and gloucestershire, the forest of dean; so that these three last counties are extensively wooded and with noble trees. cheshire has few woods of any extent, but the hedge-row timber and coppices are in such abundance as to give the whole country, especially when seen from an elevation, the appearance of a vast forest. of the remaining counties some have very little wood, and a few are altogether without it; but the want and value of timber have given rise to a great many flourishing plantations. in wales particularly, there is a rage for planting. in south wales alone six millions of trees, it is said, are annually planted; if that is the case, nine-tenths of the number must come to nothing, or the whole country would be one entire forest. _scotland_ has few forests of large timber, if we except the woods of inverness-shire and aberdeenshire. in the former of these counties the natural pine-woods exceed the quantity of this wood growing naturally in all the rest of britain. in strathspey alone, there are , acres of natural firs; and in other parts, the woods are reckoned by miles, not by acres; there are also oak woods and extensive tracts of birch. in aberdeenshire, in the higher divisions of mar, there are square miles of wood and plantations. the pines of braemar are magnificent in size, and are of the finest quality. argyleshire, dumbartonshire, and stirlingshire have many thousands of acres of coppice-wood, and, with a very few exceptions, the remaining counties have many, and some very extensive plantations. _ireland_ has every appearance of having been once covered with wood, but at the present day, timber is exceedingly scarce in that country, there being no woods, if we except a portion along the sea-coast of wicklow, the borders of the lake gilly, in sligo, some remains of an ancient forest in galway, and some small woods round lough lene, in the county of kerry. the lakes of westmeath have also some wooded islands. there are extensive plantations in waterford, and a few natural woods, of small extent, in cavan and down; but fermanagh is the best-wooded part of ireland. the want of wood, however, in this country, as far as it is employed for fuel, is little felt, in consequence of its extensive bogs, which furnish an almost inexhaustible quantity of peat. upon the whole then, though great britain and ireland do not now possess any extensive forests, still there is a considerable quantity of timber, and the extent of new plantations seems to promise that we shall never be wholly destitute of so essential an article as wood. according to m'culloch, there is annually cut down in great britain and ireland, timber to the amount of £ , , . * * * * * in this country, even in the time of the saxons, the forests or tracts, more or less covered with wood, were generally public or crown lands, in which the king was accustomed to take the diversion of hunting, and that hunting from which all other persons were prohibited. this distinctly appears from the laws of king canute, enacted in . but the prohibition against hunting in these, was merely a protection thrown around the property of the crown of the same kind with that afforded to all other lauded estates, in regard to which, universally, the law was, that every proprietor might hunt in his own woods or fields, but that no other person might do so without his leave. on the establishment, however, of the norman government, it has generally been supposed that the property of all the animals of chase throughout the kingdom was held to be vested in the crown, and no person, without the express licence of the crown, was allowed to hunt even upon his own estate. but this, after all, is rather a conjecture; and, perhaps, all that we are absolutely entitled to affirm, from the evidence we possess on the subject, is, that after the norman conquest the royal forests were guarded with much greater strictness than before; that possibly in some cases their bounds were enlarged; that trespasses upon them were punished with much greater severity; and, finally, that there was established a new system of laws and of courts for their administration. in the language of the law, forests and chases differ from parks in not being enclosed by walls or palings, but only encompassed by metes and bounds; and a chase differs from a forest, both in being of much smaller extent (so that there are some chases within forests) and in its capability of being held by a subject, whereas a forest can only be in the hands of the crown. but the material distinction is, or rather was, that forests alone were subject to the forest laws so long as they subsisted. every forest, however, was also a chase. a forest is defined by manwood, the great authority on the forest laws, as being "a certain territory or circuit of woody grounds and pastures, known in its bounds, and privileged, for the peaceable being and abiding of wild beasts, and fowls of forest, chase, and warren, to be under the king's protection for his princely delight; replenished with beasts of venery or chase, and great coverts of vert for succour of the said beasts; for preservation whereof there are particular laws, privileges, and officers belonging thereunto." the beasts of park or chase, according to coke, are properly the buck, the doe, the fox, the marten, and the roe; but the term, in a wider sense, comprehends all the beasts of the forest. beasts of warren are such as hares, conies, and roes; fowls of warren, such as the partridge, quail, rail, pheasant, woodcock, mallard, heron, &c. the national woodlands of england, for many centuries, consisted of forests, chases, and parks; some of them being of great extent, as the new forest in hampshire, which still contains about , acres, and extends over a district of miles from north-east to south-west, and about miles from east to west. recent parliamentary inquiry has so fully established long-continued mismanagement, embezzlement of timber, and encroachments upon the national forests and parks, that a considerable portion of what remains will probably be shortly sold or leased for general cultivation. the principal remaining national forests and parks are:-- . new forest, hampshire. . dean forest, gloucestershire. . high meadow woods, do. . alice holt, hampshire. . woolmer forest, do. . parkhurst forest, do. . bere forest, do. . whittlebury forest, notts. . salcey forest, do. . delamere forest, cheshire. . wychwood forest, oxfordshire. . waltham forest, essex. . chopwell woods, durham. . the london parks. . greenwich park. . richmond park. . hampton and bushy parks. . windsor forest and parks. miscellaneous index. *_* the names of the trees described are given at page vii and viii. page alder timber valuable for piles; amazons, spears of the; aspen described; autumn, the season of landscape; bees, their fondness for the linden flower; birch wine; blasted tree, its effect; bryony berries, ornamental, in their various stages; cadenham oak; clump of trees; consecrated yew-trees, ancient value of; copse, its use; cowper's address to the yardley oak; cowthorpe oak, near wetherby; edlington; elm-tree, anciently considered as a funeral tree; ezekiel's (the prophet) description of the cedar-tree; forests and woodlands in the united kingdom; gilpin, grave of the rev. w. ----; glen, its character; god's first temples, bryant's; gog and magog; grove, its character; harefield park in , silver firs at; hawthorn, queen mary's; hern's oak, windsor forest; holly-tree, supposed origin of the name; ---- persian tradition and custom connected with the; honeysuckle, wild, its ornamental effect; hop, its effect when supported by a tree; hornbeam maze, at hampton court; horse-chestnuts, finest at bushy park; inscription for the entrance into a wood, bryant's; ivy on trees; larch-tree, durability of its timber; leafing of trees; leonard, legend of st.; lightness a characteristic of beauty in trees; lime-tree avenues; lover's tablet, the; magdalen college, oxford, founded near "the great oak"; maple-tree crusca and mollusca; ---- the sugar; mole, the; moss, its picturesque effect on the trunk of an aged oak; motion, a source of picturesque beauty; mountain-ash, supersititions connected with the; mulberry-tree, shakspeare's; norway spruce fir, the loftiest of european trees; nutting, pleasures of; oak-tree, the emblem of grandeur, strength, and duration; ornamental appendages to trees; pine timber, character and value of; poplar dedicated to hercules; pyramus and thisbe, fable of; queen mary's thorn; ravenna pines at hampstead, near london; reynolds, tribute to sir j; rufus, tradition respecting the place of his death; scotch fir or pine, durability of its timber; shire-oak, near worksop; swilcar oak, in needwood forest; sycamore, wordsworth's allusion to the; tamer, the finest chestnut trees on the; traveller's joy ornamental; tree as a single object; venice turpentine, how obtained; vernal melody in the forest; vine-clad branches of trees; wallace's oak; walnut tree, a miraculous; water-pipes, elm; willow bark, a substitute for jesuit's bark; woodlands and forests in the united kingdom; yardley oak; yew-tree, wordsworth's description of a noted; zoroaster, the holly and the disciples of; glasgow: w. g. blackie and co., printers, villafield. * * * * * transcriber's note although hyphenation was standardized, some words have both hyphaned and seperate words (for example, "light-green" and "light green") which were retained due to usage or being in qouatations. non-standard formatting of scientific names was not changed (example, both _abies larix_ and abies larix appear). the linnean system terminology was not standardized with the exception of monoec. as an abbreviation for the term monoecious. some constituents of the poison ivy plant (rhus toxicodendron) dissertation submitted to the board of university studies of the johns hopkins university in conformity with the requirements for the degree of doctor of philosophy by william anderson syme the sun job printing office baltimore transcriber's note: underscores around words indicates italics while an underscore and curly brackets in an equation indicates a subscript. contents. acknowledgments literature introduction work of khittel work of maisch work of pfaff experimental gallic acid fisetin rhamnose the poison potassium permanganate as a remedy for rhus poisoning summary biography acknowledgments. the author desires to avail himself of this opportunity to tender his thanks to those under whose guidance he has worked while a student at the johns hopkins university, namely to professors remsen, morse, jones, and andrews, and to doctors acree and tingle for instruction in lecture room and laboratory. he is especially indebted to dr. s. f. acree, at whose suggestion this research work was undertaken, for counsel and assistance in its prosecution. he would also thank messrs. parke, davis and co., of detroit, mich., for the preparation of the crude material used in this investigation, and the u. s. department of agriculture, washington, d. c., for electrotypes of figures , , and in bulletin no. , division of botany. literature. acides gummiques, garros (dissertation) . american chemical journal. american journal of the medical sciences. american journal of pharmacy. annalen der chemie und der pharmacie (liebig). annales de chimie et de physique. berichte der deutschen chemischen gesellschaft. biochemie der pflanzen (czapek) . brooklyn medical journal. bulletin de la société chimique. bulletins and u. s. department of agriculture, division of botany. chemie der zuckerarten, von lippmann, . chemiker-zeitung. comptes rendus. industries of japan, j. j. rein. journal of the chemical society. journal of experimental medicine. les sucres, maquenne, . manual of botany, th edition, gray. medical and surgical reporter. new york medical record. proceedings of the american pharmaceutical association. treatise on chemistry, roscoe and schorlemmer. Über mategerbstoff, reuchlin (dissertation) . some constituents of the poison ivy plant. (rhus toxicodendron) introduction. plants belonging to the natural order anacardiaciæ (cashew family or sumach family) are found in all the temperate climates of the world and quite frequently in semi-tropical climates. many of these plants play important parts in economic botany, yielding dye-stuffs, tanning material, wax, varnish, and drugs. several species are poisonous. at least three poisonous species of the genus _rhus_ are found in the united states. these three are all common and well-known plants, but confusion frequently arises concerning them on account of the different names by which they are known in different localities. for example, poison ivy (_rhus toxicodendron_ or _rhus radicans_) probably the best known poisonous plant in america, being found in all the states except those in the extreme west, is often confounded with and popularly called "poison oak." the true poison oak is the _rhus diversiloba_ of the western states.[ ] the third and most poisonous species of this plant is _rhus venenata_ or _rhus vernix_; it is the _rhus vernicifera_ of japan, from which japanese lac is obtained. it is popularly known in the united states as "poison sumach," "poison dogwood" and "poison elder." it grows in swamps from canada to florida. as the poison ivy is by far the most common of these plants in the eastern states, a brief description of it is given here:[ ] a shrub climbing by rootlets over rocks, etc., or ascending trees, or sometimes low and erect; leaflets , rhombic-ovate, mostly pointed, and rather downy beneath, variously notched, sinuate, or cut-lobed; high climbing plants (_r. radicans_) having usually more entire leaves. it is found in thickets, low grounds, etc. greenish flowers appear in june. [illustration: fig. .--poison ivy (_rhus radicans_ or _rhus toxicodendron_). _a_, spray showing aerial rootlets and leaves; _b_, fruit--both one-fourth natural size. (chesnut, bulletin no. , division of botany, u. s. department of agriculture.)] [illustration: fig. .--poison oak (_rhus diversiloba_) showing leaves, flowers, and fruit, one-third natural size. (chesnut, bulletin no. , division of botany, u. s. department of agriculture.)] in the general description of the order anacardiaciæ, gray[ ] says: "juice or exhalations often poisonous." whether it is contact with some part of the plant, or with the exhalation from the plant, that causes the well-known skin eruption has been a topic for discussion ever since its source was known. on account of its intangible nature there has been more speculation than experimental evidence bearing on this question, although a few investigations have been made with the object of isolating the poison. it is most generally believed that the exhalations are poisonous. dr. j. h. hunt[ ] states that the exhalations have been collected in a jar and found to be capable of inflaming and blistering the skin of an arm plunged into it. [illustration: fig. --poison sumach (_rhus vernix_), showing leaves, fruit, and leaf-scars, one-fourth natural size. (chesnut, bulletin no. , division of botany, u. s. department of agriculture.)] prof. j. j. rein,[ ] in his treatise on lacquer work, describes the poison of the japanese lac tree, _rhus vernicifera_, as being volatile, as do also the japanese chemist yoshida[ ] and the french chemist bertrand.[ ] recent work by prof. a. b. stevens,[ ] however, seems to show that this poison is not volatile, and is similar to, if not identical with that obtained by pfaff[ ] from _rhus toxicodendron_ and _rhus venenata_. not many cases of internal poisoning by _rhus toxicodendron_ are on record in medical literature. two cases of poisoning from eating the fruit of this plant have been described.[ ] the subjects of these cases were two children who had eaten nearly a pint of the fruit. the symptoms are described in detail, being in general, similar to those of alkaloidal poisoning. warm water was given to promote emesis; afterwards large quantities of carbonate of soda were given in solution under the belief that it was an antidote to the poison. otherwise they were treated on general principles. both children recovered. another case of internal poisoning is the following:[ ] three children drank an infusion of the root of poison ivy thinking it was sassafras tea. the first of these cases was diagnosed as measles, but on the appearance of similar symptoms in the sisters of the first patient, the cause of the trouble was found. all recovered. dr. pfaff[ ] explains the few fatal cases that have followed rhus poisoning on the assumption that enough of the poison was absorbed through the skin to cause renal complications in persons having chronic kidney trouble. he showed that the poison, when given internally, produces a marked effect on the kidneys, causing nephritis and fatty degeneration of this organ. the irritating action of poison ivy has been attributed at different times to the "exhalation," to a volatile alkaloid, to a volatile acid, and to a non-volatile oil. pfaff,[ ] who made the most recent investigation of this poison, obtained from the plant a non-volatile oil having the same action on the skin as the plant itself. he found this oil in all parts of the plant and concluded that it was the active principle, and that one could be poisoned only by actual contact with some part of the plant. he assumed minute quantities of pollen dust to be in the air to account for the cases of "action at a distance" so frequently quoted. pfaff says: "in my opinion, it is more than doubtful if ever a case of ivy poisoning has occurred without direct contact with the plant or with some article that has been in contact with the plant. the long latent period of the eruption in some cases may obviously render mistakes extremely easy as to the occasion when contact with the plant really occurred." granting, however, that the active principle is practically non-volatile when isolated from the plant, we cannot say positively that it is not volatile in the juices of the plant, or under the influence of vital forces. it is quite conceivable that the water transpired by the leaves of the plant may carry with it a quantity of the poison sufficient to produce the dermatitis on a person very susceptible to its action. it is also conceivable that a volatile poison manufactured by a living plant could become non-volatile by changes in it consequent upon the death of the plant. up to the present time, only three important chemical investigations of the active principle of _rhus toxicodendron_ have appeared in medical and chemical literature, these being the researches of dr. j. khittel, j. m. maisch, a pharmacist, and dr. franz pfaff, of the harvard university medical school, to whose work reference has been frequently made. the chemical work of these investigators and their conclusions are given here in some detail for the sake of completeness. footnotes: [ ] chesnut. bull. no. , u. s. dept. of agr., div. of botany. [ ] man. of bot., p. . [ ] man. of bot., p. . [ ] brook. med. jour., june, . [ ] rein, the ind. of jap., p. , et seq. [ ] h. yoshida on urushi lacquer, jour. chem. soc., , p. . [ ] ann. de chem. et de phys., series vii, vol. , p. , . [ ] amer. jour. pharm. , p. , feb., . [ ] an account of pfaff's work will be found in another part of this paper. [ ] amer. jour. med. sci. ( ), p. . [ ] med. and surg. rep. , nov., . [ ] jour. exp. med. ( ), p. . [ ] ibid. khittel's investigation. the first attempt to find the poisonous constituent of this plant was made by khittel in . his work was published in _wittstein's vierteljahrresschrift für praktische pharmacie_, vii, - .[ ] khittel obtained - / ounces of fresh leaves of poison ivy from the botanical garden in munich, dried them, and got a residue of - / ounces which he analyzed. not detecting anything to which the poisonous qualities of the plant could be attributed, he made another series of experiments which, as he thought, showed that a volatile alkaloid is the poisonous constituent. it was obtained by the following process: " ounces of the powdered leaves were infused with hot distilled water, after three days strained, expressed, the liquid evaporated to ounces, and with the addition of potassa, carefully distilled to one-half. the clear, colorless distillate had an alkaline reaction, and an odor resembling henbane or hemlock. it was saturated with sulphuric acid, evaporated, and treated with a mixture of equal quantities of alcohol and ether which left sulphate of ammonia behind, the solution was evaporated spontaneously, distilled with potassa, the alkaline distillate neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and a precipitate could now be obtained with chloride of platinum. want of material prevented further experiments." the editor of the _american journal of pharmacy_ inserts the following note: "it would have been more satisfactory if the author had given some physiological evidence of the poisonous nature of the alkaloid substance obtained. it is quite interesting to hear that the hitherto intangible venom of this plant has at last been detected." footnotes: [ ] a free translation of this paper is given in amer. jour. pharm. for , p. . work of maisch.[ ] the next investigation of this plant was made by maisch in . he criticizes khittel's experiments as follows: "it is well known that the _exhalations_ of _rhus toxicodendron_ exert a poisonous influence on the human body; the poisonous principle must, therefore, be volatile and, at the same time, be naturally in such a loose state of combination as to be continually eliminated and separated with the usual products of vegetable exhalations. it is natural to suppose that during the process of drying, the greatest portion of the poisonous principle should be lost. the loss must be still greater if the dried leaves are powdered, a hot infusion prepared from them, and this infusion evaporated down to the original weight of the dried leaves. it is obvious that dr. khittel could not have selected a better method for obtaining the least possible quantity of the poisonous principle, if, indeed, it could be obtained by this process at all." maisch then worked up - / ounces of the leaves of the plant in a way to get the alkaloid, making some improvements on khittel's method, but failed to find it. believing that the poison was a volatile acid, he enclosed some fresh leaves of the plant in a tin box with several test papers. the blue litmus paper became red showing the presence of an acid. he concluded from this experiment that the exhalations of the leaves contained a volatile organic acid which he thought was the poisonous substance. to determine this point, he prepared the acid in larger quantity by macerating the leaves with water, expressing and distilling the expressed juice. he was poisoned in doing this work although he had not been affected by handling the living plant and had considered himself immune. he obtained an acid which investigation showed to be somewhat like formic acid, more like acetic acid, but having some reactions different from both. "taking all the reactions together, it is unquestionably a new organic acid for which i propose the name of _toxicodendric acid_," writes maisch. he further says: "that it is the principle to which poison oak owes its effects on the human system was proved to my entire satisfaction by the copious eruption and formation of numerous vesicles on the back of my hand, on the fingers, wrists, and bare arms while i was distilling and operating with it. several persons coming into the room while i was engaged with it were more or less poisoned by the vapours diffused in the room; and i even transferred the poisonous effects to some persons, merely by shaking hands with them. "the diluted acid, as obtained by me, and stronger solutions of its salts, were applied to several persons, and eruptions were produced in several instances, probably by the former, though not always, which was most likely owing to the dilute state of the acid. whenever this was boiled, i always felt the same itching sensation in the face, and on the bare arms, which i experience on continual exposure of my hands to the juice of the plant." toxicodendric acid was thought to be the active principle from the time of maisch's work until the investigation by pfaff in . footnotes: [ ] proc. amer. pharm. assn. , p. , and amer. jour. pharm. , p. . pfaff's work. by far the most valuable work on _rhus toxicodendron_ is that of pfaff. from a clinical study of rhus poisoning, pfaff came to the conclusion that the poison must be a non-volatile skin irritant. the more volatile the irritant, the quicker is its action on the skin. formic acid acts very quickly; acetic acid, less volatile than formic, acts more slowly, but still much more quickly than poison ivy, the latent period of which is usually from two to five days. pfaff thought that the volatile acid obtained by maisch might have contained some of the poisonous principle as an impurity, but that it would not produce the dermatitis if prepared in a pure state. he therefore prepared a quantity of the acid by distilling the finely divided fresh plant with steam. the yield was increased by acidulating the mixture with sulphuric acid before the distillation. the acid distillate so obtained was freed from a non-poisonous oily substance by shaking the solution with ether. barium and sodium salts were made by neutralizing the acid, and were purified by crystallization. analysis showed them to be salts of acetic acid, and they gave the characteristic tests for this acid. the toxicodendric acid of maisch was thus shown to be acetic acid, and was therefore not the poisonous principle of the plant. pfaff obtained the active principle by the following process: the plant was extracted with alcohol, the alcohol was distilled off, and the residue was taken up in ether. the ether solution was washed with water and dilute sodium carbonate solution, and the ether was evaporated. an oily, black, poisonous substance partly soluble in alcohol was obtained. to get the active principle in a pure state, this residue was extracted with alcohol and filtered and the filtrate was precipitated fractionally by lead acetate. the final precipitates consisted of the lead compound of the poison in a pure state. on decomposing the lead compounds with ammonium sulphide, shaking out with ether, and letting the ether evaporate spontaneously, a non-volatile oil was obtained which gave the characteristic skin eruptions. the pure lead compounds made in different preparations were analyzed and assigned the formula c_{ }h_{ }o_{ }pb. the oil itself was not analyzed. pfaff proposed the name _toxicodendrol_ for the oil. he found that it was not volatile, was decomposed by heat, was soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, benzene, etc., but insoluble in water. its effects upon the human skin were studied in many experiments upon himself and others. it was shown that an exceedingly minute quantity of the poison will produce the dermatitis, even / milligram applied in olive oil being active. the oil was given internally to rabbits, its effects being most marked on the kidneys. the oil obtained by pfaff from _rhus venenata_ seemed to be identical with that from _rhus toxicodendron_. experimental. the writer's investigation was undertaken with the object of attempting to throw more light on the chemical nature of the poisonous substance found in _rhus toxicodendron_. soon after commencing work, however, it became apparent that the poison could be more intelligently studied if the substances associated with it in the plant were first identified; the scope of the work was therefore extended to an investigation of the other constituents of the plant, and it was hoped that a knowledge of the properties of these constituents would suggest a more economical way of getting the poison than the method of fractional precipitation. the crude material for this work was prepared by messrs. parke, davis & co., of detroit, mich., according to special instructions submitted to them: - / pounds of fresh leaves and flowers of poison ivy were collected near detroit and carefully inspected by a competent botanist. this material was thoroughly macerated and put into ten-liter bottles with ether. the mass was thoroughly shaken, water being added to make it more mobile. the ether was then separated off and the extraction was repeated three times in the same way to insure complete removal of the toxicodendrol. the ether extracts were combined, thoroughly dried with anhydrous sodium sulphate, and the ether was distilled off, the temperature being kept below ° c. during the entire distillation. the residue after the removal of the ether was a thick, black, tar-like mass, weighing pounds ounces. in extracting the plant, about twenty-four gallons of ether were used. it is a significant fact in regard to the volatility of the poison that during the process of preparing this material none of the employees engaged in the work were in any way affected, since proper precautions were taken and the utensils were handled with rubber gloves. the crude ether extract, which will be designated as the "original material," was shipped to baltimore in august and was kept in a cool place until november when the investigation was begun. when the bottle was opened, there seemed to be an escape of a vapor, and a nauseating odor suggesting crushed green leaves pervaded the atmosphere. some days later, irregular red patches appeared on the face though a mask of cotton cloth was worn during the work, and the hands were protected by rubber gloves. assuming from pfaff's work that this original material contained the non-volatile oil toxicodendrol, the first experiment was to try to distil it out under diminished pressure. for this purpose, an anschütze distilling bulb containing ten grams of the tar was connected with a vacuum pump. after a pressure of mm. had been established the bulb was gradually heated in a bath of wood's metal. nothing distilled over. the material began to carbonize at a temperature of ° to °. it was then thought that perhaps the oil could be converted into an ester which might be more volatile and could be distilled out. grams of the original material were dissolved in cc. of absolute alcohol containing grains of hydrochloric acid gas, and the mixture was heated hours on a water-bath under a return condenser. after the heating, the mixture had a delightful ethereal odor. the flask was corked and left standing several weeks while other work was in progress. the ester solution was then put in a vacuum desiccator over sulphuric acid and the alcohol evaporated. a black, tarry, solid mass was left having the ester odor. it was extracted with warm water and filtered from insoluble tar. the filtrate had a green color and the ethereal odor. it was shaken out with ether; the ether layer had a blood-red color while the water layer was deep green. the extraction with ether was continued until the water layer was no longer green. the combined ether extracts were evaporated in a desiccator without heat. a black tar-like solid was left very much like the original material, but it had the ester odor. it was partly soluble in water and readily soluble in alcohol. the alcoholic solution was tested on the skin and found to be not poisonous. the ester, or mixture of esters, was not investigated further in this connection, but was later shown to give the reactions for gallic acid and methyl furfurol. these reactions will be referred to in connection with other experiments. after a few other preliminary experiments, it became evident that the original material was a complex mixture of substances and that it would have to be fractionated by some means and the fractions studied separately. a portion of the original substance was treated with per cent. alcohol and was found to be partly soluble in this medium. the solution was filtered from insoluble tar. a portion of the yellow filtrate gave a reddish yellow precipitate with lead acetate. the alcoholic solution was distilled in an anschütze flask under diminished pressure; a yellow liquid condensed in the arm of the flask while most of the alcohol was collected in a bottle connected with the arm. the yellow liquid was acid to litmus. water was added, the solution was shaken out with ether and the ether was evaporated. when the small residue was completely dry, it was a yellow solid soluble in dilute alcohol and acid to litmus. the substance was not volatile enough to justify the use of this method for getting it. chlorophyll could not be removed from the original substance because the solvents for chlorophyll such as alcohol, ether, fats, petroleum, and carbon bisulphide dissolve large quantities of the mixture. a precipitate obtained by adding lead acetate to a filtered solution of the original substance in per cent. alcohol was suspended in water, decomposed by hydrogen sulphide, shaken out with ether and the ether evaporated. the residue appeared at first to be a yellow oil, but on complete evaporation of the ether in a desiccator, a yellow solid was obtained--apparently the same as that obtained by vacuum distillation. a solution of the original material in per cent. alcohol was filtered through bone-black and the filtrate was colorless. examination showed that everything had been removed by the bone-black and the filtrate was apparently pure alcohol and water. in precipitating an alcoholic solution of the crude material with a solution of lead acetate, it was noticed that at least two kinds of precipitates were formed. the part that went down first was darker in color than that thrown down later. pfaff used the last fractions in obtaining his oil and stated that these precipitates consisted of the lead compound of the oil in a pure state. it was found by experiment that the darker part was soluble in ether while the lighter part was not. this indicated that the darker part consisted of tarry matter which was brought down mechanically or separated out when the alcoholic solution was diluted by the lead acetate solution, or was perhaps a lead compound soluble in ether. to test this point an experiment was made as follows: some of the crude material was thoroughly extracted with per cent. alcohol. the tar insoluble in per cent. alcohol was then treated with per cent. alcohol; most of it dissolved; the solution was filtered and lead acetate in per cent. alcohol was added. a greenish colored precipitate was formed which was filtered off and found to be completely soluble in ether and soluble to a considerable extent in strong alcohol. these experiments suggested that the light colored lead compound which was thought to contain the poison could be purified by extraction with ether in a soxhlet apparatus more conveniently than by the tedious process of fractional precipitation. further preliminary experiments showed that per cent. alcohol extracted from the original material all of the substance or substances which gave the light colored precipitate and dissolved only a small amount of the tar. two hundred and eighty-eight grams of the crude material were then extracted several times with per cent. alcohol and filtered; the insoluble tar was washed and saved for examination. to the filtrate was added an excess of a solution of lead acetate in per cent. alcohol. the large precipitate, which will be designated as "precipitate a," was filtered and drained by suction in a büchner funnel. the alcoholic "filtrate a" was saved. precipitate a was extracted with ether in soxhlet extractors until the ether came over practically colorless, the operation being interrupted from time to time to stir up the precipitate in the thimble. the green colored ether solution was saved for future examination. the lead precipitate, after extraction with ether and drying, weighed about grams. a portion of this lead compound was decomposed by hydrogen sulphide in a mixture of water and ether which was well shaken during the operation. the ether was separated, filtered, and evaporated under diminished pressure without heat, and there remained a yellow oily looking residue having a pleasant odor. when the ether and water were completely removed in a vacuum desiccator, a hard, brittle, yellow resin weighing about grams was obtained. it was soluble in alcohol, had a strong acid reaction and was free from nitrogen[ ] and sulphur. the nitrogen tests were made by the lassaign and soda lime methods,[ ] and the sulphur test was made with sodium nitroprusside after fusing the residue with sodium. the main portion of the lead compound was decomposed under alcohol by hydrogen sulphide, filtered, and the alcoholic filtrate evaporated in vacuo. the same yellow acid resin was obtained. experiments continuing through several weeks were made in applying solutions of this resin to rats, rabbits and guinea pigs. finding it to be without effect upon these animals it was tried on the writer and found to be not poisonous.[ ] in the meantime the resin was being studied in the laboratory. gallic acid. an alcoholic solution of the resin was just neutralized with potassium hydroxide. during the titration, the solution rapidly became dark brown. after neutralization it was shaken with ether; the water solution remained brown while the ether layer was nearly colorless and contained practically no dissolved substance. a portion of the water solution of the potassium salt on being acidified with sulphuric acid and standing over night, deposited a slight precipitate. the solution of the potassium salt gave a heavy precipitate with lead acetate somewhat similar to the original lead precipitate a, and also slight precipitates with salts of zinc, mercury, copper, and silver (with reduction). it gave a bluish-black color with impure ferrous sulphate and a dark color with ferric chloride. it reduced ammoniacal silver nitrate and fehling solution. these experiments indicated the presence of a tannin compound. an alcoholic solution of the resin gave the same color reactions with iron salts as did the potassium salt. to determine which one of the tannin compounds was present was a matter of some difficulty since the di- and tri-hydroxybenzoic acids have in general the same color reactions. the presence of other plant substances in the solution also interferes with the color tests, and finally, a substance which gives a blue color with iron salts and one giving a green color may be found together in the same plant.[ ] further tests with a solution of the resin in dilute alcohol, and with a water solution of the acid precipitated by adding sulphuric acid to a solution of the resin in potassium hydroxide, led to the conclusion that the acid is gallic acid. these tests were the following: ( ) boiling with an excess of potassium hydroxide gave a black substance (tauromelanic acid). ( ) the acid was not precipitated by gelatin. ( ) on addition of potassium cyanide a transitory red color appeared which reappeared on shaking with air. gallic acid is distinguished from tannic acid by tests ( ) and ( ). at later stages in the work the potassium, barium, and sodium salts of gallic acid were obtained, and finally the pure acid was made by decomposing the sodium salt with sulphuric acid and crystallizing from water. a portion of the acid so obtained was further purified by dissolving in absolute alcohol and pouring into absolute ether.[ ] the melting point behavior of the acid corresponds with that of gallic acid; it melted with decomposition at about °. for further identification, some of the acid was converted into an ester by the following process: it was dissolved in per cent. alcohol, hydrochloric acid gas was passed in, and the solution was heated an hour on the water bath. it was then evaporated to a small bulk, neutralized with barium carbonate and extracted with ether. the ether, on evaporation, left the ester which was crystallized from water and dried in a desiccator over sulphuric acid. the anhydrous ester agreed in melting point ( ° to °) and other properties with the ester of gallic acid described by grimaux.[ ] for the sake of comparison, an ester was made from gallic acid obtained from another source and the two agreed in properties. a mixture of the two esters melted within the limits given for the ester of gallic acid. while the tests leading to the identification of gallic acid were being made, another series of experiments was in progress. eleven and one-half grams of the resin obtained from lead precipitate a by decomposition with hydrogen sulphide were treated with . n. potassium hydroxide added from a burette until the acid was exactly neutralized. all went into solution. on shaking with ether, some of the potassium salt separated out and was saved for examination. the solution became brown on exposure to air and got darker as the work proceeded. the acid in solution as a potassium salt was precipitated out in four fractions by adding for each fraction one-fourth the amount of . n. sulphuric acid required to neutralize the potassium hydroxide used. the precipitates were filtered off and examined. the first was small in amount, gummy and hard to filter. the solution was shaken with ether after each precipitate had been filtered off. the succeeding precipitates were in better condition, but were not pure. all appeared to be impure gallic acid which had become brown by absorption of oxygen. they were saved, however, to be tested for poison. after the last fraction had separated, the filtrate was shaken several times with ether and saved for further examination, which will be described under "rhamnose." this filtrate is designated as b. at this stage of the work a portion of the resin obtained from lead precipitate a was tested and found to be not poisonous as already mentioned. by this test, all the substances contained in the lead precipitate a after its extraction with ether in the soxhlet apparatus, were eliminated from the possible poisonous substances. the poison must therefore have been extracted by the ether. a fresh portion of the original poisonous material was treated with per cent. alcohol and filtered from insoluble tar. the filtrate was precipitated in six fractions by lead acetate. the last fractions were lighter in color and apparently much purer than the first. the sixth lead precipitate was decomposed by hydrogen sulphide, the light-yellow water solution was tested and found to be not poisonous. it gave the characteristic reactions for gallic acid. the poison, if precipitated at all by lead acetate, must have gone down in one of the preceding fractions. later experiments showed that it is brought down partly mechanically and partly as a lead compound in the first precipitates. fisetin. having identified gallic acid, and not finding any other phenol derivative in the lead precipitate, some of the original material was extracted with hot water to remove gallic acid and filtered from tar while hot. the filtrate had a deep yellow color. on cooling over night, an olive green precipitate separated out which was dried and found to be a light powder. it was practically insoluble in cold water, soluble with great difficulty in boiling water from which it separated in yellow flakes, slightly soluble in ether and in acetic acid, but readily soluble in alcohol. the solutions were not acid to litmus, gave a dark color with ferric chloride, an orange-red precipitate with lead acetate which was easily soluble in acetic acid, and an orange-yellow precipitate with stannous chloride. these properties and reactions indicated that the substance was the dye-stuff fisetin and that it occurs in the free state in this plant though it is usually found as a glucoside of fisetin combined with tannic acid. a compound of this kind was found in _rhus cotinus_ and named "fustin-tannide" by schmid[ ]. he showed that the fustin-tannide could be decomposed by acetic acid into tannic acid and a glucoside, fustin c_{ }h_{ }o_{ }. fustin, on heating with dilute sulphuric acid, gave fisetin and a sugar supposed to be rhamnose. fisetin was also found as a glucoside compound in _rhus rhodanthema_ by perkin.[ ] the yellow substance which separated from the boiling water solution was further purified by dissolving in a small quantity of hot alcohol and adding hot water. on cooling, the yellow substance separated out in a flocculent condition. examined under the microscope, the flakes appeared to be made up of masses of fine crystals. an alcoholic solution of the substance gave a black color with ammonia which became red on addition of more ammonia. concentrated acids intensified the yellow color of the alcoholic solution. fehling solution and ammoniacal silver nitrate were reduced by it. potassium hydroxide added to an alcoholic solution gave at first a deep red color accompanied by a green fluorescence which disappeared, leaving a yellow liquid. with an excess of caustic potash, the red color returned and was permanent. these reactions are characteristic for fisetin.[ ] furthermore, fisetin should give protocatechuic acid and phloroglucinol by fusion with caustic potash under proper conditions.[ ] the experiment was carried out as follows: grams of fisetin were gently heated in a nickel crucible with grams of caustic potash dissolved in cc. water. an inflammable gas, apparently hydrogen, was evolved during the fusion. the pasty mass was dissolved in water, acidified with sulphuric acid, and filtered. the filtrate was shaken out with ether containing one-fourth its volume of alcohol. the ether was evaporated and the residue was extracted with warm water and filtered. lead acetate was added to the filtrate to precipitate protocatechuic acid, while phloroglucinol remained in the filtrate from this precipitate. the lead precipitate was suspended in water, decomposed by hydrogen sulphide, filtered, and evaporated to obtain protocatechuic acid. that the substance obtained was protocatechuic acid was shown by the following characteristic tests: ( ) it gave a greenish brown color with ferric chloride; on addition of one drop of a dilute solution of sodium carbonate, the color became dark blue; on adding more sodium carbonate the color became red. ( ) a violet color was obtained when a solution of the acid was treated with a drop of sodium carbonate solution and then with a drop of ferrous sulphate. ( ) it reduced ammoniacal silver nitrate. ( ) it did not reduce fehling solution. the filtrate supposed to contain phloroglucinol was treated with hydrogen sulphide to remove lead, filtered, and shaken with ether. the residue left on evaporating the ether was taken up in water. this solution gave the following reactions characteristic for phloroglucinol: ( ) it reduced both silver nitrate and fehling solution. ( ) it colored pine wood moistened with hydrochloric acid red. ( ) it gave a red color with vanillin and hydrochloric acid, and ( ) a deeper red color with oil of cloves and hydrochloric acid, becoming purple on standing. ( ) it gave a violet color with ferric chloride. the substance is then, without doubt, fisetin. the formula[ ] of fisetin is supposed to be c_{ }h_{ }o_{ }. rhamnose. it was stated above that schmid obtained a sugar solution by the decomposition of a fisetin-glucoside from _rhus cotinus_, and perkin obtained the same from a glucoside in _rhus rhodanthema_. these investigators thought that the sugar was isodulcite or rhamnose, but they did not isolate it on account of the small quantities of material at their disposal. moreover, the sugar is very hard to crystallize in the presence of other soluble substances and is not found in large quantity in plants. maquenne[ ] could obtain only to gm. of rhamnose by working up kilogram of the berries of _rhamnus infectorius_. assuming that the free fisetin found in poison ivy leaves had its origin in the decomposition of a fisetin-glucoside by natural processes, it was reasonable to suppose that the sugar would also be found in the free state, although, according to roscoe and schorlemmer:[ ] "isodulcite does not occur in the free state in nature, but is found as a peculiar ethereal salt belonging to the class of glucosides. on boiling with dilute sulphuric acid, this splits up into isodulcite and other bodies...." the more recent works on the sugars and on plant chemistry[ ] mention the occurrence of rhamnose only in the glucoside form, with one possible exception. the exception referred to is the occurrence of a free sugar, supposed to be rhamnose, in a certain palm-wine.[ ] czapek says:[ ] "the well-known methyl pentoses do not occur in the free state in plant organisms so far as we know." since rhamnose forms a lead compound, the sugar, if present, should be found in the first lead precipitate, a, and also in filtrate a in case it is not completely precipitated in the presence of acetic acid and alcohol. the filtrate a (about two liters) was examined first. it had a light yellow color, contained an excess of lead acetate, and was acid from the acetic acid liberated in the precipitation of the lead compound a.[ ] this filtrate was evaporated to dryness under diminished pressure to remove alcohol, water, and acetic acid. the clear distillate had a peculiar odor suggesting both tea and amyl formate. it was saved for examination and was found to be not poisonous. the residue in the dish after evaporation was a tough reddish brown, gummy mass which could be drawn out into fine threads. it had a pleasant sweet odor. it was extracted several times with hot water, each portion being filtered. a brownish yellow powder remained undissolved and was saved. the combined filtrates deposited more of the yellow solid on standing. this powder will be referred to later as "p." the filtered liquid was freed from lead by hydrogen sulphide. the solution then had a lemon yellow color, a sweet odor and was acid from acetic acid. on concentrating the solution by evaporation and making a small portion of it alkaline with sodium hydroxide, the yellow color came out very intense[ ]. the alkaline solution reduced fehling solution and ammoniacal silver nitrate, indicating the presence of a sugar. another portion of the solution gave a slight precipitate with phenyl hydrazine in the cold. the remainder of the solution was evaporated to dryness, extracted with water, filtered, and again evaporated. a dark sticky syrup was left which was only partly soluble in water. this was treated with water, filtered, and the filtrate was evaporated, the water being replaced from time to time to remove acetic acid. finally the liquid gave the following tests for rhamnose, besides those already mentioned: ( ) with alpha-naphthol[ ] and sulphuric acid, a purple violet color. ( ) with thymol[ ] and sulphuric acid, a red color. ( ) with resorcinol[ ] and sulphuric acid, red color. ( ) with orcinol[ ] and hydrochloric acid, red color. ( ) with ammonium picrate and sodium picrate, yellowish red color. ( ) with phloroglucinol and hydrochloric acid, red color. ( ) it decolorized an alkaline solution of potassium ferricyanide. ( ) it gave a white precipitate with lead acetate. the filtrate b (p. ) from which gallic acid was precipitated by sulphuric acid in four fractions was saved to examine for sugar. to remove gallic acid completely, and other vegetable matter, it was shaken out several times with ether, and was kept at a low temperature with salt and ice for a long time. it was left standing for several weeks, during which time more brown matter separated out and was filtered off. the filtrate was evaporated to a small bulk, cooled, and filtered from crystals of potassium sulphate. the filtrate was evaporated to dryness, the residue taken up in water and filtered through bone-black. addition of alcohol caused complete precipitation of potassium sulphate. the solution then gave the above mentioned characteristic tests for rhamnose. all attempts to get the osazone of the sugar by the method of fischer[ ] failed, probably on account of the small quantity of the sugar present. the plant, it will be remembered, was originally extracted with ether in which rhamnose is practically insoluble. the above described tests, however, can leave no doubt as to the identity of the sugar. additional evidence that the sugar is rhamnose was obtained by a method described by maquenne[ ] as follows: "the production of methyl furfurol in the dehydration of isodulcite furnishes a very simple means of characterizing this sugar in mixtures which contain it; it is sufficient, for example, to distil gm. of quercitron wood with as much sulphuric acid and about gm. of water, then to rectify the liquid obtained in order to get several drops of the crude furfurol, which on addition of alcohol and concentrated sulphuric acid gives immediately the green coloration characteristic of methyl furfurol. this procedure is applicable to extracts as well as to entire plants, and has the advantage that it does not require the separation of isodulcite, the crystallization of which is often very slow and at times impossible when it is mixed with other very soluble substances." the experiment was tried with the crude ether extract of the plant according to the directions of maquenne, and the green color with alcohol and sulphuric acid was obtained from the thicker oily portion of the distillate. this test can be made with hydrochloric acid[ ] as well as with sulphuric. therefore the color test was tried with the ester mixture prepared in one of the early experiments by boiling the original plant material with hydrochloric acid and alcohol. methyl furfurol was found here also, this method indeed giving better results than that of maquenne. the presence of free rhamnose has thus been shown in the original material, in the first precipitate by lead acetate, and in the filtrate from this precipitate. experiments to be described under "the poison" showed that the ether extract from the soxhlet apparatus contained a substance which yielded rhamnose when hydrolyzed by dilute sulphuric acid. the presence of free gallic acid, fisetin, and rhamnose in the plant can be readily explained by a series of assumptions for which there is a considerable amount of experimental evidence. there is reason to believe that tannin-like bodies are formed at the expense of chlorophyll,[ ] that complex tannin bodies can be broken down by acetic acid (also found in _rhus toxicodendron_) into a tannic acid and a glucoside (for example, the "fustin-tannide" mentioned above yields tannic acid and fisetin-glucoside); and finally that the glucoside can be hydrolyzed by acids or enzymes giving, in the sumach plants, fisetin and rhamnose. nitrogenous ferments which can effect the hydrolysis of glucosides and give rise to sugars are frequently found in plants, for example, emulsin in almonds, myrosin in mustard, and erythrozym in madder. acree and hinkins[ ] found that diastase, pancreatin, and a number of other enzymes cause hydrolysis of triacetyl glucose with the formation of glucose and acetic acid. stevens[ ] obtained a nitrogenous oxidizing enzyme from _rhus vernicifera_. the close relationship between the poisonous species of _rhus_ would lead us to suppose that the same soluble ferment exists in poison ivy, though it was not detected in the original material used in these experiments, probably because the plant was extracted with ether in which the enzyme is insoluble. the existence of such a soluble ferment would explain the presence of free sugar and free fisetin. evidence of the presence of a fatty acid in filtrate a. the brown substance p, obtained from filtrate a by evaporation and extracting the residue with hot water, was suspended in warm water and dilute sulphuric was added. a white precipitate was formed and a strong fatty acid odor was developed. after the mixture had been heated for some hours on the water bath a small portion was made alkaline and it reduced fehling solution. the main solution was filtered and the precipitate supposed to be a fatty acid was saved. the filtrate was neutralized with barium carbonate, filtered, evaporated, freed from caramel, and the solution then gave the tests mentioned above for rhamnose. a portion of the precipitate supposed to be a fatty acid was ignited in a porcelain spoon. it fused, carbonized, and burned. the remainder was heated with alcoholic potash and reprecipitated with hydrochloric acid. the precipitate was washed and heated with alcohol. part of it dissolved. the insoluble part was found to be a lead compound. on boiling it with hydrochloric acid and cooling, lead chloride crystallized out. this was confirmed by dissolving the lead chloride in hot water and precipitating as lead sulphide. these experiments were not carried farther on account of the small quantity of material, but they show that the gummy substance obtained from filtrate a contained rhamnose (either as a lead compound of free sugar or as a lead compound of a rhamnoside), and also, most probably, the lead compound of an organic acid.[ ] the fragrant distillate. several times in the course of this work, extracts of the original plant material in alcohol and in water were distilled under diminished pressure for the purpose of concentrating the solutions. the distillate, in every case, had an ethereal odor suggesting amyl formate in very dilute solution, but was more fragrant. the distillate from a water extract was examined. it was a clear liquid, a little darker than pure water, was not poisonous, was neutral to litmus paper, gave no color with ferric chloride, reduced ammoniacal silver nitrate, but not fehling solution, and gave a faint red color with dilute ammonium hydroxide and with sodium carbonate. a small quantity of a finely divided black precipitate separated out from the water distillate on standing. the substance with the fragrant odor was extracted by shaking the distillate with ether and letting the ether evaporate spontaneously. a very small quantity of a yellow solid was deposited on the sides of the dish. this substance had a strong and persistent odor, so sweet as to be almost nauseating. not enough was obtained for examination or analysis. this fragrant residue was difficultly soluble in water and the solution reduced silver nitrate in ammonia. a steam distillate of the original plant material had the same fragrant odor as the distillate from a water extract. the poison. grams of the original poisonous material were extracted with per cent. alcohol, and this alcoholic solution was precipitated with lead acetate in the manner already described (p. ). the lead precipitate so obtained was extracted with ether in soxhlet extractors and after the extraction was found by test to be free from poison. therefore the poison, if precipitated by the lead acetate, must have been extracted by the ether. this ether solution had a dark green color, and was acid from acetic acid brought down in the lead precipitate. the ether was evaporated in a vacuum desiccator without heat and there remained a small quantity of an acid mixture of water and a soft tar; the watery part was colored green, showing that the tar was soluble to some extent in dilute acetic acid. the mixture had the peculiar odor of the original material. a small drop of the green watery part was applied to the wrist, allowed to remain a few minutes and was then removed by absorbent paper, but the spot was not washed. itching and reddening of the skin commenced within twenty-four hours. at the end of forty-eight hours, there was a well developed case of poisoning. how this was cured will be described in another place. a small portion of the poisonous mixture was dissolved in alcohol, and this solution was divided into three parts. the first part was treated with ferric chloride, but it gave no color reaction. another portion of the alcoholic solution was diluted with water. it became turbid. the third portion gave a dirty-green precipitate with lead acetate, which seemed to come down more readily when the solution was diluted with water. the main portion of the poisonous mixture was then dissolved in per cent. alcohol and lead acetate in per cent. alcohol was added. the precipitate was filtered, washed, and decomposed by hydrogen sulphide in a mixture of water and ether. the ether solution was filtered and evaporated. the residue was a tar which, on standing in a desiccator for some time, became dry enough to break into sticky lumps. an alcoholic solution of this substance gave a dark color with ferric chloride and a light colored precipitate with lead acetate. to get more of the poisonous tar for study, grams of original material were extracted with per cent. alcohol. strong alcohol was used in order to dissolve as much of the tar as possible. the solution had a dark greenish color, but was somewhat yellow in thin layers. the undissolved tar was filtered off and extracted twice again in the same way. the tar left after the third extraction was only slightly soluble in alcohol, and its solution was not poisonous. the three filtrates from these three extractions were precipitated separately by lead acetate in per cent. alcohol. the first precipitate was largest, darkest in color, and carried down more tarry matter. the second was light green, and the third was quite small, black, and was not a lead compound at all, but some of the tar which separated out on diluting the strong alcohol with the weaker grade containing lead acetate. it was soluble in ether and less soluble in alcohol. the alcoholic solution of this third lot gave no precipitate with hydrogen sulphide. the first and second lead precipitates were filtered by suction and washed with water. they were kept a day or two in a desiccator over sulphuric acid, but did not become completely dry. the weight of these two moist precipitates together was grams. they were combined and extracted with ether in soxhlet extractors which were kept in operation during work hours for three days. in the meantime the alcoholic filtrates from these lead precipitates were combined and concentrated on the water bath by distilling off two liters of alcohol. the alcohol obtained had the peculiar odor of the original material, but was not poisonous. after a long extraction of the lead precipitate in the soxhlet extractors, the green ether solutions were combined and washed by shaking them with water to remove lead acetate and acetic acid in case any should have been held in the lead precipitate. the ether was distilled off at a low temperature and there remained a soft tar, a portion of which was not completely soluble in per cent. alcohol. the alcoholic solution had a greenish yellow color and was poisonous. the tar was also partly soluble in acetic acid, and this solution was found to contain lead. thinking that the lead acetate had not been completely washed out, the main part of the tar was dissolved in ether and shaken with water. the wash water continued to give a test for lead as long as the washing was continued. this indicated probably the hydrolysis of an unstable lead compound. hydrogen sulphide was passed into the ether solution mixed with water to remove the lead. lead sulphide was filtered off, and the ether was evaporated. a small portion of the tar residue in alcoholic solution gave a color reaction with ferric chloride. as this may have been due to traces of lead gallate dissolved in the extraction with ether and afterwards decomposed by hydrogen sulphide, the main portion of the tar was redissolved in ether and shaken with water until it no longer reacted with ferric chloride. the ether was then evaporated and a soft, black, poisonous tar or gum of uniform consistency was left which was shown by tests to be free from gallic acid and lead. these experiments showed that some of the poison was precipitated as a lead compound soluble in ether and some was brought down mechanically in the free state. to see if the extraction with ether in the soxhlet apparatus was complete, the residue in the thimbles was decomposed by hydrogen sulphide and shaken with ether. the dark colored ether solution was freed from gallic acid by shaking with water and dilute sodium carbonate solution, and was evaporated. a small quantity of tar was obtained which was added to the main portion. a solution of the poisonous tar in per cent. alcohol did not reduce fehling solution and did not give a precipitate with lead acetate except the separation of a small quantity of tar, which was not a lead compound. the lead compound of the poison was apparently soluble in per cent. alcohol as well as in ether, for it would not precipitate in this medium, although it was found in the original precipitate by lead acetate. the alcoholic solution of the tar became turbid on diluting with water. in order to see if the poison is volatile with vapor of acetic acid, since this acid is found in the plant and it is thought by some that the poison is volatile, a portion of the tar was distilled under diminished pressure with acetic acid. it was soluble to some extent in the acid. the temperature did not go higher than ° during the distillation. a tube containing cotton wet with sweet oil was placed between the receiver and the water suction so that the uncondensed vapors would have to pass through the cotton. this cotton was rubbed on the skin and was not poisonous. the yellow distillate collected in the receiver was also tested and was not poisonous. hydrolysis of the poison. about grams of the poisonous tar free from gallic acid and sugar was dissolved in alcohol, and dilute ( per cent.) sulphuric acid was added. some of the tar separated out on diluting the alcohol with the acid. the mixture was heated on a water bath during work hours for four days. a purple and green fluorescent solution was formed, though much tar was left apparently unchanged. the alcohol was evaporated off and the solution was filtered from tar. the fluorescent filtrate was shaken with ether, by which the green substance was removed, leaving the solution purple. the ether left, on evaporation, a small quantity of a green substance having a pleasant ester odor. it was not further examined. a portion of the purple solution was exactly neutralized with sodium carbonate. this solution gave a blue-black color with ferric chloride which became red on addition of another drop of sodium carbonate, indicating gallic acid. it also reduced fehling solution. another portion of the purple solution was made alkaline with sodium carbonate. a reddish-brown flocculent precipitate was formed and was filtered off. the filtrate did not give any color with ferric chloride, but it reduced fehling solution. it also gave the test for rhamnose with alpha-naphthol. the main portion of the purple solution was made alkaline with sodium carbonate; the precipitate was filtered off and dissolved in acetic acid. this solution was yellow and gave a reaction with ferric chloride similar to that of gallic acid. the filtrate from the precipitate by sodium carbonate was concentrated by evaporation until sodium sulphate began to crystallize out. alcohol was added to precipitate the sodium sulphate completely, the mixture was heated and filtered. the alcoholic filtrate was concentrated to a syrup which reduced fehling solution and gave the characteristic tests for rhamnose already described. by this hydrolysis, the tar was split up into rhamnose and some form of gallic acid which could be precipitated by sodium carbonate. this compound, whose acetic acid solution was yellow, probably contained fisetin also. the reason for this last statement will appear from the following experiment: decomposition of the poison with acetic acid. a portion of the poisonous tar was heated in an open dish with strong acetic acid. the tar seemed to be decomposed to some extent, giving a yellow substance. acetic acid was added from time to time as it evaporated. after several evaporations, water was added, the mixture was heated to boiling and filtered. this filtrate no. will be mentioned later. the residue in the dish consisted of undecomposed tar and an olive-green flaky substance. this substance was heated with a fresh portion of glacial acetic acid. water was added, and the mixture was boiled and filtered. the filtrate had a deep yellow color suggesting fisetin. it was shaken out with ethyl acetate which became colored yellow. a portion of the ethyl acetate solution gave an orange red precipitate with lead acetate showing the presence of fisetin. the ethyl acetate was removed from the remainder of the solution by evaporation and the yellow residue was taken up in alcohol. this alcoholic solution gave the characteristic reactions for fisetin with stannous chloride, with potassium hydroxide, with ferric chloride and with fehling solution. filtrate no. obtained by heating the poisonous tar with acetic acid and hot water as described above was investigated as follows: a portion of it gave a reddish colored precipitate with sodium carbonate as in the case when the tar was hydrolyzed with sulphuric acid. the remainder was nearly neutralized with sodium carbonate and lead acetate was added in excess to remove gallic acid. the excess of lead was removed by sulphuric acid, and the sulphuric acid was removed by barium carbonate. the solution on evaporation reduced fehling solution to some extent, but a white precipitate was also formed. in this experiment, gallic acid and fisetin and probably sugar were formed by decomposition of the poisonous gum with acetic acid, the acid found in the plant by pfaff. the presence of free gallic acid, fisetin and rhamnose in the plant can therefore be explained by the natural hydrolysis of a complex gum or tar or a constituent thereof. the poisonous property is lost in the general rearrangement which takes place during hydrolysis. the poisonous tar was not hydrolyzed by boiling with a dilute solution of sodium carbonate. it was found, as has been stated elsewhere, that the lead compound of the poison could not be precipitated in per cent. alcohol. further experiments, however, showed that on extracting the poisonous gum with per cent. alcohol, a portion of it dissolved, and this solution gave a precipitate with lead acetate which was a true lead compound. the remainder of the purified tar (about gm.) was treated with per cent. alcohol and filtered. very little dissolved in alcohol of this strength, but on addition of lead acetate in per cent. alcohol to the solution, a light colored precipitate was formed, which became dark on standing. it was filtered off, washed free from lead acetate, decomposed by hydrogen sulphide, and shaken out with ether. the ether left, on evaporation, a yellow resinous substance having a faint odor like garlic. by drying in a desiccator, a small quantity of a solid yellow resin was obtained which was completely soluble in alcohol. a very small drop of this solution applied to the skin on the end of a glass rod which had been drawn out to a point caused an eruption in about thirty-six hours. following the nomenclature used by maisch and pfaff, this substance will be designated as _toxicodendrin_, the ending "in" indicating its glucoside nature. the filtrate from the lead precipitate just described was freed from the excess of lead acetate by hydrogen sulphide, was tested for poison, and was found to be poisonous, showing that the precipitation by lead acetate was not complete even in per cent. alcohol. on spontaneous evaporation of the solution, a yellow, sweet smelling resin was left. a portion of the alcoholic solution of the toxicodendrin gave a dark coloration with ferric chloride, did not reduce fehling solution and was slightly acid to litmus. to see whether the toxicodendrin could be hydrolyzed, the remainder was dissolved in alcohol and dilute sulphuric acid was added. a fine, white precipitate was formed at once which rose to the surface on standing as a light flocculent substance. the mixture was heated for several days on a water bath, filtered from unhydrolyzed resin and the filtrate was neutralized and concentrated in the way already described. the solution obtained reduced fehling solution. not enough was obtained for further sugar tests, but all the hydrolysis experiments point to the conclusion that the poisonous substance is a rhamnoside, and is the source of the sugar in the plant. the reaction with ferric chloride observed whenever a lead compound of the poison is decomposed by hydrogen sulphide may be explained by the formation of traces of gallic acid or fisetin through the action of the weak acids present. the supply of purified poisonous tar having been exhausted in the preceding experiments, further study of the active principle is postponed until more can be prepared. it is highly desirable to investigate the white precipitate formed by addition of sulphuric acid to an alcoholic solution of the toxicodendrin. oxidation of the purified tar with nitric acid. when the purified poisonous material (p. ) was extracted with per cent. alcohol, only a small quantity was dissolved as was stated above. the insoluble residue was treated with fuming nitric acid. violent reaction took place at once with copious evolution of red fumes and heat. when the reaction was over, a sticky red gummy mass was left which was slightly soluble in cold water and readily soluble in warm alcohol. the water extract was yellow, and the alcoholic solution was red. that the water extract contained picric acid was shown by the following experiments: ( ) a portion was gently warmed with a few drops of a strong solution of potassium cyanide and two drops of sodium hydroxide. the red color of potassium isopurpurate was formed. ( ) a portion of the water solution was heated with glucose and a few drops of sodium hydroxide. the deep red color of picraminic acid was produced. ( ) a few drops of an ammoniacal solution of copper sulphate was added to the water extract. a yellow-green precipitate was formed. ( ) the water extract dyed silk, but did not dye cotton cloth. distillation of the tar with soda lime. about gm. of the tar left after extracting the original material with hot water was dissolved in ether and poured into a glass retort containing soda lime. the ether was distilled out, leaving the tar intimately mixed with the soda lime. the retort was then gradually heated. vapors and liquid were given off, both of which turned red litmus blue and had a strong odor like tobacco smoke. no odor of ammonia was detected.[ ] at the high temperature of the triple burner, a semi-solid, red, greasy substance collected in and closed the condenser tube. this substance had the same powerful odor as the liquid portion of the distillate. the clear, watery portion of the distillate was separated from the thicker parts, and was found to contain pyrrol and pyridine derivatives by the following characteristic tests: ( ) wood moistened with hydrochloric acid was turned red by it. ( ) colorless fumes were formed when brought near hydrochloric acid; mixed with hydrochloric acid, a red insoluble substance was formed. ( ) it precipitated the hydroxides of iron, gave a light blue precipitate with copper sulphate, and a white precipitate with mercuric chloride. the greasy, semi-solid mass was extracted with per cent. hydrochloric acid and filtered. on addition of a solution of mercuric chloride to the red filtrate, a brown flocculent precipitate was formed. it was filtered off and distilled with caustic soda, but the distillate did not contain pyridine. potassium permanganate as a remedy for rhus poisoning.[ ] in the early stages of this work some experiments were made to see if potassium permanganate could be used to purify the lead precipitate by oxidizing the tar brought down in precipitation. it was found that the permanganate attacked the lead precipitate as well as the other organic matter in the vessel. this fact and the well-known value of permanganate in treating skin diseases, its use as an antidote for some kinds of alkaloid poisoning,[ ] as an antidote given to cattle poisoned by plants,[ ] and as an antidote for snake bites,[ ] suggested its use as a remedy for rhus poisoning. maisch[ ] mentioned that he had used it with success, but it never came into general use, probably on account of its staining the skin and clothing. in carrying out this work abundant opportunities for testing its value as a remedy for the dermatitis caused by poison ivy were afforded by many cases of accidental and intentional poisoning. the best example of the latter was obtained with the ether solution from the extraction of the lead precipitate in the soxhlet apparatus (page ). after removing the ether, a small drop of the residue was applied to the wrist as described. an itching red spot about the size of a dime was noticed in thirty-six hours, and it steadily increased in size. nearly two days after the application of the poison, a dilute solution of potassium permanganate containing a little caustic potash was rubbed into the spot until the pimples were destroyed. a little black spot was left wherever there had been a pimple, showing that the permanganate had been reduced to oxide in the skin. the place was washed and nothing more was thought of it until the morning following, when it was noticed that the wrist had commenced to swell during the night, and the characteristic watery secretion was running from the poisoned spot. more permanganate solution was applied without potash and the wrist was bandaged, thinking that this would prevent the spreading of the eruption, but it really facilitated spreading by becoming saturated with the poisonous fluid and keeping it in contact with a larger surface of skin. in the meantime the swelling and inflammation had extended nearly to the elbow. the arm now had the appearance of having been bitten by a snake. to reduce the swelling it was immersed in hot water. this seemed to bring out the eruption very quickly and the blisters were treated with permanganate as fast as they appeared. the swelling was reduced, but returned during the night. on the evening following, the forearm was immersed in a bowl of hot permanganate solution containing a little caustic potash. the solution was kept as hot as could be borne for about half an hour. after this bath, the poison was completely oxidized, for the swelling was reduced and did not return, nor was there any fresh eruption. what appeared to be a severe case of poisoning was thus cured very quickly. the use of hot water not only reduces the swelling, but also helps to destroy the poison. the action of permanganate is also more rapid at high temperatures. the oxidizing power of permanganate, as is well known, is greater in acid solution than in alkaline, five atoms of oxygen being available in the former and three in the latter, according to these equations: kmno_{ } + h_{ }so_{ } = k_{ }so_{ } + mnso_{ } + h_{ }o + o. kmno_{ } + h_{ }o = mno_{ } + koh + o. permanganate was used as a remedy in some cases mixed with dilute sulphuric acid, and in others, with zinc sulphate; also with lime water. it was found to be satisfactory whether used alone or with any of the substances mentioned, provided it was well rubbed into the skin. the concentration of the solution used was varied according to the location and condition of the eruption. where the skin was thin or already broken, dilute solutions (one per cent.) were used. in one case, the eruption appeared in the palm of the hand where the skin was so thick that it was necessary to open it before the remedies could reach the poison. the difficulty of getting the remedy in contact with the poison in the skin is the reason why the eruption is hard to cure. the remedy most commonly used for this eruption is an alcoholic solution of lead acetate. this remedy is unsatisfactory for the reason that its action consists in depositing an unstable lead compound of the poison in the skin where the conditions of moisture and temperature are favorable for its decomposition, liberating the poison with all its irritant properties. moreover, alcoholic preparations should not be used because the alcohol dissolves the poison and, on evaporation, leaves it spread over a larger surface like a varnish. potassium permanganate, however, oxidizes the poison completely. the only objection to the use of permanganate of which the writer is aware is that it stains the skin. the stain can be removed by vigorous scrubbing with soap, or it will wear off gradually in a few days. it can be removed at once by certain acids, but these should not be used by persons not familiar with their action. with the knowledge of the facts mentioned, many solutions were tested for poison by applying them to the skin, and when an eruption appeared, it was cured quickly and permanently by rubbing in a permanganate solution, usually mixed with dilute sulphuric acid. footnotes: [ ] nitrogen was found very readily by the soda lime test in the tar left after extracting the original material with per cent. alcohol, but was not found by the lassaign test. [ ] stevens. amer. jour. pharm. , , june, . [ ] whenever it is stated in this paper that a solution was poisonous or not poisonous, the test was made by the writer upon himself. [ ] liebig's annalen, cxi, p. . [ ] Über mategerbstoff, p. . [ ] bull. soc. chim. (ii), vol. , ( ). [ ] berichte , ( ). [ ] jour. chem. soc. , ( ). [ ] berichte , . [ ] ibid. ; annalen, , . [ ] biochem. pflan. ii, . [ ] ann. de chim. et de phys., th series, xxii, ( ). [ ] treatise on chem., vol. iii, pt. iii, . [ ] les sucres; chem. der zuck.; biochem. der pflan. [ ] chem. zeit. , rep. . [ ] loc. cit. , . [ ] on standing several weeks, a small quantity of tar separated out on the walls of the vessel, also a brown precipitate which was filtered off, suspended in water, and hydrogen sulphide was being passed in when an accident occurred and it was lost. [ ] "by warming with alkalies or barium hydroxide, rhamnose is colored yellow." chem. der zuck. i, . [ ] ibid. . [ ] ibid. [ ] rayman, sur l'isodulcite, _bull. soc. chim._ , ( ). [ ] acides gummiques. [ ] berichte xx, pp. , , , . [ ] ann. de chim. et de phys. ( ) xxii, ( ). [ ] biochem. der pflan. i, . [ ] comptes rendus cxv, . [ ] amer. chem. jour. , . [ ] amer. jour. pharm. , (june, ); , (feb., ). [ ] a wax obtained from _rhus succedanea_ was shown by stahmer to contain palmitic acid and glycerol in the form of glycerol palmitate. _annalen_ , , ( ). [ ] see amer. jour. pharm. , . [ ] this section is added in the hope that it may be of use to others who are subject to this form of poisoning. [ ] moor, n. y. med. rec. ( ), . [ ] bull. no. , u. s. dept. agr., div. of bot. . [ ] lacerda, comptes rendus ( ) - . [ ] amer. jour. med. sci. ( ), . summary. leaves and flowers of the poison ivy plant were extracted with ether and the ether was removed by evaporation. in the residue, the following substances were found and studied: gallic acid, fisetin, the sugar rhamnose, and a poisonous tar, gum, or wax. the lead compound of the poison was soluble in ether; this fact gave a means of separating the poisonous substance from the non-poisonous matter in one operation. the poison was not volatile with vapor of acetic acid, or with vapor of alcohol. the poisonous tar or wax was decomposed by acids and yielded gallic acid, fisetin, and rhamnose, showing the probable source of these compounds in the plant, and indicating that the poison is a complex substance of a glucoside nature. it was found that a portion of the poisonous substance could be precipitated by lead acetate from a solution of the purified tar in per cent. alcohol. all cases of poisoning developed on the writer were easily cured with potassium permanganate. the following method is suggested for obtaining the poisonous substance from the plant: extract the plant with alcohol, filter, and precipitate at once with lead acetate. wash the precipitate, dry, and extract with ether in soxhlet extractors (loosely filled). combine the ether extracts, mix with water, and pass in hydrogen sulphide. separate the water and the ether solution, and filter the latter. wash the ether solution thoroughly by shaking with water, and then evaporate at a low temperature. biography. william anderson syme, the author of this dissertation, was born in raleigh, n. c., on july , . he was prepared for college at the raleigh male academy, entered the north carolina college of agriculture and mechanic arts in , and was graduated in with the degree b. s. he was an instructor in chemistry at the same college from january st, , until june, , when he received the degree m. s. for graduate work. in october following, he entered johns hopkins university as a graduate student in chemistry, and was awarded one of the north carolina scholarships. his minor subjects are physical chemistry and biology. +---------------------------------------------------------------------+ | notice | | | | the medical knowledge represented in this book is over a century | | old. the publication of this book is for historical interest only, | [page i] insectivorous plants. [page ii.] by the same author. --- on the origin of species by means of natural selection; or, the preservation of favored races in the struggle for life. new and revised edition. mo. cloth. pages. price, $ . . the descent of man, and selection in relation to sex. with illustrations. new edition, revised and augmented. mo. cloth. pages. price, $ . . a naturalist's voyage round the world; or, a journal of researches into the natural history and geology of the countries visited during the voyage of h.m.s. beagle, under the command of captain fitz-roy, r.n. mo. cloth. pages. price, $ . . the expression of the emotions in man and animals. with photographic and other illustrations. mo. cloth. price, $ . . ---- the theory of descent, and darwinism. by prof. oscar schmidt, university of strasburg. mo. cloth. price, $ . . [page iii.] insectivorous plants by charles darwin, m.a., f.r.s. etc. with illustrations. [page iv.] [page v.] contents. chapter i. drosera rotundifolia, or the common sun-dew. number of insects captured--description of the leaves and their appendages or tentacles-- preliminary sketch of the action of the various parts, and of the manner in which insects are captured--duration of the inflection of the tentacles--nature of the secretion--manner in which insects are carried to the centre of the leaf--evidence that the glands have the power of absorption--small size of the roots...pages - chapter ii. the movements of the tentacles from the contact of solid bodies. inflection of the exterior tentacles owing to the glands of the disc being excited by repeated touches, or by objects left in contact with them--difference in the action of bodies yielding and not yielding soluble nitrogenous matter--inflection of the exterior tentacles directly caused by objects left in contact with their glands--periods of commencing inflection and of subsequent re-expansion--extreme minuteness of the particles causing inflection--action under water--inflection of the exterior tentacles when their glands are excited by repeated touches--falling drops of water do not cause inflection... - [page vi.] chapter iii. aggregation of the protoplasm within the cells of the tentacles. nature of the contents of the cells before aggregation--various causes which excite aggregation--the process commences within the glands and travels down the tentacles-- description of the aggregated masses and of their spontaneous movements--currents of protoplasm along the walls of the cells--action of carbonate of ammonia--the granules in the protoplasm which flows along the walls coalesce with the central masses--minuteness of the quantity of carbonate of ammonia causing aggregation--action of other salts of ammonia--of other substances, organic fluids, &c.--of water--of heat--redissolution of the aggregated masses--proximate causes of the aggregation of the protoplasm--summary and concluding remarks--supplementary observations on aggregation in the roots of plants...pages - chapter iv. the effects of heat on the leaves. nature of the experiments--effects of boiling water--warm water causes rapid inflection-- water at a higher temperature does not cause immediate inflection, but does not kill the leaves, as shown by their subsequent re-expansion and by the aggregation of the protoplasm-- a still higher temperature kills the leaves and coagulates the albuminous contents of the glands... - chapter v. the effects of non-nitrogenous and nitrogenous organic fluids on the leaves. non-nitrogenous fluids--solutions of gum arabic--sugar--starch--diluted alcohol--olive oil-- infusion and decoction of tea--nitrogenous fluids--milk--urine--liquid albumen--infusion of raw meat--impure mucus--saliva--solution of isinglass--difference in the action of these two sets of fluids--decoction of green peas--decoction and infusion of cabbage--decoction of grass leaves... - [page vii.] chapter vi. the digestive power of the secretion of drosera. the secretion rendered acid by the direct and indirect excitement of the glands--nature of the acid--digestible substances--albumen, its digestion arrested by alkalies, recommences by the addition of an acid--meat--fibrin--syntonin--areolar tissue--cartilage--fibro-cartilage-- bone--enamel and dentine--phosphate of lime--fibrous basis of bone--gelatine--chondrin-- milk, casein and cheese--gluten--legumin--pollen--globulin--haematin--indigestible substances--epidermic productions--fibro-elastic tissue--mucin--pepsin--urea--chitine-- cellulose--gun-cotton--chlorophyll--fat and oil--starch--action of the secretion on living seeds--summary and concluding remarks...pages - chapter vii. the effects of salts of ammonia. manner of performing the experiments--action of distilled water in comparison with the solutions--carbonate of ammonia, absorbed by the roots--the vapour absorbed by the glands- -drops on the disc--minute drops applied to separate glands--leaves immersed in weak solutions--minuteness of the doses which induce aggregation of the protoplasm--nitrate of ammonia, analogous experiments with--phosphate of ammonia, analogous experiments with- -other salts of ammonia--summary and concluding remarks on the action of salts of ammonia... - chapter viii. the effects of various other salts, and acids, on the leaves. salts of sodium, potassium, and other alkaline, earthy, and metallic salts--summary on the action of these salts--various acids--summary on their action... - [page viii.] chapter ix. the effects of certain alkaloid poisons, other substances and vapours. strychnine, salts of--quinine, sulphate of, does not soon arrest the movement of the protoplasm--other salts of quinine--digitaline--nicotine--atropine--veratrine--colchicine-- theine--curare--morphia--hyoscyamus--poison of the cobra, apparently accelerates the movements of the protoplasm--camphor, a powerful stimulant, its vapour narcotic--certain essential oils excite movement--glycerine--water and certain solutions retard or prevent the subsequent action of phosphate of ammonia--alcohol innocuous, its vapour narcotic and poisonous--chloroform, sulphuric and nitric ether, their stimulant, poisonous, and narcotic power--carbonic acid narcotic, not quickly poisonous--concluding remarks...pages - chapter x. on the sensitiveness of the leaves, and on the lines of transmission of the motor impulse. glands and summits of the tentacles alone sensitive--transmission of the motor impulse down the pedicels of the tentacles, and across the blade of the leaf--aggregation of the protoplasm, a reflex action--first discharge of the motor impulse sudden--direction of the movements of the tentacles--motor impulse transmitted through the cellular tissue-- mechanism of the movements--nature of the motor impulse--re-expansion of the tentacles... - chapter xi. recapitulation of the chief observations on drosera rotundifolia. - [page ix.] chapter xii. on the structure and movements of some other species of drosera. drosera anglica--drosera intermedia--drosera capensis--drosera spathulata--drosera filiformis--drosera binata--concluding remarks...pages - chapter xiii. dionaea muscipula. structure of the leaves--sensitiveness of the filaments--rapid movement of the lobes caused by irritation of the filaments--glands, their power of secretion--slow movement caused by the absorption of animal matter--evidence of absorption from the aggregated condition of the glands--digestive power of the secretion--action of chloroform, ether, and hydrocyanic acid- -the manner in which insects are captured--use of the marginal spikes--kinds of insects captured--the transmission of the motor impulse and mechanism of the movements-- re-expansion of the lobes... - chapter xiv. aldrovanda vesiculosa. captures crustaceans--structure of the leaves in comparison with those of dionaea-- absorption by the glands, by the quadrifid processes, and points on the infolded margins-- aldrovanda vesiculosa, var. australis--captures prey--absorption of animal matter-- aldrovanda vesiculosa, var. verticillata--concluding remarks... - chapter xv. drosophyllum--roridula--byblis--glandular hairs of other plants-- concluding remarks on the droseraceae. drosophyllum--structure of leaves--nature of the secretion--manner of catching insects-- power of absorption--digestion of animal substances--summary on drosophyllum--roridula- -byblis--glandular hairs of other plants, their power of absorption--saxifraga--primula-- pelargonium--erica--mirabilis--nicotiana--summary on glandular hairs--concluding remarks on the droseraceae... - [page x.] chapter xvi. pinguicula. pinguicula vulgaris--structure of leaves--number of insects and other objects caught-- movement of the margins of the leaves--uses of this movement--secretion, digestion, and absorption--action of the secretion on various animal and vegetable substances--the effects of substances not containing soluble nitrogenous matter on the glands--pinguicula grandiflora--pinguicula lusitanica, catches insects--movement of the leaves, secretion and digestion...pages - chapter xvii. utricularia. utricularia neglecta--structure of the bladder--the uses of the several parts--number of imprisoned animals--manner of capture--the bladders cannot digest animal matter, but absorb the products of its decay--experiments on the absorption of certain fluids by the quadrifid processes--absorption by the glands--summary of the observation on absorption-- development of the bladders--utricularia vulgaris--utricularia minor--utricularia clandestina... - chapter xviii. utricularia (continued). utricularia montana--description of the bladders on the subterranean rhizomes--prey captured by the bladders of plants under culture and in a state of nature--absorption by the quadrifid processes and glands--tubers serving as reservoirs for water--various other species of utricularia--polypompholyx--genlisea, different nature of the trap for capturing prey-- diversified methods by which plants are nourished... - ----- index... - [page ] insectivorous plants. ----- chapter i. drosera rotundifolia, or the common sun-dew. number of insects captured--description of the leaves and their appendages or tentacles-- preliminary sketch of the action of the various parts, and of the manner in which insects are captured--duration of the inflection of the tentacles--nature of the secretion--manner in which insects are carried to the centre of the leaf--evidence that the glands have the power of absorption--small size of the roots. during the summer of , i was surprised by finding how large a number of insects were caught by the leaves of the common sun-dew (drosera rotundifolia) on a heath in sussex. i had heard that insects were thus caught, but knew nothing further on the subject.* i * as dr. nitschke has given ('bot. zeitung,' , p. ) the bibliography of drosera, i need not here go into details. most of the notices published before are brief and unimportant. the oldest paper seems to have been one of the most valuable, namely, by dr. roth, in . there is also an interesting though short account of the habits of drosera by dr. milde, in the 'bot. zeitung,' , p. . in , in the 'annales des sc. nat. bot.' tom. iii. pp. and , mm. groenland and trcul each published papers, with figures, on the structure of the leaves; but m. trcul went so far as to doubt whether they possessed any power of movement. dr. nitschke's papers in the 'bot. zeitung' for and are by far the most important ones which have been published, both on the habits and structure of this plant; and i shall frequently have occasion to quote from them. his discussions on several points, for instance on the transmission of an excitement from one part of the leaf to another, are excellent. on december , , mr. j. scott read a paper before the botanical society of edinburgh, [[page ]] which was published in the 'gardeners' chronicle,' , p. . mr. scott shows that gentle irritation of the hairs, as well as insects placed on the disc of the leaf, cause the hairs to bend inwards. mr. a.w. bennett also gave another interesting account of the movements of the leaves before the british association for . in this same year dr. warming published an essay, in which he describes the structure of the so-called hairs, entitled, "sur la diffrence entre les trichomes," &c., extracted from the proceedings of the soc. d'hist. nat. de copenhague. i shall also have occasion hereafter to refer to a paper by mrs. treat, of new jersey, on some american species of drosera. dr. burdon sanderson delivered a lecture on dionaea, before the royal institution published in 'nature,' june , , in which a short account of my observations on the power of true digestion possessed by drosera and dionaea first appeared. prof. asa gray has done good service by calling attention to drosera, and to other plants having similar habits, in 'the nation' ( , pp. and ), and in other publications. dr. hooker, also, in his important address on carnivorous plants (brit. assoc., belfast, ), has given a history of the subject. [page ] gathered by chance a dozen plants, bearing fifty-six fully expanded leaves, and on thirty-one of these dead insects or remnants of them adhered; and, no doubt, many more would have been caught afterwards by these same leaves, and still more by those as yet not expanded. on one plant all six leaves had caught their prey; and on several plants very many leaves had caught more than a single insect. on one large leaf i found the remains of thirteen distinct insects. flies (diptera) are captured much oftener than other insects. the largest kind which i have seen caught was a small butterfly (caenonympha pamphilus); but the rev. h.m. wilkinson informs me that he found a large living dragon-fly with its body firmly held by two leaves. as this plant is extremely common in some districts, the number of insects thus annually slaughtered must be prodigious. many plants cause the death of insects, for instance the sticky buds of the horse-chestnut (aesculus hippocastanum), without thereby receiving, as far as we can perceive, any advantage; but it was soon evident that drosera was [page ] excellently adapted for the special purpose of catching insects, so that the subject seemed well worthy of investigation. the results have proved highly remarkable; the more important ones being--firstly, the extraordinary fig. .* (drosera rotundifolia.) leaf viewed from above; enlarged four times. sensitiveness of the glands to slight pressure and to minute doses of certain nitrogenous fluids, as shown by the movements of the so-called hairs or tentacles; * the drawings of drosera and dionaea, given in this work, were made for me by my son george darwin; those of aldrovanda, and of the several species of utricularia, by my son francis. they have been excellently reproduced on wood by mr. cooper, strand. [page ] secondly, the power possessed by the leaves of rendering soluble or digesting nitrogenous substances, and of afterwards absorbing them; thirdly, the changes which take place within the cells of the tentacles, when the glands are excited in various ways. it is necessary, in the first place, to describe briefly the plant. it bears from two or three to five or six leaves, generally extended more or less horizontally, but sometimes standing vertically upwards. the shape and general appearance of a leaf is shown, as seen from above, in fig. , and as seen laterally, in fig. . the leaves are commonly a little broader than long, fig. . (drosera rotundifolia.) old leaf viewed laterally; enlarged about five times. but this was not the case in the one here figured. the whole upper surface is covered with gland-bearing filaments, or tentacles, as i shall call them, from their manner of acting. the glands were counted on thirty-one leaves, but many of these were of unusually large size, and the average number was ; the greatest number being , and the least . the glands are each surrounded by large drops of extremely viscid secretion, which, glittering in the sun, have given rise to the plant's poetical name of the sun-dew. [the tentacles on the central part of the leaf or disc are short and stand upright, and their pedicels are green. towards the margin they become longer and longer and more inclined [page ] outwards, with their pedicels of a purple colour. those on the extreme margin project in the same plane with the leaf, or more commonly (see fig. ) are considerably reflexed. a few tentacles spring from the base of the footstalk or petiole, and these are the longest of all, being sometimes nearly / of an inch in length. on a leaf bearing altogether tentacles, the short ones on the disc, having green pedicels, were in number to the longer submarginal and marginal tentacles, having purple pedicels, as nine to sixteen. a tentacle consists of a thin, straight, hair-like pedicel, carrying a gland on the summit. the pedicel is somewhat flattened, and is formed of several rows of elongated cells, filled with purple fluid or granular matter.* there is, however, a narrow zone close beneath the glands of the longer tentacles, and a broader zone near their bases, of a green tint. spiral vessels, accompanied by simple vascular tissue, branch off from the vascular bundles in the blade of the leaf, and run up all the tentacles into the glands. several eminent physiologists have discussed the homological nature of these appendages or tentacles, that is, whether they ought to be considered as hairs (trichomes) or prolongations of the leaf. nitschke has shown that they include all the elements proper to the blade of a leaf; and the fact of their including vascular tissue was formerly thought to prove that they were prolongations of the leaf, but it is now known that vessels sometimes enter true hairs. the power of movement which they possess is a strong argument against their being viewed as hairs. the conclusion which seems to me the most probable will be given in chap. xv., namely that they existed primordially as glandular hairs, or mere epidermic formations, and that their upper part should still be so considered; but that their lower * according to nitschke ('bot. zeitung,' , p. ) the purple fluid results from the metamorphosis of chlorophyll. mr. sorby examined the colouring matter with the spectroscope, and informs me that it consists of the commonest species of erythrophyll, "which is often met with in leaves with low vitality, and in parts, like the petioles, which carry on leaf-functions in a very imperfect manner. all that can be said, therefore, is that the hairs (or tentacles) are coloured like parts of a leaf which do not fulfil their proper office." dr. nitschke has discussed this subject in 'bot. zeitung,' , p. &c. see also dr. warming ('sur la diffrence entre les trichomes' &c., ), who gives references to various publications. see also groenland and trcul 'annal. des sc. nat. bot.' ( th series), tom. iii. , pp. and . [page ] part, which alone is capable of movement, consists of a prolongation of the leaf; the spiral vessels being extended from this to the uppermost part. we shall hereafter see that the terminal tentacles of the divided leaves of roridula are still in an intermediate condition. the glands, with the exception of those borne by the extreme fig. . (drosera rotundifolia.) longitudinal section of a gland; greatly magnified. from dr. warming. marginal tentacles, are oval, and of nearly uniform size, viz. about / of an inch in length. their structure is remarkable, and their functions complex, for they secrete, absorb, and are acted on by various stimulants. they consist of an outer layer of small polygonal cells, containing purple granular matter or fluid, and with the walls thicker than those of the pedicels. [page ] within this layer of cells there is an inner one of differently shaped ones, likewise filled with purple fluid, but of a slightly different tint, and differently affected by chloride of gold. these two layers are sometimes well seen when a gland has been crushed or boiled in caustic potash. according to dr. warming, there is still another layer of much more elongated cells, as shown in the accompanying section (fig. ) copied from his work; but these cells were not seen by nitschke, nor by me. in the centre there is a group of elongated, cylindrical cells of unequal lengths, bluntly pointed at their upper ends, truncated or rounded at their lower ends, closely pressed together, and remarkable from being surrounded by a spiral line, which can be separated as a distinct fibre. these latter cells are filled with limpid fluid, which after long immersion in alcohol deposits much brown matter. i presume that they are actually connected with the spiral vessels which run up the tentacles, for on several occasions the latter were seen to divide into two or three excessively thin branches, which could be traced close up to the spiriferous cells. their development has been described by dr. warming. cells of the same kind have been observed in other plants, as i hear from dr. hooker, and were seen by me in the margins of the leaves of pinguicula. whatever their function may be, they are not necessary for the secretion of a digestive fluid, or for absorption, or for the communication of a motor impulse to other parts of the leaf, as we may infer from the structure of the glands in some other genera of the droseraceae. the extreme marginal tentacles differ slightly from the others. their bases are broader, and besides their own vessels, they receive a fine branch from those which enter the tentacles on each side. their glands are much elongated, and lie embedded on the upper surface of the pedicel, instead of standing at the apex. in other respects they do not differ essentially from the oval ones, and in one specimen i found every possible transition between the two states. in another specimen there were no long-headed glands. these marginal tentacles lose their irritability earlier than the others; and when a stimulus is applied to the centre of the leaf, they are excited into action after the others. when cut-off leaves are immersed in water, they alone often become inflected. the purple fluid or granular matter which fills the cells of the glands differs to a certain extent from that within the cells of the pedicels. for when a leaf is placed in hot water or in certain acids, the glands become quite white and opaque, whereas [page ] the cells of the pedicels are rendered of a bright red, with the exception of those close beneath the glands. these latter cells lose their pale red tint; and the green matter which they, as well as the basal cells, contain, becomes of a brighter green. the petioles bear many multicellular hairs, some of which near the blade are surmounted, according to nitschke, by a few rounded cells, which appear to be rudimentary glands. both surfaces of the leaf, the pedicels of the tentacles, especially the lower sides of the outer ones, and the petioles, are studded with minute papillae (hairs or trichomes), having a conical basis, and bearing on their summits two, and occasionally three or even four, rounded cells, containing much protoplasm. these papillae are generally colourless, but sometimes include a little purple fluid. they vary in development, and graduate, as nitschke* states, and as i repeatedly observed, into the long multicellular hairs. the latter, as well as the papillae, are probably rudiments of formerly existing tentacles. i may here add, in order not to recur to the papillae, that they do not secrete, but are easily permeated by various fluids: thus when living or dead leaves are immersed in a solution of one part of chloride of gold, or of nitrate of silver, to of water, they are quickly blackened, and the discoloration soon spreads to the surrounding tissue. the long multicellular hairs are not so quickly affected. after a leaf had been left in a weak infusion of raw meat for hours, the cells of the papillae had evidently absorbed animal matter, for instead of limpid fluid they now contained small aggregated masses of protoplasm, which slowly and incessantly changed their forms. a similar result followed from an immersion of only minutes in a solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water, and the adjoining cells of the tentacles, on which the papillae were seated, now likewise contained aggregated masses of protoplasm. we may therefore conclude that when a leaf has closely clasped a captured insect in the manner immediately to be described, the papillae, which project from the upper surface of the leaf and of the tentacles, probably absorb some of the animal matter dissolved in the secretion; but this cannot be the case with the papillae on the backs of the leaves or on the petioles.] * nitschke has elaborately described and figured these papillae, 'bot. zeitung,' , pp. , , . [page ] preliminary sketch of the action of the several parts, and of the manner in which insects are captured. if a small organic or inorganic object be placed on the glands in the centre of a leaf, these transmit a motor impulse to the marginal tentacles. the nearer ones are first affected and slowly bend towards the centre, and then those farther off, until at last all become closely inflected over the object. this takes place in from one hour to four or five or more hours. the difference in the time required depends on many circumstances; namely on the size of the object and on its nature, that is, whether it contains soluble matter of the proper kind; on the vigour and age of the leaf; whether it has lately been in action; and, according to nitschke,* on the temperature of the day, as likewise seemed to me to be the case. a living insect is a more efficient object than a dead one, as in struggling it presses against the glands of many tentacles. an insect, such as a fly, with thin integuments, through which animal matter in solution can readily pass into the surrounding dense secretion, is more efficient in causing prolonged inflection than an insect with a thick coat, such as a beetle. the inflection of the tentacles takes place indifferently in the light and darkness; and the plant is not subject to any nocturnal movement of so-called sleep. if the glands on the disc are repeatedly touched or brushed, although no object is left on them, the marginal tentacles curve inwards. so again, if drops of various fluids, for instance of saliva or of a solution of any salt of ammonia, are placed on the central glands, the same result quickly follows, sometimes in under half an hour. * 'bot. zeitung,' , p. . [page ] the tentacles in the act of inflection sweep through a wide space; thus a marginal tentacle, extended in the same plane with the blade, moves through an angle of o; and i have seen the much reflected tentacles of a leaf which stood upright move through an angle of not less than o. the bending part is almost confined to a short space near the base; but a rather larger portion of the elongated exterior tentacles fig. . (drosera rotundifolia.) leaf (enlarged) with all the tentacles closely inflected, from immersion in a solution of phosphate of ammonia (one part to , of water.) fig. . (drosera rotundifolia.) leaf (enlarged) with the tentacles on one side inflected over a bit of meat placed on the disc. becomes slightly incurved; the distal half in all cases remaining straight. the short tentacles in the centre of the disc when directly excited, do not become inflected; but they are capable of inflection if excited by a motor impulse received from other glands at a distance. thus, if a leaf is immersed in an infusion of raw meat, or in a weak solution of ammonia (if the [page ] solution is at all strong, the leaf is paralysed), all the exterior tentacles bend inwards (see fig. ), excepting those near the centre, which remain upright; but these bend towards any exciting object placed on one side of the disc, as shown in fig. . the glands in fig. may be seen to form a dark ring round the centre; and this follows from the exterior tentacles increasing in length in due proportion, as they stand nearer to the circumference. the kind of inflection which the tentacles undergo is best shown when the gland of one of the long exterior fig. . (drosera rotundifolia.) diagram showing one of the exterior tentacles closely inflected; the two adjoining ones in their ordinary position.) tentacles is in any way excited; for the surrounding ones remain unaffected. in the accompanying outline (fig. ) we see one tentacle, on which a particle of meat had been placed, thus bent towards the centre of the leaf, with two others retaining their original position. a gland may be excited by being simply touched three or four times, or by prolonged contact with organic or inorganic objects, and various fluids. i have distinctly seen, through a lens, a tentacle beginning to bend in ten seconds, after an object had been [page ] placed on its gland; and i have often seen strongly pronounced inflection in under one minute. it is surprising how minute a particle of any substance, such as a bit of thread or hair or splinter of glass, if placed in actual contact with the surface of a gland, suffices to cause the tentacle to bend. if the object, which has been carried by this movement to the centre, be not very small, or if it contains soluble nitrogenous matter, it acts on the central glands; and these transmit a motor impulse to the exterior tentacles, causing them to bend inwards. not only the tentacles, but the blade of the leaf often, but by no means always, becomes much incurved, when any strongly exciting substance or fluid is placed on the disc. drops of milk and of a solution of nitrate of ammonia or soda are particularly apt to produce this effect. the blade is thus converted into a little cup. the manner in which it bends varies greatly. sometimes the apex alone, sometimes one side, and sometimes both sides, become incurved. for instance, i placed bits of hard-boiled egg on three leaves; one had the apex bent towards the base; the second had both distal margins much incurved, so that it became almost triangular in outline, and this perhaps is the commonest case; whilst the third blade was not at all affected, though the tentacles were as closely inflected as in the two previous cases. the whole blade also generally rises or bends upwards, and thus forms a smaller angle with the footstalk than it did before. this appears at first sight a distinct kind of movement, but it results from the incurvation of that part of the margin which is attached to the footstalk, causing the blade, as a whole, to curve or move upwards. the length of time during which the tentacles as [page ] well as the blade remain inflected over an object placed on the disc, depends on various circumstances; namely on the vigour and age of the leaf, and, according to dr. nitschke, on the temperature, for during cold weather when the leaves are inactive, they re-expand at an earlier period than when the weather is warm. but the nature of the object is by far the most important circumstance; i have repeatedly found that the tentacles remain clasped for a much longer average time over objects which yield soluble nitrogenous matter than over those, whether organic or inorganic, which yield no such matter. after a period varying from one to seven days, the tentacles and blade re-expand, and are then ready to act again. i have seen the same leaf inflected three successive times over insects placed on the disc; and it would probably have acted a greater number of times. the secretion from the glands is extremely viscid, so that it can be drawn out into long threads. it appears colourless, but stains little balls of paper pale pink. an object of any kind placed on a gland always causes it, as i believe, to secrete more freely; but the mere presence of the object renders this difficult to ascertain. in some cases, however, the effect was strongly marked, as when particles of sugar were added; but the result in this case is probably due merely to exosmose. particles of carbonate and phosphate of ammonia and of some other salts, for instance sulphate of zinc, likewise increase the secretion. immersion in a solution of one part of chloride of gold, or of some other salts, to of water, excites the glands to largely increased secretion; on the other hand, tartrate of antimony produces no such effect. immersion in many acids (of the strength of one part to of water) likewise causes a wonderful amount of [page ] secretion, so that when the leaves are lifted out, long ropes of extremely viscid fluid hang from them. some acids, on the other hand, do not act in this manner. increased secretion is not necessarily dependent on the inflection of the tentacle, for particles of sugar and of sulphate of zinc cause no movement. it is a much more remarkable fact that when an object, such as a bit of meat or an insect, is placed on the disc of a leaf, as soon as the surrounding tentacles become considerably inflected, their glands pour forth an increased amount of secretion. i ascertained this by selecting leaves with equal-sized drops on the two sides, and by placing bits of meat on one side of the disc; and as soon as the tentacles on this side became much inflected, but before the glands touched the meat, the drops of secretion became larger. this was repeatedly observed, but a record was kept of only thirteen cases, in nine of which increased secretion was plainly observed; the four failures being due either to the leaves being rather torpid, or to the bits of meat being too small to cause much inflection. we must therefore conclude that the central glands, when strongly excited, transmit some influence to the glands of the circumferential tentacles, causing them to secrete more copiously. it is a still more important fact (as we shall see more fully when we treat of the digestive power of the secretion) that when the tentacles become inflected, owing to the central glands having been stimulated mechanically, or by contact with animal matter, the secretion not only increases in quantity, but changes its nature and becomes acid; and this occurs before the glands have touched the object on the centre of the leaf. this acid is of a different nature from that contained in the tissue of the leaves. as long as the [page ] tentacles remain closely inflected, the glands continue to secrete, and the secretion is acid; so that, if neutralised by carbonate of soda, it again becomes acid after a few hours. i have observed the same leaf with the tentacles closely inflected over rather indigestible substances, such as chemically prepared casein, pouring forth acid secretion for eight successive days, and over bits of bone for ten successive days. the secretion seems to possess, like the gastric juice of the higher animals, some antiseptic power. during very warm weather i placed close together two equal-sized bits of raw meat, one on a leaf of the drosera, and the other surrounded by wet moss. they were thus left for hrs., and then examined. the bit on the moss swarmed with infusoria, and was so much decayed that the transverse striae on the muscular fibres could no longer be clearly distinguished; whilst the bit on the leaf, which was bathed by the secretion, was free from infusoria, and its striae were perfectly distinct in the central and undissolved portion. in like manner small cubes of albumen and cheese placed on wet moss became threaded with filaments of mould, and had their surfaces slightly discoloured and disintegrated; whilst those on the leaves of drosera remained clean, the albumen being changed into transparent fluid. as soon as tentacles, which have remained closely inflected during several days over an object, begin to re-expand, their glands secrete less freely, or cease to secrete, and are left dry. in this state they are covered with a film of whitish, semi-fibrous matter, which was held in solution by the secretion. the drying of the glands during the act of re-expansion is of some little service to the plant; for i have often observed that objects adhering to the leaves [page ] could then be blown away by a breath of air; the leaves being thus left unencumbered and free for future action. nevertheless, it often happens that all the glands do not become completely dry; and in this case delicate objects, such as fragile insects, are sometimes torn by the re-expansion of the tentacles into fragments, which remain scattered all over the leaf. after the re-expansion is complete, the glands quickly begin to re-secrete, and as soon as full-sized drops are formed, the tentacles are ready to clasp a new object. when an insect alights on the central disc, it is instantly entangled by the viscid secretion, and the surrounding tentacles after a time begin to bend, and ultimately clasp it on all sides. insects are generally killed, according to dr. nitschke, in about a quarter of an hour, owing to their tracheae being closed by the secretion. if an insect adheres to only a few of the glands of the exterior tentacles, these soon become inflected and carry their prey to the tentacles next succeeding them inwards; these then bend inwards, and so onwards; until the insect is ultimately carried by a curious sort of rolling movement to the centre of the leaf. then, after an interval, the tentacles on all sides become inflected and bathe their prey with their secretion, in the same manner as if the insect had first alighted on the central disc. it is surprising how minute an insect suffices to cause this action: for instance, i have seen one of the smallest species of gnats (culex), which had just settled with its excessively delicate feet on the glands of the outermost tentacles, and these were already beginning to curve inwards, though not a single gland had as yet touched the body of the insect. had i not interfered, this minute gnat would [page ] assuredly have been carried to the centre of the leaf and been securely clasped on all sides. we shall hereafter see what excessively small doses of certain organic fluids and saline solutions cause strongly marked inflection. whether insects alight on the leaves by mere chance, as a resting place, or are attracted by the odour of the secretion, i know not. i suspect from the number of insects caught by the english species of drosera, and from what i have observed with some exotic species kept in my greenhouse, that the odour is attractive. in this latter case the leaves may be compared with a baited trap; in the former case with a trap laid in a run frequented by game, but without any bait. that the glands possess the power of absorption, is shown by their almost instantaneously becoming dark-coloured when given a minute quantity of carbonate of ammonia; the change of colour being chiefly or exclusively due to the rapid aggregation of their contents. when certain other fluids are added, they become pale-coloured. their power of absorption is, however, best shown by the widely different results which follow, from placing drops of various nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous fluids of the same density on the glands of the disc, or on a single marginal gland; and likewise by the very different lengths of time during which the tentacles remain inflected over objects, which yield or do not yield soluble nitrogenous matter. this same conclusion might indeed have been inferred from the structure and movements of the leaves, which are so admirably adapted for capturing insects. the absorption of animal matter from captured insects explains how drosera can flourish in extremely poor peaty soil,--in some cases where nothing but [page ] sphagnum moss grows, and mosses depend altogether on the atmosphere for their nourishment. although the leaves at a hasty glance do not appear green, owing to the purple colour of the tentacles, yet the upper and lower surfaces of the blade, the pedicels of the central tentacles, and the petioles contain chlorophyll, so that, no doubt, the plant obtains and assimilates carbonic acid from the air. nevertheless, considering the nature of the soil where it grows, the supply of nitrogen would be extremely limited, or quite deficient, unless the plant had the power of obtaining this important element from captured insects. we can thus understand how it is that the roots are so poorly developed. these usually consist of only two or three slightly divided branches, from half to one inch in length, furnished with absorbent hairs. it appears, therefore, that the roots serve only to imbibe water; though, no doubt, they would absorb nutritious matter if present in the soil; for as we shall hereafter see, they absorb a weak solution of carbonate of ammonia. a plant of drosera, with the edges of its leaves curled inwards, so as to form a temporary stomach, with the glands of the closely inflected tentacles pouring forth their acid secretion, which dissolves animal matter, afterwards to be absorbed, may be said to feed like an animal. but, differently from an animal, it drinks by means of its roots; and it must drink largely, so as to retain many drops of viscid fluid round the glands, sometimes as many as , exposed during the whole day to a glaring sun. [page ] chapter ii. the movements of the tentacles from the contact of solid bodies. inflection of the exterior tentacles owing to the glands of the disc being excited by repeated touches, or by objects left in contact with them--difference in the action of bodies yielding and not yielding soluble nitrogenous matter--inflection of the exterior tentacles directly caused by objects left in contact with their glands--periods of commencing inflection and of subsequent re-expansion--extreme minuteness of the particles causing inflection--action under water--inflection of the exterior tentacles when their glands are excited by repeated touches--falling drops of water do not cause inflection. i will give in this and the following chapters some of the many experiments made, which best illustrate the manner and rate of movement of the tentacles, when excited in various ways. the glands alone in all ordinary cases are susceptible to excitement. when excited, they do not themselves move or change form, but transmit a motor impulse to the bending part of their own and adjoining tentacles, and are thus carried towards the centre of the leaf. strictly speaking, the glands ought to be called irritable, as the term sensitive generally implies consciousness; but no one supposes that the sensitive-plant is conscious, and as i have found the term convenient, i shall use it without scruple. i will commence with the movements of the exterior tentacles, when indirectly excited by stimulants applied to the glands of the short tentacles on the disc. the exterior tentacles may be said in this case to be indirectly excited, because their own glands are not directly acted on. the stimulus proceeding from the glands of the disc acts on the bending part of the [page ] exterior tentacles, near their bases, and does not (as will hereafter be proved) first travel up the pedicels to the glands, to be then reflected back to the bending place. nevertheless, some influence does travel up to the glands, causing them to secrete more copiously, and the secretion to become acid. this latter fact is, i believe, quite new in the physiology of plants; it has indeed only recently been established that in the animal kingdom an influence can be transmitted along the nerves to glands, modifying their power of secretion, independently of the state of the blood-vessels. the inflection of the exterior tentacles from the glands of the disc being excited by repeated touches, or by objects left in contact with them. the central glands of a leaf were irritated with a small stiff camel-hair brush, and in m. (minutes) several of the outer tentacles were inflected; in hrs. (hours) all the sub-marginal tentacles were inflected; next morning after an interval of about hrs. they were fully re-expanded. in all the following cases the period is reckoned from the time of first irritation. another leaf treated in the same manner had a few tentacles inflected in m.; in hrs. all the submarginal and some of the extreme marginal tentacles, as well as the edge of the leaf itself, were inflected; in hrs. they had recovered their proper, expanded position. i then put a dead fly in the centre of the last-mentioned leaf, and next morning it was closely clasped; five days afterwards the leaf re-expanded, and the tentacles, with their glands surrounded by secretion, were ready to act again. particles of meat, dead flies, bits of paper, wood, dried moss, sponge, cinders, glass, &c., were repeatedly [page ] placed on leaves, and these objects were well embraced in various periods from one hr. to as long as hrs., and set free again, with the leaf fully re-expanded, in from one or two, to seven or even ten days, according to the nature of the object. on a leaf which had naturally caught two flies, and therefore had already closed and reopened either once or more probably twice, i put a fresh fly: in hrs. it was moderately, and in hrs. thoroughly well, clasped, with the edges of the leaf inflected. in two days and a half the leaf had nearly re-expanded; as the exciting object was an insect, this unusually short period of inflection was, no doubt, due to the leaf having recently been in action. allowing this same leaf to rest for only a single day, i put on another fly, and it again closed, but now very slowly; nevertheless, in less than two days it succeeded in thoroughly clasping the fly. when a small object is placed on the glands of the disc, on one side of a leaf, as near as possible to its circumference, the tentacles on this side are first affected, those on the opposite side much later, or, as often occurred, not at all. this was repeatedly proved by trials with bits of meat; but i will here give only the case of a minute fly, naturally caught and still alive, which i found adhering by its delicate feet to the glands on the extreme left side of the central disc. the marginal tentacles on this side closed inwards and killed the fly, and after a time the edge of the leaf on this side also became inflected, and thus remained for several days, whilst neither the tentacles nor the edge on the opposite side were in the least affected. if young and active leaves are selected, inorganic particles not larger than the head of a small pin, placed on the central glands, sometimes cause the [page ] outer tentacles to bend inwards. but this follows much more surely and quickly, if the object contains nitrogenous matter which can be dissolved by the secretion. on one occasion i observed the following unusual circumstance. small bits of raw meat (which acts more energetically than any other substance), of paper, dried moss, and of the quill of a pen were placed on several leaves, and they were all embraced equally well in about hrs. on other occasions the above-named substances, or more commonly particles of glass, coal-cinder (taken from the fire), stone, gold-leaf, dried grass, cork, blotting-paper, cotton-wool, and hair rolled up into little balls, were used, and these substances, though they were sometimes well embraced, often caused no movement whatever in the outer tentacles, or an extremely slight and slow movement. yet these same leaves were proved to be in an active condition, as they were excited to move by substances yielding soluble nitrogenous matter, such as bits of raw or roast meat, the yolk or white of boiled eggs, fragments of insects of all orders, spiders, &c. i will give only two instances. minute flies were placed on the discs of several leaves, and on others balls of paper, bits of moss and quill of about the same size as the flies, and the latter were well embraced in a few hours; whereas after hrs. only a very few tentacles were inflected over the other objects. the bits of paper, moss, and quill were then removed from these leaves, and bits of raw meat placed on them; and now all the tentacles were soon energetically inflected. again, particles of coal-cinder (weighing rather more than the flies used in the last experiment) were placed on the centres of three leaves: after an interval of hrs. one of the particles was tolerably well embraced; [page ] a second by a very few tentacles; and a third by none. i then removed the particles from the two latter leaves, and put on them recently killed flies. these were fairly well embraced in / hrs. and thoroughly after / hrs.; the tentacles remaining inflected for many subsequent days. on the other hand, the one leaf which had in the course of hrs. embraced the bit of cinder moderately well, and to which no fly was given, after an additional hrs. (i.e. in hrs. from the time when the cinder was put on) was completely re-expanded and ready to act again. from these and numerous other experiments not worth giving, it is certain that inorganic substances, or such organic substances as are not attacked by the secretion, act much less quickly and efficiently than organic substances yielding soluble matter which is absorbed. moreover, i have met with very few exceptions to the rule, and these exceptions apparently depended on the leaf having been too recently in action, that the tentacles remain clasped for a much longer time over organic bodies of the nature just specified than over those which are not acted on by the secretion, or over inorganic objects.* * owing to the extraordinary belief held by m. ziegler ('comptes rendus,' may , p. ), that albuminous substances, if held for a moment between the fingers, acquire the property of making the tentacles of drosera contract, whereas, if not thus held, they have no such power, i tried some experiments with great care, but the results did not confirm this belief. red-hot cinders were taken out of the fire, and bits of glass, cotton-thread, blotting paper and thin slices of cork were immersed in boiling water; and particles were then placed (every instrument with which they were touched having been previously immersed in boiling water) on the glands of several leaves, and they acted in exactly the same manner as other particles, which had been purposely handled for some time. bits of a boiled egg, cut with a knife which had been washed in boiling water, also acted like any other animal substance. i breathed on some leaves for above a minute, and repeated the act two or three times, with my mouth close to [[page ]] them, but this produced no effect. i may here add, as showing that the leaves are not acted on by the odour of nitrogenous substances, that pieces of raw meat stuck on needles were fixed as close as possible, without actual contact, to several leaves, but produced no effect whatever. on the other hand, as we shall hereafter see, the vapours of certain volatile substances and fluids, such as of carbonate of ammonia, chloroform, certain essential oils, &c., cause inflection. m. ziegler makes still more extraordinary statements with respect to the power of animal substances, which have been left close to, but not in contact with, sulphate of quinine. the action of salts of quinine will be described in a future chapter. since the appearance of the paper above referred to, m. ziegler has published a book on the same subject, entitled 'atonicit et zoicit,' .) [page ] the inflection of the exterior tentacles as directly caused by objects left in contact with their glands. i made a vast number of trials by placing, by means of a fine needle moistened with distilled water, and with the aid of a lens, particles of various substances on the viscid secretion surrounding the glands of the outer tentacles. i experimented on both the oval and long-headed glands. when a particle is thus placed on a single gland, the movement of the tentacle is particularly well seen in contrast with the stationary condition of the surrounding tentacles. (see previous fig. .) in four cases small particles of raw meat caused the tentacles to be greatly inflected in between and m. another tentacle similarly treated, and observed with special care, distinctly, though slightly, changed its position in s. (seconds); and this is the quickest movement seen by me. in m. s. it had moved through an angle of about o. the movement as seen through a lens resembled that of the hand of a large clock. in m. it had moved through o, and when i looked again after m., the particle had reached the centre of the leaf; so that the whole movement was completed in less [page ] than m. s. in the course of some hours this minute bit of meat, from having been brought into contact with some of the glands of the central disc, acted centrifugally on the outer tentacles, which all became closely inflected. fragments of flies were placed on the glands of four of the outer tentacles, extended in the same plane with that of the blade, and three of these fragments were carried in m. through an angle of o to the centre. the fragment on the fourth tentacle was very minute, and it was not carried to the centre until hrs. had elapsed. in three other cases minute flies or portions of larger ones were carried to the centre in hr. s. in these seven cases, the fragments or small flies, which had been carried by a single tentacle to the central glands, were well embraced by the other tentacles after an interval of from to hrs. i also placed in the manner just described six small balls of writing-paper (rolled up by the aid of pincers, so that they were not touched by my fingers) on the glands of six exterior tentacles on distinct leaves; three of these were carried to the centre in about hr., and the other three in rather more than hrs.; but after hrs. only two of the six balls were well embraced by the other tentacles. it is possible that the secretion may have dissolved a trace of glue or animalised matter from the balls of paper. four particles of coal-cinder were then placed on the glands of four exterior tentacles; one of these reached the centre in hrs. m.; the second in hrs.; the third within hrs., but had moved only part of the way in hrs.; whilst the fourth moved only a very short distance in hrs., and never moved any farther. of the above three bits of cinder which were ultimately carried to the centre, one alone was well embraced by [page ] many of the other tentacles. we here see clearly that such bodies as particles of cinder or little balls of paper, after being carried by the tentacles to the central glands, act very differently from fragments of flies, in causing the movement of the surrounding tentacles. i made, without carefully recording the times of movement, many similar trials with other substances, such as splinters of white and blue glass, particles of cork, minute bits of gold-leaf, &c.; and the proportional number of cases varied much in which the tentacles reached the centre, or moved only slightly, or not at all. one evening, particles of glass and cork, rather larger than those usually employed, were placed on about a dozen glands, and next morning, after hrs., every single tentacle had carried its little load to the centre; but the unusually large size of the particles will account for this result. in another case / of the particles of cinder, glass, and thread, placed on separate glands, were carried towards, or actually to, the centre; in another case / , in another / , and in the last case only / were thus carried inwards, the small proportion being here due, at least in part, to the leaves being rather old and inactive. occasionally a gland, with its light load, could be seen through a strong lens to move an extremely short distance and then stop; this was especially apt to occur when excessively minute particles, much less than those of which the measurements will be immediately given, were placed on glands; so that we here have nearly the limit of any action. i was so much surprised at the smallness of the particles which caused the tentacles to become greatly inflected that it seemed worth while carefully to ascertain how minute a particle would plainly act. [page ] accordingly measured lengths of a narrow strip of blotting paper, of fine cotton-thread, and of a woman's hair, were carefully weighed for me by mr. trenham reeks, in an excellent balance, in the laboratory in jermyn street. short bits of the paper, thread, and hair were then cut off and measured by a micrometer, so that their weights could be easily calculated. the bits were placed on the viscid secretion surrounding the glands of the exterior tentacles, with the precautions already stated, and i am certain that the gland itself was never touched; nor indeed would a single touch have produced any effect. a bit of the blotting-paper, weighing / of a grain, was placed so as to rest on three glands together, and all three tentacles slowly curved inwards; each gland, therefore, supposing the weight to be distributed equally, could have been pressed on by only / of a grain, or . of a milligramme. five nearly equal bits of cotton-thread were tried, and all acted. the shortest of these was / of an inch in length, and weighed / of a grain. the tentacle in this case was considerably inflected in hr. m., and the bit of thread was carried to the centre of the leaf in hr. m. again, two particles of the thinner end of a woman's hair, one of these being / of an inch in length, and weighing / of a grain, the other / of an inch in length, and weighing of course a little more, were placed on two glands on opposite sides of the same leaf, and these two tentacles were inflected halfway towards the centre in hr. m.; all the many other tentacles round the same leaf remaining motionless. the appearance of this one leaf showed in an unequivocal manner that these minute particles sufficed to cause the tentacles to bend. altogether, ten such particles of hair were placed on ten glands on several leaves, and seven of them caused [page ] the tentacles to move in a conspicuous manner. the smallest particle which was tried, and which acted plainly, was only / of an inch (. millimetre) in length, and weighed the / of a grain, or . milligramme. in these several cases, not only was the inflection of the tentacles conspicuous, but the purple fluid within their cells became aggregated into little masses of protoplasm, in the manner to be described in the next chapter; and the aggregation was so plain that i could, by this clue alone, have readily picked out under the microscope all the tentacles which had carried their light loads towards the centre, from the hundreds of other tentacles on the same leaves which had not thus acted. my surprise was greatly excited, not only by the minuteness of the particles which caused movement, but how they could possibly act on the glands; for it must be remembered that they were laid with the greatest care on the convex surface of the secretion. at first i thought--but, as i now know, erroneously--that particles of such low specific gravity as those of cork, thread, and paper, would never come into contact with the surfaces of the glands. the particles cannot act simply by their weight being added to that of the secretion, for small drops of water, many times heavier than the particles, were repeatedly added, and never produced any effect. nor does the disturbance of the secretion produce any effect, for long threads were drawn out by a needle, and affixed to some adjoining object, and thus left for hours; but the tentacles remained motionless. i also carefully removed the secretion from four glands with a sharply pointed piece of blotting-paper, so that they were exposed for a time naked to the air, but this caused no movement; yet these glands were [page ] in an efficient state, for after hrs. had elapsed, they were tried with bits of meat, and all became quickly inflected. it then occurred to me that particles floating on the secretion would cast shadows on the glands, which might be sensitive to the interception of the light. although this seemed highly improbable, as minute and thin splinters of colourless glass acted powerfully, nevertheless, after it was dark, i put on, by the aid of a single tallow candle, as quickly as possible, particles of cork and glass on the glands of a dozen tentacles, as well as some of meat on other glands, and covered them up so that not a ray of light could enter; but by the next morning, after an interval of hrs., all the particles were carried to the centres of the leaves. these negative results led me to try many more experiments, by placing particles on the surface of the drops of secretion, observing, as carefully as i could, whether they penetrated it and touched the surface of the glands. the secretion, from its weight, generally forms a thicker layer on the under than on the upper sides of the glands, whatever may be the position of the tentacles. minute bits of dry cork, thread, blotting paper, and coal cinders were tried, such as those previously employed; and i now observed that they absorbed much more of the secretion, in the course of a few minutes, than i should have thought possible; and as they had been laid on the upper surface of the secretion, where it is thinnest, they were often drawn down, after a time, into contact with at least some one point of the gland. with respect to the minute splinters of glass and particles of hair, i observed that the secretion slowly spread itself a little over their surfaces, by which means they were likewise drawn downwards or sideways, and thus one end, or some minute [page ] prominence, often came to touch, sooner or later, the gland. in the foregoing and following cases, it is probable that the vibrations, to which the furniture in every room is continually liable, aids in bringing the particles into contact with the glands. but as it was sometimes difficult, owing to the refraction of the secretion, to feel sure whether the particles were in contact, i tried the following experiment. unusually minute particles of glass, hair, and cork, were gently placed on the drops round several glands, and very few of the tentacles moved. those which were not affected were left for about half an hour, and the particles were then disturbed or tilted up several times with a fine needle under the microscope, the glands not being touched. and now in the course of a few minutes almost all the hitherto motionless tentacles began to move; and this, no doubt, was caused by one end or some prominence of the particles having come into contact with the surface of the glands. but as the particles were unusually minute, the movement was small. lastly, some dark blue glass pounded into fine splinters was used, in order that the points of the particles might be better distinguished when immersed in the secretion; and thirteen such particles were placed in contact with the depending and therefore thicker part of the drops round so many glands. five of the tentacles began moving after an interval of a few minutes, and in these cases i clearly saw that the particles touched the lower surface of the gland. a sixth tentacle moved after hr. m., and the particle was now in contact with the gland, which was not the case at first. so it was with the seventh tentacle, but its movement did not begin until hrs. m. had [page ] elapsed. the remaining six tentacles never moved as long as they were observed; and the particles apparently never came into contact with the surfaces of the glands. from these experiments we learn that particles not containing soluble matter, when placed on glands, often cause the tentacles to begin bending in the course of from one to five minutes; and that in such cases the particles have been from the first in contact with the surfaces of the glands. when the tentacles do not begin moving for a much longer time, namely, from half an hour to three or four hours, the particles have been slowly brought into contact with the glands, either by the secretion being absorbed by the particles or by its gradual spreading over them, together with its consequent quicker evaporation. when the tentacles do not move at all, the particles have never come into contact with the glands, or in some cases the tentacles may not have been in an active condition. in order to excite movement, it is indispensable that the particles should actually rest on the glands; for a touch once, twice, or even thrice repeated by any hard body is not sufficient to excite movement. another experiment, showing that extremely minute particles act on the glands when immersed in water, may here be given. a grain of sulphate of quinine was added to an ounce of water, which was not afterwards filtered; and on placing three leaves in ninety minims of this fluid, i was much surprised to find that all three leaves were greatly inflected in m.; for i knew from previous trials that the solution does not act so quickly as this. it immediately occurred to me that the particles of the undissolved salt, which were so light as to float about, might have come [page ] into contact with the glands, and caused this rapid movement. accordingly i added to some distilled water a pinch of a quite innocent substance, namely, precipitated carbonate of lime, which consists of an impalpable powder; i shook the mixture, and thus got a fluid like thin milk. two leaves were immersed in it, and in m. almost every tentacle was much inflected. i placed one of these leaves under the microscope, and saw innumerable atoms of lime adhering to the external surface of the secretion. some, however, had penetrated it, and were lying on the surfaces of the glands; and no doubt it was these particles which caused the tentacles to bend. when a leaf is immersed in water, the secretion instantly swells much; and i presume that it is ruptured here and there, so that little eddies of water rush in. if so, we can understand how the atoms of chalk, which rested on the surfaces of the glands, had penetrated the secretion. anyone who has rubbed precipitated chalk between his fingers will have perceived how excessively fine the powder is. no doubt there must be a limit, beyond which a particle would be too small to act on a gland; but what this limit is, i know not. i have often seen fibres and dust, which had fallen from the air, on the glands of plants kept in my room, and these never induced any movement; but then such particles lay on the surface of the secretion and never reached the gland itself. finally, it is an extraordinary fact that a little bit of soft thread, / of an inch in length and weighing / of a grain, or of a human hair, / of an inch in length and weighing only / of a grain (. milligramme), or particles of precipitated chalk, after resting for a short time on a gland, should induce some change in its cells, exciting them [page ] to transmit a motor impulse throughout the whole length of the pedicel, consisting of about twenty cells, to near its base, causing this part to bend, and the tentacle to sweep through an angle of above o. that the contents of the cells of the glands, and afterwards those of the pedicels, are affected in a plainly visible manner by the pressure of minute particles, we shall have abundant evidence when we treat of the aggregation of protoplasm. but the case is much more remarkable than as yet stated; for the particles are supported by the viscid and dense secretion; nevertheless, even smaller ones than those of which the measurements have been given, when brought by an insensibly slow movement, through the means above specified, into contact with the surface of a gland, act on it, and the tentacle bends. the pressure exerted by the particle of hair, weighing only / of a grain and supported by a dense fluid, must have been inconceivably slight. we may conjecture that it could hardly have equalled the millionth of a grain; and we shall hereafter see that far less than the millionth of a grain of phosphate of ammonia in solution, when absorbed by a gland, acts on it and induces movement. a bit of hair, / of an inch in length, and therefore much larger than those used in the above experiments, was not perceived when placed on my tongue; and it is extremely doubtful whether any nerve in the human body, even if in an inflamed condition, would be in any way affected by such a particle supported in a dense fluid, and slowly brought into contact with the nerve. yet the cells of the glands of drosera are thus excited to transmit a motor impulse to a distant point, inducing movement. it appears to me that hardly any more remarkable fact than this has been observed in the vegetable kingdom. [page ] the inflection of the exterior tentacles, when their glands are excited by repeated touches. we have already seen that, if the central glands are excited by being gently brushed, they transmit a motor impulse to the exterior tentacles, causing them to bend; and we have now to consider the effects which follow from the glands of the exterior tentacles being themselves touched. on several occasions, a large number of glands were touched only once with a needle or fine brush, hard enough to bend the whole flexible tentacle; and though this must have caused a thousand-fold greater pressure than the weight of the above described particles, not a tentacle moved. on another occasion forty-five glands on eleven leaves were touched once, twice, or even thrice, with a needle or stiff bristle. this was done as quickly as possible, but with force sufficient to bend the tentacles; yet only six of them became inflected,--three plainly, and three in a slight degree. in order to ascertain whether these tentacles which were not affected were in an efficient state, bits of meat were placed on ten of them, and they all soon became greatly incurved. on the other hand, when a large number of glands were struck four, five, or six times with the same force as before, a needle or sharp splinter of glass being used, a much larger proportion of tentacles became inflected; but the result was so uncertain as to seem capricious. for instance, i struck in the above manner three glands, which happened to be extremely sensitive, and all three were inflected almost as quickly, as if bits of meat had been placed on them. on another occasion i gave a single for- [page ] cible touch to a considerable number of glands, and not one moved; but these same glands, after an interval of some hours, being touched four or five times with a needle, several of the tentacles soon became inflected. the fact of a single touch or even of two or three touches not causing inflection must be of some service to the plant; as during stormy weather, the glands cannot fail to be occasionally touched by the tall blades of grass, or by other plants growing near; and it would be a great evil if the tentacles were thus brought into action, for the act of re-expansion takes a considerable time, and until the tentacles are re-expanded they cannot catch prey. on the other hand, extreme sensitiveness to slight pressure is of the highest service to the plant; for, as we have seen, if the delicate feet of a minute struggling insect press ever so lightly on the surfaces of two or three glands, the tentacles bearing these glands soon curl inwards and carry the insect with them to the centre, causing, after a time, all the circumferential tentacles to embrace it. nevertheless, the movements of the plant are not perfectly adapted to its requirements; for if a bit of dry moss, peat, or other rubbish, is blown on to the disc, as often happens, the tentacles clasp it in a useless manner. they soon, however, discover their mistake and release such innutritious objects. it is also a remarkable fact, that drops of water falling from a height, whether under the form of natural or artificial rain, do not cause the tentacles to move; yet the drops must strike the glands with considerable force, more especially after the secretion has been all washed away by heavy rain; and this often occurs, [page ] though the secretion is so viscid that it can be removed with difficulty merely by waving the leaves in water. if the falling drops of water are small, they adhere to the secretion, the weight of which must be increased in a much greater degree, as before remarked, than by the addition of minute particles of solid matter; yet the drops never cause the tentacles to become inflected. it would obviously have been a great evil to the plant (as in the case of occasional touches) if the tentacles were excited to bend by every shower of rain; but this evil has been avoided by the glands either having become through habit insensible to the blows and prolonged pressure of drops of water, or to their having been originally rendered sensitive solely to the contact of solid bodies. we shall hereafter see that the filaments on the leaves of dionaea are likewise insensible to the impact of fluids, though exquisitely sensitive to momentary touches from any solid body. when the pedicel of a tentacle is cut off by a sharp pair of scissors quite close beneath the gland, the tentacle generally becomes inflected. i tried this experiment repeatedly, as i was much surprised at the fact, for all other parts of the pedicels are insensible to any stimulus. these headless tentacles after a time re-expand; but i shall return to this subject. on the other hand, i occasionally succeeded in crushing a gland between a pair of pincers, but this caused no inflection. in this latter case the tentacles seem paralysed, as likewise follows from the action of too strong solutions of certain salts, and by too great heat, whilst weaker solutions of the same salts and a more gentle heat cause movement. we shall also see in future chapters that various other fluids, some [page ] vapours, and oxygen (after the plant has been for some time excluded from its action), all induce inflection, and this likewise results from an induced galvanic current.* * my son francis, guided by the observations of dr. burdon sanderson on dionaea, finds that if two needles are inserted into the blade of a leaf of drosera, the tentacles do not move; but that if similar needles in connection with the secondary coil of a du bois inductive apparatus are inserted, the tentacles curve inwards in the course of a few minutes. my son hopes soon to publish an account of his observations. [page ] chapter iii. aggregation of the protoplasm within the cells of the tentacles. nature of the contents of the cells before aggregation--various causes which excite aggregation--the process commences within the glands and travels down the tentacles-- description of the aggregated masses and of their spontaneous movements--currents of protoplasm along the walls of the cells--action of carbonate of ammonia--the granules in the protoplasm which flows along the walls coalesce with the central masses--minuteness of the quantity of carbonate of ammonia causing aggregation--action of other salts of ammonia--of other substances, organic fluids, &c.--of water--of heat--redissolution of the aggregated masses--proximate causes of the aggregation of the protoplasm--summary and concluding remarks--supplementary observations on aggregation in the roots of plants. i will here interrupt my account of the movements of the leaves, and describe the phenomenon of aggregation, to which subject i have already alluded. if the tentacles of a young, yet fully matured leaf, that has never been excited or become inflected, be examined, the cells forming the pedicels are seen to be filled with homogeneous, purple fluid. the walls are lined by a layer of colourless, circulating protoplasm; but this can be seen with much greater distinctness after the process of aggregation has been partly effected than before. the purple fluid which exudes from a crushed tentacle is somewhat coherent, and does not mingle with the surrounding water; it contains much flocculent or granular matter. but this matter may have been generated by the cells having been crushed; some degree of aggregation having been thus almost instantly caused. [page ] if a tentacle is examined some hours after the gland has been excited by repeated touches, or by an inorganic or organic particle placed on it, or by the absorption of certain fluids, it presents a wholly changed appearance. the cells, instead of being filled with homogeneous purple fluid, now contain variously shaped masses of purple matter, suspended in a colourless or almost colourless fluid. the change is so conspicuous that it is visible through a weak lens, and even sometimes by the naked eye; the tentacles now have a mottled appearance, so that one thus affected can be picked out with ease from all the others. the same result follows if the glands on the disc are irritated in any manner, so that the exterior tentacles become inflected; for their contents will then be found in an aggregated condition, although their glands have not as yet touched any object. but aggregation may occur independently of inflection, as we shall presently see. by whatever cause the process may have been excited, it commences within the glands, and then travels down the tentacles. it can be observed much more distinctly in the upper cells of the pedicels than within the glands, as these are somewhat opaque. shortly after the tentacles have re-expanded, the little masses of protoplasm are all redissolved, and the purple fluid within the cells becomes as homogeneous and transparent as it was at first. the process of redissolution travels upwards from the bases of the tentacles to the glands, and therefore in a reversed direction to that of aggregation. tentacles in an aggregated condition were shown to prof. huxley, dr. hooker, and dr. burdon sanderson, who observed the changes under the microscope, and were much struck with the whole phenomenon. [page ] the little masses of aggregated matter are of the most diversified shapes, often spherical or oval, sometimes much elongated, or quite irregular with thread- or necklace-like or club-formed projections. they consist of thick, apparently viscid matter, which in the exterior tentacles is of a purplish, and in the short distal tentacles of a greenish, colour. these little masses incessantly change their forms and positions, being never at rest. a single mass will often separate into two, which afterwards reunite. their movements are rather slow, and resemble those of amoebae or of the white corpuscles of the blood. we fig. . (drosera rotundifolia.) diagram of the same cell of a tentacle, showing the various forms successively assumed by the aggregated masses of protoplasm. may, therefore, conclude that they consist of protoplasm. if their shapes are sketched at intervals of a few minutes, they are invariably seen to have undergone great changes of form; and the same cell has been observed for several hours. eight rude, though accurate sketches of the same cell, made at intervals of between m. or m., are here given (fig. ), and illustrate some of the simpler and commonest changes. the cell a, when first sketched, included two oval masses of purple protoplasm touching each other. these became separate, as shown at b, and then reunited, as at c. after the next interval a very common appearance was presented-- [page ] d, namely, the formation of an extremely minute sphere at one end of an elongated mass. this rapidly increased in size, as shown in e, and was then re-absorbed, as at f, by which time another sphere had been formed at the opposite end. the cell above figured was from a tentacle of a dark red leaf, which had caught a small moth, and was examined under water. as i at first thought that the movements of the masses might be due to the absorption of water, i placed a fly on a leaf, and when after hrs. all the tentacles were well inflected, these were examined without being immersed in water. the cell fig. . (drosera rotundifolia.) diagram of the same cell of a tentacle, showing the various forms successively assumed by the aggregated masses of protoplasm. here represented (fig. ) was from this leaf, being sketched eight times in the course of m. these sketches exhibit some of the more remarkable changes which the protoplasm undergoes. at first, there was at the base of the cell , a little mass on a short footstalk, and a larger mass near the upper end, and these seemed quite separate. nevertheless, they may have been connected by a fine and invisible thread of protoplasm, for on two other occasions, whilst one mass was rapidly increasing, and another in the same cell rapidly decreasing, i was able by varying the light and using a high power, to detect a connecting thread of extreme tenuity, which evidently served as [page ] the channel of communication between the two. on the other hand, such connecting threads are sometimes seen to break, and their extremities then quickly become club-headed. the other sketches in fig. show the forms successively assumed. shortly after the purple fluid within the cells has become aggregated, the little masses float about in a colourless or almost colourless fluid; and the layer of white granular protoplasm which flows along the walls can now be seen much more distinctly. the stream flows at an irregular rate, up one wall and down the opposite one, generally at a slower rate across the narrow ends of the elongated cells, and so round and round. but the current sometimes ceases. the movement is often in waves, and their crests sometimes stretch almost across the whole width of the cell, and then sink down again. small spheres of protoplasm, apparently quite free, are often driven by the current round the cells; and filaments attached to the central masses are swayed to and fro, as if struggling to escape. altogether, one of these cells with the ever changing central masses, and with the layer of protoplasm flowing round the walls, presents a wonderful scene of vital activity. [many observations were made on the contents of the cells whilst undergoing the process of aggregation, but i shall detail only a few cases under different heads. a small portion of a leaf was cut off, placed under a high power, and the glands very gently pressed under a compressor. in m. i distinctly saw extremely minute spheres of protoplasm aggregating themselves in the purple fluid; these rapidly increased in size, both within the cells of the glands and of the upper ends of the pedicels. particles of glass, cork, and cinders were also placed on the glands of many tentacles; in hr. several of them were inflected, but after hr. m. there was no aggregation. other tentacles with these particles were examined after hrs., and [page ] now all their cells had undergone aggregation; so had the cells of the exterior tentacles which had become inflected through the irritation transmitted from the glands of the disc, on which the transported particles rested. this was likewise the case with the short tentacles round the margins of the disc, which had not as yet become inflected. this latter fact shows that the process of aggregation is independent of the inflection of the tentacles, of which indeed we have other and abundant evidence. again, the exterior tentacles on three leaves were carefully examined, and found to contain only homogeneous purple fluid; little bits of thread were then placed on the glands of three of them, and after hrs. the purple fluid in their cells almost down to their bases was aggregated into innumerable, spherical, elongated, or filamentous masses of protoplasm. the bits of thread had been carried some time previously to the central disc, and this had caused all the other tentacles to become somewhat inflected; and their cells had likewise undergone aggregation, which however, it should be observed, had not as yet extended down to their bases, but was confined to the cells close beneath the glands. not only do repeated touches on the glands* and the contact of minute particles cause aggregation, but if glands, without being themselves injured, are cut off from the summits of the pedicels, this induces a moderate amount of aggregation in the headless tentacles, after they have become inflected. on the other hand, if glands are suddenly crushed between pincers, as was tried in six cases, the tentacles seem paralysed by so great a shock, for they neither become inflected nor exhibit any signs of aggregation. carbonate of ammonia.--of all the causes inducing aggregation, that which, as far as i have seen, acts the quickest, and is the most powerful, is a solution of carbonate of ammonia. whatever its strength may be, the glands are always affected first, and soon become quite opaque, so as to appear black. for instance, i placed a leaf in a few drops of a strong solution, namely, of one part to of water (or grs. to oz.), and observed it under a high power. all the glands began to * judging from an account of m. heckel's observations, which i have only just seen quoted in the 'gardeners' chronicle' (oct. , ), he appears to have observed a similar phenomenon in the stamens of berberis, after they have been excited by a touch and have moved; for he says, "the contents of each individual cell are collected together in the centre of the cavity." [page ] darken in s. (seconds); and in s. were conspicuously darker. in m. extremely small spherical masses of protoplasm could be seen arising in the cells of the pedicels close beneath the glands, as well as in the cushions on which the long-headed marginal glands rest. in several cases the process travelled down the pedicels for a length twice or thrice as great as that of the glands, in about m. it was interesting to observe the process momentarily arrested at each transverse partition between two cells, and then to see the transparent contents of the cell next below almost flashing into a cloudy mass. in the lower part of the pedicels, the action proceeded slower, so that it took about m. before the cells halfway down the long marginal and submarginal tentacles became aggregated. we may infer that the carbonate of ammonia is absorbed by the glands, not only from its action being so rapid, but from its effect being somewhat different from that of other salts. as the glands, when excited, secrete an acid belonging to the acetic series, the carbonate is probably at once converted into a salt of this series; and we shall presently see that the acetate of ammonia causes aggregation almost or quite as energetically as does the carbonate. if a few drops of a solution of one part of the carbonate to of water (or gr. to oz.) be added to the purple fluid which exudes from crushed tentacles, or to paper stained by being rubbed with them, the fluid and the paper are changed into a pale dirty green. nevertheless, some purple colour could still be detected after hr. m. within the glands of a leaf left in a solution of twice the above strength (viz. grs. to oz.); and after hrs. the cells of the pedicels close beneath the glands still contained spheres of protoplasm of a fine purple tint. these facts show that the ammonia had not entered as a carbonate, for otherwise the colour would have been discharged. i have, however, sometimes observed, especially with the long-headed tentacles on the margins of very pale leaves immersed in a solution, that the glands as well as the upper cells of the pedicels were discoloured; and in these cases i presume that the unchanged carbonate had been absorbed. the appearance above described, of the aggregating process being arrested for a short time at each transverse partition, impresses the mind with the idea of matter passing downwards from cell to cell. but as the cells one beneath the other undergo aggregation when inorganic and insoluble particles are placed on the glands, the process must be, at least in these cases, one of molecular change, transmitted from the glands, [page ] independently of the absorption of any matter. so it may possibly be in the case of the carbonate of ammonia. as, however, the aggregation caused by this salt travels down the tentacles at a quicker rate than when insoluble particles are placed on the glands, it is probable that ammonia in some form is absorbed not only by the glands, but passes down the tentacles. having examined a leaf in water, and found the contents of the cells homogeneous, i placed it in a few drops of a solution of one part of the carbonate to of water, and attended to the cells immediately beneath the glands, but did not use a very high power. no aggregation was visible in m.; but after m. small spheres of protoplasm were formed, more especially beneath the long-headed marginal glands; the process, however, in this case took place with unusual slowness. in m. conspicuous spherical masses were present in the cells of the pedicels for a length about equal to that of the glands; and in hrs. to that of a third or half of the whole tentacle. if tentacles with cells containing only very pale pink fluid, and apparently but little protoplasm, are placed in a few drops of a weak solution of one part of the carbonate to of water ( gr. to oz.), and the highly transparent cells beneath the glands are carefully observed under a high power, these may be seen first to become slightly cloudy from the formation of numberless, only just perceptible, granules, which rapidly grow larger either from coalescence or from attracting more protoplasm from the surrounding fluid. on one occasion i chose a singularly pale leaf, and gave it, whilst under the microscope, a single drop of a stronger solution of one part to of water; in this case the contents of the cells did not become cloudy, but after m. minute irregular granules of protoplasm could be detected, which soon increased into irregular masses and globules of a greenish or very pale purple tint; but these never formed perfect spheres, though incessantly changing their shapes and positions. with moderately red leaves the first effect of a solution of the carbonate generally is the formation of two or three, or of several, extremely minute purple spheres which rapidly increase in size. to give an idea of the rate at which such spheres increase in size, i may mention that a rather pale purple leaf placed under a slip of glass was given a drop of a solution of one part to of water, and in m. a few minute spheres of protoplasm were formed; one of these, after hrs. m., was about two-thirds of the diameter of the cell. after hrs. m. [page ] it nearly equalled the cell in diameter; and a second sphere about half as large as the first, together with a few other minute ones, were formed. after hrs. the fluid in which these spheres floated was almost colourless. after hrs. m. (always reckoning from the time when the solution was first added) four new minute spheres had appeared. next morning, after hrs., there were, besides the two large spheres, seven smaller ones, floating in absolutely colourless fluid, in which some flocculent greenish matter was suspended. at the commencement of the process of aggregation, more especially in dark red leaves, the contents of the cells often present a different appearance, as if the layer of protoplasm (primordial utricle) which lines the cells had separated itself and shrunk from the walls; an irregularly shaped purple bag being thus formed. other fluids, besides a solution of the carbonate, for instance an infusion of raw meat, produce this same effect. but the appearance of the primordial utricle shrinking from the walls is certainly false;* for before giving the solution, i saw on several occasions that the walls were lined with colourless flowing protoplasm, and after the bag-like masses were formed, the protoplasm was still flowing along the walls in a conspicuous manner, even more so than before. it appeared indeed as if the stream of protoplasm was strengthened by the action of the carbonate, but it was impossible to ascertain whether this was really the case. the bag-like masses, when once formed, soon begin to glide slowly round the cells, sometimes sending out projections which separate into little spheres; other spheres appear in the fluid surrounding the bags, and these travel much more quickly. that the small spheres are separate is often shown by sometimes one and then another travelling in advance, and sometimes they revolve round each other. i have occasionally seen spheres of this kind proceeding up and down the same side of a cell, instead of round it. the bag-like masses after a time generally divide into two rounded or oval masses, and these undergo the changes shown in figs. and . at other times spheres appear within the bags; and these coalesce and separate in an endless cycle of change. after leaves have been left for several hours in a solution of the carbonate, and complete aggregation has been effected, the * with other plants i have often seen what appears to be a true shrinking of the primordial utricle from the walls of the cells, caused by a solution of carbonate of ammonia, as likewise follows from mechanical injuries. [page ] stream of protoplasm on the walls of the cells ceases to be visible; i observed this fact repeatedly, but will give only one instance. a pale purple leaf was placed in a few drops of a solution of one part to of water, and in hrs. some fine purple spheres were formed in the upper cells of the pedicels, the stream of protoplasm round their walls being still quite distinct; but after an additional hrs., during which time many more spheres were formed, the stream was no longer distinguishable on the most careful examination; and this no doubt was due to the contained granules having become united with the spheres, so that nothing was left by which the movement of the limpid protoplasm could be perceived. but minute free spheres still travelled up and down the cells, showing that there was still a current. so it was next morning, after hrs., by which time some new minute spheres had been formed; these oscillated from side to side and changed their positions, proving that the current had not ceased, though no stream of protoplasm was visible. on another occasion, however, a stream was seen flowing round the cell-walls of a vigorous, dark-coloured leaf, after it had been left for hrs. in a rather stronger solution, namely, of one part of the carbonate to of water. this leaf, therefore, was not much or at all injured by an immersion for this length of time in the above solution of two grains to the ounce; and on being afterwards left for hrs. in water, the aggregated masses in many of the cells were re-dissolved, in the same manner as occurs with leaves in a state of nature when they re-expand after having caught insects. in a leaf which had been left for hrs. in a solution of one part of the carbonate to of water, some spheres of protoplasm (formed by the self-division of a bag-like mass) were gently pressed beneath a covering glass, and then examined under a high power. they were now distinctly divided by well-defined radiating fissures, or were broken up into separate fragments with sharp edges; and they were solid to the centre. in the larger broken spheres the central part was more opaque, darker-coloured, and less brittle than the exterior; the latter alone being in some cases penetrated by the fissures. in many of the spheres the line of separation between the outer and inner parts was tolerably well defined. the outer parts were of exactly the same very pale purple tint, as that of the last formed smaller spheres; and these latter did not include any darker central core. from these several facts we may conclude that when vigorous dark-coloured leaves are subjected to the action of carbonate of [page ] ammonia, the fluid within the cells of the tentacles often aggregates exteriorly into coherent viscid matter, forming a kind of bag. small spheres sometimes appear within this bag, and the whole generally soon divides into two or more spheres, which repeatedly coalesce and redivide. after a longer or shorter time the granules in the colourless layer of protoplasm, which flows round the walls, are drawn to and unite with the larger spheres, or form small independent spheres; these latter being of a much paler colour, and more brittle than the first aggregated masses. after the granules of protoplasm have been thus attracted, the layer of flowing protoplasm can no longer be distinguished, though a current of limpid fluid still flows round the walls. if a leaf is immersed in a very strong, almost concentrated, solution of carbonate of ammonia, the glands are instantly blackened, and they secrete copiously; but no movement of the tentacles ensues. two leaves thus treated became after hr. flaccid, and seemed killed; all the cells in their tentacles contained spheres of protoplasm, but these were small and discoloured. two other leaves were placed in a solution not quite so strong, and there was well-marked aggregation in m. after hrs. the spherical or more commonly oblong masses of protoplasm became opaque and granular, instead of being as usual translucent; and in the lower cells there were only innumerable minute spherical granules. it was evident that the strength of the solution had interfered with the completion of the process, as we shall see likewise follows from too great heat. all the foregoing observations relate to the exterior tentacles, which are of a purple colour; but the green pedicels of the short central tentacles are acted on by the carbonate, and by an infusion of raw meat, in exactly the same manner, with the sole difference that the aggregated masses are of a greenish colour; so that the process is in no way dependent on the colour of the fluid within the cells. finally, the most remarkable fact with respect to this salt is the extraordinary small amount which suffices to cause aggregation. full details will be given in the seventh chapter, and here it will be enough to say that with a sensitive leaf the absorption by a gland of / of a grain (. mgr.) is enough to cause in the course of one hour well-marked aggregation in the cells immediately beneath the gland. the effects of certain other salts and fluids.--two leaves were placed in a solution of one part of acetate of ammonia to about [page ] of water, and were acted on quite as energetically, but perhaps not quite so quickly, as by the carbonate. after m. the glands were black, and in the cells beneath them there were traces of aggregation, which after m. was well marked, extending down the tentacles for a length equal to that of the glands. after hrs. the contents of almost all the cells in all the tentacles were broken up into masses of protoplasm. a leaf was immersed in a solution of one part of oxalate of ammonia to of water; and after m. some, but not a conspicuous, change could be seen within the cells beneath the glands. after m. plenty of spherical masses of protoplasm were formed, and these extended down the tentacles for about the length of the glands. this salt, therefore, does not act so quickly as the carbonate. with respect to the citrate of ammonia, a leaf was placed in a little solution of the above strength, and there was not even a trace of aggregation in the cells beneath the glands, until m. had elapsed; but it was well marked after hrs. m. on another occasion a leaf was placed in a stronger solution, of one part of the citrate to of water ( grs. to oz.), and at the same time another leaf in a solution of the carbonate of the same strength. the glands of the latter were blackened in less than m., and after hr. m. the aggregated masses, which were spherical and very dark-coloured, extended down all the tentacles, for between half and two-thirds of their lengths; whereas in the leaf immersed in the citrate the glands, after m., were of a dark red, and the aggregated masses in the cells beneath them pink and elongated. after hr. m. these masses extended down for only about one-fifth or one-fourth of the length of the tentacles. two leaves were placed, each in ten minims of a solution of one part of nitrate of ammonia to of water ( gr. to oz.), so that each leaf received / of a grain (. mgr.). this quantity caused all the tentacles to be inflected, but after hrs. there was only a trace of aggregation. one of these same leaves was then placed in a weak solution of the carbonate, and after hr. m. the tentacles for half their lengths showed an astonishing degree of aggregation. two other leaves were then placed in a much stronger solution of one part of the nitrate to of water ( grs. to oz.); in one of these there was no marked change after hrs.; but in the other there was a trace of aggregation after m., and this was plainly marked after hr. m., but even after hrs. m. there was certainly not more aggregation than would have fol- [page ] lowed from an immersion of from m. to m. in an equally strong solution of the carbonate. lastly, a leaf was placed in thirty minims of a solution of one part of phosphate of ammonia to , of water ( gr. to oz.), so that it received / of a grain (. mgr.); this soon caused the tentacles to be strongly inflected; and after hrs. the contents of the cells were aggregated into oval and irregularly globular masses, with a conspicuous current of protoplasm flowing round the walls. but after so long an interval aggregation would have ensued, whatever had caused inflection. only a few other salts, besides those of ammonia, were tried in relation to the process of aggregation. a leaf was placed in a solution of one part of chloride of sodium to of water, and after hr. the contents of the cells were aggregated into small, irregularly globular, brownish masses; these after hrs. were almost disintegrated and pulpy. it was evident that the protoplasm had been injuriously affected; and soon afterwards some of the cells appeared quite empty. these effects differ altogether from those produced by the several salts of ammonia, as well as by various organic fluids, and by inorganic particles placed on the glands. a solution of the same strength of carbonate of soda and carbonate of potash acted in nearly the same manner as the chloride; and here again, after hrs. m., the outer cells of some of the glands had emptied themselves of their brown pulpy contents. we shall see in the eighth chapter that solutions of several salts of soda of half the above strength cause inflection, but do not injure the leaves. weak solutions of sulphate of quinine, of nicotine, camphor, poison of the cobra, &c., soon induce well-marked aggregation; whereas certain other substances (for instance, a solution of curare) have no such tendency. many acids, though much diluted, are poisonous; and though, as will be shown in the eighth chapter, they cause the tentacles to bend, they do not excite true aggregation. thus leaves were placed in a solution of one part of benzoic acid to of water; and in m. the purple fluid within the cells had shrunk a little from the walls, yet when carefully examined after hr. m., there was no true aggregation; and after hrs. the leaf was evidently dead. other leaves in iodic acid, diluted to the same degree, showed after hrs. m. the same shrunken appearance of the purple fluid within the cells; and these, after hrs. m., were seen under a high power to be filled with excessively minute spheres of dull reddish protoplasm, [page ] which by the next morning, after hrs., had almost disappeared, the leaf being evidently dead. nor was there any true aggregation in leaves immersed in propionic acid of the same strength; but in this case the protoplasm was collected in irregular masses towards the bases of the lower cells of the tentacles. a filtered infusion of raw meat induces strong aggregation, but not very quickly. in one leaf thus immersed there was a little aggregation after hr. m., and in another after hr. m. with other leaves a considerably longer time was required: for instance, one immersed for hrs. showed no aggregation, but was plainly acted on in m.; when placed in a few drops of a solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water. some leaves were left in the infusion for hrs., and these became aggregated to a wonderful degree, so that the inflected tentacles presented to the naked eye a plainly mottled appearance. the little masses of purple protoplasm were generally oval or beaded, and not nearly so often spherical as in the case of leaves subjected to carbonate of ammonia. they underwent incessant changes of form; and the current of colourless protoplasm round the walls was conspicuously plain after an immersion of hrs. raw meat is too powerful a stimulant, and even small bits generally injure, and sometimes kill, the leaves to which they are given: the aggregated masses of protoplasm become dingy or almost colourless, and present an unusual granular appearance, as is likewise the case with leaves which have been immersed in a very strong solution of carbonate of ammonia. a leaf placed in milk had the contents of its cells somewhat aggregated in hr. two other leaves, one immersed in human saliva for hrs. m., and another in unboiled white of egg for hr. m., were not action on in this manner; though they undoubtedly would have been so, had more time been allowed. these same two leaves, on being afterwards placed in a solution of carbonate of ammonia ( grs. to oz.), had their cells aggregated, the one in m. and the other in m. several leaves were left for hrs. m. in a solution of one part of white sugar to of water, and no aggregation ensued; on being placed in a solution of this same strength of carbonate of ammonia, they were acted on in m.; as was likewise a leaf which had been left for hr. m. in a moderately thick solution of gum arabic. several other leaves were immersed for some hours in denser solutions of sugar, gum, and starch, and they had the contents of their cells greatly aggregated. this [page ] effect may be attributed to exosmose; for the leaves in the syrup became quite flaccid, and those in the gum and starch somewhat flaccid, with their tentacles twisted about in the most irregular manner, the longer ones like corkscrews. we shall hereafter see that solutions of these substances, when placed on the discs of leaves, do not incite inflection. particles of soft sugar were added to the secretion round several glands and were soon dissolved, causing a great increase of the secretion, no doubt by exosmose; and after hrs. the cells showed a certain amount of aggregation, though the tentacles were not inflected. glycerine causes in a few minutes well-pronounced aggregation, commencing as usual within the glands and then travelling down the tentacles; and this i presume may be attributed to the strong attraction of this substance for water. immersion for several hours in water causes some degree of aggregation. twenty leaves were first carefully examined, and re-examined after having been left immersed in distilled water for various periods, with the following results. it is rare to find even a trace of aggregation until or and generally not until several more hours have elapsed. when however a leaf becomes quickly inflected in water, as sometimes happens, especially during very warm weather, aggregation may occur in little over hr. in all cases leaves left in water for more than hrs. have their glands blackened, which shows that their contents are aggregated; and in the specimens which were carefully examined, there was fairly well-marked aggregation in the upper cells of the pedicels. these trials were made with cut off-leaves, and it occurred to me that this circumstance might influence the result, as the footstalks would not perhaps absorb water quickly enough to supply the glands as they continued to secrete. but this view was proved erroneous, for a plant with uninjured roots, bearing four leaves, was submerged in distilled water for hrs., and the glands were blackened, though the tentacles were very little inflected. in one of these leaves there was only a slight degree of aggregation in the tentacles; in the second rather more, the purple contents of the cells being a little separated from the walls; in the third and fourth, which were pale leaves, the aggregation in the upper parts of the pedicels was well marked. in these leaves the little masses of protoplasm, many of which were oval, slowly changed their forms and positions; so that a submergence for hrs. had not killed the protoplasm. in a previous trial with a submerged plant, the tentacles were not in the least inflected. [page ] heat induces aggregation. a leaf, with the cells of the tentacles containing only homogeneous fluid, was waved about for m. in water at o fahr. ( o. cent.) and was then examined under the microscope as quickly as possible, that is in m. or m.; and by this time the contents of the cells had undergone some degree of aggregation. a second leaf was waved for m. in water at o ( o. cent.) and quickly examined as before; the tentacles were well inflected; the purple fluid in all the cells had shrunk a little from the walls, and contained many oval and elongated masses of protoplasm, with a few minute spheres. a third leaf was left in water at o, until it cooled, and when examined after hr. m., the inflected tentacles showed some aggregation, which became after hrs. more strongly marked, but did not subsequently increase. lastly, a leaf was waved for m. in water at o ( o. cent.) and then left for hr. m. in cold water; the tentacles were but little inflected, and there was only here and there a trace of aggregation. in all these and other trials with warm water the protoplasm showed much less tendency to aggregate into spherical masses than when excited by carbonate of ammonia. redissolution of the aggregated masses of protoplasm.--as soon as tentacles which have clasped an insect or any inorganic object, or have been in any way excited, have fully re-expanded, the aggregated masses of protoplasm are redissolved and disappear; the cells being now refilled with homogeneous purple fluid as they were before the tentacles were inflected. the process of redissolution in all cases commences at the bases of the tentacles, and proceeds up them towards the glands. in old leaves, however, especially in those which have been several times in action, the protoplasm in the uppermost cells of the pedicels remains in a permanently more or less aggregated condition. in order to observe the process of redissolution, the following observations were made: a leaf was left for hrs. in a little solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water, and the protoplasm was as usual aggregated into numberless purple spheres, which were incessantly changing their forms. the leaf was then washed and placed in distilled water, and after hrs. m. some few of the spheres began to show by their less clearly defined edges signs of redissolution. after hrs. many of them had become elongated, and the surrounding fluid in the cells was slightly more coloured, showing plainly that redissolution had commenced. after hrs., though many cells still contained spheres, here and there one [page ] could be seen filled with purple fluid, without a vestige of aggregated protoplasm; the whole having been redissolved. a leaf with aggregated masses, caused by its having been waved for m. in water at the temperature of o fahr., was left in cold water, and after hrs. the protoplasm showed traces of incipient redissolution. when again examined three days after its immersion in the warm water, there was a conspicuous difference, though the protoplasm was still somewhat aggregated. another leaf, with the contents of all the cells strongly aggregated from the action of a weak solution of phosphate of ammonia, was left for between three and four days in a mixture (known to be innocuous) of one drachm of alcohol to eight drachms of water, and when re-examined every trace of aggregation had disappeared, the cells being now filled with homogeneous fluid. we have seen that leaves immersed for some hours in dense solutions of sugar, gum, and starch, have the contents of their cells greatly aggregated, and are rendered more or less flaccid, with the tentacles irregularly contorted. these leaves, after being left for four days in distilled water, became less flaccid, with their tentacles partially re-expanded, and the aggregated masses of protoplasm were partially redissolved. a leaf with its tentacles closely clasped over a fly, and with the contents of the cells strongly aggregated, was placed in a little sherry wine; after hrs. several of the tentacles had re-expanded, and the others could by a mere touch be pushed back into their properly expanded positions, and now all traces of aggregation had disappeared, the cells being filled with perfectly homogeneous pink fluid. the redissolution in these cases may, i presume, be attributed to endosmose.] on the proximate causes of the process of aggregation. as most of the stimulants which cause the inflection of the tentacles likewise induce aggregation in the contents of their cells, this latter process might be thought to be the direct result of inflection; but this is not the case. if leaves are placed in rather strong solutions of carbonate of ammonia, for instance of three or four, and even sometimes of only two grains to the ounce of water (i.e. one part to , or , or [page ] , of water), the tentacles are paralysed, and do not become inflected, yet they soon exhibit strongly marked aggregation. moreover, the short central tentacles of a leaf which has been immersed in a weak solution of any salt of ammonia, or in any nitrogenous organic fluid, do not become in the least inflected; nevertheless they exhibit all the phenomena of aggregation. on the other hand, several acids cause strongly pronounced inflection, but no aggregation. it is an important fact that when an organic or inorganic object is placed on the glands of the disc, and the exterior tentacles are thus caused to bend inwards, not only is the secretion from the glands of the latter increased in quantity and rendered acid, but the contents of the cells of their pedicels become aggregated. the process always commences in the glands, although these have not as yet touched any object. some force or influence must, therefore, be transmitted from the central glands to the exterior tentacles, first to near their bases causing this part to bend, and next to the glands causing them to secrete more copiously. after a short time the glands, thus indirectly excited, transmit or reflect some influence down their own pedicels, inducing aggregation in cell beneath cell to their bases. it seems at first sight a probable view that aggregation is due to the glands being excited to secrete more copiously, so that sufficient fluid is not left in their cells, and in the cells of the pedicels, to hold the protoplasm in solution. in favour of this view is the fact that aggregation follows the inflection of the tentacles, and during the movement the glands generally, or, as i believe, always, secrete more copiously than they did before. again, during the re-expansion [page ] of the tentacles, the glands secrete less freely, or quite cease to secrete, and the aggregated masses of protoplasm are then redissolved. moreover, when leaves are immersed in dense vegetable solutions, or in glycerine, the fluid within the gland-cells passes outwards, and there is aggregation; and when the leaves are afterwards immersed in water, or in an innocuous fluid of less specific gravity than water, the protoplasm is redissolved, and this, no doubt, is due to endosmose. opposed to this view, that aggregation is caused by the outward passage of fluid from the cells, are the following facts. there seems no close relation between the degree of increased secretion and that of aggregation. thus a particle of sugar added to the secretion round a gland causes a much greater increase of secretion, and much less aggregation, than does a particle of carbonate of ammonia given in the same manner. it does not appear probable that pure water would cause much exosmose, and yet aggregation often follows from an immersion in water of between hrs. and hrs., and always after from hrs. to hrs. still less probable is it that water at a temperature of from o to o fahr. ( o. to o. cent.) should cause fluid to pass, not only from the glands, but from all the cells of the tentacles down to their bases, so quickly that aggregation is induced within m. or m. another strong argument against this view is, that, after complete aggregation, the spheres and oval masses of protoplasm float about in an abundant supply of thin colourless fluid; so that at least the latter stages of the process cannot be due to the want of fluid to hold the protoplasm in solution. there is still stronger evidence that aggregation is independent of secretion; for the papillae, described in the first chapter, with which the [page ] leaves are studded are not glandular, and do not secrete, yet they rapidly absorb carbonate of ammonia or an infusion of raw meat, and their contents then quickly undergo aggregation, which afterwards spreads into the cells of the surrounding tissues. we shall hereafter see that the purple fluid within the sensitive filaments of dionaea, which do not secrete, likewise undergoes aggregation from the action of a weak solution of carbonate of ammonia. the process of aggregation is a vital one; by which i mean that the contents of the cells must be alive and uninjured to be thus affected, and they must be in an oxygenated condition for the transmission of the process at the proper rate. some tentacles in a drop of water were strongly pressed beneath a slip of glass; many of the cells were ruptured, and pulpy matter of a purple colour, with granules of all sizes and shapes, exuded, but hardly any of the cells were completely emptied. i then added a minute drop of a solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water, and after hr. examined the specimens. here and there a few cells, both in the glands and in the pedicels, had escaped being ruptured, and their contents were well aggregated into spheres which were constantly changing their forms and positions, and a current could still be seen flowing along the walls; so that the protoplasm was alive. on the other hand, the exuded matter, which was now almost colourless instead of being purple, did not exhibit a trace of aggregation. nor was there a trace in the many cells which were ruptured, but which had not been completely emptied of their contents. though i looked carefully, no signs of a current could be seen within these ruptured cells. they had evidently been killed by the pressure; and the matter which they [page ] still contained did not undergo aggregation any more than that which had exuded. in these specimens, as i may add, the individuality of the life of each cell was well illustrated. a full account will be given in the next chapter of the effects of heat on the leaves, and i need here only state that leaves immersed for a short time in water at a temperature of ofahr. ( o. cent.), which, as we have seen, does not immediately induce aggregation, were then placed in a few drops of a strong solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water, and became finely aggregated. on the other hand, leaves, after an immersion in water at o ( o. cent.), on being placed in the same strong solution, did not undergo aggregation, the cells becoming filled with brownish, pulpy, or muddy matter. with leaves subjected to temperatures between these two extremes of o and o fahr. ( o. and o. cent.), there were gradations in the completeness of the process; the former temperature not preventing aggregation from the subsequent action of carbonate of ammonia, the latter quite stopping it. thus, leaves immersed in water, heated to o ( o. cent.), and then in the solution, formed perfectly defined spheres, but these were decidedly smaller than in ordinary cases. with other leaves heated to o ( o cent.), the spheres were extremely small, yet well defined, but many of the cells contained, in addition, some brownish pulpy matter. in two cases of leaves heated to o ( o. cent.), a few tentacles could be found with some of their cells containing a few minute spheres; whilst the other cells and other whole tentacles included only the brownish, disintegrated or pulpy matter. the fluid within the cells of the tentacles must be in an oxygenated condition, in order that the force or [page ] influence which induces aggregation should be transmitted at the proper rate from cell to cell. a plant, with its roots in water, was left for m. in a vessel containing oz. of carbonic acid. a leaf from this plant, and, for comparison, one from a fresh plant, were both immersed for hr. in a rather strong solution of carbonate of ammonia. they were then compared, and certainly there was much less aggregation in the leaf which had been subjected to the carbonic acid than in the other. another plant was exposed in the same vessel for hrs. to carbonic acid, and one of its leaves was then placed in a solution of one part of the carbonate to of water; the glands were instantly blackened, showing that they had absorbed, and that their contents were aggregated; but in the cells close beneath the glands there was no aggregation even after an interval of hrs. after hrs. m. a few minute spheres of protoplasm were formed in these cells, but even after hrs. m. the aggregation did not extend down the pedicels for a length equal to that of the glands. after numberless trials with fresh leaves immersed in a solution of this strength, i have never seen the aggregating action transmitted at nearly so slow a rate. another plant was left for hrs. in carbonic acid, but was then exposed for m. to the open air, during which time the leaves, being of a red colour, would have absorbed some oxygen. one of them, as well as a fresh leaf for comparison, were now immersed in the same solution as before. the former were looked at repeatedly, and after an interval of m. a few spheres of protoplasm were first observed in the cells close beneath the glands, but only in two or three of the longer tentacles. after hrs. the aggregation had travelled down the pedicels of a few of the tentacles [page ] for a length equal to that of the glands. on the other hand, in the fresh leaf similarly treated, aggregation was plain in many of the tentacles after m.; after m. it had extended down the pedicels for four, five, or more times the lengths of the glands; and after hrs. the cells of all the tentacles were affected for one-third or one-half of their entire lengths. hence there can be no doubt that the exposure of leaves to carbonic acid either stops for a time the process of aggregation, or checks the transmission of the proper influence when the glands are subsequently excited by carbonate of ammonia; and this substance acts more promptly and energetically than any other. it is known that the protoplasm of plants exhibits its spontaneous movements only as long as it is in an oxygenated condition; and so it is with the white corpuscles of the blood, only as long as they receive oxygen from the red corpuscles;* but the cases above given are somewhat different, as they relate to the delay in the generation or aggregation of the masses of protoplasm by the exclusion of oxygen. summary and concluding remarks.--the process of aggregation is independent of the inflection of the tentacles and of increased secretion from the glands. it commences within the glands, whether these have been directly excited, or indirectly by a stimulus received from other glands. in both cases the process is transmitted from cell to cell down the whole length of the tentacles, being arrested for a short time at each transverse partition. with pale-coloured leaves the first change which is perceptible, but only * with respect to plants, sachs, 'trait de bot.' rd edit., , p. . on blood corpuscles, see 'quarterly journal of microscopical science,' april , p. .' [page ] under a high power, is the appearance of the finest granules in the fluid within the cells, making it slightly cloudy. these granules soon aggregate into small globular masses. i have seen a cloud of this kind appear in s. after a drop of a solution of carbonate of ammonia had been given to a gland. with dark red leaves the first visible change often is the conversion of the outer layer of the fluid within the cells into bag-like masses. the aggregated masses, however they may have been developed, incessantly change their forms and positions. they are not filled with fluid, but are solid to their centres. ultimately the colourless granules in the protoplasm which flows round the walls coalesce with the central spheres or masses; but there is still a current of limpid fluid flowing within the cells. as soon as the tentacles fully re-expand, the aggregated masses are redissolved, and the cells become filled with homogeneous purple fluid, as they were at first. the process of redissolution commences at the bases of the tentacles, thence proceeding upwards to the glands; and, therefore, in a reversed direction to that of aggregation. aggregation is excited by the most diversified causes,--by the glands being several times touched,--by the pressure of particles of any kind, and as these are supported by the dense secretion, they can hardly press on the glands with the weight of a millionth of a grain,*--by the tentacles being cut off close beneath * according to hofmeister (as quoted by sachs, 'trait de bot.' , p. ), very slight pressure on the cell-membrane arrests immediately the movements of the protoplasm, and even determines its separation from the walls. but the process of aggregation is a different phenomenon, as it relates to the contents of the cells, and only secondarily to the layer of protoplasm which flows along the walls; though no doubt the effects of pressure or of a touch on the outside must be transmitted through this layer. [page ] the glands,--by the glands absorbing various fluids or matter dissolved out of certain bodies,--by exosmose,--and by a certain degree of heat. on the other hand, a temperature of about o fahr. ( o. cent.) does not excite aggregation; nor does the sudden crushing of a gland. if a cell is ruptured, neither the exuded matter nor that which still remains within the cell undergoes aggregation when carbonate of ammonia is added. a very strong solution of this salt and rather large bits of raw meat prevent the aggregated masses being well developed. from these facts we may conclude that the protoplasmic fluid within a cell does not become aggregated unless it be in a living state, and only imperfectly if the cell has been injured. we have also seen that the fluid must be in an oxygenated state, in order that the process of aggregation should travel from cell to cell at the proper rate. various nitrogenous organic fluids and salts of ammonia induce aggregation, but in different degrees and at very different rates. carbonate of ammonia is the most powerful of all known substances; the absorption of / of a grain (. mg.) by a gland suffices to cause all the cells of the same tentacle to become aggregated. the first effect of the carbonate and of certain other salts of ammonia, as well as of some other fluids, is the darkening or blackening of the glands. this follows even from long immersion in cold distilled water. it apparently depends in chief part on the strong aggregation of their cell-contents, which thus become opaque, and do not reflect light. some other fluids render the glands of a brighter red; whilst certain acids, though much diluted, the poison of the cobra-snake, &c., make the glands perfectly white and opaque; and this seems to depend on the coagulation of their contents without [page ] any aggregation. nevertheless, before being thus affected, they are able, at least in some cases, to excite aggregation in their own tentacles. that the central glands, if irritated, send centrifugally some influence to the exterior glands, causing them to send back a centripetal influence inducing aggregation, is perhaps the most interesting fact given in this chapter. but the whole process of aggregation is in itself a striking phenomenon. whenever the peripheral extremity of a nerve is touched or pressed, and a sensation is felt, it is believed that an invisible molecular change is sent from one end of the nerve to the other; but when a gland of drosera is repeatedly touched or gently pressed, we can actually see a molecular change proceeding from the gland down the tentacle; though this change is probably of a very different nature from that in a nerve. finally, as so many and such widely different causes excite aggregation, it would appear that the living matter within the gland-cells is in so unstable a condition that almost any disturbance suffices to change its molecular nature, as in the case of certain chemical compounds. and this change in the glands, whether excited directly, or indirectly by a stimulus received from other glands, is transmitted from cell to cell, causing granules of protoplasm either to be actually generated in the previously limpid fluid or to coalesce and thus to become visible. supplementary observations on the process of aggregation in the roots of plants. it will hereafter be seen that a weak solution of the carbonate of ammonia induces aggregation in the cells of the roots of drosera; and this led me to make a few trials on the roots of other plants. i dug up in the latter part of october the first weed which i met with, viz. euphorbia peplus, being care- [page ] ful not to injure the roots; these were washed and placed in a little solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water. in less than one minute i saw a cloud travelling from cell to cell up the roots, with wonderful rapidity. after from m. to m. the fine granules, which caused this cloudy appearance, became aggregated towards the extremities of the roots into quadrangular masses of brown matter; and some of these soon changed their forms and became spherical. some of the cells, however, remained unaffected. i repeated the experiment with another plant of the same species, but before i could get the specimen into focus under the microscope, clouds of granules and quadrangular masses of reddish and brown matter were formed, and had run far up all the roots. a fresh root was now left for hrs. in a drachm of a solution of one part of the carbonate to of water, so that it received / of a grain, or . mg. when examined, the cells of all the roots throughout their whole length contained aggregated masses of reddish and brown matter. before making these experiments, several roots were closely examined, and not a trace of the cloudy appearance or of the granular masses could be seen in any of them. roots were also immersed for m. in a solution of one part of carbonate of potash to of water; but this salt produced no effect. i may here add that thin slices of the stem of the euphorbia were placed in the same solution, and the cells which were green instantly became cloudy, whilst others which were before colourless were clouded with brown, owing to the formation of numerous granules of this tint. i have also seen with various kinds of leaves, left for some time in a solution of carbonate of ammonia, that the grains of chlorophyll ran together and partially coalesced; and this seems to be a form of aggregation. plants of duck-weed (lemna) were left for between m. and m. in a solution of one part of this same salt to of water, and three of their roots were then examined. in two of them, all the cells which had previously contained only limpid fluid now included little green spheres. after from / hr. to hrs. similar spheres appeared in the cells on the borders of the leaves; but whether the ammonia had travelled up the roots or had been directly absorbed by the leaves, i cannot say. as one species, lemna arrhiza, produces no roots, the latter alternative is perhaps the most probable. after about / hrs. some of the little green spheres in the roots were broken up into small granules which exhibited brownian movements. some duck-weed was also left for hr. m. in a solution of one part of [page ] carbonate of potash to of water, and no decided change could be perceived in the cells of the roots; but when these same roots were placed for m. in a solution of carbonate of ammonia of the same strength, little green spheres were formed. a green marine alga was left for some time in this same solution, but was very doubtfully affected. on the other hand, a red marine alga, with finely pinnated fronds, was strongly affected. the contents of the cells aggregated themselves into broken rings, still of a red colour, which very slowly and slightly changed their shapes, and the central spaces within these rings became cloudy with red granular matter. the facts here given (whether they are new, i know not) indicate that interesting results would perhaps be gained by observing the action of various saline solutions and other fluids on the roots of plants. [page ] chapter iv. the effects of heat on the leaves. nature of the experiments--effects of boiling water--warm water causes rapid inflection-- water at a higher temperature does not cause immediate inflection, but does not kill the leaves, as shown by their subsequent re-expansion and by the aggregation of the protoplasm-- a still higher temperature kills the leaves and coagulates the albuminous contents of the glands. in my observations on drosera rotundifolia, the leaves seemed to be more quickly inflected over animal substances, and to remain inflected for a longer period during very warm than during cold weather. i wished, therefore, to ascertain whether heat alone would induce inflection, and what temperature was the most efficient. another interesting point presented itself, namely, at what degree life was extinguished; for drosera offers unusual facilities in this respect, not in the loss of the power of inflection, but in that of subsequent re-expansion, and more especially in the failure of the protoplasm to become aggregated, when the leaves after being heated are immersed in a solution of carbonate of ammonia.* * when my experiments on the effects of heat were made, i was not aware that the subject had been carefully investigated by several observers. for instance, sachs is convinced ('trait de botanique,' , pp. , ) that the most different kinds of plants all perish if kept for m. in water at o to o cent., or o to o fahr.; and he concludes that the protoplasm within their cells always coagulates, if in a damp condition, at a temperature of between oand o cent., or o to o fahr. max schultze and khne (as quoted by dr. bastian in 'contemp. review,' , p. ) "found that the protoplasm of plant-cells, with which they experimented, was always killed and [[page ]] altered by a very brief exposure to a temperature of / o fahr. as a maximum." as my results are deduced from special phenomena, namely, the subsequent aggregation of the protoplasm and the re-expansion of the tentacles, they seem to me worth giving. we shall find that drosera resists heat somewhat better than most other plants. that there should be considerable differences in this respect is not surprising, considering that some low vegetable organisms grow in hot springs--cases of which have been collected by prof. wyman ('american journal of science,' vol. xliv. ). thus, dr. hooker found confervae in water at o fahr.; humboldt, at o fahr.; and descloizeaux, at o fahr.) [page ] [my experiments were tried in the following manner. leaves were cut off, and this does not in the least interfere with their powers; for instance, three cut off leaves, with bits of meat placed on them, were kept in a damp atmosphere, and after hrs. closely embraced the meat both with their tentacles and blades; and the protoplasm within their cells was well aggregated. three ounces of doubly distilled water was heated in a porcelain vessel, with a delicate thermometer having a long bulb obliquely suspended in it. the water was gradually raised to the required temperature by a spirit-lamp moved about under the vessel; and in all cases the leaves were continually waved for some minutes close to the bulb. they were then placed in cold water, or in a solution of carbonate of ammonia. in other cases they were left in the water, which had been raised to a certain temperature, until it cooled. again in other cases the leaves were suddenly plunged into water of a certain temperature, and kept there for a specified time. considering that the tentacles are extremely delicate, and that their coats are very thin, it seems scarcely possible that the fluid contents of their cells should not have been heated to within a degree or two of the temperature of the surrounding water. any further precautions would, i think, have been superfluous, as the leaves from age or constitutional causes differ slightly in their sensitiveness to heat. it will be convenient first briefly to describe the effects of immersion for thirty seconds in boiling water. the leaves are rendered flaccid, with their tentacles bowed backwards, which, as we shall see in a future chapter, is probably due to their outer surfaces retaining their elasticity for a longer period than their inner surfaces retain the power of contraction. the purple fluid within the cells of the pedicels is rendered finely granular, but there is no true aggregation; nor does this follow [page ] when the leaves are subsequently placed in a solution of carbonate of ammonia. but the most remarkable change is that the glands become opaque and uniformly white; and this may be attributed to the coagulation of their albuminous contents. my first and preliminary experiment consisted in putting seven leaves in the same vessel of water, and warming it slowly up to the temperature of o fahr. ( o. cent.); a leaf being taken out as soon as the temperature rose to o ( o. cent.), another at o, another at o, and so on. each leaf, when taken out, was placed in water at the temperature of my room, and the tentacles of all soon became slightly, though irregularly, inflected. they were now removed from the cold water and kept in damp air, with bits of meat placed on their discs. the leaf which had been exposed to the temperature of o became in m. greatly inflected; and in hrs. every single tentacle closely embraced the meat. so it was, but after rather longer intervals, with the six other leaves. it appears, therefore, that the warm bath had increased their sensitiveness when excited by meat. i next observed the degree of inflection which leaves underwent within stated periods, whilst still immersed in warm water, kept as nearly as possible at the same temperature; but i will here and elsewhere give only a few of the many trials made. a leaf was left for m. in water at o ( o. cent.), but no inflection occurred. a second leaf, however, treated in the same manner, had a few of its exterior tentacles very slightly inflected in m., and several irregularly but not closely inflected in m. a third leaf, kept in water at o to o ( o. to o. cent.), was very moderately inflected in m. a fourth leaf, in water at o ( o. cent.), was somewhat inflected in m., and considerably so in from to m. three leaves were placed in water which was heated rather quickly, and by the time the temperature rose to o- o ( o. to o. cent.), all three were inflected. i then removed the lamp, and in a few minutes every single tentacle was closely inflected. the protoplasm within the cells was not killed, for it was seen to be in distinct movement; and the leaves, having been left in cold water for hrs., re-expanded. another leaf was immersed in water at o ( . o cent.), which was raised to o ( o. cent.); and all the tentacles, except the extreme marginal ones, soon became closely inflected. the leaf was now placed in cold water, and in hrs. m. it had partly, and in hrs. fully, re-expanded. on the following morning it was immersed in a weak solution of carbonate of [page ] ammonia, and the glands quickly became black, with strongly marked aggregation in the tentacles, showing that the protoplasm was alive, and that the glands had not lost their power of absorption. another leaf was placed in water at o ( o. cent.) which was raised to o ( o. cent.); and every tentacle, excepting one, was quickly and closely inflected. this leaf was now immersed in a few drops of a strong solution of carbonate of ammonia (one part to of water); in m. all the glands became intensely black, and in hrs. the protoplasm in the cells of the pedicels was well aggregated. another leaf was suddenly plunged, and as usual waved about, in water at o, and the tentacles became inflected in from m. to m., but only so as to stand at right angles to the disc. the leaf was now placed in the same solution (viz. one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water, or grs. to oz., which i will for the future designate as the strong solution), and when i looked at it again after the interval of an hour, the glands were blackened, and there was well-marked aggregation. after an additional interval of hrs. the tentacles had become much more inflected. it deserves notice that a solution as strong as this never causes inflection in ordinary cases. lastly a leaf was suddenly placed in water at o ( o. cent.), and was left in it until the water cooled; the tentacles were rendered of a bright red and soon became inflected. the contents of the cells underwent some degree of aggregation, which in the course of three hours increased; but the masses of protoplasm did not become spherical, as almost always occurs with leaves immersed in a solution of carbonate of ammonia.] we learn from these cases that a temperature of from o to o ( o. to o. cent.) excites the tentacles into quick movement, but does not kill the leaves, as shown either by their subsequent re-expansion or by the aggregation of the protoplasm. we shall now see that a temperature of o ( o. cent.) is too high to cause immediate inflection, yet does not kill the leaves. [experiment .--a leaf was plunged, and as in all cases waved about for a few minutes, in water at o ( o. cent.), but there was no trace of inflection; it was then placed in cold water, and after an interval of m. very slow movement was [page ] distinctly seen in a small mass of protoplasm in one of the cells of a tentacle.* after a few hours all the tentacles and the blade became inflected. experiment .--another leaf was plunged into water at o to o, and as before there was no inflection. after being kept in cold water for an hour, it was placed in the strong solution of ammonia, and in the course of m. the tentacles were considerably inflected. the glands, which before had been rendered of a brighter red, were now blackened. the protoplasm in the cells of the tentacles was distinctly aggregated; but the spheres were much smaller than those generated in unheated leaves when subjected to carbonate of ammonia. after an additional hrs. all the tentacles, excepting six or seven, were closely inflected. experiment .--a similar experiment to the last, with exactly the same results. experiment .--a fine leaf was placed in water at o ( o. cent.), which was then raised to o ( o. cent.). soon after immersion, there was, as might have been expected, strong inflection. the leaf was now removed and left in cold water; but from having been exposed to so high a temperature, it never re-expanded. experiment .--leaf immersed at o ( o. cent.), and the water raised to o ( o. cent.), there was no immediate inflection; it was then placed in cold water, and after hr. m. some of the tentacles on one side became inflected. this leaf was now placed in the strong solution, and in m. all the submarginal tentacles were well inflected, and the glands blackened. after an additional interval of hrs. m. all the tentacles, except eight or ten, were closely inflected, with their cells exhibiting a slight degree of aggregation; but the spheres of protoplasm were very small, and the cells of the exterior tentacles contained some pulpy or disintegrated brownish matter. experiments and .--two leaves were plunged in water at o ( o. cent.) which was raised to o ( o. cent.); neither became inflected. one of these, however, after having been left for m. in cold water, exhibited some slight inflection, which increased after an additional interval of hr. m., until * sachs states ('trait de botanique,' , p. ) that the movements of the protoplasm in the hairs of a cucurbita ceased after they were exposed for m. in water to a temperature of o to o cent., or o to o fahr. [page ] all the tentacles, except sixteen or seventeen, were more or less inflected; but the leaf was so much injured that it never re-expanded. the other leaf, after having been left for half an hour in cold water, was put into the strong solution, but no inflection ensued; the glands, however, were blackened, and in some cells there was a little aggregation, the spheres of protoplasm being extremely small; in other cells, especially in the exterior tentacles, there was much greenish-brown pulpy matter. experiment .--a leaf was plunged and waved about for a few minutes in water at o ( ocent.), and was then left for half an hour in cold water, but there was no inflection. it was now placed in the strong solution, and after hrs. m. the inner submarginal tentacles were well inflected, with their glands blackened, and some imperfect aggregation in the cells of the pedicels. three or four of the glands were spotted with the white porcelain-like structure, like that produced by boiling water. i have seen this result in no other instance after an immersion of only a few minutes in water at so low a temperature as o, and in only one leaf out of four, after a similar immersion at a temperature of o fahr. on the other hand, with two leaves, one placed in water at o ( o. cent.), and the other in water at o ( ocent.), both being left therein until the water cooled, the glands of both became white and porcelain-like. so that the duration of the immersion is an important element in the result. experiment .--a leaf was placed in water at o ( o cent.), which was raised to o( o. cent.); there was no inflection; on the contrary, the outer tentacles were somewhat bowed backwards. the glands became like porcelain, but some of them were a little mottled with purple. the bases of the glands were often more affected than their summits. this leaf having been left in the strong solution did not undergo any inflection or aggregation. experiment .--a leaf was plunged in water at o to / o ( o. cent.); it became somewhat flaccid, with the outer tentacles slightly reflexed, and the inner ones a little bent inwards, but only towards their tips; and this latter fact shows that the movement was not one of true inflection, as the basal part alone normally bends. the tentacles were as usual rendered of a very bright red, with the glands almost white like porcelain, yet tinged with pink. the leaf having been placed in the strong solution, the cell-contents of the tentacles became of a muddy-brown, with no trace of aggregation. [page ] experiment .--a leaf was immersed in water at o ( o. cent.), which was raised to o ( o. cent.). the tentacles became bright red and somewhat reflexed, with almost all the glands like porcelain; those on the disc being still pinkish, those near the margin quite white. the leaf being placed as usual first in cold water and then in the strong solution, the cells in the tentacles became of a muddy greenish brown, with the protoplasm not aggregated. nevertheless, four of the glands escaped being rendered like porcelain, and the pedicels of these glands were spirally curled, like a french horn, towards their upper ends; but this can by no means be considered as a case of true inflection. the protoplasm within the cells of the twisted portions was aggregated into distinct though excessively minute purple spheres. this case shows clearly that the protoplasm, after having been exposed to a high temperature for a few minutes, is capable of aggregation when afterwards subjected to the action of carbonate of ammonia, unless the heat has been sufficient to cause coagulation.] concluding remarks.--as the hair-like tentacles are extremely thin and have delicate walls, and as the leaves were waved about for some minutes close to the bulb of the thermometer, it seems scarcely possible that they should not have been raised very nearly to the temperature which the instrument indicated. from the eleven last observations we see that a temperature of o ( o. cent.) never causes the immediate inflection of the tentacles, though a temperature from o to o ( o. to o. cent.) quickly produces this effect. but the leaves are paralysed only for a time by a temperature of o, as afterwards, whether left in simple water or in a solution of carbonate of ammonia, they become inflected and their protoplasm undergoes aggregation. this great difference in the effects of a higher and lower temperature may be compared with that from immersion in strong and weak solutions of the salts of ammonia; for the former do not excite movement, whereas the latter act energetically. a temporary suspension of the [page ] power of movement due to heat is called by sachs* heat-rigidity; and this in the case of the sensitive-plant (mimosa) is induced by its exposure for a few minutes to humid air, raised to o- o fahr., or o to o cent. it deserves notice that the leaves of drosera, after being immersed in water at o fahr., are excited into movement by a solution of the carbonate so strong that it would paralyse ordinary leaves and cause no inflection. the exposure of the leaves for a few minutes even to a temperature of o fahr. ( o. cent.) does not always kill them; as when afterwards left in cold water, or in a strong solution of carbonate of ammonia, they generally, though not always, become inflected; and the protoplasm within their cells undergoes aggregation, though the spheres thus formed are extremely small, with many of the cells partly filled with brownish muddy matter. in two instances, when leaves were immersed in water, at a lower temperature than o ( o. cent.), which was then raised to o ( o. cent.), they became during the earlier period of immersion inflected, but on being afterwards left in cold water were incapable of re-expansion. exposure for a few minutes to a temperature of o sometimes causes some few of the more sensitive glands to be speckled with the porcelain-like appearance; and on one occasion this occurred at a temperature of o ( o cent.). on another occasion, when a leaf was placed in water at this temperature of only o, and left therein till the water cooled, every gland became like porcelain. exposure for a few minutes to a temperature of o ( o. cent.) generally produces this effect, yet many glands retain a * 'trait de bot.' , p. . [page ] pinkish colour, and many present a speckled appearance. this high temperature never causes true inflection; on the contrary, the tentacles commonly become reflexed, though to a less degree than when immersed in boiling water; and this apparently is due to their passive power of elasticity. after exposure to a temperature of o fahr., the protoplasm, if subsequently subjected to carbonate of ammonia, instead of undergoing aggregation, is converted into disintegrated or pulpy discoloured matter. in short, the leaves are generally killed by this degree of heat; but owing to differences of age or constitution, they vary somewhat in this respect. in one anomalous case, four out of the many glands on a leaf, which had been immersed in water raised to o ( o. cent.), escaped being rendered porcellanous;* and the protoplasm in the cells close beneath these glands underwent some slight, though imperfect, degree of aggregation. finally, it is a remarkable fact that the leaves of drosera rotundifolia, which flourishes on bleak upland moors throughout great britain, and exists (hooker) within the arctic circle, should be able to withstand for even a short time immersion in water heated to a temperature of o. it may be worth adding that immersion in cold * as the opacity and porcelain-like appearance of the glands is probably due to the coagulation of the albumen, i may add, on the authority of dr. burdon sanderson, that albumen coagulates at about o, but, in presence of acids, the temperature of coagulation is lower. the leaves of drosera contain an acid, and perhaps a difference in the amount contained may account for the slight differences in the results above recorded. it appears that cold-blooded animals are, as might have been expected, far more sensitive to an increase of temperature than is drosera. thus, as i hear from dr. burdon sanderson, a frog begins to be distressed in water at a temperature of only o fahr. at o the muscles become rigid, and the animal dies in a stiffened condition. [page ] water does not cause any inflection: i suddenly placed four leaves, taken from plants which had been kept for several days at a high temperature, generally about o fahr. ( o. cent.), in water at o ( o. cent.), but they were hardly at all affected; not so much as some other leaves from the same plants, which were at the same time immersed in water at o; for these became in a slight degree inflected. [page ] chapter v. the effects of non-nitrogenous and nitrogenous organic fluids on the leaves. non-nitrogenous fluids--solutions of gum arabic--sugar--starch--diluted alcohol--olive oil-- infusion and decoction of tea--nitrogenous fluids--milk--urine--liquid albumen--infusion of raw meat--impure mucus--saliva--solution of isinglass--difference in the action of these two sets of fluids--decoction of green peas--decoction and infusion of cabbage--decoction of grass leaves. when, in , i first observed drosera, and was led to believe that the leaves absorbed nutritious matter from the insects which they captured, it seemed to me a good plan to make some preliminary trials with a few common fluids, containing and not containing nitrogenous matter; and the results are worth giving. in all the following cases a drop was allowed to fall from the same pointed instrument on the centre of the leaf; and by repeated trials one of these drops was ascertained to be on an average very nearly half a minim, or / of a fluid ounce, or . ml. but these measurements obviously do not pretend to any strict accuracy; moreover, the drops of the viscid fluids were plainly larger than those of water. only one leaf on the same plant was tried, and the plants were collected from two distant localities. the experiments were made during august and september. in judging of the effects, one caution is necessary: if a drop of any adhesive fluid is placed on an old or feeble leaf, the glands of which have ceased to secrete copiously, the drop sometimes dries up, especially if the plant [page ] is kept in a room, and some of the central and submarginal tentacles are thus drawn together, giving to them the false appearance of having become inflected. this sometimes occurs with water, as it is rendered adhesive by mingling with the viscid secretion. hence the only safe criterion, and to this alone i have trusted, is the bending inwards of the exterior tentacles, which have not been touched by the fluid, or at most only at their bases. in this case the movement is wholly due to the central glands having been stimulated by the fluid, and transmitting a motor impulse to the exterior tentacles. the blade of the leaf likewise often curves inwards, in the same manner as when an insect or bit of meat is placed on the disc. this latter movement is never caused, as far as i have seen, by the mere drying up of an adhesive fluid and the consequent drawing together of the tentacles. first for the non-nitrogenous fluids. as a preliminary trial, drops of distilled water were placed on between thirty and forty leaves, and no effect whatever was produced; nevertheless, in some other and rare cases, a few tentacles became for a short time inflected; but this may have been caused by the glands having been accidentally touched in getting the leaves into a proper position. that water should produce no effect might have been anticipated, as otherwise the leaves would have been excited into movement by every shower of rain. [gum arabic.--solutions of four degrees of strength were made; one of six grains to the ounce of water (one part to ); a second rather stronger, yet very thin; a third moderately thick, and a fourth so thick that it would only just drop from a pointed instrument. these were tried on fourteen leaves; the drops being left on the discs from hrs. to hrs.; generally about [page ] hrs. inflection was never thus caused. it is necessary to try pure gum arabic, for a friend tried a solution bought ready prepared, and this caused the tentacles to bend; but he afterwards ascertained that it contained much animal matter, probably glue. sugar.--drops of a solution of white sugar of three strengths (the weakest containing one part of sugar to of water) were left on fourteen leaves from hrs. to hrs.; but no effect was produced. starch.--a mixture about as thick as cream was dropped on six leaves and left on them for hrs., no effect being produced. i am surprised at this fact, as i believe that the starch of commerce generally contains a trace of gluten, and this nitrogenous substance causes inflection, as we shall see in the next chapter. alcohol, diluted.--one part of alcohol was added to seven of water, and the usual drops were placed on the discs of three leaves. no inflection ensued in the course of hrs. to ascertain whether these leaves had been at all injured, bits of meat were placed on them, and after hrs. they were closely inflected. i also put drops of sherry-wine on three other leaves; no inflection was caused, though two of them seemed somewhat injured. we shall hereafter see that cut off leaves immersed in diluted alcohol of the above strength do not become inflected. olive oil.--drops were placed on the discs of eleven leaves, and no effect was produced in from hrs. to hrs. four of these leaves were then tested by bits of meat on their discs, and three of them were found after hrs. with all their tentacles and blades closely inflected, whilst the fourth had only a few tentacles inflected. it will, however, be shown in a future place, that cut off leaves immersed in olive oil are powerfully affected. infusion and decoction of tea.--drops of a strong infusion and decoction, as well as of a rather weak decoction, of tea were placed on ten leaves, none of which became inflected. i afterwards tested three of them by adding bits of meat to the drops which still remained on their discs, and when i examined them after hrs. they were closely inflected. the chemical principle of tea, namely theine, was subsequently tried and produced no effect. the albuminous matter which the leaves must originally have contained, no doubt, had been rendered insoluble by their having been completely dried.] we thus see that, excluding the experiments with water, sixty-one leaves were tried with drops of the [page ] above-named non-nitrogenous fluids; and the tentacles were not in a single case inflected. [with respect to nitrogenous fluids, the first which came to hand were tried. the experiments were made at the same time and in exactly the same manner as the foregoing. as it was immediately evident that these fluids produced a great effect, i neglected in most cases to record how soon the tentacles became inflected. but this always occurred in less than hrs.; whilst the drops of non-nitrogenous fluids which produced no effect were observed in every case during a considerably longer period. milk.--drops were placed on sixteen leaves, and the tentacles of all, as well as the blades of several, soon became greatly inflected. the periods were recorded in only three cases, namely, with leaves on which unusually small drops had been placed. their tentacles were somewhat inflected in m.; and after hrs. m. the blades of two were so much curved inwards that they formed little cups enclosing the drops. these leaves re-expanded on the third day. on another occasion the blade of a leaf was much inflected in hrs. after a drop of milk had been placed on it. human urine.--drops were placed on twelve leaves, and the tentacles of all, with a single exception, became greatly inflected. owing, i presume, to differences in the chemical nature of the urine on different occasions, the time required for the movements of the tentacles varied much, but was always effected in under hrs. in two instances i recorded that all the exterior tentacles were completely inflected in hrs., but not the blade of the leaf. in another case the edges of a leaf, after hrs. m., became so strongly inflected that it was converted into a cup. the power of urine does not lie in the urea, which, as we shall hereafter see, is inoperative. albumen (fresh from a hen's egg), placed on seven leaves, caused the tentacles of six of them to be well inflected. in one case the edge of the leaf itself became much curled in after hrs. the one leaf which was unaffected remained so for hrs., and was then treated with a drop of milk, and this caused the tentacles to bend inwards in hrs. cold filtered infusion of raw meat.--this was tried only on a single leaf, which had most of its outer tentacles and the blade inflected in hrs. during subsequent years, i repeatedly used this infusion to test leaves which had been experimented [page ] on with other substances, and it was found to act most energetically, but as no exact account of these trials was kept, they are not here introduced. mucus.--thick and thin mucus from the bronchial tubes, placed on three leaves, caused inflection. a leaf with thin mucus had its marginal tentacles and blade somewhat curved inward in hrs. m., and greatly so in hrs. the action of this fluid no doubt is due either to the saliva or to some albuminous matter* mingled with it, and not, as we shall see in the next chapter, to mucin or the chemical principle of mucus. saliva.--human saliva, when evaporated, yields from . to . per cent. of residue; and this yields . per cent. of ashes, so that the proportion of nitrogenous matter which saliva contains must be small. nevertheless, drops placed on the discs of eight leaves acted on them all. in one case all the exterior tentacles, excepting nine, were inflected in hrs. m.; in another case a few became so in hrs., and after hrs. m. all those situated near where the drop lay, as well as the blade, were acted on. since making these trials, i have many scores of times just touched glands with the handle of my scalpel wetted with saliva, to ascertain whether a leaf was in an active condition; for this was shown in the course of a few minutes by the bending inwards of the tentacles. the edible nest of the chinese swallow is formed of matter secreted by the salivary glands; two grains were added to one ounce of distilled water (one part to ), which was boiled for several minutes, but did not dissolve the whole. the usual-sized drops were placed on three leaves, and these in hr. m. were well, and in hrs. m. closely, inflected. isinglass.--drops of a solution about as thick as milk, and of a still thicker solution, were placed on eight leaves, and the tentacles of all became inflected. in one case the exterior tentacles were well curved in after hrs. m., and the blade of the leaf to a partial extent after hrs. as saliva acted so efficiently, and yet contains so small a proportion of nitrogenous matter, i tried how small a quantity of isinglass would act. one part was dissolved in parts of distilled water, and drops were placed on four leaves. after hrs. two of these were considerably and two moderately inflected; after hrs. the former were greatly and the latter much more inflected. in the course of hrs. * mucus from the air-passages is said in marshall, 'outlines of physiology,' vol. ii. , p. , to contain some albumen. mller's 'elements of physiology,' eng. trans. vol. i., p. . [page ] from the time when the drops were placed on the leaves, all four had almost re-expanded. they were then given little bits of meat, and these acted more powerfully than the solution. one part of isinglass was next dissolved in of water; the fluid thus formed was so thin that it could not be distinguished from pure water. the usual-sized drops were placed on seven leaves, each of which thus received / of a grain (. mg.). three of them were observed for hrs., but were in no way affected; the fourth and fifth had two or three of their exterior tentacles inflected after hrs.; the sixth had a few more; and the seventh had in addition the edge of the leaf just perceptibly curved inwards. the tentacles of the four latter leaves began to re-expand after an additional interval of only hrs. hence the / of a grain of isinglass is sufficient to affect very slightly the more sensitive or active leaves. on one of the leaves, which had not been acted on by the weak solution, and on another, which had only two of its tentacles inflected, drops of the solution as thick as milk were placed; and next morning, after an interval of hrs., both were found with all their tentacles strongly inflected.] altogether i experimented on sixty-four leaves with the above nitrogenous fluids, the five leaves tried only with the extremely weak solution of isinglass not being included, nor the numerous trials subsequently made, of which no exact account was kept. of these sixty-four leaves, sixty-three had their tentacles and often their blades well inflected. the one which failed was probably too old and torpid. but to obtain so large a proportion of successful cases, care must be taken to select young and active leaves. leaves in this condition were chosen with equal care for the sixty-one trials with non-nitrogenous fluids (water not included); and we have seen that not one of these was in the least affected. we may therefore safely conclude that in the sixty-four experiments with nitrogenous fluids the inflection of the exterior tentacles was due to the absorption of [page ] nitrogenous matter by the glands of the tentacles on the disc. some of the leaves which were not affected by the non-nitrogenous fluids were, as above stated, immediately afterwards tested with bits of meat, and were thus proved to be in an active condition. but in addition to these trials, twenty-three of the leaves, with drops of gum, syrup, or starch, still lying on their discs, which had produced no effect in the course of between hrs. and hrs., were then tested with drops of milk, urine, or albumen. of the twenty-three leaves thus treated, seventeen had their tentacles, and in some cases their blades, well inflected; but their powers were somewhat impaired, for the rate of movement was decidedly slower than when fresh leaves were treated with these same nitrogenous fluids. this impairment, as well as the insensibility of six of the leaves, may be attributed to injury from exosmose, caused by the density of the fluids placed on their discs. [the results of a few other experiments with nitrogenous fluids may be here conveniently given. decoctions of some vegetables, known to be rich in nitrogen, were made, and these acted like animal fluids. thus, a few green peas were boiled for some time in distilled water, and the moderately thick decoction thus made was allowed to settle. drops of the superincumbent fluid were placed on four leaves, and when these were looked at after hrs., the tentacles and blades of all were found strongly inflected. i infer from a remark by gerhardt* that legumin is present in peas "in combination with an alkali, forming an incoagulable solution," and this would mingle with boiling water. i may mention, in relation to the above and following experiments, that according to schiff certain forms of albumen * watts' 'dictionary of chemistry,' vol. iii., p. . 'leons sur la phys. de la digestion,' tom. i, p. ; tom. ii. pp. , , on legumin. [page ] exist which are not coagulated by boiling water, but are converted into soluble peptones. on three occasions chopped cabbage-leaves* were boiled in distilled water for hr. or for / hr.; and by decanting the decoction after it had been allowed to rest, a pale dirty green fluid was obtained. the usual-sized drops were placed on thirteen leaves. their tentacles and blades were inflected after hrs. to a quite extraordinary degree. next day the protoplasm within the cells of the tentacles was found aggregated in the most strongly marked manner. i also touched the viscid secretion round the glands of several tentacles with minute drops of the decoction on the head of a small pin, and they became well inflected in a few minutes. the fluid proving so powerful, one part was diluted with three of water, and drops were placed on the discs of five leaves; and these next morning were so much acted on that their blades were completely doubled over. we thus see that a decoction of cabbage-leaves is nearly or quite as potent as an infusion of raw meat. about the same quantity of chopped cabbage-leaves and of distilled water, as in the last experiment, were kept in a vessel for hrs. in a hot closet, but not heated to near the boiling-point. drops of this infusion were placed on four leaves. one of these, after hrs., was much inflected; a second slightly; a third had only the submarginal tentacles inflected; and the fourth was not at all affected. the power of this infusion is therefore very much less than that of the decoction; and it is clear that the immersion of cabbage-leaves for an hour in water at the boiling temperature is much more efficient in extracting matter which excites drosera than immersion during many hours in warm water. perhaps the contents of the cells are protected (as schiff remarks with respect to legumin) by the walls being formed of cellulose, and that until these are ruptured by boiling-water, but little of the contained albuminous matter is dissolved. we know from the strong odour of cooked cabbage-leaves that boiling water produces some chemical change in them, and that they are thus rendered far more digestible and nutritious to man. it is therefore an interesting * the leaves of young plants, before the heart is formed, such as were used by me, contain . per cent. of albuminous matter, and the outer leaves of mature plants . per cent. watts' 'dictionary of chemistry,' vol. i. p. . [page ] fact that water at this temperature extracts matter from them which excites drosera to an extraordinary degree. grasses contain far less nitrogenous matter than do peas or cabbages. the leaves and stalks of three common kinds were chopped and boiled for some time in distilled water. drops of this decoction (after having stood for hrs.) were placed on six leaves, and acted in a rather peculiar manner, of which other instances will be given in the seventh chapter on the salts of ammonia. after hrs. m. four of the leaves had their blades greatly inflected, but not their exterior tentacles; and so it was with all six leaves after hrs. two days afterwards the blades, as well as the few submarginal tentacles which had been inflected, all re-expanded; and much of the fluid on their discs was by this time absorbed. it appears that the decoction strongly excites the glands on the disc, causing the blade to be quickly and greatly inflected; but that the stimulus, differently from what occurs in ordinary cases, does not spread, or only in a feeble degree, to the exterior tentacles. i may here add that one part of the extract of belladonna (procured from a druggist) was dissolved in of water, and drops were placed on six leaves. next day all six were somewhat inflected, and after hrs. were completely re-expanded. it was not the included atropine which produced this effect, for i subsequently ascertained that it is quite powerless. i also procured some extract of hyoscyamus from three shops, and made infusions of the same strength as before. of these three infusions, only one acted on some of the leaves, which were tried. though druggists believe that all the albumen is precipitated in the preparation of these drugs, i cannot doubt that some is occasionally retained; and a trace would be sufficient to excite the more sensitive leaves of drosera. [page ] chapter vi. the digestive power of the secretion of drosera. the secretion rendered acid by the direct and indirect excitement of the glands--nature of the acid--digestible substances--albumen, its digestion arrested by alkalies, recommences by the addition of an acid--meat--fibrin--syntonin--areolar tissue--cartilage--fibro-cartilage-- bone--enamel and dentine--phosphate of lime--fibrous basis of bone--gelatine--chondrin-- milk, casein and cheese--gluten--legumin--pollen--globulin--haematin--indigestible substances--epidermic productions--fibro-elastic tissue--mucin--pepsin--urea--chitine-- cellulose--gun-cotton--chlorophyll--fat and oil--starch--action of the secretion on living seeds--summary and concluding remarks. as we have seen that nitrogenous fluids act very differently on the leaves of drosera from non-nitrogenous fluids, and as the leaves remain clasped for a much longer time over various organic bodies than over inorganic bodies, such as bits of glass, cinder, wood, &c., it becomes an interesting inquiry, whether they can only absorb matter already in solution, or render it soluble,--that is, have the power of digestion. we shall immediately see that they certainly have this power, and that they act on albuminous compounds in exactly the same manner as does the gastric juice of mammals; the digested matter being afterwards absorbed. this fact, which will be clearly proved, is a wonderful one in the physiology of plants. i must here state that i have been aided throughout all my later experiments by many valuable suggestions and assistance given me with the greatest kindness by dr. burdon sanderson. [page ] it may be well to premise for the sake of any reader who knows nothing about the digestion of albuminous compounds by animals that this is effected by means of a ferment, pepsin, together with weak hydrochloric acid, though almost any acid will serve. yet neither pepsin nor an acid by itself has any such power.* we have seen that when the glands of the disc are excited by the contact of any object, especially of one containing nitrogenous matter, the outer tentacles and often the blade become inflected; the leaf being thus converted into a temporary cup or stomach. at the same time the discal glands secrete more copiously, and the secretion becomes acid. moreover, they transmit some influence to the glands of the exterior tentacles, causing them to pour forth a more copious secretion, which also becomes acid or more acid than it was before. as this result is an important one, i will give the evidence. the secretion of many glands on thirty leaves, which had not been in any way excited, was tested with litmus paper; and the secretion of twenty-two of these leaves did not in the least affect the colour, whereas that of eight caused an exceedingly feeble and sometimes doubtful tinge of red. two other old leaves, however, which appeared to have been inflected several times, acted much more decidedly on the paper. particles of clean glass were then placed on five of the leaves, cubes of albumen on six, and bits of raw meat on three, on none of which was the secretion at this time in the least acid. after an interval of hrs., when almost all the tentacles on * it appears, however, according to schiff, and contrary to the opinion of some physiologists, that weak hydrochloric dissolves, though slowly, a very minute quantity of coagulated albumen. schiff, 'phys. de la digestion,' tom. ii. , p. . [page ] these fourteen leaves had become more or less inflected, i again tested the secretion, selecting glands which had not as yet reached the centre or touched any object, and it was now plainly acid. the degree of acidity of the secretion varied somewhat on the glands of the same leaf. on some leaves, a few tentacles did not, from some unknown cause, become inflected, as often happens; and in five instances their secretion was found not to be in the least acid; whilst the secretion of the adjoining and inflected tentacles on the same leaf was decidedly acid. with leaves excited by particles of glass placed on the central glands, the secretion which collects on the disc beneath them was much more strongly acid than that poured forth from the exterior tentacles, which were as yet only moderately inflected. when bits of albumen (and this is naturally alkaline), or bits of meat were placed on the disc, the secretion collected beneath them was likewise strongly acid. as raw meat moistened with water is slightly acid, i compared its action on litmus paper before it was placed on the leaves, and afterwards when bathed in the secretion; and there could not be the least doubt that the latter was very much more acid. i have indeed tried hundreds of times the state of the secretion on the discs of leaves which were inflected over various objects, and never failed to find it acid. we may, therefore, conclude that the secretion from unexcited leaves, though extremely viscid, is not acid or only slightly so, but that it becomes acid, or much more strongly so, after the tentacles have begun to bend over any inorganic or organic object; and still more strongly acid after the tentacles have remained for some time closely clasped over any object. i may here remind the reader that the secretion [page ] appears to be to a certain extent antiseptic, as it checks the appearance of mould and infusoria, thus preventing for a time the discoloration and decay of such substances as the white of an egg, cheese, &c. it therefore acts like the gastric juice of the higher animals, which is known to arrest putrefaction by destroying the microzymes. [as i was anxious to learn what acid the secretion contained, leaves were washed in distilled water, given me by prof. frankland; but the secretion is so viscid that it is scarcely possible to scrape or wash off the whole. the conditions were also unfavourable, as it was late in the year and the leaves were small. prof. frankland with great kindness undertook to test the fluid thus collected. the leaves were excited by clean particles of glass placed on them hrs. previously. no doubt much more acid would have been secreted had the leaves been excited by animal matter, but this would have rendered the analysis more difficult. prof. frankland informs me that the fluid contained no trace of hydrochloric, sulphuric, tartaric, oxalic, or formic acids. this having been ascertained, the remainder of the fluid was evaporated nearly to dryness, and acidified with sulphuric acid; it then evolved volatile acid vapour, which was condensed and digested with carbonate of silver. "the weight of the silver salt thus produced was only . gr., much too small a quantity for the accurate determination of the molecular weight of the acid. the number obtained, however, corresponded nearly with that of propionic acid; and i believe that this, or a mixture of acetic and butyric acids, were present in the liquid. the acid doubtless belongs to the acetic or fatty series." prof. frankland, as well as his assistant, observed (and this is an important fact) that the fluid, "when acidified with sulphuric acid, emitted a powerful odour like that of pepsin." the leaves from which the secretion had been washed were also sent to prof. frankland; they were macerated for some hours, then acidified with sulphuric acid and distilled, but no acid passed over. therefore the acid which fresh leaves contain, as shown by their discolouring litmus paper when crushed, must be of a different nature from that present in the secretion. nor was any odour of pepsin emitted by them. [page ] although it has long been known that pepsin with acetic acid has the power of digesting albuminous compounds, it appeared advisable to ascertain whether acetic acid could be replaced, without the loss of digestive power, by the allied acids which are believed to occur in the secretion of drosera, namely, propionic, butyric, or valerianic. dr. burdon sanderson was so kind as to make for me the following experiments, the results of which are valuable, independently of the present inquiry. prof. frankland supplied the acids. " . the purpose of the following experiments was to determine the digestive activity of liquids containing pepsin, when acidulated with certain volatile acids belonging to the acetic series, in comparison with liquids acidulated with hydrochloric acid, in proportion similar to that in which it exists in gastric juice. " . it has been determined empirically that the best results are obtained in artificial digestion when a liquid containing two per thousand of hydrochloric acid gas by weight is used. this corresponds to about . cubic centimetres per litre of ordinary strong hydrochloric acid. the quantities of propionic, butyric, and valerianic acids respectively which are required to neutralise as much base as . cubic centimetres of hcl, are in grammes . of propionic acid, . of butyric acid, and . of valerianic acid. it was therefore judged expedient, in comparing the digestive powers of these acids with that of hydrochloric acid, to use them in these proportions. " . five hundred cub. cent. of a liquid containing about cub. cent. of a glycerine extract of the mucous membrane of the stomach of a dog killed during digestion having been prepared, cub. cent. of it were evaporated and dried at o. this quantity yielded . of residue. " . of this liquid four quantities were taken which were severally acidulated with hydrochloric, propionic, butyric, and valerianic acids, in the proportions above indicated. each liquid was then placed in a tube, which was allowed to float in a water bath, containing a thermometer which indicated a temperature of o to o cent. into each, a quantity of unboiled fibrin was introduced, and the whole allowed to stand for four hours, the temperature being maintained during the whole time, and care being taken that each contained throughout an excess of fibrin. at the end of the period each liquid was filtered. of the filtrate, which of course contained as much of the fibrin as had been digested during the four hours, [page ] cub. cent. were measured out and evaporated, and dried at o as before. the residues were respectively-- "in the liquid containing hydrochloric acid . " " propionic acid . " " butyric acid . " " valerianic acid . "hence, deducting from each of these the above-mentioned residue, left when the digestive liquid itself was evaporated, viz. . , we have, "for propionic acid . " butyric acid . " valerianic acid . as compared with . for hydrochloric acid; these several numbers expressing the quantities of fibrin by weight digested in presence of equivalent quantities of the respective acids under identical conditions. "the results of the experiment may be stated thus:--if represent the digestive power of a liquid containing pepsin with the usual proportion of hydrochloric acid, . , . , and . , will represent respectively the digestive powers of the three acids under investigation. " . in a second experiment in which the procedure was in every respect the same, excepting that all the tubes were plunged into the same water-bath, and the residues dried at o c., the results were as follows:-- "quantity of fibrin dissolved in four hours by cub. cent. of the liquid:-- "propionic acid . butyric acid . valerianic acid . "the quantity digested by a similar liquid containing hydrochloric acid was . . hence, taking this as , the following numbers represent the relative quantities digested by the other acids:-- "propionic acid . butyric acid . valerianic acid . " . a third experiment of the same kind gave: [page ] "quantity of fibrin digested in four hours by cub. cent. of the liquid:-- "hydrochloric acid . propionic acid . butyric acid . valerianic acid . "comparing, as before, the three last numbers with the first taken as , the digestive power of propionic acid is represented by . ; that of butyric acid by . ; and that of valerianic by . . "the mean of these three sets of observations (hydrochloric acid being taken as ) gives for "propionic acid . butyric acid . valerianic acid . " . a further experiment was made to ascertain whether the digestive activity of butyric acid (which was selected as being apparently the most efficacious) was relatively greater at ordinary temperatures than at the temperature of the body. it was found that whereas cub. cent. of a liquid containing the ordinary proportion of hydrochloric acid digested . gramme, a similar liquid prepared with butyric acid digested . gramme of fibrin. "hence, taking the quantities digested with hydrochloric acid at the temperature of the body as , we have the digestive power of hydrochloric acid at the temperature of o to ocent. represented by . ; that of butyric acid at the same temperature being . ." we here see that at the lower of these two temperatures, hydrochloric acid with pepsin digests, within the same time, rather less than half the quantity of fibrin compared with what it digests at the higher temperature; and the power of butyric acid is reduced in the same proportion under similar conditions and temperatures. we have also seen that butyric acid, which is much more efficacious than propionic or valerianic acids, digests with pepsin at the higher temperature less than a third of the fibrin which is digested at the same temperature by hydrochloric acid.] [page ] i will now give in detail my experiments on the digestive power of the secretion of drosera, dividing the substances tried into two series, namely those which are digested more or less completely, and those which are not digested. we shall presently see that all these substances are acted on by the gastric juice of the higher animals in the same manner. i beg leave to call attention to the experiments under the head albumen, showing that the secretion loses its power when neutralised by an alkali, and recovers it when an acid is added. substances which are completely or partially digested by the secretion of drosera. albumen.--after having tried various substances, dr. burdon sanderson suggested to me the use of cubes of coagulated albumen or hard-boiled egg. i may premise that five cubes of the same size as those used in the following experiments were placed for the sake of comparison at the same time on wet moss close to the plants of drosera. the weather was hot, and after four days some of the cubes were discoloured and mouldy, with their angles a little rounded; but they were not surrounded by a zone of transparent fluid as in the case of those undergoing digestion. other cubes retained their angles and white colour. after eight days all were somewhat reduced in size, discoloured, with their angles much rounded. nevertheless in four out of the five specimens, the central parts were still white and opaque. so that their state differed widely, as we shall see, from that of the cubes subjected to the action of the secretion. [experiment . rather large cubes of albumen were first tried; the tentacles were well inflected in hrs.; after an [page ] additional day the angles of the cubes were dissolved and rounded;* but the cubes were too large, so that the leaves were injured, and after seven days one died and the others were dying. albumen which has been kept for four or five days, and which, it may be presumed, has begun to decay slightly, seems to act more quickly than freshly boiled eggs. as the latter were generally used, i often moistened them with a little saliva, to make the tentacles close more quickly. experiment .--a cube of / of an inch (i.e. with each side / of an inch, or . mm. in length) was placed on a leaf, and after hrs. it was converted into a sphere about / of an inch ( . mm.) in diameter, surrounded by perfectly transparent fluid. after ten days the leaf re-expanded, but there was still left on the disc a minute bit of albumen now rendered transparent. more albumen had been given to this leaf than could be dissolved or digested. experiment .--two cubes of albumen of / of an inch ( . mm.) were placed on two leaves. after hrs. every atom of one was dissolved, and most of the liquefied matter was absorbed, the fluid which remained being in this, as in all other cases, very acid and viscid. the other cube was acted on at a rather slower rate. experiment .--two cubes of albumen of the same size as the last were placed on two leaves, and were converted in hrs. into two large drops of transparent fluid; but when these were removed from beneath the inflected tentacles, and viewed by reflected light under the microscope, fine streaks of white opaque matter could be seen in the one, and traces of similar streaks in the other. the drops were replaced on the leaves, which re-expanded after days; and now nothing was left except a very little transparent acid fluid. experiment .--this experiment was slightly varied, so that the albumen might be more quickly exposed to the action of the secretion. two cubes, each of about / of an inch (. mm.), were placed on the same leaf, and two similar cubes on another * in all my numerous experiments on the digestion of cubes of albumen, the angles and edges were invariably first rounded. now, schiff states ('leons phys. de la digestion,' vol. ii. , page ) that this is characteristic of the digestion of albumen by the gastric juice of animals. on the other hand, he remarks "les dissolutions, en chimie, ont lieu sur toute la surface des corps en contact avec l'agent dissolvant." [page ] leaf. these were examined after hrs. m., and all four were found rounded. after hrs. the two cubes on the one leaf were completely liquefied, the fluid being perfectly transparent; on the other leaf some opaque white streaks could still be seen in the midst of the fluid. after hrs. these streaks disappeared, but there was still a little viscid fluid left on the disc; whereas it was almost all absorbed on the first leaf. both leaves were now beginning to re-expand.] the best and almost sole test of the presence of some ferment analogous to pepsin in the secretion appeared to be to neutralise the acid of the secretion with an alkali, and to observe whether the process of digestion ceased; and then to add a little acid and observe whether the process recommenced. this was done, and, as we shall see, with success, but it was necessary first to try two control experiments; namely, whether the addition of minute drops of water of the same size as those of the dissolved alkalies to be used would stop the process of digestion; and, secondly, whether minute drops of weak hydrochloric acid, of the same strength and size as those to be used, would injure the leaves. the two following experiments were therefore tried:-- experiment .--small cubes of albumen were put on three leaves, and minute drops of distilled water on the head of a pin were added two or three times daily. these did not in the least delay the process; for, after hrs., the cubes were completely dissolved on all three leaves. on the third day the leaves began to re-expand, and on the fourth day all the fluid was absorbed. experiment .--small cubes of albumen were put on two leaves, and minute drops of hydrochloric acid, of the strength of one part to of water, were added two or three times. this did not in the least delay, but seemed rather to hasten, the process of digestion; for every trace of the albumen disappeared in hrs. m. after three days the leaves partially re-expanded, and by this time almost all the viscid fluid on their discs was absorbed. it is almost superfluous to state that [page ] cubes of albumen of the same size as those above used, left for seven days in a little hydrochloric acid of the above strength, retained all their angles as perfect as ever. experiment .--cubes of albumen (of / of an inch, or . mm.) were placed on five leaves, and minute drops of a solution of one part of carbonate of soda to of water were added at intervals to three of them, and drops of carbonate of potash of the same strength to the other two. the drops were given on the head of a rather large pin, and i ascertained that each was equal to about / of a minim (. ml.), so that each contained only / of a grain (. mg.) of the alkali. this was not sufficient, for after hrs. all five cubes were dissolved. experiment .--the last experiment was repeated on four leaves, with this difference, that drops of the same solution of carbonate of soda were added rather oftener, as often as the secretion became acid, so that it was much more effectually neutralised. and now after hrs. the angles of three of the cubes were not in the least rounded, those of the fourth being so in a very slight degree. drops of extremely weak hydrochloric acid (viz. one part to of water) were then added, just enough to neutralise the alkali which was still present; and now digestion immediately recommenced, so that after hrs. m. three of the cubes were completely dissolved, whilst the fourth was converted into a minute sphere, surrounded by transparent fluid; and this sphere next day disappeared. experiment .--stronger solutions of carbonate of soda and of potash were next used, viz. one part to of water; and as the same-sized drops were given as before, each drop contained / of a grain (. mg.) of either salt. two cubes of albumen (each about / of an inch, or . mm.) were placed on the same leaf, and two on another. each leaf received, as soon as the secretion became slightly acid (and this occurred four times within hrs.), drops either of the soda or potash, and the acid was thus effectually neutralised. the experiment now succeeded perfectly, for after hrs. the angles of the cubes were as sharp as they were at first, and we know from experiment that such small cubes would have been completely rounded within this time by the secretion in its natural state. some of the fluid was now removed with blotting-paper from the discs of the leaves, and minute drops of hydrochloric acid of the strength of the one part to of water was added. acid of this greater strength was used as the solutions of the alkalies were stronger. the [page ] process of digestion now commenced, so that within hrs. from the time when the acid was given the four cubes were not only completely dissolved, but much of the liquefied albumen was absorbed. experiment .--two cubes of albumen ( / of an inch, or . mm.) were placed on two leaves, and were treated with alkalies as in the last experiment, and with the same result; for after hrs. they had their angles perfectly sharp, showing that the digestive process had been completely arrested. i then wished to ascertain what would be the effect of using stronger hydrochloric acid; so i added minute drops of the strength of per cent. this proved rather too strong, for after hrs. from the time when the acid was added one cube was still almost perfect, and the other only very slightly rounded, and both were stained slightly pink. this latter fact shows that the leaves were injured,* for during the normal process of digestion the albumen is not thus coloured, and we can thus understand why the cubes were not dissolved.] from these experiments we clearly see that the secretion has the power of dissolving albumen, and we further see that if an alkali is added, the process of digestion is stopped, but immediately recommences as soon as the alkali is neutralised by weak hydrochloric acid. even if i had tried no other experiments than these, they would have almost sufficed to prove that the glands of drosera secrete some ferment analogous to pepsin, which in presence of an acid gives to the secretion its power of dissolving albuminous compounds. splinters of clean glass were scattered on a large number of leaves, and these became moderately inflected. they were cut off and divided into three lots; two of them, after being left for some time in a little distilled water, were strained, and some dis- * sachs remarks ('trait de bot.' , p. ), that cells which are killed by freezing, by too great heat, or by chemical agents, allow all their colouring matter to escape into the surrounding water. [page ] coloured, viscid, slightly acid fluid was thus obtained. the third lot was well soaked in a few drops of glycerine, which is well known to dissolve pepsin. cubes of albumen ( / of an inch) were now placed in the three fluids in watch-glasses, some of which were kept for several days at about o fahr. ( o. cent.), and others at the temperature of my room; but none of the cubes were dissolved, the angles remaining as sharp as ever. this fact probably indicates that the ferment is not secreted until the glands are excited by the absorption of a minute quantity of already soluble animal matter,--a conclusion which is supported by what we shall hereafter see with respect to dionaea. dr. hooker likewise found that, although the fluid within the pitchers of nepenthes possesses extraordinary power of digestion, yet when removed from the pitchers before they have been excited and placed in a vessel, it has no such power, although it is already acid; and we can account for this fact only on the supposition that the proper ferment is not secreted until some exciting matter is absorbed. on three other occasions eight leaves were strongly excited with albumen moistened with saliva; they were then cut off, and allowed to soak for several hours or for a whole day in a few drops of glycerine. some of this extract was added to a little hydrochloric acid of various strengths (generally one to of water), and minute cubes of albumen were placed in the mixture.* in two of these trials the cubes were not in the least acted on; but in the third * as a control experiment bits of albumen were placed in the same glycerine with hydrochloric acid of the same strength; and the albumen, as might have been expected, was not in the least affected after two days. [page ] the experiment was successful. for in a vessel containing two cubes, both were reduced in size in hrs.; and after hrs. mere streaks of undissolved albumen were left. in a second vessel, containing two minute ragged bits of albumen, both were likewise reduced in size in hrs., and after hrs. completely disappeared. i then added a little weak hydrochloric acid to both vessels, and placed fresh cubes of albumen in them; but these were not acted on. this latter fact is intelligible according to the high authority of schiff,* who has demonstrated, as he believes, in opposition to the view held by some physiologists, that a certain small amount of pepsin is destroyed during the act of digestion. so that if my solution contained, as is probable, an extremely small amount of the ferment, this would have been consumed by the dissolution of the cubes of albumen first given; none being left when the hydrochloric acid was added. the destruction of the ferment during the process of digestion, or its absorption after the albumen had been converted into a peptone, will also account for only one out of the three latter sets of experiments having been successful. digestion of roast meat.--cubes of about / of an inch ( . mm.) of moderately roasted meat were placed on five leaves which became in hrs. closely inflected. after hrs. i gently opened one leaf, and the meat now consisted of a minute central sphere, partially digested and surrounded by a thick envelope of transparent viscid fluid. the whole, without being much disturbed, was removed and placed under the microscope. in the central part the transverse striae on the muscular fibres were quite distinct; and it was * 'leons phys. de la digestion,' , tom. ii. pp. - . [page ] interesting to observe how gradually they disappeared, when the same fibre was traced into the surrounding fluid. they disappeared by the striae being replaced by transverse lines formed of excessively minute dark points, which towards the exterior could be seen only under a very high power; and ultimately these points were lost. when i made these observations, i had not read schiff's account* of the digestion of meat by gastric juice, and i did not understand the meaning of the dark points. but this is explained in the following statement, and we further see how closely similar is the process of digestion by gastric juice and by the secretion of drosera. ["on a dit le suc gastrique faisait perdre la fibre musculaire ses stries transversales. ainsi nonce, cette proposition pourrait donner lieu une quivoque, car ce qui se perd, ce n'est que l'aspect extrieur de la striature et non les lments anatomiques qui la composent. on sait que les stries qui donnent un aspect si caractristique la fibre musculaire, sont le rsultat de la juxtaposition et du paralllisme des corpuscules lmentaires, placs, distances gales, dans l'intrieur des fibrilles contigus. or, ds que le tissu connectif qui relie entre elles les fibrilles lmentaires vient se gonfler et se dissoudre, et que les fibrilles elles-mmes se dissocient, ce paralllisme est dtruit et avec lui l'aspect, le phnomne optique des stries. si, aprs la dsagrgation des fibres, on examine au microscope les fibrilles lmentaires, on distingue encore trs-nettement leur intrieur les corpuscules, et on continue les voir, de plus en plus ples, jusqu'au moment o les fibrilles elles-mmes se liqufient et disparaissent dans le suc gastrique. ce qui constitue la striature, proprement parler, n'est donc pas dtruit, avant la liqufaction de la fibre charnue elle-mme."] in the viscid fluid surrounding the central sphere of undigested meat there were globules of fat and little bits of fibro-elastic tissue; neither of which were in * 'leons phys. de la digestion,' tom. ii. p. . [page ] the least digested. there were also little free parallelograms of yellowish, highly translucent matter. schiff, in speaking of the digestion of meat by gastric juice, alludes to such parallelograms, and says:-- ["le gonflement par lequel commence la digestion de la viande, rsulte de l'action du suc gastrique acide sur le tissu connectif qui se dissout d'abord, et qui, par sa liqufaction, dsagrge les fibrilles. celles-ci se dissolvent ensuite en grande partie, mais, avant de passer l'tat liquide, elles tendent se briser en petits fragments transversaux. les 'sarcous elements' de bowman, qui ne sont autre chose que les produits de cette division transversale des fibrilles lmentaires, peuvent tre prpars et isols l'aide du suc gastrique, pourvu qu'on n'attend pas jusqu' la liqufaction complte du muscle."] after an interval of hrs., from the time when the five cubes were placed on the leaves, i opened the four remaining ones. on two nothing could be seen but little masses of transparent viscid fluid; but when these were examined under a high power, fat-globules, bits of fibro-elastic tissue, and some few parallelograms of sarcous matter, could be distinguished, but not a vestige of transverse striae. on the other two leaves there were minute spheres of only partially digested meat in the centre of much transparent fluid. fibrin.--bits of fibrin were left in water during four days, whilst the following experiments were tried, but they were not in the least acted on. the fibrin which i first used was not pure, and included dark particles: it had either not been well prepared or had subsequently undergone some change. thin portions, about / of an inch square, were placed on several leaves, and though the fibrin was soon liquefied, the whole was never dissolved. smaller particles were then placed on four leaves, and minute [page ] drops of hydrochloric acid (one part to of water) were added; this seemed to hasten the process of digestion, for on one leaf all was liquified and absorbed after hrs.; but on the three other leaves some undissolved residue was left after hrs. it is remarkable that in all the above and following experiments, as well as when much larger bits of fibrin were used, the leaves were very little excited; and it was sometimes necessary to add a little saliva to induce complete inflection. the leaves, moreover, began to re-expand after only hrs., whereas they would have remained inflected for a much longer time had insects, meat, cartilage, albumen, &c., been placed on them. i then tried some pure white fibrin, sent me by dr. burdon sanderson. [experiment .--two particles, barely / of an inch ( . mm.) square, were placed on opposite sides of the same leaf. one of these did not excite the surrounding tentacles, and the gland on which it rested soon dried. the other particle caused a few of the short adjoining tentacles to be inflected, the more distant ones not being affected. after hrs. both were almost, and after hrs. completely, dissolved. experiment .--the same experiment with the same result, only one of the two bits of fibrin exciting the short surrounding tentacles. this bit was so slowly acted on that after a day i pushed it on to some fresh glands. in three days from the time when it was first placed on the leaf it was completely dissolved. experiment .--bits of fibrin of about the same size as before were placed on the discs of two leaves; these caused very little inflection in hrs., but after hrs. both were well clasped by the surrounding short tentacles, and after an additional hrs. were completely dissolved. on the disc of one of these leaves much clear acid fluid was left. experiment .--similar bits of fibrin were placed on the discs of two leaves; as after hrs. the glands seemed rather dry, they were freely moistened with saliva; this soon caused strong inflection both of the tentacles and blades, with copious [page ] secretion from the glands. in hrs. the fibrin was completely liquefied, but undigested atoms still floated in the liquid; these, however, disappeared in under two additional days.] from these experiments it is clear that the secretion completely dissolves pure fibrin. the rate of dissolution is rather slow; but this depends merely on this substance not exciting the leaves sufficiently, so that only the immediately adjoining tentacles are inflected, and the supply of secretion is small. syntonin.--this substance, extracted from muscle, was kindly prepared for me by dr. moore. very differently from fibrin, it acts quickly and energetically. small portions placed on the discs of three leaves caused their tentacles and blades to be strongly inflected within hrs.; but no further observations were made. it is probably due to the presence of this substance that raw meat is too powerful a stimulant, often injuring or even killing the leaves. areolar tissue.--small portions of this tissue from a sheep were placed on the discs of three leaves; these became moderately well inflected in hrs., but began to re-expand after hrs., and were fully re-expanded in hrs., always reckoning from the time when the bits were first given. this substance, therefore, like fibrin, excites the leaves for only a short time. the residue left on the leaves, after they were fully re-expanded, was examined under a high power and found much altered, but, owing to the presence of a quantity of elastic tissue, which is never acted on, could hardly be said to be in a liquefied condition. some areolar tissue free from elastic tissue was next procured from the visceral cavity of a toad, and moderately sized, as well as very small, bits were placed on five leaves. after hrs. two of the bits [page ] were completely liquefied; two others were rendered transparent, but not quite liquefied; whilst the fifth was but little affected. several glands on the three latter leaves were now moistened with a little saliva, which soon caused much inflection and secretion, with the result that in the course of additional hrs. one leaf alone showed a remnant of undigested tissue. on the discs of the four other leaves (to one of which a rather large bit had been given) nothing was left except some transparent viscid fluid. i may add that some of this tissue included points of black pigment, and these were not at all affected. as a control experiment, small portions of this tissue were left in water and on wet moss for the same length of time, and remained white and opaque. from these facts it is clear that areolar tissue is easily and quickly digested by the secretion; but that it does not greatly excite the leaves. cartilage.--three cubes ( / of an inch or . mm.) of white, translucent, extremely tough cartilage were cut from the end of a slightly roasted leg-bone of a sheep. these were placed on three leaves, borne by poor, small plants in my greenhouse during november; and it seemed in the highest degree improbable that so hard a substance would be digested under such unfavourable circumstances. nevertheless, after hrs., the cubes were largely dissolved and converted into minute spheres, surrounded by transparent, very acid fluid. two of these spheres were completely softened to their centres; whilst the third still contained a very small irregularly shaped core of solid cartilage. their surfaces were seen under the microscope to be curiously marked by prominent ridges, showing that the cartilage had been unequally corroded by the secretion. i need hardly [page ] say that cubes of the same cartilage, kept in water for the same length of time, were not in the least affected. during a more favourable season, moderately sized bits of the skinned ear of a cat, which includes cartilage, areolar and elastic tissue, were placed on three leaves. some of the glands were touched with saliva, which caused prompt inflection. two of the leaves began to re-expand after three days, and the third on the fifth day. the fluid residue left on their discs was now examined, and consisted in one case of perfectly transparent, viscid matter; in the other two cases, it contained some elastic tissue and apparently remnants of half digested areolar tissue. fibro-cartilage (from between the vertebrae of the tail of a sheep). moderately sized and small bits (the latter about / of an inch) were placed on nine leaves. some of these were well and some very little inflected. in the latter case the bits were dragged over the discs, so that they were well bedaubed with the secretion, and many glands thus irritated. all the leaves re-expanded after only two days; so that they were but little excited by this substance. the bits were not liquefied, but were certainly in an altered condition, being swollen, much more transparent, and so tender as to disintegrate very easily. my son francis prepared some artificial gastric juice, which was proved efficient by quickly dissolving fibrin, and suspended portions of the fibro-cartilage in it. these swelled and became hyaline, exactly like those exposed to the secretion of drosera, but were not dissolved. this result surprised me much, as two physiologists were of opinion that fibro-cartilage would be easily digested by gastric juice. i therefore asked dr. klein to examine the specimens; and [page ] he reports that the two which had been subjected to artificial gastric juice were "in that state of digestion in which we find connective tissue when treated with an acid, viz. swollen, more or less hyaline, the fibrillar bundles having become homogeneous and lost their fibrillar structure." in the specimens which had been left on the leaves of drosera, until they re-expanded, "parts were altered, though only slightly so, in the same manner as those subjected to the gastric juice as they had become more transparent, almost hyaline, with the fibrillation of the bundles indistinct." fibro-cartilage is therefore acted on in nearly the same manner by gastric juice and by the secretion of drosera. bone.--small smooth bits of the dried hyoidal bone of a fowl moistened with saliva were placed on two leaves, and a similarly moistened splinter of an extremely hard, broiled mutton-chop bone on a third leaf. these leaves soon became strongly inflected, and remained so for an unusual length of time; namely, one leaf for ten and the other two for nine days. the bits of bone were surrounded all the time by acid secretion. when examined under a weak power, they were found quite softened, so that they were readily penetrated by a blunt needle, torn into fibres, or compressed. dr. klein was so kind as to make sections of both bones and examine them. he informs me that both presented the normal appearance of decalcified bone, with traces of the earthy salts occasionally left. the corpuscles with their processes were very distinct in most parts; but in some parts, especially near the periphery of the hyoidal bone, none could be seen. other parts again appeared amorphous, with even the longitudinal striation of bone not distinguishable. this amorphous structure, [page ] as dr. klein thinks, may be the result either of the incipient digestion of the fibrous basis or of all the animal matter having been removed, the corpuscles being thus rendered invisible. a hard, brittle, yellowish substance occupied the position of the medulla in the fragments of the hyoidal bone. as the angles and little projections of the fibrous basis were not in the least rounded or corroded, two of the bits were placed on fresh leaves. these by the next morning were closely inflected, and remained so,--the one for six and the other for seven days,--therefore for not so long a time as on the first occasion, but for a much longer time than ever occurs with leaves inflected over inorganic or even over many organic bodies. the secretion during the whole time coloured litmus paper of a bright red; but this may have been due to the presence of the acid super-phosphate of lime. when the leaves re-expanded, the angles and projections of the fibrous basis were as sharp as ever. i therefore concluded, falsely as we shall presently see, that the secretion cannot touch the fibrous basis of bone. the more probable explanation is that the acid was all consumed in decomposing the phosphate of lime which still remained; so that none was left in a free state to act in conjunction with the ferment on the fibrous basis. enamel and dentine.--as the secretion decalcified ordinary bone, i determined to try whether it would act on enamel and dentine, but did not expect that it would succeed with so hard a substance as enamel. dr. klein gave me some thin transverse slices of the canine tooth of a dog; small angular fragments of which were placed on four leaves; and these were examined each succeeding day at the same hour. the results are, i think, worth giving in detail.] [page ] [experiment .--may st, fragment placed on leaf; rd, tentacles but little inflected, so a little saliva was added; th, as the tentacles were not strongly inflected, the fragment was transferred to another leaf, which acted at first slowly, but by the th closely embraced it. on the th this second leaf began to re-expand; the fragment was manifestly softened, and dr. klein reports, "a great deal of enamel and the greater part of the dentine decalcified." experiment .--may st, fragment placed on leaf; nd, tentacles fairly well inflected, with much secretion on the disc, and remained so until the th, when the leaf re-expanded. the fragment was now transferred to a fresh leaf, which next day ( th) was inflected in the strongest manner, and thus remained until the th, when it re-expanded. dr. klein reports, "a great deal of enamel and the greater part of the dentine decalcified." experiment .--may st, fragment moistened with saliva and placed on a leaf, which remained well inflected until th, when it re-expanded. the enamel was not at all, and the dentine only slightly, softened. the fragment was now transferred to a fresh leaf, which next morning ( th) was strongly inflected, and remained so until the th. the enamel and dentine both now somewhat softened; and dr. klein reports, "less than half the enamel, but the greater part of the dentine decalcified." experiment .--may st, a minute and thin bit of dentine, moistened with saliva, was placed on a leaf, which was soon inflected, and re-expanded on the th. the dentine had become as flexible as thin paper. it was then transferred to a fresh leaf, which next morning ( th) was strongly inflected, and reopened on the th. the decalcified dentine was now so tender that it was torn into shreds merely by the force of the re-expanding tentacles.] from these experiments it appears that enamel is attacked by the secretion with more difficulty than dentine, as might have been expected from its extreme hardness; and both with more difficulty than ordinary bone. after the process of dissolution has once commenced, it is carried on with greater ease; this may be inferred from the leaves, to which the fragments were transferred, becoming in all four cases strongly inflected in the course of a single day; whereas the first set of leaves acted much less quickly and [page ] energetically. the angles or projections of the fibrous basis of the enamel and dentine (except, perhaps, in no. , which could not be well observed) were not in the least rounded; and dr. klein remarks that their microscopical structure was not altered. but this could not have been expected, as the decalcification was not complete in the three specimens which were carefully examined. fibrous basis of bone.--i at first concluded, as already stated, that the secretion could not digest this substance. i therefore asked dr. burdon sanderson to try bone, enamel, and dentine, in artificial gastric juice, and he found that they were after a considerable time completely dissolved. dr. klein examined some of the small lamellae, into which part of the skull of a cat became broken up after about a week's immersion in the fluid, and he found that towards the edges the "matrix appeared rarefied, thus producing the appearance as if the canaliculi of the bone-corpuscles had become larger. otherwise the corpuscles and their canaliculi were very distinct." so that with bone subjected to artificial gastric juice complete decalcification precedes the dissolution of the fibrous basis. dr. burdon sanderson suggested to me that the failure of drosera to digest the fibrous basis of bone, enamel, and dentine, might be due to the acid being consumed in the decomposition of the earthy salts, so that there was none left for the work of digestion. accordingly, my son thoroughly decalcified the bone of a sheep with weak hydrochloric acid; and seven minute fragments of the fibrous basis were placed on so many leaves, four of the fragments being first damped with saliva to aid prompt inflection. all seven leaves became inflected, but only very moderately, in the course of a day. [page ] they quickly began to re-expand; five of them on the second day, and the other two on the third day. on all seven leaves the fibrous tissue was converted into perfectly transparent, viscid, more or less liquefied little masses. in the middle, however, of one, my son saw under a high power a few corpuscles, with traces of fibrillation in the surrounding transparent matter. from these facts it is clear that the leaves are very little excited by the fibrous basis of bone, but that the secretion easily and quickly liquefies it, if thoroughly decalcified. the glands which had remained in contact for two or three days with the viscid masses were not discoloured, and apparently had absorbed little of the liquefied tissue, or had been little affected by it. phosphate of lime.--as we have seen that the tentacles of the first set of leaves remained clasped for nine or ten days over minute fragments of bone, and the tentacles of the second set for six or seven days over the same fragments, i was led to suppose that it was the phosphate of lime, and not any included animal matter, which caused such long continued inflection. it is at least certain from what has just been shown that this cannot have been due to the presence of the fibrous basis. with enamel and dentine (the former of which contains only per cent. of organic matter) the tentacles of two successive sets of leaves remained inflected altogether for eleven days. in order to test my belief in the potency of phosphate of lime, i procured some from prof. frankland absolutely free of animal matter and of any acid. a small quantity moistened with water was placed on the discs of two leaves. one of these was only slightly affected; the other remained closely inflected for ten days, when a few of the tentacles began to [page ] re-expand, the rest being much injured or killed. i repeated the experiment, but moistened the phosphate with saliva to insure prompt inflection; one leaf remained inflected for six days (the little saliva used would not have acted for nearly so long a time) and then died; the other leaf tried to re-expand on the sixth day, but after nine days failed to do so, and likewise died. although the quantity of phosphate given to the above four leaves was extremely small, much was left in every case undissolved. a larger quantity wetted with water was next placed on the discs of three leaves; and these became most strongly inflected in the course of hrs. they never re-expanded; on the fourth day they looked sickly, and on the sixth were almost dead. large drops of not very viscid fluid hung from their edges during the six days. this fluid was tested each day with litmus paper, but never coloured it; and this circumstance i do not understand, as the superphosphate of lime is acid. i suppose that some superphosphate must have been formed by the acid of the secretion acting on the phosphate, but that it was all absorbed and injured the leaves; the large drops which hung from their edges being an abnormal and dropsical secretion. anyhow, it is manifest that the phosphate of lime is a most powerful stimulant. even small doses are more or less poisonous, probably on the same principle that raw meat and other nutritious substances, given in excess, kill the leaves. hence the conclusion, that the long continued inflection of the tentacles over fragments of bone, enamel, and dentine, is caused by the presence of phosphate of lime, and not of any included animal matter, is no doubt correct. gelatine.--i used pure gelatine in thin sheets given [page ] me by prof. hoffmann. for comparison, squares of the same size as those placed on the leaves were left close by on wet moss. these soon swelled, but retained their angles for three days; after five days they formed rounded, softened masses, but even on the eighth day a trace of gelatine could still be detected. other squares were immersed in water, and these, though much swollen, retained their angles for six days. squares of / of an inch ( . mm.), just moistened with water, were placed on two leaves; and after two or three days nothing was left on them but some acid viscid fluid, which in this and other cases never showed any tendency to regelatinise; so that the secretion must act on the gelatine differently to what water does, and apparently in the same manner as gastric juice.* four squares of the same size as before were then soaked for three days in water, and placed on large leaves; the gelatine was liquefied and rendered acid in two days, but did not excite much inflection. the leaves began to re-expand after four or five days, much viscid fluid being left on their discs, as if but little had been absorbed. one of these leaves, as soon as it re-expanded, caught a small fly, and after hrs. was closely inflected, showing how much more potent than gelatine is the animal matter absorbed from an insect. some larger pieces of gelatine, soaked for five days in water, were next placed on three leaves, but these did not become much inflected until the third day; nor was the gelatine completely liquefied until the fourth day. on this day one leaf began to re-expand; the second on the fifth; and third on the sixth. these several facts * dr. lauder brunton, 'handbook for the phys. laboratory,' , pp. , ; schiff, 'leons phys. de la digestion,' , p. . [page ] prove that gelatine is far from acting energetically on drosera. in the last chapter it was shown that a solution of isinglass of commerce, as thick as milk or cream, induces strong inflection. i therefore wished to compare its action with that of pure gelatine. solutions of one part of both substances to of water were made; and half-minim drops (. ml.) were placed on the discs of eight leaves, so that each received / of a grain, or . mg. the four with the isinglass were much more strongly inflected than the other four. i conclude therefore that isinglass contains some, though perhaps very little, soluble albuminous matter. as soon as these eight leaves re-expanded, they were given bits of roast meat, and in some hours all became greatly inflected; again showing how much more meat excites drosera than does gelatine or isinglass. this is an interesting fact, as it is well known that gelatine by itself has little power of nourishing animals.* chondrin.--this was sent me by dr. moore in a gelatinous state. some was slowly dried, and a small chip was placed on a leaf, and a much larger chip on a second leaf. the first was liquefied in a day; the larger piece was much swollen and softened, but was not completely liquefied until the third day. the undried jelly was next tried, and as a control experiment small cubes were left in water for four days and retained their angles. cubes of the same size were placed on two leaves, and larger cubes on two other leaves. the tentacles and laminae of the latter were closely inflected after hrs., but those of the * dr. lauder brunton gives in the 'medical record,' january , p. , an account of voit's view of the indirect part which gelatine plays in nutrition. [page ] two leaves with the smaller cubes only to a moderate degree. the jelly on all four was by this time liquefied, and rendered very acid. the glands were blackened from the aggregation of their protoplasmic contents. in hrs. from the time when the jelly was given, the leaves had almost re-expanded, and completely so after hrs.; and now only a little slightly adhesive fluid was left unabsorbed on their discs. one part of chondrin jelly was dissolved in parts of boiling water, and half-minim drops were given to four leaves; so that each received about / of a grain (. mg.) of the jelly; and, of course, much less of dry chondrin. this acted most powerfully, for after only hrs. m. all four leaves were strongly inflected. three of them began to re-expand after hrs., and in hrs. were completely open; but the fourth had only partially re-expanded. all the liquefied chondrin was by this time absorbed. hence a solution of chondrin seems to act far more quickly and energetically than pure gelatine or isinglass; but i am assured by good authorities that it is most difficult, or impossible, to know whether chondrin is pure, and if it contained any albuminous compound, this would have produced the above effects. nevertheless, i have thought these facts worth giving, as there is so much doubt on the nutritious value of gelatine; and dr. lauder brunton does not know of any experiments with respect to animals on the relative value of gelatine and chondrin. milk.--we have seen in the last chapter that milk acts most powerfully on the leaves; but whether this is due to the contained casein or albumen, i know not. rather large drops of milk excite so much secretion (which is very acid) that it sometimes trickles down [page ] from the leaves, and this is likewise characteristic of chemically prepared casein. minute drops of milk, placed on leaves, were coagulated in about ten minutes. schiff denies* that the coagulation of milk by gastric juice is exclusively due to the acid which is present, but attributes it in part to the pepsin; and it seems doubtful whether with drosera the coagulation can be wholly due to the acid, as the secretion does not commonly colour litmus paper until the tentacles have become well inflected; whereas the coagulation commences, as we have seen, in about ten minutes. minute drops of skimmed milk were placed on the discs of five leaves; and a large proportion of the coagulated matter or curd was dissolved in hrs. and still more completely in hrs. these leaves re-expanded after two days, and the viscid fluid left on their discs was then carefully scraped off and examined. it seemed at first sight as if all the casein had not been dissolved, for a little matter was left which appeared of a whitish colour by reflected light. but this matter, when examined under a high power, and when compared with a minute drop of skimmed milk coagulated by acetic acid, was seen to consist exclusively of oil-globules, more or less aggregated together, with no trace of casein. as i was not familiar with the microscopical appearance of milk, i asked dr. lauder brunton to examine the slides, and he tested the globules with ether, and found that they were dissolved. we may, therefore, conclude that the secretion quickly dissolves casein, in the state in which it exists in milk. chemically prepared casein.--this substance, which * 'leons,' &c. tom. ii. page . [page ] is insoluble in water, is supposed by many chemists to differ from the casein of fresh milk. i procured some, consisting of hard globules, from messrs. hopkins and williams, and tried many experiments with it. small particles and the powder, both in a dry state and moistened with water, caused the leaves on which they were placed to be inflected very slowly, generally not until two days had elapsed. other particles, wetted with weak hydrochloric acid (one part to of water) acted in a single day, as did some casein freshly prepared for me by dr. moore. the tentacles commonly remained inflected for from seven to nine days; and during the whole of this time the secretion was strongly acid. even on the eleventh day some secretion left on the disc of a fully re-expanded leaf was strongly acid. the acid seems to be secreted quickly, for in one case the secretion from the discal glands, on which a little powdered casein had been strewed, coloured litmus paper, before any of the exterior tentacles were inflected. small cubes of hard casein, moistened with water, were placed on two leaves; after three days one cube had its angles a little rounded, and after seven days both consisted of rounded softened masses, in the midst of much viscid and acid secretion; but it must not be inferred from this fact that the angles were dissolved, for cubes immersed in water were similarly acted on. after nine days these leaves began to re-expand, but in this and other cases the casein did not appear, as far as could be judged by the eye, much, if at all, reduced in bulk. according to hoppe-seyler and lubavin* casein consists of an albuminous, with * dr. lauder brunton, 'handbook for phys. lab.' p. . [page ] a non-albuminous, substance; and the absorption of a very small quantity of the former would excite the leaves, and yet not decrease the casein to a perceptible degree. schiff asserts*--and this is an important fact for us--that "la casine purifie des chemistes est un corps presque compltement inattaquable par le suc gastrique." so that here we have another point of accordance between the secretion of drosera and gastric juice, as both act so differently on the fresh casein of milk, and on that prepared by chemists. a few trials were made with cheese; cubes of / of an inch ( . mm.) were placed on four leaves, and these after one or two days became well inflected, their glands pouring forth much acid secretion. after five days they began to re-expand, but one died, and some of the glands on the other leaves were injured. judging by the eye, the softened and subsided masses of cheese, left on the discs, were very little or not at all reduced in bulk. we may, however, infer from the time during which the tentacles remained inflected,--from the changed colour of some of the glands,--and from the injury done to others, that matter had been absorbed from the cheese. legumin.--i did not procure this substance in a separate state; but there can hardly be a doubt that it would be easily digested, judging from the powerful effect produced by drops of a decoction of green peas, as described in the last chapter. thin slices of a dried pea, after being soaked in water, were placed on two leaves; these became somewhat inflected in the course of a single hour, and most strongly so in hrs. they re-expanded after three or four days. * 'leons' &c. tom. ii. page . [page ] the slices were not liquefied, for the walls of the cells, composed of cellulose, are not in the least acted on by the secretion. pollen.--a little fresh pollen from the common pea was placed on the discs of five leaves, which soon became closely inflected, and remained so for two or three days. the grains being then removed, and examined under the microscope, were found discoloured, with the oil-globules remarkably aggregated. many had their contents much shrunk, and some were almost empty. in only a few cases were the pollen-tubes emitted. there could be no doubt that the secretion had penetrated the outer coats of the grains, and had partially digested their contents. so it must be with the gastric juice of the insects which feed on pollen, without masticating it.* drosera in a state of nature cannot fail to profit to a certain extent by this power of digesting pollen, as innumerable grains from the carices, grasses, rumices, fir-trees, and other wind-fertilised plants, which commonly grow in the same neighbourhood, will be inevitably caught by the viscid secretion surrounding the many glands. gluten.--this substance is composed of two albuminoids, one soluble, the other insoluble in alcohol. some was prepared by merely washing wheaten flour in water. a provisional trial was made with rather large pieces placed on two leaves; these, after hrs., were closely inflected, and remained so for four days, when one was killed and the other had its glands extremely blackened, but was not afterwards observed. * mr. a.w. bennett found the undigested coats of the grains in the intestinal canal of pollen-eating diptera; see 'journal of hort. soc. of london,' vol. iv. , p. . watts' 'dict. of chemistry,' vol. ii. , p. . [page ] smaller bits were placed on two leaves; these were only slightly inflected in two days, but afterwards became much more so. their secretion was not so strongly acid as that of leaves excited by casein. the bits of gluten, after lying for three days on the leaves, were more transparent than other bits left for the same time in water. after seven days both leaves re-expanded, but the gluten seemed hardly at all reduced in bulk. the glands which had been in contact with it were extremely black. still smaller bits of half putrid gluten were now tried on two leaves; these were well inflected in hrs., and thoroughly in four days, the glands in contact being much blackened. after five days one leaf began to re-expand, and after eight days both were fully re-expanded, some gluten being still left on their discs. four little chips of dried gluten, just dipped in water, were next tried, and these acted rather differently from fresh gluten. one leaf was almost fully re-expanded in three days, and the other three leaves in four days. the chips were greatly softened, almost liquefied, but not nearly all dissolved. the glands which had been in contact with them, instead of being much blackened, were of a very pale colour, and many of them were evidently killed. in not one of these ten cases was the whole of the gluten dissolved, even when very small bits were given. i therefore asked dr. burdon sanderson to try gluten in artificial digestive fluid of pepsin with hydrochloric acid; and this dissolved the whole. the gluten, however, was acted on much more slowly than fibrin; the proportion dissolved within four hours being as . of gluten to of fibrin. gluten was also tried in two other digestive fluids, in which hydrochloric acid was replaced by propionic [page ] and butyric acids, and it was completely dissolved by these fluids at the ordinary temperature of a room. here, then, at last, we have a case in which it appears that there exists an essential difference in digestive power between the secretion of drosera and gastric juice; the difference being confined to the ferment, for, as we have just seen, pepsin in combination with acids of the acetic series acts perfectly on gluten. i believe that the explanation lies simply in the fact that gluten is too powerful a stimulant (like raw meat, or phosphate of lime, or even too large a piece of albumen), and that it injures or kills the glands before they have had time to pour forth a sufficient supply of the proper secretion. that some matter is absorbed from the gluten, we have clear evidence in the length of time during which the tentacles remain inflected, and in the greatly changed colour of the glands. at the suggestion of dr. sanderson, some gluten was left for hrs. in weak hydrochloric acid (. per cent.), in order to remove the starch. it became colourless, more transparent, and swollen. small portions were washed and placed on five leaves, which were soon closely inflected, but to my surprise re-expanded completely in hrs. a mere vestige of gluten was left on two of the leaves, and not a vestige on the other three. the viscid and acid secretion, which remained on the discs of the three latter leaves, was scraped off and examined by my son under a high power; but nothing could be seen except a little dirt, and a good many starch grains which had not been dissolved by the hydrochloric acid. some of the glands were rather pale. we thus learn that gluten, treated with weak hydrochloric acid, is not so powerful or so enduring a [page ] stimulant as fresh gluten, and does not much injure the glands; and we further learn that it can be digested quickly and completely by the secretion. [globulin or crystallin.--this substance was kindly prepared for me from the lens of the eye by dr. moore, and consisted of hard, colourless, transparent fragments. it is said* that globulin ought to "swell up in water and dissolve, for the most part forming a gummy liquid;" but this did not occur with the above fragments, though kept in water for four days. particles, some moistened with water, others with weak hydrochloric acid, others soaked in water for one or two days, were placed on nineteen leaves. most of these leaves, especially those with the long soaked particles, became strongly inflected in a few hours. the greater number re-expanded after three or four days; but three of the leaves remained inflected during one, two, or three additional days. hence some exciting matter must have been absorbed; but the fragments, though perhaps softened in a greater degree than those kept for the same time in water, retained all their angles as sharp as ever. as globulin is an albuminous substance, i was astonished at this result; and my object being to compare the action of the secretion with that of gastric juice, i asked dr. burdon sanderson to try some of the globulin used by me. he reports that "it was subjected to a liquid containing . per cent. of hydrochloric acid, and about per cent. of glycerine extract of the stomach of a dog. it was then ascertained that this liquid was capable of digesting . of its weight of unboiled fibrin in hr.; whereas, during the hour, only . of the above globulin was dissolved. in both cases an excess of the substance to be digested was subjected to the liquid." we thus see that within the same time less than one-ninth by weight of globulin than of fibrin was dissolved; and bearing in mind that pepsin with acids of the acetic series has only about one-third of the digestive power of pepsin with hydrochloric acid, it is not surprising that the fragments of * watts' 'dictionary of chemistry,' vol. ii. page . i may add that dr. sanderson prepared some fresh globulin by schmidt's method, and of this . was dissolved within the same time, namely, one hour; so that it was far more soluble than that which i used, though less soluble than fibrin, of which, as we have seen, . was dissolved. i wish that i had tried on drosera globulin prepared by this method. [page ] globulin were not corroded or rounded by the secretion of drosera, though some soluble matter was certainly extracted from them and absorbed by the glands. haematin.--some dark red granules, prepared from bullock's blood, were given me; these were found by dr. sanderson to be insoluble in water, acids, and alcohol, so that they were probably haematin, together with other bodies derived from the blood. particles with little drops of water were placed on four leaves, three of which were pretty closely inflected in two days; the fourth only moderately so. on the third day the glands in contact with the haematin were blackened, and some of the tentacles seemed injured. after five days two leaves died, and the third was dying; the fourth was beginning to re-expand, but many of its glands were blackened and injured. it is therefore clear that matter had been absorbed which was either actually poisonous or of too stimulating a nature. the particles were much more softened than those kept for the same time in water, but, judging by the eye, very little reduced in bulk. dr. sanderson tried this substance with artificial digestive fluid, in the manner described under globulin, and found that whilst . of fibrin, only . of the haematin was dissolved in an hour; but the dissolution by the secretion of even a less amount would account for its action on drosera. the residue left by the artificial digestive fluid at first yielded nothing more to it during several succeeding days.] substances which are not digested by the secretion. all the substances hitherto mentioned cause prolonged inflection of the tentacles, and are either completely or at least partially dissolved by the secretion. but there are many other substances, some of them containing nitrogen, which are not in the least acted on by the secretion, and do not induce inflection for a longer time than do inorganic and insoluble objects. these unexciting and indigestible substances are, as far as i have observed, epidermic productions (such as bits of human nails, balls of hair, the quills of feathers), fibro-elastic tissue, mucin, pepsin, urea, chitine, chlorophyll, cellulose, gun-cotton, fat, oil, and starch. [page ] to these may be added dissolved sugar and gum, diluted alcohol, and vegetable infusions not containing albumen, for none of these, as shown in the last chapter, excite inflection. now, it is a remarkable fact, which affords additional and important evidence, that the ferment of drosera is closely similar to or identical with pepsin, that none of these same substances are, as far as it is known, digested by the gastric juice of animals, though some of them are acted on by the other secretions of the alimentary canal. nothing more need be said about some of the above enumerated substances, excepting that they were repeatedly tried on the leaves of drosera, and were not in the least affected by the secretion. about the others it will be advisable to give my experiments. [fibro-elastic tissue.--we have already seen that when little cubes of meat, &c., were placed on leaves, the muscles, areolar tissue, and cartilage were completely dissolved, but the fibro-elastic tissue, even the most delicate threads, were left without the least signs of having been attacked. and it is well known that this tissue cannot be digested by the gastric juice of animals.* mucin.--as this substance contains about per cent. of nitrogen, i expected that it would have excited the leaves greatly and been digested by the secretion, but in this i was mistaken. from what is stated in chemical works, it appears extremely doubtful whether mucin can be prepared as a pure principle. that which i used (prepared by dr. moore) was dry and hard. particles moistened with water were placed on four leaves, but after two days there was only a trace of inflection in the immediately adjoining tentacles. these leaves were then tried with bits of meat, and all four soon became strongly inflected. some of the dried mucin was then soaked in water for two days, and little cubes of the proper size were placed on three leaves. after four days the tentacles * see, for instance, schiff, 'phys. de la digestion,' , tom. ii., p. . [page ] round the margins of the discs were a little inflected, and the secretion collected on the disc was acid, but the exterior tentacles were not affected. one leaf began to re-expand on the fourth day, and all were fully re-expanded on the sixth. the glands which had been in contact with the mucin were a little darkened. we may therefore conclude that a small amount of some impurity of a moderately exciting nature had been absorbed. that the mucin employed by me did contain some soluble matter was proved by dr. sanderson, who on subjecting it to artificial gastric juice found that in hr. some was dissolved, but only in the proportion of to of fibrin during the same time. the cubes, though perhaps rather softer than those left in water for the same time, retained their angles as sharp as ever. we may therefore infer that the mucin itself was not dissolved or digested. nor is it digested by the gastric juice of living animals, and according to schiff* it is a layer of this substance which protects the coats of the stomach from being corroded during digestion. pepsin.--my experiments are hardly worth giving, as it is scarcely possible to prepare pepsin free from other albuminoids; but i was curious to ascertain, as far as that was possible, whether the ferment of the secretion of drosera would act on the ferment of the gastric juice of animals. i first used the common pepsin sold for medicinal purposes, and afterwards some which was much purer, prepared for me by dr. moore. five leaves to which a considerable quantity of the former was given remained inflected for five days; four of them then died, apparently from too great stimulation. i then tried dr. moore's pepsin, making it into a paste with water, and placing such small particles on the discs of five leaves that all would have been quickly dissolved had it been meat or albumen. the leaves were soon inflected; two of them began to re-expand after only hrs., and the other three were almost completely re-expanded after hrs. some of the glands which had been in contact with the particles of pepsin, or with the acid secretion surrounding them, were singularly pale, whereas others were singularly dark-coloured. some of the secretion was scraped off and examined under a high power; and it abounded with granules undistinguishable from those of pepsin left in water for the same length of time. we may therefore infer, as highly probable (remembering what small quantities were given), that the ferment of drosera does not act on or digest * 'leons phys. de la digestion,' , tom. ii., p. . [page ] pepsin, but absorbs from it some albuminous impurity which induces inflection, and which in large quantity is highly injurious. dr. lauder brunton at my request endeavoured to ascertain whether pepsin with hydrochloric acid would digest pepsin, and as far as he could judge, it had no such power. gastric juice, therefore, apparently agrees in this respect with the secretion of drosera. urea.--it seemed to me an interesting inquiry whether this refuse of the living body, which contains much nitrogen, would, like so many other animal fluids and substances, be absorbed by the glands of drosera and cause inflection. half-minim drops of a solution of one part to of water were placed on the discs of four leaves, each drop containing the quantity usually employed by me, namely / of a grain, or . mg.; but the leaves were hardly at all affected. they were then tested with bits of meat, and soon became closely inflected. i repeated the same experiment on four leaves with some fresh urea prepared by dr. moore; after two days there was no inflection; i then gave them another dose, but still there was no inflection. these leaves were afterwards tested with similarly sized drops of an infusion of raw meat, and in hrs. there was considerable inflection, which became excessive in hrs. but the urea apparently was not quite pure, for when four leaves were immersed in dr. ( . ml.) of the solution, so that all the glands, instead of merely those on the disc, were enabled to absorb any small amount of impurity in solution, there was considerable inflection after hrs., certainly more than would have followed from a similar immersion in pure water. that the urea, which was not perfectly white, should have contained a sufficient quantity of albuminous matter, or of some salt of ammonia, to have caused the above effect, is far from surprising, for, as we shall see in the next chapter, astonishingly small doses of ammonia are highly efficient. we may therefore conclude that urea itself is not exciting or nutritious to drosera; nor is it modified by the secretion, so as to be rendered nutritious, for, had this been the case, all the leaves with drops on their discs assuredly would have been well inflected. dr. lauder brunton informs me that from experiments made at my request at st. bartholomew's hospital it appears that urea is not acted on by artificial gastric juice, that is by pepsin with hydrochloric acid. chitine.--the chitinous coats of insects naturally captured by the leaves do not appear in the least corroded. small square pieces of the delicate wing and of the elytron of a staphylinus [page ] were placed on some leaves, and after these had re-expanded, the pieces were carefully examined. their angles were as sharp as ever, and they did not differ in appearance from the other wing and elytron of the same insect which had been left in water. the elytron, however, had evidently yielded some nutritious matter, for the leaf remained clasped over it for four days; whereas the leaves with bits of the true wing re-expanded on the second day. any one who will examine the excrement of insect-eating animals will see how powerless their gastric juice is on chitine. cellulose.--i did not obtain this substance in a separate state, but tried angular bits of dry wood, cork, sphagnum moss, linen, and cotton thread. none of these bodies were in the least attacked by the secretion, and they caused only that moderate amount of inflection which is common to all inorganic objects. gun-cotton, which consists of cellulose, with the hydrogen replaced by nitrogen, was tried with the same result. we have seen that a decoction of cabbage-leaves excites the most powerful inflection. i therefore placed two little square bits of the blade of a cabbage-leaf, and four little cubes cut from the midrib, on six leaves of drosera. these became well inflected in hrs., and remained so for between two and four days; the bits of cabbage being bathed all the time by acid secretion. this shows that some exciting matter, to which i shall presently refer, had been absorbed; but the angles of the squares and cubes remained as sharp as ever, proving that the framework of cellulose had not been attacked. small square bits of spinach-leaves were tried with the same result; the glands pouring forth a moderate supply of acid secretion, and the tentacles remaining inflected for three days. we have also seen that the delicate coats of pollen grains are not dissolved by the secretion. it is well known that the gastric juice of animals does not attack cellulose. chlorophyll.--this substance was tried, as it contains nitrogen. dr. moore sent me some preserved in alcohol; it was dried, but soon deliquesced. particles were placed on four leaves; after hrs. the secretion was acid; after hrs. there was a good deal of inflection, which in hrs. became fairly well marked. after four days two of the leaves began to open, and the other two were then almost fully re-expanded. it is therefore clear that this chlorophyll contained matter which excited the leaves to a moderate degree; but judging by the eye, little or none was dissolved; so that in a pure state it would not probably have been attacked by the secretion. dr. sanderson tried that which i [page ] used, as well as some freshly prepared, with artificial digestive liquid, and found that it was not digested. dr. lauder brunton likewise tried some prepared by the process given in the british pharmacopoeia, and exposed it for five days at the temperature of o cent. to digestive liquid, but it was not diminished in bulk, though the fluid acquired a slightly brown colour. it was also tried with the glycerine extract of pancreas with a negative result. nor does chlorophyll seem affected by the intestinal secretions of various animals, judging by the colour of their excrement. it must not be supposed from these facts that the grains of chlorophyll, as they exist in living plants, cannot be attacked by the secretion; for these grains consist of protoplasm merely coloured by chlorophyll. my son francis placed a thin slice of spinach leaf, moistened with saliva, on a leaf of drosera, and other slices on damp cotton-wool, all exposed to the same temperature. after hrs. the slice on the leaf of drosera was bathed in much secretion from the inflected tentacles, and was now examined under the microscope. no perfect grains of chlorophyll could be distinguished; some were shrunken, of a yellowish-green colour, and collected in the middle of the cells; others were disintegrated and formed a yellowish mass, likewise in the middle of the cells. on the other hand, in the slices surrounded by damp cotton-wool, the grains of chlorophyll were green and as perfect as ever. my son also placed some slices in artificial gastric juice, and these were acted on in nearly the same manner as by the secretion. we have seen that bits of fresh cabbage and spinach leaves cause the tentacles to be inflected and the glands to pour forth much acid secretion; and there can be little doubt that it is the protoplasm forming the grains of chlorophyll, as well as that lining the walls of the cells, which excites the leaves. fat and oil.--cubes of almost pure uncooked fat, placed on several leaves, did not have their angles in the least rounded. we have also seen that the oil-globules in milk are not digested. nor does olive oil dropped on the discs of leaves cause any inflection; but when they are immersed in olive oil, they become strongly inflected; but to this subject i shall have to recur. oily substances are not digested by the gastric juice of animals. starch.--rather large bits of dry starch caused well-marked inflection, and the leaves did not re-expand until the fourth day; but i have no doubt that this was due to the prolonged irritation of the glands, as the starch continued to absorb the secretion. the particles were not in the least reduced in size; [page ] and we know that leaves immersed in an emulsion of starch are not at all affected. i need hardly say that starch is not digested by the gastric juice of animals. action of the secretion on living seeds. the results of some experiments on living seeds, selected by hazard, may here be given, though they bear only indirectly on our present subject of digestion. seven cabbage seeds of the previous year were placed on the same number of leaves. some of these leaves were moderately, but the greater number only slightly inflected, and most of them re-expanded on the third day. one, however, remained clasped till the fourth, and another till the fifth day. these leaves therefore were excited somewhat more by the seeds than by inorganic objects of the same size. after they re-expanded, the seeds were placed under favourable conditions on damp sand; other seeds of the same lot being tried at the same time in the same manner, and found to germinate well. of the seven seeds which had been exposed to the secretion, only three germinated; and one of the three seedlings soon perished, the tip of its radicle being from the first decayed, and the edges of its cotyledons of a dark brown colour; so that altogether five out of the seven seeds ultimately perished. radish seeds (raphanus sativus) of the previous year were placed on three leaves, which became moderately inflected, and re-expanded on the third or fourth day. two of these seeds were transferred to damp sand; only one germinated, and that very slowly. this seedling had an extremely short, crooked, diseased, radicle, with no absorbent hairs; and the cotyledons were oddly mottled with purple, with the edges blackened and partly withered. cress seeds (lepidum sativum) of the previous year were placed on four leaves; two of these next morning were moderately and two strongly inflected, and remained so for four, five, and even six days. soon after these seeds were placed on the leaves and had become damp, they secreted in the usual manner a layer of tenacious mucus; and to ascertain whether it was the absorption of this substance by the glands which caused so much inflection, two seeds were put into water, and as much of the mucus as possible scraped off. they were then placed on leaves, which became very strongly inflected in the course of hrs., and were still closely inflected on the third day; so that it evidently was not the mucus which excited so [page ] much inflection; on the contrary, this served to a certain extent as a protection to the seeds. two of the six seeds germinated whilst still lying on the leaves, but the seedlings, when transferred to damp sand, soon died; of the other four seeds, only one germinated. two seeds of mustard (sinapis nigra), two of celery (apium graveolens)--both of the previous year, two seeds well soaked of caraway (carum carui), and two of wheat, did not excite the leaves more than inorganic objects often do. five seeds, hardly ripe, of a buttercup (ranunculus), and two fresh seeds of anemone nemorosa, induced only a little more effect. on the other hand, four seeds, perhaps not quite ripe, of carex sylvatica caused the leaves on which they were placed to be very strongly inflected; and these only began to re-expand on the third day, one remaining inflected for seven days. it follows from these few facts that different kinds of seeds excite the leaves in very different degrees; whether this is solely due to the nature of their coats is not clear. in the case of the cress seeds, the partial removal of the layer of mucus hastened the inflection of the tentacles. whenever the leaves remain inflected during several days over seeds, it is clear that they absorb some matter from them. that the secretion penetrates their coats is also evident from the large proportion of cabbage, raddish, and cress seeds which were killed, and from several of the seedlings being greatly injured. this injury to the seeds and seedlings may, however, be due solely to the acid of the secretion, and not to any process of digestion; for mr. traherne moggridge has shown that very weak acids of the acetic series are highly injurious to seeds. it never occurred to me to observe whether seeds are often blown on to the viscid leaves of plants growing in a state of nature; but this can hardly fail sometimes to occur, as we shall hereafter see in the case of pinguicula. if so, drosera will profit to a slight degree by absorbing matter from such seeds.] summary and concluding remarks on the digestive power of drosera. when the glands on the disc are excited either by the absorption of nitrogenous matter or by mechanical irritation, their secretion increases in quantity and becomes acid. they likewise transmit [page ] some influence to the glands of the exterior tentacles, causing them to secrete more copiously; and their secretion likewise becomes acid. with animals, according to schiff,* mechanical irritation excites the glands of the stomach to secrete an acid, but not pepsin. now, i have every reason to believe (though the fact is not fully established), that although the glands of drosera are continually secreting viscid fluid to replace that lost by evaporation, yet they do not secrete the ferment proper for digestion when mechanically irritated, but only after absorbing certain matter, probably of a nitrogenous nature. i infer that this is the case, as the secretion from a large number of leaves which had been irritated by particles of glass placed on their discs did not digest albumen; and more especially from the analogy of dionaea and nepenthes. in like manner, the glands of the stomach of animals secrete pepsin, as schiff asserts, only after they have absorbed certain soluble substances, which he designates as peptogenes. there is, therefore, a remarkable parallelism between the glands of drosera and those of the stomach in the secretion of their proper acid and ferment. the secretion, as we have seen, completely dissolves albumen, muscle, fibrin, areolar tissue, cartilage, the fibrous basis of bone, gelatine, chondrin, casein in the state in which it exists in milk, and gluten which has been subjected to weak hydrochloric acid. syntonin and legumin excite the leaves so powerfully and quickly that there can hardly be a doubt that both would be dissolved by the secretion. the secretion * 'phys. de la digestion,' , tom. ii. pp. , . [page ] failed to digest fresh gluten, apparently from its injuring the glands, though some was absorbed. raw meat, unless in very small bits, and large pieces of albumen, &c., likewise injure the leaves, which seem to suffer, like animals, from a surfeit. i know not whether the analogy is a real one, but it is worth notice that a decoction of cabbage leaves is far more exciting and probably nutritious to drosera than an infusion made with tepid water; and boiled cabbages are far more nutritious, at least to man, than the uncooked leaves. the most striking of all the cases, though not really more remarkable than many others, is the digestion of so hard and tough a substance as cartilage. the dissolution of pure phosphate of lime, of bone, dentine, and especially enamel, seems wonderful; but it depends merely on the long-continued secretion of an acid; and this is secreted for a longer time under these circumstances than under any others. it was interesting to observe that as long as the acid was consumed in dissolving the phosphate of lime, no true digestion occurred; but that as soon as the bone was completely decalcified, the fibrous basis was attacked and liquefied with the greatest ease. the twelve substances above enumerated, which are completely dissolved by the secretion, are likewise dissolved by the gastric juice of the higher animals; and they are acted on in the same manner, as shown by the rounding of the angles of albumen, and more especially by the manner in which the transverse striae of the fibres of muscle disappear. the secretion of drosera and gastric juice were both able to dissolve some element or impurity out of the globulin and haematin employed by me. the secretion also dissolved something out of chemically [page ] prepared casein, which is said to consist of two substances; and although schiff asserts that casein in this state is not attacked by gastric juice, he might easily have overlooked a minute quantity of some albuminous matter, which drosera would detect and absorb. again, fibro-cartilage, though not properly dissolved, is acted on in the same manner, both by the secretion of drosera and gastric juice. but this substance, as well as the so-called haematin used by me, ought perhaps to have been classed with indigestible substances. that gastric juice acts by means of its ferment, pepsin, solely in the presence of an acid, is well established; and we have excellent evidence that a ferment is present in the secretion of drosera, which likewise acts only in the presence of an acid; for we have seen that when the secretion is neutralised by minute drops of the solution of an alkali, the digestion of albumen is completely stopped, and that on the addition of a minute dose of hydrochloric acid it immediately recommences. the nine following substances, or classes of substances, namely, epidermic productions, fibro-elastic tissue, mucin, pepsin, urea, chitine, cellulose, gun-cotton, chlorophyll, starch, fat and oil, are not acted on by the secretion of drosera; nor are they, as far as is known, by the gastric juice of animals. some soluble matter, however, was extracted from the mucin, pepsin, and chlorophyll, used by me, both by the secretion and by artificial gastric juice. the several substances, which are completely dissolved by the secretion, and which are afterwards absorbed by the glands, affect the leaves rather differently. they induce inflection at very different [page ] rates and in very different degrees; and the tentacles remain inflected for very different periods of time. quick inflection depends partly on the quantity of the substance given, so that many glands are simultaneously affected, partly on the facility with which it is penetrated and liquefied by the secretion, partly on its nature, but chiefly on the presence of exciting matter already in solution. thus saliva, or a weak solution of raw meat, acts much more quickly than even a strong solution of gelatine. so again leaves which have re-expanded, after absorbing drops of a solution of pure gelatine or isinglass (the latter being the more powerful of the two), if given bits of meat, are inflected much more energetically and quickly than they were before, notwithstanding that some rest is generally requisite between two acts of inflection. we probably see the influence of texture in gelatine and globulin when softened by having been soaked in water acting more quickly than when merely wetted. it may be partly due to changed texture, and partly to changed chemical nature, that albumen, which had been kept for some time, and gluten which had been subjected to weak hydrochloric acid, act more quickly than these substances in their fresh state. the length of time during which the tentacles remain inflected largely depends on the quantity of the substance given, partly on the facility with which it is penetrated or acted on by the secretion, and partly on its essential nature. the tentacles always remain inflected much longer over large bits or large drops than over small bits or drops. texture probably plays a part in determining the extraordinary length of time during which the tentacles remain inflected [page ] over the hard grains of chemically prepared casein. but the tentacles remain inflected for an equally long time over finely powdered, precipitated phosphate of lime; phosphorus in this latter case evidently being the attraction, and animal matter in the case of casein. the leaves remain long inflected over insects, but it is doubtful how far this is due to the protection afforded by their chitinous integuments; for animal matter is soon extracted from insects (probably by exosmose from their bodies into the dense surrounding secretion), as shown by the prompt inflection of the leaves. we see the influence of the nature of different substances in bits of meat, albumen, and fresh gluten acting very differently from equal-sized bits of gelatine, areolar tissue, and the fibrous basis of bone. the former cause not only far more prompt and energetic, but more prolonged, inflection than do the latter. hence we are, i think, justified in believing that gelatine, areolar tissue, and the fibrous basis of bone, would be far less nutritious to drosera than such substances as insects, meat, albumen, &c. this is an interesting conclusion, as it is known that gelatine affords but little nutriment to animals; and so, probably, would areolar tissue and the fibrous basis of bone. the chondrin which i used acted more powerfully than gelatine, but then i do not know that it was pure. it is a more remarkable fact that fibrin, which belongs to the great class of proteids,* including albumen in one of its sub-groups, does not excite the tentacles in a greater degree, or keep them inflected for a longer time, than does gelatine, or * see the classification adopted by dr. michael foster in watts' 'dictionary of chemistry,' supplement , page . [page ] areolar tissue, or the fibrous basis of bone. it is not known how long an animal would survive if fed on fibrin alone, but dr. sanderson has no doubt longer than on gelatine, and it would be hardly rash to predict, judging from the effects on drosera, that albumen would be found more nutritious than fibrin. globulin likewise belongs to the proteids, forming another sub-group, and this substance, though containing some matter which excited drosera rather strongly, was hardly attacked by the secretion, and was very little or very slowly attacked by gastric juice. how far globulin would be nutritious to animals is not known. we thus see how differently the above specified several digestible substances act on drosera; and we may infer, as highly probable, that they would in like manner be nutritious in very different degrees both to drosera and to animals. the glands of drosera absorb matter from living seeds, which are injured or killed by the secretion. they likewise absorb matter from pollen, and from fresh leaves; and this is notoriously the case with the stomachs of vegetable-feeding animals. drosera is properly an insectivorous plant; but as pollen cannot fail to be often blown on to the glands, as will occasionally the seeds and leaves of surrounding plants, drosera is, to a certain extent, a vegetable-feeder. finally, the experiments recorded in this chapter show us that there is a remarkable accordance in the power of digestion between the gastric juice of animals with its pepsin and hydrochloric acid and the secretion of drosera with its ferment and acid belonging to the acetic series. we can, therefore, hardly doubt that the ferment in both cases is closely similar, [page ] if not identically the same. that a plant and an animal should pour forth the same, or nearly the same, complex secretion, adapted for the same purpose of digestion, is a new and wonderful fact in physiology. but i shall have to recur to this subject in the fifteenth chapter, in my concluding remarks on the droseraceae. [page ] chapter vii. the effects of salts of ammonia. manner of performing the experiments--action of distilled water in comparison with the solutions--carbonate of ammonia, absorbed by the roots--the vapour absorbed by the glands- -drops on the disc--minute drops applied to separate glands--leaves immersed in weak solutions--minuteness of the doses which induce aggregation of the protoplasm--nitrate of ammonia, analogous experiments with--phosphate of ammonia, analogous experiments with- -other salts of ammonia--summary and concluding remarks on the action of salts of ammonia. the chief object in this chapter is to show how powerfully the salts of ammonia act on the leaves of drosera, and more especially to show what an extraordinarily small quantity suffices to excite inflection. i shall, therefore, be compelled to enter into full details. doubly distilled water was always used; and for the more delicate experiments, water which had been prepared with the utmost possible care was given me by professor frankland. the graduated measures were tested, and found as accurate as such measures can be. the salts were carefully weighed, and in all the more delicate experiments, by borda's double method. but extreme accuracy would have been superfluous, as the leaves differ greatly in irritability, according to age, condition, and constitution. even the tentacles on the same leaf differ in irritability to a marked degree. my experiments were tried in the following several ways. [firstly.--drops which were ascertained by repeated trials to be on an average about half a minim, or the / of a fluid ounce (. ml.), were placed by the same pointed instrument on the [page ] discs of the leaves, and the inflection of the exterior rows of tentacles observed at successive intervals of time. it was first ascertained, from between thirty and forty trials, that distilled water dropped in this manner produces no effect, except that sometimes, though rarely, two or three tentacles become inflected. in fact all the many trials with solutions which were so weak as to produce no effect lead to the same result that water is inefficient. secondly.--the head of a small pin, fixed into a handle, was dipped into the solution under trial. the small drop which adhered to it, and which was much too small to fall off, was cautiously placed, by the aid of a lens, in contact with the secretion surrounding the glands of one, two, three, or four of the exterior tentacles of the same leaf. great care was taken that the glands themselves should not be touched. i had supposed that the drops were of nearly the same size; but on trial this proved a great mistake. i first measured some water, and removed drops, touching the pin's head each time on blotting-paper; and on again measuring the water, a drop was found to equal on an average about the / of a minim. some water in a small vessel was weighed (and this is a more accurate method), and drops removed as before; and on again weighing the water, a drop was found to equal on an average only the / of a minim. i repeated the operation, but endeavoured this time, by taking the pin's head out of the water obliquely and rather quickly, to remove as large drops as possible; and the result showed that i had succeeded, for each drop on an average equalled / . of a minim. i repeated the operation in exactly the same manner, and now the drops averaged / . of a minim. bearing in mind that on these two latter occasions special pains were taken to remove as large drops as possible, we may safely conclude that the drops used in my experiments were at least equal to the / of a minim, or . ml. one of these drops could be applied to three or even four glands, and if the tentacles became inflected, some of the solution must have been absorbed by all; for drops of pure water, applied in the same manner, never produced any effect. i was able to hold the drop in steady contact with the secretion only for ten to fifteen seconds; and this was not time enough for the diffusion of all the salt in solution, as was evident, from three or four tentacles treated successively with the same drop, often becoming inflected. all the matter in solution was even then probably not exhausted. thirdly.--leaves cut off and immersed in a measured [page ] quantity of the solution under trial; the same number of leaves being immersed at the same time, in the same quantity of the distilled water which had been used in making the solution. the leaves in the two lots were compared at short intervals of time, up to hrs., and sometimes to hrs. they were immersed by being laid as gently as possible in numbered watch-glasses, and thirty minims ( . ml.) of the solution or of water was poured over each. some solutions, for instance that of carbonate of ammonia, quickly discolour the glands; and as all on the same leaf were discoloured simultaneously, they must all have absorbed some of the salt within the same short period of time. this was likewise shown by the simultaneous inflection of the several exterior rows of tentacles. if we had no such evidence as this, it might have been supposed that only the glands of the exterior and inflected tentacles had absorbed the salt; or that only those on the disc had absorbed it, and had then transmitted a motor impulse to the exterior tentacles; but in this latter case the exterior tentacles would not have become inflected until some time had elapsed, instead of within half an hour, or even within a few minutes, as usually occurred. all the glands on the same leaf are of nearly the same size, as may best be seen by cutting off a narrow transverse strip, and laying it on its side; hence their absorbing surfaces are nearly equal. the long-headed glands on the extreme margin must be excepted, as they are much longer than the others; but only the upper surface is capable of absorption. besides the glands, both surfaces of the leaves and the pedicels of the tentacles bear numerous minute papillae, which absorb carbonate of ammonia, an infusion of raw meat, metallic salts, and probably many other substances, but the absorption of matter by these papillae never induces inflection. we must remember that the movement of each separate tentacle depends on its gland being excited, except when a motor impulse is transmitted from the glands of the disc, and then the movement, as just stated, does not take place until some little time has elapsed. i have made these remarks because they show us that when a leaf is immersed in a solution, and the tentacles are inflected, we can judge with some accuracy how much of the salt each gland has absorbed. for instance, if a leaf bearing glands be immersed in a measured quantity of a solution, containing / of a grain of a salt, and all the exterior tentacles, except twelve, are inflected, we may feel sure that each of the glands can on an average have absorbed at most / of a grain of the salt. i say at [page ] most, for the papillae will have absorbed some small amount, and so will perhaps the glands of the twelve excluded tentacles which did not become inflected. the application of this principle leads to remarkable conclusions with respect to the minuteness of the doses causing inflection. on the action of distilled water in causing inflection. although in all the more important experiments the difference between the leaves simultaneously immersed in water and in the several solutions will be described, nevertheless it may be well here to give a summary of the effects of water. the fact, moreover, of pure water acting on the glands deserves in itself some notice. leaves to the number of were immersed in water at the same time with those in the solutions, and their state recorded at short intervals of time. thirty-two other leaves were separately observed in water, making altogether experiments. many scores of leaves were also immersed in water at other times, but no exact record of the effects produced was kept; yet these cursory observations support the conclusions arrived at in this chapter. a few of the long-headed tentacles, namely from one to about six, were commonly inflected within half an hour after immersion; as were occasionally a few, and rarely a considerable number of the exterior round-headed tentacles. after an immersion of from to hrs. the short tentacles surrounding the outer parts of the disc generally become inflected, so that their glands form a small dark ring on the disc; the exterior tentacles not partaking of this movement. hence, excepting in a few cases hereafter to be specified, we can judge whether a solution produces any effect only by observing the exterior tentacles within the first or hrs. after immersion. now for a summary of the state of the leaves after an immersion of or hrs. in pure water. one leaf had almost all its tentacles inflected; three leaves had most of them sub-inflected; and thirteen had on an average . tentacles inflected. thus seventeen leaves out of the were acted on in a marked manner. eighteen leaves had from seven to nineteen tentacles inflected, the average being . tentacles for each leaf. forty-four leaves had from one to six tentacles inflected, generally the long-headed ones. so that altogether of the leaves carefully observed, seventy-nine were affected by the water in some degree, though commonly to a very slight degree; and ninety-four were not affected in the least degree. this [page ] amount of inflection is utterly insignificant, as we shall hereafter see, compared with that caused by very weak solutions of several salts of ammonia. plants which have lived for some time in a rather high temperature are far more sensitive to the action of water than those grown out of doors, or recently brought into a warm greenhouse. thus in the above seventeen cases, in which the immersed leaves had a considerable number of tentacles inflected, the plants had been kept during the winter in a very warm greenhouse; and they bore in the early spring remarkably fine leaves, of a light red colour. had i then known that the sensitiveness of plants was thus increased, perhaps i should not have used the leaves for my experiments with the very weak solutions of phosphate of ammonia; but my experiments are not thus vitiated, as i invariably used leaves from the same plants for simultaneous immersion in water. it often happened that some leaves on the same plant, and some tentacles on the same leaf, were more sensitive than others; but why this should be so, i do not know. fig. . (drosera rotundifolia.) leaf (enlarged) with all the tentacles closely inflected, from immersion in a solution of phosphate of ammonia (one part to , of water.) besides the differences just indicated between the leaves immersed in water and in weak solutions of ammonia, the tentacles of the latter are in most cases much more closely inflected. the appearance of a leaf after immersion in a few drops of a solution of grain of phosphate of ammonia to oz. of water (i.e. one part to , ) is here reproduced: such energetic inflection is never caused by water alone. with leaves in the weak solutions, the blade or lamina often becomes inflected; and this is so rare a circumstance with leaves in water that i have seen only two instances; and in both of these the inflection was very feeble. again, with leaves in the weak solutions, the inflection of the tentacles and blade often goes on steadily, though slowly, increasing during many hours; and [page ] this again is so rare a circumstance with leaves in water that i have seen only three instances of any such increase after the first to hrs.; and in these three instances the two outer rows of tentacles were not at all affected. hence there is sometimes a much greater difference between the leaves in water and in the weak solutions, after from hrs. to hrs., than there was within the first hrs.; though as a general rule it is best to trust to the difference observed within the shorter time. with respect to the period of the re-expansion of the leaves, when left immersed either in water or in the weak solutions, nothing could be more variable. in both cases the exterior tentacles not rarely begin to re-expand, after an interval of only from to hrs.; that is just about the time when the short tentacles round the borders of the disc become inflected. on the other hand, the tentacles sometimes remain inflected for a whole day, or even two days; but as a general rule they remain inflected for a longer period in very weak solutions than in water. in solutions which are not extremely weak, they never re-expand within nearly so short a period as six or eight hours. from these statements it might be thought difficult to distinguish between the effects of water and the weaker solutions; but in truth there is not the slightest difficulty until excessively weak solutions are tried; and then the distinction, as might be expected, becomes very doubtful, and at last disappears. but as in all, except the simplest, cases the state of the leaves simultaneously immersed for an equal length of time in water and in the solutions will be described, the reader can judge for himself.] carbonate of ammonia. this salt, when absorbed by the roots, does not cause the tentacles to be inflected. a plant was so placed in a solution of one part of the carbonate to of water that the young uninjured roots could be observed. the terminal cells, which were of a pink colour, instantly became colourless, and their limpid contents cloudy, like a mezzo-tinto engraving, so that some degree of aggregation was almost instantly caused; but no further change ensued, and the absorbent hairs were not visibly affected. the tentacles [page ] did not bend. two other plants were placed with their roots surrounded by damp moss, in half an ounce ( . ml.) of a solution of one part of the carbonate to of water, and were observed for hrs.; but not a single tentacle was inflected. in order to produce this effect, the carbonate must be absorbed by the glands. the vapour produces a powerful effect on the glands, and induces inflection. three plants with their roots in bottles, so that the surrounding air could not have become very humid, were placed under a bell-glass (holding fluid ounces), together with grains of carbonate of ammonia in a watch-glass. after an interval of hrs. m. the leaves appeared unaffected; but next morning, after hrs., the blackened glands were secreting copiously, and most of the tentacles were strongly inflected. these plants soon died. two other plants were placed under the same bell-glass, together with half a grain of the carbonate, the air being rendered as damp as possible; and in hrs. most of the leaves were affected, many of the glands being blackened and the tentacles inflected. but it is a curious fact that some of the closely adjoining tentacles on the same leaf, both on the disc and round the margins, were much, and some, apparently, not in the least affected. the plants were kept under the bell-glass for hrs., but no further change ensued. one healthy leaf was hardly at all affected, though other leaves on the same plant were much affected. on some leaves all the tentacles on one side, but not those on the opposite side, were inflected. i doubt whether this extremely unequal action can be explained by supposing that the more active glands absorb all the vapour as quickly as it is generated, so that none is left for the others, for we shall meet with [page ] analogous cases with air thoroughly permeated with the vapours of chloroform and ether. minute particles of the carbonate were added to the secretion surrounding several glands. these instantly became black and secreted copiously; but, except in two instances, when extremely minute particles were given, there was no inflection. this result is analogous to that which follows from the immersion of leaves in a strong solution of one part of the carbonate to , or , or even of water, for the leaves are then paralysed and no inflection ensues, though the glands are blackened, and the protoplasm in the cells of the tentacles undergoes strong aggregation. [we will now turn to the effects of solutions of the carbonate. half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on the discs of twelve leaves; so that each received / of a grain or . mg. ten of these had their tentacles well inflected; the blades of some being also much curved inwards. in two cases several of the exterior tentacles were inflected in m.; but the movement was generally slower. these ten leaves re-expanded in periods varying between hrs. and hrs., but in one case not until hrs. had elapsed; so that they re-expanded much more quickly than leaves which have caught insects. the same-sized drops of a solution of one part to of water were placed on the discs of eleven leaves; six remained quite unaffected, whilst five had from three to six or eight of their exterior tentacles inflected; but this degree of movement can hardly be considered as trustworthy. each of these leaves received / of a grain (. mg.), distributed between the glands of the disc, but this was too small an amount to produce any decided effect on the exterior tentacles, the glands of which had not themselves received any of the salt. minute drops on the head of a small pin, of a solution of one part of the carbonate to of water, were next tried in the manner above described. a drop of this kind equals on an average / of a minim, and therefore contains / of a grain (. mg.) of the carbonate. i touched with it the viscid secretion round three glands, so that each gland received only [page ] / of a grain (. mg.). nevertheless, in two trials all the glands were plainly blackened; in one case all three tentacles were well inflected after an interval of hrs. m.; and in another case two of the three tentacles were inflected. i then tried drops of a weaker solution of one part to of water on twenty-four glands, always touching the viscid secretion round three glands with the same little drop. each gland thus received only the / of a grain (. mg.), yet some of them were a little darkened; but in no one instance were any of the tentacles inflected, though they were watched for hrs. when a still weaker solution (viz. one part to of water) was tried on six glands, no effect whatever was perceptible. we thus learn that the / of a grain (. mg.) of carbonate of ammonia, if absorbed by a gland, suffices to induce inflection in the basal part of the same tentacle; but as already stated, i was able to hold with a steady hand the minute drops in contact with the secretion only for a few seconds; and if more time had been allowed for diffusion and absorption, a much weaker solution would certainly have acted. some experiments were made by immersing cut-off leaves in solutions of different strengths. thus four leaves were left for about hrs. each in a drachm ( . ml.) of a solution of one part of the carbonate to of water; two of these had almost every tentacle inflected, the third had about half the tentacles and the fourth about one-third inflected; and all the glands were blackened. another leaf was placed in the same quantity of a solution of one part to of water, and in hr. m. every single tentacle was well inflected, and all the glands blackened. six leaves were immersed, each in thirty minims ( . ml.) of a solution of one part to of water, and the glands were all blackened in m. all six leaves exhibited some slight inflection, and one was strongly inflected. four leaves were then immersed in thirty minims of a solution of one part to of water, so that each leaf received the / of a grain (. mg.). only one became strongly inflected; but all the glands on all the leaves were of so dark a red after one hour as almost to deserve to be called black, whereas this did not occur with the leaves which were at the same time immersed in water; nor did water produce this effect on any other occasion in nearly so short a time as an hour. these cases of the simultaneous darkening or blackening of the glands from the action of weak solutions are important, as they show that all the glands absorbed the carbonate within the same time, which fact indeed there was not the least reason to doubt. so again, whenever all the [page ] tentacles become inflected within the same time, we have evidence, as before remarked, of simultaneous absorption. i did not count the number of glands on these four leaves; but as they were fine ones, and as we know that the average number of glands on thirty-one leaves was , we may safely assume that each bore on an average at least ; and if so, each blackened gland could have absorbed only / of a grain (. mg.) of the carbonate. a large number of trials had been previously made with solutions of one part of the nitrate and phosphate of ammonia to of water (i.e. one grain to ounces), and these were found highly efficient. fourteen leaves were therefore placed, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part of the carbonate to the above quantity of water; so that each leaf received / of a grain (. mg.). the glands were not much darkened. ten of the leaves were not affected, or only very slightly so. four, however, were strongly affected; the first having all the tentacles, except forty, inflected in m.; in hrs. m. all except eight; and after hrs. the blade itself. the second leaf after m. had all its tentacles except nine inflected; after hrs. m. these nine were sub-inflected; the blade having become much inflected in hrs. the third leaf after hr. m. had all but forty tentacles inflected. the fourth, after hrs. m., had about half its tentacles and after hrs. all but forty-five inflected. leaves which were immersed in water at the same time were not at all affected, with the exception of one; and this not until hrs. had elapsed. hence there can be no doubt that a highly sensitive leaf, if immersed in a solution, so that all the glands are enabled to absorb, is acted on by / of a grain of the carbonate. assuming that the leaf, which was a large one, and which had all its tentacles excepting eight inflected, bore glands, each gland could have absorbed only / of a grain (. mg.); yet this sufficed to act on each of the tentacles which were inflected. but as only four out of the above fourteen leaves were plainly affected, this is nearly the minimum dose which is efficient. aggregation of the protoplasm from the action of carbonate of ammonia.--i have fully described in the third chapter the remarkable effects of moderately strong doses of this salt in causing the aggregation of the protoplasm within the cells of the glands and tentacles; and here my object is merely to show what small doses suffice. a leaf was immersed in twenty minims ( . ml.) of a solution of one part to of water, [page ] and another leaf in the same quantity of a solution of one part to ; in the former case aggregation occurred in m., in the latter in m. a leaf was then immersed in twenty minims of a solution of one part to of water, so that it received / of a grain (. mg.); in m. there was a slight change of colour in the glands, and in m. small spheres of protoplasm were formed in the cells beneath the glands of all the tentacles. in these cases there could not be a shadow of a doubt about the action of the solution. a solution was then made of one part to of water, and i experimented on fourteen leaves, but will give only a few of the cases. eight young leaves were selected and examined with care, and they showed no trace of aggregation. four of these were placed in a drachm ( . ml.) of distilled water; and four in a similar vessel, with a drachm of the solution. after a time the leaves were examined under a high power, being taken alternately from the solution and the water. the first leaf was taken out of the solution after an immersion of hrs. m., and the last leaf out of the water after hrs. m.; the examination lasting for hr. m. in the four leaves out of the water there was no trace of aggregation except in one specimen, in which a very few, extremely minute spheres of protoplasm were present beneath some of the round glands. all the glands were translucent and red. the four leaves which had been immersed in the solution, besides being inflected, presented a widely different appearance; for the contents of the cells of every single tentacle on all four leaves were conspicuously aggregated; the spheres and elongated masses of protoplasm in many cases extending halfway down the tentacles. all the glands, both those of the central and exterior tentacles, were opaque and blackened; and this shows that all had absorbed some of the carbonate. these four leaves were of very nearly the same size, and the glands were counted on one and found to be . this being the case, and the four leaves having been immersed in a drachm of the solution, each gland could have received on an average only / of a grain (. mg.) of the salt; and this quantity sufficed to induce within a short time conspicuous aggregation in the cells beneath all the glands. a vigorous but rather small red leaf was placed in six minims of the same solution (viz. one part to of water), so that it received / of a grain (. mg.). in m. the glands appeared rather darker; and in hr. from four to six spheres of protoplasm were formed in the cells beneath the glands of all the tentacles. i did not count the tentacles, but we may [page ] safely assume that there were at least ; and if so, each gland could have received only the / of a grain, or . mg. a weaker solution was then made of one part to of water, and four leaves were immersed in it; but i will give only one case. a leaf was placed in ten minims of this solution; after hr. m. the glands became somewhat darker, and the cells beneath all of them now contained many spheres of aggregated protoplasm. this leaf received / of a grain, and bore glands. each gland could, therefore, have received only / of a grain (. mg.) of the carbonate. two other experiments are worth giving. a leaf was immersed for hrs. m. in distilled water, and there was no aggregation; it was then placed for hr. m. in a little solution of one part to of water; and this excited well-marked aggregation and inflection. another leaf, after having been immersed for hrs. m. in distilled water, had its glands blackened, but there was no aggregation in the cells beneath them; it was then left in six minims of the same solution, and in hr. there was much aggregation in many of the tentacles; in hrs. all the tentacles ( in number) were affected--the aggregation extending down for a length equal to half or the whole of the glands. it is extremely improbable that these two leaves would have undergone aggregation if they had been left for a little longer in the water, namely for hr. and hr. m., during which time they were immersed in the solution; for the process of aggregation seems invariably to supervene slowly and very gradually in water.] summary of the results with carbonate of ammonia.--the roots absorb the solution, as shown by their changed colour, and by the aggregation of the contents of their cells. the vapour is absorbed by the glands; these are blackened, and the tentacles are inflected. the glands of the disc, when excited by a half-minim drop (. ml.), containing / of a grain (. mg.), transmit a motor impulse to the exterior tentacles, causing them to bend inwards. a minute drop, containing / of a grain (. mg.), if held for a few seconds in contact with a gland, soon causes the tentacle bearing it to be inflected. if a leaf is left [page ] immersed for a few hours in a solution, and a gland absorbs the / of a grain (. mg.), its colour becomes darker, though not actually black; and the contents of the cells beneath the gland are plainly aggregated. lastly, under the same circumstances, the absorption by a gland of the / of a grain (. mg.) suffices to excite the tentacle bearing this gland into movement. [nitrate of ammonia. with the salt i attended only to the inflection of the leaves, for it is far less efficient than the carbonate in causing aggregation, although considerably more potent in causing inflection. i experimented with half-minims (. ml.) on the discs of fifty-two leaves, but will give only a few cases. a solution of one part to of water was too strong, causing little inflection, and after hrs. killing, or nearly killing, four out of six leaves which were thus tried; each of which received the / of a grain (or . mg.). a solution of one part to of water acted most energetically, causing not only the tentacles of all the leaves, but the blades of some, to be strongly inflected. fourteen leaves were tried with drops of a solution of one part to of water, so that the disc of each received the / of a grain (. mg.). of these leaves, seven were very strongly acted on, the edges being generally inflected; two were moderately acted on; and five not at all. i subsequently tried three of these latter five leaves with urine, saliva, and mucus, but they were only slightly affected; and this proves that they were not in an active condition. i mention this fact to show how necessary it is to experiment on several leaves. two of the leaves, which were well inflected, re-expanded after hrs. in the following experiment i happened to select very sensitive leaves. half-minims of a solution of one part to of water (i.e. gr. to / oz.) were placed on the discs of nine leaves, so that each received the / of a grain (. mg.). three of them had their tentacles strongly inflected and their blades curled inwards; five were slightly and somewhat doubtfully affected, having from three to eight of their exterior tentacles inflected: one leaf was not at all affected, yet was afterwards acted on by saliva. in six of these cases, a trace of action was perceptible in [page ] hrs., but the full effect was not produced until from hrs. to hrs. had elapsed. two of the leaves, which were only slightly inflected, re-expanded after an additional interval of hrs. half-minims of a rather weaker solution, viz. of one part to of water ( gr. to oz.) were tried on fourteen leaves; so that each received / of a grain (. mg.), instead of, as in the last experiment, / of a grain. the blade of one was plainly inflected, as were six of the exterior tentacles; the blade of a second was slightly, and two of the exterior tentacles well, inflected, all the other tentacles being curled in at right angles to the disc; three other leaves had from five to eight tentacles inflected; five others only two or three, and occasionally, though very rarely, drops of pure water cause this much action; the four remaining leaves were in no way affected, yet three of them, when subsequently tried with urine, became greatly inflected. in most of these cases a slight effect was perceptible in from hrs. to hrs., but the full effect was not produced until from hrs. to hrs. had elapsed. it is obvious that we have here reached very nearly the minimum amount, which, distributed between the glands of the disc, acts on the exterior tentacles; these having themselves not received any of the solution. in the next place, the viscid secretion round three of the exterior glands was touched with the same little drop ( / of a minim) of a solution of one part to of water; and after an interval of hrs. m. all three tentacles were well inflected. each of these glands could have received only the / of a grain, or . mg. a little drop of the same size and strength was also applied to four other glands, and in hr. two became inflected, whilst the other two never moved. we here see, as in the case of the half-minims placed on the discs, that the nitrate of ammonia is more potent in causing inflection than the carbonate; for minute drops of the latter salt of this strength produced no effect. i tried minute drops of a still weaker solution of the nitrate, viz. one part to of water, on twenty-one glands, but no effect whatever was produced, except perhaps in one instance. sixty-three leaves were immersed in solutions of various strengths; other leaves being immersed at the same time in the same pure water used in making the solutions. the results are so remarkable, though less so than with phosphate of ammonia, that i must describe the experiments in detail, but i will give only a few. in speaking of the successive periods when inflection occurred, i always reckon from the time of first immersion. [page ] having made some preliminary trials as a guide, five leaves were placed in the same little vessel in thirty minims of a solution of one part of the nitrate to of water ( gr. to oz.); and this amount of fluid just sufficed to cover them. after hrs. m. three of the leaves were considerably inflected, and the other two moderately. the glands of all became of so dark a red as almost to deserve to be called black. after hrs. four of the leaves had all their tentacles more or less inflected; whilst the fifth, which i then perceived to be an old leaf, had only thirty tentacles inflected. next morning, after hrs. m., all the leaves were in the same state, excepting that the old leaf had a few more tentacles inflected. five leaves which had been placed at the same time in water were observed at the same intervals of time; after hrs. m. two of them had four, one had seven, one had ten, of the long-headed marginal tentacles, and the fifth had four round-headed tentacles, inflected. after hrs. there was no change in these leaves, and after hrs. all the marginal tentacles had re-expanded; but in one leaf, a dozen, and in a second leaf, half a dozen, submarginal tentacles had become inflected. as the glands of the five leaves in the solution were simultaneously darkened, no doubt they had all absorbed a nearly equal amount of the salt: and as / of a grain was given to the five leaves together, each got / of a grain (. mg.). i did not count the tentacles on these leaves, which were moderately fine ones, but as the average number on thirty-one leaves was , it would be safe to assume that each bore on an average at least . if so, each of the darkened glands could have received only / of a grain of the nitrate; and this caused the inflection of a great majority of the tentacles. this plan of immersing several leaves in the same vessel is a bad one, as it is impossible to feel sure that the more vigorous leaves do not rob the weaker ones of their share of the salt. the glands, moreover, must often touch one another or the sides of the vessel, and movement may have been thus excited; but the corresponding leaves in water, which were little inflected, though rather more so than commonly occurs, were exposed in an almost equal degree to these same sources of error. i will, therefore, give only one other experiment made in this manner, though many were tried and all confirmed the foregoing and following results. four leaves were placed in forty minims of a solution of one part to , of water; and assuming that they absorbed equally, each leaf received / of a grain (. mg.). after hr. m. many of the tentacles on all four leaves were somewhat inflected. after [page ] hrs. m. two leaves had all their tentacles inflected; a third leaf all except the extreme marginals, which seemed old and torpid; and the fourth a large number. after hrs. every single tentacle, on all four leaves, was closely inflected. of the four leaves placed at the same time in water, one had, after hrs. m., five marginal tentacles inflected; a second, ten; a third, nine marginals and submarginals; and the fourth, twelve, chiefly submarginals, inflected. after hrs. all these marginal tentacles re-expanded, but a few of the submarginals on two of the leaves remained slightly curved inwards. the contrast was wonderfully great between these four leaves in water and those in the solution, the latter having every one of their tentacles closely inflected. making the moderate assumption that each of these leaves bore tentacles, each gland could have absorbed only / of a grain (. mg.). this experiment was repeated on three leaves with the same relative amount of the solution; and after hrs. m. all the tentacles except nine, on all three leaves taken together, were closely inflected. in this case the tentacles on each leaf were counted, and gave an average of per leaf. the following experiments were tried during the summer of , by placing the leaves, each in a separate watch-glass and pouring over it thirty minims ( . ml.) of the solution; other leaves being treated in exactly the same manner with the doubly distilled water used in making the solutions. the trials above given were made several years before, and when i read over my notes, i could not believe in the results; so i resolved to begin again with moderately strong solutions. six leaves were first immersed, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part of the nitrate to of water ( gr. to oz.), so that each received / of a grain (. mg.). before m. had elapsed, four of these leaves were immensely, and two of them moderately, inflected. the glands were rendered of a dark red. the four corresponding leaves in water were not at all affected until hrs. had elapsed, and then only the short tentacles on the borders of the disc; and their inflection, as previously explained, is never of any significance. four leaves were immersed, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part to , of water ( gr. to oz.), so that each received / of a grain (. mg.); and in less than m. three of them had all their tentacles, except from four to ten, inflected; the blade of one being inflected after hrs., and the blade of a second after hrs. the fourth leaf was not at all affected. the glands of none were darkened. of the corresponding leaves [page ] in water, only one had any of its exterior tentacles, namely five, inflected; after hrs. in one case, and after hrs. in two other cases, the short tentacles on the borders of the disc formed a ring, in the usual manner. four leaves were immersed, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part to , of water ( gr. to oz.), so that each leaf got / of a grain (. mg.). of these, one was much inflected in m., and after hrs. m. had all the tentacles, except thirteen, inflected. the second leaf, after m., had all except three inflected. the third and fourth were hardly at all affected, scarcely more than the corresponding leaves in water. of the latter, only one was affected, this having two tentacles inflected, with those on the outer parts of the disc forming a ring in the usual manner. in the leaf which had all its tentacles except three inflected in m., each gland (assuming that the leaf bore tentacles) could have absorbed only / of a grain, or . mg. four leaves were separately immersed as before in a solution of one part to , of water ( gr. to oz.), so that each received / of a grain, or . mg. after m. one leaf had all its tentacles except sixteen, and after hrs. m. all but fourteen, inflected. the second leaf, after m., had all but twenty inflected; and after hrs. m. began to re-expand. the third, in hrs. had about half its tentacles inflected, which began to re-expand after hrs. m. the fourth leaf, after hrs. m., had only twenty-nine tentacles more or less inflected. thus three out of the four leaves were strongly acted on. it is clear that very sensitive leaves had been accidentally selected. the day moreover was hot. the four corresponding leaves in water were likewise acted on rather more than is usual; for after hrs. one had nine tentacles, another four, and another two, and the fourth none, inflected. with respect to the leaf of which all the tentacles, except sixteen, were inflected after m., each gland (assuming that the leaf bore tentacles) could have absorbed only / of a grain (. mg.), and this appears to be about the least quantity of the nitrate which suffices to induce the inflection of a single tentacle. as negative results are important in confirming the foregoing positive ones, eight leaves were immersed as before, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part to , of water ( gr. to oz.), so that each received only / of a grain (. mg.). this minute quantity produced a slight effect on only four of the eight leaves. one had fifty-six tentacles inflected after hrs. m.; a second, twenty-six inflected, or sub-inflected, after [page ] m.; a third, eighteen inflected, after hr.; and a fourth, ten inflected, after m. the four other leaves were not in the least affected. of the eight corresponding leaves in water, one had, after hrs. m., nine tentacles, and four others from one to four long-headed tentacles, inflected; the remaining three being unaffected. hence, the / of a grain given to a sensitive leaf during warm weather perhaps produces a slight effect; but we must bear in mind that occasionally water causes as great an amount of inflection as occurred in this last experiment.] summary of the results with nitrate of ammonia.--the glands of the disc, when excited by a half-minim drop (. ml.), containing / of a grain of the nitrate (. mg.), transmit a motor impulse to the exterior tentacles, causing them to bend inwards. a minute drop, containing / of a grain (. mg.), if held for a few seconds in contact with a gland, causes the tentacle bearing this gland to be inflected. if a leaf is left immersed for a few hours, and sometimes for only a few minutes, in a solution of such strength that each gland can absorb only the ( / of a grain (. mg.), this small amount is enough to excite each tentacle into movement, and it becomes closely inflected. phosphate of ammonia. this salt is more powerful than the nitrate, even in a greater degree than the nitrate is more powerful than the carbonate. this is shown by weaker solutions of the phosphate acting when dropped on the discs, or applied to the glands of the exterior tentacles, or when leaves are immersed. the difference in the power of these three salts, as tried in three different ways, supports the results presently to be [page ] given, which are so surprising that their credibility requires every kind of support. in i experimented on twelve immersed leaves, giving each only ten minims of a solution; but this was a bad method, for so small a quantity hardly covered them. none of these experiments will, therefore, be given, though they indicate that excessively minute doses are efficient. when i read over my notes, in , i entirely disbelieved them, and determined to make another set of experiments with scrupulous care, on the same plan as those made with the nitrate; namely by placing leaves in watch-glasses, and pouring over each thirty minims of the solution under trial, treating at the same time and in the same manner other leaves with the distilled water used in making the solutions. during , seventy-one leaves were thus tried in solutions of various strengths, and the same number in water. notwithstanding the care taken and the number of the trials made, when in the following year i looked merely at the results, without reading over my observations, i again thought that there must have been some error, and thirty-five fresh trials were made with the weakest solution; but the results were as plainly marked as before. altogether, carefully selected leaves were tried, both in water and in solutions of the phosphate. hence, after the most anxious consideration, i can entertain no doubt of the substantial accuracy of my results. [before giving my experiments, it may be well to premise that crystallised phosphate of ammonia, such as i used, contains . per cent. of water of crystallisation; so that in all the following trials the efficient elements formed only . per cent. of the salt used. extremely minute particles of the dry phosphate were placed [page ] with the point of a needle on the secretion surrounding several glands. these poured forth much secretion, were blackened, and ultimately died; but the tentacles moved only slightly. the dose, small as it was, evidently was too great, and the result was the same as with particles of the carbonate of ammonia. half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on the discs of three leaves and acted most energetically, causing the tentacles of one to be inflected in m., and the blades of all three to be much curved inwards in hrs. m. similar drops of a solution of one part to of water, ( gr. to oz.) were then placed on the discs of five leaves, so that each received the / of a grain (. mg.). after hrs. the tentacles of four of them were considerably inflected, and after hrs. the blades of three. after hrs. all five were almost fully re-expanded. i may mention with respect to one of these leaves, that a drop of water had been left during the previous hrs. on its disc, but produced no effect; and that this was hardly dry when the solution was added. similar drops of a solution of one part to of water ( gr. to oz.) were next placed on the discs of six leaves; so that each received / of a grain (. mg.); after hrs. three of them had many tentacles and their blades inflected; two others had only a few tentacles slightly inflected, and the sixth was not at all affected. after hrs. most of the leaves had a few more tentacles inflected, but one had begun to re-expand. we thus see that with the more sensitive leaves the / of a grain, absorbed by the central glands, is enough to make many of the exterior tentacles and the blades bend, whereas the / of a grain of the carbonate similarly given produced no effect; and / of a grain of the nitrate was only just sufficient to produce a well-marked effect. a minute drop, about equal to / of a minim, of a solution of one part of the phosphate to of water, was applied to the secretion on three glands, each of which thus received only / of a grain (. mg.), and all three tentacles became inflected. similar drops of a solution of one part to of water ( gr. to oz.) were now tried on three leaves; a drop being applied to four glands on the same leaf. on the first leaf, three of the tentacles became slightly inflected in m., and re-expanded after hrs. m. on the second, two tentacles became sub-inflected in m. and on the third all four tentacles were decidedly inflected in m.; they remained so for hrs. m., but by the next morning were fully re-expanded. [page ] in this latter case each gland could have received only the / (or . mg.) of a grain. lastly, similar drops of a solution of one part to of water ( gr. to oz.) were tried on five leaves; a drop being applied to four glands on the same leaf. the tentacles on three of these leaves were not in the least affected; on the fourth leaf, two became inflected; whilst on the fifth, which happened to be a very sensitive one, all four tentacles were plainly inflected in hrs. m.; but only one remained inflected after hrs. i should, however, state that in this case an unusually large drop adhered to the head of the pin. each of these glands could have received very little more than / of a grain (or . ); but this small quantity sufficed to cause inflection. we must bear in mind that these drops were applied to the viscid secretion for only from to seconds, and we have good reason to believe that all the phosphate in the solution would not be diffused and absorbed in this time. we have seen under the same circumstances that the absorption by a gland of / of a grain of the carbonate, and of / of a grain of the nitrate, did not cause the tentacle bearing the gland in question to be inflected; so that here again the phosphate is much more powerful than the other two salts. we will now turn to the experiments with immersed leaves. having ascertained by repeated trials that moderately strong solutions were highly efficient, i commenced with sixteen leaves, each placed in thirty minims of a solution of one part to , of water ( gr. to oz.); so that each received / of a grain, or . mg. of these leaves, eleven had nearly all or a great number of their tentacles inflected in hr., and the twelfth leaf in hrs. one of the eleven had every single tentacle closely inflected in m. two leaves out of the sixteen were only moderately affected, yet more so than any of those simultaneously immersed in water; and the remaining two, which were pale leaves, were hardly at all affected. of the sixteen corresponding leaves in water, one had nine tentacles, another six, and two others two tentacles inflected, in the course of hrs. so that the contrast in appearance between the two lots was extremely great. eighteen leaves were immersed, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part to , of water ( gr. to oz.), so that each received / of a grain (. mg.). fourteen of these were strongly inflected within hrs., and some of them within m.; three out of the eighteen were only slightly affected, having twenty-one, nineteen, and twelve tentacles in- [page ] flected; and one was not at all acted on. by an accident only fifteen, instead of eighteen, leaves were immersed at the same time in water; these were observed for hrs.; one had six, another four, and a third two, of their outer tentacles inflected; the remainder being quite unaffected. the next experiment was tried under very favourable circumstances, for the day (july ) was very warm, and i happened to have unusually fine leaves. five were immersed as before in a solution of one part to , of water ( gr. to oz.), so that each received / of a grain, or . mg. after an immersion of m. all five leaves were much inflected. after hr. m. one leaf had all but eight tentacles inflected; the second, all but three; the third, all but five; the fourth; all but twenty-three; the fifth, on the other hand, never had more than twenty-four inflected. of the corresponding five leaves in water, one had seven, a second two, a third ten, a fourth one, and a fifth none inflected. let it be observed what a contrast is presented between these latter leaves and those in the solution. i counted the glands on the second leaf in the solution, and the number was ; assuming that the three tentacles which did not become inflected absorbed nothing, we find that each of the remaining glands could have absorbed only /l of a grain, or . mg. the third leaf bore glands, and subtracting the five which did not become inflected, each of the remaining glands could have absorbed only / of a grain (or . mg.), and this amount sufficed to cause the tentacles to bend. twelve leaves were tried as before in a solution of one part to , of water ( gr. to oz.), so that each leaf received / of a grain (. mg.). my plants were not at the time in a good state, and many of the leaves were young and pale. nevertheless, two of them had all their tentacles, except three or four, closely inflected in under hr. seven were considerably affected, some within hr., and others not until hrs., hrs. m., and hrs. had elapsed; and this slow action may be attributed to the leaves being young and pale. of these nine leaves, four had their blades well inflected, and a fifth slightly so. the three remaining leaves were not affected. with respect to the twelve corresponding leaves in water, not one had its blade inflected; after from to hrs. one had thirteen of its outer tentacles inflected; a second six, and four others either one or two inflected. after hrs. the outer tentacles did not become more inflected; whereas this occurred with the leaves in the solution. i record in my notes that [page ] after the hrs. it was impossible to compare the two lots, and doubt for an instant the power of the solution. two of the above leaves in the solution had all their tentacles, except three and four, inflected within an hour. i counted their glands, and, on the same principle as before, each gland on one leaf could have absorbed only / , and on the other leaf only / , of a grain of the phosphate. twenty leaves were immersed in the usual manner, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part to , of water ( gr. to oz.). so many leaves were tried because i was then under the false impression that it was incredible that any weaker solution could produce an effect. each leaf received / of a grain, or . mg. the first eight leaves which i tried both in the solution and in water were either young and pale or too old; and the weather was not hot. they were hardly at all affected; nevertheless, it would be unfair to exclude them. i then waited until i got eight pairs of fine leaves, and the weather was favourable; the temperature of the room where the leaves were immersed varying from o to o ( o. to o. cent.) in another trial with four pairs (included in the above twenty pairs), the temperature in my room was rather low, about o ( o. cent.); but the plants had been kept for several days in a very warm greenhouse and thus rendered extremely sensitive. special precautions were taken for this set of experiments; a chemist weighed for me a grain in an excellent balance; and fresh water, given me by prof. frankland, was carefully measured. the leaves were selected from a large number of plants in the following manner: the four finest were immersed in water, and the next four finest in the solution, and so on till the twenty pairs were complete. the water specimens were thus a little favoured, but they did not undergo more inflection than in the previous cases, comparatively with those in the solution. of the twenty leaves in the solution, eleven became inflected within m.; eight of them plainly and three rather doubtfully; but the latter had at least twenty of their outer tentacles inflected. owing to the weakness of the solution, inflection occurred, except in no. , much more slowly than in the previous trials. the condition of the eleven leaves which were considerably inflected will now be given at stated intervals, always reckoning from the time of immersion:-- ( ) after only m. a large number of tentacles inflected, and after m. all but fifteen; after hrs. all but eight in- [page ] flected, or plainly sub-inflected. after hrs. the tentacles began to re-expand, and such prompt re-expansion is unusual; after hrs. m. they were almost fully re-expanded. ( ) after m. a large number of tentacles inflected; after hrs. m. all but twenty-five inflected; after hrs. m. all but sixteen inflected. the leaf remained in this state for many hours. ( ) after m. a considerable amount of inflection; after hrs. all the tentacles inflected except those of the two outer rows, and the leaf remained in this state for some time; after hrs. began to re-expand. ( ) after m. much inflection; after hrs. m. fully half the tentacles inflected; after hrs. still slightly inflected. ( ) after m. much inflection; after hrs. m. fully half the tentacles inflected; after hrs. still slightly inflected. ( ) after m. some inflection; after hrs. m. about twenty-eight outer tentacles inflected; after hrs. m. about a third of the tentacles inflected; after hrs. much re-expanded. ( ) after m. some inflection; after hrs. a considerable number of tentacles inflected; after hrs. m. began to re-expand. ( ) after m. twenty-eight tentacles inflected; after hrs. m. thirty-three inflected, with most of the submarginal tentacles sub-inflected; continued so for two days, and then partially re-expanded. ( ) after m. forty-two tentacles inflected; after hrs. m. sixty-six inflected or sub-inflected; after hrs. m. all but twenty-four inflected or sub-inflected; after hrs. m. all but seventeen inflected; after hrs. all but four inflected or sub-inflected, only a few being closely inflected; after hrs. m. the blade inflected. the leaf remained in this state for two days, and then began to re-expand. ( ) after m. twenty-one tentacles inflected; after hrs. m. forty-six tentacles inflected or sub-inflected; after hrs. m. all but seventeen inflected, though none closely; after hrs. every tentacle slightly curved inwards; after hrs. m. blade strongly inflected, and so continued for two days, and then the tentacles and blade very slowly re-expanded. ( ) this fine dark red and rather old leaf, though not very large, bore an extraordinary number of tentacles (viz. ), and behaved in an anomalous manner. after hrs. m. only the short tentacles round the outer part of the disc were inflected, forming a ring, as so often occurs in from to hrs. with leaves both in water and the weaker solutions. but after hrs. [page ] m. all the outer tentacles except twenty-five were inflected; as was the blade in a strongly marked manner. after hrs. every tentacle except one was closely inflected, and the blade was completely doubled over. thus the leaf remained for two days, when it began to re-expand. i may add that the three latter leaves (nos. , , and ) were still somewhat inflected after three days. the tentacles in but few of these eleven leaves became closelyinflected within so short a time as in the previous experiments with stronger solutions. we will now turn to the twenty corresponding leaves in water. nine had none of their outer tentacles inflected; nine others had from one to three inflected; and these re-expanded after hrs. the remaining two leaves were moderately affected; one having six tentacles inflected in m.; the other twenty-three inflected in hrs. m.; and both thus remained for hrs. none of these leaves had their blades inflected. so that the contrast between the twenty leaves in water and the twenty in the solution was very great, both within the first hour and after from to hrs. had elapsed. of the leaves in the solution, the glands on leaf no. , which in hrs. had all its tentacles except eight inflected, were counted and found to be . subtracting the eight, each gland could have received only the / grain (. mg.) of the phosphate. leaf no. had tentacles, all of which, with the exception of four, were inflected after hrs., but none of them closely; the blade was also inflected; each gland could have received only the / of a grain, or . mg. lastly, leaf no. , which had after hrs. all its tentacles, except one, closely inflected, as well as the blade, bore the unusually large number of tentacles; and on the same principle as before, each gland could have absorbed only the / of a grain, or . mg. with respect to the following experiments, i must premise that the leaves, both those placed in the solutions and in water, were taken from plants which had been kept in a very warm greenhouse during the winter. they were thus rendered extremely sensitive, as was shown by water exciting them much more than in the previous experiments. before giving my observations, it may be well to remind the reader that, judging from thirty-one fine leaves, the average number of tentacles is , and that the outer or exterior ones, the movements of which are alone significant, are to the short ones on the disc in the proportion of about sixteen to nine. [page ] four leaves were immersed as before, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part to , of water ( gr. to oz.). each leaf thus received / of a grain (. mg.) of the salt; and all four were greatly inflected. ( ) after hr. all the outer tentacles but one inflected, and the blade greatly so; after hrs. began to re-expand. ( ) after hr. all the outer tentacles but eight inflected; after hrs. all re-expanded. ( ) after hr. much inflection; after hrs. m. all the tentacles but thirty-six inflected; after hrs. all but twenty-two inflected; after hrs. partly re-expanded. ( ) after hr. all the tentacles but thirty-two inflected; after hrs. m. all but twenty-one inflected; after hrs. almost re-expanded. of the four corresponding leaves in water:-- ( ) after hr. forty-five tentacles inflected; but after hrs. so many had re-expanded that only ten remained much inflected. ( ) after hr. seven tentacles inflected; these were almost re-expanded in hrs. ( ) and ( ) not affected, except that, as usual, after hrs. the short tentacles on the borders of the disc formed a ring. there can, therefore, be no doubt about the efficiency of the above solution; and it follows as before that each gland of no. could have absorbed only / of a grain (. mg.) and of no. only / of a grain (. mg.) of the phosphate. seven leaves were immersed, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part to , of water ( gr. to oz.). each leaf thus received / of a grain (. mg.). the day was warm, and the leaves were very fine, so that all circumstances were favourable. ( ) after m. all the outer tentacles except five inflected, and most of them closely; after hr. blade slightly inflected; after hrs. m. began to re-expand. ( ) after m. all the outer tentacles but twenty-five inflected, and blade slightly so; after hr. m. blade strongly inflected and remained so for hrs.; but some of the tentacles had then re-expanded. ( ) after hr. all but twelve tentacles inflected; after hrs. m. all but nine inflected; and of the inflected tentacles all excepting four closely; blade slightly inflected. after hrs. blade quite doubled up, and now all the tentacles excepting [page ] eight closely inflected. the leaf remained in this state for two days. ( ) after hrs. m. only fifty-nine tentacles inflected; but after hrs. all the tentacles closely inflected excepting two which were not affected, and eleven which were only sub-inflected; after hrs. blade considerably inflected; after hrs. much re-expansion. ( ) after hrs. all the tentacles but fourteen inflected; after hrs. m. beginning to re-expand. ( ) after hr. thirty-six tentacles inflected; after hrs. all but fifty-four inflected; after hrs. considerable re-expansion. ( ) after hrs. m. only thirty-five tentacles inflected or sub-inflected, and this small amount of inflection never increased. now for the seven corresponding leaves in water:-- ( ) after hrs. thirty-eight tentacles inflected; but after hrs. these, with the exception of six, re-expanded. ( ) after hrs. m. twenty inflected; these after hrs. partially re-expanded. ( ) after hrs. five inflected, which began to re-expand after hrs. ( ) after hrs. one inflected. ( ), ( ) and ( ) not at all affected, though observed for hrs., excepting the short tentacles on the borders of the disc, which as usual formed a ring. a comparison of the leaves in the solution, especially of the first five or even six on the list, with those in the water, after hr. or after hrs., and in a still more marked degree after hrs. or hrs., could not leave the least doubt that the solution had produced a great effect. this was shown not only by the vastly greater number of inflected tentacles, but by the degree or closeness of their inflection, and by that of their blades. yet each gland on leaf no. (which bore glands, all of which, excepting five, were inflected in m.) could not have received more than one-four-millionth of a grain (. mg.) of the salt. again, each gland on leaf no. (which bore glands, all of which, except nine, were inflected in hrs. m.) could have received at most only the / of a grain, or . mg. four leaves were immersed as before in a solution of one part to , of water ( gr. to oz.); but on this occasion i happened to select leaves which were very little sensitive, as on other occasions i chanced to select unusually sensitive leaves. the leaves were not more affected after hrs. than [page ] the four corresponding ones in water; but after hrs. they were slightly more inflected. such evidence, however, is not at all trustworthy. twelve leaves were immersed, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part to , , of water ( gr. to oz.); so that each leaf received / of a grain (. mg.). the leaves were not in very good condition; four of them were too old and of a dark red colour; four were too pale, yet one of these latter acted well; the four others, as far as could be told by the eye, seemed in excellent condition. the result was as follows:-- ( ) this was a pale leaf; after m. about thirty-eight tentacles inflected; after hrs. m. the blade and many of the outer tentacles inflected; after hrs. m. all the tentacles but seventeen inflected, and the blade quite doubled up; after hrs. all the tentacles but ten more or less inflected. most of them were closely inflected, but twenty-five were only sub-inflected. ( ) after hr. m. twenty-five tentacles inflected; after hrs. all but twenty-one inflected; after hrs. all but sixteen more or less inflected; after hrs. re-expanded. ( ) after hr. m. thirty-five inflected; after hrs. "a large number" (to quote my own memorandum) inflected, but from want of time they were not counted; after hrs. re-expanded. ( ) after hr. m. about thirty inflected; after hrs. "a large number all round the leaf" inflected, but they were not counted; after hrs. began to re-expand. ( ) to ( ) these were not more inflected than leaves often are in water, having respectively , , , , , , , and tentacles inflected. two of these leaves, however, were remarkable from having their blades slightly inflected after hrs. with respect to the twelve corresponding leaves in water, ( ) had, after hr. m., fifty tentacles inflected, but after hrs. only twenty-two remained so, and these formed a group, with the blade at this point slightly inflected. it appeared as if this leaf had been in some manner accidentally excited, for instance by a particle of animal matter which was dissolved by the water. ( ) after hr. m. thirty-two tentacles inflected, but after hrs. m. only twenty-five inflected, and these after hrs. all re-expanded; ( ) after hr. twenty-five inflected, which after hrs. m. were all re-expanded; ( ) and ( ) after hr. m. six and seven tentacles inflected, which re-expanded after hrs.; ( ), ( ) and ( ) from one to three inflected, which [page ] soon re-expanded; ( ), ( ), ( ) and ( ) none inflected, though observed for twenty-four hours. comparing the states of the twelve leaves in water with those in the solution, there could be no doubt that in the latter a larger number of tentacles were inflected, and these to a greater degree; but the evidence was by no means so clear as in the former experiments with stronger solutions. it deserves attention that the inflection of four of the leaves in the solution went on increasing during the first hrs., and with some of them for a longer time; whereas in the water the inflection of the three leaves which were the most affected, as well as of all the others, began to decrease during this same interval. it is also remarkable that the blades of three of the leaves in the solution were slightly inflected, and this is a most rare event with leaves in water, though it occurred to a slight extent in one (no. ), which seemed to have been in some manner accidentally excited. all this shows that the solution produced some effect, though less and at a much slower rate than in the previous cases. the small effect produced may, however, be accounted for in large part by the majority of the leaves having been in a poor condition. of the leaves in the solution, no. bore glands and received / of a grain of the salt. subtracting the seventeen tentacles which were not inflected, each gland could have absorbed only the / of a grain (. mg.). this amount caused the tentacle bearing each gland to be greatly inflected. the blade was also inflected. lastly, eight leaves were immersed, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part of the phosphate to , , of water ( gr. to oz.). each leaf thus received / of a grain of the salt, or . mg. i took especial pains in selecting the finest leaves from the hot-house for immersion, both in the solution and the water, and almost all proved extremely sensitive. beginning as before with those in the solution:-- ( ) after hrs. m. all the tentacles but twenty-two inflected, but some only sub-inflected; the blade much inflected; after hrs. m. all but thirteen inflected, with the blade immensely inflected; and remained so for hrs. ( ) no change for the first hrs., but after hrs. all the tentacles inflected, excepting those of the outermost row, of which only eleven were inflected. the inflection continued to increase, and after hrs. all the tentacles except three were inflected, [page ] and most of them rather closely, four or five being only sub-inflected. ( ) no change for the first hrs.; but after hrs. all the tentacles excepting those of the outermost row were sub-inflected, with the blade inflected. after hrs. blade strongly inflected, with all the tentacles, except three, inflected or sub-inflected. after hrs. in the same state. ( ) to ( ) these leaves, after hrs. m., had respectively , , , , and tentacles inflected, most of which, after a few hours, re-expanded, with the exception of no. , which retained its thirty-two tentacles inflected for hrs. now for the eight corresponding leaves in water:-- ( ) after hrs. m. this had twenty of its outer tentacles inflected, five of which re-expanded after hrs. m. after hrs. m. a most unusual circumstance occurred, namely, the whole blade became slightly bowed towards the footstalk, and so remained for hrs. the exterior tentacles, excepting those of the three or four outermost rows, were now also inflected to an unusual degree. ( ) to ( ) these leaves, after hrs. m., had respectively , , , , , , and tentacles inflected, which all re-expanded within hrs., and most of them within a much shorter time. when the two lots of eight leaves in the solution and in the water were compared after the lapse of hrs., they undoubtedly differed much in appearance. the few tentacles on the leaves in water which were inflected had after this interval re-expanded, with the exception of one leaf; and this presented the very unusual case of the blade being somewhat inflected, though in a degree hardly approaching that of the two leaves in the solution. of these latter leaves, no. had almost all its tentacles, together with its blade, inflected after an immersion of hrs. m. leaves no. and were affected at a much slower rate; but after from hrs. to hrs. almost all their tentacles were closely inflected, and the blade of one quite doubled up. we must therefore admit, incredible as the fact may at first appear, that this extremely weak solution acted on the more sensitive leaves; each of which received only the / of a grain (. mg.) of the phosphate. now, leaf no. bore tentacles, and subtracting the three which were not inflected, each gland could have absorbed only the / of a grain, or . mg. leaf no. , which was strongly acted on within hrs. m., and had all its outer tentacles, except thirteen, inflected within hrs. m., bore tentacles; and on the same principle as before, each gland could have [page ] absorbed only / of a grain, or . mg.; and this excessively minute amount sufficed to cause all the tentacles bearing these glands to be greatly inflected. the blade was also inflected.] summary of the results with phosphate of ammonia.--the glands of the disc, when excited by a half-minim drop (. ml.), containing / of a grain (. mg.) of this salt, transmit a motor impulse to the exterior tentacles, causing them to bend inwards. a minute drop, containing / of a grain (. mg.), if held for a few seconds in contact with a gland, causes the tentacle bearing this gland to be inflected. if a leaf is left immersed for a few hours, and sometimes for a shorter time, in a solution so weak that each gland can absorb only the / of a grain (. mg.), this is enough to excite the tentacle into movement, so that it becomes closely inflected, as does sometimes the blade. in the general summary to this chapter a few remarks will be added, showing that the efficiency of such extremely minute doses is not so incredible as it must at first appear. [sulphate of ammonia.--the few trials made with this and the following five salts of ammonia were undertaken merely to ascertain whether they induced inflection. half-minims of a solution of one part of the sulphate of ammonia to of water were placed on the discs of seven leaves, so that each received / of a grain, or . mg. after hr. the tentacles of five of them, as well as the blade of one, were strongly inflected. the leaves were not afterwards observed. citrate of ammonia.--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on the discs of six leaves. in hr. the short outer tentacles round the discs were a little inflected, with the glands on the discs blackened. after hrs. m. one leaf had its blade inflected, but none of the exterior tentacles. all six leaves remained in nearly the same state during the day, the submarginal tentacles, however, [page ] becoming more inflected. after hrs. three of the leaves had their blades somewhat inflected; and the submarginal tentacles of all considerably inflected, but in none were the two, three, or four outer rows affected. i have rarely seen cases like this, except from the action of a decoction of grass. the glands on the discs of the above leaves, instead of being almost black, as after the first hour, were now after hrs. very pale. i next tried on four leaves half-minims of a weaker solution, of one part to of water ( gr. to oz.); so that each received / of a grain (. mg.). after hrs. m. the glands on the disc were very dark-coloured; after hrs. two of the leaves were slightly affected; the other two not at all. acetate of ammonia.--half-minims of a solution of about one part to of water were placed on the discs of two leaves, both of which were acted on in hrs. m., and after hrs. had every single tentacle closely inflected. oxalate of ammonia.--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on two leaves, which, after hrs., became moderately, and after hrs. strongly, inflected. two other leaves were tried with a weaker solution of one part to of water; one was strongly inflected in hrs.; the other not until hrs. had elapsed. tartrate of ammonia.--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on the discs of five leaves. in m. there was a trace of inflection in the exterior tentacles of some of the leaves, and this became more decided after hr. with all the leaves; but the tentacles were never closely inflected. after hrs. m. they began to re-expand. next morning, after hrs., all were fully re-expanded, excepting one which was still slightly inflected. the shortness of the period of inflection in this and the following case is remarkable. chloride of ammonium.--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on the discs of six leaves. a decided degree of inflection in the outer and submarginal tentacles was perceptible in m.; and this increased during the next three or four hours, but never became strongly marked. after only hrs. m. the tentacles began to re-expand, and by the next morning, after hrs., were fully re-expanded on four of the leaves, but still slightly inflected on two.] general summary and concluding remarks on the salts of ammonia.--we have now seen that the nine [page ] salts of ammonia which were tried, all cause the inflection of the tentacles, and often of the blade of the leaf. as far as can be ascertained from the superficial trials with the last six salts, the citrate is the least powerful, and the phosphate certainly by far the most. the tartrate and chloride are remarkable from the short duration of their action. the relative efficiency of the carbonate, nitrate, and phosphate, is shown in the following table by the smallest amount which suffices to cause the inflection of the tentacles. column : solutions, how applied. column : carbonate of ammonia. column : nitrate of ammonia. column : phosphate of ammonia. placed on the glands of the disc, so as to act indirectly on the outer tentacles : / of a grain, or mg. : / of a grain, or . mg. : / of a grain, or . mg. applied for a few seconds directly to the gland of an outer tentacle : / of a grain, or . mg. : / of a grain, or . mg. grain, / of a grain, or . mg. leaf immersed, with time allowed for each gland to absorb all that it can : / of a grain, or . mg. : / of a grain, or . mg. : / of a grain, or . mg. amount absorbed by a gland which suffices to cause the aggregation of the protoplasm in the adjoining cells of the tentacles. / of a grain, or . mg. from the experiments tried in these three different ways, we see that the carbonate, which contains . per cent. of nitrogen, is less efficient than the nitrate, which contains per cent. the phosphate contains less nitrogen than either of these salts, namely, only . per cent., and yet is far more [page ] efficient; its power no doubt depending quite as much on the phosphorus as on the nitrogen which it contains. we may infer that this is the case, from the energetic manner in which bits of bone and phosphate of lime affect the leaves. the inflection excited by the other salts of ammonia is probably due solely to their nitrogen,--on the same principle that nitrogenous organic fluids act powerfully, whilst non-nitrogenous organic fluids are powerless. as such minute doses of the salts of ammonia affect the leaves, we may feel almost sure that drosera absorbs and profits by the amount, though small, which is present in rain-water, in the same manner as other plants absorb these same salts by their roots. the smallness of the doses of the nitrate, and more especially of the phosphate of ammonia, which cause the tentacles of immersed leaves to be inflected, is perhaps the most remarkable fact recorded in this volume. when we see that much less than the millionth* of a grain of the phosphate, absorbed by a gland of one of the exterior tentacles, causes it to bend, it may be thought that the effects of the solution on the glands of the disc have been overlooked; namely, the transmission of a motor impulse from them to the exterior tentacles. no doubt the movements of the latter are thus aided; but the aid thus rendered must be insignificant; for we know that a drop containing as much as the / of a grain placed on the disc is only just able to cause the outer tentacles of a highly sensitive leaf to bend. it is cer- * it is scarcely possible to realise what a million means. the best illustration which i have met with is that given by mr. croll, who says, "take a narrow strip of paper ft. in. in length, and stretch it along the wall of a large hall; then mark off at one end the tenth of an inch. this tenth will represent a hundred, and the entire strip a million. [page ] tainly a most surprising fact that the / of a grain, or in round numbers the one-twenty-millionth of a grain (. mg.), of the phosphate should affect any plant, or indeed any animal; and as this salt contains . per cent. of water of crystallisation, the efficient elements are reduced to / of a grain, or in round numbers to one-thirty-millionth of a grain (. mg.). the solution, moreover, in these experiments was diluted in the proportion of one part of the salt to , , of water, or one grain to oz. the reader will perhaps best realise this degree of dilution by remembering that oz. would more than fill a -gallon cask; and that to this large body of water one grain of the salt was added; only half a drachm, or thirty minims, of the solution being poured over a leaf. yet this amount sufficed to cause the inflection of almost every tentacle, and often of the blade of the leaf. i am well aware that this statement will at first appear incredible to almost everyone. drosera is far from rivalling the power of the spectroscope, but it can detect, as shown by the movements of its leaves, a very much smaller quantity of the phosphate of ammonia than the most skilful chemist can of any substance.* my results were for a long time incredible * when my first observations were made on the nitrate of ammonia, fourteen years ago, the powers of the spectroscope had not been discovered; and i felt all the greater interest in the then unrivalled powers of drosera. now the spectroscope has altogether beaten drosera; for according to bunsen and kirchhoff probably less than one / of a grain of sodium can be thus detected (see balfour stewart, 'treatise on heat,' nd edit. , p. ). with respect to ordinary chemical tests, i gather from dr. alfred taylor's work on 'poisons' that about / of a grain of arsenic, / of a grain of prussic acid, / of iodine, and / of tartarised antimony, can be detected; but the power of detection depends much on the solutions under trial not being extremely weak. [page ] even to myself, and i anxiously sought for every source of error. the salt was in some cases weighed for me by a chemist in an excellent balance; and fresh water was measured many times with care. the observations were repeated during several years. two of my sons, who were as incredulous as myself, compared several lots of leaves simultaneously immersed in the weaker solutions and in water, and declared that there could be no doubt about the difference in their appearance. i hope that some one may hereafter be induced to repeat my experiments; in this case he should select young and vigorous leaves, with the glands surrounded by abundant secretion. the leaves should be carefully cut off and laid gently in watch-glasses, and a measured quantity of the solution and of water poured over each. the water used must be as absolutely pure as it can be made. it is to be especially observed that the experiments with the weaker solutions ought to be tried after several days of very warm weather. those with the weakest solutions should be made on plants which have been kept for a considerable time in a warm greenhouse, or cool hothouse; but this is by no means necessary for trials with solutions of moderate strength. i beg the reader to observe that the sensitiveness or irritability of the tentacles was ascertained by three different methods--indirectly by drops placed on the disc, directly by drops applied to the glands of the outer tentacles, and by the immersion of whole leaves; and it was found by these three methods that the nitrate was more powerful than the carbonate, and the phosphate much more powerful than the nitrate; this result being intelligible from the difference in the amount of nitrogen in the first two salts, and from the presence of phosphorus in the third. it may aid the [page ] reader's faith to turn to the experiments with a solution of one grain of the phosphate to oz. of water, and he will there find decisive evidence that the one-four-millionth of a grain is sufficient to cause the inflection of a single tentacle. there is, therefore, nothing very improbable in the fifth of this weight, or the one-twenty-millionth of a grain, acting on the tentacle of a highly sensitive leaf. again, two of the leaves in the solution of one grain to oz., and three of the leaves in the solution of one grain to oz., were affected, not only far more than the leaves tried at the same time in water, but incomparably more than any five leaves which can be picked out of the observed by me at different times in water. there is nothing remarkable in the mere fact of the one-twenty-millionth of a grain of the phosphate, dissolved in above two-million times its weight of water, being absorbed by a gland. all physiologists admit that the roots of plants absorb the salts of ammonia brought to them by the rain; and fourteen gallons of rain-water contain* a grain of ammonia, therefore only a little more than twice as much as in the weakest solution employed by me. the fact which appears truly wonderful is, that the one-twenty-millionth of a grain of the phosphate of ammonia (including less than the one-thirty-millionth of efficient matter), when absorbed by a gland, should induce some change in it, which leads to a motor impulse being transmitted down the whole length of the tentacle, causing the basal part to bend, often through an angle of above degrees. astonishing as is this result, there is no sound reason * miller's 'elements of chemistry,' part ii. p. , rd edit. . [page ] why we should reject it as incredible. prof. donders, of utrecht, informs me that from experiments formerly made by him and dr. de ruyter, he inferred that less than the one-millionth of a grain of sulphate of atropine, in an extremely diluted state, if applied directly to the iris of a dog, paralyses the muscles of this organ. but, in fact, every time that we perceive an odour, we have evidence that infinitely smaller particles act on our nerves. when a dog stands a quarter of a mile to leeward of a deer or other animal, and perceives its presence, the odorous particles produce some change in the olfactory nerves; yet these particles must be infinitely smaller* than those of the phosphate of ammonia weighing the one-twenty-millionth of a grain. these nerves then transmit some influence to the brain of the dog, which leads to action on its part. with drosera, the really marvellous fact is, that a plant without any specialised nervous system should be affected by such minute particles; but we have no grounds for assuming that other tissues could not be rendered as exquisitely susceptible to impressions from without if this were beneficial to the organism, as is the nervous system of the higher animals. * my son, george darwin, has calculated for me the diameter of a sphere of phosphate of ammonia (specific gravity . ), weighing the one-twenty-millionth of a grain, and finds it to be / of an inch. now, dr. klein informs me that the smallest micrococci, which are distinctly discernible under a power of diameters, are estimated to be from . to . of a millimetre--that is, from / to / of an inch--in diameter. therefore, an object between / and / of the size of a sphere of the phosphate of ammonia of the above weight can be seen under a high power; and no one supposes that odorous particles, such as those emitted from the deer in the above illustration, could be seen under any power of the microscope.) [page ] chapter viii. the effects of various other salts and acids on the leaves. salts of sodium, potassium, and other alkaline, earthy, and metallic salts--summary on the action of these salts--various acids--summary on their action. having found that the salts of ammonia were so powerful, i was led to investigate the action of some other salts. it will be convenient, first, to give a list of the substances tried (including forty-nine salts and two metallic acids), divided into two columns, showing those which cause inflection, and those which do not do so, or only doubtfully. my experiments were made by placing half-minim drops on the discs of leaves, or, more commonly, by immersing them in the solutions; and sometimes by both methods. a summary of the results, with some concluding remarks, will then be given. the action of various acids will afterwards be described. column : salts causing inflection. column : salts not causing inflection. (arranged in groups according to the chemical classification in watts' 'dictionary of chemistry.') sodium carbonate, rapid inflection. : potassium carbonate: slowly poisonous. sodium nitrate, rapid inflection. : potassium nitrate: somewhat poisonous. sodium sulphate, moderately rapid inflection. : potassium sulphate. sodium phosphate, very rapid inflection. : potassium phosphate. sodium citrate, rapid inflection. : potassium citrate. sodium oxalate; rapid inflection. sodium chloride, moderately rapid inflection. : potassium chloride. [page ] column : salts causing inflection. column : salts not causing inflection. (arranged in groups according to the chemical classification in watts' 'dictionary of chemistry.') sodium iodide, rather slow inflection. : potassium iodide, a slight and doubtful amount of inflection. sodium bromide, moderately rapid inflection. : potassium bromide. potassium oxalate, slow and doubtful inflection. : lithium nitrate, moderately rapid inflection. : lithium acetate. caesium chloride, rather slow inflection. : rubidium chloride. silver nitrate, rapid inflection: quick poison. : cadmium chloride, slow inflection. : calcium acetate. mercury perchloride, rapid inflection: quick poison. : calcium nitrate. : magnesium acetate. : magnesium nitrate. : magnesium chloride. : magnesium sulphate. : barium acetate. : barium nitrate. : strontium acetate. : strontium nitrate. : zinc chloride. aluminium chloride, slow and doubtful inflection. : aluminium nitrate, a trace of inflection. gold chloride, rapid inflection: quick poison. : aluminium and potassium sulphate. tin chloride, slow inflection: poisonous. : lead chloride. antimony tartrate, slow inflection: probably poisonous. arsenious acid, quick inflection: poisonous. iron chloride, slow inflection: probably poisonous. : manganese chloride. chromic acid, quick inflection: highly poisonous. copper chloride, rather slow in flection: poisonous. : cobalt chloride. nickel chloride, rapid inflection: probably poisonous. platinum chloride, rapid inflection: poisonous. [page ] sodium, carbonate of (pure, given me by prof. hoffmann).--half-minims (. ml.) of a solution of one part to of water ( grs. to oz.) were placed on the discs of twelve leaves. seven of these became well inflected; three had only two or three of their outer tentacles inflected, and the remaining two were quite unaffected. but the dose, though only the / of a grain (. mg.), was evidently too strong, for three of the seven well-inflected leaves were killed. on the other hand, one of the seven, which had only a few tentacles inflected, re-expanded and seemed quite healthy after hrs. by employing a weaker solution (viz. one part to of water, or gr. to oz.), doses of / of a grain (. mg.) were given to six leaves. some of these were affected in m.; and in hrs. the outer tentacles of all, as well as the blades of two, were considerably inflected. after hrs. m. the tentacles had almost re-expanded, but the blades of the two were still just perceptibly curved inwards. after hrs. all six leaves were fully re-expanded, and appeared perfectly healthy. three leaves were immersed, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part to of water ( gr. to oz.), so that each received / of a grain ( . mg.); after m. the three were much affected, and after hrs. m. the tentacles of all and the blade of one closely inflected. sodium, nitrate of (pure).--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water, containing / of a grain (. mg.), were placed on the discs of five leaves. after hr. m. the tentacles of nearly all, and the blade of one, were somewhat inflected. the inflection continued to increase, and in hrs. m. the tentacles and the blades of four of them were greatly affected, and the blade of the fifth to a slight extent. after an additional hrs. the four leaves still remained closely inflected, whilst the fifth was beginning to expand. four days after the solution had been applied, two of the leaves had quite, and one had partially, re-expanded; whilst the remaining two remained closely inflected and appeared injured. three leaves were immersed, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part to of water; in hr. there was great inflection, and after hrs. m. every tentacle and the blades of all three were most strongly inflected. sodium, sulphate of.--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on the discs of six leaves. after hrs. m. the tentacles of three of them, (with the blade of one) were considerably; and those of the other three slightly, inflected. after hrs. the inflection had a little decreased, [page ] and in hrs. the leaves were fully expanded, appearing quite healthy. three leaves were immersed, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part of the sulphate to of water; after hr. m. there was some inflection, which increased so much that in hrs. m. all the tentacles and the blades of all three leaves were closely inflected. sodium, phosphate of.--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on the discs of six leaves. the solution acted with extraordinary rapidity, for in m. the outer tentacles on several of the leaves were much incurved. after hrs. the tentacles of all six leaves, and the blades of two, were closely inflected. this state of things continued for hrs., excepting that the blade of a third leaf became incurved. after hrs. all the leaves re-expanded. it is clear that / of a grain of phosphate of soda has great power in causing inflection. sodium, citrate of.--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on the discs of six leaves, but these were not observed until hrs. had elapsed. the sub-marginal tentacles of five of them, and the blades of four, were then found inflected; but the outer rows of tentacles were not affected. one leaf, which appeared older than the others, was very little affected in any way. after hrs. four of the leaves were almost re-expanded, including their blades. three leaves were also immersed, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part of the citrate to of water; they were much acted on in m.; and after hrs. m. almost all the tentacles, including those of the outer rows, were inflected, but not the blades. sodium, oxalate of.--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on the discs of seven leaves; after hrs. m. the tentacles of all, and the blades of most of them, were much affected. in hrs., besides the inflection of the tentacles, the blades of all seven leaves were so much doubled over that their tips and bases almost touched. on no other occasion have i seen the blades so strongly affected. three leaves were also immersed, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part to of water; after m. there was much inflection, and after hrs. m. the blades of two and the tentacles of all were closely inflected. sodium, chloride of (best culinary salt).--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on the discs [page ] of four leaves. two, apparently, were not at all affected in hrs.; the third had its tentacles slightly inflected; whilst the fourth had almost all its tentacles inflected in hrs., and these did not begin to re-expand until the fourth day, and were not perfectly expanded on the seventh day. i presume that this leaf was injured by the salt. half-minims of a weaker solution, of one part to of water, were then dropped on the discs of six leaves, so that each received / of a grain. in hr. m. there was slight inflection; and after hrs. m. the tentacles of all six leaves were considerably, but not closely, inflected. after hrs. m. all had completely re-expanded, and did not appear in the least injured. three leaves were immersed, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part to of water, so that each received / of a grain, or . mg. after hr. there was much inflection; after hrs. m. all the tentacles and the blades of all three were closely inflected. four other leaves were also immersed in the solution, each receiving the same amount of salt as before, viz. / of a grain. they all soon became inflected; after hrs. they began to re-expand, and appeared quite uninjured, though the solution was sufficiently strong to taste saline. sodium, iodide of.--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on the discs of six leaves. after hrs. four of them had their blades and many tentacles inflected. the other two had only their submarginal tentacles inflected; the outer ones in most of the leaves being but little affected. after hrs. the leaves had nearly re-expanded. three leaves were also immersed, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part to of water. after hrs. m. almost all the tentacles, and the blade of one leaf, were closely inflected. sodium, bromide of.--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on six leaves. after hrs. there was some inflection; after hrs. three of the leaves had their blades and most of their tentacles inflected; the fourth leaf was very slightly, and the fifth and sixth hardly at all, affected. three leaves were also immersed, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part to of water; after m. there was some inflection; after hrs. the tentacles of all three leaves and the blades of two were inflected. these leaves were then placed in water, and after hrs. m. two of them were almost completely, and the third partially, re-expanded; so that apparently they were not injured. [page ] potassium, carbonate of (pure).--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on six leaves. no effect was produced in hrs.; but after hrs. some of the leaves had their tentacles, and one the blade, considerably inflected. this, however, seemed the result of their being injured; for on the third day after the solution was given, three of the leaves were dead, and one was very unhealthy; the other two were recovering, but with several of their tentacles apparently injured, and these remained permanently inflected. it is evident that the / of a grain of this salt acts as a poison. three leaves were also immersed, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part to of water, though only for hrs.; and, very differently from what occurs with the salts of soda, no inflection ensued. potassium, nitrate of.--half-minims of a strong solution, of one part to of water ( grs. to oz.), were placed on the discs of four leaves; two were much injured, but no inflection ensued. eight leaves were treated in the same manner, with drops of a weaker solution, of one part to of water. after hrs. there was no inflection, but two of the leaves seemed injured. five of these leaves were subsequently tested with drops of milk and a solution of gelatine on their discs, and only one became inflected; so that the solution of the nitrate of the above strength, acting for hrs., apparently had injured or paralysed the leaves. six leaves were then treated in the same manner with a still weaker solution, of one part to of water, and these, after hrs., were in no way affected, with the exception of perhaps a single leaf. three leaves were next immersed for hrs., each in thirty minims of a solution of one part to of water, and this produced no apparent effect. they were then put into a solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water; the glands were immediately blackened, and after hr. there was some inflection, and the protoplasmic contents of the cells became plainly aggregated. this shows that the leaves had not been much injured by their immersion for hrs. in the nitrate. potassium, sulphate of.--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on the discs of six leaves. after hrs. m. no effect was produced; after an additional hrs. three remained quite unaffected; two seemed injured, and the sixth seemed almost dead with its tentacles inflected. nevertheless, after two additional days, all six leaves recovered. the immersion of three leaves for hrs., each in thirty minims of [page ] a solution of one part to of water, produced no apparent effect. they were then treated with the same solution of carbonate of ammonia, with the same result as in the case of the nitrate of potash. potassium, phosphate of.--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on the discs of six leaves, which were observed during three days; but no effect was produced. the partial drying up of the fluid on the disc slightly drew together the tentacles on it, as often occurs in experiments of this kind. the leaves on the third day appeared quite healthy. potassium, citrate of.--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water, left on the discs of six leaves for three days, and the immersion of three leaves for hrs., each in minims of a solution of one part to of water, did not produce the least effect. potassium, oxalate of.--half-minims were placed on different occasions on the discs of seventeen leaves; and the results perplexed me much, as they still do. inflection supervened very slowly. after hrs. four leaves out of the seventeen were well inflected, together with the blades of two; six were slightly affected, and seven not at all. three leaves of one lot were observed for five days, and all died; but in another lot of six, all excepting one looked healthy after four days. three leaves were immersed during hrs., each in minims of a solution of one part to of water, and were not in the least affected; but they ought to have been observed for a longer time. potassium, chloride of. neither half-minims of a solution of one part to of water; left on the discs of six leaves for three days, nor the immersion of three leaves during hrs., in minims of a solution of one part to of water, produced the least effect. the immersed leaves were then treated with carbonate of ammonia, as described under nitrate of potash, and with the same result. potassium, iodide of.--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on the discs of seven leaves. in m. one leaf had the blade inflected; after some hours three leaves had most of their submarginal tentacles moderately inflected; the remaining three being very slightly affected. hardly any of these leaves had their outer tentacles inflected. after hrs. all re-expanded, excepting two which still had a few submarginal tentacles inflected. three leaves were next [page ] immersed for hrs. m., each in minims of a solution of one part to of water, and were not in the least affected. i do not know what to conclude from this conflicting evidence; but it is clear that the iodide of potassium does not generally produce any marked effect. potassium, bromide of.--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on the discs of six leaves; after hrs. one had its blade and many tentacles inflected, but i suspect that an insect might have alighted on it and then escaped; the five other leaves were in no way affected. i tested three of these leaves with bits of meat, and after hrs. they became splendidly inflected. three leaves were also immersed for hrs. in minims of a solution of one part to of water; but they were not at all affected, excepting that the glands looked rather pale. lithium, acetate of.--four leaves were immersed together in a vessel containing minims of a solution of one part to of water; so that each received, if the leaves absorbed equally, / of a grain. after hrs. there was no inflection. i then added, for the sake of testing the leaves, some strong solution (viz. gr. to oz., or one part to of water) of phosphate of ammonia, and all four became in m. closely inflected. lithium, nitrate of.--four leaves were immersed, as in the last case, in minims of a solution of one part to of water; after h. m. all four were a little, and after hrs. greatly, inflected. i then diluted the solution with some water, but they still remained somewhat inflected on the third day. caesium, chloride of.--four leaves were immersed, as above, in minims of a solution of one part to of water. after hr. m. the glands were darkened; after hrs. m. there was a trace of inflection; after hrs. m. two leaves were greatly, but not closely, and the other two considerably inflected. after hrs. the inflection was extremely great, and two had their blades inflected. i then transferred the leaves into water, and in hrs. from their first immersion they were almost re-expanded. rubidium, chloride of.--four leaves which were immersed, as above, in minims of a solution of one part to of water, were not acted on in hrs. i then added some of the strong solution ( gr. to oz.) of phosphate of ammonia, and in m. all were immensely inflected. silver, nitrate of.--three leaves were immersed in ninety [page ] minims of a solution of one part to of water; so that each received, as before, / of a grain. after m. slight inflection, and after m. very strong inflection, the glands becoming excessively black; after m. all the tentacles were closely inflected. after hrs. the leaves were taken out of the solution, washed, and placed in water; but next morning they were evidently dead. calcium, acetate of.--four leaves were immersed in minims of a solution of one part to of water; after hrs. none of the tentacles were inflected, excepting a few where the blade joined the petiole; and this may have been caused by the absorption of the salt by the cut-off end of the petiole. i then added some of the solution ( gr. to oz.) of phosphate of ammonia, but this to my surprise excited only slight inflection, even after hrs. hence it would appear that the acetate had rendered the leaves torpid. calcium, nitrate of.--four leaves were immersed in minims of a solution of one part to of water, but were not affected in hrs. i then added some of the solution of phosphate of ammonia ( gr. to oz.), but this caused only very slight inflection after hrs. a fresh leaf was next put into a mixed solution of the above strengths of the nitrate of calcium and phosphate of ammonia, and it became closely inflected in between m. and m. half-minims of a solution of one part of the nitrate of calcium to of water were dropped on the discs of three leaves, but produced no effect. magnesium, acetate, nitrate, and chloride of.--four leaves were immersed in minims of solutions, of one part to of water, of each of these three salts; after hrs. there was no inflection; but after hrs. one of the leaves in the acetate was rather more inflected than generally occurs from an immersion for this length of time in water. some of the solution ( gr. to oz.) of phosphate of ammonia was then added to the three solutions. the leaves in the acetate mixed with the phosphate underwent some inflection; and this was well pronounced after hrs. those in the mixed nitrate were decidedly inflected in hrs. m., but the degree of inflection did not afterwards much increase; whereas the four leaves in the mixed chloride were greatly inflected in a few minutes, and after hrs. had almost every tentacle closely inflected. we thus see that the acetate and nitrate of magnesium injure the leaves, or at least prevent the subsequent action of phosphate of ammonia; whereas the chloride has no such tendency. [page ] magnesium, sulphate of.--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on the discs of ten leaves, and produced no effect. barium, acetate of.--four leaves were immersed in minims of a solution of one part to of water, and after hrs. there was no inflection, but the glands were blackened. the leaves were then placed in a solution ( gr. to oz.) of phosphate of ammonia, which caused after hrs. only a little inflection in two of the leaves. barium, nitrate of.--four leaves were immersed in minims of a solution of one part to of water; and after hrs. there was no more than that slight degree of inflection, which often follows from an immersion of this length in pure water. i then added some of the same solution of phosphate of ammonia, and after m. one leaf was greatly inflected, two others moderately, and the fourth not at all. the leaves remained in this state for hrs. strontium, acetate of.--four leaves, immersed in minims of a solution of one part to of water, were not affected in hrs. they were then placed in some of the same solution of phosphate of ammonia, and in m. two of them were greatly inflected; after hrs. the third leaf was considerably inflected, and the fourth exhibited a trace of inflection. they were in the same state next morning. strontium, nitrate of.--five leaves were immersed in minims of a solution of one part to of water; after hrs. there was some slight inflection, but not more than sometimes occurs with leaves in water. they were then placed in the same solution of phosphate of ammonia; after hrs. three of them were moderately inflected, as were all five after hrs.; but not one was closely inflected. it appears that the nitrate of strontium renders the leaves half torpid. cadmium, chloride of.--three leaves were immersed in ninety minims of a solution of one part to of water; after hrs. m. slight inflection occurred, which increased during the next three hours. after hrs. all three leaves had their tentacles well inflected, and remained so for an additional hrs.; glands not discoloured. mercury, perchloride of.--three leaves were immersed in ninety minims of a solution of one part to of water; after m. there was some slight inflection, which in m. became well pronounced; the glands were now blackened. after hrs. m. all the tentacles closely inflected; after hrs. still [page ] inflected and discoloured. the leaves were then removed and left for two days in water; but they never re-expanded, being evidently dead. zinc, chloride of.--three leaves immersed in ninety minims of a solution of one part to of water were not affected in hrs. m. aluminium, chloride of.--four leaves were immersed in minims of a solution of one part to of water; after hrs. m. no inflection; after hrs. one leaf rather closely, the second moderately, the third and fourth hardly at all, inflected. the evidence is doubtful, but i think some power in slowly causing inflection must be attributed to this salt. these leaves were then placed in the solution ( gr. to oz.) of phosphate of ammonia, and after hrs. m. the three, which had been but little affected by the chloride, became rather closely inflected. aluminium, nitrate of.--four leaves were immersed in minims of a solution of one part to of water; after hrs. m. there was only a trace of inflection; after hrs. one leaf was moderately inflected. the evidence is here again doubtful, as in the case of the chloride of aluminium. the leaves were then transferred to the same solution, as before, of phosphate of ammonia; this produced hardly any effect in hrs. m.; but after hrs. one leaf was pretty closely inflected, the three others very slightly, perhaps not more so than from water. aluminium and potassium, sulphate of (common alum).--half-minims of a solution of the usual strength were placed on the discs of nine leaves, but produced no effect. gold, chloride of.--seven leaves were immersed in so much of a solution of one part to of water that each received minims, containing / of a grain, or . mg., of the chloride. there was some inflection in m., which became extreme in m. in hrs. the surrounding fluid was coloured purple, and the glands were blackened. after hrs. the leaves were transferred to water; next morning they were found discoloured and evidently killed. the secretion decomposes the chloride very readily; the glands themselves becoming coated with the thinnest layer of metallic gold, and particles float about on the surface of the surrounding fluid. lead, chloride of.--three leaves were immersed in ninety minims of a solution of one part to of water. after hrs. there was not a trace of inflection; the glands were not blackened, and the leaves did not appear injured. they were then trans- [page ] ferred to the solution ( gr. to oz.) of phosphate of ammonia, and after hrs. two of them were somewhat, the third very little, inflected; and they thus remained for another hrs. tin, chloride of.--four leaves were immersed in minims of a solution of about one part (all not being dissolved) to of water. after hrs. no effect; after hrs. m. all four leaves had their submarginal tentacles inflected; after hrs. every single tentacle and the blades were closely inflected. the surrounding fluid was now coloured pink. the leaves were washed and transferred to water, but next morning were evidently dead. this chloride is a deadly poison, but acts slowly. antimony, tartrate of.--three leaves were immersed in ninety minims of a solution of one part to of water. after hrs. m. there was slight inflection; after hrs. two of the leaves were closely, and the third moderately, inflected; glands not much darkened. the leaves were washed and placed in water, but they remained in the same state for additional hours. this salt is probably poisonous, but acts slowly. arsenious acid.--a solution of one part to of water; three leaves were immersed in ninety minims; in m. considerable inflection; in h. great inflection; glands not discoloured. after hrs. the leaves were transferred to water; next morning they looked fresh, but after four days were pale-coloured, had not re-expanded, and were evidently dead. iron, chloride of.--three leaves were immersed in ninety minims of a solution of one part to of water; in hrs. no inflection; but after hrs. considerable inflection; glands blackened; fluid coloured yellow, with floating flocculent particles of oxide of iron. the leaves were then placed in water; after hrs. they had re-expanded a very little, but i think were killed; glands excessively black. chromic acid.--one part to of water; three leaves were immersed in ninety minims; in m. some, and in hr. considerable, inflection; after hrs. all the tentacles closely inflected, with the glands discoloured. placed in water, next day leaves quite discoloured and evidently killed. manganese, chloride of.--three leaves immersed in ninety minims of a solution of one part to of water; after hrs. no more inflection than often occurs in water; glands not blackened. the leaves were then placed in the usual solution of phosphate of ammonia, but no inflection was caused even after hrs. copper, chloride of.--three leaves immersed in ninety minims [page ] of a solution of one part to of water; after hrs. some inflection; after hrs. m. tentacles closely inflected, with the glands blackened. after hrs. still closely inflected, and the leaves flaccid. placed in pure water, next day evidently dead. a rapid poison. nickel, chloride of.--three leaves immersed in ninety minims of a solution of one part to of water; in m. considerable inflection, and in hrs. all the tentacles closely inflected. after hrs. still closely inflected; most of the glands, but not all, blackened. the leaves were then placed in water; after hrs. remained inflected; were somewhat discoloured, with the glands and tentacles dingy red. probably killed. cobalt, chloride of.--three leaves immersed in ninety minims of a solution of one part to of water; after hrs. there was not a trace of inflection, and the glands were not more blackened than often occurs after an equally long immersion in water. platinum, chloride of.--three leaves immersed in ninety minims of a solution of one part to of water; in m. some inflection, which became immense after m. after hrs. the glands were rather pale. after hrs. all the tentacles still closely inflected; glands colourless; remained in same state for four days; leaves evidently killed.] concluding remarks on the action of the foregoing salts.--of the fifty-one salts and metallic acids which were tried, twenty-five caused the tentacles to be inflected, and twenty-six had no such effect, two rather doubtful cases occurring in each series. in the table at the head of this discussion, the salts are arranged according to their chemical affinities; but their action on drosera does not seem to be thus governed. the nature of the base is far more important, as far as can be judged from the few experiments here given, than that of the acid; and this is the conclusion at which physiologists have arrived with respect to animals. we see this fact illustrated in all the nine salts of soda causing inflection, and in not being poisonous except when given in large doses; whereas seven of [page ] the corresponding salts of potash do not cause inflection, and some of them are poisonous. two of them, however, viz. the oxalate and iodide of potash, slowly induced a slight and rather doubtful amount of inflection. this difference between the two series is interesting, as dr. burdon sanderson informs me that sodium salts may be introduced in large doses into the circulation of mammals without any injurious effects; whilst small doses of potassium salts cause death by suddenly arresting the movements of the heart. an excellent instance of the different action of the two series is presented by the phosphate of soda quickly causing vigorous inflection, whilst phosphate of potash is quite inefficient. the great power of the former is probably due to the presence of phosphorus, as in the cases of phosphate of lime and of ammonia. hence we may infer that drosera cannot obtain phosphorus from the phosphate of potash. this is remarkable, as i hear from dr. burdon sanderson that phosphate of potash is certainly decomposed within the bodies of animals. most of the salts of soda act very rapidly; the iodide acting slowest. the oxalate, nitrate, and citrate seem to have a special tendency to cause the blade of the leaf to be inflected. the glands of the disc, after absorbing the citrate, transmit hardly any motor impulse to the outer tentacles; and in this character the citrate of soda resembles the citrate of ammonia, or a decoction of grass-leaves; these three fluids all acting chiefly on the blade. it seems opposed to the rule of the preponderant influence of the base that the nitrate of lithium causes moderately rapid inflection, whereas the acetate causes none; but this metal is closely allied to sodium [page ] and potassium,* which act so differently; therefore we might expect that its action would be intermediate. we see, also, that caesium causes inflection, and rubidium does not; and these two metals are allied to sodium and potassium. most of the earthy salts are inoperative. two salts of calcium, four of magnesium, two of barium, and two of strontium, did not cause any inflection, and thus follow the rule of the preponderant power of the base. of three salts of aluminium, one did not act, a second showed a trace of action, and the third acted slowly and doubtfully, so that their effects are nearly alike. of the salts and acids of ordinary metals, seventeen were tried, and only four, namely those of zinc, lead, manganese, and cobalt, failed to cause inflection. the salts of cadmium, tin, antimony, and iron, act slowly; and the three latter seem more or less poisonous. the salts of silver, mercury, gold, copper, nickel, and platinum, chromic and arsenious acids, cause great inflection with extreme quickness, and are deadly poisons. it is surprising, judging from animals, that lead and barium should not be poisonous. most of the poisonous salts make the glands black, but chloride of platinum made them very pale. i shall have occasion, in the next chapter, to add a few remarks on the different effects of phosphate of ammonia on leaves previously immersed in various solutions. acids. i will first give, as in the case of the salts, a list of the twenty-four acids which were tried, divided into two series, according as they cause or do not cause * miller's 'elements of chemistry,' rd edit. pp. , . [page ] inflection. after describing the experiments, a few concluding remarks will be added. acids, much diluted, which cause inflection. . nitric, strong inflection; poisonous. . hydrochloric, moderate and slow inflection; not poisonous. . hydriodic, strong inflection; poisonous. . iodic, strong inflection; poisonous. . sulphuric, strong inflection; somewhat poisonous. . phosphoric, strong inflection; poisonous. . boracic; moderate and rather slow inflection; not poisonous. . formic, very slight inflection; not poisonous. . acetic, strong and rapid inflection; poisonous. . propionic, strong but not very rapid inflection; poisonous. . oleic, quick inflection; very poisonous. . carbolic, very slow inflection; poisonous. . lactic, slow and moderate inflection; poisonous. . oxalic, moderately quick inflection; very poisonous. . malic, very slow but considerable inflection; not poisonous. . benzoic, rapid inflection; very poisonous. . succinic, moderately quick inflection: moderately poisonous. . hippuric, rather slow inflection; poisonous. . hydrocyanic, rather rapid inflection; very poisonous. acids, diluted to the same degree, which do not cause inflection. . gallic; not poisonous. . tannic; not poisonous. . tartaric; not poisonous. . citric; not poisonous. . uric; (?) not poisonous. nitric acid.--four leaves were placed, each in thirty minims of one part by weight of the acid to of water, so that each received / of a grain, or . mg. this strength was chosen for this and most of the following experiments, as it is the same [page ] as that of most of the foregoing saline solutions. in hrs. m. some of the leaves were considerably, and in hrs. m. all were immensely, inflected, as were their blades. the surrounding fluid was slightly coloured pink, which always shows that the leaves have been injured. they were then left in water for three days; but they remained inflected and were evidently killed. most of the glands had become colourless. two leaves were then immersed, each in thirty minims of one part to of water; in a few hours there was some inflection; and after hrs. both leaves had almost all their tentacles and blades inflected; they were left in water for three days, and one partially re-expanded and recovered. two leaves were next immersed, each in thirty minims of one part to of water; this produced very little effect, except that most of the tentacles close to the summit of the petiole were inflected, as if the acid had been absorbed by the cut-off end. hydrochloric acid.--one part to of water; four leaves were immersed as before, each in thirty minims. after hrs. only one leaf was considerably inflected. after hrs. m. one had its tentacles and blade well inflected; the other three were moderately inflected, and the blade of one slightly. the surrounding fluid was not coloured at all pink. after hrs. three of these four leaves began to re-expand, but their glands were of a pink instead of a red colour; after two more days they fully re-expanded; but the fourth leaf remained inflected, and seemed much injured or killed, with its glands white. four leaves were then treated, each with thirty minims of one part to of water; after hrs. they were moderately inflected; and on being transferred to water, fully re-expanded in two days, and seemed quite healthy. hydriodic acid.--one to of water; three leaves were immersed as before, each in thirty minims. after m. the glands were discoloured, and the surrounding fluid became pinkish, but there was no inflection. after hrs. all the tentacles were closely inflected; and an immense amount of mucus was secreted, so that the fluid could be drawn out into long ropes. the leaves were then placed in water, but never re-expanded, and were evidently killed. four leaves were next immersed in one part to of water; the action was now slower, but after hrs. all four leaves were closely inflected, and were affected in other respects as above described. these leaves did not re-expand, though left for four days in water. this acid acts far more powerfully than hydrochloric, and is poisonous. iodic acid.--one to of water; three leaves were immersed, [page ] each in thirty minims; after hrs. strong inflection; after hrs. glands dark brown; after hrs. m. close inflection, and the leaves had become flaccid; surrounding fluid not coloured pink. these leaves were then placed in water, and next day were evidently dead. sulphuric acid.--one to of water; four leaves were immersed, each in thirty minims; after hrs. great inflection; after hrs. surrounding fluid just tinged pink; they were then placed in water, and after hrs. two of them were still closely inflected, two beginning to re-expand; many of the glands colourless. this acid is not so poisonous as hydriodic or iodic acids. phosphoric acid.--one to of water; three leaves were immersed together in ninety minims; after hrs. m. some inflection, and some glands colourless; after hrs. all the tentacles closely inflected, and many glands colourless; surrounding fluid pink. left in water for two days and a half, remained in the same state and appeared dead. boracic acid.--one to of water; four leaves were immersed together in minims; after hrs. very slight inflection; after hrs. m. two were considerably inflected, the other two slightly. after hrs. one leaf was rather closely inflected, the second less closely, the third and fourth moderately. the leaves were washed and put into water; after hrs. they were almost fully re-expanded and looked healthy. this acid agrees closely with hydrochloric acid of the same strength in its power of causing inflection, and in not being poisonous. formic acid.--four leaves were immersed together in minims of one part to of water; after m. slight, and after hrs. m. very moderate inflection; after hrs. only a little more inflection than often occurs in water. two of the leaves were then washed and placed in a solution ( gr. to oz.) of phosphate of ammonia; after hrs. they were considerably inflected, with the contents of their cells aggregated, showing that the phosphate had acted, though not to the full and ordinary degree. acetic acid.--four leaves were immersed together in minims of one part to of water. in hr. m. the tentacles of all four and the blades of two were greatly inflected. after hrs. the leaves had become flaccid, but still remained closely inflected, the surrounding fluid being coloured pink. they were then washed and placed in water; next morning they were still inflected and of a very dark red colour, but with their glands colourless. after another day they were dingy-coloured, and [page ] evidently dead. this acid is far more powerful than formic, and is highly poisonous. half-minim drops of a stronger mixture (viz. one part by measure to of water) were placed on the discs of five leaves; none of the exterior tentacles, only those on the borders of the disc which actually absorbed the acid, became inflected. probably the dose was too strong and paralysed the leaves, for drops of a weaker mixture caused much inflection; nevertheless the leaves all died after two days. propionic acid.--three leaves were immersed in ninety minims of a mixture of one part to of water; in hr. m. there was no inflection; but after hrs. m. one leaf was greatly inflected, and the other two slightly. the inflection continued to increase, so that in hrs. all three leaves were closely inflected. next morning, after hrs., most of the glands were very pale, but some few were almost black. no mucus had been secreted, and the surrounding fluid was only just perceptibly tinted of a pale pink. after hrs. the leaves became slightly flaccid and were evidently killed, as was afterwards proved to be the case by keeping them in water. the protoplasm in the closely inflected tentacles was not in the least aggregated, but towards their bases it was collected in little brownish masses at the bottoms of the cells. this protoplasm was dead, for on leaving the leaf in a solution of carbonate of ammonia, no aggregation ensued. propionic acid is highly poisonous to drosera, like its ally acetic acid, but induces inflection at a much slower rate. oleic acid (given me by prof. frankland).--three leaves were immersed in this acid; some inflection was almost immediately caused, which increased slightly, but then ceased, and the leaves seemed killed. next morning they were rather shrivelled, and many of the glands had fallen off the tentacles. drops of this acid were placed on the discs of four leaves; in m. all the tentacles were greatly inflected, excepting the extreme marginal ones; and many of these after hrs. became inflected. i was led to try this acid from supposing that it was present (which does not seem to be the case)* in olive oil, the action of which is anomalous. thus drops of this oil placed on the disc do not cause the outer tentacles to be inflected; yet when minute drops were added to the secretion surrounding the glands of the outer tentacles, these were occasionally, but by no means always, inflected. two leaves were also immersed in this oil, and there * see articles on glycerine and oleic acid in watts' 'dict. of chemistry.' [page ] was no inflection for about hrs.; but after hrs. almost all the tentacles were inflected. three leaves were likewise immersed in unboiled linseed oil, and soon became somewhat, and in hrs. greatly, inflected. after hr. the secretion round the glands was coloured pink. i infer from this latter fact that the power of linseed oil to cause inflection cannot be attributed to the albumin which it is said to contain. carbolic acid.--two leaves were immersed in sixty minims of a solution of gr. to of water; in hrs. one was slightly, and in hrs. both were closely, inflected, with a surprising amount of mucus secreted. these leaves were washed and left for two days in water; they remained inflected; most of their glands became pale, and they seemed dead. this acid is poisonous, but does not act nearly so rapidly or powerfully as might have been expected from its known destructive power on the lowest organisms. half-minims of the same solution were placed on the discs of three leaves; after hrs. no inflection of the outer tentacles ensued, and when bits of meat were given them, they became fairly well inflected. again half-minims of a stronger solution, of one part to of water, were placed on the discs of three leaves; no inflection of the outer tentacles ensued; bits of meat were then given as before; one leaf alone became well inflected, the discal glands of the other two appearing much injured and dry. we thus see that the glands of the discs, after absorbing this acid, rarely transmit any motor impulse to the outer tentacles; though these, when their own glands absorb the acid, are strongly acted on. lactic acid.--three leaves were immersed in ninety minims of one part to of water. after m. there was no inflection, but the surrounding fluid was coloured pink; after hrs. m. one leaf alone was a little inflected, and almost all the glands on all three leaves were of a very pale colour. the leaves were then washed and placed in a solution ( gr. to oz.) of phosphate of ammonia; after about hrs. there was only a trace of inflection. they were left in the phosphate for hrs., and remained in the same state, with almost all their glands discoloured. the protoplasm within the cells was not aggregated, except in a very few tentacles, the glands of which were not much discoloured. i believe, therefore, that almost all the glands and tentacles had been killed by the acid so suddenly that hardly any inflection was caused. four leaves were next immersed in minims of a weaker solution, of one part to of water; after hrs. m. the surrounding fluid was quite pink; the glands were pale, but [page ] there was no inflection; after hrs. m. two of the leaves showed some inflection, and the glands were almost white; after hrs. two of the leaves were considerably inflected, and a third slightly; most of the glands were white, the others dark red. after hrs. one leaf had almost every tentacle inflected; a second a large number; the third and fourth very few; almost all the glands were white, excepting those on the discs of two of the leaves, and many of these were very dark red. the leaves appeared dead. hence lactic acid acts in a very peculiar manner, causing inflection at an extraordinarily slow rate, and being highly poisonous. immersion in even weaker solutions, viz. of one part to and of water, apparently killed the leaves (the tentacles after a time being bowed backwards), and rendered the glands white, but caused no inflection. gallic, tannic, tartaric, and citric acids.--one part to of water. three or four leaves were immersed, each in thirty minims of these four solutions, so that each leaf received / of a grain, or . mg. no inflection was caused in hrs., and the leaves did not appear at all injured. those which had been in the tannic and tartaric acids were placed in a solution ( gr. to oz.) of phosphate of ammonia, but no inflection ensued in hrs. on the other hand, the four leaves which had been in the citric acid, when treated with the phosphate, became decidedly inflected in m. and strongly inflected after hrs., and so remained for the next hrs. malic acid.--three leaves were immersed in ninety minims of a solution of one part to of water; no inflection was caused in hrs. m., but after hrs. two of them were considerably, and the third slightly, inflected--more so than could be accounted for by the action of water. no great amount of mucus was secreted. they were then placed in water, and after two days partially re-expanded. hence this acid is not poisonous. oxalic acid.--three leaves were immersed in ninety minims of a solution of gr. to of water; after hrs. m. there was much inflection; glands pale; the surrounding fluid of a dark pink colour; after hrs. excessive inflection. the leaves were then placed in water; after about hrs. the tentacles were of a very dark red colour, like those of the leaves in acetic acid. after additional hours, the three leaves were dead and their glands colourless. benzoic acid.--five leaves were immersed, each in thirty minims of a solution of gr. to of water. this solution was so weak that it only just tasted acid, yet, as we shall see, was highly poisonous to drosera. after m. the submarginal [page ] tentacles were somewhat inflected, and all the glands very pale-coloured; the surrounding fluid was coloured pink. on one occasion the fluid became pink in the course of only m., and the glands as white as if the leaf had been dipped in boiling water. after hrs. much inflection; but none of the tentacles were closely inflected, owing, as i believe, to their having been paralysed before they had time to complete their movement. an extraordinary quantity of mucus was secreted. some of the leaves were left in the solution; others, after an immersion of hrs. m., were placed in water. next morning both lots were quite dead; the leaves in the solution being flaccid, those in the water (now coloured yellow) of a pale brown tint, and their glands white. succinic acid.--three leaves were immersed in ninety minims of a solution of gr. to of water; after hrs. m. considerable and after hrs. great inflection; many of the glands pale; fluid coloured pink. the leaves were then washed and placed in water; after two days there was some re-expansion, but many of the glands were still white. this acid is not nearly so poisonous as oxalic or benzoic. uric acid.--three leaves were immersed in minims of a solution of gr. to of warm water, but all the acid was not dissolved; so that each received nearly / of a grain. after m. there was some slight inflection, but this never increased; after hrs. the glands were not discoloured, nor was the solution coloured pink; nevertheless much mucus was secreted. the leaves were then placed in water, and by next morning fully re-expanded. i doubt whether this acid really causes inflection, for the slight movement which at first occurred may have been due to the presence of a trace of albuminous matter. but it produces some effect, as shown by the secretion of so much mucus. hippuric acid.--four leaves were immersed in minims of a solution of gr. to of water. after hrs. the fluid was coloured pink; glands pale, but no inflection. after hrs. some inflection; after hrs. all four leaves greatly inflected; much mucus secreted; all the glands very pale. the leaves were then left in water for two days; they remained closely inflected, with their glands colourless, and i do not doubt were killed. hydrocyanic acid.--four leaves were immersed, each in thirty minims of one part to of water; in hrs. m. all the tentacles were considerably inflected, with many of the glands pale; after hrs. m. all strongly inflected, and the surrounding fluid coloured pink; after hrs. all closely inflected. after [page ] an immersion of hrs. m. the leaves were washed and placed in water; next morning, after about hrs., they were still inflected and discoloured; on the succeeding day they were evidently dead. two leaves were immersed in a stronger mixture, of one part to fifty of water; in hr. m. the glands became as white as porcelain, as if they had been dipped in boiling water; very few of the tentacles were inflected; but after hrs. almost all were inflected. these leaves were then placed in water, and next morning were evidently dead. half-minim drops of the same strength (viz. one part to fifty of water) were next placed on the discs of five leaves; after hrs. all the outer tentacles were inflected, and the leaves appeared much injured. i likewise touched the secretion round a large number of glands with minute drops (about / of a minim, or . ml.) of scheele's mixture ( per cent.); the glands first became bright red, and after hrs. m. about two-thirds of the tentacles bearing these glands were inflected, and remained so for the two succeeding days, when they appeared dead.] concluding remarks on the action of acids.--it is evident that acids have a strong tendency to cause the inflection of the tentacles;* for out of the twenty-four acids tried, nineteen thus acted, either rapidly and energetically, or slowly and slightly. this fact is remarkable, as the juices of many plants contain more acid, judging by the taste, than the solutions employed in my experiments. from the powerful effects of so many acids on drosera, we are led to infer that those naturally contained in the tissues of this plant, as well as of others, must play some important part in their economy. of the five cases in which acids did not cause the tentacles to be inflected, one is doubtful; for uric acid did act slightly, and caused a copious secretion of mucus. mere sourness to the taste is no * according to m. fournier ('de la fcondation dans les phanrogames.' , p. ) drops of acetic, hydrocyanic, and sulphuric acid cause the stamens of berberis instantly to close; though drops of water have no such power, which latter statement i can confirm; [page ] criterion of the power of an acid on drosera, as citric and tartaric acids are very sour, yet do not excite inflection. it is remarkable how acids differ in their power. thus, hydrochloric acid acts far less powerfully than hydriodic and many other acids of the same strength, and is not poisonous. this is an interesting fact, as hydrochloric acid plays so important a part in the digestive process of animals. formic acid induces very slight inflection, and is not poisonous; whereas its ally, acetic acid, acts rapidly and powerfully, and is poisonous. malic acid acts slightly, whereas citric and tartaric acids produce no effect. lactic acid is poisonous, and is remarkable from inducing inflection only after a considerable interval of time. nothing surprised me more than that a solution of benzoic acid, so weak as to be hardly acidulous to the taste, should act with great rapidity and be highly poisonous; for i am informed that it produces no marked effect on the animal economy. it may be seen, by looking down the list at the head of this discussion, that most of the acids are poisonous, often highly so. diluted acids are known to induce negative osmose,* and the poisonous action of so many acids on drosera is, perhaps, connected with this power, for we have seen that the fluids in which they were immersed often became pink, and the glands pale-coloured or white. many of the poisonous acids, such as hydriodic, benzoic, hippuric, and carbolic (but i neglected to record all the cases), caused the secretion of an extraordinary amount of mucus, so that long ropes of this matter hung from the leaves when they were lifted out of the solutions. other acids, such as hydrochloric and malic, have no such ten- * miller's 'elements of chemistry,' part i. , p. . [page ] dency; in these two latter cases the surrounding fluid was not coloured pink, and the leaves were not poisoned. on the other hand, propionic acid, which is poisonous, does not cause much mucus to be secreted, yet the surrounding fluid became slightly pink. lastly, as in the case of saline solutions, leaves, after being immersed in certain acids, were soon acted on by phosphate of ammonia; on the other hand, they were not thus affected after immersion in certain other acids. to this subject, however, i shall have to recur. [page ] chapter ix. the effects of certain alkaloid poisons, other substances and vapours. strychnine, salts of--quinine, sulphate of, does not soon arrest the movement of the protoplasm--other salts of quinine--digitaline--nicotine--atropine--veratrine--colchicine-- theine--curare--morphia--hyoscyamus--poison of the cobra, apparently accelerates the movements of the protoplasm--camphor, a powerful stimulant, its vapour narcotic--certain essential oils excite movement--glycerine--water and certain solutions retard or prevent the subsequent action of phosphate of ammonia--alcohol innocuous, its vapour narcotic and poisonous--chloroform, sulphuric and nitric ether, their stimulant, poisonous, and narcotic power--carbonic acid narcotic, not quickly poisonous--concluding remarks. as in the last chapter, i will first give my experiments, and then a brief summary of the results with some concluding remarks. [acetate of strychnine.--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on the discs of six leaves; so that each received / of a grain, or . mg. in hrs. m. the outer tentacles on some of them were inflected, but in an irregular manner, sometimes only on one side of the leaf. the next morning, after hrs. m. the inflection had not increased. the glands on the central disc were blackened, and had ceased secreting. after an additional hrs. all the central glands seemed dead, but the inflected tentacles had re-expanded and appeared quite healthy. hence the poisonous action of strychnine seems confined to the glands which have absorbed it; nevertheless, these glands transmit a motor impulse to the exterior tentacles. minute drops (about / of a minim) of the same solution applied to the glands of the outer tentacles occasionally caused them to bend. the poison does not seem to act quickly, for having applied to several glands similar drops of a rather stronger solution, of one part to of water, this did not prevent the tentacles bending, when their glands [page ] were excited, after an interval of a quarter to three quarters of an hour, by being rubbed or given bits of meat. similar drops of a solution of one part to of water ( grs. to oz.) quickly blackened the glands; some few tentacles thus treated moved, whilst others did not. the latter, however, on being subsequently moistened with saliva or given bits of meat, became incurved, though with extreme slowness; and this shows that they had been injured. stronger solutions (but the strength was not ascertained) sometimes arrested all power of movement very quickly; thus bits of meat were placed on the glands of several exterior tentacles, and as soon as they began to move, minute drops of the strong solution were added. they continued for a short time to go on bending, and then suddenly stood still; other tentacles on the same leaves, with meat on their glands, but not wetted with the strychnine, continued to bend and soon reached the centre of the leaf. citrate of strychnine.--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on the discs of six leaves; after hrs. the outer tentacles showed only a trace of inflection. bits of meat were then placed on three of these leaves, but in hrs. only slight and irregular inflection occurred, proving that the leaves had been greatly injured. two of the leaves to which meat had not been given had their discal glands dry and much injured. minute drops of a strong solution of one part to of water ( grs. to oz.) were added to the secretion round several glands, but did not produce nearly so plain an effect as the drops of a much weaker solution of the acetate. particles of the dry citrate were placed on six glands; two of these moved some way towards the centre, and then stood still, being no doubt killed; three others curved much farther inwards, and were then fixed; one alone reached the centre. five leaves were immersed, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part to of water; so that each received / of a grain; after about hr. some of the outer tentacles became inflected, and the glands were oddly mottled with black and white. these glands, in from hrs. to hrs., became whitish and opaque, and the protoplasm in the cells of the tentacles was well aggregated. by this time two of the leaves were greatly inflected, but the three others not much more inflected than they were before. nevertheless two fresh leaves, after an immersion respectively for hrs. and hrs. in the solution, were not killed; for on being left for hr. m. in a solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water, their tentacles became more inflected, and there was much aggregation. the glands [page ] of two other leaves, after an immersion for hrs. in a stronger solution, of one part of the citrate to of water, became of an opaque, pale pink colour, which before long disappeared, leaving them white. one of these two leaves had its blade and tentacles greatly inflected; the other hardly at all; but the protoplasm in the cells of both was aggregated down to the bases of the tentacles, with the spherical masses in the cells close beneath the glands blackened. after hrs. one of these leaves was colourless, and evidently dead. sulphate of quinine.--some of this salt was added to water, which is said to dissolve / part of its weight. five leaves were immersed, each in thirty minims of this solution, which tasted bitter. in less than hr. some of them had a few tentacles inflected. in hrs. most of the glands became whitish, others dark-coloured, and many oddly mottled. after hrs. two of the leaves had a good many tentacles inflected, but this very moderate degree of inflection never increased. one of the leaves was taken out of the solution after hrs., and placed in water; by the next morning some few of the inflected tentacles had re-expanded, showing that they were not dead; but the glands were still much discoloured. another leaf not included in the above lot, after an immersion of hrs. m., was carefully examined; the protoplasm in the cells of the outer tentacles, and of the short green ones on the disc, had become strongly aggregated down to their bases; and i distinctly saw that the little masses changed their positions and shapes rather rapidly; some coalescing and again separating. i was surprised at this fact, because quinine is said to arrest all movement in the white corpuscles of the blood; but as, according to binz,* this is due to their being no longer supplied with oxygen by the red corpuscles, any such arrestment of movement could not be expected in drosera. that the glands had absorbed some of the salt was evident from their change of colour; but i at first thought that the solution might not have travelled down the cells of the tentacles, where the protoplasm was seen in active movement. this view, however, i have no doubt, is erroneous, for a leaf which had been immersed for hrs. in the quinine solution was then placed in a little solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water; and in m. the glands and the upper cells of the tentacles became intensely black, with the protoplasm presenting a very unusual appearance; for it * 'quarterly journal of microscopical science,' april , p. . [page ] had become aggregated into reticulated dingy-coloured masses, having rounded and angular interspaces. as i have never seen this effect produced by the carbonate of ammonia alone, it must be attributed to the previous action of the quinine. these reticulated masses were watched for some time, but did not change their forms; so that the protoplasm no doubt had been killed by the combined action of the two salts, though exposed to them for only a short time. another leaf, after an immersion for hrs. in the quinine solution, became somewhat flaccid, and the protoplasm in all the cells was aggregated. many of the aggregated masses were discoloured, and presented a granular appearance; they were spherical, or elongated, or still more commonly consisted of little curved chains of small globules. none of these masses exhibited the least movement, and no doubt were all dead. half-minims of the solution were placed on the discs of six leaves; after hrs. one had all its tentacles, two had a few, and the others none inflected; so that the discal glands, when irritated by this salt, do not transmit any strong motor impulse to the outer tentacles. after hrs. the glands on the discs of all six leaves were evidently much injured or quite killed. it is clear that this salt is highly poisonous.* acetate of quinine.--four leaves were immersed, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part to of water. the solution was tested with litmus paper, and was not acid. after only m. all four leaves were greatly, and after hrs. immensely, inflected. they were then left in water for hrs., but never re-expanded; the glands were white, and the leaves evidently dead. this salt is far more efficient than the sulphate in causing inflection, and, like that salt, is highly poisonous. nitrate of quinine.--four leaves were immersed, each in thirty minims of a solution of one part to of water. after hrs. there was hardly a trace of inflection; after hrs. three of the leaves were moderately, and the fourth slightly inflected; so that this salt induces, though rather slowly, well-marked inflection. these leaves, on being left in water for hrs., almost *binz found several years ago (as stated in 'the journal of anatomy and phys.' november , p. ) that quinia is an energetic poison to low vegetable and animal organisms. even one part added to parts of blood arrests the movements of the white corpuscles, which become "rounded and granular." in the tentacles of drosera the aggregated masses of protoplasm, which appeared killed by the quinine, likewise presented a granular appearance. a similar appearance is caused by very hot water. [page ] completely re-expanded, but the glands were much discoloured. hence this salt is not poisonous in any high degree. the different action of the three foregoing salts of quinine is singular. digitaline.--half-minims of a solution of one part to of water were placed on the discs of five leaves. in hrs. m. some of them had their tentacles, and one had its blade, moderately inflected. after hrs. three of them were well inflected; the fourth had only a few tentacles inflected, and the fifth (an old leaf) was not at all affected. they remained in nearly the same state for two days, but the glands on their discs became pale. on the third day the leaves appeared much injured. nevertheless, when bits of meat were placed on two of them, the outer tentacles became inflected. a minute drop (about / of a minim) of the solution was applied to three glands, and after hrs. all three tentacles were inflected, but next day had nearly re-expanded; so that this very small dose of / of a grain (. mg.) acts on a tentacle, but is not poisonous. it appears from these several facts that digitaline causes inflection, and poisons the glands which absorb a moderately large amount. nicotine.--the secretion round several glands was touched with a minute drop of the pure fluid, and the glands were instantly blackened; the tentacles becoming inflected in a few minutes. two leaves were immersed in a weak solution of two drops to oz., or grains, of water. when examined after hrs. m., only twenty-one tentacles on one leaf were closely inflected, and six on the other slightly so; but all the glands were blackened, or very dark-coloured, with the protoplasm in all the cells of all the tentacles much aggregated and dark-coloured. the leaves were not quite killed, for on being placed in a little solution of carbonate of ammonia ( grs. to oz.) a few more tentacles became inflected, the remainder not being acted on during the next hrs. half-minims of a stronger solution (two drops to / oz. of water) were placed on the discs of six leaves, and in m. all those tentacles became inflected; the glands of which had actually touched the solution, as shown by their blackness; but hardly any motor influence was transmitted to the outer tentacles. after hrs. most of the glands on the discs appeared dead; but this could not have been the case, as when bits of meat were placed on three of them, some few of the outer tentacles were inflected in hrs. hence nicotine has a great tendency to blacken the glands and to induce aggregation [page ] of the protoplasm, but, except when pure, has very moderate power of inducing inflection, and still less power of causing a motor influence to be transmitted from the discal glands to the outer tentacles. it is moderately poisonous. atropine.--a grain was added to grains of water, but was not all dissolved; another grain was added to grains of a mixture of one part of alcohol to seven parts of water; and a third solution was made by adding one part of valerianate of atropine to of water. half-minims of these three solutions were placed, in each case, on the discs of six leaves; but no effect whatever was produced, excepting that the glands on the discs to which the valerianate was given were slightly discoloured. the six leaves on which drops of the solution of atropine in diluted alcohol had been left for hrs. were given bits of meat, and all became in hrs. fairly well inflected; so that atropine does not excite movement, and is not poisonous. i also tried in the same manner the alkaloid sold as daturine, which is believed not to differ from atropine, and it produced no effect. three of the leaves on which drops of this latter solution had been left for hrs. were likewise given bits of meat, and they had in the course of hrs. a good many of their submarginal tentacles inflected. veratrine, colchicine, theine.--solutions were made of these three alkaloids by adding one part to of water. half-minims were placed, in each case; on the discs of at least six leaves, but no inflection was caused, except perhaps a very slight amount by the theine. half-minims of a strong infusion of tea likewise produced, as formerly stated, no effect. i also tried similar drops of an infusion of one part of the extract of colchicum, sold by druggists, to of water; and the leaves were observed for hrs., without any effect being produced. the seven leaves on which drops of veratrine had been left for hrs. were given bits of meat, and after hrs. were well inflected. these three alkaloids are therefore quite innocuous. curare.--one part of this famous poison was added to of water, and three leaves were immersed in ninety minims of the filtered solution. in hrs. m. some of the tentacles were a little inflected; as was the blade of one; after hrs. after hrs. the glands were wonderfully blackened, showing that matter of some kind had been absorbed. in hrs. two of the leaves had most of their tentacles sub-inflected, but the inflection did not increase in the course of hrs. one of these leaves, after being immersed for hrs. in the solution, was placed in water, and by next morning had largely re-expanded; [page ] the other two, after their immersion for hrs., were likewise placed in water, and in hrs. were considerably re-expanded, though their glands were as black as ever. half-minims were placed on the discs of six leaves, and no inflection ensued; but after three days the glands on the discs appeared rather dry, yet to my surprise were not blackened. on another occasion drops were placed on the discs of six leaves, and a considerable amount of inflection was soon caused; but as i had not filtered the solution, floating particles may have acted on the glands. after hrs. bits of meat were placed on the discs of three of these leaves, and next day they became strongly inflected. as i at first thought that the poison might not have been dissolved in pure water, one grain was added to grains of a mixture of one part of alcohol to seven of water, and half-minims were placed on the discs of six leaves. these were not at all affected, and when after a day bits of meat were given them, they were slightly inflected in hrs., and closely after hrs. it follows from these several facts that a solution of curare induces a very moderate degree of inflection, and this may perhaps be due to the presence of a minute quantity of albumen. it certainly is not poisonous. the protoplasm in one of the leaves, which had been immersed for hrs., and which had become slightly inflected, had undergone a very slight amount of aggregation--not more than often ensues from an immersion of this length of time in water. acetate of morphia.--i tried a great number of experiments with this substance, but with no certain result. a considerable number of leaves were immersed from between hrs. and hrs. in a solution of one part to of water, and did not become inflected. nor were they poisoned; for when they were washed and placed in weak solutions of phosphate and carbonate of ammonia, they soon became strongly inflected, with the protoplasm in the cells well aggregated. if, however, whilst the leaves were immersed in the morphia, phosphate of ammonia was added, inflection did not rapidly ensue. minute drops of the solution were applied in the usual manner to the secretion round between thirty and forty glands; and when, after an interval of m:, bits of meat, a little saliva, or particles of glass, were placed on them, the movement of the tentacles was greatly retarded. but on other occasions no such retardation occurred. drops of water similarly applied never have any retarding power. minute drops of a solution of sugar of the same strength (one part to of water) sometimes retarded the subsequent action of meat and of particles of glass, and [page ] sometimes did not do so. at one time i felt convinced that morphia acted as a narcotic on drosera, but after having found in what a singular manner immersion in certain non-poisonous salts and acids prevents the subsequent action of phosphate of ammonia, whereas other solutions have no such power, my first conviction seems very doubtful. extract of hyoscyamus.--several leaves were placed, each in thirty minims of an infusion of grs. of the extract sold by druggists to oz. of water. one of them, after being immersed for hrs. m., was not inflected, and was then put into a solution ( gr. to oz.) of carbonate of ammonia; after hrs. m. it was found considerably inflected, and the glands much blackened. four of the leaves, after being immersed for hrs. m., were placed in minims of a solution ( gr. to oz.) of phosphate of ammonia; they had already become slightly inflected from the hyoscyamus, probably owing to the presence of some albuminous matter, as formerly explained, but the inflection immediately increased, and after hr. was strongly pronounced; so that hyoscyamus does not act as a narcotic or poison. poison from the fang of a living adder.--minute drops were placed on the glands of many tentacles; these were quickly inflected, just as if saliva had been given them, next morning, after hrs. m., all were beginning to re-expand, and they appeared uninjured. poison from the cobra.--dr. fayrer, well known from his investigations on the poison of this deadly snake, was so kind as to give me some in a dried state. it is an albuminous substance, and is believed to replace the ptyaline of saliva.* a minute drop (about / of a minim) of a solution of one part to of water was applied to the secretion round four glands; so that each received only about / of a grain (. mg.). the operation was repeated on four other glands; and in m. several of the eight tentacles became well inflected, and all of them in hrs. next morning, after hrs., they were still inflected, and the glands of a very pale pink colour. after an additional hrs. they were nearly re-expanded, and completely so on the succeeding day; but most of the glands remained almost white. half-minims of the same solution were placed on the discs of three leaves, so that each received / of a grain (. mg.); in *dr. fayrer, 'the thanatophidia of india,' , p. . [page ] hrs. m. the outer tentacles were much inflected; and after hrs. m. those on two of the leaves were closely inflected and the blade of one; the third leaf was only moderately affected. the leaves remained in the same state during the next day, but after hrs. re-expanded. three leaves were now immersed, each in thirty minims of the solution, so that each received / of a grain, or . mg. in m. there was some inflection, which steadily increased, so that after hrs. m. all three leaves were closely inflected; the glands were at first somewhat darkened, then rendered pale; and the protoplasm within the cells of the tentacles was partially aggregated. the little masses of protoplasm were examined after hrs., and again after hrs., and on no other occasion have i seen them undergoing such rapid changes of form. after hrs. m. the glands had become quite white; they had not secreted any great quantity of mucus. the leaves were now placed in water, and after hrs. re-expanded, showing that they were not much or at all injured. during their immersion in water the protoplasm within the cells of the tentacles was occasionally examined, and always found in strong movement. two leaves were next immersed, each in thirty minims of a much stronger solution, of one part to of water; so that each received / of a grain, or . mg; after hr. m. the sub-marginal tentacles were strongly inflected, with the glands somewhat pale; after hrs. m. both leaves had all their tentacles closely inflected and the glands white. hence the weaker solution, as in so many other cases, induced more rapid inflection than the stronger one; but the glands were sooner rendered white by the latter. after an immersion of hrs. some of the tentacles were examined, and the protoplasm, still of a fine purple colour, was found aggregated into chains of small globular masses. these changed their shapes with remarkable quickness. after an immersion of hrs. they were again examined, and their movements were so plain that they could easily be seen under a weak power. the leaves were now placed in water, and after hrs. (i.e. hrs. from their first immersion) the little masses of protoplasm, which had become of a dingy purple, were still in strong movement, changing their shapes, coalescing, and again separating. in hrs. after these two leaves had been placed in water (i.e. in hrs. after their immersion in the solution) they began to re-expand, and by the next morning were more expanded. after an additional day (i.e. on the fourth day after their immersion in the solution) they were largely, but not quite fully [page ] expanded. the tentacles were now examined, and the aggregated masses were almost wholly redissolved; the cells being filled with homogeneous purple fluid, with the exception here and there of a single globular mass. we thus see how completely the protoplasm had escaped all injury from the poison. as the glands were soon rendered quite white, it occurred to me that their texture might have been modified in such a manner as to prevent the poison passing into the cells beneath, and consequently that the protoplasm within these cells had not been at all affected. accordingly i placed another leaf, which had been immersed for hrs. in the poison and afterwards for hrs. in water, in a little solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water; in m. the protoplasm in the cells beneath the glands became darker, and in the course of hrs. the tentacles were filled down to their bases with dark-coloured spherical masses. hence the glands had not lost their power of absorption, as far as the carbonate of ammonia is concerned. from these facts it is manifest that the poison of the cobra, though so deadly to animals, is not at all poisonous to drosera; yet it causes strong and rapid inflection of the tentacles, and soon discharges all colour from the glands. it seems even to act as a stimulant to the protoplasm, for after considerable experience in observing the movements of this substance in drosera, i have never seen it on any other occasion in so active a state. i was therefore anxious to learn how this poison affected animal protoplasm; and dr. fayrer was so kind as to make some observations for me, which he has since published.* ciliated epithelium from the mouth of a frog was placed in a solution of . gramme to . cubic cm. of water; others being placed at the same time in pure water for comparison. the movements of the cilia in the solution seemed at first increased, but soon languished, and after between and minutes ceased; whilst those in the water were still acting vigorously. the white corpuscles of the blood of a frog, and the cilia on two infusorial animals, a paramaecium and volvox, were similarly affected by the poison. dr. fayrer also found that the muscle of a frog lost its irritability after an immersion of m. in the solution, not then responding to a strong electrical current. on the other hand, the movements of the cilia on the mantle of an unio were not always arrested, even when left for a consider- * 'proceedings of royal society,' feb. , . [page ] able time in a very strong solution. on the whole, it seems that the poison of the cobra acts far more injuriously on the protoplasm of the higher animals than on that of drosera. there is one other point which may be noticed. i have occasionally observed that the drops of secretion round the glands were rendered somewhat turbid by certain solutions, and more especially by some acids, a film being formed on the surfaces of the drops; but i never saw this effect produced in so conspicuous a manner as by the cobra poison. when the stronger solution was employed, the drops appeared in m. like little white rounded clouds. after hrs. the secretion was changed into threads and sheets of a membranous substance, including minute granules of various sizes. camphor.--some scraped camphor was left for a day in a bottle with distilled water, and then filtered. a solution thus made is said to contain / of its weight of camphor; it smelt and tasted of this substance. ten leaves were immersed in this solution; after m. five of them were well inflected, two showing a first trace of movement in m. and m.; the sixth leaf did not begin to move until m. had elapsed, but was fairly well inflected in m. and quite closed in m.; the seventh began to move in m., and was completely shut in m. the eighth, ninth, and tenth leaves were old and of a very dark red colour, and these were not inflected after an immersion of hrs.; so that in making experiments with camphor it is necessary to avoid such leaves. some of these leaves, on being left in the solution for hrs., became of a rather dingy pink colour, and secreted much mucus; although their tentacles were closely inflected, the protoplasm within the cells was not at all aggregated. on another occasion, however, after a longer immersion of hrs., there was well marked aggregation. a solution made by adding two drops of camphorated spirits to an ounce of water did not act on one leaf; whereas thirty minims added to an ounce of water acted on two leaves immersed together. m. vogel has shown* that the flowers of various plants do not wither so soon when their stems are placed in a solution of camphor as when in water; and that if already slightly withered, they recover more quickly. the germination of certain seeds is also accelerated by the solution. so that camphor acts as a stimulant, and it is the only known stimulant for plants. i * 'gardener's chronicle,' , p. . nearly similar observations were made in by b. s. barton. [page ] wished, therefore, to ascertain whether camphor would render the leaves of drosera more sensitive to mechanical irritation than they naturally are. six leaves were left in distilled water for m. or m., and then gently brushed twice or thrice, whilst still under water, with a soft camel-hair brush; but no movement ensued. nine leaves, which had been immersed in the above solution of camphor for the times stated in the following table, were next brushed only once with the same brush and in the same manner as before; the results are given in the table. my first trials were made by brushing the leaves whilst still immersed in the solution; but it occurred to me that the viscid secretion round the glands would thus be removed, and the camphor might act more effectually on them. in all the following trials, therefore, each leaf was taken out of the solution, waved for about s. in water, then placed in fresh water and brushed, so that the brushing would not allow the freer access of the camphor; but this treatment made no difference in the results. column : number of leaves. column : length of immersion in the solution of camphor. column : length of time between the act of brushing and the inflection of the tentacles. column : length of time between the immersion of the leaves in the solution and the first sign of the inflection of the tentacles. : m. : m. considerable inflection; m. all the tentacles except or inflected. : m. : m. : m. first sign of inflection. : m. : m. : m. s. slight inflection; m. s. plain inflection. : m. s. : m. s. : m. s. a trace of inflection; m. plain; m. strongly marked. : m. : m. : m. s. a trace of inflection; m. plain inflection. : m. s. : m. : m. s. decided inflection; m. s. strongly marked. : m. s. : m. : m. s. slight inflection; m. plain; m. well marked. : m. s. : m. : m. trace of inflection; m. considerable, m. strong inflection. : m. : m. : m. trace of inflection; m. considerable, m. strong inflection. : m. other leaves were left in the solution without being brushed; one of these first showed a trace of inflection after m.; a second after m.; five were not inflected until m. had [page ] elapsed, and two not until a few minutes later. on the other hand, it will be seen in the right-hand column of the table that most of the leaves subjected to the solution, and which were brushed, became inflected in a much shorter time. the movement of the tentacles of some of these leaves was so rapid that it could be plainly seen through a very weak lens. two or three other experiments are worth giving. a large old leaf, after being immersed for m. in the solution, did not appear likely to be soon inflected; so i brushed it, and in m. it began to move, and in m. was completely shut. another leaf, after an immersion of m., showed no signs of inflection, so was brushed, and in m. was grandly inflected. a third leaf, after an immersion of m., likewise showed no signs of inflection; it was then brushed, but did not move for hr.; so that here was a failure. it was again brushed, and now in m. a few tentacles became inflected; the failure therefore was not complete. we may conclude that a small dose of camphor in solution is a powerful stimulant to drosera. it not only soon excites the tentacles to bend, but apparently renders the glands sensitive to a touch, which by itself does not cause any movement. or it may be that a slight mechanical irritation not enough to cause any inflection yet gives some tendency to movement, and thus reinforces the action of the camphor. this latter view would have appeared to me the more probable one, had it not been shown by m. vogel that camphor is a stimulant in other ways to various plants and seeds. two plants bearing four or five leaves, and with their roots in a little cup of water, were exposed to the vapour of some bits of camphor (about as large as a filbert-nut), under a vessel holding ten fluid oz. after hrs. no inflection ensued; but the glands appeared to be secreting more copiously. the leaves were in a narcotised condition, for on bits of meat being placed on two of them, there was no inflection in hrs. m., and even after hrs. m. only a few of the outer tentacles were slightly inflected; but this degree of movement shows that the leaves had not been killed by an exposure during hrs. to the vapour of camphor. oil of caraway.--water is said to dissolve about a thousandth part of its weight of this oil. a drop was added to an ounce of water and the bottle occasionally shaken during a day; but many minute globules remained undissolved. five leaves were immersed in this mixture; in from m. to m. there was some inflection, which became moderately pronounced in two or [page ] three additional minutes. after m. all five leaves were well, and some of them closely, inflected. after hrs. the glands were white, and much mucus had been secreted. the leaves were now flaccid, of a peculiar dull-red colour, and evidently dead. one of the leaves, after an immersion of m., was brushed, like the leaves in the camphor, but this produced no effect. a plant with its roots in water was exposed under a -oz. vessel to the vapour of this oil, and in hr. m. one leaf showed a trace of inflection. after hrs. m. the cover was taken off and the leaves examined; one had all its tentacles closely inflected, the second about half in the same state; and the third all sub-inflected. the plant was left in the open air for hrs., but not a single tentacle expanded; all the glands appeared dead, except here and there one, which was still secreting. it is evident that this oil is highly exciting and poisonous to drosera. oil of cloves.--a mixture was made in the same manner as in the last case, and three leaves were immersed in it. after m. there was only a trace of inflection which never increased. after hr. m. the glands were pale, and after hrs. white. no doubt the leaves were much injured or killed. turpentine.--small drops placed on the discs of some leaves killed them, as did likewise drops of creosote. a plant was left for m. under a -oz. vessel, with its inner surface wetted with twelve drops of turpentine; but no movement of the tentacles ensued. after hrs. the plant was dead. glycerine.--half-minims were placed on the discs of three leaves: in hrs. some of the outer tentacles were irregularly inflected; and in hrs. the leaves were flaccid and apparently dead; the glands which had touched the glycerine were colourless. minute drops (about / of a minim) were applied to the glands of several tentacles, and in a few minutes these moved and soon reached the centre. similar drops of a mixture of four dropped drops to oz. of water were likewise applied to several glands; but only a few of the tentacles moved, and these very slowly and slightly. half-minims of this same mixture placed on the discs of some leaves caused, to my surprise, no inflection in the course of hrs. bits of meat were then given them, and next day they were well inflected; notwithstanding that some of the discal glands had been rendered almost colourless. two leaves were immersed in the same mixture, but only for hrs.; they were not inflected, and on being afterwards left for hrs. m. in a solution ( gr. to oz.) of carbonate of ammonia, their glands were blackened, their tentacles inflected, and the protoplasm within their cells aggregated. it appears [page ] from these facts that a mixture of four drops of glycerine to an ounce of water is not poisonous, and excites very little inflection; but that pure glycerine is poisonous, and if applied in very minute quantities to the glands of the outer tentacles causes their inflection. the effects of immersion in water and in various solutions on the subsequent action of phosphate and carbonate of ammonia.--we have seen in the third and seventh chapters that immersion in distilled water causes after a time some degree of aggregation of the protoplasm, and a moderate amount of inflection, especially in the case of plants which have been kept at a rather high temperature. water does not excite a copious secretion of mucus. we have here to consider the effects of immersion in various fluids on the subsequent action of salts of ammonia and other stimulants. four leaves which had been left for hrs. in water were given bits of meat, but did not clasp them. ten leaves, after a similar immersion, were left for hrs. in a powerful solution ( gr. to oz.) of phosphate of ammonia, and only one showed even a trace of inflection. three of these leaves, on being left for an additional day in the solution, still remained quite unaffected. when, however, some of these leaves, which had been first immersed in water for hrs., and then in the phosphate for hrs. were placed in a solution of carbonate of ammonia (one part to of water), the protoplasm in the cells of the tentacles became in a few hours strongly aggregated, showing that this salt had been absorbed and taken effect. a short immersion in water for m. did not retard the subsequent action of the phosphate, or of splinters of glass placed on the glands; but in two instances an immersion for m. prevented any effect from a solution of camphor. several leaves which had been left for m. in a solution of one part of white sugar to of water were placed in the phosphate solution, the action of which was delayed; whereas a mixed solution of sugar and the phosphate did not in the least interfere with the effects of the latter. three leaves, after being immersed for m. in the sugar solution, were placed in a solution of carbonate of ammonia (one part to of water); in m. or m. the glands were blackened, and after m. the tentacles were considerably inflected, so that the solution of sugar, though it delayed the action of the phosphate, did not delay that of the carbonate. immersion in a similar solution of gum arabic for m. had no retarding action on the phosphate. three leaves were left for m. in a mixture of one part of alcohol to seven parts of water, [page ] and then placed in the phosphate solution: in hrs. m. there was a trace of inflection in one leaf, and in hrs. m. a second was slightly affected; the inflection subsequently increased, though slowly. hence diluted alcohol, which, as we shall see, is hardly at all poisonous, plainly retards the subsequent action of the phosphate. it was shown in the last chapter that leaves which did not become inflected by nearly a day's immersion in solutions of various salts and acids behaved very differently from one another when subsequently placed in the phosphate solution. i here give a table summing up the results. column : name of the salts and acids in solution. column : period of immersion of the leaves in solutions of one part to of water. column : effects produced on the leaves by their subsequent immersion for stated periods in a solution of one part of phosphate of ammonia to of water, or gr. to oz. rubidium chloride. : hrs. : after m. strong inflection of the tentacles. potassium carbonate : m. : scarcely any inflection until hrs. had elapsed. calcium acetate. : hrs. : after hrs. very slight inflection. calcium nitrate. : hrs. : do. do. magnesium acetate. : hrs. : some slight inflection, which became well pronounced in hrs. magnesium nitrate. : hrs. : after hrs. m. a fair amount of inflection, which never increased. magnesium chloride : hrs. : after a few minutes great inflection; after hrs. all four leaves with almost every tentacle closely inflected. barium acetate. : hrs. : after hrs. two leaves out of four slightly inflected. barium nitrate. : hrs. : after m. one leaf greatly, and two others moderately, inflected; they remained thus for hrs. strontium acetate. : hrs. : after m. two leaves greatly inflected; after hrs. a third leaf moderately, and the fourth very slightly, inflected. all four thus remained for hrs. strontium nitrate. : hrs. : after hrs. three leaves out of five moderately inflected; after hrs. all five in this state; but not one closely inflected. aluminium chloride : hrs. : three leaves which had either been slightly or not at all affected by the chloride became after hrs. m. rather closely inflected. [page ] column : name of the salts and acids in solution. column : period of immersion of the leaves in solutions of one part to of water. column : effects produced on the leaves by their subsequent immersion for stated periods in a solution of one part of phosphate of ammonia to of water, or gr. to oz. aluminium nitrate. : hrs. : after hrs. slight and doubtful effect. lead chloride. : hrs. : after hrs. two leaves somewhat inflected, the third very little; and thus remained. manganese chloride : hrs. : after hrs. not the least inflection. lactic acid. : hrs. : after hrs. a trace of inflection in a few tentacles, the glands of which had not been killed by the acid. tannic acid. : hrs. : after hrs. no inflection. tartaric acid. : hrs. : do. do. citric acid. : hrs. : after m. tentacles decidedly inflected, and after hrs. strongly inflected; so remained for the next hrs. formic acid. : hrs. : not observed until hrs. had elapsed; tentacles considerably inflected, and protoplasm aggregated. in a large majority of these twenty cases, a varying degree of inflection was slowly caused by the phosphate. in four cases, however, the inflection was rapid, occurring in less than half an hour or at most in m. in three cases the phosphate did not produce the least effect. now what are we to infer from these facts? we know from ten trials that immersion in distilled water for hrs. prevents the subsequent action of the phosphate solution. it would, therefore, appear as if the solutions of chloride of manganese, tannic and tartaric acids, which are not poisonous, acted exactly like water, for the phosphate produced no effect on the leaves which had been previously immersed in these three solutions. the majority of the other solutions behaved to a certain extent like water, for the phosphate produced, after a considerable interval of time, only a slight effect. on the other hand, the leaves which had been immersed in the solutions of the chloride of rubidium and magnesium, of acetate of strontium, nitrate of barium, and citric acid, were quickly acted on by the phosphate. now was water absorbed from these five weak solutions, and yet, owing to the presence of the salts, did not prevent the subsequent action of the phosphate? or [page ] may we not suppose* that the interstices of the walls of the glands were blocked up with the molecules of these five substances, so that they were rendered impermeable to water; for had water entered, we know from the ten trials that the phosphate would not afterwards have produced any effect? it further appears that the molecules of the carbonate of ammonia can quickly pass into glands which, from having been immersed for m. in a weak solution of sugar, either absorb the phosphate very slowly or are acted on by it very slowly. on the other hand, glands, however they may have been treated, seem easily to permit the subsequent entrance of the molecules of carbonate of ammonia. thus leaves which had been immersed in a solution (of one part to of water) of nitrate of potassium for hrs.--of sulphate of potassium for hrs.--and of the chloride of potassium for hrs.--on being placed in a solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water, had their glands immediately blackened, and after hr. their tentacles somewhat inflected, and the protoplasm aggregated. but it would be an endless task to endeavour to ascertain the wonderfully diversified effects of various solutions on drosera. alcohol (one part to seven of water).--it has already been shown that half-minims of this strength placed on the discs of leaves do not cause any inflection; and that when two days afterwards the leaves were given bits of meat, they became strongly inflected. four leaves were immersed in this mixture, and two of them after m. were brushed with a camel-hair brush, like the leaves in the solution of camphor, but this produced no effect. * see dr. m. traube's curious experiments on the production of artificial cells, and on their permeability to various salts, described in his papers: "experimente zur theorie der zellenbildung und endosmose," breslau, ; and "experimente zur physicalischen erklrung der bildung der zellhaut, ihres wachsthums durch intussusception," breslau, . these researches perhaps explain my results. dr. traube commonly employed as a membrane the precipitate formed when tannic acid comes into contact with a solution of gelatine. by allowing a precipitation of sulphate of barium to take place at the same time, the membrane becomes "infiltrated" with this salt; and in consequence of the intercalation of molecules of sulphate of barium among those of the gelatine precipitate, the molecular interstices in the membrane are made smaller. in this altered condition, the membrane no longer allows the passage through it of either sulphate of ammonia or nitrate of barium, though it retains its permeability for water and chloride of ammonia. [page ] nor did these four leaves, on being left for hrs. in the diluted alcohol, undergo any inflection. they were then removed; one being placed in an infusion of raw meat, and bits of meat on the discs of the other three, with their stalks in water. next day one seemed a little injured, whilst two others showed merely a trace of inflection. we must, however, bear in mind that immersion for hrs. in water prevents leaves from clasping meat. hence alcohol of the above strength is not poisonous, nor does it stimulate the leaves like camphor does. the vapour of alcohol acts differently. a plant having three good leaves was left for m. under a receiver holding oz. with sixty minims of alcohol in a watch-glass. no movement ensued, but some few of the glands were blackened and shrivelled, whilst many became quite pale. these were scattered over all the leaves in the most irregular manner, reminding me of the manner in which the glands were affected by the vapour of carbonate of ammonia. immediately on the removal of the receiver particles of raw meat were placed on many of the glands, those which retained their proper colour being chiefly selected. but not a single tentacle was inflected during the next hrs. after the first hrs. the glands on all the tentacles began to dry; and next morning, after hrs., all three leaves appeared almost dead, with their glands dry; the tentacles on one leaf alone being partially inflected. a second plant was left for only m. with some alcohol in a watch-glass, under a -oz. receiver, and particles of meat were then placed on the glands of several tentacles. after m. some of them began to curve inwards, and after m. nearly all were considerably inflected; but a few did not move. some anaesthetic effect is here probable, but by no means certain. a third plant was also left for m. under the same small vessel, with its whole inner surface wetted with about a dozen drops of alcohol. particles of meat were now placed on the glands of several tentacles, some of which first began to move in m.; after m. most of them were somewhat inflected, and after hr. m. almost all were considerably inflected. from their slow rate of movement there can be no doubt that the glands of these tentacles had been rendered insensible for a time by exposure during m. to the vapour of alcohol. vapour of chloroform.--the action of this vapour on drosera is very variable, depending, i suppose, on the constitution or age of the plant, or on some unknown condition. it sometimes causes the tentacles to move with extraordinary rapidity, and sometimes produces no such effect. the glands are sometimes [page ] rendered for a time insensible to the action of raw meat, but sometimes are not thus affected, or in a very slight degree. a plant recovers from a small dose, but is easily killed by a larger one. a plant was left for m. under a bell-glass holding fluid oz. ( . ml.) with eight drops of chloroform, and before the cover was removed, most of the tentacles became much inflected, though they did not reach the centre. after the cover was removed, bits of meat were placed on the glands of several of the somewhat incurved tentacles; these glands were found much blackened after hrs. m., but no further movement ensued. after hrs. the leaves appeared almost dead. a smaller bell-glass, holding fluid oz. ( . ml.), was now employed, and a plant was left for s. under it, with only two drops of chloroform. immediately on the removal of the glass all the tentacles curved inwards so as to stand perpendicularly up; and some of them could actually be seen moving with extraordinary quickness by little starts, and therefore in an unnatural manner; but they never reached the centre. after hrs. they fully re-expanded, and on meat being placed on their glands, or when roughly touched by a needle, they promptly became inflected; so that these leaves had not been in the least injured. another plant was placed under the same small bell-glass with three drops of chloroform, and before two minutes had elapsed, the tentacles began to curl inwards with rapid little jerks. the glass was then removed, and in the course of two or three additional minutes almost every tentacle reached the centre. on several other occasions the vapour did not excite any movement of this kind. there seems also to be great variability in the degree and manner in which chloroform renders the glands insensible to the subsequent action of meat. in the plant last referred to, which had been exposed for m. to three drops of chloroform, some few tentacles curved up only to a perpendicular position, and particles of meat were placed on their glands; this caused them in m. to begin moving, but they moved so slowly that they did not reach the centre until hr. m. had elapsed. another plant was similarly exposed, that is, for m. to three drops of chloroform, and on particles of meat being placed on the glands of several tentacles, which had curved up into a perpendicular position, one of these began to bend in m., but afterwards moved very slowly; whilst none of the other tentacles [page ] moved for the next m. nevertheless, in hr. m. from the time when the bits of meat had been given, all the tentacles reached the centre. in this case some slight anaesthetic effect apparently had been produced. on the following day the plant had perfectly recovered. another plant bearing two leaves was exposed for m. under the -oz. vessel to two drops of chloroform; it was then taken out and examined; again exposed for m. to two drops; taken out, and re-exposed for m. to three drops; so that altogether it was exposed alternately to the air and during m. to the vapour of seven drops of chloroform. bits of meat were now placed on thirteen glands on the two leaves. on one of these leaves, a single tentacle first began moving in m., and two others in m. on the second leaf some tentacles first moved in hr. m. after hrs. many tentacles on both leaves were inflected; but none had reached the centre within this time. in this case there could not be the least doubt that the chloroform had exerted an anaesthetic influence on the leaves. on the other hand, another plant was exposed under the same vessel for a much longer time, viz. m., to twice as much chloroform. bits of meat were then placed on the glands of many tentacles, and all of them, with a single exception, reached the centre in from m. to m. in this case, little or no anaesthetic effect had been produced; and how to reconcile these discordant results, i know not. vapour of sulphuric ether.--a plant was exposed for m. to thirty minims of this ether in a vessel holding oz.; and bits of raw meat were afterwards placed on many glands which had become pale-coloured; but none of the tentacles moved. after hrs. m. the leaves appeared sickly, and the discal glands were almost dry. by the next morning many of the tentacles were dead, as were all those on which meat had been placed; showing that matter had been absorbed from the meat which had increased the evil effects of the vapour. after four days the plant itself died. another plant was exposed in the same vessel for m. to forty minims. one young, small, and tender leaf had all its tentacles inflected, and seemed much injured. bits of raw meat were placed on several glands on two other and older leaves. these glands became dry after hrs.; and seemed injured; the tentacles never moved, excepting one which was ultimately a little inflected. the glands of the other tentacles continued to secrete, and appeared uninjured, but the whole plant after three days became very sickly. [page ] in the two foregoing experiments the doses were evidently too large and poisonous. with weaker doses, the anaesthetic effect was variable, as in the case of chloroform. a plant was exposed for m. to ten drops under a -oz. vessel, and bits of meat were then placed on many glands. none of the tentacles thus treated began to move in a decided manner until m. had elapsed; but then some of them moved very quickly, so that two reached the centre after an additional interval of only m. in hrs. m. from the time when the meat was given, all the tentacles reached the centre. another plant, with two leaves, was exposed in the same vessel for m. to a rather larger dose of ether, and bits of meat were placed on several glands. in this case one tentacle on each leaf began to bend in m.; and after m. two tentacles on one leaf, and one on the second leaf, reached the centre. in m. after the meat had been given, all the tentacles, both those with and without meat, were closely inflected; so that the ether apparently had stimulated these leaves, causing all the tentacles to bend. vapour of nitric ether.--this vapour seems more injurious than that of sulphuric ether. a plant was exposed for m. in a -oz. vessel to eight drops in a watch-glass, and i distinctly saw a few tentacles curling inwards before the glass was removed. immediately afterwards bits of meat were placed on three glands, but no movement ensued in the course of m. the same plant was placed again under the same vessel for m. with ten drops of the ether. none of the tentacles moved, and next morning those with the meat were still in the same position. after hrs. one leaf seemed healthy, but the others were much injured. another plant, having two good leaves, was exposed for m. under a -oz. vessel to the vapour from ten minims of the ether, and bits of meat were then placed on the glands of many tentacles on both leaves. after m. several of them on one leaf became inflected, and after hr. almost all the tentacles, those with and without meat, nearly reached the centre. on the other leaf the glands began to dry in hr. m., and after several hours not a single tentacle was inflected; but by the next morning, after hrs., many were inflected, though they seemed much injured. in this and the previous experiment, it is doubtful, owing to the injury which the leaves had suffered, whether any anaesthetic effect had been produced. a third plant, having two good leaves, was exposed for only m. in the -oz. vessel to the vapour from six drops. bits of meat were then placed on the glands of seven tentacles on the [page ] same leaf. a single tentacle moved after hr. m.; after hrs. m. several were inflected; and after hrs. m. all the seven tentacles with meat were well inflected. from the slowness of these movements it is clear that this leaf had been rendered insensible for a time to the action of the meat. a second leaf was rather differently affected; bits of meat were placed on the glands of five tentacles, three of which were slightly inflected in m.; after hr. m. one reached the centre, but the other two were still only slightly inflected; after hrs. they were much more inflected; but even after hrs. m. all five had not reached the centre. although some of the tentacles began to move moderately soon, they afterwards moved with extreme slowness. by next morning, after hrs., most of the tentacles on both leaves were closely inflected, but not quite regularly. after hrs. neither leaf appeared injured, though the tentacles were still inflected; after hrs. one was almost dead, whilst the other was re-expanding and recovering. carbonic acid.--a plant was placed under a -oz. bell-glass filled with this gas and standing over water; but i did not make sufficient allowance for the absorption of the gas by the water, so that towards the latter part of the experiment some air was drawn in. after an exposure of hrs. the plant was removed, and bits of raw meat placed on the glands of three leaves. one of these leaves hung a little down, and was at first partly and soon afterwards completely covered by the water, which rose within the vessel as the gas was absorbed. on this latter leaf the tentacles, to which meat had been given, became well inflected in m. s., that is, at about the normal rate; so that until i remembered that the leaf had been protected from the gas, and might perhaps have absorbed oxygen from the water which was continually drawn inwards, i falsely concluded that the carbonic acid had produced no effect. on the other two leaves, the tentacles with meat behaved very differently from those on the first leaf; two of them first began to move slightly in hr. m., always reckoning from the time when the meat was placed on the glands--were plainly inflected in hrs. m.--and in hrs m. reached the centre. three other tentacles did not begin to move until hrs. m. had elapsed, but reached the centre at about the same time with the others, viz. in hrs. m. this experiment was repeated several times with nearly the same results, excepting that the interval before the tentacles began to move varied a little. i will give only one other case. [page ] a plant was exposed in the same vessel to the gas for m., and bits of meat were then placed on four glands. but the tentacles did not move for hr. m.; after hrs. m. all four were well inflected, and after hrs. reached the centre. the following singular phenomenon sometimes, but by no means always, occurred. a plant was immersed for hrs., and bits of meat were then placed on several glands. in the course of m. all the submarginal tentacles on one leaf became considerably inflected; those with the meat not in the least degree more than the others. on a second leaf, which was rather old, the tentacles with meat, as well as a few others, were moderately inflected. on a third leaf all the tentacles were closely inflected, though meat had not been placed on any of the glands. this movement, i presume, may be attributed to excitement from the absorption of oxygen. the last-mentioned leaf, to which no meat had been given, was fully re-expanded after hrs.; whereas the two other leaves had all their tentacles closely inflected over the bits of meat which by this time had been carried to their centres. thus these three leaves had perfectly recovered from the effects of the gas in the course of hrs. on another occasion some fine plants, after having been left for hrs. in the gas, were immediately given bits of meat in the usual manner, and on their exposure to the air most of their tentacles became in m. curved into a vertical or sub-vertical position, but in an extremely irregular manner; some only on one side of the leaf and some on the other. they remained in this position for some time; the tentacles with the bits of meat not having at first moved more quickly or farther inwards than the others without meat. but after hrs. m. the former began to move, and steadily went on bending until they reached the centre. next morning, after hrs., all the tentacles on these leaves were closely clasped over the meat which had been carried to their centres; whilst the vertical and sub-vertical tentacles on the other leaves to which no meat had been given had fully re-expanded. judging, however, from the subsequent action of a weak solution of carbonate of ammonia on one of these latter leaves, it had not perfectly recovered its excitability and power of movement in hrs.; but another leaf, after an additional hrs., had completely recovered, judging from the manner in which it clasped a fly placed on its disc. i will give only one other experiment. after the exposure of a plant for hrs. to the gas, one of its leaves was immersed in a rather strong solution of carbonate of ammonia, together with [page ] a fresh leaf from another plant. the latter had most of its tentacles strongly inflected within m.; whereas the leaf which had been exposed to the carbonic acid remained for hrs. in the solution without undergoing any inflection, with the exception of two tentacles. this leaf had been almost completely paralysed, and was not able to recover its sensibility whilst still in the solution, which from having been made with distilled water probably contained little oxygen.] concluding remarks on the effects of the foregoing agents.--as the glands, when excited, transmit some influence to the surrounding tentacles, causing them to bend and their glands to pour forth an increased amount of modified secretion, i was anxious to ascertain whether the leaves included any element having the nature of nerve-tissue, which, though not continuous, served as the channel of transmission. this led me to try the several alkaloids and other substances which are known to exert a powerful influence on the nervous system of animals; i was at first encouraged in my trials by finding that strychnine, digitaline, and nicotine, which all act on the nervous system, were poisonous to drosera, and caused a certain amount of inflection. hydrocyanic acid, again, which is so deadly a poison to animals, caused rapid movement of the tentacles. but as several innocuous acids, though much diluted, such as benzoic, acetic, &c., as well as some essential oils, are extremely poisonous to drosera, and quickly cause strong inflection, it seems probable that strychnine, nicotine, digitaline, and hydrocyanic acid, excite inflection by acting on elements in no way analogous to the nerve-cells of animals. if elements of this latter nature had been present in the leaves, it might have been expected that morphia, hyoscyamus, atropine, veratrine, colchicine, curare, and diluted alcohol would have produced some marked effect; whereas [page ] these substances are not poisonous and have no power, or only a very slight one, of inducing inflection. it should, however, be observed that curare, colchicine, and veratrine are muscle-poisons--that is, act on nerves having some special relation with the muscles, and, therefore, could not be expected to act on drosera. the poison of the cobra is most deadly to animals, by paralysing their nerve-centres,* yet is not in the least so to drosera, though quickly causing strong inflection. notwithstanding the foregoing facts, which show how widely different is the effect of certain substances on the health or life of animals and of drosera, yet there exists a certain degree of parallelism in the action of certain other substances. we have seen that this holds good in a striking manner with the salts of sodium and potassium. again, various metallic salts and acids, namely those of silver, mercury, gold, tin, arsenic, chromium, copper, and platina, most or all of which are highly poisonous to animals, are equally so to drosera. but it is a singular fact that the chloride of lead and two salts of barium were not poisonous to this plant. it is an equally strange fact, that, though acetic and propionic acids are highly poisonous, their ally, formic acid, is not so; and that, whilst certain vegetable acids, namely oxalic, benzoic, &c., are poisonous in a high degree, gallic, tannic, tartaric, and malic (all diluted to an equal degree) are not so. malic acid induces inflection, whilst the three other just named vegetable acids have no such power. but a pharmacopoeia would be requisite to describe the diversified effects of various substances on drosera. * dr. fayrer, 'the thanatophidia of india,' , p. . seeing that acetic, hydrocyanic, and chromic acids, acetate of strychnine, and vapour of ether, are poisonous to drosera, [[page ]] it is remarkable that dr. ransom (' philosoph. transact.' , p. ), who used much stronger solutions of these substances than i did, states "that the rhythmic contractility of the yolk (of the ova of the pike) is not materially influenced by any of the poisons used, which did not act chemically, with the exception of chloroform and carbonic acid." i find it stated by several writers that curare has no influence on sarcode or protoplasm, and we have seen that, though curare excites some degree of inflection, it causes very little aggregation of the protoplasm.) [page ] of the alkaloids and their salts which were tried, several had not the least power of inducing inflection; others, which were certainly absorbed, as shown by the changed colour of the glands, had but a very moderate power of this kind; others, again, such as the acetate of quinine and digitaline, caused strong inflection. the several substances mentioned in this chapter affect the colour of the glands very differently. these often become dark at first, and then very pale or white, as was conspicuously the case with glands subjected to the poison of the cobra and citrate of strychnine. in other cases they are from the first rendered white, as with leaves placed in hot water and several acids; and this, i presume, is the result of the coagulation of the albumen. on the same leaf some glands become white and others dark-coloured, as occurred with leaves in a solution of the sulphate of quinine, and in the vapour of alcohol. prolonged immersion in nicotine, curare, and even water, blackens the glands; and this, i believe, is due to the aggregation of the protoplasm within their cells. yet curare caused very little aggregation in the cells of the tentacles, whereas nicotine and sulphate of quinine induced strongly marked aggregation down their bases. the aggregated masses in leaves which had been immersed for hrs. m. in a saturated solution of sulphate of quinine exhibited incessant [page ] changes of form, but after hrs. were motionless; the leaf being flaccid and apparently dead. on the other hand, with leaves subjected for hrs. to a strong solution of the poison of the cobra, the protoplasmic masses were unusually active, whilst with the higher animals the vibratile cilia and white corpuscles of the blood seem to be quickly paralysed by this substance. with the salts of alkalies and earths, the nature of the base, and not that of the acid, determines their physiological action on drosera, as is likewise the case with animals; but this rule hardly applies to the salts of quinine and strychnine, for the acetate of quinine causes much more inflection than the sulphate, and both are poisonous, whereas the nitrate of quinine is not poisonous, and induces inflection at a much slower rate than the acetate. the action of the citrate of strychnine is also somewhat different from that of the sulphate. leaves which have been immersed for hrs. in water, and for only m. in diluted alcohol, or in a weak solution of sugar, are afterwards acted on very slowly, or not at all, by the phosphate of ammonia, though they are quickly acted on by the carbonate. immersion for m. in a solution of gum arabic has no such inhibitory power. the solutions of certain salts and acids affect the leaves, with respect to the subsequent action of the phosphate, exactly like water, whilst others allow the phosphate afterwards to act quickly and energetically. in this latter case, the interstices of the cell-walls may have been blocked up by the molecules of the salts first given in solution, so that water could not afterwards enter, though the molecules of the phosphate could do so, and those of the carbonate still more easily. [page ] the action of camphor dissolved in water is remarkable, for it not only soon induces inflection, but apparently renders the glands extremely sensitive to mechanical irritation; for if they are brushed with a soft brush, after being immersed in the solution for a short time, the tentacles begin to bend in about m. it may, however, be that the brushing, though not a sufficient stimulus by itself, tends to excite movement merely by reinforcing the direct action of the camphor. the vapour of camphor, on the other hand, serves as a narcotic. some essential oils, both in solution and in vapour, cause rapid inflection, others have no such power; those which i tried were all poisonous. diluted alcohol (one part to seven of water) is not poisonous, does not induce inflection, nor increase the sensitiveness of the glands to mechanical irritation. the vapour acts as a narcotic or anaesthetic, and long exposure to it kills the leaves. the vapours of chloroform, sulphuric and nitric ether, act in a singularly variable manner on different leaves, and on the several tentacles of the same leaf. this, i suppose, is owing to differences in the age or constitution of the leaves, and to whether certain tentacles have lately been in action. that these vapours are absorbed by the glands is shown by their changed colour; but as other plants not furnished with glands are affected by these vapours, it is probable that they are likewise absorbed by the stomata of drosera. they sometimes excite extraordinarily rapid inflection, but this is not an invariable result. if allowed to act for even a moderately long time, they kill the leaves; whilst a small dose acting for only a short time serves as a narcotic or anaesthetic. in this case the tentacles, whether or not they have [page ] become inflected, are not excited to further movement by bits of meat placed on the glands, until some considerable time has elapsed. it is generally believed that with animals and plants these vapours act by arresting oxidation. exposure to carbonic acid for hrs., and in one case for only m., likewise rendered the glands insensible for a time to the powerful stimulus of raw meat. the leaves, however, recovered their full powers, and did not seem in the least injured, on being left in the air for or hrs. we have seen in the third chapter that the process of aggregation in leaves subjected for two hours to this gas and then immersed in a solution of the carbonate of ammonia is much retarded, so that a considerable time elapses before the protoplasm in the lower cells of the tentacles becomes aggregated. in some cases, soon after the leaves were removed from the gas and brought into the air, the tentacles moved spontaneously; this being due, i presume, to the excitement from the access of oxygen. these inflected tentacles, however, could not be excited for some time afterwards to any further movement by their glands being stimulated. with other irritable plants it is known* that the exclusion of oxygen prevents their moving, and arrests the movements of the protoplasm within their cells, but this arrest is a different phenomenon from the retardation of the process of aggregation just alluded to. whether this latter fact ought to be attributed to the direct action of the carbonic acid, or to the exclusion of oxygen, i know not. * sachs, 'trait de bot.' , pp. , . [page ] chapter x. on the sensitiveness of the leaves, and on the lines of transmission of the motor impulse. glands and summits of the tentacles alone sensitive--transmission of the motor impulse down the pedicels of the tentacles, and across the blade of the leaf--aggregation of the protoplasm, a reflex action--first discharge of the motor impulse sudden--direction of the movements of the tentacles--motor impulse transmitted through the cellular tissue-- mechanism of the movements--nature of the motor impulse--re-expansion of the tentacles. we have seen in the previous chapters that many widely different stimulants, mechanical and chemical, excite the movement of the tentacles, as well as of the blade of the leaf; and we must now consider, firstly, what are the points which are irritable or sensitive, and secondly how the motor impulse is transmitted from one point to another. the glands are almost exclusively the seat of irritability, yet this irritability must extend for a very short distance below them; for when they were cut off with a sharp pair of scissors without being themselves touched, the tentacles often became inflected. these headless tentacles frequently re-expanded; and when afterwards drops of the two most powerful known stimulants were placed on the cut-off ends, no effect was produced. nevertheless these headless tentacles are capable of subsequent inflection if excited by an impulse sent from the disc. i succeeded on several occasions in crushing glands between fine pincers, but this did not excite any movement; nor did raw meat and salts of ammonia, when placed on such crushed glands. [page ] it is probable that they were killed so instantly that they were not able to transmit any motor impulse; for in six observed cases (in two of which however the gland was quite pinched off) the protoplasm within the cells of the tentacles did not become aggregated; whereas in some adjoining tentacles, which were inflected from having been roughly touched by the pincers, it was well aggregated. in like manner the protoplasm does not become aggregated when a leaf is instantly killed by being dipped into boiling water. on the other hand, in several cases in which tentacles became inflected after their glands had been cut off with sharp scissors, a distinct though moderate degree of aggregation supervened. the pedicels of the tentacles were roughly and repeatedly rubbed; raw meat or other exciting substances were placed on them, both on the upper surface near the base and elsewhere, but no distinct movement ensued. some bits of meat, after being left for a considerable time on the pedicels, were pushed upwards, so as just to touch the glands, and in a minute the tentacles began to bend. i believe that the blade of the leaf is not sensitive to any stimulant. i drove the point of a lancet through the blades of several leaves, and a needle three or four times through nineteen leaves: in the former case no movement ensued; but about a dozen of the leaves which were repeatedly pricked had a few tentacles irregularly inflected. as, however, their backs had to be supported during the operation, some of the outer glands, as well as those on the disc, may have been touched; and this perhaps sufficed to cause the slight degree of movement observed. nitschke*says * 'bot. zeitung,' , p. . [page ] that cutting and pricking the leaf does not excite movement. the petiole of the leaf is quite insensible. the backs of the leaves bear numerous minute papillae, which do not secrete, but have the power of absorption. these papillae are, i believe, rudiments of formerly existing tentacles together with their glands. many experiments were made to ascertain whether the backs of the leaves could be irritated in any way, thirty-seven leaves being thus tried. some were rubbed for a long time with a blunt needle, and drops of milk and other exciting fluids, raw meat, crushed flies, and various substances, placed on others. these substances were apt soon to become dry, showing that no secretion had been excited. hence i moistened them with saliva, solutions of ammonia, weak hydrochloric acid, and frequently with the secretion from the glands of other leaves. i also kept some leaves, on the backs of which exciting objects had been placed, under a damp bell-glass; but with all my care i never saw any true movement. i was led to make so many trials because, contrary to my previous experience, nitschke states* that, after affixing objects to the backs of leaves by the aid of the viscid secretion, he repeatedly saw the tentacles (and in one instance the blade) become reflexed. this movement, if a true one, would be most anomalous; for it implies that the tentacles receive a motor impulse from an unnatural source, and have the power of bending in a direction exactly the reverse of that which is habitual to them; this power not being of the least use to the plant, as insects cannot adhere to the smooth backs of the leaves. i have said that no effect was produced in the above * 'bot. zeitung.' , p. . [page ] cases; but this is not strictly true, for in three instances a little syrup was added to the bits of raw meat on the backs of leaves, in order to keep them damp for a time; and after hrs. there was a trace of reflexion in the tentacles of one leaf, and certainly in the blade of another. after twelve additional hours, the glands began to dry, and all three leaves seemed much injured. four leaves were then placed under a bell-glass, with their footstalks in water, with drops of syrup on their backs, but without any meat. two of these leaves, after a day, had a few tentacles reflexed. the drops had now increased considerably in size, from having imbibed moisture, so as to trickle down the backs of the tentacles and footstalks. on the second day, one leaf had its blade much reflexed; on the third day the tentacles of two were much reflexed, as well as the blades of all four to a greater or less degree. the upper side of one leaf, instead of being, as at first, slightly concave, now presented a strong convexity upwards. even on the fifth day the leaves did not appear dead. now, as sugar does not in the least excite drosera, we may safely attribute the reflexion of the blades and tentacles of the above leaves to exosmose from the cells which were in contact with the syrup, and their consequent contraction. when drops of syrup are placed on the leaves of plants with their roots still in damp earth, no inflection ensues, for the roots, no doubt, pump up water as quickly as it is lost by exosmose. but if cut-off leaves are immersed in syrup, or in any dense fluid, the tentacles are greatly, though irregularly, inflected, some of them assuming the shape of corkscrews; and the leaves soon become flaccid. if they are now immersed in a fluid of low specific gravity, the tentacles re-expand. from these [page ] facts we may conclude that drops of syrup placed on the backs of leaves do not act by exciting a motor impulse which is transmitted to the tentacles; but that they cause reflexion by inducing exosmose. dr. nitschke used the secretion for sticking insects to the backs of the leaves; and i suppose that he used a large quantity, which from being dense probably caused exosmose. perhaps he experimented on cut-off leaves, or on plants with their roots not supplied with enough water. as far, therefore, as our present knowledge serves, we may conclude that the glands, together with the immediately underlying cells of the tentacles, are the exclusive seats of that irritability or sensitiveness with which the leaves are endowed. the degree to which a gland is excited can be measured only by the number of the surrounding tentacles which are inflected, and by the amount and rate of their movement. equally vigorous leaves, exposed to the same temperature (and this is an important condition), are excited in different degrees under the following circumstances. a minute quantity of a weak solution produces no effect; add more, or give a rather stronger solution, and the tentacles bend. touch a gland once or twice, and no movement follows; touch it three or four times, and the tentacle becomes inflected. but the nature of the substance which is given is a very important element: if equal-sized particles of glass (which acts only mechanically), of gelatine, and raw meat, are placed on the discs of several leaves, the meat causes far more rapid, energetic, and widely extended movement than the two former substances. the number of glands which are excited also makes a great difference in the result: place a bit of meat on one or two of the discal [page ] glands, and only a few of the immediately surrounding short tentacles are inflected; place it on several glands, and many more are acted on; place it on thirty or forty, and all the tentacles, including the extreme marginal ones, become closely inflected. we thus see that the impulses proceeding from a number of glands strengthen one another, spread farther, and act on a larger number of tentacles, than the impulse from any single gland. transmission of the motor impulse.--in every case the impulse from a gland has to travel for at least a short distance to the basal part of the tentacle, the upper part and the gland itself being merely carried by the inflection of the lower part. the impulse is thus always transmitted down nearly the whole length of the pedicel. when the central glands are stimulated, and the extreme marginal tentacles become inflected, the impulse is transmitted across half the diameter of the disc; and when the glands on one side of the disc are stimulated, the impulse is transmitted across nearly the whole width of the disc. a gland transmits its motor impulse far more easily and quickly down its own tentacle to the bending place than across the disc to neighbouring tentacles. thus a minute dose of a very weak solution of ammonia, if given to one of the glands of the exterior tentacles, causes it to bend and reach the centre; whereas a large drop of the same solution, given to a score of glands on the disc, will not cause through their combined influence the least inflection of the exterior tentacles. again, when a bit of meat is placed on the gland of an exterior tentacle, i have seen movement in ten seconds, and repeatedly within a minute; but a much larger bit placed on several glands on the disc does not cause [page ] the exterior tentacles to bend until half an hour or even several hours have elapsed. the motor impulse spreads gradually on all sides from one or more excited glands, so that the tentacles which stand nearest are always first affected. hence, when the glands in the centre of the disc are excited, the extreme marginal tentacles are the last inflected. but the glands on different parts of the leaf transmit their motor power in a somewhat different manner. if a bit of meat be placed on the long-headed gland of a marginal tentacle, it quickly transmits an impulse to its own bending portion; but never, as far as i have observed, to the adjoining tentacles; for these are not affected until the meat has been carried to the central glands, which then radiate forth their conjoint impulse on all sides. on four occasions leaves were prepared by removing some days previously all the glands from the centre, so that these could not be excited by the bits of meat brought to them by the inflection of the marginal tentacles; and now these marginal tentacles re-expanded after a time without any other tentacle being affected. other leaves were similarly prepared, and bits of meat were placed on the glands of two tentacles in the third row from the outside, and on the glands of two tentacles in the fifth row. in these four cases the impulse was sent in the first place laterally, that is, in the same concentric row of tentacles, and then towards the centre; but not centrifugally, or towards the exterior tentacles. in one of these cases only a single tentacle on each side of the one with meat was affected. in the three other cases, from half a dozen to a dozen tentacles, both laterally and towards the centre, were well inflected or sub-inflected. lastly, in [page ] ten other experiments, minute bits of meat were placed on a single gland or on two glands in the centre of the disc. in order that no other glands should touch the meat, through the inflection of the closely adjoining short tentacles, about half a dozen glands had been previously removed round the selected ones. on eight of these leaves from sixteen to twenty-five of the short surrounding tentacles were inflected in the course of one or two days; so that the motor impulse radiating from one or two of the discal glands is able to produce this much effect. the tentacles which had been removed are included in the above numbers; for, from standing so close, they would certainly have been affected. on the two remaining leaves, almost all the short tentacles on the disc were inflected. with a more powerful stimulus than meat, namely a little phosphate of lime moistened with saliva, i have seen the inflection spread still farther from a single gland thus treated; but even in this case the three or four outer rows of tentacles were not affected. from these experiments it appears that the impulse from a single gland on the disc acts on a greater number of tentacles than that from a gland of one of the exterior elongated tentacles; and this probably follows, at least in part, from the impulse having to travel a very short distance down the pedicels of the central tentacles, so that it is able to spread to a considerable distance all round. whilst examining these leaves, i was struck with the fact that in six, perhaps seven, of them the tentacles were much more inflected at the distal and proximal ends of the leaf (i.e. towards the apex and base) than on either side; and yet the tentacles on the sides stood as near to the gland where the bit of meat lay as did those at the two ends. it thus appeared as [page ] if the motor impulse was transmitted from the centre across the disc more readily in a longitudinal than in a transverse direction; and as this appeared a new and interesting fact in the physiology of plants, thirty-five fresh experiments were made to test its truth. minute bits of meat were placed on a single gland or on a few glands, on the right or left side of the discs of eighteen leaves; other bits of the same size being placed on the distal or proximal ends of seventeen other leaves. now if the motor impulse were transmitted with equal force or at an equal rate through the blade in all directions, a bit of meat placed at one side or at one end of the disc ought to affect equally all the tentacles situated at an equal distance from it; but this certainly is not the case. before giving the general results, it may be well to describe three or four rather unusual cases. [( ) a minute fragment of a fly was placed on one side of the disc, and after m. seven of the outer tentacles near the fragment were inflected; after hrs. several more became so, and after hrs. a still greater number; and now the blade of the leaf on this side was bent inwards so as to stand up at right angles to the other side. neither the blade of the leaf nor a single tentacle on the opposite side was affected; the line of separation between the two halves extending from the footstalk to the apex. the leaf remained in this state for three days, and on the fourth day began to re-expand; not a single tentacle having been inflected on the opposite side. ( ) i will here give a case not included in the above thirty-five experiments. a small fly was found adhering by its feet to the left side of the disc. the tentacles on this side soon closed in and killed the fly; and owing probably to its struggle whilst alive, the leaf was so much excited that in about hrs. all the tentacles on the opposite side became inflected; but as they found no prey, for their glands did not reach the fly, they re-expanded in the course of hrs.; the tentacles on the left side remaining clasped for several days. ( ) a bit of meat, rather larger than those commonly used, [page ] was placed in a medial line at the basal end of the disc, near the footstalk; after hrs. m. some neighbouring tentacles were inflected; after hrs. the tentacles on both sides of the footstalk, and some way up both sides, were moderately inflected; after hrs. the tentacles at the further or distal end were more inflected than those on either side; after hrs. the meat was well clasped by all the tentacles, excepting by the exterior ones on the two sides. ( ) another bit of meat was placed at the opposite or distal end of another leaf, with exactly the same relative results. ( ) a minute bit of meat was placed on one side of the disc; next day the neighbouring short tentacles were inflected, as well as in a slight degree three or four on the opposite side near the footstalk. on the second day these latter tentacles showed signs of re-expanding, so i added a fresh bit of meat at nearly the same spot, and after two days some of the short tentacles on the opposite side of the disc were inflected. as soon as these began to re-expand, i added another bit of meat, and next day all the tentacles on the opposite side of the disc were inflected towards the meat; whereas we have seen that those on the same side were affected by the first bit of meat which was given.] now for the general results. of the eighteen leaves on which bits of meat were placed on the right or left sides of the disc, eight had a vast number of tentacles inflected on the same side, and in four of them the blade itself on this side was likewise inflected; whereas not a single tentacle nor the blade was affected on the opposite side. these leaves presented a very curious appearance, as if only the inflected side was active, and the other paralysed. in the remaining ten cases, a few tentacles became inflected beyond the medial line, on the side opposite to that where the meat lay; but, in some of these cases, only at the proximal or distal ends of the leaves. the inflection on the opposite side always occurred considerably after that on the same side, and in one instance not until the fourth day. we have also seen [page ] with no. that bits of meat had to be added thrice before all the short tentacles on the opposite side of the disc were inflected. the result was widely different when bits of meat were placed in a medial line at the distal or proximal ends of the disc. in three of the seventeen experiments thus made, owing either to the state of the leaf or to the smallness of the bit of meat, only the immediately adjoining tentacles were affected; but in the other fourteen cases the tentacles at the opposite end of the leaf were inflected, though these were as distant from where the meat lay as were those on one side of the disc from the meat on the opposite side. in some of the present cases the tentacles on the sides were not at all affected, or in a less degree, or after a longer interval of time, than those at the opposite end. one set of experiments is worth giving in fuller detail. cubes of meat, not quite so small as those usually employed, were placed on one side of the discs of four leaves, and cubes of the same size at the proximal or distal end of four other leaves. now, when these two sets of leaves were compared after an interval of hrs., they presented a striking difference. those having the cubes on one side were very slightly affected on the opposite side; whereas those with the cubes at either end had almost every tentacle at the opposite end, even the marginal ones, closely inflected. after hrs. the contrast in the state of the two sets was still great; yet those with the meat on one side now had their discal and submarginal tentacles on the opposite side somewhat inflected, this being due to the large size of the cubes. finally we may conclude from these thirty-five experiments, not to mention the six or seven previous ones, that the motor impulse is transmitted from any single gland [page ] or small group of glands through the blade to the other tentacles more readily and effectually in a longitudinal than in a transverse direction. as long as the glands remain excited, and this may last for many days, even for eleven, as when in contact with phosphate of lime, they continue to transmit a motor impulse to the basal and bending parts of their own pedicels, for otherwise they would re-expand. the great difference in the length of time during which tentacles remain inflected over inorganic objects, and over objects of the same size containing soluble nitrogenous matter, proves the same fact. but the intensity of the impulse transmitted from an excited gland, which has begun to pour forth its acid secretion and is at the same time absorbing, seems to be very small compared with that which it transmits when first excited. thus, when moderately large bits of meat were placed on one side of the disc, and the discal and sub-marginal tentacles on the opposite side became inflected, so that their glands at last touched the meat and absorbed matter from it, they did not transmit any motor influence to the exterior rows of tentacles on the same side, for these never became inflected. if, however, meat had been placed on the glands of these same tentacles before they had begun to secrete copiously and to absorb, they undoubtedly would have affected the exterior rows. nevertheless, when i gave some phosphate of lime, which is a most powerful stimulant, to several submarginal tentacles already considerably inflected, but not yet in contact with some phosphate previously placed on two glands in the centre of the disc, the exterior tentacles on the same side were acted on. when a gland is first excited, the motor impulse is discharged within a few seconds, as we know from the [page ] bending of the tentacle; and it appears to be discharged at first with much greater force than afterwards. thus, in the case above given of a small fly naturally caught by a few glands on one side of a leaf, an impulse was slowly transmitted from them across the whole breadth of the leaf, causing the opposite tentacles to be temporarily inflected, but the glands which remained in contact with the insect, though they continued for several days to send an impulse down their own pedicels to the bending place, did not prevent the tentacles on the opposite side from quickly re-expanding; so that the motor discharge must at first have been more powerful than afterwards. when an object of any kind is placed on the disc, and the surrounding tentacles are inflected, their glands secrete more copiously and the secretion becomes acid, so that some influence is sent to them from the discal glands. this change in the nature and amount of the secretion cannot depend on the bending of the tentacles, as the glands of the short central tentacles secrete acid when an object is placed on them, though they do not themselves bend. therefore i inferred that the glands of the disc sent some influence up the surrounding tentacles to their glands, and that these reflected back a motor impulse to their basal parts; but this view was soon proved erroneous. it was found by many trials that tentacles with their glands closely cut off by sharp scissors often become inflected and again re-expand, still appearing healthy. one which was observed continued healthy for ten days after the operation. i therefore cut the glands off twenty-five tentacles, at different times and on different leaves, and seventeen of these soon became inflected, and afterwards re-expanded. the re-expansion commenced in about [page ] hrs. or hrs., and was completed in from hrs. to hrs. from the time of inflection. after an interval of a day or two, raw meat with saliva was placed on the discs of these seventeen leaves, and when observed next day, seven of the headless tentacles were inflected over the meat as closely as the uninjured ones on the same leaves; and an eighth headless tentacle became inflected after three additional days. the meat was removed from one of these leaves, and the surface washed with a little stream of water, and after three days the headless tentacle re-expanded for the second time. these tentacles without glands were, however, in a different state from those provided with glands and which had absorbed matter from the meat, for the protoplasm within the cells of the former had undergone far less aggregation. from these experiments with headless tentacles it is certain that the glands do not, as far as the motor impulse is concerned, act in a reflex manner like the nerve-ganglia of animals. but there is another action, namely that of aggregation, which in certain cases may be called reflex, and it is the only known instance in the vegetable kingdom. we should bear in mind that the process does not depend on the previous bending of the tentacles, as we clearly see when leaves are immersed in certain strong solutions. nor does it depend on increased secretion from the glands, and this is shown by several facts, more especially by the papillae, which do not secrete, yet undergoing aggregation, if given carbonate of ammonia or an infusion of raw meat. when a gland is directly stimulated in any way, as by the pressure of a minute particle of glass, the protoplasm within the cells of the gland first becomes aggregated, then that in the cells immediately beneath the gland, and so lower and lower down the tentacles to their bases;-- [page ] that is, if the stimulus has been sufficient and not injurious. now, when the glands of the disc are excited, the exterior tentacles are affected in exactly the same manner: the aggregation always commences in their glands, though these have not been directly excited, but have only received some influence from the disc, as shown by their increased acid secretion. the protoplasm within the cells immediately beneath the glands are next affected, and so downwards from cell to cell to the bases of the tentacles. this process apparently deserves to be called a reflex action, in the same manner as when a sensory nerve is irritated, and carries an impression to a ganglion which sends back some influence to a muscle or gland, causing movement or increased secretion; but the action in the two cases is probably of a widely different nature. after the protoplasm in a tentacle has been aggregated, its redissolution always begins in the lower part, and slowly travels up the pedicel to the gland, so that the protoplasm last aggregated is first redissolved. this probably depends merely on the protoplasm being less and less aggregated, lower and lower down in the tentacles, as can be seen plainly when the excitement has been slight. as soon, therefore, as the aggregating action altogether ceases, redissolution naturally commences in the less strongly aggregated matter in the lowest part of the tentacle, and is there first completed. direction of the inflected tentacles.--when a particle of any kind is placed on the gland of one of the outer tentacles, this invariably moves towards the centre of the leaf; and so it is with all the tentacles of a leaf immersed in any exciting fluid. the glands of the exterior tentacles then form a ring round the middle part of the disc, as shown in a previous figure (fig. , [page ] p. ). the short tentacles within this ring still retain their vertical position, as they likewise do when a large object is placed on their glands, or when an insect is caught by them. in this latter case we can see that the inflection of the short central tentacles would be useless, as their glands are already in contact with their prey. fig. . (drosera rotundifolia.) leaf (enlarged) with the tentacles inflected over a bit of meat placed on one side of the disc. the result is very different when a single gland on one side of the disc is excited, or a few in a group. these send an impulse to the surrounding tentacles, which do not now bend towards the centre of the leaf, but to the point of excitement. we owe this capital observation to nitschke,* and since reading his paper a few years ago, i have repeatedly verified it. if a minute bit of meat be placed by the aid of a needle on a single gland, or on three or four together, halfway between the centre and the circumference of the disc, the directed movement of the surrounding tentacles is well exhibited. an accurate drawing of a leaf with meat in this position is here reproduced (fig. ), and we see the tentacles, including some of the exterior ones, accurately directed to the point where the meat lay. but a much better * 'bot. zeitung,' , p. . [page ] plan is to place a particle of the phosphate of lime moistened with saliva on a single gland on one side of the disc of a large leaf, and another particle on a single gland on the opposite side. in four such trials the excitement was not sufficient to affect the outer tentacles, but all those near the two points were directed to them, so that two wheels were formed on the disc of the same leaf; the pedicels of the tentacles forming the spokes, and the glands united in a mass over the phosphate representing the axles. the precision with which each tentacle pointed to the particle was wonderful; so that in some cases i could detect no deviation from perfect accuracy. thus, although the short tentacles in the middle of the disc do not bend when their glands are excited in a direct manner, yet if they receive a motor impulse from a point on one side, they direct themselves to the point equally well with the tentacles on the borders of the disc. in these experiments, some of the short tentacles on the disc, which would have been directed to the centre, had the leaf been immersed in an exciting fluid, were now inflected in an exactly opposite direction, viz. towards the circumference. these tentacles, therefore, had deviated as much as o from the direction which they would have assumed if their own glands had been stimulated, and which may be considered as the normal one. between this, the greatest possible and no deviation from the normal direction, every degree could be observed in the tentacles on these several leaves. notwithstanding the precision with which the tentacles generally were directed, those near the circumference of one leaf were not accurately directed towards some phosphate of lime at a rather distant point on the opposite side of the disc. it appeared as if the motor [page ] impulse in passing transversely across nearly the whole width of the disc had departed somewhat from a true course. this accords with what we have already seen of the impulse travelling less readily in a transverse than in a longitudinal direction. in some other cases, the exterior tentacles did not seem capable of such accurate movement as the shorter and more central ones. nothing could be more striking than the appearance of the above four leaves, each with their tentacles pointing truly to the two little masses of the phosphate on their discs. we might imagine that we were looking at a lowly organised animal seizing prey with its arms. in the case of drosera the explanation of this accurate power of movement, no doubt, lies in the motor impulse radiating in all directions, and whichever side of a tentacle it first strikes, that side contracts, and the tentacle consequently bends towards the point of excitement. the pedicels of the tentacles are flattened, or elliptic in section. near the bases of the short central tentacles, the flattened or broad face is formed of about five longitudinal rows of cells; in the outer tentacles of the disc it consists of about six or seven rows; and in the extreme marginal tentacles of above a dozen rows. as the flattened bases are thus formed of only a few rows of cells, the precision of the movements of the tentacles is the more remarkable; for when the motor impulse strikes the base of a tentacle in a very oblique direction relatively to its broad face, scarcely more than one or two cells towards one end can be affected at first, and the contraction of these cells must draw the whole tentacle into the proper direction. it is, perhaps, owing to the exterior pedicels being much flattened that they do not bend quite so accurately to the point of excitement as the [page ] more central ones. the properly directed movement of the tentacles is not an unique case in the vegetable kingdom, for the tendrils of many plants curve towards the side which is touched; but the case of drosera is far more interesting, as here the tentacles are not directly excited, but receive an impulse from a distant point; nevertheless, they bend accurately towards this point. fig. . (drosera rotundifolia.) diagram showing the distribution of the vascular tissue in a small leaf. on the nature of the tissues through which the motor impulse is transmitted.--it will be necessary first to describe briefly the course of the main fibro-vascular bundles. these are shown in the accompanying sketch (fig. ) of a small leaf. little vessels from the neighbouring bundles enter all the many tentacles with which the surface is studded; but these are not here represented. the central trunk, which runs up the footstalk, bifurcates near the centre of the leaf, each branch bifurcating again and again according to the size of the leaf. this central trunk sends off, low down on each side, a delicate branch, which may be called the sublateral branch. there is also, on each side, a main lateral branch or bundle, which bifurcates in the same manner as the others. bifurcation does not imply that any single vessel divides, but that a bundle [page ] divides into two. by looking to either side of the leaf, it will be seen that a branch from the great central bifurcation inosculates with a branch from the lateral bundle, and that there is a smaller inosculation between the two chief branches of the lateral bundle. the course of the vessels is very complex at the larger inosculation; and here vessels, retaining the same diameter, are often formed by the union of the bluntly pointed ends of two vessels, but whether these points open into each other by their attached surfaces, i do not know. by means of the two inosculations all the vessels on the same side of the leaf are brought into some sort of connection. near the circumference of the larger leaves the bifurcating branches also come into close union, and then separate again, forming a continuous zigzag line of vessels round the whole circumference. but the union of the vessels in this zigzag line seems to be much less intimate than at the main inosculation. it should be added that the course of the vessels differs somewhat in different leaves, and even on opposite sides of the same leaf, but the main inosculation is always present. now in my first experiments with bits of meat placed on one side of the disc, it so happened that not a single tentacle was inflected on the opposite side; and when i saw that the vessels on the same side were all connected together by the two inosculations, whilst not a vessel passed over to the opposite side, it seemed probable that the motor impulse was conducted exclusively along them. in order to test this view, i divided transversely with the point of a lancet the central trunks of four leaves, just beneath the main bifurcation; and two days afterwards placed rather large bits of raw meat [page ] (a most powerful stimulant) near the centre of the disc above the incision--that is, a little towards the apex--with the following results:-- [( ) this leaf proved rather torpid: after hrs. m. (in all cases reckoning from the time when the meat was given) the tentacles at the distal end were a little inflected, but nowhere else; they remained so for three days, and re-expanded on the fourth day. the leaf was then dissected, and the trunk, as well as the two sublateral branches, were found divided. ( ) after hrs. m. many of the tentacles at the distal end were well inflected. next day the blade and all the tentacles at this end were strongly inflected, and were separated by a distinct transverse line from the basal half of the leaf, which was not in the least affected. on the third day, however, some of the short tentacles on the disc near the base were very slightly inflected. the incision was found on dissection to extend across the leaf as in the last case. ( ) after hrs. m. strong inflection of the tentacles at the distal end, which during the next two days never extended in the least to the basal end. the incision as before. ( ) this leaf was not observed until hrs. had elapsed, and then all the tentacles, except the extreme marginal ones, were found equally well inflected all round the leaf. on careful examination the spiral vessels of the central trunk were certainly divided; but the incision on one side had not passed through the fibrous tissue surrounding these vessels, though it had passed through the tissue on the other side.*] the appearance presented by the leaves ( ) and ( ) was very curious, and might be aptly compared with that of a man with his backbone broken and lower extremities paralysed. excepting that the line between the two halves was here transverse instead of longitudinal, these leaves were in the same state as some of those in the former experiments, with bits of meat placed on one side of the disc. the case of leaf ( ) * m. ziegler made similar experiments by cutting the spiral vessels of drosera intermedia('comptes rendus,' , p. ), but arrived at conclusions widely different from mine. [page ] proves that the spiral vessels of the central trunk may be divided, and yet the motor impulse be transmitted from the distal to the basal end; and this led me at first to suppose that the motor force was sent through the closely surrounding fibrous tissue; and that if one half of this tissue was left undivided, it sufficed for complete transmission. but opposed to this conclusion is the fact that no vessels pass directly from one side of the leaf to the other, and yet, as we have seen, if a rather large bit of meat is placed on one side, the motor impulse is sent, though slowly and imperfectly, in a transverse direction across the whole breadth of the leaf. nor can this latter fact be accounted for by supposing that the transmission is effected through the two inosculations, or through the circumferential zigzag line of union, for had this been the case, the exterior tentacles on the opposite side of the disc would have been affected before the more central ones, which never occurred. we have also seen that the extreme marginal tentacles appear to have no power to transmit an impulse to the adjoining tentacles; yet the little bundle of vessels which enters each marginal tentacle sends off a minute branch to those on both sides, and this i have not observed in any other tentacles; so that the marginal ones are more closely connected together by spiral vessels than are the others, and yet have much less power of communicating a motor impulse to one another. but besides these several facts and arguments we have conclusive evidence that the motor impulse is not sent, at least exclusively, through the spiral vessels, or through the tissue immediately surrounding them. we know that if a bit of meat is placed on a gland (the immediately adjoining ones having been removed) on any part of the disc, all the short sur- [page ] rounding tentacles bend almost simultaneously with great precision towards it. now there are tentacles on the disc, for instance near the extremities of the sublateral bundles (fig. ), which are supplied with vessels that do not come into contact with the branches that enter the surrounding tentacles, except by a very long and extremely circuitous course. nevertheless, if a bit of meat is placed on the gland of a tentacle of this kind, all the surrounding ones are inflected towards it with great precision. it is, of course, possible that an impulse might be sent through a long and circuitous course, but it is obviously impossible that the direction of the movement could be thus communicated, so that all the surrounding tentacles should bend precisely to the point of excitement. the impulse no doubt is transmitted in straight radiating lines from the excited gland to the surrounding tentacles; it cannot, therefore, be sent along the fibro-vascular bundles. the effect of cutting the central vessels, in the above cases, in preventing the transmission of the motor impulse from the distal to the basal end of a leaf, may be attributed to a considerable space of the cellular tissue having been divided. we shall hereafter see, when we treat of dionaea, that this same conclusion, namely that the motor impulse is not transmitted by the fibro-vascular bundles, is plainly confirmed; and prof. cohn has come to the same conclusion with respect to aldrovanda--both members of the droseraceae. as the motor impulse is not transmitted along the vessels, there remains for its passage only the cellular tissue; and the structure of this tissue explains to a certain extent how it travels so quickly down the long exterior tentacles, and much more slowly across the blade of the leaf. we shall also see why it crosses [page ] the blade more quickly in a longitudinal than in a transverse direction; though with time it can pass in any direction. we know that the same stimulus causes movement of the tentacles and aggregation of the protoplasm, and that both influences originate in and proceed from the glands within the same brief space of time. it seems therefore probable that the motor impulse consists of the first commencement of a molecular change in the protoplasm, which, when well developed, is plainly visible, and has been designated aggregation; but to this subject i shall return. we further know that in the transmission of the aggregating process the chief delay is caused by the passage of the transverse cell-walls; for as the aggregation travels down the tentacles, the contents of each successive cell seem almost to flash into a cloudy mass. we may therefore infer that the motor impulse is in like manner delayed chiefly by passing through the cell-walls. the greater celerity with which the impulse is transmitted down the long exterior tentacles than across the disc may be largely attributed to its being closely confined within the narrow pedicel, instead of radiating forth on all sides as on the disc. but besides this confinement, the exterior cells of the tentacles are fully twice as long as those of the disc; so that only half the number of transverse partitions have to be traversed in a given length of a tentacle, compared with an equal space on the disc; and there would be in the same proportion less retardation of the impulse. moreover, in sections of the exterior tentacles given by dr. warming,* the parenchymatous * 'videnskabelige meddelelser de la soc. d'hist. nat. de copenhague,' nos. - , , woodcuts iv. and v. [page ] cells are shown to be still more elongated; and these would form the most direct line of communication from the gland to the bending place of the tentacle. if the impulse travels down the exterior cells, it would have to cross from between twenty to thirty transverse partitions; but rather fewer if down the inner parenchymatous tissue. in either case it is remarkable that the impulse is able to pass through so many partitions down nearly the whole length of the pedicel, and to act on the bending place, in ten seconds. why the impulse, after having passed so quickly down one of the extreme marginal tentacles (about / of an inch in length), should never, as far as i have seen, affect the adjoining tentacles, i do not understand. it may be in part accounted for by much energy being expended in the rapidity of the transmission. most of the cells of the disc, both the superficial ones and the larger cells which form the five or six underlying layers, are about four times as long as broad. they are arranged almost longitudinally, radiating from the footstalk. the motor impulse, therefore, when transmitted across the disc, has to cross nearly four times as many cell-walls as when transmitted in a longitudinal direction, and would consequently be much delayed in the former case. the cells of the disc converge towards the bases of the tentacles, and are thus fitted to convey the motor impulse to them from all sides. on the whole, the arrangement and shape of the cells, both those of the disc and tentacles, throw much light on the rate and manner of diffusion of the motor impulse. but why the impulse proceeding from the glands of the exterior rows of tentacles tends to travel laterally and towards the centre of the leaf, but not centrifugally, is by no means clear. [page ] mechanism of the movements, and nature of the motor impulse.--whatever may be the means of movement, the exterior tentacles, considering their delicacy, are inflected with much force. a bristle, held so that a length of inch projected from a handle, yielded when i tried to lift with it an inflected tentacle, which was somewhat thinner than the bristle. the amount or extent, also, of the movement is great. fully expanded tentacles in becoming inflected sweep through an angle of o; and if they are beforehand reflexed, as often occurs, the angle is considerably greater. it is probably the superficial cells at the bending place which chiefly or exclusively contract; for the interior cells have very delicate walls, and are so few in number that they could hardly cause a tentacle to bend with precision to a definite point. though i carefully looked, i could never detect any wrinkling of the surface at the bending place, even in the case of a tentacle abnormally curved into a complete circle, under circumstances hereafter to be mentioned. all the cells are not acted on, though the motor impulse passes through them. when the gland of one of the long exterior tentacles is excited, the upper cells are not in the least affected; about halfway down there is a slight bending, but the chief movement is confined to a short space near the base; and no part of the inner tentacles bends except the basal portion. with respect to the blade of the leaf, the motor impulse may be transmitted through many cells, from the centre to the circumference, without their being in the least affected, or they may be strongly acted on and the blade greatly inflected. in the latter case the movement seems to depend partly on the strength of the stimulus, and partly on [page ] its nature, as when leaves are immersed in certain fluids. the power of movement which various plants possess, when irritated, has been attributed by high authorities to the rapid passage of fluid out of certain cells, which, from their previous state of tension, immediately contract.* whether or not this is the primary cause of such movements, fluid must pass out of closed cells when they contract or are pressed together in one direction, unless they at the same time expand in some other direction. for instance, fluid can be seen to ooze from the surface of any young and vigorous shoot if slowly bent into a semi-circle. in the case of drosera there is certainly much movement of the fluid throughout the tentacles whilst they are undergoing inflection. many leaves can be found in which the purple fluid within the cells is of an equally dark tint on the upper and lower sides of the tentacles, extending also downwards on both sides to equally near their bases. if the tentacles of such a leaf are excited into movement, it will generally be found after some hours that the cells on the concave side are much paler than they were before, or are quite colourless, those on the convex side having become much darker. in two instances, after particles of hair had been placed on glands, and when in the course of hr. m. the tentacles were incurved halfway towards the centre of the leaf, this change of colour in the two sides was conspicuously plain. in another case, after a bit of meat had been placed on a gland, the purple colour was observed at intervals to be slowly travelling from the upper to the lower part, down the convex side of * sachs, 'trait de bot.' rd edit. , p. . this view was, i believe, first suggested by lamarck. sachs, ibid. p. . [page ] the bending tentacle. but it does not follow from these observations that the cells on the convex side become filled with more fluid during the act of inflection than they contained before; for fluid may all the time be passing into the disc or into the glands which then secrete freely. the bending of the tentacles, when leaves are immersed in a dense fluid, and their subsequent re-expansion in a less dense fluid, show that the passage of fluid from or into the cells can cause movements like the natural ones. but the inflection thus caused is often irregular; the exterior tentacles being sometimes spirally curved. other unnatural movements are likewise caused by the application of dense fluids, as in the case of drops of syrup placed on the backs of leaves and tentacles. such movements may be compared with the contortions which many vegetable tissues undergo when subjected to exosmose. it is therefore doubtful whether they throw any light on the natural movements. if we admit that the outward passage of fluid is the cause of the bending of the tentacles, we must suppose that the cells, before the act of inflection, are in a high state of tension, and that they are elastic to an extraordinary degree; for otherwise their contraction could not cause the tentacles often to sweep through an angle of above o. prof. cohn, in his interesting paper* on the movements of the stamens of certain compositae, states that these organs, when dead, are as elastic as threads of india-rubber, and are then only half as long as they were when alive. he believes that the living protoplasm * 'abhand. der schles. gesell. fr vaterl. cultur,' , heft i. an excellent abstract of this paper is given in the 'annals and mag. of nat. hist.' rd series, , vol. xi. pp. - . [page ] within their cells is ordinarily in a state of expansion, but is paralysed by irritation, or may be said to suffer temporary death; the elasticity of the cell-walls then coming into play, and causing the contraction of the stamens. now the cells on the upper or concave side of the bending part of the tentacles of drosera do not appear to be in a state of tension, nor to be highly elastic; for when a leaf is suddenly killed, or dies slowly, it is not the upper but the lower sides of the tentacles which contract from elasticity. we may, therefore, conclude that their movements cannot be accounted for by the inherent elasticity of certain cells, opposed as long as they are alive and not irritated by the expanded state of their contents. a somewhat different view has been advanced by other physiologists--namely that the protoplasm, when irritated, contracts like the soft sarcode of the muscles of animals. in drosera the fluid within the cells of the tentacles at the bending place appears under the microscope thin and homogeneous, and after aggregation consists of small, soft masses of matter, undergoing incessant changes of form and floating in almost colourless fluid. these masses are completely redissolved when the tentacles re-expand. now it seems scarcely possible that such matter should have any direct mechanical power; but if through some molecular change it were to occupy less space than it did before, no doubt the cell-walls would close up and contract. but in this case it might be expected that the walls would exhibit wrinkles, and none could ever be seen. moreover, the contents of all the cells seem to be of exactly the same nature, both before and after aggregation; and yet only a few of the basal cells contract, the rest of the tentacle remaining straight. a third view maintained by some physiologists, [page ] though rejected by most others, is that the whole cell, including the walls, actively contracts. if the walls are composed solely of non-nitrogenous cellulose, this view is highly improbable; but it can hardly be doubted that they must be permeated by proteid matter, at least whilst they are growing. nor does there seem any inherent improbability in the cell-walls of drosera contracting, considering their high state of organisation; as shown in the case of the glands by their power of absorption and secretion, and by being exquisitely sensitive so as to be affected by the pressure of the most minute particles. the cell-walls of the pedicels also allow various impulses to pass through them, inducing movement, increased secretion and aggregation. on the whole the belief that the walls of certain cells contract, some of their contained fluid being at the same time forced outwards, perhaps accords best with the observed facts. if this view is rejected, the next most probable one is that the fluid contents of the cells shrink, owing to a change in their molecular state, with the consequent closing in of the walls. anyhow, the movement can hardly be attributed to the elasticity of the walls, together with a previous state of tension. with respect to the nature of the motor impulse which is transmitted from the glands down the pedicels and across the disc, it seems not improbable that it is closely allied to that influence which causes the protoplasm within the cells of the glands and tentacles to aggregate. we have seen that both forces originate in and proceed from the glands within a few seconds of the same time, and are excited by the same causes. the aggregation of the protoplasm lasts almost as long as the tentacles remain inflected, even though this be for more than a week; but the [page ] protoplasm is redissolved at the bending place shortly before the tentacles re-expand, showing that the exciting cause of the aggregating process has then quite ceased. exposure to carbonic acid causes both the latter process and the motor impulse to travel very slowly down the tentacles. we know that the aggregating process is delayed in passing through the cell- walls, and we have good reason to believe that this holds good with the motor impulse; for we can thus understand the different rates of its transmission in a longitudinal and transverse line across the disc. under a high power the first sign of aggregation is the appearance of a cloud, and soon afterwards of extremely fine granules, in the homogeneous purple fluid within the cells; and this apparently is due to the union of molecules of protoplasm. now it does not seem an improbable view that the same tendency--namely for the molecules to approach each other--should be communicated to the inner surfaces of the cell-walls which are in contact with the protoplasm; and if so, their molecules would approach each other, and the cell-wall would contract. to this view it may with truth be objected that when leaves are immersed in various strong solutions, or are subjected to a heat of above o fahr. ( o. cent.), aggregation ensues, but there is no movement. again, various acids and some other fluids cause rapid movement, but no aggregation, or only of an abnormal nature, or only after a long interval of time; but as most of these fluids are more or less injurious, they may check or prevent the aggregating process by injuring or killing the protoplasm. there is another and more important difference in the two processes: when the glands on the disc are excited, they transmit some influence up the surrounding [page ] tentacles, which acts on the cells at the bending place, but does not induce aggregation until it has reached the glands; these then send back some other influence, causing the protoplasm to aggregate, first in the upper and then in the lower cells. the re-expansion of the tentacles.--this movement is always slow and gradual. when the centre of the leaf is excited, or a leaf is immersed in a proper solution, all the tentacles bend directly towards the centre, and afterwards directly back from it. but when the point of excitement is on one side of the disc, the surrounding tentacles bend towards it, and therefore obliquely with respect to their normal direction; when they afterwards re-expand, they bend obliquely back, so as to recover their original positions. the tentacles farthest from an excited point, wherever that may be, are the last and the least affected, and probably in consequence of this they are the first to re-expand. the bent portion of a closely inflected tentacle is in a state of active contraction, as shown by the following experiment. meat was placed on a leaf, and after the tentacles were closely inflected and had quite ceased to move, narrow strips of the disc, with a few of the outer tentacles attached to it, were cut off and laid on one side under the microscope. after several failures, i succeeded in cutting off the convex surface of the bent portion of a tentacle. movement immediately recommenced, and the already greatly bent portion went on bending until it formed a perfect circle; the straight distal portion of the tentacle passing on one side of the strip. the convex surface must therefore have previously been in a state of tension, sufficient to counter-balance that of the concave surface, which, when free, curled into a complete ring. the tentacles of an expanded and unexcited leaf [page ] are moderately rigid and elastic; if bent by a needle, the upper end yields more easily than the basal and thicker part, which alone is capable of becoming inflected. the rigidity of this basal part seems due to the tension of the outer surface balancing a state of active and persistent contraction of the cells of the inner surface. i believe that this is the case, because, when a leaf is dipped into boiling water, the tentacles suddenly become reflexed, and this apparently indicates that the tension of the outer surface is mechanical, whilst that of the inner surface is vital, and is instantly destroyed by the boiling water. we can thus also understand why the tentacles as they grow old and feeble slowly become much reflexed. if a leaf with its tentacles closely inflected is dipped into boiling water, these rise up a little, but by no means fully re-expand. this may be owing to the heat quickly destroying the tension and elasticity of the cells of the convex surface; but i can hardly believe that their tension, at any one time, would suffice to carry back the tentacles to their original position, often through an angle of above o. it is more probable that fluid, which we know travels along the tentacles during the act of inflection, is slowly re-attracted into the cells of the convex surface, their tension being thus gradually and continually increased. a recapitulation of the chief facts and discussions in this chapter will be given at the close of the next chapter. [page ] chapter xi. recapitulation of the chief observations on drosera rotundifolia. as summaries have been given to most of the chapters, it will be sufficient here to recapitulate, as briefly as i can, the chief points. in the first chapter a preliminary sketch was given of the structure of the leaves, and of the manner in which they capture insects. this is effected by drops of extremely viscid fluid surrounding the glands and by the inward movement of the tentacles. as the plants gain most of their nutriment by this means, their roots are very poorly developed; and they often grow in places where hardly any other plant except mosses can exist. the glands have the power of absorption, besides that of secretion. they are extremely sensitive to various stimulants, namely repeated touches, the pressure of minute particles, the absorption of animal matter and of various fluids, heat, and galvanic action. a tentacle with a bit of raw meat on the gland has been seen to begin bending in s., to be strongly incurved in m., and to reach the centre of the leaf in half an hour. the blade of the leaf often becomes so much inflected that it forms a cup, enclosing any object placed on it. a gland, when excited, not only sends some influence down its own tentacle, causing it to bend, but likewise to the surrounding tentacles, which become incurved; so that the bending place can be acted on by an impulse received from opposite directions, [page ] namely from the gland on the summit of the same tentacle, and from one or more glands of the neighbouring tentacles. tentacles, when inflected, re-expand after a time, and during this process the glands secrete less copiously, or become dry. as soon as they begin to secrete again, the tentacles are ready to re-act; and this may be repeated at least three, probably many more times. it was shown in the second chapter that animal substances placed on the discs cause much more prompt and energetic inflection than do inorganic bodies of the same size, or mere mechanical irritation; but there is a still more marked difference in the greater length of time during which the tentacles remain inflected over bodies yielding soluble and nutritious matter, than over those which do not yield such matter. extremely minute particles of glass, cinders, hair, thread, precipitated chalk, &c., when placed on the glands of the outer tentacles, cause them to bend. a particle, unless it sinks through the secretion and actually touches the surface of the gland with some one point, does not produce any effect. a little bit of thin human hair / of an inch (. mm.) in length, and weighing only / of a grain (. mg.), though largely supported by the dense secretion, suffices to induce movement. it is not probable that the pressure in this case could have amounted to that from the millionth of a grain. even smaller particles cause a slight movement, as could be seen through a lens. larger particles than those of which the measurements have been given cause no sensation when placed on the tongue, one of the most sensitive parts of the human body. movement ensues if a gland is momentarily touched three or four times; but if touched only once or twice, [page ] though with considerable force and with a hard object, the tentacle does not bend. the plant is thus saved from much useless movement, as during a high wind the glands can hardly escape being occasionally brushed by the leaves of surrounding plants. though insensible to a single touch, they are exquisitely sensitive, as just stated, to the slightest pressure if prolonged for a few seconds; and this capacity is manifestly of service to the plant in capturing small insects. even gnats, if they rest on the glands with their delicate feet, are quickly and securely embraced. the glands are insensible to the weight and repeated blows of drops of heavy rain, and the plants are thus likewise saved from much useless movement. the description of the movements of the tentacles was interrupted in the third chapter for the sake of describing the process of aggregation. this process always commences in the cells of the glands, the contents of which first become cloudy; and this has been observed within s. after a gland has been excited. granules just resolvable under a very high power soon appear, sometimes within a minute, in the cells beneath the glands; and these then aggregate into minute spheres. the process afterwards travels down the tentacles, being arrested for a short time at each transverse partition. the small spheres coalesce into larger spheres, or into oval, club-headed, thread- or necklace-like, or otherwise shaped masses of protoplasm, which, suspended in almost colourless fluid, exhibit incessant spontaneous changes of form. these frequently coalesce and again separate. if a gland has been powerfully excited, all the cells down to the base of the tentacle are affected. in cells, especially if filled with dark red fluid, the first step in the [page ] process often is the formation of a dark red, bag-like mass of protoplasm, which afterwards divides and undergoes the usual repeated changes of form. before any aggregation has been excited, a sheet of colourless protoplasm, including granules (the primordial utricle of mohl), flows round the walls of the cells; and this becomes more distinct after the contents have been partially aggregated into spheres or bag-like masses. but after a time the granules are drawn towards the central masses and unite with them; and then the circulating sheet can no longer be distinguished, but there is still a current of transparent fluid within the cells. aggregation is excited by almost all the stimulants which induce movement; such as the glands being touched two or three times, the pressure of minute inorganic particles, the absorption of various fluids, even long immersion in distilled water, exosmose, and heat. of the many stimulants tried, carbonate of ammonia is the most energetic and acts the quickest: a dose of / of a grain (. mg.) given to a single gland suffices to cause in one hour well-marked aggregation in the upper cells of the tentacle. the process goes on only as long as the protoplasm is in a living, vigorous, and oxygenated condition. the result is in all respects exactly the same, whether a gland has been excited directly, or has received an influence from other and distant glands. but there is one important difference: when the central glands are irritated, they transmit centrifugally an influence up the pedicels of the exterior tentacles to their glands; but the actual process of aggregation travels centripetally, from the glands of the exterior tentacles down their pedicels. the exciting influence, therefore, which is transmitted from [page ] one part of the leaf to another must be different from that which actually induces aggregation. the process does not depend on the glands secreting more copiously than they did before; and is independent of the inflection of the tentacles. it continues as long as the tentacles remain inflected, and as soon as these are fully re-expanded, the little masses of protoplasm are all redissolved; the cells becoming filled with homogeneous purple fluid, as they were before the leaf was excited. as the process of aggregation can be excited by a few touches, or by the pressure of insoluble particles, it is evidently independent of the absorption of any matter, and must be of a molecular nature. even when caused by the absorption of the carbonate or other salt of ammonia, or an infusion of meat, the process seems to be of exactly the same nature. the protoplasmic fluid must, therefore, be in a singularly unstable condition, to be acted on by such slight and varied causes. physiologists believe that when a nerve is touched, and it transmits an influence to other parts of the nervous system, a molecular change is induced in it, though not visible to us. therefore it is a very interesting spectacle to watch the effects on the cells of a gland, of the pressure of a bit of hair, weighing only / of a grain and largely supported by the dense secretion, for this excessively slight pressure soon causes a visible change in the protoplasm, which change is transmitted down the whole length of the tentacle, giving it at last a mottled appearance, distinguishable even by the naked eye. in the fourth chapter it was shown that leaves placed for a short time in water at a temperature of o fahr. ( o. cent.) become somewhat inflected; they are thus also rendered more sensitive to the action [page ] of meat than they were before. if exposed to a temperature of between o and o( o. - o. cent.), they are quickly inflected, and their protoplasm undergoes aggregation; when afterwards placed in cold water, they re-expand. exposed to o ( o. cent.), no inflection immediately occurs, but the leaves are only temporarily paralysed, for on being left in cold water, they often become inflected and afterwards re-expand. in one leaf thus treated, i distinctly saw the protoplasm in movement. in other leaves, treated in the same manner, and then immersed in a solution of carbonate of ammonia, strong aggregation ensued. leaves placed in cold water, after an exposure to so high a temperature as o ( o. cent.), sometimes become slightly, though slowly, inflected; and afterwards have the contents of their cells strongly aggregated by carbonate of ammonia. but the duration of the immersion is an important element, for if left in water at o ( o. cent.), or only at o ( o cent.), until it becomes cool, they are killed, and the contents of the glands are rendered white and opaque. this latter result seems to be due to the coagulation of the albumen, and was almost always caused by even a short exposure to o ( o. cent.); but different leaves, and even the separate cells in the same tentacle, differ considerably in their power of resisting heat. unless the heat has been sufficient to coagulate the albumen, carbonate of ammonia subsequently induces aggregation. in the fifth chapter, the results of placing drops of various nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous organic fluids on the discs of leaves were given, and it was shown that they detect with almost unerring certainty the presence of nitrogen. a decoction of green peas or of fresh cabbage-leaves acts almost as powerfully as an infusion of raw meat; whereas an infusion of cabbage- [page ] leaves made by keeping them for a long time in merely warm water is far less efficient. a decoction of grass-leaves is less powerful than one of green peas or cabbage-leaves. these results led me to inquire whether drosera possessed the power of dissolving solid animal matter. the experiments proving that the leaves are capable of true digestion, and that the glands absorb the digested matter, are given in detail in the sixth chapter. these are, perhaps, the most interesting of all my observations on drosera, as no such power was before distinctly known to exist in the vegetable kingdom. it is likewise an interesting fact that the glands of the disc, when irritated, should transmit some influence to the glands of the exterior tentacles, causing them to secrete more copiously and the secretion to become acid, as if they had been directly excited by an object placed on them. the gastric juice of animals contains, as is well known, an acid and a ferment, both of which are indispensable for digestion, and so it is with the secretion of drosera. when the stomach of an animal is mechanically irritated, it secretes an acid, and when particles of glass or other such objects were placed on the glands of drosera, the secretion, and that of the surrounding and untouched glands, was increased in quantity and became acid. but, according to schiff, the stomach of an animal does not secrete its proper ferment, pepsin, until certain substances, which he calls peptogenes, are absorbed; and it appears from my experiments that some matter must be absorbed by the glands of drosera before they secrete their proper ferment. that the secretion does contain a ferment which acts only in the presence of an acid on solid animal matter, was clearly proved by adding minute doses of [page ] an alkali, which entirely arrested the process of digestion, this immediately recommencing as soon as the alkali was neutralised by a little weak hydrochloric acid. from trials made with a large number of substances, it was found that those which the secretion of drosera dissolves completely, or partially, or not at all, are acted on in exactly the same manner by gastric juice. we may, therefore, conclude that the ferment of drosera is closely analogous to, or identical with, the pepsin of animals. the substances which are digested by drosera act on the leaves very differently. some cause much more energetic and rapid inflection of the tentacles, and keep them inflected for a much longer time, than do others. we are thus led to believe that the former are more nutritious than the latter, as is known to be the case with some of these same substances when given to animals; for instance, meat in comparison with gelatine. as cartilage is so tough a substance and is so little acted on by water, its prompt dissolution by the secretion of drosera, and subsequent absorption is, perhaps, one of the most striking cases. but it is not really more remarkable than the digestion of meat, which is dissolved by this secretion in the same manner and by the same stages as by gastric juice. the secretion dissolves bone, and even the enamel of teeth, but this is simply due to the large quantity of acid secreted, owing, apparently, to the desire of the plant for phosphorus. in the case of bone, the ferment does not come into play until all the phosphate of lime has been decomposed and free acid is present, and then the fibrous basis is quickly dissolved. lastly, the secretion attacks and dissolves matter out of living seeds, which it sometimes kills, or injures, as shown by the diseased state [page ] of the seedlings. it also absorbs matter from pollen, and from fragments of leaves. the seventh chapter was devoted to the action of the salts of ammonia. these all cause the tentacles, and often the blade of the leaf, to be inflected, and the protoplasm to be aggregated. they act with very different power; the citrate being the least powerful, and the phosphate, owing, no doubt, to the presence of phosphorus and nitrogen, by far the most powerful. but the relative efficiency of only three salts of ammonia was carefully determined, namely the carbonate, nitrate, and phosphate. the experiments were made by placing half-minims (. ml.) of solutions of different strengths on the discs of the leaves,--by applying a minute drop (about the / of a minim, or . ml.) for a few seconds to three or four glands,--and by the immersion of whole leaves in a measured quantity. in relation to these experiments it was necessary first to ascertain the effects of distilled water, and it was found, as described in detail, that the more sensitive leaves are affected by it, but only in a slight degree. a solution of the carbonate is absorbed by the roots and induces aggregation in their cells, but does not affect the leaves. the vapour is absorbed by the glands, and causes inflection as well as aggregation. a drop of a solution containing / of a grain (. mg.) is the least quantity which, when placed on the glands of the disc, excites the exterior tentacles to bend inwards. but a minute drop, containing / of a grain (. mg.), if applied for a few seconds to the secretion surrounding a gland, causes the inflection of the same tentacle. when a highly sensitive leaf is immersed in a solution, and there is ample time for absorption, the / of a grain [page ] (. mg.) is sufficient to excite a single tentacle into movement. the nitrate of ammonia induces aggregation of the protoplasm much less quickly than the carbonate, but is more potent in causing inflection. a drop containing / of a grain (. mg.) placed on the disc acts powerfully on all the exterior tentacles, which have not themselves received any of the solution; whereas a drop with / of a grain caused only a few of these tentacles to bend, but affected rather more plainly the blade. a minute drop applied as before, and containing / of a grain (. mg.), caused the tentacle bearing this gland to bend. by the immersion of whole leaves, it was proved that the absorption by a single gland of / of a grain (. mg.) was sufficient to set the same tentacle into movement. the phosphate of ammonia is much more powerful than the nitrate. a drop containing / of a grain (. mg.) placed on the disc of a sensitive leaf causes most of the exterior tentacles to be inflected, as well as the blade of the leaf. a minute drop containing / of a grain (. mg.), applied for a few seconds to a gland, acts, as shown by the movement of the tentacle. when a leaf is immersed in thirty minims ( . ml.) of a solution of one part by weight of the salt to , , of water, the absorption by a gland of only the / of a grain (. mg.), that is, about the one-twenty-millionth of a grain, is sufficient to cause the tentacle bearing this gland to bend to the centre of the leaf. in this experiment, owing to the presence of the water of crystallisation, less than the one-thirty-millionth of a grain of the efficient elements could have been absorbed. there is nothing remarkable in such minute quantities being absorbed by the glands, [page ] for all physiologists admit that the salts of ammonia, which must be brought in still smaller quantity by a single shower of rain to the roots, are absorbed by them. nor is it surprising that drosera should be enabled to profit by the absorption of these salts, for yeast and other low fungoid forms flourish in solutions of ammonia, if the other necessary elements are present. but it is an astonishing fact, on which i will not here again enlarge, that so inconceivably minute a quantity as the one-twenty-millionth of a grain of phosphate of ammonia should induce some change in a gland of drosera, sufficient to cause a motor impulse to be sent down the whole length of the tentacle; this impulse exciting movement often through an angle of above o. i know not whether to be most astonished at this fact, or that the pressure of a minute bit of hair, supported by the dense secretion, should quickly cause conspicuous movement. moreover, this extreme sensitiveness, exceeding that of the most delicate part of the human body, as well as the power of transmitting various impulses from one part of the leaf to another, have been acquired without the intervention of any nervous system. as few plants are at present known to possess glands specially adapted for absorption, it seemed worth while to try the effects on drosera of various other salts, besides those of ammonia, and of various acids. their action, as described in the eighth chapter, does not correspond at all strictly with their chemical affinities, as inferred from the classification commonly followed. the nature of the base is far more influential than that of the acid; and this is known to hold good with animals. for instance, nine salts of sodium all caused well-marked inflection, and none of them were poisonous in small doses; whereas seven of the nine corre- [page ] sponding salts of potassium produced no effect, two causing slight inflection. small doses, moreover, of some of the latter salts were poisonous. the salts of sodium and potassium, when injected into the veins of animals, likewise differ widely in their action. the so-called earthy salts produce hardly any effect on drosera. on the other hand, most of the metallic salts cause rapid and strong inflection, and are highly poisonous; but there are some odd exceptions to this rule; thus chloride of lead and zinc, as well as two salts of barium, did not cause inflection, and were not poisonous. most of the acids which were tried, though much diluted (one part to of water), and given in small doses, acted powerfully on drosera; nineteen, out of the twenty-four, causing the tentacles to be more or less inflected. most of them, even the organic acids, are poisonous, often highly so; and this is remarkable, as the juices of so many plants contain acids. benzoic acid, which is innocuous to animals, seems to be as poisonous to drosera as hydrocyanic. on the other hand, hydrochloric acid is not poisonous either to animals or to drosera, and induces only a moderate amount of inflection. many acids excite the glands to secrete an extraordinary quantity of mucus; and the protoplasm within their cells seems to be often killed, as may be inferred from the surrounding fluid soon becoming pink. it is strange that allied acids act very differently: formic acid induces very slight inflection, and is not poisonous; whereas acetic acid of the same strength acts most powerfully and is poisonous. lactic acid is also poisonous, but causes inflection only after a considerable lapse of time. malic acid acts slightly, whereas citric and tartaric acids produce no effect. [page ] in the ninth chapter the effects of the absorption of various alkaloids and certain other substances were described. although some of these are poisonous, yet as several, which act powerfully on the nervous system of animals, produce no effect on drosera, we may infer that the extreme sensibility of the glands, and their power of transmitting an influence to other parts of the leaf, causing movement, or modified secretion, or aggregation, does not depend on the presence of a diffused element, allied to nerve-tissue. one of the most remarkable facts is that long immersion in the poison of the cobra-snake does not in the least check, but rather stimulates, the spontaneous movements of the protoplasm in the cells of the tentacles. solutions of various salts and acids behave very differently in delaying or in quite arresting the subsequent action of a solution of phosphate of ammonia. camphor dissolved in water acts as a stimulant, as do small doses of certain essential oils, for they cause rapid and strong inflection. alcohol is not a stimulant. the vapours of camphor, alcohol, chloroform, sulphuric and nitric ether, are poisonous in moderately large doses, but in small doses serve as narcotics or, anaesthetics, greatly delaying the subsequent action of meat. but some of these vapours also act as stimulants, exciting rapid, almost spasmodic movements in the tentacles. carbonic acid is likewise a narcotic, and retards the aggregation of the protoplasm when carbonate of ammonia is subsequently given. the first access of air to plants which have been immersed in this gas sometimes acts as a stimulant and induces movement. but, as before remarked, a special pharmacopoeia would be necessary to describe the diversified effects of various substances on the leaves of drosera. in the tenth chapter it was shown that the sensitive- [page ] ness of the leaves appears to be wholly confined to the glands and to the immediately underlying cells. it was further shown that the motor impulse and other forces or influences, proceeding from the glands when excited, pass through the cellular tissue, and not along the fibro-vascular bundles. a gland sends its motor impulse with great rapidity down the pedicel of the same tentacle to the basal part which alone bends. the impulse, then passing onwards, spreads on all sides to the surrounding tentacles, first affecting those which stand nearest and then those farther off. but by being thus spread out, and from the cells of the disc not being so much elongated as those of the tentacles, it loses force, and here travels much more slowly than down the pedicels. owing also to the direction and form of the cells, it passes with greater ease and celerity in a longitudinal than in a transverse line across the disc. the impulse proceeding from the glands of the extreme marginal tentacles does not seem to have force enough to affect the adjoining tentacles; and this may be in part due to their length. the impulse from the glands of the next few inner rows spreads chiefly to the tentacles on each side and towards the centre of the leaf; but that proceeding from the glands of the shorter tentacles on the disc radiates almost equally on all sides. when a gland is strongly excited by the quantity or quality of the substance placed on it, the motor impulse travels farther than from one slightly excited; and if several glands are simultaneously excited, the impulses from all unite and spread still farther. as soon as a gland is excited, it discharges an impulse which extends to a considerable distance; but afterwards, whilst the gland is secreting and absorbing, the impulse suffices only to keep the same tentacle [page ] inflected; though the inflection may last for many days. if the bending place of a tentacle receives an impulse from its own gland, the movement is always towards the centre of the leaf; and so it is with all the tentacles, when their glands are excited by immersion in a proper fluid. the short ones in the middle part of the disc must be excepted, as these do not bend at all when thus excited. on the other hand, when the motor impulse comes from one side of the disc, the surrounding tentacles, including the short ones in the middle of the disc, all bend with precision towards the point of excitement, wherever this may be seated. this is in every way a remarkable phenomenon; for the leaf falsely appears as if endowed with the senses of an animal. it is all the more remarkable, as when the motor impulse strikes the base of a tentacle obliquely with respect to its flattened surface, the contraction of the cells must be confined to one, two, or a very few rows at one end. and different sides of the surrounding tentacles must be acted on, in order that all should bend with precision to the point of excitement. the motor impulse, as it spreads from one or more glands across the disc, enters the bases of the surrounding tentacles, and immediately acts on the bending place. it does not in the first place proceed up the tentacles to the glands, exciting them to reflect back an impulse to their bases. nevertheless, some influence is sent up to the glands, as their secretion is soon increased and rendered acid; and then the glands, being thus excited, send back some other influence (not dependent on increased secretion, nor on the inflection of the tentacles), causing the protoplasm to aggregate in cell beneath cell. this may [page ] be called a reflex action, though probably very different from that proceeding from the nerve-ganglion of an animal; and it is the only known case of reflex action in the vegetable kingdom. about the mechanism of the movements and the nature of the motor impulse we know very little. during the act of inflection fluid certainly travels from one part to another of the tentacles. but the hypothesis which agrees best with the observed facts is that the motor impulse is allied in nature to the aggregating process; and that this causes the molecules of the cell-walls to approach each other, in the same manner as do the molecules of the protoplasm within the cells; so that the cell-walls contract. but some strong objections may be urged against this view. the re-expansion of the tentacles is largely due to the elasticity of their outer cells, which comes into play as soon as those on the inner side cease contracting with prepotent force; but we have reason to suspect that fluid is continually and slowly attracted into the outer cells during the act of re-expansion, thus increasing their tension. i have now given a brief recapitulation of the chief points observed by me, with respect to the structure, movements, constitution, and habits of drosera rotundifolia; and we see how little has been made out in comparison with what remains unexplained and unknown. [page ] chapter xii. on the structure and movements of some other species of drosera. drosera anglica--drosera intermedia--drosera capensis--drosera spathulata--drosera filiformis--drosera binata--concluding remarks. i examined six other species of drosera, some of them inhabitants of distant countries, chiefly for the sake of ascertaining whether they caught insects. this seemed the more necessary as the leaves of some of the species differ to an extraordinary degree in shape from the rounded ones of drosera rotundifolia. in functional powers, however, they differ very little. [drosera anglica (hudson).*--the leaves of this species, which was sent to me from ireland, are much elongated, and gradually widen from the footstalk to the bluntly pointed apex. they stand almost erect, and their blades sometimes exceed inch in length, whilst their breadth is only the / of an inch. the glands of all the tentacles have the same structure, so that the extreme marginal ones do not differ from the others, as in the case of drosera rotundifolia. when they are irritated by being roughly touched, or by the pressure of minute inorganic particles, or by contact with animal matter, or by the absorption of carbonate of ammonia, the tentacles become inflected; the basal portion being the chief seat of movement. cutting or pricking the blade of the leaf did not excite any movement. they frequently capture insects, and the glands of the inflected tentacles pour forth much acid secretion. bits of roast meat were placed on some glands, and the tentacles began to move in m. or * mrs. treat has given an excellent account in 'the american naturalist,' december , p. , of drosera longifolia (which is a synonym in part of drosera anglica), of drosera rotundifolia and filiformis. [page ] m. s.; and in hr. m. reached the centre. two bits of boiled cork, one of boiled thread, and two of coal-cinders taken from the fire, were placed, by the aid of an instrument which had been immersed in boiling water, on five glands; these superfluous precautions having been taken on account of m. ziegler's statements. one of the particles of cinder caused some inflection in hrs. m., as did after hrs. the other particle of cinder, the bit of thread, and both bits of cork. three glands were touched half a dozen times with a needle; one of the tentacles became well inflected in m., and re-expanded after hrs.; the two others never moved. the homogeneous fluid within the cells of the tentacles undergoes aggregation after these have become inflected; especially if given a solution of carbonate of ammonia; and i observed the usual movements in the masses of protoplasm. in one case, aggregation ensued in hr. m. after a tentacle had carried a bit of meat to the centre. from these facts it is clear that the tentacles of drosera anglica behave like those of drosera rotundifolia. if an insect is placed on the central glands, or has been naturally caught there, the apex of the leaf curls inwards. for instance, dead flies were placed on three leaves near their bases, and after hrs. the previously straight apices were curled completely over, so as to embrace and conceal the flies; they had therefore moved through an angle of o. after three days the apex of one leaf, together with the tentacles, began to re-expand. but as far as i have seen-- and i made many trials--the sides of the leaf are never inflected, and this is the one functional difference between this species and drosera rotundifolia. drosera intermedia (hayne).--this species is quite as common in some parts of england as drosera rotundifolia. it differs from drosera anglica, as far as the leaves are concerned, only in their smaller size, and in their tips being generally a little reflexed. they capture a large number of insects. the tentacles are excited into movement by all the causes above specified; and aggregation ensues, with movement of the protoplasmic masses. i have seen, through a lens, a tentacle beginning to bend in less than a minute after a particle of raw meat had been placed on the gland. the apex of the leaf curls over an exciting object as in the case of drosera anglica. acid secretion is copiously poured over captured insects. a leaf which had embraced a fly with all its tentacles re-expanded after nearly three days. drosera capensis.--this species, a native of the cape of good hope, was sent to me by dr. hooker. the leaves are elongated, slightly concave along the middle and taper towards the apex, [page ] which is bluntly pointed and reflexed. they rise from an almost woody axis, and their greatest peculiarity consists in their foliaceous green footstalks, which are almost as broad and even longer than the gland-bearing blade. this species, therefore, probably draws more nourishment from the air, and less from captured insects, than the other species of the genus. nevertheless, the tentacles are crowded together on the disc, and are extremely numerous; those on the margins being much longer than the central ones. all the glands have the same form; their secretion is extremely viscid and acid. the specimen which i examined had only just recovered from a weak state of health. this may account for the tentacles moving very slowly when particles of meat were placed on the glands, and perhaps for my never succeeding in causing any movement by repeatedly touching them with a needle. but with all the species of the genus this latter stimulus is the least effective of any. particles of glass, cork, and coal-cinders, were placed on the glands of six tentacles; and one alone moved after an interval of hrs. m. nevertheless, two glands were extremely sensitive to very small doses of the nitrate of ammonia, namely to about / of a minim of a solution (one part to of water), containing only / of a grain (. mg.) of the salt. fragments of flies were placed on two leaves near their tips, which became incurved in hrs. a fly was also placed in the middle of the leaf; in a few hours the tentacles on each side embraced it, and in hrs. the whole leaf directly beneath the fly was a little bent transversely. by the next morning, after hrs., the leaf was curled so completely over that the apex rested on the upper end of the footstalk. in no case did the sides of the leaves become inflected. a crushed fly was placed on the foliaceous footstalk, but produced no effect. drosera spathulata (sent to me by dr. hooker).--i made only a few observations on this australian species, which has long, narrow leaves, gradually widening towards their tips. the glands of the extreme marginal tentacles are elongated and differ from the others, as in the case of drosera rotundifolia. a fly was placed on a leaf, and in hrs. it was embraced by the adjoining tentacles. gum-water dropped on several leaves produced no effect. a fragment of a leaf was immersed in a few drops of a solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water; all the glands were instantly blackened; the process of aggregation could be seen travelling rapidly down the cells of the tentacles; and the granules of protoplasm soon united into spheres and variously shaped masses, which displayed the usual move- [page ] ments. half a minim of a solution of one part of nitrate of ammonia to of water was next placed on the centre of a leaf; after hrs. some marginal tentacles on both sides were inflected, and after hrs. they met in the centre. the lateral edges of the leaf also became incurved, so that it formed a half-cylinder; but the apex of the leaf in none of my few trials was inflected. the above dose of the nitrate (viz. / of a grain, or . mg.) was too powerful, for in the course of hrs. the leaf died. drosera filiformis.--this north american species grows in such abundance in parts of new jersey as almost to cover the ground. it catches, according to mrs. treat,* an extraordinary number of small and large insects, even great flies of the genus asilus, moths, and butterflies. the specimen which i examined, sent me by dr. hooker, had thread-like leaves, from to inches in length, with the upper surface convex and the lower flat and slightly channelled. the whole convex surface, down to the roots--for there is no distinct footstalk--is covered with short gland-bearing tentacles, those on the margins being the longest and reflexed. bits of meat placed on the glands of some tentacles caused them to be slightly inflected in m.; but the plant was not in a vigorous state. after hrs. they moved through an angle of o, and in hrs. reached the centre. the surrounding tentacles by this time began to curve inwards. ultimately a large drop of extremely viscid, slightly acid secretion was poured over the meat from the united glands. several other glands were touched with a little saliva, and the tentacles became incurved in under hr., and re-expanded after hrs. particles of glass, cork, cinders, thread, and gold-leaf, were placed on numerous glands on two leaves; in about hr. four tentacles became curved, and four others after an additional interval of hrs. m. i never once succeeded in causing any movement by repeatedly touching the glands with a needle; and mrs. treat made similar trials for me with no success. small flies were placed on several leaves near their tips, but the thread-like blade became only on one occasion very slightly bent, directly beneath the insect. perhaps this indicates that the blades of vigorous plants would bend over captured insects, and dr. canby informs me that this is the case; but the movement cannot be strongly pronounced, as it was not observed by mrs. treat. drosera binata (or dichotoma).--i am much indebted to lady * 'american naturalist,' december , page . [page ] dorothy nevill for a fine plant of this almost gigantic australian species, which differs in some interesting points from those previously described. in this specimen the rush-like footstalks of the leaves were inches in length. the blade bifurcates at its junction with the footstalk, and twice or thrice afterwards, curling about in an irregular manner. it is narrow, being only / of an inch in breadth. one blade was / inches long, so that the entire leaf, including the footstalk, was above inches in length. both surfaces are slightly hollowed out. the upper surface is covered with tentacles arranged in alternate rows; those in the middle being short and crowded together, those towards the margins longer, even twice or thrice as long as the blade is broad. the glands of the exterior tentacles are of a much darker red than those of the central ones. the pedicels of all are green. the apex of the blade is attenuated, and bears very long tentacles. mr. copland informs me that the leaves of a plant which he kept for some years were generally covered with captured insects before they withered. the leaves do not differ in essential points of structure or of function from those of the previously described species. bits of meat or a little saliva placed on the glands of the exterior tentacles caused well-marked movement in m., and particles of glass acted in m. the tentacles with the latter particles re-expanded after hrs. a piece of leaf immersed in a few drops of a solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water had all the glands blackened and all the tentacles inflected in m. a bit of raw meat, placed on several glands in the medial furrow, was well clasped in hrs. m. by the marginal tentacles on both sides. bits of roast meat and small flies did not act quite so quickly; and albumen and fibrin still less quickly. one of the bits of meat excited so much secretion (which is always acid) that it flowed some way down the medial furrow, causing the inflection of the tentacles on both sides as far as it extended. particles of glass placed on the glands in the medial furrow did not stimulate them sufficiently for any motor impulse to be sent to the outer tentacles. in no case was the blade of the leaf, even the attenuated apex, at all inflected. on both the upper and lower surface of the blade there are numerous minute, almost sessile glands, consisting of four, eight, or twelve cells. on the lower surface they are pale purple, on the upper greenish. nearly similar organs occur on the foot-stalks, but they are smaller and often in a shrivelled condition. the minute glands on the blade can absorb rapidly: thus, a piece of leaf was immersed in a solution of one part of carbonate [page ] of ammonia to of water ( gr. to oz.), and in m. they were all so much darkened as to be almost black, with their contents aggregated. they do not, as far as i could observe, secrete spontaneously; but in between and hrs. after a leaf had been rubbed with a bit of raw meat moistened with saliva, they seemed to be secreting freely; and this conclusion was afterwards supported by other appearances. they are, therefore, homologous with the sessile glands hereafter to be described on the leaves of dionaea and drosophyllum. in this latter genus they are associated, as in the present case, with glands which secrete spontaneously, that is, without being excited. drosera binata presents another and more remarkable peculiarity, namely, the presence of a few tentacles on the backs of the leaves, near their margins. these are perfect in structure; spiral vessels run up their pedicels; their glands are surrounded by drops of viscid secretion, and they have the power of absorbing. this latter fact was shown by the glands immediately becoming black, and the protoplasm aggregated, when a leaf was placed in a little solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water. these dorsal tentacles are short, not being nearly so long as the marginal ones on the upper surface; some of them are so short as almost to graduate into the minute sessile glands. their presence, number, and size, vary on different leaves, and they are arranged rather irregularly. on the back of one leaf i counted as many as twenty-one along one side. these dorsal tentacles differ in one important respect from those on the upper surface, namely, in not possessing any power of movement, in whatever manner they may be stimulated. thus, portions of four leaves were placed at different times in solutions of carbonate of ammonia (one part to or of water), and all the tentacles on the upper surface soon became closely inflected; but the dorsal ones did not move, though the leaves were left in the solution for many hours, and though their glands from their blackened colour had obviously absorbed some of the salt. rather young leaves should be selected for such trials, for the dorsal tentacles, as they grow old and begin to wither, often spontaneously incline towards the middle of the leaf. if these tentacles had possessed the power of movement, they would not have been thus rendered more serviceable to the plant; for they are not long enough to bend round the margin of the leaf so as to reach an insect caught on the upper surface, nor would it have been of any use if these tentacles could have [page ] moved towards the middle of the lower surface, for there are no viscid glands there by which insects can be caught. although they have no power of movement, they are probably of some use by absorbing animal matter from any minute insect which may be caught by them, and by absorbing ammonia from the rain-water. but their varying presence and size, and their irregular position, indicate that they are not of much service, and that they are tending towards abortion. in a future chapter we shall see that drosophyllum, with its elongated leaves, probably represents the condition of an early progenitor of the genus drosera; and none of the tentacles of drosophyllum, neither those on the upper nor lower surface of the leaves, are capable of movement when excited, though they capture numerous insects, which serve as nutriment. therefore it seems that drosera binata has retained remnants of certain ancestral characters--namely a few motionless tentacles on the backs of the leaves, and fairly well developed sessile glands--which have been lost by most or all of the other species of the genus.] concluding remarks.--from what we have now seen, there can be little doubt that most or probably all the species of drosera are adapted for catching insects by nearly the same means. besides the two australian species above described, it is said* that two other species from this country, namely drosera pallida and drosera sulphurea, "close their leaves upon insects with "great rapidity: and the same phenomenon is mani-"fested by an indian species, d. lunata, and by several "of those of the cape of good hope, especially by "d. trinervis." another australian species, drosera heterophylla (made by lindley into a distinct genus, sondera) is remarkable from its peculiarly shaped leaves, but i know nothing of its power of catching insects, for i have seen only dried specimens. the leaves form minute flattened cups, with the footstalks attached not to one margin, but to the bottom. the * 'gardener's chronicle,' , p. . [page ] inner surface and the edges of the cups are studded with tentacles, which include fibro-vascular bundles, rather different from those seen by me in any other species; for some of the vessels are barred and punctured, instead of being spiral. the glands secrete copiously, judging from the quantity of dried secretion adhering to them. [page ] chapter xiii. dionaea muscipula. structure of the leaves--sensitiveness of the filaments--rapid movement of the lobes caused by irritation of the filaments--glands, their power of secretion--slow movement caused by the absorption of animal matter--evidence of absorption from the aggregated condition of the glands--digestive power of the secretion--action of chloroform, ether, and hydrocyanic acid- -the manner in which insects are captured--use of the marginal spikes--kinds of insects captured--the transmission of the motor impulse and mechanism of the movements-- re-expansion of the lobes. this plant, commonly called venus' fly-trap, from the rapidity and force of its movements, is one of the most wonderful in the world.* it is a member of the small family of the droseraceae, and is found only in the eastern part of north carolina, growing in damp situations. the roots are small; those of a moderately fine plant which i examined consisted of two branches about inch in length, springing from a bulbous enlargement. they probably serve, as in the case of drosera, solely for the absorption of water; for a gardener, who has been very successful in the cultivation of this plant, grows it, like an epiphytic orchid, in well-drained damp moss without any soil. the form of the bilobed leaf, with its foliaceous footstalk, is shown in the accompanying drawing (fig. ). * dr. hooker, in his address to the british association at belfast, , has given so full an historical account of the observations which have been published on the habits of this plant, that it would be superfluous on my part to repeat them. 'gardener's chronicle,' , p. . [page ] the two lobes stand at rather less than a right angle to each other. three minute pointed processes or filaments, placed triangularly, project from the upper surfaces of both; but i have seen two leaves with four filaments on each side, and another with only two. these filaments are remarkable from their extreme sensitiveness to a touch, as shown not by their own movement, but by that of the lobes. the margins of the leaf are prolonged into sharp rigid projections which i will call spikes, into each of which a bundle fig. . (dionaea muscipula.) leaf viewed laterally in its expanded state. of spiral vessels enters. the spikes stand in such a position that, when the lobes close, they inter-lock like the teeth of a rat-trap. the midrib of the leaf, on the lower side, is strongly developed and prominent. the upper surface of the leaf is thickly covered, excepting towards the margins, with minute glands of a reddish or purplish colour, the rest of the leaf being green. there are no glands on the spikes, or on the foliaceous footstalk, the glands are formed of from [page ] twenty to thirty polygonal cells, filled with purple fluid. their upper surface is convex. they stand on very short pedicels, into which spiral vessels do not enter, in which respect they differ from the tentacles of drosera. they secrete, but only when excited by the absorption of certain matters; and they have the power of absorption. minute projections, formed of eight divergent arms of a reddish-brown or orange colour, and appearing under the microscope like elegant little flowers, are scattered in considerable numbers over the foot-stalk, the backs of the leaves, and the spikes, with a few on the upper surface of the lobes. these octofid projections are no doubt homologous with the papillae on the leaves of drosera rotundifolia. there are also a few very minute, simple, pointed hairs, about / (. mm.) of an inch in length on the backs of the leaves. the sensitive filaments are formed of several rows of elongated cells, filled with purplish fluid. they are a little above the / of an inch in length; are thin and delicate, and taper to a point. i examined the bases of several, making sections of them, but no trace of the entrance of any vessel could be seen. the apex is sometimes bifid or even trifid, owing to a slight separation between the terminal pointed cells. towards the base there is constriction, formed of broader cells, beneath which there is an articulation, supported on an enlarged base, consisting of differently shaped polygonal cells. as the filaments project at right angles to the surface of the leaf, they would have been liable to be broken whenever the lobes closed together, had it not been for the articulation which allows them to bend flat down. these filaments, from their tips to their bases, are exquisitely sensitive to a momentary touch. it is scarcely [page ] possible to touch them ever so lightly or quickly with any hard object without causing the lobes to close. a piece of very delicate human hair, / inches in length, held dangling over a filament, and swayed to and fro so as to touch it, did not excite any movement. but when a rather thick cotton thread of the same length was similarly swayed, the lobes closed. pinches of fine wheaten flour, dropped from a height, produced no effect. the above-mentioned hair was then fixed into a handle, and cut off so that inch projected; this length being sufficiently rigid to support itself in a nearly horizontal line. the extremity was then brought by a slow movement laterally into contact with the tip of a filament, and the leaf instantly closed. on another occasion two or three touches of the same kind were necessary before any movement ensued. when we consider how flexible a fine hair is, we may form some idea how slight must be the touch given by the extremity of a piece, inch in length, moved slowly. although these filaments are so sensitive to a momentary and delicate touch, they are far less sensitive than the glands of drosera to prolonged pressure. several times i succeeded in placing on the tip of a filament, by the aid of a needle moved with extreme slowness, bits of rather thick human hair, and these did not excite movement, although they were more than ten times as long as those which caused the tentacles of drosera to bend; and although in this latter case they were largely supported by the dense secretion. on the other hand, the glands of drosera may be struck with a needle or any hard object, once, twice, or even thrice, with considerable force, and no movement ensues. this singular difference in the nature of the sensitiveness of the filaments of dionaea and of [page ] the glands of drosera evidently stands in relation to the habits of the two plants. if a minute insect alights with its delicate feet on the glands of drosera, it is caught by the viscid secretion, and the slight, though prolonged pressure, gives notice of the presence of prey, which is secured by the slow bending of the tentacles. on the other hand, the sensitive filaments of dionaea are not viscid, and the capture of insects can be assured only by their sensitiveness to a momentary touch, followed by the rapid closure of the lobes. as just stated, the filaments are not glandular, and do not secrete. nor have they the power of absorption, as may be inferred from drops of a solution of carbonate of ammonia (one part to of water), placed on two filaments, not producing any effect on the contents of their cells, nor causing the lobes to close, when, however, a small portion of a leaf with an attached filament was cut off and immersed in the same solution, the fluid within the basal cells became almost instantly aggregated into purplish or colourless, irregularly shaped masses of matter. the process of aggregation gradually travelled up the filaments from cell to cell to their extremities, that is in a reverse course to what occurs in the tentacles of drosera when their glands have been excited. several other filaments were cut off close to their bases, and left for hr. m. in a weaker solution of one part of the carbonate to of water, and this caused aggregation in all the cells, commencing as before at the bases of the filaments. long immersion of the filaments in distilled water likewise causes aggregation. nor is it rare to find the contents of a few of the terminal cells in a spontaneously aggregated condition. the aggregated [page ] masses undergo incessant slow changes of form, uniting and again separating; and some of them apparently revolve round their own axes. a current of colourless granular protoplasm could also be seen travelling round the walls of the cells. this current ceases to be visible as soon as the contents are well aggregated; but it probably still continues, though no longer visible, owing to all the granules in the flowing layer having become united with the central masses. in all these respects the filaments of dionaea behave exactly like the tentacles of drosera. notwithstanding this similarity there is one remarkable difference. the tentacles of drosera, after their glands have been repeatedly touched, or a particle of any kind has been placed on them, become inflected and strongly aggregated. no such effect is produced by touching the filaments of dionaea; i compared, after an hour or two, some which had been touched and some which had not, and others after twenty-five hours, and there was no difference in the contents of the cells. the leaves were kept open all the time by clips; so that the filaments were not pressed against the opposite lobe. drops of water, or a thin broken stream, falling from a height on the filaments, did not cause the blades to close; though these filaments were afterwards proved to be highly sensitive. no doubt, as in the case of drosera, the plant is indifferent to the heaviest shower of rain. drops of a solution of a half an ounce of sugar to a fluid ounce of water were repeatedly allowed to fall from a height on the filaments, but produced no effect, unless they adhered to them. again, i blew many times through a fine pointed tube with my utmost force against the filaments without any effect; such blowing being received [page ] with as much indifference as no doubt is a heavy gale of wind. we thus see that the sensitiveness of the filaments is of a specialised nature, being related to a momentary touch rather than to prolonged pressure; and the touch must not be from fluids, such as air or water, but from some solid object. although drops of water and of a moderately strong solution of sugar, falling on the filaments, does not excite them, yet the immersion of a leaf in pure water sometimes caused the lobes to close. one leaf was left immersed for hr. m., and three other leaves for some minutes, in water at temperatures varying between o and o ( o to o. cent.) without any effect. one, however, of these four leaves, on being gently withdrawn from the water, closed rather quickly. the three other leaves were proved to be in good condition, as they closed when their filaments were touched. nevertheless two fresh leaves on being dipped into water at o and / o ( o. and o. cent.) instantly closed. these were then placed with their footstalks in water, and after hrs. partially re-expanded; on touching their filaments one of them closed. this latter leaf after an additional hrs. again re-expanded, and now, on the filaments of both leaves being touched, both closed. we thus see that a short immersion in water does not at all injure the leaves, but sometimes excites the lobes to close. the movement in the above cases was evidently not caused by the temperature of the water. it has been shown that long immersion causes the purple fluid within the cells of the sensitive filaments to become aggregated; and the tentacles of drosera are acted on in the same manner by long immersion, often being somewhat inflected. in both cases the result is probably due to a slight degree of exosmose. [page ] i am confirmed in this belief by the effects of immersing a leaf of dionaea in a moderately strong solution of sugar; the leaf having been previously left for hr. m. in water without any effect; for now the lobes closed rather quickly, the tips of the marginal spikes crossing in m. s., and the leaf being completely shut in m. three leaves were then immersed in a solution of half an ounce of sugar to a fluid ounce of water, and all three leaves closed quickly. as i was doubtful whether this was due to the cells on the upper surface of the lobes, or to the sensitive filaments, being acted on by exosmose, one leaf was first tried by pouring a little of the same solution in the furrow between the lobes over the midrib, which is the chief seat of movement. it was left there for some time, but no movement ensued. the whole upper surface of leaf was then painted (except close round the bases of the sensitive filaments, which i could not do without risk of touching them) with the same solution, but no effect was produced. so that the cells on the upper surface are not thus affected. but when, after many trials, i succeeded in getting a drop of the solution to cling to one of the filaments, the leaf quickly closed. hence we may, i think, conclude that the solution causes fluid to pass out of the delicate cells of the filaments by exosmose; and that this sets up some molecular change in their contents, analogous to that which must be produced by a touch. the immersion of leaves in a solution of sugar affects them for a much longer time than does an immersion in water, or a touch on the filaments; for in these latter cases the lobes begin to re-expand in less than a day. on the other hand, of the three leaves which were immersed for a short time in the solution, and were then washed by means of a syringe inserted [page ] between the lobes, one re-expanded after two days; a second after seven days; and the third after nine days. the leaf which closed, owing to a drop of the solution having adhered to one of the filaments, opened after two days. i was surprised to find on two occasions that the heat from the rays of the sun, concentrated by a lens on the bases of several filaments, so that they were scorched and discoloured, did not cause any movement; though the leaves were active, as they closed, though rather slowly, when a filament on the opposite side was touched. on a third trial, a fresh leaf closed after a time, though very slowly; the rate not being increased by one of the filaments, which had not been injured, being touched. after a day these three leaves opened, and were fairly sensitive when the uninjured filaments were touched. the sudden immersion of a leaf into boiling water does not cause it to close. judging from the analogy of drosera, the heat in these several cases was too great and too suddenly applied. the surface of the blade is very slightly sensitive; it may be freely and roughly handled, without any movement being caused. a leaf was scratched rather hard with a needle, but did not close; but when the triangular space between the three filaments on another leaf was similarly scratched, the lobes closed. they always closed when the blade or midrib was deeply pricked or cut. inorganic bodies, even of large size, such as bits of stone, glass, &c.--or organic bodies not containing soluble nitrogenous matter, such as bits of wood, cork, moss,--or bodies containing soluble nitrogenous matter, if perfectly dry, such as bits of meat, albumen, gelatine, &c., may be long left (and many were tried) on the lobes, and no movement is excited. the result, however, is widely different, as we [page ] shall presently see, if nitrogenous organic bodies which are at all damp, are left on the lobes; for these then close by a slow and gradual movement, very different from that caused by touching one of the sensitive filaments. the footstalk is not in the least sensitive; a pin may be driven through it, or it may be cut off, and no movement follows. the upper surface of the lobes, as already stated, is thickly covered with small purplish, almost sessile glands. these have the power both of secretion and absorption; but unlike those of drosera, they do not secrete until excited by the absorption of nitrogenous matter. no other excitement, as far as i have seen, produces this effect. objects, such as bits of wood, cork, moss, paper, stone, or glass, may be left for a length of time on the surface of a leaf, and it remains quite dry. nor does it make any difference if the lobes close over such objects. for instance, some little balls of blotting paper were placed on a leaf, and a filament was touched; and when after hrs. the lobes began to re-open, the balls were removed by the aid of thin pincers, and were found perfectly dry. on the other hand, if a bit of damp meat or a crushed fly is placed on the surface of an expanded leaf, the glands after a time secrete freely. in one such case there was a little secretion directly beneath the meat in hrs.; and after an additional hrs. there was a considerable quantity both under and close round it. in another case, after hrs. m., the bit of meat was quite wet. but none of the glands secreted, excepting those which actually touched the meat or the secretion containing dissolved animal matter. if, however, the lobes are made to close over a bit of meat or an insect, the result is different, for the glands over the whole surface of the leaf now secrete copiously. [page ] as in this case the glands on both sides are pressed against the meat or insect, the secretion from the first is twice as great as when a bit of meat is laid on the surface of one lobe; and as the two lobes come into almost close contact, the secretion, containing dissolved animal matter, spreads by capillary attraction, causing fresh glands on both sides to begin secreting in a continually widening circle. the secretion is almost colourless, slightly mucilaginous, and, judging by the manner in which it coloured litmus paper, more strongly acid than that of drosera. it is so copious that on one occasion, when a leaf was cut open, on which a small cube of albumen had been placed hrs. before, drops rolled off the leaf. on another occasion, in which a leaf with an enclosed bit of roast meat spontaneously opened after eight days, there was so much secretion in the furrow over the midrib that it trickled down. a large crushed fly (tipula) was placed on a leaf from which a small portion at the base of one lobe had previously been cut away, so that an opening was left; and through this, the secretion continued to run down the footstalk during nine days,--that is, for as long a time as it was observed. by forcing up one of the lobes, i was able to see some distance between them, and all the glands within sight were secreting freely. we have seen that inorganic and non-nitrogenous objects placed on the leaves do not excite any movement; but nitrogenous bodies, if in the least degree damp, cause after several hours the lobes to close slowly. thus bits of quite dry meat and gelatine were placed at opposite ends of the same leaf, and in the course of hrs. excited neither secretion nor movement. they were then dipped in water, their surfaces dried on blotting paper, and replaced on the same [page ] leaf, the plant being now covered with a bell-glass. after hrs. the damp meat had excited some acid secretion, and the lobes at this end of the leaf were almost shut. at the other end, where the damp gelatine lay, the leaf was still quite open, nor had any secretion been excited; so that, as with drosera, gelatine is not nearly so exciting a substance as meat. the secretion beneath the meat was tested by pushing a strip of litmus paper under it (the filaments not being touched), and this slight stimulus caused the leaf to shut. on the eleventh day it reopened; but the end where the gelatine lay, expanded several hours before the opposite end with the meat. a second bit of roast meat, which appeared dry, though it had not been purposely dried, was left for hrs. on a leaf, caused neither movement nor secretion. the plant in its pot was now covered with a bell-glass, and the meat absorbed some moisture from the air; this sufficed to excite acid secretion, and by the next morning the leaf was closely shut. a third bit of meat, dried so as to be quite brittle, was placed on a leaf under a bell-glass, and this also became in hrs. slightly damp, and excited some acid secretion, but no movement. a rather large piece of perfectly dry albumen was left at one end of a leaf for hrs. without any effect. it was then soaked for a few minutes in water, rolled about on blotting paper, and replaced on the leaf; in hrs. some slightly acid secretion was excited, and in hrs. this end of the leaf was partially closed. the bit of albumen, which was now surrounded by much secretion, was gently removed, and although no filament was touched, the lobes closed. in this and the previous case, it appears that the absorption of animal matter by the glands renders [page ] the surface of the leaf much more sensitive to a touch than it is in its ordinary state; and this is a curious fact. two days afterwards the end of the leaf where nothing had been placed began to open, and on the third day was much more open than the opposite end where the albumen had lain. lastly, large drops of a solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water were placed on some leaves, but no immediate movement ensued. i did not then know of the slow movement caused by animal matter, otherwise i should have observed the leaves for a longer time, and they would probably have been found closed, though the solution (judging from drosera) was, perhaps, too strong. from the foregoing cases it is certain that bits of meat and albumen, if at all damp, excite not only the glands to secrete, but the lobes to close. this movement is widely different from the rapid closure caused by one of the filaments being touched. we shall see its importance when we treat of the manner in which insects are captured. there is a great contrast between drosera and dionaea in the effects produced by mechanical irritation on the one hand, and the absorption of animal matter on the other. particles of glass placed on the glands of the exterior tentacles of drosera excite movement within nearly the same time, as do particles of meat, the latter being rather the most efficient; but when the glands of the disc have bits of meat given them, they transmit a motor impulse to the exterior tentacles much more quickly than do these glands when bearing inorganic particles, or when irritated by repeated touches. on the other hand, with dionaea, touching the filaments excites incomparably quicker movement than the absorption of animal matter by the glands. nevertheless, in [page ] certain cases, this latter stimulus is the more powerful of the two. on three occasions leaves were found which from some cause were torpid, so that their lobes closed only slightly, however much their filaments were irritated; but on inserting crushed insects between the lobes, they became in a day closely shut. the facts just given plainly show that the glands have the power of absorption, for otherwise it is impossible that the leaves should be so differently affected by non-nitrogenous and nitrogenous bodies, and between these latter in a dry and damp condition. it is surprising how slightly damp a bit of meat or albumen need be in order to excite secretion and afterwards slow movement, and equally surprising how minute a quantity of animal matter, when absorbed, suffices to produce these two effects. it seems hardly credible, and yet it is certainly a fact, that a bit of hard-boiled white of egg, first thoroughly dried, then soaked for some minutes in water and rolled on blotting paper, should yield in a few hours enough animal matter to the glands to cause them to secrete, and afterwards the lobes to close. that the glands have the power of absorption is likewise shown by the very different lengths of time (as we shall presently see) during which the lobes remain closed over insects and other bodies yielding soluble nitrogenous matter, and over such as do not yield any. but there is direct evidence of absorption in the condition of the glands which have remained for some time in contact with animal matter. thus bits of meat and crushed insects were several times placed on glands, and these were compared after some hours with other glands from distant parts of the same leaf. the latter showed not a trace of aggregation, whereas those which had been in contact with the animal matter were [page ] well aggregated. aggregation may be seen to occur very quickly if a piece of a leaf is immersed in a weak solution of carbonate of ammonia. again, small cubes of albumen and gelatine were left for eight days on a leaf, which was then cut open. the whole surface was bathed with acid secretion, and every cell in the many glands which were examined had its contents aggregated in a beautiful manner into dark or pale purple, or colourless globular masses of protoplasm. these underwent incessant slow changes of forms; sometimes separating from one another and then reuniting, exactly as in the cells of drosera. boiling water makes the contents of the gland-cells white and opaque, but not so purely white and porcelain-like as in the case of drosera. how living insects, when naturally caught, excite the glands to secrete so quickly as they do, i know not; but i suppose that the great pressure to which they are subjected forces a little excretion from either extremity of their bodies, and we have seen that an extremely small amount of nitrogenous matter is sufficient to excite the glands. before passing on to the subject of digestion, i may state that i endeavoured to discover, with no success, the functions of the minute octofid processes with which the leaves are studded. from facts hereafter to be given in the chapters on aldrovanda and utricularia, it seemed probable that they served to absorb decayed matter left by the captured insects; but their position on the backs of the leaves and on the footstalks rendered this almost impossible. nevertheless, leaves were immersed in a solution of one part of urea to of water, and after hrs. the orange layer of protoplasm within the arms of these processes did not appear more aggregated than in other speci- [page ] mens kept in water, i then tried suspending a leaf in a bottle over an excessively putrid infusion of raw meat, to see whether they absorbed the vapour, but their contents were not affected. digestive power of the secretion.*--when a leaf closes over any object, it may be said to form itself into a temporary stomach; and if the object yields ever so little animal matter, this serves, to use schiff's expression, as a peptogene, and the glands on the surface pour forth their acid secretion, which acts like the gastric juice of animals. as so many experiments were tried on the digestive power of drosera, only a few were made with dionaea, but they were amply sufficient to prove that it digests, this plant, moreover, is not so well fitted as drosera for observation, as the process goes on within the closed lobes. insects, even beetles, after being subjected to the secretion for several days, are surprisingly softened, though their chitinous coats are not corroded, [experiment .--a cube of albumen of / of an inch ( . mm.) was placed at one end of a leaf, and at the other end an oblong piece of gelatine, / of an inch ( . mm.) long, and * dr. w.m. canby, of wilmington, to whom i am much indebted for information regarding dionaea in its native home, has published in the 'gardener's monthly,' philadelphia, august , some interesting observations. he ascertained that the secretion digests animal matter, such as the contents of insects, bits of meat, &c.; and that the secretion is reabsorbed. he was also well aware that the lobes remain closed for a much longer time when in contact with animal matter than when made to shut by a mere touch, or over objects not yielding soluble nutriment; and that in these latter cases the glands do not secrete. the rev. dr. curtis first observed ('boston journal nat. hist.' vol. i., p. ) the secretion from the glands. i may here add that a gardener, mr. knight, is said (kirby and spencer's 'introduction to entomology,' , vol. i., p. ) to have found that a plant of the dionaea, on the leaves of which "he laid fine filaments of raw beef, was much more luxuriant in its growth than others not so treated." [page ] / broad; the leaf was then made to close. it was cut open after hrs. the albumen was hard and compressed, with its angles only a little rounded; the gelatine was corroded into an oval form; and both were bathed in so much acid secretion that it dropped off the leaf. the digestive process apparently is rather slower than in drosera, and this agrees with the length of time during which the leaves remain closed over digestible objects. experiment .--a bit of albumen / of an inch square, but only / in thickness, and a piece of gelatine of the same size as before, were placed on a leaf, which eight days afterwards was cut open. the surface was bathed with slightly adhesive, very acid secretion, and the glands were all in an aggregated condition. not a vestige of the albumen or gelatine was left. similarly sized pieces were placed at the same time on wet moss on the same pot, so that they were subjected to nearly similar conditions; after eight days these were brown, decayed, and matted with fibres of mould, but had not disappeared. experiment .--a piece of albumen / of an inch ( . mm.) long, and / broad and thick, and a piece of gelatine of the same size as before, were placed on another leaf, which was cut open after seven days; not a vestige of either substance was left, and only a moderate amount of secretion on the surface. experiment .--pieces of albumen and gelatine, of the same size as in the last experiment, were placed on a leaf, which spontaneously opened after twelve days, and here again not a vestige of either was left, and only a little secretion at one end of the midrib. experiment .--pieces of albumen and gelatine of the same size were placed on another leaf, which after twelve days was still firmly closed, but had begun to wither; it was cut open, and contained nothing except a vestige of brown matter where the albumen had lain. experiment .--a cube of albumen of / of an inch and a piece of gelatine of the same size as before were placed on a leaf, which opened spontaneously after thirteen days, the albumen, which was twice as thick as in the latter experiments, was too large; for the glands in contact with it were injured and were dropping off; a film also of albumen of a brown colour, matted with mould, was left. all the gelatine was absorbed, and there was only a little acid secretion left on the midrib. experiment .--a bit of half roasted meat (not measured) and a bit of gelatine were placed on the two ends of a leaf, which [page ] opened spontaneously after eleven days; a vestige of the meat was left, and the surface of the leaf was here blackened; the gelatine had all disappeared. experiment .--a bit of half roasted meat (not measured) was placed on a leaf which was forcibly kept open by a clip, so that it was moistened with the secretion (very acid) only on its lower surface. nevertheless, after only / hrs. it was surprisingly softened, when compared with another bit of the same meat which had been kept damp. experiment .--a cube of / of an inch of very compact roasted beef was placed on a leaf, which opened spontaneously after twelve days; so much feebly acid secretion was left on the leaf that it trickled off. the meat was completely disintegrated, but not all dissolved; there was no mould. the little mass was placed under the microscope; some of the fibrillae in the middle still exhibited transverse striae; others showed not a vestige of striae; and every gradation could be traced between these two states. globules, apparently of fat, and some undigested fibro-elastic tissue remained. the meat was thus in the same state as that formerly described, which was half digested by drosera. here, again, as in the case of albumen, the digestive process seems slower than in drosera. at the opposite end of the same leaf, a firmly compressed pellet of bread had been placed; this was completely disintegrated, i suppose, owing to the digestion of the gluten, but seemed very little reduced in bulk. experiment .--a cube of / of an inch of cheese and another of albumen were placed at opposite ends of the same leaf. after nine days the lobes opened spontaneously a little at the end enclosing the cheese, but hardly any or none was dissolved, though it was softened and surrounded by secretion. two days subsequently the end with the albumen also opened spontaneously (i.e. eleven days after it was put on), a mere trace in a blackened and dry condition being left. experiment .--the same experiment with cheese and albumen repeated on another and rather torpid leaf. the lobes at the end with the cheese, after an interval of six days, opened spontaneously a little; the cube of cheese was much softened, but not dissolved, and but little, if at all, reduced in size. twelve hours afterwards the end with the albumen opened, which now consisted of a large drop of transparent, not acid, viscid fluid. experiment .--same experiment as the two last, and here again the leaf at the end enclosing the cheese opened before the [page ] opposite end with the albumen; but no further observations were made. experiment .--a globule of chemically prepared casein, about / of an inch in diameter, was placed on a leaf, which spontaneously opened after eight days. the casein now consisted of a soft sticky mass, very little, if at all, reduced in size, but bathed in acid secretion.] these experiments are sufficient to show that the secretion from the glands of dionaea dissolves albumen, gelatine, and meat, if too large pieces are not given. globules of fat and fibro-elastic tissue are not digested. the secretion, with its dissolved matter, if not in excess, is subsequently absorbed. on the other hand, although chemically prepared casein and cheese (as in the case of drosera) excite much acid secretion, owing, i presume, to the absorption of some included albuminous matter, these substances are not digested, and are not appreciably, if at all, reduced in bulk. [effects of the vapours of chloroform, sulphuric ether, and hydrocyanic acid.--a plant bearing one leaf was introduced into a large bottle with a drachm ( . ml.) of chloroform, the mouth being imperfectly closed with cotton-wool. the vapour caused in m. the lobes to begin moving at an imperceptibly slow rate; but in m. the spikes crossed, and the leaf was soon completely shut. the dose, however, was much too large, for in between and hrs. the leaf appeared as if burnt, and soon died. two leaves were exposed for m. in a -oz: vessel to the vapour of minims ( . ml.) of sulphuric ether. one leaf closed after a time, as did the other whilst being removed from the vessel without being touched. both leaves were greatly injured. another leaf, exposed for m. to minims of ether, closed its lobes to a certain extent, and the sensitive filaments were now quite insensible. after hrs. this leaf recovered its sensibility, but was still rather torpid. a leaf exposed in a large bottle for only m. to ten drops was rendered insensible. after m. it recovered its sensibility, and when one of the filaments was touched, the lobes closed. it began [page ] to reopen after hrs. lastly another leaf was exposed for m. to only four drops of the ether; it was rendered insensible, and did not close when its filaments were repeatedly touched, but closed when the end of the open leaf was cut off. this shows either that the internal parts had not been rendered insensible, or that an incision is a more powerful stimulus than repeated touches on the filaments. whether the larger doses of chloroform and ether, which caused the leaves to close slowly, acted on the sensitive filaments or on the leaf itself, i do not know. cyanide of potassium, when left in a bottle, generates prussic or hydrocyanic acid. a leaf was exposed for hr. m. to the vapour thus formed; and the glands became within this time so colourless and shrunken as to be scarcely visible, and i at first thought that they had all dropped off. the leaf was not rendered insensible; for as soon as one of the filaments was touched it closed. it had, however, suffered, for it did not reopen until nearly two days had passed, and was not even then in the least sensitive. after an additional day it recovered its powers, and closed on being touched and subsequently reopened. another leaf behaved in nearly the same manner after a shorter exposure to this vapour.] on the manner in which insects are caught.--we will now consider the action of the leaves when insects happen to touch one of the sensitive filaments. this often occurred in my greenhouse, but i do not know whether insects are attracted in any special way by the leaves. they are caught in large numbers by the plant in its native country. as soon as a filament is touched, both lobes close with astonishing quickness; and as they stand at less than a right angle to each other, they have a good chance of catching any intruder. the angle between the blade and footstalk does not change when the lobes close. the chief seat of movement is near the midrib, but is not confined to this part; for, as the lobes come together, each curves inwards across its whole breadth; the marginal spikes however, not becoming curved. this move- [page ] ment of the whole lobe was well seen in a leaf to which a large fly had been given, and from which a large portion had been cut off the end of one lobe; so that the opposite lobe, meeting with no resistance in this part, went on curving inwards much beyond the medial line. the whole of the lobe, from which a portion had been cut, was afterwards removed, and the opposite lobe now curled completely over, passing through an angle of from o to o, so as to occupy a position almost at right angles to that which it would have held had the opposite lobe been present. from the curving inwards of the two lobes, as they move towards each other, the straight marginal spikes intercross by their tips at first, and ultimately by their bases. the leaf is then completely shut and encloses a shallow cavity. if it has been made to shut merely by one of the sensitive filaments having been touched, or if it includes an object not yielding soluble nitrogenous matter, the two lobes retain their inwardly concave form until they re-expand. the re-expansion under these circumstances--that is when no organic matter is enclosed--was observed in ten cases. in all of these, the leaves re-expanded to about two-thirds of the full extent in hrs. from the time of closure. even the leaf from which a portion of one lobe had been cut off opened to a slight degree within this same time. in one case a leaf re-expanded to about two-thirds of the full extent in hrs., and completely in hrs.; but one of its filaments had been touched merely with a hair just enough to cause the leaf to close. of these ten leaves only a few re-expanded completely in less than two days, and two or three required even a little longer time. before, however, they fully re-expand, they are ready to close [page ] instantly if their sensitive filaments are touched. how many times a leaf is capable of shutting and opening if no animal matter is left enclosed, i do not know; but one leaf was made to close four times, reopening afterwards, within six days, on the last occasion it caught a fly, and then remained closed for many days. this power of reopening quickly after the filaments have been accidentally touched by blades of grass, or by objects blown on the leaf by the wind, as occasionally happens in its native place,* must be of some importance to the plant; for as long as a leaf remains closed, it cannot of course capture an insect. when the filaments are irritated and a leaf is made to shut over an insect, a bit of meat, albumen, gelatine, casein, and, no doubt, any other substance containing soluble nitrogenous matter, the lobes, instead of remaining concave, thus including a concavity, slowly press closely together throughout their whole breadth. as this takes place, the margins gradually become a little everted, so that the spikes, which at first intercrossed, at last project in two parallel rows. the lobes press against each other with such force that i have seen a cube of albumen much flattened, with distinct impressions of the little prominent glands; but this latter circumstance may have been partly caused by the corroding action of the secretion. so firmly do they become pressed together that, if any large insect or other object has been caught, a corresponding projection on the outside of the leaf is distinctly visible. when the two lobes are thus completely shut, they * according to dr. curtis, in 'boston journal of nat. hist,' vol. i , p. . [page ] resist being opened, as by a thin wedge driven between them, with astonishing force, and are generally ruptured rather than yield. if not ruptured, they close again, as dr. canby informs me in a letter, "with quite a loud flap." but if the end of a leaf is held firmly between the thumb and finger, or by a clip, so that the lobes cannot begin to close, they exert, whilst in this position, very little force. i thought at first that the gradual pressing together of the lobes was caused exclusively by captured insects crawling over and repeatedly irritating the sensitive filaments; and this view seemed the more probable when i learnt from dr. burdon sanderson that whenever the filaments of a closed leaf are irritated, the normal electric current is disturbed. nevertheless, such irritation is by no means necessary, for a dead insect, or a bit of meat, or of albumen, all act equally well; proving that in these cases it is the absorption of animal matter which excites the lobes slowly to press close together. we have seen that the absorption of an extremely small quantity of such matter also causes a fully expanded leaf to close slowly; and this movement is clearly analogous to the slow pressing together of the concave lobes. this latter action is of high functional importance to the plant, for the glands on both sides are thus brought into contact with a captured insect, and consequently secrete. the secretion with animal matter in solution is then drawn by capillary attraction over the whole surface of the leaf, causing all the glands to secrete and allowing them to absorb the diffused animal matter. the movement, excited by the absorption of such matter, though slow, suffices for its final purpose, whilst the movement excited by one of the sensitive filaments being touched is rapid, and this is indis- [page ] pensable for the capturing of insects. these two movements, excited by two such widely different means, are thus both well adapted, like all the other functions of the plant, for the purposes which they subserve. there is another wide difference in the action of leaves which enclose objects, such as bits of wood, cork, balls of paper, or which have had their filaments merely touched, and those which enclose organic bodies yielding soluble nitrogenous matter. in the former case the leaves, as we have seen, open in under hrs. and are then ready, even before being fully-expanded, to shut again. but if they have closed over nitrogen-yielding bodies, they remain closely shut for many days; and after re-expanding are torpid, and never act again, or only after a considerable interval of time. in four instances, leaves after catching insects never reopened, but began to wither, remaining closed--in one case for fifteen days over a fly; in a second, for twenty-four days, though the fly was small; in a third for twenty-four days over a woodlouse; and in a fourth, for thirty-five days over a large tipula. in two other cases leaves remained closed for at least nine days over flies, and for how many more i do not know. it should, however, be added that in two instances in which very small insects had been naturally caught the leaf opened as quickly as if nothing had been caught; and i suppose that this was due to such small insects not having been crushed or not having excreted any animal matter, so that the glands were not excited. small angular bits of albumen and gelatine were placed at both ends of three leaves, two of which remained closed for thirteen and the other for twelve days. two other leaves remained closed over bits of [page ] meat for eleven days, a third leaf for eight days, and a fourth (but this had been cracked and injured) for only six days. bits of cheese, or casein, were placed at one end and albumen at the other end of three leaves; and the ends with the former opened after six, eight, and nine days, whilst the opposite ends opened a little later. none of the above bits of meat, albumen, &c., exceeded a cube of / of an inch ( . mm.) in size, and were sometimes smaller; yet these small portions sufficed to keep the leaves closed for many days. dr. canby informs me that leaves remain shut for a longer time over insects than over meat; and from what i have seen, i can well believe that this is the case, especially if the insects are large. in all the above cases, and in many others in which leaves remained closed for a long but unknown period over insects naturally caught, they were more or less torpid when they reopened. generally they were so torpid during many succeeding days that no excitement of the filaments caused the least movement. in one instance, however, on the day after a leaf opened which had clasped a fly, it closed with extreme slowness when one of its filaments was touched; and although no object was left enclosed, it was so torpid that it did not re-open for the second time until hrs. had elapsed. in a second case, a leaf which had expanded after remaining closed for at least nine days over a fly, when greatly irritated, moved one alone of its two lobes, and retained this unusual position for the next two days. a third case offers the strongest exception which i have observed; a leaf, after remaining clasped for an unknown time over a fly, opened, and when one of its filaments was touched, closed, though rather slowly. dr. canby, [page ] who observed in the united states a large number of plants which, although not in their native site, were probably more vigorous than my plants, informs me that he has "several times known vigorous leaves to devour their prey several times; but ordinarily twice, or, quite often, once was enough to render them unserviceable." mrs. treat, who cultivated many plants in new jersey, also informs me that "several leaves caught successively three insects each, but most of them were not able to digest the third fly, but died in the attempt. five leaves, however, digested each three flies, and closed over the fourth, but died soon after the fourth capture. many leaves did not digest even one large insect." it thus appears that the power of digestion is somewhat limited, and it is certain that leaves always remain clasped for many days over an insect, and do not recover their power of closing again for many subsequent days. in this respect dionaea differs from drosera, which catches and digests many insects after shorter intervals of time. we are now prepared to understand the use of the marginal spikes, which form so conspicuous a feature in the appearance of the plant (fig. , p. ), and which at first seemed to me in my ignorance useless appendages. from the inward curvature of the lobes as they approach each other, the tips of the marginal spikes first intercross, and ultimately their bases. until the edges of the lobes come into contact, elongated spaces between the spikes, varying from the / to the / of an inch ( . to . mm.) in breadth, according to the size of the leaf, are left open. thus an insect, if its body is not thicker than these measurements, can easily escape between the crossed spikes, when disturbed by the closing lobes and in- [page ] creasing darkness; and one of my sons actually saw a small insect thus escaping. a moderately large insect, on the other hand, if it tries to escape between the bars will surely be pushed back again into its horrid prison with closing walls, for the spikes continue to cross more and more until the edges of the lobes come into contact. a very strong insect, however, would be able to free itself, and mrs. treat saw this effected by a rose-chafer (macrodactylus subspinosus) in the united states. now it would manifestly be a great disadvantage to the plant to waste many days in remaining clasped over a minute insect, and several additional days or weeks in afterwards recovering its sensibility; inasmuch as a minute insect would afford but little nutriment. it would be far better for the plant to wait for a time until a moderately large insect was captured, and to allow all the little ones to escape; and this advantage is secured by the slowly intercrossing marginal spikes, which act like the large meshes of a fishing-net, allowing the small and useless fry to escape. as i was anxious to know whether this view was correct--and as it seems a good illustration of how cautious we ought to be in assuming, as i had done with respect to the marginal spikes, that any fully developed structure is useless--i applied to dr. canby. he visited the native site of the plant, early in the season, before the leaves had grown to their full size, and sent me fourteen leaves, containing naturally captured insects. four of these had caught rather small insects, viz. three of them ants, and the fourth a rather small fly, but the other ten had all caught large insects, namely, five elaters, two chrysomelas, a curculio, a thick and broad spider, and a scolopendra. out of these ten insects, no less than eight [page ] were beetles,* and out of the whole fourteen there was only one, viz. a dipterous insect, which could readily take flight. drosera, on the other hand, lives chiefly on insects which are good flyers, especially diptera, caught by the aid of its viscid secretion. but what most concerns us is the size of the ten larger insects. their average length from head to tail was . of an inch, the lobes of the leaves being on an average . of an inch in length, so that the insects were very nearly half as long as the leaves within which they were enclosed. only a few of these leaves, therefore, had wasted their powers by capturing small prey, though it is probable that many small insects had crawled over them and been caught, but had then escaped through the bars. the transmission of the motor impulse, and means of movement.--it is sufficient to touch any one of the six filaments to cause both lobes to close, these becoming at the same time incurved throughout their whole breadth. the stimulus must therefore radiate in all directions from any one filament. it must also be transmitted with much rapidity across the leaf, for in all ordinary cases both lobes close simultaneously, as far as the eye can judge. most physiologists believe that in irritable plants the excitement is transmitted along, or in close connection with, the fibro-vascular bundles. in dionaea, the course of these vessels (composed of spiral and ordinary vascular * dr. canby remarks ('gardener's monthly,' august ), "as a general thing beetles and insects of that kind, though always killed, seem to be too hard-shelled to serve as food, and after a short time are rejected." i am surprised at this statement, at least with respect to such beetles as elaters, for the five which i examined were in an extremely fragile and empty condition, as if all their internal parts had been partially digested. mrs. treat informs me that the plants which she cultivated in new jersey chiefly caught diptera. [page ] tissue) seems at first sight to favour this belief; for they run up the midrib in a great bundle, sending off small bundles almost at right angles on each side. these bifurcate occasionally as they extend towards the margin, and close to the margin small branches from adjoining vessels unite and enter the marginal spikes. at some of these points of union the vessels form curious loops, like those described under drosera. a continuous zigzag line of vessels thus runs round the whole circumference of the leaf, and in the midrib all the vessels are in close contact; so that all parts of the leaf seem to be brought into some degree of communication. nevertheless, the presence of vessels is not necessary for the transmission of the motor impulse, for it is transmitted from the tips of the sensitive filaments (these being about the / of an inch in length), into which no vessels enter; and these could not have been overlooked, as i made thin vertical sections of the leaf at the bases of the filaments. on several occasions, slits about the / of an inch in length were made with a lancet, close to the bases of the filaments, parallel to the midrib, and, therefore, directly across the course of the vessels. these were made sometimes on the inner and sometimes on the outer sides of the filaments; and after several days, when the leaves had reopened, these filaments were touched roughly (for they were always rendered in some degree torpid by the operation), and the lobes then closed in the ordinary manner, though slowly, and sometimes not until after a considerable interval of time. these cases show that the motor impulse is not transmitted along the vessels, and they further show that there is no necessity for a direct line of communication from the filament which is [page ] touched towards the midrib and opposite lobe, or towards the outer parts of the same lobe. two slits near each other, both parallel to the midrib, were next made in the same manner as before, one on each side of the base of a filament, on five distinct leaves, so that a little slip bearing a filament was connected with the rest of the leaf only at its two ends. these slips were nearly of the same size; one was carefully measured; it was . of an inch ( . mm.) in length, and . of an inch ( . mm.) in breadth; and in the middle stood the filament. only one of these slips withered and perished. after the leaf had recovered from the operation, though the slits were still open, the filaments thus circumstanced were roughly touched, and both lobes, or one alone, slowly closed. in two instances touching the filament produced no effect; but when the point of a needle was driven into the slip at the base of the filament, the lobes slowly closed. now in these cases the impulse must have proceeded along the slip in a line parallel to the midrib, and then have radiated forth, either from both ends or from one end alone of the slip, over the whole surface of the two lobes. again, two parallel slits, like the former ones, were made, one on each side of the base of a filament, at right angles to the midrib. after the leaves (two in number) had recovered, the filaments were roughly touched, and the lobes slowly closed; and here the impulse must have travelled for a short distance in a line at right angles to the midrib, and then have radiated forth on all sides over both lobes. these several cases prove that the motor impulse travels in all directions through the cellular tissue, independently of the course of the vessels. with drosera we have seen that the motor impulse [page ] is transmitted in like manner in all directions through the cellular tissue; but that its rate is largely governed by the length of the cells and the direction of their longer axes. thin sections of a leaf of dionaea were made by my son, and the cells, both those of the central and of the more superficial layers, were found much elongated, with their longer axes directed towards the midrib; and it is in this direction that the motor impulse must be sent with great rapidity from one lobe to the other, as both close simultaneously. the central parenchymatous cells are larger, more loosely attached together, and have more delicate walls than the more superficial cells. a thick mass of cellular tissue forms the upper surface of the midrib over the great central bundle of vessels. when the filaments were roughly touched, at the bases of which slits had been made, either on both sides or on one side, parallel to the midrib or at right angles to it, the two lobes, or only one, moved. in one of these cases, the lobe on the side which bore the filament that was touched moved, but in three other cases the opposite lobe alone moved; so that an injury which was sufficient to prevent a lobe moving did not prevent the transmission from it of a stimulus which excited the opposite lobe to move. we thus also learn that, although normally both lobes move together, each has the power of independent movement. a case, indeed, has already been given of a torpid leaf that had lately re-opened after catching an insect, of which one lobe alone moved when irritated. moreover, one end of the same lobe can close and re- expand, independently of the other end, as was seen in some of the foregoing experiments. when the lobes, which are rather thick, close, no trace of wrinkling can be seen on any part of their upper [page ] surfaces, it appears therefore that the cells must contract. the chief seat of the movement is evidently in the thick mass of cells which overlies the central bundle of vessels in the midrib. to ascertain whether this part contracts, a leaf was fastened on the stage of the microscope in such a manner that the two lobes could not become quite shut, and having made two minute black dots on the midrib, in a transverse line and a little towards one side, they were found by the micrometer to be / of an inch apart. one of the filaments was then touched and the lobes closed; but as they were prevented from meeting, i could still see the two dots, which now were / of an inch apart, so that a small portion of the upper surface of the midrib had contracted in a transverse line / of an inch (. mm.). we know that the lobes, whilst closing, become slightly incurved throughout their whole breadth. this movement appears to be due to the contraction of the superficial layers of cells over the whole upper surface. in order to observe their contraction, a narrow strip was cut out of one lobe at right angles to the midrib, so that the surface of the opposite lobe could be seen in this part when the leaf was shut. after the leaf had recovered from the operation and had re-expanded, three minute black dots were made on the surface opposite to the slit or window, in a line at right angles to the midrib. the distance between the dots was found to be / of an inch, so that the two extreme dots were / of an inch apart. one of the filaments was now touched and the leaf closed. on again measuring the distances between the dots, the two next to the midrib were nearer together by to / of an inch, and the two further dots by to / of an inch, than they were before; so that the two extreme [page ] dots now stood about / of an inch (. mm.) nearer together than before. if we suppose the whole upper surface of the lobe, which was / of an inch in breadth, to have contracted in the same proportion, the total contraction will have amounted to about / or / of an inch (. mm.); but whether this is sufficient to account for the slight inward curvature of the whole lobe, i am unable to say. finally, with respect to the movement of the leaves, the wonderful discovery made by dr. burdon sanderson* is now universally known; namely that there exists a normal electrical current in the blade and footstalk; and that when the leaves are irritated, the current is disturbed in the same manner as takes place during the contraction of the muscle of an animal. the re-expansion of the leaves.--this is effected at an insensibly slow rate, whether or not any object is enclosed. one lobe can re-expand by itself, as occurred with the torpid leaf of which one lobe alone had closed. we have also seen in the experiments with cheese and albumen that the two ends of the same lobe can re-expand to a certain extent independently of each other. but in all ordinary cases both lobes open at the same time. the re-expansion is not determined by the sensitive filaments; all three filaments on one lobe were cut off close to their bases; and the three * proc. royal soc.' vol. xxi. p. ; and lecture at the royal institution, june , , given in 'nature,' , pp. and . nuttall, in his 'gen. american plants,' p. (note), says that, whilst collecting this plant in its native home, "i had occasion to observe that a detached leaf would make repeated efforts towards disclosing itself to the influence of the sun; these attempts consisted in an undulatory motion of the marginal ciliae, accompanied by a partial opening and succeeding collapse of the lamina, which at length terminated in a complete expansion and in the destruction of sensibility." i am indebted to prof. oliver for this reference; but i do not understand what took place. [page ] leaves thus treated re-expanded,--one to a partial extent in hrs.,--a second to the same extent in hrs., and the third, which had been previously injured, not until the sixth day. these leaves after their re-expansion closed quickly when the filaments on the other lobe were irritated. these were then cut off one of the leaves, so that none were left. this mutilated leaf, notwithstanding the loss of all its filaments, re-expanded in two days in the usual manner. when the filaments have been excited by immersion in a solution of sugar, the lobes do not expand so soon as when the filaments have been merely touched; and this, i presume, is due to their having been strongly affected through exosmose, so that they continue for some time to transmit a motor impulse to the upper surface of the leaf. the following facts make me believe that the several layers of cells forming the lower surface of the leaf are always in a state of tension; and that it is owing to this mechanical state, aided probably by fresh fluid being attracted into the cells, that the lobes begin to separate or expand as soon as the contraction of the upper surface diminishes. a leaf was cut off and suddenly plunged perpendicularly into boiling water: i expected that the lobes would have closed, but instead of doing so, they diverged a little. i then took another fine leaf, with the lobes standing at an angle of nearly o to each other; and on immersing it as before, the angle suddenly increased to o. a third leaf was torpid from having recently re-expanded after having caught a fly, so that repeated touches of the filaments caused not the least movement; nevertheless, when similarly immersed, the lobes separated a little. as these leaves were inserted perpendicularly into the boiling water, both surfaces and the filaments [page ] must have been equally affected; and i can understand the divergence of the lobes only by supposing that the cells on the lower side, owing to their state of tension, acted mechanically and thus suddenly drew the lobes a little apart, as soon as the cells on the upper surface were killed and lost their contractile power. we have seen that boiling water in like manner causes the tentacles of drosera to curve backwards; and this is an analogous movement to the divergence of the lobes of dionaea. in some concluding remarks in the fifteenth chapter on the droseraceae, the different kinds of irritability possessed by the several genera, and the different manner in which they capture insects, will be compared. [page ] chapter xiv. aldrovanda vesiculosa. captures crustaceans--structure of the leaves in comparison with those of dionaea-- absorption by the glands, by the quadrifid processes, and points on the infolded margins-- aldrovanda vesiculosa, var. australis--captures prey--absorption of animal matter-- aldrovanda vesiculosa, var. verticillata--concluding remarks. this plant may be called a miniature aquatic dionaea. stein discovered in that the bilobed leaves, which are generally found closed in europe, open under a sufficiently high temperature, and, when touched, suddenly close.* they re-expand in from to hours, but only, as it appears, when inorganic objects are enclosed. the leaves sometimes contain bubbles of air, and were formerly supposed to be bladders; hence the specific name of vesiculosa. stein observed that water-insects were sometimes caught, and prof. cohn has recently found within the leaves of naturally growing plants many kinds of crustaceans and larvae. plants which had been kept in filtered water were placed by him in a vessel con- * since his original publication, stein has found out that the irritability of the leaves was observed by de sassus, as recorded in 'bull. bot. soc. de france,' in . delpino states in a paper published in ('nuovo giornale bot. ital.' vol. iii. p. ) that "una quantit di chioccioline e di altri animalcoli acquatici" are caught and suffocated by the leaves. i presume that chioccioline are fresh-water molluscs. it would be interesting to know whether their shells are at all corroded by the acid of the digestive secretion. i am greatly indebted to this distinguished naturalist for having sent me a copy of his memoir on aldrovanda, before its publication in his 'beitrge zur biologie der pflanzen,' drittes heft, , page . [page ] taining numerous crustaceans of the genus cypris, and next morning many were found imprisoned and alive, still swimming about within the closed leaves, but doomed to certain death. directly after reading prof. cohn's memoir, i received through the kindness of dr. hooker living plants from germany. as i can add nothing to prof. cohn's excellent description, i will give only two illustrations, one of a whorl of leaves copied from his work, and the other of a leaf pressed flat open, drawn by my son francis. i will, however, append a few remarks on the differences between this plant and dionaea. aldrovanda is destitute of roots and floats freely in the water. the leaves are arranged in whorls round the stem. their broad petioles terminate in from four to six rigid projections,* each tipped with a stiff, short bristle. the bilobed leaf, with the midrib likewise tipped with a bristle, stands in the midst of these projections, and is evidently defended by them. the lobes are formed of very delicate tissue, so as to be translucent; they open, according to cohn, about as much as the two valves of a living mussel-shell, therefore even less than the lobes of dionaea; and this must make the capture of aquatic animals more easy. the outside of the leaves and the petioles are covered with minute two-armed papillae, evidently answering to the eight-rayed papillae of dionaea. each lobe rather exceeds a semi-circle in convexity, and consists of two very different concentric portions; the inner and lesser portion, or that next to the midrib, *there has been much discussion by botanists on the homological nature of these projections. dr. nitschke ('bot. zeitung,' , p. ) believes that they correspond with the fimbriated scale-like bodies found at the bases of the petioles of drosera. [page ] is slightly concave, and is formed, according to cohn, of three layers of cells. its upper surface is studded with colourless glands like, but more simple than, those of dionaea; they are supported on distinct footstalks, consisting of two rows of cells. the outer fig. . (aldrovanda vesiculosa.) upper figure, whorl of leaves (from prof. cohn). lower figure, leaf pressed flat open and greatly enlarged. and broader portion of the lobe is flat and very thin, being formed of only two layers of cells. its upper surface does not bear any glands, but, in their place, small quadrifid processes, each consisting of four tapering projections, which rise from a common [page ] prominence. these processes are formed of very delicate membrane lined with a layer of protoplasm; and they sometimes contain aggregated globules of hyaline matter. two of the slightly diverging arms are directed towards the circumference, and two towards the midrib, forming together a sort of greek cross. occasionally two of the arms are replaced by one, and then the projection is trifid. we shall see in a future chapter that these projections curiously resemble those found within the bladders of utricularia, more especially of utricularia montana, although this genus is not related to aldrovanda. a narrow rim of the broad flat exterior part of each lobe is turned inwards, so that, when the lobes are closed, the exterior surfaces of the infolded portions come into contact. the edge itself bears a row of conical, flattened, transparent points with broad bases, like the prickles on the stem of a bramble or rubus. as the rim is infolded, these points are directed towards the midrib, and they appear at first as if they were adapted to prevent the escape of prey; but this can hardly be their chief function, for they are composed of very delicate and highly flexible membrane, which can be easily bent or quite doubled back without being cracked. nevertheless, the infolded rims, together with the points, must somewhat interfere with the retrograde movement of any small creature, as soon as the lobes begin to close. the circumferential part of the leaf of aldrovanda thus differs greatly from that of dionaea; nor can the points on the rim be considered as homologous with the spikes round the leaves of dionaea, as these latter are prolongations of the blade, and not mere epidermic productions. they appear also to serve for a widely different purpose. [page ] on the concave gland-bearing portion of the lobes, and especially on the midrib, there are numerous, long, finely pointed hairs, which, as prof. cohn remarks, there can be little doubt are sensitive to a touch, and, when touched, cause the leaf to close. they are formed of two rows of cells, or, according to cohn, sometimes of four, and do not include any vascular tissue. they differ also from the six sensitive filaments of dionaea in being colourless, and in having a medial as well as a basal articulation. no doubt it is owing to these two articulations that, notwithstanding their length, they escape being broken when the lobes close. the plants which i received during the early part of october from kew never opened their leaves, though subjected to a high temperature. after examining the structure of some of them, i experimented on only two, as i hoped that the plants would grow; and i now regret that i did not sacrifice a greater number. a leaf was cut open along the midrib, and the glands examined under a high power. it was then placed in a few drops of an infusion of raw meat. after hrs. m. there was no change, but when next examined after hrs. m., the outer cells of the glands contained, instead of limpid fluid, spherical masses of a granular substance, showing that matter had been absorbed from the infusion. that these glands secrete a fluid which dissolves or digests animal matter out of the bodies of the creatures which the leaves capture, is also highly probable from the analogy of dionaea. if we may trust to the same analogy, the concave and inner portions of the two lobes probably close together by a slow movement, as soon as the glands have absorbed a slight amount of [page ] already soluble animal matter. the included water would thus be pressed out, and the secretion consequently not be too much diluted to act. with respect to the quadrifid processes on the outer parts of the lobes, i was not able to decide whether they had been acted on by the infusion; for the lining of protoplasm was somewhat shrunk before they were immersed. many of the points on the infolded rims also had their lining of protoplasm similarly shrunk, and contained spherical granules of hyaline matter. a solution of urea was next employed. this substance was chosen partly because it is absorbed by the quadrifid processes and more especially by the glands of utricularia--a plant which, as we shall hereafter see, feeds on decayed animal matter. as urea is one of the last products of the chemical changes going on in the living body, it seems fitted to represent the early stages of the decay of the dead body. i was also led to try urea from a curious little fact mentioned by prof. cohn, namely that when rather large crustaceans are caught between the closing lobes, they are pressed so hard whilst making their escape that they often void their sausage-shaped masses of excrement, which were found within most of the leaves. these masses, no doubt, contain urea. they would be left either on the broad outer surfaces of the lobes where the quadrifids are situated, or within the closed concavity. in the latter case, water charged with excrementitious and decaying matter would be slowly forced outwards, and would bathe the quadrifids, if i am right in believing that the concave lobes contract after a time like those of dionaea. foul water would also be apt to ooze out at all times, especially when bubbles of air were generated within the concavity. a leaf was cut open and examined, and the outer [page ] cells of the glands were found to contain only limpid fluid. some of the quadrifids included a few spherical granules, but several were transparent and empty, and their positions were marked. this leaf was now immersed in a little solution of one part of urea to of water, or three grains to the ounce. after hrs. m. there was no change either in the glands or quadrifids; nor was there any certain change in the glands after hrs.; so that, as far as one trial goes, urea does not act on them in the same manner as an infusion of raw meat. it was different with the quadrifids; for the lining of protoplasm, instead of presenting a uniform texture, was now slightly shrunk, and exhibited in many places minute, thickened, irregular, yellowish specks and ridges, exactly like those which appear within the quadrifids of utricularia when treated with this same solution. moreover, several of the quadrifids, which were before empty, now contained moderately sized or very small, more or less aggregated, globules of yellowish matter, as likewise occurs under the same circumstances with utricularia. some of the points on the infolded margins of the lobes were similarly affected; for their lining of protoplasm was a little shrunk and included yellowish specks; and those which were before empty now contained small spheres and irregular masses of hyaline matter, more or less aggregated; so that both the points on the margins and the quadrifids had absorbed matter from the solution in the course of hrs.; but to this subject i shall recur. in another rather old leaf, to which nothing had been given, but which had been kept in foul water, some of the quadrifids contained aggregated translucent globules. these were not acted on by a solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water; and this negative result [page ] agrees with what i have observed under similar circumstances with utricularia. aldrovanda vesiculosa, var. australis.--dried leaves of this plant from queensland in australia were sent me by prof. oliver from the herbarium at kew. whether it ought to be considered as a distinct species or a variety, cannot be told until the flowers are examined by a botanist. the projections at the upper end of the petiole (from four to six in number) are considerably longer relatively to the blade, and much more attenuated than those of the european form. they are thickly covered for a considerable space near their extremities with the upcurved prickles, which are quite absent in the latter form; and they generally bear on their tips two or three straight prickles instead of one. the bilobed leaf appears also to be rather larger and somewhat broader, with the pedicel by which it is attached to the upper end of the petiole a little longer. the points on the infolded margins likewise differ; they have narrower bases, and are more pointed; long and short points also alternate with much more regularity than in the european form. the glands and sensitive hairs are similar in the two forms. no quadrifid processes could be seen on several of the leaves, but i do not doubt that they were present, though indistinguishable from their delicacy and from having shrivelled; for they were quite distinct on one leaf under circumstances presently to be mentioned. some of the closed leaves contained no prey, but in one there was a rather large beetle, which from its flattened tibiae i suppose was an aquatic species, but was not allied to colymbetes. all the softer tissues of this beetle were completely dissolved, and its chitinous integuments were as clean as if they had been [page ] boiled in caustic potash; so that it must have been enclosed for a considerable time. the glands were browner and more opaque than those on other leaves which had caught nothing; and the quadrifid processes, from being partly filled with brown granular matter, could be plainly distinguished, which was not the case, as already stated, on the other leaves. some of the points on the infolded margins likewise contained brownish granular matter. we thus gain additional evidence that the glands, the quadrifid processes, and the marginal points, all have the power of absorbing matter, though probably of a different nature. within another leaf disintegrated remnants of a rather small animal, not a crustacean, which had simple, strong, opaque mandibles, and a large unarticulated chitinous coat, were present. lumps of black organic matter, possibly of a vegetable nature, were enclosed in two other leaves; but in one of these there was also a small worm much decayed. but the nature of partially digested and decayed bodies, which have been pressed flat, long dried, and then soaked in water, cannot be recognised easily. all the leaves contained unicellular and other algae, still of a greenish colour, which had evidently lived as intruders, in the same manner as occurs, according to cohn, within the leaves of this plant in germany. aldrovanda vesiculosa, var. verticillata.--dr. king, superintendent of the botanic gardens, kindly sent me dried specimens collected near calcutta. this form was, i believe, considered by wallich as a distinct species, under the name of verticillata. it resembles the australian form much more nearly than the european; namely in the projections at the upper end of the petiole being much attenuated and covered with [page ] upcurved prickles; they terminate also in two straight little prickles. the bilobed leaves are, i believe, larger and certainly broader even than those of the australian form; so that the greater convexity of their margins was conspicuous. the length of an open leaf being taken at , the breadth of the bengal form is nearly , of the australian form , and of the german . the points on the infolded margins are like those in the australian form. of the few leaves which were examined, three contained entomostracan crustaceans. concluding remarks.--the leaves of the three foregoing closely allied species or varieties are manifestly adapted for catching living creatures. with respect to the functions of the several parts, there can be little doubt that the long jointed hairs are sensitive, like those of dionaea, and that, when touched, they cause the lobes to close. that the glands secrete a true digestive fluid and afterwards absorb the digested matter, is highly probable from the analogy of dionaea,--from the limpid fluid within their cells being aggregated into spherical masses, after they had absorbed an infusion of raw meat,--from their opaque and granular condition in the leaf, which had enclosed a beetle for a long time,--and from the clean condition of the integuments of this insect, as well as of crustaceans (as described by cohn), which have been long captured. again, from the effect produced on the quadrifid processes by an immersion for hrs. in a solution of urea,--from the presence of brown granular matter within the quadrifids of the leaf in which the beetle had been caught,--and from the analogy of utricularia,--it is probable that these processes absorb excrementitious and decaying animal matter. it is a more curious fact that the points on [page ] the infolded margins apparently serve to absorb decayed animal matter in the same manner as the quadrifids. we can thus understand the meaning of the infolded margins of the lobes furnished with delicate points directed inwards, and of the broad, flat, outer portions, bearing quadrifid processes; for these surfaces must be liable to be irrigated by foul water flowing from the concavity of the leaf when it contains dead animals. this would follow from various causes,--from the gradual contraction of the concavity,--from fluid in excess being secreted,- -and from the generation of bubbles of air. more observations are requisite on this head; but if this view is correct, we have the remarkable case of different parts of the same leaf serving for very different purposes--one part for true digestion, and another for the absorption of decayed animal matter. we can thus also understand how, by the gradual loss of either power, a plant might be gradually adapted for the one function to the exclusion of the other; and it will hereafter be shown that two genera, namely pinguicula and utricularia, belonging to the same family, have been adapted for these two different functions. [page ] chapter xv. drosophyllum--roridula--byblis--glandular hairs of other plants-- concluding remarks on the droseraceae. drosophyllum--structure of leaves--nature of the secretion--manner of catching insects-- power of absorption--digestion of animal substances--summary on drosophyllum--roridula- -byblis--glandular hairs of other plants, their power of absorption--saxifraga--primula-- pelargonium--erica--mirabilis--nicotiana--summary on glandular hairs--concluding remarks on the droseraceae. drosophyllum lusitanicum.--this rare plant has been found only in portugal, and, as i hear from dr. hooker, in morocco. i obtained living specimens through the great kindness of mr. w.c. tait, and afterwards from mr. g. maw and dr. moore. mr. tait informs me that it grows plentifully on the sides of dry hills near oporto, and that vast numbers of flies adhere to the leaves. this latter fact is well-known to the villagers, who call the plant the "fly-catcher, " and hang it up in their cottages for this purpose. a plant in my hot-house caught so many insects during the early part of april, although the weather was cold and insects scarce, that it must have been in some manner strongly attractive to them. on four leaves of a young and small plant, , , , and minute insects, chiefly diptera, were found in the autumn adhering to them. i neglected to examine the roots, but i hear from dr. hooker that they are very small, as in the case of the previously mentioned members of the same family of the droseraceae. the leaves arise from an almost woody axis; they [page ] are linear, much attenuated towards their tips, and several inches in length. the upper surface is concave, the lower convex, with a narrow channel down the middle. both surfaces, with the exception of the channel, are covered with glands, supported on pedicels and arranged in irregular longitudinal rows. these organs i shall call tentacles, from their close resemblance to those of drosera, though they have no power of movement. those on the same leaf differ much in length. the glands also differ in size, and are of a bright pink or of a purple colour; their upper surfaces are convex, and the lower flat or even concave, so that they resemble miniature mushrooms in appearance. they are formed of two (as i believe) layers of delicate angular cells, enclosing eight or ten larger cells with thicker, zigzag walls. within these larger cells there are others marked by spiral lines, and apparently connected with the spiral vessels which run up the green multi-cellular pedicels. the glands secrete large drops of viscid secretion. other glands, having the same general appearance, are found on the flower-peduncles and calyx. fig. . (drosophyllum lusitanicum.) part of leaf, enlarged seven times, showing lower surface. besides the glands which are borne on longer or shorter pedicels, there are numerous ones, both on the upper and lower surfaces of the leaves, so small as to be scarcely visible to the naked eye. they are colourless and almost sessile, either circular or oval in outline; the latter occurring chiefly on the backs of the leaves (fig. ). internally they have exactly the same structure as the larger glands which are supported on pedicels; [page ] and indeed the two sets almost graduate into one another. but the sessile glands differ in one important respect, for they never secrete spontaneously, as far as i have seen, though i have examined them under a high power on a hot day, whilst the glands on pedicels were secreting copiously. nevertheless, if little bits of damp albumen or fibrin are placed on these sessile glands, they begin after a time to secrete, in the same manner as do the glands of dionaea when similarly treated. when they were merely rubbed with a bit of raw meat, i believe that they likewise secreted. both the sessile glands and the taller ones on pedicels have the power of rapidly absorbing nitrogenous matter. the secretion from the taller glands differs in a remarkable manner from that of drosera, in being acid before the glands have been in any way excited; and judging from the changed colour of litmus paper, more strongly acid than that of drosera. this fact was observed repeatedly; on one occasion i chose a young leaf, which was not secreting freely, and had never caught an insect, yet the secretion on all the glands coloured litmus paper of a bright red. from the quickness with which the glands are able to obtain animal matter from such substances as well-washed fibrin and cartilage, i suspect that a small quantity of the proper ferment must be present in the secretion before the glands are excited, so that a little animal matter is quickly dissolved. owing to the nature of the secretion or to the shape of the glands, the drops are removed from them with singular facility. it is even somewhat difficult, by the aid of a finely pointed polished needle, slightly damped with water, to place a minute particle of any kind on one of the drops; for on withdrawing the [page ] needle, the drop is generally withdrawn; whereas with drosera there is no such difficulty, though the drops are occasionally withdrawn. from this peculiarity, when a small insect alights on a leaf of drosophyllum, the drops adhere to its wings, feet, or body, and are drawn from the gland; the insect then crawls onward and other drops adhere to it; so that at last, bathed by the viscid secretion, it sinks down and dies, resting on the small sessile glands with which the surface of the leaf is thickly covered. in the case of drosera, an insect sticking to one or more of the exterior glands is carried by their movement to the centre of the leaf; with drosophyllum, this is effected by the crawling of the insect, as from its wings being clogged by the secretion it cannot fly away. there is another difference in function between the glands of these two plants: we know that the glands of drosera secrete more copiously when properly excited. but when minute particles of carbonate of ammonia, drops of a solution of this salt or of the nitrate of ammonia, saliva, small insects, bits of raw or roast meat, albumen, fibrin or cartilage, as well as inorganic particles, were placed on the glands of drosophyllum, the amount of secretion never appeared to be in the least increased. as insects do not commonly adhere to the taller glands, but withdraw the secretion, we can see that there would be little use in their having acquired the habit of secreting copiously when stimulated; whereas with drosera this is of use, and the habit has been acquired. nevertheless, the glands of drosophyllum, without being stimulated, continually secrete, so as to replace the loss by evaporation. thus when a plant was placed under a small bell-glass with its inner surface and support thoroughly wetted, there was no loss by evaporation, and so much [page ] secretion was accumulated in the course of a day that it ran down the tentacles and covered large spaces of the leaves. the glands to which the above named nitrogenous substances and liquids were given did not, as just stated, secrete more copiously; on the contrary, they absorbed their own drops of secretion with surprising quickness. bits of damp fibrin were placed on five glands, and when they were looked at after an interval of hr. m., the fibrin was almost dry, the secretion having been all absorbed. so it was with three cubes of albumen after hr. m., and with four other cubes, though these latter were not looked at until hrs. m. had elapsed. the same result followed in between hr. m. and hr. m. when particles both of cartilage and meat were placed on several glands. lastly, a minute drop (about / of a minim) of a solution of one part of nitrate of ammonia to of water was distributed between the secretion surrounding three glands, so that the amount of fluid surrounding each was slightly increased; yet when looked at after hrs., all three were dry. on the other hand, seven particles of glass and three of coal-cinders, of nearly the same size as those of the above named organic substances, were placed on ten glands; some of them being observed for hrs., and others for two or three days; but there was not the least sign of the secretion being absorbed. hence, in the former cases, the absorption of the secretion must have been due to the presence of some nitrogenous matter, which was either already soluble or was rendered so by the secretion. as the fibrin was pure, and had been well washed in distilled water after being kept in glycerine, and as the cartilage had been soaked in water, i suspect that these substances must [page ] have been slightly acted on and rendered soluble within the above stated short periods. the glands have not only the power of rapid absorption, but likewise of secreting again quickly; and this latter habit has perhaps been gained, inasmuch as insects, if they touch the glands, generally withdraw the drops of secretion, which have to be restored. the exact period of re-secretion was recorded in only a few cases. the glands on which bits of meat were placed, and which were nearly dry after about hr. m., when looked at after additional hours, were found secreting; so it was after hrs. with one gland on which a bit of albumen had been placed. the three glands to which a minute drop of a solution of nitrate of ammonia was distributed, and which became dry after hrs., were beginning to re-secrete after only additional hours. tentacles incapable of movement.--many of the tall tentacles, with insects adhering to them, were carefully observed; and fragments of insects, bits of raw meat, albumen, &c., drops of a solution of two salts of ammonia and of saliva, were placed on the glands of many tentacles; but not a trace of movement could ever be detected. i also repeatedly irritated the glands with a needle, and scratched and pricked the blades, but neither the blade nor the tentacles became at all inflected. we may therefore conclude that they are incapable of movement. on the power of absorption possessed by the glands.--it has already been indirectly shown that the glands on pedicels absorb animal matter; and this is further shown by their changed colour, and by the aggregation of their contents, after they have been left in contact with nitrogenous substances or liquids. the following observations apply both to the glands supported on [page ] pedicels and to the minute sessile ones. before a gland has been in any way stimulated, the exterior cells commonly contain only limpid purple fluid; the more central ones including mulberry-like masses of purple granular matter. a leaf was placed in a little solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water ( grs. to oz.), and the glands were instantly darkened and very soon became black; this change being due to the strongly marked aggregation of their contents, more especially of the inner cells. another leaf was placed in a solution of the same strength of nitrate of ammonia, and the glands were slightly darkened in m., more so in m., and after hr. m. were of so dark a red as to appear almost black. other leaves were placed in a weak infusion of raw meat and in human saliva, and the glands were much darkened in m., and after m. were so dark as almost to deserve to be called black. even immersion for a whole day in distilled water occasionally induces some aggregation within the glands, so that they become of a darker tint. in all these cases the glands are affected in exactly the same manner as those of drosera. milk, however, which acts so energetically on drosera, seems rather less effective on drosophyllum, for the glands were only slightly darkened by an immersion of hr. m., but became decidedly darker after hrs. leaves which had been left for hrs. in an infusion of raw meat or in saliva were placed in the solution of carbonate of ammonia, and the glands now became greenish; whereas, if they had been first placed in the carbonate, they would have become black. in this latter case, the ammonia probably combines with the acid of the secretion, and therefore does not act on the colouring matter; but when the glands are first subjected to an organic [page ] fluid, either the acid is consumed in the work of digestion or the cell-walls are rendered more permeable, so that the undecomposed carbonate enters and acts on the colouring matter. if a particle of the dry carbonate is placed on a gland, the purple colour is quickly discharged, owing probably to an excess of the salt. the gland, moreover, is killed. turning now to the action of organic substances, the glands on which bits of raw meat were placed became dark-coloured; and in hrs. their contents were conspicuously aggregated. several glands with bits of albumen and fibrin were darkened in between hrs. and hrs.; but in one case the purple colour was completely discharged. some glands which had caught flies were compared with others close by; and though they did not differ much in colour, there was a marked difference in their state of aggregation. in some few instances, however, there was no such difference, and this appeared to be due to the insects having been caught long ago, so that the glands had recovered their pristine state. in one case, a group of the sessile colourless glands, to which a small fly adhered, presented a peculiar appearance; for they had become purple, owing to purple granular matter coating the cell-walls. i may here mention as a caution that, soon after some of my plants arrived in the spring from portugal, the glands were not plainly acted on by bits of meat, or insects, or a solution of ammonia--a circumstance for which i cannot account. digestion of solid animal matter.--whilst i was trying to place on two of the taller glands little cubes of albumen, these slipped down, and, besmeared with secretion, were left resting on some of the small sessile glands. after hrs. one of these cubes was found [page ] completely liquefied, but with a few white streaks still visible; the other was much rounded, but not quite dissolved. two other cubes were left on tall glands for hrs. m., by which time all the secretion was absorbed; but they were not perceptibly acted on, though no doubt some slight amount of animal matter had been absorbed from them. they were then placed on the small sessile glands, which being thus stimulated secreted copiously in the course of hrs. one of these cubes was much liquefied within this short time; and both were completely liquefied after hrs. m.; the little liquid masses, however, still showing some white streaks. these streaks disappeared after an additional period of hrs. m.; and by next morning (i.e. hrs. from the time when the cubes were first placed on the glands) the liquefied matter was wholly absorbed. a cube of albumen was left on another tall gland, which first absorbed the secretion and after hrs. poured forth a fresh supply. this cube, now surrounded by secretion, was left on the gland for an additional hrs., but was very little, if at all, acted on. we may, therefore, conclude, either that the secretion from the tall glands has little power of digestion, though strongly acid, or that the amount poured forth from a single gland is insufficient to dissolve a particle of albumen which within the same time would have been dissolved by the secretion from several of the small sessile glands. owing to the death of my last plant, i was unable to ascertain which of these alternatives is the true one. four minute shreds of pure fibrin were placed, each resting on one, two, or three of the taller glands. in the course of hrs. m. the secretion was all absorbed, and the shreds were left almost dry. they [page ] were then pushed on to the sessile glands. one shred, after hrs. m., seemed quite dissolved, but this may have been a mistake. a second, when examined after hrs. m., was liquefied, but the liquid as seen under the microscope still contained floating granules of fibrin. the other two shreds were completely liquefied after hrs. m.; but in one of the drops a very few granules could still be detected. these, however, were dissolved after an additional interval of hrs. m.; and the surface of the leaf for some distance all round was covered with limpid fluid. it thus appears that drosophyllum digests albumen and fibrin rather more quickly than drosera can; and this may perhaps be attributed to the acid, together probably with some small amount of the ferment, being present in the secretion, before the glands have been stimulated; so that digestion begins at once. concluding remarks.--the linear leaves of drosophyllum differ but slightly from those of certain species of drosera; the chief differences being, firstly, the presence of minute, almost sessile, glands, which, like those of dionaea, do not secrete until they are excited by the absorption of nitrogenous matter. but glands of this kind are present on the leaves of drosera binata, and appear to be represented by the papillae on the leaves of drosera rotundifolia. secondly, the presence of tentacles on the backs of the leaves; but we have seen that a few tentacles, irregularly placed and tending towards abortion, are retained on the backs of the leaves of drosera binata. there are greater differences in function between the two genera. the most important one is that the tentacles of drosophyllum have no power of movement; this loss being partially replaced by the drops of viscid [page ] secretion being readily withdrawn from the glands; so that, when an insect comes into contact with a drop, it is able to crawl away, but soon touches other drops, and then, smothered by the secretion, sinks down on the sessile glands and dies. another difference is, that the secretion from the tall glands, before they have been in any way excited, is strongly acid, and perhaps contains a small quantity of the proper ferment. again, these glands do not secrete more copiously from being excited by the absorption of nitrogenous matter; on the contrary, they then absorb their own secretion with extraordinary quickness. in a short time they begin to secrete again. all these circumstances are probably connected with the fact that insects do not commonly adhere to the glands with which they first come into contact, though this does sometimes occur; and that it is chiefly the secretion from the sessile glands which dissolves animal matter out of their bodies. roridula. roridula dentata.--this plant, a native of the western parts of the cape of good hope, was sent to me in a dried state from kew. it has an almost woody stem and branches, and apparently grows to a height of some feet. the leaves are linear, with their summits much attenuated. their upper and lower surfaces are concave, with a ridge in the middle, and both are covered with tentacles, which differ greatly in length; some being very long, especially those on the tips of the leaves, and some very short. the glands also differ much in size and are somewhat elongated. they are supported on multicellular pedicels. this plant, therefore, agrees in several respects with [page ] drosophyllum, but differs in the following points. i could detect no sessile glands; nor would these have been of any use, as the upper surface of the leaves is thickly clothed with pointed, unicellular hairs directed upwards. the pedicels of the tentacles do not include spiral vessels; nor are there any spiral cells within the glands. the leaves often arise in tufts and are pinnatifid, the divisions projecting at right angles to the main linear blade. these lateral divisions are often very short and bear only a single terminal tentacle, with one or two short ones on the sides. no distinct line of demarcation can be drawn between the pedicels of the long terminal tentacles and the much attenuated summits of the leaves. we may, indeed, arbitrarily fix on the point to which the spiral vessels proceeding from the blade extend; but there is no other distinction. it was evident from the many particles of dirt sticking to the glands that they secrete much viscid matter. a large number of insects of many kinds also adhered to the leaves. i could nowhere discover any signs of the tentacles having been inflected over the captured insects; and this probably would have been seen even in the dried specimens, had they possessed the power of movement. hence, in this negative character, roridula resembles its northern representative, drosophyllum. byblis. byblis gigantea (western australia).--a dried specimen, about inches in height, with a strong stem, was sent me from kew. the leaves are some inches in length, linear, slightly flattened, with a small projecting rib on the lower surface. they are covered on all sides by glands of two kinds [page ] --sessile ones arranged in rows, and others supported on moderately long pedicels. towards the narrow summits of the leaves the pedicels are longer than elsewhere, and here equal the diameter of the leaf. the glands are purplish, much flattened, and formed of a single layer of radiating cells, which in the larger glands are from forty to fifty in number. the pedicels consist of single elongated cells, with colourless, extremely delicate walls, marked with the finest intersecting spiral lines. whether these lines are the result of contraction from the drying of the walls, i do not know, but the whole pedicel was often spirally rolled up. these glandular hairs are far more simple in structure than the so-called tentacles of the preceding genera, and they do not differ essentially from those borne by innumerable other plants. the flower-peduncles bear similar glands. the most singular character about the leaves is that the apex is enlarged into a little knob, covered with glands, and about a third broader than the adjoining part of the attenuated leaf. in two places dead flies adhered to the glands. as no instance is known of unicellular structures having any power of movement,* byblis, no doubt, catches insects solely by the aid of its viscid secretion. these probably sink down besmeared with the secretion and rest on the small sessile glands, which, if we may judge by the analogy of drosophyllum, then pour forth their secretion and afterwards absorb the digested matter. supplementary observations on the power of absorption by the glandular hairs of other plants.--a few observations on this subject may be here conveniently introduced. as the glands of many, probably of all, * sachs, 'trait de bot.,' rd edit. , p. . [page ] the species of droseraceae absorb fluids or at least allow them readily to enter,* it seemed desirable to ascertain how far the glands of other plants which are not specially adapted for capturing insects, had the same power. plants were chosen for trial at hazard, with the exception of two species of saxifrage, which were selected from belonging to a family allied to the droseraceae. most of the experiments were made by immersing the glands either in an infusion of raw meat or more commonly in a solution of carbonate of ammonia, as this latter substance acts so powerfully and rapidly on protoplasm. it seemed also particularly desirable to ascertain whether ammonia was absorbed, as a small amount is contained in rain-water. with the droseraceae the secretion of a viscid fluid by the glands does not prevent their absorbing; so that the glands of other plants might excrete superfluous matter, or secrete an odoriferous fluid as a protection against the attacks of insects, or for any other purpose, and yet have the power of absorbing. i regret that in the following cases i did not try whether the secretion could digest or render soluble animal substances, but such experiments would have been difficult on account of the small size of the glands and the small amount of secretion. we shall see in the next chapter that the secretion from the glandular hairs of pinguicula certainly dissolves animal matter. [saxifraga umbrosa.--the flower-peduncles and petioles of the leaves are clothed with short hairs, bearing pink-coloured glands, formed of several polygonal cells, with their pedicels divided by partitions into distinct cells, which are generally colourless, but sometimes pink. the glands secrete a yellowish viscid fluid, by *the distinction between true absorption and mere permeation, or imbibition, is by no means clearly understood: see mller's 'physiology,' eng. translat. , vol. i. p. . [page ] which minute diptera are sometimes, though not often, caught.* the cells of the glands contain bright pink fluid, charged with granules or with globular masses of pinkish pulpy matter. this matter must be protoplasm, for it is seen to undergo slow but incessant changes of form if a gland be placed in a drop of water and examined. similar movements were observed after glands had been immersed in water for , , , , and hrs. even after this latter period the glands retained their bright pink colour; and the protoplasm within their cells did not appear to have become more aggregated. the continually changing forms of the little masses of protoplasm are not due to the absorption of water, as they were seen in glands kept dry. a flower-stem, still attached to a plant, was bent (may ) so as to remain immersed for hrs. m. in a strong infusion of raw meat. the colour of the contents of the glands was slightly changed, being now of a duller and more purple tint than before. the contents also appeared more aggregated, for the spaces between the little masses of protoplasm were wider; but this latter result did not follow in some other and similar experiments. the masses seemed to change their forms more rapidly than did those in water; so that the cells had a different appearance every four or five minutes. elongated masses became in the course of one or two minutes spherical; and spherical ones drew themselves out and united with others. minute masses rapidly increased in size, and three distinct ones were seen to unite. the movements were, in short, exactly like those described in the case of drosera. the cells of the pedicels were not affected by the infusion; nor were they in the following experiment. another flower-stem was placed in the same manner and for the same length of time in a solution of one part of nitrate of ammonia to of water (or grs. to oz.), and the glands were discoloured in exactly the same manner as by the infusion of raw meat. another flower-stem was immersed, as before, in a solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water. the glands, after hr. m., were not discoloured, but after hrs. m. most of them had become dull purple, some of them blackish- *in the case of saxifraga tridactylites, mr. druce says ('pharmaceutical journal, ' may ) that he examined some dozens of plants, and in almost every instance remnants of insects adhered to the leaves. so it is, as i hear from a friend, with this plant in ireland. [page ] green, a few being still unaffected. the little masses of protoplasm within the cells were seen in movement. the cells of the pedicels were unaltered. the experiment was repeated, and a fresh flower-stem was left for hrs. in the solution, and now a great effect was produced; all the glands were much blackened, and the previously transparent fluid in the cells of the pedicels, even down to their bases, contained spherical masses of granular matter. by comparing many different hairs, it was evident that the glands first absorb the carbonate, and that the effect thus produced travels down the hairs from cell to cell. the first change which could be observed is a cloudy appearance in the fluid, due to the formation of very fine granules, which afterwards aggregate into larger masses. altogether, in the darkening of the glands, and in the process of aggregation travelling down the cells of the pedicels, there is the closest resemblance to what takes place when a tentacle of drosera is immersed in a weak solution of the same salt. the glands, however, absorb very much more slowly than those of drosera. besides the glandular hairs, there are star-shaped organs which do not appear to secrete, and which were not in the least affected by the above solutions. although in the case of uninjured flower-stems and leaves the carbonate seems to be absorbed only by the glands, yet it enters a cut surface much more quickly than a gland. strips of the rind of a flower-stem were torn off, and the cells of the pedicels were seen to contain only colourless transparent fluid; those of the glands including as usual some granular matter. these strips were then immersed in the same solution as before (one part of the carbonate to of water), and in a few minutes granular matter appeared in the lowercells of all the pedicels. the action invariably commenced (for i tried the experiment repeatedly) in the lowest cells, and therefore close to the torn surface, and then gradually travelled up the hairs until it reached the glands, in a reversed direction to what occurs in uninjured specimens. the glands then became discoloured, and the previously contained granular matter was aggregated into larger masses. two short bits of a flower-stem were also left for hrs. m. in a weaker solution of one part of the carbonate to of water; and in both specimens the pedicels of the hairs near the cut ends now contained much granular matter; and the glands were completely discoloured. lastly, bits of meat were placed on some glands; these were examined after hrs., as were others, which had apparently not long before caught minute flies; but they did not present any [page ] difference from the glands of other hairs. perhaps there may not have been time enough for absorption. i think so as some glands, on which dead flies had evidently long lain, were of a pale dirty purple colour or even almost colourless, and the granular matter within them presented an unusual and somewhat peculiar appearance. that these glands had absorbed animal matter from the flies, probably by exosmose into the viscid secretion, we may infer, not only from their changed colour, but because, when placed in a solution of carbonate of ammonia, some of the cells in their pedicels become filled with granular matter; whereas the cells of other hairs, which had not caught flies, after being treated with the same solution for the same length of time, contained only a small quantity of granular matter. but more evidence is necessary before we fully admit that the glands of this saxifrage can absorb, even with ample time allowed, animal matter from the minute insects which they occasionally and accidentally capture. saxifraga rotundifolia (?).--the hairs on the flower-stems of this species are longer than those just described, and bear pale brown glands. many were examined, and the cells of the pedicels were quite transparent. a bent stem was immersed for m. in a solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water, and two or three of the uppermost cells in the pedicels now contained granular or aggregated matter; the glands having become of a bright yellowish-green. the glands of this species therefore absorb the carbonate much more quickly than do those of saxifraga umbrosa, and the upper cells of the pedicels are likewise affected much more quickly. pieces of the stem were cut off and immersed in the same solution; and now the process of aggregation travelled up the hairs in a reversed direction; the cells close to the cut surfaces being first affected. primula sinensis.--the flower-stems, the upper and lower surfaces of the leaves and their footstalks, are all clothed with a multitude of longer and shorter hairs. the pedicels of the longer hairs are divided by transverse partitions into eight or nine cells. the enlarged terminal cell is globular, forming a gland which secretes a variable amount of thick, slightly viscid, not acid, brownish-yellow matter. a piece of a young flower-stem was first immersed in distilled water for hrs. m., and the glandular hairs were not at all affected. another piece, bearing twenty-five short and nine long hairs, was carefully examined. the glands of the latter contained no solid or semi-solid matter; and those of only two [page ] of the twenty-five short hairs contained some globules. this piece was then immersed for hrs. in a solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water, and now the glands of the twenty-five shorter hairs, with two or three exceptions, contained either one large or from two to five smaller spherical masses of semi-solid matter. three of the glands of the nine long hairs likewise included similar masses. in a few hairs there were also globules in the cells immediately beneath the glands. looking to all thirty-four hairs, there could be no doubt that the glands had absorbed some of the carbonate. another piece was left for only hr. in the same solution, and aggregated matter appeared in all the glands. my son francis examined some glands of the longer hairs, which contained little masses of matter, before they were immersed in any solution; and these masses slowly changed their forms, so that no doubt they consisted of protoplasm. he then irrigated these hairs for hr. m., whilst under the microscope, with a solution of one part of the carbonate to of water; the glands were not perceptibly affected, nor could this have been expected, as their contents were already aggregated. but in the cells of the pedicels numerous, almost colourless, spheres of matter appeared, which changed their forms and slowly coalesced; the appearance of the cells being thus totally changed at successive intervals of time. the glands on a young flower-stem, after having been left for hrs. m. in a strong solution of one part of the carbonate to of water, contained an abundance of aggregated masses, but whether generated by the action of the salt, i do not know. this piece was again placed in the solution, so that it was immersed altogether for hrs. m., and now there was a great change; for almost all the spherical masses within the gland-cells had disappeared, being replaced by granular matter of a darker brown. the experiment was thrice repeated with nearly the same result. on one occasion the piece was left immersed for hrs. m., and though almost all the spherical masses were changed into the brown granular matter, a few still remained. if the spherical masses of aggregated matter had been originally produced merely by some chemical or physical action, it seems strange that a somewhat longer immersion in the same solution should so completely alter their character. but as the masses which slowly and spontaneously changed their forms must have consisted of living protoplasm, there is nothing surprising in its being injured or killed, and its appearance wholly changed by long immersion in so strong a solution of the carbonate as that [page ] employed. a solution of this strength paralyses all movement in drosera, but does not kill the protoplasm; a still stronger solution prevents the protoplasm from aggregating into the ordinary full-sized globular masses, and these, though they do not disintegrate, become granular and opaque. in nearly the same manner, too hot water and certain solutions (for instance, of the salts of soda and potash) cause at first an imperfect kind of aggregation in the cells of drosera; the little masses afterwards breaking up into granular or pulpy brown matter. all the foregoing experiments were made on flower-stems, but a piece of a leaf was immersed for m. in a strong solution of the carbonate (one part to of water), and little globular masses of matter appeared in all the glands, which before contained only limpid fluid. i made also several experiments on the action of the vapour of the carbonate on the glands; but will give only a few cases. the cut end of the footstalk of a young leaf was protected with sealing-wax, and was then placed under a small bell-glass, with a large pinch of the carbonate. after m. the glands showed a considerable degree of aggregation, and the protoplasm lining the cells of the pedicels was a little separated from the walls. another leaf was left for m. with the same result, excepting that the hairs became throughout their whole length of a brownish colour. in a third leaf, which was exposed for hr. m., there was much aggregated matter in the glands; and some of the masses showed signs of breaking up into brown granular matter. this leaf was again placed in the vapour, so that it was exposed altogether for hrs. m.; and now, though i examined a large number of glands, aggregated masses were found in only two or three; in all the others, the masses, which before had been globular, were converted into brown, opaque, granular matter. we thus see that exposure to the vapour for a considerable time produces the same effects as long immersion in a strong solution. in both cases there could hardly be a doubt that the salt had been absorbed chiefly or exclusively by the glands. on another occasion bits of damp fibrin, drops of a weak infusion of raw meat and of water, were left for hrs. on some leaves; the hairs were then examined, but to my surprise differed in no respect from others which had not been touched by these fluids. most of the cells, however, included hyaline, motionless little spheres, which did not seem to consist of protoplasm, but, i suppose, of some balsam or essential oil. pelargonium zonale (var. edged with white).--the leaves [page ] are clothed with numerous multicellular hairs; some simply pointed; others bearing glandular heads, and differing much in length. the glands on a piece of leaf were examined and found to contain only limpid fluid; most of the water was removed from beneath the covering glass, and a minute drop of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water was added; so that an extremely small dose was given. after an interval of only m. there were signs of aggregation within the glands of the shorter hairs; and after m. many small globules of a pale brown tint appeared in all of them; similar globules, but larger, being found in the large glands of the longer hairs. after the specimen had been left for hr. in the solution, many of the smaller globules had changed their positions; and two or three vacuoles or small spheres (for i know not which they were) of a rather darker tint appeared within some of the larger globules. little globules could now be seen in some of the uppermost cells of the pedicels, and the protoplasmic lining was slightly separated from the walls of the lower cells. after hrs. m. from the time of first immersion, the large globules within the glands of the longer hairs were converted into masses of darker brown granular matter. hence from what we have seen with primula sinensis, there can be little doubt that these masses originally consisted of living protoplasm. a drop of a weak infusion of raw meat was placed on a leaf, and after hrs. m. many spheres could be seen within the glands. these spheres, when looked at again after m., had slightly changed their positions and forms, and one had separated into two; but the changes were not quite like those which the protoplasm of drosera undergoes. these hairs, moreover, had not been examined before immersion, and there were similar spheres in some glands which had not been touched by the infusion. erica tetralix.--a few long glandular hairs project from the margins of the upper surfaces of the leaves. the pedicels are formed of several rows of cells, and support rather large globular heads, secreting viscid matter, by which minute insects are occasionally, though rarely, caught. some leaves were left for hrs. in a weak infusion of raw meat and in water, and the hairs were then compared, but they differed very little or not at all. in both cases the contents of the cells seemed rather more granular than they were before; but the granules did not exhibit any movement. other leaves were left for hrs. in a solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water, and here again the granular matter appeared to have increased [page ] in amount; but one such mass retained exactly the same form as before after an interval of hrs., so that it could hardly have consisted of living protoplasm. these glands seem to have very little or no power of absorption, certainly much less than those of the foregoing plants. mirabilis longiflora.--the stems and both surfaces of the leaves bear viscid hairs. young plants, from to inches in height in my greenhouse, caught so many minute diptera, coleoptera, and larvae, that they were quite dusted with them. the hairs are short, of unequal lengths, formed of a single row of cells, surmounted by an enlarged cell which secretes viscid matter. these terminal cells or glands contain granules and often globules of granular matter. within a gland which had caught a small insect, one such mass was observed to undergo incessant changes of form, with the occasional appearance of vacuoles. but i do not believe that this protoplasm had been generated by matter absorbed from the dead insect; for, on comparing several glands which had and had not caught insects, not a shade of difference could be perceived between them, and they all contained fine granular matter. a piece of leaf was immersed for hrs. in a solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water, but the hairs seemed very little affected by it, excepting that perhaps the glands were rendered rather more opaque. in the leaf itself, however, the grains of chlorophyll near the cut surfaces had run together, or become aggregated. nor were the glands on another leaf, after an immersion for hrs. in an infusion of raw meat, in the least affected; but the protoplasm lining the cells of the pedicels had shrunk greatly from the walls. this latter effect may have been due to exosmose, as the infusion was strong. we may, therefore, conclude that the glands of this plant either have no power of absorption or that the protoplasm which they contain is not acted on by a solution of carbonate of ammonia (and this seems scarcely credible) or by an infusion of meat. nicotiana tabacum.--this plant is covered with innumerable hairs of unequal lengths, which catch many minute insects. the pedicels of the hairs are divided by transverse partitions, and the secreting glands are formed of many cells, containing greenish matter with little globules of some substance. leaves were left in an infusion of raw meat and in water for hrs., but presented no difference. some of these same leaves were then left for above hrs. in a solution of carbonate of ammonia, but no effect was produced. i regret that other experiments were not tried with more care, as m. schloesing [page ] has shown* that tobacco plants supplied with the vapour of carbonate of ammonia yield on analysis a greater amount of nitrogen than other plants not thus treated; and, from what we have seen, it is probable that some of the vapour may be absorbed by the glandular hairs.] summary of the observations on glandular hairs.--from the foregoing observations, few as they are, we see that the glands of two species of saxifraga, of a primula and pelargonium, have the power of rapid absorption; whereas the glands of an erica, mirabilis, and nicotiana, either have no such power, or the contents of the cells are not affected by the fluids employed, namely a solution of carbonate of ammonia and an infusion of raw meat. as the glands of the mirabilis contain protoplasm, which did not become aggregated from exposure to the fluids just named, though the contents of the cells in the blade of the leaf were greatly affected by carbonate of ammonia, we may infer that they cannot absorb. we may further infer that the innumerable insects caught by this plant are of no more service to it than are those which adhere to the deciduous and sticky scales of the leaf-buds of the horse-chestnut. the most interesting case for us is that of the two species of saxifraga, as this genus is distantly allied to drosera. their glands absorb matter from an infusion of raw meat, from solutions of the nitrate and carbonate of ammonia, and apparently from decayed insects. this was shown by the changed dull purple colour of the protoplasm within the cells of the glands, by its state of aggregation, and apparently by its more rapid spontaneous movements. * 'comptes rendus,' june , . a good abstract of this paper is given in the 'gardener's chronicle,' july , . [page ] the aggregating process spreads from the glands down the pedicels of the hairs; and we may assume that any matter which is absorbed ultimately reaches the tissues of the plant. on the other hand, the process travels up the hairs whenever a surface is cut and exposed to a solution of the carbonate of ammonia. the glands on the flower-stalks and leaves of primula sinensis quickly absorb a solution of the carbonate of ammonia, and the protoplasm which they contain becomes aggregated. the process was seen in some cases to travel from the glands into the upper cells of the pedicels. exposure for m. to the vapour of this salt likewise induced aggregation. when leaves were left from hrs. to hrs. in a strong solution, or were long exposed to the vapour, the little masses of protoplasm became disintegrated, brown, and granular, and were apparently killed. an infusion of raw meat produced no effect on the glands. the limpid contents of the glands of pelargonium zonale became cloudy and granular in from m. to m. when they were immersed in a weak solution of the carbonate of ammonia; and in the course of hr. granules appeared in the upper cells of the pedicels. as the aggregated masses slowly changed their forms, and as they suffered disintegration when left for a considerable time in a strong solution, there can be little doubt that they consisted of protoplasm. it is doubtful whether an infusion of raw meat produced any effect. the glandular hairs of ordinary plants have generally been considered by physiologists to serve only as secreting or excreting organs, but we now know that they have the power, at least in some cases, of absorbing both a solution and the vapour of ammonia. as rain-water contains a small percentage of ammonia, and the atmosphere a minute quantity of the carbonate, this [page ] power can hardly fail to be beneficial. nor can the benefit be quite so insignificant as it might at first be thought, for a moderately fine plant of primula sinensis bears the astonishing number of above two millions and a half of glandular hairs,* all of which are able to absorb ammonia brought to them by the rain. it is moreover probable that the glands of some of the above named plants obtain animal matter from the insects which are occasionally entangled by the viscid secretion. concluding remarks on the droseraceae. the six known genera composing this family have now been described in relation to our present subject, as far as my means have permitted. they all capture insects. this is effected by drosophyllum, roridula, and byblis, solely by the viscid fluid secreted from their glands; by drosera, through the same means, together with the movements of the tentacles; by dionaea and aldrovanda, through the closing of the blades of the leaf. in these two last genera rapid * my son francis counted the hairs on a space measured by means of a micrometer, and found that there were , on a square inch of the upper surface of a leaf, and , on the lower surface; that is, in about the proportion of on the upper to on the lower surface. on a square inch of both surfaces there were , hairs. a moderately fine plant bearing twelve leaves (the larger ones being a little more than inches in diameter) was now selected, and the area of all the leaves, together with their foot-stalks (the flower-stems not being included), was found by a planimeter to be . square inches; so that the area of both surfaces was . square inches. thus the plant (excluding the flower-stems) must have borne the astonishing number of , , glandular hairs. the hairs were counted late in the autumn, and by the following spring (may) the leaves of some other plants of the same lot were found to be from one-third to one-fourth broader and longer than they were before; so that no doubt the glandular hairs had increased in number, and probably now much exceeded three millions. [page ] movement makes up for the loss of viscid secretion. in every case it is some part of the leaf which moves. in aldrovanda it appears to be the basal parts alone which contract and carry with them the broad, thin margins of the lobes. in dionaea the whole lobe, with the exception of the marginal prolongations or spikes, curves inwards, though the chief seat of movement is near the midrib. in drosera the chief seat is in the lower part of the tentacles, which, homologically, may be considered as prolongations of the leaf; but the whole blade often curls inwards, converting the leaf into a temporary stomach. there can hardly be a doubt that all the plants belonging to these six genera have the power of dissolving animal matter by the aid of their secretion, which contains an acid, together with a ferment almost identical in nature with pepsin; and that they afterwards absorb the matter thus digested. this is certainly the case with drosera, drosophyllum, and dionaea; almost certainly with aldrovanda; and, from analogy, very probable with roridula and byblis. we can thus understand how it is that the three first-named genera are provided with such small roots, and that aldrovanda is quite rootless; about the roots of the two other genera nothing is known. it is, no doubt, a surprising fact that a whole group of plants (and, as we shall presently see, some other plants not allied to the droseraceae) should subsist partly by digesting animal matter, and partly by decomposing carbonic acid, instead of exclusively by this latter means, together with the absorption of matter from the soil by the aid of roots. we have, however, an equally anomalous case in the animal kingdom; the rhizocephalous crustaceans do not feed like other animals by their mouths, for they are destitute of an [page ] alimentary canal; but they live by absorbing through root-like processes the juices of the animals on which they are parasitic.* of the six genera, drosera has been incomparably the most successful in the battle for life; and a large part of its success may be attributed to its manner of catching insects. it is a dominant form, for it is believed to include about species, which range in the old world from the arctic regions to southern india, to the cape of good hope, madagascar, and australia; and in the new world from canada to tierra del fuego. in this respect it presents a marked contrast with the five other genera, which appear to be failing groups. dionaea includes only a single species, which is confined to one district in carolina. the three varieties or closely allied species of aldrovanda, like so many water-plants, have a wide range from central europe to bengal and australia. drosophyllum includes only one species, limited to portugal and morocco. roridula and byblis each have (as i * fritz mller, 'facts for darwin, ' eng. trans. , p. . the rhizocephalous crustaceans are allied to the cirripedes. it is hardly possible to imagine a greater difference than that between an animal with prehensile limbs, a well-constructed mouth and alimentary canal, and one destitute of all these organs and feeding by absorption through branching root-like processes. if one rare cirripede, the anelasma squalicola, had become extinct, it would have been very difficult to conjecture how so enormous a change could have been gradually effected. but, as fritz mller remarks, we have in anelasma an animal in an almost exactly intermediate condition, for it has root-like processes embedded in the skin of the shark on which it is parasitic, and its prehensile cirri and mouth (as described in my monograph on the lepadidae, 'ray soc.' , p. ) are in a most feeble and almost rudimentary condition. dr. r. kossmann has given a very interesting discussion on this subject in his 'suctoria and lepadidae,' . see also, dr. dohrn, 'der ursprung der wirbelthiere,' , p. . bentham and hooker, 'genera plantarum.' australia is the metropolis of the genus, forty-one species having been described from this country, as prof. oliver informs me. [page ] hear from prof. oliver) two species; the former confined to the western parts of the cape of good hope, and the latter to australia. it is a strange fact that dionaea, which is one of the most beautifully adapted plants in the vegetable kingdom, should apparently be on the high-road to extinction. this is all the more strange as the organs of dionaea are more highly differentiated than those of drosera; its filaments serve exclusively as organs of touch, the lobes for capturing insects, and the glands, when excited, for secretion as well as for absorption; whereas with drosera the glands serve all these purposes, and secrete without being excited. by comparing the structure of the leaves, their degree of complication, and their rudimentary parts in the six genera, we are led to infer that their common parent form partook of the characters of drosophyllum, roridula, and byblis. the leaves of this ancient form were almost certainly linear, perhaps divided, and bore on their upper and lower surfaces glands which had the power of secreting and absorbing. some of these glands were mounted on pedicels, and others were almost sessile; the latter secreting only when stimulated by the absorption of nitrogenous matter. in byblis the glands consist of a single layer of cells, supported on a unicellular pedicel; in roridula they have a more complex structure, and are supported on pedicels formed of several rows of cells; in drosophyllum they further include spiral cells, and the pedicels include a bundle of spiral vessels. but in these three genera these organs do not possess any power of movement, and there is no reason to doubt that they are of the nature of hairs or trichomes. although in innumerable instances foliar organs move when excited, no case is known of a trichome having such [page ] power.* we are thus led to inquire how the so-called tentacles of drosera, which are manifestly of the same general nature as the glandular hairs of the above three genera, could have acquired the power of moving. many botanists maintain that these tentacles consist of prolongations of the leaf, because they include vascular tissue, but this can no longer be considered as a trustworthy distinction. the possession of the power of movement on excitement would have been safer evidence. but when we consider the vast number of the tentacles on both surfaces of the leaves of drosophyllum, and on the upper surface of the leaves of drosera, it seems scarcely possible that each tentacle could have aboriginally existed as a prolongation of the leaf. roridula, perhaps, shows us how we may reconcile these difficulties with respect to the homological nature of the tentacles. the lateral divisions of the leaves of this plant terminate in long tentacles; and these include spiral vessels which extend for only a short distance up them, with no line of demarcation between what is plainly the prolongation of the leaf and the pedicel of a glandular hair. therefore there would be nothing anomalous or unusual in the basal parts of these tentacles, which correspond with the marginal ones of drosera, acquiring the power of movement; and we know that in drosera it is only the lower part which becomes inflected. but in order to understand how in this latter genus not only the marginal but all the inner tentacles have become capable of movement, we must further assume, either that through the principle of correlated development this * sachs, 'trait de botanique' rd edit. , p. . dr. warming 'sur la diffrence entres les trichomes,' copenhague, , p. . 'extrait des videnskabelige meddelelser de la soc. d'hist. nat. de copenhague,' nos. - , . [page ] power was transferred to the basal parts of the hairs, or that the surface of the leaf has been prolonged upwards at numerous points, so as to unite with the hairs, thus forming the bases of the inner tentacles. the above named three genera, namely drosophyllum, roridula, and byblis, which appear to have retained a primordial condition, still bear glandular hairs on both surfaces of their leaves; but those on the lower surface have since disappeared in the more highly developed genera, with the partial exception of one species, drosera binata. the small sessile glands have also disappeared in some of the genera, being replaced in roridula by hairs, and in most species of drosera by absorbent papillae. drosera binata, with its linear and bifurcating leaves, is in an intermediate condition. it still bears some sessile glands on both surfaces of the leaves, and on the lower surface a few irregularly placed tentacles, which are incapable of movement. a further slight change would convert the linear leaves of this latter species into the oblong leaves of drosera anglica, and these might easily pass into orbicular ones with footstalks, like those of drosera rotundifolia. the footstalks of this latter species bear multicellular hairs, which we have good reason to believe represent aborted tentacles. the parent form of dionaea and aldrovanda seems to have been closely allied to drosera, and to have had rounded leaves, supported on distinct footstalks, and furnished with tentacles all round the circumference, with other tentacles and sessile glands on the upper surface. i think so because the marginal spikes of dionaea apparently represent the extreme marginal tentacles of drosera, the six (sometimes eight) sensitive filaments on the upper surface, as well as the more numerous ones in aldrovanda, representing the central [page ] tentacles of drosera, with their glands aborted, but their sensitiveness retained. under this point of view we should bear in mind that the summits of the tentacles of drosera, close beneath the glands, are sensitive. the three most remarkable characters possessed by the several members of the droseraceae consist in the leaves of some having the power of movement when excited, in their glands secreting a fluid which digests animal matter, and in their absorption of the digested matter. can any light be thrown on the steps by which these remarkable powers were gradually acquired? as the walls of the cells are necessarily permeable to fluids, in order to allow the glands to secrete, it is not surprising that they should readily allow fluids to pass inwards; and this inward passage would deserve to be called an act of absorption, if the fluids combined with the contents of the glands. judging from the evidence above given, the secreting glands of many other plants can absorb salts of ammonia, of which they must receive small quantities from the rain. this is the case with two species of saxifraga, and the glands of one of them apparently absorb matter from captured insects, and certainly from an infusion of raw meat. there is, therefore, nothing anomalous in the droseraceae having acquired the power of absorption in a much more highly developed degree. it is a far more remarkable problem how the members of this family, and pinguicula, and, as dr. hooker has recently shown, nepenthes, could all have acquired the power of secreting a fluid which dissolves or digests animal matter. the six genera of the droseraceae very probably inherited this power from a common progenitor, but this cannot apply to [page ] pinguicula or nepenthes, for these plants are not at all closely related to the droceraceae. but the difficulty is not nearly so great as it at first appears. firstly, the juices of many plants contain an acid, and, apparently, any acid serves for digestion. secondly, as dr. hooker has remarked in relation to the present subject in his address at belfast ( ), and as sachs repeatedly insists,* the embryos of some plants secrete a fluid which dissolves albuminous substances out of the endosperm; although the endosperm is not actually united with, only in contact with, the embryo. all plants, moreover, have the power of dissolving albuminous or proteid substances, such as protoplasm, chlorophyll, gluten, aleurone, and of carrying them from one part to other parts of their tissues. this must be effected by a solvent, probably consisting of a ferment together with an acid. now, in the case of plants which are able to absorb already soluble matter from captured insects, though not capable of true digestion, the solvent just referred to, which must be occasionally present in the glands, would be apt to exude from the glands together with the viscid secretion, inasmuch as endosmose is accompanied by exosmose. if such exudation did ever occur, the solvent would act on the animal matter contained within the captured insects, and this would be an act of true digestion. as it cannot be doubted that this process would be of high service to plants * 'trait de botanique' rd edit. , p. . see also for following facts pp. , , , . since this sentence was written, i have received a paper by gorup-besanez ('berichte der deutschen chem. gesellschaft,' berlin, , p. ), who, with the aid of dr. h. will, has actually made the discovery that the seeds of the vetch contain a ferment, which, when extracted by glycerine, dissolves albuminous substances, such as fibrin, and converts them into true peptones. [page ] growing in very poor soil, it would tend to be perfected through natural selection. therefore, any ordinary plant having viscid glands, which occasionally caught insects, might thus be converted under favourable circumstances into a species capable of true digestion. it ceases, therefore, to be any great mystery how several genera of plants, in no way closely related together, have independently acquired this same power. as there exist several plants the glands of which cannot, as far as is known, digest animal matter, yet can absorb salts of ammonia and animal fluids, it is probable that this latter power forms the first stage towards that of digestion. it might, however, happen, under certain conditions, that a plant, after having acquired the power of digestion, should degenerate into one capable only of absorbing animal matter in solution, or in a state of decay, or the final products of decay, namely the salts of ammonia. it would appear that this has actually occurred to a partial extent with the leaves of aldrovanda; the outer parts of which possess absorbent organs, but no glands fitted for the secretion of any digestive fluid, these being confined to the inner parts. little light can be thrown on the gradual acquirement of the third remarkable character possessed by the more highly developed genera of the droseraceae, namely the power of movement when excited. it should, however, be borne in mind that leaves and their homologues, as well as flower-peduncles, have gained this power, in innumerable instances, independently of inheritance from any common parent form; for instance, in tendril-bearers and leaf-climbers (i.e. plants with their leaves, petioles and flower-peduncles, &c., modified for prehension) belonging to a large [page ] number of the most widely distinct orders,--in the leaves of the many plants which go to sleep at night, or move when shaken,--and in the irritable stamens and pistils of not a few species. we may therefore infer that the power of movement can be by some means readily acquired. such movements imply irritability or sensitiveness, but, as cohn has remarked,* the tissues of the plants thus endowed do not differ in any uniform manner from those of ordinary plants; it is therefore probable that all leaves are to a slight degree irritable. even if an insect alights on a leaf, a slight molecular change is probably transmitted to some distance across its tissue, with the sole difference that no perceptible effect is produced. we have some evidence in favour of this belief, for we know that a single touch on the glands of drosera does not excite inflection; yet it must produce some effect, for if the glands have been immersed in a solution of camphor, inflection follows within a shorter time than would have followed from the effects of camphor alone. so again with dionaea, the blades in their ordinary state may be roughly touched without their closing; yet some effect must be thus caused and transmitted across the whole leaf, for if the glands have recently absorbed animal matter, even a delicate touch causes them to close instantly. on the whole we may conclude that the acquirement of a high degree of sensitiveness and of the power of movement by certain genera of the droseraceae presents no greater difficulty than that presented by the similar but feebler powers of a multitude of other plants. * see the abstract of his memoir on the contractile tissues of plants, in the 'annals and mag. of nat. hist.' rd series, vol. xi. p. .) [page ] the specialised nature of the sensitiveness possessed by drosera and dionaea, and by certain other plants, well deserves attention. a gland of drosera may be forcibly hit once, twice, or even thrice, without any effect being produced, whilst the continued pressure of an extremely minute particle excites movement. on the other hand, a particle many times heavier may be gently laid on one of the filaments of dionaea with no effect; but if touched only once by the slow movement of a delicate hair, the lobes close; and this difference in the nature of the sensitiveness of these two plants stands in manifest adaptation to their manner of capturing insects. so does the fact, that when the central glands of drosera absorb nitrogenous matter, they transmit a motor impulse to the exterior tentacles much more quickly than when they are mechanically irritated; whilst with dionaea the absorption of nitrogenous matter causes the lobes to press together with extreme slowness, whilst a touch excites rapid movement. somewhat analogous cases may be observed, as i have shown in another work, with the tendrils of various plants; some being most excited by contact with fine fibres, others by contact with bristles, others with a flat or a creviced surface. the sensitive organs of drosera and dionaea are also specialised, so as not to be uselessly affected by the weight or impact of drops of rain, or by blasts of air. this may be accounted for by supposing that these plants and their progenitors have grown accustomed to the repeated action of rain and wind, so that no molecular change is thus induced; whilst they have been rendered more sensitive by means of natural selection to the rarer impact or pressure of solid bodies. although the absorption by the glands of drosera of various fluids excites move- [page ] ment, there is a great difference in the action of allied fluids; for instance, between certain vegetable acids, and between citrate and phosphate of ammonia. the specialised nature and perfection of the sensitiveness in these two plants is all the more astonishing as no one supposes that they possess nerves; and by testing drosera with several substances which act powerfully on the nervous system of animals, it does not appear that they include any diffused matter analogous to nerve-tissue. although the cells of drosera and dionaea are quite as sensitive to certain stimulants as are the tissues which surround the terminations of the nerves in the higher animals, yet these plants are inferior even to animals low down in the scale, in not being affected except by stimulants in contact with their sensitive parts. they would, however, probably be affected by radiant heat; for warm water excites energetic movement. when a gland of drosera, or one of the filaments of dionaea, is excited, the motor impulse radiates in all directions, and is not, as in the case of animals, directed towards special points or organs. this holds good even in the case of drosera when some exciting substance has been placed at two points on the disc, and when the tentacles all round are inflected with marvellous precision towards the two points. the rate at which the motor impulse is transmitted, though rapid in dionaea, is much slower than in most or all animals. this fact, as well as that of the motor impulse not being specially directed to certain points, are both no doubt due to the absence of nerves. nevertheless we perhaps see the prefigurement of the formation of nerves in animals in the transmission of the motor impulse being so much more rapid down the confined space within the tentacles of drosera than [page ] elsewhere, and somewhat more rapid in a longitudinal than in a transverse direction across the disc. these plants exhibit still more plainly their inferiority to animals in the absence of any reflex action, except in so far as the glands of drosera, when excited from a distance, send back some influence which causes the contents of the cells to become aggregated down to the bases of the tentacles. but the greatest inferiority of all is the absence of a central organ, able to receive impressions from all points, to transmit their effects in any definite direction, to store them up and reproduce them. [page ] chapter xvi. pinguicula. pinguicula vulgaris--structure of leaves--number of insects and other objects caught-- movement of the margins of the leaves--uses of this movement--secretion, digestion, and absorption--action of the secretion on various animal and vegetable substances--the effects of substances not containing soluble nitrogenous matter on the glands--pinguicula grandiflora--pinguicula lusitanica, catches insects--movement of the leaves, secretion and digestion. pinguicula vulgaris.--this plant grows in moist places, generally on mountains. it bears on an average eight, rather thick, oblong, light green leaves, having scarcely any footstalk. a full-sized leaf is about / inch in length and / inch in breadth. the young central leaves are deeply concave, and project upwards; the older ones towards the outside are flat or convex, and lie close to the ground, forming a rosette from to inches in diameter. the margins of the leaves are incurved. their upper surfaces are thickly covered with two sets of glandular hairs, differing in the size of the glands and in the length of their pedicels. the larger glands have a circular outline as seen from above, and are of moderate thickness; they are divided by radiating partitions into sixteen cells, containing light-green, homogeneous fluid. they are supported on elongated, unicellular pedicels (containing a nucleus with a nucleolus) which rest on slight prominences. the small glands differ only in being formed of about half the number of cells, containing much paler fluid, and supported on much shorter pedicels. near the midrib, towards the base of the leaf, the [page ] pedicels are multicellular, are longer than elsewhere, and bear smaller glands. all the glands secrete a colourless fluid, which is so viscid that i have seen a fine thread drawn out to a length of inches; but the fluid in this case was secreted by a gland which had been excited. the edge of the leaf is translucent, and does not bear any glands; and here the spiral vessels, proceeding from the midrib, terminate in cells marked by a spiral line, somewhat like those within the glands of drosera. the roots are short. three plants were dug up in north wales on june , and carefully washed; each bore five or six unbranched roots, the longest of which was only . of an inch. two rather young plants were examined on september ; these had a greater number of roots, namely eight and eighteen, all under inch in length, and very little branched. i was led to investigate the habits of this plant by being told by mr. w. marshall that on the mountains of cumberland many insects adhere to the leaves. [a friend sent me on june thirty-nine leaves from north wales, which were selected owing to objects of some kind adhering to them. of these leaves, thirty-two had caught insects, or on an average . per leaf, minute fragments of insects not being included. besides the insects, small leaves belonging to four different kinds of plants, those of erica tetralix being much the commonest, and three minute seedling plants, blown by the wind, adhered to nineteen of the leaves. one had caught as many as ten leaves of the erica. seeds or fruits, commonly of carex and one of juncus, besides bits of moss and other rubbish, likewise adhered to six of the thirty-nine leaves. the same friend, on june , collected nine plants bearing seventy-four leaves, and all of these, with the exception of three young leaves, had caught insects; thirty insects were counted on one leaf, eighteen on a second, and sixteen on a third. another friend examined on august some plants in donegal, ireland, and found insects on out of leaves; fifteen of [page ] these leaves were sent me, each having caught on an average . insects. to nine of them, leaves (mostly of erica tetralix) adhered; but they had been specially selected on this latter account. i may add that early in august my son found leaves of this same erica and the fruits of a carex on the leaves of a pinguicula in switzerland, probably pinguicula alpina; some insects, but no great number, also adhered to the leaves of this plant, which had much better developed roots than those of pinguicula vulgaris. in cumberland, mr. marshall, on september , carefully examined for me ten plants bearing eighty leaves; and on sixty-three of these (i.e. on per cent.) he found insects, in number; so that each leaf had on an average . insects. a few days later he sent me some plants with sixteen seeds or fruits adhering to fourteen leaves. there was a seed on three leaves on the same plant. the sixteen seeds belonged to nine different kinds, which could not be recognised, excepting one of ranunculus, and several belonging to three or four distinct species of carex. it appears that fewer insects are caught late in the year than earlier; thus in cumberland from twenty to twenty-four insects were observed in the middle of july on several leaves, whereas in the beginning of september the average number was only . . most of the insects, in all the foregoing cases, were diptera, but with many minute hymenoptera, including some ants, a few small coleoptera, larvae, spiders, and even small moths.] we thus see that numerous insects and other objects are caught by the viscid leaves; but we have no right to infer from this fact that the habit is beneficial to the plant, any more than in the before given case of the mirabilis, or of the horse-chestnut. but it will presently be seen that dead insects and other nitrogenous bodies excite the glands to increased secretion; and that the secretion then becomes acid and has the power of digesting animal substances, such as albumen, fibrin, &c. moreover, the dissolved nitrogenous matter is absorbed by the glands, as shown by their limpid contents being aggregated into slowly moving granular masses of protoplasm. the same results follow when insects are naturally captured, and as the plant lives in poor soil and has small roots, there can be no [page ] doubt that it profits by its power of digesting and absorbing matter from the prey which it habitually captures in such large numbers. it will, however, be convenient first to describe the movements of the leaves. movements of the leaves.--that such thick, large leaves as those of pinguicula vulgarisshould have the power of curving inwards when excited has never even been suspected. it is necessary to select for experiment leaves with their glands secreting freely, and which have been prevented from capturing many insects; as old leaves, at least those growing in a state of nature, have their margins already curled so much inwards that they exhibit little power of movement, or move very slowly. i will first give in detail the more important experiments which were tried, and then make some concluding remarks. [experiment .--a young and almost upright leaf was selected, with its two lateral edges equally and very slightly incurved. a row of small flies was placed along one margin. when looked at next day, after hrs., this margin, but not the other, was found folded inwards, like the helix of the human ear, to the breadth of / of an inch, so as to lie partly over the row of flies (fig. ). the glands on which the flies rested, as well as those on the over-lapping margin which had been brought into contact with the flies, were all secreting copiously. fig. . (pinguicula vulgaris.) outline of leaf with left margin inflected over a row of small flies. experiment .--a row of flies was placed on one margin of a rather old leaf, which lay flat on the ground; and in this case the margin, after the same interval as before, namely hrs., had only just begun to curl inwards; but so much secretion had been poured forth that the spoon-shaped tip of the leaf was filled with it. experiment .--fragments of a large fly were placed close to the apex of a vigorous leaf, as well as along half one margin. [page ] after hrs. m. there was decided incurvation, which increased a little during the afternoon, but was in the same state on the following morning. near the apex both margins were inwardly curved. i have never seen a case of the apex itself being in the least curved towards the base of the leaf. after hrs. (always reckoning from the time when the flies were placed on the leaf) the margin had everywhere begun to unfold. experiment .--a large fragment of a fly was placed on a leaf, in a medial line, a little beneath the apex. both lateral margins were perceptibly incurved in hrs., and after hrs. m. to such a degree that the fragment was clasped by both margins. after hrs. the two infolded edges near the apex (for the lower part of the leaf was not at all affected) were measured and found to be . of an inch ( . mm.) apart. the fly was now removed, and a stream of water poured over the leaf so as to wash the surface; and after hrs. the margins were . of an inch ( . mm.) apart, so that they were largely unfolded. after an additional hrs. they were completely unfolded. another fly was now put on the same spot to see whether this leaf, on which the first fly had been left hrs., would move again; after hrs. there was a trace of incurvation, but this did not increase during the next hrs. a bit of meat was also placed on the margin of a leaf, which four days previously had become strongly incurved over a fragment of a fly and had afterwards re-expanded; but the meat did not cause even a trace of incurvation. on the contrary, the margin became somewhat reflexed, as if injured, and so remained for the three following days, as long as it was observed. experiment .--a large fragment of a fly was placed halfway between the apex and base of a leaf and halfway between the midrib and one margin. a short space of this margin, opposite the fly, showed a trace of incurvation after hrs., and this became strongly pronounced in hrs. after hrs. the infolded edge was only . of an inch ( . mm.) from the midrib. the margin now began to unfold, though the fly was left on the leaf; so that by the next morning (i.e. hrs. from the time when the fly was first put on) the infolded edge had almost completely recovered its original position, being now . of an inch ( . mm.), instead of . of an inch, from the midrib. a trace of flexure was, however, still visible. experiment .--a young and concave leaf was selected with its margins slightly and naturally incurved. two rather large, oblong, rectangular pieces of roast meat were placed with their ends touching the infolded edge, and . of an inch ( . mm.) [page ] apart from one another. after hrs. the margin was greatly and equally incurved (see fig. ) throughout this space, and for a length of . or . of an inch ( . or . mm.) above and below each bit; so that the margin had been affected over a greater length between the two bits, owing to their conjoint action, than beyond them. the bits of meat were too large to be clasped by the margin, but they were tilted up, one of them so as to stand almost vertically. after hrs. the margin was almost unfolded, and the bits had sunk down. when again examined after two days, the margin was quite unfolded, with the exception of the naturally inflected edge; and one of the bits of meat, the end of which had at first touched the edge, was now . of an inch ( . mm.) distant from it; so that this bit had been pushed thus far across the blade of the leaf. fig. . (pinguicula vulgaris.) outline of leaf, with right margin inflected against two square bits of meat. experiment .--a bit of meat was placed close to the incurved edge of a rather young leaf, and after it had re-expanded, the bit was left lying . of an inch ( . mm.) from the edge. the distance from the edge to the midrib of the fully expanded leaf was . of an inch ( . mm.); so that the bit had been pushed inwards and across nearly one-third of its semi-diameter. experiment .--cubes of sponge, soaked in a strong infusion of raw meat, were placed in close contact with the incurved edges of two leaves,--an older and younger one. the distance from the edges to the midribs was carefully measured. after hr. m. there appeared to be a trace of incurvation. after hrs. m. both leaves were plainly inflected; the distance between the edges and midribs being now only half what it was at first. the incurvation increased slightly during the next / hrs., but remained nearly the same for the next hrs. m. in hrs. from the time when the sponges were placed on the leaves, the margins were a little unfolded--to a greater degree in the younger than in the older leaf. the latter was not quite unfolded until the third day, and now both bits of sponge were left at the distance of . of an inch ( . mm.) from the edges; or about a quarter of the distance between the edge and midrib. a third bit of sponge adhered to the edge, and, as the margin unfolded, was dragged backwards, into its original position. [page ] experiment .--a chain of fibres of roast meat, as thin as bristles and moistened with saliva, were placed down one whole side, close to the narrow, naturally incurved edge of a leaf. in hrs. this side was greatly incurved along its whole length, and after hrs. formed a cylinder, about / of an inch ( . mm) in diameter, quite concealing the meat. this cylinder remained closed for hrs., but after hrs. was half unfolded, and in hrs. was as open as the opposite margin where no meat had been placed. as the thin fibres of meat were completely overlapped by the margin, they were not pushed at all inwards, across the blade. experiment .--six cabbage seeds, soaked for a night in water, were placed in a row close to the narrow incurved edge of a leaf. we shall hereafter see that these seeds yield soluble matter to the glands. in hrs. m. the margin was decidedly inflected; in hrs. it extended over the seeds for about half their breadth, and in hrs. over three-fourths of their breadth, forming a cylinder not quite closed along the inner side, and about . of an inch ( . mm.) in diameter. after hrs. the inflection had not increased, perhaps had decreased. the glands which had been brought into contact with the upper surfaces of the seeds were now secreting freely. in hrs. from the time when the seeds were put on the leaf the margin had greatly, and after hrs. had completely, re-expanded. as the seeds were no longer held by the inflected margin, and as the secretion was beginning to fail, they rolled some way down the marginal channel. experiment .--fragments of glass were placed on the margins of two fine young leaves. after hrs. m. the margin of one certainly became slightly incurved; but the inflection never increased, and disappeared in hrs. m. from the time when the fragments were first applied. with the second leaf there was a trace of incurvation in hrs. m., which became decided in hrs. m., and still more strongly pronounced in hrs., but after hrs. m. had plainly decreased. the fragments excited at most a slight and doubtful increase of the secretion; and in two other trials, no increase could be perceived. bits of coal-cinders, placed on a leaf, produced no effect, either owing to their lightness or to the leaf being torpid. experiment .--we now turn to fluids. a row of drops of a strong infusion of raw meat were placed along the margins of two leaves; squares of sponge soaked in the same infusion being placed on the opposite margins. my object was to ascer- [page ] tain whether a fluid would act as energetically as a substance yielding the same soluble matter to the glands. no distinct difference was perceptible; certainly none in the degree of incurvation; but the incurvation round the bits of sponge lasted rather longer, as might perhaps have been expected from the sponge remaining damp and supplying nitrogenous matter for a longer time. the margins, with the drops, became plainly incurved in hrs. m. the incurvation subsequently increased somewhat, but after hrs. had greatly decreased. experiment .--drops of the same strong infusion of raw meat were placed along the midrib of a young and rather deeply concave leaf. the distance across the broadest part of the leaf, between the naturally incurved edges, was . of an inch ( . mm.). in hrs. m. this distance was a trace less; in hrs. m. it was exactly . of an inch ( . mm.), and had therefore decreased by . of an inch ( . mm.). after only hrs. m. the margin began to re-expand, for the distance from edge to edge was now a trace wider, and after hrs. m. was as great, within a hair's breadth, as when the drops were first placed on the leaf. from this experiment we learn that the motor impulse can be transmitted to a distance of . of an inch ( . mm.) in a transverse direction from the midrib to both margins; but it would be safer to say . of an inch ( . mm.) as the drops spread a little beyond the midrib. the incurvation thus caused lasted for an unusually short time. experiment .--three drops of a solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water ( grs. to oz.) were placed on the margin of a leaf. these excited so much secretion that in h. m. all three drops ran together; but although the leaf was observed for hrs., there was no trace of inflection. we know that a rather strong solution of this salt, though it does not injure the leaves of drosera, paralyses their power of movement, and i have no doubt, from the following case, that this holds good with pinguicula. experiment .--a row of drops of a solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water ( gr. to oz.) was placed on the margin of a leaf. in hr. there was apparently some slight incurvation, and this was well-marked in hrs. m. after hrs. the margin was almost completely re-expanded. experiment .--a row of large drops of a solution of one part of phosphate of ammonia to of water ( gr. to oz.) was placed along the margin of a leaf. no effect was produced, and after hrs. fresh drops were added along the same margin without the least effect. we know that a solution of this [page ] strength acts powerfully on drosera, and it is just possible that the solution was too strong. i regret that i did not try a weaker solution. experiment .--as the pressure from bits of glass causes incurvation, i scratched the margins of two leaves for some minutes with a blunt needle, but no effect was produced. the surface of a leaf beneath a drop of a strong infusion of raw meat was also rubbed for . m. with the end of a bristle, so as to imitate the struggles of a captured insect; but this part of the margin did not bend sooner than the other parts with undisturbed drops of the infusion.] we learn from the foregoing experiments that the margins of the leaves curl inwards when excited by the mere pressure of objects not yielding any soluble matter, by objects yielding such matter, and by some fluids--namely an infusion of raw meat and a week solution of carbonate of ammonia. a stronger solution of two grains of this salt to an ounce of water, though exciting copious secretion, paralyses the leaf. drops of water and of a solution of sugar or gum did not cause any movement. scratching the surface of the leaf for some minutes produced no effect. therefore, as far as we at present know, only two causes--namely slight continued pressure and the absorption of nitrogenous matter--excite movement. it is only the margins of the leaf which bend, for the apex never curves towards the base. the pedicels of the glandular hairs have no power of movement. i observed on several occasions that the surface of the leaf became slightly concave where bits of meat or large flies had long lain, but this may have been due to injury from over-stimulation. the shortest time in which plainly marked movement was observed was hrs. m., and this occurred when either nitrogenous substances or fluids were placed on the leaves; but i believe that in some cases [page ] there was a trace of movement in hr. or hr. m. the pressure from fragments of glass excites movement almost as quickly as the absorption of nitrogenous matter, but the degree of incurvation thus caused is much less. after a leaf has become well incurved and has again expanded, it will not soon answer to a fresh stimulus. the margin was affected longitudinally, upwards or downwards, for a distance of . of an inch ( . mm.) from an excited point, but for a distance of . of an inch between two excited points, and transversely for a distance of . of an inch ( . mm.). the motor impulse is not accompanied, as in the case of drosera, by any influence causing increased secretion; for when a single gland was strongly stimulated and secreted copiously, the surrounding glands were not in the least affected. the incurvation of the margin is independent of increased secretion, for fragments of glass cause little or no secretion, and yet excite movement; whereas a strong solution of carbonate of ammonia quickly excites copious secretion, but no movement. one of the most curious facts with respect to the movement of the leaves is the short time during which they remain incurved, although the exciting object is left on them. in the majority of cases there was well-marked re-expansion within hrs. from the time when even large pieces of meat, &c., were placed on the leaves, and in all cases within hrs. in one instance the margin of a leaf remained for hrs. closely inflected round thin fibres of meat; in another instance, when a bit of sponge, soaked in a strong infusion of raw meat, had been applied to a leaf, the margin began to unfold in hrs. fragments of glass keep the margin incurved for a shorter time than do nitrogenous bodies; for in the former case there was [page ] complete re-expansion in hrs. m. nitrogenous fluids act for a shorter time than nitrogenous substances; thus, when drops of an infusion of raw meat were placed on the midrib of a leaf, the incurved margins began to unfold in only hrs. m., and this was the quickest act of re-expansion observed by me; but it may have been partly due to the distance of the margins from the midrib where the drops lay. we are naturally led to inquire what is the use of this movement which lasts for so short a time? if very small objects, such as fibres of meat, or moderately small objects, such as little flies or cabbage-seeds, are placed close to the margin, they are either completely or partially embraced by it. the glands of the overlapping margin are thus brought into contact with such objects and pour forth their secretion, afterwards absorbing the digested matter. but as the incurvation lasts for so short a time, any such benefit can be of only slight importance, yet perhaps greater than at first appears. the plant lives in humid districts, and the insects which adhere to all parts of the leaf are washed by every heavy shower of rain into the narrow channel formed by the naturally incurved edges. for instance, my friend in north wales placed several insects on some leaves, and two days afterwards (there having been heavy rain in the interval) found some of them quite washed away, and many others safely tucked under the now closely inflected margins, the glands of which all round the insects were no doubt secreting. we can thus, also, understand how it is that so many insects, and fragments of insects, are generally found lying within the incurved margins of the leaves. the incurvation of the margin, due to the presence of an exciting object, must be serviceable in another [page ] and probably more important way. we have seen that when large bits of meat, or of sponge soaked in the juice of meat, were placed on a leaf, the margin was not able to embrace them, but, as it became incurved, pushed them very slowly towards the middle of the leaf, to a distance from the outside of fully . of an inch ( . mm.), that is, across between one-third and one-fourth of the space between the edge and midrib. any object, such as a moderately sized insect, would thus be brought slowly into contact with a far larger number of glands, inducing much more secretion and absorption, than would otherwise have been the case. that this would be highly serviceable to the plant, we may infer from the fact that drosera has acquired highly developed powers of movement, merely for the sake of bringing all its glands into contact with captured insects. so again, after a leaf of dionaea has caught an insect, the slow pressing together of the two lobes serves merely to bring the glands on both sides into contact with it, causing also the secretion charged with animal matter to spread by capillary attraction over the whole surface. in the case of pinguicula, as soon as an insect has been pushed for some little distance towards the midrib, immediate re-expansion would be beneficial, as the margins could not capture fresh prey until they were unfolded. the service rendered by this pushing action, as well as that from the marginal glands being brought into contact for a short time with the upper surfaces of minute captured insects, may perhaps account for the peculiar movements of the leaves; otherwise, we must look at these movements as a remnant of a more highly developed power formerly possessed by the progenitors of the genus. in the four british species, and, as i hear from [page ] prof. dyer, in most or all the species of the genus, the edges of the leaves are in some degree naturally and permanently incurved. this incurvation serves, as already shown, to prevent insects from being washed away by the rain; but it likewise serves for another end. when a number of glands have been powerfully excited by bits of meat, insects, or any other stimulus, the secretion often trickles down the leaf, and is caught by the incurved edges, instead of rolling off and being lost. as it runs down the channel, fresh glands are able to absorb the animal matter held in solution. moreover, the secretion often collects in little pools within the channel, or in the spoon-like tips of the leaves; and i ascertained that bits of albumen, fibrin, and gluten, are here dissolved more quickly and completely than on the surface of the leaf, where the secretion cannot accumulate; and so it would be with naturally caught insects. the secretion was repeatedly seen thus to collect on the leaves of plants protected from the rain; and with exposed plants there would be still greater need of some provision to prevent, as far as possible, the secretion, with its dissolved animal matter, being wholly lost. it has already been remarked that plants growing in a state of nature have the margins of their leaves much more strongly incurved than those grown in pots and prevented from catching many insects. we have seen that insects washed down by the rain from all parts of the leaf often lodge within the margins, which are thus excited to curl farther inwards; and we may suspect that this action, many times repeated during the life of the plant, leads to their permanent and well-marked incurvation. i regret that this view did not occur to me in time to test its truth. it may here be added, though not immediately [page ] bearing on our subject, that when a plant is pulled up, the leaves immediately curl downwards so as almost to conceal the roots,--a fact which has been noticed by many persons. i suppose that this is due to the same tendency which causes the outer and older leaves to lie flat on the ground. it further appears that the flower-stalks are to a certain extent irritable, for dr. johnson states that they "bend backwards if rudely handled."* secretion, absorption, and digestion.--i will first give my observations and experiments, and then a summary of the results. [the effects of objects containing soluble nitrogenous matter. ( ) flies were placed on many leaves, and excited the glands to secrete copiously; the secretion always becoming acid, though not so before. after a time these insects were rendered so tender that their limbs and bodies could be separated by a mere touch, owing no doubt to the digestion and disintegration of their muscles. the glands in contact with a small fly continued to secrete for four days, and then became almost dry. a narrow strip of this leaf was cut off, and the glands of the longer and shorter hairs, which had lain in contact for the four days with the fly, and those which had not touched it, were compared under the microscope and presented a wonderful contrast. those which had been in contact were filled with brownish granular matter, the others with homogeneous fluid. there could therefore be no doubt that the former had absorbed matter from the fly. ( ) small bits of roast meat, placed on a leaf, always caused much acid secretion in the course of a few hours--in one case within m. when thin fibres of meat were laid along the margin of a leaf which stood almost upright, the secretion ran down to the ground. angular bits of meat, placed in little pools of the secretion near the margin, were in the course of * 'english botany,' by sir j.e. smith; with coloured figures by j. sowerby; edit. of , tab. , , . [page ] two or three days much reduced in size, rounded, rendered more or less colourless and transparent, and so much softened that they fell to pieces on the slightest touch. in only one instance was a very minute particle completely dissolved, and this occurred within hrs. when only a small amount of secretion was excited, this was generally absorbed in from hrs. to hrs.; the glands being left dry. but when the supply of secretion was copious, round either a single rather large bit of meat, or round several small bits, the glands did not become dry until six or seven days had elapsed. the most rapid case of absorption observed by me was when a small drop of an infusion of raw meat was placed on a leaf, for the glands here became almost dry in hrs. m. glands excited by small particles of meat, and which have quickly absorbed their own secretion, begin to secrete again in the course of seven or eight days from the time when the meat was given them. ( ) three minute cubes of tough cartilage from the leg-bone of a sheep were laid on a leaf. after hrs. m. some acid secretion was excited, but the cartilage appeared little or not at all affected. after hrs. the cubes were rounded and much reduced in size; after hrs. they were softened to the centre, and one was quite liquefied; after hrs. mere traces of solid cartilage were left; and after hrs. a trace could still be seen through a lens in only one of the three. after hrs. not only were all three cubes completely liquefied, but all the secretion was absorbed and the glands left dry. ( ) small cubes of albumen were placed on a leaf; in hrs. feebly acid secretion extended to a distance of nearly / of an inch round them, and the angles of one cube were rounded. after hrs. the angles of all the cubes were rounded, and they were rendered throughout very tender; after hrs. the secretion began to decrease, and after hrs. the glands were left dry; but very minute bits of albumen were still left undissolved. ( ) smaller cubes of albumen (about / or / of an inch, . or . mm.) were placed on four glands; after hrs. one cube was completely dissolved, the others being much reduced in size, softened, and transparent. after hrs. two of the cubes were completely dissolved, and already the secretion on these glands was almost wholly absorbed. after hrs. the two other cubes were completely dissolved. these four glands began to secrete again after eight or nine days. ( ) two large cubes of albumen (fully / of an inch, . mm.) were placed, one near the midrib and the other near the margin [page ] of a leaf; in hrs. there was much secretion, which after hrs. accumulated in a little pool round the cube near the margin. this cube was much more dissolved than that on the blade of the leaf; so that after three days it was greatly reduced in size, with all the angles rounded, but it was too large to be wholly dissolved. the secretion was partially absorbed after four days. the cube on the blade was much less reduced, and the glands on which it rested began to dry after only two days. ( ) fibrin excites less secretion than does meat or albumen. several trials were made, but i will give only three of them. two minute shreds were placed on some glands, and in hrs. m. their secretion was plainly increased. the smaller shred of the two was completely liquefied in hrs. m., and the other in hrs.; but even after hrs. a few granules of fibrin could still be seen through a lens floating in both drops of secretion. after hrs. m. these granules were completely dissolved. a third shred was placed in a little pool of secretion, within the margin of a leaf where a seed had been lying, and this was completely dissolved in the course of hrs. m. ( ) five very small bits of gluten were placed on a leaf, and they excited so much secretion that one of the bits glided down into the marginal furrow. after a day all five bits seemed much reduced in size, but none were wholly dissolved. on the third day i pushed two of them, which had begun to dry, on to fresh glands. on the fourth day undissolved traces of three out of the five bits could still be detected, the other two having quite disappeared; but i am doubtful whether they had really been completely dissolved. two fresh bits were now placed, one near the middle and the other near the margin of another leaf; both excited an extraordinary amount of secretion; that near the margin had a little pool formed round it, and was much more reduced in size than that on the blade, but after four days was not completely dissolved. gluten, therefore, excites the glands greatly, but is dissolved with much difficulty, exactly as in the case of drosera. i regret that i did not try this substance after having been immersed in weak hydrochloric acid, as it would then probably have been quickly dissolved. ( ) a small square thin piece of pure gelatine, moistened with water, was placed on a leaf, and excited very little secretion in hrs. m., but later in the day a greater amount. after hrs. the whole square was completely liquefied; and this would not have occurred had it been left in water. the liquid was acid. ( ) small particles of chemically prepared casein excited [page ] acid secretion, but were not quite dissolved after two days; and the glands then began to dry. nor could their complete dissolution have been expected from what we have seen with drosera. ( ) minute drops of skimmed milk were placed on a leaf, and these caused the glands to secrete freely. after hrs. the milk was found curdled, and after hrs. the curds were dissolved. on placing the now clear drops under the microscope, nothing could be detected except some oil-globules. the secretion, therefore, dissolves fresh casein. ( ) two fragments of a leaf were immersed for hrs., each in a drachm of a solution of carbonate of ammonia, of two strengths, namely of one part to and of water. the glands of the longer and shorter hairs were then examined, and their contents found aggregated into granular matter of a brownish-green colour. these granular masses were seen by my son slowly to change their forms, and no doubt consisted of protoplasm. the aggregation was more strongly pronounced, and the movements of the protoplasm more rapid, within the glands subjected to the stronger solution than in the others. the experiment was repeated with the same result; and on this occasion i observed that the protoplasm had shrunk a little from the walls of the single elongated cells forming the pedicels. in order to observe the process of aggregation, a narrow strip of leaf was laid edgeways under the microscope, and the glands were seen to be quite transparent; a little of the stronger solution (viz. one part to of water) was now added under the covering glass; after an hour or two the glands contained very fine granular matter, which slowly became coarsely granular and slightly opaque; but even after hrs. not as yet of a brownish tint. by this time a few rather large, transparent, globular masses appeared within the upper ends of the pedicels, and the protoplasm lining their walls had shrunk a little. it is thus evident that the glands of pinguicula absorb carbonate of ammonia; but they do not absorb it, or are not acted on by it, nearly so quickly as those of drosera. ( ) little masses of the orange-coloured pollen of the common pea, placed on several leaves, excited the glands to secrete freely. even a very few grains which accidentally fell on a single gland caused the drop surrounding it to increase so much in size, in hrs., as to be manifestly larger than the drops on the adjoining glands. grains subjected to the secretion for hrs. did not emit their tubes; they were quite discoloured, and seemed to contain less matter than before; that [page ] which was left being of a dirty colour, including globules of oil. they thus differed in appearance from other grains kept in water for the same length of time. the glands in contact with the pollen-grains had evidently absorbed matter from them; for they had lost their natural pale-green tint, and contained aggregated globular masses of protoplasm. ( ) square bits of the leaves of spinach, cabbage, and a saxifrage, and the entire leaves of erica tetralix, all excited the glands to increased secretion. the spinach was the most effective, for it caused the secretion evidently to increase in hr. m., and ultimately to run some way down the leaf; but the glands soon began to dry, viz. after hrs. the leaves of erica tetralix began to act in hrs. m., but never caused much secretion; nor did the bits of leaf of the saxifrage, though in this case the glands continued to secrete for seven days. some leaves of pinguicula were sent me from north wales, to which leaves of erica tetralixand of an unknown plant adhered; and the glands in contact with them had their contents plainly aggregated, as if they had been in contact with insects; whilst the other glands on the same leaves contained only clear homogeneous fluid. ( ) seeds.--a considerable number of seeds or fruits selected by hazard, some fresh and some a year old, some soaked for a short time in water and some not soaked, were tried. the ten following kinds, namely cabbage, radish, anemone nemorosa, rumex acetosa, carex sylvatica, mustard, turnip, cress, ranunculus acris, and avena pubescens, all excited much secretion, which was in several cases tested and found always acid. the five first-named seeds excited the glands more than the others. the secretion was seldom copious until about hrs. had elapsed, no doubt owing to the coats of the seeds not being easily permeable. nevertheless, cabbage seeds excited some secretion in hrs. m.; and this increased so much in hrs. as to run down the leaves. the seeds or properly the fruits of carex are much oftener found adhering to leaves in a state of nature than those of any other genus; and the fruits of carex sylvatica excited so much secretion that in hrs. it ran into the incurved edges; but the glands ceased to secrete after hrs. on the other hand, the glands on which the seeds of the rumex and avena rested continued to secrete for nine days. the nine following kinds of seeds excited only a slight amount of secretion, namely, celery, parsnip, caraway, linum grandiflorum, cassia, trifolium pannonicum, plantago, onion, [page ] and bromus. most of these seeds did not excite any secretion until hrs. had elapsed, and in the case of the trifolium only one seed acted, and this not until the third day. although the seeds of the plantago excited very little secretion, the glands continued to secrete for six days. lastly, the five following kinds excited no secretion, though left on the leaves for two or three days, namely lettuce, erica tetralix, atriplex hortensis, phalaris canariensis, and wheat. nevertheless, when the seeds of the lettuce, wheat, and atriplex were split open and applied to leaves, secretion was excited in considerable quantity in hrs., and i believe that some was excited in six hours. in the case of the atriplex the secretion ran down to the margin, and after hrs. i speak of it in my notes "as immense in quantity and acid." the split seeds also of the trifolium and celery acted powerfully and quickly, though the whole seeds caused, as we have seen, very little secretion, and only after a long interval of time. a slice of the common pea, which however was not tried whole, caused secretion in hrs. from these facts we may conclude that the great difference in the degree and rate at which various kinds of seeds excite secretion, is chiefly or wholly due to the different permeability of their coats. some thin slices of the common pea, which had been previously soaked for hr. in water, were placed on a leaf, and quickly excited much acid secretion. after hrs. these slices were compared under a high power with others left in water for the same time; the latter contained so many fine granules of legumin that the slide was rendered muddy; whereas the slices which had been subjected to the secretion were much cleaner and more transparent, the granules of legumin apparently having been dissolved. a cabbage seed which had lain for two days on a leaf and had excited much acid secretion, was cut into slices, and these were compared with those of a seed which had been left for the same time in water. those subjected to the secretion were of a paler colour; their coats presenting the greatest differences, for they were of a pale dirty tint instead of chestnut-brown. the glands on which the cabbage seeds had rested, as well as those bathed by the surrounding secretion, differed greatly in appearance from the other glands on the same leaf, for they all contained brownish granular matter, proving that they had absorbed matter from the seeds. that the secretion acts on the seeds was also shown by some of them being killed, or by the seedlings being injured. fourteen cabbage seeds were left for three days on leaves and excited [page ] much secretion; they were then placed on damp sand under conditions known to be favourable for germination. three never germinated, and this was a far larger proportion of deaths than occurred with seeds of the same lot, which had not been subjected to the secretion, but were otherwise treated in the same manner. of the eleven seedlings raised, three had the edges of their cotyledons slightly browned, as if scorched; and the cotyledons of one grew into a curious indented shape. two mustard seeds germinated; but their cotyledons were marked with brown patches and their radicles deformed. of two radish seeds, neither germinated; whereas of many seeds of the same lot not subjected to the secretion, all, excepting one, germinated. of the two rumex seeds, one died and the other germinated; but its radicle was brown and soon withered. both seeds of the avena germinated, one grew well, the other had its radicle brown and withered. of six seeds of the erica none germinated, and when cut open after having been left for five months on damp sand, one alone seemed alive. twenty-two seeds of various kinds were found adhering to the leaves of plants growing in a state of nature; and of these, though kept for five months on damp sand, none germinated, some being then evidently dead. the effects of objects not containing soluble nitrogenous matter. ( ) it has already been shown that bits of glass, placed on leaves, excite little or no secretion. the small amount which lay beneath the fragments was tested and found not acid. a bit of wood excited no secretion; nor did the several kinds of seeds of which the coats are not permeable to the secretion, and which, therefore, acted like inorganic bodies. cubes of fat, left for two days on a leaf, produced no effect. ( ) a particle of white sugar, placed on a leaf, formed in hr. m. a large drop of fluid, which in the course of additional hours ran down into the naturally inflected margin. this fluid was not in the least acid, and began to dry up, or more probably was absorbed, in hrs. m. the experiment was repeated; particles being placed on a leaf, and others of the same size on a slip of glass in a moistened state; both being covered by a bell-glass. this was done to see whether the increased amount of fluid on the leaves could be due to mere deliquescence; but this was proved not to be the case. the particle on the leaf caused so much secretion that in the course of hrs. it ran down across two-thirds of the leaf. after hrs. the leaf, which was concave, was actually filled with very viscid [page ] fluid; and it particularly deserves notice that this, as on the former occasion, was not in the least acid. this great amount of secretion may be attributed to exosmose. the glands which had been covered for hrs. by this fluid did not differ, when examined under the microscope, from others on the same leaf, which had not come into contact with it. this is an interesting fact in contrast with the invariably aggregated condition of glands which have been bathed by the secretion, when holding animal matter in solution. ( ) two particles of gum arabic were placed on a leaf, and they certainly caused in hr. m. a slight increase of secretion. this continued to increase for the next hrs., that is for as long a time as the leaf was observed. ( ) six small particles of dry starch of commerce were placed on a leaf, and one of these caused some secretion in hr. m., and the others in from hrs. to hrs. the glands which had thus been excited to secrete soon became dry, and did not begin to secrete again until the sixth day. a larger bit of starch was then placed on a leaf, and no secretion was excited in hrs. m.; but after hrs. there was a considerable supply, which increased so much in hrs. as to run down the leaf to the distance of / of an inch. this secretion, though so abundant, was not in the least acid. as it was so copiously excited, and as seeds not rarely adhere to the leaves of naturally growing plants, it occurred to me that the glands might perhaps have the power of secreting a ferment, like ptyaline, capable of dissolving starch; so i carefully observed the above six small particles during several days, but they did not seem in the least reduced in bulk. a particle was also left for two days in a little pool of secretion, which had run down from a piece of spinach leaf; but although the particle was so minute no diminution was perceptible. we may therefore conclude that the secretion cannot dissolve starch. the increase caused by this substance may, i presume, be attributed to exosmose. but i am surprised that starch acted so quickly and powerfully as it did, though in a less degree than sugar. colloids are known to possess some slight power of dialysis; and on placing the leaves of a primula in water, and others in syrup and diffused starch, those in the starch became flaccid, but to a less degree and at a much slower rate than the leaves in the syrup; those in water remaining all the time crisp.] from the foregoing experiments and observations we [page ] see that objects not containing soluble matter have little or no power of exciting the glands to secrete. non-nitrogenous fluids, if dense, cause the glands to pour forth a large supply of viscid fluid, but this is not in the least acid. on the other hand, the secretion from glands excited by contact with nitrogenous solids or liquids is invariably acid, and is so copious that it often runs down the leaves and collects within the naturally incurved margins. the secretion in this state has the power of quickly dissolving, that is of digesting, the muscles of insects, meat, cartilage, albumen, fibrin, gelatine, and casein as it exists in the curds of milk. the glands are strongly excited by chemically prepared casein and gluten; but these substances (the latter not having been soaked in weak hydrochloric acid) are only partially dissolved, as was likewise the case with drosera. the secretion, when containing animal matter in solution, whether derived from solids or from liquids, such as an infusion of raw meat, milk, or a weak solution of carbonate of ammonia, is quickly absorbed; and the glands, which were before limpid and of a greenish colour, become brownish and contain masses of aggregated granular matter. this matter, from its spontaneous movements, no doubt consists of protoplasm. no such effect is produced by the action of non-nitrogenous fluids. after the glands have been excited to secrete freely, they cease for a time to secrete, but begin again in the course of a few days. glands in contact with pollen, the leaves of other plants, and various kinds of seeds, pour forth much acid secretion, and afterwards absorb matter probably of an albuminous nature from them. nor can the benefit thus derived be insignificant, for a considerable [page ] amount of pollen must be blown from the many wind-fertilised carices, grasses, &c., growing where pinguicula lives, on to the leaves thickly covered with viscid glands and forming large rosettes. even a few grains of pollen on a single gland causes it to secrete copiously. we have also seen how frequently the small leaves of erica tetralix and of other plants, as well as various kinds of seeds and fruits, especially of carex, adhere to the leaves. one leaf of the pinguicula had caught ten of the little leaves of the erica; and three leaves on the same plant had each caught a seed. seeds subjected to the action of the secretion are sometimes killed, or the seedlings injured. we may, therefore, conclude that pinguicula vulgaris, with its small roots, is not only supported to a large extent by the extraordinary number of insects which it habitually captures, but likewise draws some nourishment from the pollen, leaves, and seeds of other plants which often adhere to its leaves. it is therefore partly a vegetable as well as an animal feeder. pinguicula grandiflora. this species is so closely allied to the last that it is ranked by dr. hooker as a sub-species. it differs chiefly in the larger size of its leaves, and in the glandular hairs near the basal part of the midrib being longer. but it likewise differs in constitution; i hear from mr. ralfs, who was so kind as to send me plants from cornwall, that it grows in rather different sites; and dr. moore, of the glasnevin botanic gardens, informs me that it is much more manageable under culture, growing freely and flowering annually; whilst pinguicula vulgaris has to be renewed every year. mr. ralfs found numerous [page ] insects and fragments of insects adhering to almost all the leaves. these consisted chiefly of diptera, with some hymenoptera, homoptera, coleoptera, and a moth. on one leaf there were nine dead insects, besides a few still alive. he also observed a few fruits of carex pulicaris, as well as the seeds of this same pinguicula, adhering to the leaves. i tried only two experiments with this species; firstly, a fly was placed near the margin of a leaf, and after hrs. this was found well inflected. secondly, several small flies were placed in a row along one margin of another leaf, and by the next morning this whole margin was curled inwards, exactly as in the case of pinguicula vulgaris. pinguicula lusitanica. this species, of which living specimens were sent me by mr. ralfs from cornwall, is very distinct from the two foregoing ones. the leaves are rather smaller, much more transparent, and are marked with purple branching veins. the margins of the leaves are much more involuted; those of the older ones extending over a third of the space between the midrib and the outside. as in the two other species, the glandular hairs consist of longer and shorter ones, and have the same structure; but the glands differ in being purple, and in often containing granular matter before they have been excited. in the lower part of the leaf, almost half the space on each side between the midrib and margin is destitute of glands; these being replaced by long, rather stiff, multicellular hairs, which intercross over the midrib. these hairs perhaps serve to prevent insects from settling on this part of the leaf, where there are no viscid glands by which they could be caught; but it is hardly probable that they were developed for this purpose. the spiral vessels pro- [page ] ceeding from the midrib terminate at the extreme margin of the leaf in spiral cells; but these are not so well developed as in the two preceding species. the flower-peduncles, sepals, and petals, are studded with glandular hairs, like those on the leaves. the leaves catch many small insects, which are found chiefly beneath the involuted margins, probably washed there by the rain. the colour of the glands on which insects have long lain is changed, being either brownish or pale purple, with their contents coarsely granular; so that they evidently absorb matter from their prey. leaves of the erica tetralix, flowers of a galium, scales of grasses, &c. likewise adhered to some of the leaves. several of the experiments which were tried on pinguicula vulgaris were repeated on pinguicula lusitanica, and these will now be given. [( ) a moderately sized and angular bit of albumen was placed on one side of a leaf, halfway between the midrib and the naturally involuted margin. in hrs. m. the glands poured forth much secretion, and this side became more infolded than the opposite one. the inflection increased, and in hrs. m. extended up almost to the apex. after hrs. the margin was rolled into a cylinder, the outer surface of which touched the blade of the leaf and reached to within the / of an inch of the midrib. after hrs. it began to unfold, and in hrs. was completely unfolded. the cube was rounded and greatly reduced in size; the remainder being in a semi-liquefied state. ( ) a moderately sized bit of albumen was placed near the apex of a leaf, under the naturally incurved margin. in hrs. m. much secretion was excited, and next morning the margin on this side was more incurved than the opposite one, but not to so great a degree as in the last case. the margin unfolded at the same rate as before. a large proportion of the albumen was dissolved, a remnant being still left. ( ) large bits of albumen were laid in a row on the midribs of two leaves, but produced in the course of hrs. no effect; [page ] nor could this have been expected, for even had glands existed here, the long bristles would have prevented the albumen from coming in contact with them. on both leaves the bits were now pushed close to one margin, and in hrs. m. this became so greatly inflected that the outer surface touched the blade; the opposite margin not being in the least affected. after three days the margins of both leaves with the albumen were still as much inflected as ever, and the glands were still secreting copiously. with pinguicula vulgaris i have never seen inflection lasting so long. ( ) two cabbage seeds, after being soaked for an hour in water, were placed near the margin of a leaf, and caused in hrs. m. increased secretion and incurvation. after hrs. the leaf was partially unfolded, but the glands were still secreting freely. these began to dry in hrs., and after hrs. were almost dry. the two seeds were then placed on damp sand under favourable conditions for growth; but they never germinated, and after a time were found rotten. they had no doubt been killed by the secretion. ( ) small bits of a spinach leaf caused in hr. m. increased secretion; and after hrs. m. plain incurvation of the margin. the margin was well inflected after hrs. m., but after hrs. was almost fully re-expanded. the glands in contact with the spinach became dry in hrs. bits of albumen had been placed the day before on the opposite margin of this same leaf, as well as on that of a leaf with cabbage seeds, and these margins remained closely inflected for hrs., showing how much more enduring is the effect of albumen than of spinach leaves or cabbage seeds . ( ) a row of small fragments of glass was laid along one margin of a leaf; no effect was produced in hrs. m., but after hrs. m. there seemed to be a trace of inflection, and this was distinct, though not strongly marked, after hrs. the glands in contact with the fragments now secreted more freely than before; so that they appear to be more easily excited by the pressure of inorganic objects than are the glands of pinguicula vulgaris. the above slight inflection of the margin had not increased after hrs., and the glands were now beginning to dry. the surface of a leaf, near the midrib and towards the base, was rubbed and scratched for some time, but no movement ensued. the long hairs which are situated here were treated in the same manner, with no effect. this latter trial was made because i thought that the hairs might perhaps be sensitive to a touch, like the filaments of dionaea. [page ] ( ) the flower-peduncles, sepals and petals, bear glands in general appearance like those on the leaves. a piece of a flower-peduncle was therefore left for hr. in a solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water, and this caused the glands to change from bright pink to a dull purple colour; but their contents exhibited no distinct aggregation. after hrs. m. they became colourless. two minute cubes of albumen were placed on the glands of a flower-peduncle, and another cube on the glands of a sepal; but they were not excited to increased secretion, and the albumen after two days was not in the least softened. hence these glands apparently differ greatly in function from those on the leaves.] from the foregoing observations on pinguicula lusitanica we see that the naturally much incurved margins of the leaves are excited to curve still farther inwards by contact with organic and inorganic bodies; that albumen, cabbage seeds, bits of spinach leaves, and fragments of glass, cause the glands to secrete more freely;--that albumen is dissolved by the secretion, and cabbage seeds killed by it;--and lastly that matter is absorbed by the glands from the insects which are caught in large numbers by the viscid secretion. the glands on the flower-peduncles seem to have no such power. this species differs from pinguicula vulgarisand grandiflora in the margins of the leaves, when excited by organic bodies, being inflected to a greater degree, and in the inflection lasting for a longer time. the glands, also, seem to be more easily excited to increased secretion by bodies not yielding soluble nitrogenous matter. in other respects, as far as my observations serve, all three species agree in their functional powers. [page ] chapter xvii. utricularia. utricularia neglecta--structure of the bladder--the uses of the several parts--number of imprisoned animals--manner of capture--the bladders cannot digest animal matter, but absorb the products of its decay--experiments on the absorption of certain fluids by the quadrifid processes--absorption by the glands--summary of the observation on absorption-- development of the bladders--utricularia vulgaris--utricularia minor--utricularia clandestina. i was led to investigate the habits and structure of the species of this genus partly from their belonging to the same natural family as pinguicula, but more especially by mr. holland's statement, that "water insects are often found imprisoned in the bladders," which he suspects "are destined for the plant to feed on."* the plants which i first received as utricularia vulgaris from the new forest in hampshire and from cornwall, and which i have chiefly worked on, have been determined by dr. hooker to be a very rare british species, the utricularia neglecta of lehm. i subsequently received the true utricularia vulgaris from yorkshire. since drawing up the following description from my own observations and those of my son, francis darwin, an important memoir by prof. cohn *the 'quart. mag. of the high wycombe nat. hist. soc.' july , p. . delpino ('ult. osservaz. sulla dicogamia,' &c. - , p. ) also quotes crouan as having found ( ) crustaceans within the bladders of utricularia vulgaris. i am much indebted to the rev. h.m. wilkinson, of bistern, for having sent me several fine lots of this species from the new forest. mr. ralfs was also so kind as to send me living plants of the same species from near penzance in cornwall. [page ] on utricularia vulgaris has appeared;* and it has been no small satisfaction to me to find that my account agrees almost completely with that of this distinguished observer. i will publish my description as it stood before reading that by prof. cohn, adding occasionally some statements on his authority. fig. . (utricularia neglecta.) branch with the divided leaves bearing bladders; about twice enlarged. utricularia neglecta.--the general appearance of a branch (about twice enlarged), with the pinnatifid leaves bearing bladders, is represented in the above sketch (fig. ). the leaves continually bifurcate, so that a full-grown one terminates in from twenty to thirty * 'beitrage zur biologie der plflanzen' drittes heft, . [page ] points. each point is tipped by a short, straight bristle; and slight notches on the sides of the leaves bear similar bristles. on both surfaces there are many small papillae, crowned with two hemispherical cells in close contact. the plants float near the surface of the water, and are quite destitute of roots, even during the earliest period of growth.* they commonly inhabit, as more than one observer has remarked to me, remarkably foul ditches. the bladders offer the chief point of interest. there are often two or three on the same divided leaf, generally near the base; though i have seen a single one growing from the stem. they are supported on short footstalks. when fully grown, they are nearly / of an inch ( . mm.) in length. they are translucent, of a green colour, and the walls are formed of two layers of cells. the exterior cells are polygonal and rather large; but at many of the points where the angles meet, there are smaller rounded cells. these latter support short conical projections, surmounted by two hemispherical cells in such close apposition that they appear united; but they often separate a little when immersed in certain fluids. the papillae thus formed are exactly like those on the surfaces of the leaves. those on the same bladder vary much in size; and there are a few, especially on very young bladders, which have an elliptical instead of a circular outline. the two terminal cells are transparent, but must hold much matter in solution, judging from the quantity coagulated by prolonged immersion in alcohol or ether. * i infer that this is the case from a drawing of a seedling given by dr. warming in his paper, "bidrag til kundskaben om lentibulariaceae," from the 'videnskabelige meddelelser,' copenhagen, , nos. - , pp. - .) [page ] the bladders are filled with water. they generally, but by no means always, contain bubbles of air. according to the quantity of the contained water and air, they vary much in thickness, but are always somewhat compressed. at an early stage of growth, the flat or ventral surface faces the axis or stem; but the footstalks must have some power of movement; for in plants kept in my greenhouse the ventral surface was generally turned either straight or obliquely downwards. the rev. h.m. wilkinson examined fig. . (utricularia neglecta.) bladder; much enlarged. c, collar indistinctly seen through the walls. plants for me in a state of nature, and found this commonly to be the case, but the younger bladders often had their valves turned upwards. the general appearance of a bladder viewed laterally, with the appendages on the near side alone represented, is shown in the accompanying figure (fig. ). the lower side, where the footstalk arises, is nearly straight, and i have called it the ventral surface. the other or dorsal surface is convex, and terminates in two long prolongations, formed of several rows of cells, containing chlorophyll, and bearing, chiefly on [page ] the outside, six or seven long, pointed, multicellular bristles. these prolongations of the bladder may be conveniently called the antennae, for the whole bladder (see fig. ) curiously resembles an entomostracan crustacean, the short footstalk representing the tail. in fig. , the near antenna alone is shown. beneath the two antennae the end of the bladder is slightly truncated, and here is situated the most important part of the whole structure, namely the entrance and valve. on each side of the entrance from three to rarely seven long, multicellular bristles project out- fig. . (utricularia neglecta.) valve of bladder; greatly enlarged. wards; but only those (four in number) on the near side are shown in the drawing. these bristles, together with those borne by the antennae, form a sort of hollow cone surrounding the entrance. the valve slopes into the cavity of the bladder, or upwards in fig. . it is attached on all sides to the bladder, excepting by its posterior margin, or the lower one in fig. , which is free, and forms one side of the slit-like orifice leading into the bladder. this margin is sharp, thin, and smooth, and rests on the edge of a rim or collar, which dips deeply into the [page ] bladder, as shown in the longitudinal section (fig. ) of the collar and valve; it is also shown at c, in fig. . the edge of the valve can thus open only inwards. as both the valve and collar dip into the bladder, a hollow or depression is here formed, at the base of which lies the slit-like orifice. the valve is colourless, highly transparent, flexible and elastic. it is convex in a transverse direction, but has been drawn (fig. ) in a flattened state, by which its apparent breadth is increased. it is formed, fig. . (utricularia neglecta.) longitudinal vertical section through the ventral portion of a bladder; showing valve and collar. v, valve; the whole projection above c forms the collar; b, bifid processes; s, ventral surface of bladder. according to cohn, of two layers of small cells, which are continuous with the two layers of larger cells forming the walls of the bladder, of which it is evidently a prolongation. two pairs of transparent pointed bristles, about as long as the valve itself, arise from near the free posterior margin (fig. ), and point obliquely outwards in the direction of the antennae. there are also on the surface of the valve numerous glands, as i will call them; for they have the power of absorption, though i doubt whether they ever secrete. they consist of three kinds, which [page ] to a certain extent graduate into one another. those situated round the anterior margin of the valve (upper margin in fig. ) are very numerous and crowded together; they consist of an oblong head on a long pedicel. the pedicel itself is formed of an elongated cell, surmounted by a short one. the glands towards the free posterior margin are much larger, few in number, and almost spherical, having short footstalks; the head is formed by the confluence of two cells, the lower one answering to the short upper cell of the pedicel of the oblong glands. the glands of the third kind have transversely elongated heads, and are seated on very short footstalks; so that they stand parallel and close to the surface of the valve; they may be called the two-armed glands. the cells forming all these glands contain a nucleus, and are lined by a thin layer of more or less granular protoplasm, the primordial utricle of mohl. they are filled with fluid, which must hold much matter in solution, judging from the quantity coagulated after they have been long immersed in alcohol or ether. the depression in which the valve lies is also lined with innumerable glands; those at the sides having oblong heads and elongated pedicels, exactly like the glands on the adjoining parts of the valve. the collar (called the peristome by cohn) is evidently formed, like the valve, by an inward projection of the walls of the bladder. the cells composing the outer surface, or that facing the valve, have rather thick walls, are of a brownish colour, minute, very numerous, and elongated; the lower ones being divided into two by vertical partitions. the whole presents a complex and elegant appearance. the cells forming the inner surface are continuous with those over the whole inner surface of the bladder. the space be- [page ] tween the inner and outer surface consists of coarse cellular tissue (fig. ). the inner side is thickly covered with delicate bifid processes, hereafter to be described. the collar is thus made thick; and it is rigid, so that it retains the same outline whether the bladder contains little or much air and water. this is of great importance, as otherwise the thin and flexible valve would be liable to be distorted, and in this case would not act properly. altogether the entrance into the bladder, formed by the transparent valve, with its four obliquely projecting bristles, its numerous diversely shaped glands, surrounded by the collar, bearing glands on the inside and bristles on the outside, together with the bristles borne by the antennae, presents an extraordinarily complex appearance when viewed under the microscope. we will now consider the internal structure of the bladder. the whole inner surface, with the exception of the valve, is seen under a moderately high power to be covered with a serried mass of processes (fig. ). each of these consists of four divergent arms; whence their name of quadrifid processes. they arise from small angular cells, at the junctions of the angles of the larger cells which form the interior of the bladder. the middle part of the upper surface of these small cells projects a little, and then contracts into a very short and narrow footstalk which bears the four arms (fig. .). of these, two are long, but often of not quite equal length, and project obliquely inwards and towards the posterior end of the bladder. the two others are much shorter, and project at a smaller angle, that is, are more nearly horizontal, and are directed towards the anterior end of the bladder. these arms are only moderately sharp; they are composed of ex- [page ] tremely thin transparent membrane, so that they can be bent or doubled in any direction without being broken. they are lined with a delicate layer of protoplasm, as is likewise the short conical projection from which they arise. each arm generally (but not invariably) contains a minute, faintly brown particle, either rounded or more commonly elongated, which exhibits incessant brownian movements. these par- fig. . (utricularia neglecta.) small portion of inside of bladder, much enlarged, showing quadrifid processes. fig. . (utricularia neglecta.) one of the quadrifid processes greatly enlarged. ticles slowly change their positions, and travel from one end to the other of the arms, but are commonly found near their bases. they are present in the quadrifids of young bladders, when only about a third of their full size. they do not resemble ordinary nuclei, but i believe that they are nuclei in a modified condition, for when absent, i could occasionally just distinguish in their places a delicate halo of matter, including a darker spot. moreover, the quadrifids of utricularia montana contain rather larger and much [page ] more regularly spherical, but otherwise similar, particles, which closely resemble the nuclei in the cells forming the walls of the bladders. in the present case there were sometimes two, three, or even more, nearly similar particles within a single arm; but, as we shall hereafter see, the presence of more than one seemed always to be connected with the absorption of decayed matter. the inner side of the collar (see the previous fig. ) is covered with several crowded rows of processes, differing in no important respect from the quadrifids, except in bearing only two arms instead of four; they are, however, rather narrower and more delicate. i shall call them the bifids. they project into the bladder, and are directed towards its posterior end. the quadrifid and bifid processes no doubt are homologous with the papillae on the outside of the bladder and of the leaves; and we shall see that they are developed from closely similar papillae. the uses of the several parts.--after the above long but necessary description of the parts, we will turn to their uses. the bladders have been supposed by some authors to serve as floats; but branches which bore no bladders, and others from which they had been removed, floated perfectly, owing to the air in the intercellular spaces. bladders containing dead and captured animals usually include bubbles of air, but these cannot have been generated solely by the process of decay, as i have often seen air in young, clean, and empty bladders; and some old bladders with much decaying matter had no bubbles. the real use of the bladders is to capture small aquatic animals, and this they do on a large scale. in the first lot of plants, which i received from the new forest early in july, a large proportion of the fully [page ] grown bladders contained prey; in a second lot, received in the beginning of august, most of the bladders were empty, but plants had been selected which had grown in unusually pure water. in the first lot, my son examined seventeen bladders, including prey of some kind, and eight of these contained entomostracan crustaceans, three larvae of insects, one being still alive, and six remnants of animals so much decayed that their nature could not be distinguished. i picked out five bladders which seemed very full, and found in them four, five, eight, and ten crustaceans, and in the fifth a single much elongated larva. in five other bladders, selected from containing remains, but not appearing very full, there were one, two, four, two, and five crustaceans. a plant of utricularia vulgaris, which had been kept in almost pure water, was placed by cohn one evening into water swarming with crustaceans, and by the next morning most of the bladders contained these animals entrapped and swimming round and round their prisons. they remained alive for several days; but at last perished, asphyxiated, as i suppose, by the oxygen in the water having been all consumed. freshwater worms were also found by cohn in some bladders. in all cases the bladders with decayed remains swarmed with living algae of many kinds, infusoria, and other low organisms, which evidently lived as intruders. animals enter the bladders by bending inwards the posterior free edge of the valve, which from being highly elastic shuts again instantly. as the edge is extremely thin, and fits closely against the edge of the collar, both projecting into the bladder (see section, fig. ), it would evidently be very difficult for any animal to get out when once imprisoned, and apparently they never do escape. to show how closely the edge [page ] fits, i may mention that my son found a daphnia which had inserted one of its antennae into the slit, and it was thus held fast during a whole day. on three or four occasions i have seen long narrow larvae, both dead and alive, wedged between the corner of the valve and collar, with half their bodies within the bladder and half out. as i felt much difficulty in understanding how such minute and weak animals, as are often captured, could force their way into the bladders, i tried many experiments to ascertain how this was effected. the free margin of the valve bends so easily that no resistance is felt when a needle or thin bristle is inserted. a thin human hair, fixed to a handle, and cut off so as to project barely / of an inch, entered with some difficulty; a longer piece yielded instead of entering. on three occasions minute particles of blue glass (so as to be easily distinguished) were placed on valves whilst under water; and on trying gently to move them with a needle, they disappeared so suddenly that, not seeing what had happened, i thought that i had flirted them off; but on examining the bladders, they were found safely enclosed. the same thing occurred to my son, who placed little cubes of green box-wood (about / of an inch, . mm.) on some valves; and thrice in the act of placing them on, or whilst gently moving them to another spot, the valve suddenly opened and they were engulfed. he then placed similar bits of wood on other valves, and moved them about for some time, but they did not enter. again, particles of blue glass were placed by me on three valves, and extremely minute shavings of lead on two other valves; after or hrs. none had entered, but in from to hrs. all five were enclosed. one of the particles of glass was a [page ] long splinter, of which one end rested obliquely on the valve, and after a few hours it was found fixed, half within the bladder and half projecting out, with the edge of the valve fitting closely all round, except at one angle, where a small open space was left. it was so firmly fixed, like the above-mentioned larvae, that the bladder was torn from the branch and shaken, and yet the splinter did not fall out. my son also placed little cubes (about / of an inch, . mm.) of green box-wood, which were just heavy enough to sink in water, on three valves. these were examined after hrs. m., and were still lying on the valves; but after hrs. m. one was found enclosed. i may here mention that i found in a bladder on a naturally growing plant a grain of sand, and in another bladder three grains; these must have fallen by some accident on the valves, and then entered like the particles of glass. the slow bending of the valve from the weight of particles of glass and even of box-wood, though largely supported by the water, is, i suppose, analogous to the slow bending of colloid substances. for instance, particles of glass were placed on various points of narrow strips of moistened gelatine, and these yielded and became bent with extreme slowness. it is much more difficult to understand how gently moving a particle from one part of a valve to another causes it suddenly to open. to ascertain whether the valves were endowed with irritability, the surfaces of several were scratched with a needle or brushed with a fine camel-hair brush, so as to imitate the crawling movement of small crustaceans, but the valve did not open. some bladders, before being brushed, were left for a time in water at temperatures between o and o f. ( o. - o. cent.), as, judging from a wide- [page ] spread analogy, this would have rendered them more sensitive to irritation, or would by itself have excited movement; but no effect was produced. we may, therefore, conclude that animals enter merely by forcing their way through the slit-like orifice; their heads serving as a wedge. but i am surprised that such small and weak creatures as are often captured (for instance, the nauplius of a crustacean, and a tardigrade) should be strong enough to act in this manner, seeing that it was difficult to push in one end of a bit of a hair / of an inch in length. nevertheless, it is certain that weak and small creatures do enter, and mrs. treat, of new jersey, has been more successful than any other observer, and has often witnessed in the case of utricularia clandestina the whole process.* she saw a tardigrade slowly walking round a bladder, as if reconnoitring; at last it crawled into the depression where the valve lies, and then easily entered. she also witnessed the entrapment of various minute crustaceans. cypris "was "quite wary, but nevertheless was often caught. "coming to the entrance of a bladder, it would some-"times pause a moment, and then dash away; at "other times it would come close up, and even ven-"ture part of the way into the entrance and back out "as if afraid. another, more heedless, would open "the door and walk in; but it was no sooner in than "it manifested alarm, drew in its feet and antennae, and closed its shell." larvae, apparently of gnats, when "feeding near the entrance, are pretty certain "to run their heads into the net, whence there is no "retreat. a large larva is sometimes three or four "hours in being swallowed, the process bringing to * 'new york tribune,' reprinted in the 'gard. chron.' , p. . [page ] "mind what i have witnessed when a small snake "makes a large frog its victim." but as the valve does not appear to be in the least irritable, the slow swallowing process must be the effect of the onward movement of the larva. it is difficult to conjecture what can attract so many creatures, animal- and vegetable-feeding crustaceans, worms, tardigrades, and various larvae, to enter the bladders. mrs. treat says that the larvae just referred to are vegetable-feeders, and seem to have a special liking for the long bristles round the valve, but this taste will not account for the entrance of animal-feeding crustaceans. perhaps small aquatic animals habitually try to enter every small crevice, like that between the valve and collar, in search of food or protection. it is not probable that the remarkable transparency of the valve is an accidental circumstance, and the spot of light thus formed may serve as a guide. the long bristles round the entrance apparently serve for the same purpose. i believe that this is the case, because the bladders of some epiphytic and marsh species of utricularia which live embedded either in entangled vegetation or in mud, have no bristles round the entrance, and these under such conditions would be of no service as a guide. nevertheless, with these epiphytic and marsh species, two pairs of bristles project from the surface of the valve, as in the aquatic species; and their use probably is to prevent too large animals from trying to force an entrance into the bladder, thus rupturing orifice. as under favourable circumstances most of the bladders succeed in securing prey, in one case as many as ten crustaceans;--as the valve is so well fitted to [page ] allow animals to enter and to prevent their escape;--and as the inside of the bladder presents so singular a structure, clothed with innumerable quadrifid and bifid processes, it is impossible to doubt that the plant has been specially adapted for securing prey. from the analogy of pinguicula, belonging to the same family, i naturally expected that the bladders would have digested their prey; but this is not the case, and there are no glands fitted for secreting the proper fluid. nevertheless, in order to test their power of digestion, minute fragments of roast meat, three small cubes of albumen, and three of cartilage, were pushed through the orifice into the bladders of vigorous plants. they were left from one day to three days and a half within, and the bladders were then cut open; but none of the above substances exhibited the least signs of digestion or dissolution; the angles of the cubes being as sharp as ever. these observations were made subsequently to those on drosera, dionaea, drosophyllum, and pinguicula; so that i was familiar with the appearance of these substances when undergoing the early and final stages of digestion. we may therefore conclude that utricularia cannot digest the animals which it habitually captures. in most of the bladders the captured animals are so much decayed that they form a pale brown, pulpy mass, with their chitinous coats so tender that they fall to pieces with the greatest ease. the black pigment of the eye-spots is preserved better than anything else. limbs, jaws, &c. are often found quite detached; and this i suppose is the result of the vain struggles of the later captured animals. i have sometimes felt surprised at the small proportion of imprisoned animals in a fresh state compared with those utterly decayed. mrs. treat states with respect [page ] to the larvae above referred to, that "usually in less "than two days after a large one was captured the fluid "contents of the bladders began to assume a cloudy "or muddy appearance, and often became so dense "that the outline of the animal was lost to view." this statement raises the suspicion that the bladders secrete some ferment hastening the process of decay. there is no inherent improbability in this supposition, considering that meat soaked for ten minutes in water mingled with the milky juice of the papaw becomes quite tender and soon passes, as browne remarks in his 'natural history of jamaica,' into a state of putridity. whether or not the decay of the imprisoned animals is an any way hastened, it is certain that matter is absorbed from them by the quadrifid and bifid processes. the extremely delicate nature of the membrane of which these processes are formed, and the large surface which they expose, owing to their number crowded over the whole interior of the bladder, are circumstances all favouring the process of absorption. many perfectly clean bladders which had never caught any prey were opened, and nothing could be distinguished with a no. object-glass of hartnack within the delicate, structureless protoplasmic lining of the arms, excepting in each a single yellowish particle or modified nucleus. sometimes two or even three such particles were present; but in this case traces of decaying matter could generally be detected. on the other hand, in bladders containing either one large or several small decayed animals, the processes presented a widely different appearance. six such bladders were carefully examined; one contained an elongated, coiled-up larva; another a single large entomostracan crustacean, and the others from two to five smaller ones, all [page ] in a decayed state. in these six bladders, a large number of the quadrifid processes contained transparent, often yellowish, more or less confluent, spherical or irregularly shaped, masses of matter. some of the processes, however, contained only fine granular matter, the particles of which were so small that they could not be defined clearly with no. of hartnack. the delicate layer of protoplasm lining their walls was in some cases a little shrunk. on three occasions the above small masses of matter were observed and sketched at short intervals of time; and they certainly changed their positions relatively to each other and to the walls of the arms. separate masses sometimes became confluent, and then again divided. a single little mass would send out a projection, which after a time separated itself. hence there could be no doubt that these masses consisted of protoplasm. bearing in mind that many clean bladders were examined with equal care, and that these presented no such appearance, we may confidently believe that the protoplasm in the above cases had been generated by the absorption of nitrogenous matter from the decaying animals. in two or three other bladders, which at first appeared quite clean, on careful search a few processes were found, with their outsides clogged with a little brown matter, showing that some minute animal had been captured and had decayed, and the arms here included a very few more or less spherical and aggregated masses; the processes in other parts of the bladders being empty and transparent. on the other hand, it must be stated that in three bladders containing dead crustaceans, the processes were likewise empty. this fact may be accounted for by the animals not having been sufficiently decayed, or by time enough not having been allowed for the generation of proto- [page ] plasm, or by its subsequent absorption and transference to other parts of the plant. it will hereafter be seen that in three or four other species of utricularia the quadrifid processes in contact with decaying animals likewise contained aggregated masses of protoplasm. on the absorption of certain fluids by the quadrifid and bifid processes.--these experiments were tried to ascertain whether certain fluids, which seemed adapted for the purpose, would produce the same effects on the processes as the absorption of decayed animal matter. such experiments are, however, troublesome; for it is not sufficient merely to place a branch in the fluid, as the valve shuts so closely that the fluid apparently does not enter soon, if at all. even when bristles were pushed into the orifices, they were in several cases wrapped so closely round by the thin flexible edge of the valve that the fluid was apparently excluded; so that the experiments tried in this manner are doubtful and not worth giving. the best plan would have been to puncture the bladders, but i did not think of this till too late, excepting in a few cases. in all such trials, however, it cannot be ascertained positively that the bladder, though translucent, does not contain some minute animal in the last stage of decay. therefore most of my experiments were made by cutting bladders longitudinally into two; the quadrifids were examined with no. of hartnack, then irrigated, whilst under the covering glass, with a few drops of the fluid under trial, kept in a damp chamber, and re-examined after stated intervals of time with the same power as before. [four bladders were first tried as a control experiment, in the manner just described, in a solution of one part of gum arabic to of water, and two bladders in a solution of one part of sugar to of water; and in neither case was any [page ] change perceptible in the quadrifids or bifids after hrs. four bladders were then treated in the same manner with a solution of one part of nitrate of ammonia to of water, and re-examined after hrs. in two of these the quadrifids now appeared full of very finely granular matter, and their protoplasmic lining or primordial utricle was a little shrunk. in the third bladder, the quadrifids included distinctly visible granules, and the primordial utricle was a little shrunk after only hrs. in the fourth bladder the primordial utricle in most of the processes was here and there thickened into little, irregular, yellowish specks; and from the gradations which could be traced in this and other cases, these specks appear to give rise to the larger free granules contained within some of the processes. other bladders, which, as far as could be judged, had never caught any prey, were punctured and left in the same solution for hrs.; and their quadrifids now contained very fine granular matter. a bladder was bisected, examined, and irrigated with a solution of one part of carbonate of ammonia to of water. after hrs. m. the quadrifids contained a good many granules, and the primordial utricle was somewhat shrunk; after hrs. the quadrifids and bifids contained many spheres of hyaline matter, and in one arm twenty-four such spheres of moderate size were counted. two bisected bladders, which had been previously left for hrs. in the solution of gum (one part to of water) without being affected, were irrigated with the solution of carbonate of ammonia; and both had their quadrifids modified in nearly the same manner as just described,--one after only hrs., and the other after hrs. two bladders which appeared never to have caught any prey were punctured and placed in the solution; the quadrifids of one were examined after hrs., and found slightly opaque; the quadrifids of the other, examined after hrs., had their primordial utricles more or less shrunk with thickened yellowish specks, like those due to the action of nitrate of ammonia. several uninjured bladders were left in the same solution, as well as a weaker solution of one part to of water, or gr. to oz.; and after two days the quadrifids were more or less opaque, with their contents finely granular; but whether the solution had entered by the orifice, or had been absorbed from the outside, i know not. two bisected bladders were irrigated with a solution of one part of urea to of water; but when this solution was employed, i forgot that it had been kept for some days in a warm room, and had therefore probably generated ammonia; anyhow [page ] the quadrifids were affected after hrs. as if a solution of carbonate of ammonia had been used; for the primordial utricle was thickened in specks, which seemed to graduate into separate granules. three bisected bladders were also irrigated with a fresh solution of urea of the same strength; their quadrifids after hrs. were much less affected than in the former case; nevertheless, the primordial utricle in some of the arms was a little shrunk, and in others was divided into two almost symmetrical sacks. three bisected bladders, after being examined, were irrigated with a putrid and very offensive infusion of raw meat. after hrs. the quadrifids and bifids in all three specimens abounded with minute, hyaline, spherical masses; and some of their primordial utricles were a little shrunk. three bisected bladders were also irrigated with a fresh infusion of raw meat; and to my surprise the quadrifids in one of them appeared, after hrs., finely granular, with their primordial utricles somewhat shrunk and marked with thickened yellowish specks; so that they had been acted on in the same manner as by the putrid infusion or by the salts of ammonia. in the second bladder some of the quadrifids were similarly acted on, though to a very slight degree; whilst the third bladder was not at all affected.] from these experiments it is clear that the quadrifid and bifid processes have the power of absorbing carbonate and nitrate of ammonia, and matter of some kind from a putrid infusion of meat. salts of ammonia were selected for trial, as they are known to be rapidly generated by the decay of animal matter in the presence of air and water, and would therefore be generated within the bladders containing captured prey. the effect produced on the processes by these salts and by a putrid infusion of raw meat differs from that produced by the decay of the naturally captured animals only in the aggregated masses of protoplasm being in the latter case of larger size; but it is probable that the fine granules and small hyaline spheres produced by the solutions would coalesce into larger masses, with time enough allowed. [page ] we have seen with drosera that the first effect of a weak solution of carbonate of ammonia on the cell-contents is the production of the finest granules, which afterwards aggregate into larger, more or less rounded, masses; and that the granules in the layer of protoplasm which flows round the walls ultimately coalesce with these masses. changes of this nature are, however, far more rapid in drosera than in utricularia. since the bladders have no power of digesting albumen, cartilage, or roast meat, i was surprised that matter was absorbed, at least in one case, from a fresh infusion of raw meat. i was also surprised, from what we shall presently see with respect to the glands round the orifice, that a fresh solution of urea produced only a moderate effect on the quadrifids. as the quadrifids are developed from papillae which at first closely resemble those on the outside of the bladders and on the surfaces of the leaves, i may here state that the two hemispherical cells with which these latter papillae are crowned, and which in their natural state are perfectly transparent, likewise absorb carbonate and nitrate of ammonia; for, after an immersion of hrs. in solutions of one part of both these salts to of water, their primordial utricles were a little shrunk and of a pale brown tint, and sometimes finely granular. the same result followed from the immersion of a whole branch for nearly three days in a solution of one part of the carbonate to of water. the grains of chlorophyll, also, in the cells of the leaves on this branch became in many places aggregated into little green masses, which were often connected together by the finest threads. on the absorption of certain fluids by the glands on the valve and collar.--the glands round the orifices of bladders which are still young, or which have been [page ] long kept in moderately pure water, are colourless; and their primordial utricles are only slightly or hardly at all granular. but in the greater number of plants in a state of nature--and we must remember that they generally grow in very foul water--and with plants kept in an aquarium in foul water, most of the glands were of a pale brownish tint; their primordial utricles were more or less shrunk, sometimes ruptured, with their contents often coarsely granular or aggregated into little masses. that this state of the glands is due to their having absorbed matter from the surrounding water, i cannot doubt; for, as we shall immediately see, nearly the same results follow from their immersion for a few hours in various solutions. nor is it probable that this absorption is useless, seeing that it is almost universal with plants growing in a state of nature, excepting when the water is remarkably pure. the pedicels of the glands which are situated close to the slit-like orifice, both those on the valve and on the collar, are short; whereas the pedicels of the more distant glands are much elongated and project inwards. the glands are thus well placed so to be washed by any fluid coming out of the bladder through the orifice. the valve fits so closely, judging from the result of immersing uninjured bladders in various solutions, that it is doubtful whether any putrid fluid habitually passes outwards. but we must remember that a bladder generally captures several animals; and that each time a fresh animal enters, a puff of foul water must pass out and bathe the glands. moreover, i have repeatedly found that, by gently pressing bladders which contained air, minute bubbles were driven out through the orifice; and if a bladder is laid on blotting paper and gently pressed, water oozes out. [page ] in this latter case, as soon as the pressure is relaxed, air is drawn in, and the bladder recovers its proper form. if it is now placed under water and again gently pressed, minute bubbles issue from the orifice and nowhere else, showing that the walls of the bladder have not been ruptured. i mention this because cohn quotes a statement by treviranus, that air cannot be forced out of a bladder without rupturing it. we may therefore conclude that whenever air is secreted within a bladder already full of water, some water will be slowly driven out through the orifice. hence i can hardly doubt that the numerous glands crowded round the orifice are adapted to absorb matter from the putrid water, which will occasionally escape from bladders including decayed animals. [in order to test this conclusion, i experimented with various solutions on the glands. as in the case of the quadrifids, salts of ammonia were tried, since these are generated by the final decay of animal matter under water. unfortunately the glands cannot be carefully examined whilst attached to the bladders in their entire state. their summits, therefore, including the valve, collar, and antennae, were sliced off, and the condition of the glands observed; they were then irrigated, whilst beneath a covering glass, with the solutions, and after a time re-examined with the same power as before, namely no. of hartnack. the following experiments were thus made. as a control experiment solutions of one part of white sugar and of one part of gum to of water were first used, to see whether these produced any change in the glands. it was also necessary to observe whether the glands were affected by the summits of the bladders having been cut off. the summits of four were thus tried; one being examined after hrs. m., and the other three after hrs.; but there was no marked change in the glands of any of them. two summits bearing quite colourless glands were irrigated with a solution of carbonate of ammonia of the same strength (viz. one part to of water) , and in m. the primordial utricles of most of the glands were somewhat contracted; they were also thickened in specks or patches, and had assumed a pale [page ] brown tint. when looked at again after hr. m., most of them presented a somewhat different appearance. a third specimen was treated with a weaker solution of one part of the carbonate to of water, and after hr. the glands were pale brown and contained numerous granules. four summits were irrigated with a solution of one part of nitrate of ammonia to of water. one was examined after m., and the glands seemed affected; after hr. m. there was a greater change, and the primordial utricles in most of them were somewhat shrunk, and included many granules. in the second specimen, the primordial utricles were considerably shrunk and brownish after hrs. similar effects were observed in the two other specimens, but these were not examined until hrs. had elapsed. the nuclei of many of the glands apparently had increased in size. five bladders on a branch, which had been kept for a long time in moderately pure water, were cut off and examined, and their glands found very little modified. the remainder of this branch was placed in the solution of the nitrate, and after hrs. two bladders were examined, and all their glands were brownish, with their primordial utricles somewhat shrunk and finely granular. the summit of another bladder, the glands of which were in a beautifully clear condition, was irrigated with a few drops of a mixed solution of nitrate and phosphate of ammonia, each of one part to of water. after hrs. some few of the glands were brownish. after hrs. almost all the oblong glands were brown and much more opaque than they were before; their primordial utricles were somewhat shrunk and contained a little aggregated granular matter. the spherical glands were still white, but their utricles were broken up into three or four small hyaline spheres, with an irregularly contracted mass in the middle of the basal part. these smaller spheres changed their forms in the course of a few hours and some of them disappeared. by the next morning, after hrs. m., they had all disappeared, and the glands were brown; their utricles now formed a globular shrunken mass in the middle. the utricles of the oblong glands had shrunk very little, but their contents were somewhat aggregated. lastly, the summit of a bladder which had been previously irrigated for hrs. with a solution of one part of sugar to of water without being affected, was treated with the above mixed solution; and after hrs. m. all the glands became brown, with their primordial utricles slightly shrunk. four summits were irrigated with a putrid infusion of raw [page ] meat. no change in the glands was observable for some hours, but after hrs. most of them had become brownish, and more opaque and granular than they were before. in these specimens, as in those irrigated with the salts of ammonia, the nuclei seemed to have increased both in size and solidity, but they were not measured. five summits were also irrigated with a fresh infusion of raw meat; three of these were not at all affected in hrs., but the glands of the other two had perhaps become more granular. one of the specimens which was not affected was then irrigated with the mixed solution of the nitrate and phosphate of ammonia, and after only m. the glands contained from four or five to a dozen granules. after six additional hours their primordial utricles were greatly shrunk. the summit of a bladder was examined, and all the glands found colourless, with their primordial utricles not at all shrunk; yet many of the oblong glands contained granules just resolvable with no. of hartnack. it was then irrigated with a few drops of a solution of one part of urea to of water. after hrs. m. the spherical glands were still colourless; whilst the oblong and two-armed ones were of a brownish tint, and their primordial utricles much shrunk, some containing distinctly visible granules. after hrs. some of the spherical glands were brownish, and the oblong glands were still more changed, but they contained fewer separate granules; their nuclei, on the other hand, appeared larger, as if they had absorbed the granules. after hrs. all the glands were brown, their primordial utricles greatly shrunk, and in many cases ruptured. a bladder was now experimented on, which was already somewhat affected by the surrounding water; for the spherical glands, though colourless, had their primordial utricles slightly shrunk; and the oblong glands were brownish, with their utricles much, but irregularly, shrunk. the summit was treated with the solution of urea, but was little affected by it in hrs.; nevertheless, after hrs. the spherical glands were brown, with their utricles more shrunk; several of the other glands were still browner, with their utricles contracted into irregular little masses. two other summits, with their glands colourless and their utricles not shrunk, were treated with the same solution of urea. after hrs. many of the glands presented a shade of brown, with their utricles slightly shrunk. after hrs. m. some few of them were quite brown, and contained [page ] irregularly aggregated masses; others were still colourless, though their utricles were shrunk; but the greater number were not much affected. this was a good instance of how unequally the glands on the same bladder are sometimes affected, as likewise often occurs with plants growing in foul water. two other summits were treated with a solution which had been kept during several days in a warm room, and their glands were not at all affected when examined after hrs. a weaker solution of one part of urea to of water was next tried on six summits, all carefully examined before being irrigated. the first was re-examined after hrs. m., and the glands, including the spherical ones, were brown; many of the oblong glands having their primordial utricles much shrunk and including granules. the second summit, before being irrigated, had been somewhat affected by the surrounding water, for the spherical glands were not quite uniform in appearance; and a few of the oblong ones were brown, with their utricles shrunk. of the oblong glands, those which were before colourless, became brown in hrs. m. after irrigation, with their utricles slightly shrunk. the spherical glands did not become brown, but their contents seemed changed in appearance, and after hrs. still more changed and granular. most of the oblong glands were now dark brown, but their utricles were not greatly shrunk. the four other specimens were examined after hrs. m., after hrs., and hrs.; a brief account of their condition will be sufficient. the spherical glands were not brown, but some of them were finely granular. many of the oblong glands were brown, and these, as well as others which still remained colourless, had their utricles more or less shrunk, some of them including small aggregated masses of matter.] summary of the observations on absorption.--from the facts now given there can be no doubt that the variously shaped glands on the valve and round the collar have the power of absorbing matter from weak solutions of certain salts of ammonia and urea, and from a putrid infusion of raw meat. prof. cohn believes that they secrete slimy matter; but i was not able to perceive any trace of such action, excepting that, after immersion in alcohol, extremely fine lines could sometimes be seen radiating from their [page ] surfaces. the glands are variously affected by absorption; they often become of a brown colour; sometimes they contain very fine granules, or moderately sized grains, or irregularly aggregated little masses; sometimes the nuclei appear to have increased in size; the primordial utricles are generally more or less shrunk and sometimes ruptured. exactly the same changes may be observed in the glands of plants growing and flourishing in foul water. the spherical glands are generally affected rather differently from the oblong and two-armed ones. the former do not so commonly become brown, and are acted on more slowly. we may therefore infer that they differ somewhat in their natural functions. it is remarkable how unequally the glands on the bladders on the same branch, and even the glands of the same kind on the same bladder, are affected by the foul water in which the plants have grown, and by the solutions which were employed. in the former case i presume that this is due either to little currents bringing matter to some glands and not to others, or to unknown differences in their constitution. when the glands on the same bladder are differently affected by a solution, we may suspect that some of them had previously absorbed a small amount of matter from the water. however this may be, we have seen that the glands on the same leaf of drosera are sometimes very unequally affected, more especially when exposed to certain vapours. if glands which have already become brown, with their primordial utricles shrunk, are irrigated with one of the effective solutions, they are not acted on, or only slightly and slowly. if, however, a gland contains merely a few coarse granules, this does not prevent a solution from acting. i have never seen [page ] any appearance making it probable that glands which have been strongly affected by absorbing matter of any kind are capable of recovering their pristine, colourless, and homogeneous condition, and of regaining the power of absorbing. from the nature of the solutions which were tried, i presume that nitrogen is absorbed by the glands; but the modified, brownish, more or less shrunk, and aggregated contents of the oblong glands were never seen by me or by my son to undergo those spontaneous changes of form characteristic of protoplasm. on the other hand, the contents of the larger spherical glands often separated into small hyaline globules or irregularly shaped masses, which changed their forms very slowly and ultimately coalesced, forming a central shrunken mass. whatever may be the nature of the contents of the several kinds of glands, after they have been acted on by foul water or by one of the nitrogenous solutions, it is probable that the matter thus generated is of service to the plant, and is ultimately transferred to other parts. the glands apparently absorb more quickly than do the quadrifid and bifid processes; and on the view above maintained, namely that they absorb matter from putrid water occasionally emitted from the bladders, they ought to act more quickly than the processes; as these latter remain in permanent contact with captured and decaying animals. finally, the conclusion to which we are led by the foregoing experiments and observations is that the bladders have no power of digesting animal matter, though it appears that the quadrifids are somewhat affected by a fresh infusion of raw meat. it is certain that the processes within the bladders, and the glands outside, absorb matter from salts of [page ] ammonia, from a putrid infusion of raw meat, and from urea. the glands apparently are acted on more strongly by a solution of urea, and less strongly by an infusion of raw meat, than are the processes. the case of urea is particularly interesting, because we have seen that it produces no effect on drosera, the leaves of which are adapted to digest fresh animal matter. but the most important fact of all is, that in the present and following species the quadrifid and bifid processes of bladders containing decayed animals generally include little masses of spontaneously moving protoplasm; whilst such masses are never seen in perfectly clean bladders. development of the bladders.--my son and i spent much time over this subject with small success. our observations apply to the present species and to utricularia vulgaris, but were made chiefly on the latter, as the bladders are twice as large as those of utricularia neglecta. in the early part of autumn the stems terminate in large buds, which fall off and lie dormant during the winter at the bottom. the young leaves forming these buds bear bladders in various stages of early development. when the bladders of utricularia vulgaris are about / inch (. mm.) in diameter (or / in the case of utricularia neglecta), they are circular in outline, with a narrow, almost closed, transverse orifice, leading into a hollow filled with water; but the bladders are hollow when much under / of an inch in diameter. the orifices face inwards or towards the axis of the plant. at this early age the bladders are flattened in the plane in which the orifice lies, and therefore at right angles to that of the mature bladders. they are covered exteriorly with papillae of different sizes, many of which have an elliptical outline. a bundle of vessels, formed of [page ] simple elongated cells, runs up the short footstalk, and divides at the base of the bladder. one branch extends up the middle of the dorsal surface, and the other up the middle of the ventral surface. in full-grown bladders the ventral bundle divides close beneath the collar, and the two branches run on each side to near where the corners of the valve unite with the collar; but these branches could not be seen in very young bladders. fig. . (utricularia vulgaris.) longitudinal section through a young bladder, / of an inch in length, with the orifice too widely open. the accompanying figure (fig. ) shows a section, which happened to be strictly medial, through the footstalk and between the nascent antennae of a bladder of utricularia vulgaris, / inch in diameter. the specimen was soft, and the young valve became separated from the collar to a greater degree than is natural, and is thus represented. we here clearly see that the valve and collar are infolded prolongations of the walls of the bladder. even at this early age, glands could be detected on the valve. the state of the quadrifid processes will presently be described. the antennae at this period consist of minute cellular projections (not shown in the above figure, as they do not lie in the medial plane), which soon bear incipient bristles. in five instances the young antennae were not of quite equal length; and this fact is intelligible if i am right in believing that they represent two divisions of the leaf, rising from the end of the bladder; for, with the true leaves, whilst very young, the divisions are never, as far as i have seen, strictly opposite; they [page ] must therefore be developed one after the other, and so it would be with the two antennae. at a much earlier age, when the half formed bladders are only / inch (. mm.) in diameter or a little more, they present a totally different appearance. one is represented on the left side of the accompanying drawing (fig. ). the young leaves fig. . (utricularia vulgaris.) young leaf from a winter bud, showing on the left side a bladder in its earliest stage of development. at this age have broad flattened segments, with their future divisions represented by prominences, one of which is shown on the right side. now, in a large number of specimens examined by my son, the young bladders appeared as if formed by the oblique folding over of the apex and of one margin with a prominence, against the opposite margin. the circular hollow between the infolded apex and infolded prominence apparently contracts into the narrow orifice, wherein the valve and collar will be developed; the bladder itself being formed by the confluence of the opposed [page ] margins of the rest of the leaf. but strong objections may be urged against this view, for we must in this case suppose that the valve and collar are developed asymmetrically from the sides of the apex and prominence. moreover, the bundles of vascular tissue have to be formed in lines quite irrespective of the original form of the leaf. until gradations can be shown to exist between this the earliest state and a young yet perfect bladder, the case must be left doubtful. as the quadrifid and bifid processes offer one of the greatest peculiarities in the genus, i carefully observed their development in utricularia neglecta. in bladders about / of an inch in diameter, the inner surface is studded with papillae, rising from small cells at the junctions of the larger ones. these papillae consist of a delicate conical protuberance, which narrows into a very short footstalk, surmounted by two minute cells. they thus occupy the same relative position, and closely resemble, except in being smaller and rather more prominent, the papillae on the outside of the bladders, and on the surfaces of the leaves. the two terminal cells of the papillae first become much elongated in a line parallel to the inner surface of the bladder. next, each is divided by a longitudinal partition. soon the two half-cells thus formed separate from one another; and we now have four cells or an incipient quadrifid process. as there is not space for the two new cells to increase in breadth in their original plane, the one slides partly under the other. their manner of growth now changes, and their outer sides, instead of their apices, continue to grow. the two lower cells, which have slid partly beneath the two upper ones, form the longer and more upright pair of processes; whilst the two upper cells form the shorter [page ] and more horizontal pair; the four together forming a perfect quadrifid. a trace of the primary division between the two cells on the summits of the papillae can still be seen between the bases of the longer processes. the development of the quadrifids is very liable to be arrested. i have seen a bladder / of an inch in length including only primordial papillae; and another bladder, about half its full size, with the quadrifids in an early stage of development. as far as i could make out, the bifid processes are developed in the same manner as the quadrifids, excepting that the two primary terminal cells never become divided, and only increase in length. the glands on the valve and collar appear at so early an age that i could not trace their development; but we may reasonably suspect that they are developed from papillae like those on the outside of the bladder, but with their terminal cells not divided into two. the two segments forming the pedicels of the glands probably answer to the conical protuberance and short footstalk of the quadrifid and bifid processes. i am strengthened in the belief that the glands are developed from papillae like those on the outside of the bladders, from the fact that in utricularia amethystina the glands extend along the whole ventral surface of the bladder close to the footstalk. [utricularia vulgaris. living plants from yorkshire were sent me by dr. hooker. this species differs from the last in the stems and leaves being thicker or coarser; their divisions form a more acute angle with one another; the notches on the leaves bear three or four short bristles instead of one; and the bladders are twice as large, or about / of an inch ( . mm.) in diameter. in all essential respects the bladders resemble those of utricularia neglecta, but the sides of the peristome are perhaps a little more [page ] prominent, and always bear, as far as i have seen, seven or eight long multicellular bristles. there are eleven long bristles on each antenna, the terminal pair being included. five bladders, containing prey of some kind, were examined. the first included five cypris; a large copepod and a diaptomus; the second, four cypris; the third, a single rather large crustacean; the fourth, six crustaceans; and the fifth, ten. my son examined the quadrifid processes in a bladder containing the remains of two crustaceans, and found some of them full of spherical or irregularly shaped masses of matter, which were observed to move and to coalesce. these masses therefore consisted of protoplasm. utricularia minor. fig. . (utricularia minor.) quadrifid process, greatly enlarged. this rare species was sent me in a living state from cheshire, through the kindness of mr. john price. the leaves and bladders are much smaller than those of utricularia neglecta. the leaves bear fewer and shorter bristles, and the bladders are more globular. the antennae, instead of projecting in front of the bladders, are curled under the valve, and are armed with twelve or fourteen extremely long multicellular bristles, generally arranged in pairs. these, with seven or eight long bristles on both sides of the peristome, form a sort of net over the valve, which would tend to prevent all animals, excepting very small ones, entering the bladder. the valve and collar have the same essential structure as in the two previous species; but the glands are not quite so numerous; the oblong ones are rather more elongated, whilst the two-armed ones are rather less elongated. the four bristles which project obliquely from the lower edge of the valve are short. their shortness, compared with those on the valves of the foregoing species, is intelligible if my view is correct that they serve to prevent too large animals forcing an entrance through the valve, thus injuring it; for the valve is already protected to a certain extent by the incurved antennae, together with the lateral bristles. the bifid processes are like those in the previous species; but the quadrifids differ in the four arms (fig. ) [page ] being directed to the same side; the two longer ones being central, and the two shorter ones on the outside. the plants were collected in the middle of july; and the contents of five bladders, which from their opacity seemed full of prey, were examined. the first contained no less than twenty-four minute fresh-water crustaceans, most of them consisting of empty shells, or including only a few drops of red oily matter; the second contained twenty; the third, fifteen; the fourth, ten, some of them being rather larger than usual; and the fifth, which seemed stuffed quite full, contained only seven, but five of these were of unusually large size. the prey, therefore, judging from these five bladders, consists exclusively of fresh-water crustaceans, most of which appeared to be distinct species from those found in the bladders of the two former species. in one bladder the quadrifids in contact with a decaying mass contained numerous spheres of granular matter, which slowly changed their forms and positions. utricularia clandestina. this north american species, which is aquatic like the three foregoing ones, has been described by mrs. treat, of new jersey, whose excellent observations have already been largely quoted. i have not as yet seen any full description by her of the structure of the bladder, but it appears to be lined with quadrifid processes. a vast number of captured animals were found within the bladders; some being crustaceans, but the greater number delicate, elongated larvae, i suppose of culicidae. on some stems, "fully nine out of every ten bladders contained these larvae or their remains." the larvae "showed signs of life from twenty-four to thirty-six hours after being imprisoned," and then perished. [page ] chapter xviii. utricularia (continued). utricularia montana--description of the bladders on the subterranean rhizomes--prey captured by the bladders of plants under culture and in a state of nature--absorption by the quadrifid processes and glands--tubers serving as reservoirs for water--various other species of utricularia--polypompholyx--genlisea, different nature of the trap for capturing prey-- diversified methods by which plants are nourished. fig. . (utricularia montana.) rhizome swollen into a tuber; the branches bearing minute bladders; of natural size. utricularia montana.--this species inhabits the tropical parts of south america, and is said to be epiphytic; but, judging from the state of the roots (rhizomes) of some dried specimens from the herbarium at kew, it likewise lives in earth, probably in crevices of rocks. in english hothouses it is grown in peaty soil. lady dorothy nevill was so kind as to give me a fine plant, and i received another from dr. hooker. the leaves are entire, instead of being much divided, as in the foregoing aquatic species. they are elongated, about / inch in breadth, and furnished with a distinct footstalk. the plant produces numerous colourless rhizomes, as thin as threads, which bear minute bladders, and occasionally swell into tubers, as will [page ] hereafter be described. these rhizomes appear exactly like roots, but occasionally throw up green shoots. they penetrate the earth sometimes to the depth of more than inches; but when the plant grows as an epiphyte, they must creep amidst the mosses, roots, decayed bark, &c., with which the trees of these countries are thickly covered. as the bladders are attached to the rhizomes, they are necessarily subterranean. they are produced in extraordinary numbers. one of my plants, though young, must have borne several hundreds; for a single branch out of an entangled mass had thirty-two, and another branch, about inches in length (but with its end and one side branch broken off), had seventy- three bladders.* the bladders are compressed and rounded, with the ventral surface, or that between the summit of the long delicate footstalk and valve, extremely short (fig. ). they are colourless and almost as transparent as glass, so that they appear smaller than they really are, the largest being under the / of an inch ( . mm.) in its longer diameter. they are formed of rather large angular cells, at the junctions of which oblong papillae project, corresponding with those on the surfaces of the bladders of the previous species. similar papillae abound on the rhizomes, and even on the entire leaves, but they are rather broader on the latter. vessels, marked with parallel bars instead of by a spiral line, run up the footstalks, and * prof. oliver has figured a plant of utricularia jamesoniana ('proc. linn. soc.' vol. iv. p. ) having entire leaves and rhizomes, like those of our present species; but the margins of the terminal halves of some of the leaves are converted into bladders. this fact clearly indicates that the bladders on the rhizomes of the present and following species are modified segments of the leaf; and they are thus brought into accordance with the bladders attached to the divided and floating leaves of the aquatic species. [page ] just enter the bases of the bladders; but they do not bifurcate and extend up the dorsal and ventral surfaces, as in the previous species. the antennae are of moderate length, and taper to a fine point; they differ conspicuously from those before described, in not being armed with bristles. their bases are so abruptly curved that their tips generally rest one on each side of the middle of the bladder, but fig. . (utricularia montana.) bladder; about times enlarged. sometimes near the margin. their curved bases thus form a roof over the cavity in which the valve lies; but there is always left on each side a little circular passage into the cavity, as may be seen in the drawing, as well as a narrow passage between the bases of the two antennae. as the bladders are subterranean, had it not been for the roof, the cavity in which the valve lies would have been liable to be blocked up with earth [page ] and rubbish; so that the curvature of the antennae is a serviceable character. there are no bristles on the outside of the collar or peristome, as in the foregoing species. the valve is small and steeply inclined, with its free posterior edge abutting against a semicircular, deeply depending collar. it is moderately transparent, and bears two pairs of short stiff bristles, in the same position as in the other species. the presence of these four bristles, in contrast with the absence of those on the antennae and collar, indicates that they are of functional importance, namely, as i believe, to prevent too large animals forcing an entrance through the valve. the many glands of diverse shapes attached to the valve and round the collar in the previous species are here absent, with the exception of about a dozen of the two-armed or transversely elongated kind, which are seated near the borders of the valve, and are mounted on very short footstalks. these glands are only the / of an inch (. mm.) in length; though so small, they act as absorbents. the collar is thick, stiff, and almost semi-circular; it is formed of the same peculiar brownish tissue as in the former species. the bladders are filled with water, and sometimes include bubbles of air. they bear internally rather short, thick, quadrifid processes arranged in approximately concentric rows. the two pairs of arms of which they are formed differ only a little in length, and stand in a peculiar position (fig. ); the two longer ones forming one line, and the two shorter ones another parallel line. each arm includes a small spherical mass of brownish matter, which, when crushed, breaks into angular pieces. i have no doubt that these spheres are nuclei, for closely similar ones [page ] are present in the cells forming the walls of the bladders. bifid processes, having rather short oval arms, arise in the usual position on the inner side of the collar. these bladders, therefore, resemble in all essential respects the larger ones of the foregoing species. they differ chiefly in the absence of the numerous glands on the valve and round the collar, a few minute ones of one kind alone being present on the valve. they differ more conspicuously in the absence of the long bristles on the antennae and on the outside of the collar. the presence of these bristles in the previously mentioned species probably relates to the capture of aquatic animals. fig. . (utricularia montana.) one of the quadrifid processes; much enlarged. it seemed to me an interesting question whether the minute bladders of utricularia montanaserved, as in the previous species, to capture animals living in the earth, or in the dense vegetation covering the trees on which this species is epiphytic; for in this case we should have a new sub-class of carnivorous plants, namely, subterranean feeders. many bladders, therefore, were examined, with the following results:-- [( ) a small bladder, less than / of an inch (. mm.) in diameter, contained a minute mass of brown, much decayed matter; and in this, a tarsus with four or five joints, terminating in a double hook, was clearly distinguished under the microscope. i suspect that it was a remnant of one of the thysanoura. the quadrifids in contact with this decayed remnant contained either small masses of translucent, yellowish matter, generally more [page ] or less globular, or fine granules. in distant parts of the same bladder, the processes were transparent and quite empty, with the exception of their solid nuclei. my son made at short intervals of time sketches of one of the above aggregated masses, and found that they continually and completely changed their forms; sometimes separating from one another and again coalescing. evidently protoplasm had been generated by the absorption of some element from the decaying animal matter. ( ) another bladder included a still smaller speck of decayed brown matter, and the adjoining quadrifids contained aggregated matter, exactly as in the last case. ( ) a third bladder included a larger organism, which was so much decayed that i could only make out that it was spinose or hairy. the quadrifids in this case were not much affected, excepting that the nuclei in the several arms differed much in size; some of them containing two masses having a similar appearance. ( ) a fourth bladder contained an articulate organism, for i distinctly saw the remnant of a limb, terminating in a hook. the quadrifids were not examined. ( ) a fifth included much decayed matter apparently of some animal, but with no recognisable features. the quadrifids in contact contained numerous spheres of protoplasm. ( ) some few bladders on the plant which i received from kew were examined; and in one, there was a worm-shaped animal very little decayed, with a distinct remnant of a similar one greatly decayed. several of the arms of the processes in contact with these remains contained two spherical masses, like the single solid nucleus which is properly found in each arm. in another bladder there was a minute grain of quartz, reminding me of two similar cases with utricularia neglecta. as it appeared probable that this plant would capture a greater number of animals in its native country than under culture, i obtained permission to remove small portions of the rhizomes from dried specimens in the herbarium at kew. i did not at first find out that it was advisable to soak the rhizomes for two or three days, and that it was necessary to open the bladders and spread out their contents on glass; as from their state of decay and from having been dried and pressed, their nature could not otherwise be well distinguished. several bladders on a plant which had grown in black earth in new granada were first examined; and four of these included remnants of animals. the first contained a hairy acarus, so much decayed that nothing was left except its transparent coat; [page ] also a yellow chitinous head of some animal with an internal fork, to which the oesophagus was suspended, but i could see no mandibles; also the double hook of the tarsus of some animal; also an elongated greatly decayed animal; and lastly, a curious flask-shaped organism, having the walls formed of rounded cells. professor claus has looked at this latter organism, and thinks that it is the shell of a rhizopod, probably one of the arcellidae. in this bladder, as well as in several others, there were some unicellular algae, and one multicellular alga, which no doubt had lived as intruders. a second bladder contained an acarus much less decayed than the former one, with its eight legs preserved; as well as remnants of several other articulate animals. a third bladder contained the end of the abdomen with the two hinder limbs of an acarus, as i believe. a fourth contained remnants of a distinctly articulated bristly animal, and of several other organisms, as well as much dark brown organic matter, the nature of which could not be made out. some bladders from a plant, which had lived as an epiphyte in trinidad, in the west indies, were next examined, but not so carefully as the others; nor had they been soaked long enough. four of them contained much brown, translucent, granular matter, apparently organic, but with no distinguishable parts. the quadrifids in two were brownish, with their contents granular; and it was evident that they had absorbed matter. in a fifth bladder there was a flask-shaped organism, like that above mentioned. a sixth contained a very long, much decayed, worm-shaped animal. lastly, a seventh bladder contained an organism, but of what nature could not be distinguished.] only one experiment was tried on the quadrifid processes and glands with reference to their power of absorption. a bladder was punctured and left for hrs. in a solution of one part of urea to of water, and the quadrifid and bifid processes were found much affected. in some arms there was only a single symmetrical globular mass, larger than the proper nucleus, and consisting of yellowish matter, generally translucent but sometimes granular; in others there were two masses of different sizes, one large and the [page ] other small; and in others there were irregularly shaped globules; so that it appeared as if the limpid contents of the processes, owing to the absorption of matter from the solution, had become aggregated sometimes round the nucleus, and sometimes into separate masses; and that these then tended to coalesce. the primordial utricle or protoplasm lining the processes was also thickened here and there into irregular and variously shaped specks of yellowish translucent matter, as occurred in the case of utricularia neglecta under similar treatment. these specks apparently did not change their forms. the minute two-armed glands on the valve were also affected by the solution; for they now contained several, sometimes as many as six or eight, almost spherical masses of translucent matter, tinged with yellow, which slowly changed their forms and positions. such masses were never observed in these glands in their ordinary state. we may therefore infer that they serve for absorption. whenever a little water is expelled from a bladder containing animal remains (by the means formerly specified, more especially by the generation of bubbles of air), it will fill the cavity in which the valve lies; and thus the glands will be able to utilise decayed matter which otherwise would have been wasted. finally, as numerous minute animals are captured by this plant in its native country and when cultivated, there can be no doubt that the bladders, though so small, are far from being in a rudimentary condition; on the contrary, they are highly efficient traps. nor can there be any doubt that matter is absorbed from the decayed prey by the quadrifid and bifid processes, and that protoplasm is thus generated. what tempts animals of such diverse kinds to enter [page ] the cavity beneath the bowed antennae, and then force their way through the little slit-like orifice between the valve and collar into the bladders filled with water, i cannot conjecture. tubers.--these organs, one of which is represented in a previous figure (fig. ) of the natural size, deserve a few remarks. twenty were found on the rhizomes of a single plant, but they cannot be strictly counted; for, besides the twenty, there were all possible gradations between a short length of a rhizome just perceptibly swollen and one so much swollen that it might be doubtfully called a tuber. when well developed, they are oval and symmetrical, more so than appears in the figure. the largest which i saw was inch ( . mm.) in length and . inch ( . mm.) in breadth. they commonly lie near the surface, but some are buried at the depth of inches. the buried ones are dirty white, but those partly exposed to the light become greenish from the development, of chlorophyll in their superficial cells. they terminate in a rhizome, but this sometimes decays and drops off . they do not contain any air, and they sink in water; their surfaces are covered with the usual papillae. the bundle of vessels which runs up each rhizome, as soon as it enters the tuber, separates into three distinct bundles, which reunite at the opposite end. a rather thick slice of a tuber is almost as translucent as glass, and is seen to consist of large angular cells, full of water and not containing starch or any other solid matter. some slices were left in alcohol for several days, but only a few extremely minute granules of matter were precipitated on the walls of the cells; and these were much smaller and fewer than those precipitated on the cell-walls of the rhizomes and bladders. we may therefore con- [page ] clude that the tuber do not serve as reservoirs for food, but for water during the dry season to which the plant is probably exposed. the many little bladders filled with water would aid towards the same end. to test the correctness of this view, a small plant, growing in light peaty earth in a pot (only / by / inches outside measure) was copiously watered, and then kept without a drop of water in the hothouse. two of the upper tubers were beforehand uncovered and measured, and then loosely covered up again. in a fortnight's time the earth in the pot appeared extremely dry; but not until the thirty-fifth day were the leaves in the least affected; they then became slightly reflexed, though still soft and green. this plant, which bore only ten tubers, would no doubt have resisted the drought for even a longer time, had i not previously removed three of the tubers and cut off several long rhizomes. when, on the thirty-fifth day, the earth in the pot was turned out, it appeared as dry as the dust on a road. all the tubers had their surfaces much wrinkled, instead of being smooth and tense. they had all shrunk, but i cannot say accurately how much; for as they were at first symmetrically oval, i measured only their length and thickness; but they contracted in a transverse line much more in one direction than in another, so as to become greatly flattened. one of the two tubers which had been measured was now three-fourths of its original length, and two-thirds of its original thickness in the direction in which it had been measured, but in another direction only one- third of its former thickness. the other tuber was one-fourth shorter, one-eighth less thick in the direction in which it had been measured, and only half as thick in another direction. a slice was cut from one of these shrivelled tubers [page ] and examined. the cells still contained much water and no air, but they were more rounded or less angular than before, and their walls not nearly so straight; it was therefore clear that the cells had contracted. the tubers, as long as they remain alive, have a strong attraction for water; the shrivelled one, from which a slice had been cut, was left in water for hrs. m., and its surface became as smooth and tense as it originally was. on the other hand, a shrivelled tuber, which by some accident had been separated from its rhizome, and which appeared dead, did not swell in the least, though left for several days in water. with many kinds of plants, tubers, bulbs, &c. no doubt serve in part as reservoirs for water, but i know of no case, besides the present one, of such organs having been developed solely for this purpose. prof. oliver informs me that two or three species of utricularia are provided with these appendages; and the group containing them has in consequence received the name of orchidioides. all the other species of utricularia, as well as of certain closely related genera, are either aquatic or marsh plants; therefore, on the principle of nearly allied plants generally having a similar constitution, a never failing supply of water would probably be of great importance to our present species. we can thus understand the meaning of the development of its tubers, and of their number on the same plant, amounting in one instance to at least twenty. utricularia nelumbifolia, amethystina, griffithii, caerulea, orbiculata, multicaulis. as i wished to ascertain whether the bladders on the rhizomes of other species of utricularia, and of the [page ] species of certain closely allied genera, had the same essential structure as those of utricularia montana, and whether they captured prey, i asked prof. oliver to send me fragments from the herbarium at kew. he kindly selected some of the most distinct forms, having entire leaves, and believed to inhabit marshy ground or water. my son francis darwin, examined them, and has given me the following observations; but it should be borne in mind that it is extremely difficult to make out the structure of such minute and delicate objects after they have been dried and pressed.* utricularia nelumbifolia (organ mountains, brazil).--the habitat of this species is remarkable. according to its discoverer, mr. gardner, it is aquatic, but "is only to be found growing in the water which collects in the bottom of the leaves of a large tillandsia, that inhabits abundantly an arid rocky part of the mountain, at an elevation of about feet above the level of the sea. besides the ordinary method by seed, it propagates itself by runners, which it throws out from the base of the flower-stem; this runner is always found directing itself towards the nearest tillandsia, when it inserts its point into the water and gives origin to a new plant, which in its turn sends out another shoot. in this manner i have seen not less than six plants united." the bladders resemble those of utricularia montana in all essential respects, even to the presence of a few minute two-armed glands on the valve. within one bladder there was the remnant of the abdomen of some larva or crustacean of large size, * prof. oliver has given ('proc. linn. soc.' vol. iv. p. ) figures of the bladders of two south american species, namely utricularia jamesoniana and peltata; but he does not appear to have paid particular attention to these organs. 'travels in the interior of brazil, - ,' p. . [page ] having a brush of long sharp bristles at the apex. other bladders included fragments of articulate animals, and many of them contained broken pieces of a curious organism, the nature of which was not recognised by anyone to whom it was shown. utricularia amethystina (guiana).--this species has small entire leaves, and is apparently a marsh plant; but it must grow in places where crustaceans exist, for there were two small species within one of the bladders. the bladders are nearly of the same shape as those of utricularia montana, and are covered outside with the usual papillae; but they differ remarkably in the antennae being reduced to two short points, united by a membrane hollowed out in the middle. this membrane is covered with innumerable oblong glands supported on long footstalks; most of which are arranged in two rows converging towards the valve. some, however, are seated on the margins of the membrane; and the short ventral surface of the bladder, between the petiole and valve, is thickly covered with glands. most of the heads had fallen off, and the footstalks alone remained; so that the ventral surface and the orifice, when viewed under a weak power, appeared as if clothed with fine bristles. the valve is narrow, and bears a few almost sessile glands. the collar against which the edge shuts is yellowish, and presents the usual structure. from the large number of glands on the ventral surface and round the orifice, it is probable that this species lives in very foul water, from which it absorbs matter, as well as from its captured and decaying prey. utricularia griffithii (malay and borneo).--the bladders are transparent and minute; one which was measured being only / of an inch (. mm.) in diameter. the antennae are of moderate length, and [page ] project straight forward; they are united for a short space at their bases by a membrane; and they bear a moderate number of bristles or hairs, not simple as heretofore, but surmounted by glands. the bladders also differ remarkably from those of the previous species, as within there are no quadrifid, only bifid, processes. in one bladder there was a minute aquatic larva; in another the remains of some articulate animal; and in most of them grains of sand. utricularia caerulea (india).--the bladders resemble those of the last species, both in the general character of the antennae and in the processes within being exclusively bifid. they contained remnants of entomostracan crustaceans. utricularia orbiculata (india).--the orbicular leaves and the stems bearing the bladders apparently float in water. the bladders do not differ much from those of the two last species. the antennae, which are united for a short distance at their bases, bear on their outer surfaces and summits numerous, long, multicellular hairs, surmounted by glands. the processes within the bladders are quadrifid, with the four diverging arms of equal length. the prey which they had captured consisted of entomostracan crustaceans. utricularia multicaulis (sikkim, india, to , feet).--the bladders, attached to rhizomes, are remarkable from the structure of the antennae. these are broad, flattened, and of large size; they bear on their margins multicellular hairs, surmounted by glands. their bases are united into a single, rather narrow pedicel, and they thus appear like a great digitate expansion at one end of the bladder. internally the quadrifid processes have divergent arms of equal length. the bladders contained remnants of articulate animals. [page ] polypompholyx. this genus, which is confined to western australia, is characterised by having a "quadripartite calyx." in other respects, as prof. oliver remarks,* "it is quite a utricularia." polypompholyx multifida.--the bladders are attached in whorls round the summits of stiff stalks. the two antennae are represented by a minute membranous fork, the basal part of which forms a sort of hood over the orifice. this hood expands into two wings on each side of the bladder. a third wing or crest appears to be formed by the extension of the dorsal surface of the petiole; but the structure of these three wings could not be clearly made out, owing to the state of the specimens. the inner surface of the hood is lined with long simple hairs, containing aggregated matter, like that within the quadrifid processes of the previously described species when in contact with decayed animals. these hairs appear therefore to serve as absorbents. a valve was seen, but its structure could not be determined. on the collar round the valve there are in the place of glands numerous one-celled papillae, having very short footstalks. the quadrifid processes have divergent arms of equal length. remains of entomostracan crustaceans were found within the bladders. polypompholyx tenella.--the bladders are smaller than those of the last species, but have the same general structure. they were full of dbris, apparently organic, but no remains of articulate animals could be distinguished. * 'proc. linn. soc.' vol. iv. p. . [page ] genlisea. this remarkable genus is technically distinguished from utricularia, as i hear from prof. oliver, by having a five-partite calyx. species are found in several parts of the world, and are said to be "herbae annuae paludosae." genlisea ornata (brazil).--this species has been described and figured by dr. warming,* who states that it bears two kinds of leaves, called by him spathulate and utriculiferous. the latter include cavities; and as these differ much from the bladders of the foregoing species, it will be convenient to speak of them as utricles. the accompanying figure (fig. ) of one of the utriculiferous leaves, about thrice enlarged, will illustrate the following description by my son, which agrees in all essential points with that given by dr. warming. the utricle (b) is formed by a slight enlargement of the narrow blade of the leaf. a hollow neck (n), no less than fifteen times as long as the utricle itself, forms a passage from the transverse slit-like orifice (o) into the cavity of the utricle. a utricle which measured / of an inch (. mm.,) in its longer diameter had a neck / ( . mm.) in length, and / of an inch (. mm.) in breadth. on each side of the orifice there is a long spiral arm or tube (a); the structure of which will be best understood by the following illustration. take a narrow ribbon and wind it spirally round a thin cylinder, so that the edges come into contact along its whole length; then pinch up the two edges so as to form a little crest, which will of course wind spirally * "bidrag til kundskaben om lentibulariaceae," copenhagen . [page ] round the cylinder like a thread round a screw. if the cylinder is now removed, we shall have a tube like one of the spiral arms. the two projecting edges are not actually united, and a needle can be pushed in easily between them. they are indeed in many places a little separated, forming narrow entrances into the tube; but this may be the result of the drying of the specimens. the lamina of which the tube is formed seems to be a lateral prolongation of the lip of the orifice; and the spiral line between the two projecting edges is continuous with the corner of the orifice. if a fine bristle is pushed down one of the arms, it passes into the top of the hollow neck. whether the arms are open or closed at their extremities could not be determined, as all the specimens were broken; nor does it appear that dr. warming ascertained this point. fig. . (genlisea ornata.) utriculiferous leaf; enlarged about three times. l upper part of lamina of leaf. b utricle or bladder. n neck of utricle. o orifice. a spirally wound arms, with their ends broken off. so much for the external structure. internally the lower part of the utricle is covered with spherical papillae, formed of four cells (sometimes eight according to dr. warming), which evidently answer to the quadrifid processes within the bladders of utricularia. [page ] these papillae extend a little way up the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the utricle; and a few, according to warming, may be found in the upper part. this upper region is covered by many transverse rows, one above the other, of short, closely approximate hairs, pointing downwards. these hairs have broad bases, and their tips are formed by a separate cell. they are absent in the lower part of the utricle where the papillae abound. fig. . (genlisea ornata.) portion of inside of neck leading into the utricle, greatly enlarged, showing the downward pointed bristles, and small quadrifid cells or processes. the neck is likewise lined throughout its whole length with transverse rows of long, thin, transparent hairs, having broad bulbous (fig. ) bases, with similarly constructed sharp points. they arise from little projecting ridges, formed of rectangular epidermic cells. the hairs vary a little in length, but their points generally extend down to the row next below; so that if the neck is split open and laid flat, the inner surface resembles a paper of pins,--the hairs representing the pins, and the little transverse ridges representing the folds of paper through which the pins are thrust. these rows of hairs are indicated in the previous figure ( ) by numerous transverse lines crossing the neck. the inside of the neck is [page ] also studded with papillae; those in the lower part are spherical and formed of four cells, as in the lower part of the utricle; those in the upper part are formed of two cells, which are much elongated downwards beneath their points of attachment. these two-celled papillae apparently correspond with the bifid process in the upper part of the bladders of utricularia. the narrow transverse orifice (o, fig. ) is situated between the bases of the two spiral arms. no valve could be detected here, nor was any such structure seen by dr. warming. the lips of the orifice are armed with many short, thick, sharply pointed, somewhat incurved hairs or teeth. the two projecting edges of the spirally wound lamina, forming the arms, are provided with short incurved hairs or teeth, exactly like those on the lips. these project inwards at right angles to the spiral line of junction between the two edges. the inner surface of the lamina supports two-celled, elongated papillae, resembling those in the upper part of the neck, but differing slightly from them, according to warming, in their footstalks being formed by prolongations of large epidermic cells; whereas the papillae within the neck rest on small cells sunk amidst the larger ones. these spiral arms form a conspicuous difference between the present genus and utricularia. lastly, there is a bundle of spiral vessels which, running up the lower part of the linear leaf, divides close beneath the utricle. one branch extends up the dorsal and the other up the ventral side of both the utricle and neck. of these two branches, one enters one spiral arm, and the other branch the other arm. the utricles contained much dbris or dirty matter, which seemed organic, though no distinct organisms [page ] could be recognised. it is, indeed, scarcely possible that any object could enter the small orifice and pass down the long narrow neck, except a living creature. within the necks, however, of some specimens, a worm with retracted horny jaws, the abdomen of some articulate animal, and specks of dirt, probably the remnants of other minute creatures, were found. many of the papillae within both the utricles and necks were discoloured, as if they had absorbed matter. from this description it is sufficiently obvious how genlisea secures its prey. small animals entering the narrow orifice--but what induces them to enter is not known any more than in the case of utricularia--would find their egress rendered difficult by the sharp incurved hairs on the lips, and as soon as they passed some way down the neck, it would be scarcely possible for them to return, owing to the many transverse rows of long, straight, downward pointing hairs, together with the ridges from which these project. such creatures would, therefore, perish either within the neck or utricle; and the quadrifid and bifid papillae would absorb matter from their decayed remains. the transverse rows of hairs are so numerous that they seem superfluous merely for the sake of preventing the escape of prey, and as they are thin and delicate, they probably serve as additional absorbents, in the same manner as the flexible bristles on the infolded margins of the leaves of aldrovanda. the spiral arms no doubt act as accessory traps. until fresh leaves are examined, it cannot be told whether the line of junction of the spirally wound lamina is a little open along its whole course, or only in parts, but a small creature which forced its way into the tube at any point, would be prevented from escaping by the incurved hairs, and would find an open path down [page ] the tube into the neck, and so into the utricle. if the creature perished within the spiral arms, its decaying remains would be absorbed and utilised by the bifid papillae. we thus see that animals are captured by genlisea, not by means of an elastic valve, as with the foregoing species, but by a contrivance resembling an eel-trap, though more complex. genlisea africana (south africa).--fragments of the utriculiferous leaves of this species exhibited the same structure as those of genlisea ornata. a nearly perfect acarus was found within the utricle or neck of one leaf, but in which of the two was not recorded. genlisea aurea (brazil).--a fragment of the neck of a utricle was lined with transverse rows of hairs, and was furnished with elongated papillae, exactly like those within the neck of genlisea ornata. it is probable, therefore, that the whole utricle is similarly constructed. genlisea filiformis (bahia, brazil).--many leaves were examined and none were found provided with utricles, whereas such leaves were found without difficulty in the three previous species. on the other hand, the rhizomes bear bladders resembling in essential character those on the rhizomes of utricularia. these bladders are transparent, and very small, viz. only / of an inch (. mm.) in length. the antennae are not united at their bases, and apparently bear some long hairs. on the outside of the bladders there are only a few papillae, and internally very few quadrifid processes. these latter, however, are of unusually large size, relatively to the bladder, with the four divergent arms of equal length. no prey could be seen within these minute bladders. as the rhizomes of this species were furnished with bladders, those of genlisea africana, ornata, and aurea were carefully [page ] examined, but none could be found. what are we to infer from these facts? did the three species just named, like their close allies, the several species of utricularia, aboriginally possess bladders on their rhizomes, which they afterwards lost, acquiring in their place utriculiferous leaves? in support of this view it may be urged that the bladders of genlisea filiformis appear from their small size and from the fewness of their quadrifid processes to be tending towards abortion; but why has not this species acquired utriculiferous leaves, like its congeners? conclusion.--it has now been shown that many species of utricularia and of two closely allied genera, inhabiting the most distant parts of the world--europe, africa, india, the malay archipelago, australia, north and south america--are admirably adapted for capturing by two methods small aquatic or terrestrial animals, and that they absorb the products of their decay. ordinary plants of the higher classes procure the requisite inorganic elements from the soil by means of their roots, and absorb carbonic acid from the atmosphere by means of their leaves and stems. but we have seen in a previous part of this work that there is a class of plants which digest and afterwards absorb animal matter, namely, all the droseraceae, pinguicula, and, as discovered by dr. hooker, nepenthes, and to this class other species will almost certainly soon be added. these plants can dissolve matter out of certain vegetable substances, such as pollen, seeds, and bits of leaves. no doubt their glands likewise absorb the salts of ammonia brought to them by the rain. it has also been shown that some other plants can absorb ammonia by [page ] their glandular hairs; and these will profit by that brought to them by the rain. there is a second class of plants which, as we have just seen, cannot digest, but absorb the products of the decay of the animals which they capture, namely, utricularia and its close allies; and from the excellent observations of dr. mellichamp and dr. canby, there can scarcely be a doubt that sarracenia and darlingtonia may be added to this class, though the fact can hardly be considered as yet fully proved. there is a third class of plants which feed, as is now generally admitted, on the products of the decay of vegetable matter, such as the bird's-nest orchis (neottia), &c. lastly, there is the well-known fourth class of parasites (such as the mistletoe), which are nourished by the juices of living plants. most, however, of the plants belonging to these four classes obtain part of their carbon, like ordinary species, from the atmosphere. such are the diversified means, as far as at present known, by which higher plants gain their subsistence. [page ] [page ] index. absorption--ammonia. a. absorption by dionaea, -- by drosera, -- by drosophyllum, -- by pinguicula, -- by glandular hairs, -- by glands of utricularia, , -- by quadrifids of utricularia, , -- by utricularia montana, acid, nature of, in digestive secretion of drosera, -- present in digestive fluid of various species of drosera, dionaea, drosophyllum, and pinguicula, , , , acids, various, action of, on drosera, -- of the acetic series replacing hydrochloric in digestion, --, arsenious and chromic, action on drosera, --, diluted, inducing negative osmose, adder's poison, action on drosera, aggregation of protoplasm in drosera, -- in drosera induced by salts of ammonia, -- -- caused by small doses of carbonate of ammonia, -- of protoplasm in drosera, a reflex action, -- -- in various species of drosera, -- -- in dionaea, , aggregation of protoplasm in drosophyllum, , -- -- in pinguicula, , -- -- in utricularia, , , , , albumen, digested by drosera, --, liquid, action on drosera, alcohol, diluted, action of, on drosera, , aldrovanda vesiculosa, --, absorption and digestion by, --, varieties of, algae, aggregation in fronds of, alkalies, arrest digestive process in drosera, aluminium, salts of, action on drosera, ammonia, amount of, in rain water, --, carbonate, action on heated leaves of drosera, --, --, smallness of doses causing aggregation in drosera, --, --, its action on drosera, --, --, vapour of, absorbed by glands of drosera, --, --, smallness of doses causing inflection in drosera, , --, phosphate, smallness of doses causing inflection in drosera, , --, --, size of particles affecting drosera, --, nitrate, smallness of doses causing inflection in drosera, , --, salts of, action on drosera, [page ] ammonia--curtis. ammonia, salts of, their action affected by previous immersion in water and various solutions, --, --, induce aggregation in drosera, --, various salts of, causing inflection in drosera, antimony, tartrate, action on drosera, areolar tissue, its digestion by drosera, arsenious acid, action on drosera, atropine, action on drosera, b. barium, salts of, action on drosera, bases of salts, preponderant action of, on drosera, basis, fibrous, of bone, its digestion by drosera, belladonna, extract of, action on drosera, bennett, mr. a.w., on drosera, --, coats of pollen-grains not digested by insects, binz, on action of quinine on white blood-corpuscles, --, on poisonous action of quinine on low organisms, bone, its digestion by drosera, brunton, lauder, on digestion of gelatine, --, on the composition of casein, --, on the digestion of urea, --, -- of chlorophyll, --, -- of pepsin, byblis, c. cabbage, decoction of, action on drosera, cadmium chloride, action on drosera, caesium, chloride of, action on drosera, calcium, salts of, action on drosera, camphor, action on drosera, canby, dr., on dionaea, , , --, on drosera filiformis, caraway, oil of, action on drosera, carbonic acid, action on drosera, --, delays aggregation in drosera, cartilage, its digestion by drosera, casein, its digestion by drosera, cellulose, not digested by drosera, chalk, precipitated, causing inflection of drosera, cheese, its digestion by drosera, chitine, not digested by drosera, chloroform, effects of, on drosera, --, --, on dionaea, chlorophyll, grains of, in living plants, digested by drosera, --, pure, not digested by drosera, chondrin, its digestion by drosera, chromic acid, action on drosera, cloves, oil of, action on drosera, cobalt chloride, action on drosera, cobra poison, action on drosera, cohn, prof., on aldrovanda, --, on contractile tissues in plants, --, on movements of stamens of compositae, --, on utricularia, colchicine, action on drosera, copper chloride, action on drosera, crystallin, its digestion by drosera, curare, action on drosera, curtis, dr., on dionaea, [page ] darwin--fibrous. d. darwin, francis, on the effect of an induced galvanic current on drosera, --, on the digestion of grains of chlorophyll, --, on utricularia, delpino, on aldrovanda, --, on utricularia, dentine, its digestion by drosera, digestion of various substances by dionaea, -- -- by drosera, -- -- by drosophyllum, -- -- by pinguicula, --, origin of power of, digitaline, action on drosera, dionaea muscipula, small size of roots, --, structure of leaves, --, sensitiveness of filaments, --, absorption by, --, secretion by, --, digestion by, --, effects on, of chloroform, --, manner of capturing insects, --, transmission of motor impulse, --, re-expansion of lobes, direction of inflected tentacles of drosera, dohrn, dr., on rhizocephalous crustaceans, donders, prof., small amount of atropine affecting the iris of the dog, dragonfly caught by drosera, drosera anglica, -- binata, vel dichotoma, -- capensis, -- filiformis, -- heterophylla, -- intermedia, drosera rotundifolia, structure of leaves, --, effects on, of nitrogenous fluids, drosera rotundifolia, effects of heat on, --, its power of digestion, --, backs of leaves not sensitive, --, transmission of motor impulse, --, general summary, -- spathulata, droseraceae, concluding remarks on, --, their sensitiveness compared with that of animals, drosophyllum, structure of leaves, --, secretion by, --, absorption by, --, digestion by, e. enamel, its digestion by drosera, erica tetralix, glandular hairs of, ether, effects of, on drosera, --, --, on dionaea, euphorbia, process of aggregation in roots of, exosmose from backs of leaves of drosera, f. fat not digested by drosera, fayrer, dr., on the nature of cobra poison, --, on the action of cobra poison on animal protoplasm, --, on cobra poison paralysing nerve centres, ferment, nature of, in secretion of drosera, , fibrin, its digestion by drosera, fibro-cartilage, its digestion by drosera, fibro-elastic tissue, not digested by drosera, fibrous basis of bone, its digestion by drosera, [page ] fluids--leaves. fluids, nitrogenous, effects of, on drosera, fournier, on acids causing movements in stamens of berberis, frankland, prof., on nature of acid in secretion of drosera, g. galvanism, current of, causing inflection of drosera, --, effects of, on dionaea, gardner, mr., on utricularia nelumbifolia, gelatin, impure, action on drosera, --, pure, its digestion by drosera, genlisea africana, -- filiformis, genlisea ornata, structure of, --, manner of capturing prey, glandular hairs, absorption by, --, summary on, globulin, its digestion by drosera, gluten, its digestion by drosera, glycerine, inducing aggregation in drosera, --, action on drosera, gold chloride, action on drosera, gorup-besanez on the presence of a solvent in seeds of the vetch, grass, decoction of, action on drosera, gray, asa, on the droseraceae, groenland, on drosera, , gum, action of, on drosera, gun-cotton, not digested by drosera, h. haematin, its digestion by drosera, hairs, glandular, absorption by, --, --, summary on, heat, inducing aggregation in drosera, --, effect of, on drosera, --, --, on dionaea, , heckel, on state of stamens of berberis after excitement, hofmeister, on pressure arresting movements of protoplasm, holland, mr., on utricularia, hooker, dr., on carnivorous plants, --, on power of digestion by nepenthes, --, history of observations on dionaea, hydrocyanic acid, effects of, on dionaea, hyoscyamus, action on drosera, , i. iron chloride, action on drosera, isinglass, solution of, action on drosera, j. johnson, dr., on movement of flower-stems of pinguicula, k. klein, dr., on microscopic character of half digested bone, --, on state of half digested fibro-cartilage, --, on size of micrococci, knight, mr., on feeding dionaea, kossmann, dr., on rhizocephalous crustaceans, l. lead chloride, action on drosera, leaves of drosera, backs of, not sensitive, [page ] legumin--pinguicula. legumin, its digestion by drosera, lemna, aggregation in leaves of, lime, carbonate of, precipitated, causing inflection of drosera, --, phosphate of, its action on drosera, lithium, salts of, action on drosera, m. magnesium, salts of, action on drosera, manganese chloride, action on drosera, marshall, mr. w., on pinguicula, means of movement in dionaea, -- in drosera, meat, infusion of, causing aggregation in drosera, --, --, action on drosera, --, its digestion by drosera, mercury perchloride, action on drosera, milk, inducing aggregation in drosera, --, action on drosera, --, its digestion by drosera, mirabilis longiflora, glandular hairs of, moggridge, traherne, on acids injuring seeds, moore, dr., on pinguicula, morphia acetate, action on drosera, motor impulse in drosera, , -- in dionaea, movement, origin of power of, movements of leaves of pinguicula, -- of tentacles of drosera, means of, -- of dionaea, means of, mucin, not digested by drosera, mucus, action on drosera, mller, fritz, on rhizocephalous crustaceans, n. nepenthes, its power of digestion, nickel chloride, action on drosera, nicotiana tabacum, glandular hairs of, nicotine, action on drosera, nitric ether, action on drosera, nitschke, dr., references to his papers on drosera, --, on sensitiveness of backs of leaves of drosera, --, on direction of inflected tentacles in drosera, --, on aldrovanda, nourishment, various means of, by plants, nuttall, dr., on re-expansion of dionaea, o. odour of pepsin, emitted from leaves of drosera, oil, olive, action of, on drosera, , oliver, prof., on utricularia, , - p. papaw, juice of, hastening putrefaction, particles, minute size of, causing inflection in drosera, , peas, decoction of, action on drosera, pelargonium zonale, glandular hairs of, pepsin, odour of, emitted from drosera leaves, --, not digested by drosera, --, its secretion by animals excited only after absorption, peptogenes, pinguicula grandiflora, -- lusitanica, [page ] pinguicula--saxifraga. pinguicula vulgaris, structure of leaves and roots, --, number of insects caught by, --, power of movement, --, secretion and absorption by, --, digestion by, --, effects of secretion on living seeds, platinum chloride, action on drosera, poison of cobra and adder, their action on drosera, pollen, its digestion by drosera, polypompholyx, structure of, potassium, salts of, inducing aggregation in drosera, --, --, action on drosera, -- phosphate, not decomposed by drosera, , price, mr. john, on utricularia, primula sinensis, glandular hairs of, --, number of glandular hairs of, protoplasm, aggregation of, in drosera, --, --, in drosera, caused by small doses of carbonate of ammonia, --, --, in drosera, a reflex action, -- aggregated, re-dissolution of, --, aggregation of, in various species of drosera, --, --, in dionaea, , --, --, in drosophyllum, , --, --, in pinguicula, , --, --, in utricularia, , , , , q. quinine, salts of, action on drosera, r. rain-water, amount of ammonia in, ralfs, mr., on pinguicula, ransom, dr., action of poisons on the yolk of eggs, re-expansion of headless tentacles of drosera, -- of tentacles of drosera, -- of dionaea, roots of drosera, -- of drosera, process of aggregation in, -- of drosera, absorb carbonate of ammonia, -- of dionaea, -- of drosophyllum, -- of pinguicula, roridula, rubidium chloride, action on drosera, s. sachs, prof., effects of heat on protoplasm, , --, on the dissolution of proteid compounds in the tissues of plants, saliva, action on drosera, salts and acids, various, effects of, on subsequent action of ammonia, sanderson, burdon, on coagulation of albumen from heat, --, on acids replacing hydrochloric in digestion, --, on the digestion of fibrous basis of bone, --, -- of gluten, --, -- of globulin, --, -- of chlorophyll, --, on different effect of sodium and potassium on animals, --, on electric currents in dionaea, saxifraga umbrosa, glandular hairs of, [page ] schiff--turpentine. schiff, on hydrochloric acid dissolving coagulated albumen, --, on manner of digestion of albumen, --, on changes in meat during digestion, --, on the coagulation of milk, --, on the digestion of casein, --, -- of mucus, --, on peptogenes, schloesing, on absorption of nitrogen by nicotiana, scott, mr., on drosera, secretion of drosera, general account of, -- --, its antiseptic power, -- --, becomes acid from excitement, -- --, nature of its ferment, , -- by dionaea, -- by drosophyllum, -- by pinguicula, seeds, living, acted on by drosera, --, --, acted on by pinguicula, , sensitiveness, localisation of, in drosera, -- of dionaea, -- of pinguicula, silver nitrate, action on drosera, sodium, salts of, action on drosera, --, --, inducing aggregation in drosera, sondera heterophylla, sorby, mr., on colouring matter of drosera, spectroscope, its power compared with that of drosera, starch, action of, on drosera, , stein, on aldrovanda, strontium, salts of, action on drosera, strychnine, salts of, action on drosera, sugar, solution of, action of, on drosera, --, --, inducing aggregation in drosera, sulphuric ether, action on drosera, --, -- on dionaea, syntonin, its action on drosera, t. tait, mr., on drosophyllum, taylor, alfred, on the detection of minute doses of poisons, tea, infusion of, action on drosera, tentacles of drosera, move when glands cut of, , --, inflection, direction of, --, means of movement, --, re-expansion of, theine, action on drosera, tin chloride, action on drosera, tissue, areolar, its digestion by drosera, --, fibro-elastic, not digested by drosera, tissues through which impulse is transmitted in drosera, -- -- in dionaea, touches repeated, causing inflection in drosera, transmission of motor impulse in drosera, -- -- in dionaea, traube, dr., on artificial cells, treat, mrs., on drosera filiformis, --, on dionaea, --, on utricularia, , trcul, on drosera, , tubers of utricularia montana, turpentine, action on drosera, [page ] urea--zinc. u. urea, not digested by drosera, urine, action on drosera, utricularia clandestina, -- minor, utricularia montana, structure of bladders, --, animals caught by, --, absorption by, --, tubers of, serving as reservoirs, utricularia neglecta, structure of bladders, --, animals caught by, --, absorption by, --, summary on absorption, --, development of bladders, utricularia, various species of, utricularia vulgaris, v. veratrine, action on drosera, vessels in leaves of drosera, -- of dionaea, vogel, on effects of camphor on plants, w. warming, dr., on drosera, , --, on roots of utricularia, --, on trichomes, --, on genlisea, --, on parenchymatous cells in tentacles of drosera, water, drops of, not causing inflection in drosera, --, its power in causing aggregation in drosera, --, its power in causing inflection in drosera, -- and various solutions, effects of, on subsequent action of ammonia, wilkinson, rev., on utricularia, z. ziegler, his statements with respect to drosera, --, experiments by cutting vessels of drosera, zinc chloride, action on drosera, the executive documents of the house of representatives for the second session of the forty-seventh congress. -' . in twenty-five volumes. volume . washington: government printing office. _ ._ th congress, } house of representatives. { ex. doc. _ d session_. } { no. . cruise of the revenue-steamer corwin in alaska and the n. w. arctic ocean in . notes and memoranda: medical and anthropological; botanical; ornithological. washington: government printing office. . letter from the secretary of the treasury, in response to _a resolution of the house of representatives transmitting the observations and notes made during the cruise of the revenue-cutter corwin in ._ march , .--referred to the committee on commerce and ordered to be printed. treasury department, _march_ , . sir: i have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of resolution of the house, dated march , , requesting that the secretary of the treasury furnish, as soon as convenient, to the speaker of the house copies of documents in the possession of the treasury department containing observations on glaciation, birds, natural history, and the medical notes made upon cruises of revenue-cutters in the year . in reply, i transmit herewith the observations on glaciation in the arctic ocean and the alaska region, made by mr. john muir; notes upon the birds and natural history of bering sea and the northwestern region, by mr. e. w. nelson; and medical notes and anthropological notes relating to the natives of alaska and the northwestern arctic region, made by dr. irving c. rosse. all these notes were made upon the cruise of the revenue-cutter corwin in . very respectfully, h. f. french, _acting secretary_. hon. j. w. keifer, _speaker of the house of representatives_. botanical notes on alaska. by john muir. botanical notes. by john muir. introductory. the plants named in the following notes were collected at many localities on the coasts of alaska and siberia, and on saint lawrence, wrangel, and herald islands, between about latitude ° and °, longitude ° and °, in the course of short excursions, some of them less than an hour in length. inasmuch as the flora of the arctic and subarctic regions is nearly the same everywhere, the discovery of many species new to science was not to be expected. the collection, however, will no doubt be valuable for comparison with the plants of other regions. in general the physiognomy of the vegetation of the polar regions resembles that of the alpine valleys of the temperate zones; so much so that the botanist on the coast of arctic siberia or america might readily fancy himself on the sierra nevada at a height of , to , feet above the sea. there is no line of perpetual snow on any portion of the arctic regions known to explorers. the snow disappears every summer not only from the low sandy shores and boggy tundras but also from the tops of the mountains and all the upper slopes and valleys with the exception of small patches of drifts and avalanche-heaps hardly noticeable in general views. but though nowhere excessively deep or permanent, the snow-mantle is universal during winter, and the plants are solidly frozen and buried for nearly three-fourths of the year. in this condition they enjoy a sleep and rest about as profound as death, from which they awake in the months of june and july in vigorous health, and speedily reach a far higher development of leaf and flower and fruit than is generally supposed. on the drier banks and hills about kotzebue sound, cape thompson, and cape lisbourne many species show but little climatic repression, and during the long summer days grow tall enough to wave in the wind, and unfold flowers in as rich profusion and as highly colored as may be found in regions lying a thousand miles farther south. _ounalaska._ to the botanist approaching any portion of the aleutian chain of islands from the southward during the winter or spring months, the view is severely desolate and forbidding. the snow comes down to the water's edge in solid white, interrupted only by dark outstanding bluffs with faces too steep for snow to lie on, and by the backs of rounded rocks and long rugged reefs beaten and overswept by heavy breakers rolling in from the pacific, while throughout nearly every month of the year the higher mountains are wrapped in gloomy dripping storm-clouds. nevertheless vegetation here is remarkably close and luxuriant, and crowded with showy bloom, covering almost every foot of the ground up to a height of about a thousand feet above the sea--the harsh trachytic rocks, and even the cindery bases of the craters, as well as the moraines and rough soil beds outspread on the low portions of the short narrow valleys. on the th of may we found the showy _geum glaciale_ already in flower, also an arctostaphylos and draba, on a slope facing the south, near the harbor of ounalaska. the willows, too, were then beginning to put forth their catkins, while a multitude of green points were springing up in sheltered spots wherever the snow had vanished. at a height of and feet, however, winter was still unbroken, with scarce a memory of the rich bloom of summer. during a few short excursions along the shores of ounalaska harbor and on two of the adjacent mountains, towards the end of may and beginning of october we saw about fifty species of flowering plants--empetrum, vaccinium, bryanthus, pyrola, arctostaphylos, ledum, cassiope, lupinus, zeranium, epilobium, silene, draba, and saxifraga being the most telling and characteristic of the genera represented. _empetrum nigrum_, a bryanthus, and three species of vaccinium make a grand display when in flower and show their massed colors at a considerable distance. almost the entire surface of the valleys and hills and lower slopes of the mountains is covered with a dense spongy plush of lichens and mosses similar to that which cover the tundras of the arctic regions, making a rich green mantle on which the showy flowering plants are strikingly relieved, though these grow far more luxuriantly on the banks of the streams where the drainage is less interrupted. here also the ferns, of which i saw three species, are taller and more abundant, some of them arching their broad delicate fronds over one's shoulders, while in similar situations the tallest of the five grasses that were seen reaches a height of nearly six feet, and forms a growth close enough for the farmer's scythe. not a single tree has yet been seen on any of the islands of the chain west of kodiak, excepting a few spruces brought from sitka and planted at ounalaska by the russians about fifty years ago. they are still alive in a dwarfed condition, having made scarce any appreciable growth since they were planted. these facts are the more remarkable, since in southeastern alaska lying both to the north and south of here, and on the many islands of the alexander archipelago, as well as on the mainland, forests of beautiful conifers flourish exuberantly and attain noble dimensions, while the climatic conditions generally do not appear to differ greatly from those that obtain on these treeless islands. wherever cattle have been introduced they have prospered and grown fat on the abundance of rich nutritious pasturage to be found almost everywhere in the deep withdrawing valleys and on the green slopes of the hills and mountains, but the wetness of the summer months will always prevent the making of hay in any considerable quantities. the agricultural possibilities of these islands seem also to be very limited. the hardier of the cereals--rye, barley, and oats--make a good vigorous growth, and head out, but seldom or never mature, on account of insufficient sunshine and overabundance of moisture in the form of long-continued drizzling fogs and rains. green crops, however, as potatoes, turnips, cabbages, beets, and most other common garden vegetables, thrive wherever the ground is thoroughly drained and has a southerly exposure. _saint lawrence island._ saint lawrence island, as far as our observations extended, is mostly a dreary mass of granite and lava of various forms and colors, roughened with volcanic cones, covered with snow, and rigidly bound in ocean ice for half the year. inasmuch as it lies broadsidewise to the direction pursued by the great ice-sheet that recently filled bering sea, and its rocks offered unequal resistance to the denuding action of the ice, the island is traversed by numerous ridges and low gap-like valleys all trending in the same general direction, some of the lowest of these transverse valleys having been degraded nearly to the level of the sea, showing that had the glaciation to which the island has been subjected been slightly greater we should have found several islands here instead of one. at the time of our first visit, may , winter still had full possession, but eleven days later we found the dwarf willows, drabas, crizerons, saxifrages pushing up their buds and leaves, on spots bare of snow, with wonderful rapidity. this was the beginning of spring at the northwest end of the island. on july the flora seemed to have reached its highest development. the bottoms of the glacial valleys were in many places covered with tall grasses and carices evenly planted and forming meadows of considerable size, while the drier portions and the sloping grounds about them were enlivened with gay highly-colored flowers from an inch to nearly two feet in height--_aconitum napellus_, l. var. _delphinifolium_ ser. _polemonium coeruleum_, l. _papaver nudicaule_, _draba alpina_, and _silene acaulis_ in large closely flowered tufts, andromeda, ledum linnæa, cassiope, and several species of vaccinium and saxifraga. _saint michael's._ the region about saint michael's is a magnificent tundra, crowded with arctic lichens and mosses, which here develop under most favorable conditions. in the spongy plush formed by the lower plants, in which one sinks almost knee-deep at every step, there is a sparse growth of grasses, carices, and rushes, tall enough to wave in the wind, while empetrum, the dwarf birch, and the various heathworts flourish here in all their beauty of bright leaves and flowers. the moss mantle for the most part rests on a stratum of ice that never melts to any great extent, and the ice on a bed rock of black vesicular lava. ridges of the lava rise here and there above the general level in rough masses, affording ground for plants that like a drier soil. numerous hollows and watercourses also occur on the general tundra, whose well-drained banks are decked with gay flowers in lavish abundance, and meadow patches of grasses shoulder high, suggestive of regions much farther south. the following plants and a few doubtful species not yet determined were collected here: linnæa borealis, gronov. cassiope tetragone, desv. andromeda polifolia, l. loiseleuria procumbeus, desv. vaccinium vitis idæa, l. arctostaphylos alpina, spring. ledum palustre, l. nardosmia frigida, hook. saussurea alpina, dl. senecio frigidus, less. palustris, hook. arnica angustifolia, vahl. artemisia arctica, bess. matricaria inodora, l. rubus chamoe morus, l. arcticus, l. potentilla nivea, l. dryas octopetala, l. draba alpina, l. incana, l. entrema arenicola, hook? pedicularis sudetica, willd. euphrasioides, steph. langsdorffii, fisch, var. lanata, gray. diapensia lapponica, l. polemoium coeruleum, l. primula borealis, daly. oxytropis podocarpa, gray. astragalus alpinus, l. frigidus, gray, var. littoralis. lathyrus maritimus, bigelow. arenaria lateriflora, l. stellaria longipes, goldie. silene acaulis, l. saxifraga nivalis, l. hieracifolia, w. and k. anemone narcissiflora, l. parviflora, michx. caltha palustris, l., var. asarifolia, rothr. valeriana capitata, willd. lloydia serotina, reichmb. tofieldia coccinea, richards. armeria vulgaris, willd. corydalis pauciflora. pinguicula villosa, l. mertensia paniculata, desv. polygonum alpinum, all. epilobium latifolium, l. betula nana, l. alnus viridis, dl. eriophorum capitatum. carex vulgaris, willd, var. alpina. aspidium fragrans, swartz. woodsia iloensis, bv. _golovin bay._ the tundra flora on the west side of golovin bay is remarkably close and luxuriant, covering almost every foot of the ground, the hills as well as the valleys, while the sandy beach and a bank of coarsely stratified moraine material a few yards back from the beach were blooming like a garden with _lathyrus maritimus_, _iris sibirica_, _polemonium coeruleum_, &c., diversified with clumps and patches of _elymus arenarius_, _alnus viridis_, and _abies alba_. this is one of the few points on the east side of bering sea where trees closely approach the shore. the white spruce occurs here in small groves or thickets of well developed erect trees or feet high, near the level of the sea, at a distance of about or miles from the mouth of the bay, and gradually become irregular and dwarfed as they approach the shore. here a number of dead and dying specimens were observed, indicating that conditions of soil, climate, and relations to other plants were becoming more unfavorable, and causing the tree-line to recede from the coast. the following collection was made here july : pinguicula villosa, l. vaccinium vitis idæa, l. spiræa betulæfolia, pallas. rubus arcticus, l. epilobium latifolium, l. polemonium coevuleum, l. trientalis europæa, l. var. arctica, ledeb. entrema arenicola, hook. iris sibirica, l. lloydia serotina, reichemb. chrysanthemum arcticum, l. artemisia tilesii, ledeb. arenaria peploides, l. gentiana glanca, pallas. elymus arenarius, l. poa trivialis, l. carex vesicaria, l. var. alpigma, fries. aspidium spinulosum, sw. _kotzebue sound._ the flora of the region about the head of kotzebue sound is hardly less luxuriant and rich in species than that of other points visited by the corwin lying several degrees farther south. fine nutritious grasses suitable for the fattening of cattle and from to feet high are not of rare occurrence on meadows of considerable extent and along streambanks wherever the stagnant waters of the tundra have been drained off, while in similar localities the most showy of the arctic plants bloom in all their freshness and beauty, manifesting no sign of frost, or unfavorable conditions of any kind whatever. a striking result of the airing and draining of the boggy tundra soil is shown on the ice-bluffs around escholtze bay, where it has been undermined by the melting of the ice on which it rests. in falling down the face of the ice-wall it is well shaken and rolled before it again comes to rest on terraced or gently sloping portions of the wall. the original vegetation of the tundra is thus destroyed, and tall grasses spring up on the fresh mellow ground as it accumulates from time to time, growing lush and rank, though in many places that we noted these new soil-beds are not more than a foot in depth, and lie on the solid ice. at the time of our last visit to this interesting region, about the middle of september, the weather was still fine, suggesting the indian summer of the western states. the tundra glowed in the mellow sunshine with the colors of the ripe foliage of vaccinium, empetrum, arctostaphylos, and dwarf birch; red, purple, and yellow, in pure bright tones, while the berries, hardly less beautiful, were scattered everywhere as if they had been sown broadcast with a lavish hand, the whole blending harmoniously with the neutral tints of the furred bed of lichens and mosses on which the bright leaves and berries were painted. on several points about the sound the white spruce occurs in small compact groves within a few miles of the shore; and pyrola, which belongs to wooded regions, is abundant where no trees are now in sight, tending to show that areas of considerable extent, now treeless, were once forested. the plants collected are: pyrola rotundifolia, l. var. pumila, hook. arctostaphylos alpina, spring. cassiope tetragone, desr. ledum palustre. vaccinium vitis idæa, l. uliginosum, l. var. mucronata, hender. empetrum nigrum. potentilla, anserina, l. var. biflora, willd. fruticosa. stellaria longipes, goldie. cerastium alpinum, l. var. behringianum. regel. mertensia maritima, derr. papaver nudicale, l. saxifraga tricuspidata, retg. trientalis europæa, l. var. arctica, ledeb. lupinus arcticus, watson. hedysarum boreale, nutt. galium boreale, l. armeria vulgaris, willd, var. arctica, cham. allium schænoprasum, l. polygonum viviparum, l. castilleia pallida, kunth. pedicularis sudetica, willd. verticillata, l. senecio palustris, hook. salix polaris, wahl. luzula hyperborea, r. br. _cape thompson._ the cape thompson flora is richer in species and individuals than that of any other point on the arctic shores we have seen, owing no doubt mainly to the better drainage of the ground through the fissured frost-cracked limestone, which hereabouts is the principal rock. where the hill-slopes are steepest the rock frequently occurs in loose angular masses and is entirely bare of soil. but between these barren slopes there are valleys where the showiest of the arctic plants bloom in rich-profusion and variety, forming brilliant masses of color--purple, yellow, and blue--where certain species form beds of considerable size, almost to the exclusion of others. the following list was obtained here july : phlox sibirica, l. polemonium humile. willd. coeruleum, l. myosotis sylvatica, var. alpestris. eritrichium nanum, var. arctioides, hedu. dodecatheon media, var. frigidum, gray. androsace chamoejasme, willd. anemone narcissiflora, l. multifida, poir. parviflora, michx. parviflora, michx. var. ranunculus affinis, r. br. caltha aserifolia, dl. geum glaciale, fisch. dryas octopetala, l. polygonum bistorta, l. rumex crispus, l. boykinia richardsonii, gray. saxifraga tricuspidata, retg. cernua, l. flagellaris, willd. davarica, willd. punctata, l. nivalis, l. nardosmia carymbosa, hook? erigeron muirii, gray, n. sp. taraxacum palustre, dl. senicio frigidus, less. artemisia glomerata, ledt. potentilla biflora, willd. nivea, l. draba stellata, jacq. var. nivalis, regel. incana, l. cardamine pratensis, l.? cheiranthus pygmæus, adans. parrya nudicaulis, regel. var. aspera, regel. hedysarum borealis, nutt. oxytropis podocarpa, gray. cerastium alpinum, l. var. behringianum, regel. silene acaulis, l. arenaria verna, l. var. rubella, hook, f. arctica, ster. stellaria longipes, goldie. artemisia tomentosa. pedicularis capitata, adans. papaver nudicaule, l. epilobium latifolium, l. cassiope tetragone, desr. vaccinium uliginosum, l. var. mucronata, hender. vitis idæa, l. salix polaris, wahl, and two other species undetermined. festuca sativa? glyceria, ---- trisetum subspicatum, beaur, var. molle, gray. carex variflora, wahl. vulgaris, fries, var. alpina, (c. rigida, good). cystoperis fragilis, bernt. _cape prince of wales._ at cape prince of wales we obtained: loiseleuria procumbens, desr. andromeda polifolia, l. forma arctica. vaccinium vitis idæa, l. androsace chamoejasme, willd. tofieldia coccinæa, richards. armeria arctica, ster. taraxacum palustre, dl. _twenty miles east of cape lisbourne._ lychnis apetala, l. androsace chamoejasme, willd. geum glaciate, fisch. potentilla nivea, l. biflora, willd. phlox sibirica, l. primula borealis, daly. anemone narcissiflora, l. var. oxytropis campestris, dl. erigeron uniflorus, l. artemisia glomerata, ledb. saxifraga escholtzii, sternb. flagellaris, willd. chrysosplenium alternifolium, l. draba hirta, l. _cape wankerem, siberia._ near cape wankerem, august and , we collected: claytonia virginica, l.? ranunculus pygmæus, wahl. pedicularis langsdorffii, fisch. chrysosplenium alternifolium, l. saxifraga cernua, l. stellaris, l. var. cornosa. rivularis, l. var. hyperborea, hook. polemonium coeruleum, l. lychnis apetala, l. nardosmia frigida, hook. chrysanthemum arcticum, l. senecio frigidus, less. artemisia vulgaris, var. telesii, ledeb. elymus arenarius, l. alopocurus alpinus, smith. poa arctica, r. br. calamagrostis deschampsioides, trin.? luzula hyperborea, r. br. spicato desv. _plover bay, siberia._ the mountains bounding the glacial fiord called plover bay, though beautiful in their combinations of curves and peaks as they are seen touching each other delicately and rising in bold, picturesque groups, are nevertheless severely desolate looking from the absence of trees and large shrubs, and indeed of vegetation of any kind dense enough to give color in telling quantities, or to soften the harsh rockiness of the steepest portions of the walls. even the valleys opening back from the water here and there on either side are mostly bare as seen at a distance of a mile or two, and show only a faint tinge of green, derived from dwarf willows, heathworts, and sedges chiefly. the most interesting of the plants found here are _rhododendron kamtschaticum_, pall., and the handsome blue-flowered _saxifraga oppositifolia_, l., both of which are abundant. the following were collected july and august : gentiana glauca, pall. geum glaciale, fisch. dryas octopetala, l. aconitum napellus, l. var. delphinifolium, ser. saxifraga oppositifolia, l. punctata, l. coespitosa, l. diapensia lapponica, l. rhododendron kamtschaticum, pall. cassiope tetragona, desv. anemone narcissiflora, l. arenaria macrocarpa, pursh. draba alpina, l. parrya ermanni, ledb. oxytropis, podocarpa, gray. _herald island._ on herald island the common polar cryptogamous vegetation is well represented and developed. so also are the flowering plants, almost the entire surface of the island, with the exception of the sheer crumbling bluffs along the shores, being quite tellingly dotted and tufted with characteristic species. the following list was obtained: saxifraga punctata, l.? serpyllifolia, pursh. sileniflora, sternb. bronchialis, l. stellaris, l. var. comosa, poir. rivularis, l. var. hyperborea, hook. hieracifolia, waldst & kit. papaver nuedicaule, l. draba alpina, l. gymnandra stelleri, cham. & schlecht. stellaria longipes, goldie, var. edwardsii t. & g. senecio frigidus, less. potentilla frigida, vill.? salax polaris, wahl. alopecurus alpinus, smith. luzula hyperborea, r. br. _wrangel island._ our stay on the one point of wrangel island that we touched was far too short to admit of making anything like as full a collection of the plants of so interesting a region as was desirable. we found the rock formation where we landed and for some distance along the coast to the eastward and westward to be a close-grained clay slate, cleaving freely into thin flakes, with here and there a few compact metamorphic masses that rise above the general surface. where it is exposed along the shore bluffs and kept bare of vegetation and soil by the action of the ocean, ice, and heavy snow-drifts the rock presents a surface about as black as coal, without even a moss or lichen to enliven its sombre gloom. but when this dreary barrier is passed the surface features of the country in general are found to be finely molded and collocated, smooth valleys, wide as compared with their depth, trending back from the shore to a range of mountains that appear blue in the distance, and round-topped hills, with their side curves finely drawn, touching and blending in beautiful groups, while scarce a single rock-pile is seen or sheer-walled bluff to break the general smoothness. the soil has evidently been derived mostly from the underlying slates, though a few fragmentary wasting moraines were observed containing traveled boulders of quartz and granite which doubtless were brought from the mountains of the interior by glaciers that have recently vanished--so recently that the outlines and sculptured hollows and grooves of the mountains have not as yet suffered sufficient post glacial denudation to mar appreciably their glacial characters. the banks of the river at the mouth of which we landed presented a striking contrast as to vegetation to that of any other stream we had seen in the arctic regions. the tundra vegetation was not wholly absent, but the mosses and lichens of which it is elsewhere composed are about as feebly developed as possible, and instead of forming a continuous covering they occur in small separate tufts, leaving the ground between them raw and bare as that of a newly-ploughed field. the phanerogamous plants, both on the lowest grounds and the slopes and hilltops as far as seen, were in the same severely repressed condition and as sparsely planted in tufts an inch or two in diameter, with about from one to three feet of naked soil between them. some portions of the coast, however, farther south presented a greenish hue as seen from the ship at a distance of eight or ten miles, owing no doubt to vegetation growing under less unfavorable conditions. from an area of about half a square mile the following plants were collected: saxifraga flegellaris, willd. stellaris, l. var. cornosa, poir. sileneflora, sternb. hieracifolia, waldst. & kit. rivularis, l. var. hyperborea, hook. bronchialis, l. serpyllifolia, pursh. anemone parviflora, michx. papaver nudicaule, l. draba alpina, l. cochleria officinalis, l. artemisia borealis, willd. nardosmia frigida, hook. saussurea monticola, richards. senecio frigidus, less. potentilla nivea, l. frigida, vill.? armeria macrocarpa, pursh. vulgaris, willd. stellaria longipes, goldie, var. edwardsii t. & g. cerastium alpinum, l. gymnandra stelleri, chain & schlecht. salix polaris, wahl. luzulu hyperborea, r. br. poa arctica, r. br. aira cæspitosa, l. var. arctica. alopecurus alpinus, smith. the 'shown to the children' series edited by louey chisholm flowers the 'shown to the children' series . beasts with coloured plates by percy j. billinghurst. letterpress by lena dalkeith. . flowers with coloured plates, showing flowers, by janet harvey kelman. letterpress by c. e. smith. . birds with coloured plates by m. k. c. scott. letterpress by j. a. henderson. plate i: . lesser celandine . bulbous buttercup . meadow buttercup . marsh marigold flowers shown to the children by janet harvey kelman described by c. e. smith illustration forty-eight coloured pictures london & edinburgh t. c. & e. c. jack to alison mary ogilvie and dorothy clark dear children,--if you were old enough to go to the bookseller and ask for a book that would tell you about the flowers you see growing in the woods and fields in spring and summer-time, you would find there were already a great many books which had been written with that purpose. if you examined a few of these books, you would discover that in many the pictures of the flowers were not coloured, and that in these books the flowers were very difficult to recognise. and i think you would at once tell the bookseller you wished a flower-book with coloured pictures, where the flowers looked like real flowers. then you would examine more books, some of which have beautiful coloured pictures showing every flower that grows in our country. these books are very large and cost a great deal of money. you would see, too, quite small books which said they could tell about the common flowers we find in our country walks. and i think you would buy one of these. but next day, suppose you were to find a bright blue flower growing in the field, and wished very much to know what it was called. you would open the flower-book and begin to look at the pictures, and there you would discover that the first picture showed a yellow flower, the next a red, the third a purple, a white or a blue, and you might have to turn over all the pages in the book before you found the flower you sought. after you had looked at the picture of your blue flower, i think you would wish to know something more about the flower, and would like to read the writing to find out what it said. but i am afraid you would not be able to understand what the flower-book told. there would be such long words telling about things you had never heard of, and you would begin to wonder if only older people could find out what books had to say about flowers. now this new flower-book is written just for the purpose of telling little children about the flowers. and in order to make it easy, the blue flowers have all been put together in one part of the book, the yellow in another, and the white in a third group; so you can at once know in what part of the book you will see a picture of any flower you find. and i have made the writing which tells about each flower very easy, with as few new words as possible, so i hope you will be able to read it yourself, and find out how many wonderful and beautiful things there are in the flower-world which you might not notice unless you were told what to look for. there are four new words you must learn to understand before you begin to read this book. the first word is calyx, and it means a covering. when the flowers are still babies, or buds, as they are called in flowerland, they are so soft and tender that too much rain, or a cold wind or a night of frost would do them harm. so nearly every flower has been given a warm covering which is folded closely round the tiny bud to protect it. sometimes this calyx, or covering, is all in one piece like a cup, and the bud sits safely inside. but very often it is made up of five or six or more pieces, and when this is the case, these separate pieces are called sepals. these sepals are very often green, like leaves, but you may have white sepals, or yellow sepals, or blue sepals or pink sepals. you will learn all about them after you know all that is in this flower-book and are able to read a more difficult one. the third new word you must know the meaning of, is petals. nearly every flower has petals. they are the beautiful coloured leaves of the flower that are within the calyx. it is these lovely petals, pink in the rose, yellow in the buttercup, red in the poppy, and blue in the forget-me-not, that most of us mean when we talk of flowers, and it is these soft, silky petals which attract us, and not us only, but the birds and the bees and the butterflies, which all visit the gay flowers. these petals are among the most beautiful things in this wonderful world. the fourth new word you must try to remember is stamens. the stamens are not very attractive, but they are very important to the flower, as without them there could be no new seeds, and if there were no new seeds we should presently have no more flowers. the stamens are usually fine, slender threads which grow either singly, or in little bunches or in a ring within the circle of petals. each slender thread has a fat little head at the end, a purple head, or a pink head, or a red head, or, very often, a yellow head. and this stamen head is filled with fine powder which is needed to make the new seeds grow. these four, calyx, sepals, petals, and stamens, are the only new words you will have to learn in order to understand all that is written in this little flower-book, and i hope that, when summer comes, you will try to find all the plants that i have written about here, and that you will be able to tell the names, without reading them, of every flower of which miss kelman has made you a picture.--yours sincerely, c. e. smith list of flowers yellow flowers plate page i. . lesser celandine,................ . bulbous buttercup,............... . meadow buttercup,................ . marsh marigold,.................. ii. . wallflower,...................... . wild mustard,.................... . hedge mustard,................... iii. . yellow horned poppy,............. . rock rose,....................... . opposite-leaved golden saxifrage, iv. . common whin or gorse,............ . broom,........................... . needle whin,..................... v. . st john's wort,.................. . common avens,.................... . tormentil,....................... vi. . birdsfoot trefoil,............... . hop trefoil,..................... . lady's fingers,.................. . meadow vetchling,................ vii. . creeping cinquefoil,............. . silver weed,..................... . common agrimony,................. viii. . common nipplewort,............... . autumnal hawkbit,................ . yellow goatsbeard,............... ix. . coltsfoot,....................... . common groundsel,................ . common ragwort,.................. x. . crosswort,....................... . biting stonecrop,................ . yellow bedstraw,................. . mugwort,......................... xi. . wild mignonette,................. . common dandelion,................ . tansy,........................... xii. . primrose,........................ . cowslip,......................... . bog asphodel,.................... xiii. . honeysuckle,..................... . yellow water iris,............... . daffodil,........................ xiv. . common comfrey,.................. white flowers plate page xiv. . sneezewort yarrow,............... . mountain everlasting,............ xv. . traveller's joy,................. . wood anemone,.................... . water crowfoot,.................. xvi. . shepherd's purse,................ . common scurvy grass,............. . hairy rock cress,................ xvii. . common chickweed,................ . mouse-eared chickweed,........... . greater stitchwort,.............. xviii. . goutweed,........................ . wild angelica,................... . upright hedge parsley,........... . hemlock water dropwort,.......... xix. . cow parsnip,..................... . wild chervil,.................... . sea carrot,...................... . common hemlock,.................. xx. . meadow sweet,.................... . wild strawberry,................. . wood sorrel,..................... xxi. . goosegrass or cleavers,.......... . woodruff,........................ . yarrow or millfoil,.............. xxii. . ox-eye daisy,.................... . daisy,........................... . scentless mayweed,............... xxiii. . snowdrop,........................ . common star of bethlehem,........ . ransoms,......................... xxiv. . mossy saxifrage,................. . marsh pennywort,................. . intermediate wintergreen,........ xxv. . grass of parnassus,.............. . common bladder campion,.......... . sea campion,..................... xxvi. . common eyebright,................ . white dead nettle,............... . spotted orchis,.................. xxvii. . chickweed wintergreen,........... xl. . burnet rose,..................... green flowers plate page xxvii. . red-berried bryony,.............. . cuckoopint or wake robin,........ xxviii. . common mare's tail,.............. . greater burdock,................. xxix. . mouse-tail,...................... . ribwort plantain,................ . knotty figwort,.................. xxx. . lady's mantle,................... . dog's mercury,................... . common nettle,................... purple flowers plate page xxxi. . purple sea-rocket,............... . cuckoo flower or lady's smock,... . marsh cinquefoil,................ . water avens,..................... xxxii. . dog violet,...................... . heartsease,...................... . common mallow,................... xxxiii. . scotch thistle,.................. . marsh plume thistle,............. . field scabious,.................. xxxiv. . common ling or heather,.......... . black knapweed,.................. . wild thyme,...................... xxxv. . early purple orchis,............. . purple loose-strife,............. . common butterwort,............... xxxvi. . common bugle,.................... . ground ivy,...................... pink flowers plate page xxviii. . common butterbur,................ xxxvi. . hairy water mint,................ xxxvii. . common fumitory,................. . ragged robin,.................... . red campion,..................... xxxviii. . dove's-foot crane's-bill,........ . herb-robert,..................... . stork's bill,.................... xxxix. . rest harrow,..................... . saintfoin,....................... . red clover,...................... xl. . dog rose,........................ . lousewort, or red rattle,........ xli. . great wild valerian,............. . small bindweed,.................. . foxglove,........................ xlii. . broad-leaved willow herb,........ . corn cockle,..................... . cross-leaved pink heath,......... blue flowers plate page xliii. . blue meadow crane's-bill,......... . milkwort,......................... . corn flower or blue bottle,....... . tufted vetch,..................... xliv. . wild succory,..................... . blue bell or harebell,............ . sea holly,........................ xlv. . germander speedwell,.............. . brooklime speedwell,.............. . great water forget-me-not,........ xlvi. . common borage,.................... . evergreen alkanet,................ . wood hyacinth,.................... xlvii. . field gentian,.................... . sea aster,........................ . viper's bugloss,.................. red flowers plate page xlviii. . red poppy,........................ . scarlet pimpernel,................ . common sorrel,.................... plate i . lesser celandine this is one of the first flowers you will see in springtime. it covers the ground in patches in every wood, and you will find it too under the hedges and on banks by the roadside. the flower has eight long narrow petals, which are much narrower and more pointed than those of the buttercup. when the celandine is still in bud the outside of these petals is beautifully streaked with purple. but when the flower opens in the sunshine, the petals are a bright yellow colour, and are as glossy as if they were wet. in the centre of the flower there is a ring of yellow stamens with a cluster of green seed-vessels amongst them. behind the coloured petals are three narrow pointed sepals. these protect the flower when it is in bud. the green leaves of the celandine are dark and glossy, with wavy edges, and each leaf has a stalk of its own. if you look carefully at one of these leaves you will see that the stalk is flattened at the foot. this helps it to clasp the main stem more easily. the root is divided into five or six hard little brown fingers. these brown fingers are called tubers, and each tuber, if planted separately, will produce a new plant. . bulbous buttercup in spring the bulbous buttercup is found everywhere, filling the meadows with its sunshiny flowers. each flower has five glossy yellow petals which do not lie flat open as in the celandine, but form a cup, a yellow cup or buttercup. at the base of each petal you find a small honey pouch, which the bees love to visit. when the flower is still in bud, the yellow petals are almost covered by five pale-green hairy sepals. you can see only the yellow tips peeping out. but when the flower opens, these hairy green sepals fold back close round the stalk. in the centre of the flower is a thick cluster of yellow-headed stamens with a knot of green seed-vessels in the middle. the stalk on which the flower grows is slightly hairy, and has a narrow groove on one side. the root is shaped like a small turnip, and has a great many white threads growing out of it. the leaves of this buttercup are dark green, with soft hairs all over them. they are shaped very irregularly, and are deeply cut up all round the edges. . meadow buttercup the meadow buttercup is abundant all over the country. it grows beside the daisy in every field and hedge-bank. in this buttercup the flower has five bright glossy yellow petals, which open out flat and are not cup-shaped as in the bulbous buttercup. there is a hard green knot of seed-vessels in the centre of the flower, with a ring of yellow stamens all round it. when the yellow stamens and petals fall off, this bunch of seed-vessels grows bigger and bigger, until it looks like a small green raspberry. outside the yellow petals are five pale-green sepals. these remain close behind the yellow flower and do not fold back against the stalk as in the bulbous buttercup. the flower-stalk is slightly hairy, but it is not grooved. the green leaves are dark, and are covered with soft hairs. each leaf is divided into three parts, which are very deeply cut up all round the edge. you will easily recognise this buttercup if you remember three things. . the flower-stalk has no groove. . the little green sepals do not fold back close to the stalk. . the root has no bulb. . marsh marigold this is one of our handsomest wildflowers. it grows abundantly in springtime by the side of ponds, or on the marshy edge of a slow-running stream. it looks like a large, thick buttercup. the marsh marigold is closely related to the buttercup family, though it differs from the buttercups in various ways. the five bright yellow petals of the flowers are glossy, and have little veins running up from the bottom. in the centre of these petals there is a big bunch of yellow stamens, with a group of green seed-vessels amongst them. if you look at the back of an open flower you will see that there are no green sepals such as there are in the buttercups. the flower-stalks are thick and hollow, with ridges along the sides. they snap off easily when gathered, but very soon they lose their stiffness and become soft and flabby. this means they are thirsty, and if you give them plenty of water to drink they will soon be as stiff as when they were growing. the green leaves of the marsh marigold are dark above, but underneath they are much lighter. they are very glossy and smooth, and each leaf is covered with a fine network of veins. in shape they are like a heart with crinkled edges. plate ii: . wallflower. wild mustard. . hedge mustard. . wallflower the wallflower, as its name tells you, likes to grow on walls. in early spring you will see it on the top of old walls or high up on the broken roof of a ruined castle. how did it get there? the wind or the birds must have carried the seed. the flowers are a rich golden yellow, and they have a delightful scent. each flower has four beautiful petals, which are broad above with a long strap forming the lower part. in the centre where these four petals meet, you can just see the tips of the stamens peeping out: but the seed-vessel is hidden from sight. the four sepals are a dark purple colour, and they form a cup in which the lower or strap-shaped part of the petal is held. those flowers which are nearest the foot of the stem open first. you will often find eight or ten yellow flowers blooming at the same time and a bunch of dark purple buds at the end of the stem. the stem of the wallflower is tough and woody near the ground, but further up it is green and smooth. the leaves are narrow pointed straps with smooth edges. they are dark green, but sometimes they have a touch of purple at the tips. . wild mustard this is a plant the farmers are very sorry to see. they do not want it among the corn, but in springtime the fields are often covered with its yellow flowers. the flowers grow in a cluster near the top of the stem. there are often four or five in full bloom at once, gathered round a bunch of green buds which rises in the centre of the cluster. while the first cluster is in flower, the stem continues to grow, and by the time these flowers fall off, another cluster appears at the end of the lengthened stem, and so on. if you pull off one of the flower-petals you will see that the lower half is strap-shaped. but the petal is much broader at the other end, and it is round, with a tiny nick in the outer edge. in the centre there are six stamens whose tips you can just see where the four petals meet. but the seed-vessel is hidden until the petals and sepals and stamens fall off. it then grows into a thin green pod, and you will find many of these slender pods standing out from the hairy stem. behind the yellow petals are four thin sepals. when the flower is fully out these lie flat open. they do not form a cup. the leaves of the wild mustard are dusty green. they are each in one piece and are broadly pointed, with the edges cut like the teeth of a saw. . hedge mustard this is a very common little plant, but it is not at all attractive. you find it by the roadside and in waste places in early summer, and it always looks very dusty. the flowers are quite small. they grow in little clusters at the end of a long spike, and there are usually four or five flowers out at the same time. these flowers have each four tiny petals of a pale yellow colour, and unless you look very closely, and pull these petals gently apart, you will not see either the stamens or the seed-vessel, which are almost hidden from sight. the little green sepals at the back of each flower stand straight up from the stalk and form a cup. this cup has slits down the sides and it holds the flower. the stalk is almost covered with thin, hairy, green pods pressed closely against it. these pods hold the seeds, and they look like green caterpillars creeping up each side of the stem. the leaves of the hedge mustard are a dull grey-green colour and are very rough and hairy. those nearest the ground have no stalks, they grow like a rosette, with one leaf close above another. but the leaves further up the stem are each separate. they are very much cut up, and their edges are toothed like a saw. plate iii: . yellow horned poppy . rock rose . opposite-leaved golden saxifrage . yellow horned poppy the yellow horned poppy grows all summer on sandy seashores or among stones. it is a showy plant, with large, orange-yellow flowers. each flower has four petals which open almost flat. these petals are very soft and are daintily waved round the edges. in the centre of the petals rises a big bunch of stamens. in the middle of these stamens stands a curious green horn. this is the seed-vessel, and it is divided at the tip into three little forks. as soon as the yellow stamens and the petals fall off, this horn grows into a long curved pod, and in this pod are the seeds. the horned poppy has two green sepals which are very rough and hairy. they cover the flower so long as it is in bud, but whenever the flower begins to expand these sepals burst open, and as soon as the yellow petals have smoothed out their crinkles in the sun these little green coverings fall off. the leaves of this poppy are thick and leathery, and are covered with hairs which make them look grey. these leaves have no separate stalks, but grow close to the stem as if they were clasping it. . rock rose this is a delicate little branching plant which trails in summer-time along the ground, on grassy hills, and among rocks and gravel. the flowers grow singly on short stalks, and each flower has five bright yellow petals which lie flat open. these petals are not stiff and glossy like those of the buttercup, but soft and easily crinkled like the poppy petals. if you touch very lightly the yellow stamens in the centre of the flower, they will spread out and lie down. the rock rose has five little green sepals. three of these have their tips slightly tinged with pink, and these pink-tinged sepals are large enough to cover the flower when it is in bud. the other two are much smaller, with sharply-pointed tips, and they grow at the end of the little flower-stalk behind the pinky sepals. the leaves of the rock rose are long and narrow with smooth edges, and they grow opposite each other on the stem. these leaves are always dark green above, but underneath they are covered with fine white woolly down, and if you hold them up to the light you will see that the edges are fringed with soft hairs. . opposite-leaved golden saxifrage this small plant grows in damp places by the side of ditches and on wet rocks. it is commonest in the north of britain, but in spring you will find its soft stems creeping close to the ground in the south of england also. the golden saxifrage has no petals. the yellow flowers grow at the end of the stem in small clusters, which are sunk among the leaves. each flower has a yellow calyx tube, which is divided at the mouth into four parts. these divisions are yellow inside, but on the outside they are green. there is a ring of tiny stamens standing out all round the mouth of the calyx tube, and in the very centre of the flower stands a fat seed-vessel, like a beak, which splits open into halves when the seeds are ripe. the leaves of the golden saxifrage grow in pairs on each side of a pale green, juicy stem. this stem is covered with clear white hairs. the leaves are pale green and are round in shape, with crinkled edges. they are very soft, and, like the stem, they have fine white hairs all over them. when you gather a handful of the golden saxifrage you find a great many slender white roots hanging from the stem wherever it has lain along the ground. plate iv: . common whin or gorse. . broom. . needle whin. . common whin or gorse this is a shrub children like better to look at than to gather. it is very common on heaths and banks and in dry fields, and it blooms in early summer. the flowers are curious, because the five petals are so strangely shaped. one broad petal stands up highest and is called 'the standard.' then there are two narrow petals at the side; these are called 'wings.' and in between these narrow petals there are two joined together like a tiny boat, which are called 'the keel.' there is a bunch of curved stamens with their slender stalks all joined together at the bottom into a green tube. amongst these stamens you can see the tip of the seed-vessel. when the flower is in bud it is enclosed in a rough, yellowish-green covering which has many black hairs all over it. this covering usually opens in two pieces, and these pieces remain below the flower until it is withered. instead of leaves the gorse has many sharp prickly spikes or leaf-thorns. you will notice that there are many of these sharp spikes which have little groups of two or three shorter spikes branching from them, and each branch ends in a sharp spike. . broom this is one of our most beautiful spring shrubs. it grows on heaths and by the roadside, and sometimes you will see a low hill covered with it, and glistening like gold in the sunshine. the flowers are very like those of the common whin, but they are much larger, and the yellow colour is deeper and more golden. the petals are shaped the same as in the common whin, and if you look at the green tube into which the stamens are joined, you will see that it has a curious green thread at the end which is twisted into a curl. the seeds are in this tube, and when the petals and stamens have all fallen off, this tube becomes a flat green pod tinged with purple. the curly green thread still remains at the end. there are green sepals at the back of the flower which form a cup. this cup looks as if it was only in two pieces; but, as in the common whin, it is really made up of five sepals, and you can often see five little teeth at the mouth which show where each sepal begins. the leaves of the broom are very small, and they grow in groups of three. those close to the flowers have no stalks, but the others have each a stalk with the three little leaves at the end. . needle whin the needle whin is not so well known as the common whin or the broom, though it belongs to the same family. it is very common, and you will find plenty of it in spring and early summer growing close to the ground among the heather. the flowers are pale yellow, with six petals very like those of the common whin or the broom, only much smaller. you find five or six flowers growing close together on a trailing woody stem. each flower sits in a green cup, which is made up of five sepals joined together. round the mouth of the cup are five sharp teeth, and you can see, much more clearly than in the common whin or in the broom, where each separate sepal begins. after the petals and stamens fall off, the seed-vessels grow into large, fat pods which are commonly tinged with purple. if you are not in the country until the petals have fallen, you will easily recognise the needle whin by these fat pods. sometimes five or six or more grow near the top of each short stem. the leaves of this tiny whin are very small and have scarcely any stalks. growing up the main stem are many very fine spines or leaf-thorns, as sharp as needles. from these the plant gets its name. plate v: . st. john's wort. . common avens. . tormentil. . st. john's wort this is a tall, handsome plant, whose flowers appear late in summer among low-growing bushes or on the hedge-banks. each flower has five pale yellow, pointed petals, which open like a star. on these petals there are often many small black dots. the flowers grow on short stalks, which always rise between a small green leaf and the stem. these flower-stalks are in pairs, exactly opposite each other on each side of the stem. inside the flower there are a great many stamens. these stamens are grouped in bunches, and do not form a ring all round the centre as in many flowers. seated among these bunches is a pear-shaped seed-vessel with three horns at the top. at the back of the flower, lying flat open, are five thin green sepals, whose tips you can see appearing, as you look down into the flower, between the yellow petals. the stalk is smooth and stiff, with two edges which look as if the sides had been joined together. the green leaves grow in pairs opposite each other. they taper to a point and have edges that are smooth all round. if you look closely you will see that each leaf is covered with tiny black dots. there is another st. john's wort very like this, but its stalk is square, with four edges. . common avens the common avens grows abundantly all summer in woods and on shady hedge-banks, but it is not very attractive. the flowers are small, with five separate yellow petals which lie flat open. as you look down into the flower, you can see the tips of the five green sepals appearing between the yellow petals. each flower grows at the end of a short stalk, but two or three of these stalks often spring from the main stem at the same place. half way up this stem you will find a pair of tiny green leaves with very small buds appearing between them and the stalk. these buds will come out later, when their stalks have time to lengthen. in the centre of the ring of stamens there is a small green bunch of seed-vessels. each seed-vessel has a thin stiff hair at the top, and after the yellow petals fall off you will see this bristly bunch of spikes still at the end of the flower-stalk, with the tiny green sepals standing out like a frill behind. each leaf is divided into three or more parts. those close to the ground are large and coarse, with the edges cut like the teeth of a saw. but there are leaves further up the stem, and these are frequently divided quite differently from the root leaves. . tormentil this is a dainty little plant which grows all summer in open woods, and on heaths, where its masses of small yellow flowers look like gold stars among the tangle of green leaves and stems. the flowers are small, with four pale yellow petals which lie wide open, and rising from amongst them there are yellow stamens with a bunch of green seed-vessels in the centre. behind these yellow petals there is a green star-circle of sepals. four of these sepals are long and green, and their tips can be seen in front between the yellow flower-petals. there are also four much smaller green sepals which stand between each of the larger ones, so the calyx is really a beautiful green star with eight points. each flower has a stalk of its own, and each stalk rises from between a leaf and the stem. sometimes they are deeply tinged with purple. the green leaves of the tormentil are soft and fine, with a few downy hairs on the front. they are divided into five fingers, and each of these fingers has its edges cut into large teeth all the way round. very often these edges turn quite yellow when the plant is just beginning to fade. the tormentil root is rather curious. it looks like a thick brown finger, but if you cut it, the inside is a delicate rose red. plate vi: . bird's foot trefoil. . hop trefoil. . lady's fingers. . meadow vetchling. . birdsfoot trefoil the golden birdsfoot trefoil grows nearly everywhere. you can gather its tufts of bright yellow flowers all summer in the fields and woods and waste places. the flowers grow in heads at the end of a long flower-stalk, and each head may have from four to eight flowers close together in a bunch. the five petals are golden-yellow streaked with red, and they are strangely shaped. there is one big petal which stands up behind. then there are two long-shaped petals which lie sideways, and two small ones that are joined together in a curious point. after the petals fall off, the seed-vessel in the centre of the stamens grows into a long, thin red pod; and when there are four or five of these narrow pods at the end of the flower-stalk, they look like the claw of a bird. that is why this trefoil is called birdsfoot. the leaves are very pretty. there is a single small green leaflet, with smooth round edges, at the end of a short stalk. just below this little leaflet there is a pair of tiny leaflets. and further down, where the stalk joins the main stem, you will find still another little pair. so that the name trefoil, which means 'three leaves,' is not correct, as there are really five small leaflets on each short stalk. . hop trefoil the hop trefoil is a cousin of the birdsfoot trefoil, and is quite as plentiful. it grows all summer by the edge of the fields and in grassy pastures. you will easily recognise it by the flowers. these cluster together in small round yellow heads like a tiny clover. in each head there are from twenty to forty little flowers closely packed together. when you pick one of these tiny flowers to pieces, you find that the petals are very much the same as those of the birdsfoot trefoil. but they are so small that you would require a magnifying glass to see them clearly, and to discover the stamens and seed-vessels which are hidden inside. when the flowers begin to fade, the petals do not fall off at once, but they shrivel and become a pale-brown colour. sometimes you find a flower of which the lower half is quite brown and withered, while the upper half remains golden yellow. at the end of the flower-stalk you find a small oval green leaflet, and close below this single leaflet comes a pair of dainty leaflets. on each stalk there is always this triplet. the main stem is covered with fine downy hairs, and you will notice that wherever a leaf-stalk joins this stem there are two small green sheaths with points, which look as if they were meant to cover the join. . lady's fingers this showy plant grows abundantly all summer on dry banks and pastures. you will easily recognise it by the large heads of pale yellow flowers with their woolly sepals. the flowers are grouped in two heads at the end of a stout stalk, and there are usually ten to twenty separate flowers in each head. the petals seem very similar to those of the trefoils, but each petal ends in a long claw, and these claws are hidden in the cup formed by the sepals. this calyx-cup is edged round the mouth with sharp teeth, and it is covered with grey fluffy down. the grey down gives a woolly appearance to the flowers. you also find a frill of narrow green pointed leaves without stalks underneath each head of flowers. when the petals and stamens have fallen off, the yellow calyx-cup becomes much swollen, and inside it there remains a small pod which bears the seeds. on the upper side the leaves are a delicate blue-green, with fine silky hairs all over them. but underneath these leaves are much paler. each leaflet is long and narrow and is placed the one opposite the other on the leaf-stalk, at the end of which there is always a solitary leaflet. . meadow vetchling the meadow vetchling is not nearly such a stout plant as the lady's fingers. its stem is feeble and requires to find support by holding on to the hedges, or to some other strong plant. the flowers are a beautiful golden yellow. they grow in loose bunches near the end of a straight, stiff flower-stalk. notice that all the flowers face one way, and that in each flower the largest yellow petal is daintily streaked with purple. you cannot see either the stamens or the seed-vessel, which are hidden inside the flower. the sepals are joined so that they form a green cup which has five sharp points round the mouth. the leaflets grow in pairs at the end of the leaf-stalk. they are long and narrow, like a lance, with fine lines running from end to end. in between each pair of leaflets you find a green twisted thread called a tendril. this tendril curls round the stem of plants that are stronger than the meadow vetchling, and they support it. wherever the leaf-stalk joins the main stem you will find another pair of green leaves. these leaves are shaped like the head of an arrow, and they have a name of their own, which you will learn when you know more about plants. plate vii: . creeping cinquefoil . silver weed . common agrimony . creeping cinquefoil this pretty plant is common everywhere. you will find it all summer by the roadside, in meadows, and by the edge of the cornfields. the flowers are bright golden yellow: they have five petals which open out like a rose, and in the centre there is a ring of yellow stamens with a knot of green seed-vessels among them. in between each of these yellow petals you see a narrow green point appearing. these are sepals, and if you look at the back of the flower you find that the calyx is really a star made up of ten pointed green sepals. the flowers grow on long, slender stalks. both the flower and the leaves rise from what looks like another slender stalk creeping close to the ground. the creeping stalk comes from a root which resembles a small carrot. this root goes straight down into the ground, and it sends out three long, stalk-like creepers which lie along the surface. wherever a bunch of leaves and flowers rises from the creeper, two or three little white roots go down into the ground. these take firm hold of the earth and help to keep the plant steady. the leaves are beautiful. each leaf is divided into five fingers, which are cut round the edges like the teeth of a saw. they are dark green, and have long, slender stalks like the flowers. . silver weed the silver weed prefers to grow in damp meadows and on the banks of ditches. you find it in abundance all summer. the flowers are not unlike those of the cinquefoil. they have five golden yellow petals which are not cup-shaped, but lie flat open. these petals are larger than those of the cinquefoil, and you can only see the smallest tip of the green sepals appearing in between each. there are really ten sepals in the calyx. five of these are narrow little pointed leaves, but the others are each divided at the tip. if you remove all the yellow petals, this green calyx, with its ten green points, is just like a beautiful star. the silver weed sends out long creepers. these are thicker than in the cinquefoil, and are often tinged with pink. when the leaves are half-open they look almost entirely white, because they are covered with a fine silvery down. but when they are fully out they become dark green above, and it is only the underside which remains white and silvery. notice that the leaves grow in pairs, with big leaflets and very little leaflets alternately on each side of the leaf-stalk, and that their edges are deeply toothed all round. . common agrimony this plant likes to grow in dry places, such as hedge-banks or at the side of fields, and it blooms in summer. the flowers grow one above the other on a tall spike, and they look like small yellow stars. those that grow lowest down on the spike come out first, and the small green buds are crowded together near the top. in the centre of the five yellow petals there is a ring of stamens, and amongst those stands a fat, green seed-vessel with two horns at the top. the calyx or green covering of the flower is the part you must notice most closely. it rises from a short stalk, and is shaped like a bell. there are ten deep lines running from top to bottom of this green bell, and round its mouth there are five large points. below these points is a curious ring of tiny hooks like a fringe, and these cling to whatever touches them. you often find a dozen of these little green bells fastened to your skirt if you have been where the agrimony grows. the leaflets are dark and hairy. they grow opposite each other in pairs, on each side of the leaf-stalk: first a large pair, then a small pair, turn about, and you always find a single large leaflet at the very end. each leaflet is deeply cut round the edge and has teeth like the teeth of a saw. plate viii: . common nipplewort . autumnal hawkbit . yellow goatsbeard . common nipplewort the nipplewort is very common everywhere. it grows both in waste places and in cultivated ground or by the roadside, and you find it in flower all summer and autumn. it has a slender round stem, which branches a good many times, and at the top of each of those branches you find a tiny yellow daisy. these daisies are made up of many yellow tubes, each with a broad yellow strap at the mouth. the straps have the edges cut into sharp teeth, and they stand out in a circle all round the small yellow daisy. the small yellow heads are held by a green cup made up of two sets of narrow pointed green leaves, and you will notice that there is always a single very tiny grey-green leaf where each branch forks from the main stem. the leaves of the nipplewort vary much in shape. some are like a feather of which the lower part is cut away almost to the centre stalk. others are regularly oval, with wavy edges all round, and these leaves end in a sharp point. they are dark green in colour, with hairs all round the edge. . autumnal hawkbit the hawkweeds are a very large family, and it will be a long time before you learn to recognise them all. the autumnal hawkbit is the commonest, and it is found nearly everywhere, in meadows, in pastures, and in waste places. it flowers in late summer and autumn. the leaves grow in a rosette close to the ground. they are dark green, rather smooth, and are shaped like narrow feathers, with the edges irregularly cut into deep, rounded teeth. they all spring from the centre root. the heads of yellow flowers grow on tall, slender, wiry stalks. very tiny scale-like green leaves grow up the stalks at intervals. each yellow head is made up of many small yellow tubes with a strap at the mouth, and these strap tubes are crowded together all over the flower-head. when the yellow flowers are withered, the seed-vessels remain, each with a tuft of feathery cotton down attached to it but the down ball is not a perfect one as in the dandelion; and the down looks grey. the top of the flower-stalk is clothed with layers of narrow pointed green leaves which are tinged with red, and are sometimes woolly. these layers are pressed tightly one above the other like the scales of a fir-cone, and they cover the yellow flower completely when it is in bud. . yellow goatsbeard the yellow goatsbeard is fairly common in this country. it grows in meadows and pastures and in waste places, and it is in flower all summer and autumn. it belongs to a large family of plants which are very difficult to distinguish the one from the other, and you will find several goatsbeards that seem very much alike. this goatsbeard is a wiry, straight, slender plant. the dark green stem is round, and the leaves grow close to it without stalks. these leaves are like a broad blade of grass at the bottom where they join the stem, but near the top they get very narrow and are folded together, so that they appear almost round, and they end in a sharp point. the flowers grow singly on round, smooth stems. they look like small yellow dandelions with fewer yellow rays, and like the dandelion they are made up of many little yellow tubes grouped together, some of which have yellow straps at the edge, while others have none. when the flower is half open you will notice that it stands in a green cup made up of eight narrow leaves with long, fine points. these points are much longer than the yellow rays of the flower, and stand up beyond them when the flower is closed. the flowers of the goatsbeard have the curious habit of closing at midday, even when the sun is shining. plate ix: . coltsfoot . common groundsel . common ragwort . coltsfoot the coltsfoot is a very common plant. you find it all over the country, and along with the celandine it is one of the first flowers to appear in spring. the flowers come out before the leaves. they grow singly at the end of straight, woolly stalks which have many little pink scale-like leaves, from top to bottom. when the flowers are withering, their heads begin to droop; but when the downy seed-ball is ready to open, the flower-stalks stand straight up again. the flowers are bright yellow, and like the daisy and dandelion, which belong to the same family, they are made up of a great many tiny tubes grouped close together. those tubes round the edge have a long, narrow, yellow strap at the outside. after the flowers are withered, the seeds remain at the end of the stalk, and each seed sends out a tuft of beautiful, straight, white down which forms a delicate ball as in the dandelion. but the coltsfoot down-ball is neither so starry nor so beautiful as that of the dandelion. the leaves of the coltsfoot are entirely covered with cotton wool when they are small; as they grow bigger, they become glossy grey-green above, and are white only underneath. each leaf is nearly round, with beautiful pointed scollops at the edge, and it has a long stalk. . common groundsel this plant is one of the very commonest we have. it is in flower all the year round, and grows everywhere. we have all gathered it to give to the canaries, who love to pick the tiny seeds. the groundsel flowers grow in small heads of two or three together at the end of short stalks which branch at intervals from top to bottom of the stem. these stalks are not very strong, and as the flower-heads are heavy, they make the stalks bend over. this is another plant whose flowers are composed of a great many small tubes tightly packed together. these tubes are yellow, and some have a broad, short strap at the mouth of the tube, and in some the mouth is evenly nicked all round. they grow in a tiny green cup, which is made up of narrow strap-shaped green leaves tightly pressed together, and you can only see the tips of the yellow flowers at the mouth of this cup. after the flowers are withered, a bunch of white down is seen coming out of the mouth of the green cup. the stem of the groundsel is soft and juicy, and it has a good many hairs upon it. the leaves are glossy dark green, and are shaped like a feather, with large, regular divisions up the sides. each division is finely waved all round the edges. . common ragwort the ragwort is a very common plant. it grows everywhere, and is in flower in late summer and autumn. it is a stout and rather coarse plant, with bunches of small yellow daisies growing on short forks which branch from the top of the main stem. these daisies are rather poor looking, and they are made up of a great many little flowers crowded together inside a green cup, and a few of the flowers round the edge of the cup have yellow straps which are thin and straggling. the yellow tube flowers in the centre are evenly nicked all round the mouth, and they have yellow stamens whose heads you can see forming a circle round the yellow tip of the seed-vessel with its two curled points. the stems of the ragwort are sometimes white and woolly, and they are covered all over with deep ridges. the leaves are dark green and shiny. they are long and feather-shaped, and are deeply cut up almost to the centre rib, forming narrow green horns on each side of it. plate x: . crosswort. . biting stonecrop. . yellow bedstraw. . mugwort. . crosswort the crosswort is common in england and in the south of scotland, but it does not grow far north. it is in flower all spring and summer, and you find it abundantly in woods and thickets. this is rather a soft, weak plant, which you will easily recognise by the curious way the leaves are placed on the stem. these leaves are small, and pointed, and they grow in form like a cross. the crosses appear about an inch apart all the way up the stem, and their leaves are soft and thin, and are covered all over with fine hairs. the flowers grow in clusters on very short stalks close to the stem where the four leaves meet. they are yellow and very tiny. each flower has four petals, and these petals are joined together and show four points standing out round the edge. you will notice four tiny stamens, one of which lies flat between each of the petals, and there are also two narrow green leaves springing from among the small groups of flowers, as well as the four which form a cross. the stem of the crosswort is four-sided, and, like the leaves, it is covered with fine hairs. . biting stonecrop the biting stonecrop is common all over britain. it is abundant in summer on rocks and in sandy places by the seaside, and you find it growing inland too. the stonecrop grows in large tufts close to the ground. it is a small plant with a great many little branches, and these branches are of two kinds. some are thickly covered with fat, juicy leaves. these leaves are very tiny, and they are laid thickly all round the stem in the same way as the scales are laid on a fir-cone. those leaves nearest the end of the branch are often tinged with red. on the other branches of the stonecrop the fat green leaves are not nearly so closely packed together, and near the end of each branch grow two or more flowers. these flowers are golden yellow, and they have five pointed petals which resemble the rays of a star, and there are ten yellow stamens lying flat out, on and between these petals. in the centre of the flower you see five fat little seed-vessels standing up. after the yellow petals have all fallen off, these seed-vessels lie down and show five points like a small green star. . yellow bedstraw the yellow bedstraw is to be found all over the country. it grows in pastures, and on the hedge-banks, and it is in flower all summer and autumn. there is a white bedstraw as well as a yellow, and you will often find great masses of both growing like a carpet on the grassy hedge-banks. the stems of the yellow bedstraw are not strong, although they grow to a great length, and the plant is usually lying in a tangled mass near the ground. the flowers are very tiny. they grow in dense clusters. each cluster has a short stalk which branches opposite another stalk on the main stem. the flowers have four petals and four stamens, and these stamens have almost no stalks. they look just like dots lying on the yellow petals. the leaves of the yellow bedstraw are very tiny. they resemble small green straps, and they grow in circles, with eight to ten leaves in a circle round the main stem, close to where the flower clusters grow. you also find a circle of leaves growing on the short stalks which hold the clusters of flowers. these tiny leaves are hairy underneath. . mugwort the mugwort, or wormwood as it is often called, is common all over the country. it grows in waste places and by the borders of the fields, and it blooms in autumn. you will easily recognise this plant by its greeny-white woolly flowers, with their yellow or red centres. these flowers grow in short clusters, and each little woolly head is made up of a number of separate flowers shaped like tubes. these yellow or red tubes are grouped together as in the daisy. the stem of the mugwort is pale green, and has red ridges running from end to end. the leaves are very handsome. they are large and broad and feather-shaped, with big leaflets in pairs opposite each other on the stem, and there is always a single long leaflet at the end. each of these leaflets is deeply cut round the edges into large teeth. the back of the mugwort leaves is covered with silvery white down, and often the green edges are curled back on to this white underside. plate xi: . wild mignonette . common dandelion . tansy . wild mignonette the wild mignonette does not grow close to the ground like the sweet-scented mignonette we have in our gardens. it is a tall, spiked plant, which you find in summer-time on waste ground and among stone heaps, and it is not at all noticeable. the flowers grow on short, thin stalks. those flowers at the bottom open first, and the little buds are always at the top of the tall spike. these flowers are little yellow balls, which seem to be entirely made up of stamens. but if you gently pick one of these yellow balls to pieces, you will find that there are six greenish-yellow petals. the four largest petals are so deeply cut round the edge that they appear to be fringed. but there are two long thin ones which are each in one piece. these petals are all joined together at the bottom, with the bunch of fluffy stamens and the seed-vessel inside. behind this little ball there are six thin green sepals. these are very narrow and pointed, and they stand round the flower like the legs of a spider. the leaves are dark green, and they are very much lighter underneath than above. they are very narrow, with crinkled edges, and the upper half of the leaf branches into three or four parts, like a stag's horn. . common dandelion the dandelion is as well known as the buttercup and daisy. it grows in all kinds of places, and it is in flower from early spring to late autumn. the large yellow flower-heads are made up of a great many separate little flower-tubes, which widen out at the mouth into a long yellow strap. these yellow tubes are placed on a round disc with the straps standing out in a circle, like a rosette. each flower-head grows singly at the end of a long green stalk. the stalks are hollow, and when you break them a white milky juice oozes out. at the top of the stalk you find a cup made up of narrow pointed green leaves. some of these leaves curve back over the top of the stalk. when the yellow flowers are withered, the round disc is covered with the tiny seed-vessels. each seed-vessel ends in a slender green spike which has a beautiful tuft of starry down at its tip. this ball of starry down is one of the most beautiful things in the flower world. the leaves of the dandelion are a smooth glossy green. they are shaped like a blunt arrow-head, and they have a white line running up the centre. the edges are cut up into huge teeth which are said to resemble the teeth of a lion. from this the plant gets its name. . tansy the tansy is to be found in hedge-banks, and by the roadside, or on the borders of the fields in many places all over the country, though in the north it is not very common. it flowers in autumn, and is a tall, bushy plant, with large green, ferny leaves. the tansy has a short, green stem rising stiff and straight from the ground, and this stem branches at the top into three or four forks. each of these forks divides again into two or three smaller forks, and there is a flower which looks like a yellow button at the end of each fork. if you pick one of these yellow buttons to pieces you find that it is made up of a great many yellow tubes, with a swollen green part at the bottom. these yellow tubes are of two kinds. in some the mouth of the tube is cut evenly all round into small scollops, and in others there is a yellow strap at one side of the tube. these tubes stand on a round disc, and at the back of this disc there is a thick double row of small green pointed leaves, which form a green cup behind the yellow buttons. the leaves of the tansy are like coarse ferns. they are feather-shaped, with deeply cut divisions, and each division is toothed at the edges. the tansy has a strong scent, especially when you crush its leaves or stalks. plate xii: . primrose. . cowslip. . bog asphodel. . primrose is there any child who does not know the primrose? in spring and early summer you will find its yellow blossom starring the woods and hedge-banks, and you will see it too by the seashore. the flowers grow singly on fine stalks rising from the middle of the root. a long yellow tube is hidden in the deep calyx-cup, and the mouth of this tube opens out into five pale lemon-yellow petals. each petal has a notch in the outer edge, and there are two orange-coloured streaks running from the base. in the centre of the petals, you can see the mouth of the tube with the heads of the stamens in its throat. the slender thread with its pinhead top, which rises from the seed-vessel, can just be seen. yet you will also find primroses where the heads of the stamens are hidden from sight, but where this seed-vessel thread reaches beyond the mouth of the tube. the calyx-cup is pale-green and hairy, and has fine, sharp teeth round the edge. the primrose leaves grow in a rosette, rising with short, juicy stalks from the root. they are covered with a fine network of veins, which are much raised on the underside of the leaf. the leaf is crinkled all over. before the leaves are full grown, the edges are often rolled back so as nearly to meet on the silvery underside. . cowslip the cowslip is the queen of our meadow flowers. it is common in england and ireland, and in many parts of scotland. the spring, or early summer, is the best time to find it. the flowers grow, a dozen or more together, in a loose cluster, at the end of a stout, round stalk. each flower has a yellow tube which is sunk out of sight in a swollen calyx-cup. this cup is a beautiful light green colour, with five sharp teeth at the mouth, and it is covered with soft hairs. sometimes you find it tinged with brown streaks. round the mouth of the yellow flower-tube stand five small lemon-coloured petals, each with a v-shaped nick in the outer edge, and a bright, reddish-orange spot at the base. if you look at the back of a cowslip, you will see that the yellow tube is swollen just below the petals. there are five stamens, whose heads are just visible in the throat of the tube, with the tip of the seed-vessel amongst them. in some flowers this slender pillar comes a good way beyond the mouth of the tube, and the stamens are hidden out of sight. the cowslip leaves are crinkled all over, and have swollen veins which are much raised on the underside. in the young leaves the edges are rolled very far back. . bog asphodel this wiry little plant is fond of marshy places and wet bogs and heaths. it grows all over the country, and is in flower in late summer and autumn. the bog asphodel has a tall, wiry flower-stalk, near the top of which you find a spike of orange-yellow flowers. there are three narrow-pointed orange petals, and three orange sepals; but these are so much alike, you will not be able to distinguish between them. when the flower is in full bloom, these petals and sepals open out, like the rays of a star; then when the seeds are ripening, they close and form an orange cup. in the centre of the star there are six stamens, with woolly yellow stalks and bright red heads. there is also a small pear-shaped green seed-vessel. each flower has its own short stalk. notice the tiny green leaves which grow at intervals on the wiry flower-stalk, tightly pressed against it. the leaves of the bog asphodel are like coarse grass. they have no stalks, and look as if they had been slightly folded together from end to end. each leaf has long lines running from base to tip. plate xiii . honeysuckle . yellow water iris . daffodil . honeysuckle the honeysuckle grows in all parts of the country. you will find its sweet-scented flowers in thickets and woods during summer and autumn. it is a shrub with long, feeble, woody stems. these stems twist themselves round young trees and hedges, which support the plant and raise it up towards the sun. the honeysuckle flowers grow in loose heads at the end of the leaf-stem. they are shaped like long trumpets, and these trumpets are very narrow at the one end, and widen out at the mouth into two unequal lips. the lower lip is merely a long strap curled over at the end. but the upper lip is very much broader, and it is fringed at the edge. these beautiful flower-trumpets are yellow-pink, sometimes almost purple on the outside, and inside they are pale yellow. there are often seven to ten of these trumpets close together in one cluster, and you can see the heads of the stamens, and the long green tip of the seed-vessel coming out of the mouth of each trumpet. after the flowers are withered, the seeds grow into clear dark crimson berries, of which the birds are very fond. the leaves of the honeysuckle grow opposite each other in pairs. they are blue-green in colour, are very smooth, and have a network of tiny veins all over them. each leaf is oval, and its edges are smooth all the way round. . yellow water iris the yellow iris with its lily flowers and sword-like leaves is found in summer-time by the side of ditches, and marshes, and ponds. in the iris the petals and the sepals are almost the same colour. the flower has a short yellow tube which folds back at the mouth into three broad, handsome yellow sepals, beautifully marked with deep orange streaks. between each of these sepals stands a small pale yellow petal. rising from the centre of the flower are what look like other three pale yellow petals, with fringed ends which curl upward. these are really three branches of the slender column which rises from the seed-vessel, and they bend backwards over each sepal. half hidden under each of these fringed petals, you can see the dark purple head of a stamen, closely pressed against the broad yellow sepal. the yellow flower-tube stands above the seed-vessel. this seed-vessel becomes very large in autumn, and it bursts lengthways into three parts, showing rows of dark brown seeds tightly packed together inside. before the flower opens, the iris is enclosed in a green sheath. the leaves are sword-shaped, with long lines running from base to tip. they are smooth, and in colour they are a dim green. . daffodil the daffodil is one of our loveliest spring flowers. it is found abundantly in woods, and in meadows and pastures in england, but in scotland it does not grow wild, and it is doubtful whether it really does so in ireland. the flowers grow singly on tall stalks. each daffodil is enclosed in a light brown sheath, which stands erect. but when the growing flowers have burst this covering, they droop their heads. each flower has a short yellow tube, divided about half way down into six deep points. these points do not fold back, they enclose a long yellow trumpet, which is beautifully scolloped round the mouth. inside this trumpet are six stamens with large yellow heads, and the slender stalks of these stamens cling to the sides of the yellow trumpet. there is also a short pillar rising from the fat green seed-vessel, which you can see outside the coloured petals, below the yellow tube. in the daffodil, the sepals and petals are the same colour. the stalk of the daffodil is slightly twisted, and has fine lines running up it. it rises straight from the centre of the bulb which forms the root. the leaves are long, narrow straps with blunt points, and they are thick and juicy. plate xiv: . sneezewort yarrow. . mountain everlasting . common comfrey. . common comfrey this tall, harsh-leaved plant is to be found all over the country in moist places, by the sides of streams and ditches, and by the roadside. it blooms in spring and autumn. the flowers of the common comfrey are not always the same colour. sometimes you find them pale yellow, and in other places they are a rich purple, and the buds are pink. these flowers grow in drooping clusters on short little stalks which curve in a curious serpent manner before the buds open. the five petals joined together form a bell, which is cut into deep teeth at the edge. within this bell, there are five stamens clinging to the sides, and from the seed-vessel, a long, slender white thread rises. you can see this white thread best after the yellow bell is withered, and the seed-vessel is left sitting in the centre of the calyx. the green calyx-cup is very shallow, with fine, sharply pointed teeth round the mouth. the stem of the comfrey is covered with hard, rough hairs. it has ridges running from top to bottom, and it is hollow in the middle. the leaves on the stem grow in tufts of three or four, without any stalks. they are narrow and pointed, with wavy edges, and are covered with hairs. many other coarse leaves rise from the root. these leaves, too, have no stalks, and they are broad and hairy. . sneezewort yarrow this sturdy flower is the parent of the snow-white bachelor's buttons, which grow in our garden: it is a cousin of the millfoil or yarrow. it is common all over the country, where you find it in meadows and ditches, and by the roadside. it blooms in autumn. the flowers resemble small daisies. you find about a dozen growing together on short stalks, near the top of the main stem. each daisy consists of a disc which is closely covered with greenish-white tube-flowers. the mouth of these tube-flowers is cut into points which bend outward, and coming out of the centre of each tube, you can see the yellow tip of the seed-vessel, round which the heads of the stamens are placed edge to edge like a deep collar. round the outer edge of the disc there is a small circle of tube-flowers, each of which has a broad white strap, and these straps are nicked at the ends. underneath these small daisies stands a circle of tiny green pointed leaves; these form a cup which protects the plant when it is in bud. the stem of the sneezewort is very sturdy. the leaves are sword-shaped, with long veins running from the base to the tip. they clasp the stem, and all round the edge they are cut into very fine teeth, like a saw. . mountain everlasting this woolly little plant is common over most of the north country, on heaths and sandy pastures and in upland districts; but you do not find it in the south of england. it is in flower all summer. the root of the mountain everlasting is like a thin brown worm lying on the surface of the ground, and from this root, long, slender brown threads go down into the ground and keep the flower steady. the flowers resemble small woolly daisies. they grow in clusters of four or more, at the end of the main stem, and each cluster has a short, stiff stalk of its own. these woolly daisies are made up of a great many tiny pink flower-tubes, each with a ring of fine white hairs round it. these tubes are surrounded by a double row of woolly, downy leaves which stand out like the strap-shaped rays of the daisy. underneath these woolly rays is a green cup, made up of a double row of narrow strap-shaped brown or green leaves, pressed close together. the main stem rises straight and firm from the creeping root. it is closely covered with white down, and at intervals it is clasped by narrow, pointed green leaves. these leaves are dark green on the upper side, but underneath they are covered with white woolly down. plate xv: . traveller's joy . wood anemone . water crowfoot . traveller's joy you will have no difficulty in recognising this plant. it has masses of grey-green flowers, and big bunches of feathery tufts; and you will find it growing in summer right over the tops of the hedges. there are some unusual things about this flower. it has really no petals. there are four pretty sepals of a grey-green colour, which are covered with soft white woolly down. these woolly sepals soon fall off, and within you find a big bunch of whitish green stamens. when the seeds which grow in the centre of the bunch of stamens begin to ripen, they each send out a long feathery tail. these tails wave in the air, and look like tufts of down clinging to the hedges. the leaves are dark green above and paler green below. they grow opposite each other on the stem. sometimes their edges are quite smooth, and sometimes they are cut like the teeth of a big saw. the stem of the traveller's joy is very tough and woody. it is easily bent, and would not be able to rise from the ground were it not that there are little curly green threads called tendrils below the small leaves. these tendrils twist themselves round the stems of the hedges, and with this support the plant can climb as high as the top of the hedge. . wood anemone this is one of the daintiest of our wild plants. you find the woods carpeted with it in early spring. the flower has six delicate white sepals. these are long and rather narrow, and on the outside they are often tinged with purple or pink. the buds are usually quite pink until they open. these pink sepals form the calyx. there are no petals. within the pink sepals are many stamens with little yellow heads set on stems as fine as a hair, and in the centre of these stamens there is a small green knot of seeds. the wood anemone has two kinds of green leaves. the flower grows on a short, smooth stalk, which rises from the centre of three soft, dark green leaves. these leaves are each divided into three parts, which are deeply cut up round the edge, and their short stalks are covered with fine hairs. the second leaves rise on slender stalks straight from the root. they are divided very much the same as the others. if you dig up the wood anemone root you find that it is like a rough brown bit of stick. it creeps along underneath the ground instead of going straight down into it, and you can see that the flower and the first set of three leaves rises at a different part from the stalk which bears the other leaves. . water crowfoot the water crowfoot is really a white buttercup, and it likes to grow in ponds or in rivers that run very slowly. the flowers are at their best in may and june. these flowers have five glossy white petals, and each petal has a yellow patch at the foot. behind these beautiful white petals there are five green sepals which fold back close round the flower-stalk. within the flower there are stamens with thick yellow heads, growing in a circle round a small green knot which holds the seed-vessels. this water crowfoot has two kinds of leaves. some grow underneath the water, and these leaves are divided into fine hairs, which are each forked at the end. the water runs very easily through these hairs. but those leaves which are above the water are solid. they are dark green and glossy, and are nearly round. each leaf is divided into three parts, and sometimes the edges are cut up, and often they are quite smooth. you may sometimes find a leaf with one-half made up of hairy threads while the other half is solid. plate xvi: . shepherd's purse . common scurvy grass . hairy rock cress . shepherd's purse the shepherd's purse is a very common plant, and it is not at all attractive. it is found all summer by the roadside and in waste places. the flowers grow close together on short stalks near the top of a spike. they are very small, with tiny white petals, and those flowers which grow lowest on the spike always come out first. the buds are in a cluster at the very tip of the spike. after the flower is withered, the seed-vessel, which still clings to the end of the short stalk, begins to swell. it looks like a small green heart, with a hard knot in the centre. you will easily recognise the shepherd's purse by these seed-vessels, which are far more noticeable than the tiny white flowers. this plant has two kinds of leaves. those that grow close to the ground have short stalks, and they spring from the root in the form of a rosette. each leaf is long and narrow, and the edges are deeply cut up, nearly to the centre vein of the leaf. but the shepherd's purse has other leaves which grow further up the flower-stem. these are shaped like the head of an arrow, and at the bottom they clasp the stem closely. both kinds of leaves are usually hairy all over, and so are the stalks, but sometimes you find plants where they are quite smooth. . common scurvy grass the common scurvy grass likes to grow on muddy shores and on rocks by the seaside, where you will find its masses of white flowers all summer. the flowers grow close together in a cluster on short stalks. each flower has four white petals, which are sometimes tinged with purple. the four tiny sepals are tinged with purple too. and the buds which are crowded together at the end of the cluster are nearly all purple. after the flowers are withered, the seed-vessels still cling to the end of the flower-stalks. in this plant the seed-vessels are round, like small berries, and they are greenish-brown in colour. you usually find eight or ten of these berries halfway up the stem; then there will be several white flowers still in full bloom, and at the top of the stem comes a cluster of purple buds. the common scurvy grass has two kinds of leaves. those that spring directly from the root have long stalks. they are broad, with smooth edges, which are slightly waved, and they are thick and fleshy. the second kind of leaves has no stalks; they grow clasping the stem closely, and they are shaped like arrow-heads. the stem of the plant is hollow, and four-sided. . hairy rock cress this dusty-looking plant grows on dry places such as rocks, or on the top of old walls or on hedge-banks. the flowers of the hairy rock cress are white and very tiny. they have four petals, which are not at all attractive, and they grow on each side of a tall spike. after the flowers are withered, the seed-vessel, which is in the middle of each flower, grows into a long thin pod like a needle. the green needle remains at the end of the flower-stalk, and you will see ever so many of these slender green pods standing straight up round the flower-spike. you will easily recognise this plant by these green needle pods. the leaves of the hairy rock cress are very rough, and have coarse hairs all over them. some are long and narrow, and cling closely to the stem. others are broader, and they have short stalks and wavy edges. those leaves which have stalks usually grow close to the ground at the foot of the main stem. plate xvii: . common chickweed . mouse-eared chickweed . greater stitchwort . common chickweed the common chickweed is found all over the country. it grows in fields, in waste ground, and on hedge-banks, and it is in flower from spring till autumn. the chickweed is a feeble, straggling plant, and it grows in an untidy mass near the ground. it is one of those plants that look very different in different places. it does not thrive well in dry, stony ground, where it looks small and dried up. but in untidy gardens where there is good soil you will find it in large bunches, with many white flowers and good-sized leaves. the canary birds like it best when there are many white flowers and seeds. the white flowers are small, with tiny strap-shaped petals, and there are five small, green sepals with sharp points which show like the rays of a green star behind these tiny white petals. each flower grows at the end of a stalk which rises between the leaf and the main stem. the chickweed leaves are oval, with smooth edges, and they grow in pairs up the stem. if you look closely at this stem you will see a line of fine hairs running down one side, and if you break this stem in two you will find that there is a green thread inside, which is more difficult to break than its soft green covering. . mouse-eared chickweed the mouse-eared chickweed is very common all over the country. it grows in dry places, on old walls or on sandy ground, and it is in flower all summer. it is a much smaller plant than the common chickweed. the white flowers are very tiny, and most of them grow in clusters at the end of short stalks which branch from the main stem. but you will also find a single flower appearing between the green leaves which grow in pairs at intervals up the main stem. these leaves are very hairy. sometimes they are sticky, and the whole plant is usually covered with dust, and is not at all attractive. the mouse-eared chickweed is not such a feeble, straggling plant as the common chickweed. its stems are stronger, and they rise straight from the ground without requiring support. . greater stitchwort you will find the greater stitchwort in many places. it grows in grassy meadows, in woods and in thickets, and also on rocks among the mountains; and it blooms in spring or early summer. the stitchwort is a tall, slender plant, and the flowers are large and very pretty. they grow singly at the end of short stalks, which usually branch in pairs again and again from the main stem, oftenest where two leaves join. these flowers have five snowy white petals, each of which has a deep notch cut in the outer edge, and there are delicate green veins all over the petals. within the flower there are ten yellow-headed stamens. some of these stamens are long, and some are quite short; and in the middle there is a fat green seed-vessel. behind these beautiful white petals grow five narrow pointed sepals, which have very little colour. these sepals are like tiny scales, slightly tinged with green, and they lie flat behind the white flower. the stem of the greater stitchwort is not very strong, and it has always a line of hard, short bristles, running up each side. the leaves are like blades of grass, narrow and pointed, but they are harder than grass, and the edges curl backwards. on these edges are hard bristles, the same as those on the stems. plate xviii: . goutweed. . wild angelica . yellow bedstraw. . hemlock water dropwort. . goutweed this plant grows in all parts of britain. you find it among old ruins, and by the roadside on damp hedge-banks. it blooms in summer. the flowers are white and very small. they grow in clusters at the end of long green spokes, like the ribs of an umbrella, and you will notice that there are no little green pointed leaves either at the back of the separate flower clusters, or at the top of the stem where all the green spokes join. the seed-vessels are almond-shaped, with little hollows running from top to bottom, and they have two long green hairs hanging out at the top. the stalk of the goutweed is hollow. it is very glossy and smooth, and has many ridges. the leaves are shaped rather like rose leaves. they are pale green and are softer than rose leaves, and there is only one other plant with umbrella spokes whose leaves are at all similar. they are quite different from the fern-like leaves of so many other umbrella plants. notice the broad sheath where each leaf joins the main stem. . wild angelica this bushy plant is common all over britain. it flowers in summer and autumn, and it likes to grow in damp places, especially beside streams. at first you might mistake the wild angelica for goutweed, as the leaves are very similar, but there are several differences. the wild angelica flowers are small and white, sometimes they are tinged with lilac, and they grow in clusters at the end of green spokes like the ribs of an umbrella. at the back of each cluster of flowers you will find three tiny pointed green leaves, and at the top of the stem where all the spokes join there are other three. this is the first difference. the seeds of the wild angelica are quite a different shape from the goutweed seeds. they are much broader, with rough ridges running up them, and they have no bristles standing up at the top. this is the second point to notice. the wild angelica stalk is beautifully tinged with rich purple, not in spots as in the common hemlock, but all over; and it is smooth, with fine lines running up and down. this is a third point. and lastly, the leaves grow from the end of a curious large round sheath. this sheath is pale green and is very smooth and silky. it clasps the stem, which seems to grow right through the middle of it. . upright hedge parsley in summer you will find the upright hedge parsley all over the country, on hedge-banks and in waste places. the tiny flowers are white, and are very often tinged with pink. they grow in clusters on green spokes which rise from the end of the main stem like the ribs of an umbrella. these green spokes are rough and hairy, and you will recognise this plant by these rough spokes. there is a ring of narrow pointed green leaves at the top of the main stem where all the spokes join, and there are also little leaves at the back of each cluster of flowers. in the upright hedge parsley the seed-vessels are different from those of any of the other umbrella plants in this book. they are a dark pinky purple in colour, and are covered with short, thick bristles. at the top of each seed-vessel there are two long, thin bristles which bend over, very much like those in the goutweed. you will always be able to recognise this plant by these bristly, purple seed-vessels. the leaves of the upright hedge parsley are dark green and hairy. they are like ferns, and have many divisions, which are cut into teeth all round the edge. . hemlock water dropwort this is one of the most poisonous plants that grow in britain. a great many accidents have been caused by cattle and human beings eating its leaves and roots. the hemlock water dropwort is common all over the country, and it is in flower most of the summer. the flowers grow in large clusters at the end of green spokes. they are white, and they have each five stamens with large pink heads, so that from a distance the clusters look pink. there are little pointed green leaves at the back of the flower clusters as well as where the spokes join the main stem. the seed-vessels of the hemlock water dropwort are a light brown colour, with slight ridges, and they have two little points standing up at the top. you will know this plant by these seed-vessels and by the curious roots. the stems are tall and straight, with grooves running from top to bottom. they are hollow, and so tough that they are very difficult to gather. the roots are shaped like the fingers of your hand, long, fleshy fibres that grow very thick. these poisonous roots have sometimes been mistaken for water parsnips. the leaves are dark green and glossy. they are not fern-like, as are those of so many of the other umbrella plants. plate xix: . cow parsnip . wild chervil . sea carrot . common hemlock . cow parsnip the cow parsnip is a common plant which you find all over britain in summer and autumn. it is one of a large family of plants which have from eight to twenty stiff green spokes at the end of the stem. these spokes are all about the same length, and they stand up like the ribs of an umbrella. in late autumn, when the flowers are withered, the brown ribs still remain on the plant. each green rib carries a flat bouquet of flowers. in the centre of this bouquet there are green buds, and all round the buds is a ring of small white flowers. the stem of the plant is rough and hairy, and it is deeply grooved. the inside is hollow, and when the winter comes, small insects creep into these hollow stems for shelter. the cow parsnip has large, rough leaves. these are covered with coarse hairs, and they always look dusty and shabby. you will notice curious green knobs which appear close to the stem. these knobs are covered with a thin green sheath, and the flower-bud, with all its spokes still closed, is inside. this bud grows bigger and bigger until it bursts the sheath. then the flowers unfold, leaving the green covering still growing from the stem, with a curious green leaf coming out of the end. . wild chervil this is a slender plant which is very common on hedge-banks and in open woods. it blooms all spring and summer. the flowers are white, and they grow in clusters at the end of green spokes which look like the ribs of an umbrella. notice that there is no ring of feathery green leaves where these spokes join the main stem. before the flowers open, these green spokes bend downward. there is a ring of tiny pointed leaves at the back of each cluster of flowers. these tiny leaves are tinged with pink, and when the flowers are fully opened, they fold back close to the main stem. in the centre of each flower there is a long, thin seed-vessel. after all the white petals have fallen off, these seed-vessels grow into fat green beaks, each on a short stalk, and with two green points at the end. the wild chervil is easily recognised by these clusters of green beak-like seed-vessels. the leaves of the wild chervil are pale green, with fern-like divisions. wherever they join the main stem there is a broad sheath. the wild chervil has a stem which is deeply grooved. this stem is not spotted, but you will find another chervil, the rough chervil, which is very like this one. in it the stem is covered with purple blotches, and the leaves are blunter and less fern-like. . sea carrot the sea carrot is common in many parts of britain, where it blooms on the seashore all summer and autumn. it belongs to the large family of plants that carry their flowers on green spokes like the ribs of an umbrella, and as these flowers are very confusing, you must notice the differences carefully. the flowers of the sea carrot are usually small and white, though sometimes they have a pinky tinge. they grow in masses at the end of the green spokes. before the flowers are fully out, these spokes stand straight up in the air, very close together, with the clusters of flower-buds all turned inwards. but when the buds begin to open, these green spokes fold down so as to give the flowers room to look up towards the sun. you will always know the sea carrot by the curious way the spokes stand close together until the flowers open. at the top of the main stem, where all the spokes join, there is a circle of feathery green leaves. these feathery leaves each end in three points, and they have a special name which you will learn some day. the leaves of the sea carrot are like fine soft ferns. they are so pretty that people use them for decoration among flowers. . common hemlock the hemlock is a common plant which is found all summer in waste places by the roadside and in open woods. it is poisonous, and you should look at it carefully, so as to know and avoid it. the flowers grow in clusters at the end of green spokes like the ribs of an umbrella, which do not droop before they are fully out. at the back of each little cluster of flowers you find three tiny pointed green leaves which are all turned to one side. this is the first point by which to recognise the common hemlock. the stem is covered with purple blotches, and there is only one other umbrella plant which has a spotted stem. the common hemlock stem is not hairy. it is smooth, with green ridges running up it, and it is not swollen where the leaves branch from it. this is the second point to notice. the third point, and a very important one, is the shape of the seed-vessels. in the wild chervil these are little green beaks, rather long and thin, standing up in clusters. but in the common hemlock the seed-vessels are short and round; they are like two small apples stuck close together, and each has a little green swelling at the top. these seed-vessels are covered all over with rough ridges. the leaves are fern-like, and resemble many of the other umbrella plants. plate xx: . meadow sweet. . wild strawberry. . wood sorrel. . meadow sweet the meadow sweet grows abundantly all summer by the side of streams and in damp places. many a time its delightful scent has tempted us to gather it in handfuls. the flowers are creamy white, and are very small, with a great many yellow stamens in the centre. they grow in large clusters on short branching stalks, and the buds look like tiny ivory balls set in small green cups. you often see two or more branched stalks which shoot high above the mass of open flowers, bearing a great many closed buds. when the flowers are withered, the five green sepals fold back against the stem. the green leaves of the meadow sweet are dark and rough above, but underneath they are covered with white down. they have a central leaf-stalk, and on each side of the stalk grow a pair of big leaflets and a pair of small leaflets alternately. sometimes two pairs of very small leaflets may come together, and at the end of the stalk you always find one big leaflet which has several points. the stem of this plant is hard, and it has lines running from end to end. where the flower-stalk and the leaf-stalk join this stem, you find a curious green sheath, which seems to clasp them all together, and this sheath has sharply cut edges. . wild strawberry the wild strawberry is common all over britain. in early summer you find it in woods and on shady hedge-banks. this pretty plant is related to the wild rose. it has dainty little flowers, with five small white petals, and behind these petals is a star of ten green pointed sepals. five of these sepals have large points which show in between the white petals as you look down into the flowers, and the five which are smaller you can only see at the back of the flower. the stamens grow in a ring close round the seed-vessel, and as they are joined to the sepals, they do not fall off when the white petals wither. as the fruit ripens, the seed-vessel swells into a bright red berry, and you can see the tiny yellow seeds clinging all over this juicy berry. the green leaves of the wild strawberry are beautiful. they are dark and crinkled, with soft hairs on the edges, and these edges are cut into large teeth. there are always three leaflets at the end of each stalk. this strawberry plant sends out long green shoots which lie close to the ground. wherever a tuft of leaves rises from one of these shoots, a little bunch of white roots grows down into the ground, and these help to keep the plant steady. . wood sorrel the dainty wood sorrel is common all over the country. it grows in damp woods and in shady places, and it blooms in spring. the flowers grow singly at the end of slender pink stalks. they are large, and have five beautiful white petals, slightly tinged with pink. these petals are covered all over with fine veins, and when the sun shines on the plant they open out almost flat. if you look closely at the bundle of yellow stamens in the centre of the flower, you will find that five are long and five are short. behind the white petals there is a tiny green cup, which is made up of five sepals joined together. the mouth of this cup is edged with five sharp points. the leaves of the wood sorrel are very pretty. each leaf has a slender pink stalk which springs straight from the root, and every leaf is divided into three delicate leaflets, which are pale green above, and a delicate pale pink below. these leaflets are heart-shaped, and before they have fully opened, they droop close to the stem. if you taste one of the wood sorrel leaves, you will find it is bitter but not unpleasant. plate xxi: . goosegrass or cleavers . woodruff . yarrow or millfoil . goosegrass or cleavers this clinging plant is common everywhere. it grows abundantly on every hedge-bank, and it is in bloom all summer and autumn. the flowers are so small that you scarcely notice them. each flower has four tiny white petals, and four yellow-headed stamens. behind the flower there is a ring of narrow pointed pale green leaves. when the white petals fall off, you see two pale olive or dull purple seeds, shaped like little balls. these balls always grow in pairs, and they are covered with sharp, prickly hooks, which cling to everything they touch. you find them clinging to your clothes, and they get caught in the hair of a dog's back, and you see them sticking to the wool of the sheep who nibble at the hedge-banks. the square stem of the goosegrass is rather weak. it, too, has hooks on its four sides, and these hooks catch hold of stronger plants in the hedge-bank, and so help the goosegrass to rise well above the ground. the leaves are long and narrow, and they have little hooks along the edge. they grow in a circle of eight round the square stem, with a short space between each circle. you will notice that the stalks which bear the tiny white flowers spring from the same part of the main stem as the leaf circles. . woodruff the sweet-smelling woodruff is common all over the country, and when dried its perfume is like new-mown hay. it grows in woods and on shady hedge-banks, and it flowers in early summer. the flowers are small and white, with four petals which stand round the mouth of a tiny tube. inside this tube are four yellow-headed stamens, and there is a small green sepal-cup in which the white tube stands. the flowers grow in clusters at the end of the main stem. they do not rise from each circle of leaves as in the goosegrass. the tiny seeds are black, and each seed is thickly covered with soft bristles, which are hooked at the end. the ridged stem of the woodruff is often a dull red colour. this stem is very feeble, so the woodruff is usually found lying in a tangle along the ground. it has not so many hooks as the goosegrass with which to catch hold of other plants, and so raise itself. the leaves grow about an inch apart on the stem, in beautiful circles. in each circle there are eight narrow leaves which are pointed at the end. the circles nearest the foot of the stem lie flat open like a rosette, but those that are further up are usually half closed, with all their points standing upwards. . yarrow or millfoil the yarrow or millfoil is a very common plant all over britain. it grows on waste ground and in the corners of fields, and it is in flower in late summer and autumn. it is one of the daisy plants, and you must look at it carefully. the flowers grow in clusters, three or four together, at the end of stalks which branch from the main stem. they are white, and look like tiny daisies. you must pick one of them gently to pieces, and then you will find that each daisy is really made up of a great many small flowers crowded together on a disc. the outer flowers consist of a white tube, with one long white strap, and there is a row of these white straps standing out like a frill round the yellow centre. inside this white border there are a great many tiny yellow tube flowers, with five points at the mouth of each tube, but these you will not see without a microscope. outside this mass of flowers grows a ring of small green leaves, which are closely packed together and are very woolly. the stem of the yarrow is stiff and smooth and is slightly tinged with red. the leaves are long and narrow, and each leaf is made up of many tiny pairs of leaflets placed opposite each other on the stem. each leaflet is cut up into many divisions, so that the whole leaf is light and feathery like a small fern. plate xxii: . ox-eye daisy . daisy . scentless mayweed . ox-eye daisy the handsome ox-eye daisy is common all over britain. you find it in flower from summer to the end of autumn. it is a plant with a tall, stiff stem that has ridges running from top to bottom. notice how different its leaves are from those of the small daisy, though both plants belong to the same family. the flowers in the ox-eye daisy are very large. the yellow tube flowers in the centre are crowded together on a flat disc, and outside this disc there is a double ring of tiny white tubes, each of which has one broad white strap. these straps form the beautiful border to the flower. at the top of the green flower-stalk there is a double ring of narrow green pointed leaves. when the flowers are in bud they look like thick green buttons, with a yellow spot in the middle, as these green leaves are tightly folded in a circle round the flat yellow centre. the leaves are straggling and very poor-looking for such a handsome plant. they are feather-shaped, with the edges deeply cut up into many blunt points. they have no stalks of their own, but spring from the main stem. . daisy this well-known plant is to be found all over britain. it is in flower from spring to late autumn, and i think it is the first flower little children learn to recognise. but it is often a long time before they get to know anything more about the daisy than its name, and yet it is an interesting flower, as well as a pretty one. if you gather a daisy, and then gently pick it to pieces, you find that it is made up of a great many tiny little flowers crowded together on a pear-shaped centre. these tiny flowers are of two kinds; those in the centre are yellow and are shaped like little tubes, each of which is edged with five points. but in the outer row of flowers, one of the five points has grown into a long white strap, which is tinged with pink and red at the tip. these pretty white straps are arranged in a double frill round the yellow centre. at the end of the flower-stalk there is a thick ring of small green pointed leaves, and these, as well as the stalks, are slightly hairy. the daisy leaves grow in a rosette close to the ground. they are oval, and each leaf has hairs all over it and round the edges. . scentless mayweed this daisy plant is very common too. it grows all over britain, and is in flower from june till october. it is not such a stiff, handsome plant as the ox-eye daisy, but much more branched and bushy, and it often grows close to the ground. the stalks are tougher, and they are quite smooth, with fine ridges running up them. the flower-heads are made up in the same way as those of the other daisy plants. you find a mass of tiny yellow tubes in the centre, and forming a border round this yellow centre is an outer ring of flowers, each with one large white strap. when the mayweed begins to wither, these white straps droop towards the stalk, and the yellow centre, instead of remaining nearly flat, becomes the shape of a thimble. you will find many of these yellow thimbles on the plant, after all the white straps are gone. the tips of the green leaves, which grow in a double ring behind the flowers, are often tinged with pink. the leaves of the scentless mayweed are like many leaves that grow in running water. they are divided into a tangle of fine hair-like points, which spring directly from the main stem without any stalk. plate xxiii: . snowdrop . common star of bethlehem . ransoms . snowdrop the modest snowdrop, with its graceful, drooping head, grows abundantly all spring in meadows and pastures and orchards in england and scotland. it is not so common in ireland. the flower is enclosed in a grey sheath, edged with bright green lines. after the flower bursts out of the sheath, it droops from the end of a slender flower-stalk. each flower has six white petals; the three outer petals are boat-shaped towards the tips, and there are three shorter petals which are not curved. these straight petals have a notch cut in the upper edge, and there is a bright green wavy stain just below this notch. inside these dainty white petals are six yellow-headed stamens with scarcely any stalks. these stamens stand on the flat round top of the seed-vessel, and in the centre rises its short, pointed pillar. notice that the oval green seed-vessel is outside the circle of white petals, at the top of the slender flower-stalk. a single pair of leaves rise from the snowdrop root, with the flower-stalk between them. these leaves look like short straps with blunt points. they are bluey green in colour, and have deep grooves running from base to tip. . common star of bethlehem this beautiful starry plant is found in many places in england and in a few in scotland, but not in ireland. it grows in meadows and pastures and orchards in early summer. the flowers grow singly on long stalks which branch near the top of the main stem. there is always a withered-looking brown leaf at the base of each flower-stalk. the flowers have six large white petals, which are pointed at the tips. the back of each petal is stained with bright green, except round the edge, where it remains white. there are six yellow-headed stamens clinging to the base of the white petals. these stamens stand up in a circle round a fat green seed-vessel which sits in the centre of the white petals. this seed-vessel has a tiny pointed column in the middle. the leaves of the star of bethlehem are very narrow. from the middle each leaf tapers to a long point. these leaves are deeply channelled, and they have a broad white stripe running down the centre. . ransoms this unpleasant-smelling plant is common all over the country, except in the north of scotland. it grows in woods and copses and on hedge-banks, and it blooms in early summer. each flower grows on a short stalk, in a loose cluster at the end of a stout juicy stem. when in bud these flowers are all enclosed in a brown sheath, which bursts open in two pieces as soon as the flowers are ready to expand. each flower has six narrow white pointed petals, opening flat out like a star. there is a short yellow-headed stamen clinging to each of these white petals. in the centre of the flower, among the white petals, is a green seed-vessel, which is divided into three small oval balls. a slender pillar rises from amongst these small seed-balls. there are no sepals in this flower. the leaves of the starry-white ransoms are not unlike those of the lily of the valley. they have long lines running from base to tip, and are a delicate pale-green in colour. plate xxiv: . mossy saxifrage. . marsh pennywort. . intermediate wintergreen. . mossy saxifrage in all parts of the country this slender, graceful plant is abundant. you will find it growing on damp banks and on the mountain side, and it blooms throughout the summer. the flowers are cup-shaped, and they grow singly on short stalks which branch from the main stem near the top. each flower has five white petals streaked with fine veins. within the petal-cup there is a ring of ten stamens with yellow heads, and in the centre of the flower you can see a green seed-vessel like a small pear, with two wavy points coming out of the top. behind the white petals you find a tiny green calyx-cup, made up of five little sepals. these sepals are joined together at the bottom, but round the mouth of the cup the five points stand up separately. the reddish-green stems are slender and wiry. they have single, little leaves growing up them, with a short space in between each leaf. only some of these stems have flowers at the top. others end in a tuft of leaves, and never bear any flowers. these leafy stems are clothed with leaves all the way to the tip, and each leaf is very small and narrow. at the end the leaf is divided into three small fingers, and these fingers, as well as the stem, are covered with dark hairs. . marsh pennywort this water-loving plant is very common all over the country in marshes and bogs and by the sides of ditches. it blooms in summer. the plant is easily recognised by its round leaves. these have wavy edges, and fine green veins running from the centre of the leaf to the edge. the stalk is fastened exactly underneath the centre of the leaf, and it is soft and juicy and covered with fine hairs. the flowers of the pennywort are greenish-white, tinged with red. these flowers grow in little clusters of three or four together at the end of short stalks which spring from the root, close beside the leaf-stalk. but these flower-stalks are so short, and the flowers are so small, you recognise the round leaves long before you discover that there are any flowers. the pennywort is one of those plants with a creeping stem, which lies along the surface of the ground. the stem is a delicate, pale pink, and wherever a bunch of flowers and leaves rises, you find a tuft of white, hair-like roots growing down into the mud. . intermediate wintergreen it is a great delight to discover this dainty plant. it is not very common, but in summer and autumn you find it blooming on heaths in many parts of the country. the wintergreen flowers are not unlike lily-of-the-valley. they are delicate, creamy white bells, which hang from short drooping stalks near the top of a slender stem. these bells have five ivory petals slightly tinged with pink, which form a dainty fairy cup. within the cup there is a ring of ten stamens with heavy yellow-heads, clustered round the tip of the green seed-vessel. this green tip rises in the centre, like a slender pillar, a good way above the stamens. behind the ivory cup is a green star, with five points. these points are the sepals. notice that wherever a flower-stalk joins the main stem a tiny pointed green leaf appears. the soft juicy stem is twisted near the top and is four-sided. it grows straight from the root. the dark glossy leaves of the wintergreen are spoon-shaped, with wavy edges. they spring from the ground with very short stalks, and they remain on the plant all winter. plate xxv: . grass of parnassus. . common bladder campion. . sea campion. . grass of parnassus this slender plant grows in bogs and damp places all over britain and blooms in autumn. it has large white flowers, which grow singly at the end of tall green stalks. these stalks are square and slightly twisted. each flower has five creamy-white petals, covered with delicate veins. inside this ring of petals, lying at the bottom, are five curious scales, like tiny hands. the hands have each ten fingers, tipped with yellow dots, so you may count fifty dots altogether. on the scales are glands which hold honey. this, you may be sure, the bees very soon find out. in the centre of the flower is a round pale green seed-vessel, and in between the scales with the tiny yellow dots lie five fat stamens with heavy yellow-heads. the grass of parnassus has also five green sepals, whose tips you can see appearing in between each of the five white petals, as you look down into the flower. most of the green leaves of this plant grow from the root. they are oval, with smooth edges, and each leaf has a stalk of its own. but often you will find a single leaf clasping the flower-stalk half way up its stem, and this leaf has no stalk of its own. . common bladder campion the common bladder campion is to be found all summer by the edge of fields and pastures. it is a tall, slender plant, with white flowers which grow each on a thin short stalk, two or three close together at the end of a smooth stem. the flowers have five petals, and each petal has v-shaped notches cut in the outer edge. the lower part of the petals is hidden from sight in the calyx-cup. the five sepals which form this calyx-cup are joined together, and they are swollen like a bladder. this bladder is covered with a fine network of reddish veins, and has five teeth round its mouth. you will easily recognise the common bladder campion by this curious calyx. in this white bladder campion the stamens and the seed-vessel are found in the same flower, and you can always see the forked tip of the seed-vessel, rising among the dark green heads of the stamens. the leaves of the common bladder campion are smooth and shiny. they grow opposite each other in pairs, and wherever a pair joins the main stem, the stem is swollen like the joint of a finger. . sea campion the sea campion grows by the seashore, by the side of mountain streams, or on wet rocks among the hills. it blooms all summer, and although it is really a smaller plant than the common white campion, the flowers are larger. these flowers have five white petals, each with a v-shaped notch in the outer edge. half way down these petals there is a white-fringed scale. these scales stand up like a crown round the inside of the flower. the calyx is swollen like a bladder, and is covered with fine veins, the same as in the common campion. round the mouth it has five sharp teeth. in this plant the flowers do not grow in groups of two or three. each flower appears singly at the end of a slender stalk, and there are several pairs of small leaves a good way below the flower. these leaves are slightly thick and juicy. they grow so close together on the ground that it looks as if it were covered with a green mat. plate xxvi: . common eyebright. . white dead nettle. . spotted orchis. . common eyebright this humble little plant is to be found everywhere on heaths and meadows and pastures. it blooms plentifully in summer and autumn. the flowers of the eyebright grow in clusters of four to six at the end of the main stem. they are white, or pale lilac streaked with pink, and they are small and unattractive. the petals are joined together into a tube, with two lips at the mouth. the upper lip has two divisions, and the lower lip is cut up into three. they appear to be five unequal petals standing round the mouth of the tube. inside the tube are four purple-headed stamens, two long and two short. you can see them appearing at the mouth of the tube, also the slender white point which rises from the seed-vessel. the calyx is a green cup with four deeply pointed teeth at the mouth. the tube of the flower goes down into the cup, and the five unequal petals stand round its mouth. the eyebright stem varies much in height. sometimes you find it only about two inches from the ground, and in other places it has straggled eighteen inches high. these stems are very hairy. the leaves grow opposite each other in pairs up the stem. they have no stalks, and the edges are cut all round into blunt teeth. they are rather hairy leaves, and are dark green and crinkled. in shape they are oval with a blunt point at the end. . white dead nettle the white dead nettle is fairly common everywhere except in the north of scotland. you find it in waste places, by the roadside, and on ditch banks, and it blooms from spring to autumn. this is a much more attractive plant than the stinging nettle we have all learned to avoid. the flowers grow in beautiful whorls or circles round the stem. in this plant the flowers are snowy white, tinged with green, but in other dead nettles you find them rose pink or deep purple. there are often as many as eighteen flowers on one whorl. the flower petals are joined together into a tube which stands in a shallow calyx-cup, edged with five very long, sharp teeth. the mouth of the white flower-tube is cut very irregularly. the upper part bends over like a hood, and underneath this hood are hidden the four long stamens. the lower part of the flower-tube hangs down like a tongue, and it is fringed and rounded at the end. amongst the stamens you see the slender forked point which rises from the seed-vessel. the leaves of the white dead nettle are very similar in shape to those of the stinging nettle; but they are a paler shade of green. they grow in pairs close to the stem, with a good space in between each pair, and the ring of stalkless flowers clusters round the stem beside them. . spotted orchis this orchis is common all over the country, where it grows in damp woods, on chalky banks, and in meadows and pastures. you find it in summer. the leaves are stained with purplish-black blotches as in the early purple orchis, but they are narrower and taper more to a point. notice the small leaves which cling at intervals to the flower-stalk all the way up. the flowers grow in a dense cone-shaped head at the top of the flower-stalk. the petals are pale lilac or nearly white, and are spotted or streaked with purple. they are curiously shaped. the broad petal, which folds back like a hanging lip, is deeply waved round the edge, and behind it there is a long lilac spur. two petals stand erect, and form a hood which covers the stamens and the slender column of the seed-vessel. there are also three small lilac or white sepals which you will scarcely be able to distinguish from the petals. the flower sits at the top of what looks like a swollen stalk, but is really the seed-vessel. where this stalk-like seed-vessel joins the main stem there is always a tiny purple or green leaflet. plate xxvii: . red berried bryony . chickweed wintergreen . cuckoopint or wake robin . red-berried bryony the red-berried bryony is very common in the south of england, where it climbs over the hedges and grows among the thickets. but it does not grow wild in the north. it is in flower all summer and autumn. the stems of this plant are soft and easily broken, and they have not enough strength to keep the leaves and flowers upright. but at the bottom of each leaf-stalk, there are long curly green tendrils, and with these the bryony catches hold of some stronger plant, which helps to support it. the flowers are greenish-white in colour, and they grow in loose heads which spring from between the leaf-stalk and the stem. these flowers have five separate greenish-white petals covered with a fine network of veins and with many transparent hairs. at the back of the petals sits a green calyx-cup edged with five pointed teeth. when the flowers are withered they are followed by groups of beautiful dark red berries. the red bryony leaves are very large, and are shaped like a hand with five blunt fingers. the green colour is pale and bright, and each leaf is covered with short white hairs. . chickweed wintergreen it is delightful to find the chickweed wintergreen as it is rather a rare plant. it grows in fir woods and on heaths in hilly districts, and it blooms all summer. there is no other plant at all like this wintergreen, so you will have no difficulty in recognising it. the stem is very delicate and wiry, and at the end it bears a spreading rosette of six long pointed leaves. these leaves are smooth and shiny: in autumn they are often tinged with purple. you may find one or two solitary leaves lower down on the stem; if so, these leaves are quite small, and they are rounded at the ends. the flowers look like white stars. they have five or seven long narrow petals with pointed tips. these petals lie open in a circle, and you can see five or seven thread-like stamens with tiny pink heads rising in the centre, round a small green seed-vessel. the flower-stalks grow from the centre of the green leaf rosette. each flower has a delicate pink stalk of its own, and you may find three or four stalks springing from the same place. but more often the flower is solitary. . cuckoopint or wake robin this is one of our most curious wild plants. it is common in england and ireland, but rare in scotland. it grows on hedge banks and in open woods, and blooms in late spring and early summer. the large glossy leaves are arrow-shaped, and they are covered all over with dark purple blotches. from amongst them rises a pale green twisted sheath, which is completely closed when in bud. like the leaves, it is spotted all over with purple blotches, and the edges are stained a pale yellow-brown. inside this sheath rises a tall narrow purple cone, on a stout green stalk. fastened round this green stalk are three curious collars. first comes a collar of tiny green pear-shaped glands, of which nobody knows the use. then comes a purple collar made up of stamen heads without any stalks. and a little way below these there is a deep band of round green seed-vessels like small beads. these are hidden in the lower part of the green sheath; but in autumn they grow much larger, and soon burst open the covering sheath. then they turn into beautiful scarlet berries. these berries are very poisonous. the root of the cuckoopint is a rough brown knob with many white rootlets hanging from it. plate xxviii: . common mare's tail . common butterbur . greater burdock . common mare's tail this strange-looking plant grows in many parts of the country, and its spikes are found during summer in ponds and ditches. the flowers are so tiny that you may scarcely notice them. they grow in a circle close round the main stem where the leaves join it, and they are greenish in colour. these flowers have no petals, and all you can see is a small green ball with a yellow dot on the top of it. the leaves of the common mare's tail grow in circles up the stem at short distances apart. they are very narrow and pointed, exactly like short green straps, and you find from six to twelve of these strap-leaves in the same circle. . common butterbur the common butterbur grows in wet places, especially beside streams. it is not found in the north of scotland, but is common in the south country. the flowers appear very early in spring, before the leaves, and they are nearly withered by the time the leaves are at their best. the flowers grow closely crowded together in cone-shaped heads, near the top of a thick fleshy stalk. these flowers are made up of tiny pink tubes with toothed edges, and there is a row of long-headed pink stamens clinging to the inside of each tiny tube. outside the head of flowers there is a thick bundle of narrow green pointed leaves, and each little bundle of green leaves and pink tubes has a short stalk of its own. you will notice the narrow green leaves which grow singly up this main stem. sometimes these leaves become much broader at the tips, and when this is the case these leaf-tips are dark green and have toothed edges. the root leaves of the butterbur are very large. they are roughly heart-shaped with sharply cut teeth round the edge. each leaf is dark green and smooth above, but underneath it is woolly, and the short stalk on which it grows is hollow. . greater burdock the greater burdock grows in waste places by the roadside and on the borders of fields. it is fairly common all over britain and flowers in autumn. the burdock is a low-growing bushy plant with strong stems. growing close to the ground it has large coarse leaves not unlike rhubarb leaves. they are dark green, very wrinkled, and with slightly waved edges. the leaves which grow on the flower-stems are much smaller, and are long and rather narrow. the flowers are scarcely seen. they are made up of small rose-coloured and purple tubes, which are crowded close together at the end of stout round stalks. but these small flowers are completely surrounded by a ball of green bristles, so that you require to pull the bristles apart and look into the top of the green ball if you wish to find the flowers. each of the bristles on this green ball ends in a tiny hook, and with these hooks they cling to whatever they touch. you often see these prickly balls sticking to the wool on a sheep's back. if you throw one at a companion it will hang to his clothes by its sharp little hooks. plate xxix: . mouse tail. . ribwort plantain. . knotty figwort. . mouse-tail this little plant grows plentifully in the east of england, but it is not found all over britain. it flowers in summer. you will easily recognise it by the curious way the seed-vessels grow. you remember in the buttercup (plate i.) there was a little hard knot of seed-vessels like a green raspberry in the centre of the ring of stamens? the mouse-tail is a cousin of the buttercup, but the seed-vessels grow on a long pointed spike which shoots up in the middle of the flower, and is just like a mouse's tail. each flower has five yellowish-green petals, shaped like pale yellow tubes, with a lip at the top. there are five long, narrow, yellow-green sepals, with little spurs at the bottom. and there is also a ring of stamens with yellow heads which stand straight up round the foot of the mouse's tail. the leaves are long and narrow, with a line down the centre. they are rather thick leaves, and they all grow in a tuft from the root. . ribwort plantain is there any child that has not played at 'soldiers' or at 'lords and ladies,' with the flower-heads of the ribwort plantain? it is common everywhere, and flowers from spring to autumn. the narrow pointed leaves grow in a circle straight from the root. they are dark green on one side, and silvery green on the other, and have long 'ribs' running from the bottom to the top. from these 'ribs' the plant gets its name of 'ribwort.' the flowers are closely crowded together in brown, cone-shaped heads. each flower consists of a narrow white tube, with four graceful yellow points folded back at the mouth. the large yellow heads of the stamens stand up beyond the mouth of this tube, but you can scarcely see the tip of the seed-vessel which is hidden inside. when the flowers are fully out, you do not notice the white tubes; all you see is a big cluster of fuzzy yellow-headed stamens. there are four small green sepals at the bottom of the flower-tube, and these sepals are often stained with brown blotches. the stems are ribbed all the way up and are covered with short hairs. they are juicy and very easily broken. . knotty figwort this uninteresting plant is abundant everywhere. it is found in damp, shady places by the side of ditches, and it is at its best in summer and autumn. at first you scarcely notice the flowers. they are small, dull green bells stained with brown, and are not at all attractive. but when you examine them, you find that the mouth of each bell is prettily waved all round the edge, and inside there are two long stamens and two short ones, as well as a fat green seed-vessel, with a curly point standing up in the middle. there is a green calyx-cup with five teeth at the mouth, and as the small green bell soon withers and falls off, you oftenest notice this calyx-cup with a green seed-vessel sitting in the centre. the tiny flower-bells grow in loose clusters, which spring from between the leaf and the main stem. the knotty figwort is a tall and stout plant, with a four-sided stem which is curiously twisted. be sure to pull up the root, and you will find it covered with small bulbs or knots. from these knots the plant gets its name. the leaves near the foot of the knotty figwort stem are large and broadly oval, with short stalks. but those that grow further up the stem are narrower and more pointed, and they all have the edges cut like the teeth of a saw. plate xxx: . lady's mantle . dog's mercury. . common nettle. . lady's mantle the lady's mantle is a curious little plant and is common everywhere in summer. the beautifully shaped green leaves at once attract you, but the flowers are so small that you scarcely notice them. they are crowded into clusters at the end of short stalks, which branch many times from the main stem. these flowers have no petals. if you look at them very closely, you find that they have eight green sepals, which lie flat open when the flower is in bloom. these sepals are all pointed, and vary in size. the four which are utmost are smaller than the sepals which form the inner circle. in the middle of these green sepals there is a yellow ring, and in the centre of this ring sits the tiny seed-vessel, sunk almost out of sight. there are four stamens, each of which stands out separately from this yellow ring. the root-leaves of the lady's mantle are rounded, and they are covered with a fine network of veins. each leaf looks as if it had been folded into five or seven folds, and each fold is divided round the edge into scollops. the edge of these scollops is cut into sharp teeth. sometimes you find a big diamond dew-drop lying in the folds of the lady's mantle leaf. you will also notice a frill of tiny pointed green leaves clasping the main stem wherever it forks. . dog's mercury the dog's mercury grows abundantly in england and scotland but is rare in ireland. you find it during early spring in woods and shady places and thickets. this is one of our green flowers. it has no beautiful coloured petals to attract the bees or insects. the dog's mercury is a bushy, upright plant, with a stout, four-sided green stem, closely covered with pretty leaves. these leaves grow in pairs, on alternate sides of the stem: they are oval, and slightly hairy, and the edges are cut all round into sharp teeth. where each leaf joins the stem a flower-stalk rises, and in the dog's mercury there are two kinds of flowers. on one stalk you find groups of small flowers clustered at close intervals round the stalk. each of these flowers has three broadly pointed green sepals, which curl slightly at the tips. in the centre of these sepals rises a large bunch of eight to sixteen yellow-headed stamens. in these flowers there are no petals, and no seed-vessel. but you will find different flowers on another plant. these flowers have also three green sepals, and are without petals. but in the centre lie two hairy green seed-vessels, like small peas joined together, and on the top of these seed-vessels are two tiny green horns. . common nettle what child does not know the common stinging nettle? we have all learned to avoid it after having felt its sting. you find this nettle everywhere in late summer and autumn. it has a four-sided stem, which is rough with bristly hairs. the leaves grow opposite each other in pairs with a good space between each pair. they are dark green and rather coarse, and are covered with a network of veins and with many stinging hairs. close to the stalk the leaves are heart-shaped, but the tips are sharply pointed and the edges are deeply toothed all round. the flowers of the common nettle grow on slender stalks which rise between the leaf and the main stem. these flowers are green, and they are very small and unattractive. on one flower you find four green sepals and four yellow-headed stamens, but there are no petals and no seed-vessel. in another flower there is a fat green seed-vessel, with four sepals round it. plate xxxi: . purple sea rocket . cuckoo flower or lady's smock . marsh cinquefoil . water avens . purple sea-rocket the purple sea-rocket grows abundantly all summer on most of our seashores. it is a bushy plant with many branches, and you will recognise it by its thick and fleshy green leaves. the flowers are a pale lilac colour, like those of the cuckoo flower. some of them grow on heads at the end of the main stem, and others have short stalks which branch from each side of this stem. in this plant there are always buds in a cluster at the end of the stem, and those flowers that come out first grow further down the stem. behind the lilac flowers there are four small brownish-green sepals. when these fall off, after the flower is withered, the seed-vessel which lies inside grows into a small green pod. the pod is in two pieces and looks as if it were joined in the middle. you will see a great many of these tiny pods growing on each side of the main stalk where there have been flowers. the stem of the sea-rocket is very smooth and juicy. the leaves are long and feather-shaped, and they are cut very irregularly into fingers all the way round. . cuckoo flower or lady's smock the cuckoo flower is very common and grows all springtime in every meadow. the flowers are a pale purple or lilac. sometimes you find them almost white. they have four petals, each of which has a slight nick in the outer edge. there are six stamens with yellow heads, which you can just see in the centre of the flower where the petals meet; and you will notice that two of these stamens are much shorter than the others. the flowers grow in a cluster near the end of a stout stalk. after the petals and the small green sepals fall off, the seed-vessel, which is in the middle of the stamens, shoots up into a long thin pod. this pod is slightly curved, and is pale brown. the leaves of the cuckoo flower are of two kinds. those that spring from the root, close to the ground, grow opposite each other in pairs of leaflets, on a stalk which has an odd leaflet at the end. but the leaves which appear further up the main stem are quite different they, too, grow in opposite pairs, but they are long and narrow like pointed straps, and are not nearly so pretty as those which are closer to the ground. . marsh cinquefoil the marsh cinquefoil is not so common as many plants. it likes best to grow where there are high hills, and you find it all summer in wet ground among the peat-bogs. it has black roots, which creep a long distance among the mud, and from these roots grow beautifully shaped green leaves, and rather strange-looking flowers. these flowers have five small petals, which are a deep purple colour. so are the stamens, so are the seed-vessels. even the sepals, which are bigger and longer than the petals, are a rich, dark purple, except at the foot where they join the stalk, and there they are greenish. the marsh cinquefoil has two rings of sepals. those in the outermost circle are shaped like a narrow tongue. the inner sepals are much broader, and they end in sharp points. the flowers have each a stalk which branches from the main stem. sometimes two flower-stalks will spring from the same part of the stem, and in that case there will be a large green leaf clasping the stem where they rise. these leaves are usually divided into three fingers, each of which is long and rather narrow, with sharp teeth all round. there are a few hairs on the upper side of the leaf, but underneath it is quite smooth. . water avens the water avens loves moist places, and in summer you find it abundantly by the sides of ditches and streams. it is a delightful plant to discover, as both the leaves and the flowers are beautiful. the flowers grow singly at the end of slender stalks which branch from the main stem near the top. they are cup-shaped, with heads that are always drooping. the petals are bright orange-brown, tinged with purple, and outside these brilliant petals there is a calyx of deep purple sepals. these sepals are lined with bright green and have pointed tips, and there are many hairs all over them. in the centre of the flower are bright yellow-headed stamens, and when the flower is withered, and the seeds begin to ripen, a short green stalk rises in the middle, and on this there appears what looks like a small green strawberry. from every seed on the strawberry there grows a long spike with a curl in the middle. this spiky seed-vessel is very curious. the leaves of the water avens are deep green, and sometimes they have red streaks round the edges as well as on the back. they grow in pairs on the leaf-stalk, a large pair and a small pair alternately, and they are slightly hairy, with edges which are nicked all round. where the leaves join the main stem there is often a tiny scale. plate xxxii: . dog violet. . heartsease. . common mallow. . dog violet the dog violet begins to flower early in summer. you find it growing on banks under the hedges, a tiny plant with flowers so small and stalks so short that the flowers are of no use after you pluck them. every child knows what a violet is like, but you should pick one of the flowers to pieces and see how curiously each petal is shaped. there are five petals, and these petals are pale purple at the broad part, but at the narrow end they are almost pure white, and this narrow end is hidden among the green sepals. four of these petals are nearly the same size, and on two of them there are patches of hair near the foot. the fifth petal is much larger, and the narrow end of this broad petal is shaped like a round tube. this tube, instead of being hidden among the sepals, stands out beyond them like a spur. inside the tube are the stamens, and all the yellow heads of the stamens are joined edge to edge in a ring round the seed-vessel. the dog violet has five green sepals with very sharp points, and the lower part of each sepal is slightly swollen. the leaves are heart-shaped, with toothed edges, and they grow very close to the ground and have scarcely any stalks. this violet has no scent. . heartsease the heartsease is not quite so common as the dog violet, though in some parts of britain it grows abundantly. it is in flower all summer. the flowers have five petals, but these are not all the same colour. there are two deep purple petals and three which are bright orange-yellow. in the heartsease the broadest petal has a very small tube at the narrow end, the same as in the dog violet. there are five pointed green sepals, which do not fall off after the flower is withered. you will often see the seed-vessel sitting among these sepals, and when this seed-vessel is ripe it splits open into three small boat-shaped cases, each with a row of seeds inside. the stem of the heartsease is round, with distinct lines running up the sides. the leaves are oval, on short stalks, and they have wavy edges. where they and the flower-stalk join the main stem you find a fringe of other green leaves, quite differently shaped. these leaves have a long name which you will learn later, but meantime you should notice how they are cut up into little green straps which stand out all round the stem. . common mallow the common mallow is a handsome flower which grows by roadsides and in waste places. it is plentiful all summer and autumn. the five petals are a beautiful pale mauve streaked with purple. they are long and rather narrow, and each petal has a deep notch in the outer edge. these petals do not meet close together at the bottom; you can see part of the green calyx appearing between each petal. in the middle of the flower stands a small purple pillar. in this pillar all the slender stems of the stamens are joined together, and their heads cluster near the top like tiny beads, with the wavy points of the seed-vessel rising among them. this mallow has two kinds of green sepals. five of these are broad, with sharply-pointed tips and hairy edges. and besides these there are three long narrow sepals. the green leaves of the mallow are very pretty. they are shaped like a hand with five blunt points, and the edges all round are cut into delicate teeth. those leaves which grow close to the root have often a deep purple blotch near the centre. plate xxxiii: . scotch thistle . marsh plume thistle . field scabious . scotch thistle this thistle is very well known, particularly in scotland, where it is the national flower. it blooms in late summer and autumn. the stem of the scotch thistle is very stiff and straight, with 'wings' at each side. these wings are pale green flaps edged with very sharp points, and they run from top to bottom of the stem. the stem itself is white and woolly. the thistle flowers are a dull purple colour, and grow in a dense head, forty or fifty of them closely packed together. if you pick to pieces one of these heads, you will find that it is made up of many purple tubes which are edged with five purple teeth. the foot of each tube is enclosed in a covering of dingy yellow down. when you have a great many of these flowers growing close together in a head, the under part looks like a bundle of woolly down. below this down bundle you find a prickly green covering, in which there are dozens of narrow green leaves. each leaf ends in a sharp point, and it is this prickly green covering which makes the thistle such a difficult flower to gather. the leaves have very sharp points at the edges. they are dark green, and are thinly covered with beautiful grey down. the young leaves are entirely white and woolly until they open. . marsh plume thistle the plume thistle is very common all over britain. it grows during summer in bogs and in wet places by the roadside. this tall, thin plant is not nearly so attractive as the scotch thistle. the flowers grow in heads which contain a great many dull purple flowers crowded together in one bundle. these heads do not grow singly as in the scotch thistle. you will find three or four close together at the end of the main stem, and there is usually one head of flowers much further out than the others. the green covering which protects the lower part of the flowers and binds them together is not hard and prickly as in the scotch thistle. when you pick this covering to pieces you find that it is filled with woolly down. the stem of the marsh plume thistle is stiff and straight, and it has green wings with very sharp prickles up each side. the leaves are long and narrow, and they are edged with sharp points. each leaf is dark green above, but underneath it is covered with white down. . field scabious this pretty plant is common over most of britain. you find it on dry banks and by the edge of fields, and it blooms all summer and autumn. the flowers are very interesting. they grow in a bouquet which contains many flowers crowded together at the end of a stout stalk. the centre flowers are a reddish pink colour, and have many tall yellow-headed stamens standing up beyond them. the petals of these flowers are joined together into a tube which is unevenly divided round the mouth. if you open the tube gently, you will find that the stamens are clinging to the inside. outside these pinky flowers there is a border of purply-blue tube-flowers, and these are much larger than the group in the centre. at the mouth of each tube there is a purple strap, and these straps stand out like a frill round the bouquet. behind these flowers there is a double row of small pointed green leaves. the stem leaves are shaped like a feather, and they have long narrow fingers growing up each side of a centre stalk. there is always a solitary finger at the end of the stalk, and each finger is covered with soft hairs. plate xxxiv: . common ling or heather. . black knapweed. . wild thyme. . common ling or heather the heather is so well known that it scarcely requires any description. it grows on moors and commons and mountain-sides in england, scotland and ireland, and in autumn you will find it covering the ground like a carpet, sometimes growing in bushes as high as your knee. the flowers of the heather are very tiny, and they vary in colour from a pale pink to a deep purple. these flowers grow in spikes near the end of thin woody stems, and each flower has a very short stalk which droops slightly. the small flowers are bell-shaped, with the mouth of the bell deeply divided into four parts. outside this purple bell there is a calyx made up of four purple pink sepals. these sepals are much longer than the petals, and they are very crisp and dry, like tissue paper. there is a double row of tiny green pointed leaves, clasping the bottom of the purple flowers. at first you might mistake these for sepals, but they have a different name, which you will learn some day. the heather leaves are very tiny. they have no stalks, and they grow tightly pressed against the tough woody stems. when you look at them closely you see that the edges are rolled back so as almost to touch each other behind. when these leaves are withering they are often a beautiful brown-red colour. . black knapweed this hard-headed plant is common everywhere, in pastures and fields and by the roadside, and it blooms in autumn. the black knapweed is a stiff, soldierly plant, not unlike a small thistle without prickles. the flowers grow in thickly crowded heads each at the end of a stout stem. these heads are made up of dozens of tiny purple tubes with the mouth cut into five straps round the edge. you can see the forked end of the seed-vessel coming out of the centre of each tube. the stamens cling to the sides of the purple tubes, hidden from sight inside. this cluster of purple tubes grows on the top of a hard green ball which has a circle of light brown strap-shaped leaves round the top. this hard ball is covered with row upon row of green leaves pressed tightly one above the other, like the scales of a fir cone. when the flowers are in bud they are completely hidden inside this hard green ball, and after the flowers are withered you see these balls, which have become dark brown, still clinging to the ends of the stalks. the knapweed leaves vary much in shape. some are narrow and long, with edges that are finely toothed. some are deeply cut up at the sides. those that grow clasping the stem are broad, and they are smooth all round the edge. . wild thyme this sweet-scented little evergreen grows abundantly on all sandy and chalky pastures, and is specially common in mountainous districts. it flowers in summer and early autumn. the wild thyme trails along the ground in a thick tangle of wiry stems and tiny glossy leaves. from this tangled mat some of the stems stand upright, and these bear masses of small purple flowers at the top. other stems end in a tuft of tiny leaves. the flowers of the wild thyme consist of a narrow purple tube which stands in a deep green funnel-shaped calyx. the mouth of the flower-tube is cut in two, and the upper half has a small notch in the centre. the lower half is divided into three blunt points. inside the tube, clinging to its sides, are four stamens. after the flowers are withered you can see the tip of the seed-vessel coming out of the mouth of the calyx. the calyx is funnel-shaped and has many sharp teeth found its mouth, and there is a fringe of white hairs just inside. the leaves of the wild thyme are very small. sometimes the edges are rolled back till they almost meet behind. they are dark green and glossy, with smooth edges, on which you can see a line of fine hairs. plate xxxv: . early purple orchis. . purple loose-strife. . common butterwort. . early purple orchis at the same time of year, and in the same places as you find the blue hyacinth, you will discover the early purple orchis. it is a curious plant, and belongs to a family whose flowers are always strangely shaped. the flowers grow in a cone-shaped head at the upper end of a stout, juicy stalk. each flower consists of three purple petals and three purple sepals, and you will not be able to distinguish which are which. these petals or sepals are very irregular in shape. one is broad, and hangs open like a lip. this one has a long purple spur behind. two smaller petals rise straight up above this lip and form a hood. and the others are shaped in varying ways. inside the broad lip with its hood you see a slender column, in which the one stamen as well as the point of the seed-vessel are combined. the flower is placed at the end of what looks like a twisted purple stalk. this is really the seed-vessel, and where it joins the flower-stem there is always a narrow strip of purple leaf. the leaves have no stalks. they are broadly strap-shaped with blunt ends, and they have long narrow lines running from base to tip. each leaf is stained all over with purple spots. the root of the early purple orchis consists of two egg-shaped knobs, and above these knobs grow many white, worm-like rootlets. . purple loose-strife the purple loose-strife is common in all parts of england, but you do not find it so abundantly in scotland. it is a tall, spiky plant, which likes to grow in wet places, and it blooms in late summer and autumn. the flowers are a rich purple colour which is sometimes almost pink. they grow in circles close round the main stem, and there is always a pair of broad pointed green leaves separating each circle from the one above. the flowers have six separate petals, which are long and narrow and rather crumpled looking. these petals are placed at the mouth of a green calyx, which is shaped like a thick tube. this tube is ribbed all over, and has six large green teeth and six smaller green teeth round its mouth. if you gently split open this green tube you find two rows of stamens clinging to its sides. these stamens have purply-pink heads, and there are six long ones which stand up in the centre of the flowers, and six which are shorter and hidden out of sight. the leaves of the purple loose-strife are dark green. usually they are covered with fine hairs, but sometimes you find leaves which are quite smooth. it is easy to recognise this plant by the rings of flowers growing close round the main stem. . common butterwort it is always a delight to find the dainty butterwort. it grows in heaths and bogs and marshes almost everywhere, but is most abundant in the north. the delicate flowers bloom in summer. you will easily recognise this beautiful highland plant by the leaves. they are thick and juicy, and grow close to the ground in a pale green star-pointed rosette. each leaf is stalkless and as smooth as satin. on the upper side these leaves are pale yellow-green, but sometimes the edges curl upwards, and then you see that the leaf underneath is so pale that it is almost white. from the centre of the rosette rise tall, slender stalks with drooping flower-heads. these flowers are dark bluey-purple, and their petals are joined into a short tube which stands in a shallow, toothed calyx-cup. the mouth of the tube folds back in two parts. the upper half is short, with a deep notch in the middle. the lower half is much longer, and is divided into three deep scollops. you will find a pink horn-like spur standing up near the base of the short tube, and you can see that the back of the flower is a delicate rose pink colour. inside the blue tube there are two stamens and a curiously shaped seed-vessel hidden from sight. plate xxxvi: . common bugle. . ground ivy. . hairy water mint. . common bugle the common bugle is a low-growing plant, very frequently found in open woods, banks, and pastures. it blooms in spring and early summer. you will not think this a very attractive plant. the leaves and flowers are crowded together from top to bottom of the main stem. the stem is pale purple, and has four sides. it is hollow in the centre, and breaks off easily because it is soft and juicy. the flowers grow without stalks in circles close to the stem wherever the leaves join it, and each circle is close to the one above it. in every flower there is a slender tube, and one half of this tube folds over at the mouth into three lips, the centre lip having a notch in the middle. the other half of the tube stands erect. these flowers are usually deep blue, but you may find them purple, or rose colour, or even white. they are never yellow. four golden-headed stamens stand up a good way beyond the mouth of the flower; two of these are short and two are much longer. the forked tip of the seed-vessel can be seen among these stamens. the end of each tube stands in a small green calyx-cup edged with pointed teeth. the leaves of the common bugle are dark green, and each pair clasps the stem closely at the bottom. . ground ivy the ground ivy bears little resemblance to the ivy we all know so well. it is common everywhere, and blooms in spring and early summer. the flowers grow without stalks in whorls or circles close to the stem where the leaves spring from it. these flowers are dark purply-blue tubes, prettily divided at the mouth into rounded lips. the lower lips are marked with white and dark purple blotches. inside the tubes are four small stamens with yellow heads; you can just see them at its mouth, with the forked tip of the seed-vessel among them. there are usually six or more flowers in a whorl, and each flower has a green calyx-cup which is very hairy and is edged with five long sharp teeth. from each side of the stem, close among the flowers, grow two leaves on pink stalks. these leaves are round and are beautifully scolloped at the edge. each leaf is covered with a network of veins and is hairy all over, both above and below, as well as round the scollops. these circles of leaves and flowers grow at intervals all the way up the stem, with a good distance between each circle, and the flowers in the lowest circles always come out first. the stem of the ground ivy is four-sided. it is tinged with pink and is very hairy. . hairy water mint this strong-smelling plant is common everywhere. it likes to grow in wet places, and it is in flower towards the end of summer and in autumn. the water mint is not an attractive plant. it has four-sided juicy green stems stained with purple. these stems do not grow straight. the flowers grow in pink clover-shaped heads, either at the end of the main stem or sometimes on very short stalks which spring from between the stem and the leaf. each pink head is made up of many tiny tubes. these tubes are prettily cut round the mouth, and you can see four stamens, with deep crimson heads, coming out of the mouth of each tube. the forked tip of the seed-vessel is so tiny you scarcely notice it. below the flower there is a deep funnel-shaped calyx in which each pink tube stands, and both it and the flowers are covered with fine soft hairs. there is often a pair of small oval green leaves just beneath the head of flowers. the leaves of the hairy water mint are broadly oval with widely separated teeth round the edge. they grow in pairs on short stalks on each side of the main stem, and they are hairy all over. plate xxxvii: . common fumitory . ragged robin . red campion . common fumitory the common fumitory is abundant in all parts of britain, and it blooms in summer. the flowers grow in loose clusters. those that are lowest down the stem come out first, and the buds are always at the top of the stem. the flowers are a pretty rose pink colour, but the tips are often purple, especially before the flower is fully out. the petals are curiously shaped. they are joined together into a tube which is curved at the end, and inside this tube the stamens and the seed-vessel are hidden. you will notice that there is a tiny piece of one petal which is not joined to the others. it stands out by itself and looks like a small pink tongue, which broadens at the end. you can always recognise the fumitory by this pink tongue. there are two tiny green sepals with edges cut like the teeth of a saw, and the pink tube lies in between these sepals. after the pink tube falls off, the seed-vessel, which is inside, grows into a little green knot. you can see many of these little green knots on the lower part of the stem where there have once been flowers. the green leaves of the fumitory are very delicate and pretty. they are finely cut up into many little divisions, and each division is a beautiful shade of grey-green. . ragged robin this untidy plant likes to grow in damp places; it is very common in meadows and in marshes, and it blooms all summer. the flowers grow in twos and threes, on short stalks which branch opposite each other near the end of a long slender stem. the petals are a delicate pale pink, and they are very much cut up into narrow ragged pieces. you will easily know the ragged robin by these pink petals. the sepals are joined together into a cup which is cut into teeth all round the mouth. they are dark green tinged with red, and have many purple veins running from top to bottom. the leaves of the ragged robin are shaped like a lance. they are long and narrow with smooth edges, and they grow opposite each other in pairs, closely clasping the stem. those leaves that grow close to the ground have sometimes short stalks. the upper part of the sticky stem is dark red in colour, and it is usually rough. . red campion this pretty summer plant is fond of damp places like its cousin the ragged robin. it has pink flowers, which usually grow in pairs at the end of slender stalks branching from the main stem. sometimes you may find a single flower growing on a small stalk in between two pairs on much larger stalks. there are five petals, each with a deep nick in the centre, as if a three-cornered piece had been cut out. these petals lie flat open round the rim of the reddish-green cup formed by the sepals; and if you pull the sepals apart, you find that the petals have long strap-shaped ends which go right down into the cup. there is a curious thing about this plant. you find one pink flower with a bunch of stamens inside the cup. you can see their tips peeping out where the pink petals all meet together. there is no seed-vessel in the middle. and in another plant, that looks just the same till you examine it, you find no stamens, but instead there is a green seed-vessel in the centre of the cup, with fine, wavy green threads at the top which stand out where the petals join. the stem of the red campion is red and sticky, and the leaves grow opposite each other in pairs which clasp the stem. if you crush the leaves and stalks they give out a strong scent which is not pleasant. plate xxxviii: . dove's-foot crane's-bill . herb-robert . stork's bill . dove's-foot crane's-bill the dove's-foot crane's-bill is known to us all. you will find it flowering by the roadside from may to september. the flowers are small and pink, sometimes almost purple. they have five petals, each with a notch in the broad end and with many fine hairs near the narrow end. the flowers open flat, like a wheel, and you can see the green tips of the sepals appearing between each of the pink petals, as you look down into the flower. after all the pink petals have fallen off, a thin green spike shoots up in the middle of the sepals. these sepals no longer lie flat open, but half closed, they form a green cup. the spike holds the seeds, and when it is time for them to be scattered over the ground, five green threads loosen themselves from the bottom of the spike and curl up nearly to the top. at the end of each of these green threads there is a seed, and very soon the green threads crack and the seeds fall to the ground. the leaves of the dove's-foot crane's-bill are very soft and downy. they are round in shape and are covered with fine hairs. each leaf is divided into seven parts, which are toothed round the edges. this plant has a weak stem, which lies near the ground. it is tinged with pink, and is very hairy. . herb-robert the herb-robert is common everywhere in early summer. it is a cousin of the dove's-foot crane's-bill, but differs from it in some points which you must notice. the stems are much stronger and can stand upright. the flowers are longer than those of the dove's-foot crane's-bill, and the five petals have no notch in the broad end, and no hairs at the narrow end. these petals are pale pink, streaked with white or purple, and they grow in pairs at the end of short stalks which branch near each other from the main stem. the sepals are of two kinds. you have three outer sepals which are green and hairy, and inside these there are two others which are very thin and almost colourless. the seeds of the herb-robert are scattered in the same way as those of the dove's-foot crane's-bill. you will always know this plant by its beautiful red leaves. they are shaped like a hand, and are cut up into many tiny fingers. at first they are green, but very soon they become a beautiful red colour. so do the stalks. the whole plant has a strong and rather unpleasant odour. . stork's bill the stork's bill is very well known. in summer it grows plentifully on dry ground, especially near the sea coast. the flowers grow on short stalks. you will find a bunch of five flower-stalks rising together at the end of the main stem. each flower has five pretty pink petals with smooth edges. these pink petals soon fall off, and you then notice a long green spike coming out of the green cup formed by the sepals. each green spike is supposed to resemble a stork's bill, and from this resemblance the flower gets its name. when the plant is ready to scatter its seeds, many fine green threads loosen themselves from the spike, and curl round and round like a corkscrew. at the end of each green thread there is a seed. when the seed is ripe, both the seed and the corkscrew-thread separate from the spike and fall to the ground. the green leaves of the stork's bill are cut up into leaflets which are arranged on each side of a centre stalk, but not always exactly opposite each other. there is always a single leaflet at the end of this centre stalk. plate xxxix: . rest harrow. . saintfoin. . red clover. . rest harrow the rest harrow is to be found in sandy places near the sea, and blooms all summer. it belongs to the pea family, along with the broom and the whin. but in this plant the flower-petals are a beautiful rose-pink colour. the largest petal, which is called the standard, is streaked with veins of deep red. the two side petals, or 'wings,' are pale pink, and the tip of the two 'keel' petals, which are joined together into a little boat and hide the stamens, is also a deep rose-red. the flowers have scarcely any stalks. they grow close to the main stem, in a green calyx-cup edged with five sharp teeth, and there are small green leaves beside each flower. these leaves are dark green in front but are much paler behind, and they have tiny teeth all round the edges. sometimes, close to the root, you find leaves which grow in threes, but oftenest the plant has single oval leaves, and these are always covered with fine hairs. the rest harrow usually lies close to the ground, but you may find it growing upright like a small bush. it has long, tough roots, which creep through the soil, and these are said to be so strong they will turn aside the harrow when it is drawn over the field. . saintfoin some people tell us that this is not a british wildflower, but one which was brought from some other country to grow in our gardens. they say that the wind and the birds carried away the seeds, and the plant learned to grow among our other wildflowers. in any case, you find its handsome flowers adorning chalky banks and cliffs all summer and autumn. like the rest harrow it is a relation of the pea family, but its flowers grow quite differently. in colour they are not such a clear pink. the two petals which hide the stamens are almost purple, and the side wings are so tiny, at first you scarcely notice them. the flowers grow close together in the shape of a cone; you find twelve or more open flowers with no leaves among them, crowded together near the upper end of a long flower-stalk, and at the top of this flower-stalk there is always a bunch of buds. the calyx is a green cup with five sharp teeth round the mouth, and it is covered with woolly hairs. the leaves of the saintfoin are long and narrow, and the edges are quite smooth. each leaf is made up of from eight to twelve pairs of leaflets growing opposite each other on a leaf-stalk, and there is always a solitary leaflet growing at the end of the stalk. . red clover the red clover is as well known as the buttercup. it grows all summer in every hayfield. sometimes the flowers are large and showy, and sometimes they are quite small. the red clover is a member of the pea family, though at first you may not think that the flowers are at all like those of the broom or the rest harrow. these flowers grow in a round head, thirty or forty of them close together at the end of the flower-stalk. if you pull a single flower apart from the others and separate the petals, you will see that they are shaped in the same way as those of the other pea plants. you find one large standard petal which stands erect, rather a long, narrow petal in this plant. then there are two side petals for the 'wings,' and two front petals joined together so as to form a tiny boat, and in this boat the stamens and seed-vessel are hidden. these petals are a pale pinky-red, and each flower is set in a green calyx-cup edged with five long teeth. the leaves of the red clover are 'trefoils'; that means that they grow in groups of three. each group has a short stalk, and there are curious yellow markings in the centre of each oval leaf. the edges are smooth, and the leaves are covered with fine downy hairs. plate xl: . dog rose . burnet rose . lousewort or red rattle . dog rose there are a great many wild roses, pink, white, and crimson, but the pink dog rose is the commonest. every one has gathered it in the sunny june days. you must notice a curious thing about the seed-vessel of this plant. only the top of it rises in the middle of the stamens. but if you look at the back of the flower, you see a small green swelling at the end of the stalk, and the sepals and petals and the stamens stand in a ring round the top of this swelling. this is the seed-vessel, and in autumn, after the flower is withered, it will grow into a round red berry, which is called a hip. the sepals of the rose are very pretty. they are cut up into many points like small leaves, and after the flower is withered these points fold right back and cover the green berry. later on they dry up and fall off, leaving the berry bare. the rose leaves are too well known to need any description. notice the two narrow green leaves, like wings, which grow at the foot of the leaf-stalk, clasping the main stem. the dog rose is very thorny. there are large hooks all over the main stem, as well as close to the flower, and these hooks are often coloured a bright crimson. . burnet rose the burnet rose is different in several ways from the dog rose. it grows in early summer on sandy sea shores and on heaths, but not in the hedges, and the flowers are usually white. it is a much smaller plant than the dog rose. its leaves grow closely crowded together in a small, low bush, and there are no long shoots running out from the plant. the main stem of the burnet rose is a bright pink colour, and instead of having big hooks here and there it is covered from top to bottom with fine sharp prickles of all sizes. the green sepals are pointed, but they are not cut up into leafy tips as in the dog rose. neither do they fold back over the seed-vessel after the flower is withered, but remain standing straight up at the top of the berry. the seed-vessel of this rose is rounder than the hip of the dog rose. when ripe it is a dark purple colour which is almost black. the leaves are made up of leaflets which grow in pairs opposite each other on a leaf stalk, and there is always an odd leaflet at the end of the stalk. they are small, nearly oval, and the edges are cut all round into fine teeth. . lousewort, or red rattle this bright plant is common all over the country. it grows in wet places, such as bogs and damp fields, and it is in flower from spring to autumn. the lousewort is a small plant and does not rise very far above the ground. the flowers are bright pink, and they grow singly at intervals up the main stem. the flowers are curiously shaped. the lower part is round, like a narrow pink tube, but at the mouth this pink tube becomes much wider and is divided in two. one half rises straight up and then bends over at the top like a hood. inside the pink hood are hidden the yellow heads of the stamens. the other half of the flower is divided at the edge into three pink scollops, which fold back so that you can look inside the tube of the flower. after the pink flowers are withered the calyx-cup swells into a small bladder, and on windy days you can hear the seeds rattling inside this bladder. the stem of the lousewort is hairy, and the leaves grow very close to it. these leaves are made up of small fingers with deeply toothed edges, which grow in pairs on each side of the centre leaf-stalk. there are frequently six pairs of these fingers on one stalk, and there is always a single finger at the end of the stalk. plate xli: . great wild valerian . small bindweed . foxglove . great wild valerian you find the great wild valerian in most parts of britain. it grows in marshy meadows and in damp woods, and is in flower all summer. the wild valerian is a tall, handsome plant. it has small pale pink flowers, which grow in thick clusters on long, stiff green stalks rising from the main stem. if you pull off a single flower you find that its five pink petals are joined together at the bottom into a tube. this tube folds back at its mouth into five pink scallops, and you can see three yellow-headed stamens coming out of the mouth of the pink tube. if you gently split the tube open you will discover that these stamens are clinging to its sides. the green sepals of the wild valerian are also joined into a tube which has five teeth at the top, and after the pink petals are withered, this green tube sends up a tuft of beautiful feathery down. the stem is dark and glossy. it is ribbed all over and is hollow inside. in the wild valerian each leaf is divided into fingers, which grow in pairs on each side of a slender stalk. sometimes there will be ten pairs of these little fingers, and you will notice that each finger is not placed exactly opposite its neighbour, but that they grow alternately. . small bindweed the small bindweed or convolvulus is common everywhere. you find it in the hedge-banks, on waste places and in fields, and it blooms all summer. this pretty plant is very well known by its pale pink or pure white flowers. these flowers have a narrow tube which fits into the small green sepal-cup. but round the mouth this tube widens out into a beautiful bell, and the edges of the bell are gracefully waved all round. inside the flower there are curious markings like large cream-coloured rays, and you must notice how wonderfully the flower of the bindweed is folded when it is in bud. the stem of the bindweed is very curious. it is twisted like a piece of rope. this stem clings to any stronger plant within reach, and it will twist itself round and round that plant till it nearly chokes it. the leaves are dark and shiny with smooth edges, and they are shaped like the head of an arrow. each leaf has a short stalk of its own. . foxglove this is one of the handsomest of our wildflowers. it grows abundantly in woods, on banks and in fields, and it flowers all summer and autumn. the foxglove is a tall plant with a very stiff stem, from one side of which hang beautiful rose-pink and purple bells. these fairy bells are daintily scolloped round the mouth, and the pale pink lining inside is dotted all over with purple spots. when you look down the mouth of a foxglove bell you see that two long and two short stamens with large yellow-heads are clinging to its side, and rising from the centre of the bell there is a fat green seed-vessel which sends up a slender yellow thread. those bells which are nearest the bottom of the stem come out first, and the buds are always found at the top. behind each bell there are five green sepals with sharp points, and wherever the flower-stalk joins the main stem there is always a small green leaf. the foxglove leaves are broad and long, and they are pointed at the end. each leaf is covered with a network of fine veins. these leaves are grey-green in colour, and the underside is hoary with soft, white woolly down. plate xlii: . broad-leaved willow herb . corn cockle . cross-leaved pink heath . broad-leaved willow herb the broad-leaved willow herb is common in most parts of britain. you find it growing on old walls, in woods and under hedges, and it blooms all summer and autumn. it is a tall, thin plant, and has small pink flowers with four petals, each of which has a v-shaped notch cut in the outer edge. behind these pink petals there are four narrow pointed green sepals, and within the flower grow eight stamens with tiny yellow heads. amongst these stamens you can see the slender pillar which rises from the seed-vessel; it is divided at the top into four yellow rays. the flowers grow singly, each at the end of a long thin pod which is slightly red in colour. when the petals and the green calyx fall off, this pod grows larger, and as soon as the seeds inside are ripe, it splits open into four strips, and each strip is lined with a row of small brown hairy seeds. the leaves of this willow herb are oval, with pointed tips, and they are cut into sharp teeth all round the edge. these leaves are dark green, and usually they are smooth all over, but you sometimes find leaves which have hairs along the veins. the stem is quite smooth, and it is red on the side which gets most sunshine. . corn cockle the corn cockle is common everywhere. it grows in the cornfields, and you find its pink flowers all summer. the flowers are large and handsome. in shape they are like a primrose, but the petals are pale pink and each has a tiny notch in the outer edge. on these petals there are tiny lines of dark purple dots, like rays, which run from the centre of the flower almost to the edge of the petal. the heads of the stamens can only just be seen in the centre of the flower where the five petals meet. behind the pink flower there is a green calyx-cup marked with ten ridges, and at the mouth of this cup there are five narrow green teeth, which are so long they look like pointed leaves. these sepals are dark green inside, but the outside is pale green and woolly. you can see their sharp points standing out beyond each of the petals of the flower. the stem of the corn cockle is stiff, and it grows very straight. like the calyx-cup, it is covered with soft white wool. the leaves grow in pairs on each side of the stem. these leaves are long and narrow, with pointed ends. each leaf is dark green above, but the back is always pale grey-green and woolly. . cross-leaved pink heath this waxen pink heath is to be found all over the country. it grows best in damp places, and is in flower in late summer and autumn before the purple heather is fully out. the flowers grow in clusters of from five to twelve at the top of the woody stem. each cluster is made up of pale pink waxy bells, and the mouth of each small bell is edged with four pointed teeth. if you split open one of these pink bells, you will find inside a round green seed-vessel like a tiny pea. there is a long green spike growing from the top of this seed-vessel, and you can see its point coming out of the mouth of the pink bell. there is also a ring of yellow stamens hidden inside the bell, and these grow close round the green seed-vessel. the leaves of this pink heath are very small and pointed, and they have hairs along the edge. they grow in fours, and are placed crossways at short distances up the main stem. the edges are usually rolled back on to the woolly underside of the leaf. the stem of the cross-leaved pink heath is slender and wiry, and this pretty plant is never found growing in large bushes like the common heather. sometimes the flowers are pure white. plate xliii: . blue meadow crane's-bill . milkwort . corn flower or blue bottle . tufted vetch . blue meadow crane's-bill the blue meadow crane's-bill is one of our handsomest wildflowers. it is to be found by the edge of the fields and in the meadows all over britain in summer and autumn. this plant is related to the beautiful geranium which grows in our gardens. the flowers have five large petals. in front these petals are bright blue and are painted with tiny pink streaks. behind, they are a delicate pale pink. in the centre of the flower there is a ring of stamens, and within this ring is the seed-vessel. there is a circle of green sepals behind the pinky-blue petals. after the blue petals are withered you can see a long spike with a small star at the end coming out from among the sepals. this spike has five seeds clustered round the bottom, and whenever these seeds are ripe, the spike splits into five fine hairs. each of these hairs curls up to the top, carrying a seed with it. then the five seeds are blown by the wind away from the slender hairs. the leaves of the blue meadow crane's-bill are beautifully shaped. they are like a hand with five thin fingers, and each of these fingers is deeply cut up all round the edges. the stem of the plant is covered with rough, hairy bristles. . milkwort the milkwort has flowers which are not always the same colour. you may find them either pink, or blue, or white, but i think the blue milkwort is the commonest. it blooms all summer. the flowers grow on spikes in which the buds are always at the top, and further down the same spike there are leaves. each flower has five sepals. three are only small green strips, but inside these three there are two which are large and broad, and beautifully coloured. these look like petals. when the flower is withered these two sepals change colour and become green. the real petals are paler in colour than the sepals. the lowest one is cut up at the end into little strips like a blue fringe, and there are two small side petals as well as two upper ones, which are so tiny that they are merely scales. the leaves resemble narrow straps. they grow alternately on the stem, and they are dark green above and pale green below. the milkwort lies close to the ground among the grass. you would never notice it, were it not for its beautiful spikes of blue, pink-white flowers. . corn flower the corn flower or blue bottle is common all over britain; you find it in the cornfields and by the roadside, and it flowers all summer and autumn. this pretty plant belongs to the same family as the thistles. the flower-heads are made up of a great many flowers grouped together. in the outer row you find a circle of beautiful bright blue flowers, each of which consists of a blue tube which widens out at the mouth like a trumpet, and is edged with seven sharp points. inside this outer circle there is a mass of darker blue flowers, slightly tinged with rose-colour. these flowers are very much smaller, and their pinky tubes are very tiny. so are the strap-shaped teeth at the mouth of the tube. coming out of the mouth of each tube is the dark purple tip of the seed-vessel. underneath this bunch of flowers there is a double ring of green scales with fringed edges. these scales are tightly pressed together in the shape of a cup, but they are not prickly as in some of the thistles. the stems of the corn flower are very tough. the plant is tall and straggling, and it has narrow strap-shaped leaves with smooth edges. these leaves, as well as the stems, are often covered with white woolly down. . tufted vetch the tufted vetch is a very common plant, and all summer-time you find its masses of bright blue or purple flowers growing up the hedges. it belongs to the large family of pea-plants, along with the broom and the trefoils, and you will find that its bright bluish-purple petals are shaped as curiously as those of the other pea-plants. do not forget to look at the stamens. you will see that there is one stamen whose slender stem is not joined with the others, but has a separate stalk of its own. the flowers grow in clusters on a stiff stalk; the buds are at the end of the stalk, and the flowers that grow lowest on the stalk always open first. when the flower is withered, the seed-vessel grows into a small green pea-pod which has a curly tail at the end, and when the seeds are ripe, this pod turns brown. the leaves are made up of short pointed straps, set opposite each other in pairs on each side of a thin stalk. you will often find ten pairs of little straps, and at the end of the stalk there grow curly green threads called tendrils. this tufted vetch is one of these climbing plants which are not strong enough to stand alone; so these tendrils curl themselves round the twigs of the hedges, and this helps the plant to rise high above the ground. plate xliv: . wild succory. . bluebell or harebell. . sea holly. . wild succory the wild succory is abundant all over england, but is not so plentiful in scotland. it grows by the borders of fields, in waste places or by the roadside, and it blooms in late summer and autumn. the flowers are like large blue dandelions. they have no stalks, but grow from top to bottom of the main stem. the flowers at the bottom of the stem come out first and the buds are always at the top. each of these large blue dandelions is made up of a great many tiny tubes grouped together. in the inner circle there are a great many blue tubes which have no strap, but in the outer circle the flowers have a broad blue strap at one side, and the end of this strap is cut into fine teeth. in the centre of each tube you see the tip of the seed-vessel standing up. it looks like a white thread with two curly points at the end. the heads of the stamens are placed edge to edge and form a collar close round this white thread. behind the blue flowers there is a green calyx-cup of narrow strap-shaped leaves, with reddish-brown tips. there is always a large pointed green leaf where the flower-bud joins the main stem. the leaves of the wild succory are rough and hairy all over, and are a grey-green colour. . bluebell or harebell the bluebell or harebell is one of our prettiest wildflowers. it is common all over the country on heaths and on pastures, and it blooms in late summer and autumn. the five petals of the flower are joined together into a beautiful bell. this bell is divided round the mouth into five pointed scollops, and when you look into the mouth of the bell you can see the yellow heads of the five stamens and the three-cornered top of the seed-vessel. the flowers grow singly, on many very slender stalks which branch from the main stem. the green calyx-cup behind the bluebell is curiously marked with raised lines. it is deeply divided into five sharp green points, which stand out like the rays of a star at the back of the bluebell. the leaves of the harebell are of two kinds. those that grow on the main stem, where the flower-stalks branch from it, are narrow and pointed. but the leaves that spring from the root are quite different. they are nearly round, with edges which are cut into large teeth, and each leaf has a stalk. . sea holly this curious plant grows on sandy seashores in england, but it is not common in scotland, and it will not grow far north. the flowers grow in clover-shaped heads at the ends of very stiff stems. these flowers are very small, of a whitish-blue colour, and they are not at all attractive. if you examine one closely you find that the petals stand straight up, and each petal has a pointed beak which bends forward towards the centre of the flower. the stamens also curve inwards. outside this cluster of flowers there is a crowded mass of small green leaves, and each leaf ends in three short points. these leaves are a yellow-green colour, but all the rest of the flower is a beautiful grey-blue. the stems of the sea holly are stiff, with ridges running up them, and the leaves have no stalks of their own, but grow in a circle of three or five, tightly clasping the main stem. these leaves are very smooth and thick. they are grey-blue in colour, with yellow-green patches between the veins, and they have very hard edges which are waved all round. each of these waves ends in a sharp point. the sea holly is quite as prickly as the christmas holly, and as it grows low down among the sands, bare-footed children must be careful not to stand on it. plate xlv: . germander speedwell. . brooklime speedwell. . great water forget-me-not. . germander speedwell this bright blue flower is to be found on banks, and in woods and pastures all over the country. it blooms in spring and early summer. many people call this the forget-me-not, but that is not correct, and you should notice carefully the difference between the two plants. they are not really alike. the germander speedwell is a slender, wiry plant, whose stem sometimes creeps along the surface of the ground before it grows upward. the flowers have four small petals of the brightest blue, and within the flower at the foot of the petals is a small white circle, like a little white eye looking up. two stamens with crimson heads rise from this white circle, and in the very centre of the flower there is a tiny green seed-vessel, with a spike coming out of the top. the four sepals are very narrow green straps with sharp points. the dark green hairy leaves are oval, with the edges cut all round like the teeth of a saw. they have no stalks, and they grow in pairs opposite each other. the slender stems, which bear the flowers in loose heads near the top, spring from between the leaf and the main stem. . brooklime speedwell the brooklime speedwell is quite as common as its cousin the blue germander speedwell, but it grows in damp places. you find it in ditches and beside slow-running streams, and the flowers are in bloom from spring to autumn. the plant has a round juicy stem, which is hollow in the middle. it rises straight up from its muddy bed. the flowers have four small petals which are a dull blue in colour, and are not very attractive. in the centre of the flower there is a tiny blue ring, and to this ring are fastened the two red-headed stamens. the seed-vessel is a small green dot with a spike at the top. it is so tiny that you can scarcely see it until the blue petals have fallen off. behind the flower there are four small green sepals. the leaves of the brooklime speedwell are smooth and glossy. they are oval with blunt points, and the edges are waved. these leaves grow in pairs opposite each other, and have very short stalks which widen out at the foot so as to clasp the stem. the flowers grow in loose heads on a long thin stalk, which springs from between the leaf and the stem. . great water forget-me-not every child knows the pale blue forget-me-not with its dainty flowers. it has many varieties which are found all over the country, but the water forget-me-not is one of the loveliest, and grows abundantly in ditches and marshes from spring to autumn. it is a tall straggling plant, with long flower-stalks which grow singly on alternate sides of the stem. those flowers nearest the bottom of the stalk come out first, and they soon fall off. the pink buds are always at the very top of the stem, and the full-open flowers are close below them. each flower has five small round blue petals which lie open like a wheel, and in the centre of the flower there is a bright yellow eye. the stamens are hidden from sight in the small blue tube below the petals. so is the seed-vessel. there is a green calyx-cup which is hairy all over, and round the mouth it is edged with sharply pointed teeth. the leaves of the forget-me-not are long and narrow, with blunt points and smooth edges. they are as glossy as if they were wet, and they clasp the stem. the lowest part of the stem is four-sided and hairy, and it creeps along the mud before it rises up to bear the leaves and flowers. plate xlvi: . common borage. . evergreen alkanet. . wood hyacinth. . common borage the borage is not a very common plant, though it is widely distributed throughout the country. you find it on hedge-banks and in waste places, and it blooms in summer and autumn. it has beautiful bright blue flowers, with five petals which are gracefully pointed at the tips. these flowers droop either singly or in clusters at the end of stout, hairy stalks. the stamens of the common borage have no thread-like stalks; their purple heads are placed close together in a circle round the slender white pillar of the seed-vessel. notice the curious purple horns that rise from the back of each stamen. there is a ring of dark purple scales with white blotches on them at the base of the petals. the calyx has five long narrow pointed sepals. these are covered with bristly hairs, and so are the leaves, stalks, and stem. the leaves of the borage are a dusty grey-green colour. wherever the stem forks, you find a large stalkless leaf clasping it. these leaves are usually oval, but they are very varied in shape, and those leaves that rise from the root are frequently quite different. the stem is light green and is round, with a hollow in the centre. . evergreen alkanet some people do not consider this one of our native plants, but it is widely distributed over the country. you find it in hedge-banks and by the roadside in spring and autumn. the alkanet is an erect, hairy plant, which is not quite so bristly as its cousin, the common borage. the flowers have small blue tubes, lined inside with white, and there is a deeply waved sky-blue wheel round the mouth. when in bud the flowers are deep pink. these flowers grow either singly or two or three together, at the end of straight stalks which rise from between the leaf and the stem. there are five purple-headed stamens clinging to the white lining of the tube, and there is also a tiny seed-vessel. these you cannot see until you pick the flower to pieces. the mouth of the calyx-cup is edged with five blunt points, and it is covered with soft hairs. the leaves also are covered with soft hairs and have scarcely any stalks, but grow singly on alternate sides of the stem. these leaves are oval, with smooth, regular edges. they are olive-green above and bluey-green underneath. if you cut the stem across, near the ground, you will see that it is six-sided. it is a juicy stem, with scarcely any hollow in the centre, and it is covered with fine, soft hairs. . wood hyacinth the graceful wood hyacinth is one of our prettiest flowers. you will find the woods and hedge-banks covered with its masses of pale blue flowers in late spring and early summer. the leaves appear first,--long, narrow green straps, with a point at the end, and each green strap looks as if it had been folded in the middle and not quite flattened out again. these leaves spring from a bulb which lies deeply buried in the ground. underneath this bulb are a few white thread-like roots. the hyacinth flowers grow, all on one side, towards the end of a tall and juicy flower-stalk. this flower-stalk droops when the flowers are in bud, and again when the flowers are faded. but it stands proudly erect when its bells are in full bloom. each bell is made up of six long, narrow petals. these petals are really separate, but about half way down, they touch each other and so form a bell. the tips of each petal fold back at the mouth. there is a yellow-headed stamen clinging to the side of every petal, and in the centre of the bell sits a green pear-shaped seed-vessel, with a short pillar on the top. in the wood hyacinth there is no calyx. every blue bell hangs from a short stalk of its own, and wherever a flower-stalk joins the main stem there are two narrow pointed leaves. plate xlvii: . field gentian. . sea aster. . viper's bugloss. . field gentian the field gentian is to be found in damp pastures all over the country, especially in scotland, where it is very plentiful. it blooms in late summer and autumn. it is a stout, upright plant, but not very tall. the short stalks, which fork from the main stem and bear the flowers, stand straight up very stiffly, and the main stem itself is very firm, and has ridges running from top to bottom. the flowers grow singly, each on its own stalk. they consist of four lilac-blue petals with the lower parts joined together to form a tube. at the top of this tube, the petals fold back in four points, and within the tube, standing close up round the mouth, there is a blue fringe. inside the blue tube are four stamens clinging to its sides, as well as an upright, green seed-vessel. the four bluey-green sepals are unequal in size. the two inner ones are narrow, with pointed ends; the outer sepals are much broader, and they are blunt at the tip. the dark green leaves grow in pairs, opposite each other, and they clasp the main stem closely. these leaves taper to a point, and have long veins running from the broad part to the tip. there is very often a single flower-bud growing close to the stem, where the leaves meet. . sea aster this somewhat dingy-looking plant loves to grow in muddy salt marshes close to the seashore; you find it in bloom all round our sea-coasts in autumn. the sea aster is a stout, coarse plant, with straight, stiff stems which are ribbed from top to bottom. the dark green leaves are shaped like a sword, and as they have no stalks, they clasp this rough stem closely on alternate sides. these leaves are thick and fleshy, with smooth edges. the flowers grow on short stalks, in dense heads which branch from the upper part of the main stem. these heads are made up of two kinds of flowers. in the centre you find a crowded mass of tiny yellow tube-flowers which are evenly notched all round the mouth. and outside these yellow flowers is arranged a double ring of tiny tubes, each of which has a broad, blue strap at one side. these blue straps stand out like a frill all round the centre bouquet of yellow flowers. these flower-heads are placed in a green cup, composed of row upon row of small green pointed leaves, laid closely one above the other, like the scales of a fir-cone. after the flowers are withered, the seeds still cling to the end of the stalk, and each seed is winged with a tuft of dingy white cotton down. when the seeds are ripe, the wind blows them away from the plant. . viper's bugloss the first thing you will notice about the viper's bugloss is the way the rows of flower-buds curl like a scorpion. the plant is common in most parts of the country, in waste places, by shingly sea beaches, and on chalky soil. it flowers in summer and autumn. the viper's bugloss is a stout, upright plant, with a curious pale green hairy stem, which is dotted all over with red spots. from this thick stem others, small and thin, branch on alternate sides, and drooping from the end of each stem is a double row of bright pink buds. the pair of buds nearest the main stem open first, and when in full bloom the flowers are usually bright blue, but sometimes you will find them deep purple or white. these flowers are bell-shaped and they open wide at the mouth, which is unevenly divided into five graceful points. each flower sits in a green calyx-cup edged with five sharply pointed teeth. there is a row of narrow green pointed leaves, standing up like a cockscomb behind each row of flowers. these leaves curl over at the tip, along with the buds, and they uncurl as the flowers open. the leaves of the viper's bugloss are rough and hairy, with smooth edges. plate xlviii: . red poppy . scarlet pimpernel . common sorrel . red poppy the red poppy is known and beloved by children. you find it in all parts of the country in summer and autumn, growing among the corn, on the railway banks and under the hedges. the flower has four bright red petals, and of these the two outer are larger than the two inner. these petals are soft and silky, with wavy edges. when they first burst their green covering they are tightly folded and are much crinkled all over. but after a day in the sunshine they unfold, and all the crinkles disappear. sometimes you find a bright purple spot at the bottom of each scarlet petal. in the centre of the flower sits a curious green cup with a lid, and this lid is covered with dark rays which look like the legs of a spider. this green cup is the seed-vessel, and as soon as the seeds are ripe, they pour out through a row of little holes which open just beneath the green lid. there is a ring of black-headed stamens standing up all round the green seed-cup. the red poppy has two green sepals. these are very thin and hairy, and they drop off almost as soon as the flower opens. each poppy grows on a long slender stalk which is covered with hairs. the leaves are divided into many narrow fingers, and they are rough and hairy. . scarlet pimpernel this fragile plant is very common. you find it in cultivated fields as well as by the roadside and in waste places. it blooms in summer and autumn. this scarlet pimpernel is one of our few red flowers. it has five round scarlet petals, which are joined together like a wheel. in the centre of the wheel there is a seed-vessel, the size of a tiny green pea, and closely clustered round its thread-like pillar are five yellow-headed stamens. the slender stalks of the stamens are covered with hairs, and so are the edges of the scarlet petals. the calyx consists of five narrow green sepals, with sharp points: these you can see appearing between the edges of the petals as you look down into the flower. each flower grows singly on a short, fine stalk, and these flower-stalks always rise between a leaf and the stem. the stem is four-sided, and it is very easily broken. it is a very feeble stem, and straggles along the ground. the leaves of the scarlet pimpernel are small and oval, with smooth edges and blunt points. they have fine lines running from base to tip, and underneath they are a blue-green colour, with little dots all over them. . common sorrel you find the dull crimson sorrel everywhere. it grows in meadows and pastures and open woods, and it is abundant all spring and summer. the flowers are small and unattractive. they grow on a spike in whorls or circles, with five to eight flowers in each circle, and these circles are separated at short distances. each flower droops from a tiny stalk. it has three narrow green sepals, which fold back close to the stalk when the seed is ripening. inside these sepals are three dull crimson petals, also small and narrow. but when the flowering time is past, these three petals grow broad and oval, and become thicker, and at the base of each petal you see a tiny swelling, which is the seed. the stem of the common sorrel is tinged with pink. it is ribbed all over, and is very juicy. both it and the leaves are acid to taste and are often eaten in salads. the leaves are quite smooth, with the edges uncut. they are dark green above, but much lighter underneath. each leaf is shaped like an arrow-head, and those close to the root have a long stalk. index agrimony, common, . alkanet, evergreen, . anemone, wood, . angelica, wild, . asphodel, bog, . aster, sea, . autumnal hawkbit, . avens, common, . avens, water, . bedstraw, yellow, . bethlehem, star of, . bindweed, small, . birdsfoot trefoil, . biting stonecrop, . black knapweed, . bladder campion, common, . bluebell or harebell, . blue bottle or corn flower, . blue meadow crane's-bill, . bog asphodel, . borage, common, . broad-leaved willow herb, . brooklime speedwell, . broom, . bryony, red-berried, . bugle, common, . bugloss, viper's, . burdock, greater, . burnet rose, . butterbur, common, . buttercup, bulbous, . buttercup, meadow, . butterwort, common, . campion, common bladder, . campion, red, . campion, sea, . carrot, sea, . celandine, lesser, . chervil, wild, . chickweed, common, . chickweed, mouse-eared, . chickweed, wintergreen, . cinquefoil, creeping, . cinquefoil, marsh, . cleavers or goosegrass, . clover, red, . coltsfoot, . comfrey, common, . corn cockle, . corn flower or blue bottle, . cow parsnip, . cowslip, . crane's-bill, blue meadow, . crane's-bill, dove's-foot, . cress, hairy rock, . cross-leaved pink heath, . crosswort, . crowfoot, water, . cuckoo flower or lady's smock, . cuckoopint or wake robin, . daffodil, . daisy, . daisy, ox-eye, . dandelion, common, . dead nettle, white, . dog rose, . dog's mercury, . dog violet, . dove's-foot crane's-bill, . dropwort, hemlock water, . early purple orchis, . evergreen alkanet, . everlasting, mountain, . eyebright, common, . field gentian, . field scabious, . figwort, knotty, . fingers, lady's, . forget-me-not, great water, . foxglove, . fumitory, common, . gentian, field, . germander speedwell, . goatsbeard, yellow, . golden saxifrage, opposite-leaved, . goosegrass or cleavers, . gorse or whin, . goutweed, . grass of parnassus, . grass, scurvy, . greater burdock, . greater stitchwort, . great water forget-me-not, . great wild valerian, . ground ivy, . groundsel, common, . hairy rock cress, . hairy water mint, . harebell or bluebell, . harrow, rest, . hawkbit, autumnal, . heartsease, . heath, cross-leaved pink, . heather or common ling, . hedge mustard, . hedge parsley, upright, . hemlock, common, . hemlock, water dropwort, . herb-robert, . holly, sea, . honeysuckle, . hop trefoil, . horned poppy, yellow, . hyacinth, wood, . intermediate wintergreen, . iris, yellow water, . ivy, ground, . joy, traveller's, . knapweed, black, . knotty figwort, . lady's fingers, . lady's mantle, . lady's smock, . lesser celandine, . ling, common, or heather, . loose-strife, purple, . lousewort, or red rattle, . mallow, common, . mantle, lady's, . mare's tail, common, . marsh cinquefoil, . marsh marigold, . marsh pennywort, . marsh plume thistle, . mayweed, scentless, . meadow buttercup, . meadow crane's-bill, blue, . meadow sweet, . meadow vetchling, . mercury, dog's, . mignonette, wild, . milkwort, . millfoil, or yarrow, . mint, hairy water, . mossy saxifrage, . mountain everlasting, . mouse-eared chickweed, . mouse tail, . mugwort, . mustard, hedge, . mustard, wild, . needle whin, . nettle, common, . nettle, white dead, . nipplewort, common, . opposite-leaved golden saxifrage, . orchis, early purple, . orchis, spotted, . ox-eye daisy, . parnassus, grass of, . parsley, upright hedge, . parsnip, cow, . pennywort, marsh, . pimpernel, scarlet, . pink heath, cross-leaved, . plantain, ribwort, . plume thistle, marsh, . poppy, red, . poppy, yellow horned, . primrose, . purple loose-strife, . purple orchis, . purple sea rocket, . purse, shepherd's, . ragged robin, . ragwort, common, . ransoms, . red-berried bryony, . red campion, . red clover, . red poppy, . red rattle, or lousewort, . rest harrow, . ribwort plantain, . robert, herb, . rock cress, hairy, . rocket, purple sea, . rock rose, . rose, burnet, . rose, dog, . saintfoin, . st. john's wort, . saxifrage, mossy, . saxifrage, opposite-leaved golden, . scabious, field, . scarlet pimpernel, . scentless mayweed, . scotch thistle, . scurvy grass, . sea aster, . sea campion, . sea carrot, . sea holly, . sea rocket, purple, . shepherd's purse, . silver weed, . small bindweed, . smock, lady's, . sneezewort yarrow, . snowdrop, . sorrel, common, . sorrel, wood, . speedwell, brooklime, . speedwell, germander, . spotted orchis, . star of bethlehem, common, . stitchwort, greater, . stonecrop, biting, . stork's bill, . strawberry, wild, . succory, wild, . sweet, meadow, . tail, common mare's, . tail, mouse, . tansy, . thistle, marsh plume, . thistle, scotch, . thyme, wild, . tormentil, . traveller's joy, . trefoil, birdsfoot, . trefoil, hop, . tufted vetch, . upright hedge parsley, . valerian, great wild, . vetchling, meadow, . vetch, tufted, . violet, dog, . viper's bugloss, . wake robin, or cuckoopint, . wallflower, . water avens, . water crowfoot, . water dropwort, hemlock, . water mint, hairy, . water iris, yellow, . weed, silver, . whin, or gorse, . whin, needle, . white dead nettle, . wild angelica, . wild chervil, . wild mignonette, . wild mustard, . wild strawberry, . wild succory, . wild thyme, . wild valerian, great, . willow herb, broad-leaved, . wintergreen, chickweed, . wintergreen, intermediate, . wood anemone, . wood hyacinth, . woodruff, . wood sorrel, . wort, st. john's, . yarrow, or millfoil, . yarrow, sneezewort, . yellow bedstraw, . yellow goatsbeard, . yellow horned poppy, . yellow water iris, . edinburgh: printed by t. and a. constable none transcriber's notes (more notes at the end of this file) small capitals have been changed to all capitals. italics have been represented between underscores thus: _italic text_. bold text has been represented between equals signs thus: =bold text=. oe ligatures have been represented as per this example: bel[oe]il triangular symbol represented thus: /_\ asterisms are represented thus: [***] tables have been split into two in order to retain reasonably short line lengths. some spaces between words in the tables have been deleted in order to maintain length of lines. it is suggested that tables be viewed using a fixed-width font. journal of a horticultural tour through germany, belgium, and part of france, in the autumn of . to which is added, a catalogue of the different species of cacteÆ in the gardens at woburn abbey. by james forbes, a.l.s., corresponding member of the horticultural society, author of "hortus woburnensis," etc. london: james ridgway and sons, piccadilly. . chelsea: printed by william blatch, , exeter street, sloane street. to m. otto, director of the royal botanic gardens, berlin, the following pages are most respectfully dedicated, as a slight testimony of gratitude for his kindness, and as a tribute to his indefatigable zeal in the promotion of botanical science, by his obliged and faithful servant, james forbes. preface. the continental gardens and botanical collections having been rarely visited by the british gardener, his grace the duke of bedford, with his usual anxiety for the promotion of useful knowledge, very liberally and kindly proposed in the autumn of that i should undertake a horticultural tour, through several parts of germany, belgium, and france, with a view of inspecting the different collections and productions cultivated in some of the most celebrated horticultural establishments in these countries. the notes which are now submitted to the public contain a cursory detail of the various gardens and objects that came under my observation during a tour occupying a space of eight weeks,--a period of time which the reader will readily understand required the utmost diligence on my part to fulfil the objects i had in view. yet i was enabled to investigate such modes of culture as were adopted in the principal gardens, where the produce appeared in any way superior to our own; to become thoroughly acquainted with the different systems practised at various seasons of the year would have required an actual residence of many months. in the mode of forcing fruits and management of the kitchen garden department, the english gardener will find but little abroad superior to what he is daily accustomed to see at home. it must however be observed that the zeal and anxiety displayed throughout germany in the cultivation and increase of their collections of plants are in no way inferior to our own. in fact, in succulent plants they far surpass us; more particularly in their collections of cacteæ, which appeared to be a favourite tribe in the principal establishments on the continent. they are certainly deserving of a more extensive cultivation in this country than they have hitherto obtained. their various shapes, numerous spines, angles, and the splendid flowers of many of the species, form an interesting and pleasing addition to our botanical establishments; and of all plants requiring the protection of the greenhouse and artificial heat, the cacteæ may be cultivated at the least expense, and exact less attendance than is generally requisite for hothouse plants. the palmæ are also extensively cultivated throughout the continent, and notwithstanding many of them are planted in gloomy habitations they were in general very healthy, and evidently more suitable inhabitants for such structures than the deciduous or hard-wooded species. the hothouses erected for the cultivation of plants throughout the prussian dominions consist of opaque roofs, furnished only with upright lights, which are ill adapted for the flowering or bringing to perfection many of the tender species. in most parts of germany the pleasure grounds are very deficient in evergreens, frost being so intense in that country that the _rhododendron ponticum_, _arbutus_, _laurustinus_, _daphne_, _portugal_, and even common _laurel_, require the protection of the greenhouse during the winter season. if these grounds, however, are deficient in evergreens, they are richly decorated, in most instances, with ornamental vases, statues, and numerous groups of fine sculpture, which contribute greatly to the embellishment of a pleasure-ground. as far as architecture and sculpture are concerned, the continental royal gardens far surpass those in england; but there did not appear to me in the quarters i visited to be a spirit for garden-improvement equal to that which is so generally prevalent in this country. it now only remains for me to take this opportunity of returning my thanks to those whose kindness afforded me considerable facilities in viewing the different gardens described in this tour; they are, however, more especially due to those horticulturists of germany by whose liberality i have been enabled to add above six hundred new and curious plants to the splendid collection at woburn abbey, entrusted to my care; and i must add, that i found a cheerful inclination, in most instances, to enter into a correspondence for the mutual exchange of plants and seeds. the few remarks on different objects, not immediately connected with horticulture, which i have ventured to introduce, will it is hoped be received with that indulgence which my imperfect acquaintance with such matters may require. j. f. journal of a horticultural tour, in . august th. left the custom house at six o'clock, a. m., by the william joliffe steam-packet, for hamburgh; but having a strong easterly wind a-head, we did not pass the sunk light until a little past four o'clock in the afternoon. th. sailing at the rate of six miles per hour; still a strong easterly wind a-head, but a beautiful day, and the sky clear from clouds; about twelve o'clock we were about twenty-five miles off the texel, with a fresh breeze still right a-head. st. a beautiful day, but the wind still continuing against us, we sailed only at the rate of seven miles per hour. about nine o'clock in the morning the small isle of heligoland made its appearance, much to the gratification of the passengers, this island being only a hundred miles from hamburgh. it is said to contain from three to four thousand inhabitants, who are chiefly occupied in fishing; haddocks and lobsters are very abundant in its immediate neighbourhood, which are taken in great numbers to the hamburgh as well as the london markets. the island is said to be nearly a mile in length, and about half a mile in breadth, and now belongs to the british government. at twenty minutes past twelve o'clock we entered the elbe, where two light ships are stationed, in consequence of the sandbanks, which are rather dangerous in that part of the passage. the island of newark-farm is distant only from three to four miles from the mouth of the elbe; the houses and cattle were now pleasing objects in view. about three o'clock in the afternoon we arrived at cuxhaven, which is a small sea-port town, and is in the territory belonging to the town of hamburgh. it is a very fashionable bathing spot: and a large concourse of ladies and gentlemen assembled at the haven when the steam packet neared the shore. about four o'clock we experienced some heavy drops of rain, with very loud claps of thunder, and towards evening numerous broad flashes of lightning, very vivid, which appeared to skirt along near the ground. on passing along the elbe, we found it much crowded with numerous sailing vessels, making the best of their way to and from hamburgh. these, with a variety of handsome church-spires peeping out amongst various clumps of trees on both sides of the river, gave the scenery a pleasing and picturesque appearance. we have also here at the same time in view a part of the king of denmark's dominions, as well as a portion of the hanoverian territories. august nd. arrived in the harbour at hamburgh at half-past twelve o'clock in the morning; but by the time we got out our luggage, and boats to take us ashore, it was getting close on to eight o'clock. shortly after my arrival i proceeded to flottbeck, to see the nursery gardens of mr. booth, which are situated close by the banks of the elbe, about four english miles from hamburgh. in this nursery i was much gratified by the extensive collection of plants; there are about one hundred acres of ground under nursery stock, consisting principally of ornamental trees and shrubs, including a great variety of new species, that i had not previously seen in any of our british nurseries. mr. booth is a most enthusiastic practical botanist, and spares no expence for the introduction of new and rare plants to his collection. he has arranged along the edges of a walk which is nearly a mile in length a collection of hardy trees and shrubs, which are so planted that the different species of each genus are brought at once under view for comparison. the whole are arranged according to the _natural system_ of _jussieu_. the herbaceous ground contains above four thousand species of hardy perennial plants: there are also above twelve hundred different varieties of roses. the hothouses allotted for the growth of exotics and cape plants are about five hundred feet in length, with a range of pits nearly four hundred feet long for the low and half-hardy species. the collection of _cacteæ_ here amounts to nearly four hundred different species; amongst them are many curious and interesting sorts. there are also some fine specimens of palms, and numerous fine exotics; the collection of cape and new holland plants is likewise very extensive. the passion for _orchideæ_ has also extended to this part of germany; mr. booth has a great variety of this tribe of plants, and is building a house solely for their cultivation: he is likewise constructing pits, for the growth of the pine-apple. he has a very fine collection of the _genus pinus_, and shewed me several new species that he had raised from seeds, which were considered to be new and undescribed sorts. i saw a species much resembling our _pinus palustris_, with fine long foliage. mr. booth calls it the palustris _excelsa_, and informs me that it grows to a great height, and is perfectly hardy, having stood this winter ten degrees of frost, reaumur, which is equal to twenty three fahrenheit, without sustaining the least injury, although quite exposed. i could not but admire the neatness in which the plants and grounds in this extensive establishment were kept, and notwithstanding the extreme dryness of the weather, (not having had any rain for nine weeks in that part of the country,) the plants were looking all in a healthy and flourishing state; but the watering of such a collection for so many weeks must have been attended with an enormous expence. august rd. being accompanied by mr. booth, we proceeded along the banks of the elbe to the villa of m. de la camp, which is situated close by the road, commanding a most beautiful view of the elbe and its shipping, as well as finkenwarder, an island on the opposite side of the elbe, the one half of which belongs to hanover, and the other half to hamburgh. this island produces a very hardy species of oak, which was found there some years ago, and is called the _quercus falkenbergense_. m. de la camp has formed a very complete vineyard on the banks of the elbe, which was in a very prolific state, as were also the vines that formed an arbour to the front of this gentleman's house. from this we next proceeded some miles further along the elbe banks, to the seat of mr. baur at blankanese. this gentleman is a wealthy merchant, and has expended an immense sum of money in the formation of his grounds, according to the english system of gardening. he has formed numerous walks and artificial banks, that command extensive views of the elbe. these walks and banks, were staked out by mr. baur personally, who, i have no hesitation in saying, has displayed a very superior taste; they are remarkably well executed: in short, the banks and valleys appeared as if they had been formed by nature, but they are principally the work of art. i however regretted not to find a corresponding taste for good plants, to keep pace with the other extensive ground improvements that this gentleman has completed and is proceeding with. close by the elbe are situated several small forcing houses for fruits, a greenhouse, orangery, and some low pits for the cultivation of the pine-apple, which has been grown here for several years; but they do not seem yet to have made much progress in the cultivation of this fruit. in front of these houses there is a terrace-wall, that separates the garden-ground from the elbe, which washes up against it. the stones with which this wall was built were brought a distance of from four to five hundred miles (from saxony) for this purpose; and it is executed in a very superior manner. on the highest part of the grounds there has been lately erected a handsome chinese pagoda, which commands a beautiful prospect of the elbe and its shipping, as well as the opposite island and hanoverian dominions. a round tower also been lately built, which forms a pretty object in these grounds; several other objects of interest are also to be seen dispersed in various parts, which are considered superior to any other gardens in the neighbourhood of hamburgh, and are consequently much frequented every sunday by visitors, as on that day it is open to the public. we were obliged to take our departure from them much sooner than i could have wished, owing to a very heavy shower of rain which continued for a considerable time; and it being the only rain of any consequence that had fallen in the course of nine weeks, it was very agreeable to that part of the country. mr. baur has recently built in these grounds a very handsome house, according to the english style of building, but it is not yet inhabited. it was impossible not to admire the very superior and substantial manner in which the works are all executed in this gentleman's establishment. on my return from this place to flottbeck, i then proceeded back to hamburgh: when on my way i was much surprised to observe bricklayers in some places busy at work, although sunday. towards the evening, the rain had quite abated; i then made the best of my way for the botanic gardens, which are situated in the suburbs of the town, on a part of the ground which, during the reign of buonaparte, formed a strong fortification, but these have recently been demolished: they are now laid out as a public promenade for the inhabitants of the town, and likewise a botanical establishment for the cultivation of plants, and from its beautiful situation, it is certainly one of the best chosen sites for this purpose that has come under my observation. it appeared to be of considerable extent, and irregular form, sloping in part of it, down to the old rampart ditch, which now forms a handsome piece of water, bounding the garden, and separating it from the promenade on the opposite side, which being laid out as a pleasure ground, with clumps of trees and shrubs on the grass, when viewed from the botanic garden, gives a stranger the idea that it is a part of the botanical establishment, giving the latter a much more extensive appearance than it actually possesses. the extent of hothouses for the growth of exotic and cape plants, is rather limited, and did not seem to be more than about two hundred and fifty feet in length. i here observed some very fine specimens of _cacteæ_, and likewise several rare species of _palms_, such as the _zamia_, _frideriis_, _guilielmi_, _Ætensteinii_, _lehmanii_, _caffra_, and _horrida_. i also was much delighted by seeing in flower, a very pretty plant, called the _olendorfia procumbens_, which i believe has not yet made its appearance in england. a great portion of the ground in this establishment is occupied by trees and shrubs, which are cultivated for sale, for the support of the garden, consequently much ground is taken up by these, which ought to be assigned to single specimens. in the herbaceous ground, there is also an extensive collection of hardy perennial plants. august th. went at five o'clock in the morning, to see the fruit and vegetable market, which seemed to be well supplied with fruit and culinary vegetables. i observed large quantities of the new orleans plum, summer bergamot pear, and the black cherries, which appeared to be larger than the same sort (hertford blacks,) grown in this country. the _haricot bean_, is also in great repute in germany, and certainly deserves to be more extensively cultivated in this country, than it hitherto has been, as it forms an excellent substitute for the _french bean_ or the _scarlet runner_, which is cultivated here in preference. after seeing the fruit and vegetable market, i next proceeded to view the promenade which surrounds the greater part of the town, and adds greatly to the comfort of the inhabitants, as well as to the beauty and scenery of the immediate vicinity of hamburgh. this promenade is laid out very tastefully with numerous clumps of trees and shrubs, various capacious walks leading to different points of view, and objects around the town, sloping towards the old rampart ditch, which is now formed into a handsome irregular piece of water, which enlivens the scenery, and gives the promenade an appearance equal to any pleasure ground in this country. the side facing the town of altona, is really beautiful; the space of ground leading from the hamburgh gate, at the altona side of the town, is very picturesque, especially as we approach towards the harbour or docks, whither we are guided by a broad walk, leading to a high projection, or point of view, where we have a delightful prospect of the shipping on the elbe, with its surrounding scenery for several miles in extent. the formation of this promenade was commenced about sixteen years ago, is now annually progressing, and advancing towards completion, under the superintendance of mr. altuman, who has displayed great taste, in his arrangement of the walks, clumps of trees, and shrubs, as well as the formation of the water. the _alster lake_, is situated at the north side of the town, extending about twelve miles in that direction, and adds considerably to the beauty of the scenery in that neighbourhood. it also contributes greatly to the convenience of the town, as numerous boats, with various commodities, are brought to hamburgh on its surface. the promenades leading to the town of altona, are also deserving of notice; long avenues intersecting each other are here formed, by double rows of the lime, elm, and poplar trees, with large spaces of grass lawn, intervening betwixt them. after making a tour round the promenade, i next proceeded to view the principal parts of the town, and its churches, which are very splendidly fitted up. the streets of hamburgh are narrow and paved with round stones, which are not very agreeable to those unaccustomed to walk upon them; the most fashionable part of the town is the side next the alster lake, which is much frequented in the evenings. after getting my passport examined and signed, and securing a place in the diligence for berlin, i next accompanied mr. booth the seedsman, (brother to the nursery man,) in a drive round the outskirts of the town, where there are some pretty villas, and also various tea gardens, which, although a week day, appeared to be well attended. i was rather surprised to find at o'clock in the afternoon, a large concourse of ladies and gentlemen assembled in front of a small theatrical performance, which it appeared was the daily practice in that part of the country, the ladies being occupied sewing and knitting, and others drinking coffee. the town of hamburgh is said to contain above a hundred thousand inhabitants, and they certainly appeared to me to be in a very flourishing state. in short the general appearance and respectability of the inhabitants, that prevailed throughout the town and its vicinity was very striking. at eight o'clock in the evening, i took my departure from hamburgh, by the _schnell-post_, (diligence) for berlin, which was accomplished in one day and two nights travelling; here i had a good specimen of diligence _expedition_, especially for the first eight hours, being placed in one of the bye chaises, which is only calculated to hold four passengers, and is of much less dimensions than the main diligence, and much lighter; i fully expected every moment to be upset, as a great part of this road between hamburgh and boisenburgh, is full of large deep ruts that kept us completely on the rock for many miles, but after we passed the latter town, we then had an excellent road, yet the speed of our crawling conveyance was but very little increased. the roads throughout all the prussian territories that i have travelled on, appeared to be in excellent repair. august th. arrived at a small town called _ludwigslust_, about one o'clock, where we dined, and stopped nearly an hour, which enabled me to make a hasty visit to the grounds, attached to the beautiful palace of the grand duke of mecklenburgh, who generally resides here. in front of the palace are pretty jets of water, but the most imposing sight, is a fine avenue of limes, that leads from a large piece of lawn adjoining the palace; the avenue appeared to be nearly a mile in length, and had several walks branching from the right and left, through a shrubbery, or rather plantation, where there were also several small pieces of water. close to the palace is an old orangery, with some good trees standing in front of it. at a short distance, and nearly opposite to the palace, is a handsome building, called the "augusta villa," with an extensive piece of pleasure ground, laid out after the english mode of gardening, with numerous clumps of trees, and shrubs dispersed on the lawn; the walks and grounds appeared to be in very good order, but i was unable to examine the extent of the collection of plants that it contained. in the vicinity of ludwigslust, there were several orchards, and large pieces of ground under vegetable culture. the country from this town as far as warnow, was rather more varied than that we previously passed, but the soil appeared light and sandy, and scotch firs, the only trees observed in the plantations in view. at warnow our luggage was examined by the police, and our passports demanded, and detained until we arrived in the town of perlebergh, when they were again examined, and then returned to us. august th. arrived at half past three, a. m. at nauen, a small town about twenty five english miles from berlin; this place appeared conspicuous, from the number of small flour mills, situated in the river havel, which passes close to the town. about o'clock in the morning, we had reached to a small town, called spandau, which is said to contain about inhabitants, and appeared to be strongly fortified: it is only ten miles distant from berlin, where we happily arrived at about o'clock in the morning. as we approached the city, the country looked more cheerful, and in a better state of cultivation, the soil also was of a more fertile quality, and trees and plantations more numerous. i was very much pleased by observing growing by the road side, several species of alpine plants which are not easily to be met with in this country, in an indigenous state. the _gentiana pneumonanthe_, appeared in great abundance, and with its brilliant blue flowers was to me pleasingly conspicuous; but the diligence, although slow, was yet too fast to allow me time to procure a few specimens. on passing the magnificent palace of charlottenburg, i was much struck with its extensive appearance, and fine park, leading from it all the way to berlin, through the brandenburg gate, and along the linden or lime tree walk, to the splendid university, armoury, museum, and other large buildings, and handsome bridges, with the statues placed on them, its magnificent palaces, which all appear in view from the diligence, by this the hamburgh line of road, and to the eye of a stranger has a grand effect, giving him the idea of a great and noble city, by seeing so many magnificent buildings immediately as he enters the town. within a few stages of berlin i met with mr. parker, bookseller, from oxford, travelling in the main diligence, where i joined him; on our arrival in the city, we took up our abode, in the st. petersburgh hotel, after breakfast we separated, he in search of books, while i went to visit the royal botanic gardens at schoenburgh, which are situated about three english miles from berlin, where i was much gratified by the many fine specimens of plants that i saw. having letters of introduction to m. otto, from sir w. hooker and dr. lindley, as well as from his old friend mr. hunneman, i experienced the greatest attention from him, he took great pains in pointing out to me the various new and curious plants in this extensive collection. there were some very fine species of _palms_, in great beauty, nearly reaching to the top of the hothouse, which is about thirty feet in height. the _latania borbonica_, was particularly fine, and had attained nearly twenty five feet in height, its foliage or fronds extending from ten to twelve feet on each side from its stem. the _gomutus saccharifer_, had also reached to the height of twenty five feet, and numerous other choice specimens of the palmæ, were in an equally healthy and luxuriant state, and of little less dimensions than those specified. the _aristolochia brasiliensis_ was particularly fine, covered with long beautiful speckled flowers, that extended over a large part of the rafters. many new and fine specimens of the _gesneras_ were also in flower; they appeared different from any that i had previously seen in this country. some of the _melaleucas_; in the conservatory had grown to the height of nearly forty feet; the _magnolia grandiflora_, which requires the protection of the conservatory during the winter months was now covered with fine large flowers. numerous other species of new holland plants, had grown to an amazing height in the conservatory. the hothouses in this garden are placed in several separate ranges, and are very substantially built in comparison to our erections in england. the quantity of timber employed in the rafters is immense, but giving them a very heavy appearance; yet i have rarely met with a more healthy collection of plants anywhere; they may be considered the most extensive on the continent of europe. in short, i never before saw so many plants cultivated in pots. the numerous species of new holland and cape _genera_ were quite astonishing, as well as the hardy and alpine species. as to the cacteæ, there can be no hesitation in saying that the collection in these gardens of this curious tribe of plants really comprises the most beautifully grown specimens that i have ever seen; the different species that have grown to a considerable size have a very interesting appearance, particularly the _mammillaria_ and _echinocactus_ tribes; with their numerous spines and angles, they form a pleasing object either in or out of flower. m. otto has long been celebrated for his ardent love to this curious tribe of plants, and he certainly has succeeded in forming a valuable collection. the species of _ferns_ in these gardens are likewise very numerous, and there are many very fine specimens amongst them, which have grown to a great size. i could not but admire the very tasteful manner in which the cape and new holland plants were arranged out of doors in the summer months, and which were neatly plunged to the rims of the pots, to prevent them from being blown about by the wind. the _bignonia radicans_ formed a very prominent object against the end wall of one of the hothouses; the luxuriance and brilliancy of its flowers far surpassed any that i had previously seen. a fine specimen of the _laurus indica_, which must have been fully twenty feet in height, was standing out of doors, and obliged to be cut down, as it was getting too high for the house in which it stood in the winter season. the _robinia pseudacacia_, _inermis_ and _tortuosa_ were both splendid trees, which ornamented the grass lawn. the _magnolia acuminata_, also a beautiful specimen, as well as the _quercus palustris_, and _rubra_; both had attained a great size, and were handsome trees, as well as several other species of this genus. mr. otto having kindly requested mr. w. brackenridge, who had been for some time from scotland, residing in the neighbourhood of berlin, and was then employed in the botanic gardens, to accompany me the following day to such places as he considered most deserving of notice, i arranged with him to be ready betwixt six and seven o'clock in the morning, to proceed to the different gardens. august th. we started at seven o'clock in the morning, to the royal gardens at charlottenburg palace, which are situated about four english miles from berlin. the grounds attached to this royal palace, are said to contain four hundred english acres, laid out with various walks, clumps of trees and shrubs, as well as several pieces of water, embracing some very fine views from different points notwithstanding its being a flat surface, but it is much diversified by trees, bridges, and sheets of water that intersect the lawn. there are several bridges leading across the stream to the most ornamental and picturesque parts. the palace is also seen to great advantage from several points in the grounds. a very fine specimen of the _quercus palustris_ was in great beauty on the grass. i also saw some very large trees of the _populus alba_, which were considerably larger than any tree of this species that i had previously seen. m. fintelman, the superintendant of the royal gardens, pointed out to us a very complete _fructiferum_, that he had lately formed in these grounds, comprising a collection of all the hardy fruits. nearly adjoining to the palace, is a very handsome little flower garden, lately executed for the growth of the dwarf flowering perennials and annuals. i was much pleased by an arbour formed with the different species of cape and new holland plants, that are rather flexible in their growth; the pots in which the plants grew, were all plunged round the back, the branches tied closely to it and thickly covered, producing a great variety of foliage, and pleasing effect, and having the appearance of growing there permanently throughout the season. opposite to this botany bay, or cape arbour, is a pretty summer house, which is chiefly composed of reeds. in the centre of the flower garden, there are various posts with iron rods extended from them for the training of creepers. again, at the extremity, is an artificial grass bank, considerably elevated above the flower beds, planted with the dwarf china rose, which has a very good and natural effect. the orange-house is an oblong building, of great length, with opaque roof and backwall, upright lights only in the front, completely covered with grape vines, having a very fine crop of fruit all over them. the orange trees were all in excellent health, some of them bearing separately nearly two hundred fruit; there are about three hundred of these trees cultivated here. i also saw a fine variety of dahlias, and various other beautiful flowering plants in great perfection; these dahlias are fully as good as any i had seen in england; great attention is paid to these flowers by m. fintelman, who took great delight in pointing out the various objects most worthy of notice in these grounds. having devoted several hours to the inspection of this extensive establishment, we then took our leave of m. f. and proceeded back to berlin, when i had another opportunity of observing more fully the various improvements, that are now going forward in the thier-garten, or park, which extends from the royal palace of charlottenburg, to the brandenburg gate. this park is considered one of the finest in europe, and is now undergoing extensive alterations, the grounds forming in several places so as to harmonize with the english style of landscape gardening; numerous walk and rides leading in various directions, with groups of sculpture, make this an interesting promenade for the public, by whom it is much thronged, particularly in the evenings. it is approached from berlin by the brandenburg gate, which cannot fail to attract the stranger's notice. it has a most magnificent appearance; on the top of this gate stand the celebrated bronze horses, removed by buonaparte to paris, but were again replaced by the prussians in their original site. in front of the royal museum, is a very handsome marble vase, which measures about sixty four feet in circumference, and four feet in depth; a handsome fountain is also playing, throwing the water to a great height. the ground floor of the museum is occupied as a sculpture gallery, which contains numerous statues, and busts; but it appeared to me to be deficient of the finer groups. i was however much pleased with the beautiful imitation marble columns of various colours, which have a polish equal to the original. the picture gallery is above that devoted to the sculpture, and i could not but admire the beautiful state of preservation of the paintings, and their very admirable arrangement. from hence we proceeded to the nursery grounds of m. bouschie, which are not of much extent, nor yet is there much for the horticulturist to admire, except some very fine specimens of the _cacteæ_ (_opuntia_) tribe; some of the species are from eight to ten feet in height. after visiting this nursery, we then proceeded to the forcing gardens of m. bouschie, who grows a large quantity of pine apples and peaches for the berlin market; the pine apples were very small, and much inferior to our english grown fruit; the crop of peaches was very abundant, but not of a large size, the trees old, and the hothouses of a very inferior description. we next proceeded to the nursery garden of m. touissaint, which appeared to contain a much better collection of the cape and new holland plants, than any of the other nurseries i had previously seen in berlin. here was a good collection of the more hardy species of _rhododendrons_; the forcing of flowers is likewise extensively practised in this establishment, and the grounds in very good order. i next visited the nursery ground of m. mathieu, where there were some good specimens, but none that i had not previously met with. august th. went at six o'clock in the morning to see the fruit and vegetable market, but was rather disappointed in observing so very inferior a supply in comparison with what is to be seen in covent garden market. in fact for some time i thought that i had gone to the wrong place, as the market is held every alternate day in two different parts of the town; but on enquiry i found it was seldom better supplied. large quantities of grapes grown out of doors, or on trellis, were in the market; also a pretty good supply of peaches, but these were of a small size. i only observed one solitary pine apple, about one pound weight. the mode of preserving the fish, which were also brought to the market where the fruit and vegetables were exposed for sale, was new to me. they are kept alive in water in oval shaped wooden tubs or vessels, and each sort is kept separate. large quantities of game, poultry, butcher's meat, as well as cart-loads of hay and straw, are found abundantly in the market. after making a tour through the principal parts of the town, and getting my passport signed by the police and english ambassador, i made a second visit to mr. otto, and also then called on dr. kloytch, to whom i had a letter of introduction from sir w. hooker. dr. kloytch has the charge of the royal herbarium, which is situated opposite and nearly adjoining the botanic gardens, containing several apartments for dried specimens of all the plants that flower in the royal botanic gardens, which are gathered and preserved as they appear in flower. attached to the royal herbarium house is a piece of pleasure ground, one side of which is enclosed by a good brick wall that has projecting piers, betwixt which grape vines are trained, and confined to the spaces of about twelve feet between the projecting piers; each sort is thus prevented from intermixing with another; a wooden pailing enclosing another part of this garden is likewise adapted to the same purpose. dr. kloytch was once a pupil of sir w. hooker's at glasgow, and is considered an eminent botanist, he has certainly formed a very natural arrangement of the different species in the genus _ericæ_, arranged according to the form and structure of the flower. he shewed me several native specimens of this genus that i have not yet seen in england, but seeds of which i hope to receive from him before long. i was much gratified by the excellent method he described to me, in preserving the specimens of _fungi_, which appears to be the most effectual mode of drying these plants that i have yet seen. after looking over various specimens in the herbarium, dr. kloytch accompanied me to the botanic gardens, where i again saw mr. otto, and was enabled to see more minutely the extent of this noble collection of plants. it is proper to observe that the space of ground allotted for this garden, is not sufficiently large for such an extensive collection of plants. many of the oaks and several other fine trees are too much crowded, and not seen to advantage. after examining all that i wished to see here, mr. otto, dr. kloytch, and mr. brackenridge, accompanied me into berlin, where we passed through another fine part of the "_thiergarten_," and being joined by mr. cuming, the celebrated zoologist, we spent a very pleasing evening in the discussion of botanical pursuits, and the cultivation and beauty of the _cacteæ_ in the berlin gardens. august th. left berlin at seven o'clock in the morning for potsdam, where i arrived at eleven o'clock in the forenoon, a distance of eighteen english miles. every stranger must be forcibly struck with the scenery as he approaches potsdam, particularly in passing prince charles's villa and grounds, with the view of the handsome bridge lately erected across the river havel, at this side of the town expanding itself to a very capacious sheet of water. on my arrival at potsdam i proceeded to the royal gardens at _sans-souci_, which are situated about one english mile distant. having a letter of introduction from m. otto to m. linne, the principal director, i was disappointed in not finding him at home. free access was afforded to the various departments, and i then made the best use of my time in examining the different gardens attached to this residence, which required considerable diligence to get through a portion of the departments. i first inspected the kitchen garden, which is very extensive, and contains several ranges of low houses, and pits, for the forcing of cherries, plums, and apricots, with a good collection of standard fruit trees, as well as the walls being well stocked. the length and breadth of the principal range of houses in this garden, is feet long, and about feet in width; the upright sashes are eight feet high, placed in a slanting position; the roof-lights were about six feet long, but these lights were at this time all removed from the house, the trees being planted as standards in the interior border; the sashes are removed as soon as the fruit is gathered, in order to expose the trees to the full effect of the atmosphere. in another garden at a short distance from this vegetable one, there are numerous other ranges of hothouses for the forcing of fruits, which are in great request for the royal table. the structures here used for this purpose are about six feet high in front, and about ten feet in width; the length of the roof sashes were from nine to ten feet. in these houses the flues are placed at the back, running parallel to the backwall. some of the houses are heated by hot-water pipes, rather of a novel construction, and i much fear not calculated to give any great command of heat; they consist of two round copper pipes, about two inches only in diameter, which run parallel along the front of the house about two feet apart from each other. the peach trees are planted inside the house, within one foot of the front wall, and are trained perpendicular to the trellis, to the height of six feet, being as high as the upright glass. a rider is then carried in general, close under the roof lights, trained to a lath trellis which is nailed to the underside of the rafter. as soon as the frosty nights are over, the houses are generally stripped of the sashes, and the trees and fruit left fully exposed to the sun and weather, while the fruit is maturing; but such fruits as are wanted at an early period, are of course not thus exposed. i here observed various trees of plum, cherry, and apricot, thus treated, a more congenial mode of treatment, than by having recourse to pots or tubs, as is in general practised in this country, especially where there can be houses spared for this purpose, as the trees will get established in the ground, and be enabled to produce a more abundant crop and larger fruit than if their roots were confined to a small space for nourishment. i also saw here a great quantity of very fine melons, all trained over moss, and at this season these also were exposed to the weather. the appearance of the fine terraces in front of sans-souci palace, gave me more gratification than anything of the kind that i had previously seen. this palace, originally erected by _frederic the great_, is now a favourite summer residence of the crown prince. it is situated so as to command a most beautiful view of the surrounding country, with six tier of terraces in front of it, each terrace falling about twelve feet under another towards the south from the palace. along the top are flower borders and broad gravel walks, with a row of very fine orange trees placed along the edge of the gravel walk on each of the terraces, which give them a magnificent appearance. against these walls are trained principally grape vines, provided with a frame in front for covering them with glass; peaches and apricots are likewise here grown. in the centre of each terrace is a noble flight of steps thirty-six feet wide at the bottom, but at the top the width is only fifteen feet; containing in each from twenty-five to twenty-seven steps. the view of these from the avenue or road by m. lennie's house, is really grand: the different flights of steps from this point of view appear to form one connected tier leading to the palace, which, with its magnificent orange trees and groups of sculpture, strike the eye of every stranger with admiration. i here congratulated myself on being alone, and left to examine and take the dimensions of the various objects, without being hurried. at a short distance from the lower terrace is an oval basin of water, surrounded by a grass lawn and a gravel walk, or rather carriage drive; and on the exterior side of the circular sweep of the gravel, are placed twelve large statues. this basin was originally intended for a fountain; the reservoir for supplying it was formed by frederic the great on an eminence on the north side of sans-souci palace, where it must be several hundred feet above the level of the basin of water where the fountain was intended to be placed. the effect from the palace windows and from several other points of view, if it had been completed, would have been very magnificent when the water was playing. at a short distance from the palace is another large building, which was occupied by a part of the establishment; in front is a large piece of pleasure ground, in which are placed also a number of very fine orange trees; one of them, pointed out to me, is named after _frederic the great_, his majesty being a great admirer of these trees, insomuch, that during the war he took possession of all the best that came in his way, and sent them to his royal gardens at potsdam. the head of this tree, named frederic the great, was equal to one of our ordinary sized portugal laurels, its branches extend over seventeen yards of ground in diameter. i should imagine there must be fully trees grown in this establishment, all of large dimensions. the soil in which they are grown consists of a black sandy loam, well incorporated with cow-dung and rotten leaf mould, with a mixture of bone dust, in some cases horn shavings. the houses for the protection of the orange trees in the winter season, are simply a long range or ranges of red tiled roofed buildings, with merely upright lights in the front or south side, which are provided with wooden shutters that are closed during frosty weather. the flues run along in the floor of the house, and are not calculated to give out much heat, but the roof and back wall being opaque, and the front furnished with shutters, little heat is required for preserving the trees from the frost. they are generally turned out of doors in the month of may, and not taken in again until october. arranged along with the orange trees i observed a very fine specimen of the _nerium oleander_, covered with blossom, also several fine plants of the pomegranate, covered with flowers. the figs were also in prolific state against a wall and growing in light sandy loam. at the opposite end of the palace is situated the picture gallery, which opens into another garden department, with hornbeam hedges, and numerous box edging scrolls; but this piece of ground is evidently not much attended to: the walks, flowers, borders, are not in good order. the collection of paintings, however, in the gallery will infinitely repay the visitor for the disappointment he may experience in the badly kept garden. this gallery is two hundred and fifty-two feet long, and thirty-six feet wide; the dome and cove ceiling are richly gilt, the floor and walls inlaid with marble. the paintings are very numerous, and in beautiful preservation. those taken from this gallery by buonaparte and again replaced in the spot they originally occupied, are particularly pointed out to the visitor. i observed on each side of the door, as we entered this gallery, two very fine marble statues, one of _diana_, the other of _louis_ xvi. a straight avenue or drive leading from the potsdam road, in a direct line by the front of the terraces at sans-souci, to the new palace, is of considerable length. at the extremity of this avenue is the magnificent palace built by _frederic_, after the completion of the wars in which he was engaged. it is said to have been erected with the english subsidy; however this may be, it is undoubtedly a very magnificent building. the grounds leading from this and sans-souci palace are all laid out as pleasure-ground, with numerous walks and roads, leading in various directions, which are very well kept; but the grass lawn here is rather rough, and not much attended to. the quantity of sculpture placed throughout these grounds is truly astonishing; at almost every intersection of the walks, various statues or busts are placed, and likewise in different recesses that are formed out of the road and walk edges. along the front of the new palace, facing towards potsdam, is arranged a row of very fine orange trees, with several pieces of sculpture. the garden ground extends considerably to the north of the palace, where it is much varied, and commands an extensive view of the adjoining scenery and country. the belvidere and terraces here are also prominent objects. i was much pleased with a piece of trellissing that surrounded the oval spot of ground at the south side of the palace. this trellis projects about twenty-one feet on one side, and forms an oblong square about forty-two feet long. the side next the oval consists of eight round columns, formed by thin flat iron bars, opposite to which are openings to correspond, that look into a running stream of water, that separates the park or pleasure ground from a piece of kitchen-garden ground on the opposite side. the peculiarity of this trellissing is in its handsome projecting cornice, with columns at nine feet apart, formed by the flat iron bars. arched recesses are likewise made between these columns, about five feet wide, and nine feet in height. the entire height of this trellis with the cornice is twelve feet, and was evidently originally gilt, but it is now in a corroded and decaying state; not a vestige of paint is even to be seen upon it. at a very short distance from this splendid palace is a piece of vegetable ground enclosed with formal clipt hornbeam hedges, which ought to be removed, as it disfigures that part of the grounds, and is much too close to the palace. the walks and lawn adjoining were in pretty good order, especially the former. leading from the palace to a royal chateau that has been lately erected, is a very fine carriage drive, winding through a flat piece of ground, which is laid out principally after the english fashion. this residence is also inhabited by one of the royal princes. i was much pleased with the quantity of grapes growing on a double terrace, or rather covered walk, which was completely crowded with vines and its fruits; the lower walk ran alongside of a wall, and the trellis and arches projected about twelve feet from it, and were twelve feet in height. over the top of this wall is another trellissed walk, which is also completely covered with grapes; it leads up to the palace windows, and is about two hundred feet in length. adjoining it, and in front of the windows, is a small flower-garden, elevated above the ground level i should imagine about twelve feet: we ascend to it by a flight of steps at the furthest end; the side next the palace is nearly on the same level as the window sills. there are several fountains in it, and a few clumps of the _petunia violacea_, but nothing else of interest. connected with this terrace garden, but on the ground level, is a piece of ground laid out in various beds, principally furnished with dahlias. here is a handsome marble fountain or column, and a well formed sheet of water. about three hundred yards from this spot is _charlottenhoff_, a handsome erection, which is used occasionally as a tea or coffee room. this building is surrounded by numerous walks, and columns with vines trained against them. ascending a flight of steps, that leads to a point of view looking down upon a fountain, playing with great force. this spot is tastefully laid out, and in very neat order. several other ornamental erections are placed in these grounds, but to attempt to describe them all would require an actual residence for some weeks. the royal palace of potsdam is a magnificent building, in the form of a quadrangle. the interior apartments contain numerous objects of interest, which as being highly estimated by _frederic the great_, are particularly pointed out to the stranger. the arm chair which he was in the habit of using, is still in a good state of preservation; i was much pleased with the magnificence of the rooms; the paintings and furniture are very splendid, and in good preservation. the ground attached to this palace consists of a flat surface, extending towards the south, as far as the river havel, and is laid out in clumps of trees, various walks; the space next the palace is a larger piece of gravel, which is daily used for the exercise of the military. adjoining it are numerous avenues of horse chesnuts, and busts of ornamental sculpture placed along the first row of trees, as well as some in various other positions. opposite the south, or principal front of the palace, is an oblong piece of water, in the middle of which is placed a noble group of neptune and his sea horses, which has a very grand effect, but the water is kept rather low and filthy, which might be easily remedied, as the river havel passes within a few yards of it. by the edge of the river, in a marshy spot of ground, i observed a large quantity of the _hydrocharis morsus-ranæ_ (frogbite,) and _stratiotes aloides_, (water soldier,) growing in great abundance. i should however have observed that the fine marble group of neptune was much injured by the french army, during the time they occupied potsdam. in short it is really grievous to see the depredations that were committed by that army on the sculpture about potsdam and sans-souci, whilst they resided there. the soldiers for amusement were in the habit of firing musket balls at the different groups and statues. august th. left potsdam at eight o'clock in the morning, for the _pfauen insel_, or peacock island, where i had appointed to meet mr. cuming at nine o'clock. we had to cross a branch of the river havel to get to the island, which contains a collection of plants and animals somewhat resembling the zoological gardens in regent's park. i was here more fortunate in finding m. fintelman at home, than i was at sans-souci, and having a letter of introduction to him from his uncle, who superintends the royal gardens at charlottenburg, i found him remarkably attentive, and an intelligent young man. i was here surprised to find the _robinia pseudacacia_ had attained seven feet in circumference, at four feet from the ground, the branches of which extend over thirty two yards of ground in diameter. i also observed some fine specimens of the oak, which were little inferior to our largest english oaks. the conservatory is an oblong building, about one hundred and twenty feet by forty, and forty two feet high, and consists of several tiers of front sashes, with a span roof, the north side being a dead wall with a gallery for resting in behind it, which commands a full view of the plants underneath. i was much gratified, by the very flourishing state of the plants, and their remarkable neatness. a very fine collection of the _palmæ_, is cultivated in this stove or conservatory, some of which have made a rapid progress in their growth. the _latania borbonica_ measured twenty seven feet in height, spreading over a space of equal dimensions in diameter. i understood that his majesty the king of prussia frequently breakfasts in the summer season in this conservatory, under the shade of the palm fronds (or leaves). i remarked also the _pandanus utilis_ twenty three feet high; the _dracæna draco_, (dragon tree) had likewise grown thirty six feet high; _pandanus sylvestris_ thirteen feet in height, and eleven feet in diameter across its branches; the _bambusa arundinacea_, forty feet high; a shoot of this cane, grew seven feet six inches in the course of three weeks; the _corypha umbraculifera_, a very magnificent specimen. the _latania borbonica_ is placed in the centre of the conservatory; the tub in which it grows is completely concealed by planting around it various _ferns_, and other low growing plants, which are tastefully arranged, and form a nice little stage round the tub, having a very neat appearance, with the walk round it, which shews the palm to the best advantage. opposite to this spot is a recess in which is placed a small fountain tastefully decorated by _ferns_ that succeed well in a shady situation. there is likewise in this recess, a very handsome marble screen, richly carved and ornamented. the grounds are very judiciously laid out in various clumps of flowering shrubs and summer flowers, and were at this time in full perfection. one of the finest hydrangeas that i have seen, was in full bloom, and its large purple-blue flowers were very conspicuous. the grass lawn was in a much better state than any other that i had previously seen in germany, or even met with during my tour on the continent, and the whole garden ground very neatly kept. the island is said to contain about four hundred english acres. the erections for the different animals and birds are judiciously placed, and consist of handsome structures, arranged from two to three hundred yards or more apart; these apartments were kept remarkably clean and in good order. an extensive collection of beasts and birds are preserved in this establishment. the grounds are considerably varied, and some fine views are to be seen from several parts of it, as well as from the top of some prospect towers. the effect of the river havel, and surrounding plantations at the opposite sides, adds expressive features to this landscape. after seeing the various objects most deserving of notice, both in the botanical and zoological departments, we proceeded across the river, to the grounds of prince charles, still accompanied by m. fintelman; they were laid out, principally, in the english style, his royal highness being particularly partial to it. this spot consists of a great variety of surface, with several beautiful vistas, and is really very tastefully planted, and the grounds formed, and kept in very excellent order. the public road from berlin to potsdam passes close by the front of the grounds, and there is a low wall, with an invisible wire fence on the top of it, betwixt the road, where the views of the grounds are seen to most advantage. one side of them extends close to the havel, where a handsome summer house is erected, which commands a fine prospect of potsdam, the new bridge, and shipping, and likewise the scenery on the opposite side of the river, which is much varied. under this building are two colonnades covered with creepers, which have a very pretty effect. on the one side of a hill nearly opposite to this villa, is a new residence erecting for prince william; the views from it must be very extensive, as it is situated on a commanding spot. we next proceeded to the magnificent edifice called _marmorpallast_, or marble palace, which is situated at a very short distance from potsdam, and close to the margin of the havel. it is a splendid building, the greater part of which is constructed with marble. the cornice appeared to be about five or six feet deep; it is of white marble, as also is the base above the ground for several feet; the door and window jambs are likewise of the same material. the intervening spaces of the walls are built with red brick. the colonnade at the principal entrance consists of handsome marble columns. the pleasure-ground and gardens attached to it are said to contain two hundred and fifteen german acres of ground, throughout which are dispersed various clumps of trees and shrubs, with extensive walks and rides branching through it in different directions. these grounds are very flat, and have but little variety or picturesque appearance in them. the number of good exotics and new holland plants is considerable, as well as a very fine collection of healthy orange trees, with some fine specimens of hardy trees growing singly on the grass. i here observed the _juglans fraxinifolia_ bearing a number of good sized fruit. in the flower garden some good german stocks, then in full bloom. the borders and grass lawn were in a rough state. we next proceeded to sans-souci, mr. cuming not having previously seen it. i was delighted in having another opportunity of looking round this truly magnificent spot; and being accompanied by mr. fintelman, who kindly devoted the entire day in conducting us to the various objects best worth our notice, we proceeded through the grounds attached to sans-souci palace, and then to charlottenhoff, the new palace, &c., and were much gratified by the numerous objects of interest we had pointed out to us in the various places that we inspected. on our return to potsdam, we went to the top of breuchensberg, or hill of brewers, where a prospect tower is erected. the view from this spot is really grand in the extreme; we look down upon potsdam and the numerous palaces that are in its environs. sans-souci and the new palace are both prominent objects in view from this prospect; but the most pleasing features are the numerous small green islands that are formed by the river havel, near the bridge at potsdam; the intricacy and variety of outline of water, and the number of boats and small sailing vessels making their way to berlin through this place, form a pleasing sight. the evening was now drawing to a close, and little more remained to be seen by daylight. m. fintelman took his departure for the island of peacocks, and mr. cuming started in an hour after for berlin. i was thus again left alone to muse over the different objects that had occupied my attention during the day. august st. not having previously seen the pine-apple forcing department, i walked out early this morning to sans-souci, where this fruit is cultivated. i was rather surprised to find a great extent of low houses and pits devoted to the growth of the pine, without observing a single fruit amongst the whole stock that was scarcely worth cutting. there cannot be less than one thousand feet in length of houses and pits adapted to the pine-apple, and these varying from eight to twelve feet in width. the principal range was heated by smoke flues, and the plants plunged in saw-dust, with tan under; which practice is frequently adopted in this country, especially when tan is scarce. the young plants in the pits appeared pretty healthy, but such fruit as was fit for cutting, or advancing to maturity, would bear no comparison to our english produce. after satisfying myself with what was to be seen in this department, i returned to potsdam, from whence the diligence to dresden, my next place of destination, did not start till twelve o'clock. the time i had to spare before my conveyance came up, was employed in inspecting the town, which consists, it is said, of houses, and , inhabitants. the streets are in general very clean; one leading from the palace to sans-souci is inlaid with planks for the wheels of the different vehicles to run on, similar to the russian manner. i also saw in the vicinity a russian colony, which was inhabited by natives, sent as a present some years ago by the emperor to the king of prussia; they are now becoming pretty numerous, and their colony is extending. potsdam is intersected by various small canals, that lead from the havel, and are very convenient for the conveyance of turf and other materials by water carriage. the greater number of the houses are handsomely built; there was then erecting opposite to the palace a magnificent church. at the other end of this palace is an iron bridge, crossing the havel; the piers consist of stonework, there are eight arches, one of which is used as a drawbridge for the passing and repassing of boats going this way to berlin. this town is the principal depot for military, who are exercised daily in great numbers in front of the palace. at twelve o'clock the diligence arrived, when i took my departure in it for dresden. the road leading from potsdam to the latter town was lined on each side with fine poplar trees, of a considerable size, for several miles of the journey. the soil in this part of the country appeared to be a light sandy loam: the plantations were chiefly composed of the scotch fir; but close by the road side, in several places between potsdam and herzberg, were large quantities of plum trees, loaded with fruit. we arrived at herzberg at half-past ten o'clock; but owing to the darkness of the night i was unable to see, or form any opinion of the size of the town or quality of the houses. september st. at three o'clock in the morning we reached another small town, called elsterwerda, which was said to contain about inhabitants. the next stage we came to was grossenhayn, where we arrived at half-past five o'clock, a.m. this town is situated in the kingdom of saxony, and contains nearly inhabitants. at this stage we were transferred to another diligence. the country from grossenhayn to dresden is much more varied than any i had previously seen in germany. the scenery as we approach to dresden is very picturesque, both as regards distant views and variety of surface: when within a few miles of the town, we meet with a very fine avenue of lime trees, extending for a considerable distance, and then is continued by horse-chesnuts. on descending a hill, a fine prospect of dresden presents itself to the eye. the soil now appears more of a black colour, and less free from sand, than what i had previously observed. i also saw several beech trees intermixed with the scotch-fir. arrived at dresden, at nine o'clock a.m. after getting breakfast, i immediately proceeded to the house of professor hughes, who was then engaged, but mrs. hughes asked mr. west to accompany me to the principal gardens; this gentleman, a school colleague of lord cosmo russell, and an admirer of plants, very cheerfully accompanied me to several of the gardens in the vicinity of the town. we first proceeded to the botanic garden, belonging to the university, which is very limited in extent. i was however much pleased with the fine collection of cacteæ that are grown in this establishment, as well as a large collection of cape, and other green house plants. the number of species of hardy perennial plants in this small space of ground is truly astonishing; there is also a great variety of cape bulbs and _gramineæ_. the extent of glass is confined to a very long conservatory, stove, and several pits for _cacteæ_. having been introduced by mr. west to m. lehman, the superintendant of the garden, he accompanied us to the gardens of lieut. weber, situated at a short distance from the town, and considered the most extensive for glass and space, of any about _dresden_. i should imagine by its appearance there could not be above seven or eight english acres of ground under nursery culture. the collection of plants for sale comprises chiefly _camellias_, young orange trees, cape and new holland plants, many of the scarcer sorts of which i observed had been lately introduced to that establishment, from mr. low's nursery at clapton. a fine specimen of the uhria speciosa was in great vigour of health. a great variety of dahlias, and dwarf china roses in full flower were in these grounds. i was much pleased by the simple mode of grafting the _camellia_ and orange trees, which appeared to be very successful, and is generally practised by m. liebig the gardener, which method is what we term in this country crown grafting; by this mode the shoot or graft, after insertion in the stock, is only tied neatly to the stock, with a bit of worsted thread, and then sealed over as well as the top of the stock, by a little bees-wax, (without clay as practised here); when this operation is completed, the plants are put into a frame or pit, with a little moist heat, until the graft and stock begin to coalesce, when they are shortly afterwards gradually exposed to the air of the greenhouse. in this establishment there are several very good hothouses for plants. in one of the ranges is placed a circular shaped conservatory, heated by hot water, on rather a novel construction; these hot water pipes being formed into perpendicular columns, rising from the floor to the height of from ten to twelve feet. these pipes, thus constructed, gave out a great command of heat, and answered the original intention very satisfactorily. the plants in this nursery garden were very well grown, and all in a healthy state. i next visited the nursery of m. hofrath kreyssig, which is only a short distance from the botanic garden. i saw likewise some good kinds of greenhouse plants, as well as many rare species of the rhododendron tribe; the _rhododendron campanulatum_, a fine specimen; a collection of orchideous plants is also forming in this nursery garden. there are several small hothouses for the growth of cape and tropical plants, which are also cultivated for sale; but the space of ground is much too limited, as well as confined by houses to do justice to a collection of hardy species. after visiting these gardens and grounds, i took my leave of mr. west, to whom i was much indebted for the kind interest he took in the object i had in view, and who appears devotedly attached to plants and gardening. professor hughes having recommended me to see the chateau erected on the banks of the elbe by the late lord findlater, an english nobleman, i expected to have found some fine gardens, or collection of plants, but, to my surprise, on my arrival, i found it now occupied as a tea garden; it is much frequented by the inhabitants of dresden, in consequence of its romantic situation on the banks of the elbe, commanding a prospect of the country, studded with small villages situated in the valleys between the hills, or rather eminences; but these are not to be compared with our scotch mountains. along the elbe is a great extent of vineyard, which did not appear to be in a very prolific state, the soil being of a poor sandy texture. many pretty villas were also situated along these banks, which had very pleasant prospects from them. september nd. having agreed to meet mr. lehman early this morning, we proceeded to the catholic church, which belongs to the court, and is certainly a magnificent building, the interior richly ornamented, and well worth the stranger's notice; we next visited the protestant church, which is likewise a splendid erection. the museum and post office are also very magnificent buildings. i was however surprised at the appearance of the royal palace, which consists of a dark gloomy looking old fashioned residence, and with little in its exterior appearance, calculated to give a stranger the idea of its being the seat of royalty. through the assistance of mr. lehman, who procured tickets of admittance to the gallery of paintings, i was favoured with a sight of this celebrated collection, which is considered to be amongst the finest in europe, and is said to contain one thousand five hundred pictures; among so many there are undoubtedly some very splendid ones. on our return from the gallery, we passed through his majesty's coach-house, which must at least have contained no less than sixty different carriages; a very splendid one lately presented to the king by prince metternich, was pointed out to us. from hence we proceeded to the museum or repository of minerals, birds and animals. the collection of the feathered tribe in this establishment is particularly extensive; some very large blocks of petrified wood, that were much prized, were pointed out as remarkable curiosities. in one of the departments was a table four feet in diameter, of a solitary piece of wood of the _tamarindus indicus_, (tamarind tree.) in front of the building various orange trees are arranged along the edge of the walks. what is called _bruehl's_ garden is also deserving of notice; it forms a public promenade for the inhabitants, and is pleasantly situated, containing a picture gallery, which is denominated the gallery of duplicates. dresden is said to contain about , inhabitants, and is much admired for its fine houses and streets. it is considered by many as one of the finest towns in europe; but i must confess that in my opinion it is inferior to either berlin, munich, or brussels. it is situated on a flat spot of ground with the river elbe running through it; the bridge over which is said to be feet long. the arsenal is a large building, but i had no time to see it, as the diligence left this day at twelve o'clock for munich, and as these conveyances only go twice or three times a week at most from the principal towns throughout germany, the losing of an hour to see an object might detain one for two or three days. having taken my leave of mr. lehman, i seated myself in the diligence for munich, a journey which occupied us three days and three nights. the road winds along the river side from dresden to the first stage on our way to munich, and is very beautiful, the scenery much diversified, and resembling that of some of our scotch mountains; the plantations of forest trees comprise a mixture of silver fir, beech and scotch-fir. the hill and dale that continued for a considerable way along this line of road rendered the scenery very interesting and picturesque, and which appeared so to continue until it became quite dark, when all view of the country was lost. we passed through freyberg, a small town situated on the river mulde, and is said to be feet above the level of the sea. the next town or village that we came to was chimnitz, where we stopped for supper. september rd. arrived at one o'clock in the morning at zwickau, at which town the road from leipsic joins the one from dresden, where the diligences from both towns meet, and the passengers are transferred from the leipsic diligence to the one from dresden. whilst waiting for the vehicle getting ready to start, i was agreeably surprised to find mr. parker, seated at the same inn; he had arrived from leipsic by that diligence: when we parted at berlin we had no expectation of again meeting each other so soon. one of my fellow travellers from dresden was a frenchman, but he was evidently as awkwardly situated whilst travelling for want of a knowledge of the german language as i was myself; consequently we both kept mr. parker pretty busy in acting as an intermediate interpreter whilst we were together. the scenery about zwickau is beautifully varied with hill and dale, and woods, with a small river called the mulde running along by the bottom of the rocks. the houses are neatly built, and of considerable number, containing a population of from seven to eight thousand. the roads in the vicinity of this town are rather mountainous, but not so much so as in the preceding stages. the next small village that we passed through was plauen, where we arrived about seven o'clock in the morning: it is said to contain about inhabitants. we next proceeded to hof, where we arrived at ten o'clock, changed diligences, and had to stop for several hours before we could again get on our journey. on entering this town we passed by a large tea garden, situated on the side of a hill, at the bottom of which is a small river, that tends greatly to enliven the scenery. the town of hof is in the kingdom of bavaria, and the population is said to amount to , , living in handsomely built houses. the main street that leads through it i should imagine is nearly a mile in length, and very wide; there appeared to be a fair in the town on this day, which occupied a great part of this street. the cathedral is an ancient building; the entrance consists of a handsome gothic door, the walls of which must be about eighteen feet in thickness. the town-hall is likewise a fine erection, and the houses and streets appeared all in clean and neat order. from dresden to hof the country productions principally consist of agricultural produce; the potatoe and oats are extensively cultivated. a sharp frost this morning blackened all the potatoe tops. at one o'clock we got into a bavarian diligence, and proceeded to berneck, a small town surrounded with beautiful scenery, that much reminded me of the derbyshire rocks, to which in picturesque appearance it was fully equal. arrived next at bayreuth, at eight o'clock in the evening; it is a town of considerable size, said to contain , inhabitants. on the diligence driving up to the inn door we found the space in front of it completely covered with a military band, and a large concourse of people listening to their music; this band belonged to a cavalry regiment that was on its march through the town. we next started for nuremberg, where we arrived at half-past eight o'clock the following morning. september th. on our arrival at nuremberg, we found that we had to remain here for several hours before the diligence started again: we made the best use of our time, proceeding to st. laurence's church, a gothic building, the doors and windows richly ornamented with groups of sculpture and other carved work in bronze; the painted glass is very handsomely executed. this church was begun in and is a most magnificent building. the tabernacle consists of a beautifully carved and richly ornamented spire, executed in of carved stonework. although it has been converted into a protestant church, yet the catholic ornaments are still remaining. we next proceeded to view the catholic church, which is likewise a very splendid gothic building, erected in , and the exterior walls richly ornamented. in the market place, we were much gratified with a very pretty spiral fountain, richly carved, erected in . the town-house is also a very fine old structure, containing many good paintings in the large and small hall. the fresco paintings in the latter apartment are beautifully executed on the ceilings and walls, which are also highly ornamented by gilt mouldings. the paintings in the great hall consist of various pieces of fresco, by the celebrated albert durer. the triumphal car of the emperor maximilian, drawn by twelve horses, in beautiful fresco painting, and a very fair picture of the present king of bavaria, by byng of munich, is also to be seen here. from hence we went to the cathedral, in which is st. sebald's tomb, highly deserving of the stranger's notice. this church contains the oldest metal font in germany; it was formerly used in baptising the emperor's children. the saint's tomb, by fisher, is a masterpiece of workmanship, executed in ; there is also a curious figure of the artist himself. the tomb is a pretty gothic structure, cast in bronze, and the body of the saint enclosed in a silver coffin, under an elegant gothic canopy. we next proceeded to the picture gallery, which contains a good collection of paintings by german artists, in good preservation. from hence we went to the imperial castle, where there is growing a lime tree, _tilia europæa_, said to be seven hundred years old. i measured the girth of this tree, at four feet from the ground, and found it to be fifteen feet in circumference; it still appeared in a pretty healthy state. the dining room in this ancient castle, formerly used by the king, is of large dimensions, and contains a large number of old paintings, which are in good preservation; the rooms although uninhabited for the last four hundred years are still in good condition. from the windows in this castle we have a beautiful prospect of the town as well as of a considerable extent of country. on our return from hence we visited the house in which albert durer resided, which is now converted into a gallery for modern paintings, exhibited for sale, many of which appeared to be most beautiful pieces of art, and objects of great interest to numerous visitors who were then present admiring them. by this time it was drawing near the hour we had to start by the diligence. we made the best of our way back to the hotel, and got all ready by one o'clock, the appointed hour of our departure from nuremberg, which is a town of considerable size, containing a population of upwards of thirty thousand people. in the environs are large tracts of ground under vegetable culture, but i was unable to learn of the existence of any botanic garden or good nursery establishment in the immediate neighbourhood. large fields of tobacco were cultivated in the suburbs, as well as extensive plantations of the _hop_, which appeared very prolific. the soil we passed from nuremberg to munich was more sandy than it previously had been; the scenery is also more flat and less varied than in our preceding stages. sept. . arrived at pfaffenhofen, at six o'clock in the morning. near to this town large quantities of the _genista germanica_, were growing close by the road-side, also the _dipsacus laciniatus_, in great abundance. approaching nearer to munich, i observed growing in a plantation the _vaccinium vitis idæa_, in great plenty, reminding me, from its occurrence, of the mountains of scotland. the scenery in the vicinity of munich, is of a great sameness, but the tyrolese mountains appearing in the distance considerably add to its picturesque effect. we reached munich at eleven o'clock, where we found some difficulty in getting apartments, the hotels being then so full of strangers. in the afternoon i was accompanied by mr. parker to the botanic garden, which is situated close to the town, having a very handsome entrance with ionic columns, and neat iron railing, which encloses a large part of this garden. the _arboretum_ of trees and shrubs is confined to the two ends of the garden, it being an oblong square, but the south side is much the longest. the space of ground is very confined for the growth of large trees; the entire space devoted for this purpose is not an acre of ground, consequently the different sorts are much crowded together. the interior of the garden, in front of the range of hot-houses, is laid out in numerous oblong squares, with gravel walks intervening; in the centre walk are three round basins of water. these squares are again divided into beds for the herbaceous plants, wherein a good collection are cultivated. in one of the divisions there is an _aquarium_ for aquatic plants, which consists of oblong square troughs, lined with brickwork for retaining the water; these are about two feet wide by two deep, and an intervening space of ground, of from six to eight feet, in which are grown such species as do not require the water: but a damp situation, notwithstanding, is requisite: in the apartments where the hardy perennial plants are cultivated, are numerous apple trees, all in full bearing; these ought to be eradicated and their places supplied with ornamental trees or shrubs. apple-trees, however useful, are not in character with a botanical collection; more especially as the apple is so common by the road sides through germany; a collection of this fruit should find a place elsewhere than in the botanic garden, where the space of ground is already much too limited for the collection of plants. a lofty range of hothouses about five hundred feet in length, has a very good effect; they are only furnished with upright sashes in the front, the back and roof opaque, the latter finished in the semi-cove form, and neatly plastered. i was surprised to find the palms looking remarkably healthy, notwithstanding these dark houses, many of the species had really grown from twenty to twenty five feet in height. the collection of the brazilian species is very numerous, but many of them appeared drawn and too much crowded for want of light and room in the pits. the cape and new holland kinds were then out of doors, very healthy and well grown. i was much pleased also with some very fine specimens of _cacteæ_, the variety of which is reckoned but little inferior to that of berlin. in short, there is an extensive assortment of the various species of _succulentæ_ in this establishment. the director, m. seitz, having been long a collector, has succeeded in forming a great variety of this curious tribe; he was extremely liberal in parting with any of his duplicates. sept. th. m. seitz having the kindness to accompany us to the royal gardens at nymphenburg, which are situated about four english miles from munich; we proceeded thither immediately after breakfast, and found that these grounds required no little time to make even a hasty inspection. the french garden in front of the palace consists of straight and broad gravel walks, with long stripes of grass lawn, and borders about twelve feet wide of shrubs running parallel to the avenues of horse-chesnut trees. along the edges of the walks various vases and other ornamental sculpture are arranged; leading from these walks, a straight piece of water, more in the form of a canal, than an ornamental lake, runs parallel in two different directions; the one parallel to the palace, is crossed by two wooden bridges, which are prominent features from several points of view. the centre, or main canal, leads in a straight direction for a considerable distance, and is broken by several very pretty cascades, and handsome marble basins, as well as different groups or figures of sculpture. the water comes rushing over the marble ledges with great force, and was certainly the brightest and purest that i had ever previously seen. there are also some very fine jets in which the water is propelled to a great height by machinery. a well formed lake nearly adjoins the bathing house, said to occupy about fifty bavarian acres of ground, the outline of which is much varied with different projections of land, islands, and the banks of turf tastefully planted with trees and shrubs, forms a very pleasing contrast. a curious bark is placed on this sheet of water, consisting of two small boats, with a platform, on which is placed a chair, so that a person may sit and read, or fish, and at the same time guide this boat by his feet, that are resting generally on the paddles. close by the margin of this lake, is a very pretty circular temple, with a figure of apollo, that forms a prominent object from several points of view. a small cascade passing under a ledge of rockwork, on the top of which is placed a marble figure of pan, and a goat at his feet, forms another object of interest in this part. the grounds from the south west of the bathing house, (or pavilion, which is ornamented by paintings and statues) have been lately much improved, and are now considerably varied with different clumps of trees and shrubs, undulations and rockwork. the surface is naturally a flat, but art has, during the last three years, created great inequalities and alterations in this part of the grounds; the banks and undulations are very judiciously formed, the trees and shrubs tastefully grouped together; the walks and rides are of great extent, and very neatly kept and gravelled. the range of plant houses at nymphenburg is the most extensive and substantially built of any that i had previously seen in germany, about one thousand feet in length, and varying from twenty to twenty four feet in width, the height not exceeding twenty-eight feet. i was here surprised to find that the hothouse in which a fine collection of _palmæ_, and other brazilian plants were grown, was heated by very small hot water pipes, which i imagined were far too small to sustain the temperature of such a house, although the back and roof are opaque, and of course require considerably less artificial heat than if constructed with glass on all sides. the boiler that heats this house is about seven feet long, three deep, and three feet six inches wide, and consequently contains a large body of water, when once heated it gives out a great portion of caloric from its sides and surface, being placed at the back of the house, but in the interior, and concealed by the plants. the pipes branch right and left from the boiler and appeared to be only two inches in diameter, yet, i was informed, they were found quite sufficient for the heating of this conservatory. undoubtedly the boiler being so very large rendered pipes of greater dimensions unnecessary. the frost is, however, much more intense in germany than in england; the _lauristinus_, _arbutus_, _rhododendrons_, _portugal_ and _common laurel_, were cultivated at nymphenburg as green-house plants; they are too tender to endure the winters there. in front of this botanical range, or more directly opposite to the palm house, is an arboretum of hardy trees and shrubs, but the site, for that purpose, is badly chosen, and by far too contracted, and should have been selected in the pleasure ground, at some distance from these houses, where there is ample space, and would have formed an interesting feature. as at present the more common kinds of trees and underwood are the only hardy species of decoration in many parts of the ground. opposite to the east end of the range of plant houses is an oblong piece of ground, laid out in narrow beds by the edge of the walks, which are occupied with a collection of dahlias, and other herbaceous flowering plants. on our return from this botanical range we visited a small private garden, close by the palace, which has also a very pretty cascade at its extremity, and ornamented by sculpture. the palace of nymphenburg forms almost a semicircle of a large radius on the munich side, or principal front, but that facing the gardens is more of an oblong square, and in consequence of the numerous roofs appearing from the semicircular front, that are disconnected and of various elevation from the main building, it has more the appearance of a number of small villas, than of a royal residence, particularly as we approach it from munich, by the side of the straight canal that leads to the principal entrance. nearly opposite the centre of the palace on this side is a circuitous basin of water with a fountain in the centre and rockwork around it. this water is conveyed into the gardens, and must be of great extent from the appearance of the course it was running, which leads a considerable way towards munich. after our return from nymphenburg gardens, we proceeded to the english garden, which is said to contain about five hundred english acres of ground, and is a favorite promenade for the inhabitants of munich. this park, or pleasure ground, is rather of a flat surface, but much diversified by clumps of various trees and shrubs, and fine sheets of water, the margins of which are much varied, but unfortunately full of weeds. the drives and walks that lead through these grounds in different directions are very extensive, some of them being nearly five miles in length. the grounds adjacent to the queen's palace are very well kept, and deserving of notice; but a piece of water in view from it is very filthy, which is the more extraordinary, as it might be easily kept clean by turning into it a branch of the river that runs through these grounds. we observed some very fine specimens of the _juglans fraxinifolia_ with fruit on them, and very large trees of the _salix alba_, which were here in greater size than any i had ever seen. numerous clumps of various kinds of trees and shrubs are grouped together; but these are in most instances rather crowded, and not enough of lawn is seen to intervene between them. a handsome observatory was erecting, situated on an artificial mound, which, when finished, will command a fine prospect over these grounds. we also visited several of the churches. st. mary's church is very splendidly fitted up, and has handsome marble columns. in it is placed a very superior statue of eugene beauharnois. st. michael's church is likewise deserving of notice from the beautiful marble columns. the choirs of the different churches were this day all decorated with orange trees, _hydrangeas_, and other flowering plants. sept. th. i appointed to be in the botanic gardens with m. seitz, by eight o'clock in the morning. immediately on my arrival i met with mr. forster, nephew to the vice president of the linnean society, who is also much attached to botany. the greater part of the day was spent with m. seitz, looking over the numerous species of _cacteæ_, and _succulentæ_, and after having finished my visit here, he had the kindness to conduct me to the glyptothek, which is a very magnificent quadrangular building, containing a fine collection of antique sculpture; the floors and walls are inlaid with various marbles, the ceilings richly ornamented with gilt mouldings, and fresco paintings. it has twelve apartments, one of which is devoted to modern sculpture, and possesses some fine specimens in this art. i next proceeded to the pinakothek, which is situated at a short distance from the glyptothek, and is likewise a very splendid building, but it is not yet finished. it is intended as a repository for paintings, and consists of a number of very capacious apartments with gilt ceilings of extraordinary splendour. the suite of rooms is said to be feet in length, and on the south side is a long passage or gallery, the ceiling of which is ornamented with fine fresco paintings. the exterior of this pinakothek is equally magnificent, and when finished will undoubtedly be one of the most attractive objects in europe. sept. th. this being a holiday and inclined to rain, we visited the royal palace, which is at present undergoing great alterations and additions. the first object that attracted my notice, was the granite steps of the king's staircase, which measured twenty one feet in width; at the top is the body guard room, and then an inner ante-room, the walls of which are beautifully ornamented with fresco paintings, as is likewise the adjoining room, in which are represented as though suspended from the ceiling and cornice, fresco painting of numerous fishes. the family dining room, with cove ceiling and fresco paintings, and most beautiful inlaid floor, must attract general admiration. the throne room is however still more capacious, and the walls are ornamented by various alto-relievos in plaster. i observed in several of the windows that the squares of glass used were five feet long by three feet in width. his majesty's cabinet is also splendidly fitted up. the apartments intended for the queen are still more superbly finished, and represent subjects in fresco painting taken from the german poets. the surbase of her majesty's room is of fine marble; the room is about forty feet square, the dressing room of rather larger dimensions. the queen's throne room is really most splendidly finished, the walls and mouldings gilt, and the surbase of fine blue marble. there are several other apartments intended for her majesty, representing in fresco paintings various subjects from the poems of burgher; with the pilgrimage to the holy sepulchre in fresco. the grand staircase is most magnificent; the walls and steps are of fine marble, with four ionic marble columns at the top, the whole furnished in the most superb style. the lower suite of apartments is equally splendid; the walls are decorated with paintings in fresco of several of the emperors of germany. the magnificence of the decorations on the walls and ceilings of the new apartments in this palace are such that no one can form any idea of their grandeur without a visit. adjoining to this, is the statue gallery of antiquities, which measures about three hundred and thirty six feet in length, by forty five in width, with a cove ceiling painted in fresco. i here saw a beautiful florentine mosaic table, for which napoleon offered sixteen thousand florins. there is also a bavarian almanack of the fifteenth and sixteenth century, in form of a circular table, about seven feet in diameter, inlaid with brass; but the letters and figures almost obliterated. the entrance to this antique gallery consists of a handsome grotto in shell work, with various figures, birds, and devices, in alto-relievo. there is placed opposite the new addition to the palace a colossal figure in bronze of the late emperor, with a huge lion at his feet. near this palace is a magnificent post-office, now building. there is also the theatre, which is likewise a very splendid structure. we next visited the gallery of paintings, which is well deserving of notice, and contains a very valuable collection of pictures. the space of ground called the hof garden, which is a fashionable promenade, and consists of numerous rows of trees and gravel walks, is bounded on one side by a very long gallery, highly ornamented with various frescos. although denominated a garden, i could see neither flowers nor shrubs; only rows of trees, that formed a shady promenade in the summer months, when it is much frequented by tea-parties. in the afternoon we made another visit to the english garden, and round the environs of the town; but this being a holiday, all the principal establishments were shut. i was however unable to hear of there being any other garden establishment worth seeing, that i had not previously seen: we therefore procured our passports, and secured our places in the diligence for stuttgard. sept. th. left munich at six o'clock a.m. the scenery for the first stage was rather flat, but as we approached augsburg it became considerably more varied. by the side of the road on this route i observed the _gentiana pneumonanthe_, in great abundance; i here had an opportunity of collecting several specimens, whilst the diligence was ascending a long hill, which was well planted, and where some fine trees of the spruce fir were in view. the houses in augsburg have old-fashioned red tiled roofs, with numerous windows projecting like skylights, even five rows deep on the sides, in very bad taste. augsburg contains , inhabitants; and several ancient buildings, particularly the episcopal palace, cathedral, and town-hall. the cathedral, a gothic building, contains some curious old tapestry and paintings, representing the apostles sleeping whilst our saviour was praying. there are also some curious old tombs, with models; and several handsome fonts with large bronze figures. the town-house, which contains a picture gallery over the ground floor, is a very fine building; the gallery where the paintings are kept is feet long, feet wide, and feet high, with a carved wood ceiling, richly gilt. the pictures were many of them of immense dimensions, and in fine preservation, but of the old german school. we here also visited the german literary gazette printing-office, and also the steam engine which is used for throwing up the water to supply the different fountains in the town. whilst mr. parker was making purchases of books here, i proceeded to the garden of m. schatzle, which is situated in the suburbs. this garden is very well kept, and contains some good exotic and cape plants, and a good shew of summer flowers, with several straight avenues of trees planted so as to form an arbour or shady walk. in this garden is placed a colossal group in bronze that weighs , pounds, executed by chirardi in honour of fugger. the first of the fugger family was an augsburg merchant, and is said to have left his heirs above six millions of golden crowns, besides other property. from thence i proceeded to the nursery of m. schultz, which contains vegetables as well as nursery stock: there are two or three small hothouses, or rather pits, for the growth of the tender species, but i saw but little in this establishment worth notice, although considered the best nursery garden about augsburg. it was now drawing near the hour that we were to take our departure from augsburg in the diligence; whence we started at o'clock p.m. for ulm, the next town of any note. i omitted to mention that we were accompanied through the different departments in augsburg by the french gentleman who travelled with us from dresden to munich, and also by mr. withy, who was returning from a tour, and going then to heidelberg; he travelled with us as far as stuttgard, where we all parted. sept. th. arrived at ulm at half-past four o'clock in the morning. this is a pretty town, situated on the left bank of the danube, in the kingdom of wurtemberg, and is said to contain , inhabitants. we stopped here about an hour. the first stage beyond ulm consists of a fine agricultural district. the second stage presented rocky and fine scenery, planted with hard wood, the birch and beech trees intermixed, but the latter sort pre-hills on both sides, which is particularly picturesque, and surpasses the much admired matlock scenery, for many miles. when we arrived at geislingen we had time to admire the huge rocks peeping out amongst the trees opposite this village, where there is also a very fine prospect tower, which overlooks the town, and great extent of country. i observed, growing on the banks of geislingen glen, the _asclepius vincetoxicum_, _helleborus officinalis_, and several other scarce plants. along this country numerous orchards of fruit trees prevailed, such as plums, pears, and the apple, which were very abundant, all growing close by the road side and full of fruit. the road through geislingen to goppingen is very beautiful, being a great vineyard country for many miles, commencing about plockingen, and extending along the face of the hills to stuttgard. we passed through an old fashioned town called esslingen, which is situated on the necker, a river that heightens in a great degree the beauty of the whole valley along which it winds. cobbett's corn appears to be extensively cultivated in this district, particularly near to stuttgard, where we arrived at six o'clock in the evening. here i lost all my travelling companions, mr. parker starting for frankfort immediately, and mr. withy the following morning for heidelberg; both which towns i afterwards visited. sept. th. m. hertz, who has a small nursery garden in stuttgard, and whom i had previously seen in kew gardens, very kindly volunteered to accompany me to the royal botanic gardens here, which are situated at a short distance from the palace, and contain a number of old hothouses, and a good collection of plants in a very healthy state. in short, i was surprised to see the plants looking so healthy in such old worn out opaque roofed houses. there are also cultivated here many very fine specimens of the _cacteæ_. i saw one of the _cacteæ senilis_ above eighteen inches long, a very fine healthy plant. the _echinocactus cornigerus_ measured about six inches in circumference, and some other kinds were also nearly as fine. the pleasure ground belonging to this palace contains about two hundred and sixty german acres; it is tastefully planted, and laid out in numerous drives and rides, forming a pleasant promenade for the public. a very fine orangery, with dark roof, is situated at a considerable distance from the botanic gardens, and near it a very complete flower house was erecting, the rafters of which were of metal, and the sashes all wood, heated with smoke flues, that pass under the pit, where an arched cellar is formed, so that mushrooms or other vegetables may be accelerated. i regretted that this house was not heated by hot-water, which would have rendered it very complete. it is intended to remove near to it the kitchen garden, which is situated at a very different part of the town, and in a very dilapidated state. numerous pits for melons, and pines, are in these gardens, but in this state of intended transition they are not kept in good repair. after going through these different departments, m. bosch, the superintendent of all the royal gardens, then returned to the botanic garden, while m. hertz conducted me to a small villa garden, containing a very choice collection of _cacteæ_, some fine large specimens of the _opuntia_ tribe and _cereuses_ were here. having called on the baron de meyendorff, the russian ambassador at stuttgard, his excellency accompanied me to a small nursery garden, which contained some good specimens of plants of the more hardy sorts of the new holland and cape species, but little of novelty amongst them. from hence we proceeded to the chateau of general spizenberg, which has been lately erected on the side of a hill, commanding a most delightful and extensive prospect of stuttgard and its varied scenery. i was much gratified to find that the old warrior, after undergoing the fatigues of many campaigns, was now devoting his leisure hours to the pursuit of botany and horticulture. baron meyendorff informed me that the general acts entirely as his own gardener, and he has certainly succeeded in forming a very choice collection of plants, consisting of hardy shrub, perennials, and exotics. there are grown in this small spot, sixty sorts of _camellias_, a good variety of _ericas_, and numerous other cape plants, with some very curious _cacteæ_. in a little stove, divided in two divisions, i observed also a few pine apples, but of a very inferior size, and not worth the trouble even of eating, let alone rearing. the other description of plants looked healthy, the peach-trees against the low wall were very well managed and neatly trained. the vines were also judiciously trained to a wooden trellising against the wall. on the whole it is an interesting collection, and well worth the stranger's notice. on my return i proceeded in the afternoon to rosenstein palace, which is about two english miles from stuttgard; but his excellency having the kindness to send his carriage, and being again accompanied by m. hertz, we soon arrived there, and again met with m. bosch. this palace is a magnificent building, placed on a fine situation, commanding beautiful views of the swabian alps, also of carstadt, where there are found buildings of the romans, and large pieces of fossils, particularly of the mammoth. the necker also forms a fine feature from this palace. the grounds are very extensive, and the drives and walks well kept; the ground is now formed into beautiful sloping turf, which i understood was formerly in a very unlevel and rough state. it is beautifully diversified with various fine drives, which i could not but admire, being destitute of the fantastic twists, that are so often thrown in without the the least meaning. at present the grounds around this palace have rather a naked appearance, for want of trees and shrubs, but this defect m. bosch is rapidly removing, so that a few years will produce a very different effect; much difficulty is however experienced in getting the trees established, owing to the high elevation of the ground, and the general droughts in summer. at rosenstein, i saw one of the most complete vineyards that i ever met with, formed on the slope of a hill, with wooden trellisses, so constructed as to have the greatest degree of the sun's rays, at that season when the fruit requires it most. these trellisses are arranged about six feet apart each other, and are formed thus, /_\, so that the vines are laid on an inclined plane, and the fruit appearing on all sides, have really a delightful effect. the trellis is five feet high, and six feet wide at bottom, and the whole constructed something like a parabola, and continued along the slope of ground in a curved line. i did not observe the vine in such a prolific state any where else, and the whole looked remarkably neat. at a considerable distance from the palace, some very extensive fruit terraces were forming on the slope of a hill, near the town of carstadt; nearly two hundred men were busily employed blasting rock, and forming the terraces, which are intended for the vine, fig, peach, apricot, &c., and from the fine sheltered situation in which they are placed, i imagine the success will be fully equal to their expectations. on approaching these terraces i was at first surprised to observe the workmen surrounded by a number of soldiers, who were stationed at different parts, throughout them. i however soon observed that this precaution was necessary, as many of the workmen so employed, were convicts, and heavily loaded with chains round their legs. i walked over a great part of these extensive grounds, and was much pleased with the different objects i saw, and improvements proceeding with. sept. th. started this morning, for hohenheim palace, which is situated about six english miles from stuttgard; it is now occupied as an agricultural establishment, and has attached to it a thousand acres of ground, devoted to agricultural experiments. i was much gratified by seeing the granary of seeds, consisting of a great variety of the different kinds used in husbandry, which was said to amount to five hundred sorts. the stock of cattle and sheep, is very fine and extensive. the repository of agricultural implements contains the various instruments used in farming, from every known country, and are all kept in excellent order. the different domestic apartments in the palace, are occupied by numerous pupils, who congregate here from all parts of germany. i was happy to learn that the produce of the establishment was sufficient to meet all the expences, attending its cultivation. in the pleasure ground, or rather nursery, a great quantity of the more common sorts of shrubs is cultivated. i observed a fine tree covered with fruit of the _prunus cirrhifera_, an excellent plum, quite round, and of a purple colour. i also saw a fine specimen of the _tilia alba_, that was planted by duke charles the _fraxinus juglandifolia_, was a particularly noble plant, as well as the _quercus macrocarpa_, and various other species of this genus. there are about sixty _arpents_ of ground here, under young fruit tree cultivation, which are grown for sale. during the time that duke charles resided at hohenheim, the gardens were much celebrated, and attracted numerous visitors from all parts of germany. there is a fine piece of ground called the english garden, that was much admired, but now we have only the forlorn remains of it left. at the front of the palace, are still several of the old flower beds, and the balustrade wall, which forms a fine sweep, at the principal or entrance front. it was in duke charles's time well stocked with orange trees, but none are now in existence. the ground falls considerably, towards the south, from the palace, and when under garden cultivation, it must have had a very pretty effect. the view from the windows, over a small town called boblingen, and the surrounding scenery, is very fine, the swabian alps appearing in the distance. i should imagine hohenheim palace, about sixty years ago, must have been one of the most magnificent in wurtemberg, but the apartments are rapidly going to decay. the new road lately formed near to stuttgard, winding through the vineyard plantations, with their numerous small huts or watch boxes, has also a very pretty effect, although rather fatiguing from its steep ascent. on my return from hohenheim, i again called on mr. koster, the british secretary of legation, who accompanied me to the house of m. de kerner, where i saw eighty-three volumes of the splendid botanical work, executed by the late m. de kerner, which consists of above one thousand drawings of the various fruits, and other exotic flowering plants, which are undoubtedly exquisite specimens of that gentleman's abilities as a draughtsman. these volumes were only purchased by the royal libraries of vienna, st. petersburg, munich, stuttgard, and copenhagen, at a price of seventeen hundred pounds; only six or seven copies were executed, one of which is still on hand, in the possession of m. de kerner. after again procuring my passport, i started about eight o'clock in the evening, for carlsruhe, where i arrived at five the next morning. sept. th. on my arrival i found that the diligence would start in the course of twenty minutes for baden. i started by it, and arrived there at ten o'clock. his excellency lord george william russell, kindly gave me a note of introduction to sir john frost, the late secretary of the medico-botanical society of london, who was then residing at baden, and practising as a physician. this gentleman furnished me with several notes of introduction, to some of his botanical friends, and also kindly shewed me the different objects of interest about the town; amongst which was the fountain of mineral-water, so much celebrated, for various diseases. it is of a very high temperature; so much so, that i was unable to drink a glass of it, without first letting it cool; from the appearance of the fountain, one would imagine that a strong fire was burning under it. from the baths we proceeded to the castle garden, and from hence, a considerable way up the hill, where is a most delightful prospect of the town, and its very romantic scenery. the old castle forms a prominent object of attraction, which, with the tremendous precipices of rock, and plantations, render this spot the most picturesque that i had previously met with on my tour through germany. an excellent promenade, called the english garden, with neatly kept walks and pieces of lawn, is much frequented by the inhabitants and visitors. situated in the promenade is a magnificent building called the "conversation house," with numerous orange trees arranged in front of it. in the interior, i was much surprised to see in a very capacious room, splendidly furnished, a large concourse of ladies and gentlemen, during sunday, very busy at the gambling tables; in fact the ladies appeared to be fully as expert gamblers as the gentlemen. i also made a visit to the convent, where two skeletons of saints decorated with numerous pearls, rings, and other costly ornaments are exhibited; the skull and teeth appeared to be in pretty good preservation, but these superstitious decorations, so perfectly incongruous, might be well dispensed with. the number of strangers calculated to have visited baden, during the season of , are said to have amounted to thirteen thousand. the scenery for a great part of the way from carlsruhe to baden, is considerably varied, and the old castle of eberstein appearing on an eminence, with well planted hills, forms a lively contrast. we also passed through a handsome town called rastadt, situated on the river murg, where a palace, belonging to the grand duke of baden, appears conspicuous from the road. sept. th. i called this morning on mr. kennedy (brother to the marquess of ailsa,) and delivered to him a note of introduction that i received from lord g. w. russell. mr. kennedy very kindly accompanied me to the botanic garden, and introduced me to m. held, the gardener, a very intelligent man; here the enormous height that the _melaleuca stipulacea_ had attained, which was nearly forty feet, is truly astonishing. various other _melaleucas_ and _banksias_ were nearly as high; the _dracæna draco_ (dragon-tree,) was about twenty feet in height; and the _pomaderis apetala_ almost thirty feet. in this garden are various ranges of houses for the cultivation of tropical and other green-house plants, which are extensively cultivated. the houses have all dark roofs, with glass only in front; yet the greater part of their inmates looked very healthy, particularly the greenhouse plants; but these had the advantage of being exposed to the weather during the summer months. various pits were also in this establishment for the growth and protection of the half-hardy species. the _succulentæ_ are extensively cultivated; there are nearly one hundred and forty species of _mesembryanthemums_, and about one hundred different kinds of _aloes_, besides a pretty good collection of the _cacteæ_. the _rhododendron_ and _azalea_, are cultivated out of doors, which is rarely the case in any other garden in germany. the herbaceous ground is formed into oblong squares, and these again divided into narrow beds, which are well stocked with a great variety of hardy flowering perennials. the whole of this botanical department was remarkably neat and clean, having, it is understood, been much improved since m. held was appointed. it appeared to me, however, to be much too crowded with these heavy looking houses, which are too numerous for a space of ground, undoubtedly too contracted and confined for such a collection of plants. the park, or pleasure-ground, adjoins the garden, and although of a dull flat surface, yet it contains many very fine specimens of ornamental trees and shrubs. i observed, for instance, the _salisburia adiantifolia_, sixty feet high, and several very large tulip trees, and the _sophora japonica_; a fine specimen of the _acer dasycarpum_, measured no less than a space of ground of twenty yards regular diameter. i was much pleased with a small flower garden, close to the palace windows, which was well stocked with flowers in full bloom. the grounds are laid out with numerous avenues radiating from the palace, which extend in a straight line for a considerable distance; i reckoned twenty-seven of these avenues, which had certainly rather an imposing effect, and various walks and rides that branch off through the grounds in different directions. there is also an extensive piece of ground enclosed with a high wall, occupied as a nursery, and well stocked with various hardy species of trees and shrubs. the front of the palace, next carlsruhe, was ornamented with large orange trees. the orangery was a large building, the front of which was well covered with grape-vines in a prolific state. sept. th. left carlsruhe at six o'clock, a.m. for heidelberg, passing through a fine fertile country, chiefly occupied with green crops. the mangel wurtzel, indian corn, and fine crops of tobacco, are cultivated here, as well as in many other parts of germany. arrived at heidelberg at eleven o'clock, and proceeded to the botanic garden, which has been only recently established, and contains a neat range of hot-houses, about one hundred and sixty feet long, besides a large sized pit in front of the range, one hundred feet long. this garden, although small, is pleasantly situated, and well arranged. in the centre is an oblong piece of water, the banks around which are considerably elevated, and planted with standard fruit trees, such as peaches, apricots, plums, and pears. the garden forms an oblong square, with a range of hot-houses and gardener's house at the north end, close to the heidelberg gate. these hothouses were the best and neatest-built that i had met with in germany, and contain a pretty fair collection of plants, with some very fine species of _cacteæ_. along by the east side of the garden is an avenue of very fine specimens of the _robinia inermis_, which is also continued along the south side of the town for a considerable distance. i next proceeded to schwetzingen, another magnificent establishment, belonging to the grand duke of baden. the palace and gardens are situated about five english miles from heidelberg, and are unquestionably well worth the stranger's visit. in the approach to them by an arch-way at the palace, we have a view of a large circular piece of ground, divided into various divisions, in which are cultivated a good collection of flowering plants; there are also in this spot a number of fine orange trees, arranged along the edges of broad gravel walks; several of them forming a straight avenue, extending in various directions. the centre walk or avenue, leading from the palace, is terminated by an extensive sheet of water, where is placed a fine group of sculpture, as well as another at the commencement of the avenue, at the end of the grass, next to the circular piece of ground, where the orange trees are arranged. on each side of this principal avenue is situated an oblong piece of ground, laid out in the french style of gardening, with numerous straight walks, and circular spaces at their junctions. the exterior of the ground, and that by the lake, is laid out in the english style, and consists of various clumps of trees; and the very fine irregular sheet of water has really a very good effect. i was much pleased with a very fine ruin, which is ascended by steps to a very considerable height, from whence is a delightful prospect of the gardens and adjoining scenery. the temple of apollo, with the stupendous blocks of rock, and the water dashing against them, is another object deserving of notice. the temple of minerva is also a very pretty erection. a roman aqueduct forms a very prominent object of attraction, but at this season of the year it appeared to be but indifferently supplied with water, which might be occasioned by the long and universal drought. a temple botanique, and a very handsome kiosk, formed objects of interest and ornaments to the garden. an extensive arched trellising covered with creepers also attracted my notice: in it were numerous arborial openings on both sides. the collection of cape and new holland plants is pretty extensive, and numerous species of the _genus erica_ are also cultivated. in the kitchen garden various pyramidal-formed pear trees are grown; and the hothouses are of a better description than are usually to be met with in germany; the south-side glass, and the back opaque, with span roofs. the pine-apples here were the best that i had previously met with during my tour in germany. to give an accurate description of the various objects of interest that are to be seen in these grounds would require one well acquainted with the premises, and several days' actual residence on the spot. the orange houses are substantial built houses, with dark roofs, and the collection of trees, from their appearance, from four to five hundred, which were in a healthy state. having a letter of introduction from sir john frost and m. kilter from the neighbourhood of vienna (who visited woburn abbey last summer) to the principal director, i experienced the greatest attention from him; the greatest pains were taken in pointing out to me every thing worthy of notice. returned to heidelberg, and visited the ruins of an old castle, situated on the face of a hill overlooking the town, and the river necker, and surrounded by high hills well planted, which form an eminence considerably above the castle, where there is a platform or resting place: the view of the extent of country and its romantic scenery is really grand. on the top of two of these hills are high towers, the prospect from which must be still more extensive. on approaching the old castle, i was agreeably surprised to observe some fine walks, with a collection of trees or arboretum, with printed labels attached to them, and the ground in good order. from this we still continued to descend to the old castle, which, even in its present state, must strike the stranger with regret that such a magnificent building should have been permitted to go to decay, particularly as the stone work appears in a good state of preservation. the prospect from the terrace, on the north-side of the castle, is really grand, commanding the circuitous course of the necker, the lofty and undulating hills on each side, which i imagine must be elevated at least two thousand feet above the level of the site of the castle. in the interior of the building is the celebrated _heidelberg tun_, which was formerly used in making the rhenish wine, with the great machine that was in use for that purpose, and from its size the quantity made daily must have been very great; near to it stands a figure of one of the wine makers, who was in the habit of drinking fifteen bottles every day. the approach of night prevented me from inspecting the interior of this old castle so minutely as i could have wished. descending from a hill considerably elevated above this building, i passed through a grove of fine trees (sweet chesnuts) all in full bearing. the country and romantic scenery in the vicinity of heidelberg pleased me more than anything of the kind i had previously met with. sept. th. left heidelberg at six o'clock a. m. for frankfort, the road winding along the river necker, for a considerable distance, through a flat country to the left; but the high hills on the right as we passed from this to darmstadt formed a pleasing contrast. the scenery for the first ten or twelve miles is very picturesque, from the high undulating hills, having numerous old romantic castellated ruins on their summits, or commanding points, which form prominent features of attraction. these hills are likewise well planted with forest trees; and large tracts are under vineyard culture. arrived at darmstadt at half-past one o'clock. i was much pleased with the cleanliness and elevated situation of this town, which is said to contain above twenty thousand inhabitants; the houses are handsomely built, the streets wide, and in good proportion to the height and size of the houses; they have also flag pavements, which is a rarity in germany. the opera-house is a splendid building, as well as the cathedral. the palace is also a fine old building, and has attached to it an extensive pleasure ground and kitchen garden. having but a very short time to stop here i made but a hasty visit through the gardens. the kitchen garden walls were well stocked with trees in full bearing, and large crops of vegetables appeared to be extensively cultivated: from thence i went to the extremity of the grounds, near which is a small herbaceous ground, with a good collection of plants in it, but i observed but little in the ornamental way in the arboretum department. about the centre is prettily formed, although dirty, a sheet of water, with a fanciful boat, for passing to and from a small island in the centre. the grounds are very flat and not varied, but possess numerous walks and rides which are frequented by the inhabitants. i here observed a large number of horses, belonging to the grand duke, passing through the town to the ducal stables. there are military barracks, and a large establishment of soldiers stationed here. this is evidently not a town of trade, but is principally occupied by the military. left darmstadt at three o'clock for frankfort; the country betwixt these towns is not much varied, but the soil appears very fertile, and produces good crops. i was, however, quite astonished at the number of carriages and other vehicles passing and re-passing betwixt frankfort and heidelberg; the road appeared to be nearly as much crowded as any of the english roads leading to london, and amongst these travellers were many english families. arrived at frankfort at six o'clock in the evening; the hotels were all so crowded with strangers that it was with difficulty i procured a bed, but at last the landlord of the hotel d'angleterre obtained me a room in a private house. sept. th. in the morning i visited the catholic cathedral, which is said to be one thousand years old, and contains a curious clock and almanac, made and placed in it about four hundred years ago; and then proceeded to the banking-house of messrs. koch and co., and delivered to them a letter of introduction from his excellency lord g. w. russell. they kindly furnished me with notes of introduction to several of the best gardens in frankfort. i then visited the nursery gardens of m. rintz, which are situated in the suburbs of the town, and contain about eighteen english acres, chiefly occupied with fruit trees. there are also several hothouses and pits for cape and other plants, which are pretty extensively cultivated, with a good variety of _ericas_ and other greenhouse plants, as well as several fine specimens of _cacteæ_, and a very extensive variety of the _camelliæ_; but unfortunately none of these being at this season in flower, i had not the pleasure of seeing m. rintz's celebrated variety, which is said to be very fine. this gentleman then accompanied me to the garden of m. andreæ willemer, which is close to the town, but is very limited in extent; it contains a very good greenhouse, and low pits and frames, which were then well stocked with a very fine collection of _cacteæ_, amongst which were many very scarce species. this gentleman devotes much attention to the cultivation of this tribe of plants, and appeared to put a higher value on many of them than they are actually worth; for instance, the _cactus senilis_ he would not part with for fifty pounds, although possessing duplicates. there was also a good assortment of cape plants and a number of _ericas_, which are now beginning to be more extensively cultivated in germany than they previously were. i then paid a visit to the frankfort botanic garden, which is of very limited extent, and its collection of plants also very contracted. these is, however, attached to it, the senkenberg society, which contains a splendid collection of objects in natural history, such as birds, fishes, shells, minerals, and animals, which are well worth the stranger's notice. from this i proceeded to the gardens of m. gogel, situated about four english miles from frankfort, containing twenty-four german acres, with several hothouses and pits for the growth of the pine-apple and other tropical plants, which are extensively cultivated here. this gentleman has a very fine collection of the hardy grapes on the garden walls, with a large space of vegetable ground, well cropped. the lawn in front of the house appears, from the river main, to much advantage, as well as a fine avenue of lime trees, that have grown to a large size. at the lower end of this avenue is a fine vista of the river and packets, or boats, that pass to and from frankfort and mayence. on my return, i called at the villa garden of m. stern, which is a pretty little spot, with a great variety of pelargoniums and dahlias, and other green-house plants, and contains some small green-houses and pits for their protection; there is also a good collection of camellias, all in a healthy state. adjoining this is another villa, belonging to m. cronelius, that has also several good hothouses and pits, with a large variety of _ericas_, _camellias_, _dryandrias_, and _geraniums_, as well as other new holland plants. there are likewise several espalier divisions, in which the pear tree is extensively cultivated, and appeared to be in a very prolific state. there is a considerable extent of ground under kitchen cropping, and also a pleasure ground, which was very well kept. the garden of baron rothschild, close to the town of frankfort, is undoubtedly the best in this neighbourhood that came under my observation; it contains thirty-five german acres, with several green-houses, besides an extensive range then building, about two hundred feet long, which was also intended for plants, and is divided into seven apartments, in order that those kinds that require different temperatures may be kept separately; this range when completed will have a very fine effect. in front of the mansion were placed two large stands well stocked with geraniums, and some very good orange trees, in tubs, which are removed from this site to the green-house early in autumn. i here observed a very fine specimen of the _araucaria excelsa_, which was beautifully feathered to the ground; this is unquestionably one of the finest specimens of this plant that i have seen on the continent or in england, with the exception of that at dropmore, which is much finer in every respect. baron rothschild's _araucaria_ is little inferior to the one at prince de linge's at belial. opposite to the house is a prospect tower, that commands a fine view of frankfort and surrounding country; there is also an arched walk completely covered with grape vines. the grass lawn was well kept, and various clumps of trees and shrubs dispersed through it. a small piece of water is enclosed at the lower end of the ground for water fowl. in this garden i observed a good collection of green-house plants and _ericas_. the fortifications that formerly surrounded the town are now demolished, and formed into a public promenade for the inhabitants, and are well laid out, with various clumps of trees and shrubs, broad walks, and benches. frankfort is a town of great traffic, and is said to contain about , inhabitants. sept. th. left frankfort at ten o'clock for mayence, and passed through a fertile sandy country, which is well stocked with grape vines, but the country not much varied; the scenery as we approach mayence is more picturesque, particularly when we get in view of the town. we pass through a handsome barrack, situated on the verge of the river, proceeding across a long wooden bridge that leads to the town. opposite to this wooden bridge, are placed seventeen watermills for grinding flour, which were then busily at work. the town is surrounded by very deep rampart ditches, faced with strong stone walls, a very good promenade, and a number of small gardens with clipt hedges, near the edge of the rhine, where there is an avenue that extends along its banks formed by large trees of poplar and robinias. at a short distance from mayence, but on the opposite side and close to the banks of the river is a very fine old castellated building, and a small village adjoining, which form a prominent feature in the scenery from the mayence bridge. sept. th. left mayence per steam packet for bonn. for the first two hours, we made scarcely any progress, owing to the dense fog, which we were all anxious to see disperse, in order that the beautiful scenery might be seen to full advantage: it was however not before nine o'clock, that the banks of the rhine were quite clear, when the packet began to make a rapid progress, and passing rapidly along between numerous stupendous rocks, old castles, and small towns situated close by the river side. the banks of the rhine are extensively cultivated as vineyards. when we arrived at katz, which is considered about the middle of the best scenery, we met the other steam packet, coming up at werlau. the scenery here is truly grand; the high mountainous rocks and old castellated ruins, with the various undulations and other objects, render this region highly picturesque. there is a pretty town close by the water edge, with white houses, and corresponding village on the opposite side, and another appearing just at the extremity of a deep valley in prospect. the old castle called marksburg, is a prominent object, but to attempt to describe or enumerate all the various features of interest that come under observation in passing along the rhine, would be an endless task. the scenery at coblentz is very beautiful, with its bridge of boats across the rhine, similar to that at mayence. a large rock called the stromberg, is very picturesque, with the castellated ruins at the top, and several other rocks of smaller dimensions in its vicinity, nearly opposite to which the rhine surrounds a small island. this may be considered about the last of the romantic scenery that comes in view, as we pass down the rhine. arrived at bonn, about five o'clock, where i experienced some difficulty in getting a lodging, in consequence of the great meeting of scientific professors having been here congregated. after at last finding admittance in a hotel, i proceeded to the botanic garden, which is situated about a mile from the town, surrounding the south and east sides of the university, and containing a very handsome range of hothouses, from three to four hundred feet in length, which also form nearly a line, or a range, with the principle front of the university. the hothouses are in five divisions, and contain an extensive collection of _ferns_ and _graminea_; many of the stove plants were in a very luxuriant state, and looked very healthy. behind this range is the annual ground, where the different species are cultivated, which appeared to occupy about an acre: there are several low pits placed in this department, for the growth of _cacteæ_, and _orchideæ_, and other dwarf-growing species; but the collection of _cacteæ_ and _orchideæ_ is very limited. immediately in front of the range of hothouses, is an arboretum of hardy trees and shrubs, much too crowded, and planted too close to the hothouses, and is continued in a manner round the two ends and south side of the garden. opposite the principal front of the university, is arranged the collection of _herbaceous_ plants, according to the natural system, but the beds are all of an oblong form, with broad alleys or foot-paths, betwixt them: an extensive collection of the hardy flowering perennial plants was grown in the _herbaceous_ ground, but the variety of hardy trees and shrubs appeared to be very limited. there were placed along the front of the university several clumps of green-house plants, and orange trees. the university was formerly a royal palace, but the lower apartments are now devoted to collections of natural history; the length of the front measures eighty eight yards, and appeared to be about square, with an inner court. on my return, i met with professor treveranes, and gave him a letter of introduction that i had from sir w. hooker. i learned from the professor, that the prince of salm-dyck was then in bonn, attending the scientific meeting, and if i did not see him that evening, i should not be able to see him at all; having a letter of introduction to his highness from sir w. hooker, and from mr. sabine, and being anxious to see the prince, if possible, i made the best of my way back to bonn, to the hotel where the prince was stated to be residing; but on enquiring there, finding he had gone out, i immediately proceeded in search of the prince to another hotel to which i had been directed. after waiting some time, i found his highness had not arrived, but was expected very soon. i therefore amused myself in looking through several splendid apartments which were then occupied by a large number of ladies and gentlemen, who meet at this hotel or club-house every night, to supper and various amusements. at last i was informed that the prince had just arrived, when i delivered my letters of introduction, and apologised for intruding at that unseasonable time. the prince appointed me to be with him at nine o'clock the following morning, when his highness was pleased to give me a letter to his gardener at salm-dyck, directing him to shew me the grounds and collections under his care. sept. th. after my return from the prince, i made another excursion to the botanic garden, where i again saw the professor treveranes, who had not accompanied his learned brethren to cologne, who to the number of about four hundred had departed that morning for that town. i took a walk on my return from the botanic gardens round the environs, and was much pleased by the objects of interest that displayed in different directions. the scenery around bonn is particularly fine, and some good prospects from a hill, at a short distance from the town; but as i intended starting by the early steam packet, i had not time to reach its summit, although very inviting. the cathedral is a very fine building, and its interior handsomely fitted up. the packet arrived at half-past two o'clock: i took my departure for dusseldorf, and passed by cologne, where, i imagine, there must have been several thousand people assembled on the harbour and bridge. we now changed packets for one of less dimensions and splendour, and arrived at dusseldorf about half-past ten o'clock. the scenery from cologne to dusseldorf was flat, and but little varied; in short bonn is the termination of picturesque scenery. at dusseldorf, i had but little difficulty in finding a hotel, as they were not so much crowded as at bonn. sept. st. started at six o'clock, a. m. for prince salm-dyck's château, which is situated about ten miles from dusseldorf, on the opposite side of the rhine, which is crossed in a flat barge, and passes through the ancient town of neuss, at which place buonaparte's design of connecting the rhine, scheldt, and meuse, is nearly completed. the suburbs of neuss abound in numerous vegetable gardens, enclosed with well clipt hedges. the ground in this part of the country, is a strong rich looking yellowish loam, and produces strong crops of corn, clover, and potatoes. the road however leading through a part of this country to the prince's palace, is very much out of repair, and appeared to have been neglected for a considerable time. on arriving at the palace, i immediately found out m. funck, the prince's gardener, and delivered to him my letters of introduction from the prince, and from m. otto, of berlin. the garden ground attached to this residence, contains one hundred and eighty german acres; the surface is considerably varied, and consists of numerous fine trees and shrubs grouped together on the lawn, the rising ground being judiciously planted with the loftiest growing sorts, and kept towards the extremity of the arboretum; amongst these i observed some very fine specimens of beeches and oaks; the beeches were particularly fine. i saw here the _gleditschia tricantha_, feet high, and the _populus canadensis_ eleven feet in circumference, by about sixty in height; also a fine specimen of _acer dasycarpum_. the trees in this arboretum are arranged according to the system of _jussieu_; there is likewise a natural arrangement of herbaceous plants nearer to the palace and green houses. i here observed a good collection of _pæonias_, but the prince excels most in the _succulent_ tribe of plants, such as the _cacteæ_, _mesembryanthemum_, and _aloes_. although the _cacteæ_ are very numerous they were not such fine specimens as in the berlin garden. a sheet of water encloses, in a manner, the greater part of the palace and its offices, and from the windows it has a very fine effect, with its bold sweeping banks extending along the arboretum, where a pretty wooden bridge appears in view. the hothouses are rather in a decayed state; but m. funck informed me that the prince intended re-building them. in the greenhouse are some very rare specimens of _yuccas_ and _aloes_. i understood from m. funck that mr. hitchen, of norwich, had the greater part of his celebrated collection from this garden, whence i also anticipate receiving, ere long, not a few rarities. in going through the interior of the palace i saw a number of very old paintings, many of which represented former princes of salm-dyck, but they are not in a good state of preservation; the rooms and furniture are of antique appearance, as well as the exterior of the palace. after spending several hours in inspecting the plants and grounds, i returned to dusseldorf, to see the botanic garden belonging to that town, which is certainly neither difficult to get over, nor to see its contents, the space of ground being very contracted, and the plants also few in number. they principally consisted of annuals; with a few rare species of _cacteæ_, not easily to be met with. i was, however, more pleased with the public garden or promenade, which surrounds the town, and is very extensive; it is particularly well laid out with fine broad walks, clumps of trees and shrubs, and lawn intervening, and great variation of surface, with different points of view commanding fine prospects of the rhine, with its boats and steam packets. there is in this promenade a fine avenue of _populus dilatata_, as well as the _tilia europæa_, (lime tree,) also several pieces of water, the outline of some formed with much taste and intricacy, while others are left rather formal; but, on the whole, little room is left for criticism. dusseldorf is a handsome town, and contains about , inhabitants; with good streets and well built houses. sept. nd. left dusseldorf by diligence at eight o'clock, a.m.; and passed by the palace of prince frederic, which is situated close by the road side, in front of which the orange trees and sheets of water appear very conspicuous. the gardens are said to contain a good collection of plants. arrived at cologne at one o'clock. this town is of considerable extent and traffic, and has a population of upwards of , inhabitants. the great object of attraction for the stranger is the magnificent church, or cathedral, one of the finest in europe, the dome one hundred and eighty feet high, and the interior illuminated with beautiful stained glass windows; the portraits as large as life, and magnificently executed. i was, however, more pleased by the exquisite architecture of the exterior; when finished, the effect will be grand in the extreme. on the south side of the town are strong fortifications, opposite to which is a promenade, that runs along a narrow slip of plantation on the exterior side of them. there are also numerous fields for the growth of vegetables. i here observed a small nursery garden well stocked with fruit trees and shrubs. at a short distance from this i saw a large building which i concluded to be a military barrack or magazine, which was guarded by soldiers. by the time that i had completed my survey of the town, i found that it was approaching to the hour that the diligence was to leave for aix-la-chapelle. i started about seven o'clock in the evening for this town, where we arrived at four o'clock the following morning. sept. rd. having a few hours to stop before the diligence set out, i proceeded to the cathedral, where the celebration of the mass was performing. it is a very splendid building, the interior highly ornamented on the ceiling with fine fresco paintings. the town hall, or now police office, is also a very magnificent building; i observed some fine paintings in the interior. the several celebrated mineral springs in this town are nearly as hot as those at baden; leading from the baths, is a handsome street and a number of good houses, that appeared to have been recently erected. at a short distance from the town is a prettily planted hill, which must command a fine prospect from its top of the surrounding country and scenery; but my time would not permit a visit to it. in the vicinity of aix-la-chapelle are numerous market gardens, but i observed no nursery stock. the road leading from hence to liege is considerably varied, and the ground apparently of a rich fertile nature. the town of liege is situated in a beautiful valley, at the junction of the river meuse with the ourthe, and surrounded by hills and fertile pasture, the latter being watered by three rivers, the ourthe, the vestre, and the meuse. this city contains a great many very fine built houses, and is much celebrated for its various manufactories, which principally consist of marble, coal, iron, and various other hardware articles. the old palace is a fine antique building of the ionic order; the different apartments in it were then undergoing a thorough repair. the viranda that surrounds the inner square is now formed into an arcade of shops. from this palace i proceeded to the old citadel on mount st. walburgh, which commands a fine view of the town, the river meuse, and the surrounding scenery, for several miles in extent. sept. th. went this morning to the cathedral, the architectural arrangements of which are very imposing; the interior decorations are well deserving of the stranger's notice, as well as its richly ornamented ceiling, and beautifully painted windows, and several fine pictures and groups of sculpture. i next proceeded to m. makoy's nursery, which is situated about two or three english miles from the town. it contains an extensive collection of plants, which are extremely well grown, and all in fine saleable condition. the spirited proprietor was then erecting another extensive range of hothouses, and heating it with hot water, which, together with the numerous houses he has already, will extend his plant houses to about six hundred feet in length. in this nursery i observed one of the best collections of green-house plants, that i met with on the continent; they were undoubtedly not surpassed in their growth by any collection that i have seen; the _camellias_, _cacteæ_, and orchideous plants, also form a prominent feature in this establishment, as well as the collection of _azaleas_, and _rhododendrons_, which were all in fine condition, the nursery ground in good keeping, and well stocked with fruit trees. on my return i visited the botanic garden, which surrounds the university, and contains nearly two english acres of ground, in which is cultivated a good collection of hardy perennials, and _gramineæ_ plants. there are also three hothouses for the growth of tropical and cape plants. in the stove i observed a very fine specimen of the _dracæna draco_, (dragon tree,) which was twenty two feet high; the _caladium lacerum_ had also attained the height of fifteen feet; there was likewise a very fine plant of the _crinum amabile_, then in flower. the university is a magnificent building, and is at present having large additions made to it. i started at twelve o'clock for namur. the road, leading along the river meuse, is extremely picturesque, the large rocks and varied surface give it a fine appearance. along the banks by the road side i observed the common box growing in great abundance. we skirted an extensive tract of vineyards, which are cultivated along the banks or rising ground on the right side of the river meuse, as we pass from liege to huy. at this town we cross the river by a stone bridge. huy contains a number of well built houses, and is pleasantly situated, being surrounded by lofty rocks, with a strong fortification. the road skirting the river meuse from huy to namur, appeared to me to be of the most romantic and beautiful scenery that i had previously met with, particularly a part of it, when approaching within a few miles of namur, where the rocks and varied surface give it a most interesting appearance. in a picturesque spot on this line of road we have in full view the summer chateau of the prince d'aremberg, as well as various other handsome residences. arrived at seven o'clock in the evening at namur, when there commenced a tremendous storm of thunder and lightning and rain, which continued for several hours. namur is a strongly fortified town, situated in a valley, at the junction of the rivers meuse and sambre. the cathedral is an object of interest; but as i left the same evening by diligence for mons, i was unable to see this noble structure. the view from the bridge opposite the fortifications has a grand appearance to the eye of the stranger. left namur at half past nine o'clock, and arrived at mons at ten o'clock the following morning. sept. th. mons is a strongly fortified town, and abounds with market gardens in the environs. it appeared to be the centre of a great agricultural district. coal-works are likewise very abundant in its vicinity. i proceeded from this town to bel[oe]il in a cabriolet; passing through a fertile country, and a fine plantation belonging to the prince de ligne, which contained some fine beech trees, with numerous avenues, but a horrid road; the wheels of the cabriolet sinking up near to the axeltree for the greater part of the journey. on my arrival at bel[oe]il i was unfortunate in not finding the prince at home, as i had a letter of introduction to his highness from sir robert adair. i found some difficulty in obtaining admittance into the gardens; but on the arrival of a gentleman belonging to the establishment, he gave orders to one of the guards to conduct me through the grounds to the kitchen garden. the palace is surrounded by water, and at the principal front is a large oblong sheet of water, with a large mass of sculpture at its extremity. the prospect from the palace windows, along this piece of water and the avenue, which is formed by high clipped hornbeam hedges, as well as by the lime-tree, appeared very fine, and extended for several miles in a straight direction. the grounds are very extensive, and intersected by numerous avenues of hornbeam hedges, which are of great height, with various arborial windows cut in them from eight to ten feet from the ground. in short, the number of avenues and well-clipt hedges that lead in every direction through these grounds, render it a place well worthy of a visit, and constitute a different feature in gardening from what is generally to be met with elsewhere. the prince has an extensive range of houses for the growth of exotics, all connected with a large opaque-roofed orangery, which forms a centre to the range; the wings are of different heights, and have a very good effect. i here observed a more magnificent _araucaria excelsa_ than i had previously seen, with the exception of that at dropmore, which is much larger, and more beautiful. this orangery is a capacious building, principally erected with red brick, with upright lights only in front, the roof being slated. it contains a large assortment of orange trees, in good health. there is also a house devoted to _camellias_, containing about two hundred and forty sorts. the botanic stoves are well stocked with healthy plants, but there are very few of the new or lately introduced species amongst them. i observed here a very fine specimen of the _coccoloba pubescens_, the leaves of which appeared to me to be more luxuriant than on any other plant of this species that i had previously seen. the _urania speciosa_ was also particularly fine, and several other kinds in a flourishing state. in the same compartment with the plant-houses is placed an extensive range of pine-apple and melon-pits, as well as several structures of peach and vine framing. in the kitchen-garden a large assortment of the hardy fruits are cultivated, especially pears and apples; the former are trained as standards along the borders, in a pyramidal form, and appeared to produce excellent crops. the kitchen-gardens and pleasure-grounds, although very extensive, were in a very rough state; the only part kept in good order seemed to be the plant-houses and hedges. from bel[oe]il i proceeded to ath, a very strongly fortified town. the country from prince de ligne's to ath is very fine, and consists of a rich agricultural soil in a high state of cultivation, producing excellent crops. the town is said to contain about , inhabitants; the ancient tower of brabant forms a prominent object, and the church of julien is well worth notice. sept. th. left ath at eight o'clock in the morning, in a cabriolet, for enghien, which is only a small town; but the fine park, and gardens belonging to the duke d'aremberg, which are situated close to the town, are objects of general attraction. unfortunately the castle or mansion was burned down during the late revolution, and his highness now chiefly resides in an ancient mansion near louvain. the duke has lately built a very fine range of hothouses for the growth of tropical plants; they are four hundred and sixty feet long, and are divided into several divisions; the centre, which is occupied as a stove for the more lofty of the tropical plants, is sixty-six feet long, thirty four high, and twenty five wide. in this house the _urania speciosa_ had attained the height of thirty three feet; the _displotanium argenteum_ also thirty three feet; this is a beautiful _palm_. the _caryota urens_ had likewise grown to the height of thirty two feet; the circumference of its stem at six inches from the ground is three feet three inches, gradually tapering towards the top. _cycas circinalis_, fourteen feet in height and very healthy; the _corypha umbraculifera_ twenty four feet in height, a very beautiful palm; and a very fine specimen of the _latania rubra_, the _carolina princeps_, had reached the top of the house, and had been cut back. numerous other species were here in a very healthy state, and a very extensive collection of cape and new holland plants. this extensive range is handsomely finished with cut stone parapet walls, and projecting cornice over the top lights. there is another range about one hundred and thirty feet long, with span roof, separate from the principal range, in which are cultivated pines, bulbs, and various other plants. in front of these ranges of hothouses is a large lawn, with several clumps of the different species of hardy plants, which are also extensively cultivated in this establishment. a handsome temple is situated at a short distance from the gardens, which is surrounded by water, from this temple diverge seven fine beech and horse-chesnut avenues, looking in as many directions; between each are smaller avenues parallel to them, which are terminated by handsome stone vases. at a short distance from the avenues is the orangery, which is of large dimensions, with an opaque roof; the orange trees were very healthy, and formed an avenue in front of the house. m. bedinghans, the gardener, informed me that they only shifted them once in five years, in a mixture of loam and leaf-mould, with a little cow-dung intermixed. at the back of the orangery are several arched walks, formed by hornbeam hedges, with arborial windows cut in them; they form a pleasant and shady promenade during the summer months. the park is also very extensive and considerably varied in its surface. m. bedinghans is a native of germany, and a very intelligent young man, seemingly much attached to his business. he accompanied me to the nursery garden of m. parmentier, which is situated in the town of enghien. in this establishment, there is a celebrated collection of plants, amongst which i observed a fine specimen of the _melocactus mitriformis_ which measured three feet in circumference, and eighteen inches in height; and _melocactus hystrix_ also a very fine plant. the _echinocactus boutillieri_, is a beautiful specimen; _cereus bonplandia_, _mammillaria acanthoplegma_, _melocactus macrocanthus_; for a plant of this latter species m. parmentier asked three hundred francs. the _zamia furfuracea_ is also very fine; as well as beautiful specimens of the following, _wallichia caryotoides_, _borassus flabelliformis_, _latania glaucophylla_, _pandanus turbinatus_, _amaryllifolius_, _f[oe]tidus_, _bromelifolius_, _glaucus_, _candalabrium_. the _pinus damara_ m. parmentier valued at fifty guineas, and the _magnolia plumieri_, from the island of st. domingo, at eighty guineas: the _butea superba_ a fine plant, and fine specimens of the following species: _sterculia villosa_, _stanhopea occulenta_, _careya sphærica_, _theoprastus americanus_, _gesnera barbata_, _boronia grandiceps_, _pinus pinnata_, and _mexicana_; with numerous other rare species. above four hundred sorts of _camellias_, and upwards of five hundred kinds of _cacteæ_, are cultivated in this fine collection. the hothouses are very extensive, but getting rather into a decayed state, and are not kept in good repair. after visiting this establishment, i started by the diligence for brussells, where i arrived in time to see a splendid display of fireworks, which was exhibited about ten o'clock; the town was likewise brilliantly illuminated in celebration of the late revolution. it contains a number of fine capacious streets, and well built houses. in the course of the present year, , it was stated that not less than thirty thousand strangers had visited brussells. sept. th. having a letter of introduction from his excellency lord g. w. russell to sir george hamilton, i waited on him this morning; and afterwards proceeded to visit several of the churches; amongst which was the celebrated notre-dame-de-la-chapelle, which is a beautiful gothic structure. the marble altar, which is executed from the designs of rubens, is extremely beautiful, as is likewise the pulpit. st. michael's church is also a fine gothic building. i visited this in the evening, whilst they were engaged singing, and various clergymen were then present. this ancient structure is richly ornamented with beautiful pictures and painted glass windows. the oak pulpit attracts much attention on account of the richness of its carving, which represents the expulsion of adam and eve. i also visited the duke d'aremberg's town-house, which is much celebrated for its library and antiquities, and contains several fine paintings in the various apartments, together with a collection of etruscan vases, and a head of laocoon. attached to this mansion his grace has a very fine riding-house, where several paintings were deposited. i next proceeded to see a representation of st. petersburgh, which was then exhibiting in brussells, consisting of a model of the various streets, squares, houses and gardens of that splendid city, which appeared to attract many visitors. i proceeded in the afternoon to the botanic garden; but as it was wet i was unable to find any one to accompany me through the grounds, owing to the absence of the gardener; i therefore deferred going through them until a better opportunity, when i paid them another visit. sept. th. started at six o'clock in the morning by diligence for waterloo, where we arrived at half-past eight; and having procured a guide, i was conducted over this celebrated field of action, which is now all under a fine system of agriculture. i proceeded to the noted chateau at hougoumont, which is enclosed by a brick wall, and still exhibits the marks of bullets. about the centre of the field of battle is a large mount, raised in commemoration of that eventful day; it measures feet in circumference at the base, and is about feet high. on the top is placed the belgic lion, said to weigh , lbs. on my return through the little village of waterloo, i visited the church, which contains a large number of tombs, in memory of the british officers who fell in the field of battle. i got back to brussells about one o'clock, when i proceeded to the palace of lacken, and having a letter of introduction to the gardener, from mr. m'intosh at claremont, ready access was obtained to the gardens and grounds attached to this royal residence. the palace stands on an eminence, commanding a fine view of brussells and the adjoining country, particularly towards the south. the antwerp road leading to brussells is very conspicuous from several points of view from the grounds. from the palace towards the south the pleasure ground falls very considerably, and is much varied in surface, with several very pretty vistas, intersected by numerous walks, leading to different objects of interest. a large sheet of water, which appears in view from the palace windows, as well as from several other points in the grounds, forms a very pretty feature: over a part of this lake a fine wooden bridge crosses to a small island, and at the other extremity is a large grotto, formed by very large rough stones. various improvements are in constant progress in the pleasure-ground, the whole of which is kept in very good order, a circumstance of rare occurrence in belgium. two fine hothouses for plants have been erected during the last two years, from plans furnished by mr. m'intosh, the gardener at claremont, who has also superintended the erection of several pine-pits, and contemplates the addition of an extensive range of forcing-houses at the king's palace of lacken. from mr. m'intosh's well known abilities as a scientific and practical gardener, the superintendance could not be entrusted to a more suitable person. the houses lately erected there are very neatly finished, and well adapted to their purpose, as well as the pine pits; the pine-apples grown here by m. forkhall, the gardener at lacken, were superior to any that i had previously met with on the continent. the young plants were also clean and healthy, and the exotic plants were in a very flourishing state, many of them in fine flower. there is likewise an extensive orangery, with a fine collection of healthy trees, which are much cultivated in belgium, as well as in germany. near the orange-house were several clumps of flowering plants, amongst them some fine varieties of the dahlia. his majesty's taste for plants and horticultural pursuits has not abated since he came to the throne; consequently numerous good plants are daily added to his collection. i observed a fine specimen of the _k[oe]lreuteria paniculata_, in fine flower, the _catalpa syringifolia_ in great beauty, and several other fine growing hardy species. sept. th. left brussells, for baron de hoogarts's, which is about nine english miles from the town, and whose garden contains several hothouses, in which are forced pines, grapes, and peaches. there are likewise several low pits for the cultivation of the pine, vine and peach. the pit used here for accelerating the peach, is nine feet wide, and the back wall five feet above the ground level; the front wall is only twenty one inches high, above the level of the ground, and consists of brick piers, with wood boards betwixt them, which are taken out, when the trees are removed or introduced into these pits, which operation is generally performed annually. towards the back, is a flue for giving heat, which is applied as well as that from dung, for the forwarding of the fruit. there is also here a good kitchen garden, with a high circular wall, well stocked with good peach, apricot and pear-trees; amongst the latter i observed the _beurre dore_ very fine, _glout morceau_, _cuisse madame_, also fine showy fruits and prolific bearers, the _poire de melon_, _cale basse_ were likewise fine fruit, and producing great crops. a fine collection of the standard pears, was also growing in this garden. adjoining to it is situated the orangery, which stands on an eminence, and commands a pretty view of the grounds, and sheet of water. there is likewise a good collection of cape and other plants from botany bay, and several clumps of rhododendrons throughout the grounds in a flourishing state. the park is but of limited extent, considerably varied. adjoining to baron de hoogart's, is the seat of count de beaufforts, to which miss hoogart had the goodness to send their gardener to accompany me. at this place is an old castle, situated by the side of a lake which was undergoing great alterations and additions. the grounds attached to this ancient castle, although of limited extent, are much varied, and prettily planted, with different clumps of trees and shrubs dispersed through them. in the kitchen garden is a very handsome range of hothouses, about feet in length, chiefly occupied with plants; one of the divisions is allotted for the pine apple, and in front of the range are also several pits, for pines, vines, and peaches. the pits used for the forcing of the vine and peach have each a flue that runs parallel to the back wall, and about eighteen inches from it. the front of those for the vine and peach has no front wall, only piers and boards fixed betwixt them, for the facility of removing and taking in the trees, which are planted betwixt the piers, when the boards are again placed in their former position over the stem of the trees, the roots running in a border on the outside of the pit. on my return in the afternoon to brussels, i visited the museum, the collection in which is well deserving of notice; there is a numerous variety of insects, a large collection of birds and animals, as well as minerals. the picture gallery is a fine apartment, situated in the same building, and contains a large number of splendid paintings; a very magnificent painting of the belgic revolution, which nearly covered the entire end of the gallery, was exhibiting, and seemed to attract a vast number of visitors. in another wing of the building is a repository of the various articles of belgic manufacture, which was much crowded by spectators. i should imagine from the appearance of the numerous articles of commerce exhibited in these apartments that there can scarcely be a single article of manufacture that is not to be met with in this repository of commerce. having a letter of introduction from mr. m'intosh to mr. bigwood, a partner of mr. salter, the banker, in brussells, i called on him in the evening, when he very kindly accompanied me to several of the diligence offices, and pointed out to me the best routes to take in order to save time; i then engaged a place for paris for the following saturday--a precaution found necessary, owing to the number of strangers then in brussells; some of whom it was understood had been detained for several days in consequence of the diligences being so crowded. i also took a place for ghent, the next town i intended visiting, which is situated about twenty-four miles from brussells. sept. th. immediately on my arrival at ghent i proceeded to the nursery garden of m. vangeert, which contains several hothouses, and a good collection of plants; there are also in this nursery several pits for the dwarf growing species; a good collection of _camellias_ appeared to be grown here, and also some _cacteæ_ and orchideous plants, with some _magnolias_ new to our english collections. the ghent _azaleas_ have now become celebrated for the profusion of their flowers and various colours; they were in great abundance in the nurseries here, beset with flower buds. the _magnolia conspicua_ and _magnolia norbertiana_ are fine specimens. the soil in the vicinity of ghent appears peculiarly adapted for the _magnolia_, _azalea_, and other american plants. i next visited the nursery of m. verleeuwen, which contains about two english acres of ground, and from eight to ten different small hothouses, with a fine collection of plants, that were all very well grown. a choice collection of _camellias_ is also cultivated here, as well as _azaleas_, _rhododendrons_, and other hardy plants well worthy of notice. i then proceeded to the ghent botanic garden, but was unfortunate in not finding m. donkelar (the gardener) at home; this garden appeared to contain only from two to three english acres of ground: it is too much crowded with large trees and shrubs for so confined a space. there are two hothouses devoted to the growth of tropical plants which were in a very flourishing state, but deficient of the more showy and new species of late introduction. the orangery is a large building, with ionic columns and dark roofs; the trees appeared very healthy. there are also some low houses, or rather pits, in front of the principal range, which were well stocked with pines and low growing plants. i next visited the nursery grounds of m. a. verschaffelt, which are more extensive than any of the other nurseries i had yet seen, and contain about the best collection of plants in ghent; he has some fine _magnolias_, amongst which i observed the _magnolia triumphans_, _glauca_, _arborea_, and _gigantea_. his collection of _camellias_ is also very choice and deserving of notice, amongst which were the _camellia compacta-rubra_, _alexandria_, and _magnificum_; a plant of this species he values at one hundred francs. there are also many other choice sorts; and his collection of cape and new-holland plants is likewise extensive: he is forming a collection of _orchideæ_, and has erected a small house for their growth; he has likewise a good collection of _cacteæ_, a choice assortment of the ghent _azaleas_, and other hardy plants, that appear to flourish well in belgium. the nursery i next visited was that of m. verschaffelt, sen., which appeared to be about an acre of ground, but it contained a good assortment of _rhododendrons_, also a large green-house with span-roof, as well as several other small houses; a great stock of myrtles was likewise cultivated in this establishment. i next proceeded to the nursery of f. j. spæ-fils, which contains about two acres and a half, with a range of hothouses one hundred and fifty feet long. i here observed a large stock of seedling _azaleas_ and _kalmias_, also a well-stocked wall of trained peach trees. the standard fruit trees are also extensively cultivated, the situation being evidently well calculated for the growth of the different plants in demand in that country. after leaving this nursery i went to that of m. p. byls, whose ground contains several small hothouses, but little of novelty in them; a few good hardy shrubs were, however, in the grounds. attached to this nursery is a piece of ground under vegetable cultivation, which is extensively pursued in the neighbourhood of ghent. i visited one or two other nurseries of small extent, but met with nothing of much importance in them, as they were more limited than either of those mentioned. the cathedral of ghent is considered one of the most handsome gothic buildings in belgium. the pulpit is a most beautiful specimen of workmanship, and is composed of white marble and richly-carved oak; near the great altar are magnificent antique candelabras, said formerly to have belonged to charles the first of england, and were suspended in the old church of st. paul's in london. amongst the splendid paintings that ornament this cathedral are lazarus rising from the dead, by otto vennius, st. john the baptist, the virgin mary, and the paschal lamb. our saviour is also represented on a throne holding a crystal sceptre. there are likewise two marble statues that represent the apostles st. paul and st. peter, and numerous other beautiful paintings. i took my departure at ten o'clock for antwerp, where we arrived at six the following morning. oct. . immediately on my arrival i proceeded to the top of the antwerp steeple, or tower, which consists of six hundred and twenty two steps, and is four hundred and sixty-six feet in height, from the top of which a beautiful view of the town is seen, and a vast extent of fertile country. the island of walcheren and some of the dutch steeples were pointed out to me in the distance. the citadel, which now appears to be all covered with grass, is very plainly seen from the top of this steeple, and the number of vessels in the scheldt add life to the scene. the cathedral is reckoned one of the finest gothic buildings in europe; the interior is superb, and richly ornamented by the magnificent paintings of rubens. i observed numerous very splendid marble columns. the altar is executed with marble, and ornamented with a representation of the assumption. there is also a splendid painting of the disciples at emmaus, by herreyns, portraits of luther and calvin, and numerous other celebrated objects, which to attempt to particularize would require one more intimately acquainted with the subject than i can pretend to be. the painted windows are equally elegant. i next visited st. james's church, which is a very splendid building, and richly decorated with fine paintings and superb marble columns; the altar is inlaid with black and white marble, and supported by handsome twisted columns, and various groups of sculpture. the pulpit is most elegantly sculptured, and the beautiful specimens of carved oak are deserving of notice, as likewise is the splendour of the painted windows. there is also a fine picture of the last supper, by otto vennius, one of the last judgment, by willemsen, the tomb of rubens, and a painting by him, of our saviour on his mother's knees, surrounded by a number of figures, all of which are said to be portraits of the painter's wives and family. after seeing these two magnificent churches, i proceeded to the nursery garden of m. vangeert, which is situated about two english miles from the city; it contains a very good collection of hardy perennial plants, as well as _azaleas_ and other american shrubs. the hothouses here are about one hundred and fifty feet long, in several divisions, and a good-sized pit for the half-hardy sorts. i here observed the best crop and finest bunches of hothouse grapes that i had previously met with on the continent. i was much indebted to m. vangeert, jun., for his attention in accompanying me to the various gardens that he considered to be most deserving of notice in the neighbourhood of antwerp. we proceeded to the antwerp botanic garden, which is but of limited extent, i think not above an acre of ground in it. there is a green-house placed about the centre of the garden, but its occupants appeared to be of rather distant introduction, and little amongst them of novelty except a very fine specimen of the _araucaria braziliensis_, which was growing in a tub, and then standing out of doors. there were likewise two or three other small houses for tropical plants, which were in a very flourishing state, particularly those cultivated in the stove. they have in this garden a tolerably good collection of the _genus pinus_, amongst which is a dwarf sort, named there the _pinus monstrosa_, but it appears to be only a variety of the _pinus cembra_. it formed a very close bush, not exceeding two feet in height. the next garden we visited was that of the late m. jean veanhal, which, during his time, was much celebrated for rare and good plants. although there was but a small piece of ground in this garden, yet it contained a good collection, and several very good hothouses, in which were cultivated pine-apples and other tropical plants, which were in a very flourishing state, and the whole neatly kept. we next proceeded to m. moen's nursery ground, which is also but of limited extent, but contains a number of good _magnolias_, _azaleas_, and other hardy plants, as well as many good greenhouse species. in this nursery there is a fine collection of _camellias_. m. moen informed me he had about two hundred seedling varieties and species. i saw here a fine specimen of the _camellia reticulata_, about five feet high; m. moen valued this plant at sixty guineas. there are some pretty good greenhouses in this nursery, also a good collection of pears that were in full bearing, and producing fine crops. we proceeded next to the seat of m. caters de-wolfe, which is several miles from antwerp; the grounds attached to this residence are prettily laid out, particularly a sheet of water, which is amongst the best i have seen; it is formed so as to produce a picturesque effect from several points of view. at a contracted part of it a wooden bridge is constructed across, springing on both sides on elevated well-formed artificial pieces of rockwork. in the pleasure ground are three very pretty curvilinear iron-bar hothouses, erected by baily, of london, and devoted to the growth of exotic plants and pine-apples, which evidently fully answered in that climate their intended purpose. here is also a good kitchen garden, with numerous low houses and pits for the growth of the pine, vine and peach, as well as one devoted to orchideous plants, a collection of which was just then forming. the pines and exotic plants in this establishment were all in a very flourishing state, and the gardens in pretty fair keeping. we next proceeded to the seat of le chevalier parthon divan, whom i found devotedly attached to horticultural pursuits. the grounds attached to his château are very prettily formed, and are situated about four english miles from antwerp. this gentleman pointed out to me the _rhododendron ferrugineum_, with white flowers, which i believe is hardly to be met with in any other collection. he has many good and rare species of greenhouse plants. i saw from five to seven species of _scotia_, also a fine specimen of the _scotia angustata_; a collection of _orchideæ_ is also cultivated here; and he has lately introduced many new and curious species of this tribe of plants, as well as some new _cacteæ_. the variety of dahlias cultivated here was particularly fine; a very complete arrangement of herbaceous plants growing along the face of a bank in their natural arrangement forms also an interesting feature in these grounds, the exterior of which is bounded by a plantation, in which are formed various beech avenues. this gentleman disposes of his duplicate plants to any one who will purchase them, but did not seem inclined to make any exchanges. we next visited the gardens of madame smetz, which are situated about four miles from the last place. these grounds are celebrated for their extent of hot houses and other garden ornaments, which may justly entitle them to be considered as presenting a greater variety of picturesque objects than any garden in belgium. there is a very good greenhouse, with a pretty fair collection of plants in very neat order, and a corresponding house for the growth of stove plants. i here observed the _pandanus odoratissimus_, fifteen feet high, with four large branches diverging from it. a large orangery, that runs parallel to the north ends of the stove and greenhouse, forms a centre betwixt the two latter buildings, that appear like two projecting wings to the orange-house; there are also several low houses and pits for pines, vines, and peaches. the pines in these gardens were amongst the best grown that i had previously met with on the continent. i observed a plant with seven fruits on it all branching from the top of a single stem. there were also some very fine dwarf cockscombs growing in a pit. the superb chinese tower is more deserving of notice than anything of the kind that i have yet seen, being of a considerable height, from sixty to eighty feet i should imagine from its appearance, with a handsome staircase leading to the top, from whence there is a fine prospect of these extensive grounds, which are curiously laid out; in this chinese building a couple of handsomely fitted up rooms are occasionally used for taking tea or coffee. there are numerous walks leading through various parts of the grounds to secluded spots, where we come unexpectedly on groups of figures in stone, such, for instance, as a group of boys at play, figures of old men, and groups of sheep grazing in the grounds, which are very naturally executed, and at a short distance formed a very good deception; there are also numerous marble busts and pieces of sculpture. a sheet of water, with rock-work and a wooden bridge, appear prominent objects from the chinese temple. opposite to the south and north sides of the mansion are curiously clipped box hedges, with pyramidal formed bushes on their top; the intervening spaces being clipped into irregular figures, presenting a curious appearance. a rock bridge, over the narrow part of a sheet of water, is deserving of notice; but the wooden bridges here and elsewhere in belgium are made more for the intention of permitting ships to pass under them, than for the ease of the visitors in walking over them. i also observed several painted arbours and recesses in different parts of the grounds, and one of the finest specimens of the purple beech that i have ever seen, which is a truly magnificent tree. the kitchen cropping, such as cabbages, asparagus, &c., being carried close up to the house, is in very bad taste; these vegetables all appearing in view from the principal windows do not harmonize with the ornamented ground, which, in such an extensive piece, might easily be cultivated in a much more appropriate spot. oct. nd. left antwerp at six o'clock a.m., passing through a beautiful fertile country, which abounds in vegetable and other green crops; we arrived at malines about eight o'clock; it contains about twenty thousand inhabitants, and has some pretty churches, and an ancient cathedral. the rail-road from brussels to malines had been completed for some time, and was expected to be finished as far as antwerp by the end of another month, and to proceed from hence to paris. at malines i quitted my tedious mode of conveyance for the rail road--a much more pleasant and expeditious mode of travelling. we were about forty minutes going by it the distance of twelve english miles; a heavy train of carriages and a strong wind right ahead, prevented our accomplishing the distance in the usual time, which was said in general to occupy the space of from twenty to thirty minutes. on my arrival at brussells i proceeded to the establishment of m. j. f. vandermaelen, which consists of an extensive collection of geographical books, minerals, birds, insects, and plants, from various climates, which this gentleman offers for mutual exchanges, with the view of furthering the interests of science and natural history. the grounds attached to it are rather confined, but prettily varied, with water, and rising and undulating ground. there are also several very good hothouses, and a choice collection of plants. m. vandermaelen's catalogue enumerates nearly two hundred and forty sorts of _camellias_ and above four hundred and fifty sorts of _pelargoniums_. i here observed a specimen of the _cactus senilis_, about two feet in height; several other very fine and curious species were likewise to be seen here. m. vandermaelen has also sent out a collector in search of _cacteæ_ and other orchideous plants. i next proceeded to the brussells botanic garden, which contains the most ornamental range of hothouses that i have seen, and some noble specimens of palms. the _caryota urens_ about forty-five feet high, its girth at eighteen inches from the ground, four feet. the _arenga saccharifera_ and the _carica papaya_ both forty feet in height. the _elate sylvestris_ had also reached to the glass. the _latania borbonia_, about eighteen feet high, the fronds spreading in the like proportion. the _pandanus odoratissimus_, a fine specimen, and various other species equally luxuriant. this magnificent range of plant houses are all heated with steam, and the sash bars formed of wrought iron;--the effect of it from the boulevards is really grand. the principal range being situated on a terrace, with several fountains and broad flights of steps in front of it, has a very imposing appearance; on a lower level in front of these houses and terrace, are two ranges constructed with curvilinear iron bars, which are occupied by pine-apple plants and other dwarf tropical species. opposite to the hothouses are the herbaceous grounds, which are laid out in a circular form, divided in small divisions, for the linnean arrangement of the hardy perennial plants, each class forming a separate piece of ground radiating from the centre. this garden consists of a fine irregular piece of ground, and is much varied in its surface, having five different levels, and is placed in a fine situation; but i regretted to see the ground occupied by a quantity of common forest trees and shrubs, and but little of novelty or good plants in it: the common sorts were grown principally for sale, and for the support of the garden, which practice i understood was extensively adopted in this establishment. the hothouse and greenhouse species were ticketed with the price required for the different plants. i next called on mr. bigwood, who kindly procured me a sight of the prince of orange's splendid residence, which is justly considered one of the finest finished palaces in europe, with most beautiful polished oak floors, and the walls of several of the apartments inlaid with marble: in one of the rooms that belonged to the princess is a table of siberian lapis lazuli, valued at fifty thousand pounds. the chairs, tables, paintings, and other superb furniture in the interior of this palace, with its magnificent staircase, are beyond my powers of description. the park at brussells is situated in front of the king's palace, and is said to contain about fourteen acres of ground, which are laid out as a public promenade for the inhabitants, with several avenues, and various groups of sculpture, which are considered of superior execution, especially the statues of alexander the great, and cleopatra, and the groups of diana, apollo, narcissus, and venus. in the avenue fronting the king's palace are statues of the twelve roman emperors, and a fountain, which throws the water from twelve to fifteen feet high. i proceeded next to louvain. the entrance to brussells from the louvain gate is very fine, and commands extensive views of the adjacent country, as well as a part of the town. the small villas leading from this entrance towards louvain are handsomely ornamented with tastefully planted gardens; the road, winding along through a fine agricultural country, is more varied than in the antwerp district; the soil consisting of a deep red loam, produces abundantly red clover, rape, and other green crops. october rd. the town of louvain is situated on the river dyle, which runs through it. the grand appearance of the stadt-huis, or now police-office, is very imposing; the numerous carved figures and spires that adorn the front are beautiful specimens of workmanship: in the interior a large apartment is occupied as a picture gallery, in which are deposited some very fine old paintings: the wainscot ceilings of some of the rooms are also well worthy of notice. there are likewise several churches in this town, which are richly ornamented with paintings and other costly decorations, such as marble columns. the botanic garden adjoins the town, and contains from two to three acres of ground; the space in front of the range of hot houses is occupied with a collection of hardy perennial plants, and the exterior of the garden planted by trees and shrubs. the range of plant houses consists of a long dark-roofed green house, with a circular stove projecting in front of it at each end, which has a very good effect; these stoves are constructed with iron bars, and appeared to stand remarkably well; in one of them was a very fine specimen of the _latania rubra_, which was in great luxuriance; the _maxillaria harrissonia_, was quite covered with large flowers. the _cactus macrocanthus_, was here four feet in circumference; several other species were also very fine; in short, the whole collection were in a healthy and flourishing state. i found m. donkelar, the gardener, to be a very intelligent young man, devotedly attached to his business. i next proceeded to see the collection of fruits and trees at professor van mons, where i was shewn a large assortment of pears, which the professor had raised from seed, also many sorts of apples, and several good seedling grapes and peaches. the professor has long been distinguished for his attachment to horticultural pursuits; but i unfortunately did not find him at home; he has, however, forwarded to me, since my return home, his "arbres fruitiers," which describes many of the fruits cultivated in belgium. i was much gratified by the fine collection of pears in the fruit room, and the fine healthy trees in the professor's gardens, which are well stocked with seedlings, as well as others in a bearing state. i next proceeded to the duke d'aremberg's, which is situated at a short distance from louvain, having a letter of introduction from sir r. adair, to his highness, whom i found particularly attached to botany and horticultural pursuits. the kitchen garden here is very extensive, and large quantities of vegetables are cultivated; several pits for the growth of the pine and peach were also in this establishment; but the collection of choice pears pleased me more than any i had previously seen, and certainly produced very fine fruit; the following sorts were pointed out to me as the best deserving of cultivation, which were then in the fruit room. beurre wirtemberg grande bretagne sucre-vert beurre rance beey vaet beurre bosque bergamotte de la penticote beurre d'hiver double d'automne comperete kanneck passe colmar bezyda chaumontelle fondante de charnusee colmar jaminette beurre d'angleterre bergamotte de paques st. germain roi de louvain beurre d'aremberg beurre de yelle st. bernard and many other sorts, and fine collections of apples which were also extensively grown here. i also observed a very fine collection of seedling dahlias, many of which were very choice flowers, and formed a gay appearance in the kitchen garden borders in this season. his highness pointed out to me a noble specimen of the _platanus accidentalis_, which measured, at four feet from the ground, thirteen feet in circumference, and its branches spreading over a space of ground twenty two yards in diameter; this was a beautiful grown tree, and appeared in great luxuriance. the grounds attached to this ancient mansion are very extensive, and have several fine straight avenue walks, leading in various directions, one of which is formed by the purple beech planted on each side of the walk for a considerable distance; but this being a very wet forenoon, i was unable to see the grounds to advantage. they are a little varied as we approach the house, and a small stream of water enlivened the scenery: they appeared to me, however, of much less extent than his highness's grounds and park at enghien, where his splendid range of plant-houses and extensive collection of plants are fixed and deposited. i left louvain about four o'clock, and arrived in brussells just in time to get my luggage taken to the diligence office, from whence the diligence started at half-past nine o'clock for paris. oct. th. arrived at valenciennes, a good sized town: here another passport was furnished, and my former one taken from me, and retained by the police until the evening i left paris. the country between brussells and valenciennes, as far as i could observe, appeared to be of considerable sameness, but the ground was well cultivated, with good crops of rape clover; the turnip was evidently a failure here, and in other parts of the continent, as well as in england. we arrived at cambray at two o'clock, a strong fortified town. the country from brussells hitherto appeared to be but very thinly planted, and of little picturesque scenery: as we approached paris there appeared very few plantations or trees worthy of notice, and much less variety of scenery than i passed through in the latter part of my tour through germany. oct. th. arrived at paris at half-past ten o'clock, a.m. after a ride of twenty-four hours. on my arrival i proceeded to the gardens of the tuilleries, where there is a large collection of orange trees, and several capacious gravel walks, or avenues, with numerous ornamental groups of sculpture. a space of ground, running parallel to the palace, about sixty yards wide, has been lately laid out with flower borders, and is separated from the public promenade by a grass _ha-ha_, with a slight wire fence on the top of it; in this inclosure are some very fine orange trees, bronze figures, and ornamental sculpture, arranged along the edges of the walks. a very fine walk leads from the palace towards a piece of water at the entrance from the place louis xv., where there are various groups of sculpture and terrace walks, which have a very imposing effect. the walks and flower borders in the promenade were in very neat order, and the triangular pieces of grass not so roughly kept as some i had previously seen about the seats of royalty. the walk or road leading from the place louis xv. to the magnificent arch now nearly completed on the rising ground near to the barrier neuilly, has a fine effect, and the prospect from this arch, which is much elevated above the town, is very grand. oct. th. this morning i proceeded to the seed establishment of messrs. andrieux and vilmorin, to whom i had a letter of introduction from mr. lawson, of edinburgh; these gentlemen very kindly furnished me with a note of the various gardens and objects most worthy of notice. i then proceeded to the _jardin des plantes_, where i was much gratified with numerous fine specimens from all quarters of the globe. mr. w. douglas, a young man lately sent to this garden from chatsworth by the duke of devonshire, conducted me through the various departments. i was much pleased with the elegant appearance of two very fine houses that were then nearly completed, one of which was just receiving the plants. these houses are seventy-two feet long each by forty-two feet wide, and about fifty feet high; the space where the tubes stand is sunk about six feet under the floor or foot-path level, so that the whole of the tubs, boxes, and pots may be concealed, and the plants have the appearance of being planted out in the border. there is a very handsome marble cistern about the centre of the house for supplying the plants with water. these houses consist of a double span roof, are constructed with iron bars, and heated by steam; the under-ground work is very judiciously arranged: it appeared from the excavations that were here proceeding, that the range of glass was to extend to the _galerie d'histoire naturelle_. there are numerous other hothouses on different elevations well stocked with healthy plants, one of which is devoted to _succulentæ_, where i observed several fine specimens of _cacteæ_. the curvilinear iron bar appeared to be the favourite material used for the erection of plant-houses in this establishment, which must evidently be the most economical and substantial for large houses. i observed this bar used in various parts of belgium and germany, where they apprehended no fear of the breakage of glass by expansion or contraction, although the frost is much more intense in those countries than in this. i here saw a very fine plant of the _araucaria cunninghamia_, which appeared to be from nine to ten feet high, beautifully feathered from the pot to the top. the _araucariæ excelsæ_ were tall plants, but evidently drawn up, and had been too much confined, as they were not feathered equal to the specimens at baron rothschild's and at prince de ligne's. the ground in this far-famed _jardin des plantes_ appeared to be too contracted for the various purposes that it is devoted to. an enclosed apartment is under a nursery of trees and shrubs, another for hardy herbaceous plants, and one planted with a collection of the various fruits, particularly of pears, in beds about four or five feet wide, with four feet in width of paths between them; these beds were covered with short dung, to prevent the roots of the trees from becoming too dry. the fruit was, unfortunately, all gathered, so that i had not the pleasure of seeing the various sorts that are here cultivated: nearly adjoining to the fruit tree department is the zoological establishment, with a very numerous collection of animals. the museum of natural history is situated at the extremity of the new range of hothouses; the collection of birds, minerals, quadrupeds, shells, &c. is really astonishing: there are also numerous specimens of _fungi_ preserved in one of the departments. i next visited the nursery garden of m. noisette, which is well stocked with _camellias_ and stove plants; the former had numerous seed vessels perfecting on them. the small low hothouses are in a very dilapidated condition, and the plants in a crowded state for want of more room; although there is a great extent of glass, such as it is. the grounds are likewise crowded with fir trees, which were evidently planted for shelter and shade from the effects of the sun, but they give the ground a cheerless and contracted appearance. i next proceeded to the vegetable garden of m. de coufle, which is considered amongst the best in the neighbourhood of paris for culinary forcing, but i saw but very little in it at this season of the year at all worthy of a visit. at a short distance from the latter is the garden of prince d'esling; the neatness of this little spot, which was very gay with dahlias and other autumnal flowers, was very pleasing. there is also cultivated here a very extensive collection of pine-apples evidently for sale, as at this season of the year, there must have been nearly two hundred fruit, and some thousands of young plants, which for health and well-swelled fruit were but little inferior to any in england. the largest fruit was grown in a low span-roofed house, and planted out into the beds into a mixture of sandy peat; the house was six feet six inches high, with a foot path in the centre, and the beds for plants along each side. the succession pines are grown in wooden frames with dung linings around them, and were in great vigour of health. the _providence_ and _montsserats_ were extensively cultivated. a very complete stove for exotic plants is also here. the _aristolochia braziliensis_ was beautifully in flower, and the other plants in a very healthy state. i next visited the pantheon, a noble edifice, with magnificent architectural columns, and cornice: it is reckoned one of the finest erections in paris. oct. th. went at six o'clock this morning to see the fruit and vegetable market: the display of pears, grapes, and wallnuts was very fine, there were also a number of peaches, but these were rather of an inferior size to those grown on the open walls in england. the fruit market was really so crowded with baskets of pears and women that it was with much difficulty that i could pass through it: there was an abundant display of vegetables. cardoons were now brought to market, and a few bunches of small asparagus; celery appeared in great abundance and of good quality; various baskets of the alpine strawberry and a few pretty good looking melons were also to be had. i started at eight o'clock for versailles, passing through a beautiful part of the country, well planted with numerous handsomely erected villas, and the road winding along for a considerable distance by the river seine. on my arrival i proceeded to the gardens, where i was quite astonished at the extent of these magnificent grounds; there were numerous groups of sculpture and bronze, and fountains ornamented with various figures, such as sea monsters, dolphins, &c. which spout the water into the basons, the effect of which, when the water-works are playing, must be grand in the extreme. the various terraces, parterres, and avenues, the latter leading in every direction, with their beautiful groups of sculpture, are very grand. under the south terrace is situated the orangery, and from the terrace walk we look down upon at least several hundred magnificent trees, which for number and vigour of health, were undoubtedly surpassed by none that i had previously met with on the continent; i am, however, inclined to think that there were some at sans-souci fully as large. the orange-houses are all formed under the south terrace, and appear like arched cellars, with only glass windows in front; i could perceive no means of applying artificial heat, but the windows were furnished with shutters, which appeared to be the only protection they had against frost; they were busy at this time removing trees to their winter quarters. from the orangery i proceeded through various other parts of the grounds, and also to the _grand trianon_, which is situated about two english miles from the palace of versailles; the grounds attached to it are laid out according to the english style of gardening, with fine pieces of water, rock-work, temples, and rustic erections. they contain a fine assortment of hardy trees and shrubs, planted on the grass, which gave it the appearance of an arboretum, but there seemed to be no regular arrangement of the plants. there is a green-house attached to these grounds, and a good show of autumnal flowers in front of it, such as dahlias and other annuals. the gardener was not at home. on my return from the garden i took another route through the grounds attached to versailles; but to attempt to describe them would have required much longer time than my cursory visit would permit, or to enumerate the different objects of interest and magnificence that are dispersed throughout them. i then visited the kitchen garden department, which consists of an extensive piece of ground, subdivided into numerous divisions by walls, on which are trained vines and peaches; the fontainbleau grape appeared to ripen and swell its fruit remarkably well, and was very abundant in its production; it seemed to be more generally cultivated than any other sort; in front of the vine-wall it is also grown to a trellising, and produced very fine fruit considering its being grown out of doors. in one of the compartments devoted to the peach trees i observed the royale peach extending over a space of wall forty-two feet long, and from eighteen to twenty feet high; it was in excellent health, and regularly furnished with fine bearing shoots. in another compartment is a collection of standard pear trees. the forcing ground contains numerous low houses and pits for the growth of the pine, vine, and peach. the pine-apple in this establishment was remarkably well grown and fine fruit, and little if any inferior to those that i have seen. the fruiting plants were also planted out into beds in light sandy peat soil, which evidently suited them well. the succession pines at this time were undergoing a shifting and disrooting,--a practice not generally adopted at this season in england. vegetables are extensively cultivated in the gardens, and a good collection of the hardy fruits, which were all gathered by this time, consequently i had not the pleasure of seeing the quality or produce from the different trees. on my return to paris i visited the luxemburg gardens, which contain some fine old orange trees and _nerium oleanders_, arranged on the side of the walks; the grass-plats are surrounded by flowerbeds and various avenues of horse chesnuts, ornamented by sculpture, which lead in different directions, forming a pleasant promenade. oct. th. this morning i proceeded to m. boursalt's, who was then residing out of town; his collection of plants was formerly very celebrated, but he has lately disposed of the greater part of them, and an extensive range of plant houses: there being now only two small flower houses left, which contained some fine specimens of _camellias_, and some beautiful marble statues. the noisette and chinese roses were in great beauty, as well as some fine _magnolias_. this spot of ground, although apparently not above two acres in extent, is prettily varied with rock-work, water, and artificial banks. from hence i visited the burying-ground at montmartre, which is thickly planted with trees and shrubs. i then proceeded to the louvre, where i was much gratified by the magnificence of the gallery of paintings, as well as the incomparable marbles. i next visited the cemetry of père la chaise, which is an extensive piece of ground, with numerous walks leading through it, and the different tombs enclosed by the upright cyprus, thujas, and other shrubs. on my arrival a funeral service was performing in a small chapel, situated about the centre of the ground, and which was then lit up by candles. after taking a cursory view of this cemetry i made the best of my way to montreuil, to see the celebrated peach-tree gardens; on my approach to it, i was surprised at the extent of white walls in this part of the country, which were all chiefly covered with peach trees and grape vines. after ascertaining that the most celebrated garden at montreuil belonged to the préfet, and was situated at the top of the hill, i made the best of my way to this spot; i found the owner a good practical gardener. he took great pains in pointing out to me his method of pruning and training his peach trees: the english gardener, however, has nothing to learn in france in the management of the peach tree; in fact, we can hardly enter into a garden in england that we cannot find trees more tastefully trained, and fully as well furnished from the bottom of the wall to the extremity of the tree, as any that i met with in the neighbourhood of paris. the peaches on the walls in this country are much larger than any in france or belgium, although the soil and climate in these countries are more congenial to the growth of this tree, and maturity of its fruit, than our more northern atmosphere. the roots of the peach tree and vines were all covered this season with half rotten dung, for the space of from three to four feet from the wall, which kept the roots in a moist state; the walls generally averaged from eight to nine feet in height, and were well sheltered by the number of cross walls that were in the different gardens. i visited one or two other gardens in the vicinity of the préfet's, but they appeared very similar to the one already described. on my return from montreuil i made a cursory visit to two small nurseries, which attracted my attention by the quantity of large orange trees exhibited for sale, and were to be sold at a very trifling sum in comparison to what they cost in england. i also made a hasty visit through messrs. vilmorin and andreux' seed ground, where there was a large stock of annuals growing for seed, and a good collection of hardy perennial plants. oct. th. started for the vitry nurseries, which are about six miles from paris; the extent of nursery ground under fruit-tree cultivation in this part of the country extends nearly five miles in length, and the number of nurseries amount to about two hundred. the paris markets are principally supplied from this part of the country. m. chatenay is considered the most extensive grower in that line, and has certainly a fine collection of peach trees and other hardy fruits, which were in a very healthy moveable condition, as also numerous fine standard rose trees, these being out of flower i was unable to judge of their merits. the prices of the fruit trees were very little less than in the london nurseries for similar sized trees. i observed but little new in ornamental trees or shrubs, these nurseries being chiefly devoted to the culture of fruit trees, the soil being peculiarly adapted thereto, being a rich reddish loam, yet it was in some cases undergoing a strong manure and fallow. a portion of what was previously occupied by nursery stock was under the plough. m. chatenay informed me that they found great difficulty in procuring a suitable soil for their different fruit trees. i did not observe any hothouses about vitry for tender plants. the nursery grounds extend as far as choisey, over a large tract of beautiful ground. i saw large crops of grapes which were used in making the wine, which is produced in considerable quantities at vitry. on my return from these nurseries i proceeded to the nursery establishment of m. cels, which contains a fine collection of stove and greenhouse plants, as well as many rare and hardy species; in short the collection here is more choice than extensive, and the plants were very well grown. there are several hothouses and low pits well stocked with good plants, and a range of new houses then building. this nursery is considered to contain the best collection of plants about paris; the extent of ground is but limited, and not very well kept. i next desired my guide to conduct me to the flower market, when, after a considerable walk, i found myself in the flour market, which was well stocked with sacks of flour and grain. i was, however, much pleased with the fine circular building, with lofty dome, and the quantity of grain it contained. i then proceeded to the real flower market, which was held this afternoon at the magdalen, a most magnificent building. the quantity of flowers fell far short of my expectation: the neapolitan violet and the more common sorts of autumnal flowers were the principal stock exposed for sale this day. left paris at seven o'clock in the evening for rouen, where i arrived on the morning of the th, about ten o'clock. i immediately proceeded to the nursery garden of mr. calvert, where i found an extensive range of hothouses rapidly falling into a state of dilapidation for want of paint and other repairs. the nursery ground was also principally in a waste state, except a part in which dahlias were cultivated, and which were certainly very fine, containing both the french and english collections. mr. calvert's son informed me that his father was then clearing the ground of the stock with the intention of removing it to england, where he intended commencing the nursery business. i was also informed that the rouen botanic garden was contemplated to be formed on the site of this nursery, which is unquestionably a fine situation for it. i then visited the nursery of m. vallet, which contains a large quantity of very fine orange trees, that he was very anxious to dispose of at £ per tree. there is likewise a good collection of greenhouse plants and hardy shrubs, as well as standard roses; the latter m. vallet frequently brings to england to be disposed of in the london markets. i next proceeded to the botanic garden, which appeared to contain about an english acre of ground, with two or three old hothouses for plants, with but a limited stock in them. there appeared to be a pretty good collection of hardy perennials and annuals, but few shrubs, or ornamental trees. i then made the best of my way to m. prevost's nursery, which is undoubtedly the most extensive and contains the best collection of plants about rouen. the quantity of standard roses cultivated in this nursery is immense; a priced catalogue of them has been lately printed, the prices specified in it are very moderate. the blood peach was here with plenty of fruit on it, but it evidently will not get soft or fit for use in the open air. i also observed several other ornamental trees in this establishment; it was likewise well stocked with a large assortment of fruit trees. the scenery about rouen is very beautiful and picturesque, and is varied by some large white chalk hills: the river, with numerous small vessels, tends greatly to enliven the scene. oct. th. went to see the ancient cathedral, said to have been commenced by william the conqueror. i was much pleased with its fine gothic appearance, as well as with the paintings, stained glass, and other ornaments. there is another church in this town, called st. ouen, deserving of the stranger's notice, which appeared to me but little inferior to the cathedral. the _palais de justice_ is also a curious old building. left rouen at eleven o'clock for dieppe, where we arrived at five in the evening, passing through a fine varied country, richly clothed with fruit trees and agricultural produce, which appeared to be in a very flourishing state. oct. th. being confined all this day at dieppe by contrary winds i made an excursion round the vicinity of the town, which is very picturesque and considerably varied, i also visited the nursery garden of m. racine, which contained a very fine collection of dahlias, standard roses, a fine assortment of pears, and other hardy plants; and a small greenhouse, in which a few good _cacteæ_, and other showy plants, were cultivated and in good order. the cathedral in dieppe is an ancient building, and worth the notice of the stranger. oct. th. left dieppe at two o'clock in the morning for brighton, when we experienced a pretty tossing for the space of twenty-five hours, in consequence of contrary winds. the passage is generally performed in ten or eleven hours when the weather is favourable. oct. th. we arrived about three o'clock this morning at shoreham, a small port, about three miles from brighton: as soon as day dawned i made an excursion through the town, and got my luggage ready by ten o'clock, when i started for london, where i arrived at five in the afternoon. upon the whole, in regard to the general state of horticulture in the countries which i visited, the following conclusion must be drawn: the plants in the hothouses are in most of the establishments kept in excellent order and in a healthy state; the _succulentæ_ also appeared to be much more extensively cultivated than they have hitherto been in england; but the general order and neatness of the grounds (with only a very few exceptions) were but little attended to. nor did they appear to me to well understand the forcing of fruits, except in one or two places in france; neither did i perceive that nicety in the training of fruit trees that is thought indispensable in this country. vegetables are, however, in large establishments, more extensively grown; but there certainly did not appear to be such a general spirit for horticultural improvement as is now prevailing in this country. at no period was gardening and the collecting of plants ever pursued with greater spirit in england than at this moment; insomuch, that we can scarcely visit a nobleman or gentleman's gardens without observing very extensive improvements and alterations proceeding in every direction. and this we cannot but regard as an indication of application and attachment to rural improvements highly honourable to our nobility and gentry, as superseding many of those pursuits that used to prevail to a great extent with gentlemen residing in the country, which had but little tendency to the improvement of their grounds or estates. appendix. the cacteæ have not hitherto obtained in this country that attention which is paid to them on the continent, where certainly a greater number of fine specimens are to be found of this interesting genus than is to be seen in our collections. mr. hitchen of norwich devoted much attention to their cultivation, and certainly had formed the best collection at that time in england. being under the necessity of breaking up his establishment, he disposed of his cacteæ and other succulent plants to mr. mackie, nurseryman, of norwich, from whom the duke of bedford purchased a considerable number in the spring of . since that period his grace's collection has been increased by the liberality of several continental collectors during my tour; and i feel it but justice more particularly to mention m. otto, of berlin, who contributed many valuable species, and m. lehmann, of dresden, from whom i have also received about two hundred. m. seitz of munich, m. bosch of stuttgard, mr. booth, of flottbeck nursery, hamburgh, and professor lehmann, as well as the curators of the edinburgh, glasgow, and dublin college botanic gardens, have added greatly to the collection; and with some recent acquisitions from mr. tweedie, of buenos ayres, obtained through the intervention of lord edward russell, have now rendered this collection superior to any one existing in this country, and little inferior to any on the continent. the cultivation of the cacteæ possesses considerable advantage over most of the hothouse plants, requiring little room, a matter in general of considerable importance where space is necessarily limited. they will also flourish and flower in a lower temperature than most other hothouse plants: most of the species will not require to be kept in a higher degree of heat than from ° to °; some of the south american species, however, succeed best in a higher temperature. they should be kept rather in a dry state, and water used but sparingly, as these plants are very impatient of wet. the houses most suitable for the cultivation of this singular tribe should be so glazed as to effectually exclude the intrusion of water. in the extensive range of plant-houses now erecting at woburn abbey, one is intended to be exclusively devoted to the cultivation of cacteæ. the soil most suitable for their growth is a mixture of sandy-peat, leaf-mould and lime rubbish, well incorporated together. the annexed list enumerates the different species now in cultivation at woburn abbey. icosandria monogynia. cacteÆ, dc. _mammilla'ria. mammilla'ria._ cal. superior, coloured, - -lobed. cor. of - petals, united in a short tube. stam-filiform. style thread-shaped. stigma - cleft. berry smooth, seeds small and numerous. the flowers are produced from the _axillæ_, or base, of the _mammillæ_, or teats, and the seed vessels appearing the following year. i. flavispinÆ. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ------------------+-----------------+---------------- lanífera, dc. wool-bearing stem-glob. *divarícata divaricated stm. cyl. forked andréæ ott. andrea's stm. cyl.-obov. cuneiflóra hitch. wedge-fld. stm. subcyl. grándis hitch. handsome stm. sub-glob flavéscens hitch. yellow stm. obov-cyl. stramínea haw. straw col. stm-subcyl. _flavescens_ dc. chrysacántha ott. gold-spined stm. sub-glob cylíndrica hitch. cylindrical stm. obov-cyl. subcrócea dc. yellowish stm. sub-cyl. neglécta neglected stm. glob. rhodántha ott. rose-fld. stm. sub-cyl _atrata_ hort. nívea wend. white stm. sub-glob. nivòsa snowy stm. sub-glob. *pulchérrima handsome stm. sub-cyl. dichótoma forked stm. cyl. *lutéscens yellowish stm. sub-glob. eriacántha ott. wool.-spin. stm. cyl. púlchra b. r. showy stm. obl.-cyl. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ------------------+-------------------+-------+--------+---------- lanífera, dc. spines - . ye. _re._ mexico d.s.s. rigid. *divarícata sp. ext. wh. _pk._ ...... .... d.s.s. centr. ye. andréæ ott. sp. ext. wh. centr. .. ...... d.s.s. ye. cuneiflóra hitch. sp. ext. wh. centr. .. ...... .... d.s.s. ye. grándis hitch. sp. ext. wh. cent. .. ...... .... d.s.s. ye. flavéscens sp. ext. wh. cent. .. ...... .... d.s.s. ye. apex re. stramínea haw. sp. ext. wh. cent. _ye._ s. am. d.s.s. - wh. _flavescens_ dc. chrysacántha ott. sp. ext. wh. cent .. ------ d.s.s. - ye. ap. re. cylíndrica hitch. sp. ext. wh. cent. .. ...... .... d.s.s. ye. subcrócea dc. sp. ext. wh. cent. .. ...... d.s.s. li-ye. neglécta sp. ext. wh. cent. .. ...... d.s.s. - ye. rhodántha ott. sp. ext. wh. cent. .. ...... d.s.s. - ap. re. _atrata_ hort. nívea wend. sp. ext. wh. cent. .. ...... d.s.s. - ye. nivòsa sp. ext. wh. cent. .. ...... d.s.s. li-ye. *pulchérrima sp. ext. wh. cent. _re._ ...... .... d.s.s. ye. ap. dichótoma sp. ext. wh. cent _pk._ ...... .... d.s.s. ye. *lutéscens sp. ext. wh. cent. .. ...... .... d.s.s. ye. eriacántha ott. sp. ext wh. cent. .. ...... .... d.s.s. ye. púlchra b. r. sp. ext. wh. centr. _ro._ ...... .... d.s.s. ye. ii. fulvispinÆ. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ------------------+-----------------+-------------- fuscáta ott. brown stm. sub-glob. corioídes bosch. leather-like stm. glob. coronáta dc. crowned stm. cyl. pyramidális ott. pyramidal stm. oblg. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ -----------------+------------------+-------+--------+---------- fuscáta ott. sp. ext. ye. .. s. am. d.s.s. cent. br. corioídes bosch. sp. ext. wh. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. cent. br. ye. coronáta dc. sp. ext. wh. cent. _sc._ mexico d.s.s. li. br. pyramidális ott. sp. ext. wh. cent. .. ---- d.s.s. - . ye. br. iii. rufispinÆ. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ------------------+-----------------+--------------------------- parvimámma haw. small teated stm. sub-glob símplex haw. simple stm. sub-glob. tentaculáta stinging stm. glob. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ----------------+-------------------+-------+--------+---------- parvimámma haw. mam. obt. sp. .. s. am. d.s.s. - . dk. símplex haw. sp. ext. wh. re. .. missouri d.s.s. cent. re-bk. tentaculáta sp. ext. wh. _sc._ ...... d.s.s. cent. br. re. iv. arachnoideÆ. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ --------------------+-----------------+-------------- acanthophlégma lehm. lance-sp. stm. glob. bícolor lehm. two-col. stm. sub-glob. díscolor haw. discoloured stm. glob. vétula mart. oldish stm. obov. supertéxta mart. cobweb stm. glob. intertéxta interwoven stm. glob. geminispína haw. two-spined stm. cyl. pusílla dc. dwarf stm. subrot. _stelláris_ haw. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ --------------------+------------------+--------+--------+---------- acanthophlégma lehm. sp. ext. wh. cent. .. ...... d.s.s. apex. re. bícolor lehm. sp. ext. wh. cent. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. li. br. díscolor haw. sp. ext. wh. cent. .. s. am. d.s.s. - bk. br. vétula mart. sp. ext. wh. cent. _li. sc._ ...... d.s.s. - y. br. supertéxta mart. sp. ext. wh. cent. .. ...... d.s.s. - y. br. intertéxta sp. ext. wh. cent. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. - wh. geminispína haw. sp. ext. wh. cent. _re_ mexico ---- d.s.s. . elon. pusílla dc. sp. ext. wh. cent. .. s. am. d.s.s. wh. ye. _stelláris_ haw. v. paucispinÆ. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ -----------------------+-----------------+------------------ anguláris otto. angular. stm. glob.-ob. polyédra mart. many-based stm. glob. magnimámma haw. la. teated stm. cyl. glau. zuccariniana mart. zuccarini's stm. glob. karwinskii zucc. karwinsk's stm. glob. glau. subpolyédra salm. sub many-ba. stm. sub. cyl. cirrhífera mart. tend.-bear. stm. glob. ...._spinis fuscís_ _br.-spined_ stm. glob. quadrispína mart. four-spined stm. sub. cyl. seitziana mart. seitz's stm. obov. columnáris mart. col.-shaped stm. sub-cyl. pycnacántha mart. close-spined stm. cyl. loricáta mart. harnessed stm. cyl. polythéle mart. many-teat. stm. glob. cárnea zucc. flesh-col. stm. cyl. longimámma dc. long-teated stm. cyl. glau. macrothéle mart. large-teat. stm. cyl. t. elo. lehmanni ott. lehm. teats. ovat elong. sphaceláta mart. finger-sh. stm. cyl. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ---------------------+------------------+---------+--------+---------- anguláris otto. sp. - . cent. .. ...... d.s.s. el. re-ap. bk. polyédra mart. sp. - wh. .. ...... d.s.s. apex re. magnimámma haw. sp. - wh. .. ...... d.s.s. apex bk. zuccariniana mart. sp. -elong br. .. ...... d.s.s. ye. jun. wh. pu. karwinskii zucc. sp. . wh. .. ...... d.s.s. ap. bk. subpolyédra salm. sp. . br. bk. _li. sc. gr._ ...... ---- d.s.s. cirrhífera mart. sp. - wh. .. ...... d.s.s. apex re. bk. ...._spinis fuscís_ sp. - . .. ...... ---- d.s.s. ye. br. quadrispína mart. sp. . dk. br. _sc._ ...... ---- d.s.s. apex bk. seitziana mart. sp. . wh. pk. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. apex re. columnáris mart. sp. . li. br. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. pycnacántha mart. sp. . ye. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. apex bk. loricáta mart. sp. - ye. br. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. polythéle mart. sp. - ye. br. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. cárnea zucc. sp. - ye. _car._ ...... ---- d.s.s. apex pk. longimámma dc. sp. ext. - . .. ...... ---- d.s.s. cent. . elong macrothéle mart. sp. . wh. y. .. ...... d.s.s. apex br. lehmanni ott. sp. wh. apex bk. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. sphaceláta mart. sp. - wh. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. apex red vi. stellispinÆ. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ------------------+-----------------+----------- cæspitósa salm. tufted stm. cyl. _densa_ ott. stella-auráta m. gold-star stm. cyl. ténuis slender stm. cyl. elongáta dc. elongated stm. cyl. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ----------------+-------------------+-------+--------+---------- cæspitósa salm. sp. den. ye. _ye._ s. am. d.s.s. cent. elong _densa_ ott. stella-auráta m. sp. stel. ye. _ye._ ...... d.s.s. ap. br. cent. o. ténuis sp. li. re. cent. _ye._ ...... ---- d.s.s. . elong. br. elongáta dc. sp. stellate .. ...... .... d.s.s. ye. apex li. br. vii. glochidatÆ. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ------------------+-----------------+------------ criníta dc. hairy teats ovat. elong _ancistroides_ lehm. _glochidata_ mart. _rubra_ _red-fld._ ...... wildiána ott. wild's teats cyl. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ -----------------+------------------+---------+--------+---------- criníta dc. sp. centr. ye. _wh. ye._ ...... .... d.s.s. br. hooked _ancistroides_ _rubra_ .. .. .. .. _re._ ...... .... d.s.s. wildiána ott. sp. ye. br. .. ...... .... d.s.s. apex br. meloca'ctus. meloca'ctus. cal. superior, -cleft, coloured. cor. of petals, inserted in calyx. stamens numerous. style ; stigma -cleft. berry of cell. seed small angular. flowers expanding amongst the tomentum on the apex of the plant. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ------------------+-----------------+------------- amóenus hffsg. pleasant ribs - . commùnis ott. common ribs-erect . _viridis_ ott. _green_ ...... grengélii grengel's ribs - . meonacánthus lk. sm.-spined ribs -acute macracánthus salm large-sp. ribs - . pyramidális ott. pyramidal ribs - . _spinis rubris_ _red-spined_ .... salmiánus lk. ott. salm's ribs . *octogónus eight-ang. ribs . remote *excavátus hol.-crown. -ang. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ------------------+------------------+---------+--------+----------- amóenus hffsg. sp. recurv. _li. sc._ ...... d.s.s. dk. br. commùnis ott. sp. -ye. _re._ w. indies. d.s.s. br. _viridis_ ott. .. .. .. .. .. ...... d.s.s. grengélii sp. - ye. .. s. th. is. ---- d.s.s. meonacánthus lk. sp. -ye. br. .. jamaica d.s.s. macracánthus salm sp. -ye. apex .. s. domingo d.s.s. br. pyramidális ott. sp. . elong .. curaçao d.s.s. br. re. _spinis rubris_ .. .. .. .. .. ...... .... d.s.s. salmiánus lk. ott. sp. ext. . c. .. ...... d.s.s. . elon. y. re *octogónus sp. - br. ye. .. mexico d.s.s. *excavátus sp. ext. - .. ------ ---- d.s.s. cent. . re. ye. _echinoca'ctus. echinoca'ctus_. invol. tubular imbricated. cal. superior, inserted in the involuc. cor. of many petals. stam. numerous. style ; stigma many parted. flowers bursting from the apexes of the ribs, behind the fascicules of spines. globosi. i. tenuispini. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ------------------+-----------------+------------ ottónis lk. otto's ribs - . tenuispínus ott. slender.-sp. ribs . línkii lehm. link's ribs . corynódes ott. claved ribs . *montevidensis. mt. video. ribs -obt. rhodánthus rose-fld. ribs - . acutanguláris hb. acute-ang. ribs . acuátus ott. sharp-rib. ribs acute _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ -----------------+------------------+--------+--------+----------- ottónis lk. sp. ext. wh. _ye._ mexico d.s.s. centr. br. tenuispínus ott. sp. ext. wh. _ye._ brazil d.s.s. cent. ye. br. línkii lehm. sp. ext. wh. _ye._ mexico ---- d.s.s. cent. bk. corynódes ott. sp. ext. wh. _ye._ ...... ---- d.s.s. cent. br. *montevidensis. sp. ye. apex br. .. mt. video ---- d.s.s. rhodánthus sp. ext. wh. _ro._ ...... ---- d.s.s. cent. br. acutanguláris hb. sp. ext. wh. _ye._ ...... ---- d.s.s. cent. br. acuátus ott. sp. ye. - _ye._ mt. video d.s.s. ii. aculeis erectis. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ------------------+-----------------+--------------- pachycéntrus lehm. thick-sp. ribs - . obt. centetérius lehm. awl-sp. ribs tuber. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ------------------+------------------+--------+--------+---------- pachycéntrus lehm. sp. ye. apex br. .. ...... d.s.s. centetérius lehm. sp. ext. - . _li. re._ ...... ---- d.s.s. cent. . iii. aculeis recurvatis. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ -------------------+-----------------+--------------------- sessiliflórus sessile-fld. stm. depr. r. - coccíneus h. berol. scarlet st. dep. ribs - spirális karw. spiral st. erect. ribs recúrvus haw. recurved st. glo. r. - gl. cornígerus dc. horn-bearg. stm. depr. _latispinus_ hamátus hooked stm. dep. ribs sellówii dc. sellow's st. glo. depr. gibbósus dc. gibbous stm. ov. r. obt. robústus salm. robust stm. cyl. ribs crispátus dc. curled st. cyl. r. - _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ -------------------+------------------+-------+--------+----------- sessiliflórus sp. - . wh. .. ...... d.s.s. coccíneus h. berol. sp. - . br. re. .. ...... d.s.s. spirális karw. sp. varieg. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. recúrvus haw. sp. ye. re. .. mexico d.s.s. cornígerus dc. sp. ye. rec. cent. _pk._ mexico d.s.s. flat. ro. _latispinus_ hamátus sp. . grey .. b. ayres d.s.s. sellówii dc. sp. . centr. .. mt.video d.s.s. elon. br. gibbósus dc. sp. - . bk. br. _wh._ jamaica d.s.s. robústus salm. sp. - ye. slend. .. ...... d.s.s. crispátus dc. sp. - cent. .. mexico d.s.s. . br. iv. aculeis subrecurvatis. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ------------------+-----------------+---------------------- tuberculátus tubercled stm. glo. r. obt. platyacánthus flat-spined st. glo. r. - . polyacánthus many-sp. st. ov. glo. r. ob. *xanthacánthus yellow-sp. st. depr. ang. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ---------------+---------------------+-------+--------+---------- tuberculátus sp. . ext. sp. elon. .. mexico d.s.s. platyacánthus sp. - . cent. . .. mexico d.s.s. polyacánthus sp. . spread. .. brazil ---- d.s.s. *xanthacánthus sp. y. elong. .. ...... d.s.s. sub-globosi. v. aculeis elongatis. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ------------------+-----------------+------------------------- gilliésii gillies's stm. s. glo. obo. rib. formósus h. ang. handsome ov. cyl. ri. - *theléphorus nipple-bear. st. glo. ribs gladiátus dc. sword-sp. st. glo. ri. - _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ----------------+----------------------+-------+--------+---------- gilliésii sp. transp. .. mexico d.s.s. formósus h. ang. sp. - . re. br. .. ------ .... d.s.s. *theléphorus sp. - ye. br. .. ...... d.s.s. gladiátus dc. sp. . centr . elon. .. ...... d.s.s. polyacanthi. vi. cylindracei aculeis rigidis. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ------------------+-----------------+----------- exsculptus ott. exsculpted ribs . *anconiánus anconian ribs . *spinosíssimus many-sp. ribs - . *echinátus hedge-hog. lik. ribs . *oxyacánthus sharp-sp. ribs . *cylíndricus cylindrical ribs . . _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ---------------+----------------------+--------+--------+----------- exsculptus sp. dense ye. apex .. ...... d.s.s. ott. br. *anconiánus sp. ext. wh. cent. . .. ancona d.s.s. dk. br. *spinosíssimus sp. ext. wh. c. - . .. ...... ---- d.s.s. re. br. elon. *echinátus sp. li. br. elong. .. mexico d.s.s. *oxyacánthus sp. ext. ye. cent. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. - . re. br. *cylíndricus sp. ext. wh. cent. .. mexico d.s.s. li. br. vii. albiseti. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ------------------+-----------------+----------- scòpa ott. broom. stm. cyl. _spinis-albis_ _white-spined_ _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ----------------+---------------------+-------+--------+---------- scòpa ott. sp. den. ex. wh. ct. _ye._ brazil d.s.s. - . dk. pu. _spinis-albis_ .. .. .. .. _ye._ ------ d.s.s. _ce'reus. ce'reus_. cal. of many leaves, imbricated on an elongated tube, exterior sepals short, the middle and inner ones coloured and petal-like. stam. numerous. style filiform, the apex many parted. berry tuberculated, and scaly. i. globosi. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ---------------------------+-----------------+----------- oxygonus ott. furrowed ribs - . _echin. sulcatus._ hort eyriesii turp. eyries's. ribs . _echin. eyriesi._ turbinátus pfr. turbinated ribs . _echin. turbinatus_ hort. multiplex ott. many-fold. ribs . _echin. multiplex_ leucánthus gill. white ribs - . _echin. ambiguus hort. melocact. ambiguus._ ht. tubiflórus pfr. tube-fld. ribs . _echin. tubiflorus_ hort. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ------------------+------------------+---------+--------+----------- oxygonus ott. sp. ext. wh. _pk._ brazil d.s.s. cent. br. _echin. sulcatus._ hort. eyriesii turp. sp. bk. toment. _wh. gr._ ...... ---- d.s.s. short. _echin. eyriesi._ turbinátus pfr. sp. ext. wh. .. ...... d.s.s. cent. br. _echin. turbinatus_ hort. multiplex ott. sp. ye. apex _ca. sc._ ...... d.s.s. br. _echin. multiplex_ leucánthus gill. sp. br. _wh. pu._ ...... ---- d.s.s. recurv. _echin. ambiguus hort. melocact. ambiguus._ ht. tubiflórus pfr. sp. - . ye. _wh._ ...... ---- d.s.s. ba & ap. bk. _echin. tubiflorus_ hort. ii. macracanthi. _caule erecto subobovato._ _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ------------------+-----------------+--------------- candicans white -an. ribs obt. macracánthus large-sp. -an. ribs obt. ochroleúcus ochre-col. -an. r. obt. chiloénsis colla chil[oe] -an. r. obt. _fl.-luteo._ _yellow-flo._ chiloensóides chilo.-like -an. r. obt. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ----------------+-------------------+--------+--------+---------- candicans sp. - br. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. ye. macracánthus sp. - br. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. ye. ochroleúcus sp. br. apex _och._ ...... d.s.s. bk. chiloénsis colla sp. - . ye. .. chili d.s.s. br. _fl.-luteo._ _yellow-flo._ _ye._ ------ d.s.s. chiloensóides sp. br. .. ------ .... d.s.s. pelluc. iii. capillares. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ------------------+-----------------+------------ sénilis haw. grey-headed ribs - _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ---------------+-------------------+--------+--------+---------- sénilis haw. sp. elong. wh. _re._ mexico d.s.s. hairs elon. iv. lanuginosi. _caule_ - -_angulari erecto_. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ --------------------+-----------------+------------- lanuginósus l. woolly -ang. gl. royéni haw. royen's. -ang. glauc. _gloriosis_ salm. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ----------------+------------------+--------+---------+----------- lanuginósus l. sp. ye. _wh._ w. indies d.s.s. elong. royéni haw. sp. slen. _wh._ s. amer. d.s.s. ye. br. _gloriosis_ salm. v. sublanuginosi. _caule_ - -_angulari erecto_. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ------------------+-----------------+--------------- albispínus salm. white sp. - -an. r. obt crenulátus salm. crenulated -ang. cren. _gracilior_ salm. slender - -ang. nígricans dark -an. rib. den. níger salm. black -an. r. compr. hawórthii d.c. haworth's -ang. r. obt. flavispínus haw. yellow-sp. - -an. ri. ob. fulvispinósus ha. tawney-sp. -an. sulca. *russelliánus duke of bed. - -ang. cren. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ -----------------+------------------+--------+---------+---------- albispínus salm. sp. wh. apex ye. .. s. amer. .... d.s.s. crenulátus salm. sp. wh. apex ye. .. w. indies d.s.s. gracilior salm. sp. wh. apex bk. .. ...... d.s.s. nígricans sp. - br. .. ...... d.s.s. níger salm. sp. - ye. .. s. amer .... d.s.s. hawórthii d.c. sp. - br. .. caribees d.s.s. flavispínus haw. sp. - ye. .. w. indies d.s.s. fulvispinósus ha. sp. br. thick .. s. amer. d.s.s. *russelliánus sp. bk. short. .. demarara d.s.s. cen. ang. vi. glabri. _caule_ - -_angulari erecto_. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ------------------+-----------------+----------------- hystrix salm. porcupine - -ang. stríctus w. erect - -an. rib. com. pellúcidus ott. pellucid -ang. r. com. olférsii ott. olfers's -ang. r. com. spinibárbis ott. bearded - ang. obt. undulátus haw. waved -ang. r. com. *nigrospínus dark-sp. -ang. r. obt. *heteracánthus va. col. sp. - -ang. tortuósus twisted - ang. affínis h. berol. allied - -ang. r. ob. gemmátus zucc. gemmate -ang. r. rem. incrustátus -ang. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ -----------------+-------------------+-------+--------+---------- hystrix salm. sp. grey-apex bk. .. ...... d.s.s. stríctus w. sp. br. apex ye. .. s. amer. d.s.s. pellúcidus ott. sp. br. apex ye. .. ...... d.s.s. olférsii ott. sp. br. ye. .. brazils d.s.s. spinibárbis ott. sp. ex. - c. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. - el. a. b. w. undulátus haw. sp. - . bk. _wh._ china d.s.s. *nigrospínus sp. - bk. .. b. ayres d.s.s. *heteracánthus sp. ex. . va. cen. .. ----- ---- d.s.s. wh. ap. br. tortuósus sp. - slen. .. ----- ---- d.s.s. affínis h. berol. sp. - br. _wh._ ...... .... d.s.s. gemmátus zucc. sp. short wh. .. ...... d.s.s. incrustátus sp. br. wh. slen. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. elong. vii. glaucescentes. _caule_ - -_angulari erecto_. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ------------------+-----------------+--------------- glaúcus salm. glaucous. -an. r. com. jamacáru salm. jamacárus - -a. r. com. *caésius grey -an. r. acute grándis haw. great -ang. formósus beautiful -ang. r. com. peruviánus d.c. peruvian - -ang. _hexagonus w. heptagonus_ haw. monstròsus monstrous irreg-fur. ebúrneus salm. ivory - -ang. r. obt. tetragónus flaw. four-ang. -an. r. remo. *amblygónus obtus-rib. -an. gl. r. obt. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ------------------+-----------------+---------+--------+------------ glaúcus salm. sp. ext. .. brazil d.s.s. - cent. jamacáru salm. sp. ext. - . _wh._ ----- ---- d.s.s. cent. . br. y. *caésius sp. - . apex .. ...... d.s.s. ye. bas. br. grándis haw. sp. - erect. _wh. y._ brazil ---- d.s.s. ye. & br. formósus sp. - . ye. _wh._ s. am. d.s.s. br. peruviánus d.c. sp. - . br. _wh. pk._ peru d.s.s. apex ye. _hexagonus w. heptagonus_ haw. monstròsus sp. br. _re. wh._ s. am. d.s.s. ebúrneus salm. sp. slen. ...... d.s.s. tetragónus flaw. sp. - br. .. ----- d.s.s. ye. *amblygónus sp. ext. -cent. .. b. ayres d.s.s. dk. br. viii. subglaucescentes. _caule_ - -_angulari erecto_. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ------------------+-----------------+----------------- laetevirens salm. br. green - an. ribs com. obtùsus haw. obtuse - an. ribs ott. pitahaya jacq. pitahaya -ang. variábilis ott. variable -an. ribs com. pentagónus five-ang. -ang. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ -----------------+-----------------+---------+--------+----------- laetevirens salm. sp. - br. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. obtùsus haw. sp. - -br. ye. _wh. gr._ ...... ---- d.s.s. pitahaya jacq. sp. - erect .. cartha. ---- d.s.s. ye. br. variábilis ott. sp. - br. ye. .. ...... d.s.s. pentagónus sp. wh. y. .. s. am. d.s.s. ix. tuberculati. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ------------------+-----------------+---------------- déppei ott. deppi's -ang. ribs obt. propínquus salm. allied -ang. ribs obt. leptacánthus dc. thin-spined -ang. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ----------------+------------------+--------+--------+---------- déppei ott. sp. - wh. .. mexico d.s.s. propínquus salm. sp. - wh. ye. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. leptacánthus dc. sp. elon. wh. ye. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. apex br. x. cylindraceo-attenuati. _caule_ - -_angulari erecto_. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ --------------------+-----------------+----------------- repándus dc. repand - an. rib. und. _aúreus_ _yellow-spined_ subrepándus haw. subrepand - ang. c[oe]ruléscens nob. blue - ang. glau. *glaucéscens glauces. - an. ribs obt. fimbriátus dc. fimbriated -ang. ribs obt. erióphorus h. berol. woolly -ang. ribs obt. divaricátus dc. divaricated - an. r. obt. serpentínus haw. serpentine -ang. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ -------------------+-------------------+--------+--------+---------- repándus dc. sp. - wh. _wh._ w. in. d.s.s. & bk. _aúreus_ ...... d.s.s. subrepándus haw. sp. - elon. br. .. carib. d.s.s. apex bk. c[oe]ruléscens nob. sp. elon. bk. .. brazil .... d.s.s. jun. wh. *glaucéscens sp. bk. .. b. ayr. d.s.s. fimbriátus dc. sp. - wh. _w._ s. dom. d.s.s. apex bk. erióphorus h. berol. sp. - wh. _re._ ...... d.s.s. apex bk. divaricátus dc. sp. - wh. .. ...... d.s.s. apex bk. serpentínus haw. sp. slen. wh. _pu. wh._ peru d.s.s. ap. br. xi. multangulares. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ------------------+-----------------+--------------------- multángularis ha. many-an. stm. cycl. _spinis albis_ _whitespined_ myriophyllus myriad-led. stm. cyl. spotted strigósus gill. strigose stm. cyl. -a. n. s. myriacánthus myriad-sp. stm. cy. - -a. spinósus hitch. spiny st. erect. c. - a. *bonariensis bu. ayres st. erect. - -a. *tenuátus slender-sp. stm. erect -ang. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ------------------+------------------+--------+--------+----------- multángularis ha. sp. dense .. s. am. d.s.s. ye. br. _spinis albis_ ...... ---- d.s.s. myriophyllus sp. ye. br. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. strigósus gill. sp. wh. br. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. myriacánthus sp. - / -inch .. chili ---- d.s.s. long br. spinósus hitch. sp. ye. br. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. *bonariensis sp. ye. red at .. b. ayr. d.s.s. base *tenuátus sp. ext. . re. ye. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. br. c. xii. flagelliformes. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ -------------------+--------------+--------------------- flagellifórmis haw. rod-shaped -an. tuberc-c. _minor_ _smaller_ *costatus ribbed - ang. flagrifórmis zucc. whip-sh. -ang. tuburc. not so crowded as in last martiánus martins's -ang. tuberc. leptóphis dc. thin serpent - -an. t. remote smithïi smith's tuberc. none tenuissimus very slender - ang. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ -------------------+-------------------+--------+--------+---------- flagellifórmis haw. sp. br. ye. _pk._ ...... d.s.s. _minor_ ...... ---- d.s.s. *costatus sp. slender white .. peru d.s.s. flagrifórmis ...... d.s.s. martiánus sp. wh. _pu._ ...... d.s.s. leptóphis dc. sp. wh. & ye. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. smithïi sp. br. ye. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. tenuissimus sp. wh. slen. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. hair-like xiii. radicantes. _caule_ - -_angulari articulato_. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ --------------------+-----------------+------------- rádicans dc. rooting - ang. húmilis dwarf - ang. grandiflòrus haw. long-fld. - ang. myriacaulon mart. myriad-st. -ang. nycticalius lk. night-beau. - ang. schrankii zun. schranks - ang. *arcuátus arched - ang. sinu. napoleónis salm. napoleon's - ang. triangulàris l. three-ang. -ang. _pictas_ _variegated_ lanceanus lance's -ang. speciosissimus shewy - ang. prismáticus salm. prismatic - ang. trípterus salm. three-wing. -ang. tríqueter haw. three-sided -ang. exténsus salm. extended -ang. coccineus salm. scarlet - ang. setáceus salm. bristly -ang. setósus setose -ang. ramósus karw. branching -ang. myosúrus salm. mouse-tail -dented-ang. quadrangularis ha. quadran. - ang. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ -----------------+-------------------+--------+--------+------------ rádicans dc. sp. short dk. br. .. b. ay. d.s.s. húmilis sp. wh. slender .. s. am. d.s.s. grandiflòrus haw. sp. wh. ye. _ye. wh._ jamai. d.s.s. myriacaulon mart. ...... d.s.s. nycticalius lk. sp. erect .. ...... d.s.s. slender wh. schrankii zun. sp. - sh. .. ...... d.s.s. dk. br. *arcuátus sp. dk. br. _wh._ ...... ---- d.s.s. napoleónis salm. sp. remote _gr. wh._ ...... d.s.s. sh. br. triangulàris l. mexico d.s.s. _pictas_ ...... ---- d.s.s. lanceanus sp. ye. wh. _sc._ ...... d.s.s. & br. speciosissimus sp. cent. - .. mexico d.s.s. ye. erect prismáticus salm. sp. dark br. .. ...... d.s.s. trípterus salm. sp. dk. br. .. ...... d.s.s. tríqueter haw. sp. dk. br. .. s. am. d.s.s. exténsus salm. sp. ext. w. sl. .. ...... d.s.s. c. - w. ye. coccineus salm. sp. ext. wh. sl. _sc._ brazil d.s.s. cent. ye. setáceus salm. sp. ext. w. slen. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. cent. - setósus sp. br. setac. .. ...... d.s.s. wh. ramósus karw. sp. br. ye. .. ...... d.s.s. remote myosúrus salm. wool-white .. ...... d.s.s. quadrangularis ha. sp. - .. amer. d.s.s. xiv. alati. _epiphyllum haw._ _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ------------------+-----------------+----------------------------- ackermánni haw. ackerman's br. elon. compr. serr. cyl. at base alátus winged br. obl. compr. crenate coccíneus scarlet br. compr. glau. crenate crispátus haw. curled br. obl. compr. cren. invol. hookéri sir w. hooker's br. comp. lin. lanc. sinuate phyllanthoídes dc. phyllanthus-like br. comp. sinuat. cyl. at base _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ------------------+------------------+-------+---------+---------- ackermánni haw. _sc._ mexico d.s.s. alátus _wh. gr._ jama. d.s.s. coccíneus _sc._ brazil d.s.s. crispátus haw. _pu._ mexico d.s.s. hookéri _wh._ s. am. ---- d.s.s. phyllanthoídes dc. _pk._ mexico d.s.s. hybrids. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ ---------------+-----------------+----------------------------- _aurantíacus_ _orange-coloured_ .. _ignéscens_ _fiery_ .. _colvilli_ _colvill's_ _jenkinsóni_ _jenkinson's_ .. _kiardi_ _kiard's_ .. _lóthi_ _loth's_ .. _mackoyi_ _mackoy's_ .. _oxypétalus_ _sharp-petaled_ .. _guillardieri_ _guillardier's_ .. _smíthii_ _smith's_ .. _vandésii_ _vandes's_ .. rhómbeus salm. rhomboid br. elong. comp. sinuated ramulósus salm. branching stm. cyl. bran. com. o. lan. truncátus truncated br. com. thin d. n. at apex _coccineus_ _scarlet_ _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ----------------+-------------------+-------+--------+------------- _aurantíacus_ .. _or._ ...... ---- d.s.s. _ignéscens_ .. _sc._ ...... ---- d.s.s. _colvilli_ .. _jenkinsóni_ .. _sc._ ...... ---- d.s.s. _kiardi_ .. _sc._ ...... ---- d.s.s. _lóthi_ .. _sc._ ...... ---- d.s.s. _mackoyi_ .. _sc._ ...... ---- d.s.s. _oxypétalus_ .. _sc._ ...... ---- d.s.s. _guillardieri_ .. _sc._ ...... ---- d.s.s. _smíthii_ .. _sc._ ...... ---- d.s.s. _vandésii_ .. _sc._ ...... ---- d.s.s. rhómbeus salm. .. ...... d.s.s. ramulósus salm. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. truncátus _sc._ brazil d.s.s. _coccineus_ _sc._ ...... ---- d.s.s. _opu'ntia. opu'ntia_. cal. of many leaves, united to the ovary, the inner sepals petal-like obovate. stamens shorter than petals. style cylind. constricted at the base. stigma many erect thick. berry ovate, often spiny. i. cylindraceÆ. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ --------------------+-----------------+-------------------- cylindrica dc. cylindrical st. erect cyl. tuber. clavarióides batoon-like stm. erect cyl. decípiens dc. deceptive stm. erect gl. r. imbricáta dc. imbricated tuber. imbricated kleini dc. klein's st. erect tuber. r. leptocáulis dc. thin-stem. st. erect ramose ramulífera nob. branching stm. erect tunicàta tunicated stm. ramose pubescens wend. pubescens stm. erect slend. virgata twiggy st. erect ramose _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ---------------+---------------------+-------+--------+---------- cylindrica dc. sp. wh. hairy .. peru d.s.s. clavarióides sp. wh. setac. .. ...... d.s.s. depres. decípiens dc. sp. wh. ye. elong. .. ...... d.s.s. imbricáta dc. sp. - wh. .. ...... d.s.s. kleini dc. sp. li. br. elong. .. ...... d.s.s. leptocáulis dc. sp. small br. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. ramulífera nob. sp. br. ye. arcol. .. mexico ---- d.s.s. crowd. tunicàta sp. - wh. & pk. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. pubescens wend. sp. wh. apex br. .. ...... d.s.s. virgata sp. li. br. elong. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. ii. divaricatÆ. _caule articulato, et articulis subcylindraceis._ _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ --------------------+-----------------+----------------- articuláta ott. jointed st. erect ramose alpína gill. alpine stm. ramose br. stapélia dc. stapelia stm. ramose corrugáta gill. corrugated br. erect cy. com. dichotoma forked joints cyl. elong. curassávica how. curassa joints. cyl. com. _elongáta_ _elongated_ andícola joints cyl. foliósa haw. leafy jnts. comp. ramos. fragilis nut. brittle joints cyl. obl. glomeráta haw. glomerated joints cyl. exténsa extended joints cyl. horizontális ott. horizontal jnts. cyl. ramose platyacántha flat-spined joints cycl. ov. pusílla haw. dwarf jnts. divar. cyl. sulphúrea gill. sulphur-fld. joints erect aurantiáca orange-col. jnts. com. elon. missouriénsis dc. missouri joints com. ob. o. media haw. intermediat. jnts. cyl. elong. attulica jnts. elon. cyl. sabíni sabine's jnts. com. obov. ciliósa ciliated jnts. com. glau. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ -----------------+--------------------+---------+--------+---------- articuláta ott. sp. -wh. pelluc. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. alpína gill. sp. wh. recurv. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. stapélia dc. sp. - wh. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. corrugáta gill. sp. wh. apex br. .. chili d.s.s. dichotoma sp. br. apex wh. .. b. ayr. d.s.s. curassávica how. sp. - ye. wh. .. curas. d.s.s. _elongáta_ ...... ---- d.s.s. andícola sp. wh. elong. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. foliósa haw. sp. - elong. wh. _ye._ s. am. d.s.s. fragilis nut. sp. wh. slend. .. n. am. d.s.s. glomeráta haw. sp. flat .. ...... ---- d.s.s. pellucid exténsa sp. wh. apex br. _li. ye._ ...... ---- d.s.s. horizontális ott. sp. wh. elong. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. platyacántha sp. wh. elong. _ye._ ...... ---- d.s.s. apex bk. pusílla haw. sp. - twisted _ye._ s. am. d.s.s. wh. sulphúrea gill. sp. twist. ap. .. chili d.s.s. re. aurantiáca sp. - br. ap. _ye._ ...... ---- d.s.s. wh. y. missouriénsis dc. sp. br. & wh. _ye._ missou. ---- d.s.s. media haw. sp. wh. recurv. .. n. am. ---- d.s.s. attulica sp. wh. ye. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. tomen. br. sabíni sp. wh. deflex. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. ciliósa sp. ye. br. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. iii. spinosissimÆ. _articulis oblongis._ _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ -------------------+-----------------+------------------- spinosíssima haw. very-spiny joints obl. dolabríformis hatchet-fd. jnts. obl. dk. gr. leucacántha ott. white-spin. jnts. erect obl. calacántha ott. pretty-spin. joints obl. _rúbra_ _red-sp._ leucotríche dc. white-hairy jnts. erect obl. senílis parm. grey jnts. obov. obl. longíssima longest jnts. obl. obov. polyántha dc. many-fld. joints obov. polyacántha haw. many-sp. joints obov. megacántha nob. large-sp. joints obov. glau. albicáns nob. white-sp. jnts. obov. gl. obl. triacántha haw. three-sp. joints obov. obl. nígricans haw. dark joints obl. sp. húmilis flaw. dwarf jnts. obov. obl. lasiacántha woolly-sp. jnts. obov. glau. dillenii haw. dillenius's jnts. obov. gl. und. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ------------------+-------------------+-------+--------+---------- spinosíssima haw. sp. elong. ye. .. jama. d.s.s. dolabríformis sp. wh. ye. .. ...... d.s.s. leucacántha ott. sp. wh. setac. _wh._ s. ame. ---- d.s.s. ye. calacántha ott. sp. - wh. ye. .. ...... d.s.s. _rúbra_ ...... ---- d.s.s. leucotríche dc. sp. flex. wh. .. mexico ---- d.s.s. elong. senílis parm. sp. elon. wh. .. ...... d.s.s. hairs wh. longíssima sp. ye. elon. .. ...... d.s.s. depr. polyántha dc. sp. ye. setac. ye. .. s. am. d.s.s. polyacántha haw. sp. - wk. ye. .. n. am. d.s.s. megacántha nob. sp. - long ones .. mexico d.s.s. ye. albicáns nob. sp. wh. ye. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. triacántha haw. sp. wh. .. s. am. d.s.s. nígricans haw. sp. - ro. br. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. bk. ap. ye. húmilis flaw. sp. ye. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. lasiacántha sp. - wh. apex .. ...... ---- d.s.s. ye. dillenii haw. sp. ye. .. s. am. d.s.s. iv. setaceÆ, or subspinescentes. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ -------------------+------------------+----------------------- microdasys lehm. small-hairy joints obov. _minor_ _o. pulvinata_ dc. parvúla nob. small joints ellip. ob. glau. strícta haw. upright joints obl. obov. tuberculáta haw. tubercled joints obov. vulgáris haw. common joints ov. _major_ _larger_ italica italian joints obov. obl. glaúca glaucous joints erect obov. decúmbens salm. decumbent joints obov. compr. _irrorata_ _h. ber._ cochenillífera haw. cochineal fi. joints obov. obl. lanceoláta haw. lanceolat jnts. obov. lanc. rubéscens salm. rubescent joints elon. red-gr. tomentósa lk. hairy joints lanc. comp. mexicána mexican joints obl. lanc. elon. eláta ott. tall jnts. er. ob. la. a. re. salmii salmdyck's jnts. obov. ob. gl. decumána haw. great-ob. jnts. ov. obl. gl. candelabrifórmis candlestick-fd. jnts. obov. ott. grandis great jnts. ellip. ob. gl. americana american jnts. ellip. glau. amcylcea dc. neapolitan jnts. ob. ellip. c. tuna haw. tuna jnts. ov. obl. ficus indica indian fig. joints obl. crassa haw. thick-lobed joints obov. obl. bonplandi bonpland's jnts. obov. orb. horrida salm. horrid jnts. ob. repand. pseudo tuna salm. false tuna joints obov. longispina haw. long-spin. jnts. ellip. ob. li. gy. hitchenii hitchin's jnts. ob. ellip. gl. parote? jnts. obov. glau. spinulifera salm. small-spin. joints obov. dejecta nob. dejected joints obl. elon. monacantha haw. single-sp. jnts. obl. obov. flexibilis flexibile jnts. ob. orb. gl. sericea g. dom. silky jnts. obov. glau. _cærulea_. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ -------------------+--------------------+-------+--------+---------- microdasys lehm. ye. setac. dense .. ...... ---- d.s.s. ye. _minor_ parvúla nob. setac. br. .. chili d.s.s. strícta haw. setac. ye. _ye._ s. am. d.s.s. tuberculáta haw. setac. why. ye. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. vulgáris haw. stm. creep. setac. _ye._ s. eur. d.s.s. re. br. _major_ italica setac. short ye. _ye._ ...... d.s.s. glaúca sp. ye. ap. br. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. decúmbens arcol. dk. gr. .. mexico d.s.s. _irrorata_ cochenillífera haw. nearly unarmed _pk._ s. am. d.s.s. lanceoláta haw. sp. ye. short. _ye._ ...... d.s.s. setac. ye. rubéscens salm. red-gr. setac. wh. .. brazils d.s.s. tomentósa lk. sp. wh setac. ye. _yo._ s. am. d.s.s. mexicána setac. wh. .. mexico d.s.s. eláta ott. sp. -wh. .. s. am. d.s.s. salmii sp. - wh. setac. .. ...... d.s.s. br. decumána haw. sp. wh. setac. .. ...... d.s.s. ye. candelabrifórmis sp. - wh. setac. .. ...... d.s.s. ye. grandis sp. -wh. setac. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. ye. americana sp. -wh. setac. .. amer. ---- d.s.s. ye. amcylcea dc. sp. wh. .. naples d.s.s. tuna haw. sp. elon. ye. _ye._ s. am. d.s.s. ficus indica sp. setac. _ye._ ...... ---- d.s.s. crassa haw. glau. setac. ye. _ye._ mexico d.s.s. br. bonplandi sp. - ye. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. horrida salm. sp. ye. _ye._ s. am. ---- d.s.s. pseudo tuna salm. sp. br. ye. _ye._ ...... ---- d.s.s. longispina haw. sp. - elon. gr. .. brazil d.s.s. br. hitchenii sp. - elon. ye. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. parote? sp. - wh. ye. .. ...... ---- d.s.s. spinulifera salm. sp. deflex. wh. ye. .. mexico d.s.s. dejecta nob. sp. - br. ye. _ye._ havan. ---- d.s.s. monacantha haw. sp. - br. ye. .. s. am. ---- d.s.s. flexibilis sp. -ye. .. ...... d.s.s. sericea g. dom. sp. ye. setac. re. _ye._ chili d.s.s. br. _cærulea_. v. paradoxeÆ. salm. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ --------------------+------------------+----------------- braziliénsis brazil jnts. com. fl. ov. _tenuifolia_ _slender-leaved_ _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ----------------+--------------------+-------+--------+---------- braziliénsis sp. - strong. _ye._ brazils d.s.s. _tenuifolia_ _pere'skia. pere'skia._ cal. many-leaved united to the ovary. cor. rotate. style filiform. stigma aggreg. berry globose. _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ --------------------+-----------------+---------------------------- aculeáta haw. prickly los. ellip. acum. ent. smth. bleo bleo obl. acum. ent. base attenu. grandifólia haw. large-leaved obl. la. dott. ben. grandispína large-spin. ellip. ent. portulacaefólia purslan-ld. obov. cuneat. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ ----------------+------------------+--------+--------+----------- aculeáta haw. _wh._ w. ind. d.s.s. bleo _wh._ ...... ---- d.s.s. grandifólia haw. sp. elon. bk. _wh._ brazil d.s.s. grandispína sp. in clust. _wh._ ...... ---- d.s.s. elon. bk. portulacaefólia sp. bk. / -inch _wh._ w. ind. d.s.s. long. _rhipsa'lis. rhipsa'lis._ cal. - parted, very short, the teeth acuminated. petals oblong. stam. - . style filiform: stig. - . _systematic english form of name. name. stems, &c._ --------------------+----------------+---------------------------- spathuláta ott. spathulated stm. cyl. fasciculáris haw. fascicled br. cyl. jnts. nearly an inch long _parasitica salm._ mesembryanthoídes mesembry-like br. erect cyl. jnts. crowd. hairy pendula salm. pendulous br. vertic. pend. cyl. elong. pentaptéra ott. five-winged stm. erect -ang. smth. dent. salicornóides haw. salt-wort-like joints erect short obov. cyl. grandiflóra haw. large-fld. br. cyl. smth. jnts. obl. calamifórmis reed-shaped br. erect vertic. cyl. smth. _systematic no. and colour of col. of native year of name. spines. flower. country. introduc._ --------------------+------------------+-------+--------+---------- spathuláta ott. sp. wh. br. .. ...... d.s.s. woolly fasciculáris haw. .. ...... d.s.s. _parasitica salm._ mesembryanthoídes _wh._ ...... d.s.s. pendula salm. _wh._ ...... ---- d.s.s. pentaptéra ott. _wh._ ...... d.s.s. salicornóides haw. _ye._ ...... d.s.s. grandiflóra haw. _wh._ s. am. d.s.s. calamifórmis .. ...... d.s.s. the following species of cacteæ are daily expected from germany, but whether they will prove distinct from those in the preceding pages, i am unable to determine until the plants arrive at woburn abbey. _mammilla'ria._ anisacántha canéscens compréssa eriacántha _flore albo_ erinácea hoffmanséggii hýstrix parote polyédra sp. colúmbia crucígera dyckiána rutíla exsúdans heteráctis uberifórmis caput medúsæ gladiata uncinata recurva setosa sphacelata tortolensis _meloca'ctus._ ceratites coronatus coccineus pyramidalis ---- _spinis albis_ ---- _spinis fuscis_ ---- _spinis longis_ proliferus _echinoca'ctus._ dicracanthus muricatus tortuosus agglomeratus anfractuosus niger karwinskii oxypterus pfeifferi phyllacanthus pulchellus multiplex flore rubro ingens spina christi _ce'reus._ boxamus bonplandii boydii brundii bayanensis columnæ c[oe]ruleus denudatus elegans formosus ---- _gemmatus_ glaucéscens hórridus hýbridus nòthus ovàtus platyacánthus polygonàtus scottii spectábilis tubiflòrus dichracánthus geométricans schelhasii aureus azùreus cineráscens cognàtus grìseus knightii lividus mallisónii redúctus róridus sublanàtus subsquamàtus tilophòrus truncàtus _altensteinii_ _epiphy'llum._ latifròns platycárpum _opu'ntia._ carolìna coccínea leucostàta máxima poeppigii polymórpha præcox splendens stricta triacántha albispinòsa demorènia poeppigii _pere'skia._ acárdia cruénta pititache those kinds marked thus (*) were sent here, as new and undescribed species, i have therefore designated them by these names, until i can ascertain correctly whether they have been previously named or not. contents. aremberg, duke de , aix-la-chapelle antwerp ---- botanic garden augsburg baden beaufforts, count de bel[oe]il berlin ---- botanic gardens blankanese bonn ---- botanic gardens boursoult's, m. garden brussells ---- botanic garden carlshrue cels', m. nursery charlottenberg palace gardens cologne darmsdadt dieppe dresden ---- botanic garden dusseldorf enghien , esling, prince de flottbeck nursery frankfort ---- botanic gardens ghent ---- botanic garden ---- nurseries , hamburgh ---- botanic gardens heidelberg hohenheim hoogart's, baron de jardin des plantes lacken palace liege ---- botanic garden ligne's, prince de, gardens louvain ---- botanic gardens luxemburg gardens mackoy's nursery maen's, m., nursery malines montemartre mayence montreuil peach gardens munich ---- botanic gardens namur noisette's nursery nuremberg nymphenburg paris parmentier's nursery pêre la chaise pfauen insel or peacock island potsdam prevost's, m., nursery rhine rosenstein palace rouen ---- botanic garden salm-dyck's, prince, gardens sans-souci schwetzingen smetz', madame, garden stuttgard ---- botanic gardens vallet's, m., nursery vitry nurseries valenciennes vandermaelin, m. j. f. van mons, professor versailles the end. chelsea: printed by w. blatch, , exeter street. , piccadilly, _may_ . pamphlets, &c. for session , publishing by james ridgway and sons, _and to be obtained of all booksellers._ * * * * * =tracts on church rates,= for general distribution. the attorney general on church rates. letter to lord stanley on the law of church rates. by sir john campbell, m.p. for the city of edinburgh. third edition. price. _s._ will you have your church repaired?--for this is the object 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"to his pamphlet, however, we must direct all who wish to read a strenuous and eloquent argument."--_monthly review, march_ . some observations upon the present state of ireland. by sir francis workman-macnaghten, bart., of bushmills house, antrim. price _s._ "sir f. m. professes to belong to neither party in ireland. * * * the baronet however can make home thrusts, and his pamphlet ought to be read by all who take a deep interest in ireland's welfare."--_monthly review_. new light on the irish tithe bill; or, the appropriation clause recommended by the heads of the irish church. in a series of letters. by alienus. price _s._ _d._ "we have been deeply impressed with the force and earnestness of these letters."--_monthly review, march_. parliamentary talk; or, the objections to the late irish church bill considered. by a disciple of selden. third edition, with additions. price _s._ "as may be supposed, the publication from which those masterly passages are taken has commanded the attention of the best informed political circles. it is an important service to the good cause."--_examiner, january _. a remonstrance against the cry of no popery. by w. torrens mccullagh, esq. barrister-at-law. second edition. price _s._ census of the population of ireland, . abstract of the first report of the commissioners appointed to inquire into the state of religious and other instruction in ireland; distinguishing the number of each religious sect in every benefice and parish; together with some remarks in explanation of the nature of parochial benefices, and of the principles on which the taking of the census was conducted. by william tighe hamilton, esq., barrister-at-law, one of the commissioners. in vo., price _s._ _d._ reply to pope gregory's late letter to the archbishops and bishops of ireland; with a preface, establishing the authenticity of that document. third edition. price _s._ a few observations on religion and education in ireland. by the rev. edward stanley, a.m., now bishop of norwich. third edition, with additions. price _s._ a view of the state of pauperism in ireland, its evils, and its remedies. by law rawstorne, esq. second edition, with an appendix. price _s._ remarks on the bill for the more effectual relief of the destitute poor in ireland. by philo-hibernus. second edition, revised and enlarged. price _s._ strictures on the report of george nicholls, esq. recommending the english workhouse test system for the relief of the poor of ireland. price _s._ g. poulett scrope, esq. m.p. on the government irish poor law bill. price _d._ the first step to a poor law for ireland. by h. g. ward, esq. m.p. price _d._ mr. leslie's further illustrations of the principles of the english poor law amendment act; and on the proposed extension of that system to ireland. second edition. price _d._ ancient poor laws. an inquiry as to the provisions for the poor of judea, athens, and rome, with a sketch of the english poor laws. by t. d. robinson. price _s._ _d._ practical suggestions for ameliorating the present system of affording medical relief to paupers. by w. addison, f.l.s., surgeon. price _d._ * * * * * =foreign affairs, &c.= the british and foreign review; or, european quarterly journal, no. viii. price _s._ contents:-- i.--colonial legislation;--cape of good hope. ii.--melfort's impressions of england;--recollections of an artillery officer. iii.--political press in france. iv.--napoleon's comments on cæsar's commentaries. v.--municipal corporations;--centralisation & localisation. vi.--cracow. vii.--cooke's memoirs of bolingbroke;--philosophy of bolingbroke;--lord brougham's discourse on natural theology. viii.--misgovernment of ireland. ix.--capture of the vixen. x.--ballot, reasons against. [***] vols. i., ii., and iii. (nos. to ), may be had, neatly bound in half-russia, _s._ _d._ each. * * * * * siege of bilboa.--state of spain. the policy of england towards spain considered, chiefly with reference to "a review of the social and political state of the basque provinces, and a few remarks on recent events in spain, &c. by an english nobleman." third edition. price _s._ _d._ "the writer before us has very satisfactorily shown up the many errors into which lord carnarvon had fallen; particularly concerning the true state of the basque fueros and privileges; the eliot convention and its observance, &c."--_globe_. "a searching examination and a powerful refutation."--_monthly review_. * * * * * state papers. now ready, price _s._ bound in cloth, and lettered. british and foreign state papers, - , compiled by the "librarian and keeper of the papers" at the foreign office. the volume since the termination of the war in will be reprinted as speedily as possible. the volumes for - , - , - , - , - , - , are now ready. this publication is intended to comprise the principal documents which have been made public, relating to the political and commercial affairs of nations, and to their relations with each other, from the termination of the war in , to the latest period. the work has, until lately, been printed exclusively for the use of government, and of its diplomatic agents abroad; but the general interest attached to these collections has led to its publication. "it is the most important work of reference that has appeared for many years."--_times_. * * * * * protection to commerce against the encroachments of russia. fifth edition, price _d._ russia, in answer to a manchester manufacturer. _contents_: i.--russia, turkey, and england. ii.--poland, russia, and england. iii.--the balance of power. iv.--protection of commerce. * * * * * the people of russia, and the policy of england. in octavo, _s._ _d._ "* * * giving a masterly sketch of the population of the overgrown empire of the czar."--_caledonian mercury._ "it gives the reader an insight into the manners, customs, and state of the people, information which is but very little known."--_liverpool standard._ * * * * * the speech of lord dudley stuart on the policy of russia. delivered in the house of commons, friday, february , . with an appendix of official documents. * * * * * speech of p. m. stewart, esq. m.p. in the house of commons, on april , , in support of his motion on the subject of the aggressions of russia. * * * * * canada. remarks on the proceedings as to canada, in the present session of parliament. by one of the commissioners, rd april, . price _s._ also in the press, reasons for retaining the dependence of lower canada. * * * * * second edition, with additions, in vo. price _s._ _d._ a few remarks on our foreign policy. also, by the same author, price _s._ supplementary remarks on our foreign policy. * * * * * in one volume vo., price _s._ opinions of the european press on the eastern question. translated or extracted from turkish, german, french, and english papers, and reviews. by david ross, of bladensburgh, esq. "* * * the papers from the '_moniteur ottoman_,' in the volume before us, would produce no discredit to our english journals; they come to us with the strong impress of feeling, and conviction, and truth. we recommend these papers to the special attention of our readers, and we repeat our hopes and our wishes, that the whole contents of this important volume will not remain unexplored by our fellow countrymen."--_scots times_. "these translations and extracts consist of some of the best essays and papers that have been written since the commencement of the year , on the designs of russia, the conditions and prospects of turkey, and the power, as well as duties, belonging to certain of the great european kingdoms--england especially, to check the encroachments of the northern autocrat. the editor, from his preface and notes, seems to have been a resident in turkey for a considerable time, and to possess a thorough acquaintance with the eastern question. we believe that the works which have been given to the world, on the eastern question, by the publishers of the present volume, have greatly, nay mainly contributed to the dissemination of sound views on this great subject; nor can we doubt of those collected translations and extracts, so well chosen and edited as they are, tending still further to enlighten the mind and invigorate the arm of england in behalf of freedom and justice, and to the effectual checking of the despot's ambition."--_monthly review_. * * * * * england and russia, being a fifth edition of england, france, russia, and turkey, revised and enlarged, _s._ _d._ boards. "the action of russia on turkey--the treaty of adrianople, of unkiar skelessi--the convention of st. petersburgh, have been so completely laid bare, in 'england, france, russia, and turkey,' that we need offer no remark on the subject; no attempt has been made to controvert any of its positions; no doubt seems even to remain as to their truth. that essay is too succinct to admit of useful citation; it cannot be analysed, because it is itself a condensed analysis of an overwhelming subject. we must content ourselves with urging it on our reader's attention."--_british and foreign review_, no. i. "the effect of this publication on opinion in england, is, perhaps unparalleled. the question interests now, because rendered intelligible."--_foreign quarterly review_, no. xxx. * * * * * the sultan mahmoud, and mehemet ali pacha, by the author of _england, france, russia, and turkey_. third edition. _s._ eastern affairs.--a statement of facts. by a resident at constantinople. vo. second edition. _s._ _d._ "... and a clearer or more incontrovertible statement as to the present posture of affairs in the east was certainly never penned. it is evidently the production of a man who has not only been a long time in turkey, but has lived there under auspices which gave him access to the most infallible sources of information."--_times, oct_. . * * * * * a summary of the history of the east india company, from the grant of their first charter, by queen elizabeth, to the present period. by captain thornton, r.n. vo. _s._ boards. "it may be used as a manual by all parties. it is a succinct collection of materials for information and discussion. the details of the burmese war are from the original memoranda and recollections of the author, who was present in it."--_asiatic journal_. * * * * * =joint-stock banks.= in octavo, _s._ thoughts upon the principles of banks, and the wisdom of legislative interference. "the late multiplication of banking companies in both parts of the united kingdom, an event by which many people have been much alarmed, instead of diminishing, increases the security of the public."--_adam smith_. * * * * * third edition. with the late pressure on the money market, _s._ _d._ an examination of the report on joint-stock banks. third edition. with an account of the late pressure in the money market, and embarrassment of the northern and central bank of england. by t. joplin. third edition. this pamphlet was recommended to the attention of the house by the chancellor of the exchequer, in his speech of the th instant, as follows:--"before i sit down, i am anxious to call the attention of the house to a very interesting document which i hold in my hand. it is published to the world in the shape of a commentary on the report of the committee which had sat upon this subject last session," &c. * * * * * second edition. price _s._ _d._ speech of william clay, esq., m.p., on moving for the appointment of a committee to inquire into the operation of the act permitting the establishment of joint-stock banks; to which are added, reflections on limited liability, paid-up capital, and publicity of accounts, as applied to such associations: with some remarks on an article on joint-stock companies, in the last number of the _edinburgh review_. "we are thus particular in enumerating the contents of this well-timed publication, because we are desirous that it should be referred to by such of our readers as feel particular interest in monetary affairs, at the earliest moment."--_constitutional, oct_. . * * * * * report of the committee of the house of commons on joint-stock banks, august , . price _d._ * * * * * the bank charter. a digest of the evidence before the secret committee of the house of commons, in , on the renewal of the bank of england charter; arranged, together with the tables, under proper heads, with strictures, &c. by thomas joplin. vol. vo. _s._ "thus the report is not only much abridged, without the omission of any essential fact, but it is reduced to a methodical form, and rendered of easy reference."--_times, march_ . * * * * * reflections on the approaching crisis, silver standard, and local acceptances. by a man of straw. _d._ * * * * * =currency and corn questions.= an analysis and history of the currency question. with the origin and growth of joint-stock banking in england, &c. by thomas joplin. _s._ _d._ "it contains such a masterly exposition of the currency question, in all its shapes and bearings, and is conveyed to the reader in so comprehensive a form, that the task of perusing it is anything but that which is generally apprehended by those who are desirous of perfectly understanding this important subject."--_mark lane express_. * * * * * the currency question in a nut shell. _d._ * * * * * an argument against the gold standard; with an examination of the principles of the modern economists--theory of rent--corn laws, &c. &c. addressed to the landlords of england. by d. g. lubÈ, m.a. trinity college, dublin, and of lincoln's inn, barrister at law. _s._ boards. "money is an universal commodity, and as necessary to trade as food is to life."--_locke_. * * * * * paper money, banking, and over trading; with the scotch system of banking explained. by the right hon. sir henry parnell, bart. m.p. new edition. _s._ _d._ boards. * * * * * the power of the bank of england, and the use it has made of it; with a refutation of the objections made to the scotch system of banking; and a reply to the "historical sketch of the bank of england." second edition. _s._ _d._ * * * * * influence of the public debt on the prosperity of the country. by m. b. _s._ * * * * * the revenue and the expenditure of the united kingdom. by samuel wells, barrister-at-law. vo. _s._ cloth. "a truly able and useful work."--_morning herald_. "a work of much skill and merit, coupled with great labour and research."--_gentleman's magazine_. * * * * * corn and currency; in an address to the landowners. by the right hon. sir james graham, bart. m.p. new edition. _s._ _d._ * * * * * earl fitzwilliam's first and second addresses to landowners on the corn laws. new editions. _s._ _d._ * * * * * corn laws complete to . a compendium of the laws passed from time to time for regulating and restricting the importation, exportation, and consumption of foreign corn, from ; and a series of accounts, from the date of the earliest official records, showing the operation of the several statutes, the average prices of corn, &c. &c. presenting a complete view of the corn trade of great britain, compiled from public documents, and brought down to the present time. fifth edition. _s._ * * * * * free trade in corn, the real interest of the landlord, and the true policy of the state. by a cumberland land-owner. second edition. _s._ _d._ * * * * * an inquiry into the expediency of the existing restrictions on the importation of foreign corn; with observations on the present social and political prospects of great britain. by john barton. _s._ _d._ * * * * * key to agricultural prosperity. in closely printed vo. pages. price _s._ _d._ state and prospects of british agriculture; being a compendium of the evidence given before a committee of the house of commons, appointed in , to inquire into agricultural distress. with a few introductory observations. by a member of parliament. "we can confidently recommend this publication to our readers as a most useful compendium of the evidence, much of it highly curious, taken before the agricultural committee; and we trust it will be extensively circulated throughout the country."--_chronicle, march ._ * * * * * remarks on the present state of agriculture; in a letter to his constituents. by charles shaw lefevre, esq., m.p., chairman of the select committee appointed to inquire into the state of agriculture, session . eleventh edition, _s._ _d._ [***] an edition is printed for purposes of general distribution, at _s._ per dozen, or _s._ per hundred. * * * * * second edition. _s._ cloth. practical farming and grazing, with observations on the breeding and feeding of sheep and cattle; on rents and tithes; on the maintenance and employment of agricultural labourers; on the poor law amendment act; and on other subjects connected with agriculture. by c. hillyard, esq. president of the northamptonshire farming and grazing society. * * * * * new series. with a fine portrait of an italian bull, by thomas landseer, _s._ the british farmer's magazine (quarterly), no. i. of vol. i. (new series) for april. contents: mr. s. taylor, on the manufacture of beet-root sugar in france. on the use of chalk as manure--mr. donaldson's observations on the causes which retard the advancement of agriculture--on gypsum as a manure--mr. towers, on the improvement of agriculture--mr. taylor, in reply to mr. donbavand--extracts from the diary of a late eminent agriculturist--on manures, their use and composition--on beet-root sugar--on land draining--mr. gray, on the statistic history of --liverpool agricultural society's third annual ploughing match--remarks on the management of an essex farm--mr. stent, on the failure of the potato crop--two months at kilkee--mr. percivall, on the epidemics of --norfolk quarterly report--general report for england--miscellaneous. "the practical and inquiring farmer can have no better manual of reference than this useful publication, which treats on subjects connected with all the various branches of agriculture." [***] a few complete sets of the first series in vols. have been perfected, and may now be had neatly half-bound, _s._ _d._ each vol. no. ii. will be published on july , . * * * * * =miscellaneous works=. new edition, in two small volumes, _s._ lord collingwood's memoirs and correspondence, public and private. by g. l. newnham collingwood, esq. f.r.s. fifth edition. in the press. "the portrait of one english worthy more is now secured to posterity."--_quarterly review._ "we do not know when we have met with so delightful a book as this, or one with which we are so well pleased with ourselves for being delighted. its attraction consists almost entirely in its moral beauty."--_edinburgh review._ "having thus referred to lord collingwood's life, i may be allowed to say that the publication of that volume is indeed a national good; it ought to be in every officer's cabin, and in every statesman's cabinet."--_southey's life of lord nelson_, new edition, p. . * * * * * mr. canning. the speeches of the right honourable george canning, corrected and revised by himself, with memoirs of his life; illustrated by a fine portrait, fac-similes of his hand writing, a plate exhibitive of his mode of correcting and revising his speeches, &c. in two important passages in the celebrated one on portugal. six vols. vo. third edition. £. _s._ the late right hon. w. huskisson, in a letter to the editor, alluding to the work, says, "it is a work which is destined to convey to posterity the remains of his splendid talents as an orator--to exhibit his principles as a statesman--and to show with what energy and success he carried those principles into execution as a minister of the crown." * * * * * lord brougham. in one volume, vo. _s._ _d._ boards. selections from the speeches and writings of the right hon. henry, lord brougham, with a brief sketch of his life. "the memoir, which precedes these selections, seems to be more complete than any we have hitherto met with, and contains many interesting particulars."--_literary guardian._ "we have no doubt that the present will be a very acceptable volume to a large class of readers."--_examiner._ * * * * * the liberty of the press, &c. the speeches of the honourable thomas (afterwards lord) erskine, when at the bar, on subjects connected with the liberty of the press, and against constructive treason. vols. vo. _l._ _s._ "we take the opinion of the country, and of every part of the world where the language is understood, to be that of the most unbounded admiration of these exquisite specimens of judicial oratory, and of great obligations to the editor of the collection."--_edin. rev._ vol. xix. * * * * * parliamentary manual for the year ; containing the present and last parliaments, authentic results of the various polls in england, wales, scotland, and ireland; and a summary of the act william iv. cap , to amend the representation of the people in england and wales; forms of lists and notices, &c. also a list of the changes in administration, from the commencement of the present century; a summary account of the duties of the great officers of state; a table of the duration of the several parliaments, from henry viii. to the present time; a list of those places which formerly sent members to parliament; a list of the deaths of the principal personages since ; and a complete abstract of the election laws. _s._ boards. * * * * * the peerage of the united kingdom, with the arms of the peers. published annually, and corrected to the latest period. _s._ _d._ bds. * * * * * the baronetage of the united kingdom, with the arms of the baronets. published annually, and corrected to the latest period. _s._ _d._ boards. [***] possessors of old editions of debrett's, and other peerages or baronetages, require only those works to render them correct. * * * * * in a small volume, _s._ _d._ cloth, or _s._ bound, gilt leaves. the court and country companion, containing the most authentic tables of precedence among all british ranks and departments, both male and female. also, directions for epistolary correspondence, with forms of addresses, memorials, and petitions: together with instructions for presentations at court, and for attending royal levees and drawing rooms. "messrs. ridgway and sons have conferred an obligation upon the public by publishing their court and country companion."--_court journal._ "this little publication will be found to be of very great utility in the every day business of civilized life; as every one, of whatever rank in society she or he may be, may derive correctness and advantage in using it as a _vade mecum_." * * * * * phenomena of the earth. in one volume, post vo. pages, with two plates, _s._ the revolutions of the globe familiarly described: by alexander bertrand, m.d. &c. &c. &c. the above work, it is hoped, will prove to the general reader in this department of science what dr. lindley's "ladies' botany" is doing for that delightful pursuit. "'the revolutions of the globe,' by dr. bertrand, is one of the most agreeable we have met with. the object of the author is to convey to the idlest and least learned reader an idea of the wonders of geology. to accomplish his intention in a manner which requires the easiest, and admits with propriety of the most trifling mode of treatment, he addresses his nineteen letters to a lady. this matter consists of the striking facts of geology, rather than of a view of the principles, or a statement of the evidence, on which they rest. his manner of discussion will be best shown by some specimens. the surface of the globe is not a new subject; yet see how interesting our author makes it."--_spectator, january ._ * * * * * the mosaic deluge. mr. george fairholme's new and conclusive natural demonstrations both of the fact and period of the mosaic deluge, and of its having been the only event of the kind that has ever occurred upon the earth; illustrated by numerous wood-cuts, &c., executed in the best manner, will be published early in may, in vol. vo. * * * * * the cartoons of raphael. second edition, in vo. _s._ _d._ cloth boards. cartonensia; or an historical and critical account of the tapestries in the vatican; copied from the designs of raphael of urbino, and of such of the cartoons whence they were woven, as are now in preservation. with notes and illustrations. to which are subjoined, remarks on the causes which retard the progress of the higher departments of paintings in this country. by the rev. w. gunn, b.d. second edition, with additions. "mr. gunn's commentary upon this beautiful production (the nativity) is well written, and contains canons of criticism which we conceive to be in the most correct taste.... indeed we would strongly recommend 'cartonensia' to general attention. it bears about it all the marks of a liberal and accomplished mind, cordially devoted to the prosperity of the fine arts; and we trust that its criticisms, founded, as they generally are, in good sense, and always elegantly expressed, will exercise a salutary influence upon the public taste."--_monthly review._ "in dismissing this work, we would recommend it most cordially to our friends. the artist will find much information, coupled with much admirable advice, in its pages, while the general reader will be amused with its details, and instructed by the remarks, both historical and theological, which he will meet with in perusing it. mr. gunn is a man of much critical acumen, softened down and polished by his gentlemanly feelings, and amiable spirit; and we think that few will arise from his book without sensations of gratitude for his labours in its compilation, and of satisfaction for the information he so pleasingly communicates."--_arnold's magazine of the fine arts_. * * * * * _mr. forbes's new work on horticulture._ horticultural tour through germany, belgium, and france, in . by james forbes, f.h.s. &c., author of "hortus woburnensis; or, the gardens and grounds of woburn abbey." in royal and demy vo. * * * * * new poem. in vo. _s._ _d._, cloth boards. alfred the great. a poem. by g. l. newnham collingwood, esq., editor of the '_life and correspondence of admiral lord collingwood._' "at any other time than the present, when the tide of literary taste is running against poetry of the severely heroic character, the appearance of such a work as 'alfred the great' would have excited a general interest, and ensured the author a high place among the writers of his country. * * * we may add that the interest of the poem never flags, and has the additional merit of keeping pace with the progress of the story from its commencement to its conclusion."--_new monthly mag., august ._ * * * * * the hon. and rev. william herbert's new work, on amaryllidaceÆ. illustrated by numerous plates, coloured and plain, with a treatise on hybrid vegetables subjoined, may be certainly expected in the course of the present month. vol. royal vo. _l._ _s._; or coloured _l._ _s._ * * * * * personal safety from lightning, &c. _s._ directions for ensuring personal safety during storms of thunder and lightning; and for the right application of conductors to houses and other buildings. by john leigh, esq. third edition. with the instructions of the humane society. "the whole of the little tract being of that plain, sensible, and accurate character, as particularly to enlighten not only the ignorant peasant, but the public in general, as to the best ascertained means of escaping destruction, or damage, from thunder storms."--_monthly review, may ._ * * * * * third edition, with a plate and two diagrams. _s._ or _s._ _d._ bound and gilt. what is a comet, papa? or, a familiar description of comets; more particularly halley's comet. to which is prefixed, a concise account of the other heavenly bodies. by rosina maria zornlin. "a timely question, answered after the german fashion, by telling plainly, 'all, how, and about it.' the first, a conversation among a family of clever children, the boy relating the leading truths of astronomy to his sisters, while they are waiting the return of their parents: the second part is papa's own account of the passing comet, in answer to the question which forms the title. both are very well done, and the authoress deserves great credit for the thought and its realization."--_atlas, august ._ also, by the same author, the solar eclipse; or, the two almanacs; containing more inquiries in astronomy. plate and diagrams, _s._; or _s._ _d._ bound and coloured. "just the sort of book we love to put into the hands of young persons. it invites them to inquiry, and makes them laudably curious. there is in this little work much valuable information, both on the solar system and on comets, which, just now, will be peculiarly attractive."--_london journal._ "there are editions on common paper which may be had for a trifle, and one of which should be in every family within the nation, where ignorance or children may be found. we cannot conceive of any means by which the majesty and power of the almighty is to be so easily and forcibly impressed upon the uninformed mind, as by putting this little tract into the hands of such. that must be a heartless and wicked parent, who will not enjoy the earnestness and ingenuity of the thousand interrogatories that will thereafter be innocently proposed by the same inquirer."--_monthly review._ * * * * * the young horsewoman's compendium of the modern art of riding. in progressive lessons; designed to give a secure and graceful seat on horseback; at the same time so effectually to form the hand, that, in a short time, perfect command of the horse may be obtained. by edward stanley; with illustrative plates, _s._ bds. "but we have said enough of this manual, and have only to add that it is a very sensible and judicious publication."--_literary gazette._ * * * * * the english race horse. a treatise on the care, treatment, and training of the english race horse; with important details applicable to bettering the condition of horses in general. by r. darvill, v.s. to the seventh hussars. illustrated by plates. vols. i. and ii. vo. £ . _s._ each. [***] the third and concluding volume is in the press, and will shortly be published, together with a second edition of _vol. i_. "never before was such a book written in any language, so replete with those minute but indispensable particulars of practice; and by a writer who has personally performed his part throughout the whole of the practice. this is the true book of reference for every stud and training groom, and every jockey."--vide _lawrence on the horse_, p. ; also, _the sporting magazine and british farmer's magazine._ * * * * * grouse, partridge, and pheasant shooting. post octavo, _s._ _d._ the oakleigh shooting code; containing chapters relative to shooting grouse, partridges, pheasants, &c. by thomas oakleigh, esq., with numerous notes. edited by the author of _nights at oakleigh old manor hall._ "we would advise all our sporting friends to buy this admirable digest, the first time they see it in any bookseller's shop; or--why--as well order it at once. it is the best thing of the kind extant."--_chambers's edinburgh journal._ "we have scarcely ever met with a volume containing so much light reading, and at the same time such a fund of instruction and practical advice to sportsmen, as the one now before us." * * _wigan gazette, oct. ._ "two hundred and twenty chapters of very useful hints."--_atlas._ "since the publication of daniel's _rural sports_ we have seen nothing worthy to be compared with the canons or the _oakleigh code_."--_essex mercury._ "containing such a mass of information relative to shooting, that it ought to be in every sportsman's hands. who would not wish to spend a week at the ancient and hospitable hall of the worthy 'tom oakleigh?'"--_chambers's edinburgh journal, sept. ._ * * * "timely, therefore, is the appearance of _oakleigh shooting code_; a manual for the tyro, and a book of reference to the veteran sportsman, who, though he may sneer at 'book-shooting,' as old farmers do at 'book-farming,' may yet condescend to pick up some useful hints in its pages." * * "it bears internal evidence of being the production of a real sportsman--one who has gleaned his knowledge from experience, who tests the value of theory by practice, and who, to a scientific acquaintance with his subject adds a hearty enthusiasm for the sport."--_spectator._ * * * * * prison discipline. charge of the recorder to the grand jury of the city of worcester, delivered at the last epiphany sessions. published at the request of the magistracy and council of the city. _s._ * * * * * in vo. with an illustrated title, price _s._ cloth boards. laocoon; an essay on the relative limits of poetry and painting; translated from the original german of gotthold ephraim lessing, by william ross, late professor of painting and sculpture in the andersonian university, glasgow. "we believe that this work is justly considered to have been lessing's _coup d'essai_; and certainly, as translated by mr. ross, it is one of the most graceful and elegant pieces we ever perused. its canons of criticism too, we cannot but feel, are the result of the profoundest reflection and most refined taste, being admirably calculated to enlighten the critic, and to facilitate the studies of the artist."--_monthly review._ "a very elegant version of a beautiful critical essay, which has originated some of the finest views of art."--_literary gazette._ "lessing, if still living, might feel cause to rejoice at the exhibition of his treatise in a dress so likely to preserve its value. the original notes show a refined taste and correct judgment."--_new monthly magazine, sept. ._ * * * * * sketches in greece and turkey, with the present condition & future prospects of the turkish empire. vo. _s._ _d._ "this is a charming volume, for it embraces both the useful and the beautiful." * *--_spectator._ * * * * * record commission. price _s._ _d._ report of the select committee of the house of commons, appointed to inquire into the management and affairs of the record commission, with illustrative notes; and remarks on the secretary's (c. p. cooper) attempted alteration of his evidence. * * * * * the factory question and the ten hours' bill. by robert hyde greg, esq. _s._ this pamphlet contains a concise history of factory legislation down to the present time, with copious extracts from the evidence and reports of the factory commissioners of , and from the various reports, to the secretary of state, of the factory inspectors since that period. it enters fully into the argument of the comparative healthiness of factory employment, and into the policy of further curtailing the hours of labour. it contains also the most recent and authentic information respecting the progress of foreign manufactures--the quantity produced by the machinery in the continental and american cotton mills, compared with those of england; and it shows the precarious tenure on which the cotton manufacture of this country is at present held. * * * * * in the press. in octavo, _s._ _d._ an historical account of the university of cambridge, and its colleges. by b. d. walsh, m.a., fellow of trinity college. contents:--introduction--the "_must not_" argument against a commission--the "_need not_" argument--the university prior to the colleges--the hostels--religious tests not anciently exacted--the office of chancellor--the senate--the college of tribunes, called the "capul," and their "veto"--the innovations and usurpations of the heads of colleges upon the university, in the various offices of . high steward; . vice chancellor; . the proctors; . the taxors; . scrutators; . the bedells; . the guardians and auditors of the public chest; . the public orator; . the registry; . the barnaby lectures; . the m. p.'s university lectures; system of compulsory lectures; ancient disputations; modern examinations; degrees; introduction of modern sciences into the examinations; the colleges; their tutors; their lecturers; fellows; compulsory holy order; ridiculous absurdities in statutes, sworn to by all, &c. &c. * * * * * free and safe government, traced from the origin and principles of the british constitution. by a cumberland land-owner, author of _free trade in corn, &c._ vol. _s._ bds. * * * * * some remarks on the present studies and management of eton school. by a parent. fifth edition. _s._ * * * * * =new works on botany=. dr. lindley's botanical register; or, ornamental flower garden and shrubbery. publishing the first of every month, price _s._ each number contains eight finely-coloured portraits, from life, of the handsomest flowering plants and shrubs grown in this country, accompanied by their history, treatment in cultivation, propagation, &c. no. v. of vol. x., new series, was published may , . the previous volumes may be had separately, £. _s._ each. [***] all the numbers which were out of print are now re-printed. "this series, placed under the superintendence of professor lindley, comes forth with increased splendour of illustration, and increased accuracy of description. the present number contains many plants and shrubs, of extreme beauty, delineated and coloured, so as almost to rival the tints of nature, and bestow perpetuity on her loveliest, yet most transitory, productions. the letter-press, in addition to the ordinary information, as to the habits, mode of culture, and organization of the plant, occasionally introduces points of vegetable physiology, or observations respecting its economical uses, which possess much interest."--_athenæum._ "the botanical register, from containing most or all of the new plants introduced by the horticultural society, from the great care with which its plates are executed, and the judicious remarks on culture and general habit, by dr. lindley, is, in consequence, the superior publication."--_loudon's magazine of botany, &c._ "too much praise cannot be bestowed upon this work."--_horticultural cabinet._ * * * * * ladies botany. in two volumes. by dr. lindley, editor of the _botanical register, fossil flora of great britain, &c. &c._ third edition. vo. vol. i, with numerous illustrative plates, _s._, and finely coloured, _s._ "we consider it quite needless to recommend this work: it must find its way into the library of every lady, and it ought to be in the coat pocket of every young gardener."--_gardener's magazine._ "let it be known--let it be introduced into every library, reading-room, and seminary throughout britain; let it become the class-book of botanical study."--_horticultural register._ the second volume, which will complete the work, will be published in may. * * * * * second edition. one volume, royal vo. with eighteen coloured plates. _s._ cloth boards. rosarum monographia; or, a botanical history of roses. to which is added, an appendix for the use of cultivators, in which the most remarkable garden varieties are systematically arranged; with nineteen plates, eighteen beautifully coloured. by john lindley, ph.d. f.l.s. r.s. &c. &c. * * * * * dedicated to the patrons and patronesses of village schools. a catechism of gardening, intended for the use of village schools and cottagers, containing plain and brief directions for cultivating every kind of vegetable in common use. by an old practitioner. second edition, enlarged, _s._ _d._ "this is a cheap little work, and far better adapted for its avowed purpose than any of the tracts which have preceded it. the small type and closely-printed page of the catechism show that the author is perfectly serious in his wish to extend a knowledge of horticulture to the humblest classes of society."--_loudon's gardener's magazine._ "this is not only a useful, but a cheap publication, and excellently adapted for its purpose."--_analyst._ * * * * * gardens and grounds of woburn abbey. illustrated by numerous views, plans, &c. one vol. medium vo. _s._ hortus woburnensis; a descriptive catalogue, comprising generic and specific character, colour of the flower, native country, year of introduction, soil, and mode of propagation, of upwards of six thousand of the finest ornamental plants and shrubs, both exotic and indigenous, for the decoration of the british flower garden, greenhouse, plant stove, &c.; with an account of the routine of culture pursued in the forcing department throughout the year, a list of the fruits cultivated; including short treatises on the management of the superior fruits, vegetables, &c. together with designs for the erection of forcing houses, melon, and culinary pits, and a mode of heating by hot water pipes, by which a genial steady heat is produced, with a great saving of fuel, and the houses left with perfect safety, for full fifteen hours, at even degrees of frost, fahrenheit. by james forbes, a.l.s. c.m. h.s. &c., principal gardener at woburn abbey. _a few copies are printed on royal paper, for such of the nobility as may desire them. proofs_, _l._ _s_. _ditto, coloured_, _l._ _s._ _d._ "the plan of this work is good. the objects of cultivation, the routine of cropping, the periods of forcing fruits and flowers, and the hothouses employed for such purposes, are nearly the same in all large gardens; and a well-digested and accurate account of what is found most useful or beautiful in one, will serve as a rule of practice in nearly all the others. the duke of bedford's garden is one of the best in england, and mr. forbes is one of the most experienced gardeners; so that a better model, or a better man, could hardly be found, to illustrate the most efficient plans which are followed in the management of horticultural affairs in england * * * we can recommend mr. forbes's work to our gardening friends."--_athenæum._ * * * * * fruit and fruit trees. second edition, in one volume, price _s._ the fruit cultivator. by john rogers, nurseryman, formerly of the royal gardens. "directions are given for planting, pruning, training, the formation of fruit-tree borders, and orchards, the gathering and storing of fruit; in a word, every thing which can be desired is handled in a plain instructive manner, in such a way as a practical man alone is capable of doing it."--_irish farmer's and gardener's magazine._ "it remains only to say, that we think mr. rogers has here produced a most valuable practical work, which deserves to be in universal use; and which adds to its other recommendation that of cheapness."--_gardener's magazine._ * * * * * _printed by t. brettell, printer, rupert street, haymarket._ transcriber's notes several punctuation errors have been repaired and are not listed here. apostrophes within capitalised latin names should be regarded as highlighting accented syllables: e.g. "ce'reus" corrected typos: page : "whieh" changed to "which" (which has been grown here for several years) page : "flotbeck" changed to "flottbeck" (on my return from this place to flottbeck) page : "cultivaed" changed to "cultivated" (i never before saw so many plants cultivated) page : "cieling" changed to "ceiling" (dome and cove ceiling) page : "forms" changed to "formed" (eight round columns, formed) page : "receses" changed to "recesses" (arched recesses) page : "plauean" changed to "plauen" (plauen, where we arrived) page and : "cielings" changed to "ceilings" (with gilt ceilings) page : "inintelligent" changed to "intelligent" (a very intelligent man) page : "uuquestionably" changed to "unquestionably" (unquestionably well worth the stranger's visit) page : "pelarganiums" changed to "pelargoniums" (pelargoniums and dahlias) page : "castelated" changed to "castellated" (old castellated ruins) page : "popula-" changed to "population" (has a population of) page : "cieling" changed to "ceiling" (highly ornamented on the ceiling) page : "parellel" changed to "parallel" (smaller avenues parallel to them) page : "acccompany" changed to "accompany" (to send their gardener to accompany me) page : "workmanhsip" changed to "workmanship" (a most beautiful specimen of workmanship) page : "vennus" changed to "vennius" (lazarus rising from the dead, by otto vennius) page : "airrved" changed to "arrived" (we arrived at malines) page : "grande bretage" changed to "grande bretagne" page : "succulent[oe]" changed to "succulentæ" page : "curvilenear" changed to "curvilinear" (the curvilinear iron bar) page : repeated word "at" removed (the gardener was not at home) page : "hamburg" changed to "hamburgh" page : "darmsdadt" changed to "darmstadt" page : "luxemberg" changed to "luxemburg" (luxemburg gardens) page : "nursersies" changed to "nurseries" (vitry nurseries) page : "vandermaelin" changed to "vandermaelen" the following spelling instances have not been corrected, but are retained as per the original: stuttgard, chesnuts, pseudacacia, potatoe, belvidere, leipsic, wallnuts, cemetry, frankfort. this book contains many other instances of differing spelling of unusual or non-english words, differing accents, incorrect accents, differing hyphenation etc., e.g.: page : "chateau", page : "château" page : "boursalt", index: "boursoult" page : "andrieux", page : "andreux" page : "beurre dore" (should be "doré") page : "good-sized", page : "good sized" these have been retained and have not been comprehensively listed within these notes. the letters "d.s.s." in the last column of the tables refer to dry stove shrubs. these plants require very little water. proofreading team. proserpina. studies of wayside flowers, while the air was yet pure _among the alps, and in the scotland and england which my father knew_. by john ruskin, ll.d., honorary student of christchurch, and honorary fellow of corpus christi college, oxford. vol. ii. . * * * * * chapter i. viola. . although i have not been able in the preceding volume to complete, in any wise as i desired, the account of the several parts and actions of plants in general, i will not delay any longer our entrance on the examination of particular kinds, though here and there i must interrupt such special study by recurring to general principles, or points of wider interest. but the scope of such larger inquiry will be best seen, and the use of it best felt, by entering now on specific study. i begin with the violet, because the arrangement of the group to which it belongs--cytherides--is more arbitrary than that of the rest, and calls for some immediate explanation. . i fear that my readers may expect me to write something very pretty for them about violets: but my time for writing prettily is long past; and it requires some watching over myself, i find, to keep me even from writing querulously. for while, the older i grow, very thankfully i recognize more and more the number of pleasures granted to human eyes in this fair world, i recognize also an increasing sensitiveness in my temper to anything that interferes with them; and a grievous readiness to find fault--always of course submissively, but very articulately--with whatever nature seems to me not to have managed to the best of her power;--as, for extreme instance, her late arrangements of frost this spring, destroying all the beauty of the wood sorrels; nor am i less inclined, looking to her as the greatest of sculptors and painters, to ask, every time i see a narcissus, why it should be wrapped up in brown paper; and every time i see a violet, what it wants with a spur? . what _any_ flower wants with a spur, is indeed the simplest and hitherto to me unanswerablest form of the question; nevertheless, when blossoms grow in spires, and are crowded together, and have to grow partly downwards, in order to win their share of light and breeze, one can see some reason for the effort of the petals to expand upwards and backwards also. but that a violet, who has her little stalk to herself, and might grow straight up, if she pleased, should be pleased to do nothing of the sort, but quite gratuitously bend her stalk down at the top, and fasten herself to it by her waist, as it were,--this is so much more like a girl of the period's fancy than a violet's, that i never gather one separately but with renewed astonishment at it. . one reason indeed there is, which i never thought of until this moment! a piece of stupidity which i can only pardon myself in, because, as it has chanced, i have studied violets most in gardens, not in their wild haunts,--partly thinking their athenian honour was as a garden flower; and partly being always fed away from them, among the hills, by flowers which i could see nowhere else. with all excuse i can furbish up, however, it is shameful that the truth of the matter never struck me before, or at least this bit of the truth--as follows. . the greeks, and milton, alike speak of violets as growing in meadows (or dales). but the greeks did so because they could not fancy any delight except in meadows; and milton, because he wanted a rhyme to nightingale--and, after all, was london bred. but viola's beloved knew where violets grew in illyria,--and grow everywhere else also, when they can,--on a _bank_, facing the south. just as distinctly as the daisy and buttercup are _meadow_ flowers, the violet is a _bank_ flower, and would fain grow always on a steep slope, towards the sun. and it is so poised on its stem that it shows, when growing on a slope, the full space and opening of its flower,--not at all, in any strain of modesty, hiding _itself_, though it may easily be, by grass or mossy stone, 'half hidden,'--but, to the full, showing itself, and intending to be lovely and luminous, as fragrant, to the uttermost of its soft power. nor merely in its oblique setting on the stalk, but in the reversion of its two upper petals, the flower shows this purpose of being fully seen. (for a flower that _does_ hide itself, take a lily of the valley, or the bell of a grape hyacinth, or a cyclamen.) but respecting this matter of petal-reversion, we must now farther state two or three general principles. . a perfect or pure flower, as a rose, oxalis, or campanula, is always composed of an unbroken whorl, or corolla, in the form of a disk, cup, bell, or, if it draw together again at the lips, a narrow-necked vase. this cup, bell, or vase, is divided into similar petals, (or segments, which are petals carefully joined,) varying in number from three to eight, and enclosed by a calyx whose sepals are symmetrical also. an imperfect, or, as i am inclined rather to call it, an 'injured' flower, is one in which some of the petals have inferior office and position, and are either degraded, for the benefit of others, or expanded and honoured at the cost of others. of this process, the first and simplest condition is the reversal of the upper petals and elongation of the lower ones, in blossoms set on the side of a clustered stalk. when the change is simply and directly dependent on their position in the cluster, as in aurora regina,[ ] modifying every bell just in proportion as it declines from the perfected central one, some of the loveliest groups of form are produced which can be seen in any inferior organism: but when the irregularity becomes fixed, and the flower is always to the same extent distorted, whatever its position in the cluster, the plant is to be rightly thought of as reduced to a lower rank in creation. . it is to be observed, also, that these inferior forms of flower have always the appearance of being produced by some kind of mischief--blight, bite, or ill-breeding; they never suggest the idea of improving themselves, now, into anything better; one is only afraid of their tearing or puffing themselves into something worse. nay, even the quite natural and simple conditions of inferior vegetable do not in the least suggest, to the unbitten or unblighted human intellect, the notion of development into anything other than their like: one does not expect a mushroom to translate itself into a pineapple, nor a betony to moralize itself into a lily, nor a snapdragon to soften himself into a lilac. . it is very possible, indeed, that the recent phrenzy for the investigation of digestive and reproductive operations in plants may by this time have furnished the microscopic malice of botanists with providentially disgusting reasons, or demoniacally nasty necessities, for every possible spur, spike, jag, sting, rent, blotch, flaw, freckle, filth, or venom, which can be detected in the construction, or distilled from the dissolution, of vegetable organism. but with these obscene processes and prurient apparitions the gentle and happy scholar of flowers has nothing whatever to do. i am amazed and saddened, more than i can care to say, by finding how much that is abominable may be discovered by an ill-taught curiosity, in the purest things that earth is allowed to produce for us;--perhaps if we were less reprobate in our own ways, the grass which is our type might conduct itself better, even though _it_ has no hope but of being cast into the oven; in the meantime, healthy human eyes and thoughts are to be set on the lovely laws of its growth and habitation, and not on the mean mysteries of its birth. . i relieve, therefore, our presently inquiring souls from any farther care as to the reason for a violet's spur,--or for the extremely ugly arrangements of its stamens and style, invisible unless by vexatious and vicious peeping. you are to think of a violet only in its green leaves, and purple or golden petals;--you are to know the varieties of form in both, proper to common species; and in what kind of places they all most fondly live, and most deeply glow. "and the recreation of the minde which is taken heereby cannot be but verie good and honest, for they admonish and stir up a man to that which is comely and honest. for flowers, through their beautie, varietie of colour, and exquisite forme, do bring to a liberall and gentle manly minde the remembrance of honestie, comeliness, and all kinds of vertues. for it would be an unseemely and filthie thing, as a certain wise man saith, for him that doth looke upon and handle faire and beautiful things, and who frequenteth and is conversant in faire and beautiful places, to have his mind not faire, but filthie and deformed." . thus gerarde, in the close of his introductory notice of the violet,--speaking of things, (honesty, comeliness, and the like,) scarcely now recognized as desirable in the realm of england; but having previously observed that violets are useful for the making of garlands for the head, and posies to smell to;--in which last function i observe they are still pleasing to the british public: and i found the children here, only the other day, munching a confection of candied violet leaves. what pleasure the flower can still give us, uncandied, and unbound, but in its own place and life, i will try to trace through some of its constant laws. . and first, let us be clear that the native colour of the violet _is_ violet; and that the white and yellow kinds, though pretty in their place and way, are not to be thought of in generally meditating the flower's quality or power. a white violet is to black ones what a black man is to white ones; and the yellow varieties are, i believe, properly pansies, and belong also to wild districts for the most part; but the true violet, which i have just now called 'black,' with gerarde, "the blacke or purple violet, hath a great prerogative above others," and all the nobler species of the pansy itself are of full purple, inclining, however, in the ordinary wild violet to blue. in the 'laws of fésole,' chap, vii., §§ , , i have made this dark pansy the representative of purple pure; the viola odorata, of the link between that full purple and blue; and the heath-blossom of the link between that full purple and red. the reader will do well, as much as may be possible to him, to associate his study of botany, as indeed all other studies of visible things, with that of painting: but he must remember that he cannot know what violet colour really is, unless he watch the flower in its _early_ growth. it becomes dim in age, and dark when it is gathered--at least, when it is tied in bunches;--but i am under the impression that the colour actually deadens also,--at all events, no other single flower of the same quiet colour lights up the ground near it as a violet will. the bright hounds-tongue looks merely like a spot of bright paint; but a young violet glows like painted glass. . which, when you have once well noticed, the two lines of milton and shakspeare which seem opposed, will both become clear to you. the said lines are dragged from hand to hand along their pages of pilfered quotations by the hack botanists,--who probably never saw _them_, nor anything else, _in_ shakspeare or milton in their lives,--till even in reading them where they rightly come, you can scarcely recover their fresh meaning: but none of the botanists ever think of asking why perdita calls the violet 'dim,' and milton 'glowing.' perdita, indeed, calls it dim, at that moment, in thinking of her own love, and the hidden passion of it, unspeakable; nor is milton without some purpose of using it as an emblem of love, mourning,--but, in both cases, the subdued and quiet hue of the flower as an actual tint of colour, and the strange force and life of it as a part of light, are felt to their uttermost. and observe, also, that both, of the poets contrast the violet, in its softness, with the intense marking of the pansy. milton makes the opposition directly--- "the pansy, freaked with jet, the glowing violet." shakspeare shows yet stronger sense of the difference, in the "purple with love's wound" of the pansy, while the violet is sweet with love's hidden life, and sweeter than the lids of juno's eyes. whereupon, we may perhaps consider with ourselves a little, what the difference _is_ between a violet and a pansy? . is, i say, and was, and is to come,--in spite of florists, who try to make pansies round, instead of pentagonal; and of the wise classifying people, who say that violets and pansies are the same thing--and that neither of them are of much interest! as, for instance, dr. lindley in his 'ladies' botany.' "violets--sweet violets, and pansies, or heartsease, represent a small family, with the structure of which you should be familiar; more, however, for the sake of its singularity than for its extent or importance, for the family is a very small one, and there are but few species belonging to it in which much interest is taken. as the parts of the heartsease are larger than those of the violet, let us select the former in preference for the subject of our study." whereupon we plunge instantly into the usual account of things with horns and tails. "the stamens are five in number--two of them, which are in front of the others, are hidden within the horn of the front petal," etc., etc., etc. (note in passing, by the '_horn of the front_' petal he means the '_spur of the bottom_' one, which indeed does stand in front of the rest,--but if therefore _it_ is to be called the _front_ petal--which is the back one?) you may find in the next paragraph description of a "singular conformation," and the interesting conclusion that "no one has yet discovered for what purpose this singular conformation was provided." but you will not, in the entire article, find the least attempt to tell you the difference between a violet and a pansy!--except in one statement--and _that_ false! "the sweet violet will have no rival among flowers, if we merely seek for delicate fragrance; but her sister, the heartsease, who is destitute of all sweetness, far surpasses her in rich dresses and _gaudy_!!! colours." the heartsease is not without sweetness. there are sweet pansies scented, and dog pansies unscented--as there are sweet violets scented, and dog violets unscented. what is the real difference? . i turn to another scientific gentleman--_more_ scientific in form indeed, mr. grindon,--and find, for another interesting phenomenon in the violet, that it sometimes produces flowers without any petals! and in the pansy, that "the flowers turn towards the sun, and when many are open at once, present a droll appearance, looking like a number of faces all on the 'qui vive.'" but nothing of the difference between them, except something about 'stipules,' of which "it is important to observe that the leaves should be taken from the middle of the stem--those above and below being variable." i observe, however, that mr. grindon _has_ arranged his violets under the letter a, and his pansies under the letter b, and that something may be really made out of him, with an hour or two's work. i am content, however, at present, with his simplifying assurance that of violet and pansy together, "six species grow wild in britain--or, as some believe, only four--while the analysts run the number up to fifteen." . next i try loudon's cyclopædia, which, through all its pages, is equally silent on the business; and next, mr. baxter's 'british flowering plants,' in the index of which i find neither pansy nor heartsease, and only the 'calathian' violet, (where on earth is calathia?) which proves, on turning it up, to be a gentian. . at last, i take my figuier, (but what should i do if i only knew english?) and find this much of clue to the matter:-- "qu'est ce que c'est que la pensée? cette jolie plante appartient aussi ou genre viola, mais à un section de ce genre. en effet, dans les pensées, les pétales supérieurs et lateraux sont dirigés en haut, l'inférieur seul est dirigé en bas: et de plus, le stigmate est urcéole, globuleux." and farther, this general description of the whole violet tribe, which i translate, that we may have its full value:-- "the violet is a plant without a stem (tige),--(see vol. i., p. ,)--whose height does not surpass one or two decimetres. its leaves, radical, or carried on stolons, (vol. i., p. ,) are sharp, or oval, crenulate, or heart-shape. its stipules are oval-acuminate, or lanceolate. its flowers, of sweet scent, of a dark violet or a reddish blue, are carried each on a slender peduncle, which bends down at the summit. such is, for the botanist, the violet, of which the poets would give assuredly another description." . perhaps; or even the painters! or even an ordinary unbotanical human creature! i must set about my business, at any rate, in my own way, now, as i best can, looking first at things themselves, and then putting this and that together, out of these botanical persons, which they can't put together out of themselves. and first, i go down into my kitchen garden, where the path to the lake has a border of pansies on both sides all the way down, with clusters of narcissus behind them. and pulling up a handful of pansies by the roots, i find them "without stems," indeed, if a stem means a wooden thing; but i should say, for a low-growing flower, quiet lankily and disagreeably stalky! and, thinking over what i remember about wild pansies, i find an impression on my mind of their being rather more stalky, always, than is quite graceful; and, for all their fine flowers, having rather a weedy and littery look, and getting into places where they have no business. see, again, vol. i., chap. vi., § . . and now, going up into my flower and fruit garden, i find (june nd, , half-past six, morning.) among the wild saxifrages, which are allowed to grow wherever they like, and the rock strawberries, and francescas, which are coaxed to grow wherever there is a bit of rough ground for them, a bunch or two of pale pansies, or violets, i don't know well which, by the flower; but the entire company of them has a ragged, jagged, unpurpose-like look; extremely,--i should say,--demoralizing to all the little plants in their neighbourhood: and on gathering a flower, i find it is a nasty big thing, all of a feeble blue, and with two things like horns, or thorns, sticking out where its ears would be, if the pansy's frequently monkey face were underneath them. which i find to be two of the leaves of its calyx 'out of place,' and, at all events, for their part, therefore, weedy, and insolent. . i perceive, farther, that this disorderly flower is lifted on a lanky, awkward, springless, and yet stiff flower-stalk; which is not round, as a flower-stalk ought to be, (vol. i., p. ,) but obstinately square, and fluted, with projecting edges, like a pillar run thin out of an iron-foundry for a cheap railway station. i perceive also that it has set on it, just before turning down to carry the flower, two little jaggy and indefinable leaves,--their colour a little more violet than the blossom. these, and such undeveloping leaves, wherever they occur, are called 'bracts' by botanists, a good word, from the latin 'bractea,' meaning a piece of metal plate, so thin as to crackle. they seem always a little stiff, like bad parchment,--born to come to nothing--a sort of infinitesimal fairy-lawyer's deed. they ought to have been in my index at p. , under the head of leaves, and are frequent in flower structure,--never, as far as one can see, of the smallest use. they are constant, however, in the flower-stalk of the whole violet tribe. . i perceive, farther, that this lanky flower-stalk, bending a little in a crabbed, broken way, like an obstinate person tired, pushes itself up out of a still more stubborn, nondescript, hollow angular, dogseared gas-pipe of a stalk, with a section something like this, [illustration] but no bigger than [illustration] with a quantity of ill-made and ill-hemmed leaves on it, of no describable leaf-cloth or texture,--not cressic, (though the thing does altogether look a good deal like a quite uneatable old watercress); not salvian, for there's no look of warmth or comfort in them; not cauline, for there's no juice in them; not dryad, for there's no strength in them, nor apparent use: they seem only there, as far as i can make out, to spoil the flower, and take the good out of my garden bed. nobody in the world could draw them, they are so mixed up together, and crumpled and hacked about, as if some ill-natured child had snipped them with blunt scissors, and an ill-natured cow chewed them a little afterwards and left them, proved for too tough or too bitter. . having now sufficiently observed, it seems to me, this incongruous plant, i proceed to ask myself, over it, m. figuier's question, 'qu'est-ce c'est qu'un pensée?' is this a violet--or a pansy--or a bad imitation of both? whereupon i try if it has any scent: and to my much surprise, find it has a full and soft one--which i suppose is what my gardener keeps it for! according to dr. lindley, then, it must be a violet! but according to m. figuier,--let me see, do its middle petals bend up, or down? i think i'll go and ask the gardener what _he_ calls it. . my gardener, on appeal to him, tells me it is the 'viola cornuta,' but that he does not know himself if it is violet or pansy. i take my loudon again, and find there were fifty-three species of violets, known in his days, of which, as it chances, cornuta is exactly the last. 'horned violet': i said the green things were _like_ horns!--but what is one to say of, or to do to, scientific people, who first call the spur of the violet's petal, horn, and then its calyx points, horns, and never define a 'horn' all the while! viola cornuta, however, let it be; for the name does mean _some_thing, and is not false latin. but whether violet or pansy, i must look farther to find out. . i take the flora danica, in which i at least am sure of finding whatever is done at all, done as well as honesty and care can; and look what species of violets it gives. nine, in the first ten volumes of it; four in their modern sequel (that i know of,--i have had no time to examine the last issues). namely, in alphabetical order, with their present latin, or tentative latin, names; and in plain english, the senses intended by the hapless scientific people, in such their tentative latin:-- ( ) viola arvensis. field (violet) no. ( ) " biflora. two-flowered ( ) " canina. dog ( b) " canina. var. multicaulus (many-stemmed), a very singular sort of violet--if it were so! its real difference from our dog-violet is in being pale blue, and having a golden centre ( ) " hirta. hairy ( ) " mirabilis. marvellous ( ) " montana. mountain ( ) " odorata. odorous ( ) " palustris. marshy ( ) " tricolor. three-coloured ( b) " tricolor. var. arenaria, sandy three-coloured ( ) " elatior. taller ( ) " epipsila. (heaven knows what: it is greek, not latin, and looks as if it meant something between a bishop and a short letter e) i next run down this list, noting what names we can keep, and what we can't; and what aren't worth keeping, if we could: passing over the varieties, however, for the present, wholly. ( ) arvensis. field-violet. good. ( ) biflora. a good epithet, but in false latin. it is to be our viola aurea, golden pansy. ( ) canina. dog. not pretty, but intelligible, and by common use now classical. must stay. ( ) hirta. late latin slang for hirsuta, and always used of nasty places or nasty people; it shall not stay. the species shall be our viola seclusa,--monk's violet--meaning the kind of monk who leads a rough life like elijah's, or the baptist's, or esau's--in another kind. this violet is one of the loveliest that grows. ( ) mirabilis. stays so; marvellous enough, truly: not more so than all violets; but i am very glad to hear of scientific people capable of admiring anything. ( ) montana. stays so. ( ) odorata. not distinctive;--nearly classical, however. it is to be our viola regina, else i should not have altered it. ( ) palustris. stays so. ( ) tricolor. true, but intolerable. the flower is the queen of the true pansies: to be our viola psyche. ( ) elatior. only a variety of our already accepted cornuta. ( ) the last is, i believe, also only a variety of palustris. its leaves, i am informed in the text, are either "pubescent-reticulate-venose- subreniform," or "lato-cordate-repando-crenate;" and its stipules are "ovate-acuminate-fimbrio-denticulate." i do not wish to pursue the inquiry farther. . these ten species will include, noting here and there a local variety, all the forms which are familiar to us in northern europe, except only two;--these, as it singularly chances, being the viola alpium, noblest of all the wild pansies in the world, so far as i have seen or heard of them,--of which, consequently, i find no picture, nor notice, in any botanical work whatsoever; and the other, the rock-violet of our own yorkshire hills. we have therefore, ourselves, finally then, twelve following species to study. i give them now all in their accepted names and proper order,--the reasons for occasional difference between the latin and english name will be presently given. ( ) viola regina. queen violet. ( ) " psyche. ophelia's pansy. ( ) " alpium. freneli's pansy. ( ) " aurea. golden violet. ( ) " montana. mountain violet. ( ) " mirabilis. marvellous violet. ( ) " arvensis. field violet. ( ) " palustris. marsh violet. ( ) " seclusa. monk's violet. ( ) " canina. dog violet. ( ) " cornuta. cow violet. ( ) " rupestris. crag violet. . we will try, presently, what is to be found out of useful, or pretty, concerning all these twelve violets; but must first find out how we are to know which are violets indeed, and which, pansies. yesterday, after finishing my list, i went out again to examine viola cornuta a little closer, and pulled up a full grip of it by the roots, and put it in water in a wash-hand basin, which it filled like a truss of green hay. pulling out two or three separate plants, i find each to consist mainly of a jointed stalk of a kind i have not yet described,--roughly, some two feet long altogether; (accurately, one ft. ½ in.; another, ft. in.; another, ft. in.--but all these measures taken without straightening, and therefore about an inch short of the truth), and divided into seven or eight lengths by clumsy joints where the mangled leafage is knotted on it; but broken a little out of the way at each joint, like a rheumatic elbow that won't come straight, or bend farther; and--which is the most curious point of all in it--it is thickest in the middle, like a viper, and gets quite thin to the root and thin towards the flower; also the lengths between the joints are longest in the middle: here i give them in inches, from the root upwards, in a stalk taken at random. st (nearest root) ¾ nd ¾ rd ½ th ¾ th th th ¼ th th ¼ th ½ ft. ¾ in. but the thickness of the joints and length of terminal flower stalk bring the total to two feet and about an inch over. i dare not pull it straight, or should break it, but it overlaps my two-foot rule considerably, and there are two inches besides of root, which are merely underground stem, very thin and wretched, as the rest of it is merely root above ground, very thick and bloated. (i begin actually to be a little awed at it, as i should be by a green snake--only the snake would be prettier.) the flowers also, i perceive, have not their two horns regularly set _in_, but the five spiky calyx-ends stick out between the petals--sometimes three, sometimes four, it may be all five up and down--and produce variously fanged or forked effects, feebly ophidian or diabolic. on the whole, a plant entirely mismanaging itself,--reprehensible and awkward, with taints of worse than awkwardness; and clearly, no true 'species,' but only a link.[ ] and it really is, as you will find presently, a link in two directions; it is half violet, half pansy, a 'cur' among the dogs, and a thoughtless thing among the thoughtful. and being so, it is also a link between the entire violet tribe and the runners--pease, strawberries, and the like, whose glory is in their speed; but a violet has no business whatever to run anywhere, being appointed to stay where it was born, in extremely contented (if not secluded) places. "half-hidden from the eye?"--no; but desiring attention, or extension, or corpulence, or connection with anybody else's family, still less. [illustration: fig. ii.] . and if, at the time you read this, you can run out and gather a _true_ violet, and its leaf, you will find that the flower grows from the very ground, out of a cluster of heart-shaped leaves, becoming here a little rounder, there a little sharper, but on the whole heart-shaped, and that is the proper and essential form of the violet leaf. you will find also that the flower has five petals; and being held down by the bent stalk, two of them bend back and up, as if resisting it; two expand at the sides; and one, the principal, grows downwards, with its attached spur behind. so that the front view of the flower must be _some_ modification of this typical arrangement, fig. m, (for middle form). now the statement above quoted from figuier, § , means, if he had been able to express himself, that the two lateral petals in the violet are directed downwards, fig. ii. a, and in the pansy upwards, fig. ii. c. and that, in the main, is true, and to be fixed well and clearly in your mind. but in the real orders, one flower passes into the other through all kinds of intermediate positions of petal, and the plurality of species are of the middle type. fig. ii. b.[ ] . next, if you will gather a real pansy _leaf_, you will find it--not heart-shape in the least, but sharp oval or spear-shape, with two deep cloven lateral flakes at its springing from the stalk, which, in ordinary aspect, give the plant the haggled and draggled look i have been vilifying it for. these, and such as these, "leaflets at the base of other leaves" (balfour's glossary), are called by botanists 'stipules.' i have not allowed the word yet, and am doubtful of allowing it, because it entirely confuses the student's sense of the latin 'stipula' (see above, vol. i., chap. viii., § ) doubly and trebly important in its connection with 'stipulor,' not noticed in that paragraph, but readable in your large johnson; we shall have more to say of it when we come to 'straw' itself. . in the meantime, one _may_ think of these things as stipulations for leaves, not fulfilled, or 'stumps' or 'sumphs' of leaves! but i think i can do better for them. we have already got the idea of _crested_ leaves, (see vol. i., plate); now, on each side of a knight's crest, from earliest etruscan times down to those of the scalas, the fashion of armour held, among the nations who wished to make themselves terrible in aspect, of putting cut plates or 'bracts' of metal, like dragons' wings, on each side of the crest. i believe the custom never became norman or english; it is essentially greek, etruscan, or italian,--the norman and dane always wearing a practical cone (see the coins of canute), and the frank or english knights the severely plain beavered helmet; the black prince's at canterbury, and henry v.'s at westminster, are kept hitherto by the great fates for us to see. but the southern knights constantly wore these lateral dragon's wings; and if i can find their special name, it may perhaps be substituted with advantage for 'stipule'; but i have not wit enough by me just now to invent a term. . whatever we call them, the things themselves are, throughout all the species of violets, developed in the running and weedy varieties, and much subdued in the beautiful ones; and generally the pansies have them, large, with spear-shaped central leaves; and the violets small, with heart-shaped leaves, for more effective decoration of the ground. i now note the characters of each species in their above given order. . i. viola regina. queen violet. sweet violet. 'viola odorata,' l., flora danica, and sowerby. the latter draws it with golden centre and white base of lower petal; the flora danica, all purple. it is sometimes altogether white. it is seen most perfectly for setting off its colour, in group with primrose,--and most luxuriantly, so far as i know, in hollows of the savoy limestones, associated with the pervenche, which embroiders and illumines them all over. i believe it is the earliest of its race, sometimes called 'martia,' march violet. in greece and south italy even a flower of the winter. "the spring is come, the violet's _gone_, the first-born child of the early sun. with us, she is but a winter's flower; the snow on the hills cannot blast her bower, and she lifts up her dewy eye of blue to the youngest sky of the selfsame hue. and when the spring comes, with her host of flowers, that flower beloved the most shrinks from the crowd that may confuse her heavenly odour, and virgin hues. pluck the others, but still remember their herald out of dim december,-- _the morning star_ of all the flowers, the pledge of daylight's lengthened hours, nor, midst the roses, e'er forget the virgin, virgin violet."[ ] . it is the queen, not only of the violet tribe, but of all low-growing flowers, in sweetness of scent--variously applicable and serviceable in domestic economy:--the scent of the lily of the valley seems less capable of preservation or use. but, respecting these perpetual beneficences and benignities of the sacred, as opposed to the malignant, herbs, whose poisonous power is for the most part restrained in them, during their life, to their juices or dust, and not allowed sensibly to pollute the air, i should like the scholar to re-read pp. , of vol. i., and then to consider with himself what a grotesquely warped and gnarled thing the modern scientific mind is, which fiercely busies itself in venomous chemistries that blast every leaf from the forests ten miles round; and yet cannot tell us, nor even think of telling us, nor does even one of its pupils think of asking it all the while, how a violet throws off her perfume!--far less, whether it might not be more wholesome to 'treat' the air which men are to breathe in masses, by administration of vale-lilies and violets, instead of charcoal and sulphur! the closing sentence of the first volume just now referred to--p. --should also be re-read; it was the sum of a chapter i had in hand at that time on the substances and essences of plants--which never got finished;--and in trying to put it into small space, it has become obscure: the terms "logically inexplicable" meaning that no words or process of comparison will define scents, nor do any traceable modes of sequence or relation connect them; each is an independent power, and gives a separate impression to the senses. above all, there is no logic of pleasure, nor any assignable reason for the difference, between loathsome and delightful scent, which makes the fungus foul and the vervain sacred: but one practical conclusion i (who am in all final ways the most prosaic and practical of human creatures) do very solemnly beg my readers to meditate; namely, that although not recognized by actual offensiveness of scent, there is no space of neglected land which is not in some way modifying the atmosphere of _all the world_,--it may be, beneficently, as heath and pine,--it may be, malignantly, as pontine marsh or brazilian jungle; but, in one way or another, for good and evil constantly, by day and night, the various powers of life and death in the plants of the desert are poured into the air, as vials of continual angels: and that no words, no thoughts can measure, nor imagination follow, the possible change for good which energetic and tender care of the wild herbs of the field and trees of the wood might bring, in time, to the bodily pleasure and mental power of man. . ii. viola psyche. ophelia's pansy. the wild heart's-ease of europe; its proper colour an exquisitely clear purple in the upper petals, gradated into deep blue in the lower ones; the centre, gold. not larger than a violet, but perfectly formed, and firmly set in all its petals. able to live in the driest ground; beautiful in the coast sand-hills of cumberland, following the wild geranium and burnet rose: and distinguished thus by its power of life, in waste and dry places, from the violet, which needs kindly earth and shelter. quite one of the most lovely things that heaven has made, and only degraded and distorted by any human interference; the swollen varieties of it produced by cultivation being all gross in outline and coarse in colour by comparison. it is badly drawn even in the 'flora danica,' no. , considered there apparently as a species escaped from gardens; the description of it being as follows:-- "viola tricolor hortensis repens, flore purpureo et coeruleo, c.b.p., ." (i don't know what c.b.p. means.) "passim, juxta villas." "viola tricolor, caule triquetro diffuso, foliis oblongis incisis, stipulis pinnatifidis," linn. systema naturæ, . . "near the country farms"--does the danish botanist mean?--the more luxuriant weedy character probably acquired by it only in such neighbourhood; and, i suppose, various confusion and degeneration possible to it beyond other plants when once it leaves its wild home. it is given by sibthorpe from the trojan olympus, with an exquisitely delicate leaf; the flower described as "triste et pallide violaceus," but coloured in his plate full purple; and as he does not say whether he went up olympus to gather it himself, or only saw it brought down by the assistant whose lovely drawings are yet at oxford, i take leave to doubt his epithets. that this should be the only violet described in a 'flora græca' extending to ten folio volumes, is a fact in modern scientific history which i must leave the professor of botany and the dean of christ church to explain. . the english varieties seem often to be yellow in the lower petals, (see sowerby's plate, of the old edition), crossed, i imagine, with viola aurea, (but see under viola rupestris, no. ); the names, also, varying between tricolor and bicolor--with no note anywhere of the three colours, or two colours, intended! the old english names are many.--'love in idleness,'--making lysander, as titania, much wandering in mind, and for a time mere 'kits run the street' (or run the wood?)--"call me to you" (gerarde, ch. , sowerby, no. ), with 'herb trinity,' from its three colours, blue, purple, and gold, variously blended in different countries? 'three faces under a hood' describes the english variety only. said to be the ancestress of all the florists' pansies, but this i much doubt, the next following species being far nearer the forms most chiefly sought for. . iii. viola alpina. 'freneli's pansy'--my own name for it, from gotthelf's freneli, in 'ulric the farmer'; the entirely pure and noble type of the bernese maid, wife, and mother. the pansy of the wengern alp in specialty, and of the higher, but still rich, alpine pastures. full dark-purple; at least an inch across the expanded petals; i believe, the 'mater violarum' of gerarde; and true black violet of virgil, remaining in italian 'viola mammola' (gerarde, ch. ). . iv. viola aurea. golden violet. biflora usually; but its brilliant yellow is a much more definite characteristic; and needs insisting on, because there is a 'viola lutea' which is not yellow at all; named so by the garden florists. my viola aurea is the rock-violet of the alps; one of the bravest, brightest, and dearest of little flowers. the following notes upon it, with its summer companions, a little corrected from my diary of , will enough characterize it. "_june th._--the cultivated meadows now grow only dandelions--in frightful quantity too; but, for wild ones, primula, bell gentian, golden pansy, and anemone,--primula farinosa in mass, the pansy pointing and vivifying in a petulant sweet way, and the bell gentian here and there deepening all,--as if indeed the sound of a deep bell among lighter music. "counted in order, i find the effectively constant flowers are eight;[ ] namely, " . the golden anemone, with richly cut large leaf; primrose colour, and in masses like primrose, studded through them with bell gentian, and dark purple orchis. " . the dark purple orchis, with bell gentian in equal quantity, say six of each in square yard, broken by sparklings of the white orchis and the white grass-flower; the richest piece of colour i ever saw, touched with gold by the geum. " and . these will be white orchis and the grass flower.[ ] " . geum--everywhere, in deep, but pure, gold, like pieces of greek mosaic. " . soldanella, in the lower meadows, delicate, but not here in masses. " . primula alpina, divine in the rock clefts, and on the ledges changing the grey to purple,--set in the dripping caves with " . viola (pertinax--pert); i want a latin word for various studies--failures all--to express its saucy little stuck-up way, and exquisitely trim peltate leaf. i never saw such a lovely perspective line as the pure front leaf profile. impossible also to get the least of the spirit of its lovely dark brown fibre markings. intensely golden these dark fibres, just browning the petal a little between them." and again in the defile of gondo, i find "viola (saxatilis?) name yet wanted;--in the most delicate studding of its round leaves, like a small fern more than violet, and bright sparkle of small flowers in the dark dripping hollows. assuredly delights in shade and distilling moisture of rocks." i found afterwards a much larger yellow pansy on the yorkshire high limestones; with vigorously black crowfoot marking on the lateral petals. . v. viola montana. mountain violet. flora danica, . linnæus, no. , "caulibus erectis, foliis cordato-lanceolatis, floribus serioribus apetalis," _i.e._, on erect stems, with leaves long heart-shape, and its later flowers without petals--not a word said of its earlier flowers which have got those unimportant appendages! in the plate of the flora it is a very perfect transitional form between violet and pansy, with beautifully firm and well-curved leaves, but the colour of blossom very pale. "in subalpinis norvegiæ passim," all that we are told of it, means i suppose, in the lower alpine pastures of norway; in the flora suecica, p. , habitat in lapponica, juxta alpes. . vi. viola mirabilis. flora danica, . a small and exquisitely formed flower in the balanced cinquefoil intermediate between violet and pansy, but with large and superbly curved and pointed leaves. it is a mountain violet, but belonging rather to the mountain woods than meadows. "in sylvaticis in toten, norvegiæ." loudon, , "broad-leaved: germany." linnæus, flora suecica, , says that the flowers of it which have perfect corolla and full scent often bear no seed, but that the later 'cauline' blossoms, without petals, are fertile. "caulini vero apetali fertiles sunt, et seriores. habitat passim upsaliæ." i find this, and a plurality of other species, indicated by linnæus as having triangular stalks, "caule triquetro," meaning, i suppose, the kind sketched in figure above. . vii. viola arvensis. field violet. flora danica, . a coarse running weed; nearly like viola cornuta, but feebly lilac and yellow in colour. in dry fields, and with corn. flora suecica, ; under titles of viola 'tricolor' and 'bicolor arvensis,' and herba trinitatis. habitat ubique in _sterilibus_ arvis: "planta vix datur in qua evidentius perspicitur generationis opus, quam in hujus cavo apertoque stigmate." it is quite undeterminable, among present botanical instructors, how far this plant is only a rampant and over-indulged condition of the true pansy (viola psyche); but my own scholars are to remember that the true pansy is full purple and blue with golden centre; and that the disorderly field varieties of it, if indeed not scientifically distinguishable, are entirely separate from the wild flower by their scattered form and faded or altered colour. i follow the flora danica in giving them as a distinct species. . viii. viola palustris. marsh violet. flora danica, . as there drawn, the most finished and delicate in form of all the violet tribe; warm white, streaked with red; and as pure in outline as an oxalis, both in flower and leaf: it is like a violet imitating oxalis and anagallis. in the flora suecica, the petal-markings are said to be black; in 'viola lactea' a connected species, (sowerby, ,) purple. sowerby's plate of it under the name 'palustris' is pale purple veined with darker; and the spur is said to be 'honey-bearing,' which is the first mention i find of honey in the violet. the habitat given, sandy and turfy heaths. it is said to grow plentifully near croydon. probably, therefore, a violet belonging to the chalk, on which nearly all herbs that grow wild--from the grass to the bluebell--are singularly sweet and pure. i hope some of my botanical scholars will take up this question of the effect of different rocks on vegetation, not so much in bearing different species of plants, as different characters of each species.[ ] . ix. viola seclusa. monk's violet. "hirta," flora danica, , "in fruticetis raro." a true wood violet, full but dim in purple. sowerby, , makes it paler. the leaves very pure and severe in the danish one;--longer in the english. "clothed on both sides with short, dense, hoary hairs." also belongs to chalk or limestone only (sowerby). x. viola canina. dog violet. i have taken it for analysis in my two plates, because its grace of form is too much despised, and we owe much more of the beauty of spring to it, in english mountain ground, than to the regina. xi. viola cornuta. cow violet. enough described already. xii. viola rupestris. crag violet. on the high limestone moors of yorkshire, perhaps only an english form of viola aurea, but so much larger, and so different in habit--growing on dry breezy downs, instead of in dripping caves--that i allow it, for the present, separate name and number.[ ] . 'for the present,' i say all this work in 'proserpina' being merely tentative, much to be modified by future students, and therefore quite different from that of 'deucalion,' which is authoritative as far as it reaches, and will stand out like a quartz dyke, as the sandy speculations of modern gossiping geologists get washed away. but in the meantime, i must again solemnly warn my girl-readers against all study of floral genesis and digestion. how far flowers invite, or require, flies to interfere in their family affairs--which of them are carnivorous--and what forms of pestilence or infection are most favourable to some vegetable and animal growths,--let them leave the people to settle who like, as toinette says of the doctor in the 'malade imaginaire'--"y mettre le nez." i observe a paper in the last 'contemporary review,' announcing for a discovery patent to all mankind that the colours of flowers were made "to attract insects"![ ] they will next hear that the rose was made for the canker, and the body of man for the worm. . what the colours of flowers, or of birds, or of precious stones, or of the sea and air, and the blue mountains, and the evening and the morning, and the clouds of heaven, were given for--they only know who can see them and can feel, and who pray that the sight and the love of them may be prolonged, where cheeks will not fade, nor sunsets die. . and now, to close, let me give you some fuller account of the reasons for the naming of the order to which the violet belongs, 'cytherides.' you see that the uranides, are, as far as i could so gather them, of the pure blue of the sky; but the cytherides of altered blue;--the first, viola, typically purple; the second, veronica, pale blue with a peculiar light; the third, giulietta, deep blue, passing strangely into a subdued green before and after the full life of the flower. all these three flowers have great strangenesses in them, and weaknesses; the veronica most wonderful in its connection with the poisonous tribe of the foxgloves; the giulietta, alone among flowers in the action of the shielding leaves; and the viola, grotesque and inexplicable in its hidden structure, but the most sacred of all flowers to earthly and daily love, both in its scent and glow. now, therefore, let us look completely for the meaning of the two leading lines,-- "sweeter than the lids of juno's eyes, or cytherea's breath." . since, in my present writings, i hope to bring into one focus the pieces of study fragmentarily given during past life, i may refer my readers to the first chapter of the 'queen of the air' for the explanation of the way in which all great myths are founded, partly on physical, partly on moral fact,--so that it is not possible for persons who neither know the aspect of nature, nor the constitution of the human soul, to understand a word of them. naming the greek gods, therefore, you have first to think of the physical power they represent. when horace calls vulcan 'avidus,' he thinks of him as the power of fire; when he speaks of jupiter's red right hand, he thinks of him as the power of rain with lightning; and when homer speaks of juno's dark eyes, you have to remember that she is the softer form of the rain power, and to think of the fringes of the rain-cloud across the light of the horizon. gradually the idea becomes personal and human in the "dove's eyes within thy locks,"[ ] and "dove's eyes by the river of waters" of the song of solomon. . "or cytherea's breath,"--the two thoughts of softest glance, and softest kiss, being thus together associated with the flower: but note especially that the island of cythera was dedicated to venus because it was the chief, if not the only greek island, in which the purple fishery of tyre was established; and in our own minds should be marked not only as the most southern fragment of true greece, but the virtual continuation of the chain of mountains which separate the spartan from the argive territories, and are the natural home of the brightest spartan and argive beauty which is symbolized in helen. . and, lastly, in accepting for the order this name of cytherides, you are to remember the names of viola and giulietta, its two limiting families, as those of shakspeare's two most loving maids--the two who love simply, and to the death: as distinguished from the greater natures in whom earthly love has its due part, and no more; and farther still from the greatest, in whom the earthly love is quiescent, or subdued, beneath the thoughts of duty and immortality. it may be well quickly to mark for you the levels of loving temper in shakspeare's maids and wives, from the greatest to the least. . . isabel. all earthly love, and the possibilities of it, held in absolute subjection to the laws of god, and the judgments of his will. she is shakspeare's only 'saint.' queen catherine, whom you might next think of, is only an ordinary woman of trained religious temper:--her maid of honour gives wolsey a more christian epitaph. . cordelia. the earthly love consisting in diffused compassion of the universal spirit; not in any conquering, personally fixed, feeling. "mine enemy's dog, though he had bit me, should have stood that night against my fire." these lines are spoken in her hour of openest direct expression; and are _all_ cordelia. shakspeare clearly does not mean her to have been supremely beautiful in person; it is only her true lover who calls her 'fair' and 'fairest'--and even that, i believe, partly in courtesy, after having the instant before offered her to his subordinate duke; and it is only _his_ scorn of her which makes france fully care for her. "gods, gods, 'tis strange that from their cold neglect my love should kindle to inflamed respect!" had she been entirely beautiful, he would have honoured her as a lover should, even before he saw her despised; nor would she ever have been so despised--or by her father, misunderstood. shakspeare himself does not pretend to know where her girl-heart was,--but i should like to hear how a great actress would say the "peace be with burgundy!" . portia. the maidenly passion now becoming great, and chiefly divine in its humility, is still held absolutely subordinate to duty; no thought of disobedience to her dead father's intention is entertained for an instant, though the temptation is marked as passing, for that instant, before her crystal strength. instantly, in her own peace, she thinks chiefly of her lover's;--she is a perfect christian wife in a moment, coming to her husband with the gift of perfect peace,-- "never shall you lie by portia's side with an unquiet soul." she is highest in intellect of all shakspeare's women, and this is the root of her modesty; her 'unlettered girl' is like newton's simile of the child on the sea-shore. her perfect wit and stern judgment are never disturbed for an instant by her happiness: and the final key to her character is given in her silent and slow return from venice, where she stops at every wayside shrine to pray. . hermione. fortitude and justice personified, with unwearying affection. she is penelope, tried by her husband's fault as well as error. . virgilia. perfect type of wife and mother, but without definiteness of character, nor quite strength of intellect enough entirely to hold her husband's heart. else, she had saved him: he would have left rome in his wrath--but not her. therefore, it is his mother only who bends him: but she cannot save. . imogen. the ideal of grace and gentleness; but weak; enduring too mildly, and forgiving too easily. but the piece is rather a pantomime than play, and it is impossible to judge of the feelings of st. columba, when she must leave the stage in half a minute after mistaking the headless clown for headless arlecchino. . desdemona, ophelia, rosalind. they are under different conditions from all the rest, in having entirely heroic and faultless persons to love. i can't class them, therefore,--fate is too strong, and leaves them no free will. . perdita, miranda. rather mythic visions of maiden beauty than mere girls. . viola and juliet. love the ruling power in the entire character: wholly virginal and pure, but quite earthly, and recognizing no other life than his own. viola is, however, far the noblest. juliet will die unless romeo loves _her_: "if he be wed, the grave is like to be my wedding bed;" but viola is ready to die for the happiness of the man who does _not_ love her; faithfully doing his messages to her rival, whom she examines strictly for his sake. it is not in envy that she says, "excellently done,--if god did all." the key to her character is given in the least selfish of all lover's songs, the one to which the duke bids her listen: "mark it, cesario,--it is old and plain, the spinsters and the knitters in the sun, and the free maids, that _weave their thread with bones_, do use to chaunt it." (they, the unconscious fates, weaving the fair vanity of life with death); and the burden of it is-- "my part of death, no one so true did share it." therefore she says, in the great first scene, "was not _this_ love indeed?" and in the less heeded closing one, her heart then happy with the knitters in the _sun_, "and all those sayings will i over-swear, and all those swearings keep as true in soul as doth that orbed continent the fire that severs day from night." or, at least, did once sever day from night,--and perhaps does still in illyria. old england must seek new images for her loves from gas and electric sparks,--not to say furnace fire. i am obliged, by press of other work, to set down these notes in cruel shortness: and many a reader may be disposed to question utterly the standard by which the measurement is made. it will not be found, on reference to my other books, that they encourage young ladies to go into convents; or undervalue the dignity of wives and mothers. but, as surely as the sun _does_ sever day from night, it will be found always that the noblest and loveliest women are dutiful and religious by continual nature; and their passions are trained to obey them; like their dogs. homer, indeed, loves helen with all his heart, and restores her, after all her naughtiness, to the queenship of her household; but he never thinks of her as penelope's equal, or iphigenia's. practically, in daily life, one often sees married women as good as saints; but rarely, i think, unless they have a good deal to bear from their husbands. sometimes also, no doubt, the husbands have some trouble in managing st. cecilia or st. elizabeth; of which questions i shall be obliged to speak more seriously in another place: content, at present, if english maids know better, by proserpina's help, what shakspeare meant by the dim, and milton by the glowing, violet. * * * * * chapter ii. pinguicula. (written in early june, .) . on the rocks of my little stream, where it runs, or leaps, through the moorland, the common pinguicula is now in its perfectest beauty; and it is one of the offshoots of the violet tribe which i have to place in the minor collateral groups of viola very soon, and must not put off looking at it till next year. there are three varieties given in sowerby: . vulgaris, . greater-flowered, and . lusitanica, white, for the most part, pink, or 'carnea,' sometimes: but the proper colour of the family is violet, and the perfect form of the plant is the 'vulgar' one. the larger-flowered variety is feebler in colour, and ruder in form: the white spanish one, however, is very lovely, as far as i can judge from sowerby's (_old_ sowerby's) pretty drawing. the 'frequent' one (i shall usually thus translate 'vulgaris'), is not by any means so 'frequent' as the queen violet, being a true wild-country, and mostly alpine, plant; and there is also a real 'pinguicula alpina,' which we have not in england, who might be the regina, if the group were large enough to be reigned over: but it is better not to affect royalty among these confused, intermediate, or dependent families. . in all the varieties of pinguicula, each blossom has one stalk only, growing from the _ground_ and you may pull all the leaves away from the base of it, and keep the flower only, with its bunch of short fibrous roots, half an inch long; looking as if bitten at the ends. two flowers, characteristically,--three and four very often,--spring from the same root, in places where it grows luxuriantly; and luxuriant growth means that clusters of some twenty or thirty stars may be seen on the surface of a square yard of boggy ground, quite to its mind; but its real glory is in harder life, in the crannies of well-wetted rock. . what i have called 'stars' are irregular clusters of approximately, or tentatively, five aloeine ground leaves, of very pale green,--they may be six or seven, or more, but always run into a rudely pentagonal arrangement, essentially first trine, with two succeeding above. taken as a whole the _plant_ is really a main link between violets and droseras; but the _flower_ has much more violet than drosera in the make of it,--spurred, and _five-petaled_,[ ] and held down by the top of its bending stalk as a violet is; only its upper two petals are not reverted--the calyx, of a dark soppy green, holding them down, with its three front sepals set exactly like a strong trident, its two backward sepals clasping the spur. there are often six sepals, four to the front, but the normal number is five. tearing away the calyx, i find the flower to have been held by it as a lion might hold his prey by the loins if he missed its throat; the blue petals being really campanulate, and the flower best described as a dark bluebell, seized and crushed almost flat by its own calyx in a rage. pulling away now also the upper petals, i find that what are in the violet the lateral and well-ordered fringes, are here thrown mainly on the lower (largest) petal near its origin, and opposite the point of the seizure by the calyx, spreading from this centre over the surface of the lower petals, partly like an irregular shower of fine venetian glass broken, partly like the wild-flung medusa like embroidery of the white lucia.[ ] . the calyx is of a dark _soppy_ green, i said; like that of sugary preserved citron; the root leaves are of green just as soppy, but pale and yellowish, as if they were half decayed; the edges curled up and, as it were, water-shrivelled, as one's fingers shrivel if kept too long in water. and the whole plant looks as if it had been a violet unjustly banished to a bog, and obliged to live there--not for its own sins, but for some emperor pansy's, far away in the garden,--in a partly boggish, partly hoggish manner, drenched and desolate; and with something of demoniac temper got into its calyx, so that it quarrels with, and bites the corolla;--something of gluttonous and greasy habit got into its leaves; a discomfortable sensuality, even in its desolation. perhaps a penguin-ish life would be truer of it than a piggish, the _nest_ of it being indeed on the rock, or morassy rock-investiture, like a sea-bird's on her rock ledge. . i have hunted through seven treatises on botany, namely, loudon's encyclopædia, balfour, grindon, oliver, baxter of oxford, lindley ('ladies' botany'), and figuer, without being able to find the meaning of 'lentibulariaceæ,' to which tribe the pinguicula is said by them all (except figuier) to belong. it may perhaps be in sowerby:[ ] but these above-named treatises are precisely of the kind with which the ordinary scholar must be content: and in all of them he has to learn this long, worse than useless, word, under which he is betrayed into classing together two orders naturally quite distinct, the butterworts and the bladderworts. whatever the name may mean--it is bad latin. there is such a word as lenticularis--there is no lentibularis; and it must positively trouble us no longer.[ ] the butterworts are a perfectly distinct group--whether small or large, always recognizable at a glance. their proper latin name will be pinguicula, (plural pinguiculæ,)--their english, bog-violet, or, more familiarly, butterwort; and their french, as at present, _grassette_. the families to be remembered will be only five, namely, . pinguicula major, the largest of the group. as bog plants, ireland may rightly claim the noblest of them, which certainly grow there luxuriantly, and not (i believe) with us. their colour is, however, more broken and less characteristic than that of the following species. . pinguicula violacea: violet-coloured butterwort, (instead of 'vulgaris,') the common english and swiss kind above noticed. . pinguicula alpina: alpine butterwort, white and much smaller than either of the first two families; the spur especially small, according to d. . much rarer, as well as smaller, than the other varieties in southern europe. "in britain, known only upon the moors of rosehaugh, ross-shire, where the progress of cultivation seems likely soon to efface it." (grindon.) . pinguicula pallida: pale butterwort. from sowerby's drawing, ( , vol. iii,) it would appear to be the most delicate and lovely of all the group. the leaves, "like those of other species, but rather more delicate and pellucid, reticulated with red veins, and much involute in the margin. tube of the corolla, yellow, streaked with red, (the streaks like those of a pansy); the petals, pale violet. it much resembles villosa, (our minima, no. ,) in many particulars, the stem being hairy, and in the lower part the hairs tipped with a viscid fluid, like a sundew. but the villosa has a slender sharp spur; and in this the spur is blunt and thick at the end." (since the hairy stem is not peculiar to villosa, i take for her, instead, the epithet minima, which is really definitive.) the pale one is commonly called 'lusitanica,' but i find no direct notice of its portuguese habitation. sowerby's plant came from blandford, dorsetshire; and grindon says it is frequent in ireland, abundant in arran, and extends on the western side of the british island from cornwall to cape wrath. my epithet, pallida, is secure, and simple, wherever the plant is found. [illustration: fig. iii.] . pinguicula minima: least butterwort; in d. called villosa, the _scape_ of it being hairy. i have not yet got rid of this absurd word 'scape,' meaning, in botanist's latin, the flower-stalk of a flower growing out of a cluster of leaves on the ground. it is a bad corruption of 'sceptre,' and especially false and absurd, because a true sceptre is necessarily branched.[ ] in 'proserpina,' when it is spoken of distinctively, it is called 'virgula' (see vol. i., pp. , , , ). the hairs on the virgula are in this instance so minute, that even with a lens i cannot see them in the danish plate: of which fig. is a rough translation into woodcut, to show the grace and mien of the little thing. the trine leaf cluster is characteristic, and the folding up of the leaf edges. the flower, in the danish plate, full purple. abundant in east of _finmark_ (finland?), but _always growing in marsh moss_, (sphagnum palustre). . i call it 'minima' only, as the least of the five here named; without putting forward any claim for it to be the smallest pinguicula that ever was or will be. in such sense only, the epithets minima or maxima are to be understood when used in 'proserpina': and so also, every statement and every principle is only to be understood as true or tenable, respecting the plants which the writer has seen, and which he is sure that the reader can easily see: liable to modification to any extent by wider experience; but better first learned securely within a narrow fence, and afterwards trained or fructified, along more complex trellises. . and indeed my readers--at least, my newly found readers--must note always that the only power which i claim for any of my books, is that of being right and true as far as they reach. none of them pretend to be kosmoses;--none to be systems of positivism or negativism, on which the earth is in future to swing instead of on its old worn-out poles;--none of them to be works of genius;--none of them to be, more than all true work _must_ be, pious;--and none to be, beyond the power of common people's eyes,[ ] ears, and noses, 'æsthetic.' they tell you that the world is _so_ big, and can't be made bigger--that you yourself are also so big, and can't be made bigger, however you puff or bloat yourself; but that, on modern mental nourishment, you may very easily be made smaller. they tell you that two and two are four, that ginger is hot in the mouth, that roses are red, and smuts black. not themselves assuming to be pious, they yet assure you that there is such a thing as piety in the world, and that it is wiser than impiety; and not themselves pretending to be works of genius, they yet assure you that there is such a thing as genius in the world, and that it is meant for the light and delight of the world. . into these repetitions of remarks on my work, often made before, i have been led by an unlucky author who has just sent me his book, advising me that it is "neither critical nor sentimental" (he had better have said in plain english "without either judgment or feeling"), and in which nearly the first sentence i read is--"solomon with all his acuteness was not wise enough to ... etc., etc., etc." ('give the jews the british constitution,' i believe the man means.) he is not a whit more conceited than mr. herbert spencer, or mr. goldwin smith, or professor tyndall,--or any lively london apprentice out on a sunday; but this general superciliousness with respect to solomon, his proverbs, and his politics, characteristic of the modern cockney, yankee, and anglicised scot, is a difficult thing to deal with for us of the old school, who were well whipped when we were young; and have been in the habit of occasionally ascertaining our own levels as we grew older, and of recognizing that, here and there, somebody stood higher, and struck harder. . a difficult thing to deal with, i feel more and more, hourly, even to the point of almost ceasing to write; not only every feeling i have, but, of late, even _every word i use_, being alike inconceivable to the insolence, and unintelligible amidst the slang, of the modern london writers. only in the last magazine i took up, i found an article by mr. goldwin smith on the jews (of which the gist--as far as it had any--was that we had better give up reading the bible), and in the text of which i found the word 'tribal' repeated about ten times in every page. now, if 'tribe' makes 'tribal,' tube must make tubal, cube, cubal, and gibe, gibal; and i suppose we shall next hear of tubal music, cubal minerals, and gibal conversation! and observe how all this bad english leads instantly to blunder in thought, prolonged indefinitely. the jewish tribes are not separate races, but the descendants of brothers. the roman tribes, political divisions; essentially trine: and the whole force of the word tribune vanishes, as soon as the ear is wrung into acceptance of his lazy innovation by the modern writer. similarly, in the last elements of mineralogy i took up, the first order of crystals was called 'tesseral'; the writer being much too fine to call them 'four-al,' and too much bent on distinguishing himself from all previous writers to call them cubic. . what simple schoolchildren, and sensible schoolmasters, are to do in this atmosphere of egyptian marsh, which rains fools upon them like frogs, i can no more with any hope or patience conceive;--but this finally i repeat, concerning my own books, that they are written in honest english, of good johnsonian lineage, touched here and there with colour of a little finer or elizabethan quality: and that the things they tell you are comprehensible by any moderately industrious and intelligent person; and _accurate_, to a degree which the accepted methods of modern science cannot, in my own particular fields, approach. . of which accuracy, the reader may observe for immediate instance, my extrication for him, from among the uvularias, of these five species of the butterwort; which, being all that need be distinctly named and remembered, _do_ need to be first carefully distinguished, and then remembered in their companionship. so alike are they, that gerarde makes no distinction among them; but masses them under the general type of the frequent english one, described as the second kind of his promiscuous group of 'sanicle,' "which clusius calleth pinguicula; not before his time remembered, hath sundry small thick leaves, fat and full of juice, being broad towards the root and sharp towards the point, of a faint green colour, and bitter in taste; out of the middest whereof sprouteth or shooteth up a naked slender stalke nine inches long, every stalke bearing one flower and no more, sometimes white, and sometimes of a bluish purple colour, fashioned like unto the common monkshoods" (he means larkspurs) "called consolida regalis, having the like spur or lark's heel attached thereto." then after describing a third kind of sanicle--(cortusa mathioli, a large-leaved alpine primula,) he goes on: "these plants are strangers in england; their natural country is the alpish mountains of helvetia. they grow in my garden, where they flourish exceedingly, except butterwoort, which groweth in our english _squally_ wet grounds,"--('squally,' i believe, here, from squalidus, though johnson does not give this sense; but one of his quotations from ben jonson touches it nearly: "take heed that their new flowers and sweetness do not as much corrupt as the others' dryness and squalor,"--and note farther that the word 'squal,' in the sense of gust, is not pure english, but the arabic 'chuaul' with an s prefixed:--the english word, a form of 'squeal,' meaning a child's cry, from gothic 'squæla' and icelandic 'squilla,' would scarcely have been made an adjective by gerarde),--"and will not yield to any culturing or transplanting: it groweth especially in a field called cragge close, and at crosbie ravenswaithe, in westmerland; (west-_mere_-land you observe, not mor) upon ingleborough fells, twelve miles from lancaster, and by harwoode in the same county near to blackburn: ten miles from preston, in anderness, upon the bogs and marish ground, and in the boggie meadows about bishop's-hatfield, and also in the fens in the way to wittles meare" (roger wildrake's squattlesea mere?) "from fendon, in huntingdonshire." where doubtless cromwell ploughed it up, in his young days, pitilessly; and in nowise pausing, as burns beside his fallen daisy. . finally, however, i believe we may accept its english name of 'butterwort' as true yorkshire, the more enigmatic form of 'pigwilly' preserving the tradition of the flowers once abounding, with softened latin name, in pigwilly bottom, close to force bridge, by kendal. gerarde draws the english variety as "pinguicula sive sanicula eboracensis,--butterwoort, or yorkshire sanicle;" and he adds: "the husbandmen's wives of yorkshire do use to anoint the dugs of their kine with the fat and oilous juice of the herb butterwort when they be bitten of any venomous worm, or chapped, rifted and hurt by any other means." . in lapland it is put to much more certain use; "it is called tätgrass, and the leaves are used by the inhabitants to make their 'tät miolk,' a preparation of milk in common use among them. some fresh leaves are laid upon a filter, and milk, yet warm from the reindeer, is poured over them. after passing quickly through the filter, this is allowed to rest for one or two days until it becomes ascescent,[ ] when it is found not to have separated from the whey, and yet to have attained much greater tenacity and consistence than it would have done otherwise. the laplanders and swedes are said to be extremely fond of this milk, which when once made, it is not necessary to renew the use of the leaves, for we are told that a spoonful of it will turn another quantity of warm milk, and make it like the first."[ ] (baxter, vol. iii., no. .) . in the same page, i find quoted dr. johnston's observation that "when specimens of this plant were somewhat rudely pulled up, the flower-stalk, previously erect, almost immediately began to bend itself backwards, and formed a more or less perfect segment of a circle; and so also, if a specimen is placed in the botanic box, you will in a short time find that the leaves have curled themselves backwards, and now conceal the root by their revolution." i have no doubt that this elastic and wiry action is partly connected with the plant's more or less predatory or fly-trap character, in which these curiously degraded plants are associated with drosera. i separate them therefore entirely from the bladderworts, and hold them to be a link between the violets and the droseraceæ, placing them, however, with the cytherides, as a sub-family, for their beautiful colour, and because they are indeed a grace and delight in ground which, but for them, would be painfully and rudely desolate. * * * * * chapter iii. veronica. . "the corolla of the foxglove," says dr. lindley, beginning his account of the tribe at page of the first volume of his 'ladies' botany,' "is a large inflated body(!), with its throat spotted with rich purple, and its border divided obliquely into five very short lobes, of which the two upper are the smaller; its four stamens are of unequal length, and its style is divided into two lobes at the upper end. a number of long hairs cover the ovary, which contains two cells and a great quantity of ovules. "this" (_sc._ information) "will show you what is the usual character of the foxglove tribe; and you will find that all the other genera referred to it in books agree with it essentially, although they differ in subordinate points. it is chiefly (a) in the form of the corolla, (b) in the number of the stamens, (c) in the consistence of the rind of the fruit, (d) in its form, (e) in the number of the seeds it contains, and (f) in the manner in which the sepals are combined, that these differences consist." . the enumerative letters are of my insertion--otherwise the above sentence is, word for word, dr. lindley's,--and it seems to me an interesting and memorable one in the history of modern botanical science. for it appears from the tenor of it, that in a scientific botanist's mind, six particulars, at least, in the character of a plant, are merely 'subordinate points,'--namely, . (f) the combination of its calyx, . (a) the shape of its corolla, . (b) the number of its stamens, . (d) the form of its fruit, . (c) the consistence of its shell,--and . (e) the number of seeds in it. abstracting, then, from the primary description, all the six inessential points, i find the three essential ones left are, that the style is divided into two lobes at the upper end, that a number of glandular hairs cover the ovary, and that this latter contains two cells. . none of which particulars concern any reasonable mortal, looking at a foxglove, in the smallest degree. whether hairs which he can't see are glandular or bristly,--whether the green knobs, which are left when the purple bells are gone, are divided into two lobes or two hundred,--and whether the style is split, like a snake's tongue, into two lobes, or like a rogue's, into any number--are merely matters of vulgar curiosity, which he needs a microscope to discover, and will lose a day of his life in discovering. but if any pretty young proserpina, escaped from the plutonic durance of london, and carried by the tubular process, which replaces charon's boat, over the lune at lancaster, cares to come and walk on the coniston hills in a summer morning, when the eyebright is out on the high fields, she may gather, with a little help from brantwood garden, a bouquet of the entire foxglove tribe in flower, as it is at present defined, and may see what they are like, altogether. . she shall gather: first, the euphrasy, which makes the turf on the brow of the hill glitter as if with new-fallen manna; then, from one of the blue clusters on the top of the garden wall, the common bright blue speedwell; and, from the garden bed beneath, a dark blue spire of veronica spicata; then, at the nearest opening into the wood, a little foxglove in its first delight of shaking out its bells; then--what next does the doctor say?--a snapdragon? we must go back into the garden for that--here is a goodly crimson one, but what the little speedwell will think of him for a relative _i_ can't think!--a mullein?--that we must do without for the moment; a monkey flower?--that we will do without, altogether; a lady's slipper?--say rather a goblin's with the gout! but, such as the flower-cobbler has made it, here is one of the kind that people praise, out of the greenhouse,--and yet a figwort we must have, too; which i see on referring to loudon, may be balm-leaved, hemp-leaved, tansy-leaved, nettle-leaved, wing-leaved, heart-leaved, ear-leaved, spear-leaved, or lyre-leaved. i think i can find a balm-leaved one, though i don't know what to make of it when i've got it, but it's called a 'scorodonia' in sowerby, and something very ugly besides;--i'll put a bit of teucrium scorodonia in, to finish: and now--how will my young proserpina arrange her bouquet, and rank the family relations to their contentment? . she has only one kind of flowers--in her hand, as botanical classification stands at present; and whether the system be more rational, or in any human sense more scientific, which puts calceolaria and speedwell together,--and foxglove and euphrasy; and runs them on one side into the mints, and on the other into the nightshades;--naming them, meanwhile, some from diseases, some from vermin, some from blockheads, and the rest anyhow:--or the method i am pleading for, which teaches us, watchful of their seasonable return and chosen abiding places, to associate in our memory the flowers which truly resemble, or fondly companion, or, in time kept by the signs of heaven, succeed, each other; and to name them in some historical connection with the loveliest fancies and most helpful faiths of the ancestral world--proserpina be judge; with every maid that sets flowers on brow or breast--from thule to sicily. . we will unbind our bouquet, then, and putting all the rest of its flowers aside, examine the range and nature of the little blue cluster only. and first--we have to note of it, that the plan of the blossom in all the kinds is the same; an irregular quatre-foil: and irregular quatrefoils are of extreme rarity in flower form. i don't myself know _one_, except the veronica. the cruciform vegetables--the heaths, the olives, the lilacs, the little tormentillas, and the poppies, are all perfectly symmetrical. two of the petals, indeed, as a rule, are different from the other two, except in the heaths; and thus a distinctly crosslet form obtained, but always an equally balanced one: while in the veronica, as in the violet, the blossom always refers itself to a supposed place on the stalk with respect to the ground; and the upper petal is always the largest. the supposed place is often very suppositious indeed--for clusters of the common veronicas, if luxuriant, throw their blossoms about anywhere. but the idea of an upper and lower petal is always kept in the flower's little mind. . in the second place, it is a quite open and flat quatrefoil--so separating itself from the belled quadrature of the heath, and the tubed and primrose-like quadrature of the cruciferæ; and, both as a quatrefoil, and as an open one, it is separated from the foxgloves and snapdragons, which are neither quatrefoils, nor open; but are cinqfoils shut up! . in the third place, open and flat though the flower be, it is monopetalous; all the four arms of the cross strictly becoming one in the centre; so that, though the blue foils _look_ no less sharply separate than those of a buttercup or a cistus; and are so delicate that one expects them to fall from their stalk if we breathe too near,--do but lay hold of one,--and, at the touch, the entire blossom is lifted from its stalk, and may be laid, in perfect shape, on our paper before us, as easily as if it had been a nicely made-up blue bonnet, lifted off its stand by the milliner. i pause here, to consider a little; because i find myself mixing up two characteristics which have nothing necessary in their relation;--namely, the unity of the blossom, and its coming easily off the stalk. the separate petals of the cistus and cherry fall as easily as the foxglove drops its bells;--on the other hand, there are monopetalous things that don't drop, but hold on like the convoluta,[ ] and make the rest of the tree sad for their dying. i do not see my way to any systematic noting of decadent or persistent corolla; but, in passing, we may thank the veronica for never allowing us to see how it fades,[ ] and being always cheerful and lovely, while it is with us. . and for a farther specialty, i think we should take note of the purity and simplicity of its _floral_ blue, not sprinkling itself with unwholesome sugar like a larkspur, nor varying into coppery or turquoise-like hue as the forget-me-not; but keeping itself as modest as a blue print, pale, in the most frequent kinds; but pure exceedingly; and rejoicing in fellowship with the grey of its native rocks. the palest of all i think it will be well to remember as veronica clara, the "poor clare" of veronicas. i find this note on it in my diary,-- 'the flower of an exquisite grey-white, like lichen, or shaded hoar-frost, or dead silver; making the long-weathered stones it grew upon perfect with a finished modesty of paleness, as if the flower _could_ be blue, and would not, for their sake. laying its fine small leaves along in embroidery, like anagallis tenella,--indescribable in the tender feebleness of it--afterwards as it grew, dropping the little blossoms from the base of the spire, before the buds at the top had blown. gathered, it was happy beside me, with a little water under a stone, and put out one pale blossom after another, day by day.' . lastly, and for a high worthiness, in my estimate, note that it is _wild_, of the wildest, and proud in pure descent of race; submitting itself to no follies of the cur-breeding florist. its species, though many resembling each other, are severally constant in aspect, and easily recognizable; and i have never seen it provoked to glare into any gigantic impudence at a flower show. fortunately, perhaps, it is scentless, and so despised. . before i attempt arranging its families, we must note that while the corolla itself is one of the most constant in form, and so distinct from all other blossoms that it may be always known at a glance; the leaves and habit of growth vary so greatly in families of different climates, and those born for special situations, moist or dry, and the like, that it is quite impossible to characterize veronic, or veronique, vegetation in general terms. one can say, comfortably, of a strawberry, that it is a creeper, without expecting at the next moment to see a steeple of strawberry blossoms rise to contradict us;--we can venture to say of a foxglove that it grows in a spire, without any danger of finding, farther on, a carpet of prostrate and entangling digitalis; and we may pronounce of a buttercup that it grows mostly in meadows, without fear of finding ourselves, at the edge of the next thicket, under the shadow of a buttercup-bush growing into valuable timber. but the veronica reclines with the lowly,[ ] upon occasion, and aspires, with the proud; is here the pleased companion of the ground-ivies, and there the unrebuked rival of the larkspurs: on the rocks of coniston it effaces itself almost into the film of a lichen; it pierces the snows of iceland with the gentian: and in the falkland islands is a white-blossomed evergreen, of which botanists are in dispute whether it be veronica or olive. . of these many and various forms, i find the manners and customs alike inconstant; and this of especially singular in them--that the alpine and northern species bloom hardily in contest with the retiring snows, while with us they wait till the spring is past, and offer themselves to us only in consolation for the vanished violet and primrose. as we farther examine the ways of plants, i suppose we shall find some that determine upon a fixed season, and will bloom methodically in june or july, whether in abyssinia or greenland; and others, like the violet and crocus, which are flowers of the spring, at whatever time of the favouring or frowning year the spring returns to their country. i suppose also that botanists and gardeners know all these matters thoroughly: but they don't put them into their books, and the clear notions of them only come to me now, as i think and watch. . broadly, however, the families of the veronica fall into three main divisions,--those which have round leaves lobed at the edge, like ground ivy; those which have small thyme-like leaves; and those which have long leaves like a foxglove's, only smaller--never more than two or two and a half inches long. i therefore take them in these connections, though without any bar between the groups; only separating the regina from the other thyme-leaved ones, to give her due precedence; and the rest will then arrange themselves into twenty families, easily distinguishable and memorable. [illustration: fig. iv.] i have chosen for veronica regina, the brave icelandic one, which pierces the snow in first spring, with lovely small shoots of perfectly set leaves, no larger than a grain of wheat; the flowers in a lifted cluster of five or six together, not crowded, yet not loose; large, for veronica--about the size of a silver penny, or say half an inch across--deep blue, with ruby centre. my woodcut, fig. , is outlined[ ] from the beautiful engraving d. ,[ ]--there called 'fruticulosa,' from the number of the young shoots. . beneath the regina, come the twenty easily distinguished families, namely:-- . chamædrys. 'ground-oak.' i cannot tell why so called--its small and rounded leaves having nothing like oak leaves about them, except the serration, which is common to half, at least, of all leaves that grow. but the idea is all over europe, apparently. fr. 'petit chêne:' german and english 'germander,' a merely corrupt form of chamædrys. the representative english veronica "germander speedwell"--very prettily drawn in s. ; too tall and weed-like in d. . . hederifolia. ivy-leaved: but more properly, cymbalaria-leaved. it is the english field representative, though blue-flowered, of the byzantine white veronica, v. cymbalaria, very beautifully drawn in g. . hederifolia well in d. . . agrestis. fr. 'rustique.' we ought however clearly to understand whether 'agrestis,' used by english botanists, is meant to imply a literally field flower, or only a 'rustic' one, which might as properly grow in a wood. i shall always myself use 'agrestis' in the literal sense, and 'rustica' for 'rustique.' i see no reason, in the present case, for separating the polite from the rustic flower: the agrestis, d. and s. , seems to me not more meekly recumbent, nor more frankly cultureless, than the so-called polita, s. : there seems also no french acknowledgment of its politeness, and the greek family, g. , seem the rudest and wildest of all. quite a _field_ flower it is, i believe, lying always low on the ground; recumbent, but not creeping. note this difference: no fastening roots are thrown out by the reposing stems of this veronica; a creeping or accurately 'rampant' plant roots itself in advancing. conf. nos. , . . arvensis. we have yet to note a still finer distinction in epithet. 'agrestis' will properly mean a flower of the open ground--yet not caring whether the piece of earth be cultivated or not, so long as it is under clear sky. but when _agri_-culture has turned the unfruitful acres into 'arva beata,'--if then the plant thrust itself between the furrows of the plough, it is properly called 'arvensis.' i don't quite see my way to the same distinction in english,--perhaps i may get into the habit, as time goes on, of calling the arvenses consistently furrow-flowers, and the agrestes field-flowers. furrow-veronica is a tiresomely long name, but must do for the present, as the best interpretation of its latin character, "vulgatissima in cultis et arvis." d. . the blossom itself is exquisitely delicate; and we may be thankful, both here and in denmark, for such a lovely 'vulgate.' . montana. d. . the first really creeping plant we have had to notice. it throws out roots from the recumbent stems. otherwise like agrestis, it has leaves like ground-ivy. called a wood species in the text of d. . persica. an eastern form, but now perfectly naturalized here--d. ; s. . the flowers very large, and extremely beautiful, but only one springing from each leaf-axil. leaves and stem like montana; and also creeping with new-roots at intervals. . triphylla, (not triphyll_os_,--see flora suecica, ). meaning trifid-leaved; but the leaf is really divided into five lobes, not three--see s. , and g. . the palmate form of the leaf seems a mere caprice, and indicates no transitional form in the plant: it may be accepted as only a momentary compliment of mimicry to the geraniums. the siberian variety, 'multifida,' c. , divides itself almost as the submerged leaves of the water-ranunculus. the triphylla itself is widely diffused, growing alike on the sandy fields of kent, and of troy. in d. is given an extremely delicate and minute northern type, the flowers springing as in persica, one from each leaf-axil, and at distant intervals. . officinalis. d. , s. . fr. 'veronique officinale'; (germ. gebrauchlicher ehrenpreis,) our commonest english and welsh speedwell; richest in cluster and frankest in roadside growth, whether on bank or rock; but assuredly liking _either_ a bank _or_ a rock, and the top of a wall better than the shelter of one. uncountable 'myriads,' i am tempted to write, but, cautiously and literally, 'hundreds' of blossoms--if one _could_ count,--ranging certainly towards the thousand in some groups, all bright at once, make our westmoreland lanes look as if they were decked for weddings, in early summer. in the danish flora it is drawn small and poor; its southern type being the true one: but it is difficult to explain the difference between the look of a flower which really _suffers_, as in this instance, by a colder climate, and becomes mean and weak, as well as dwarfed; and one which is braced and brightened by the cold, though diminished, as if under the charge and charm of an affectionate fairy, and becomes a joyfully patriotic inheritor of wilder scenes and skies. medicinal, to soul and body alike, this gracious and domestic flower; though astringent and bitter in the juice. it is the welsh deeply honoured 'fluellen.'--see final note on the myth of veronica, see § . . thymifolia. thyme-leaved, g. . of course the longest possible word--serpyllifolia--is used in s. . it is a high mountain plant, growing on the top of crete as the snow retires; and the veronica minor of gerarde; "the roote is small and threddie, taking hold of the _upper surface_ of the earth, where it spreadeth." so also it is drawn as a creeper in f. , where the flower appears to be oppressed and concealed by the leafage. . minuta, called 'hirsuta' in s. : an ugly characteristic to name the lovely little thing by. the distinct blue lines in the petals might perhaps justify 'picta' or 'lineata,' rather than an epithet of size; but i suppose it is gerarde's minima, and so leave it, more safely named as 'minute' than 'least.' for i think the next variety may dispute the leastness. [illustration: fig. v.] . verna. d. . mountains, in dry places in early spring. upright, and confused in the leafage, which is sharp-pointed and close set, much hiding the blossom, but of extreme elegance, fit for a sacred foreground; as any gentle student will feel, who copies this outline from the flora danica, fig. . . peregrina. another extremely small variety, nearly pink in colour, passing into bluish lilac and white. american; but called, i do not see why, 'veronique _voyageuse_,' by the french, and fremder ehrenpreis in germany. given as a frequent english weed in s. . . alpina. veronique des alpes. gebirgs ehrenpreis. still minute; its scarcely distinct flowers forming a close head among the leaves; round-petalled in d. , but sharp, as usual, in s. . on the norway alps in grassy places; and in scotland by the side of mountain rills; but rare. on ben nevis and lachin y gair (s.) . scutellata. from the shield-like shape of its seed-vessels. veronique à ecusson; schildfruchtiger ehrenpreis. but the seed-vessels are more heart shape than shield. marsh speedwell. s. , d. ,--in the one pink, in the other blue; but again in d. , pink. "in flooded meadows, common." (d.) a spoiled and scattered form; the seeds too conspicuous, but the flowers very delicate, hence 'gratiola minima' in gesner. the confused ramification of the clusters worth noting, in relation to the equally straggling fibres of root. . spicata. s. : very prettily done, representing the inside of the flower as deep blue, the outside pale. the top of the spire, all calices, the calyx being indeed, through all the veronicas, an important and persistent member. the tendency to arrange itself in spikes is to be noted as a degradation of the veronic character; connecting it on one side with the snapdragons, on the other with the ophryds. in veronica ophrydea, (c. ,) this resemblance to the contorted tribe is carried so far that "the corolla of the veronica becomes irregular, the tube gibbous, the faux (throat) hairy, and three of the laciniæ (lobes of petals) variously twisted." the spire of blossom, violet-coloured, is then close set, and exactly resembles an ophryd, except in being sharper at the top. the engraved outline of the blossom is good, and very curious. . gentianoides. this is the most directly and curiously imitative among the--shall we call them--'histrionic' types of veronica. it grows exactly like a clustered upright gentian; has the same kind of leaves at its root, and springs with the same bright vitality among the retiring snows of the bithynian olympus. (g. .) if, however, the caucasian flower, c. , be the same, it has lost its perfect grace in luxuriance, growing as large as an asphodel, and with root-leaves half a foot long. the petals are much veined; and this, of all veronicas, has the lower petal smallest in proportion to the three above,--"triplò aut quadruplò minori." (g.) . stagnarum. marsh-veronica. the last four families we have been examining vary from the typical veronicas not only in their lance-shaped clusters, but in their lengthened, and often every way much enlarged leaves also: and the two which we now will take in association, and , carry the change in aspect farthest of any, being both of them true water-plants, with strong stems and thick leaves. the present name of my veronica stagnarum is however v. anagallis, a mere insult to the little water primula, which one plant of the veronica would make fifty of. this is a rank water-weed, having confused bunches of blossom and seed, like unripe currants, dangling from the leaf-axils. so that where the little triphylla, (no. , above,) has only one blossom, daintily set, and well seen, this has a litter of twenty-five or thirty on a long stalk, of which only three or four are well out as flowers, and the rest are mere knobs of bud or seed. the stalk is thick (half an inch round at the bottom), the leaves long and misshapen. "frequens in fossis," d. . french, mouron d'eau, but i don't know the root or exact meaning of mouron. an ugly australian species, 'labiata,' c. , has leaves two inches long, of the shape of an aloe's, and partly aloeine in texture, "sawed with unequal, fleshy, pointed teeth." . fontium. brook-veronica. brook-_lime_, the anglo-saxon 'lime' from latin limus, meaning the soft mud of streams. german 'bach-bunge' (brook-purse?) ridiculously changed by the botanists into 'beccabunga,' for a latin name! very beautiful in its crowded green leaves as a stream-companion; rich and bright more than watercress. see notice of it at matlock, in 'modern painters,' vol. v. . clara. veronique des rochers. saxatilis, i suppose, in sowerby, but am not sure of having identified that with my own favourite, for which i therefore keep the name 'clara,' (see above, § ); and the other rock variety, if indeed another, mast be remembered, together with it. . glauca. g. . and this, at all events, with the clara, is to be remembered as closing the series of twenty families, acknowledged by proserpina. it is a beautiful low-growing ivy-leaved type, with flowers of subdued lilac blue. on mount hymettus: no other locality given in the flora græca. . i am sorry, and shall always be so, when the varieties of any flower which i have to commend to the student's memory, exceed ten or twelve in number; but i am content to gratify his pride with lengthier task, if indeed he will resign himself to the imperative close of the more inclusive catalogue, and be content to know the twelve, or sixteen, or twenty, acknowledged families, thoroughly; and only in their illustration to think of rarer forms. the object of 'proserpina' is to make him happily cognizant of the common aspect of greek and english flowers; under the term 'english,' comprehending the saxon, celtic, norman, and danish floras. of the evergreen shrub alluded to in § above, the veronica decussata of the pacific, which is "a bushy evergreen, with beautifully set cross-leaves, and white blossoms scented like olea fragrans," i should like him only to read with much surprise, and some incredulity, in pinkerton's or other entertaining travellers' voyages. . and of the families given, he is to note for the common simple characteristic, that they are quatrefoils referred to a more or less elevated position on a central stem, and having, in that relation, the lowermost petal diminished, contrary to the almost universal habit of other flowers to develope in such a position the lower petal chiefly, that it may have its full share of light. you will find nothing but blunder and embarrassment result from any endeavour to enter into further particulars, such as "the relation of the dissepiment with respect to the valves of the capsule," etc., etc., since "in the various species of veronica almost every kind of dehiscence may be observed" (c. under v. perfoliata, , an australian species). sibthorpe gives the entire definition of veronica with only one epithet added to mine, "corolla quadrifida, _rotata_, laciniâ infimâ angustiore," but i do not know what 'rotata' here means, as there is no appearance of revolved action in the petals, so far as i can see. . of the mythic or poetic significance of the veronica, there is less to be said than of its natural beauty. i have not been able to discover with what feeling, or at what time, its sacred name was originally given; and the legend of s. veronica herself is, in the substance of it, irrational, and therefore incredible. the meaning of the term 'rational,' as applied to a legend or miracle, is, that there has been an intelligible need for the permission of the miracle at the time when it is recorded; and that the nature and manner of the act itself should be comprehensible in the scope. there was thus quite simple need for christ to feed the multitudes, and to appear to s. paul; but no need, so far as human intelligence can reach, for the reflection of his features upon a piece of linen which could be seen by not one in a million of the disciples to whom he might more easily, at any time, manifest himself personally and perfectly. nor, i believe, has the story of s. veronica ever been asserted to be other than symbolic by the sincere teachers of the church; and, even so far as in that merely explanatory function, it became the seal of an extreme sorrow, it is not easy to understand how the pensive fable was associated with a flower so familiar, so bright, and so popularly of good omen, as the speedwell. . yet, the fact being actually so, and this consecration of the veronica being certainly far more ancient and earnest than the faintly romantic and extremely absurd legend of the forget-me-not; the speedwell has assuredly the higher claim to be given and accepted as a token of pure and faithful love, and to be trusted as a sweet sign that the innocence of affection is indeed more frequent, and the appointed destiny of its faith more fortunate, than our inattentive hearts have hitherto discerned. . and this the more, because the recognized virtues and uses of the plant are real and manifold; and the ideas of a peculiar honourableness and worth of life connected with it by the german popular name 'honour-prize'; while to the heart of the british race, the same thought is brought home by shakespeare's adoption of the flower's welsh name, for the faithfullest common soldier of his ideal king. as a lover's pledge, therefore, it does not merely mean memory;--for, indeed, why should love be thought of as such at all, if it need to promise not to forget?--but the blossom is significant also of the lover's best virtues, patience in suffering, purity in thought, gaiety in courage, and serenity in truth: and therefore i make it, worthily, the clasping and central flower of the cytherides. * * * * * chapter iv. giulietta. . supposing that, in early life, one had the power of living to one's fancy,--and why should we not, if the said fancy were restrained by the knowledge of the two great laws concerning our nature, that happiness is increased, not by the enlargement of the possessions, but of the heart; and days lengthened, not by the crowding of emotions, but the economy of them?--if thus taught, we had, i repeat, the ordering of our house and estate in our own hands, i believe no manner of temperance in pleasure would be better rewarded than that of making our gardens gay only with common flowers; and leaving those which needed care for their transplanted life to be found in their native places when we travelled. so long as i had crocus and daisy in the spring, roses in the summer, and hollyhocks and pinks in the autumn, i used to be myself independent of farther horticulture,--and it is only now that i am old, and since pleasant travelling has become impossible to me, that i am thankful to have the white narcissus in my borders, instead of waiting to walk through the fragrance of the meadows of clarens; and pleased to see the milkwort blue on my scythe-mown banks, since i cannot gather it any more on the rocks of the vosges, or in the divine glens of jura. . among the losses, all the more fatal in being unfelt, brought upon us by the fury and vulgarity of modern life, i count for one of the saddest, the loss of the wish to gather a flower in travelling. the other day,--whether indeed a sign of some dawning of doubt and remorse in the public mind, as to the perfect jubilee of railroad journey, or merely a piece of the common daily flattery on which the power of the british press first depends, i cannot judge;--but, for one or other of such motives, i saw lately in some illustrated paper, a pictorial comparison of old-fashioned and modern travel, representing, as the type of things passed away, the outside passengers of the mail shrinking into huddled and silent distress from the swirl of a winter snowstorm; and for type of the present elysian dispensation, the inside of a first-class saloon carriage, with a beautiful young lady in the last pattern of parisian travelling dress, conversing, daily news in hand, with a young officer--her fortunate vis-à-vis--on the subject of our military successes in afghanistan and zululand.[ ] . i will not, in presenting--it must not be called the other side, but the supplementary, and wilfully omitted, facts, of this ideal,--oppose, as i fairly might, the discomforts of a modern cheap excursion train, to the chariot-and-four, with outriders and courier, of ancient noblesse. i will compare only the actual facts, in the former and in latter years, of my own journey from paris to geneva. as matters are now arranged, i find myself, at half past eight in the evening, waiting in a confused crowd with which i am presently to contend for a seat, in the dim light and cigar-stench of the great station of the lyons line. making slow way through the hostilities of the platform, in partly real, partly weak politeness, as may be, i find the corner seats of course already full of prohibitory cloaks and umbrellas; but manage to get a middle back one; the net overhead is already surcharged with a bulging extra portmanteau, so that i squeeze my desk as well as i can between my legs, and arrange what wraps i have about my knees and shoulders. follow a couple of hours of simple patience, with nothing to entertain one's thoughts but the steady roar of the line under the wheels, the blinking and dripping of the oil lantern, and the more or less ungainly wretchedness, and variously sullen compromises and encroachments of posture, among the five other passengers preparing themselves for sleep: the last arrangement for the night being to shut up both windows, in order to effect, with our six breaths, a salutary modification of the night air. . the banging and bumping of the carriages over the turn-tables wakes me up as i am beginning to doze, at fontainebleau, and again at sens; and the trilling and thrilling of the little telegraph bell establishes itself in my ears, and stays there, trilling me at last into a shivering, suspicious sort of sleep, which, with a few vaguely fretful shrugs and fidgets, carries me as far as tonnerre, where the 'quinze minutes d'arret' revolutionize everything; and i get a turn or two on the platform, and perhaps a glimpse of the stars, with promise of a clear morning; and so generally keep awake past mont bard, remembering the happy walks one used to have on the terrace under buffon's tower, and thence watching, if perchance, from the mouth of the high tunnel, any film of moonlight may show the far undulating masses of the hills of citeaux. but most likely one knows the place where the great old view used to be only by the sensible quickening of the pace as the train turns down the incline, and crashes through the trenched cliffs into the confusion and high clattering vault of the station at dijon. . and as my journey is almost always in the springtime, the twisted spire of the cathedral usually shows itself against the first grey of dawn, as we run out again southwards: and resolving to watch the sunrise, i fall more complacently asleep,--and the sun is really up by the time one has to change carriages, and get morning coffee at macon. and from amberieux, through the jura valley, one is more or less feverishly happy and thankful, not so much for being in sight of mont blanc again, as in having got through the nasty and gloomy night journey; and then the sight of the rhone and the salève seems only like a dream, presently to end in nothingness; till, covered with dust, and feeling as if one never should be fit for anything any more, one staggers down the hill to the hotel des bergues, and sees the dirtied rhone, with its new iron bridge, and the smoke of a new factory exactly dividing the line of the aiguilles of chamouni. . that is the journey as it is now,--and as, for me, it must be; except on foot, since there is now no other way of making it. but this _was_ the way we used to manage it in old days:-- very early in continental transits we had found out that the family travelling carriage, taking much time and ingenuity to load, needing at the least three, usually four--horses, and on alpine passes six, not only jolted and lagged painfully on bad roads, but was liable in every way to more awkward discomfitures than lighter vehicles; getting itself jammed in archways, wrenched with damage out of ruts, and involved in volleys of justifiable reprobation among market stalls. so when we knew better, my father and mother always had their own old-fashioned light two-horse carriage to themselves, and i had one made with any quantity of front and side pockets for books and picked up stones; and hung very low, with a fixed side-step, which i could get off or on with the horses at the trot; and at any rise or fall of the road, relieve them, and get my own walk, without troubling the driver to think of me. . thus, leaving paris in the bright spring morning, when the seine glittered gaily at charenton, and the arbres de judée were mere pyramids of purple bloom round villeneuve-st.-georges, one had an afternoon walk among the rocks of fontainebleau, and next day we got early into sens, for new lessons in its cathedral aisles, and the first saunter among the budding vines of the coteaux. i finished my plate of the tower of giotto, for the 'seven lamps,' in the old inn at sens, which dickens has described in his wholly matchless way in the last chapter of 'mrs. lirriper's lodgings'. the next day brought us to the oolite limestones at mont bard, and we always spent the sunday at the bell in dijon. monday, the drive of drives, through the village of genlis, the fortress of auxonne, and up the hill to the vine-surrounded town of dole; whence, behold at last the limitless ranges of jura, south and north, beyond the woody plain, and above them the 'derniers kochers' and the white square-set summit, worshipped ever anew. then at poligny, the same afternoon, we gathered the first milkwort for that year; and on tuesday, at st. laurent, the wild lily of the valley; and on wednesday, at morez, gentians. and on thursday, the _eighth or ninth_ day from paris, days all spent patiently and well, one saw from the gained height of jura, the great alps unfold themselves in their chains and wreaths of incredible crest and cloud. . unhappily, during all the earliest and usefullest years of such travelling, i had no thought of ever taking up botany as a study; feeling well that even geology, which was antecedent to painting with me, could not be followed out in connection with art but under strict limits, and with sore shortcomings. it has only been the later discovery of the uselessness of old scientific botany, and the abominableness of new, as an element of education for youth;--and my certainty that a true knowledge of their native flora was meant by heaven to be one of the first heart-possessions of every happy boy and girl in flower-bearing lands, that have compelled me to gather into system my fading memories, and wandering thoughts.[ ] and of course in the diaries written at places of which i now want chiefly the details of the flora, i find none; and in this instance of the milkwort, whose name i was first told by the chamouni guide, joseph couttet, then walking with me on the unperilous turf of the first rise of the vosges, west of strasburg, and rebuking me indignantly for my complaint that, being then thirty-seven years old, and not yet able to draw the great plain and distant spire, it was of no use trying in the poor remainder of life to do anything serious,--then, and there, i say, for the first time examining the strange little flower, and always associating it, since, with the limestone crags of alsace and burgundy, i don't find a single note of its preferences or antipathies in other districts, and cannot say a word about the soil it chooses, or the height it ventures, or the familiarities to which it condescends, on the alps or apennines. . but one thing i have ascertained of it, lately at brantwood, that it is capricious and fastidious beyond any other little blossom i know of. in laying out the rock garden, most of the terrace sides were trusted to remnants of the natural slope, propped by fragments of stone, among which nearly every other wild flower that likes sun and air, is glad sometimes to root itself. but at the top of all, one terrace was brought to mathematically true level of surface, and slope of side, and turfed with delicately chosen and adjusted sods, meant to be kept duly trim by the scythe. and _only_ on this terrace does the giulietta choose to show herself,--and even there, not in any consistent places, but gleaming out here in one year, there in another, like little bits of unexpected sky through cloud; and entirely refusing to allow either bank or terrace to be mown the least trim during _her_ time of disport there. so spared and indulged, there are no more wayward things in all the woods or wilds; no more delicate and perfect things to be brought up by watch through day and night, than her recumbent clusters, trickling, sometimes almost gushing through the grass, and meeting in tiny pools of flawless blue. . i will not attempt at present to arrange the varieties of the giulietta, for i find that all the larger and presumably characteristic forms belong to the cape; and only since mr. froude came back from his african explorings have i been able to get any clear idea of the brilliancy and associated infinitude of the cape flowers. if i could but write down the substance of what he has told me, in the course of a chat or two, which have been among the best privileges of my recent stay in london, (prolonged as it has been by recurrence of illness,) it would be a better summary of what should be generally known in the natural history of southern plants than i could glean from fifty volumes of horticultural botany. in the meantime, everything being again thrown out of gear by the aforesaid illness, i must let this piece of 'proserpina' break off, as most of my work does--and as perhaps all of it may soon do--leaving only suggestion for the happier research of the students who trust me thus far. . some essential points respecting the flower i shall note, however, before ending. there is one large and frequent species of it of which the flowers are delicately yellow, touched with tawny red, forming one of the chief elements of wild foreground vegetation in the healthy districts of hard alpine limestone.[ ] this is, i believe, the only european type of the large cape varieties, in all of which, judging from such plates as have been accessible to me, the crests or fringes of the lower petal are less conspicuous than in the smaller species; and the flower almost takes the aspect of a broom-blossom or pease-blossom. in the smaller european varieties, the white fringes of the lower petal are the most important and characteristic part of the flower, and they are, among european wild flowers, absolutely without any likeness of associated structure. the fringes or crests which, towards the origin of petals, so often give a frosted or gemmed appearance to the centres of flowers, are here thrown to the extremity of the petal, and suggest an almost coralline structure of blossom, which in no other instance whatever has been imitated, still less carried out into its conceivable varieties of form. how many such varieties might have been produced if these fringes of the giulietta, or those already alluded to of lucia nivea, had been repeated and enlarged; as the type, once adopted for complex bloom in the thistle-head, is multiplied in the innumerable gradations of thistle, teasel, hawkweed, and aster! we might have had flowers edged with lace finer than was ever woven by mortal fingers, or tasselled and braided with fretwork of silver, never tarnished--or hoarfrost that grew brighter in the sun. but it was not to be, and after a few hints of what might be done in this kind, the fate, or folly, or, on recent theories, the extreme fitness--and consequent survival, of the thistles and dandelions, entirely drives the fringed lucias and blue-flushing milkworts out of common human neighbourhood, to live recluse lives with the memories of the abbots of cluny, and pastors of piedmont. . i have called the giulietta 'blue-_flushing_' because it is one of the group of exquisite flowers which at the time of their own blossoming, breathe their colour into the surrounding leaves and supporting stem. very notably the grape hyacinth and jura hyacinth, and some of the vestals, empurpling all their green leaves even to the ground: a quite distinct nature in the flower, observe, this possession of a power to kindle the leaf and stem with its own passion, from that of the heaths, roses, or lilies, where the determined bracts or calicos assert themselves in opposition to the blossom, as little pine-leaves, or mosses, or brown paper packages, and the like. . the giulietta, however, is again entirely separate from the other leaf-flushing blossoms, in that, after the two green leaves next the flower have glowed with its blue, while it lived, they do not fade or waste with it, but return to their own former green simplicity, and close over it to protect the seed. i only know this to be the case with the giulietta regina; but suppose it to be (with variety of course in the colours) a condition in other species,--though of course nothing is ever said of it in the botanical accounts of them. i gather, however, from curtis's careful drawings that the prevailing colour of the cape species is purple, thus justifying still further my placing them among the cytherides; and i am content to take the descriptive epithets at present given them, for the following five of this southern group, hoping that they may be explained for me afterwards by helpful friends. . bracteolata, c. . oppositifolia, c. . speciosa, c. . these three all purple, and scarcely distinguishable from sweet pease-blossom, only smaller. stipulacea, c. . small, and very beautiful, lilac and purple, with a leaf and mode of growth like rosemary. the "foxtail" milkwort, whose name i don't accept, c. , is intermediate between this and the next species. . mixta, c. . i don't see what mingling is meant, except that it is just like erica tetralix in the leaf, only, apparently, having little four-petalled pinks for blossoms. this appearance is thus botanically explained. i do not myself understand the description, but copy it, thinking it may be of use to somebody. "the apex of the carina is expanded into a two-lobed plain petal, the lobes of which are emarginate. this appendix is of a bright rose colour, and forms the principal part of the flower." the describer relaxes, or relapses, into common language so far as to add that 'this appendix' "dispersed among the green foliage in every part of the shrub, gives it a pretty lively appearance." perhaps this may also be worth extracting. "carina, deeply channeled, _of a saturated purple_ within, sides folded together, so as to include and firmly embrace the style and stamens, which, when arrived at maturity, upon being moved, escape elastically from their confinement, and strike against the two erect petals or alæ--by which the pollen is dispersed. "stem shrubby, with long flexile branches." (length or height not told. i imagine like an ordinary heath's.) the term 'carina,' occurring twice in the above description, is peculiar to the structure of the pease and milk-worts; we will examine it afterwards. the european varieties of the milkwort, except the chamæbuxus, are all minute,--and, their ordinary epithets being at least inoffensive, i give them for reference till we find prettier ones; altering only the calcarea, because we could not have a 'chalk juliet,' and two varieties of the regina, changed for reason good--her name, according to the last modern refinements of grace and ease in pronunciation, being eu-vularis, var. genuina! my readers may more happily remember her and her sister as follows:-- . (i.) giulietta regina. pure blue. the same in colour, form, and size, throughout europe. (ii.) giulietta soror-reginæ. pale, reddish-blue or white in the flower, and smaller in the leaf, otherwise like the regina. (iii.) giulietta depressa. the smallest of those i can find drawings of. flowers, blue; lilac in the fringe, and no bigger than pins' heads; the leaves quite gem-like in minuteness and order. (iv.) giulietta cisterciana. its present name, 'calcarea,' is meant, in botanic latin, to express its growth on limestone or chalk mountains. but we might as well call the south down sheep, calcareous mutton. my epithet will rightly associate it with the burgundian hills round cluny and citeaux. its ground leaves are much larger than those of the depressa; the flower a little larger, but very pale. (v.) giulietta austriaca. pink, and very lovely, with bold cluster of ground leaves, but itself minute--almost dwarf. called 'small bitter milkwort' by s. how far distinct from the next following one, norwegian, is not told. the above five kinds are given by sowerby as british, but i have never found the austriaca myself. (vi.) giulietta amara. norwegian. very quaint in blossom outline, like a little blue rabbit with long ears. d. . . nobody tells me why either this last or no. have been called bitter; and gerarde's five kinds are distinguished only by colour--blue, red, white, purple, and "the dark, of an overworn ill-favoured colour, which maketh it to differ from all others of his kind." i find no account of this ill-favoured one elsewhere. the white is my soror reginæ; the red must be the austriaca; but the purple and overworn ones are perhaps now overworn indeed. all of them must have been more common in gerarde's time than now, for he goes on to say "milk-woort is called _ambarualis flos_. so called because it doth specially flourish in the crosse or gang-weeke, or rogation-weeke, of which flowers, the maidens which use in the countries to walk the procession do make themselves garlands and nosegaies, in english we may call it crosse flower, gang flower, rogation flower, and milk-woort." . above, at page , vol. i., in first arranging the cytherides, i too hastily concluded that the ascription to this plant of helpfulness to nursing mothers was 'more than ordinarily false'; thinking that its rarity could never have allowed it to be fairly tried. if indeed true, or in any degree true, the flower has the best right of all to be classed with the cytherides, and we might have as much of it for beauty and for service as we choose, if we only took half the pains to garnish our summer gardens with living and life-giving blossom, that we do to garnish our winter gluttonies with dying and useless ones. . i have said nothing of root, or fruit, or seed, having never had the hardness of heart to pull up a milkwort cluster--nor the chance of watching one in seed:--the pretty thing vanishes as it comes, like the blue sky of april, and leaves no sign of itself--that _i_ ever found. the botanists tell me that its fruit "dehisces loculicidally," which i suppose is botanic for "splits like boxes," (but boxes shouldn't split, and didn't, as we used to make and handle them before railways). out of the split boxes fall seeds--too few; and, as aforesaid, the plant never seems to grow again in the same spot. i should thankfully receive any notes from friends happy enough to live near milkwort banks, on the manner of its nativity. . meanwhile, the thistle, and the nettle, and the dock, and the dandelion are cared for in their generations by the finest arts of--providence, shall we say? or of the spirits appointed to punish our own want of providence? may i ask the reader to look back to the seventh chapter of the first volume, for it contains suggestions of thoughts which came to me at a time of very earnest and faithful inquiry, set down, i now see too shortly, under the press of reading they involved, but intelligible enough if they are read as slowly as they were written, and especially note the paragraph of summary of p. on the power of the earth mother, as mother, and as _judge;_ watching and rewarding the conditions which induce adversity and prosperity in the kingdoms of men: comparing with it carefully the close of the fourth chapter, p. ,[ ] which contains, for the now recklessly multiplying classes of artists and colonists, truths essential to their skill, and inexorable upon their labour. . the pen-drawing facsimiled by mr. allen with more than his usual care in the frontispiece to this number of 'proserpina,' was one of many executed during the investigation of the schools of gothic (german, and later french), which founded their minor ornamentation on the serration of the thistle leaf, as the greeks on that of the acanthus, but with a consequent, and often morbid, love of thorny points, and insistance upon jagged or knotted intricacies of stubborn vegetation, which is connected in a deeply mysterious way with the gloomier forms of catholic asceticism.[ ] . but also, in beginning 'proserpina,' i intended to give many illustrations of the light and shade of foreground leaves belonging to the nobler groups of thistles, because i thought they had been neglected by ordinary botanical draughtsmen; not knowing at that time either the original drawings at oxford for the 'flora græca,' or the nobly engraved plates executed in the close of the last century for the 'flora danica' and 'flora londinensis.' the latter is in the most difficult portraiture of the larger plants, even the more wonderful of the two; and had i seen the miracles of skill, patience, and faithful study which are collected in the first and second volumes, published in and , i believe my own work would never have been undertaken.[ ] such as it is, however, i may still, health being granted me, persevere in it; for my own leaf and branch studies express conditions of shade which even these most exquisite botanical plates ignore; and exemplify uses of the pen and pencil which cannot be learned from the inimitable fineness of line engraving. the frontispiece to this number, for instance, (a seeding head of the commonest field-thistle of our london suburbs,) copied with a steel pen on smooth grey paper, and the drawing softly touched with white on the nearer thorns, may well surpass the effect of the plate. . in the following number of 'proserpina' i have been tempted to follow, with more minute notice than usual, the 'conditions of adversity' which, as they fret the thistle tribe into jagged malice, have humbled the beauty of the great domestic group of the vestals into confused likenesses of the dragonweed and nettle: but i feel every hour more and more the necessity of separating the treatment of subjects in 'proserpina' from the microscopic curiosities of recent botanic illustration, nor shall this work close, if my strength hold, without fulfilling in some sort, the effort begun long ago in 'modern painters,' to interpret the grace of the larger blossoming trees, and the mysteries of leafy form which clothe the swiss precipice with gentleness, and colour with softest azure the rich horizons of england and italy. * * * * * chapter v. brunella. . it ought to have been added to the statements of general law in irregular flowers, in chapter i. of this volume, § , that if the petals, while brought into relations of inequality, still retain their perfect petal form,--and whether broad or narrow, extended or reduced, remain clearly _leaves_, as in the pansy, pea, or azalea, and assume no grotesque or obscure outline,--the flower, though injured, is not to be thought of as corrupted or misled. but if any of the petals lose their definite character as such, and become swollen, solidified, stiffened, or strained into any other form or function than that of petals, the flower is to be looked upon as affected by some kind of constant evil influence; and, so far as we conceive of any spiritual power being concerned in the protection or affliction of the inferior orders of creatures, it will be felt to bear the aspect of possession by, or pollution by, a more or less degraded spirit.[ ] . i have already enough spoken of the special manifestation of this character in the orders contorta and satyrium, vol. i., p. , and the reader will find the parallel aspects of the draconidæ dwelt upon at length in the th and th paragraphs of the 'queen of the air,' where also their relation to the labiate group is touched upon. but i am far more embarrassed by the symbolism of that group which i called 'vestales,' from their especially domestic character and their serviceable purity; but which may be, with more convenience perhaps, simply recognizable as 'menthæ.' . these are, to our northern countries, what the spice-bearing trees are in the tropics;--our thyme, lavender, mint, marjoram, and their like, separating themselves not less in the health giving or strengthening character of their scent from the flowers more or less enervating in perfume, as the rose, orange, and violet,--than in their humble colours and forms from the grace and splendour of those higher tribes; thus allowing themselves to be summed under the general word 'balm' more truly than the balsams from which the word is derived. giving the most pure and healing powers to the air around them; with a comfort of warmth also, being mostly in dry places, and forming sweet carpets and close turf; but only to be rightly enjoyed in the open air, or indoors when dried; not tempting any one to luxury, nor expressive of any kind of exultation. brides do not deck themselves with thyme, nor do we wreathe triumphal arches with mint. . it is most notable, also, farther, that none of these flowers have any extreme beauty in colour. the blue sage is the only one of vivid hue at all; and we never think of it as for a moment comparable to the violet or bluebell: thyme is unnoticed beside heath, and many of the other purple varieties of the group are almost dark and sad coloured among the flowers of summer; while, so far from gaining beauty on closer looking, there is scarcely a blossom of them which is not more or less grotesque, even to ugliness, in outline; and so hooded or lappeted as to look at first like some imperfect form of snapdragon for the most part spotted also, wrinkled as if by old age or decay, cleft or torn, as if by violence, and springing out of calices which, in their clustering spines, embody the general roughness of the plant. . i take at once for example, lest the reader should think me unkind or intemperate in my description, a flower very dear and precious to me; and at this time my chief comfort in field walks. for, now, the reign of all the sweet reginas of the spring is over--the reign of the silvia and anemone, of viola and veronica; and at last, and this year abdicated under tyrannous storm,[ ] the reign of the rose. and the last foxglove-bells are nearly fallen; and over all my fields and by the brooksides are coming up the burdock, and the coarse and vainly white aster, and the black knapweeds; and there is only one flower left to be loved among the grass,--the soft, warm-scented brunelle. . _p_runell, _or_ brunell--gerarde calls it; and brunella, rightly and authoritatively, tournefort; prunella, carelessly, linnæus, and idly following him, the moderns, casting out all the meaning and help of its name--of which presently. selfe-heale, gerarde and gray call it, in english--meaning that who has this plant needs no physician. . as i look at it, close beside me, it seems as if it would reprove me for what i have just said of the poverty of colour in its tribe; for the most glowing of violets could not be lovelier than each fine purple gleam of its hooded blossoms. but their flush is broken and oppressed by the dark calices out of which they spring, and their utmost power in the field is only of a saddened amethystine lustre, subdued with furry brown. and what is worst in the victory of the darker colour is the disorder of the scattered blossoms;--of all flowers i know, this is the strangest, in the way that here and there, only in their cluster, its bells rise or remain, and it always looks as if half of them had been shaken off, and the top of the cluster broken short away altogether. . we must never lose hold of the principle that every flower is meant to be seen by human creatures with human eyes, as by spiders with spider eyes. but as the painter may sometimes play the spider, and weave a mesh to entrap the heart, so the beholder may play the spider, when there are meshes to be disentangled that have entrapped his mind. i take my lens, therefore--to the little wonder of a brown wasps' nest with blue-winged wasps in it,--and perceive therewith the following particulars. . first, that the blue of the petals is indeed pure and lovely, and a little crystalline in texture; but that the form and setting of them is grotesque beyond all wonder; the two uppermost joined being like an old fashioned and enormous hood or bonnet, and the lower one projecting far out in the shape of a cup or cauldron, torn deep at the edges into a kind of fringe. looking more closely still, i perceive there is a cluster of stiff white hairs, almost bristles, on the top of the hood; for no imaginable purpose of use or decoration--any more than a hearth-brush put for a helmet-crest,--and that, as we put the flower full in front, the lower petal begins to look like some threatening viperine or shark-like jaw, edged with ghastly teeth,--and yet more, that the hollow within begins to suggest a resemblance to an open throat in which there are two projections where the lower petal joins the lateral ones, almost exactly like swollen glands. i believe it was this resemblance, inevitable to any careful and close observer, which first suggested the use of the plant in throat diseases to physicians; guided, as in those first days of pharmacy, chiefly by imagination. then the german name for one of the most fatal of throat affections, braune, extended itself into the first name of the plant, brunelle. . the truth of all popular traditions as to the healing power of herbs will be tried impartially as soon as men again desire to lead healthy lives; but i shall not in 'proserpina' retain any of the names of their gathered and dead or distilled substance, but name them always from the characters of their life. i retain, however, for this plant its name brunella, fr. brunelle, because we may ourselves understand it as a derivation from brune; and i bring it here before the reader's attention as giving him a perfectly instructive general type of the kind of degradation which takes place in the forms of flowers under more or less malefic influence, causing distortion and disguise of their floral structure. thus it is not the normal character of a flower petal to have a cluster of bristles growing out of the middle of it, nor to be jagged at the edge into the likeness of a fanged fish's jaw, nor to be swollen or pouted into the likeness of a diseased gland in an animal's throat. a really uncorrupted flower suggests none but delightful images, and is like nothing but itself. . i find that in the year , tournefort defined, with exactitude which has rendered the definition authoritative for all time, the tribe to which this brownie flower belongs, constituting them his fourth class, and describing them in terms even more depreciatingly imaginative than any i have ventured to use myself. i translate the passage (vol. i., p. ):-- . "the name of labiate flower is given to a single-petaled flower which, beneath, is attenuated into a tube, and above is expanded into a lip, which is either single or double. it is proper to a labiate flower,--first, that it has a one-leaved calyx (ut calycem habeat _unifolium_), for the most part tubulated, or reminding one of a paper hood (cucullum papyraceum); and, secondly, that its pistil ripens into a fruit consisting of four seeds, which ripen in the calyx itself, as if in their own seed-vessel, by which a labiate flower is distinguished from a personate one, whose pistil becomes a capsule far divided from the calyx (à calyce longò divisam). and a labiate flower differs from rotate, or bell-shaped flowers, which have four seeds, in that the lips of a labiate flower have a gape like the face of a goblin, or ludicrous mask, emulous of animal form." . this class is then divided into four sections. in the first, the upper lip is helmeted, or hooked--"galeatum est, vel falcatum." in the second, the upper lip is excavated like a spoon--"cochlearis instar est excavatum." in the third the upper lip is erect. and in the fourth there is no upper lip at all. the reader will, i hope, forgive me for at once rejecting a classification of lipped plants into three classes that have lips, and one that has none, and in which the lips of those that have got any, are like helmets and spoons. linnaeus, in , grouped the family into two divisions, by the form of the calyx, (five-fold or two-fold), and then went into the wildest confusion in distinction of species,--sometimes by the form of corolla, sometimes by that of calyx, sometimes by that of the filaments, sometimes by that of the stigma, and sometimes by that of the seed. as, for instance, thyme is to be identified by the calyx having hairs in its throat, dead nettle by having bristles in its mouth, lion's tail by having bones in its anthers (antheræ punctis osseis adspersæ), and teucrium by having its upper lip cut in two! . st. hilaire, in , divides again into four sections, but as three of these depend on form of corolla, and the fourth on abortion of stamens, the reader may conclude practically, that logical division of the family is impossible, and that all he can do, or that there is the smallest occasion for his doing, is first to understand the typical structure thoroughly, and then to know a certain number of forms accurately, grouping the others round them at convenient distances; and, finally, to attach to their known forms such simple names as may be utterable by children, and memorable by old people, with more ease and benefit than the 'galeopsis eu-te-trahit,' 'lamium galeobdalon,' or 'scutellaria galericulata,'and the like, of modern botany. but to do this rightly, i must review and amplify some of my former classification, which it will be advisable to do in a separate chapter. * * * * * chapter vi. monacha. . it is not a little vexing to me, in looking over the very little i have got done of my planned systema proserpinæ, to discover a grave mistake in the specifications of veronica. it is veronica chamædrys, not officinalis, which is our proper english speedwell, and welsh fluellen; and all the eighth paragraph, p. , properly applies to that. veronica officinalis is an extremely small flower rising on vertical stems out of recumbent leaves; and the drawing of it in the flora danica, which i mistook for a stunted northern state, is quite true of the english species,[ ] except that it does not express the recumbent action of the leaves. the proper representation of ground-leafage has never yet been attempted in any botanical work whatever, and as, in recumbent plants, their grouping and action can only be seen from above, the plates of them should always have a dark and rugged background, not only to indicate the position of the eye, but to relieve the forms of the leaves as they were intended to be shown. i will try to give some examples in the course of this year. . i find also, sorrowfully, that the references are wrong in three, if not more, places in that chapter. s. and should be transposed in p. . s. in p. should be . d. should be inserted after peregrina, in p. ; and , in fourth line from bottom of p. , should be . i wish it were likely that these errors had been corrected by my readers,--the rarity of the flora danica making at present my references virtually useless: but i hope in time that our public institutes will possess themselves of copies: still more do i hope that some book of the kind will be undertaken by english artists and engravers, which shall be worthy of our own country. . farther, i get into confusion by not always remembering my own nomenclature, and have allowed 'gentianoides' to remain, for no. , though i banish gentian. it will be far better to call this eastern mountain species 'olympica': according to sibthorpe's localization, "in summâ parte, nive solutâ, montis olympi bithyni," and the rather that curtis's plate above referred to shows it in luxuriance to be liker an asphodel than a gentian. . i have also perhaps done wrong in considering veronica polita and agrestis as only varieties, in no. . no author tells me why the first is called polite, but its blue seems more intense than that of agrestis; and as it is above described with attention, vol. i., p. , as an example of precision in flower-form, we may as well retain it in our list here. it will be therefore our twenty-first variety,--it is loudon's fifty-ninth and last. he translates 'polita' simply 'polished,' which is nonsense. i can think of nothing to call it but 'dainty,' and will leave it at present unchristened. . lastly. i can't think why i omitted v. humifusa, s. , which seems to be quite one of the most beautiful of the family--a mountain flower also, and one which i ought to find here; but hitherto i know only among the mantlings of the ground, v. thymifolia and officinalis. all these, however, agree in the extreme prettiness and grace of their crowded leafage,--the officinalis, of which the leaves are shown much too coarsely serrated in s. , forming carpets of finished embroidery which i have never yet rightly examined, because i mistook them for st. john's wort. they are of a beautiful pointed oval form, serrated so finely that they seem smooth in distant effect, and covered with equally invisible hairs, which seem to collect towards the edge in the variety hirsuta, s. . for the present, i should like the reader to group the three flowers, s. , , , under the general name of humifusa, and to distinguish them by a third epithet, which i allow myself when in difficulties, thus: v. humifusa, cærulea, the beautiful blue one, which resembles spicata. v. humifusa, officinalis, and, v. humifusa, hirsuta: the last seems to me extremely interesting, and i hope to find it and study it carefully. by this arrangement we shall have only twenty-one species to remember: the one which chiefly decorates the ground again dividing into the above three. . these matters being set right, i pass to the business in hand, which is to define as far as possible the subtle relations between the veronicas and draconidæ, and again between these and the tribe at present called labiate. in my classification above, vol. i, p. , the draconidæ include the nightshades; but this was an oversight. atropa belongs properly to the following class, moiridæ; and my draconids are intended to include only the two great families of personate and ringent flowers, which in some degree resemble the head of an animal: the representative one being what we call 'snapdragon,' but the french, careless of its snapping power, 'calf's muzzle'--"muflier, muflande, or muffle de veau."--rousseau, 'lettres,' p. . . as i examine his careful and sensible plates of it, i chance also on a bit of his text, which, extremely wise and generally useful, i translate forthwith:-- "i understand, my dear, that one is vexed to take so much trouble without learning the names of the plants one examines; but i confess to you in good faith that it never entered into my plan to spare you this little chagrin. one pretends that botany is nothing but a science of words, which only exercises the memory, and only teaches how to give plants names. for me, i know _no_ rational study which is only a science of words: and to which of the two, i pray you, shall i grant the name of botanist,--to him who knows how to spit out a name or a phrase at the sight of a plant, without knowing anything of its structure, or to him who, knowing that structure very well, is ignorant nevertheless of the very arbitrary name that one gives to the plant in such and such a country? if we only gave to your children an amusing occupation, we should miss the best half of our purpose, which is, in amusing them, to exercise their intelligence and accustom them to attention. before teaching them to name what they see, let us begin by teaching them to see it. _that_ science, forgotten in all educations, ought to form the most important part of theirs. i can never repeat it often enough--teach them never to be satisfied with words, ('se payer de mots') and to hold themselves as knowing nothing of what has reached no farther than their memories." . rousseau chooses, to represent his 'personees,' la mufflaude, la linaire, l'euphraise, la pediculaire, la crête-de-coq, l'orobanche, la cimbalaire, la velvote, la digitale, giving plates of snapdragon, foxglove, and madonna-herb, (the cimbalaire), and therefore including my entire class of draconidæ, whether open or close throated. but i propose myself to separate from them the flower which, for the present, i have called monacha, but may perhaps find hereafter a better name; this one, which is the best latin i can find for a nun of the desert, being given to it because all the resemblance either to calf or dragon has ceased in its rosy petals, and they resemble--the lower ones those of the mountain thyme, and the upper one a softly crimson cowl or hood. . this beautiful mountain flower, at present, by the good grace of botanists, known as pedicularis, from a disease which it is supposed to give to sheep, is distinguished from all other draconidæ by its beautifully divided leaves: while the flower itself, like, as aforesaid, thyme in the three lower petals, rises in the upper one quite upright, and terminates in the narrow and peculiar hood from which i have named it 'monacha.' . two deeper crimson spots with white centres animate the colour of the lower petals in our mountain kind---mountain or morass;--it is vilely drawn in s. under the name of sylvatica, translated 'procumbent'! as it is neither a wood flower nor a procumbent one,[ ] and as its rosy colour is rare among morass flowers, i shall call it simply monacha rosea. i have not the smallest notion of the meaning of the following sentence in s.:--"upper lip of corolla not rostrate, with the margin on each side furnished with a triangular tooth immediately below the apex, but without any tooth below the middle." why, or when, a lip is rostrate, or has any 'tooth below the middle,' i do not know; but the upper _petal_ of the corolla is here a very close gathered hood, with the style emergent downwards, and the stamens all hidden and close set within. in this action of the upper petal, and curve of the style, the flower resembles the labiates,[ ] and is the proper link between them and the draconidæ. the capsule is said by s. to be oval-ovoid. as eggs always _are_ oval, i don't feel farther informed by the epithet. the capsule and seed both are of entirely indescribable shapes, with any number of sides--very foxglove-like, and inordinately large. the seeds of the entire family are 'ovoid-subtrigonous.'--s. . i find only two species given as british by s., namely, sylvatica and palustris; but i take first for the regina, the beautiful arctic species d. , flora suecica, . rose-coloured in the stem, pale pink in the flowers (corollæ pallide incarnatæ), the calices furry against the cold, whence the present ugly name, hirsuta. only on the highest crests of the lapland alps. ( ) rosea, d. , there called sylvatica, as by s., presumably because "in pascuis subhumidis non raræ." beautifully drawn, but, as i have described it, vigorously erect, and with no decumbency whatever in any part of it. root branched, and enormous in proportion to plant, and i fancy therefore must be good for something if one knew it. but gerarde, who calls the plant red rattle, (it having indeed much in common with the yellow rattle), says, "it groweth in moist and moorish meadows; the herbe is not only unprofitable, but likewise hurtful, and an infirmity of the meadows." ( ) palustris, d. , s. --scarcely any likeness between the plates. "everywhere in the meadows," according to d. i leave the english name, marsh monacha, much doubting its being more marshy than others. . i take next ( and ) two northern species, lapponica, d. , and grönlandica, d. ; the first yellow, the second red, both beautiful. the lap one has its divided leaves almost united into one lovely spear-shaped, single leaf. the greenland one has its red hood much prolonged in front. ( ) ramosa, also a greenland species; yellow, very delicate and beautiful. three stems from one root, but may be more or fewer, i suppose. . ( ) norvegica, a beautifully clustered golden flower, with thick stem. d. , the only locality given being the dovrefeldt. "alpina" and "flammea" are the synonyms, but i do not know it on the alps, and it is no more flame-coloured than a cowslip. both the lapland and norwegian flowers are drawn with their stems wavy, though upright--a rare and pretty habit of growth. . ( ) suecica, d. , named awkwardly sceptrum carolinum, in honour of charles xii. it is the largest of all the species drawn in d., and contrasts strikingly with ( ) and ( ) in the strict uprightness of its stem. the corolla is closed at the extremity, which is red; the body of the flower pale yellow. grows in marshy and shady woods, near upsal. linn., flora suecica, . the many-lobed but united leaves, at the root five or six inches long, are irregularly beautiful. . these eight species are all i can specify, having no pictures of the others named by loudon,--eleven, making nineteen altogether, and i wish i could find a twentieth and draw them all, but the reader may be well satisfied if he clearly know these eight. the group they form is an entirely distinct one, exactly intermediate between the vestals and draconids, and cannot be rightly attached to either; for it is draconid in structure and affinity--vestal in form--and i don't see how to get the connection of the three families rightly expressed without taking the draconidæ out of the groups belonging to the dark kora, and placing them next the vestals, with the monachæ between; for indeed linaria and several other draconid forms are entirely innocent and beautiful, and even the foxglove never does any real mischief like hemlock, while decoratively it is one of the most precious of mountain flowers. i find myself also embarrassed by my name of vestals, because of the masculine groups of basil and thymus, and i think it will be better to call them simply menthæ, and to place them with the other cottage-garden plants not yet classed, taking the easily remembered names mentha, monacha, draconida. this will leave me a blank seventh place among my twelve orders at p. , vol. i., which i think i shall fill by taking cyclamen and anagillis out of the primulaceæ, and making a separate group of them. these retouchings and changes are inevitable in a work confessedly tentative and suggestive only; but in whatever state of imperfection i may be forced to leave 'proserpina,' it will assuredly be found, up to the point reached, a better foundation for the knowledge of flowers in the minds of young people than any hitherto adopted system of nomenclature. . taking then this re-arranged group, mentha, monacha, and draconida, as a sufficiently natural and convenient one, i will briefly give the essentially botanical relations of the three families. mentha and monacha agree in being essentially hooded flowers, the upper petal more or less taking the form of a cup, helmet or hood, which conceals the tops of the stamens. of the three lower petals, the lowest is almost invariably the longest; it sometimes is itself divided again into two, but may be best thought of as single, and with the two lateral ones, distinguished in the menthæ as the apron and the side pockets. plate xii. represents the most characteristic types of the blossoms of menthæ, in the profile and front views, all a little magnified. the upper two are white basil, purple spotted--growing here at brantwood always with two terminal flowers. the two middle figures are the purple-spotted dead nettle, lamium maculatum; and the two lower, thyme: but i have not been able to draw these as i wanted, the perspectives of the petals being too difficult, and inexplicable to the eye even in the flowers themselves without continually putting them in changed positions. . the menthæ are in their structure essentially quadrate plants; their stems are square, their leaves opposite, their stamens either four or two, their seeds two-carpeled. but their calices are five-sepaled, falling into divisions of two and three; and the flowers, though essentially four-petaled, may divide either the upper or lower petal, or both, into two lobes, and so present a six-lobed outline. the entire plants, but chiefly the leaves, are nearly always fragrant, and always innocent. none of them sting, none prick, and none poison. . the draconids, easily recognizable by their aspect, are botanically indefinable with any clearness or simplicity. the calyx may be five- or four-sepaled; the corolla, five- or four-lobed; the stamens may be two, four, four with a rudimentary fifth, or five with the two anterior ones longer than the other three! the capsule may open by two, three, or four valves,--or by pores; the seeds, generally numerous, are sometimes solitary, and the leaves may be alternate, opposite, or verticillate. . thus licentious in structure, they are also doubtful in disposition. none that i know of are fragrant, few useful, many more or less malignant, and some parasitic. the following piece of a friend's letter almost makes me regret my rescue of them from the dark kingdom of kora:-- "... and i find that the monacha rosea (red rattle is its name, besides the ugly one) is a perennial, and several of the other draconidæ, foxglove, etc., are biennials, born this year, flowering and dying next year, and the size of roots is generally proportioned to the life of plants; except when artificial cultivation develops the root specially, as in turnips, etc. several of the draconidæ are parasites, and suck the roots of other plants, and have only just enough of their own to catch with. the yellow rattle is one; it clings to the roots of the grasses and clovers, and no cultivation will make it thrive without them. my authority for this last fact is grant allen; but i have observed for myself that the yellow rattle has very small _white_ sucking roots, and no earth sticking to them. the toothworts and broom rapes are draconidæ, i think, and wholly parasites. can it be that the red rattle is the one member of the family that has 'proper pride, and is self supporting'? the others are mendicant orders. we had what we choose to call the dorcas flower show yesterday, and we gave, as usual, prizes for wild flower bouquets. i tried to find out the local names of several flowers, but they all seemed to be called 'i don't know, ma'am.' i would not allow this name to suffice for the red poppy, and i said 'this red flower _must_ be called _something_--tell me what you call it?' a few of the audience answered 'blind eyes.' is it because they have to do with sleep that they are called blind eyes--or because they are dazzling?" . i think, certainly, from the dazzling, which sometimes with the poppy, scarlet geranium, and nasturtium, is more distinctly oppressive to the eye than a real excess of light. i will certainly not include among my rescued draconidæ, the parasitic lathræa and orobanche; and cannot yet make certain of any minor classification among those which i retain,--but, uniting bartsia with euphrasia, i shall have, in the main, the three divisions digitalis, linaria, euphrasia, and probably separate the moneyworts as links with veronica, and rhinanthus as links with lathræa. and as i shall certainly be unable this summer, under the pressure of resumed work at oxford, to spend time in any new botanical investigations, i will rather try to fulfil the promise given in the last number, to collect what little i have been able hitherto to describe or ascertain, respecting the higher modes of tree structure. * * * * * chapter vii. science in her cells. [the following chapter has been written six years. it was delayed in order to complete the promised clearer analysis of stem-structure; which, after a great deal of chopping, chipping, and peeling of my oaks and birches, came to reverently hopeless pause. what is here done may yet have some use in pointing out to younger students how they may simplify their language, and direct their thoughts, so as to attain, in due time, to reverent hope.] . the most generally useful book, to myself, hitherto, in such little time as i have for reading about plants, has been lindley's 'ladies' botany'; but the most rich and true i have yet found in illustration, the 'histoire des plantes,'[ ] by louis figuier. i should like those of my readers who can afford it to buy both these books; the first named, at any rate, as i shall always refer to it for structural drawings, and on points of doubtful classification; while the second contains much general knowledge, expressed with some really human intelligence and feeling; besides some good and singularly _just_ history of botanical discovery and the men who guided it. the botanists, indeed, tell me proudly, "figuier is no authority." but who wants authority! is there nothing known yet about plants, then, which can be taught to a boy or girl, without referring them to an 'authority'? i, for my own part, care only to gather what figuier can teach concerning things visible, to any boy or girl, who live within reach of a bramble hedge, or a hawthorn thicket, and can find authority enough for what they are told, in the sticks of them. . if only _he_ would, or could, tell us clearly that much; but like other doctors, though with better meaning than most, he has learned mainly to look at things with a microscope,--rarely with his eyes. and i am sorry to see, on re-reading this chapter of my own, which is little more than an endeavour to analyze and arrange the statements contained in his second, that i have done it more petulantly and unkindly than i ought; but i can't do all the work over again, now,--more's the pity. i have not looked at this chapter for a year, and shall be sixty before i know where i am;--(i find myself, instead, now, sixty-four!) . but i stand at once partly corrected in this second chapter of figuier's, on the 'tige,' french from the latin 'tignum,' which 'authorities' say is again from the sanscrit, and means 'the thing hewn with an axe'; anyhow it is modern french for what we are to call the stem (§ , p. ). "the tige," then, begins m. louis, "is the axis of the ascending system of a vegetable, and it is garnished at intervals with vital knots, (eyes,) from which spring leaves and buds, disposed in a perfectly regular order. the root presents nothing of the kind. this character permits us always to distinguish, in the vegetable axis, what belongs really to the stem, and what to the root." . yes; and that is partly a new idea to me, for in this power of _assigning their order_ for the leaves, the stem seems to take a royal or commandant character, and cannot be merely defined as the connexion of the leaf with the roots. in _it_ is put the spirit of determination. one cannot fancy the little leaf, as it is born, determining the point it will be born at: the governing stem must determine that for it. also the disorderliness of the root is to be noted for a condition of its degradation, no less than its love, and need, of darkness. nor was i quite right (above, § , p. ) in calling the stem _itself_ 'spiral': it is itself a straight-growing rod, but one which, as it grows, lays the buds of future leaves round it in a spiral order, like the bas-relief on trajan's column. i go on with figuier: the next passage is very valuable. . "the tige is the part of plants which, directed into the air, supports, and _gives growing power to_, the branches, the twigs, the leaves, and the flowers. the form, strength, and direction of the tige depend on the part that each plant has to play among the vast vegetable population of our globe. plants which need for their life a pure and often-renewed air, are borne by a straight tige, robust and tall. when they have need only of a moist air, more condensed, and more rarely renewed, when they have to creep on the ground or glide in thickets, the tiges are long, flexible, and dragging. if they are to float in the air, sustaining themselves on more robust vegetables, they are provided with flexible, slender, and supple tiges." . yes; but in that last sentence he loses hold of his main idea, and to me the important one,--namely, the connexion of the form of stem with the quality of the air it requires. and that idea itself is at present vague, though most valuable, to me. a strawberry creeps, with a flexible stem, but requires certainly no less pure air than a wood-fungus, which stands up straight. and in our own hedges and woods, are the wild rose and honeysuckle signs of unwholesome air? "and honeysuckle loved to crawl up the lone crags and ruined wall. i deemed such nooks the sweetest shade the sun in all his round surveyed." it seems to me, in the nooks most haunted by honeysuckle in my own wood, that the reason for its twining is a very feminine one,--that it likes to twine; and that all these whys and wherefores resolve themselves at last into--what a modern philosopher, of course, cannot understand--caprice.[ ] . farther on, figuier, quoting st. hilaire, tells us, of the creepers in primitive forests,--"some of them resemble waving ribands, others coil themselves and describe vast spirals; they droop in festoons, they wind hither and thither among the trees, they fling themselves from one to another, and form masses of leaves and flowers in which the observer is often at a loss to discover on which plant each several blossom grows." for all this, the real reasons will be known only when human beings become reasonable. for, except a curious naturalist or wistful missionary, no christian has trodden the labyrinths of delight and decay among these garlands, but men who had no other thought than how to cheat their savage people out of their gold, and give them gin and smallpox in exchange. but, so soon as true servants of heaven shall enter these edens, and the spirit of god enter with them, another spirit will also be breathed into the physical air; and the stinging insect, and venomous snake, and poisonous tree, pass away before the power of the regenerate human soul. . at length, on the structure of the tige, figuier begins his real work, thus:--- "a glance of the eye, thrown on the section of a log of wood destined for warming, permits us to recognize that the tige of the trees of our forests presents three essential parts, which are, in going from within to without, the pith, the wood, and the bark. the pith, (in french, marrow,) forms a sort of column in the centre of the woody axis. in very thick and old stems its diameter appears very little; and it has even for a long time been supposed that the marrow ends by disappearing altogether from the stems of old trees. but it does nothing of the sort;[ ] and it is now ascertained, by exact measures, that its diameter remains sensibly invariable[ ] from the moment when the young woody axis begins to consolidate itself, to the epoch of its most complete development." so far, so good; but what does he mean by the complete development of the young _woody_ axis? when does the axis become 'wooden,' and how far up the tree does he call it an axis? if the stem divides into three branches, which is the axis? and is the pith in the trunk no thicker than in each branch? . he proceeds to tell us, "the marrow is formed by a reunion of cells."--yes, and so is newgate, and so was the bastille. but what does it matter whether the marrow is made of a reunion of cells, or cellars, or walls, or floors, or ceilings? i want to know what's the use of it? why doesn't it grow bigger with the rest of the tree? when _does_ the tree 'consolidate itself'? when is it finally consolidated? and how can there be always marrow in it when the weary frame of its age remains a mere scarred tower of war with the elements, full of dust and bats? [illustration: fig. .] 'he will tell you if only you go on patiently,' thinks the reader. he will not! once your modern botanist gets into cells, he stays in them. hear how he goes on!--"this cell is a sort of sack; this sack is completely closed; sometimes it is empty, sometimes it"--is full?--no, that would be unscientific simplicity: sometimes it "conceals a matter in its interior." "the marrow of young trees, such as it is represented in figure (figuier, figs. , , p. ), is nothing else"--(indeed!)--"than an aggregation of cells, which, first of spherical form, have become polyhedric by their increase and mutual compression." . now these figures, and , which profess to represent this change, show us sixteen oval cells, such as at a, (fig. ) enlarged into thirteen larger, and flattish, hexagons!--b, placed at a totally different angle. and before i can give you the figure revised with any available accuracy, i must know why or how the cells are enlarged, and in what direction. do their walls lengthen laterally when they are empty, or does the 'matière' inside stuff them more out, (itself increased from what sources?) when they are full? in either case, during this change from circle to hexagon, is the marrow getting thicker without getting longer? if so, the change in the angle of the cells is intentional, and probably is so; but the number of cells should have been the same: and further, the term 'hexagonal' can only be applied to the _section_ of a tubular cell, as in honeycomb, so that the floor and ceiling of our pith cell are left undescribed. . having got thus much of (partly conjectural) idea of the mechanical structure of marrow, here follows the solitary vital, or mortal, fact in the whole business, given in one crushing sentence at the close:--- "the medullary tissue" (first time of using this fine phrase for the marrow,--why can't he say marrowy tissue--'tissue moelleuse'?) "appears very early struck with atony," ('atonic,' want of tone,) "above all, in its central parts." and so ends all he has to say for the present about the marrow! and it never appears to occur to him for a moment, that if indeed the noblest trees live all their lives in a state of healthy and robust paralysis, it is a distinction, hitherto unheard of, between vegetables and animals! . two pages farther on, however, (p. ,) we get more about the marrow, and of great interest,--to this effect, for i must abstract and complete here, instead of translating. "the marrow itself is surrounded, as the centre of an electric cable is, by its guarding threads--that is to say, by a number of cords or threads coming between it and the wood, and differing from all others in the tree. "the entire protecting cylinder composed of them has been called the 'étui,' (or needle-case,) of the marrow. but each of the cords which together form this étui, is itself composed of an almost infinitely delicate thread twisted into a screw, like the common spring of a letter-weigher or a jack-in-the-box, but of exquisite fineness." upon this, two pages and an elaborate figure are given to these 'trachées'--tracheas, the french call them,--and we are never told the measure of them, either in diameter or length,[ ] and still less, the use of them! i collect, however, in my thoughts, what i have learned thus far. . a tree stem, it seems, is a growing thing, cracked outside, because its skin won't stretch, paralysed inside, because its marrow won't grow, but which continues the process of its life somehow, by knitted nerves without any nervous energy in them, protected by spiral springs without any spring in them. stay--i am going too fast. that coiling is perhaps prepared for some kind of uncoiling; and i will try if i can't learn something about it from some other book--noticing, as i pause to think where to look, the advantage of our english tongue in its pithy saxon word, 'pith,' separating all our ideas of vegetable structure clearly from animal; while the poor latin and french must use the entirely inaccurate words 'medulla' and 'moelle'; all, however, concurring in their recognition of a vital power of some essential kind in this white cord of cells: "medulla, sive illa vitalis anima est, ante se tendit, longitudinem impellens." (pliny, 'of the vine,' liber x., cap. xxi.) 'vitalis anima'--yes--_that_ i accept; but 'longitudinem impellens,' i pause at; being not at all clear, yet, myself, about any impulsive power in the pith.[ ] . however, i take up first, and with best hope, dr. asa gray, who tells me (art. ) that pith consists of parenchyma, 'which is at first gorged with sap,' but that many stems expand so rapidly that their pith is torn into a mere lining or into horizontal plates; and that as the stem grows older, the pith becomes dry and light, and is 'then of no farther use to the plant.' but of what use it ever was, we are not informed; and the doctor makes us his bow, so far as the professed article on pith goes; but, farther on, i find in his account of 'sap-wood,' (art. .) that in the germinating plantlet, the sap 'ascends first through the parenchyma, especially through its central portion or pith.' whereby we are led back to our old question, what sap is, and where it comes from, with the now superadded question, whether the young pith is a mere succulent sponge, or an active power, and constructive mechanism, nourished by the abundant sap: as columella has it,-- "naturali enim spiritu omne alimentum virentis quasi quædam anima, per _medullam_ trunci veluti per siphonem, trahitur in summum."[ ] as none of these authors make any mention of a _communication_ between the cells of the pith, i conclude that the sap they are filled with is taken up by them, and used to construct their own thickening tissue. . next, i take balfour's 'structural botany,' and by his index, under the word 'pith,' am referred to his articles , , and . in article , neither the word pith, nor any expression alluding to it, occurs. in article , the stem of an outlaid tree is defined as consisting of 'pith, fibro-vascular and [ ] woody tissue, medullary rays, bark, and epidermis.' a more detailed statement follows, illustrated by a figure surrounded by twenty-three letters--namely, two _b_ s, three _c_ s, four _e_ s, three _f_ s, one _l_, four _m_ s, three _p_ s, one _r_, and two _v_ s. eighteen or twenty minute sputters of dots may, with a good lens, be discerned to proceed from this alphabet, and to stop at various points, or lose themselves in the texture, of the represented wood. and, knowing now something of the matter beforehand, guessing a little more, and gleaning the rest with my finest glass, i achieve the elucidation of the figure, to the following extent, explicable without letters at all, by my more simple drawing, figure . . ( ) the inner circle full of little cells, diminishing in size towards the outside, represents the pith, 'very large at this period of the growth'--(the first year, we are told in next page,) and 'very large'--he means in proportion to the rest of the branch. _how_ large he does not say, in his text, but states, in his note, that the figure is magnified diameters. i have drawn mine by the more convenient multiplier of , and given the real size at b, _according to balfour_:--but without believing him to be right. i never saw a maple stem of the first year so small. [illustration: fig. .] ( ) the black band with white dots round the marrow, represents the marrow-sheath. ( ) from the marrow-sheath run the marrow-rays 'dividing the vascular circle into numerous compact segments.' a 'ray' cannot divide anything into a segment. only a partition, or a knife, can do that. but we shall find presently that marrow _rays_ ought to be called marrow-_plates_, and are really mural, forming more or less continuous partitions. ( ) the compact segments 'consist of woody vessels and of porous vessels.' this is the first we have heard of woody _vessels_! he means the '_fibres_ ligneux' of figuier; and represents them in each compartment, as at c (fig. ). without telling us why he draws the woody vessels as radiating. they appear to radiate, indeed, when wood is sawn across, but they are really upright. ( ) a moist layer of greenish cellular tissue called the cambium layer--black in figure --and he draws it in flat arches, without saying why. ( ), ( ), ( ) three layers of bark (called in his note endophloeum; mesophloeum, and epiphloeum!) with 'laticiferous vessels.' [ ] ( ) epidermis. the three layers of bark being separated by single lines, i indicate the epidermis by a double one, with a rough fringe outside, and thus we have the parts of the section clearly visible and distinct for discussion, so far as this first figure goes,--without wanting one letter of all his three and twenty! . but on the next page, this ingenious author gives us a new figure, which professes to represent the same order of things in a longitudinal section; and in retracing that order sideways, instead of looking down, he not only introduces new terms, but misses one of his old layers in doing so,--thus: his order, in explaining figure , contains, as above, nine members of the tree stem. but his order, in explaining figure , contains only eight, thus: ( ) the pith. ( ) medullary sheath. circles. ( ) medullary ray = a radius. ( ) vascular zone, with woody _fibres_ (not now vessels!) the fibres are composed of spiral, annular, pitted, and other vessels. ( ) inner bark or 'liber,' with layer of cambium cells. ( ) second layer of bark, or 'cellular envelope,' with laticiferous vessels. ( ) outer or tuberous layer of bark. ( ) epidermis. doing the best i can to get at the muddle-headed gentleman's meaning, it appears, by the lettering of his figure , my above, that the 'liber,' number , contains the cambium layer in the middle of it. the part of the liber between the cambium and the wood is not marked in figure ;--but the cambium is number , and the liber outside of it is number ,--the endophloeum of his note. [illustration: fig. .] having got himself into this piece of lovely confusion, he proceeds to give a figure of the wood in the second year, which i think he has borrowed, without acknowledgment, from figuier, omitting a piece of figuier's woodcut which is unexplained in figuier's text. i will spare my readers the work i have had to do, in order to get the statements on either side clarified: but i think they will find, if they care to work through the wilderness of the two authors' wits, that this which follows is the sum of what they have effectively to tell us; with the collated list of the main questions they leave unanswered--and, worse, unasked. . an ordinary tree branch, in transverse section, consists essentially of three parts only,--the pith, wood, and bark. the pith is in full animation during the first year--that is to say, during the actual shooting of the wood. we are left to infer that in the second year, the pith of the then unprogressive shoot becomes collective only, not formative; and that the pith of the new shoot virtually energizes the new wood in its deposition beside the old one. thus, let _a b_, figure , be a shoot of the first year, and _b c_ of the second. the pith remains of the same thickness in both, but that of the new shoot is, i suppose, chiefly active in sending down the new wood to thicken the old one, which is collected, however, and fastened by the extending pith-rays below. you see, i have given each shoot four fibres of wood for its own; then the four fibres of the upper one send out two to thicken the lower: the pith-rays, represented by the white transverse claws, catch and gather all together. mind, i certify nothing of this to you; but if this do not happen,--let the botanists tell you what _does_. . secondly. the wood, represented by these four lines, is to be always remembered as consisting of fibres and vessels; therefore it is called 'vascular,' a word which you may as well remember (though rarely needed in familiar english), with its roots, _vas_, a vase, and _vasculum_, a little vase or phial. 'vascule' may sometimes be allowed in botanical descriptions where 'cell' is not clear enough; thus, at present, we find our botanists calling the pith 'cellular' but the wood 'vascular,' with, i think, the implied meaning that a 'vascule,' little or large, is a long thing, and has some liquid in it, while a 'cell' is a more or less round thing, and to be supposed empty, unless described as full. but what liquid fills the vascules of the wood, they do not tell us.[ ] i assume that they absorb water, as long as the tree lives. [illustration: fig. .] . wood, whether vascular or fibrous, is however formed, in outlaid plants, first outside of the pith, and then, in shoots of the second year, outside of the wood of the first, and in the third year, outside of the wood of the second; so that supposing the quantity of wood sent down from the growing shoot distributed on a flat plane, the structure in the third year would be as in figure . but since the new wood is distributed all round the stem, (in successive cords or threads, if not at once), the increase of substance after a year or two would be untraceable, unless more shoots than one were formed at the extremity of the branch. of actual bud and branch structure, i gave introductory account long since in the fifth volume of 'modern painters.'[ ] to which i would now refer the reader; but both then, and to-day, after twenty years' further time allowed me, i am unable to give the least explanation of the mode in which the wood is really added to the interior stem. i cannot find, even, whether this is mainly done in springtime, or in the summer and autumn, when the young suckers form on the wood; but my impression is that though all the several substances are added annually, a little more pith going to the edges of the pith-plates, and a little more bark to the bark, with a great deal more wood to the wood,--there is a different or at least successive period for each deposit, the carrying all these elements to their places involving a fineness of basket work or web work in the vessels, which neither microscope nor dissecting tool can disentangle. the result on the whole, however, is practically that we have, outside the wood, always a mysterious 'cambium layer,' and then some distinctions in the bark itself, of which we must take separate notice. . of cambium, dr. gray's th article gives the following account. "it is not a distinct substance, but a layer of delicate new cells full of sap. the inner portion of the cambium layer is, therefore, nascent wood, and the outer nascent bark. as the cells of this layer multiply, the greater number lengthen vertically into _prosenchyma_, or woody tissue, while some are transformed into ducts" (wood vessels?) "and others remaining as _parenchyma_, continue the medullary rays, or commence new ones." nothing is said here of the part of the cambium which becomes bark: but at page , the thin walled cells of the bark are said to be those of ordinary 'parenchyma,' and in the next page a very important passage occurs, which must have a paragraph to itself. i close the present one with one more protest against the entirely absurd terms 'par-enchyma,' for common cellular tissue, 'pros-enchyma,' for cellular tissue with longer cells;--'cambium' for an early state of _both_, and 'diachyma' for a peculiar position of _one_![ ] while the chemistry of all these substances is wholly neglected, and we have no idea given us of any difference in pith, wood, and bark, than that they are made of short or long--young or old--cells! . but in dr. gray's th article comes this passage of real value. (italics mine--all.) "while the newer layers of the wood abound in _crude_ sap, which they convey to the leaves, those of the inner bark abound in _elaborated_ sap, which _they receive from the leaves_, and convey to the _cambium_ layer, or _zone of growth_. the proper juices and peculiar products of plants are accordingly found in the foliage and bark, especially the latter. in the bark, therefore, either of the stem or root, medicinal and other principles are usually to be sought, rather than in the wood. nevertheless, as the wood is kept in connection with the bark by the medullary rays, many products which probably originate in the former are deposited in the wood." . now, at last, i see my way to useful summary of the whole, which i had better give in a separate chapter: and will try in future to do the preliminary work of elaboration of the sap from my authorities, above shown, in its process, to the reader, without making so much fuss about it. but, i think in this case, it was desirable that the floods of pros-, par-, peri-, dia-, and circumlocution, through which one has to wade towards any emergent crag of fact in modern scientific books, should for once be seen in the wasteful tide of them; that so i might finally pray the younger students who feel, or remember, their disastrous sway, to cure themselves for ever of the fatal habit of imagining that they know more of anything after naming it unintelligibly, and thinking about it impudently, than they did by loving sight of its nameless being, and in wise confession of its boundless mystery. * * * * * in re-reading the text of this number i can secure my young readers of some things left doubtful, as, for instance, in their acceptance of the word 'monacha,' for the flower described in the sixth chapter. i have used it now habitually too long to part with it myself, and i think it will be found serviceable and pleasurable by others. neither shall i now change the position of the draconidae, as suggested at p. , but keep all as first planned. see among other reasons for doing so the letter quoted in p. . i also add to the plate originally prepared for this number, one showing the effect of veronica officinalis in decoration of foreground, merely by its green leaves; see the paragraphs and of chapter vi. i have not represented the fine serration of the leaves, as they are quite invisible from standing height: the book should be laid on the floor and looked down on, without stooping, to see the effect intended. and so i gladly close this long-lagging number, hoping never to write such a tiresome chapter as this again, or to make so long a pause between any readable one and its sequence. * * * * * notes [ ] vol. i., p. , note. [ ] see 'deucalion,' vol. ii., chap, i., p. , § . [ ] i am ashamed to give so rude outlines; but every moment now is valuable to me: careful outline of a dog-violet is given in plate x. [ ] a careless bit of byron's, (the last song but one in the 'deformed transformed'); but byron's most careless work is better, by its innate energy, than other people's most laboured. i suppress, in some doubts about my 'digamma,' notes on the greek violet and the ion of euripides;--which the reader will perhaps be good enough to fancy a serious loss to him, and supply for himself. [ ] nine; i see that i missed count of p. farinosa, the most abundant of all. [ ] "a feeble little quatrefoil--growing one on the stem, like a parnassia, and looking like a parnassia that had dropped a leaf. i think it drops one of its own four, mostly, and lives as three-fourths of itself, for most of its time. stamens pale gold. root-leaves, three or four, grass-like; growing among the moist moss chiefly." [ ] the great work of lecoq, 'geographic botanique,' is of priceless value; but treats all on too vast a scale for our purposes. [ ] it is, i believe, sowerby's viola lutea, of the old edition, there painted with purple upper petals; but he says in the text, "petals either all yellow, or the two uppermost are of a blue purple, the rest yellow with a blue tinge: very often the whole are purple." [ ] did the wretch never hear bees in a lime tree then, or ever see one on a star gentian? [ ] septuagint, "the eyes of doves out of thy silence." vulgate, "the eyes of doves, besides that which is hidden in them." meaning--the _dim_ look of love, beyond all others in sweetness. [ ] when i have the chance, and the time, to submit the proofs of 'proserpina' to friends who know more of botany than i, or have kindness enough to ascertain debateable things for me, i mean in future to do so,--using the letter a to signify amicus, generally; with acknowledgment by name, when it is permitted, of especial help or correction. note first of this kind: i find here on this word, 'five-petaled,' as applied to pinguicula, "qy. two-lipped? it is monopetalous, and monosepalous, the calyx and corolla being each all in one piece." yes; and i am glad to have the observation inserted. but my term, 'five-petaled,' must stand. for the question with me is always first, not how the petals are connected, but how many they are. also i have accepted the term petal--but never the word lip--as applied to flowers. the generic term 'labiatæ' is cancelled in 'proserpina,' 'vestales' being substituted; and these flowers, when i come to examine them, are to be described, not as divided into two lips, but into hood, apron, and side-pockets. farther, the depth to which either calyx or corolla is divided, and the firmness with which the petals are attached to the torus, may, indeed, often be an important part of the plant's description, but ought not to be elements in its definition. three petaled and three-sepaled, four-petaled and four-sepaled, five-petaled and five-sepaled, etc., etc., are essential--with me, primal--elements of definition; next, whether resolute or stellar in their connection; next, whether round or pointed, etc. fancy, for instance, the fatality to a rose of pointing its petals, and to a lily, of rounding them! but how deep cut, or how hard holding, is quite a minor question. farther, that all plants _are_ petaled and sepaled, and never mere cups in saucers, is a great fact, not to be dwelt on in a note. [ ] our 'lucia nivea,' 'blanche lucy;' in present botany, bog bean! having no connection whatever with any manner of bean, but only a slight resemblance to bean-_leaves_ in its own lower ones. compare ch. iv. § . [ ] it is not. (resolute negative from a., unsparing of time for me; and what a state of things it all signifies!) [ ] with the following three notes, 'a' must become a definitely and gratefully interpreted letter. i am indebted for the first, conclusive in itself, but variously supported and confirmed by the two following, to r.j. mann, esq., m.d., long ago a pupil of dr. lindley's, and now on the council of whitelands college, chelsea:--for the second, to mr. thomas moore, f.l.s., the kind keeper of the botanic garden at chelsea; for the third, which will be farther on useful to us, to miss kemm, the botanical lecturer at whitelands. ( ) there is no explanation of lentibulariaceæ in lindley's 'vegetable kingdom.' he was not great in that line. the term is, however, taken from _lenticula_, the lentil, in allusion to the lentil-shaped air-bladders of the typical genus _utricularia_. the change of the c into b may possibly have been made only from some euphonic fancy of the contriver of the name, who, i think, was rich. but i somewhat incline myself to think that the _tibia_, a pipe or flute, may have had something to do with it. the _tibia_ may possibly have been diminished into a little pipe by a stretch of licence, and have become _tibula_: [but _tibulus_ is a kind of pine tree in pliny]; when _len tibula_ would be the lens or lentil-shaped pipe or bladder. i give you this only for what it is worth. the _lenticula_, as a derivation, is reliable and has authority. _lenticula_, a lentil, a freckly eruption; _lenticularis_, lentil-shaped; so the nat. ord. ought to be (if this be right) _lenticulariaceæ_. ( ) botanic gardens, chelsea, _feb._ , . _lentibularia_ is an old generic name of tournefort's, which has been superseded by _utricularia,_ but, oddly enough, has been retained in the name of the order _lentibulareæ_; but it probably comes from _lenticula_, which signifies the little root bladders, somewhat resembling lentils. ( ) 'manual of scientific terms,' stormonth, p. . _lentibulariaceæ_, neuter, plural. (_lenticula_, the shape of a lentil; from _lens_, a lentil.) the butterwort family, an order of plants so named from the lenticular shape of the air-bladders on the branches of utricularia, one of the genera. (but observe that the _butterworts_ have nothing of the sort, any of them.--r.) loudon.--"floaters." lindley.--"sometimes with whorled vesicles." in nuttall's standard (?) pronouncing dictionary, it is given,-- _lenticulareæ_, a nat. ord. of marsh plants, which thrive in water or marshes. [ ] more accurately, shows the pruned roots of branches,--[greek: epeidê prota tomên en horessi lelotpen]. the _pruning_ is the mythic expression of the subduing of passion by rectorial law. [ ] the bitter sorrow with which i first recognized the extreme rarity of finely-developed organic sight is expressed enough in the lecture on the mystery of life, added in the large edition of 'sesame and lilies.' [ ] lat. acesco, to turn sour. [ ] withering quotes this as from linnæus, and adds on authority of a mr. hawkes, "this did not succeed when tried with cows' milk." he also gives as another name, yorkshire sanicle; and says it is called _earning grass_ in scotland. linnæus says the juice will curdle reindeer's milk. the name for rennet is _earning_, in lincolnshire. withering also gives this note: "_pinguis_, fat, from its effect in congealing milk."--(a.) withering of course wrong: the name comes, be the reader finally assured, from the fatness of the green leaf, quite peculiar among wild plants, and fastened down for us in the french word 'grassette.' i have found the flowers also difficult to dry, in the benighted early times when i used to think a dried plant useful! see closing paragraphs of the * th chapter.--r. [ ] i find much more difficulty, myself, being old, in using my altered names for species than my young scholars will. in watching the bells of the purple bindweed fade at evening, let them learn the fourth verse of the prayer of hezekiah, as it is in the vulgate--"generatio mea ablata est, et convoluta est a me, sicut tabernaculum pastoris,"--and they will not forget the name of the fast-fading--ever renewed--"belle d'un jour." [ ] "it is miss cobbe, i think, who says 'all wild flowers know how to die gracefully.'"--a. [ ] see distinction between recumbent and rampant herbs, below, under 'veronica agrestis,' p. . [ ] 'abstracted' rather, i should have said, and with perfect skill, by mr. collingwood (the joint translator of xenophon's economics for the 'bibliotheca pastorum'). so also the next following cut, fig. . [ ] of the references, henceforward necessary to the books i have used as authorities, the reader will please note the following abbreviations:-- c. curtis's magazine of botany. d. flora danica. f. figuier. g. sibthorpe's flora græca. l. linnæus. systema naturæ. l.s. linnæus's flora suecica. but till we are quite used to the other letters, i print this reference in words. l.n. william curtis's flora londinensis. of the exquisite plates engraved for this book by james sowerby, note is taken in the close of next chapter. o. sowerby's english wild flowers; the old edition in thirty-two thin volumes--far the best. s. sowerby's english wild flowers; the modern edition in ten volumes. [ ] see letter on the last results of our african campaigns, in the _morning post_ of april th, of this year. [ ] i deliberately, not garrulously, allow more autobiography in 'proserpina' than is becoming, because i know not how far i may be permitted to carry on that which was begun in 'fors.' [ ] in present botany, polygala chamæbuxus; c. : or, in english, much milk ground-box. it is not, as matters usually go, a name to be ill thought of, as it really contains three ideas; and the plant does, without doubt, somewhat resemble box, and grows on the ground;--far more fitly called 'ground-box' than the veronica 'ground-oak.' i want to find a pretty name for it in connection with savoy or dauphine, where it indicates, as above stated, the _healthy_ districts of _hard_ limestone. i do not remember it as ever occurring among the dark and moist shales of the inner mountain ranges, which at once confine and pollute the air. [ ] which, with the following page, is the summary of many chapters of 'modern painters:' and of the aims kept in view throughout 'munera pulveris.' the three kinds of desert specified--of reed, sand, and rock--should be kept in mind as exhaustively including the states of the earth neglected by man. for instance of a reed desert, produced _merely_ by his neglect, see sir samuel baker's account of the choking up of the bed of the white nile. of the sand desert, sir f. palgrave's journey from the djowf to hayel, vol. i., p. . [ ] this subject is first entered on in the 'seven lamps,' and carried forward in the final chapters of 'modern painters,'to the point where i hope to take it up for conclusion, in the sections of 'our fathers have told us' devoted to the history of the fourteenth century. [ ] see in the first volume, the plates of sonchus arvensis and tussilago petasites; in the second, carduus tomentosus and picris echioides. [ ] for the sense in which this word is used throughout my writings, see the definition of it in the nd paragraph of the 'queen of the air,' comparing with respect to its office in plants, §§ - . [ ] written in . [ ] the plate of chamædrys, d. , is also quite right, and not 'too tall and weedlike,' as i have called it at p. . [ ] "stems numerous from the crown of the root-stock, de-cumbent."--s. the effect of the flower upon the ground is always of an extremely upright and separate plant, never appearing in clusters, (i meant, in close masses - it forms exquisite little rosy crowds, on ground that it likes) or in any relation to a central root. my epithet 'rosea' does not deny its botanical de- or pro-cumbency. [ ] compare especially galeopsis angustifolia, d. . [ ] octavo: paris, hachette, . [ ] see in the ninth chapter what i have been able, since this sentence was written, to notice on the matter in question. [ ] i envy the french their generalized form of denial, 'il n'en est rien.' [ ] 'sensiblement invariable;' 'unchanged, _so far as we can see,_' or to general sense; microscopic and minute change not being considered. [ ] moreover, the confusion between vertical and horizontal sections in pp. , , is completed by the misprint of vertical for horizontal in the third line of p. , and of horizontal for vertical in the fifth line from bottom of p. ; while figure is to me totally unintelligible, this being, as far as can be made out by the lettering, a section of a tree stem which has its marrow on the outside! [ ] "try a bit of rhubarb" (says a, who sends me a pretty drawing of rhubarb pith); but as rhubarb does not grow into wood, inapplicable to our present subject; and if we descend to annual plants, rush pith is the thing to be examined. [ ] i am too lazy now to translate, and shall trust to the chance of some remnant, among my readers, of classical study, even in modern england. [ ] '_or_ woody tissue,' suggests a. it is 'and' in balfour. [ ] terms not used now, but others quite as bad: cuticle, epidermis, cortical layer, periderm, cambium, phelloderm--six hard words for 'bark,' says my careful annotator. "yes; and these new six to be changed for six newer ones next year, no doubt." [ ] "at first the vessels are pervious and full of _fluid_, but by degrees thickening layers are deposited, which contract their canal."--balfour. [ ] i cannot better this earlier statement, which in beginning 'proserpina,' i intended to form a part of that work; but, as readers already in possession of it in the original form, ought not to be burdened with its repetition, i shall republish those chapters as a supplement, which i trust may be soon issued. [ ] "'diachyma' is parenchyma in the middle of a leaf!" (balfour, art. .) henceforward, if i ever make botanical quotations, i shall always call parenchyma, by-tis; prosenchyma, to-tis; and diachyma, through-tis, short for by-tissue, to-tissue, and through-tissue--then the student will see what all this modern wisdom comes to! from images provided by the million book project. flowers and flower-gardens. by david lester richardson, principal of the hindu metropolitan college, and author of "literary leaves," "literary recreations," &c. with an appendix of practical instructions and useful information respecting the anglo-indian flower-garden. calcutta: mdccclv. preface. in every work regard the writer's end, since none can compass more than they intend. _pope_. this volume is far indeed from being a scientific treatise _on flowers and flower-gardens_:--it is mere gossip in print upon a pleasant subject. but i hope it will not be altogether useless. if i succeed in my object i shall consider that i have gossipped to some purpose. on several points--such as that of the mythology and language of flowers--i have said a good deal more than i should have done had i been writing for a different community. i beg the london critics to bear this in mind. i wished to make the subject as attractive as possible to some classes of people here who might not have been disposed to pay any attention to it whatever if i had not studied their amusement as much as their instruction. i have tried to sweeten the edge of the cup. i did not at first intend the book to exceed fifty pages: but i was almost insensibly carried on further and further from the proposed limit by the attractive nature of the materials that pressed upon my notice. as by far the largest portion, of it has been written hurriedly, amidst other avocations, and bit by bit; just as the press demanded an additional supply of "_copy_," i have but too much reason to apprehend that it will seem to many of my readers, fragmentary and ill-connected. then again, in a city like calcutta, it is not easy to prepare any thing satisfactorily that demands much literary or scientific research. there are very many volumes in all the london catalogues, but not immediately obtainable in calcutta, that i should have been most eager to refer to for interesting and valuable information, if they had been at hand. the mere titles of these books have often tantalized me with visions of riches beyond my reach. i might indeed have sent for some of these from england, but i had announced this volume, and commenced the printing of it, before it occurred to me that it would be advisable to extend the matter beyond the limits i had originally contemplated. i must now send it forth, "with all its imperfections on its head;" but not without the hope that in spite of these, it will be found calculated to increase the taste amongst my brother exiles here for flowers and flower-gardens, and lead many of my native friends--(particularly those who have been educated at the government colleges,--who have imbibed some english thoughts and feelings--and who are so fortunate as to be in possession of landed property)--to improve their parterres,--and set an example to their poorer countrymen of that neatness and care and cleanliness and order which may make even the peasant's cottage and the smallest plot of ground assume an aspect of comfort, and afford a favorable indication of the character of the possessor. d.l.r. _calcutta, september st_ . errata. a friend tells me that the allusion to the acanthus on the first page of this book is obscurely expressed, that it was not the _root_ but the _leaves_ of the plant that suggested the idea of the corinthian capital. the root of the acanthus produced the leaves which overhanging the sides of the basket struck the fancy of the architect. this was, indeed, what i _meant_ to say, and though i have not very lucidly expressed myself, i still think that some readers might have understood me rightly even without the aid of this explanation, which, however, it is as well for me to give, as i wish to be intelligible to _all_. a writer should endeavor to make it impossible for any one to misapprehend his meaning, though there are some writers of high name both in england and america who seem to delight in puzzling their readers. at the bottom of page , allusion is made to the dotted lines at some of the open turns in the engraved labyrinth. by some accident or mistake the dots have been omitted, but any one can understand where the stop hedges which the dotted lines indicated might be placed so as to give the wanderer in the maze, additional trouble to find his way out of it. [illustration of a garden.] on flowers and flower-gardens, for lo, the winter is past, the rain is over and gone; the flowers appear on the earth, the time of the singing of birds is come, and the voice of the turtle is heard in our land. _the song of solomon_. * * * * * these are thy glorious works, parent of good! almighty, thine this universal frame, thus wondrous fair; thyself how wondrous then! _milton_. * * * * * soft roll your incense, herbs and fruits and flowers, in mingled clouds to him whose sun exalts whose breath perfumes you, and whose pencil paints. _thomson_. a taste for floriculture is spreading amongst anglo-indians. it is a good sign. it would be gratifying to learn that the same refining taste had reached the natives also--even the lower classes of them. it is a cheap enjoyment. a mere palm of ground may be glorified by a few radiant blossoms. a single clay jar of the rudest form may be so enriched and beautified with leaves and blossoms as to fascinate the eye of taste. an old basket, with a broken tile at the top of it, and the root of the acanthus within, produced an effect which seemed to calimachus, the architect, "the work of the graces." it suggested the idea of the capital of the corinthian column, the most elegant architectural ornament that art has yet conceived. flowers are the poor man's luxury; a refinement for the uneducated. it has been prettily said that the melody of birds is the poor man's music, and that flowers are the poor man's poetry. they are "a discipline of humanity," and may sometimes ameliorate even a coarse and vulgar nature, just as the cherub faces of innocent and happy children are sometimes found to soften and purify the corrupted heart. it would be a delightful thing to see the swarthy cottagers of india throwing a cheerful grace on their humble sheds and small plots of ground with those natural embellishments which no productions of human skill can rival. the peasant who is fond of flowers--if he begin with but a dozen little pots of geraniums and double daisies upon his window sills, or with a honeysuckle over his humble porch--gradually acquires a habit, not only of decorating the outside of his dwelling and of cultivating with care his small plot of ground, but of setting his house in order within, and making every thing around him agreeable to the eye. a love of cleanliness and neatness and simple ornament is a moral feeling. the country laborer, or the industrious mechanic, who has a little garden to be proud of, the work of his own hand, becomes attached to his place of residence, and is perhaps not only a better subject on that account, but a better neighbour--a better man. a taste for flowers is, at all events, infinitely preferable to a taste for the excitements of the pot-house or the tavern or the turf or the gaming table, or even the festal board, especially for people of feeble health--and above all, for the poor--who should endeavor to satisfy themselves with inexpensive pleasures.[ ] in all countries, civilized or savage, and on all occasions, whether of grief or rejoicing, a natural fondness for flowers has been exhibited, with more or less tenderness or enthusiasm. they beautify religious rites. they are national emblems: they find a place in the blazonry of heraldic devices. they are the gifts and the language of friendship and of love. flowers gleam in original hues from graceful vases in almost every domicile where taste presides; and the hand of "nice art" charms us with "counterfeit presentments" of their forms and colors, not only on the living canvas, but even on our domestic china-ware, and our mahogany furniture, and our wall-papers and hangings and carpets, and on our richest apparel for holiday occasions and our simplest garments for daily wear. even human beauty, the queen of all loveliness on earth, engages flora as her handmaid at the toilet, in spite of the dictum of the poet of 'the seasons,' that "beauty when unadorned is adorned the most." flowers are hung in graceful festoons both in churches and in ball-rooms. they decorate the altar, the bride-bed, the cradle, and the bier. they grace festivals, and triumphs, and processions; and cast a glory on gala days; and are amongst the last sad honors we pay to the objects of our love. i remember the death of a sweet little english girl of but a year old, over whom, in her small coffin, a young and lovely mother sprinkled the freshest and fairest flowers. the task seemed to soften--perhaps to sweeten--her maternal grief. i shall never forget the sight. the bright-hued blossoms seemed to make her oblivious for a moment of the darkness and corruption to which she was so soon to consign her priceless treasure. the child's sweet face, even in death, reminded me that the flowers of the field and garden, however lovely, are all outshone by human beauty. what floral glory of the wild-wood, or what queen of the parterre, in all the pride of bloom, laughing in the sun-light or dancing in the breeze, hath a charm that could vie for a single moment with the soft and holy lustre of that motionless and faded human lily? i never more deeply felt the force of milton's noble phrase "_the human face divine_" than when gazing on that sleeping child. the fixed placid smile, the smoothly closed eye with its transparent lid, the air of profound tranquillity, the simple purity (elevated into an aspect of bright intelligence, as if the little cherub already experienced the beatitude of another and a better world,) were perfectly angelic--and mocked all attempt at description. "of such is the kingdom of heaven!" o flower of an earthly spring! destined to blossom in the eternal summer of another and more genial region! loveliest of lovely children--loveliest to the last! more beautiful in death than aught still living! thou seemest now to all who miss and mourn thee but a sweet name--a fair vision--a precious memory;--but in reality thou art a more truly living thing than thou wert before or than aught thou hast left behind. thou hast come early into a rich inheritance. thou hast now a substantial existence, a genuine glory, an everlasting possession, beyond the sky. thou hast exchanged the frail flowers that decked thy bier for amaranthine hues and fragrance, and the brief and uncertain delights of mortal being for the eternal and perfect felicity of angels! i never behold elsewhere any of the specimens of the several varieties of flowers which the afflicted parent consigned to the hallowed little coffin without recalling to memory the sainted child taking her last rest on earth. the mother was a woman of taste and sensibility, of high mind and gentle heart, with the liveliest sense of the loveliness of all lovely things; and it is hardly necessary to remind the reader how much refinement such as hers may sometimes alleviate the severity of sorrow. byron tells us that the stars are a beauty and a mystery, and create in us such love and reverence from afar that fortune, fame, power, life, have named themselves _a star_. but might we not with equal justice say that every thing excellent and beautiful and precious has named itself _a flower_? if stars teach as well as shine--so do flowers. in "still small accents" they charm "the nice and delicate ear of thought" and sweetly whisper that "the hand that made them is divine." the stars are the poetry of heaven--the clouds are the poetry of the middle sky--the flowers are the poetry of the earth. the last is the loveliest to the eye and the nearest to the heart. it is incomparably the sweetest external poetry that nature provides for man. its attractions are the most popular; its language is the most intelligible. it is of all others the best adapted to every variety and degree of mind. it is the most endearing, the most familiar, the most homefelt, and congenial. the stars are for the meditation of poets and philosophers; but flowers are not exclusively for the gifted or the scientific; they are the property of all. they address themselves to our common nature. they are equally the delight of the innocent little prattler and the thoughtful sage. even the rude unlettered rustic betrays some feeling for the beautiful in the presence of the lovely little community of the field and garden. he has no sympathy for the stars: they are too mystical and remote. but the flowers as they blush and smile beneath his eye may stir the often deeply hidden lovingness and gentleness of his nature. they have a social and domestic aspect to which no one with a human heart can be quite indifferent. few can doat upon the distant flowers of the sky as many of us doat upon the flowers at our feet. the stars are wholly independent of man: not so the sweet children of flora. we tend upon and cherish them with a parental pride. they seem especially meant for man and man for them. they often need his kindest nursing. we place them with guardian hand in the brightest light and the most wholesome air. we quench with liquid life their sun-raised thirst, or shelter them from the wintry blast, or prepare and enrich their nutritious beds. as they pine or prosper they agitate us with tender anxieties, or thrill us with exultation and delight. in the little plot of ground that fronts an english cottage the flowers are like members of the household. they are of the same family. they are almost as lovely as the children that play with them--though their happy human associates may be amongst the sweetest things that ever grew beside a human door. the greeks called flowers the _festival of the eye_: and so they are: but they are something else, and something better. a flower is not a flower alone, a thousand sanctities invest it. flowers not only touch the heart; they also elevate the soul. they bind us not entirely to earth; though they make earth delightful. they attract our thoughts downward to the richly embroidered ground only to raise them up again to heaven. if the stars are the scriptures of the sky, the flowers are the scriptures of the earth. if the stars are a more glorious revelation of the creator's majesty and might, the flowers are at least as sweet a revelation of his gentler attributes. it has been observed that an undevout astronomer is mad. the same thing may be said of an irreverent floriculturist, and with equal truth--perhaps indeed with greater. for the astronomer, in some cases, may be hard and cold, from indulging in habits of thought too exclusively mathematical. but the true lover of flowers has always something gentle and genial in his nature. he never looks upon his floral-family without a sweetened smile upon his face and a softened feeling in his heart; unless his temperament be strangely changed and his mind disordered. the poets, who, speaking generally, are constitutionally religious, are always delighted readers of the flower-illumined pages of the book of nature. one of these disciples of flora earnestly exclaims: were i, o god, in churchless lands remaining far from all voice of teachers and divines, my soul would find in flowers of thy ordaining priests, sermons, shrines the popular little preachers of the field and garden, with their lovely faces, and angelic language--sending the while such ambrosial incense up to heaven--insinuate the sweetest truths into the human heart. they lead us to the delightful conclusion that beauty is in the list of the _utilities_--that the divine artist himself is _a lover of loveliness_--that he has communicated a taste for it to his creatures and most lavishly provided for its gratification. not a flower but shows some touch, in freckle, streak or stain, of his unrivalled pencil. he inspires their balmy odours, and imparts then hues, and bathes their eyes with nectar, and includes in grains as countless as the sea side sands the forms with which he sprinkles all the earth. _cowper_. in the eye of utilitarianism the flowers are but idle shows. god might indeed have made this world as plain as a quaker's garment, without retrenching one actual necessary of physical existence; but he has chosen otherwise; and no earthly potentate was ever so richly clad as his mother earth. "behold the lilies of the field, they spin not, neither do they toil, yet solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these!" we are thus instructed that man was not meant to live by bread alone, and that the gratification of a sense of beauty is equally innocent and natural and refining. the rose is permitted to spread its sweet leaves to the air and dedicate its beauty to the sun, in a way that is quite perplexing to bigots and stoics and political economists. yet god has made nothing in vain! the great artist of the universe must have scattered his living hues and his forms of grace over the surface of the earth for some especial and worthy purpose. when voltaire was congratulated on the rapid growth of his plants, he observed that "_they had nothing else to do_." oh, yes--they had something else to do,--they had to adorn the earth, and to charm the human eye, and through the eye to soften and cheer the heart and elevate the soul! i have often wished that lecturers on botany, instead of confining their instructions to the mere physiology, or anatomy, or classification or nomenclature of their favorite science, would go more into the poetry of it, and teach young people to appreciate the moral influences of the floral tribes--to draw honey for the human heart from the sweet breasts of flowers--to sip from their radiant chalices a delicious medicine for the soul. flowers are frequently hallowed by associations far sweeter than their sweetest perfume. "i am no botanist:" says southey in a letter to walter savage landor, "but like you, my earliest and best recollections are connected with flowers, and they always carry me back to other days. perhaps this is because they are the only things which affect our senses precisely as they did in our childhood. the sweetness of the violet is always the same; and when you rifle a rose and drink, as it were, its fragrance, the refreshment is the same to the old man as to the boy. sounds recal the past in the same manner, but they do not bring with them individual scenes like the cowslip field, or the corner of the garden to which we have transplanted field-flowers." george wither has well said in commendation of his muse: her divine skill taught me this; that from every thing i saw i could some instruction draw, and raise pleasure to the height by the meanest object's sight, by the murmur of a spring _or the least bough's rustelling; by a daisy whose leaves spread shut, when titan goes to bed; or a shady bush or tree_, she could more infuse in me than all nature's beauties can in some other wiser man. we must not interpret the epithet _wiser_ too literally. perhaps the poet speaks ironically, or means by some other _wiser man_, one allied in character and temperament to a modern utilitarian philosopher. wordsworth seems to have had the lines of george wither in his mind when he said thanks to the human heart by which we live, thanks to its tenderness, its joys, and fears, to me the meanest flower that blows can give thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears. thomas campbell, with a poet's natural gallantry, has exclaimed, without the smile from partial beauty won, oh! what were man?--a world without a sun! let a similar compliment be presented to the "painted populace that dwell in fields and lead ambrosial lives." what a desert were this scene without its flowers--it would be like the sky of night without its stars! "the disenchanted earth" would "lose her lustre." stars of the day! beautifiers of the world! ministrants of delight! inspirers of kindly emotions and the holiest meditations! sweet teachers of the serenest wisdom! so beautiful and bright, and graceful, and fragrant--it is no marvel that ye are equally the favorites of the rich and the poor, of the young and the old, of the playful and the pensive! our country, though originally but sparingly endowed with the living jewelry of nature, is now rich in the choicest flowers of all other countries. foreigners of many lands, they form one social shade, as if convened by magic summons of the orphean lyre. _cowper_. these little "foreigners of many lands" have been so skilfully acclimatized and multiplied and rendered common, that for a few shillings an english peasant may have a parterre more magnificent than any ever gazed upon by the median queen in the hanging gardens of babylon. there is no reason, indeed, to suppose that even the first parents of mankind looked on finer flowers in paradise itself than are to be found in the cottage gardens that are so thickly distributed over the hills and plains and vallies of our native land. the red rose, is the red rose still, and from the lily's cup an odor fragrant as at first, like frankincense goes up. _mary howitt_. our neat little gardens and white cottages give to dear old england that lovely and cheerful aspect, which is so striking and attractive to her foreign visitors. these beautiful signs of a happy political security and individual independence and domestic peace and a love of order and a homely refinement, are scattered all over the land, from sea to sea. when miss sedgwick, the american authoress, visited england, nothing so much surprised and delighted her as the gay flower-filled gardens of our cottagers. many other travellers, from almost all parts of the world, have experienced and expressed the same sensations on visiting our shores, and it would be easy to compile a voluminous collection of their published tributes of admiration. to a foreign visitor the whole country seems a garden--in the words of shakespeare--"a _sea-walled garden_." in the year , on a temporary return to england after a long indian exile, i travelled by railway for the first time in my life. as i glided on, as smoothly as in a sledge, over the level iron road, with such magical rapidity--from the pretty and cheerful town of southampton to the greatest city of the civilized world--every thing was new to me, and i gave way to child-like wonder and child-like exultation.[ ] what a quick succession of lovely landscapes greeted the eye on either side? what a garden-like air of universal cultivation! what beautiful smooth slopes! what green, quiet meadows! what rich round trees, brooding over their silent shadows! what exquisite dark nooks and romantic lanes! what an aspect of unpretending happiness in the clean cottages, with their little trim gardens! what tranquil grandeur and rural luxury in the noble mansions and glorious parks of the british aristocracy! how the love of nature thrilled my heart with a gentle and delicious agitation, and how proud i felt of my dear native land! it is, indeed, a fine thing to be an englishman. whether at home or abroad, he is made conscious of the claims of his country to respect and admiration. as i fed my eyes on the loveliness of nature, or turned to the miracles of art and science on every hand, i had always in my mind a secret reference to the effect which a visit to england must produce upon an intelligent and observant foreigner. heavens! what a goodly prospect spreads around of hills and dales and woods and lawns and spires, and glittering towns and gilded streams, 'till all the stretching landscape into smoke decays! happy brittannia! where the queen of arts, inspiring vigor, liberty, abroad walks unconfined, even to thy farthest cots, and scatters plenty with unsparing hand. _thomson_. and here let me put in a word in favor of the much-abused english climate. i cannot echo the unpatriotic discontent of byron when he speaks of the cold and cloudy clime where he was born, but where he would not die. rather let me say with the author of "_the seasons_," in his address to england. rich is thy soil and merciful thy clime. king charles the second when he heard some foreigners condemning our climate and exulting in their own, observed that in his opinion that was the best climate in which a man could be out in the open air with pleasure, or at least without trouble and inconvenience, the most days of the year and the most hours of the day; and this he held was the case with the climate of england more than that of any other country in europe. to say nothing of the lovely and noble specimens of human nature to which it seems so congenial, i may safely assert that it is peculiarly favorable, with, rare exceptions, to the sweet children of flora. there is no country in the world in which there are at this day such innumerable tribes of flowers. there are in england two thousand varieties of the rose alone, and i venture to express a doubt whether the richest gardens of persia or cashmere could produce finer specimens of that universal favorite than are to be found in some of the small but highly cultivated enclosures of respectable english rustics. the actual beauty of some of the commonest flowers in our gardens can be in no degree exaggerated--even in the daydreams of the most inspired poet. and when the author of lalla rookh talks so musically and pleasantly of the fragrant bowers of amberabad, the country of delight, a province in jinnistan or fairy land, he is only thinking of the shrubberies and flower-beds at sloperton cottage, and the green hills and vales of wiltshire. sir william temple observes that "besides the temper of our climate there are two things particular to us, that contribute much to the beauty and elegance of our gardens--which are, _the gravel of our walks and the fineness and almost perpetual greenness of our turf_." "the face of england is so beautiful," says horace walpole, "that i do not believe that tempe or arcadia was half so rural; for both lying in hot climates must have wanted _the moss of our gardens_." meyer, a german, a scientific practical gardener, who was also a writer on gardening, and had studied his art in the royal gardens at paris, and afterwards visited england, was a great admirer of english gardens, but despaired of introducing our style of gardening into germany, _chiefly on account of its inferior turf for lawns_. "lawns and gravel walks," says a writer in the _quarterly review_, "are the pride of english gardens," "the smoothness and verdure of our lawns," continues the same writer, "is the first thing in our gardens that catches the eye of a foreigner; the next is the fineness and firmness of our gravel walks." mr. charles mackintosh makes the same observation. "in no other country in the world," he says, "do such things exist." mrs. stowe, whose _uncle tom_ has done such service to the cause of liberty in america, on her visit to england seems to have been quite as much enchanted with our scenery, as was her countrywoman, miss sedgwick. i am pleased to find mrs. stowe recognize the superiority of english landscape-gardening and of our english verdure. she speaks of, "the princely art of landscape-gardening, for which england is so famous," and of "_vistas of verdure and wide sweeps of grass, short, thick, and vividly green_ as the velvet moss sometimes seen growing on rocks in new england." "grass," she observes, "is an art and a science in england--it is an institution. the pains that are taken in sowing, tending, cutting, clipping, rolling and otherwise nursing and coaxing it, being seconded by the often-falling tears of the climate, produce results which must be seen to be appreciated." this is literally true: any sight more inexpressibly exquisite than that of an english lawn in fine order is what i am quite unable to conceive.[ ] i recollect that in one of my visits to england, (in ) i attempted to describe the scenery of india to william hazlitt--not the living son but the dead father. would that he were still in the land of the living by the side of his friend leigh hunt, who has been pensioned by the government for his support of that cause for which they were both so bitterly persecuted by the ruling powers in days gone by. i flattered myself into the belief that hazlitt was interested in some of my descriptions of oriental scenes. what moved him most was an account of the dry, dusty, burning, grassless plains of bundelcund in the hot season. i told him how once while gasping for breath in a hot verandah and leaning over the rails i looked down upon the sun-baked ground. "a change came o'er the spirit of my dream." i suddenly beheld with all the distinctness of reality the rich, cool, green, unrivalled meads of england. but the vision soon melted away, and i was again in exile. i wept like a child. it was like a beautiful mirage of the desert, or one of those waking dreams of home which have sometimes driven the long-voyaging seaman to distraction and urged him by an irresistible impulse to plunge headlong into the ocean. when i had once more crossed the wide atlantic--and (not by the necromancy of imagination but by a longer and more tedious transit) found myself in an english meadow,--i exclaimed with the poet, thou art free my country! and 'tis joy enough and pride for one hour's perfect bliss, _to tread the grass of england once again_. i felt my childhood for a time renewed, and was by no means disposed to second the assertion that "nothing can bring back the hour of splendour in the grass, of glory in the flower." i have never beheld any thing more lovely than scenery characteristically english; and goldsmith, who was something of a traveller, and had gazed on several beautiful countries, was justified in speaking with such affectionate admiration of our still more beautiful england, where lawns extend that scorn arcadian pride. it is impossible to put into any form of words the faintest representation of that delightful summer feeling which, is excited in fine weather by the sight of the mossy turf of our country. it is sweet indeed to go, musing through the _lawny_ vale: alluded to by warton, or over milton's "level downs," or to climb up thomson's stupendous rocks that from the sun-redoubling valley lift cool to the middle air their _lawny_ tops. it gives the anglo-indian exile the heart-ache to think of these ramblings over english scenes. england. bengala's plains are richly green, her azure skies of dazzling sheen, her rivers vast, her forests grand. her bowers brilliant,--but the land, though dear to countless eyes it be, and fair to mine, hath not for me the charm ineffable of _home_; for still i yearn to see the foam of wild waves on thy pebbled shore, dear albion! to ascend once more thy snow-white cliffs; to hear again the murmur of thy circling main-- to stroll down each romantic dale beloved in boyhood--to inhale fresh life on green and breezy hills-- to trace the coy retreating rills-- to see the clouds at summer-tide dappling all the landscape wide-- to mark the varying gloom and glow as the seasons come and go-- again the green meads to behold thick strewn with silvery gems and gold, where kine, bright-spotted, large, and sleek, browse silently, with aspect meek, or motionless, in shallow stream stand mirror'd, till their twin shapes seem, feet linked to feet, forbid to sever, by some strange magic fixed for ever. and oh! once more i fain would see (here never seen) a poor man _free_,[ ] and valuing more an humble name, but stainless, than a guilty fame, how sacred is the simplest cot, where freedom dwells!--where she is not how mean the palace! where's the spot she loveth more than thy small isle, queen of the sea? where hath her smile so stirred man's inmost nature? where are courage firm, and virtue fair, and manly pride, so often found as in rude huts on english ground, where e'en the serf who slaves for hire may kindle with a freeman's fire? how proud a sight to english eyes are england's village families! the patriarch, with his silver hair, the matron grave, the maiden fair. the rose-cheeked boy, the sturdy lad, on sabbath day all neatly clad:-- methinks i see them wend their way on some refulgent morn of may, by hedgerows trim, of fragrance rare, towards the hallowed house of prayer! i can love _all_ lovely lands, but england _most_; for she commands. as if she bore a parent's part, the dearest movements of my heart; and here i may not breathe her name. without a thrill through all my frame. never shall this heart be cold to thee, my country! till the mould (or _thine_ or _this_) be o'er it spread. and form its dark and silent bed. i never think of bliss below but thy sweet hills their green heads show, of love and beauty never dream. but english faces round me gleam! d.l.r. i have often observed that children never wear a more charming aspect than when playing in fields and gardens. in another volume i have recorded some of my impressions respecting the prominent interest excited by these little flowers of humanity in an english landscape. * * * * * the return to england. when i re-visited my dear native country, after an absence of many weary years, and a long dull voyage, my heart was filled with unutterable delight and admiration. the land seemed a perfect paradise. it was in the spring of the year. the blue vault of heaven--the clear atmosphere--the balmy vernal breeze--the quiet and picturesque cattle, browsing on luxuriant verdure, or standing knee deep in a crystal lake--the hills sprinkled with snow-white sheep and sometimes partially shadowed by a wandering cloud--the meadows glowing with golden butter-cups and be-dropped with daisies--the trim hedges of crisp and sparkling holly--the sound of near but unseen rivulets, and the songs of foliage-hidden birds--the white cottages almost buried amidst trees, like happy human nests--the ivy-covered church, with its old grey spire "pointing up to heaven," and its gilded vane gleaming in the light--the sturdy peasants with their instruments of healthy toil--the white-capped matrons bleaching their newly-washed garments in the sun, and throwing them like snow-patches on green slopes, or glossy garden shrubs--the sun-browned village girls, resting idly on their round elbows at small open casements, their faces in sweet keeping with the trellised flowers:--all formed a combination of enchantments that would mock the happiest imitative efforts of human art. but though the bare enumeration of the details of this english picture, will, perhaps, awaken many dear recollections in the reader's mind, i have omitted by far the most interesting feature of the whole scene--_the rosy children, loitering about the cottage gates, or tumbling gaily on the warm grass_.[ ][ ] two scraps of verse of a similar tendency shall follow this prose description:-- an english landscape. i stood, upon an english hill, and saw the far meandering rill, a vein of liquid silver, run sparkling in the summer sun; while adown that green hill's side, and along the valley wide, sheep, like small clouds touched with light, or like little breakers bright, sprinkled o'er a smiling sea, seemed to float at liberty. scattered all around were seen, white cots on the meadows green. open to the sky and breeze, or peeping through the sheltering trees, on a light gate, loosely hung, laughing children gaily swung; oft their glad shouts, shrill and clear, came upon the startled ear. blended with the tremulous bleat, of truant lambs, or voices sweet, of birds, that take us by surprise, and mock the quickly-searching eyes. nearer sat a fair-haired boy, whistling with a thoughtless joy; a shepherd's crook was in his hand, emblem of a mild command; and upon his rounded cheek were hues that ripened apples streak. disease, nor pain, nor sorrowing, touched that small arcadian king; his sinless subjects wandered free-- confusion without anarchy. happier he upon his throne. the breezy hill--though all alone-- than the grandest monarchs proud who mistrust the kneeling crowd. on a gently rising ground, the lovely valley's farthest bound, bordered by an ancient wood, the cots in thicker clusters stood; and a church, uprose between, hallowing the peaceful scene. distance o'er its old walls threw a soft and dim cerulean hue, while the sun-lit gilded spire gleamed as with celestial fire! i have crossed the ocean wave, haply for a foreign grave; haply never more to look on a british hill or brook; haply never more to hear sounds unto my childhood dear; yet if sometimes on my soul bitter thoughts beyond controul throw a shade more dark than night, soon upon the mental sight flashes forth a pleasant ray brighter, holier than the day; and unto that happy mood all seems beautiful and good. d.l.r. lines to a lady, who presented the author with some english fruits and flowers. green herbs and gushing springs in some hot waste though, grateful to the traveller's sight and taste, seem far less sweet and fair than fruits and flowers that breathe, in foreign lands, of english bowers. thy gracious gift, dear lady, well recalls sweet scenes of home,--the white cot's trellised walls-- the trim red garden path--the rustic seat-- the jasmine-covered arbour, fit retreat for hearts that love repose. each spot displays some long-remembered charm. in sweet amaze i feel as one who from a weary dream of exile wakes, and sees the morning beam illume the glorious clouds of every hue that float o'er scenes his happy childhood knew. how small a spark may kindle fancy's flame and light up all the past! the very same glad sounds and sights that charmed my heart of old arrest me now--i hear them and behold. ah! yonder is the happy circle seated within, the favorite bower! i am greeted with joyous shouts; my rosy boys have heard a father's voice--their little hearts are stirred with eager hope of some new toy or treat and on they rush, with never-resting feet! * * * * * gone is the sweet illusion--like a scene formed by the western vapors, when between the dusky earth, and day's departing light the curtain falls of india's sudden night. d.l.r. the verdant carpet embroidered with little stars of gold and silver--the short-grown, smooth, and close-woven, but most delicate and elastic fresh sward--so soothing to the dazzled eye, so welcome to the wearied limbs--so suggestive of innocent and happy thoughts,--so refreshing to the freed visitor, long pent up in the smoky city--is surely no where to be seen in such exquisite perfection as on the broad meadows and softly-swelling hills of england. and perhaps in no country in the world could _pic-nic_ holiday-makers or playful children with more perfect security of life and health stroll about or rest upon earth's richly enamelled floor from sunrise to sunset on a summer's day. no englishman would dare to stretch himself at full length and address himself to sleep upon an oriental meadow unless he were perfectly indifferent to life itself and could see nothing terrible in the hostility of the deadliest reptiles. when wading through the long grass and thick jungles of bengal, he is made to acknowledge the full force of the true and beautiful expression--"_in the midst of life we are in death_." the british indian exile on his return home is delighted with the "sweet security" of his native fields. he may then feel with wordsworth how dear is the forest frowning o'er his head. and dear _the velvet greensward_ to his tread. or he may exclaim in the words of poor keats--now slumbering under a foreign turf-- happy is england! i could be content to see no other verdure than her own. it is a pleasing proof of the fine moral influence of natural scenery that the most ceremonious strangers can hardly be long seated together in the open air on the "velvet greensward" without casting off for a while the cold formalities of artificial life, and becoming as frank and social as ingenuous school-boys. nature breathes peace and geniality into almost every human heart. "john thelwall," says coleridge, "had something very good about him. we were sitting in a beautiful recess in the quantocks when i said to him 'citizen john, this is a fine place to talk treason in!' 'nay, citizen samuel,' replied he, 'it is rather a place to make us forget that there is any necessity for treason!'" leigh hunt, who always looks on nature with the eye of a true painter and the imagination of a true poet, has represented with delightful force and vividness some of those accidents of light and shade that diversify an english meadow. rain and sunshine in may. "can any thing be more lovely, than the meadows between the rains of may, when the sun smites them on the sudden like a painter, and they laugh up at him, as if he had lighted a loving cheek! i speak of a season when the returning threats of cold and the resisting warmth of summer time, make robust mirth in the air; when the winds imitate on a sudden the vehemence of winter; and silver-white clouds are abrupt in their coming down and shadows on the grass chase one another, panting, over the fields, like a pursuit of spirits. with undulating necks they pant forward, like hounds or the leopard. see! the cloud is after the light, gliding over the country like the shadow of a god; and now the meadows are lit up here and there with sunshine, as if the soul of titian were standing in heaven, and playing his fancies on them. green are the trees in shadow; but the trees in the sun how twenty-fold green _they_ are--rich and variegated with gold!" one of the many exquisite out-of-doors enjoyments for the observers of nature, is the sight of an english harvest. how cheering it is to behold the sickles flashing in the sun, as the reapers with well sinewed arm, and with a sweeping movement, mow down the close-arrayed ranks of the harvest field! what are "the rapture of the strife" and all the "pomp, pride and circumstance of glorious war," that bring death to some and agony and grief to others, compared with the green and golden trophies of the honest husbandman whose bloodless blade makes no wife a widow, no child an orphan,--whose office is not to spread horror and desolation through shrieking cities, but to multiply and distribute the riches of nature over a smiling land. but let us quit the open fields for a time, and turn again to the flowery retreats of retired leisure that in trim gardens takes his pleasure. in all ages, in all countries, in all creeds, a garden is represented as the scene not only of earthly but of celestial enjoyment. the ancients had their elysian fields and the garden of the hesperides, the christian has his garden of eden, the mahommedan his paradise of groves and flowers and crystal fountains and black eyed houries. "god almighty," says lord bacon, "first planted a garden; and indeed it is the purest of all pleasures: it is the greatest refreshment to the spirits of man." bacon, though a utilitarian philosopher, was such a lover of flowers that he was never satisfied unless he saw them in almost every room of his house, and when he came to discourse of them in his essays, his thoughts involuntarily moved harmonious numbers. how naturally the following prose sentence in bacon's essay on gardens almost resolves itself into verse. "for the heath which was the first part of our plot, i wish it to be framed as much as may be to a natural wildness. trees i would have none in it, but some thickets made only of sweet briar and honeysuckle, and some wild vine amongst; and the ground set with violets, strawberries and primroses; for these are sweet, and prosper in the shade." "for the heath which was the third part of our plot-- i wish it to be framed as much as may be to a natural wildness. trees i'd have none in't, but some thickets made only of sweet-briar and honey-suckle, and some wild vine amongst; and the ground set with violets, strawberries, and primroses; for these are sweet and prosper in the shade." it has been observed that the love of gardens is the only passion which increases with age. it is generally the most indulged in the two extremes of life. in middle age men are often too much involved in the affairs of the busy world fully to appreciate the tranquil pleasures in the gift of flora. flowers are the toys of the young and a source of the sweetest and serenest enjoyments for the old. but there is no season of life for which they are unfitted and of which they cannot increase the charm. "give me," says the poet rogers, "a garden well kept, however small, two or three spreading trees and a mind at ease, and i defy the world." the poet adds that he would not have his garden, too much extended. he seems to think it possible to have too much of a good thing. "three acres of flowers and a regiment of gardeners," he says, "bring no more pleasure than a sufficiency." "a hundred thousand roses," he adds, "which we look at _en masse_, do not identify themselves in the same manner as even a very small border; and hence, if the cottager's mind is properly attuned, the little cottage-garden may give him more real delight than belongs to the owner of a thousand acres." in a smaller garden "we become acquainted, as it were," says the same poet, "and even form friendships with, individual flowers." it is delightful to observe how nature thus adjusts the inequalities of fortune and puts the poor man, in point of innocent happiness, on a level with the rich. the man of the most moderate means may cultivate many elegant tastes, and may have flowers in his little garden that the greatest sovereign in the world might enthusiastically admire. flowers are never vulgar. a rose from a peasant's patch of ground is as fresh and elegant and fragrant as if it had been nurtured in a royal parterre, and it would not be out of place in the richest porcelain vase of the most aristocratical drawing-room in europe. the poor man's flower is a present for a princess, and of all gifts it is the one least liable to be rejected even by the haughty. it might he worn on the fair brow or bosom of queen victoria with a nobler grace than the costliest or most elaborate production of the goldsmith or the milliner. the majority of mankind, in the most active spheres of life, have moments in which they sigh for rural retirement, and seldom dream of such a retreat without making a garden the leading charm of it. sir henry wotton says that lord bacon's garden was one of the best that he had seen either at home or abroad. evelyn, the author of "sylva, or a discourse of forest trees," dwells with fond admiration, and a pleasing egotism, on the charms of his own beautiful and highly cultivated estate at wooton in the county of surrey. he tells us that the house is large and ancient and is "sweetly environed with delicious streams and venerable woods." "i will say nothing," he continues, "of the air, because the pre-eminence is universally given to surrey, the soil being dry and sandy; but i should speak much of the gardens, fountains and groves that adorn it, were they not generally known to be amongst the most natural, and (till this later and universal luxury of the whole nation, since abounding in such expenses) the most magnificent that england afforded, and which indeed gave one of the first examples to that elegancy, since so much in vogue and followed, for the managing of their waters and other elegancies of that nature." before he came into the possession of his paternal estate he resided at _say's court_, near deptford, an estate which he possessed by purchase, and where he had a superb holly hedge four hundred feet long, nine feet high and five feet broad. of this hedge, he was particularly proud, and he exultantly asks, "is there under heaven a more glorious and refreshing object of the kind?" when the czar of muscovy visited england in to instruct himself in the art of ship-building, he had the use of evelyn's house and garden, at _say's court_, and while there did so much damage to the latter that the owner loudly and bitterly complained. at last the government gave evelyn £ as an indemnification. czar peter's favorite amusement was to ride in a wheel barrow through what its owner had once called the "impregnable hedge of holly." evelyn was passionately fond of gardening. "the life and felicity of an excellent gardener," he observes, "is preferable to all other diversions." his faith in the art of landscape-gardening was unwavering. it could _remove mountains_. here is an extract from his diary. "gave his brother some directions about his garden" (at wooton surrey), "which, he was desirous to put into some form, for which he was to remove a mountain overgrown with large trees and thickets and a moat within ten yards of the house." no sooner said than done. his brother dug down the mountain and "flinging it into a rapid stream (which carried away the sand) filled up the moat and levelled that noble area where now the garden and fountain is." though evelyn dearly loved a garden, his chief delight was not in flowers but in forest trees, and he was more anxious to improve the growth of plants indigenous to the soil than to introduce exotics.[ ] sir william temple was so attached to his garden, that he left directions in his will that his heart should be buried there. it was enclosed in a silver box and placed under a sun-dial. dr. thomson reid, the eminent scottish metaphysician, used to be found working in his garden in his eighty-seventh year. the name of chatham is in the long list of eminent men who have enjoyed a garden. we are told that "he loved the country: took peculiar pleasure in gardening; and had an extremely happy taste in laying out grounds." what a delightful thing it must have been for that great statesman, thus to relieve his mind from the weight of public care in the midst of quiet bowers planted and trained by his own hand! burton, in his _anatomy of melancholy_, notices the attractions of a garden as amongst the finest remedies for depression of the mind. i must give the following extracts from his quaint but interesting pages. "to see the pleasant fields, the crystal fountains, and take the gentle air amongst the mountains. "to walk amongst orchards, gardens, bowers, mounts, and arbours, artificial wildernesses, green thickets, arches, groves, lawns, rivulets, fountains, and such like pleasant places, (like that antiochian daphne,) brooks, pools, fishponds, between wood and water, in a fair meadow, by a river side, _ubi variae avium cantationes, florum colores, pratorum frutices_, &c. to disport in some pleasant plain, or park, run up a steep hill sometimes, or sit in a shady seat, must needs be a delectable recreation. _hortus principis et domus ad delectationem facta, cum sylvâ, monte et piscinâ, vulgò la montagna_: the prince's garden at ferrara, schottus highly magnifies, with the groves, mountains, ponds, for a delectable prospect; he was much affected with it; a persian paradise, or pleasant park, could not be more delectable in his sight. st. bernard, in the description of his monastery, is almost ravished with the pleasures of it. "a sick man (saith he) sits upon a green bank, and when the dog-star parcheth the plains, and dries up rivers, he lies in a shady bower," _fronde sub arborea ferventia temperat astra_, "and feeds his eyes with variety of objects, herbs, trees, to comfort his misery; he receives many delightsome smells, and fills his ears with that sweet and various harmony of birds; _good god_, (saith he), _what a company of pleasures hast thou made for man!_" * * * * * "the country hath his recreations, the city his several gymnics and exercises, may games, feasts, wakes, and merry meetings to solace themselves; the very being in the country; that life itself is a sufficient recreation to some men, to enjoy such pleasures, as those old patriarchs did. dioclesian, the emperor, was so much affected with it, that he gave over his sceptre, and turned gardener. constantine wrote twenty books of husbandry. lysander, when ambassadors came to see him, bragged of nothing more than of his orchard, _hi sunt ordines mei_. what shall i say of cincinnatus, cato, tully, and many such? how they have been pleased with it, to prune, plant, inoculate and graft, to show so many several kinds of pears, apples, plums, peaches, &c." the romans of all ranks made use of flowers as ornaments and emblems, but they were not generally so fond of directing or assisting the gardener, or taking the spade or hoe into their own hands, as are the british peasantry, gentry and nobility of the present day. they were not amateur florists. they prized highly their fruit trees and pastures and cool grottoes and umbrageous groves; but they expended comparatively little time, skill or taste upon the flower-garden. even their love of nature, though thoroughly genuine as far as it went, did not imply that minute and exact knowledge of her charms which characterizes some of our best british poets. they had no thompson or cowper. their country seats were richer in architectural than floral beauty. tully's tuscan villa, so fondly and minutely described by the proprietor himself, would appear to little advantage in the eyes of a true worshipper of flora, if compared with pope's retreat at twickenham. the ancients had a taste for the _rural_, not for the _gardenesque_, nor perhaps even for the _picturesque_. the english have a taste for all three. hence they have good landscape-gardeners and first-rate landscape-painters. the old romans had neither. but though, some of our spitalfields weavers have shown a deeper love, and perhaps even a finer taste, for flowers, than were exhibited by the citizens of rome, abundant evidence is furnished to us by the poets in all ages and in all countries that nature, in some form or another has ever charmed the eye and the heart of man. the following version of a famous passage in virgil, especially the lines in italics, may give the english reader some idea of a roman's dream of rural happiness. ah! happy swains! if they their bliss but knew, whom, far from boisterous war, earth's bosom true with easy food supplies. if they behold no lofty dome its gorgeous gates unfold and pour at morn from all its chambers wide of flattering visitants the mighty tide; nor gaze on beauteous columns richly wrought, or tissued robes, or busts from corinth brought; nor their white wool with tyrian poison soil, nor taint with cassia's bark their native oil; _yet peace is theirs; a life true bliss that yields; and various wealth; leisure mid ample fields, grottoes, and living lakes, and vallies green, and lowing herds; and 'neath a sylvan screen, delicious slumbers. there the lawn and cave with beasts of chase abound._ the young ne'er crave a prouder lot; their patient toil is cheered; their gods are worshipped and their sires revered; and there when justice passed from earth away she left the latest traces of her sway. d.l.r. lord bacon was perhaps the first englishman who endeavored to reform the old system of english gardening, and to show that it was contrary to good taste and an insult to nature. "as for making knots or figures," he says, "with divers colored earths, that may lie under the windows of the house on that side on which the garden stands, they be but toys: you may see as good sights many times in tarts." bacon here alludes, i suppose, to the old dutch fashion of dividing flowerbeds into many compartments, and instead of filling them with flowers, covering one with red brick dust, another with charcoal, a third with yellow sand, a fourth with chalk, a fifth with broken china, and others with green glass, or with spars and ores. but milton, in his exquisite description of the garden of eden, does not allude to the same absurd fashion when he speaks of "curious knots," which not nice art, in beds and _curious knots_, but nature boon poured forth profuse on hill and dale and plain. by these _curious knots_ the poet seems to allude, not to figures of "divers colored earth," but to the artificial and complicated arrangements and divisions of flowers and flower-beds. though bacon went not quite so freely to nature as our latest landscape-gardeners have done, he made the _first step_ in the right direction and deserves therefore the compliment which mason has paid him in his poem of _the english garden_. on thy realm philosophy his sovereign lustre spread; yet did he deign to light with casual glance the wilds of taste, yes, sagest verulam, 'twas thine to banish from the royal groves each childish vanity of crisped knot[ ] and sculptured foliage; to the lawn restore its ample space, and bid it feast the sight with verdure pure, unbroken, unabridged; for verdure soothes the eye, as roseate sweets the smell, or music's melting strains the ear. yes--"_verdure soothes the eye_:"--and the mind too. bacon himself observes, that "nothing is more pleasant to the eye than green grass kept finely shorn." mason slightly qualifies his commendation of "the sage" by admitting that he had not quite completed his emancipation from the bad taste of his day. witness his high arched hedge in pillored state by carpentry upborn, with colored mirrors decked and prisoned birds. but, when our step has paced the proud parterre, and reached the heath, then nature glads our eye sporting in all her lovely carelessness, there smiles in varied tufts the velvet rose, there flaunts the gadding woodbine, swells the ground in gentle hillocks, and around its sides through blossomed shades the secret pathway steals. _the english garden_. in one of the notes to _the english garden_ it is stated that "bacon was the prophet, milton the herald of modern gardening; and addison, pope, and kent the champions of true taste." kent was by profession both a painter and a landscape-gardener. addison who had a pretty little retreat at bilton, near rugby, evinces in most of his occasional allusions to gardens a correct judgment. he complains that even in _his_ time our british gardeners, instead of humouring nature, loved to deviate from it as much as possible. the system of verdant sculpture had not gone out of fashion. our trees still rose in cones, globes, and pyramids. the work of the scissors was on every plant and bush. it was pope, however, who did most to bring the topiary style into contempt and to encourage a more natural taste, by his humorous paper in the _guardian_ and his poetical epistle to the earl of burlington. gray, the poet, observes in one of his letters, that "our skill in gardening, or rather laying out grounds, is the only taste we can call our own; the only proof of original talent in matters of pleasure. this is no small honor to us;" he continues, "since neither france nor italy, has ever had the least notion of it." "whatever may have been reported, whether truly or falsely" (says a contributor to _the world_) "of the chinese gardens, it is certain that we are the first of the europeans who have founded this taste; and we have been so fortunate in the genius of those who have had the direction of some of the finest spots of ground, that we may now boast a success equal to that profusion of expense which has been destined to promote the rapid progress of this happy enthusiasm. our gardens are already the astonishment of foreigners, and, in proportion as they accustom themselves to consider and understand them will become their admiration." the periodical from which this is taken was published exactly a century ago, and the writer's prophecy has been long verified. foreigners send to us for gardeners to help them to lay out their grounds in the english fashion. and we are told by the writer of an interesting article on gardens, in the _quarterly review_, that "the lawns at paris, to say nothing of naples, are regularly irrigated to keep up even the semblance of english verdure; and at the gardens of versailles, and caserta, near naples, the walks have been supplied from the kensington gravel-pits." "it is not probably known," adds the same writer, "that among our exportations every year is a large quantity of evergreens for the markets of france and germany, and that there are some nurserymen almost wholly engaged in this branch of trade." pomfret, a poet of small powers, if a poet at all, has yet contrived to produce a popular composition in verse--_the choice_--because he has touched with great good fortune on some of the sweetest domestic hopes and enjoyments of his countrymen. if heaven the grateful liberty would give that i might choose my method how to live; and all those hours propitious fate should lend in blissful ease and satisfaction spend; near some fair town i'd have a private seat built uniform; not little; nor too great: better if on a rising ground it stood, on this side fields, on that a neighbouring wood. _the choice_. pomfret perhaps illustrates the general taste when he places his garden "_near some fair town_." our present laureate, though a truly inspired poet, and a genuine lover of nature even in her remotest retreats, has the garden of his preference, "_not quite beyond the busy world_." not wholly in the busy world, nor quite beyond it, blooms the garden that i love, news from the humming city comes to it in sound of funeral or of marriage bells; and sitting muffled in dark leaves you hear the windy clanging of the minster clock; although between it and the garden lies a league of grass. even "sounds inharmonious in themselves and harsh" are often pleasing when mellowed by the space of air through which they pass. 'tis distance lends enchantment to the _sound_. shelley, in one of his sweetest poems, speaking of a scene in the neighbourhood of naples, beautifully says:-- like many a voice of one delight, the winds, the birds, the ocean floods, _the city's voice itself is soft_, like solitude's. no doubt the feeling that we are _near_ the crowd but not _in_ it, may deepen the sense of our own happy rural seclusion and doubly endear that pensive leisure in which we can "think down hours to moments," and in this our life, exempt from public haunt, find tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, sermons in stones, and good in every thing. _shakespeare_. besides, to speak truly, few men, however studious or philosophical, desire a total isolation from the world. it is pleasant to be able to take a sort of side glance at humanity, even when we are most in love with nature, and to feel that we can join our fellow creatures again when the social feeling returns upon us. man was not made to live alone. cowper, though he clearly loved retirement and a garden, did not desire to have the pleasure entirely to himself. "grant me," he says, "a friend in my retreat." to whom to whisper solitude is sweet. cowper lived and died a bachelor. in the case of a married man and a father, garden delights are doubled by the presence of the family and friends, if wife and children happen to be what they should be, and the friends are genuine and genial. all true poets delight in gardens. the truest that ever lived spent his latter days at new place in stratford-upon-avon. he had a spacious and beautiful garden. charles knight tells us that "the avon washed its banks; and within its enclosures it had its sunny terraces and green lawns, its pleached alleys and honeysuckle bowers," in this garden shakespeare planted with his own hands his celebrated mulberry tree. it was a noble specimen of the black mulberry introduced into england in [ ]. in , james i. issued a royal edict recommending the cultivation of silkworms and offering packets of mulberry seeds to those amongst his subjects who were willing to sow them. shakespeare's tree was planted in . mr. loudon, observes that the black mulberry has been known from the earliest records of antiquity and that it is twice mentioned in the bible: namely, in the second book of samuel and in the psalms. when new place was in the possession of sir hough clopton, who was proud of its interesting association with the history of our great poet, not only were garrick and macklin most hospitably entertained under the mulberry tree, but all strangers on a proper application were admitted to a sight of it. but when sir hough clopton was succeeded by the reverend francis gastrell, that gentleman, to save himself the trouble of showing the tree to visitors, had "the gothic barbarity" to cut down and root up that interesting--indeed _sacred_ memorial--of the pride of the british isles. the people of stratford were so enraged at this sacrilege that they broke mr. gastrell's windows. that prosaic personage at last found the place too hot for him, and took his departure from a town whose inhabitants "doated on his very absence;" but before he went he completed the fall sum of his sins against good taste and good feeling by pulling to the ground the house in which shakespeare had lived and died. this was done, it is said, out of sheer spite to the towns-people, with some of whom mr. gastrell had had a dispute about the rate at which the house was taxed. his change of residence was no great relief to him, for the whole british public felt sorely aggrieved, and wherever he went he was peppered with all sorts of squibs and satires. he "slid into verse," and "hitched in a rhyme." sacred to ridicule his whole life long, and the sad burden of a merry song. thomas sharp, a watchmaker, got possession of the fragments of shakespeare's mulberry tree, and worked them into all sorts of elegant ornaments and toys, and disposed of them at great prices. the corporation of stratford presented garrick with the freedom of the town in a box made of the wood of this famous tree, and the compliment seems to have suggested to him his public festival or pageant in honor of the poet. this jubilee, which was got up with great zeal, and at great expense and trouble, was attended by vast throngs of the admirers of shakespeare from all parts of the kingdom. it was repeated on the stage and became so popular as a theatrical exhibition that it was represented night after night for more than half a season to crowded audiences. upon the subject of gardens, let us hear what has been said by the self-styled "melancholy cowley." when in the smoky city pent, amidst the busy hum of men, he sighed unceasingly for some green retreat. as he paced the crowded thorough-fares of london, he thought of the velvet turf and the pure air of the country. his imagination carried him into secluded groves or to the bank of a murmuring river, or into some trim and quiet garden. "i never," he says, "had any other desire so strong and so like to covetousness, as that one which i have had always, that i might be master at last of a small house and a large garden, with very moderate conveniences joined to them, and there dedicate the remainder of my life only to the culture of them and the study of nature," the late miss mitford, whose writings breathe so freshly of the nature that she loved so dearly, realized for herself a similar desire. it is said that she had the cottage of a peasant with the garden of a duchess. cowley is not contented with expressing in plain prose his appreciation of garden enjoyments. he repeatedly alludes to them in verse. thus, thus (and this deserved great virgil's praise) the old corycian yeoman passed his days; thus his wise life abdolonymus spent; th' ambassadors, which the great emperor sent to offer him a crown, with wonder found the reverend gardener, hoeing of his ground; unwillingly and slow and discontent from his loved cottage to a throne he went; and oft he stopped, on his triumphant way: and oft looked back: and oft was heard to say not without sighs, alas! i there forsake a happier kingdom than i go to take. _lib. iv. plantarum_. here is a similar allusion by the same poet to the delights which great men amongst the ancients have taken in a rural retirement. methinks, i see great dioclesian walk in the salonian garden's noble shade which by his own imperial hands was made, i see him smile, methinks, as he does talk with the ambassadors, who come in vain to entice him to a throne again. "if i, my friends," said he, "should to you show all the delights which in these gardens grow, 'tis likelier much that you should with me stay, than 'tis that you should carry me away: and trust me not, my friends, if every day i walk not here with more delight, than ever, after the most happy sight in triumph to the capitol i rode, to thank the gods, and to be thought myself almost a god," _the garden_. cowley does not omit the important moral which a garden furnishes. where does the wisdom and the power divine in a more bright and sweet reflection shine? where do we finer strokes and colors see of the creator's real poetry. than when we with attention look upon the third day's volume of the book? if we could open and intend our eye _we all, like moses, might espy, e'en in a bush, the radiant deity_. in leigh hunt's charming book entitled _the town_, i find the following notice of the partiality of poets for houses with gardens attached to them:-- "it is not surprizing that _garden-houses_ as they were called; should have formerly abounded in holborn, in bunhill row, and other (at that time) suburban places. we notice the fact, in order to observe _how fond the poets were of occupying houses of this description. milton seems to have made a point of having one_. the only london residence of chapman which is known, was in old street road; doubtless at that time a rural suburb. beaumont and fletcher's house, on the surrey side of the thames, (for they lived as well as wrote together,) most probably had a garden; and dryden's house in gerard street looked into the garden of the mansion built by the earls of leicester. a tree, or even a flower, put in a window in the streets of a great city, (and the london citizens, to their credit, are fond of flowers,) affects the eye something in the same way as the hand-organs, which bring unexpected music to the ear. they refresh the common-places of life, shed a harmony through the busy discord, and appeal to those first sources of emotion, which are associated with the remembrance of all that is young and innocent." milton must have been a passionate lover of flowers and flower-gardens or he could never have exhibited the exquisite taste and genial feeling which characterize all the floral allusions and descriptions with which so much of his poetry is embellished. he lived for some time in a house in westminster over-looking the park. the same house was tenanted by jeremy bentham for forty years. it would be difficult to meet with any two individuals of more opposite temperaments than the author of _paradise lost_ and the utilitarian philosopher. there is or was a stone in the wall at the end of the garden inscribed to the prince of poets. two beautiful cotton trees overarched the inscription, "and to show" says hazlitt, (who subsequently lived in the same house himself,) "how little the refinements of taste or fancy entered bentham's system, he proposed at one time to cut down these beautiful trees, to convert the garden, where he had breathed an air of truth and heaven for near half a century, into a paltry chreistomathic school, and to make milton's house (the cradle of _paradise lost_) a thoroughfare, like a three-stalled stable, for the idle rabble of westminster to pass backwards and forwards to it with their cloven hoofs!" no poet, ancient or modern, has described a garden on a large scale in so noble a style as milton. he has anticipated the finest conceptions of the latest landscape-gardeners, and infinitely surpassed all the accounts we have met with of the gardens of the olden time before us. his paradise is a spot more delicious than those gardens feigned or of revived adonis or renowned alcinous, host of old laertes' son or that, not mystic, where the sapient king held dalliance with his fair egyptian spouse[ ] the description is too long to quote entire, but i must make room for a delightful extract. familiar as it must be to all lovers of poetry, who will object to read it again and again? genuine poetry is like a masterpiece of the painter's art:--we can gaze with admiration for the hundredth time on a noble picture. the mind and the eye are never satiated with the truly beautiful. "a thing of beauty is a joy for ever." paradise.[ ] so on he fares, and to the border comes of eden, where delicious paradise, now nearer, crowns with her enclosure green, as with a rural mound, the champaign head of a steep wilderness, whose hairy sides with thicket overgrown, grotesque and wild, access denied: and overhead up grew insuperable height of loftiest shade, cedar, and pine, and fir, and branching palm, a sylvan scene; and as, the ranks ascend shade above shade, a woody theatre of stateliest view. yet higher than their tops, the verdurous wall of paradise up-sprung: which to our general sire gave prospect large into his nether empire neighbouring round; and higher than that wall a circling row of goodliest trees, loaden with fairest fruit, blossoms and fruits at once, of golden hue, appear'd, with gay enamell'd colours mix'd; on which the sun more glad impress'd his beams, than on fair evening cloud, or humid bow. when god hath shower'd the earth; so lovely seem'd that landscape: and of pure now purer air meets his approach, and to the heart inspires vernal delight and joy, able to drive all sadness but despair: now gentle gales, fanning their odoriferous wings, dispense native perfumes and whisper whence they stole those balmy spoils. as when to them who sail beyond the cape of hope, and now are past mozambic, off at sea north-east winds blow sabean odours from the spicy shore of araby the blest; with such delay well pleased they slack their course, and many a league cheer'd with the grateful smell, old ocean smiles. * * * * * southward through eden went a river large, nor changed his course, but through the shaggy hill pass'd underneath ingulf'd; for god had thrown that mountain as his garden mould, high raised upon the rapid current, which through veins of porous earth with kindly thirst up-drawn, rose a fresh fountain, and with many a rill water'd the garden; thence united fell down the steep glade, and met the nether flood, which from his darksome passage now appears; and now, divided into four main streams, runs diverse, wandering many a famous realm and country, whereof here needs no account; but rather to tell how, if art could tell, how from that sapphire fount the crisped brooks, rolling on orient pearl and sands of gold, with mazy error under pendent shades, ran nectar, visiting each plant, and fed flowers worthy of paradise, which not nice art in beds and curious knots, but nature boon pour'd forth profuse on hill, and dale, and plain, both where the morning sun first warmly smote the open field, and where the unpierced shade imbrown'd the noontide bowers; thus was this place a happy rural seat of various view; groves whose rich, trees wept odorous gums and balm; others whose fruit, burnish'd with golden rind, hung amiable, hesperian fables true, if true, here only, and of delicious taste: betwixt them lawns, or level downs, and flocks grazing the tender herb, were interposed; or palmy hillock, or the flowery lap of some irriguous valley spread her store, flowers of all hue, and without thorn the rose: another side, umbrageous grots and caves of cool recess, o'er which the mantling vine lays forth her purple grape, and gently creeps luxuriant; meanwhile murmuring waters fall down the slope hills, dispersed, or in a lake, that to the fringed bank with myrtle crown'd her crystal mirror holds, unite their streams. the birds their quire apply; airs, vernal airs, breathing the smell of field and grove attune, the trembling leaves, while universal pan, knit with the graces and the hours in dance, led on the eternal spring. pope in his grounds at twickenham, and shenstone in his garden farm of the leasowes, taught their countrymen to understand how much taste and refinement of soul may be connected with the laying out of gardens and the cultivation of flowers. i am sorry to learn that the famous retreats of these poets are not now what they were. the lovely nest of the little nightingale of twickenham has fallen into vulgar hands. and when mr. loudon visited (in ) the once beautiful grounds of shenstone, he "found them in a state of indescribable neglect and ruin." pope said that of all his works that of which he was proudest was his garden. it was of but five acres, or perhaps less, but to this he is said to have given a charming variety. he enumerates amongst the friends who assisted him in the improvement of his grounds, the gallant earl of peterborough "whose lightnings pierced the iberian lines." know, all the distant din that world can keep, rolls o'er my grotto, and but soothes my sleep. there my retreat the best companions grace chiefs out of war and statesmen out of place. there st. john mingles with my friendly bowl the feast of reason and the flow of soul; and he whose lightnings pierced the iberian lines now forms my quincunx and now ranks my vines; or tames the genius of the stubborn plain almost as quickly as he conquered spain. frederick prince of wales took a lively interest in pope's tasteful tusculanum and made him a present of some urns or vases either for his "laurel circus or to terminate his points." his famous grotto, which he is so fond of alluding to, was excavated to avoid an inconvenience. his property lying on both sides of the public highway, he contrived his highly ornamented passage under the road to preserve privacy and to connect the two portions of his estate. the poet has given us in one of his letters a long and lively description of his subterranean embellishments. but his verse will live longer than his prose. he has immortalized this grotto, so radiant with spars and ores and shells, in the following poetical inscription:-- thou, who shalt stop, where thames' translucent wave shines a broad mirror through the shadowy cave, where lingering drops from mineral roofs distil, and pointed crystals break the sparkling rill, unpolished gems no ray on pride bestow, and latent metals innocently glow, approach! great nature studiously behold, and eye the mine without a wish for gold approach--but awful! lo, the egerian grot, where, nobly pensive, st john sat and thought, where british sighs from dying wyndham stole, and the bright flame was shot thro' marchmont's soul; let such, such only, tread this sacred floor who dare to love their country, and be poor. horace walpole, speaking of the poet's garden, tells us that "the passing through the gloom from the grotto to the opening day, the retiring and again assembling shades, the dusky groves, the larger lawn, and the solemnity at the cypresses that led up to his mother's tomb, were managed with exquisite judgment." cliveden's proud alcove, the bower of wanton shrewsbury and love, alluded to by pope in his sketch of the character of villiers, duke of buckingham, though laid out by kent, was probably improved by the poet's suggestions. walpole seems to think that the beautiful grounds at rousham, laid out for general dormer, were planned on the model of the garden at twickenham, at least the opening and retiring "shades of venus's vale." and these grounds at rousham were pronounced "the most engaging of all kent's works." it is said that the design of the garden at carlton house, was borrowed from that of pope. wordsworth was correct in his observation that "landscape gardening is a liberal art akin to the arts of poetry and painting." walpole describes it as "an art that realizes painting and improves nature." "mahomet," he adds, "imagined an elysium, but kent created many." pope's mansion was not a very spacious one, but it was large enough for a private gentleman of inexpensive habits. after the poet's death it was purchased by sir william stanhope who enlarged both the house and garden.[ ] a bust of pope, in white marble, has been placed over an arched way with the following inscription from the pen of lord nugent: the humble roof, the garden's scanty line, ill suit the genius of the bard divine; but fancy now displays a fairer scope and stanhope's plans unfold the soul of pope. i have not heard who set up this bust with its impudent inscription. i hope it was not stanhope himself. i cannot help thinking that it would have been a truer compliment to the memory of pope if the house and grounds had been kept up exactly as he had left them. most people, i suspect, would greatly have preferred the poet's own "unfolding of his soul" to that "_unfolding_" attempted for him by a stanhope and commemorated by a nugent. pope exhibited as much taste in laying out his grounds as in constructing his poems. sir william, after his attempt to make the garden more worthy of the original designer, might just as modestly have undertaken to enlarge and improve the poetry of pope on the plea that it did not sufficiently _unfold his soul_. a line of lord nugent's might in that case have been transferred from the marble bust to the printed volume: his fancy now displays a fairer scope. or the enlarger and improver might have taken his motto from shakespeare: to my _unfolding_ lend a gracious ear. this would have been an appropriate motto for the title-page of "_the poems of pope: enlarged and improved: or the soul of the poet unfolded_." but in sober truth, pope, whether as a gardener or as a poet, required no enlarger or improver of his works. after sir william stanhope had left pope's villa it came into the possession of lord mendip, who exhibited a proper respect for the poet's memory; but when in it was sold to the baroness howe, that lady pulled down the house and built another. the place subsequently came into the possession of a mr. young. the grounds have now no resemblance to what the taste of pope had once made them. even his mother's monument has been removed! few things would have more deeply touched the heart of the poet than the anticipation of this insult to the memory of so revered a parent. his filial piety was as remarkable as his poetical genius. no passages in his works do him more honor both as a man and as a poet than those which are mellowed into a deeper tenderness of sentiment and a softer and sweeter music by his domestic affections. there are probably few readers of english poetry who have not the following lines by heart, me, let the tender office long engage to rock the cradle of reposing age; with lenient arts extend a mother's breath; make langour smile, and smooth the bed of death; explore the thought, explain the asking eye, and keep at least one parent from the sky. in a letter to swift (dated march , ) begun by lord bolingbroke and concluded by pope, the latter speaks thus touchingly of his dear old parent: "my lord has spoken justly of his lady; why not i of my mother? yesterday was her birth-day, now entering on the ninety-first year of her age; her memory much diminished, but her senses very little hurt, her sight and hearing good; she sleeps not ill, eats moderately, drinks water, says her prayers; this is all she does. i have reason to thank god for continuing so long to me a very good and tender parent, and for allowing me to exercise for some years those cares which are now as necessary to her, as hers have been to me." pope lost his mother two years, two months, and a few days after the date of this letter. three days after her death he entreated richardson, the painter, to take a sketch of her face, as she lay in her coffin: and for this purpose pope somewhat delayed her interment. "i thank god," he says, "her death was as easy as her life was innocent; and as it cost her not a groan, nor even a sigh, there is yet upon her countenance such an expression of tranquillity, nay almost of pleasure, that it is even amiable to behold it. it would afford the finest image of a saint expired, that ever painting drew, and it would be the greatest obligation which even that obliging art could ever bestow upon a friend if you would come and sketch it for me." the writer adds, "i shall hope to see you this evening, as late as you will, or to-morrow morning as early, _before this winter flower is faded_." on the small obelisk in the garden, erected by pope to the memory of his mother, he placed the following simple and pathetic inscription. ah! editha! matrum optima! mulierum amantissima! vale! i wonder that any one could have had the heart to remove or to destroy so interesting a memorial. it is said that pope planted his celebrated weeping willow at twickenham with his own hands, and that it was the first of its particular species introduced into england. happening to be with lady suffolk when she received a parcel from spain, he observed that it was bound with green twigs which looked as if they might vegetate. "perhaps," said he, "these may produce something that we have not yet in england." he tried a cutting, and it succeeded. the tree was removed by some person as barbarous as the reverend gentleman who cut down shakespeare's mulberry tree. the willow was destroyed for the same reason, as the mulberry tree--because the owner was annoyed at persons asking to see it. the weeping willow that shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream,[ ] has had its interest with people in general much increased by its association with the history of napoleon in the island of st. helena. the tree whose boughs seemed to hang so fondly over his remains has now its scions in all parts of the world. few travellers visited the tomb without taking a small cutting of the napoleon willow for cultivation in their own land. slips of the willow at twickenham, like those of the willow at st. helena, have also found their way into many countries. in the empress of russia had some of them planted in her garden at st. petersburgh. mr. loudon tells us that there is an old _oak_ in binfield wood, windsor forest, which is called _pope's oak_, and which bears the inscription "here pope sang:"[ ] but according to general tradition it was a _beech_ tree, under which pope wrote his "windsor forest." it is said that as that tree was decayed, lady gower had the inscription alluded to carved upon another tree near it. perhaps the substituted tree was an oak. i may here mention that in the vale of avoca there is a tree celebrated as that under which thomas moore wrote the verses entitled "the meeting of the waters." the allusion to _pope's oak_ reminds me that chaucer is said to have planted three oak trees in donnington park near newbury. not one of them is now, i believe, in existence. there is an oak tree in windsor forest above years old. in the hollow of this tree twenty people might be accommodated with standing room. it is called _king's oak_: it was william the conqueror's favorite tree. _herne's oak_ in windsor park, is said by some to be still standing, but it is described as a mere anatomy. ----an old oak whose boughs are mossed with age, and high top bald with dry antiquity. _as you like it_. "it stretches out its bare and sapless branches," says mr. jesse, "like the skeleton arms of some enormous giant, and is almost fearful in its decay." _herne's oak_, as every one knows, is immortalised by shakespeare, who has spread its fame over many lands. there is an old tale goes that herne the hunter, sometime a keeper here in windsor forest, doth all the winter time, at still midnight, walk round about an oak, with great ragg'd horns, and there he blasts the trees, and takes the cattle; and makes milch cows yield blood, and shakes a chain in a most hideous and dreadful manner. you have heard of such a spirit; and well you know, the superstitious, idle-headed eld received, and did deliver to our age, this tale of herne the hunter for a truth. _merry wives of windsor_. "herne, the hunter" is said to have hung himself upon one of the branches of this tree, and even, ----yet there want not many that do fear, in deep of night to walk by this herne's oak. _merry wives of windsor_. it was not long ago visited by the king of prussia to whom shakespeare had rendered it an object of great interest. it is unpleasant to add that there is considerable doubt and dispute as to its identity. charles knight and a quarterly reviewer both maintain that _herne's oak_ was cut down with a number of other old trees in obedience to an order from george the third when he was not in his right mind, and that his majesty deeply regretted the order he had given when he found that the most interesting tree in his park had been destroyed. mr. jesse, in his _gleanings in natural history_, says that after some pains to ascertain the truth, he is convinced that this story is not correct, and that the famous old tree is still standing. he adds that george the fourth often alluded to the story and said that though one of the trees cut down was supposed to have been _herne's oak_, it was not so in reality. george the third, it is said, once called the attention of mr. ingalt, the manager of windsor home park to a particular tree, and said "i brought you here to point out this tree to you. i commit it to your especial charge; and take care that no damage is ever done to it. i had rather that every tree in the park should be cut down than that this tree should be hurt. _this is hernes oak_." sir philip sidney's oak at penshurst mentioned by ben jonson-- that taller tree, of which the nut was set at his great birth, where all the muses met-- is still in existence. it is thirty feet in circumference. waller also alludes to yonder tree which stands the sacred mark of noble sidney's birth. yardley oak, immortalized by cowper, is now in a state of decay. time made thee what thou wert--king of the woods! and time hath made thee what thou art--a cave for owls to roost in. _cowper_. the tree is said to be at least fifteen hundred years old. it cannot hold its present place much longer; but for many centuries to come it will live in description and look green in song. it stands on the grounds of the marquis of northampton; and to prevent people from cutting off and carrying away pieces of it as relics, the following notice has been painted on a board and nailed to the tree:--"_out of respect to the memory of the poet cowper, the marquis of northampton is particularly desirous of preserving this oak_." lord byron, in early life, planted an oak in the garden at newstead and indulged the fancy, that as that flourished so should he. the oak has survived the poet, but it will not outlive the memory of its planter or even the boyish verses which he addressed to it. pope observes, that "a tree is a nobler object than a prince in his coronation robes." yet probably the poet had never seen any tree larger than a british oak. what would he have thought of the baobab tree in abyssinia, which measures from to feet in girth, and sometimes reaches the age of five thousand years. we have no such sylvan patriarch in europe. the oldest british tree i have heard of, is a yew tree of fortingall in scotland, of which the age is said to be two thousand five hundred years. if trees had long memories and could converse with man, what interesting chapters these survivors of centuries might add to the history of the world! pope was not always happy in his twickenham paradise. his rural delights were interrupted for a time by an unrequited passion for the beautiful and highly-gifted but eccentric lady mary wortley montague. ah! friend, 'tis true--this truth you lovers know; in vain my structures rise, my gardens grow; in vain fair thames reflects the double scenes of hanging mountains and of sloping greens; joy lives not here, to happier seats it flies, and only dwells where wortley casts her eyes. what are the gay parterre, the chequered shade, the morning bower, the evening colonnade, but soft recesses of uneasy minds, to sigh unheard in to the passing winds? so the struck deer, in some sequestered part, lies down to die, the arrow at his heart; he, stretched unseen, in coverts hid from day, bleeds drop by drop, and pants his life away. these are exquisite lines, and have given delight to innumerable readers, but they gave no delight to lady mary. in writing to her sister, the countess of mar, then at paris, she says in allusion to these "most musical, most melancholy" verses--"_i stifled them here; and i beg they may die the same death at paris_." it is not, however, quite so easy a thing as lady mary seemed to think, to "stifle" such poetry as pope's. pope's notions respecting the laying out of gardens are well expressed in the following extract from the fourth epistle of his moral essays.[ ] this fourth epistle was addressed, as most readers will remember, to the accomplished lord burlington, who, as walpole says, "had every quality of a genius and an artist, except envy. though his own designs were more chaste and classic than kent's, he entertained him in his house till his death, and was more studious to extend his friend's fame than his own." something there is more needful than expense, and something previous e'en to taste--'tis sense; good sense, which only is the gift of heaven, and though no science fairly worth the seven; a light, which in yourself you must perceive; jones and le nôtre have it not to give. to build, or plant, whatever you intend, to rear the column or the arch to bend; to swell the terrace, or to sink the grot; in all let nature never be forgot. but treat the goddess like a modest fair, nor over dress nor leave her wholly bare; let not each beauty every where be spied, where half the skill is decently to hide. he gains all points, who pleasingly confounds, surprizes, varies, and conceals the bounds. _consult the genius of the place in all_;[ ] that tells the waters or to rise or fall; or helps the ambitious hill the heavens to scale, or scoops in circling theatres the vale; calls in the country, catches opening glades, joins willing woods and varies shades from shades; now breaks, or now directs, th' intending lines; paints as you plant, and, as you work, designs. still follow sense, of every art the soul; parts answering parts shall slide into a whole, spontaneous beauties all around advance, start e'en from difficulty, strike from chance; nature shall join you; time shall make it grow a work to wonder at--perhaps a stowe.[ ] without it proud versailles![ ] thy glory falls; and nero's terraces desert their walls. the vast parterres a thousand hands shall make, lo! cobham comes and floats them with a lake; or cut wide views through mountains to the plain, you'll wish your hill or sheltered seat again. pope is in most instances singularly happy in his compliments, but the allusion to stowe--as "_a work to wonder at_"--has rather an equivocal appearance, and so also has the mention of lord cobham, the proprietor of the place. in the first draught of the poem, the name of bridgeman was inserted where cobham's now stands, but as bridgeman mistook the compliment for a sneer, the poet thought the landscape-gardener had proved himself undeserving of the intended honor, and presented the second-hand compliment to the peer. the grounds at stowe, more praised by poets than any other private estate in england, extend to acres. there are many other fine estates in our country of far greater extent, but of less celebrity. some of them are much too extensive, perhaps, for true enjoyment. the earl of leicester, when he had completed his seat at holkham, observed, that "it was a melancholy thing to stand alone in one's country. i look round; not a house is to be seen but mine. i am the giant of giant-castle and have ate up all my neighbours." the earl must have felt that the political economy of goldsmith in his _deserted village_ was not wholly the work of imagination. sweet smiling village! loveliest of the lawn, thy sports are fled and all thy charms withdrawn; amidst thy bowers the tyrant's hand is seen and desolation saddens all the green,-- _one only master grasps thy whole domain_. * * * * * where then, ah! where shall poverty reside, to scape the pressure of contiguous pride? "hearty, cheerful mr. cotton," as lamb calls him, describes stowe as a paradise. on lord cobham's garden. it puzzles much the sage's brains where eden stood of yore, some place it in arabia's plains, some say it is no more. but cobham can these tales confute, as all the curious know; for he hath proved beyond dispute, that paradise is stowe. thomson also calls the place a paradise: ye powers that o'er the garden and the rural seat preside, which shining through the cheerful land in countless numbers blest britannia sees; o, lead me to the wide-extended walks, _the fair majestic paradise of stowe!_ not persian cyrus on ionia's shore e'er saw such sylvan scenes; such various art by genius fired, such ardent genius tamed by cool judicious art, that in the strife all-beauteous nature fears to be out-done. the poet somewhat mars the effect of this compliment to the charms of stowe, by making it a matter of regret that the owner his verdant files of ordered trees should here inglorious range, instead of squadrons flaming o'er the field, and long embattled hosts. this representation of rural pursuits as inglorious, a sentiment so out of keeping with his subject, is soon after followed rather inconsistently, by a sort of paraphrase of virgil's celebrated picture of rural felicity, and some of thomson's own thoughts on the advantages of a retreat from active life. oh, knew he but his happiness, of men the happiest he! who far from public rage deep in the vale, with a choice few retired drinks the pure pleasures of the rural life, &c. then again:-- let others brave the flood in quest of gain and beat for joyless months, the gloomy wave. _let such as deem it glory to destroy, rush into blood, the sack of cities seek; unpierced, exulting in the widow's wail, the virgin's shriek and infant's trembling cry._ * * * * * while he, from all the stormy passions free that restless men involve, hears and _but_ hears, at distance safe, the human tempest roar, wrapt close in conscious peace. the fall of kings, the rage of nations, and the crush of states, move not the man, who from the world escaped, in still retreats and flowery solitudes, to nature's voice attends, from month to month, and day to day, through the revolving year; admiring sees her in her every shape; feels all her sweet emotions at his heart; takes what she liberal gives, nor asks for more. he, when young spring, protudes the bursting gems marks the first bud, and sucks the healthful gale into his freshened soul; her genial hour he full enjoys, and not a beauty blows and not an opening blossom breathes in vain. thomson in his description of lord townshend's seat of rainham--another english estate once much celebrated and still much admired--exclaims: such are thy beauties, rainham, such the haunts of angels, in primeval guiltless days when man, imparadised, conversed with god. and broome after quoting the whole description in his dedication of his own poems to lord townshend, observes, in the old fashioned fulsome strain, "this, my lord, is but a faint picture of the place of your retirement which no one ever enjoyed more elegantly."[ ] "a faint picture!" what more would the dedicator have wished thomson to say? broome, if not contented with his patron's seat being described as an earthly paradise, must have desired it to be compared with heaven itself, and thus have left his lordship no hope of the enjoyment of a better place than he already possessed. samuel boyse, who when without a shirt to his back sat up in his bed to write verses, with his arms through two holes in his blanket, and when he went into the streets wore paper collars to conceal the sad deficiency of linen, has a poem of considerable length entitled _the triumphs of nature_. it is wholly devoted to a description of this magnificent garden,[ ] in which, amongst other architectural ornaments, was a temple dedicated to british worthies, where the busts of pope and congreve held conspicuous places. i may as well give a specimen of the lines of poor boyse. here is his description of that part of lord cobham's grounds in which is erected to the goddess of love, a temple containing a statue of the venus de medicis. next to the fair ascent our steps we traced, where shines afar the bold rotunda placed; the artful dome ionic columns bear light as the fabric swells in ambient air. beneath enshrined the tuscan venus stands and beauty's queen the beauteous scene commands: the fond beholder sees with glad surprize, streams glisten, lawns appear, and forests rise-- here through thick shades alternate buildings break, there through the borders steals the silver lake, a soft variety delights the soul, and harmony resulting crowns the whole. congreve in his letter in verse addressed to lord cobham asks him to tell how his pleasing stowe employs his time. it would seem that the proprietor of stowe took particular interest in the disposition of the water on his grounds. congreve enquires or dost thou give the winds afar to blow each vexing thought, and heart-devouring woe, and fix thy mind alone on rural scenes, _to turn the level lawns to liquid plains_? to raise the creeping rills from humble beds and force the latent spring to lift their heads, on watery columns, capitals to rear, that mix their flowing curls with upper air? * * * * * or slowly walk along the mazy wood to meditate on all that's wise and good. the line:-- to turn the level lawn to liquid plains-- will remind the reader of pope's lo! cobham comes and floats them with a lake-- and it might be thought that congreve had taken the hint from the bard of twickenham if congreve's poem had not preceded that of pope. the one was published in , the other in . cowper is in the list of poets who have alluded to "cobham's groves" and pope's commemoration of them. and _cobham's groves_ and windsor's green retreats when pope describes them have a thousand sweets. "magnificence and splendour," says mr. whately, the author of _observations on modern gardening_, "are the characteristics of stowe. it is like one of those places celebrated in antiquity which were devoted to the purposes of religion, and filled with sacred groves, hallowed fountains, and temples dedicated to several deities; the resort of distant nations and the object of veneration to half the heathen world: the pomp is, at stowe, blended with beauty; and the place is equally distinguished by its amenity and grandeur." horace walpole speaks of its "visionary enchantment." "i have been strolling about in buckinghamshire and oxfordshire, from garden to garden," says pope in one of his letters, "but still returning to lord cobham's with fresh satisfaction."[ ] the grounds at stowe, until the year , were laid out in the old formal style. bridgeman then commenced the improvements and kent subsequently completed them. stowe is now, i believe, in the possession of the marquis of chandos, son of the duke of buckingham. it is melancholy to state that the library, the statues, the furniture, and even some of the timber on the estate, were sold in to satisfy the creditors of the duke. pope was never tired of improving his own grounds. "i pity you, sir," said a friend to him, "because you have now completed every thing belonging to your gardens."[ ] "why," replied pope, "i really shall be at a loss for the diversion i used to take in carrying out and finishing things: i have now nothing left me to do but to add a little ornament or two along the line of the thames." i dare say pope was by no means so near the end of his improvements as he and his friend imagined. one little change in a garden is sure to suggest or be followed by another. garden-improvements are "never ending, still beginning." the late dr. arnold, the famous schoolmaster, writing to a friend, says--"the garden is a constant source of amusement to us both (self and wife); there are always some little alterations to be made, some few spots where an additional shrub or two would be ornamental, something coming into blossom; so that i can always delight to go round and see how things are going on." a garden is indeed a scene of continual change. nature, even without the aid of the gardener, has "infinite variety," and supplies "a perpetual feast of nectared sweets where no crude surfeit reigns." spence reports pope to have said: "i have sometimes had an idea of planting an old gothic cathedral in trees. good large poplars, with their white stems, cleared of boughs to a proper height would serve very well for the columns, and might form the different aisles or peristilliums, by their different distances and heights. these would look very well near, and the dome rising all in a proper tuft in the middle would look well at a distance." this sort of verdant architecture would perhaps have a pleasing effect, but it is rather too much in the artificial style, to be quite consistent with pope's own idea of landscape-gardening. and there are other trees that would form a nobler natural cathedral than the formal poplar. cowper did not think of the poplar, when he described a green temple-roof. how airy and how light the graceful arch, yet awful as the consecrated roof re-echoing pious anthems. almost the only traces of pope's garden that now remain are the splendid spanish chesnut-trees and some elms and cedars planted by the poet himself. a space once laid out in winding walks and beautiful shrubberies is now a potatoe field! the present proprietor, mr. young, is a wholesale tea-dealer. even the bones of the poet, it is said, have been disturbed. the skull of pope, according to william howitt, is now in the private collection of a phrenologist! the manner in which it was obtained, he says, is this:--on some occasion of alteration in the church at twickenham, or burial of some one in the same spot, the coffin of pope was disinterred, and opened to see the state of the remains. by a bribe of £ to the sexton, possession of the skull was obtained for one night; another skull was then returned instead of the poet's. it has been stated that the french term _ferme ornée_ was first used in england by shenstone. it exactly expressed the character of his grounds. mr. repton said that he never strolled over the scenery of the leasowes without lamenting the constant disappointment to which shenstone exposed himself by a vain attempt to unite the incompatible objects of ornament and profit. "thus," continued mr. repton, "the poet lived under the continual mortification of disappointed hope, and with a mind exquisitely sensible, he felt equally the sneer of the great man at the magnificence of his attempt and the ridicule of the farmer at the misapplication of his paternal acres." the "sneer of the great man." is perhaps an allusion to what dr. johnson says of lord lyttelton:--that he "looked with disdain" on "the petty state" of his neighbour. "for a while," says dr. johnson, "the inhabitants of hagley affected to tell their acquaintance of the little fellow that was trying to make himself admired; but when by degrees the leasowes forced themselves into notice, they took care to defeat the curiosity which they could not suppress, by conducting their visitants perversely to inconvenient points of view, and introducing them at the wrong end of a walk to detect a deception; injuries of which shenstone would heavily complain." mr. graves, the zealous friend of shenstone, indignantly denies that any of the lyttelton family had evinced so ungenerous a feeling towards the proprietor of the leasowes who though his "empire" was less "spacious and opulent" had probably a larger share of true taste than even the proprietor of hagley, the lyttelton domain--though hagley has been much, and i doubt not, deservedly, admired.[ ] dr. johnson states that shenstone's expenses were beyond his means,-- that he spent his estate in adorning it--that at last the clamours of creditors "overpowered the lamb's bleat and the linnet's song; and that his groves were haunted by beings very different from fauns and fairies." but this is gross exaggeration. shenstone was occasionally, indeed, in slight pecuniary difficulties, but he could always have protected himself from the intrusion of the myrmidons of the law by raising money on his estate; for it appears that after the payment of all his debts, he left legacies to his friends and annuities to his servants. johnson himself is the most scornful of the critics upon shenstone's rural pursuits. "the pleasure of shenstone," says the doctor, "was all in his eye: he valued what he valued merely for its looks. nothing raised his indignation more than to ask if there were any fishes in his water." dr. johnson would have seen no use in the loveliest piece of running water in the world if it had contained nothing that he could masticate! mrs. piozzi says of him, "the truth is, he hated to hear about prospects and views, and laying out grounds and taste in gardening." "that was the best garden," he said, "which produced most roots and fruits; and that water was most to be prized which contained most fish." on this principle of the valuelessness of those pleasures which enter the mind through the eye, dr. johnson should have blamed the lovers of painting for dwelling with such fond admiration on the canvas of his friend sir joshua reynolds. in point of fact, dr. johnson had no more sympathy with the genius of the painter or the musician than with that of the landscape gardener, for he had neither an eye nor an ear for art. he wondered how any man could be such a fool as to be moved to tears by music, and observed, that, "one could not fill one's belly with hearing soft murmurs or looking at rough cascades." no; the loveliness of nature does not satisfy the thirst and hunger of the body, but it _does_ satisfy the thirst and hunger of the soul. no one can find wheaten bread or wine or venison or beef or plum-pudding or turtle-soup in mere sounds and sights, however exquisite--neither can any one find such substantial diet within the boards of a book--no not even on the pages of shakespeare, or even those of the bible itself,--but men can find in sweet music and lovely scenery and good books something infinitely more precious than all the wine, venison, beef, or plum-pudding, or turtle-soup that could be swallowed during a long life by the most craving and capacious alderman of london! man is of a dual nature: he is not all body. he has other and far higher wants and enjoyments than the purely physical--and these nobler appetites are gratified by the charms of nature and the creations of inspired genius. dr. johnson's gastronomic allusions to nature recal the old story of a poet pointing out to a utilitarian friend some white lambs frolicking in a meadow. "aye," said, the other, "only think of a quarter of one of them with asparagus and mint sauce!" the story is by some supposed to have had a scottish origin, and a prosaic north briton is made to say that the pretty little lambs, sporting amidst the daisies and buttercups, would "_mak braw pies_." a profound feeling for the beautiful is generally held to be an essential quality in the poet. it is a curious fact, however, that there are some who aspire to the rank of poet, and have their claims allowed, who yet cannot be said to be poetical in their nature--for how can that nature be, strictly speaking, _poetical_ which denies the sentiment of keats, that a thing of beauty is a joy for ever? both scott and byron very earnestly admired dr. johnson's "_london_" and "_the vanity of human wishes_." yet the sentiments just quoted from the author of those productions are far more characteristic of a utilitarian philosopher than of one who has been endowed by nature with the vision and the faculty divine, and made capable, like some mysterious enchanter, of clothing the palpable and the familiar with golden exhalations of the dawn. crabbe, also a prime favorite with the authors of the _lay of the last minstrel_, and _childe harold_, is recorded by his biographer--his own son--to have exhibited "a remarkable indifference to all the proper objects of taste;" to have had "no real love for painting, or music, or architecture or for what a painter's eye considers as the beauties of landscape." "in botany, grasses, the most _useful_ but the least ornamental, were his favorites." "he never seemed to be captivated with the mere beauty of natural objects or even to catch any taste for the arrangement of his specimens. within, the house was a kind of scientific confusion; in the garden the usual showy foreigners gave place to the most scarce flowers, especially to the rarer weeds, of britain; and were scattered here and there only for preservation. in fact he neither loved order for its own sake nor had any very high opinion of that passion in others."[ ] lord byron described crabbe to be though nature's sternest painter, yet _the best_. what! was he a better painter of nature than shakespeare? the truth is that byron was a wretched critic, though a powerful poet. his praises and his censures were alike unmeasured. his generous ardor no cold medium knew. he seemed to recognize no great general principles of criticism, but to found all his judgments on mere prejudice and passion. he thought cowper "no poet," pronounced spenser "a dull fellow," and placed pope above shakespeare. byron's line on crabbe is inscribed on the poet's tombstone at trowbridge. perhaps some foreign visitor on reading the inscription may be surprized at his own ignorance when he learns that it is not the author of _macbeth_ and _othello_ that he is to regard as the best painter of nature that england has produced, but the author of the _parish register_ and the _tales of the hall_. absurd and indiscriminate laudations of this kind confound all intellectual distinctions and make criticism ridiculous. crabbe is unquestionably a vigorous and truthful writer, but he is not the _best_ we have, in any sense of the word. though dr. johnson speaks so contemptuously of shenstone's rural pursuits, he could not help acknowledging that when the poet began "to point his prospects, to diversify his surface, to entangle his walks and to wind his waters," he did all this with such judgment and fancy as "made his little domain the envy of the great and the admiration of the skilful; a place to be visited by travellers, and copied by designers." mason, in his _english garden_, a poem once greatly admired, but now rarely read, and never perhaps with much delight, does justice to the taste of the poet of the leasowes. nor, shenstone, thou shalt pass without thy meed, thou son of peace! who knew'st, perchance, to harmonize thy shades still softer than thy song; yet was that song nor rude nor inharmonious when attuned to pastoral plaint, or tale of slighted love. english pleasure-gardens have been much imitated by the french. viscomte girardin, at his estate of ermenonville, dedicated an inscription in amusing french-english to the proprietor of the leasowes-- this plain stone to william shenstone; in his writings he displayed a mind natural; at leasowes he laid arcadian greens rural. the viscomte, though his english composition was so quaint and imperfect, was an elegant writer in his own language, and showed great taste and skill in laying out his grounds. he had visited england, and carefully studied our modern style of gardening. he had personally consulted shenstone, mason, whateley and other english authors on subjects of rural taste. he published an eloquent description of his own estate. his famous friend rousseau wrote the preface to it. the book was translated into english. rousseau spent his last days at ermenonville and was buried there in what is called _the isle of poplars_. the garden is now in a neglected state, but the tomb of rousseau remains uninjured, and is frequently visited by the admirers of his genius. "dr. warton," says bowles, "mentions milton and pope as the poets to whom english landscape is indebted, but _he forgot poor shenstone_." a later writer, however, whose sympathy for genius communicates such a charm to all his anecdotes and comments in illustration of the literary character, has devoted a chapter of his _curiosities of literature_ to a notice of the rural tastes of the proprietor of the leasowes. i must give a brief extract from it. "when we consider that shenstone, in developing his fine pastoral ideas in the leasowes, educated the nation into that taste for landscape-gardening, which has become the model of all europe, this itself constitutes a claim on the gratitude of posterity. thus the private pleasures of a man of genius may become at length those of a whole people. the creator of this new taste appears to have received far less notice than he merited. the name of shenstone does not appear in the essay on gardening, by lord orford; even the supercilious gray only bestowed a ludicrous image on these pastoral scenes, which, however, his friend mason has celebrated; and the genius of johnson, incapacitated by nature to touch on objects of rural fancy, after describing some of the offices of the landscape designer, adds, that 'he will not inquire whether they demand any great powers of mind.' johnson, however, conveys to us his own feelings, when he immediately expresses them under the character of 'a sullen and surly speculator.' the anxious life of shenstone would indeed have been remunerated, could he have read the enchanting eulogium of whateley on the leasowes; which, said he, 'is a perfect picture of his mind--simple, elegant and amiable; and will always suggest a doubt whether the spot inspired his verse, or whether in the scenes which he formed, he only realised the pastoral images which abound in his songs.' yes! shenstone had been delighted could he have heard that montesquieu, on his return home, adorned his 'chateau gothique, mais orné de bois charmans, don't j'ai pris l'idée en angleterre;' and shenstone, even with his modest and timid nature, had been proud to have witnessed a noble foreigner, amidst memorials dedicated to theocritus and virgil, to thomson and gesner, raising in his grounds an inscription, in bad english, but in pure taste, to shenstone himself; for having displayed in his writings 'a mind natural,' and in his leasowes 'laid arcadian greens rural;' and recently pindemonte has traced the taste of english gardening to shenstone. a man of genius sometimes receives from foreigners, who are placed out of the prejudices of his compatriots, the tribute of posterity!" "the leasowes," says william howitt, "now belongs to the atwood family; and a miss atwood resides there occasionally. but the whole place bears the impress of desertion and neglect. the house has a dull look; the same heavy spirit broods over the lawns and glades: and it is only when you survey it from a distance, as when approaching hales-owen from hagley, that the whole presents an aspect of unusual beauty." shenstone was at least as proud of his estate of the leasowes as was pope of his twickenham villa--perhaps more so. by mere men of the world, this pride in a garden may be regarded as a weakness, but if it be a weakness it is at least an innocent and inoffensive one, and it has been associated with the noblest intellectual endowments. pitt and fox and burke and warren hastings were not weak men, and yet were they all extremely proud of their gardens. every one, indeed, who takes an active interest in the culture and embellishment of his garden, finds his pride in it and his love for it increase daily. he is delighted to see it flourish and improve beneath his care. even the humble mechanic, in his fondness for a garden, often indicates a feeling for the beautiful, and a genial nature. if a rich man were openly to boast of his plate or his equipages, or a literary man of his essays or his sonnets, as lovers of flowers boast of their geraniums or dahlias or rhododendrons, they would disgust the most indulgent hearer. but no one is shocked at the exultation of a gardener, amateur or professional, when in the fulness of his heart he descants upon the unrivalled beauty of his favorite flowers: 'plants of his hand, and children of his care.' "i have made myself two gardens," says petrarch, "and i do not imagine that they are to be equalled in all the world. i should feel myself inclined to be angry with fortune if there were any so beautiful out of italy." "i wish," says poor kirke white writing to a friend, "i wish you to have a taste of these (rural) pleasures with me, and if ever i should live to be blessed with a quiet parsonage, and _another great object of my ambition--a garden_, i have no doubt but we shall be for some short intervals at least two quite contented bodies." the poet young, in the latter part of his life, after years of vain hopes and worldly struggles, gave himself up almost entirely to the sweet seclusion of a garden; and that peace and repose which cannot be found in courts and political cabinets, he found at last in sunny garden bowers where vernal winds each tree's low tones awaken, and buds and bells with changes mark the hours. he discovered that it was more profitable to solicit nature than to flatter the great. for nature never did betray the heart that loved her. people of a poetical temperament--all true lovers of nature--can afford, far better than more essentially worldly beings, to exclaim with thomson. i care not fortune what you me deny, you cannot bar me of free nature's grace, you cannot shut the windows of the sky through which aurora shows her brightening face: you cannot bar my constant feet to trace the woods and lawns and living streams at eve: let health my nerves and finer fibres brace, and i their toys to the _great children_ leave:-- of fancy, reason, virtue, nought can me bereave. the pride in a garden laid out under one's own directions and partly cultivated by one's own hand has been alluded to as in some degree unworthy of the dignity of manhood, not only by mere men of the world, or silly coxcombs, but by people who should have known better. even sir william temple, though so enthusiastic about his fruit-trees, tells us that he will not enter upon any account of _flowers_, having only pleased himself with seeing or smelling them, and not troubled himself with the care of them, which he observes "_is more the ladies part than the men's_." sir william makes some amends for this almost contemptuous allusion to flowers in particular by his ardent appreciation of the use of gardens and gardening in general. he thus speaks of their attractions and advantages: "the sweetness of the air, the pleasantness of the smell, the verdure of plants, the cleanness and lightness of food, the exercise of working or walking, but above all, the exemption from cares and solicitude, seem equally to favor and improve both contemplation and health, the enjoyment of sense and imagination, and thereby the quiet and ease of the body and mind." again: "as gardening has been the inclination of kings and the choice of philosophers, so it has been the common favorite of public and private men, a pleasure of the greatest and the care of the meanest; and indeed _an employment and a possession for which no man is too high or too low_." this is just and liberal; though i can hardly help still feeling a little sore at sir william's having implied in the passage previously quoted, that the care of flowers is but a feminine occupation. as an elegant amusement, it is surely equally well fitted for all lovers of the beautiful, without reference to their sex. it is not women and children only who delight in flower-gardens. lord bacon and william pitt and the earl of chatham and fox and burke and warren hastings--all lovers of flowers--were assuredly not men of frivolous minds or of feminine habits. they were always eager to exhibit to visitors the beauty of their parterres. in his declining years the stately john kemble left the stage for his garden. that sturdy english yeoman, william cobbett, was almost as proud of his beds of flowers as of the pages of his _political register_. he thus speaks of gardening: "gardening is a source of much greater profit than is generally imagined; but, merely as an amusement or recreation it is a thing of very great value. it is not only compatible with but favorable to the study of any art or science; it is conducive to health by means of the irresistible temptation which it offers to early rising; to the stirring abroad upon one's legs, for a man may really ride till he cannot walk, sit till he cannot stand, and lie abed till he cannot get up. it tends to turn the minds of youth from amusements and attachments of a frivolous and vicious nature, it is a taste which is indulged at home; it tends to make home pleasant, and to endear to us the spot on which it is our lot to live,--and as to the _expenses_ attending it, what are all these expenses compared with those of the short, the unsatisfactory, the injurious enjoyment of the card-table, and the rest of those amusements which are sought from the town." _cobbett's english gardener_. "other fine arts," observes lord kames, "may be perverted to excite irregular and even vicious emotions: but gardening, which inspires the purest and most refined pleasures, cannot fail to promote every good affection. the gaiety and harmony of mind it produceth, inclining the spectator to communicate his satisfaction to others, and to make them happy as he is himself, tend naturally to establish in him a habit of humanity and benevolence." every thoughtful mind knows how much the face of nature has to do with human happiness. in the open air and in the midst of summer-flowers, we often feel the truth of the observation that "a fair day is a kind of sensual pleasure, and of all others the most innocent." but it is also something more, and better. it kindles a spiritual delight. at such a time and in such a scene every observer capable of a religious emotion is ready to exclaim-- oh! there is joy and happiness in every thing i see, which bids my soul rise up and bless the god that blesses me _anon._ the amiable and pious doctor carey of serampore, in whose grounds sprang up that dear little english daisy so beautifully addressed by his poetical proxy, james montgomery of sheffield, in the stanzas commencing:-- thrice welcome, little english flower! my mother country's white and red-- was so much attached to his indian garden, that it was always in his heart in the intervals of more important cares. it is said that he remembered it even upon his death-bed, and that it was amongst his last injunctions to his friends that they should see to its being kept up with care. he was particularly anxious that the hedges or railings should always be in such good order as to protect his favorite shrubs and flowers from the intrusion of bengalee cattle. a garden is a more interesting possession than a gallery of pictures or a cabinet of curiosities. its glories are never stationary or stale. it has infinite variety. it is not the same to-day as it was yesterday. it is always changing the character of its charms and always increasing them in number. it delights all the senses. its pleasures are not of an unsocial character; for every visitor, high or low, learned or illiterate, may be fascinated with the fragrance and beauty of a garden. but shells and minerals and other curiosities are for the man of science and the connoisseur. and a single inspection of them is generally sufficient: they never change their aspect. the picture-gallery may charm an instructed eye but the multitude have little relish for human art, because they rarely understand it:--while the skill of the great limner of nature is visible in every flower of the garden even to the humblest swain. it is pleasant to read how the wits and beauties of the time of queen anne used to meet together in delightful garden-retreats, 'like the companies in boccaccio's decameron or in one of watteau's pictures.' ritchings lodge, for instance, the seat of lord bathurst, was visited by most of the celebrities of england, and frequently exhibited bright groups of the polite and accomplished of both sexes; of men distinguished for their heroism or their genius, and of women eminent for their easy and elegant conversation, or for gaiety and grace of manner, or perfect loveliness of face and form--all in harmonious union with the charms of nature. the gardens at ritchings were enriched with inscriptions from the pens of congreve and pope and gay and addison and prior. when the estate passed into the possession of the earl of hertford, his literary lady devoted it to the muses. "she invited every summer," says dr. johnson, "some poet into the country to hear her verses and assist her studies." thomson, who praises her so lavishly in his "spring," offended her ladyship by allowing her too clearly to perceive that he was resolved not to place himself in the dilemma of which pope speaks so feelingly with reference to other poetasters. seized and tied down to judge, how wretched i, who can't be silent, and who will not lie. i sit with sad civility, i read with honest anguish and an aching head. but though "the bard more fat than bard beseems" was restive under her ladyship's "poetical operations," and too plainly exhibited a desire to escape the infliction, preferring the earl's claret to the lady's rhymes, she should have been a little more generously forgiving towards one who had already made her immortal. it is stated, that she never repeated her invitation to the poet of the seasons, who though so impatient of the sound of her tongue when it "rolled" her own "raptures," seems to have been charmed with her _at a distance_--while meditating upon her excellencies in the seclusion of his own study. the compliment to the countess is rather awkwardly wedged in between descriptions of "gentle spring" with her "shadowing roses" and "surly winter" with his "ruffian blasts." it should have commenced the poem. o hertford, fitted or to shine in courts with unaffected grace, or walk the plain, with innocence and meditation joined in soft assemblage, listen to my song, which thy own season paints; when nature all is blooming and benevolent like thee. thomson had no objection to strike off a brief compliment in verse, but he was too indolent to keep up _in propriâ personâ_ an incessant fire of compliments, like the _bon bons_ at a carnival. it was easier to write her praises than listen to her verses. shenstone seems to have been more pliable. he was personally obsequious, lent her recitations an attentive ear, and was ever ready with the expected commendation. it is not likely that her ladyship found much, difficulty in collecting around her a crowd of critics more docile than thomson and quite as complaisant as shenstone. let but a _countess_ once own the happy lines, how the wit brightens, how the style refines! though thomson's first want on his arrival in london from the north was a pair of shoes, and he lived for a time in great indigence, he was comfortable enough at last. lord lyttleton introduced him to the prince of wales (who professed himself the patron of literature) and when his highness questioned him about the state of his affairs, thomson assured him that they "were in a more poetical posture than formerly." the prince bestowed upon the poet a pension of a hundred pounds a year, and when his friend lord lyttleton was in power his lordship obtained for him the office of surveyor general of the leeward islands. he sent a deputy there who was more trustworthy than thomas moore's at bermuda. thomson's deputy after deducting his own salary remitted his principal three hundred pounds per annum, so that the bard 'more fat than bard beseems' was not in a condition to grow thinner, and could afford to make his cottage a castle of indolence. leigh hunt has versified an anecdote illustrative of thomson's luxurious idleness. he who could describe "_indolence_" so well, and so often appeared in the part himself, slippered, and with hands, each in a waistcoat pocket, (so that all might yet repose that could) was seen one morn eating a wondering peach from off the tree. a little summer-house at richmond which thomson made his study is still preserved, and even some articles of furniture, just as he left them.[ ] over the entrance is erected a tablet on which is the following inscription: here thomson sang the seasons and their change. thomson was buried in richmond church. collins's lines to his memory, beginning in yonder grave a druid lies, are familiar to all readers of english poetry. richmond hill has always been the delight not of poets only but of painters. sir joshua reynolds built a house there, and one of the only three landscapes which seem to have survived him, is a view from the window of his drawing-room. gainsborough was also a resident in richmond. richmond gardens laid out or rather altered by brown, are now united with those of kew. savage resided for some time at richmond. it was the favorite haunt of collins, one of the most poetical of poets, who, as dr. johnson says, "delighted to rove through the meanders of enchantment, to gaze on the magnificence of golden palaces, to repose by the waterfalls of elysian gardens." wordsworth composed a poem upon the thames near richmond in remembrance of collins. here is a stanza of it. glide gently, thus for ever glide, o thames, that other bards may see as lovely visions by thy side as now fair river! come to me; o glide, fair stream for ever so, thy quiet soul on all bestowing, till all our minds for ever flow as thy deep waters now are flowing. thomson's description of the scenery of richmond hill perhaps hardly does it justice, but the lines are too interesting to be omitted. say, shall we wind along the streams? or walk the smiling mead? or court the forest-glades? or wander wild among the waving harvests? or ascend, while radiant summer opens all its pride, thy hill, delightful shene[ ]? here let us sweep the boundless landscape now the raptur'd eye, exulting swift, to huge augusta send, now to the sister hills[ ] that skirt her plain, to lofty harrow now, and now to where majestic windsor lifts his princely brow in lovely contrast to this glorious view calmly magnificent, then will we turn to where the silver thames first rural grows there let the feasted eye unwearied stray, luxurious, there, rove through the pendent woods that nodding hang o'er harrington's retreat, and stooping thence to ham's embowering walks, beneath whose shades, in spotless peace retir'd, with her the pleasing partner of his heart, the worthy queensbury yet laments his gay, and polish'd cornbury woos the willing muse slow let us trace the matchless vale of thames fair winding up to where the muses haunt in twit nam's bowers, and for their pope implore the healing god[ ], to loyal hampton's pile, to clermont's terrass'd height, and esher's groves; where in the sweetest solitude, embrac'd by the soft windings of the silent mole, from courts and senates pelham finds repose enchanting vale! beyond whate'er the muse has of achaia or hesperia sung! o vale of bliss! o softly swelling hills! on which the _power of cultivation_ lies, and joys to see the wonders of his toil. the revd. thomas maurice wrote a poem entitled _richmond hill_, but it contains nothing deserving of quotation after the above passage from thomson. in the _english bards and scotch reviewers_ the labors of maurice are compared to those of sisyphus so up thy hill, ambrosial richmond, heaves dull maurice, all his granite weight of leaves. towards the latter part of the last century the empress of russia (catherine the second) expressed in a french letter to voltaire her admiration of the style of english gardening.[ ] "i love to distraction," she writes, "the present english taste in gardening. their curved lines, their gentle slopes, their pieces of water in the shape of lakes, their picturesque little islands. i have a great contempt for straight lines and parallel walks. i hate those fountains which torture water into forms unknown to nature. i have banished all the statues to the vestibules and to the galleries. in a word english taste predominates in my _plantomanie_."[ ] i omitted when alluding to those englishmen in past times who anticipated the taste of the present day in respect to laying out grounds, to mention the ever respected name of john evelyn, and as all other writers before me, i believe, who have treated upon gardening, have been guilty of the same oversight, i eagerly make his memory some slight amends by quoting the following passage from one of his letters to his friend sir thomas browne. "i might likewise hope to refine upon some particulars, especially concerning the ornaments of gardens, which i shall endeavor so to handle as that they may become useful and practicable, as well as magnificent, and that persons of all conditions and faculties, which delight in gardens, may therein encounter something for their owne advantage. the modell, which i perceive you have seene, will aboundantly testifie my abhorrency of those painted and formal projections of our cockney gardens and plotts, which appeare like gardens of past-board and marchpane, and smell more of paynt then of flowers and verdure; our drift is a noble, princely, and universal elysium, capable of all the amoenities that can naturally be introduced into gardens of pleasure, and such as may stand in competition with all the august designes and stories of this nature, either of antient or moderne tymes; yet so as to become useful and significant to the least pretences and faculties. we will endeavour to shew how the air and genious of gardens operat upon humane spirits towards virtue and sanctitie: i mean in a remote, preparatory and instrumentall working. how caves, grotts, mounts, and irregular ornaments of gardens do contribute to contemplative and philosophicall enthusiasme; how _elysium, antrum, nemus, paradysus, hortus, lucus_, &c., signifie all of them _rem sacram it divinam_; for these expedients do influence the soule and spirits of men, and prepare them for converse with good angells; besides which, they contribute to the lesse abstracted pleasures, phylosophy naturall; and longevitie: and i would have not onely the elogies and effigie of the antient and famous garden heroes, but a society of the _paradisi cultores_ persons of antient simplicity, paradisean and hortulan saints, to be a society of learned and ingenuous men, such as dr. browne, by whome we might hope to redeeme the tyme that has bin lost, in pursuing _vulgar errours_, and still propagating them, as so many bold men do yet presume to do." the english style of landscape-gardening being founded on natural principles must be recognized by true taste in all countries. even in rome, when art was most allowed to predominate over nature, there were occasional instances of that correct feeling for rural beauty which the english during the last century and a half have exhibited more conspicuously than other nations. atticus preferred tully's villa at arpinum to all his other villas; because at arpinum, nature predominated over art. our kents and browns[ ] never expressed a greater contempt, than was expressed by atticus, for all formal and artificial decorations of natural scenery. the spot where cicero's villa stood, was, in the time of middleton, possessed by a convent of monks and was called the villa of st. dominic. it was built, observes mr. dunlop, in the year , from the fragments of the arpine villa! art, glory, freedom, fail--but nature still is fair. "nothing," says mr. kelsall, "can be imagined finer than the surrounding landscape. the deep azure of the sky, unvaried by a single cloud--sora on a rock at the foot of the precipitous appennines--both banks of the garigliano covered with vineyards--the _fragor aquarum_, alluded to by atticus in his work _de legibus_--the coolness, the rapidity and ultramarine hue of the fibrenus--the noise of its cataracts--the rich turquoise color of the liris--the minor appennines round arpino, crowned with umbrageous oaks to the very summits--present scenery hardly elsewhere to be equalled, certainly not to be surpassed, even in italy." this description of an italian landscape can hardly fail to charm the imagination of the coldest reader; but after all, i cannot help confessing to so inveterate a partiality for dear old england as to be delighted with the compliment which gray, the poet, pays to english scenery when he prefers it to the scenery of italy. "mr. walpole," writes the poet from italy, "says, our _memory_ sees more than our eyes in this country. this is extremely true, since for _realities_ windsor or richmond hill is infinitely preferable to albano or frescati." sir walter scott, with all his patriotic love for his own romantic land, could not withhold his tribute to the loveliness of richmond hill,--its "_unrivalled landscape_" its "_sea of verdure_." "they" (the duke of argyle and jeanie deans) "paused for a moment on the brow of a hill, to gaze on the unrivalled landscape it presented. a huge sea of verdure, with crossing and intersecting promontories of massive and tufted groves was tenanted by numberless flocks and herds which seemed to wander unrestrained and unbounded through the rich pastures. the thames, here turreted with villas, and there garlanded with forests, moved on slowly and placidly, like the mighty monarch of the scene, to whom all its other beauties were but accessaries, and bore on its bosom an hundred barks and skiffs whose white sails and gaily fluttering pennons gave life to the whole." _the heart of mid-lothian_. it must of course be admitted that there are grander, more sublime, more varied and extensive prospects in other countries, but it would be difficult to persuade me that the richness of english verdure could be surpassed or even equalled, or that any part of the world can exhibit landscapes more truly _lovely_ and _loveable_, than those of england, or more calculated to leave a deep and enduring impression upon the heart. mr. kelsall speaks of an italian sky "_uncovered by a single cloud_," but every painter and poet knows how much variety and beauty of effect are bestowed upon hill and plain and grove and river by passing clouds; and even our over-hanging vapours remind us of the veil upon the cheek of beauty; and ever as the sun uplifts the darkness the glory of the landscape seems renewed and freshened. it would cheer the saddest heart and send the blood dancing through the veins, to behold after a dull misty dawn, the sun break out over richmond hill, and with one broad light make the whole landscape smile; but i have been still more interested in the prospect when on a cloudy day the whole "sea of verdure" has been swayed to and fro into fresher life by the fitful breeze, while the lights and shadows amidst the foliage and on the lawns have been almost momentarily varied by the varying sky. these changes fascinate the eye, keep the soul awake, and save the scenery from the comparatively monotonous character of landscapes in less varying climes. and for my own part, i cordially echo the sentiment of wordsworth, who when conversing with mrs. hemans about the scenery of the lakes in the north of england, observed: "i would not give up the mists that _spiritualize_ our mountains for all the blue skies of italy." though mrs. stowe, the american authoress already quoted as one of the admirers of england, duly appreciates the natural grandeur of her own land, she was struck with admiration and delight at the aspect of our english landscapes. our trees, she observes, "are of an order of nobility and they wear their crowns right kingly." "leaving out of account," she adds, "our _mammoth arboria_, the english parks have trees as fine and effective as ours, and when i say their trees are of an order of nobility, i mean that they (the english) pay a reverence to them such as their magnificence deserves." walter savage landor, one of the most accomplished and most highly endowed both by nature and by fortune of our living men of letters, has done, or rather has tried to do, almost as much for his country in the way of enriching its collection of noble trees as evelyn himself. he laid out £ , on the improvement of an estate in monmouthshire, where he planted and fenced half a million of trees, and had a million more ready to plant, when the conduct of some of his tenants, who spitefully uprooted them and destroyed the whole plantation, so disgusted him with the place, that he razed to the ground the house which had cost him £ , , and left the country. he then purchased a beautiful estate in italy, which is still in possession of his family. he himself has long since returned to his native land. landor loves italy, but he loves england better. in one of his _imaginary conversations_ he tells an italian nobleman: "the english are more zealous of introducing new fruits, shrubs and plants, than other nations; you italians are less so than any civilized one. better fruit is eaten in scotland than in the most fertile and cultivated parts of your peninsula. _as for flowers, there is a greater variety in the worst of our fields than in the best of your gardens._ as for shrubs, i have rarely seen a lilac, a laburnum, a mezereon, in any of them, and yet they flourish before almost every cottage in our poorest villages." "we wonder in england, when we hear it related by travellers, that peaches in italy are left under the trees for swine; but, when we ourselves come into the country, our wonder is rather that the swine do not leave them for animals less nice." landor acknowledges that he has eaten better pears and cherries in italy than in england, but that all the other kinds of fruitage in italy appeared to him unfit for dessert. the most celebrated of the private estates of the present day in england is chatsworth, the seat of the duke of devonshire. the mansion, called the palace of the peak, is considered one of the most splendid residences in the land. the grounds are truly beautiful and most carefully attended to. the elaborate waterworks are perhaps not in the severest taste. some of them are but costly puerilities. there is a water-work in the form of a tree that sends a shower from every branch on the unwary visitor, and there are snakes that spit forth jets upon him as he retires. this is silly trifling: but ill adapted to interest those who have passed their teens; and not at all an agreeable sort of hospitality in a climate like that of england. it is in the style of the water-works at versailles, where wooden soldiers shoot from their muskets vollies of water at the spectators.[ ] it was an old english custom on certain occasions to sprinkle water over the company at a grand entertainment. bacon, in his essay on masques, seems to object to getting drenched, when he observes that "some sweet odours suddenly coming forth, _without any drops falling_, are in such a company as there is steam and heat, things of great pleasure and refreshment." it was a custom also of the ancient greeks and romans to sprinkle their guests with fragrant waters. the gascons had once the same taste: "at times," says montaigne, "from the bottom of the stage, they caused sweet-scented waters to spout upwards and dart their thread to such a prodigious height, as to sprinkle and perfume the vast multitudes of spectators." the native gentry of india always slightly sprinkle their visitors with rose-water. it is flung from a small silver utensil tapering off into a sort of upright spout with a pierced top in the fashion of that part of a watering pot which english gardeners call the _rose_. the finest of the water-works at chatsworth is one called the _emperor fountain_ which throws up a jet feet high. this height exceeds that of any fountain in europe. there is a vast conservatory on the estate, built of glass by sir joseph paxton, who designed and constructed the crystal palace. his experience in the building of conservatories no doubt suggested to him the idea of the splendid glass edifice in hyde park. the conservatory at chatsworth required , square feet of glass. four miles of iron tubing are used in heating the building. there is a broad carriage way running right through the centre of the conservatory.[ ] this conservatory is peculiarly rich in exotic plants of all kinds, collected at an enormous cost. this most princely estate, contrasted with the little cottages and cottage-gardens in the neighbourhood, suggested to wordsworth the following sonnet. chatsworth. chatsworth! thy stately mansion, and the pride of thy domain, strange contrast do present to house and home in many a craggy tent of the wild peak, where new born waters glide through fields whose thrifty occupants abide as in a dear and chosen banishment with every semblance of entire content; so kind is simple nature, fairly tried! yet he whose heart in childhood gave his troth to pastoral dales, then set with modest farms, may learn, if judgment strengthen with his growth, that not for fancy only, pomp hath charms; and, strenuous to protect from lawless harms the extremes of favored life, may honour both. the two noblest of modern public gardens in england are those at kensington and kew. kensington gardens were begun by king william the iii, but were originally only twenty-six acres in extent. queen anne added thirty acres more. the grounds were laid out by the well-known garden-designers, london and wise.[ ] queen caroline, who formed the serpentine river by connecting several detached pieces of water into one, and set the example of a picturesque deviation from the straight line,[ ] added from hyde park no less than three hundred acres which were laid out by bridgeman. this was a great boon to the londoners. horace walpole says that queen caroline at first proposed to shut up st. james's park and convert it into a private garden for herself, but when she asked sir robert walpole what it would cost, he answered--"only three crowns." this changed her intentions. the reader of pope will remember an allusion to the famous ring in hyde park. the fair belinda was sometimes attended there by her guardian sylphs: the light militia of the lower sky. they guarded her from 'the white-gloved beaux,' these though unseen are ever on the wing, hang o'er the box, _and hover o'er the ring_. it was here that the gallantries of the "merry monarch" were but too often exhibited to his people. "after dinner," says the right garrulous pepys in his journal, "to hyde parke; at the parke was the king, and in another coach, lady castlemaine, they greeting one another at every turn." the gardens at kew "imperial kew," as darwin styles it, are the richest in the world. they consist of one hundred and seventy acres. they were once private gardens, and were long in the possession of royalty, until the accession of queen victoria, who opened the gardens to the public and placed them under the control of the commissioners of her majesty's woods and forests, "with a view of rendering them available to the general good." she hath left you all her walks, her private arbors and new planted orchards on this side tiber. she hath left them you and to your heirs for ever; common pleasures to walk abroad and recreate yourselves. they contain a large palm-house built in .[ ] the extent of glass for covering the building is said to be , square feet. my mahomedan readers in hindostan, (i hope they will be numerous,) will perhaps be pleased to hear that there is an ornamental mosque in these gardens. on each of the doors of this mosque is an arabic inscription in golden characters, taken from the koran. the arabic has been thus translated:-- let there be no force in religion. there is no other god except the deity. make not any likeness unto god. the first sentence of the translation is rather ambiguously worded. the sentiment has even an impious air: an apparent meaning very different from that which was intended. of course the original text _means_, though the english translator has not expressed that meaning--"let there be no force _used_ in religion." when william cobbett was a boy of eleven years of age he worked in the garden of the bishop of winchester at farnham. having heard much of kew gardens he resolved to change his locality and his master. he started off for kew, a distance of about thirty miles, with only thirteen pence in his pocket. the head gardener at kew at once engaged his services. a few days after, george the fourth, then prince of wales, saw the boy sweeping the lawns, and laughed heartily at his blue smock frock and long red knotted garters. but the poor gardener's boy became a public writer, whose productions were not exactly calculated to excite the merriment of princes. most poets have a painter's eye for the disposition of forms and colours. kent's practice as a painter no doubt helped to make him what he was as a landscape-gardener. when an architect was consulted about laying out the grounds at blenheim he replied, "you must send for a landscape-painter:" he might have added--"_or a poet_." our late laureate, william wordsworth, exhibited great taste in his small garden at rydal mount. he said of himself--very truly though not very modestly perhaps,--but modesty was never wordsworth's weakness--that nature seemed to have fitted him for three callings--that of the poet, the critic on works of art, and the landscape-gardener. the poet's nest--(mrs. hemans calls it 'a lovely cottage-like building'[ ])--is almost hidden in a rich profusion of roses and ivy and jessamine and virginia-creeper. wordsworth, though he passionately admired the shapes and hues of flowers, knew nothing of their fragrance. in this respect knowledge at one entrance was quite shut out. he had possessed at no time of his life the sense of smell. to make up for this deficiency, he is said (by de quincey) to have had "a peculiar depth of organic sensibility of form and color." mr. justice coleridge tells us that wordsworth dealt with shrubs, flower-beds and lawns with the readiness of a practised landscape-gardener, and that it was curious to observe how he had imparted a portion of his taste to his servant, james dixon. in fact, honest james regarded himself as a sort of arbiter elegantiarum. the master and his servant often discussed together a question of taste. wordsworth communicated to mr. justice coleridge how "he and james" were once "in a puzzle" about certain discolored spots upon the lawn. "cover them with soap-lees," said the master. "that will make the green there darker than the rest," said the gardener. "then we must cover the whole." "that will not do," objects the gardener, "with reference to the little lawn to which you pass from this." "cover that," said the poet. "you will then," replied the gardener, "have an unpleasant contrast with the foliage surrounding it." pope too had communicated to his gardener at twickenham something of his own taste. the man, long after his master's death, in reference to the training of the branches of plants, used to talk of their being made to hang "_something poetical_". it would have grieved shakespeare and pope and shenstone had they anticipated the neglect or destruction of their beloved retreats. wordsworth said, "i often ask myself what will become of rydal mount after our day. will the old walls and steps remain in front of the house and about the grounds, or will they be swept away with all the beautiful mosses and ferns and wild geraniums and other flowers which their rude construction suffered and encouraged to grow among them. this little wild flower, _poor robin_, is here constantly courting my attention and exciting what may be called a domestic interest in the varying aspect of its stalks and leaves and flowers." i hope no englishman meditating to reside on the grounds now sacred to the memory of a national poet will ever forget these words of the poet or treat his cottage and garden at rydal mount as some of pope's countrymen have treated the house and grounds at twickenham.[ ] it would be sad indeed to hear, after this, that any one had refused to spare the _poor robins_ and _wild geraniums_ of rydal mount. miss jewsbury has a poem descriptive of "the poet's home." i must give the first stanza:-- wordsworth's cottage. low and white, yet scarcely seen are its walls of mantling green; not a window lets in light but through flowers clustering bright, not a glance may wander there but it falls on something fair; garden choice and fairy mound only that no elves are found; winding walk and sheltered nook for student grave and graver book, or a bird-like bower perchance fit for maiden and romance. another lady-poet has poured forth in verse her admiration of the residence of wordsworth. not for the glory on their heads those stately hill-tops wear, although the summer sunset sheds its constant crimson there: not for the gleaming lights that break the purple of the twilight lake, half dusky and half fair, does that sweet valley seem to be a sacred place on earth to me. the influence of a moral spell is found around the scene, giving new shadows to the dell, new verdure to the green. with every mountain-top is wrought the presence of associate thought, a music that has been; calling that loveliness to life, with which the inward world is rife. his home--our english poet's home-- amid these hills is made; here, with the morning, hath he come, there, with the night delayed. on all things is his memory cast, for every place wherein he past, is with his mind arrayed, that, wandering in a summer hour, asked wisdom of the leaf and flower. l.e.l. the cottage and garden of the poet are not only picturesque and delightful in themselves, but from their position in the midst of some of the finest scenery of england. one of the writers in the book entitled '_the land we live in_' observes that the bard of the mountains and the lakes could not have found a more fitting habitation had the whole land been before him, where to choose his place of rest. "snugly sheltered by the mountains, embowered among trees, and having in itself prospects of surpassing beauty, it also lies in the midst of the very noblest objects in the district, and in one of the happiest social positions. the grounds are delightful in every respect; but one view--that from the terrace of moss-like grass--is, to our thinking, the most exquisitely graceful in all this land of beauty. it embraces the whole valley of windermere, with hills on either side softened into perfect loveliness." eustace, the italian tourist, seems inclined to deprive the english of the honor of being the first cultivators of the natural style in gardening, and thinks that it was borrowed not from milton but from tasso. i suppose that most genuine poets, in all ages and in all countries, when they give full play to the imagination, have glimpses of the truly natural in the arts. the reader will probably be glad to renew his acquaintance with tasso's description of the garden of armida. i shall give the good old version of edward fairfax from the edition of . fairfax was a true poet and wrote musically at a time when sweetness of versification was not so much aimed at as in a later day. waller confessed that he owed the smoothness of his verse to the example of fairfax, who, as warton observes, "well vowelled his lines." the garden of armida. when they had passed all those troubled ways, the garden sweet spread forth her green to shew; the moving crystal from the fountains plays; fair trees, high plants, strange herbs and flowerets new, sunshiny hills, vales hid from phoebus' rays, groves, arbours, mossie caves at once they view, and that which beauty most, most wonder brought, no where appear'd the art which all this wrought. so with the rude the polished mingled was, that natural seem'd all and every part, nature would craft in counterfeiting pass, and imitate her imitator art: mild was the air, the skies were clear as glass, the trees no whirlwind felt, nor tempest's smart, but ere the fruit drop off, the blossom comes, this springs, that falls, that ripeneth and this blooms. the leaves upon the self-same bough did hide, beside the young, the old and ripened fig, here fruit was green, there ripe with vermeil side; the apples new and old grew on one twig, the fruitful vine her arms spread high and wide, that bended underneath their clusters big; the grapes were tender here, hard, young and sour, there purple ripe, and nectar sweet forth pour. the joyous birds, hid under green-wood shade, sung merry notes on every branch and bow, the wind that in the leaves and waters plaid with murmer sweet, now sung and whistled now; ceaséd the birds, the wind loud answer made: and while they sung, it rumbled soft and low; thus were it hap or cunning, chance or art, the wind in this strange musick bore his part. with party-coloured plumes and purple bill, a wondrous bird among the rest there flew, that in plain speech sung love-lays loud and shrill, her leden was like humane language true; so much she talkt, and with such wit and skill, that strange it seeméd how much good she knew; her feathered fellows all stood hush to hear, dumb was the wind, the waters silent were. the gently budding rose (quoth she) behold, that first scant peeping forth with virgin beams, half ope, half shut, her beauties doth upfold in their dear leaves, and less seen, fairer seems, and after spreads them forth more broad and bold, then languisheth and dies in last extreams, nor seems the same, that deckéd bed and bower of many a lady late, and paramour. so, in the passing of a day, doth pass the bud and blossom of the life of man, nor ere doth flourish more, but like the grass cut down, becometh wither'd, pale and wan: o gather then the rose while time thou hast, short is the day, done when it scant began; gather the rose of love, while yet thou may'st loving be lov'd; embracing, be embrac'd. he ceas'd, and as approving all he spoke, the quire of birds their heav'nly tunes renew, the turtles sigh'd, and sighs with kisses broke, the fowls to shades unseen, by pairs withdrew; it seem'd the laurel chaste, and stubborn oak, and all the gentle trees on earth that grew, it seem'd the land, the sea, and heav'n above, all breath'd out fancy sweet, and sigh'd out love. _godfrey of bulloigne_ i must place near the garden of armida, ariosto's garden of alcina. "ariosto," says leigh hunt, "cared for none of the pleasures of the great, except building, and was content in cowley's fashion, with "a small house in a large garden." he loved gardening better than he understood it, was always shifting his plants, and destroying the seeds, out of impatience to see them germinate. he was rejoicing once on the coming up of some "capers" which he had been visiting every day, to see how they got on, when it turned out that his capers were elder trees!" the garden of alcina. 'a more delightful place, wherever hurled, through the whole air, rogero had not found; and had he ranged the universal world, would not have seen a lovelier in his round, than that, where, wheeling wide, the courser furled his spreading wings, and lighted on the ground mid cultivated plain, delicious hill, moist meadow, shady bank, and crystal rill; 'small thickets, with the scented laurel gay, cedar, and orange, full of fruit and flower, myrtle and palm, with interwoven spray, pleached in mixed modes, all lovely, form a bower; and, breaking with their shade the scorching ray, make a cool shelter from the noon-tide hour. and nightingales among those branches wing their flight, and safely amorous descants sing. 'amid red roses and white lilies _there_, which the soft breezes freshen as they fly, secure the cony haunts, and timid hare, and stag, with branching forehead broad and high. these, fearless of the hunter's dart or snare, feed at their ease, or ruminating lie; while, swarming in those wilds, from tuft or steep, dun deer or nimble goat disporting leap.' _rose's orlando furioso_. spenser's description of the garden of adonis is too long to give entire, but i shall quote a few stanzas. the old story on which spenser founds his description is told with many variations of circumstance and meaning; but we need not quit the pages of the faerie queene to lose ourselves amidst obscure mythologies. we have too much of these indeed even in spenser's own version of the fable. the garden of adonis. great enimy to it, and all the rest that in the gardin of adonis springs, is wicked time; who with his scythe addrest does mow the flowring herbes and goodly things, and all their glory to the ground downe flings, where they do wither and are fowly mard he flyes about, and with his flaggy wings beates downe both leaves and buds without regard, ne ever pitty may relent his malice hard. * * * * * but were it not that time their troubler is, all that in this delightful gardin growes should happy bee, and have immortall blis: for here all plenty and all pleasure flowes; and sweete love gentle fitts emongst them throwes, without fell rancor or fond gealosy. franckly each paramour his leman knowes, each bird his mate; ne any does envy their goodly meriment and gay felicity. there is continual spring, and harvest there continuall, both meeting at one tyme: for both the boughes doe laughing blossoms beare. and with fresh colours decke the wanton pryme, and eke attonce the heavy trees they clyme, which seeme to labour under their fruites lode: the whiles the ioyous birdes make their pastyme emongst the shady leaves, their sweet abode, and their trew loves without suspition tell abrode. right in the middest of that paradise there stood a stately mount, on whose round top a gloomy grove of mirtle trees did rise, whose shady boughes sharp steele did never lop, nor wicked beastes their tender buds did crop, but like a girlond compasséd the hight, and from their fruitfull sydes sweet gum did drop, that all the ground, with pretious deaw bedight, threw forth most dainty odours and most sweet delight. and in the thickest covert of that shade there was a pleasaunt arber, not by art but of the trees owne inclination made, which knitting their rancke braunches part to part, with wanton yvie-twine entrayld athwart, and eglantine and caprifole emong, fashioned above within their inmost part, that neither phoebus beams could through them throng, nor aeolus sharp blast could worke them any wrong. and all about grew every sort of flowre, to which sad lovers were transformde of yore, fresh hyacinthus, phoebus paramoure and dearest love; foolish narcisse, that likes the watry shore; sad amaranthus, made a flowre but late, sad amaranthus, in whose purple gore me seemes i see amintas wretched fate, to whom sweet poet's verse hath given endlesse date. _fairie queene, book iii. canto vi_. i must here give a few stanzas from spenser's description of the _bower of bliss_ in which whatever in this worldly state is sweet and pleasing unto living sense, or that may dayntiest fantasy aggrate was pouréd forth with pleantiful dispence. the english poet in his fairie queene has borrowed a great deal from tasso and ariosto, but generally speaking, his borrowings, like those of most true poets, are improvements upon the original. the bower of bliss. there the most daintie paradise on ground itself doth offer to his sober eye, in which all pleasures plenteously abownd, and none does others happinesse envye; the painted flowres; the trees upshooting hye; the dales for shade; the hilles for breathing-space; the trembling groves; the christall running by; and that which all faire workes doth most aggrace, the art, which all that wrought, appearéd in no place. one would have thought, (so cunningly the rude[ ] and scornéd partes were mingled with the fine,) that nature had for wantonesse ensude art, and that art at nature did repine; so striving each th' other to undermine, each did the others worke more beautify; so diff'ring both in willes agreed in fine; so all agreed, through sweete diversity, this gardin to adorn with all variety. and in the midst of all a fountaine stood, of richest substance that on earth might bee, so pure and shiny that the silver flood through every channel running one might see; most goodly it with curious ymageree was over-wrought, and shapes of naked boyes, of which some seemed with lively iollitee to fly about, playing their wanton toyes, whylest others did themselves embay in liquid ioyes. * * * * * eftsoones they heard a most melodious sound, of all that mote delight a daintie eare, such as attonce might not on living ground, save in this paradise, be heard elsewhere: right hard it was for wight which did it heare, to read what manner musicke that mote bee; for all that pleasing is to living eare was there consorted in one harmonee; birdes, voices, instruments, windes, waters all agree: the ioyous birdes, shrouded in chearefull shade, their notes unto the voice attempred sweet; th' angelicall soft trembling voyces made to th' instruments divine respondence meet; the silver-sounding instruments did meet with the base murmure of the waters fall; the waters fall with difference discreet, now soft, now loud, unto the wind did call; the gentle warbling wind low answeréd to all. _the faerie queene, book ii. canto xii._ every school-boy has heard of the gardens of the hesperides. the story is told in many different ways. according to some accounts, the hesperides, the daughters of hesperus, were appointed to keep charge of the tree of golden apples which jupiter presented to juno on their wedding day. a hundred-headed dragon that never slept, (the offspring of typhon,) couched at the foot of the tree. it was one of the twelve labors of hercules to obtain possession of some of these apples. he slew the dragon and gathered three golden apples. the gardens, according to some authorities, were situated near mount atlas. shakespeare seems to have taken _hesperides_ to be the name of the garden instead of that of its fair keepers. even the learned milton in his _paradise regained_, (book ii) talks of _the ladies of the hesperides_, and appears to make the word hesperides synonymous with "hesperian gardens." bishop newton, in a foot-note to the passage in "paradise regained," asks, "what are the hesperides famous for, but the gardens and orchards which _they had_ bearing golden fruit in the western isles of africa." perhaps after all there may be some good authority in favor of extending the names of the nymphs to the garden itself. malone, while condemning shakespeare's use of the words as inaccurate, acknowledges that other poets have used it in the same way, and quotes as an instance, the following lines from robert greene:-- shew thee the tree, leaved with refined gold, whereon the fearful dragon held his seat, that watched _the garden_ called the _hesperides_. _robert greene_. for valour is not love a hercules, still climbing trees in the hesperides? _love's labour lost_. before thee stands this fair hesperides, with golden fruit, but dangerous to be touched for death-like dragons here affright thee hard. _pericles, prince of tyre_. milton, after the fourth line of his comus, had originally inserted, in his manuscript draft of the poem, the following description of the garden of the hesperides. the garden of the hesperides amid the hesperian gardens, on whose banks bedewed with nectar and celestial songs eternal roses grow, and hyacinth, and fruits of golden rind, on whose fair tree the scaly harnessed dragon ever keeps his uninchanted eye, around the verge and sacred limits of this blissful isle the jealous ocean that old river winds his far extended aims, till with steep fall half his waste flood the wide atlantic fills; and half the slow unfathomed stygian pool but soft, i was not sent to court your wonder with distant worlds and strange removéd climes yet thence i come and oft from thence behold the smoke and stir of this dim narrow spot milton subsequently drew his pen through these lines, for what reason is not known. bishop newton observes, that this passage, saved from intended destruction, may serve as a specimen of the truth of the observation that poets lose half the praise they should have got could it be known what they discreetly blot. _waller_. as i have quoted in an earlier page some unfavorable allusions to homer's description of a grecian garden, it will be but fair to follow up milton's picture of paradise, and tasso's garden of armida, and ariosto's garden of alcina, and spenser's garden of adonis and his bower of bliss, with homer's description of the garden of alcinous. minerva tells ulysses that the royal mansion to which the garden of alcinous is attached is of such conspicuous grandeur and so generally known, that any child might lead him to it; for phoeacia's sons possess not houses equalling in aught the mansion of alcinous, the king. i shall give cowper's version, because it may be less familiar to the reader than pope's, which is in every one's hand. the garden of alcinous without the court, and to the gates adjoined a spacious garden lay, fenced all around, secure, four acres measuring complete, there grew luxuriant many a lofty tree, pomgranate, pear, the apple blushing bright, the honeyed fig, and unctuous olive smooth. those fruits, nor winter's cold nor summer's heat fear ever, fail not, wither not, but hang perennial, while unceasing zephyr breathes gently on all, enlarging these, and those maturing genial; in an endless course. pears after pears to full dimensions swell, figs follow figs, grapes clustering grow again where clusters grew, and (every apple stripped) the boughs soon tempt the gatherer as before. there too, well rooted, and of fruit profuse, his vineyard grows; part, wide extended, basks in the sun's beams; the arid level glows; in part they gather, and in part they tread the wine-press, while, before the eye, the grapes here put their blossoms forth, there gather fast their blackness. on the garden's verge extreme flowers of all hues[ ] smile all the year, arranged with neatest art judicious, and amid the lovely scene two fountains welling forth, one visits, into every part diffused, the garden-ground, the other soft beneath the threshold steals into the palace court whence every citizen his vase supplies. _homer's odyssey, book vii_. the mode of watering the garden-ground, and the use made of the water by the public-- whence every citizen his vase supplies-- can hardly fail to remind indian and anglo-indian readers of a hindu gentleman's garden in bengal. pope first published in the _guardian_ his own version of the account of the garden of alcinous and subsequently gave it a place in his entire translation of homer. in introducing the readers of the _guardian_ to the garden of alcinous he observes that "the two most celebrated wits of the world have each left us a particular picture of a garden; wherein those great masters, being wholly unconfined and pointing at pleasure, may be thought to have given a full idea of what seemed most excellent in that way. these (one may observe) consist entirely of the useful part of horticulture, fruit trees, herbs, waters, &c. the pieces i am speaking of are virgil's account of the garden of the old corycian, and homer's of that of alcinous. the first of these is already known to the english reader, by the excellent versions of mr. dryden and mr. addison." i do not think our present landscape-gardeners, or parterre-gardeners or even our fruit or kitchen-gardeners can be much enchanted with virgil's ideal of a garden, but here it is, as "done into english," by john dryden, who describes the roman poet as "a profound naturalist," and "_a curious florist_." the garden of the old corycian. i chanc'd an old corycian swain to know, lord of few acres, and those barren too, unfit for sheep or vines, and more unfit to sow: yet, lab'ring well his little spot of ground, some scatt'ring pot-herbs here and there he found, which, cultivated with his daily care and bruis'd with vervain, were his frugal fare. with wholesome poppy-flow'rs, to mend his homely board: for, late returning home, he supp'd at ease, and wisely deem'd the wealth of monarchs less: the little of his own, because his own, did please. to quit his care, he gather'd, first of all, in spring the roses, apples in the fall: and, when cold winter split the rocks in twain, and ice the running rivers did restrain, he stripp'd the bear's foot of its leafy growth, and, calling western winds, accus'd the spring of sloth he therefore first among the swains was found to reap the product of his labour'd ground, and squeeze the combs with golden liquor crown'd his limes were first in flow'rs, his lofty pines, with friendly shade, secur'd his tender vines. for ev'ry bloom his trees in spring afford, an autumn apple was by tale restor'd he knew to rank his elms in even rows, for fruit the grafted pear tree to dispose, and tame to plums the sourness of the sloes with spreading planes he made a cool retreat, to shade good fellows from the summer's heat _virgil's georgics, book iv_. an excellent scottish poet--allan ramsay--a true and unaffected describer of rural life and scenery--seems to have had as great a dislike to topiary gardens, and quite as earnest a love of nature, as any of the best italian poets. the author of the "gentle shepherd" tells us in the following lines what sort of garden most pleased his fancy. allan ramsay's garden. i love the garden wild and wide, where oaks have plum-trees by their side, where woodbines and the twisting vine clip round the pear tree and the pine where mixed jonquils and gowans grow and roses midst rank clover grow upon a bank of a clear strand, in wrimplings made by nature's hand though docks and brambles here and there may sometimes cheat the gardener's care, _yet this to me is paradise_, _compared with prim cut plots and nice_, _where nature has to act resigned,_ _till all looks mean, stiff and confined_. i cannot say that i should wish to see forest trees and docks and brambles in garden borders. honest allan here runs a little into the extreme, as men are apt enough to do, when they try to get as far as possible from the side advocated by an opposite party. i shall now exhibit two paintings of bowers. i begin with one from spenser. a bower and over him art stryving to compayre with nature did an arber greene dispied[ ] framéd of wanton yvie, flouring, fayre, through which the fragrant eglantine did spred his prickling armes, entrayld with roses red, which daintie odours round about them threw and all within with flowers was garnishéd that, when myld zephyrus emongst them blew, did breathe out bounteous smels, and painted colors shew and fast beside these trickled softly downe a gentle streame, whose murmuring wave did play emongst the pumy stones, and made a sowne, to lull him soft asleepe that by it lay the wearie traveiler wandring that way, therein did often quench his thirsty head and then by it his wearie limbes display, (whiles creeping slomber made him to forget his former payne,) and wypt away his toilsom sweat. and on the other syde a pleasaunt grove was shott up high, full of the stately tree that dedicated is t'olympick iove, and to his son alcides,[ ] whenas hee in nemus gaynéd goodly victoree theirin the merry birds of every sorte chaunted alowd their cheerful harmonee, and made emongst themselves a sweete consórt that quickned the dull spright with musicall comfórt. _fairie queene, book cant. stanzas , and ._ here is a sweet picture of a "shady lodge" from the hand of milton. eve's nuptial bower. thus talking, hand in hand alone they pass'd on to their blissful bower. it was a place chosen by the sov'reign planter, when he framed all things to man's delightful use, the roof of thickest covert was inwoven shade, laurel and myrtle, and what higher grew of firm and fragrant leaf, on either side acanthus, and each odorous bushy shrub, fenced up the verdant wall, each beauteous flower iris all hues, roses, and jessamine, rear'd high their flourish'd heads between, and wrought mosaic, under foot the violet, crocus, and hyacinth, with rich inlay broider'd the ground, more colour'd than with stone of costliest emblem other creature here, beast, bird, insect, or worm, durst enter none, such was their awe of man. in shadier bower more sacred and sequester'd, though but feign'd, pan or sylvanus never slept, nor nymph nor faunus haunted. here, in close recess, with flowers, garlands, and sweet smelling herbs, espoused eve deck'd first her nuptial bed, and heavenly quires the hymenean sung i have already quoted from leigh hunt's "stories from the italian poets" an amusing anecdote illustrative of ariosto's ignorance of botany. but even in these days when all sorts of sciences are forced upon all sorts of students, we often meet with persons of considerable sagacity and much information of a different kind who are marvellously ignorant of the vegetable world. in the just published memoirs of the late james montgomery, of sheffield, it is recorded that the poet and his brother robert, a tradesman at woolwich, (not robert montgomery, the author of 'satan,' &c.) were one day walking together, when the trader seeing a field of flax in full flower, asked the poet what sort of corn it was. "such corn as your shirt is made of," was the reply. "but robert," observes a writer in the _athenaeum_, "need not be ashamed of his simplicity. rousseau, naturalist as he was, could hardly tell one berry from another, and three of our greatest wits disputing in the field whether the crop growing there was rye, barley, or oats, were set right by a clown, who truly pronounced it wheat." men of genius who have concentrated all their powers on some one favorite profession or pursuit are often thus triumphed over by the vulgar, whose eyes are more observant of the familiar objects and details of daily life and of the scenes around them. wordsworth and coleridge, on one occasion, after a long drive, and in the absence of a groom, endeavored to relieve the tired horse of its harness. after torturing the poor animal's neck and endangering its eyes by their clumsy and vain attempts to slip off the collar, they at last gave up the matter in despair. they felt convinced that the horse's head must have swollen since the collar was put on. at last a servant-girl beheld their perplexity. "la, masters," she exclaimed, "you dont set about it the right way." she then seized hold of the collar, turned it broad end up, and slipped it off in a second. the mystery that had puzzled two of the finest intellects of their time was a very simple matter indeed to a country wench who had perhaps never heard that england possessed a shakespeare. james montgomery was a great lover of flowers, and few of our english poets have written about the family of flora, the sweet wife of zephyr, in a more genial spirit. he used to regret that the old floral games and processions on may-day and other holidays had gone out of fashion. southey tells us that in george the first's reign a grand florist's feast was held at bethnall green, and that a carnation named after his majesty was _king of the year_. the stewards were dressed with laurel leaves and flowers. they carried gilded staves. ninety cultivators followed in procession to the sound of music, each bearing his own flowers before him. all elegant customs of this nature have fallen into desuetude in england, though many of them are still kept up in other parts of europe. chaucer who dearly loved all images associated with the open air and the dewy fields and bright mornings and radiant flowers makes the gentle emily, that fairer was to seene than is the lily upon his stalkie greene, rise early and do honor to the birth of may-day. all things now seem to breathe of hope and joy. though long hath been the trance of nature on the naked bier where ruthless winter mocked her slumbers drear and rent with icy hand her robes of green, that trance is brightly broken! glossy trees, resplendent meads and variegated flowers flash in the sun and flutter in the breeze and now with dreaming eye the poet sees fair shapes of pleasure haunt romantic bowers, and laughing streamlets chase the flying hours. d.l.r. the great describer of our lost paradise did not disdain to sing a song on may-morning. now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, comes dancing from the east, and leads with her the flowery may, who from her green lap throws the yellow cowslip and the pale primrose hail bounteous-may, that dost inspire mirth and youth and warm desire; woods and groves are of thy dressing, hill and dale do boast thy blessing. thus we salute thee with our early song, and welcome thee and wish thee long. nor did the poet of the world, william shakespeare, hesitate to do observance to a morn of may. he makes one of his characters (in _king henry viii_.) complain that it is as impossible to keep certain persons quiet on an ordinary day, as it is to make them sleep on may-day--once the time of universal merriment-- when every one was wont "_to put himself into triumph_." 'tis as much impossible, unless we sweep 'em from the doors with cannons to scatter 'em, _as 'tis to make 'em sleep on may-day morning_. spenser duly celebrates, in his "shepheard's calender," thilke mery moneth of may when love-lads masken in fresh aray, when "all is yclad with pleasaunce, the ground with grasse, the woods with greene leaves, and the bushes with bloosming buds." sicker[ ] this morowe, no longer agoe, i saw a shole of shepeardes outgoe with singing and shouting and iolly chere: before them yode[ ] a lustre tabrere,[ ] that to the many a hornepype playd whereto they dauncen eche one with his mayd. to see those folks make such iovysaunce, made my heart after the pype to daunce. tho[ ] to the greene wood they speeden hem all to fetchen home may with their musicall; and home they bringen in a royall throne crowned as king; and his queene attone[ ] was lady flora. _spenser_. this is the season when the birds seem almost intoxicated with delight at the departure of the dismal and cold and cloudy days of winter and the return of the warm sun. the music of these little may musicians seems as fresh as the fragrance of the flowers. the skylark is the prince of british singing-birds--the leader of their cheerful band. lines to a skylark. wanderer through the wilds of air! freely as an angel fair thou dost leave the solid earth, man is bound to from his birth scarce a cubit from the grass springs the foot of lightest lass-- _thou_ upon a cloud can'st leap, and o'er broadest rivers sweep, climb up heaven's steepest height, fluttering, twinkling, in the light, soaring, singing, till, sweet bird, thou art neither seen nor heard, lost in azure fields afar like a distance hidden star, that alone for angels bright breathes its music, sheds its light warbler of the morning's mirth! when the gray mists rise from earth, and the round dews on each spray glitter in the golden ray, and thy wild notes, sweet though high, fill the wide cerulean, sky, is there human heart or brain can resist thy merry strain? but not always soaring high, making man up turn his eye just to learn what shape of love, raineth music from above,-- all the sunny cloudlets fair floating on the azure air, all the glories of the sky thou leavest unreluctantly, silently with happy breast to drop into thy lowly nest. though the frame of man must be bound to earth, the soul is free, but that freedom oft doth bring discontent and sorrowing. oh! that from each waking vision, gorgeous vista, gleam elysian, from ambition's dizzy height, and from hope's illusive light, man, like thee, glad lark, could brook upon a low green spot to look, and with home affections blest sink into as calm a nest! d.l.r. i brought from england to india two english skylarks. i thought they would help to remind me of english meadows and keep alive many agreeable home-associations. in crossing the desert they were carefully lashed on the top of one of the vans, and in spite of the dreadful jolting and the heat of the sun they sang the whole way until night-fall. it was pleasant to hear english larks from rich clover fields singing so joyously in the sandy waste. in crossing some fields between cairo and the pyramids i was surprized and delighted with the songs of egyptian skylarks. their notes were much the same as those of the english lark. the lark of bengal is about the size of a sparrow and has a poor weak note. at this moment a lark from caubul (larger than an english lark) is doing his best to cheer me with his music. this noble bird, though so far from his native fields, and shut up in his narrow prison, pours forth his rapturous melody in an almost unbroken stream from dawn to sunset. he allows no change of season to abate his minstrelsy, to any observable degree, and seems equally happy and musical all the year round. i have had him nearly two years, and though of course he must moult his feathers yearly, i have not observed the change of plumage, nor have i noticed that he has sung less at one period of the year than another. one of my two english larks was stolen the very day i landed in india, and the other soon died. the loss of an english lark is not to be replaced in calcutta, though almost every week, canaries, linnets, gold-finches and bull-finches are sold at public auctions here. but i must return to my main subject.--the ancients used to keep the great feast of the goddess flora on the th of april. it lasted till the rd of may. the floral games of antiquity were unhappily debased by indecent exhibitions; but they were not entirely devoid of better characteristics.[ ] ovid describing the goddess flora says that "while she was speaking she breathed forth vernal roses from her mouth." the same poet has represented her in her garden with the florae gathering flowers and the graces making garlands of them. the british borrowed the idea of this festival from the romans. some of our kings and queens used '_to go a maying_,' and to have feasts of wine and venison in the open meadows or under the good green-wood. prior says: let one great day to celebrate sports and floral play be set aside. but few people, in england, in these times, distinguish may-day from the initial day of any other month of the twelve. i am old enough to remember _jack-in-the-green_. nor have i forgotten the cheerful clatter--the brush-and-shovel music--of our little british negroes--"innocent blacknesses," as lamb calls them--the chimney-sweepers,--a class now almost _swept away_ themselves by _machinery_. one may-morning in the streets of london these tinsel-decorated merry-makers with their sooty cheeks and black lips lined with red, and staring eyes whose white seemed whiter still by contrast with the darkness of their cases, and their ivory teeth kept sound and brilliant with the professional powder, besieged george selwyn and his arm-in-arm companion, lord pembroke, for may-day boxes. selwyn making them a low bow, said, very solemnly "i have often heard of _the sovereignty of the people_, and i suppose you are some of the young princes in court mourning." my native readers in bengal can form no conception of the delight with which the british people at home still hail the spring of the year, or the deep interest which they take in all "the seasons and their change"; though they have dropped some of the oldest and most romantic of the ceremonies once connected with them. if there were an annual fall of the leaf in the groves of india, instead of an eternal summer, the natives would discover how much the charms of the vegetable world are enhanced by these vicissitudes, and how even winter itself can be made delightful. my brother exiles will remember as long as life is in them, how exquisite, in dear old england, is the enjoyment of a brisk morning walk in the clear frosty air, and how cheering and cosy is the social evening fire! though a cold day in calcutta is not exactly like a cold day in london, it sometimes revives the remembrance of it. an indian winter, if winter it may be called, is indeed far less agreeable than a winter in england, but it is not wholly without its pleasures. it is, at all events, a grateful change--a welcome relief and refreshment after a sultry summer or a _muggy_ rainy season. an englishman, however, must always prefer the keener but more wholesome frigidity of his own clime. there, the external gloom and bleakness of a severe winter day enhance our in-door comforts, and we do not miss sunny skies when greeted with sunny looks. if we then see no blooming flowers, we see blooming faces. but as we have few domestic enjoyments in this country--no social snugness,--no sweet seclusion--and as our houses are as open as bird-cages,--and as we almost live in public and in the open air--we have little comfort when compelled, with an enfeebled frame and a morbidly sensitive cuticle, to remain at home on what an anglo-indian invalid calls a cold day, with an easterly wind whistling through every room.[ ] in our dear native country each season has its peculiar moral or physical attractions. it is not easy to say which is the most agreeable--its summer or its winter. perhaps i must decide in favor of the first. the memory of many a smiling summer day still flashes upon my soul. if the whole of human life were like a fine english day in june, we should cease to wish for "another and a better world." it is often from dawn to sunset one revel of delight. how pleasantly, from the first break of day, have i lain wide awake and traced the approach of the breakfast hour by the increasing notes of birds and the advancing sun-light on my curtains! a summer feeling, at such a time, would make my heart dance within me, as i thought of the long, cheerful day to be enjoyed, and planned some rural walk, or rustic entertainment. the ills that flesh is heir to, if they occurred for a moment, appeared like idle visions. they were inconceivable as real things. as i heard the lark singing in "a glorious privacy of light," and saw the boughs of the green and gold laburnum waving at my window, and had my fancy filled with images of natural beauty, i felt a glow of fresh life in my veins, and my soul was inebriated with joy. it is difficult, amidst such exhilarating influences, to entertain those melancholy ideas which sometimes crowd upon, us, and appear so natural, at a less happy hour. even actual misfortune comes in a questionable shape, when our physical constitution is in perfect health, and the flowers are in full bloom, and the skies are blue, and the streams are glittering in the sun. so powerfully does the light of external nature sometimes act upon the moral system, that a sweet sensation steals gradually over the heart, even when we think we have reason to be sorrowful, and while we almost accuse ourselves of a want of feeling. the fretful hypochondriac would do well to bear this fact in mind, and not take it for granted that all are cold and selfish who fail to sympathize with his fantastic cares. he should remember that men are sometimes so buoyed up by the sense of corporeal power, and a communion with nature in her cheerful moods, that things connected with their own personal interests, and which at other times might irritate and wound their feelings, pass by them like the idle wind which they regard not. he himself must have had his intervals of comparative happiness, in which the causes of his present grief would have appeared trivial and absurd. he should not, then, expect persons whose blood is warm in their veins, and whose eyes are open to the blessed sun in heaven, to think more of the apparent causes of his sorrow than he would himself, were his mind and body in a healthful state. with what a light heart and eager appetite did i enter the little breakfast parlour of which the glass-doors opened upon a bright green lawn, variegated with small beds of flowers! the table was spread with dewy and delicious fruits from our own garden, and gathered by fair and friendly hands. beautiful and luscious as were these garden dainties, they were of small account in comparison with the fresh cheeks and cherry lips that so frankly accepted the wonted early greeting. alas! how that circle of early friends is now divided, and what a change has since come over the spirit of our dreams! yet still i cherish boyish feelings, and the past is sometimes present. as i give an imaginary kiss to an "old familiar face," and catch myself almost unconsciously, yet literally, returning imaginary smiles, my heart is as fresh and fervid as of yore. a lapse of fifteen years, and a distance of fifteen thousand miles, and the glare of a tropical sky and the presence of foreign faces, need not make an indian exile quite forgetful of home-delights. parted friends may still share the light of love as severed clouds are equally kindled by the same sun. no number of miles or days can change or separate faithful spirits or annihilate early associations. that strange magician, fancy, who supplies so many corporeal deficiencies and overcomes so many physical obstructions, and mocks at space and time, enables us to pass in the twinkling of an eye over the dreary waste of waters that separates the exile from the scenes and companions of his youth. he treads again his native shore. he sits by the hospitable hearth and listens to the ringing laugh of children. he exchanges cordial greetings with the "old familiar faces." there is a resurrection of the dead, and a return of vanished years. he abandons himself to the sweet illusion, and again lives over each scene, and is what he beholds. i must not be too egotistically garrulous in print, or i would now attempt to describe the various ways in which i have spent a summer's day in england. i would dilate upon my noon-day loiterings amidst wild ruins, and thick forests, and on the shaded banks of rivers--the pic-nic parties--the gipsy prophecies--the twilight homeward walk--the social tea-drinking, and, the last scene of all, the "rosy dreams and slumbers light," induced by wholesome exercise and placid thoughts.[ ] but perhaps these few simple allusions are sufficient to awaken a train of kindred associations in the reader's mind, and he will thank me for those words and images that are like the keys of memory, and "open all her cells with easy force." if a summer's day be thus rife with pleasure, scarcely less so is a day in winter, though with some little drawbacks, that give, by contrast, a zest to its enjoyments. it is difficult to leave the warm morning bed and brave the external air. the fireless grate and frosted windows may well make the stoutest shudder. but when we have once screwed our courage to the sticking place, and with a single jerk of the clothes, and a brisk jump from the bed, have commenced the operations of the toilet, the battle is nearly over. the teeth chatter for a while, and the limbs shiver, and we do not feel particularly comfortable while breaking the ice in our jugs, and performing our cold ablutions amidst the sharp, glass-like fragments, and wiping our faces with a frozen towel. but these petty evils are quickly vanquished, and as we rush out of the house, and tread briskly and firmly on the hard ringing earth, and breathe our visible breath in the clear air, our strength and self-importance miraculously increase, and the whole frame begins to glow. the warmth and vigour thus acquired are inexpressibly delightful. as we re-enter the house, we are proud of our intrepidity and vigour, and pity the effeminacy of our less enterprising friends, who, though huddled together round the fire, like flies upon a sunny wall, still complain of cold, and instead of the bloom of health and animation, exhibit pale and pinched and discolored features, and hands cold, rigid, and of a deadly hue. those who rise with spirit on a winter morning, and stir and thrill themselves with early exercise, are indifferent to the cold for the rest of the day, and feel a confidence in their corporeal energies, and a lightness of heart that are experienced at no other season. but even the timid and luxurious are not without their pleasures. as the shades of evening draw in, the parlour twilight--the closed curtains--and the cheerful fire--make home a little paradise to all. now stir the fire, and close the shutters fast, let fall the curtains, wheel the sofa round, and while the bubbling and loud hissing urn throws up a steamy column, and the cups that cheer but not inebriate wait on each, so let us welcome peaceful evening in _cowper_. the warm and cold seasons of india have no charms like those of england, but yet people who are guiltless of what milton so finely calls "a sullenness against nature," and who are willing, in a spirit of true philosophy and piety, to extract good from every thing, may save themselves from wretchedness even in this land of exile. while i am writing this paragraph, a bird in my room, (not the caubul songster that i have already alluded to, but a fine little english linnet,) who is as much a foreigner here as i am, is pouring out his soul in a flood of song. his notes ring with joy. he pines not for his native meadows--he cares not for his wiry bars--he envies not the little denizens of air that sometimes flutter past my window, nor imagines, for a moment, that they come to mock him with their freedom. he is contented with his present enjoyments, because they are utterly undisturbed by idle comparisons with those experienced in the past or anticipated in the future. he has no thankless repinings and no vain desires. is intellect or reason then so fatal, though sublime a gift that we cannot possess it without the poisonous alloy of care? must grief and ingratitude inevitably find entrance into the heart, in proportion to the loftiness and number of our mental endowments? are we to seek for happiness in ignorance? to these questions the reply is obvious. every good quality may be abused, and the greatest, most; and he who perversely employs his powers of thought and imagination to a wrong purpose deserves the misery that he gains. were we honestly to deduct from the ills of life all those of our own creation, how trifling, in the majority of cases, the amount that would remain! we seem to invite and encourage sorrow, while happiness is, as it were, forced upon us against our will. it is wonderful how some men pertinaciously cling to care, and argue themselves into a dissatisfaction with their lot. thus it is really a matter of little moment whether fortune smile or frown, for it is in vain to look for superior felicity amongst those who have more "appliances and means to boot," than their fellow-men. wealth, rank, and reputation, do not secure their possessors from the misery of discontent. as happiness then depends upon the right direction and employment of our faculties, and not on worldly goods or mere localities, our countrymen might be cheerful enough, even in this foreign land, if they would only accustom themselves to a proper train of thinking, and be ready on every occasion to look on the brighter side of all things.[ ] in reverting to home-scenes we should regard them for their intrinsic charms, and not turn them into a source of disquiet by mournfully comparing them with those around us. india, let englishmen murmur as they will, has some attractions, enjoyments and advantages. no englishman is here in danger of dying of starvation as some of our poets have done in the inhospitable streets of london. the comparatively princely and generous style in which we live in this country, the frank and familiar tone of our little society, and the general mildness of the climate, (excepting a few months of a too sultry summer) can hardly be denied by the most determined malcontent. the weather is indeed too often a great deal warmer than we like it; but if "the excessive heat" did not form a convenient subject for complaint and conversation, it is perhaps doubtful if it would so often be thought of or alluded to. but admit the objection. what climate is without its peculiar evils? in the cold season a walk in india either in the morning or the evening is often extremely pleasant in pleasant company, and i am glad to see many sensible people paying the climate the compliment of treating it like that of england. it is now fashionable to use our limbs in the ordinary way, and the "garden of eden"[ ] has become a favorite promenade, particularly on the evenings when a band from the fort fills the air with a cheerful harmony and throws a fresher life upon the scene. it is not to be denied that besides the mere exercise, pedestrians at home have great advantages over those who are too indolent or aristocratic to leave their equipages, because they can cut across green and quiet fields, enter rural by-ways, and enjoy a thousand little patches of lovely scenery that are secrets to the high-road traveller. but still the calcutta pedestrian has also his gratifications. he can enjoy no exclusive prospects, but he beholds upon an indian river a forest of british masts--the noble shipping of the queen of the sea--and has a fine panoramic view of this city of palaces erected by his countrymen on a foreign shore;--and if he is fond of children, he must be delighted with the numberless pretty and happy little faces--the fair forms of saxon men and women in miniature--that crowd about him on the green sward;--he must be charmed with their innocent prattle, their quick and graceful movements, and their winning ways, that awaken a tone of tender sentiment in his heart, and rekindle many sweet associations. sonnets, written in exile. i. man's heart may change, but nature's glory never;-- and while the soul's internal cell is bright, the cloudless eye lets in the bloom and light of earth and heaven to charm and cheer us ever. though youth hath vanished, like a winding river lost in the shadowy woods; and the dear sight of native hill and nest-like cottage white, 'mid breeze-stirred boughs whose crisp leaves gleam and quiver, and murmur sea-like sounds, perchance no more my homeward step shall hasten cheerily; yet still i feel as i have felt of yore, and love this radiant world. yon clear blue sky-- these gorgeous groves--this flower-enamelled floor-- have deep enchantments for my heart and eye. ii. man's heart may change, but nature's glory never, though to the sullen gaze of grief the sight of sun illumined skies may _seem_ less bright, or gathering clouds less grand, yet she, as ever, is lovely or majestic. though fate sever the long linked bands of love, and all delight be lost, as in a sudden starless night, the radiance may return, if he, the giver of peace on earth, vouchsafe the storm to still this breast once shaken with the strife of care is touched with silent joy. the cot--the hill, beyond the broad blue wave--and faces fair, are pictured in my dreams, yet scenes that fill my waking eye can save me from despair. iii. man's heart may change, but nature's glory never,-- strange features throng around me, and the shore is not my own dear land. yet why deplore this change of doom? all mortal ties must sever. the pang is past,--and now with blest endeavour i check the ready tear, the rising sigh the common earth is here--the common sky-- the common father. and how high soever o'er other tribes proud england's hosts may seem, god's children, fair or sable, equal find a father's love. then learn, o man, to deem all difference idle save of heart or mind thy duty, love--each cause of strife, a dream-- thy home, the world--thy family, mankind. d.l.r. for the sake of my home readers i must now say a word or two on the effect produced upon the mind of a stranger on his approach to calcutta from the sandheads. as we run up the bay of bengal and approach the dangerous sandheads, the beautiful deep blue of the ocean suddenly disappears. it turns into a pale green. the sea, even in calm weather, rolls over soundings in long swells. the hue of the water is varied by different depths, and in passing over the edge of soundings, it is curious to observe how distinctly the form of the sands may be traced by the different shades of green in the water above and beyond them. in the lower part of the bay, the crisp foam of the dark sea at night is instinct with phosphoric lustre. the ship seems to make her way through galaxies of little ocean stars. we lose sight of this poetical phenomenon as we approach the mouth of the hooghly. but the passengers, towards the termination of their voyage, become less observant of the changeful aspect of the sea. though amused occasionally by flights of sea-gulls, immense shoals of porpoises, apparently tumbling or rolling head over tail against the wind, and the small sprat-like fishes that sometimes play and glitter on the surface, the stranger grows impatient to catch a glimpse of an indian jungle; and even the swampy tiger-haunted saugor island is greeted with that degree of interest which novelty usually inspires. at first the land is but little above the level of the water. it rises gradually as we pass up further from the sea. as we come still nearer to calcutta, the soil on shore seems to improve in richness and the trees to increase in size. the little clusters of nest-like villages snugly sheltered in foliage--the groups of dark figures in white garments--the cattle wandering over the open plain--the emerald-colored fields of rice--the rich groves of mangoe trees--the vast and magnificent banyans, with straight roots dropping from their highest branches, (hundreds of these branch-dropped roots being fixed into the earth and forming "a pillared shade"),--the tall, slim palms of different characters and with crowns of different forms, feathery or fan-like,--the many-stemmed and long, sharp-leaved bamboos, whose thin pliant branches swing gracefully under the weight of the lightest bird,--the beautifully rounded and bright green peepuls, with their burnished leaves glittering in the sunshine, and trembling at the zephyr's softest touch with a pleasant rustling sound, suggestive of images of coolness and repose,--form a striking and singularly interesting scene (or rather succession of scenes) after the monotony of a long voyage during which nothing has been visible but sea and sky. but it is not until he arrives at a bend of the river called _garden reach_, where the city of palaces first opens on the view, that the stranger has a full sense of the value of our possessions in the east. the princely mansions on our right;--(residences of english gentry), with their rich gardens and smooth slopes verdant to the water's edge,--the large and rich botanic garden and the gothic edifice of bishop's college on our left--and in front, as we advance a little further, the countless masts of vessels of all sizes and characters, and from almost every clime,--fort william, with its grassy ramparts and white barracks,--the government house, a magnificent edifice in spite of many imperfections,--the substantial looking town hall--the supreme court house--the broad and ever verdant plain (or _madaun_) in front--and the noble lines of buildings along the esplanade and chowringhee road,--the new cathedral almost at the extremity of the plain, and half-hidden amidst the trees,--the suburban groves and buildings of kidderpore beyond, their outlines softened by the haze of distance, like scenes contemplated through colored glass--the high-sterned budgerows and small trim bauleahs along the edge of the river,--the neatly-painted palanquins and other vehicles of all sorts and sizes,--the variously-hued and variously-clad people of all conditions; the fair european, the black and nearly naked cooly, the clean-robed and lighter-skinned native baboo, the oriental nobleman with his jewelled turban and kincob vest, and costly necklace and twisted cummerbund, on a horse fantastically caparisoned, and followed in barbaric state by a train of attendants with long, golden-handled punkahs, peacock feather chowries, and golden chattahs and silver sticks,--present altogether a scene that is calculated to at once delight and bewilder the traveller, to whom all the strange objects before him have something of the enchantment and confusion of an arabian night's dream. when he recovers from his surprise, the first emotion in the breast of an englishman is a feeling of national pride. he exults in the recognition of so many glorious indications of the power of a small and remote nation that has founded a splendid empire in so strange and vast a land. when the first impression begins to fade, and he takes a closer view of the great metropolis of india--and observes what miserable straw huts are intermingled with magnificent palaces--how much oriental filth and squalor and idleness and superstition and poverty and ignorance are associated with savage splendour, and are brought into immediate and most incongruous contact with saxon energy and enterprize and taste and skill and love of order, and the amazing intelligence of the west in this nineteenth century--and when familiarity breeds something like contempt for many things that originally excited a vague and pleasing wonder--the english traveller in the east is apt to dwell too exclusively on the worst side of the picture, and to become insensible to the real interest, and blind to the actual beauty of much of the scene around him. extravagant astonishment and admiration, under the influence of novelty, a strong re-action, and a subsequent feeling of unreasonable disappointment, seem, in some degree, natural to all men; but in no other part of the world, and under no other circumstances, is this peculiarity of our condition more conspicuously displayed than in the case of englishmen in india. john bull, who is always a grumbler even on his own shores, is sure to become a still more inveterate grumbler in other countries, and perhaps the climate of bengal, producing lassitude and low spirits, and a yearning for their native land, of which they are so justly proud, contribute to make our countrymen in the east even more than usually unsusceptible of pleasurable emotions until at last they turn away in positive disgust from the scenes and objects which remind them that they are in a state of exile. "there is nothing," says hamlet, "either good or bad, but thinking makes it so." at every change of the mind's colored optics the scene before it changes also. i have sometimes contemplated the vast metropolis of england--or rather _of the world_--multitudinous and mighty london--with the pride and hope and exultation, not of a patriot only, but of a cosmopolite--a man. its grand national structures that seem built for eternity--its noble institutions, charitable, and learned, and scientific, and artistical--the genius and science and bravery and moral excellence within its countless walls--have overwhelmed me with a sense of its glory and majesty and power. but in a less admiring mood, i have quite reversed the picture. perhaps the following sonnet may seem to indicate that the writer while composing it, must have worn his colored spectacles. london, in the morning. the morning wakes, and through the misty air in sickly radiance struggles--like the dream of sorrow-shrouded hope. o'er thames' dull stream, whose sluggish waves a wealthy burden bear from every port and clime, the pallid glare of early sun-light spreads. the long streets seem unpeopled still, but soon each path shall teem with hurried feet, and visages of care. and eager throngs shall meet where dusky marts resound like ocean-caverns, with the din of toil and strife and agony and sin. trade's busy babel! ah! how many hearts by lust of gold to thy dim temples brought in happier hours have scorned the prize they sought? d.l.r. i now give a pair of sonnets upon the city of palaces as viewed through somewhat clearer glasses. view of calcutta. here passion's restless eye and spirit rude may greet no kindred images of power to fear or wonder ministrant. no tower, time-struck and tenantless, here seems to brood, in the dread majesty of solitude, o'er human pride departed--no rocks lower o'er ravenous billows--no vast hollow wood rings with the lion's thunder--no dark bower the crouching tiger haunts--no gloomy cave glitters with savage eyes! but all the scene is calm and cheerful. at the mild command of britain's sons, the skilful and the brave, fair palace-structures decorate the land, and proud ships float on hooghly's breast serene! d.l.r. sonnet, on returning to calcutta after a voyage to the straits of malacca. umbrageous woods, green dells, and mountains high, and bright cascades, and wide cerulean seas, slumbering, or snow-wreathed by the freshening breeze, and isles like motionless clouds upon the sky in silent summer noons, late charmed mine eye, until my soul was stirred like wind-touched trees, and passionate love and speechless ecstasies up-raised the thoughts in spiritual depths that lie. fair scenes, ye haunt me still! yet i behold this sultry city on the level shore not all unmoved; for here our fathers bold won proud historic names in days of yore, and here are generous hearts that ne'er grow cold, and many a friendly hand and open door. d.l.r. there are several extremely elegant customs connected with some of the indian festivals, at which flowers are used in great profusion. the surface of the "sacred river" is often thickly strewn with them. in mrs. carshore's pleasing volume of _songs of the east_[ ] there is a long poem (too long to quote entire) in which the _beara festival_ is described. i must give the introductory passage. "the beara festival. "upon the ganges' overflowing banks, where palm trees lined the shore in graceful ranks, i stood one night amidst a merry throng of british youths and maidens, to behold a witching indian scene of light and song, crowds of veiled native loveliness untold, each streaming path poured duskily along. the air was filled with the sweet breath of flowers, and music that awoke the silent hours, it was the beara festival and feast when proud and lowly, loftiest and least, matron and moslem maiden pay their vows, with impetratory and votive gift, and to the moslem jonas bent their brows. _each brought her floating lamp of flowers_, and swift a thousand lights along the current drift, till the vast bosom of the swollen stream, glittering and gliding onward like a dream, seems a wide mirror of the starry sphere or more as if the stars had dropt from air, and in an earthly heaven were shining here, and far above were, but reflected there still group on group, advancing to the brink, as group on group retired link by link; for one pale lamp that floated out of view five brighter ones they quickly placed anew; at length the slackening multitudes grew less, and the lamps floated scattered and apart. as stars grow few when morning's footsteps press when a slight girl, shy as the timid halt, not far from where we stood, her offering brought. singing a low sweet strain, with lips untaught. her song proclaimed, that 'twas not many hours since she had left her childhood's innocent home; and now with beara lamp, and wreathed flowers, to propitiate heaven, for wedded bliss had come" to these lines mrs. carshore (who has been in this country, i believe, from her birth, and who ought to know something of indian customs) appends the following notes. "_it was the beara festival_." much has been said about the beara or floating lamp, but i have never yet seen a correct description. moore mentions that lalla rookh saw a solitary hindoo girl bring her lamp to the river. d.l.r. says the same, whereas the beara festival is a moslem feast that takes place once a year in the monsoons, when thousands of females offer their vows to the patron of rivers. "_moslem jonas_" khauj khoddir is the jonas of the mussulman; he, like the prophet of nineveh, was for three days inside a fish, and for that reason is called the patron of rivers." i suppose mrs. carshore alludes, in the first of these notes, to the following passage in the prose part of lalla rookh:-- "as they passed along a sequestered river after sunset, they saw a young hindoo girl upon the bank whose employment seemed to them so strange that they stopped their palanquins to observe her. she had lighted a small lamp, filled with oil of cocoa, and placing it in an earthern dish, adorned with a wreath of flowers, had committed it with a trembling hand to the stream: and was now anxiously watching its progress down the current, heedless of the gay cavalcade which had drawn up beside her. lalla rookh was all curiosity;--when one of her attendants, who had lived upon the banks of the ganges, (where this ceremony is so frequent that often, in the dusk of evening, the river is seen glittering all over with lights, like the oton-jala or sea of stars,) informed the princess that it was the usual way, in which the friends of those who had gone on dangerous voyages offered up vows for their safe return. if the lamp sunk immediately, the omen was disastrous; but if it went shining down the stream, and continued to burn till entirely out of sight, the return of the beloved object was considered as certain. lalla rookh, as they moved on, more than once looked back, to observe how the young hindoo's lamp proceeded: and while she saw with pleasure that it was unextinguished, she could not help fearing that all the hopes of this life were no better than that feeble light upon the river." moore prepared himself for the writing of lalla rookh by "long and laborious reading." he himself narrates that sir james mackintosh was asked by colonel wilks, the historian of british india, whether it was true that the poet had never been in the east. sir james replied, "_never_." "well, that shows me," said colonel wilks, "that reading over d'herbelot is as good as riding on the back of a camel." sir john malcolm, sir william ouseley and other high authorities have testified to the accuracy of moore's descriptions of eastern scenes and customs. the following lines were composed on the banks of the hooghly at cossipore, (many long years ago) just after beholding the river one evening almost covered with floating lamps.[ ] a hindu festival. seated on a bank of green, gazing on an indian scene, i have dreams the mind to cheer, and a feast for eye and ear. at my feet a river flows, and its broad face richly glows with the glory of the sun, whose proud race is nearly run ne'er before did sea or stream kindle thus beneath his beam, ne'er did miser's eye behold such a glittering mass of gold 'gainst the gorgeous radiance float darkly, many a sloop and boat, while in each the figures seem like the shadows of a dream swiftly, passively, they glide as sliders on a frozen tide. sinks the sun--the sudden night falls, yet still the scene is bright now the fire-fly's living spark glances through the foliage dark, and along the dusky stream myriad lamps with ruddy gleam on the small waves float and quiver, as if upon the favored river, and to mark the sacred hour, stars had fallen in a shower. for many a mile is either shore illumined with a countless store of lustres ranged in glittering rows, each a golden column throws to light the dim depths of the tide, and the moon in all her pride though beauteously her regions glow, views a scene as fair below d.l.r. mrs. carshore alludes, i suppose to the above lines, or the following sonnet, or both perhaps, when she speaks of my erroneous orientalism-- scene on the ganges. the shades of evening veil the lofty spires of proud benares' fanes! a thickening haze hangs o'er the stream. the weary boatmen raise along the dusky shore their crimson fires that tinge the circling groups. now hope inspires yon hindu maid, whose heart true passion sways, to launch on gungas flood the glimmering rays of love's frail lamp,--but, lo the light expires! alas! what sudden sorrow fills her breast! no charm of life remains. her tears deplore a lover lost and never, never more shall hope's sweet vision yield her spirit rest! the cold wave quenched the flame--an omen dread that telleth of the faithless--_or the dead_! d.l.r. horace hayman wilson, a high authority on all oriental customs, clearly alludes in the following lines to the launching of floating lamps by _hindu_ females. grave in the tide the brahmin stands, and folds his cord or twists his hands, and tells his beads, and all unheard mutters a solemn mystic word with reverence the sudra dips, and fervently the current sips, that to his humbler hope conveys a future life of happier days. but chief do india's simple daughters assemble in these hallowed waters, with vase of classic model laden like grecian girl or tuscan maiden, collecting thus their urns to fill from gushing fount or trickling rill, and still with pious fervour they to gunga veneration pay and with pretenceless rite prefer, the wishes of their hearts to her the maid or matron, as she throws _champae_ or lotus, _bel_ or rose, or sends the quivering light afloat in shallow cup or paper boat, prays for a parent's peace and wealth prays for a child's success and health, for a fond husband breathes a prayer, for progeny their loves to share, for what of good on earth is given to lowly life, or hoped in heaven, h.h.w. on seeing miss carshore's criticism i referred the subject to an intelligent hindu friend from whom i received the following answer:-- my dear sir, the _beara_, strictly speaking, is a mahomedan festival. some of the lower orders of the hindus of the nw provinces, who have borrowed many of their customs from the mahomedans, celebrate the _beara_. but it is not observed by the hindus of bengal, who have a festival of their own, similar to the _beara_. it takes place on the evening of the _saraswati poojah_, when a small piece of the bark of the plantain tree is fitted out with all the necessary accompaniments of a boat, and is launched in a private tank with a lamp. the custom is confined to the women who follow it in their own house or in the same neighbourhood. it is called the _sooa dooa breta_. yours truly, * * * * * mrs. carshore it would seem is partly right and partly wrong. she is right in calling the _beara_ a _moslem_ festival. it is so; but we have the testimony of horace hayman wilson to the fact that _hindu maids and matrons also launch their lamps upon the river_. my hindu friend acknowledges that his countrymen in the north west provinces have borrowed many of their customs from the mahomedans, and though he is not aware of it, it may yet be the case, that some of the hindus of _bengal_, as elsewhere, have done the same, and that they set lamps afloat upon the stream to discover by their continued burning or sudden extinction the fate of some absent friend or lover. i find very few natives who are able to give me any exact and positive information concerning their own national customs. in their explanations of such matters they differ in the most extraordinary manner amongst themselves. two most respectable and intelligent native gentlemen who were proposing to lay out their grounds under my directions, told me that i must not cut down a single cocoa-nut tree, as it would be dreadful sacrilege--equal to cutting the throats of seven brahmins! another equally respectable and intelligent native friend, when i mentioned the fact, threw himself back in his chair to give vent to a hearty laugh. when he had recovered himself a little from this risible convulsion he observed that his father and his grandfather had cut down cocoa-nut trees in considerable numbers without the slightest remorse or fear. and yet again, i afterwards heard that one of the richest hindu families in calcutta, rather than suffer so sacred an object to be injured, piously submit to a very serious inconvenience occasioned by a cocoa-nut tree standing in the centre of the carriage road that leads to the portico of their large town palace. i am told that there are other sacred trees which must not be removed by the hands of hindus of inferior caste, though in this case there is a way of getting over the difficulty, for it is allowable or even meritorious to make presents of these trees to brahmins, who cut them down for their own fire-wood. but the cocoa-nut tree is said to be too sacred even for the axe of a brahmin. i have been running away again from my subject;--i was discoursing upon may-day in england. the season there is still a lovely and a merry one, though the most picturesque and romantic of its ancient observances, now live but in the memory of the "oldest inhabitants," or on the page of history.[ ] see where, amidst the sun and showers, the lady of the vernal hours, sweet may, comes forth again with all her flowers. _barry cornwall_. the _may-pole_ on these days is rarely seen to rise up in english towns with its proper floral decorations[ ]. in remote rural districts a solitary may-pole is still, however, occasionally discovered. "a may-pole," says washington irving, "gave a glow to my feelings and spread a charm over the country for the rest of the day: and as i traversed a part of the fair plains of cheshire, and the beautiful borders of wales and looked from among swelling hills down a long green valley, through which the deva wound its wizard stream, my imagination turned all into a perfect arcadia. one can readily imagine what a gay scene old london must have been when the doors were decked with hawthorn; and robin hood, friar tuck, maid marian, morris dancers, and all the other fantastic dancers and revellers were performing their antics about the may-pole in every part of the city. i value every custom which tends to infuse poetical feeling into the common people, and to sweeten and soften the rudeness of rustic manners without destroying their simplicity." another american writer--a poet--has expressed his due appreciation of the pleasures of the season. he thus addresses the merrie month of may.[ ] may. would that thou couldst laugh for aye, merry, ever merry may! made of sun gleams, shade and showers bursting buds, and breathing flowers, dripping locked, and rosy vested, violet slippered, rainbow crested; girdled with the eglantine, festooned with the dewy vine merry, ever merry may, would that thou could laugh for aye! _w.d. gallagher._ i must give a dainty bit of description from the poet of the poets--our own romantic spenser. then comes fair may, the fayrest mayde on ground, decked with all dainties of the season's pryde, and throwing flowres out of her lap around. upon two brethren's shoulders she did ride, the twins of leda, which, on eyther side, supported her like to their sovereign queene lord! how all creatures laught when her they spide, and leapt and danced as they had ravisht beene! and cupid's self about her fluttred all in greene. here are a few lines from herrick. fled are the frosts, and now the fields appeare re-clothed in freshe and verdant diaper; thawed are the snowes, and now the lusty spring gives to each mead a neat enameling, the palmes[ ] put forth their gemmes, and every tree now swaggers in her leavy gallantry. the queen of may--lady flora--was the british representative of the heathen goddess flora. may still returns and ever will return at her proper season, with all her bright leaves and fragrant blossoms, but men cease to make the same use of them as of yore. england is waxing utilitarian and prosaic. the poets, let others neglect her as they will, must ever do fitting observance, in songs as lovely and fresh as the flowers of the hawthorn, to the lady of the vernal hours. poor keats, who was passionately fond of flowers, and everything beautiful or romantic or picturesque, complains, with a true poet's earnestness, that in _his_ day in england there were no crowds of nymphs, soft-voiced and young and gay in woven baskets, bringing ears of corn, roses and pinks and violets, to adorn the shrine of flora in her early may. the floral games--_jeux floraux_--of toulouse--first celebrated at the commencement of the fourteenth century, are still kept up annually with great pomp and spirit. clemence isaure, a french lady, bequeathed to the academy of toulouse a large sum of money for the annual celebration of these games. a sort of college council is formed, which not only confers degrees on those poets who do most honor to the goddess flora, but sometimes grants them more substantial favors. in the poets were encouraged to compete for a golden violet and a silver eglantine and pansy. a century later the prizes offered were an amaranthus of gold of the value of livres, for the best ode, a violet of silver, valued at livres, for an essay in prose, a silver pansy, worth livres, for an eclogue, elegy or idyl, and a silver lily of the value of sixty livres, for the best sonnet or hymn in honor of the virgin mary,--for religion is mixed up with merriment, and heathen with christian rites. he who gained a prize three times was honored with the title of doctor _en gaye science_, the name given to the poetry of the provençal troubadours. a mass, a sermon, and alms-giving, commence the ceremonies. the french poet, ronsard who had gained a prize in the floral games, so delighted mary queen of scots with his verses on the rose that she presented him with a silver rose worth £ , with this inscription--"_a ronsard, l'apollon de la source des muses_." at ghent floral festivals are held twice a year when amateur and professional florists assemble together and contribute each his share of flowers to the grand general exhibition which is under the direct patronage of the public authorities. honorary medals are awarded to the possessors of the finest flowers. the chief floral festival of the chinese is on their new year's day, when their rivers are covered with boats laden with flowers, and gay flags streaming from every mast. their homes and temples are richly hung with festoons of flowers. boughs of the peach and plum trees in blossom, enkíanthus quinque-flòra, camelias, cockscombs, magnolias, jonquils are then exposed for sale in all the streets of canton. even the chinese ladies, who are visible at no other season, are seen on this occasion in flower-boats on the river or in the public gardens on the shore. the italians, it is said, still have artificers called _festaroli_, whose business it is to prepare festoons and garlands. the ancient romans were very tasteful in their nosegays and chaplets. pliny tells us that the sicyonians were especially celebrated for the graceful art exhibited in the arrangement of the varied colors of their garlands, and he gives us the story of glycera who, to please her lover pausias, the painter of sicyon, used to send him the most exquisite chaplets of her own braiding, which he regularly copied on his canvas. he became very eminent as a flower-painter. the last work of his pencil, and his master-piece, was a picture of his mistress in the act of arranging a chaplet. the picture was called the _garland twiner_. it is related that antony for some time mistrusting cleopatra made her taste in the first instance every thing presented to him at her banquets. one day "the serpent of old nile" after dipping her own coronet of flowers into her goblet drank up the wine and then directed him to follow her example. he was off his guard. he dipped his chaplet in his cup. the leaves had been touched with poison. he was just raising the cup to his lips when she seized his arm, and said "cease your jealous doubts, for know, that if i had desired your death or wished to live without you, i could easily have destroyed you." the queen then ordered a prisoner to be brought into their presence, who being made to drink from the cup, instantly expired.[ ] some of the nosegays made up by "flower-girls" in london and its neighbourhood are sold at such extravagant prices that none but the very wealthy are in the habit of purchasing them, though sometimes a poor lover is tempted to present his mistress on a ball-night with a bouquet that he can purchase only at the cost of a good many more leaves of bread or substantial meals than he can well spare. he has to make every day a banian-day for perhaps half a month that his mistress may wear a nosegay for a few hours. however, a lover is often like a cameleon and can almost live on air--_for a time_--"promise-crammed." 'you cannot feed capons so.' at covent garden market, (in london) and the first-rate flower-shops, a single wreath or nosegay is often made up for the head or hand at a price that would support a poor labourer and his family for a month. the colors of the wreaths are artfully arranged, so as to suit different complexions, and so also as to exhibit the most rare and costly flowers to the greatest possible advantage. all true poets --the sages who have left streaks of light athwart their pages-- have contemplated flowers--with a passionate love, an ardent admiration; none more so than the sweet-souled shakespeare. they are regarded by the imaginative as the fairies of the vegetable world--the physical personifications of etherial beauty. in _the winter's tale_ our great dramatic bard has some delightful floral allusions that cannot be too often quoted. here's flowers for you, hot lavender, mint, savory, majoram, the marigold, that goes to bed with the sun, and with him rises weeping these are flowers of middle summer, and i think they are given to men of middle age. * * * * * o, proserpina, for the flowers now that, frighted, thou lett'st fall from dis's waggon! daffodils, that come before the swallow dares, and take the winds of march with beauty, violets dim, but sweeter than the lids of juno's eyes, or cytherea's breath, pale primroses, that die unmarried ere they can behold great phoebus in his strength,--a malady most incident to maids, bold oxlips and the crown imperial, lilies of all kinds, the flower de luce being one shakespeare here, as elsewhere, speaks of "_pale_ primroses." the poets almost always allude to the primrose as a _pale_ and interesting invalid. milton tells us of the yellow cowslip and the _pale_ primrose[ ] the poet in the manuscript of his _lycidas_ had at first made the primrose "_die unwedded_," which was a pretty close copy of shakespeare. milton afterwards struck out the word "_unwedded_," and substituted the word "_forsaken_." the reason why the primrose was said to "die unmarried," is, according to warton, because it grows in the shade uncherished or unseen by the sun, who was supposed to be in love with certain sorts of flowers. ben jonson, however, describes the primrose as _a wedded lady_--"the spring's own _spouse_"--though she is certainly more commonly regarded as the daughter of spring not the wife. j fletcher gives her the true parentage:-- primrose, first born child of ver there are some kinds of primroses, that are not _pale_. there is a species in scotland, which is of a deep purple. and even in england (in some of the northern counties) there is a primrose, the bird's-eye primrose, (primula farinosa,) of which the blossom is lilac colored and the leaves musk-scented. in sweden they call the primrose _the key of may_. the primrose is always a great favorite with imaginative and sensitive observers, but there are too many people who look upon the beautiful with a utilitarian eye, or like wordsworth's peter bell regard it with perfect indifference. a primrose by the river's brim a yellow primrose was to him. and it was nothing more. i have already given one anecdote of a utilitarian; but i may as well give two more anecdotes of a similar character. mrs. wordsworth was in a grove, listening to the cooing of the stock-doves, and associating their music with the remembrance of her husband's verses to a stock-dove, when a farmer's wife passing by exclaimed, "oh, i do like stock-doves!" the woman won the heart of the poet's wife at once; but she did not long retain it. "some people," continued the speaker, "like 'em in a pie; for my part i think there's nothing like 'em stewed in inions." this was a rustic utilitarian. here is an instance of a very different sort of utilitarianism--the utilitarianism of men who lead a gay town life. sir w.h. listened, patiently for some time to a poetical-minded friend who was rapturously expatiating upon the delicious perfume of a bed of violets; "oh yes," said sir w. at last, "its all very well, but for my part i very much prefer the smell of a flambeau at the theatre." but intellects far more capacious than that of sir w.h. have exhibited the same indifference to the beautiful in nature. locke and jeremy bentham and even sir isaac newton despised all poetry. and yet god never meant man to be insensible to the beautiful or the poetical. "poetry, like truth," says ebenezer elliot, "is a common flower: god has sown it over the earth, like the daisies sprinkled with tears or glowing in the sun, even as he places the crocus and the march frosts together and beautifully mingles life and death." if the finer and more spiritual faculties of men were as well cultivated or exercised as are their colder and coarser faculties there would be fewer utilitarians. but the highest part of our nature is too much neglected in all our systems of education. of the beauty and fragrance of flowers all earthly creatures except man are apparently meant to be unconscious. the cattle tread down or masticate the fairest flowers without a single "compunctious visiting of nature." this excites no surprize. it is no more than natural. but it is truly painful and humiliating to see any human being as insensible as the beasts of the field to that poetry of the world which god seems to have addressed exclusively to the heart and soul of man. in south wales the custom of strewing all kinds of flowers over the graves of departed friends, is preserved to the present day. shakespeare, it appears, knew something of the customs of that part of his native country and puts the following _flowery_ speech into the mouth of the young prince, arviragus, who was educated there. with fairest flowers, while summer lasts, and i live here, fidele, i'll sweeten thy sad grave. thou shalt not lack the flower that's like thy face, pale primrose, nor the azured harebell, like thy veins; no, nor the leaf of eglantine; whom not to slander, out-sweetened not thy breath. _cymbeline_. here are two more flower-passages from shakespeare. here's a few flowers; but about midnight more; the herbs that have on them cold dew o' the night are strewings fitt'st for graves.--upon their faces:-- you were as flowers; now withered; even so these herblets shall, which we upon you strow. _cymbeline_. sweets to the sweet. farewell! i hoped thou shoulds't have been my hamlet's wife; i thought thy bride-bed to have decked, sweet maid, and not t' have strewed thy grave. _hamlet_. flowers are peculiarly suitable ornaments for the grave, for as evelyn truly says, "they are just emblems of the life of man, which has been compared in holy scripture to those fading creatures, whose roots being buried in dishonor rise again in glory."[ ] this thought is natural and just. it is indeed a most impressive sight, a most instructive pleasure, to behold some "bright consummate flower" rise up like a radiant exhalation or a beautiful vision--like good from evil--with such stainless purity and such dainty loveliness, from the hot-bed of corruption. milton turns his acquaintance with flowers to divine account in his lycidas. return; sicilian muse, and call the vales, and bid them hither cast their bells and flowerets of a thousand hues. ye vallies low, where the mild whispers use of shades and wanton winds, and gushing brooks, on whose fresh lap the swart-star sparely looks; throw hither all your quaint enamelled eyes, that on the green turf suck the honied showers. and purple all the ground with vernal flowers. bring the rathe primrose that forsaken dies. the tufted crow-toe, and pale jessamine, the white pink, and the pansy freaked with jet, the glowing violet, the musk-rose and the well-attired woodbine, with cowslips wan that hang the pensive head,[ ] and every flower that sad embroidery wears; bid amaranthus all his beauty shed, and daffodillies fill their cups with tears, to strew the laureate hearse where lycid lies, for, so to interpose a little ease, let our frail thoughts dally with faint surmise here is a nosegay of spring-flowers from the hand of thomson:-- fair handed spring unbosoms every grace, throws out the snow drop and the crocus first, the daisy, primrose, violet darkly blue, and polyanthus of unnumbered dyes, the yellow wall flower, stained with iron brown, and lavish stock that scents the garden round, from the soft wing of vernal breezes shed, anemonies, auriculas, enriched with shining meal o'er all their velvet leaves and full ranunculus of glowing red then comes the tulip race, where beauty plays her idle freaks from family diffused to family, as flies the father dust, the varied colors run, and while they break on the charmed eye, the exulting florist marks with secret pride, the wonders of his hand nor gradual bloom is wanting, from the bird, first born of spring, to summer's musky tribes nor hyacinth, of purest virgin white, low bent, and, blushing inward, nor jonquils, of potent fragrance, nor narcissus fair, as o'er the fabled fountain hanging still, nor broad carnations, nor gay spotted pinks; nor, showered from every bush, the damask rose. infinite varieties, delicacies, smells, with hues on hues expression cannot paint, the breath of nature and her endless bloom. here are two bouquets of flowers from the garden of cowper laburnum, rich in streaming gold, syringa, ivory pure, the scentless and the scented rose, this red, and of an humbler growth, the other[ ] tall, and throwing up into the darkest gloom of neighboring cypress, or more sable yew, her silver globes, light as the foamy surf that the wind severs from the broken wave, the lilac, various in array, now white, now sanguine, and her beauteous head now set with purple spikes pyramidal, as if studious of ornament yet unresolved which hue she most approved, she chose them all, copious of flowers the woodbine, pale and wan, but well compensating her sickly looks with never cloying odours, early and late, hypericum all bloom, so thick a swarm of flowers, like flies clothing her slender rods, that scarce a loaf appears, mezereon too, though leafless, well attired, and thick beset with blushing wreaths, investing every spray, althaea with the purple eye, the broom yellow and bright, as bullion unalloy'd, her blossoms, and luxuriant above all the jasmine, throwing wide her elegant sweets, the deep dark green of whose unvarnish'd leaf makes more conspicuous, and illumines more, the bright profusion of her scatter'd stars * * * * * th' amomum there[ ] with intermingling flowers and cherries hangs her twigs. geranium boasts her crimson honors, and the spangled beau ficoides, glitters bright the winter long all plants, of every leaf, that can endure the winter's frown, if screened from his shrewd bite, live their and prosper. those ausonia claims, levantine regions those, the azores send their jessamine, her jessamine remote caffraia, foreigners from many lands, they form one social shade as if convened by magic summons of the orphean lyre here is a bunch of flowers laid before the public eye by mr. proctor-- there the rose unveils her breast of beauty, and each delicate bud o' the season comes in turn to bloom and perish, but first of all the violet, with an eye blue as the midnight heavens, the frail snowdrop, born of the breath of winter, and on his brow fixed like a full and solitary star the languid hyacinth, and wild primrose and daisy trodden down like modesty the fox glove, in whose drooping bells the bee makes her sweet music, the narcissus (named from him who died for love) the tangled woodbine, lilacs, and flowering vines, and scented thorns, and some from whom the voluptuous winds of june catch their perfumings _barry cornwall_ i take a second supply of flowers from the same hand here, this rose (this one half blown) shall be my maia's portion, for that like it her blush is beautiful and this deep violet, almost as blue as pallas' eye, or thine, lycemnia, i'll give to thee for like thyself it wears its sweetness, never obtruding. for this lily where can it hang but it cyane's breast? and yet twill wither on so white a bed, if flowers have sense of envy.--it shall be amongst thy raven tresses, cytheris, like one star on the bosom of the night the cowslip and the yellow primrose,--they are gone, my sad leontia, to their graves, and april hath wept o'er them, and the voice of march hath sung, even before their deaths the dirge of those young children of the year but here is hearts ease for your woes. and now, the honey suckle flower i give to thee, and love it for my sake, my own cyane it hangs upon the stem it loves, as thou hast clung to me, through every joy and sorrow, it flourishes with its guardian growth, as thou dost, and if the woodman's axe should droop the tree, the woodbine too must perish. _barry cornwall_ let me add to the above heap of floral beauty a basket of flowers from leigh hunt. then the flowers on all their beds-- how the sparklers glance their heads, daisies with their pinky lashes and the marigolds broad flashes, hyacinth with sapphire bell curling backward, and the swell of the rose, full lipped and warm, bound about whose riper form her slender virgin train are seen in their close fit caps of green, lilacs then, and daffodillies, and the nice leaved lesser lilies shading, like detected light, their little green-tipt lamps of white; blissful poppy, odorous pea, with its wing up lightsomely; balsam with his shaft of amber, mignionette for lady's chamber, and genteel geranium, with a leaf for all that come; and the tulip tricked out finest, and the pink of smell divinest; and as proud as all of them bound in one, the garden's gem hearts-ease, like a gallant bold in his cloth of purple and gold. lady mary wortley montague, who introduced inoculation into england--a practically useful boon to us,--had also the honor to be amongst the first to bring from the east to the west an elegant amusement--the language of flowers.[ ] then he took up his garland, and did show what every flower, as country people hold, did signify; and how all, ordered thus, expressed his grief: and, to my thoughts, did read the prettiest lecture of his country art that could be wished. _beaumont's and fletcher's "philaster."_ * * * * * there from richer banks culling out flowers, which in a learned order do become characters, whence they disclose their mutual meanings, garlands then and nosegays being framed into epistles. _cartwright's "love's covenant."_ * * * * * an exquisite invention this, worthy of love's most honied kiss, this art of writing _billet-doux_ in buds and odours and bright hues, in saying all one feels and thinks in clever daffodils and pinks, uttering (as well as silence may,) the sweetest words the sweetest way. _leigh hunt_. * * * * * yet, no--not words, for they but half can tell love's feeling; sweet flowers alone can say what passion fears revealing.[ ] a once bright rose's withered leaf-- a towering lily broken-- oh, these may paint a grief no words could e'er have spoken. _moore_. * * * * * by all those token flowers that tell what words can ne'er express so well. _byron_. * * * * * a mystic language, perfect in each part. made up of bright hued thoughts and perfumed speeches. _adams_. if we are to believe shakespeare it is not human beings only who use a floral language:-- fairies use flowers for their charactery. sir walter scott tells us that:-- the myrtle bough bids lovers live-- a sprig of hawthorn has the same meaning as a sprig of myrtle: it gives hope to the lover--the sweet heliotrope tells the depth of his passion,--if he would charge his mistress with levity he presents the larkspur,--and a leaf of nettle speaks her cruelty. poor ophelia (in _hamlet_) gives rosemary for remembrance, and pansies (_pensees_) for thoughts. the laurel indicates victory in war or success with the muses, "the meed of mighty conquerors and poets sage." the ivy wreathes the brows of criticism. the fresh vine-leaf cools the hot forehead of the bacchanal. bergamot and jessamine imply the fragrance of friendship. the olive is the emblem of peace--the laurel, of glory--the rue, of grace or purification (ophelia's _herb of grace o'sundays_)--the primrose, of the spring of human life--the bud of the white rose, of girl-hood,--the full blossom of the red rose, of consummate beauty--the daisy, of innocence,--the butter-cup, of gold--the houstania, of content--the heliotrope, of devotion in love--the cross of jerusalem, of devotion in religion--the forget-me-not, of fidelity--the myrrh, of gladness--the yew, of sorrow--the michaelmas daisy, of cheerfulness in age--the chinese chrysanthemum, of cheerfulness in adversity--the yellow carnation, of disdain--the sweet violet, of modesty--the white chrysanthemum, of truth--the sweet sultan, of felicity--the sensitive plant, of maiden shyness--the yellow day lily, of coquetry--the snapdragon, of presumption--the broom, of humility--the amaryllis, of pride--the grass, of submission--the fuschia, of taste--the verbena, of sensibility--the nasturtium, of splendour--the heath, of solitude--the blue periwinkle, of early friendship--the honey-suckle, of the bond of love--the trumpet flower, of fame--the amaranth, of immortality--the adonis, of sorrowful remembrance,--and the poppy, of oblivion. the witch-hazel indicates a spell,--the cape jasmine says _i'm too happy_--the laurestine, _i die if i am neglected_--the american cowslip, _you are a divinity_--the volkamenica japonica, _may you be happy_--the rose-colored chrysanthemum, _i love_,--and the venus' car, _fly with me_. for the following illustrations of the language of flowers i am indebted to a useful and well conducted little periodical published in london and entitled the _family friend_;--the work is a great favorite with the fair sex. "of the floral grammar, the first rule to be observed is, that the pronoun _i_ or _me_ is expressed by inclining the symbol flower to the _left_, and the pronoun _thou_ or _thee_ by inclining it to the _right_. when, however, it is not a real flower offered, but a representation upon paper, these positions must be reversed, so that the symbol leans to the heart of the person whom it is to signify. the second rule is, that the opposite of a particular sentiment expressed by a flower presented upright is denoted when the symbol is reversed; thus a rose-bud sent upright, with its thorns and leaves, means, "_i fear, but i hope_." if the bud is returned upside down, it means, "_you must neither hope nor fear_." should the thorns, however, be stripped off, the signification is, "_there is everything to hope_;" but if stript of its leaves, "_there is everything to fear_." by this it will be seen that the expression of almost all flowers may be varied by a change in their positions, or an alteration of their state or condition. for example, the marigold flower placed in the hand signifies "_trouble of spirits_;" on the heart, "_trouble or love_;" on the bosom, "_weariness_." the pansy held upright denotes "_heart's ease_;" reversed, it speaks the contrary. when presented upright, it says, "_think of me_;" and when pendent, "_forget me_." so, too, the amaryllis, which is the emblem of pride, may be made to express, "_my pride is humbled_," or, "_your pride is checked_," by holding it downwards, and to the right or left, as the sense requires. then, again, the wallflower, which is the emblem of fidelity in misfortune, if presented with the stalk upward, would intimate that the person to whom it was turned was unfaithful in the time of trouble. the third rule has relation to the manner in which certain words may be represented; as, for instance, the articles, by tendrils with single, double, and treble branches, as under-- [illustration of _the_, _an_ & _a_.] the numbers are represented by leaflets running from one to eleven, as thus-- [illustration of ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', & ' '.] from eleven to twenty, berries are added to the ten leaves thus-- [illustration of ' ' & ' '.] from twenty to one hundred, compound leaves are added to the other ten for the decimals, and berries stand for the odd numbers so-- [illustration of ' ', ' ' & ' '.] a hundred is represented by ten tens; and this may be increased by a third leaflet and a branch of berries up to . [illustration of ' '.] a thousand may be symbolized by a frond of fern, having ten or more leaves, and to this a common leaflet may be added to increase the number of thousands. in this way any given number may be represented in foliage, such as the date of a year in which a birthday, or other event, occurs, to which it is desirable to make allusion, in an emblematic wreath or floral picture. thus, if i presented my love with a mute yet eloquent expression of good wishes on her eighteenth birthday, i should probably do it in this wise:--within an evergreen wreath (_lasting as my affection_), consisting of ten leaflets and eight berries (_the age of the beloved_), i would place a red rose bud (_pure and lovely_), or a white lily (_pure and modest_), its spotless petals half concealing a ripe strawberry (_perfect excellence_); and to this i might add a blossom of the rose-scented geranium (_expressive of my preference_), a peach blossom to say "_i am your captive_" fern for sincerity, and perhaps bachelor's buttons for _hope in love_"--_family friend_. there are many anecdotes and legends and classical fables to illustrate the history of shrubs and flowers, and as they add something to the peculiar interest with which we regard individual plants, they ought not to be quite passed over by the writers upon floriculture. the flos adonis. the flos adonis, a blood-red flower of the anemone tribe, is one of the many plants which, according to ancient story sprang from the tears of venus and the blood of her coy favorite. rose cheeked adonis hied him to the chase hunting he loved, but love he laughed to scorn _shakespeare_. venus, the goddess of beauty, the mother of love, the queen of laughter, the mistress of the graces and the pleasures, could make no impression on the heart of the beautiful son of myrrha, (who was changed into a myrrh tree,) though the passion-stricken charmer looked and spake with the lip and eye of the fairest of the immortals. shakespeare, in his poem of _venus and adonis_, has done justice to her burning eloquence, and the lustre of her unequalled loveliness. she had most earnestly, and with all a true lover's care entreated adonis to avoid the dangers of the chase, but he slighted all her warnings just as he had slighted her affections. he was killed by a wild boar. shakespeare makes venus thus lament over the beautiful dead body as it lay on the blood-stained grass. alas, poor world, what treasure hast thou lost! what face remains alive that's worth the viewing? whose tongue is music now? what can'st thou boast of things long since, or any thing ensuing? the flowers are sweet, their colors fresh and trim, but true sweet beauty lived and died with him. in her ecstacy of grief she prophecies that henceforth all sorts of sorrows shall be attendants upon love,--and alas! she was too correct an oracle. the course of true love never does run smooth. here is shakespeare's version of the metamorphosis of adonis into a flower. by this the boy that by her side lay killed was melted into vapour from her sight, and in his blood that on the ground lay spilled, a purple flower sprang up, checquered with white, resembling well his pale cheeks, and the blood which in round drops upon their whiteness stood. she bows her head, the new sprung flower to smell, comparing it to her adonis' breath, and says, within her bosom it shall dwell since he himself is reft from her by death; she crops the stalk, and in the branch appears green dropping sap which she compares to tears. the reader may like to contrast this account of the change from human into floral beauty with the version of the same story in ovid as translated by eusden. then on the blood sweet nectar she bestows, the scented blood in little bubbles rose; little as rainy drops, which fluttering fly, borne by the winds, along a lowering sky, short time ensued, till where the blood was shed, a flower began to rear its purple head such, as on punic apples is revealed or in the filmy rind but half concealed, still here the fate of lonely forms we see, _so sudden fades the sweet anemone_. the feeble stems to stormy blasts a prey their sickly beauties droop, and pine away the winds forbid the flowers to flourish long which owe to winds their names in grecian song. the concluding couplet alludes to the grecian name of the flower ([greek: anemos], _anemos_, the wind.) it is said of the anemone that it never opens its lips until zephyr kisses them. sir william jones alludes to its short-lived beauty. youth, like a thin anemone, displays his silken leaf, and in a morn decays. horace smith speaks of the coy anemone that ne'er discloses her lips until they're blown on by the wind plants open out their leaves to breathe the air just as eagerly as they throw down their roots to suck up the moisture of the earth. dr. linley, indeed says, "they feed more by their leaves than their roots." i lately met with a curious illustration of the fact that plants draw a larger proportion of their nourishment from light and air than is commonly supposed. i had a beautiful convolvulus growing upon a trellis work in an upper verandah with a south-western aspect. the root of the plant was in pots. the convolvulus growing too luxuriantly and encroaching too much upon the space devoted to a creeper of another kind, i separated its upper branches from the root and left them to die. the leaves began to fade the second day and most of them were quite dead the third or fourth day, but two or three of the smallest retained a sickly life for some days more. the buds or rather chalices outlived the leaves. the chalices continued to expand every morning, for--i am afraid to say how long a time--it might seem perfectly incredible. the convolvulus is a plant of a rather delicate character and i was perfectly astonished at its tenacity of life in this case. i should mention that this happened in the rainy season and that the upper part of the creeper was partially protected from the sun. the anemone seems to have been a great favorite with mrs. hemans. she thus addresses it. flower! the laurel still may shed brightness round the victor's head, and the rose in beauty's hair still its festal glory wear; and the willow-leaves droop o'er brows which love sustains no more but by living rays refined, thou the trembler of the wind, thou, the spiritual flower sentient of each breeze and shower,[ ] thou, rejoicing in the skies and transpierced with all their dyes; breathing-vase with light o'erflowing, gem-like to thy centre flowing, thou the poet's type shall be flower of soul, anemone! the common anemone was known to the ancients but the finest kind was introduced into france from the east indies, by monsieur bachelier, an eminent florist. he seems to have been a person of a truly selfish disposition, for he refused to share the possession of his floral treasure with any of his countrymen. for ten years the new anemone from the east was to be seen no where in europe but in monsieur bachelier's parterre. at last a counsellor of the french parliament disgusted with the florist's selfishness, artfully contrived when visiting the garden to drop his robe upon the flower in such a manner as to sweep off some of the seeds. the servant, who was in his master's secret, caught up the robe and carried it away. the trick succeeded; and the counsellor shared the spoils with all his friends through whose agency the plant was multiplied in all parts of europe. the olive. the olive is generally regarded as an emblem of peace, and should have none but pleasant associations connected with it, but ovid alludes to a wild species of this tree into which a rude and licentious fellow was converted as a punishment for "banishing the fair," with indecent words and gestures. the poet tells us of a secluded grotto surrounded by trembling reeds once frequented by the wood-nymphs of the sylvan race:-- till appulus with a dishonest air and gross behaviour, banished thence the fair. the bold buffoon, whene'er they tread the green, their motion mimics, but with jest obscene; loose language oft he utters; but ere long a bark in filmy net-work binds his tongue; thus changed, a base wild olive he remains; the shrub the coarseness of the clown retains. _garth's ovid_. the mural of this is excellent. the sentiment reminds me of the earl of roscommon's well-known couplet in his _essay on translated verse_, a poem now rarely read. immodest words admit of no defense,[ ] for want of decency is want of sense, the hyacinth. the hyacinth has always been a great favorite with the poets, ancient and modern. homer mentions the hyacinth as forming a portion of the materials of the couch of jove and juno. thick new-born violets a soft carpet spread, and clustering lotos swelled the rising bed, and sudden _hyacinths_[ ] the turf bestrow, and flaming crocus made the mountains glow _iliad, book _ milton gives a similar couch to adam and eve. flowers were the couch pansies, and violets, and asphodel and _hyacinth_, earth's freshest, softest lap with the exception of the lotus (so common in hindustan,) all these flowers, thus celebrated by the greatest of grecian poets, and represented as fit luxuries for the gods, are at the command of the poorest peasant in england. the common hyacinth is known to the unlearned as the harebell, so called from the bell shape of its flowers and from its growing so abundantly in thickets frequented by hares. shakespeare, as we have seen, calls it the _blue_-bell. the curling flowers of the hyacinth, have suggested to our poets the idea of clusters of curling tresses of hair. his fair large front and eye sublime declared absolute rule, and hyacinthine locks round from his parted forelock manly hung, clustering _milton_ the youths whose locks divinely spreading like vernal hyacinths in sullen hue _collins_ sir william jones describes-- the fragrant hyacinths of azza's hair, that wanton with the laughing summer air. a similar allusion may also be found in prose. "it was the exquisitely fair queen helen, whose jacinth[ ] hair, curled by nature, intercurled by art, like a brook through golden sands, had a rope of fair pearl, which, now hidden by the hair, did, as it were play at fast and loose each with the other, mutually giving and receiving richness."--_sir philip sidney_ "the ringlets so elegantly disposed round the fair countenances of these fair chiotes [ ] are such as milton describes by 'hyacinthine locks' crisped and curled like the blossoms of that flower" _dallaway_ the old fable about hyacinthus is soon told. apollo loved the youth and not only instructed him in literature and the arts, but shared in his pastimes. the divine teacher was one day playing with his pupil at quoits. some say that zephyr (ovid says it was boreas) jealous of the god's influence over young hyacinthus, wafted the ponderous iron ring from its right course and caused it to pitch upon the poor boy's head. he fell to the ground a bleeding corpse. apollo bade the scarlet hyacinth spring from the blood and impressed upon its leaves the words _ai ai_, (_alas! alas!_) the greek funeral lamentation. milton alludes to the flower in _lycidas_, like to that sanguine flower inscribed with woe. drummond had before spoken of that sweet flower that bears in sanguine spots the tenor of our woes hurdis speaks of: the melancholy hyacinth, that weeps all night, and never lifts an eye all day. ovid, after giving the old fable of hyacinthus, tells us that "the time shall come when a most valiant hero shall add his name to this flower." "he alludes," says mr. riley, "to ajax, from whose blood when he slew himself, a similar flower[ ] was said to have arisen with the letters _ai ai_ on its leaves, expressive either of grief or denoting the first two letters of his name [greek: aias]." as poets feigned from ajax's streaming blood arose, with grief inscribed, a mournful flower. _young_. keats has the following allusion to the old story of hyacinthus, or they might watch the quoit-pitchers, intent on either side; pitying the sad death of hyacinthus, when the cruel breath of zephyr slew him,--zephyr penitent, who now, ere phoebus mounts the firmament fondles the flower amid the sobbing rain. _endymion_. our english hyacinth, it is said, is not entitled to its legendary honors. the words _non scriptus_ were applied to this plant by dodonaeus, because it had not the _ai ai_ upon its petals. professor martyn says that the flower called _lilium martagon_ or the _scarlet turk's cap_ is the plant alluded to by the ancients. alphonse karr, the eloquent french writer, whose "_tour round my garden_" i recommend to the perusal of all who can sympathize with reflections and emotions suggested by natural objects, has the following interesting anecdote illustrative of the force of a floral association:-- "i had in a solitary corner of my garden _three hyacinths_ which my father had planted and which death did not allow him to see bloom. every year the period of their flowering was for me a solemnity, a funeral and religious festival, it was a melancholy remembrance which revived and reblossomed every year and exhaled certain thoughts with its perfume. the roots are dead now and nothing lives of this dear association but in my own heart. but what a dear yet sad privilege man possesses above all created beings, while thus enabled by memory and thought to follow those whom he loved to the tomb and there shut up the living with the dead. what a melancholy privilege, and yet is there one amongst us who would lose it? who is he who would willingly forget all" wordsworth, suddenly stopping before a little bunch of harebells, which along with some parsley fern, grew out of a wall, he exclaimed, 'how perfectly beautiful that is! would that the little flowers that grow could live conscious of half the pleasure that they give the hyacinth has been cultivated with great care and success in holland, where from two to three hundred pounds have been given for a single bulb. a florist at haarlem enumerates kinds of double-flowered hyacinths, besides about varieties of the single kind. it is said that there are altogether upwards of varieties of the hyacinth. the english are particularly fond of the hyacinth. it is a domestic flower--a sort of parlour pet. when in "close city pent" they transfer the bulbs to glass vases (hyacinth glasses) filled with water, and place them in their windows in the winter. an annual solemnity, called hyacinthia, was held in laconia in honor of hyacinthus and apollo. it lasted three days. so eagerly was this festival honored, that the soldiers of laconia even when they had taken the field against an enemy would return home to celebrate it. the narcissus foolish narcisse, that likes the watery shore _spenser_ with respect to the narcissus, whose name in the floral vocabulary is the synonyme of _egotism_, there is a story that must be familiar enough to most of my readers. narcissus was a beautiful youth. teresias, the soothsayer, foretold that he should enjoy felicity until he beheld his own face but that the first sight of that would be fatal to him. every kind of mirror was kept carefully out of his way. echo was enamoured of him, but he slighted her love, and she pined and withered away until she had nothing left her but her voice, and even that could only repeat the last syllables of other people's sentences. he at last saw his own image reflected in a fountain, and taking it for that of another, he fell passionately in love with it. he attempted to embrace it. on seeing the fruitlessness of all his efforts, he killed himself in despair. when the nymphs raised a funeral pile to burn his body, they found nothing but a flower. that flower (into which he had been changed) still bears his name. here is a little passage about the fable, from the _two noble kinsmen_ of beaumont and fletcher. _emilia_--this garden hath a world of pleasure in it, what flower is this? _servant_--'tis called narcissus, madam. _em._--that was a fair boy certain, but a fool to love himself, were there not maids, or are they all hard hearted? _ser_--that could not be to one so fair. ben jonson touches the true moral of the fable very forcibly. 'tis now the known disease that beauty hath, to hear too deep a sense of her own self conceived excellence oh! had'st thou known the worth of heaven's rich gift, thou would'st have turned it to a truer use, and not (with starved and covetous ignorance) pined in continual eyeing that bright gem the glance whereof to others had been more than to thy famished mind the wide world's store. gay's version of the fable is as follows: here young narcissus o'er the fountain stood and viewed his image in the crystal flood the crystal flood reflects his lovely charms and the pleased image strives to meet his arms. no nymph his inexperienced breast subdued, echo in vain the flying boy pursued himself alone, the foolish youth admires and with fond look the smiling shade desires, o'er the smooth lake with fruitless tears he grieves, his spreading fingers shoot in verdant leaves, through his pale veins green sap now gently flows, and in a short lived flower his beauty glows addison has given a full translation of the story of narcissus from ovid's metamorphoses, book the third. the common daffodil of our english fields is of the genus narcissus. "pray," said some one to pope, "what is this _asphodel_ of homer?" "why, i believe," said pope "if one was to say the truth, 'twas nothing else but that poor yellow flower that grows about our orchards, and, if so, the verse might be thus translated in english --the stern achilles stalked through a mead of daffodillies" the laurel daphne was a beautiful nymph beloved by that very amorous gentleman, apollo. the love was not reciprocal. she endeavored to escape his godship's importunities by flight. apollo overtook her. she at that instant solicited aid from heaven, and was at once turned into a laurel. apollo gathered a wreath from the tree and placing it on his own immortal brows, decreed that from that hour the laurel should be sacred to his divinity. the sun-flower who can unpitying see the flowery race shed by the morn then newflushed bloom resign, before the parching beam? so fade the fair, when fever revels in their azure veins but one, _the lofty follower of the sun_, sad when he sits shuts up her yellow leaves, drooping all night, and when he warm return, points her enamoured bosom to his ray _thomson_. the sun-flower (_helianthus_) was once the fair nymph clytia. broken-hearted at the falsehood of her lover, apollo, (who has so many similar sins to answer for) she pined away and died. when it was too late apollo's heart relented, and in honor of true affection he changed poor clytia into a _sun-flower_.[ ] it is sometimes called _tourne-sol_--a word that signifies turning to the sun. thomas moore helps to keep the old story in remembrance by the concluding couplet of one of his sweetest ballads. oh! the heart that has truly loved never forgets, but as truly loves on to its close as the sun flower turns on her god when he sets the same look that she turned when he rose but moore has here poetized a vulgar error. most plants naturally turn towards the light, but the sun-flower (in spite of its name) is perhaps less apt to turn itself towards apollo than the majority of other flowers for it has a stiff stem and a number of heavy heads. at all events it does not change its attitude in the course of the day. the flower-disk that faces the morning sun has it back to it in the evening. gerard calls the sun-flower "the flower of the sun or the marigold of peru". speaking of it in the year he tells us that he had some in his own garden in holborn that had grown to the height of fourteen feet. the wall-flower the weed is green, when grey the wall, and blossoms rise where turrets fall herrick gives us a pretty version of the story of the wall-flower, (_cheiranthus cheiri_)("the yellow wall-flower stained with iron brown") why this flower is now called so list sweet maids and you shall know understand this firstling was once a brisk and bonny lass kept as close as danae was who a sprightly springal loved, and to have it fully proved, up she got upon a wall tempting down to slide withal, but the silken twist untied, so she fell, and bruised and died love in pity of the deed and her loving, luckless speed, turned her to the plant we call now, 'the flower of the wall' the wall-flower is the emblem of fidelity in misfortune, because it attaches itself to fallen towers and gives a grace to ruin. david moir (the delta of _blackwood's magazine_) has a poem on this flower. i must give one stanza of it. in the season of the tulip cup when blossoms clothe the trees, how sweet to throw the lattice up and scent thee on the breeze; the butterfly is then abroad, the bee is on the wing, and on the hawthorn by the road the linnets sit and sing. lord bacon observes that wall-flowers are very delightful when set under the parlour window or a lower chamber window. they are delightful, i think, any where. the jessamine. the jessamine, with which the queen of flowers, to charm her god[ ] adorns his favorite bowers, which brides, by the plain hand of neatness dressed-- unenvied rivals!--wear upon their breast; sweet as the incense of the morn, and chaste as the pure zone which circles dian's waist. _churchill._ the elegant and fragrant jessamine, or jasmine, (_jasmimum officinale_) with its "bright profusion of scattered stars," is said to have passed from east to west. it was originally a native of hindustan, but it is now to be found in every clime, and is a favorite in all. there are many varieties of it in europe. in italy it is woven into bridal wreaths and is used on all festive occasions. there is a proverbial saying there, that she who is worthy of being decorated with jessamine is rich enough for any husband. its first introduction into that sunny land is thus told. a certain duke of tuscany, the first possessor of a plant of this tribe, wished to preserve it as an unique, and forbade his gardener to give away a single sprig of it. but the gardener was a more faithful lover than servant and was more willing to please a young mistress than an old master. he presented the young girl with a branch of jessamine on her birth-day. she planted it in the ground; it took root, and grew and blossomed. she multiplied the plant by cuttings, and by the sale of these realized a little fortune, which her lover received as her marriage dowry. in england the bride wears a coronet of intermingled orange blossom and jessamine. orange flowers indicate chastity, and the jessamine, elegance and grace. the rose. for here the rose expands her paradise of leaves. _southey._ the rose, (_rosa_) the queen of flowers, was given by cupid to harpocrates, the god of silence, as a bribe, to prevent him from betraying the amours of venus. a rose suspended from the ceiling intimates that all is strictly confidential that passes under it. hence the phrase--_under the rose_[ ]. the rose was raised by flora from the remains of a favorite nymph. venus and the graces assisted in the transformation of the nymph into a flower. bacchus supplied streams of nectar to its root, and vertumnus showered his choicest perfumes on its head. the loves of the nightingale and the rose have been celebrated by the muses of many lands. an eastern poet says "you may place a hundred handfuls of fragrant herbs and flowers before the nightingale; yet he wishes not, in his constant heart, for more than the sweet breath of his beloved rose." the turks say that the rose owes its origin to a drop of perspiration that fell from the person of their prophet mahommed. the classical legend runs that the rose was at first of a pure white, but a rose-thorn piercing the foot of venus when she was hastening to protect adonis from the rage of mars, her blood dyed the flower. spenser alludes to this legend: white as the native rose, before the change which venus' blood did on her leaves impress. _spenser_. milton says that in paradise were, flowers of all hue, and _without thorns the rose_. according to zoroaster there was no thorn on the rose until ahriman (the evil one) entered the world. here is dr. hooker's account of the origin of the red rose. to sinless eve's admiring sight the rose expanded snowy white, when in the ecstacy of bliss she gave the modest flower a kiss, and instantaneous, lo! it drew from her red lip its blushing hue; while from her breath it sweetness found, and spread new fragrance all around. this reminds me of a passage in mrs. barrett browning's _drama of exile_ in which she makes eve say-- --for was i not at that last sunset seen in paradise, when all the westering clouds flashed out in throngs of sudden angel-faces, face by face, all hushed and solemn, as a thought of god held them suspended,--was i not, that hour the lady of the world, princess of life, mistress of feast and favour? _could i touch a rose with my white hand, but it became redder at once?_ another poet. (mr. c. cooke) tells us that a species of red rose with all her blushing honors full upon her, taking pity on a very pale maiden, changed complexions with the invalid and became herself as white as snow. byron expressed a wish that all woman-kind had but one _rosy_ mouth, that he might kiss all woman-kind at once. this, as some one has rightly observed, is better than caligula's wish that all mankind had but one head that he might cut it off at a single blow. leigh hunt has a pleasant line about the rose: and what a red mouth hath the rose, the woman of the flowers! in the malay language the same word signifies _flowers_ and _women_. human beauty and the rose are ever suggesting images of each other to the imagination of the poets. shakespeare has a beautiful description of the two little princes sleeping together in the tower of london. their lips were four red roses on a stalk that in their summer beauty kissed each other. william browne (our devonshire pastoral poet) has a _rosy_ description of a kiss:-- to her amyntas came and saluted; never man before more blest, nor like this kiss hath been another but when two dangling cherries kist each other; nor ever beauties, like, met at such closes, but in the kisses of two damask roses. here is something in the same spirit from crashaw. so have i seen two silken sister-flowers consult and lay their bashful cheeks together; newly they peeped from their buds, showed like the garden's eyes scarce waked, like was the crimson of their joys, like were the tears they wept, so like that one seemed but the other's kind reflection. loudon says that there is a rose called the _york and lancaster_ which when, it comes true has one half of the flower red and the other half white. it was named in commemoration of the two houses at the marriage of henry vii. of lancaster with elizabeth of york. anacreon devotes one of his longest and best odes to the laudation of the rose. such innumerable translations have been made of it that it is now too well known for quotation in this place. thomas moore in his version of the ode gives in a foot-note the following translation of a fragment of the lesbian poetess. if jove would give the leafy bowers a queen for all their world of flowers the rose would be the choice of jove, and blush the queen of every grove sweetest child of weeping morning, gem the vest of earth adorning, eye of gardens, light of lawns, nursling of soft summer dawns june's own earliest sigh it breathes, beauty's brow with lustre wreathes, and to young zephyr's warm caresses spreads abroad its verdant tresses, till blushing with the wanton's play its cheeks wear e'en a redder ray. from the idea of excellence attached to this queen of flowers arose, as thomas moore observes, the pretty proverbial expression used by aristophanes--_you have spoken roses_, a phrase adds the english poet, somewhat similar to the _dire des fleurettes_ of the french. the festival of the rose is still kept up in many villages of france and switzerland. on a certain day of every year the young unmarried women assemble and undergo a solemn trial before competent judges, the most virtuous and industrious girl obtains a crown of roses. in the valley of engandine, in switzerland, a man accused of a crime but proved to be not guilty, is publicly presented by a young maiden with a white rose called the rose of innocence. of the truly elegant moss rose i need say nothing myself; it has been so amply honored by far happier pens than mine. here is a very ingenious and graceful story of its origin. the lines are from the german. the moss rose the angel of the flowers one day, beneath a rose tree sleeping lay, the spirit to whom charge is given to bathe young buds in dews of heaven, awaking from his light repose the angel whispered to the rose "o fondest object of my care still fairest found where all is fair, for the sweet shade thou givest to me ask what thou wilt 'tis granted thee" "then" said the rose, "with deepened glow on me another grace bestow." the spirit paused in silent thought what grace was there the flower had not? 'twas but a moment--o'er the rose a veil of moss the angel throws, and robed in nature's simple weed, could there a flower that rose exceed? madame de genlis tells us that during her first visit to england she saw a moss-rose for the first time in her life, and that when she took it back to paris it gave great delight to her fellow-citizens, who said it was the first that had ever been seen in that city. madame de latour says that madame de genlis was mistaken, for the moss-rose came originally from provence and had been known to the french for ages. the french are said to have cultivated the rose with extraordinary care and success. it was the favorite flower of the empress josephine, who caused her own name to be traced in the parterres at malmaison with a plantation of the rarest roses. in the royal rosary at versailles there are standards eighteen feet high grafted with twenty different varieties of the rose. with the romans it was no metaphor but an allusion to a literal fact when they talked of sleeping upon beds of roses. cicero in his third oration against verres, when charging the proconsul with luxurious habits, stated that he had made the tour of sicily seated upon roses. and seneca says, of course jestingly, that a sybarite of the name of smyrndiride was unable to sleep if one of the rose-petals on his bed happened to be curled! at a feast which cleopatra gave to marc antony the floor of the hall was covered with fresh roses to the depth of eighteen inches. at a fête given by nero at baiae the sum of four millions of sesterces or about , _l_. was incurred for roses. the natives of india are fond of the rose, and are lavish in their expenditure at great festivals, but i suppose that no millionaire amongst them ever spent such an amount of money as this upon flowers alone.[ ] i shall close the poetical quotations on the rose with one of shakespeare's sonnets. o how much more doth beauty beauteous seem, by that sweet ornament which truth doth give. the rose looks fair, but fairer we it deem for that sweet odour which doth in it live. the canker-blooms have full as deep a dye as the perfumed tincture of the roses, hang on such thorns, and play as wantonly, when summer's breath their masked buds discloses; but for their virtue only is their show, they live unwoo'd and unrespected fade; die to themselves. sweet roses do not so; of then sweet deaths are sweetest odours made: and so of you, beauteous and lovely youth, when that shall fade, my verse distils your truth. there are many hundred acres of rose trees at ghazeepore which are cultivated for distillation, and making "attar." there are large fields of roses in england also, for the manufacture of rose-water. there is a story about the origin of attar of roses. the princess nourmahal caused a large tank, on which she used to be rowed about with the great mogul, to be filled with rose-water. the heat of the sun separating the water from the essential oil of the rose, the latter was observed to be floating on the surface. the discovery was immediately turned to good account. at ghazeepoor, the _essence_, _atta_ or _uttar_ or _otto_, or whatever it should be called, is obtained with great simplicity and ease. after the rose water is prepared it is put into large open vessels which are left out at night. early in the morning the oil that floats upon the surface is skimmed off, or sucked up with fine dry cotton wool, put into bottles, and carefully sealed. bishop heber says that to produce one rupee's weight of atta , well grown roses are required, and that a rupee's weight sells from to rupees. the atta sold in calcutta is commonly adulterated with the oil of sandal wood. linnaea borealis the linnaea borealis, or two horned linnaea, though a simple lapland flower, is interesting to all botanists from its association with the name of the swedish sage. it has pretty little bells and is very fragrant. it is a wild, unobtrusive plant and is very averse to the trim lawn and the gay flower-border. this little woodland beauty pines away under too much notice. she prefers neglect, and would rather waste her sweetness on the desert air, than be introduced into the fashionable lists of florist's flowers. she shrinks from exposure to the sun. a gentleman after walking with linnaeus on the shores of the lake near charlottendal on a lovely evening, writes thus "i gathered a small flower and asked if it was the _linnaea borealis_. 'nay,' said the philosopher, 'she lives not here, but in the middle of our largest woods. she clings with her little arms to the moss, and seems to resist very gently if you force her from it. she has a complexion like a milkmaid, and ah! she is very, very sweet and agreeable!" the forget-me-not the dear little forget-me-not, (_myosotis palustris_)[ ] with its eye of blue, is said to have derived its touching appellation from a sentimental german story. two lovers were walking on the bank of a rapid stream. the lady beheld the flower growing on a little island, and expressed a passionate desire to possess it. he gallantly plunged into the stream and obtained the flower, but exhausted by the force of the tide, he had only sufficient strength left as he neared the shore to fling the flower at the fair one's feet, and exclaim "_forget-me-not!_" (_vergiss-mein-nicht_.) he was then carried away by the stream, out of her sight for ever. the periwinkle. the periwinkle (_vinca_ or _pervinca_) has had its due share of poetical distinction. in france the common people call it the witch's violet. it seems to have suggested to wordsworth an idea of the consciousness of flowers. through primrose tufts, in that sweet bower, the periwinkle trailed its wreaths, _and 'tis my faith that every flower enjoys the air it breathes._ mr. j.l. merritt, has some complimentary lines on this flower. the periwinkle with its fan-like leaves all nicely levelled, is a lovely flower whose dark wreath, myrtle like, young flora weaves; there's none more rare nor aught more meet to deck a fairy's bower or grace her hair. the little blue periwinkle is rendered especially interesting to the admirers of the genius of rousseau by an anecdote that records his emotion on meeting it in one of his botanical excursions. he had seen it thirty years before in company with madame de warens. on meeting its sweet face again, after so long and eventful an interim, he fell upon his knees, crying out--_ah! voila de la pervanche!_ "it struck him," says hazlitt, "as the same little identical flower that he remembered so well; and thirty years of sorrow and bitter regret were effaced from his memory." the periwinkle was once supposed to be a cure for many diseases. lord bacon says that in his time people afflicted with cramp wore bands of green periwinkle tied about their limbs. it had also its supposed moral influences. according to culpepper the leaves of the flower if eaten by man and wife together would revive between them a lost affection. the basil. sweet marjoram, with her like, _sweet basil_, rare for smell. _drayton._ the basil is a plant rendered poetical by the genius which has handled it. boccaccio and keats have made the name of the _sweet basil_ sound pleasantly in the ears of many people who know nothing of botany. a species of this plant (known in europe under the botanical name of _ocymum villosum_, and in india as the _toolsee_) is held sacred by the hindus. toolsee was a disciple of vishnu. desiring to be his wife she excited the jealousy of lukshmee by whom she was transformed into the herb named after her.[ ] the tulip. tulips, like the ruddy evening streaked. _southey_. the tulip (_tulipa_) is the glory of the garden, as far as color without fragrance can confer such distinction. some suppose it to be 'the lily of the field' alluded to in the sermon on the mount. it grows wild in syria. the name of the tulip is said to be of turkish origin. it was called tulipa from its resemblance to the tulipan or turban. what crouds the rich divan to-day with turbaned heads, of every hue bowing before that veiled and awful face like tulip-beds of different shapes and dyes, bending beneath the invisible west wind's sighs? _moore_. the reader has probably heard of the tulipomania once carried to so great an excess in holland. with all his phlegm, it broke a dutchman's heart, at a vast price, with one loved root to part. _crabbe_. about the middle of the th century the city of haarlem realized in three years ten millions sterling by the sale of tulips. a single tulip (the _semper augustus_) was sold for one thousand pounds. twelve acres of land were given for a single root and engagements to the amount of £ , were made for a first-class tulip when the mania was at its height. a gentleman, who possessed a tulip of great value, hearing that some one was in possession of a second root of the same kind, eagerly secured it at a most extravagant price. the moment he got possession of it, he crushed it under his foot. "now," he exclaimed, "my tulip is unique!" a dutch merchant gave a sailor a herring for his breakfast. jack seeing on the merchant's counter what he supposed to be a heap of onions, took up a handful of them and ate them with his fish. the supposed onions were tulip bulbs of such value that they would have paid the cost of a thousand royal feasts.[ ] the tulip mania never leached so extravagant a height in england as in holland, but our country did not quite escape the contagion, and even so late as the year at the sale of mr. clarke's tulips at croydon, seventy two pounds were given for a single bulb of the _fanny kemble_; and a florist in chelsea in the same year, priced a bulb in his catalogue at guineas. the tulip is not endeared to us by many poetical associations. we have read, however, one pretty and romantic tale about it. a poor old woman who lived amongst the wild hills of dartmoor, in devonshire, possessed a beautiful bed of tulips, the pride of her small garden. one fine moonlight night her attention was arrested by the sweet music which seemed to issue from a thousand liliputian choristers. she found that the sounds proceeded from her many colored bells of tulips. after watching the flowers intently she perceived that they were not swayed to and fro by the wind, but by innumerable little beings that were climbing on the stems and leaves. they were pixies. each held in its arms an elfin baby tinier than itself. she saw the babies laid in the bells of the plant, which were thus used as cradles, and the music was formed of many lullabies. when the babies were asleep the pixies or fairies left them, and gamboled on the neighbouring sward on which the old lady discovered the day after, several new green rings,--a certain evidence that her fancy had not deceived her! at earliest dawn the fairies had returned to the tulips and taken away their little ones. the good old woman never permitted her tulip bed to be disturbed. she regarded it as holy ground. but when she died, some utilitarian gardener turned it into a parsley bed! the parsley never flourished. the ground was now cursed. in gratitude to the memory of the benevolent dame who had watched and protected the floral nursery, every month, on the night before the full moon, the fairies scattered flowers on her grave, and raised a sweet musical dirge--heard only by poetic ears--or by maids and children who hold each strange tale devoutly true. for as the poet says: what though no credit doubting wits may give, the fair and innocent shall still believe. men of genius are often as trustful as maids and children. collins, himself a lover of the wonderful, thus speaks of tasso:-- prevailing poet! whose undoubting mind believed the magic wonders that he sung. all nature indeed is full of mystery to the imaginative. and visions as poetic eyes avow hang on each leaf and cling to every bough. the hindoos believe that the peepul tree of which the foliage trembles like that of the aspen, has a spirit in every leaf. "did you ever see a fairy's funeral, madam?" said blake, the artist. "never sir." "_i_ have," continued that eccentric genius, "one night i was walking alone in my garden. there was great stillness amongst the branches and flowers and more than common sweetness in the air. i heard a low and pleasant sound, and knew not whence it came: at last i perceived _the broad leaf of a flower move_, and underneath i saw a procession of creatures the size and color of green and gray grasshoppers, _bearing a body laid out on a rose leaf_, which they buried with song, and then disappeared." the pink. the pink (_dianthus_) is a very elegant flower. i have but a short story about it. the young duke of burgundy, grandson of louis the fifteenth, was brought up in the midst of flatterers as fulsome as those rebuked by canute. the youthful prince was fond of cultivating pinks, and one of his courtiers, by substituting a floral changeling, persuaded him that one of those pinks planted by the royal hand had sprung up into bloom in a single night! one night, being unable to sleep, he wished to rise, but was told that it was midnight; he replied "_well then, i desire it to be morning_." the pink is one of the commonest of the flowers in english gardens. it is a great favorite all over europe. the botanists have enumerated about varieties of it. the pansy or hearts-ease. the pansy (_víola trîcolor_) commonly called _hearts-ease_, or _love-in-idleness_, or _herb-trinity_ (_flos trinitarium_), or _three-faces-under-a-hood_, or _kit-run-about_, is one of the richest and loveliest of flowers. the late mrs. siddons, the great actress, was so fond of this flower that she thought she could never have enough of it. besides round beds of it she used it as an edging to all the flower borders in her garden. she liked to plant a favorite flower in large masses of beauty. but such beauty must soon fatigue the eye with its sameness. a round bed of one sort of flowers only is like a nosegay composed of one sort of flowers or of flowers of the same hue. she was also particularly fond of evergreens because they gave her garden a pleasant aspect even in the winter. "do you hear him?"--(john bunyan makes the guide enquire of christiana while a shepherd boy is singing beside his sheep)--"i will dare to say this boy leads a merrier life, and wears more of the herb called _hearts-ease_ in his bosom, than he that is clothed in silk and purple." shakespeare has connected this flower with a compliment to the maiden queen of england. that very time i saw (but thou couldst not) flying between the cold moon and the earth, cupid all armed, a certain aim he took at a fair vestal, throned by the west; and loosed his love-shaft smartly from his bow as it should pierce a hundred thousand hearts. but i might see young cupid's fiery shaft quenched in the chaste beams of the watery moon-- and the imperial votaress passed on in maiden meditation fancy free, yet marked i where the bolt of cupid fell. it fell upon _a little western flowers, before milk white, now purple with love's wound-- and maidens call it_ love in idleness fetch me that flower, the herb i showed thee once, the juice of it on sleeping eyelids laid, will make or man or woman madly dote upon the next live creature that it sees. fetch me this herb and be thou here again, ere the leviathan can swim a league. _midsummer night's dream._ the hearts-ease has been cultivated with great care and success by some of the most zealous flower-fanciers amongst our countrymen in india. but it is a delicate plant in this clime, and requires most assiduous attention, and a close study of its habits. it always withers here under ordinary hands. the mignonette. the mignonette, (_reseda odorato_,) the frenchman's _little darling_, was not introduced into england until the middle of the th century. the mignonette or sweet reseda was once supposed capable of assuaging pain, and of ridding men of many of the ills that flesh is heir to. it was applied with an incantation. this flower has found a place in the armorial bearings of an illustrious family of saxony. i must tell the story: the count of walsthim loved the fair and sprightly amelia de nordbourg. she was a spoilt child and a coquette. she had an humble companion whose christian name was charlotte. one evening at a party, all the ladies were called upon to choose a flower each, and the gentlemen were to make verses on the selections. amelia fixed upon the flaunting rose, charlotte the modest mignonette. in the course of the evening amelia coquetted so desperately with a dashing colonel that the count could not suppress his vexation. on this he wrote a verse for the rose: elle ne vit qu'un jour, et ne plait qu'un moment. (she lives but for a day and pleases but for a moment) he then presented the following line on the mignonette to the gentle charlotte: "ses qualities surpassent ses charmes." the count transferred his affections to charlotte, and when he married her, added a branch of the sweet reseda to the ancient arms of his family, with the motto of your qualities surpass your charms. vervain. the vervain-- that hind'reth witches of their will. _drayton_ vervain (_verbena_) was called by the greeks _the sacred herb_. it was used to brush their altars. it was supposed to keep off evil spirits. it was also used in the religious ceremonies of the druids and is still held sacred by the persian magi. the latter lay branches of it on the altar of the sun. the ancients had their _verbenalia_ when the temples were strewed with vervain, and no incantation or lustration was deemed perfect without the aid of this plant. it was supposed to cure the bite of a serpent or a mad dog. the daisy. the daisy or day's eye (_bellis perennis_) has been the darling of the british poets from chaucer to shelley. it is not, however, the darling of poets only, but of princes and peasants. and it is not man's favorite only, but, as wordsworth says, nature's favorite also. yet it is "the simplest flower that blows." its seed is broadcast on the land. it is the most familiar of flowers. it sprinkles every field and lane in the country with its little mimic stars. wordsworth pays it a beautiful compliment in saying that oft alone in nooks remote _we meet it like a pleasant thought when such is wanted._ but though this poet dearly loved the daisy, in some moods of mind he seems to have loved the little celandine (common pilewort) even better. he has addressed two poems to this humble little flower. one begins with the following stanza. pansies, lilies, kingcups, daisies, let them live upon their praises; long as there's a sun that sets primroses will have their glory; long as there are violets, they will have a place in story: there's a flower that shall be mine, 'tis the little celandine. no flower is too lowly for the affections of wordsworth. hazlitt says, "the daisy looks up to wordsworth with sparkling eye as an old acquaintance; a withered thorn is weighed down with a heap of recollections; and even the lichens on the rocks have a life and being in his thoughts." the lesser celandine, is an inodorous plant, but as wordsworth possessed not the sense of smell, to him a deficiency of fragrance in a flower formed no objection to it. miss martineau alludes to a newspaper report that on one occasion the poet suddenly found himself capable of enjoying the fragrance of a flower, and gave way to an emotion of tumultuous rapture. but i have seen this contradicted. miss martineau herself has generally no sense of smell, but we have her own testimony to the fact that a brief enjoyment of the faculty once actually occurred to her. in her case there was a simultaneous awakening of two dormant faculties--the sense of smell and the sense of taste. once and once only, she enjoyed the scent of a bottle of eau de cologne and the taste of meat. the two senses died away again almost in their birth. shelley calls daisies "those pearled arcturi of the earth"--"the constellated flower that never sets." the father of english poets does high honor to this star of the meadow in the "prologue to the legend of goode women." he tells us that in the merry month of may he was wont to quit even his beloved books to look upon the fresh morning daisy. of all the floures in the mede then love i most these floures white and red, such that men callen daisies in our town, to them i have so great affectión. as i sayd erst, when comen is the maie, that in my bedde there dawneth me no daie that i nam up and walking in the mede to see this floure agenst the sunne sprede, when it up riseth early by the morrow that blisfull sight softeneth all my sorrow. _chaucer_. the poet then goes on with his hearty laudation of this lilliputian luminary of the fields, and hesitates not to describe it as "of all floures the floure." the famous scottish peasant loved it just as truly, and did it equal honor. who that has once read, can ever forget his harmonious and pathetic address to a mountain daisy on turning it up with the plough? i must give the poem a place here, though it must be familiar to every reader. but we can read it again and again, just as we can look day after day with undiminished interest upon the flower that it commemorates. mrs. stowe (the american writer) observes that "the daisy with its wide plaited ruff and yellow centre is not our (that is, an american's) flower. the english flower is the wee, modest, crimson tippéd flower which burns celebrated. it is what we (in america) raise in green-houses and call the mountain daisy. its effect, growing profusely about fields and grass-plats, is very beautiful." to a mountain daisy. on turning one down with the plough in april, wee, modest, crimson tippéd flow'r, thou's met me in an evil hour, for i maun[ ] crush amang the stoure[ ] thy slender stem, to spare thee now is past my pow'r, thou bonnie gem. alas! its no thy neobor sweet, the bonnie lark, companion meet, bending thee 'mang the dewy weet[ ] wi' speckled breast, when upward springing, blythe, to greet the purpling east cauld blew the bitter biting north upon thy early, humble, birth, yet cheerfully thou glinted[ ] forth amid the storm, scarce reared above the patient earth thy tender form the flaunting flowers our gardens yield, high sheltering woods and wa's[ ] maun shield, but thou beneath the random bield[ ] o' clod or stane, adorns the histie[ ] stibble field[ ] unseen, alane. there, in thy scanty mantle clad, thy snawye bosom sun ward spread, thou lifts thy unassuming head in humble guise, but now the share up tears thy bed, and low thou lies! such is the fate of artless maid, sweet flow'ret of the rural shade! by love's simplicity betrayed, and guileless trust, till she, like thee, all soiled is laid low i' the dust. such is the fate of simple bard, on life's rough ocean luckless starred! unskilful he to note the card of prudent lore, till billows rage, and gales blow hard and whelm him o'er! such fate to suffering worth is given who long with wants and woes has striven by human pride or cunning driven to misery's brink, till wrenched of every stay but heaven, he, ruined, sink! ev'n thou who mourn'st the daisy's fate, that fate is thine--no distant date; stern ruin's plough-share drives elate, full on thy bloom; till crushed beneath the furrow's weight shall be thy doom. _burns._ the following verses though they make no pretension to the strength and pathos of the poem by the great scottish peasant, have a grace and simplicity of their own, for which they have long been deservedly popular. a field flower. on finding one in full bloom, on christmas day, . there is a flower, a little flower, with silver crest and golden eye, that welcomes every changing hour, and weathers every sky. the prouder beauties of the field in gay but quick succession shine, race after race their honours yield, they flourish and decline. but this small flower, to nature dear, while moons and stars their courses run, wreathes the whole circle of the year, companion of the sun. it smiles upon the lap of may, to sultry august spreads its charms, lights pale october on his way, and twines december's arms. the purple heath and golden broom, on moory mountains catch the gale, o'er lawns the lily sheds perfume, the violet in the vale. but this bold floweret climbs the hill, hides in the forest, haunts the glen, plays on the margin of the rill, peeps round the fox's den. within the garden's cultured round it shares the sweet carnation's bed; and blooms on consecrated ground in honour of the dead. the lambkin crops its crimson gem, the wild-bee murmurs on its breast, the blue-fly bends its pensile stem, light o'er the sky-lark's nest. 'tis flora's page,--in every place, in every season fresh and fair; it opens with perennial grace. and blossoms everywhere. on waste and woodland, rock and plain, its humble buds unheeded rise; the rose has but a summer-reign; the daisy never dies. _james montgomery_. montgomery has another very pleasing poetical address to the daisy. the poem was suggested by the first plant of the kind which had appeared in india. the flower sprang up unexpectedly out of some english earth, sent with other seeds in it, to this country. the amiable dr. carey of serampore was the lucky recipient of the living treasure, and the poem is supposed to be addressed by him to the dear little flower of his home, thus born under a foreign sky. dr. carey was a great lover of flowers, and it was one of his last directions on his death-bed, as i have already said, that his garden should be always protected from the intrusion of goths and vandals in the form of bengallee goats and cows. i must give one stanza of montgomery's second poetical tribute to the small flower with "the silver crest and golden eye." thrice-welcome, little english flower! to this resplendent hemisphere where flora's giant offsprings tower in gorgeous liveries all the year; thou, only thou, art little here like worth unfriended and unknown, yet to my british heart more dear than all the torrid zone. it is difficult to exaggerate the feeling with which an exile welcomes a home-flower. a year or two ago dr. ward informed the royal institution of london, that a single primrose had been taken to australia in a glass-case and that when it arrived there in full bloom, the sensation it excited was so great that even those who were in the hot pursuit of gold, paused in their eager career to gaze for a moment upon the flower of their native fields, and such immense crowds at last pressed around it that it actually became necessary to protect it by a guard. my last poetical tribute to the daisy shall be three stanzas from wordsworth, from two different addresses to the same flower. with little here to do or see of things that in the great world be, sweet daisy! oft i talk to thee, for thou art worthy, thou unassuming common-place of nature, with that homely face, and yet with something of a grace, which love makes for thee! * * * * * if stately passions in me burn, and one chance look to thee should turn, i drink out of an humbler urn a lowlier pleasure; the homely sympathy that heeds the common life, our nature breeds; a wisdom fitted to the needs of hearts at leisure. when, smitten by the morning ray, i see thee rise, alert and gay, then, cheerful flower! my spirits play with kindred gladness; and when, at dusk, by dews opprest thou sink'st, the image of thy rest hath often eased my pensive breast of careful sadness. it is peculiarly interesting to observe how the profoundest depths of thought and feeling are sometimes stirred in the heart of genius by the smallest of the works of nature. even more ordinarily gifted men are similarly affected to the utmost extent of their intellect and sensibility. we grow tired of the works of man. in the realms of art we ever crave something unseen before. we demand new fashions, and when the old are once laid aside, we wonder that they should ever have excited even a moment's admiration. but nature, though she is always the same, never satiates us. the simple little daisy which burns has so sweetly commemorated is the same flower that was "of all flowres the flowre," in the estimation of the patriarch of english poets, and which so delighted wordsworth in his childhood, in his middle life, and in his old age. he gazed on it, at intervals, with unchanging affection for upwards of fourscore years. the daisy--the miniature sun with its tiny rays--is especially the favorite of our earliest years. in our remembrances of the happy meadows in which we played in childhood, the daisy's silver lustre is ever connected with the deeper radiance of its gay companion, the butter-cup, which when held against the dimple on the cheek or chin of beauty turns it into a little golden dell. the thoughtful and sensitive frequenter of rural scenes discovers beauty every where; though it is not always the sort of beauty that would satisfy the taste of men who recognize no gaiety or loveliness beyond the walls of cities. to the poet's eye even the freckles on a milk-maid's brow are not without a grace, associated as they are with health, and the open sunshine. chaucer tells us that the french call the daisy _la belle marguerite_. there is a little anecdote connected with the appellation. marguerite of scotland, the queen of louis the eleventh, presented marguerite clotilde de surville, a poetess, with a bouquet of daisies, with this inscription; "marguerite d'ecosse à marguerite (_the pearl_) d'helicon." the country maidens in england practise a kind of sortilége with this flower. they pluck off leaf by leaf, saying alternately "_he loves me_" and "_he loves me not_." the omen or oracle is decided by the fall of either sentence on the last leaf. it is extremely difficult to rear the daisy in india. it is accustomed to all weathers in england, but the long continued sultriness of this clime makes it as delicate as a languid english lady in a tropical exile, and however carefully and skilfully nursed, it generally pines for its native air and dies.[ ] the prickly gorse. --yon swelling downs where the sweet air stirs the harebells, and where prickly furze buds lavish gold. _keat's endymion_. fair maidens, i'll sing you a song, i'll tell of the bonny wild flower, whose blossoms so yellow, and branches so long, o'er moor and o'er rough rocky mountains are flung far away from trim garden and bower _l.a. tuamley_. the prickly gorse or goss or furze, (_ulex_)[ ] i cannot omit to notice, because it was the plant which of all others most struck dillenius when he first trod on english ground. he threw himself on his knees and thanked heaven that he had lived to see the golden undulation of acres of wind-waved gorse. linnaeus lamented that he could scarcely keep it alive in sweden even in a greenhouse. i have the most delightful associations connected with this plant, and never think of it without a summer feeling and a crowd of delightful images and remembrances of rural quietude and blue skies and balmy breezes. cowper hardly does it justice: the common, over-grown with fern, and rough with prickly gorse, that shapeless and deformed and dangerous to the touch, has yet its bloom and decks itself with ornaments of gold, yields no unpleasing ramble. the plant is indeed irregularly shaped, but it is not _deformed_, and if it is dangerous to the touch, so also is the rose, unless it be of that species which milton places in paradise--"_and without thorns the rose_." hurdis is more complimentary and more just to the richest ornament of the swelling hill and the level moor. and what more noble than the vernal furze with golden caskets hung? i have seen whole _cotees_ or _coteaux_ (sides of hills) in the sweet little island of jersey thickly mantled with the golden radiance of this beautiful wildflower. the whole vallée des vaux (_the valley of vallies_) is sometimes alive with its lustre. vallee des vaux. air--the meeting of the waters. if i dream of the past, at fair fancy's command, up-floats from the blue sea thy small sunny land! o'er thy green hills, sweet jersey, the fresh breezes blow, and silent and warm is the vallée des vaux! there alone have i loitered 'mid blossoms of gold, and forgot that the great world was crowded and cold, nor believed that a land of enchantment could show a vale more divine than the vallée des vaux. a few scattered cots, like white clouds in the sky, or like still sails at sea when the light breezes die, and a mill with its wheel in the brook's silver glow, form thy beautiful hamlet, sweet vallée des vaux! as the brook prattled by like an infant at play, and each wave as it passed stole a moment away, i thought how serenely a long life would flow, by the sweet little brook in the vallée des vaux. d.l.r. jersey is not the only one of the channel islands that is enriched with "blossoms of gold." in the sister island of guernsey the prickly gorse is much used for hedges, and sir george head remarks that the premises of a guernsey farmer are thus as impregnably fortified and secured as if his grounds were surrounded by a stone wall. in the isle of man the furze grows so high that it is sometimes more like a fir tree than the ordinary plant. there is an old proverb:--"when gorse is out of blossom, kissing is out of fashion"--that is _never_. the gorse blooms all the year. fern. i'll seek the shaggy fern-clad hill and watch, 'mid murmurs muttering stern, the seed departing from the fern ere wakeful demons can convey the wonder-working charm away. _leyden_. "the green and graceful fern" (_filices_) with its exquisite tracery must not be overlooked. it recalls many noble home-scenes to british eyes. pliny says that "of ferns there are two kinds, and they bear neither flowers nor seed." and this erroneous notion of the fern bearing no seed was common amongst the english even so late as the time of addison who ridicules "a doctor that had arrived at the knowledge of the green and red dragon, _and had discovered the female fern-seed_." the seed is very minute and might easily escape a careless eye. in the present day every one knows that the seed of the fern lies on the under side of the leaves, and a single leaf will often bear some millions of seeds. even those amongst the vulgar who believed the plant bore seed, had an idea that the seeds were visible only at certain mysterious seasons and to favored individuals who by carrying a quantity of it on their person, were able, like those who wore the helmet of pluto or the ring of gyges, to walk unseen amidst a crowd. the seed was supposed to be best seen at a certain hour of the night on which st. john the baptist was born. we have the receipt of fern-seed; we walk invisible, _shakespeare's henry iv. part i_. in beaumont's and fletcher's _fair maid of the inn_, is the following allusion to the fern. --had you gyges' ring, _or the herb that gives invisibility_. ben jonson makes a similar allusion to it: i had no medicine, sir, to go invisible, _no fern-seed in my pocket_. pope puts a branch of spleen-wort, a species of fern, (_asplenium trichomanes_) into the hand of a gnome as a protection from evil influences in the cave of spleen. safe passed the gnome through this fantastic band a branch of healing spleen-wort in his hand. the fern forms a splendid ornament for shadowy nooks and grottoes, or fragments of ruins, or heaps of stones, or the odd corners of a large garden or pleasure-ground. i have had many delightful associations with this plant both at home and abroad. when i visited the beautiful island of penang, sir william norris, then the recorder of the island, and who was a most indefatigable collector of ferns, obligingly presented me with a specimen of every variety that he had discovered in the hills and vallies of that small paradise; and i suppose that in no part of the world could a finer collection of specimens of the fern be made for a botanist's _herbarium_. fern leaves will look almost as well ten years after they are gathered as on the day on which they are transferred from the dewy hillside to the dry pages of a book. jersey and penang are the two loveliest islands on a small scale that i have yet seen: the latter is the most romantic of the two and has nobler trees and a richer soil and a brighter sky--but they are both charming retreats for the lovers of peace and nature. as i have devoted some verses to jersey i must have some also on the island of penang. i. i stand upon the mountain's brow-- i drink the cool fresh, mountain breeze-- i see thy little town below,[ ] thy villas, hedge-rows, fields and trees, and hail thee with exultant glow, gem of the oriental seas! ii. a cloud had settled on my heart-- my frame had borne perpetual pain-- i yearned and panted to depart from dread bengala's sultry plain-- fate smiled,--disease withholds his dart-- i breathe the breath of life again! iii. with lightened heart, elastic tread, almost with youth's rekindled flame, i roam where loveliest scenes outspread raise thoughts and visions none could name, save those on whom the muses shed a spell, a dower of deathless fame. iv. i _feel_, but oh! could ne'er _pourtray_, sweet isle! thy charms of land and wave, the bowers that own no winter day, the brooks where timid wild birds lave, the forest hills where insects gay[ ] mimic the music of the brave! v. i see from this proud airy height a lovely lilliput below! ships, roads, groves, gardens, mansions white, and trees in trimly ordered row,[ ] present almost a toy like sight, a miniature scene, a fairy show! vi. but lo! beyond the ocean stream, that like a sheet of silver lies, as glorious as a poet's dream the grand malayan mountains rise, and while their sides in sunlight beam their dim heads mingle with the skies. vi. men laugh at bards who live _in clouds_-- the clouds _beneath_ me gather now, or gliding slow in solemn crowds, or singly, touched with sunny glow, like mystic shapes in snowy shrouds, or lucid veils on beauty's brow. viii. while all around the wandering eye beholds enchantments rich and rare, of wood, and water, earth, and sky a panoramic vision fair, the dyal breathes his liquid sigh, and magic floats upon the air! ix. oh! lovely and romantic isle! how cold the heart thou couldst not please! thy very dwellings seem to smile like quiet nests mid summer trees! i leave thy shores--but weep the while-- gem of the oriental seas! d.l.r. henna. the henna or al hinna (_lawsonia inermis_) is found in great abundance in egypt, india, persia and arabia. in bengal it goes by the name of _mindee_. it is much used here for garden hedges. hindu females rub it on the palms of their hands, the tips of their fingers and the soles of their feet to give them a red dye. the same red dye has been observed upon the nails of egyptian mummies. in egypt sprigs of henna are hawked about the streets for sale with the cry of "_o, odours of paradise; o, flowers of the henna!_" thomas moore alludes to one of the uses of the henna:-- thus some bring leaves of henna to imbue the fingers' ends of a bright roseate hue, so bright, that in the mirror's depth they seem like tips of coral branches in the stream. moss. mosses (_musci_) are sometimes confounded with lichens. true mosses are green, and lichens are gray. all the mosses are of exquisitely delicate structure. they are found in every part of the world where the atmosphere is moist. they have a wonderful tenacity of life and can often be restored to their original freshness after they have been dried for years. it was the sight of a small moss in the interior of africa that suggested to mungo park such consolatory reflections as saved him from despair. he had been stripped of all he had by banditti. "in this forlorn and almost helpless condition," he says, "when the robbers had left me, i sat for some time looking around me with amazement and terror. whichever way i turned, nothing appeared but danger and difficulty. i found myself in the midst of a vast wilderness, in the depth of the rainy season--naked and alone,--surrounded by savages. i was five hundred miles from any european settlement. all these circumstances crowded at once upon my recollection; and i confess that my spirits began to fail me. i considered my fate as certain, and that i had no alternative, but to lie down and perish. the influence of religion, however aided and supported me. i reflected that no human prudence or foresight could possibly have averted my present sufferings. i was indeed a stranger in a strange land, yet i was still under the eye of that providence who has condescended to call himself the stranger's friend. at this moment, painful as my reflections were, the extraordinary beauty of a small moss irresistibly caught my eye; and though the whole plant was not larger than the top of one of my fingers, i could not contemplate the delicate conformation of its roots, leaves, and fruit, without admiration. can that being (thought i) who planted, watered, and brought to perfection, in this obscure part of the world, a thing which appears of so small importance, look with unconcern upon the situation and sufferings of creatures formed after his own image? surely not.--reflections like these would not allow me to despair. i started up; and disregarding both, hunger and fatigue, traveled forward, assured that relief was at hand; and i was not disappointed." victoria regia. on this queen of aquatic plants the language of admiration has been exhausted. it was discovered in the first year of the present century by the botanist haenke who was sent by the spanish government to investigate the vegetable productions of peru. when in a canoe on the rio mamore, one of the great tributaries of the river amazon, he came suddenly upon the noblest and largest flower that he had ever seen. he fell on his knees in a transport of admiration. it was the plant now known as the victoria regia, or american water-lily. it was not till february , that dr. hugh rodie and mr. lachie of demerara forwarded seeds of the plant to sir w.t. hooker in vials of pure water. they were sown in earth, in pots immersed in water, and enclosed in a glass case. they vegetated rapidly. the plants first came to perfection at chatsworth the seat of the duke of devonshire,[ ] and subsequently at the royal gardens at kew. early in november of the same year, ( ,) the leaves of the plant at chatsworth were feet inches in diameter. a child weighing forty two pounds was placed upon one of the leaves which bore the weight well. the largest leaf of the plant by the middle of the next month was five feet in diameter with a turned up edge of from two to four inches. it then bore up a person of stone weight. the flat leaf of the victoria regia as it floats on the surface of the water, resembles in point of form the brass high edged platter in which hindus eat their rice. the flowers in the middle of may measured one foot one inch in diameter. the rapidity of the growth of this plant is one of its most remarkable characteristics, its leaves often expanding eight inches in diameter daily, and mr. john fisk allen, who has published in america an admirably illustrated work upon the subject, tells us that instances under his own observation have occurred of the leaves increasing at the rate of half an inch hourly. not only is there an extraordinary variety in the colours of the several specimens of this flower, but a singularly rapid succession of changes of hue in the same individual flower as it progresses from bud to blossom. this vegetable wonder was introduced into north america in . it grows to a larger size there than in england. some of the leaves of the plant cultivated in north america measure seventy-two inches in diameter. this plant has been proved to be perennial. it grows best in from to feet of water. each plant generally sends but four or five leaves to the surface. in addition to the other attractions of this noble water lily, is the exquisite character of its perfume, which strongly resembles that of a fresh pineapple just cut open. the victoria regia in the calcutta botanic garden has from some cause or other not flourished so well as it was expected to do. the largest leaf is not more than four feet and three quarters in diameter. but there can be little doubt that when the habits of the plant are better understood it will be brought to great perfection in this country. i strongly recommend my native friends to decorate their tanks with this the most glorious of aquatic plants. the fly-orchis--the bee-orchis. of these strange freaks of nature many strange stories are told. i cannot repeat them all. i shall content myself with quoting the following passage from d'israeli's _curiosities of literature_:-- "there is preserved in the british museum, a black stone, on which nature has sketched a resemblance of the portrait of chaucer. stones of this kind, possessing a sufficient degree of resemblance, are rare; but art appears not to have been used. even in plants, we find this sort of resemblance. there is a species of the orchis found in the mountainous parts of lincolnshire, kent, &c. nature has formed a bee, apparently feeding on the breast of the flower, with so much exactness, that it is impossible at a very small distance to distinguish the imposition. hence the plant derives its name, and is called, the _bee-flower_. langhorne elegantly notices its appearance. see on that floweret's velvet breast, how close the busy vagrant lies? his thin-wrought plume, his downy breast, th' ambrosial gold that swells his thighs. perhaps his fragrant load may bind his limbs;--we'll set the captive free-- i sought the living bee to find, and found the picture of a bee,' the late mr. james of exeter wrote to me on this subject: 'this orchis is common near our sea-coasts; but instead of being exactly like a bee, _it is not like it at all_. it has a general resemblance to a _fly_, and by the help of imagination, may be supposed to be a fly pitched upon the flower. the mandrake very frequently has a forked root, which may be fancied to resemble thighs and legs. i have seen it helped out with nails on the toes.' an ingenious botanist, a stranger to me, after reading this article, was so kind as to send me specimens of the _fly_ orchis, _ophrys muscifera_, and of the _bee_ orchis, _ophrys apifera_. their resemblance to these insects when in full flower is the most perfect conceivable; they are distinct plants. the poetical eye of langhorne was equally correct and fanciful; and that too of jackson, who differed so positively. many controversies have been carried on, from a want of a little more knowledge; like that of the bee _orchis_ and the fly _orchis_; both parties prove to be right."[ ] the fuchsia. the fuchsia is decidedly the most _graceful_ flower in the world. it unfortunately wants fragrance or it would be the _beau ideal_ of a favorite of flora. there is a story about its first introduction into england which is worth reprinting here: 'old mr. lee, a nurseryman and gardener, near london, well known fifty or sixty years ago, was one day showing his variegated treasures to a friend, who suddenly turned to him, and declared, 'well, you have not in your collection a prettier flower than i saw this morning at wapping!'--'no! and pray what was this phoenix like?' 'why, the plant was elegant, and the flowers hung in rows like tassels from the pendant branches; their colour the richest crimson; in the centre a fold of deep purple,' and so forth. particular directions being demanded and given, mr. lee posted off to wapping, where he at once perceived that the plant was new in this part of the world. he saw and admired. entering the house, he said, 'my good woman, that is a nice plant. i should like to buy it.'--'i could not sell it for any money, for it was brought me from the west indies by my husband, who has now left again, and i must keep it for his sake.'--'but i must have it!'--'no sir!'--'here,' emptying his pockets; 'here are gold, silver, copper.' (his stock was something more than eight guineas.)--'well a-day! but this is a power of money, sure and sure.'--''tis yours, and the plant is mine; and, my good dame, you shall have one of the first young ones i rear, to keep for your husband's sake,'--'alack, alack!'--'you shall.' a coach was called, in which was safely deposited our florist and his seemingly dear purchase. his first work was to pull off and utterly destroy every vestige of blossom and bud. the plant was divided into cuttings, which were forced in bark beds and hotbeds; were redivided and subdivided. every effort was used to multiply it. by the commencement of the next flowering season, mr. lee was the delighted possessor of fuchsia plants, all giving promise of blossom. the two which opened first were removed into his show-house. a lady came:--'why, mr. lee, my dear mr. lee, where did you get this charming flower?'--'hem! 'tis a new thing, my lady; pretty, is it not?'--'pretty! 'tis lovely. its price?'--'a guinea: thank your ladyship;' and one of the plants stood proudly in her ladyship's boudoir. 'my dear charlotte, where did you get?' &c.--'oh! 'tis a new thing; i saw it at old lee's; pretty, is it not?'--'pretty! 'tis beautiful! its price!'--'a guinea; there was another left.' the visitor's horses smoked off to the suburb; a third flowering plant stood on the spot whence the first had been taken. the second guinea was paid, and the second chosen fuchsia adorned the drawing-room of her second ladyship the scene was repeated, as new-comers saw and were attracted by the beauty of the plant. new chariots flew to the gates of old lee's nursery-ground. two fuchsias, young, graceful and bursting into healthy flower, were constantly seen on the same spot in his repository. he neglected not to gladden the faithful sailor's wife by the promised gift; but, ere the flower season closed, golden guineas clinked in his purse, the produce of the single shrub of the widow of wapping; the reward of the taste, decision, skill, and perseverance of old mr. lee.' whether this story about the fuchsia, be only partly fact and partly fiction i shall not pretend to determine; but the best authorities acknowledge that mr. lee, one of the founders of the hammersmith nursery, was the first to make the plant generally known in england and that he for some time got a guinea for each of the cuttings. the fuchsia is a native of mexico and chili. i believe that most of the plants of this genus introduced into india have flourished for a brief period and then sickened and died. the poets of england have not yet sung the fuschia's praise. here are three stanzas written for a gentleman who had been presented, by the lady of his love with a superb plant of this kind. a fuchsia. i. a deed of grace--a graceful gift--and graceful too the giver! like ear-rings on thine own fair head, these long buds hang and quiver: each tremulous taper branch is thrilled--flutter the wing-like leaves-- for thus to part from thee, sweet maid, the floral spirit grieves! ii. rude gods in brass or gold enchant an untaught devotee-- fair marble shapes, rich paintings old, are art's idolatry; but nought e'er charmed a human breast like this small tremulous flower, minute and delicate work divine of world-creative power! iii. this flower's the queen of all earth's flowers, and loveliest things appear linked by some secret sympathy, in this mysterious sphere; the giver and the gift seem one, and thou thyself art nigh when this glory of the garden greets thy lover's raptured eye. d.l.r. "do you know the proper name of this flower?" writes jeremy bentham to a lady-friend, "and the signification of its name? fuchsia from fuchs, a german botanist." rosemary. there's rosemary--that's for remembrance: pray you, love, remember. _hamlet_ there's rosemarie; the arabians justifie (physitions of exceeding perfect skill) it comforteth the brain and memory. _chester_. bacon speaks of heaths of rosemary (_rosmarinus_[ ]) that "will smell a great way in the sea; perhaps twenty miles." this reminds us of milton's paradise. so lovely seemed that landscape, and of pure, now purer air, meets his approach, and to the heart inspires vernal delight and joy, able to drive all sadness but despair. now gentle gales fanning their odoriferous wings, dispense native perfumes, and whisper whence they stole those balmy spoils. as when to them who sail beyond the cape of hope, and now are past mozambic, off at sea north east winds blow sabean odours from the spicy shore of araby the blest, with such delay well pleased they slack their course, and many a league cheered with the grateful smell, old ocean smiles. rosemary used to be carried at funerals, and worn as wedding favors. _lewis_ pray take a piece of rosemary _miramont_ i'll wear it, but for the lady's sake, and none of your's! _beaumont and fletcher's "elder brother."_ rosemary, says malone, being supposed to strengthen the memory, was the emblem of fidelity in lovers. so in _a handfull of pleasant delites, containing sundrie new sonets, mo_. : rosemary is for remembrance between us daie and night, wishing that i might alwaies have you present in my sight. the poem in which these lines are found, is entitled, '_a nosegay alwaies sweet for lovers to send for tokens of love_.' roger hochet in his sermon entitled _a marriage present_ ( ) thus speaks of the rosemary;--"it overtoppeth all the flowers in the garden, boasting man's rule. it helpeth the brain, strengtheneth the memorie, and is very medicinable for the head. another propertie of the rosemary is, it affects the heart. let this rosemarinus, this flower of men, ensigne of your wisdom, love, and loyaltie, be carried not only in your hands, but in your hearts and heads." "hungary water" is made up chiefly from the oil distilled from this shrub. * * * * * i should talk on a little longer about other shrubs, herbs, and flowers, (particularly of flowers) such as the "pink-eyed pimpernel" (the poor man's weather glass) and the fragrant violet, ('the modest grace of the vernal year,') the scarlet crested geranium with its crimpled leaves, and the yellow and purple amaranth, powdered with gold, a flower which once in paradise, fast by the tree of life began to bloom, and the crisp and well-varnished holly with "its rutilant berries," and the white lily, (the vestal lady of the vale,--"the flower of virgin light") and the luscious honeysuckle, and the chaste snowdrop, venturous harbinger of spring and pensive monitor of fleeting years, and the sweet heliotrope and the gay and elegant nasturtium, and a great many other "bonnie gems" upon the breast of our dear mother earth,--but this gossipping book has already extended to so unconscionable a size that i must quicken my progress towards a conclusion[ ]. i am indebted to the kindness of babu kasiprasad ghosh, the first hindu gentlemen who ever published a volume of poems in the english language[ ] for the following interesting list of indian flowers used in hindu ceremonies. many copies of the poems of kasiprasad ghosh, were sent to the english public critics, several of whom spoke of the author's talents with commendation. the late miss emma roberts wrote a brief biography of him for one of the london annuals, so that there must be many of my readers at home who will not on this occasion hear of his name for the first time. a brief account of indian flowers, commonly used in hindu ceremonies.[ ] a'kunda (_calotropis gigantea_).--a pretty purple coloured, and slightly scented flower, having a sweet and agreeable smell. it is called _arca_ in sanscrit, and has two varieties, both of which are held to be sacred to shiva. it forms one of the five darts with which the indian god of love is supposed to pierce the hearts of young mortals.[ ] sir william jones refers to it in his hymn to kama deva. it possesses medicinal properties.[ ] a'para'jita (_clitoria ternatea_).--a conically shaped flower, the upper part of which is tinged with blue and the lower part is white. some are wholly white. it is held to be sacred to durgá. asoca. (_jonesia asoca_).--a small yellow flower, which blooms in large clusters in the month of april and gives a most beautiful appearance to the tree. it is eaten by young females as a medicine. it smells like the saffron. a'tashi.--a small yellowish or brown coloured flower without any smell. it is supposed to be sacred to shiva, and is very often alluded to by the indian poets. it resembles the flower of the flax or linum usitatissimum.[ ] baka.--a kidney shaped flower, having several varieties, all of which are held to be sacred to vishnu, and are in consequence used in his worship. it is supposed to possess medicinal virtues and is used by the native doctors. baku'la (_mimusops etengi_).--a very small, yellowish, and fragrant flower. it is used in making garlands and other female ornaments. krishna is said to have fascinated the milkmaids of brindabun by playing on his celebrated flute under a _baku'la_ tree on the banks of the jumna, which is, therefore, invariably alluded to in all the sanscrit and vernacular poems relating to his amours with those young women. ba'kasha (_justicia adhatoda_).--a white flower, having a slight smell. it is used in certain native medicines. bela (_jasminum zambac_).--a fragrant small white flower, in common use among native females, who make garlands of it to wear in their braids of hair. a kind of _uttar_ is extracted from this flower, which is much esteemed by natives. it is supposed to form one of the darts of kama deva or the god of love. european botanists seem to have confounded this flower with the monika, which they also call the jasminum zambac. bhu'mi champaka.--an oblong variegated flower, which shoots out from the ground at the approach of spring. it has a slight smell, and is considered to possess medicinal properties. the great peculiarity of this flower is that it blooms when there is not apparently the slightest trace of the existence of the shrub above ground. when the flower dies away, the leaves make their appearance. champa' (_michelia champaka_).--a tulip shaped yellow flower possessing a very strong smell.[ ] it forms one of the darts of kama deva, the indian cupid. it is particularly sacred to krishna. chundra mallika' (_chrysanthemum indiana_).--a pretty round yellow flower which blooms in winter. the plant is used in making hedges in gardens and presents a beautiful appearance in the cold weather when the blossoms appear. dhastu'ra (_datura fastuosa_).--a large tulip shaped white flower, sacred to mahadeva, the third godhead of the hindu trinity. the seeds of this flower have narcotic properties.[ ] drona.--a white flower with a very slight smell. dopati (_impatiens balsamina_).--a small flower having a slight smell. there are several varieties of this flower. some are red and some white, while others are both white and red. ga'nda' (_tagetes erecta_).--a handsome yellow flower, which sometimes grows very large. it is commonly used in making garlands, with which the natives decorate their idols, and the europeans in india their churches and gates on christmas day and new year's day. gandha ra'j (_gardenia florida_).--a strongly scented white flower, which blooms at night. golancha (_menispermum glabrum_).--a white flower. the plant is already well known to europeans as a febrifuge. java' (_hibiscus rosa sinensis_).--a large blood coloured flower held to be especially sacred to kali. there are two species of it, viz. the ordinary javá commonly seen in our gardens and parterres, and the _pancha mukhi_, which, as its name imports, has five compartments and is the largest of the two.[ ] jayanti (_aeschynomene sesban_).--a small yellowish flower, held to be sacred to shiva. jha'nti.--a small white flower possessing medicinal properties. the leaves of the plants are used in curing certain ulcers. ja'nti (_jasminum grandiflorum_).--also a small white flower having a sweet smell. the _uttar_ called _chumeli_ is extracted from it. juyin (_jasminum auriculatum_).--the indian jasmine. it is a very small white flower remarkable for its sweetness. it is also used in making a species of _uttar_ which is highly prized by the natives, as also in forming a great variety of imitation female ornaments. kadamba (_nauclea cadamba_).--a ball shaped yellow flower held to be particularly sacred to krishna, many of whose gambols with the milkmaids of brindabun are said to have been performed under the kadamba tree, which is in consequence very frequently alluded to in the vernacular poems relating to his loves with those celebrated beauties. kinsuka (_butea frondosa_).--a handsome but scentless white flower. kanaka champa (_pterospermum acerifolium_).--a yellowish flower which hangs down in form of a tassel. it has a strong smell, which is perceived at a great distance when it is on the tree, but the moment it is plucked off, it begins to lose its fragrance. kanchana (_bauhinia variegata_).--there are several varieties of this flower. some are white, some are purple, while others are red. it gives a handsome appearance to the tree when the latter is in full blossom. kunda (_jasminum pulescens_).--a very pretty white flower. indian poets frequently compare a set of handsome teeth, to this flower. it is held to be especially sacred to vishnu. karabira (_nerium odosum_).--there are two species of this flower, viz. the white and red, both of which are sacred to shiva. kamini (_murraya exotica_).--a pretty small white flower having a strong smell. it blooms at night and is very delicate to the touch. the _kamini_ tree is frequently used as a garden hedge. krishna chura (_poinciana pulcherrima_).--a pretty small flower, which, as its name imports resembles the head ornament of krishna. when the krishna chura tree is in full blossom, it has a very handsome appearance. krishna keli (_mirabilis jalapa_.)[ ]--a small tulip shaped yellow flower. the bulb of the plant has medicinal properties and is used by the natives as a poultice. kumada (_nymphaea esculenta_)--a white flower, resembling the lotus, but blooming at night, whence the indian poets suppose that it is in love with chandra or the moon, as the lotus is imagined by them to be in love with the sun. lavanga lata' (_limonia scandens_.)--a very small red flower growing upon a creeper, which has been celebrated by jaya deva in his famous work called the _gita govinda_. this creeper is used in native gardens for bowers. mallika' (_jasminum zambac_.)--a white flower resembling the _bela_. it has a very sweet smell and is used by native females to make ornaments. it is frequently alluded to by indian poets. muchakunda (_pterospermum suberifolia_).--a strongly scented flower, which grows in clusters and is of a brown colour. ma'lati (_echites caryophyllata_.)--the flower of a creeper which is commonly used in native gardens. it has a slight smell and is of a white colour. ma'dhavi (_gaertnera racemosa_.)--the flower of another creeper which is also to be seen in native gardens. it is likewise of a white colour. na'geswara (_mesua ferrua_.)--a white flower with yellow filaments, which are said to possess medicinal properties and are used by the native physicians. it has a very sweet smell and is supposed by indian poets to form one of the darts of kama deva. see sir william jones's hymn to that deity. padma (_nelumbium speciosum_.)--the indian lotus, which is held to be sacred to vishnu, brama, mahadava, durga, lakshami and saraswati as well as all the higher orders of indian deities. it is a very elegant flower and is highly esteemed by the natives, in consequence of which the indian poets frequently allude to it in their writings. pa'rijata (_buchanania latifolia_.)--a handsome white flower, with a slight smell. in native poetry, it furnishes a simile for pretty eyes, and is held to be sacred to vishnu. paregata (_erythrina fulgens_.)--a flower which is supposed to bloom in the garden of indra in heaven, and forms the subject of an interesting episode in the _puranas_, in which the two wives of krisna, (rukmini and satyabhama) are said to have quarrelled for the exclusive possession of this flower, which their husband had stolen from the celestial garden referred to. it is supposed to be identical with the flower of the _palta madar_. rajani gandha (_polianthus tuberosa_.)--a white tulip-shaped flower which blooms at night, from which circumstance it is called "the rajani gandha, (or night-fragrance giver)." it is the indian tuberose. rangana.--a small and very pretty red flower which is used by native females in ornamenting their betels. seonti. _rosa glandulefera_. a white flower resembling the rose in size and appearance. it has a sweet smell. sepha'lika (_nyctanthes arbor-tristis_.)--a very pretty and delicate flower which blooms at night, and drops down shortly after. it has a sweet smell and is held to be sacred to shiva. the juice of the leaves of the sephalika tree are used in curing both remittant and intermittent fevers. suryja mukhi (_helianthus annuus_).--a large and very handsome yellow flower, which is said to turn itself to the sun, as he goes from east to west, whence it has derived its name. suryja mani (_hibiscus phoeniceus_).--a small red flower. golaka champa.--a large beautiful white tulip-shaped flower having a sweet smell. it is externally white but internally orange-colored. tagur (_tabernoemontana coronaria_).--a white flower having a slight smell. taru lata.--a beautiful creeper with small red flowers. it is used in native gardens for making hedges. k.g. * * * * * pliny in his natural history alludes to the marks of time exhibited in the regular opening and closing of flowers. linnaeus enumerates forty-six flowers that might be used for the construction of a floral time-piece. this great swedish botanist invented a floral horologe, "whose wheels were the sun and earth and whose index-figures were flowers." perhaps his invention, however, was not wholly original. andrew marvell in his "_thoughts in a garden_" mentions a sort of floral dial:-- how well the skilful gardener drew of flowers and herbs this dial new! where, from above, the milder sun does through a fragrant zodiac run: and, as it works, th'industrious bee computes its time as well as we: how could such sweet and wholesome hours be reckoned, but with herbs and flowers? _marvell_[ ] milton's notation of time--"_at shut of evening flowers_," has a beautiful simplicity, and though shakespeare does not seem to have marked his time on a floral clock, yet, like all true poets, he has made very free use of other appearances of nature to indicate the commencement and the close of day. the sun no sooner shall the mountains touch-- than we will ship him hence. _hamlet_. fare thee well at once! the glow-worm shows the matin to be near and gins to pale his uneffectual fire. _hamlet_. but look! the morn, in russet mantle clad, walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill:-- break we our watch up. _hamlet_. _light thickens_, and the crow makes wing to the rooky wood. _macbeth_. such picturesque notations of time as these, are in the works of shakespeare, as thick as autumnal leaves that strew the brooks in valombrosa. in one of his sonnets he thus counts the years of human life by the succession of the seasons. to me, fair friend, you never can be old, for as you were when first your eye i eyed, such seems your beauty still. three winters cold have from the forests shook three summers' pride; three beauteous springs to yellow autumn turned in process of the seasons have i seen; three april's perfumes in three hot junes burned since first i saw you fresh which yet are green. grainger, a prosaic verse-writer who once commenced a paragraph of a poem with "now, muse, let's sing of rats!" called upon the slave drivers in the west indies to time their imposition of cruel tasks by the opening and closing of flowers. till morning dawn and lucifer withdraw his beamy chariot, let not the loud bell call forth thy negroes from their rushy couch: and ere the sun with mid-day fervor glow, when every broom-bush opes her yellow flower, let thy black laborers from their toil desist: nor till the broom her every petal lock, let the loud bell recal them to the hoe, but when the jalap her bright tint displays, when the solanum fills her cup with dew, and crickets, snakes and lizards gin their coil, let them find shelter in their cane-thatched huts. _sugar cane_.[ ] i shall here give (_from loudon's encyclopaedia of gardening_) the form of a flower dial. it may be interesting to many of my readers:-- 'twas a lovely thought to mark the hours as they floated in light away by the opening and the folding flowers that laugh to the summer day.[ ] _mr. hemans_. a flower dial. time of opening. [ ] h. m. yellow goat's beard t.p. late flowering dandelion leon.s. bristly helminthia h.b. alpine borkhausia b.a. wild succory c.i. naked stalked poppy p.n. copper coloured day lily h.f. smooth sow thistle s.l. alpine agathyrsus ag.a. small bind weed con.a. common nipple wort l.c. common dandelion l.t. sported achyrophorus a.m. white water lily n.a. garden lettuce lec.s. african marigold t.e. common pimpernel a.a. mouse-ear hawkweed h.p. proliferous pink d.p. field marigold cal.a. purple sandwort a.p. small purslane p.o. creeping mallow m.c. chickweed s.m. time of closing. h. m. helminthia echioides b.h. agathyrsus alpinus a.b. borkhausia alpina a.b. leontodon serotinus l.d. malva caroliniana c.m. dainthus prolifer p.p. hieracium pilosella m.h. anagallis arvensis s.p. arenaria purpurea p.s. calendula arvensis f.m. tacetes erecta a.m. convolvulus arvensis s.b. achyrophorus maculatus s.a. nymphaea alba w.w.b. papaver nudicaule n.p. hemerocallis fulva c.d.l. cichorium intybus w.s. tragopogon pratensis y.g.b. stellaria media c. lapsana communis c.n. lactuca sativa g.l. sonchus laevis s.t. portulaca oleracea s.p. of course it will be necessary to adjust the _horologium florae_ (or flower clock) to the nature of the climate. flowers expand at a later hour in a cold climate than in a warm one. "a flower," says loudon, "that opens at six o'clock in the morning at senegal, will not open in france or england till eight or nine, nor in sweden till ten. a flower that opens at ten o'clock at senegal will not open in france or england till noon or later, and in sweden it will not open at all. and a flower that does not open till noon or later at senegal will not open at all in france or england. this seems as if heat or its absence were also (as well as light) an agent in the opening and shutting of flowers; though the opening of such as blow only in the night cannot be attributed to either light or heat." the seasons may be marked in a similar manner by their floral representatives. mary howitt quotes as a motto to her poem on _holy flowers_ the following example of religious devotion timed by flowers:-- "mindful of the pious festivals which our church prescribes," (says a franciscan friar) "i have sought to make these charming objects of floral nature, the _time-pieces of my religious calendar_, and the mementos of the hastening period of my mortality. thus i can light the taper to our virgin mother on the blowing of the white snow-drop which opens its floweret at the time of candlemas; the lady's smock and the daffodil, remind me of the annunciation; the blue harebell, of the festival of st george; the ranunculus, of the invention of the cross; the scarlet lychnis, of st. john the baptist's day; the white lily, of the visitation of our lady, and the virgin's bower, of her assumption; and michaelmas, martinmas, holyrood, and christmas, have all their appropriate monitors. i learn the time of day from the shutting of the blossoms of the star of jerusalem and the dandelion, and the hour of the night by the stars." some flowers afford a certain means of determining the state of the atmosphere. if i understand mr. tyas rightly he attributes the following remarks to hartley coleridge.-- "many species of flowers are admirable barometers. most of the bulbous-rooted flowers contract, or close their petals entirely on the approach of rain. the african marigold indicates rain, if the corolla is closed after seven or eight in the morning. the common bind-weed closes its flowers on the approach of rain; but the anagallis arvensis, or scarlet pimpernel, is the most sure in its indications as the petals constantly close on the least humidity of the atmosphere. barley is also singularly affected by the moisture or dryness of the air. the awns are furnished with stiff points, all turning towards one end, which extend when moist, and shorten when dry. the points, too, prevent their receding, so that they are drawn up or forward; as moisture is returned, they advance and so on; indeed they may be actually seen to travel forwards. the capsules of the geranium furnish admirable barometers. fasten the beard, when fully ripe, upon a stand, and it will twist itself, or untwist, according as the air is moist or dry. the flowers of the chick-weed, convolvulus, and oxalis, or wood sorrel, close their petals on the approach of rain." the famous german writer, jean paul richter, describes what he calls _a human clock_. a human clock. "i believe" says richter "the flower clock of linnaeus, in upsal (_horologium florae_) whose wheels are the sun and earth, and whose index-figures are flowers, of which one always awakens and opens later than another, was what secretly suggested my conception of the human clock. i formerly occupied two chambers in scheeraw, in the middle of the market place: from the front room i overlooked the whole market-place and the royal buildings and from the back one, the botanical garden. whoever now dwells in these two rooms possesses an excellent harmony, arranged to his hand, between the flower clock in the garden and the human clock in the marketplace. at three o'clock in the morning, the yellow meadow goats-beard opens; and brides awake, and the stable-boy begins to rattle and feed the horses beneath the lodger. at four o'clock the little hawk weed awakes, choristers going to the cathedral who are clocks with chimes, and the bakers. at five, kitchen maids, dairy maids, and butter-cups awake. at six, the sow-thistle and cooks. at seven o'clock many of the ladies' maids are awake in the palace, the chicory in my botanical garden, and some tradesmen. at eight o'clock all the colleges awake and the little mouse-ear. at nine o'clock, the female nobility already begin to stir; the marigold, and even many young ladies, who have come from the country on a visit, begin to look out of their windows. between ten and eleven o'clock the court ladies and the whole staff of lords of the bed-chamber, the green colewort and the alpine dandelion, and the reader of the princess rouse themselves out of their morning sleep; and the whole palace, considering that the morning sun gleams so brightly to-day from the lofty sky through the coloured silk curtains, curtails a little of its slumber. at twelve o'clock, the prince: at one, his wife and the carnation have their eyes open in their flower vase. what awakes late in the afternoon at four o'clock is only the red-hawkweed, and the night watchman as cuckoo-clock, and these two only tell the time as evening-clocks and moon-clocks. from the eyes of the unfortunate man, who like the jalap plant (mirabilia jalapa), first opens them at five o'clock, we will turn our own in pity aside. it is a rich man who only exchanges the fever fancies of being pinched with hot pincers for waking pains. i could never know when it was two o'clock, because at that time, together with a thousand other stout gentlemen and the yellow mouse-ear, i always fell asleep; but at three o'clock in the afternoon, and at three in the morning, i awoke as regularly as though i was a repeater. thus we mortals may be a flower-clock for higher beings, when our flower-leaves close upon our last bed; or sand clocks, when the sand of our life is so run down that it is renewed in the other world; or picture-clocks because, when our death-bell here below strikes and rings, our image steps forth, from its case into the next world. on each event of the kind, when seventy years of human life have passed away, they may perhaps say, what! another hour already gone! how the time flies!"--_from balfour's phyto-theology_. some of the natives of india who possess extensive estates might think it worth their while to plant a labyrinth for the amusement of their friends. i therefore give a plan of one from london's _arboretum et fruticetum britannicum_. it would not be advisable to occupy much of a limited estate in a toy of this nature; but where the ground required for it can be easily spared or would otherwise be wasted, there could be no objection to adding this sort of amusement to the very many others that may be included in a pleasure ground. the plan here given, resembles the labyrinth at hampton court. the hedges should be a little above a man's height and the paths should be just wide enough for two persons abreast. the ground should be kept scrupulously clean and well rolled and the hedges well trimmed, or in this country the labyrinth would soon be damp and unwholesome, especially in the rains. to prevent its affording a place of refuge and concealment for snakes and other reptiles, the gardener should cut off all young shoots and leaves within half a foot of the ground. the centre building should be a tasteful summer-house, in which people might read or smoke or take refreshments. to make the labyrinth still more intricate mr. loudon suggests that stop-hedges might be introduced across the path, at different places, as indicated in the figure by dotted lines.[ ] [illustration of a garden labyrinth with a scale in feet.] of strictly oriental trees and shrubs and flowers, perhaps the majority of anglo indians think with much less enthusiasm than of the common weeds of england. the remembrance of the simplest wild flower of their native fields will make them look with perfect indifference on the decorations of an indian garden. this is in no degree surprizing. yet nature is lovely in all lands. indian scenery has not been so much the subject of description in either prose or verse as it deserves, but some two or three of our anglo-indian authors have touched upon it. here is a pleasant and truthful passage from an article entitled "_a morning walk in india_," written by the late mr. lawson, the missionary, a truly good and a highly gifted man:-- "the rounded clumps that afford the deepest shade, are formed by the mangoe, the banian, and the cotton trees. at the verge of this deep-green forest are to be seen the long and slender hosts of the betle and cocoanut trees; and the grey bark of their trunks, as they catch the light of the morning, is in clear relief from the richness of the back-ground. these as they wave their feathery tops, add much to the picturesque interest of the straw-built hovels beneath them, which are variegated with every tinge to be found amongst the browns and yellows, according to the respective periods of their construction. some of them are enveloped in blue smoke, which oozes through every interstice of the thatch, and spreads itself, like a cloud hovering over these frail habitations, or moves slowly along, like a strata of vapour not far from the ground, as though too heavy to ascend, and loses itself in the thin air, so inspiring to all who have courage to leave their beds and enjoy it. the champa tree forms a beautiful object in this jungle. it may be recognized immediately from the surrounding scenery. it has always been a favourite with me. i suppose most persons, at times, have been unaccountably attracted by an object comparatively trifling in itself. there are also particular seasons, when the mind is susceptible of peculiar impressions, and the moments of happy, careless youth, rush upon the imagination with a thousand tender feelings. there are few that do not recollect with what pleasure they have grasped a bunch of wild flowers, when, in the days of their childhood, the languor of a lingering fever has prevented them for some weary months from enjoying that chief of all the pleasures of a robust english boy, a ramble through the fields, where every tree, and bush, and hillock, and blossom, are endeared to him, because, next to a mother's caresses, they were the first things in the world upon which he opened his eyes, and, doubtless, the first which gave him those indescribable feelings of fairy pleasure, which even in his dreams were excited; while the coloured clouds of heaven, the golden sunshine of a landscape, the fresh nosegay of dog-roses and early daisies, and the sounds of busy whispering trees and tinkling brooks presented to the sleeping child all the pure pleasure of his waking moments. and who is there here that does not sometimes recal some of those feelings which were his solace perhaps thirty years ago? should i be wrong, were i to say that even, at his desk, amid all the excitements and anxieties of commercial pursuits, the weary calcutta merchant has been lulled into a sort of pensive reminiscence of the past, and, with his pen placed between his lips and his fevered forehead leaning upon his hand, has felt his heart bound at some vivid picture rising upon his imagination. the forms of a fond mother, and an almost angel-looking sister, have been so strongly conjured up with the scenes of his boyish days, that the pen has been unceremoniously dashed to the ground, and 'i will go home' was the sigh that heaved from a bosom full of kindness and english feeling; while, as the dream vanished, plain truth told its tale, and the man of commerce is still to be seen at his desk, pale, and getting into years and perhaps less desirous than ever of winding up his concern. no wonder! because the dearest ties of his heart have been broken, and those who were the charm of home have gone down to the cold grave, the home of all. why then should he revisit his native place? what is the cottage of his birth to him? what charms has the village now for the gentleman just arrived from india? every well remembered object of nature, seen after a lapse of twenty years, would only serve to renew a host of buried, painful feelings. every visit to the house of a surviving neighbour would but bring to mind some melancholy incident; for into what house could he enter, to idle away an hour, without seeing some wreck of his own family, such as a venerable clock, once so loved for the painted moon that waxed and waned to the astonishment of the gazer, or some favorite ancient chair, edged so nobly with rows of brass nails, --but perforated sore, and dull'd in holes by worms voracious, eating through and through. these are little things, but they are objects which will live in his memory to the latest day of his life, and with which are associated in his mind the dearest feelings and thoughts of his happiest hours." here is an attempt at a description in verse of some of the most common trees and flowers of bengal this land is not my father land, and yet i love it--for the hand of god hath left its mark sublime on nature's face in every clime-- though from home and friends we part, nature and the human heart still may soothe the wanderer's care-- and his god is every where beneath bengala's azure skies, no vallies sink, no green hills rise, like those the vast sea billows make-- the land is level as a lake[ ] but, oh, what giants of the wood wave their wide arms, or calmly brood each o'er his own deep rounded shade when noon's fierce sun the breeze hath laid, and all is still. on every plain how green the sward, or rich the grain! in jungle wild and garden trim, and open lawn and covert dim, what glorious shrubs and flowerets gay, bright buds, and lordly beasts of prey! how prodigally gunga pours her wealth of waves through verdant shores o'er which the sacred peepul bends, and oft its skeleton lines extends of twisted root, well laved and bare, half in water, half in air! fair scenes! where breeze and sun diffuse the sweetest odours, fairest hues-- where brightest the bright day god shows, and where his gentle sister throws her softest spell on silent plain, and stirless wood, and slumbering main-- where the lucid starry sky opens most to mortal eye the wide and mystic dome serene meant for visitants unseen, a dream like temple, air built hall, where spirits pure hold festival! fair scenes! whence envious art might steal more charms than fancy's realms reveal-- where the tall palm to the sky lifts its wreath triumphantly-- and the bambu's tapering bough loves its flexile arch to throw-- where sleeps the favored lotus white, on the still lake's bosom bright-- where the champac's[ ] blossoms shine, offerings meet for brahma's shrine, while the fragrance floateth wide o'er velvet lawn and glassy tide-- where the mangoe tope bestows night at noon day--cool repose, neath burning heavens--a hush profound breathing o'er the shaded ground-- where the medicinal neem, of palest foliage, softest gleam, and the small leafed tamarind tremble at each whispering wind-- and the long plumed cocoas stand like the princes of the land, near the betel's pillar slim, with capital richly wrought and trim-- and the neglected wild sonail drops her yellow ringlets pale-- and light airs summer odours throw from the bala's breast of snow-- where the briarean banyan shades the crowded ghat, while indian maids, untouched by noon tide's scorching rays, lave the sleek limb, or fill the vase with liquid life, or on the head replace it, and with graceful tread and form erect, and movement slow, back to their simple dwellings go-- [walls of earth, that stoutly stand, neatly smoothed with wetted hand-- straw roofs, yellow once and gay, turned by time and tempest gray--] where the merry minahs crowd unbrageous haunts, and chirrup loud-- and shrilly talk the parrots green 'midst the thick leaves dimly seen-- and through the quivering foliage play, light as buds, the squirrels gay, quickly as the noontide beams dance upon the rippled streams-- where the pariah[ ] howls with fear, if the white man passeth near-- where the beast that mocks our race with taper finger, solemn face, in the cool shade sits at ease calm and grave as socrates-- where the sluggish buffaloe wallows in mud--and huge and slow, like massive cloud of sombre van, moves the land leviathan--[ ] where beneath the jungle's screen close enwoven, lurks unseen the couchant tiger--and the snake his sly and sinuous way doth make through the rich mead's grassy net, like a miniature rivulet-- where small white cattle, scattered wide, browse, from dawn to even tide-- where the river watered soil scarce demands the ryot's toil-- and the rice field's emerald light out vies italian meadows bright,-- where leaves of every shape and dye, and blossoms varied as the sky, the fancy kindle,--fingers fair that never closed on aught but air-- hearts, that never heaved a sigh-- wings, that never learned to fly-- cups, that ne'er went table round-- bells, that never rang with sound-- golden crowns, of little worth-- silver stars, that strew the earth-- filagree fine and curious braid, breathed, not labored, grown, not made-- tresses like the beams of morn without a thought of triumph worn-- tongues that prate not--many an eye untaught midst hidden things to pry-- brazen trumpets, long and bright, that never summoned to the fight-- shafts, that never pierced a side-- and plumes that never waved with pride;-- scarcely art a shape may know but nature here that shape can show. through this soft air, o'er this warm sod, stern deadly winter never trod; the woods their pride for centuries wear, and not a living branch is bare; each field for ever boasts its bowers, and every season brings its flowers. d.l.r. we all "uphold adam's profession": we are all gardeners, either practically or theoretically. the love of trees and flowers, and shrubs and the green sward, with a summer sky above them, is an almost universal sentiment. it may be smothered for a time by some one or other of the innumerable chances and occupations of busy life; but a painting in oils by claude or gainsborough, or a picture in words by spenser or shakespeare that shall for ever live in description and look green in song, or the sight of a few flowers on a window-sill in the city, can fill the eye with tears of tenderness, or make the secret passion for nature burst out again in sudden gusts of tumultuous pleasure and lighten up the soul with images of rural beauty. there are few, indeed, who, when they have the good fortune to escape on a summer holiday from the crowded and smoky city and find themselves in the heart of a delicious garden, have not a secret consciousness within them that the scene affords them a glimpse of a true paradise below. rich foliage and gay flowers and rural quiet and seclusion and a smiling sun are ever associated with ideas of earthly felicity. and oh, if there be an elysium on earth, it is this, it is this! the princely merchant and the petty trader, the soldier and the sailor, the politician and the lawyer, the artist and the artisan, when they pause for a moment in the midst of their career, and dream of the happiness of some future day, almost invariably fix their imaginary palace or cottage of delight in a garden, amidst embowering trees and fragrant flowers. this disposition, even in the busiest men, to indulge occasionally in fond anticipations of rural bliss-- in visions so profuse of pleasantness-- shows that god meant us to appreciate and enjoy the beauty of his works. the taste for a garden is the one common feeling that unites us all. one touch of nature makes the whole world kin. there is this much of poetical sensibility--of a sense of natural beauty--at the core of almost every human heart. the monarch shares it with the peasant, and nature takes care that as the thirst for her society is the universal passion, the power of gratifying it shall be more or less within the reach of all.[ ] our present chief justice, sir lawrence peel, who has set so excellent an example to his countrymen here in respect to horticultural pursuits and the tasteful embellishment of what we call our "_compounds_" and who, like sir william jones and sir thomas noon talfourd, sees no reason why themis should be hostile to the muses, has obliged me with the following stanzas on the moral or rather religious influence of a garden. they form a highly appropriate and acceptable contribution to this volume. i heard thy voice in the garden. that voice yet speaketh, heed it well-- but not in tones of wrath it chideth, the moss rose, and the lily smell of god--in them his voice abideth. there is a blessing on the spot the poor man decks--the sun delighteth to smile upon each homely plot, and why? the voice of god inviteth. god knows that he is worshipped there, the chaliced cowslip's graceful bending is mute devotion, and the air is sweet with incense of her lending. the primrose, aye the children's pet, pale bride, yet proud of its uprooting, the crocus, snowdrop, violet and sweet-briar with its soft leaves shooting. there nestles each--a preacher each-- (oh heart of man! be slow to harden) each cottage flower in sooth doth teach god walketh with us in the garden. i am surprized that in this city (of calcutta) where so many kinds of experiments in education have been proposed, the directors of public instruction have never thought of attaching tasteful gardens to the government colleges--especially where botany is in the regular course of collegiate studies. the company's botanic garden being on the other side of the river and at an inconvenient distance from the city cannot be much resorted to by any one whose time is precious. an attempt was made not long ago to have the garden of the horticultural society (now forming part of the company's botanic garden) on this side of the river, but the public subscriptions that were called for to meet the necessary expenses were so inadequate to the purpose that the money realized was returned to the subscribers, and the idea relinquished, to the great regret of many of the inhabitants of calcutta who would have been delighted to possess such a place of recreation and instruction within a few minutes' drive. hindu students, unlike english boys in general, remind us of beattie's minstrel:-- the exploit of strength, dexterity and speed to him nor vanity, nor joy could bring. a sort of garden academy, therefore, full of pleasant shades, would be peculiarly suited to the tastes and habits of our indian collegians. they are not fond of cricket or leap-frog. they would rejoice to devote a leisure hour to pensive letterings in a pleasure-garden, and on an occasional holiday would gladly pursue even their severest studies, book in hand, amidst verdant bowers. a stranger from europe beholding them, in their half-grecian garments, thus wandering amidst the trees, would be reminded of the disciples of plato. "it is not easy," observes lord kames, "to suppress a degree of enthusiasm, when we reflect on the advantages of gardening with respect to virtuous education. in the beginning of life the deepest impressions are made; and it is a sad truth, that the young student, familiarized to the dirtiness and disorder of many colleges pent within narrow bounds in populous cities, is rendered in a measure insensible to the elegant beauties of art and nature. it seems to me far from an exaggeration, that good professors are not more essential to a college, than a spacious garden, sweetly ornamented, but without any thing glaring or fantastic, is upon the whole to inspire our youth with a taste no less for simplicity than for elegance. in this respect the university of oxford may justly be deemed a model." it may be expected that i should offer a few hints on the laying out of gardens. much has been said (by writers on ornamental and landscape gardening) on _art_ and _nature_, and almost always has it been implied that these must necessarily be in direct opposition. i am far from being of this opinion. if art and nature be not in some points of view almost identical, they are at least very good friends, or may easily be made so. they are not necessarily hostile. they admit of the most harmonious combinations. in no place are such combinations more easy or more proper than in a garden. walter scott very truly calls a garden the child of art. but is it not also the child of nature?--of nature and art together? to attempt to exclude art--or even, the appearance of art--from a small garden enclosure, is idle and absurd. he who objects to all art in the arrangement of a flower-bed, ought, if consistent with himself, to turn away with an expression of disgust from a well arranged nosegay in a rich porcelain vase. but who would not loathe or laugh at such manifest affectation or such thoroughly bad taste? as there is a time for every thing, so also is there a place for every thing. no man of true judgment would desire to trace the hand of human art on the form of nature in remote and gigantic forests, and amidst vast mountains, as irregular as the billows of a troubled sea. in such scenery there is a sublime grace in wildness,--_there_ "the very weeds are beautiful." but what true judgment would be enchanted with weeds and wildness in the small parterre. as pope rightly says, we must consult the genius of the place in all. it is pleasant to enter a rural lane overgrown with field-flowers, or to behold an extensive common irregularly decorated with prickly gorse or fern and thistle, but surely no man of taste would admire nature in this wild and dishevelled state in a little suburban garden. symmetry, elegance and beauty, (--no _sublimity_ or _grandeur_--) trimness, snugness, privacy, cleanliness, comfort, and convenience--the results of a happy conjunction of art and nature--are all that we can aim at within a limited extent of ground. in a small parterre we either trace with pleasure the marks of the gardener's attention or are disgusted with his negligence. in a mere patch of earth around a domestic dwelling nature ought not to be left entirely to herself. what is agreeable in one sphere of life is offensive in another. a dirty smock frock and a soiled face in a ploughman's child who has been swinging on rustic gates a long summer morning or rolling down the slopes of hills, or grubbing in the soil of his small garden, may remind us, not unpleasantly, of one of gainsborough's pictures; but we look for a different sort of nature on the canvas of sir joshua reynolds or sir thomas lawrence, or in the brilliant drawing-rooms of the nobility; and yet an earl's child looks and moves at least as _naturally_ as a peasant's. there is nature every where--in the palace as well as in the hut, in the cultivated garden as well as in the wild wood. civilized life is, after all, as natural as savage life. all our faculties are natural, and civilized man cultivates his mental powers and studies the arts of life by as true an instinct as that which leads the savage to make the most of his mud hut, and to improve himself or his child as a hunter, a fisherman, or a warrior. the mind of man is the noblest work of its maker (--in this world--) and the movements of man's mind may be quite as natural, and quite as poetical too, as the life that rises from the ground. it is as natural for the mind, as it is for a tree or flower to advance towards perfection. nature suggests art, and art again imitates and approximates to nature, and this principle of action and reaction brings man by degrees towards that point of comparative excellence for which god seems to have intended him. the mind of a milton or a shakespeare is surely not in a more unnatural condition than that of an ignorant rustic. we ought not then to decry refinement nor deem all connection of art with nature an offensive incongruity. a noble mansion in a spacious and well kept park is an object which even an observer who has no share himself in the property may look upon with pleasure. it makes him proud of his race.[ ] we cannot witness so harmonious a conjunction of art and nature without feeling that man is something better than a mere beast of the field or forest. we see him turn both art and nature to his service, and we cannot contemplate the lordly dwelling and the richly decorated land around it--and the neatness and security and order of the whole scene--without associating them with the high accomplishments and refined tastes that in all probability distinguish the proprietor and his family. it is a strange mistake to suppose that nothing is natural beyond savage ignorance--that all refinement is unnatural--that there is only one sort of simplicity. for the mind elevated by civilization is in a more natural state than a mind that has scarcely passed the boundary of brutal instinct, and the simplicity of a savage's hut, does not prevent there being a nobler simplicity in a grecian temple. kent[ ] the famous landscape gardener, tells us that _nature_ _abhors a straight line_. and so she does--in some cases--but not in all. a ray of light is a straight line, and so also is a grecian nose, and so also is the stem of the betel-nut tree. it must, indeed, be admitted that he who should now lay out a large park or pleasure-ground on strictly geometrical principles or in the old topiary style would exhibit a deplorable want of taste and judgment. but the provinces of the landscape gardener and the parterre gardener are perfectly distinct. the landscape gardener demands a wide canvas. all his operations are on a large scale. in a small garden we have chiefly to aim at the _gardenesque_ and in an extensive park at the _picturesque_. even in the latter case, however, though 'tis nature still, 'tis nature methodized: or in other words: nature to advantage dressed. for even in the largest parks or pleasure-grounds, an observer of true taste is offended by an air of negligence or the absence of all traces of human art or care. such places ought to indicate the presence of civilized life and security and order. we are not pleased to see weeds and jungle--or litter of any sort--even dry leaves--upon the princely domain, which should look like a portion of nature set apart or devoted to the especial care and enjoyment of the owner and his friends:--a strictly private property. the grass carpet should be trimly shorn and well swept. the trees should be tastefully separated from each other at irregular but judicious distances. they should have fine round heads of foliage, clean stems, and no weeds or underwood below, nor a single dead branch above. when we visit the finest estates of the nobility and gentry in england it is impossible not to perceive in every case a marked distinction between the wild nature of a wood and the civilized nature of a park. in the latter you cannot overlook the fact that every thing injurious to the health and growth and beauty of each individual tree has been studiously removed, while on the other hand, light, air, space, all things in fact that, if sentient, the tree could itself be supposed to desire, are most liberally supplied. there is as great a difference between the general aspect of the trees in a nobleman's pleasure ground and those in a jungle, as between the rustics of a village and the well bred gentry of a great city. park trees have generally a fine air of aristocracy about them. a gainsborough or a morland would seek his subjects in remote villages and a watteau or a stothard in the well kept pleasure ground. the ruder nature of woods and villages, of sturdy ploughmen and the healthy though soiled and ragged children in rural neighbourhoods, affords a by no means unpleasing contrast and introduction to the trim trees and smoothly undulating lawns, and curved walks, and gay parterres, and fine ladies and well dressed and graceful children on some old ancestral estate. we look for rusticity in the village, and for elegance in the park. the sleek and noble air of patrician trees, standing proudly on the rich velvet sward, the order and grace and beauty of all that meets the eye, lead us, as i have said already, to form a high opinion of the owner. in this we may of course be sometimes disappointed; but a man's character is generally to be traced in almost every object around him over which he has the power of a proprietor, and in few things are a man's taste and habits more distinctly marked than in his park and garden. if we find the owner of a neatly kept garden and an elegant mansion slovenly, rude and vulgar in appearance and manners, we inevitably experience that shock of surprize which is excited by every thing that is incongruous or out of keeping. on the other hand if the garden be neglected and overgrown with weeds, or if every thing in its arrangement indicate a want of taste, and a disregard of neatness and order, we feel no astonishment whatever in discovering that the proprietor is as negligent of his mind and person as of his shrubberies and his lawns. a civilized country ought not to look like a savage one. we need not have wild nature in front of our neatly finished porticos. nothing can be more strictly artificial than all architecture. it would be absurd to erect an elegantly finished residence in the heart of a jungle. there should be an harmonious gradation from the house to the grounds, and true taste ought not to object to terraces of elegant design and graceful urns and fine statues in the immediate neighbourhood of a noble dwelling. undoubtedly as a general rule, the undulating curve in garden scenery is preferable to straight lines or abrupt turns or sharp angles, but if there should happen to be only a few yards between the outer gateway and the house, could anything be more fantastical or preposterous than an attempt to give the ground between them a serpentine irregularity? even in the most spacious grounds the walks should not seem too studiously winding, as if the short turns were meant for no other purpose than to perplex or delay the walker.[ ] they should have a natural sweep, and seem to meander rather in accordance with the nature of the ground and the points to which they lead than in obedience to some idle sport of fancy. they should not remind us of gray's description of the divisions of an old mansion: long passages that lead to nothing. foot-paths in small gardens need not be broader than will allow two persons to walk abreast with ease. a spacious garden may have walks of greater breadth. a path for one person only is inconvenient and has a mean look. i have made most of the foregoing observations in something of a spirit of opposition to those landscape gardeners who i think once carried a true principle to an absurd excess. i dislike, as much as any one can, the old topiary style of our remote ancestors, but the talk about free nature degenerated at last into downright cant, and sheer extravagance; the reformers were for bringing weeds and jungle right under our parlour windows, and applied to an acre of ground those rules of landscape gardening which required a whole county for their proper exemplification. it is true that milton's paradise had "no nice art" in it, but then it was not a little suburban pleasure ground but a world. when milton alluded to private gardens, he spoke of their trimness. retired leisure that in _trim_ gardens takes his pleasure. the larger an estate the less necessary is it to make it merely neat, and symmetrical, especially in those parts of the ground that are distant from the house; but near the architecture some degree of finish and precision is always necessary, or at least advisable, to prevent the too sudden contrast between the straight lines and artificial construction of the dwelling and the flowing curves and wild but beautiful irregularities of nature unmoulded by art. a garden adjacent to the house should give the owner a sense of _home_. he should not feel himself abroad at his own door. if it were only for the sake of variety there should be some distinction between the private garden and the open field. if the garden gradually blends itself with a spacious park or chase, the more the ground recedes from the house the more it may legitimately assume the aspect of a natural landscape. it will then be necessary to appeal to the eye of a landscape gardener or a painter or a poet before the owner, if ignorant of the principles of fine art, attempt the completion of the general design. i should like to see my native friends who have extensive grounds, vary the shape of their tanks, but if they dislike a more natural form of water, irregular or winding, and are determined to have them with four sharp corners, let them at all events avoid the evil of several small tanks in the same "compound." a large tank is more likely to have good water and to retain it through the whole summer season than a smaller one and is more easily kept clean and grassy to the water's edge. i do not say that it would be proper to have a piece of winding water in a small compound--that indeed would be impracticable. but even an oval or round tank would be better than a square one.[ ] if the native gentry could obtain the aid of tasteful gardeners, i would recommend that the level land should be varied with an occasional artificial elevation, nicely sloped or graduated; but native _malees_ would be sure to aim rather at the production of abrupt round knobs resembling warts or excrescences than easy and natural undulations of the surface. with respect to lawns, the late mr. speede recommended the use of the _doob_ grass, but it is so extremely difficult to keep it clear of any intermixture of the _ooloo_ grass, which, when it intrudes upon the _doob_ gives the lawn a patchwork and shabby look, that it is better to use the _ooloo_ grass only, for it is far more manageable; and if kept well rolled and closely shorn it has a very neat, and indeed, beautiful appearance. the lawns in the compound of the government house in calcutta are formed of _ooloo_ glass only, but as they have been very carefully attended to they have really a most brilliant and agreeable aspect. in fact, their beautiful bright green, in the hottest summer, attracts even the notice and admiration of the stranger fresh from england. the _ooloo_ grass, however, on close inspection is found to be extremely coarse, nor has even the finest _doob_ the close texture and velvet softness of the grass of english lawns. flower beds should be well rounded. they should never have long narrow necks or sharp angles in which no plant can have room to grow freely. nor should they be divided into compartments, too minute or numerous, for so arranged they must always look petty and toy-like. a lawn should be as open and spacious as the ground will fairly admit without too greatly limiting the space for flowers. nor should there be an unnecessary multiplicity of walks. we should aim at a certain breadth of style. flower beds may be here and there distributed over the lawn, but care should be taken that it be not too much broken up by them. a few trees may be introduced upon the lawn, but they must not be placed so close together as to prevent the growth of the grass by obstructing either light or air. no large trees should be allowed to smother up the house, particularly on the southern and western sides, for besides impeding the circulation through the rooms of the most wholesome winds of this country, they would attract mosquitoes, and give an air of gloominess to the whole place. natives are too fond of over-crowding their gardens with trees and shrubs and flowers of all sorts, with no regard to individual or general effects, with no eye to arrangement of size, form or color; and in this hot and moist climate the consequent exclusion of free air and the necessary degree of light has a most injurious influence not only upon the health of the resident but upon vegetation itself. neither the finest blossoms nor the finest fruits can be expected from an overstocked garden. the native malee generally plants his fruit trees so close together that they impede each other's growth and strength. every englishman when he enters a native's garden feels how much he could improve its productiveness and beauty by a free use of the hatchet. too many trees and too much embellishment of a small garden make it look still smaller, and even on a large piece of ground they produce confused and disagreeable effects and indicate an absence of all true judgment. this practice of over-filling a garden is an instance of bad taste, analogous to that which is so conspicuously characteristic of our own countrymen in india with respect to their apartments, which look more like an upholsterer's show-rooms or splendid ornament-shops than drawing-rooms or parlours. there is scarcely space enough to turn in them without fracturing some frail and costly bauble. where a garden is over-planted the whole place is darkened, the ground is green and slimy, the grass thin, sickly and straggling, and the trees and shrubs deficient in freshness and vigor. not only should the native gentry avoid having their flower-borders too thickly filled,--they should take care also that they are not too broad. we ought not to be obliged to leave the regular path and go across the soft earth of the bed to obtain a sight of a particular shrub or flower. close and entangled foliage keeps the ground too damp, obstructs wholesome air, and harbours snakes and a great variety of other noxious reptiles. similar objections suggest the propriety of having no shrubs or flowers or even a grass-plot immediately under the windows and about the doors of the house. a well exposed gravel or brick walk should be laid down on all sides of the house, as a necessary safeguard against both moisture and vermin. i have spoken already of the unrivalled beauty of english gravel. it cannot be too much admired. _kunkur_[ ] looks extremely smart for a few weeks while it preserves its solidity and freshness, but it is rapidly ground into powder under carriage wheels or blackened by occasional rain and the permanent moisture of low grounds when only partially exposed to the sun and air. why should not an opulent rajah or nawaub send for a cargo of beautiful red gravel from the gravel pits at kensington? any english house of agency here would obtain it for him. it would be cheap in the end, for it lasts at least five times as long as the kunkur, and if of a proper depth admits of repeated turnings with the spade, looking on every turn almost as fresh as the day on which it was first laid down. instead of brick-bat edgings, the wealthy oriental nobleman might trim all his flower-borders with the green box-plant of england, which would flourish i suppose in this climate or in any other. cobbett in his _english gardener_ speaks with so much enthusiasm and so much to the purpose on the subject of box as an edging, that i must here repeat his eulogium on it. the box is at once the most efficient of all possible things, and the prettiest plant that can possibly be conceived; the color of its leaf; the form of its leaf; its docility as to height, width and shape; the compactness of its little branches; its great durability as a plant; its thriving in all sorts of soils and in all sorts of aspects; _its freshness under the hottest sun_, and its defiance of all shade and drip: these are the beauties and qualities which, for ages upon ages, have marked it out as the chosen plant for this very important purpose. the edging ought to be clipped in the winter or very early in spring on both sides and at top; a line ought to be used to regulate the movements of the shears; it ought to be clipped again in the same manner about midsummer; and if there be _a more neat and beautiful thing than this in the world, all that i can say is, that i never saw that thing_. a small green edging for a flower bed can hardly be too _trim_; but large hedges with tops and sides cut as flat as boards, and trees fantastically shaped with the shears into an exhibition as full of incongruities as the wildest dream, have deservedly gone out of fashion in england. poets and prose writers have agreed to ridicule all verdant sculpture on a large scale. here is a description of the old topiary gardens. these likewise mote be seen on every side the shapely box, of all its branching pride ungently shorn, and, with preposterous skill to various beasts, and birds of sundry quill transformed, and human shapes of monstrous size. * * * * * also other wonders of the sportive shears fair nature misadorning; there were found globes, spiral columns, pyramids, and piers with spouting urns and budding statues crowned; and horizontal dials on the ground in living box, by cunning artists traced, and galleys trim, or on long voyage bound, but by their roots there ever anchored fast. _g. west_. the same taste for torturing nature into artificial forms prevailed amongst the ancients long after architecture and statuary had been carried to such perfection that the finest british artists of these times can do nothing but copy and repeat what was accomplished so many ages ago by the people of another nation. pliny, in his description of his tuscan villa, speaks of some of his trees having been cut into letters and the forms of animals, and of others placed in such regular order that they reminded the spectator of files of soldiers.[ ] the dutch therefore should not bear all the odium of the topiary style of gardening which they are said to have introduced into england and other countries of europe. they were not the first sinners against natural taste. the hindus are very fond of formally cut hedges and trimmed trees. all sorts of verdant hedges are in some degree objectionable in a hot moist country, rife with deadly vermin. i would recommend ornamental iron railings or neatly cut and well painted wooden pales, as more airy, light, and cheerful, and less favorable to snakes and centipedes. this is the finest country in the world for making gardens speedily. in the rainy season vegetation springs up at once, as at the stroke of an enchanter's wand. the landscape gardeners in england used to grieve that they could hardly expect to live long enough to see the effect of their designs. such artists would have less reason, to grieve on that account in this country. indeed even in england, the source of uneasiness alluded to, is now removed. "the deliberation with which trees grow," wrote horace walpole, in a letter to a friend, "is extremely inconvenient to my natural impatience. i lament living in so barbarous an age when we are come to so little perfection in gardening. i am persuaded that years hence it will be as common to remove oaks years old as it now is to plant tulip roots." the writer was not a bad prophet. he has not yet been dead much more than half a century and his expectations are already more than half realized. shakespeare could not have anticipated this triumph of art when he made macbeth ask who can impress the forest? bid the tree unfix his earth-bound root? the gardeners have at last discovered that the largest (though not perhaps the _oldest_) trees can be removed from one place to another with comparative facility and safety. sir h. stewart moved several hundred lofty trees without the least injury to any of them. and if broad and lofty trees can be transplanted in england, how much more easily and securely might such a process be effected in the rainy season in this country. in half a year a new garden might be made to look like a garden of half a century. or an old and ill-arranged plantation might thus be speedily re-adjusted to the taste of the owner. the main object is to secure a good ball of earth round the root, and the main difficulty is to raise the tree and remove it. many most ingenious machines for raising a tree from the ground, and trucks for removing it, have been lately invented by scientific gardeners in england. a scotchman, mr. mcglashen, has been amongst the most successful of late transplanters. he exhibited one of his machines at paris to the present emperor of the french, and lifted with it a fir tree thirty feet high. the french ruler lavished the warmest commendations on the ingenious artist and purchased his apparatus at a large price.[ ] bengal is enriched with a boundless variety of noble trees admirably suited to parks and pleasure grounds. these should be scattered about a spacious compound with a spirited and graceful irregularity, and so disposed with reference to the dwelling as in some degree to vary the view of it, and occasionally to conceal it from the visitor driving up the winding road from the outer gate to the portico. the trees, i must repeat, should be so divided as to give them a free growth and admit sufficient light and air beneath them to allow the grass to flourish. grassless ground under park trees has a look of barrenness, discomfort and neglect, and is out of keeping with the general character of the scene. the banyan (_ficus indica or bengaliensis_)-- the indian tree, whose branches downward bent, take root again, a boundless canopy-- and the peepul or pippul (_ficus religiosa_) are amongst the finest trees in this country--or perhaps in the world--and on a very spacious pleasure ground or park they would present truly magnificent aspects. colonel sykes alludes to a banyan at the village of nikow in poonah with stems descending from and supporting the branches. this tree is said to be capable of affording shelter to , men. it is a tree of this sort which milton so well describes. the fig tree, not that kind for fruit renowned, but such as at this day, to indians known in malabar or deccan, spreads her arms branching so broad and long, a pillared shade, high over arched, and echoing walks between there oft the indian herdsman, shunning heat, shelters in cool, and tends his pasturing herds at loop holes cut through the thickest shade those leaves, they gathered, broad as amazonian taige; and with what skill they had together sewed, to gird their waste. milton is mistaken as to the size of the leaves of this tree, though he has given its general character with great exactness.[ ] a remarkable banyan or buri tree, near manjee, twenty miles west of patna, is inches in diameter, the circumference of its shadow at noon measuring feet. it has sixty stems, or dropped branches that have taken root. under this tree once sat a naked fakir who had occupied that situation for years; but he did not continue there the whole year, for his vow obliged him to be during the four cold months up to his neck in the water of the ganges![ ] it is said that there is a banyan tree near gombroon on the persian gulf, computed to cover nearly , yards. the banyan tree in the company's botanic garden, is a fine tree, but it is of small dimensions compared with those of the trees just mentioned.[ ] the cocoanut tree has a characteristically oriental aspect and a natural grace, but it is not well suited to the ornamental garden or the princely villa. it is too suggestive of the rudest village scenery, and perhaps also of utilitarian ideas of mere profit, as every poor man who has half a dozen cocoanut trees on his ground disposes of the produce in the bazar. i would recommend my native friends to confine their clumps of plaintain trees to the kitchen garden, for though the leaf of the plaintain is a proud specimen of oriental foliage when it is first opened out to the sun, it soon gets torn to shreds by the lightest breeze. the tattered leaves then dry up and the whole of the tree presents the most beggarly aspect imaginable. the stem is as ragged and untidy as the leaves. the kitchen garden and the orchard should be in the rear of the house. the former should not be too visible from the windows and the latter is on many accounts better at the extremity of the grounds than close to the house, as we too often find it. a native of high rank should keep as much out of sight as possible every thing that would remind a visitor that any portion of the ground was intended rather for pecuniary profit than the immediate pleasure of the owner. the people of india do not seem to be sufficiently aware that any sign of parsimony in the management of a large park or pleasure ground produces in the mind of the visitor an unfavorable impression of the character of the owner. i have seen in calcutta vast mansions of which every little niche and corner towards the street was let out to very small traders at a few annas a month. what would the people of england think of an opulent english nobleman who should try to squeeze a few pence from the poor by dividing the street front of his palace into little pigeon-sheds of petty shops for the retail of petty wares? oh! princes of india "reform this altogether." this sordid saving, this widely published parsimony, is not only not princely, it is not only not decorous, it is positively disgusting to every passer-by who himself possesses any right thought or feeling. the natives seem every day more and more inclined to imitate european fashions, and there are few european fashions, which could be borrowed by the highest or lowest of the people of this country with a more humanizing and delightful effect than that attention to the exterior elegance and neatness of the dwelling-house, and that tasteful garniture of the contiguous ground, which in england is a taste common to the prince and the peasant, and which has made that noble country so full of those beautiful homes which surprize and enchant its foreign visitors. the climate and soil of this country are peculiarly favorable to the cultivation of trees and shrubs and flowers; and the garden here is at no season of the year without its ornaments. the example of the horticultural society of india, and the attractions of the company's botanic garden ought to have created a more general taste amongst us for the culture of flowers. bishop heber tells us that the botanic garden here reminded hint more of milton's description of the garden of eden than any other public garden, that he had ever seen.[ ] there is a botanic garden at serampore. in it was in charge of dr. roxburgh. subsequently came the amiable and able dr. wallich; then the venerable dr. carey was for a time the officiating superintendent. dr. voigt followed and then one of the greatest of our anglo-indian botanists, dr. griffiths. after him came dr. mclelland, who is at this present time counting the teak trees in the forests of pegu. he was succeeded by dr. falconer who left this country but a few months ago. the garden is now in charge of dr. thomson who is said to be an enthusiast in his profession. he explored the region beyond the snowy range i think with captain cunningham, some years ago. with the exceptions of voigt and carey, all who have had charge of the garden at serampore have held at the same time the more important appointment of superintendent of the company's botanic garden at garden beach. there is a botanic garden at bhagulpore, which owes its origin to major napleton. i have been unable to obtain any information regarding its present condition. a good botanic garden has been already established in the punjab, where there is also an agricultural and horticultural society. i regret that it should have been deemed necessary to make stupid pedants of hindu malees by providing them with a classical nomenclature for plants. hindostanee names would have answered the purpose just as well. the natives make a sad mess of our simplest english names, but their greek must be greek indeed! a _quarterly reviewer_ observes that miss mitford has found it difficult to make the maurandias and alstraemerias and eschxholtzias--the commonest flowers of our modern garden--look passable even in prose. but what are these, he asks, to the pollopostemonopetalae and eleutheroromacrostemones of wachendorf, with such daily additions as the native name of iztactepotzacuxochitl icohueyo, or the more classical ponderosity of erisymum peroffskyanum. --like the verbum graecum spermagoraiolekitholakanopolides, words that should only be said upon holidays, when one has nothing else to do. if these names are unpronounceable even by europeans, what would the poor hindu malee make of them? the pedantry of some of our scientific botanists is something marvellous. one would think that a love of flowers must produce or imply a taste for simplicity and nature in all things.[ ] as by way of encouragement to the native gardeners--to enable them to dispose of the floral produce of their gardens at a fair price--the horticultural society has withdrawn from the public the indulgence of gratuitous supplies of plants, it would be as well if some men of taste were to instruct these native nursery-men how to lay out their grounds, (as their fellow-traders do at home,) with some regard to neatness, cleanliness and order. these flower-merchants, and even the common _malees_, should also be instructed, i think, how to make up a decent bouquet, for if it be possible to render the most elegant things in the creation offensive to the eye of taste, that object is assuredly very completely effected by these swarthy artists when they arrange, with such worse than dutch precision and formality, the ill-selected, ill-arranged, and tightly bound treasures of the parterre for the classical vases of their british masters. i am often vexed to observe the idleness or apathy which suffers such atrocities as these specimens of indian taste to disgrace the drawing-rooms of the city of palaces. this is quite inexcusable in a family where there are feminine hands for the truly graceful and congenial task of selecting and arranging the daily supply of garden decorations. a young lady--"herself a fairer flower"--is rarely exhibited to a loving eye in a more delightful point of view than when her delicate and dainty fingers are so employed. if a lovely woman arranging the nosegays and flower-vases, in her parlour, is a sweet living picture, a still sweeter sight does she present to us when she is in the garden itself. milton thus represents the fair mother of the fair in the first garden:-- eve separate he spies. veil'd in a cloud of fragrance, where she stood, half spied, so thick the roses blushing round about her glow'd, oft stooping to support each flower of slender stalk, whose head, though gay, carnation, purple, azure, or speck'd with gold, hung drooping unsustain'd; them she upstays gently with myrtle band, mindless the while herself, though fairest unsupported flower, from her best prop so far, and storm so nigh. nearer he drew, and many a walk traversed of stateliest covert, cedar, pine, or palm; then voluble and bold, now hid, now seen, among thick woven arborets, and flowers imborder'd on each bank, the hand of eve[ ] _paradise lost. book ix_. chaucer (in "the knight's tale,") describes emily in her garden as fairer to be seen than is the lily on his stalkie green; and dryden, in his modernized version of the old poet, says, at every turn she made a little stand, and thrust among the thorns her lily hand to draw the rose. eve's roses were without thorns-- "and without thorn the rose,"[ ] it is pleasant to see flowers plucked by the fairest fingers for some elegant or worthy purpose, but it is not pleasant to see them _wasted_. some people pluck them wantonly, and then fling them away and litter the garden walks with them. some idle coxcombs, vain of the nice conduct of a clouded cane, amuse themselves with switching off their lovely heads. "that's villainous, and shows a most pitiful ambition in the fool that uses it." lander says and 'tis my wish, and over was my way, to let all flowers live freely, and so die. here is a poetical petitioner against a needless destruction of the little tenants of the parterre. oh, spare my flower, my gentle flower, the slender creature of a day, let it bloom out its little hour, and pass away. so soon its fleeting charms must lie decayed, unnoticed and o'erthrown, oh, hasten not its destiny, too like thine own. _lyte_. those who pluck flowers needlessly and thoughtlessly should be told that other people like to see them flourish, and that it is as well for every one to bear in mind the beautiful remark of lord bacon that "the breath of flowers is far sweeter in the air than in the hand; for in the air it comes and goes like the warbling of music." the british portion of this community allow their exile to be much more dull and dreary than it need be, by neglecting to cultivate their gardens, and leaving them entirely to the taste and industry of the _malee_. i never feel half so much inclined to envy the great men of this now crowded city the possession of vast but gardenless mansions, (partly blocked up by those of their neighbours,) as i do to felicitate the owner of some humbler but more airy and wholesome dwelling in the suburbs, when the well-sized grounds attached to it have been touched into beauty by the tasteful hand of a lover of flowers. but generally speaking my countrymen in most parts of india allow their grounds to remain in a state which i cannot help characterizing as disreputable. it is amazing how men or women accustomed to english modes of life can reconcile themselves to that air of neglect, disorder, and discomfort which most of their "compounds" here exhibit. it would afford me peculiar gratification to find this book read with interest by my hindu friends, (for whom, chiefly, it has been written,) and to hear that it has induced some of them to pay more attention to the ornamental cultivation of their grounds; for it would be difficult to confer upon them a greater blessing than a taste for the innocent and elegant pleasures of the flower-garden. supplement. sacred trees and shrubs of the hindus. the following list of the trees and shrubs held sacred by the hindus is from the friend who furnished me with the list of flowers used in hindu ceremonies.[ ] it was received too late to enable me to include it in the body of the volume. amalaki (_phyllanthus emblica_).--a tree held sacred to shiva. it has no flowers, and its leaves are in consequence used in worshipping that deity as well as durga, kali, and others. the natives of bengal do not look upon it with any degree of religious veneration, but those of the upper provinces annually worship it on the day of the _shiva ratri_, which generally falls in the latter end of february or the beginning of march, and on which all the public offices are closed. aswath-tha (_ficus religiosa_).--it is commonly called by europeans the peepul tree, by which name, it is known to the natives of the upper provinces. the _bhagavat gita_ says that krishna in giving an account of his power and glory to arjuna, before the commencement of the celebrated battle between the _kauravas_ and _pándavas_ at _kurukshetra_, identified himself with the _aswath-tha_ whence the natives consider it to be a sacred tree.[ ] bilwa or sreeful (_aegle marmelos_).--it is the common wood-apple tree, which is held sacred to shiva, and its leaves are used in worshipping him as well as durga, kali, and others. the _mahabharat_ says that when shiva at the request of krishna and the pandavas undertook the protection of their camp at kurukshetra on the night of the last day of the battle, between them and the sons of dhritarashtra, aswathama, a friend and follower of the latter, took up a bilwa tree by its roots and threw it upon the god, who considering it in the light of an offering made to him, was so much pleased with aswathama that he allowed him to enter the camp, where he killed the five sons of the pandavas and the whole of the remnants of their army. other similar stories are also told of the bilwa tree to prove its sacredness, but the one i have given above, will be sufficient to shew in what estimation it is held by the hindus. bat (_ficus indica_).--is the indian banian tree, supposed to be immortal and coeval with the gods; whence it is venerated as one of them. it is also supposed to be a male tree, while the aswath-tha or peepul is looked upon as a female, whence the lower orders of the people plant them side by side and perform the ceremony of matrimony with a view to connect them as man and wife.[ ] durva' (_panicum dactylon_).--a grass held to be sacred to vishnu, who in his seventh _avatara_ or incarnation, as rama, the son of dasaratha, king of oude, assumed the colour of the grass, which is used in all religious ceremonies of the hindus. it has medicinal properties. ka'sta' (_saccharum spontaneum_).--it is a large species of grass. in those ceremonies which the hindus perform after the death of a person, or with a view to propitiate the manes of their ancestors this grass is used whenever the kusa is not to be had. when it is in flower, the natives look upon the circumstance as indicative of the close of the rains. ku'sa (_poa cynosuroides_).--the grass to which, reference has been made above. it is used in all ceremonies performed in connection with the death of a person or having for their object the propitiation of the manes of ancestors. mansa-shij (_euphorbia ligularia_).--this plant is supposed by the natives of bengal to be sacred to _mansa_, the goddess of snakes, and is worshipped by them on certain days of the months of june, july, august, and september, during which those reptiles lay their eggs and breed their young. the festival of arandhana, which is more especially observed by the lower orders of the people, is in honor of the goddess mansa.[ ] na'rikela (_coccos nucifera_).--the cocoanut tree, which is supposed to possess the attributes of a brahmin and is therefore held sacred.[ ] nimba (_melia azadirachta_).--a tree from the trunk of which the idol at pooree was manufactured, and which is in consequence identified with the ribs of vishnu.[ ] tu'lsi (_ocymum_).--the indian basil, of which there are several species, such as the _ram tulsi_ (ocymum gratissimum) the _babooye tulsi_ (ocymum pilosum) the _krishna tulsi_ (osymum sanctum) and the common _tulsi_ (ocymum villosum) all of which possess medicinal properties, but the two latter are held to be sacred to vishnu and used in his worship. the _puranas_ say that krishna assumed the form of _saukasura_, and seduced his wife brinda. when he was discovered he manifested his extreme regard for her by turning her into the _tulsi_ and put the leaves upon his head.[ ] appendix. * * * * * the flower garden in india. the following practical directions and useful information respecting the indian flower-garden, are extracted from the late mr. speede's _new indian gardener_, with the kind permission of the publishers, messrs. thacker spink and company of calcutta. the soil. so far as practicable, the soil should be renewed every year, by turning in vegetable mould, river sand, and well rotted manure to the depth of about a foot; and every second or third year the perennials should be taken up, and reduced, when a greater proportion of manure may be added, or what is yet better, the whole of the old earth removed, and new mould substituted. it used to be supposed that the only time for sowing annuals or other plants, (in bengal) is the beginning of the cold weather, but although this is the case with a great number of this class of plants, it is a popular error to think it applies to all, since there are many that grow more luxuriantly if sown at other periods. the pink, for instance, may be sown at any time, sweet william thrives best if sown in march or april, the variegated and light colored larkspurs should not be put in until december, the dahlia germinates most successfully in the rains, and the beautiful class of zinnias are never seen to perfection unless sown in june. this is the more deserving of attention, as it holds out the prospect of maintaining our indian flower gardens, in life and beauty, throughout the whole year, instead of during the confined period hitherto attempted. the several classes of flowering plants are divided into perennial, biennial, and annual. perennials. the heron's bill, erodium; the stork's bill, pelargonium; and the crane's bill, geranium; all popularly known under the common designation of geranium, which gives name to the family, are well known, and are favorite plants, of which but few of the numerous varieties are found in this country. of the first of these there are about five and twenty fixed species, besides a vast number of varieties; of which there are here found only the following:-- the _flesh-colored heron's bill_, e. incarnatum, is a pretty plant of about six inches high, flowering in the hot weather, with flesh-colored blossoms, but apt to become rather straggling. of the hundred and ninety species of the second class, independently of their varieties, there are few indeed that have found their way here, only thirteen, most of which are but rarely met with. the _rose-colored stork's bill_, p. roseum, is tuberous rooted, and in april yields pretty pink flowers. the _brick-colored stork's bill_, p. lateritium, affords red flowers in march and april. the _botany bay stork's bill_, p. australe, is rare, but may be made to give a pretty red flower in march. the _common horse-shoe stork's bill_, p. zonale, is often seen, and yields its scarlet blossoms freely in april. the _scarlet-flowered stork's bill_, p. inquinans, affords a very fine flower towards the latter end of the cold weather, and approaching to the hot; it requires protection from the rains, as it is naturally of a succulent nature, and will rot at the joints if the roots become at all sodden: many people lay the pots down on their sides to prevent this, which is tolerably successful to their preservation. the _sweet-scented stork's bill_, p. odoratissimum, with pink flowers, but it does not blossom freely, and the branches are apt to grow long and straggling. the _cut-leaved stork's bill_, p. incisum, has small flowers, the petals being long and thin, and the flowers which appear in april are white, marked with pink. the _ivy-leaved stork's bill_, p. lateripes, has not been known to yield flowers in this country. the _rose-scented stork's bill_, p. capitatum, the odour of the leaves is very pleasant, but it is very difficult to force into blossom. the _ternate stork's bill_, p. ternatum, has variegated pink flowers in april. the _oak-leaved stork's bill_, p. quercifolium, is much esteemed for the beauty of its leaves, but has not been known to blossom in this climate. the _tooth-leaved stork's bill_, p. denticulatum, is not a free flowerer, but may with care be made to bloom in april. the _lemon, or citron-scented stork's bill_, p. gratum, grows freely, and has a pretty appearance, but does not blossom. of the second class of these plants the forty-eight species have only three representatives. the _aconite-leaved crane's bill_, g. aconiti-folium, is a pretty plant, but rare, yielding its pale blue flowers with difficulty. the _wallich's crane's bill_ g. wallichianum, indigenous to nepal, having pale pink blossoms and rather pretty foliage, flowering in march and april; but requiring protection in the succeeding hot weather, and the beginning of the rains, as it is very susceptible of heat, or excess of moisture. _propagation_--may be effected by seed to multiply, or produce fresh varieties, but the ordinary mode of increasing the different sorts is by cuttings, no plant growing more readily by this mode. these should be taken off at a joint where the wood is ripening, at which point the root fibres are formed, and put into a pot with a compost of one part garden mould, one part vegetable mould, and one part sand, and then kept moderately moist, in the shade, until they have formed strong root fibres, when they may be planted out. the best method is to plant each cutting in a separate pot of the smallest size. the germinating of the seeds will be greatly promoted by sinking the pots three parts of their depth in a hot bed, keeping them moist and shaded and until they germinate. _soil, &c._ a rich garden mould, composed of light loam, rather sandy than otherwise, with very rotten dung, is desirable for this shrub. _culture_. most kinds are rapid and luxurious growers, and it is necessary to pay them constant attention in pruning or nipping the extremities of the shoots, or they will soon become ill-formed and straggling. this is particularly requisite during the rains, when heat and moisture combine to increase their growth to excess; allowing them to enjoy the full influence of the sun during the whole of the cold weather, and part of the hot. at the close of the rains, the plants had better be put out into the open ground, and closely pruned, the shoots taken off affording an ample supply of cuttings for multiplying the plants; this putting out will cause them to throw up strong healthy shoots and rich blossoms; but as the hot weather approaches, or in the beginning of march, they must be re-placed in moderate sized pots, with a compost similar to that required for cuttings and placed in the plant shed, as before described. the earth in the pots should be covered with pebbles, or pounded brick of moderate size, which prevents the accumulation of moss or fungi. geraniums should at no time be over watered, and must at all seasons be allowed a free ventilation. there is no doubt that if visitors from this to the cape, would pay a little attention to the subject, the varieties might be greatly increased, and that without much trouble, as many kinds may be produced freely by seed, if brought to the country fresh, and sown immediately on arrival; young plants also in well glazed cases would not take up much space in some of the large vessels coming from thence. the anemone has numerous varieties, and is, in england, a very favorite flower, but although a. cernua is a native of japan, and many varieties are indigenous to the cape, it is very rare here. the _double anemone_ is the most prized, but there are several _single_ and _half double_ kinds which are very handsome. the stem of a good anemone should be eight or nine inches in height, with a strong upright stalk. the flower ought not to be less than seven inches in circumference, the outer row of petals being well rounded, flat, and expanding at the base, turning up with a full rounded edge, so as to form a well shaped cup, within which, in the double kinds, should arise a large group of long small petals reverted from the centre, and regularly overlapping each other; the colors clear, each shade being distinct in such as are variegated. the _garden, or star wind flower_, a. hortensis, _boostan afrooz_, is another variety, found in persia, and brought thence to upper india, of a bright scarlet color; a blue variety has also blossomed in calcutta, and was exhibited at the show of february, , by mrs. macleod, to whom floriculture is indebted for the introduction of many beautiful exotics heretofore new to india. but it is to be hoped this handsome species of flowering plants will soon be more extensively found under cultivation. _propagation_. seed can hardly be expected to succeed in this country, as even in europe it fails of germinating; for if not sown immediately that it is ripe, the length of journey or voyage would inevitably destroy its power of producing. offsets of the tubers therefore are the only means that are left, and these should not be replanted until they have been a sufficient time out of the ground, say a month or so, to become hardened, nor should they be put into the earth until they have dried, or the whole offset will rot by exposure of the newly fractured side to the moisture of the earth. the tubers should be selected which are plump and firm, as well as of moderate size, the larger ones being generally hollow; these may be obtained in good order from hobart town. _soil, &c._ a strong rich loamy soil is preferable, having a considerable portion of well rotted cow-dung, with a little leaf mould, dug to a depth of two feet, and the beds not raised too high, as it is desirable to preserve moisture in the subsoil; if in pots, this is effected by keeping a saucer of water under them continually, the pot must however be deep, or the fibres will have too much wet; an open airy situation is desirable. _culture_. when the plant appears above ground the earth must be pressed well down around the root, as the crowns and tubers are injured by exposure to dry weather, and the plants should be sheltered from the heat of the sun, but not so as to confine the air; they require the morning and evening sun to shine on them, particularly the former. the iris is a handsome plant, attractive alike from the variety and the beauty of its blossoms; some of them are also used medicinally. all varieties produce abundance of seed, in which form the plant might with great care be introduced into this country. the _florence iris_, i. florentina, _ueersa_, is a large variety, growing some two feet in height, the flower being white, and produced in the hot weather. the _persian iris_ i. persica, _hoobur_, is esteemed not only for its handsome blue and purple flowers, but also for its fragrance, blossoming in the latter part of the cold weather; one variety has blue and yellow blossoms. the _chinese iris_, i. chinensis, _soosun peelgoosh_, in a small sized variety, but has very pretty blue and purple flowers in the beginning of the hot weather. _propagation_. besides seed, which should be sown in drills, at the close of the rains, in a sandy soil, it may be produced by offsets. _soil, &c._ almost any kind of soil suits the iris, but the best flowers are obtained from a mixture of sandy loam, with leaf mould, the persian kind requiring a larger proportion of sand. _culture_. little after culture is required, except keeping the beds clear from weeds, and occasionally loosening the earth. but the roots must be taken, up every two, or at most three years, and replanted, after having been kept to harden for a month or six weeks; the proper season for doing this being when the leaves decay after blossoming. the tuberose, polianthes, is well deserving of culture, but it is not by any means a rare plant, and like many indigenous odoriferous flowers, has rather too strong an odour to be borne near at hand, and it is considered unwholesome in a room. the _common tuberose_, p. tuberosa, _chubugulshubboo_, being a native of india thrives in almost any soil, and requires no cultivation: it is multiplied by dividing the roots. it flowers at all times of the year in bunches of white flowers with long sepals. the _double tuberose_, p. florepleno, is very rich in appearance, and of more delicate fragrance, although still too powerful for the room. crows are great destroyers of the blossoms, which they appear fond of pecking. this variety is more rare, and the best specimens have been obtained from hobart town. it is rather more delicate and requires more attention in culture than the indigenous variety, and should be earthed up, so as to prevent water lodging around the stem. the lobelia is a brilliant class of flowers which may be greatly improved by careful cultivation. the _splendid lobelia_, l. splendens, is found in many gardens, and is a showy scarlet flower, well worthy of culture. the _pyramidal lobelia_, l. pyramidalis, is a native of nepal, and is a modest pretty flower, of a purple color. _propagation_--is best performed by offsets, suckers, or cuttings, but seeds produce good strong plants, which may with care, be made to improve. _soil, &c._--a moist, sandy soil is requisite for them, the small varieties especially delighting in wet ground. some few of this family are annuals, and the roots of no varieties should remain more than three years without renewal, as the blossoms are apt to deteriorate; they all flower during the rains. the pitcairnia is a very handsome species, having long narrow leaves, with, spined edges and throwing up blossoms in upright spines. the _long stamened pitcairnia_, p. staminea, is a splendid scarlet flower, lasting long in blossom, which, appears in july or august, and continues till december. the _scarlet pitcairnia_, p. bromeliaefolia, is also a fine rich scarlet flower, but blossoming somewhat sooner, and may be made to continue about a month later. _propagation_--is by dividing the roots, or by suckers, which is best performed at the close of the rains. _soil, &c._ a sandy peat is the favorite soil of this plant, which should be kept very moist. the dahlia, dahlia; a few years since an attempt was made to rename this beautiful and extensive family and to call it georgina, but it failed, and it is still better known throughout the world by its old name than the new. it was long supposed that the dahlia was only found indigenous in mexico, but captain kirke some few years back brought to the notice of the horticultural society, that it was to be met with in great abundance in dheyra dhoon, producing many varieties both single and double; and he has from time to time sent down quantities of seed, which have greatly assisted its increase in all parts of india. it has also been found in nagpore. a good dahlia is judged of by its form, size, and color. in respect to the first of these its _form_ should be perfectly round, without any inequalities of projecting points of the petals, or being notched, or irregular. these should also be so far revolute that the side view should exhibit a perfect semicircle in its outline, and the eye or prolific disc, in the centre should be entirely concealed. there has been recently introduced into this country a new variety, all the petals of which are quilled, which has a very handsome appearance. in _size_ although of small estimation if the other qualities are defective, it is yet of some consideration, but the larger flowers are apt to be wanting in that perfect hemispherical form that is so much admired. the _color_ is of great importance to the perfection of the flower; of those that are of one color this should be clear, unbroken, and distinct; but when mixed hues are sought, each color should be clearly and distinctly defined without any mingling of shades, or running into each other. further, the flowers ought to be erect so as to exhibit the blossom in the fullest manner to the view. the most usual colors of the imported double dahlias, met with in india, are crimson, scarlet, orange, purple, and white. amongst those raised from seed from. dheyra dhoon[ ] of the double kind, there are of single colors, crimson, deep crimson approaching to maroon, deep lilac, pale lilac, violet, pink, light purple, canary color, yellow, red, and white; and of mixed colors, white and pink, red and yellow, and orange and white: the single ones of good star shaped flowers and even petals being of crimson, puce, lilac, pale lilac, white, and orange. those from nagpore seed have yielded, double flowers of deep crimson, lilac, and pale purple, amongst single colors; lilac and blue, and red and yellow of mixed shades; and single flowered, crimson, and orange, with mixed colors of lilac and yellow, and lilac and white. _propagation_--is by dividing the roots, by cuttings, by suckers, or by seed; the latter is generally resorted to, where new varieties are desired. mr. george a. lake, in an article on this subject (_gardeners' magazine_, ) says: "i speak advisedly, and from, experience, when i assert that plants raised from cuttings do not produce equally perfect flowers, in regard to size, form, and fulness, with those produced by plants grown from division of tubers;" and he more fully shews in another part of the same paper, that this appears altogether conformable to reason, as the cutting must necessarily for a long period want that store of starch, which is heaped up in the full grown tuber for the nutriment of the plant. this objection however might be met by not allowing the cuttings to flower in the season when they are struck. to those who are curious in the cultivation of this handsome species, it may be well to know how to secure varieties, especially of mixed colors; for this purpose it is necessary to cover the blossoms intended for fecundation with fine gauze tied firmly to the foot stalk, and when it expands take the pollen from the male flowers with a camel's hair pencil, and touch with it each floret of the intended bearing flower, tying the gauze again over it, and keeping it on until the petals are withered. the operation requires to be performed two or three successive days, as the florets do not expand together. _soil &c._ they thrive best in a rich loam, mixed with sand; but should not be repeated too often on the same spot, as they exhaust the soil considerably. _culture_. the dahlia requires an open, airy position unsheltered by trees or walls, the plants should be put out where they are to blossom, immediately on the cessation of the rains, at a distance of three feet apart, either in rows or in clumps, as they make a handsome show in a mass; and as they grow should be trimmed from the lower shoots, to about a foot in height, and either tied carefully to a stake, or, what is better, surrounded by a square or circular trellis, about five feet in height. as the buds form they should be trimmed off, so as to leave but one on each stalk, this being the only method by which full, large, and perfectly shaped blossoms are obtained. some people take up the tubers every year in february or march, but this is unnecessary. the plants blossom in november and december in the greatest perfection, but may with attention be continued from the beginning of october to the end of february. those plants which are left in the ground during the whole year should have their roots opened immediately on the close of the rains, the superabundant or decayed tubers, and all suckers being removed, and fresh earth filled in. the earth should always be heaped up high around the stems, and it is a good plan to surround each plant with a small trench to be filled daily with water so as to keep the stem and leaves dry. the pink, dianthus, _kurunful_, is a well known species of great variety, and acknowledged beauty. the _carnation_, d. caryophyilus, _gul kurunful_, is by this time naturalized in india, adding both beauty and fragrance to the parterre; the only variety however that has yet appeared in the country is the clove, or deep crimson colored: but the success attending the culture of this beautiful flower is surely an encouragement to the introduction of other sorts, there being above four hundred kinds, especially as they may be obtained from seed or pipings sent packed in moss, which will remain in good condition for two or three months, provided no moisture beyond what is natural to the moss, have access to them. the distinguishing marks of a good carnation may be thus described: the stem should be tall and straight, strong, elastic, and having rather short foot stalks, the flower should be fully three inches in diameter with large well formed petals, round and uncut, long and broad, so as to stand out well, rising about half an inch above the calyx, and then the outer ones turned off in a horizontal direction, supporting those of the centre, decreasing gradually in size, the whole forming a near approach to a hemisphere. it flowers in april and may. _propagation_--is performed either by seed, by layers, or by pipings; the best time for making the two latter is when the plant is in full blossom, as they then root more strongly. in this operation the lower leaves should be trimmed off, and an incision made with a sharp knife, by entering the knife about a quarter of an inch below the joint, passing it through its centre; it must then be pegged down with a hooked peg, and covered with about a quarter of an inch of light rich mould; if kept regularly moist, the layers will root in about a month's time: they may then be taken off and planted out into pots in a sheltered situation, neither exposed to excessive rain, nor sun, until they shoot out freely. pipings (or cuttings as they are called in other plants) must be taken off from a healthy, free growing plant, and should have two complete joints, being cut off horizontally close under the second one; the extremities of the leaves must also be shortened, leaving the whole length of each piping two inches; they should be thrown into a basin of soft water for a few minutes to plump them, and then planted out in moist rich mould, not more than an inch being inserted therein, and slightly watered to settle the earth close around them; after this the soil should be kept moderately moist, and never exposed to the sun. seed is seldom resorted to except to introduce new varieties. _soil, &c._--a mixture of old well rotted stable manure, with one-third the quantity of good fine loamy earth, and a small portion of sand, is the best soil for carnations. _culture_.--the plants should be sheltered from too heavy a fall of rain, although they require to be kept moderately moist, and desire an airy situation. when the flower stalks are about six or eight inches in height, they must be supported by sticks, and, if large full blossoms be sought for, all the buds, except the leading one, must be removed with a pair of scissors; the calyx must also be frequently examined, as it is apt to burst, and if any disposition to this should appear, it will be well to assist the uniform expansion by cutting the angles with a sharp penknife. if, despite all precautions the calyx burst and let out the petals, it should be carefully tied with thread, or a circular piece of card having a hole in the centre should be drawn over the bud so as to hold the petals together, and display them to advantage by the contrast of the white color. _insects, &c._--the most destructive are the red, and the large black ant, which attack, and frequently entirely destroy the roots before you can be aware of its approach; powdered turmeric should therefore be constantly kept strewed around this flower. the _common pink_, dianthus chinensis, _kurunful_, and the _sweet william_, d: barbatus, are pretty, ornamental plants, and may be propagated and cultivated in the same way as the carnation, save that they do not require so much care, or so good a soil, any garden mould sufficing; they are also more easily produced from seed. the violet, viola, _puroos_, is a class containing many beautiful flowers, some highly ornamental and others odoriferous. the _sweet violet_, v. odorata, _bunufsh'eh_, truly the poet's flower. it is a deserved favorite for its delightful fragrance as well as its delicate and retiring purple flowers; there is also a white variety, but it is rare in this country, as is also the double kind. this blossoms in the latter part of the cold weather. the _shrubby violet_, v. arborescens, or suffruticosa, _rutunpuroos_, grows wild in the hills, and is a pretty blue flower, but wants the fragrance of the foregoing. the _dog's violet_, v. canina, is also indigenous in the hills. _propagation_.--all varieties may be propagated by seed, but the most usual method is by dividing the roots, or taking off the runners. _soil, &c._--the natural _habitat_ of the indigenous varieties is the sides and interstices of the rocks, where leaf mould, and micaceous sand, has accumulated and moisture been retained, indicating that the kind of soil favorable to the growth of this interesting little plant is a rich vegetable mould, with an admixture of sand, somewhat moist, but having a dry subsoil. _culture_.--it would not be safe to trust this plant in the open ground except during a very short period of the early part of the cold weather, when the so doing will give it strength to form blossoms. in january, however, it should be re-potted, filling the pots about half-full of pebbles or stone-mason's cuttings, over which should be placed good rich vegetable mould, mixed with a large proportion of sand, covering with a thin layer of the same material as has been put into the bottom of the pot; a top dressing of ground bones is said to improve the fineness of the blossoms. they should not be kept too dry, but at the same time watered cautiously, as too much of either heat or moisture destroys the plants. the _pansy_ or _heart's-ease_, v. tricolor, _kheeroo, kheearee_, derives its first name from the french _pensée_. it was known amongst the early christians by the name of _flos trinitatis_, and worn as a symbol of their faith. the high estimation which it has of late years attained in great britain as a florist's flower has, in the last two or three years, extended itself to this country. there are nearly four hundred varieties, a few of which only have been found here. _the characters of a fine heart's-ease_ are, the flower being well expanded, offering a flat, or if any thing, rather a revolute surface, and the petals so overlapping each other as to form a circle without any break in the outline. these should be as nearly as possible of a size, and the greater length of the two upper ones concealed by the covering of those at the side in such manner as to preserve the appearance of just proportion: the bottom petal being broad and two-lobed, and well expanded, not curving inwards. the eye should be of moderate, or rather small size, and much additional beauty is afforded, if the pencilling is so arranged as to give the appearance of a dark angular spot. the colors must also be clear, bright, and even, not clouded or indistinct. undoubtedly the handsomest kinds are those in which the two upper petals are of deep purple and the triade of a shade less: in all, the flower stalk should be long and stiff. the plant blossoms in this country in february and march, although it is elsewhere a summer flower. _propagation_.--in england the moat usual methods are dividing the roots, layers, or cuttings from the stem, and these are certainly the only sure means of preserving a good variety; but it is almost impossible in india to preserve the plant through the hot weather, and therefore it is more generally treated as an annual, and raised every year from seed, which should be sown at the close of the rains; as however their growth, in india is as yet little known, most people put the imported seed into pots as soon as it arrives, lest the climate should deteriorate its germinating power, as it is well known, that even in europe the seed should be sown as soon as possible after ripening. it will be well also to assist its sprouting with a little bottom heat, by plunging the pot up to its rim in a hot bed. american seed should be avoided as the blossoms are little to be depended on, and generally yield small, ill-formed flowers, clouded and run in color. _soil, &c._--this should be moist, and the best compost is formed of one-sixth of well rotted dung from an old hot bed, and five-sixth of loam, or one-fourth of leaf mould and the remainder loam, but in either case well incorporated and exposed for some time previous to use to the action of the sun and air by frequent turning. _culture_.--a shady situation is to be preferred, especially for the dark varieties which assume a deeper hue if so placed. but it has been observed by mackintosh, that "the light varieties bloomed lighter in the shade, and darker in the sunshine--a very remarkable effect, for which i cannot account." the plants must at all times be kept moist, never being allowed to become dry, and should be so placed as to receive only the morning sun before ten o'clock. under good management the plants will extend a foot or more in height, and have a handsome appearance if trained over a circular trellis of rattan twisted. when they rise too high, or it is desirable to fill out with side shoots, the tops must be pinched off, and larger flowers will be obtained if the flower buds are thinned out where they appear crowded. these plants look very handsome when grown in large masses of several varieties, but the seeds of those grown in this manner should not be made use of, as they are sure to sport; to prevent which it is also necessary that the plants which it is desired to perpetuate in this manner should be isolated at a distance from any other kind, and it would be advisable to cover them with thin gauze to prevent impregnation from others by means of the bees and other insects. for show flowers the branches should be kept down, and not suffered to straggle out or multiply; these will also be improved by pegging the longer branches down under the soil, and thereby increasing the number of the root fibres, hence adding to their power of accumulating nourishment, and not allowing them to expand beyond a limited number of blossoms, and those retained should be as nearly equal in age as possible. the hydrangea is a hardy plant requiring a good deal of moisture, being by nature an inhabitant of the marshes. the _changeable hydrangea_, h. hortensis, is of chinese origin and a pretty growing plant that deserves to be a favorite; it blossoms in bunches of flowers at the extremities of the branches which are naturally pink, but in old peat earth, or having a mixture of alum, or iron filings, the color changes to blue. it blooms in march and april. _propagation_ may be effected by cuttings, which root freely, or by layers. _soil, &c._--loam and old leaf mould, or peat with a very small admixture of sand suits this plant. their growth is much promoted by being turned out, for a month or two in the rains, into the open ground, and then re-potted with new soil, the old being entirely removed from the roots: and to make it flower well it must not be encumbered with too many branches. the hoya is properly a trailing plant, rooting at the joints, but have been generally cultivated here as a twiner. the _fleshy-leaved hoya_, h. carnosa, is vulgarly called the wax flower from its singular star shaped-whitish pink blossoms, with a deep colored varnished centre, having more the appearance of a wax model than a production of nature. the flowers appear in globular groups and have a very handsome appearance from the beginning of april to the close of the rains. the _green flowered hoya_, h. viridiflora, _nukchukoree, teel kunga_, with its green flowers in numerous groups, is also an interesting plant, it is esteemed also for its medicinal properties. _propagation_.--every morsel of these plants, even a piece of the leaf, will form roots if put in the ground, cuttings therefore strike very freely, as do layers, the joints naturally throwing out root-fibres although not in the earth. _soil, &c._--a light loam moderately dry is the best for these plants, which look well if trained round a circular trellis in the open border. the stapelia is an extensive genus of low succulent plants without leaves, but yielding singularly handsome star-shaped flowers; they are of african origin growing in the sandy deserts, but in a natural state very diminutive being increased to their present condition and numerous varieties by cultivation, they mostly have an offensive smell whence some people call them the carrion plant. they deserve more attention than has hitherto been shown to them in india. the _variegated stapelia_, s. variegata, yields a flower in november, the thick petals of which are yellowish green with brown irregular spots, it is the simplest of the family. the _revolute-flowered stapelia_, s. revoluta, has a green blossom very fully sprinkled with deep purple, it flowers at the close of the rains. the _toad stapelia_, s. bufonia, as its name implies, is marked like the back of the reptile from whence it has its name; it flowers in december and january. the _hairy stapelia_, s. hirsuta, is a very handsome variety, being, like the rest, of green and brown, but the entire flower covered with fine filaments or hairs of a light purple, at various periods of the year. the _starry stapelia_, s. stellaris, is perhaps the most beautiful of the whole, being like the last covered with hairs, but they are of a bright pinkish blue color; there appears to be no fixed period for flowering. the hairy carrulluma, c. crinalata, belongs to the same family as the foregoing species, which it much resembles, except that it blossoms in good sized globular groups of small star-shaped flowers of green, studded and streaked with brown. _propagation_ is exceedingly easy with each of the last named two species; as the smallest piece put in any soil that is moist, without being saturated, will throw out root fibres. _soil, &c._--this should consist of one-half sand, one-fourth garden mould, and one-fourth well rotted stable manure. the pots in which they are planted should have on the top a layer of pebbles, or broken brick. all the after culture they require is to keep them within bounds, removing decayed portions as they appear and avoiding their having too much moisture. the perennial border plants, besides those included above, are very numerous; the directions for cultivation admitting, from their similarity, of the following general rules:-- _propagation_.--although some few will admit of other modes of multiplication, the most usually successful are by seed, by suckers, or by offsets, and by division of the root, the last being applicable to nine-tenths of the hardy herbaceous plants, and performed either by taking up the whole plant and gently separating it by the hand, or by opening the ground near the one to be divided, and cutting off a part of the roots and crown to make new the sections being either at once planted where they are to stand, or placed for a short period in a nursery; the best time for this operation is the beginning of the rains. offsets or suckers being rapidly produced during the rains, will be best removed towards their close, at which period, also, seed should be sown to benefit by the moisture remaining in the soil. the depth at which seeds are buried in the earth varies with their magnitude, all the pea or vetch kind will bear being put at a depth of from half an inch to one inch; but with the smallest seeds it will be sufficient to scatter them, on the sifted soil, beating them down with, the palm of the hand. _culture_.--transplanting this description of plants will be performed to best advantage during the rains. the general management is comprehended in stirring the soil occasionally in the immediate vicinity of the roots; taking up overgrown plants, reducing and replanting them, for which the rains is the best time; renewing the soil around the roots; sticking the weak plants; pruning and trimming others, so as to remove all weakly or decayed parts. once a year, before the rains, the whole border should be dug one or two spits deep, adding soil from the bottom of a tank or river; and again, in the cold weather, giving a moderate supply of well rotted stable manure, and leaf mould in equal portions. crossing is considered as yet in its infancy even in england, and has, except with the marvel of peru, hardly even been attempted in this country. the principles under which this is effected are fully explained at page of the former part of this work; but it may also be done in the more woody kinds by grafting one or more of the same genus on the stock of another, the seed of which would give a new variety. saving seed requires great attention in india, as it should be taken during the hot weather if possible; to effect which the earliest blossoms must be preserved for this purpose. with some kinds it will be advisable to assist nature by artificial impregnation with a camel hair pencil, carefully placing the pollen on the point of the stigma. the seeds should be carefully dried in some open, airy place, but not exposed to the sun, care being afterwards taken that they shall be deposited in a dry place, not close or damp, whence the usual plan of storing the seeds in bottles is not advisable. * * * * * bulbs. bulbs have not as yet received that degree of attention in this country (india) that they deserve, and they may be considered to form a separate class, requiring a mode of culture differing from that of others. their slow progress has discouraged many and a supposition that they will only thrive in the upper provinces, has deterred others from attempting to grow them, an idea which has also been somewhat fostered by the horticultural society, when they received a supply from england, having sent the larger portion of them to their subscribers in the north west provinces. the narcissus will thrive with care, in all parts of india, and it is a matter of surprise that it is not more frequently met with. a good narcissus should have the six petals well formed, regularly and evenly disposed, with a cup of good form, the colors distinct and clear, raised on strong erect stems, and flowering together. the _polyanthes narcissus_, n. tazetta, _narjus, hur'huft nusreen_, is of two classes, white and sulphur colored, but these have sported into almost endless varieties, especially amongst the dutch, with whom this and most other bulbs are great favorites. it flowers in february and march. the _poet's narcissus_, n. poeticus, _moozhan, zureenkuda_ is the favorite, alike for its fragrance and its delicate and graceful appearance, the petals being white and the cup a deep yellow: it flowers from the beginning of january to the end of march and thrives well. the first within the recollection of the author, in bengal, was at patna, nearly twelve years since, in possession of a lady there under whose care it blossomed freely in the shade, in the month of february. the _daffodil_, n. pseudo-narcissus, _khumsee buroonk_, is of pale yellow, and some of the double varieties are very handsome. _propagation_ is by offsets, pulled off after the bulbs are taken out of the ground, and sufficiently hardened. _soil, &c._--the best is a fresh, light loam with some well rotted cow dung for the root fibres to strike into, and the bottom of the pot to the height of one-third filled with pebbles or broken brick. they will not blossom until the fifth year, and to secure strong flowers the bulbs should only be taken up every third year. an eastern aspect where they get only the morning sun, is to be preferred. the pancratium is a handsome species that thrives well, some varieties being indigenous, and others fully acclimated, generally flowering about may or june. the _one-flowered pancratium_, p. zeylanicum, is rather later than the rest in flowering and bears a curiously formed white flower. the _two-flowered pancratium_, p. triflorum, _sada kunool_, was so named by roxburg, and gives a white flower in groups of threes, as its name implies. the _oval leaved pancratium_, p. ovatum, although of west indian origin, is so thoroughly acclimated as to be quite common in the indian garden. _propagation_.--the best method is by suckers or offsets which are thrown out very freely by all the varieties. _soil, &c._--any common garden soil will suit this plant, but they thrive best with a good admixture of rich vegetable mould. the hyacinth, hyacinthus, is an elegant flower, especially the double kind. the first bloomed in calcutta was exhibited at the flower show some three years since, but proved an imperfect blossom and not clear colored; a very handsome one, however, was shown by mrs. macleod in february , and was raised from a stock originally obtained at simlah. the dutch florists have nearly two thousand varieties. the distinguishing marks of a good hyacinth are clear bright colors, free from clouding or sporting, broad bold petals, full, large and perfectly doubled, sufficiently revolute to give the whole mass a degree of convexity: the stem strong and erect and the foot stalks horizontal at the base, gradually taking an angle upwards as they approach the crown, so as to place the flowers in a pyramidical form, occupying about one-half the length of the stem. the _amethyst colored hyacinth_, h. amethystimus, is a fine handsome flower, varying in shade from pale blue to purple, and having bell shaped flowers, but the foot stalks are generally not strong and they are apt to become pendulous. the _garden hyacinth_, h. orientalis, _sumbul, abrood_, is the handsomer variety, the flowers being trumpet shaped, very double and of varying colors--pink, red, blue, white, or yellow, and originally of eastern growth. it flowers in february and has considerable fragrance. _propagation_.--in europe this is sometimes performed by seed, but as this requires to be put into the ground as soon as possible after ripening, and moreover takes a long time to germinate, this method would hardly answer in this country, which must therefore, at least for the present, depend upon imported bulbs and offsets. _soil, &c._--this, as well as its after culture, is the same as for the narcissus. they will not show flowers until the second year, and not in good bloom before the fifth or sixth of their planting out. the crocus, crocus lutens, having no native name, has yet, it is believed, been hardly ever known to flower here, even with the utmost care. a good crocus has its colors clear, brilliant, and distinctly marked. _propagation_--must be effected, for new varieties, by seeds, but the species are multiplied by offsets of the bulb. _soil, &c._ any fair garden soil is good for the crocus, but it prefers that which is somewhat sandy. _culture_. the small bulbs should be planted in clumps at the depth of two inches; the leaves should not be cut off after the plant has done blossoming, as the nourishment for the future season's flower is gathered by them. the ixia, is originally from the cape, and belongs to the class of iridae: the ixia chinensis, more properly morea chinensis, is a native of india and china, and common in most gardens. _propagation_--is by offsets. _soil, &c._ the best is of peat and sand, it thrives however in good garden soil, if not too stiff, and requires no particular cultivation. the lily, lilium, _soosun_, the latter derived from the hebrew, is a handsome species that deserves more care than it has yet received in india, where some of the varieties are indigenous. the _japan lily_, l. japonicum, is a very tall growing plant, reaching about feet in height with broad handsome flowers of pure white, and a small streak of blue, in the rains. the _daunan lily_, l. dauricum, _rufeef, soosun_, gives an erect, light orange flower in the rains. the _canadian lily_, l. canadense _b'uhmutan_, flowers in the rains in pairs of drooping reflexed blossoms of a rather darker orange, sometimes spotted with a deeper shade. _propagation_--is effected by offsets, which however will not flower until the third or fourth year. _soil, &c._ this is the same as for the narcissus, but they do not require taking up more frequently than once in three years, and that only for about a month at the close of the rains, the japan lily will thrive even under the shade of trees. the amaryllis is a very handsome flower, which has been found to thrive well in this country, and has a great variety, all of which possess much beauty, some kinds are very hardy, and will grow freely in the open ground. the _mexican lily_, a. regina mexicanae, is a common hardy variety found in most gardens, yielding an orange red flower in the months of march and april, and will thrive even under the shades of trees. the _ceylonese amaryllis_, a: zeylanica, _suk'h dursun_, gives a pretty flower about the same period. the _jacoboean lily_, a, formosissima, has a handsome dark red flower of singular form, having three petals well expanded above, and three others downwards rolled over the fructile organs on the base, so as to give the idea of its being the model whence the bourbon _fleur de lis_ was taken, the stem is shorter than the two previous kinds, blossoming in april or may. the _noble amaryllis_, a: insignia, is a tall variety, having pink flowers in march or april. the _broad-leaved amaryllis_, a: latifolia, is a native of india with pinkish white flowers about the same period of the year. the _belladonna lily_. a: belladonna is of moderately high stem, supporting a pink flower of the same singular form as the jacoboean lily, in may and june. _propagation_--is by offsets of the bulb, which most kinds throw out very freely, sometimes to the extent of ten, or a dozen in the season. _soil, &c._--for the choice kinds is the same as is required for the narcissus, and water should on no account be given over the leaves or upper part of the bulb. the common kinds look well in masses, and a good form of planting them is in a series of raised circles, so as for the whole to form a round bed. the dog's tooth violet, erythronium, is a pretty flowering bulb and a great favorite with florists in europe. the _common dog's tooth violet_, e. dens canis, is ordinarily found of reddish purple, there is also a white variety, but it is rare, neither of them grow above three or four inches in height, and flower in march or april. the _indian dog's tooth violet_, e. indicum, _junglee kanda_, is found in the hills, and flowers at about the same time, with a pink blossom. the superb gloriosa, gloriosa superba, _kareearee, eeskooee langula_, is a very beautiful species of climbing bulb, a native of this country, and on that account neglected, although highly esteemed as a stove plant in england; the leaves bear tendrils at the points, and the flower, which is pendulous, when first expanded, throws its petals nearly erect of yellowish green, which gradually changes to yellow at the base and bright scarlet at the point; the pistil which shoots from the seed vessel horizontally possesses the singular property of making an entire circuit between sun-rise and sun-set each day that the flower continues, which is generally for some time, receiving impregnation from every author as it visits them in succession. it blooms in the latter part of the rains. _propagation_ is in india sometimes from seed, but in europe it is confined to division of the offsets. _soil, &c._--most garden soils will suit this plant, but it affords the handsomest, and richest colored flowers in fresh loam mixed with peat or leaf mould, without dung. it should not have too much water when first commencing its growth, and it requires the support of a trellis over which it will bear training to a considerable extent, growing to the height of from five to six feet. many other bulbs, there is no doubt, might be successfully grown in india where every thing is favorable to their growth, and so much facility presents itself for procuring them from the cape of good hope; the natural _habitat_ of so many varieties of the handsomest species, nearly all of them flowering between the end of the cold weather and the close of the rains. some of these being hardy, thrive in the open ground with but little care or trouble, others requiring very great attention, protection from exposure, and shelter from the heat of the sun, and the intensity of its rays; which should therefore have a particular portion of the plant-shed assigned to them, such being inhabitants of the green house in colder climates, and the reason of assigning them such separated part of the chief house, or what is better perhaps, a small house to themselves, is that in culture, treatment, and other respects they do not associate with plants of a different character. one great obstacle which the more extensive culture of bulbs has had to contend against, may be found in that impatience that refuses to give attention to what requires from three to five years to perfect, generally speaking people in india prefer therefore to cultivate such plants only as afford an immediate result, especially with relation to the ornamental classes. _propagation_.--the bulb after the formation of the first floral core is instigated by nature to continue its species, as immediately the flower fades the portion of bulb that gave it birth dies, for which purpose it each year forms embryo bulbs on each side of the blossoming one, and which although continued in the same external coat, are each perfect and complete plants in themselves, rising from the crown of the root fibres: in some kinds this is more distinctly exhibited by being as it were, altogether outside and distinct from, the main, or original bulb. these being separated for what are called offsets, and should be taken off only when the parent bulb has been taken up and hardened, or the young plant will suffer. some species of bulbous rooted plants produce seeds, but this method of reproduction, can seldom be resorted to in this country, and certainly not to obtain new kinds, as the seeds require to be sown as soon as ripe. _soil, culture, &c_.--for the delicate and rare bulbs, it is advisable to have pots purposely made of some fifteen inches in height with a diameter of about seven or eight inches at the top, tapering down to five, with a hole at the bottom as in ordinary flower pots, and for this to stand in, another pot should be made without any hole, of a height of about four inches, sufficient size to leave the space of about an inch all round between the outer side of the plant pot and the inner side of the smaller pot or saucer. this will allow the plant pot to be filled with crocks, pebbles, or stone chippings to the height of five inches, or about an inch higher than the level of the water in the saucer, above which may be placed eight inches in depth of soil and one inch on the top of that, pebbles or small broken brick. by this arrangement, the saucer being kept filled, or partly filled, as the plant may require, with water, the fibres of the root obtain a sufficiency of moisture for the maintenance and advancement of the plant without chance of injury to the bulb or stem, by applying water to the upper earth which is also in this prevented from becoming too much saturated. light rich sandy loam, with a portion of sufficiently decomposed leaf mould, is the best soil for the early stages of growing bulbs. so soon as the leaves change color and wither, then all moisture must be withheld, but as the repose obtained by this means is not sufficient to secure health to the plant, and ensure its giving strong blossoms, something more is required to effect this purpose. this being rendered the more necessary because in those that form offsets by the sides of the old bulbs, they would otherwise become crowded and degenerate, the same occurring also with those forming under the old ones, which will get down so deep that they cease to appear. the time to take up the bulb is when the flower-stem and leaves have commenced decay; taking dry weather for the purpose, if the bulbs are hardy, or if in pots having reduced the moisture as above shown, but it must be left to individual experience to discover how long the different varieties should remain out of the ground, some requiring one month's rest, and others enduring three or four, with advantage; more than that is likely to be injurious. when out of the ground, during the first part of the period they are so kept, it should be, say for a fortnight at least, in any room where no glare exists, with free circulation of air, after which the off-sets may be removed, and the whole exposed to dry on a table in the verandah, or any other place that is open to the air, but protected from the sunshine, which would destroy them. little peculiarity of after treatment is requisite, except perhaps that the bulbs which are to flower in the season should have a rather larger proportion of leaf mould in the compost, and that if handsome flowers are required, it will be well to examine the bulb every week at least by gently taking the mould from around them, and removing all off-sets that appear on the old bulb. for the securing strength to the plant also, it will be well to pinch off the flower so soon as it shews symptoms of decay. the wire worm is a great enemy to bulbs, and whenever it appears they should be taken up, cleaned, and re-planted. it is hardly necessary to say that all other vermin and insects must be watched, and immediately removed. * * * * * the biennial border plants. it is only necessary to mention a few of these, as the curious in floriculture will always make their own selection, the following will therefore suffice.-- the speedwell-leaved hedge hyssop, gratiola veronicifolia, _bhoomee, sooél chumnee_, seldom cultivated, though deserving to be so, has a small blue flower. the simple-stalked lobelia, lobelia simplex, introduced from the cape, yields a pretty blue flower. the evening primrose, oenothera mutabilis, a pretty white flower that blossoms in the evening, its petals becoming pink by morning. the flax-leaved pimpernel, anagallis linifolia, a rare plant, giving a blue flower in the rains; introduced from portugal. the browallia, of two lauds, both pretty and interesting plants; originally from south america. the _spreading browallia_, b. demissa is the smallest of these, and blossoms in single flowers of bright blue, at the beginning of the cold weather. the _upright browallia_, b. alata, gives bloom in groups, of a bright blue; there is also a white variety, both growing to the height of nearly two feet. the small-flowered turnsole, heliotropium parviflorum, _b'hoo roodee_, differs from the rest of this family which are mostly perennials; it yields groups of white flowers, which are fragrant. the flax-leaved candytuft, iberis linifolia, with its purple blossoms, is very rare, but it has been sometimes grown with, success. the stock, mathiola, is a very popular plant, and deserves more extensive cultivation in this country. the _great sea stock_, m sinuata, is rare and somewhat difficult to bring into bloom, it possesses some fragrance and its violet colored groups of flowers have rather a handsome appearance about may. the _ten weeks' stock_, m annua, is also a pleasing flower about the same time. in england this is an annual, but here it is not found to bloom freely until the second year, its color is scarlet, and it has some fragrance. the _purple gilly flower_, m incana, is a pretty flower of purple color, and fragrant. there are some varieties of it such as the _double_, multiplex, the _brompton_, coccinea, and the _white_, alba, varying in color and blossoming in april. the starwort, aster, is a hardy flowering plant not very attractive, except as it yields blossoms at all seasons, if the foot stalks are cut off as soon as the flower has faded, there are very numerous varieties of this plant which is, in europe a perennial, but it is preferable to treat it here as only biennial, otherwise it degenerates. the _bushy starwort_, a dumosus, is a free blossoming plant in the rains, with white flowers. the _silky leaved starwort_, a. sericeus, is indigenous in the hills, putting forth its blue blossoms during the rains. the _hairy starwort_, a pilosus, is of very pale blue, and may, with care, be made to blossom throughout the year. the _chinese starwort,_ a chinensis, is of dark purple and very prolific of blossoms at all times. the beautiful justicia, j speciosa, although, described by roxburgh as a perennial, degenerates very much after the second year, it affords bright carmine colored flowers at the end of the cold weather. the common marvel of peru, mirabilis jalapa _gul abas, krushna kelee_, is vulgarly called the four o'clock from its blossoms expanding in the afternoon. there are several varieties distinguished only by difference of color, lilac, red, yellow, orange, and white, which hybridize naturally, and may easily be obliged to do so artificially, if any particular shades are desired. the hairy indigo, indigofera hirsuta, yields an ornamental flower with abundance of purple blossoms. the hibiscus this class numbers many ornamental plants, the blossoms of which all maintain the same character of having a darkened spot at the base of each petal. the _althaea frutex_, h syriacus, _gurhul,_ yields a handsome purple flower in the latter part of the rains, there are also a white, and a red variety. the _stinging hibiscus_ h pruriens, has a yellow flower at the same season. the _hemp leaved hibiscus_, h cannabinus, _anbaree_, is much the same as the last. the _bladder ketmia_, h trionum, is a dwarf species, yellow, with a brown spot at the base of the petal. the _african hibiscus_ h africanus, is a very handsome flower growing to a considerable height, expanding to the diameter of six to seven inches, of a bright canary color, the dark blown spots at the base of the petals very distinctly marked, the seeds were considered a great acquisition when first obtained from hobarton, but the plant has since been seen in great perfection growing wild in the _turaee_ at the foot of the darjeeling range of hills, blooming in great perfection at the close of the rains. the _chinese hibiscus_, h rosa sinensis, _jooua, jasoon, jupa_, although, really a perennial flower, is in greatest perfection if kept as a biennial, it flowers during the greater part of the season a dark red flower with a darker hued spot, there are also some other varieties of different colors yellow, scarlet, and purple. the tree mallow, lavatera arborea, has of late years been introduced from europe, and may now be found in many gardens in india yielding handsome purple flowers in the latter part of the rains. but it is unnecessary to continue such a mere catalogue, the character and general cultivation of which require no distinct rules, but may all be resolved into one general method, of which the following is a sketch. _propagation_--they are all raised from seed, but the finest double varieties require to be continued by cuttings. the seed should be sown as soon as it can after opening, but if this occur during the rains, the beds, or pots, perhaps better, must be sheltered, removing the plants when they are few inches high to the spot where they are to remain, care being at the same time taken in removing those that have tap roots, such as hollyhock, lavatera, &c not to injure them, as it will check their flowering strongly, the best mode is to sow those in pots and transplant them, with balls of earth entire, into the borders, at the close of the rains. cuttings of such as are multiplied by that method, are taken either from the flower stalks, or root-shoots, early in the rains, and rooted either in pots, under shelter, or in beds, protected from the heavy showers. _culture_--cultivation after the plants are put into the borders, is the same as for perennial plants. but the duration and beauty of the flowers is greatly improved by cutting off the buds that shew the earliest, so as to retard the bloom--and for the same reason the footstalk should be cut off when the flowers fade, for as soon as the plant begins to form seed, the blossoms deteriorate. * * * * * the annual border plants. these are generally known to every one, and many of them are so common as hardly to need notice, a few of the most usual are however mentioned, rather to recal the scattered thoughts of the many, than as a list of annuals. the mignionette, resoda odorata, is too great a favorite both on account of its fragrance and delicate flowers not to be well known, and by repeated sowings it may be made under care to give flowers throughout the year but it is advisable to renew the seed occasionally by fresh importations from europe, the cape, or hobarton. the prolific pink, dianthus prolifer _kurumful_, is a pretty variety; that blossoms freely throughout the year, sowing to keep up succession, the shades and net work marks on them are much varied, and they make a very pretty group together. the lupine, lupinus, is a very handsome class of annuals, many of which grow well in india, all of them flowering in the cold season. the _small blue lupine_, l. varius, was introduced from the cape and is the only one noticed by roxburgh. the _rose, and great blue lupine_, l. pilosus and hirsutus, are both good sized handsome flowers. the _egyptian, or african lupins_, l. thermis, _turmus_, is the only one named in the native language, and has a white flower. the _tree lupine_, l. arboreus, is a shrubby plant with a profusion of yellow flowers which has been successfully cultivated from hobarton seed. the catchfly, silene, the only one known here is the small red, s. rubella, having a very pretty pink flower appearing in the cold weather. the larkspur, delphinum, has not yet received any native name, and deserves to be much more extensively cultivated, especially the neapolitan and variegated sorts. the common purple, d. bhinensis, being the one usually met with; it should be sown in succession from september to december, but the rarer kinds must not be put in sooner than the middle of november, as these do not blossom well before february, march, or april. the sweet pea, lathyrus odoralus, is not usually cultivated with success, because it has been generally sown too late in the season, to give a sufficient advance to secure blossoming. the seeds should be put in about the middle of the rains in pots and afterwards planted out when these cease, and carefully cultivated to obtain blossoms in february or march. the zinnia, has only of late years been introduced, but by a mistake it has generally been sown too late in the year to produce good flowers, whereas if the seed is put into the ground about june, fine handsome flowers will be the result, in the cold weather. the centaury, centaurea, is a very pretty class of annuals which grows, and blossoms freely in this country. the _woolly centaury_, c. lanata, is mentioned by roxburgh as indigenous to the country, but the flowers are very small, of a purple color, blossoming in december. the _blue bottle_ o. cyanus, _azeez_, flowers in december and january, of pink and blue. the _sweet sultan_, c. moschata, _shah pusund_ is known by its fragrant and delicate lilac blossoms in january and february. the balsam, impatiens, _gulmu'hudee, doopatee_ is not cultivated, or encouraged as it should be in india, where some of the varieties are indigenous. a very rich soil should be used. dr. r. wight observes, that balsams of the colder hymalayas, like those of europe, split from the base, rolling the segment towards the apex, whilst those of the hotter regions do the reverse. all annuals require the same, or nearly the same treatment, of which the following may be considered a fair sketch. _propagation_.--these plants are all raised from seed put in the earth generally on the close of the rains, although some plants, such as nasturtium, sweet pea, scabious, wall-flower, and stock, are better to be sown in pots about june or july, and then put out into the border as soon as the rains cease. the seed must be sown in patches, rings, or small beds according to taste, the ground being previously stirred, and made quite fine, the earth sifted over them to a depth proportioned to the size of the seed, and then gently pressed down, so as closely to embrace every part of the seed. when the plants are an inch high they must be thinned out to a distance of two, three, five, seven, or more inches apart, according to their kind, whether spreading, or upright, having reference also to their size; the plants thinned out, if carefully taken up, may generally be transplanted to fill up any parts of the border where the seed may have failed. _culture_. weeding and occasionally stirring the soil, and sticking such as require support, is all the cultivation necessary for annuals. if it be desired to save seed, some of the earliest and most perfect blossoms should be preserved for this purpose, so as to secure the best possible seed for the ensuing year, not leaving it to chance to gather seed from such plants as may remain after the flowers have been taken, as is generally the case with native gardeners, if left to themselves. * * * * * flowers that grow under the shade of trees. it is of some value to know what these are, but at the same time it must be observed that no plant will grow under trees of the fir tribe, and it would be a great risk to place any under the _deodar_--with all others also it must not be expected that any trees having their foliage so low as to affect the circulation of air under their branches, can do otherwise than destroy the plants placed beneath them. those which may be so planted are;--wood anemone.--common arum.--deadly nightshade--indian ditto.--chinese clematis--upright ditto--woody strawberry--woody geranium.--green hellebore.--hairy st. john's wort.--dog's violet.--imperial fritillaria--the common oxalis, and some other bulbs.--common hound's tongue.--common antirrhinum.--common balsam.--to these may be added many of the orchidaceous plants. * * * * * roses. the rose, rosa, _gul_ or _gulab_: as the most universally admired, stands first amongst shrubs. the london catalogues of this beautiful plant contain upwards of two thousand names: mr. loudon, in his "_encyclopaedia of plants_" enumerates five hundred and twenty-two, of which he describes three species, viz. macrophylla, brunonii, and moschata nepalensis, as natives of nepal; two, viz. involucrata, and microphylla, as indigenous to india, and berberifolia, and moschata arborea, as of persian origin, whilst twelve appear to have come from china. dr. roxburgh describes the following eleven species as inhabitants of these regions:-- rosa involucrata, -- chinensis, -- semperflorens, -- recurva, -- microphylla, -- inermis, rosa centiflora, -- glandulifera, -- pubescens, -- diffusa, -- triphylla, most of which, however, he represents to have been of chinese origin. the varieties cultivated generally in gardens are, however, all that will be here described. these are-- . the _madras rose,_ or _rose edward_, a variety of r centifolia, _gul ssudburul_, is the most common, and has multiplied so fast within a few years, that no garden is without it, it blossoms all the year round, producing large bunches of buds at the extremities of its shoots of the year, but, if handsome, well-shaped flowers are desired, these must be thinned out on their first appearance, to one or two, or at the most three on each stalk. it is a pretty flower, but has little fragrance. this and the other double sorts require a rich loam rather inclining to clay, and they must be kept moist.[ ] . the _bussorah rose_, r gallica, _gulsooree_, red, and white, the latter seldom met with, is one of a species containing an immense number of varieties. the fragrance of this rose is its greatest recommendation, for if not kept down, and constantly looked to, it soon gets straggling, and unsightly, like the preceding species too, the buds issue from the ends of the branches in great clusters, which must be thinned, if well formed fragrant blossoms are desired. the same soil is required as for the preceding, with alternating periods of rest by opening the roots, and of excitement by stimulating manure. . the _persian rose_, apparently r collina, _gul eeran_ bears a very full-petaled blossom, assuming a darker shade as these approach nearer to the centre, but, it is difficult to obtain a perfect flower, the calyx being so apt to burst with excess of fulness, that if perfect flowers are required a thread should be tied gently round the bud, it has no fragrance. a more sandy soil will suit this kind, with less moisture. . the _sweet briar_ r rubiginosa, _gul nusreen usturoon_, grows to a large size, and blossoms freely in india, but is apt to become straggling, although, if carefully clipped, it may be raised as a hedge the same as in england, it is so universally a favorite as to need no description. . the _china blush rose_, r indica (r chinensis of roxburgh), _kut'h gulab_, forms a pretty hedge, if carefully clipped, but is chiefly usefully as a stock for grafting on. it has no odour. the _china ever-blowing rose_, r damascena of roxburgh, _adnee gula, gulsurkh_, bearing handsome dark crimson blossoms during the whole of the year, it is branching and bushy, but rather delicate, and wants odour. the _moss rose_, r muscosa, having no native name is found to exist, but has only been known to have once blossomed in india; good plants may be obtained from hobart town without much trouble. the _indian dog-rose_, r arvensis, r involucrata of roxburgh, _gul bé furman_, is found to glow wild in some parts of nepal and bengal, as well as in the province of buhar, flowering in february, the blossoms large, white, and very fragrant, its cultivation extending is improving the blossoms, particularly in causing the petals to be multiplied. . the _bramble-flowered rose_ r multiflora, _gul rana_, naturally a trailer, may be trained to great advantage, when it will give beautiful bunches of small many petaled flowers in february and march, of delightful fragrance. . the _due de berri rose_, a variety of r damascena, but having the petals more rounded and more regular, it is a low rather drooping shrub with delicately small branches. _propagation_.--all the species may be multiplied by seed, by layers, by cuttings, by suckers, or from grafts, almost indiscriminately. layering is the easiest, and most certain mode of propagating this most beautiful shrub. the roots that branch, out and throw up distinct shoots may be divided, or cut off from the main root, and even an eye thus taken off may be made to produce a good plant. suckers, when they have pushed through the soil, may be taken up by digging down, and gently detaching them from the roots. grafting or budding is used for the more delicate kinds, especially the sweet briar, and, by the curious, to produce two or more varieties on one stem, the best stocks being obtained from the china, or the dog rose. _soil &c._--any good loamy garden soil without much sand, suits the rose, but to produce it in perfection the ground can hardly be too rich. _culture_.--immediately at the close of the rains, the branches of most kinds of roses, especially the double ones, should be cut down to not more than six inches in length, removing at the same time, all old and decayed wood, as well as all stools that have branched out from the main one, and which will form new plants; the knife being at the same time freely exercised in the removal of sickly and crowded fibres from the roots; these should likewise be laid open, cleaned and pinned, and allowed to remain exposed until blossom buds begin to appear at the end of the first shoots; the hole must then be filled with good strong stable manure, and slightly earthed over. about a month after, a basket of stable dung, with the litter, should be heaped up round the stems, and broken brick or turf placed over it to relieve the unsightly appearance. while flowering, too, it will be well to water with liquid manure at least once a week. if it be desired to continue the trees in blossom, each shoot should be removed as soon as it has ceased flowering. to secure full large blossoms, all the buds from a shoot should be cut off, when quite young, except one. the _sweet briar rose_ strikes its root low, and prefers shade, the best soil being a deep rich loam with very little sand, rather strong than otherwise; it will be well to place a heap of manure round the stem, above ground, covering over with turf, but it is not requisite to open the roots, or give them so much manure as for other varieties. the sweet briar must not be much pruned, overgrowth being checked rather by pinching the young shoots, or it will not blossom, and it is rather slower in throwing out shoots than other roses. in this country the best mode of multiplying this shrub is by grafting on a china rose stock, as layers do not strike freely, and cuttings cannot be made to root at all. the _bramble-flowered rose_ is a climber, and though not needing so strong a soil as other kinds, requires it to be rich, and frequently renewed, by taking away the soil from about the roots and supplying its place with a good compost of loam, leaf mould, and well rotted dung, pruning the root. the plants require shelter from the cold wind from the north, or west, this, however, if carefully trained, they will form for themselves, but until they do so, it is impossible to make them blossom freely, the higher branches should be allowed to droop, and if growing luxuriantly, with the shoots not shortened, they will the following season, produce bunches of flowers at the end of every one, and have a very beautiful effect, no pruning should be given, except what is just enough to keep the plants within bounds, as they invariably suffer from the use of the knife. this rose is easily propagated by cuttings or layers, both of which root readily. the _china rose_ thrives almost anywhere, but is best in a soil of loam and peat, a moderate supply of water being given daily during the hot weather. they will require frequent thinning out of the branches, and are propagated by cuttings, which strike freely.[ ] as before mentioned, rose trees look well in a parterre by themselves, but a few may be dispersed along the borders of the garden. _insects, &c._ the green, and the black plant louse are great enemies to the rose tree, and, whenever they appear, it is advisable to cut out at once the shoot attacked, the green caterpillar too, often makes skeletons of the leaves in a short time, the ladybird, as it is commonly called, is an useful insect, and worthy of encouragement, as it is a destroyer of the plant louse. * * * * * creepers and climbers the climbing, and twining shrubs offer a numerous family, highly deserving of cultivation, the following being a few of the most desirable. the honey-suckle, caprifolium, having no native name, is too well known, and too closely connected with the home associations of all to need particularizing. it is remarkable that they always twine from east to west, and rather die than submit to a change. the trumpet flower, bignonia, are an eminently handsome family, chiefly considered stove plants in europe, but here growing freely in the open ground, and flowering in loose spikes. the mountain ebony, bauhinia, the distinguishing mark of the class being its two lobed leaves, most of them are indigenous, and in their native woods attain an immense size, far beyond what botanists in europe appear to give them credit for. the virgin's bower, clematis, finds some indigenous representatives in this country, although unnamed in the native language; the odour however is rather too powerful, and of some kinds even offensive, except immediately after a shower of rain. they are all climbers, requiring the same treatment as the honey suckle. the passion flower, passiflora, is a very large family of twining shrubs, many of them really beautiful, and generally of easy cultivation, this country being of the same temperature with their indigenous localities. the racemose asparagus, a. racemosus, _sadabooree, sutmoolee_, is a native of india, and by nature a trailing plant, but better cultivated as a climber on a trellis, in which way its delicate setaceous foliage makes it at all times ornamental, and at the close of the rains it sends forth abundant bunches of long erect spires of greenish white color, and of delicious fragrance, shedding perfume all around to a great distance. * * * * * kalendar work to be performed. january. thin out seeding annuals wherever they appear too thick. water freely, especially such plants as are in bloom, and keep all clean from weeds. cut off the footstalks of flowers, except such as are reserved for seed, as soon as the petals fade. collect the seeds of early annuals as they ripen. february. continue as directed in last month. prepare stocks for roses to be grafted on, r. bengalensis, and r. canina are the best. great care must be paid to thinning out the buds of roses to insure perfect blossoms, as well as to rubbing off the succulent upright shoots and suckers that are apt to spring up at this period. collect seeds as they ripen, to be dried, or hardened in the shade. collect seeds as they ripen, drying them carefully, for a few days in the pods, and subsequently when freed from them in the shade, to put them in the sun being highly injurious. give a plentiful supply of water in saucers to narcissus, or other bulbs when flowering. march. cut down the flower stalks of narcissus that have ceased flowering, and lessen the supply of water. take up the tubers of dahlias, and dry gradually in an open place in the shade, but do not remove the offsets for some days. pot any of the species of geranium that have been put out after the rains, provided they are not in bloom. give water freely to the roots of all flowers that are in blossom. mignionette that is in blossom should have the seed pods clipped off with a pair of scissors every day to continue it. convolvulus in flower should be shaded early in the morning, or it will quickly fade. the evening primrose should be freely watered to increase the number of blossoms. look to the carnations that are coming into bloom, give support to the flower stem, cutting off all side shoots and buds, except the one intended to give a handsome flower. april. careful watering, avoiding any wetting of the leaves is necessary at this period, and the saucers of all bulbs not yet flowered should be kept constantly full, to promote blossoming--the saucers should however be kept clean, and washed out every third day at least. frequent weeding must be attended to, with occasional watering all grass plots, or paths. wherever any part of the garden becomes empty by the clearing off of annuals, it should be well dug to a depth of at least eighteen inches, and after laying exposed in clods for a week or two, manured with tank or road mud; leaf mould, or other good well rotted manure. may. this is the time to make layers of honeysuckle, bauhinia, and other climbing and twining shrubs. mignionette must be very carefully treated, kept moist, and every seed-pod clipped off as soon as the flower fades, or it will not be preserved. continue to dig, and manure the borders, not leaving the manure exposed, or it will lose power. make pipings and layers of carnations. june. thin out the multitudinous buds of the madras rose, also examine the buds of the persian rose, to prevent the bursting of the calyx by tying with thread, or with a piece of parchment, or cardboard as directed for carnations. watch carnations to prevent the bursting of the calyx, and to remove superfluous buds. re pot geraniums that are in sheds, or verandahs, so soon as they have done flowering, also take up, and pot any that may yet remain in the borders. prune off also all superfluous, or straggling branches. continue digging over and manuring the flowering borders. sow zinnias, also make cuttings of perennials and biennials that are propagated by that means, and put in seeds of biennials under shelter, as well as a few of the early annuals, particularly stock and sweet-pea. july. make cuttings and layers of hardy shrubs, and of the fragrant olive; put in cuttings of the willow, and some other trees. plant out pines, and casuarina, cypress, large-leaved fig, and the laurel tribe. transplant young shrubs of a hardy nature. divide the roots, and plant out suckers, or offsets of perennial border plants. make cuttings and sow seeds of biennials, as required; also a few annuals to be hereafter transplanted. sow also geraniums. continue making pipings of carnation, plant out, or transplant hardy perennials into the borders. august. this may be considered the best time for sowing the seeds of hardy shrubs. plant out aralia, canella, magnolia, and other ornamental trees. transplant delicate and exotic shrubs. remove, and plant out suckers, and layers of hardy shrubs. prune all shrubs freely. divide, and plant out suckers, and offsets of hardy perennials, that have formed during the rains. plant out tender perennial plants, in the borders, also biennials. prune, and thin out perennial plants in the borders. put out in the borders such annuals as were sown in june, protecting them from the heat of the sun in the afternoon. sow a few early annuals. plant out dahlia tubers where they are intended to blossom, keeping them as much as possible in classes of colors. make pipings of carnations. september. prick out the cuttings of hardy shrubs that have been made before, or during the rains, in beds for growing. prune all flowering shrubs, having due regard to the character of each, as bearing flowers on the end of the shoots, or from the side exits, give the annual dressing of manure to the entire shrubbery, with new upper soil. remove the top soil from the borders, and renew with addition of a moderate quantity of manure. put out geraniums into the borders, and set rooted cuttings singly in pots. plant out biennials in the borders, also such annuals as have been sown in pots. re-pot and give fresh earth to plants in the shed. october. open out the roots of a few bussorah roses for early flowering, pruning down all the branches to a height of six inches, removing all decayed, and superannuated wood, dividing the roots, and pruning them freely. the madras roses should be treated in the same manner, not all at the same time, but at intervals of a week between each cutting down, so as to secure a succession for blossoming. plant out rooted cuttings in beds, to increase in size. sow annuals freely, and thin out those put in last month, so as to leave sufficient space for growing, at the same time transplanting the most healthy to other parts of the border. november. continue opening the roots of bussorah roses, as well as the rose edward, and madras roses, for succession to those on which this operation was performed last month. prune, and trim the sweetbriar, and many-flowered rose. _flower-garden_--divide, and plant bulbs of all kinds, both, for border, and pot flowering. continue to sow annuals. december continue opening the roots, and cutting down the branches of bussorah, and other roses for late flowering. prune, and thin out also the china and persian roses, as well as the many-flowered rose, if not done last month. train carefully all climbing and twining shrubs. weed beds of annuals, and thin out, where necessary. sow nepolitan, and other fine descriptions of larkspur, as well as all other annuals for a late show. dahlias are now blooming in perfection, and should be closely watched that every side-bud, or more than one on each stalk may be cut off close, with a pair of scissors to secure full, distinctly colored, and handsome flowers. [for further instructions respecting the culture of flowers in india i must refer my readers to the late mr. speede's works, where they will find a great deal of useful information not only respecting the flower-garden, but the kitchen-garden and the orchard.] * * * * * miscellaneous items. the tree-mignonette.--this plant does not appear to be a distinct variety, for the common mignonette, properly trained becomes shrubby. it may be propagated by either seed or cuttings. when it has put forth four leaves or is about an inch high, take it from the bed and put it by itself into a moderate sized pot. as it advances in growth, carefully pick off all the side shoots, leaving the leaf at the base of each shoot to assist the growth of the plant. when it has reached a foot in height it will show flower. but every flower must be nipped off carefully. support the stem with a stick to make it grow straight. even when it has attained its proper height of two feet again cut off the bloom for a few days. it is said that miss mitford, the admired authoress, was the first to discover that the common mignonette could be induced to adopt tree-like habits. the experiment has been tried in india, but it has sometimes failed from its being made at the wrong season. the seed should be sown at the end of the rains. grafting.--take care to unite exactly the inner bark of the scion with the inner bark of the stock in order to facilitate the free course of the sap. almost any scion will take to almost any sort of tree or plant provided there be a resemblance in their barks. the chinese are fond of making fantastic experiments in grafting and sometimes succeed in the most heterogeneous combinations, such as grafting flowers upon fruit trees. plants growing near each other can sometimes be grafted by the roots, or on the living root of a tree cut down another tree can be grafted. the scions are those shoots which united with the stock form the graft. it is desirable that the sap of the stock should be in brisk and healthy motion at the time of grafting. the graft should be surrounded with good stiff clay with a little horse or cow manure in it and a portion of cut hay. mix the materials with a little water and then beat them up with a stick until the compound is quite ductile. when applied it may be bandaged with a cloth. the best season for grafting in india is the rains. manure.--almost any thing that rots quickly is a good manure. it is possible to manure too highly. a plant sometimes dies from too much richness of soil as well as from too barren a one. watering.--keep up a regular moisture, but do not deluge your plants until the roots rot. avoid giving very cold water in the heat of the day or in the sunshine. even in england some gardeners in a hot summer use luke-warm water for delicate plants. but do not in your fear of overwatering only wet the surface. the earth all round and below the root should be equally moist, and not one part wet and the other dry. if the plant requires but little water, water it seldom, but let the water reach all parts of the root equally when you water at all. gathering and preserving flowers.--always use the knife, and prefer such as are coming into flower rather than such as are fully expanded. if possible gather from crowded plants, or parts of plants, so that every gathering may operate at the same time as a judicious pruning and thinning. flowers may be preserved when gathered, by inserting their ends in winter, in moist earth, or moss; and may be freshened, when withered, by sprinkling them with water, and putting them in a close vessel, as under a bellglass, handglass, flowerpot or in a botanic box; if this will not do, sprinkle them with warm water heated to ° or °, and cover them with a glass.--_loudon's encyclopaedia of gardening_. piping---is a mode of propagation by cuttings and is adopted in plants having joined tubular stems, as the dianthus tribe. when the shoot has nearly done growing (soon after its blossom has fallen) its extremity is to be separated at a part of the stem where it is hard and ripe. this is done by holding the root with one hand and with the other pulling the top part above the pair of leaves so as to separate it from the root part of the stem at the socket, formed by the axillae of the leaves, leaving the stem to remain with a tubular or pipe-looking termination. the piping is inserted in finely sifted earth to the depth of the first joint or pipe and its future management regulated on the same general principles as cuttings.--_from the same_. budding.--this is performed when the leaves of plants have grown to their full size and the bud is to be seen at the base of it. the relative nature of the bud and the stock is the same as in grafting. make a slit in the bark of the stock, to reach from half an inch to an inch and a half down the stock, according to the size of the plant; then make another short slit across, that you may easily raise the bark from the wood, then take a very thin slice of the bark from the tree or plant to be budded, a little below a leaf, and bring the knife out a little above it, so that you remove the leaf and the bud at its base, with the little slice you have taken. you will perhaps have removed a small bit of the wood with the bark, which you must take carefully out with the sharp point of your knife and your thumb; then tuck the bark and bud under the bark of the stock which you carefully bind over, letting the bud come at the part where the slits cross each other. no part of the stock should be allowed to grow after it is budded, except a little shoot or so, above the bud, just to draw the sap past the bud.--_gleenny's hand book of gardening_. on pyramids of roses.--the standard roses give a fine effect to a bed of roses by being planted in the middle, forming a pyramidal bed, or alone on grass lawns; but the _ne plus ultra_ of a pyramid of roses is that formed of from one, two, or three plants, forming a pyramid by being trained up three strong stakes, to any length from to feet high (as may suit situation or taste), placed about two feet apart at the bottom; three forming an angle on the ground, and meeting close together at the top; the plant, or plants to be planted inside the stakes. in two or three years, they will form a pyramid of roses which baffles all description. when gardens are small, and the owners are desirous of having _multum in parvo_, three or four may be planted to form one pyramid; and this is not the only object of planting more sorts than one together, but the beauty is also much increased by the mingled hues of the varieties planted. for instance, plant together a white boursault, a purple noisette, a stadtholder, sinensis (fine pink), and a moschata scandens and such a variety may be obtained, that twenty pyramids may have each, three or four kinds, and no two sorts alike on the whole twenty pyramids. a temple of roses, planted in the same way, has a beautiful appearance in a flower garden--that is, eight, ten, or twelve stout peeled larch poles, well painted, set in the ground, with a light iron rafter from each, meeting at the top and forming a dome. an old cable, or other old rope, twisted round the pillar and iron, gives an additional beauty to the whole. then plant against the pillars with two or three varieties, each of which will soon run up the pillars, and form a pretty mass of roses, which amply repays the trouble and expense, by the elegance it gives to the garden--_floricultural cabinet_. how to make rose water, &c--take an earthen pot or jar well glazed inside, wide in the month, narrow at the bottom, about inches high, and place over the mouth a strainer of clean coarse muslin, to contain a considerable quantity of rose leaves, of some highly fragrant kind. cover them with a second strainer of the same material, and close the mouth of the jar with an iron lid, or tin cover, hermetically sealed. on this lid place hot embers, either of coal or charcoal, that the heat may reach the rose-leaves without scorching or burning them. the aromatic oil will fall drop by drop to the bottom with the water contained in the petals. when time has been allowed for extracting the whole, the embers must be removed, and the vase placed in a cool spot. rose-water obtained in this mode is not so durable as that obtained in the regular way by a still but it serves all ordinary purposes. small alembics of copper with a glass capital, may be used in three different ways. in the first process, the still or alembic must be mounted on a small brick furnace, and furnished with a worm long enough to pass through a pan of cold water. the petals of the rose being carefully picked so as to leave no extraneous parts, should be thrown into the boiler of the still with a little water. the great point is to keep up a moderate fire in the furnace, such as will cause the vapour to rise without imparting a burnt smell to the rose water. the operation is ended when the rose water, which falls drop by drop in the tube, ceases to be fragrant. that which is first condensed has very little scent, that which is next obtained is the best, and the third and last portion is generally a little burnt in smell, and bitter in taste. in a very small still, having no worm, the condensation must be produced by linen, wetted in cold water, applied round the capital. a third method consists in plunging the boiler of the still into a larger vessel of boiling water placed over a fire, when the rose-water never acquires the burnt flavour to which we have alluded. by another process, the still is placed in a boiler filled with sand instead of water, and heated to the necessary temperature. but this requires alteration, or it is apt to communicate a baked flavour. syrup of roses--may be obtained from belgian or monthly roses, picked over, one by one, and the base of the petal removed. in a china jar prepared with a layer of powdered sugar, place a layer of rose-leaves about half an inch thick; then of sugar, then of leaves, till the vessel is full. on the top, place a fresh wooden cover, pressed down with a weight. by degrees, the rose-leaves produce a highly-coloured, highly-scented syrup; and the leaves form a colouring-matter for liqueurs. pastilles du serail.--sold in france as turkish, in rosaries and other ornaments, are made of the petals of the belgian or puteem rose, ground to powder and formed into a paste by means of liquid gum. ivory-black is mixed with the gum to produce a black colour; and cinnabar or vermilion, to render the paste either brown or red. it may be modelled by hand or in a mould, and when dried in the sun, or a moderate oven, attains sufficient hardness to be mounted in gold or silver.--_mrs. gore's rose fancier's manual_. of forming and preserving herbariums.--the most exact descriptions, accompanied with the most perfect figures, leave still something to be desired by him who wishes to know completely a natural being. this nothing can supply but the autopsy or view of the object itself. hence the advantage of being able to see plants at pleasure, by forming dried collections of them, in what are called herbariums. a good practical botanist, sir j.e. smith observes, must be educated among the wild scenes of nature, while a finished theoretical one requires the additional assistance of gardens and books, to which must be superadded the frequent use of a good herbarium. when plants are well dried, the original forms and positions of even their minutest parts, though not their colours, may at any time be restored by immersion in hot water. by this means the productions of the most distant and various countries, such as no garden could possibly supply, are brought together at once under our eyes, at any season of the year. if these be assisted with drawings and descriptions, nothing less than an actual survey of the whole vegetable world in a state of nature, could excel such a store of information. with regard to the mode or state in which plants are preserved, desiccation, accompanied by pressing, is the most generally used. some persons, sir j.e. smith observes, recommend the preservation of specimens in weak spirits of wine, and this mode is by far the most eligible for such as are very juicy: but it totally destroys their colours, and often renders their parts less fit for examination than by the process of drying. it is, besides, incommodious for frequent study, and a very expensive and bulky way of making an herbarium. the greater part of plants dry with facility between the leaves of books, or other paper, the smoother the better. if there be plenty of paper, they often dry best without shifting; but if the specimens are crowded, they must be taken out frequently, and the paper dried before they are replaced. the great point to be attended to is, that the process should meet with no check. several vegetables are so tenacious of their vital principle, that they will grow between papers; the consequence of which is, a destruction of their proper habit and colors. it is necessary to destroy the life of such, either by immersion in boiling water or by the application of a hot iron, such as is used for linen, after which they are easily dried. the practice of applying such an iron, as some persons do, with great labor and perseverance, till the plants are quite dry, and all their parts incorporated into a smooth flat mass is not approved of. this renders them unfit for subsequent examination, and destroys their natural habit, the most important thing to be preserved. even in spreading plants between papers, we should refrain from that practice and artificial disposition of their branches, leaves, and other parts, which takes away from their natural aspect, except for the purpose of displaying the internal parts of some one or two of their flowers, for ready observation. the most approved method of pressing is by a box or frame, with a bottom of cloth or leather, like a square sieve. in this, coarse sand or small shot may be placed; in any quantity very little pressing is required in drying specimens; what is found necessary should be applied equally to every part of the bundle under the operation. hot-pressing, by means of steel net-work heated, and placed in alternate layers with the papers, in the manner of hot pressing paper, and the whole covered with the equalizing press, above described, would probably be an improvement, but we have not heard of its being tried. at all events, pressing by screw presses, or weighty non-elastic bodies, must be avoided, as tending to bruise the stalks and other protuberant parts of plants. "after all we can do," sir j.e. smith observes, "plants dry very variously. the blue colours of their flowers generally fade, nor are reds always permanent. yellows are much more so, but very few white flowers retain their natural aspect. the snowdrop and parnassia, if well dried, continue white. some greens are much more permanent than others; for there are some natural families whose leaves, as well as flowers, turn almost black by drying, as melampyrum, bartsia, and their allies, several willows, and most of the orchideae. the heaths and firs in general cast off their leaves between papers, which appears to be an effort of the living principle, for it is prevented by immersion of the fresh specimen in boiling water." the specimens being dried, are sometimes kept loose between leaves of paper; at other times wholly gummed or glued to paper, but most generally attached by one or more transverse slips of paper, glued on one end and pinned at the other, so that such specimens can readily be taken out, examined, and replaced. on account of the aptitude of the leaves and other parts of dried plants to drop off, many glue them entirely, and such seems to be the method adopted by linnaeus, and recommended by sir j.e. smith. "dried specimens," the professor observes, "are best preserved by being fastened, with weak carpenter's glue, to paper, so that they may be turned over without damage. thick and heavy stalks require the additional support of a few transverse strips of paper, to bind them more firmly down. a half sheet, of a convenient folio size, should be allotted to each species, and all the species of a genus may be placed in one or more whole sheets or folios. on the latter outside should be written the name of the genus, while the name of every species, with its place of growth, time of gathering, the finder's name, or any other concise piece of information, may be inscribed on its appropriate paper. this is the plan of the linnaean herbarium."--_loudon_. the end. footnotes. [ ] some of the finest _florists flowers_ have been reared by the mechanics of norwich and manchester and by the spitalfield's weavers. the pitmen in the counties of durham and northumberland reside in long rows of small houses, to each of which is attached a little garden, which they cultivate with such care and success, that they frequently bear away the prize at floral exhibitions. [ ] of rail-road travelling the reality is quite different from the idea that descriptions of it had left upon my mind. unpoetical as this sort of transit may seem to some minds, i confess i find it excite and satisfy the imagination. the wondrous speed--the quick change of scene--the perfect comfort--the life-like character of the power in motion, the invisible, and mysterious, and mighty steam horse, urged, and guided, and checked by the hand of science--the cautionary, long, shrill whistle--the beautiful grey vapor, the breath of the unseen animal, floating over the fields by which we pass, sometimes hanging stationary for a moment in the air, and then melting away like a vision--furnish sufficiently congenial amusement for a period-minded observer. [ ] "that which peculiarly distinguishes the gardens of england," says repton, "is the beauty of english verdure: _the grass of the mown lawn_, uniting with, the grass of the adjoining pastures, and presenting _that permanent verdure_ which is the natural consequence of our soft and humid clime, but unknown to the cold region of the north or the parching temperature of the south. this it is impossible to enjoy in portugal where it would be as practicable to cover the general surface with the snow of lapland as with the verdure of england." it is much the same in france. "there is everywhere in france," says loudon, "a want _of close green turf_, of ever-green bushes and of good adhesive gravel." some french admirers of english gardens do their best to imitate our lawns, and it is said that they sometimes partially succeed with english grass seed, rich manure, and constant irrigation. in bengal there is a very beautiful species of grass called doob grass, (_panicum dactylon_,) but it only flourishes on wide and exposed plains with few trees on them, and on the sides of public roads, shakespeare makes falstaff say that "the camomile the more it is trodden on the faster it grows" and, this is the case with the doob grass. the attempt to produce a permanent doob grass lawn is quite idle unless the ground is extensive and open, and much trodden by men or sheep. a friend of mine tells me that he covered a large lawn of the coarse ooloo grass (_saccharum cylindricum_) with mats, which soon killed it, and on removing the mats, the finest doob grass sprang up in its place. but the ooloo grass soon again over-grew the doob. [ ] i allude here chiefly to the ryots of wealthy zemindars and to other poor hindu people in the service of their own countrymen. all the subjects of the british crown, even in india, are _politically free_, but individually the poorer hindus, (especially those who reside at a distance from large towns,) are unconscious of their rights, and even the wealthier classes have rarely indeed that proud and noble feeling of personal independence which characterizes people of all classes and conditions in england. the feeling with which even a hindu of wealth and rank approaches a man in power is very different indeed from that of the poorest englishman under similar circumstances. but national education will soon communicate to the natives of india a larger measure of true self-respect. it will not be long, i hope, before the hindus will understand our favorite maxim of english law, that "every man's house is his castle,"--a maxim so finely amplified by lord chatham: "_the poorest man may in his cottage bid defiance to all the forces of the crown. it may be frail--its roof may shake--the wind may blow through it--the storm may enter--but the king of england cannot enter!--all his force dares not cross the threshold of the ruined tenement_." [ ] _literary recreations_. [ ] i have in some moods preferred the paintings of our own gainsborough even to those of claude--and for this single reason, that the former gives a peculiar and more touching interest to his landscapes by the introduction of sweet groups of children. these lovely little figures are moreover so thoroughly english, and have such an out-of-doors air, and seem so much a part of external nature, that an englishman who is a lover of rural scenery and a patriot, can hardly fail to be enchanted with the style of his celebrated countryman.--_literary recreations_. [ ] had evelyn only composed the great work of his 'sylva, or a discourse of forest trees,' &c. his name would have excited the gratitude of posterity. the voice of the patriot exults in his dedication to charles ii, prefixed to one of the later editions:--'i need not acquaint your majesty, how many millions of timber-trees, besides infinite others, have been propagated and planted throughout your vast dominions, at the instigation and by the sole direction of this work, because your majesty has been pleased to own it publicly for my encouragement.' and surely while britain retains her awful situation among the nations of europe, the 'sylva' of evelyn will endure with her triumphant oaks. it was a retired philosopher who aroused the genius of the nation, and who casting a prophetic eye towards the age in which we live, has contributed to secure our sovereignty of the seas. the present navy of great britain has been constructed with the oaks which the genius of evelyn planted.--_d'israeli's curiosities of literature_. [ ] _crisped knots_ are figures curled or twisted, or having waving lines intersecting each other. they are sometimes planted in box. children, even in these days, indulge their fancy in sowing mustard and cress, &c. in 'curious knots,' or in favorite names and sentences. i have done it myself, "i know not how oft,"--and alas, how long ago! but i still remember with what anxiety i watered and watched the ground, and with what rapture i at last saw the surface gradually rising and breaking on the light green heads of the delicate little new-born plants, all exactly in their proper lines or stations, like a well-drilled lilliputian battalion. shakespeare makes mention of garden _knots_ in his _richard the second_, where he compares an ill governed state to a neglected garden. why should we, in the compass of a pale, keep law, and form, and due proportion, showing, as in a model, our firm estate? when our sea-walled garden, the whole land, is full of weeds; her finest flowers choked up, her fruit-trees all unpruned, her hedges ruined, her _knots_ disordered, and her wholesome herbs swarming with caterpillars. there is an allusion to garden _knots_ in _holinshed's chronicle_. in the earl of northumberland "had but one gardener who attended hourly in the garden for setting of erbis and _chipping of knottis_ and sweeping the said garden clean." [ ] ovid, in his story of pyramus and thisbe, tells us that the black mulberry was originally white. the two lovers killed themselves under a white mulberry tree and the blood penetrating to the roots of the tree mixed with the sap and gave its color to the fruit. [ ] _revived adonis_,--for, according to tradition he died every year and revived again. _alcinous, host of old laertes' son_,--that is, of ulysses, whom he entertained on his return from troy. _or that, not mystic_--not fabulous as the rest, but a real garden which solomon made for his wife, the daughter of pharoah, king of egypt--warburton "divested of harmonious greek and bewitching poetry," observes horace walpole, "the garden of alcinous was a small orchard and vineyard with some beds of herbs and two fountains that watered them, inclosed within a quickset hedge." lord kames, says, still more boldly, that it was nothing but a kitchen garden. certainly, gardening amongst the ancient greeks, was a very simple business. it is only within the present century that it has been any where elevated into a fine art. [ ] "we are unwilling to diminish or lose the credit of paradise, or only pass it over with [the hebrew word for] _eden_, though the greek be of a later name. in this excepted, we know not whether the ancient gardens do equal those of late times, or those at present in europe. of the gardens of hesperides, we know nothing singular, but some golden apples. of alcinous his garden, we read nothing beyond figs, apples, olives; if we allow it to be any more than a fiction of homer, unhappily placed in corfu, where the sterility of the soil makes men believe there was no such thing at all. the gardens of adonis were so empty that they afforded proverbial expression, and the principal part thereof was empty spaces, with herbs and flowers in pots. i think we little understand the pensile gardens of semiramis, which made one of the wonders of it [babylon], wherein probably the structure exceeded the plants contained in them. the excellency thereof was probably in the trees, and if the descension of the roots be equal to the height of trees, it was not [absurd] of strebæus to think the pillars were hollow that the roots might shoot into them."--_sir thomas browne.--bohn's edition of sir thomas browne's works, vol. , page_ . [ ] the house and garden before pope died were large enough for their owner. he was more than satisfied with them. "as pope advanced in years," says roscoe, "his love of gardening, and his attention to the various occupations to which it leads, seem to have increased also. this predilection was not confined to the ornamental part of this delightful pursuit, in which he has given undoubted proofs of his proficiency, but extended to the useful as well as the agreeable, as appears from several passages in his poems; but he has entered more particularly into this subject in a letter to swift (march , ); "i wish you had any motive to see this kingdom. i could keep you: for i am rich, that is, have more than i want, i can afford room to yourself and two servants. i have indeed room enough; nothing but myself at home. the kind and hearty housewife is dead! the agreeable and instructive neighbour is gone! yet my house is enlarged, and the gardens extend and flourish, as knowing nothing of the guests they have lost. i have more fruit trees and kitchen garden than you have any thought of; and, i have good melons and apples of my own growth. i am as much a better gardener, as i am a worse poet, than when you saw me; but gardening is near akin to philosophy, for tully says, _agricultura proxima sapientiae_. for god's sake, why should not you, (that are a step higher than a philosopher, a divine, yet have too much grace and wit than to be a bishop) even give all you have to the poor of ireland (for whom you have already done every thing else,) so quit the place, and live and die with me? and let _tales anima concordes_ be our motto and our epitaph." [ ] the leaves of the willow, though green above, are hoar below. shakespeare's knowledge of the fact is alluded to by hazlitt as one of the numberless evidences of the poet's minute observation of external nature. [ ] see mr. loudon's most interesting and valuable work entitled _arboretum et fruticetum britanicum_. [ ] all the rules of gardening are reducible to three heads: the contrasts, the management of surprises and the concealment of the bounds. "pray, what is it you mean by the contrasts?" "the disposition of the lights and shades."--"'tis the colouring then?"--"just that."--"should not variety be one of the rules?"--"certainly, one of the chief; but that is included mostly in the contrasts." i have expressed them all in two verses[ ] (after my manner, in very little compass), which are in imitation of horace's--_omne tulit punctum. pope.--spence's anecdotes_. [ ] in laying out a garden, the chief thing to be considered is the genius of the place. thus at tiskins, for example, lord bathurst should have raised two or three mounts, because his situation is _all_ plain, and nothing can please without variety. _pope--spence's anecdotes_. [ ] the seat and gardens of the lord viscount cobham, in buckinghamshire. pope concludes the first epistle of his moral essays with a compliment to the patriotism of this nobleman. and you, brave cobham! to the latest breath shall feel your ruling passion strong in death: such in those moments as in all the past "oh, save my country, heaven!" shall be your last. [ ] two hundred acres and two hundred millions of francs were made over to le notre by louis xiv. to complete these geometrical gardens. one author tells us that in the ordinary cost of putting a certain portion of the waterworks in play was at the rate of £. per hour, and another still later authority states that when the whole were set in motion once a year on some royal fête, the cost of the half hour during which the main part of the exhibition lasted was not less than , £. this is surely a most senseless expenditure. it seems, indeed, almost incredible. i take the statements from _loudon's_ excellent _encyclopaedia of gardening_. the name of one of the original reporters is neill; the name of the other is not given. the gardens formerly were and perhaps still are full of the vilest specimens of verdant sculpture in every variety of form. lord kames gives a ludicrous account of the vomiting stone statues there;--"a lifeless statue of an animal pouring out water may be endured" he observes, "without much disgust: but here the lions and wolves are put in violent action; each has seized its prey, a deer or a lamb, in act to devour; and yet, as by hocus-pocus, the whole is converted into a different scene: the lion, forgetting his prey, pours out water plentifully; and the deer, forgetting its danger, performs the same work: a representation no less absurd than that in the opera, where alexander the great, after mounting the wall of a town besieged, turns his back to the enemy, and entertains his army with a song." [ ] broome though a writer of no great genius (if any), had yet the honor to be associated with pope in the translation of the odyssey. he translated the nd, th, th, th, th, th, and rd books. henley (orator henley) sneered at pope, in the following couplet, for receiving so much assistance: pope came clean off with homer, but they say, broome went before, and kindly swept the way. fenton was another of pope's auxiliaries. he translated the st, th, th and th books (of the odyssey). pope himself translated the rest. [ ] stowe [ ] the late humphrey repton, one of the best landscape-gardeners that england has produced, and who was for many years employed on alterations and improvements in the house and grounds at cobham, in kent, the seat of the earl of darnley, seemed to think that stowe ought not to monopolize applause and admiration, "whether," he said, "we consider its extent, its magnificence or its comfort, there are few places that can vie with cobham." repton died in , and his patron and friend the earl of darnley put up at cobham an inscription to his memory. the park at cobham extends over an area of no less than , acres, diversified with thick groves and finely scattered single trees and gentle slopes and broad smooth lawns. some of the trees are singularly beautiful and of great age and size. a chestnut tree, named the four sisters, is five and twenty feet in girth. the mansion, of which, the central part was built by inigo jones, is a very noble one. george the fourth pronounced the music room the finest room in england. the walls are of polished white marble with pilasters of sienna marble. the picture gallery is enriched with valuable specimens of the genius of titian and guido and salvator rosa and sir joshua reynolds. there is another famous estate in kent, knole, the seat of dorset, the grace of courts, the muse's pride. the earl of dorset, though but a poetaster himself, knew how to appreciate the higher genius of others. he loved to be surrounded by the finest spirits of his time. there is a pleasant anecdote of the company at his table agreeing to see which amongst them could produce the best impromptu. dryden was appointed arbitrator. dorset handed a slip of paper to dryden, and when all the attempts were collected, dryden decided without hesitation that dorset's was the best. it ran thus: "_i promise to pay mr. john dryden, on demand, the sum of £ . dorset_." [ ] this is generally put into the mouth of pope, but if we are to believe spence, who is the only authority for the anecdote, it was addressed to himself. [ ] it has been said that in laying out the grounds at hagley, lord lyttelton received some valuable hints from the author of _the seasons_, who was for some time his lordship's guest. the poet has commemorated the beauties of hagley park in a description that is familiar to all lovers of english poetry. i must make room for a few of the concluding lines. meantime you gain the height, from whose fair brow, the bursting prospect spreads immense around: and snatched o'er hill, and dale, and wood, and lawn, and verdant field, and darkening heath between, and villages embosomed soft in trees, and spiry towns by surging columns marked, of household smoke, your eye excursive roams; wide stretching from the hall, in whose kind haunt the hospitable genius lingers still, to where the broken landscape, by degrees, ascending, roughens into rigid hills; o'er which the cambrian mountains, like far clouds, that skirt the blue horizon, dusky rise. it certainly does not look as if there had been any want of kindly feeling towards shenstone on the part of lyttelton when we find the following inscription in hagley park. to the memory of william shenstone, esquire, in whose verse were all the natural graces. and in whose manners was all the amiable simplicity of pastoral poetry, with the sweet tenderness of the elegiac. there is also at hagley a complimentary inscription on an urn to alexander pope; and, on an octagonal building called _thomson's seat_, there is an inscription to the author of _the seasons_. hagley is kept up with great care and is still in possession of the descendants of the founder. but a late visitor (mr. george dodd) expresses a doubt whether the leasowes, even in its comparative decay, is not a finer bit of landscape, a more delightful place to lose one-self in, than even its larger and better preserved neighbour. [ ] coleridge is reported to have said--"there is in crabbe an absolute defect of high imagination; he gives me little pleasure. yet no doubt he has much power of a certain kind, and it is good to cultivate, even at some pains, a catholic taste in literature." walter savage landor, in his "imaginary conversations," makes porson say--"crabbe wrote with a two-penny nail and scratched rough truths and rogues' facts on mud walls." horace smith represents crabbe, as "pope in worsted stockings." that there is merit of some sort or other, and that of no ordinary kind, in crabbe's poems, is what no one will deny. they relieved the languor of the last days of two great men, of very different characters--sir walter scott and charles james fox. [ ] the poet had a cottage and garden in kew-foot-lane at or near richmond. in the alcove in the garden is a small table made of the wood of the walnut tree. there is a drawer to the table which in all probability often received charge of the poet's effusions hot from the brain. on a brass tablet inserted in the top of the table is this inscription--"_this table was the property of james thomson, and always stood in this seat._" [ ] shene or sheen: the old name of richmond, signifying in saxon _shining_ or _splendour_. [ ] highgate and hamstead. [ ] in his last sickness [ ] on looking back at page i find that i have said in the foot note that it is only within _the present century_ that gardening has been elevated into _a fine art_. i did not mean within the years of this th century, but _within a hundred years_. even this, however, was an inadvertency. we may go a little further back. kent and pope lived to see landscape-gardening considered a fine art. before their time there were many good practical gardeners, but the poetry of the art was not then much regarded except by a very few individuals of more than ordinary refinement. [ ] catherine the second grossly disgraced herself as a woman--partly driven into misconduct herself by the behaviour of her husband--but as a sovereign it cannot be denied that she exhibited a penetrating sagacity and great munificence; and perhaps the lovers of literature and science should treat her memory with a little consideration. when diderot was in distress and advertized his library for sale, the empress sent him an order on a banker at paris for the amount demanded, namely fifteen thousand livres, on condition that the library was to be left as a deposit with the owner, and that he was to accept a gratuity of one thousand livres annually for taking charge of the books, until the empress should require them. this was indeed a delicate and ingenious kindness. lord brougham makes d'alembert and not diderot the subject of this anecdote. it is a mistake. see the correspondence of baron de gumm and diderot with the duke of saxe-gotha. many of the russian nobles keep up to this day the taste in gardening introduced by catherine the second, and have still many gardens laid out in the english style. they have often had in their employ both english and scottish gardeners. there is an anecdote of a scotch gardener in the crimea in one of the public journals:-- "our readers"--says the _banffshire journal_--"will recollect that when the allies made a brief expedition to yalto, in the south of the crimea, they were somewhat surprised and gratified by the sight of some splendid gardens around a seat of prince woronzow. little did our countrymen think that these gardens were the work of a scotchman, and a moray loon; yet such was the case." the history of the personage in question is a somewhat singular one: "jamie sinclair, the garden boy, had a natural genius, and played the violin. lady cumming had this boy educated by the family tutor, and sent him to london, where he was well known in - - , for his skill in drawing and colouring. mr. knight, of the exotic nursery, for whom he used to draw orchids and new plants, sent him to the crimea, to prince woronzow, where he practised for thirteen years. he had laid out these beautiful gardens which the allies the other day so much admired; had the care of , acres of vineyards belonging to the prince; was well known to the czar, who often consulted him about improvements, and gave him a "medal of merit" and a diploma or passport, by which he was free to pass from one end of the empire to the other, and also through austria and prussia, i have seen these instruments. he returned to london in , and was just engaged with a london publisher for a three years' job, when menschikoff found the turks too hot for him last april twelve-month; the russians then made up for blows, and mr. sinclair was more dangerous for them in london than lord aberdeen. he was the only foreigner who was ever allowed to see all that was done in and out of sebastopol, and over all the crimea. the czar, however, took care that sinclair could not join the allies; but where he is and what he is about i must not tell, until the war is over--except that he is not in russia, and that he will never play first fiddle again in morayshire." [ ] brown succeeded to the popularity of kent. he was nicknamed, _capability brown_, because when he had to examine grounds previous to proposed alterations and improvements he talked much of their _capabilities_. one of the works which are said to do his memory most honor, is the park of nuneham, the seat of lord harcourt. the grounds extend to , acres. horace walpole said that they contained scenes worthy of the bold pencil of rubens, and subjects for the tranquil sunshine of claude de lorraine. the following inscription is placed over the entrance to the gardens. here universal pan, knit with the graces and the hours in dance, leads on the eternal spring. it is said that the _gardens_ at nuneham were laid out by mason, the poet. [ ] mrs. stowe visited the jardin mabille in the champs elysées, a sort of french vauxhall, where small jets of gas were so arranged as to imitate "flowers of the softest tints and the most perfect shape." [ ] napoleon, it is said, once conceived the plan of roofing with glass the gardens of the tuileries, so that they might be used as a winter promenade. [ ] addison in the th number of the _spectator_ in alluding to kensington gardens, observes; "i think there are as many kinds of gardening as poetry; our makers of parterres and flower gardens are epigrammatists and sonnetteers in the art; contrivers of bowers and grottos, treillages and cascades, are romance writers. wise and london are our heroic poets; and if i may single out any passage of their works to commend i shall take notice of that part in the upper garden at kensington, which was at first nothing but a gravel pit. it must have been a fine genius for gardening that could have thought of forming such an unsightly hollow unto so beautiful an area and to have hit the eye with so uncommon and agreeable a scene as that which it is now wrought into." [ ] lord bathurst, says london, informed daines barrington, that _he_ (lord bathurst) was the first who deviated from the straight line in sheets of water by following the lines in a valley in widening a brook at ryskins, near colnbrook; and lord strafford, thinking that it was done from poverty or economy asked him to own fairly how little more it would have cost him to have made it straight. in these days no possessor of a park or garden has the water on his grounds either straight or square if he can make it resemble the thames as described by wordsworth: the river wanders at its own sweet will. horace walpole in his lively and pleasant little work on modern gardening almost anticipates this thought. in commending kent's style of landscape-gardening he observes: "_the gentle stream was taught to serpentize at its pleasure."_ [ ] this palm-house, "the glory of the gardens," occupies an area of ft. in length; the centre is an hundred ft. in width and ft. in height. it must charm a native of the east on a visit to our country, to behold such carefully cultured specimens, in a great glass-case in england, of the trees called by linnaeus "the princes of the vegetable kingdom," and which grow so wildly and in such abundance in every corner of hindustan. in this conservatory also are the banana and plantain. the people of england are in these days acquainted, by touch and sight, with almost all the trees that grow in the several quarters of the world. our artists can now take sketches of foreign plants without crossing the seas. an allusion to the palm tree recals some criticisms on shakespeare's botanical knowledge. "look here," says _rosalind_, "what i found on a palm tree." "a palm tree in the forest of arden," remarks steevens, "is as much out of place as a lioness in the subsequent scene." collier tries to get rid of the difficulty by suggesting that shakespeare may have written _plane tree_. "both the remark and the suggestion," observes miss baker, "might have been spared if those gentlemen had been aware that in the counties bordering on the forest of arden, the name of an exotic tree is transferred to an indigenous one." the _salix caprea_, or goat-willow, is popularly known as the "palm" in northamptonshire, no doubt from having been used for the decoration of churches on palm sunday--its graceful yellow blossoms, appearing at a time when few other trees have put forth a leaf, having won for it that distinction. clare so calls it:-- "ye leaning palms, that seem to look pleased o'er your image in the brook." that shakespeare included the willow in his forest scenery is certain, from another passage in the same play:-- "west of this place, down in the neighbour bottom. the _rank of osiers_ by the murmuring stream, left on your right hand brings you to the place." the customs and amusements of northamptonshire, which are frequently noticed in these volumes, were identical with those of the neighbouring county of warwick, and, in like manner illustrate very clearly many passages in the great dramatist.--_miss baker's "glossary of northamptonshire words." (quoted by the london athenaeum_.) [ ] mrs. hemans once took up her abode for some weeks with wordsworth at rydal mount, and was so charmed with the country around, that she was induced to take a cottage called _dove's nest_, which over-looked the lake of windermere. but tourists and idlers so haunted her retreat and so worried her for autographs and album contributions, that she was obliged to make her escape. her little cottage and garden in the village of wavertree, near liverpool, seem to have met the fate which has befallen so many of the residences of the poets. "mrs. hemans's little flower-garden" (says a late visitor) "was no more--but rank grass and weeds sprang up luxuriously; many of the windows were broken; the entrance gate was off its hinges: the vine in front of the house trailed along the ground, and a board, with '_this house to let_' upon it, was nailed on the door. i entered the deserted garden and looked into the little parlour--once so full of taste and elegance; it was gloomy and cheerless. the paper was spotted with damp, and spiders had built their webs in the corner. as i mused on the uncertainty of human life, i exclaimed with the eloquent burke,--'what shadows we are, and what shadows we pursue!'" the beautiful grounds of the late professor wilson at elleray, we are told by mr. howitt in his interesting "_homes and haunts of the british poets_" have also been sadly changed. "steam," he says, "as little as time, has respected the sanctity of the poet's home, but has drawn its roaring iron steeds opposite to its gate and has menaced to rush through it and lay waste its charmed solitude. in plain words, i saw the stages of a projected railway running in an ominous line across the very lawn and before the windows of elleray." i believe the whole place has been purchased by a railway company. [ ] in churton's _rail book of england_, published about three years ago, pope's villa is thus noticed--"not only was this temple of the muses--this abode of genius--the resort of the learned and the wittiest of the land--levelled to the earth, but all that the earth produced to remind posterity of its illustrious owner, and identify the dead with the living strains he has bequeathed to us, was plucked up by the roots and scattered to the wind." on the authority of william hewitt i have stated on an earlier page that some splendid spanish chesnut trees and some elms and cedars planted by pope at twickenham were still in existence. but churton is a later authority. howitt's book was published in . [ ] _one would have thought &c._ see the garden of armida, as described by tasso, c. xvi. , &c. "in lieto aspetto il bel giardin s'aperse &c." here was all that variety, which constitutes the nature of beauty: hill and dale, lawns and crystal rivers, &c. "and, that which all faire works doth most aggrace, "the art, which all that wrought, appearéd in no place." which is literally from tasso, c, xvi . "e quel, che'l bello, e'l caro accresce à l'opre, "l'arte, che tutto fa, nulla si scopre." the next stanza is likewise translated from tasso, c. xvi . and, if the reader likes the comparing of the copy with the original, he may see many other beauties borrowed from the italian poet. the fountain, and the two bathing damsels, are taken from tasso, c. xv, st. , &c. which he calls, _il fonte del riso_. upton. [ ] cowper was evidently here thinking rather of milton than of homer. _flowers of all hue_, and without thorns the rose. _paradise lost_. pope translates the passage thus; beds of all various _herbs_, for ever green, in beauteous order terminate the scene. homer referred to pot-herbs, not to flowers of all hues. cowper is generally more faithful than pope, but he is less so in this instance. in the above description we have homer's highest conception of a princely garden:--in five acres were included an orchard, a vineyard, and some beds of pot-herbs. not a single flower is mentioned, by the original author, though his translator has been pleased to steal some from the garden of eden and place them on "the verge extreme" of the four acres. homer of course meant to attach to a royal residence as royal a garden; but as bacon says, "men begin to build stately sooner than to garden finely, as if gardening were the greater perfection." the mansion of alcinous was of brazen walls with golden columns; and the greeks and romans had houses that were models of architecture when their gardens exhibited no traces whatever of the hand of taste. [ ] _and over him, art stryving to compayre with nature, did an arber greene dispied_ this whole episode is taken from tasso, c. , where rinaldo is described in dalliance with armida. the bower of bliss is her garden "stimi (si misto il culto e col negletto) "sol naturali e gli ornamenti e i siti, "di natura arte par, che per diletto "l'imitatrice sua scherzando imiti." see also ovid, _met_ iii. "cujus in extremo est antrum nemorale necessu, "arte laboratum nulla, simulaverat artem "ingenio natura fuo nam pumice vivo, "et lenibus tophis nativum duxerat arcum "fons sonat a dextra, tenui perlucidas unda "margine gramineo patulos incinctus hiatus" upton if this passage may be compared with tasso's elegant description of armida's garden, milton's _pleasant grove_ may vie with both.[ ] he is, however, under obligations to the sylvan scene of spenser before us. mr. j.c. walker, to whom the literature of ireland and of italy is highly indebted, has mentioned to me his surprise that the writers on modern gardening should have overlooked the beautiful pastoral description in this and the two following stanzas.[ ] it is worthy a place, he adds, in the eden of milton. spenser, on this occasion, lost sight of the "trim gardens" of italy and england, and drew from the treasures of his own rich imagination. todd. _and fast beside these trickled softly downe. a gentle stream, &c._ compare the following stanza in the continuation of the _orlando innamorato_, by nilcolo degli agostinti, lib. iv, c. . "ivi è un mormorio assai soave, e basso, che ogniun che l'ode lo fa addornientare, l'acqua, ch'io dissi gia per entro un sasso e parea che dicesse nel sonare. vatti riposa, ormai sei stanco, e lasso, e gli augeletti, che s'udian cantare, ne la dolce armonia par che ogn'un dica, deh vien, e dormi ne la piaggia, aprica," spenser's obligations to this poem seem to have escaped the notice of his commentators. j.c. walker. [ ] the oak was dedicated to jupiter, and the poplar to hercules. [ ] _sicker_, surely; chaucer spells it _siker_. [ ] _yode_, went. [ ] _tabreret_, a tabourer. [ ] _tho_, then [ ] _attone_, at once--with him. [ ] cato being present on one occasion at the floral games, the people out of respect to him, forbore to call for the usual exposures; when informed of this he withdrew, that the spectators might not be deprived of their usual entertainment. [ ] what is the reason that an easterly wind is every where unwholesome and disagreeable? i am not sufficiently scientific to answer this question. pope takes care to notice the fitness of the easterly wind for the _cave of spleen_. no cheerful breeze this sullen region knows, the dreaded east is all the wind that blows. _rape of the lock_. [ ] one sweet scene of early pleasures in my native land i have commemorated in the following sonnet:-- netley abbey. romantic ruin! who could gaze on thee untouched by tender thoughts, and glimmering dreams of long-departed years? lo! nature seems accordant with thy silent majesty! the far blue hills--the smooth reposing sea-- the lonely forest--the meandering streams-- the farewell summer sun, whose mellowed beams illume thine ivied halls, and tinge each tree, whose green arms round thee cling--the balmy air-- the stainless vault above, that cloud or storm 'tis hard to deem will ever more deform-- the season's countless graces,--all appear to thy calm glory ministrant, and form a scene to peace and meditation dear! d.l.r. [ ] "i was ever more disposed," says hume, "to see the favourable than the unfavourable side of things; _a turn of mind which it is more happy to possess, than to be born to an estate of ten thousand a year_." [ ] so called, because the grounds were laid out in a tasteful style, under the direction of lord auckland's sister, the honorable miss eden. [ ] _songs of the east by mrs. w.s. carshore. d'rozario & co, calcutta_ . [ ] the lines form a portion of a poem published in _literary leaves_ in the year . [ ] perhaps some formal or fashionable wiseacres may pronounce such simple ceremonies _vulgar_. and such is the advance of civilization that even the very chimney-sweepers themselves begin to look upon their old may-day merry-makings as beneath the dignity of their profession. "suppose now" said mr. jonas hanway to a sooty little urchin, "i were to give you a shilling." "lord almighty bless your honor, and thank you." "and what if i were to give you a fine tie-wig to wear on may-day?" "ah! bless your honor, my master wont let me go out on may-day," "why not?" "because, he says, _it's low life_." and yet the merrie makings on may-day which are now deemed _ungenteel_ by chimney-sweepers were once the delight of princes:-- forth goth all the court, both most and least, to fetch the flowres fresh, and branch and blome, and namely hawthorn brought both page and grome, and then rejoicing in their great delite eke ech at others threw the flowres bright, the primrose, violet, and the gold with fresh garlants party blue and white. _chaucer_. [ ] the may-pole was usually decorated with the flowers of the hawthorn, a plant as emblematical of the spring as the holly is of christmas. goldsmith has made its name familiar even to the people of bengal, for almost every student in the upper classes of the government colleges has the following couplet by heart. the _hawthorn bush_, with seats beneath the shade, for talking age and whispering lovers made. the hawthorn was amongst burns's floral pets. "i have," says he, "some favorite flowers in spring, among which are, the mountain daisy, the harebell, the fox-glove, the wild-briar rose, the budding birch and the hoary hawthorn, that i view and hang over with particular delight." l.e.l. speaks of the hawthorn hedge on which "the sweet may has showered its white luxuriance," and the rev. george croly has a patriotic allusion to this english plant, suggested by a landscape in france. 'tis a rich scene, and yet the richest charm that e'er clothed earth in beauty, lives not here. winds no green fence around the cultured farm _no blossomed hawthorn shields the cottage dear_: the land is bright; and yet to thine how drear, unrivalled england! well the thought may pine for those sweet fields where, each a little sphere, in shaded, sacred fruitfulness doth shine, and the heart higher beats that says; 'this spot is mine.' [ ] on may-day, the ancient romans used to go in procession to the grotto of egeria. [ ] see what is said of palms in a note on page . [ ] phillips's _flora historica_. [ ] the word primrose is supposed to be a compound of _prime_ and _rose_, and spenser spells it prime rose the pride and prime rose of the rest made by the maker's self to be admired the rev. george croly characterizes bengal as a mountainous country-- there's glory on thy _mountains_, proud bengal-- and dr. johnson in his _journey of a day_, (rambler no. ) charms the traveller in hindustan with a sight of the primrose and the oak. "as he passed along, his ears were delighted with the morning song of the bird of paradise; he was fanned by the last flutters of the sinking breeze, and sprinkled with dew by groves of spices, he sometimes contemplated the towering height of the oak, monarch of the hills; and sometimes caught the gentle fragrance of the primrose, eldest daughter of the spring." in some book of travels, i forget which, the writer states, that he had seen the primrose in mysore and in the recesses of the pyrenees. there is a flower sold by the bengallee gardeners for the primrose, though it bears but small resemblance to the english flower of that name. on turning to mr. piddington's index to the plants of india i find under the head of _primula_--primula denticula--stuartii--rotundifolia--with the names in the mawar or nepaulese dialect. [ ] in strewing their graves the romans affected the rose; the greeks amaranthus and myrtle: the funeral pyre consisted of sweet fuel, cypress, fir, larix, yew, and trees perpetually verdant lay silent expressions of their surviving hopes. _sir thomas browne_. [ ] the allusion to the cowslip in shakespeare's description of imogene must not be passed over here.-- on her left breast a mole cinque-spotted, like the crimson drop i' the bottom of the cowslip. [ ] the guelder rose--this elegant plant is a native of britain, and when in flower, has at first sight, the appearance of a little maple tree that has been pelted with snow balls, and we almost fear to see them melt away in the warm sunshine--_glenny_. [ ] in a greenhouse [ ] some flowers have always been made to a certain degree emblematical of sentiment in england as elsewhere, but it was the turks who substituted flowers for words to such an extent as to entitle themselves to be regarded as the inventors of the floral language. [ ] the floral or vegetable language is not always the language of love or compliment. it is sometimes severe and scornful. a gentleman sent a lady a rose as a declaration of his passion and a slip of paper attached, with the inscription--"if not accepted, i am off to the war." the lady forwarded in return a mango (man, go!) [ ] no part of the creation supposed to be insentient, exhibits to an imaginative observer such an aspect of spiritual life and such an apparent sympathy with other living things as flowers, shrubs and trees. a tree of the genus mimosa, according to niebuhr, bends its branches downward as if in hospitable salutation when any one approaches near to it. the arabs, are on this account so fond of the "courteous tree" that the injuring or cutting of it down is strictly prohibited. [ ] it has been observed that the defense is supplied in the following line--_want of sense_--a stupidity that "errs in ignorance and not in cunning." [ ] there is apparently so much doubt and confusion is to the identity of the true hyacinth, and the proper application of its several names that i shall here give a few extracts from other writers on this subject. some authors suppose the red martagon lily to be the poetical hyacinth of the ancients, but this is evidently a mistaken opinion, as the azure blue color alone would decide and pliny describes the hyacinth as having a sword grass and the smell of the grape flower, which agrees with the hyacinth, but not with the martagon. again, homer mentions it with fragrant flowers of the same season of the hyacinth. the poets also notice the hyacinth under different colours, and every body knows that the hyacinth flowers with sapphire colored purple, crimson, flesh and white bells, but a blue martagon will be sought for in vain. _phillips' flora historica_. a doubt hangs over the poetical history of the modern, as well as of the ancient flower, owing to the appellation _harebell_ being, indiscriminately applied both to _scilla_ wild hyacinth, and also to _campanula rotundifolia, blue bell_. though the southern bards have occasionally misapplied the word _harebell_ it will facilitate our understanding which flower is meant if we bear in mind as a general rule that that name is applied differently in various parts of the island, thus the harebell of scottish writers is the _campanula_, and the bluebell, so celebrated in scottish song, is the wild hyacinth or _scilla_ while in england the same names are used conversely, the _campanula_ being the bluebell and the wild hyacinth the harebell. _eden warwick_. the hyacinth of the ancient fabulists appears to have been the corn-flag, (_gladiolus communis_ of botanists) but the name was applied vaguely and had been early applied to the great larkspur (delphinium ajacis) on account of the similar spots on the petals, supposed to represent the greek exclamation of grief _ai ai_, and to the hyacinth of modern times. our wild hyacinth, which contributes so much to the beauty of our woodland scenery during the spring, may be regarded as a transition species between scilla and hyacinthus, the form and drooping habit of its flower connecting it with the latter, while the six pieces that form the two outer circles, being separate to the base, give it the technical character of the former. it is still called _hyacinthus non-scriptus_--but as the true hyacinth equally wants the inscription, the name is singularly inappropriate. the botanical name of the hyacinth is _hyacinthus orientalis_ which applies equally to all the varieties of colour, size and fulness.--_w. hinks_. [ ] old gerard calls it blew harebel or english _jacint_, from the french _jacinthe_. [ ] inhabitants of the island of chios [ ] supposed by some to be delphinium ajacis or larkspur. but no one can discover any letters on the larkspur. [ ] some _savants_ say that it was not the _sunflower_ into which the lovelorn lass was transformed, but the _heliotrope_ with its sweet odour of vanilla. heliotrope signifies _i turn towards the sun_. it could not have been the sun flower, according to some authors because that came from peru and peru was not known to ovid. but it is difficult to settle this grave question. as all flowers turn towards the sun, we cannot fix on any one that is particularly entitled to notice on that account. [ ] zephyrus. [ ] "a remarkably intelligent young botanist of our acquaintance asserts it as his firm conviction that many a young lady who would shrink from being kissed under the mistletoe would not have the same objection to that ceremony if performed _under the rose_."--_punch_. [ ] mary howitt mentions that amongst the private cultivators of roses in the neighbourhood of london, the well-known publisher mr. henry s. bohn is particularly distinguished. in his garden at twickenham one thousand varieties of the rose are brought to great perfection. he gives a sort of floral fete to his friends in the height of the rose season. [ ] the learned dry the flower of the forget me not and flatten it down in their herbals, and call it, _myosotis scorpioides--scorpion shaped mouse's ear_! they have been reproached for this by a brother savant, charles nodier, who was not a learned man only but a man of wit and sense.--_alphonse karr_. [ ] the abbé molina in his history of chili mentions a species of basil which he calls _ocymum salinum_: he says it resembles the common basil, except that the stalk is round and jointed; and that though it grows sixty miles from the sea, yet every morning it is covered with saline globules, which are hard and splendid, appearing at a distance like dew; and that each plant furnishes about an ounce of fine salt every day, which the peasants collect and use as common salt, but esteem it superior in flavour.--_notes to darwin's loves of the plants_. [ ] the dutch are a strange people and of the most heterogeneous composition. they have an odd mixture in their nature of the coldest utilitarianism and the most extravagant romance. a curious illustration of this is furnished in their tulipomania, in which there was a struggle between the love of the substantial and the love of the beautiful. one of their authors enumerates the following articles as equivalent in money value to the price of one tulip root--"two lasts of wheat--four lasts of rye--four fat oxen--eight fat swine--twelve fat sheep--two hogsheads of wine--four tons of butter--one thousand pounds of cheese--a complete bed--a suit of clothes--and a silver drinking cup." [ ] _maun_, must [ ] _stoure_, dust [ ] _weet_, wetness, rain [ ] _glinted_, peeped [ ] _wa's_, walls. [ ] _bield_, shelter [ ] _histie_, dry [ ] _stibble field_, a field covered with stubble--the stalks of corn left by the reaper. [ ] _the origin of the daisy_--when christ was three years old his mother wished to twine him a birthday wreath. but as no flower was growing out of doors on christmas eve, not in all the promised land, and as no made up flowers were to be bought, mary resolved to prepare a flower herself. to this end she took a piece of bright yellow silk which had come down to her from david, and ran into the same, thick threads of white silk, thread by thread, and while thus engaged, she pricked her finger with the needle, and the pure blood stained some of the threads with crimson, whereat the little child was much affected. but when the winter was past and the rains were come and gone, and when spring came to strew the earth with flowers, and the fig tree began to put forth her green figs and the vine her buds, and when the voice or the turtle was heard in the land, then came christ and took the tender plant with its single stem and egg shaped leaves and the flower with its golden centre and rays of white and red, and planted it in the vale of nazareth. then, taking up the cup of gold which had been presented to him by the wise men of the east, he filled it at a neighbouring fountain, and watered the flower and breathed upon it. and the plant grew and became the most perfect of plants, and it flowers in every meadow, when the snow disappears, and is itself the snow of spring, delighting the young heart and enticing the old men from the village to the fields. from then until now this flower has continued to bloom and although it may be plucked a hundred times, again it blossoms--_colshorn's deutsche mythologie furs deutsche volk_. [ ] the gorse is a low bush with prickly leaves growing like a juniper. the contrast of its very brilliant yellow pea shaped blossoms with the dark green of its leaves is very beautiful. it grows in hedges and on commons and is thought rather a plebeian affair. i think it would make quite an addition to our garden shrubbery. possibly it might make as much sensation with us (americans) as our mullein does in foreign green-houses,--_mrs. stowe_. [ ] george town. [ ] the hill trumpeter. [ ] nutmeg and clove plantations. [ ] leigh hunt, in the dedication of his _stories in verse_ to the duke of devonshire speaks of his grace as "the adorner of the country with beautiful gardens, and with the far-fetched botany of other climates; one of whom it may be said without exaggeration and even without a metaphor, that his footsteps may be traced in flowers." [ ] the following account of a newly discovered flower may be interesting to my readers. "it is about the size of a walnut, perfectly white, with fine leaves, resembling very much the wax plant. upon the blooming of the flower, in the cup formed by the leaves, is the exact image of a dove lying on its back with its wings extended. the peak of the bill and the eyes are plainly to be seen and a small leaf before the flower arrives at maturity forms the outspread tail. the leaf can be raised or shut down with the finger without breaking or apparently injuring it until the flower reaches its bloom, when it drops,"--_panama star_. [ ] signifying the _dew of the sea_. the rosemary grows best near the sea-shore, and when the wind is off the land it delights the home-returning voyager with its familiar fragrance. [ ] perhaps it is not known to _all_ my readers that some flowers not only brighten the earth by day with their lovely faces, but emit light at dusk. in a note to darwin's _loves of the plants_ it is stated that the daughter of linnaeus first observed the nasturtium to throw out flashes of light in the morning before sunrise, and also during the evening twilight, but not after total darkness came on. the philosophers considered these flashes to be electric. mr. haggren, professor of natural history, perceived one evening a faint flash of light repeatedly darted from a marigold. the flash was afterwards often seen by him on the same flower two or three times, in quick succession, but more commonly at intervals of some minutes. the light has been observed also on the orange, the lily, the monks hood, the yellow goats beard and the sun flower. this effect has sometimes been so striking that the flowers have looked as if they were illuminated for a holiday. lady blessington has a fanciful allusion to this flower light. "some flowers," she says, "absorb the rays of the sun so strongly that in the evening they yield slight phosphoric flashes, may we not compare the minds of poets to those flowers which imbibing light emit it again in a different form and aspect?" [ ] the shan and other poems [ ] my hindu friend is not answerable for the following notes. [ ] and infants winged, who mirthful throw shafts rose-tipped from nectareous bow. kam déva, the cupid of the hindu mythology, is thus represented. his bow is of the sugar cane, his string is formed of wild bees, and his arrows are tipped with the rose.--_tales of the forest_. [ ] in this plant was subjected to a regular set of experiments by dr. g. playfair, who, with many of his brethren, bears ample testimony of its efficacy in leprosy, lues, tenia, herpes, dropsy, rheumatism, hectic and intermittent fever. the powdered bark is given in doses of - grains twice a day.--_dr. voight's hortus suburbanus calcuttensis_. [ ] it is perhaps of the flax tribe. mr. piddington gives it the sanscrit name of _atasi_ and the botanical name _linum usitatissimum_. [ ] roxburgh calls it "intensely fragrant." [ ] sometimes employed by robbers to deprive their victims of the power of resistance. in a strong dose it is poison. [ ] it is said to be used by the chinese to blacken their eyebrows and their shoes. [ ] _mirábilis jálapa_, or marvel of peru, is called by the country people in england _the four o'clock flower_, from its opening regularly at that time. there is a species of broom in america which is called the american clock, because it exhibits its golden flowers every morning at eleven, is fully open by one and closes again at two. [ ] marvell died in ; linnaeus died just a hundred years later. [ ] this poem (_the sugar cane_) when read in manuscript at sir joshua reynolds's, had made all the assembled wits burst into a laugh, when after much blank-verse pomp the poet began a paragraph thus.-- "now, muse, let's sing of rats." and what increased the ridicule was, that one of the company who slyly overlooked the reader, perceived that the word had been originally _mice_ and had been altered to _rats_ as more dignified.--_boswell's life of johnson_. [ ] hazlitt has a pleasant essay on a garden _sun-dial_, from which i take the following passage:-- _horas non numero nisi serenas_--is the motto of a sun dial near venice. there is a softness and a harmony in the words and in the thought unparalleled. of all conceits it is surely the most classical. "i count only the hours that are serene." what a bland and care-dispelling feeling! how the shadows seem to fade on the dial plate as the sky looms, and time presents only a blank unless as its progress is marked by what is joyous, and all that is not happy sinks into oblivion! what a fine lesson is conveyed to the mind--to take no note of time but by its benefits, to watch only for the smiles and neglect the frowns of fate, to compose our lives of bright and gentle moments, turning always to the sunny side of things, and letting the rest slip from our imaginations, unheeded or forgotten! how different from the common art of self tormenting! for myself, as i rode along the brenta, while the sun shone hot upon its sluggish, slimy waves, my sensations were far from comfortable, but the reading this inscription on the side of a glaring wall in an instant restored me to myself, and still, whenever i think of or repeat it, it has the power of wafting me into the region of pure and blissful abstraction. [ ] these are the initial letters of the latin names of the plants, they will be found at length on the lower column. [ ] hampton court was laid out by cardinal wolsey. the labyrinth, one of the best which remains in england, occupies only a quarter of an acre, and contains nearly a mile of winding walks. there is an adjacent stand, on which the gardener places himself, to extricate the adventuring stranger by his directions. switzer condemns this plan for having only four stops and gives a plan for one with twenty.--_loudon_. [ ] the lower part of bengal, not far from calcutta, is here described [ ] sir william jones states that the brahmins believe that the _blue_ champac flowers only in paradise, it being yellow every where else. [ ] the wild dog of bengal [ ] the elephant. [ ] even jeremy bentham, the great utilitarian philosopher, who pronounced the composition and perusal of poetry a mere amusement of no higher rank than the game of pushpin, had still something of the common feeling of the poetry of nature in his soul. he says of himself--"_i was passionately fond of flowers from my youth, and the passion has never left me._" in praise of botany he would sometimes observe, "_we cannot propagate stones_:" meaning that the mineralogist cannot circulate his treasures without injuring himself, but the botanist can multiply his specimens at will and add to the pleasures of others without lessening his own. [ ] a man of a polite imagination is let into a great many pleasures that the vulgar are not capable of receiving. he can converse with a picture and find an agreeable companion in a statue. he meets with a secret refreshment in a description, _and often feels a greater satisfaction in the prospect of fields and meadows, than another does in the possession_.--_spectator_. [ ] kent died in in the th year of his age. as a painter he had no great merit, but many men of genius amongst his contemporaries had the highest opinion of his skill as a landscape-gardener. he sometimes, however, carried his love of the purely natural to a fantastic excess, as when in kensington-garden he planted dead trees to give an air of wild truth to the landscape. in esher's peaceful grove, where kent and nature strove for pelham's love, this landscape-gardener is said to have exhibited a very remarkable degree of taste and judgment. i cannot resist the temptation to quote here horace walpole's eloquent account of kent: "at that moment appeared kent, painter and poet enough to taste the charms of landscape, bold and opinionative enough to dare and to dictate, and born with a genius to strike out a great system from the twilight of imperfect essays. he leaped the fence and saw that all nature was a garden[ ]. he felt the delicious contrast of hill and valley changing imperceptibly into each other, tasted the beauty of the gentle swell, or concave swoop, and remarked how loose groves crowned an easy eminence with happy ornament, and while they called in the distant view between their graceful stems, removed and extended the perspective by delusive comparison."--_on modern gardening_. [ ] when the rage for a wild irregularity in the laying out of gardens was carried to its extreme, the garden paths were so ridiculously tortuous or zig-zag, that, as brown remarked, a man might put one foot upon _zig_ and the other upon _zag_. [ ] the natives are much too fond of having tanks within a few feet of their windows, so that the vapours from the water go directly into the house. these vapours are often seen hanging or rolling over the surface of the tank like thick wreaths of smoke. [ ] broken brick is called _kunkur_, but i believe the real kunkur is real gravel, and if i am not mistaken a pretty good sort of gravel, formed of particles of red granite, is obtainable from the rajmahal hills. [ ] pope in his well known paper in the _guardian_ complains that a citizen is no sooner proprietor of a couple of yews but he entertains thoughts of erecting them into giants, like those of guildhall. "i know an eminent cook," continues the writer, "who beautified his country seat with a coronation dinner in greens, where you see the champion flourishing on horseback at one end of the table and the queen in perpetual youth at the other." when the desire to subject nature to art had been carried to the ludicrous extravagances so well satirized by pope, men rushed into an opposite extreme. uvedale price in his first rage for nature and horror of art, destroyed a venerable old garden that should have been respected for its antiquity, if for nothing else. he lived to repent his rashness and honestly to record that repentance. coleridge, observed to john sterling, that "we have gone too far in destroying the old style of gardens and parks." "the great thing in landscape gardening" he continued "is to discover whether the scenery is such that the country seems to belong to man or man to the country." [ ] in england it costs upon the average about shillings or six rupees to have a tree of feet high transplanted. [ ] i believe the largest leaf in the world is that of the fan palm or talipot tree in ceylon. "the branch of the tree," observes the author of _sylvan sketches_, "is not remarkably large, but it bears a leaf large enough to cover twenty men. it will fold into a fan and is then no bigger than a man's arm." [ ] southey's common-place book. [ ] the height of a full grown banyan may be from sixty to eighty feet; and many of them, i am fully confident, cover at least two acres.--_oriental field sports_. there is a banyan tree about five and twenty miles from berhampore, remarkable for the height of the lower branches from the ground. a man standing up on the houdah of an elephant may pass under it without touching the foliage. a tree has been described as growing in china of a size so prodigious that one branch of it only will so completely cover two hundred sheep that they cannot be perceived by those who approach the tree, and another so enormous that eighty persons can scarcely embrace the trunk.--_sylvan sketches_. [ ] this praise is a little extravagant, but the garden is really very tastefully laid out, and ought to furnish a useful model to such of the people of this city as have spacious grounds. the area of the garden is about two hundred and fifty nine acres. this garden was commenced in by colonel kyd. it then passed to the care of dr. roxburgh, who remained in charge of it from to the date of his death . [ ] alphonse karr, bitterly ridicules the botanical _savants_ with their barbarous nomenclature. he speaks of their mesocarps and quinqueloculars infundibuliform, squammiflora, guttiferas monocotyledous &c. &c. with supreme disgust. our english poet, wordsworth, also used to complain that some of our familiar english names of flowers, names so full of delightful associations, were beginning to be exchanged even in common conversation for the coldest and harshest scientific terms. [ ] _the hand of eve_--the handiwork of eve. [ ] _without thorn the rose_: dr. bentley calls this a puerile fancy. but it should be remembered, that it was part of the curse denounced upon the earth for adam's transgression, that it should bring forth thorns and thistles. _gen._ iii. . hence the general opinion has prevailed, that there were _no thorns_ before; which is enough to justify a poet, in saying "_the rose was without thorn_."--newton. [ ] see page . my hindu friend is not responsible for the selection of the following notes. [ ] birdlime is prepared from the tenacious milky juice of the peepul and the banyan. the leaves of the banyan are used by the bramins to eat off, for which purpose they are joined together by inkles. birds are very fond of the fruit of the peepul, and often drop the seeds in the cracks of buildings, where they vegetate, occasioning great damage if not removed in time.--_voight_. [ ] the ancient greeks and romans also married trees together in a similar manner.--_r._ [ ] the root of this plant, (_euphorbia ligularia_,) mixed up with black pepper, is used by the natives against snake bites.--_roxburgh_. [ ] coccos nucifera, the _root_ is sometimes masticated instead of the betle-nut. in brazil, baskets are made of the _small fibres_. the _hard case of the stem_ is converted into drums, and used in the construction of huts. the lower part is so hard as to take a beautiful polish, when it resembles agate. the reticulated substance at base of the leaf is formed into cradles, and, as some say, into a coarse kind of cloth. the _unexpanded terminal bud_ is a delicate article of food. the _leaves_ furnish thatch for dwellings, and materials for fences, buckets, and baskets; they are used for writing on, and make excellent torches; potash in abundance is yielded by their ashes. the _midrib of the_ leaf serves for oars. the _juice of the flower and stems_ is replete with sugar, and is fermented into excellent wine, or distilled into arrack, or the sugary part is separated as jagary. the tree is cultivated in many parts of the indian islands, for the sake not only of the sap and _milk_ it yields, but for the _kernel_ of its fruit, used both as food and for culinary purposes, and as affording a large proportion of _oil_ which is burned in lamps throughout india, and forms also a large article of export to europe. the fibrous and uneatable rind of the fruit is not only used to polish furniture and to scour the floors of rooms, but is manufactured into a kind of cordage, (_koir_) which is nearly equal in strength to hemp, and which roxburgh designates as the very best of all materials for cables, on account of its great elasticity and strength. the sap of this as well as of other palms is found to be the simplest and easiest remedy that can be employed for removing constipation in persons of delicate habit, especially european females.--_voigt's suburbanus calcuttensis_. [ ] the root is bitter, nauseous, and used in north america as anthelmintic. _a. richard_. [ ] of one species of tulsi (_babooi-tulsi_) the seeds, if steeped in water, swell into a pleasant jelly, which is used by the natives in cases of catarrh, dysentry, chronic diarrhoea &c. and is very nourishing and demulcent--_voigt_. [ ] this list is framed from such as were actually grown by the author between and the present year, from seed received chiefly through the kindness of captain kirke. [ ] the native market gardens sell madras roses at the rate of thirteen young plants for the rupee. mrs. gore tells us that in london the most esteemed kinds of old roses are usually sold by nurserymen at fifty shillings a hundred the first french and other varieties seldom exceed half a guinea a piece. [ ] i may add to mr. speede's list of roses the _banksian rose_. the flowers are yellow, in clusters, and scentless. mrs. gore says it was imported into england from the calcutta botanical garden, it is called _wong moue heong_. there is another rose also called the _banksian rose_ extremely small, very double, white, expanding from march till may, highly scented with violets. the _rosa brownii_ was brought from nepaul by dr. wallich. a very sweet rose has been brought into bengal from england. it is called _rosa peeliana_ after the original importer sir lawrence peel. it is a hybrid. i believe it is a tea scented rose and is probably a cross between one of that sort and a common china rose, but this is mere conjecture. the varieties of the tea rose are now cultivated by indian malees with great success. they sell at the price of from eight annas to a rupee each. a variety of the bengal yellow rose, is now comparatively common. it fetches from one to three rupees, each root. it is known to the native gardeners by the english name of "_yellow rose_". amongst the flowers introduced here since mr. speede's book appeared, is the beautiful blue heliotrope which the natives call _kala heliotrope_. [ ] he gains all points who pleasingly confounds, surprizes, varies, and conceals the bounds. [ ] the following is the passage alluded to by todd a pleasant grove with chant of tuneful birds resounding loud, thither he bent his way, determined there to rest at noon, and entered soon the shade, high roofed, and walks beneath and alleys brown, that opened in the midst a woody scene, nature's own work it seemed (nature taught art) and to a superstitious eye the haunt of wood gods and wood nymphs. _paradise regained, book ii_ [ ] the following stanzas are almost as direct translations from tasso as the two last stanzas in the words of fairfax on page :-- the whiles some one did chaunt this lovely lay;-- ah! see, whoso fayre thing doest faine to see, in springing flowre the image of thy day! ah! see the virgin rose, how sweetly shee doth first peepe forth with bashful modesty; that fairer seems the less you see her may! lo! see soone after how more bold and free her baréd bosome she doth broad display; lo! see soone after how she fades and falls away! so passeth, in the passing of a day, of mortal life, the leaf, the bud, the flowre, ne more doth florish after first decay, that erst was sought, to deck both bed and bowre of many a lady and many a paramoure! gather therefore the rose whilest yet is prime for soone comes age that will her pride deflowre; gather the rose of love, whilest yet is time whilest loving thou mayst loved be with equal crime[ ] _fairie queene, book ii. canto xii._ [ ] i suppose in the remark that kent leapt the fence, horace walpole alludes to that artist's practice of throwing down walls and other boundaries and sinking fosses called by the common people _ha! ha's!_ to express their astonishment when the edge of the fosse brought them to an unexpected stop. horace walpole's history of modern gardening is now so little read that authors think they may steal from it with safety. in the _encyclopaedia britannica_ the article on gardening is taken almost verbatim from it, with one or two deceptive allusions such as--"_as mr. walpole observes_"--"_says mr. walpole_," &c. but there is nothing to mark where walpole's observations and sayings end, and the encyclopaedia thus gets the credit of many pages of his eloquence and sagacity. the whole of walpole's _history of modern gardening_ is given piece-meal as an original contribution to _harrrison's floricultural cabinet_, each portion being signed clericus. [ ] perhaps robert herrick had these stanzas in his mind's ear when he wrote his song of gather ye rosebuds while ye may old time is still a flying; and this same flower that smiles to-day to-morrow will be dying. * * * * * then be not coy, but use your time; and while ye may, so marry: for having lost but once your prime you may for ever tarry. distributed proofreaders europe at http://dp.rastko.net the ~botanical magazine~; or, ~flower-garden displayed~: in which the most ornamental foreign plants, cultivated in the open ground, the green-house, and the stove, are accurately represented in their natural colours. to which are added, their names, class, order, generic and specific characters, according to the celebrated linnæus; their places of growth, and times of flowering: together with the most approved methods of culture. a work intended for the use of such ladies, gentlemen, and gardeners, as wish to become scientifically acquainted with the plants they cultivate. ~by william curtis~, author of the flora londinensis. ~vol. iii.~ "the spleen is seldom felt where flora reigns; the low'ring eye, the petulance, the frown, and sullen sadness, that o'ershade, distort, and mar the face of beauty, when no cause for such immeasurable woe appears; these flora banishes, and gives the fair sweet smiles and bloom, less transient than her own." cowper. london: printed by couchman and fry, throgmorton-street, for w. curtis, at his botanic-garden, lambeth-marsh; and sold by the principal booksellers in great-britain and ireland. m dcc xc. * * * * * [ ] monsonia speciosa. large-flower'd monsonia. _class and order._ polyadelphia dodecandria. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _cor._ -petala. _stam._ . connata in filamenta. _stylus_ -fidus. _caps._ -cocca. _specific character and synonyms._ monsonia _speciosa_ foliis quinatis: foliolis bipinnatis, _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ monsonia grandiflora. _burm. prodr. ._ [illustration: no ] the genus of which this charming plant is the most distinguished species, has been named in honour of _lady anne monson_. the whole family are natives of the cape, and in their habit and fructification bear great affinity to the geranium. the present species was introduced into this country in , by mr. masson. we received this elegant plant just as it was coming into flower, from mr. colvill, nurseryman, king's-road, chelsea, who was so obliging as to inform me that he had succeeded best in propagating it by planting cuttings of the root in pots of mould, and plunging them in a tan-pit, watering them as occasion may require; in due time buds appear on the tops of the cuttings left out of the ground. it rarely or never ripens its seed with us. should be treated as a hardy greenhouse plant; may be sheltered even under a frame, in the winter. [ ] antirrhinum triste. melancholy or black-flower'd toad-flax. _class and order._ didynamia angiopspermia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _cor._ basis deorsum prominens, nectarifera. _caps._ . locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ antirrhinum _triste_ foliis linearibus sparsis inferioribus oppositis nectariis subulatis, floribus sub-sessilibus. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ linaria tristis hispanica. _dill. elth. . t. . f. ._ [illustration: no ] receives its name of _triste_ from the sombre appearance of its flowers; but this must be understood when placed at some little distance, for, on a near view, the principal colour of the blossoms is a fine rich brown, inclined to purple. is a native of spain, and of course a greenhouse plant with us, but it must not be too tenderly treated, as it loses much of its beauty when drawn up, it should therefore be kept out of doors when the season will admit, as it only requires shelter from severe frost, and that a common hot-bed frame will in general sufficiently afford it. it flowers during most of the summer months; as it rarely or never ripens its seeds with us, the usual mode of propagating it, is by cuttings, which strike readily enough in the common way. miller relates that it was first introduced into this country by sir charles wager, from gibraltar seeds. [ ] potentilla grandiflora. large-flower'd potentilla. _class and order._ icosandria polygynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus. _petala_ . _sem._ subrotunda, nuda, receptaculo parvo exsucco affixa. _specific character and synonyms._ potentilla _grandiflora_ foliis ternatis dentatis utrinque subpilosis, caule decumbente foliis longiore, _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ fragaria sterilis, amplissimo folio et flore petalis cordatis, _vaill. paris. . t. . f. ._ [illustration: no ] culture is well known to produce great alterations in the appearance of most plants, but particularly in those which grow spontaneously on dry mountainous situations, and this is strikingly exemplified in the present instance, this species of _potentilla_, becoming in every respect much larger, as well as much smoother than in its natural state. _vid._ vaill. above quoted. it is a hardy herbaceous plant, a native of switzerland, siberia, and other parts of europe, and flowers in july. linnÆus considers it as an annual; miller, as a biennial; we suspect it to be, indeed have little doubt of its being a perennial; having propagated it by parting its roots, but it may be raised more successfully from seed. [ ] epilobium angustissimum. narrowest leav'd willow-herb. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus. _petala_ . _caps._ oblonga, infera. _sem._ papposa. _specific character and synonyms._ epilobium angustifolium, foliis sparsis linearibus obsolete denticulatis aveniis, petalis æqualibus integerrimis, _ait. hort. kew. . p. ._ epilobium _angustifolium_, var. _lin. sp. pl._ epilobium flore difformi, foliis linearibus. _hall, hist. helv. p. . n. ._ [illustration: no ] though the _epilobium_ here figured has not been many years introduced into this country, it is a plant which has long been well known, and described. linnÆus makes it a variety only of the _epilobium angustifolium_; haller, a distinct species, and in our opinion, most justly. those who have cultivated the _epilobium angustifolium_ have cause to know that it increases prodigiously by its creeping roots. the present plant, so far as we have been able to determine from cultivating it several years, in our garden, lambeth-marsh, has not shewn the least disposition to increase in the same way, nor have any seedlings arisen from the seeds which it has spontaneously scattered: we have, indeed, found it a plant rather difficult to propagate, yet it is highly probable that at a greater distance from london, and in a more favourable soil, its roots, though not of the creeping kind, may admit of a greater increase, and its seeds be more prolific. it is a native of the alps of switzerland, from whence it is frequently dislodged, and carried into the plains by the impetuosity of torrents. it flowers with us in july and august, and being a hardy perennial, and perhaps the most elegant species of the genus, appears to us highly deserving a place in the gardens of the curious. [ ] centaurea montana. greater blue-bottle. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia frustranea. _generic character._ receptaculum setosum. pappus simplex. corollæ radii infundibuliformes, longiores, irregulares. _specific character and synonyms._ centaurea montana calycibus serratis, foliis lanceolatis decurrentibus caule simplicissimo. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ cyanus montanus latifolius s. verbasculum cyanoides. _bauh. pin. ._ cyanus major. _lobel. icon. ._ [illustration: no ] it has been suggested by some of our readers, that too many common plants, like the present, are figured in this work. we wish it to be understood, that the professed design of the botanical magazine is to exhibit representations of such. we are desirous of putting it in the power of all who cultivate or amuse themselves with plants, to become scientifically acquainted with them, as far as our labours extend; and we deem it of more consequence, that they should be able to ascertain such as are to be found in every garden, than such as they may never have an opportunity of seeing. on viewing the representations of objects of this sort, a desire of seeing the original is naturally excited, and the pleasure is greatly enhanced by having it in our power to possess it. but, while we are desirous of thus creating botanists, we are no less anxious to gratify the wishes of those already such; and we believe, from a perusal of the magazine, it will appear that one-third of the plants figured, have some pretensions to novelty. the _centaurea montana_ is a native of the german alps, flowers during the greatest part of the summer, is a hardy perennial, and will grow in any soil or situation, some will think too readily. [ ] narcissus odorus. sweet-scented, or great jonquil. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _petala_ -æqualia. _nectario_ infundibuliformi, -phyllo. _stamina_ intra nectarium. _specific character and synonyms._ narcissus _odorus_ spatha sub-biflora, nectario campanulato sexfido lævi dimidio petalis breviore, foliis semicylindricis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ narcissus angustifolius, five juncifolius maximus amplo calice. the great jonquilia with the large flower or cup. _park parad. p. . fig. ._ [illustration: no ] we shall be thought, perhaps, too partial to this tribe of plants, this being the fifth species now figured; but it should be remembered, that as the spring does not afford that variety of flowers which the summer does, we are more limited in our choice; the flowers of this delightful season have also greater claims to our notice, they present themselves with double charms. this species, which, as its name implies, possesses more fragrance than many of the others, is a native of the south of europe, flowers in the open border in april, is a hardy-perennial, thriving in almost any soil or situation, but succeeds best in a loamy soil and eastern exposure. varies with double flowers, in which slate it is often used for forcing. no notice is taken of this species by miller, except as a variety of the n. _jonquilla_, from which it differs _toto calo_. [ ] lotus jacobÆus. black-flower'd lotus. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _legumen_ cylindricum strictum. _alæ_ sursum longitudinaliter conniventes. _cal._ tubulosus. _specific character and synonyms._ lotus _jacobæus_ leguminibus subternatis, caule herbaceo erecto, foliolis linearibus. _lin. syst. veg. ._ lotus angustifolia, flore luteo purpurascente, infulæ s. jacobi. _comm. hort. . p. . t. ._ [illustration: no ] this species of _lotus_ has been called black-flower'd, not that the flowers are absolutely black, for they are of a very rich brown inclined to purple, but because they appear so at a little distance; the light colour of the foliage contributes not a little to this appearance. "it grows naturally in the island of st. james; is too tender to live abroad in england, so the plants must be kept in pots, and in the winter placed in a warm airy glass cafe, but in the summer they should be placed abroad in a sheltered situation. it may be easily propagated by cuttings during the summer season, and also by seeds, but the plants which have been two or three times propagated by cuttings, seldom are fruitful." _miller's gard. dict._ it continues to flower during the whole of the summer; as it is very apt to die off without any apparent cause, care should be taken to have a succession of plants from seeds, if possible. [ ] spigelia marilandica. maryland spigelia, or worm-grass. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ infundibuliformis. _capsula_ didyma. -locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ spigelia _marilandica_ caule tetragono, foliis omnibus oppositis. _lin. syst. veg. p. ._ _mant. . p. ._ lonicera _marilandica_, _spec. pl. ed. . p. ._ periclymeni virginiani flore coccineo planta marilandica spicata erecta foliis conjugatis. _d. sherard raii suppl. p. ._ _catesb. carol. . t. ._ anthelmia indian pink. _dr. lining. essays physical and literary, vol. . and vol. ._ [illustration: no ] this plant, not less celebrated for its superior efficacy in destroying worms[a], than admired for its beauty, is a native of the warmer parts of north america; the older botanists, and even linnÆus, at one time considered it as a _honeysuckle_, but he has now made a new genus of it, which he has named in honour of spigelius, a botanist of considerable note, author of the _ifagog. in yem herbar_. published at _leyden_ in . "this plant is not easily propagated in england, for the roots make but slow increase, so that the plant is not very common in the english gardens at present; for although it is so hardy as to endure the cold of our ordinary winters in the open air, yet as it does not ripen seeds, the only way of propagating it is by parting of the roots; and as these do not make much increase by offsets, so the plants are scarce; it delights in a moist soil, and must not be often transplanted." _miller's dict._ the scarcity of this plant, even now, is a proof of the justness of mr. miller's observation; it is in fact a very shy plant, and scarcely to be kept in this country but by frequent importation. it flowers in june and july. [footnote a: _vid. lewis's mater. medica._] [ ] colutea arborescens. tree colutea, or bladder senna. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _calyx_ -fidus. _legumen_ inflatum, basi superiore dehiscens. _specific character and synonyms._ colutea _arborescens_ arborea foliolis obcordatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ colutea vesicaria. _bauh. pin. ._ the greater bastard senna with bladders. _park. par. ._ [illustration: no ] the bladder senna, a native of the south of france and italy, produces a profusion of bloom from june to august, when its inflated pods please from the singularity of their appearance; on these accounts, it is one of the most common flowering shrubs cultivated in gardens and plantations. "it is propagated by sowing its seeds any time in the spring in a bed of common earth; and when the plants are come up, they must be kept clear from weeds, and the michaelmas following they should be transplanted either into nursery-rows, or in the places where they are designed to remain; for if they are let grow in the seed-bed too long, they are very subject to have tap roots, which render them unfit for transplanting; nor should these trees be suffered to remain too long in the nursery before they are transplanted, for the same reason." _miller's gard. dict._ we have learned by experience, that a very wet soil will prove fatal to these shrubs. [ ] lachenalia tricolor. three-coloured lachenalia. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _calyx_ subtriphyllus, inferus, coloratus. _corolla_ -petala, receptaculo inferta. _jacquin jun. in act. helv. vol. ._ _specific character and synonyms._ lachenalia _tricolor_. _lin. syst, vegetab. ed. . p. ._ _jacq. icon. pl. rarior, t. ._ phormium _aloides_. _lin. syst. vegetab. ed. . p. . suppl. ._ [illustration: no ] to mr. lee, of the vineyard, hammersmith, the first, and as we understand, the only nurseryman as yet in possession of this plant, which has but lately been introduced into this country from the cape, we are indebted for the present specimen. mr. jacquin, jun. who has figured and described it in the _acta helvetica_, gives it the name of _lachenalia_, in honour of warnerus de la chenal, a very eminent swiss botanist, and the particular friend of the late illustrious haller. our readers should be informed, that it had before been called by two other different names, viz. _hyacinthus orchiodes_, and _phormium aloides_, under the latter of which it now stands in the th edition of the _systema vegetabilium_, as well as that of _lachenalia_. its trivial name of _tricolor_ it receives from the three colours observable in the flowers; but it must be noticed, that it is only at the middle period of its flowering, that these three colours are highly distinguishable; as it advances, the brilliant orange of the top flowers dies away; the spots on the leaves also, which when the plant is young, give it the appearance of an orchis, as it advances into bloom become less and less conspicuous. like most of the cape plants, the _lachenalia_ requires to be sheltered in the winter; during that season it must therefore be kept in a greenhouse, or hot-bed frame, well secured. it flowers in the spring, but its blowing may be accelerated by the warmth of the stove, for it bears forcing well enough. it is increased by offsets from the bulbs. [ ] hibiscus syriacus. syrian hibiscus; commonly called althÆa frutex. _class and order._ monadelphia polyandria. _generic character._ _calyx_ duplex, exterior polyphyllus. _capsula_ -locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ hibiscus _syriacus_ foliis cuneiformi ovatis superne incise-serratis, caule arboreo. _lin. syst. veg. p. ._ alcea arborescens syriaca. _bauh. pin. p. ._ althÆa frutex flore albo vel purpureo. _park. par. p. ._ [illustration: no ] the _hibiscus syriacus_, known generally by the name of _althæa frutex_, is a native of syria, and forms one of the chief ornaments of our gardens in autumn; we view it, however, with less delight, as it is a sure indication of approaching winter. there are many varieties of it mentioned by authors, as the _purple, red-flowered, white-flowered, variegated red and white flowered_, and the _striped-flowered_, to which may be added, another variety, lately introduced, with double flowers: it varies also in its foliage, which is sometimes marked with white, sometimes with yellow. as from the lateness of its flowering, and the want of sufficient warmth, it rarely ripens its seeds with us; the usual mode of increasing it is by layers, and sometimes by cuttings; but the best plants are raised from seeds. miller observes, that the scarce varieties may be propagated by grafting them on each other, which is the common method of propagating the sorts with striped leaves. in the time of parkinson it was not looked on as a hardy shrub: he thus writes,--"they are somewhat tender, and would not be suffered to be uncovered in the winter time, or yet abroad in the garden, but kept in a large pot or tubbe, in the house or in a warme cellar, if you would have them to thrive." _park. parad._ [ ] tussilago alpina. alpine coltsfoot. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia. _generic character._ _receptaculum_ nudum. _pappus_ simplex. _cal._ squamæ æquales, discum æquantes, submembranaceæ. _specific character and synonyms._ tussilago _alpina_ scapo unifloro subnudo, foliis cordato orbiculatis crenatis utrinque virentibus. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ tussilago alpina rotundifolia glabra. _bauh. pin. ._ [illustration: no ] this species, a native of the alps, of switzerland, and austria, is frequently kept in gardens for the sake of variety; like the rest of the genus, it flowers early in the spring, in march and april; is a very hardy perennial, increases most readily in a moist shady situation, is usually kept in pots for the convenience of sheltering it in very severe seasons; but it will grow readily enough in the open border. all plants that flower early, though ever so hardy, require some kind of shelter, previous to, and during their flowering. is propagated by parting its roots in autumn. [ ] spartium jungeum. spanish broom. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _stigma_ longitudinale, supra villosum. _filamenta_ germini adhærentia. _calyx_ deorsum productus. _specific character and synonyms._ spartium _junceum_ ramis oppositis teretibus apice floriferis, foliis lanceolatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ spartium arborescens, feminibus lenti similibus. _bauh. pin. ._ spanish broom. _park. parad. p. . t. . fig. ._ [illustration: no ] grows naturally in france, spain, italy, and turkey; bears our climate extremely well; is a common shrub in our nurseries and plantations, which it much enlivens by its yellow blossoms: flowers from june to august, or longer in cool seasons. is raised by seeds, which generally come up plentifully under the shrubs. miller mentions a variety of it, which, as inferior to the common sort, does not appear to be worth cultivating. [ ] gladiolus communis. common corn-flag. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ sexpartita, ringens. _stamina_ adscendentia. _specific character and synonyms._ gladiolus _communis_ foliis ensiformibus, floribus distantibus. gladiolus utrinque floridus? _bauh. pin. ._ the french corn-flag. _park. parad. p. . t. . f. ._ [illustration: no ] grows wild in the corn fields of most of the warmer parts of europe, varies with white and flesh-coloured blossoms, increases so fast, both by offsets and seeds, as to become troublesome to the cultivator; hence, having been supplanted by the greater corn-flag, the _byzantinus_ of miller, whose blossoms are larger, and more shewy, it is not so generally found in gardens as formerly. it flowers in june. [ ] hyoscyamus aureus. golden-flower'd henbane. _class and order._ pentandria digynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ infundibuliformis, obtusa. _stamina_ inclinata. _capsula_ operculata -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ hyoscyamus _aureus_ foliis petiolatis dentatis acutis floribus pedunculatis, fructibus pendulis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ hyoscyamus creticus luteus major. _bauh. pin. ._ [illustration: no ] a native of crete, and other parts of the east. "flowers most part of the summer, but seldom ripens seeds in england; will continue for several years, if kept in pots and sheltered in winter, for it will not live in the open air during that season; if placed under a common hot-bed frame, where it may enjoy as much free air as possible in mild weather, it will thrive better than when more tenderly treated. "it may be easily propagated by cuttings, which if planted in a shady border and covered with hand-glasses, in any of the summer months, they will take root in a month or six weeks, and may be afterwards planted in pots and treated like the old plants." miller's _gard. dict._ it is, however, a more common practice to keep this plant in the stove in the winter; one advantage, at least, attends this method, we secure it with certainty. [ ] narcissus bulbocodium. hoop petticoat narcissus. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _petala_ , æqualia: _nectario_ infundibuliformi, -phyllo. _stamina_ intra nectarium. _specific character and synonyms._ narcissus _bulbocodium_ spatha uniflora, nectario turbinato petalis majore, staminibus pistilloque declinatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ narcissus montanus juncifolius, calyce aureo. _bauhin. p. ._ the greater yellow junquilia, or bastard daffodil. _park. parad. p. . t. . fig. . var. min. fig. ._ [illustration: no ] grows spontaneously in portugal; flowers in the open border about the middle of may, is an old inhabitant of our gardens, but, like the _triandrus_, is now become scarce, at least in the nurseries about london; in some gardens in hampshire we have seen it grow abundantly: miller calls it the _hoop petticoat narcissus_, the nectary, as he observes, being formed like the ladies hoop petticoats. it certainly is one of the neatest and most elegant of the genus, is propagated by offsets, and should be planted in a loamy soil, with an eastern exposure. [ ] viola pedata cut-leav'd violet. _class and order._ syngenesia monogamia. _generic character._ _calyx_ -phyllus. _cor._ -petala, irregularis, postice cornuta. _capsula_ supera, -valvis; -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ viola _pedata_ acaulis, foliis pedatis septempartitis. _lin. syst. veget. ed. ._ _murr. p. . spec. pl. p. ._ _gronov. fl. virg. ed. . p. ._ viola _tricolor_ caule nudo, foliis tenuius dissectis. _banist. virg._ viola inodora flore purpurascente specioso, foliis ad modum digitorum incisis. _clayt. n. ._ [illustration: no ] this species of violet, a native of virginia, is very rarely met with in our gardens; the figure we have given, was drawn from a plant which flowered this spring in the garden of thomas sykes, esq. at hackney, who possesses a very fine collection of plants, and of american ones in particular. it is more remarkable for the singularity of its foliage than the beauty of its blossoms; the former exhibit a very good example of the _folium pedatum_ of linnÆus, whence its name. miller, who calls it _multifida_ from a former edition of linnÆus's _species plantarum_, says, that the flowers are not succeeded by seeds here, hence it can only be propagated by parting its roots. the best mode of treating it, will be to place the roots in a pot of loam and bog earth mixed, and plunge the pot into a north border, where it must be sheltered in the winter, or taken up and kept in a common hot-bed frame. [ ] gorteria rigens. rigid-leav'd gorteria. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia frustranea. _generic character._ _receptaculum_ nudum. _pappus_ lanatus. _corollæ_ radii ligulatæ. _calyx_ imbricatus, squamis spinosis. _specific character and synonyms._ gorteria _rigens_ foliis lanceolatis pinnatifidis, caule depresso, scapis unifloris. _lin. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. . sp. pl. ed. . p. ._ arctotis ramis decumbentibus, foliis lineari-lanceolatis rigidis, subtus argenteis. _mill. dict. et icon. t. ._ arctotheca foliis rigidis leniter dissectis. _vaill. act. . n. ._ [illustration: no ] the gorteria, of which there are several species, and most of them, like the present, natives of the cape, has been named in honour of david de gorter, author of the _flora zutphanica_ and _ingrica_; the trivial name of _rigens_ is given to this species from the rigidity of its leaves, a term which it is sometimes apt to exchange for the more common botanic name of _ringens_; an instance of such mistake occurs in the th edition of miller's _gard. dict._ the greenhouse, to which it properly belongs, can scarcely boast a more shewy plant; its blossoms, when expanded by the heat of the sun, and it is only when the sun shines on them that they are fully expanded, exhibit an unrivalled brilliancy of appearance. it flowers in june, but rarely brings its seeds to perfection in this country, which is of the less consequence, as the plant is readily enough increased by cuttings. it requires the common treatment of a greenhouse plant. [ ] iris surfing. chalcedonian iris. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ -petala, inæqualis, petalis alternis geniculato-patentibus. _stigmata_ petaliformia, cucullato-bilabiata. _specific character and synonyms._ iris _surfing_ barbata foliis ensiformibus glabris, scapo unifloro, petalis rotundatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. ed. . p. ._ iris surfing flore maximo et albo nigricante. _bauh. pin. ._ the great turkey flower-de-luce. _park. parad. ._ [illustration: no ] this species, by far the most magnificent of the iris tribe, is a native of persia, from a chief city of which it takes the name of surfing; linnÆus informs us, that it was imported into holland from constantinople in . though an inhabitant of a much warmer climate than our own, it thrives readily in the open borders of our gardens; and, in certain favourable situations, flowers freely about the latter end of may or beginning of june. it succeeds best in a loamy soil and sunny exposure, with a pure air moisture, which favours the growth of most of the genus, is injurious and sometimes even fatal to this species. as it rarely ripens its seeds with us, it is generally propagated by parting its roots in autumn. these are also usually imported from holland, and may be had of the importers of bulbs at a reasonable rate. being liable to be destroyed by seasons unusually severe, it will be prudent to place a few roots of it in pots, either in the greenhouse or in a hot-bed frame during the winter. it bears forcing well. [ ] saxifraga sarmentosa. strawberry saxifrage. _class and order._ decandria digynia. _generic character._ _calyx_ -partitus. _cor._ -petala. _caps._ -rostris, -locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ saxifraga _sarmentosa_ foliis radicalibus subrotundis cordatis crenatis, sarmentis axillaribus radicantibus, corolla irregulari, racemo composito. _lin. syst. veg. ed. . p. ._ _suppl. p. ._ [illustration: no ] this species of saxifrage differing so widely from the others, both in its habit and fructification, as to create a doubt in the minds of some, whether it ought not to be considered as a distinct genus, is a native of china, and one of the many plants which have been introduced into our gardens since the time of miller. its round variegated leaves, and strawberry-like runners, the uncommon magnitude of the two lowermost pendant petals, joined to the very conspicuous glandular nectary in the centre of the flower, half surrounding the germen, render this species strikingly distinct. it is properly a greenhouse plant; in mild winters indeed it will bear the open air, especially if placed at the foot of a wall, or among rock-work; but, in such situations, it is frequently killed in severe seasons. it flowers in may and june, but does not produce its blossoms so freely as some others. no difficulty attends the propagation of it, for it increases so fast by its runners, as to be even troublesome. [ ] sempervivum monanthes. dwarf houseleek. _class and order._ dodecandria dodecagynia. _generic character._ _calyx_ -partitus. _petala_ . _capsulæ_ . polyspermæ. _specific character and synonyms._ sempervivum _monanthes_ foliis teretibus clavatis confertis, pedunculis nudis subunifloris, nectariis obcordatis. _aiton. hort. kew._ [illustration: no ] it appears from the _hortus kewensis_, the publication of which is daily expected, that the plant here figured was first brought to this country from the canary islands, by mr. francis masson, in the year . it is highly deserving the notice of the botanist, not only as being by far the least species of the genus, but on account of its nectaria; these, though not mentioned by linnÆus in his character of the genus, have been described by other authors, particularly jacquin and haller; and though not present in most, and but faintly visible in a few species of _sempervivum_, in this plant form a principal part of the fructification; they are usually seven in number, but vary from six to eight. in the specimens we have examined, and which perhaps have been rendered luxuriant by culture, the number of stamina has been from twelve to sixteen; of styles, from six to eight; of flowers on the same stalk, from one to eight. it flowers during most of the summer months, succeeds very well with the common treatment of a greenhouse plant in the summer, but does best in a dry stove in the winter. is readily increased by parting its roots. [ ] sisyrinchium irioides. iris-leav'd sisyrinchium. _class and order._ gynandria triandria. _generic character._ monogyna. _spatha_ diphylla. _petala_ plana. _capsula_ tri-locularis, infera. _specific character and synonyms._ sisyrinchium _iridioides_ foliis ensiformibus; petalis oblongo-obcordatis, venosis; germinibus pyriformibus, subhirsutis. sisyrinchium _bermudiana._ _lin. syst. vegetab. p. . var. . spec. pl. p. ._ bermudiana iridis folio, radice fibrosa. _dill. elth. . t. . f. ._ sisyrinchium _bermudiana_ foliis gladiolatis amplexicaulibus, pedunculis brevioribus. _miller's dict. ed. . to._ [illustration: no ] on comparing the present plant with the _bermudiana graminea flore minore coeruleo_ of dillenius, both of which i have growing, and now in pots before me, the difference appears so striking, that i am induced with him and miller to consider them as distinct species; especially as, on a close examination, there appear characters sufficient to justify me in the opinion, which characters are not altered by culture. it is a native of the bermudian islands, and flowers in the open border from may to the end of july; it is not uncommon to keep it in the greenhouse, for which, from its size &c. it is very well adapted; but it is not necessary to treat it tenderly, as it will bear a greater degree of cold than many plants usually considered as hardy. it may be propagated most readily by seeds, or by parting its roots in the autumn; should be planted on a border with an eastern aspect; soil the same as for bulbs. [ ] geranium radula. rasp-leav'd geranium. _class and order._ monadelphia decandria. _generic character._ monogyna. _stigmata_ . _fructus_ rostratus, -coccus. _specific character and synonyms._ geranium _revolutum_ pedunculis subbifloris, foliis multifidis linearibus scabris ad oras revolutis, caule arboreo. _jacq. ic. . collect. . p. ._ geranium _radula._ _cavanill. diss. . p. . t. . f. ._ [illustration: no ] this is one of the numerous tribe of _geraniums_ introduced from the cape since the time of miller: it takes the name of _radula_, which is the latin term for a rasp or file, from the rough rasp-like surface of the leaves. there are two varieties of it, a _major_ and a _minor_, which keep pretty constantly to their characters; and as this species is readily raised from seeds, it affords also many seminal varieties. as a botanist, desirous of seeing plants distinct in their characters, we could almost wish it were impossible to raise these _foreign geraniums_ from seeds; for, without pretending to any extraordinary discernment, we may venture to prophecy, that in a few years, from the multiplication of seminal varieties, springing from seeds casually, or perhaps purposely impregnated with the pollen of different sorts, such a crop will be produced as will baffle all our attempts to reduce to species, or even regular varieties. such as are partial to this tribe, will no doubt wish to have this species in their collection; the blossoms are pretty, and the foliage is singular, but it remains but a short time in flower. it is readily propagated by cuttings. [ ] lantana aculeata. prickly lantana. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _calyx_ -dentatus obsolete. _stigma_ uncinato-refractum. _drupa_ nucleo -loculari. _specific character and synonyms._ lantana _aculeata_ foliis oppositis, caule aculeato ramoso spicis hemisphæricis. _lin. syst. veg. ed. . p. ._ [illustration: no ] according to miller, this species grows naturally in _jamaica_, and most of the other islands in the _west-indies_, where it is called _wild sage_; the flowers, which are very brilliant, are succeeded by roundish berries, which, when ripe, turn black, having a pulpy covering over a single hard seed. it is readily propagated by cuttings. different plants vary greatly in the colour of their blossoms, and the prickliness of their stalks; the prickles are seldom found on the young shoots. this plant will bear to be placed abroad in the warmest summer months, the rest of the year it requires artificial heat. it is usually placed in the dry stove, to which, as it is seldom without flowers, it imparts great brilliancy. [ ] fuchsia coccinea. scarlet fuchsia. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _calyx_ -phyllus, coloratus, corollifer, maximus. _petala_ , parva, _bacca_ infera, -locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ fuchsia _coccinea_ foliis oppositis ovatis denticulatis; petalis obovatis, obtusis. _hort. kew._ thilco _feuillée it. . p. . t. ._ [illustration: no ] the present plant is a native of _chili_, and was introduced to the royal gardens at kew, in the year , by capt. firth; it takes the name of _fuchsia_ from _fuchs_ a german botanist of great celebrity, author of the _historia stirpium_ in _folio_, published in , containing five hundred and sixteen figures in wood; and which, though mere outlines, express the objects they are intended to represent, infinitely better than many laboured engravings of more modern times. every person who can boast a hot-house will be anxious to possess the _fuchsia_, as it is not only a plant of peculiar beauty, but produces its rich pendant blossoms through most of the summer; the petals in the centre of the flower are particularly deserving of notice; they somewhat resemble a small roll of the richest purple-coloured ribband. though this plant will not succeed well in the winter, nor be easily propagated unless in a stove, it will flower very well during the summer months, in a good greenhouse or hot-bed frame, and though at present from its novelty it bears a high price, yet as it is readily propagated, both by layers, cuttings, and seeds, it will soon be within the purchase of every lover of plants. mr. lee, of hammersmith, we understand first had this plant for sale. [ ] tropÆolum minus. small tropÆolum, or indian-cress. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus, calcaratus. _petala_ , inæqualia. _bacca_ tres, siccæ. _specific character and synonyms._ tropÆolum _minus_ foliis peltatis repandis, petalis acuminato-setaceis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ indian-cresses, or yellow larke's-heeles. _park. parad. p. ._ [illustration: no ] this species of _tropæolum_ (which like the _majus_ already figured in this work, is a native of _peru_) has long been an inhabitant of our gardens; it was the only species we had in the time of parkinson, by whom it is figured and described; it appears indeed to have been a great favourite with that intelligent author, for he says this plant "is of so great beauty and sweetnesse withall, that my garden of delight cannot bee unfurnished of it, and again the whole flower hath a fine small sent, very pleasing, which being placed in the middle of some carnations or gilloflowers (for they are in flower at the same time) make a delicate tussimusie, as they call it, or nosegay, both for sight and sent." as the _passiflora cærulea_, from its superior beauty and hardiness, has in a great degree supplanted the _incarnata_, so has the _tropæolum majus_ the _minus_; we have been informed indeed that it was entirely lost to our gardens till lately, when it was reintroduced by dr. j. e. smith, who by distributing it to his friends, and the nurserymen near london, has again rendered it tolerably plentiful. like the _majus_ it is an annual, though by artificial heat it may be kept in a pot through the winter, as usually is the variety of it with double flowers; but as it will grow readily in the open air, in warm sheltered situations, it should be raised on a hot-bed, like other tender annuals, if we wish to have it flower early in the summer, continue long in blossom, and produce perfect seeds. [ ] antirrhinum purpureum. purple toad-flax. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _calyx_ -phyllus. _corollæ_ basis deorsum prominens, nectarifera. _capsula_ -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ antirrhinum purpureum foliis quaternis linearibus, caule erecto spicato. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ linaria purpurea major odorata. _bauh. pin. ._ linaria altera purpurea. _dod. pempt. ._ [illustration: no ] though not so beautiful as many of the genus, this species is a common inhabitant of the flower-garden, in which it continues to blossom, during most of the summer. it is a native of italy, and delights in a dry soil and situation; it will even flourish on walls, and hence will serve very well to decorate the more elevated parts of rock-work. when once introduced it comes up spontaneously from seeds. [ ] lathyrus tingitanus. tangier pea. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _stylus_ planus, supra villosus, superne latior, _cal._ laciniæ superiores -breviores. _specific character and synonyms._ lathyrus _tingitanus_ pedunculis bifloris, cirrhis diphyllis, foliolis alternis lanceolatis glabris, stipulis lunatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. ._ lathyrus tingitanus, filiquis orobi, flore amplo ruberrimo. _moris, hist. . p. ._ [illustration: no ] the tangier pea, a native of morocco, cannot boast the agreeable scent, or variety of colours of the sweet pea; nor does it continue so long in flower; nevertheless there is a richness in the colour of its blossoms, which entitles it to a place in the gardens of the curious, in which it is usually sown in the spring, with other hardy annuals. it flowers in june and july. the best mode of propagating it, is to, sow the seeds on the borders in patches, where the plants are to remain; thinning them when they come up, so as to leave only two or three together. [ ] alyssum halimifolium. sweet alyssum. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliculosa. _generic character._ _filamenta_ quædam introrsum denticulo notata. _silicula_ emarginata. _specific character and synonyms._ alyssum _halimifolium_ caulibus suffruticosis, diffusis, foliis lineari-lanceolatis integerrimis, villosiusculis, staminibus simplicibus, siliculis subrotundis integris. _hort. kew. v. . p. ._ alyssum halimifolium caulibus procumbentibus, perennantibus, foliis lanceolato-linearibus, acutis, integerrimis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. ._ thlaspi halimi folio sempervirens. _herm. lugd. . t. ._ [illustration: no ] grows spontaneously in dry situations, in the southernmost parts of europe, where it is shrubby; and in similar situations it is so in some degree with us; but on our flower-borders, where it is usually sown, it grows so luxuriantly, that the stalks becoming juicy and tender, are generally destroyed by our frosts; hence it is an annual from peculiarity of circumstance; as such, it is very generally cultivated; the flowers exhibit a pretty, innocent appearance, and strongly diffuse an agreeable honey-like smell. they continue to blow through most of the summer months. it is a very proper plant for a wall or piece of rock-work; care must be taken, however, not to sow too much of the seed in one pot, as it spreads wide, but it may easily be reduced at any period of its growth, as it does not creep at the root. the specific description in the _hortus kewensis_ above referred to, admirably characterizes the plant, but surely at the expence of its generic character. [ ] campanula speculum. venus's looking-glass. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ campanulata, fundo clauso valvis staminiferis. _stigma_ trifidum. _capsula_ infera, poris lateralibus dehiscens. _specific character and synonyms._ campanula speculum caule ramosissimo, diffuso; foliis oblongis subcrenatis, floribus solitariis, capsulis prismaticis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. ._ onobrychis arvensis f. campanula arvensis erecta. _bauh. pin. ._ [illustration: no ] grows wild among the corn in the south of europe, is an annual, and, like the _sweet alyssum_, generally cultivated in our gardens, and most deservedly so indeed, for when a large assemblage of its blossoms are expanded by the rays of the sun, their brilliancy is such as almost to dazzle the eyes of the beholder. those annuals which bear our winter's frosts without injury, are advantageously sown in the autumn; for by that means they flower more early, and their seeds ripen with more certainty; the present plant is one of those: it usually sows itself, and is therefore raised without any trouble. it begins to flower in may and june, and continues to enliven the garden till august or september. [ ] pelargonium acetosum. sorrel crane's-bill. _class and order._ monadelphia heptandria. _generic character._ _calyx_ -partitus: lacinia suprema definente in tubulum capillarem, nectariferum, secus pedunculum decurrentem. _cor._ -petala, irregularis. _filam._ . in æqualia: quorum (raro ) castrata. _fructus_, -coccus, rostratus: rostra spiralia, introrsum barbata. _l'herit. geran._ _specific character and synonyms._ pelargonium _acetosum_ umbellis paucifloris, foliis obovatis crenatis glabris carnosis, petalis linearibus. _l'herit. monogr de geran. n. ._ geranium _acetosum_ calycibus monophyllis, foliis glabris obovatis carnosis crenatis, caule fruticoso laxo. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. . sp. pl. p. ._ geranium africanum frutescens, folio crasso et glauco acetosæ sapore. _comm. præl. . t. ._ [illustration: no ] mons. l'heritier, the celebrated french botanist, who in the number, elegance, and accuracy of his engravings, appears ambitious of excelling all his contemporaries, in a work now executing on the family of _geranium_, has thought it necessary to divide that numerous genus into three, viz. _erodium_, _pelargonium_, and _geranium_. the _erodium_ includes those which linnÆus (who noticing the great difference in their appearance, had made three divisions of them) describes with five fertile stamina, and calls myrrhina; the _pelargonium_ those with seven fertile stamina, his _africana_; the _geranium_, those with ten fertile stamina, his _batrachia_. they are continued under the class _monadelphia_, in which they now form three different orders, according to the number of their stamina, viz. _pentandria_, _heptandria_, and _decandria_. if the principles of the linnæan system had been strictly adhered to, they should perhaps have been separated into different classes; for though the _pelargonium_ is monadelphous, the _geranium_ is not so; in consequence of this alteration, the _geranium peltatum_ and _radula_, figured in a former part of this work, must now be called _pelargonium peltatum_, and _radula_, and the _geranium reichardi_ be an _erodium_. the leaves of this plant have somewhat the taste of sorrel, whence its name, it flowers during most of the summer, and is readily propagated by cuttings. miller mentions a variety of it with scarlet flowers. it is a native of the cape, and known to have been cultivated in chelsea garden, in the year . [ ] lysimachia bulbifera. bulb-bearing loosestrife. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ rotata. _capsula_ globosa, mucronata, -valvis. _specific character and synonyms._ lysimachia _stricta_ racemis terminalibus, petalis lanceolatis patulis, foliis lanceolatis sessilibus. _hort. kew. p. ._ [illustration: no ] in the spring of the year , i received roots of this plant from mr. robert squibb, then at new-york, which produced flowers the ensuing summer, since that time, i have had frequent opportunities of observing a very peculiar circumstance in its oeconomy; after flowering, instead of producing seeds, it throws out _gemmæ vivaces_, or _bulbs_ of an unusual form, from the alæ of the leaves, which falling off in the month of october, when the plant decays, produce young plants the ensuing spring. as it is distinguished from all the known species of _lysimachia_ by this circumstance, we have named it _bulbifera_ instead of _stricta_, under which it appears in the _hortus kewensis_. some botanists, whose abilities we revere, are of opinion that the trivial names of plants, which are or should be a kind of abridgment of the specific character, ought very rarely or never to be changed: we are not for altering them capriciously on every trivial occasion, but in such a case as the present, where the science is manifestly advanced by the alteration, it would surely have been criminal to have preferred a name, barely expressive, to one which immediately identifies the plant. the _lysimachia bulbifera_ is a hardy perennial, grows spontaneously in boggy or swampy ground, and hence requires a moist soil. it flowers in august. [ ] tradescantia virginica. virginian tradescantia, or spiderwort. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _calyx_ triphyllus. _petala_ . _filamenta_ villis articulatis. _capsula_ -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ tradescantia _virginica_ erecta lævis, floribus congestis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. . sp. pl. ._ allium five moly virginianum. _bauh. pin. ._ phalangium ephemerum virginianum joannis tradescant. the soon-fading spiderwort of virginia, or tradescant his spiderwort. _park. parad. . . t. . f. ._ [illustration: no ] under the name of _spiderwort_, the old botanists arranged many plants of very different genera: the name is said to have arisen from the supposed efficacy of some of these plants, in curing the bite of a kind of spider, called _phalangium_; not the _phalangium_ of linnÆus, which is known to be perfectly harmless: under this name, parkinson minutely describes it; he mentions also, how he first obtained it. "this spiderwort," says our venerable author, "is of late knowledge, and for it the christian world is indebted unto that painful, industrious searcher, john tradescant, who first received it of a friend that brought it out of virginia, and hath imparted hereof, as of many other things, both to me and others." tournefort afterwards gave it the name of _ephemerum_, expressive of the short duration of its flowers, which linnÆus changed to _tradescantia_. though a native of virginia, it bears the severity of our climate uninjured, and being a beautiful, as well as hardy perennial, is found in almost every garden. though each blossom lasts but a day, it has such a profusion in store, that it is seldom found without flowers through the whole of the summer. there are two varieties of it, the one with white the other with pale purple flowers. the most usual way of propagating it is by parting its roots in autumn to obtain varieties, we must sow its seeds. [ ] iberis umbellata. purple candy-tuft. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliculosa. _generic character._ _corolla_ irregularis: _petalis_ exterioribus majoribus: _silicula_ polysperma, emarginata. _specific character and synonyms._ iberis _umbellata_ herbacea, foliis lanceolatis, acuminatis, inferioribus serratis; superioribus integerrimis. _linn. syst. veg. ed. ._ _murr. p. . sp. pl. p. ._ thlaspi umbellatum creticum, iberidis folio. _bauh. pin. ._ draba s. arabis s. thlaspi candiæ. _dod. pempt. ._ thlaspi creticum umbellatum flore albo et purpureo. candy-tufts, white and purple. _park. parad. p. ._ [illustration: no ] the candy-tuft is one of those annuals which contribute generally to enliven the borders of the flower-garden: its usual colour is a pale purple, there is also a white variety of it, and another with deep but very bright purple flowers, the most desirable of the three, but where a garden is large enough to admit of it, all the varieties may be sown. for want of due discrimination, as miller has before observed, nurserymen are apt to collect and mix with this species the seeds of another, viz. the _amara_, and which persons not much skilled in plants consider as the white variety; but a slight attention will discover it to be a very different plant, having smaller and longer heads, differing also in the shape of its leaves and seed vessels, too trifling a plant indeed to appear in the flower-garden. purple candy-tuft is a native of the south of europe, and flowers in june and july: it should be sown in the spring, on the borders of the flower-garden in patches; when the plants come up, a few only should be left, as they will thereby become stronger, produce more flowers, and be of longer duration. [ ] cassia chamÆcrista. dwarf cassia. _class and order._ decandria monogynia. _generic character._ _calyx_ -phyllus. _petala_ . _antheræ_ superne steriles; infimæ rostratæ. _legumen._ _specific character and synonyms._ cassia _chamæcrista_ foliis multijugis, glandula petiolari pedicellata, stipulis ensiformibus. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _hort. kew. p. ._ chamÆcrista pavonis major. _comm. hort. . p. . t. ._ [illustration: no ] a native of the west-indies, and of virginia according to linnÆus; not common in our gardens, though cultivated as long ago as , by the duchess of beaufort; (_vid. hort. kew._) unnoticed by miller. this species, superior in beauty to many of the genus, is an annual, and consequently raised only from seeds, these must be sown in the spring, on a hot-bed, and when large enough to transplant, placed separately in pots of light loamy earth, then replunged into a moderate hot-bed to bring them forward, and in the month of june removed into a warm border, where, if the season prove favourable, they will flower very well towards august; but, as such seldom ripen their seeds, it will be proper to keep a few plants in the stove or greenhouse for that purpose, otherwise the species may be lost. [ ] anthyllis tetraphylla. four-leav'd ladies-finger. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _calyx_ ventricosus. _legumen_ subrotundum, tectum. _specific character and synonyms._ anthyllis _tetraphylla_ herbacea, foliis quaterno-pinnatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _hort. kew. vol. . p. ._ lotus pentaphyllos vesicaria. _bauh. pin. ._ trifolium halicacabum. _cam. hort. . t. ._ [illustration: no ] an annual; the spontaneous growth of spain, italy, and sicily, flowers in the open border in july, and ripens its seeds, in september. long since cultivated in our gardens, but more as a rare, or curious, than a beautiful plant. its seeds are to be sown in april, on a bed of light earth, where they are to remain; no other care is necessary than thinning them, and keeping them clear of weeds. index. in which the latin names of the plants contained in the _third volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ alyssum halimifolium. anthyllis tetraphylla. antirrhinum triste. " purpureum. campanula speculum. cassia chamæcrista. centaurea montana. colutea arborescens. epilobium angustissimum. fuchsia coccinea. geranium radula. gladiolus communis. gorteria rigens. hibiscus syriacus. hyoscyamus aureus. iberis umbellata. iris susiana. lachenalia tricolor. lantana aculeata. lathyrus tingitanus. lotus jacobæus. lysimachia bulbifera. monsonia speciosa. narcissus bulbocodium. " odorus. pelargonium acetosum. potentilla grandiflora. saxifraga sarmentosa. sempervivum monanthes. sisyrinchium iridioides. spartium junceum. spigelia marilandica. tradescantia virginica. tropæolum minus. tussilago alpina. viola pedata. index. in which the english names of the plants contained in the _third volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ alyssum sweet. blue-bottle greater. broom spanish. candy-tuft purple. cassia dwarf. coltsfoot alpine. colutea, or bladder-senna tree. corn-flag common. crane's-bill sorrel. fuchsia scarlet. geranium rasp-leav'd. gorteria rigid-leav'd. henbane golden-flower'd. hibiscus syrian. houseleek dwarf. iris chalcedonian. jonquil great. lachenalia three-colour'd. ladies finger four-leav'd. lantana prickly. looking-glass venus's. loosestrife bulb-bearing. lotus black-flower'd. monsonica large-flower'd. narcissus hoop-petticoat. pea tangier. potentilla large-flower'd, saxifrage strawberry. sisyrinchium iris-leav'd. spigelia, or worm-grass maryland. toad-flax black-flower'd. " purple. tradescantia virginian. tropæolum, or indian cress, small. violet cut-leav'd. willow-herb narrowest-leav'd. the plants of michigan simple keys for the identification of the native seed plants of the state by henry allan gleason, ph. d. associate professor of botany and director of the botanical gardens and arboretum in the university of michigan copyright, george wahr published by george wahr ann arbor printed by the ann arbor press preface this book is not intended for the expert botanist. he should consult one of the regular manuals which give full descriptions of each species of plant. neither is it intended for the merely curious. only those who have sufficient interest in a plant to observe it can find its name by this book. furthermore, it is not a textbook. it does not attempt to convey botanical information, but offers merely an opportunity to learn the names of plants. its mission is fully accomplished if, through its use, students, vacationists, and plant-lovers in general are able to recognize by name the plants about them. how to use the book one recognizes a plant by the presence of structural features peculiar to itself, and not found on any other kind of plant. in such a book as this, these characters are given one or a few at a time, and contrasted with the characters which other sorts of plants possess. such a presentation is called a key, and by its proper use the name may be learned of any plant considered in it. this process is called identification. keys are constructed in several different ways, although the principle of all is the same. in this book, the user will begin with lines a and b on the page headed key to the groups. each of these lines includes some descriptive matter, but only one of them can apply to the plant being identified. for example, if the plant to be identified is an oak, line a will apply perfectly, and the same line will also apply to any other kind of tree or to any shrub. but if the plant is a violet, a buttercup, or any other herb, line b agrees and line a will not apply. at the end of each line is a reference to be consulted next. if the plant is a tree or shrub, one turns accordingly to group , on page ix, and begins again at the first number given. if the plant is an herb, he follows the reference to line , just below, and again compares the plants with lines a and b. under every number at least two lines of description are given, designated a and b, and under a few numbers additional lines appear, designated c, d, etc. in every case, the user of the key will select from the different lines under the same number that particular line which agrees with the structure of the plant, and follow up the reference given at the end of that line. eventually one finds at the end of a line, instead of a number, the name of a family of plants, to which this particular plant belongs, and then turns over to the page where this family is treated. under each family is a similar key, to be followed in exactly the same way, until finally one finds instead of a number the common name and the scientific name of the plant in hand. the process of identification is now completed, and the student has found the name of the plant. in some cases, a reference is made in the key to a particular portion of the family key. one then turns directly to this particular number in the family key, and continues his identification in the usual way. as a definite example of the use of the key, suppose that one has in hand a branch of the white oak, and that he does not know its name. to determine its name, he will trace it through the following steps in the key. under the key to the groups, it agrees with line a, which refers to group , woody plants. under this group it agrees in structure with line a, which refers to ; with line b, referring to ; with line b, referring to ; with b, referring to ; with b, referring to ; with c, referring to ; with b, referring to ; with b, referring to ; with b, referring to number b in the beech family. turning to the proper number in this family, the plant is referred to line ; it agrees with line c, referring to ; with a, referring to ; and with b, which gives the name of the plant. white oak, _quercus alba_. as a second example, suppose one has a common yellow-flowered plant blooming on lawns and roadsides in spring. under the key to the groups, it agrees with b, referring to ; with b, referring to ; and its net-veined leaves place it in b, referring to group , dicotyledones. under this group, its basal leaves place it in b, referring to ; its simple leaves in b, referring to ; the absence of stem-leaves places it in b, referring to ; its solitary flowers on each flower-stalk place it in b, referring to ; its yellow flowers agree with a, referring to ; and its milky juice refers the plant to number , in the composite family. in the key to this family, its lobed leaves agree with b, referring on to ; its large flowers with b, giving one the common name dandelion, and referring on to to determine which kind of dandelion the plant may be. at some point in the key there will be found for each plant a statement in parentheses. this is general information concerning the height of the plant, the color of the flowers, or the season of bloom. it must be remembered that the height of plants is subject to great variation; that most plants have white-flowered varieties; and that the month of bloom depends largely on the latitude and the climate. therefore this general information should not be used as means of distinguishing species. =the names of plants.= each plant bears a scientific name. this is composed of two parts and is usually of latin or greek derivation. in some cases these names are taken directly from the latin language, as _quercus_, the oak, or _acer_, the maple. in other cases the name may indicate some characteristic feature of the plant, as _polygonum_, many joints, for the knotweed, or _ammophila_, sand-loving, for the beach grass. an english name is also given for almost every kind of plant. in a few cases there is no accepted english name, and none has been given. in many cases the same english name applies to several kinds of plants and has been repeated for each. when this is so, the common name is given in the key in parentheses before the scientific name is reached. thus, if one is satisfied to know merely that his plant is a dandelion, he learns it in line b of the key to the composite family, but to discover which kind of a dandelion he has, he must follow through the key and use the scientific name. there is in this book, therefore, no necessity of learning or using scientific names. the less critical may be satisfied with an english name, and others may use the scientific names as they see fit. =possible errors.= in using this book, care must be taken to compare all the lines under each number with the plant, and to use judgment in selecting the right one. while faulty observation or poor judgment may lead to error, a mistake is usually due to carelessness in not following correctly the reference at the end of the line chosen. if one reaches a number in which none of the lines of description agrees with the plant, it is very probable that he has made a mistake at an earlier stage of the identification, and he should then begin anew. it has been the intention of the author to make the key as nearly as possible proof against errors of judgment. for example, the indian turnip may be sought under either group or group ; the matrimony vine may be identified either as a shrub or as an herb, and numerous other similar examples may be discovered. =botanical information needed.= it is presumed that those using the book will be familiar with the parts of the flower and with the commoner descriptive terms applied to leaves. unusual terms have been avoided as far as possible, but those which do occur, as well as the simpler ones, are explained in the glossary. in general, only those characters have been used in the keys which can be observed without a magnifying glass and without dissection of the flower. in several groups of plants, reference is made to the fuller descriptions to be found in the manuals. the standard manuals for michigan are gray's new manual of botany, th edition (american book company, $ . ), and britton and brown, illustrated flora of the northern states and canada (chas. scribner's sons, $ . ). these books may be consulted in most school or public libraries. all dimensions are expressed in the metric system. for convenience, it may be stated that millimeters (mm.) are about equal to one inch; centimeter (cm.) to two-fifths of an inch; decimeter (dm.) to inches; and meter (m.) is a little more than feet. key to groups a. trees, shrubs, or woody climbers, with stems which last from year to year group , =woody plants=, p. ix. b. herbaceous plants, with stems which live above ground only a single season -- . a. plants with unusual habits or structures, including leafless, colorless, submerged, floating, parasitic, or hollow-leaved plants group , =unusual plants=, p. xxiii. b. ordinary terrestrial or swamp plants, without unusual structural peculiarities -- . a. leaves parallel-veined (or net-veined in a few species); parts of the flower usually in threes or sixes, never in fives; wood-fibers scattered through the stem; seed with one cotyledon. all plants with definitely parallel-veined leaves may be identified through this division, unless the parts of the flower are distinctly in fives. group , =monocotyledones=, p. xxvii. b. leaves net-veined (or parallel-veined in a few species); parts of the flower usually in fours or fives; wood-fibers arranged in a circle in the stem; seeds with two cotyledons. all plants with definitely net-veined leaves may be identified through this division. group , =dicotyledones=, p. xxx. note:--in order to avoid possible chances of error, many plants have been treated under both of the above groups. the following hints may also be useful in distinguishing groups and : all herbaceous plants with deeply lobed, dissected or compound leaves may be sought under the dicotyledones. all herbaceous plants with five stamens in each flower, or with seven or more stamens and one ovary in each flower, may be sought under dicotyledones. group , woody plants a. trees, with erect stem and central trunk, attaining a height of m. ( ft.) or more -- . b. shrubs or woody vines, without true tree habit, or attaining heights of less than m. ( ft.) -- . a. key for use in earliest spring, for trees which have flowers but no leaves -- . b. key for use with trees bearing leaves -- . a. flowers in catkins, without brightly colored or petal-like parts -- . b. flowers not in catkins, either with or without petals -- . a. leaf-scars and lateral buds -ranked, i. e., in two longitudinal rows with the third leaf above the first -- . b. leaf-scars and buds in three or more longitudinal rows -- . a. from to bud-scales visible on each leaf-bud b, in =fagaceae=, p. . b. from to bud-scales visible on each leaf-bud -- . c. from to bud-scales visible on each leaf-bud; buds long and slender; bark of the trunk smooth -- . a. bundle-scars or more b, in =urticaceae=, p. . b. bundle-scars -- . a. twigs bearing numerous dwarf branches thickly covered with crowded leaf-scars (birch) =betulaceae=, p. . b. twigs without dwarf branches (ironwood) a, in =betulaceae=, p. . a. trunk cylindrical or nearly so a, in =fagaceae=, p. . b. trunk prominently fluted with longitudinal ridges b, in =betulaceae=, p. . a. bundle-scars in each leaf-scar -- . b. bundle scars more than in each leaf-scar -- . a. pith divided into separate cavities by transverse partitions a, in =juglandaceae=, p. . b. pith not partitioned -- . a. buds small, with only one external bud-scale b, in =salicaceae=, p. . b. buds with more than one outer bud-scale a, in =salicaceae=, p. . a. buds clustered near the tips of the twigs b, in =fagaceae=, p. . b. buds not clustered at the tips of the twigs -- . a. buds with about visible bud-scales b, in =fagaceae=, p. . b. terminal bud large, with or more visible bud-scales b, in =juglandaceae=, p. . a. flowers conspicuous, brightly colored, at least mm. wide. with both calyx and corolla -- . b. flowers inconspicuous, seldom brightly colored, and then less than mm. wide -- . a. flowers irregular, pink or red a, in =leguminosae=, p. . b. flowers regular, white -- . a. ovary one, superior, in the center of the flower b, in =rosaceae=, p. . b. ovary inferior, appearing as a swelling below the calyx at the summit of the pedicel b, in =rosaceae=, p. . a. leaf-scars and buds opposite -- . b. leaf-scars and buds alternate -- . a. bundle-scar one in each leaf-scar b, in =oleacae=, p. . b. bundle-scars or more in each leaf-scar =aceraceae=, p. . a. bundle-scar in each leaf-scar b, in =lauraceae=, p. . b. bundle-scars in each leaf-scar -- . c. bundle-scars in each leaf-scar a, in =leguminosae=, p. . a. branches thorny a, in =leguminosae=, p. . b. branches not thorny a, in =urticaceae=, p. . -- -- a. leaves narrow, needle-like or scale-like; trees mostly evergreen =pinaceae=, p. . b. leaves broader, flat, never needle-like or scale-like, falling in winter -- . a. leaves compound -- . b. leaves simple -- . a. leaves opposite -- . b. leaves alternate -- . a. leaves palmately compound with - leaflets =sapindaceae=, p. . b. leaves pinnately compound -- . a. leaflets - a, in =aceraceae=, p. . b. leaflets - b, in =oleaceae=, p. . a. stem or branches thorny a, in =leguminosae=, p. . b. stem or branches not thorny -- . a. leaflets entire a, in =leguminosae=, p. . b. leaflets entire except for a few large glandular teeth near their base =simarubaceae=, p. . c. leaflets serrate their entire length -- . a. upper leaflets less than mm. wide b, in =rosaceae=, p. . b. upper leaflets more than mm. wide =juglandaceae=, p. . a. leaves opposite -- . b. leaves alternate -- . a. leaves entire =cornaceae=, p. . b. leaves toothed or lobed, not entire -- . a. leaves lobed b, in =aceraceae=, p. . b. leaves merely toothed b, in =caprifoliaceae=, p. . a. leaves entire -- . b. leaves toothed -- . c. leaves lobed -- . a. leaves heart-shape a, in =leguminosae=, p. . b. leaves not heart-shape -- . a. twigs and foliage spicy-aromatic b, in =lauraceae=, p. . b. twigs and foliage not aromatic -- . a. pith -angled; fruit an acorn a, in =fagaceae=, p. . b. pith not -angled; fruit a berry a, in =cornaceae=, p. . a. leaves oblique at base, i. e., one side of the leaf larger than the other -- . b. leaves symmetrical, not oblique at base -- . a. leaves heart-shape, about as broad as long =tiliaceae=, p. . b. leaves oval or ovate, much longer than wide a, in =urticaceae=, p. . a. stems thorny b, in =rosaceae=, p. . b. stems not thorny -- . a. leaves finely toothed, with -many teeth per centimeter of margin -- . b. leaves coarsely toothed, with - teeth per centimeter of margin -- . a. petioles laterally compressed a, in =salicaceae=, p. . b. petioles not compressed -- . a. leaves, or many of them, crowded on short spur-like branches -- . b. leaves scattered, not on short spur-like branches -- . a. bark of the trunks separating in thin papery or leathery sheets =betulaceae=, p. . b. bark of the trunk not papery or leathery b, in =rosaceae=, p. . a. lateral leaf-veins straight and parallel, and terminating in the teeth =betulaceae=, p. . b. lateral veins more or less curved, and not ending in the teeth -- . a. leaves palmately veined, about as broad as long; juice somewhat milky b, in =urticaceae=, p. . b. leaves pinnately veined; juice not milky -- . a. willows, with slender leaves and brittle twigs a, in =salicaceae=, p. . b. trees with lanceolate, ovate, or oblong leaves and tough twigs , in =rosaceae=, p. . c. cottonwoods, with broad, heart-shape or rounded leaves a, in =salicaceae=, p. . a. petioles laterally compressed a, in =salicaceae=, p. . b. petioles not compressed; lateral veins straight and parallel, running directly to the teeth =fagaceae=, p. . a. stem thorny b, in =rosaceae=, p. . b. stem not thorny -- . a. leaves palmately veined -- . b. leaves pinnately veined -- . a. lobes of the leaf entire b, in =lauraceae=, p. . b. lobes of the leaf serrate -- . a. juice somewhat milky; lateral buds visible b, in =urticaceae=, p. . b. juice not milky; lateral buds covered by the base of the petiole =platanaceae=, p. . a. leaves with large entire lobes; stem marked with a ring at each node =magnoliaceae=, p. . b. leaves with many lobes; stem not ringed b, in =fagaceae=, p. . -- -- a. for specimens bearing leaves only -- . b. for specimens bearing flowers only -- . c. for specimens with both leaves and flowers -- . a. leaves narrow, needle-like or scale-like, mostly evergreen -- . b. leaves broader, flat or rolled, but not needle-like or scale-like -- . a. foliage densely gray-pubescent; low bushy shrubs with yellow flowers a, in =cistaceae=, p. . b. foliage green -- . a. leaves opposite or whorled =pinaceae=, p. . b. leaves scattered on the stem =taxaceae=, p. . a. twining or climbing vines -- . b. not climbing or twining -- . a. thorny vines -- . b. not thorny -- . a. climbing by tendrils at the base of the leaves b, in =liliaceae=, p. . b. tendrils none -- . a. leaves simple a, in =solanaceae=, p. . b. leaves compound a, in =rosaceae=, p. . a. leaves compound -- . b. leaves simple -- . a. leaves with leaflets a, in =vitaceae=, p. . b. leaves with leaflets -- . a. plant climbing by tendril-like leaf-stalks a, in =ranunculaceae=, p. . b. plant climbing by hold-fast roots b, in =anacardiaceae=, p. . a. leaves opposite a, in =caprifoliaceae=, p. . b. leaves alternate -- . a. plants climbing by tendrils b, in =vitaceae=, p. . b. twining plants -- . a. leaves ovate-oblong, attached by the base a, in =celastraceae=, p. . b. leaves almost round, peltate near the edge =menispermaceae= p. . a. leaves opposite -- . b. leaves alternate -- . a. leaves compound -- . b. leaves simple -- . a. leaflets =staphyleaceae=, p. . b. leaflets or more a, in =caprifoliaceae=, p. . a. leaves palmately veined, or at least with a pair of prominent lateral veins from the base -- . b. leaves pinnately veined -- . a. leaves not lobed b, in =rhamnaceae=, p. . b. leaves more or less lobed -- . a. leaves with stipules a, in =caprifoliaceae=, p. . b. leaves without stipules a, in =aceraceae=, p. . a. leaves serrate -- . b. leaves entire -- . a. stem thorny b, in =rhamnaceae=, p. . b. stem not thorny -- . a. bark of the ripe twigs green b, in =celastraceae=, p. . b. bark of the ripe twigs brown, reddish, or gray -- . a. twigs with a prominent hairy ridge extending downward from the middle of the line connecting the petiole bases a, in =caprifoliaceae=, p. . b. twigs without any pubescent ridge -- . a. erect shrubs; leaves obviously toothed b, in =caprifoliaceae=, p. . b. spreading shrubs; most of the leaves entire, and only here and there some with serrate margins b, in =caprifoliaceae=, p. . a. leaves silvery beneath with a dense coating of scales =elaeagnaceae=, p. . b. leaves green beneath, or somewhat hairy and light-colored -- . a. aquatic plant with lanceolate leaves, and stems bending over and into the water a, in =lythraceae=, p. . b. not truly aquatic, although frequently in wet places -- . a. leaves evergreen, as shown by their presence on the older stems a, in =ericaceae=, p. . b. leaves deciduous each year -- . a. leaves dotted with translucent dots, easily seen when the leaf is held to the light a, in =hypericaceae=, p. . b. leaves not dotted with translucent dots -- . a. lateral veins curved forward and running almost parallel to the leaf-margin =cornaceae=, p. . b. lateral veins spreading, and not paralleling the leaf-margin -- . a. leaves with stipules a, a, in =rubiaceae=, p. . b. leaves with a prominent ridge connecting them at the base -- . c. leaves with neither stipules nor connecting ridges a, in =oleaceae=, p. . a. bundle-scar one in each leaf-scar b, in =caprifoliaceae=, p. . b. bundle-scars three in each leaf-scar (honeysuckle) , in =caprifoliaceae=, p. . a. leaves compound -- . b. leaves simple -- . a. stems prickly or thorny -- . b. stems without prickles or thorns -- . a. leaves twice-pinnate a, a, in =araliaceae=, p. . b. leaves evenly pinnate b, in =leguminosae=, p. . c. leaves odd-pinnate or trifoliate -- . a. leaflets entire a, a, in =rutaceae=, p. . b. leaflets serrate b, b, in =rosaceae=, p. . a. leaflets -- . b. leaflets to many -- . a. tall shrubs; leaflets entire or minutely toothed b, in =rutaceae=, p. . b. shrubs m. high or less; leaves conspicuously toothed -- . a. stipules present b, in =rosaceae=, p. . b. stipules none b, in =anacardiaceae=, p. . a. leaflets - mm. long -- . b. leaflets mm. long, or more -- . a. leaflets mostly , rarely or a, in =rosaceae=, p. . b. leaflets mostly - , mm. long or more a, in =leguminosae=, p. . c. leaflets mostly - , less than mm. long a, in =leguminosae=, p. . a. leaflets entire a, in =anacardiaceae=, p. . b. leaflets entire, except for - large glandular teeth near their base =simarubaceae=, p. . c. leaflets toothed throughout -- . a. juice milky a, in =anacardiaceae=, p. . b. juice not milky a, in =rosaceae=, p. . a. leaves minute, scale-like, appressed a, in =cistaceae=, p. . b. leaves - mm. long, spreading, completely rolled into a tube =empetraceae=, p. . c. leaves normal in shape, green in color -- . a. leaves evergreen, as shown by their presence on the older parts of the stem b, in =ericaceae=, p. . b. leaves deciduous -- . a. stems or branches thorny -- . b. stems or branches without thorns or thorny leaves -- . a. leaves conspicuously palmately veined -- . b. leaves pinnately veined, or sometimes with smaller lateral veins arising from the end of the petiole -- . a. leaves cm. wide or less a, in =saxifragaceae=, p. . b. leaves cm. wide or more a, in =araliaceae=, p. . a. leaves entire a, in =solanaceae=, p. . b. leaves toothed or somewhat lobed -- . a. leaves with bristly margins; some of the thorns three-pointed a, in =berberidaceae=, p. . b. leaves not bristly on the margin; thorns not branched -- . a. only lateral thorns present b, in =rosaceae=, p. . b. only terminal thorns present a, in =rhamnaceae=, p. . a. leaves palmately veined, or with one or more pairs of lateral veins from the base of the leaf -- . b. leaves pinnately veined -- . a. leaves entire -- . b. leaves toothed -- . c. leaves palmately lobed -- . a. foliage fragrant when crushed; leaves ovate b, in =lauraceae=, p. . b. foliage not aromatic; leaves heart-shape b, in =leguminosae=, p. . a. lateral veins straight and parallel, running to the teeth of the leaf a, in =betulaceae=, p. . b. lateral veins curved or branched, and not running straight to the teeth -- . a. tall shrubs with somewhat milky juice and broadly ovate leaves b, in =urticaceae=, p. . b. low shrubs less than m. high with watery juice b, in =rhamnaceae=, p. . a. leaves with or entire lobes, spicy-fragrant when crushed b, in =lauraceae=, p. . b. leaves with milky juice b, in =urticaceae=, p. . c. leaves neither spicy-fragrant nor with milky juice -- . a. stem covered with brown bristles , in =rosaceae=, p. . b. stem not bristly -- . a. sides of the petiole strongly decurrent on the stem; bundle-scars crowded or nearly in contact in the leaf-scars b, in =rosaceae=, p. . b. sides of petiole little decurrent or not at all; bundle-scars distinctly separate b, in =saxifragaceae=, p. . a. leaves aromatically fragrant when crushed -- . b. leaves not aromatically fragrant when crushed -- . a. leaves broadly obovate, entire; a common woodland shrub a, in =lauraceae=, p. . b. leaves linear-lanceolate or oblanceolate, conspicuously toothed or entire =myricaceae=, p. . a. leaves entire -- . b. leaves toothed or lobed -- . a. base of the petiole covering the axillary buds; twigs marked with rings =thymelaeaceae=, p. . b. base of petiole not covering the bud, and twigs not marked with rings -- . a. pith with prominent partitions; tall shrubs with fetid bark; leaves obovate, cm. long or larger =anonaceae=, p. . b. pith not partitioned; leaves smaller -- . a. leaves waxy or resinous underneath b, in =ericaceae=, p. . b. leaves not waxy or resinous -- . a. lateral veins curved forward and almost parallel to the margin of the leaf a, in =cornaceae=, p. . b. lateral veins spreading -- . a. leaves lanceolate or linear, much longer than wide -- . b. leaves ovate or elliptical -- . a. stem weak, spreading or trailing a, in =solanaceae=, p. . b. stems, or some of them, erect b, in =leguminosae=, p. . a. leaves with purple petioles, which are at least one-fourth as long as the leaf-blade a, in =aquifoliaceae=, p. . b. leaves with short petioles or sessile c, in =ericaceae=, p. . a. lateral veins straight and parallel, mostly ending in the teeth of the leaf -- . b. lateral veins not straight and parallel -- . a. leaves -ranked, i. e., in two longitudinal rows, with the third leaf directly above the first -- . b. leaves not -ranked -- . a. leaves unsymmetrical, oblique at the base, i. e., with one side of the leaf larger than the other =hamamelidaceae=, p. . b. leaves symmetrical or nearly so at the base -- . a. lateral leaf-veins ending in the leaf-teeth -- . b. lateral veins not ending in the teeth b, in =rosaceae=, p. . a. bark smooth and fluted on the large stems b, in =betulaceae=, p. . b. bark rough or warty or glandular -- . a. leaves cm. long or less a, in =betulaceae=, p. . b. leaves cm. long or more b, in =betulaceae=, p. . a. pith -angled a, in =betulaceae=, p. . b. pith -angled b, in =fagaceae=, p. . c. pith cylindrical -- . a. leaves finely serrate b, in =rosaceae=, p. . b. leaves coarsely or doubly serrate a, in =rosaceae=, p. . a. leaves coarsely or doubly serrate -- . b. leaves simply serrate -- . a. leaves -ranked, i. e., in two longitudinal rows, with the third leaf directly over the first b, in =betulaceae=, p. . b. leaves not -ranked a, in =rosaceae=, p. . a. leaves with glands on the petiole or at the base of the leaf-blade -- . b. leaves with small dark glands on the upper side of the mid-vein a, in =rosaceae=, p. . c. leaves without glands -- . a. willows; with usually slender leaves, frequently conspicuous broad stipules, and lateral buds protected by a single external bud-scale , in =salicaceae=, p. . b. plums and cherries; with leaves lanceolate or broader, and stipules minute and falling early in the season; lateral buds with more than one bud-scale , in =rosaceae=, p. . a. with stipules or with stipular scars indicating where stipules have been detached -- . b. without stipules or stipular scars -- . a. with three bundle-scars in each leaf-scar -- . b. with one bundle-scar in each leaf-scar -- . a. willows; usually with slender leaves and twigs and frequently with large conspicuous stipules; lateral buds covered by a single external bud-scale , in =salicaceae=, p. . b. juneberries; with oblong or ovate leaves and small stipules which fall early; lateral buds with more than one external scale b, in =rosaceae=, p. . a. leaves mostly entire, only a few here and there with low teeth a, in =aquifoliaceae=, p. . b. leaves sharply toothed -- . a. axillary buds superposed, i. e., with a second one just above the first b, in =aquifoliaceae=, p. . b. axillary buds not superposed b, in =rhamnaceae=, p. . a. leaves with purple petioles, which are at least one-fourth as long as the blade a, in =aquifoliaceae=, p. . b. leaves short-petioled or sessile -- . a. stems erect and straight, unbranched or with very few branches , in =rosaceae=, p. . b. stems more or less crooked and freely branched, making a spreading shrub , in =ericaceae=, p. . -- -- a. flowers appearing in autumn, after the leaves have fallen =hamamelidaceae=, p. . b. flowers appearing in spring, before the leaves have opened -- . a. flowers in catkins, without brightly colored or petal-like parts -- . b. flowers not in catkins, either with or without brightly colored or petal-like parts -- . a. leaves -ranked, as shown by the arrangement of buds and leaf-scars in two longitudinal rows, so that the third bud is directly over the first -- . b. leaves and leaf-scars not -ranked -- . a. bundle-scars three in each leaf-scar -- . b. bundle-scars several in each leaf-scar b, in =urticaceae=, p. . a. leaf-buds with only - visible bud-scales , in =betulaceae=, p. . b. leaf-buds with more than visible scales -- . a. bark of the branches smooth and dark gray, the larger stems fluted with projecting longitudinal ridges b, in =betulaceae=, p. . b. branches without projecting ridges , in =betulaceae=, p. . a. pith -angled , in =betulaceae=, p. . b. pith -angled b, in =fagaceae=, p. . c. pith cylindrical -- . a. visible outer bud-scales or more -- . b. buds with a single visible outer scale , in =salicaceae=, p. . a. bundle-scars in each leaf-scar =myricaceae=, p. . b. bundle-scars more than in each leaf-scar b, in =urticaceae=, p. . a. flowers dark red-purple, about cm. wide =anonaceae=, p. . b. flowers bright pink, irregular, about cm. wide a, in =leguminosae=, p. . c. flowers white, with conspicuous petals -- . d. flowers greenish or yellowish, small, inconspicuous -- . a. ovary , superior, i. e., in the center of the flower and not attached to surrounding parts , in =rosaceae=, p. . b. ovary inferior, appearing as a swelling below the calyx at the apex of the pedicel -- . a. flowers in racemes or solitary b, in =rosaceae=, p. . b. flowers in flattened or rounded branching clusters a, in =rosaceae=, p. . a. stems thorny a, in =rutaceae=, p. . b. stems not thorny -- . a. bark pleasantly aromatic when crushed; perianth with parts -- . b. bark not pleasantly aromatic; perianth with short lobes =thymelaeaceae=, p. . a. flowers in sessile lateral clusters a, in =lauraceae=, p. . b. flowers in peduncled terminal clusters b, in =lauraceae=, p. . -- -- a. leaves narrow, needle-like or scale-like, mostly evergreen -- . b. leaves broader, flat or rolled, but not needle-like or scale-like -- . a. twining or climbing vines -- . b. not twining or climbing -- . a. leaves opposite -- . b. leaves alternate -- . a. leaves compound -- . b. leaves simple -- . a. leaves broad, palmately lobed -- . b. leaves not palmately lobed -- . a. flowers greenish-yellow, in racemes or panicles a, in =aceraceae=, p. . b. flowers white, in rounded or flattened clusters a, in =caprifoliaceae=, p. . a. flowers in close clusters, subtended by four large white petal-like bracts b, in =cornaceae=, p. . b. flowers small, white, in dense spherical heads a, in =rubiaceae=, p. . c. flowers not in dense heads, and not subtended by petal-like bracts -- . a. petals separate from each other -- . b. petals united with each other -- . a. flowers dark purple-red b, in =celastraceae=. p. . b. flowers bright yellow a, in =hypericaceae=, p. . c. flowers pink-purple; aquatic shrubs a, in =lythraceae=, p. . d. flowers white , in =cornaceae=, p. . e. flowers minute, greenish; twigs usually thorny b, in =rhamnaceae=, p. . f. flowers small, yellowish; leaves silvery beneath =elaeagnaceae=, p. . a. stamens a, in =oleaceae=, p. . b. stamens or , in =caprifoliaceae=, p. . c. stamens a, in =ericaceae=, p. . a. leaves once-compound -- . b. leaves simple -- . c. leaves twice- or thrice-compound a, in =araliaceae=, p. . a. flowers small, greenish or greenish-yellow -- . b. flowers conspicuous, white, or brightly colored -- . a. stems thorny a, in =rutaceae=, p. . b. stems not thorny -- . a. leaflets , entire or minutely toothed b, in =rutaceae=, p. . b. leaflets , conspicuously toothed b, in =anacardiaceae=, p. . c. leaflets more than -- . a. leaflets entire except for - large glandular teeth near their base =simarubaceae=, p. . b. leaflets entire, or toothed for their entire length =anacardiaceae=, p. . a. flowers with a single bright-blue petal a, in =leguminosae=, p. . b. flowers with several petals -- . a. flowers regular , in =rosaceae=, p. . b. flowers irregular, the upper petal the largest , in =leguminosae=, p. . a. leaves minute, scale-like, appressed a, in =cistaceae=, p. . b. leaves - mm. long, spreading, completely rolled into a tube =empetraceae=, p. . c. leaves normal in shape, green in color -- . a. leaves evergreen, as shown by their presence on the older parts of the stem b, in =ericaceae=, p. . b. leaves deciduous -- . a. flowers in catkins, without petal-like parts -- . b. flowers not in catkins, either with or without petal-like parts -- . a. flowers small, inconspicuous, yellowish or greenish in color -- . b. flowers white or colored, with conspicuous petals -- . a. leaves broad and palmately lobed; stem thorny a, in =araliaceae=, p. . b. leaves entire, toothed, or with - entire lobes; stem not thorny -- . a. flowers in small axillary clusters; foliage not spicy-aromatic -- . b. flowers in clusters terminating last year's twigs; foliage spicy-aromatic b, in =lauraceae=, p. . a. petals none; sepals present b, in =rhamnaceae=, p. . b. petals present but small -- . a. a stamen in front of each petal a, in =rhamnaceae=, p. . b. a stamen between each two petals =aquifoliaceae=, p. . a. petals united with each other; stamens - , in =ericaceae=, p. . b. petals separate from each other -- . a. petals -- . b. petals -- . c. petal-like sepals ; real petals none; foliage spicy-aromatic b, in =lauraceae=, p. . d. petals ; sepals also present -- . a. flowers in late spring or early summer a, in =cornaceae=, p. . b. flowers in autumn =hamamelidaceae=, p. . a. corolla irregular, the upper petal largest b, in =leguminosae=, p. . b. corolla regular, all petals alike in size and shape -- . a. stamens -- . b. stamens or more , in =rosaceae=, p. . a. flowers in loose racemes or axillary clusters , in =saxifragaceae=, p. . b. flowers in branching clusters -- . a. leaves palmately lobed; stem thorny a, in =araliaceae=, p. . b. leaves not lobed; stem not thorny b, in =rhamnaceae=, p. . a. flowers dark red-purple =anonaceae=, p. . b. flowers yellow a, in =berberidaceae=, p. . group , unusual plants a. small brown leafless plants, growing as parasites on the tamarack or black spruce =loranthaceae=, p. . b. aquatic plants, with all or most of the leaves submerged, or leafless -- . c. aquatic plants, with the leaves or the whole plant floating on or near the surface -- . d. terrestrial or marsh plants, without floating or submerged leaves -- . a. submerged aquatics, without leaves -- . b. submerged aquatics, with the leaves linear or dissected -- . a. flowers showy, yellow or purple =lentibulariaceae=, p. . b flowers small and inconspicuous, sessile, purplish or greenish a, in =haloragidaceae=, p. . a. leaves linear or lanceolate, not lobed or dissected -- . b. leaves more or less lobed or dissected -- . a. leaves all basal -- . b. stem-leaves present -- . a. flowers blue, cm. long or more; leaves cylindrical, blunt, hollow, partitioned lengthwise a, in =lobeliaceae=, p. . b. flowers yellow; leaves minute =lentibulariaceae=, p. . c. flowers white, in clusters; leaves linear-lanceolate, acute, not hollow b, in =alismaceae=, p. . d. flowers greenish, solitary at the end of elongated peduncles; leaves very long and ribbon-like, flat or trough-shape a, in =hydrocharitaceae=, p. . e. flowers minute, whitish or lead-color, in heads =eriocaulaceae=, p. . a. leaves alternate -- . b. leaves opposite -- . c. leaves whorled -- . a. leaves with thin sheathing stipules b, in =najadaceae=, p. . b. leaves without stipules -- . a. flowers greenish, in a head =sparganiaceae=, p. . b. flowers pale yellow b, in =pontederiaceae=, p. . a. leaves serrate b, in =najadaceae=, p. . b. leaves entire -- . a. leaves cm. long or less =callitrichaceae=, p. . b. leaves thread-like, - cm. long a, in =najadaceae=, p. . c. leaves linear to elliptical, more than cm. long b, in =najadaceae=, p. . a. leaves in whorls of , abruptly widened at the base b, in =najadaceae=, p. . b. leaves in whorls of , widest near the middle b, in =hydrocharitaceae=, p. . c. stems straight and erect, at leaves the flowers emerged; leaves in whorls of or more a, in =haloragidaceae=, p. . a. leaves with numerous small bladders attached, each bladder - mm. long =lentibulariaceae=, p. . b. leaves without bladders -- . a. leaves alternate -- . b. leaves opposite or whorled -- . a. delicate and rare plants growing attached to stones in running water =podostemaceae=, p. . b. plants dm. high or more, with roots in mud or sand -- . a. leaves once-pinnate -- . b. leaves - times pinnate b, in =umbelliferae=, p. . c. leaves palmately dissected b, in =ranunculaceae=, p. . a. taste peppery or mustardy , in =cruciferae=, p. . b. taste not peppery or mustardy a, in =haloragidaceae=, p. . a. leaves pinnately compound b, in =haloragidaceae=, p. . b. leaves palmately compound -- . a. leaves opposite or in whorls of four a, in =compositae=, p. . b. leaves in whorls of - =ceratophyllaceae=, p. . a. plants small, flattened, rounded or ovate, without distinction of stem and leaf; the whole plant floating on or near the surface =lemnaceae=, p. . b. plant attached to the soil, with differentiated stem and leaves -- . a. leaves on long slender stalks, which bear also a cluster of slender tubers near the leaf-base; leaves heart-shape b, in =gentianaceae=, p. . b. leaf-stalks without a cluster of tubers -- . a. leaves all basal -- . b. stem-leaves present -- . a. leaves parallel-veined b, in =alismaceae=, p. . b. leaves net-veined b, in =nymphaeaceae=, p. . a. leaves opposite or whorled -- . b. leaves alternate -- . a. leaves less than cm. long =callitrichaceae=, p. . b. leaves more than cm. long b, in =najadaceae=, p. . a. leaves attached by the center to the stalk b, in =nymphaeaceae=, p. . b. leaves attached by the margin -- . a. leaves parallel-veined -- . b. leaves net-veined, with a single mid-vein; lanceolate or elliptical in outline b, in =polygonaceae=, p. . a. leaves not over dm. long b, in =najadaceae=, p. . b. leaves very long and grass-like a, in =gramineae=, p. . a. brown, yellow, or white plants, without green color -- . b. plants with normal green color, at least in some parts -- . a. stemless and leafless plants, consisting of flowers only and partly underground a, in =araceae=, p. . b. stems climbing on other plants b, in =convolvulaceae=, p. . c. stem and flower-stalks erect, not climbing -- . a. corolla regular; stamens - a, in =ericaceae=, p. . b. corolla irregular -- . a. sepals and petals each ; flowers in simple racemes a, in =orchidaceae=, p. . b. sepals ; corolla of united petals =orobanchaceae=, p. . a. stem thick and fleshy, leafless, thorny =cactaceae=, p. . b. stem not thorny -- . a. leaves none -- . b. leaves reduced to small scales -- . c. leaves thick and fleshy -- . d. leaves hollow -- . e. leaves small, all basal, bearing large glandular hairs on the upper surface =droseraceae=, p. . a. stem none, the flowers appearing at or partially beneath the surface of the soil a, in =araceae=, p. . b. stem present -- . a. stem freely branched a, in =liliaceae=, p. . b. stem unbranched, except possibly in the flower-clusters -- . a. flowers greenish or brownish, without obvious colored petals -- . b. flowers with conspicuous white or colored petals -- . a. each flower with small chaffy petals , in =juncaceae=, p. . b. petals none; each flower in the axil of a single chaffy bract a, in =cyperaceae=, p. . a. flowers regular a, in =liliaceae=, p. . b. flowers irregular a, in =orchidaceae=, p. . a. stem erect, unbranched or with one or two branches only -- . b. stem freely branched -- . a. plants of moist soil, with opposite scales; corolla regular, with petal-like lobes a, in =gentianaceae=, p. . b. swamp plants, with a few alternate scales; corolla irregular =lentibulariaceae=, p. . a. leaves numerous and close, concealing the stem a, in =cistaceae=, p. . b. leaves spreading, not concealing the stem -- . a. leaf-scales in small clusters; flowers greenish, with petals a, in =liliaceae=, p. . b. leaf-scales distinctly opposite; petals , yellow a, in =hypericaceae=, p. . a. sepals , in =portulacaceae=, p. . b. sepals or =crassulaceae=, p. . a. leaves pitcher-shape, open at the top =sarraceniaceae=, p. . b. leaves tubular, closed at the end b, in =liliaceae=, p. . group , monocotyledones a. twining plants, with flowers in panicles or racemes =dioscoreaceae=, p. . b. plants with milky juice a, in =compositae=, p. . c. plants not twining (some climb by tendrils) and not with milky juice. -- . a. flowers in close spikes or heads, surrounded or subtended by a green or colored bract, the whole resembling a single flower; petals minute or wanting; leaves broad, not grass-like, linear, or sword-shape =araceae=, p. . b. plants with narrow, linear, grass-like, or sword-shape leaves (a few species of carex have broader, lanceolate to ovate leaves); flowers greenish, yellowish, or brownish, never brightly colored, and frequently dry or chaffy in texture; perianth small or wanting; individual flowers inconspicuous in size, but sometimes grouped into conspicuous clusters -- . c. plants with leaves of various widths, but the flowers petaloid, i. e., with a white or colored, more or less conspicuous perianth, and never chaffy in texture. in a few cases the flowers are greenish, but the size and conspicuousness of the perianth identifies them in this class -- . a. flowers in the axils of dry, membranous or chaffy scales, which are regularly arranged into spikes or spikelets of uniform size and structure, which are variously grouped or clustered; fruit an achene; grasses and sedges, with joined stems and sheathing leaves, or leafless and the stems not jointed -- . b. flowers not subtended individually by dry, membranous, or chaffy scales, and otherwise not agreeing with a -- . a. leaf-sheaths split on the side opposite the leaf; leaves usually -ranked, i. e., in longitudinal rows with the third leaf above the first; stems rounded or flat, never triangular, usually hollow =gramineae=, p. . b. leaf-sheaths closed into a continuous tube; leaves usually -ranked; stems frequently triangular, usually solid =cyperaceae=, p. . a. flowers in dense spikes -- . b. flowers in heads, racemes, or panicles -- . a. spike terminal, with pistillate flowers at the base and staminate ones at the apex =typhaceae=, p. . b. spike short, apparently lateral, near the apex of the stem a, in =araceae=, p. . a. flowers in globose heads which are arranged in spikes, the lowest heads pistillate, the upper staminate; ovary -celled =sparganiaceae=, p. . b. flowers in globose woolly heads terminating leafless unbranched stalks =eriocaulaceae=, p. . c. flowers in a spike-like raceme; ovaries - , separate or nearly so =juncaginaceae=, p. . d. flowers in heads or panicles, all perfect, not woolly, with one ovary -- . a. leaves less than cm. wide, or none; divisions of the perianth =juncaceae=, p. . b. leaves cm. wide or more; petals a, in =umbelliferae=, p. . a. flowers regular, with all the petals of approximately the same size and shape -- . b. flowers irregular, with the petals of each flower not of the same size or shape -- . a. ovaries or more, separate or barely united with each other at the base -- . b. ovary one in each flower -- . a. ovaries - in number; flowers in spikes or racemes; leaves linear =juncaginaceae=, p. . b. ovaries more than =alismaceae=, p. . a. flowers or flower-clusters lateral, axillary or apparently so -- . b. flowers or flower-clusters terminal or on leafless stalks -- . a. leaves minute and scale-like; flowers greenish-yellow a, in =liliaceae=, p. . b. leaves linear, grass-like b, in =iridaceae=, p. . c. leaves lanceolate or broader, not grass-like or scale-like b, in =liliaceae=, p. . a. divisions of the perianth - cm. long -- . b. divisions of the perianth less than cm. long -- . a. flowers blue, or blue marked with yellow a, in =iridaceae=, p. . b. flowers not blue a, in =liliaceae=, p. . a. flowers solitary -- . b. flowers or more, in some kind of a cluster -- . a. leaves , broadly heart-shape, basal, on long stalks b, in =aristolochiaceae=, p. . b. leaves not heart-shape , , in =liliaceae=, p. . a. divisions of the perianth ( to ) all essentially alike -- . b. perianth differentiated into sepals and or colored petals -- . a. flowers in umbels -- . b. flowers in dense round heads; petals a, in =umbelliferae=, p. . c. flowers in spikes, racemes, or panicles , in =liliaceae=, p. . a. ovary inferior, appearing below the perianth as a swelling at the apex of the stalk; flowers bright yellow; leaves linear =amaryllidaceae=, p. . b. ovary inferior; flowers blue or white, terminating a flattened winged leafless flower-stalk a, in =iridaceae=, p. . c. ovary superior, i. e., in the center of the flower and separate from the perianth , in =liliaceae=, p. . a. flowers in dense heads, yellow, cm. wide or smaller =xyridaceae=, p. . b. flowers in umbels, blue or white, cm. wide or larger =commelinaceae=, p. . a. flowers blue; ovary superior (defined under _ c_); stamens distinct from the other parts of the flower -- . b. ovary inferior (defined under _ a_); floral structure complex; stamens attached to other parts of the flower and not resembling ordinary stamens in form or structure =orchidaceae=, p. . a. leaves triangular-heart-shape at base; marsh plants a, in =pontederiaceae=, p. . b. leaves not heart-shape at base =commelinaceae=, p. . group , dicotyledones a. foliage leaves all or principally basal; flower-stalk either completely leafless, or bearing a single pair of opposite leaves only. bracts and scale-leaves are not considered foliage leaves -- . b. stem-leaves present on the stem, either one or more in number, and not limited to a single opposite pair -- . a. leaves compound -- . b. leaves simple -- . a. stem-leaves all or chiefly opposite or whorled (the bracts of the flower clusters may be alternate) -- . b. stem-leaves all or chiefly alternate -- . a. flowers small and inconspicuous, the perianth none or greenish or chaffy, and never petal-like in appearance -- . b. flowers with a white or colored petal-like perianth -- . a. flowers small and inconspicuous, without any white or colored petal-like perianth -- . b. flowers large or small, but with a white or colored petal-like perianth -- . a. flowers small, not exceeding mm. in length or breadth -- . b. flowers larger, more than mm. in length or breadth -- . -- -- a. leaves twice to three times compound or dissected -- . b. leaves once-compound -- . a. flowers in racemes b, in =fumariaceae=, p. . b. flowers in umbels -- . a. flowers about mm. wide, white or greenish-white -- . b. flowers - mm. wide, conspicuous b, in =ranunculaceae=, p. . a. leaflets - cm. long b, in =araliaceae=, p. . b. leaflets not over cm. long a, in =umbelliferae=, p. . a. leaflets a, in =berberidaceae=, p. . b. leaflets three or more -- . a. leaflets entire or very finely toothed -- . b. leaflets coarsely toothed or lobed -- . a. flowers irregular, in dense head-like umbels a, in =leguminosae=, p. . b. flowers consisting of a greenish or purplish bract wholly or partly enclosing a fleshy spike , in =araceae=, p. . c. flowers regular, solitary or in loose clusters -- . a. leaflets reverse heart-shape, not over cm. long =oxalidaceae=, p. . b. leaflets - cm. long c, in =gentianaceae=, p. . a. flowers with colored or white petals and green or colored sepals -- . b. flowers with one kind of perianth only (calyx), with broad and petal-like parts , in =ranunculaceae=, p. . c. flowers with white petal-like sepals and small inconspicuous petals b, in =ranunculaceae=, p. . a. petals and sepals each , in =cruciferae=, p. . b. petals and sepals each or more -- . a. leaves with stipules =rosaceae=, p. . b. leaves without stipules b, in =ranunculaceae=, p. . -- -- a. stem-leaves a single opposite pair (basal leaves may also be present) -- . b. stem-leaves none -- . a. leaves entire -- . b. leaves toothed or lobed -- . a. flowers solitary; leaves broadly kidney-shape =aristolochiaceae=, p. . b. flowers in racemes; leaves linear or lanceolate =portulacaceae=, p. . a. flowers in racemes; petals deeply toothed b, in =saxifragaceae=, p. . b. flowers solitary or few in a cluster; petals entire or nearly so -- . a. petals =geraniaceae=, p. . b. petals or more b, in =berberidaceae=, p. . a. flowers or flower-clusters sessile, at or partly beneath the surface of the ground a, in =araceae=, p. . b. flowers or flower-heads solitary at the ends of the flower-stalks -- . b. flowers or flower-heads numerous or several on each flower-stalk -- . a. flowers yellow -- . b. flowers not yellow -- . a. juice milky , in =compositae=, p. . b. juice not milky -- . a. aquatic or mud plants, with large entire leaves - dm. wide =nymphaeaceae=, p. . b. land plants, with smaller or lobed leaves -- . a. flower-stalk scaly , in =compositae=, p. . b. flower-stalk bare or with to minute bracts -- . a. flowers regular , in =ranunculaceae=, p. . b. flowers irregular, with a spur a, in =violaceae=, p. . a. flowers obviously irregular, with a spur -- . b. flowers regular or nearly so, without a spur -- . a. leaves sessile or nearly so; stamens =lentibulariaceae=, p. . b. leaves petioled; stamens =violaceae=, p. . a. flowers mm. wide or smaller; leaves thread-like a, in =scrophulariaceae=, p. . b. flowers mm. wide or larger -- . a. ovary -- . b. ovaries numerous -- . a. leaves lobed or cleft -- . b. leaves entire or toothed -- . a. leaves deeply -cleft; stamens a, in =berberidaceae=, p. . b. leaf , palmately lobed; stamens numerous a, in =papaveraceae=, p. . a. flowers dull red =aristolochiaceae=, p. . b. flowers white or pinkish -- . a. leaves entire; stamens with good anthers , in =saxifragaceae=, p. . b. leaves minutely toothed; stamens - a, in =ericaceae=, p. . a. leaves lobed or divided =ranunculaceae=, p. . b. leaves crenate or toothed a, in =rosaceae=, p. . -- -- a. flowers of the composite type, with several or many small flowerets closely aggregated into a dense head surrounded by a calyx-like involucre of small bracts , in =compositae=. p. . b. flowers separate; variously clustered, but never crowded into involucred heads -- . a. flowers in dense close spikes -- . b. flowers in open loose clusters -- . a. flower-stalk leafless below the spike =plantaginaceae=, p. . b. flower-stalk with several bracts -- . a. leaves entire c, in =orchidaceae=, p. . b. leaves toothed a, in =scrophulariaceae=, p. . a. flowers in umbels -- . b. flowers in racemes, panicles, flat-topped clusters, or merely or -- . a. leaves almost round, peltate, palmately veined a, in =umbelliferae=, p. . b. leaves at least twice as long as broad, with a single mid-vein -- . a. stamens =primulaceae=, p. . b. stamens , in =ericaceae=, p. . a. leaves cylindrical, hollow, obtuse. a, in =lobeliaceae=, p. . b. leaves beset on the upper side with long glandular hairs; bog plant with flowers in racemes =droseraceae=, p. . c. leaves flat, pubescent or smooth, but not with long glandular hairs -- . a. sepals and petals each , in =cruciferae=, p. . b. sepals and petals each -- . c. sepals ; petals none; flowers minute, green; leaves frequently lobed at the base , in =polygonaceae=, p. . a. petals united with each other in an irregular corolla =lentibulariaceae=, p. . b. petals separate from each other -- . a. stamens ; style =ericaceae=, p. . b. stamens or ; styles =saxifragaceae=, p. . c. stamens and pistils each very numerous -- . a. flowers white a, in =rosaceae=, p. . b. flowers yellow a, in =ranunculaceae=, p. . -- -- a. leaves compound or deeply lobed -- . b. leaves entire or toothed -- . a. flowers in axillary racemes, spikes, or panicles =urticaceae=, p. . b. flowers terminal, or in terminal clusters -- . a. flowers in umbels; leaves palmately compound =araliaceae=, p. . b. flowers in racemes or spikes, or solitary -- . a. leaves deeply pinnatifid; swamp plants with flowers in spikes or solitary =haloragidaceae=, p. . b. leaves lobed, or irregularly pinnately cut or dissected; weedy plants with flowers in racemes , in =compositae=, p. . a. juice milky , in =euphorbiaceae=, p. . b. juice not milky or colored -- . a. leaves whorled -- . b. leaves all opposite -- . a. aquatic or mud plants with erect stems a, in =haloragidaceae=, p. . b. prostrate weedy terrestrial plants =aizoaceae=, p. . c. erect or ascending terrestrial plants -- . a. leaves more than . cm. long a, in =cornaceae=, p. . b. leaves cm. long or less a, in =primulaceae=, p. . a. flowers in terminal or axillary spikes, racemes, or other clusters -- . b. flowers solitary or few in the axils of the leaves -- . a. leaves less than mm. long a, in =gentianaceae=, p. . b. leaves more than cm. long -- . a. inflorescence chiefly terminal, panicled , in =compositae=, p. . b. inflorescence chiefly axillary =urticaceae=, p. . a. flowers on long pedicels , in =caryophyllaceae=, p. . b. flowers on short pedicels or sessile -- . a. stem erect, repeatedly branched; leaves linear to oblong =illecebraceae=, p. . b. stem decumbent or prostrate -- . a. leaves round, ovate, or kidney-shape, rounded at the base, crenate or lobed a, in =saxifragaceae=, p. . b. leaves of a narrower shape, entire, tapering toward the base -- . a. principal leaves - cm. long a, in =onagraceae=, p. . b. principal leaves cm. long or less -- . a. petals present =elatinaceae=, p. . b. petals none =callitrichaceae=, p. . -- -- a. plants of the composite type, with several or many small flowerets closely aggregated into a dense head surrounded or subtended by a calyx-like involucre of small bracts -- . b. flowers solitary or variously clustered, but not in involucred heads -- . a. involucre of conspicuous white bracts, much larger than the small flower-cluster a, in =cornaceae=, p. . b. involucral bracts green or somewhat colored -- . a. stem more or less prickly =dipsacaceae=, p. . b. stem and leaves not prickly -- . a. stem square; foliage aromatic when crushed =labiatae=, p. . b. stem not square; foliage not with the odor of mint =compositae=, p. . a. the conspicuous portion of the perianth[ ] composed of separate parts -- . b. the conspicuous portion of the perianth[ ] composed of united parts -- . a. stem-leaves compound, or cleft to the very base -- . b. stem-leaves simple -- . a. stamens more than in each flower -- . b. stamens - in each flower -- . a. ovary in each flower a, in =papaveraceae=, p. . b. ovaries several in each flower -- . a. leaves pinnately compound a, in =rosaceae=, p. . b. leaves palmately compound =ranunculaceae=, p. . a. stamens , in =cruciferae=, p. . b. stamens or -- . a. leaflets reverse heart-shape; flowers yellow =oxalidaceae=, p. . b. leaflets not reverse heart-shape; flowers white, greenish, or pink -- . a. flowers greenish or white, about mm. broad =araliaceae=, p. . b. flowers mm. broad or larger =geraniaceae=, p. . a. juice milky -- . b. juice not milky -- . a. a -lobed ovary with short styles visible in some of the flowers =euphorbiaceae=, p. . b. ovaries in the center of each flower (sometimes concealed by other organs); sepals and petals each -- . a. perianth with one circle of parts only -- . b. each flower with both calyx and corolla -- . a. stem prostrate; flowers only mm. broad =aizoaceae=, p. . b. stem erect; flowers at least mm. wide a, in =cornaceae=, p. . a. petals or -- . b. petals , in=liliaceae=, p. . c. petals or -- . a. leaves with - principal veins =melastomaceae=, p. . b. leaves with principal mid-vein =onagraceae=, p. . a. leaves palmately lobed -- . b. leaves entire or toothed, or with - small lobes near the base only -- . a. petals entire or notched at the end =geraniaceae=, p. . b. petals conspicuously fringed b, in =saxifragaceae=, p. . a. ovary -- . b. ovaries , surrounded and concealed by other organs =asclepiadaceae=, p. . c. ovaries - b, in =crassulaceae=, p. . a. leaves dotted with translucent dots (easily seen when the leaf is held to the light) =hypericaceae=, p. . b. leaves not dotted with translucent dots -- . a. leaves only - mm. long, closely appressed and concealing the stem a, in =cistaceae=, p. . b. leaves larger, not concealing the stem -- . a. style or none -- . b. styles to -- . a. stamens -- . b. stamens -- . c. stamens neither nor -- . a. flowers blue, sessile in terminal spikes with leaf-like bracts =lythraceae=, p. . b. flowers not in terminal bracted spikes =primulaceae=, p. . a. leaves entire =lythraceae=, p. . b. leaves toothed or crenate =ericaceae=, p. . a. flowers irregular; petals =polygalaceae=, p. . b. flowers regular; petals or more =lythraceae=, p. . a. sepals , partly attached to the ovary =portulacaceae=, p. . b. sepals , free from the ovary -- . a. stamens -- . b. stamens not =caryophyllaceae=, p. . a. flowers blue or yellow =linaceae=, p. . b. flowers white or pinkish =caryophyllaceae=, p. . -- -- a. perianth with but one circle of floral leaves -- . b. perianth consisting of both calyx and corolla -- . a. flowers small, in dense heads subtended by conspicuous bracts -- . b. flowers - , in a colored spreading -lobed involucre =nyctaginaceae=, p. . c. flowers in various sorts of clusters or solitary, but never in heads with a conspicuous involucre -- . a. bracts , white and conspicuous; stem not thorny a, in =cornaceae=, p. . b. bracts green; stem thorny =dipsacaceae=, p. . a. stamens =valerianaceae=, p. . b. stamens or =rubiaceae=, p. . a. anthers more numerous than the lobes of the corolla -- . b. anthers just as many as the lobes of the corolla -- . c. anthers fewer than the lobes of the corolla -- . a. leaves simple =polygalaceae=, p. . b. leaves compound with leaflets =oxalidaceae=, p. . c. leaves finely dissected; stems climbing a, in =fumariaceae=, p. . a. ovaries -- . b. ovary , but very deeply -lobed, with a single style =labiatae=, p. . c. ovary , not deeply lobed -- . a. stamens united, surrounding and more or less concealing the ovaries, and not resembling ordinary stamens =asclepiadaceae=, p. . b. stamens separate, of ordinary structure =apocynaceae=, p. . a. ovary inferior, appearing as a swelling below the calyx at the apex of the pedicel -- . b. ovary superior, located in the center of the flower -- . a. corolla - -lobed =rubiaceae=, p. . b. corolla -lobed b, in =caprifoliaceae=, p. . a. leaves toothed or deeply cut =verbenaceae=, p. . b. leaves entire -- . a. a stamen in front of the middle of each petal =primulaceae=, p. . b. stamens located between the petals or lobes of the corolla, or else so far down in the tubular corolla that their position is not easily ascertained -- . a. corolla salver-form, with a very slender tube, and abruptly spreading lobes =polemoniaceae=, p. . b. corolla salver-form, with a wide tube and fringed blue petals =gentianaceae=, p. . c. corolla rotate, funnel-form, or bell-shape =gentianaceae=, p. . a. ovary deeply -lobed, appearing like separate ovaries; style =labiatae=, p. . b. ovary not -lobed -- . a. stamens -- . b. stamens =valerianaceae=, p. . c. stamens -- . a. flowers in dense heads a, in =acanthaceae=, p. . b. flowers solitary or in loose clusters =scrophulariaceae=, p. . a. corolla distinctly -lipped and irregular -- . b. corolla not distinctly -lipped, its lobes all alike or nearly so -- . a. calyx -lipped; the upper lip with awl-shape teeth, the lower with short teeth; flowers in slender terminal spikes =phrymaceae=, p. . b. calyx not obviously -lipped, its teeth equal or nearly so =scrophulariaceae=, p. . a. flowers sessile or nearly so, in spikes -- . b. flowers in nodding pairs at the top of a slender stalk a, in =caprifoliaceae=, p. . c. flowers solitary or in clusters; not in spikes or nodding pairs -- . a. corolla not over cm. long =verbenaceae=, p. . b. corolla . cm. long or more =scrophulariaceae=, p. . a. calyx-lobes - mm. long; flowers blue, - cm. long; calyx without an obvious tube , in =acanthaceae=, p. . b. calyx-lobes united below into an obvious calyx-tube =scrophulariaceae=, p. . -- -- a. leaves deeply lobed, compound, or dissected -- . b. leaves simple and not deeply lobed -- . a. leaves once-pinnately compound or lobed -- . b. leaves once-palmately compound or lobed -- . c. leaves dissected or - times compound -- . a. leaves merely lobed -- . b. leaves actually compound -- . a. flowers axillary; marsh or swamp plants =haloragidaceae=, p. . b. flowers in terminal clusters -- . a. stamens - ; taste mustard-like b, in =cruciferae=, p. . b. stamens or more =resedaceae=, p. . a. leaflets entire =limnanthaceae=, p. . b. leaflets serrate a, in =rosaceae=, p. . a. flowers solitary a, in =ranunculaceae=, p. . b. flowers in dense terminal umbels or heads =umbelliferae=, p. . c. flowers in terminal racemes a, in =compositae=, p. . d. flowers in axillary spikes or panicles b, in =urticaceae=, p. . a. leaves merely dissected, not truly compound with distinct leaflets -- . b. leaves truly compound, with distinct petiolate leaflets -- . a. flowers in axillary clusters =chenopodiaceae=, p. . b. flowers in terminal clusters =compositae=, p. . a. stamens ; flowers in umbels -- . b. stamens ; flowers in small clusters b, in =berberidaceae=, p. . c. stamens many; flowers in racemes or panicles =ranunculaceae=, p. . a. styles =araliaceae=, p. . b. styles =umbelliferae=, p. . a. flowers in dense cottony heads; plants more or less white-woolly , in =compositae=, p. . b. pistillate flowers in an ovoid spiny involucre, ripening into a bur a, in =compositae=, p. . c. flowers minute, subtended by palmately cleft axillary bracts a, in =euphorbiaceae=, p. . d. plants without any of the preceding characters -- . a. plants with milky or colored juice , in =euphorbiaceae=, p. . b. plants with tendrils, at least on the upper leaves a, in =liliaceae=, p. . c. plants of nettle-like character, with stinging hairs b, in =urticaceae=, p. . d. plants with sheathing stipules, surrounding the stem above the base of each leaf =polygonaceae=, p. . e. plants with smooth, pale, juicy, almost translucent stems a, in =urticaceae=, p. . f. plants without any of the preceding structures or habits -- . a. flowers axillary, solitary or in few-flowered clusters -- . b. flowers in terminal, or terminal and axillary clusters -- . a. leaves linear =chenopodiaceae=, p. . b. leaves of a broader shape than linear -- . a. flower-clusters with bracts as long as or longer than the flowers -- . b. flowers without conspicuous bracts -- . a. leaves broadest below the middle a, in =urticaceae=, p. . b. leaves broadest above the middle , in =amaranthaceae=, p. . a. principal leaves cm. long or more -- . b. principal leaves . cm. long or less -- . a. flowers nodding in the axils of the leaves a, in =violaceae=, p. . b. flowers erect in the axils a, in =onagraceae=, p. . a. leaves narrowly oblong a, in =haloragidaceae=, p. . b. leaves roundish and somewhat heart-shape a, in =saxifragaceae=, p. . a. flowers in racemes or simple spikes -- . b. flowers in panicles or other branched clusters -- . a. leaves toothed or lobed b, in =cruciferae=, p. . b. leaves entire -- . a. flowers sessile; leaves heart-shape =piperaceae=, p. . b. flowers pedicelled; leaves obovate b, in =primulaceae=, p. . a. individual flowers distinct from each other, on pedicels -- . b. individual flowers crowded in close clusters, or separate and sessile -- . a. leaves finely serrate b, in =crassulaceae=, p. . b. leaves entire b, in =cistaceae=, p. . a. flower-clusters mingled with sharp-pointed bracts =amaranthaceae=, p. . b. flower-clusters without bracts, or (rarely) with bracts which are not sharp-pointed =chenopodiaceae=, p. . -- -- a. juice not milky -- . b. juice milky; apparent flowers consisting of a few white or colored petal-like bracts, inclosing a few inconspicuous flowers without petals. in some of them a -lobed ovary with styles may be plainly seen =euphorbiaceae=, p. . a. plants of the composite type, with several or many small flowerets closely aggregated into a dense head subtended by a calyx-like involucre of small bracts -- . b. flowers solitary or in clusters, but not in involucred heads -- . a. leaves compound with leaflets; stipules present =leguminosae=, p. . b. stipules none =compositae=, p. . a. leaves compound or deeply lobed -- . b. leaves simple and not deeply lobed -- . a. flowers irregular =leguminosae=, p. . b. flowers regular -- . a. petals =limnanthaceae=, p. . b. petals -- . c. petals or more -- . a. stamens a, in =rosaceae=, p. . b. stamens =cruciferae=, p. . c. stamens numerous , in =ranunculaceae=, p. . a. flowers in heads or umbels -- . b. flowers in slender spikes or racemes -- . a. styles =umbelliferae=, p. . b. styles =araliaceae=, p. . a. leaves ternately compound , in =ranunculaceae=, p. . b. leaves once-pinnately compound b, in =rosaceae=, p. . a. flowers irregular -- . b. flowers regular -- . a. stamens b, in =scrophulariaceae=, p. . b. stamens or =saxifragaceae=, p. . c. stamens or =polygalaceae=, p. . a. with sheathing stipules surrounding the stem at the base of each leaf =polygonaceae=, p. . b. stipules not encircling the stem, or none -- . a. petals =cistaceae=, p. . b. petals -- . c. petals -- . a. stamens -- . b. stamens =cruciferae=, p. . c. stamens -- . a. corolla perfectly regular; flowers in terminal clusters without bracts, becoming racemes; taste peppery a, in =cruciferae=, p. . b. corolla slightly irregular; flowers in bracted clusters, or axillary; taste not peppery b, in =scrophulariaceae=, p. . a. delicate trailing evergreen, with flowers solitary in the axils and nearly or quite hidden beneath the leaves b, in =ericaceae=, p. . b. erect or nearly so; flowers in terminal clusters b, in =onagraceae=, p. . a. leaves sword-shape, finely parallel-veined, with bristly margins a, in =umbelliferae=, p. . b. leaves not sword-shape -- . a. leaves toothed or lobed -- . b. leaves entire -- . a. stems creeping b, in =umbelliferae=, p. . b. stems erect or nearly so =saxifragaceae=, p. . a. flowers in open panicles; leaves principally basal =saxifragaceae=, p. . b. flowers in rounded or flattened clusters; leaves principally on the stem =santalaceae=, p. . c. flowers in racemes, which become elongated at maturity -- . a. foliage glabrous b, in =primulaceae=, p. . b. foliage pubescent =boraginaceae=, p. . -- -- a. juice milky or colored -- . b. juice watery, not colored -- . a. apparent flowers consisting of a few petal-like bracts, inclosing a few inconspicuous flowers without petals. in some of them a -lobed ovary with styles may be seen =euphorbiaceae=, p. . b. plants of the composite type, with several or many small flowerets closely aggregated in dense heads subtended by a calyx-like involucre of small bracts , in =compositae=, p. . c. flowers never aggregated in involucred clusters resembling a single flower -- . a. corolla very irregular; stamens protruding =lobeliaceae=, p. . b. corolla regular -- . a. stamens with ordinary visible anthers; ovary -- . b. stamens so grown together and to the stigma as to be almost unrecognizable; ovaries =asclepiadaceae=, p. . a. petals separate =papaveraceae=, p. . b. petals united -- . a. stamens attached to the tube of the corolla =convolvulaceae=, p. . b. stamens attached at the very base of the corolla =campanulaceae=, p. . a. plants of the composite type, with several or many small flowerets closely aggregated into dense heads subtended by a calyx-like involucre of small bracts -- . b. flowers solitary or clustered, but not in involucred heads -- . a. true composites, without a normal calyx =compositae=, p. . b. a normal calyx with each floweret; leaves compound with leaflets =leguminosae=, p. . a. flowers irregular, i. e., the conspicuous lobes of the perianth unlike in size or shape -- . b. flowers regular -- . a. stamens or =scrophulariaceae=, p. . b. stamens -- . c. stamens -- . d. stamens ; leaves simple =polygalaceae=, p. . e. stamens ; leaves usually compound =leguminosae=, p. . f. stamens more than -- . a. petals separate -- . b. petals united -- . a. flowers greenish or purplish, in a panicle =saxifragaceae=, p. . b. flowers white or purplish, in compound umbels =umbelliferae=, p. . c. flowers solitary, or in few-flowered clusters -- . a. flowers blue, yellow, or white, in spring =violaceae=, p. . b. flowers red-orange or yellow, in summer =balsaminaceae=, p. . c. flowers small and greenish, in spring a, in =violaceae=, p. . a. anthers united; stamens protruding from the very irregular corolla =lobeliaceae=, p. . b. anthers separate; corolla almost regular -- . a. corolla rotate; some or all filaments hairy , in =scrophulariaceae=, p. . b. corolla funnel-form, dull yellow and purple; filaments not hairy a, in =solanaceae=, p. . c. corolla funnel-form, blue or violet; filaments not hairy b, in =boraginaceae=, p. . a. leaves compound or dissected =fumariaceae=, p. . b. leaves simple -- . a. flowers solitary =aristolochiaceae=, p. . b. flowers in spikes, heads, or racemes =polygalaceae=, p. . a. leaves truly compound -- . b. leaves palmately cleft; flowers mm. wide or larger a, in =ranunculaceae=, p. . c. leaves irregularly cleft; flowers about mm. wide =resedaceae=, p. . a. petals prolonged backward into hollow spurs b, in =ranunculaceae=, p. . b. petals not prolonged into spurs =capparidaceae=, p. . -- -- a. perianth consisting of one circle of parts only (usually considered to be the calyx) -- . b. perianth consisting of both calyx and corolla -- . a. leaves with sheathing stipules encircling the stem above the base of every leaf =polygonaceae=, p. . b. leaves without sheathing stipules -- . a. leaves entire -- . b. leaves toothed, lobed, or compound -- . a. stamens =santalaceae=, p. . b. stamens -- . c. stamens =phytolaccaceae=, p. . a. perianth-lobes ; perianth-tube curved =aristolochiaceae=, p. . b. perianth-lobes , spreading a, in =liliaceae=, p. . a. stamens =umbelliferae=, p. . b. stamens -- . c. stamens more than =ranunculaceae=, p. . a. climbing plant with heart-shape perianth a, in =fumariaceae=, p. . b. erect plant, with spreading perianth b, in =berberidaceae=, p. . a. corolla composed of united petals -- . b. corolla composed of separate petals -- . a. stamens or =scrophulariaceae=, p. . b. stamens ; climbing vines =cucurbitaceae=, p. . c. stamens -- . d. stamens a, in =fumariaceae=, p. . e. stamens b, in =ericaceae=, p. . f. stamens -- . g. stamens very numerous =malvaceae=, p. . a. ovaries ; flowers orange-red, in umbels a, in =asclepiadaceae=, p. . b. ovary , deeply -lobed; flowers in racemes =boraginaceae=, p. . c. ovary , not deeply lobed -- . a. climbing or scrambling vines -- . b. not climbing or scrambling -- . a. flowers about cm. wide -- . b. flowers - cm. wide =convolvulaceae=, p. . a. leaves cm. wide or less b, in =campanulaceae=, p. . b. leaves cm. wide or more a, in =solanaceae=, p. . a. flowers solitary, either terminal or axillary -- . b. flowers in terminal clusters -- . a. calyx concealed by bracts =convolvulaceae=, p. . b. calyx not completely concealed by bracts -- . a. ovary inferior, appearing as a swelling below the calyx at the base of the flower, -celled; stigma -lobed =campanulaceae=, p. . b. ovary superior, located in the center of the flower =solanaceae=, p. . a. some or all filaments hairy -- . b. filaments not hairy -- . a. leaves lobed or divided =hydrophyllaceae=, p. . b. leaves not lobed , in =scrophulariaceae=, p. . a. anthers close together, longer than the filaments , in =solanaceae=, p. . b. anthers separate from each other -- . a. leaves compound or very deeply lobed -- . b. leaves simple or with shallow lobes only -- . a. leaf-segments linear or oblong, irregular =hydrophyllaceae=, p. . b. leaves truly compound with separate leaflets a, in =polemoniaceae=, p. . a. flowers greenish-yellow =solanaceae=, p. . b. flowers blue, violet, white, or intermediate tints =campanulaceae=, p. . a. leaves simple =ericaceae=, p. . b. leaves compound =oxalidaceae=, p. . -- -- a. petals -- . b. petals -- . c. petals or more -- . a. stamens or -- . b. stamens , long and short =cruciferae=, p. . c. stamens or more =capparidaceae=, p. . a. leaves compound =rosaceae=, p. . b. leaves simple -- . a. ovary , inferior, appearing as a swelling below the calyx =onagraceae=, p. . b. ovaries or , in the center of the flower =crassulaceae=, p. . a. stamens with good anthers -- . b. stamens to -- . c. stamens more than -- . a. flowers solitary, terminating the stem b, in =saxifragaceae=, p. . b. flowers axillary, solitary or in small clusters -- . c. flowers several, in loose irregular terminal clusters; leaves simple =linaceae=, p. . d. flowers in slender spike-like racemes; leaves compound b, in =rosaceae=, p. . e. flowers in panicles a, in =saxifragaceae=, p. . f. flowers in umbels -- . a. leaves compound b, in =leguminosae=, p. . b. leaves simple -- . a. flowers blue or yellow, erect or spreading =linaceae=, p. . b. flowers greenish, nodding a, in =violaceae=, p. . a. flowers pink or purple =geraniaceae=, p. . b. flowers yellow or white =umbelliferae=, p. . a. leaves compound with leaflets -- . b. leaves pinnately compound -- . c. leaves deeply palmately lobed =geraniaceae=, p. . d. leaves simple and not deeply lobed -- . a. leaflets reverse heart-shape; flowers yellow =oxalidaceae=, p. . b. leaflets taper-pointed; flowers white or pink , in =rosaceae=, p. . a. leaflets entire , in =leguminosae=, p. . b. leaflets toothed b, in =rosaceae=, p. . a. prostrate plants, with thick, fleshy, entire leaves , in =portulacaceae=, p. . b. bushy branched plants, with small gray leaves concealing the stem a, in =cistaceae=, p. . c. erect or spreading plants -- . a. ovary , style a, in =ericaceae=, p. . b. ovary with distinct styles =saxifragaceae=, p. . c. ovaries ; styles =crassulaceae=, p. . a. stamens united by their filaments into a tube =malvaceae=, p. . b. stamens separate from each other -- . a. leaves with stipules; ovaries more than =rosaceae=, p. . b. leaves without stipules -- . a. leaves toothed, deeply lobed, or compound =ranunculaceae=, p. . b. leaves entire -- . a. ovaries numerous =ranunculaceae=, p. . b. ovary -- . a. sepals =portulacaceae=, p. . b. sepals or =cistaceae=, p. . -- -- a. leaves entire =lythraceae=, p. . b. leaves lobed, divided, dissected, or compound -- . a. flowers in slender racemes =resedaceae=, p. . b. flowers solitary or clustered, but not in slender racemes -- . a. stamens b, in =berberidaceae=, p. . b. stamens numerous =ranunculaceae=, p. . [ ] in most flowers the corolla is the conspicuous portion of the perianth, and is composed of united or separate petals, as the case may be. in some flowers the corolla is absent, and the calyx is the conspicuous portion. the plants of michigan pinaceae, the pine family trees or shrubs, usually evergreen, with needle-like or scale-like leaves; fruit a cone or berry. a. leaves in clusters of - -- . b. leaves mostly in clusters of or more, on short lateral wart-like branches, deciduous each autumn =tamarack, larix laricina.= c. leaves not in clusters -- . a. leaves in clusters of =white pine, pinus strobus.= b. leaves in clusters of or -- . a. leaves - cm. long =norway pine, pinus resinosa.= b. leaves - cm. long =jack pine, pinus banksiana.= a. leaves alternate or scattered -- . b. leaves opposite or whorled -- . a. leaves four-sided -- . b. leaves flattened -- . a. leaves - mm. long =black spruce, picea mariana.= b. leaves - mm. long =white spruce, picea canadensis.= a. leaves short-stalked, mm. long or less =hemlock, tsuga canadensis.= b. leaves sessile, - mm. long =balsam, abies balsamea.= a. leafy twigs soft and flattened =white cedar, thuja occidentalis.= b. leafy twigs not distinctly flattened -- . a. leaves opposite -- . b. leaves in whorls of three -- . a. erect shrub or tree =red cedar, juniperus virginiana.= b. prostrate or spreading shrub =creeping cedar, juniperus horizontalis.= a. erect shrub or small tree =juniper, juniperus communis.= b. spreading or ascending shrub, growing in dense mats =low juniper, juniperus communis var. depressa.= taxaceae, the yew family shrubs, with needle-like evergreen leaves; fruit red and berry-like. one species in michigan; straggling shrub - m. high =ground hemlock, taxus canadensis.= typhaceae, the cat-tail family erect plants - m. high, with linear leaves and terminal spikes of brown flowers, appearing in summer. a. staminate and pistillate portions of the flower-spike contiguous, the latter . cm. in diameter =common cat-tail, typha latifolia.= b. staminate and pistillate portions of the spike separated, the latter cm. or less in diameter =narrow-leaved cat-tail, typha angustifolia.= sparganiaceae, the bur-reed family marsh plants with linear leaves and spherical heads of inconspicuous greenish flowers, appearing in summer. about species occur in michigan, of which the commonest is =bur-reed, sparganium eurycarpum.= najadaceae, the pondweed family aquatic plants with submerged or floating leaves and inconspicuous flowers in summer. a. leaves opposite or whorled -- . b. leaves alternate -- c. a. leaves thread-like, - cm. long =horned pondweed, zannichellia palustris.= b. leaves linear, toothed, abruptly dilated at the base, cm. long or less (naiad) -- . c. leaves entire, not abruptly dilated at base [ ]=pondweed, potamogeton spp.= a. leaves about mm. wide, sharply and coarsely toothed =naiad, naias marina.= b. leaves very narrowly linear, with numerous minute teeth =naiad, naias flexilis.= [ ] about species of potamogeton occur in michigan, among which the most conspicuous is potamogeton natans, with elliptical floating leaves. for the identification of the species the manual must be used. juncaginaceae, the arrow grass family marsh plants, with linear cylindrical leaves and inconspicuous flowers in spikes or racemes, appearing in early summer. a. leaves all basal; flowers numerous in a spike-like raceme (arrow grass) -- . b. stem-leaves present; flowers in a loose bracted raceme ( - dm. high). =scheuchzeria, scheuchzeria palustris.= a. fruit (usually to be seen at the base of the raceme) ovoid or oblong, rounded at the base =arrow grass, triglochin maritima.= b. fruit linear, narrowed at the base ( - dm. high) =arrow grass, triglochin palustris.= alismaceae, the water plantain family marsh plants, with scape-like stems; flowers with green sepals, white petals, or more stamens, and several separate pistils. a. ovaries in a ring; flowers in panicles ( - dm. high, summer) =water plantain, alisma plantago-aquatica.= b. ovaries in a head; flowers in racemes or umbels -- . a. flowers all perfect, in a single umbel of - flowers; stamens (leaves lanceolate; cm. high or less; summer) =dwarf water plantain, echinodorus tenellus.= b. flowers in a raceme of -flowered whorls, the lower pistillate, the upper staminate; stamens usually more than nine ( - dm. high, summer) (arrow-head) -- . a. leaves ovate to linear, not sagittate at base -- . b. leaves broad or narrow, sagittate at base -- . a. pistillate (basal) flowers sessile or nearly so ( - dm. high, summer) =arrow-head, sagittaria heterophylla.= b. pistillate flowers with obvious pedicels =arrow-head, sagittaria graminea.= a. basal lobes of the leaf conspicuous, triangular, almost or quite as long as the terminal portion -- . b. basal lobes small, short, linear -- b. a. beak of the achene very short and erect; rare species =arrow-head, sagittaria arifolia.= b. beak of the achene sharp, incurved at right angles to the body; common species =arrow-head, sagittaria latifolia.= hydrocharitaceae, the frog's bit family submerged aquatics, with inconspicuous flowers in summer. a. leaves all from the base, dm. long or more =eel grass, vallisneria spiralis.= b. leaves on the stem, cm. long or less =water-weed, elodea canadensis.= gramineae, the grass family grasses, with linear or narrow sheathing leaves, and very small flowers without perianth in the axils of chaffy bracts, appearing in late spring and summer. of the large number (over ) of grasses in michigan, only the commonest are included here, and the student is referred to the manuals for a full treatment of them. their classification depends chiefly upon the structure and arrangement of the spikelets. these consist typically of a short axis, the rachilla, almost or quite concealed by several chaffy bracts. the two lower bracts are termed glumes, and have no flowers in their axils. above the glumes are two or more other bracts, the lemmas. in the axil of each lemma, and usually concealed by it, is a smaller bract, the palea, and between the lemma and the palea is a single flower. the number of flowers in a spikelet is therefore normally equal to the number of lemmas. the spikelets are grouped in racemes, spikes, or panicles of various size. a. spikelets one-flowered -- . b. spikelets with or more flowers -- . a. spikelets grouped into dense solitary cylindrical spikes -- . b. spikelets arranged in panicles or in panicled spikes -- . a. spikelets without awns or bristles, or with short awns not more than mm. long -- . b. spikelets with awns - cm. long, terminating the bracts =squirrel-tail, hordeum jubatum.= c. bracts of the spikelet without terminal awns, but the spikelets with one or more long bristles arising from their base -- . a. spike-like panicle thickened in the middle, more than cm. thick =beach grass, ammophila arenaria.= b. spike little or not at all thickened in the middle, less than cm. thick -- . a. lower bracts awned; stem erect, unbranched =timothy, phleum pratense.= b. lower scales unawned; stem branched at the base =floating foxtail, alopecurus geniculatus.= a. bristles or more at the base of each spikelet =yellow foxtail, setaria glauca.= b. bristles - at the base of each spikelet -- . a. spikelets about mm. long; bristles not much longer, green =green foxtail, setaria viridis.= b. spikelets about mm. long; bristles much longer, usually purple =millet, setaria italica.= a. spikelets numerous, in long slender symmetrical spikes -- . b. spikelets in panicles, racemes, or loose spikes -- . a. spikelets without awns; plants dm. high or less (crab grass) -- . b. spikelets with awns; plants dm. high or more -- . a. leaf-sheaths all glabrous. =crab grass, digitaria humifusa.= b. lower leaf-sheaths hairy -- . a. axis of the spike flat, with wing-like margins =crab grass, digitaria sanguinalis.= b. axis of the spike slender, without winged margins =crab grass, digitaria filiformis.= a. spikes numerous, appressed to the axis of the panicle; tall marsh grass =slough grass, spartina michauxiana.= b. spikes - , widely divergent; plant of dry ground =blue-joint, andropogon furcatus.= a. spikelets subtended by an ovoid thorny involucre - mm. wide =sand bur, cenchrus carolinianus.= b. spikelets without a thorny involucre -- . a. lower branches of the panicle spreading, bearing staminate flowers, the upper branches erect, with pistillate flowers; aquatic or marsh grass - m. high =wild rice, zizania aquatica.= b. panicle uniform throughout -- . a. spikelets with awns mm. or more long -- . b. spikelets not awned, or with short inconspicuous awns -- . a. spikelets in solitary raceme-like spikes; awn about cm. long or more =beard grass, andropogon scoparius.= b. spikelets in branching clusters; awn less than cm. long -- . a. leaf-blade mm. wide or narrower; panicle slender =drop-seed, muhlenbergia schreberi.= b. leaf-blade mm. wide or more; panicle stout and coarse =barnyard grass, echinochloa crus-galli.= a. spikelet plump and compact, its bracts closely folded about each other -- . b. spikelet very flat, its two bracts closely folded together =cut-grass, leersia oryzoides.= c. spikelet loose and open, somewhat flattened, its bracts ascending or spreading and not closely folded about each other -- . a. panicle about half as long as the entire plant; leaves copiously hairy =witch grass, panicum capillare.= b. panicle of smaller size =panic-grasses, various species of panicum.= a. panicle strongly contracted or spike-like; plants of sand-dunes -- a. b. panicle spreading or slightly contracted; axis of the spikelet beset with bristles; leaves dm. long or more; marsh grass =reed grass, calamagrostis canadensis.= c. panicle spreading or somewhat contracted, but not spike-like; axis of the spikelet without bristles -- . a. panicle-branches erect or ascending -- . b. panicle-branches strongly spreading -- . a. the two outer scales of the spikelet one-fourth as long as the third scale, or sometimes one of them absent -- a. b. the glumes at least half as long as the lemma =wood-grass, muhlenbergia mexicana.= a. the chief lateral branches of the panicle dividing and bearing flowers below their middle =red-top, agrostis alba.= b. the chief branches of the panicle dividing only beyond the middle =hair grass, agrostis hyemalis.= a. spikelets arranged in two rows to form a definite spike -- . b. spikelets in panicles, never in definite rows -- . a. spikelets in a single row on one side of the axis, forming a one-sided spike =yard grass, eleusine indica.= b. spikelets alternating on opposite sides of the axis, forming a two-rowed spike -- . a. spikelets in pairs at each joint, forming a dense spike (wild rye) -- . b. spikelets single at each joint, forming a loose, open or interrupted spike -- . a. glumes lanceolate =wild rye, elymus canadensis.= b. glumes narrowly subulate =wild rye, elymus virginicus.= a. spikelets with their edges toward the axis of the spike =rye grass, lolium perenne.= b. spikelets with their sides toward the axis of the spike =quack grass, agropyron repens.= a. glumes longer than the lemmas =oats, avena sativa.= b. glumes shorter than the lemmas -- . a. axis of the spikelet beset with conspicuous long hairs about equaling the lemmas; tall marsh grass - m. high =reed, phragmites communis.= b. spikelets without conspicuous long hairs -- . a. spikelets sessile or nearly so, forming crowded or spike-like panicles -- . b. spikelets distinctly panicled -- . a. spikelets in dense one-sided clusters at the ends of the panicle branches =orchard grass, dactylis glomerata.= b. spikelets in an erect spike-like cluster =prairie june-grass, koeleria cristata.= a. lemmas, exclusive of the awn when present, mm. long or more -- . b. lemmas, exclusive of the awn when present, mm. long or less -- . a. awns on the lemmas mm. long or more =brome-grass, bromus tectorum.= b. awns on the lemmas mm. long or less, or none =cheat, bromus secalinus.= a. lemmas with sharp conspicuous veins from base to apex =manna grass, glyceria nervata.= b. lemmas with - inconspicuous veins -- . a. spikelets with flowers or more -- . b. spikelets with - (rarely ) flowers -- . a. stems tufted and decumbent at base (love grass) -- . b. stems erect (fescue grass) -- . a. spikelets . mm. wide =love grass, eragrostis pilosa.= b. spikelets mm. wide =love grass, eragrostis megastachya.= a. lemmas with conspicuous awns =fescue grass, festuca octoflora.= b. lemmas without awns =fescue grass, festuca elatior.= a. tufted annual grass =spear grass, poa annua.= b. perennials, with erect flowering stems -- . a. stems round =blue grass, poa pratensis.= b. stems strongly flattened =canadian blue grass, poa compressa.= cyperaceae, the sedge family grass-like or rush-like plants, with linear leaves or leafless, and inconspicuous flowers in small chaffy spikes. over species occur in michigan, of which only the commonest are included here. for the remaining species the manuals should be consulted. a. spikes all alike -- . b. the uppermost spike or spikes wholly staminate, the lower one or more pistillate; ovary and achene surrounded by a sac, the perigynium. mature fruit is necessary for satisfactory identification (sedge) -- . a. stems leafless, bearing one or more spikes at or near the top -- . b. stems leafy -- . a. spike one, terminal and erect (spike rush) -- . b. spikes usually more than one, lateral and spreading -- . a. annual, with fibrous roots =spike rush, eleocharis obtusa.= b. perennial, with a running rootstock =spike rush, eleocharis palustris.= a. stem round =bulrush, scirpus validus.= b. stem -cornered =three-square, scirpus americanus.= a. spikes axillary along the side of the stem =dulichium, dulichium, arundinaceum.= b. spikes terminal -- . a. spikes subtended by long conspicuous leaves which greatly exceed the flower clusters -- . b. spikes not conspicuously exceeded by the bract-like leaves -- . a. spikes in a dense head-like cluster, white-woolly at maturity =cotton grass, eriophorum virginicum.= b. spikes not in dense heads, nor white-woolly at maturity -- . a. perennial by a creeping rootstock =nut grass, cyperus esculentus.= b. perennial by hard basal corms =cyperus, cyperus strigosus.= a. bracts of the spike chestnut-brown =twig rush, cladium mariscoides.= b. bracts of the spike green or straw-color (sedge) -- . a. spikes - , separate =sedge, carex straminea.= b. spikes very numerous and densely crowded =sedge, carex vulpinoidea.= a. achenes flattened =sedge, carex crinita.= b. achenes -angled -- . a. perigynium tipped with a sharp straight -toothed beak -- . b. perigynium with a short soft beak -- . a. perigynium thin and papery, loosely enclosing the achene -- . b. perigynium firm, closely enclosing the achene -- . a. perigynium less than cm. long =sedge, carex hystericina.= b. perigynium more than cm. long =sedge, carex lupulina.= a. perigynium smooth =sedge, carex riparia.= b. perigynium hairy =sedge, carex filiformis.= a. beak of the perigynium bent abruptly to one side =sedge, carex laxiflora.= b. beak of the perigynium straight =sedge, carex pennsylvanica.= araceae, the arum family individual flowers small, but crowded on a fleshy spadix to form a conspicuous spike, usually surrounded by a green or colored spathe. a. leaves compound -- . b. leaves simple -- . a. leaflets , spathe pale green or purple ( - dm. high; spring) =indian turnip, arisaema triphyllum.= b. leaflets - ; spathe green; spadix long and slender ( - dm. high; late spring) =dragon root, arisaema dracontium.= a. leaves linear, sword-shape; spathe none ( - dm. high; early summer) =sweet flag, acorus calamus.= b. leaves broader than linear; spathe present -- . a. flower clusters partly underground, appearing in earliest spring =skunk cabbage, symplocarpus foetidus.= b. flower clusters peduncled, in early summer -- . a. leaves broadly ovate-cordate; spathe white =water arum, calla palustris.= b. leaves more or less sagittate; spathe green =arrow arum, peltandra virginica.= lemnaceae, the duckweed family minute leafless plants floating on quiet water; flowers exceedingly small and seldom seen. a. plant thick, ovoid, less than mm. long; roots none. two species are reported from michigan =wolffia spp.= b. plant flattened, with short roots -- . a. roots several from each rounded plant =duckweed, spirodela polyrhiza.= b. root single from each rounded plant =duckweed, lemna spp.= three species are reported from michigan, of which the commonest is lemna minor. eriocaulaceae, the pipewort family bog or marsh herbs, with small flowers in heads terminating long slender scapes. one species in michigan; leaves linear and basal; flower-stalk - cm. high; flower-heads whitish or lead-color =pipewort, eriocaulon articulatum.= xyridaceae, the yellow-eyed grass family small herbs with basal leaves and erect flower-stalks bearing a head of perfect yellow flowers, in summer. a. base of plant bulbous-thickened ( - dm. high) =yellow-eyed grass, xyris flexuosa.= b. base of plant not bulbous-thickened ( - dm. high) =yellow-eyed grass, xyris montana.= commelinaceae, the spiderwort family leafy-stemmed herbs; flowers with sepals, petals, and stamens, lasting but a single day; petals blue. a. stamens ; petals all equal (spiderwort) -- . b. perfect stamens , sterile stamens ; two of the petals larger than the third ( - dm. high; summer) =day-flower, commelina virginica.= a. sepals villous ( - dm. high; late spring) =spiderwort, tradescantia virginiana.= b. sepals glabrous, or with a tuft of hairs at the apex ( - dm. high; late spring) =spiderwort, tradescantia reflexa.= pontederiaceae, the pickerel-weed family aquatic herbs, with rather conspicuous petals; flowers in summer. a. flowers blue; leaves cordate-sagittate ( - dm. high) =pickerel-weed, pontederia cordata.= b. flowers yellow; leaves linear (submerged) =mud plantain, heteranthera dubia.= juncaceae, the rush family grass-like or rush-like plants, with inconspicuous greenish or brownish flowers, of chaffy or scale-like sepals and as many similar petals. a. leaf-sheaths closed; capsule -celled and -seeded; stem or leaves usually hairy at or near the base ( - dm. high). (wood rush) -- . b. leaf-sheaths open; capsule many-seeded; plants never hairy -- . a. flowers solitary at the ends of the branches of the umbel-like cluster (spring) =wood rush, luzula saltuensis.= b. flowers in spikes or dense clusters -- . a. flower-cluster spike-like, nodding at the tip (summer) =wood rush, luzula spicata.= b. flower-cluster umbel-like (spring) =wood rush, luzula campestris var. multiflora.= . the genus juncus, or rush, contains about species in michigan, blooming in summer or autumn. for their identification the manuals should be consulted. one of the commonest species is juncus effusus, growing in marshes, with erect leafless cylindrical stems, bearing a lateral cluster of flowers near the summit. another common species is juncus tenuis, with slender stems and linear leaves, growing in hard ground, especially in woodland paths. liliaceae, the lily family herbs or twining shrubs, with generally conspicuous flowers; sepals and petals each , and usually colored alike, stamens , ovary -celled, superior. in one species the perianth is -parted and the stamens are . a. flowers or flower-clusters lateral, axillary or apparently so -- . b. flowers or flower-clusters scapose or terminal -- . a. leaves minute and scale-like ( - dm. high; flowers greenish-yellow, june) =asparagus, asparagus officinalis.= b. leaves broad and flat, not scale-like -- . a. flowers numerous in rounded umbels; perianth-segments nearly separate; leaves long-petioled -- . b. flowers in clusters of - ; leaves short-petioled, sessile, or clasping -- . a. stems herbaceous (flowers greenish-yellow, ill-scented) (carrion-flower) -- . b. stems woody, thorny, climbing (flowers greenish-yellow, early summer) (green brier) -- . a. stems climbing by tendrils -- . b. stem not climbing; only the upper leaves, or none, with tendrils =carrion-flower, smilax ecirrhata.= a. leaves smooth beneath. =carrion-flower, smilax herbacea.= b. leaves minutely pubescent beneath when mature =carrion-flower, smilax herbacea var. pulverulenta.= a. leaves with principal veins. =green brier, smilax rotundifolia.= b. leaves with principal veins. =green brier, smilax hispida.= a. perianth-segments united into a tube (flowers axillary, late spring) (solomon's seal) -- . b. perianth-segments separate ( - dm. high; spring) (twisted-stalk) -- . a. leaves minutely pubescent beneath; filaments rough, inserted at three-fourths the length of the perianth ( - dm. high) =small solomon's seal, polygonatum biflorum.= b. leaves smooth beneath; filaments smooth, inserted at the middle of the perianth tube ( - dm. high) =great solomon's seal, polygonatum commutatum.= a. leaves distinctly clasping the stem; flowers greenish-white =twisted-stalk, streptopus amplexifolius.= b. leaves closely sessile; flowers reddish to purple -- . a. rootstock short and thick; berries spherical =twisted-stalk, streptopus roseus.= b. rootstock long and slender; berries -angled =twisted-stalk, streptopus longipes.= a. perianth-segments - cm. long -- . b. perianth-segments shorter than cm. -- . a. leaves all or chiefly basal, stem-leaves bract-like or none -- . b. leaves chiefly or entirely on the stem -- . a. leaves numerous, linear or sword-shape (flowers orange, summer) =day lily, hemerocallis fulva.= b. leaves a single pair, oblong or lanceolate -- . a. leaves a single whorl of (wake robin, trillium) -- . b. leaves numerous ( - dm. high; flowers yellow, orange, or red, in summer) (lily) -- . a. flowers erect -- . b. flowers nodding -- . a. leaves narrowly lanceolate, - mm. wide, mostly whorled =wood lily, lilium philadelphicum.= b. leaves linear, mm. wide or less, almost all alternate =wood lily, lilium philadelphicum var. andinum.= a. perianth-segments strongly revolute =turk's-cap lily, lilium superbum.= b. perianth-segments half-recurved =yellow lily, lilium canadense.= a. flower solitary -- . b. flowers in clusters, not solitary -- . a. stem with a single pair of basal leaves (dog's-tooth violet) -- . b. stem with a single whorl of leaves ( - dm. high; spring) (wake robin, trillium) -- . c. stem leafy (bellwort) -- . a. perianth yellow =dog's-tooth violet, erythronium americanum.= b. perianth white, bluish, or pinkish =dog's-tooth violet, erythronium albidum.= a. flower sessile, red or brown -- . b. flower peduncled, white or pink, rarely red -- . a. leaves sessile, sepals spreading =wake robin, trillium sessile.= b. leaves short-petioled, sepals reflexed =wake robin, trillium recurvatum.= a. ovary with distinct wing-like angles -- . b. ovary obtusely -angled or lobed -- . a. stamens distinctly longer than the pistil -- . b. stamens equaling or shorter than the pistil -- . a. stigmas erect or nearly so, slender =wake robin, trillium grandiflorum.= b. stigmas strongly recurved or spreading =wake robin, trillium erectum.= a. filaments about as long as the anthers =wake robin, trillium cernuum.= b. filaments half as long as the anthers or shorter =wake robin, trillium declinatum.= a. leaves obtuse; petals obtuse, white =dwarf white trillium, trillium nivale.= b. leaves acuminate; petals acute, purple-striped at base =painted trillium, trillium undulatum.= a. leaves sessile ( - dm. high; flowers yellow, spring) =bellwort, oakesia sessilifolia.= b. leaves perfoliate ( - dm. high; flowers yellow, in spring) -- . a. leaves minutely pubescent beneath =bellwort, uvularia grandiflora.= b. leaves glabrous and all glaucous =bellwort, uvularia perfoliata.= a. stem bearing whorls of - leaves ( - dm. high; flowers pale yellow, early summer) =indian cucumber-root, medeola virginiana.= b. stem-leaves not whorled, or all leaves basal -- . a. flowers in umbels -- . b. flowers in racemes or panicles -- . a. plant with the odor of onions or garlic (leaves all or chiefly basal; flower-stalks - dm. high, late spring or summer) -- . b. plant not with the odor of onions (leaves basal; flower-stalks - dm. high, with an umbel of - greenish-yellow flowers in late spring) =clintonia, clintonia borealis.= a. leaves oblong, - cm. wide, not present when the plants are in bloom (greenish-white flowers) =wild leek, allium tricoccum.= b. leaves linear, present with the flowers -- . a. umbel nodding or horizontal (petals rose-color) =wild onion, allium cernuum.= b. umbel erect -- . a. pedicels longer than the flowers -- . b. pedicels equaling or shorter than the flowers (petals rose-purple) =wild chives, allium schoenoprasum var. sibiricum.= a. leaves flattened; flowers pink to white =wild onion, allium canadense.= b. leaves cylindrical; flowers greenish to purple =field garlic, allium vineale.= a. leaves lanceolate to ovate, not more than times as long as broad -- . b. leaves linear or grass-like, at least times as long as broad -- . a. principal leaves all basal, stem-leaves none or bract-like -- . b. principal leaves on the stem -- . a. flowers in a spike-like raceme ( - dm. high; small white flowers in summer) =colic-root, aletris farinosa.= b. flowers in an umbel-like cluster -- b. a. perianth-segments ( - dm. high; flowers white, early summer) =wild lily of the valley, maianthemum canadense.= b. perianth-segments -- . a. styles ; flowers dioecious ( - dm. high; flowers white, early summer) =blazing star, chamaelirium luteum.= b. style ; flowers perfect, white, in spring (false solomon's seal) -- . a. flowers panicled ( - dm. high) =false solomon's seal, smilacina racemosa.= b. flowers racemed -- . a. leaves - , usually ( - dm. high) =false solomon's seal, smilacina trifolia.= b. leaves - ( - dm. high) =false solomon's seal, smilacina stellata.= a. flowers bright blue; perianth-segments united ( - dm. high, spring) =grape hyacinth, muscari botryoides.= b. flowers blue, greenish, yellowish, or white; perianth-segments separate -- . a. flowers cm. wide, or smaller (white or greenish, in racemes, late spring or summer) (false asphodel) -- . b. flowers . cm. wide, or larger -- . a. stem glabrous ( dm. high or less) =false asphodel, tofieldia palustris.= =false asphodel, tofieldia glutinosa.= b. stem viscid-pubescent ( - dm. high) a. perianth-segments with glands near the base ( - dm. high; greenish-white panicled flowers in summer) =zygadenus, zygadenus chloranthus.= b. perianth-segments without glands -- . a. plant - dm. tall; flowers blue or nearly white, in long racemes (early summer) =wild hyacinth, camassia esculenta.= b. plant - dm. tall; flowers greenish-white, in short corymb-like racemes (spring) =star of bethlehem, ornithogalum umbellatum.= dioscoreaceae, the yam family twining herbs with net-veined leaves and greenish or white flowers in panicles or racemes. one species in michigan; leaves ovate-cordate; flowers in summer =wild yam, dioscorea villosa.= amaryllidaceae, the amaryllis family plants with linear basal leaves, and perfect flowers, with -parted perianth, inferior ovary, and stamens. one species in michigan; - dm. high; flowers yellow, cm. wide, in spring =star grass, hypoxis hirsuta.= iridaceae, the iris family herbs, with -parted perianth, inferior ovary, and stamens. a. flowers blue, cm. wide or larger -- . b. flowers about cm. wide (blue or white, from a spathe terminating a -edged stem - dm. high, spring and early summer) (blue-eyed grass) -- . a. flowering stems - dm. high (early summer) =blue flag, iris versicolor.= b. flowering stems dm. or less high (spring) =dwarf iris, iris lacustris.= a. spathes terminal, sessile -- . b. spathes long-peduncled, axillary -- . a. spathe single -- . b. spathes on each flowering stem -- . a. pedicels much longer than the inner (shorter) bract =blue-eyed grass, sisyrinchium mucronatum.= b. pedicels equaling or barely exceeding the inner bract -- . a. capsule brown; common species =blue-eyed grass, sisyrinchium angustifolium.= b. capsule green or yellowish; rare species =blue-eyed grass, sisyrinchium montanum.= a. leaves folded lengthwise; stems narrowly winged =blue-eyed grass, sisyrinchium hastile.= b. leaves flat; stem broadly winged, - mm. wide =blue-eyed grass, sisyrinchium albidum.= a. capsules pale straw-color or whitish -- . b. capsules brown, or tinged with purple -- . a. plant with straight fibrous bristles at base; pedicels long-exserted =blue-eyed grass, sisyrinchium farwellii.= b. plants not bristly at base; pedicels barely exserted =blue-eyed grass, sisyrinchium strictum.= a. pedicels scarcely exceeding the inner bract -- a. b. pedicels much exceeding the inner bract -- . a. stem - mm. wide; bracts . - cm. long =blue-eyed grass, sisyrinchium gramineum.= b. stem - mm. wide; bracts - . cm. long =blue-eyed grass, sisyrinchium apiculatum.= orchidaceae, the orchis family herbs, with irregular flowers, one petal, the lip, differing from the others in size and shape, inferior ovary, and one or two stamens adherent to the style. a. flowers in a spike-like obviously twisted raceme; small, yellowish or greenish-white, in late summer and autumn (except a) (ladies' tresses) -- . b. flowers solitary or in clusters, but never in a twisted raceme -- . a. flowers in row =ladies' tresses, spiranthes gracilis.= b. flowers in several rows -- . a. lip constricted near the apex =ladies' tresses, spiranthes romanzoftiana.= b. lip not constricted -- . a. lip yellow; flowers in spring and early summer =ladies' tresses, spiranthes lucida.= b. lip white =ladies' tresses, spiranthes cernua.= a. brown, purple, or yellow plants, without green color, with scale-like leaves ( - dm. high; summer) (coral root) -- . b. plants with normal green color -- . a. lip white, not spotted =coral root, corallorrhiza trifida.= b. lip white, spotted with red -- . a. lip distinctly -lobed =coral root, corallorrhiza maculata.= b. lip entire, or barely toothed -- . a. flower, exclusive of ovary, mm. long =coral root, corallorrhiza odontorhiza.= b. flower about mm. long. =coral root, corallorrhiza striata.= a. leaf or none at flowering time -- . b. leaves a single pair, basal, or opposite on the stem; never alternate on the stem -- . c. leaves several, all basal, prominently net-veined, and frequently blotched with white (scape - dm. high; flowers whitish, pubescent, in summer) (rattlesnake plantain) -- . d. leaves or more, on the stem -- . a. foliage leaf absent or undeveloped at flowering time, or merely persisting through the winter from the previous year -- . b. foliage leaf present at flowering time -- . a. flower rose-purple, - cm. long, solitary or two ( - dm. high, early summer) =arethusa, arethusa bulbosa.= b. flowers purplish-green, in racemes, with a spur cm. long =crane-fly orchis, tipularia discolor.= c. flowers yellowish, purple tinged, in racemes; spur none ( - dm. high, early summer). =putty root, aplectrum hyemale.= a. leaf linear or linear-lanceolate -- . b. leaf of a broader shape -- . a. flower solitary or two; leaf just below the flower -- a. b. flowers in a loose raceme, sometimes only ; leaf basal =calopogon, calopogon pulchellus.= a. flowers greenish, yellowish, or white -- . b. flowers pink to purple, often variegated -- . a. flowers - mm. wide, with a spur about the same length ( - dm. high, summer) (rein orchis) -- . b. flowers mm. wide or less; spur none ( - dm. high; summer) (adder's mouth) -- . a. pedicels less than mm. long; lip broadest below the middle =adder's mouth, microstylis monophyllos.= b. pedicels more than mm. long; lip broadest near the apex =adder's mouth, microstylis unifolia.= a. flowers spicate; lip distinctly -lobed ( - dm. high; early summer) -- . b. flowers solitary or two -- . a. leaf on the stem, lanceolate to ovate -- a. b. leaf basal, round-ovate ( dm. high or less; early summer) =calypso, calypso bulbosa.= a. leaves opposite and sessile near the middle of the stem ( - dm. high; flowers in summer) (tway-blade) -- . b. leaves basal -- . a. lip deeply -cleft (flowers purplish) =tway-blade, listera cordata.= b. lip wedge-shape, with round shallow lobes (flowers greenish-yellow) =tway-blade, listera convallarioides.= a. lip an inflated sac about cm. long -- d. b. lip not sac-like -- . a. flower with a spur - mm. long -- . b. flower not spurred ( - dm. high; early summer) (tway-blade) -- . a. flowers purple or magenta, or with white markings -- . b. flowers greenish, yellowish, or white ( - dm. high; summer) (rein orchis) -- . a. leaf ( - dm. high; early summer) =round-leaved orchis, orchis rotundifolia.= b. leaves (- cm. high; late spring) =showy orchis, orchis spectabilis.= a. lip about mm. long, purple =tway-blade, liparis liliifolia.= b. lip about mm. long, yellowish-green =tway-blade, liparis loeselii.= a. perianth - mm. long; lip with elongated point =rattlesnake plantain, epipactis decipiens.= b. perianth - mm. long; lip sack-like -- . a. raceme loosely flowered, one-sided =rattlesnake plantain, epipactis repens var. ophioides.= b. raceme closely flowered, not one-sided =rattlesnake plantain, epipactis pubescens.= a. lip conspicuously sack-like, inflated (late spring and early summer) (lady's slipper) -- . b. lip not sack-like nor inflated -- . a. lip white ( - dm. high) =white lady's slipper, cypripedium candidum.= b. lip yellow ( - dm. high) -- . c. lip white, with crimson or purple markings -- . d. lip pink ( - dm. high, late spring) =stemless lady's slipper, cypripedium acaule.= a. lip - cm. long. =small yellow lady's slipper, cypripedium parviflorum.= b. lip . - cm. long =large yellow lady's slipper, cypripedium parviflorum var. pubescens.= a. lip cm. long or less; sepals separate ( . - dm. high) =ram's head lady's slipper, cypripedium arietinum.= b. lip cm. long or more; the lower sepals united =showy lady's slipper, cypripedium hirsutum.= a. flowers solitary in the axils, or solitary and terminal; not spurred -- . b. flowers in terminal racemes, spurred -- . a. leaves a whorl of ( - dm. high; petals greenish; late summer) =whorled pogonia, pogonia verticillata.= b. leaves alternate -- . a. leaves lanceolate or narrowly ovate, - cm. long, narrowed at base; flower terminal ( - dm. high; flowers pink purple, early summer) =snake mouth, pogonia ophioglossoides.= b. leaves ovate, - cm. long, clasping; flowers axillary ( - cm. high; flowers purple, summer) =nodding pogonia, pogonia trianthophora.= a. leaf basal; spur nearly straight =rein orchis, habenaria obtusata.= b. leaf on the stem; spur strongly curved =rein orchis, habenaria clavellata.= a. flower-stalk without bracts below the raceme; flowers yellowish-green =rein orchis, habenaria hookeri.= b. flower-stalk bearing bracts below the raceme; flowers greenish-white -- . a. spur - mm. long =rein orchis, habenaria orbiculata.= b. spur - mm. long =rein orchis, habenaria macrophylla.= a. lip fringed (fringed orchis) -- . b. lip not fringed (rein orchis) -- . a. lip with - evident teeth at apex -- . b. lip without apical teeth -- . a. stem-leaves or more =rein orchis, habenaria bracteata.= b. stem-leaves -- b. a. flowers white =rein orchis, habenaria dilatata.= b. flowers greenish-yellow -- . a. lip lanceolate, tapering toward the apex =rein orchis, habenaria hyperborea.= b. lip oblong, truncate at the apex =rein orchis, habenaria flava.= a. lip deeply -lobed, toothed or fringed -- . b. lip not -lobed, but deeply fringed -- . a. flowers purple =purple fringed orchis, habenaria psycodes.= b. flowers white or nearly so -- . a. spur cm. long or more =prairie fringed orchis, habenaria leucophaea.= b. spur - . cm. long =ragged fringed orchis, habenaria lacera.= a. flowers yellow =yellow fringed orchis, habenaria ciliaris.= b. flowers white =white fringed orchis, habenaria blephariglottis.= piperaceae, the pepper family herbaceous plants with alternate leaves, and flowers without either calyx or corolla. one species in michigan, a marsh plant with heart-shape leaves and slender racemes of white flowers =lizard's tail, saururus cernuus.= salicaceae, the willow family trees or shrubs, with dioecious flowers in catkins. a. leaves less than twice as long as broad, on petioles cm. long or more -- . b. leaves more than twice as long as broad, on petioles . cm. long or less. (the genus salix, or willow, contains about species in michigan, of which only the commoner are mentioned here. for the others the manuals should be consulted.) -- . a. petioles strongly flattened laterally -- . b. petioles not flattened laterally -- . a. leaves broadly ovate or nearly circular -- . b. leaves broadly triangular or deltoid in shape -- . a. leaves coarsely toothed =large-toothed aspen, populus grandidentata.= b. leaves finely crenulate or serrate =quaking aspen, populus tremuloides.= a. tree with narrow spire-shape crown =lombardy poplar, populus nigra var. italica.= b. tree with spreading crown =cottonwood, populus deltoides.= a. lower side of leaf densely tomentose =white poplar, populus alba.= b. lower side of leaf glabrous or nearly so -- . a. petioles glabrous =balsam poplar, populus balsamifera.= b. petioles ciliate =balm of gilead, populus candicans.= a. trees -- . b. shrubs -- . a. petioles without glands -- . b. petioles with glands -- . a. petiole short (about mm.), broad and flat =black willow, salix nigra.= b. petiole slender, about - mm. long =peach-leaved willow, salix amygdaloides.= a. leaves green beneath =crack willow, salix fragilis.= b. leaves pale beneath -- . a. branches and twigs conspicuously drooping =weeping willow, salix babylonica.= b. branches and twigs not conspicuously drooping, yellow =yellow willow, salix alba var. vitellina.= a. shrubs of bogs -- . b. plants of sand-dunes along the great lakes -- . c. plants of dry upland hills -- . d. plants of wet ground, river-banks, and swamps -- . a. leaves densely white-tomentose beneath =willow, salix candida.= b. leaves pale beneath but not tomentose =willow, salix serissima.= c. leaves glabrous and green beneath =willow, salix pedicellaris.= a. leaves linear =willow, salix longifolia.= b. leaves ovate-lanceolate, tomentose beneath =willow, salix syrticola.= c. leaves ovate-lanceolate, glabrous =willow, salix glaucophylla.= a. leaves about times as long as broad =willow, salix rostrata.= b. leaves narrower, nearly sessile =willow, salix tristis.= c. leaves narrower, distinctly petioled =willow, salix humilis.= a. leaves linear or nearly so =willow, salix longifolia.= b. leaves shining =willow, salix lucida.= c. leaves silky =willow, salix sericea.= d. leaves not as in the preceding species -- . a. leaves rounded at base =willow, salix cordata.= b. leaves acute at base -- . a. leaves finely serrulate =willow, salix petiolaris.= b. leaves remotely serrate or nearly entire =willow, salix discolor.= myricaceae, the sweet gale family shrubs, with monoecious or dioecious flowers in catkins, and aromatic foliage. a. leaves pinnately lobed =sweet fern, myrica asplenifolia.= b. leaves merely serrate -- . a. shrub of sandy soil, shore of lake erie =bayberry, myrica carolinensis.= b. shrub of bogs and shores, northern half of state =sweet gale, myrica gale.= juglandaceae, the walnut family trees with alternate pinnately compound leaves and flowers in catkins. a. leaflets - ; pith divided by partitions into chambers -- . b. leaflets - ; pith not partitioned (hickory) -- . a. pith brown; bark with flat longitudinal ridges =butternut, juglans cinerea.= b. pith cream-color; bark of trunk without flat ridges =black walnut, juglans nigra.= a. bark of the trunk essentially smooth, not deeply furrowed or shaggy -- . b. bark of the trunk deeply furrowed or shaggy -- . a. leaflets glabrous beneath; buds greenish -- . b. leaflets somewhat pubescent beneath; buds bright yellow =bitter nut, carya cordiformis.= a. twigs hairy =small-fruited hickory, carya microcarpa.= b. twigs smooth =pignut hickory, carya glabra.= a. twigs and leaves both pubescent -- . b. twigs nearly smooth; leaves smooth beneath =shag-bark hickory, carya ovata.= a. twigs brownish; buds densely hairy =mocker-nut hickory, carya alba.= b. twigs orange; buds very slightly hairy =king-nut hickory, carya laciniosa.= betulaceae, the birch family trees or shrubs with alternate simple leaves and inconspicuous monoecious flowers, the staminate flowers in catkins, and the pistillate in catkins or small clusters. a. trees, with white or yellowish bark exfoliating in thin papery plates or scales -- . b. tree or shrub, with smooth, dark gray bark; trunk fluted with prominent longitudinal ridges =hornbeam, carpinus caroliniana.= c. trees or shrubs; the bark more or less roughened, but not exfoliating; trunk not fluted -- . a. bark white or chalky =paper birch, betula alba var. papyrifera.= b. bark yellowish =yellow birch, betula lutea.= a. shrubs, with leaves cm. long or less -- . b. shrubs or trees, with leaves cm. long or more -- . a. twigs glandular-warty =dwarf birch, betula glandulosa.= b. twigs not glandular =swamp birch, betula pumila.= a. twigs and bark with the odor of wintergreen =sweet birch, betula lenta.= b. twigs and bark without odor of wintergreen -- . a. fruit clusters woody, persistent on the plant for a long time -- . b. fruit clusters herbaceous, dropping in late autumn -- . a. leaves rusty or whitish beneath, and pubescent at least on the veins =speckled alder, alnus incana.= b. leaves green beneath, and either pubescent or smooth -- . a. leaves broadest at or below the middle =mountain alder, alnus crispa.= b. leaves broadest above the middle =smooth alder, alnus rugosa.= a. tree; fruit a cluster of bladder-like sacs each containing a small achene =ironwood, ostrya virginiana.= b. shrubs; fruit a nut within a close-fitting involucre -- . a. involucre of broad bracts, almost separate and not much longer than the fruit =hazel, corylus americana.= b. involucre of united bracts, prolonged into a bristly beak beyond the fruit =beaked hazel, corylus rostrata.= fagaceae, the beech family trees (or species shrubby), with alternate simple leaves and monoecious flowers, the staminate flowers in catkins, and the pistillate solitary or in small clusters. fruit a nut (or acorn) enclosed in a cup or bur. a. leaves serrate with numerous sharp-pointed teeth -- . b. leaves serrate, lobed, or entire, but never serrate with sharp-pointed teeth; fruit an acorn; pith -angled in the young twigs (oak) -- . a. bark gray, smooth; buds - times longer than wide; nut triangular =beech, fagus grandifolia.= b. bark rough; buds relatively thicker; nut rounded =chestnut, castanea dentata.= a. leaves entire, except for a bristle at the tip =shingle oak, quercus imbricaria.= b. leaves toothed or lobed, the points bristle-tipped -- . c. leaves toothed or lobed, the points without bristles -- . a. leaves entire below the middle, with a few shallow lobes beyond =black jack oak, quercus marilandica.= b. leaves deeply lobed throughout -- . a. cup of the acorn saucer-shape, covering less than one-third of the acorn -- . b. cup of the acorn hemispherical or top-shape, covering one-third or more of the acorn -- . a. length of the lateral leaf-lobes less than one-third the width of the leaf; acorn cup - . cm. wide =red oak, quercus rubra.= b. length of the lateral leaf-lobes more than one-third the width of the leaf -- . a. acorn depressed-globose, about cm. in diameter =pin oak, quercus palustris.= b. acorn ovoid, . - cm. thick =schneck's oak, quercus schneckii.= a. leaves pubescent beneath =black oak, quercus velutina.= b. leaves glabrous beneath -- . a. buds glabrous; inner bark of the trunk yellow =hill's oak, quercus ellipsoidalis.= b. buds pubescent beyond the middle; inner bark of trunk red =scarlet oak, quercus coccinea.= a. leaves deeply pinnately lobed -- . b. leaves crenate, dentate, or sinuate, not lobed -- . a. leaf divided nearly to the middle by a pair of deep lateral lobes near the middle of the leaf; acorn more than half covered by the cup =bur oak, quercus macrocarpa.= b. leaf without a median pair of deeper lobes; acorn about one-fourth covered by the cup =white oak, quercus alba.= a. leaves broadest at or near the middle, with numerous ( - ) sharp coarse teeth on each side =yellow oak, quercus muhlenbergii.= b. leaves broadest above the middle, with a few shallow, rounded or subacute teeth ( or less on each side) -- . a. large tree; leaves densely white-tomentose beneath; acorn on a stalk - cm. long =swamp white oak, quercus bicolor.= b. shrub; leaves thinly white-tomentose beneath; acorn sessile or nearly so =scrub oak, quercus prinoides.= urticaceae, the nettle family herbs or trees, with small inconspicuous apetalous flowers. a. trees or tall shrubs -- . b. herbs -- . a. leaves oblong-ovate to lanceolate, serrate -- . b. leaves broadly ovate to rotund, some of them lobed (mulberry) -- . a. leaves thick, coarsely and doubly serrate, broadest near the middle (elm) -- . b. leaves thin, simply serrate, broadest distinctly below the middle =hackberry, celtis occidentalis.= a. some of the branches with flat corky wings; leaves smooth above =cork elm, ulmus racemosa.= b. branches without corky wings; leaves more or less rough above -- . a. petioles and axillary buds glabrous =white elm, ulmus americana.= b. petioles and axillary buds pubescent with rusty hairs =slippery elm, ulmus fulva.= a. leaves rough above =red mulberry, morus rubra.= b. leaves smooth above =white mulberry, morus alba.= a. leaves alternate -- . b. leaves opposite -- . a. leaves - cm. long, stems pubescent =pellitory, parietaria pennsylvanica.= b. leaves - cm. long; stem armed with stinging hairs =wood nettle, laportea canadensis.= a. twining plant; leaves serrate or cleft =hop, humulus lupulus.= b. erect plant; leaves palmately compound =hemp, cannabis sativa.= c. erect plants; leaves not lobed or compound -- . a. stems armed with stinging hairs -- . b. stems glabrous or rough, but not with stinging hairs -- . a. leaves ovate, with a heart-shape base =stinging nettle, urtica dioica.= b. leaves lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, not heart-shape at base =slender nettle, urtica gracilis.= a. stems glabrous, pellucid =clearweed, pilea pumila.= b. stems rough, opaque =false nettle, boehmeria cylindrica.= santalaceae, the sandalwood family low herbs with alternate entire leaves and terminal clusters of small greenish-white bell-shape flowers without petals in spring and early summer. a. inflorescence of several-flowered clusters terminating the stem and in the upper axils =toad-flax, comandra umbellata.= b. inflorescence of axillary clusters of - flowers =toad-flax, comandra livida.= loranthaceae, the mistletoe family parasitic plants, attached to the branches of trees. one species in michigan, a dwarf brown plant - mm. long, with minute scale-like leaves, growing on the branches of black spruce =dwarf mistletoe, arceuthobium pusillum.= aristolochiaceae, the birthwort family flowers greenish-brown or reddish-brown, at or near the ground, with inferior -celled ovary. a. leaves alternate, on the stem; flowers on a basal scaly branch ( - dm. high; summer) =virginia snakeroot, aristolochia serpentaria.= b. leaves a single basal pair, bearing short-stalked flower between them (spring) (wild ginger) -- . a. lobes of the perianth ending in a tubular portion - mm. long =wild ginger, asarum canadense.= b. lobes of the perianth ending in a tubular portion over cm. long =wild ginger, asarum canadense var. acuminatum.= c. lobes of the perianth triangular, not tubular at the end =wild ginger, asarum canadense var. reflexum.= polygonaceae, the buckwheat family herbs with alternate entire leaves, stipules surrounding the stem above the base of each leaf, and small green, white or pink flowers without petals. a. erect or ascending or prostrate or floating plants -- . b. scrambling or climbing plants, clinging by sharp recurved prickles on the -angled stems (flowers greenish or pink, summer) (tear-thumb) -- . c. twining vines (flowers white or greenish, summer) -- . a. sepals , the inner ones enlarging in fruit and surrounding the achenes; flowers in panicles -- . b. sepals or (occasional flowers may be found with sepals, but the flowers are not in panicles) (summer) -- . a. leaves arrow-shape or halberd-shape, with basal lobes (sorrel) -- . b. leaves without basal lobes (dock) -- . a. leaves halberd-shape, the basal lobes directed sidewise =red sorrel, rumex acetosella.= b. leaves arrow-shape, the basal lobes directed backward =green sorrel, rumex acetosa.= a. the projecting wings of the fruiting calyx (known as valves) with sharp slender teeth =bitter dock, rumex obtusifolius.= b. valves entire or finely dentate, but without sharp slender teeth -- . a. pedicels straight, thickened toward the end, all regularly deflexed, - times longer than the fruiting calyx =swamp dock, rumex verticillatus.= b. pedicels slender, flexuous, spreading -- . a. leaves flat or nearly so -- . b. leaves with strongly crisped or wavy-curled margins; plants usually of cultivated grounds or waste places ( - dm., summer) -- . a. with grain-like tubercles on all valves of the fruit -- . b. with grain-like tubercles on only one valve, or entirely lacking -- . a. valves broadly cordate, finely toothed =water dock, rumex brittanica.= b. valves triangular-ovate, entire or nearly so =dock, rumex mexicanus.= a. valves oblong =bloody dock, rumex sanguineus.= b. valves broadly heart-shape -- . a. grain-like tubercle less than half as long as the valve =patience dock, rumex patientia.= b. grain-like tubercle more than half as long as the valve =tall dock, rumex altissimus.= a. the grain-like tubercle on the valves of the fruit broadly ellipsoid, with rounded apex =sour dock, rumex crispus.= b. tubercle ovoid with tapering apex =sour dock, rumex elongatus.= a. flowers inconspicuous, in small axillary clusters; leaves jointed at the base (knotweed) -- . b. flowers more or less conspicuous, in obvious spikes or racemes which terminate the stems or branches, or arise from the axils of the upper leaves -- . a. leaves sharply folded lengthwise ( - dm. tall) =knotweed, polygonum tenue.= b. leaves flat or nearly so -- . a. the small sepals pink or white at the margin (stems prostrate or ascending) -- . b. sepals greenish or yellowish throughout (stems erect or ascending) -- . a. leaves thin; common weed of dooryards and gardens =knotweed, polygonum aviculare.= b. leaves thick and fleshy; a plant of sandy shores =knotweed, polygonum aviculare var. littorale.= a. leaves narrowly lanceolate or linear-oblong; rare species =knotweed, polygonum ramosissimum.= b. leaves broadly oblong, oval, or elliptical; common weed of yards and gardens =knotweed, polygonum erectum.= a. leaves broadly triangular ( - dm. high; flowers white) =buckwheat, fagopyrum esculentum.= b. leaves from linear to ovate or oblong -- . a. sepals ; flowers in very long and slender spike-like racemes ( - dm. high) =knotweed, polygonum virginianum.= b. sepals ; flowers in spikes or racemes -- . a. flowers on slender pedicels, forming a loose raceme; leaves linear, jointed at the base ( - dm. high; flowers pink or white; chiefly near the great lakes) =jointweed, polygonella articulata.= b. flowers sessile or nearly so, forming a spike or spike-like raceme -- . a. stipular sheaths at the base of the leaves ciliate at their upper margin -- . b. stipular sheaths not ciliate at the upper margin -- . a. sheaths with spreading borders -- . b. sheaths without a spreading border, appressed to the stem (smartweed) -- . a. leaves ovate, acuminate; stem erect ( - m. high; flowers pink) =prince's feather, polygonum orientate.= b. leaves oblong, obtuse or subacute; spreading or ascending plant of wet soil =water smartweed, polygonum amphibium var. hartwrightii.= a. peduncles with glandular hairs ( - dm. high) =smartweed, polygonum careyi.= b. peduncles not glandular ( - dm. high) (smartweed) -- . a. sepals beset with minute black dots -- . b. sepals white, pink, or red, not black-dotted -- . a. racemes drooping or nodding at the tip; achene dull-colored =smartweed, polygonum hydropiper.= b. racemes erect; achene smooth and shining =smartweed, polygonum acre.= a. sheaths smooth; leaves usually with a dark spot near the base =smartweed, polygonum persicaria.= b. sheaths hairy; leaves not dark-spotted =smartweed, polygonum hydropiperoides.= a. leaves obtuse or somewhat acute at the apex -- . b. leaves acuminate at the apex ( - dm. high; flowers white to pink) (smartweed) -- . a. stem unbranched, erect, bearing a single terminal raceme ( - cm. high; flowers pink) =bistort, polygonum viviparum.= b. stem branched, submerged in water or creeping on muddy shores (flowers pink) =water smartweed, polygonum amphibium.= a. raceme single or two; leaves broadly ovate-lanceolate, about times as long as wide =smartweed, polygonum muhlenbergii.= b. racemes numerous; leaves lanceolate, - times as long as wide -- . a. racemes drooping or nodding at the tip =smartweed, polygonum lapathifolium.= b. racemes erect =smartweed, polygonum pennsylvanicum.= a. leaves arrow-shape, the basal lobes pointing backward =tear-thumb, polygonum sagittatum.= b. leaves halberd-shape, the basal lobes pointing sidewise =tear-thumb, polygonum arifolium.= a. the three outer sepals becoming conspicuously winged in fruit (false buckwheat) -- . b. the sepals all unchanged in fruit, except in size (black bindweed) -- . a. wings of the fruit with wavy-curled margins =false buckwheat, polygonum scandens.= b. wings of the fruit flat =false buckwheat, polygonum dumetorum.= a. leaf-sheaths with a ring of bristles at the base =black bindweed, polygonum cilinode.= b. leaf-sheaths without a ring of bristles =black bindweed, polygonum convolvulus.= chenopodiaceae, the goosefoot family herbs, with inconspicuous greenish or reddish flowers without petals, in summer. a. leaves linear or nearly so, entire -- . b. leaves of a broader shape, usually toothed or lobed -- . a. leaves rather stiff, narrowly linear or thread-like, with spine-like tips =russian thistle, salsola kali var. tenuifolia.= b. leaves soft, not spine-like -- . a. widely branched, rather diffuse, - dm. tall; plant of the shore of the great lakes =bug-seed, corispermum hyssopifolium.= b. erect plants with ascending branches -- . a. leaves glabrous ( - dm. tall) =goosefoot, chenopodium leptophyllum.= b. leaves minutely ciliate on the margin (bushy branched, - dm. tall) =kochia, kochia scoparia.= a. principal leaves with a broad truncate, rounded, or hastate base -- . b. principal leaves narrowed to the base -- . a. leaves broadly ovate, with - large sharp projecting teeth on each side =goosefoot, chenopodium hybridum.= b. leaves hastate or triangular-ovate, entire or with many teeth -- . a. leaves entire or merely undulate -- . b. leaves sharply or sinuately toothed -- . a. stem erect, simple or sparingly branched =good king henry, chenopodium bonus-henricus.= b. stem diffuse or ascending, freely branched =orache, atriplex patula.= a. flowers in small heads, in the axils or in terminal spikes; leaves sinuately toothed or nearly entire =strawberry blite, chenopodium capitatum.= b. flowers in terminal panicles; leaves sharply toothed (goosefoot) -- . a. panicles short, not as long as the subtending leaves =goosefoot, chenopodium murale.= b. panicles long, exceeding the subtending leaves -- . a. calyx green =goosefoot, chenopodium urbicum.= b. calyx red =goosefoot, chenopodium rubrum.= a. foliage glandular and strongly aromatic -- . b. foliage not glandular nor aromatic; sometimes ill-scented -- . a. flowers in large loose open spreading panicles; leaves deeply pinnatifid =jerusalem oak, chenopodium botrys.= b. flowers clustered in slender axillary or terminal spikes -- . a. spikes dense, leafy =mexican tea, chenopodium ambrosioides.= b. spikes open, nearly leafless =wormseed, chenopodium ambrosioides var. anthelminticum.= a. stem erect, - dm. tall; leaves frequently white-mealy =lamb's quarters, chenopodium album.= b. stem prostrate or ascending, succulent; leaves glaucous-white beneath =goosefoot, chenopodium glaucum.= c. stem widely and diffusely branched; leaves green, soon deciduous =cycloloma, cycloloma atriplicifolium.= amaranthaceae, the amaranth family herbs, with alternate leaves, and inconspicuous greenish or reddish flowers without petals, which are axillary or in dense clusters, blooming in summer. a. flower-clusters axillary -- . b. flower-clusters in terminal spikes or panicles, sometimes also axillary -- . a. plant prostrate or decumbent; seed about . mm. broad =pigweed, amaranthus blitoides.= b. plant erect or ascending, widely branched; seeds about mm. broad ( - dm. high) =tumble weed, amaranthus graecizans.= a. principal leaves with a pair of spines at their base =thorny amaranth, amaranthus spinosus.= b. spines none at the base of the leaves -- . a. weedy plants of cultivated or waste ground; flowers monoecious or polygamous; pistillate flowers with a calyx (pigweed) -- . b. plants of swamps or stream-banks; flowers dioecious; pistillate flowers without calyx (water hemp) -- . a. spikes short, - cm. long, crowded in dense ovoid panicles; the terminal spike not conspicuously elongated beyond the appressed or ascending lower ones =pigweed, amaranthus retroflexus.= b. spikes slender, - cm. long; the terminal spike greatly exceeding the short inconspicuous divergent lower ones -- . a. bracts subulate, sharply awned =pigweed, amaranthus hybridus.= b. bracts merely acuminate =pigweed, amaranthus paniculatus.= a. flowers in leafy spikes, or the lower in separate clusters =water hemp, acnida tuberculata.= b. flowers in separate distinct clusters =water hemp, acnida tuberculata var. subnuda.= phytolaccaceae, the pokeweed family herbs with alternate entire leaves, small flowers without petals, and a many-celled ovary. one species in michigan, - m. high, with numerous racemes of whitish flowers, in late summer, followed by dark-purple berries =pokeweed, phytolacca decandra.= nyctaginaceae, the four-o'clock family herbs, with opposite entire leaves and flowers in small clusters surrounded by a broad open calyx-like involucre; the true calyx colored like a corolla; petals none ( - dm. high; flowers purple, in summer). a. leaves lanceolate or narrower, sessile =umbrella-wort, oxybaphus hirsutus.= b. leaves ovate, petioled =umbrella-wort, oxybaphus nyctagineus.= illecebraceae, the knotwort family herbs, with opposite entire leaves, and minute flowers without petals. (prostrate spreading or freely branched plants, dm. high or less; flowers in summer.) a. stipules none; leaves slightly connate at base, subulate =knawel, scleranthus annuus.= b. stipules present, but small; leaves elliptical or oval (forked chickweed) -- . a. stems pubescent; internodes seldom more than cm. long =forked chickweed, anychia polygonoides.= b. stems smooth; internodes about cm. long =forked chickweed, anychia canadensis.= aizoaceae, the carpet-weed family prostrate herbs, with whorled leaves and small whitish axillary flowers without petals, in summer. one species in michigan =carpet-weed, mollugo verticillata.= caryophyllaceae, the pink family herbs, with opposite or whorled entire leaves, and stems frequently swollen at the nodes. sepals or ; petals separate, as many as the sepals, or rarely none; stamens twice as many as the petals in plants with conspicuous flowers, sometimes fewer in those with small flowers; ovary -celled, with the ovules on a central axis, and with - styles. a. calyx spreading, of separate sepals; flowers mm. wide or less; petals sometimes none -- . b. calyx tubular, of united sepals; flowers in many species more than mm. wide; petals always present -- . a. stipules present -- . b. stipules none -- . a. leaves opposite; flowers pink (about dm. high; summer) =sand spurrey, spergularia rubra.= b. leaves whorled; flowers white ( - dm. high; leaves linear; summer) =spurrey, spergula arvensis.= a. leaves subulate or thread-like -- . b. leaves linear to ovate -- . a. leaves opposite ( dm. high or less; flowers white, summer) =pearlwort, sagina procumbens.= b. leaves fascicled in the axils -- . a. styles or ( dm. high; terminal white flowers mm. wide, in summer) =pearlwort, sagina nodosa.= b. styles ( - dm. high; flowers white, nearly cm. wide, summer) =stitchwort, arenaria stricta.= a. petals entire ( dm. high or less; flowers white, in summer) (stitchwort) -- . b. petals notched or -cleft at the end, or none -- . a. principal leaves cm. long or less -- . b. principal leaves . cm. long or more -- . a. petals half as long as the sepals =stitchwort, arenaria leptoclados.= b. petals almost as long as the sepals =stitchwort, arenaria serpyllifolia.= a. leaves oblong-oval, obtuse. =stitchwort, arenaria lateriflora.= b. leaves lanceolate, acute. =stitchwort, arenaria macrophylla.= a. capsule splitting by valves at maturity; styles usually (chickweed) -- . b. capsule opening by terminal teeth at maturity; styles usually (tufted or matted plants, - dm. high; flowers white, in spring and summer) (mouse-ear chickweed) -- . a. petals distinctly shorter than the sepals, or none -- . b. petals as long as the sepals, or longer -- . a. leaves ovate ( - dm. high; flowers white, all summer) =chickweed, stellaria media.= b. leaves lanceolate to oblong (in water or wet places, - dm. high; flowers white, in summer) -- . a. flowers in a leafy terminal branching cluster =chickweed, stellaria borealis.= b. flowers in a lateral cluster with minute bracts =chickweed, stellaria uliginosa.= a. flowers in clusters with leaf-like bracts, or axillary and solitary (in water or wet places; - dm. high; flowers white, summer) =chickweed, stellaria crassifolia.= b. flowers in clusters with scale-like bracts -- . a. leaves distinctly linear; cymes lateral; a common species in marshes ( - dm. high; flowers white, early summer) =chickweed, stellaria longifolia.= b. leaves distinctly broadest near the base; flower-cluster terminal -- . a. pedicels erect; clusters usually few-flowered; in extreme northern part of the state only ( - dm. high; flowers white, summer) =chickweed, stellaria longipes.= b. pedicels spreading; clusters open, many-flowered ( - dm. high; flowers white, in summer) =chickweed, stellaria graminea.= a. petals distinctly longer than the sepals -- . b. petals as long as the sepals, or shorter than them -- . a. flowers much less than cm. wide =mouse-ear chickweed, cerastium nutans.= b. flowers more than cm. wide -- . a. stem-leaves linear or narrowly lanceolate =mouse-ear chickweed, cerastium arvense.= b. stem-leaves oblong =mouse-ear chickweed, cerastium arvense var. oblongifolium.= a. bracts green; pedicels short and inflorescence crowded =mouse-ear chickweed, cerastium viscosum.= b. bracts with transparent white margins; pedicels longer than the calyx and inflorescence open =mouse-ear chickweed, cerastium vulgatum.= a. styles -- . b. styles ( - dm. high; flowers in summer) -- . c. styles -- . a. calyx-teeth much longer than the calyx-tube (erect, - dm. high; flowers large, red, late summer) =corn cockle, agrostemma githago.= b. calyx-teeth shorter than the calyx-tube ( - dm. high; flowers in summer) -- . a. flowers crimson =mullein pink, lychnis coronaria.= b. flowers white or pink =white campion, lychnis alba.= a. flowers night-blooming, always wilted during the day =catchfly, silene noctiflora.= b. flowers open during the day -- . a. flowers mm. wide or less, white or pink =catchfly, silene antirrhina.= b. flowers - cm. wide, white to pink or purple -- . c. flowers cm. wide or more, crimson =fire pink, silene virginica.= a. principal leaves in whorls of =starry campion, silene stellata.= b. leaves opposite -- . a. calyx globular, much inflated or bladder-like =bladder campion, silene latifolia.= b. calyx club-shape, not inflated =sweet william catchfly, silene armeria.= a. leaves linear or narrowly lanceolate, mm. wide or less (flowers pink or white, in summer) -- . b. leaves lanceolate or ovate (flowers pink, white, or red, in summer) -- . a. flowers in terminal clusters; leaves hairy ( - dm. high) =deptford pink, dianthus armeria.= b. flowers solitary at the ends of long pedicels -- . a. flowers - mm. wide ( - dm. high) =gypsophyll, gypsophila muralis.= b. flowers cm. wide or more ( - dm. high) =meadow pink, dianthus deltoides.= a. flowers less than cm. broad -- . b. flowers more than cm. broad -- . a. flowers white, in large panicles ( - dm. high) =baby's breath, gypsophila paniculata.= b. flowers pale red, in loose clusters ( - dm. high) =cowherb, saponaria vaccaria.= a. leaves with - prominent veins ( - dm. high) =soapwort, saponaria officinalis.= b. leaves with one mid-vein ( - dm. high) =sweet william, dianthus barbatus.= portulacaceae, the purslane family herbs with opposite or alternate leaves and regular flowers with sepals, petals, and a -celled ovary with or styles. a. leaves a single pair on each stem ( - dm. high; flowers pink, in racemes in early spring) (spring beauty) -- . b. leaves numerous (prostrate or spreading; flowers in summer) -- . a. leaves lance-ovate to oblong, not more than six times as long as wide =spring beauty, claytonia caroliniana.= b. leaves linear or linear-lanceolate, more than six times as long as wide =spring beauty, claytonia virginica.= a. flowers yellow, about mm. wide =purslane, portulaca oleracea.= b. flowers - cm. wide =portulaca, portulaca grandiflora.= ceratophyllaceae, the hornwort family submerged aquatics, with whorled, finely dissected leaves and inconspicuous flowers with neither calyx nor corolla. one species in michigan =hornwort, ceratophyllum demersum.= nymphaeaceae, the water lily family aquatic plants, with usually large and floating leaves which are round or elliptical and palmately veined. a. floating and emersed leaves centrally peltate -- . b. leaves rounded but not peltate, with a deep sinus -- . a. leaves round, dm. in diameter or more; flowers very large, pale yellow =lotus, nelumbo lutea.= b. leaves oval, - cm. long; flowers small, purple =water shield, brasenia schreberi.= a. flowers yellow (pond lily) -- . b. flowers white or tinged with pink (water lily) -- . a. leaves more than dm. long =pond lily, nymphaea advena.= b. leaves less than dm. long =pond lily, nymphaea microphylla.= a. flowers very fragrant; leaves purplish beneath =water lily, castalia odorata.= b. flowers not fragrant; leaves green beneath =water lily, castalia tuberosa.= ranunculaceae, the crowfoot family herbs with alternate (rarely opposite) leaves, acrid watery juice, separate sepals and petals, numerous stamens, and several or many (rarely only ) simple pistils. petals present or absent, in the latter case the sepals are usually petal-like in appearance. a. climbing plants with opposite leaves (flowers in late summer) (virgin's bower) -- . b. aquatic plants with dissected submerged leaves (flowers in late spring and summer) (water crowfoot) -- . c. terrestrial or mud plants, not agreeing with a or b -- . a. flowers white, - cm. wide =virgin's bower, clematis virginiana.= b. flowers pink-purple, - cm. wide =virgin's bower, clematis verticillaris.= a. flowers white -- . b. flowers yellow -- . a. leaves rigid, not collapsing when removed from the water =water crowfoot, ranunculus circinatus.= b. leaves soft, collapsing when removed from the water =water crowfoot, ranunculus aquatilis var. capillaceus.= a. submerged leaves divided into hair-like segments =water crowfoot, ranunculus delphinifolius.= b. submerged leaves palmately divided into linear lobes =water crowfoot, ranunculus purshii.= a. flowers blue, irregular, with one spur ( - dm. high, summer) =larkspur, delphinium ajacis.= b. the five petals each prolonged into a spur; flowers showy ( - dm. tall) (columbine) -- . c. flowers regular, without spurs -- . a. spurs nearly straight; flowers scarlet and yellow (spring) =wild columbine, aquilegia canadensis.= b. spurs strongly incurved; flowers blue or white (spring, early summer) =columbine, aquilegia vulgaris.= a. flowers yellow -- . b. flowers of various colors, but never yellow -- . a. petals none; sepals petal-like; leaves crenate or dentate ( - dm. high, flowers in early spring) =cowslip, caltha palustris.= b. petals small; sepals petal-like; leaves deeply palmately lobed ( - dm. tall; flowers in late spring) =globe-flower, trollius laxus.= c. petals yellow; sepals green or yellowish -- . a. leaves linear to narrowly oblong, entire or with minute teeth (flowers - mm. wide, in summer) -- . b. leaves broader, some or all of them lobed or divided, or cordate-ovate and not lobed -- . a. stems ascending ( - dm. high), rooting at the lower joints; fruits pointed with a long slender beak =spearwort, ranunculus laxicaulis.= b. stems prostrate and trailing, rooting at the joints; fruits tipped with a minute short beak =spearwort, ranunculus flammula var. reptans.= a. basal leaves, or most of them, merely serrate or crenate, and not obviously lobed -- . b. all the leaves lobed or divided -- . a. stem-leaves resembling the basal ones, and not lobed ( - dm. high; summer) =sea-side crowfoot, ranunculus cymbalaria.= b. stem-leaves deeply divided into oblong or linear segments -- . a. flowers . cm. wide or more ( - dm. high; spring) =buttercup, ranunculus rhomboideus.= b. flowers cm. wide or less ( - dm. high; spring) -- . a. foliage glabrous or minutely pubescent; basal leaves cordate =small-flowered crowfoot, ranunculus abortivus.= b. foliage villous; basal leaves barely cordate or not at all =small-flowered crowfoot, ranunculus micranthus.= a. stem erect or essentially so -- . b. stem prostrate, creeping, or ascending. early in spring stems may be found which appear almost erect. common spring-flowering buttercups are all classified here -- . a. flowers cm. broad or larger (buttercup) -- . b. flowers cm. broad or smaller -- . a. terminal lobe of leaf stalked ( - dm. high, early summer) =buttercup, ranunculus bulbosus.= b. terminal lobe of leaf sessile ( - dm. high; all summer) =buttercup, ranunculus acris.= a. plant glabrous, succulent; stem hollow ( - dm. high; spring and summer) =cursed crowfoot, ranunculus sceleratus.= b. plant pubescent (buttercup) -- . a. fruits tipped with a prominent recurved beak; plant of shady woods ( - dm. high; flowers in late spring) =buttercup, ranunculus recurvatus.= b. fruits tipped with a straight or slightly curved beak; plants of marshes or wet soil ( - dm. high; flowers in summer) -- . a. fruits in a short-cylindric head on a conical receptacle =buttercup, ranunculus pennsylvanicus.= b. fruits in a globose or short-ovoid head, on an obovoid receptacle =buttercup, ranunculus macounii.= a. leaves dissected into numerous linear or narrowly wedge-shape divisions; plants growing in water or very wet places (late spring and summer) =water crowfoot, ranunculus delphinifolius.= b. leaves palmately lobed, the terminal division not definitely stalked -- . c. leaves compound, some or all of the divisions on definite stalks (buttercup) -- . a. stem-leaves numerous ( - dm. tall; late spring and summer) =crowfoot, ranunculus purshii.= b. stem-leaves one or none, the principal leaves all basal (about dm. high; flowers in summer) =buttercup, ranunculus lapponicus.= a. style short, obviously curved -- . b. style long and slender, straight or nearly so (common spring-flowering buttercups, - dm. high) -- . a. stems creeping; flowers cm. wide or more (spring) =buttercup, ranunculus repens.= b. stems ascending; flowers . cm. wide or less ( - dm. high; summer) =buttercup, ranunculus macounii.= a. the two lateral divisions of the leaf sessile or nearly so =buttercup, ranunculus fascicularis.= b. the two lateral divisions of the leaf on long stalks -- . a. roots fibrous; plants of wet soil =buttercup, ranunculus septentrionalis.= b. roots thickened; plants of dry woods or thickets =buttercup, ranunculus hispidus.= a. leaves dissected into numerous narrowly linear acute divisions ( - dm. high; flowers large, bluish, in summer) =love-in-a-mist, nigella damascena.= b. leaves lobed or divided, but the divisions not separated by definite stalks -- . c. leaves truly compound, all their divisions separated by distinct stalks -- . a. leaves all basal, their lobes (usually ) entire ( - dm. high; flowers pink-purple, in earliest spring) (hepatica) -- . b. lobes of the leaf serrate or incised -- . a. lobes of the leaf obtuse or rounded =hepatica, hepatica triloba.= b. lobes of the leaf acute =hepatica, hepatica acutiloba.= a. petals none; sepals , usually falling away as soon as the flower opens ( - dm. high; flowers greenish-white, in spring) =golden seal, hydrastis canadensis.= b. petals none; sepals petal-like, or more (anemone) -- . c. petals present, but much smaller than the petal-like sepals -- . a. stem-leaves sessile or nearly so -- . b. stem-leaves on definite petioles -- . a. ovary tipped with a long slender hairy style; flowers bluish-purple ( - dm. high; early spring) =pasque flower, anemone patens var. wolfgangiana.= b. ovary with a short style, densely woolly; flowers red, greenish, or white ( - dm. high; late spring and summer) -- . c. ovary tipped with a short style, glabrous or nearly so; flowers white ( - dm. high; late spring and early summer) =anemone, anemone canadensis.= a. stem -flowered, sepals white =anemone, anemone parviflora.= b. stem -flowered; sepals usually red =anemone, anemone multifida.= a. achenes densely woolly; flowers appearing in summer -- . b. achenes merely pubescent; stems -flowered; woodland species blooming in early spring ( - dm. high; flowers white) =wood anemone, anemone quinquefolia.= a. segments of the leaf broadly wedge-shape or ovate; flowers white ( - dm. high) -- . b. segments of the leaf linear-oblong; flower red, greenish, or white; plants growing on the shores of the great lakes =anemone, anemone multifida.= a. segments of the basal leaves wedge-lanceolate; head of fruit cylindric =anemone, anemone cylindrica.= b. segments of the basal leaves ovate-lanceolate; head of fruit ovoid or oblong =anemone, anemone virginiana.= a. stem-leaves present -- b. b. leaves all basal ( - dm. high; leaves -divided; flowers white, in early summer) =gold-thread, coptis trifolia.= a. flowers numerous, in branching panicles (meadow rue) -- . b. flowers numerous, in racemes -- . c. flowers solitary or few, in loose clusters; woodland plants blooming in early spring ( - dm. high; flowers white to purple) -- . a. blooming in spring; stem-leaves with obvious petioles ( - dm. high; flowers white or greenish) =meadow rue, thalictrum dioicum.= b. blooming in late spring or summer, stem-leaves sessile or nearly so ( - dm. high; flowers white) -- . a. filaments club-shape, approximately as wide as the anther =meadow rue, thalictrum polygamum.= b. filaments slender or thread-like -- . a. leaves minutely pubescent beneath, but not glandular =meadow rue, thalictrum dasycarpum.= b. leaves minutely glandular beneath =meadow rue, thalictrum revolutum.= a. racemes slender, - cm. long ( - dm. high; flowers white, in summer) =bugbane, cimicifuga racemosa.= b. racemes short and stout, - cm. long ( - dm. high; flowers white, in late spring) (baneberry) -- . a. berries white; pedicels strongly thickened at maturity =baneberry, actaea alba.= b. berries red; pedicels slender =baneberry, actaea rubra.= a. flowers white; stem-leaves alternate =isopyrum, isopyrum biternatum.= b. flowers white to pink or purplish; stem-leaves whorled =rue anemone, anemonella thalictroides.= magnoliaceae, the magnolia family trees or shrubs, with alternate leaves, and large, frequently showy flowers. one species in michigan, with broad -lobed leaves and greenish-yellow flowers in late spring =tulip tree, liriodendron tulipifera.= anonaceae, the custard apple family trees or shrubs, with alternate simple entire leaves, sepals, and petals. one species in michigan; tall shrub or small tree, with obovate leaves and large dull-purple flowers in spring =papaw, asimina triloba.= menispermaceae, the moonseed family woody climbers, with alternate leaves, - petals, and numerous stamens. one species in michigan, with - -angled leaves which are peltate near the edge, and small white flowers in early summer =moonseed, menispermum canadense.= berberidaceae, the barberry family shrubs or herbs; petals or more; stamens - , frequently opening by two terminal lids; pistil . a. leaves simple -- . b. leaves compound -- . a. stem shrubby (flowers yellow, in racemes, in spring) =barberry, berberis vulgaris.= b. stem herbaceous, with a single pair of palmately lobed leaves ( - dm. tall; flower white, solitary, terminal, in spring) =may apple, podophyllum peltatum.= a. leaves all basal; leaflets ( - dm. high; the flower-stalks bearing solitary white flowers in spring) =twin-leaf, jeffersonia diphylla.= b. the stem-leaf ternately compound, with numerous leaflets ( - dm. high; with yellowish-green clustered flowers in spring) =blue cohosh, caulophyllum thalictroides.= lauraceae, the laurel family trees or shrubs, with aromatic taste or odor, and alternate simple leaves; flowers small, imperfect, the anthers opening by lids. a. freely branched shrub; leaves obovate-oblong, entire (flowers yellow, in early spring, before the leaves) =spice bush, benzoin aestivale.= b. tree or tall shrub; some or all of the leaves - -lobed (flowers greenish-yellow, appearing with the leaves) =sassafras, sassafras variifolium.= papaveraceae, the poppy family herbs with milky or colored juice, regular flowers, sepals, , , or petals, numerous stamens, and a -celled ovary. a. leaves palmately lobed; flower . - cm. wide, with petals or more (leaf basal; flower white, in early spring) =bloodroot, sanguinaria canadensis.= b. leaves pinnately toothed or lobed; flower - cm. wide, with - petals ( - cm. high; leaves clasping; summer) =poppy, papaver somniferum.= c. leaves divided pinnately to the mid-rib into several toothed or lobed segments; flower . cm. broad or less ( - cm. high; flowers yellow) -- . a. flowers in clusters of - , about cm. wide (spring) =celandine poppy, stylophorum diphyllum.= b. flowers in umbels of - , about . cm. wide =celandine, chelidonium majus.= fumariaceae, the fumitory family herbs with watery juice, compound or dissected leaves, and irregular flowers; sepals , small; petals , in two pairs, and one or both of the outer pair spurred at the base; stamens . a. both outer petals spurred or sack-like at the base -- . b. one outer petal spurred or sack-like at the base -- . a. a climbing vine with flowers in panicles (white or pinkish flowers in summer) =climbing fumitory, adlumia fungosa.= b. low herbs ( - cm.) with basal leaves and white or pinkish flowers in racemes (early spring) -- . a. spurs of the corolla triangular, divergent =dutchman's breeches, dicentra cucullaria.= b. spurs of the corolla short and rounded =squirrel corn, dicentra canadensis.= a. flowers about mm. long, pink-purple tipped with red ( - dm. high; summer) =fumitory, fumaria officinalis.= b. flowers mm. long or more, yellow, at least at the tip ( - dm. high) (corydalis) -- . a. flowers yellow throughout (spring) =corydalis, corydalis aurea.= b. flowers pink, tipped with yellow (summer). =corydalis, corydalis sempervirens.= cruciferae, the mustard family herbs, with alternate, frequently lobed or dissected leaves, and regular flowers, usually in racemes; sepals and petals each , stamens , long and short (or rarely only), ovary . a. petals yellow or yellowish -- . b. petals white, pink, or purple, never yellow -- . a. leaves simple, entire or dentate, never lobed -- . b. leaves deeply lobed or compound (the bracteal leaves, at or near the flower-clusters, may be simple and unlobed) -- . a. leaves clasping the stem -- . b. leaves not clasping at base -- . a. clasping base and apex of leaf obtuse or rounded; pod very long and slender ( - dm. high; summer) =hare's ear, conringia orientalis.= b. clasping base and apex of leaf acute; pod obovoid ( - dm. high; early summer) (false flax) -- . a. stem and leaves glabrous =false flax, camelina sativa.= b. leaves and usually the stem pubescent =false flax, camelina microcarpa.= a. flowers about mm. wide ( - dm. high; flowers in summer) -- . b. flowers mm. wide or more ( - dm. high; flowers in summer) -- . a. leaves about twice as long as broad, widest near or below the middle =whitlow grass, draba nemorosa.= b. leaves - times as long as broad, widest above the middle =yellow alyssum, alyssum alyssoides.= a. leaves lanceolate, gradually tapering to the base; flowers about mm. wide =sand rocket, diplotaxis muralis.= b. leaves ovate, acute at base; flowers about mm. wide -- a. c. leaves entire or minutely toothed; flowers - mm. wide -- . a. pods mm. long or less, on slender pedicels about mm. long =worm-seed mustard, erysimum cheiranthoides.= b. pods mm. long or more, on stout pedicels about mm. long =worm-seed mustard, erysimum parviflorum.= a. leaves bipinnate or dissected into very numerous divisions ( - dm. high; flowers in summer) -- . b. leaves simply pinnate -- . a. flowers about mm. broad; pods about mm. long by mm. broad =herb sophia, sisymbrium sophia.= b. flowers about mm. broad; pods about mm. long by mm. wide (tansy mustard) -- . a. stems gray with a close fine pubescence =tansy mustard, sisymbrium canescens.= b. stems green =tansy mustard, sisymbrium canescens var. brachycarpon.= a. pod short, not more than times as long as wide (coarse plants, preferring wet or sandy ground; flowers in summer) (yellow cress) -- . b. pod elongated, more than times as long as wide -- . a. stems creeping, with erect or ascending branches; flowers about mm. wide =yellow cress, radicula sylvestris.= b. stems erect or ascending ( - dm. high); flowers about mm. wide -- . a. pods about twice as long as the pedicels =yellow cress, radicula obtusa.= b. pods about as long as the pedicels, or shorter than them -- . a. plant glabrous or minutely pubescent =yellow cress, radicula palustris.= b. plant hirsute =yellow cress, radicula palustris var. hispida.= a. petals mm. long or more; pod terminating in a conspicuous beak (coarse, weedy plants, - dm. high, blooming in summer) -- . b. petals of smaller size; pod not terminating in a conspicuous beak -- . a. upper stem-leaves clasping at the base =rutabaga, brassica campestris.= b. upper stem-leaves not clasping -- . a. pod tipped with a slender cylindrical beak whose base is much narrower than the pod -- . b. pod gradually narrowed at its tip into a stout, flattened or angled beak -- . a. leaves oblanceolate, rather regularly pinnatifid, the terminal segment about the same size as the lateral ones =sand rocket, diplotaxis muralis.= b. leaves broad, irregularly pinnatifid especially below the middle, with a large terminal segment -- . a. beak of pod - mm. long =black mustard, brassica nigra.= b. beak of pod mm. long or more =indian mustard, brassica juncea.= a. leaves dentate or lobed =charlock, brassica arvensis.= b. leaves deeply pinnatifid -- . a. pod dehiscent when ripe by two valves, tipped with a flat or angled beak =white mustard, brassica alba.= b. pod indehiscent, with spongy cross-partitions between the seeds, tipped with a conical beak =wild radish, raphanus raphanistrum.= a. terminal segment of the principal leaves much larger than the lateral segments; flowers in spring and summer -- . b. terminal segment of the principal leaves equaling or smaller than the lateral ones ( - dm. high; pods very long and slender; flowers in summer) =sisymbrium, sisymbrium altissimum.= a. flowers about mm. wide; pods erect and closely appressed to the stem ( - dm. high; weed blooming in summer) (hedge mustard) -- . b. flowers about mm. wide; pods spreading or ascending ( - dm. high; flowers in spring) (winter cress) -- . a. pods pubescent =hedge mustard, sisymbrium officinale.= b. pods glabrous =hedge mustard, sisymbrium officinale var. leiocarpum.= a. lateral leaf-segments - pairs on the principal leaves =winter cress, barbarea verna.= b. lateral leaf-segments - pairs on the principal leaves -- . a. flowers bright yellow, in racemes; pods spreading or ascending =winter cress, barbarea vulgaris.= b. flowers pale yellow, in corymb-like clusters; pods erect and somewhat appressed =winter cress, barbarea stricta.= a. principal stem-leaves compound or deeply lobed (the uppermost or bracteal leaves may be simple) -- . b. principal stem-leaves entire, dentate, serrate, or sometimes shallowly lobed or none (the basal leaves, at the surface of the ground, may be deeply lobed or compound) -- . a. leaves ternately divided or compound ( - dm. high; flowers in spring) (toothwort) -- . b. leaves pinnately divided or compound -- . a. leaf-segments lanceolate or narrowly oblong =toothwort, dentaria laciniata.= b. leaf-segments ovate or ovate-oblong -- . a. stem-leaves , opposite or nearly opposite =toothwort, dentaria diphylla.= b. stem-leaves - , alternate =toothwort, dentaria maxima.= a. plants growing in water, or in mud near water (spring and summer) -- . b. plants of dry or moist soil -- . a. aerial leaves distinctly compound, with - leaflets =water cress, radicula nasturtium-aquaticum.= b. aerial leaves merely serrate to pinnatifid; the submerged leaves, if present, dissected =lake cress, radicula aquatica.= a. flowers mm. broad, or less -- . b. flowers mm. broad, or more -- . a. stem-leaves irregularly pinnatifid or lobed; pod about as broad as long ( - dm. high; flowers in summer) =garden cress, lepidium sativum.= b. stem-leaves distinctly pinnatifid, with - pairs of lateral segments (spring) (bitter cress) -- . a. leaves chiefly basal, pubescent on the upper side ( - dm. tall) =bitter cress, cardamine hirsuta.= b. stem-leaves conspicuous, glabrous on the upper side -- . a. plant of dry soil; flowers about mm. wide ( - dm. high) =bitter cress, cardamine parviflora.= b. plant of moist or wet soil; flowers about mm. wide ( - dm. high) =bitter cress, cardamine pennsylvanica.= a. leaves irregularly pinnatifid or lobed, not segmented into definitely paired divisions (coarse plants - dm. high; flowers in summer) -- . b. leaves deeply segmented into - pairs of divisions -- . a. flowers pink or white from the first =radish, raphanus sativus.= b. flowers yellow at first, turning white with age =wild radish, raphanus raphanistrum.= a. flowers pink or white, appearing in spring ( - dm. high) =cuckoo flower, cardamine pratensis.= b. flowers yellowish or cream-color; a weed blooming in summer ( - dm. high) =sisymbrium, sisymbrium altissimum.= a. a fleshy, much-branched plant of the shores of the great lakes, with a pod transversely divided into two joints ( - dm. high; summer) =sea rocket, cakile edentula.= b. pod not transversely divided into two joints -- . a. pod short, its length not more than times its diameter -- . b. pod long and slender, its length more than times its diameter -- . a. pods not conspicuously flattened, thick and plump, about circular in cross-section (flowers in summer) -- . b. pods distinctly flat -- . a. a plant escaped from cultivation in dry or moist soil, with very large basal leaves ( - dm. high) =horse radish, radicula armoracia.= b. a plant of water or very wet soil, the largest leaves seldom more than cm. long ( - dm. tall) =lake cress, radicula aquatica.= a. stem-leaves clasping the stem by an auricled base -- . b. stem-leaves sessile or petioled, not clasping, or none -- . a. stem and leaves glabrous or pubescent; pod very flat and circular, about mm. wide ( - dm. tall; early summer) =penny cress, thlaspi arvense.= b. stem and leaves glabrous or pubescent; pod not more than mm. wide ( - dm. high; spring and early summer) -- . a. pods broadly ovate =field cress, lepidium campestre.= b. pods triangular, or slightly indented at the apex =shepherd's purse, capsella bursa-pastoris.= a. pods about circular, or a very little longer than broad -- . b. pods ovoid or oblong, broadest near the middle, and distinctly longer than wide (whitlow grass) -- . a. leaves entire ( - dm. high; flowers in summer) =yellow alyssum, alyssum alyssoides.= b. leaves serrate ( - dm. high; flowers in summer) -- . a. stamens =garden cress, lepidium sativum.= b. stamens (pepper grass) -- . a. petals present =pepper grass, lepidium virginicum.= b. petals none =pepper grass, lepidium apetalum.= a. petals deeply -cleft (about dm. high; early spring) =whitlow grass, draba verna.= b. petals entire or barely notched at the tip -- . a. leaves all or chiefly at or near the base (about dm. high; spring) =whitlow grass, draba caroliniana.= b. stems leafy up to the flowers ( - dm. high; summer) =whitlow grass, draba arabisans.= a. stem-leaves cordate or sagittate at the base and sessile, forming a more or less clasping leaf ( - dm. high) (rock cress) -- . b. stem-leaves sessile or somewhat petioled, but not clasping -- . a. seeds in rows in each cavity of the pod (early summer) -- . b. seeds in row in each cavity of the pod -- . a. calyx pubescent; the pods reflexed =rock cress, arabis holboellii.= b. calyx glabrous; the pods spreading or ascending -- . a. basal leaves densely pubescent =rock cress, arabis brachycarpa.= b. basal leaves smooth or nearly so =rock cress, arabis drummondii.= a. petals conspicuous, about twice as long as the calyx, or longer; straight, erect, mostly unbranched plants -- . b. petals inconspicuous, equaling or but little longer than the calyx -- . a. pods - cm. long, ascending (summer) =rock cress, arabis patens.= b. pods - cm. long, recurved (late spring) =rock cress, arabis laevigata.= a. pods widely spreading; stem usually sparingly branched near the base (spring) =rock cress, arabis dentata.= b. pods erect or appressed; stem usually unbranched (summer) -- . a. stem-leaves and stem smooth and glaucous =rock cress, arabis glabra.= b. stem-leaves and stem almost always pubescent, and never glaucous =rock cress, arabis hirsuta.= a. principal stem-leaves - cm. long, or more -- . b. principal stem-leaves - cm. long -- . a. leaves lanceolate or oblong; flowers mm. wide or less ( - dm. high; summer) =rock cress, arabis canadensis.= b. leaves ovate or ovate-lanceolate; flowers - mm. wide ( - dm. high; late spring and summer) =dame's rocket, hesperis matronalis.= a. basal leaves ovate to orbicular or cordate, not more than twice as long as broad ( - dm. high; spring) (bitter cress) -- . b. basal leaves oblong, lanceolate, or oblanceolate, at least times as long as broad ( - dm. high) -- . a. flowers purple or rose color =bitter cress, cardamine douglassii.= b. flowers white =bitter cress, cardamine bulbosa.= a. basal leaves pinnatifid (spring and summer) =rock cress, arabis lyrata.= b. basal leaves entire or toothed -- . a. leaves narrowly oblanceolate; rare plant occurring from mackinac northward (summer) =rock cress, braya humilis.= b. leaves obovate or oblong; an introduced weed (spring) =mouse-ear cress, sisymbrium thalianum.= capparidaceae, the caper family herbs, with alternate compound leaves, petals, and or more stamens, which are about equal in length; fruit a -celled pod. one species in michigan, stamens about ; leaflets ( - dm. high; flowers yellowish, in summer) =clammy-weed, polanisia graveolens.= resedaceae, the mignonette family herbs, with alternate leaves and terminal racemes of small yellowish flowers; sepals , petals , stamens numerous. one species in michigan, with divided leaves and irregularly cleft petals, blooming in summer =yellow mignonette, reseda lutea.= sarraceniaceae, the pitcher plant family insectivorous plants, with hollow, pitcher-shaped leaves, and large purple flowers at the ends of naked stems. one species in michigan, growing in bogs and blooming in late spring =pitcher plant, sarracenia purpurea.= droseraceae, the sundew family insectivorous herbs, with a rosette of basal leaves bearing gland-tipped bristles on their upper surface, and with slender racemes of small white flowers in summer; inhabitants of bogs and swamps ( dm. high, or less). a. leaf-blade about as long as wide =sundew, drosera rotundifolia.= b. leaf-blade about - times as long as wide =sundew, drosera longifolia.= c. leaf-blade about - times as long as wide =sundew, drosera anglica.= d. leaf-blade narrowly linear, about times as long as wide =sundew, drosera linearis.= podostemaceae, the river weed family small submerged aquatics, growing attached to stones in running water, with dissected leaves and minute flowers. one species in michigan =river weed, podostemum ceratophyllum.= crassulaceae, the orpine family herbs, with usually alternate leaves; the sepals, petals, and pistils each or , or in one species the petals none, and the stamens as many or twice as many as the sepals. a. leaves entire (stonecrop) -- . b. leaves toothed -- . a. leaves - mm. long, very thick and fleshy (tufted plants about dm. high, with yellow flowers in summer) =stonecrop, sedum acre.= b. leaves - mm. long, flat (tufted plants - dm. high; flowers white, in spring) =stonecrop, sedum ternatum.= a. petals present, purple ( - dm. high; summer) =live-for-ever, sedum purpureum.= b. petals none ( - dm. high; summer) =ditch stonecrop, penthorum sedoides.= saxifragaceae, the saxifrage family herbs or shrubs, with alternate or opposite leaves; petals and sepals each , or the petals none; stamens or ; styles or stigmas - . a. shrubs with lobed leaves ( - dm. high; flowers in late spring) -- . b. herbs -- . a. stems thorny -- . b. stems not thorny (currant) -- . a. flowers and fruits in racemes =swamp currant, ribes lacustre.= b. flowers and fruit in short clusters (gooseberry) -- . a. ovary and fruit prickly and bristly =gooseberry, ribes cynosbati.= b. ovary and fruit smooth, or sometimes a little glandular -- . a. stamens equaling the ovate calyx-lobes in length, or a very little longer -- . b. stamens distinctly longer than the linear calyx-lobes -- . a. leaves glabrous beneath, or nearly so =gooseberry, ribes oxyacanthoides.= b. leaves softly pubescent beneath =gooseberry, ribes oxyacanthoides var. calcicola.= a. flowers, including the stamens, about mm. long =gooseberry, ribes gracile.= b. flowers, including the stamens, about mm. long =gooseberry, ribes rotundifolium.= a. calyx prolonged above the ovary into a tube which is longer than the sepals -- . b. calyx-tube shorter than the ovary or none -- . a. flowers greenish-yellow, inconspicuous; calyx-tube narrowly bell-shape =black currant, ribes floridum.= b. flowers bright yellow, conspicuous; calyx-tube narrow, with spreading lobes =golden currant, ribes aureum.= a. ovary and berry bristly with glandular hairs =skunk currant, ribes prostratum.= b. ovary and fruit smooth, or with sessile glands -- . a. leaves dotted beneath with resinous glands =black currant, ribes hudsonianum.= b. leaves glabrous or pubescent beneath, without resinous glands =red currant, ribes triste.= a. flowers minute, yellowish, without petals, in the axils of the leaves ( - dm. high; flowers in spring) =golden saxifrage, chrysosplenium americanum.= b. flowers large, solitary, terminating erect stalks (leaves mostly basal; flowers white, in late summer; flower-stalks - dm. high) (grass-of-parnassus) -- . c. flowers in terminal racemes, panicles, or clusters -- . a. flowers less than cm. wide; leaves narrowed to the base =grass-of-parnassus, parnassia parviflora.= b. flowers - . cm. wide; leaves rounded or cordate at the base -- . a. a -cleft scale at the base of each petal =grass-of-parnassus, parnassia caroliniana.= b. a many-cleft ( - ) scale at the base of each petal =grass-of-parnassus, parnassia palustris.= a. leaves linear to oblanceolate, times as long as broad, or more, and pinnately veined (saxifrage) -- . b. leaves broadly ovate to nearly circular, frequently cordate at the base, and always palmately veined or lobed -- . a. leaves basal; the flower-stalk bearing no leaves except small ones at the base of its branches -- . b. flower-stalk leafy below ( - dm. high; flowers yellow, summer) -- . a. petals white; sepals erect; leaves conspicuously toothed, - cm. long ( - dm. high; spring) =saxifrage, saxifraga virginiensis.= b. petals greenish; sepals reflexed; leaves minutely toothed or entire, - cm. long ( - dm. high; spring) =saxifrage, saxifraga pennsylvanica.= a. leaves with sharp teeth at the apex =saxifrage, saxifraga tricuspidata.= b. leaves with numerous teeth or entire -- . a. leaves linear, chiefly on the stem =saxifrage, saxifraga aizoides.= b. leaves spatulate, chiefly in a basal rosette =saxifrage, saxifraga aizoon.= a. stamens (leaves mostly basal; flowers greenish or purplish in late spring, on stalks - dm. high) (alum root) -- . b. stamens (flowers white, in spring) -- . a. flowers regular =alum root, heuchera americana.= b. flowers irregular, the calyx oblique, longer on the upper side than on the lower -- . a. stamens projecting beyond the calyx =alum root, heuchera hirsuticaulis.= b. stamens not projecting beyond the calyx =alum root, heuchera hispida.= a. stem-leaves alternate or none -- . b. stem with a pair of opposite leaves ( - dm. high) =bishop's cap, mitella diphylla.= a. petals deeply fringed ( - dm. high) =bishop's cap, mitella nuda.= b. petals entire ( - dm. high) =false mitrewort, tiarella cordifolia.= hamamelidaceae, the witch hazel family shrubs, with alternate simple leaves; sepals, petals, and stamens each ; ovary -lobed. one species in michigan; tall shrub with obovate leaves and yellow flowers appearing late in autumn =witch hazel, hamamelis virginiana.= platanaceae, the plane tree family trees, with broad, palmately veined and lobed leaves, and minute flowers in dense spherical heads. one species in michigan =sycamore, platanus occidentalis.= rosaceae, the rose family trees, herbs, or shrubs, with alternate, frequently compound leaves; petals and sepals usually , stamens numerous, pistils to many; receptacle expanded into a saucer-shape or cup-shape organ, bearing the sepals, petals, and stamens at its margin, the pistils at its center, and resembling a calyx-tube or flattened calyx. a. shrubs or trees -- . b. herbaceous plants -- . a. leaves compound -- . b. leaves simple -- . a. flowers in large panicles or corymbs, each flower - mm. across; leaflets or more -- . b. flowers solitary or in small clusters, each flower usually - mm. wide; leaflets frequently only or -- . a. flowers in a pyramidal or oblong panicle, the ovaries superior ( - m. high; flowers white, in summer) -- b. b. flowers in rounded or hemispheric clusters, the ovary inferior -- . a. leaves pubescent on the lower surface =rowan tree, pyrus aucuparia.= b. leaves glabrous beneath when mature (small trees; flowers white, in early summer or late spring) (mountain ash) -- . a. leaves acuminate at the apex =mountain ash, pyrus americana.= b. leaves obtuse or acute at the apex =mountain ash, pyrus sitchensis.= a. flowers yellow ( - dm. high; summer) =cinquefoil, potentilla fruticosa.= b. flowers pink or red, rarely white, - cm. across (shrubs, - dm. high, or climbing; stems usually thorny; flowers in early summer) (rose) -- . c. flowers white, - cm. across ( - dm. high; flowers in late spring) -- . a. leaflets on most of the leaves ; styles cohering in a column which protrudes from among the stamens =climbing rose, rosa setigera.= b. leaflets - ; styles not cohering in a protruding column -- . a. sepals persistent on the fruit after flowering -- . b. sepals soon deciduous from the young fruit after flowering -- . a. a pair of spines below each leaf larger than the other spines -- . b. spines all alike in size or nearly so, or absent completely -- . a. sepals entire =wild rose, rosa woodsii.= b. sepals pinnatifid =dog rose, rosa canina.= a. stems with few thorns or none at all =wild rose, rosa blanda.= b. stems prickly -- . a. fruit somewhat pear-shape, narrowed toward the base. =wild rose, rosa acicularis.= b. fruit globose, rounded at the base =wild rose, rosa acicularis var. bourgeauiana.= a. the pair of spines at the base of each leaf straight or nearly so =wild rose, rosa humilis.= b. the pair of spines at the base of each leaf distinctly recurved or hooked -- . a. leaves densely glandular-pubescent beneath =sweetbrier, rosa rubiginosa.= b. leaves glabrous or minutely pubescent =swamp rose, rosa carolina.= a. stems trailing or creeping -- . b. stems erect, ascending, or arched -- . a. stems distinctly shrubby and thorny (dewberry) -- . b. stems almost herbaceous, without thorns =dwarf raspberry, rubus triflorus.= a. leaves thin, dull above; fruit black, large and juicy =dewberry, rubus villosus.= b. leaves firm or thick, shining above; fruit reddish, small, consisting of a few sour drupelets =swamp dewberry, rubus hispidus.= a. ripe fruit dropping away from the white receptacle or core; terminal leaflet of each leaf with a long stalk, while the lateral leaflets are sessile or nearly so (raspberry) -- . b. ripe fruit and receptacle or core dropping together; all the leaflets on stalks which are approximately equal in length (blackberry) -- . a. stem very glaucous with a whitish or bluish waxy deposit; fruit black =black raspberry, rubus occidentalis.= b. stem not glaucous; fruit red -- . a. calyx velvety-pubescent =red raspberry, rubus idaeus.= b. calyx bristly-hispid =red raspberry, rubus idaeus var. aculeatissimus.= a. pedicels with gland-tipped hairs, but no prickles =blackberry, rubus allegheniensis.= b. pedicels with prickles =blackberry, rubus nigricans.= c. pedicels with neither prickles nor gland-tipped hairs -- . a. leaves downy beneath =blackberry, rubus frondosus.= b. leaves smooth beneath =blackberry, rubus canadensis.= a. ovaries or more, superior (attached to the surface of the receptacle, but not concealed within it or united to it) -- . b. ovary , inferior (permanently enclosed within the receptacle, with only the styles protruding) -- . a. ovaries more than -- . b. ovary -- . a. leaves serrate -- . b. leaves lobed -- . a. leaves glabrous or very nearly so ( - dm. high; flowers white or pinkish, summer) =meadow-sweet, spiraea salicifolia.= b. leaves closely pubescent beneath ( - dm. high; flowers pink, summer) =hardhack, spiraea tomentosa.= a. flowers showy, purple or white, - cm. broad -- . b. flowers white, about cm. wide ( - m. high; flowers in early summer) =ninebark, physocarpus opulifolius.= a. flowers purple =flowering raspberry, rubus odoratus.= b. flowers white =salmonberry, rubus parviflorus.= a. flowers in racemes (trees or tall shrubs; flowers white, in late spring) -- . b. flowers in small umbels or corymbs (flowers white, in spring) -- . a. leaves oblong, the points of their teeth incurved =black cherry, prunus serotina.= b. leaves obovate, the points of their teeth spreading =choke cherry, prunus virginiana.= a. flowers about cm. wide -- . b. flowers about . - . cm. wide -- . a. low shrubs, with the spatulate or oblong leaves widest above the middle -- . b. erect tall shrubs or small trees, with the leaves widest below the middle -- . a. an erect shrub ( - dm. high) =appalachian cherry, prunus cuneata.= b. a prostrate or ascending shrub ( - dm. high) =sand cherry, prunus pumila.= a. leaves very broadly ovate, almost as wide as long (small tree) =perfumed cherry, prunus mahaleb.= b. leaves oblong-lanceolate, about times as long as broad (shrub or small tree, - m. high) =pin cherry, prunus pennsylvanica.= a. sepals glandular-serrate (tall shrub or small tree) =wild plum, prunus nigra.= b. sepals entire -- . a. leaves with sharp teeth, frequently bristle-tipped; a native species (tall shrub or small tree, frequently growing in thickets) =wild plum, prunus americana.= b. leaves with obtuse teeth; a species escaped from cultivation (widely branched tree) =cherry, prunus cerasus.= a. trees, in cultivation or escaped from cultivation near roads or dwellings, with showy flowers . - cm. across, edible fruits, and no thorns (spring) -- . b. native species, trees or shrubs, growing in woods, fields, or thickets; frequently with thorns (spring) -- . a. leaves finely serrulate or entire =pear, pyrus communis.= b. leaves coarsely serrate or somewhat lobed =apple, pyrus malus.= a. shrubs or small trees, without thorns -- . b. bushy trees or shrubs, with thorns or stiff thorn-like branches, and with flowers generally . - . cm. across -- . a. flowers pink, very fragrant =wild crab, pyrus coronaria.= b. flowers white (hawthorn, the genus crataegus). several species of this genus occur in the state, for the identification of which the manual must be used. a. mid-vein glandular above (shrubs - m. tall; flowers white or pink) (chokeberry) -- . b. mid-vein not glandular (shrubs or trees, - m. tall; flowers white) (juneberry) -- . a. leaves glabrous beneath =chokeberry, pyrus melanocarpa.= b. leaves tomentose beneath =chokeberry, pyrus arbutifolia var. atropurpurea.= a. petals - mm. long -- . b. petals - mm. long -- . a. mature leaves glabrous =juneberry, amelanchier canadensis.= b. mature leaves pubescent beneath =juneberry, amelanchier canadensis var. botryapium.= a. flowers in racemes -- . b. flowers solitary, or in small clusters of - =juneberry, amelanchier oligocarpa.= a. leaves coarsely dentate, with about tooth for each lateral vein =juneberry, amelanchier spicata.= b. leaves finely serrate, with about - teeth for each lateral vein =juneberry, amelanchier oblongifolia.= a. flowers yellow -- . b. flowers white, pink, purple, or rose, never yellow -- . a. plant with basal trifoliate leaves, resembling strawberry ( - dm. high; late spring) =barren strawberry, waldsteinia fragarioides.= b. plants with leafy stems -- . a. flowers solitary in the axils of foliage leaves, on long peduncles (trailing or creeping plants; flowers in late spring and summer) -- . b. flowers in narrow terminal spike-like racemes ( - dm. high; summer) (agrimony) -- . c. flowers in irregular or spreading clusters -- . a. leaflets =five-finger, potentilla canadensis.= b. leaflets - =silver weed, potentilla anserina.= a. principal leaflets more than times (about - / ) as long as wide =agrimony, agrimonia parviflora.= b. principal leaflets less than times (about - / ) as long as wide -- . a. leaves nearly glabrous beneath, or with scattered spreading hairs =agrimony, agrimonia gryposepala.= b. leaves softly pubescent beneath -- . a. leaves distinctly glandular beneath =agrimony, agrimonia striata.= b. leaves not glandular beneath =agrimony, agrimonia mollis.= a. principal leaves palmately compound with - leaflets (cinquefoil) -- . b. principal stem-leaves with leaflets, or pinnately compound with several leaflets -- . a. leaves silvery-white beneath, laciniately toothed ( - dm. high; late spring and summer) =silvery cinquefoil, potentilla argentea.= b. leaves not silvery-white beneath ( - dm. high; summer) -- . a. terminal leaflet more than times as long as wide =cinquefoil, potentilla recta.= b. terminal leaflet less than times as long as wide =cinquefoil, potentilla intermedia= a. flowers about mm. wide ( - dm. high; spring) =spring avens, geum vernum.= b. flowers mm. wide, or wider -- . a. principal leaves with lobed leaflets, of which the terminal is the largest; leaf-axis bearing also some small leaflets between those of usual size ( - dm. high; late spring and summer) (avens) -- . b. principal leaves with toothed or pinnately cleft leaflets, the lateral ones about equaling the terminal one in size, and without any small scattered leaflets ( - dm. tall; summer) (cinquefoil) -- . a. terminal leaflet cordate at base =avens, geum macrophyllum.= b. terminal leaflet wedge-shape or acute at base =avens, geum strictum.= a. leaflets =cinquefoil, potentilla monspeliensis.= b. leaflets - -- . a. leaflets crenate =cinquefoil, potentilla paradoxa.= b. leaflets deeply incised =cinquefoil, potentilla pennsylvanica.= a. leaves all basal, the flowers on leafless stalks -- . b. stem-leaves present -- . a. leaves simple ( - dm. high; summer) =dalibarda, dalibarda repens.= b. leaves trifoliate ( - dm. high; spring) (strawberry) -- . a. leaflets thick and firm, the petioles and pedicels pubescent with spreading or ascending hairs; fruit subglobose, the achenes embedded in pits on its surface =strawberry, fragaria virginiana.= b. leaflets thin, the petioles and pedicels nearly glabrous or with appressed hairs; fruit conic, the achenes on its surface =wood strawberry, fragaria americana.= a. leaves pinnate with numerous leaflets -- . b. stem-leaves with - leaflets -- . a. leaflets laciniate or deeply lobed (flowers pink or purple, early summer) -- . b. leaflets merely toothed -- . a. stem-leaves few, small and opposite ( - dm. tall) =purple avens, geum triflorum.= b. stem-leaves large and alternate ( - dm. tall) =queen of the prairie, filipendula rubra.= a. individual flowers small, not exceeding mm. across, in large clusters or spikes -- . b. individual flowers more than mm. wide, in few-flowered clusters (cinquefoil) -- . a. flowers in dense spikes ( - dm. high; late summer) =burnet, sanguisorba canadensis.= b. flowers in panicles =sorbaria, sorbaria sorbifolia.= a. flowers red or purple ( - dm. high; summer) =marsh cinquefoil, potentilla palustris.= b. flowers white ( - dm. high; early summer) =cinquefoil, potentilla arguta.= a. pistils ( - dm. high; flowers white or pink, early summer) -- . b. pistils , in a ring (flowers pink or purple) -- b. c. pistils numerous, in a head or close group -- . a. stipules linear or subulate, - mm. long =bowman's root, gillenia trifoliata.= b. stipules leaf-like, - mm. long, serrate =american ipecac, gillenia stipulata.= a. flowers red or purple -- . b. flowers white -- . a. leaflets sharply and irregularly toothed or lobed; petals erect, narrowed at the base ( - dm. high; early summer) =purple avens, geum rivale.= b. leaflets finely and regularly toothed, oblong; petals spreading -- a. a. leaflets entire below, -toothed at the apex ( - dm. high; summer) =cinquefoil, potentilla tridentata.= b. leaflets toothed all around the margin -- . a. leaves all trifoliate ( - dm. high; late spring) -- b. b. some of the upper leaves merely lobed or dentate ( - dm. high) (avens) -- . a. stem bristly-hairy (early summer) =avens, geum virginianum.= b. stem softly and finely pubescent (summer) =avens, geum canadense.= leguminosae, the pulse family trees, shrubs, or herbs, with alternate compound (except species with simple) leaves and stipules; flowers usually irregular (except in a few species), with a large upper petal and smaller ones, the lower enclosing the stamens and pistil; stamens almost always , and generally united by their filaments; pistil , simple, ripening into a pod. a. shrubs or trees -- . b. herbs, twining, but without tendrils -- . c. herbs; the leaves, or some of them, tipped with tendrils -- . d. herbs, not climbing or twining; tendrils none -- . a. leaves simple -- . b. leaves compound -- . a. leaves broadly cordate (tall shrub or small tree; flowers pink, early spring) =redbud, cercis canadensis.= b. leaves lanceolate or elliptical ( - dm. high; flowers yellow, summer) =dyer's greenweed, genista tinctoria.= a. twigs or branches thorny -- . b. thorns none -- . a. thorns branched, scattered on the stem (tall tree; flowers greenish, early summer) =honey locust, gleditsia triacanthos.= b. thorns unbranched, a pair of them at the base of each leaf (late spring) -- . a. branches glabrous or nearly so (tree; flowers white) =black locust, robinia pseudo-acacia.= b. branches glandular-pubescent (tall shrub; flowers pinkish) =clammy locust, robinia viscosa.= c. branches bristly (shrub. - m. high; flowers pink) =bristly locust, robinia hispida.= a. trees; leaves - -pinnate (flowers greenish-white, spring) =kentucky coffee-tree, gymnocladus dioica.= b. low shrubs; leaves once-pinnate ( - dm. high; summer) -- . a. flowers bright-blue, each with a single petal =lead plant, amorpha canescens.= b. flowers yellowish and pink-purple, petals -- a. a. leaflets - ; flowers in racemes (purplish, late summer) =wild bean, apios tuberosa.= b. leaflets (flowers greenish, purple, or white, late summer) -- . a. flowers in small capitate clusters; lower petals strongly incurved =wild bean, strophostyles helvola.= b. flowers in racemes (hog peanut) -- . a. stem pubescent or glabrate; leaflets seldom more than cm. long =hog peanut, amphicarpa monoica.= b. stem villous with retrorse hairs; leaflets usually longer than cm. =hog peanut, amphicarpa pitcheri.= a. style with a tuft of hairs at the apex; lateral petals of the corolla adherent to the lower ones as far as the middle; stipules less than mm. long, and usually less than one-fourth the length of the lower leaflets (spring and summer) (vetch) -- . b. style hairy along the inner side; lateral petals of the corolla free from the lower ones or adherent only at the very base; stipules more than mm. long and usually one-third or more the length of the lower leaflets (late spring and summer) -- . a. flowers axillary, sessile or nearly so (flowers purple) -- . b. flowers in peduncled racemes -- . a. upper leaves oblong-obovate, truncate or notched, and mucronate at the apex =spring vetch, vicia sativa.= b. upper leaves lance-linear, sharply acute =common vetch, vicia angustifolia.= a. flowers - mm. long, - in a cluster (flowers purple) =vetch, vicia americana.= b. flowers - mm. long -- . a. racemes one-sided; flowers blue =vetch, vicia cracca.= b. racemes loosely flowered, not one-sided; flowers whitish, the lower petals tipped with blue =vetch, vicia caroliniana.= a. flowers yellowish-white =vetchling, lathyrus ochroleucus.= b. flowers purple -- . a. stipules nearly regularly halberd-shape, almost as large as the leaflets =beach pea, lathyrus maritimus.= b. stipules half-sagittate, apparently attached laterally near the middle -- . a. leaflets - pairs, ovate; racemes with or more flowers =wild pea, lathyrus venosus.= b. leaflets - pairs, linear to oblong or elliptical; racemes with - flowers (marsh pea) -- . a. stems with a membranous wing on the margins =marsh pea, lathyrus palustris.= b. stems angled, but not winged =marsh pea, lathyrus palustris var. myrtifolius.= a. leaves simple ( - dm. high; flowers yellow, summer) =rattlebox, crotalaria sagittalis.= b. leaves palmately compound; leaflets - ( - dm. high; flowers blue, late spring) =lupine, lupinus perennis.= c. leaves pinnately compound; leaflets to many -- . d. leaves compound; leaflets -- . a. leaflets ; flowers rose-purple in a spike-like head ( - dm. high, late summer) =prairie clover, petalostemum purpureum.= b. leaflets more than -- . a. flowers bright-blue, in a dense spike ( - dm. high; summer) -- a. b. flowers bright-yellow; stamens not united (summer) -- . c. flowers white, cream-color, or yellowish, or marked with purple -- . a. leaflets linear-oblong, cm. long or less; stamens or ( - dm. high) (partridge pea) -- . b. leaflets lanceolate-oblong, - cm. long; stamens with normal anthers and with imperfect anthers ( - dm. high) =wild senna, cassia marilandica.= a. anthers ; flowers - cm. wide =partridge pea, cassia chamaecrista.= b. anthers ; flowers - mm. wide =partridge pea, cassia nictitans.= a. silky-hairy with whitish hairs; flowers marked with purple ( - dm. high; summer) =goat's rue, tephrosia virginiana.= b. glabrous or nearly so (summer) (milk vetch) -- . a. flowers greenish cream-color ( - dm. high) =milk vetch, astragalus canadensis.= b. flowers white ( - dm. high) =milk vetch, astragalus neglectus.= a. flowers in heads, umbels, or short dense spikes -- . b. flowers in loose racemes or panicles -- . a. flowers bright-yellow; decumbent or ascending plants (spring and summer) -- . b. flowers white, cream, purple, or red; never yellow -- . a. whole flower only about mm. long; pod coiled -- . b. flowers larger, each one - mm. long; pod straight ( - dm. high) (hop clover) -- . a. flowers numerous in each head =black medick, medicago lupulina.= b. flowers in clusters of -- =bur clover, medicago hispida.= a. stipules linear =hop clover, trifolium agrarium.= b. stipules ovate -- . a. heads densely flowered; flowers or more; upper petal striate when dry =hop clover, trifolium procumbens.= b. heads loosely flowered; flowers usually or fewer; upper petal scarcely striate or not at all =hop clover, trifolium dubium.= a. leaves palmately compound, the leaflets all from the same point (late spring and summer) (clover) -- . b. leaves pinnately compound, the terminal leaflet on a distinct stalk -- . a. individual flowers sessile, or on very short pedicels -- . b. individual flowers distinctly pedicelled -- . a. heads oblong, on distinct peduncles; calyx longer than the corolla (flowers nearly white; - dm. tall) =stone clover, trifolium arvense.= b. heads nearly globose, almost sessile, closely subtended by the leaves; corolla longer than the calyx ( - dm. high; flowers red-purple) =red clover, trifolium pratense.= a. stems prostrate or creeping; heads long-peduncled, arising from the creeping branches (flower-stalks - dm. high; flowers white) =white clover, trifolium repens.= b. some or all of the stems erect; heads arising from the leafy stems (flowers white or pink) -- . a. plants with long basal runners; flowers - mm. long ( - dm. high) =buffalo clover, trifolium stoloniferum.= b. basal runners none; flowers - mm. long ( - dm. high) =alsike clover, trifolium hybridum.= a. prostrate; leaflets broadly ovate; flowers - in a cluster -- a. b. erect; leaflets broadest near the middle; flowers numerous ( - dm. high; flowers yellowish-white, late summer) (bush clover) -- . a. leaflets less than twice as long as broad =bush clover, lespedeza hirta.= b. leaflets more than twice as long as broad -- . a. leaflets linear, mm. wide or less; heads with obvious peduncles =bush clover, lespedeza angustifolia.= b. leaflets narrowly elliptical, the principal ones more than mm. wide; heads sessile or nearly so =bush clover, lespedeza capitata.= a. leaflets finely toothed -- . b. leaflets entire -- . a. flowers violet or blue ( - dm. high; summer) =alfalfa, medicago sativa.= b. flowers yellow ( - m. high; summer) =yellow sweet clover, melilotus officinalis.= c. flowers white ( - m. high; summer) =white sweet clover, melilotus alba.= a. flowers yellow ( - dm. high; summer) =wild indigo, baptisia tinctoria.= b. flowers white, the leaflets all from the same point ( - dm. high; summer) =wild indigo, baptisia leucantha.= c. flowers blue, purple, or pink (rarely white, and then the terminal leaflet stalked) -- . a. racemes arising from the base of the plant, leafless ( - dm. high; summer) =tick trefoil, desmodium nudiflorum.= b. racemes terminal or a few of them axillary; leaflets generally more than cm. long; pod (usually to be seen at the base of the raceme) transversely segmented into or more joints (summer) (tick trefoil; the genus desmodium. pods are usually necessary for satisfactory identification) -- . c. racemes short, loose, chiefly axillary; leaflets generally less than cm. long; the short ovate or ovoid pod not transversely jointed ( - dm. high; flowers in summer) (bush clover; the genus lespedeza. reference to the manual is recommended) -- . a. leaves clustered near the summit of the stem ( - dm. high) =tick trefoil, desmodium grandiflorum.= b. leaves scattered on the stem -- . a. plants prostrate; racemes panicled; leaflets nearly circular =tick trefoil, desmodium rotundifolium.= b. plants decumbent or ascending; racemes short, simple, few-flowered; stipules ovate (stems - dm. long) =tick trefoil, desmodium pauciflorum.= c. plants erect or ascending; racemes panicled -- . a. leaflets of an oblong type, broadest at or near the middle, and about times as long as broad ( - dm. tall) -- . b. leaflets of an ovate or lanceolate type, broadest below the middle, and not more than times as long as wide -- . a. stem pubescent; leaves sessile or nearly so =tick trefoil, desmodium sessilifolium.= b. stem glabrous or nearly so; leaves obviously petioled =tick trefoil, desmodium paniculatum.= a. stipules lanceolate to ovate, cm. long or more ( - dm. high) -- . b. stipules narrowly lanceolate or subulate, less than cm. long -- . a. stems glabrous or minutely pubescent; leaves acuminate -- . b. stems hispid or densely pubescent; leaves ovate or ovate-lanceolate, obtuse or barely acute -- . a. leaves glabrous on both sides =tick trefoil, desmodium bracteosum.= b. leaves rough above, hairy beneath =tick trefoil, desmodium bracteosum var. longifolium.= a. leaflets broadly ovate =tick trefoil, desmodium canescens.= b. leaflets ovate-lanceolate =tick trefoil, desmodium illinoense.= a. flowers - mm. long ( - m. high) =tick trefoil, desmodium canadense.= b. flowers - mm. long ( - dm. tall) -- . c. flowers - mm. long ( - dm. tall) -- . a. leaflets broadly ovate =tick trefoil, desmodium viridiflorum.= b. leaflets oblong-ovate =tick trefoil, desmodium dillenii.= a. leaflets - cm. long, oblong-ovate, scabrous above =tick trefoil, desmodium rigidum.= b. leaflets - . cm. long, broadly ovate or oval, not scabrous above -- . a. stem and leaves glabrous or very nearly so =tick trefoil, desmodium marilandicum.= b. stem and leaves conspicuously pubescent =tick trefoil, desmodium obtusum.= a. flower-clusters sessile, or on peduncles shorter than the subtending leaves -- . b. flower-clusters, or many of them, on peduncles longer than the leaves -- . a. leaves linear-oblong =bush clover, lespedeza virginica.= b. leaves ovate or oval -- . a. leaves and stem velvety or downy =bush clover, lespedeza stuvei.= b. leaves and stem glabrous, or with close appressed pubescence =bush clover, lespedeza frutescens.= a. leaves ovate or broadly elliptical; corolla conspicuously exceeding the calyx -- . b. leaves linear-oblong; calyx about as long as the corolla =bush clover, lespedeza manniana.= a. stem erect or ascending -- . b. stem trailing; peduncles much exceeding the leaves =bush clover, lespedeza procumbens.= a. villous-pubescent; inflorescence dense; some peduncles shorter than the leaves =bush clover, lespedeza nuttallii.= b. slightly pubescent or glabrous; inflorescence loose, on peduncles much longer than the leaves =bush clover, lespedeza violacea.= linaceae, the flax family herbs with simple leaves, and regular flowers, having sepals, yellow or blue petals, stamens, and styles. a. flowers blue ( - dm. high; summer) =flax, linum usitatissimum.= b. flowers yellow ( - dm. high; summer) (wild flax) -- . a. middle stem-leaves below the branches opposite =wild flax, linum striatum.= b. middle stem-leaves below the branches alternate -- . a. leaves narrowly lanceolate to linear, - mm. wide -- . b. leaves oblanceolate to oblong, - mm. wide =wild flax, linum virginianum.= a. leaves entire =wild flax, linum medium.= b. upper leaves glandular-ciliate =wild flax, linum sulcatum.= oxalidaceae, the wood sorrel family herbs, with alternate or basal compound leaves with reverse heart-shaped leaflets; sepals, petals, and styles each ; stamens . (wood sorrel) a. leaves all basal; flowers white to pink-purple ( - dm. high; late spring) -- . b. stem-leaves present; flowers yellow ( - dm. high; spring and summer) -- . a. flower-stalks bearing a single flower =wood sorrel, oxalis acetosella.= b. flower-stalks bearing an umbel of several flowers =wood sorrel, oxalis violacea.= a. stem prostrate and creeping wood sorrel, oxalis repens. b. stem erect or ascending -- . a. pedicels with spreading pubescence =wood sorrel, oxalis corniculata.= b. pedicels with appressed pubescence =wood sorrel, oxalis stricta.= geraniaceae, the geranium family herbs, with deeply lobed or divided leaves; flowers regular, with sepals, petals, or stamens, and a -celled ovary. a. anthers (spreading or ascending plants, - dm. high; flowers pink or purple, spring and summer) -- . b. anthers -- . a. leaves pinnately dissected =stork's-bill, erodium cicutarium.= b. leaves palmately divided into cuneate lobes =crane's-bill, geranium pusillum.= a. leaves ternately divided, the lobes pinnatifid ( - dm. high; flowers purple, late spring and summer) =herb robert, geranium robertianum.= b. leaves palmately - -lobed -- . a. petals mm. long or more ( - dm. high; flowers pale purple, spring) =wild geranium, geranium maculatum.= b. petals less than mm. long (crane's-bill) -- . a. seed-bearing portion of the pistil smooth, glabrous or nearly so (low spreading plant; flowers purple, late spring and summer) =crane's-bill, geranium columbinum.= b. seed-bearing portion of the pistil transversely wrinkled (widely branching. - dm. tall; flowers purple, summer) =crane's-bill, geranium molle.= c. seed-bearing portion of the pistil pubescent (widely branching. - dm. tall) -- . a. leaves divided almost to the base (flowers pinkish or white, spring and summer) -- . b. leaves divided one-half to two-thirds the way to the base (flowers purple, summer) =crane's-bill, geranium rotundifolium.= a. petals white or pale pink; flowers in compact clusters =crane's-bill, geranium carolinianum.= b. petals pink-purple; flowers in loose clusters =crane's-bill, geranium bicknellii.= rutaceae, the rue family shrubs or low trees, with compound leaves frequently dotted with translucent glands; flowers small, greenish-white, with - sepals, petals, and stamens. a. leaflets - ; stems thorny =prickly ash, zanthoxylum americanum.= b. leaflets ; stems not thorny =hop tree, ptelea trifoliata.= simarubaceae, the quassia family trees, with pinnately compound leaves and small greenish-yellow flowers in large panicles in early summer, ripening into winged fruits. one species in michigan, escaped from cultivation chiefly in towns =tree of heaven, ailanthus glandulosa.= polygalaceae, the milkwort family small herbs, with alternate or whorled simple leaves, and small irregular flowers; sepals , petals , stamens or , more or less united with each other and with the petals. a. all of the leaves alternate -- . b. some or all of the leaves in whorls ( - dm. high; flowers greenish, purple, or white; summer) (milkwort) -- . a. flowers few, loosely clustered, - mm. long ( - dm. high; flowers purple; early summer) =flowering wintergreen, polygala paucifolia.= b. flowers numerous, in a spike or raceme -- . a. stem-leaves minute, linear-subulate; stem slender, erect, - dm. high (flowers pink; summer) =milkwort, polygala incarnata.= b. stem-leaves narrowly oblong or broader; stem generally - dm. high -- . a. flowers in a short thick obtuse very dense spike (flowers greenish or purple; summer) =milkwort, polygala sanguinea.= b. flowers in a slender tapering spike -- . c. flowers in a raceme; plants with subterranean flowers also (flowers purple; early summer) =milkwort, polygala polygama.= a. leaves linear or nearly so (flowers purple; summer) -- b. b. leaves lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, - cm. long (flowers white; late spring) =seneca snakeroot, polygala senega.= c. leaves ovate to ovate-lanceolate (flowers white; late spring) =seneca snakeroot, polygala senega var. latifolia.= a. spike oval, thick, obtuse =milkwort, polygala cruciata.= b. spike acute -- . a. spike densely flowered, - cm. long =milkwort, polygala verticillata.= b. spike loosely flowered, - cm. long =milkwort, polygala verticillata var. ambigua.= euphorbiaceae, the spurge family herbs, with alternate, opposite, or whorled leaves and usually milky juice. flowers small or minute and inconspicuous, without petals and frequently without calyx. in our commoner species, several staminate flowers, each consisting of a single stamen only, and one pistillate flower, consisting of a single pedicelled -lobed ovary only, are included within a - -lobed involucre, which is sometimes colored and resembles a calyx or corolla. a. stem-leaves alternate; inflorescence axillary; flowers with calyx and several stamens ( - dm. tall; flowers greenish or purplish; summer) (three-seeded mercury) -- . b. stem-leaves opposite, usually inequilateral at base; flowers as described for the family; apparent flowers in axillary clusters (summer and autumn) (spurge) -- . c. stem-leaves alternate; inflorescence a terminal umbel-like cluster, with its branches subtended by opposite or whorled leaves; flowers as described for the family (spurge) -- . a. leaves ovate or ovate-lanceolate; flower-clusters shorter than the subtending bract =three-seeded mercury, acalypha virginica.= b. leaves lanceolate to oblong; flower-clusters equaling or exceeding the subtending bract =three-seeded mercury, acalypha gracilens.= a. stem and foliage glabrous -- . b. stem and foliage more or less pubescent (stems prostrate or ascending, - dm. long) -- . a. erect or ascending, usually without basal branches ( - dm. tall) =spurge, euphorbia preslii.= b. prostrate or spreading, branched from the base (stems - dm. long) -- . a. leaves entire; plants of the shores of the great lakes =spurge, euphorbia polygonifolia.= b. leaves serrulate -- . a. leaves broadly oblong or obovate; seeds obscurely wrinkled =spurge, euphorbia serpyllifolia.= b. leaves narrowly oblong; seeds with prominent transverse ridges =spurge, euphorbia glyptosperma.= a. seeds black =spurge, euphorbia hirsuta.= b. seeds red -- . a. leaves oblong =spurge, euphorbia maculata.= b. leaves elliptical to obovate; involucre split down one side =spurge, euphorbia humistrata.= a. flowers subtended by conspicuous petal-like white appendages (part of the involucre) ( - dm. tall; summer) =spurge, euphorbia corollata.= b. flowers not subtended by petal-like appendages -- . a. stem-leaves below the inflorescence serrulate ( - dm. high; summer) -- . b. stem-leaves below the inflorescence entire -- . a. upper leaves acute =spurge, euphorbia platyphylla.= b. upper leaves obtuse, rounded, or notched at the apex -- . a. leaves of the involucre broadly triangular-ovate, widest near the base =spurge, euphorbia obtusata.= b. leaves of the involucre broadly obovate to nearly circular, widest near or above the middle =spurge, euphorbia helioscopia.= a. stem-leaves narrowly linear, less than mm. wide ( - dm. high; late spring and summer) =cypress spurge, euphorbia cyparissias.= b. stem-leaves narrowly oblong-spatulate, more than mm. wide, and more than times as long as wide ( - dm. high; summer) -- . c. stem-leaves obovate to nearly circular, not more than twice as long as wide ( - dm. high) -- . a. leaves at base of umbel narrow, resembling those on the stem =spurge, euphorbia esula.= b. leaves at base of umbel broad, resembling those of the inflorescence =spurge, euphorbia lucida.= a. upper stem-leaves distinctly narrowed at the base; introduced species of waste places (summer) =spurge, euphorbia peplus.= b. upper stem-leaves rounded at the sessile base; native species of woodlands (spring and early summer) =spurge, euphorbia commutata.= callitrichaceae, the water starwort family small herbs growing in water or in mud, with opposite entire leaves and small inconspicuous axillary flowers, with neither calyx nor corolla. (flowers in summer). a. completely submerged; leaves all linear =water starwort, callitriche autumnalis.= b. submerged leaves linear, emersed and floating leaves obovate =water starwort, callitriche palustris.= empetraceae, the crowberry family low evergreen shrubs, with the linear leaves completely rolled into a tube, and inconspicuous flowers without petals, in the axils of the leaves. one species in michigan, - dm. high; leaves less than cm. long; flowers in summer =crowberry, empetrum nigrum.= limnanthaceae, the false mermaid family low herbs with alternate compound leaves and minute axillary flowers; sepals , petals , stamens . one species in michigan, with stems - dm. long, and flowers in late spring =false mermaid, floerkea proserpinacoides.= anacardiaceae, the cashew family shrubs or small trees, with milky or resinous juice, alternate compound leaves sometimes poisonous to the touch, and small clustered greenish or yellowish flowers. a. leaflets to many ( - m. high) (sumach) -- . b. leaflets - . a. axis of the leaves wing-margined between the leaflets =sumach, rhus copallina.= b. axis of the leaves not margined -- . a. leaflets entire =poison sumach, rhus vernix.= b. leaflets serrate -- . a. bark of the older stems glabrous =sumach, rhus glabra.= b. bark of the older stems densely velvety-hairy =sumach, rhus typhina.= a. terminal leaflet narrowed to a sessile base ( - dm. high) =sumach, rhus canadensis.= b. terminal leaflet on a definite stalk, round or acute at base ( - dm. high, or climbing by hold-fast roots) =poison ivy, rhus toxicodendron.= aquifoliaceae, the holly family shrubs, with alternate simple leaves and small white or greenish axillary flowers in late spring and early summer; sepals, petals, and stamens each - ; fruit a berry. a. leaves entire or nearly so, - cm. long ( - m. tall) =mountain holly, nemopanthus mucronata.= b. leaves sharply serrate, - cm. long ( - m. high) (black alder) -- . a. leaves downy on the veins beneath; fruit red =black alder, ilex verticillata.= b. leaves nearly or quite glabrous; fruit orange =black alder, ilex verticillata var. tenuifolia.= celastraceae, the staff tree family shrubs with simple leaves and inconspicuous flowers; sepals and petals each or , the stamens of the same number and attached to a disk which fills the center of the flower; fruit showy, orange and red. a. leaves alternate (climbing vine; flowers in racemes; late spring) =bitter-sweet, celastrus scandens.= b. leaves opposite (flowers in axillary clusters) -- . a. prostrate, with short erect branches; leaves broadest above the middle (spring) =creeping wahoo, evonymus obovatus.= b. tall shrub, with leaves broadest below or near the middle (early summer) =wahoo, evonymus atropurpureus.= staphyleaceae, the bladder nut family shrubs with opposite trifoliate leaves and small axillary clusters of white flowers in spring; sepals, petals, and stamens each ; ovary -celled, ripening into a large inflated -celled pod. one species in michigan ( - m. high) =bladder nut, staphylea trifolia.= aceraceae, the maple family trees or shrubs, with opposite, lobed or compound leaves and inconspicuous flowers; sepals about ; petals the same number, or none; stamens - ; ovary -lobed, ripening into a pair of winged fruits. a. leaves compound (tree; flowers appearing before the leaves) =box elder, acer negundo.= b. leaves simple (maple) -- . a. shrubs or small trees; leaves - -lobed; the lobes with regularly serrate margins (flowers greenish-yellow, appearing later than the leaves) -- . b. trees; leaves - -lobed; margins of the lobes entire or incised, but never regularly serrate -- . a. leaves finely and sharply serrate; twigs smooth; bark conspicuously striped with white lines =striped maple, acer pennsylvanicum.= b. leaves coarsely and bluntly serrate; young twigs pubescent; bark not striped =mountain maple, acer spicatum.= a. angles between the leaf-lobes rounded (flowers greenish-yellow, appearing with the leaves) -- . b. angles between the leaf-lobes acute or obtuse, but not rounded (flowers purple, red, or yellowish, appearing before the leaves) -- . a. leaves glabrous beneath, or minutely pubescent on the veins =sugar maple, acer saccharum.= b. leaves downy beneath =black maple, acer saccharum var. nigrum.= a. middle leaf-lobe usually more than half the length of the leaf, narrowed at its base; broken twigs with a strong odor =silver maple, acer saccharinum.= b. middle leaf-lobe usually less than half the length of the leaf, its sides parallel or broadened at the base; broken twigs without strong odor =red maple, acer rubrum.= sapindaceae, the soapberry family trees, with opposite palmately compound leaves, and showy white or yellowish flowers in panicles in spring; sepals ; petals or ; stamens about ; fruit a smooth brown nut. a. leaflets ; buds viscid; corolla of petals =horse chestnut, aesculus hippocastanum.= b. leaflets ; buds smooth; corolla of petals =buckeye, aesculus glabra.= balsaminaceae, the touch-me-not family smooth herbs, with alternate simple leaves and showy flowers; one petal-like sepal prolonged into a spur; fruit explosive when ripe ( - dm. high; summer). a. flowers pale-yellow, with a few red-brown spots =touch-me-not, impatiens pallida.= b. flowers orange, thickly spotted with red-brown =touch-me-not, impatiens biflora.= rhamnaceae, the buckthorn family shrubs, with simple leaves and small flowers in axillary or terminal clusters in early summer; sepals, petals, and stamens each to , or petals none. a. leaves with a single mid-vein; flowers in axillary clusters, greenish (buckthorn) -- . b. leaves with - principal veins; flowers in dense terminal clusters, white (red-root) -- . a. lateral veins - pairs (stout shrub, frequently thorny, escaped from cultivation) =buckthorn, rhamnus cathartica.= b. lateral veins - pairs ( m. high or less; in swamps and bogs) =buckthorn, rhamnus alnifolia.= a. leaves ovate, rounded or cordate at the base, - cm. wide or more ( - dm. high) =red-root, ceanothus americanus.= b. leaves elliptical-lanceolate, cm. wide or less ( - dm. high) =red-root, ceanothus ovatus.= vitaceae, the grape family shrubs, climbing by tendrils or hold-fast roots, with palmately lobed or palmately compound leaves and small greenish flowers in panicles or flattened clusters; petals and sepals each or ; fruit a berry. a. leaves compound (summer) (virginia creeper) -- . b. leaves simple (late spring) (grape) -- . a. branches of the tendrils chiefly ending in adhesive disks -- . b. branches of the tendrils twining, or rarely with a few disks =virginia creeper, psedera vitacea.= a. stem and foliage glabrous =virginia creeper, psedera quinquefolia.= b. stem and foliage pubescent, at least when young =virginia creeper, psedera quinquefolia var. hirsuta.= a. leaves conspicuously pubescent beneath -- . b. leaves glabrous beneath when mature, or pubescent on the veins only -- . a. a tendril or flower-cluster opposite each leaf =fox grape, vitis labrusca.= b. no tendril opposite each third leaf =summer grape, vitis aestivalis.= a. pith continuous through the joints of the stem =fox grape, vitis rotundifolia.= b. pith interrupted by the solid joints -- . a. leaf-lobes with rounded angles between them =summer grape, vitis bicolor.= b. leaf-lobes with sharp angles between them -- . a. leaves coarsely toothed, unlobed or slightly -lobed =frost grape, vitis cordifolia.= b. leaves sharply toothed, prominently lobed =frost grape, vitis vulpina.= tiliaceae, the linden family trees, with alternate, simple, palmately veined leaves, and clusters of fragrant white flowers in late spring arising from the middle of a leaf-like bract; sepals and petals each ; stamens numerous, but united into sets. one species in michigan =basswood, tilia americana.= malvaceae, the mallow family herbs with alternate leaves; sepals and petals each ; stamens numerous, united by their filaments to form a tube surrounding the styles; ovary many-celled. a. flowers yellow (summer and autumn) -- . b. flowers pale-yellow, with a dark center ( - dm. high; late summer) =flower-of-an-hour, hibiscus trionum.= c. flowers white to red or blue, never yellow -- . a. leaves broadly heart-shape ( - dm. tall) =velvet leaf, abutilon theophrasti.= b. leaves ovate-lanceolate ( - dm. tall) =sida, sida spinosa.= a. calyx subtended by to many bractlets which are sometimes united at base (summer) -- . b. calyx subtended by bractlets, or by none -- . a. flowers - cm. wide ( - dm. high; flowers pink) =marsh mallow, althaea officinalis.= b. flowers - cm. wide ( - dm. high; flowers pink to nearly white) (rose mallow) -- . a. leaves densely pubescent below =rose mallow, hibiscus moscheutos.= b. leaves glabrous =rose mallow, hibiscus militaris.= a. petals prominently notched at the end or reverse heart-shape (mallow) -- . b. petals obtuse or truncate (summer) -- . a. flowers - . cm. wide -- . b. flowers - cm. wide ( - dm. high; flowers in summer) -- . a. stems procumbent, prostrate, or spreading (spring, summer, and autumn) =mallow, malva rotundifolia.= b. stems erect ( - dm. high; summer) =mallow, malva verticillata.= a. leaves with prominent but shallow lobes; flowers axillary =mallow, malva sylvestris.= b. leaves deeply lobed or cleft; flowers in the upper axils, producing a raceme-like cluster -- . a. lobes of the leaf dentate or incised =mallow, malva alcea.= b. lobes of the leaf pinnately cleft into linear or narrowly oblong divisions =mallow, malva moschata.= a. flowers white ( - m. high) =virginia mallow, sida hermaphrodita.= b. flowers purple or pink ( - dm. high, spreading) =poppy mallow, callirhoe triangulata.= hypericaceae, the st. john's-wort family herbs or shrubs, with opposite entire leaves dotted with translucent glands; flowers usually yellow (or pink); sepals and petals each ; stamens to many; ovary with - styles. (st. john's-wort.) a. shrubs ( - dm. high; flowers yellow, summer) -- . b. herbs (flowers in summer) -- . a. styles =st. john's-wort, hypericum kalmianum.= b. styles =st. john's-wort, hypericum prolificum.= a. flowers pinkish, mm. broad ( - dm. high, in swamps) =marsh st. john's-wort, hypericum virginicum.= b. flowers yellow -- . a. flowers about cm. wide; principal leaves - cm. long ( - dm. tall) =st. john's-wort, hypericum ascyron.= b. flowers - mm. wide; stamens or more -- . c. flowers - mm. wide; stamens or fewer ( - dm. high) -- . a. petals dotted with black ( - dm. high) -- . b. petals without black dots ( - dm. high) =st. john's-wort, hypericum ellipticum.= a. flowers - mm. wide; leaves of an oblong type, broadest near the middle =st. john's-wort, hypericum perforatum.= b. flowers - mm. wide; leaves of an ovate type, broadest below the middle =st. john's-wort, hypericum punctatum.= a. leaves minute, subulate, - mm. long =pineweed, hypericum gentianoides.= b. leaves linear, with - principal veins, broadest near or above the middle =st. john's-wort, hypericum canadense.= c. leaves lanceolate, - times as long as broad, with - principal veins =st. john's-wort, hypericum majus.= d. leaves oblong, elliptic, or ovate, . - times as long as broad -- . a. uppermost bracts linear =st. john's-wort, hypericum mutilum.= b. uppermost bracts resembling the leaves in shape, but smaller =st. john's-wort, hypericum boreale.= elatinaceae, the waterwort family small marsh herbs, with opposite leaves without translucent dots, and inconspicuous axillary flowers. (stems - cm. long; flowers in summer.) one species in michigan =waterwort, elatine americana.= cistaceae, the rock-rose family small herbs or shrubs, with opposite or alternate entire leaves; flowers regular, with sepals, or petals, and to many stamens. a. flowers yellow (early summer) -- . b. flowers greenish or purplish, minute, in panicles (late summer) (pinweed) -- . a. leaves crowded, closely appressed to the branches; flowers mm. wide ( - dm. high) =false heather, hudsonia tomentosa.= b. leaves spreading; flowers - mm. wide ( - dm. high) (frostweed) -- . a. petal-bearing flowers solitary =frostweed, helianthemum canadense.= b. petal-bearing flowers few, racemose =frostweed, helianthemum majus.= a. stem-leaves linear, or more times as long as wide -- . b. stem-leaves oblong or elliptical, about times as long as wide ( - dm. tall) -- . a. plant pale with dense appressed pubescence ( - dm. high) =pinweed, lechea stricta.= b. plant green, pubescence sparse or none -- . a. leaves thread-like, seldom exceeding mm. in width ( - dm. tall) =pinweed, lechea tenuifolia.= b. leaves - mm. wide ( - dm. high) -- . a. leaves on the basal shoots narrowly lanceolate =pinweed, lechea intermedia.= b. leaves on the basal shoots oblong-elliptic, about twice as long as wide =pinweed, lechea racemulosa.= a. pubescence of spreading hairs =pinweed, lechea villosa.= b. pubescence of appressed hairs =pinweed, lechea minor.= violaceae, the violet family herbs with simple, alternate or basal leaves, and conspicuous irregular flowers with a spur (except in the first species); sepals, petals, and stamens each ; ovary -celled. a. flowers regular or nearly so, greenish-white, axillary; erect plant with leafy stem ( - dm. high; spring) =green violet, hybanthus concolor.= b. flowers irregular, blue, yellow, or white, conspicuous (violet) -- . a. plant stemless, the flowers all on leafless stalks and the leaves all basal (spring or early summer) -- . b. stems leafy (spring and summer) -- . a. petals yellow =round-leaved violet, viola rotundifolia.= b. petals blue, violet, or white -- . a. principal leaves at time of flowering deeply lobed -- . b. leaves oblong, ovate, or triangular, not narrowed to the petiole, and frequently sharply toothed or incised near the base -- . c. leaves narrowly lanceolate, tapering to the base =violet, viola lanceolata.= d. leaves heart-shape or kidney-shape, not lobed -- . a. lateral petals bearded -- . b. lateral petals not bearded =bird-foot violet, viola pedata.= a. leaves divided to the base into linear segments =bird-foot violet, viola pedatifida.= b. leaves irregularly divided into broader segments =hand-leaf violet, viola palmata.= a. leaves ovate-oblong, pubescent =violet, viola fimbriatula.= b. leaves triangular-lanceolate, usually somewhat dilated at base, nearly or quite glabrous =violet, viola sagittata.= a. flowers violet or blue (rarely white-flowered plants are found with the typical blue-flowered ones) (blue violets) -- . b. flowers white, the lower petals marked with purple (white violets) -- . a. lateral petals bearded -- . b. lateral petals beardless =great-spurred violet, viola selkirkii.= a. foliage glabrous -- . b. petioles and lower surface of leaves pubescent -- . a. beard of the lateral petals with a knob at the tip of each hair =blue violet, viola cucullata.= b. beard of the lateral petals not knobbed -- . a. spurred petal hairy =wood violet, viola affinis.= b. spurred petal glabrous =blue violet, viola papilionacea.= a. spurred petal villous =blue violet, viola septentrionalis.= b. spurred petal glabrous, or with a few scattered hairs =common blue violet, viola sororia.= a. leaf-blade obviously pubescent -- . b. leaf-blade glabrous or very nearly so -- . a. lateral petals bearded =sweet white violet, viola incognita.= b. lateral petals not bearded =white violet, viola renifolia.= a. leaf-blades strictly glabrous =sweet white violet; viola pallens.= b. leaf-blades with some minute white hairs on the upper surface near the base =sweet white violet, viola blanda.= a. stipules large and leaf-like, deeply pinnatifid and nearly or quite as long as the petioles -- . b. stipules small, inconspicuous, entire or toothed, and much shorter than the petiole -- . a. leaves serrate; flowers . - . cm. wide ( - dm. high; flowers of various colors) =pansy, viola tricolor.= b. upper leaves entire or nearly so; flowers about cm. wide ( - dm. high; flowers bluish-white) =wild pansy, viola rafinesquii.= a. petals yellow ( - dm. high) (yellow violet) -- . b. petals violet, blue, or white -- . a. foliage villous-pubescent =yellow violet, viola pubescens.= b. foliage nearly or quite glabrous =yellow violet, viola scabriuscula.= a. stipules entire ( - dm. high) =canada violet, viola canadensis.= b. stipules toothed -- . a. lateral petals not bearded ( - dm. high) =long-spurred violet, viola rostrata.= b. lateral petals bearded -- . a. flowers white or nearly white ( - dm. high) =pale violet, viola striata.= b. flowers blue (about dm. high) -- . a. leaves smooth =dog violet, viola conspersa.= b. leaves pubescent =sand violet, viola arenaria.= cactaceae, the cactus family fleshy, jointed leafless plants, armed with numerous thorns; flowers large ( - cm. wide), yellow, with about petals and numerous stamens. one species in michigan, on the shores of lake michigan; flowers in summer =prickly pear, opuntia rafinesquii.= thymelaeaceae, the mezereum family shrubs, with simple alternate entire leaves, and small yellowish flowers in clusters, opening before the leaves; petals none, the sepals somewhat petal-like. one species in michigan, - dm. tall, with very tough bark =leatherwood, dirca palustris.= elaeagnaceae, the oleaster family shrubs, with opposite, silvery-pubescent, simple, entire leaves, and small clusters of inconspicuous yellow flowers in spring. one species in michigan, - m. high =buffalo berry, shepherdia canadensis.= lythraceae, the loosestrife family herbs or shrubs, with opposite or alternate entire leaves; receptacle cup-shape or tubular, bearing the - petals and sepals at its margin, and the - stamens on its inner surface; ovary superior. a. stem shrubby (aquatic, stems - m. long; flowers pink, summer) =water loosestrife, decodon verticillatus.= b. stem herbaceous ( - dm. high; flowers purple, summer) -- . a. flowers solitary in the axils; leaves mostly alternate =loosestrife, lythrum alatum.= b. flowers in terminal panicles; leaves opposite or whorled =loosestrife, lythrum salicaria.= melastomaceae, the melastoma family herbs, with opposite leaves with - principal veins; receptacle urn-shape, bearing sepals and petals at its edge; stamens ; ovary -celled, superior. one species in michigan, - dm. high, with purple flowers in late summer =meadow beauty, rhexia virginica.= onagraceae, the evening primrose family herbs with opposite or alternate simple leaves and regular flowers; sepals and petals each (or in one genus), stamens (or in one genus), attached to the summit or inside of a tubular receptacle; ovary - -celled, inferior. a. aquatic plant of shallow water or muddy ground, with prostrate stem (flowers minute, axillary; petals small or none, summer) =water purslane, ludvigia palustris.= b. land plants with erect or ascending stems -- . a. petals minute, greenish ( - dm. high; late summer) =false loosestrife, ludvigia polycarpa.= b. petals yellow -- . c. petals white, pink, purple, or red -- . a. sepals borne at the summit of the ovary ( - dm. high; summer) =false loosestrife, ludvigia alternifolia.= b. sepals borne at the summit of the slender tubular receptacle, which is prolonged beyond the ovary -- . a. stamens all equal in length (evening primrose) -- . b. the alternate stamens longer ( - dm. high; summer) (sundrops) -- . a. leaves deeply dentate or pinnatifid ( - dm. high; early summer) =evening primrose, oenothera laciniata.= b. leaves entire or undulate or finely toothed ( - dm. high; summer) -- . a. hairs on the stem with broad reddish bases =evening primrose, oenothera muricata.= b. hairs on the stem none, or without swollen bases -- . a. stem and foliage glabrous, or with sparse spreading hairs =evening primrose, oenothera biennis.= b. stem and foliage densely but closely appressed-pubescent =evening primrose, oenothera rhombipetala.= a. petals - mm. long =sundrops, oenothera pumila.= b. petals mm. long or more =sundrops, oenothera fruticosa.= a. petals , reverse heart-shape, stamens (flowers small, white, summer) (enchanter's nightshade) -- . b. petals ; stamens or -- . a. leaves rounded at the base, denticulate ( - dm. high; fruit prickly) =enchanter's nightshade, circaea lutetiana.= b. leaves cordate at the base -- . a. fruit -celled, bristly ( - dm. high) =enchanter's nightshade, circaea intermedia.= b. fruit -celled, with soft hairs (delicate plant dm. high, or less) =enchanter's nightshade, circaea alpina.= a. petals entire (summer) -- . b. petals notched at the end (flowers white or pinkish, less than cm. broad, in summer) (willow herb) -- . a. flowers - cm. wide, purple ( - dm. high) =fireweed, epilobium angustifolium.= b. flowers about cm. wide -- . a. flowers red ( - dm. high) =gaura, gaura coccinea.= b. flowers white, turning pink when old =gaura, gaura biennis.= a. leaves entire, the margins usually somewhat revolute -- . b. leaves toothed, flat ( - dm. high) -- . a. plant densely pubescent with spreading hairs ( - dm. high) =willow herb, epilobium molle.= b. plant pubescent with appressed or incurved hairs -- . a. leaves linear, the margin revolute ( - dm. high) =willow herb, epilobium densum.= b. leaves narrowly lanceolate, not revolute ( - dm. high) =willow herb, epilobium palustre.= a. seeds tipped with a tuft of reddish-brown hairs =willow herb, epilobium coloratum.= b. seeds tipped with a tuft of white hairs =willow herb, epilobium adenocaulon.= haloragidaceae, the water milfoil family aquatic or marsh herbs, with alternate, opposite, or whorled leaves, and small, inconspicuous terminal or axillary flowers, frequently without petals (summer). a. leaves none, or else very small and inconspicuous =water milfoil, myriophyllum tenellum.= b. leaves alternate ( - dm. high) =mermaid weed, proserpinaca palustris.= c. leaves opposite or whorled -- . a. leaves entire ( - dm. high) =mare's-tail, hippuris vulgaris.= b. leaves toothed or dissected (water milfoil) -- . a. flowers in the axils of foliage leaves -- . b. flowers in terminal spikes, subtended by bracts -- . a. flowers above water, subtended by toothed or entire leaves =water milfoil, myriophyllum heterophyllum.= b. flowers submerged, subtended by dissected leaves =water milfoil, myriophyllum farwellii.= a. flowers solitary or in pairs at each joint of the spike =water milfoil, myriophyllum alternifolium.= b. flowers several at each joint of the spike -- . a. bracts deeply pinnatifid =water milfoil, myriophyllum verticillatum var. pectinatum.= b. bracts entire or toothed =water milfoil, myriophyllum spicatum.= araliaceae, the sarsaparilla family herbs or thorny shrubs, with alternate or whorled leaves, and small flowers in umbels; sepals , minute; petals and stamens each ; ovary inferior, with - styles, ripening into a berry. a. leaves simple, palmately lobed (thorny shrub; flowers greenish-white, in panicles, in june) =devil's club, fatsia horrida.= b. leaves once compounded, whorled (umbel one, terminal) -- . c. leaves twice or thrice compounded (umbels several) -- . a. leaflets sessile; flowers white, in spring ( - dm. high) =dwarf ginseng, panax trifolium.= b. leaflets stalked; flowers greenish, in summer ( - dm. high) =ginseng, panax quinquefolium.= a. stem and petioles spiny or bristly (flowers white, summer) -- . b. stem and petioles smooth or a little pubescent (flowers greenish-white) -- . a. shrubby, with stout thorns ( - m. high) =hercules' club, aralia spinosa.= b. herbaceous, with slender bristles ( - dm. high) =bristly sarsaparilla, aralia hispida.= a. stem-leaves present; leaflets cordate at the base ( - dm. high; summer) =spikenard, aralia racemosa.= b. leaf and flower-stalk arising from the ground; leaflets acute at the base ( - dm. high; spring) =wild sarsaparilla, aralia nudicaulis.= umbelliferae, the parsley family herbs, with alternate, usually compound leaves, the petioles dilated at the base; flowers small, in umbels or heads; sepals , minute or even wanting; petals and stamens each ; ovary inferior, with styles, ripening into a dry fruit. a. leaves simple (flowers in summer) -- . b. leaves compound, or at least deeply cleft -- . a. leaves linear, sword-shape ( - dm. tall; flowers greenish-white) =rattlesnake master, eryngium yuccifolium.= b. leaves kidney-shape or almost circular (stems creeping, about dm. high; flowers white) (water pennywort) -- . a. leaves peltate, attached by the center =water pennywort, hydrocotyle umbellata.= b. leaves not peltate, attached by the margin =water pennywort, hydrocotyle americana.= a. flowers yellow or purple -- . b. flowers white or greenish -- . a. leaf-segments entire ( - dm. high) -- . b. leaf-segments toothed or incised -- . a. leaf-segments filiform (summer) =fennel, foeniculum vulgare.= b. leaf-segments ovate to lanceolate =golden alexander, taenidia integerrima.= a. leaves pinnately compound; some of the leaflets incised or pinnatifid -- . b. leaves ternately compound; the segments crenate or serrate -- . c. leaves deeply palmately cleft or divided; flowers in head-like umbels -- a. a. leaf-segments obtuse, rounded, or cordate at the base ( - dm. high; summer) =wild parsnip, pastinaca sativa.= b. leaf-segments narrowed to the base ( - dm. high; spring) =prairie parsley, polytaenia nuttallii.= a. terminal leaflets conspicuously stalked, their total length, including stalk, at least % greater than the length of the lateral leaflets (meadow parsnip) -- . b. terminal leaflets not conspicuously stalked, their total length, including stalk, about equaling the lateral leaflets ( - dm. high; late spring) (golden alexander) -- . a. flowers purple ( - dm. high; early summer) =meadow parsnip, thaspium aureum var. atropurpureum.= b. flowers yellow -- . a. stem-leaves once-ternate; leaflets finely serrate ( - dm. high; early summer) =meadow parsnip, thaspium aureum.= b. many stem-leaves - -ternate; leaflets coarsely serrate or incised ( - dm. high; early summer) =meadow parsnip, thaspium barbinode.= a. basal and lower stem-leaves - -ternate =golden alexander, zizia aurea.= b. basal leaves simple; stem-leaves once-ternate =golden alexander, zizia cordata.= a. leaves once-pinnate (or the submerged leaves decompound, if present) (summer) -- . b. leaves ternately, palmately, or - -pinnately compound -- . a. leaflets mostly ovate or ovate-lanceolate, some of them coarsely incised ( - dm. high) =water parsnip, berula erecta.= b. leaflets linear to oblong, serrate to nearly entire, not incised ( - dm. high) -- . a. leaflets entire, or with a few low remote teeth =cowbane, oxypolis rigidior.= b. leaflets finely but sharply serrate =water parsnip, sium cicutaefolium.= a. leaves principally basal, decompound; flowers in early spring ( - dm. high) =harbinger of spring, erigenia bulbosa.= b. leaves principally on the stem -- . a. leaves palmately or ternately once-compound -- . b. leaves - times compound or decompound -- . a. flowers short-pedicelled, crowded in head-like umbels, greenish; ovary bristly ( - dm. high; early summer) (black snakeroot) -- . b. flowers in open umbels, white -- . a. styles short, not projecting beyond the bristles of the mature fruit -- . b. styles long, projecting beyond the bristles of the fruit, and recurved -- . a. staminate flowers on pedicels - mm. long, equaling or barely exceeding the fruit =black snakeroot, sanicula trifoliata.= b. staminate flowers short-pedicelled, concealed among the fruits =black snakeroot, sanicula canadensis.= a. fruit short-stalked, mm. long or less =black snakeroot, sanicula gregaria.= b. fruit sessile, - mm. long =black snakeroot, sanicula marilandica.= a. umbel unsymmetrical, its branches irregular in length; plant slender ( - dm. tall; early summer) =honewort, cryptotaenia canadensis.= b. umbel symmetrical with regular branches; plants tall and stout -- . a. stem and leaves very pubescent ( - dm. high; summer) =cow parsnip, heracleum lanatum.= b. stem and leaves glabrous or nearly so ( - dm. high; early summer) =masterwort, imperatoria ostruthium.= a. ovary and fruit bristly ( - dm. high) -- . b. ovary and fruit smooth or winged, never bristly -- . a. umbels loose, open, few-flowered; woodland plants blooming in spring (sweet cicely) -- . b. umbels densely flowered; weedy plants blooming from summer to fall =wild carrot, daucus carota.= a. stem villous-pubescent =sweet cicely, osmorhiza claytoni.= b. stem glabrous except at the joints =sweet cicely, osmorhiza longistylis.= a. leaflets merely serrate (flowers in summer) -- . b. leaflets coarsely incised, so that the leaf appears dissected -- . a. umbel densely pubescent ( - dm. high) =angelica, angelica villosa.= b. umbel smooth -- . a. leaf-segments broadly ovate ( - dm. high) =angelica, angelica atropurpurea.= b. leaf-segments lanceolate ( - dm. high) =water hemlock, cicuta maculata.= c. leaf-segments linear ( - dm. high) =water hemlock, cicuta bulbifera.= a. principal branches of the umbel - ; fruit linear-oblong; woodland plants blooming in spring ( - dm. high) =chervil, chaerophyllum procumbens.= b. principal branches of the umbel or more; fruit ovate to broadly elliptical (summer) -- . a. native plants, growing in swamps ( - dm. high) =hemlock parsley, conioselinum chinense.= b. introduced plants, in waste places and along roads -- . a. stems conspicuously spotted with purple ( - dm. high) =poison hemlock, conium maculatum.= b. stems not spotted with purple ( - dm. high) =caraway, carum carvi.= cornaceae, the dogwood family trees, shrubs, or herbs, with alternate leaves and small flowers in rather crowded rounded or flattened clusters; sepals , minute; petals and stamens each ; ovary inferior, ripening into a berry. in one genus the flowers are minute and greenish, with sepals and petals minute or none. a. leaves alternate -- . b. leaves opposite -- . a. flowers white, conspicuous, in flattened clusters (shrubs - m. high; flowers in late spring) =dogwood, cornus alternifolia.= b. flowers greenish, inconspicuous, in small axillary clusters (tree; flowers in spring) =sour gum, nyssa sylvatica.= a. flower clusters small and dense, surrounded by a showy involucre of bracts, resembling a corolla of petals -- . b. flowers in open flattened clusters, without petal-like involucre (shrubs - m. high; late spring) -- . a. herbaceous, dm. high or less (flowers in late spring) =dwarf dogwood, cornus canadensis.= b. tall shrub or tree (flowers in late spring) =flowering dogwood, cornus florida.= a. leaves distinctly pubescent beneath with woolly or spreading hairs -- . b. leaves smooth beneath, or pubescent with short appressed hairs -- . a. leaves rough above; fruit white =dogwood, cornus asperifolia.= b. leaves smooth or finely soft-hairy above -- . a. leaves at least twice as long as wide; branches brownish or purplish -- . b. leaves less than twice as long as wide; branches greenish; fruit blue =dogwood, cornus circinata.= a. branches purplish; fruit blue =dogwood, cornus amomum.= b. branches brownish; fruit white =dogwood, cornus baileyi.= a. branches bright red or reddish-purple =dogwood, cornus stolonifera.= b. branches grayish =dogwood, cornus paniculata.= ericaceae, the heath family herbs or shrubs, frequently with evergreen leaves; sepals - ; corolla regular, with - petals; stamens as many or twice as many; ovary - -celled, with style. a. plants without green color; leafless or with scale leaves only -- . b. plants with green leaves -- . a. flowers solitary ( - dm. high; summer) =indian pipe, monotropa uniflora.= b. flowers in clusters -- . a. petals united into a bell-shape corolla ( - dm. high; summer) =pine drops, pterospora andromedea.= b. petals all separate ( - dm. high; summer) =beech drops, monotropa hypopitys.= a. leaves all basal; herbaceous plants with terminal racemes ( - dm. high; summer) (shin-leaf) -- . b. stem-leaves present -- . a. style straight -- . b. style bent near the apex -- . a. racemes one-sided, the flowers all turned in one direction (flowers white or greenish-white) -- . b. raceme regular, the flowers not all pointing in the same direction (flowers white or pink) =shin-leaf, pyrola minor.= a. flowers numerous in each raceme =shin-leaf, pyrola secunda.= b. flowers only - in each raceme =shin-leaf, pyrola seconda var. obtusata.= a. flowers pink or purple -- . b. flowers white or greenish -- . a. leaves cordate at base =shin-leaf, pyrola asarifolia.= b. leaves rounded at base, not cordate =shin-leaf, pyrola asarifolia var. incarnata.= a. leaves shining on the upper side; sepals one-third as long as the petals =shin-leaf, pyrola americana.= b. leaves dull on the upper side; sepals one-fourth as long as the petals, or a little shorter -- . a. leaf-blades mostly shorter than their petioles, thick and firm =shin-leaf, pyrola chlorantha.= b. leaf-blades thin, usually longer than their petioles =shin-leaf, pyrola elliptica.= a. petals nearly or quite separate from each other -- . b. petals united into a gamopetalous corolla, the tube of which is as long as or longer than the lobes -- . a. leaves opposite or whorled; stems herbaceous or nearly so (summer) -- . b. leaves alternate; stems shrubby (early summer) -- . a. flowers solitary; leaves broadly ovate to nearly circular ( dm. high; flower white) =one-flowered wintergreen, moneses uniflora.= b. flowers in clusters; leaves narrow (stems trailing, - dm. high; flowers white or pinkish) -- . a. leaves broadest above the middle, green =prince's pine, chimaphila umbellata.= b. leaves broadest below the middle, spotted with white =spotted wintergreen, chimaphila maculata.= a. leaves - cm. long, densely woolly beneath ( - dm. high; flowers white) =labrador tea, ledum groenlandicum.= b. leaves - cm. long, pale beneath but not wholly (creeping; flowers pink) (cranberry) -- . a. leaves acute =cranberry, vaccinium oxycoccos.= b. leaves obtuse =cranberry, vaccinium macrocarpon.= a. leaves opposite or whorled; corolla saucer-shape (shrubs - dm. high; flowers purple, summer) -- . b. leaves alternate; corolla bell-shape or salver-form -- . a. branches and twigs cylindrical, not angled =sheep laurel, kalmia angustifolia.= b. branches and twigs with sharp angles =swamp laurel, kalmia polifolia.= a. plants prostrate, or with a few ascending branches only (flowers white or pink) -- . b. plants erect or ascending -- . a. flowers - mm. long, very fragrant (early spring) =trailing arbutus, epigaea repens.= b. flowers - mm. long (late spring) -- . a. leaves spatulate, broadest beyond the middle =bearberry, arctostaphylos uva-ursi.= b. leaves oval, broadest at the middle =snowberry, chiogenes hispidula.= a. leaves linear, white beneath, their margins strongly revolute (shrub - dm. high; flowers white, late spring) =bog rosemary, andromeda glaucophylla.= b. leaves oblong, scurfy beneath with rusty scales (bog shrub - dm. high; flowers white, in spring) =leatherleaf, chamaedaphne calyculata.= c. leaves smooth, pubescent, or resinous beneath, but not scurfy nor white -- . a. low shrubs - cm. high, erect from a creeping rootstock; leaves with the taste of wintergreen (flowers white or pink, summer) =wintergreen, gaultheria procumbens.= b. bushy shrubs - dm. high; leaves dotted beneath with yellowish resinous dots; ovary -celled (flowers greenish-pink, spring) =huckleberry, gaylussacia baccata.= c. shrubs dm. to m. high; leaves not resinous-dotted beneath; ovary -celled (flowers white or greenish-pink, spring or early summer) -- . a. corolla bell-shape, the stamens projecting beyond it ( - dm. high) =deerberry, vaccinium stamineum.= b. corolla cylindrical or urn-shape, the stamens not projecting -- . a. filaments hairy (blueberry) -- . b. filaments glabrous (bilberry) -- . a. low bushy shrubs, usually less than dm. and never more than m. high -- . b. tall erect shrubs, - m. high -- . a. foliage pubescent =blueberry, vaccinium canadense.= b. foliage glabrous -- . a. leaves pale-green and glaucous, entire or nearly so =blueberry, vaccinium vacillans.= b. leaves bright-green, distinctly serrulate -- . a. fruit blue =blueberry, vaccinium pennsylvanicum.= b. fruit black =blueberry, vaccinium pennsylvanicum var. nigrum.= a. leaves downy beneath; fruit black =blueberry, vaccinium atrococcum.= b. leaves smooth or minutely pubescent beneath; fruit blue =blueberry, vaccinium corymbosum.= a. full-grown leaves less than . cm. long; low much-branched shrubs, mostly less than dm. high -- . b. full-grown leaves more than . cm. long; shrubs usually a meter high or more -- . a. leaves entire; petals usually . =bilberry, vaccinium uliginosum.= b. leaves finely serrulate; petals =bilberry, vaccinium caespitosum.= a. leaves serrulate, green beneath, acute; corolla globular =bilberry, vaccinium membranaceum.= b. leaves entire, pale beneath, obtuse; corolla ovoid =bilberry, vaccinium ovalifolium.= primulaceae, the primrose family herbs, with alternate or opposite simple leaves and regular flowers; petals more or less united; stamens attached one in front of each petal; ovary -celled with style. a. leaves all basal; flowers on leafless stalks -- . b. stem-leaves present -- . a. flowers nodding, the petals reflexed ( - dm. high; flowers showy, white or pink, in spring) =shooting star, dodecatheon meadia.= b. flowers erect or spreading; petals not reflexed -- . a. corolla not longer than the calyx; flowers small and inconspicuous ( dm. high; flowers white or pink, spring) =androsace, androsace occidentalis.= b. corolla conspicuous, much longer than the calyx (flowers pink or purple, summer) (primrose) -- . a. leaves white-mealy beneath ( - dm. high) =primrose, primula farinosa.= b. leaves green beneath ( dm. high or less) =primrose, primula mistassinica.= a. all the stem-leaves in one whorl just below the flower-cluster -- . b. stem-leaves several or many, scattered over the stem -- . a. stem-leaves about cm. long -- a. b. stem-leaves - cm. long =star flower, trientalis americana.= a. flowers red, blue, or white (summer) -- . b. flowers yellow (summer) -- . a. leaves opposite; flowers axillary (stems spreading, - dm. long; flowers blue or red) =pimpernel, anagallis arvensis.= b. leaves alternate; flowers racemose ( - dm. high; flowers minute, white) =water pimpernel, samolus floribundus.= a. stem creeping =moneywort, lysimachia nummularia.= b. stem erect (loosestrife) -- . a. flowers in dense spike-like racemes ( - dm. high) =loosestrife, lysimachia thyrsiflora.= b. flowers axillary or racemose ( - dm. high) -- . a. corolla dotted or streaked with purple or brown; leaves punctate with dark spots -- . b. corolla plain yellow; leaves not dark-dotted -- . a. flowers in racemes -- . b. flowers all axillary =loosestrife, lysimachia quadrifolia.= a. flowers all in racemes; leaves opposite or some of them alternate =loosestrife, lysimachia terrestris.= b. the lowest flowers axillary; leaves opposite or whorled =loosestrife, lysimachia producta.= a. leaves ovate, on slender ciliate petioles =loosestrife, steironema ciliatum.= b. leaves lanceolate, sessile or short-petioled, pinnately veined =loosestrife, steironema lanceolatum.= c. leaves linear, with one mid-vein =loosestrife, steironema quadriflorum.= oleaceae, the olive family trees or shrubs, with opposite leaves and regular flowers; sepals , or calyx none; petals , united, or none; stamens usually ; ovary -celled, superior. a. leaves simple (shrub - m. high; flowers blue or white, in showy clusters in spring) =lilac, syringa vulgaris.= b. leaves compound (trees; flowers greenish, inconspicuous, in spring) (ash) -- . a. lateral leaflets sessile =black ash, fraxinus nigra.= b. lateral leaflets stalked -- . a. twigs sharply -angled =blue ash, fraxinus quadrangulata.= b. twigs not distinctly angled -- . a. leaves pubescent beneath =red ash, fraxinus pennsylvanica.= b. leaves glabrous beneath -- . a. leaves pale-green beneath, obscurely serrulate =white ash, fraxinus americana.= b. leaves bright-green beneath, sharply serrulate =green ash, fraxinus pennsylvanica var. lanceolata.= gentianaceae, the gentian family herbs, with opposite or basal, entire, usually simple leaves and regular flowers; sepals, petals, and stamens equal in number, - ; ovary superior, -celled. a. leaves reduced to small scales ( - dm. high; flowers small, greenish-yellow, in summer) =bartonia, bartonia virginica.= b. leaves rounded, floating (flowers white, summer) =floating heart, nymphoides lacunosum.= c. leaves compound ( - dm. high; flowers white or bluish, early summer) =buckbean, menyanthes trifoliata.= d. leaves simple, whorled ( - m. high; flowers yellowish-white, summer) =american columbo, frasera caroliniensis.= e. leaves simple, opposite -- . a. corolla rotate, with spreading lobes, - cm. broad, pink ( - dm. high; summer) =rose pink, sabbatia angularis.= b. corolla bell-shape, each petal with a spur at the base, purplish or white, and not over cm. long ( - dm. high; summer) =spurred gentian, halenia deflexa.= c. corolla bell-shape, tubular, funnel-form, or salver-form, not spurred -- . a. corolla-lobes fringed (flowers bright-blue) (fringed gentian) -- . b. corolla-lobes entire -- . a. leaves lanceolate ( - dm. high; autumn) =fringed gentian, gentiana crinita.= b. leaves linear ( - dm. high; late summer) =fringed gentian, gentiana procera.= a. corolla cm. long or a little less -- . b. corolla . - cm. long (late summer and autumn) (gentian) -- . a. upper leaves linear or narrowly lanceolate ( - dm. high; flowers pink-purple, late summer) =centaury, centaurium umbellatum.= b. upper leaves ovate, with several principal veins ( - dm. high; flowers blue, late summer and autumn) =gentian, gentiana quinquefolia.= a. calyx-lobes rough or ciliate at the margin (flowers blue, or rarely white) -- . b. calyx-lobes smooth ( - dm. high) -- . a. corolla-lobes spreading; leaves narrowly lanceolate, indistinctly veined ( - dm. high) =gentian, gentiana puberula.= b. corolla-lobes erect or incurved; leaves ovate to ovate-lanceolate, with - principal veins ( - dm. high) -- . a. calyx-lobes equaling or exceeding the calyx-tube =gentian, gentiana saponaria.= b. calyx-lobes shorter than the calyx-tube =gentian, gentiana andrewsii.= a. leaves ovate or ovate-lanceolate, somewhat cordate at base (flowers greenish-white or yellowish-white) =gentian, gentiana flavida.= b. leaves narrowly lanceolate or nearly linear, not cordate (flowers blue) =gentian, gentiana linearis.= apocynaceae, the dogbane family herbs, with opposite simple entire leaves and regular flowers; sepals, petals, and stamens each ; petals united; stamens attached to the corolla; ovaries , with a single style or stigma. a. plant creeping or trailing; flowers blue, axillary, - cm. broad (spring) =periwinkle, vinca minor.= b. plant erect or essentially so; flowers cm. broad or less ( - dm. high) -- . a. corolla pinkish, about mm. long by - mm. broad (early summer) =dogbane, apocynum androsaemifolium.= b. corolla white or greenish, about mm. long by mm. broad (summer) -- . a. leaves petioled, acute at the base =indian hemp, apocynum cannabinum.= b. leaves sessile, rounded or truncate at the base =indian hemp, apocynum cannabinum var. hypericifolium.= asclepiadaceae, the milkweed family herbs, with simple entire leaves and regular flowers; juice usually milky; except in the first species, which is a twining vine. the flowers have an unusual structure: calyx of sepals; petals , united with each other, and spreading or reflexed so that they conceal the calyx; stamens , united with each other and with the stigma to form a complex organ in the center of the flower; ovaries ; on the back of each stamen is a colored projecting hood, which is frequently the most conspicuous part of the flower, and may be mistaken for the corolla. a. twining vine, with dark purple flowers (summer) =black swallow-wort, cynanchum nigrum.= b. stems not twining -- . a. leaves whorled ( - dm. high; summer) (milkweed) -- . b. leaves opposite or alternate -- . a. leaves in whorls of , lanceolate (flowers pink) =milkweed, asclepias quadrifolia.= b. leaves in whorls of - , linear (flowers greenish-white) =milkweed, asclepias verticillata.= a. umbel sessile ( - dm. high; flowers green, summer) =green milkweed, acerates viridiflora.= b. umbel peduncled -- . a. leaves linear or narrowly linear-lanceolate ( - dm. high; flowers greenish-white, summer) =green milkweed, acerates floridana.= b. leaves lanceolate or broader (flowers in summer) -- . a. leaves pubescent beneath -- . b. leaves glabrous or nearly so -- . a. flowers brilliant orange ( - dm. high) =butterfly weed, asclepias tuberosa.= b. flowers red or purple -- . a. reflexed lobes of corolla merely purple-tinged ( - m. high) =milkweed, asclepias syriaca.= b. reflexed lobes of corolla bright-red or purple -- . a. the erect hoods of each flower about mm. long ( - dm. high) =milkweed, asclepias purpurascens.= b. the erect hoods of each flower about mm. long ( - dm. high) =swamp milkweed, asclepias incarnata var. pulchra.= a. leaves broadly rounded and almost sessile at base (flowers purplish) -- . b. leaves narrowed at the base, distinctly petioled ( - dm. high) -- . a. umbel solitary, terminal and erect on a long peduncle ( - dm. high) =milkweed, asclepias amplexicaulis.= b. umbels terminal or lateral, bent toward one side ( - dm. high) =milkweed, asclepias sullivantii.= a. corolla (not hoods) red ( - m. high) =swamp milkweed, asclepias incarnata.= b. corolla (not hoods) greenish ( - dm. high) =milkweed, asclepias exaltata.= convolvulaceae, the morning glory family twining or trailing herbs (except one species), with regular flowers; sepals ; corolla -angled or -lobed; stamens , attached to the corolla; ovary superior, - -celled. a. plants with green foliage and conspicuous flowers (summer) -- . b. leafless brown or yellow plants, with very small flowers (dodder) -- . a. style divided at the top into linear or oblong stigmas (flowers white or pink) (bindweed) -- . b. style not divided at the top; stigmas sessile, capitate (morning glory) -- . a. stem erect; leaves rounded or somewhat cordate at base, not hastate or sagittate ( - dm. high) =bindweed, convolvulus spithamaeus.= b. stem trailing or twining; leaves sagittate or hastate -- . a. calyx almost concealed by two large heart-shape bracts -- . b. bracts at base of calyx none =bindweed, convolvulus arvensis.= a. leaves triangular-hastate, with sharp basal lobes =bindweed, convolvulus sepium.= b. leaves oblong-ovate, the basal lobes obtuse =bindweed, convolvulus sepium var. pubescens.= a. stem smooth or nearly so; ovary -celled (flowers white) =wild potato vine, ipomoea pandurata.= b. stem with reflexed hairs; ovary -celled (flowers of various colors) =morning glory, ipomoea purpurea.= a. introduced weed, growing as a parasite on clover =dodder, cuscuta epithymum.= b. native species, on various shrubs and herbs -- . a. flowers sessile -- . b. flowers distinctly pedicelled -- . a. sepals united below into a gamosepalous calyx -- . b. sepals separate from each other -- . a. calyx-lobes obtuse =dodder, cuscuta arvensis.= b. calyx-lobes acute =dodder, cuscuta obtusiflora.= a. flowers in dense rope-like twists on various species of herbs =dodder, cuscuta paradoxa.= b. flowers in dense clusters on various species of shrubs =dodder, cuscuta compacta.= a. tips of the petals inflexed =dodder, cuscuta coryli.= b. tips of the petals erect or spreading -- . a. capsule depressed at the summit =dodder, cuscuta cephalanthi.= b. capsule pointed at the summit =dodder, cuscuta gronovii.= polemoniaceae, the polemonium family herbs with alternate or opposite leaves and conspicuous regular flowers; sepals , united; petals , united and bearing the stamens in the corolla-tube; ovary superior, -celled. a. leaves pinnately compound and alternate ( - dm. high; flowers blue, in spring) =greek valerian, polemonium reptans.= b. leaves fascicled, narrowly linear (about dm. high; flowers pink-purple, in spring) =moss pink, phlox subulata.= c. leaves simple, strictly opposite -- . a. corolla-lobes deeply -cleft to the middle ( - dm. high; flowers pink, in spring) =cleft phlox, phlox bifida.= b. corolla-lobes entire and rounded, or somewhat notched at the apex -- . a. flowers in summer ( - dm. high; flowers purple) =garden phlox, phlox paniculata.= b. flowers in spring ( - dm. high) -- . a. corolla blue-purple; stems ascending =sweet william, phlox divaricata.= b. corolla pink or red-purple; stems erect =sweet william, phlox pilosa.= hydrophyllaceae, the water-leaf family herbs with alternate lobed or divided leaves and regular flowers; sepals ; petals , united; stamens , attached to the corolla-tube and projecting beyond it; ovary -celled. a. leaves palmately veined and lobed ( - dm. high; flowers purple, early summer) =water-leaf, hydrophyllum canadense.= b. leaves pinnately veined and lobed ( - dm. high; flowers blue or purple, varying to white) -- . a. corolla-lobes much shorter than the corolla-tube (summer) =phacelia, phacelia franklinii.= b. corolla-lobes much longer than the corolla-tube (late spring and summer) (water-leaf) -- . a. calyx with a small reflexed appendage between each pair of sepals =water-leaf, hydrophyllum appendiculatum.= b. calyx without appendages =water-leaf, hydrophyllum virginicum.= boraginaceae, the borage family herbs with alternate entire leaves; sepals ; petals , united, corolla generally regular; stamens , attached to the corolla-tube; ovary deeply -lobed with a single style. a. corolla reddish-purple, about mm. wide ( - dm. high; spring) =hound's tongue, cynoglossum officinale.= b. corolla blue with a yellow center, - mm. wide ( - dm. high; spring and early summer) (forget-me-not) -- . c. corolla deep orange, salver-form ( - dm. high; spring) (puccoon) -- . d. corolla white or blue, or lightly tinged with yellow or red -- . a. corolla rotate, with a very short tube, bright-blue, about mm. broad ( - dm. high; summer) =borage, borago officinalis.= b. corolla tubular, funnel-form, or salver-form -- . a. corolla mm. long or more; its tube distinctly longer than the calyx -- . b. corolla less than mm. long; its tube equaling or shorter than the calyx -- . a. flowers yellowish-white, or somewhat tinged with pink or greenish -- . b. flowers blue or purple -- . a. corolla-lobes erect; leaves sessile ( - dm. high; early summer) =false gromwell; onosmodium occidentale.= b. corolla-lobes spreading; leaves decurrent ( - dm. high; summer) =comfrey, symphytum officinale.= a. stem and leaves glabrous ( - dm. high; spring) =bluebell, mertensia virginica.= b. stem and leaves pubescent ( - dm. high) -- . a. corolla regular; leaves ovate or ovate-lanceolate (summer) =bluebell, mertensia paniculata.= b. corolla irregular; leaves linear-oblong (summer) =blueweed, echium vulgare.= a. ovary and fruit covered with hooked prickles -- . b. ovary and fruit not prickly -- . a. principal leaves . cm. wide or more -- . b. principal leaves cm. wide or less ( - dm. high; flowers blue or white, summer) (stickseed) -- . a. leaves chiefly basal, the racemes on long leafless peduncles ( - dm. high; flowers pale blue, early summer) =wild comfrey, cynoglossum boreale.= b. stems leafy ( - dm. high; flowers white, summer) =beggar lice, lappula virginiana.= a. a bract at the base of each flower =stickseed, lappula echinata.= b. racemes without bracts at the base of each flower =stickseed, lappula deflexa var. americana.= a. racemes bractless, or bracted only at the base ( - dm. high) -- . b. raceme with a bract at the base of each flower (flowers white or yellowish) -- . a. corolla mm. wide =forget-me-not, myosotis laxa.= b. corolla - mm. wide =forget-me-not, myosotis scorpioides.= a. calyx-lobes all of equal length (summer) =scorpion grass, myosotis arvensis.= b. calyx-lobes distinctly unequal in length (spring) =scorpion grass, myosotis virginica.= a. corolla-lobes denticulate =puccoon, lithospermum angustifolium.= b. corolla-lobes entire -- . a. flowers sessile; stem softly pubescent =puccoon, lithospermum canescens.= b. flowers on pedicels - mm. long; stem hispid or bristly =puccoon, lithospermum gmelini.= a. corolla white; fruit brown and wrinkled (weed - dm. high; spring and summer) =corn gromwell, lithospermum arvense.= b. corolla yellowish-white; fruit white and smooth ( - dm. high) -- . a. corolla distinctly surpassing the calyx in length (spring and summer) =corn gromwell, lithospermum officinale.= b. corolla equaling or shorter than the calyx (spring) =wild gromwell, lithospermum latifolium.= labiatae, the mint family herbs with opposite leaves, square stems, and usually aromatic odor; flowers irregular, with united petals, or almost regular; stamens or , attached to the tube of the corolla; ovary deeply -lobed, with a single style. a. stamens -- . b. stamens -- . a. corolla regular or nearly so; flowers white, in dense axillary clusters; plants usually of wet grounds ( - dm. high; summer and autumn) -- . b. corolla distinctly irregular and more or less -lipped -- . a. calyx-teeth short, triangular, acute or obtuse (bugle weed) -- . b. calyx-teeth narrow, acuminate or cuspidate (water hoarhound) -- . a. stems and stolons bearing tubers =bugle weed, lycopus uniflorus.= b. stems and stolons not bearing tubers =bugle weed, lycopus virginicus.= a. leaves serrate; calyx-teeth sharp-pointed -- . b. leaves coarsely incised; calyx-teeth awn-tipped =water hoarhound, lycopus americanus.= a. corolla twice as long as the calyx; leaves narrowed at the base =water hoarhound, lycopus rubellus.= b. corolla barely longer than the calyx; leaves sessile or nearly so =water hoarhound, lycopus lucidus var. americanus.= a. corolla blue, - mm. long; flowers in loose axillary clusters ( - dm. high; summer) (pennyroyal) -- . b. corolla - mm. long -- . a. leaves serrate =pennyroyal, hedeoma pulegioides.= b. leaves linear, entire =pennyroyal, hedeoma hispida.= a. lower lobe of the corolla fringed, very much longer than the upper ( - dm. high; corolla pale-yellow; late summer) =horse balm, collinsonia canadensis.= b. lower lobe of the corolla nearly or quite as long as the upper and not fringed -- . a. calyx narrowly tubular; its teeth about equal in size ( - dm. high; flowers in dense terminal heads, in summer) -- . b. calyx campanulate, of its teeth different in size from the other ( - dm. high; flowers pink-purple, in terminal clusters in summer) -- . a. corolla scarlet =oswego tea, monarda didyma.= b. corolla bright crimson or rose-red =wild bergamot, monarda fistulosa var. rubra.= c. corolla white, pink, pale-purple, or yellowish -- . a. flower-clusters all terminal -- . b. flower-clusters both terminal and axillary =horse mint, monarda punctata.= a. leaves and stem with soft spreading pubescence =wild bergamot, monarda fistulosa.= b. leaves and stem grayish with fine appressed pubescence =wild bergamot, monarda mollis.= a. upper calyx-teeth about times as long as the lower =blephilia, blephilia hirsuta.= b. upper calyx-teeth but little longer than the lower =blephilia, blephilia ciliata.= a. calyx with a distinct protuberance on the back of the upper side (skullcap) -- . b. calyx without a distinct protuberance -- . a. corolla - mm. long; flowers in axillary racemes ( - dm. high; flowers blue, in summer) =mad-dog skullcap, scutellaria lateriflora.= b. corolla - mm. long; flowers axillary, solitary ( - dm. high; flowers violet, early summer) =skullcap, scutellaria parvula.= c. corolla - mm. long; flowers axillary or in terminal racemes ( - dm. high; flowers blue, summer) -- . a. stem-leaves cordate =skullcap, scutellaria versicolor.= b. stem-leaves not distinctly cordate -- . a. stem-leaves sessile or nearly so; plant of swamps and river-banks =skullcap, scutellaria galericulata.= b. stem-leaves with petioles cm. or more long; plants of dry or moist woods -- . a. stem glandular-pubescent toward the summit; corolla mm. long or less =skullcap, scutellaria pilosa.= b. stem not glandular; corolla mm. long =skullcap, scutellaria incana.= a. calyx-teeth , all equal or nearly so at the time of flowering -- . b. calyx-teeth , one of them different in size and shape from the other four ( - dm. high; flowers light blue, summer) =dragon head, dracocephalum parviflorum.= c. calyx-teeth , two of them different in size and shape from the other three -- . d. calyx-teeth , subulate (woolly plant - dm. high, with whitish flowers in axillary clusters in summer) =hoarhound, marrubium vulgare.= a. corolla deeply split on the upper side and the stamens protruding; upper lip of the calyx much shorter than the lower ( - dm. high; flowers pink-purple, in terminal spikes, summer) (wood sage) -- . b. corolla not deeply split on the upper side -- . a. calyx canescent =wood sage, teucrium canadense.= b. calyx villous =wood sage, teucrium occidentale.= a. flowers in dense terminal head-like spikes, none axillary ( - dm. high; flowers pink-purple or blue, in summer) =self-heal, prunella vulgaris.= b. some or all of the flowers in axillary clusters -- . a. leaves linear, entire ( - dm. high; flowers purple, summer) -- . b. leaves oblong to ovate (summer) -- . a. pedicels shorter than the calyx =summer savory, satureja hortensis.= b. pedicels much longer than the calyx =calamint, satureja glabra.= a. leaves cm. long or less, entire (stems growing in mats, - dm. long; flowers purple, in summer) =wild thyme, thymus serpyllum.= b. leaves dentate (flowers purple, summer) -- . a. flowers subtended by bracts as long as the calyx ( - dm. high) =basil, satureja vulgaris.= b. flowers with minute bracts or none ( - dm. high) =basil-thyme, satureja acinos.= a. corolla -lipped or nearly regular, the upper lip flattened, not conspicuously arched over the stamens -- . b. corolla conspicuously -lipped, the stamens ascending under the concave upper lip -- . a. flowers in dense terminal spikes; corolla -lipped ( - dm. high; summer) -- . b. flowers peduncled, - in the axils of linear leaves -- b. c. flowers in many-flowered whorls, which are axillary or terminal, or aggregated into terminal spikes or racemes -- . a. corolla yellowish =giant hyssop, agastache nepetoides.= b. corolla purplish =giant hyssop, agastache scrophulariaefolius.= a. corolla distinctly irregular, the lower lip longer than the upper -- . b. corolla almost regular, the lobes nearly uniform in size -- . a. stem-leaves sessile or very nearly so (flowers blue) -- . b. stem-leaves long-petioled -- . a. leaves linear-oblong, acute at both ends ( - dm. high; summer) =hyssop, hyssopus officinalis.= b. leaves oblong to ovate, rounded at the ends ( - dm. high; late spring) =bugle, ajuga reptans.= a. leaves ovate to oblong, acute; flowers pink, white, or pale purple ( - dm. high; summer) =catnip, nepeta cataria.= b. leaves nearly circular or kidney-shape; flowers blue (creeping; flowers in spring and summer) =ground ivy, nepeta hederacea.= a. flowers in terminal spikes, or the lower axillary ( - dm. high; flowers pink-purple or white, summer) (mint) -- . b. flowers all in axillary whorls (flowers pink-purple or white, summer) (mint) -- . c. flowers in terminal capitate corymbed clusters ( - dm. high; flowers white or dotted with purple, summer) (mountain mint) -- . a. leaves sessile or with very short petiole =spearmint, mentha spicata.= b. leaves with manifest petioles -- . a. principal leaves less than half as broad as long =peppermint, mentha piperita.= b. principal leaves more than half as broad as long =bergamot mint, mentha citrata.= a. stem glabrous; leaves ovate to obovate ( - dm. high) =downy mint, mentha gentilis.= b. stem pubescent, at least on the angles ( - dm. high) -- . a. principal leaves distinctly petioled and somewhat rounded at base =wild mint, mentha arvensis.= b. leaves tapering to the base -- . a. leaves and stem pubescent =wild mint, mentha arvensis var. canadensis.= b. leaves glabrous; stem pubescent on the angles only =wild mint, mentha arvensis var. glabrata.= a. leaves linear; calyx-teeth awl-shape =mountain mint, pycnanthemum flexuosum.= b. leaves narrowly lanceolate; calyx-teeth triangular-ovate =mountain mint, pycnanthemum virginianum.= a. stems decumbent to diffuse; leaves cordate to nearly circular (stems - dm. long or high; flowers in spring and summer) (dead nettle) -- . b. stem erect; leaves palmately cleft; calyx-teeth spiny ( - dm. tall; flowers pink, in summer) =motherwort, leonurus cardiaca.= c. stems erect or ascending; leaves ovate-lanceolate to linear (summer) -- . a. upper leaves closely sessile (flowers red-purple) =dead nettle, lamium amplexicaule.= b. leaves all petioled -- . a. flowers red or purple =dead nettle, lamium maculatum.= b. flowers white =dead nettle, lamium album.= a. flowers - . cm. long, in loose terminal spikes ( - dm. tall; flowers rose-color) =false dragon head, physostegia virginiana.= b. flowers - cm. long, in axillary and terminal spiked whorls -- . a. calyx-teeth spiny pointed (flowers pink or pale-purple) (hemp nettle) -- . b. calyx-teeth acute to awl-shape, but not spiny ( - dm. high; flowers pale-purple) (hedge nettle) -- . a. leaves ovate ( - dm. high) =hemp nettle, galeopsis tetrahit.= b. leaves linear to lanceolate ( - dm. high) =hemp nettle, galeopsis ladanum.= a. leaves glabrous -- . b. leaves distinctly pubescent -- . a. leaves ovate-lanceolate, serrate =hedge nettle, stachys tenuifolia.= b. leaves linear-oblong, entire or nearly so =hedge nettle, stachys hyssopifolia.= a. stem pubescent on the angles alone; leaves petioled =hedge nettle, stachys tenuifolia var. aspera.= b. stem pubescent on both sides and angles; leaves nearly sessile -- . a. leaves oblong or oblong-lanceolate, more than cm. wide =hedge nettle, stachys palustris.= b. leaves linear-lanceolate, cm. wide or less =hedge nettle, stachys arenicola.= verbenaceae, the verbena family herbs, with simple opposite leaves and slightly irregular flowers in spikes or heads; petals , united and bearing the stamens in the corolla-tube; ovary , -celled or -celled, with style. a. plants prostrate or spreading -- . b. plants erect (flowers in summer) (vervain) -- . a. leaves serrate; flowers in short dense spikes (flowers pale-blue, summer) =fog fruit, lippia lanceolata.= b. leaves pinnatifid; flowers in loose bracted spikes (flowers light-purple, summer) =vervain, verbena bracteosa.= a. spikes dense, continuous (flowers purple or blue, varying to white) -- . b. spikes slender, interrupted, the flowers scattered (corolla white or pale-blue) -- . a. leaves lanceolate, manifestly petioled ( - m. high) =vervain, verbena hastata.= b. leaves sessile, not lanceolate ( - dm. high) -- . a. leaves narrowly oblanceolate, tapering at the entire base =vervain, verbena angustifolia.= b. leaves oblong to obovate, not tapering at the base =vervain, verbena stricta.= a. leaves incised, tapering to a sessile base ( - dm. high) =vervain, verbena, officinalis.= b. leaves serrate, petioled ( - m. high) =vervain, verbena urticaefolia.= solanaceae, the nightshade family herbs or shrubs, with alternate leaves and regular or slightly irregular flowers; sepals , united; corolla of united petals, bearing the stamens attached; ovary , - (usually )-celled, with a slender style. a. corolla rotate; anthers close together (flowers in summer) -- . b. corolla not rotate; anthers separate -- . a. stem and leaves prickly ( - dm. high) -- . b. stem and leaves not prickly -- . a. flowers white or bluish =horse nettle, solanum carolinense.= b. flowers yellow =buffalo bur, solanum rostratum.= a. climbing vine; leaves frequently lobed (flowers blue) =bittersweet, solanum dulcamara.= b. not climbing; leaves toothed (flowers white) =nightshade, solanum nigrum.= a. climbing or trailing shrub, with purplish, white, or greenish flowers about cm. wide (frequently thorny; flowers in summer) =matrimony vine, lycium halimifolium.= b. herbaceous plants, not climbing -- . a. flowers white, red, or blue, . cm. or more wide (summer) -- . b. flowers yellow, yellowish-white, or greenish-yellow (summer) -- . a. corolla-tube cm. long or more ( - dm. high) -- . b. corolla-tube cm. long or less -- . a. stem finely pubescent; leaves entire or nearly so =thorn-apple, datura metel.= b. stem glabrous; leaves coarsely toothed (jimson weed) -- . a. stem green; corolla white =jimson weed, datura stramonium.= b. stem purple; corolla light-blue or purple =jimson weed, datura tatula.= a. corolla pale-blue ( - dm. high) =apple of peru, nicandra physalodes.= b. corolla, red or violet ( - dm. high) =petunia, petunia violacea.= c. corolla white -- . a. corolla all white ( - dm. high) =petunia, petunia axillaris.= b. corolla with yellow center =white ground cherry, physalis grandiflora.= a. corolla mm. wide or more, somewhat irregular; stamens declined to one side ( - dm. high) =henbane, hyoscyamus niger.= b. corolla smaller, strictly regular -- . a. flowers in terminal panicles; corolla tubular, with slightly spreading lobes ( - dm. high) =wild tobacco, nicotiana rustica.= b. flowers solitary in the axils; corolla short, widely spreading ( - dm. high) (ground cherry) -- . a. annuals with branching slender roots -- . b. perennials with thickened roots and rootstocks -- . a. plants pubescent =ground cherry, physalis pubescens.= b. plants smooth, or with a few scattered hairs =ground cherry, physalis ixocarpa.= a. stem viscid-pubescent =ground cherry, physalis heterophylla.= b. stem glabrous or slightly pubescent, not viscid -- . a. leaves and stem distinctly pubescent =ground cherry, physalis virginiana.= b. leaves and stem almost glabrous =ground cherry, physalis subglabrata.= scrophulariaceae, the figwort family herbs with opposite or alternate leaves and usually irregular flowers; corolla of united petals, bearing the or (or rarely ) stamens attached; petals actually , but sometimes apparently only or ; a sterile fifth stamen sometimes present; ovary superior, -celled. a. anther-bearing stamens ( - dm. high; flowers in summer) (mullein) -- . b. anther-bearing stamens ; a sterile fifth stamen may or may not be present -- . c. anther-bearing stamens -- . a. leaves densely white-woolly; flowers yellow, in dense spikes =mullein, verbascum thapsus.= b. leaves smooth or nearly so; flowers yellow or white, in loose racemes =moth mullein, verbascum blattaria.= a. flowers (not the bracts) greenish-yellow, yellow, or orange -- . b. flowers blue, purple, brown, red, pink, or white, never yellow -- . a. flowers in dense terminal leafy-bracted spikes -- . b. flowers in loose racemes or axillary -- . a. corolla mm. long or less, or none -- . b. corolla mm. long or more -- . a. leaves alternate ( - dm. high; early summer) =synthyris, synthyris bullii.= b. leaves opposite ( - dm. high; summer) =eyebright, euphrasia arctica.= a. stem-leaves entire ( - dm. high; summer) =painted cup, castilleja pallida var. septentrionalis.= b. stem-leaves palmately lobed, bracteal leaves scarlet ( - dm. high; early summer) =painted cup, castilleja coccinea.= c. stem-leaves pinnately lobed or incised (lousewort) -- . a. flowers in spring ( - dm. high) =lousewort, pedicularis canadensis.= b. flowers in late summer ( - dm. high) =lousewort, pedicularis lanceolata.= a. upper lip of the corolla very different in size and shape from the lower lip -- . b. upper lip of the corolla resembling the lower lip in shape, and not very different in size ( - dm. high; summer) (false foxglove) -- . a. leaves alternate ( - dm. high; summer) =butter-and-eggs, linaria vulgaris.= b. leaves opposite -- . a. stem erect; leaves narrowed at the base -- b. b. stem creeping or spreading (summer) -- . a. leaves pinnately veined, ovate =musk flower, mimulus moschatus.= b. leaves palmately veined, circular or nearly so =yellow monkey flower, mimulus glabratus var. jamesii.= a. stem glabrous -- . b. stem pubescent -- . a. principal stem-leaves pinnatifid =false foxglove, gerardia virginica.= b. principal stem-leaves entire =false foxglove, gerardia laevigata.= a. corolla hairy on the outside =false foxglove, gerardia pedicularia.= b. corolla smooth on the outside =false foxglove, gerardia flava.= a. leaves all basal; flowers on leafless stalks ( dm. high or less; flowers pink or white, summer) =mudwort, limosella aquatica var. tenuifolia.= b. leaves opposite (those subtending the flowers may be alternate) -- . c. leaves alternate or irregularly scattered -- . a. leaves entire -- . b. leaves pinnately lobed or incised -- a. c. leaves palmately veined and lobed; stem trailing (flowers blue, summer) =kenilworth ivy, linaria cymbalaria.= a. corolla-tube less than cm. long, spurred -- . b. corolla more than cm. long, not spurred ( - dm. high; flowers red-purple, summer) =snapdragon, antirrhinum majus.= a. stem and foliage pubescent ( - dm. high; flowers blue, summer) =small snapdragon, linaria minor.= b. stem and foliage glabrous ( - dm. high; flowers blue, summer) =toad-flax, linaria canadensis.= a. leaves with or lobes near the base ( - dm. high; flowers purple, summer) =gerardia, gerardia auriculata.= b. leaves linear ( - dm. high; flowers rose-purple, summer and autumn) (gerardia) -- . c. leaves lanceolate or broader, not lobed -- . a. pedicels equaling or but little longer than the calyx, and conspicuously shorter than the subtending leaf -- . b. pedicels much longer than the calyx, and generally equaling or exceeding the subtending leaf -- . a. plants of moist ground, bogs, and shores -- . b. plants of dry uplands =gerardia, gerardia aspera.= a. corolla about mm. long =gerardia, gerardia purpurea.= b. corolla less than mm. long =gerardia, gerardia paupercula.= a. stem rough on the angles -- . b. stem glabrous =gerardia, gerardia tenuifolia.= a. leaves - mm. wide =gerardia, gerardia tenuifolia var. macrophylla.= b. leaves thread-like, mm. wide or less =gerardia, gerardia skinneriana.= a. corolla mm. long, or shorter -- . b. corolla mm. long, or longer -- . a. corolla dull-purple, brown, or greenish; one sterile stamen present ( - . m. high; flowers in summer) (figwort) -- . b. corolla blue or white ( - dm. high) -- . a. sterile stamen purple =figwort, scrophularia marilandica.= b. sterile stamen yellow =figwort, scrophularia leporella.= a. flowers nearly or quite sessile (summer) -- . b. flowers on pedicels mm. long or more (spring) -- . a. foliage-leaves prominently toothed -- b. b. foliage-leaves entire, or with or small teeth at the base =cow wheat, melampyrum lineare.= a. corolla more than mm. long, blue and white =blue-eyed mary, collinsia verna.= b. corolla - mm. long, blue and white =collinsia, collinsia parviflora.= a. flowers solitary in the axils of the upper foliage-leaves ( - dm. high; flowers blue, in summer) (monkey flower) -- . b. flowers in dense terminal or subterminal spikes ( - dm. high; summer) -- . c. flowers in loose terminal panicles (flowers white or pale-violet) (beard-tongue) -- . a. leaves clasping at the base =monkey flower, mimulus ringens.= b. leaves petioled, not clasping =monkey flower, mimulus alatus.= a. stem and foliage glabrous (flowers white) =turtlehead, chelone glabra.= b. stem and foliage pubescent (flowers purple) =blue hearts, buchnera americana.= a. stem finely pubescent ( - dm. high; flowers pale-violet, late spring) =beard-tongue, pentstemon hirsutus.= b. stem glabrous below the inflorescence ( - dm. high) -- . a. corolla-tube gradually enlarged from base to tip (flowers pale-violet, in early summer) =beard-tongue, pentstemon laevigatus.= b. corolla-tube abruptly enlarged just beyond the calyx (flowers white, early summer) =beard-tongue, pentstemon laevigatus var. digitalis.= a. corolla distinctly irregular, -lipped ( - dm. high; flowers yellowish or white, summer) -- . b. corolla regular or nearly so and -lobed, or none -- a. c. corolla regular or nearly so, -lobed -- . a. leaves narrowed at the base, with mid-vein =hedge hyssop, gratiola virginiana.= b. leaves rounded or somewhat clasping at the base, with - principal veins (false pimpernel) -- . a. peduncles longer than the subtending leaves =false pimpernel, ilysanthes anagallidea.= b. peduncles shorter than the subtending leaves =false pimpernel, ilysanthes dubia.= a. leaves whorled ( - dm. high; flowers white or pale-blue, in spikes, summer) =culver's root, veronica virginica.= b. leaves alternate or opposite (speedwell) -- . a. flowers in racemes, which arise from the axils of the opposite leaves (flowers pale-blue to nearly white, late spring and summer) -- . b. flowers solitary in the axils of leaf-like bracts, or in terminal bracted racemes ( - dm. high; spring and summer) -- . a. stem and foliage glabrous; swamp plants - dm. high -- . b. stem and foliage pubescent; plants of dry ground, - dm. high -- . a. leaves linear or narrowly lanceolate =marsh speedwell, veronica scutellata.= b. leaves ovate or ovate-lanceolate -- . a. stem-leaves sessile and somewhat clasping =water speedwell, veronica anagallis-aquatica.= b. stem-leaves on short petioles =brooklime, veronica americana.= a. leaves narrowed at base into a petiole =speedwell, veronica officinalis.= b. leaves rounded or heart-shape at the base =speedwell, veronica chamaedrys.= a. bracteal leaves entire; stem glabrous or minutely pubescent -- . b. all leaves serrate; foliage pubescent (flowers blue) -- . a. flowers white, about mm. wide =speedwell, veronica peregrina.= b. flowers pale-blue with darker stripes, - mm. wide =speedwell, veronica serpyllifolia.= a. flowers nearly sessile, about mm. wide =speedwell, veronica arvensis.= b. flowers on slender pedicels, - mm. wide =speedwell, veronica tournefortii.= lentibulariaceae, the bladderwort family small herbs, growing on rocks, in mud, or in water; calyx and corolla both -lipped; stamens , attached to the corolla; ovary -celled. a. corolla purple -- . b. corolla yellow (flowers in summer) (bladderwort) -- . a. leaves oval to elliptical, entire (about dm. high, on rocks; flowers in summer) =butterwort, pinguicula vulgaris.= b. leaves dissected or none, submerged (flowers in summer) (bladderwort) -- . a. flower-stalk with a single bract near the middle =bladderwort, utricularia resupinata.= b. flower-stalk without bracts, except at the base of the pedicels =bladderwort, utricularia purpurea.= a. stem and numerous dissected leaves floating in water =bladderwort, utricularia vulgaris var. americana.= b. stem and minute leaves creeping on the bottom of ponds or in mud, while the flowers are borne on erect stalks, easily detached from the delicate stems -- . a. upper lip of corolla conspicuous, as long or nearly as long as the lower lip; lower lip with a prominent raised palate -- . b. upper lip of corolla half as long as the lower lip, or less -- . a. spur of corolla very short and blunt =bladderwort, utricularia gibba.= b. spur of corolla very long and slender =bladderwort, utricularia cornuta.= a. spur of corolla very short and blunt, or almost none =bladderwort, utricularia minor.= b. spur of corolla long and slender =bladderwort, utricularia intermedia.= orobanchaceae, the broom-rape family parasitic plants without green color and with scales in place of leaves; corolla -lipped, of united petals; stamens , attached to the corolla. a. flowers in a widely branching panicle, numerous; growing under beech trees ( - dm. high; flowers white and purple, late summer) =beech drops, epifagus virginiana.= b. flowers sessile in a dense bracted spike ( - dm. high; flowers pale-yellow, early summer) =squaw-root, conopholis americana.= c. flowers - , each on a long erect naked peduncle ( - dm. high; flowers yellowish or pale-violet, spring and summer) (cancer-root) -- . a. stem erect and scaly, - cm. high =cancer-root, orobanche fasciculata.= b. stem very short, almost below the surface of the ground, with long erect peduncles =cancer-root, orobanche uniflora.= acanthaceae, the acanthus family herbs with opposite simple leaves; corolla of united petals, -lipped or almost regular; stamens or , attached to the corolla; ovary -celled. a. corolla about mm. long; flowers in dense heads ( - dm. high; flowers blue or white, summer) =water willow, dianthera americana.= b. corolla about mm. long; flowers axillary ( - dm. high; flowers blue, in summer) (ruellia) -- . a. foliage glabrous or slightly pubescent =ruellia, ruellia strepens.= b. foliage densely hirsute =ruellia, ruellia ciliosa.= phrymaceae, the lopseed family herb with opposite leaves and irregular flowers in long slender spikes; petals united, corolla -lipped; stamens , attached to the corolla; ovary -celled. one species only, - dm. high; flowers purple, in summer =lopseed, phryma leptostachya.= plantaginaceae, the plantain family herbs with basal leaves and small white flowers in spikes; sepals ; petals , united; stamens ; ovary -celled. a. leaves linear ( - dm. high; summer) -- . b. leaves broader, lanceolate to broadly ovate or cordate (summer) -- . a. spikes mixed with bracts several times longer than the flowers =buckhorn, plantago aristata.= b. bracts about as long as the flowers =plantain, plantago purshii.= a. leaves cordate, pinnately veined; plant of wet ground and marshes ( - dm. tall) =plantain, plantago cordata.= b. leaves with to many longitudinal ribs or veins -- . a. leaves densely pubescent with grayish hairs -- . b. leaves smooth or slightly pubescent -- . a. flower-stalks - dm. high =plantain, plantago media.= b. flower-stalks less than dm. high =plantain, plantago virginica.= a. flower-stalks - dm. high; spikes not over cm. long =english plantain, plantago lanceolata.= b. scapes - dm. high; spikes long and slender, usually equaling or longer than the peduncle; dooryard plantains -- . a. leaves green at the base =plantain, plantago major.= b. leaves reddish at the base =plantain, plantago rugelii.= rubiaceae, the madder family herbs or shrubs, with opposite or whorled leaves and regular flowers; sepals , or minute or almost wanting; petals , united; stamens ; ovary inferior. a. shrub ( - m. tall; flowers white, in spherical heads, summer) =button bush, cephalanthus occidentalis.= b. herbaceous -- . a. leaves opposite -- . b. leaves whorled; flowers white, green, or purple (bedstraw) -- . c. leaves whorled; flowers yellow =bedstraw, galium verum.= a. leaves about as long as wide (trailing; flowers paired, white, in spring) =partridge berry, mitchella repens.= b. leaves at least twice as long as wide -- . a. corolla salver-form, about cm. wide; peduncles -flowered (about dm. high; flowers blue or white, in spring) =bluets, houstonia coerulea.= b. corolla funnel-form, about mm. wide; flowers in clusters ( - dm. high; flowers white or pale-purple, summer) (houstonia) -- . a. basal leaves strongly ciliate =houstonia, houstonia ciliolata.= b. basal leaves smooth =houstonia, houstonia longifolia.= a. leaves in whorls of - . b. leaves in whorls of - -- . a. ovary and fruit hispid with hooked bristles ( - dm. high; summer) -- . b. ovary and fruit not bristly (early summer) -- . a. leaves with principal vein (flowers dull purple) =bedstraw, galium pilosum.= b. leaves with principal veins -- . a. flowers bright-white =bedstraw, galium boreale.= b. flowers greenish, yellowish, or purplish -- . a. leaves acuminate =bedstraw, galium lanceolatum.= b. leaves acute or obtuse =bedstraw, galium circaezans.= a. corolla-lobes ( - dm. high; flowers white or greenish) -- . b. corolla-lobes -- . a. flowers in clusters of or =bedstraw, galium claytoni.= b. flowers solitary in the axils, on long hair-like pedicels =bedstraw, galium trifidum.= a. corolla brownish or purple ( - dm. high) =bedstraw, galium latifolium.= b. corolla white ( - dm. high) -- . a. flowers rather numerous in small cymes =bedstraw, galium palustre.= b. flowers in clusters of or , or solitary -- . a. principal leaves spreading or ascending =bedstraw, galium tinctorium.= b. principal leaves recurved or reflexed =bedstraw, galium labradoricum.= a. ovary and fruit bristly or hispid -- . b. ovary and fruit not bristly (summer) -- . a. leaves narrowly lanceolate to linear, mostly - in a whorl (stem - dm. long; flowers white; spring and summer) =bedstraw, galium aparine.= b. leaves narrowly oval or elliptical, mostly in whorls of ; flowers in clusters of ( - dm. high; flowers greenish, summer) =bedstraw, galium triflorum.= a. leaves cuspidate or mucronate at the apex (flowers white) -- . b. leaves obtuse at the apex (flowers white or greenish; - dm. high) -- . a. flowers very numerous in terminal panicles (stem - dm. long) =bedstraw, galium mollugo.= b. flowers in axillary clusters ( - dm. high) =bedstraw, galium tricorne.= c. flowers few, in small loose terminal cymes -- . a. stem smooth or nearly so ( - dm. high) =bedstraw, galium concinnum.= b. stem hispid with reflexed bristles ( - dm. long) =bedstraw, galium asprellum.= caprifoliaceae, the honeysuckle family shrubs or herbs, with opposite leaves; corolla regular or irregular, petals or , united; stamens or ; ovary inferior, - -celled. a. leaves compound (shrubs - m. high; flowers white, in large clusters in early summer) (elder) -- . b. leaves simple -- . a. pith of the twigs white; inflorescence flattened or convex =elder, sambucus canadensis.= b. pith of the twigs brown; inflorescence pyramidal =elder, sambucus racemosa.= a. plant trailing; flowers nodding, in pairs ( dm. high; flowers pink, summer) =twin flower, linnaea borealis var. americana.= b. erect herbs ( - dm. high; flowers dull-red, axillary, early summer) (feverwort) -- . c. shrubs, small trees, or woody vines -- . a. leaf-bases broadly connate and - cm. wide =feverwort, triosteum perfoliatum.= b. leaf-bases narrowly connate, not over cm. wide =feverwort, triosteum aurantiacum.= a. climbing vines (spring and early summer) (honeysuckle) -- . b. erect or spreading shrubs or small trees -- . a. flowers in -flowered axillary clusters (flowers white or pink) =honeysuckle, lonicera japonica.= b. flowers in terminal clusters -- . a. leaves distinctly pubescent beneath (flowers yellow) -- . b. leaves glabrous beneath, or very minutely puberulent -- . a. leaves pubescent above =honeysuckle, lonicera hirsuta.= b. leaves glabrous above =honeysuckle, lonicera glaucescens.= a. corolla purple on the outside, glabrous within =honeysuckle, lonicera caprifolium.= b. corolla yellow on the outside (or slightly tinged with purple), pubescent within -- . a. corolla-tube - mm. long =honeysuckle, lonicera dioica.= b. corolla-tube - mm. long =honeysuckle, lonicera sullivantii.= a. corolla tubular at base; style long and slender -- . b. corolla rotate or somewhat bell-shape, style very short (flowers white, late spring or early summer) -- . a. flowers yellow or yellowish (spring and early summer) -- . b. flowers white, pink, or red -- . a. leaves serrate ( - dm. tall) =bush honeysuckle, diervilla lonicera.= b. leaves entire; flowers in pairs (honeysuckle) -- . a. each pair of flowers subtended by broad leaf-like bracts ( - m. high) =honeysuckle, lonicera involucrata.= b. bracts at the base of each pair of flowers linear or narrowly lanceolate -- . a. native species of woods and bogs -- . b. introduced species, growing mostly near dwellings; leaves very pubescent beneath =honeysuckle, lonicera xylosteum.= a. peduncles mm. long or more ( - m. high) -- . b. peduncles about mm. long ( m. high, or less) =honeysuckle, lonicera coerulea var. villosa.= a. leaves ciliate =honeysuckle, lonicera canadensis.= b. leaves not ciliate =honeysuckle, lonicera oblongifolia.= a. corolla irregular, over cm. long ( - m. high; spring) =honeysuckle, lonicera tatarica.= b. corolla regular, less than cm. long ( - dm. high; flowers white or pink, in axillary clusters, early summer) -- . a. flowers in axillary spikes =wolfberry, symphoricarpos occidentalis.= b. flowers almost sessile in the axils -- . a. flowers numerous in each axil =indian currant, symphoricarpos orbiculatus.= b. flowers or in each axil (snowberry) -- . a. leaves green beneath =snowberry, symphoricarpos racemosus.= b. leaves whitened beneath =snowberry, symphoricarpos racemosus var. pauciflorus.= a. leaves palmately lobed -- . b. leaves not lobed -- . a. outermost flowers of the cluster enlarged and imperfect ( - m. high) =cranberry tree, viburnum opulus var. americanum.= b. all flowers of the cluster alike -- . a. flower-clusters - cm. broad ( - m. high) =arrow wood, viburnum acerifolium.= b. flower-clusters - cm. broad =squashberry, viburnum pauciflorum.= a. outer flowers of the cluster enlarged and imperfect ( - m. high) =hobble-bush, viburnum alnifolium.= b. all flowers of the cluster alike -- . a. leaves finely serrate; the veins not prominent -- . b. leaves coarsely serrate, all or most of the teeth terminating in a prominent vein -- . a. peduncle of the flower-cluster, below its branches, at least cm. long ( - m. high) =withe-rod, viburnum cassinoides.= b. peduncle of the cluster cm. long, or even shorter ( - m. high) -- . a. leaves distinctly acuminate =sheep-berry, viburnum lentago.= b. leaves obtuse or barely acute =black haw, viburnum prunifolium.= a. leaves densely pubescent beneath ( - dm. high) =arrow-wood, viburnum pubescens.= b. leaves glabrous beneath, or with tufts of hairs in the forks of the veins ( - m. high) =arrow-wood, viburnum dentatum.= valerianaceae, the valerian family herbs with opposite leaves and small nearly or quite regular flowers; petals , united; stamens ; sepals minute or wanting; ovary inferior. a. stem-leaves pinnately cleft ( - dm. high; flowers white or pinkish, summer) -- . b. stem-leaves entire or dentate ( - dm. high; flowers white, summer) (corn salad) -- . a. leaf-segments parallel-veined valerian, valeriana edulis. b. leaf-segments net-veined =swamp valerian, valeriana uliginosa.= a. upper stem-leaves entire =corn salad, valerianella chenopodifolia.= b. upper stem-leaves dentate =corn salad, valerianella radiata.= dipsacaceae, the teasel family herbs with opposite leaves, and small pale blue flowers aggregated in dense heads; calyx minute; petals , united; stamens , attached to the corolla; ovary inferior. one species in michigan, - m. high, with prickly leaves and stem, blooming in summer =teasel, dipsacus sylvestris.= cucurbitaceae, the gourd family herbs, climbing by tendrils, with alternate palmately lobed leaves and imperfect flowers; staminate flowers in showy clusters, with - petals and stamens; pistillate flowers small. a. leaves -angled or shallowy -lobed (flowers white, summer) =bur cucumber, sicyos angulatus.= b. leaves -lobed to about the middle (commonly cultivated and frequently wild; flowers white, summer) =wild cucumber, echinocystis lobata.= campanulaceae, the bellflower family herbs with alternate simple leaves and milky juice; sepals ; petals , united; stamens , attached at the very base of the corolla; ovary inferior. a. stem-leaves circular or nearly so, cordate-clasping at base ( - dm. high; flowers blue, axillary, in summer) =venus' looking-glass, specularia perfoliata.= b. stem-leaves linear or nearly so, not over cm. wide (summer) -- . c. stem-leaves ovate to lanceolate, cm. wide or more (flowers blue, in a terminal spike or raceme, summer) (bellflower) -- . a. stem and leaves glabrous (or rarely pubescent) ( - dm. high; flowers blue) =harebell, campanula rotundifolia.= b. stem and leaves rough with reflexed bristles (marsh plants, with weak slender stems - dm. long; flowers white or pale-blue) (marsh bellflower) -- . a. corolla - mm. long =marsh bellflower, campanula aparinoides.= b. corolla - mm. long =marsh bellflower, campanula uliginosa.= a. corolla rotate; flowers in spikes ( - dm. high) =bellflower, campanula americana.= b. corolla bell-shape; flowers in one-sided racemes ( - dm. high) =bellflower, campanula rapunculoides.= lobeliaceae, the lobelia family herbs with alternate simple leaves and milky juice; flowers irregular; petals , united; corolla split down the upper side; stamens , united by their anthers into a ring or tube surrounding the style; ovary -celled, inferior. flowers in summer and autumn. a. leaves all basal, tubular; flowers on leafless stalks (aquatic, - dm. high; flowers blue) =water lobelia, lobelia dortmanna.= b. leaves normal, on the stem -- . a. flowers more than cm. long ( - dm. high) -- . b. flowers about cm. long, or shorter (flowers light blue) -- . a. flowers scarlet =cardinal flower, lobelia cardinalis.= b. flowers blue =great lobelia, lobelia siphilitica.= a. flowers in loose racemes, pedicelled -- . b. flowers in slender terminal spike-like racemes, nearly sessile ( - dm. high, usually unbranched) =lobelia, lobelia spicata.= a. foliage pubescent ( - dm. high) =indian tobacco, lobelia inflata.= b. foliage glabrous ( - dm. high) =lobelia, lobelia kalmii.= compositae, the composite family herbs, with various types of foliage, but with flowers of characteristic structure, resembling a sunflower, a thistle, or a dandelion. each apparent flower is a head of numerous small flowers, attached side by side to the expanded end of the stem, and subtended and partly enclosed by a series of bracts, called the involucre, which resembles a calyx. the calyx of the individual flower is minute or actually wanting, and is usually modified to aid in seed dispersal. it appears at the base of the corolla, at the summit of the inferior ovary, and is known as pappus. the structure of the pappus is best observed in the ripe fruit. the corolla of the individual flowers consists of (or rarely ) united petals. in some flowers the petals are united to form a tubular or bell-shape corolla. in others they are united to form a flat or strap-shape corolla. the stamens are attached to the corolla, and are united by their anthers into a tube which surrounds the style, and above which the -lobed stigma protrudes. the apparent flower of a composite, composed of several or many individual flowers, is termed a head. it may be composed entirely of tubular flowers, as the thistle or bone-set; or entirely of strap-shape flowers, as the dandelion; or of both sorts together, as the aster or sunflower. in the latter case, the tubular flowers invariably occupy the center of the head, called the disk, and the larger strap-shape flowers are at the margin, where their projecting corollas, called rays, may be very conspicuous. such heads are called radiate. in a few composites (see a below) the flowers have minute corollas without colored parts. in identifying a composite, determine first whether the heads are composed of tubular flowers, of strap-shape flowers, or of both sorts together; and, secondly, observe the nature of the pappus, using preferably the ripe heads, or at least the oldest flower-heads available. no further difficulties will be encountered. a. flowers without petal-like or brightly colored parts; staminate and pistillate flowers in separate heads (or rarely in the same heads); coarse weeds with inconspicuous flowers (summer and autumn) -- . b. flowers with some petal-like parts, usually brightly colored or white -- . a. leaves toothed or lobed -- . b. leaves deeply pinnatifid or dissected ( - dm. high; flowers in erect spikes) (ragweed) -- . a. fruit or pistillate flowers thickly covered with sharp hooked spines ( - dm. high) (cocklebur) -- . b. fruit not spiny -- . a. with spines on the stem at the base of the leaves =cocklebur, xanthium spinosum.= b. without any spines on the stem -- . a. body of the bur smooth or slightly hairy =cocklebur, xanthium canadense.= b. body of the bur and the spines densely pubescent -- . a. body of the bur more than twice as long as thick; a common weed =cocklebur, xanthium commune.= b. body of the bur less than twice as long as thick =cocklebur, xanthium echinatum.= a. leaves twice-pinnatifid =ragweed, ambrosia artemisiifolia.= b. leaves once-pinnatifid =ragweed, ambrosia psilostachya.= a. leaves deeply -lobed ( - m. high) =giant ragweed, ambrosia trifida.= b. leaves serrate or obscurely lobed -- . a. stem simple or sparingly branched; pistillate heads in the axils of the upper leaves ( - m. high) =giant ragweed, ambrosia trifida var. integrifolia.= b. stem much branched; heads all alike, in panicles =marsh elder, iva xanthifolia.= a. flowers all strap-shape; juicy milky. (the central flowers must be examined carefully, since they are frequently much smaller than the marginal ones) -- . b. flowers all tubular, with regular. - -lobed corollas -- . c. flowers both tubular and strap-shape; heads radiate (in a few species the rays are small and may be overlooked by mistake) -- . a. flowers blue (summer and autumn) -- . b. flowers orange, yellow, white, or purplish -- . a. heads . cm. wide, or larger -- . b. heads . cm. wide, or smaller -- . a. leaves linear; bracts longer than the flowers, heads - cm. wide ( - dm. high) =salsify, tragopogon porrifolius.= b. leaves broader, mostly serrate; bracts shorter than the flowers; heads . - cm. wide =chicory, cichorium intybus.= a. heads in a narrow crowded cluster ( - dm. high) -- b. b. heads in a spreading open panicle (wild lettuce) -- . a. heads solitary at the summit of leafless stalks -- . b. heads several, on leafy, naked, or scaly stalks -- . a. basal leaves strictly entire; heads about . cm. wide (summer and autumn) -- a. b. basal leaves toothed, lobed, or pinnatifid (spring and summer) -- . a. heads - mm. wide ( - dm. high) =dwarf dandelion, krigia virginica.= b. heads - mm. wide ( - dm. high) (dandelion) -- . a. outer involucral bracts reflexed =dandelion, taraxacum officinale.= b. outer involucral bracts erect or spreading =dandelion, taraxacum erythrospermum.= a. pappus none; heads about cm. wide ( - dm. high; summer) =nipplewort, lapsana communis.= b. pappus of an inner row of bristles and an outer row of short scales; heads about cm. wide ( - dm. high; early summer) =cynthia, krigia amplexicaulis.= c. pappus of feathery bristles (summer) -- . d. pappus of simple bristles -- . a. flower-stalk scaly, without foliage leaves ( - dm. high) =fall dandelion, leontodon autumnalis.= b. stem leafy ( - dm. high) -- . a. leaves entire, linear-lanceolate =meadow salsify, tragopogon pratensis.= b. leaves serrate, oblong-lanceolate =picris, picris hieracioides.= a. pappus tawny in color ( - m. high) -- . b. pappus white -- . a. leaves pinnatifid =wild lettuce, lactuca spicata.= b. leaves undivided, dentate =wild lettuce, lactuca spicata var. integrifolia.= a. upper leaves entire; heads about . cm. wide ( - dm. high) =wild lettuce, lactuca pulchella.= b. upper leaves dentate or lobed; heads about cm. wide ( - m. high) =wild lettuce, lactuca floridana.= a. achene tipped with a slender beak, bearing the pappus at its summit (summer) (wild lettuce) -- . b. achene without a beak -- . a. leaves hirsute or hispid on the mid-veins beneath -- . b. leaves glabrous -- . a. leaves pubescent on both sides ( - m. high) =wild lettuce, lactuca hirsuta.= b. leaves glabrous, except on the mid-vein ( - dm. high) =wild lettuce, lactuca scariola var. integrata.= a. leaves entire or sparsely toothed ( - m. high) =wild lettuce, lactuca sagittifolia.= b. leaves chiefly sinuate-pinnatifid ( - m. high) =wild lettuce, lactuca canadensis.= a. flowers white, cream-color, or purplish (summer and autumn) (rattlesnake root) -- . b. flowers bright-yellow or orange -- . a. heads nodding ( - dm. high) -- . b. heads pointing in various directions, in spike-like panicles; involucres pubescent ( - dm. high) =rattlesnake root, prenanthes racemosus.= a. heads with - flowers in each =rattlesnake root, prenanthes altissima.= b. heads with - flowers -- . c. heads with or more flowers =rattlesnake root, prenanthes crepidinea.= a. pappus dark reddish-brown =rattlesnake root, prenanthes alba.= b. pappus pale-brown or nearly white =rattlesnake root, prenanthes trifoliata.= a. pappus tawny or brown in color (summer and autumn) (hawkweed) -- . b. pappus white -- . a. heads . cm. in diameter, or larger -- . b. heads - cm. in diameter ( - dm. high) -- . a. leaves all basal ( - dm. high) =hawkweed, hieracium pilosella.= b. stem-leaves present ( - dm. high) -- . a. leaves rounded at the sessile base =hawkweed, hieracium canadense.= b. leaves narrowed toward the base =hawkweed, hieracium umbellatum.= a. a rosette of basal leaves conspicuous at flowering time -- . b. no rosette of basal leaves at time of flowering -- . a. leaves glabrous on the upper side -- . b. leaves hairy on the upper side -- . a. stem glabrous, leafless or with one or two leaves =hawkweed, hieracium venosum.= b. stem with several leaves, hairy below =hawkweed, hieracium marianum.= a. leaves with short scattered hairs above =hawkweed, hieracium gronovii.= b. leaves and stem densely covered with very long hairs =hawkweed, hieracium longipilum.= a. leaves glabrous =hawkweed, hieracium paniculatum.= b. leaves very hairy =hawkweed, hieracium scabrum.= a. bracts of the involucre smooth ( - dm. tall; summer and autumn) (sow thistle) -- . b. bracts of the involucre hairy -- . a. the clasping leaf-bases acute =sow thistle, sonchus oleraceus.= b. the clasping leaf-bases rounded =sow thistle, sonchus asper.= a. heads . - cm. broad; involucre cm. long ( - dm. high) =sow thistle, sonchus arvensis.= b. heads - cm. broad; involucre - mm. long ( - dm. high; summer) =hawksbeard, crepis tectorum.= a. leaves or involucre or both spiny (thistles, burdock, etc.) -- . b. neither leaves nor involucre spiny -- . a. leaves - dm. broad, not spiny (flowers purple or white; summer) (burdock) -- . b. leaves narrower, not spiny -- . a. diameter of involucre at flowering time - cm. ( - m. high) =burdock, arctium lappa.= b. diameter of involucre at flowering time . - cm. ( - dm. high) =burdock, arctium minus.= a. each head -flowered; heads aggregated in a globular head-like cluster ( - m. high; flowers blue or white, summer) =globe thistle, echinops sphaerocephalus.= b. each head many-flowered -- . a. principal involucral bracts with stout spreading spines - cm. long ( - dm. high; flowers purple, summer) =milk thistle, silybum marianum.= b. principal involucral bracts with slender spines or none -- . a. pappus feathery; receptacle bristly (summer and autumn) (thistle) -- . b. pappus not feathery (flowers purple, summer) -- . a. heads subtended by a circle of large leafy bracts ( - dm. high; flowers pale-yellow) =thistle, cisium spinoissimum.= b. heads not subtended by several leafy bracts -- . a. leaves conspicuously white-woolly on both sides ( - dm. high) -- . b. leaves conspicuously white-woolly or brown-woolly below, not above (flowers purple or pink) -- . c. leaves green on both sides (flowers pink or purple, rarely white) -- . a. leaves deeply pinnately parted with linear divisions; flowers almost white =thistle, cirsium pitcheri.= b. leaves irregularly pinnatifid; flowers purple-pink =thistle, cirsium undulatum.= a. stem-leaves entire or shallowly lobed ( - m. high) =thistle, cirsium altissimum.= b. stem-leaves obviously pinnatifid ( - m. high) -- . a. leaves decurrent on the stem =thistle, cirsium lanceolatum.= b. leaves not decurrent =thistle, cirsium discolor.= a. outer and middle involucral bracts appressed, pointless or with weak short prickles -- . b. outer and middle bracts erect, not appressed, acuminate into a long slender more or less prickly tip ( - dm. high) -- . a. heads numerous - . cm. broad, in close clusters ( - dm. high) =canada thistle, cirsium arvense.= b. heads few or solitary, - cm. broad ( - m. high) =thistle, cirsium muticum.= a. principal bracts with a conspicuous viscid stripe down the middle; heads - cm. broad, solitary or few =thistle, cirsium hillii.= b. principal bracts not viscid =thistle, cirsium pumilum.= a. receptacle not bristly; heads - cm. wide ( - m. high; flowers pale-purple, summer) =cotton thistle, onopordum acanthium.= b. receptacle bristly; heads - . cm. wide ( - dm. high; flowers purple to white, late summer) =thistle, carduus crispus.= a. leaves basal; stem-leaves none or reduced to scales ( - dm. high; flowers whitish, in spring) -- . b. stem-leaves present; basal leaves present or absent -- . a. leaves toothed or lobed; flower-stalk not scaly =adenocaulon, adenocaulon bicolor.= b. leaves deeply cleft; flower-stalk scaly -- a. a. leaves compound or dissected (flowers in summer and autumn) -- . b. leaves merely lobed, never truly compound or dissected -- . c. leaves entire or serrate -- . a. some of the involucral bracts leaf-like, longer than the heads ( - dm. high; flowers yellow or greenish, summer and autumn) (beggar ticks) -- . b. bracts short and not leaf-like -- . a. heads - mm. wide, in a flat-topped or convex cluster ( - dm. high; flowers yellow, summer) (tansy) -- . b. heads smaller, in spikes, racemes, or panicles (flowers yellow or greenish, late summer and autumn) (wormwood) -- . a. heads - mm. wide, numerous in a dense cluster =tansy, tanacetum vulgare.= b. heads - mm. wide, few, - in a loose open cluster =tansy, tanacetum huronense.= a. heads - mm. broad ( - dm. high) -- . b. heads - mm. broad ( - dm. high) -- . a. leaf-lobes narrowly linear, strictly entire =wormwood, artemisia caudata.= b. leaf-lobes serrate -- . a. heads in a loose spreading panicle =wormwood, artemisia annua.= b. heads in axillary clusters, producing a leafy spike-like panicle =wormwood, artemisia biennis.= a. leaf-lobes narrowly linear -- . b. leaf-lobes oblong to obovate, not linear -- . a. shrubby; involucre pubescent =southernwood, artemisia abrotanum.= b. herbaceous; involucre glabrous or rarely pubescent =wormwood, artemisia canadensis.= a. leaves finely gray-pubescent on both sides =wormwood, artemisia absinthium.= b. leaves smooth or nearly so above, densely white-woolly beneath =mugwort, artemisia vulgaris.= a. heads - cm. broad, purple, blue, or rarely white ( - dm. high; summer) -- . b. heads cm. wide or less -- . a. leaves densely white-woolly beneath (flowers yellowish, late summer) -- . b. leaves smooth or hairy, never white-woolly -- . a. heads - mm. wide ( - dm. high) =wormwood, artemisia stelleriana.= b. heads - mm. wide ( - dm. high) =wormwood, artemisia ludoviciana.= a. principal bracts of the involucre , with frequently a few much smaller ones -- . b. principal bracts of the involucre numerous -- . a. heads few in small terminal clusters; foliage somewhat viscid-pubescent ( - dm. high; flowers yellow, summer) -- a. b. heads very numerous in flat-topped clusters; foliage never viscid-pubescent ( - m. high; flowers white, late summer) -- c. a. leaves broadly halberd-shape, -lobed ( - m. high; flowers white, late summer) -- b. b. leaves lobed only at the base ( - dm. high; flowers yellow, summer) -- a. c. leaves pinnatifid ( - dm. high; flowers yellow) -- . a. bracts of the involucre dry and chaffy, at least at the tip; plants always pubescent and usually white-woolly -- . b. bracts of the involucre green or colored, but never dry and chaffy -- . a. pappus none; heads - mm. wide, in ample panicled spikes (flowers yellowish, late summer) -- b. b. pappus a minute ring or crown; leaves crenate ( - dm. high; flowers yellow, summer) -- a. c. pappus of hairs; heads in flat-topped clusters or slender spikes -- . a. heads sessile or subsessile in small flat-topped clusters; flowering in spring or early summer; principal leaves basal ( - dm. high; flowers white or purplish) (everlasting) -- . b. heads in terminal spikes ( - dm. high; flowers purplish, summer) =cudweed, gnaphalium purpureum.= c. heads in small or large flat-topped clusters, flowering in summer or autumn; principal leaves on the stem -- . a. stolons from the basal rosette of leaves leafy throughout and ascending at the tip -- . b. stolons prostrate throughout, leafy only at the tip -- . a. basal leaves - cm. long, -nerved -- . b. basal leaves - cm. long, -nerved -- . a. basal leaves spatulate or oblanceolate, smooth above =everlasting, antennaria canadensis.= b. basal leaves obovate, pubescent above =everlasting, antennaria neodioica.= a. basal leaves smooth above =everlasting, antennaria parlinii.= b. basal leaves dull green and pubescent above -- . a. heads - mm. high =everlasting, antennaria plantaginifolia.= b. heads - mm. high -- . a. leaf-blade ovate or obovate =everlasting, antennaria fallax.= b. leaf-blade spatulate, with rounded tip =everlasting, antennaria occidentalis.= a. styles crimson =everlasting, antennaria neglecta.= b. styles pale yellow =everlasting, antennaria petaloidea.= a. erect; involucral bracts pearly white ( - dm. high) =pearly everlasting, anaphalis margaritacea.= b. erect; involucral bracts dull white or pale brown, somewhat pubescent ( - dm. high) (cudweed) -- . c. diffusely branched; heads in dense clusters; bracts brown ( - dm. high) =cudweed, gnaphalium uliginosum.= a. leaves decurrent on the stem =cudweed, gnaphalium decurrens.= b. leaves not decurrent on the stem =cudweed, gnaphalium polycephalum.= a. twining vine (flowers white, summer) =hemp weed, mikania scandens.= b. not twining or climbing -- . a. involucral bracts deeply fringed at the tip (flowers purple, blue, or rarely white, summer; - dm. high) -- . b. involucral bracts entire or nearly so -- . a. upper leaves linear or narrowly lanceolate =corn flower, centaurea cyanus.= b. upper leaves oblong or oblong-lanceolate =knapweed, centaurea nigra.= a. pappus none or a short ring or crown ( - dm. high; flowers yellow, summer) =costmary, chrysanthemum balsamita var. tanacetoides.= b. pappus of - stiff awns ( - dm. high; flowers yellow, late summer) (bur marigold) -- . c. pappus of hairs or bristles -- . a. leaves linear or narrowly lanceolate, entire; heads never in a large flat-topped cluster -- . b. leaves not linear -- . a. heads showy, purple, in a long spike or raceme (late summer) (blazing star) -- . b. heads not showy, in a loose panicle or raceme -- b. a. involucral bracts rounded at the tip, appressed ( - dm. high) -- . b. involucral bracts pointed ( - dm. high) -- . a. heads - -flowered =blazing star, liatris spicata.= b. heads with flowers or more =blazing star, liatris scariosa.= a. involucral bracts long-acuminate, spreading =blazing star, liatris squarrosa.= b. involucral bracts mucronate, appressed =blazing star, liatris cylindracea.= a. flowers yellow ( - dm. high) -- b. b. flowers bright-red or purple, in flat-topped clusters ( - dm. high; late summer) (ironweed) -- . c. flowers blue ( - dm. high; late summer) =mist flower, eupatorium coelestinum.= d. flowers flesh-color, pink, cream-color, or white (flowers in summer) -- . a. leaves glabrous beneath or minutely pubescent; heads - -flowered -- . b. leaves tomentose beneath; heads - -flowered -- . a. inflorescence densely crowded; usually m. or less high =ironweed, vernonia fasciculate.= b. inflorescence loose and open, - cm. wide; - m. high =ironweed, vernonia altissima.= a. pappus tawny in color =ironweed, vernonia missurica.= b. pappus purple =ironweed, vernonia illinoensis.= a. leaves alternate -- . b. leaves opposite -- . c. leaves whorled ( - m. high; flowers pink or purple, late summer) (joe-pye weed) -- . a. heads -flowered ( - dm. high; flowers white or pinkish, late summer) (indian plantain) -- . b. heads -flowered ( - dm. high; flowers white, late summer) =false boneset, kuhnia eupatorioides.= c. heads with more than flowers ( - dm. high; flowers white, summer) =fireweed, erechtites hieracifolia.= a. leaves entire, with many veins from base to apex =indian plantain, cacalia tuberosa.= b. leaves sharply serrate =indian plantain, cacalia suaveolens.= c. leaves broadly triangular or kidney-shape, sinuate or entire =indian plantain, cacalia atriplicifolia.= a. leaves united at the base ( - dm. high) =boneset, eupatorium perfoliatum.= b. leaves sessile but not united at the base ( - dm. high) =upland boneset, eupatorium sessilifolium.= c. leaves petioled ( - dm. high) =white snakeroot, eupatorium urticaefolium.= a. inflorescence ovoid or pyramidal =joe-pye weed, eupatorium purpureum.= b. inflorescence depressed or flattened =joe-pye weed, eupatorium purpureum var. maculatum.= a. rays yellow or brown -- . b. rays white to blue or red, never yellow or brown -- . a. principal leaves basal, the stem merely with bract-like scales -- . b. principal leaves on the stem, opposite or whorled -- . c. principal leaves on the stem, alternate, or with smaller ones clustered in their axils -- . a. flower-stalk - dm. high, -flowered (spring) =coltsfoot, tussilago farfara.= b. flower-stalk - m. high, several-flowered (summer) =prairie dock, silphium terebinthinaceum.= a. ray-flowers pistillate (the -lobed style protrudes from their base) -- . b. ray-flowers with neither stamens nor pistil -- . a. principal leaves lobed (summer) (leafcup) -- . b. principal leaves toothed or entire, not lobed -- . a. rays or more ( - m. high) =leafcup, polymnia uvedalia.= b. rays ( - dm. high) -- . a. rays shorter than the involucre or none =leafcup, polymnia canadensis.= b. rays about cm. long =leafcup, polymnia canadensis var. radiata.= a. stem dm. high or less; pappus of slender hairs (spring) =arnica, arnica cordifolia.= b. stem usually - dm. high; pappus of short scales or none (summer) -- . a. leaves united at base into a cup surrounding the stem =cup plant, silphium perfoliatum.= b. leaves closely sessile with a rounded base =rosin weed, silphium integrifolium.= c. leaves tapering to a short petiole; principal leaves whorled =rosin weed, silphium trifoliatum.= d. leaves abruptly rounded at the sessile base, all opposite (ox-eye) -- . a. leaves smooth =ox-eye, heliopsis helianthoides.= b. leaves rough =ox-eye, heliopsis scabra.= a. principal stem-leaves lobed or divided -- . b. principal stem-leaves entire or serrate -- . a. submerged aquatic; leaf-segments filiform =water marigold, bidens beckii.= b. terrestrial plants; leaves merely -lobed ( - dm. high; late spring and summer) (tickseed) -- . c. terrestrial plants; leaves compound or dissected (summer and autumn) -- . a. leaf-lobes linear-oblong, all about equal =tickseed, coreopsis palmata.= b. lateral leaf-lobes very much smaller than the terminal =tickseed, coreopsis lanceolata.= a. leaf-segments entire (tickseed) -- . b. leaf-segments serrate ( - dm. high) (tickseed sunflower) -- . a. leaf-segments numerous, linear or nearly so ( - dm. high) -- . b. leaf-segments - , lanceolate ( - m. high) =tickseed, coreopsis tripteris.= a. rays yellow throughout =tickseed, coreopsis verticillata.= b. rays brown, at least at the base =tickseed, coreopsis tinctoria.= a. achenes wedge-shape, the inner ones less than mm. wide -- . b. achenes obovate, the inner ones more than mm. wide =tickseed sunflower, bidens aristosa.= a. leaf-lobes lanceolate =tickseed sunflower, bidens trichosperma.= b. leaf-lobes linear =tickseed sunflower, bidens trichosperma var. tenuiloba.= a. outer leaf-like bracts - ; achenes brown =beggar ticks, bidens vulgata.= b. outer leaf-like bracts - ; achenes black =beggar ticks, bidens frondosa.= c. outer leaf-like bracts about =beggar ticks, bidens discoidea.= a. bracts of the involucre all essentially alike in form and texture (flowers in summer and autumn) (sunflower) -- . b. bracts of the involucre in two distinct sets, differing in form or consistency or both -- . a. leaves entire ( - dm. high; late spring and summer) -- b. b. leaves serrate (late summer and autumn) (bur marigold) -- . a. rays large and conspicuous, - cm. long ( - dm. high) =bur marigold, bidens laevis.= b. rays cm. long or less -- . a. outer bracts leaf-like, serrate, - cm. long ( - dm. high) =bur marigold, bidens comosa.= b. outer bracts - . cm. long ( - dm. high) -- . a. heads nodding after flowering =bur marigold, bidens cernua.= b. heads permanently erect =bur marigold, bidens connata.= a. heads small, seldom more than cm. wide, including the rays, blooming in late summer and autumn; flowers numerous, crowded in spikes, racemes, corymbs, or panicles (goldenrod) -- . b. heads medium size or large, more than cm. and usually exceeding cm. in width, including the rays -- . a. heads chiefly in clusters or short racemes in the axils of ordinary foliage leaves, or occasionally the upper compacted into a leafy cluster terminating the stem -- . b. heads crowded at or near the ends of the branches at about the same distance from the base of the panicle, forming a rounded or flat-topped inflorescence -- . c. heads more or less uniformly distributed along the length of the branches, forming a cylindrical or pyramidal inflorescence, never flat-topped -- . a. stem and both sides of the leaves more or less pubescent or rough ( - dm. high) -- . b. stem and both sides of the leaves essentially smooth or with very short hairs ( - dm. high) -- . a. rays white =goldenrod, solidago bicolor.= b. rays yellow =goldenrod, solidago hispida.= a. basal leaves abruptly narrowed to winged petioles -- . b. basal leaves not abruptly narrowed to winged petioles -- . a. involucre - mm. long =goldenrod, solidago latifolia.= b. involucre - mm. long =goldenrod, solidago macrophylla.= a. lower leaves broadly oval, obtuse, thickish, crenate; achenes glabrous =goldenrod, solidago erecta.= b. lower leaves lanceolate, acuminate, thin, sharply serrate; achenes hairy -- . a. stem usually simple; heads few in very small clusters =goldenrod, solidago caesia var. axillaris.= b. stem usually diffusely branched; heads numerous =goldenrod, solidago caesia.= a. lower leaves ovate, oblong, or oval, pinnately veined ( - dm. high) -- . b. lower leaves linear-lanceolate. - -veined ( - dm. high) -- . a. stem and leaves rough-hairy =goldenrod, solidago rigida.= b. stem and leaves smooth =goldenrod, solidago ohioensis.= a. heads very few in a small cluster; leaves few and scattered =goldenrod, solidago houghtonii.= b. heads very many, in a large cluster; stem very leafy -- . a. leaves hairy =goldenrod, solidago graminifolia var. nuttallii.= b. leaves smooth -- . a. leaves folded, - mm. wide =goldenrod, solidago riddellii.= b. leaves flat, - mm. wide -- . a. leaves - mm. wide, distinctly - -ribbed =goldenrod, solidago graminifolia.= b. leaves - mm. wide, usually with mid-vein =goldenrod, solidago tenuifolia.= a. only - stem-leaves below the inflorescence ( - dm. high) =goldenrod, solidago cutleri.= b. stem-leaves numerous -- . a. basal leaves much larger than the greatly reduced or bract-like upper ones -- . b. leaves essentially uniform in size from base to summit of stem -- . a. racemes or branches of the panicle either short and arranged along a more or less elongated central axis, or elongated and ascending, scarcely recurved, forming a narrow, more or less elongated panicle -- . b. racemes or branches of the panicle usually elongated, spreading outwards, usually recurved, forming a widened panicle -- . a. leaves mostly entire, the upper ones with smaller leaves fascicled in the axils ( - dm. high) =goldenrod, solidago speciosa.= b. leaves mostly serrate, at least the basal ones -- . a. heads on pedicels - mm. long; achenes pubescent; stems usually clustered ( - dm. high, or prostrate) -- . b. heads on pedicels not over mm. long; achenes smooth or nearly so; stems usually single ( - dm. high) -- . a. basal leaves - cm. long =goldenrod, solidago racemosa.= b. basal leaves - cm. long =goldenrod, solidago racemosa var. gillmani.= a. leaves pinnately veined =goldenrod, solidago uliginosa.= b. leaves - -ribbed =goldenrod, solidago neglecta.= a. both sides of the leaf pubescent or rough -- . b. leaf not pubescent or rough on both sides -- . a. stem closely pubescent ( - dm. high) =goldenrod, solidago nemoralis.= b. stem glabrous ( - dm. high) =goldenrod, solidago juncea var. scabrella.= a. leaves rough above, smooth below ( - dm. high) =goldenrod, solidago patula.= b. leaves smooth on both sides ( - dm. high) -- . a. branches of the panicle spreading or recurved =goldenrod, solidago juncea.= b. branches of the panicle upright =goldenrod, solidago juncea var. ramosa.= a. stem more or less pubescent or hairy throughout ( - dm. high) -- . b. stem smooth, at least below the inflorescence -- . a. involucre - . mm. long =goldenrod, solidago canadensis.= b. involucre - mm. long -- . a. leaves pinnately veined, scabrous above =goldenrod, solidago rugosa.= b. leaves - -ribbed, pubescent but not scabrous above -- . a. stem and lower side of leaves covered with short hairs; common species =goldenrod, solidago altissima.= b. stem and lower side of leaves with distinct, loose, soft hairs (shore of lake superior) =goldenrod, solidago altissima var. procera.= a. involucre - . mm. long ( - dm. high) -- a. b. involucre - mm. long -- . a. racemes or branches of the panicle either short and arranged along a more or less elongated axis, or elongated and ascending, scarcely recurved, forming a narrow more or less elongated panicle ( - dm. high) =goldenrod, solidago speciosa var. angustata.= b. racemes or branches of the panicle usually elongated, spreading outward, usually recurved, forming a widened panicle; leaves distinctly serrate -- . a. leaves pinnately veined ( - dm. high) =goldenrod, solidago ulmifolia.= b. leaves - -ribbed ( - dm. high) -- . a. leaves glabrous on both sides =goldenrod, solidago serotina.= b. leaves slightly pubescent beneath =goldenrod, solidago serotina var. gigantea.= a. ray-flowers pistillate (the -lobed style protrudes from their base) -- . b. ray-flowers with neither stamens nor pistil -- . a. principal leaves more than dm. long ( - m. high; summer) -- . b. principal leaves less than . dm. long -- . a. leaves deeply lobed =compass plant, silphium laciniatum.= b. leaves toothed or serrate =elecampane, inula helenium.= a. leaves narrowly linear ( - dm. high; late summer) =sneezeweed, helenium tenuifolium.= b. leaves of a broader shape -- . a. heads - cm. wide; flowers in spring and early summer ( - dm. high) (ragwort) -- . b. heads - cm. wide; flowers in late summer and autumn -- . a. basal leaves cordate at base =ragwort, senecio aureus.= b. basal leaves narrowed to the base -- . a. basal leaves obovate =ragwort, senecio obovatus.= b. basal leaves oblong =ragwort, senecio balsamitae.= a. introduced annual in waste places ( - dm. high; spring and summer) =groundsel, senecio vulgaris.= b. native biennial in moist ground ( - dm. high; summer) =squaw weed, senecio discoideus.= a. leaves - cm. long, sharply spinulose-serrate; involucre viscid ( - dm. high; summer) =gum plant, grindelia squarrosa.= b. leaves - cm. long, merely serrate; involucre gray-pubescent ( - dm. high; late summer) =sneeze weed, helenium autumnale.= a. disk hemispherical or oblong-cylindrical (summer) -- . b. disk flat or somewhat convex (sunflower) (summer and autumn) -- . a. disk yellow or greenish-yellow ( - dm. high) -- . b. disk gray-brown or purple ( - dm. high) -- . a. principal stem-leaves pinnately divided =golden glow, rudbeckia laciniata.= b. principal stem-leaves merely serrate =yellow ironweed, actinomeris alternifolia.= a. rays drooping; leaves pinnately divided =gray-headed coneflower, lepachys pinnata.= b. rays spreading when in bloom -- . a. lower leaves deeply -lobed =coneflower, rudbeckia triloba.= b. stem-leaves sharply serrate =coneflower, rudbeckia speciosa var. sullivantii.= c. stem-leaves entire or sparingly serrate =black-eyed susan, rudbeckia hirta.= a. disk-flowers brown or purple -- . b. disk-flowers yellow -- . a. stem-leaves ovate or ovate-lanceolate; petioles prominent, not winged -- . b. stem-leaves ovate or ovate-lanceolate, contracted at the base into a winged petiole ( - dm. high) =sunflower, helianthus atrorubens.= c. stem-leaves oblong-lanceolate, very thick and rigid, gradually narrowed to a sessile or short-petioled base ( - dm. high) =sunflower, helianthus scaberrimus.= a. disk less than cm. wide ( - dm. high) =sunflower, helianthus petiolaris.= b. disk more than . cm. wide ( - m. high) =sunflower, helianthus annuus.= a. leaves all or chiefly at the base ( - dm. high) =sunflower, helianthus occidentalis.= b. leaves chiefly scattered on the stem -- . a. leaves mainly or all alternate, and not definitely -ribbed ( - m. high) -- . b. leaves mainly or all opposite, lanceolate to ovate, and -ribbed -- . a. stem glabrous =sunflower, helianthus grosse-serratus.= b. stem hairy or rough -- . a. leaves hairy beneath, rough above, lanceolate =sunflower, helianthus giganteus.= b. leaves rough on both sides, elongated =sunflower, helianthus maximiliani.= a. leaves sessile ( - dm. high) -- . b. leaves petioled, or narrowed at the base into a petiole ( - dm. high) -- . a. leaves wedge-shape at the base =sunflower, helianthus doronicoides.= b. leaves rounded at the base -- . a. stem glabrous or nearly so =sunflower, helianthus divaricatus.= b. stem densely and softly hirsute =sunflower, helianthus mollis.= a. stems rough, pubescent, or hispid -- . b. stems glabrous or nearly so -- . a. leaves narrowly lanceolate, more than times as long as wide =sunflower, helianthus giganteus var. subtuberosus.= b. leaves ovate-lanceolate, not more than times as long as wide -- . a. leaves rounded at base, above the petiole =sunflower, helianthus hirsutus.= b. leaves narrowed to the base -- . a. bracts of the involucre spreading =jerusalem artichoke, helianthus tuberosus.= b. bracts all appressed =sunflower, helianthus laetiflorus.= a. heads cm. wide or less, including the rays =sunflower, helianthus microcephalus.= b. heads cm. wide or more, including the rays -- . a. leaves narrowed at the base into a winged petiole -- . b. petiole slender, not winged =sunflower, helianthus decapetalus.= a. leaves green on both sides; bracts longer than the disk =sunflower, helianthus tracheliifolius.= b. leaves paler below than above; bracts not longer than the disk -- . a. leaves minutely pubescent beneath =sunflower, helianthus strumosus.= b. leaves conspicuously downy beneath =sunflower, helianthus strumosus var. mollis.= a. leaves all basal, the flowers on scaly stalks ( - dm. high; flowers whitish, in spring) =coltsfoot, petasites palmata.= b. stem-leaves present, opposite -- . c. stem-leaves present, alternate -- . a. leaves ovate, dentate, - cm. long ( - dm. high; summer) (galinsoga) -- . b. leaves lobed, - cm. long -- b. a. pubescence sparse, appressed =galinsoga, galinsoga parviflora.= b. pubescence abundant, spreading =galinsoga, galinsoga parviflora var. hispida.= a. leaves dissected or deeply lobed or pinnatifid; pappus never capillary; rays white to pink ( - dm. high; summer and autumn) -- . b. leaves entire or serrate -- . a. heads - mm. wide (yarrow) -- . b. heads - mm. wide -- . a. flower-clusters flat-topped =yarrow, achillea millefolium.= b. flower-clusters very convex =yarrow, achillea lanulosa.= a. principal leaves pinnatifid -- a. b. principal leaves - times pinnately parted or dissected -- . a. leaf-segments very narrowly linear; leaves - -pinnate -- . b. leaf-segments linear or lanceolate; heads . - cm. wide =camomile, anthemis arvensis.= c. leaf-segments ovate to ovate-oblong; heads - cm. wide =feverfew, chrysanthemum parthenium.= a. foliage strongly scented =dog fennel, anthemis cotula.= b. foliage not ill-scented =wild camomile, matricaria inodora.= a. heads - mm. broad, including the rays (summer and autumn) -- . b. heads mm. broad or larger, including the rays -- . a. rays purple ( - dm. high) =horse weed, erigeron divaricatus.= b. rays white -- . a. leaves obovate to oblong ( - dm. high) -- a. b. leaves linear or narrowly lanceolate ( - dm. high) =horse weed, erigeron canadensis.= a. pappus none, or minute and not of hairs (summer and autumn) -- . b. pappus of hairs -- . a. disk-flowers purple or brown ( - dm. high; rays pink) (purple coneflower) -- . b. disk-flowers yellow or nearly white -- . a. leaves ovate or ovate-lanceolate, most of them serrate =purple coneflower, brauneria purpurea.= b. leaves narrowly lanceolate, gradually narrowed at the base, entire =purple coneflower, brauneria pallida.= a. rays broadly obovate; heads - cm. wide ( - dm. high) =sneezewort, achillea ptarmica.= b. rays oblong or narrowly elliptical -- . a. leaves serrate ( - dm. high) =ox-eye daisy, chrysanthemum leucanthemum var. pinnatifidum.= b. leaves entire ( - dm. high) =boltonia, boltonia asteroides.= a. involucral bracts all the same length or nearly so and narrow, or with a few short outer ones; plants blooming in spring and summer, or a few plants persisting in bloom until autumn (fleabane) -- . b. involucral bracts unequal, the outer successively shorter (or rarely nearly equal), loosely or closely overlapping; plants - dm. high, blooming in late summer and autumn (aster) -- . a. rays short and inconspicuous, barely longer than the pappus ( - dm. high; summer) =fleabane, erigeron acris var. asteroides.= b. rays conspicuous, spreading, mm. long or more -- . a. rare plants of the northern peninsula, with entire leaves and stems - dm. high, from a thick woody root (flowers white or purple, summer) -- . b. common species, with erect stems from fibrous roots; leaves toothed (except in one species) -- . a. heads - cm. wide; rays about =fleabane, erigeron glabellus.= b. heads - cm. wide; rays - =fleabane, erigeron hyssopifolius.= a. stem unbranched, except for the peduncles; leaves chiefly basal; heads - ( - dm. high; flowers pale-purple, spring) =fleabane, erigeron pulchellus.= b. stem branched; principal leaves on the stem; heads usually numerous ( - dm. high; spring and summer) -- . a. stem-leaves linear, entire =fleabane, erigeron ramosus.= b. stem-leaves ovate-lanceolate, the principal ones toothed -- . a. rays or more, light-purple or pink =fleabane, erigeron philadelphicus.= b. rays much fewer, white =fleabane, erigeron annuus.= a. basal leaves petioled and heart-shape at the base -- . b. basal leaves not petioled; stem-leaves with heart-shape clasping bases -- . c. basal and stem-leaves sessile or petioled, but never heart-shape or clasping -- . a. rays white or violet -- . b. rays blue -- . a. plant glandular, especially on the pedicels and branches of the inflorescence =aster, aster macrophyllus.= b. plant not glandular -- . a. leaves rough above =aster, aster schreberi.= b. leaves smooth above =aster, aster divaricatus.= a. stem-leaves clasping the stem by a cordate base =aster, aster undulatus.= b. stem-leaves not cordate-clasping -- . a. leaves entire -- . b. leaves serrate -- . a. leaves glabrous above =aster, aster shortii.= b. leaves rough above =aster, aster azureus.= a. involucre - mm. long -- . b. involucre - mm. long -- . a. leaves rough; petioles mostly winged =aster, aster lowrieanus.= b. leaves smooth; petioles slender, not winged =aster, aster cordifolius.= a. heads few, seldom more than , in a loose spreading cluster =aster, aster lindleyanus.= b. heads numerous, in a rather elongate crowded cluster =aster, aster sagittifolius.= a. stem hirsute or rough-pubescent -- . b. stem smooth, or essentially so -- . a. leaves conspicuously serrate =aster, aster puniceus.= b. leaves entire or nearly so -- . a. leaves narrowed toward the base and barely clasping, linear or oblong-linear -- . b. leaves ovate-oblong or lanceolate, with a broad conspicuously clasping base -- . a. involucre pubescent but not glandular =aster, aster amethystinus.= b. involucre glandular =aster, aster oblongifolius.= a. involucre very glandular and viscid; rays very numerous, violet-purple; leaves lanceolate =aster, aster novae-angliae.= b. involucre slightly glandular or not at all; rays - , generally blue-purple; leaves ovate-oblong =aster, aster patens.= a. leaves of a linear type -- . b. leaves broader than linear, at least cm. wide -- . a. bracts narrow, approximately equal in length -- a. b. bracts of several lengths, the outer successively shorter -- a. a. leaves smooth above =aster, aster laevis.= b. leaves rough above -- . a. leaves contracted below the middle and then abruptly dilated to the clasping base =aster, aster prenanthoides.= b. leaves gradually narrowed toward the base =aster, aster puniceus.= a. rays conspicuous -- . b. rays minute or wanting =aster, aster angustus.= a. stems and leaves gray with a silky pubescence =aster, aster sericeus.= b. stem and leaves green, not silky -- . a. bracts glandular-viscid; rays violet =aster, aster oblongifolius.= b. bracts bristly-ciliate -- . c. bracts smooth or pubescent, not glandular or bristly-ciliate -- . a. leaves crowded, rigid; rays white =aster, aster multiflorus.= b. leaves not crowded and rigid; rays blue -- a. a. bracts narrowed at the tip into thickened firm green awl-shape points -- . b. bracts acute or obtuse at the flattened tip -- . a. involucre - mm. long -- . b. involucre - mm. high =aster, aster polyphyllus.= a. stem smooth =aster, aster ericoides.= b. stem hairy; leaves linear =aster, aster ericoides var. villosus.= c. stem densely white-woolly =aster, aster ericoides var. platyphyllus.= a. leaves at most . cm. long -- . b. leaves larger, at least the principal ones -- . a. stems in clusters; leaves rigid, linear, with vein; flowers blue =aster, aster linariifolius.= b. stem solitary; leaves not rigid; flowers rose-pink =aster, aster nemoralis.= a. heads solitary at the end of minutely leafy branchlets; leaves linear =aster, aster dumosus.= b. heads in flat-topped clusters; leaves lanceolate or broader -- . c. heads in more or less one-sided racemes -- . d. heads in panicles or irregular clusters -- . a. leaves rigid, linear-lanceolate =aster, aster ptarmicoides.= b. leaves not rigid, lanceolate =aster, aster umbellatus.= a. leaves lanceolate, sharply serrate -- . b. leaves linear or narrowly linear-lanceolate, only the larger ones with a few teeth near the middle =aster, aster vimineus.= a. stem glabrous or somewhat pubescent =aster, aster lateriflorus.= b. stem woolly with long hairs =aster, aster lateriflorus var. hirsuticaulis.= a. bracts narrow, approximately equal in length =aster, aster longifolius.= b. bracts of several lengths, the outer successively shorter -- . a. heads - mm. wide, including the rays =aster, aster tradescanti.= b. heads - mm. wide, including the rays -- . a. bracts with conspicuous dilated or subrhombic tips =aster, aster salicifolius.= b. bracts without conspicuous green tips -- . a. rays purple or rose; bog plant with linear leaves =aster, aster junceus.= b. rays white, or slightly tinged with blue; leaves oblong to narrowly lanceolate =aster, aster paniculatus.= glossary =achene.= a small, dry, hard, seed-like fruit containing a single seed. =acuminate.= taper-pointed. =acute.= ending with an acute angle. =alternate.= located singly on the stem, with other leaves above or below. =annual.= living but a single season. =anther.= the (usually) enlarged end of a stamen, bearing the pollen. =ascending.= rising or curving obliquely upward. =auricle.= an ear-shape appendage at the base of a leaf or other organ. =auricled, auriculate.= furnished with auricles. =awl-shape.= tapering to a slender stiff point. =awn.= an awl-shape or bristle-shape appendage. =axil.= the point on a stem just above the base of a leaf or branch. =axillary.= arising from or produced in the axil. =basal.= arising from or produced at the base. =beak.= ending in a prominent slender point. =bract.= a small leaf near the base of a flower or flower-stalk, or in a flower-cluster. =bracteal.= an adjective derived from bract. =bipinnate.= a leaf with a pinnately branched axis, bearing leaflets on the sides of the branches. =calyx.= the outer portion of the flower, usually green in color. in some plants it is colored to resemble (or replace) the corolla, and in others may be minute or wanting. =capitate.= shaped like a head; or arranged in a dense compact cluster. =capsule.= a dry fruit with usually several seeds, opening at maturity. =catkin.= a cylindrical or ovoid cluster of inconspicuous flowers, for example, the "pussy willow." =cells of ovary.= the cavity or cavities within an ovary, in which the seeds are produced. =ciliate.= provided with hairs at the margin. =clasping.= with the base of a leaf or other organ wholly or partly surrounding the stem. =cleft.= deeply divided toward the base or the mid-rib. =closed sheath.= a leaf-sheath in which the margins are united to form a tube. =composite.= a flower-cluster containing several or many small flowers, closely crowded together and provided with calyx-like bracts, so that the whole cluster resembles a single flower. =compound.= composed of or more similar parts united, as a compound ovary. =compound leaf.= a leaf with two or more separate leaflets on a single petiole. =connate.= grown together. =cordate.= heart-shape. a whole leaf-blade may be cordate, or the term may be applied to the base of a leaf only. =cordate-sagittate.= intermediate in shape between cordate and sagittate. =corm.= an enlarged stem-base, of solid structure and usually underground. =corolla.= the portion of a flower next to the calyx (in ordinary cases). it is generally the most conspicuous part of the flower, but may be completely absent, or inconspicuous, or replaced by the calyx. =corymb.= a flat-topped or convex-topped flower-cluster. =creeping.= with stems prostrate on the ground and rooting at intervals. =crenate.= with round-pointed teeth at the margin. =crenulate.= finely or minutely crenate. =cuspidate.= ending with a short sharp stiff point. =deciduous.= not persistent for a long time; not evergreen. =decompound.= repeatedly branched with numerous leaflets. =decurrent.= extending with wing-like expansions down the stem. =decumbent.= a stem prostrate at the base, but with the tip more or less ascending. =dehiscent.= breaking open at maturity to discharge the contents. =deltoid.= broadly triangular. =dioecious.= bearing staminate and pistillate flowers upon separate plants. =dissected.= finely divided into numerous small or narrow segments. =divided.= with deep segments or lobes. =elliptical.= having the shape of an ellipse. =elliptical-lanceolate.= intermediate in shape between elliptical and lanceolate. =entire.= with an unbroken margin, without teeth or lobes. =epiphyte.= a plant growing attached to the bark of another plant, and without connection with the soil. =erect.= growing in nearly or quite a vertical position. =evenly pinnate.= a compound leaf terminating in a pair of leaflets. =filament.= the (usually) slender basal portion of a stamen, supporting the anther at its tip. =floweret.= a small flower. =gamopetalous.= composed of united petals. =gamosepalous.= composed of united sepals. =glabrous.= smooth; without hairs. =glandular.= bearing glands. =glaucous.= covered with a thin bluish or whitish deposit, easily rubbed off. =glume.= a bract at the base of a spikelet of a grass. =half recurved.= curved half-way backward. =hastate.= shaped like an arrow-head, but with the basal lobes pointing outwards instead of backward. =head.= a dense cluster of flowers, about as broad as long. =hirsute.= with stiff coarse hairs. =imperfect.= flowers which contain either pistil or stamens, not both. =incised.= with deep, sharp, irregular, divisions. =indehiscent.= not breaking open at maturity to discharge the contents. =inflorescence.= a cluster of flowers. =internode.= a section of stem between two joints, or nodes. =involucre.= a collection of bracts at the base of a flower-cluster. =irregular.= possessing similar parts of different size or form. an irregular flower is generally distinguished by petals of unequal size or shape. =laciniate.= cut into narrow pointed lobes or divisions. =lanceolate.= shaped like a lance-head, several times longer than wide, and broadest below the middle. =linear.= long and narrow, but with about uniform width. =linear-lanceolate.= intermediate in shape between linear and lanceolate; narrowly lanceolate. =lip.= the largest and most conspicuous petal in an irregular corolla, usually applied to the lower petal of an orchid. =lobe.= a segment or division of any organ. =leaflet.= one portion of the blade of a compound leaf. =lemma.= one of the bracts in the spikelet of a grass, and described in the treatment of that family. =membranous.= thin or membrane-like in texture. =monoecious.= bearing stamens and pistils in separate flowers, but on the same plant. =mucronate.= tipped with a short small abrupt tip. =node.= a joint of a stem, at which leaves are borne and branches appear. =oblanceolate.= reversed lanceolate in shape. =oblique.= with unequal sides. =oblong.= somewhat rectangular in shape, with parallel sides. =oblong-lanceolate.= intermediate in shape between oblong and lanceolate. =oblong-spatulate.= intermediate in shape between oblong and spatulate. =obovate.= reversed ovate in shape. =obtuse.= blunt-tipped; terminating in an obtuse angle. =odd-pinnate.= a compound leaf terminating in a single leaflet. =once-compound.= a compound leaf bearing leaflets at the end or along the sides of the main axis. =once-pinnate.= a compound leaf bearing leaflets along the sides of the axis. =open sheath.= a leaf-sheath with separate margins. =opposite.= situated in pairs on opposite sides of the stem or axis. =ovary.= the basal, usually swollen portion of the pistil, within which the seeds are produced. =ovate.= egg-shape in outline. =ovate-lanceolate.= intermediate in shape between ovate and lanceolate; broadly lanceolate or narrowly ovate. =ovate-oblong.= intermediate in shape between ovate and oblong. =ovoid.= egg-shape. =palmate.= with several organs or structures attached at or proceeding from the same point; applied chiefly to the arrangement of principal veins in a leaf and of leaflets in a compound leaf. =panicle.= a loose, more or less irregular, branching cluster of pedicelled flowers, usually much longer than thick. =parallel-veined.= with the principal veins of the leaf paralleling each other from the base to the apex, or (rarely) from the mid-rib to the margin. =pedicel.= the stalk of a single flower. =parasite.= a plant which grows attached to another and derives its nourishment from it. =peduncle.= the stalk of a flower-cluster, or of a solitary flower. =peltate.= attached to the stalk by the lower surface, instead of the margin. =perennial.= living through several seasons. =perfect.= bearing stamens and pistils in the same flower. =perfoliate.= clasping the stem so completely that the stem seems to pass through it. =perianth.= the calyx and corolla of a flower. =perigynium.= a sac-like structure surrounding the achene of a sedge. =persistent.= remaining attached for a considerable time. =petal.= one member or segment of the corolla. =petiole.= the stalk of a leaf. =pinnate.= with several organs or structures attached at the sides of an axis or stalk; applied chiefly to the arrangement of the principal veins in a leaf and of leaflets in a compound leaf. =pinnatifid.= deeply pinnately cut or divided. =pistil.= the central portion of a flower, consisting of ovary, style, and stigma; the seed-bearing part of the flower. =pistillate.= bearing pistils. =polygamous.= applied to plants in which some flowers are perfect and others either staminate or pistillate. =pubescent.= hairy. =raceme.= a more or less elongated flower-cluster, bearing pedicelled flowers along a single axis. =racemose.= arranged in racemes. =receptacle.= the end of a peduncle or pedicel upon which the organs of a flower, or the flowers of a head, are attached. =recurved.= curved back. =reflexed.= abruptly bent back or down. =regular.= uniform in shape or structure. flowers are generally considered regular when all the petals are of the same size and shape. =retrorse.= directed backward or downward. =revolute.= rolled backward or under. =rootstock.= a horizontal subterranean stem, sending up leaves or stems. =rotate.= wheel-shape; essentially flat and circular. =sac-like.= inflated; sack-like. =sagittate.= shaped like an arrow-head. =salver-form.= a corolla having a slender tube abruptly expanded at the summit into a flat or spreading portion. =scape.= a peduncle arising directly from the base of the plant, leafless or bearing bracts only. =segment.= one member or portion of an organ. =sepal.= one member or portion of the calyx. =serrate.= with sharp teeth at the margin. =serrulate.= finely or minutely serrate. =sessile.= without a stalk, petiole, or pedicel. =sheathing.= inclosing. =simple.= in one piece; not compound; usually applied to leaves with a single blade. =sinuate.= wavy-margined. =sinus.= the angle between two lobes or divisions. =spadix.= a short fleshy spike. =spathe.= a large bract or pair of bracts enclosing a flower-cluster. =spatulate.= shaped like a spatula, with a narrow base and an enlarged, more or less rounded summit. =spike.= an elongated flower-cluster having sessile flowers upon an unbranched axis. =spike-like.= resembling a spike. =spinulose-serrate.= provided with teeth tipped with minute spines. =spur.= a hollow projection from the calyx or corolla, usually slender in shape, and generally directed backward. =stamen.= one of the organs of a flower, consisting of a filament and anther. =staminate.= bearing stamens. =stolon.= a short stem arising from the base of a plant, prostrate or nearly so, and eventually taking root. =striate.= marked with fine stripes or ridges. =style.= a portion of the pistil, usually slender, and connecting the ovary and stigma. =superior.= a superior ovary occupies the center of the flower and is not attached to any other floral organs. =subtending.= situated at the base of an organ. =subulate.= awl-shape. =ternately.= divided by threes. =tomentose.= densely hairy with matted or tangled hairs. =trifoliate.= with three leaflets. =truncate.= cut straight across at the tip, or nearly so. =tube.= the more or less cylindrical portion of a gamosepalous calyx or a gamopetalous corolla, distinguished from the expanded or lobed terminal portion. =tubular.= shaped like a tube. =twice-pinnate.= same as bipinnate. =two-lipped.= a calyx or corolla in which the upper half is decidedly different in size or shape from the lower. =umbel.= a flower-cluster with several or many pedicelled flowers all arising from the same point. =undulate.= with a wavy margin. =viscid.= sticky. =villous.= with long soft hairs. =whorl.= an arrangement of or more leaves or flowers in a circle around a node. =whorled.= in a whorl. =wing.= a thin flat expansion on the sides or edge of an organ. index abies, abutilon, acalypha, acanthaceae, acanthus family, acer, aceraceae, acerates, achillea, , acnida, acorus, actaea, actinomeris, adder's mouth, adenocaulon, adlumia, aesculus, agastache, agrimonia, agrimony, agropyron, agrostemma, agrostis, ailanthus, aizoaceae, alder, alder, black, aletris, alfalfa, alisma, alismaceae, allium, alnus, alopecurus, alsike clover, althaea, alum root, , alyssum, , alyssum, yellow, , amaranth family, amaranthaceae, amaranthus, amaryllidaceae, amaryllis family, ambrosia, amelanchier, american columbo, american ipecac, ammophila, amorpha, amphicarpa, anacardiaceae, anagallis, anaphalis, andromeda, andropogon, androsace, anemone, , anemone, rue, anemone, wood, anemonella, angelica, anonaceae, antennaria, anthemis, antirrhinum, anychia, apios, aplectrum, apocynaceae, apocynum, appalachian cherry, apple, apple of peru, aquifoliaceae, aquilegia, arabis, , araceae, aralia, araliaceae, arbutus, trailing, arceuthobium, arctium, arctostaphylos, arenaria, arethusa, arisaema, aristolochia, aristolochiaceae, arnica, arrow arum, arrow grass, arrow grass family, arrow-head, arrow wood, artemisia, artichoke, jerusalem, arum family, asarum, asclepias, , asclepiadaceae, ash, ash, mountain, ash, prickly, asimina, asparagus, aspen, aster, - atriplex, avena, avens, , baby's breath, balm of gilead, balsam, balsam poplar, balsaminaceae, baneberry, baptisia, barbarea, barberry, barberry family, barnyard grass, barren strawberry, bartonia, basil, basil-thyme, basswood, bayberry, beach grass, beach pea, beaked hazel, bearberry, beard grass, beard-tongue, bedstraw, , beech, beech drops, , beech family, beggar lice, beggar ticks, bellflower, bellflower family, bellwort, benzoin, berberidaceae, berberis, bergamot mint, berula, betula, , betulaceae, bidens, , bilberry, , bindweed, , bindweed, black, birch, , birch family, bird-foot violet, birthwort family, bishop's cap, bistort, bitter cress, , bitter dock, bitter nut, bittersweet, bitter-sweet, black alder, black ash, blackberry, black bindweed, black cherry, black currant, , black-eyed susan, black haw, black jack oak, black locust, black maple, black medick, black mustard, black oak, black raspberry, black snakeroot, black spruce, black swallow-wort, black walnut, black willow, bladder campion, bladder nut, bladder nut family, bladderwort, bladderwort family, blazing star, , blephilia, blite, bloodroot, bloody dock, blue ash, bluebell, , blueberry, blue cohosh, blue-eyed grass, blue-eyed mary, blue flag, blue grass, blue hearts, blue-joint, bluets, blue violet, blueweed, boehmeria, bog rosemary, boltonia, boneset, false, borage, borage family, boraginaceae, borago, bowman's root, box elder, brasenia, brassica, , brauneria, braya, bristly locust, bristly sarsaparilla, brome-grass, bromus, broom-rape family, buchnera, buckbean, buckeye, buckhorn, buckthorn, buckthorn family, buckwheat, buckwheat, false, buckwheat family, buffalo berry, buffalo bur, buffalo clover, bugbane, bugle, bugle weed, bug-seed, bulrush, bur clover, bur cucumber, burdock, bur marigold, burnet, bur oak, bur-reed, bur-reed family, bush clover, , bush honeysuckle, butter-and-eggs, buttercup, , , butterfly weed, butternut, butterwort, button bush, cacalia, cactaceae, cactus family, cakile, calamagrostis, calamint, calla, callirhoe, callitrichaceae, callitriche, calopogon, caltha, calypso, camassia, camelina, camomile, campanula, campanulaceae, campion, , canada thistle, canada violet, canadian blue grass, cancer-root, cannabis, caper family, capparidaceae, caprifoliaceae, capsella, caraway, cardamine, , cardinal flower, carduus, carex, carpet-weed, carpet-weed family, carpinus, carrion-flower, carrot, wild, carum, carya, caryophyllaceae, cashew family, cassia, castalia, castanea, castilleja, catchfly, , catnip, cat-tail, cat-tail family, caulophyllum, ceanothus, cedar, celandine, celandine poppy, celastraceae, celastrus, celtis, cenchrus, centaurea, centaurium, centaury, cephalanthus, cerastium, ceratophyllaceae, ceratophyllum, cercis, chaerophyllum, chamaedaphne, chamaelirium, charlock, cheat, chelidonium, chelone, chenopodiaceae, chenopodium, , cherry, cherry, ground, chervil, chestnut, chickweed, , chickweed, mouse-ear, chicory, chimaphila, chiogenes, chives, wild, chokeberry, choke cherry, chrysanthemum, , , chrysosplenium, cichorium, cicuta, cimicifuga, cinquefoil, , , circaea, cirsium, , cistaceae, cladium, clammy locust, clammy-weed, claytonia, clearweed, cleft phlox, clematis, climbing fumitory, climbing rose, clintonia, clover, clover, bush, , clover, hop, clover, prairie, clover, sweet, cocklebur, cockle, corn, coffee-tree, cohosh, blue, colic-root, collinsia, collinsonia, coltsfoot, , columbine, comandra, comfrey, , commelina, commelinaceae, common blue violet, common cat-tail, common vetch, compass plant, compositae, composite family, coneflower, gray-headed, coneflower, purple, conioselinum, conium, conopholis, conringia, convolvulaceae, convolvulus, , coptis, corallorhiza, coral root, coreopsis, , corispermum, cork elm, cornaceae, corn cockle, corn flower, corn gromwell, corn salad, cornus, , corydalis, corylus, costmary, cotton grass, cotton thistle, cottonwood, cowbane, cowherb, cow parsnip, cowslip, cow wheat, crab, crab grass, crack willow, cranberry, cranberry tree, crane-fly orchis, crane's-bill, , crassulaceae, creeping cedar, creeping wahoo, crepis, cress, - cress, bitter, , cress, field, cress, garden, , cress, lake, , cress, mouse-ear, cress, penny, cress, rock, , cress, water, cress, winter, cress, yellow, crotalaria, crowberry, crowberry family, crowfoot, crowfoot, cursed, crowfoot family, crowfoot, sea-side, crowfoot, small-flowered, crowfoot, water, , cruciferae, cryptotaenia, cuckoo flower, cucurbitaceae, cudweed, , culver's root, cup plant, currant, , currant, indian, cursed crowfoot, cuscuta, custard apple family, cut-grass, cycloloma, cynanchum, cynoglossum, , cynthia, cyperaceae, cyperus, cypress spurge, cypripedium, dactylis, daisy, ox-eye, dalibarda, dame's rocket, dandelion, dandelion, dwarf, datura, daucus, day-flower, day lily, dead nettle, decodon, deerberry, dentaria, deptford pink, desmodium, , devil's club, dewberry, dianthera, dianthus, dicentra, diervilla, digitaria, dioscorea, dioscoreaceae, diplotaxis, , dipsacaceae, dipsacus, dirca, ditch stonecrop, dock, dock, prairie, dodder, dodecatheon, dogbane, dogbane family, dog fennel, dog rose, dog's-tooth violet, dog violet, dogwood, , dogwood family, downy mint, draba, , dracocephalum, dragon head, dragon head, false, dragon root, drop-seed, drosera, droseraceae, duckweed, duckweed family, dulichium, dutchman's breeches, dwarf birch, dwarf dandelion, dwarf dogwood, dwarf ginseng, dwarf iris, dwarf mistletoe, dwarf raspberry, dwarf water plantain, dwarf white trillium, dyer's greenweed, echinochloa, echinocystis, echinodorus, echinops, echium, eel grass, elaeagnaceae, elatinaceae, elatine, elder, elder, box, elder, marsh, elecampane, eleocharis, eleusine, elm, elodea, elymus, empetraceae, empetrum, enchanter's nightshade, english plantain, epifagus, epigaea, epilobium, epipactis, eragrostis, erechtites, ericaceae, erigenia, erigeron, - eriocaulaceae, eriocaulon, eriophorum, erodium, eryngium, erysimum, erythronium, eupatorium, , euphorbia, , euphrasia, evening primrose, evening primrose family, everlasting, everlasting, pearly, evonymus, eyebright, fagaceae, fagopyrum, fagus, fall dandelion, false asphodel, false boneset, false buckwheat, false dragon head, false flax, false foxglove, false gromwell, false heather, false loosestrife, false mermaid, false mermaid family, false mitrewort, false nettle, false pimpernel, false solomon's seal, fatsia, fennel, fennel, dog, fescue grass, festuca, feverfew, feverwort, field cress, field garlic, figwort, figwort family, filipendula, fire pink, fireweed, , five-finger, flax, flax, false, flax family, fleabane, , floating foxtail, floating heart, floerkea, flowering dogwood, flowering raspberry, flowering wintergreen, flower-of-an-hour, foeniculum, fog fruit, forget-me-not, forked chickweed, four-o'clock family, foxglove, false, fox grape, foxtail, foxtail, floating, fragaria, frasera, fraxinus, fringed gentian, fringed orchis, frog's bit family, frost grape, frostweed, fumaria, fumariaceae, fumitory, fumitory, climbing, fumitory family, galeopsis, gale, sweet, galinsoga, galium, , garden cress, , garden phlox, garlic, field, gaultheria, gaura, gaylussacia, genista, gentian, gentiana, gentianaceae, gentian family, gentian, spurred, geraniaceae, geranium, , geranium family, gerardia, , geum, , giant hyssop, giant ragweed, gillenia, ginseng, gleditsia, globe-flower, globe thistle, glyceria, gnaphalium, , goat's rue, golden alexander, golden currant, golden glow, goldenrod, - golden saxifrage, golden seal, gold-thread, good king henry, gooseberry, goosefoot, , goosefoot family, gourd family, gramineae, grape, grape family, grape hyacinth, grass family, grass of parnassus, grass, star, gratiola, gray-headed coneflower, great lobelia, great solomon's seal, great-spurred violet, greek valerian, green ash, green brier, green foxtail, green milkweed, green sorrel, green violet, grindelia, ground cherry, ground hemlock, ground ivy, groundsel, gum plant, gymnocladus, gypsophila, gypsophyll, habenaria, , hackberry, hair grass, halenia, haloragidaceae, hamamelidaceae, hamamelis, hand-leaf violet, harbinger of spring, hardhack, harebell, hare's ear, hawksbeard, hawkweed, , hazel, heather, false, heath family, hedeoma, hedge hyssop, hedge mustard, hedge nettle, helenium, , helianthemum, helianthus, - heliopsis, hemerocallis, hemlock, hemlock, ground, hemlock parsley, hemlock, poison, hemlock, water, hemp, hemp, indian, hemp nettle, hemp, water, hemp weed, henbane, hepatica, heracleum, herb robert, herb sophia, hercules' club, hesperis, heteranthera, heuchera, , hibiscus, hickory, hieracium, , hill's oak, hippuris, hoarhound, hoarhound, water, hobble-bush, hog peanut, holly family, holly, mountain, honewort, honey locust, honeysuckle, honeysuckle, bush, honeysuckle family, hop, hop clover, hop tree, hordeum, hornbeam, horned pondweed, hornwort, hornwort family, horse balm, horse chestnut, horse mint, horse nettle, horse radish, horse weed, , hound's tongue, houstonia, huckleberry, hudsonia, humulus, hyacinth, wild, hybanthus, hydrocharitaceae, hydrocotyle, hydrophyllaceae, hydrophyllum, hyoscyamus, hypericaceae, hypericum, , hypoxis, hyssop, hyssop, hedge, hyssopus, ilex, illecebraceae, ilysanthes, impatiens, imperatoria, indian cucumber-root, indian currant, indian hemp, indian mustard, indian pipe, indian plantain, indian tobacco, indian turnip, indigo, wild, inula, ipomoea, iridaceae, iris, iris family, ironweed, ironweed, yellow, ironwood, isopyrum, iva, jack pine, jeffersonia, jerusalem artichoke, jerusalem oak, jimson weed, joe-pye weed, jointweed, juglandaceae, juglans, juncaceae, juncaginaceae, juncus, juneberry, juniper, juniperus, kalmia, kenilworth ivy, kentucky coffee-tree, king-nut hickory, knapweed, knawel, knotweed, , knotwort family, kochia, koeleria, krigia, kuhnia, labiatae, labrador tea, lactuca, , ladies' tresses, lady's slipper, lake cress, , lamb's quarters, lamium, laportea, lappula, lapsana, large-toothed aspen, larix, larkspur, lathyrus, lauraceae, laurel family, lead plant, leafcup, leatherleaf, leatherwood, lechea, , ledum, leek, wild, leersia, leguminosae, lemna, lemnaceae, lentibulariaceae, leontodon, leonurus, lepachys, lepidium, , lespedeza, , lettuce, , lettuce, wild, , liatris, lilac, liliaceae, lilium, lily, lily family, lily of the valley, wild, lily, pond, lily, water, limnanthaceae, limosella, linaceae, linaria, , linden family, linnaea, linum, liparis, lippia, liriodendron, listera, lithospermum, live-for-ever, lizard's tail, lobelia, lobeliaceae, lobelia family, locust, locust, honey, lombardy poplar, long-spurred violet, lonicera, loosestrife, , , loosestrife, false, loosestrife family, lopseed, lopseed family, loranthaceae, lotus, lousewort, love grass, love-in-a-mist, low juniper, ludvigia, lupine, lupinus, luzula, lychnis, lysimachia, , lycium, lycopus, lythraceae, lythrum, madder family, mad-dog skullcap, magnoliaceae, magnolia family, maianthemum, mallow, mallow family, mallow, marsh, mallow, poppy, mallow, rose, mallow, virginia, malva, malvaceae, manna grass, maple, maple family, mare's-tail, marigold, bur, marigold, water, marrubium, marsh cinquefoil, marsh elder, marsh harebell, marsh mallow, marsh pea, marsh speedwell, masterwort, matricaria, matrimony vine, may apple, meadow beauty, meadow parsnip, meadow pink, meadow rue, meadow salsify, meadow-sweet, medeola, medicago, , melampyrum, melastomaceae, melastoma family, melilotus, menispermaceae, menispermum, mentha, menyanthes, mermaid weed, mertensia, , mexican tea, mezereum family, microstylis, mignonette family, mignonette, yellow, mikania, milfoil, water, milk thistle, milk vetch, milkweed, , milkweed family, milkweed, green, milkwort, milkwort family, millet, mimulus, , mint, mint family, mist flower, mistletoe, dwarf, mistletoe family, mitchella, mitella, mitrewort, false, mocker-nut hickory, mollugo, monarda, moneses, moneywort, monkey flower, monkey flower, yellow, monotropa, moonseed, moonseed family, morning glory, morning glory family, morus, moss pink, motherwort, moth mullein, mountain alder, mountain ash, mountain holly, mountain maple, mountain mint, mouse-ear chickweed, mouse-ear cress, mud plantain, mudwort, mugwort, muhlenbergia, , mulberry, mullein, mullein pink, muscari, musk flower, mustard, , mustard family, myosotis, myrica, , myricaceae, myriophyllum, naiad, naias, najadaceae, narrow-leaved cat-tail, nelumbo, nemopanthus, nepeta, nettle, nettle, dead, nettle family, nettle, hedge, nettle, hemp, nettle, horse, nicandra, nicotiana, nigella, nightshade, nightshade, enchanter's, nightshade family, ninebark, nipplewort, nodding pogonia, norway pine, nut grass, nyctaginaceae, nymphaea, nymphaeaceae, nymphoides, nyssa, oak, , oakesia, oats, oenothera, oleaceae, oleaster family, olive family, onagraceae, one-flowered wintergreen, onion, wild, onosmodium, opuntia, orache, orchard grass, orchidaceae, orchis, orchis, crane-fly, orchis family, orchis, showy, ornithogalum, orobanchaceae, orobanche, orpine family, osmorhiza, ostrya, oswego tea, oxalidaceae, oxalis, ox-eye, ox-eye daisy, oxybaphus, oxypolis, painted cup, painted trillium, pale violet, panax, panic-grass, panicum, pansy, papaveraceae, papaver, papaw, paper birch, parietaria, parnassia, parsley family, parsley, hemlock, parsnip, cow, parsnip, meadow, parsnip, prairie, parsnip, water, parsnip, wild, partridge berry, partridge pea, pasque flower, pastinaca, patience dock, pea, peach-leaved willow, pear, pear, prickly, pearlwort, pearly everlasting, pedicularis, pellitory, peltandra, penny cress, pennyroyal, pennywort, water, penthorum, pentstemon, pepper family, pepper grass, peppermint, perfumed cherry, periwinkle, petalostemum, petasites, petunia, phacelia, phleum, phlox, phragmites, phryma, phrymaceae, physalis, physocarpus, physostegia, phytolacca, phytolaccaceae, picea, pickerel-weed, pickerel-weed family, picris, pignut hickory, pigweed, pilea, pimpernel, pimpernel, false, pimpernel, water, pinaceae, pin cherry, pine, pine drops, pine family, pineweed, pinguicula, pink, deptford, pink family, pink, fire, pink, meadow, pink, moss, pink, mullein, pink, rose, pin oak, pinus, pinweed, , piperaceae, pipewort, pipewort family, pitcher plant, pitcher plant family, plane tree family, plantaginaceae, plantago, plantain, plantain family, plantain, indian, plantain, mud, platanaceae, platanus, plum, poa, podophyllum, podostemaceae, podostemum, pogonia, poison hemlock, poison ivy, poison sumach, pokeweed, pokeweed family, polanisia, polemoniaceae, polemonium, polemonium family, polygala, , polygalaceae, polygonatum, polygonaceae, polygonum, - polymnia, polytaenia, pond lily, pondweed, pondweed family, pontederia, pontederiaceae, poplar, poppy, poppy, celandine, poppy family, poppy mallow, populus, portulaca, portulacaceae, potamogeton, potentilla, , - prairie clover, prairie dock, prairie fringed orchis, prairie june-grass, prairie parsnip, prenanthes, prickly ash, prickly pear, primrose, primrose family, primula, primulaceae, prince's feather, prince's pine, proserpinaca, prunella, prunus, psedera, ptelea, pterospora, puccoon, pulse family, purple avens, purple coneflower, purple fringed orchis, purslane, purslane family, purslane, water, putty root, pyenanthemum, pyrola, , pyrus, , , quack grass, quaking aspen, quassia family, queen of the prairie, quercus, , radicula, , , radish, radish, horse, radish, wild, , ragged fringed orchis, ragweed, ragwort, , ram's head lady's slipper, ranunculaceae, ranunculus, - raphanus, , raspberry, , rattlebox, rattlesnake master, rattlesnake plantain, rattlesnake root, red ash, redbud, red cedar, red clover, red currant, red maple, red mulberry, red oak, red raspberry, red-root, red sorrel, red-top, reed, reed grass, rein orchis, reseda, resedaceae, rhamnaceae, rhamnus, rhexia, rhus, , ribes, , river weed, river weed family, robinia, rock cress, , rocket, sea, rock-rose family, rosa, rosaceae, rose, rose family, rose mallow, rose pink, rosin weed, round-leaved orchis, round-leaved violet, rowan tree, rubiaceae, rubus, , rudbeckia, rue anemone, rue family, ruellia, rumex, , rush, rush family, rush, twig, russian thistle, rutabaga, rutaceae, sabbatia, sagina, sagittaria, salicaceae, salix, salmonberry, salsify, salsola, sambucus, samolus, sandalwood family, sand bur, sand cherry, sand rocket, , sand spurrey, sand violet, sanguinaria, sanguisorba, sanicula, santalaceae, sapindaceae, saponaria, sarracenia, sarraceniaceae, sarsaparilla, sarsaparilla family, sassafras, satureja, saururus, saxifraga, saxifragaceae, saxifrage, saxifrage family, saxifrage, golden, scarlet oak, scheuchzeria, schneck's oak, scirpus, scleranthus, scorpion grass, scrophularia, scrophulariaceae, scrub oak, scutellaria, sea rocket, sea-side crowfoot, sedge, sedge family, sedum, , self-heal, seneca snakeroot, senecio, , senna, wild, setaria, shag-bark hickory, sheep-berry, sheep laurel, shepherdia, shepherd's purse, shingle oak, shin-leaf, , shooting star, showy lady's slipper, showy orchis, sicyos, sida, , silene, , silphium, , , silver maple, silver weed, silvery cinquefoil, silybum, simarubaceae, sium, sisymbrium, - , sisyrinchium, skullcap, skunk cabbage, skunk currant, slender nettle, slippery elm, slough grass, small-flowered crowfoot, small-fruited hickory, small snapdragon, small solomon's seal, smartweed, , smilacina, smilax, smooth alder, snake mouth, snakeroot, black, snakeroot, seneca, snakeroot, virginia, snapdragon, sneezeweed, sneeze weed, sneezewort, snowberry, , soapberry family, soapwort, solanaceae, solanum, solidago, - solomon's seal, sorbaria, sorrel, red, sorrel, green, sorrel, wood, sour dock, sour gum, southernwood, sparganiaceae, spartina, spear grass, spearmint, spearwort, speckled alder, specularia, speedwell, spergula, spergularia, spice bush, spiderwort, spiderwort family, spikenard, spike rush, spiraea, spiranthes, spirodela, spotted wintergreen, spurge, , spurge family, spurred gentian, spurrey, spring avens, spring beauty, spring vetch, spruce, squashberry, squaw-root, squaw weed, squirrel corn, squirrel-tail, stachys, staff tree family, staphylea, staphyleaceae, star flower, star grass, star of bethlehem, starry campion, steironema, stellaria, , stemless lady's slipper, stickseed, stinging nettle, stitchwort, st. john's-wort, , st. john's-wort family, stone clover, stonecrop, stonecrop, ditch, stork's-bill, strawberry, strawberry, barren, strawberry blite, streptopus, striped maple, strophostyles, stylophorum, sugar maple, sumach, , summer grape, summer savory, sundew, sundew family, sundrops, sunflower, - sunflower, tickseed, swamp birch, swamp currant, swamp dewberry, swamp laurel, swamp milkweed, swamp rose, swamp valerian, swamp white oak, sweet birch, sweetbrier, sweet cicely, sweet fern, sweet flag, sweet gale, sweet gale family, sweet white violet, sweet william, , sweet william catchfly, sycamore, symphoricarpos, , symphytum, symplocarpus, synthyris, syringa, taenidia, tall dock, tamarack, tanacetum, tansy, tansy mustard, taraxacum, taxaceae, taxus, tear-thumb, teasel, teasel family, tephrosia, teucrium, thalictrum, thaspium, thistle, , thistle, canada, thistle, cotton, thistle, globe, thistle, milk, thistle, russian, thistle, sow, thlaspi, thorn-apple, thorny amaranth, three-seeded mercury, three-square, thuja, thymelaeaceae, thyme, wild, thymus, tiarella, tickseed, , tickseed sunflower, tick trefoil, , tilia, tiliaceae, timothy, tipularia, toad-flax, , tobacco, indian, tobacco, wild, tofieldia, toothwort, touch-me-not, touch-me-not family, tradescantia, tragopogon, trailing arbutus, tree of heaven, trientalis, trifolium, , triglochin, trillium, triosteum, trollius, tsuga, tulip tree, tumble weed, turk's-cap lily, turtlehead, tussilago, tway-blade, twig rush, twin-leaf, twin flower, twisted-stalk, typha, typhaceae, ulmus, umbelliferae, umbrella-wort, upland boneset, urtica, urticaceae, utricularia, uvularia, vaccinium, - valerian, valeriana, valerianaceae, valerianella, valerian family, valerian, greek, vallisneria, velvet leaf, venus' looking glass, verbascum, verbena, - verbenaceae, verbena family, vernonia, veronica, , vervain, , vetch, vetchling, vetch, milk, viburnum, vicia, vinca, viola, , violaceae, violet, , violet family, violet, green, virginia creeper, virginia mallow, virginia snakeroot, virgin's bower, vitaceae, vitis, wahoo, waldsteinia, walnut, black, walnut family, water arum, water cress, water crowfoot, water dock, water hemlock, water hemp, water hoarhound, water-leaf, water-leaf family, water lily, water lily family, water lobelia, water loosestrife, water marigold, water milfoil, water milfoil family, water parsnip, water pennywort, water pimpernel, water plantain, water plantain family, water purslane, water shield, water smartweed, , water speedwell, water starwort, water starwort family, water-weed, water willow, waterwort, waterwort family, weeping willow, white ash, white campion, white cedar, white clover, white elm, white fringed orchis, white ground cherry, white lady's slipper, white mulberry, white oak, white pine, white poplar, white snakeroot, white spruce, white sweet clover, whitlow grass, , whorled pogonia, wild bean, wild bergamot, wild camomile, wild carrot, wild chives, wild columbine, wild comfrey, wild crab, wild cucumber, wild flax, wild geranium, wild ginger, wild gromwell, wild indigo, wild leek, wild lettuce, , wild lily of the valley, wild mint, wild onion, wild pansy, wild parsnip, wild pea, wild plum, wild potato vine, wild radish, , wild rice, wild rose, wild rye, wild sarsaparilla, wild senna, wild thyme, wild tobacco, wild yam, willow, willow family, willow herb, willow, water, winter cress, wintergreen, wintergreen, flowering, wintergreen, one-flowered, wintergreen, spotted, witch grass, witch hazel, witch hazel family, withe-rod, wolfberry, wolffia, wood anemone, wood-grass, wood lily, wood nettle, wood rush, wood sage, wood sorrel, wood sorrel family, wood strawberry, wood violet, wormseed, worm-seed mustard, wormwood, xanthium, xyridaceae, xyris, yam family, yam, wild, yard grass, yarrow, yellow alyssum, , yellow birch, yellow cress, yellow-eyed grass, yellow-eyed grass family, yellow foxtail, yellow fringed orchis, yellow ironweed, yellow lady's slipper, yellow lily, yellow mignonette, yellow monkey flower, yellow oak, yellow sweet clover, yellow violet, yellow willow, yew family, zannichellia, zanthoxylum, zizania, zizia, +---------------------------------------------------------------+ | transcriber's notes: | | page xlv: changed lobel to lobed | | page : changed ocntains to contains | | page : changed second a to b | | page : changed second a to b | | page : changed augustifolium to angustifolium | | page : changed second a to b | | page : changed -- . to -- . | | page : changed (springi) to (spring) | | page : changed autum to autumn | | page : changed eveyrlasting, pearly to everlasting, pearly | +---------------------------------------------------------------+ the international scientific series. volume xv. the international scientific series. _works already published._ i. the forms of water in rain and rivers, ice and glaciers. by j. tyndall, ll.d., f.r.s. with illustrations. price, $ . . ii. physics and politics; or, thoughts on the application of the principles of "natural selection" and "inheritance" to political society. by walter bagehot. price, $ . . iii. foods. by dr. edward smith. illustrated. price, $ . . iv. mind and body: the theories of their relations. by alexander bain, ll.d. price, $ . . v. the study of sociology. by herbert spencer. price, $ . . vi. the new chemistry. by professor josiah p. cooke, of harvard university. illustrated. price, $ . . vii. on the conservation of energy. by professor balfour stewart. fourteen engravings. price, $ . . viii. animal locomotion; or, walking, swimming, and flying. by dr. j. b. pettigrew, m.d., f.r.s. illustrations. price, $ . . ix. responsibility in mental disease. by dr. henry maudsley. price, $ . . x. the science of law. by professor sheldon amos. price, $ . . xi. animal mechanism; or, aërial and terrestrial locomotion. by c. j. marey, professor of the college of france, member of the academy of medicine, paris. engravings. price, $ . . xii. history of the conflict between religion and science. by john w. draper, m.d., ll.d. price, $ . . xiii. the doctrine of descent and darwinism. by oscar schmidt, professor in the university of strasburg. price, $ . . xiv. the chemistry of light and photography; in its application to art, science, and industry. by dr. hermann vogel. one hundred illustrations. (_in press._) xv. fungi; their nature, influence, and uses. by m. c. cooke, m.a., ll.d. edited by rev. m. j. berkeley, m.a., f.l.s. with illustrations. (_in press._) xvi. optics. by professor lommel, university of erlangen. (_in press._) the international scientific series. fungi: their nature and uses. by m. c. cooke, m.a., ll.d. edited by the rev. m. j. berkeley, m.a., f.l.s. new york: d. appleton and company, and broadway. . preface by the editor. as my name appears on the title-page of this volume, it is necessary that i should exactly state what part i had in its preparation. i had no doubt originally engaged to undertake the work myself; but finding, from multiplicity of engagements and my uncertain health, that i could not accomplish it satisfactorily, i thought the best course i could take was to recommend mr. cooke to the publishers; a gentleman well known, not only in this country, but in the united states. the whole of the work has therefore been prepared by himself, the manuscript and proof sheets being submitted to me from time to time, in which i merely suggested such additions as seemed needful, subjoining occasionally a few notes. as the work is intended for students, the author has had no hesitation in repeating what has been stated in former chapters where it has been thought to prove useful. i have no doubt that the same high character will justly apply to this as to mr. cooke's former publications, and especially to his "handbook of british fungi." m. j. berkeley. sibbertoft, _november , ._ contents. page i. nature of fungi. ii. structure. iii classification iv. uses. v. notable phenomena. vi. the spore and its dissemination. vii. germination and growth. viii. sexual reproduction. ix. polymorphism. x. influences and effects. xi. habitats. xii. cultivation. xiii. geographical distribution. xiv. collection and preservation. index. list of illustrations. fig. page . agaric in process of growth. . section of common mushroom. . sterile cells, basidia, cystidium, from _gomphidius_. . _polyporus giganteus_ (reduced). . _hydnum repandum._ . _calocera viscosa._ . _tremella mesenterica._ . basidia and spores of _phallus_. . basidia and spores of _lycoperdon_. . threads of _trichia_. . _arcyria incarnata_, with portion of threads and spore. . _diachæa elegans._ . _cyathus vernicosus._ . _cyathus_, sporangia and spores. . _asterosporium hoffmanni._ . barren cysts and pseudospores of _lecythea_. . _coleosporium tussilaginis._ . _melampsora salicina_, pseudospores of . _cystopus candidus_, conidia of . _xenodochus carbonarius_, pseudospore. . _phragmidium bulbosum_, pseudospores. . pseudospores of _puccinia_. . _thecaphora hyalina_, pseudospores. . _Æcidium berberidis_, peridia of . _helminthosporium molle_, threads and spores. . _acrothecium simplex._ . _peronospora arenariæ._ . _polyactis cinerea._ . _peziza fuckeliana_, with ascus and sporidia. . _penicillium chartarum._ . _mucor mucedo_, with sporangia. . small portion of _botrytis jonesii_. . section of cup of _ascobolus_. . asci, sporidia, and paraphyses of _ascobolus_. . perithecium of _sphæria_. . _uncinula adunca_, conceptacle with appendages. . _agaricus nudus._ . _scleroderma vulgare_, fr. . _ceuthospora phacidioides._ . _rhopalomyces candidus._ . _mucor caninus._ . _sphæria aquila_, cluster of perithecia. . _morchella gigaspora_, from kashmir. . _cyttaria gunnii_ . spores of agarics . spores of _lactarius_ a. spores of _gomphidius_ . spores of _polyporus_, _boletus_, and _hydnum_. . _diachea elegans_, capellitium of . spore of _hendersonia polycystis_. . spores of _dilophospora graminis_. . spores of _discosia_. . spore of _prosthemium betulinum_. . spore of _stegonosporium cellulosum_. . stylospores of _coryneum disciforme_. . spores of _asterosporium hoffmanni_. . spores of _pestalozzia_. . _bispora monilioides_, concatenate spores . pseudospores of _thecaphora hyalina_. . pseudospores of _puccinia_. . pseudospores of _triphragmium_. . pseudospores of _phragmidium bulbosum_. . winter spores of _melampsora salicina._ . spores of _helicocoryne_. . sporidium of _genea verrucosa_. . alveolate sporidium of _tuber_. . asci, sporidia, and paraphyses of _ascobolus_. . sporidium of _ostreichnion americanum_. . ascus and sporidia of _hypocrea_. . sporidium of _sphæria ulnaspora_. . sporidia of _valsa profusa_. . sporidia of _massaria foedans_. . sporidium of _melanconis bicornis_. . caudate sporidia of _sphæria fimiseda_. . sporidia of _valsa thelebola_. . sporidia of _valsa taleola_. . sporidium of _sporormia intermedia_. . asci and sporidia of _sphæria_ (_pleospora_) _herbarum_. . sporidium of _sphæria putaminum_. . basidia and spores of _exidia spiculosa_. . germinating spore and corpuscles of _dacrymyces_. . germination of _Æcidium euphorbia_. . germinating pseudospores of _coleosporium sonchi_. . germinating pseudospore of _melampsora betulina_. . germinating pseudospore of _uromyce appendiculatus_. . germinating pseudospore of _puccinia moliniæ_. . germinating pseudospore of _triphragmium ulmariæ_. . germinating pseudospore of _phragmidium bulbosum_. . germinating pseudospores of _podisoma juniperi_. . germinating pseudospore of _tilletia caries_. . pseudospore of _ustilago receptaculorum_ in germination, and secondary spores in conjugation. . conidia and zoospores of _cystopus candidus_. . resting spore of _cystopus candidus_ with zoospores. . zygospores of _mucor phycomyces_. . sporidium of _ascobolus_ germinating. . zygospore of _mucor_. . zygospore of _rhizopus_ in different stages. . conjugation in _achlya racemosa_. . conjugation in _peronospora._ . antheridia and oogonium of _peronospora_. . conjugation in _peziza omphalodes_. a. formation of conceptacle in _erysiphe_. . _tilletia caries_ with conjugating cells. . _aspergillus glaucus_ and _eurotium_. . _erysiphe cichoracearum_, receptacle and mycelium. . twig with _tubercularia_ and _nectria_. . section of _tubercularia_ with conidia. . d. _nectria_ with _tubercularia_, ascus and paraphyses. . cells and pseudospores of _Æcidium berberidis_. . cells and pseudospores of _Æcidium graveolens_. . _torrubia militaris_ on pupa of a moth. fungi their nature, uses, influences, etc. i. nature of fungi. the most casual observer of nature recognizes in almost every instance that comes under his notice in every-day life, without the aid of logical definition, the broad distinctions between an animal, a plant, and a stone. to him, the old definition that an animal is possessed of life and locomotion, a plant of life without locomotion, and a mineral deficient in both, seems to be sufficient, until some day he travels beyond the circuit of diurnal routine, and encounters a sponge or a zoophyte, which possesses only one of his supposed attributes of animal life, but which he is assured is nevertheless a member of the animal kingdom. such an encounter usually perplexes the neophyte at first, but rather than confess his generalizations to have been too gross, he will tenaciously contend that the sponge must be a plant, until the evidence produced is so strong that he is compelled to desert his position, and seek refuge in the declaration that one kingdom runs into the other so imperceptibly that no line of demarcation can be drawn between them. between these two extremes of broad distinction, and no distinction, lies the ground occupied by the scientific student, who, whilst admitting that logical definition fails in assigning briefly and tersely the bounds of the three kingdoms, contends that such limits exist so positively, that the universal scientific mind accepts the recognized limit without controversy or contradiction. in like manner, if one kingdom be made the subject of inquiry, the same difficulties will arise. a flowering plant, as represented by a rose or a lily, will be recognized as distinct from a fern, a seaweed, or a fungus. yet there are some flowering plants which, at first sight, and without examination, simulate cryptogams, as, for example, many _balanophoræ_, which the unscientific would at once class with fungi. it is nevertheless true that even the incipient botanist will accurately separate the phanerogams from the cryptogams, and by means of a little more, but still elementary knowledge, distribute the latter amongst ferns, mosses, fungi, lichens, and algæ, with comparatively few exceptions. it is true that between fungi and lichens there exists so close an affinity that difficulties arise, and doubts, and disputations, regarding certain small groups or a few species; but these are the exception, and not the rule. botanists generally are agreed in recognizing the five principal groups of cryptogamia, as natural and distinct. in proportion as we advance from comparison of members of the three kingdoms, through that of the primary groups in one kingdom, to a comparison of tribes, alliances, and orders, we shall require closer observation, and more and more education of the eye to see, and the mind to appreciate, relationships and distinctions. we have already assumed that fungi are duly and universally admitted, as plants, into the vegetable kingdom. but of this fact some have even ventured to doubt. this doubt, however, has been confined to one order of fungi, except, perhaps, amongst the most illiterate, although now the animal nature of the _myxogastres_ has scarcely a serious advocate left. in this order the early condition of the plant is pulpy and gelatinous, and consists of a substance more allied to sarcode than cellulose. de bary insinuated affinities with _amoeba_,[a] whilst tulasne affirmed that the outer coat in some of these productions contained so much carbonate of lime that strong effervescence took place on the application of sulphuric acid. dr. henry carter is well known as an old and experienced worker amongst amoeboid forms of animal life, and, when in bombay, he devoted himself to the examination of the _myxogastres_ in their early stage, and the result of his examinations has been a firm conviction that there is no relationship whatever between the _myxogastres_ and the lower forms of animal life. de bary has himself very much modified, if not wholly abandoned, the views once propounded by him on this subject. when mature, and the dusty spores, mixed with threads, sometimes spiral, are produced, the _myxogastres_ are so evidently close allies of the _lycoperdons_, or puffballs, as to leave no doubt of their affinities. it is scarcely necessary to remark that the presence of zoospores is no proof of animal nature, for not only do they occur in the white rust (_cystopus_), and in such moulds as _peronospora_,[b] but are common in algæ, the vegetable nature of which has never been disputed. there is another equally important, but more complicated subject to which we must allude in this connection. this is the probability of minute fungi being developed without the intervention of germs, from certain solutions. the observations of m. trécul, in a paper laid before the french academy, have thus been summarized:-- . yeast cells may be formed in the must of beer without spores being previously sown. . cells of the same form as those of yeast, but with different contents, arise spontaneously in simple solution of sugar, or to which a little tartrate of ammonia has been added, and these cells are capable of producing fermentation in certain liquids under favourable conditions. . the cells thus formed produce _penicillium_ like the cells of yeast. . on the other hand, the spores of _penicillium_ are capable of being transformed into yeast.[c] the interpretation of this is, that the mould _penicillium_ may be produced from a sugar solution by "spontaneous generation," and without spore or germ of any kind. the theory is, that a molecular mass which is developed in certain solutions or infusions, may, under the influence of different circumstances, produce either animalcules or fungi. "in all these cases, no kind of animalcule or fungus is ever seen to originate from preexisting cells or larger bodies, but always from molecules."[d] the molecules are said to form small masses, which soon melt together to constitute a globular body, from which a process juts out on one side. these are the so-called _torulæ_,[e] which give off buds which are soon transformed into jointed tubes of various diameters, terminating in rows of sporules, _penicillium_, or capsules containing numerous globular seeds, _aspergillus_ (_sic_). this is but another mode of stating the same thing as above referred to by m. trécul, that certain cells, resembling yeast cells (_torula_), are developed spontaneously, and that these ultimately pass through the form of mould called _penicillium_ to the more complex _mucor_ (which the writer evidently has confounded with _aspergillus_, unless he alludes to the ascigerous form of _aspergillus_, long known as _eurotium_). from what is now known of the polymorphism of fungi, there would be little difficulty in believing that cells resembling yeast cells would develop into _penicillium_, as they do in _fact_ in what is called the "vinegar plant," and that the capsuliferous, or higher condition of this mould may be a _mucor_, in which the sporules are produced in capsules. the difficulty arises earlier, in the supposed spontaneous origination of yeast cells from molecules, which result from the peculiar conditions of light, temperature, &c., in which certain solutions are placed. it would be impossible to review all the arguments, or tabulate all the experiments, which have been employed for and against this theory. it could not be passed over in silence, since it has been one of the stirring questions of the day. the great problem how to exclude all germs from the solutions experimented upon, and to keep them excluded, lies at the foundation of the theory. it must ever, as we think, be matter of doubt that all germs were not excluded or destroyed, rather than one of belief that forms known to be developed day by day from germs should under other conditions originate spontaneously. fungi are veritably and unmistakably plants, of a low organization, it is true, but still plants, developed from germs, somewhat analogous, but not wholly homologous, to the seeds of higher orders. the process of fertilization is still obscure, but facts are slowly and gradually accumulating, so that we may hope at some not very distant period to comprehend what as yet are little removed from hypotheses. admitting that fungi are independent plants, much more complex in their relations and development than was formerly supposed, it will be expected that certain forms should be comparatively permanent, that is, that they should constitute good species. here, also, efforts have been made to develop a theory that there are no legitimate species amongst fungi, accepting the terms as hitherto applied to flowering plants. in this, as in allied instances, too hasty generalizations have been based on a few isolated facts, without due comprehension of the true interpretation of such facts and phenomena. polymorphism will hereafter receive special illustration, but meantime it may be well to state that, because some forms of fungi which have been described, and which have borne distinct names as autonomous species, are now proved to be only stages or conditions of other species, there is no reason for concluding that no forms are autonomous, or that fungi which appear and are developed in successive stages are not, in their entirety, good species. instead, therefore, of insinuating that there are no good species, modern investigation tends rather to the establishment of good species, and the elimination of those that are spurious. it is chiefly amongst the microscopic species that polymorphism has been determined. in the larger and fleshy fungi nothing has been discovered which can shake our faith in the species described half a century, or more, ago. in the agarics, for instance, the forms seem to be as permanent and as distinct as in the flowering plants. in fact, there is still no reason to dissent, except to a very limited extent, from what was written before polymorphism was accredited, that, "with a few exceptions only, it may without doubt be asserted that more certain species do not exist in any part of the organized world than amongst fungi. the same species constantly recur in the same places, and if kinds not hitherto detected present themselves, they are either such as are well known in other districts, or species which have been overlooked, and which are found on better experience to be widely diffused. there is nothing like chance about their characters or growth."[f] the parasitism of numerous minute species on living and growing plants has its parallel even amongst phanerogams in the mistletoe and broom-rape and similar species. amongst fungi a large number are thus parasitic, distorting, and in many cases ultimately destroying, their host, burrowing within the tissues, and causing rust and smut in corn and grasses, or even more destructive and injurious in such moulds as those of the potato disease and its allies. a still larger number of fungi are developed from decayed or decaying vegetable matter. these are found in winter on dead leaves, twigs, branches, rotten wood, the remains of herbaceous plants, and soil largely charged with disintegrated vegetables. as soon as a plant begins to decay it becomes the source of a new vegetation, which hastens its destruction, and a new cycle of life commences. in these instances, whether parasitic on living plants or developed on dead ones, the source is still vegetable. but this is not always the case, so that it cannot be predicated that fungi are wholly epiphytal. some species are always found on animal matter, leather, horn, bone, &c., and some affect such unpromising substances as minerals, from which it would be supposed that no nourishment could be obtained, not only hard gravel stones, fragments of rock, but also metals, such as iron and lead, of which more may be said when we come to treat of the habitats of fungi. although in general terms fungi may be described as "hysterophytal or epiphytal mycetals deriving nourishment by means of a mycelium from the matrix,"[g] there are exceptions to this rule with which the majority accord. of the fungi found on animal substances, none are more extraordinary than those species which attack insects. the white mould which in autumn proves so destructive to the common house-fly may for the present be omitted, as it is probably a condition of one of the _saprolegniei_, which some authors include with fungi, and others with algæ. wasps, spiders, moths, and butterflies become enveloped in a kind of mould named _isaria_, which constitutes the conidia of _torrubia_, a genus of club-shaped _sphæriæ_ afterwards developed. some species of _isaria_ and _torrubia_ also affect the larvæ and pupæ of moths and butterflies, converting the whole interior into a mass of mycelium, and fructifying in a clavate head. it has been subject for discussion whether in such instances the fungus commenced its development during the life of the insect, and thus hastened its death, or whether it resulted after death, and was subsequent to the commencement of decay.[h] the position in which certain large moths are found standing on leaves when infested with _isaria_ resembles so closely that of the house-fly when succumbing to _sporendonema muscæ_, would lead to the conclusion that certainly in some cases the insect was attacked by the fungus whilst still living; whilst in the case of buried caterpillars, such as the new zealand or british _hepialus_, it is difficult to decide. whether in life or death in these instances, it is clear that the silk-worm disease _muscardine_ attacks the living insect, and causes death. in the case of the _guêpes végétantes_, the wasp is said to fly about with the fungus partially developed. in all fungi we may recognize a vegetative and a reproductive system: sometimes the first only becomes developed, and then the fungus is imperfect, and sometimes the latter is far more prominent than the former. there is usually an agglomeration of delicate threads, either jointed or not, which are somewhat analogous to the roots of higher plants. these delicate threads permeate the tissues of plants attacked by parasitic fungi, or they run over dead leaves forming whitened patches, formerly bearing the name of _himantia_, but really the mycelium of some species of _marasmius_. if checked or disturbed, the process stops here, and only a mycelium of interwoven threads is produced. in this condition the mycelium of one species so much resembles that of another, that no accurate determination can be made. if the process goes on, this mycelium gives rise to the stem and cap of an agaricoid fungus, completing the vegetative system. this in turn gives origin to a spore-bearing surface, and ultimately the fruit is formed, and then the fungus is complete; no fungus can be regarded as perfect or complete without its reproductive system being developed. in some this is very simple, in others it is as complex. in many of the moulds we have miniature representatives of higher plants in the mycelium or roots, stem, branches, and at length capsules bearing sporidia, which correspond to seeds. it is true that leaves are absent, but these are sometimes compensated by lateral processes or abortive branchlets. a tuft of mould is in miniature a forest of trees. although such a definition may be deemed more poetic than accurate, more figurative than literal, yet few could believe in the marvellous beauty of a tuft of mould if they never saw it as exhibited under the microscope. in such a condition no doubt could be entertained of its vegetable character. but there is a lower phase in which these plants are sometimes encountered; they may consist only of single cells, or strings of cells, or threads of simple structure floating in fluids. in such conditions only the vegetative system is probably developed, and that imperfectly, yet some have ventured to give names to isolated cells, or strings of cells, or threads of mycelium, which really in themselves possess none of the elements of correct classification--the vegetative system, even, being imperfect, and consequently the reproductive is absent. as already observed, no fungus is perfect without fruit of some kind, and the peculiarities of structure and development of fruit form one of the most important elements in classification. to attempt, therefore, to give names to such imperfect fragments of undeveloped plants is almost as absurd as to name a flowering plant from a stray fragment of a root-fibril accidentally cast out of the ground--nay, even worse, for identification would probably be easier. it is well to protest at all times against attempts to push science to the verge of absurdity; and such must be the verdict upon endeavours to determine positively such incomplete organisms as floating cells, or hyaline threads which may belong to any one of fifty species of moulds, or after all to an alga. this leads us to remark, in passing, that there are forms and conditions under which fungi may be found when, fructification being absent--that is, the vegetative system alone developed--they approximate so closely to algæ that it is almost impossible to say to which group the organisms belong. finally, it is a great characteristic of fungi in general that they are very rapid in growth, and rapid in decay. in a night a puffball will grow prodigiously, and in the same short period a mass of paste may be covered with mould. in a few hours a gelatinous mass of _reticularia_ will pass into a bladder of dust, or a _coprinus_ will be dripping into decay. remembering this, mycophagists will take note that a fleshy fungus which may be good eating at noon may undergo such changes in a few hours as to be anything but good eating at night. many instances have been recorded of the rapidity of growth in fungi; it may also be accepted as an axiom that they are, in many instances, equally as rapid in decay. the affinity between lichens and fungi has long been recognized to its full and legitimate extent by lichenologists and mycologists.[i] in the "introduction to cryptogamic botany," it was proposed to unite them in one alliance, under the name of _mycetales_, in the same manner as the late dr. lindley had united allied orders under alliances in his "vegetable kingdom;" but, beyond this, there was no predisposition towards the theory since propounded, and which, like all new theories, has collected a small but zealous circle of adherents. it will be necessary briefly to summarize this theory and the arguments by which it is supported and opposed, inasmuch as it is intimately connected with our subject. as recently as , professor schwendener first propounded his views,[j] and then briefly and vaguely, that all and every individual lichen was but an algal, which had collected about it a parasitic fungal growth, and that those peculiar bodies which, under the name of _gonidia_, were considered as special organs of lichens, were only imprisoned algæ. in language which the rev. j. m. crombie[k] describes as "pictorial," this author gave the general conclusion at which he had arrived, as follows:--"as the result of my researches, all these growths are not simple plants, not individuals in the usual sense of the term; they are rather colonies, which consist of hundreds and thousands of individuals, of which, however, only one acts as master, while the others, in perpetual captivity, provide nourishment for themselves and their master. this master is a fungus of the order _ascomycetes_, a parasite which is accustomed to live upon the work of others; its slaves are green algæ, which it has sought out, or indeed caught hold of, and forced into its service. it surrounds them, as a spider does its prey, with a fibrous net of narrow meshes, which is gradually converted into an impenetrable covering. while, however, the spider sucks its prey and leaves it lying dead, the fungus incites the algæ taken in its net to more rapid activity; nay, to more vigorous increase." this hypothesis, ushered upon the world with all the prestige of the professor's name, was not long in meeting with adherents, and the cardinal points insisted upon were-- st. that the generic relationship of the coloured "gonidia" to the colourless filaments which compose the lichen thallus, had only been assumed, and not proved; nd. that the membrane of the gonidia was chemically different from the membrane of the other tissues, inasmuch as the first had a reaction corresponding to that of algæ, whilst the second had that of fungi; rd. that the different forms and varieties of gonidia corresponded with parallel types of algæ; th. that as the germination of the spore had not been followed further than the development of a hypothallus, it might be accounted for by the absence of the essential algal on which the new organism should become parasitic; th. that there is a striking correspondence between the development of the fruit in lichens and in some of the sporidiiferous fungi (_pyrenomycetes_). these five points have been combated incessantly by lichenologists, who would really be supposed by ordinary minds to be the most practically acquainted with the structure and development of these plants, in opposition to the theorists. it is a fact which should have some weight, that no lichenologist of repute has as yet accepted the theory. in dr. e. bornet[l] came to the aid of schwendener, and almost exhausted the subject, but failed to convince either the practised lichenologist or mycologist. the two great points sought to be established are these, that what we call lichens are compound organisms, not simple, independent vegetable entities; and that this compound organism consists of unicellular algæ, with a fungus parasitic upon them. the coloured gonidia which are found in the substance, or thallus of lichens, are the supposed algæ; and the cellular structure which surrounds, encloses, and imprisons the gonidia is the parasitic fungus, which is parasitic on something infinitely smaller than itself, and which it entirely and absolutely isolates from all external influences. dr. bornet believed himself to have established that every gonidium of a lichen may be referred to a species of algæ, and that the connection between the hypha and gonidia is of such a nature as to exclude all possibility of the one organ being produced by the other. this he thinks is the only way in which it can be accounted for that the gonidia of diverse lichens should be almost identical. dr. nylander, in referring to this hypothesis of an imprisoned algal,[m] writes: "the absurdity of such an hypothesis is evident from the very consideration that it cannot be the case that an organ (gonidia) should at the same time be a parasite on the body of which it exercises vital functions; for with equal propriety it might be contended that the liver or the spleen constitutes parasites of the mammiferæ. parasite existence is autonomous, living upon a foreign body, of which nature prohibits it from being at the same time an organ. this is an elementary axiom of general physiology. but observation directly made teaches that the green matter originally arises within the primary chlorophyll- or phycochrom-bearing cellule, and consequently is not intruded from any external quarter, nor arises in any way from any parasitism of any kind. the cellule at first is observed to be empty, and then, by the aid of secretion, green matter is gradually produced in the cavity and assumes a definite form. it can, therefore, be very easily and evidently demonstrated that the origin of green matter in lichens is entirely the same as in other plants." on another occasion, and in another place, the same eminent lichenologist remarks,[n] as to the supposed algoid nature of gonidia--"that such an unnatural existence as they would thus pass, enclosed in a prison and deprived of all autonomous liberty, is not at all consonant with the manner of existence of the other algæ, and that it has no parallel in nature, for nothing physiologically analogous occurs anywhere else. krempelhuber has argued that there are no conclusive reasons against the assumption that the lichen-gonidia may be self-developed organs of the lichen proper rather than algæ, and that these gonidia can continue to vegetate separately, and so be mistaken for unicellular algæ." in this th. fries seems substantially to concur. but there is one strong argument, or rather a repetition of an argument already cited, placed in a much stronger light, which is employed by nylander in the following words:--"so far are what are called algæ, according to the turbid hypothesis of schwendener, from constituting true algæ, that on the contrary it may be affirmed that they have a lichenose nature, whence it follows that these pseudo-algæ are in a systematic arrangement to be referred rather to the lichens, and that the class of algæ hitherto so vaguely limited should be circumscribed by new and truer limits." as to another phase in this question, there are, as krempelhuber remarks, species of lichens which in many countries do not fructify, and whose propagation can only be carried on by means of the soredia, and the hyphæ of such could in themselves alone no more serve for propagation than the hyphæ from the pileus or stalk of an agaric, while it is highly improbable that they could acquire this faculty by interposition of a foreign algal. on the other hand he argues: "it is much more conformable to nature that the gonidia, as self-developed organs of the lichens, should, like the spores, enable the hyphæ proceeding from them to propagate the individual."[o] a case in point has been adduced[p] in which gonidia were produced by the hypha, and the genus _emericella_,[q] which is allied to _husseia_ in the _trichogastres_, shows a structure in the stem exactly resembling _palmella botryoides_ of greville, and to what occurs in _synalyssa_. _emericella_, with one or two other genera, must, however, be considered as connecting _trichogastres_ with lichens, and the question cannot be considered as satisfactorily decided till a series of experiments has been made on the germination of lichen spores and their relation to free algæ considered identical with gonidia. mr. thwaites was the first to point out[r] the relation of the gonidia in the different sections of lichens to different types of supposed algæ. the question cannot be settled by mere _à priori_ notions. it is, perhaps, worthy of remark that in _chionyphe carteri_ the threads grow over the cysts exactly as the hypha of lichens is represented as growing over the gonidia. recently, dr. thwaites has communicated his views on one phase of this controversy,[s] which will serve to illustrate the question as seen from the mycological side. as is well known, this writer has had considerable experience in the study of the anatomy and physiology of all the lower cryptogamia, and any suggestion of his on such a subject will at least commend itself to a patient consideration. "according to our experience," he writes, "i think parasitic fungi invariably produce a sad effect upon the tissues they fix themselves upon or in. these tissues become pale in colour, and in every respect sickly in appearance. but who has ever seen the gonidia of lichens the worse for having the 'hypha' growing amongst them? these gonidia are always in the plumpest state, and with the freshest, healthiest colour possible. cannot it enter into the heads of these most patient and excellent observers, that a cryptogamic plant may have two kinds of tissue growing side by side, without the necessity of one being parasitic upon the other, just as one of the higher plants may have half a dozen kinds of tissue making up its organization? the beautifully symmetrical growth of the same lichens has seemed to me a sufficient argument against one portion being parasitic upon another, but when we see all harmony and robust health, the idea that one portion is subsisting parasitically upon another appears to me to be a perfect absurdity." it appears to us that a great deal of confusion and a large number of errors which creep into our modern generalizations and hypotheses, may be traced to the acceptance of analogies for identities. how many cases of mistaken identity has the improvement of microscopes revealed during the past quarter of a century. this should at least serve as a caution for the future. apart, however, from the "gonidia," whatever they may be, is the remainder of the lichen a genuine fungus? nylander writes, "the anatomical filamentose elements of lichens are distinguished by various characters from the hyphæ of fungi. they are firmer, elastic, and at once present themselves in the texture of lichens. on the other hand, the hyphæ of fungi are very soft, they possess a thin wall, and are not at all gelatinous, while they are immediately dissolved by the application of hydrate of potash, &c."[t] our own experience is somewhat to the effect, that there are some few lichens which are doubtful as to whether they are fungi or lichens, but, in by far the majority of cases, there is not the slightest difficulty in determining, from the peculiar firmness and elasticity of the tissues, minute peculiarities which the practised hand can detect rather than describe, and even the general character of the fruit that they differ materially from, though closely allied to fungi. we have only experience to guide us in these matters, but that is something, and we have no experience in fungi of anything like a _cladonia_, however much it may resemble a _torrubia_ or _clavaria_. we have _pezizæ_ with a subiculum in the section _tapesia_, but the veriest tyro would not confound them with species of _parmelia_. it is true that a great number of lichens, at first sight, and casually, resemble species of the _hysteriacei_, but it is no less strange than true, that lichenologists and mycologists know their own sufficiently not to commit depredations on each other. contributions are daily being made to this controversy, and already the principal arguments on both sides have appeared in an english dress,[u] hence it will be unnecessary to repeat those which are modifications only of the views already stated, our own conclusions being capable of a very brief summary: that lichens and fungi are closely related the one to the other, but that they are not identical; that the "gonidia" of lichens are part of the lichen-organization, and consequently are not algæ, or any introduced bodies; that there is no parasitism; and that the lichen thallus, exclusive of gonidia, is wholly unknown amongst fungi. the rev. j. m. crombie has therefore our sympathies in the remark with which his summary of the gonidia controversy closes, in which he characterizes it as a "sensational romance of lichenology," of the "unnatural union between a captive algal damsel and a tyrant fungal master." [a] de bary, "des myxomycètes," in "ann. des sci. nat." sér. xi. p. ; "bot. zeit." xvi. p. . de bary's views are controverted by m. wigand in "ann. des sci. nat." sér. (bot.) xvi. p. , &c. [b] de bary, "recherches sur le developpement de quelques champignons parasites," in "ann. des sci. nat." sér. (bot.) xx. p. . [c] "popular science review," vol. viii. p. . [d] dr. j. h. bennett "on the molecular origin of infusoria," p. . [e] they have, however, no close relation with real _torulæ_, such as _t. monilioides_, &c.--cooke's _handbook_, p. . [f] berkeley's "outlines of british fungology," p. . [g] berkeley's "introduction to cryptogamic botany," p. . [h] gray, "notices of insects which form the basis of fungoid parasites." [i] on the relation or connection between fungi and lichens, h. c. sorby has some pertinent remarks in his communication to the royal society on "comparative vegetable chromatology" (proceedings royal society, vol. xxi. , p. ), as one result of his spectroscopic examinations. he says, "such being the relations between the organs of reproduction and the foliage, it is to some extent possible to understand the connection between parasitic plants like fungi, which do not derive their support from the constructive energy of their fronds, and those which are self-supporting and possess true fronds. in the highest classes of plants the flowers are connected with the leaves, more especially by means of xanthophyll and yellow xanthophyll, whereas in the case of lichens the apothecia contain very little, if any, of those substances, but a large amount of the lichenoxanthines so characteristic of the class. looking upon fungi from this chromatological point of view, they bear something like the same relation to lichens that the petals of a leafless parasitic plant would bear to the foliage of one of normal character--that is to say, they are, as it were, the coloured organs of reproduction of parasitic plants of a type closely approaching that of lichens, which, of course, is in very close, if not in absolute agreement with the conclusions drawn by botanists from entirely different data." [j] schwendener, "untersuchungen über den flechtenthallus." [k] crombie (j. m.) "on the lichen-gonidia question," in "popular science review" for july, . [l] bornet, (e.), "recherches sur les gonidies des lichens," in "ann. des sci. nat." , sér. vol. xvii. [m] nylander, "on the algo-lichen hypothesis," &c., in "grevillea," vol. ii. ( ), no. , p. . [n] in regensburg "flora," , p. . [o] rev. j. m. crombie, in "popular science review," july, . [p] berkeley's "introduction to cryptogamic botany," p. , fig. _a._ [q] berkeley's "introduction," p. , fig. . [r] "annals and magazine of natural history," april, . [s] in "gardener's chronicle" for , p. . [t] "grevillea," vol ii. p. , in note. [u] w. archer, in "quart. journ. micr. sci." vol. xiii. p. ; vol. xiv. p. . translation of schwendener's "nature of the gonidia of lichens," in same journal, vol. xiii. p. . ii. structure. without some knowledge of the structure of fungi, it is scarcely possible to comprehend the principles of classification, or to appreciate the curious phenomena of polymorphism. yet there is so great a variety in the structure of the different groups, that this subject cannot be compressed within a few paragraphs, neither do we think that this would be desired if practicable, seeing that the anatomy and physiology of plants is, in itself, sufficiently important and interesting to warrant a rather extended and explicit survey. in order to impart as much practical utility as possible to this chapter, it seems advisable to treat some of the most important and typical orders and suborders separately, giving prominence to the features which are chiefly characteristic of those sections, following the order of systematists as much as possible, whilst endeavouring to render each section independent to a considerable extent, and complete in itself. some groups naturally present more noteworthy features than others, and will consequently seem to receive more than their proportional share of attention, but this seeming inequality could scarcely have been avoided, inasmuch as hitherto some groups have been more closely investigated than others, are more intimately associated with other questions, or are more readily and satisfactorily examined under different aspects of their life-history. [illustration: fig. .--agaric in process of growth.] agaricini.--for the structure that prevails in the order to which the mushroom belongs, an examination of that species will be almost sufficient. here we shall at once recognize three distinct parts requiring elucidation, viz. the rooting slender fibres that traverse the soil, and termed the _mycelium_, or spawn, the stem and cap or pileus, which together constitute what is called the _hymenophore_, and the plates or gills on the under surface of the cap, which bear the _hymenium_. the earliest condition in which the mushroom can be recognized as a vegetable entity is in that of the "spawn" or mycelium, which is essentially an agglomeration of vegetating spores. its normal form is that of branched, slender, entangled, anastomosing, hyaline threads. at certain privileged points of the mycelium, the threads seem to be aggregated, and become centres of vertical extension. at first only a small nearly globose budding, like a grain of mustard seed, is visible, but this afterwards increases rapidly, and other similar buddings or swellings appear at the base.[a] these are the young hymenophore. as it pushes through the soil, it gradually loses its globose form, becomes more or less elongated, and in this condition a longitudinal section shows the position of the future gills in a pair of opposite crescent-shaped darker-coloured spots near the apex. the dermal membrane, or outer skin, seems to be continuous over the stem and the globose head. at present, there is no external evidence of an expanded pileus and gills; a longitudinal section at this stage shows that the gills are being developed, that the pileus is assuming its cap-like form, that the membrane stretching from the stem to the edge of the young pileus is separating from the edge of the gills, and forming a _veil_, which, in course of time, will separate below and leave the gills exposed. when, therefore, the mushroom has arrived almost at maturity, the pileus expands, and in this act the veil is torn away from the margin of the cap, and remains for a time like a collar around the stem. fragments of the veil often remain attached to the margin of the pileus, and the collar adherent to the stem falls back, and thenceforth is known as the _annulus_ or ring. we have in this stage the fully-developed hymenophore,--the stem with its ring, supporting an expanded cap or pileus, with gills on the under surface bearing the hymenium.[b] a longitudinal section cut through the pileus and down the stem, gives the best notion of the arrangement of the parts, and their relation to the whole. by this means it will be seen that the pileus is continuous with the stem, that the substance of the pileus descends into the gills, and that relatively the substance of the stem is more fibrous than that of the pileus. in the common mushroom the ring is very distinct surrounding the stem, a little above the middle, like a collar. in some agarics the ring is very fugacious, or absent altogether. the form of the gills, their mode of attachment to the stem, their colour, and more especially the colour of the spores, are all very important features to be attended to in the discrimination of species, since they vary in different species. the whole substance of the agaric is cellular. a longitudinal slice from the stem will exhibit under the microscope delicate tubular cells, the general direction of which is lengthwise, with lateral branches, the whole interlacing so intimately that it is difficult to trace any individual thread very far in its course. it will be evident that the structure is less compact as it approaches the centre of the stem, which in many species is hollow. the _hymenium_ is the spore-bearing surface, which is exposed or naked, and spread over the gills. these plates are covered on all sides with a delicate membrane, upon which the reproductive organs are developed. if it were possible to remove this membrane in one entire piece and spread it out flat, it would cover an immense surface, as compared with the size of the pileus, for it is plaited or folded like a lady's fan over the whole of the gill-plates, or lamellæ, of the fungus.[c] if the stem of a mushroom be cut off close to the gills, and the cap laid upon a sheet of paper, with the gills downwards, and left there for a few hours, when removed a number of dark radiating lines will be deposited upon the paper, each line corresponding with the interstices between one pair of gills. these lines are made up of spores which have fallen from the hymenium, and, if placed under the microscope, their character will at once be made evident. if a fragment of the hymenium be also submitted to a similar examination, it will be found that the whole surface is studded with spores. the first peculiarity which will be observed is, that these spores are almost uniformly in groups of four together. the next feature to be observed is, that each spore is borne upon a slender stalk or sterigma, and that four of these sterigmata proceed from the apex of a thicker projection, from the hymenium, called a _basidium_, each basidium being the supporter of four sterigmata, and each sterigma of a spore.[d] a closer examination of the hymenium will reveal the fact that the basidia are accompanied by other bodies, often larger, but without sterigmata or spores; these have been termed _cystidia_, and their structure and functions have been the subject of much controversy.[e] both kinds of bodies are produced on the hymenium of most, if not all, the agaricini. [illustration: fig. .--section of common mushroom.] [illustration: fig. .--_a._ sterile cells. _b._ basidia. _c._ cystidium. from _gomphidius_ (de seynes).] the basidia are usually expanded upwards, so as to have more or less of a clavate form, surmounted by four slender points, or tubular processes, each supporting a spore; the contents of these cells are granular, mixed apparently with oleaginous particles, which communicate through the slender tubes of the spicules with the interior of the spores. corda states that, although only one spore is produced at a time on each sporophore, when this falls away others are produced in succession for a limited period. as the spores approach maturity, the connection between their contents and the contents of the basidia diminishes and ultimately ceases. when the basidium which bears mature spores is still well charged with granular matter, it may be presumed that the production of a second or third series of spores is quite possible. basidia exhausted entirely of their contents, and which have become quite hyaline, may often be observed. the cystidia are usually larger than the basidia, varying in size and form in different species. they present the appearance of large sterile cells, attenuated upwards, sometimes into a slender neck. corda was of opinion that these were male organs, and gave them the name of _pollinaires_. hoffmann has also described[f] both these organs under the names of _pollinaria_ and _spermatia_, but does not appear to recognize in them the sexual elements which those names would indicate; whilst de seynes suggests that the cystidia are only organs returned to vegetative functions by a sort of hypertrophy of the basidia.[g] this view seems to be supported by the fact that, in the section _pluteus_ and some others, the cystidia are surmounted by short horns resembling sterigmata. hoffmann has also indicated[h] the passage of cystidia into basidia. the evidence seems to be in favour of regarding the cystidia as barren conditions of basidia. there are to be found upon the hymenium of agarics a third kind of elongated cells, called by corda[i] basilary cells, and by hoffmann "sterile cells," which are either equal in size or smaller than the basidia, with which also their structure agrees, excepting in the development of spicules. these are the "proper cells of the hymenium" of léveillé, and are simply the terminal cells of the gill structure--cells which, under vigorous conditions, might be developed into basidia, but which are commonly arrested in their development. as suggested by de seynes, the hymenium seems to be reduced to great simplicity, "one sole and self-same organ is the basis of it; according as it experiences an arrest of development, as it grows and fructifies, or as it becomes hypertrophied, it gives us a paraphyse, a basidium, or a cystidium--in other terms, atrophied basidium, normal basidium and hypertrophied basidium; these are the three elements which form the hymenium."[j] the only reproductive organs hitherto demonstrated in agarics are the spores, or, as sometimes called, from their method of production, _basidiospores_.[k] these are at first colourless, but afterwards acquire the colour peculiar to the species. in size and form they are, within certain limits, exceedingly variable, although form and size are tolerably constant in the same species. at first all are globose; as they mature, the majority are ovoid or elliptic; some are fusiform, with regularly attenuated extremities. in _hygrophorus_ they are rather irregular, reniform, or compressed in the middle. sometimes the external surface is rough with more or less projecting warts. some mycologists are of opinion that the covering of the spore is double, consisting of an _exospore_ and an _endospore_, the latter being very fine and delicate. in other orders the double coating of the spore has been demonstrated. when the spore is coloured, the external membrane alone appears to possess colour, the endospore being constantly hyaline. it may be added here, that in this order the spore is simple and unicellular. in _lactarius_ and _russula_ the trama, or inner substance, is vesicular. true latex vessels occur occasionally in _agaricus_, though not filled with milk as in _lactarius_. [illustration: fig. .--_polyporus giganteus_ (reduced).] polyporei.--in this order the gill plates are replaced by tubes or pores, the interior of which is lined by the hymenium; indications of this structure having already been exhibited in some of the lower _agaricini._ in many cases the stem is suppressed. the substance is fleshy in _boletus_, but in _polyporus_ the greater number of species are leathery or corky, and more persistent. the basidia, spicules, and quaternate spores agree with those of _agaricini_.[l] in fact there are no features of importance which relate to the hymenium in any order of _hymenomycetes_ (the _tremellini_ excepted) differing from the same organ in _agaricini_, unless it be the absence of _cystidia_. [illustration: fig. .--_hydnum repandum._] hydnei.--instead of pores, in this order the hymenium is spread over the surface of spines, prickles, or warts.[m] auricularini.--the hymenium is more or less even, and in-- clavariei the whole fungus is club-shaped, or more or less intricately branched, with the hymenium covering the outer surface. [illustration: fig. .--_calocera viscosa._] [illustration: fig. .--_tremella mesenterica._] tremellini.--in this order we have a great departure from the character of the substance, external appearance, and internal structure of the other orders in this family. here we have a gelatinous substance, and the form is lobed, folded, convolute, often resembling the brain of some animal. the internal structure has been specially illustrated by m. tulasne,[n] through the common species, _tremella mesenterica_. this latter is of a fine golden yellow colour, and rather large size. it is uniformly composed throughout of a colourless mucilage, with no appreciable texture, in which are distributed very fine, diversely branched and anastomosing filaments. towards the surface, the ultimate branches of this filamentous network give birth, both at their summits and laterally, to globular cells, which acquire a comparatively large size. these cells are filled with a protoplasm, to which the plant owes its orange colour. when they have attained their normal dimensions, they elongate at the summit into two, three, or four distinct, thick, obtuse tubes, into which the protoplasm gradually passes. the development of these tubes is unequal and not simultaneous, so that one will often attain its full dimensions, equal, perhaps, to three or four times the diameter of the generative cell, whilst the others are only just appearing. by degrees, as each tube attains its full size, it is attenuated into a fine point, the extremity of which swells into a spheroidal cell, which ultimately becomes a spore. sometimes these tubes, or spicules, send out one or two lateral branches, each terminated by a spore. these spores (about · to · _mm._ diameter) are smooth, and deposit themselves, like a fine white dust, on the surface of the _tremella_ and on its matrix. m. léveillé[o] was of opinion that the basidia of the tremellini were monosporous, whilst m. tulasne has demonstrated that they are habitually tetrasporous, as in other of the hymenomycetes. although agreeing in this, they differ in other features, especially in the globose form of the basidia, mode of production of the spicules, and, finally, the division of the basidia into two, three, or four cells by septa which cut each other in their axis. this division precedes the growth of the spicules. it is not rare to see these cells, formed at the expense of an unilocular basidium, become partly isolated from each other; in certain cases they seem to have separated very early, they then become larger than usual, and are grouped on the same filament so as to represent a kind of buds. this phenomenon usually takes place below the level of the fertile cells, at a certain depth in the mucous tissue of the _tremella_. besides the reproductive system here described, tulasne also made known the existence of a series of filaments which produce spermatia. these filaments are often scattered and confused with those which produce the basidia, and not distinguishable from them in size or any other apparent characteristic, except the manner in which their extremities are branched in order to produce the spermatia. at other times the spermatia-bearing surface covers exclusively certain portions of the fungus, especially the inferior lobes, imparting thereto a very bright orange colour, which is communicated by the layer of spermatia, unmixed with spores. these spots retain their bright colour, while the remainder of the plant becomes pale, or covered with a white dust. the spermatia are very small, spherical, and smooth, scarcely equalling · _mm._ they are sessile, sometimes solitary, sometimes three or four together, on the slightly swollen extremities of certain filaments of the weft of the fungus.[p] tulasne found it impossible to make these corpuscles germinate, and in all essential particulars they agreed with the spermatia found in ascomycetous fungi. in the genus _dacrymyces_, the same observer found the structure to have great affinity with that of _tremella_. the spores in the species examined were of a different form, being oblong, very obtuse, slightly curved (· - · × · - · _mm._), at first unilocular, but afterwards triseptate. the basidia are cylindrical or clavate, filled with coloured granular matter; each of these bifurcates at the summit, and gradually elongates into two very open branches, which are attenuated above, and ultimately each is crowned by a spore. there are to be found also in the species of this genus globose bodies, designated "sporidioles" by m. léveillé, which tulasne took considerable care to trace to their source. he thus accounts for them:--each of the cells of the spore emits exteriorly one or several of these corpuscles, supported on very short and very slender pedicels, which remain after the corpuscles are detached from them, new corpuscles succeeding the first as long as there remains any plastic matter within the spore. the pedicels are not all on the same plane; they are often implanted all on the same, and oftenest on the convex side of the reproductive body. these corpuscles, though placed under the most favourable conditions, never gave the least sign of vegetation, and tulasne concludes that they are spermatia, analogous to those produced in _tremella_. the spores which produce spermatia are not at all apt to germinate, whilst those which did not produce spermatia germinated freely. hence it would appear that, although all spores seem to be perfectly identical, they have not all the same function. the same observer detected also amongst specimens of the _dacrymyces_ some of a darker and reddish tint, always bare of spores or spermatia on the surface, and these presented a somewhat different structure. where the tissue had turned red it was sterile, the constituent filaments, ordinarily colourless, and almost empty of solid matter, were filled with a highly-coloured protoplasm; they were of less tenuity, more irregularly thick, and instead of only rarely presenting partitions, and remaining continuous, as in other parts of the plant, were parcelled out into an infinity of straight or curved pieces, angular and of irregular form, especially towards the surface of the fungus, where they compose a sort of pulp, varying in cohesion according to the dry or moist condition of the atmosphere. all parts of these reddish individuals seemed more or less infected with this disintegration, the basidia divided by transverse diaphragms into several cylindrical or oblong pieces, which finally become free. transitional conditions were also observed in mixed individuals. this sterile condition is called by tulasne "gemmiparous," and he believes that it has ere now given origin to one or more spurious species, and misled mycologists as to the real structure of perfect and fruitful _dacrymyces_. phalloidei.--in this order the hymenium is at first enclosed within a sort of peridium or universal volva, maintaining a somewhat globose or egg-shape. this envelope consists of an outer and inner coat of somewhat similar texture, and an intermediate gelatinous layer, often of considerable thickness. when a section is made of the fungus, whilst still enclosed in the volva, the hymenium is found to present numerous cavities, in which basidia are developed, each surmounted by spicules (four to six) bearing oval or oblong spores.[q] it is very difficult to observe the structure of the hymenium in this order, on account of its deliquescent nature. as the hymenium approaches maturity, the volva is ruptured, and the plant rapidly enlarges. in _phallus_, a long erect cellular stem bears the cap, over which the hymenium is spread, and this expands enormously after escaping the restraint of the volva. soon after exposure, the hymenium deliquesces into a dark mucilage, coloured by the minute spores, which drips from the pileus, often diffusing a most loathsome odour for a considerable distance. in _clathrus_, the receptacle forms a kind of network. in _aseröe_, the pileus is beautifully stellate. in many the attractive forms would be considered objects of beauty, were it not for their deliquescence, and often foetid odour.[r] [illustration: fig. .--basidia and spores of _phallus_.] podaxinei.--this is a small but very curious group of fungi, in which the peridium resembles a volva, which is more or less confluent with the surface of the pileus. they assume hymenomycetal forms, some of them looking like agarics, boleti, or species of _hydnum_, with deformed gills, pores, or spines; in _montagnites_, in fact, the gill structure is very distinct. the spores are borne in definite clusters on short pedicels in such of the genera as have been examined.[s] hypogÆi.--these are subterranean puff-balls, in which sometimes a distinct peridium is present; but in most cases it consists entirely of an external series of cells, continuous with the internal structure, and cannot be correctly estimated as a peridium. the hymenium is sinuous and convolute, bearing basidia with sterigmata and spores in the cavities. sometimes the cavities are traversed by threads, as in the _myxogastres_. the spores are in many instances beautifully echinulate, sometimes globose, at others elongated, and produced in such numbers as to lead to the belief that their development is successive on the spicules. when fully matured, the peridia are filled with a dusty mass of spores, so that it is scarcely possible in this condition to gain any notion of the structure. this is, indeed, the case with nearly all _gasteromycetes_. the hypogæous fungi are curiously connected with _phalloidei_ by the genus _hysterangium_. [illustration: fig. .--basidia and spores of _lycoperdon_.] trichogastres.[t]--in their early stages the species contained in this group are not gelatinous, as in the _myxogastres_, but are rather fleshy and firm. very little has been added to our knowledge of structure in this group since and , when one of us wrote to the following effect:--if a young plant of _lycoperdon coelatum_ or _l. gemmatum_ be cut through and examined with a common pocket lens, it will be found to consist of a fleshy mass, perforated in every direction with minute elongated, reticulated, anastomosing, labyrinthiform cavities. the resemblance of these to the tubes of _boleti_ in an early stage of growth, first led me to suspect that there must be some very close connection between them. if a very thin slice now be taken, while the mass is yet firm, and before there is the slightest indication of a change of colour, the outer stratum of the walls of these cavities is found to consist of pellucid obtuse cells, placed parallel to each other like the pile of velvet, exactly as in the young hymenium of an agaric or boletus. occasionally one or two filaments cross from one wall to another, and once i have seen these anastomose. at a more advanced stage of growth, four little spicules are developed at the tips of the sporophores, all of which, as far as i have been able to observe, are fertile and of equal height, and on each of these spicules a globose spore is seated. it is clear that we have here a structure identical with that of the true hymenomycetes, a circumstance which accords well with the fleshy habit and mode of growth. there is some difficulty in ascertaining the exact structure of the species just noticed, as the fruit-bearing cells, or sporophores, are very small, and when the spicules are developed the substance becomes so flaccid that it is difficult to cut a proper slice, even with the sharpest lancet. i have, however, satisfied myself as to the true structure by repeated observations. but should any difficulty arise in verifying it in the species in question, there will be none in doing so in _lycoperdon giganteum_. in this species the fructifying mass consists of the same sinuous cavities, which are, however, smaller, so that the substance is more compact, and i have not seen them traversed by any filaments. in an early stage of growth, the surface of the hymenium, that is of the walls of the cavities, consists of short threads composed of two or three articulations, which are slightly constricted at the joints, from which, especially from the last, spring short branchlets, often consisting of a single cell. sometimes two or more branchlets spring from the same point. occasionally the threads are constricted without any dissepiments, the terminal articulations are obtuse, and soon swell very much, so as greatly to exceed in diameter those on which they are seated. when arrived at their full growth, they are somewhat obovate, and produce four spicules, which at length are surmounted each with a globose spore. when the spores are fully developed, the sporophores wither, and if a solution of iodine be applied, which changes the spores to a rich brown, they will be seen still adhering by their spicules to the faded sporophores. the spores soon become free, but the spicule often still adheres to them; but they are not attached to the intermingled filaments. in _bovista plumbea_, the spores have very long peduncles.[u] as in the _hymenomycetes_, the prevailing type of reproductive organs consisted of quaternary spores borne on spicules; so in _gasteromycetes_, the prevailing type, in so far as it is yet known, is very similar, in some cases nearly identical, consisting of a definite number of minute spores borne on spicules seated on basidia. in a very large number of genera, the minute structure and development of the fructification (beyond the mature spores) is almost unknown, but from analogy it may be concluded that a method prevails in a large group like the _myxogastres_ which does not differ in essential particulars from that which is known to exist in other groups. the difficulties in the way of studying the development of the spores in this are far greater than in the previous order. [illustration: fig. .--_a._ threads of _trichia_. _b._ portion further magnified, with spores. _c._ portion of spinulose thread.] myxogastres.--at one time that celebrated mycologist, professor de bary, seemed disposed to exclude this group from the vegetable kingdom altogether, and relegate them to a companionship with amoeboid forms. but in more recent works he seems to have reconsidered, and almost, if not entirely, abandoned, that disposition. these fungi, mostly minute, are characterized in their early stages by their gelatinous nature. the substance of which they are then composed bears considerable resemblance to sarcode, and, did they never change from this, there might be some excuse for doubting as to their vegetable nature; but as the species proceed towards maturity they lose their mucilaginous texture, and become a mass of spores, intermixed with threads, surrounded by a cellular peridium. take, for instance, the genus _trichia_, and we have in the matured specimens a somewhat globose peridium, not larger than a mustard seed, and sometimes nearly of the same colour; this ultimately ruptures and exposes a mass of minute yellow spherical spores, intermixed with threads of the same colour.[v] these threads, when highly magnified, exhibit in themselves a spiral arrangement, which has been the basis of some controversy, and in some species these threads are externally spinulose. the chief controversy on these threads has been whether the spiral markings are external or internal, whether caused by twisting of the thread or by the presence of an external or internal fibre. the spiral appearance has never been called in question, only the structure from whence it arises, and this, like the striæ of diatoms, is very much an open question. mr. currey held that the spiral appearance may be accounted for by supposing the existence of an accurate elevation in the wall of the cell, following a spiral direction from one end of the thread to the other. this supposition would, he thinks, accord well with the optical appearances, and it would account exactly for the undulations of outline to which he alludes. he states that he had in his possession a thread of _trichia chrysosperma_, in which the spiral appearance was so manifestly caused by an elevation of this nature, in which it is so clear that no internal spiral fibre exists, that he did not think there could be a doubt in the mind of any person carefully examining it with a power of diameters that the cause of the spiral appearance was not a spiral fibre. in _arcyria_, threads of a different kind are present; they mostly branch and anastomose, and are externally furnished with prominent warts or spines, which mr. currey[w] holds are also arranged in a spiral manner around the threads. in other myxogastres, threads are also present without any appreciable spiral markings or spines. in the mature condition of these fungi, they so clearly resemble, and have such close affinities with, the trichogastres that one is led almost to doubt whether it was not on hasty grounds, without due examination or consideration, that proposals were made to remove them from the society of their kindred. [illustration: fig. .--_arcyria incarnata_, with portion of threads and spore, magnified.] very little is known of the development of the spores in this group; in the early stages the whole substance is so pulpy, and in the latter so dusty, whilst the transition from one to the other is so rapid, that the relation between the spores and threads, and their mode of attachment, has never been definitely made out. it has been supposed that the spinulose projections from the capillitium in some species are the remains of pedicels from which, the spores have fallen, but there is no evidence beyond this supposition in its favour, whilst on the other hand, in _stemonitis_, for instance, there is a profuse interlacing capillitium, and no spines have been detected. in order to strengthen the supposition, spines should be more commonly present. the threads, or capillitium, form a beautiful reticulated network in _stemonitis_, _cribraria_, _diachæa_, _dictydium_, &c. in _spumaria_, _reticularia_, _lycogala_, &c., they are almost obsolete.[x] in no group is the examination of the development of structure more difficult, for the reasons already alleged, than in the myxogastres. [illustration: fig. .--_diachæa elegans._] [illustration: fig. .--_cyathus vernicosus._] nidulariacei.--this small group departs in some important particulars from the general type of structure present in the rest of the gasteromycetes.[y] the plants here included may be described under three parts, the mycelium, the peridium, and the sporangia. the mycelium is often plentiful, stout, rigid, interlacing, and coloured, running over the surface of the soil, or amongst the vegetable débris on which the fungi establish themselves. the peridia are seated upon this mycelium, and in most instances are at length open above, taking the form of cups, or beakers. these organs consist of three strata of tissue varying in structure, the external being fibrous, and sometimes hairy, the interior cellular and delicate, the intermediate thick and at length tough, coriaceous, and resistant. when first formed, the peridia are spherical, they then elongate and expand, the mouth being for some time closed by a veil, or diaphragm, which ultimately disappears. within the cups lentil-shaped bodies are attached to the base and sides by elastic cords. these are the sporangia. each of these has a complicated structure; externally there is a filamentous tunic, composed of interlaced fibres, sometimes called the peridiole; beneath this is the cortex, of compact homogenous structure, then follows a cellular thicker stratum, bearing, towards the centre of the sporangia, delicate branched threads, or sporophores, on which, at their extremities, the ovate spores are generated, sometimes in pairs, but normally, it would seem that they are quaternary on spicules, the threads being true basidia. the whole structure is exceedingly interesting and peculiar, and may be studied in detail in tulasne's memoir on this group. sphÆronemei.--in this very large and, within certain limits, variable order, there is but little of interest as regards structure, which is not better illustrated elsewhere; as, for instance, some sort of perithecium is always present, but this can be better studied in the _sphæriacei_. the spores are mostly very minute, borne on delicate sporophores, which originate from the inner surface of the perithecia, but the majority of so-called species are undoubtedly conditions of sphæriaceous fungi, either spermatogonia or pycnidia, and are of much more interest when studied in connection with the higher forms to which they belong.[z] probably the number of complete and autonomous species are very few. [illustration: fig. .--_cyathus._ _a._ sporangium. _b._ section. _c._ sporophore. _d._ spores.] melanconiei.--here, again, are associated together a great number of what formerly were considered good species of fungi, but which are now known to be but conditions of other forms. one great point of distinction between these and the preceding is the absence of any true perithecium, the spores being produced in a kind of spurious receptacle, or from a sort of stroma. the spores are, as a rule, larger and much more attractive than in _sphæronemei_, and, in some instances, are either very fine, or very curious. under this head we may mention the multiseptate spores of _coryneum_; the tri-radiate spores of _asterosporium_; the curious crested spores of _pestalozzia_; the doubly crested spores of _dilophospora_; and the scarcely less singular gelatinous coated spores of _cheirospora_. in all cases the fructification is abundant, and the spores frequently ooze out in tendrils, or form a black mass above the spurious receptacle from which they issue.[a] [illustration: fig. .--_asterosporium hoffmanni._] torulacei.--in this order there seems at first to be a considerable resemblance to the _dematiei_, except that the threads are almost obsolete, and the plant is reduced to chains of spores, without trace of perithecium, investing cuticle, or definite stroma. sometimes the spores are simple, in other cases septate, and in _sporochisma_ are at first produced in an investing cell. in most cases simple threads at length become septate, and are ultimately differentiated into spores, which separate at the joints when fully mature. [illustration: fig. .--barren cysts and pseudospores of _lecythea_.] [illustration: fig. .--_coleosporium tussilaginis_, lev.] [illustration: fig. .--_melampsora salicina._] cÆomacei.--of far greater interest are the coniomycetous parasites on living plants. the present order includes those in which the spore[b] is reduced to a single cell; and here we may observe that, although many of them are now proved to be imperfect in themselves, and only forms or conditions of other fungals, we shall write of them here without regard to their duality. these originate, for the most part, within the tissues of living plants, and are developed outwards in pustules, which burst through the cuticle. the mycelium penetrates the intercellular passages, and may sometimes be found in parts of the plants where the fungus does not develop itself. there is no proper excipulum or peridium, and the spores spring direct from a more compacted portion of the mycelium, or from a cushion-like stroma of small cells. in _lecythea_, the sub-globose spores are at first generated at the tips of short pedicels, from which they are ultimately separated; surrounding these spores arise a series of barren cells, or cysts, which are considerably larger the true spores, and colourless, while the spores are of some shade of yellow or orange.[c] in _trichobasis_, the spores are of a similar character, sub-globose, and at first pedicellate; but there are no surrounding cysts, and the colour is more usually brown, although sometimes yellow. in _uredo_, the spores are at first generated singly, within a mother cell; they are globose, and either yellow or brown, without any pedicel. in _coleosporium_, there are two kinds of spores, those of a pulverulent nature, globose, which are sometimes produced alone at the commencement of the season, and others which originate as an elongated cell; this becomes septate, and ultimately separates at the joints. during the greater part of the year, both kinds of spores are to be found in the same pustule. in _melampsora_, the winter spores are elongated and wedge-shaped, compacted together closely, and are only matured during winter on dead leaves; the summer spores are pulverulent and globose, being, in fact, what were until recently regarded as species of _lecythea_. in _cystopus_, the spores are sub-globose, or somewhat angular, generated in a moniliform manner, and afterwards separating at the joints. the upper spore is always the oldest, continuous production of spores going on for some time at the base of the chain. under favourable conditions of moisture, each of these spores, or conidia, as de bary terms them, is capable of producing within itself a number of zoospores;[d] these ultimately burst the vesicle, move about by the aid of vibratile cilia, and at last settle down to germinate. besides these, other reproductive bodies are generated upon the mycelium, within the tissues of the plant, in the form of globose oogonia, or resting spores, which, when mature, also enclose great numbers of zoospores. similar oogonia are produced amongst the _mucedines_ in the genus _peronospora_, to which de bary considers _cystopus_ to be closely allied. at all events, this is a peculiarity of structure and development not as yet met with in any other of the _cæomacei_. in _uromyces_ is the nearest approach to the _pucciniæi_; in fact, it is _puccinia_ reduced to a single cell. the form of spore is usually more angular and irregular than in _trichobasis_, and the pedicel is permanent. it may be remarked here, that of the foregoing genera, many of the species are not autonomous that have hitherto been included amongst them. this is especially true of _lecythea_, _trichobasis_, and, as it now appears, of _uromyces_.[e] [illustration: fig. .--_cystopus candidus._] [illustration: fig. .--_xenodochus carbonarius._] [illustration: fig. .--_phragmidium bulbosum._] pucciniÆi.--this group differs from the foregoing chiefly in having septate spores. the pustules, or sori, break through the cuticle in a similar manner, and here also no true peridium is present. in _xenodochus_, the highest development of joints is reached, each spore being composed of an indefinite number, from ten to twenty cells. with it is associated an unicellular yellow uredine, of which it is a condition. probably, in every species of the _pucciniæi_, it may hereafter be proved, as it is now suspected, that an unicellular uredine precedes or is associated with it, forming a condition, or secondary form of fruit of that species. many instances of that kind have already been traced by de bary,[f] tulasne, and others, and some have been a little too rashly surmised by their followers. in _phragmidium_, the pedicel is much more elongated than in _xenodochus_, and the spore is shorter, with fewer and a more definite number of cells for each species; mr. currey is of opinion that each cell of the spore in _phragmidium_ has an inner globose cell, which he caused to escape by rupture of the outer cell wall as a sphæroid nucleus,[g] leading to the inference that each cell has its own individual power of germination and reproduction. in _triphragmium_, there are three cells for each spore, two being placed side by side, and one superimposed. in one species, however, _triphragmium deglubens_ (north american), the cells are arranged as in _phragmidium_, so that this represents really a tricellular _phragmidium_, linking the present with the latter genus. in _puccinia_ the number of species is by far the most numerous; in this genus the spores are uniseptate, and, as in all the _pucciniæi_, the peduncles are permanent. there is great variability in the compactness of the spores in the sori, or pulvinules. in some species, the sori are so pulverulent that the spores are as readily dispersed as in the uredines, in others they are so compact as to be separated from each other with great difficulty. as might be anticipated, this has considerable effect on the contour of the spores, which in pulverulent species are shorter, broader, and more ovate than in the compact species. if a section of one of the more compact sori be made, it will be seen that the majority of the spores are side by side, nearly at the same level, their apices forming the external surface of the sori, but it will not be unusual to observe smaller and younger spores pushing up from the hymenial cells, between the peduncles of the elder spores, leading to the inference that there is a succession of spores produced in the same pulvinule. in _podisoma_, a rather anomalous genus, the septate spores are immersed in a gelatinous stratum, and some authors have imagined that they have an affinity with the tremellini, but this affinity is more apparent than real. the phenomena of germination, and their relations to _roestelia_, if substantiated, establish their claim to a position amongst the _pucciniæi_.[h] it seems to us that _gymnosporangium_ does not differ generically from _podisoma_. in a recently-characterized species, _podisoma ellisii_, the spores are bi-triseptate. this is, moreover, peculiar from the great deficiency in the gelatinous element. in another north american species, called _gymnosporangium biseptatum_, ellis, which is distinctly gelatinous, there are similar biseptate spores, but they are considerably broader and more obtuse. in other described species they are uniseptate. [illustration: fig. .--pseudospores of _puccinia_.] ustilaginei.--these fungi are now usually treated as distinct from the _cæomacei_, to which they are closely related.[i] they are also parasitic on growing plants, but the spores are usually black or sooty, and never yellow or orange; on an average much smaller than in the _cæomacei_. in _tilletia_, the spores are spherical and reticulated, mixed with delicate threads, from whence they spring. in the best known species, _tilletia caries_, they constitute the "bunt" of wheat. the peculiarities of germination will be alluded to hereafter. in _ustilago_, the minute sooty spores are developed either on delicate threads or in compacted cells, arising first from a sort of semi-gelatinous, grumous stroma. it is very difficult to detect any threads associated with the spores. the species attack the flowers and anthers of composite and polygonaceous plants, the leaves, culms, and germen of grasses, &c., and are popularly known as "smuts." in _urocystis_ and _thecaphora_, the spores are united together into sub-globose bodies, forming a kind of compound spore. in some species of _urocystis_, the union which subsists between them is comparatively slight. in _thecaphora_, on the contrary, the complex spore, or agglomeration of spores, is compact, being at first apparently enclosed in a delicate cyst. in _tuburcinia_, the minute cells are compacted into a hollow sphere, having lacunæ communicating with the interior, and often exhibiting the remains of a pedicel. [illustration: fig. .--_thecaphora hyalina._] [illustration: fig. .--_Æcidium berberidis._] Æcidiacei.--this group differs from the foregoing three groups prominently in the presence of a cellular peridium, which encloses the spores; hence some mycologists have not hesitated to propose their association with the gasteromycetes, although every other feature in their structure seems to indicate a close affinity with the _cæomacei_. the pretty cups in the genus _Æcidium_ are sometimes scattered and sometimes collected in clusters, either with spermogonia in the centre or on the opposite surface. the cups are usually white, composed of regularly arranged bordered cells at length bursting at the apex, with the margins turned back and split into radiating teeth. the spores are commonly of a bright orange or golden yellow, sometimes white or brownish, and are produced in chains, or moniliform strings, slightly attached to each other,[j] and breaking off at the summit at the same time that they continue to be produced at the base, so that for some time there is a successive production of spores. the spermogonia are not always readily detected, as they are much smaller than the peridia, and sometimes precede them. the spermatia are expelled from the lacerated and fringed apices, and are very minute and colourless. in _roestelia_ the peridia are large, growing in company, and splitting longitudinally in many cases, or by a lacerated mouth. in most instances, the spores are brownish, but in a splendid species from north america (_roestelia aurantiaca_, peck), recently characterized, they are of a bright orange. if oersted is correct in his observations, which await confirmation, these species are all related to species of _podisoma_ as a secondary form of fruit.[k] in the _roestelia_ of the pear-tree, as well as in that of the mountain ash, the spermogonia will be found either in separate tufts on discoloured spots, or associated with the _roestelia_, in _peridermium_ there is very little structural difference from _roestelia_, and the species are all found on coniferous trees. in _endophyllum_, the peridia are immersed in the succulent substance of the matrix; whilst in _graphiola_, there is a tougher and withal double peridium, the inner of which forms a tuft of erect threads resembling a small brush.[l] [illustration: fig. .--_helminthosporium molle._] hyphomycetes.--the predominant feature in the structure of this order has already been intimated to consist in the development of the vegetative system under the form of simple or branched threads, on which the fruit is generated. the common name of mould is applied to them perhaps more generally than to other groups, although the term is too vague, and has been too vaguely applied to be of much service in giving an idea of the characteristics of this order. leaving the smaller groups, and confining ourselves to the _dematiei_ and the _mucedines_, we shall obtain some notion of the prevalent structure. in the former the threads are more or less carbonized, in the latter nearly colourless. one of the largest genera in _dematiei_ is _helminthosporium_. it appears on decaying herbaceous plants, and on old wood, forming effused black velvety patches. the mycelium, of coloured jointed threads, overlays and penetrates the matrix; from this arise erect, rigid, and usually jointed threads, of a dark brown, nearly black colour at the base, but paler towards the apex. in most cases these threads have an externally cortical layer, which imparts rigidity; usually from the apex, but sometimes laterally, the spores are produced. although sometimes colourless, these are most commonly of some shade of brown, more or less elongated, and divided transversely by few or many septa. in _helminthosporium smithii_, the spores much exceed the dimensions of the threads;[m] in other species they are smaller. in _dendryphium_, the threads and spores are very similar, except that the threads are branched at their apex, and the spores are often produced one at the end of another in a short chain.[n] in _septosporium_ again, the threads and spores are similar, but the spores are pedicellate, and attached at or near the base; whilst in _acrothecium_, with similar threads and spores, the latter are clustered together at the apex of the threads. in _triposporium_, the threads are similar, but the spores are tri-radiate; and in _helicoma_, the spores are twisted spirally. thus, we might pass through all the genera to illustrate this chief feature of coloured, septate, rather rigid, and mostly erect threads, bearing at some point spores, which in most instances are elongated, coloured, and septate. [illustration: fig. .--_acrothecium simplex._] [illustration: fig. .--_peronospora arenariæ._] mucedines.--here, on the other hand, the threads, if coloured at all, are still delicate, more flexuous, with much thinner walls, and never invested with an external cortical layer. one of the most important and highly developed genera is _peronospora_, the members of which are parasitic upon and destructive of living vegetables. it is to this genus that the mould of the too famous potato disease belongs. professor de bary has done more than any other mycologist in the investigation and elucidation of this genus; and his monograph is a masterpiece in its way.[o] he was, however, preceded by mr. berkeley, and more especially by dr. montagne, by many years in elucidation of the structure of the flocci and conidia in a number of species.[p] in this genus, there is a delicate mycelium, which penetrates the intercellular passages of living plants, giving rise to erect branched threads, which bear at the tips of their ultimate ramuli, sub-globose, ovate, or elliptic spores, or, as de bary terms them--conidia. deeply seated on the mycelium, within the substance of the foster plant, other reproductive bodies, called oogonia, originate. these are spherical, more or less warted and brownish, the contents of which become differentiated into vivacious zoospores, capable, when expelled, of moving in water by the aid of vibratile cilia. a similar structure has already been indicated in _cystopus_, otherwise it is rare in fungi, if the _saprolegniei_ be excluded. in _botrytis_ and in _polyactis_, the flocci and spores are similar, but the branches of the threads are shorter and more compact, and the septa are more common and numerous; the oogonia also are absent. de bary has selected _polyactis cinerea_, as it occurs on dead vine leaves, to illustrate his views of the dualism which he believes himself to have discovered in this species. "it spreads its mycelium in the tissue which is becoming brown," he writes, "and this shows at first essentially the same construction and growth as that of the mycelium filaments of _aspergillus_." on the mycelium soon appear, besides those which are spread over the tissue of the leaves, strong, thick, mostly fasciculate branches, which stand close to one another, breaking forth from the leaf and rising up perpendicularly, the conidia-bearers. they grow about _mm._ long, divide themselves, by successively rising partitions, into some prominent cylindrical linked cells, and then their growth is ended, and the upper cell produces near its point three to six branches almost standing rectangularly. of these the under ones are the longest, and they again shoot forth from under their ends one or more still shorter little branches. the nearer they are to the top, the shorter are the branches, and less divided; the upper ones are quite branchless, and their length scarcely exceeds the breadth of the principal stem. thus a system of branches appears, upon which, on a small scale, a bunch of grapes is represented. all the twigs soon end their growth; they all separate their inner space from the principal stem, by means of a cross partition placed close to it. all the ends, and also that of the principal stem, swell about the same time something like a bladder, and on the upper free half of each swelling appear again, simultaneously, several fine protuberances, close together, which quickly grow to little oval bladders filled with protoplasm, and resting on their bearers with a sub-sessile, pedicellate, narrow basis, and which at length separate themselves through a partition as in _aspergillus_. the detached cells are the conidia of our fungus; only one is formed on each stalk. when the formation is completed in the whole of the panicle, the little branches which compose it are deprived of their protoplasm in favour of the conidia; it is the same with the under end of the principal stem, the limits of which are marked by a cross partition. the delicate wall of these parts shrinks up until it is unrecognizable; all the conidia of the panicle approach one another to form an irregular grape-like bunch, which rests loosely on the bearer, and from which it easily falls away as dust. if they be brought into water they fall off immediately; only the empty, shrivelled, delicate skins are to be found on the branch which bore them, and the places on which they are fixed to the principal stem clearly appear as round circumscribed hilums, generally rather arched towards the exterior. the development of the main stem is not ended here. it remains solid and filled with protoplasm as far as the portion which forms the end through its conidia. its end, which is to be found among these pieces, becomes pointed after the ripening of the first panicle, pushes the end of the shrivelled member on one side, and grows to the same length as the height of one or two panicles, and then remains still, to form a second panicle similar to the first. this is later equally perfoliated as the first, then a third follows, and thus a large number of panicles are produced after and over one another on the same stem. in perfect specimens, every perfoliated panicle hangs loosely to its original place on the surface of the stem, until by shaking or the access of water to it, it falls immediately into the single conidia, or the remains of branches, and the already-mentioned oval hilums are left behind. naturally, the stem becomes longer by every perfoliation; in luxuriant specimens the length can reach that of some lines. its partition is already, by the ripening of the first panicle from the beginning of its foundation, strong and brown; it is only colourless at the end which is extending, and in all new formations. during all these changes the filament remains either unbranched, except as regards the transient panicles, or it sends out here and there, at the perfoliated spots, especially from the lower ones, one or two strong branches, standing opposite one another and resembling the principal stem. [illustration: fig. .--_polyactis cinerea._ _a._ apex of hypha.] the mycelium, which grows so exuberantly in the leaf, often brings forth many other productions, which are called _sclerotia_, and are, according to their nature, a thick bulbous tissue of mycelium filaments. their formation begins with the profuse ramification of the mycelium threads in some place or other; generally, but not always, in the veins of the leaf; the intertwining twigs form an uninterrupted cavity, in which is often enclosed the shrivelling tissue of the leaf. the whole body swells to a greater thickness than that of the leaf, and protrudes on the surface like a thickened spot. its form varies from circular to fusiform; its size is also very unequal, ranging between a few lines and about half a millimetre in its largest diameter. at first it is colourless, but afterwards its outer layers of cells become round, of a brown or black colour, and it is surrounded by a black rind, consisting of round cells, which separate it from the neighbouring tissue. the tissue within the rind remains colourless; it is an entangled uninterrupted tissue of fungus filaments, which gradually obtain very solid, hard, cartilaginous coats. the sclerotium, which ripens as the rind becomes black, loosens itself easily from the place of its formation, and remains preserved after the latter is decayed. [illustration: fig. .--_peziza fuckeliana._ _a._ natural size. _b._ section enlarged. _c._ ascus and sporidia.] the sclerotia are, here as in many other fungi, biennial organs, designed to begin a new vegetation after a state of apparent quietude, and to send forth special fruit-bearers. they may in this respect be compared to the bulbs and perennial roots of under shrubs. the usual time for the development of the sclerotia is late in the autumn, after the fall of the vine leaves. as long as the frost does not set in, new ones continually spring up, and each one attains to ripeness in a few days. if frost appears, it can lie dry a whole year, without losing its power of development. this latter commences when the sclerotium is brought into contact with damp ground during the usual temperature of our warmer seasons. if this occur soon, at the latest some weeks after it is ripe, new vegetation grows very quickly, generally after a few days; in several parts the colourless filaments of the inner tissue begin to send out clusters of strong branches, which, breaking through the black rind, stretch themselves up perpendicularly towards the surface, separate from one another, and then take all the characteristics of the conidia-bearers. many such clusters can be produced on one sclerotium, so that soon the greater part of the surface is covered by filamentous conidia-bearers with their panicles. the colourless tissue of the sclerotium disappears in the same degree as the conidia-bearers grow, and at last the black rind remains behind empty and shrivelled. if we bring, after many months, for the first time, the ripe sclerotium, in damp ground, in summer or autumn, after it has ripened, the further development takes place more slowly, and in an essentially different form. it is true that from the inner tissue numerous filamentous branches shoot forth at the cost of this growing fascicle, and break through the black rind, but its filaments remain strongly bound, in an almost parallel situation, to a cylindrical cord, which for a time lengthens itself and spreads out its free end to a flat plate-like disc. this is always formed of strongly united threads, ramifications of the cylindrical cord. on the free upper surface of the disc, the filaments shoot forth innumerable branches, which, growing to the same height, thick and parallel with one another, cover the before-named disc. some remain narrow and cylindrical, are very numerous, and produce fine hairs (paraphyses); others, also very numerous, take the form of club-like ampulla cells, and each one forms in its interior eight free swimming oval spores. those ampulla cells are sporidiiferous asci. after the spores have become ripe, the free point of the utricle bursts, and the spores are scattered to a great distance by a mechanism which we will not here further describe. new ampullas push themselves between those which are ripening and withering; a disc can, under favourable circumstances, always form new asci for weeks at a time. the number of the already described utricle-bearers is different, according to the size of the sclerotium; smaller specimens usually produce only one, larger two to four. the size is regulated by that of the sclerotia, and ranges, in full-grown specimens, between one and more millimetres for the length of the stalk, and a half to three (seldom more) millimetres for the breadth of the disc.[q] for some time the conidia form, belonging to the mucedines, has been known as _botrytis cinerea_ (or _polyactis cinerea_). the compact mycelium, or sclerotium, as an imperfect fungus, bore the name of _sclerotium echinatum_, whilst to the perfect and cup-like form has been given the name of _peziza fuckeliana_. we have reproduced de bary's life-history of this mould here, as an illustration of structure in the _mucedines_, but hereafter we shall have to write of similar transformations when treating of polymorphism. the form of the threads, and the form and disposition of the spores, vary according to the genera of which this order is composed. in _oidium_ the mostly simple threads break up into joints. many of the former species are now recognized as conditions of _erysiphe_. in _aspergillus_, the threads are simple and erect, with a globose head, around which are clustered chains of simple spores. in _penicillium_, the lower portion of the threads is simple, but they are shortly branched at the apex, the branches being terminated by necklaces of minute spores. in _dactylium_, the threads are branched, but the spores are collected in clusters usually, and are moreover septate. in other genera similar distinctions prevail. these two groups of black moulds and white moulds are the noblest, and contain the largest number of genera and species amongst the _hyphomycetes_. there is, however, the small group of _isariacei_, in which the threads are compacted, and a semblance of such hymenomycetal forms as _clavaria_ and _pterula_ is the result, but it is doubtful if this group contains many autonomous species. in another small group, the _stilbacei_, there is a composite character in the head, or receptacle,[r] and in the stem when the latter is present. many of these, again, as _tubercularia_, _volutella_, _fusarium_, &c., contain doubtful species. in _sepedoniei_ and _trichodermacei_, the threads are reduced to a minimum, and the spores are such a distinctive element that through these groups the _hyphomycetes_ are linked with the _coniomycetes_. these groups, however, are not of sufficient size or importance to demand from us, in a work of this character, anything more than the passing allusion which we have given to them. [illustration: fig. .--_penicillium chartarum_, cooke.] we come now to consider the structure in the sporidiifera, in which the fructifying corpuscles or germs, whether called spores or sporidia, are generated within certain privileged cysts, usually in definite numbers. in systematic works, these are included under two orders, the _physomycetes_ and the _ascomycetes_. the former of these consists of cyst-bearing moulds, and from their nearest affinity to the foregoing will occupy the first place. [illustration: fig. .--_mucor mucedo_, with three sporangia. _a._ portion of frill with sporangiola.] physomycetes include, especially amongst the _mucorini_, many most interesting and instructive species for study, which even very lately have occupied the attention of continental mycologists. most of these phenomena are associated more or less with reproduction, and as such will have to be adverted to again, but there are points in the structure which can best be alluded to here. again taking professor de bary's researches as our guide,[s] we will illustrate this by the common _mucor mucedo_: if we bring quite fresh horse-dung into a damp confined atmosphere, for example, under a bell-glass, there appears on its surface, after a few days, an immense white mildew. upright strong filaments of the breadth of a hair raise themselves over the surface, each of them soon shows at its point a round little head, which gradually becomes black, and a closer examination shows us that in all principal points it perfectly agrees with the sporangia of other species. each of these white filaments is a sporangia-bearer. they spring from a mycelium which is spread in the dung, and appear singly upon it. certain peculiarities in the form of the sporangium, and the little long cylindrical spores, which, when examined separately, are quite flat and colourless, are characteristic of the species. if the latter be sown in a suitable medium, for example, in a solution of sugar, they swell, and shoot forth germinating utricles, which quickly grow to mycelia, which bear sporangia. this is easily produced on the most various organic bodies, and _mucor mucedo_ is therefore found spontaneously on every substratum which is capable of nourishing mildew, but on the above-named the most perfect and exuberant specimens are generally to be found. the sporangia-bearers are at first always branchless and without partitions. after the sporangium is ripe, cross partitions in irregular order and number often appear in the inner space, and on the upper surface branches of different number and size, each of which forms a sporangium at its point. the sporangia which are formed later are often very similar, but sometimes very different, to those which first appeared, because their partition is very thick and does not fall to pieces when it is ripe, but irregularly breaks off, or remains entire, enclosing the spores, and at last falls to the ground, when the fungus withers. the cross partition which separates the sporangia from its bearers is in those which are first formed (which are always relatively thicker sporangia) very strongly convex, while those which follow later are often smaller, and in little weak specimens much less arched, and sometimes quite straight. after a few days, similar filaments generally show themselves on the dung between the sporangia-bearers, which appear to the naked eye to be provided with delicate white frills. where such an one is to be found, two to four rectangular expanding little branches spring up to the same height round the filament. each of these, after a short and simple process, branch out into a furcated form; the furcations being made in such a manner that the ends of the branch at last so stand together that their surface forms a ball. finally, each of the ends of a branch swells to a little round sporangium, which is limited by a partition (called sporangiolum, to distinguish it from the larger ones), in which some, generally four, spores are formed in the manner already known. when the sporangiola are alone, they have such a peculiar appearance, with their richly-branched bearers, that they can be taken for something quite different to the organs of the _mucor mucedo_, and were formerly not considered to belong to it. that they really belong to the _mucor_ is shown by the principal filament which it bears, not always, but very often, ending with a large sporangium, which is characteristic of the _mucor mucedo_; it is still more evident if we sow the spores of the sporangiolum, for, as it germinates, a mycelium is developed, which, near a simple bearer, can form large sporangia, and those form sporangiola, the first always considerably preponderating in number, and very often exclusively. if we examine a large number of specimens, we find every possible middle form between the simple or less branched sporangia-bearers and the typical sporangiola frills; and we arrive at last at the conclusion simply to place the latter among the varieties of form which the sporangia-bearer of the _mucor mucedo_ shows, like every other typical organic form within certain limits. on the other hand, propagation organs, differing from those of the sporangia and their products, belong to _mucor mucedo_, which may be termed conidia. on the dung (they are rare on any other substance) these appear at the same time, or generally somewhat later, than the sporangia-bearers, and are not unlike those to the naked eye. in a more accurate examination, they appear different; a thicker, partition-less filament rises up and divides itself, generally three-forked, at the length of one millimetre, into several series of branchlets. the forked branches of the last series bear under their points, which are mostly capillary, short erect little ramuli, and these, with which the ends of the principal branches articulate on their somewhat broad tops, several spores and conidia, near one another; about fifteen to twenty are formed at the end of each little ramulus. the peculiarities and variations which so often appear in the ramification need not be discussed here. after the articulation of the conidia, their bearers sink together by degrees, and are quite destroyed. the ripe conidia are round like a ball, their surface is scarcely coloured, and almost wholly smooth. these conidioid forms were at first described as a separate species under the name of _botrytis jonesii_. how, then, do they belong to the _mucor_?[t] that they appear gregariously is as little proof of an original relation to one another, here as elsewhere. attempts to prove that the conidia and sporangia-bearers originate on one and the same mycelium filament may possibly hereafter succeed. till now this has not been the case, and he who has ever tried to disentangle the mass of filaments which exuberantly covers the substratum of a _mucor_ vegetation, which has reached so far as to form conidia, will not be surprised that all attempts have hitherto proved abortive. the suspicion of the connection founded on the gregariously springing up, and external resemblance, is fully justified, if we sow the conidia in a suitable medium, for example, in a solution of sugar. they here germinate and produce a mycelium which exactly resembles that of the _mucor mucedo_, and, above all, they produce in profusion the typical sporangia of the same on its bearers. the latter are till now alone reproductions of conidia-bearers, and have never been observed on mycelia which have grown out of conidia. [illustration: fig. .--small portion of _botrytis jonesii_.] these phenomena of development appear in the _mucor_ when it dwells on a damp substance, which must naturally contain the necessary nourishment for it, and is exposed to the atmospheric air. its mycelium represents at first strong branched utricles without partitions; the branches are of the higher order, mostly divided into rich and very fine-pointed ramuli. in old mycelium, and also in the sporangia-bearers, the contents of which are mostly used for the formation of spores, and the substratum of which is exhausted for our fungus, short stationary pieces, filled with protoplasm, are very often formed into cells through partitions in order to produce spores, that is, grow to a new fruitful mycelium. these cells are called gemmules, brooding cells, and resemble such vegetable buds and sprouts of foliaceous plants which remain capable of development after the organs of vegetation are dead, in order to grow, under suitable circumstances, to new vegetating plants, as, for example, the bulbs of onions, &c. if we bring a vegetating mycelium of _mucor mucedo_ into a medium which contains the necessary nourishment for it, but excluded from the free air, the formation of sporangia takes place very sparingly or not at all, but that of gemmules is very abundant. single interstitial pieces of the ramuli, or even whole systems of branches, are quite filled with a rich greasy protoplasm; the short pieces and ends are bound by partitions which form particular, often tun-like or globular cells; the longer ones are changed, through the formation of cross partitions, into chains of similar cells; the latter often attain by degrees strong, thick walls, and their greasy contents often pass into innumerable drops of a very regular globular form and of equal size. similar appearances show themselves after the sowing of spores, which are capable of germinating in the medium already described, from which the air is excluded. either short germinating utricles shoot forth, which soon form themselves into rows of gemmules, or the spores swell to large round bladders filled with protoplasm, and shoot forth on various parts of their surface innumerable protuberances, which, fixing themselves with a narrow basis, soon become round vesiculate cells, and on which the same sprouts which caused their production are repeated, formations which remind us of the fungus of fermentation called globular yeast. among all the known forms of gemmules we find a variety which are intermediate, all of which show, when brought into a normal condition of development, the same proportion, and the same germination, as those we first described. we have detailed rather at length the structure and development of one of the most common of the mucors, which will serve as an illustration of the order. other distinctions there may be which are of more interest as defining the limits of genera, except such as may be noticed when we come to write more specially of reproduction. ascomycetes.--passing now to the _ascomycetes_, which are especially rich in genera and species, we must first, and but superficially, allude to _tuberacei_, an order of sporidiiferous fungi of subterranean habit, and rather peculiar structure.[u] in this order an external stratum of cells forms a kind of perithecium, which is more or less developed in different genera. this encloses the hymenium, which is sinuous, contorted, and twisted, often forming lacunæ. the hymenium in some genera consists of elongated, nearly cylindrical asci, enclosing a definite number of sporidia; in the true truffles and their immediate allies, the asci are broad sacs, containing very large and beautiful, often coloured, sporidia. these latter have either a smooth, warted, spinulose, or lacunose epispore, and, as will be seen from the figures in tulasne's monograph,[v] or those in the last volume of corda's great work,[w] are attractive microscopical objects. in some cases, it is not difficult to detect paraphyses, but in others they would seem to be entirely absent. a comparatively large number have been discovered and recorded in great britain,[x] but of those none are more suitable for study of general structure than the ordinary truffle of the markets. the structure of the remaining ascomycetes can be studied under two groups, _i.e._, the fleshy ascomycetes, or, as they have been termed, the discomycetes, and the hard, or carbonaceous ascomycetes, sometimes called the pyrenomycetes. neither of these names gives an accurate idea of the distinctions between the two groups, in the former of which the discoid form is not universal, and the latter contains somewhat fleshy forms. but in the discomycetes the hymenium soon becomes more or less exposed, and in the latter it is enclosed in a perithecium. the discomycetes are of two kinds, the pileate and the cup-shaped. of the pileate such a genus as _gyromitra_ or _helvella_ is, in a certain sense, analogous to the agarics amongst _hymenomycetes_, with a superior instead of an inferior hymenium, and enclosed, not naked, spores. again, _geoglossum_ is somewhat analogous to _clavaria_. amongst the cup-shaped, _peziza_ is an ascomycetous _cyphella_. but these are perhaps more fanciful than real analogies. recently boudier has examined one group of the cup-shaped discomycetes, the _ascobolei_, and, by making a somewhat free use of his memoir,[y] we may arrive at a general idea of the structure in the cupulate discomycetes. they present themselves at first under the form of a small rounded globule, and almost entirely cellular. this small globule, the commencement of the receptacle, is not long in increasing, preserving its rounded form up to the development of the asci. at this period, under the influence of the rapid growth of these organs, it soon produces at its summit a fissure of the external membrane, which becomes a more marked depression in the marginate species. the receptacle thus formed increases rapidly, becomes plane, more convex, or more or less undulated at the margin, if at all of large size. fixed to the place where it is generated by some more or less abundant mycelioid filaments, the receptacle becomes somewhat cup-shaped and either stipitate or sessile, composed of the receptacle proper and the hymenium. [illustration: fig. .--section of cup of _ascobolus_. _a._ external cells. _b._ secondary layer. _c._ subhymenial tissue (janczenski).] the receptacle proper comprehends the subhymenial tissue, the parenchyma, and the external membrane. the subhymenial tissue is composed of small compact cells, forming generally a more coloured and dense stratum, the superior cells of which give rise to the asci and paraphyses. the parenchyma is seated beneath this, and is generally of interlaced filaments, of a looser consistency than the preceding, united by intermediate cellules. the external membrane, which envelopes the parenchyma, and limits the hymenium, differs from the preceding by the cells often being polyhedric, sometimes transverse, and united together, and sometimes separable. externally it is sometimes smooth, and sometimes granular or hairy. the hymenium is, however, the most, important part, consisting of ( ) the paraphyses, ( ) the asci, and sometimes ( ) an investing mucilage. the asci are always present, the paraphyses are sometimes rare, and the mucilage in many cases seems to be entirely wanting. the paraphyses, which are formed at the first commencement of the receptacle, are at first very short, but soon elongate, and become wholly developed before the appearance of the asci. they are linear, sometimes branched and sometimes simple, often more or less thickened at their tips; almost always they contain within them some oleaginous granules, either coloured or colourless. their special function seems still somewhat obscure, and boudier suggests that they may be excitatory organs for the dehiscence of the asci. however this may be, some mycologists are of opinion that, at least in some of the ascomycetes, the paraphyses are abortive asci, or, at any rate, that abortive asci mixed with the paraphyses cannot be distinguished from them. the mucilage forms itself almost at the same time as the paraphyses, and previous to the formation of the asci. this substance appears as a colourless or yellowish mucilage, which envelopes the paraphyses and asci, and so covers the hymenium with a shining coat. the asci appear first at the base of the paraphyses, under the form of oblong cells, filled with colourless protoplasm. by rapid growth, they soon attain a considerable size and fulness, the protoplasm being gradually absorbed by the sporidia, the first indication of which is always the central nucleus. the mucilage also partly disappears, and the asci, attaining their maturity, become quite distinct, each enclosing its sporidia. but before they take their complete growth they detach themselves from the subhymenial tissue, and being attenuated towards their base, are forced upwards by pressure of the younger asci, to, and in some instances beyond, the upper surface of the disc. this phenomenon commences during the night, and continues during the night and all the morning. it attains its height at mid-day, and it is then that the slightest breath of air, the slightest movement, suffices to cause dehiscence, which is generally followed by a scarcely perceptible contractile motion of the receptacle. [illustration: fig. .--asci, sporidia, and paraphyses of _ascobolus_ (boudier).] there is manifestly a succession in formation and maturity of the asci in a receptacle. in the true _ascobolei_, in which the sporidia are coloured, this may be more distinctly seen. at first some thin projecting points appear upon the disc, the next day they are more numerous, and become more and more so on following days, so as to render the disc almost covered with raised black or crystalline points;[z] these afterwards diminish day by day, until they ultimately cease. the asci, after separation from the subhymenial tissue, continue to lengthen, or it may be that their elasticity permits of extension, during expulsion. boudier considers that an amount of elasticity is certain, because he has seen an ascus arrive at maturity, eject its spores, and then make a sharp and considerable movement of retraction, then the ascus returned again, immediately towards its previous limits, always with a reduction in the number of its contained sporidia. the dehiscence of the asci takes place in the _ascobolei_, in some species of _peziza_, _morchella_, _helvella_, and _verpa_, by means of an apical operculum, and in other _pezizæ_, _helotium_, _geoglossum_, _leotia_, _mitrula_, &c., by a fissure of the ascus. this operculum may be the more readily seen when the ascus is coloured by a drop of tincture of iodine. the sporidia are usually four or eight, or some multiple of that number, in each ascus, rarely four, most commonly eight. at a fixed time the protoplasm, which at first filled the asci, disappears or is absorbed in a mucilaginous matter, which occupies its place, in the midst of which is a small nucleus, which is the rudiment of the first spore; other spores are formed consecutively, and then the substance separates into as many sections as there are sporidia. from this period each sporidium seems to have a separate existence. all have a nucleus, which is scarcely visible, often slightly granular, but which is quite distinct from the oleaginous sporidioles so frequent amongst the discomycetes, and which are sometimes called by the same name. the sporidia are at first a little smaller than when mature, and are surrounded by mucilage. after this period the sporidia lose their nebulous granulations, whilst still preserving their nucleus; their outlines are distinct, and, amongst the true _ascobolei_, commence acquiring a rosy colour, the first intimation of maturity. this colour manifests itself rapidly, accumulating exclusively upon the epispore, which becomes of a deep rose, then violet, and finally violet blue, so deep as sometimes to appear quite black. there are some modifications in this coloration, since, in some species, it passes from a vinous red to grey, then to black, or from rose-violet to brown. the epispore acquires a waxy consistence by this pigmentation, so that it may be detached in granules. it is to this particular consistency of the epispore that the cracks so frequent in the coloured sporidia of _ascobolus_ are due, through contraction of the epispore. as they approach maturity, the sporidia accumulate towards the apex of the asci, and finally escape in the manner already indicated. in all essential particulars there is a great similarity in the structure of the other discomycetes, especially in their reproductive system. in most of them coloured sporidia are rare. in some the receptacle is pileate, clavate, or inflated, whilst in _stictis_ it is very much reduced, and in the lowest form of all, _ascomyces_, it is entirely absent. in the _phacidiacei_, the structure is very similar to that of the _elvellacei_, whilst the _hysteriacei_, with greater affinities with the latter, still tend towards the _pyrenomycetes_ by the more horny nature of the receptacle, and the greater tendency of the hymenium to remain closed, at least when dry. in some species of _hysterium_, the sporidia are remarkably fine. m. duby[aa] has subjected this group to examination, and m. tulasne partly so.[ab] sphÆriacei.--in this group there is considerable variation, within certain limits. it contains an immense number of species, and these are daily being augmented. the general feature in all is the presence of a perithecium, which contains and encloses the hymenium, and at length opening by a pore or ostiolum at the apex. in some the perithecia are simple, in others compound; in some immersed in a stroma, in others free; in some fleshy or waxy, in others carbonaceous, and in others membranaceous. but in all there is this important difference from the ascomycetes we have already had under consideration, that the hymenium is never exposed. the perithecium consists usually of an external layer of cellular structure, which is either smooth or hairy, usually blackish, and an internal stratum of less compact cells, which give rise to the hymenium. [illustration: fig. .--perithecium of _sphæria_ and section.] as in the _discomycetes_, the hymenium consists of asci, paraphyses, and mucilage, but the whole forms a less compact and more gelatinous mass within the perithecium. the formation and growth of the asci and sporidia differ little from what we have described, and when mature the asci dehisce, and the sporidia alone are ejected from the ostiolum. we are not aware that operculate asci have yet been detected. it has been shown in some instances, and suspected in others, that certain moulds, formerly classed with _mucedines_ and _dematiei_, especially in the genus _helminthosporium_, bear the conidia of species of _sphæria_, so that this may be regarded as one form of fruit. perithecia, very similar externally to those of _sphæria_, but containing spores borne on slender pedicels and not enclosed in asci, have had their relations to certain species of _sphæria_ indicated, and these are no longer regarded so much as species of _hendersonia_ or _diplodia_ as the pycnidia of _sphæria_. other and more minute perithecia, containing minute, slender stylospores in great numbers, formerly classed with _aposphæria_, _phoma_, &c., but are now recognized as spermogonia containing the spermatia of _sphæriæ_. how these influence each other, when and under what circumstances the spermatia are instrumental in impregnation of the sporidia, is still matter of mystery. it is clear, however, that in all these conidia, macrospores, microspores, and some spermatia, or by whatever names they may be called, there exists a power of germination. tulasne has indicated in some instances five or six forms of fruit as belonging to one fungus, of which the highest and most perfect condition is a species of _sphæria_. [illustration: fig. .--_uncinula adunca._] perisporiacei.--except in the perithecia rupturing irregularly, and not dehiscing by a pore, some of the genera in this group differ little in structure from the _sphæriacei_. on the other hand, the _erysiphei_ present important and very interesting features. they occur chiefly on the green parts of growing plants. at first there is a more or less profuse white mycelium.[ac] this gives rise to chains of conidia (_oidium_), and afterwards small sphæroid projections appear at certain points on the mycelium. these enlarge, take an orange colour, ultimately passing into brown, and then nearly black. externally these perithecia are usually furnished with long, spreading, intertwined, or branching appendages, sometimes beautifully branched or hooked at their tips. in the interior of the receptacles, pear-shaped or ovate asci are formed in clusters, attached together at the base, and containing two or more hyaline sporidia. other forms of fruit have also been observed on the same mycelium. in an exotic genus, _meliola_, the fulcra, or appendages, as well as the mycelium, are black, otherwise it is very analogous to such a genus of _erysiphei_ as _microsphæria_. in _chætomium_, the perithecia bristle with rigid, dark-coloured hairs, and the sporidia are coloured. our limits, however, will not permit of further elucidation of the complex and varied structure to be found amongst fungi.[ad] [a] a curious case occurred some years since at bury st. edmunds, which may be mentioned here in connection with the development of these nodules. two children had died under suspicious circumstances, and an examination of the body of the latter after exhumation was made, a report having arisen that the child died after eating mushrooms. as certain white nodules appeared on the inner surface of the intestines, it was at once hastily concluded that the spores of the mushroom had germinated, and that the nodules were infant mushrooms. this appeared to one of us so strange, that application was made for specimens, which were kindly forwarded, and a cursory glance was enough to convince us that they were not fungoid. an examination under the microscope further confirmed the diagnosis, and the application of nitric acid showed that the nodules were merely due to chalk mixture, which had been given to the child for the diarrhetic symptoms under which he succumbed. [b] ehrenberg compared the whole structure of an agaric with that of a mould, the mycelium corresponding with the hyphasma, the stem and pileus with the flocci, and the hymenium with the fructifying branchlets. the comparison is no less ingenious than true, and gives a lively idea of the connection of the more noble with the more humble fungi.--_ehrb. de mycetogenesi._ [c] in _paxillus involutus_ the hymenium may be readily torn off and unfolded. [d] this was well delineated in "flora danica," plate , as observed in _coprinus comatus_ as long ago as . [e] a. de bary, "morphologie und physiologie der pilze," in "hofmeister's handbuch," vol. ii. cap. , , translated in "grevillea," vol. i. p. . [f] "die pollinarien und spermatien von _agaricus_," in "botanische zeitung," feb. and march , . [g] "essai d'une flore mycologique de la région de montpellier." paris, . [h] hoffmann, "botanische zeitung," , p. . [i] corda, "icones fungorum hucusque cognitorum," iii. p. . prague, . [j] cooke, m. c., "anatomy of a mushroom," in "popular science review," vol. viii. p. . [k] an attempt was made to show that, in _agaricus melleus_, distinct asci were found, in a certain stage, on the gills or lamellæ. we have in vain examined the gills in various conditions, and could never detect anything of the kind. it is probable that the asci belonged to some species of _hypomyces_, a genus of parasitic sphæriaceous fungi. [l] it is not intended that the spores are always quaternate in _agaricini_, though that number is constant in the more typical species. they sometimes exceed four, and are sometimes reduced to one. [m] the species long known as _hydnum gelatinosum_ was examined by mr. f. currey in (_journ. linn. soc._), and he came to the conclusion that it was not a good _hydnum_. since then it has been made the type of a new genus (hydnogloea b. and br. or, as called by fries, in the new edition of "epicrisis," _tremellodon_, pers. myc. eur.), and transferred to the _tremellini_. currey says, upon examining the fructification, he was surprised to find that, although in its external characters it was a perfect _hydnum_, it bore the fruit of a _tremella_. if one of the teeth be examined with the microscope, it will be seen to consist of threads bearing four-lobed sporophores, and spores exactly similar to _tremella_. it will thus be seen, he adds, that the plant is exactly intermediate between _hydnei_ and _tremellini_, forming, as it were, a stepping-stone from one to the other. [n] tulasne, l. r. and c., "observations on the organization of the tremellini," in "ann. des sci. nat." ^me sér. xix. ( ), pp. , &c. [o] m. léveillé, in "ann. des sci. nat." ^me sér. viii. p. ; ^me sér. ix. p. ; also bonorden, "handbuch der mycologie," p. . [p] tulasne, in "ann. des sci. nat." (loc. cit.) xix. pl. x. fig. . tulasne, "new notes upon tremellinous fungi," in "journ. linn. soc." vol. xiii. ( ), p. . [q] berkeley, m. j., "on the fructification of lycoperdon, phallus, &c.," in "ann. nat. hist." , vol. iv. p. , pl. . berkeley, m. j., "introduction crypt. bot." p. . [r] tulasne, l. r. and c., "fungi hypogæi." paris. berkeley and broome, "british hypogæous fungi," in "ann. nat. hist." , xviii. p. . corda, "icones fungorum," vol. vi. pl. vii. viii. [s] tulasne, "sur le genre _secotium_," in "ann. des sci. nat." ( ), ^me sér. vol. iv. p. , plate . [t] tulasne, l. r. and c., "de la fructification des _scleroderma_ comparée a celle des _lycoperdon_ et des _borista_," in "ann. des sci. nat." , xvii. p. . tulasne, l. r. and c., "sur les genres polysaccum et geaster," in "ann. des sci. nat." , xviii. p. , pl. and . [u] berkeley, "on the fructification of lycoperdon, &c.," in "annals of natural history" ( ), iv. p. . [v] wigand, "morphologie des genres trichia et arcyria," in "ann. des sci. nat." ^me sér. xvi. p. . [w] currey, "on spiral threads of trichia," in "quart. journ. micr. science" ( ), iii. p. . [x] in some of the genera, as, for instance, in _badhamia_, _enerthenema_, and _reticularia_, the spores are produced within delicate cells or cysts, which are afterwards absorbed. [y] tulasne, "essai d'une monographie des nidulariées," in "ann. des sci. nat." ( ), i. and . [z] berkeley, m. j., "introduction, crypt. bot." p. . [a] berkeley, m. j., "introduction, crypt. bot." p. . [b] in the _cæomacei_ and _pucciniæi_ the term "pseudospore" would be much more accurate. [c] léveillé, "sur la disposition méthodique des urédinées," in "ann. des sci. nat." ( ), vol. viii. p. . [d] de bary, "champignons parasites," in "ann. des sci. nat." ^me sér. vol. xx. [e] tulasne, "mémoire sur les urédinées, &c.," in "ann. des sci. nat." ( ), vol. ii. p. . [f] de bary, "ueber die brandpilze," berlin, . [g] currey, in "quart. journ. micr. sci." ( ), vol. v. p. , pl. , fig . [h] cooke, "on podisoma," in "journal of quekett microscopical club," vol. ii. p. . [i] tulasne, "mémoire sur les ustilaginées," in "ann. des sci. nat." ( ), vii. pp. and . [j] corda, "icones fungorum," vol. iii. fig. . [k] cooke, "on podisoma," in "quekett journal," vol. ii. p. . [l] it may be a question whether _graphiola_ is not more nearly allied to _trichocoma_ (jungh fl. crypt. javæ, p. , f. ) than to the genera with which it is usually associated.--m. j. b. [m] cooke, "on microscopic moulds," in "quekett journal," vol. ii. plate . [n] _see_ "dendryphium fumosum," in "quekett journal," vol. ii. plate ; or, "corda prachtflora," plate . [o] de bary, "champignons parasites," in "ann. des sci. nat." ^me sér. vol. xx. [p] berkeley, "on the potato murrain," in "journ. of hort. soc. of london," vol. i. ( ), p. . [q] de bary, "on mildew and fermentation," p. , reprinted from "german quarterly magazine," ; de bary, "morphologie und physiologie der pilze," ( ), . [r] cooke, "handbook of british fungi," vol. ii. p. . [s] de bary, "on mildew and fermentation," in "quarterly german magazine," for . [t] we are quite aware that von tieghem and le monnier, in "ann. des sci. nat." , p. , dispute that this belongs to _mucor mucedo_, and assert that _chætocladium jonesii_ is itself a true _mucor_, with monosporous sporangia. [u] vittadini, "monographia tuberacearum," . [v] tulasne, "fungi hypogæi," . [w] corda, "icones fungorum," vol. vi. [x] berkeley and broome, in "ann. of nat. hist." st ser. vol. xviii. ( ), p. ; cooke, in "seem. journ. bot." [y] boudier (e.), "mémoire sur les ascobolés," in "ann. des sci. nat." ^me sér. vol. x. ( ). [z] only in some of the discomycetes are the asci exserted. [aa] duby, "mémoire sur la tribu des hysterinées," . [ab] tulasne, "selecta fungorum carpologia," vol. iii. [ac] tulasne, "selecta fungorum carpologia," vol. i. léveillé, "organisation, &c., sur l'Érysiphé," in "ann. des sci. nat." ( ), vol. xv. p. . [ad] other works besides those already cited, which may be consulted with advantage on structure, are-- tulasne, l. r. and c., various articles in "annales des sciences naturelles," série iii. and iv. hoffmann, "icones analyticæ fungorum." de bary, "der ascomyceten." leipzic, . berkeley, m. j., "introduction to cryptogamic botany." seynes, j. de, "recherches, &c., des fistulines." paris, . winter, g., "die deutschen sordarien." . corda, j., "prachtflora." prague, . de bary, "Über der brandpilze." . brefeld, o., "botan. untersuch. ü schimmelpilze." fresenius, g., "beiträge zur mykologie." . von tieghem and le monnier, in "annales des sciences naturelles" ( ), p. . cornu, m., "sur les saprolegniées," in "ann. des sci. nat." ^me sér. xv. p. . janczenski, "sur l'ascobolus furfuraceus," in "ann. des sci. nat." ^me sér. xv. p. . de bary and woronin, "beiträge zur morphologie und physiologie der pilze." . bonorden, h. f., "abhandlungen aus dem gebiete der mykologie." . coemans, e., "spicilége mycologique." , etc. iii classification a work of this kind could not be considered complete without some account of the systematic arrangement or classification which these plants receive at the hands of botanists. it would hardly avail to enter too minutely into details, yet sufficient should be attempted to enable the reader to comprehend the value and relations of the different groups into which fungi are divided. the arrangement generally adopted is based upon the "systema mycologicum" of fries, as modified to meet the requirements of more recent microscopical researches by berkeley in his "introduction,"[a] and adopted in lindley's "vegetable kingdom." another arrangement was proposed by professor de bary,[b] but it has never met with general acceptance. in the arrangement to which we have alluded, all fungi are divided into two primary sections, having reference to the mode in which the fructification is produced. in one section, the spores (which occupy nearly the same position, and perform similar functions, to the seeds of higher plants) are naked; that is, they are produced on spicules, and are not enclosed in cysts or capsules. this section is called sporifera, or spore-bearing, because, by general consent, the term _spore_ is limited in fungi to such germ-cells as are not produced in cysts. the second section is termed sporidiifera, or sporidia-bearing, because in like manner the term _sporidia_ is limited to such germ-cells as are produced in cells or cysts. these cysts are respectively known as _sporangia_, and _asci_ or _thecæ_. the true meaning and value of these divisions will be better comprehended when we have detailed the characters of the families composing these two divisions. first, then, the section sporifera contains four families, in two of which a hymenium is present, and in two there is no proper hymenium. the term _hymenium_ is employed to represent a more or less expanded surface, on which the fructification is produced, and is, in fact, the fruit-bearing surface. when no such surface is present, the fruit is borne on threads, proceeding direct from the root-like filaments of the mycelium, or an intermediate kind of cushion or stroma. the two families in which an hymenium is present are called _hymenomycetes_ and _gasteromycetes_. in the former, the hymenium is exposed; in the latter, it is at first enclosed. we must examine each of these separately. the common mushroom may be accepted, by way of illustration, as a type of the family _hymenomycetes_, in which the hymenium is exposed, and is, in fact, the most noticeable feature in the family from which its name is derived. the pileus or cap bears on its under surface radiating plates or gills, consisting of the hymenium, over which are thickly scattered the basidia, each surmounted by four spicules, and on each spicule a spore. when mature, these spores fall freely upon the ground beneath, imparting to it the general colour of the spores. but it must be observed that the hymenium takes the form of gill-plates in only one order of _hymenomycetes_, namely, the _agaricini_; and here, as in _cantharellus_, the hymenium is sometimes spread over prominent veins rather than gills. still further divergence is manifest in the _polyporei_, in which order the hymenium lines the inner surface of pores or tubes, which are normally on the under side of the pileus. both these orders include an immense number of species, the former more or less fleshy, the latter more or less tough and leathery. there are still other forms and orders in this family, as the _hydnei_, in which the hymenium clothes the surface of prickles or spines, and the _auricularini_, in which the hymenium is entirely or almost even. in the two remaining orders, there is a still further divergence from the mushroom form. in the one called _clavariei_, the entire fungus is either simply cylindrical or club-shaped, or it is very much branched and ramified. whatever form the fungus assumes, the hymenium covers the whole exposed surface. in the _tremellini_, a peculiar structure prevails, which at first seems to agree but little with the preceding. the whole plant is gelatinous when fresh, lobed and convolute, often brain-like, and varying in size, according to species, from that of a pin's head to that of a man's head. threads and sporophores are imbedded in the gelatinous substance,[c] so that the fertile threads are in reality not compacted into a true hymenium. with this introduction we may state that the technical characters of the family are thus expressed:-- _hymenium free, mostly naked, or, if enclosed at first, soon exposed; spores naked, mostly quaternate, on distinct spicules_ = hymenomycetes. [illustration: fig. .--_agaricus nudus._] in this family some mycologists believe that fungi attain the highest form of development of which they are capable, whilst others contend that the fructification of the _ascomycetes_ is more perfect, and that some of the noblest species, such as the pileate forms, are entitled to the first rank. the morel is a familiar example. whatever may be said on this point, it is incontrovertible that the noblest and most attractive, as well as the largest, forms are classed under the _hymenomycetes_. in _gasteromycetes_, the second family, a true hymenium is also present, but instead of being exposed it is for a long time enclosed in an outer peridium or sac, until the spores are fully matured, or the fungus is beginning to decay. the common puff-ball (_lycoperdon_) is well known, and will illustrate the principal feature of the family. externally there is a tough coat or peridium, which is at first pale, but ultimately becomes brown. internally is at first a cream-coloured, then greenish, cellular mass, consisting of the sinuated hymenium and young spores, which at length, and when the spores are fully matured become brownish and dusty, the hymenium being broken up into threads, and the spores become free. in earlier stages, and before the hymenium is ruptured, the spores have been found to harmonize with those of _hymenomycetes_ in their mode of production, since basidia are present surmounted each by four spicules, and each spicule normally surmounted by a spore.[d] here is, therefore, a cellular hymenium bearing quaternary spores, but, instead of being exposed, this hymenium is wholly enclosed within an external sac or peridium, which is not ruptured until the spores are fully matured, and the hymenium is resolved into threads, together forming a pulverulent mass. it must, however, be borne in mind, that in only some of the orders composing this family is the hymenium thus evanescent, in others being more or less permanent, and this has led naturally enough to the recognition of two sub-families, in one of which the hymenium is more or less permanent, thus following the hymenomycetous type; and in the other, the hymenium is evanescent, and the dusty mass of spores tends more towards the _coniomycetes_, this being characterized as the coniospermous (or dusty-spored) sub-family. the first sub-family includes, first of all, the _hypogæi_, or subterranean species. and here again it becomes necessary to remind the reader that all subterranean fungi are not included in this order, inasmuch as some, of which the truffle is an example, are sporidiiferous, developing their sporidia in asci. to these allusion must hereafter be made. in the _hypogæi_, the hymenium is permanent and convoluted, leaving numerous minute irregular cavities, in which the spores are produced on sporophores. when specimens are very old and decaying, the interior may become pulverulent or deliquescent. the structure of subterranean fungi attracted the attention of messrs. tulasne, and led to the production of a splendid monograph on the subject.[e] another order belonging to this sub-family is the _phalloidei_, in which the volva or peridium is ruptured whilst the plant is still immature, and the hymenium when mature becomes deliquescent. not only are some members of this order most singular in appearance, but they possess an odour so foetid as to be unapproached in this property by any other vegetable production.[f] in this order, the inner stratum of the investing volva is gelatinous. when still young, and previous to the rupture of the volva, the hymenium presents sinuous cavities in which the spores are produced on spicules, after the manner of _hymenomycetes_.[g] _nidulariacei_ is a somewhat aberrant order, presenting a peculiar structure. the peridium consists of two or three coats, and bursts at the apex, either irregularly or in a stellate manner, or by the separation of a little lid. within the cavity are contained one or more secondary receptacles, which are either free or attached by elastic threads to the common receptacle. ultimately the secondary receptacles are hollow, and spores are produced in the interior, borne on spicules.[h] the appearance in some genera as of a little bird's-nest containing eggs has furnished the name to the order. the second sub-family contains the coniospermous puff-balls, and includes two orders, in which the most readily distinguishable feature is the cellular condition of the entire plant, in its earlier stages, in the _trichogastres_, and the gelatinous condition of the early state of the _myxogastres_. both are ultimately resolved internally into a dusty mass of threads and spores. in the former, the peridium is either single or double, occasionally borne on a stem, but usually sessile. in _geaster_, the "starry puff-balls," the outer peridium divides into several lobes, which fall back in a stellate manner, and expose the inner peridium, like a ball in the centre. in _polysaccum_, the interior is divided into numerous cells, filled with secondary peridia. the mode of spore-production has already been alluded to in our remarks on _lycoperdon_. all the species are large, as compared with those of the following sub-family, and one species of _lycoperdon_ attains an enormous size. one specimen recorded in the "gardener's chronicle" was three feet four inches in circumference, and weighed nearly ten pounds. in the _myxogastres_, the early stage has been the subject of much controversy. the gelatinous condition presents phenomena so unlike anything previously recorded in plants, that one learned professor[i] did not hesitate to propose their exclusion from the vegetable, and recognition in the animal, kingdom as associates of the gregarines. when mature, the spores and threads so much resemble those of the _trichogastres_, and the little plants themselves are so veritably miniature puff-balls, that the theory of their animal nature did not meet with a ready acceptance, and is now virtually abandoned. the characters of the family we have thus briefly reviewed are tersely stated, as-- _hymenium more or less permanently concealed, consisting in most cases of closely-packed cells, of which the fertile ones bear naked spores on distinct spicules, exposed only by the rupture or decay of the investing coat or peridium_ = gasteromycetes. [illustration: fig. .--_scleroderma vulgare_, fr.] [illustration: fig. .--_ceuthospora phacidioides_ (greville).] we come now to the second section of the _sporifera_, in which no definite hymenium is present. and here we find also two families, in one of which the dusty spores are the prominent feature, and hence termed _coniomycetes_; the other, in which the threads are most noticeable, is _hyphomycetes_. in the former of these, the reproductive system seems to preponderate so much over the vegetative, that the fungus appears to be all spores. the mycelium is often nearly obsolete, and the short pedicels so evanescent, that a rusty or sooty powder represents the mature fungus, infesting the green parts of living plants. this is more especially true of one or two orders. it will be most convenient to recognize two artificial sub-families for the purpose of illustration, in one of which the species are developed on living, and in the other on dead, plants. we will commence with the latter, recognizing first those which are developed beneath the cuticle, and then those which are superficial. of the sub-cuticular, two orders may be named as the representatives of this group in britain, these are the _sphæronemei_, in which the spores are contained in a more or less perfect perithecium, and the _melanconiei_, in which there is manifestly none. the first of these is analogous to the _sphæriacei_ of _ascomycetous_ fungi, and probably consists largely of spermogonia of known species of _sphæria_, the relations of which have not hitherto been traced. the spores are produced on slender threads springing from the inner wall of the perithecium, and, when mature, are expelled from an orifice at the apex. this is the normal condition, to which there are some exceptions. in the _melanconiei_, there is no true perithecium, but the spores are produced in like manner upon a kind of stroma or cushion formed from the mycelium, and, when mature, are expelled through a rupture of the cuticle beneath which they are generated, often issuing in long gelatinous tendrils. here, again, the majority of what were formerly regarded as distinct species have been found, or suspected, to be forms of higher fungi. the _torulacei_ represent the superficial fungi of this family, and these consist of a more or less developed mycelium, which gives rise to fertile threads, which, by constriction and division, mature into moniliform chains of spores. the species mostly appear as blackish velvety patches or stains on the stems of herbaceous plants and on old weathered wood. much interest attaches to the other sub-family of _coniomycetes_, in which the species are produced for the most part on living plants. so much has been discovered during recent years of the polymorphism which subsists amongst the species in this section, that any detailed classification can only be regarded as provisional. hence we shall proceed here upon the supposition that we are dealing with autonomous species. in the first place, we must recognize a small section in which a kind of cellular peridium is present. this is the _Æcidiacei_, or order of "cluster cups." the majority of species are very beautiful objects under the microscope; the peridia are distinctly cellular, and white or pallid, produced beneath the cuticle, through which they burst, and, rupturing at the apex, in one genus in a stellate manner, so that the teeth, becoming reflexed, resemble delicate fringed cups, with the orange, golden, brown, or whitish spores or pseudospores nestling in the interior.[j] these pseudospores are at first produced in chains, but ultimately separate. in many cases these cups are either accompanied or preceded by spermogonia. in two other orders there is no peridium. in the _cæomacei_, the pseudospores are more or less globose or ovate, sometimes laterally compressed and simple; and in _pucciniæi_, they are elongated, often subfusiform and septate. in both, the pseudospores are produced in tufts or clusters _direct from the mycelium. the cæomacei_ might again be subdivided into _ustilagines_[k] and _uredines_.[l] in the former, the pseudospores are mostly dingy brown or blackish, and in the latter more brightly coloured, often yellowish. the _ustilagines_ include the smuts and bunt of corn-plants, the _uredines_ include the red rusts of wheat and grasses. in some of the species included in the latter, two forms of fruit are found. in _melampsora_, the summer pseudospores are yellow, globose, and were formerly classed as a species of _lecythea_, whilst the winter pseudospores are brownish, elongated, wedge-shaped by compression, and compact. the _pucciniæi_[m] differ primarily in the septate pseudospores, which in one genus (_puccinia_) are uniseptate; in _triphragmium_, they are biseptate; in _phragmidium_, multiseptate; and in _xenodochus_, moniliform, breaking up into distinct articulations. it is probable that, in all of these, as is known to be the case in most, the septate pseudospores are preceded or accompanied by simple pseudospores, to which they are mysteriously related. there is still another, somewhat singular, group usually associated with the _pucciniæi_, in which the septate pseudospores are immersed in gelatin, so that in many features the species seem to approach the _tremellini_. this group includes two or three genera, the type of which will be found in _podisoma_.[n] these fungi are parasitic on living junipers in britain and north america, appearing year after year upon the same gouty swellings of the branches, in clavate or horn-shaped gelatinous processes of a yellowish or orange colour. anomalous as it may at first sight appear to include these tremelloid forms with the dust-like fungi, their relations will on closer examination be more fully appreciated, when the form of pseudospores, mode of germination, and other features are taken into consideration, especially when compared with _podisoma ellisii_, already alluded to. this family is technically characterized as,-- _distinct hymenium none. pseudospores either solitary or concatenate, produced on the tips of generally short threads, which are either naked or contained in a perithecium, rarely compacted into a gelatinous mass, at length producing minute spores_ = coniomycetes. the last family of the sporifera is _hyphomycetes_, in which the threads are conspicuously developed. these are what are more commonly called "moulds," including some of the most elegant and delicate of microscopic forms. it is true of many of these, as well as of the _coniomycetes_, that they are only conidial forms of higher fungi; but there will remain a very large number of species which, as far as present knowledge extends, must be accepted as autonomous. in this family, we may again recognize three subdivisions, in one of which the threads are more or less compacted into a common stem, in another the threads are free, and in the third the threads can scarcely be distinguished from the mycelium. it is this latter group which unites the _hyphomycetes_ with the _coniomycetes_, the affinities being increased by the great profusion with which the spores are developed. the first group, in which the fertile threads are united so as to form a compound stem, consists of two small orders, the _isariacei_ and the _stilbacei_, in the former of which the spores are dry, and in the latter somewhat gelatinous. many of the species closely imitate forms met with in the _hymenomycetes_, such as _clavaria_; and, in the genus _isaria_, it is almost beyond doubt that the species found on dead insects, moths, spiders, flies, ants, &c., are merely the conidiophores of species of _torrubia_.[o] the second group is by far the largest, most typical, and attractive in this family. it contains the black moulds and white moulds, technically known as the _dematiei_ and the _mucedines_. in the first, the threads are more or less corticated, that is, the stem has a distinct investing membrane, which peels off like a bark; and the threads, often also the spores, are dark-coloured, as if charred or scorched. in many cases, the spores are highly developed, large, multiseptate, and nucleate, and seldom are spores and threads colourless or of bright tints. in the _mucedines_, on the contrary, the threads are never coated, seldom dingy, mostly white or of pure colours, and the spores have less a tendency to extra development or multiplex septation. in some genera, as in _peronospora_ for instance,[p] a secondary fruit is produced in the form of resting spores from the mycelium; and these generate zoospores as well as the primary spores, similar to those common in _algæ_. this latter genus is very destructive to growing plants, one species being the chief agent in the potato disease, and another no less destructive to crops of onions. the vine disease is produced by a species of _oidium_, which is also classed with _mucedines_, but which is really the conidiiferous form of _erysiphe_. in other genera, the majority of species are developed on decaying plants, so that, with the exception of the two genera mentioned, the _hyphomycetes_ exert a much less baneful influence on vegetation than the _coniomycetes_. the last section, including the _sepedoniei_, has been already cited as remarkable for the suppression of the threads, which are scarcely to be distinguished from the mycelium; the spores are profuse, nestling on the floccose mycelium; whilst in the _trichodermacei_, the spores are invested by the threads, as if enclosed in a sort of false peridium. a summary of the characters of the family may therefore be thus briefly expressed:-- _filamentous; fertile threads naked, for the most part free or loosely compacted, simple or branched, bearing the spores at their apices, rarely more closely packed, so as to form a distinct common stem_ = hyphomycetes. [illustration: fig. .--_rhopalomyces candidus._] having thus disposed of the _sporifera_, we must advert to the two families of _sporidiifera_. as more closely related to the _hyphomycetes_, the first of these to be noticed is the _physomycetes_, in which there is no proper hymenium, and the threads proceeding from the mycelium bear vesicles containing an indefinite number of sporidia. the fertile threads are either free or only slightly felted. in the order _antennariei_, the threads are black and moniliform, more or less felted, bearing irregular sporangia. a common fungus named _zasmidium cellare_, found in cellars, and incrusting old wine bottles, as with a blackened felt, belongs to this order. the larger and more highly-developed order, _mucorini_, differs in the threads, which are simple or branched, being free, erect, and bearing the sporangia at the tips of the thread, or branches. some of the species bear great external resemblance to _mucedines_ until the fruit is examined, when the fructifying heads, commonly globose or ovate, are found to be delicate transparent vesicles, enclosing a large number of minute sporidia; when mature, the sporangia burst and the sporidia are set free. in some species, it has long been known that a sort of conjugation takes place between opposite threads, which results in the formation of a sporangium.[q] none of these species are destructive to vegetation, appearing only upon decaying, and not upon living, plants. a state approaching putrescence seems to be essential to their vigorous development. the following characters may be compared with those of the family preceding it:-- _filamentous, threads free or only slightly felted, bearing vesicles, which contain indefinite sporidia_ = physomycetes. [illustration: fig. .--_mucor caninus._] in the last family, the _ascomycetes_, we shall meet with a very great variety of forms, all agreeing in producing sporidia contained in certain cells called asci, which are produced from the hymenium. in some of these, the asci are evanescent, but in the greater number are permanent. in _onygenei_, the receptacle is either club-shaped or somewhat globose, and the peridium is filled with branched threads, which produce asci of a very evanescent character, leaving the pulverulent sporidia to fill the central cavity. the species are all small, and singular for their habit of affecting animal substances, otherwise they are of little importance. the _perisporiacei_, on the other hand, are very destructive of vegetation, being produced, in the majority of cases, on the green parts of growing plants. to this order the hop mildew, rose mildew, and pea mildew belong. the mycelium is often very much developed, and in the case of the maple, pea, hop, and some others, it covers the parts attacked with a thick white coating, so that from a distance the leaves appear to have been whitewashed. seated on the mycelium, at the first as little orange points, are the perithecia, which enlarge and become nearly black. in some species, very elegant whitish appendages radiate from the sides of the perithecia, the variations in which aid in the discrimination of species. the perithecia contain pear-shaped asci, which spring from the base and enclose a definite number of sporidia.[r] the asci themselves are soon dissolved. simultaneously with the development of sporidia, other reproductive bodies are produced direct from the mycelium, and in some species as many as five different kinds of reproductive bodies have been traced. the features to be remembered in _perisporiacei_, as forming the basis of their classification, are, that the asci are saccate, springing from the base of the perithecia, and are soon absorbed. also that the perithecia themselves are not perforated at the apex. the four remaining orders, though large, can be easily characterized. in _tuberacei_, all the species are subterranean, and the hymenium is mostly sinuated. in _elvellacei_, the substance is more or less fleshy, and the hymenium is exposed. in _phacidiacei_, the substance is hard or leathery, and the hymenium is soon exposed. and in _sphæriacei_, although the substance is variable, the hymenium is never exposed, being enclosed in perithecia with a distinct opening at the apex, through which the mature spores escape. each of these four orders must be examined more in detail. the _tuberacei_, or subterranean _ascomycetes_, are analogous to the _hypogæi_ of the _gasteromycetes_. the truffle is a familiar and highly prized example. there is a kind of outer peridium, and the interior consists of a fleshy hymenium, more or less convoluted, sometimes sinuous and confluent, so as to leave only minute elongated and irregular cavities, and sometimes none at all, the two opposing faces of the hymenium meeting and coalescing.[s] certain privileged cells of the hymenium swell, and ultimately become asci, enclosing a definite number of sporidia. the sporidia in many cases are large, reticulated, echinulate or verrucose, and mostly somewhat globose. in the genus _elaphomyces_, the asci are more than commonly diffluent. the _elvellacei_ are fleshy in substance, or somewhat waxy, sometimes tremelloid. there is no peridium, but the hymenium is always exposed. there is a great variety of forms, some being pileate, and others cup-shaped, as there is also a great variation in size, from the minute _peziza_, small as a grain of sand, to the large _helvella gigas_, which equals in dimensions the head of a child. in the pileate forms, the stroma is fleshy and highly developed; in the cup-shaped, it is reduced to the external cells of the cup which enclose the hymenium. the hymenium itself consists of elongated fertile cells, or asci, mixed with linear thread-like barren cells, called paraphyses, which are regarded by some authors as barren asci. these are placed side by side in juxtaposition with the apex outwards. each ascus contains a definite number of sporidia, which are sometimes coloured. when mature, the asci explode above, and the sporidia may be seen escaping like a miniature cloud of smoke in the light of the mid-day sun. the disc or surface of the hymenium is often brightly coloured in the genus _peziza_; tints of orange, red, and brown having the predominance. in _phacidiacei_, the substance is hard and leathery, intermediate between the fleshy _elvellacei_ and the more horny of the _sphæriacei_. the perithecia are either orbicular or elongated, and the hymenium soon becomes exposed. in some instances, there is a close affinity with the _elvellacei_, the exposed hymenium being similar in structure, but in all the disc is at first closed. in orbicular forms, the fissure takes place in a stellate manner from the centre, and the teeth are reflexed. in the _hysteriacei_, where the perithecia are elongated, the fissure takes place throughout their length. as a rule, the sporidia are more elongated, more commonly septate, and more usually coloured, than in _elvellacei_. only a few solitary instances occur of individual species that are parasitic on living plants. [illustration: fig. .--_sphæria aquila._] in the _sphæriacei_, the substance of the stroma (when present) and of the perithecia is variable, being between fleshy and waxy in _nectriei_, and tough, horny, sometimes brittle, in _hypoxylon_. a perithecium, or cell excavated in the stroma which fulfils the functions of a perithecium, is always present. the hymenium lines the inner walls of the perithecium, and forms a gelatinous nucleus, consisting of asci and paraphyses. when fully mature, the asci are ruptured and the sporidia escape by a pore which occupies the apex of the perithecium. sometimes the perithecia are solitary or scattered, and sometimes gregarious, whilst in other instances they are closely aggregated and immersed in a stroma of variable size and form. conidia, spermatia, pycnidia, &c., have been traced to and associated with some species, but the history of others is still obscure. many of the coniomycetous forms grouped under the _sphæronemei_ are probably conditions of the _sphæriacei_, as are also the _melanconiei_, and some of the _hyphomycetes_. a very common fungus, for instance, which is abundant on sticks and twigs, forming rosy or reddish pustules the size of a millet seed, formerly named _tubercularia vulgaris_, is known to be the conidia-bearing stroma of the sphæriaceous fungus, _nectria cinnabarina_;[t] and so with many others. the following are the technical characters of the family:-- _fruit consisting of sporidia, mostly definite, contained in asci, springing from a naked or enclosed stratum of fructifying cells and forming a hymenium or nucleus_ = ascomycetes. if the characters of the different families are borne in mind, there will be but little difficulty in assigning any fungus to the order to which it belongs by means of the foregoing remarks. for more minute information, and for analytical tables of the families, orders, and genera, we must refer the student to some special systematic work, which will present fewer difficulties, if he keeps in mind the distinctive features of the families.[u] to assist in this we have given on the following page an analytical arrangement of the families and orders, according to the system recognized and adopted in the present volume. it is, in all essential particulars, the method adopted in our "handbook," based on that of berkeley's "introduction" and "outlines." [a] rev. m. j. berkeley, "introduction to cryptogamic botany" ( ), london, pp. to . [b] de bary, in "streinz nomenclator fungorum," p. . [c] tulasne, l. and c. r., "observations sur l'organisation des trémellinées," "ann. des sci. nat." , xix. p. . [d] berkeley, m. j., "on the fructification of _lycoperdon_, _phallus_, and their allied genera," in "ann. of nat. hist." ( ), vol. iv. p. ; "ann. des sci. nat." ( ), xii. p. . tulasne, l. r. and c., "de la fructification des _scléroderma_ comparée à celle des _lycoperdon_ et des _bovista_," in "ann. des sci. nat." ^me sér. xvii. p. . [e] tulasne, l. r. and c., "fungi hypogæi," paris, ; "observations sur le genre elaphomyces," in "ann. des sci. nat." , xvi. . [f] _stapeliæ_ in this respect approach most closely to the _phalloidei_. [g] berkeley, in "ann. nat. hist." vol. iv. p. . [h] tulasne, l. r. and c., "recherches sur l'organisation et le mode de fructification des nidulariées," "ann. des sci. nat." ( ), i. p. . [i] de bary, a., "des myxomycètes," in "ann. des sci. nat." ^me sér. xi. p. ; "bot. zeit." xvi. p. . [j] corda, "icones fungorum," vol. iii. fig. . [k] tulasne, "mémoire sur les ustilaginées," "ann. des sci. nat." ( ), vii. - . [l] tulasne, "mémoire sur les urédinées," "ann. des sci. nat." ( ), ii. . [m] tulasne, "sur les urédinées," "ann. des sci. nat." , ii. pl. . [n] cooke, m. c., "notes on _podisoma_," in "journ. quek. micr. club," no. ( ), p. . [o] tulasne, l. r. and c., "selecta fungorum carpologia," vol. iii. pp. - . [p] de bary, a., "recherches sur les champignons parasites," in "ann. des sci. nat." ^me sér. xx. p. ; "grevillea," vol. i. p. . [q] a. de bary, translated in "grevillea," vol. i. p. ; tulasne, "ann. des sci. nat." ^me sér. ( ), p. . [r] léveillé, j. h., "organisation, &c., de l'Érysiphé," in "ann. des sci. nat." ( ), xv. p. . [s] tulasne, l. r. and c., "fungi hypogæi," paris; vittadini, c., "monographia tuberacearum," milan, . [t] "a currant twig and something on it," in "gardener's chronicle" for january , . [u] berkeley, m. j., "introduction to cryptogamic botany," london, ; cooke, m. c., "handbook of british fungi," london, ; corda, a. c. j., "anleitung zum studium der mycologie," prag, ; kickx, j., "flore cryptogamique des flanders," gand, ; fries, e., "systema mycologicum," lund, ; fries, e., "summa vegetabilium scandinaviæ," ; secretan, l., "mycographie suisse," geneva, ; berkeley, m. j., "outlines of british fungology," london, . tabular arrangement of families and orders. division i. sporifera. _spores naked._ i. hymenium free, mostly naked, or soon exposed hymenomycetes. hymenium normally inferior-- fruit-bearing surface lamellose _agaricini._ fruit-bearing surface porous or tubular _polyporei._ fruit-bearing surface clothed with prickles _hydnei._ fruit-bearing surface even or rugose _auricularini._ hymenium superior or encircling-- clavate, or branched, rarely lobed _clavariei._ lobed, convolute, or disc-like, gelatinous _tremellini._ ii. hymenium enclosed in a peridium, ruptured when mature gasteromycetes. hymenomycetous-- subterranean, naked or enclosed _hypogæi._ terrestrial, hymenium deliquescent _phalloidei._ peridium enclosing sporangia, containing spores _nidulariacei._ coniospermous-- stipitate, hymenium convolute, drying into a dusty mass, enclosed in a volva _podaxinei._ cellular at first, hymenium drying up into a dusty mass of threads and spores _trichogastres._ gelatinous at first, peridium containing at length a dusty mass of threads and spores _myxogastres._ iii. spores naked, mostly terminal, on inconspicuous threads, free or enclosed in a perithecium coniomycetes. growing on dead or dying plants-- subcutaneous-- perithecium more or less distinct _sphæronemei._ perithecium obsolete or wanting _melanconiei._ superficial-- fructifying surface naked. spores compound or tomiparous _torulacei._ parasitic on living plants-- peridium distinctly cellular _Æcidiacei._ peridium none-- spores sub-globose, simple or deciduous _cæomacei._ spores mostly oblong, usually septate _pucciniæi._ iv. spores naked, on conspicuous threads, rarely compacted, small hyphomycetes. fertile threads compacted, sometimes cellular-- stem or stroma compound-- spores dry, volatile _isariacei._ mass of spores moist, diffluent _stilbacei._ fertile threads, free or anastomosing-- fertile threads dark, carbonized-- spores mostly compound _dematiei._ fertile threads not carbonized-- very distinct-- spores mostly simple _mucedines._ scarcely distinct from mycelium-- spores profuse _sepedoniei._ division ii. sporidiifera. _sporidia in asci._ v. fertile cells seated on threads, not compacted into a hymenium physomycetes. threads felted, moniliform-- sporangia irregular _antennariei._ threads free-- sporangia terminal or lateral _mucorini._ aquatic _saprolegniei._ vi. asci formed from the fertile cells of a hymenium ascomycetes. asci often evanescent-- receptacle clavæform-- asci springing from threads _onygenei._ perithecia free-- asci springing from the base _perisporiacei._ asci persistent-- perithecia opening by a distinct ostiolum _sphæriacei._ hard or coriaceous, hymenium at length exposed _phacidiacei._ hypogæous; hymenium complicated _tuberacei._ fleshy, waxy, or tremelloid; hymenium mostly exposed _elvellacei._ iv. uses. the rigid utilitarian will hardly be satisfied with the short catalogue which can be furnished of the uses of fungi. excepting those which are employed more or less for human food, very few are of any practical value in arts or medicine. it is true that imperfect conditions of fungi exert a very important influence on fermentation, and thus become useful; but, unfortunately, fungi have the reputation of being more destructive and offensive than valuable or useful. notwithstanding that a large number of species have from time to time been enumerated as edible, yet those commonly employed and recognized are very few in number, prejudice in many cases, and fear in others, militating strongly against additions to the number. in great britain this is especially the case, and however advisable it may be to exercise great care and caution in experimenting on untried or doubtful species, it can only be regarded as prejudice which prevents good, in fact, excellent, esculent species being more extensively used, instead of allowing them to rot by thousands on the spots where they have grown. poisonous species are also plentiful, and no golden rule can be established by means of which any one may detect at a glance good from bad, without that kind of knowledge which is applied to the discrimination of species. yet, after all, the characters of half a dozen good esculent fungi are acquired as easily as the distinctions between half a dozen birds such as any ploughboy can discriminate. the common mushroom (_agaricus campestris_) is the best known esculent, whether in its uncultivated or in a cultivated state. in britain many thousands of people, notably the lower classes, will not recognize any other as fit for food, whilst in italy the same classes have a strong prejudice against this very species.[a] in vienna, we found by personal experience that, although many others are eaten, it is this which has the most universal preference, yet it appears but sparingly in the markets as compared with others. in hungary it does not enjoy by any means so good a reputation. in france and in germany it is a common article of consumption. the different varieties found, as the results of cultivation, present some variation in colour, scaliness of pileus, and other minor features, whilst remaining true to the constituent characters of the species. although it is not our intention to enumerate here the botanical distinctions of the species to which we may call attention, yet, as mistakes (sometimes fatal) are often being recorded, in which other fungi are confounded with this, we may be permitted a hint or two which should be remembered. the spores are purple, the gills are at first delicate pink, afterwards purple; there is a permanent ring or collar round the stem, and it must _not_ be sought in woods. many accidents might have been spared had these facts been remembered. the meadow mushroom (_agaricus arvensis_) is common in meadows and lowland pastures, and is usually of a larger size than the preceding, with which it agrees in many particulars, and is sent in enormous quantities to covent garden, where it frequently predominates over _agaricus campestris_. some persons prefer this, which has a stronger flavour, to the ordinary mushroom, and it is the species most commonly sold in the autumn in the streets of london and provincial towns. according to persoon, it is preferred in france; and, in hungary, it is considered as a special gift from st. george. it has acquired in england the name of horse mushroom, from the enormous size it sometimes attains. withering mentions a specimen that weighed fourteen pounds.[b] one of the commonest (in our experience the _most_ common) of all edible fungi in the public markets of vienna is the hallimasche (_agaricus melleus_), which in england enjoys no good reputation for flavour or quality; indeed, dr. badham calls it "nauseous and disagreeable," and adds that "not to be poisonous is its only recommendation." in vienna it is employed chiefly for making sauce; but we must confess that even in this way, and with a prejudice in favour of viennese cookery, our experience of it was not satisfactory. it is at best a sorry substitute for the mushroom. in the summer and autumn this is a very common species in large tufts on old stumps. in similar localities, and also in tufts, but neither so large, nor so common, _agaricus fusipes_ is found. it is preferable to the foregoing as an esculent, and is easily recognized by the spindle-shaped stem. _agaricus rubescens_, p., belongs to a very suspicious group of fungi, in which the cap or pileus is commonly studded or sprinkled with paler warts, the remains of an investing volva. to this group the poisonous but splendid fly-agaric (_agaricus muscarius_) belongs. notwithstanding its bad company, this agaric has a good reputation, especially for making ketchup; and cordier reports it as one of the most delicate mushrooms of the lorraine.[c] its name is derived from its tendency to become red when bruised. the white variety of an allied species (_agaricus vaginatus_) has been commended, and dr. badham says that it will be found inferior to but few agarics in flavour. a scaly-capped fungus (_agaricus procerus_), with a slender stem, called sometimes the parasol mushroom, from its habit, is an esteemed esculent. in italy and france it is in high request, and is included in the majority of continental works on the edible fungi.[d] in austria, germany, and spain, it has special "vulgar" names, and is eaten in all these countries. it is much more collected in england than formerly, but deserves to be still better known. when once seen it can scarcely be confounded with any other british species, save one of its nearest allies, which partakes of its own good qualities (_agaricus rachodes_), though not quite so good. _agaricus prunulus_, scop., and _agaricus orcella_, badh., if they be not forms of the same species (which dr. bull contends that they are not[e]), have also a good reputation as esculents. they are both neat, white agarics, with a mealy odour, growing respectively in woods and open glades. _agaricus nebularis_, batsch, is a much larger species, found in woods, often in large gregarious patches amongst dead leaves, with a smoky mouse-coloured pileus, and profuse white spores. it is sometimes as much as five or six inches in diameter, with rather a faint odour and mild taste. on the continent, as well as in britain, this is included amongst edible fungi. still larger and more imposing is the magnificent white species, _agaricus maximus_, fr.,[f] which is figured by sowerby,[g] under the name of _agaricus giganteus_. it will attain a diameter of fourteen inches, with a stem, two inches thick, and rather a strong odour. a spring fungus, the true st. george's mushroom, _agaricus gambosus_, fr., makes its appearance in pastures, usually growing in rings, in may and june, and is welcome to mycophagists from its early growth, when esculent species are rare. it is highly esteemed in france and italy, so that when dried it will realize as much as from twelve to fifteen shillings per pound. guillarmod includes it amongst swiss esculents.[h] professor buckman says that it is one of the earliest and best of english mushrooms, and others have endorsed his opinions, and dr. badham in writing of it observes, that small baskets of them, when they first appear in the spring in italy, are sent as "presents to lawyers and fees to medical men." the closely allied species, _agaricus albellus_,[i] d.c., has also the reputation of being edible, but it is so rare in england that this quality cannot be put to the test. the curious short-stemmed _agaricus brevipes_, bull,[j] has a similar reputation. two singularly fragrant species are also included amongst the esculent. these are _agaricus fragrans_, sow., and _agaricus odorus_, bull. both have a sweet anise-like odour, which is persistent for a long time. the former is pale tawny-coloured, nearly white, the latter of a dirty pale green. both are white-spored, and although somewhat local, sufficient specimens of _ag. odorus_ may be collected in the autumn for domestic use. we have the assurance of one who has often proved them that they constitute an exquisite dish. a clear ivory-white fungus, _agaricus dealbatus_, of which a crisped variety is occasionally found in great numbers, springing up on old mushroom beds in dense clusters, is very good eating, but rather deficient in the delicate aroma of some other species. the typical form is not uncommon on the ground in fir plantations. a more robust and larger species, _agaricus geotrupes_, bull, found on the borders of woods, often forming rings, both in this country and in the united states, as well as on the continent of europe, is recognized as esculent. we may add to these three or four other species, in which the stem is lateral, and sometimes nearly obsolete. the largest and most common is the oyster mushroom (_agaricus ostreatus_, jacq.[k]), so universally eaten, that it is included in almost every list and book on edible fungi; it is the most common species in transylvania, tons of it sometimes appearing in the markets. it does not possess that delicate flavour which is found in many species, and although extolled by some beyond its merits, it is nevertheless perfectly wholesome, and, when young and carefully cooked, not to be despised. it must not be confounded with a very similar species (_agaricus euosmus_, b.), with rosy spores, which is unpleasant. _agaricus tessellatus_, bull, _agaricus pometi_, fr., _agaricus glandulosus_, bull, are all allies of the foregoing, and recorded as edible in the united states, although not one of the three has hitherto been recorded as occurring in great britain. to these may also be added the following:--_agaricus salignus_,[l] fr., which is rare in england, but not uncommon abroad and in the united states. in austria it is commonly eaten. _agaricus ulmarius_,[m] bull, is common on elm trunks, not only in britain but also in north america, and is by some preferred to the oyster mushroom. an allied species, _agaricus fossulatus_, cooke,[n] is found on the cabul hills, where it is collected, dried, and forms an article of commerce with the plains. another, but smaller species, is dried in the air on strings passed through a hole in the short stem (_agaricus subocreatus_, cooke), and sent, it is believed, from china to singapore. the smallest species with which we have any acquaintance, that is edible, is the "nail fungus" (_agaricus esculentus_,[o] jacq.), scarcely exceeding one inch in diameter of the pileus, with a thin rooting stem. the taste in british specimens when raw is bitter and unpleasant, but it is clearly eaten in austria, as its name testifies, and elsewhere in europe. it is found in fir plantations in the spring, at which season it is collected from the fir woods around and sent to vienna, where it is only used for flavouring sauces under the name of "nagelschwämme." before quitting the group of true agarics, to which all hitherto enumerated belong, we must mention a few others of less importance, but which are included amongst those good for food. foremost of these is a really splendid orange species (_agaricus cæsarius_, scop.[p]), which belongs to the same subgenus as the very deleterious fly-agaric, and the scarcely less fatal _agaricus vernus_, bull. it is universally eaten on the continent, but has hitherto never been found in great britain. in the same subgenus, _agaricus strobiliformis_,[q] fr., which is rare in this country, and probably also _agaricus ceciliæ_, b. & br.[r] besides these, _agaricus excoriatus_, schæff., _agaricus mastoideus_, fr., _agaricus gracilentus_, kromb., and _agaricus holosericeus_, fr.,[s] all belonging to the same subgenus as the parasol mushroom, more or less uncommon in england. although the larger number of esculent agarics are white-spored, some few, worthy of note, will be found in the other sections, and notably amongst these the common mushroom and its congener the meadow, or horse mushroom. in addition to those already enumerated, might be included also the _agaricus pudicus_, bull, which is certainly wholesome, as well as its ally, _agaricus leochromus_, cooke,[t] both of which have rusty spores. the late dr. curtis,[u] in a letter to the rev. m. j. berkeley, enumerates several of the fungi which are edible amongst those found in the united states. of these, he says, _agaricus amygdalinus_, curt., can scarcely be distinguished when cooked from the common mushroom. _agaricus frumentaceus_, bull, and three allied new species, peculiar to the united states, are commended. _agaricus cæspitosus_, curt., he says, is found in enormous quantities, a single cluster containing from fifty to one hundred stems, and might well be deemed a valuable species in times of scarcity. it would not be highly esteemed where other and better species can be had, but it is generally preferred to _agaricus melleus_, fr. it is suitable for drying for winter use. in the same communication, he observes that the imperial (_agaricus cæsarius_, scop.), grows in great quantities in oak forests, and may be obtained by the cart-load in its season; but to his taste, and that of his family, it is the most unpalatable of fungi, nor could he find any of the most passionate mycophagists who would avow that they liked it. there is a disagreeable saline flavour that they could not remove nor overlay. in addition to these, the same authority enumerates _agaricus russula_, schæff., _agaricus hypopithyus_, curt., and _agaricus consociatus_, curt., the latter two being confined to the united states; _agaricus columbetta_, fr., found in britain, but not eaten, as well as _agaricus radicatus_, bull. _agaricus bombycinus_, schæff., and _agaricus speciosus_, fr., are found in britain, but by no means common; _agaricus squarrosus_, mull., has always been regarded with great suspicion in this country, where it is by no means uncommon; _agaricus cretaceus_, fr., and _agaricus sylvaticus_, schæff., are close allies of the common mushroom. dr. curtis says that hill and plain, mountain and valley, woods, fields, and pastures, swarm with a profusion of good nutritious fungi, which are allowed to decay where they spring up, because people do not know how, or are afraid, to use them. by those of us who know their use, their value was appreciated, as never before, during the late war, when other food, especially meat, was scarce and dear. then such persons as i have heard express a preference for mushrooms over meat had generally no need to lack grateful food, as it was easily had for the gathering, and within easy distance of their homes if living in the country. such was not always the case, however. i remember once, during the gloomy period when there had been a protracted drought, and fleshy fungi were to be found only in damp shaded woods, and but few even there, i was unable to find enough of any one species for a meal, so, gathering of every kind, i brought home thirteen different kinds, had them all cooked together in one grand _pot pourri_, and made an excellent supper. one important use to which several species of fungi can be applied, is the manufacture of ketchup. for this purpose, not only is the mushroom, _agaricus campestris_, and the horse mushroom, _agaricus arvensis_, available, but also _agaricus rubescens_ is declared to be excellent for the purpose, and a delicious, but pale, extract is to be obtained from _marasmius oreades_. other species, as _coprinus comatus_, and _coprinus atramentarius_, are also available, together with _fistulina hepatica_, and _morchella esculenta_. in some districts, when mushrooms are scarce, it is stated that almost any species that will yield a dark juice is without scruple mixed with the common mushroom, and it should seem without any bad consequence except the deterioration of the ketchup.[v] there is an extensive manufacture of ketchup conducted at lubbenham, near market harborough, but the great difficulty appears to be the prevention of decomposition. messrs. perkins receive tons of mushrooms from every part of the kingdom, and they find, even in the same species, an immense difference in the quality and quantity of the produce. the price of mushrooms varies greatly with the season, ranging between one penny and sixpence per pound. messrs. perkins are very careful in their selection, but little discrimination is used by country manufacturers on a small scale, who use such doubtful species as _agaricus lacrymabundus_, with _agaricus spadiceus_, and a host of allied species, which they characterize as nonpareils and champignons. in the eastern counties _agaricus arvensis_ has the preference for ketchup. the generic distinctions between the genuine agarics and some of the allied genera can hardly be appreciated by the non-botanical reader, but we have nevertheless preferred grouping the edible species together in a somewhat botanical order; and, pursuing this plan, the next species will be those of _coprinus_, in which the gills are deliquescent after the plant has arrived at maturity. the maned mushroom (_coprinus comatus_, fr.)[w] is the best of edible species in this group. it is very common here by roadsides and other places, and whilst still young and cylindrical, and the gills still whitish or with a roseate tint, it is highly to be commended. similar, but perhaps somewhat inferior, is _coprinus atramentarius_, fr.,[x] equally common about old stumps and on the naked soil. both species are also found and eaten in the united states. in _cortinarius_, the veil is composed of arachnoid threads, and the spores are rusty. the number of edible species are few. foremost is the really handsome _cortinarius violaeus_, fr.,[y] often nearly four inches in diameter, and of a beautiful violet colour; and the smaller _cortinarius castaneus_, fr.,[z] scarcely exceeding an inch in diameter, both being found in woods, and common alike to britain and the united states. _cortinarius cinnamomeus_, fr., is also a lover of woods, and in northern latitudes is found inhabiting them everywhere. it has a cinnamon-coloured pileus, with yellowish flesh, and its odour and flavour is said to partake of the same spice. in germany it is held in high esteem. _cortinarius emodensis_, b., is eaten in northern india. the small genus _lepista_ of smith, (which, however, is not adopted by fries in his now edition of the "epicrisis") includes one esculent species in _lepista personata_, the _agaricus personatus_ of fries.[a] it is by no means uncommon in northern europe or america, frequently growing in large rings; the pileus is pallid, and the stem stained with lilac. formerly it was said to be sold in covent garden market under the name of "blewits," but we have failed to see or hear of it during many years in london. small fungi of ivory-whiteness are very common amongst grass on lawns in autumn. these are chiefly _hygrophorus virgineus_, fr.,[b] and although not much exceeding an inch in diameter, with a short stem, and wide decurrent gills, they are so plentiful in season that quantity soon compensates for the small size. except that it is occasionally eaten in france, it does not enjoy much reputation abroad. a larger species, varying from buff to orange, _hygrophorus pratensis_, fr.,[c] is scarcely less common in open pastures. this is very gregarious in habit, often growing in tufts, or portions of rings. the pileus is fleshy in the centre, and the gills thick and decurrent. in france, germany, bohemia, and denmark, it is included with esculent species. in addition may be mentioned _hygrophorus eburneus_, fr., another white species, as also _hygrophorus niveus_, fr., which grows in mossy pastures. _paxillus involutus_, fr.,[d] though very common in europe, is not eaten, yet it is included by dr. curtis with the esculent species of the united states. the milky agarics, belonging to the genus _lactarius_, are distinguished by the milky juice which is exuded when they are wounded. the spores are more or less globose, and rough or echinulate, at least in many species. the most notable esculent is _lactarius deliciosus_, fr.,[e] in which the milk is at first saffron-red, and afterwards greenish, the plant assuming a lurid greenish hue wherever bruised or broken. universal commendation seems to fall upon this species, writers vying with each other to say the best in its praise, and mycophagists everywhere endorsing the assumption of its name, declaring it to be delicious. it is found in the markets of paris, berlin, prague, and vienna, as we are informed, and in sweden, denmark, switzerland, russia, belgium; in fact, in nearly all countries in europe it is esteemed. another esculent species, _lactarius volemum_, fr.,[f] has white milk, which is mild to the taste, whilst in deleterious species with white milk it is pungent and acrid. this species has been celebrated from early times, and is said to resemble lamb's kidney. _lactarius piperatus_, fr., is classed in england with dangerous, sometimes poisonous species, whereas the late dr. curtis, of north carolina, has distinctly informed us that it is cooked and eaten in the united states, and that he has partaken of it. he includes _lactarius insulsus_, fr., and _lactarius subdulcis_, fr.,[g] amongst esculent species; both are also found in this country, but not reputed as edible; and _lactarius angustissimus_, lasch, which is not british. species of _lactarius_ seem to be eaten almost indiscriminately in russia when preserved in vinegar and salt, in which condition they form an important item in the kinds of food allowed in their long fasts, some _boleti_ in the dried state entering into the same category. the species of _russula_ in many respects resemble _lactarii_ without milk. some of them are dangerous, and others esculent. amongst the latter may be enumerated _russula heterophylla_, fr., which is very common in woods. vittadini pronounces it unsurpassed for fineness of flavour by even the notable _amanita cæsarea_.[h] roques gives also an account in its favour as consumed in france. both these authors give favourable accounts of _russula virescens_, p.,[i] which the peasants about milan are in the habit of putting over wood embers to toast, and eating afterwards with a little salt. unfortunately it is by no means common in england. a third species of _russula_, with buff-yellow gills, is _russula alutacea_, fr., which is by no means to be despised, notwithstanding that dr. badham has placed it amongst species to be avoided. three or four others have also the merit of being harmless, and these recorded as esculent by some one or more mycological authors: _russula lactea_, fr., a white species, found also in the united states; _russula lepida_, fr., a roseate species, found also in lower carolina, u.s.; and another reddish species, _russula vesca_, fr., as well as _russula decolorans_, fr. whilst writing of this genus, we may observe, by way of caution, that it includes also one very noxious red species, _russula emetica_, fr., with white gills, with which some of the foregoing might be confounded by inexperienced persons. the chantarelle _cantharellus cibarius_, fr., has a most charming and enticing appearance and odour. in colour, it is of a bright golden yellow, and its smell has been compared to that of ripe apricots. it is almost universally eaten in all countries where it is found, england excepted, where it is only to be met with at the "freemason's tavern" on state occasions, and at the tables of pertinacious mycophagists.[j] trattinnick says: "not only this same fungus never did any one harm, but might even restore the dead."[k] the fairy-ring champignon _marasmius oreades_, fr., though small, is plentiful, and one of the most delicious of edible fungi. it grows in exposed pastures, forming rings, or parts of rings. this champignon possesses the advantage of drying readily, and preserving its aroma for a long time. we have often regretted that no persistent attempts and experiments have been made with the view of cultivating this excellent and useful species. _marasmius scorodonius_, fr.,[l] a small, strong-scented, and in all respects inferior species, found on heaths and dry pastures, extending even to the united states, is consumed in germany, austria, and other continental countries, where, perhaps its garlic odour has been one of its recommendations as an ingredient in sauces. in this enumeration we have not exhausted all the gill-bearing species which might be eaten, having included only those which have some reputation as esculents, and of these more particularly those found in great britain and the united states. amongst the _polyporei_, in which the gill plates are represented by pores or tubes, fewer esculent species are to be met with than in the _agaricini_, and the majority of these belong to the genus _boletus_. whilst in vienna and hanover, we were rather surprised to find _boletus edulis_, fr., cut into thin slices and dried, exposed for sale in almost every shop where meal, peas, and other farinaceous edibles were sold. this species is common enough in england, but as a rule it does not seem to please the english palate, whereas on the continent no fungus is more commonly eaten. this is believed to be the suillus eaten by the ancient romans,[m] who obtained it from bithynia. the modern italians dry them on strings for winter use, and in hungary a soup is made from them when fresh. a more excellent species, according to our judgment, is _boletus æstivalis_, fr.,[n] which appears in early summer, and has a peculiar nutty flavour when raw, reminding one more of a fresh mushroom. _boletus scaber_, fr.,[o] is also common in britain, as well as the continent, but does not enjoy so good a reputation as _b. edulis_. krombholz says that _boletus bovinus_, fr., a gregarious species, found on heaths and in fir woods, is much sought after abroad as a dish, and is good when dried. _boletus castaneus_, fr.,[p] is a small species with a mild, pleasant taste when raw, and very good when properly cooked. it is not uncommonly eaten on the continent. _boletus chrysenteron_, fr.,[q] and _boletus subtomentosus_, fr., are said to be very poor eating, and some authors have considered them injurious; but mr. w. g. smith states that he has on more than one occasion eaten the former, and trattinnick states that the latter is eaten in germany. the late mr. salter informed us that, when employed on the geological staff, he at one time lived almost entirely on different species of boleti, without using much discrimination. sir w. c. trevelyan also informs us that he has eaten _boletus luridus_ without any unpleasant consequences, but we confess that we should be sorry to repeat the experiment. dr. badham remarks that he has eaten _boletus grevillei_, b., _boletus flavus_, with., and _boletus granulatus_, l., the latter being recognized also as edible abroad. dr. curtis experimented, in the united states, on _boletus collinitus_, and although he professes not to be particularly fond of the boleti, he recognizes it as esculent, and adds that it had been pronounced delicious by some to whom he had sent it. he also enumerates as edible _boletus luteus_, fr., _boletus elegans_, fr., _boletus flavidus_, fr., _boletus versipellis_, fr., _boletus leucomelas_, tr., and _boletus ovinus_, sch. two italian species of _polyporus_ must not be forgotten. these are _polyporus tuberaster_, pers., which is procured by watering the _pietra funghaia_, or fungus stone, a kind of tufa, in which the mycelium is embedded. it is confined to naples. the other species is _polyporus corylinus_, mauri., procured artificially in rome from charred stumps of the cob-nut tree.[r] of true _polyporus_, only two or three species have been regarded favourably as esculents. these are--_polyporus intybaceus_, fr., which is of very large size, sometimes attaining as much as forty pounds; _polyporus giganteus_, fr., also very large, and leathery when old. both these species are natives of britain. only young and juicy specimens must be selected for cooking. _polyporus umbellatus_, fr., is stated by fries to be esculent, but it is not found in britain. _polyporus squamosus_, fr., has been also included; but mrs. hussey thinks that one might as well think of eating saddle-flaps. none of these receive very much commendation. dr. curtis enumerates, amongst north american species, the _polyporus cristatus_, fr., _polyporus poripes_, fr., which, when raw, tastes like the best chestnuts or filberts, but is rather too dry when cooked. _polyporus berkeleii_, fr., is intensely pungent when raw, but when young, and before the pores are visible, it may be eaten with impunity, all its pungency being dissipated by cooking. _polyporus confluens_, fr., he considers superior, and, in fact, quite a favourite. _polyporus sulfureus_, fr., which is not eaten in europe, he considers just tolerably safe, but not to be coveted. it is by no means to be recommended to persons with weak stomachs. in his catalogue, dr. curtis enumerates one hundred and eleven species of edible fungi found in carolina.[s] with _fistulina hepatica_, fr., it is different; for here we encounter a fleshy, juicy fungus, resembling beefsteak a little in appearance, and so much more in its uses, that the name of "beefsteak fungus" has been given to it. some authors are rapturous in their praise of _fistulina_. it sometimes attains a very large size, dr. badham quoting[t] one found by himself nearly five feet in circumference, and weighing eight pounds; whilst another found by mr. graves weighed nearly thirty pounds. in vienna it is sliced and eaten with salad, like beetroot, which it then much resembles. on the continent it is everywhere included amongst the best of edible species. the _hydnei_, instead of pores or tubes, are characterized by spines or warts, over which the fructifying surface is expanded. the most common is _hydnum repandum_, fr., found in woods and woody places in england, and on the continent, extending into the united states. when raw, it is peppery to the taste, but when cooked is much esteemed. from its drier nature, it can readily be dried for winter use. less common in england is _hydnum imbricatum_, fr., although not so uncommon on the continent. it is eaten in germany, austria, switzerland, france, and elsewhere. _hydnum lævigatum_, swartz, is eaten in alpine districts.[u] of the branched species, _hydnum coralloides_, scop.,[v] and _hydnum caput medusæ_, bull,[w] are esculent, but very rare in england. the latter is not uncommon in austria and italy, the former in germany, switzerland, and france. _hydnum erinaceum_, bull, is eaten in germany[x] and france. the clavarioid fungi are mostly small, but of these the majority of the white-spored are edible. _clavaria rugosa_, bull, is a common british species, as also is _clavaria coralloides_, l., the former being found also in the united states. _clavaria fastigiata_, d. c., is not uncommon; but _clavaria amethystina_, bull, a beautiful violet species, is rare. in france and italy, _clavaria cinerea_, bull, is classed with esculents; and it is not uncommon in britain. _clavaria botrytis_, p., and _clavaria aurea_, schæff., are large and beautiful species, but rare with us; they extend also into the united states. others might be named (dr. curtis enumerates thirteen species eaten in carolina), which are certainly wholesome, but they are of little importance as edible species. _sparassis crispa_, fr., is, on the contrary, very large, resembling in size,[y] and somewhat in appearance, a cauliflower; it has of late years been found several times in this country. in austria it is fricasseed with butter and herbs. of the true tremellæ, none merit insertion here. the curious jew's ear (_hirneola auricula-judæ_, fr.), with one or two other species of _hirneola_, are collected in great quantities in tahiti, and shipped in a dried state to china, where they are used for soup. some of these find their way to singapore. the false truffles (_hypogæi_) are of doubtful value, one species (_melanogaster variegatus_, tul.) having formerly been sold in the markets of bath as a substitute for the genuine truffle.[z] neither amongst the _phalloidei_ do we meet with species of any economic value. the gelatinous volva of a species of _ileodictyon_ is eaten by the new zealanders, to whom it is known as thunder dirt; whilst that of _phallus mokusin_ is applied to a like purpose in china;[aa] but these examples would not lead us to recommend a similar use for _phallus impudicus_, fr., in britain, or induce us to prove the assertion of a scotch friend that the porous stem is very good eating. one species of puff-ball, _lycoperdon giganteum_, fr,[ab] has many staunch advocates, and whilst young and cream-like, it is, when well manipulated, an excellent addition to the breakfast-table. a decided advantage is possessed by this species, since one specimen is often found large enough to satisfy the appetites of ten or twelve persons. other species of _lycoperdon_ have been eaten when young, and we have been assured by those who have made the experiment, that they are scarcely inferior to their larger congener. _bovista nigrescens_, fr., and _bovista plumbea_, fr., are also eaten in the united states. more than one species of _lycoperdon_ and _bovista_ appear in the bazaars of india, as at secunderabad and rangoon; while the white ant-hills, together with an excellent agaric, produce one or more species of _podaxon_ which are esculent when young. a species of _scleroderma_ which grows abundantly in sandy districts, is substituted for truffles in perigord pies, of which, however, it does not possess any of the aroma. [illustration: fig. .--_morchella gigaspora_, from kashmir.] passing over the rest of the sporiferous fungi, we find amongst the _ascomycetous_ group several that are highly esteemed. amongst these may first be named the species of morel, which are regarded as delicacies wherever they are found. _morchella esculenta_, pers., is the most common species, but we have also _morchella semilibera_, d. c., and the much larger _morchella crassipes_, pers. probably all the species of _morchella_ are esculent, and we know that many besides the above are eaten in europe and other places; _morchella deliciosa_, fr., in java; _morchella bohemica_, kromb., in bohemia; _morchella gigaspora_, cooke, and _morchella deliciosa_, fr., in kashmere.[ac] _morchella rimosipes_, d. c., occurs in france and bohemia; _morchella caroliniana_, bosc., in the southern united states of america. w. g. smith records the occurrence in britain of specimens of _morchella crassipes_, p., ten inches in height, and one specimen was eleven inches high, with a diameter of seven and a half inches.[ad] similar in uses, though differing in appearance, are the species of _helvella_, of which several are edible. in both these genera, the individuals can be dried so readily that they are the more valuable on that account, as they can be used for flavouring in winter when fresh specimens of any kind of fungus are difficult to procure. the most common english species is _helvella crispa_, fr., but _helvella lacunosa_, fr., is declared to be equally good, though not so large and somewhat rare. _helvella infula_, fr., is also a large species, but is not british, although it extends to north america, as also does _helvella sulcata_, afz. intermediate between the morel and _helvella_ is the species which was formerly included with the latter, but now known as _gyromitra esculenta_, fr.[ae] it is rarely found in great britain, but is more common on the continent, where it is held in esteem. a curious stipitate fungus, with a pileus like a hood, called _verpa digitaliformis_, pers.,[af] is uncommon in england, but vittadini states that it is sold in the italian markets, although only to be recommended when no other esculent fungus offers, which is sometimes the case in spring.[ag] two or three species of _peziza_ have the reputation of being esculent, but they are of very little value; one of these is _peziza acetabulum_, l., another is _peziza cochleata_, huds., and a third is _peziza venosa_, pers.[ah] the latter has the most decided nitrous odour, and also fungoid flavour, whilst the former seem to have but little to recommend them; we have seen whole baskets full of _peziza cochleata_ gathered in northamptonshire as a substitute for morels. a very interesting genus of edible fungi, growing on evergreen beech trees in south america, has been named _cyttaria_. one of these, _cyttaria darwinii_, b., occurs in terra del fuego, where it was found by mr. c. darwin[ai] growing in vast numbers, and forming a very essential article of food for the natives. another is _cyttaria berteroi_, b., also seen by mr. darwin in chili, and eaten occasionally, but apparently not so good as the preceding.[aj] another species is _cyttaria gunnii_, b., which abounds in tasmania, and is held in repute amongst the settlers for its esculent properties.[ak] [illustration: fig. .--_cyttaria gunnii_, b.] it remains for us only to note the subterranean fungi, of which the truffle is the type, to complete our enumeration of esculent species. the truffle which is consumed in england is _tuber æstivum_, vitt.; but in france the more highly-flavoured _tuber melanospermum_, vitt.,[al] and also _tuber magnatum_, pico, with some other species. in italy they are very common, whilst some are found in algeria. one species at least is recorded in the north-west of india, but in northern europe and north america they appear to be rare, and _terfezia leonis_ is used as an esculent in damascus. a large species of _mylitta_, sometimes several inches in diameter, occurs plentifully in some parts of australia. although often included with fungi, the curious production known under the name of _pachyma cocos_, fr., is not a fungus, as proved by the examinations made by the rev. m. j. berkeley. it is eaten under the name of "tuckahoe" in the united states, and as it consists almost entirely of pectic acid, it is sometimes used in the manufacture of jelly. in the neilgherries (s. india), a substance is occasionally found which is allied to the native bread of southern latitudes. it is found at an elevation of , feet. the natives call it "a little man's bread," in allusion to the tradition that the neilgherries were once peopled by a race of dwarfs.[am] at first it was supposed that these were the bulbs of some orchid, but later another view was held of their character. mr. scott, who examined the specimens sent down to him, remarks that, instead of being the product of orchids, it is that of an underground fungus of the genus _mylitta_. it indeed seems, he says, very closely allied to, if really distinct from, the so-called native bread of tasmania.[an] of the fungi employed in medicine, the first place must be assigned to ergot, which is the sclerotioid condition of a species of _claviceps_. it occurs not only on rye but on wheat, and many of the wild grasses. on account of its active principle, this fungus still holds its place in the materia medica. others which formerly had a reputation are now discarded, as, for instance, the species of _elaphomyces_; and _polyporus officinalis_, fr., which has been partly superseded as a styptic by other substances, was formerly employed as a purgative. the ripe spongy capillitium of the great puff-ball _lycoperdon giganteum_, fr., has been used for similar purposes, and also recommended as an anodyne; indeed formidable surgical operations have been performed under its influence, and it is frequently used as a narcotic in the taking of honey. langsdorf gives a curious account of its employment as a narcotic; and in a recent work on kamtschatka it is said to obtain a very high price in that country. dr. porter smith writes of its employment medicinally by the chinese, but from his own specimens it is clearly a species of _polysaccum_, which he has mistaken for _lycoperdon_. in china several species are supposed to possess great virtue, notably the _torrubia sinensis_, tul.,[ao] which is developed on dead caterpillars; as it is, however, recommended to administer it as a stuffing to roast duck, we may be sceptical as to its own sanitary qualities. _geaster hygrometricus_, fr., we have also detected amongst chinese drugs, as also a species of _polysaccum_, and the small hard _mylitta lapidescens_, horn. in india, a large but imperfect fungus, named provisionally _sclerotium stipitatum_, curr., found in nests of the white ant, is supposed to possess great medicinal virtues.[ap] a species of _polyporus_ (_p. anthelminticus_, b.), which grows at the root of old bamboos, is employed in burmah as an anthelmintic.[aq] in former times the jew's ear (_hirneola auricula judæ_, fr.) was supposed to possess great virtues, which are now discredited. yeast is still included amongst pharmaceutical substances, but could doubtless be very well dispensed with. truffles are no longer regarded as aphrodisiacs. for other uses, we can only allude to amadou, or german tinder, which is prepared in northern europe from _polyporus fomentarius_, fr., cut in slices, dried, and beaten until it is soft. this substance, besides being used as tinder, is made into warm caps, chest protectors, and other articles. this same, or an allied species of _polyporus_, probably _p. igniarius_, fr., is dried and pounded as an ingredient in snuff by the ostyacks on the obi. in bohemia some of the large polyporei, such as _p. igniarius_ and _p. fomentarius_, have the pores and part of the inner substance removed, and then the pileus is fastened in an inverted position to the wall, by the part where originally it adhered to the wood. the cavity is then filled with mould, and the fungus is used, with good effect, instead of flower-pots, for the cultivation of such creeping plants as require but little moisture.[ar] the barren mycelioid condition of _penicillium crustaceum_, fr., is employed in country districts for the domestic manufacture of vinegar from saccharine liquor, under the name of the "vinegar plant." it is stated that _polysaccum crassipes_, d. c.,[as] is employed in the south of europe to produce a yellow dye; whilst recently _polyporus sulfureus_, fr., has been recommended for a similar purpose. _agaricus muscarius_, fr., the fly-agaric, known to be an active poison, is used in decoction in some parts of europe for the destruction of flies and bugs. probably _helotium æruginosum_, fr.,[at] deserves mention here, because it stains the wood on which it grows, by means of its diffuse mycelium, of a beautiful green tint, and the wood thus stained is employed for its colour in the manufacture of tonbridge ware. this completes the list, certainly of the most important, of the fungi which are of any direct use to humanity as food, medicine, or in the arts. as compared with lichens, the advantage is certainly in favour of fungi; and even when compared with algæ, the balance appears in their favour. in fact, it may be questioned whether, after all, fungi do not present a larger proportion of really useful species than any other of the cryptogams; and without any desire to disparage the elegance of ferns, the delicacy of mosses, the brilliancy of some algæ, or the interest which attaches to lichens, it may be claimed for fungi that in real utility (not uncombined with injuries as real) they stand at the head of the cryptogams, and in closest alliance with the flowering plants. [a] badham, dr. c. d., "a treatise on the esculent funguses of england," st edition ( ), p. , pl. ; nd edition, edited by f. currey, m.a. ( ), p. , pl. ; cooke, m. c., "a plain and easy account of british fungi," st edition ( ), p. . [b] mr. worthington smith has published, on two sheets, coloured figures of the most common esculent and poisonous fungi (london, hardwicke), which will be found more useful than mere description in the discrimination of the species. [c] roques, j., "hist. des champignons comestibles et vénéneux," paris ( ), p. . [d] lenz, dr. h. ., "die nützlichen und schädlichen schwämme," gotha ( ), p. , pl. . [e] bull, h. g., in "transactions of woolhope club" ( ). fries admits them as distinct species in the new edition of his "epicrisis." [f] hussey's "illustrations of mycology," ser. i. pl. . [g] sowerby's "british fungi," pl. . [h] favre-guillarmod, "les champignons comestibles du canton de neuchatel" ( ), p. . [i] sowerby, "english fungi," pl. ; smith, in "seemann's journ. bot." ( ), t. , f. . [j] klotsch, "flora borussica," t. ; smith, in "seem. journ. bot." ( ), t. , f. - . [k] krombholz, "abbildungen der schwämme," pl. , f. - . [l] tratinnick, l., "fungi austriaci," p. , pl. , f. . [m] vittadini, "fungi mangerecci," pl. . [n] cooke, in "journal of botany," vol. viii. p. . [o] cooke, m. c., "a plain and easy guide," &c., p. , pl. , fig. . [p] krombholz, "schwämme," t. . vittadini, "mang." t. . [q] vittadini, "mangerecci," t. . [r] berkeley, "outlines," pl. , fig. . [s] saunders and smith, "mycological illustr." pl. . [t] cooke, m. c., "handbook of british fungi," vol. i. pl. , fig. . [u] "gardener's chronicle" ( ), p. . [v] berkeley, "outlines of british fungology," p. . [w] cooke, "easy guide to british fungi," pl. . [x] ibid., pl. . [y] hussey, "mycol. illust." pl. . [z] bulliard, "champ." t. . [a] cooke, "easy guide," pl. , fig. ; hussey, "illust." vol. ii. pl. . [b] greville, "scot. crypt. flora," t. . [c] ibid., t. . [d] sowerby, "fungi," pl. ; schæffer, "icones bav." t. . [e] trattinnick, l., "die essbaren schwämme" ( ), p. , pl. m; barla, j. b., "champignons de la nice" ( ), p. , pl. . [f] smith, "edible mushrooms," fig. . [g] barla, "champ. nice," t. , f. - . [h] vittadini, c., "funghi mangerecci" ( ), p. ; barla, "champ. nice," pl. i. [i] vittadini, c., "funghi mangerecci," p. ; roques, "champ. comest." p. . [j] badham, dr., "esculent funguses of britain," nd ed. p. ; hussey, "illust. brit. mycol." st ser. pl. ; barla, "champ." pl. , f. - . [k] trattinnick, l., "essbaren schwämme," p. . [l] lenz, "die nützlichen und schädlichen schwämme," p. . [m] badham, "esculent funguses of great britain," ed. p. . [n] hussey, "myc. illus." ii. pl. ; paulet, "champ." t. . [o] barla, j. b., "champ. de la nice," p. , pl. , f. - . [p] hussey, "illustr." ii. t. ; barla, "champ. nice," t. , f. - . [q] hussey, "illustr." i. t. ; krombholz, "schwämme," t. . [r] badham's "esculent funguses," st ed. pp. and . [s] catalogue of plants of carolina, u.s. [t] badham, dr., "esculent funguses," nd ed. p. ; hussey, "illustrations," st ser. pl. ; berkeley, in "gard. chron." ( ), p. ; bull, in "trans. woolhope club" ( ). [u] barla, "champ. nice," p. , pl. , f. , . [v] roques, i. c. p. . [w] lenz, p. ; roques, i. c. p. , pl. , fig. . [x] lenz, h. o., "die nützlichen und schädlichen schwämme," p. . [y] berkeley, m. j., in "intellectual observer," no. , pl. . [z] berkeley, m. j., "outlines of british fungology," p. . [aa] berkeley, m. j., "introduction to crypt. bot." p. . [ab] cooke, m. c., "a plain and easy guide," &c., p. . [ac] cooke, m. c., "on kashmir morels," in "trans. bot. soc. edin." vol. x. p. , with figs. [ad] smith, "journ. bot." vol. ix. p. . [ae] cooke, "handbook," fig. . [af] cooke, "handbook," fig. . [ag] vittadini, c., "funghi mangerecci," p. . [ah] greville, "sc. crypt. fl." pl. . [ai] berkeley, in "linn trans." xix. p. ; cooke, in "technologist" ( ), p. . [aj] berkeley, m. j., in "linn. trans." xix. p. . [ak] berkeley, m. j., in "hooker, flora antarctica," p. ; in "hooker's journ. bot." ( ), , t. , . [al] vittadini, c., "monographia tuberacearum" ( ), pp. , &c. [am] "proceedings agri. hort. soc. india" (dec. ), p. lxxix. [an] _ibid._ (june, ), p. xxiii. [ao] lindley, "vegetable kingdom," fig. xxiv. [ap] currey, f., in "linn. trans." vol. xxiii. p. . [aq] "pharmacopoeia of india," p. . [ar] "gard. chron." ( ), p. . [as] barla, "champ. de la nice," p. , pl. , fig. . [at] greville, "scott. crypt. flora," pl. . v. notable phenomena. there are no phenomena associated with fungi that are of greater interest than those which relate to luminosity. the fact that fungi under some conditions are luminous has long been known, since schoolboys in our juvenile days were in the habit of secreting fragments of rotten wood penetrated by mycelium, in order to exhibit their luminous properties in the dark, and thus astonish their more ignorant or incredulous fellows rumphius noted its appearance in amboyna, and fries, in his observations, gives the name of _thelephora phosphorea_ to a species of _corticium_ now known as _corticium cæruleum_, on account of its phosphorescence under certain conditions. the same species is the _auricularia phosphorea_ of sowerby, but he makes no note of its phosphorescence. luminosity in fungi "has been observed in various parts of the world, and where the species has been fully developed it has been generally a species of _agaricus_ which has yielded the phenomenon."[a] one of the best-known species is the _agaricus olearius_ of the south of europe, which was examined by tulasne with especial view to its luminosity.[b] in his introductory remarks, he says that four species only of agaricus that are luminous appear at present to be known. one of them, _a. olearius_, d. c., is indigenous to central europe; another, _a. igneus_, rumph., comes from amboyna; the third, _a. noctileucus_, lév., has been discovered at manilla by gaudichaud, in ; the last, _a. gardneri_, berk., is produced in the brazilian province of goyaz, upon dead leaves. as to the _dematium violaceum_, pers., the _himantia candida_, pers., cited once by link, and the _thelephora cærulea_, d. c. _(corticium cæruleum_, fr.), tulasne is of opinion that their phosphorescent properties are still problematical; at least no recent observation confirms them. the phosphorescence of _a. olearius_, d. c., appears to have been first made known by de candolle, but it seems that he was in error in stating that these phosphorescent properties manifest themselves only at the time of its decomposition. fries, describing the _cladosporium umbrinum_, which lives upon the agaric of the olive-tree, expressed the opinion that the agaric only owes its phosphorescence to the presence of the mould. this, however, tulasne denies, for he writes, "i have had the opportunity of observing that the agaric of the olive is really phosphorescent of itself, and that it is not indebted to any foreign production for the light it emits." like delile, he considers that the fungus is only phosphorescent up to the time when it ceases to grow; thus the light which it projects, one might say, is a manifestation of its vegetation. "it is an important fact," writes tulasne, "which i can confirm, and which it is important to insist upon, that the phosphorescence is not exclusively confined to the hymenial surface. numerous observations made by me prove that the whole of the substance of the fungus participates very frequently, if not always, in the faculty of shining in the dark. among the first agarics which i examined, i found many, the stipe of which shed here and there a light as brilliant as the hymenium, and led me to think that it was due to the spores which had fallen on the surface of the stipe. therefore, being in the dark, i scraped with my scalpel the luminous parts of the stipe, but it did not sensibly diminish their brightness; then i split the stipe, bruised it, divided it into small fragments, and i found that the whole of this mass, even in its deepest parts, enjoyed, in a similar degree to its superficies, the property of light. i found, besides, a phosphorescence quite as brilliant in all the cap, for, having split it vertically in the form of plates, i found that the trama, when bruised, threw out a light equal to that of their fructiferous surfaces, and there is really only the superior surface of the pileus, or its cuticle, which i have never seen luminous. "as i have said, the agaric of the olive-tree, which is itself very yellow, reflects a strong brilliant light, and remains endowed with this remarkable faculty whilst it grows, or, at least, while it appears to preserve an active life, and remains fresh. the phosphorescence is at first, and more ordinarily, recognizable at the surface of the hymenium. i have seen a great number of young fungi which were very phosphorescent in the gills, but not in any other part. in another case, and amongst more aged fungi, the hymenium of which had ceased to give light, the stipe, on the contrary, threw out a brilliant glare. habitually, the phosphorescence is distributed in an unequal manner upon the stipe, and the same upon the gills. although the stipe is luminous at its surface, it is not always necessarily so in its interior substance, if one bruises it, but this substance frequently becomes phosphorescent after contact with the air. thus, i had irregularly split and slit a large stipe in its length, and i found the whole flesh obscure, whilst on the exterior were some luminous places. i roughly joined the lacerated parts, and the following evening, on observing them anew, i found them all flashing a bright light. at another time, i had with a scalpel split vertically many fungi in order to hasten their dessication; the evening of the same day, the surface of all these cuts was phosphorescent, but in many of these pieces of fungi the luminosity was limited to the cut surface which remained exposed to the air; the flesh beneath was unchanged. "i have seen a stipe opened and lacerated irregularly, the whole of the flesh of which remained phosphorescent during three consecutive evenings, but the brightness diminished in intensity from the exterior to the interior, so that on the third day it did not issue from the inner part of the stipe. the phosphorescence of the gills is in no way modified at first by immersing the fungus in water; when they have been immersed they are as bright as in the air, but the fungi which i left immersed until the next evening lost all their phosphorescence, and communicated to the water an already sensible yellow tint; alcohol put upon the phosphorescent gills did not at once completely obliterate the light, but visibly enfeebled it. as to the spores, which are white, i have found many times very dense coats of them thrown down on porcelain plates, but i have never seen them phosphorescent. "as to the observation made by delile that the agaric of the olive does not shine during the day when placed in total darkness, i think that it could not have been repeated. from what i have said of the phosphorescence of _a. olearius_, one naturally concludes that there does not exist any necessary relation between this phenomenon and the fructification of the fungus; the luminous brightness of the hymenium shows, says delile, 'the greater activity of the reproductive organs,' but it is not in consequence of its reproductive functions, which may be judged only as an accessory phenomenon, the cause of which is independent of, and more general than these functions, since all the parts of the fungus, its entire substance, throws forth at one time, or at successive times, light. from these experiments tulasne infers that the same agents, oxygen, water, and warmth, are perfectly necessary to the production of phosphorescence as much in living organized beings as in those which have ceased to live. in either case, the luminous phenomena accompany a chemical reaction which consists principally in a combination of the organized matter with the oxygen of the air; that is to say, in its combustion, and in the discharge of carbonic acid which thus shows itself." we have quoted at considerable length from these observations of tulasne on the agaric of the olive, as they serve very much to illustrate similar manifestations in other species, which doubtless resemble each other in their main features. mr. gardner has graphically described his first acquaintance in brazil with the phosphorescent species which now bears his name. it was encountered on a dark night of december, while passing through the streets of villa de natividate. some boys were amusing themselves with some luminous object, which at first he supposed to be a kind of large fire-fly, but on making inquiry he found it to be a beautiful phosphorescent agaric, which he was told grew abundantly in the neighbourhood on the decaying fronds of a dwarf palm. the whole plant gives out at night a bright light somewhat similar to that emitted by the larger fire-flies, having a pale greenish hue. from this circumstance, and from growing on a palm, it was called by the inhabitants "flor de coco."[c] the number of recognized phosphorescent species of _agaricus_ is not large, although two or three others may be enumerated in addition to those cited by tulasne. of these, _agaricus lampas_, and some others, are found in australia.[d] in addition to the _agaricus noctileucus_, discovered by gaudichaud, and the _agaricus igneus_ of rumphius, found in amboyna, dr. hooker speaks of the phenomenon as common in sikkim, but he seems never to have been able to ascertain with what species it was associated. dr. cuthbert collingwood has communicated some further information relative to the luminosity of a species of _agaricus_ in borneo (supposed to be _a. gardneri_), in which he says, "the night being dark, the fungi could be very distinctly seen, though not at any great distance, shining with a soft pale greenish light. here and there spots of much more intense light were visible, and these proved to be very young and minute specimens. the older specimens may more properly be described as possessing a greenish luminous glow, like the glow of the electric discharge, which, however, was quite sufficient to define its shape, and, when closely examined, the chief details of its form and appearance. the luminosity did not impart itself to the hand, and did not appear to be affected by the separation from the root on which it grew, at least not for some hours. i think it probable that the mycelium of this fungus is also luminous, for, upon turning up the ground in search of small luminous worms, minute spots of light were observed, which could not be referred to any particular object or body when brought to the light and examined, and were probably due to some minute portions of its mycelium."[e] the same writer also adds, "mr. hugh low has assured me that he saw the jungle all in a blaze of light (by which he could see to read) as, some years ago, he was riding across the island by the jungle road; and that this luminosity was produced by an agaric." similar experiences were detailed by mr. james drummond in a letter from swan river, in which two species of agaric are concerned. they grew on the stumps of trees, and had nothing remarkable in their appearance by day, but by night emitted a most curious light, such as the writer never saw described in any book. one species was found growing on the stump of a _banksia_ in western australia. the stump was at the time surrounded by water. it was on a dark night, when passing, that the curious light was first observed. when the fungus was laid on a newspaper, it emitted by night a phosphorescent light, enabling persons to read the words around it, and it continued to do so for several nights with gradually decreasing intensity as the plant dried up. in the other instance, which occurred some years after, the author, during one of his botanical trips, was struck by the appearance of a large agaric, measuring sixteen inches in diameter, and weighing about five pounds. this specimen was hung up to dry in the sitting-room, and on passing through the apartment in the dark it was observed to give out the same remarkable light. the luminous property continued, though gradually diminishing, for four or five nights, when it ceased on the plant becoming dry. "we called some of the natives," he adds, "and showed them this fungus when emitting light, and the poor creatures cried out 'chinga,' their name for a spirit, and seemed much afraid of it."[f] although the examples already cited are those of species of agaric, luminosity is not by any means wholly confined to that genus. mr. worthington smith has recorded his experiences of some specimens of the common _polyporus annosus_ which were found on some timbers in the cardiff coal mines. he remarks that the colliers are well acquainted with phosphorescent fungi, and the men state that sufficient light is given "to see their hands by." the specimens of _polyporus_ were so luminous that they could be seen in the dark at a distance of twenty yards. he observes further, that he has met with specimens of _polyporus sulfureus_ which were phosphorescent. some of the fungi found in mines, which emit light familiar to the miners, belong to the incomplete genus _rhizomorpha_, of which humboldt amongst others gives a glowing account. tulasne has also investigated this phenomenon in connection with the common _rhizomorpha subterranea_, pers. this species extends underneath the soil in long strings, in the neighbourhood of old tree stumps, those of the oak especially, which are becoming rotten, and upon these it is fixed by one of its branches. these are cylindrical, very flexible, branching, and clothed with a hard bark, encrusting and fragile, at first smooth and brown, becoming later very rough and black. the interior tissue, at first whitish, afterwards of a more or less deep brown colour, is formed of extremely long parallel filaments from . to . _mm._ in diameter. on the evening of the day when i received the specimens,[g] he writes, the temperature being about ° cent., all the young branches brightened with an uniform phosphoric light the whole of their length; it was the same with the surface of some of the older branches, the greater number of which were still brilliant in some parts, and only on their surface. i split and lacerated many of these twigs, but their internal substance remained dull. the next evening, on the contrary, this substance, having been exposed to contact with the air, exhibited at its surface the same brightness as the bark of the branches. i made this observation upon the old stalks as well as upon the young ones. prolonged friction of the luminous surfaces reduced the brightness and dried them to a certain degree, but did not leave on the fingers any phosphorescent matter. these parts continued with the same luminous intensity after holding them in the mouth so as to moisten them with saliva; plunged into water, held to the flame of a candle so that the heat they acquired was very appreciable to the touch, they still emitted in the dark a feeble light; it was the same after being held in water heated to ° c.; but putting them in water bearing a temperature of ° c. extinguished them entirely. they are equally extinguished if held in the mouth until they catch the temperature; perhaps, still, it might be attributed less to the heat which is communicated to them than to the deficiency of sufficient oxygen, because i have seen some stalks, having become dull in the mouth, recover after a few instants a little of their phosphorescence. a young stalk which had been split lengthwise, and the internal substance of which was very phosphorescent, could imbibe olive oil many times and yet continue for a long time to give a feeble light. by preserving these _rhizomorphæ_ in an adequate state of humidity, i have been able for many evenings to renew the examination of their phosphorescence; the commencement of dessication, long before they really perish, deprives them of the faculty of giving light. those which had been dried for more than a month, when plunged into water, commenced to vegetate anew and send forth numerous branches in a few days; but i could only discover phosphorescence at the surface of these new formations, or very rarely in their immediate neighbourhood, the mother stalks appearing to have lost by dessication their luminous properties, and did not recover them on being recalled to life. these observations prove that what schmitz has written was not true, that all parts of these fungi were seldom phosphorescent. the luminous phenomenon in question is without doubt more complicated than it appears, and the causes to which we attribute it are certainly powerfully modified by the general character of the objects in which they reside. most of the german botanists give this explanation, others suppose that it forms at first or during its continuance a special matter, in which the luminous property resides; this matter, which is said to be mucilaginous in the luminous wood, appears to be in the _rhizomorpha_ only a kind of chemical combination between the membrane and some gummy substance which they contain. notwithstanding this opinion, i am assured that all external mucous matter was completely absent from the _agaricus olearius_, and i neither discovered it upon the branches of _rhizomorpha subterranea_ nor upon the dead leaves which i have seen phosphorescent; in all these objects the luminous surfaces were nothing else than their proper tissue. it may be remarked here that the so-called species of _rhizomorpha_ are imperfect fungi, being entirely devoid of fructification, consisting in fact only of a vegetative system--a sort of compact mycelium--(probably of species of _xylaria_) with some affinity to _sclerotium_. recently an extraordinary instance of luminosity was recorded as occurring in our own country.[h] "a quantity of wood had been purchased in a neighbouring parish, which was dragged up a very steep hill to its destination. amongst them was a log of larch or spruce, it is not quite certain which, feet long and a foot in diameter. some young friends happened to pass up the hill at night, and were surprised to find the road scattered with luminous patches, which, when more closely examined, proved to be portions of bark or little fragments of wood. following the track, they came to a blaze of white light which was perfectly surprising. on examination, it appeared that the whole of the inside of the bark of the log was covered with a white byssoid mycelium of a peculiarly strong smell, but unfortunately in such a state that the perfect form could not be ascertained. this was luminous, but the light was by no means so bright as in those parts of the wood where the spawn had penetrated more deeply, and where it was so intense that the roughest treatment scarcely seemed to check it. if any attempt was made to rub off the luminous matter it only shone the more brightly, and when wrapped up in five folds of paper the light penetrated through all the folds on either side as brightly as if the specimen was exposed; when, again, the specimens were placed in the pocket, the pocket when opened was a mass of light. the luminosity had now been going on for three days. unfortunately we did not see it ourselves till the third day, when it had, possibly from a change in the state of electricity, been somewhat impaired; but it was still most interesting, and we have merely recorded what we observed ourselves. it was almost possible to read the time on the face of a watch even in its less luminous condition. we do not for a moment suppose that the mycelium is essentially luminous, but are rather inclined to believe that a peculiar concurrence of climatic conditions is necessary for the production of the phenomenon, which is certainly one of great rarity. observers as we have been of fungi in their native haunts for fifty years, it has never fallen to our lot to witness a similar case before, though prof. churchill babington once sent us specimens of luminous wood, which had, however, lost their luminosity before they arrived. it should be observed that the parts of the wood which were most luminous were not only deeply penetrated by the more delicate parts of the mycelium, but were those which were most decomposed. it is probable, therefore, that this fact is an element in the case as well as the presence of fungoid matter." in all cases of phosphorescence recorded, the light emitted is described as of the same character, varying only in intensity. it answers well to the name applied to it, as it seems remarkably similar to the light emitted by some living insects and other animal organisms, as well as to that evolved, under favourable conditions, by dead animal matter--a pale bluish light, resembling that emitted by phosphorus as seen in a dark room. another phenomenon worthy of note is the change of colour which the bruised or cut surface of some fungi undergo. most prominent amongst these are certain poisonous species of _boletus_, such, for instance, as _boletus luridus_, and some others, which, on being bruised, cut, or divided, exhibit an intense, and in some cases vivid, blue. at times this change is so instantaneous that before the two freshly-cut portions of a _boletus_ can be separated, it has already commenced, and proceeds rapidly till the depth of intensity has been gained. this blue colour is so universally confined to dangerous species that it is given as a caution that all species which exhibit a blue colour when cut or bruised, should on no account be eaten. the degree of intensity varies considerably according to the condition of the species. for example, _boletus cærulescens_ is sometimes only very slightly, if at all, tinged with blue when cut, though, as the name implies, the peculiar phenomenon is generally highly developed. it cannot be said that this change of colour has as yet been fully investigated. one writer some time since suggested, if he did not affirm, that the colour was due to the presence of aniline, others have contented themselves with the affirmation that it was a rapid oxidization and chemical change, consequent upon exposure of the surfaces to the air. archdeacon robinson examined this phenomenon in different gases, and arrived at the conclusion that the change depends on an alteration of molecular arrangement.[i] one of the best of the edible species of _lactarius_, known as _lactarius deliciosus_, changes, wherever cut or bruised, to a dull livid green. this fungus is filled with an orange milky fluid, which becomes green on exposure to the air, and it is consequently the juice which oxidizes on exposure. some varieties more than others of the cultivated mushroom become brownish on being cut, and a similar change we have observed, though not recorded, in other species. the presence of a milky juice in certain fungi has been alluded to. this is by no means confined to the genus _lactarius_, in which such juice is universal, sometimes white, sometimes yellow, and sometimes colourless. in agarics, especially in the subgenus _mycena_, the gills and stem are replete with a milky juice. also in some species of _peziza_, as for instance in _peziza succosa_, b., sometimes found growing on the ground in gardens, and in _peziza saniosa_, schrad., also a terrestrial species, the same phenomenon occurs. to this might be added such species as _stereum spadiceum_, fr., and _stereum sanguinolentum_, fr., both of which become discoloured and bleeding when bruised, while _corticium lactescens_ distils a watery milk. fungi in general have not a good repute for pleasant odours, and yet it must be conceded that they are not by any means devoid of odour, sometimes peculiar, often strong, and occasionally very offensive. there is a peculiar odour common to a great many forms, which has come to be called a fungoid odour; it is the faint smell of a long-closed damp cellar, an odour of mouldiness and decay, which often arises from a process of eremocausis. but there are other, stronger, and equally distinct odours, which, when once inhaled, are never to be forgotten. amongst these is the fetid odour of the common stinkhorn, which is intensified in the more beautiful and curious _clathrus_. it is very probable that, after all, the odour of the _phallus_ would not be so unpleasant if it were not so strong. it is not difficult to imagine, when one encounters a slight sniff borne on a passing breeze, that there is the element of something not by any means unpleasant about the odour when so diluted; yet it must be confessed that when carried in a vasculum, in a close carriage, or railway car, or exposed in a close room, there is no scruple about pronouncing the odour intensely fetid. the experience of more than one artist, who has attempted the delineation of _clathrus_ from the life, is to the effect that the odour is unbearable even by an enthusiastic artist determined on making a sketch. perhaps one of the most fetid of fungi is _thelephora palmata_. some specimens were on one occasion taken by mr. berkeley into his bedroom at aboyne, when, after an hour or two, he was horrified at finding the scent far worse than that of any dissecting room. he was anxious to save the specimens, but the scent was so powerful that it was quite intolerable till he had wrapped them in twelve thick folds of the strongest brown paper. the scent of _thelephora fastidiosa_ is bad enough, but, like that of _coprinus picaceus_, it is probably derived from the imbibition of the ordure on which it is developed. there needs no stronger evidence that the scent must not only be powerful, but unpleasant, when an artist is compelled, before a rough sketch is more than half finished, to throw it away, and seek relief in the open air. a great number of edible agarics have the peculiar odour of fresh meal, but two species, _agaricus odorus_ and _agaricus fragrans_, have a pleasant anise-like odour. in two or three species of tough _hydnum_, there is a strong persistent odour somewhat like melilot or woodruffe, which does not pass away after the specimen has been dried for years. in some species of _marasmius_, there is a decidedly strong odour of garlic, and in one species of _hygrophorus_, such a resemblance to that of the larva of the goat moth, that it bears the name of _hygrophorus cossus_. most of the fleshy forms exhale a strong nitrous odour during decay, but the most powerful we remember to have experienced was developed by a very large specimen of _choiromyces meandriformis_, a gigantic subterranean species of the truffle kind, and this specimen was four inches in diameter when found, and then partially decayed. it was a most peculiar, but strong and unpleasantly pungent nitrous odour, such as we never remember to have met with in any other substance. _peziza venosa_ is remarkable when fresh for a strong scent like that of aquafortis. of colour, fungi exhibit an almost endless variety, from white, through ochraceous, to all tints of brown until nearly black, or through sulphury yellow to reds of all shades, deepening into crimson, or passing by vinous tints into purplish black. these are the predominating gradations, but there are occasional blues and mineral greens, passing into olive, but no pure or chlorophyllous green. the nearest approach to the latter is found in the hymenium of some _boleti_. some of the agarics exhibit bright colours, but the larger number of bright-coloured species occur in the genus _peziza_. nothing can be more elegant than the orange cups of _peziza aurantia_, the glowing crimson of _peziza coccinea_, the bright scarlet of _peziza rutilans_, the snowy whiteness of _peziza nivea_, the delicate yellow of _peziza theleboloides_, or the velvety brown of _peziza repanda_. amongst agarics, the most noble _agaricus muscarius_, with its warty crimson pileus, is scarcely eclipsed by the continental orange _agaricus cæsarius_. the amethystine variety of _agaricus laccatus_ is so common and yet so attractive; whilst some forms and species _russula_ are gems of brilliant colouring. the golden tufts of more than one species of _clavaria_ are exceedingly attractive, and the delicate pink of immature _lycogala epidendrum_ is sure to command admiration. the minute forms which require the microscope, as much to exhibit their colour as their structure, are not wanting in rich and delicate tints, so that the colour-student would find much to charm him, and good practice for his pencil in these much despised examples of low life. amongst phenomena might be cursorily mentioned the peculiar sarcodioid mycelium of _myxogastres_, the development of amoeboid forms from their spores, and the extraordinary rapidity of growth, as the well-known instance of the _reticularia_ which schweinitz observed running over iron a few hours after it had been red hot. mr. berkeley has observed that the creamy mycelium of _lycogala_ will not revive after it has become dry for a few hours, though so active before. [a] m. j. berkeley, "introduction to cryptogamic botany," p. . [b] tulasne, "sur la phosphorescence des champignons," in "ann. des sci. nat." ( ), vol. ix, p. . [c] in "hooker's journal of botany" ( ), vol. ii. p. . [d] berkeley, "introduction to crypt. bot." t. . [e] dr. collingwood, in "journal of linnæan society (botany)," vol. x. p. . [f] in "hooker's journal of botany" for april, . [g] tulasne, "sur la phosphorescence," in "ann. des sci. nat." ( ), vol ix. p. , &c. [h] rev. m. j. berkeley, in "gardener's chronicle" for , p. . [i] berkeley, "introduction to crypt. bot." p. . vi. the spore and its dissemination. a work of this character would hardly be deemed complete without some reference to the above subject, which has moreover a relation to some of the questions discussed, and particularly of spore diffusion in the atmosphere. the largest spore is microscopic, and the smallest known scarcely visible under a magnifying power of diameters. taking into account the large number of species of fungi, probably scarcely less numerous than all the flowering plants, and the immense number of spores which some of the individuals produce, they must be exceedingly plentiful and widely diffused, though from their minuteness not easy to be discerned. it has been attempted to estimate the number of spores which might be produced by one single plant of _lycoperdon_, but the number so far exceeds that which the mind is accustomed to contemplate that it seems scarcely possible to realize their profusion. recent microscopic examinations of the common atmosphere[a] show the large quantity of spores that are continually suspended. in these investigations it was found that spores and similar cells were of constant occurrence, and were generally present in considerable numbers. that the majority of the cells were living, and ready to undergo development on meeting with suitable conditions, was very manifest, as in those cases in which preparations were retained under observation for any length of time, germination rapidly took place in many of the cells. in few instances did any development take place, beyond the formation of networks of mycelium, or masses of toruloid cells, but, in one or two, distinct sporules were developed on the filaments arising from some of the larger septate spores; and in a few others, _penicillium_ and _aspergillus_ produced their characteristic heads of fructification. with regard to the precise nature of the spores, and other cells present in various instances, little can be said, as, unless their development were to be carefully followed out through all its stages, it is impossible to refer them to their correct species or even genera. the greater number of them are apparently referable to the old orders of fungi, _sphæronemei_, _melanconei_, _torulacei_, _dematiei_ and _mucedines_, while some probably belonged to the _pucciniæi_ and _cæomacei_. hence it is demonstrated that a large number of the spores of fungi are constantly present in the atmosphere, which is confirmed by the fact that whenever a suitable pabulum is exposed it is taken possession of by floating spores, and soon converted into a forest of fungoid vegetation. it is admitted that the spores of such common moulds as _aspergillus_ and _penicillium_ are so widely diffused, that it is almost impossible to exclude them from closed vessels, or the most carefully guarded preparations. special contrivances for the dispersion of the spores in the different groups follow a few general types, and it is only rarely that we meet with any method that is confined only to a species or genus. some of the more significant forms of spores may be illustrated, with their modes of dissemination. basidiospores is a term which we may employ here to designate all spores borne at the tips of such supports as are found in the _hymenomycetes_ and _gasteromycetes_, to which the name of basidia has been given. in fact, under this section we may include all the spores of those two orders, although we may be ignorant of the precise mode in which the fruit of most of the _myxogastres_ is developed. guarding ourselves at the outset against any misinterpretation as to the use of this term, which, in fact, we employ simply to designate the fruit of _hymenomycetes_, we may have excuse in our desire to limit special terms as much as possible. in the _agaricini_ the spores are plentiful, and are distributed over the hymenium or gill plates, the surface of which is studded with basidia, each of which normally terminates with four short, erect, delicate, thread-like processes, each of which is surmounted by a spore. these spores are colourless or coloured, and it is upon this fact that primary divisions in the genus _agaricus_ are based, inasmuch as colour in the spores appears to be a permanent feature. in white-spored species the spores are white in all the individuals, not mutable as the colour of the pileus, or the corolla in phanerogamic plants. so also with the pink spored, rusty spored, black spored, and others. this may serve to explain why colour, which is so little relied upon in classification amongst the higher plants, should be introduced as an element of classification in one of the largest genera of fungi. [illustration: fig. .--spores of (_a_) _agaricus mucidus_; (_b_) _agaricus vaginatus_; (_c_) _agaricus pascuus_; (_d_) _agaricus nidorosus_; (_e_) _agaricus campestris_. (smith.)] [illustration: fig. .--spores of (_a_) _lactarius blennius_; (_b_) _lactarius fuliginosus_; (_c_) _lactarius quietus_. (smith.)] there are considerable differences in size and form amongst the spores of the _agaricini_, although at first globose; when mature they are globose, oval, oblong, elliptic, fusiform, and either smooth or tuberculated, often maintaining in the different genera or subgenera one particular characteristic, or typical form. it is unnecessary here to particularize all the modifications which the form and colour of the spores undergo in different species, as this has already been alluded to. the spores in the _polyporei_, _hydnei_, &c., are less variable, of a similar character, as in all the _hymenomycetes_, except perhaps the _tremellini_. [illustration: fig. a.--(_a_) spore of _gomphidius viscidus;_ (_b_) spore of _coprinus micaceus_.] [illustration: fig. .--spores of (_a_) _polyporus cæsius_; (_b_) _boletus parasiticus_; (_c_) _hydnum_.] when an agaric is mature, if the stem is cut off close to the gills, and the pileus inverted, with the gills downwards on a sheet of black paper (one of the pale-spored species is best for this purpose), and left for a few hours, or all night, in that position, the paper will be found imprinted in the morning with a likeness of the under side of the pileus with its radiating gills, the spores having been thrown down upon the paper in such profusion, from the hymenium, and in greater numbers from the opposed surfaces of the gills. this little experiment will be instructive in two or three points. it will illustrate the facility with which the spores are disseminated, the immense number in which they are produced, and the adaptability of the gill structure to the economy of space, and the development of the largest number of basidiospores from a given surface. the tubes or pores in _polyporei_, the spines in _hydnei_, are modifications of the same principles, producing a like result. in the _gasteromycetes_ the spores are produced in many cases, probably in most, if not all, at the tips of sporophores; but the hymenium, instead of being exposed, as in the _hymenomycetes_, is enclosed within an outer peridium or sac, which is sometimes double. the majority of these spores are globose in form, some of them extremely minute, variously coloured, often dark, nearly black, and either externally smooth or echinulate. in some genera, as _enerthenema_, _badhamia_, &c., a definite number of spores are at first enclosed in delicate cysts, but these are exceptions to the general rule: this also is the case in at least one species of _hymenogaster_. as the spores approach maturity, it may be observed in such genera as _stemonitis_, _arcyria_, _diachea_, _dictydium_, _cribraria_, _trichia_, &c., that they are accompanied by a sort of reticulated skeleton of threads, which remain permanent, and served in earlier stages, doubtless, as supports for the spores; being, in fact, the skeleton of the hymenium. it has been suggested that the spiral character of the threads in _trichia_ calls to mind the elaters in the _hepaticæ_, and like them may, by elasticity, aid in the dispersion of the spores. there is nothing known, however, which will warrant this view. when the spores are mature, the peridium ruptures either by an external orifice, as in _geaster_, _lycoperdon_, &c., or by an irregular opening, and the light, minute, delicate, spores are disseminated by the slightest breath of air. specimens of _geaster_ and _bovista_ are easily separated from the spot on which they grew; when rolling from place to place, the spores are deposited over a large surface. in the _phalloidei_ the spores are involved in a slimy mucus which would prevent their diffusion in such a manner. this gelatinous substance has nevertheless a peculiar attraction for insects, and it is not altogether romantic to believe that in sucking up the fetid slime, they also imbibe the spores and transfer them from place to place, so that even amongst fungi insects aid in the dissemination of species. whether or not the _myxogastres_ should be included here is matter of opinion, since the mode in which the spores are developed is but little known; analogy with the _trichogastres_ in other points alone leading to the conclusion that they may produce basidiospores. the slender, elastic stems which support the peridia in many species are undoubted aids to the dissemination of the spores.[b] [illustration: fig. .--_diachea elegans._] under the name of stylospores may be classed those spores which in some orders of _coniomycetes_ are produced at the apex of short threads, either enclosed in a perithecium, or seated upon a kind of stroma. these are exceedingly variable, sometimes large, and multiseptate, at other times minute, resembling spermatia. in such genera as are chiefly epiphytal, in _septoria_, _phyllosticta_, and their allies, the minute spores are enclosed within membranaceous perithecia, and when mature these are ejected from the orifice at the apex, or are exposed by the breaking off of the upper portion of the perithecia. in _diplodia_ and _hendersonia_ the spores are larger, mostly coloured, often very fine in the latter genus, and multiseptate, escaping from the perithecia by a terminal pore. probably the species are only pycnidia of _sphæriacei_, but that is of no consequence in relation to our present inquiry. of stylospores which deserve mention on account of their singularity of form, we may note those of _dilophospora graminis_, which are straight, and have two or three hair-like appendages at each extremity. in _discosia_ there is a single oblique bristle at each end, or at the side of the septate spores, whilst in _neottiospora_ a tuft of delicate hairs is found at one extremity only. the appendages in _dinemasporium_ are similar to those of _discosia_. the spores in _prosthemium_ may be said in some sort to resemble compound _hendersonia_, being fusiform and multiseptate, often united at the base in a stellate manner. in this genus, as in _darluca_, _cytispora_, and the most of those belonging to the _melanconiei_, the spores when mature are expelled from the orifice of the perithecium or spurious perithecium, either in the form of tendrils, or in a pasty mass. in these instances the spores are more or less involved in gelatine, and when expelled lie spread over the matrix, around the orifice; their ultimate diffusion being due to moisture washing them over other parts of the same tree, since it is probable that their natural area of dissemination is not large, the higher plants, of which they are mostly conditions, being developed on the same branches. more must be known of the relations between _melanconium_ and tulasne's sphæriaceous genus _melanconis_ before we can appreciate entirely the advantage to _melanconium_ and some other genera, that the wide diffusion of their spores should be checked by involving them in mucus, or their being agglutinated to the surface of the matrix, only to be softened and diffused by rain. the spores in many species amongst the _melanconiei_ are remarkably fine; those of _stegonosporium_ have the endochrome partite and cellular. in _stilbospora_ and _coryneum_ the spores are multiseptate, large, and mostly coloured. in _asterosporium_ the spores are stellate, whilst in _pestalozzia_ they are septate, with a permanent peduncle, and crested above with two or three hyaline appendages. [illustration: fig. .--spore of _hendersonia polycystis_.] [illustration: fig. .--spores of _dilophospora graminis_.] [illustration: fig. .--spores of _discosia_.] [illustration: fig. .--spore of _prosthemium betulinum_.] [illustration: fig. .--spore of _stegonosporium cellulosum_.] [illustration: fig. .--stylospores of _coryneum disciforme_.] [illustration: fig. .--spores of _asterosporium hoffmanni_.] [illustration: fig. .--spores of _pestalozzia_.] [illustration: fig. .--_bispora monilioides_.] the _torulacei_ externally, and to the naked eye, are very similar to the black moulds, and the mode of dissemination will be alike in both. the spores are chiefly compound, at first resembling septate threads, and at length breaking up into joints, each joint of which possesses the function of a spore. in some instances the threads are connate, side by side, as in _torula hysterioides_, and in _speira_, being concentrically arranged in laminæ in the latter genus. the structure in _sporochisma_ is very peculiar, the joints breaking up within an external tube or membrane. the spores in _sporidesmium_ appear to consist of irregular masses of cells, agglomerated into a kind of compound spore. most of the species become pulverulent, and the spores are easily diffused through the air like an impalpable dust. they form a sort of link between the stylospores of one section of the _coniomycetes_, and the pseudospores of the parasitical section. pseudospore is, perhaps, the most fitting name which can be applied to the so-called spores of the parasitical _coniomycetes_. their peculiar germination, and the production of reproductive bodies on the germ tubes, prove their analogy to some extent with the prothallus of other cryptogams, and necessitate the use of some term to distinguish them from such spores as are reproductive without the intervention of a promycelium. the differences between these pseudospores in the several genera are confined in some instances to their septation, in others to their mode of development. in the _Æcidiacei_ the pseudospores are more or less globose, produced in chains within an external cellular peridium. in the _cæomacei_ they are simple, sometimes produced in chains, and sometimes free, with or without a caduceous peduncle. in the _ustilaginei_ they are simple, dark coloured, and occasionally attached in subglobose masses, as in _urocystis_ and _thecaphora_, which, are more or less compact. in the _pucciniæi_ the distinctive features of the genera are based upon the more or less complex nature of the pseudospores, which are bilocular in _puccinia_, trilocular in _triphragmium_, multilocular in _phragmidium_, &c. in the curious genus _podisoma_ the septate pseudospores are involved in a gelatinous element. the diffusion of these fruits is more or less complete according to their compact or pulverulent nature. in some species of _puccinia_ the sori are so compact that they remain attached to the leaves long after they are dead and fallen. in the genus _melampsora_, the wedge-shaped winter-pseudospores are not perfected until after the dead leaves have for a long time remained and almost rotted on the ground. it is probable that their ultimate diffusion is only accomplished by the rotting and disintegration of the matrix. in the _cæomacei_, _ustilaginei_, and _Æcidiacei_ the pseudospores are pulverulent, as in some species of _puccinia_, and are easily diffused by the motion of the leaves in the wind, or the contact of passing bodies. their diffusion in the atmosphere seems to be much less than in the case of the _hyphomycetes_. by what means such a species as _puccinia malvacearum_, which has very compact sori, has become within so short a period diffused over such a wide area, is a problem which in the present state of our knowledge must remain unsolved. it may be through minute and plentiful secondary spores. [illustration: fig. .--pseudospores of _thecaphora hyalina_.] [illustration: fig. .--pseudospores of _puccinia_.] [illustration: fig. .--pseudospores of _triphragmium_.] [illustration: fig. .--pseudospores of _phragmidium bulbosum_.] [illustration: fig. .--_melampsora salicina._ (winter fruit.)] spermatia are very minute delicate bodies found associated with many of the epiphyllous _coniomycetes_, and it has been supposed are produced in conjunction with some of the _sphæriacei_, but their real function is at present obscure, and the name is applied rather upon conjecture than knowledge. it is by no means improbable that spermatia do exist extensively amongst fungi, but we must wait in patience for the history of their relationship. trichospores might be applied better, perhaps, than _conidia_ to the spores which are produced on the threads of the _hyphomycetes_. some of them are known to be the conidia of higher plants; but as this is by no means the case with all, it would be assuming too much to give the name of conidia to the whole. by whatever name they may be called, the spores of the _hyphomycetes_ are of quite a different type from any yet mentioned, approximating, perhaps, most closely to the basidiospores of the _hymenomycetes_ in some, and _gasteromycetes_ in others; as, for instance, in the _sepedoniei_ and the _trichodermacei_. the form of the spores and their size differ materially, as well as the manner in which they are produced on the threads. in many they are very minute and profuse, but larger and less plentiful in the _dematiei_ than in the _mucedines_. the spores of some species of _helminthosporium_ are large and multiseptate, calling to mind the spores of the _melanconiei_. others are very curious, being stellate in _triposporium_, circinate in _helicoma_ and _helicocoryne_, angular in _gonatosporium_, and ciliate in _menispora ciliata_. some are produced singly and some in chains, and in some the threads are nearly obsolete. in _peronospora_, it has been demonstrated that certain species produce minute zoospores from the so-called spores. the dissemination of the minute spores of the _mucedines_ through the air is undoubted; rain also certainly assists not only in the dispersion of the spores in this as in other groups, but also in the production of zoospores which require moisture for that purpose. the form of the threads, and the mode of attachment of the spores, is far more variable amongst the _mucedines_ than the form of the spores, but the latter are in all instances so slightly attached to their supports as to be dissevered by the least motion. this aids also in the diffusion of the spores through the atmosphere. [illustration: fig. .--spores of _helicocoryne_.] sporangia are produced in the _physomycetes_ usually on the tips or branches of delicate threads, and these when mature dehisce and set free the minute sporidia. these are so small and uniform in their character that they require but a passing mention. the method of diffusion agrees much with that of the _mucedines_, the walls of the sporangia being usually so thin and delicate as to be easily ruptured. other modes of fructification prevail in some species by the production of cysts, which are the result of conjugation of the threads. these bodies are for the most part furnished with thicker and more resistant walls, and the diffusion of their contents will be regulated by other circumstances than those which influence the dispersion of the minute sporidia from the terminal cysts. probably they are more perennial in their character, and are assimilated more to the oogonia of _cystopus_ and _peronospora_, being rather of the nature of resting spores, inasmuch as the same threads usually bear the terminal fruits. [illustration: fig. .--sporidium of _genea verrucosa_.] [illustration: fig. .--alveolate sporidium of _tuber_.] thecaspores is a term which may be applied generally to all sporidia produced in asci, but these are in turn so innumerable and variable that it will be necessary to treat of some of the groups individually. the _thecaspores_, for instance, of the _tuberacei_ offer several features whereby they may be distinguished from other thecaspores. the asci in which these sporidia are generated mostly partake of a broadly saccate, ovate form. the number of sporidia contained in an individual ascus is usually less than in the majority of the _ascomycetes_, and the sporidia approximate more nearly to the globose form. usually, also, they are comparatively large. many have been figured by corda[c] and tulasne.[d] three types of spores may be said to prevail in the _tuberacei_: the smooth spored, the warted or spinulose, and the areolate. the first of these may be represented by the _stephensia bombycina_, in which the globose sporidia are quite smooth and colourless. the warted sporidia may be observed in _genea verrucosa_, the spinulose in _tuber nitidum_, and the areolate are present in _tuber æstivum_ and _tuber excavatum_, in which the epispore is divided into polygonal alveoli, bounded by thin, membranaceous, prominent partitions. this form of sporidium is very beautiful. in all no special provision is made for the dissemination of the sporidia, as, from their subterranean habit, none would be available save the ultimate dissolution of the external integuments. as they are greedily devoured by several animals, it is possible that they may be dispersed through the excrements. in the _perisporiacei_ the perithecium has no proper orifice, or ostiolum, for the discharge of the mature sporidia, which are usually small, and are disseminated by the irregular rupture of the somewhat fragile conceptacles. the asci are usually more or less saccate, and the sporidia approximate to a globose form. the asci are often very diffluent. in _perisporium vulgare_ the ovate brown sporidia are at first, and for some time, attached together in fours in a concatenate or beaded manner. in some species of _erysiphei_ the conceptacle encloses but a single sporangium, in others several, which are attached together at the base. in some species the sporangia contain two, in others four, in others eight, and in others numerous sporidia. in _chætomium_ the asci are cylindrical, and in most cases the coloured sporidia are lemon-shaped. when the conceptacles are fully matured, it is commonly the case that the asci are absorbed and the sporidia are free in the interior of the conceptacles. [illustration: fig. .--asci, sporidia, and paraphyses of _ascobolus_ (boudier).] of the fleshy _discomycetes_ the genus _peziza_ may be taken as the type. if the structure which prevails in this genus be brought to mind, it will be remembered that the hymenium lines an expanded cup, and that the asci are packed together, side by side, with their apices outwards, and their bases attached to a substratum of cells which form the inner layer of the receptacle. the sporidia are usually eight in each ascus, either arranged in single or double rows, or irregularly grouped together. the asci are produced in succession; the later, pressing themselves upwards between those previously developed, cause the rupture of the mature asci at the apex and the ejection of the sporidia with considerable force. when a large _peziza_ is observed for a time a whitish cloud will be seen to rise suddenly from the surface of the disc, which is repeated again and again whenever the specimen is moved. this cloud consists of sporidia ejected simultaneously from several asci. sometimes the ejected sporidia lie like frost on the surface of the disc. theories have been devised to account for this sudden extrusion of the sporidia, in _ascobolus_, and a few species of _peziza_, of the asci also, the most feasible one being the successive growth of the asci; contraction of the cup may also assist, as well as some other less potent causes. it may be remarked here that the sporidia in _peziza_ and _helotium_ are mostly colourless, whilst in _ascobolus_ they pass through pink to violet, or dark brown, and the epispore, which is of a waxy nature, becomes fissured in a more or less reticulated manner. [illustration: fig. .--sporidium of _ostreichnion americanum_.] the sporidia in _hysterium_ proper are usually coloured, often multiseptate, sometimes fenestrate, and occasionally of considerable size. there is no evidence that the sporidia are ever excluded in the same manner as in _peziza_, the lips closing over the disc so much as to prevent this. the diffusion of the sporidia probably depends on the dissolution of the asci, and hence they will not be widely dispersed, unless, perhaps, by the action of rain. in _tympanis_, asci of two kinds have been observed in some species; one kind containing an indefinite number of very minute bodies resembling spermatia, and the other octosporous, containing sporidia of the usual type. the _sphæriacei_ include an almost infinite variety in the form and character of the sporidia. some of these are indefinite in the number contained in an ascus, although the majority are eight, and a few less. in the genera _torrubia_ and _hypocrea_ the structure differs somewhat from other groups, inasmuch as in the former the long thread-like sporidia break up into short joints, and in the latter the ascus contains sixteen subglobose or subquadrate sporidia. other species contain linear sporidia, which are often the length of the ascus, and may either be simple or septate. in _sphæria ulnaspora_ the sporidia are abruptly bent at the second joint. shorter fusiform sporidia are by no means uncommon, varying in the number of septa, and in constriction at the joints in different species. elliptic or ovate sporidia are common, as are those of the peculiar form which may be termed sausage-shaped. these are either hyaline or coloured of some shade of brown. coloured sporidia of this kind are common in _xylaria_ and _hypoxylon_, as well as in certain species of the section _superficiales_. coloured sporidia are often large and beautiful: they are mostly of an elongated, elliptical form, or fusiform. as noteworthy may be mentioned the sporidia of _melanconis lanciformis_, those of _valsa profusa_, and some species of _massaria_, the latter being at first invested with a hyaline coat. some coloured sporidia have hyaline appendages at each extremity, as in _melanconis berkeleii_, and an allied species, _melanconis bicornis_, from the united states, also some dung _sphæriæ_, as _s. fimiseda_, included under the proposed genus _sordaria_.[e] hyaline sporidia occasionally exhibit a delicate bristle-like appendage at each extremity, as in the _valsa thelebola_, or with two additional cilia at the central constriction, as in _valsa taleola_. a peculiar form of sporidium is present in certain species of _sphæria_ found on dung, for which the generic name of _sporormia_ has been proposed, in which the sporidium (as in _perisporium vulgare_) consists of four coloured ovate joints, which ultimately separate. multiseptate fenestrate sporidia are not uncommon in _cucurbitaria_ and _pleospora_, as well as in _valsa fenestrata_ and some other species. in the north american _sphæria putaminum_ the sporidia are extraordinarily large. [illustration: fig. .--ascus and sporidia of _hypocrea_.] [illustration: fig. .--sporidium of _sphæria ulnaspora_.] [illustration: fig. .--sporidia of _valsa profusa_ (currey).] [illustration: fig. .--sporidia of _massaria foedans_. × .] [illustration: fig. .--sporidium of _melanconis bicornis_, cooke.] [illustration: fig. .--caudate sporidia of _sphæria fimiseda_.] [illustration: fig. .--sporidia of _valsa thelebola_.] [illustration: fig. .--sporidia of _valsa taleola_. × .] [illustration: fig. .--sporidium of _sporormia intermedia_.] [illustration: fig. .--asci and sporidia of _sphæria_ (_pleospora_) _herbarum_.] [illustration: fig. .--sporidium of _sphæria putaminum_. × .] the dissemination of the sporidia may, from identity of structure in the perithecium, be deemed to follow a like method in all. when mature, they are in a great measure expelled from the mouth of the perithecia, as is evident in species with large dark sporidia, such as exist in the genera _hypoxylon_, _melanconis_, and _massaria_. in these genera the sporidia, on maturity, may be observed blackening the matrix round the mouths of the perithecia. as moisture has an evident effect in producing an expulsion of sporidia by swelling the gelatinous nucleus, it may be assumed that this is one of the causes of expulsion, and therefore of aids to dissemination. when _sphæriæ_ are submitted to extra moisture, either by placing the twig which bears them on damp sand, or dipping one end in a vessel of water, the sporidia will exude and form a gelatinous bead at the orifice. there may be other methods, and possibly the successive production of new asci may also be one, and the increase in bulk by growth of the sporidia another; but of this the evidence is scanty. finally, oogonia may be mentioned as occurring in such genera as _peronospora_ amongst moulds, _cystopus_ amongst uredines, and the _saprolegniaceæ_ amongst the _physomycetes_. the zoospores being furnished with vibratile cilia, are for some time active, and need only water in which to disseminate themselves, and this is furnished by rain. we have briefly indicated the characteristics of some of the more important types of spores to be found in fungi, and some of the modes by which it is known, or presumed, that their dissemination takes place. in this summary we have been compelled to rest content with suggestions, since an exhaustive essay would have occupied considerable space. the variability in the fruit of fungi, in so far as we have failed to demonstrate, will be found exhibited in the illustrated works devoted more especially to the minute species.[f] [a] cunningham, in "ninth annual report of the sanitary commissioner with the government of india." calcutta, . [b] see "corda icones," tab. . [c] corda, "icones fungorum," vol. vi. prague. [d] tulasne, "fungi hypogæi." paris. [e] winter, "die deutschen sordarien" ( ). [f] corda, "icones fungorum," vols. ( - ); sturm, "deutschlands flora," pilze ( ); tulasne, "selecta fungorum carpologia;" bischoff, "kryptogamenkunde" ( ); corda, "anleitung zum studium der mykologie" ( ); fresenius, "beiträge zur mykologie" ( ); nees ton esenbeck, "das system der pilze" ( ); bonorden, "handbuch der allgemeinen mykologie" ( ). vii. germination and growth. in describing the structure of these organisms in a previous chapter, the modes of germination and growth from the spores have been purposely excluded and reserved for the present. it may be assumed that the reader, having followed us to this point, is prepared for our observations by some knowledge of the chief features of structure in the principal groups, and of the main distinctions in the classification, or at least sufficient to obviate any repetition here. in very many species it is by no means difficult to induce germination of the spores, whilst in others success is by no means certain. m. de seynes made the _hymenomycetes_ an especial object of study,[a] but he can give us no information on the germination and growth of the spore. hitherto almost nothing is positively known. as to the form of the spore, it is always at first spherical, which it retains for a long time, while attached to the basidia, and in some species, but rarely, this form is final, as in _ag. terreus_, &c. the most usual form is either ovoid or regularly elliptic. all the _coprini_ have the spores oval, ovoid, more or less elongated or attenuated from the hilum, which is more translucent than the rest of the spore. this last form is rather general amongst the leucospores, in _amanita_, _lepiota_, &c. at other times the spores are fusiform, with regularly attenuated extremities, as in _ag. ermineus_, fr., or with obtuse extremities, as in _ag. rutilans_, sch. in _hygrophorus_ they are rather irregular, reniform, or compressed in the centre all round. hoffmann[b] has given a figure taken from _ag. chlorophanus_, and seynes verified it upon _ag. ceraceus_, sow. (see figures on page .) the exospore is sometimes roughened, with more or less projecting warts, as may be seen in _russula_, which much resembles _lactarius_ in this as in some other particulars. the spores of the _dermini_ and the _hyporhodii_ often differ much from the sphærical form. in _ag. pluteus_, fr., and _ag. phaiocephalus_, bull, there is already a commencement of the polygonal form, but the angles are much rounded. it is in _ag. sericeus_, _ag. rubellus_, &c., that the polygonal form becomes most distinct. in _dermini_ the angles are more or less pronounced, and become rather acute in _ag. murinus_, sow., and _ag. ramosus_, bull. the passage from one to the other may be seen in the stellate form of the conidia of _nyctalis_. it is almost always the external membrane that is coloured, which is subject to as much variation as the form. the more fine and more delicate shades are of rose, yellow-dun or yellow, violet, ashy-grey, clear fawn colour, yellow-orange, olive-green, brick-red, cinnamon-brown, reddish-brown, up to sepia-black and other combinations. it is only by the microscope and transparency that one can make sure of these tints; upon a sufficient quantity of agglomerated spores the colour may be distinguished by the naked eye. colour, which has only a slight importance when considered in connection with other organs, acquires much in the spores, as a basis of classification. with the growth of agarics from the mycelium, or spawn, we are not deficient in information, but what are the conditions necessary to cause the spores themselves to germinate before our eyes and produce this mycelium is but too obscure. in the cultivated species we proceed on the assumption that the spores have passed a period of probation in the intestines of the horse, and by this process have acquired a germinating power, so that when expelled we have only to collect them, and the excrement in which they are concealed, and we shall secure a crop.[c] as to other species, we know that hitherto all attempts to solve the mystery of germination and cultivation has failed. there are several species which it would be most desirable to cultivate if the conditions could be discovered which are essential to germination.[d] in the same manner the _boleti_ and _hydnei_--in fact, all other hymenomycetal fungi, with the exception of the _tremellini_--still require to be interrogated by persevering experiment and close inquiry as to their mode of germination, but more especially as to the essential conditions under which alone a fruitful mycelium is produced. [illustration: fig. .--(_a_) basidia and spores of _exidia spiculosa_; (_b_) germinating spore.] the germination of the spore has been observed in some of the _tremellini_. tulasne described it in _tremella violacea_.[e] these spores are white, unilocular, and filled with a plastic matter of homogeneous appearance. from some portion of their surface an elongated germ filament is produced, into which the contents of the reproductive cell pass until quite exhausted. other spores, perhaps more abundant, have a very different kind of vegetation. from their convex side, more rarely from the outer edge, these particular spores emit a conical process, generally shorter than themselves, and directed perpendicularly to the axis of their figure. this appendage becomes filled with protoplasm at the expense of the spore, and its free and pointed extremity finally dilated into a sac, at first globose and empty. this afterwards admits into its cavity the plastic matter contained in its support, and, increasing, takes exactly the form of a new spore, without, however, quite equalling in size the primary or mother spore. the spore of the new formation long retains its pedicel, and the mother spore which produced it, but these latter organs are then entirely empty and extremely transparent. sometimes two secondary spores are thus engendered from the same spore, and their pedicels may be implanted on the same or on different sides, so as to be parallel in the former case, and growing in opposite directions in the latter. the fate of these secondary spores was not determined. [illustration: fig. .--germinating spore and (_a_) corpuscles of _dacrymyces deliquescens_.] in _dacrymyces deliquescens_ are found mingled amongst the spores immense numbers of small round or ovoid unilocular bodies, without appendages of any kind, which long puzzled mycologists. tulasne ascertained that they are derived from the spores of this fungus when they have become free, and rest on the surface of the hymenium. each of the cells of the spore emits exteriorly one or several of these corpuscles, supported on very short slender pedicels, which remain after the corpuscles are detached from them. this latter circumstance evidences that new corpuscles succeed the firstborn one on each pedicel as long as there remains any plastic matter within the spore. the latter, in fact, in consequence of this labour of production, becomes gradually emptied, and yet preserves the generative pedicels of the corpuscles, even when it no longer contains any solid or coloured matter. these pedicels are not all in the same plane, as may be ascertained by turning the spore on its longitudinal axis; but it often seems to be so when they are looked at in profile, on account of the very slight distance which then separates them one from another. it will also be remarked that they are in this case often implanted all on the same side of the reproductive body, and most often on its convex side. their fecundity is exhausted with the plastic contents of the spore. the corpuscles, when placed in the most favourable conditions, have never given the least sign of vegetation; they have also remained for a long time in water without experiencing any appreciable alteration. all the individuals of _dacrymyces deliquescens_ do not produce these corpuscles in the same abundance; those which bear the most are recognizable by the pale tint of the reproductive dust with which they are covered; in others, where this dust preserves its golden appearance, only a few corpuscles are found. the spores which produce corpuscles do not appear at all apt to germinate. on the other hand, multitudes of spores will germinate which had not produced any corpuscles. tulasne remarks on this, that these observations would authorize us to think that all spores, though perfectly identical to our eyes, have not, without distinction, the same fate, nor doubtless the same nature; and, in the second place, that these two kinds of bodies, if they are not always isolated, yet are most frequently met with on distinct individuals. this author claims for the corpuscles in question that they are spermatia, and thinks that their origin is only so far unusual in that they proceed from veritable spores. the whole of the _gasteromycetes_ have as yet to be challenged as to the mode and conditions of germination and development. it is probable that these will not materially differ from those which prevail in _hymenomycetes_. the germination in _Æcidium_ has been followed out by tulasne,[f] either by placing the pseudospores in a drop of water, or confining them in a moist atmosphere, or by placing the leaves on which the _Æcidium_ flourishes upon water. the pseudospores plunged in water germinated more readily than the others. if the conditions were favourable, germination would take place in a few hours. _Æcidium ranunculacearum_, d. c., on leaves of figwort, gives rarely more than one germinating filament, which soon attains three times the length of the diameter of the pseudospore. this filament generally remains simple, sometimes torulose, and distorted in a long spire. sometimes it has been seen divided into two branches, nearly equal to each other. the spore in germinating empties itself of its plastic contents, contracts, and diminishes in size. the pseudospores of _Æcidium crassum_, p., emit three long filaments, which describe spirals, imitating the twistings of the stem of a bean or bindweed. in _Æcidium violæ_, schum, one filament is produced, which frequently rolls up its anterior extremity into a spire, but more often this same extremity rises in a large ovoid, irregular vesicle, which continues the axis of the filament, or makes with it a more or less decided angle. in whatever manner placed, this vesicle attracts to it all the orange protoplasm, and hardly does this become settled and complete before the vesicle becomes the starting point of a new development, for it begins to produce at its apex a filament, more slender than the previous one, stiff, and unbranched. [illustration: fig. .--germination of _Æcidium euphorbia (sylvaticæ)_, tulasne.] according to m. tulasne, the germination of the pseudospores of _Æcidium euphorbiæ_ on _euphorbia sylvatica_ differ in some respects from the preceding. when dropped upon water these spores very soon emit a short tube, which ordinarily curves in an arch or circle, almost from its origin, attaining a length of from three to six times the diameter of the spore; then this tube gives rise to four spicules, each of which produces a small obovate or reniform sporule; the generation of these sporules absorbs all the plastic matter contained in the germ-tube, which permits of the observation that it was divided into four cells corresponding with the number of spicules. these sporules germinate very rapidly from an indefinite point of their surface, emitting a filiform process, which is flexuous and very delicate, not extending more in length than three times that of the long axis of the sporule, often less, reproducing at its summit a new sporule, differing in form and size from that which preceded it. this sporule of the second formation becomes at its apex a vital centre, and sprouts one or more linear buds, of which the elongation is occasionally interrupted by the formation of vesicular swellings. as tulasne observes, the pseudospores of the _Æcidium_ and the greater number of uredines are easily wetted with water before arriving at maturity; but when they are ripe, on the contrary, they appear to be clothed with a greasy matter which protects them from the liquid, forcing them almost all to rest on the surface. the pseudospores of _roestelia_ are produced in strings or chaplets, as in _Æcidium_, with this difference, that instead of being contiguous they are separated by narrow isthmuses. the ripe pseudospores are enveloped in a thick tegument, of a dark brown colour. they germinate readily on water, producing a filament fifteen times as long as the diameter of the spore. this filament is sometimes rolled or curved. towards its extremity it exhibits protuberances which resemble the rudiments of ramuli, or they terminate in a vesicle which gives rise to a slender filament. the tegument of these pseudospores, above all in those which have germinated, and have consequently become more transparent, it is easy to see has many pores, or round ostioles. in _peridermium_ the pseudospores, when dropped upon water, germinate at any point of their surface. sometimes two unequal filaments issue from the same spore. after forty-eight hours of vegetation in the air, the greater part had already emitted a multitude of thick little branches, themselves either simple or branched, giving to the filaments a peculiar aspect. tulasne did not on any occasion observe the formation of secondary spores. in the uredines proper the germination seems to be somewhat similar, or at least not offering sufficient differences to warrant special reference in _uredo_, _trichobasis_, _lecythea_, &c. in _coleosporium_ there are two kinds of spores, one kind consisting of pulverulent single cells, and the other of elongated septate cells, which break up into obovate joints. soon after the maturity of the pulverulent spores, each begins to emit a long tube, which is habitually simple, and produces at its summit a reproductive cellule, or reniform sporule. the orange protoplasm passes along the colourless tubes to the terminal sporule at the end of its vegetation. the two forms of spores in this genus are constantly found on the same leaf, and in the same pulvinule, but generally the pulverulent spores abound at the commencement of the summer. the reniform sporules begin to germinate in a great number as soon as they are free; some few extend a filament which remains simple and uniform, but more commonly it forms at its extremity a second sporule. if this does not become isolated, to play an independent life, the filament is continued, and new vesicles are repeated many times. [illustration: fig. .--germinating pseudospores of (_b_) _coleosporium sonchi_; (_s s_) secondary spores, or sporules (tulasne).] [illustration: fig. .--germinating pseudospore (_b_) of _melampsora betulina_ (tulasne).] in _melampsora_ the summer spores are of the _lecythea_ type, and were included in that genus till their relation with _melampsora_ was clearly made out. the winter spores are in solid pulvinules, and their fructification takes place towards the end of winter or in the spring. this phenomenon consists in the production of cylindrical tubes, which start from the upper extremity of the wedge-shaped spores, or more rarely from the base. these tubes are straight or twisted, simple or bifurcated, and each of them very soon emits four monosporous spicules, at the same time that they become septate. the sporules are in this instance globose. [illustration: fig. .--germinating pseudospore of _uromyce appendiculatus_. (tulasne.)] in _uromyces_ germination follows precisely the same type as that of the upper cell of _puccinia_; in fact, tulasne states that it is very difficult to say in what they differ from the _pucciniæ_ which are accidentally unilocular. in _cystopus_ a more complex method prevails, which will be examined more closely hereafter. in _puccinia_, as already observed when describing their structure, the pseudospores are two-celled. from the pores of each cell, which are near the central septum, springs a clavate tube, which attains two or three times the total length of the fruit, and of which the very obtuse extremity curves more or less in the manner of a crozier.[g] this tube, making a perfectly uncoloured transparent membrane, is filled with a granular and very pale plastic matter at the expense of the generative cell, which is soon rendered vacant; then it gives rise to four spicules, usually on the same side, and at the summit of these produces a reniform cellule. the four sporules so engendered exhaust all the protoplasm at first contained in the generative cell, so that their united capacity proves to be evidently much insufficient to contain it, the more so as it leads to the belief that this matter undergoes as it condenses an elaboration which diminishes its size. in all cases the spicule originates before the sporule which it carries, and also attains its full length when the sporule appears. the form of the latter is at first globular, then ellipsoid, and more or less curved. all these phases of vegetation are accomplished in less than twelve hours, and if the spore is mature and ready for germination, it is sufficient to provoke it by keeping the pseudospores in a humid atmosphere. during this process the two cells do not separate, nor does one commence germination before the other, but both simultaneously. when the sporules are produced, the protospore, somewhat analogous to a prothallus, has performed its functions and decays. towards the time of the falling of the sporules they are nearly all divided into four unequal cells by transverse and parallel septa. these sporules in time produce, from any point on their surface, a filament, which reproduces a new sporule, resembling the first, but generally smaller. this sporule of the second generation ordinarily detaches itself from its support before germinating. [illustration: fig. .--germinating pseudospore of _puccinia moliniæ_. (tulasne.)] [illustration: fig. .--germinating pseudospore of _triphragmium ulmariæ_ (tulasne.)] the pseudospores of _triphragmium ulmariæ_ have been seen in april germinating on old leaves of the meadowsweet which survived the winter, whilst at the same time new tufts of the spores were being developed on the leaves of the year. these fruits of the spring vegetation would not germinate the same year. each cell in germination emits a long cylindrical filament, containing a brownish protoplasm, on which four spicules, bearing as many sporules, are generated. [illustration: fig. .--germinating pseudospore of _phragmidium bulbosum_. (tulasne.)] the germination of the black fruits of _phragmidium_ only appears to take place in the spring. it greatly resembles that in _puccinia_, except that the filament is shorter, and the sporules are spherical and orange-coloured, instead of being kidney-shaped and pale. in the species found on the leaves of the common bramble, the filament emitted by each cell attains three or four times the length of the fruit. the granular orange protoplasm which fills it passes ere long into the sporules, which are engendered at the extremity of pointed spicules. after the long warty fruits are emptied of their contents they still seem as dark as before, but the pores which are pierced in the sides, through which the germinating filaments have proceeded, are more distinctly visible. it will be observed that throughout all these allied genera of _uromyces_, _puccinia_, _triphragmium_, and _phragmidium_ the same type of germination prevails, which confirms the accuracy of their classification together, and renders still less probable the supposed affinity of _phragmidium_ with _sporidesmium_, which was at one time held by very astute mycologists, but which is now abandoned. this study of germination leads also to a very definite conclusion with regard to the genus _uromyces_--that it is much more closely related to _puccinia_ and its immediate allies than to other unicellular uredines. the germination of the pseudospores of the gelatinous uredines of the genus _podisoma_ was studied by tulasne.[h] these pretended spores, he writes, are formed of two large conical cells, opposed by their base and easily separating. they vary in length. the membrane of which they are formed is thin and completely colourless in most of them, though much thicker and coloured brown in others. it is principally the spores with thin membranes that emit from near the middle very obtuse tubes, into which by degrees, as they elongate, the contents of the parent utricles pass. each of the two cells of the supposed spore may originate near its base four of these tubes, opposed to each other at their point of origin, and their subsequent direction; but it is rather rare for eight tubes, two by two, to decussate from the same spore or basidium. usually there are only two or three which are completely developed, and these tend together towards the surface of the fungus, which they pass, and expand at liberty in the air. the tubes generally become thicker by degrees as they elongate, some only slightly exceeding the length of the protospores. others attain three or four times that length, according to the greater or less distance between the protospore and the surface of the plant. in the longest tubes it is easy to observe how the colouring matter passes to their outer extremity, leaving the portion nearest to the parent cell colourless and lifeless. when nearly attaining their ultimate dimensions, all the tubes are divided towards their outer extremity by transverse septa into unequal cells; then simple and solitary processes, of variable length and form, but attenuated upwards, proceed from each segment of the initial tube, and produce at their extremity an oval spore (teleutospore, tul.), which is slightly curved and unilocular. these spores absorb all the orange endochrome from the original tubes. they appear in immense numbers on the surface of the fungus, and when detached from their spicules fall upon the ground or on any object which may be beneath them. so freely are they deposited that they may be collected on paper, or a slip of glass, like a fine gold-coloured powder. again, these secondary spores (teleutospores) are capable of germination, and many of them will be found to have germinated on the surface of the _podisoma_ whence they originated. the germ filament which they produce springs habitually from the side, at a short distance from the hilum, which indicates the point of attachment to the original spicule. these filaments will attain to from fifteen to twenty times the diameter of the spore in length before branching, and are in themselves exceedingly delicate. the tubes which issue from the primary spores (protospores, tul.) are not always simple, but sometimes forked; and the cells which are ultimately formed at their extremities, though producing filiform processes, do not always generate secondary spores (teleutospores) at their apices. this mode of germination, it will be seen, resembles greatly that which takes place in _puccinia_. [illustration: fig. .--germinating pseudospores of _podisoma juniperi_. (tulasne)] the germination of the ustilagines was in part examined by tulasne, but since has received accessions through the labours of dr. a. fischer von waldheim.[i] nothing, however, of any importance is added to our knowledge of the germination of _tilletia_, which was made known as early as .[j] after some days a little obtuse tube is protruded through the epispore, bearing at its apex long fusiform bodies, which are the sporules of the first generation. these conjugate by means of short transverse tubes, after the manner of the threads of _zygnema_. afterwards long elliptical sporules of the second generation are produced on short pedicels by the conjugated fusiform bodies of the first generation. (fig. , _ss._) ultimately these sporules of the second generation germinate, and generate, on short spicules, similar sporules of a third generation. (fig. , _st._) [illustration: fig. .--germinating pseudospore (_g_) of _tilletia caries_ with secondary spores in conjugation. (tul.)] in _ustilago (flosculorum)_ germination takes place readily in warm weather. the germ tube is rather smaller at its base than further on. in from fifteen to eighteen hours the contents become coarsely granular; at the same time little projections appear on the tube which are narrowed at the base, into which some of the protoplasm passes. these ultimately mature into sporules. at the same time a terminal sporule generally appears on the threads. secondary sporules frequently grow from the primary, which are rather smaller, and these occasionally give rise to a third generation. in _urocystis (pompholygodes)_ the germinating tubes spring exclusively from the darker central cells of the clusters. from these are developed at their extremity three or four linear bodies, as in _tilletia_, but after this no further development has as yet been traced. it may be remarked here that waldheim observed similar conjugation of the sporules in some species of _ustilago_ as have been remarked in the sporules of the first generation in _tilletia_. [illustration: fig. .--pseudospore of _ustilago receptaculorum_ in germination, and secondary spores in conjugation. (tul.)] [illustration: fig. .--conidia and zoospores of _cystopus candidus_; _a._ conidium with the plasma divided; _b._ zoospores escaping; _c._ zoospores escaped from the conidium; _d._ active zoospores; _e._ zoospores, having lost their cilia, commencing to germinate.] returning to _cystopus_, as the last of the uredines, we must briefly recapitulate the observations made by professor de bary,[k] who, by the bye, claims for them an affinity with _peronospora_ (mucedines but too well known in connection with the potato disease), and _not_ with the uredines and their allies. in this genus there are two kinds of reproductive organs, those produced on the surface of the plant bursting through the cuticle in white pustules, and which de bary terms _conidia_, which are generated in chains, and certain globose bodies termed _oogonia_, which are developed on the mycelium in the internal tissues of the foster plant. when the conidia are sown on water they rapidly absorb the moisture, and swell; the centre of one of the extremities soon becomes a large obtuse papilla resembling the neck of a bottle. this is filled with a granular protoplasm, in which vacuoles are formed. soon, however, these vacuoles disappear, and very fine lines of demarcation separate the protoplasm into from five to eight polyhedric portions, each presenting a little faintly-coloured vacuole in the centre (_a_). soon after this division the papilla at the extremity swells, opens itself, and at the same time the five to eight bodies which had formed in the interior are expelled one by one (_b_). these are zoospores, which at first take a lenticular form, and group themselves before the mouth of the parent cell in a globose mass (_c._) very soon, however, they begin to move, and then vibratile cilia show themselves (_d_), and by means of these appendages the entire globule moves in an oscillating manner as one by one the zoospores disengage themselves, each becoming isolated and swimming freely in the surrounding fluid. the movement is precisely that of the zoospores of algæ. [illustration: fig. .--resting spore of _cystopus candidus_ with zoospores escaped.] the generation of the zoospores commences within from an hour and a half to three hours after the sowing of the conidia on water. from the oogonia, or resting spores, similar zoospores, but in greater number, are generated in the same manner, and their conduct after becoming free is identical. their movements in the water usually last from two to three hours, then they abate, the cilia disappear, and the spore becomes immovable, takes a globose form, and covers itself with a membrane of cellulose. afterwards the spore emits, from any point whatever of its surface, a thin, straight or flexuous tube, which attains a length of from two to ten times the diameter of the spore. the extremity becomes clavate or swollen, after the manner of a vesicle, which receives by degrees the whole of the protoplasm. de bary then proceeds to describe experiments which he had performed by watering growing plants with these zoospores, the result being that the germinating tubes did not penetrate the epidermis, but entered by the stomates, and there put forth an abundant mycelium which traversed the intercellular passages. altogether the germination of these conidia or zoospores offers so many differences from the ordinary germination of the uredines, and is so like that which prevails in _peronospora_, in addition to the fact of both genera producing winter spores or oogonia, that we cannot feel surprised that the learned mycologist who made these observations should claim for _cystopus_ an affinity with _peronospora_ rather than with the plants so long associated with it amongst the _coniomycetes_. in passing from these to the _mucedines_, therefore, we cannot do so more naturally than by means of that genus of white moulds to which we have just alluded. the erect branched threads bear at the tip of their branchlets spores, or conidia, which conduct themselves in a like manner to the organs so named in _cystopus_, and oogonia or resting spores developed on the mycelium within the tissues of the foster plant also give origin to similar zoospores. the conidia are borne upon erect, elongated filaments, originating from the creeping mycelium. these threads are hollow, and rarely septate; the upper portion divided into numerous branches, and these again are subdivided, the ultimate ramuli each terminated by a single conidium. this body when mature is oval or elliptical, filled with protoplasm, but there is a diversity in their mode of germination. in the greater part, of which _p. effusa_ may be taken as an example, the conidia have the function of simple spores. placed in favourable conditions, each of them puts forth a germ-tube, the formation of which does not differ in any essential point from what is known of the spores of the greater part of fungi. the short oval conidia of _p. gangliformis_ have little obtuse papillæ at their apex, and it is at this point that germination commences. the conidia of _p. densa_ are similar, but the germination is different. when placed in a drop of water, under favourable circumstances, the following changes may be observed in from four to six hours. the protoplasm, at first uniformly distributed in all the conidia, appears strewn with semi-lenticular, and nearly equidistant vacuoles, of which the plane face is immediately in contact with the periphery of the protoplasm. these vacuoles number from sixteen to eighteen in _p. macrocarpa_, but are less numerous in _p. densa_. a short time after the appearance of the vacuoles the entire conidium extends itself so that the papilla disappears. suddenly it reappears, elongates itself, its attenuated membrane vanishes, and the protoplasm is expelled by the narrow opening that remains in place of the papilla. in normal cases the protoplasm remains united in a single mass that shows a clear but very delicate outline. when it has reached the front of the opening in the conidium, which is thus emptied, the mass remains immovable. in _p. densa_ it is at first of a very irregular form, but assumes by degrees a regular globose shape. this is deprived of a distinct membrane, the vacuoles that disappeared in the expulsion again become visible, but soon disappear for a second time. the globule becomes surrounded with a membrane of cellulose, and soon puts out from the point opposite to the opening of the conidium a thick tube which grows in the same manner as the germ-tube of the conidia in other species. sometimes the expulsion of the protoplasm is not completely accomplished; a portion of it remaining in the membrane of the conidium detaches itself from the expelled portion, and while this is undergoing changes takes the form of a vesicle, which is destroyed with the membrane. it is very rare that the protoplasm is not evacuated, and that the conidia give out terminal or lateral tubes in the manner that is normal to other species without papillæ. the germination just described does not take place unless the conidia are entirely surrounded by water; it is not sufficient that they repose upon its surface. besides, there is another condition which, without being indispensable, has a sensible influence on the germination of _p. macrocarpa_, and that is the exclusion of light. to ascertain if the light or the darkness had any influence, two equal sowings were placed side by side, the one under a clear glass bell, the other under a blackened glass bell. repeated many times, these experiments always gave the same result--germination in from four to six hours in the conidia under the blackened glass; no change in those under the clear glass up to the evening. in the morning germination was completed. the conidia of _p. umbelliferarum_ and _p. infestans_[l] show an analogous structure. these bodies, if their development be normal, become zoosporangia. when they are sown upon water, one sees at the end of some hours the protoplasm divided by very fine lines, and each of the parts furnished with a small central vacuole. then the papilla of the conidium disappears. in its place appears a rounded opening, by which the parts of the protoplasm are expelled rapidly, one after the other. each of these, when free, immediately takes the form of a perfect zoospore, and commences to agitate itself. in a few moments the sporangium is empty and the spores disappear from the field of the microscope. the zoospores are oval or semi-oval, and in _p. infestans_ the two cilia spring from the same point on the inferior border of the vacuole. their number in a sporangium are from six to sixteen in _p. infestans_, and from six to fourteen in _p. umbelliferarum_. the movement of the zoospores ceases at the end of from fifteen to thirty minutes. they become motionless, cover themselves with a membrane of cellulose, and push out slender bent germ-tubes which are rarely branched. it is but seldom that two tubes proceed from the same spore. the same development of the zoospores in _p. infestans_ is favoured by the exclusion of the light. placed in a position moderately lighted or protected by a blackened bell, the conidia very readily produced zoospores. a second form of germination of the conidia in _p. infestans_, when sown upon a humid body or on the surface of a drop of water, consists in the conidium emitting from its summit a simple tube, the extremity of which swells itself into the form of an oval vesicle, drawing to itself, little by little, all the protoplasm contained in the conidium. then it isolates itself from the germ-tube by a septum, and takes all the essential characteristics of the parent conidium. this secondary conidium can sometimes engender a third cellule by a similar process. these secondary and tertiary productions have equally the character of sporangia. when they are plunged into water, the ordinary production of zoospores takes place. lastly, there is a third mode of germination which the conidia of _p. infestans_ manifest, and which consists in the conidium emitting from its summit a simple or branched germ-tube. this grows in a similar manner to the conidia first named as of such species as _p. effusa_. the conditions which control this form of germination cannot be indicated, since some conidia which germinate after this manner will sometimes be found mixed with others, the majority of which furnish zoospores. it may be that the conidia themselves are in some sort of abnormal condition. in all the species examined the conidia possess the power of germination from the moment of their maturity. the younger they are the more freely they germinate. they can retain this power for some days or weeks, provided they are not entirely dried. dessication in an ordinary temperature seemed sufficient to destroy the faculty of germinating in twenty-four hours, when the conidia had been removed from the leaves on which they were produced. they none of them retained the faculty during a few months, hence they cannot preserve it during the winter. the germs of _peronospora_ enter the foster plant if the spores are sown upon a part suitable for the development of the parasite. it is easy to convince one's self that the mycelium, springing from the penetrating germs, soon takes all the characters that are found in the adult state. besides, when cultivated for some time, conidiiphorous branches can be seen growing, identical with those to which it owes its origin. such cultivation is so readily accomplished that it can be made upon cut leaves preserved fresh in a moist atmosphere. in the species of _peronospora_ that inhabit perennial plants, or annual plants that last through the winter, the mycelium hidden in the tissues of the foster-plant lasts with it. in the spring it recommences vegetation, and emits its branches into the newly-formed organs of its host, there to fructify. the _peronospora_ of the potato is thus perennial by means of its mycelium contained in the browned tissue of the diseased tubers. when in the spring a diseased potato begins to grow, the mycelium rises in the stalk, and soon betrays itself by blackish spots. the parasites can fructify abundantly on these little stalks, and in consequence propagate themselves in the new season by the conidia coming from the vivacious mycelium. the diseased tubers of the potato always contain the mycelium of _p. infestans_, which never fructifies there as long as the skin of the tuber is intact. but when, in cutting the tuber, the parenchyma occupied by the mycelium is exposed to the contact of the air, it covers itself with conidia-bearing branches at the end of from twenty-four to forty-eight hours. analogous results are obtained with the stalks of the potato. it is evident that in these experiments nothing is changed except the contact of the air; the specific conditions particularly remain the same. it appears, therefore, that it is this contact alone which determines generally the production of the conidiiferous branches.[m] the mode of germination and development in the mucors has been studied by several observers, but most recently by van tieghem and le monnier.[n] in one of the common forms, the _mucor phycomyces_ of some authors, and the _phycomyces nitens_ of others, the process is given in detail. in this species germination will not take place in ordinary water, but it readily takes place in orange juice and other media. the spore loses colour, swells, and absorbs fluid around it until double its original size and ovoid. then a thick thread is emitted from one or both extremities, which elongates and becomes branched in a pinnate manner. sometimes the exospore is ruptured and detached loosely from the germinating spore. after about forty-eight hours from the first sowing, the mycelium will send branches into the air, which again become abundantly branched; other short submerged branches will also remain simple, or have tuft-like ramifications, each terminating in a point, so as to bristle with spiny hairs. in two or three days abruptly swollen branches, of a club shape, will make their appearance on the threads both in the air and in the fluid. sometimes these branches are prolonged into an equal number of sporangia-bearing threads, but most frequently they divide first at their swollen summits into numerous branches, of which usually one, sometimes two or three, develop into sporangia-bearing threads, while the rest are short, pointed, and form a tuft of rootlets. sometimes these rootlets reduce themselves to one or more rounded protuberances towards the base of the sporangia-bearing threads. [illustration: fig. .--zygospores of _mucor phycomyces_. (van tieghem.)] there are often also a certain number of the branches which had acquired a clavate shape, and do not erect themselves above the surface, instead of producing a fertile thread, which would seem to have been their first intention, become abruptly attenuated, and are merely prolonged into a mycelial filament. although in other species chlamydospores are formed in such places on the mycelium, nothing of the kind has been traced in this species, more than here indicated. occasionally, when germination is arrested prematurely, certain portions of the hyphæ, in which the protoplasm maintains its vitality, become partitioned off. this may be interpreted as a tendency towards the formation of chlamydospores, but there is no condensation of protoplasm, or investiture with a special membrane. later on this isolated protoplasm is gradually altered, separating into somewhat regular ovoid or fusiform granules, which have, to a certain extent, the appearance of spores in an ascus, but they seem to be incapable of germination. another method of reproduction, not uncommon in _mucorini_, is described by van tieghem in this species. conjugating threads on the substratum by degrees elaborate zygospores, but these, contrary to the mode in other species, are surrounded by curious branched processes which emanate from the arcuate cells on either side of the newly-developed zygospore. this system of reproduction is again noticed more in detail in the chapter on polymorphism. m. de seynes has given the details of his examination of the sporidia of _morchella esculenta_ during germination.[o] a number of these sporidia, placed in water in the morning, presented, at nine o'clock of the same evening, a sprout from one of the extremities, measuring half the length of the spore. in the morning of the next day this sprout had augmented, and become a filament three or four times as long. the next day these elongated filaments exhibited some transverse divisions and some ramifications. on the third day, the germination being more advanced, many more of the sporidia were as completely changed, and presented, in consequence of the elongation, the appearance of a cylindrical ruffle, the cellular prolongations arising from the germination having a tendency towards one of the extremities of the longer axis of the sporidium, and more often to the two opposed extremities, either simultaneously or successively. out of many hundreds of sporidia examined during germination, he had only seen a very few exceptions to this rule, among which he had encountered the centrifugal tendency to vegetate by two opposed filaments, proving that if it bears a second by the side of the primal filament situated at one of the poles, a second would also be seen from the side of the filament coming from the opposite pole. before being submitted to the action of water, the contents of the sporidia seemed formed of two distinct parts, one big drop of yellow oil of the same form as the sporidium, with the space between it and the cell wall occupied by a clear liquid, more fluid and less refractive, nearly colourless, or at times slightly roseate. as the membrane absorbed the water by which it was surrounded, the quantity of this clear liquid was augmented, and the rosy tint could be more easily distinguished. all the contents of the spore, which up to this time remained divided into two parts, presented altogether one aspect, only containing numerous granulations, nearly of equal size, completely filling it, and reaching the inner face of the sporic membrane. after this time the sporidium augments in size very rapidly, becoming at times irregular, and sometimes even as much as from two to three times its original dimensions, then there appears at the surface, usually at one of the poles of the ellipse, a small prominence, with an extremely fine membrane, which does not appear to separate itself from that which surrounds the sporidium, and it is difficult to say whether it is a prolongation of the internal membrane going across the outside, or simply a prolongation caused by a continuation of tissue of an unique membrane. sometimes there may be seen at the point where the primal filament issues from the sporidium a circular mark, which appears to indicate the rupture of the external membrane. from this time another change comes over the contents. we again find the yellow oily liquid, now occupying the external position, with some drops of colourless or roseate liquid in the centre, so that the oily liquid and the more limpid fluid interchange the positions which they occupied previous to the commencement of germination. whether these two fluids have undergone any change in their constitution is difficult to determine, at all events the oily liquid appears to be less refractive and more granular, and it may be that it is a product of new formation, containing some of the elements of the primitive oily drop. having regard to the delicate character of the membrane of the germinating filaments, de seynes supposed that it might offer greater facility for the entrance of water by endosmose, and account for the rapid enlargement of the sporidia. by a series of experiments he became satisfied that this was the case to a considerable extent, but he adds:--"i cannot help supposing that a greater absorption of greasy matter in the cell which is the first product of germination raises an objection to an aqueous endosmose. one can also see in this experience a proof of the existence of two special membranes, and so suppose that the germinative cell is the continuation of the internal membrane, the external membrane alone being susceptible of absorbing the liquids, at least with a certain rapidity." [illustration: fig. .--sporidium of _ascobolus_ germinating.] in other _discomycetes_ germination takes place in a similar manner. boudier[p] narrates that in _ascobolus_, when once the spore reaches a favourable place, if the circumstances are good, _i.e._, if the temperature is sufficiently high and the moisture sufficient, it will germinate. the time necessary for this purpose is variable, some hours sufficing for some species; those of _a. viridis_, for example, germinate in eight or ten hours, doubtless because, being terrestrial, it has in consequence less heat. the spore slightly augments in size, then opens, generally at one or other extremity, sometimes at two, or at any point on its surface, in order to pass the mycelium tubes. at first simple, without septa, and granular in the interior, above all at the extremity, these tubes, the rudiment of the mycelium, are not long in elongating, in branching, and later in having partitions. these filaments are always colourless, only the spore may be coloured, or not. coemans has described them as giving rise to two kinds of conidia,[q] the one having the form of _torula_, when they give rise to continuous filaments, the other in the form of _penicillium_, when they give birth to partitioned filaments. de seynes could never obtain this result. many times he had seen the _penicillium glaucum_ invade his sowings, but he feels confident that it had nothing to do with the _ascobolus_. m. woronin[r] has detailed some observations on the sexual phenomena which he has observed in _ascobolus_ and _peziza_, and so far as the scolecite is concerned these have been confirmed by m. boudier. there is no reason for doubt that in other of the _discomycetes_ the germination of the sporidia is very similar to that already seen and described, whilst in the _pyrenomycetes_, as far as we are aware, although the production of germinating tubes is by no means difficult, development has not been traced beyond this stage.[s] [a] seynes, j. de, "essai d'une flore mycologique de la montpellier," &c. ( ), p. . [b] hoffman, "icones analyticæ fungorum." [c] the spores of agarics which are devoured by flies, however, though returned in their dung in an apparently perfect state, are quite effete. it is, we believe, principally by the _syrphidæ_, which devour pollen, that fungus spores are consumed. [d] all attempts at chiswick failed with some of the more esculent species, and mr. ingram at belvoir, and the late mr. henderson at milton, were unsuccessful with native and imported spawn. [e] tulasne, "on the organization of the tremellini," "ann. des. sci. nat." ^me sér. xix. ( ), p. . [f] tulasne, "mémoire sur les urédinées." [g] tulasne, in his "memoirs on the uredines." [h] mr. berkeley has lately published a species under the name of _p. ellisii_, in which the gelatinous element is scarcely discernible till the plant is moistened. there are two septa in this species, and another species or form has lately been received from mr. ellis which has much shorter pedicels, and resembles more closely _puccinia_, from which it is chiefly distinguished by its revivescent character. [i] von waldheim, on the "development of the ustilagineæ," in "pringsheim's jahrbucher," vol. vii. ( ); translated in "transactions of n. y. state agricultural society for ." [j] berkeley, on the "propagation of bunt," in "trans. hort. soc. london," ii. ( ), p. ; tulasne, second memoir, in "ann. des. sci. nat." ii. ( ^me sér.), p. ; cooke, in "journ. quekett micro. club," i. p. . [k] de bary, "recherches," &c. in "annales des sciences naturelles" ( ^me sér.), xx. p. ; cooke in "pop. sci. rev." iii. ( ), p. . [l] this is the mould which produces the potato murrain. [m] de bary, "champignons parasitiques," in "annales des sci. nat." ( ^me sér.), xx. p. ; cooke, "microscopic fungi," cap. xi. p. ; "popular science review," iii. ( ). [n] van tieghem and le monnier, "researches on mucorini," in "ann. des sci. nat." ( ), xvii. p. ; summary in "quart. journ. micro. science" ( nd ser.), xiv. p. . [o] seynes, "essai d'une flore mycologique." [p] boudier, "mémoire sur l'ascoboles," pt. i. iv. f. - . [q] coemans, "spicilége mycologique," i. p. . [r] woronin, "abhandlungen der senchenbergischen naturfor. gesellschaft" ( ), p. . [s] in the very important observations made by dr. cunningham at calcutta, on substances floating in the atmosphere, it appeared that the sporidia of many _sphæriæ_ actually germinated after being taken up by the air. the multitude of fungus spores which were observed in every case was quite extraordinary. viii. sexual reproduction. the existence of some sort of sexual reproduction in fungi has long been suspected, although in earlier instances upon insufficient grounds; but of late years observations have multiplied and facts accumulated which leave no doubt of its existence. if the _saprolegniæ_ are left out of the question as disputed fungi, there still remain a number of well authenticated instances of the phenomena of copulation, and many other facts which indicate some sort of sexual relationship. the precise manner in which those minute bodies, so common amongst the _sphæronemei_, which we prefer to call stylospores, perform their functions is still to a great extent a mystery; yet it is no longer doubted that certain species of _aposphæria_, _phoma_, _septoria_, &c., are only conditions of some species of _sphæria_, often developed and matured in close proximity to them on the same host. in _Æcidium_, _roestelia_, &c., spermogonia are produced plentifully on or near the same spots on which the fructification appears, either simultaneously or at a later period.[a] the relation of _cytispora_ to _valsa_ was suspected by fries very many years ago, and, as since demonstrated, with very good reason. all attempts, however, to establish anything like sexual reproduction in the higher forms of _hymenomycetes_ have at present been unsuccessful; and the same may be said of the _gasteromycetes_; but in _ascomycetes_ and _physomycetes_ instances abound. we know not whether any importance is to be attached to the views of m. a. s. oersted,[b] which have not since been confirmed, but which have been cited with some approval by professor de bary, as to a trace of sexual organs in _hymenomycetes_. he is supposed to have seen in _agaricus variabilis_, p., oocysts or elongated reniform cells, which spring up like rudimentary branches of the filaments of the mycelium, and enclose an abundant protoplasm, if not even a nucleus. at the base of these oocysts appear the presumed antheridia, that is to say, one or two slender filaments, which generally turn their extremities towards the oocysts, and which more rarely are applied to them. then, without ulteriorily undergoing any appreciable modifications, the fertile cell or oocyst becomes enveloped in a network of filaments of mycelium which proceed from the one which bears it, and this tissue forms the rudiments of the cap. the reality of some kind of fecundation in this circumstance, and the mode of the phenomena, if there is one, are for the present equally uncertain. if m. oersted's opinion is confirmed, naturally the whole of the cap will be the product of fecundation. probably karsten (bonplandia, , p. ) saw something similar in _agaricus campestris_, but his account is obscure. [illustration: fig. .--zygospore of _mucor phycomyces_.] in _phycomyces_ the organs of reproduction have been subjected to close examination by van tieghem,[c] and although he failed to discover chlamydospores in this, he describes them in other mucors. in this species, besides the regular sexual development, by means of sporangia, there is a so-called sexual reproduction by means of zygospores, which takes place in this wise. the threads which conjugate to form the zygospores are slender and erect on the surface of the substratum. two of these threads come into close contact through a considerable length, and clasp each other by alternate protuberances and depressions. some of the protuberances are prolonged into slender tubes. at the same time the free extremities of the threads dilate, and arch over one towards the other until their tops touch like a vice, each limb of which rapidly increases in size. each of these arcuate, clavate cells has now a portion of its extremity isolated by a partition, by means of which a new hemispherical cell is formed at the end of each thread at its point of junction with the opposed thread. these cells become afterwards cylindrical by pressure, the protoplasm is aggregated into a mass, the double membrane at the point of first contact is absorbed, and the two confluent masses of protoplasm form a zygospore invested with a tubercular coat and enveloped by the primary wall of the two conjugating cells. during this formation of the zygospore, the two arched cells whence the zygospore originated develop a series of dichotomous processes in close proximity to the walls which separate them from the zygospore. these processes appear at first on one of the arcuate cells in successive order. the first makes its appearance above upon the convex side; the succeeding ones to the right and left in descending order; the last is in the concavity beneath. it is only after the development of this that the first process appears on the opposite cell, which is followed by others in the same order. these dichotomous processes are nothing more than branches developed from the arcuate, or mother cells. during all these changes, while the zygospore enlarges, the wall of the arcuate cells becomes coloured brown. this colouring is more marked on the convex side, and it shows itself first in the cell on which the dichotomous branches are first produced, and which retains the darker tint longer than the other. the zone from whence the processes issue, and also the processes themselves, have their walls blackened deeply, while the walls of the conjugated cells, which continue to clothe the zygospore during the whole of its development, are bluish-black. by pressure, the thin brittle coat which envelopes the zygospore is ruptured, and the coat of the zygospore exposed, formed of a thick cartilaginous membrane, studded with large irregular warts. the germination of the zygospores in this species has not as yet been observed, but it is probably the same or very similar to that observed in other species of _mucor_. in these the rough tuberculate epispore splits on one side, and its internal coat elongates itself and protrudes as a tube filled with protoplasm and oil globules, terminating in an ordinary sporangium. usually the amount of nutriment contained in the zygospore is exhausted by the formation of the terminal sporangium, according to brefeld;[d] but van tieghem and le monnier remark that in their examinations they have often seen a partition formed at about a third of the length of the principal filament from the base, below which a strong branch is given off, and this is also terminated by a large sporangium. [illustration: fig. .--zygospore of _rhizopus_ in different stages. (de bary.)] de bary has given a precise account of the formation of the zygospore in another of the mucors, _rhizopus nigricans_, in which he says that the filaments which conjugate are solid rampant tubes, which are branched without order and confusedly intermingled. where two of these filaments meet each of them pushes towards the other an appendage which is at first cylindrical and of the same diameter. from the first these two processes are applied firmly one to the other by their extremities; they increase in size, become clavate, and constitute together a fusiform body placed across the two conjugated filaments. between the two halves of this body there exists no constant difference of size; often they are both perfectly equal. in each there is collected an abundance of protoplasm, and when they have attained a certain development the largest extremity of each is isolated by a septum from the clavule, which thus becomes the support or suspender of the copulative cell. the two conjugated cells of the fusiform body are generally unequal; the one is a cylinder as long as it is broad, the other is disciform, and its length is only equal to half its breadth. the primitive membrane of the clavule forms between the copulative cells a solid partition of two membranes, but soon after the cells have become defined the medial partition becomes pierced in the centre, and then soon entirely disappears, so that the two twin cells are confounded in one single zygospore, which is due to the union of two more or less similar utricles. after its formation the zygospore still increases considerably in size, and acquires a diameter of more than one-fifth of a millimetre. its form is generally spherical, and flattened on the faces which are united to the suspenders, or it resembles a slightly elongated cask. the membrane thickens considerably, and consists at the time of maturity of two superposed integuments; the exterior or epispore is solid, of a dark blackish-blue colour, smooth on the plane faces in contact with the suspenders, but covered everywhere else with thick warts, which are hollow beneath. the endospore is thick and composed of several layers, colourless, and covered with warts, which correspond and fit into those of the epispore. the contents of the zygospore are a coarsely granular protoplasm, in which float large oleaginous drops. while the zygospore is increasing in size, the suspender of the smaller copulative cell becomes a rounded and stipitate utricle, often divided at the base by a septum, and which attains almost to the size of the zygospore. the suspender of the larger copulative cell preserves its primitive form and becomes scarcely any larger. it is rare that there is not a considerable difference of size between the two conjugated cells and the suspenders.[e] similar conjugation with like results also takes place in _syzygites megalocarpus_. in this species the germination of the zygospores has been observed. if, after a certain time of repose, these bodies are placed on a moist substratum, they emit a germ-like tube, which, without originating a proper mycelium, develops at the expense of the nutritive material stored in the zygospore into a carpophore or fruit bearer, which is many times dichotomously branched, bearing terminal sporangia characteristic of the species. it has already been remarked by us that the _saprolegnei_ are claimed by some authors as algæ, whilst we are more disposed to regard them as closely allied to the mucors, and as they exhibit in themselves strong evidence in support of the existence of sexual reproduction, we cannot forbear giving a summary of what has been observed by de bary and others in this very interesting and singular group of plants, to which m. cornu has recently dedicated an exhaustive monograph.[f] in _saprolegnia monoica_, and others, the female organs consist of oogonia--that is to say, of cells which are at first globose and rich in plastic matter, which most generally terminate short branches of the mycelium, and which are rarely seen in an interstitial position. the constitutive membrane of the adult oogonia is reabsorbed in a great many points, and is there pierced with rounded holes. at the same time the plasma is divided into a larger or smaller number of distinct portions, which are rounded into little spheres, and separate from the walls of the conceptacle in order to group themselves at the centre, where they float in a watery fluid. these gonospheres are then smooth and bare, with no membrane on their surface of the nature of cellulose. [illustration: fig. .--conjugation in _achlya racemosa_. (cornu.)] during the formation of the oogonia there arise from its pedicel or from neighbouring filaments slight cylindrical curved branches, sometimes turned round the support of the oogonia, and which all tend towards this organ. their superior extremity is intimately applied to its wall, then ceases to be elongated, becomes slightly inflated, and is limited below by a partition; it is then an oblong cell, slightly curved, filled with protoplasm, and intimately applied to the oogonia--in fact, an antheridium or organ of the male sex. each oogonium possesses one or several antheridia. towards the time when the gonospheres are formed it may be observed that each antheridium sends to the interior of the oogonia one or several tubular processes, which have crossed its side wall, and which open at their extremity in order to discharge their contents. these, while they are flowing out, present some very agile corpuscles, and which, considering their resemblance to those in _vaucheria_, to which the name of spermatozoids are applied, ought to be considered as the fecundating corpuscles. after the evacuation of the antheridia the gonospheres are found to be covered with cellulose; they then constitute so many oospores, with solid walls. de bary considers that, bearing in mind analogous phenomena observed in _vaucheria_, and the direct observations of pringsheim,[g] the cellulose membrane on the surface of the gonospheres is only the consequence of a sexual fecundation. in _achlya dioica_ the antheridium is cylindrical, the plasma which it encloses is divided into particles, which attain nearly the size of the zoospores of the same plant. these particles become globose cells, grouped in the centre of the antheridium. afterwards the contents of these latter cells become divided into numerous bacillary spermatozoids, which first break the wall of their mother cell, and then issue from the antheridium. these rod-like corpuscles, which resemble the spermatozoids in _vaucheria_, have their movements assisted by a long cilium. it is presumable that here, as in the algæ, the spermatozoids introduce themselves into the cavity of the oogonium, and unite with the gonospheres. amongst obscure and doubtful bodies are those described by pringsheim, which have their origin in thick filaments or tubes, similar to those which form the zoosporangia, and represent so many distinct little masses of plasma within an homogeneous parietal ganglion. the contour of these plastic masses is soon delineated in a more precise manner. we see in their interior some homogeneous granules, which are at first globose, then oval, and finally travel to the enlarged and ampullæform extremity of the generating tube. there they become rounded or oval cells covered with cellulose, and emit from their surface one or several cylindrical processes, which elongate towards the wall of the conceptacle, and pierce it, without, however, ever projecting very far beyond it. at the same time the lacunose protoplasm of each cell becomes divided into a number of corpuscles, which escape by the open extremity of the cylindrical neck. they resemble in their organization and agility the spermatozoids of _achlya dioica_. they soon become motionless in water, and do not germinate. during the development of these organs, the protoplasm of the utricle which contains them offers at first completely normal characteristics, and disappears entirely by degrees as they increase. de bary and pringsheim believe that these organs constitute the antheridia of the species of _saprolegnia_ to which they belong. the oospores of the _saprolegniæ_, when arrived at maturity, possess a tolerably thick double integument, consisting of an epispore and an endospore. after a considerable time of repose they give rise to tubular or vesicular germs, which, without being much elongated, produce zoospores.[h] de bary has claimed for the oogonia in _cystopus_ and _peronospora_ a kind of fecundation which deserves mention here.[i] these same fruits, he says, which owe their origin to sexual organs, should bear the names of _oogonia_ and _antheridia_, according to the terminology proposed by pringsheim for analogous organs in the algæ. the formation of the oogonia, or female organs, commences by the terminal or interstitial swelling of the tubes of the mycelium, which increase and take the form of large spherical or oboval cells, and which separate themselves by septa from the tube which carries them. their membrane encloses granules of opaque protoplasm, mingled with numerous bulky granules of colourless fatty matter. [illustration: fig. .--conjugation in _peronospora; a. antheridium_. (de bary.)] the branches of the mycelium which do not bear oogonia apply their obtuse extremities against the growing oogonia; this extremity swells, and, by a transverse partition, separates itself from the supporting tube. it is the antheridium, or male organ, which is formed by this process; it takes the form of an obliquely clavate or obovate cellule, which is always considerably smaller than the oogonium, and adheres to its walls by a plane or convex area. the slightly thickened membrane of the antheridia encloses protoplasm which is finely granular. it is seldom that more than one antheridium applies itself to an oogonium. the two organs having together achieved their development, the large granules contained in the oogonium accumulate at its centre to group themselves under the form of an irregular globule deprived of a proper membrane, and surrounded by a bed of almost homogeneous protoplasm. this globule is the _gonosphere_, or reproductive sphere, which, through the means of fecundation, should become the reproductive body, vegetable egg, or oospore. the gonosphere having been formed, the antheridium shoots out from the centre of its face, close against the oogonium, a straight tube, which perforates the walls of the female cell, and traversing the protoplasm of its periphery, directs itself to the gonosphere. it ceases to elongate itself as soon as it touches it, and the gonosphere becomes clothed with a membrane of cellulose, and takes a regular spheroidal form. [illustration: fig. .--antheridia and oogonium of _peronospora_. (de bary.)] considering the great resemblance of these organs with the sexual organs of the saprolegniæ, which are closely allied to the algæ, and of which the sexuality has been proved, de bary adds, we have no doubt whatever that the phenomena just described represent an act of fecundation, and that the tube pushed out by the antheridium should be regarded as a fecundating tube. it is remarkable that amongst these fungi the tube projected by the antheridium effects fecundation only by contact. its extremity never opens, and we never find antherozoids; on the contrary, the antheridium presents, up to the maturity of the oospore, the appearance which it presented at the moment of fecundation. the primitive membrane of the oospore, at first very thin, soon acquires a more sensible thickness, and becomes surrounded by an external layer (epospore), which is formed at the expense of the protoplasm of the periphery. this disappears in proportion as the epispore attains maturity, and finally there only remains a quantity of granules, suspended in a transparent watery fluid. at the period of maturity, the epispore is a slightly thickened, resistant membrane, of a yellowish-brown colour, and finely punctate. the surface is almost always provided with brownish warts, which are large and obtuse, sometimes isolated, and sometimes confluent, forming irregular crests. these warts are composed of cellulose, which reagents colour of a deep blue, whilst the membrane which bears them preserves its primitive colour. one of the warts, larger than the rest, and recognizable by its cylindrical form, always forms a kind of thick sheath around the fecundating tube. the ripe endospore is a thick, smooth, colourless membrane, composed of cellulose containing a bed of finely granulated protoplasm, which surrounds a great central vacuole. this oospore, or resting spore, may remain dormant in this state within the tissues of the foster plant for some months. its ultimate development by production of zoospores is similar to the production of zoospores from conidia, which it is unnecessary to repeat here. the oospore becomes an oosporangium, and from it at least a hundred germinating bodies are at length expelled. amongst the principal observers of certain phenomena of copulation in cells formed in the earliest stages of the _discomycetes_ are professor de bary,[j] dr. woronin,[k] and messrs. tulasne.[l] in the _ascobolus pulcherrimus_ of crouan, woronin ascertained that the cup derives its origin from a short and flexible tube, thicker than the other branches of the mycelium, and which is soon divided by transverse septa into a series of cells, the successive increase of which finally gives to the whole a torulose and unequal appearance. the body thus formed he calls a "vermiform body." the same observer also seems to have convinced himself that there exists always in proximity to this body certain filaments, the short arched or inflected branches of which, like so many antheridia, rest their anterior extremities on the utriform cells. this contact seems to communicate to the vermiform body a special vital energy, which is immediately directed towards the production of a somewhat filamentous tissue, on which the hymenium is at a later period developed. this "vermiform body" of m. woronin has since come to be recognized under the name of "scolecite." tulasne observes that this "scolecite" or ringed body can be readily isolated in _ascobolus furfuraceus_. when the young receptacles are still spherical and white, and have not attained a diameter exceeding the one-twentieth of a millimetre, it is sufficient to compress them slightly in order to rupture them at the summit and expel the "scolecite." this occupies the centre of the little sphere, and is formed of from six to eight cells, curved in the shape of a comma. in _peziza melanoloma_, a. and s., the same observer succeeded still better in his searches after the scolecite, which he remarks is in this species most certainly a lateral branch of the filaments of the mycelium. this branch is isolated, simple, or forked at a short distance from its base, and in diameter generally exceeding that of the filament which bears it. this branch is soon arcuate or bent, and often elongated in describing a spiral, the irregular turns of which are lax or compressed. at the same time its interior, at first continuous, becomes divided by transverse septa into eight or ten or more cells. sometimes this special branch terminates in a crozier shape, which is involved in the bent part of another crozier which terminates a neighbouring filament. in other cases the growing branch is connected, by its extremity, with that of a hooked branch. these contacts, however, did not appear to tulasne to be so much normal as accidental. but of the importance of the ringed body, or "scolecite," there was no room for doubt, as being the certain and habitual rudiment of the fertile cup. in fact, inferior cells are produced from the flexuous filaments which creep about its surface, cover and surround it on all sides, while joining themselves to each other. at first continuous, then septate, these cells by their union constitute a cellular tissue, which increases little by little until the scolecite is so closely enveloped that only its superior extremity can be seen. these cellular masses attain a considerable volume before the hymenium begins to show itself in a depression of their summit. so long as their smallness permits of their being seen in the field of the microscope, it can be determined that they adhere to a single filament of the mycelium by the base of the scolecite which remains naked. although tulasne could not satisfy himself of the presence of any act of copulation in _ascobolus furfuraceus_, or _peziza melanoloma_, he was more successful with _peziza omphalodes_. as early as he recognized the large globose, sessile, and grouped vesicles which originate the fertile tissue, but did not comprehend the part which these macrocysts were to perform. each of these emits from its summit a cylindrical tube, generally flexuous, but always more or less bent in a crozier shape, sometimes attenuated at the extremity. thus provided, these utricles resemble so many tun-shaped, narrow-necked retorts, filled with a granular thick roseate protoplasm. in the middle of these, and from the same filaments, are generated elongated clavate cells, with paler contents, more vacuoles, which tulasne names _paracysts_. these, though produced after the _macrocysts_, finally exceed them in height, and seem to carry their summit so as to meet the crozier-like prolongations. it would be difficult to determine to which of these two orders of cells belongs the initiative of conjugation. sometimes the advance seems to be on one side, and sometimes on the other. however this may be, the meeting of the extremity of the connecting tube with the summit of the neighbouring paracyst is a constant fact, observed over and over again a hundred times. there is no real junction between the dissimilar cells above described, except at the very limited point where they meet, and there a circular perforation may be discerned at the end, defined by a round swelling, which is either barely visible or sometimes very decided. everywhere else the two organs may be contiguous, or more or less near together, but they are free from any adherence whatever. if the plastic matters contained in the conjugated cells influence one another reciprocally, no notable modification in their appearance results at first. the large appendiculate cell seems, however, to yield to its consort a portion of the plasma it contains. one thing only can be affirmed from these phenomena, that the conjugated cells, especially the larger, wither and empty themselves, while the upright compressed filaments, which will ultimately constitute the asci, increase and multiply.[m] [illustration: fig. .--conjugation in _peziza omphalodes_. (tulasne.)] [illustration: fig. a.--formation of conceptacle in _erysiphe_.] certain phenomena concerned in the development of the _erysiphei_ belong also to this connection. the mycelium of _erysiphe cichoracearum_, like that of other species, consists of branched filaments, crossed in all directions, which adhere as they climb to the epidermis of the plant on which the fungus lives as a parasite. the perithecia are engendered where two filaments cross each other. these swell slightly at this point, and each emits a process which imitates a nascent branch, and remains upright on the surface of the epidermis. the process originating from the inferior filament soon acquires an oval form and a diameter double that of the filament; then it becomes isolated from it by a septum, and constitutes a distinct cell, which de bary[n] terms an oocyst. the appendage which proceeds from the inferior filament always adheres intimately to this cell, and elongates into a slender cylindrical tube, which terminates in an obtuse manner at the summit of the same cell. at its base it is also limited by a septum, and soon after another appears a little below its extremity at a point indicated beforehand by a constriction. this new septum defines a terminal short obtuse cell, the antheridium, which is thus borne on a narrow tube like a sort of pedicel. immediately after the formation of the antheridia new productions show themselves, both around the oocyst and within it. underneath this cell eight or ten tubes are seen to spring from the filament which bears it; these join themselves by the sides to each other and to the pedicel of the antheridium, while they apply their inner face to the oocyst, above which their extremities soon meet. each of the tubes is then divided by transverse septa into two or three distinct cells, and in this manner the cellular walls of the perithecia come into existence. during this time the oocyst enlarges and divides, without its being possible precisely to determine the way in which it happens, into a central cell and an outer layer, ordinarily simple, of smaller cells, contiguous to the general enveloping wall. the central cell becomes the single ascus, which is characteristic of the species, and the layer which surrounds it constitutes the inner wall of its perithecium. the only changes afterwards observed are the increase in size of the perithecium, the production of the root-like filaments which proceed from its outer wall, the brown tint which it assumes, and finally the formation of the sporidia in the ascus. the antheridium remains for a long time recognizable without undergoing any essential modification, but the dark colour of the perithecium soon hides it from the observer's eye. de bary thinks that he is authorized in assuming the probability that the conceptacles and organs of fructification of others of the _ascomycetes_, including the _discomycetes_ and the _tuberacei_, are the results of sexual generation. certain phenomena which have been observed amongst the _coniomycetes_ are cited as examples of sexual association. amongst these may be named the conjugation of the slender spores of the first generation, produced on the germinating threads of _tilletia_,[o] and similar acts of conjugation, as observed in some species of _ustilago_. whether this interpretation should be placed on those phenomena in the present condition of our knowledge is perhaps an open question. [illustration: fig. .--_tilletia caries_ with conjugating cells.] finally, the spermogonia must be regarded as in some occult manner, which as yet has baffled detection, influencing the perfection of sporidia[p] in _rhytisma_, found on the leaves of maple and willow, black pitchy spots at first appear, which contain within them a golden pulp, in which very slender corpuscles are mixed with an abundant mucilage. these corpuscles are the spermatia, which in _rhytisma acerinum_ are linear and short, in _rhytisma salicinum_ globose. when the spermatia are expelled, the stroma thickens for the production of asci and sporidia, which are afterwards developed during the autumn and winter. several of the species of _hysterium_ also possess spermogonia, notably _h. fraxini_, which may be distinguished from the ascigerous perithecia with which they are associated by their smaller size and flask-like shape. from these the spermatia are expelled long before the maturity of the spores. in _hypoderma virgultorum_, _h. commune_, and _h. scirpinum_, the spermogonia are small depressed black capsules, which contain an abundance of minute spermatia. these were formerly regarded as distinct species, under the name of _leptostroma_. in _stictis ocellata_ a great number of the tubercles do not pass into the perfect state until after they have produced either linear, very short spermatia, or stylospores, the latter being reproductive bodies of an oblong shape, equal in size to the perfect sporidia. some of the tubercles never pass beyond this stage. again, there is a very common fungus which forms black discoid spots on dead holly leaves, called _ceuthospora phacidioides_, figured by greville in his "scottish cryptogamic flora," which expels a profusion of minute stylospores; but later in the season, instead of these, we find the asci and sporidia of _phacidium ilicis_, so that the two are forms and conditions the one of the other. in _tympanis conspersa_ the spermogonia are much more commonly met with than the complete fruit. there is a great external resemblance in them to the ascigerous cups, but there is no evidence that they are ever transformed into such. the perfect sporidia are also very minute and numerous, being contained in asci borne in cups, which usually surround the spermogonia. in several species of _dermatea_ the stylospores and spermatia co-exist, but they are disseminated before the appearance of the ascigerous receptacles, yet they are produced upon a common stroma not unlike that of _tubercularia_. in its early stage the common and well-known _bulgaria inquinans_, which when mature looks like a black _peziza_, is a little tubercle, the whole mass of which is divided into ramified lobes, the extremities of which become, towards the surface of the tubercle, receptacles from whence escape waves of spermatia which are colourless, or stylospores mixed with them which are larger and nearly black. amongst the _sphæriacei_ numerous instances might be cited of minute stylosporous bodies in consort with, or preceding, the ascigerous receptacles. a very familiar example may be found at the base of old nettle stems in what has been named _aposphæria acuta_, but which truly are only the stylospores of the _sphæria coniformis_, the perithecia of which flourish in company or in close proximity to them. most of these bodies are so minute, delicate, and hyaline that the difficulties in the way of tracing them in their relations to the bodies with which they are associated are very great. nevertheless there is strong presumption in favour of regarding some of them as performing the functions which the name applied to them indicates. professor de bary cautiously refrains from accepting spermatia other than as doubtful or at least uncertain sexual bodies.[q] he says that the messrs. tulasne have supposed that the spermogonia represented the male sex, and that the spermatia were analogous to spermatozoids. their opinion depends on two plausible reasons,--the spermatia, in fact, do not germinate, and the development of the spermogonia generally precedes the appearance of the sporophorous organs, a double circumstance which reminds us of what is known of the spermatozoids and antheridia of other vegetables. it remained to discover which were the female organs which underwent fecundation from the spermatia. many organs placed at first amongst spermatia have been recognized by m. tulasne as being themselves susceptible of germination, and consequently ought to take their place among legitimate spores. then it must be considered that very many spores can only germinate under certain conditions. it is, therefore, for the present a doubtful question whether there exist really any spermatia incapable of germination, or if the default of germination of these corpuscles does not rather depend on the experiments hitherto attempted not having included the conditions required by the phenomena. moreover, as yet no trace has been discovered of the female organs which are specially fecundated by the spermatia. finally, there exist in the _ascomycetes_ certain organs of reproduction, diverse spore-bearing apparatus, pycnidia, and others, which, like the spermogonia, usually precede ascophorous fruits. the real nature of the spermogonia and spermatia should therefore be regarded as, at present, very uncertain; as regards, however, the spermatia which have never been seen to germinate, perhaps it is as well not to absolutely reject the first opinion formed concerning them, or perhaps they might be thought to perform the part of androspores, attributing to that expression the meaning which pringsheim gives it in the _conferoæ_. the experiments performed with the spermatia which do not germinate, and with the spermogonia of the uredines, do not, at any rate, appear to justify the reputed masculine or fecundative nature of these organs. the spermogonia constantly accompany or precede fruits of _Æcidium_, whence naturally follows the presumption that the first are in a sexual relation to the second. still, when tulasne cultivated _endophyllum sempervivum_, he obtained on some perfectly isolated rosettes of _sempervivum_ some _Æcidium_ richly provided with normal and fertile spores, without any trace of spermogonia or of spermatia. [a] m. tulasne has devoted a chapter to the spermogonia of the uredines in his memoir, to which we have already alluded. [b] oeersted, in "verhandl der könig. dän. gesell. der wissensch," st january, ; de bary, "handbuch der physiol. botanik" ( ), p. ; "annales des sci. nat." ( ^me sér.), vol. v. ( ), p. . [c] van tieghem and le monnier, in "annales des sci. nat." ( ), vol. xvii. p. . [d] brefeld, "bot. unt. uber schimmelpilze," p. . [e] de bary, "morphologie und physiologie der pilze," cap. , p. ; "ann. des sci. nat." ( ), p. . [f] cornu, in "ann. des sci. nat." ( ^me sér.), vol. xv. p. ( ). [g] pringsheim's "jahrbucher," vol. ii. p. . [h] de bary, in "annales des sciences naturelles" ( ^me sér.), vol. v. ( ), p. ; hoffmeister's "handbook" (fungi), cap. v. p. . [i] de bary, in "annales des sci. nat." ( ^me sér.), vol. xx. p. . [j] de bary, in "annales des sciences naturelles" ( ^me sér.), p. . [k] woronin, in de bary's "beitr. zur. morph. und physiol. der pilze," ii. ( ), pp. - . [l] tulasne, "ann. des sci. nat." ( ^me sér.), october, , p. . [m] tulasne, "on the phenomena of copulation in certain fungi," in "ann. des sci. nat." ( ), p. . [n] de bary, "morphologie und phys. der pilze," cap. v., p. . [o] berkeley, in "journ. hort. soc." vol ii. p. ; tulasne, "ann. d. sc. nat." ( ^me sér.), vol. ii. tab. . [p] tulasne, "new researches on the reproductive apparatus of fungi;" "comptes rendus," vol. xxxv. ( ), p. . [q] de bary, "morphologie und physiologie der pilze," cap. v. p. . ix. polymorphism. a great number of very interesting facts have during late years been brought to light of the different forms which fungi assume in the course of their development. at the same time, we fear that a great many assumptions have been accepted for fact, and supposed connections and relations between two or three or more so-called species, belonging to different genera, have upon insufficient data been regarded as so many states or conditions of one and the same plant. had the very pertinent suggestions of professor de bary been more generally acted upon, these suspicions would have been baseless. his observations are so valuable as a caution, that we cannot forbear prefacing our own remarks on this subject by quoting them.[a] in order to determine, he says, whether an organic form, an organ, or an organism, belongs to the same series of development as another, or that which is the same is developed from it, or _vice versâ_, there is only one way, viz., to observe how the second grows out of the first. we see the commencement of the second begin as a part of the first, perfect itself in connection with it, and at last it often becomes independent; but be it through spontaneous dismembering from the first, or that the latter be destroyed and the second remains, both their disunited bodies are always connected together in organic continuity, as parts of a whole (single one) that can cease earlier or later. by observing the organic continuity, we know that the apple is the product of development of an apple-tree, and not hung on it by chance, that the pip of an apple is a product of the development of the apple, and that from the pip an apple-tree can at last be developed, that therewith all these bodies are members of a sphere of development or form. it is the same with every similar experience of our daily life, that where an apple-tree stands, many apples lie on the ground, or that in the place where apple-pips are sown seedlings, little apple-trees, grow out of the ground, is not important to our view of the course of development. every one recognizes that in his daily life, because he laughs at a person who thinks a plum which lies under an apple-tree has grown on it, or that the weeds which appear among the apple seedlings come from apple-pips. if the apple-tree with its fruit and seed were microscopically small, it would not make the difference of a hair's breadth in the form of the question or the method of answering it, as the size of the object can be of no importance to the latter, and the questions which apply to microscopical fungi are to be treated in the same manner. if it then be asserted that two or several forms belong to a series of development of one kind, it can only be based on the fact of their organic continuity. the proof is more difficult than in large plants, partly because of the delicacy, minuteness, and fragility of the single parts, particularly the greater part of the mycelia, partly because of the resemblance of the latter in different species, and therefore follows the danger of confusing them with different kinds, and finally, partly in consequence of the presence of different kinds in the same substratum, and therefore the mixture not only of different sorts of mycelia, but also that different kinds of spores are sown. with some care and patience, these difficulties are in no way insurmountable, and they must at any rate be overcome; the organic continuity or non-continuity must be cleared up, unless the question respecting the course of development, and the series of forms of special kinds, be laid on one side as insolvable. simple and intelligible as these principles are, they have not always been acted upon, but partly neglected, partly expressly rejected, not because they were considered false, but because the difficulties of their application were looked upon as insurmountable. therefore another method of examination was adopted; the spores of a certain form were sown, and sooner or later they were looked after to see what the seed had produced--not every single spore--but the seed _en masse_, that is, in other words, what had grown on that place where the seed had been sown. as far as it relates to those forms which are so widely spread, and above all grow in conjunction with one another--and that is always the case in the specimens of which we speak--we can never be sure that the spores of the form which we mean to test are not mingled with those of another species. he who has made an attentive and minute examination of this kind knows that we may be sure to find such a mixture, and that such an one was there can be afterwards decidedly proved. from the seed which is sown, these spores, for which the substratum was most suitable, will more easily germinate, and their development will follow the more quickly. the favoured germs will suppress the less favoured, and grow up at their expense. the same relation exists between them as between the seeds, germs, and seedlings of a sown summer plant, and the seeds which have been undesignedly sown with it, only in a still more striking manner, in consequence of the relatively quick development of the mildew fungus. therefore, that from the latter a decided form, or a mixture of several forms, is to be found sown on one spot, is no proof of their generic connection with one which has been sown for the purpose of experiments; and the matter will only be more confused if we call imagination to our aid, and place the forms which are found near one another, according to a real or fancied resemblance, in a certain series of development. all those statements on the sphere of form and connection, which have for their basis such a superficial work, and are not based on the clear exposition of the continuity of development, as by the origin of the connection of the _mucor_ with _penicillium_, _oidium lactis_ and _mucor_, _oidium_ and _penicillium_, are rejected as unfounded. a source of error, which can also interfere in the last-named superficial method of cultivation for experiments, is, viz., that heterogeneous unwished-for spores intrude themselves from without, among the seed which is sown, but that has been until now quite disregarded. it is of great importance in practice, but in truth, for our present purpose, synonymous with what we have already written. those learned in the science of this kind of culture lay great stress on its importance, and many apparatuses have been constructed, called "purely cultivating machines," for the purpose of destroying the spores which are contained in the substratum, and preventing the intrusion of those from without. the mixture in the seed which is sown has of course not been obviated. these machines may, perhaps, in every other respect, fulfil their purpose, but they cannot change the form of the question, and the most ingeniously constructed apparatus cannot replace the attention and intellect of the observer.[b] two distinct kinds of phenomena have been grouped under the term "polymorphy." in one series two or more forms of fruit occur consecutively or simultaneously on the same individual, and in the other two or more forms appear on a different mycelium, on a different part of the same plant, or on a matrix wholly distinct and different; in the latter case the connection being attested or suspected circumstantially, in the former proved by the method suggested by de bary. it will at once be conceded that in cases where actual growth and development substantiate the facts the polymorphy is undoubted, whilst in the other series it can at best be little more than suspected. we will endeavour to illustrate both these series by examples. one of the first and earliest suspected cases of dualism, which long puzzled the older mycologists, was observed amongst the uredines, and many years ago it was held that there must be some mysterious association between the "red rust" (_trichobasis ruligo vera_) of wheat and grasses and the "corn mildew" (_puccinia graminis_) which succeeded it. the simple spored rust first makes its appearance, and later the bilocular "mildew." it is by no means uncommon to find the two forms in the same pustule. some have held, without good reason, that the simple cells became afterwards divided and converted into _puccinia_, but this is not the case; the uredo-spores are always simple, and remain so except in _uredo linearis_, where every intermediate stage has been observed. both are also perfect in their kind, and capable of germination. what the precise relations between the two forms may be has as yet never been revealed to observers, but that the two forms belong to one species is not now doubted. very many species of _puccinia_ have already been found associated with a corresponding _trichobasis_, and of _phragmidium_ with a relative _lecythea_, but it may be open to grave doubt whether some of the very many species associated by authors are not so classed upon suspicion rather than observation. we are ready to admit that the evidence is strong in favour of the dimorphism of a large number of species--it _may_ be in all, but this awaits proof, or substantial presumption on good grounds. up to the present we know that there are species of _trichobasis_ which have never been traced to association with a _puccinia_, and doubtless there will be species of _puccinia_ for which no corresponding _uredo_ or _trichobasis_ can be found. tulasne remarks, in reference to _puccinia sonchi_, in one of his memoirs, that this curious species exhibits, in effect, that a _puccinia_ may unite three sorts of reproductive bodies, which, taking part, constitute for the mycologists of the day three entirely different plants--a _trichobasis_, a _uromyces_, and a _puccinia_. the uredines are not less rich, he adds, in reproductive bodies of divers sorts than the _pyrenomycetes_ and the _discomycetes_; and we should not be surprised at this, since it seems to be a law, almost constant in the general harmony of nature, that the smaller the organized beings are, the more their races are prolific. in _puccinia variabilis_, grev., it is common to find a unicellular form, species of _trichobasis_, in the same pustules. a like circumstance occurs with _puccinia violarum_, link., and _trichobasis violarum_, b.; with _puccinia fallens_, c., and _trichobasis fallens_, desm.; also with _puccinia menthæ_, p., and _trichobasis labiatarum_, d. c. in _melampsora_, again, the prismatic pseudospores of _melampsora salicina_, lev., are the winter fruits of _lecythea caprearum_, lev., as those of _melampsora populina_, lev., are of _lecythea populina_, lev. in the species of _lecythea_ themselves will be found, as de bary[c] has shown, hyaline cysts of a larger size, which surround the pseudospores in the pustules in which they are developed. a good illustration of dimorphism in one of the commonest of moulds is given by de bary in a paper from which we have already quoted.[d] he writes thus:--in every household there is a frequent unbidden guest, which appears particularly on preserved fruits, viz., the _mould_ which is called _aspergillus glaucus_. it shows itself to the naked eye as a woolly floccy crust over the substance, first purely white, then gradually covered with little fine glaucous, or dark green dusty heads. more minute microscopical examination shows that the fungus consists of richly ramified fine filaments, which are partly disseminated in the substratum, and partly raised obliquely over it. they have a cylindrical form with rounded ends, and are divided into long outstretched members, each of which possesses the property which legitimatizes it as a vesicle in the ordinary sense of the word; it contains, enclosed within a delicate structureless wall, those bodies which bear the appearance of a finely granulated mucous substance, which is designated by the name of protoplasm, and which either equally fills the cells, or the older the cell the more it is filled with watery cavities called vacuoles. all parts are at first colourless. the increase in the length of the filaments takes place through the preponderating growth near their points; these continually push forward, and, at a short distance from them, successive new partitions rise up, but at a greater distance, the growth in the length ceases. this kind of growth is called point growth. the twigs and branches spring up as lateral dilatations of the principal filament, which, once designed, enlarges according to the point growth. this point growth of every branch is, to a certain extent, unlimited. the filaments in and on the substratum are the first existing members of the fungus; they continue so long as it vegetates. as the parts which absorb nourishment from and consume the substance, they are called the _mycelium_. nearly every fungus possesses a mycelium, which, without regard to the specific difference of form and size, especially shows the described nature in its construction and growth. the superficial threads of the mycelium produce other filaments beside those numerous branches which have been described, and which are the fruit thread (carpophore) or conidia thread. these are on an average thicker than the mycelium threads, and only exceptionally ramified or furnished with partitions; they rise almost perpendicularly into the air, and attain a length of, on an average, half a millimetre, or one-fiftieth of an inch, but they seldom become longer, and then their growth is at an end. their free upper end swells in a rounded manner, and from this is produced, on the whole of its upper part, rayed divergent protuberances, which attain an oval form, and a length almost equal to their radius, or, in weaker specimens, the diameter of the rounded head. the rayed divergent protuberances are the direct producers and bearers of the propagating cells, spores, or conidia, and are called sterigmata. every sterigma at first produces at its point a little round protuberance, which, with a strong narrow basis, rests upon the sterigma. these are filled with protoplasm, swell more and more, and, after some time, separate themselves by a partition from the sterigma into independent cells, spores, or conidia. the formation of the first spore takes place at the same end of the sterigma, and in the same manner a second follows, then a third, and so on; every one which springs up later pushes its predecessor in the direction of the axis of the sterigma in the same degree in which it grows itself; every successive spore formed from a sterigma remains for a time in a row with one another. consequently every sterigma bears on its apex a chain of spores, which are so much the older, the farther they stand from the sterigma. the number of the links in a chain of spores reaches in normal specimens to ten or more. all sterigmata spring up at the same time, and keep pace with one another in the formation of the spores. every spore grows for a time, according to its construction, and at last separates itself from its neighbours. the mass of dismembered spores forms that fine glaucous hue which is mentioned above. the spores, therefore, are articulated in rows, one after the other, from the ends of the sterigmata. the ripe spore, or conidium, is a cell of a round or broadly oval form, filled with a colourless protoplasm, and, if observed separately, is found to be provided with a brownish, finely verruculose, dotted wall. [illustration: fig. .--_a._ _aspergillus glaucus_; _b._ conidia; _c._ germinating conidium; _d._ conceptacle of _eurotium_; _e._ ascus.] the same mycelium which forms the pedicel for the conidia when it is near the end of its development, forms by normal vegetation a second kind of fructification. it begins as delicate thin little branches, which are not to be distinguished by the naked eye, and which mostly in four or six turns, after a quickly terminated growth, wind their ends like a corkscrew. (fig. .) the sinuations decrease in width more and more, till they at last reach close to one another, and the whole end changes from the form of a corkscrew into that of a hollow screw. in and on that screw-like body, a change of a complicated kind takes place, which is a productive process. in consequence of this, from the screw body a globose receptacle is formed, consisting of a thin wall of delicate cells, and a closely entwined row of cells surrounded by this dense mass (_d_). by the enlargement of all these parts the round body grows so much, that by the time it is ripe it is visible to the naked eye. the outer surface of the wall assumes a compactness and a bright yellow colour; the greater part of the cells of the inner mass become asci for the formation of sporidia, while they free themselves from the reciprocal union, take a broad oval form, and each one produces within its inner space eight sporidia (_e_). these soon entirely fill the ascus. when they are quite ripe, the wall of the conceptacle becomes brittle, and from irregular fissures, arising easily from contact, the colourless round sporidia are liberated. the pedicels of both kinds of fruit are formed from the same mycelium in the order just described. if we examine attentively, we can often see both springing up close to one another from the same filament of a mycelium. this is not very easy in the close interlacing of the stalks of a mass of fungi in consequence of their delicacy and fragility. before their connection was known, the conceptacles and the conidia pedicels were considered as organs of two very different species of fungi. the conceptacles were called _eurotium herbariorum_, and the conidia bearers were called _aspergillus glaucus_. allied to _eurotium_ is the group of _erysiphei_, in which well-authenticated polymorphy prevails. these fungi are developed on the green parts of growing plants, and at first consist of a white mouldy stratum, composed of delicate mycelium, on which erect threads are produced, which break up into subglobose joints or conidia. the species on grass was named _oidium monilioides_ before its relationship was known, but undoubtedly this is only the conidia of _erysiphe graminis_. in like manner the vine disease (_oidium tuckeri_) is most probably only the conidia of a species of _erysiphe_, of which the perfect condition has not yet been discovered. on roses the old _oidium leucoconium_ is but the conidia of _sphærotheca pannosa_, and so of other species. the _erysiphe_ which ultimately appears on the same mycelium consists of globose perithecia, externally furnished with thread-like appendages, and internally with asci containing sporidia. in this genus there are no less than five different forms of fruit,[e] the multiform threads on the mycelium, already alluded to as forms of _oidium_, the asci contained in the sporangia, which is the proper fruit of the _erysiphe_, larger stylospores which are produced in other sporangia, the smaller stylospores which are generated in the pycnidia, and separate sporules which are sometimes formed in the joints of the necklaces of the conidia. these forms are figured in the "introduction to cryptogamic botany" from _sphærotheca castagnei_, which is the hop mildew.[f] the vine disease, hop mildew, and rose mildew, are the most destructive species of this group, and the constant annoyance of cultivators. [illustration: fig. .--_erysiphe cichoracearum._ _a._ receptacle; _o._ mycelium. (de bary.)] when first describing an allied fungus found on old paper, and named _ascotricha chartarum_, the rev. m. j. berkeley called attention to the presence of globose conidia attached to the threads which surround the conceptacles,[g] and this occurred as long since as . in a recent species of _chætomium_ found on old sacking, _chætomium griseum_, cooke,[h] we have found tufts in all respects similar externally to the _chætomium_, but no perithecium was formed, naked conidia being developed apparently at the base of the coloured threads. in _chætomium funicolum_, cooke, a black mould was also found which may possibly prove to be its conidia, but at present there is no direct evidence. the brothers tulasne have made us acquainted with a greater number of instances amongst the _sphæriacei_ in which multiple organs of reproduction prevail. very often old and decaying individuals belonging to species of _boletus_ will be found filled, and their entire substance internally replaced, by the threads and multitudinous spores of a golden yellow parasite, to which the name of _sepedonium chrysospermum_ has been given. according to tulasne, this is merely a condition of a sphæriaceous fungus belonging to his genus _hypomyces_.[i] the same observers also first demonstrated that _trichoderma viride_, p., was but the conidia-bearing stage of _hypocrea rufa_, p., another sphæriaceous fungus. the ascigerous stroma of the latter is indeed frequently associated in a very close manner with the cushions of the pretended _trichoderma_, or in other cases the same stroma will give rise to a different apparatus of conidia, of which the principal elements are acicular filaments, which are short, upright, and almost simple, and which give rise to small oval conidia which are solitary on the tips of the threads. therefore this _hypocrea_ will possess two different kinds of conidia, as is the case in many species of _hypomyces_. a most familiar instance of dualism will be found in _nectria cinnabarina_, of which the conidia form is one of the most common of fungi, forming little reddish nodules on all kinds of dead twigs.[j] [illustration: fig. .--twig with _tubercularia_ on the upper portion, _nectria_ on the lower.] almost any small currant twig which has been lying on the ground in a damp situation will afford an opportunity of studying this phenomenon. the whole surface of the twig will be covered from end to end with little bright pink prominences, bursting through the bark at regular distances, scarcely a quarter of an inch apart. towards one end of the twig probably the prominences will be of a deeper, richer colour, like powdered cinnabar. the naked eye is sufficient to detect some difference between the two kinds of pustules, and where the two merge into each other specks of cinnabar will be visible on the pink projections. by removing the bark it will be seen that the pink bodies have a sort of paler stem, which spreads above into a somewhat globose head, covered with a delicate mealy bloom. at the base it penetrates to the inner bark, and from it the threads of mycelium branch in all directions, confined, however, to the bark, and not entering the woody tissues beneath. the head, placed under examination, will be found to consist of delicate parallel threads compacted together to form the stem and head. some of these threads are simple, others are branched, bearing here and there upon them delicate little bodies, which are readily detached, and which form the mealy bloom which covers the surface. these are the conidia, little slender cylindrical bodies, rounded at the ends. [illustration: fig. .--section of _tubercularia_. _c._ threads with conidia.[k]] passing to the other bodies, which are of a deeper colour, it will soon be discovered that, instead of being simple rounded heads, each tubercle is composed of numerous smaller, nearly globose bodies, closely packed together, often compressed, all united to a base closely resembling the base of the other tubercles. if for a moment we look at one of the tubercles near the spot where the crimson tubercles seem to merge into the pink, we shall not only find them particoloured, but that the red points are the identical globose little heads just observed in clusters. this will lead to the suspicion, which can afterwards be verified, that the red heads are really produced on the stem or stroma of the pink tubercles. a section of one of the red tubercles will show us how much the internal structure differs. the little subglobose bodies which spring from a common stroma or stem are hollow shells or capsules, externally granular, internally filled with a gelatinous nucleus. they are, indeed, the perithecia of a sphæriaceous fungus of the genus _nectria_, and the gelatinous nucleus contains the fructification. still further examination will show that this fructification consists of cylindrical asci, each enclosing eight elliptical sporidia, closely packed together, and mixed with slender threads called paraphyses. here, then, we have undoubted evidence of _nectria cinnabarina_, with its fruit, produced in asci growing from the stroma or stem, and in intimate relationship with what was formerly named _tubercularia vulgaris_. a fungus with two forms of fruit, one proper to the pink, or _tubercularia_ form, with naked slender conidia, the other proper to the mature fungus, enclosed in asci, and generated within the walls of a perithecium. instances of this kind are now known to be far from uncommon, although they cannot always, or often, be so clearly and distinctly traced as in the illustration which we have selected. [illustration: fig. .--d. _nectria_ surrounding _tubercularia_; e. tuft of _nectria cinnabarina_; f. section of stroma; g. ascus and paraphyses.] it is not uncommon for the conidia of the _sphæria_ to partake of the characteristics of a mould, and then the perithecia are developed amongst the conidial threads. a recently recorded instance of this relates to _sphæria epochnii_, b. and br.,[l] the conidia form of which was long known before the _sphæria_ related to it was discovered, under the name of _epochnium fungorum_. the _epochnium_ forms a thin stratum, which overruns various species of _corticium_. the conidia are at first uniseptate. the perithecia of the _sphæria_ are at first pale bottle-green, crowded in the centre of the _epochnium_, then black green granulated, sometimes depressed at the summit, with a minute pore. the sporidia are strongly constricted in the centre, at first uniseptate, with two nuclei in each division. another _sphæria_ in which the association is undoubted is the _sphæria aquila_, fr.,[m] which is almost always found nestling in a woolly brown subiculum, for the most part composed of barren brown jointed threads. these threads, however, produce, under favourable conditions, mostly before the perfection of the perithecia, minute subglobose conidia, and in this state constitute what formerly bore the name of _sporotrichum fuscum_, link., but now recognized as the conidia of _sphæria aquila_. in _sphæria nidulans_, schw., a north american species, we have more than once found the dark brown subiculum bearing large triseptate conidia, having all the characters of the genus _helminthosporium_. in _sphæria pilosa_, p., messrs. berkeley and broome have observed oblong conidia, rather irregular in outline, terminating the hairs of the perithecium.[n] the same authors have also figured the curious pentagonal conidia springing from flexuous threads accompanying _sphæria felina_, fckl.,[o] and also the threads resembling those of a _cladotrichum_ with the angular conidia of _sphæria cupulifera_, b. and br.[p] a most remarkable example is also given by the brothers tulasne in _pleospora polytricha_, in which the conidia-bearing threads not only surround, but grow upon the perithecia, and are crowned by fascicles of septate conidia.[q] instances of this kind have now become so numerous that only a few can be cited as examples of the rest. it is not at all improbable that the majority of what are now classed together as species under the genus of black moulds, _helminthosporium_, will at some not very distant period be traced as the conidia of different species of ascomycetous fungi. the same fate may also await other allied genera, but until this association is established, they must keep the rank and position which has been assigned to them. another form of dualism, differing somewhat in character from the foregoing, finds illustration in the sphæriaceous genus _melanconis_, of tulasne, in which the free spores are still called conidia, though in most instances produced in a sort of spurious conceptaculum, or borne on short threads from a kind of cushion-shaped stroma. in the _melanconis stilbostoma_,[r] there are three forms, one of slender minute bodies, oozing out in the form of yellow tendrils, which may be spermatia, formerly called _nemaspora crocea_. then there are the oval brown or olive brown conidia, which are at first covered, then oozing out in a black pasty mass, formerly _melanconium bicolor_, and finally the sporidia in asci of _sphæria stilbostoma_, fries. in _melanconis berkeleii_, tul., the conidia are quadrilocular, previously known as _stilbospora macrosperma_, b. and br. in a closely-allied species from north america, _melanconis bicornis_, cooke, the appendiculate sporidia are similar, and the conidia would also appear to partake of the character of _stilbospora_. we may remark here that we have seen a brown mould, probably an undescribed species of _dematiei_, growing in definite patches around the openings in birch bark caused by the crumpent ostiola of the perithecia of _melanconis stilbostoma_, from the united states. in _melanconis lanciformis_,[s] tul., there are, it would appear, four forms of fruit. one of these consists of conidia, characterized by corda as _coryneum disciforme_.[t] stylospores, which are also figured by corda under the name of _coniothecium betulinum_; pycnidia,[u] first discovered by berkeley and broome, and named by them _hendersonia polycystis_;[v] and the ascophorous fruits which constituted the _sphæria lanciformis_ of fries. mr. currey indicated _hendersonia polycystis_, b. and br., as a form of fruit of this species in a communication to the royal society in .[w] he says this plant grows upon birch, and is in perfection in very moist weather, when it may be recognized by the large black soft gelatinous protuberances on the bark, formed by spores escaping and depositing themselves upon and about the apex of the perithecium. this i suspect to be an abnormal state of a well-known sphæria (_s. lanciformis_), which grows upon birch, and upon birch only. we might multiply, almost indefinitely, instances amongst the _sphæriacei_, but have already given sufficient for illustration, and will therefore proceed briefly to notice some instances amongst the _discomycetes_, which also bear their complete or perfect fruit in asci. the beautiful purple stipitate cups of _bulgaria sarcoides_, which may be seen flourishing in the autumn on old rotten wood, are often accompanied by club-shaped bodies of the same colour; or earlier in the season these clavate bodies may be found alone, and at one time bore the name of _tremella sarcoides_. the upper part of these clubs disseminate a great abundance of straight and very slender spermatia. earlier than this they are covered with globose conidia. the fully-matured _bulgaria_ develops on its hymenium clavate delicate asci, each enclosing eight elongated hyaline sporidia, so that we have three forms of fruit belonging to the same fungus, viz. conidia and spermatia in the _tremella_ stage, and sporidia contained in asci in the mature condition.[x] the same phenomena occur with _bulgaria purpurea_, a larger species with different fruit, long confounded with _bulgaria sarcoides_. on the dead stems of nettles it is very common to meet with small orange tubercles, not much larger than a pin's head, which yield at this stage a profusion of slender linear bodies, produced on delicate branched threads, and at one time bore the name of _dacrymyces urticæ_, but which are now acknowledged to be only a condition of a little tremelloid _peziza_ of the same size and colour, which might be mistaken for it, if not examined with the microscope, but in which there are distinct asci and sporidia. both forms together are now regarded as the same fungus, under the name of _peziza fusarioides_, b. the other series of phenomena grouped together under the name of polymorphism relate to forms which are removed from each other, so that the mycelium is not identical, or, more usually, produced on different plants. the first instance of this kind to which we shall make reference is one of particular interest, as illustrative of the old popular creed, that berberry bushes near corn-fields produced mildewed corn. there is a village in norfolk, not far from great yarmouth, called "mildew rollesby," because of its unenviable notoriety in days past for mildewed corn, produced, it was said, by the berberry bushes, which were cut down, and then mildew disappeared from the corn-fields, so that rollesby no longer merited its _sobriquet_. it has already been shown that the corn-mildew (_puccinia graminis_) is dimorphous, having a one-celled fruit (_trichobasis_), as well as a two-celled fruit (_puccinia_). the fungus which attacks the berberry is a species of cluster-cup (_Æcidium berberidis_), in which little cup-like peridia, containing bright orange pseudospores, are produced in tufts or clusters on the green leaves, together with their spermogonia. de bary's observations on this association of forms were published in .[y] in view of the popular belief, he determined to sow the spores of _puccinia graminis_ on the leaves of the berberry. for this purpose he selected the septate resting spores from _poa pratensis_ and _triticum repens_. having caused the spores to germinate in a moist atmosphere, he placed fragments of the leaves on which they had developed their secondary spores on young but full-grown berberry leaves, under the same atmospheric conditions. in from twenty-four to forty-eight hours a quantity of the germinating threads had bored through the walls and penetrated amongst the subjacent cells. this took place both on the upper and under surface of the leaves. since, in former experiments, it appeared that the spores would penetrate only in those cases where the plant was adapted to develop the parasite, the connection between _p. graminis_ and _Æcid. berberidis_ seemed more than ever probable. in about ten days the spermogonia appeared. after a time the cut leaves began to decay, so that the fungus never got beyond the spermogonoid stage. some three-year-old seedlings were then taken, and the germinating resting spores applied as before. the plants were kept under a bell-glass from twenty-four to forty-eight hours, and then exposed to the air like other plants. from the sixth to the tenth day, yellow spots appeared, with single spermogonia; from the ninth to the twelfth, spermogonia appeared in numbers on either surface; and, a few days later, on the under surface of the leaves, the cylindrical sporangia of the _Æcidium_ made their appearance, exactly as in the normally developed parasite, except that they were longer, from being protected from external agents. the younger the leaves, the more rapid was the development of the parasite, and sometimes, in the younger leaves, the luxuriance was far greater than in free nature. similar plants, to the number of two hundred, were observed in the nursery, and though some of them had _Æcidium_ pustules, not one fresh pustule was produced; while two placed under similar circumstances, but without the application of any resting spores, remained all the summer free from _Æcidium_. it seems, then, indubitable so far that _Æcidium berberidis_ does spring from the spores of _puccinia graminis_. it has, however, to be remarked that de bary was not equally successful in producing the _puccinia_ from the spores of the _Æcidium_. in many cases the spores do not germinate when placed on glass, and they do not preserve their power of germinating very long. he reverts then to the evidence of experiments instituted by agriculturists. bönninghausen remarked, in , that wheat, rye, and barley which were sown in the neighbourhood of a berberry bush covered with _Æcidium_ contracted rust immediately after the maturation of the spores of the _Æcidia_. the rust was most abundant where the wind carried the spores. the following year the same observations were repeated; the spores of the _Æcidium_ were collected, and applied to some healthy plants of rye. after five or six days these plants were affected with rust, while the remainder of the crop was sound. in some winter rye was sown round a berberry bush, which in the following year was infested with _Æcidium_, which was mature in the middle of may, when the rye was completely covered with rust. of the wild grasses near the bush, _triticum repens_ was most affected. the distant plants of rye were free from rust. [illustration: fig. .--cells and pseudospores of _Æcidium berberidis_.] the spores of the _Æcidium_ would not germinate on berberry leaves; the berberry _Æcidium_ could not therefore spring from the previous _Æcidium_. the uredospores of _puccinia graminis_ on germinating penetrate into the parenchym of the grass on which they are sown; but on berberry leaves, if the tips of the threads enter for a short distance into the stomates their growth at once ceases, and the leaves remain free from parasites. [illustration: fig. .--cells and pseudospores of _Æcidium graveolens_.] montagne has, however, described a _puccinia berberidis_ on leaves of _berberis glauca_ from chili, which grows in company with _Æcidium berberidis_. this at first sight seems to contradict the above conclusions; but the _Æcidium_ which from the same disc produces the puccinoid resting spores, appears to be different from the european species, inasmuch as the cells of the wall of the sporangium are twice as large, and the spores decidedly of greater diameter.[z] the resting spores, moreover, differ not only from those of _puccinia graminis_, but from those of all other european species. from this account, then, it is extremely probable that the _Æcidium_ of the berberry enters into the cycle of existence of _puccinia graminis_, and, if this be true, wherefore should not other species of _puccinia_ be related in like manner to other _Æcidia_? this is the conclusion to which many have arrived, and, taking advantage of certain presumptions, have, we fear, rashly associated many such forms together without substantial evidence. on the leaves of the primrose we have commonly a species of _Æcidium_, _puccinia_, and _uromyces_ nearly at the same time; we may imagine that all these belong to one cycle, but it has not yet been proved. again, _uromyces cacaliæ_, unger, _uredo cacaliæ_, unger, and _Æcidium cacaliæ_, thumen, are considered by heufler[a] to form one cycle. numerous others are given by fuckel,[b] and de bary, in the same memoir from which we have already cited, notes _uromyces appendiculatus_, link., _u. phaseolorum_, tul., and _puccinia tragopogonis_, ca., as possessing five kinds of reproductive organs. towards the end of the year, shortly stipitate spores appear on their stroma, which do not fall off. these spores, which do not germinate till after a shorter or longer winter rest, may conveniently be called resting spores, or, as de bary calls them, _teleutospores_, being the last which are produced. these at length germinate, become articulated, and produce ovate or kidney-shaped spores, which in their turn germinate, penetrating the cuticle of the mother plant, avoiding the stomates or apertures by which it breathes. after about two or three weeks, the mycelium, which has ramified among the tissues, produces an _Æcidium_, with its constant companion, spermogonia--distinct cysts, that is, from which a quantity of minute bodies ooze out, often in the form of a tendril, the function of which is imperfectly known at present, but which from analogy we regard as a form of fruit, though it is just possible that they may be rather of the nature of spermatozoids. the _Æcidia_ contain, within a cellular membranous sac, a fructifying disc, which produces necklaces of spores, which ultimately separate from each other in the form of a granular powder. the grains of which it is composed germinate in their turn, no longer avoiding the stomates as before, but penetrating through their aperture into the parenchym. the new resultant mycelium reproduces the _uredo_, or fifth form of fructification, and the _uredo_ spores fall off like those of the _Æcidium_, and in respect of germination, and mode of penetration, present precisely the same phenomena. the disc which has produced the _uredo_ spores now gives rise to the resting spores, and so the cycle is complete.[c] the late professor oersted, of copenhagen, was of opinion that he had demonstrated the polymorphy of the tremelloid uredines, and satisfied himself that the one condition known as _podisoma_ was but another stage of _roestelia_.[d] some freshly gathered specimens of _gymnosporangium_ were damped with water, and during the night following the spores germinated profusely, so that the teleutospores formed an orange-coloured powder. a little of this powder was placed on the leaves of five small sorbs, which were damped and placed under bell-glasses. in five days yellow spots were seen on the leaves, and in two days more indications of spermogonia. the spermatia were discharged, and in two months from the first sowing, the peridia of _roestelia_ appeared, and were developed. "this trial of spores," says oersted, "has conduced to the result expected, and proves that the teleutospores of _gymnosporangium_, when transported upon the sorb, give rise to a totally different fungus, the _roestelia cornuta_, that is to say, that an alternate generation comes between these fungi. they appertain in consequence to a single species, and the _gymnosporangium_ ceased to be an independent species, and must be considered as synonymous with the first generation of _roestelia_. the spores have been transported upon young shoots of the juniper-tree, and have now commenced to produce some mycelium in the bark. there is no doubt that in next spring it will result in _gymnosporangium_." subsequently the same learned professor instituted similar experiments upon other hosts, with the spores of _podisoma_, and from thence he concluded that _roestelia_ and _podisoma_, in all their known species, were but forms the one of the other. hitherto we are not aware that these results have been confirmed, or that the sowing of the spores of _roestelia_ on juniper resulted in _podisoma_. such experiments should be received always with care, and not too hastily accepted in their apparent results as proven facts. who shall say that _roestelia_ would not have appeared on _sorbus_ within two months without the sowing of _podisoma_ spores?--because it is not by any means uncommon for that fungus to appear upon that plant. it is true many mycologists write and speak of _roestelia_ and _podisoma_ (or _gymnosporangium_) as identical; but, as we think, without the evidence being so complete as to be beyond suspicion. it is, nevertheless, a curious fact that in europe the number of species of _roestelia_ and _podisoma_ are equal, if one species be excluded, which is certainly not a good _podisoma_, for the reception of which a new genus has been proposed.[e] amongst the ascigerous fungi will be found a curious but interesting genus formerly called _cordyceps_, but for which tulasne, in consequence of the discovery of secondary forms of fruit, has substituted that of _torrubia_.[f] these curious fungi partake more or less of a clavate form, and are parasitic on insects. the pupæ of moths are sometimes seen bearing upon them the white branched mould, something like a _clavaria_ in appearance, to which the name of _isaria farinosa_ has been given. according to tulasne, this is the conidia form of the bright scarlet, club-shaped body which is also found on dead pupæ, called _torrubia militaris_. an american mould of the same genus, _isaria sphingum_, found on mature moths,[g] is in like manner declared to be the conidia of _torrubia sphingum_; whereas a similar mould, found on dead spiders, called _isaria arachnophila_,[h] is probably of a similar nature. an allied kind of compact mould, which is parasitic on _cocci_, on the bark of trees, recently found in england by mr. c. e. broome, and named _microcera coccophila_,[i] is said by tulasne to be a condition of _sphærostilbe_, and it is intimated that other productions of a similar character bear like relations to other sphæriaceous fungi. for many species of _torrubia_ no corresponding conidia are yet known. some instances might be noted, not without interest, in which the facts of dimorphism or polymorphism have not been satisfactorily proved, but final judgment is held in suspense until suspicion is replaced by conviction. some years since, a quantity of dead box leaves were collected, on which flourished at the time a mould named _penicillium roseum_. this mould has a roseate tint, and occurs in patches on the dead leaves lying upon the ground; the threads are erect and branched above, bearing chains of oblong, somewhat spindle-shaped spores, or, perhaps more accurately, conidia. when collected, these leaves were examined, and nothing was observed or noted upon them except this _penicillium_. after some time, certainly between two and three years, during which period the box remained undisturbed, circumstances led to the examination again of one or two of the leaves, and afterwards of the greater number of them, when the patches of _penicillium_ were found to be intermixed with another mould of a higher development, and far different character. this mould, or rather _mucor_, consists of erect branching threads, many of the branches terminating in a delicate globose, glassy head, or sporangium, containing numerous very minute subglobose sporidia. this species was named _mucor hyalinus_.[j] the habit is very much like that of the _penicillium_, but without any roseate tint. it is almost certain that the _mucor_ could not have been present when the _penicillium_ was examined, and the leaves on which it had grown were enclosed in the tin box, but that the _mucor_ afterwards appeared on the same leaves, sometimes from the same patches, and, as it would appear, from the same mycelium. the great difference in the two species lies in the fructification. in the _penicillium_, the spores are naked, and in moniliform threads; whilst in _mucor_ the spores are enclosed within globose membraneous heads or sporangia. scarcely can we doubt that the _mucor_ alluded to above, found thus intermixed, under peculiar circumstances, with _penicillium roseum_, is no other than the higher and more complete form of that species, and that the _penicillium_ is only its conidiiferous state. the presumption in this case is strong, and not so open to suspicion as it would be did not analogy render it so extremely probable that such is the case, apart from the fact of both forms springing from the same mass of mycelium. in such minute and delicate structures it is very difficult to manipulate the specimens so as to arrive at positive evidence. if a filament of mycelium could be isolated successfully, and a fertile thread, bearing the fruit of each form, could be traced from the same individual mycelium thread, the evidence would be conclusive. in default of such conclusive evidence, we are compelled to rest with assumption until further researches enable us to record the assumption as fact.[k] apropos of this very connection of _penicillium_ with _mucor_, a similar suspicion attaches to an instance noted by a wholly disinterested observer to this effect. "on a preparation preserved in a moist chamber, on the third day a white speck was seen on the surface, consisting of innumerable 'yeast' cells, with some filaments, branching in all directions. on the fourth day tufts of _penicillium_, had developed two varieties--_p. glaucum_ and _p. viride_. this continued until the ninth day, when a few of the filaments springing up in the midst of the _penicillium_ were tipped with a dewdrop-like dilatation, excessively delicate--a mere distended pellicle. in some cases they seemed to be derived from the same filament as others bearing the ordinary branching spores of _penicillium_, but of this i could not be positive. this kind of fructification increased rapidly, and on the fourteenth day spores had undoubtedly developed within the pellicle, just as had been observed in a previous cultivation, precisely similar revolving movements being also manifested."[l] although we have here another instance of _mucor_ and _penicillium_ growing in contact, the evidence is insufficient to warrant more than a suspicion of their identity, inasmuch as the equally minute spores of _mucor_ and _penicillium_ might have mingled, and each producing its kind, no relationship whatever have existed between them, except their development from the same matrix. another case of association--for the evidence does not proceed further--was recorded by us, in which a dark-coloured species of _penicillium_ was closely associated with what we now believe to be a species of _macrosporium_--but then designated a _sporidesmium_--and a minute _sphæria_ growing in succession on damp wall-paper. association is all that the _facts_ warrant us in calling it. we cannot forbear alluding to one of the species of _sphæria_ to which tulasne[m] attributes a variety of forms of fruit, and we do so here because we think that a circumstance so extraordinary should be confirmed before it is accepted as absolutely true. this refers to the common _sphæria_ found on herbaceous plants, known as _sphæria_ (_pleospora_) _herbarum_. first of all the very common mould called _cladosporium herbarum_ is constituted as conidia, and of this again _macrosporium sarcinula_, berk., is considered to be another condition. in the next place, _cytispora orbicularis_, berk., and _phoma herbarum_, west., are regarded as pycnidia, enclosing stylospores. then _alternaria tenuis_, pr.,[n] which is said to be parasitic on _cladosporium herbarum_, is held to be only a form of that species, so that here we have (including the _perithecia_) no less than six forms or phases for the same fungus. as _macrosporium cheiranthi_, pr., often is found in company with _cladosporium herbarum_, that is also open to suspicion. we have adduced in the foregoing pages a few instances which will serve to illustrate the polymorphism of fungi. some of these it will be observed are accepted as beyond doubt, occurring as they do in intimate relationship with each other. others are considered as scarcely so well established, but probable, although developed sometimes on different species of plants. finally, some are regarded as hitherto not satisfactorily proved, or, it may be, only suspicious. in this latter group, however much probability may be in their favour, it can hardly be deemed philosophical to accept them on such slender evidence as in some cases alone is afforded. it would not have been difficult to have extended the latter group considerably by the addition of instances enumerated by various mycologists in their works without any explanation of the data upon which their conclusions have been founded. in fact, altogether this chapter must be accepted as illustrative and suggestive, but by no means as exhaustive. [a] de bary, in "quarterly german magazine" ( ), p. . [b] the method pursued by messrs. berkeley and hoffmann of surrounding the drop of fluid, in which a definite number of spores or yeast globules had been placed, with a pellicle of air, into which the germinating threads might pass and fructify, is perhaps the most satisfactory that has been adopted, though it requires nice manipulation. if carefully managed, the result is irrefragable, though doubts have been cast, without any reason, on their observations. [c] de bary, "uber die brandpilze" (berlin, ), pl. iv. figs. , , . [d] a. de bary, on mildew and fermentation, in "quarterly german magazine," vol. ii. . [e] berkeley, "introd. crypt. bot." p. , fig. . [f] see also berkeley, in "trans. hort. soc. london," vol. ix. p. . [g] berkeley, in "ann. nat. hist." (june, ), no. . [h] "grevillea," vol. i. p. . [i] tulasne, "on certain fungicolous sphæriæ," in "ann. des sci. nat." ^me sér. xiii. ( ), p. . [j] "a currant twig, and something on it," in "gardener's chronicle," january , . [k] figs. to by permission from the "gardener's chronicle." [l] berkeley and broome, in "annals of natural history" ( ), no. , pl. v. fig. ; cooke, "handbook," ii. p. . [m] cooke, "handbook," ii. p. , no. ; specimens in cooke's "fungi britannici exsiccati," no. . [n] berk. and br. "ann. nat. hist." ( ), no. . [o] "ann. nat. hist." ( ), no. , pl. xx. fig. . [p] ibid. no. , pl. xxi. fig. . [q] tulasne, "selecta fungorum carpologia," ii. p. , pl. . [r] cooke, "handbook," ii. p. ; tulasne, "carpologia," ii. p. , plate . [s] tulasne, "selecta fung. carp.," ii. plate . [t] corda, "icones fungorum," vol. iii. fig. . [u] corda, "icones," vol. i. fig. . [v] berk. and br. "ann. nat. hist." no. . [w] currey, in "philosoph. trans. roy. soc." ( ), pl. . [x] tulasne, "on the reproductive apparatus of fungi," in "comptes rendus" ( ), p. ; and tulasne, "selecta fungorum carpologia," vol. iii. [y] "monatsbericht der koniglichen preuss, acad. der wissenschaften au berlin," jan. ; summary, in "journ. roy. hort. soc., london," vol. i. n.s. p. . [z] we have before us an _Æcidium_ on leaves of _berberis vulgaris_, collected at berne by shuttleworth in . it is named by him _Æcidium graveolens_, and differs in the following particulars from _Æcidium berberidis_. the peridia are scattered as in _Æ. epilobii_, and not collected in clusters. they are not so much elongated. the cells are larger, and the orange spores nearly twice the diameter. there is a decided, strong, but unpleasant odour in the fresh plant; hence the name. the above figures (figs. , ) of the cells and spores of both species are drawn by camera lucida to the same scale-- diameters. [a] freiherrn von hohenbühel-heufler, in "oesterr. botan. zeitschrift," no. , . [b] fuckel, "symbolæ mycologicæ" ( ), p. . [c] almost simultaneously with de bary, the late professor oersted instituted experiments, from which the same results ensued, as to _Æcidium berberidis_ and _puccinia graminis_. see "journ. hort. soc. lond." new ser. i., p. . [d] "oversigt over det kon. danske videns. selskabs" ( ), p. , t. , ; ( ,) p. , t. , ; "résumé du bulletin de la soc. roy. danoise des sciences" ( ), p. ; ( ), p. ; "botanische zeitung" ( ), p. ; "quekett microscopical club journal," vol. ii. p. . [e] this is _podisoma foliicola_, b. and br., or, as proposed in "journ. quekett club," ii. p. , _sarcostroma berkeleyi_, c. [f] tulasne, "selecta fungorum carpologia," iii. p. , pl. i. figs. - . [g] cramer's "papilio exotic" ( ), fig. . [h] cooke, "handbook," p. , no. . [i] ibid. p. , no. . [j] specimens were published under this name in cooke's "fungi britannici exsiccati," no. . [k] cooke, "on polymorphism in fungi," in "popular science review." [l] lewis's "report on microscopic objects found in cholera evacuations," calcutta, . [m] tulasne, "selecta fungorum carpologia," ii. p. . [n] corda, "prachtflora," plate vii. x. influences and effects. it is no longer doubted that fungi exercise a large and very important influence in the economy of nature. it may be that in some directions these influences are exaggerated; but it is certain that on the whole their influence is far more important for evil and for good than that of any other of the cryptogamia. in our endeavour to estimate the character and extent of these influences it will prove advantageous to examine them under three sections. . their influence on man. . their influence on lower animals. . their influence on vegetation. under these sections the chief facts may be grouped, and some approximate idea obtained of the very great importance of this family of inferior plants, and consequently the advisability of pursuing their study more thoroughly and nationally than has hitherto been done. i. in estimating the influence of fungi upon man, we naturally enough seek in the first instance to know what baneful effects they are capable of producing on food. although in the case of "poisonous fungi," popularly understood, fungi may be the passive agents, yet they cannot be ignored in an inquiry of this nature. writing of the uses of fungi, we have already shown that a large number are available for food, and some of these real delicacies; so, on the other hand, it becomes imperative, even with stronger emphasis, to declare that many are poisonous, and some of them virulently so. it is not sufficient to say that they are perfectly harmless until voluntarily introduced into the human system, whilst it is well known that accidents are always possible, and probably would be if every baneful fungus had the word poison inscribed in capitals on its pileus. the inquiry is constantly being made as to what plain rules can be given for distinguishing poisonous from edible fungi, and we can answer only that there are none other than those which apply to flowering plants. how can aconite, henbane, oenanthe, stramonium, and such plants, be distinguished from parsley, sorrel, watercress, or spinach? manifestly not by any general characters, but by specific differences. and so it is with the fungi. we must learn to discriminate _agaricus muscarius_ from _agaricus rubescens_, in the same manner as we would discriminate parsley from _Æthusa cynapium_. indeed, fungi have an advantage in this respect, since one or two general cautions can be given, when none such are applicable for higher plants. for instance, it may be said truly that all fungi that exhibit a rapid change to blue when bruised or broken should be avoided; that all agarics are open to suspicion which possess an acrid taste; that fungi found growing on wood should not be eaten unless the species is well known; that no species of edible fungus has a strong, unpleasant odour, and similar cautions, which, after all, are insufficient. the only safe guide lies in mastering, one by one, the specific distinctions, and increasing the number of one's own esculents gradually, by dint of knowledge and experience, even as a child learns to distinguish a filbert from an acorn, or with wider experience will thrust in his mouth a leaf of _oxalis_ and reject that of the white clover. one of the most deleterious of fungi that we possess is at the same time one of the most beautiful. this is the _agaricus muscarius_, or fly agaric, which is sometimes used as a fly poison.[a] it has a bright crimson pileus studded with pale whitish (sometimes yellowish) warts, and a stem and gills of ivory whiteness. many instances have been recorded of poisoning by this fungus, and amongst them some british soldiers abroad, and yet it cannot be doubted that this fungus is eaten in russia. two instances have come under our notice of persons with some botanical knowledge, and one a gardener, who had resided in russia and eaten of this fungus. in one case the fly agaric was collected and shown to us, and in the other the figure was indicated, so that we might be under no doubt as to the species. only one hypothesis can be advanced in explanation. it is known that a large number of fungi are eaten in russia, and that they enter much into the domestic cookery of the peasantry, but it is also known that they pay considerable attention to the mode of cooking, and add a large amount of salt and vinegar, both of which, with long boiling, must be powerful agents in counteracting the poison (probably somewhat volatile) of such fungi as the fly agaric. in this place we may give a recipe published by a french author of a process for rendering poisonous fungi edible. it must be taken on his authority, and not our own, as we have never made the experiment, notwithstanding it seems somewhat feasible:--for each pound of mushrooms, cut into moderately small pieces, take a quart of water acidulated with two or three spoonfuls of vinegar, or two spoonfuls of bay salt. leave the mushrooms to macerate in the liquid for two hours, then wash them with plenty of water; this done, put them in cold water and make them boil. after a quarter or half hour's boiling take them off and wash them, then drain, and prepare them either as a special dish, or use them for seasoning in the same manner as other species.[b] this method is said to have been tried successfully with some of the most dangerous kinds. of these may be mentioned the emetic mushroom, _russula emetica_, with a bright red pileus and white gills, which has a clear, waxy, tempting appearance, but which is so virulent that a small portion is sufficient to produce disagreeable consequences. it would be safer to eschew all fungi with a red or crimson pileus than to run the risk of indulging in this. a white species, which, however, is not very common, with a bulbous base enclosed in a volva, called _agaricus vernus_, should also be avoided. the pink spored species should also be regarded with suspicion. of the _boleti_ several turn blue when cut or broken, and these again require to be discarded. this is especially the case with _boletus luridus_[c] and _boletus satanas_,[d] two species which have the under surface or orifice of the pores of a vermilion or blood-red colour. not only are species which are known to be poisonous to be avoided, but discretion should be used in eating recognized good species. fungi undergo chemical changes so rapidly that even the cultivated mushroom may cause inconvenience if kept so long after being gathered as to undergo chemical change. it is not enough that they should be of a good kind, but also fresh. the employment of plenty of salt in their preparation is calculated very much to neutralize any deleterious property. salt, pepper, and vinegar are much more freely employed abroad in preparing fungi than with us, and with manifest advantage. it is undoubtedly true that fungi exert an important influence in skin diseases. this seems to be admitted on all hands by medical men,[e] however much they may differ on the question of the extent to which they are the cause or consequence of disease. facts generally seem to bear out the opinion that a great number of skin diseases are aggravated, and even produced, by fungi. robin[f] insists that a peculiar soil is necessary, and dr. fox says it is usually taught that tuberculous, scrofulous, and dirty people furnish the best nidus. it is scarcely necessary to enumerate all these diseases, with which medical men are familiar, but simply to indicate a few. there is favus or scall-head, called also "porrigo," which has its primary seat in the hair follicles. plica polonica, which is endemic in russia, is almost cosmopolitan. then there is tinea tonsurans, alopecia, sycosis, &c., and in india a more deeply-seated disease, the madura foot, has been traced to the ravages of a fungus described under the name of _chionyphe carteri_.[g] it is probable that the application of different names to the very often imperfect forms of fungi which are associated with different diseases is not scientifically tenable. perhaps one or two common moulds, such as _aspergillus_ or _penicillium_, lie at the base of the majority, but this is of little importance here, and does not affect the general principle that some skin diseases are due to fungi. whilst admitting that there are such diseases, it must be understood that diseases have been attributed to fungi as a primary cause, when the evidence does not warrant such a conclusion. diphtheria and thrush have been referred to the devastations of fungi, whereas diphtheria certainly may and does occur without any trace of fungi. fevers may sometimes be accompanied by fungoid bodies in the evacuations, but it is very difficult to determine them. the whole question of epidemic diseases being caused by the presence of fungi seems based on most incomplete evidence. dr. salisbury was of opinion that camp measles was produced by _puccinia graminis_, the pseudospores of which germinated in the damp straw, disseminated the resultant secondary bodies in the air, and caused the disease. this has never been verified. measles, too, has been attributed freely, as well as scarlatina,[h] to fungal influences, and the endeavours to implicate fungi in being the cause of cholera have been pertinaciously persevered in with no conviction. the presence of certain cysts, said to be those of _urocystis_, derived from rice, was announced by dr. hallier, but when it was shown that no such fungus was found on rice, this phase of the theory collapsed. special and competent experts were sent from this country to examine the preparations and hear the explanations of dr. hallier on his theory of cholera contagion, but they were neither convinced nor satisfied. as long ago as , dr. lauder lindsay examined and reported on cholera evacuations, and in he declared--"it will be evident that i can see no satisfactory groundwork for the fungus theory of cholera, which i am not a little surprised to find still possesses powerful advocates."[i] and of the examinations undertaken by him he writes:--"the mycelium and sporules of various species of fungi, constituting various forms of vegetable mould, were found in the scum of the vomit, as well as of the stools, but only at some stage of decomposition. they are found, however, under similar circumstances, in the vomit and stools of other diseases, and, indeed, in all decomposing animal fluids, and they are therefore far from peculiar to cholera." some writers have held that the atmosphere is often highly charged with fungi spores, others have denied the presence of organic bodies to any extent in the air. the experiments conducted in india by dr. cunningham[j] have been convincing enough on this point. this report states that spores and similar cells were of constant occurrence, and were generally present in considerable numbers. that the majority of the cells were living and ready to undergo development on meeting with suitable conditions was very manifest, as in those cases in which preparations were retained under observation for any length of time, germination rapidly took place in many of the cells; indeed, many spores already germinating were deposited on the slides. in few instances did any development take place beyond the formation of mycelium or masses of toruloid cells, but in one or two distinct sporules were developed on the filaments arising from some of the larger septate spores, and in a few others _penicillium_ and _aspergillus_ produced their characteristic heads of fructification. with regard to the precise nature of the spores and other cells present in various instances little can be said, as, unless their development were to be carefully followed out through all its stages, it is impossible to refer them to their correct species or even genera. the greater number of them are apparently referable to the old orders of fungi--_sphæronemei_, _melanconei_, _torulacei_, _dematiei_, and _mucedines_, while some probably belonged to the _pucciniei_ and _coæmacei_. amongst those belonging to the _torulacei_, the most interesting was a representative of the rare genus _tetraploa_. distinct green algoid cells occurred in some specimens. then follow in the report details of observations made on the rise and fall of diseases, of which diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, ague, and dengue were selected and compared with the increase or diminution of atmospheric cells. the conclusions arrived at are:-- "spores and other vegetable cells are constantly present in atmospheric dust, and usually occur in considerable numbers; the majority of them are living, and capable of growth and development. the amount of them present in the air appears to be independent of conditions of velocity and direction of the wind, and their number is not diminished by moisture. "no connection can be traced between the numbers of bacteria, spores, &c., present in the air, and the occurrence of diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, ague, or dengue, nor between the presence or abundance of any special form or forms of cells, and the prevalence of any of these diseases. "the amount of inorganic and amorphous particles and other débris suspended in the atmosphere is directly dependent on conditions of moisture and velocity of wind." this report is accompanied by fourteen large and well-executed plates, each containing hundreds of figures of organic bodies collected from the air between february and september. it is valuable both for its evidence as to the number and character of the spores in the air, and also for the tables showing the relation between five forms of disease, and their fluctuations, as compared with the amount of spores floating in the atmosphere. we are fain to believe that we have represented the influence of fungi on man as far as evidence seems to warrant. the presence of forms of mould in some of their incipient conditions in different diseased parts of the human body, externally and internally, may be admitted without the assumption that they are in any manner the cause of the diseased tissues, except in such cases as we have indicated. hospital gangrene may be alluded to in this connection, and it is possible that it may be due to some fungus allied to the crimson spots (blood rain) which occur on decayed vegetation and meat in an incipient stage of decomposition. this fungus was at one time regarded as an algal, at another as animal; but it is much more probable that it is a low condition of some common mould. the readiness with which the spores of fungi floating in the atmosphere adhere to and establish themselves on all putrid or corrupt substances is manifest in the experience of all who have had to do with the dressing of wounds, and in this case it is a matter of the greatest importance that, as much as possible, atmospherical contact should be avoided. recently a case occurred at the botanic gardens at edinburgh which was somewhat novel. the assistant to the botanical professor was preparing for demonstration some dried specimens of a large puff-ball, filled with the dust-like spores, which he accidentally inhaled, and was for some time confined to his room under medical attendance from the irritation they caused. this would seem to prove that the spores of some fungi are liable, when inhaled in large quantities, to derange the system and become dangerous; but under usual and natural conditions such spores are not likely to be present in the atmosphere in sufficient quantity to cause inconvenience. in the autumn a very large number of basidiospores must be present in the atmosphere of woods, and yet there is no reason to believe that it is more unhealthy to breathe the atmosphere of a wood in september or october than in january or may. dreadful effects are said to be produced by a species of black rust which attacks the large south of europe reed, _arundo donax_. this is in all probability the same species with that which attacks _arundo phragmitis_ in this country, the spores of which produce violent headaches and other disorders amongst the labourers who cut the reeds for thatching. m. michel states that the spores from the parasite on _arundo donax_, either inhaled or injected, produce violent papular eruption on the face, attended with great swelling, and a variety of alarming symptoms which it is unnecessary to particularize, in various parts of the body.[k] perhaps if _sarcina_ should ultimately prove to be a fungus, it may be added to the list of those which aggravate, if they are not the primary cause of, disease in the human subject. ii. what influences can be attributed to fungi upon animals other than man? clearly instinct preserves animals from many dangers. it may be presumed that under ordinary circumstances there is not much fear of a cow or a sheep poisoning itself in a pasture or a wood. but under extraordinary circumstances it is not only possible, but very probable, that injuries may occur. for instance, it is well known that not only rye and wheat, but also many of the grasses, are liable to infection from a peculiar form of fungus called "ergot." in certain seasons this ergot is much more common than others, and the belief is strong in those who ought to know something of the subject from experience, viz., farmers and graziers, that in such seasons it is not uncommon for cattle to slip their young through feeding on ergotized grass. then, again, it is fairly open to inquiry whether, in years when "red rust" and "mildew" are more than usually plentiful on grasses, these may not be to a certain extent injurious. without attempting to associate the cattle plague in any way with fungi on grass, it is nevertheless a most remarkable coincidence that the year in which the cattle disease was most prevalent in this country was one in which there was--at least in some districts--more "red rust" on grasses than we ever remember to have seen before or since; the clothes of a person walking through the rusty field soon became orange-coloured from the abundance of spores. graziers on this point again seem to be generally agreed, that they do not think "red rust" has been proved to be injurious to cattle. the direct influence of fungi on quadrupeds, birds, reptilia, &c., seems to be infinitesimally small. insects of various orders have been observed from time to time to become the prey of fungi.[l] that known at guadaloupe under the name of _la guêpe végétale_, or vegetable wasp, has been often cited as evidence that, in some instances at least, the fungus attacks the insect whilst still living. dr. madianna states that he has noticed the wasp still living with its incumbrance attached to it, though apparently in the last stage of existence, and seeming about to perish from the influence of its destructive parasite.[m] this fungus is called by tulasne _torrubia sphecocephala_.[n] about twenty-five species of this genus of sphæriaceous fungi have been described as parasitic on insects. five species are recorded in south carolina, one in pennsylvania, found on the larvæ of the may-bug, and one other north american species on nocturnal lepidoptera, one in cayenne, one in brazil, on the larva of a _cicada_, and one on a species of ant, two in the west indies, one in new guinea on a species of _coccus_, and one on a species of _vespa_ in senegal. in australia two species have been recorded, and two are natives of new zealand. dr. hooker found two in the khassya mountains of india, and one american species has also been found at darjeeling. it has long been known that one species, which has a medicinal repute there, is found in china, whilst three have been recorded in great britain. opinions are divided as to whether in these instances the fungus causes or is subsequent to the death of the insect. it is generally the belief of entomologists that the death of the insect is caused by the fungus. in the case of _isaria sphingum_, which is the conidia form of a species of _torrubia_, the moth has been found standing on a leaf, as during life, with the fungus sprouting from its body. other and less perfect forms of fungi also attack insects. during the summer of , professor sebert collected a great many caterpillars of _arctia villica_, for the purpose of watching their growth. these insects on arriving at their full size became quite soft, and then suddenly died. soon after they became hard, and, if bent, would easily break into two pieces. their bodies were covered with a beautiful shining white mould. if some of the caterpillars affected with the parasitic mould were placed on the same tree with those apparently free from its attack, the latter soon exhibited signs that they also were attacked in the same manner, in consequence of coming into contact with each other.[o] during the spring of , some twelve or twenty specimens were found from amongst myriads of _cicada septemdecim_, which, though living, had the posterior third of the abdominal contents converted into a dry, powdery, ochreous-yellow compact mass of sporuloid bodies. the outer coverings of that portion of the insect were loose and easily detached, leaving the fungoid matter in the form of a cone affixed by its base to the unaffected part of the abdomen of the insect. the fungus may commence, says dr. leidy, its attacks upon the larva, develop its mycelium, and produce a sporular mass within the active pupa, when many are probably destroyed; but should some be only affected so far as not to destroy the organs immediately essential to life, they might undergo their metamorphosis into the imago, in which case they would be affected in the manner previously described.[p] the common house-fly in autumn is very usually subject to the attacks of a mouldy fungus called _sporendonema muscæ_, or _empusa muscæ_ in former times, which is now regarded as the terrestrial condition of one of the _saprolegniei_.[q] the flies become sluggish, and at last fix themselves to some object on which they die, with their legs extended and head depressed, the body and wings soon becoming covered with a minute white mould, the joints of which fall on the surrounding object. examples are readily distinguished when they settle on windows and thus succumb to their foe. mr. gray says that a similar mould has been observed on individuals of the wasp family. a _gryllotalpa_ was found in a wood near newark, delaware, u. s., upon turning over a log. the insect was seen standing very quietly at the mouth of its oval cell, which is formed in the earth, having a short curved tube to the surface. upon taking it up it exhibited no signs of movement, though perfectly fresh and lifelike in appearance. on examining it next morning it still presented no signs of life. every part of the insect was perfect, not even the antennæ being broken. upon feeling it, it was very hard and resistant, and on making an incision through the thorax it exhaled a fungoid odour. the insect had been invaded by a parasitic fungus which everywhere filled the animal, occupying the position of all the soft tissue, and extending even into the tarsal joints. it formed a yellowish or cream-coloured compact mass.[r] the destructive silk-worm disease, _botrytis bassiana_, is also a fungus which attacks and destroys the living insect, concerning which an immense deal has been written, but which has not yet been eradicated. it has also been supposed that a low form or imperfect condition of a mould has much to do with the disease of bees known as "foul brood."[s] _penicillium fieberi_, figured by corda on a beetle, was doubtless developed entirely after death, with which event it had probably nothing whatever to do.[t] sufficient, however, has been written to show that fungi have an influence on insect life, and this might be extended to other animal forms, as to spiders, on which one or two species of _isaria_ are developed, whilst dr. leidy has recorded observations on _julus_[u] which may be perused with advantage. fish are subject to a mouldy-looking parasite belonging to the _saprolegniei_, and a similar form attacks the ova of toads and frogs. gold fish in globes and aquaria are very subject to attack from this mouldy enemy, and although we have seen them recover under a constant change of water, this is by no means always the case, for in a few weeks the parasite will usually prevail. the influence of fungi upon animals in countries other than european is very little known, except in the case of the species of _torrubia_ found on insects, and the diseases to which silkworms are subject. instances have been recorded of the occurrence of fungoid mycelium--for in most it is nothing more--in the tissues of animals, in the hard structure of bone and shell, in the intestines, lungs, and other fleshy parts, and in various organs of birds.[v] in some of the latter cases it has been described as a mucor, in most it is merely cells without sufficient character for determination. it is by no means improbable that fungi may be found in such situations; the only question with regard to them is whether they are not accidental, and not the producers of unhealthy or diseased tissues, even when found in proximity thereto. there is one phase of the influences of fungi on the lower animals which must not be wholly passed over, and that is the relation which they bear to some of the insect tribes in furnishing them with food. it is especially the case with the _coleoptera_ that many species seem to be entirely dependent on fungi for existence, since they are found in no other situations. beetle-hunters tell us that old _polyporei_, and similar fungi of a corky or woody nature, are always sought after for certain species which they seek in vain elsewhere,[w] and those who possess herbaria know how destructive certain minute members of the animal kingdom are to their choicest specimens, against whose depredations even poison is sometimes unavailing. some of the uredines, as _trichobasis suaveolens_ and _coleosporium sonchi_, are generally accompanied by a little orange larva which preys upon the fungus; and in the united states dr. bolles informs us that some species of _Æcidium_ are so constantly infested with this red larva that it is scarcely possible to get a good specimen, or to keep it from its sworn enemy. minute _anguillidæ_ revel in tufts of mould, and fleshy agarics, as they pass into decay, become colonies of insect life. small _lepidoptera_, belonging to the _tineina_, appear to have a liking for such _polyporei_ as _p. sulfureus_ when it becomes dry and hard, or _p. squamosus_ when it has attained a similar condition. _acari_ and _psocidæ_ attack dried fungi of all kinds, and speedily reduce them to an unrecognizable powder. iii. what are the influences exerted by fungi on other plants? this is a broad subject, but withal an important one, since these influences act indirectly on man as well as on the lower animals. on man, inasmuch as it interferes with the vegetable portion of his food, either by checking its production or depreciating its quality. on the lower animals, since by this means not only is their natural food deteriorated or diminished, but through it injurious effects are liable to be produced by the introduction of minute fungi into the system. these remarks apply mainly to fungi which are parasitic on living plants. on the other hand, the influence of fungi must not be lost sight of as the scavengers of nature when dealing with dead and decaying vegetable matter. therefore, as in other instances, we have here also good and bad influences intermingled, so that it cannot be said that they are wholly evil, or unmixed good. wherever we encounter decaying vegetable matter we meet with fungi, living upon and at the expense of decay, appropriating the changed elements of previous vegetable life to the support of a new generation, and hastening disintegration and assimilation with the soil. no one can have observed the mycelium of fungi at work on old stumps, twigs, and decayed wood, without being struck with the rapidity and certainty with which disintegration is being carried on. the gardener casts on one side, in a pile as rubbish, twigs and cuttings from his trees, which are useless to him, but which have all derived much from the soil on which they flourished. shortly fungi make their appearance in species almost innumerable, sending their subtle threads of mycelium deep into the tissues of the woody substance, and the whole mass teems with new life. in this metamorphosis as the fungi flourish so the twigs decay, for the new life is supported at the expense of the old, and together the destroyers and their victims return as useful constituents to the soil from whence they were derived, and form fresh pabulum for a succeeding season of green leaves and sweet flowers. in woods and forests we can even more readily appreciate the good offices of fungi in accelerating the decay of fallen leaves and twigs which surround the base of the parent trees. in such places nature is left absolutely to her own resources, and what man would accomplish in his carefully attended gardens and shrubberies must here be done without his aid. what we call decay is merely change; change of form, change of relationship, change of composition; and all these changes are effected by various combined agencies--water, air, light, heat, these furnishing new and suitable conditions for the development of a new race of vegetables. these, by their vigorous growth, continue what water and oxygen, stimulated by light and heat, had begun, and as they flourish for a brief season on the fallen glories of the past summer, make preparation for the coming spring. unfortunately this destructive power of fungi over vegetable tissues is too often exemplified in a manner which man does not approve. the dry rot is a name which has been given to the ravages of more than one species of fungus which flourishes at the expense of the timber it destroys. one of these forms of dry rot fungus is _merulius lacrymans_, which is sometimes spoken of as if it were the only one, though perhaps the most destructive in houses. another is _polyporus hybridus_, which attacks oak-built vessels;[x] and these are not the only ones which are capable of mischief. it appears that the dry rot fungus acts indirectly on the wood, whose cells are saturated with its juice, and in consequence lose their lignine and cellulose, though their walls suffer no corrosion. the different forms of decay in wood are accompanied by fungi, which either completely destroy the tissue, or alter its nature so much by the abstraction of the cellulose and lignine, that it becomes loose and friable. thus fungi induce the rapid destruction of decaying wood. these are the conclusions determined by schacht, in his memoir on the subject.[y] we may allude, in passing, to another phase of destructiveness in the mycelium of fungi, which traverse the soil and interfere most injuriously with the growth of shrubs and trees. the reader of journals devoted to horticulture will not fail to notice the constant appeals for advice to stop the work of fungi in the soil, which sometimes threatens vines, at others conifers, and at others rhododendrons. dead leaves, and other vegetable substances, not thoroughly and completely decayed, are almost sure to introduce this unwelcome element. living plants suffer considerably from the predations of parasitic species, and foremost amongst these in importance are those which attack the cereals. the corn mildew and its accompanying rust are cosmopolitan, as far as we know, wherever corn is cultivated, whether in australia or on the slopes of the himalayas. the same may also be said of smut, for _ustilago_ is as common in asia and america as in europe. we have seen it on numerous grasses as well as on barley from the punjab, and a species different from _ustilago maydis_ on the male florets of maize from the same locality. in addition to this, we learn that in one form made its appearance on rice. it was described as constituting in some of the infested grains a whitish, gummy, interlaced, ill-defined, thread-like mycelium, growing at the expense of the tissues of the affected organs, and at last becoming converted into a more or less coherent mass of spores, of a dirty green colour, on the exterior of the deformed grains. beneath the outer coating the aggregated spores are of a bright orange red; the central portion has a vesicular appearance, and is white in colour.[z] it is difficult to determine from the description what this so-called _ustilago_ may be, which was said to have affected a considerable portion of the standing rice crop in the vicinity of diamond harbour. bunt is another pest (_tilletia caries_) which occupies the whole farinaceous portion of the grains of wheat. since dressing the seed wheat has been so widely adopted in this country, this pest has been of comparatively little trouble. sorghum and the small millets, in countries where these are cultivated for food, are liable to attacks from allied parasites. ergot attacks wheat and rice as well as rye, but not to such an extent as to have any important influence upon the crop. two or three other species of fungi are sometimes locally troublesome, as _dilophospora graminis_, and _septoria nodorum_ on wheat, but not to any considerable extent. in countries where maize is extensively grown it has not only its own species of mildew (_puccinia_), but also one of the most enormous and destructive species of _ustilago_. a singular parasite on grasses was found by cesati in italy, in , infesting the glumes of _andropogon_.[a] it received the name of _cerebella andropogonis_, but it never appears to have increased and spread to such an extent as was at first feared. even more destructive than any of these is the potato disease[b] (_peronospora infestans_), which is, unfortunately, too well known to need description. this disease was at one time attributed to various causes, but long since its ascertained source has been acknowledged to be a species of white mould, which also attacks tomatoes, but less vigorously. de bary has given considerable attention to this disease, and his opinions are clearly detailed in his memoir on _peronospora_, as well as in his special pamphlet on the potato disease.[c] one sees the cause of the epidemic, he says, in the diseased state of the potato itself, produced either accidentally by unfavourable conditions of soil and atmosphere, or by a depravation that the plant has experienced in its culture. according to these opinions, the vegetation of the parasite would be purely accidental, the disease would be independent of it, the parasite would be able frequently even to spare the diseased organs. others see in the vegetation of the _peronospora_ the immediate or indirect cause of the various symptoms of the disease; either that the parasite invades the stalks of the potato, and in destroying them, or, so to speak, in poisoning them, determines a diseased state of the tubercles, or that it introduces itself into all the organs of the plant, and that its vegetation is the immediate cause of all the symptoms of the disease that one meets with in any organ whatever. his observations rigorously proved that the opinions of the latter were those only which were well founded. all the alterations seen on examining spontaneous individuals are found when the _peronospora_ is sown in a nourishing plant. the most scrupulous examination demonstrates the most perfect identity between the cultivated and spontaneous individuals as much in the organization of the parasite as in the alteration of the plant that nourishes it. in the experiments that he had made he affirms that he never observed an individual or unhealthy predisposition of the nourishing plant. it appeared to him, on the contrary, that the more the plant was healthy, the more the mould prospered. we cannot follow him through all the details of the growth and development of the disease, or of his experiments on this and allied species, which resulted in the affirmation that the mould immediately determines the disease of the tubercles as well as that of the leaves, and that the vegetation of the _peronospora_ alone determines the redoubtable epidemic to which the potato is exposed.[d] we believe that this same observer is still engaged in a series of observations, with the view, if possible, of suggesting some remedy or mitigation of the disease. dr. hassall pointed out, many years since, the action of fungous mycelium, when coming in contact with cellular tissue, of inducing decomposition, a fact which has been fully confirmed by berkeley. unfortunately there are other species of the same genus of moulds which are very destructive to garden produce. _peronospora gangliformis_, b., attacks lettuces, and is but too common and injurious. _peronospora effusa_, grev., is found on spinach and allied plants. _peronospora schleideniana_, d. by., is in some years very common and destructive to young onions, and field crops of lucerne are very liable to attack from _peronospora trifoliorum_, d. by. the vine crops are liable to be seriously affected by a species of mould, which is but the conidia form of a species of _erysiphe_. this mould, known under the name of _oidium tuckeri_, b., attacks the vines in hothouses in this country, but on the continent the vineyards often suffer severely[e] from its depredations; unfortunately, not the only pest to which the vine is subject, for an insect threatens to be even more destructive. hop gardens suffer severely, in some years, from a similar disease; in this instance the mature or ultimate form is perfected. the hop mildew is _sphærotheca castagnei_, lév., which first appears as whitish mouldy blotches on the leaves, soon becoming discoloured, and developing the black receptacles on either surface of the leaf. these may be regarded as the cardinal diseases of fungoid origin to which useful plants are subject in this country. amongst those of less importance, but still troublesome enough to secure the anathemas of cultivators, may be mentioned _puccinia apii_, ca., often successful in spoiling beds of celery by attacking the leaves; _cystopus candidus_, lév., and _glæosporium concentricum_, grev., destructive to cabbages and other cruciferous plants; _trichobasis fabæ_, lév., unsparing when once established on beans; _erysiphe martii_, lév., in some seasons a great nuisance to the crop of peas. fruit trees do not wholly escape, for _roestelia cancellata_, tul., attacks the leaves of the pear. _puccinia prunorum_ affects the leaves of almost all the varieties of plum. blisters caused by _ascomyces deformans_, b., contort the leaves of peaches, as _ascomyces bullatus_, b., does those of the pear, and _ascomyces juglandis_, b., those of the walnut. happily we do not at present suffer from _ascomyces pruni_, fchl., which, on the continent, attacks young plum-fruits, causing them to shrivel and fall. during the past year pear-blossoms have suffered from what seems to be a form of _helminthosporium pyrorum_, and the branches are sometimes infected with _capnodium elongatum_; but orchards in the united states have a worse foe in the "black knot,"[f] which causes gouty swellings in the branches, and is caused by the _sphæria morbosa_ of schweinitz. cotton plants in india[g] were described by dr. shortt as subject to the attacks of a kind of mildew, which from the description appeared to be a species of _erysiphe_, but on receiving specimens from india for examination, we found it to be one of those diseased conditions of tissue formerly classed with fungi under the name of _erineum_; and a species of torula attacks cotton pods after they are ripe. tea leaves in plantations in cachar have been said to suffer from some sort of blight, but in all that we have seen insects appear to be the depredators, although on the decaying leaves _hendersonia theicola_, cooke, establishes itself.[h] the coffee plantations of ceylon suffer from the depredations of _hemiliea vastatrix_, as well as from insects.[i] other useful plants have also their enemies in parasitic fungi. olive-trees in the south of europe suffer from the attacks of a species of _antennaria_, as do also orange and lemon trees from a _capnodium_, which covers the foliage as if with a coating of soot. in fact most useful plants appear to have some enemy to contend with, and it is fortunate, not only for the plant, but its cultivators, if this enemy is less exacting than is the case with the potato, the vine, and the hop. forestry in britain is an insignificant interest compared to what it is in some parts of europe, in the united states, and in our indian possessions. in these latter places it becomes a matter of importance to inquire what influence fungi exert on forest trees. it may, however, be predicated that the injury caused by fungi is far outstripped by insects, and that there are not many fungi which become pests in such situations. coniferous trees may be infested with the species of _peridermium_, which are undoubtedly injurious, _peridermium elatinum_, lk., distorting and disfiguring the silver fir, as _peridermium thomsoni_, b.,[j] does those of _abies smithiana_ in the himalayas. this species occurred at an elevation of , feet. the leaves become reduced in length one-half, curved, and sprinkled, sometimes in double rows, with the large sori of this species, which gives the tree a strange appearance, and at length proves fatal, from the immense diversion of nutriment requisite to support a parasite so large and multitudinous. the dried specimens have a sweet scent resembling violets. in northern europe _cæoma pinitorquum_, d. by., seems to be plentiful and destructive. all species of juniper, both in europe and the united states, are liable to be attacked and distorted by species of _podisoma_[k] and _gymnosporangium_. _antennaria pinophila_, fr., is undoubtedly injurious, as also are other species of _antennaria_, which probably attain their more complete development in _capnodium_, of which _capnodium citri_ is troublesome to orange-trees in the south of europe, and other species to other trees. how far birch-trees are injured by _dothidea betulina_, fr., or _melampsora betulina_, lév., or poplars and aspens by _melampsora populina_, lév., and _melampsora tremulæ_, lév., we cannot say. the species of _lecythea_ found on willow leaves have decidedly a prejudicial effect on the growth of the affected plant. floriculture has to contend with many fungoid enemies, which sometimes commit great ravages amongst the choicest flowers. roses have to contend against the two forms of _phragmidium mucronatum_ as well as _asteroma rosæ_. still more disastrous is a species of _erysiphei_, which at first appears like a dense white mould. this is named _sphærotheca pannosa_. nor is this all, for _peronospora sparsa_, when it attacks roses in conservatories, is merciless in its exactions.[l] sometimes violets will be distorted and spoiled by _urocystis violæ_. the garden anemone is freely attacked by _Æcidium quadrifidum_. orchids are liable to spot from fungi on the leaves, and recently the whole of the choicest hollyhocks have been threatened with destruction by a merciless foe in _puccinia malvacearum_. this fungus was first made known to the world as an inhabitant of south america many years ago. it seems next to have come into notoriety in the australian colonies. then two or three years ago we hear of it for the first time on the continent of europe, and last year for the first time in any threatening form in our own islands. during the present year its ravages are spreading, until all admirers of hollyhocks begin to feel alarm lest it should entirely exterminate the hollyhock from cultivation. it is common on wild mallows, and cotton cultivators must be on the alert, for there is a probability that other malvaceous plants may suffer. a writer in the "gardener's chronicle" has proposed a remedy for the hollyhock disease, which he hopes will prove effectual. he says, "this terrible disease has now, for twelve months, threatened the complete annihilation of the glorious family of hollyhock, and to baffle all the antidotes that the ingenuity of man could suggest, so rapidly does it spread and accomplish its deadly work. of this i have had very sad evidence, as last year at this time i had charge of, if not the largest, one of the largest and finest collections of hollyhocks anywhere in cultivation, which had been under my special care for eleven years, and up to within a month of my resigning that position i had observed nothing uncommon amongst them; but before taking my final leave of them i had to witness the melancholy spectacle of bed after bed being smitten down, and amongst them many splendid seedlings, which had cost me years of patience and anxiety to produce. and again, upon taking a share and the management of this business, another infected collection fell to my lot, so that i have been doing earnest battle with this disease since its first appearance amongst us, and i must confess that, up to a very short time back, i had come in for a great deal the worst of the fight, although i had made use of every agent i could imagine as being likely to aid me, and all that many competent friends could suggest. but lately i was reminded of condy's patent fluid, diluted with water, and at once procured a bottle of the green quality, and applied it in the proportion of a large tablespoonful to one quart of water, and upon examining the plants dressed, twelve hours afterwards, was delighted to find it had effectually destroyed the disease (which is easily discernible, as when it is living and thriving it is of a light grey colour, but when killed it becomes of a rusty black). further to test the power at which the plant was capable of bearing the antidote without injury, i used it double the strength. this dose was instant death to the pest, leaving no trace of any injury to the foliage. as to its application, i advocate sponging in all dressings of this description. syringing is a very ready means, but very wasteful. no doubt sponging consumes more time, but taking into consideration the more effectual manner in which the dressing can be executed alone, it is in the end most economical, especially in regard to this little parasite. i have found it difficult by syringing, as it has great power of resisting and throwing off moisture, and if but a very few are left living, it is astonishing how quickly it redistributes itself. i feel confident, that by the application of this remedy in time another season, i shall keep this collection clean. i believe planting the hollyhock in large crowded beds should be avoided, as i have observed the closer they are growing the more virulently does the disease attack them, whereas isolated rows and plants are but little injured."[m] the "gardener's chronicle" has also sounded a note of warning that a species of uredine has been very destructive to pelargoniums at the cape of good hope. hitherto these plants have not suffered much in this country from parasites. besides these, there are many other less troublesome parasites, such as _uredo filicum_, on ferns; _puccinia lychnidearum_, on leaves of sweet-william; _uredo orchidis_, on leaves of orchids, &c. if we would sum up the influences of fungi in a few words, it could be done somewhat in the following form. fungi exert a deleterious influence-- on _man_, when eaten inadvertently. by the destruction of his legitimate food. in producing or aggravating skin diseases. on _animals_, by deteriorating or diminishing their food supplies. by establishing themselves as parasites on some species. on _plants_, by hastening the decay of timber. by establishing themselves as parasites. by impregnating the soil. but it is not proved that they produce epidemic diseases in man or animals, or that the dissemination of their multitudinous spores in the atmosphere has any appreciable influence on the health of the human race. hence their association with cholera, diarrhoea, measles, scarlatina, and the manifold ills that flesh is heir to, as producing or aggravating causes, must, in the present state of our knowledge and experience, be deemed apocryphal. [a] a detailed account of the peculiar properties of this fungus and its employment as a narcotic will be found in cooke's "seven sisters of sleep," p. . it is figured in greville's "scottish cryptogamic flora," plate . [b] pour chaque grammes de champignons coupes en morceaux d'assez mediocre grandeur, il faut un litre d'eau acidulée par deux ou trois cuillerées de vinaigre, ou deux cuillerées de sel gris. dans le cas ou l'on n'aurait que de l'eau à sa disposition, il faut la renouveler une ou deux fois. on laisse les champignons macérer dans le liquids pendant deux heures entières, puis on les lave à grande eau. ils sont alors mis dans de l'eau froide qu'on porte à l'ébullition, et après un quart d'heure ou une demi-heure, on les retire, on les lave, on les essuie, et ou les apprête soit comme un mets spécial, et ils comportent les mêmes assaisonnements que les autres, soit comme condiment.--_morel traité des champignons_, p. lix. paris, . [c] smith's "chart of poisonous fungi," fig. . [d] ibid. fig. . it would be well to become acquainted with all these figures. [e] "skin diseases of parasitic origin," by dr. tilbury fox. london, . [f] robin, "hist. nat. des végétaux parasites." paris, . kuchenmeister, "animal and vegetable parasites of the human body." london, sydenham society, . [g] berkeley, in "intellectual observer," nov., . "mycetoma," ii. vandyke carter, . [h] hallier and zurn, "zeitschrift fur parasitenkunde." jena, - . [i] dr. lauder lindsay, "on microscopical and clinical characters of cholera evacuations," reprinted from "edinburgh medical journal," february and march, ; also "clinical notes on cholera," by w. lauder lindsay, m.d., f.l.s., in "association medical journal" for april , . [j] "microscopic examinations of air," from the "ninth annual report of the sanitary commissioner," calcutta, . [k] "gardener's chronicle," march , . [l] gray, g., "notices of insects that are known to form the bases of fungoid parasites." london, . [m] halsey, "ann. lyceum," new york, , p. . [n] tulasne, "selecta fung. carp." vol. iii. p. . [o] "berlin entom. zeitung," , p. . [p] "smithsonian contributions to knowledge," v. p. . [q] "wiegmann archiv." , ii. p. ; "ann. nat. hist." , . [r] leidy, "proc. acad. nat. sci. phil." , p. . [s] "gardener's chronicle," november , . [t] corda, "prachtflora," pl. ix. [u] leidy, "fauna and flora within living animals," in "smithsonian contributions to knowledge." [v] murie, in "monthly microscopical journal" ( ), vii. p. . [w] see genus _mycetophagus_, "stephen's manual brit. coleopt." p. . [x] sowerby's "fungi," plates and , fig. . [y] schacht, "fungous threads in the cells of plants," in pringsheim's "jahrbuch." berlin, . [z] "proceedings of the agri. hort. soc. of india" ( ), p. . [a] "gardener's chronicle" ( ), p. , with fig. [b] berkeley, "on the potato murrain," in "jour. hort. soc." vol. i. ( ), p. . [c] de bary, "die gegenwartig herrschende kartoffelkrankheit." [d] de bary, "memoir on peronospora," in "annales des sci. nat." [e] "reports of h. m. secretaries of embassy and legation on the effects of the vine disease on commerce, ;" "reports of h. m. secretaries of embassy, &c., on manufactures and commerce, vine disease in bavaria and switzerland, ," pp. and . [f] c. h. peek, "on the black knot," in "quekett microscopical journal," vol. iii. p. . [g] cooke, "microscopic fungi," p. . [h] "grevillea," i. p. . [i] "gardener's chronicle," . [j] "gardener's chronicle," , p. , with fig. [k] "podisoma macropus," hook, "journ. bot." vol. iv. plate xii. fig. . [l] berkeley, in "gardener's chronicle," , p. . [m] "gardener's chronicle," august , , p. . xi. habitats. it commonly happens that one of the first inquiries which the student seeks to have answered, after an interest is excited in fungi, is--where, and under what circumstances, are they to be found? the inexperienced, indeed, require some guide, or much labour will be expended and patience lost in seeking microscopic forms in just such places as they are least likely to inhabit. nor is it wholly unprofitable or uninteresting for others, who do not claim to be students, to summarize the habitats of these organisms, and learn how much the circumstances of their immediate surrounding elements influence production. for reasons which will at once be recognized by the mycologist, the most satisfactory method of study will be somewhat that of the natural groups into which fungi are divided. agaricini.--there is such a close affinity between all the genera of this group that it will be a manifest advantage to take together all those fleshy pileate fungi, the fruit of which is borne on folded plates or gills. it must be premised of this group that, for the majority, shade, a moderate amount of moisture, and steady warmth, but not too great heat, are required. a stroll through a wood in autumn will afford good evidence of the predilection of _agaricini_, as well as some smaller groups, for such spots. a larger proportion will be found in woods, where shade is afforded, than on open heaths or pastures. these wood-loving forms will consist, again, of those which appear on the soil, and those which are found on rotten stumps and decaying trees. many of those which grow on trees have a lateral stem, or scarcely any stem at all. it may be remarked, that some species which spring from the soil delight most in the shelter of particular trees. the agarics of a beech wood will materially differ largely from those in an oak wood, and both will differ from those which spring up beneath coniferous trees. it may be accepted as true of the largest proportion of terrestrial species, that if they do not spring directly from rotten leaves, and vegetable débris in the last stage of decay, the soil will be rich in vegetable humus. a few only occur on sandy spots. the genus _marasmius_ is much addicted to dead leaves; _russula_, to open places in woods, springing immediately from the soil. _lactarius_ prefers trees, and when found in exposed situations, occurs mostly under the shadow of trees.[a] _cantharellus_, again, is a woodland genus, many of the species loving to grow amongst grass or moss, and some as parasites on the latter. _coprinus_ is not a genus much addicted to woods, but is rather peculiar in its attachment to man--if such expression, or one even implying domesticity, might be employed--farmyards, gardens, dunghills, the base of old gateposts and railings, in cellars, on plaster walls, and even on old damp carpets. _hygrophorus_ loves "the open," whether pastures, lawns, heaths, commons, or up the slopes of mountains, nearly to the top of the highest found in great britain. _cortinarius_ seems to have a preference for woods, whilst _bolbitius_ affects dung, or a rich soil. _lentinus_, _panus_, _lenzites_, and _schizophyllum_ all grow on wood. coming to the subgenera of _agaricus_, we find _pleurotus_, _crepidotus_, _pluteus_, _collybia_, _pholiota_, _flammula_, _hypholoma_, and some species of _psathyra_ growing on wood, old stumps, or charcoal; _amanita_, _tricholoma_, and _hebeloma_ most attached to woods; _clitocybe_ and _mycena_ chiefly amongst leaves; _nolanea_ amongst grass; _omphalia_ and _galera_ chiefly in swampy places; _lepiota_, _leptonia_, _psalliota_, _stropharia_, _psilocybe_, and _psathyrella_ mostly in open places and pastures; _deconica_ and _panæolus_ mostly on dung; _entoloma_ and _clitopilus_ chiefly terrestrial, and the rest variable. of special habitats, we may allude to _nyctalis_, of which the species are parasitic on dead fungi belonging to the genus _russula_. one or two species of _agaricus_, such as _agaricus tuberosus_ and _agaricus racemosus_, p., grow on decaying agarics, whilst _agaricus loveianus_ flourishes on _agaricus nebularis_ even before it is thoroughly decayed. a few species grow on dead fir cones, others on old ferns, &c. _agaricus cepoestipes_, sow., probably of exotic origin, grows on old tan in hothouses. _agaricus caulicinalis_, bull, flourishes on old thatch, as well as twigs, &c. _agaricus juncicola_, fr., affects dead rushes in boggy places, whilst _agaricus affricatus_, fr., and _agaricus sphagnicola_, b., are attached to bog moss in similar localities. some few species are almost confined to the stems of herbaceous plants. _agaricus petasatus_, fr., _agaricus cucumis_, p., and _paxillus panuoides_, f., have a preference for sawdust. _agaricus carpophilus_, fr., and _agaricus balaninus_, p., have a predilection for beech mast. _agaricus urticoecola_, b. and br., seems to confine itself to nettle roots. _coprinus radians_, fr., makes its appearance on plaster walls, _coprinus domesticus_, fr., on damp carpets. the only epizoic species, according to m. fries, is _agaricus cerussatus v. nauseosus_, which has been met with in russia on the carcase of a wolf; this, however, might have been accidental. persoon described _agaricus neapolitanus_, which was found growing on coffee-grounds at naples; and more recently viviani has described another species, _agaricus coffeæ_, with rose-coloured spores, found on old fermenting coffee-grounds at genoa.[b] tratinnick figures a species named _agaricus markii_, which was found in wine casks in austria. a _coprinus_ has, both in this country and on the continent, been found, after a very short time, on the dressing of wounds, where there has been no neglect. a curious case of this kind, which at the time excited great interest, occurred some fifty years since at st. george's hospital. some species appear to confine themselves to particular trees, some to come up by preference on soil in garden pots. certain species have a solitary, others a gregarious habit, and, of the latter, _agaricus grammopodius_, bull, _agaricus gambosus_, fr., _marasmius oreades_, fr., and some others grow in rings. hence it will be seen that, within certain limits, there is considerable variation in the habitats of the _agaricini_. _boleti_ do not differ much from _agaricini_ in their localization. they seem to prefer woods or borders of woods to pastures, seldom being found in the latter. one species, _b. parasiticus_, bull, grows on old specimens of _scleroderma_, otherwise they are for the most part terrestrial. _polypori_ also have no wide range of habitat, except in choice of trees on which to grow, for the majority of them are corticolous. the section _mesopus_, which has a distinct central stem, has some species which prefer the ground. _polyporus tuberaster_, p., in italy springs from the _pietra funghaia_,[c] and is cultivated for food as well as _polyporus avellanus_, which is reared from charred blocks of cob-nut trees. in other genera of the _polyporei_ similar habitats prevail. _merulius lacrymans_, fr., one form of dry rot, occurs in cellars, and too often on worked timber; whilst _merulius himantoides_, fr., is much more delicate, sometimes running over plants in conservatories. hydnei.--there is nothing calling for special note on the habitats of these fungi. the stipitate species of _hydnum_ are some of them found in woods, others on heaths, one on fir-cones, while the rest have similar habitats to the species of _polyporus_. auricularini.--the genera _hymenochoete_, _stereum_, and _corticium_, with some species of _thelephora_, run over corticated or decorticated wood; other species of _thelephora_ grow on the ground. the pezizoid forms of _cyphella_ and _solenia_, like species of _peziza_, sometimes occur on bark, and of the former genus some on grasses and others on moss. clavariei.--the interesting, often brightly-coloured, tufts of _clavaria_ are usually found amongst grass, growing directly from the ground. only in rare instances do they occur on dead leaves or herbaceous stems. _calocera_ probably should be classed with the _tremellini_, to which its structure seems more closely allied. the species are developed on wood. the species of _typhula_ and _pistillaria_ are small, growing chiefly on dead herbaceous plants. one or two are developed from a kind of _sclerotium_, which is in fact a compact perennial mycelium. tremellini.--these curious gelatinous fungi are, with rare exceptions, developed on branches or naked wood; _tremella versicolor_, b. and br., one of the exceptions, being parasitic on a species of _corticium_, and _tremella epigæa_, b. and br., spreading over the naked soil. this completes our rapid survey of the habitats of the _hymenomycetes_. very few of them are really destructive to vegetation, for the agarics and polypori found on growing trees are seldom to be seen on vigorous, but rather on dead branches or partly-decayed trunks. the gasteromycetes are far less numerous in species, and also in individuals, but their habitats are probably more variable. the _hypogæi_, or subterranean species, are found either near the surface or buried in the soil, usually in the neighbourhood of trees. phalloidei.--in most cases the species prefer woody places. they are mostly terrestrial, and have the faculty of making their presence known, even when not seen, by the fetid odour which many of them exhale. some of them occur in sandy spots. podaxinei.--these resemble in their localities the _trichogastres_. species of _podaxon_ affect the nests of termites in tropical countries.[d] others are found growing amongst grass. trichogastres.--these are chiefly terrestrial. the rare but curious _batarrea phalloides_, p., has been found on sand-hills, and in hollow trees. _tulostoma mammosum_, fr., occurs on old stone walls, growing amongst moss. _geaster striatus_, d. c., was at one time usually found on the sand of the denes at great yarmouth. although _lycoperdon giganteum_, batsch, occurs most frequently in pastures, or on hedge banks in fields, we have known it to occur annually for some consecutive years in a garden near london. the species of _scleroderma_ seem to prefer a sandy soil. _agloeocystis_ is rather an anomalous genus, occurring on the fruit heads of _cyperus_, in india. _broomeia_ occurs at the cape on rotten wood. myxogastres.--rotten wood is one of the most favoured of matrices on which these fungi develop themselves; some of them, however, are terrestrial. _Æthalium_ will grow on spent tan and other substances. species of _diderma_ flourish on mosses, jungermanniæ, grass, dead leaves, ferns, &c. _angioridium sinuosum_, grev., will run over growing plants of different kinds, and _spumaria_, in like manner, encrusts living grasses. _badhamia_ not only flourishes on dead wood, but one species is found on the fading leaves of coltsfoot which are still green. _craterium_ runs over almost any substance which lies in its way. _licea perreptans_ was found in a cucumber frame heated with spent hops. one or two _myxogastres_ have been found on lead, or even on iron which had been recently heated. sowerby found one on cinders, in one of the galleries of st. paul's cathedral. nidulariacei grow on the ground, or on sticks, twigs, chips, and other vegetable substances, such as sawdust, dung, and rotten wood. the coniomycetes consist of two sections, which are based on their habitats. in one section the species are developed on dead or dying plants, in the other they are parasitic on living plants. the former includes the _sphæronemei_, which are variable in their proclivities, although mostly preferring dead herbaceous plants and the twigs of trees. the exceptions are in favour of _sphæronema_, some of which are developed upon decaying fungi. in the large genera, _septoria_, _ascochyta_, _phyllosticta_, _asteroma_, &c., the favourite habitat is fading and dying leaves of plants of all kinds. in the majority of cases these fungi are not autonomous, but are merely the stylosporous conditions of _sphæria_. they are mostly minute, and the stylospores are of the simplest kind. the _melanconiei_ have a preference for the twigs of trees, bursting through the bark, and expelling the spores in a gelatinous mass. a few of them are foliicolous, but the exceptions are comparatively rare, and are represented chiefly in _gloeosporium_, species of which are found also on apples, peaches, nectarines, and other fruits. the _torulacei_ are superficial, having much of the external appearance of the black moulds, and like them are found on decaying vegetable substances, old stems of herbaceous plants, dead twigs, wood, stumps of trees, &c. the exceptions are in favour of such species as _torula sporendonema_, which is the red mould of cheese, and also occurs on rats' dung, old glue, &c., and _sporendonema muscæ_, which is only the conidia of a species of _achlya_. one species of _bactridium_ is parasitic on the hymenium of _peziza_, and _echinobotryum atrum_, on the flocci of black moulds. in the other section of _coniomycetes_ the species are parasitic upon, and destructive to, living plants, very seldom being found on really dead substances, and even in such rare cases undoubtedly developed during the life of the tissues. mostly the ultimate stage of these parasites is exhibited in the ruptured cuticle, and the dispersion of the dust-like spores; but in _tilletia caries_, _thecaphora hyalina_, and _puccinia incarcerata_, they remain enclosed within the fruit of the foster-plant. the different genera exhibit in some instances a liking for plants of certain orders on which to develop themselves. _peridermium_ attacks the _coniferæ_; _gymnosporangium_ and _podisoma_ the different species of juniper; _melampsora_ chiefly the leaves of deciduous trees; _roestelia_ attaches itself to pomaceous trees, whilst _graphiola_ affects the _palmaceæ_, and _endophyllum_ the succulent leaves of houseleek. in _Æcidium_ a few orders seem to be more liable to attack than others, as the _compositæ_, _ranunculaceæ_, _leguminosæ_, _labiatæ_, &c., whilst others, as the _graminaceæ_, _ericaceæ_, _malvaceæ_, _cruciferæ_, are exempt. there are, nevertheless, very few natural orders of phanerogamous plants in which some one or more species, belonging to this section of the _coniomycetes_, may not be found; and the same foster-plant will occasionally nurture several forms. recent investigations tend to confirm the distinct specific characters of the species found on different plants, and to prove that the parasite of one host will not vegetate upon another, however closely allied. this admission must not, however, be accepted as universally applicable, and therefore it should not be assumed, because a certain parasite is found developed on a special host, that it is distinct, unless distinctive characters, apart from habitat, can be detected. _Æcidium compositarum_ and _Æcidium ranunculacearum_, for instance, are found on various composite and ranunculaceous plants, and as yet no sufficient evidence has been adduced to prove that the different forms are other than varieties of one of the two species. on the other hand, it is not improbable that two species of _Æcidium_ are developed on the common berberry, as de bary has indicated that two species of mildew, _puccinia graminis_, and _puccinia straminis_, are found on wheat. hyphomycetes.--the moulds are much more universal in their habitats, especially the _mucedines_. the _isariacei_ have a predilection for animal substances, though not exclusively. some species occur on dead insects, others on decaying fungi, and the rest on sticks, stems, and rotten wood. the _stilbacei_ have also similar habitats, except that the species of _illosporium_ seem to be confined to parasitism on lichens. the black moulds, _dematiei_, are widely diffused, appearing on herbaceous stems, twigs, bark, and wood in most cases, but also on old linen, paper, millboard, dung, rotting fruit, &c., whilst forms of _cladosporium_ and _macrosporium_ are met with on almost every kind of vegetable substance in which the process of decay has commenced. _mucedines_, in some instances, have not been known to appear on more than one kind of matrix, but in the far greater number of cases they nourish on different substances. _aspergillus glaucus_ and _penicillium crustaceum_ are examples of these universal _mucedines_. it would be far more difficult to mention substances on which these moulds are never developed than to indicate where they have been found. with the species of _peronospora_ it is different, for these are truly parasitic on living plants, and, as far as already known, the species are confined to certain special plants, and cannot be made to vegetate on any other. the species which causes the potato murrain, although liable to attack the tomato, and other species of _solanaceæ_, does not extend its ravages beyond that natural order, whilst _peronospora parasitica_ confines itself to cruciferous plants. one species is restricted to the _umbelliferæ_, another, or perhaps two, to the _leguminosæ_, another to _rubiaceæ_, two or three to _ranunculaceæ_, and two or three to _caryophyllaceæ_. all the experiments made by de bary seem to prove that the species of _peronospora_ will only flourish on certain favoured plants, to the exclusion of all others. the non-parasitic moulds are scarcely exclusive. in _oidium_ some species are parasitic, but probably all the parasitic forms are states of _erysiphe_, the non-parasitic alone being autonomous; of these one occurs on _porrigo lupinosa_, others on putrefying oranges, pears, apples, plums, &c., and one on honeycomb. _acrospeira_ grows in the interior of sweet chestnuts, and we have seen a species growing within the hard testa of the seeds of _guilandina bondue_, from india, to which there was no external opening visible, and which was broken with considerable difficulty. several _mucedines_ are developed on the dung of various animals, and seldom on anything else. the _physomycetes_ consist of two orders, _antennariei_ and _mucorini_, which differ from each other almost as much in habitat as in external appearance. the former, if represented by _antennaria_, runs over the green and fading leaves of plants, forming a dense black stratum, like a congested layer of soot; or in _zasmidium_, the common cellar fungus, runs over the walls, bottles, corks, and other substances, like a thick sooty felt. in the _mucorini_, as in the _mucedines_, there is usually less restriction to any special substance. _mucor mucedo_ occurs on bread, paste, preserves, and various substances; other species of _mucor_ seem to have a preference for dung, and some for decaying fungi, but rotting fruits are nearly sure to support one or other of the species. the two known species of the curious genus _pilobolus_, as well as _hydrophora_, are confined to dung. _sporodinia_, _syzygites_, &c., nourish on rotten agarics, where they pass through their somewhat complicated existence. the _ascomycetes_ contain an immense number of species, and in general terms we might say that they are found everywhere. the _tuberacei_ are subterraneous, with a preference for calcareous districts. the _perisporiacei_ are partly parasitical and partly not. the _erysiphei_ include those of the former which flourish at the expense of the green parts of roses, hops, maples, poplars, peas, and many other plants, both in europe and in north america, whilst in warmer latitudes the genus _meliola_ appears to take their place. the _elvellacei_ are fleshy fungi, of which the larger forms are terrestrial; _morchella_, _gyromitra_, and _helvella_ mostly growing in woods, _mitrula_, _spathularia_, and _leotia_ in swampy places, and _geoglossum_ amongst grass. the very large genus _peziza_ is divided into groups, of which _aleuriæ_ are mostly terrestrial. this group includes nearly all the large-sized species, although a few belong to the next. _lachneæ_ are partly terrestrial and partly epiphytal, the most minute species being found on twigs and leaves of dead plants. in _phialea_ the species are nearly entirely epiphytal, as is also the case in _helotium_ and allied genera. some species of _peziza_ are developed from the curious masses of compact mycelium called _sclerotia_. a few are rather eccentric in their habitats. _p. viridaria_, _p. domestica_, and _p. hoemastigma_, grow on damp walls; _p. granulata_ and some others on dung. _peziza bullii_ was found growing on a cistern. _p. theleboloides_ appears in profusion on spent hops. _p. episphæria_, _p. clavariarum_, _p. vulgaris_, _helotium pruinosum_, and others are parasitic on old fungi. one or two species of _helotium_ grow on submerged sticks, so as to be almost aquatic, a circumstance of rare occurrence in fungi. other _discomycetes_ are similar in their habitats to the _elvellacei_. the group to which the old genus _ascobolus_ belongs is in a great measure confined to the dung of various animals, although there are two or three lignicolous species; and _ascophanus saccharinus_ was first found on old leather, _ascophanus testaceus_ on old sacking, &c. _ascomyces_ is, perhaps, the lowest form which ascomycetous fungi assume, and the species are parasitic on growing plants, distorting the leaves and fruit, constituting themselves pests to the cultivators of peach, pear, and plum trees. the _sphæriacei_ include a very large number of species which grow on rotten wood, bark, sticks, and twigs; another group is developed on dead herbaceous stems; yet another is confined to dead or dying leaves. one genus, _torrubia_, grows chiefly on insects; _hypomyces_ is parasitic on dead fungi; _claviceps_ is developed from ergot, _poronia_ on dung, _polystigma_ on living leaves, as well as some species of _stigmatea_ and _dothidea_. of the genus _sphæria_, a considerable number are found on dung, now included by some authors under _sordaria_ and _sporormia_, genera founded, as we think, on insufficient characters. a limited number of species are parasitic on lichens, and one species only is known to be aquatic. [illustration: fig. .--_torrubia militaris_ on pupa of a moth.] we have thus rapidly, briefly, and casually indicated the habitats to which the majority of the larger groups of fungi are attached, regarding them from a systematic point of view. there is, however, another aspect from which we might approach the subject, taking the host or matrix, or in fact the habitat, as the basis, and endeavouring to ascertain what species of fungi are to be found in such positions. this has partly been done by m. westendorp;[e] but every year adds considerably to the number of species, and what might have been moderately accurate twelve years since can scarcely be so now. to carry this out fully a special work would be necessary, so that we shall be content to indicate or suggest, by means of a few illustrations, the forms of fungi, often widely distinct in structure and character, to be found in the same locality. the stems of herbaceous plants are favourite habitats for minute fungi. the old stems of the common nettle, for example, perform the office of host to about thirty species.[f] of these about nine are _pezizæ_, and there are as many sphæriaceous fungi, whilst three species of _dendryphium_, besides other moulds, select this plant. some of these have not hitherto been detected growing on any other stems, such as _sphæria urticæ_ and _lophiostoma sex-nucleatum_, to which we might add _peziza fusarioides_ and _dendryphium griseum_. these do not, however, include the whole of the fungi found on the nettle, since others are parasitic upon its living green parts. of these may be named _Æcidium urticæ_ and _peronospora urticæ_, as well as two species described by desmazières as _fusisporium urticæ_ and _septoria urticæ_. hence it will be seen how large a number of fungi may attach themselves to one herbaceous plant, sometimes whilst living, but most extensively when dead. this is by no means a solitary instance, but a type of what takes place in many others. if, on the other hand, we select such a tree as the common lime, we shall find that the leaves, twigs, branches, and wood bear, according to m. westendorp,[g] no less than seventy-four species of fungi, and of these eleven occur on the leaves. the spruce fir, according to the same authority, nourishes one hundred and fourteen species, and the oak not less than two hundred. it is curious to note how fungi are parasitic upon each other in some instances, as in that of _hypomyces_, characteristic of the genus, in which sphæriaceous fungi make hosts of dead _lactarii_, &c. we have already alluded to _nyctalis_, growing on decayed _russulæ_, to _boletus parasiticus_, flourishing on old _scleroderma_, and to _agaricus loveianus_, on the pileus of _agaricus nebularis_. to these we may add _torrubia ophioglossoides_ and _t. capitata_, which flourish on decaying _elaphomyces_, _stilbum tomentosum_ on old _trichia_, _peziza clavariarum_ on dead _clavaria_, and many others, the mere enumeration of which would scarcely prove interesting. a very curious little parasite was found by messrs. berkeley and broome, and named by them _hypocrea inclusa_, which makes itself a home in the interior of truffles. mucors and moulds flourish on dead and decaying agarics, and other fleshy forms, in great luxuriance and profusion. _mucor ramosus_ is common on _boletus luridus_, and _syzygites megalocarpus_ on agarics, as well as _acrostalagmus cinnabarinus_. a very curious little parasite, _echinobotryum atrum_, occurs like minute nodules on the flocci of black moulds. _bactridium helvellæ_ usurps the fructifying disc of species of _peziza_. a small _sphinctrina_ is found both in britain and the united states on old _polypori_. in _sphæria nigerrima_, _nectria episphæria_, and two or three others, we have examples of one sphæriaceous fungus growing upon another. mr. phillips has recently indicated the species of fungi found by him on charcoal beds in shropshire,[h] but, useful as it is, that only refers to one locality. a complete list of all the fungi which have been found growing on charcoal beds, burnt soil, or charred wood, would be rather extensive. the fungi found in hothouses and stoves are also numerous, and often of considerable interest from the fact that they have many of them never been found elsewhere. those found in britain,[i] for instance, are excluded from the british flora as doubtful, because, growing upon or with exotic plants, they are deemed to be of exotic origin, yet in very few cases are they known to be inhabitants of any foreign country. some species found in such localities are not confined to them, as _agaricus coepestipes_, _agaricus cristatus_, _Æthalium vaporarium_, &c. it is somewhat singular that certain species have a predilection for growing in proximity with other plants with which they do not appear to have any more intimate relation. truffles, for instance, in association with oaks, _peziza lanuginosa_ under cedar-trees, _hydnangium carneum_ about the roots of _eucalypti_, and numerous species of _agaricini_, which are only found under trees of a particular kind. as might be anticipated, there is no more fertile habitat for fungi than the dung of animals, and yet the kinds found in such locations belong to but a few groups. amongst the _discomycetes_, a limited number of the genus _peziza_ are fimicolous, but the allied genus _ascobolus_, and its own immediate allies, include amongst its species a large majority that are found on dung. if we take the number of species at sixty-four, there are only seven or eight which do not occur on dung, whilst fifty-six are fimicolous. the species of _sphæria_ which are found on the same substances are also closely allied, and some continental authors have grouped them under the two proposed genera _sporormia_ and _sordaria_, whilst fuckel[j] proposes a distinct group of _sphæriacei_, under the name of _fimicoli_, in which he includes as genera _coprolepa_, _hypocopra_, _delitschia_, _sporormia_, _pleophragmia_, _malinvernia_, _sordaria_, and _cercophora_. the two species of _pilobolus_, and some of _mucor_, are also found on dung, _isaria felina_ on that of cats, _stilbum fimetarium_ and a few other moulds, and amongst agarics some species of _coprinus_. animal substances are not, as a rule, prolific in the production of fungi. _ascobolus saccharinus_ and one or two others have been found upon old leather. _onygena_ of two or three species occurs on old horn, hoofs, &c. cheese, milk, &c., afford a few forms, but the largest number infest dead insects, either under the mouldy form of _isaria_ or the more perfect condition of _torrubia_, and occasionally under other forms. robin[k] has recorded that three species of _brachinus_, of the order coleoptera, have been found infected, whilst living, with a minute yellow fungus which he calls _laboulbenia rougeti_, and the same species has been noted on other beetles. _torrubia melolonthæ_[l] has been described by tulasne as occurring on the maybug or cockchafer, which is allied to, if not identical with, _cordyceps ravenelii_, b. and c., and also that described and figured by m. fougeroux de bondaroy.[m] _torrubia curculionum_, tul., occurs on several species of beetles, and seems to be by no means uncommon in brazil and central america. _torrubia coespitosa_, tul., which may be the same as _cordyceps sinclairi_, b.,[n] is found on the larvæ of _orthoptera_ in new zealand, _torrubia miquelii_ on the larvæ of _cicada_ in brazil, and _torrubia sobolifera_ on the pupæ of _cicada_ in the west indies. a romantic account is given of this in an extract cited by dr. watson in his communication to the royal society.[o] "the vegetable fly is found in the island dominica, and (excepting that it has no wings) resembles the drone, both in size and colour, more than any other english insect. in the month of may it buries itself in the earth and begins to vegetate. by the latter end of july, the tree is arrived at its full growth, and resembles a coral branch, and is about three inches high, and bears several little pods, which, dropping off, become worms, and from thence flies, like the english caterpillar." _torrubia taylori_, which grows from the caterpillar of a large moth in australia, is one of the finest examples of the genus. _torrubia robertsii_, from new zealand, has long been known as attacking the larva of _hepialus virescens_. there are several other species on larvæ of different insects, on spiders, ants, wasps, &c., and one or two on mature lepidoptera, but the latter seem to be rare. that fungi should make their appearance and flourish in localities and conditions generally considered inimical to vegetable life is no less strange than true. we have already alluded to the occurrence of some species on spent tan, and some others have been found in locations as strange. we have seen a yellow mould resembling _sporotrichum_ in the heart of a ball of opium, also a white mould appears on the same substance, and more than one species is troublesome in the opium factories of india. a mould made its appearance some years since in a copper solution employed for electrotyping in the survey department of the united states,[p] decomposing the salt, and precipitating the copper. other organisms have appeared from time to time in various inorganic solutions, some of which were considered destructive to vegetable life, and it is not improbable that some of these organisms were low conditions of mould. it may well occasion some surprise that fungi should be found growing within cavities wholly excluded from the external air, as in the hollow of filberts, and the harder shelled nuts of _guilandina_, in the cavities of the fruit of tomato, or in the interior of an egg. it is scarcely less extraordinary that _hypocrea inclusa_ should flourish in the interior of a kind of truffle. from the above it will be concluded that the habitats of fungi are exceedingly variable, that they may be regarded as almost universal wherever decaying vegetable matter is found, and that under some conditions animal substances, especially of vegetable feeders, such as insects, furnish a pabulum for their development. a very curious and interesting inquiry presents itself to our minds, which is intimately related to this subject of the habitats of fungi. it shapes itself into a sort of "puzzle for the curious," but at the same time one not unprofitable to think about. how is the occurrence of new and before unknown forms to be accounted for in a case like the following?[q] it was our fortune--good fortune as far as this investigation was concerned--to have a portion of wall in our dwelling persistently damp for some months. it was close to a cistern which had become leaky. the wall was papered with "marbled" paper, and varnished. at first there was for some time nothing worthy of observation, except a damp wall--decidedly damp, discoloured, but not by any means mouldy. at length, and rather suddenly, patches of mould, sometimes two or three inches in diameter, made their appearance. these were at first of a snowy whiteness, cottony and dense, just like large tufts of cotton wool, of considerable expansion, but of miniature elevation. they projected from the paper scarcely a quarter of an inch. in the course of a few weeks the colour of the tufts became less pure, tinged with an ochraceous hue, and resembling wool rather than cotton, less beautiful to the naked eye, or under a lens, and more entangled. soon after this darker patches made their appearance, smaller, dark olive, and mixed with, or close to, the woolly tufts; and ultimately similar spots of a dendritic character either succeeded the olive patches, or were independently formed. finally, little black balls, like small pin heads, or grains of gunpowder, were found scattered about the damp spots. all this mouldy forest was more than six months under constant observation, and during that period was held sacred from the disturbing influences of the housemaid's broom and duster. curiosity prompted us from the first to submit the mouldy denizens of the wall to the microscope, and this curiosity was increased week by week, on finding that none of the forms found vegetating on nearly two square yards of damp wall could be recognized as agreeing specifically with any described moulds with which we were acquainted. here was a problem to be solved under the most favourable conditions, a forest of mould indoors, within a few yards of the fireside, growing quite naturally, and all strangers. whence could these new forms proceed? the cottony tufts of white mould, which were the first to appear, had an abundant mycelium, but the erect threads which sprang from this were for a long time sterile, and closely interlaced. at length fertile threads were developed in tufts, mixed with the sterile threads. these fruit-bearers were shorter and stouter, more sparingly branched, but beset throughout nearly their whole length with short patent, alternate branchlets. these latter were broadest towards the apex, so as to be almost clavate, and the extremity was beset with two or three short spicules. each spicule was normally surmounted by an obovate spore. the presence of fertile threads imparted the ochraceous tint above alluded to. this tint was slight, and perhaps would not have been noticed, but from the close proximity of the snow-white tufts of barren threads. the fertile flocci were decumbent, probably from the weight of the spores, and the tufts were a little elevated above the surface of the matrix. this mould belonged clearly to the _mucedines_, but it hardly accorded well with any known genus, although most intimately related to _rhinotrichum_, in which it was placed as _rhinotrichum lanosum_.[r] the white mould having become established for a week or two, small blackish spots made their appearance on the paper, sometimes amongst thin patches of the mould, and sometimes outside them. these spots, at first cloudy and indefinite, varied in size, but were usually less than a quarter of an inch in diameter. the varnish of the paper was afterwards pushed off in little translucent flakes or scales, an erect olivaceous mould appeared, and the patches extended to nearly an inch in diameter, maintaining an almost universal circular form. this new mould sometimes possessed a dirty reddish tint, but was commonly dark olive. there could be no mistake about the genus to which this mould belonged; it had all the essential characters of _penicillium_. erect jointed threads, branched in the upper portion in a fasciculate manner, and bearing long beaded threads of spores, which formed a tassel-like head, at the apex of each fertile thread. although at first reminded of _penicillium olivaceum_, of corda, by the colour of this species, it was found to differ in the spores being oblong instead of globose, and the ramifications of the flocci were different. unable again to find a described species of _penicillium_ with which this new mould would agree, it was described under the name of _penicillium chartarum_.[s] almost simultaneously, or but shortly after the perfection of the spores of _penicillium_, other and very similar patches appeared, distinguished by the naked eye more particularly by their dendritic form. this peculiarity seemed to result from the dwarfed habit of the third fungus, since the varnish, though cracked and raised, was not cast off, but remained in small angular fragments, giving to the spots their dendritic appearance, the dark spores of the fungus protruding through the fissures. this same mould was also found in many cases growing in the same spots amongst _penicillium chartarum_, but whether from the same mycelium could not be determined. the distinguishing features of this fungus consist in an extensive mycelium of delicate threads, from which arise numerous erect branches, bearing at the apex dark brown opaque spores. sometimes the branches were again shortly branched, but in the majority of instances were single. the septate spores had from two to four divisions, many of them divided again by cross septa in the longitudinal direction of the spore, so as to impart a muriform appearance. as far as the structure and appearance of the spores are concerned, they resembled those of _sporidesmium polymorphum_, under which name specimens were at first published,[t] but this determination was not satisfactory. the mycelium and erect threads are much too highly developed for a good species of _sporidesmium_, although the name of _sporidesmium alternaria_ was afterwards adopted. in fresh specimens of this fungus, when seen _in situ_ by a half-inch objective, the spores appear to be moniliform, but if so, all attempts to see them so connected, when separated from the matrix, failed. on one occasion, a very immature condition was examined, containing simple beaded, hyaline bodies, attached to each other by a short neck. the same appearance of beaded spores, when seen _in situ_, was recognized by a mycological friend, to whom specimens were submitted for confirmation.[u] the last production which made its appearance on our wall-paper burst through the varnish as little black spheres, like grains of gunpowder. at first the varnish was elevated by pressure from beneath, then the film was broken, and the little blackish spheres appeared. these were, in the majority of cases, gregarious, but occasionally a few of the spheres appeared singly, or only two or three together. as the whole surface of the damp paper was covered by these different fungi, it was scarcely possible to regard any of them as isolated, or to declare that one was not connected with the mycelium of the others. the little spheres, when the paper was torn from the wall, were also growing from the under surface, flattened considerably by the pressure. the spherical bodies, or perithecia, were seated on a plentiful hyaline mycelium. the walls of the perithecia, rather more carbonaceous than membranaceous, are reticulated, reminding one of the conceptacles of _erysiphe_, to which the perithecia bear considerable resemblance. the ostiolum is so obscure that we doubt its existence, and hence the closer affinity of the plant to the _perisporiacei_ than to the _sphæriacei_. the interior of the perithecium is occupied by a gelatinous nucleus, consisting of elongated cylindrical asci, each enclosing eight globose hyaline sporidia, with slender branched paraphyses. a new genus has been proposed for this and another similar form, and the present species bears the name of _orbicula cyclospora_.[v] the most singular circumstance connected with this narrative is the presence together of four distinctly different species of fungi, all of them previously unknown and undescribed, and no trace amongst them of the presence of any one of the very common species, which would be supposed to develop themselves under such circumstances. it is not at all unusual for _sporocybe alternata_, b., to appear in broad black patches on damp papered walls, but in this instance not a trace was to be found. what were the peculiar conditions present in this instance which led to the manifestation of four new forms, and none of the old ones? we confess that we are unable to account satisfactorily for the mystery, but, at the same time, feel equally unwilling to invent hypotheses in order to conceal our own ignorance. [a] these predilections must be accepted as general, to which there will be exceptions. [b] viviani, "i funghi d'italia." [c] badham's "esculent funguses," ed. i. pp. , . [d] an excellent white agaric occurs on ant nests in the neilgherries, and a curious species is found in a similar position in ceylon. [e] westendorp, "les cryptogams après leurs stations naturelles." [f] cooke, "on nettle stems and their micro-fungi," in "journ. quekett micro. club," iii. p. . [g] westendorp, "les cryptogams après leurs stations naturelles," . [h] "gardener's chronicle," . [i] w. g. smith, in "journ. botany," march, ; berkeley, in "grevillea," vol. i. p. . [j] fuckel, "symbolæ mycologicæ," p. . [k] robin, "végét. parasites," p. , t. viii. f. , . [l] tulasne, "selecta fung. carp." iii. p. . [m] "hist. de l'acad. des sciences," . paris, . [n] berkeley, "crypt. bot." p. ; hooker, "new zealand flora," ii. . [o] "philosophical transactions," liii. ( ), p. . [p] berkeley's "outlines," p. . [q] "popular science review," vol. x. ( ), p. . [r] specimens of this mould were distributed in cooke's "fungi britannici exsiccati," no. , under the name of _clinotrichum lanosum_. [s] cooke's "handbook of british fungi," p. . [t] cooke's "fungi britannici exsiccati," no. , under the name of _sporidesmium polymorphum_ var. _chartarum_. [u] this reminds one of preuss's _alternaria_, figured in sturm's "flora;" it has been suggested that the mould, as seen when examined under a power of diam., is very much like a _macrosporium_. again arises the question of the strings of spores attached end to end. [v] "handbook of british fungi," vol. ii. p. , no. , . xii. cultivation. the cultivation of fungi in this country for esculent purposes is confined to a single species, and yet there is no reason why, by a series of well-conducted experiments, means should not be devised for the cultivation of others, for instance, _marasmius orcades_, and the morel. efforts have been made on the continent for the cultivation of truffles, but the success has hitherto been somewhat doubtful. for the growth of the common mushroom, very little trouble and care is required, and moderate success is certain. a friend of ours some years since was fortunate enough to have one or two specimens of the large puff-ball, _lycoperdon giganteum_, growing in his garden. knowing its value, and being particularly fond of it when fried for breakfast, he was anxious to secure its permanence. the spot on which the specimens appeared was marked off and guarded, so that it was never desecrated by the spade, and the soil remained consequently undisturbed. year after year, so long as he resided on the premises, he counted upon and gathered several specimens of the puff-ball, the mycelium continuing to produce them year after year. all parings, fragments, &c., not utilized of the specimens eaten were cast on this spot to rot, so that some of the elements might be returned to the soil. this was not true cultivation perhaps, as the fungus had first established itself, but it was preservation, and had its reward. it must be admitted, however, that the size and number of specimens diminished gradually, probably from exhaustion of the soil. this fungus, though strong, is much approved by many palates, and its cultivation might be attempted. burying a ripe specimen in similar soil, and watering ground with the spores, has been tried without success.[a] as to the methods adopted for cultivation of the common mushroom, it is unnecessary to detail them here, as there are several special treatises devoted to the subject, in which the particulars are more fully given than the limits of this chapter will permit.[b] recently, m. chevreul exhibited at the french academy some splendid mushrooms, said to have been produced by the following method: he first develops the mushrooms by sowing spores on a pane of glass, covered with wet sand; then he selects the most vigorous individuals from among them, and sows, or plants their mycelium in a cellar in a damp soil, consisting of gardener's mould, covered with a layer of sand and gravel two inches thick, and another layer of rubbish from demolitions, about an inch deep. the bed is watered with a diluted solution of nitrate of potash, and in about six days the mushrooms grow to an enormous size.[c] the cultivation of mushrooms for the market, even in this country, is so profitable, that curious revelations sometimes crop up, as at a recent trial at the sheriffs' court for compensation by the metropolitan railway company for premises and business of a nurseryman at kensington. the railway had taken possession of a mushroom-ground, and the claim for compensation was £ . it was stated in evidence that the profits on mushrooms amounted to or per cent. one witness said if £ were expended, in twelve months, or perhaps in six months, the sum realized would be £ . immense quantities of mushrooms are produced in paris, as is well known, in caves, and interesting accounts have been written of visits to these subterranean mushroom-vaults of the gay city. in one of these caves, at montrouge, the proprietor gathers largely every day, occasionally sending more than pounds weight per day to market, the average being about pounds. there are six or seven miles' run of mushroom-beds in this cave, and the owner is only one of a large class who devote themselves to the culture of mushrooms. large quantities of preserved mushrooms are exported, one house sending to england not less than , boxes in a year. another cave near frépillon was in full force in , sending as many as , pounds of mushrooms to the parisian markets daily. in , m. renaudot had over twenty-one miles of mushroom-beds in one great cave at méry, and in there were sixteen miles of beds in a cave at frépillon. the temperature of these caves is so equal that the cultivation of the mushroom is possible at all seasons of the year, but the best crops are gathered in the winter. mr. robinson gives an excellent account, not only of the subterranean, but also of the open-air culture of mushrooms about paris. the open-air culture is never pursued in paris during the summer, and rarely so in this country.[d] what might be termed the domestic cultivation of mushrooms is easy, that is, the growth by inexperienced persons, for family consumption, of a bed of mushrooms in cellars, wood-houses, old tubs, boxes, or other unconsidered places. even in towns and cities it is not impracticable, as horse-dung can always be obtained from mews and stables. certainly fungi are never so harmless, or seldom so delicious, as when collected from the bed, and cooked at once, before the slightest chemical change or deterioration could possibly take place. mr. cuthill's advice may be repeated here. he says:--"i must not forget to remind the cottager that it would be a shilling or two a week saved to him during the winter, if he had a good little bed of mushrooms, even for his own family, to say nothing about a shilling or two that he might gain by selling to his neighbours. i can assure him mushrooms grow faster than pigs, and the mushrooms do not eat anything; they only want a little attention. addressing myself to the working classes, i advise them, in the first place, to employ their children or others collecting horse-droppings along the highway, and if mixed with a little road-sand, so much the better. they must be deposited in a heap during summer, and trodden firmly. they will heat a little, but the harder they are pressed the less they will heat. over-heating must be guarded against; if the watch or trial stick which is inserted into them gets too hot for the hand to bear, the heat is too great, and will destroy the spawn. in that case artificial spawn must be used when the bed is made up, but this expedient is to be avoided on account of the expense. the easiest way for a cottager to save his own spawn would be to do so when he destroys his old bed; he will find all round the edges or driest parts of the dung one mass of superior spawn; let him keep this carefully in a very dry place, and when he makes up his next bed it can then be mixed with his summer droppings, and will insure a continuance and excellent crop. these little collections of horse-droppings and road-sand, if kept dry in shed, hole, or corner, under cover, will in a short time generate plenty of spawn, and will be ready to be spread on the surface of the bed in early autumn, say by the middle of september or sooner. the droppings during the winter must be put into a heap, and allowed to heat gently, say up to eighty or ninety degrees; then they must be turned over twice daily to let off the heat and steam; if this is neglected the natural spawn of the droppings is destroyed. the cottager should provide himself with a few barrowfuls of strawy dung to form the foundation of his bed, so that the depth, when all is finished, be not less than a foot. let the temperature be up to milk heat. he will then, when quite sure that the bed will not overheat, put on his summer droppings. by this time these will be one mass of natural spawn, having a grey mouldy and thready appearance, and a smell like that of mushrooms. let all be pressed very hard; then let mould, unsifted, be put on, to the thickness of four inches, and trodden down hard with the feet and watered all over; and the back of a spade may now be used to make it still harder, as well as to plaster the surface all over."[e] mushrooms are cultivated very extensively by mr. ingram, at belvoir, without artificial spawn. there is a great riding-house there, in which the litter is ground down by the horses' feet into very small shreds. these are placed in a heap and turned over once or twice during the season, when a large quantity of excellent spawn is developed which, placed in asparagus beds or laid under thin turf, produces admirable mushrooms, in the latter case as clean as in our best pastures.[f] other species will sometimes be seen growing on mushroom-beds besides the genuine mushroom, the spawn in such cases being probably introduced with the materials employed. we have seen a pretty crisped variety of _agaricus dealbatus_ growing in profusion in such a place, and devoured it accordingly. sometimes the mushrooms will, when in an unhealthy condition, be subject to the ravages of parasitic species of mould, or perhaps of _hypomyces_. _xylaria vaporaria_ has, in more than one instance, usurped the place of mushrooms. mr. berkeley has received abundant specimens in the sclerotioid state, which he succeeded in developing in sand under a bell glass. of course under such conditions there is much loss. the little fairy-ring champignon is an excellent and useful species, and it is a great pity that some effort should not be made to procure it by cultivation. in italy a kind of _polyporus_, unknown in this country, is obtained by watering the _pietra funghaia_, or fungus stone, a sort of tufa impregnated with mycelium. the _polypori_, it is said, take seven days to come to perfection, and may be obtained from the foster mass, if properly moistened, six times a year. there are specimens which were fully developed in mr. lee's nursery at kensington many years since. another fungus is obtained from the pollard head of the black poplar. dr. badham says that it is usual to remove these heads at the latter end of autumn, as soon as the vintage is over, and their marriage with the vine is annulled; hundreds of such heads are then cut and transported to different parts; they are abundantly watered during the first month, and in a short time produce that truly delicious fungus _agaricus caudicinus_, which, during the autumn of the year, makes the greatest show in the italian market-places. these pollard blocks continue to bear for from twelve to fourteen years. another fungus, which dr. badham himself reared (_polyporus avellanus_), is procured by singeing, over a handful of straw, a block of the cob-nut tree, which is then watered and put by. in about a month the fungi make their appearance, and are quite white, of from two to three inches in diameter, and excellent to eat, while their profusion is sometimes so great as entirely to hide the wood from whence they spring.[g] it has been said that _boletus edulis_ may be propagated by watering the ground with a watery infusion of the plants, but we have no knowledge of this method having been pursued with success. the culture of truffles has been partially attempted, on the principle that, in some occult manner, certain trees produced truffles beneath their shade. it is true that truffles are found under trees of special kinds, for mr. broome remarks that some trees appear more favourable to the production of truffles than others. oak and hornbeam are specially mentioned; but, besides these, chestnut, birch, box, and hazel are alluded to. he generally found _tuber oestivum_ under beech-trees, but also under hazel, _tuber macrosporum_ under oaks, and _tuber brumale_ under oaks and abele. the men who collect truffles for covent garden market obtain them chiefly under beech, and in mixed plantations of fir and beech.[h] some notion may be obtained of the extent to which the trade of truffles is carried in france, when we learn that in the market of apt alone about , pounds of truffles are exposed for sale every week during the height of the season, and the quantity sold during the winter reaches upwards of , pounds, whilst the department of vaucluse yields annually upwards of , pounds. it may be interesting here to state that the value of truffles is so great in italy that precautions are taken against truffle poachers, much in the same way as against game poachers in england. they train their dogs so skilfully that, while they stand on the outside of the truffle grounds, the dogs go in and dig for the fungi. though there are multitudes of species, they bring out those only which are of market value. some dogs, however, are employed by botanists, which will hunt for any especial species that may be shown to them. the great difficulty is to prevent them devouring the truffles, of which they are very fond. the best dogs, indeed, are true retrievers. the count de borch and m. de bornholz give the chief accounts of the efforts that have been made towards the cultivation of these fungi. they state that a compost is prepared of pure mould and vegetable soil mixed with dry leaves and sawdust, in which, when properly moistened, mature truffles are placed in winter, either whole or in fragments, and that after the lapse of some time small truffles are found in the compost.[i] the most successful plan consists in sowing acorns over a considerable extent of land of a calcareous nature; and when the young oaks have attained the age of ten or twelve years, truffles are found in the intervals between the trees. this process was carried on in the neighbourhood of loudun, where truffle-beds had formerly existed, but where they had long ceased to be productive--a fact indicating the aptitude of the soil for the purpose. in this case no attempt was made to produce truffles by placing ripe specimens in the earth, but they sprang up themselves from spores probably contained in the soil. the young trees were left rather wide apart, and were cut, for the first time, about the twelfth year after sowing, and afterwards at intervals of from seven to nine years. truffles were thus obtained for a period of from twenty-five to thirty years, after which the plantations ceased to be productive, owing, it was said, to the ground being too much shaded by the branches of the young trees. it is the opinion of the messrs. tulasne that the regular cultivation of the truffle in gardens can never be so successful as this so-called indirect culture at loudun, but they think that a satisfactory result might be obtained in suitable soils by planting fragments of mature truffles in wooded localities, taking care that the other conditions of the spots selected should be analogous to those of the regular truffle-grounds, and they recommend a judicious thinning of the trees and clearing the surface from brushwood, etc., which prevents at once the beneficial effects of rain and of the direct sun's rays. a truffle collector stated to mr. broome that whenever a plantation of beech, or beech and fir, is made on the chalk districts of salisbury plain, after the lapse of a few years truffles are produced, and that these plantations continue productive for a period of from ten to fifteen years, after which they cease to be so. m. gasparin reported to the jurors of the paris exhibition of , concerning the operations of m. rousseau, of carpentras, on the production of oak truffles in france. the acorns of evergreen and of common oaks were sown about five yards apart. in the fourth year of the plantation three truffles were found; at the date of the report the trees were nine years old, and over a yard in height. sows were employed to search for the truffles. although these plantations consist both of the evergreen and common oak, truffles cannot be gathered at the base of the latter species, it so happening that it arrives later at a state of production. the common oak, however, produces truffles like the evergreen oak, this report states, for a great number of the natural truffle-grounds at vaucluse are planted with common oaks. it is remarked that the truffles produced from these are larger but less regular than those of the evergreen oak, which are smaller, but nearly always spherical. the truffles are gathered at two periods of the year; in may only white truffles are to be found, which never blacken and have no odour; they are dried and sold for seasoning. the black truffles (_tuber melanosporum_) commence forming in june, enlarging towards the frosty season; then they become hard, and acquire all their perfume. they are dug a month before and a month after christmas. it is also asserted that truffles are produced about the vine, or at any rate that the association of the vine is favourable to the production of truffles, because truffle-plots near vines are very productive. the observation of this decided m. rousseau to plant a row of vines between the oaks. the result of this experiment altogether does not appear to have been by any means flattering, for at the end of eight years only little more than fifteen pounds were obtained from a hectare of land, which, if valued at francs, would leave very little profit. m. rousseau also called attention to a meadow manured (_sic_) with parings of truffles, which was said to have given prodigious results. the cultivation of minute fungi for scientific purposes has been incidentally alluded to and illustrated in foregoing chapters, and consequently will not require such full and particular details here. somewhat intermediately, we might allude to the species of _sclerotium_, which are usually compact, externally blackish, rounded or amorphous bodies, consisting of a cellular mass of the nature of a concentrated mycelium. placed in favourable conditions, these forms of _sclerotium_ will develop the peculiar species of fungus belonging to them, but in certain cases the production is more rapid and easy than in others. in this country, mr. f. currey has been the most successful in the cultivation of _sclerotia_. the method adopted is to keep them in a moist, somewhat warm, but equable atmosphere, and with patience await the results. the well-known ergot of rye, wheat, and other grasses may be so cultivated, and mr. currey has developed the ergot of the common reed by keeping the stem immersed in water. the final conditions are small clavate bodies of the order _sphæriacei_, belonging to the genus _claviceps_. the _sclerotium_ of the _eleocharis_ has been found in this country, but we are not aware that the _claviceps_ developed from it has been met with or induced by cultivation. one method recommended for this sort of experiment is to fill a garden-pot half full of crocks, over which to place sphagnum broken up until the pot is nearly full, on this to place the _sclerotia_, and cover with silver sand; if the pot is kept standing in a pan of water in a warm room, it is stated that production will ensue. ergot of the grasses will not always develop under these conditions, but perseverance may ultimately ensure success. a species of _sclerotium_ on the gills of dead agarics originates _agaricus tuberosus_, another _agaricus cirrhatus_,[j] but this should be kept _in situ_ when cultivated artificially, and induced to develop whilst still attached to the rotten agarics. _peziza tuberosa_, in like manner, is developed from _sclerotia_, usually found buried in the ground in company with the roots of _anemone nemorosa_. at one time it was supposed that some relationship existed between the roots of the anemone and the _sclerotia_. from another _sclerotium_, found in the stems of bulrushes, mr. currey has developed a species of _peziza_, which has been named _p. curreyana_.[k] this _peziza_ has been found growing naturally from the _sclerotia_ imbedded in the tissue of common rushes. de bary has recorded the development of _peziza fuckeliana_ from a _sclerotium_ of which the conidia take the form of a species of _polyactis_. _peziza ciborioides_ is developed from a _sclerotium_ found amongst dead leaves; and recently we have received from the united states an allied _peziza_ which originated from the _sclerotia_ found on the petals of _magnolia_, and which has been named _peziza gracilipes_, cooke, from its very slender, thread-like stem. other species of _peziza_ are also known to be developed from similar bases, and these fuckel has associated together under a proposed new genus with the name of _sclerotinia_. two or three species of _typhula_, in like manner, spring from forms of _sclerotium_, long known as _sclerotium complanatum_ and _sclerotium scutellatum_. other forms of _sclerotium_ are known, from one of which, found in a mushroom-bed, mr. currey developed _xylaria vaporaria_, b., by placing it on damp sand covered with a bell glass.[l] others, again, are only known in the sclerotioid state, such as the _sclerotium stipitatum_ found in the nests of white ants in south india.[m] from what is already known, however, we feel justified in the conclusion that the so-called species of _sclerotium_ are a sort of compact mycelium, from which, under favourable conditions, perfect fungi may be developed. mr. berkeley succeeded in raising from the minute _sclerotium_ of onions, which looks like grains of coarse gunpowder, a species of _mucor_. this was accomplished by placing a thin slice of the _sclerotium_ in a drop of water under a glass slide, surrounded by a pellicle of air, and luted to prevent evaporation and external influences.[n] as to the cultivation of moulds and _mucors_, one great difficulty has to be encountered in the presence or introduction of foreign spores to the matrix employed for their development. bearing this in mind, extensive cultivations may be made, but the conditions must influence the decision upon the results. rice paste has been used with advantage for sowing the spores of moulds, afterwards keeping them covered from external influences. in cultivation on rice paste of rare species, the experimenter is often perplexed by the more rapid growth of the common species of _mucor_ and _penicillium_. mr. berkeley succeeded in developing up to a certain point the fungus of the madura foot, but though perfect sporangia were produced, the further development was masked by the outgrowth of other species. in like manner, orange juice, cut surfaces of fruits, slices of potato tubers, etc., have been employed. fresh, horse-dung, placed under a bell glass and kept in a humid atmosphere, will soon be covered with _mucor_, and in like manner the growth of common moulds upon decayed fruit may be watched; but this can hardly be termed cultivation unless the spores of some individual species are sown. different solutions have been proposed for the growth of such conditions as the cells which induce fermentation, to which yeast plants belong. a fly attacked by _empusa muscæ_, if immersed in water, will develop one of the _saprolegniæ_. the _uredines_ and other epiphyllous _coniomycetes_ will readily germinate by placing the leaf which bears them on damp sand, or keeping them in a humid atmosphere. messrs. tulasne and de bary have, in their numerous memoirs, detailed the methods adopted by them for different species, both for germination of the pseudospores and for impregnating healthy foster plants. the germination of the pseudospores of the species of _podisoma_ may easily be induced, and secondary fruits obtained. the germination of the spores of _tilletia_ is more difficult to accomplish, but this may be achieved. mr. berkeley found no difficulty, and had the stem impregnated as well as the germen. on the other hand, the pseudospores of _cystopus_, when sown in water on a slip of glass, will soon produce the curious little zoospores in the manner already described. the sporidia of the _discomycetes_, and some of the _sphæriacei_, germinate readily in a drop of water on a slip of glass, although not proceeding further than the protrusion of germ-tubes. a form of slide has been devised for growing purposes, in which the large covering glass is held in position, and one end of the slip being kept immersed in a vessel of water, capillary attraction keeps up the supply for an indefinite period, so that there is no fear of a check from the evaporation of the fluid. even when saccharine solutions are employed this method may be adopted. the special cultivation of the _peronosporei_ occupied the attention of professor de bary for a long time, and his experiences are detailed in his memoir on that group,[o] but which are too long for quotation here, except his observations on the development of the threads of _peronospora infestans_ on the cut surface of the tubers of diseased potatoes. when a diseased potato is cut and sheltered from dessication, the surface of the slice covers itself with the mycelium and conidiiferous branches of _peronospora_, and it can easily be proved that these organs originate from the intercellulary tubes of the brown tissue. the mycelium that is developed upon these slices is ordinarily very vigorous; it often constitutes a cottony mass of a thickness of many millimetres, and it gives out conidiiferous branches, often partitioned, and larger and more branched than those observed on the leaves. the appearance of these fertile branches ordinarily takes place at the end of from twenty-four to forty-eight hours; sometimes, nevertheless, one must wait for many days. these phenomena are observed in all the diseased tubercles without exception, so long as they have not succumbed to putrefaction, which arrests the development of the parasite and kills it. young plants of the species liable to attack may be inoculated with the conidia of the species of _peronospora_ usually developed on that particular host, in the same manner that young cruciferous plants, watered with an infusion of the spores of _cystopus candidus_, will soon exhibit evidence of attack from the white rust. it is to the cultivation and close investigation of the growth and metamorphoses of the minute fungi that we must look for the most important additions which have yet to be made to our knowledge of the life-history of these most complex and interesting organisms. [a] experiments were made at belvoir, by mr. ingram, in the cultivation of several species of _agaricini_, but without success, and a similar fate attended some spawn of a very superior kind from the swan river, which was submitted to the late mr. j. henderson. no result was obtained at chiswick, either from the cultivation of truffles or from the inoculation of grass-plots with excellent spawn. mr. disney's experiments at the hyde, near ingatestone, were made with dried truffles, and were not likely to succeed. the viscomte nôe succeeded in obtaining abundant truffles, in an enclosed portion of a wood fenced from wild boars, by watering the ground with an infusion of fresh specimens; but it is possible that as this took place in a truffle country, there might have been a crop without any manipulation. similar trials, and it is said successfully, have been made with _boletus edulis_. specimens of prepared truffle-spawn were sent many years since to the "gardener's chronicle," but they proved useless, if indeed they really contained any reliable spawn. [b] robinson, "on mushroom culture," london, . cuthill, "on the cultivation of the mushroom," . abercrombie, "the garden mushroom; its culture, &c." . [c] this has, however, not been confirmed, and is considered (how justly we cannot say) a "canard." [d] this method is pursued with great success by mr. ingram, at belvoir, and by mr. gilbert, at burleigh. [e] cuthill, "treatise on the cultivation of the mushroom," p. . [f] mr. berkeley lately recommended, at one of the meetings of the horticultural society at south kensington, that the railway arches should be utilized for the cultivation of mushrooms. [g] badham, "esculent funguses," st ed. p. . [h] broome, "on truffle culture," in "journ. hort. soc." i. p. ( ). [i] no faith, however, is, in general, placed on these treatises, as they were merely conjectural. [j] dr. bull has been very successful in developing the _sclerotium_ of _agaricus cirrhatus_. [k] currey, "on development of _sclerotium roseum_," in "journ. linn. soc." vol. i. p. . [l] currey, in "linn. trans." xxiv. pl. , figs. , . [m] berkeley, "on two tuberiform veg. productions from travancore," in "trans. linn. soc." vol. xxiii. p. . [n] berkeley, "on a peculiar form of mildew in onions," "journ. hort. soc." vol. iii p. . [o] de bary, "ann. des sci. nat." th series, vol. xx. xiii. geographical distribution. unfortunately no complete or satisfactory account can be given of the geographical distribution of fungi. the younger fries,[a] with all the facilities at his disposal which the lengthened experience and large collections of his father afforded, could only give a very imperfect outline, and now we can add very little to what he has given. the cause of this difficulty lies in the fact that the mycologic flora of so large a portion of the world remains unexplored, not only in remote regions, but even in civilized countries where the phanerogamic flora is well known. europe, england, scotland, and wales are as well explored as any other country, but ireland is comparatively unknown, no complete collection having ever been made, or any at least published. scandinavia has also been well examined, and the northern portions of france, with belgium, some parts of germany and austria, in russia the neighbourhood of st. petersburg, and parts of italy and switzerland. turkey in europe, nearly all russia, spain, and portugal are almost unknown. as to north america, considerable advances have been made since schweinitz by messrs. curtis and ravenel, but their collections in carolina cannot be supposed to represent the whole of the united states; the small collections made in texas, mexico, etc., only serve to show the richness of the country, not yet half exhausted. it is to be hoped that the young race of botanists in the united states will apply themselves to the task of investigating the mycologic flora of this rich and fertile region. in central america very small and incomplete collections have as yet been made, and the same may be said of south america and canada. of the whole extent of the new world, only the carolina states of north america can really be said to be satisfactorily known. asia is still less known, the whole of our vast indian empire being represented by the collections made by dr. hooker in the sikkim himalayas, and a few isolated specimens from other parts. ceylon has recently been removed from the category of the unknown by the publication of its mycologic flora.[b] all that is known of java is supplied by the researches of junghuhn; whilst all the rest is completely unknown, including china, japan, siam, the malayan peninsula, burmah, and the whole of the countries in the north and west of india. a little is known of the philippines, and the indian archipelago, but this knowledge is too fragmentary to be of much service. in africa no part has been properly explored, with the exception of algeria, although something is known of the cape of good hope and natal. the australasian islands are better represented in the floras published of those regions. cuba and the west indies generally are moderately well known from the collections of mr. c. wright, which have been recorded in the journal of the linnæan society, and in the same journal mr. berkeley has described many australian species. it will be seen from the above summary how unsatisfactory it must be to give anything like a general view of the geographical distribution of fungi, or to estimate at all approximately the number of species on the globe. any attempt, therefore, must be made and accepted subject to the limitations we have expressed. the conditions which determine the distribution of fungi are not precisely those which determine the distribution of the higher plants. in the case of the parasitic species they may be said to follow the distribution of their foster-plants, as in the case of the rust, smut, and mildew of the cultivated cereals, which have followed those grains wherever they have been distributed, and the potato disease, which is said to have been known in the native region of the potato plant before it made its appearance in europe. we might also allude to _puccinia malvacearum_, ca., which was first made known as a south american species; it then travelled to australia, and at length to europe, reaching england the next year after it was recorded on the continent. in the same manner, so far as we have the means of knowing, _puccinia apii_, ca., was known on the continent of europe for some time before it was detected on the celery plants in this country. experience seems to warrant the conclusion that if a parasite affects a certain plant within a definite area, it will extend in time beyond that area to other countries where the foster-plant is found. this view accounts in some part for the discovery of species in this country, year after year, which had not been recorded before; some allowance being made for the fact that an increased number of observers and collectors may cause the search to be more complete, yet it must be conceded that the migration of continental species must to some extent be going on, or how can it be accounted for that such large and attractive fungi as _sparassis crispa_, _helvellas gigas_, and _morchella crassipes_ had never been recorded till recently, or amongst parasitic species such as the two species of _puccinia_ above named? in the same manner it is undoubtedly true that species which at one time were common gradually become somewhat rare, and at length nearly extinct. we have observed this to apply to the larger species as well as to the microscopic in definite localities. for instance, _craterellus cornucopioides_ some ten years ago appeared in one wood, at a certain spot, by hundreds, whereas during the past three or four years we have failed to find a single specimen. as many years since, and in two places, where the goat's-beard was abundant, as it is now, we found nearly half the flowering heads infested with _ustilago receptaculorum_, but for the past two or three years, although we have sought it industriously, not a single specimen could be found. it is certain that plants found by dickson, bolton, and sowerby, have not been detected since, whilst it is not improbable that species common with us may be very rare fifty years hence. in this manner it would really appear that fungi are much more liable than flowering plants to shift their localities, or increase and diminish in number. the fleshy fungi, _agaricini_ and _boleti_ especially, are largely dependent upon the character of woods and forests. when the undergrowth of a wood is cleared away, as it often is every few years, it is easy to observe a considerable difference in the fungi. species seem to change places, common ones amongst a dense undergrowth are rare or disappear with the copsewood, and others not observed before take their place. some species, too, are peculiar to certain woods, such as beech woods and fir woods, and their distribution will consequently depend very much on the presence or absence of such woods. epiphytal species, such as _agaricus ulmarius_, _agaricus mucidus_, and a host of others, depend on circumstances which do not influence the distribution of flowering plants. it may be assumed that such species as flourish in pastures and open places are subject to fewer adverse conditions than those which affect woods and forests. any one who has observed any locality with reference to its mycologic flora over a period of years will have been struck with the difference in number and variety caused by what may be termed a "favourable season," that is, plenty of moisture in august with warm weather afterwards. although we know but little of the conditions of germination in agarics, it is but reasonable to suppose that a succession of dry seasons will considerably influence the flora of any locality. heat and humidity, therefore, are intimately concerned in the mycologic vegetation of a country. fries has noted in his essay the features to which we have alluded. "the fact," he says, "must not be lost sight of that some species of fungi which have formerly been common in certain localities may become, within our lifetime, more and more scarce, and even altogether cease to grow there. the cause of this, doubtless, is the occurrence of some change in the physical constitution of a locality, such as that resulting from the destruction of a forest, or from the drainage, by ditches and cuttings, of more or less extensive swamps, or from the cultivation of the soil--all of them circumstances which cause the destruction of the primitive fungaceous vegetation and the production of a new one. if we compare the fungal flora of america with that of european countries, we observe that the former equals, in its richness and the variety of its forms, that of the phanerogamous flora; it is probable, however, that, in the lapse of more or fewer years, this richness will decrease, in consequence of the extension of cultivation--as is illustrated, indeed, in what has already taken place in the more thickly peopled districts, as, for example, in the vicinity of new york." although heat and humidity influence all kinds of vegetation, yet heat seems to exert a less, and humidity a greater, influence on fungi than on other plants. it is chiefly during the cool moist autumnal weather that the fleshy fungi flourish most vigorously in our own country, and we observe their number to increase with the humidity of the season. rain falls copiously in the united states, and this is one of the most fruitful countries known for the fleshy fungi. hence it is a reasonable deduction that moisture is a condition favourable to the development of these plants. the _myxogastres_, according to dr. henry carter, are exceedingly abundant--in individuals, at least, if not in species--in bombay, and this would lead to the conclusion that the members of this group are influenced as much by heat as humidity in their development, borne out by the more plentiful appearance of the species in this country in the warmer weather of summer. in the essay to which we have alluded, fries only attempts the recognition of two zones in his estimate of the distribution of fungi, and these are the temperate and tropical. the frigid zone produces no peculiar types, and is poor in the number of species, whilst no essential distinction can be drawn between the tropical and sub-tropical with our present limited information. even these two zones must not be accepted too rigidly, since tropical forms will in some instances, and under favourable conditions, extend far upwards into the temperate zone. "in any region whatever," writes fries, "it is necessary, in the first instance, to draw a distinction between its open naked plains and its wooded tracts. in the level open country there is a more rapid evaporation of the moisture by the conjoined action of the sun and wind; whence it happens that such a region is more bare of fungi than one that is mountainous or covered by woods. on the other hand, plains possess several species peculiar to themselves; as, for example, _agaricus pediades_, certain _tricholomata_, and, above all, the family _coprini_, of which they may be regarded as the special habitat. the species of this family augment in number, in any given country, in proportion to the extent and degree of its cultivation; for instance, they grow more luxuriantly in the province of scania, in sweden--a district farther distinguished above all others by its cultivation and fertility. in well-wooded countries moisture is retained a much longer time, and, as a result, the production of fungi is incomparably greater; and it is here desirable to make a distinction between the fungi growing in forests of resinous-wooded trees (_coniferæ_) and those which inhabit woods of other trees, for these two descriptions of forests may be rightly regarded, as to their fungaceous growths, as two different regions. beneath the shade of _coniferæ_, fungi are earlier in their appearance; so much so, that it often happens they have attained their full development when their congeners in forests of non-resinous trees have scarcely commenced their growth. in woods of the latter sort, the fallen leaves, collected in thick layers, act as an obstacle to the soaking of moisture into the earth, and thereby retard the vegetation of fungi; on the other hand, such woods retain moisture longer. these conditions afford to several large and remarkable species the necessary time for development. the beech is characteristic of our own region, but, further north this tree gives place to the birch. coniferous woods are, moreover, divisible into two regions--that of the pines and that of the firs. the latter is richer in species than the former, because, as is well known, fir-trees flourish in more fertile and moister soils. whether, with respect to the south of europe, other subdivisions into regions are required, we know not; still less are we able to decide on the like question in reference to the countries beyond europe."[c] in very cold countries the higher fungi are rare, whilst in tropical countries they are most common at elevations which secure a temperate climate. in java, junghuhn found them most prolific at an elevation of , to , feet; and in india, dr. hooker remarked that they were most abundant at an elevation of , to , feet above the sea level. for the higher fungi we must be indebted to the summary made by fries, to which we have little to add. the genus _agaricus_ occupies the first place, and surpasses, in the number of species, all the other generic groups known. it appears, from our present knowledge, that the _agarici_ have their geographic centre in the temperate zone, and especially in the colder portion of that zone. it is a curious circumstance that all the extra-european species of this genus _agaricus_ may be referred to various european subgenera. in tropical countries it appears that the _agarici_ occupy only a secondary position in relation to other genera of fungi, such as _polyporus_, _lenzites_, etc. north america, on the other hand, is richer in species of _agaricus_ than europe; for whilst the majority of typical forms are common to both continents, america further possesses many species peculiar to itself. in the temperate zone, so close is the analogy prevailing between the various countries in respect to the _agaricini_, that from sweden to italy, and as well in england as north america, the same species are to be found. of _agaricini_ met with in st. petersburg, there are only two or three which have not been discovered in sweden; and again, of fifty species known in greenland, there is not one that is not common in sweden. the same remarks hold good in reference to the _agaricini_ of siberia, kamtschatka, the ukraine, etc. the countries bordering upon the mediterranean possess, however, several peculiar types; and eastern and western europe present certain dissimilarities in their agaric inhabitants. several species, for example, of _armillaria_ and _tricholoma_, which have been found in russia, have been met with in sweden only in upland, that is, in the most eastern province; all the species which belong to the so-called _abiegno-rupestres_ and _pineto-montanæ_ regions of sweden are wanting in england; and it is only in scotland that the species of northern mountainous and pine-bearing regions are met with--a circumstance explicable from the similarity in physical features between sweden and the northern portions of great britain. the species of _coprinus_ appear to find suitable habitats in every quarter of the globe. the _cortinariæ_ predominate in the north; they abound in northern latitudes, especially on wooded hills; but the plains offer also some peculiar species which flourish during the rainy days of august and september. in less cold countries they are more scarce or entirely absent. the species of the genus _hygrophorus_ would at first seem to have a similar geographical distribution to those of the last group; but this is really not the case, for the same _hygrophori_ are to be found in nearly every country of europe, and even the hottest countries (and those under the equator) are not destitute of representatives of this wide-spread genus. the _lactarii_, which are so abundant in the forests of europe and north america, appear to grow more and more scarce towards both the south and north. the same may be stated in regard to _russula_. the genus _marasmius_ is dispersed throughout the globe, and everywhere presents numerous species. in inter-tropical countries they are still more abundant, and exhibit peculiarities in growth which probably might justify their collection into a distinct group. the genera _lentinus_ and _lenzites_ are found in every region of the world; their principal centre, however, is in hot countries, where they attain a splendid development. on the contrary, towards the north they rapidly decrease in number. the _polypori_ constitute a group which, unlike that of the agarics, especially belongs to hot countries. the _boleti_ constitute the only exception to this rule, since they select the temperate and frigid zones for their special abode, and some of them at times find their way to the higher regions of the alps. no one can describe the luxuriance of the torrid zone in _polypori_ and _trametes_, genera of _hymenomycetes_, which flourish beneath the shade of the virgin forests, where perpetual moisture and heat promote their vegetation and give rise to an infinite variety of forms. but though the genus _polyporus_, which rivals _agaricus_ in the number of its species, inhabits, in preference, warm climates at large, it nevertheless exhibits species peculiar to each country. this arises from the circumstance that the _polypori_, for the most part, live upon trees, and are dependent on this or that particular tree for a suitable habitat; and the tropical flora being prolific in trees of all kinds, a multitude of the most varied forms of these fungi is a necessary consequence. _hexagona_, _favolus_, and _laschia_ are common in inter-tropical countries, but they are either entirely absent or extremely rare in temperate climes. when the majority of the species of a genus are of a fleshy consistence, it may generally be concluded that that genus belongs to a northern region, even if it should have some representatives in lands which enjoy more sunshine. thus the _hydna_ are the principal ornaments of northern forests, where they attain so luxuriant a growth and beauty that every other country must yield the palm to sweden in respect to them. in an allied genus, that of _irpex_, the texture assumes a coriaceous consistence, and we find its species to be more especially inhabitants of warm climates. most of the genera of _auricularini_ are cosmopolitan, and the same is true of some species of _stereum_, of _corticium_, etc., which are met with in countries of the most different geographical position. in tropical countries, these genera of fungi assume the most curious and luxuriant forms. the single and not considerable genus _cyphella_ appears to be pretty uniformly distributed over the globe. the _clavariæi_ are equally universal in their diffusion, although more plentiful in the north; however, the genus _pterula_ possesses several exotic forms, though in europe it has but two representative species. that beautiful genus of _hymenomycetes_, _sparassis_, occupies a similar place next the _clavariæi_, and is peculiarly a production of the temperate zone and of the coniferous region. the fungi which constitute the family of _tremellini_ prevail in europe, asia, and north america, and exhibit no marked differences amongst themselves, notwithstanding the distances of the several countries apart. it must, however, be stated that the _hirneolæ_ for the most part inhabit the tropics. we come now to the _gasteromycetes_--an interesting family, which exhibits several ramifications or particular series of developments. the most perfect _gasteromycetes_ almost exclusively belong to the warmer division of the temperate, and to the tropical zone, where their vegetation is the most luxuriant. of late the catalogue of these fungi has been greatly enriched by the addition of numerous genera and species, proper to hot countries, previously unknown. not uncommonly, the exotic floras differ from ours, not merely in respect of the species, but also of the genera of _gasteromycetes_. it must, besides, be observed that this family is rich in well-defined genera, though very poor in distinct specific forms. among the genera found in europe, many are cosmopolitan. the _phalloidei_ present themselves in the torrid zone under the most varied form and colouring, and comprise many genera rich in species. in europe their number is very restricted. as we advance northward they decrease rapidly, so that the central districts of sweden possess only a single species, the _phallus impudicus_, and even this solitary representative of the family is very scarce. in scania, the most southern province of sweden, there is likewise but one genus and one species belonging to it, viz., the _mutinus caninus_. among other members of the _phalloidei_, may be further mentioned the _lysurus_ of china, the _aseröe_ of van diemen's land, and the _clathrus_, one species of which, _c. cancellatus_, has a very wide geographical range; for instance, it is found in the south of europe, in germany, and in america; it occurs also in the south of england and the isle of wight; whereas the other species of this genus have a very limited distribution. the _tuberacei_[d] are remarkable amongst the fungi in being all of them more or less hypogeous. they are natives of warm countries, and are distributed into numerous genera and species. the _tuberacei_ constitute in northern latitudes a group of fungi very poor in specific forms. the few species of the _hymenogastres_ belonging to sweden, with the exception of _hyperrhiza variegata_ and one example of the genus _octaviana_, are confined to the southern provinces. the greater part of this group, like the _lycoperdacei_, are met with in the temperate zone. most examples of the genus _lycoperdon_ are cosmopolitan. the _nidulariacei_ and the _trichodermacei_ appear to be scattered over the globe in a uniform manner, although their species are not everywhere similar. the same statement applies to the _myxogastres_, which are common in lapland, and appear to have their central point of distribution in the countries within the temperate zone. at the same time, they are not wanting in tropical regions, notwithstanding that the intensity of heat, by drying up the mucilage which serves as the medium for the development of their spores, is opposed to their development.[e] of the _coniomycetes_, the parasitic species, as the _cæomacei_, the _pucciniei_, and the _ustilagines_, accompany their foster-plants into almost all regions where they are found; so that smut, rust, and mildew are as common on wheat and barley in the himalayas and in new zealand as in europe and america. _ravenelia_ and _cronartium_ only occur in the warmer parts of the temperate zone, whilst _sartvellia_ is confined to surinam. species of _podisoma_ and _roestelia_ are as common in the united states as in europe, and the latter appears also at the cape and ceylon. wherever species of _sphæria_ occur there the _sphæronemei_ are found, but they do not appear, according to our present knowledge, to be so plentiful in tropical as in temperate countries. the _torulacei_ and its allies are widely diffused, and probably occur to a considerable extent in tropical countries. _hyphomycetes_ are widely diffused; some species are peculiarly cosmopolitan, and all seem to be less influenced by climatic conditions than the more fleshy fungi. the _sepedoniei_ are represented by at least one species wherever _boletus_ is found. the _mucedines_ occur everywhere in temperate and tropical regions, _penicillium_ and _aspergillus_ flourishing as much in the latter as in the former. _botrytis_ and _peronospora_ are almost as widely diffused and as destructive in warmer as in temperate countries, and although from difficulty in preservation the moulds are seldom represented to any extent in collections, yet indications of their presence constantly occur in connection with other forms, to such an extent as to warrant the conclusion that they are far from uncommon. the _dematiei_ are probably equally as widely diffused. species of _helminthosporium_, _cladosporium_, and _macrosporium_ seem to be as common in tropical as temperate climes. the distribution of these fungi is imperfectly known, except in europe and north america, but their occurrence in ceylon, cuba, india, and australasia indicated a cosmopolitan range. _cladosporium herbarum_ would seem to occur everywhere. the _stilbacei_ and _isariacei_ are not less widely diffused, although as yet apparently limited in species. _isaria_ occurs on insects in brazil as in north america, and species of _stilbum_ and _isaria_ are by no means rare in ceylon. the _physomycetes_ have representatives in the tropics, species of _mucor_ occurring in cuba, brazil, and the southern states of north america, with the same and allied genera in ceylon. _antennaria_ and _pisomyxa_ seem to reach their highest development in hot countries. the _ascomycetes_ are represented everywhere, and although certain groups are more tropical than others, they are represented in all collections. the fleshy forms are most prolific in temperate countries, and only a few species of _peziza_ affect the tropics, yet in elevated districts of hot countries, such as the himalayas of india, _peziza_, _morchella_, and _geoglossum_ are found. two or three species of _morchella_ are found in kashmir, and at least one or two in java, where they are used as food. the genus _cyttaria_ is confined to the southern parts of south america and tasmania. the united states equal if they do not exceed european states in the number of species of the _discomycetes_. the _phacidiacei_ are not confined to temperate regions, but are more rare elsewhere. _cordierites_ and _acroseyphus_ (?) are tropical genera, the former extending upwards far into the temperate zone, as _hysterium_ and _rhytisma_ descend into the tropics. amongst the _sphæriacei_, _xylaria_ and _hypoxylon_ are well represented in the tropics, such species as _xylaria hypoxylon_ and _xylaria corniformis_ being widely diffused. in west africa an american species of _hypoxylon_ is amongst the very few specimens that have ever reached us from the congo, whilst _h. concentricum_ and _ustulina vulgaris_ seem to be almost cosmopolitan. _torrubia_ and _nectria_ extend into the tropics, but are more plentiful in temperate and sub-tropical countries. _dothidea_ is well represented in the tropics, whilst of the species of _sphæria_ proper, only the more prominent have probably been secured by collectors; hence the _superficiales_ section is better represented than the _obtectæ_, and the tropical representatives of foliicolous species are but few. _asterina_, _micropeltis_, and _pemphidium_ are more sub-tropical than temperate forms. the _perisporiacei_ are represented almost everywhere; although species of _erysiphe_ are confined to temperate regions, the genus _meliola_ occupies its place in warmer climes. finally, the _tuberacei_, which are subterranean in their habits, are limited in distribution, being confined to the temperate zone, never extending far into the cold, and but poorly represented out of europe. one species of _mylitta_ occurs in australia, another in china, and another in the neilgherries of india; the genus _paurocotylis_ is found in new zealand and ceylon. it is said that a species of _tuber_ is found in himalayan regions, but in the united states, as well as in northern europe, the _tuberacei_ are rare. the imperfect condition of our information concerning very many countries, even of those partially explored, must render any estimate or comparison of the floras of those countries most fragmentary and imperfect. recently, the mycology of our own islands has been more closely investigated, and the result of many years' application on the part of a few individuals has appeared in a record of some , species,[f] to which subsequent additions have been made, to an extent of probably not much less than species,[g] which would bring the total to about , species. the result is that no material difference exists between our flora and that of northern france, belgium, and scandinavia, except that in the latter there are a larger number of hymenomycetal forms. the latest estimates of the flora of scandinavia are contained in the works of the illustrious fries,[h] but these are not sufficiently recent, except so far as regards the _hymenomycetes_, for comparison of numbers with british species. the flora of belgium has its most recent exponent in the posthumous work of jean kickx; but the , species enumerated by him can hardly be supposed to represent the whole of the fungi of belgium, for in such case it would be less than half the number found in the british islands, although the majority of genera and species are the same.[i] for the north of france no one could have furnished a more complete list, especially of the microscopic forms, than m. desmazières, but we are left to rely solely upon his papers in "annales des sc. nat." and his published specimens, which, though by no means representative of the fleshy fungi, are doubtless tolerably exhaustive of the minute species. from what we know of french _hymenomycetes_, their number and variety appear to be much below those of great britain.[j] the mycologic flora of switzerland has been very well investigated, although requiring revision. less attention having been given to the minute forms, and more to the _hymenomycetes_ than in france and belgium, may in part account for the larger proportion of the latter in the swiss flora.[k] in spain and portugal scarce anything has been done; the small collection made by welwitsch can in no way be supposed to represent the peninsula. the fungi of italy[l] include some species peculiar to the peninsula. the _tuberacei_ are well represented, and although the _hymenomycetes_ do not equal in number those of britain or scandinavia, a good proportion is maintained. bavaria and austria (including hungary, and the tyrol) are being more thoroughly investigated than hitherto, but the works of schæffer, tratinnick, corda, and krombholz have made us acquainted with the general features of their mycology,[m] to which more recent lists and catalogues have contributed.[n] the publication of dried specimens has of late years greatly facilitated acquaintance with the fungi of different countries in europe, and those issued by baron thümen from austria do not differ materially from those of northern germany, although dr. rehm has made us acquainted with some new and interesting forms from bavaria.[o] russia is to a large extent unknown, except in its northern borders.[p] karsten has investigated the fungi of finland,[q] and added considerably to the number of _discomycetes_, for which the climate seems to be favourable; but, as a whole, it may be concluded that western and northern europe are much better explored than the eastern and south-eastern, to which we might add the south, if italy be excepted. we have only to add, for europe, that different portions of the german empire have been well worked, from the period of wallroth to the present.[r] recently, the valley of the rhine has been exhaustively examined by fuckel;[s] but both germany and france suffered checks during the late war which made their mark on the records of science not so speedily to be effaced. denmark, with its splendid flora danica still in progress, more than a century after its commencement,[t] has a mycologic flora very like to that of scandinavia, which is as well known. if we pass from europe to north america, we find there a mycologic flora greatly resembling that of europe, and although canada and the extreme north is little known, some parts of the united states have been investigated. schweinitz[u] first made known to any extent the riches of this country, especially carolina, and in this state the late dr. curtis and h. w. ravenel continued their labours. with the exception of lea's collections in cincinnati, wright's in texas, and some contributions from ohio, alabama, massachusetts, and new york, a great portion of this vast country is mycologically unknown. it is remarkably rich in fleshy fungi, not only in _agaricini_, but also in _discomycetes_, containing a large number of european forms, mostly european genera, with many species at present peculiar to itself. tropical forms extend upwards into the southern states. the islands of the west indies have been more or less examined, but none so thoroughly as cuba, at first by ramon de la sagra, and afterwards by wright.[v] the three principal genera of _hymenomycetes_ represented are _agaricus_, _marasmius_, and _polyporus_, represented severally by , , and species, amounting to more than half the entire number. of the species, about per cent. are peculiar to the island; per cent. are widely dispersed species; per cent. are common to the island and central america, together with the warmer parts of south america and mexico; per cent. are common to it with the united states, especially the southern; while per cent. are european species, including, however, which may be considered as cosmopolitan. some common tropical species do not occur, and, on the whole, the general character seems sub-tropical rather than tropical. many of the species are decidedly those of temperate regions, or at least nearly allied. perhaps the most interesting species are those which occur in the genera _craterellus_ and _laschia_, the latter genus, especially, yielding several new forms. the fact that the climate is, on the whole, more temperate than that of some other islands in the same latitudes, would lead us to expect the presence of a comparatively large number of european species, or those which are found in the more northern united states, or british north america, and may account for the fact that so small a proportion of species should be identical with those from neighbouring islands. in central america only a few small collections have been made, which indicate a sub-tropical region. from the northern parts of south america, m. leprieur collected in french guiana.[w] southwards of this, spruce collected in the countries bordering on the river amazon, and gardner in brazil,[x] gaudichaud in chili and peru,[y] gay in chili,[z] blanchet in bahia,[a] weddell in brazil,[b] and auguste de saint hiliare[c] in the same country. small collections have also been made in the extreme south. all these collections contain coriaceous species of _polyporus_, _favolus_, and allied genera, with _auricularini_, together with such _ascomycetes_ as _xylaria_, and such forms of _peziza_ as _p. tricholoma_, _p. hindsii_, and _p. macrotis_. as yet we cannot form an estimate of the extent or variety of the south american flora, which has furnished the interesting genus _cyttaria_, and may yet supply forms unrecognized elsewhere. the island of juan fernandez furnished to m. bertero a good representative collection,[d] which is remarkable as containing more than one-half its number of european species, and the rest possessing rather the character of those of a temperate than a sub-tropical region. australasia has been partly explored, and the results embodied in the floras of dr. hooker and subsequent communications. in a note to an enumeration of species in , the writer observes that "many of them are either identical with european species, or so nearly allied that with dried specimens only, unaccompanied by notes or drawings, it is impossible to separate them; others are species which are almost universally found in tropical or sub-tropical countries, while a few only are peculiar to australia, or are undescribed species, mostly of a tropical type. the collections on the whole can scarcely be said to be of any great interest, except so far as geographical distribution is concerned, as the aberrant forms are few."[e] the fungi collected by the antarctic expedition in auckland and campbell's islands, and in fuegia and the falklands,[f] were few and of but little interest, including such cosmopolitan forms as _sphæria herbarum_ and _cladosporium herbarum_, _hirneola auricula-judæ_, _polyporus versicolor_, _eurotium herbariorum_, etc. in new zealand a large proportion have been found, and these may be taken to represent the general character of the fungi of the islands, which is of the type usually found in temperate regions.[g] the fungi of asia are so little known that no satisfactory conclusions can be drawn from our present incomplete knowledge. in india, the collections made by dr. hooker in his progress to the sikkim himalayas,[h] a few species obtained by m. perottet in pondicherry, and small collections from the neilgherries,[i] are almost all that have been recorded. from these it may be concluded that elevations such as approximate a temperate climate are the most productive, and here european and north american genera, with closely allied species, have the preponderance. the number of _agaricini_, for instance, is large, and amongst the twenty-eight subgenera into which the genus _agaricus_ is divided, eight only are unrepresented. casual specimens received from other parts of india afford evidence that here is a vast field unexplored, the forests and mountain slopes of which would doubtless afford an immense number of new and interesting forms. of the indian archipelago, java has been most explored, both by junghuhn[j] and zollinger.[k] the former records species in genera, nees von esenbeck and blume species in genera, and zollinger and moritzi species in genera, making a total of species, of which belong to _polyporus_. léveillé added species, making a total of species. the fungi of sumatra, borneo, and other islands are partly the same and partly allied, but of a similar tropical character. the fungi of the island of ceylon, collected by gardner, thwaites, and könig, were numerous. the agarics comprise species, closely resembling those of our own country.[l] it is singular that every one of the subgenera of fries is represented, though the number of species in one or two is greatly predominant. _lepiota_ and _psalliota_ alone comprise one-third of the species, while _pholiota_ offers only a single obscure species. the enumeration recently published of the succeeding families contains many species of interest. in africa, the best explored country is algeria, although unfortunately the flora was never completed.[m] the correspondence between the fungi of algeria and european countries is very striking, and the impression is not removed by the presence of a few sub-tropical forms. it is probable that were the fungi of spain known the resemblance would be more complete. from the cape of good hope and natal collections have been made by zeyher,[n] drége, and others, and from these we are enabled to form a tolerable estimate of the mycologic flora. of the _hymenomycetes_, the greater part belong to _agaricus_: there are but four or five _polypori_ in zeyher's collection, one of which is protean. the _gasteromycetes_ are interesting, belonging to many genera, and presenting two, _scoleciocarpus_ and _phellorinia_, which were founded upon specimens in this collection. _batarrea_, _tulostoma_, and _mycenastrum_ are represented by european species. there are also two species of _lycoperdon_, and one of _podaxon_. besides these, there is the curious _secotium gueinzii_. the genus _geaster_ does not appear in the collection, nor _scleroderma_. altogether the cape flora is a peculiar one, and can scarcely be compared with any other. at the most, only scattered and isolated specimens have been recorded from senegal, from egypt, or from other parts of africa, so that, with the above exceptions, the continent may be regarded as unknown. from this imperfect summary it will be seen that no general scheme of geographical distribution of fungi can as yet be attempted, and the most we can hope to do is to compare collection with collection, and what we know of one country with what we know of another, and note differences and agreements, so as to estimate the probable character of the fungi of other countries of which we are still in ignorance. it is well sometimes that we should attempt a task like the present, since we then learn how much there is to be known, and how much good work lies waiting to be done by the capable and willing hands that may hereafter undertake it. [a] mr. e. p. fries, in "ann. des sci. nat." , xv. p. . [b] berkeley and broome, "enumeration of the fungi of ceylon," in "journ. linn. soc." xiv. nos. , , . [c] fries, "on the geographical distribution of fungi," in "ann. and mag. nat. hist." ser. iii. vol. ix. p. . [d] the _hypogæi_ are evidently intended here by fries. [e] fries, "on the geographical distribution of fungi" in "ann. and mag. nat. hist." ser. , vol. ix. p. . [f] cooke's "handbook of british fungi," vols. . [g] "grevillea," vols. i. and ii. london, - . [h] fries, "summa vegetabilium scandinaviæ" ( ), and "monographia hymenomycetum sueciæ" ( ); "epicrisis hymenomycetum europ." ( ). [i] "flore cryptogamique des flanders" ( ). [j] "ainé plantes cryptogames-cellulaires du départment de saone et loire" ( ); bulliard, "hist. des champignons de la france" ( ); de candolle, "flore française" ( ); duby, "botanicon gallicum" ( - ); paulet, "iconographie des champignons" ( ); godron, "catalogue des plantes cellulaires du départment de la meurthe" ( ); crouan, "florule du finistëre" ( ); de seynes, "essai d'une flore mycologique de la région de montpellier et du gard" ( ). [k] secretan, "mycographie suisse" ( ); trog, "verzeichniss schweizerischer schwämme" ( ). [l] passerini, "funghi parmensi," in "giorn. bot. italiano" ( - ); venturi, "miceti dell' agro bresciano" ( ); viviani, "funghi d'italia" ( ); vittadini, "funghi mangerecci d'italia" ( ). [m] schæffer, "fungorum qui in bavaria," &c. ( - ); tratinnick, "fungi austriaci" ( - and - ); corda, "icones fungorum" (prague, - ); krombholz, "abbildungen der schwämme" ( - ). [n] reichardt, "flora von iglau;" niessl, "cryptogamenflora nieder-oesterreichs" ( , ); schulzer, "schwämme ungarns, slavoniens," &c. [o] rehm, "ascomyceten," fasc. i.-iv. [p] weinmann, "hymeno-et gasteromycetes," in "imp. ross" ( ); weinmann, "enumeratio stirpium, in agro petropolitano" ( ). [q] karsten, "fungi in insulis spetsbergen collectio" ( ); karsten, "monographia pezizarum fennicarum" ( ); karsten, "symbolæ ad mycologiam fennicam" ( ). [r] rabenhorst, "deutschlands kryptogamen flora" ( ); wallroth, "flora germanica" ( ); sturm, "deutschlands flora, iii. die pilze" ( , &c.). [s] fuckel, "symbolæ mycologicæ" ( ). [t] "flora danica" ( - ); holmskjold, "beata ruris otia fungis danicis impensa" ( ); schumacher, "enumeratio plantarum sellandiæ" ( ). [u] schweinitz, "synopsis fungorum," in "america boreali," &c. ( ). lea, "catalogue of plants of cincinnati" ( ); curtis, "catalogue of the plants of north carolina" ( ); berkeley, "north american fungi," in "grevillea," vols. i.-iii.; peck, in "reports of new york museum nat. hist." [v] berkeley and curtis, "fungi cubensis," in "journ. linn. soc." ( ); ramon de la sagra, "hist. phys. de l'isle de cuba, cryptogames, par montagne" ( ); montagne, in "ann. des sci. nat." february, . [w] montagne, "cryptogamia guyanensis," "ann. sci. nat." ^me sér. iii. [x] berkeley, in "hooker's journal of botany" for , &c. [y] montagne, in "ann. des sci. nat." ^me sér. vol. ii. p. ( ). [z] gay, "hist. fisica y politica de chile" ( ). [a] berkeley and montagne, "ann. des sci. nat." xi. (april, ). [b] montagne, in "ann. des sci. nat." ^me sér. v. no. . [c] montagne, in "ann. des sci. nat." (july, ). [d] montagne, "prodromus floræ fernandesianæ," in "ann. des sci. nat." (june, ). [e] berkeley, "on australian fungi," in "journ. linn. society," vol. xiii. (may, ). [f] hooker's "cryptogamia antarctica," pp. and . [g] hooker's "new zealand flora." [h] berkeley, "sikkim himalayan fungi," in hooker's "journal of botany" ( ), p. , &c. [i] montagne, "cryptogamæ neilgherrensis," in "ann. des sci. nat." ^me sér. xviii. p. ( ). [j] junghuhn, "premissa in floram crypt. javæ." [k] zollinger, "fungi archipalegi malaijo neerlandici novi." [l] berkeley and broome, "fungi of ceylon," in "journ. linn. soc." for may, . [m] "flore d'algerie, cryptogames" ( , &c.). [n] berkeley, in hooker's "journal of botany," vol. ii. ( ), p. . xiv. collection and preservation. the multitudinous forms which fungi assume, the differences of substance, and variability in size, render a somewhat detailed account of the modes adopted for their collection and preservation necessary. the habitats of the various groups have already been indicated, so that there need be no difficulty in selecting the most suitable spots, and as to the period of the year, this will be determined by the class of objects sought. although it may be said that no time, except when the ground is covered with snow, is entirely barren of fungi, yet there are periods more prolific than others.[a] fleshy fungi, such as the _hymenomycetes_, are most common from september until the frosts set in, whereas many microscopic species may be found in early spring, and increase in number until the autumn. the collector may be provided with an ordinary collecting box, but for the agarics an open shallow basket is preferable. a great number of the woody kinds may be carried in the coat-pocket, and foliicolous species placed between the leaves of a pocket-book. it is a good plan to be provided with a quantity of soft bibulous paper, in which specimens can be wrapped when collected, and this will materially assist in their preservation when transferred to box or basket. a large clasp-knife, a small pocket-saw, and a pocket-lens will complete the outfit for ordinary occasions. in order to preserve the fleshy fungi for the herbarium, there is but one method, which has often been described. the agaric, or other similar fungus, is cut perpendicularly from the pileus downwards through the stem. a second cut in the same direction removes a thin slice, which represents a section of the fungus; this may be laid on blotting paper, or plant-drying paper, and put under slight pressure to dry. from one-half of the fungus the pileus is removed, and with a sharp knife the gills and fleshy portion of the pileus are cut away. in the same manner the inner flesh of the half stem is also cleared. when dried, the half of the pileus is placed in its natural position on the top of the half stem, and thus a portrait of the growing fungus is secured, whilst the section shows the arrangement of the hymenium and the character of the stem. the other half of the pileus may be placed, gills downward, on a piece of black paper, and allowed to rest there during the night. in the morning the spores will have been thrown down upon the paper, which may be placed with the other portions. when dry, the section, profile, and spore paper may be mounted together on a piece of stiff paper, and the name, locality, and date inscribed below, with any additional particulars. it is advisable here to caution the collector never to omit writing down these particulars at once when the preparations are made, and to place them together, between the folds of the drying paper, in order to prevent the possibility of a mistake. some small species may be dried whole or only cut down the centre, but the spores should never be forgotten. when dried, either before or after mounting, the specimens should be poisoned, in order to preserve them from the attacks of insects. the best medium for this purpose is carbolic acid, laid on with a small hog-hair brush. whatever substance is used, it must not be forgotten by the manipulator that he is dealing with poison, and must exercise caution. if the specimens are afterwards found to be insufficiently poisoned, or that minute insects are present in the herbarium, fresh poisoning will be necessary. some think that benzine or spirits of camphor is sufficient, but as either is volatile, it is not to be trusted as a permanent preservative. mr. english, of epping, by an ingenious method of his own, preserves a great number of the fleshy species in their natural position, and although valueless for an herbarium, they are not only very ornamental, but useful, if space can be devoted to them. leaf parasites, whether on living or dead leaves, may be dried in the usual way for drying plants, between folds of bibulous paper under pressure. it may be sometimes necessary with dead leaves to throw them in water, in order that they may be flattened without breaking, and then dry them in the same manner as green leaves. all species produced on a hard matrix, as wood, bark, etc., should have as much as possible of the matrix pared away, so that the specimens may lie flat in the herbarium. this is often facilitated in corticolous species by removing the bark and drying it under pressure. the dusty _gasteromycetes_ are troublesome, especially the minute species, and if mounted openly on paper are soon spoiled. a good plan is to provide small square or round cardboard boxes, of not more than a quarter of an inch in depth, and to glue the specimen to the bottom at once, allowing it to dry in that position before replacing the cover. the same method should be adopted for many of the moulds, such as _polyactis_, etc., which, under any circumstances, are difficult to preserve. in collecting moulds, we have found it an excellent plan to go out provided with small wooden boxes, corked at top and bottom, such as entomologists use, and some common pins. when a delicate mould is collected on a decayed agaric, or any other matrix, after clearing away with a penknife all unnecessary portions of the matrix, the specimen may be pinned down to the cork in one of these boxes. another method, and one advisable also for the _myxogastres_, is to carry two or three pill-boxes, in which, after being wrapped in tissue paper, the specimen may be placed. a great difficulty is often experienced with microscopic fungi, such, for instance, as the _sphæriacei_, in the necessity, whenever a new examination is required, to soak the specimen for some hours, and then transfer the fruit to a slide, before it can be compared with any newly-found specimen that has to be identified. to avoid this, mounted specimens ready for the microscope are an acquisition, and may be secured in the following manner. after the fungus has been soaked in water, where that is necessary, and the hymenium extracted on the point of a penknife, let it be transferred to the centre of a clean glass slide. a drop of glycerine is let fall upon this nucleus, then the covering glass placed over it. a slight pressure will flatten the object and expel all the superfluous glycerine around the edges of the covering glass. a spring clip holds the cover in position, whilst a camel-hair pencil is used to remove the glycerine which may have been expelled. this done, the edges of the cover may be fixed to the slide by painting round with gum-dammar dissolved in benzole. in from twelve to twenty-four hours the spring clip may be removed, and the mount placed in the cabinet. glycerine is, perhaps, the best medium for mounting the majority of these objects, and when dammar and benzole are used for fixing, there is no difficulty experienced, as is the case with canada balsam, if the superfluous glycerine is not wholly washed away. specimens of _puccinia_ mounted in this way when fresh gathered, and before any shrivelling had taken place, are as plump and natural in our cabinet as they were when collected six or seven years ago. moulds are always troublesome to preserve in a herbarium in a state sufficiently perfect for reference after a few years. we have found it an excellent method to provide some thin plates of mica, the thinner the better, of a uniform size, say two inches square, or even less. between two of these plates of mica enclose a fragment of the mould, taking care not to move one plate over the other after the mould is placed. fix the plates by a clip, whilst strips of paper are gummed or pasted over the edges of the mica plates so as to hold them together. when dry, the clip may be removed, and the name written on the paper. these mounts may be put each in a small envelope, and fastened down in the herbarium. whenever an examination is required, the object, being already dry-mounted, may at once be placed under the microscope. in this manner the mode of attachment of the spores can be seen, but if mounted in fluid they are at once detached; and if the moulds are only preserved in boxes, in the course of a short time nearly every spore will have fallen from its support. two or three accessories to a good herbarium may be named. for fleshy fungi, especially agarics, faithfully coloured drawings, side by side with the dried specimens, will compensate for loss or change of colour which most species undergo in the process of drying. for minute species, camera lucida drawings of the spores, together with their measurements, will add greatly to the practical value of a collection. in mounting specimens, whether on leaves, bark, or wood, it will be of advantage to have one specimen glued down to the paper so as to be seen at once, and a duplicate loose in a small envelope beside it, so that the latter may at any time be removed and examined under the microscope. in arranging specimens for the herbarium, a diversity of taste and opinion exists as to the best size for the herbarium paper. it is generally admitted that a small size is preferable to the large one usually employed for phanerogamous plants. probably the size of foolscap is the most convenient, each sheet being confined to a single species. in public herbaria, the advantage of a uniform size for all plants supersedes all other advantages, but in a private herbarium, consisting entirely of fungi, the smaller size is better. the microscopic examination of minute species is an absolute necessity to ensure accurate identification. little special remark is called for here, since the methods adopted for other objects will be available. specimens which have become dry may be placed in water previous to examination, a process which will be found essential in such genera as _peziza_, _sphæria_, etc. for moulds, which must be examined as opaque objects, if all their beauties and peculiarities are to be made out, a half-inch objective is recommended, with the nozzle bevelled as much to a point as possible, so that no light be obstructed.[b] in examining the sporidia of minute _pezizæ_ and some others, the aid of some reagent will be found necessary. when the sporidia are very delicate and hyaline, the septa cannot readily be seen if present; to aid in the examination, a drop of tincture of iodine will be of considerable advantage. in many cases sporidia, which are very indistinct in glycerine, are much more distinct when the fluid is water. the following hints to travellers, as regards the collection of fungi, drawn up some years since by the rev. m. j. berkeley, have been widely circulated, and may be usefully inserted here, though at the risk of repetition:-- "it is frequently complained that in collections of exotic plants, no tribe is so much neglected as that of fungi; this arises partly from the supposed difficulty of preserving good specimens, partly from their being less generally studied than other vegetable productions. as, however, in no department of botany, there is a greater probability of meeting with new forms, and the difficulties, though confessedly great in one or two genera, are far less than is often imagined, the following hints are respectfully submitted to such collectors as may desire to neglect no part of the vegetable kingdom. "the greater proportion, especially of tropical fungi, are dried, simply by light pressure, with as much ease as phoenogamous plants; indeed, a single change of the paper in which they are placed is generally sufficient, and many, if wrapped up in soft paper when gathered, and submitted to light pressure, require no further attention. such as are of a tough leathery nature, if the paper be changed a few hours after the specimens have been laid in, preserve all their characters admirably; and if in the course of a few weeks there is an opportunity of washing them with a solution of turpentine and corrosive sublimate, submitting them again to pressure for a few hours merely to prevent their shrinking, there will be no fear of their suffering from the attacks of insects. "many of the mushroom tribe are so soft and watery that it is very difficult to make good specimens without a degree of labour which is quite out of the question with travellers. by changing, however, the papers in which they are dried two or three times the first day, if practicable, useful specimens may be prepared, especially if a few notes be made as to colour, etc. the more important notes are as to the colour of the stem and pileus, together with any peculiarities of the surface, _e.g._, whether it be dry, viscid, downy, scaly, etc., and whether the flesh of the pileus be thin or otherwise; as to the stem, whether hollow or solid; as to the gills, whether they are attached to the stem or free; and especially what is their colour and that of the spores. it is not in general expedient to preserve specimens in spirits, except others are dried by pressure, or copious notes be made; except, indeed, in some fungi of a gelatinous nature, which can scarcely be dried at all by pressure. "the large woody fungi, the puff-balls, and a great number of those which grow on wood, etc., are best preserved, after ascertaining that they are dry and free from larvæ, by simply wrapping them in paper or placing them in chip-boxes, taking care that they are so closely packed as not to rub. as in other tribes of plants, it is very requisite to have specimens in different stages of growth, and notes as to precise habitats are always interesting. "the attention of the traveller can scarcely be directed to any more interesting branch, or one more likely to produce novelty, than the puff-ball tribe; and he is particularly requested to collect these in every stage of growth, especially in the earliest, and, if possible, to preserve some of the younger specimens in spirits. one or two species are produced on ant-hills, the knowledge of the early state of which is very desirable. "the fungi which grow on leaves in tropical climates are scarcely less abundant than in our own country, though belonging to a different type. many of these must constantly come under the eye of the collector of phoenogams, and would be most acceptable to the mycologist. but the attention of the collector should also be directed to the lichen-like fungi, which are so abundant in some countries on fallen sticks. hundreds of species of the utmost interest would reward active research, and they are amongst the easiest to dry; indeed, in tropical countries, the greater proportion of the species are easy to preserve, but they will not strike the eye which is not on the watch for them. the number of fleshy species is but few, and far less likely to furnish novelty." * * * * * in conclusion, we may urge upon all those who have followed us thus far to adopt this branch of botany as their speciality. hitherto it has been very much neglected, and a wide field is open for investigation and research. the life-history of the majority of species has still to be read, and the prospects of new discoveries for the industrious and persevering student are great. all who have as yet devoted themselves with assiduity have been in this manner rewarded. the objects are easily obtainable, and there is a constantly increasing infatuation in the study. where so much is unknown, not a few difficulties have to be encountered, and here the race is not to the swift so much as to the untiring. may our efforts to supply this introduction to the study receive their most welcome reward in an accession to the number of the students and investigators of the nature, uses, and influences of fungi. [a] the genus _chionyphe_ occurs on granaries under snow, as well as in that formidable disease, the madura fungus-foot. (_see_ carter's "mycetoma.") [b] bubbles of air are often very tiresome in the examination of moulds. a little alcohol will remove them. index. _Æcidiacci_, structure of, . _Æcidium_ and _puccinia_, . germination, . _agaricini_, habitats of, . structure of, . agaric of the olive, . agarics, growth of, . algo-lichen hypothesis, . alveolate spores, . amadou, . american floras, . fungi, . antheridia, presumed, . appearance of new forms, . arrangement of families, . asci and sporidia, . in agarics (?), . their dehiscence, . _ascobolei_, structure of, . _ascomycetes_, classification of, . distribution of, . habitats of, . structure of, . _aspergillus glaucus_, . atmosphere, spores in, . barberry cluster-cups, . barren cysts of _lecythea_, . basidiospores, . beech morels, . beefsteak fungus, . berberry and mildew, . _boletus_, esculent species, . books on structure, . _bulgaria_, its dualism, . bunt and smut, . spores, germination of, . _cæomacei_, structure of, . camp measles and fever, . caudate sporidia, . champignon, fairy-ring, . change of colour, . chantarelle, the, . cholera fungi, . ciliated stylospores, - . classification of _ascomycetes_, . _coniomycetes_, . fungi, . _gasteromycetes_, . _hymenomycetes_, . _hyphomycetes_, . _physomycetes_, . tabular view, . collecting fungi, . colour and its variation, . conditions of growth, . conidia of _erysiphei_, . _mucor_, . _peziza_, . _sphæriæ_, . _coniomycetes_, classification of, . _coniomycetes_, habitats of, . conjugating cells, . conjugation in _peronospora_, . _peziza_, . copulation in _discomycetes_, . fungi, . corn, mildew, and rust, . _cortinarius_, species of, . cotton plant diseases, . cultivation of fungi, . _sclerotia_, . truffles, . currant twig fungus, . cystidia, . _dacrymyces_, germination of, . de bary, on conditions of study, . decay rapid, . dehiscence of asci, . dimorphism in moulds, . of _mucor_, . disappearance of species, . _discomycetes_, . dissemination of spores, . distribution, geographical, . dried fungi, esculent, , . drying of fungi, . dry rot, . dualism in _melanconis_, . _podisoma_, . _polyactes_, . _uredines_, . edible fungi in america, . ergotized grass, . _erysiphe_, conjugation, . _erysiphei_, polymorphism, . esculent fungi, . european floras, . examination of fungi, . exotic floras, - . false truffles, . fairy-ring champignon, . families and orders, table of, . fenestrate sporidia, . fetid fungi, . _fistulina hepatica_, . floras of europe, &c., . fly agaric, . food, fungi as, . forestry and its foes, . fungi collecting abroad, . in disease, . mines, . of america, . asia, . parasitic on animals, . each other, . true plants, . garden pests, . _gasteromycetes_, classification of, . geographical distribution, . germinating pseudospores, . germination of fungi, . _mucor_, , . _podisoma_, . gonosphere, in _peronospora_, . growth of agarics, . habitats of fungi, . helicoid spores, . herbarium for fungi, . hints for travellers, . hollyhock disease, . house-fly fungus, . _hydnum gelatinosum_, . hymenium of fungi, . _hymenomycetes_, classification of, . _hyphomycetes_, classification of, . habitats of, . structure of, . _hypogæi_, structure of, . influences of fungi, . influence on lower animals, . man, . influence on vegetation, . of woods, . injurious moulds, , . insect, parasites on, , . fungi, , , . _isaria_ and _torrubia_, . ketchup, or catchup, . lactescent fungi, . lichen-gonidia question, . lichens and fungi, . little man's bread, . luminous agarics, . wood, . meadow mushroom, . medicinal fungi, . _melanconiei_, structure of, . microscopical mounting, . mildew in corn, . milky fungi, . juice, . morels, , . germination of, . mould cultivation, . moulds, and dimorphism, . structure of, . to preserve, . _mucedines_, habitats of, . structure of, . _mucor_, dualism of, . growth of, . structure of, . mushroom, analysis of, . caves of paris, . cultivation, . spawn, . the edible, . _myxogastres_, habitats of, . structure of, . nature of fungi, . new forms, appearance of, . _nidulariacei_, structure of, . oak truffles, . odours of fungi, . _oidium_ and _erysiphe_, . oocysts in _erysiphe_, . oogonia, , . of _saprolegniæ_, . orders and families, table of, . oyster mushroom, . paper moulds, . paraphyses and asci, . parasites on plants, . _perisporiacei_, structure of, . _peronospora_, growth of, . pests of forest trees, . the garden, . _peziza_, conidia of, . _fuckeliana_, . _pezizæ_, their habitats, . _phalloidei_, structure of, . phenomena of fungi, . phosphorescence, . _physomycetes_, classification of, . habitats of, . structure of, . _podaxinei_, structure of, . _podisoma_, and its allies, , . and _roestelia_, . germination of, . poisonous fungi, . polymorphism, . polymorphy in _erysiphe_, . polyporei, structure of, . _polyporus_, edible species, . potato disease, . mould, germination, . preservation of fungi, . pseudospores, . _puccinia_ and _Æcidium_, . _puccinia_, germination of, . _pucciniæi_, structure of, . puff-balls, edible, . puff-balls, structure of, . spores, . pycnidia, , . and spermatia, . _roestelia_ and _podisoma_, . red rust and cattle food, . reproduction, sexual, . _rhizomorphæ_, . _russula_, edible species of, . st. george's mushroom, . _saprolegnei_, conjugation of, . _sclerotia_, , . cultivation, . scolecite in _peziza_, &c., . septate stylospores, . sexual reproduction, . silkworm disease, . skin diseases and fungi, . slides for the microscope, . spawn of fungi, . special cultivation, . species determinate, . spermatia, , . of _roestelia_, . in _tremella_, . spermogonia, . _sphæria_, sporidia of, . _sphæriacei_, structure of, . _sphæriæ_, polymorphy, . _sphæronemei_, structure of, . spiral threads, . spontaneous generation, . sporangia, , . of _mucor_, . spores in chaplets, . of _agaricini_, . _gasteromycetes_, . truffles, . stellate and crested, . their dissemination, . sporidia, germination of, . of _ascomycetes_, . _sporidiifera_, structure of, _sporifera_ and _sporidiifera_, . star-spored fungus, . structure of fungi, . _agaricini_, . books written upon, . of _Æcidiacei_, . _ascomycetes_, . _cæomacei_, . _hyphomycetes_, . _hypogæi_, . _melanconiei_, . _mucedines_, . _mucor_, . _myxogastres_, . _nidulariacei_, . _perisporiacei_, . _phalloidei_, . _physomycetes_, . _podaxinei_, . _polyporei_, . _pucciniæi_, . _sphæriacei_, . _sphæronemei_, . _torulacei_, . _tremellini_, . _trichogastres_, . truffles, . _ustilaginei_, . study of development, . stylospores, . subterranean puff-balls, . summer and winter spores, . supposed animal nature, . table of classification, . thecaspores, _torrubia_ and _isaria_, . _torulacei_, structure of, . travellers, hints for, . _tremella_, germination of, . _tremellini_, structure of, . _trichogastres_, habitats of, . structure of, . trichospores, . tropical fungi, . truffle cultivation, . truffles, , , . structure of, . _tuberacei_, structure of, . _tubercularia_ and _nectria_, . _uredines_, germination of, . polymorphy of, . structure of, . uses of fungi, . _ustilaginei_, structure of, . germination of, . "vegetable wasp," . vegetative and reproductive system, . viennese fungi, . vine and hop disease, . white rust germination, . winter and summer spores, . zones of distribution, . zoospores of _cystopus_, . white rust, . zygospores of _mucor_, , . _international scientific series._ d. appleton & co. have the pleasure of announcing that they have made arrangements for publishing, and have recently commenced the issue of, a series of popular monographs, or small works, under the above title, which will embody the results of recent inquiry in the most interesting departments of advancing science. the character and scope of this series will be best indicated by a reference to the names and subjects included in the subjoined list, from which it will be seen that the coöperation of the most distinguished professors in england, germany, france, and the united states, has been secured, and negotiations are pending for contributions from other eminent scientific writers. the works will be issued in new york, london, paris, leipsic, milan, and st. petersburg. the international scientific series is entirely an american project, and was originated and organized by dr. e. l. youmans, who spent the greater part of a year in europe, arranging with authors and publishers. the forthcoming volumes are as follows: prof. lommel (university of erlangen), _optics._ (in press.) rev. m. j. berkeley, m.a., f.l.s., and m. cooke, m.a., ll. d., _fungi; their nature, influences, and uses._ (in press.) prof. w. kingdon clifford, m.a., _the first principles of the exact sciences explained to the non-mathematical._ prof. t. h. huxley, ll. d., f.r.s., _bodily motion and consciousness._ dr. w. b. carpenter, ll. d., f.r.s., _the physical geography of the sea._ prof. william odlong, f.r.s., _the old chemistry viewed from the new standpoint._ w. lauder lindsay, m.d., f.r.s.e., _mind in the lower animals._ sir john lubbock, bart, f.r.s., _the antiquity of man._ prof. w. t. thiselton dyer, b.a., b. sc., _form and habit in flowering plants._ mr. j. n. lockyer, f.r.s., _spectrum analysis._ prof. michael foster, m.d., _protoplasm and the cell theory._ prof. w. stanley jevons, _money: and the mechanism of exchange._ h. charlton bastian, m.d., f.r.s., _the brain as an organ of mind._ prof. a. c. ramsay, ll. d., f.r.s., _earth sculpture: hills, valleys, mountains, plains, rivers, lakes; how they were produced, and how they have been destroyed._ prof. rudolph virchow (berlin university), _morbid physiological action._ prof. claude bernard, _physical and metaphysical phenomena of life._ prof. h. sainte-claire deville, _an introduction to general chemistry._ prof. wurtz, _atoms and the atomic theory._ prof. de quatrefages, _the negro races._ prof. lacaze-duthiers, _zoology since cuvier._ prof. berthelot, _chemical synthesis._ prof. j. rosenthal, _general physiology of muscles and nerves._ prof. james d. dana, m.a., ll. d., _on cephalization; or, head-characters in the gradation and progress of life._ prof. s. w. johnson, m.a., _on the nutrition of plants._ prof. austin flint, jr., m.d., _the nervous system and its relation to the bodily functions._ prof. w. d. whitney, _modern linguistic science._ prof. c. a. young, ph. d. (of dartmouth college), _the sun._ prof. bernstein (university of halle), _physiology of the senses._ prof. ferdinand cohn (breslau university), _thallophytes (algæe, lichens, fungi)._ prof. hermann (university of zurich), _respiration._ prof. leuckart (university of leipsic), _outlines of animal organization._ prof. liebreich (university of berlin), _outlines of toxicology._ prof. kundt (university of strasburg), _on sound._ prof. rees (university of erlangen), _on parasitic plants._ prof. steinthal (university of berlin), _outlines of the science of language._ e. alglave (professor of constitutional and administrative law at douai, and of political economy at lille), _the primitive elements of political constitutions._ p. lorain (professor of medicine, paris), _modern epidemics._ prof. schÜtzenberger (director of the chemical laboratory at the sorbonne), _on fermentations._ mons. debray, _precious metals._ _opinions of the press on the "international scientific series."_ i. tyndall's forms of water. vol., mo. cloth. illustrated price, $ . . "in the volume now published, professor tyndall has presented a noble illustration of the acuteness and subtlety of his intellectual powers, the scope and insight of his scientific vision, his singular command of the appropriate language of exposition, and the peculiar vivacity and grace with which he unfolds the results of intricate scientific research."--_n. y. tribune_. "the 'forms of water,' by professor tyndall, is an interesting and instructive little volume, admirably printed and illustrated. prepared expressly for this series, it is in some measure a guarantee of the excellence of the volumes that will follow, and an indication that the publishers will spare no pains to include in the series the freshest investigations of the best scientific minds."--_boston journal_. "this series is admirably commenced by this little volume from the pen of prof. tyndall. a perfect master of his subject, he presents in a style easy and attractive his methods of investigation, and the results obtained, and gives to the reader a clear conception of all the wondrous transformations to which water is subjected."--_churchman_. ii. bagehot's physics and politics. vol., mo. price, $ . . "if the 'international scientific series' proceeds as it has begun, it will more than fulfil the promise given to the reading public in its prospectus. the first volume, by professor tyndall, was a model of lucid and attractive scientific exposition; and now we have a second, by mr. walter bagehot, which is not only very lucid and charming, but also original and suggestive in the highest degree. nowhere since the publication of sir henry maine's 'ancient law,' have we seen so many fruitful thoughts suggested in the course of a couple of hundred pages.... to do justice to mr. bagehot's fertile book, would require a long article. with the best of intentions, we are conscious of having given but a sorry account of it in these brief paragraphs. but we hope we have said enough to commend it to the attention of the thoughtful reader."--prof. john fiske, in the _atlantic monthly_. "mr. bagehot's style is clear and vigorous. we refrain from giving a fuller account of these suggestive essays, only because we are sure that our readers will find it worth their while to peruse the book for themselves; and we sincerely hope that the forthcoming parts of the 'international scientific series' will be as interesting."--_athenæum_. "mr. bagehot discusses an immense variety of topics connected with the progress of societies and nations, and the development of their distinctive peculiarities; and his book shows an abundance of ingenious and original thought."--alfred russell wallace, in _nature_. iii. foods. by dr. edward smith. vol., mo. cloth illustrated. price, $ . . in making up the international scientific series, dr edward smith was selected as the ablest man in england to treat the important subject of foods. his services were secured for the undertaking, and the little treatise he has produced shows that the choice of a writer on this subject was most fortunate, as the book is unquestionably the clearest and best-digested compend of the science of foods that has appeared in our language. "the book contains a series of diagrams, displaying the effects of sleep and meals on pulsation and respiration, and of various kinds of food on respiration, which, as the results of dr smith's own experiments, possess a very high value. we have not far to go in this work for occasions of favorable criticism; they occur throughout, but are perhaps most apparent in those parts of the subject with which dr. smith's name is especially linked."--_london examiner._ "the union of scientific and popular treatment in the composition of this work will afford an attraction to many readers who would have been indifferent to purely theoretical details.... still his work abounds in information, much of which is of great value, and a part of which could not easily be obtained from other sources. its interest is decidedly enhanced for students who demand both clearness and exactness of statement, by the profusion of well executed woodcuts, diagrams, and tables, which accompany the volume.... the suggestions of the author on the use of tea and coffee, and of the various forms of alcohol, although perhaps not strictly of a novel character, are highly instructive, and form an interesting portion of the volume."--_n. y. tribune._ iv. body and mind. the theories of their relation. by alexander bain, ll.d. vol., mo. cloth price, $ . . professor bain is the author of two well-known standard works upon the science of mind--"the senses and the intellect," and "the emotions and the will." he is one of the highest living authorities in the school which holds that there can be no sound or valid psychology unless the mind and the body are studied, as they exist, together. "it contains a forcible statement of the connection between mind and body, studying their subtile interworkings by the light of the most recent physiological investigations. the summary in chapter v., of the investigations of dr. lionel beale of the embodiment of the intellectual functions in the cerebral system, will be found the freshest and most interesting part of his book. prof. bain's own theory of the connection between the mental and the bodily part in man is stated by himself to be as follows: there is 'one substance, with two sets of properties, two sides, the physical and the mental--a _double-faced unity_.' while, in the strongest manner, asserting the union of mind with brain, he yet denies 'the association of union _in place_,' but asserts the union of close succession in time,' holding that 'the same being is, by alternate fits, under extended and under unextended consciousness.'"--_christian register._ v. the study of sociology. by herbert spencer. vol., mo. cloth price, $ . . "the philosopher whose distinguished name gives weight and influence to this volume, has given in its pages some of the finest specimens of reasoning in all its forms and departments. there is a fascination in his array of facts, incidents, and opinions, which draws on the reader to ascertain his conclusions. the coolness and calmness of his treatment of acknowledged difficulties and grave objections to his theories win for him a close attention and sustained effort, on the part of the reader, to comprehend, follow, grasp, and appropriate his principles. this book, independently of its bearing upon sociology, is valuable as lucidly showing what those essential characteristics are which entitle any arrangement and connection of facts and deductions to be called a _science_."--_episcopalian._ "this work compels admiration by the evidence which it gives of immense research, study, and observation, and is, withal, written in a popular and very pleasing style. it is a fascinating work, as well as one of deep practical thought."--_bost. post._ "herbert spencer is unquestionably the foremost living thinker in the psychological and sociological fields, and this volume is an important contribution to the science of which it treats.... it will prove more popular than any of its author's other creations, for it is more plainly addressed to the people and has a more practical and less speculative cast. it will require thought, but it is well worth thinking about."--_albany evening journal_. vi. the new chemistry. by josiah p. cooke, jr., erving professor of chemistry and mineralogy in harvard university. vol., mo. cloth price, $ . . "the book of prof. cooke is a model of the modern popular science work. it has just the due proportion of fact, philosophy, and true romance, to make it a fascinating companion, either for the voyage or the study."--_daily graphic._ "this admirable monograph, by the distinguished erving professor of chemistry in harvard university, is the first american contribution to 'the international scientific series,' and a more attractive piece of work in the way of popular exposition upon a difficult subject has not appeared in a long time. it not only well sustains the character of the volumes with which it is associated, but its reproduction in european countries will be an honor to american science."--_new york tribune._ "all the chemists in the country will enjoy its perusal, and many will seize upon it as a thing longed for. for, to those advanced students who have kept well abreast of the chemical tide, it offers a calm philosophy. to those others, youngest of the class, who have emerged from the schools since new methods have prevailed, it presents a generalization, drawing to its use all the data, the relations of which the newly-fledged fact-seeker may but dimly perceive without its aid.... to the old chemists, prof. cooke's treatise is like a message from beyond the mountain. they have heard of changes in the science; the clash of the battle of old and new theories has stirred them from afar. the tidings, too, had come that the old had given way; and little more than this they knew.... prof. cooke's 'new chemistry' must do wide service in bringing to close sight the little known and the longed for.... as a philosophy it is elementary, but, as a book of science, ordinary readers will find it sufficiently advanced."--_utica morning herald._ vii. the conservation of energy. by balfour stewart, ll. d., f.r.s. _with an appendix treating of the vital and mental applications of the doctrine._ vol., mo. cloth. price, $ . . "the author has succeeded in presenting the facts in a clear and satisfactory manner, using simple language and copious illustration in the presentation of facts and principles, confining himself, however, to the physical aspect of the subject. in the appendix the operation of the principles in the spheres of life and mind is supplied by the essays of professors le conte and bain."--_ohio farmer._ "prof stewart is one of the best known teachers in owens college in manchester. "the volume of the international scientific series now before us is an excellent illustration of the true method of teaching, and will well compare with prof. tyndall's charming little book in the same series on 'forms of water,' with illustrations enough to make clear, but not to conceal his thoughts, in a style simple and brief."--_christian register, boston_. "the writer has wonderful ability to compress much information into a few words. it is a rich treat to read such a book as this, when there is so much beauty and force combined with such simplicity."--_eastern press._ viii. animal locomotion; or, walking, swimming, and flying. _with a dissertation on aëronautics._ by j. bell pettigrew, m.d., f.r.s., f.r.s.e., f.r.c.p.e. vol., mo. price, $ . . "this work is more than a contribution to the stock of entertaining knowledge, though, if it only pleased, that would be sufficient excuse for its publication. but dr. pettigrew has given his time to these investigations with the ultimate purpose of solving the difficult problem of aëronautics. to this he devotes the last fifty pages of his book. dr. pettigrew is confident that man will yet conquer the domain of the air."--_n. y. journal of commerce._ "most persons claim to know how to walk, but few could explain the mechanical principles involved in this most ordinary transaction, and will be surprised that the movements of bipeds and quadrupeds, the darting and rushing motion of fish, and the erratic flight of the denizens of the air, are not only analogous, but can be reduced to similar formula. the work is profusely illustrated, and, without reference to the theory it is designed to expound, will be regarded as a valuable addition to natural history."--_omaha republic._ ix. responsibility in mental disease. by henry maudsley, m.d., fellow of the royal college of physicians; professor of medical jurisprudence in university college, london. vol., mo. cloth. price, $ . . "having lectured in a medical college on mental disease, this book has been a feast to us. it handles a great subject in a masterly manner, and, in our judgment, the positions taken by the author are correct and well sustained."--_pastor and people._ "the author is at home in his subject, and presents his views in an almost singularly clear and satisfactory manner.... the volume is a valuable contribution to one of the most difficult, and at the same time one of the most important subjects of investigation at the present day."--_n. y. observer._ "it is a work profound and searching, and abounds in wisdom."--_pittsburg commercial._ "handles the important topic with masterly power, and its suggestions are practical and of great value."--_providence press._ x. the science of law. by sheldon amos, m.a., professor of jurisprudence in university college, london; author of "a systematic view of the science of jurisprudence," "an english code, its difficulties and the modes of overcoming them," etc., etc. vol., mo. cloth. price, $ . . "the valuable series of 'international scientific' works, prepared by eminent specialists, with the intention of popularizing information in their several branches of knowledge, has received a good accession in this compact and thoughtful volume. it is a difficult task to give the outlines of a complete theory of law in a portable volume, which he who runs may read, and probably professor amos himself would be the last to claim that he has perfectly succeeded in doing this. but he has certainly done much to clear the science of law from the technical obscurities which darken it to minds which have had no legal training, and to make clear to his 'lay' readers in how true and high a sense it can assert its right to be considered a science, and not a mere practice."--_the christian register._ "the works of bentham and austin are abstruse and philosophical, and maine's require hard study and a certain amount of special training. the writers also pursue different lines of investigation, and can only be regarded as comprehensive in the departments they confined themselves to. it was left to amos to gather up the result and present the science in its fullness. the unquestionable merits of this, his last book, are, that it contains a complete treatment of a subject which has hitherto been handled by specialists, and it opens up that subject to every inquiring mind.... to do justice to 'the science of law' would require a longer review than we have space for. we have read no more interesting and instructive book for some time. its themes concern every one who renders obedience to laws, and who would have those laws the best possible. the tide of legal reform which set in fifty years ago has to sweep yet higher if the flaws in our jurisprudence are to be removed. the process of change cannot be better guided than by a well-informed public mind, and prof. amos has done great service in materially helping to promote this end."--_buffalo courier._ xi. animal mechanism, _a treatise on terrestrial and aërial locomotion._ by e. j. marey, professor at the college of france, and member of the academy of medicine. with illustrations, drawn and engraved under the direction of the author. vol., mo. cloth. price, $ . "we hope that, in the short glance which we have taken of some of the most important points discussed in the work before us, we have succeeded in interesting our readers sufficiently in its contents to make them curious to learn more of its subject-matter. we cordially recommend it to their attention. "the author of the present work, it is well known, stands at the head of those physiologists who have investigated the mechanism of animal dynamics--indeed, we may almost say that he has made the subject his own. by the originality of his conceptions, the ingenuity of his constructions, the skill of his analysis, and the perseverance of his investigations, he has surpassed all others in the power of unveiling the complex and intricate movements of animated beings."--_popular science monthly._ xii. history of the conflict between religion and science. by john william draper, m.d., ll. d., author of "the intellectual development of europe." vol., mo. price, $ . . "this little 'history' would have been a valuable contribution to literature at any time, and is, in fact, an admirable text-book upon a subject that is at present engrossing the attention of a large number of the most serious-minded people, and it is no small compliment to the sagacity of its distinguished author that he has so well gauged the requirements of the times, and so adequately met them by the preparation of this volume. it remains to be added that, while the writer has flinched from no responsibility in his statements, and has written with entire fidelity to the demands of truth and justice, there is not a word in his book that can give offense to candid and fair-minded readers."--_n. y. evening post._ "the key-note to this volume is found in the antagonism between the progressive tendencies of the human mind and the pretensions of ecclesiastical authority, as developed in the history of modern science. no previous writer has treated the subject from this point of view, and the present monograph will be found to possess no less originality of conception than vigor of reasoning and wealth of erudition.... the method of dr. draper, in his treatment of the various questions that come up for discussion, is marked by singular impartiality as well as consummate ability. throughout his work he maintains the position of an historian, not of an advocate. his tone is tranquil and serene, as becomes the search after truth, with no trace of the impassioned ardor of controversy. he endeavors so far to identify himself with the contending parties as to gain a clear comprehension of their motives, but, at the same time, he submits their actions to the tests of a cool and impartial examination."--_n. y. tribune._ d. appleton & co., publishers, & broadway, n. y. recent publications.--scientific. =the principles of mental physiology.= with their applications to the training and discipline of the mind, and the study of its morbid conditions. by w. b. carpenter, f.r.s., etc. illustrated. mo. pages. price, $ . . "the work is probably the ablest exposition of the subject which has been given to the world, and goes far to establish a new system of mental philosophy, upon a much broader and more substantial basis than it has heretofore stood."--_st. louis democrat._ "let us add that nothing we have said, or in any limited space could say, would give an adequate conception of the valuable and curious collection of facts bearing on morbid mental conditions, the learned physiological exposition, and the treasure-house of useful hints for mental training, which make this large and yet very amusing, as well as instructive book, an encyclopædia of well-classified and often very startling psychological experiences."--_london spectator._ =the expanse of heaven.= a series of essays on the wonders of the firmament. by r. a. proctor, b.a. "a very charming work; cannot fail to lift the reader's mind up 'through nature's work to nature's god.'"--_london standard._ "prof. r. a. proctor is one of the very few rhetorical scientists who have the art of making science popular without making it or themselves contemptible. it will be hard to find anywhere else so much skill in effective expression, combined with so much genuine astronomical learning, as is to be seen in his new volume."--_christian union._ =physiology for practical use.= by various writers. edited by james hinton. with illustrations. vol., mo. price, $ . . "this book is one of rare value, and will prove useful to a large class in the community. its chief recommendation is in its applying the laws of the science of physiology to cases of the deranged or diseased operations of the organs or processes of the human system. it is as thoroughly practical as is a book of formulas of medicine, and the style in which the information is given is so entirely devoid of the mystification of technical or scientific terms that the most simple can easily comprehend it."--_boston gazette._ "of all the works upon health of a popular character which we have met with for some time, and we are glad to think that this most important branch of knowledge is becoming more enlarged every day, the work before us appears to be the simplest, the soundest, and the best."--_chicago inter-ocean._ =the great ice age, and its relations to the antiquity of man.= by james geikie, f.r.s. e. with maps, charts, and numerous illustrations. vol., thick mo. price, $ . . "'the great ice age' is a work of extraordinary interest and value. the subject is peculiarly attractive in the immensity of its scope, and exercises a fascination over the imagination so absorbing that it can scarcely find expression in words. it has all the charms of wonder-tales, and excites scientific and unscientific minds alike."--_boston gazette._ "every step in the process is traced with admirable perspicuity and fullness by mr. geikie."--_london saturday review._ "'the great ice age,' by james geikie, is a book that unites the popular and abstruse elements of scientific research to a remarkable degree. the author recounts a story that is more romantic than nine novels out of ten, and we have read the book from first to last with unflagging interest."--_boston commercial bulletin._ =address delivered before the british association,= assembled at belfast. by john tyndall, f.r.s., president. revised, with additions, by the author, since the delivery. mo. pages. paper. price, cents. this edition of this now famous address is the only one authorized by the author, and contains additions and corrections not in the newspaper reports. =the physiology of man.= designed to represent the existing state of physiological science as applied to the functions of the human body. by austin flint, jr., m.d. complete in five volumes, octavo, of about pages each, with illustrations. cloth, $ . ; sheep, $ . . each volume sold separately. price, cloth, $ . ; sheep, $ . . the fifth and last volume has just been issued. the above is by far the most complete work on human physiology in the english language. it treats of the functions of the human body from a practical point of view, and is enriched by many original experiments and observations by the author. considerable space is given to physiological anatomy, particularly the structure of glandular organs, the digestive system, nervous system, blood-vessels, organs of special sense, and organs of generation. it not only considers the various functions of the body, from an experimental stand-point, but is peculiarly rich in citations of the literature of physiology. it is therefore invaluable as a work of reference for those who wish to study the subject of physiology exhaustively. as a complete treatise on a subject of such interest, it should be in the libraries of literary and scientific men, as well as in the hands of practitioners and students of medicine. illustrations are introduced wherever they are necessary for the elucidation of the text. recent publications. =the native races of the pacific states.= by herbert h. bancroft. to be completed in vols. vol. . now ready. containing wild tribes: their manners and customs. vol., vo. cloth, $ ; sheep, $ . "we can only say that if the remaining volumes are executed in the same spirit of candid and careful investigation, the same untiring industry, and intelligent good sense, which mark the volume before us, mr bancroft's 'native races of the pacific states' will form, as regards aboriginal america, an encyclopædia of knowledge not only unequaled but unapproached. a literary enterprise more deserving of a generous sympathy and support has never been undertaken on this side of the atlantic."--francis parkman, in the _north american review_. "the industry, sound judgment, and the excellent literary style displayed in this work, cannot be too highly praised."--_boston post._ =a brief history of culture.= by john s. hittell. vol., mo. price, $ . . "he writes in a popular style for popular use. he takes ground which has never been fully occupied before, although the general subject has been treated more or less distinctly by several writers.... mr. hittell's method is compact, embracing a wide field in a few words, often presenting a mere hint, when a fuller treatment is craved by the reader; but, although his book cannot be commended as a model of literary art, it may be consulted to great advantage by every lover of free thought and novel suggestions."--_n. y. tribune._ =the history of the conflict between religion and science.= by john w. draper, m.d., author of "the intellectual development of europe." vol., mo. cloth. price, $ . . "the conflict of which he treats has been a mighty tragedy of humanity that has dragged nations into its vortex and involved the fate of empires. the work, though small, is full of instruction regarding the rise of the great ideas of science and philosophy; and he describes in an impressive manner and with dramatic effect the way religious authority has employed the secular power to obstruct the progress of knowledge and crush out the spirit of investigation. while there is not in his book a word of disrespect for things sacred, he writes with a directness of speech, and a vividness of characterization and an unflinching fidelity to the facts, which show him to be in thorough earnest with his work. the 'history of the conflict between religion and science' is a fitting sequel to the 'history of the intellectual development of europe,' and will add to its author's already high reputation as a philosophic historian."--_n. y. tribune._ =theology in the english poets.= cowper, coleridge, wordsworth, and burns. by rev. stopford brooke. vol., mo. price, $ . "apart from its literary merits, the book may be said to possess an independent value, as tending to familiarize a certain section of the english public with more enlightened views of theology."--_london athenæum._ =bloomer's commercial cryptograph.= a telegraph code and double index--holocryptic cipher. by j. g. bloomer. vol., vo. price, $ . by the use of this work, business communications of whatever nature may be telegraphed with secrecy and economy. =d. appleton & co., publishers, new york.= a new magazine for students and cultivated readers. the popular science monthly, conducted by professor e. l. youmans. the growing importance of scientific knowledge to all classes of the community calls for more efficient means of diffusing it. the popular science monthly has been started to promote this object, and supplies a want met by no other periodical in the united states. it contains instructive and attractive articles, and abstracts of articles, original, selected, and illustrated, from the leading scientific men of different countries, giving the latest interpretations of natural phenomena, explaining the applications of science to the practical arts, and to the operations of domestic life. it is designed to give especial prominence to those branches of science which help to a better understanding of the nature of man; to present the claims of scientific education; and the bearings of science upon questions of society and government. how the various subjects of current opinion are affected by the advance of scientific inquiry will also be considered. in its literary character, this periodical aims to be popular, without being superficial, and appeals to the intelligent reading-classes of the community. it seeks to procure authentic statements from men who know their subjects, and who will address the non-scientific public for purposes of exposition and explanation. it will have contributions from herbert spencer, professor huxley, professor tyndall, mr. darwin, and other writers identified with speculative thought and scientific investigation. _the popular science monthly is published in a large octavo, handsomely printed on clear type. terms, five dollars per annum, or fifty cents per copy._ opinions of the press. 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"a journal which promises to be of eminent value to the cause of popular education in this country."--_n. y. tribune._ =important to clubs.= the popular science monthly will be supplied at reduced rates with any periodical published in this country. any person remitting twenty dollars for four yearly subscriptions will receive an extra copy gratis, or five yearly subscriptions for $ . the popular science monthly and appletons' journal (weekly), per annum, $ . . ==>_payment, in all cases, must be in advance._ remittances should be made by postal money-order or check to the publishers, =d. appleton & co., & broadway, new york.= the greville memoirs. complete in two vols. a journal of the reigns of king george iv. & king william iv. by the late chas. c. f. greville, esq., clerk of the council to those sovereigns. edited by henry reeve, registrar of the privy council. mo. price, $ . . _this edition contains the complete text as published in the three volumes of the english edition._ "the sensation created by these memoirs, on their first appearance, was not out of proportion to their real interest. they relate to a period of our history second only in importance to the revolution of ; they portray manners which have now disappeared from society, yet have disappeared so recently that middle-aged men can recollect them; and they concern the conduct of very eminent persons, of whom some are still living, while of others the memory is so fresh that they still seem almost to be contemporaneous."--_the academy._ "such memoirs as these are the most interesting contributions to history that can be made, and the most valuable as well. the man deserves gratitude from his posterity who, being placed in the midst of events that have any importance, and of people who bear any considerable part in them, sits down day by day and makes a record of his observations."--_buffalo courier._ "the greville memoirs, already in a third edition in london, in little more than two months, have been republished by d. appleton & co., new york. the three loosely-printed english volumes are here given in two, without the slightest abridgment, and the price, which is nine dollars across the water, here is only four. it is not too much to say that this work, though not so ambitious in its style as horace walpole's well-known 'correspondence,' is much more interesting. in a word, these greville memoirs supply valuable materials not alone for political, but also for social history during the time they cover. they are additionally attractive from the large quantity of racy anecdotes which they contain."--_philadelphia press._ "these are a few among many illustrations of the pleasant, gossipy information conveyed in these memoirs, whose great charm is the free and straightforward manner in which the writer chronicles his impressions of men and events."--_boston daily globe._ "as will be seen, these volumes are of remarkable interest, and fully justify the encomiums that heralded their appearance in this country. they will attract a large circle of readers here, who will find in their gossipy pages an almost inexhaustible fund of instruction and amusement."--_boston saturday evening gazette._ "since the publication of horace walpole's letters, no book of greater historical interest has seen the light than the greville memoirs. it throws a curious, and, we may almost say, a terrible light on the conduct and character of the public men in england under the reigns of george iv. and william iv. its descriptions of those kings and their kinsfolk are never likely to be forgotten."--_n. y. times._ d. appleton & co., publishers, & broadway, n. y. the life of his royal highness the prince consort. by theodore martin. _with portraits and views. volume the first. mo. cloth. price_, $ . . "the book, indeed, is more comprehensive than its title implies. purporting to tell the life of the prince consort, it includes a scarcely less minute biography--which may be regarded as almost an autobiography--of the queen herself; and, when it is complete, it will probably present a more minute history of the domestic life of a queen and her 'master' (the term is her majesty's) than has ever before appeared."--_from the athenæeum._ "mr. martin has accomplished his task with a success which could scarcely have been anticipated. his biography of prince albert would be valuable and instructive even if it were addressed to remote and indifferent readers who had no special interest in the english court or in the royal family. prince albert's actual celebrity is inseparably associated with the high position which he occupied, but his claim to permanent reputation depends on the moral and intellectual qualities which were singularly adapted to the circumstances of his career. in any rank of life he would probably have attained distinction; but his prudence, his self-denial, and his aptitude for acquiring practical knowledge, could scarcely have found a more suitable field of exercise than in his peculiar situation as the acknowledged head of a constitutional monarchy."--_from the saturday review._ "the author writes with dignity and grace, he values his subject, and treats him with a certain courtly reverence, yet never once sinks into the panegyrist, and while apparently most frank--so frank, that the reticent english people may feel the intimacy of his domestic narratives almost painful--he is never once betrayed into a momentary indiscretion. the almost idyllic beauty of the relation between the prince consort and the queen comes out as fully as in all previous histories of that relation--and we have now had three--as does also a good deal of evidence as to the queen's own character, hitherto always kept down, and, as it were, self effaced in publications written or sanctioned by herself."--_from the london spectator._ "of the abilities which have been claimed for the prince consort, this work affords us small means of judging. but of his wisdom, strong sense of duty, and great dignity and purity of character, the volume furnishes ample evidence. in this way it will be of service to any one who reads it."--_from the new york evening post._ "there is a striking contrast between this volume and the greville memoirs, which relate to a period in english history immediately preceding prince albert's marriage with queen victoria. radical changes were effected in court-life by victoria's accession to the throne.... in the work before us, which is the unfolding of a model home-life, a life in fact unrivaled in the abodes of modern royalty, there is nothing but what the purest mind can read with real pleasure and profit. "mr. martin draws a most exquisite portraiture of the married life of the royal pair, which seems to have been as nearly perfect as any thing human can be. the volume closes shortly after the revolution of , at paris, when louis philippe and his hapless queen were fleeing to england in search of an asylum from the fearful forebodings which overhung their pathway. it was a trying time for england, but, says mr. martin with true dramatic effect in the closing passages of his book: 'when the storm burst, it found him prepared. in rising to meet the difficulties of the hour, the prince found the best support in the cheerful courage of the queen,' who on the th of april of that same year wrote to king leopold: 'i never was calmer and quieter or less nervous. great events make me calm; it is only trifles that irritate my nerves.' thus ends the first volume of one of the most important biographies of the present time. the second volume will follow as soon as its preparation can be effected."--_from the hartford evening post._ d. appleton & co., publishers, & broadway, n. y. transcriber's notes a few words are variably hyphenated. they are unchanged from the original. they include uredospores, subglobose, and puffballs. page footnote k: a genus of parasitic sph[oe]riaceous fungi. changed to a genus of parasitic sphæriaceous fungi. page hypog[oe]i.--these are subterranean and the hypog[oe]ous fungi are curiously connected changed [oe] to æ to match others in text. page informs us that he has eaten _boletus lurdius_ changed to informs us that he has eaten _boletus luridus_ page separate themselves by a partion from the sterigma changed to separate themselves by a partition from the sterigma page like relations to other sph[oe]riaceous fungi. changed to like relations to other sphæriaceous fungi. page including such cosmopolitan forms as _sphæria hebarum_ changed to including such cosmopolitan forms as _sphæria herbarum_ page _hirneola auricula-judaæ_ changed to _hirneola auricula-judæ_ none this ebook was produced by sue asscher. [page i.] the power of movement in plants. [page ii.] [page iii.] the power of movement in plants. by charles darwin, ll.d., f.r.s. assisted by francis darwin. [page iv.] [page v.] contents. ----- introduction...page - . chapter i. the circumnutating movements of seedling plants. brassica oleracea, circumnutation of the radicle, of the arched hypocotyl whilst still buried beneath the ground, whilst rising above the ground and straightening itself, and when erect--circumnutation of the cotyledons-- rate of movement--analogous observations on various organs in species of githago, gossypium, oxalis, tropaeolum, citrus, aesculus, of several leguminous and cucurbitaceous genera, opuntia, helianthus, primula, cyclamen, stapelia, cerinthe, nolana, solanum, beta, ricinus, quercus, corylus, pinus, cycas, canna, allium, asparagus, phalaris, zea, avena, nephrodium, and selaginella... - chapter ii. general considerations on the movements and growth of seedling plants. generality of the circumnutating movement--radicles, their circumnutation of service--manner in which they penetrate the ground--manner in which hypocotyls and other organs break through the ground by being arched-- singular manner of germination in megarrhiza, etc.--abortion of cotyledons- -circumnutation of hypocotyls and epicotyls whilst still buried and arched- -their power of straightening themselves--bursting of the seed-coats-- inherited effect of the arching process in hypo- [page vi.] gean hypocotyls--circumnutation of hypocotyls and epicotyls when erect-- circumnutation of cotyledons--pulvini or joints of cotyledons, duration of their activity, rudimentary in oxalis corniculata, their development-- sensitiveness of cotyledons to light and consequent disturbance of their periodic movements--sensitiveness of cotyledons to contact...page - chapter iii. sensitiveness of the apex of the radicle to contact and to other irritants. manner in which radicles bend when they encounter an obstacle in the soil-- vicia faba, tips of radicles highly sensitive to contact and other irritants--effects of too high a temperature--power of discriminating between objects attached on opposite sides--tips of secondary radicles sensitive--pisum, tips of radicles sensitive--effects of such sensitiveness in overcoming geotropism--secondary radicles--phaseolus, tips of radicles hardly sensitive to contact, but highly sensitive to caustic and to the removal of a slice--tropaeolum--gossypium--cucurbita--raphanus--aesculus, tip not sensitive to slight contact, highly sensitive to caustic--quercus, tip highly sensitive to contact--power of discrimination--zea, tip highly sensitive, secondary radicles--sensitiveness of radicles to moist air-- summary of chapter... - chapter iv. the circumnutating movements of the several parts of mature plants. circumnutation of stems: concluding remarks on--circumnutation of stolons: aid thus afforded in winding amongst the stems of surrounding plants-- circumnutation of flower-stems--circumnutation of dicotyledonous leaves-- singular oscillatory movement of leaves of dionaea--leaves of cannabis sink at night--leaves of gymnosperms--of monocotyledons--cryptogams--concluding remarks on the circumnutation of leaves; generally rise in the evening and sink in the morning... - [page vii.] chapter v. modified circumnutation: climbing plants; epinastic and hyponastic movements. circumnutation modified through innate causes or through the action of external conditions--innate causes--climbing plants; similarity of their movements with those of ordinary plants; increased amplitude; occasional points of difference--epinastic growth of young leaves--hyponastic growth of the hypocotyls and epicotyls of seedlings--hooked tips of climbing and other plants due to modified circumnutation--ampelopsis tricuspidata-- smithia pfundii--straightening of the tip due to hyponasty--epinastic growth and circumnutation of the flower-peduncles of trifolium repens and oxalis carnosa...page - chapter vi. modified circumnutation: sleep or nyctitropic movements, their use: sleep of cotyledons. preliminary sketch of the sleep or nyctitropic movements of leaves-- presence of pulvini--the lessening of radiation the final cause of nyctitropic movements--manner of trying experiments on leaves of oxalis, arachis, cassia, melilotus, lotus and marsilea and on the cotyledons of mimosa--concluding remarks on radiation from leaves--small differences in the conditions make a great difference in the result - description of the nyctitropic position and movements of the cotyledons of various plants-- list of species--concluding remarks--independence of the nyctitropic movements of the leaves and cotyledons of the same species--reasons for believing that the movements have been acquired for a special purpose... - chapter vii. modified circumnutation: nyctitropic or sleep movements of leaves. conditions necessary for these movements--list of genera and families, which include sleeping plants--description of the movements in the several genera--oxalis: leaflets folded at [page viii.] night--averrhoa: rapid movements of the leaflets--porlieria: leaflets close when plant kept very dry--tropaeolum: leaves do not sleep unless well illuminated during day--lupinus: various modes of sleeping--melilotus: singular movements of terminal leaflet--trifolium--desmodium: rudimentary lateral leaflets, movements of, not developed on young plants, state of their pulvini--cassia: complex movements of the leaflets--bauhinia: leaves folded at night--mimosa pudica: compounded movements of leaves, effect of darkness--mimosa albida, reduced leaflets of--schrankia: downward movement of the pinnae--marsilea: the only cryptogam known to sleep--concluding remarks and summary--nyctitropism consists of modified circumnutation, regulated by the alternations of light and darkness--shape of first true leaves...page - chapter viii. modified circumnutation: movements excited by light. distinction between heliotropism and the effects of light on the periodicity of the movements of leaves--heliotropic movements of beta, solanum, zea, and avena--heliotropic movements towards an obscure light in apios, brassica, phalaris, tropaeolum, and cassia--apheliotropic movements of tendrils of bignonia--of flower-peduncles of cyclamen--burying of the pods--heliotropism and apheliotropism modified forms of circumnutation-- steps by which one movement is converted into the other-- transversal-heliotropismus or diaheliotropism influenced by epinasty, the weight of the part and apogeotropism--apogeotropism overcome during the middle of the day by diaheliotropism--effects of the weight of the blades of cotyledons--so called diurnal sleep--chlorophyll injured by intense light--movements to avoid intense light... - chapter ix. sensitiveness of plants to light: its transmitted effects. uses of heliotropism--insectivorous and climbing plants not heliotropic-- same organ heliotropic at one age and not at another--extraordinary sensitiveness of some plants to light--the effects [page ix.] of light do not correspond with its intensity--effects of previous illumination--time required for the action of light--after-effects of light--apogeotropism acts as soon as light fails--accuracy with which plants bend to the light--this dependent on the illumination of one whole side of the part--localised sensitiveness to light and its transmitted effects--cotyledons of phalaris, manner of bending--results of the exclusion of light from their tips--effects transmitted beneath the surface of the ground--lateral illumination of the tip determines the direction of the curvature of the base--cotyledons of avena, curvature of basal part due to the illumination of upper part--similar results with the hypocotyls of brassica and beta--radicles of sinapis apheliotropic, due to the sensitiveness of their tips--concluding remarks and summary of chapter-- means by which circumnutation has been converted into heliotropism or apheliotropism...page - chapter x. modified circumnutation: movements excited by gravitation. means of observation--apogeotropism--cytisus--verbena--beta--gradual conversion of the movement of circumnutation into apogeotropism in rubus, lilium, phalaris, avena, and brassica--apogeotropism retarded by heliotropism--effected by the aid of joints or pulvini--movements of flower-peduncles of oxalis--general remarks on apogeotropism--geotropism-- movements of radicles--burying of seed-capsules--use of process--trifolium subterraneum--arachis--amphicarpaea--diageotropism--conclusion... - chapter xi. localised sensitiveness to gravitation, and its transmitted effects. general considerations--vicia faba, effects of amputating the tips of the radicles--regeneration of the tips--effects of a short exposure of the tips to geotropic action and their subsequent amputation--effects of amputating the tips obliquely--effects of cauterising the tips--effects of grease on the tips--pisum [page x.] sativum, tips of radicles cauterised transversely, and on their upper and lower sides--phaseolus, cauterisation and grease on the tips--gossypium-- cucurbita, tips cauterised transversely, and on their upper and lower sides--zea, tips cauterised--concluding remarks and summary of chapter-- advantages of the sensibility to geotropism being localised in the tips of the radicles...page - chapter xii. summary and concluding remarks. nature of the circumnutating movement--history of a germinating seed--the radicle first protrudes and circumnutates--its tip highly sensitive-- emergence of the hypocotyl or of the epicotyl from the ground under the form of an arch--its circumnutation and that of the cotyledons--the seedling throws up a leaf-bearing stem--the circumnutation of all the parts or organs--modified circumnutation--epinasty and hyponasty--movements of climbing plants--nyctitropic movements--movements excited by light and gravitation--localised sensitiveness--resemblance between the movements of plants and animals--the tip of the radicle acts like a brain... - index... - [page ] the movements of plants. introduction. the chief object of the present work is to describe and connect together several large classes of movement, common to almost all plants. the most widely prevalent movement is essentially of the same nature as that of the stem of a climbing plant, which bends successively to all points of the compass, so that the tip revolves. this movement has been called by sachs "revolving nutation;" but we have found it much more convenient to use the terms circumnutation and circumnutate. as we shall have to say much about this movement, it will be useful here briefly to describe its nature. if we observe a circumnutating stem, which happens at the time to be bent, we will say towards the north, it will be found gradually to bend more and more easterly, until it faces the east; and so onwards to the south, then to the west, and back again to the north. if the movement had been quite regular, the apex would have described a circle, or rather, as the stem is always growing upwards, a circular spiral. but it generally describes irregular elliptical or oval figures; for the apex, after pointing in any one direction, commonly moves back to the opposite side, not, however, returning along the same line. afterwards other irregular ellipses or ovals are successively described, with their longer [page ] axes directed to different points of the compass. whilst describing such figures, the apex often travels in a zigzag line, or makes small subordinate loops or triangles. in the case of leaves the ellipses are generally narrow. until recently the cause of all such bending movements was believed to be due to the increased growth of the side which becomes for a time convex; that this side does temporarily grow more quickly than the concave side has been well established; but de vries has lately shown that such increased growth follows a previously increased state of turgescence on the convex side.* in the case of parts provided with a so-called joint, cushion or pulvinus, which consists of an aggregate of small cells that have ceased to increase in size from a very early age, we meet with similar movements; and here, as pfeffer has shown** and as we shall see in the course of this work, the increased turgescence of the cells on opposite sides is not followed by increased growth. wiesner denies in certain cases the accuracy of de vries' conclusion about turgescence, and maintains*** that the increased extensibility of the cell-walls is the more important element. that such extensibility must accompany increased turgescence in order that the part may bend is manifest, and this has been insisted on by several botanists; but in the case of unicellular plants it can hardly fail to be the more important element. on the whole we may at present conclude that in- * sachs first showed ('lehrbuch,' etc., th edit. p. ) the intimate connection between turgescence and growth. for de vries' interesting essay, 'wachsthumskrümmungen mehrzelliger organe,' see 'bot. zeitung,' dec. , , p. . ** 'die periodischen bewegungen der blattorgane,' . *** 'untersuchungen über den heliotropismus,' sitzb. der k. akad. der wissenschaft. (vienna), jan. . [page ] creased growth, first on one side and then on another, is a secondary effect, and that the increased turgescence of the cells, together with the extensibility of their walls, is the primary cause of the movement of circumnutation.* in the course of the present volume it will be shown that apparently every growing part of every plant is continually circumnutating, though often on a small scale. even the stems of seedlings before they have broken through the ground, as well as their buried radicles, circumnutate, as far as the pressure of the surrounding earth permits. in this universally present movement we have the basis or groundwork for the acquirement, according to the requirements of the plant, of the most diversified movements. thus, the great sweeps made by the stems of twining plants, and by the tendrils of other climbers, result from a mere increase in the amplitude of the ordinary movement of circumnutation. the position which young leaves and other organs ultimately assume is acquired by the circumnutating movement being increased in some one direction. the leaves of various plants are said to sleep at night, and it will be seen that their blades then assume a vertical position through modified circumnutation, in order to protect their upper surfaces from being chilled through radiation. the movements of various organs to the light, which are so general throughout the vegetable kingdom, and occasionally from the light, or transversely with respect to it, are all modified * see mr. vines' excellent discussion ('arbeiten des bot. instituts in würzburg,' b. ii. pp. , , ) on this intricate subject. hofmeister's observations ('jahreschrifte des vereins für vaterl. naturkunde in würtemberg,' , p. ) on the curious movements of spirogyra, a plant consisting of a single row of cells, are valuable in relation to this subject. [page ] forms of circumnutation; as again are the equally prevalent movements of stems, etc., towards the zenith, and of roots towards the centre of the earth. in accordance with these conclusions, a considerable difficulty in the way of evolution is in part removed, for it might have been asked, how did all these diversified movements for the most different purposes first arise? as the case stands, we know that there is always movement in progress, and its amplitude, or direction, or both, have only to be modified for the good of the plant in relation with internal or external stimuli. besides describing the several modified forms of circumnutation, some other subjects will be discussed. the two which have interested us most are, firstly, the fact that with some seedling plants the uppermost part alone is sensitive to light, and transmits an influence to the lower part, causing it to bend. if therefore the upper part be wholly protected from light, the lower part may be exposed for hours to it, and yet does not become in the least bent, although this would have occurred quickly if the upper part had been excited by light. secondly, with the radicles of seedlings, the tip is sensitive to various stimuli, especially to very slight pressure, and when thus excited, transmits an influence to the upper part, causing it to bend from the pressed side. on the other hand, if the tip is subjected to the vapour of water proceeding from one side, the upper part of the radicle bends towards this side. again it is the tip, as stated by ciesielski, though denied by others, which is sensitive to the attraction of gravity, and by transmission causes the adjoining parts of the radicle to bend towards the centre of the earth. these several cases of the effects of contact, other irritants, vapour, light, and the [page ] attraction of gravity being transmitted from the excited part for some little distance along the organ in question, have an important bearing on the theory of all such movements. [terminology.--a brief explanation of some terms which will be used, must here be given. with seedlings, the stem which supports the cotyledons (i.e. the organs which represent the first leaves) has been called by many botanists the hypocotyledonous stem, but for brevity sake we will speak of it merely as the hypocotyl: the stem immediately above the cotyledons will be called the epicotyl or plumule. the radicle can be distinguished from the hypocotyl only by the presence of root-hairs and the nature of its covering. the meaning of the word circumnutation has already been explained. authors speak of positive and negative heliotropism,*--that is, the bending of an organ to or from the light; but it is much more convenient to confine the word heliotropism to bending towards the light, and to designate as apheliotropism bending from the light. there is another reason for this change, for writers, as we have observed, occasionally drop the adjectives positive and negative, and thus introduce confusion into their discussions. diaheliotropism may express a position more or less transverse to the light and induced by it. in like manner positive geotropism, or bending towards the centre of the earth, will be called by us geotropism; apogeotropism will mean bending in opposition to gravity or from the centre of the earth; and diageotropism, a position more or less transverse to the radius of the earth. the words heliotropism and geotropism properly mean the act of moving in relation to the light or the earth; but in the same manner as gravitation, though defined as "the act of tending to the centre," is often used to express the cause of a body falling, so it will be found convenient occasionally to employ heliotropism and geotropism, etc., as the cause of the movements in question. the term epinasty is now often used in germany, and implies that the upper surface of an organ grows more quickly than the * the highly useful terms of heliotropism and geotropism were first used by dr. a. b. frank: see his remarkable 'beiträge zur pflanzenphysiologie,' . [page ] lower surface, and thus causes it to bend downwards. hyponasty is the reverse, and implies increased growth along the lower surface, causing the part to bend upwards.* methods of observation.--the movements, sometimes very small and sometimes considerable in extent, of the various organs observed by us, were traced in the manner which after many trials we found to be best, and which must be described. plants growing in pots were protected wholly from the light, or had light admitted from above, or on one side as the case might require, and were covered above by a large horizontal sheet of glass, and with another vertical sheet on one side. a glass filament, not thicker than a horsehair, and from a quarter to three-quarters of an inch in length, was affixed to the part to be observed by means of shellac dissolved in alcohol. the solution was allowed to evaporate, until it became so thick that it set hard in two or three seconds, and it never injured the tissues, even the tips of tender radicles, to which it was applied. to the end of the glass filament an excessively minute bead of black sealing-wax was cemented, below or behind which a bit of card with a black dot was fixed to a stick driven into the ground. the weight of the filament was so slight that even small leaves were not perceptibly pressed down. another method of observation, when much magnification of the movement was not required, will presently be described. the bead and the dot on the card were viewed through the horizontal or vertical glass-plate (according to the position of the object), and when one exactly covered the other, a dot was made on the glass-plate with a sharply pointed stick dipped in thick indian-ink. other dots were made at short intervals of time and these were afterwards joined by straight lines. the figures thus traced were therefore angular; but if dots had been made every or minutes, the lines would have been more curvilinear, as occurred when radicles were allowed to trace their own courses on smoked glass-plates. to make the dots accurately was the sole difficulty, and required some practice. nor could this be done quite accurately, when the movement was much magnified, such as times and upwards; yet even in this case the general course may be trusted. to test the accuracy of the above method of observation, a filament was fixed to an * these terms are used in the sense given them by de vries, 'würzburg arbeiten,' heft ii , p. . [page ] inanimate object which was made to slide along a straight edge and dots were repeatedly made on a glass-plate; when these were joined, the result ought to have been a perfectly straight line, and the line was very nearly straight. it may be added that when the dot on the card was placed half-an-inch below or behind the bead of sealing-wax, and when the glass-plate (supposing it to have been properly curved) stood at a distance of inches in front (a common distance), then the tracing represented the movement of the bead magnified times. whenever a great increase of the movement was not required, another, and in some respects better, method of observation was followed. this consisted in fixing two minute triangles of thin paper, about / inch in height, to the two ends of the attached glass filament; and when their tips were brought into a line so that they covered one another, dots were made as before on the glass-plate. if we suppose the glass-plate to stand at a distance of seven inches from the end of the shoot bearing the filament, the dots when joined, will give nearly the same figure as if a filament seven inches long, dipped in ink, had been fixed to the moving shoot, and had inscribed its own course on the plate. the movement is thus considerably magnified; for instance, if a shoot one inch in length were bending, and the glass-plate stood at the distance of seven inches, the movement would be magnified eight times. it would, however, have been very difficult to have ascertained in each case how great a length of the shoot was bending; and this is indispensable for ascertaining the degree to which the movement is magnified. after dots had been made on the glass-plates by either of the above methods, they were copied on tracing paper and joined by ruled lines, with arrows showing the direction of the movement. the nocturnal courses are represented by straight broken lines. the first dot is always made larger than the others, so as to catch the eye, as may be seen in the diagrams. the figures on the glass-plates were often drawn on too large a scale to be reproduced on the pages of this volume, and the proportion in which they have been reduced is always given.* whenever it could be approximately told how much the movement had been magnified, this is stated. we have perhaps * we are much indebted to mr. cooper for the care with which he has reduced and engraved our diagrams. [page ] introduced a superfluous number of diagrams; but they take up less space than a full description of the movements. almost all the sketches of plants asleep, etc., were carefully drawn for us by mr. george darwin. as shoots, leaves, etc., in circumnutating bend more and more, first in one direction and then in another, they were necessarily viewed at different times more or less obliquely; and as the dots were made on a flat surface, the apparent amount of movement is exaggerated according to the degree of obliquity of the point of view. it would, therefore, have been a much better plan to have used hemispherical glasses, if we had possessed them of all sizes, and if the bending part of the shoot had been distinctly hinged and could have been placed so as to have formed one of the radii of the sphere. but even in this case it would have been necessary afterwards to have projected the figures on paper; so that complete accuracy could not have been attained. from the distortion of our figures, owing to the above causes, they are of no use to any one who wishes to know the exact amount of movement, or the exact course pursued; but they serve excellently for ascertaining whether or not the part moved at all, as well as the general character of the movement.] in the following chapters, the movements of a considerable number of plants are described; and the species have been arranged according to the system adopted by hooker in le maout and decaisne's 'descriptive botany.' no one who is not investigating the present subject need read all the details, which, however, we have thought it advisable to give. to save the reader trouble, the conclusions and most of the more important parts have been printed in larger type than the other parts. he may, if he thinks fit, read the last chapter first, as it includes a summary of the whole volume; and he will thus see what points interest him, and on which he requires the full evidence. finally, we must have the pleasure of returning our [page ] sincere thanks to sir joseph hooker and to mr. w. thiselton dyer for their great kindness, in not only sending us plants from kew, but in procuring others from several sources when they were required for our observations; also, for naming many species, and giving us information on various points. [page ] chapter i. the circumnutating movements of seedling plants. brassica oleracea, circumnutation of the radicle, of the arched hypocotyl whilst still buried beneath the ground, whilst rising above the ground and straightening itself, and when erect--circumnutation of the cotyledons-- rate of movement--analogous observations on various organs in species of githago, gossypium, oxalis, tropaeolum, citrus, aesculus, of several leguminous and cucurbitaceous genera, opuntia, helianthus, primula, cyclamen, stapelia, cerinthe, nolana, solanum, beta, ricinus, quercus, corylus, pinus, cycas, canna, allium, asparagus, phalaris, zea, avena, nephrodium, and selaginella. the following chapter is devoted to the circumnutating movements of the radicles, hypocotyls, and cotyledons of seedling plants; and, when the cotyledons do not rise above the ground, to the movements of the epicotyl. but in a future chapter we shall have to recur to the movements of certain cotyledons which sleep at night. [brassica oleracea (cruciferae)'.--fuller details will be given with respect to the movements in this case than in any other, as space and time will thus ultimately be saved. radicle.--a seed with the radicle projecting . inch was fastened with shellac to a little plate of zinc, so that the radicle stood up vertically; and a fine glass filament was then fixed near its base, that is, close to the seed-coats. the seed was surrounded by little bits of wet sponge, and the movement of the bead at the end of the filament was traced (fig. ) during sixty hours. in this time the radicle increased in length from . to . inch. had the filament been attached at first close to the apex of the radicle, and if it could have remained there all the time, the movement exhibited would have [page ] been much greater, for at the close of our observations the tip, instead of standing vertically upwards, had become bowed downwards through geotropism, so as almost to touch the zinc plate. as far as we could roughly ascertain by measurements made with compasses on other seeds, the tip alone, for a length of only / to / of an inch, is acted on by geotropism. but the tracing shows that the basal part of the radicle continued to circumnutate irregularly during the whole time. the actual extreme amount of movement of the bead at the end of the filament was nearly . inch, but to what extent the movement of the radicle was magnified by the filament, which was nearly / inch in length, it was impossible to estimate. fig. . brassica oleracea: circumnutation of radicle, traced on horizontal glass, from a.m. jan. st to p.m. feb. nd. movement of bead at end of filament magnified about times. another seed was treated and observed in the same manner, but the radicle in this case protruded . inch, and was not fig. . brassica oleracea: circumnutating and geotropic movement of radicle, traced on horizontal glass during hours. fastened so as to project quite vertically upwards. the filament was affixed close to its base. the tracing (fig. , reduced by half) shows the movement from a.m. jan. st to a.m. feb. nd; but it continued to move during the whole of the [page ] nd in the same general direction, and in a similar zigzag manner. from the radicle not being quite perpendicular when the filament was affixed geotropism came into play at once; but the irregular zigzag course shows that there was growth (probably preceded by turgescence), sometimes on one and sometimes on another side. occasionally the bead remained stationary for about an hour, and then probably growth occurred on the side opposite to that which caused the geotropic curvature. in the case previously described the basal part of the very short radicle from being turned vertically upwards, was at first very little affected by geotropism. filaments were affixed in two other instances to rather longer radicles protruding obliquely from seeds which had been turned upside down; and in these cases the lines traced on the horizontal glasses were only slightly zigzag, and the movement was always in the same general direction, through the action of geotropism. all these observations are liable to several causes of error, but we believe, from what will hereafter be shown with respect to the movements of the radicles of other plants, that they may be largely trusted. hypocotyl.--the hypocotyl protrudes through the seed-coats as a rectangular projection, which grows rapidly into an arch like the letter u turned upside down; the cotyledons being still enclosed within the seed. in whatever position the seed may be embedded in the earth or otherwise fixed, both legs of the arch bend upwards through apogeotropism, and thus rise vertically above the ground. as soon as this has taken place, or even earlier, the inner or concave surface of the arch grows more quickly than the upper or convex surface; and this tends to separate the two legs and aids in drawing the cotyledons out of the buried seed-coats. by the growth of the whole arch the cotyledons are ultimately dragged from beneath the ground, even from a considerable depth; and now the hypocotyl quickly straightens itself by the increased growth of the concave side. even whilst the arched or doubled hypocotyl is still beneath the ground, it circumnutates as much as the pressure of the surrounding soil will permit; but this was difficult to observe, because as soon as the arch is freed from lateral pressure the two legs begin to separate, even at a very early age, before the arch would naturally have reached the surface. seeds were allowed to germinate on the surface of damp earth, and after they had fixed themselves by their radicles, and after the, as yet, only [page ] slightly arched hypocotyl had become nearly vertical, a glass filament was affixed on two occasions near to the base of the basal leg (i.e. the one in connection with the radicle), and its movements were traced in darkness on a horizontal glass. the result was that long lines were formed running in nearly the plane of the vertical arch, due to the early separation of the two legs now freed from pressure; but as the lines were zigzag, showing lateral movement, the arch must have been circumnutating, whilst it was straightening itself by growth along its inner or concave surface. a somewhat different method of observation was next followed: fig. . brassica oleracea: circumnutating movement of buried and arched hypocotyl (dimly illuminated from above), traced on horizontal glass during hours. movement of bead of filament magnified about times, and here reduced to one-half of original scale. as soon as the earth with seeds in a pot began to crack, the surface was removed in parts to the depth of . inch; and a filament was fixed to the basal leg of a buried and arched hypocotyl, just above the summit of the radicle. the cotyledons were still almost completely enclosed within the much-cracked seed-coats; and these were again covered up with damp adhesive soil pressed pretty firmly down. the movement of the filament was traced (fig. ) from a.m. feb. th till a.m. feb. th. by this latter period the cotyledons had been dragged from beneath the pressed-down earth, but the upper part of the hypocotyl still formed nearly a right angle with the lower part. the tracing shows that the arched hypocotyl tends at this early [page ] age to circumnutate irregularly. on the first day the greater movement (from right to left in the figure) was not in the plane of the vertical and arched hypocotyl, but at right angles to it, or in the plane of the two cotyledons, which were still in close contact. the basal leg of the arch at the time when the filament was affixed to it, was already bowed considerably backwards, or from the cotyledons; had the filament been affixed before this bowing occurred, the chief movement would have been at right angles to that shown in the figure. a filament was attached to another buried hypocotyl of the same age, and it moved in a similar general manner, but the line traced was not so complex. this hypocotyl became almost straight, and the cotyledons were dragged from beneath the ground on the evening of the second day. fig. . brassica oleracea: circumnutating movement of buried and arched hypocotyl, with the two legs of the arch tied together, traced on horizontal glass during ½ hours. movement of the bead of filament magnified about times, and here reduced to one-half original scale. before the above observations were made, some arched hypocotyls buried at the depth of a quarter of an inch were uncovered; and in order to prevent the two legs of the arch from beginning to separate at once, they were tied together with fine silk. this was done partly because we wished to ascertain how long the hypocotyl, in its arched condition, would continue to move, and whether the movement when not masked and disturbed by the straightening process, indicated circumnutation. firstly a filament was fixed to the basal leg of an arched hypocotyl close above the summit of the radicle. the cotyledons were still partially enclosed within the seed-coats. the movement was traced (fig. ) from . a.m. on dec. [page ] rd to . a.m. on dec. th. no doubt the natural movement was much disturbed by the two legs having been tied together; but we see that it was distinctly zigzag, first in one direction and then in an almost opposite one. after p.m. on the th the arched hypocotyl sometimes remained stationary for a considerable time, and when moving, moved far slower than before. therefore, on the morning of the th, the glass filament was removed from the base of the basal leg, and was fixed horizontally on the summit of the arch, which, from the legs having been tied, had grown broad and almost flat. the movement was now traced during hours (fig. ), and we fig. . brassica oleracea: circumnutating movement of the crown of a buried and arched hypocotyl, with the two legs tied together, traced on a horizontal glass during hours. movement of the bead of the filament magnified about times, and here reduced to one-half original scale. see that the course was still zigzag, which indicates a tendency to circumnutation. the base of the basal leg by this time had almost completely ceased to move. as soon as the cotyledons have been naturally dragged from beneath the ground, and the hypocotyl has straightened itself by growth along the inner or concave surface, there is nothing to interfere with the free movements of the parts; and the circumnutation now becomes much more regular and clearly displayed, as shown in the following cases:--a seedling was placed in front and near a north-east window with a line joining the [page ] two cotyledons parallel to the window. it was thus left the whole day so as to accommodate itself to the light. on the following morning a filament was fixed to the midrib of the larger and taller cotyledon (which enfolds the other and smaller one, whilst still within the seed), and a mark being placed close behind, the movement of the whole plant, that is, of the hypocotyl and cotyledon, was traced greatly magnified on a vertical glass. at first the plant bent so much towards the light that it was useless to attempt to trace the movement; but at a.m. heliotropism almost wholly ceased and the first dot was fig. . brassica oleracea: conjoint circumnutation of the hypocotyl and cotyledons during hours minutes. figure here reduced to one-half original scale. made on the glass. the last was made at . p.m.; seventeen dots being altogether made in this interval of h. m. (see fig. ). it should be noticed that when i looked shortly after p.m. the bead was pointing off the glass, but it came on again at . p.m., and the course during this interval of h. m. has been filled up by imagination, but cannot be far from correct. the bead moved seven times from side to side, and thus described ½ ellipses in / h.; each being completed on an average in h. m. on the previous day another seedling had been observed under similar conditions, excepting that the plant was so [page ] placed that a line joining the two cotyledons pointed towards the window; and the filament was attached to the smaller cotyledon on the side furthest from the window. moreover the plant was now for the first time placed in this position. the cotyledons bowed themselves greatly towards the light from to . a.m., when the first dot was made (fig. ). during the fig. . brassica oleracea: conjoint circumnutation of the hypocotyl and cotyledons, from . a.m. to a.m. on the following morning. tracing made on a vertical glass. next hours the bead swept obliquely up and down times and described figures representing ellipses; so that it travelled at nearly the same rate as in the previous case. during the night it moved upwards, owing to the sleep-movement of the cotyledons, and continued to move in the same direction till a.m. on the following morning; but this latter movement would not have occurred with seedlings under their natural conditions fully exposed to the light. by . a.m. on this second day the same cotyledon had [page ] begun to fall, and a dot was made on a fresh glass. the movement was traced until . p.m. as shown in (fig. ), which is given, because the course followed was much more irregular than on the two previous occasions. during these hours the bead changed its course greatly times. the upward movement of the cotyledon during the afternoon and early part of the night is here plainly shown. fig. . brassica oleracea: conjoint circumnutation of the hypocotyl and cotyledons during hours. figure here reduced to one-third of the original scale, as traced on a vertical glass. as the filaments were fixed in the three last cases to one of the cotyledons, and as the hypocotyl was left free, the tracings show the movement of both organs conjoined; and we now wished to ascertain whether both circumnutated. filaments were therefore fixed horizontally to two hypocotyls close beneath the petioles of their cotyledons. these seedlings had stood for two days in the same position before a north-east window. in the morning, up to about a.m., they moved in zigzag lines towards the light; and at night they again became almost upright through apogeotropism. after about a.m. they moved a little back from the light, often crossing and recrossing their former path in zigzag lines. the sky on this day varied much in brightness, and these observations merely proved that the hypocotyls were continually moving in a manner resembling circumnutation. on a previous day which was uniformly cloudy, a hypocotyl was firmly secured to a little stick, and a filament was fixed to the larger of the two cotyledons, and its movement was traced on a vertical glass. it fell greatly from . a.m., when the first dot was made, till . a.m.; it then rose greatly until . p.m. afterwards it fell a little and made a loop, but by . p.m. it had risen a little and continued rising till . p.m., when it made another loop, and at . p.m. was again rising. these observations show that the cotyledons move [page ] vertically up and down all day long, and as there was some slight lateral movement, they circumnutated. fig. . brassica oleracea: circumnutation of hypocotyl, in darkness, traced on a horizontal glass, by means of a filament with a bead fixed across its summit, between . a.m. and . a.m. on the following morning. figure here reduced to one-half of original scale. the cabbage was one of the first plants, the seedlings of which were observed by us, and we did not then know how far the circumnutation of the different parts was affected by light. young seedlings were therefore kept in complete darkness except for a minute or two during each observation, when they were illuminated by a small wax taper held almost vertically above them. during the first day the hypocotyl of one changed its course times (see fig. ); and it deserves notice that the longer axes of the figures described often cross one another at right or nearly right angles. another seedling was observed in the same manner, but it was much older, for it had formed a true leaf a quarter of an inch in length, and the hypocotyl was / inch in height. the figure traced was a very complex one, though the movement was not so great in extent as in the last case. the hypocotyl of another seedling of the same age was secured to a little stick, and a filament having been fixed to the midrib of one of the cotyledons, the movement of the bead was traced during h. m. (see fig. ) in darkness. it should be noted that the chief movement of the cotyledons, namely, up and down, would be shown on a horizontal glass-plate only by the lines in the direction of the midrib (that is, [page ] up and down, as fig. here stands) being a little lengthened or shortened; whereas any lateral movement would be well exhibited. the present tracing shows that the cotyledon did thus move laterally (that is, from side to side in the tracing) times in the h. m. of observation. therefore the cotyledons certainly circumnutated, though the chief movement was up and down in a vertical plane. fig . brassica oleracea: circumnutation of a cotyledon, the hypocotyl having been secured to a stick, traced on a horizontal glass, in darkness, from . a.m. to . p.m. movement of the bead of the filament magnified times. rate of movement.--the movements of the hypocotyls and cotyledons of seedling cabbages of different ages have now been sufficiently illustrated. with respect to the rate, seedlings were placed under the microscope with the stage removed, and with a micrometer eye-piece so adjusted that each division equalled / inch; the plants were illuminated by light passing through a solution of bichromate of potassium so as to eliminate heliotropism. under these circumstances it was interesting to observe how rapidly the circumnutating apex of a cotyledon passed across the divisions of the micrometer. whilst travelling in any direction the apex generally oscillated backwards and forwards to the extent of / and sometimes of nearly / of an inch. these oscillations were quite different from the trembling caused by any disturbance in the same room or by the shutting of a distant door. the first seedling observed was nearly two inches in height and had been etiolated by having been grown in darkness. the tip of the cotyledon passed across divisions of the micrometer, that is, / of an inch, in m. s. short glass filaments were then fixed vertically to the hypocotyls of several seedlings so as to project a little above the cotyledons, thus exaggerating the rate of movement; but only a few of the observations thus made are worth giving. the most remarkable fact was the oscillatory movement above described, and the difference of rate at which the point crossed the divisions of the micrometer, after short intervals of time. for instance, a tall not-etiolated seedling had been kept for h. in darkness; it was exposed before a north-east window for only [page ] two or three minutes whilst a glass filament was fixed vertically to the hypocotyl; it was then again placed in darkness for half an hour and afterwards observed by light passing through bichromate of potassium. the point, oscillating as usual, crossed five divisions of the micrometer (i.e. / inch) in m. s. the seedling was then left in darkness for an hour, and now it required m. s. to cross one division, that is, m. s. to have crossed five divisions. another seedling, after being occasionally observed in the back part of a northern room with a very dull light, and left in complete darkness for intervals of half an hour, crossed five divisions in m. in the direction of the window, so that we concluded that the movement was heliotropic. but this was probably not the case, for it was placed close to a north-east window and left there for m., after which time, instead of moving still more quickly towards the light, as might have been expected, it travelled only at the rate of m. s. for five divisions. it was then again left in complete darkness for h., and the point now travelled in the same direction as before, but at the rate of m. s. for five divisions. we shall have to recur to the cotyledons of the cabbage in a future chapter, when we treat of their sleep-movements. the circumnutation, also, of the leaves of fully-developed plants will hereafter be described. fig. . githago segetum: circumnutation of hypocotyl, traced on a horizontal glass, by means of a filament fixed transversely across its summit, from . a.m. to . p.m. on the following day. movement of bead of filament magnified about times, here reduced to one-half the original scale. githago segetum (caryophylleae).--a young seedling was dimly illuminated from above, and the circumnutation of the hypo- [page ] cotyl was observed during h., as shown in fig. . it moved in all directions; the lines from right and to left in the figure being parallel to the blades of the cotyledons. the actual distance travelled from side to side by the summit of the hypocotyl was about . of an inch; but it was impossible to be accurate on this head, as the more obliquely the plant was viewed, after it had moved for some time, the more the distances were exaggerated. we endeavoured to observe the circumnutation of the cotyledons, but as they close together unless kept exposed to a moderately bright light, and as the hypocotyl is extremely heliotropic, the necessary arrangements were too troublesome. we shall recur to the nocturnal or sleep-movements of the cotyledons in a future chapter. fig. . gossypium: circumnutation of hypocotyl, traced on a horizontal glass, from . a.m. to . a.m. on following morning, by means of a filament fixed across its summit. movement of bead of filament magnified about twice; seedling illuminated from above. gossypium (var. nankin cotton) (malvaceae).--the circumnutation of a hypocotyl was observed in the hot-house, but the movement was so much exaggerated that the bead twice passed for a time out of view. it was, however, manifest that two somewhat irregular ellipses were nearly completed in h. another seedling, ½ in. in height, was then observed during h.; but the observations were not made at sufficiently short intervals, as shown by the few dots in fig. , and the tracing was not now sufficiently enlarged. nevertheless there could be no doubt about the circumnutation of the hypocotyl, which described in h. a figure representing three irregular ellipses of unequal sizes. the cotyledons are in constant movement up and down during the whole day, and as they offer the unusual case of moving downwards late in the evening and in the early part of the night, many observations were made on them. a filament was fixed along the middle of one, and its movement traced on a vertical glass; but the tracing is not given, as the hypocotyl was not secured, so that it was impossible to distinguish clearly between its movement and that of the cotyledon. the cotyledons rose from . a.m. to about p.m.; they then sank till p.m., rising, however, greatly in the latter part of the night. [page ] the angles above the horizon at which the cotyledons of another seedling stood at different hours is recorded in the following short table: -- oct. . p.m... o above horizon. oct. . p.m... o above horizon. oct. . p.m... o above horizon. oct. . p.m... o above horizon. oct. . a.m... o above horizon. oct. . a.m... o above horizon. oct. . p.m... o below horizon. the position of the two cotyledons was roughly sketched at various hours with the same general result. in the following summer, the hypocotyl of a fourth seedling was secured to a little stick, and a glass filament with triangles of paper having been fixed to one of the cotyledons, its movements were traced on a vertical glass under a double skylight in the house. the first dot was made at . p.m. june th; and the cotyledon fell till . p.m. in a nearly straight line. just past midnight it was found a little lower and somewhat to one side. by the early morning, at . a.m., it had risen greatly, but by . a.m. had fallen a little. during the whole of this day ( st) it fell in a slightly zigzag line, but its normal course was disturbed by the want of sufficient illumination, for during the night it rose only a little, and travelled irregularly during the whole of the following day and night of june nd. the ascending and descending lines traced during the three days did not coincide, so that the movement was one of circumnutation. this seedling was then taken back to the hot-house, and after five days was inspected at p.m., when the cotyledons were found hanging so nearly vertically down, that they might justly be said to have been asleep. on the following morning they had resumed their usual horizontal position. oxalis rosea (oxalideae).--the hypocotyl was secured to a little stick, and an extremely thin glass filament, with two triangles of paper, was attached to one of the cotyledons, which was . inch in length. in this and the following species the end of the petiole, where united to the blade, is developed into a pulvinus. the apex of the cotyledon stood only inches from the vertical glass, so that its movement was not greatly exaggerated as long as it remained nearly horizontal; but in the course of the day it both rose considerably above and fell beneath a horizontal position, and then of course the movement was much exaggerated. [page ] in fig. its course is shown from . a.m. on june th, to . a.m. on the following morning; and we see that during the daytime, in the course of h. m., it travelled thrice down and twice up. after . p.m. it moved rapidly downwards, and in an hour or two depended vertically; it thus remained all night asleep. this position could not be represented on the vertical glass nor in the figure here given. by . a.m. on the following morning ( th) both cotyledons had risen greatly, and they continued to rise until a.m., when they stood almost horizontally. their movement was traced during the whole of this day and until the next morning; but a tracing is not given, as it was closely similar to fig. , excepting that the lines were more zigzag. the cotyledons moved times, either upwards or downwards; and at about p.m. the great nocturnal sinking movement commenced. fig. . oxalis rosea: circumnutation of cotyledons, the hypocotyl being secured to a stick; illuminated from above. figure here given one-half of original scale. another seedling was observed in a similar manner during nearly h., but with the difference that the hypocotyl was left free. the movement also was less magnified. between . a.m. and p.m. on the th, the apex of the cotyledon moved times upwards or downwards (fig. ). the nocturnal sinking movement, which is merely a great increase of one of the diurnal oscillations, commenced about p.m. oxalis valdiviana.--this species is interesting, as the coty- [page ] ledons rise perpendicularly upwards at night so as to come into close contact, instead of sinking vertically downwards, as in the case of o. rosea. a glass filament was fixed to a cotyledon, . of an inch in length, and the hypocotyl was left free. on fig. . oxalis rosea: conjoint circumnutation of the cotyledons and hypocotyl, traced from . a.m. on june th to . a.m. th. the apex of the cotyledon stood only / inches from the vertical glass. figure here given one-half of original scale. fig. . oxalis valdiviana: conjoint circumnutation of a cotyledon and the hypocotyl, traced on vertical glass, during hours. figure here given one-half of original scale; seedling illuminated from above. the first day the seedling was placed too far from the vertical glass; so that the tracing was enormously exaggerated and the movement could not be traced when the cotyledon either rose or sank much; but it was clearly seen that the cotyledons rose thrice and fell twice between . a.m. and . p.m. early on the following morning (june th) the apex of a cotyledon was [page ] placed only / inch from the vertical glass. at . a.m. it stood horizontally; it then fell till . , and then rose. altogether in the course of h. it rose thrice and fell thrice, as may be seen in fig. . the great nocturnal rise of the cotyledons usually commences about or p.m., and on the following morning they are expanded or stand horizontally at about . a.m. in the present instance, however, the great nocturnal rise did not commence till p.m.; but this was due to the hypocotyl having from some unknown cause temporarily bent to the left side, as is shown in the tracing. to ascertain positively that the hypocotyl circumnutated, a mark was placed at . p.m. behind the two now closed and vertical cotyledons; and the movement of a glass filament fixed upright to the top of the hypocotyl was traced until . p.m. during this time it moved from side to side, as well as backwards and forwards, plainly showing circumnutation; but the movement was small in extent. therefore fig. represents fairly well the movements of the cotyledons alone, with the exception of the one great afternoon curvature to the left. oxalis corniculata (var. cuprea).--the cotyledons rise at night to a variable degree above the horizon, generally about o: those on some seedlings between and days old were found to be in continued movement all day long; but the movements were more simple than in the last two species. this may have partly resulted from their not being sufficiently illuminated whilst being observed, as was shown by their not beginning to rise until very late in the evening. oxalis (biophytum) sensitiva.--the cotyledons are highly remarkable from the amplitude and rapidity of their movements during the day. the angles at which they stood above or beneath the horizon were measured at short intervals of time; and we regret that their course was not traced during the whole day. we will give only a few of the measurements, which were made whilst the seedlings were exposed to a temperature of / o to ½ decrees c. one cotyledon rose o in m.; another, on a distinct seedling, fell o in m. immediately before this latter fall the same cotyledon had risen from a vertically downward to a vertically upward position in h. m., and had therefore passed through o in under h. we have met with no other instance of a circumnutating movement of such great amplitude as o; nor of such rapidity of movement as the passage through o in m. the cotyledons of this plant sleep at night by rising [page ] vertically and coming into close contact. this upward movement differs from one of the great diurnal oscillations above described only by the position being permanent during the night and by its periodicity, as it always commences late in the evening. tropaeolum minus (?) (var. tom thumb) (tropaeoleae).--the cotyledons are hypogean, or never rise above the ground. by removing the soil a buried epicotyl or plumule was found, with its summit arched abruptly downwards, like the arched hypocotyl of the cabbage previously described. a glass filament with a bead at its end was affixed to the basal half or leg, just above the hypogean cotyledons, which were again almost surrounded by loose earth. the tracing (fig. ) shows the course of the bead during h. after the last dot given in the figure, the bead moved to a great distance, and finally off the glass, in the direction indicated by the broken line. this great movement, due to increased growth along the concave surface of the arch, was caused by the basal leg bending backwards from the upper part, that is in a direction opposite to the dependent tip, in the same manner as occurred with the hypocotyl of the cabbage. another buried and arched epicotyl was observed in the same manner, excepting that the two legs of the arch were tied together with fine silk for the sake of preventing the great movement just mentioned. it moved, however, in the evening in the same direction as before, but the line followed was not so straight. during the morning the tied arch moved in an irregularly circular, strongly zigzag course, and to a greater distance than in the previous case, as was shown in a tracing, magnified times. the movements of a young plant bearing a few leaves and of a mature plant, will hereafter be described. fig. . tropaeolum minus (?): circumnutation of buried and arched epicotyl, traced on a horizontal glass, from . a.m. to . p.m. movement of bead of filament magnified times. [page ] citrus aurantium (orange) (aurantiaceae).--the cotyledons are hypogean. the circumnutation of an epicotyl, which at the close of our observations was . of an inch ( mm.) in height above the ground, is shown in the annexed figure (fig. ), as observed during a period of h. m. fig. . citrus aurantium: circumnutation of epicotyl with a filament fixed transversely near its apex, traced on a horizontal glass, from . p.m. on feb. th to . a.m. on nd. the movement of the bead of the filament was at first magnified times, or / , in figure here given, and afterwards times, or as here given; seedling illuminated from above. aesculus hippocastanum (hippocastaneae).--germinating seeds were placed in a tin box, kept moist internally, with a sloping bank of damp argillaceous sand, on which four smoked glass-plates rested, inclined at angles of o and o with the horizon. the tips of the radicles were placed so as just to touch the upper end of the glass-plates, and, as they grew downwards they pressed lightly, owing to geotropism, on the smoked surfaces, and left tracks of their course. in the middle part of each track the glass was swept clean, but the margins were much blurred and irregular. copies of two of these tracks (all four being nearly alike) were made on tracing paper placed over the glass-plates after they had been varnished; and they are as exact as possible considering the nature of the margins (fig. ). they suffice to show that there was some lateral, almost serpentine movement, and that the tips in their downward course pressed with unequal force on the plates, as [page ] the tracks varied in breadth. the more perfectly serpentine tracks made by the radicles of phaseolus multiflorus and vicia faba (presently to be described), render it almost certain that the radicles of the present plant circumnutated. fig. . aesculus hippocastanum: outlines of tracks left on inclined glass-plates by tips of radicles. in a the plate was inclined at o with the horizon, and the radicle was . inch in length, and . inch in diameter at base. in b the plate was inclined o with the horizon, and the radicle was a trifle larger. phaseolus multiflorus (leguminosae).--four smoked glass-plates were arranged in the same manner as described under aesculus, and the tracks left by the tips of four radicles of the present plant, whilst growing downwards, were photographed as transparent objects. three of them are here exactly copied (fig. ). their serpentine courses show that the tips moved regularly from side to side; they also pressed alternately with greater or less force on the plates, sometimes rising up and leaving them altogether for a very short distance; but this was better seen on the original plates than in the copies. these radicles therefore were continually moving in all directions--that is, they circumnutated. the distance between the extreme right and left positions of the radicle a, in its lateral movement, was mm., as ascertained by measurement with an eye-piece micrometer. fig. . phaseolus multiflorus: tracks left on inclined smoked glass-plates by tips of radicles in growing downwards. a and c, plates inclined at o, b inclined at o with the horizon. vicia faba (common bean) (leguminosae).--radicle.--some beans were allowed to germinate on bare sand, and after one had protruded its radicle to a length of . of an inch, it was turned upside down, so that the radicle, which was kept in damp air, now stood upright. a filament, nearly an inch in length, was affixed obliquely near its tip; and the movement of the terminal bead was traced from . a.m. to . p.m., as shown in fig. . the radicle at first changed its course twice [page ] abruptly, then made a small loop and then a larger zigzag curve. during the night and till a.m. on the following fig. . vicia faba: circumnutation of a radicle, at first pointing vertically upwards, kept in darkness, traced on a horizontal glass, during hours. movement of bead of filament magnified times, here reduced to one-half of original scale. morning, the bead moved to a great distance in a nearly straight line, in the direction indicated by the broken line in the figure. this resulted from the tip bending quickly downwards, as it had now become much declined, and had thus gained a position highly favourable for the action of geotropism. fig. . vicia faba: tracks left on inclined smoked glass-plates, by tips of radicles in growing downwards. plate c was inclined at o, plates a and d at o, plate b at o, and plate e at a few degrees beneath the horizon. [page ] we next experimented on nearly a score of radicles by allowing them to grow downwards over inclined plates of smoked glass, in exactly the same manner as with aesculus and phaseolus. some of the plates were inclined only a few degrees beneath the horizon, but most of them between o and o. in the latter cases the radicles in growing downwards were deflected only a little from the direction which they had followed whilst germinating in sawdust, and they pressed lightly on the glass-plates (fig. ). five of the most distinct tracks are here copied, and they are all slightly sinuous, showing circumnutation. moreover, a close examination of almost every one of the tracks clearly showed that the tips in their downward course had alternately pressed with greater or less force on the plates, and had sometimes risen up so as nearly to leave them for short intervals. the distance between the extreme right and left positions of the radicle a was . mm., ascertained in the same manner as in the case of phaseolus. epicotyl.--at the point where the radicle had protruded from a bean laid on its side, a flattened solid lump projected . of an inch, in the same horizontal plane with the bean. this protuberance consisted of the convex summit of the arched epicotyl; and as it became developed the two legs of the arch curved themselves laterally upwards, owing to apogeotropism, at such a rate that the arch stood highly inclined after h., and vertically in h. a filament was fixed to the crown of the protuberance before any arch was visible, but the basal half grew so quickly that on the second morning the end of the filament was bowed greatly downwards. it was therefore removed and fixed lower down. the line traced during these two days extended in the same general direction, and was in parts nearly straight, and in others plainly zigzag, thus giving some evidence of circumnutation. as the arched epicotyl, in whatever position it may be placed, bends quickly upwards through apogeotropism, and as the two legs tend at a very early age to separate from one another, as soon as they are relieved from the pressure of the surrounding earth, it was difficult to ascertain positively whether the epicotyl, whilst remaining arched, circumnutated. therefore some rather deeply buried beans were uncovered, and the two legs of the arches were tied together, as had been done with the epicotyl of tropaeolum and the hypocotyl of the cabbage. the movements of the tied arches were traced in the usual manner on [page ] two occasions during three days. but the tracings made under such unnatural conditions are not worth giving; and it need only be said that the lines were decidedly zigzag, and that small loops were occasionally formed. we may therefore conclude that the epicotyl circumnutates whilst still arched and before it has grown tall enough to break through the surface of the ground. in order to observe the movements of the epicotyl at a somewhat more advanced age, a filament was fixed near the base of one which was no longer arched, for its upper half now formed a right angle with the lower half. this bean had germinated on bare damp sand, and the epicotyl began to straighten itself much sooner than would have occurred if it had been properly planted. the course pursued during h. (from a.m. dec. th, to a.m. th) is here shown (fig. ); and we see fig. . vicia faba: circumnutation of young epicotyl, traced in darkness during hours on a horizontal glass. movement of bead of filament magnified times, here reduced to one-half of original scale. that the epicotyl circumnutated during the whole time. its basal part grew so much during the h. that the filament at the end of our observations was attached at the height of . inch above the upper surface of the bean, instead of close to it. if the bean had been properly planted, this part of the epicotyl would still have been beneath the soil. late in the evening of the th, some hours after the above observations were completed, the epicotyl had grown much straighter, for the upper part now formed a widely open angle with the lower part. a filament was fixed to the upright basal part, higher up than before, close beneath the lowest scale-like process or homologue of a leaf; and its movement was traced [page ] during h. (fig. ). we here again have plain evidence of continued circumnutation. had the bean been properly planted, the part of the epicotyl to which the filament was attached, the fig. . vicia faba: circumnutation of the same epicotyl as in fig. , a little more advanced in age, traced under similar conditions as before, from . a.m. dec. th, to . a.m. th. movement of bead here magnified times. movement of which is here shown, would probably have just risen above the surface of the ground. lathyrus nissolia (leguminosae).--this plant was selected for observation from being an abnormal form with grass-like leaves. fig. . lathyrus nissolia: circumnutation of stem of young seedling, traced in darkness on a horizontal glass, from . a.m. nov. nd, to a.m. rd. movement of end of leaf magnified about times, here reduced to one-half of original scale. the cotyledons are hypogean, and the epicotyl breaks through the ground in an arched form. the movements of a stem, . inch in height, consisting of three internodes, the lower one almost wholly subterranean, and the upper one bearing a short, [page ] narrow leaf, is shown during h., in fig. . no glass filament was employed, but a mark was placed beneath the apex of the leaf. the actual length of the longer of the two ellipses described by the stem was about . of an inch. on the previous day the chief line of movement was nearly at right angles to that shown in the present figure, and it was more simple. cassia tora* (leguminosae).--a seedling was placed before a fig. . cassia tora: conjoint circumnutation of cotyledons and hypocotyl, traced on vertical glass, from . a.m. sept. th to . a.m. th. figure here given reduced to one-half of original scale. * seeds of this plant, which grew near the sea-side, were sent to us by fritz müller from s. brazil. the seedlings did not flourish or flower well with us; they were sent to kew, and were pronounced not to be distinguishable from c. tora. [page ] north-east window; it bent very little towards it, as the hypocotyl which was left free was rather old, and therefore not highly heliotropic. a filament had been fixed to the midrib of one of the cotyledons, and the movement of the whole seedling was traced during two days. the circumnutation of the hypocotyl is quite insignificant compared with that of the cotyledons. these rise up vertically at night and come into close contact; so that they may be said to sleep. this seedling was so old that a very small true leaf had been developed, which at night was completely hidden by the closed cotyledons. on sept. th, between a.m. and p.m., the cotyledons moved five times up and five times down; they therefore described five irregular ellipses in the course of the h. the great nocturnal rise commenced about . p.m. on the following morning (sept. th) the movement of the same cotyledon was again traced in the same manner during h.; and a copy of the tracing is here given (fig. ). the morning was cold, and the window had been accidentally left open for a short time, which must have chilled the plant; and this probably prevented it from moving quite as freely as on the previous day; for it rose only four and sank only four times during the day, one of the oscillations being very small. at . a.m., when the first dot was made, the cotyledons were not fully open or awake; they continued to open till about a.m., by which time they had sunk a little beneath the horizon: by . a.m. they had risen, and then they oscillated up and down; but the upward and downward lines never quite coincided. at about . p.m. the great nocturnal rise commenced. at a.m. on the following morning (sept. th) they occupied nearly the same level as on the previous morning, as shown in the diagram: they then began to open or sink in the usual manner. the diagram leads to the belief that the great periodical daily rise and fall does not differ essentially, excepting in amplitude, from the oscillations during the middle of the day. lotus jacoboeus (leguminosae).--the cotyledons of this plant, after the few first days of their life, rise so as to stand almost, though rarely quite, vertically at night. they continue to act in this manner for a long time even after the development of some of the true leaves. with seedlings, inches in height, and bearing five or six leaves, they rose at night about o. they continued to act thus for about an additional fortnight. subsequently they remained horizontal at night, though still green [page ] and at last dropped off. their rising at night so as to stand almost vertically appears to depend largely on temperature; for when the seedlings were kept in a cool house, though they still continued to grow, the cotyledons did not become vertical at night. it is remarkable that the cotyledons do not generally rise at night to any conspicuous extent during the first four or five days after germination; but the period was extremely variable with seedlings kept under the same conditions; and many were observed. glass filaments with minute triangles of paper were fixed to the cotyledons ( ½ mm. in breadth) of two seedlings, only h. old, and the hypocotyl was secured to a stick; their movements greatly magnified were traced, and they certainly circumnutated the whole time on a small scale, but they did not exhibit any distinct nocturnal and diurnal movement. the hypocotyls, when left free, circumnutated over a large space. another and much older seedling, bearing a half-developed leaf, had its movements traced in a similar manner during the three first days and nights of june; but seedlings at this age appear to be very sensitive to a deficiency of light; they were observed under a rather dim skylight, at a temperature of between o to / o c.' and apparently, in consequence of these conditions, the great daily movement of the cotyledons ceased on the third day. during the first two days they began rising in the early afternoon in a nearly straight line, until between and p.m., when they stood vertically. during the latter part of the night, or more probably in the early morning, they began to fall or open, so that by . a.m. they stood fully expanded and horizontal. they continued to fall slowly for some time, and during the second day described a single small ellipse, between a.m. and p.m., in addition to the great diurnal movement. the course pursued during the whole h. was far less complex than in the foregoing case of cassia. on the third morning they fell very much, and then circumnutated on a small scale round the same spot; by . p.m. they showed no tendency to rise at night. nor did the cotyledons of any of the many other seedlings in the same pot rise; and so it was on the following night of june th. the pot was then taken back into the hot-house, where it was exposed to the sun, and on the succeeding night all the cotyledons rose again to a high angle, but did not stand quite vertically. on each of the above days the line representing the great nocturnal [page ] rise did not coincide with that of the great diurnal fall, so that narrow ellipses were described, as is the usual rule with circumnutating organs. the cotyledons are provided with a pulvinus, and its development will hereafter be described. mimosa pudica (leguminosae).--the cotyledons rise up vertically at night, so as to close together. two seedlings were observed in the greenhouse (temp. o to o c. or o to o f.). their hypocotyls were secured to sticks, and glass filaments bearing little triangles of paper were affixed to the cotyledons of both. their movements were traced on a vertical glass during h. on november th. the pot had stood for some time in the same position, and they were chiefly illuminated through the glass-roof. the cotyledons of one of these seedlings moved downward in the morning till . a.m., and then rose, moving rapidly in the evening until they stood vertically, so that in this case there was simply a single great daily fall and rise. the other seedling behaved rather differently, for it fell in the morning until . a.m., and then rose, but after . p.m. again fell; and the great evening rise did not begin until . p.m. on the following morning this cotyledon had fallen greatly from its vertical position by . a.m. two other seedlings (one seven and the other eight days old) had been previously observed under unfavourable circumstances, for they had been brought into a room and placed before a north-east window, where the temperature was between only o and o f. they had, moreover, to be protected from lateral light, and perhaps were not sufficiently illuminated. under these circumstances the cotyledons moved simply downwards from a.m. till p.m., after which hour and during a large part of the night they continued to rise. between and a.m. on the following morning they fell again; but on this second and likewise on the third day the movements became irregular, and between and . p.m. they circumnutated to a small extent about the same spot; but they did not rise at night. nevertheless, on the following night they rose as usual. cytisus fragrans (leguminosae).--only a few observations were made on this plant. the hypocotyl circumnutated to a considerable extent, but in a simple manner--namely, for two hours in one direction, and then much more slowly back again in a zigzag course, almost parallel to the first line, and beyond the starting-point. it moved in the same direction all night, but next morning began to return. the cotyledons continually [page ] move both up and down and laterally; but they do not rise up at night in a conspicuous manner. lupinus luteus (leguminosae).--seedlings of this plant were observed because the cotyledons are so thick (about . of an inch) that it seemed unlikely that they would move. our observations were not very successful, as the seedlings are strongly heliotropic, and their circumnutation could not be accurately observed near a north-east window, although they had been kept during the previous day in the same position. a seedling was then placed in darkness with the hypocotyl secured to a stick; both cotyledons rose a little at first, and then fell during the rest of the day; in the evening between and p.m. they moved very slowly; during the night one continued to fall and the other rose, though only a little. the tracing was not much magnified, and as the lines were plainly zigzag, the cotyledons must have moved a little laterally, that is, they must have circumnutated. the hypocotyl is rather thick, about . of inch; nevertheless it circumnutated in a complex course, though to a small extent. the movement of an old seedling with two true leaves partially developed, was observed in the dark. as the movement was magnified about times it is not trustworthy and is not given; but there could be no doubt that the hypocotyl moved in all directions during the day, changing its course times. the extreme actual distance from side to side through which the upper part of the hypocotyl passed in the course of ½ hours was only / of an inch; it sometimes travelled at the rate of / of an inch in an hour. cucurbita ovifera (cucurbitaceae).--radicle: a seed which had fig. . cucurbita ovifera: course followed by a radicle in bending geotropically downwards, traced on a horizontal glass, between . a.m. and . p.m.; the direction during the night is indicated by the broken line. movement of bead magnified times. germinated on damp sand was fixed so that the slightly curved radicle, which was only . inch in length, stood almost vertically [page ] upwards, in which position geotropism would act at first with little power. a filament was attached near to its base, and projected at about an angle of o above the horizon. the general course followed during the hours of observation and during the following night is shown in the accompanying diagram (fig. ), and was plainly due to geotropism; but it was also clear that the radicle circumnutated. by the next morning the tip had curved so much downwards that the filament, instead of projecting at o above the horizon, was nearly horizontal. another germinating seed was turned upside down and covered with damp sand; and a filament was fastened to the radicle so as to project at an angle of about o above the horizon; this radicle was . of an inch in length and a little curved. the course pursued was mainly governed, as in the last case, by geotropism, but the line traced during hours and magnified as before was more strongly zigzag, again showing circumnutation. four radicles were allowed to grow downwards over plates of smoked glass, inclined at o to the horizon, under the fig. . cucurbita ovifera: tracks left by tips of radicles in growing downwards over smoked glass-plates, inclined at o to the horizon. fig. . cucurbita ovifera: circumnutation of arched hypocotyl at a very early age, traced in darkness on a horizontal glass, from a.m. to . a.m. on the following day. the movement of the bead magnified times, here reduced to one-half of original scale. same conditions as in the cases of aesculus, phaseolus, and vicia. facsimiles are here given (fig. ) of two of these tracks; and a third short one was almost as plainly serpentine as that at a. it was also manifest by a greater or less amount of soot having been swept off the glasses, that the tips had [page ] pressed alternately with greater and less force on them. there must, therefore, have been movement in at least two planes at right angles to one another. these radicles were so delicate that they rarely had the power to sweep the glasses quite clean. one of them had developed some lateral or secondary rootlets, which projected a few degrees beneath the horizon; and it is an important fact that three of them left distinctly serpentine tracks on the smoked surface, showing beyond doubt that they had circumnutated like the main or primary radicle. but the tracks were so slight that they could not be traced and copied after the smoked surface had been varnished. fig. . cucurbita ovifera: circumnutation of straight and vertical hypocotyl, with filament fastened transversely across its upper end, traced in darkness on a horizontal glass, from . a.m. to . p.m. the movement of the terminal bead originally magnified about times, here only ½ times. hypocotyl.--a seed lying on damp sand was firmly fixed by two crossed wires and by its own growing radicle. the cotyledons were still enclosed within the seed-coats; and the short hypocotyl, between the summit of the radicle and the cotyledons, was as yet only slightly arched. a filament (. of inch in length) was attached at an angle of o above the horizon to the side of the arch adjoining the cotyledons. this part would ultimately form the upper end of the hypocotyl, after it had grown straight and vertical. had the seed been properly planted, the hypocotyl at this stage of growth would have been deeply buried beneath the surface. the course followed by the bead of the filament is shown in fig. . the chief lines of movement from left to right in the figure were parallel to the plane of the two united cotyledons and of the flattened seed; and this movement would aid in dragging them out of the seed-coats, which are held down by a special structure hereafter to be described. the movement at right angles to the above lines was due to the arched hypocotyl becoming more arched as it increased in height. the foregoing observations apply to the leg of the arch next to the cotyledons, but [page ] the other leg adjoining the radicle likewise circumnutated at an equally early age. the movement of the same hypocotyl after it had become straight and vertical, but with the cotyledons only partially expanded, is shown in fig. . the course pursued during h. apparently represents four and a half ellipses or ovals, with the longer axis of the first at nearly right angles to that of the others. the longer axes of all were oblique to a line joining the opposite cotyledons. the actual extreme distance from side to side over which the summit of the tall hypocotyl passed in the course of h. was . of an inch. the original figure was traced on a large scale, and from the obliquity of the line of view the outer parts of the diagram are much exaggerated. cotyledons.--on two occasions the movements of the cotyledons were traced on a vertical glass, and as the ascending and descending lines did not quite coincide, very narrow ellipses were formed; they therefore circumnutated. whilst young they rise vertically up at night, but their tips always remain reflexed; on the following morning they sink down again. with a seedling kept in complete darkness they moved in the same manner, for they sank from . a.m. to . p.m.; they then began to rise and remained close together until p.m., when they were last observed. at a.m. on the following morning they were as much expanded as at any hour on the previous day. the cotyledons of another young seedling, exposed to the light, were fully open for the first time on a certain day, but were found completely closed at a.m. on the following morning. they soon began to expand again, and continued doing so till about p.m.; they then began to rise, and by . p.m. stood vertically and were almost closed. at a.m. on the third morning they were nearly vertical, and again expanded during the day; on the fourth morning they were not closed, yet they opened a little in the course of the day and rose a little on the following night. by this time a minute true leaf had become developed. another seedling, still older, bearing a well-developed leaf, had a sharp rigid filament affixed to one of its cotyledons ( mm. in length), which recorded its own movements on a revolving drum with smoked paper. the observations were made in the hot-house, where the plant had lived, so that there was no change in temperature or light. the record commenced at a.m. on february th; and from this hour till p.m. the [page ] cotyledon fell; it then rose rapidly till p.m., then very gradually till a.m. february th, after which hour it sank gradually till . p.m.; but the downward movement was interrupted by one slight rise or oscillation about . p.m. after . p.m. ( th) the cotyledon rose till a.m. (in the night of february th) and then sank very gradually till . a.m., when our observations ceased. the amount of movement was greater on the th than on the th or on the morning of the th. cucurbita aurantia.--an arched hypocotyl was found buried a little beneath the surface of the soil; and in order to prevent it straightening itself quickly, when relieved from the surrounding pressure of the soil, the two legs of the arch were tied together. the seed was then lightly covered with loose damp earth. a filament with a bead at the end was affixed to the basal leg, the movements of which were observed during two days in the usual manner. on the first day the arch moved in a zigzag line towards the side of the basal leg. on the next day, by which time the dependent cotyledons had been dragged above the surface of the soil, the tied arch changed its course greatly nine times in the course of ½ h. it swept a large, extremely irregular, circular figure, returning at night to nearly the same spot whence it had started early in the morning. the line was so strongly zigzag that it apparently represented five ellipses, with their longer axes pointing in various directions. with respect to the periodical movements of the cotyledons, those of several young seedlings formed together at p.m. an angle of about o, and at p.m. their lower parts stood vertically and were in contact; their tips, however, as is usual in the genus, were permanently reflexed. these cotyledons, at a.m. on the following morning, were again well expanded. lagenaria vulgaris (var. miniature bottle-gourd) (cucurbitaceae).--a seedling opened its cotyledons, the movements of which were alone observed, slightly on june th and closed them at night: next day, at noon ( th), they included an angle of o, and at p.m. they were in close contact, so that each had risen / o. at noon, on the th, they included an angle of o, and at p.m. an angle of o, so each had risen o. on the following day they were still more open, and the nocturnal rise was greater, but the angles were not measured. two other seedlings were observed, and behaved during three days in a closely similar manner. the cotyledons, therefore, [page ] open more and more on each succeeding day, and rise each night about o; consequently during the first two nights of their life they stand vertically and come into contact. fig. . lagenaria vulgaris: circumnutation of a cotyledon, ½ inch in length, apex only / inches from the vertical glass, on which its movements were traced from . a.m. july th to . a.m. on the th. figure here given reduced to one-third of original scale. in order to ascertain more accurately the nature of these movements, the hypocotyl of a seedling, with its cotyledons well expanded, was secured to a little stick, and a filament with triangles of paper was affixed to one of the cotyledons. the observations were made under a rather dim skylight, and the temperature during the whole time was between / o to o c. ( o to o f.). had the temperature been higher and the light brighter, the movements would probably have been greater. on july th (see fig. ), the cotyledon fell from . a.m. till a.m.; it then rose (rapidly after p.m.) till it stood quite vertically at . p.m. during the early morning of the next day ( th) it fell, and continued to fall till a.m., after which hour it rose, then fell, and again rose, so that by . p.m. it stood much higher than it did in the morning, but was not vertical as on the preceding night. during the following early morning and whole day ( th) it fell and circumnutated, but had not risen when observed late in the evening; and this was probably due to the deficiency of heat or light, or of both. we thus see that the cotyledons became more widely open at noon on each succeeding day; and that they rose considerably each night, though not acquiring a vertical position, except during the first two nights. cucumis dudaim (cucurbitaceae).--two seedlings had opened [page ] their cotyledons for the first time during the day,--one to the extent of o and the other rather more; they remained in nearly the same position until . p.m.; but by a.m. on the following morning the one which had been previously open to the extent of o had its cotyledons vertical and completely shut; the other seedling had them nearly shut. later in the morning they opened in the ordinary manner. it appears therefore that the cotyledons of this plant close and open at somewhat different periods from those of the foregoing species of the allied genera of cucurbita and lagenaria. fig. . opuntia basilaris: conjoint circumnutation of hypocotyl and cotyledon; filament fixed longitudinally to cotyledon, and movement traced during h. on horizontal glass. movement of the terminal bead magnified about times, here reduced to one-third scale. seedling kept in hot-house, feebly illuminated from above. opuntia basilaris (cacteae).--a seedling was carefully observed, because, considering its appearance and the nature of the mature plant, it seemed very unlikely that either the hypocotyl or cotyledons would circumnutate to an appreciable extent. the cotyledons were well developed, being . of an inch in length, . in breadth, and . in thickness. the almost cylindrical hypocotyl, now bearing a minute spinous bud on its summit, was only . of an inch in height, and . in diameter. the tracing (fig. ) shows the combined movement of the hypocotyl and of one of the cotyledons, from . p.m. on may th to a.m. on the st. on the th a nearly perfect ellipse was completed. on the th the hypocotyl moved, from some unknown cause, in the same general direction in a zigzag line; but between . and p.m. almost completed a second small ellipse. the cotyledons move only a little up and down: thus at . p.m. they stood only o higher than at noon. the chief seat of movement therefore, at least when the cotyledons are rather old as in the present case, lies in the hypocotyl. the ellipse described on the th had its longer axis directed at nearly right angles to a line joining the two cotyledons. the actual amount of movement of the bead at the end of the [page ] filament was, as far as could be ascertained, about . of an inch. fig. . helianthus annuus: circumnutation of hypocotyl, with filament fixed across its summit, traced on a horizontal glass in darkness, from . a.m. to . p.m., and for an hour on following morning. movement of bead magnified times, here reduced to one-half of original scale. helianthus annuus (compositae).--the upper part of the hypocotyl moved during the day-time in the course shown in the annexed figure (fig. ). as the line runs in various directions, crossing itself several times, the movement may be considered as one of circumnutation. the extreme actual distance travelled was at least . of an inch. the movements of the cotyledons of two seedlings were observed; one facing a north-east window, and the other so feebly illuminated from above us as to be almost in darkness. they continued to sink till about noon, when they began to rise; but between and or p.m. they either sank a little, or moved laterally, and then again began to rise. at a.m. on the following morning those on the plant before the north-east window had opened so little that they stood at an angle of o above the horizon, and were not observed any longer. those on the seedling which had been kept in almost complete darkness, sank during the whole day, without rising about mid-day, but rose during the night. on the third and fourth days they continued sinking without any alternate ascending movement; and this, no doubt, was due to the absence of light. primula sinensis (primulaceae).--a seedling was placed with the two cotyledons parallel to a north-east window on a day when the light was nearly uniform, and a filament was affixed to one of them. from observations subsequently made on another seedling with the stem secured to a stick, the greater part of the movement shown in the annexed figure (fig. ), must have been that of the hypocotyl, though the cotyledons certainly move up and down to a certain extent both during the day and night. the movements of the same seedling were traced [page ] on the following day with nearly the same result; and there can be no doubt about the circumnutation of the hypocotyl. fig. . primula sinensis: conjoint circumnutation of hypocotyl and cotyledon, traced on vertical glass, from . a.m. to . p.m. movements of bead magnified about times. cyclamen persicum (primulaceae).--this plant is generally supposed to produce only a single cotyledon, but dr. h. gressner* has shown that a second one is developed after a long interval of time. the hypocotyl is converted into a globular corm, even before the first cotyledon has broken through the ground with its blade closely enfolded and with its petiole in the form of an arch, like the arched hypocotyl or epicotyl of any ordinary dicotyledonous plant. a glass filament was affixed to a cotyledon, . of an inch in height, the petiole of which had straightened itself and stood nearly vertical, but with the blade not as yet fully expanded. its movements were traced during ½ h. on a horizontal glass, magnified times; and in this interval it described two irregular small circles; it therefore circumnutates, though on an extremely small scale. fig. . stapelia sarpedon: circumnutation of hypocotyl, illuminated from above, traced on horizontal glass, from . a.m. june th to . a.m. th. temp. - o c. movement of bead magnified times. stapelia sarpedon (asclepiadeae).--this plant, when mature, resembles a cactus. the flattened hypocotyl is fleshy, enlarged in the upper part, and bears two rudimentary cotyledons. it breaks through the ground in an arched form, with the rudimentary cotyledons closed or in contact. a filament was affixed almost * 'bot. zeitung,' , p. . [page ] vertically to the hypocotyl of a seedling half an inch high; and its movements were traced during h. on a horizontal glass (fig. ). from some unknown cause it bowed itself to one side, and as this was effected by a zigzag course, it probably circumnutated; but with hardly any other seedling observed by us was this movement so obscurely shown. ipomoea caerulea vel pharbitis nil (convolvulaceae).--seedlings of this plant were observed because it is a twiner, the upper internodes of which circumnutate conspicuously; but like other twining plants, the first few internodes which rise above the ground are stiff enough to support themselves, and therefore do not circumnutate in any plainly recognisable manner.* in this particular instance the fifth internode (including the hypocotyl) was the first which plainly circumnutated and twined round a stick. we therefore wished to learn whether circumnutation could be observed in the hypocotyl if carefully observed in our usual manner. two seedlings were kept in the dark with filaments fixed to the upper part of their hypocotyls; but from circumstances not worth explaining their movements were traced for only a short time. one moved thrice forwards and twice backwards in nearly opposite directions, in the course of h. m.; and the other twice forwards and twice backwards in h. m. the hypocotyl therefore circumnutated at a remarkably rapid rate. it may here be added that a filament was affixed transversely to the summit of the second internode above the cotyledons of a little plant ½ inches in height; and its movements were traced on a horizontal glass. it circumnutated, and the actual distance travelled from side to side was a quarter of an inch, which was too small an amount to be perceived without the aid of marks. the movements of the cotyledons are interesting from their complexity and rapidity, and in some other respects. the hypocotyl ( inches high) of a vigorous seedling was secured to a stick, and a filament with triangles of paper was affixed to one of the cotyledons. the plant was kept all day in the hot-house, and at . p.m. (june th) was placed under a skylight in the house, and observed occasionally during the evening and night. it fell in a slightly zigzag line to a moderate extent from . p.m. till . p.m. when looked at shortly after midnight ( . p.m.) it had risen a very little, and considerably by * 'movements and habits of climbing plants,' p. , . [page ] . a.m. when again looked at, at . a.m. ( st), it had fallen largely. a new tracing was now begun (see fig. ), and soon afterwards, at . a.m., the cotyledon had risen a little. during the forenoon it was observed about every hour; but between . and p.m. every half-hour. if the observations had been made at these short intervals during the whole day, the figure would have been too intricate to have been copied. as it was, the cotyledon moved up and down in the course of h. m. (i.e. between . a.m. and . p.m.) thirteen times. fig . ipomoea caerulea: circumnutation of cotyledon, traced on vertical glass, from . a.m. june st to . a.m. nd. cotyledon with petiole . inch in length, apex of blade . inch from the vertical glass; so movement not greatly magnified; temp. o c. the cotyledons of this seedling sank downwards during both evenings and the early part of the night, but rose during the latter part. as this is an unusual movement, the cotyledons of twelve other seedlings were observed; they stood almost or quite horizontally at mid-day, and at p.m. were all declined at various angles. the most usual angle was between o and o; but three stood at about o and one at even o beneath the horizon. the blades of all these cotyledons had attained almost their full size, viz. from to ½ inches in length, measured along their midribs. it is a remarkable fact that whilst young--that is, when less than half an inch in length, measured in the same manner--they do not sink [page ] downwards in the evening. therefore their weight, which is considerable when almost fully developed, probably came into play in originally determining the downward movement. the periodicity of this movement is much influenced by the degree of light to which the seedlings have been exposed during the day; for three kept in an obscure place began to sink about noon, instead of late in the evening; and those of another seedling were almost paralysed by having been similarly kept during two whole days. the cotyledons of several other species of ipomoea likewise sink downwards late in the evening. cerinthe major (boragineae).--the circumnutation of the hypocotyl of a young seedling with the cotyledons hardly fig. . cerinthe major: circumnutation of hypocotyl, with filament fixed across its summit, illuminated from above, traced on horizontal glass, from . a.m. to . p.m. on oct. th. movement of the bead magnified times, here reduced to one-third of original scale. expanded, is shown in the annexed figure (fig. ), which apparently represents four or five irregular ellipses, described in the course of a little over hours. two older seedlings were similarly observed, excepting that one of them was kept in the dark; their hypocotyls also circumnutated, but in a more simple manner. the cotyledons on a seedling exposed to the light fell from the early morning until a little after noon, and then continued to rise until . p.m. or later. the cotyledons of this same seedling acted in the same general manner during the two following days. it had previously been tried in the dark, and after being thus kept for only h. m. the cotyledons began at . p.m. to sink, instead of continuing to rise till late at night. [page ] nolana prostrata (nolaneae).--the movements were not traced, but a pot with seedlings, which had been kept in the dark for an hour, was placed under the microscope, with the micrometer eye-piece so adjusted that each division equalled / th of an inch. the apex of one of the cotyledons crossed rather obliquely four divisions in minutes; it was also sinking, as shown by getting out of focus. the seedlings were again placed in darkness for another hour, and the apex now crossed two divisions in m. s.; that is, at very nearly the same rate as before. after another interval of an hour in darkness, it crossed two divisions in m. s., therefore at a quicker rate. in the afternoon, after a longer interval in the dark, the apex was motionless, but after a time it recommenced moving, though slowly; perhaps the room was too cold. judging from previous cases, there can hardly be a doubt that this seedling was circumnutating. fig. . solanum lycopersicum: circumnutation of hypocotyl, with filament fixed across its summit, traced on horizontal glass, from a.m. to p.m. oct. th. illuminated obliquely from above. movement of bead magnified about times, here reduced to one-third of original scale. solanum lycopersicum (solaneae).--the movements of the hypocotyls of two seedling tomatoes were observed during seven hours, and there could be no doubt that both circumnutated. they were illuminated from above, but by an accident a little light entered on one side, and in the accompanying figure (fig. ) it may be seen that the hypocotyl moved to this side (the upper one in the figure), making small loops and zigzagging in its course. the movements of the cotyledons were also traced both on vertical and horizontal glasses; their angles with the horizon were likewise measured at various hours. they fell from . a.m. (october th) to about noon; then moved laterally in a zigzag line, and at about p.m. began to rise; they continued to do so until . p.m., by which hour they stood vertically and were asleep. at what hour of the night or early morning they began to fall was not ascertained. owing to the lateral movement shortly after mid-day, the descending and ascending lines did not coincide, and irregular ellipses were described during each h. the regular periodicity of these movements is destroyed, as we shall hereafter see, if the seedlings are kept in the dark. [page ] solanum palinacanthum.--several arched hypocotyls rising nearly . of an inch above the ground, but with the cotyledons still buried beneath the surface, were observed, and the tracings showed that they circumnutated. moreover, in several cases little open circular spaces or cracks in the argillaceous sand which surrounded the arched hypocotyls were visible, and these appeared to have been made by the hypocotyls having bent first to one and then to another side whilst growing upwards. in two instances the vertical arches were observed to move to a considerable distance backwards from the point where the cotyledons lay buried; this movement, which has been noticed in some other cases, and which seems to aid in extracting the cotyledons from the buried seed-coats, is due to the commencement of the straightening of the hypocotyl. in order to prevent this latter movement, the two legs of an arch, the fig. . solanum palinacanthum: circumnutation of an arched hypocotyl, just emerging from the ground, with the two legs tied together, traced in darkness on a horizontal glass, from . a.m. dec. th to . a.m. th. movement of bead magnified times; but the filament, which was affixed obliquely to the crown of the arch, was of unusual length. summit of which was on a level with the surface of the soil, were tied together; the earth having been previously removed to a little depth all round. the movement of the arch during hours under these unnatural circumstances is exhibited in the annexed figure. the cotyledons of some seedlings in the hot-house were horizontal about noon on december th; and at p.m. had risen to an angle of o above the horizon; at a.m. on the following [page ] morning, before it was light, they had risen to o above the horizon; in the afternoon of the same day they were found again horizontal. beta vulgaris (chenopodeae).--the seedlings are excessively sensitive to light, so that although on the first day they were uncovered only during two or three minutes at each observation, they all moved steadily towards the side of the room whence the light proceeded, and the tracings consisted only of slightly zigzag lines directed towards the light. on the next day the plants were placed in a completely darkened room, and at each observation were illuminated as much as possible from vertically above by a small wax taper. the annexed figure (fig. ) shows the movement of the hypocotyl during h. under these circumstances. a second seedling was similarly observed at the same time, and the tracing had the same peculiar character, due to the hypocotyl often moving and returning in nearly parallel lines. the movement of a third hypocotyl differed greatly. fig. . beta vulgaris: circumnutation of hypocotyl, with filament fixed obliquely across its summit, traced in darkness on horizontal glass, from . a.m. to . p.m. nov. th. movement of bead magnified times, here reduced to one-third of original scale. we endeavoured to trace the movements of the cotyledons, and for this purpose some seedlings were kept in the dark, but they moved in an abnormal manner; they continued rising from . a.m. to p.m., then moved laterally, and from to p.m. descended; whereas cotyledons which have been exposed all the day to the light rise in the evening so as to stand vertically at night; but this statement applies only to young seedlings. for instance, six seedlings in the greenhouse had their cotyledons partially open for the first time on the morning of november th, and at . p.m. all were completely closed, so that they might properly be said to be asleep. again, on the morning of november th, the cotyledons of four other seedlings, which were surrounded by a collar of brown paper so that they received light only from above, were open to the extent of o; at p.m. they were completely closed; next morning (november th) at . a.m. whilst it was still dark, two of them [page ] were partially open and all opened in the course of the morning; but at . p.m. all four (not to mention nine others which had been open in the morning and six others on another occasion) were again completely closed. on the morning of the th they were open, but at night only one of the four was closed, and this only partially; the three others had their cotyledons much more raised than during the day. on the night of the th the cotyledons of the four were only slightly raised. ricinus borboniensis (euphorbiaceae).--seeds were purchased under the above name--probably a variety of the common castor-oil plant. as soon as an arched hypocotyl had risen clear above the ground, a filament was attached to the upper leg bearing the cotyledons which were still buried beneath the surface, and the movement of the bead was traced on a horizontal glass during a period of h. the lines traced were strongly zigzag, and as the bead twice returned nearly parallel to its former course in two different directions, there could be no doubt that the arched hypocotyl circumnutated. at the close of the h. the upper part began to rise and straighten itself, dragging the cotyledons out of the ground, so that the movements of the bead could no longer be traced on the glass. quercus (american sp.) (cupuliferae).--acorns of an american oak which had germinated at kew were planted in a pot in the greenhouse. this transplantation checked their growth; but after a time one grew to a height of five inches, measured to the tips of the small partially unfolded leaves on the summit, and now looked vigorous. it consisted of six very thin internodes of unequal lengths. considering these circumstances and the nature of the plant, we hardly expected that it would circumnutate; but the annexed figure (fig. ) shows that it did so in a conspicuous manner, changing its course many times and travelling in all directions during the h. of observation. the figure seems to represent or irregular ovals or ellipses. the actual amount of movement from side to side (excluding one great bend to the left) was about . of an inch; but this was difficult to estimate, as owing to the rapid growth of the stem, the attached filament was much further from the mark beneath at the close than at the commencement of the observations. it deserves notice that the pot was placed in a north-east room within a deep box, the top of which was not at first covered up, so that the inside facing [page ] the windows was a little more illuminated than the opposite side; and during the first morning the stem travelled to a greater distance in this direction (to the left in the figure) than it did afterwards when the box was completely protected from light. fig. . quercus (american sp.): circumnutation of young stem, traced on horizontal glass, from . p.m. feb. nd to . p.m. th. movement of bead greatly magnified at first, but slightly towards the close of the observations--about times on an average. quercus robur.--observations were made only on the movements of the radicles from germinating acorns, which were allowed to grow downwards in the manner previously described, over plates of smoked glass, inclined at angles between o and o to the horizon. in four cases the tracks left were almost straight, but the tips had pressed sometimes with more and sometimes with less force on the glass, as shown by the varying thickness of the tracks and by little bridges of soot left across them. in the fifth case the track was slightly serpentine, that is, the tip had moved a little from side to side. in the sixth case (fig. , a) it was plainly serpentine, and the tip had pressed almost equably on the glass in its whole course. in the seventh case (b) the tip had moved both laterally and had pressed [page ] alternately with unequal force on the glass; so that it had moved a little in two planes at right angles to one another. in the eighth and last case (c) it had moved very little laterally, but had alternately left the glass and come into contact with it again. there can be no doubt that in the last four cases the radicle of the oak circumnutated whilst growing downwards. fig. . quercus robur: tracks left on inclined smoked glass-plates by tips of radicles in growing downwards. plates a and c inclined at o and plate b at o to the horizon. corylus avellana (corylaceae).--the epicotyl breaks through the ground in an arched form; but in the specimen which was first examined, the apex had become decayed, and the epicotyl grew to some distance through the soil, in a tortuous, almost horizontal direction, like a root. in consequence of this injury it had emitted near the hypogean cotyledons two secondary shoots, and it was remarkable that both of these were arched, like the normal epicotyl in ordinary cases. the soil was removed from around one of these arched secondary shoots, and a glass filament was affixed to the basal leg. the whole was kept damp beneath a metal-box with a glass lid, and was thus illuminated only from above. owing apparently to the lateral pressure of the earth being removed, the terminal and bowed-down part of the shoot began at once to move upwards, so that after h. it formed a right angle with the lower part. this lower part, to which the filament was attached, also straightened itself, and moved a little backwards from the upper part. consequently a long line was traced on the horizontal glass; and [page ] this was in parts straight and in parts decidedly zigzag, indicating circumnutation. on the following day the other secondary shoot was observed; it was a little more advanced in age, for the upper part, instead of depending vertically downwards, stood at an angle of o above the horizon. the tip of the shoot projected obliquely . of an inch above the ground, but by the close of our observations, which lasted h., it had grown, chiefly towards its base, to a height of . of an inch. the filament was fixed transversely to the basal and almost upright half of the shoot, close beneath the lowest scale-like appendage. the circumnutating course pursued is shown in the accompanying figure (fig. ). the actual distance traversed from side to side was about . of an inch. fig. . corylus avellana: circumnutation of a young shoot emitted from the epicotyl, the apex of which had been injured, traced on a horizontal glass, from a.m. feb. nd to a.m. th. movement of bead magnified about times. pinus pinaster (coniferae).--a young hypocotyl, with the tips of the cotyledons still enclosed within the seed-coats, was at first only . of an inch in height; but the upper part grew so rapidly that at the end of our observations it was . in height, fig. . pinus pinaster: circumnutation of hypocotyl, with filament fixed across its summit, traced on horizontal glass, from a.m. march st to a.m. rd. seedling kept in darkness. movement of bead magnified about times. [page ] and by this time the filament was attached some way down the little stem. from some unknown cause, the hypocotyl moved far towards the left, but there could be no doubt (fig. ) that it circumnutated. another hypocotyl was similarly observed, and it likewise moved in a strongly zigzag line to the same side. this lateral movement was not caused by the attachment of the glass filaments, nor by the action of light; for no light was allowed to enter when each observation was made, except from vertically above. the hypocotyl of a seedling was secured to a little stick; it bore nine in appearance distinct cotyledons, arranged in a circle. the movements of two nearly opposite ones were observed. the tip of one was painted white, with a mark placed below, and the figure described (fig. , a) shows that it made an irregular fig. . pinus pinaster: circumnutation of two opposite cotyledons, traced on horizontal glass in darkness, from . a.m. to . p.m. nov. th. movement of tip in a magnified about times, here reduced to one-half of original scale. circle in the course of about h. during the night it travelled to a considerable distance in the direction indicated by the broken line. a glass filament was attached longitudinally to the other cotyledon, and this nearly completed (fig, , b) an irregular circular figure in about hours. during the night it also moved to a considerable distance, in the direction indicated by the broken line. the cotyledons therefore circumnutate independently of the movement of the hypocotyl. although they moved much during the night, they did not approach each other so as to stand more vertically than during the day. [page ] cycas pectinata (cycadeae).--the large seeds of this plant in germinating first protrude a single leaf, which breaks through the ground with the petiole bowed into an arch and with the leaflets involuted. a leaf in this condition, which at the close of our observations was ½ inches in height, had its movements traced in a warm greenhouse by means of a glass filament bearing paper triangles attached across its tip. the tracing (fig. ) shows how large, complex, and rapid were the circum- fig. . cycas pectinata: circumnutation of young leaf whilst emerging from the ground, feebly illuminated from above, traced on vertical glass, from p.m. may th to a.m. st. movement magnified times, here reduced to two-thirds of original scale. nutating movements. the extreme distance from side to side which it passed over amounted to between . and . of an inch. canna warscewiczii (cannaceae).--a seedling with the plumule projecting one inch above the ground was observed, but not under fair conditions, as it was brought out of the hot-house and kept in a room not sufficiently warm. nevertheless the tracing (fig. ) shows that it made two or three incomplete irregular circles or ellipses in the course of hours. the plumule is straight; and this was the first instance observed [page ] by us of the part that first breaks through the ground not being arched. fig. . canna warscewiczii: circumnutation of plumule with filament affixed obliquely to outer sheath-like leaf, traced in darkness on horizontal glass from . a.m. nov. th to . a.m. th. movement of bead magnified times. allium cepa (liliaceae).--the narrow green leaf, which protrudes from the seed of the common onion as a cotyledon,* breaks through the ground in the form of an arch, in the same manner as the hypocotyl or epicotyl of a dicotyledonous plant. long after the arch has risen above the surface the apex remains within the seed-coats, evidently absorbing the still abundant contents. the summit or crown of the arch, when it first protrudes from the seed and is still buried beneath the ground, is simply rounded; but before it reaches the surface it is developed into a conical protuberance of a white colour (owing to the absence of chlorophyll), whilst the adjoining parts are green, with the epidermis apparently rather thicker and tougher than elsewhere. we may therefore conclude that this conical protuberance is a special adaptation for breaking through the ground,** and answers the same end as the knife-like white crest on the summit of the straight cotyledon of the gramineae. * this is the expression used by sachs in his 'text-book of botany.' ** haberlandt has briefly described ('die schutzeinrichtungen...keimpflanze,' , p. ) this curious structure and the purpose which it subserves. he states that good figures of the cotyledon of the onion have been given by tittmann and by sachs in his 'experimental physiologie,' p. . [page ] after a time the apex is drawn out of the empty seed-coats, and rises up, forming a right angle, or more commonly a still larger angle with the lower part, and occasionally the whole becomes nearly straight. the conical protuberance, which originally formed the crown of the arch, is now seated on one side, and appears like a joint or knee, which from acquiring chlorophyll becomes green, and increases in size. in rarely or never becoming perfectly straight, these cotyledons differ remarkably from the ultimate condition of the arched hypocotyls or epicotyls of dicotyledons. it is, also, a singular circumstance that the attenuated extremity of the upper bent portion invariably withers and dies. a filament, . inch in length, was affixed nearly upright beneath the knee to the basal and vertical portion of a cotyledon; and its movements were traced during h. in the usual manner. the tracing here given (fig. ) indicates circumnutation. the movement of the upper part above the knee of the same cotyledon, which projected at about an angle of o above the horizon, was observed at the same time. a filament was not affixed to it, but a mark was placed beneath the apex, which was almost white from beginning to wither, and its movements were thus traced. the figure described resembled pretty closely that above given; and this shows that the chief seat of movement is in the lower or basal part of the cotyledon. fig. . allium cepa: circumnutation of basal half of arched cotyledon, traced in darkness on horizontal glass, from . a.m. to p.m. oct. st. movement of bead magnified about times. asparagus officinalis (asparageae).--the tip of a straight plumule or cotyledon (for we do not know which it should be called) was found at a depth of . inch beneath the surface, and the earth was then removed all round to the dept of . inch. a glass filament was affixed obliquely to it, and the movement of the bead, magnified times, was traced in darkness. during the first h. m. the plumule moved to the right, and during the next two hours it returned in a roughly parallel but strongly zigzag course. from some unknown cause it had grown up through the soil in an inclined direction, and now through apogeotropism it moved during nearly h. in [page ] the same general direction, but in a slightly zigzag manner, until it became upright. on the following morning it changed its course completely. there can therefore hardly be a doubt that the plumule circumnutates, whilst buried beneath the ground, as much as the pressure of the surrounding earth will permit. the surface of the soil in the pot was now covered with a thin layer of very fine argillaceous sand, which was kept damp; and after the tapering seedlings had grown a few tenths of an inch in height, each was found surrounded by a little open space or circular crack; and this could be accounted for only by their having circumnutated and thus pushed away the sand on all sides; for there was no vestige of a crack in any other part. in order to prove that there was circumnutation, the move- fig. . asparagus officinalis: circumnutation of plumules with tips whitened and marks placed beneath, traced on a horizontal glass. a, young plumule; movement traced from . a.m. nov. th to . a.m. next morning; magnified about times. b, older plumule; movement traced from . a.m. to . p.m. nov. th; magnified times, but here reduced to one-half of original scale. ments of five seedlings, varying in height from . inch to inches, were traced. they were placed within a box and illuminated from above; but in all five cases the longer axes of the figures described were directed to nearly the same point; so that more light seemed to have come through the glass roof of the greenhouse on one side than on any other. all five tracings resembled each other to a certain extent, and it will suffice to give two of them. in a (fig. ) the seedling was only . of an [page ] inch in height, and consisted of a single internode bearing a bud on its summit. the apex described between . a.m. and . p.m. (i.e. during nearly hours) a figure which would probably have consisted of ½ ellipses, had not the stem been drawn to one side until p.m., after which hour it moved backwards. on the following morning it was not far distant from the point whence it had first started. the actual amount of movement of the apex from side to side was very small, viz. about / th of an inch. the seedling of which the movements are shown in fig. , b, was / inch in height, and consisted of three internodes besides the bud on the summit. the figure, which was described during h., apparently represents two irregular and unequal ellipses or circles. the actual amount of movement of the apex, in the line not influenced by the light, was . of an inch, and in that thus influenced . of an inch. with a seedling inches in height it was obvious, even without the aid of any tracing, that the uppermost part of the stem bent successively to all points of the compass, like the stem of a twining plant. a little increase in the power of circumnutating and in the flexibility of the stem, would convert the common asparagus into a twining plant, as has occurred with one species in this genus, namely, a. scandens. phalaris canariensis (gramineae).--with the gramineae the part which first rises above the ground has been called by some authors the pileole; and various views have been expressed on its homological nature. it is considered by some great authorities to be a cotyledon, which term we will use without venturing to express any opinion on the subject.* it consists in the present case of a slightly flattened reddish sheath, terminating upwards in a sharp white edge; it encloses a true green leaf, which protrudes from the sheath through a slit-like orifice, close beneath and at right angles to the sharp edge on the summit. the sheath is not arched when it breaks through the ground. the movements of three rather old seedlings, about ½ inch in height, shortly before the protrusion of the leaves, were first traced. they were illuminated exclusively from above; for, as will hereafter be shown, they are excessively sensitive to the * we are indebted to the rev. g. henslow for an abstract of the views which have been held on this subject, together with references. [page ] action of light; and if any enters even temporarily on one side, they merely bend to this side in slightly zigzag lines. of the three tracings one alone (fig. ) is here given. had the observations been more frequent during the h. two oval figures would have been described with their longer axes at right angles to one another. the actual amount of movement of the apex from side to side was about . of an inch. the figures described by the other two seedlings resembled to a certain extent the one here given. fig. . phalaris canariensis: circumnutation of a cotyledon, with a mark placed below the apex, traced on a horizontal glass, from . a.m. nov. th to . a.m. th. movement of apex magnified times, here reduced to one-half scale. a seedling which had just broken through the ground and projected only / th of an inch above the surface, was next observed in the same manner as before. it was necessary to clear away the earth all round the seedling to a little depth in order to place a mark beneath the apex. the figure (fig. ) shows that the apex moved to one side, but changed its course ten times in the course of the ten hours of observation; so that there can be no doubt about its circumnutation. the cause of the general movement in one direction could hardly be attributed to the entrance of lateral light, as this was carefully guarded against; and we suppose it was in some manner connected with the removal of the earth round the little seedling. fig. . phalaris canariensis: circumnutation of a very young cotyledon, with a mark placed below the apex, traced on a horizontal glass, from . a.m. to . p.m. dec. th. movement of apex greatly magnified, here reduced to one-fourth of original scale. lastly, the soil in the same pot was searched with the aid of a lens, and the white knife-like apex of a seedling was found on an exact level with that of the surrounding surface. the soil was removed all round the apex to the depth of a quarter of an inch, the seed itself remaining covered. the pot, protected from lateral light, was placed under the micro- [page ] scope with a micrometer eye-piece, so arranged that each division equalled / th of an inch. after an interval of m. the apex was observed, and it was seen to cross a little obliquely two divisions of the micrometer in m. s.; and after a few minutes it crossed the same space in m. s. the seedling was again observed after an interval of three-quarters of an hour, and now the apex crossed rather obliquely two divisions in m. we may therefore conclude that it was travelling at about the rate of / th of an inch in minutes. we may also conclude from these and the previous observations, that the seedlings of phalaris in breaking through the surface of the soil circumnutate as much as the surrounding pressure will permit. this fact accounts (as in the case before given of the asparagus) for a circular, narrow, open space or crack being distinctly visible round several seedlings which had risen through very fine argillaceous sand, kept uniformly damp. fig. . zea mays: circumnutation of cotyledon, traced on horizontal glass, from . a.m. feb. th to a.m. th. movement of bead magnified on an average about times. zea mays (gramineae).--a glass filament was fixed obliquely to the summit of a cotyledon, rising . of an inch above the ground; but by the third morning it had grown to exactly thrice this height, so that the distance of the bead from the mark below was greatly increased, consequently the tracing (fig. ) was much more magnified on the first than on the second day. the upper part of the cotyledon changed its course by at least as much as a rectangle six times on each of the two days. the plant was illuminated by an obscure light from vertically above. this was a necessary precaution, as on the previous day we had traced the movements of cotyledons placed in a deep box, the inner side of which was feebly illuminated on one side from a distant north-east window, and at each observation by a wax taper held for a minute or two on the same side; and the result was that the cotyledons travelled all day long to this side, though making in their course some conspicuous flexures, from which fact alone we might have [page ] concluded that they were circumnutating; but we thought it advisable to make the tracing above given. radicles.--glass filaments were fixed to two short radicles, placed so as to stand almost upright, and whilst bending downwards through geotropism their courses were strongly zigzag; from this latter circumstance circumnutation might have been inferred, had not their tips become slightly withered after the first h., though they were watered and the air kept very damp. nine radicles were next arranged in the manner formerly described, so that in growing downwards they left tracks on smoked glass-plates, inclined at various angles between o and o beneath the horizon. almost every one of these tracks offered evidence in their greater or less breadth in different parts, or in little bridges of soot being left, that the apex had come alternately into more and less close contact with the glass. in the accompanying figure (fig. ) we have an accurate copy of one such track. in two instances alone (and in these the plates were highly inclined) there was some evidence of slight lateral movement. we presume therefore that the friction of the apex on the smoked surface, little as this could have been, sufficed to check the movement from side to side of these delicate radicles. fig. . zea mays: track left on inclined smoked glass-plate by tip of radicle in growing downwards. avena sativa (gramineae).--a cotyledon, ½ inch in height, was placed in front of a north-east window, and the movement of the apex was traced on a horizontal glass during two days. it moved towards the light in a slightly zigzag line from to . a.m. on october th; it then moved a little backwards and zigzagged much until p.m., after which hour, and curing the night, it continued to move towards the window. on the following morning the same movement was continued in a nearly straight line until . p.m., when the sky remained until . extraordinarily dark from thunder-clouds. during this interval of h. m., whilst the light was obscure, it was interesting to observe how circumnutation overcame heliotropism, for the apex, instead of continuing to move towards the window in a slightly zigzag line, reversed its course four times, making two small narrow ellipses. a diagram of this case will be given in the chapter on heliotropism. [page ] a filament was next fixed to a cotyledon only / of an inch in height, which was illuminated exclusively from above, and as it was kept in a warm greenhouse, it grew rapidly; and now there could be no doubt about its circumnutation, for it described a figure of as well as two small ellipses in ½ hours. nephrodium molle (filices).--a seedling fern of this species came up by chance in a flowerpot near its parent. the frond, as yet only slightly lobed, was only . of an inch in length and . in breadth, and was supported on a rachis as fine as a hair and . of an inch in height. a very thin glass filament, which projected for a length of . of an inch, was fixed to the end of the frond. the movement was so highly magnified that the figure (fig. ) cannot be fully trusted; but the frond was constantly moving in a complex manner, and the bead greatly changed its course eighteen times in the hours of observation. within half an hour it often returned in a line almost parallel to its former course. the greatest amount of movement occurred between and p.m. the circumnutation of this plant is interesting, because the species in the genus lygodium are well known to circumnutate conspicuously and to twine round any neighbouring object. fig. . nephrodium molle: circumnutation of very young frond, traced in darkness on horizontal glass, from a.m. to p.m. oct. th. movement of bead magnified times. selaginella kraussii (?) (lycopodiaceae).--a very young plant, only . of an inch in height, had sprung up in a pot in the hot-house. an extremely fine glass filament was fixed to the end of the frond-like stem, and the movement of the bead traced on a horizontal glass. it changed its course several times, as shown in fig. , whilst observed during h. m., and returned at night to a point not far distant from that whence it had started in the morning. there can be no doubt that this little plant circumnutated. fig. . selaginella kraussii (?): circumnutation of young plant, kept in darkness, traced from . a.m. to p.m. oct. st. [page ] chapter ii. general considerations on the movements and growth of seedling plants. generality of the circumnutating movement--radicles, their circumnutation of service--manner in which they penetrate the ground--manner in which hypocotyls and other organs break through the ground by being arched-- singular manner of germination in megarrhiza, etc.--abortion of cotyledons- -circumnutation of hypocotyls and epicotyls whilst still buried and arched- -their power of straightening themselves--bursting of the seed-coats-- inherited effect of the arching process in hypogean hypocotyls-- circumnutation of hypocotyls and epicotyls when erect--circumnutation of cotyledons--pulvini or joints of cotyledons, duration of their activity, rudimentary in oxalis corniculata, their development--sensitiveness of cotyledons to light and consequent disturbance of their periodic movements- -sensitiveness of cotyledons to contact. the circumnutating movements of the several parts or organs of a considerable number of seedling plants have been described in the last chapter. a list is here appended of the families, cohorts, sub-classes, etc., to which they belong, arranged and numbered according to the classification adopted by hooker.* any one who will consider this list will see that the young plants selected for observation, fairly represent the whole vegetable series excepting the lowest cryptogams, and the movements of some of the latter when mature will hereafter be described. as all the seedlings which were observed, including conifers, cycads and ferns, which belong to the most ancient * as given in the 'general system of botany,' by le maout and decaisne, . [page ] types amongst plants, were continually circumnutating, we may infer that this kind of movement is common to every seedling species. sub-kingdom i.--phaenogamous plants. class i.--dicotyledons. sub-class i.--angiosperms. family. cohort. . cruciferae. ii. parietales. . caryophylleae. iv. caryophyllales. . malvaceae. vi malvales. . oxalideae. vii. geraniales. . tropaeoleae. ditto . aurantiaceae. ditto . hippocastaneae. x. sapindales. . leguminosae. xi. rosales. . cucurbitaceae. xii. passiflorales. . cacteae. xiv. ficoidales. . compositae. xvii. astrales. . primulaceae. xx. primulales. . asclepiadeae. xxii. gentianales. . convolvulaceae. xxiii. polemoniales. . boragineae. ditto . nolaneae. ditto . solaneae. xxiv. solanales. . chenopodieae. xxvii. chenopodiales. . euphorbiaceae. xxxii. euphorbiales. . cupuliferae. xxxvi. quernales. . corylaceae. ditto sub-class ii.--gymnosperms. . coniferae. . cycadeae. class ii.--monocotyledons. . cannaceae. ii. amomales. . liliaceae. xi. liliales. . asparageae. ditto . gramineae. xv. glumales. sub-kingdom ii.--cryptogamic plants. . filices. i. filicales. . lycopodiaceae. ditto [page ] radicles.--in all the germinating seeds observed by us, the first change is the protrusion of the radicle, which immediately bends downwards and endeavours to penetrate the ground. in order to effect this, it is almost necessary that the seed should be pressed down so as to offer some resistance, unless indeed the soil is extremely loose; for otherwise the seed is lifted up, instead of the radicle penetrating the surface. but seeds often get covered by earth thrown up by burrowing quadrupeds or scratching birds, by the castings of earth-worms, by heaps of excrement, the decaying branches of trees, etc., and will thus be pressed down; and they must often fall into cracks when the ground is dry, or into holes. even with seeds lying on the bare surface, the first developed root-hairs, by becoming attached to stones or other objects on the surface, are able to hold down the upper part of the radicle, whilst the tip penetrates the ground. sachs has shown* how well and closely root-hairs adapt themselves by growth to the most irregular particles in the soil, and become firmly attached to them. this attachment seems to be effected by the softening or liquefaction of the outer surface of the wall of the hair and its subsequent consolidation, as will be on some future occasion more fully described. this intimate union plays an important part, according to sachs, in the absorption of water and of the inorganic matter dissolved in it. the mechanical aid afforded by the root-hairs in penetrating the ground is probably only a secondary service. the tip of the radicle, as soon as it protrudes from the seed-coats, begins to circumnutate, and the whole * 'physiologie végétale,' , pp. , . [page ] growing part continues to do so, probably for as long as growth continues. this movement of the radicle has been described in brassica, aesculus, phaseolus, vicia, cucurbita, quercus and zea. the probability of its occurrence was inferred by sachs,* from radicles placed vertically upwards being acted on by geotropism (which we likewise found to be the case), for if they had remained absolutely perpendicular, the attraction of gravity could not have caused them to bend to any one side. circumnutation was observed in the above specified cases, either by means of extremely fine filaments of glass affixed to the radicles in the manner previously described, or by their being allowed to grow downwards over inclined smoked glass-plates, on which they left their tracks. in the latter cases the serpentine course (see figs. , , , ) showed unequivocally that the apex had continually moved from side to side. this lateral movement was small in extent, being in the case of phaseolus at most about mm. from a medial line to both sides. but there was also movement in a vertical plane at right angles to the inclined glass-plates. this was shown by the tracks often being alternately a little broader and narrower, due to the radicles having alternately pressed with greater and less force on the plates. occasionally little bridges of soot were left across the tracks, showing that the apex had at these spots been lifted up. this latter fact was especially apt to occur * 'ueber das wachsthum der wurzeln: arbeiten des bot. instituts in würzburg,' heft iii. , p. . this memoir, besides its intrinsic and great interest, deserves to be studied as a model of careful investigation, and we shall have occasion to refer to it repeatedly. dr. frank had previously remarked ('beiträge zur pflanzenphysiologie, , p. ) on the fact of radicles placed vertically upwards being acted on by geotropism, and he explained it by the supposition that their growth was not equal on all sides. [page ] when the radicle instead of travelling straight down the glass made a semicircular bend; but fig. shows that this may occur when the track is rectilinear. the apex by thus rising, was in one instance able to surmount a bristle cemented across an inclined glass-plate; but slips of wood only / of an inch in thickness always caused the radicles to bend rectangularly to one side, so that the apex did not rise to this small height in opposition to geotropism. in those cases in which radicles with attached filaments were placed so as to stand up almost vertically, they curved downwards through the action of geotropism, circumnutating at the same time, and their courses were consequently zigzag. sometimes, however, they made great circular sweeps, the lines being likewise zigzag. radicles closely surrounded by earth, even when this is thoroughly soaked and softened, may perhaps be quite prevented from circumnutating. yet we should remember that the circumnutating sheath-like cotyledons of phalaris, the hypocotyls of solanum, and the epicotyls of asparagus formed round themselves little circular cracks or furrows in a superficial layer of damp argillaceous sand. they were also able, as well as the hypocotyls of brassica, to form straight furrows in damp sand, whilst circumnutating and bending towards a lateral light. in a future chapter it will be shown that the rocking or circumnutating movement of the flower-heads of trifolium subterraneum aids them in burying themselves. it is therefore probable that the circumnutation of the tip of the radicle aids it slightly in penetrating the ground; and it may be observed in several of the previously given diagrams, that the movement is more strongly pronounced in radicles when they first [page ] protrude from the seed than at a rather later period; but whether this is an accidental or an adaptive coincidence we do not pretend to decide. nevertheless, when young radicles of phaseolus multiflorus were fixed vertically close over damp sand, in the expectation that as soon as they reached it they would form circular furrows, this did not occur,--a fact which may be accounted for, as we believe, by the furrow being filled up as soon as formed by the rapid increase of thickness in the apex of the radicle. whether or not a radicle, when surrounded by softened earth, is aided in forming a passage for itself by circumnutating, this movement can hardly fail to be of high importance, by guiding the radicle along a line of least resistance, as will be seen in the next chapter when we treat of the sensibility of the tip to contact. if, however, a radicle in its downward growth breaks obliquely into any crevice, or a hole left by a decayed root, or one made by the larva of an insect, and more especially by worms, the circumnutating movement of the tip will materially aid it in following such open passage; and we have observed that roots commonly run down the old burrows of worms.* when a radicle is placed in a horizontal or inclined position, the terminal growing part, as is well known, bends down towards the centre of the earth; and sachs* has shown that whilst thus bending, the growth of the lower surface is greatly retarded, whilst that * see, also, prof. hensen's statements ('zeitschrift für wissen, zool.,' b. xxviii. p. , ) to the same effect. he goes so far as to believe that roots are able to penetrate the ground to a great depth only by means of the burrows made by worms. * 'arbeiten des bot. inst. würzburg,' vol. i. , p. . see also p. for the length of the growing part, and p. on the force of geotropism. [page ] of the upper surface continues at the normal rate, or may be even somewhat increased. he has further shown by attaching a thread, running over a pulley, to a horizontal radicle of large size, namely that of the common bean, that it was able to pull up a weight of only one gramme, or . grains. we may therefore conclude that geotropism does not give a radicle force sufficient to penetrate the ground, but merely tells it (if such an expression may be used) which course to pursue. before we knew of sachs' more precise observations we covered a flat surface of damp sand with the thinnest tin-foil which we could procure (. to . mm., or . to . of an inch in thickness), and placed a radicle close above, in such a position that it grew almost perpendicularly downwards. when the apex came into contact with the polished level surface it turned at right angles and glided over it without leaving any impression; yet the tin-foil was so flexible, that a little stick of soft wood, pointed to the same degree as the end of the radicle and gently loaded with a weight of only a quarter of an ounce ( grains) plainly indented the tin-foil. radicles are able to penetrate the ground by the force due to their longitudinal and transverse growth; the seeds themselves being held down by the weight of the superincumbent soil. in the case of the bean the apex, protected by the root-cap, is sharp, and the growing part, from to mm. in length, is much more rigid, as sachs has proved, than the part immediately above, which has ceased to increase in length. we endeavoured to ascertain the downward pressure of the growing part, by placing germinating beans between two small metal plates, the upper one of which was loaded with a known weight; and the [page ] radicle was then allowed to grow into a narrow hole in wood, or tenths of an inch in depth, and closed at the bottom. the wood was so cut that the short space of radicle between the mouth of the hole and the bean could not bend laterally on three sides; but it was impossible to protect the fourth side, close to the bean. consequently, as long as the radicle continued to increase in length and remained straight, the weighted bean would be lifted up after the tip had reached the bottom of the shallow hole. beans thus arranged, surrounded by damp sand, lifted up a quarter of a pound in h. after the tip of the radicle had entered the hole. with a greater weight the radicles themselves always became bent on the one unguarded side; but this probably would not have occurred if they had been closely surrounded on all sides by compact earth. there was, however, a possible, but not probable, source of error in these trials, for it was not ascertained whether the beans themselves go on swelling for several days after they have germinated, and after having been treated in the manner in which ours had been; namely, being first left for h. in water, then allowed to germinate in very damp air, afterwards placed over the hole and almost surrounded by damp sand in a closed box. fig. . outline of piece of stick (reduced to one-half natural size) with a hole through which the radicle of a bean grew. thickness of stick at narrow end . inch, at broad end . ; depth of hole . inch. we succeeded better in ascertaining the force exerted transversely by these radicles. two were so placed as to penetrate small holes made in little sticks, one of which was cut into the shape here exactly copied (fig. ). the short end of the stick beyond the hole was purposely split, but not the opposite [page ] end. as the wood was highly elastic, the split or fissure closed immediately after being made. after six days the stick and bean were dug out of the damp sand, and the radicle was found to be much enlarged above and beneath the hole. the fissure which was at first quite closed, was now open to a width of mm.; as soon as the radicle was extracted, it immediately closed to a width of mm. the stick was then suspended horizontally by a fine wire passing through the hole lately filled by the radicle, and a little saucer was suspended beneath to receive the weights; and it required lbs. ozs. to open the fissure to the width of mm.-- that is, the width before the root was extracted. but the part of the radicle (only . of an inch in length) which was embedded in the hole, probably exerted a greater transverse strain even than lbs. ozs., for it had split the solid wood for a length of rather more than a quarter of an inch (exactly . inch), and this fissure is shown in fig. . a second stick was tried in the same manner with almost exactly the same result. fig. . wooden pincers, kept closed by a spiral brass spring, with a hole (. inch in diameter and . inch in depth) bored through the narrow closed part, through which a radicle of a bean was allowed to grow. temp. o - o f. we then followed a better plan. holes were bored near the narrow end of two wooden clips or pincers (fig. ), kept closed by brass spiral springs. two radicles in damp sand were allowed to grow through these holes. the [page ] pincers rested on glass-plates to lessen the friction from the sand. the holes were a little larger (viz.. inch) and considerably deeper (viz.. inch) than in the trials with the sticks; so that a greater length of a rather thicker radicle exerted a transverse strain. after days they were taken up. the distance of two dots (see the figure) on the longer ends of the pincers was now carefully measured; the radicles were then extracted from the holes, and the pincers of course closed. they were then suspended horizontally in the same manner as were the bits of sticks, and a weight of grams (or pounds ounces) was necessary with one of the pincers to open them to the same extent as had been effected by the transverse growth of the radicle. as soon as this radicle had slightly opened the pincers, it had grown into a flattened form and had escaped a little beyond the hole; its diameter in one direction being . mm., and at rightangles . mm. if this escape and flattening could have been prevented, the radicle would probably have exerted a greater strain than the pounds ounces. with the other pincers the radicle escaped still further out of the hole; and the weight required to open them to the same extent as had been effected by the radicle, was only grams. with these facts before us, there seems little difficulty in understanding how a radicle penetrates the ground. the apex is pointed and is protected by the root-cap; the terminal growing part is rigid, and increases in length with a force equal, as far as our observations can be trusted, to the pressure of at least a quarter of a pound, probably with a much greater force when prevented from bending to any side by the surrounding earth. whilst thus increasing in length it increases in thickness, pushing away the damp [page ] earth on all sides, with a force of above pounds in one case, of pounds in another case. it was impossible to decide whether the actual apex exerts, relatively to its diameter, the same transverse strain as the parts a little higher up; but there seems no reason to doubt that this would be the case. the growing part therefore does not act like a nail when hammered into a board, but more like a wedge of wood, which whilst slowly driven into a crevice continually expands at the same time by the absorption of water; and a wedge thus acting will split even a mass of rock. manner in which hypocotyls, epicotyls, etc., rise up and break through the ground.--after the radicle has penetrated the ground and fixed the seed, the hypocotyls of all the dicotyledonous seedlings observed by us, which lift their cotyledons above the surface, break through the ground in the form of an arch. when the cotyledons are hypogean, that is, remain buried in the soil, the hypocotyl is hardly developed, and the epicotyl or plumule rises in like manner as an arch through the ground. in all, or at least in most of such cases, the downwardly bent apex remains for a time enclosed within the seed-coats. with corylus avellena the cotyledons are hypogean, and the epicotyl is arched; but in the particular case described in the last chapter its apex had been injured, and it grew laterally through the soil like a root; and in consequence of this it had emitted two secondary shoots, which likewise broke through the ground as arches. cyclamen does not produce any distinct stem, and only a single cotyledon appears at first;* its petiole * this is the conclusion arrived at by dr. h. gressner ('bot. zeitung,' , p. ), who maintains that what has been considered by other botanists as the first true leaf is really the second cotyledon, which is greatly delayed in its development. [page ] breaks through the ground as an arch (fig. ). abronia has only a single fully developed cotyledon, but in this case it is the hypocotyl which first emerges and is arched. abronia umbellata, however, presents this peculiarity, that the enfolded blade of the one developed cotyledon (with the enclosed endosperm) whilst still beneath the surface has its apex upturned and parallel to the descending leg of the arched hypocotyl; but it is dragged out of the ground by the continued growth of the hypocotyl, with the apex pointing downward. with cycas pectinata the cotyledons are hypogean, and a true leaf first breaks through the ground with its petiole forming an arch. fig. . cyclamen persicum: seedling, figure enlarged: c, blade of cotyledon, not yet expanded, with arched petiole beginning to straighten itself; h, hypocotyl developed into a corm; r, secondary radicles. fig. . acanthus mollis: seedling with the hypogean cotyledon on the near side removed and the radicles cut off; a, blade of first leaf beginning to expand, with petiole still partially arched; b, second and opposite leaf, as yet very imperfectly developed; c, hypogean cotyledon on the opposite side. in the genus acanthus the cotyledons are likewise hypogean. in a. mollis, a single leaf first breaks through the ground with its petiole arched, and with the opposite leaf much less developed, short, straight, of a yellowish colour, and with the petiole at first not half as thick as that of the other. the undeveloped leaf is protected by standing beneath its arched fellow; and it is an instruc- [page ] tive fact that it is not arched, as it has not to force for itself a passage through the ground. in the accompanying sketch (fig. ) the petiole of the first leaf has already partially straightened itself, and the blade is beginning to unfold. the small second leaf ultimately grows to an equal size with the first, but this process is effected at very different rates in different individuals: in one instance the second leaf did not appear fully above the ground until six weeks after the first leaf. as the leaves in the whole family of the acanthaceae stand either opposite one another or in whorls, and as these are of equal size, the great inequality between the first two leaves is a singular fact. we can see how this inequality of development and the arching of the petiole could have been gradually acquired, if they were beneficial to the seedlings by favouring their emergence; for with a. candelabrum, spinosus, and latifolius there was a great variability in the inequality between the two first leaves and in the arching of their petioles. in one seedling of a. candelabrum the first leaf was arched and nine times as long as the second, which latter consisted of a mere little, yellowish-white, straight, hairy style. in other seedlings the difference in length between the two leaves was as to , or as to , or as only . to . inch. in these latter cases the first and taller leaf was not properly arched. lastly, in another seedling there was not the least difference in size between the two first leaves, and both of them had their petioles straight; their laminae were enfolded and pressed against each other, forming a lance or wedge, by which means they had broken through the ground. therefore in different individuals of this same species of acanthus the first pair of leaves breaks through the ground by two widely different methods; and if [page ] either had proved decidedly advantageous or disadvantageous, one of them no doubt would soon have prevailed. asa gray has described* the peculiar manner of germination of three widely different plants, in which the hypocotyl is hardly at all developed. these were therefore observed by us in relation to our present subject. delphinium nudicaule.--the elongated petioles of the two cotyledons are confluent (as are sometimes their blades at the base), and they break through the ground as an arch. they thus resemble in a most deceptive manner a hypocotyl. at first they are solid, but after a time become tubular; and the basal part beneath the ground is enlarged into a hollow chamber, within which the young leaves are developed without any prominent plumule. externally root-hairs are formed on the confluent petioles, either a little above, or on a level with, the plumule. the first leaf at an early period of its growth and whilst within the chamber is quite straight, but the petiole soon becomes arched; and the swelling of this part (and probably of the blade) splits open one side of the chamber, and the leaf then emerges. the slit was found in one case to be . mm. in length, and it is seated on the line of confluence of the two petioles. the leaf when it first escapes from the chamber is buried beneath the ground, and now an upper part of the petiole near the blade becomes arched in the usual manner. the second leaf comes out of the slit either straight or somewhat arched, but afterwards the upper part of the petiole,--certainly in some, and we believe in all cases,--arches itself whilst forcing a passage through the soil. * 'botanical text-book,' , p. . [page ] megarrhiza californica.--the cotyledons of this gourd never free themselves from the seed-coats and are hypogean. their petioles are completely confluent, forming a tube which terminates downwards in a little solid point, consisting of a minute radicle and hypocotyl, with the likewise minute plumule enclosed within the base of the tube. this structure was well exhibited in an abnormal specimen, in which one of the two cotyledons failed to produce a petiole, whilst the other produced one consisting of an open semicylinder ending in a sharp point, formed of the parts just described. as soon as the confluent petioles protrude from the seed they bend down, as they are strongly geotropic, and penetrate the ground. the seed itself retains its original position, either on the surface or buried at some depth, as the case may be. if, however, the point of the confluent petioles meets with some obstacle in the soil, as appears to have occurred with the seedlings described and figured by asa gray,* the cotyledons are lifted up above the ground. the petioles are clothed with root-hairs like those on a true radicle, and they likewise resemble radicles in becoming brown when immersed in a solution of permanganate of potassium. our seeds were subjected to a high temperature, and in the course of three or four days the petioles penetrated the soil perpendicularly to a depth of from to ½ inches; and not until then did the true radicle begin to grow. in one specimen which was closely observed, the petioles in days after their first protrusion attained a length of ½ inches, and the radicle by this time had also become well developed. the plumule, still enclosed within the tube, was now * 'american journal of science,' vol. xiv. , p. . [page ] . inch in length, and was quite straight; but from having increased in thickness it had just begun to split open the lower part of the petioles on one side, along the line of their confluence. by the following morning the upper part of the plumule had arched itself into a right angle, and the convex side or elbow had thus been forced out through the slit. here then the arching of the plumule plays the same part as in the case of the petioles of the delphinium. as the plumule continued to grow, the tip became more arched, and in the course of six days it emerged through the ½ inches of superincumbent soil, still retaining its arched form. after reaching the surface it straightened itself in the usual manner. in the accompanying figure (fig. , a) we have a sketch of a seedling in this advanced state of development; the surface of the ground being represented by the line g...........g. fig. , a. megarrhiza californica: sketch of seedling, copied from asa gray, reduced to one-half scale: c, cotyledons within seed-coats; p, the two confluent petioles; h and r, hypocotyl and radicle; p , plumule; g..........g, surface of soil. the germination of the seeds in their native californian home proceeds in a rather different manner, as we infer from an interesting letter from mr. rattan, sent to us by prof. asa gray. the petioles protrude from the seeds soon after the autumnal rains, and penetrate the ground, generally in a vertical direction, to a depth of from to even inches. they were found in this state by mr. rattan during the christmas vacation, with the plu- [page ] mules still enclosed within the tubes; and he remarks that if the plumules had been at once developed and had reached the surface (as occurred with our seeds which were exposed to a high temperature), they would surely have been killed by the frost. as it is, they lie dormant at some depth beneath the surface, and are thus protected from the cold; and the root-hairs on the petioles would supply them with sufficient moisture. we shall hereafter see that many seedlings are protected from frost, but by a widely different process, namely, by being drawn beneath the surface by the contraction of their radicles. we may, however, believe that the extraordinary manner of germination of megarrhiza has another and secondary advantage. the radicle begins in a few weeks to enlarge into a little tuber, which then abounds with starch and is only slightly bitter. it would therefore be very liable to be devoured by animals, were it not protected by being buried whilst young and tender, at a depth of some inches beneath the surface. ultimately it grows to a huge size. ipomoea leptophylla.--in most of the species of this genus the hypocotyl is well developed, and breaks through the ground as an arch. but the seeds of the present species in germinating behave like those of megarrhiza, excepting that the elongated petioles of the cotyledons are not confluent. after they have protruded from the seed, they are united at their lower ends with the undeveloped hypocotyl and undeveloped radicle, which together form a point only about . inch in length. they are at first highly geotropic, and penetrate the ground to a depth of rather above half an inch. the radicle then begins to grow. on four occasions after the petioles had grown for a short distance vertically downwards, they [page ] were placed in a horizontal position in damp air in the dark, and in the course of hours they again became curved vertically downwards, having passed through o in this time. but their sensitiveness to geotropism lasts for only or days; and the terminal part alone, for a length of between . and . inch, is thus sensitive. although the petioles of our specimens did not penetrate the ground to a greater depth than about ½ inch, yet they continued for some time to grow rapidly, and finally attained the great length of about inches. the upper part is apogeotropic, and therefore grows vertically upwards, excepting a short portion close to the blades, which at an early period bends downwards and becomes arched, and thus breaks through the ground. afterwards this portion straightens itself, and the cotyledons then free themselves from the seed-coats. thus we here have in different parts of the same organ widely different kinds of movement and of sensitiveness; for the basal part is geotropic, the upper part apogeotropic, and a portion near the blades temporarily and spontaneously arches itself. the plumule is not developed for some little time; and as it rises between the bases of the parallel and closely approximate petioles of the cotyledons, which in breaking through the ground have formed an almost open passage, it does not require to be arched and is consequently always straight. whether the plumule remains buried and dormant for a time in its native country, and is thus protected from the cold of winter, we do not know. the radicle, like that of the megarrhiza, grows into a tuber-like mass, which ultimately attains a great size. so it is with ipomoea pandurata, the germination of which, as asa gray informs us, resembles that of i. leptophylla. the following case is interesting in connection with [page ] the root-like nature of the petioles. the radicle of a seedling was cut off, as it was completely decayed, and the two now separated cotyledons were planted. they emitted roots from their bases, and continued green and healthy for two months. the blades of both then withered, and on removing the earth the bases of the petioles (instead of the radicle) were found enlarged into little tubers. whether these would have had the power of producing two independent plants in the following summer, we do not know. in quercus virens, according to dr. engelmann,* both the cotyledons and their petioles are confluent. the latter grow to a length "of an inch or even more;" and, if we understand rightly, penetrate the ground, so that they must be geotropic. the nutriment within the cotyledons is then quickly transferred to the hypocotyl or radicle, which thus becomes developed into a fusiform tuber. the fact of tubers being formed by the foregoing three widely distinct plants, makes us believe that their protection from animals at an early age and whilst tender, is one at least of the advantages gained by the remarkable elongation of the petioles of the cotyledons, together with their power of penetrating the ground like roots under the guidance of geotropism. the following cases may be here given, as they bear on our present subject, though not relating to seedlings. the flower-stem of the parasitic lathraea squamaria, which is destitute of true leaves, breaks through the ground as an arch;** so does the flower- * 'transact. st. louis acad. science,' vol. iv. p. . ** the passage of the flower-stem of the lathraea through the ground cannot fail to be greatly facilitated by the extraordinary quantity of water secreted at this period of the year by the subter- [[page ]] ranean scale-like leaves; not that there is any reason to suppose that the secretion is a special adaptation for this purpose: it probably follows from the great quantity of sap absorbed in the early spring by the parasitic roots. after a long period without any rain, the earth had become light-coloured and very dry, but it was dark-coloured and damp, even in parts quite wet, for a distance of at least six inches all round each flower-stem. the water is secreted by glands (described by cohn, 'bericht. bot. sect. der schlesischen gesell.,' , p. ) which line the longitudinal channels running through each scale-like leaf. a large plant was dug up, washed so as to remove the earth, left for some time to drain, and then placed in the evening on a dry glass-plate, covered with a bell-glass, and by next morning it had secreted a large pool of water. the plate was wiped dry, and in the course of the succeeding or hours another little pool was secreted, and after additional hours several large drops. a smaller plant was washed and placed in a large jar, which was left inclined for an hour, by which time no more water drained off. the jar was then placed upright and closed: after hours two drachms of water were collected from the bottom, and a little more after additional hours. the flower-stems were now cut off, for they do not secrete, and the subterranean part of the plant was found to weigh . grams ( grains), and the water secreted during the hours weighed . grams ( grains),--that is, one-ninth of the whole weight of the plant, excluding the flower-stems. we should remember that plants in a state of nature would probably secrete in hours much more than the above large amount, for their roots would continue all the time absorbing sap from the plant on which they were parasitic. [page ] stem of the parasitic and leafless monotropa hypopitys. with helleborus niger, the flower-stems, which rise up independently of the leaves, likewise break through the ground as arches. this is also the case with the greatly elongated flower-stems, as well as with the petioles of epimedium pinnatum. so it is with the petioles of ranunculus ficaria, when they have to break through the ground, but when they arise from the summit of the bulb above ground, they are from the first quite straight; and this is a fact which deserves notice. the rachis of the bracken fern (pteris aquilina), and of some, probably many, other ferns, likewise rises above ground under the form of an arch. no doubt other analogous instances could be found by careful search. in all ordinary cases of bulbs, rhizomes, [page ] root-stocks, etc., buried beneath the ground, the surface is broken by a cone formed by the young imbricated leaves, the combined growth of which gives them force sufficient for the purpose. with germinating monocotyledonous seeds, of which, however, we did not observe a large number, the plumules, for instance, those of asparagus and canna, are straight whilst breaking through the ground. with the gramineae, the sheath-like cotyledons are likewise straight; they, however, terminate in a sharp crest, which is white and somewhat indurated; and this structure obviously facilitates their emergence from the soil: the first true leaves escape from the sheath through a slit beneath the chisel-like apex and at right angles to it. in the case of the onion (allium cepa) we again meet with an arch; the leaf-like cotyledon being abruptly bowed, when it breaks through the ground, with the apex still enclosed within the seed-coats. the crown of the arch, as previously described, is developed into a white conical protuberance, which we may safely believe to be a special adaptation for this office. the fact of so many organs of different kinds--hypocotyls and epicotyls, the petioles of some cotyledons and of some first leaves, the cotyledons of the onion, the rachis of some ferns, and some flower-stems--being all arched whilst they break through the ground, shows how just are dr. haberlandt's* remarks on the importance of the arch to seedling plants. he attributes its chief importance to the upper, young, and more tender parts of the hypocotyl * 'die schutzeinrichtungen in der entwickelung der keimpflanze,' . we have learned much from this interesting essay, though our observations lead us to differ on some points from the author. [page ] or epicotyl, being thus saved from abrasion and pressure whilst breaking through the ground. but we think that some importance may be attributed to the increased force gained by the hypocotyl, epicotyl, or other organ by being at first arched; for both legs of the arch increase in length, and both have points of resistance as long as the tip remains enclosed within the seed-coats; and thus the crown of the arch is pushed up through the earth with twice as much force as that which a straight hypocotyl, etc., could exert. as soon, however, as the upper end has freed itself, all the work has to be done by the basal leg. in the case of the epicotyl of the common bean, the basal leg (the apex having freed itself from the seed-coats) grew upwards with a force sufficient to lift a thin plate of zinc, loaded with ounces. two more ounces were added, and the ounces were lifted up to a very little height, and then the epicotyl yielded and bent to one side. with respect to the primary cause of the arching process, we long thought in the case of many seedlings that this might be attributed to the manner in which the hypocotyl or epicotyl was packed and curved within the seed-coats; and that the arched shape thus acquired was merely retained until the parts in question reached the surface of the ground. but it is doubtful whether this is the whole of the truth in any case. for instance, with the common bean, the epicotyl or plumule is bowed into an arch whilst breaking through the seed-coats, as shown in fig. (p. ). the plumule first protrudes as a solid knob (e in a), which after twenty-four hours' growth is seen (e in b) to be the crown of an arch. nevertheless, with several beans which germinated in damp air, and had otherwise been treated in an unnatural manner, little [page ] plumules were developed in the axils of the petioles of both cotyledons, and these were as perfectly arched as the normal plumule; yet they had not been subjected to any confinement or pressure, for the seed-coats were completely ruptured, and they grew in the open air. this proves that the plumule has an innate or spontaneous tendency to arch itself. in some other cases the hypocotyl or epicotyl protrudes from the seed at first only slightly bowed; but the bowing afterwards increases independently of any constraint. the arch is thus made narrow, with the two legs, which are sometimes much elongated, parallel and close together, and thus it becomes well fitted for breaking through the ground. with many kinds of plants, the radicle, whilst still enclosed within the seed and likewise after its first protrusion, lies in a straight line with the future hypocotyl and with the longitudinal axis of the cotyledons. this is the case with cucurbita ovifera: nevertheless, in whatever position the seeds were buried, the hypocotyl always came up arched in one particular direction. seeds were planted in friable peat at a depth of about an inch in a vertical position, with the end from which the radicle protrudes downwards. therefore all the parts occupied the same relative positions which they would ultimately hold after the seedlings had risen clear above the surface. notwithstanding this fact, the hypocotyl arched itself; and as the arch grew upwards through the peat, the buried seeds were turned either upside down, or were laid horizontally, being afterwards dragged above the ground. ultimately the hypocotyl straightened itself in the usual manner; and now after all these movements the several parts occupied the same position relatively to one another and to the centre of the earth, which they [page ] had done when the seeds were first buried. but it may be argued in this and other such cases that, as the hypocotyl grows up through the soil, the seed will almost certainly be tilted to one side; and then from the resistance which it must offer during its further elevation, the upper part of the hypocotyl will be doubled down and thus become arched. this view seems the more probable, because with ranunculus ficaria only the petioles of the leaves which forced a passage through the earth were arched; and not those which arose from the summits of the bulbs above the ground. nevertheless, this explanation does not apply to the cucurbita, for when germinating seeds were suspended in damp air in various positions by pins passing through the cotyledons, fixed to the inside of the lids of jars, in which case the hypocotyls were not subjected to any friction or constraint, yet the upper part became spontaneously arched. this fact, moreover, proves that it is not the weight of the cotyledons which causes the arching. seeds of helianthus annuus and of two species of ipomoea (those of 'i. bona nox' being for the genus large and heavy) were pinned in the same manner, and the hypocotyls became spontaneously arched; the radicles, which had been vertically dependent, assumed in consequence a horizontal position. in the case of ipomoea leptophylla it is the petioles of the cotyledons which become arched whilst rising through the ground; and this occurred spontaneously when the seeds were fixed to the lids of jars. it may, however, be suggested with some degree of probability that the arching was aboriginally caused by mechanical compulsion, owing to the confinement of the parts in question within the seed-coats, or to friction whilst they were being dragged upwards. but [page ] if this is so, we must admit from the cases just given, that a tendency in the upper part of the several specified organs to bend downwards and thus to become arched, has now become with many plants firmly inherited. the arching, to whatever cause it may be due, is the result of modified circumnutation, through increased growth along the convex side of the part; such growth being only temporary, for the part always straightens itself subsequently by increased growth along the concave side, as will hereafter be described. it is a curious fact that the hypocotyls of some plants, which are but little developed and which never raise their cotyledons above the ground, nevertheless inherit a slight tendency to arch themselves, although this movement is not of the least use to them. we refer to a movement observed by sachs in the hypocotyls of the bean and some other leguminosae, and which is shown in the accompanying figure (fig. ), copied from his essay.* the hypocotyl and radicle at first grow perpendicularly downwards, as at a, and then bend, often in the course of hours, into the position shown at b. as we shall hereafter often have to recur to this movement, we will, for brevity sake, call it "sachs' curvature." at first sight it might be thought that the altered position of the radicle in b was wholly due to the outgrowth of the epicotyl (e), the petiole (p) serving as a hinge; and it is probable that this is partly the cause; but the hypocotyl and upper part of the radicle themselves become slightly curved. the above movement in the bean was repeatedly seen by us; but our observations were made chiefly on phaseolus multiflorus, the cotyledons of which are like- * 'arbeiten des bot. instit. würzburg,' vol. i. , p. . [page ] wise hypogean. some seedlings with well-developed radicles were first immersed in a solution of permanganate of potassium; and, judging from the changes of colour (though these were not very clearly defined), the hypocotyl is about . inch in length. straight, thin, black lines of this length were now drawn from the bases of the short petioles along the hypocotyls fig. . vicia faba: germinating seeds, suspended in damp air: a, with radicle growing perpendicularly downwards; b, the same bean after hours and after the radicle has curved itself; r. radicle; h, short hypocotyl; e, epicotyl appearing as a knob in a and as an arch in b; p, petiole of the cotyledon, the latter enclosed within the seed-coats. of germinating seeds, which were pinned to the lids of jars, generally with the hilum downwards, and with their radicles pointing to the centre of the earth. after an interval of from to hours the black lines on the hypocotyls of out of the seedlings became distinctly curved, but in very various degrees (namely, with radii between and [page ] mm. on sachs' cyclometer) in the same relative direction as shown at b in fig. . as geotropism will obviously tend to check this curvature, seven seeds were allowed to germinate with proper precautions for their growth in a klinostat,* by which means geotropism was eliminated. the position of the hypocotyls was observed during four successive days, and they continued to bend towards the hilum and lower surface of the seed. on the fourth day they were deflected by an average angle of o from a line perpendicular to the lower surface, and were therefore considerably more curved than the hypocotyl and radicle in the bean at b (fig. ), though in the same relative direction. it will, we presume, be admitted that all leguminous plants with hypogean cotyledons are descended from forms which once raised their cotyledons above the ground in the ordinary manner; and in doing so, it is certain that their hypocotyls would have been abruptly arched, as in the case of every other dicotyledonous plant. this is especially clear in the case of phaseolus, for out of five species, the seedlings of which we observed, namely, p. multiflorus, caracalla, vulgaris, hernandesii and roxburghii (inhabitants of the old and new worlds), the three last-named species have well-developed hypocotyls which break through the ground as arches. now, if we imagine a seedling of the common bean or of p. multiflorus, to behave as its progenitors once did, the hypocotyl (h, fig. ), in whatever position the seed may have been buried, would become so much arched that the upper part would be doubled down parallel to the lower part; and * an instrument devised by sachs, consisting essentially of a slowly revolving horizontal axis, on which the plant under observation is supported: see 'würzburg arbeiten,' , p. . [page ] this is exactly the kind of curvature which actually occurs in these two plants, though to a much less degree. therefore we can hardly doubt that their short hypocotyls have retained by inheritance a tendency to curve themselves in the same manner as they did at a former period, when this movement was highly important to them for breaking through the ground, though now rendered useless by the cotyledons being hypogean. rudimentary structures are in most cases highly variable, and we might expect that rudimentary or obsolete actions would be equally so; and sachs' curvature varies extremely in amount, and sometimes altogether fails. this is the sole instance known to us of the inheritance, though in a feeble degree, of movements which have become superfluous from changes which the species has undergone. rudimentary cotyledons.--a few remarks on this subject may be here interpolated. it is well known that some dicotyledonous plants produce only a single cotyledon; for instance, certain species of ranunculus, corydalis, chaerophyllum; and we will here endeavour to show that the loss of one or both cotyledons is apparently due to a store of nutriment being laid up in some other part, as in the hypocotyl or one of the two cotyledons, or one of the secondary radicles. fig. . citrus aurantium: two young seedlings: c, larger cotyledon; c', smaller cotyledon; h, thickened hypocotyl; r, radicle. in a the epicotyl is still arched, in b it has become erect. [page ] with the orange (citrus aurantium) the cotyledons are hypogean, and one is larger than the other, as may be seen in a (fig. ). in b the inequality is rather greater, and the stem has grown between the points of insertion of the two petioles, so that they do not stand opposite to one another; in another case the separation amounted to one-fifth of an inch. the smaller cotyledon of one seedling was extremely thin, and not half the length of the larger one, so that it was clearly becoming rudimentary,* in all these seedlings the hypocotyl was enlarged or swollen. fig. . abronia umbellata: seedling twice natural size: c cotyledon; c', rudimentary cotyledon; h, enlarged hypocotyl, with a heel or projection (h') at the lower end; r, radicle. with abronia umbellata one of the cotyledons is quite rudimentary, as may be seen (c') in fig. . in this specimen it consisted of a little green flap, / th inch in length, destitute of a petiole and covered with glands like those on the fully developed cotyledon (c). at first it stood opposite to the larger cotyledon; but as the petiole of the latter increased in length and grew in the same line with the hypocotyl (h), the rudiment appeared in older seedlings as if seated some way down the hypocotyl. with abronia arenaria there is a similar rudiment, which in one * in pachira aquatica, as described by mr. r. i. lynch ('journal linn. soc. bot.' vol. xvii. , p. ), one of the hypogean cotyledons is of immense size; the other is small and soon falls off; the pair do not always stand opposite. in another and very different water-plant, 'trapa natans', one of the cotyledons, filled with farinaceous matter, is much larger than the other, which is scarcely visible, as is stated by aug. de candolle, 'physiologie veg.' tom. ii. p. , . [page ] specimen was only / th and in another / th inch in length; it ultimately appeared as if seated halfway down the hypocotyl. in both these species the hypocotyl is so much enlarged, especially at a very early age, that it might almost be called a corm. the lower end forms a heel or projection, the use of which will hereafter be described. in cyclamen persicum the hypocotyl, even whilst still within the seed, is enlarged into a regular corm,* and only a single cotyledon is at first developed (see former fig. ). with ranunculus ficaria two cotyledons are never produced, and here one of the secondary radicles is developed at an early age into a so-called bulb.** again, certain species of chaerophyllum and corydalis produce only a single cotyledon;*** in the former the hypocotyl, and in the latter the radicle is enlarged, according to irmisch, into a bulb. in the several foregoing cases one of the cotyledons is delayed in its development, or reduced in size, or rendered rudimentary, or quite aborted; but in other cases both cotyledons are represented by mere rudiments. with opuntia basilaris this is not the case, for both cotyledons are thick and large, and the hypocotyl shows at first no signs of enlargement; but afterwards, when the cotyledons have withered and disarticulated themselves, it becomes thickened, and from its tapering form, together with its smooth, tough, brown skin, appears, when ultimately drawn down to some depth into the soil, like a root. on the other * dr. h. gressner, 'bot. zeitung,' , p. . ** irmisch, 'beiträge zur morphologie der pflanzen,' , pp. , ; 'bot. zeitung,' , p. . *** delpino, 'rivista botanica,' , p. . it is evident from vaucher's account ('hist. phys. des plantes d'europe,' tom. i. , p. ) of the germination of the seeds of several species of corydalis, that the bulb or tubercule begins to be formed at an extremely early age. [page ] hand, with several other cacteae, the hypocotyl is from the first much enlarged, and both cotyledons are almost or quite rudimentary. thus with cereus landbeckii two little triangular projections, representing the cotyledons, are narrower than the hypocotyl, which is pear-shaped, with the point downwards. in rhipsalis cassytha the cotyledons are represented by mere points on the enlarged hypocotyl. in echinocactus viridescens the hypocotyl is globular, with two little prominences on its summit. in pilocereus houlletii the hypocotyl, much swollen in the upper part, is merely notched on the summit; and each side of the notch evidently represents a cotyledon. stapelia sarpedon, a member of the very distinct family of the asclepiadeae, is fleshy like a cactus; and here again the upper part of the flattened hypocotyl is much thickened and bears two minute cotyledons, which, measured internally, were only . inch in length, and in breadth not equal to one-fourth of the diameter of the hypocotyl in its narrow axis; yet these minute cotyledons are probably not quite useless, for when the hypocotyl breaks through the ground in the form of an arch, they are closed or pressed against one another, and thus protect the plumule. they afterwards open. from the several cases now given, which refer to widely distinct plants, we may infer that there is some close connection between the reduced size of one or both cotyledons and the formation, by the enlargement of the hypocotyl or of the radicle, of a so-called bulb. but it may be asked, did the cotyledons first tend to abort, or did a bulb first begin to be formed? as all dicotyledons naturally produce two well-developed cotyledons, whilst the thickness of the hypocotyl and of the radicle differs much in different plants, it seems probable that these latter organs first became from [page ] some cause thickened--in several instances apparently in correlation with the fleshy nature of the mature plant--so as to contain a store of nutriment sufficient for the seedling, and then that one or both cotyledons, from being superfluous, decreased in size. it is not surprising that one cotyledon alone should sometimes have been thus affected, for with certain plants, for instance the cabbage, the cotyledons are at first of unequal size, owing apparently to the manner in which they are packed within the seed. it does not, however, follow from the above connection, that whenever a bulb is formed at an early age, one or both cotyledons will necessarily become superfluous, and consequently more or less rudimentary. finally, these cases offer a good illustration of the principle of compensation or balancement of growth, or, as goethe expresses it, "in order to spend on one side, nature is forced to economise on the other side." circumnutation and other movements of hypocotyls and epicotyls, whilst still arched and buried beneath the ground, and whilst breaking through it.--according to the position in which a seed may chance to have been buried, the arched hypocotyl or epicotyl will begin to protrude in a horizontal, a more or less inclined, or in a vertical plane. except when already standing vertically upwards, both legs of the arch are acted on from the earliest period by apogeotropism. consequently they both bend upwards until the arch becomes vertical. during the whole of this process, even before the arch has broken through the ground, it is continually trying to circumnutate to a slight extent; as it likewise does if it happens at first to stand vertically up,--all which cases have been observed and described, more or less fully, in the last chapter. after the arch has grown to some [page ] height upwards the basal part ceases to circumnutate, whilst the upper part continues to do so. that an arched hypocotyl or epicotyl, with the two legs fixed in the ground, should be able to circumnutate, seemed to us, until we had read prof. wiesner's observations, an inexplicable fact. he has shown* in the case of certain seedlings, whose tips are bent downwards (or which nutate), that whilst the posterior side of the upper or dependent portion grows quickest, the anterior and opposite side of the basal portion of the same internode grows quickest; these two portions being separated by an indifferent zone, where the growth is equal on all sides. there may be even more than one indifferent zone in the same internode; and the opposite sides of the parts above and below each such zone grow quickest. this peculiar manner of growth is called by wiesner "undulatory nutation." circumnutation depends on one side of an organ growing quickest (probably preceded by increased turgescence), and then another side, generally almost the opposite one, growing quickest. now if we look at an arch like this [upside down u] and suppose the whole of one side--we will say the whole convex side of both legs--to increase in length, this would not cause the arch to bend to either side. but if the outer side or surface of the left leg were to increase in length the arch would be pushed over to the right, and this would be aided by the inner side of the right leg increasing in length. if afterwards the process were reversed, the arch would be pushed over to the opposite or left side, and so on alternately,--that is, it would circumnutate. as an arched hypo- * 'die undulirende nutation der internodien,' akad. der wissench. (vienna), jan. th, . also published separately, see p. . [page ] cotyl, with the two legs fixed in the ground, certainly circumnutates, and as it consists of a single internode, we may conclude that it grows in the manner described by wiesner. it may be added, that the crown of the arch does not grow, or grows very slowly, for it does not increase much in breadth, whilst the arch itself increases greatly in height. the circumnutating movements of arched hypocotyls and epicotyls can hardly fail to aid them in breaking through the ground, if this be damp and soft; though no doubt their emergence depends mainly on the force exerted by their longitudinal growth. although the arch circumnutates only to a slight extent and probably with little force, yet it is able to move the soil near the surface, though it may not be able to do so at a moderate depth. a pot with seeds of solanum palinacanthum, the tall arched hypocotyls of which had emerged and were growing rather slowly, was covered with fine argillaceous sand kept damp, and this at first closely surrounded the bases of the arches; but soon a narrow open crack was formed round each of them, which could be accounted for only by their having pushed away the sand on all sides; for no such cracks surrounded some little sticks and pins which had been driven into the sand. it has already been stated that the cotyledons of phalaris and avena, the plumules of asparagus and the hypocotyls of brassica, were likewise able to displace the same kind of sand, either whilst simply circumnutating or whilst bending towards a lateral light. as long as an arched hypocotyl or epicotyl remains buried beneath the ground, the two legs cannot separate from one another, except to a slight extent from the yielding of the soil; but as soon as the arch rises above the ground, or at an earlier period if [page ] the pressure of the surrounding earth be artificially removed, the arch immediately begins to straighten itself. this no doubt is due to growth along the whole inner surface of both legs of the arch; such growth being checked or prevented, as long as the two legs of the arch are firmly pressed together. when the earth is removed all round an arch and the two legs are tied together at their bases, the growth on the under side of the crown causes it after a time to become much flatter and broader than naturally occurs. the straightening process consists of a modified form of circumnutation, for the lines described during this process (as with the hypocotyl of brassica, and the epicotyls of vicia and corylus) were often plainly zigzag and sometimes looped. after hypocotyls or epicotyls have emerged from the ground, they quickly become perfectly straight. no trace is left of their former abrupt curvature, excepting in the case of allium cepa, in which the cotyledon rarely becomes quite straight, owing to the protuberance developed on the crown of the arch. the increased growth along the inner surface of the arch which renders it straight, apparently begins in the basal leg or that which is united to the radicle; for this leg, as we often observed, is first bowed backwards from the other leg. this movement facilitates the withdrawal of the tip of the epicotyl or of the cotyledons, as the case may be, from within the seed-coats and from the ground. but the cotyledons often emerge from the ground still tightly enclosed within the seed-coats, which apparently serve to protect them. the seed-coats are afterwards ruptured and cast off by the swelling of the closely conjoined cotyledons, and not by any movement or their separation from one another. nevertheless, in some few cases, especially with the [page ] cucurbitaceae, the seed-coats are ruptured by a curious contrivance, described by m. flahault.* a heel or peg is developed on one side of the summit of the radicle or base of the hypocotyl; and this holds down the lower half of the seed-coats (the radicle being fixed into the ground) whilst the continued growth of the arched hypocotyl forced upwards the upper half, and tears asunder the seed-coats at one end, and the cotyledons are then easily withdrawn. fig. . cucurbita ovifera: germinating seed, showing the heel or peg projecting on one side from summit of radicle and holding down lower tip of seed-coats, which have been partially ruptured by the growth of the arched hypocotyl. the accompanying figure (fig. ) will render this description intelligible. forty-one seeds of cucurbita ovifera were laid on friable peat and were covered by a layer about an inch in thickness, not much pressed down, so that the cotyledons in being dragged up were subjected to very little friction, yet forty of them came up naked, the seed-coats being left buried in the peat. this was certainly due to the action of the peg, for when it was prevented from acting, the cotyledons, as we shall presently see, were lifted up still enclosed in their seed-coats. they were, however, cast off in the course of two or three days by the swelling of the cotyledons. until this occurs light is excluded, and the cotyledons cannot decompose carbonic acid; but no one probably would have thought that the advantage thus gained by a little earlier cast- * 'bull. soc. bot. de france,' tom. xxiv. , p. . [page ] ing off of the seed-coats would be sufficient to account for the development of the peg. yet according to m. flahault, seedlings which have been prevented from casting their seed-coats whilst beneath the ground, are inferior to those which have emerged with their cotyledons naked and ready to act. the peg is developed with extraordinary rapidity; for it could only just be distinguished in two seedlings, having radicles . inch in length, but after an interval of only hours was well developed in both. it is formed, according to flahault, by the enlargement of the layers of the cortical parenchyma at the base of the hypocotyl. if, however, we judge by the effects of a solution of permanganate of potassium, it is developed on the exact line of junction between the hypocotyl and radicle; for the flat lower surface, as well as the edges, were coloured brown like the radicle; whilst the upper slightly inclined surface was left uncoloured like the hypocotyl, excepting indeed in one out of immersed seedlings in which a large part of the upper surface was coloured brown. secondary roots sometimes spring from the lower surface of the peg, which thus seems in all respects to partake of the nature of the radicle. the peg is always developed on the side which becomes concave by the arching of the hypocotyl; and it would be of no service if it were formed on any other side. it is also always developed with the flat lower side, which, as just stated, forms a part of the radicle, at right angles to it, and in a horizontal plane. this fact was clearly shown by burying some of the thin flat seeds in the same position as in fig. , excepting that they were not laid on their flat broad sides, but with one edge downwards. nine seeds were thus planted, and the peg was developed in the [page ] same position, relatively to the radicle, as in the figure; consequently it did not rest on the flat tip of the lower half of the seed-coats, but was inserted like a wedge between the two tips. as the arched hypocotyl grew upwards it tended to draw up the whole seed, and the peg necessarily rubbed against both tips, but did not hold either down. the result was, that the cotyledons of five out of the nine seeds thus placed were raised above the ground still enclosed within their seed-coats. four seeds were buried with the end from which the radicle protrudes pointing vertically downwards, and owing to the peg being always developed in the same position, its apex alone came into contact with, and rubbed against the tip on one side; the result was, that the cotyledons of all four emerged still within their seed-coats. these cases show us how the peg acts in co-ordination with the position which the flat, thin, broad seeds would almost always occupy when naturally sown. when the tip of the lower half of the seed-coats was cut off, flahault found (as we did likewise) that the peg could not act, since it had nothing to press on, and the cotyledons were raised above the ground with their seed-coats not cast off. lastly, nature shows us the use of the peg; for in the one cucurbitaceous genus known to us, in which the cotyledons are hypogean and do not cast their seed-coats, namely, megarrhiza, there is no vestige of a peg. this structure seems to be present in most of the other genera in the family, judging from flahault's statements' we found it well-developed and properly acting in trichosanthes anguina, in which we hardly expected to find it, as the cotyledons are somewhat thick and fleshy. few cases can be advanced of a structure better adapted for a special purpose than the present one. [page ] with mimosa pudica the radicle protrudes from a small hole in the sharp edge of the seed; and on its summit, where united with the hypocotyl, a transverse ridge is developed at an early age, which clearly aids in splitting the tough seed-coats; but it does not aid in casting them off, as this is subsequently effected by the swelling of the cotyledons after they have been raised above the ground. the ridge or heel therefore acts rather differently from that of cucurbita. its lower surface and the edges were coloured brown by the permanganate of potassium, but not the upper surface. it is a singular fact that after the ridge has done its work and has escaped from the seed-coats, it is developed into a frill all round the summit of the radicle.* at the base of the enlarged hypocotyl of abronia umbellata, where it blends into the radicle, there is a projection or heel which varies in shape, but its outline is too angular in our former figure (fig. ). the radicle first protrudes from a small hole at one end of the tough, leathery, winged fruit. at this period the upper part of the radicle is packed within the fruit parallel to the hypocotyl, and the single cotyledon is doubled back parallel to the latter. the swelling of these three parts, and especially the rapid development of the thick heel between the hypocotyl and radicle at the point where they are doubled, ruptures the tough fruit at the upper end and allows the arched hypocotyl to emerge; and this seems to be the function of the heel. a seed was cut out of the fruit and * our attention was called to this case by a brief statement by nobbe in his 'handbuch der samenkunde,' , p. , where a figure is also given of a seedling of martynia with a heel or ridge at the junction of the radicle and hypocotyl. this seed possesses a very hard and tough coat, and would be likely to require aid in bursting and freeing the cotyledons. [page ] allowed to germinate in damp air, and now a thin flat disc was developed all round the base of the hypocotyl and grew to an extraordinary breadth, like the frill described under mimosa, but somewhat broader. flahault says that with mirabilis, a member of the same family with abronia, a heel or collar is developed all round the base of the hypocotyl, but more on one side than on the other; and that it frees the cotyledons from their seed-coats. we observed only old seeds, and these were ruptured by the absorption of moisture, independently of any aid from the heel and before the protrusion of the radicle; but it does not follow from our experience that fresh and tough fruits would behave in a like manner. in concluding this section of the present chapter it may be convenient to summarise, under the form of an illustration, the usual movements of the hypocotyls and epicotyls of seedlings, whilst breaking through the ground and immediately afterwards. we may suppose a man to be thrown down on his hands and knees, and at the same time to one side, by a load of hay falling on him. he would first endeavour to get his arched back upright, wriggling at the same time in all directions to free himself a little from the surrounding pressure; and this may represent the combined effects of apogeotropism and circumnutation, when a seed is so buried that the arched hypocotyl or epicotyl protrudes at first in a horizontal or inclined plane. the man, still wriggling, would then raise his arched back as high as he could; and this may represent the growth and continued circumnutation of an arched hypocotyl or epicotyl, before it has reached the surface of the ground. as soon as the man felt himself at all free, he would raise the upper part of his body, whilst still on [page ] his knees and still wriggling; and this may represent the bowing backwards of the basal leg of the arch, which in most cases aids in the withdrawal of the cotyledons from the buried and ruptured seed-coats, and the subsequent straightening of the whole hypocotyl or epicotyl--circumnutation still continuing. circumnutation of hypocotyls and epicotyls, when erect.--the hypocotyls, epicotyls, and first shoots of the many seedlings observed by us, after they had become straight and erect, circumnutated continuously. the diversified figures described by them, often during two successive days, have been shown in the woodcuts in the last chapter. it should be recollected that the dots were joined by straight lines, so that the figures are angular; but if the observations had been made every few minutes the lines would have been more or less curvilinear, and irregular ellipses or ovals, or perhaps occasionally circles, would have been formed. the direction of the longer axes of the ellipses made during the same day or on successive days generally changed completely, so as to stand at right angles to one another. the number of irregular ellipses or circles made within a given time differs much with different species. thus with brassica oleracea, cerinthe major, and cucurbita ovifera about four such figures were completed in h.; whereas with solanum palinacanthum and opuntia basilaris, scarcely more than one. the figures likewise differ greatly in size; thus they were very small and in some degree doubtful in stapelia, and large in brassica, etc. the ellipses described by lathyrus nissolia and brassica were narrow, whilst those made by the oak were broad. the figures are often complicated by small loops and zigzag lines. as most seedling plants before the development of true leaves are of low, sometimes very low stature, [page ] the extreme amount of movement from side to side of their circumnutating stems was small; that of the hypocotyl of githago segetum was about . of an inch, and that of cucurbita ovifera about . . a very young shoot of lathyrus nissolia moved about . , that of an american oak . , that of the common nut only . , and a rather tall shoot of the asparagus . of an inch. the extreme amount of movement of the sheath-like cotyledon of phalaris canariensis was . of an inch; but it did not move very quickly, the tip crossing on one occasion five divisions of the micrometer, that is, / th of an inch, in m. s. a seedling nolana prostrata travelled the same distance in m. s. seedling cabbages circumnutate much more quickly, for the tip of a cotyledon crossed / th of an inch on the micrometer in m. s.; and this rapid movement, accompanied by incessant oscillations, was a wonderful spectacle when beheld under the microscope. the absence of light, for at least a day, does not interfere in the least with the circumnutation of the hypocotyls, epicotyls, or young shoots of the various dicotyledonous seedlings observed by us; nor with that of the young shoots of some monocotyledons. the circumnutation was indeed much plainer in darkness than in light, for if the light was at all lateral the stem bent towards it in a more or less zigzag course. finally, the hypocotyls of many seedlings are drawn during the winter into the ground, or even beneath it so that they disappear. this remarkable process, which apparently serves for their protection, has been fully described by de vries.* he shows that * 'bot. zeitung,' , p. . see also winkler in 'verhandl. des bot. vereins der p. brandenburg,' jahrg. xvi. p. , as quoted by haberlandt, 'schutzeinrichungen der keimpflanze,' , p. . [page ] it is effected by the contraction of the parenchyma-cells of the root. but the hypocotyl itself in some cases contracts greatly, and although at first smooth becomes covered with zigzag ridges, as we observed with githago segetum. how much of the drawing down and burying of the hypocotyl of opuntia basilaris was due to the contraction of this part and how much to that of the radicle, we did not observe. circumnutation of cotyledons.--with all the dicotyledonous seedlings described in the last chapter, the cotyledons were in constant movement, chiefly in a vertical plane, and commonly once up and once down in the course of the hours. but there were many exceptions to such simplicity of movement; thus the cotyledons of ipomoea caerulea moved times either upwards or downwards in the course of h.. m. those of oxalis rosea moved in the same manner times in the course of h.; and those of cassia tora described irregular ellipses in h. the cotyledons of some individuals of mimosa pudica and of lotus jacobaeus moved only once up and down in h., whilst those of others performed within the same period an additional small oscillation. thus with different species, and with different individuals of the same species, there were many gradations from a single diurnal movement to oscillations as complex as those of the ipomoea and cassia. the opposite cotyledons on the same seedling move to a certain extent independently of one another. this was conspicuous with those of oxalis sensitiva, in which one cotyledon might be seen during the daytime rising up until it stood vertically, whilst the opposite one was sinking down. although the movements of cotyledons were generally in nearly the same vertical plane, yet their upward and downward courses never exactly coin- [page ] cided; so that ellipses, more or less narrow, were described, and the cotyledons may safely be said to have circumnutated. nor could this fact be accounted for by the mere increase in length of the cotyledons through growth, for this by itself would not induce any lateral movement. that there was lateral movement in some instances, as with the cotyledons of the cabbage, was evident; for these, besides moving up and down, changed their course from right to left times in h. m. with solanum lycopersicum the cotyledons, after falling in the forenoon, zigzagged from side to side between and p.m., and then commenced rising. the cotyledons of lupinus luteus are so thick (about . of an inch) and fleshy,* that they seemed little likely to move, and were therefore observed with especial interest; they certainly moved largely up and down, and as the line traced was zigzag there was some lateral movement. the nine cotyledons of a seedling pinus pinaster plainly circumnutated; and the figures described approached more nearly to irregular circles than to irregular ovals or ellipses. the sheath-like cotyledons of the gramineae circumnutate, that is, move to all sides, as plainly as do the hypocotyls or epicotyls of any dicotyledonous plants. lastly, the very young fronds of a fern and of a selaginella circumnutated. in a large majority of the cases which were carefully observed, the cotyledons sink a little downwards in the forenoon, and rise a little in the afternoon or evening. they thus stand rather more highly inclined during the night than during the mid-day, at which * the cotyledons, though bright green, resemble to a certain extent hypogean ones; see the interesting discussion by haberlandt ('die schutzeinrichtungen,' etc., , p. ), on the gradations in the leguminosae between subaërial and subterranean cotyledons. [page ] time they are expanded almost horizontally. the circumnutating movement is thus at least partially periodic, no doubt in connection, as we shall hereafter see, with the daily alternations of light and darkness. the cotyledons of several plants move up so much at night as to stand nearly or quite vertically; and in this latter case they come into close contact with one another. on the other hand, the cotyledons of a few plants sink almost or quite vertically down at night; and in this latter case they clasp the upper part of the hypocotyl. in the same genus oxalis the cotyledons of certain species stand vertically up, and those of other species vertically down, at night. in all such cases the cotyledons may be said to sleep, for they act in the same manner as do the leaves of many sleeping plants. this is a movement for a special purpose, and will therefore be considered in a future chapter devoted to this subject. in order to gain some rude notion of the proportional number of cases in which the cotyledons of dicotyledonous plants (hypogean ones being of course excluded) changed their position in a conspicuous manner at night, one or more species in several genera were cursorily observed, besides those described in the last chapter. altogether genera, included in as many families as could be procured, were thus observed by us. the cotyledons were looked at in the middle of the day and again at night; and those were noted as sleeping which stood either vertically or at an angle of at least o above or beneath the horizon. of such genera there were ; and in of them the cotyledons of some of the species rose, and in only sank at night; and some of these latter cases are rather doubtful from causes to be explained in the chapter on the sleep of cotyledons. when [page ] cotyledons which at noon were nearly horizontal, stood at night at more than o and less than o above the horizon, they were recorded as "plainly raised;" and of such genera there were . we did not meet with any distinct instances of cotyledons periodically sinking only a few degrees at night, although no doubt such occur. we have now accounted for genera out of the , and there remain in which the cotyledons did not change their position at night by as much as o--that is, in a conspicuous manner which could easily be detected by the unaided eye and by memory; but it must not be inferred from this statement that these cotyledons did not move at all, for in several cases a rise of a few degrees was recorded, when they were carefully observed. the number might have been a little increased, for the cotyledons remained almost horizontal at night in some species in a few genera, for instance, trifolium and geranium, which are included amongst the sleepers, such genera might therefore have been added to the . again, one species of oxalis generally raised its cotyledons at night more than o and less than o above the horizon; so that this genus might have been included under two heads. but as several species in the same genus were not often observed, such double entries have been avoided. in a future chapter it will be shown that the leaves of many plants which do not sleep, rise a few degrees in the evening and during the early part of the night; and it will be convenient to defer until then the consideration of the periodicity of the movements of cotyledons. on the pulvini or joints of cotyledons.--with several of the seedlings described in this and the last chapter, the summit of the petiole is developed into a pulvinus, [page ] cushion, or joint (as this organ has been variously called), like that with which many leaves are provided. it consists of a mass of small cells usually of a pale colour from the absence of chlorophyll, and with its outline more or less convex, as shown in the annexed figure. in the case of oxalis sensitiva two-thirds of the petiole, and in that of mimosa pudica, apparently the whole of the short sub-petioles of the leaflets have been converted into pulvini. with pulvinated leaves (i.e. those provided with a pulvinus) their periodical movements depend, according to pfeffer,* on the cells of the pulvinus alternately expanding more quickly on one side than on the other; whereas the similar movements of leaves not provided with pulvini, depend on their growth being alternately more rapid on one side than on the other.** as long as a leaf provided with a pulvinus is young and continues to grow, its movement depends on both these causes combined;*** and if the view now held by many botanists be sound, namely, that growth is always preceded by the expansion of the growing cells, then the difference between the movements induced by the aid of pulvini and fig. . oxalis rosea: longitudinal section of a pulvinus on the summit of the petiole of a cotyledon, drawn with the camera lucida, magnified times: p, p, petiole; f, fibro-vascular bundle: b, b, commencement of blade of cotyledon. * 'die periodische bewegungen der blattorgane,' . ** batalin, 'flora,' oct. st, *** pfeffer, ibid. p. . [page ] without such aid, is reduced to the expansion of the cells not being followed by growth in the first case, and being so followed in the second case. dots were made with indian ink along the midrib of both pulvinated cotyledons of a rather old seedling of oxalis valdiviana; their distances were repeatedly measured with an eye-piece micrometer during / days, and they did not exhibit the least trace of increase. it is therefore almost certain that the pulvinus itself was not then growing. nevertheless, during this whole time and for ten days afterwards, these cotyledons rose vertically every night. in the case of some seedlings raised from seeds purchased under the name of oxalis floribunda, the cotyledons continued for a long time to move vertically down at night, and the movement apparently depended exclusively on the pulvini, for their petioles were of nearly the same length in young, and in old seedlings which had produced true leaves. with some species of cassia, on the other hand, it was obvious without any measurement that the pulvinated cotyledons continued to increase greatly in length during some weeks; so that here the expansion of the cells of the pulvini and the growth of the petiole were probably combined in causing their prolonged periodic movements. it was equally evident that the cotyledons of many plants, not provided with pulvini, increased rapidly in length; and their periodic movements no doubt were exclusively due to growth. in accordance with the view that the periodic movements of all cotyledons depend primarily on the expansion of the cells, whether or not followed by growth, we can understand the fact that there is but little difference in the kind or form of movement in the two sets of cases. this may be seen by com- [page ] paring the diagrams given in the last chapter. thus the movements of the cotyledons of brassica oleracea and of ipomoea caerulea, which are not provided with pulvini, are as complex as those of oxalis and cassia which are thus provided. the pulvinated cotyledons of some individuals of mimosa pudica and lotus jacobaeus made only a single oscillation, whilst those of other individuals moved twice up and down in the course of hours; so it was occasionally with the cotyledons of cucurbita ovifera, which are destitute of a pulvinus. the movements of pulvinated cotyledons are generally larger in extent than those without a pulvinus; nevertheless some of the latter moved through an angle of o. there is, however, one important difference in the two sets of cases; the nocturnal movements of cotyledons without pulvini, for instance, those in the cruciferae, cucurbitaceae, githago, and beta, never last even for a week, to any conspicuous degree. pulvinated cotyledons, on the other hand, continue to rise at night for a much longer period, even for more than a month, as we shall now show. but the period no doubt depends largely on the temperature to which the seedlings are exposed and their consequent rate of development. [oxalis valdiviana.--some cotyledons which had lately opened and were horizontal on march th at noon, stood at night vertically up; on the th the first true leaf was formed, and was embraced at night by the cotyledons; on april th, after an interval of days, six leaves were developed, and yet the cotyledons rose almost vertically at night. the cotyledons of another seedling, which when first observed had already produced a leaf, stood vertically at night and continued to do so for additional days. after days from the first observation two leaves were developed, and the cotyledons were still greatly raised at night. after days the cotyledons during the day were deflected beneath the horizon, but at night were raised o [page ] above it. after days from the first observation (begun after a true leaf had been developed) the cotyledons ceased to rise at night. oxalis (biophytum) sensitiva.--the cotyledons of several seedlings, days after their first expansion, stood nearly vertical at night, and closely embraced either one or two true leaves which by this time had been formed. these seedlings had been kept in a very warm house, and their development had been rapid. oxalis corniculata.--the cotyledons do not stand vertical at night, but generally rise to an angle of about o above the horizon. they continued thus to act for days after their first expansion, by which time two leaves had been formed; even after days they still rose moderately above their horizontal or downwardly deflected diurnal position. mimosa pudica.--the cotyledons were expanded for the first time on nov. nd, and stood vertical at night. on the th the first leaf was formed, and at night the cotyledons were vertical. on the th they behaved in the same manner. on dec. th, that is after days, the cotyledons were still considerably raised at night; but those of another seedling, only one day older, were raised very little. mimosa albida.--a seedling was observed during only days, by which time a leaf had been formed, and the cotyledons were then quite vertical at night. trifolium subterraneum.--a seedling, days old, had its cotyledons horizontal at . a.m. and vertical at . p.m. after an interval of two months, by which time the first and second true leaves had been developed, the cotyledons still performed the same movement. they had now increased greatly in size, and had become oval; and their petioles were actually . of an inch in length! trifolium strictum.--after days the cotyledons still rose at night, but were not afterwards observed. lotus jacoboeus.--the cotyledons of some seedlings having well-developed leaves rose to an angle of about o at night; and even after or whorls of leaves had been formed, the cotyledons rose at night considerably above their diurnal horizontal position. cassia mimosoides.--the cotyledons of this indian species, days after their first expansion, and when a leaf had been formed, stood during the day horizontal, and at night vertical. cassia sp? (a large s. brazilian tree raised from seeds sent us [page ] by f. müller).--the cotyledons, after days from their first expansion, had increased greatly in size with two leaves just formed. they stood horizontally during the day and vertically at night, but were not afterwards observed. cassia neglecta (likewise a s. brazilian species).--a seedling, days after the first expansion of its cotyledons, was between and inches in height, with well-developed leaves; and the cotyledons, which during the day were nearly horizontal, at night stood vertical, closely embracing the young stem. the cotyledons of another seedling of the same age, inches in height, with well-developed leaves, behaved at night in exactly the same manner.] it is known* that there is no difference in structure between the upper and lower halves of the pulvini of leaves, sufficient to account for their upward or downward movements. in this respect cotyledons offer an unusually good opportunity for comparing the structure of the two halves; for the cotyledons of oxalis valdiviana rise vertically at night, whilst those of o. rosea sink vertically; yet when sections of their pulvini were made, no clear difference could be detected between the corresponding halves of this organ in the two species which move so differently. with o. rosea, however, there were rather more cells in the lower than in the upper half, but this was likewise the case in one specimen of o. valdiviana. the cotyledons of both species ( ½ mm. in length) were examined in the morning whilst extended horizontally, and the upper surface of the pulvinus of o. rosea was then wrinkled transversely, showing that it was in a state of compression, and this might have been expected, as the cotyledons sink at night; with o. valdiviana it was the lower surface which was wrinkled, and its cotyledons rise at night. trifolium is a natural genus, and the leaves of all * pfeffer, 'die period. bewegungen,' , p. . [page ] the species seen by us are pulvinated; so it is with the cotyledons of t. subterraneum and strictum, which stand vertically at night; whereas those of t. resupinatum exhibit not a trace of a pulvinus, nor of any nocturnal movement. this was ascertained by measuring the distance between the tips of the cotyledons of four seedlings at mid-day and at night. in this species, however, as in the others, the first-formed leaf, which is simple or not trifoliate, rises up and sleeps like the terminal leaflet on a mature plant. in another natural genus, oxalis, the cotyledons of o. valdiviana, rosea, floribunda, articulata, and sensitiva are pulvinated, and all move at night into an upward or downward vertical position. in these several species the pulvinus is seated close to the blade of the cotyledon, as is the usual rule with most plants. oxalis corniculata (var. atro-purpurea) differs in several respects; the cotyledons rise at night to a very variable amount, rarely more than o; and in one lot of seedlings (purchased under the name of o. tropaeoloides, but certainly belonging to the above variety) they rose only from o to o above the horizon. the pulvinus is developed imperfectly and to an extremely variable degree, so that apparently it is tending towards abortion. no such case has hitherto, we believe, been described. it is coloured green from its cells containing chlorophyll; and it is seated nearly in the middle of the petiole, instead of at the upper end as in all the other species. the nocturnal movement is effected partly by its aid, and partly by the growth of the upper part of the petiole as in the case of plants destitute of a pulvinus. from these several reasons and from our having partially traced the development of the pulvinus from an early age, the case seems worth describing in some detail. [page ] [when the cotyledons of o. corniculata were dissected out of a seed from which they would soon have naturally emerged, no trace of a pulvinus could be detected; and all the cells forming the short petiole, in number in a longitudinal row, were of nearly equal size. in seedlings one or two days old, the pulvinus was so indistinct that we thought at first that it did not exist; but in the middle of the petiole an ill-defined transverse zone of cells could be seen, which were much shorter than those both above and below, although of the same breadth with them. they presented the appearance of having been just formed by the transverse division of longer cells; and there can be little doubt that this had occurred, for the cells in the petiole which had fig. . oxalis corniculata: a and b the almost rudimentary pulvini of the cotyledons of two rather old seedlings, viewed as transparent objects. magnified times. been dissected out of the seed averaged in length divisions of the micrometer (each division equalling . mm.), and were a little longer than those forming a well-developed pulvinus, which varied between and of these same divisions. after a few additional days the ill-defined zone of cells becomes distinct, and although it does not extend across the whole width of the petiole, and although the cells are of a green colour from containing chlorophyll, yet they certainly constitute a pulvinus, which as we shall presently see, acts as one. these small cells were arranged in longitudinal rows, and varied from to in number; and the cells themselves varied in length in different parts of the [page ] same pulvinus and in different individuals. in the accompanying figures, a and b (fig. ), we have views of the epidermis* in the middle part of the petioles of two seedlings, in which the pulvinus was for this species well developed. they offer a striking contrast with the pulvinus of o. rosea (see former fig. ), or of o. valdiviana. with the seedlings, falsely called o. tropaeoloides, the cotyledons of which rise very little at night, the small cells were still fewer in number and in parts formed a single transverse row, and in other parts short longitudinal rows of only two or three. nevertheless they sufficed to attract the eye, when the whole petiole was viewed as a transparent object beneath the microscope. in these seedlings there could hardly be a doubt that the pulvinus was becoming rudimentary and tending to disappear; and this accounts for its great variability in structure and function. in the following table some measurements of the cells in fairly well-developed pulvini of o. corniculata are given:-- seedling day old, with cotyledon . mm. in length. divisions of micrometer.** average length of cells of pulvinus.................................................. to length of longest cell below the pulvinus..................................... length of longest cell above the pulvinus...................................... seedling days old, cotyledon . mm. in length, with the pulvinus quite distinct. average length of cells of pulvinus.................................................. length of longest cell below the pulvinus..................................... length of longest cell above the pulvinus...................................... seedling days old, cotyledon mm. in length, with a true leaf formed but not yet expanded. average length of cells of pulvinus.................................................. length of longest cell below the pulvinus..................................... length of longest cell above the pulvinus...................................... seedling days old, cotyledon . mm. in length, with a small true leaf fully developed. average length of cells of pulvinus.................................................. length of longest cell below the pulvinus..................................... length of longest cell above the pulvinus...................................... ______________________________________ * longitudinal sections show that the forms of the epidermic cells may be taken as a fair representation of those constituting the pulvinus. ** each division equalled . mm. [page ] we here see that the cells of the pulvinus increase but little in length with advancing age, in comparison with those of the petiole both above and below it; but they continue to grow in width, and keep equal in this respect with the other cells of the petiole. the rate of growth, however, varies in all parts of the cotyledons, as may be observed in the measurements of the -days' old seedling. the cotyledons of seedlings only a day old rise at night considerably, sometimes as much as afterwards; but there was much variation in this respect. as the pulvinus is so indistinct at first, the movement probably does not then depend on the expansion of its cells, but on periodically unequal growth in the petiole. by the comparison of seedlings of different known ages, it was evident that the chief seat of growth of the petiole was in the upper part between the pulvinus and the blade; and this agrees with the fact (shown in the measurements above given) that the cells grow to a greater length in the upper than in the lower part. with a seedling days old, the nocturnal rise was found to depend largely on the action of the pulvinus, for the petiole at night was curved upwards at this point; and during the day, whilst the petiole was horizontal, the lower surface of the pulvinus was wrinkled with the upper surface tense. although the cotyledons at an advanced age do not rise at night to a higher inclination than whilst young, yet they have to pass through a larger angle (in one instance amounting to o) to gain their nocturnal position, as they are generally deflected beneath the horizon during the day. even with the -days' old seedling the movement did not depend exclusively on the pulvinus, for the blade where joined to the petiole was curved upwards, and this must be attributed to unequal growth. therefore the periodic movements of the cotyledons of 'o. corniculata' depend on two distinct but conjoint actions, namely, the expansion of the cells of the pulvinus and on the growth of the upper part of the petiole, including the base of the blade. lotus jacoboeus.--the seedlings of this plant present a case parallel to that of oxalis corniculata in some respects, and in others unique, as far as we have seen. the cotyledons during the first or days of their life do not exhibit any plain nocturnal movement; but afterwards they stand vertically or almost vertically up at night. there is, however, some degree of variability in this respect, apparently dependent on the season and on the degree to which they have been illuminated during [page ] the day. with older seedlings, having cotyledons mm. in length, which rise considerably at night, there is a well-developed pulvinus close to the blade, colourless, and rather narrower than the rest of the petiole, from which it is abruptly separated. it is formed of a mass of small cells of an average length of . mm.; whereas the cells in the lower part of the petiole are about . mm., and those in the blade from . to . mm. in length. the epidermic cells in the lower part of the petiole project conically, and thus differ in shape from those over the pulvinus. turning now to very young seedlings, the cotyledons of which do not rise at night and are only from to ½ mm. in length, their petioles do not exhibit any defined zone of small cells, destitute of chlorophyll and differing in shape exteriorly from the lower ones. nevertheless, the cells at the place where a pulvinus will afterwards be developed are smaller (being on an average . mm. in length) than those in the lower parts of the same petiole, which gradually become larger in proceeding downwards, the largest being . mm. in length. at this early age the cells of the blade are about . mm. in length. we thus see that the pulvinus is formed by the cells in the uppermost part of the petiole, continuing for only a short time to increase in length, then being arrested in their growth, accompanied by the loss of their chlorophyll grains; whilst the cells in the lower part of the petiole continue for a long time to increase in length, those of the epidermis becoming more conical. the singular fact of the cotyledons of this plant not sleeping at first is therefore due to the pulvinus not being developed at an early age.] we learn from these two cases of lotus and oxalis, that the development of a pulvinus follows from the growth of the cells over a small defined space of the petiole being almost arrested at an early age. with lotus jacobaeus the cells at first increase a little in length; in oxalis corniculata they decrease a little, owing to self-division. a mass of such small cells forming a pulvinus, might therefore be either acquired or lost without any special difficulty, by different species in the same natural genus: and we know that [page ] with seedlings of trifolium, lotus, and oxalis some of the species have a well-developed pulvinus, and others have none, or one in a rudimentary condition. as the movements caused by the alternate turgescence of the cells in the two halves of a pulvinus, must be largely determined by the extensibility and subsequent contraction of their walls, we can perhaps understand why a large number of small cells will be more efficient than a small number of large cells occupying the same space. as a pulvinus is formed by the arrestment of the growth of its cells, movements dependent on their action may be long-continued without any increase in length of the part thus provided; and such long-continued movements seem to be one chief end gained by the development of a pulvinus. long-continued movement would be impossible in any part, without an inordinate increase in its length, if the turgescence of the cells was always followed by growth. disturbance of the periodic movements of cotyledons by light.--the hypocotyls and cotyledons of most seedling plants are, as is well known, extremely heliotropic; but cotyledons, besides being heliotropic, are affected paratonically (to use sachs' expression) by light; that is, their daily periodic movements are greatly and quickly disturbed by changes in its intensity or by its absence. it is not that they cease to circumnutate in darkness, for in all the many cases observed by us they continued to do so; but the normal order of their movements in relation to the alternations of day and night is much disturbed or quite annulled. this holds good with species the cotyledons of which rise or sink so much at night that they may be said to sleep, as well as with others which rise only a little. but different species are affected in very different degrees by changes in the light. [page ] [for instance, the cotyledons of beta vulgaris, solanum lycopersicum, cerinthe major, and lupinus luteus, when placed in darkness, moved down during the afternoon and early night, instead of rising as they would have done if they had been exposed to the light. all the individuals of the solanum did not behave in the same manner, for the cotyledons of one circumnutated about the same spot between . and p.m. the cotyledons of a seedling of oxalis corniculata, which was feebly illuminated from above, moved downwards during the first morning in the normal manner, but on the second morning it moved upwards. the cotyledons of lotus jacoboeus were not affected by h. of complete darkness, but when placed under a double skylight and thus feebly illuminated, they quite lost their periodical movements on the third morning. on the other hand, the cotyledons of cucurbita ovifera moved in the normal manner during a whole day in darkness. seedlings of githago segetum were feebly illuminated from above in the morning before their cotyledons had expanded, and they remained closed for the next h. other seedlings were placed in the dark after their cotyledons had opened in the morning and these did not begin to close until about h. had elapsed. the cotyledons of oxalis rosea sank vertically downwards after being left for h. m. in darkness; but those of some other species of oxalis were not affected by several hours of darkness. the cotyledons of several species of cassia are eminently susceptible to changes in the degree of light to which they are exposed: thus seedlings of an unnamed s. brazilian species (a large and beautiful tree) were brought out of the hot-house and placed on a table in the middle of a room with two north-east and one north-west window, so that they were fairly well illuminated, though of course less so than in the hot-house, the day being moderately bright; and after m. the cotyledons which had been horizontal rose up vertically and closed together as when asleep; after thus remaining on the table for h. m. they began to open. the cotyledons of young seedlings of another brazilian species and of c. neglecta, treated in the same manner, behaved similarly, excepting that they did not rise up quite so much: they again became horizontal after about an hour. here is a more interesting case: seedlings of cassia tora in two pots, which had stood for some time on the table in the room just described, had their cotyledons horizontal. one pot was now exposed for h. to dull sunshine, and the cotyledons [page ] remained horizontal; it was then brought back to the table, and after m. the cotyledons had risen o above the horizon. the other pot was placed during the same h. behind a screen in the room, where the light was very obscure, and the cotyledons rose o above the horizon; the pot was then replaced on the table, and after m. the cotyledons had fallen o. these two pots with seedlings of the same age stood close together, and were exposed to exactly the same amount of light, yet the cotyledons in the one pot were rising, whilst those in the other pot were at the same time sinking. this fact illustrates in a striking manner that their movements are not governed by the actual amount, but by a change in the intensity or degree of the light. a similar experiment was tried with two sets of seedlings, both exposed to a dull light, but different in degree, and the result was the same. the movements of the cotyledons of this cassia are, however, determined (as in many other cases) largely by habit or inheritance, independently of light; for seedlings which had been moderately illuminated during the day, were kept all night and on the following morning in complete darkness; yet the cotyledons were partially open in the morning and remained open in the dark for about h. the cotyledons in another pot, similarly treated on another occasion, were open at a.m. and remained open in the dark for h. m., after which time they began to close. yet these same seedlings, when brought in the middle of the day from a moderately bright into only a moderately dull light raised, as we have seen, their cotyledons high above the horizon. sensitiveness of cotyledons to contact.--this subject does not possess much interest, as it is not known that sensitiveness of this kind is of any service to seedling plants. we have observed cases in only four genera, though we have vainly observed the cotyledons of many others. the genus cassia seems to be pre-eminent in this respect: thus, the cotyledons of c. tora, when extended horizontally, were both lightly tapped with a very thin twig for m. and in the course of a few minutes they formed together an angle of o, so that each had risen o. a single cotyledon of another seedling was tapped in a like manner for m., and it rose o in m.; and after eight additional minutes it had risen o more; the opposite cotyledon, which was not tapped, hardly moved at all. the cotyledons in all these cases became horizontal again in less than half an hour. the pulvinus is the most sensitive part, for on slightly pricking three cotyledons with a [page ] pin in this part, they rose up vertically; but the blade was found also to be sensitive, care having been taken that the pulvinus was not touched. drops of water placed quietly on these cotyledons produced no effect, but an extremely fine stream of water, ejected from a syringe, caused them to move upwards. when a pot of seedlings was rapidly hit with a stick and thus jarred, the cotyledons rose slightly. when a minute drop of nitric acid was placed on both pulvini of a seedling, the cotyledons rose so quickly that they could easily be seen to move, and almost immediately afterwards they began to fall; but the pulvini had been killed and became brown. the cotyledons of an unnamed species of cassia (a large tree from s. brazil) rose o in the course of m. after the pulvini and the blades had both been rubbed during m. with a twig; but when the blade alone was similarly rubbed the cotyledons rose only o. the remarkably long and narrow cotyledons, of a third unnamed species from s. brazil, did not move when their blades were rubbed on six occasions with a pointed stick for s. or for m.; but when the pulvinus was rubbed and slightly pricked with a pin, the cotyledons rose in the course of a few minutes through an angle of o. several cotyledons of c. neglecta (likewise from s. brazil) rose in from m. to m. to various angles between o and o, after being rubbed during m. with a twig. their sensitiveness is retained to a somewhat advanced age, for the cotyledons of a little plant of c. neglecta, days old and bearing three true leaves, rose when lightly pinched between the finger and thumb. some seedlings were exposed for m. to a wind (temp. o f.) sufficiently strong to keep the cotyledons vibrating, but this to our surprise did not cause any movement. the cotyledons of four seedlings of the indian c. glauca were either rubbed with a thin twig for m. or were lightly pinched: one rose o; a second only o; a third o; and a fourth o. a cotyledon of c. florida similarly treated rose o; one of c. corymbosa rose / o, and one of the very distinct c. mimosoides only o. those of c. pubescens did not appear to be in the least sensitive; nor were those of c. nodosa, but these latter are rather thick and fleshy, and do not rise at night or go to sleep. smithia sensitiva.--this plant belongs to a distinct sub-order of the leguminosae from cassia. both cotyledons of an oldish seedling, with the first true leaf partially unfolded, were rubbed for m. with a fine twig, and in m. each rose o; they [page ] remained in this position for m., but when looked at again m. after the rubbing, each had fallen o. both cotyledons of another and younger seedling were lightly rubbed in the same manner for m., and after an interval of m. each had risen o. they were hardly at all sensitive to a fine jet of water. the cotyledons of s. pfundii, an african water plant, are thick and fleshy; they are not sensitive and do not go to sleep. mimosa pudica and albida.--the blades of several cotyledons of both these plants were rubbed or slightly scratched with a needle during m. or m.; but they did not move in the least. when, however, the pulvini of six cotyledons of m. pudica were thus scratched, two of them were slightly raised. in these two cases perhaps the pulvinus was accidentally pricked, for on pricking the pulvinus of another cotyledon it rose a little. it thus appears that the cotyledons of mimosa are less sensitive than those of the previously mentioned plants.* oxalis sensitiva.--the blades and pulvini of two cotyledons, standing horizontally, were rubbed or rather tickled for s. with a fine split bristle, and in m. each had risen o; when looked at again in m. after being rubbed they had risen o more; after additional minutes they were again horizontal. on hitting a pot rapidly with a stick for m., the cotyledons of two seedlings were considerably raised in the course of m. a pot was carried a little distance on a tray and thus jolted; and the cotyledons of four seedlings were all raised in m.; after m. one had risen o, a second o, a third almost o, and a fourth o. after an additional interval of m. three of them had re-expanded to a considerable extent. these observations were made before we were aware at what an extraordinarily rapid rate the cotyledons circumnutate, and are therefore liable to error. nevertheless it is extremely improbable that the cotyledons in the eight cases given, should all have been rising at the time when they were irritated. the cotyledons of oxalis valdiviana and rosea were rubbed and did not exhibit any sensitiveness.] finally, there seems to exist some relation between * the sole notice which we have met with on the sensitiveness of cotyledons, relates to mimosa; for aug. p. de candolle says ('phys. vég.,' , tom. ii. p. ), "les cotyledons du m. pudica tendent à se raprocher par leurs faces supérieures lorsqu'on les irrite." [page ] the habit of cotyledons rising vertically at night or going to sleep, and their sensitiveness, especially that of their pulvini, to a touch; for all the above-named plants sleep at night. on the other hand, there are many plants the cotyledons of which sleep, and are not in the least sensitive. as the cotyledons of several species of cassia are easily affected both by slightly diminished light and by contact, we thought that these two kinds of sensitiveness might be connected; but this is not necessarily the case, for the cotyledons of oxalis sensitiva did not rise when kept on one occasion for ½ h., and on a second occasion for nearly h., in a dark closet. some other cotyledons, as those of githago segetum, are much affected by a feeble light, but do not move when scratched by a needle. that with the same plant there is some relation between the sensitiveness of its cotyledons and leaves seems highly probable, for the above described smithia and oxalis have been called sensitiva, owing to their leaves being sensitive; and though the leaves of the several species of cassia are not sensitive to a touch, yet if a branch be shaken or syringed with water, they partially assume their nocturnal dependent position. but the relation between the sensitiveness to contact of the cotyledons and of the leaves of the same plant is not very close, as may be inferred from the cotyledons of mimosa pudica being only slightly sensitive, whilst the leaves are well known to be so in the highest degree. again, the leaves of neptunia oleracea are very sensitive to a touch, whilst the cotyledons do not appear to be so in any degree. [page ] chapter iii. sensitiveness of the apex of the radicle to contact and to other irritants. manner in which radicles bend when they encounter an obstacle in the soil-- vicia faba, tips of radicles highly sensitive to contact and other irritants--effects of too high a temperature--power of discriminating between objects attached on opposite sides--tips of secondary radicles sensitive--pisum, tips of radicles sensitive--effects of such sensitiveness in overcoming geotropism--secondary radicles--phaseolus, tips of radicles hardly sensitive to contact, but highly sensitive to caustic and to the removal of a slice--tropaeolum--gossypium--cucurbita--raphanus--aesculus, tip not sensitive to slight contact, highly sensitive to caustic--quercus, tip highly sensitive to contact--power of discrimination--zea, tip highly sensitive, secondary radicles--sensitiveness of radicles to moist air-- summary of chapter. in order to see how the radicles of seedlings would pass over stones, roots, and other obstacles, which they must incessantly encounter in the soil, germinating beans (vicia faba) were so placed that the tips of the radicles came into contact, almost rectangularly or at a high angle, with underlying plates of glass. in other cases the beans were turned about whilst their radicles were growing, so that they descended nearly vertically on their own smooth, almost flat, broad upper surfaces. the delicate root-cap, when it first touched any directly opposing surface, was a little flattened transversely; the flattening soon became oblique, and in a few hours quite disappeared, the apex now pointing at right angles, or at nearly right angles, to its former course. the radicle then seemed to glide in its new direction over the surface which had opposed [page ] it, pressing on it with very little force. how far such abrupt changes in its former course are aided by the circumnutation of the tip must be left doubtful. thin slips of wood were cemented on more or less steeply inclined glass-plates, at right angles to the radicles which were gliding down them. straight lines had been painted along the growing terminal part of some of these radicles, before they met the opposing slip of wood; and the lines became sensibly curved in h. after the apex had come into contact with the slips. in one case of a radicle, which was growing rather slowly, the root-cap, after encountering a rough slip of wood at right angles, was at first slightly flattened transversely: after an interval of h. m. the flattening became oblique; and after an additional hours the flattening had wholly disappeared, and the apex now pointed at right angles to its former course. it then continued to grow in its new direction alongside the slip of wood, until it came to the end of it, round which it bent rectangularly. soon afterwards when coming to the edge of the plate of glass, it was again bent at a large angle, and descended perpendicularly into the damp sand. when, as in the above cases, radicles encountered an obstacle at right angles to their course, the terminal growing part became curved for a length of between . and . of an inch ( - mm.), measured from the apex. this was well shown by the black lines which had been previously painted on them. the first and most obvious explanation of the curvature is, that it results merely from the mechanical resistance to the growth of the radicle in its original direction. nevertheless, this explanation did not seem to us satisfactory. the radicles did not present the appearance of having been subjected to a sufficient pressure to account for [page ] their curvature; and sachs has shown* that the growing part is more rigid than the part immediately above which has ceased to grow, so that the latter might have been expected to yield and become curved as soon as the apex encountered an unyielding object; whereas it was the stiff growing part which became curved. moreover, an object which yields with the greatest ease will deflect a radicle: thus, as we have seen, when the apex of the radicle of the bean encountered the polished surface of extremely thin tin-foil laid on soft sand, no impression was left on it, yet the radicle became deflected at right angles. a second explanation occurred to us, namely, that even the gentlest pressure might check the growth of the apex, and in this case growth could continue only on one side, and thus the radicle would assume a rectangular form; but this view leaves wholly unexplained the curvature of the upper part, extending for a length of - mm. we were therefore led to suspect that the apex was sensitive to contact, and that an effect was transmitted from it to the upper part of the radicle, which was thus excited to bend away from the touching object. as a little loop of fine thread hung on a tendril or on the petiole of a leaf-climbing plant, causes it to bend, we thought that any small hard object affixed to the tip of a radicle, freely suspended and growing in damp air, might cause it to bend, if it were sensitive, and yet would not offer any mechanical resistance to its growth. full details will be given of the experiments which were tried, as the result proved remarkable. the fact of the apex of a radicle being sensitive to contact has never been observed, though, as we shall * 'arbeiten bot. inst. würzburg,' heft iii. , p. . [page ] hereafter see, sachs discovered that the radicle a little above the apex is sensitive, and bends like a tendril towards the touching object. but when one side of the apex is pressed by any object, the growing part bends away from the object; and this seems a beautiful adaptation for avoiding obstacles in the soil, and, as we shall see, for following the lines of least resistance. many organs, when touched, bend in one fixed direction, such as the stamens of berberis, the lobes of dionaea, etc.; and many organs, such as tendrils, whether modified leaves or flower-peduncles, and some few stems, bend towards a touching object; but no case, we believe, is known of an organ bending away from a touching object. sensitiveness of the apex of the radicle of vicia faba.--common beans, after being soaked in water for h., were pinned with the hilum downwards (in the manner followed by sachs), inside the cork lids of glass-vessels, which were half filled with water; the sides and the cork were well moistened, and light was excluded. as soon as the beans had protruded radicles, some to a length of less than a tenth of an inch, and others to a length of several tenths, little squares or oblongs of card were affixed to the short sloping sides of their conical tips. the squares therefore adhered obliquely with reference to the longitudinal axis of the radicle; and this is a very necessary precaution, for if the bits of card accidentally became displaced, or were drawn by the viscid matter employed so as to adhere parallel to the side of the radicle, although only a little way above the conical apex, the radicle did not bend in the peculiar manner which we are here considering. squares of about the / th of an inch (i.e. about ½ mm.), or oblong bits of nearly the same size, were found to [page ] be the most convenient and effective. we employed at first ordinary thin card, such as visiting cards, or bits of very thin glass, and various other objects; but afterwards sand-paper was chiefly employed, for it was almost as stiff as thin card, and the roughened surface favoured its adhesion. at first we generally used very thick gum-water; and this of course, under the circumstances, never dried in the least; on the contrary, it sometimes seemed to absorb vapour, so that the bits of card became separated by a layer of fluid from the tip. when there was no such absorption and the card was not displaced, it acted well and caused the radicle to bend to the opposite side. i should state that thick gum-water by itself induces no action. in most cases the bits of card were touched with an extremely small quantity of a solution of shellac in spirits of wine, which had been left to evaporate until it was thick; it then set hard in a few seconds, and fixed the bits of card well. when small drops of the shellac were placed on the tips without any card, they set into hard little beads, and these acted like any other hard object, causing the radicles to bend to the opposite side. even extremely minute beads of the shellac occasionally acted in a slight degree, as will hereafter be described. but that it was the cards which chiefly acted in our many trials, was proved by coating one side of the tip with a little bit of goldbeaters' skin (which by itself hardly acts), and then fixing a bit of card to the skin with shellac which never came into contact with the radicle: nevertheless the radicle bent away from the attached card in the ordinary manner. some preliminary trials were made, presently to be described, by which the proper temperature was determined, and then the following experiments were made. it should be premised that the beans were [page ] always fixed to the cork-lids, for the convenience of manipulation, with the edge from which the radicle and plumule protrudes, outwards; and it must be remembered that owing to what we have called sachs' curvature, the radicles, instead of growing perpendicularly downwards, often bend somewhat, even as much fig. . vicia faba: a, radicle beginning to bend from the attached little square of card; b, bent at a rectangle; c, bent into a circle or loop, with the tip beginning to bend downwards through the action of geotropism. as about o inwards, or under the suspended bean. therefore when a square of card was fixed to the apex in front, the bowing induced by it coincided with sachs' curvature, and could be distinguished from it only by being more strongly pronounced or by occurring more quickly. to avoid this source of doubt, the squares [page ] were fixed either behind, causing a curvature in direct opposition to that of sachs', or more commonly to the right or left sides. for the sake of brevity, we will speak of the bits of card, etc., as fixed in front, or behind, or laterally. as the chief curvature of the radicle is at a little distance from the apex, and as the extreme terminal and basal portions are nearly straight, it is possible to estimate in a rough manner the amount of curvature by an angle; and when it is said that the radicle became deflected at any angle from the perpendicular, this implies that the apex was turned upwards by so many degrees from the downward direction which it would naturally have followed, and to the side opposite to that to which the card was affixed. that the reader may have a clear idea of the kind of movement excited by the bits of attached card, we append here accurate sketches of three germinating beans thus treated, and selected out of several specimens to show the gradations in the degrees of curvature. we will now give in detail a series of experiments, and afterwards a summary of the results. [in the first trials, little squares or oblongs of sanded card, . mm. in length, and . or only . mm. in breadth (i.e. . of an inch in length and . or . of an inch in breadth) were fixed with shellac to the tips of the radicles. in the subsequent trials the little squares were only occasionally measured, but were of about the same size. ( .) a young radicle, mm. in length, had a card fixed behind: after h. deflected in the plane in which the bean is flattened, o from the perpendicular and from the card, and in opposition to sachs' curvature: no change next morning, h. from the time of attachment. ( .) radicle . mm. in length, card fixed behind: after h. deflected in the plane of the bean o from the perpendicular and from the card, and in opposition to sachs' curvature: after h. no change. [page ] ( .) radicle mm. in length, card fixed behind: after h. deflected in the plane of the bean o from the perpendicular and from the card, and in opposition to sachs' curvature. the tip of the radicle more curved than the upper part, but in the same plane. after h. the extreme tip was slightly bent towards the card; the general curvature of the radicle remaining the same. ( .) radicle mm. long, card fixed behind and a little laterally: after h. deflected in the plane of the bean only about o or o from the perpendicular and from the card, in opposition to sachs' curvature. there was in addition a slight lateral curvature directed partly from the card. after h. no change. ( .) radicle mm. long, card affixed almost laterally: after h. deflected o from the perpendicular, in the plane of the bean and in opposition to sachs' curvature; also deflected in a plane at right angles to the above one, o from the perpendicular: after h. no change. ( .) radicle mm. long, card affixed in front: after h. deflected in the plane of the bean about o from the vertical, away from the card and in the direction of sachs' curvature. here therefore we have no evidence of the card being the cause of the deflection, except that a radicle never moves spontaneously, as far as we have seen, as much as o in the course of h. after h. no change. ( .) radicle mm. long, card affixed to the back: after h. the terminal part of the radicle deflected in the plane of the bean o from the vertical, away from the card and in opposition to sachs' curvature. after h. m. this part of the radicle had become straight. ( .) radicle mm. long, card affixed almost laterally: after h. deflected laterally in a plane at right angles to that of the bean between o and o from the vertical and from the card. in the plane of the bean itself the deflection amounted to o or o from the vertical and from the card, in opposition to sachs' curvature. after h. m. the extreme tip had become slightly curved towards the card. ( .) card fixed laterally: after h. m. no effect, the radicle being still almost vertical. ( .) card fixed almost laterally: after h. m. deflected o from the vertical and from the card, in a plane intermediate between that of the bean itself and one at right [page ] angles to it. radicle consequently partially deflected from sachs' curvature. ( .) tip of radicle protected with goldbeaters' skin, with a square of card of the usual dimensions affixed with shellac: after h. greatly deflected in the plane of the bean, in the direction of sachs' curvature, but to a much greater degree and in less time than ever occurs spontaneously. ( .) tip of radicle protected as in last case: after h. no effect, but after h. m. radicle clearly deflected from the card. this slow action was probably due to a portion of the goldbeaters' skin having curled round and lightly touched the opposite side of the tip and thus irritated it. ( .) a radicle of considerable length had a small square of card fixed with shellac to its apex laterally: after only h. m. a length of . of an inch from the apex, measured along the middle, was considerably curved from the side bearing the card. ( .) case like the last in all respects, except that a length of only . of an inch of the radicle was thus deflected. ( .) a small square of card fixed with shellac to the apex of a young radicle; after h. m. deflected through o from the perpendicular and from the card. after h. deflection much decreased, and after an additional day, reduced to o from the perpendicular. ( .) square of card fixed with shellac behind the apex of a radicle, which from its position having been changed during growth had become very crooked; but the terminal portion was straight, and this became deflected to about o from the perpendicular and from the card, in opposition to sachs' curvature. ( .) square of card affixed with shellac: after h. radicle curved at right angles from the perpendicular and from the card. after additional hours curvature much decreased. ( .) square of card affixed with shellac: after h. no effect; after h. m. from time of affixing, radicle much curved from the square. ( .) square of card affixed with shellac: after h. no effect, but the radicle had not grown well and seemed sickly. ( .) square of card affixed with shellac: after h. no effect. ( , .) squares of card affixed with shellac: after h. radicles of both curved at about o from the perpendicular and from the cards. ( .) square of card fixed with shellac to young radicle: after [page ] h. very slightly curved from the card; after h. tip curved towards card. refixed new square laterally, after h. distinctly curved from the card, and after h. curved at right angles from the perpendicular and from the card. ( .) a rather large oblong piece of card fixed with shellac to apex: after h. no effect, but the card was found not to be touching the apex. a small square was now refixed with shellac; after h. slight deflection from the perpendicular and from the card. after an additional day the radicle became almost straight. ( .) square of card fixed laterally to apex of young radicle; after h. deflection from the perpendicular considerable; after h. deflection reduced. refixed a fresh square with shellac: after h. deflection about o from the perpendicular and from the card. ( .) a very small square of card fixed with shellac to apex of young radicle: after h. the deflection from the perpendicular and from the card amounted to nearly a right angle; after h. deflection much reduced; after an additional h. radicle almost straight. ( .) square of card fixed with shellac to apex of young radicle: after h. deflection from the card and from the perpendicular a right angle; next morning quite straight. refixed a square laterally with shellac; after h. a little deflection, which after h. increased to nearly o from the perpendicular and from the card. ( .) square of card fixed with shellac; after h. some deflection; next morning the card dropped off; refixed it with shellac; it again became loose and was refixed; and now on the third trial the radicle was deflected after h. at right angles from the card. ( .) a small square of card was first fixed with thick gum-water to the apex. it produced a slight effect but soon fell off. a similar square was now affixed laterally with shellac: after h. the radicle was deflected nearly o from the perpendicular and from the card. after additional hours angle of deflection reduced to about o. ( .) a very small piece, less than / th of an inch square, of thin tin-foil fixed with shellac to the apex of a young radicle; after h. no effect. tin-foil removed, and a small square of sanded card fixed with shellac; after h. deflection at nearly right angles from the perpendicular and from the card. next [page ] morning deflection reduced to about o from the perpendicular. ( .) a splinter of thin glass gummed to apex, after h. no effect, but it was then found not to be touching the apex of the radicle. next morning a square of card was fixed with shellac to it, and after h. radicle greatly deflected from the card. after two additional days the deflection had decreased and was only o from the perpendicular. ( .) small square of sanded card, attached with thick gum-water laterally to the apex of a long straight radicle: after h. greatly deflected from the perpendicular and from the card. curvature extended for a length of . of an inch from the apex. after additional hours terminal portion deflected at right angles from the perpendicular. next morning the curved portion was . in length. ( .) square of card gummed to apex: after h. deflected at nearly o from the perpendicular and from the card. ( .) small oblong of sanded card gummed to apex: after h. deflected o from the perpendicular and from the card: in the course of the three following days the terminal portion became much contorted and ultimately coiled into a helix. ( .) square of card gummed to apex: after h. deflected from card: after h. from time of attachment greatly deflected obliquely and partly in opposition to sachs' curvature. ( .) small piece of card, rather less than / th of an inch square, gummed to apex: in h. considerably deflected from card and in opposition to sachs' curvature; after h. greatly deflected in the same direction. after an additional day the extreme tip was curved towards the card. ( .) square of card, gummed to apex in front, caused after h. m. hardly any effect; refixed fresh square laterally, after h. deflected almost o from the perpendicular and from the card. after additional days deflection much reduced. ( .) square of card gummed to apex: after h. much deflection, which after h. from time of fixing increased to nearly o. after an additional day terminal portion was curled into a loop, and on the following day into a helix. ( .) small oblong piece of card gummed to apex, nearly in front, but a little to one side; in h. slightly deflected in the direction of sachs' curvature, but rather obliquely, and to side opposite to card. next day more curved in the same direction, and after additional days coiled into a ring. [page ] ( .) square of card gummed to apex: after h. slightly curved from card; next morning radicle straight, and apex had grown beyond the card. refixed another square laterally with shellac; in h. deflected laterally, but also in the direction of sachs' curvature. after additional days' curvature considerably increased in the same direction. ( .) little square of tin-foil fixed with gum to one side of apex of a young and short radicle: after h. no effect, but tin-foil had become displaced. a little square of card was now gummed to one side of apex, which after h. m. was slightly deflected; in h. from the time of attachment deflected at o from the perpendicular and from the card; after additional hours became hooked, with the apex pointing to the zenith. in days from the time of attachment the terminal portion of the radicle formed a ring or circle. ( .) a little square of thick letter-paper gummed to the apex of a radicle, which after h. was deflected from it. in h. from time when the paper was affixed the deflection much increased, and after additional days it amounted to o from the perpendicular and from the paper. ( .) a narrow chip of a quill was fixed with shellac to the apex of a radicle. after h. no effect; after h. moderate deflection, but now the quill had ceased to touch the apex. removed quill and gummed a little square of card to apex, which after h. caused slight deflection. on the fourth day from the first attachment of any object, the extreme tip was curved towards the card. ( .) a rather long and narrow splinter of extremely thin glass, fixed with shellac to apex, it caused in h. slight deflection, which disappeared in h.; the splinter was then found not touching the apex. it was twice refixed, with nearly similar results, that is, it caused slight deflection, which soon disappeared. on the fourth day from the time of first attachment the tip was bent towards the splinter.] from these experiments it is clear that the apex of the radicle of the bean is sensitive to contact, and that it causes the upper part to bend away from the touching object. but before giving a summary of the results, it will be convenient briefly to give a few other observations. bits of very thin glass and little squares [page ] of common card were affixed with thick gum-water to the tips of the radicles of seven beans, as a preliminary trial. six of these were plainly acted on, and in two cases the radicles became coiled up into complete loops. one radicle was curved into a semi-circle in so short a period as h. m. the seventh radicle which was not affected was apparently sickly, as it became brown on the following day; so that it formed no real exception. some of these trials were made in the early spring during cold weather in a sitting-room, and others in a greenhouse, but the temperature was not recorded. these six striking cases almost convinced us that the apex was sensitive, but of course we determined to make many more trials. as we had noticed that the radicles grew much more quickly when subjected to considerable heat, and as we imagined that heat would increase their sensitiveness, vessels with germinating beans suspended in damp air were placed on a chimney-piece, where they were subjected during the greater part of the day to a temperature of between o and o f.; some, however, were placed in the hot-house where the temperature was rather higher. above two dozen beans were thus tried; and when a square of glass or card did not act, it was removed, and a fresh one affixed, this being often done thrice to the same radicle. therefore between five and six dozen trials were altogether made. but there was moderately distinct deflection from the perpendicular and from the attached object in only one radicle out of this large number of cases. in five other cases there was very slight and doubtful deflection. we were astonished at this result, and concluded that we had made some inexplicable mistake in the first six experiments. but before finally relinquishing the subject, we resolved to make one [page ] other trial for it occurred to us that sensitiveness is easily affected by external conditions, and that radicles growing naturally in the earth in the early spring would not be subjected to a temperature nearly so high as o f. we therefore allowed the radicles of beans to grow at a temperature of between o and o f. the result was that in every one of these cases (included in the above-described experiments) the radicle was deflected in the course of a few hours from the attached object. all the above recorded successful trials, and some others presently to be given, were made in a sitting-room at the temperatures just specified. it therefore appears that a temperature of about, or rather above, o f. destroys the sensitiveness of the radicles, either directly, or indirectly through abnormally accelerated growth; and this curious fact probably explains why sachs, who expressly states that his beans were kept at a high temperature, failed to detect the sensitiveness of the apex of the radicle. but other causes interfere with this sensibility. eighteen radicles were tried with little squares of sanded card, some affixed with shellac and some with gum-water, during the few last days of , and few first days of the next year. they were kept in a room at the proper temperature during the day, but were probably too cold at night, as there was a hard frost at the time. the radicles looked healthy but grew very slowly. the result was that only out of the were deflected from the attached cards, and this only to a slight degree and at a very slow rate. these radicles therefore presented a striking contrast with the above described. on march th and th, when the temperature of the room varied between o and o f., eleven germinating beans were tried in the [page ] same manner, and now every one of the radicles became curved away from the cards, though one was only slightly deflected. some horticulturists believe that certain kinds of seeds will not germinate properly in the middle of the winter, although kept at a right temperature. if there really is any proper period for the germination of the bean, the feeble degree of sensibility of the above radicles may have resulted from the trial having been made in the middle of the winter, and not simply from the nights being too cold. lastly, the radicles of four beans, which from some innate cause germinated later than all the others of the same lot, and which grew slowly though appearing healthy, were similarly tried, and even after h. they were hardly at all deflected from the attached cards. we may therefore infer that any cause which renders the growth of the radicles either slower or more rapid than the normal rate, lessens or annuls the sensibility of their tips to contact. it deserves particular attention that when the attached objects failed to act, there was no bending of any kind, excepting sachs' curvature. the force of our evidence would have been greatly weakened if occasionally, though rarely, the radicles had become curved in any direction independently of the attached objects. in the foregoing numbered paragraphs, however, it may be observed that the extreme tip sometimes becomes, after a considerable interval of time, abruptly curved towards the bit of card; but this is a totally distinct phenomenon, as will presently be explained. summary of the results of the foregoing experiments on the radicles of vicia faba.--altogether little squares (about / th of an inch), generally of sanded paper as stiff as thin card (between . and . mm. in thickness), sometimes of ordinary card, or little frag- [page ] ments of very thin glass etc., were affixed at different times to one side of the conical tips of radicles. the last-mentioned cases, but not the preliminary ones, are here included. the squares, etc., were most commonly affixed with shellac, but in cases with thick gum-water. when the latter was used, the squares were sometimes found, as previously stated, to be separated from the apex by a layer of thick fluid, so that there was no contact, and consequently no bending of the radicle; and such few cases were not recorded. but in every instance in which shellac was employed, unless the square fell off very soon, the result was recorded. in several instances when the squares became displaced, so as to stand parallel to the radicle, or were separated by fluid from the apex, or soon fell off, fresh squares were attached, and these cases (described under the numbered paragraphs) are here included. out of radicles experimented on under the proper temperature, became bent, generally to a considerable extent from the perpendicular, and away from the side to which the object was attached. of the three failures, one can be accounted for, as the radicle became sickly on the following day; and a second was observed only during h. m. as in several cases the terminal growing part of the radicle continued for some time to bend from the attached object, it formed itself into a hook, with the apex pointing to the zenith, or even into a ring, and occasionally into a spire or helix. it is remarkable that these latter cases occurred more frequently when objects were attached with thick gum-water, which never became dry, than when shellac was employed. the curvature was often well-marked in from h. to h.; and in one instance a semicircle was formed in h. m, from the time [page ] of attachment. but in order to see the phenomenon as well displayed as in the above described cases, it is indispensable that the bits of card, etc., should be made to adhere closely to one side of the conical apex; that healthy radicles should be selected and kept at not too high or too low a temperature, and apparently that the trials should not be made in the middle of the winter. in ten instances, radicles which had curved away from a square of card or other object attached to their tips, straightened themselves to a certain extent, or even completely, in the course of from one to two days from the time of attachment. this was more especially apt to occur when the curvature was slight. but in one instance (no. ) a radicle which in h. had been deflected about o from the perpendicular, became quite straight in h. from the period of attachment. with no. , the radicle was almost straight in h. we at first attributed the straightening process to the radicles becoming accustomed to a slight stimulus, in the same manner as a tendril or sensitive petiole becomes accustomed to a very light loop of thread, and unbends itself though the loop remains still suspended; but sachs states* that radicles of the bean placed horizontally in damp air after curving downwards through geotropism, straighten themselves a little by growth along their lower or concave sides. why this should occur is not clear: but perhaps it likewise occurred in the above ten cases. there is another occasional movement which must not be passed over: the tip of the radicle, for a length of from to mm., was found in six instances, * 'arbeiten bot. instit., würzburg,' heft iii. p. . [page ] after an interval of about or more hours, bent towards the bit of still attached card,--that is, in a direction exactly opposite to the previously induced curvature of the whole growing part for a length of from to mm. this occurred chiefly when the first curvature was small, and when an object had been affixed more than once to the apex of the same radicle. the attachment of a bit of card by shellac to one side of the tender apex may sometimes mechanically prevent its growth; or the application of thick gum-water more than once to the same side may injure it; and then checked growth on this side with continued growth on the opposite and unaffected side would account for the reversed curvature of the apex. various trials were made for ascertaining, as far as we could, the nature and degree of irritation to which the apex must be subjected, in order that the terminal growing part should bend away, as if to avoid the cause of irritation. we have seen in the numbered experiments, that a little square of rather thick letter-paper gummed to the apex induced, though slowly, considerable deflection. judging from several cases in which various objects had been affixed with gum, and had soon become separated from the apex by a layer of fluid, as well as from some trials in which drops of thick gum-water alone had been applied, this fluid never causes bending. we have also seen in the numbered experiments that narrow splinters of quill and of very thin glass, affixed with shellac, caused only a slight degree of deflection, and this may perhaps have been due to the shellac itself. little squares of goldbeaters' skin, which is excessively thin, were damped, and thus made to adhere to one side of the tips of two radicles; one of these, after h., produced no effect; nor did the [page ] other in h., within which time squares of card usually act; but after h. there was slight deflection. an oval bead, or rather cake, of dried shellac, . mm. in length and . in breadth, caused a radicle to become deflected at nearly right angles in the course of only h.; but after h. it had nearly straightened itself. a very small quantity of dissolved shellac was spread over a bit of card, and the tips of radicles were touched laterally with it; only two of them became slightly deflected to the side opposite to that bearing the speck of dried shellac, and they afterwards straightened themselves. these specks were removed, and both together weighed less than / th of a grain; so that a weight of rather less than / th of a grain ( . mg.) sufficed to excite movement in two out of the nine radicles. here then we have apparently reached nearly the minimum weight which will act. a moderately thick bristle (which on measurement was found rather flattened, being . mm. in one diameter, and . mm. in the other) was cut into lengths of about / th of an inch. these after being touched with thick gum-water, were placed on the tips of eleven radicles. three of them were affected; one being deflected in h. m. to an angle of about o from the perpendicular; a second to the same amount when looked at after h.; but after h. from the time of first attachment the deflection had decreased to only o; the third was only slightly deflected after h., and the bit of bristle was then found not touching the apex; it was replaced, and after additional hours the deflection amounted to o from the perpendicular. the remaining eight radicles were not at all acted on by the bits of bristle, so that we here appear to have nearly reached the minimum [page ] of size of an object which will act on the radicle of the bean. but it is remarkable that when the bits of bristle did act, that they should have acted so quickly and efficiently. as the apex of a radicle in penetrating the ground must be pressed on all sides, we wished to learn whether it could distinguish between harder or more resisting, and softer substances. a square of the sanded paper, almost as stiff as card, and a square of extremely thin paper (too thin for writing on), of exactly the same size (about / th of an inch), were fixed with shellac on opposite sides of the apices of suspended radicles. the sanded card was between . and . mm. (or between . and . of an inch), and the thin paper only . mm. (or . of an inch) in thickness. in out of the cases there could be no doubt that the radicle was deflected from the side to which the card-like paper was attached, and towards the opposite side, bearing the very thin paper. this occurred in some instances in h., but in others not until h. had elapsed. moreover, some of the four failures can hardly be considered as really failures: thus, in one of them, in which the radicle remained quite straight, the square of thin paper was found, when both were removed from the apex, to have been so thickly coated with shellac that it was almost as stiff as the card: in the second case, the radicle was bent upwards into a semicircle, but the deflection was not directly from the side bearing the card, and this was explained by the two squares having become cemented laterally together, forming a sort of stiff gable, from which the radicle was deflected: in the third case, the square of card had been fixed by mistake in front, and though there was deflection from it, this might have been due to sachs' curvature: [page ] in the fourth case alone no reason could be assigned why the radicle had not been at all deflected. these experiments suffice to prove that the apex of the radicle possesses the extraordinary power of discriminating between thin card and very thin paper, and is deflected from the side pressed by the more resisting or harder substance. some trials were next made by irritating the tips without any object being left in contact with them. nine radicles, suspended over water, had their tips rubbed, each six times with a needle, with sufficient force to shake the whole bean; the temperature was favourable, viz. about o f. in out of these cases no effect whatever was produced; in the eighth case the radicle became slightly deflected from, and in the ninth case slightly deflected towards, the rubbed side; but these two latter opposed curvatures were probably accidental, as radicles do not always grow perfectly straight downwards. the tips of two other radicles were rubbed in the same manner for seconds with a little round twig, two others for seconds, and two others for minute, but without any effect being produced. we may therefore conclude from these trials that the radicles are not sensitive to temporary contact, but are acted on only by prolonged, though very slight, pressure. we then tried the effects of cutting off a very thin slice parallel to one of the sloping sides of the apex, as we thought that the wound would cause prolonged irritation, which might induce bending towards the opposite side, as in the case of an attached object. two preliminary trials were made: firstly, slices were cut from the radicles of beans suspended in damp air, with a pair of scissors, which, though sharp, probably caused considerable crushing, and no curva- [page ] ture followed. secondly, thin slices were cut with a razor obliquely off the tips of three radicles similarly suspended; and after h. two were found plainly bent from the sliced surface; and the third, the whole apex of which had been cut off obliquely by accident, was curled upwards over the bean, but it was not clearly ascertained whether the curvature had been at first directed from the cut surface. these results led us to pursue the experiment, and radicles, which had grown vertically downwards in damp air, had one side of their conical tips sliced off with a razor. the tips were allowed just to enter the water in the jars, and they were exposed to a temperature o - o c. ( o - o f.). the observations were made at different times. three were examined h. after being sliced, and were all slightly curved from the cut surface; and the curvature increased considerably after an additional h. eight were examined after h.; four after h. m.; and three after h. the final result was that out of the radicles thus tried, were plainly bent from the cut surface after the above intervals of time; and one other became so after an additional interval of h. m. so that only out of the radicles were not acted on. to these cases the previously mentioned ones should be added. it may, therefore, be concluded that a thin slice removed by a razor from one side of the conical apex of the radicle causes irritation, like that from an attached object, and induces curvature from the injured surface. lastly, dry caustic (nitrate of silver) was employed to irritate one side of the apex. if one side of the apex or of the whole terminal growing part of a radicle, is by any means killed or badly injured, the other side continues to grow; and this causes the part [page ] to bend over towards the injured side.* but in the following experiments we endeavoured, generally with success, to irritate the tips on one side, without badly injuring them. this was effected by first drying the tip as far as possible with blotting-paper, though it still remained somewhat damp, and then touching it once with quite dry caustic. seventeen radicles were thus treated, and were suspended in moist air over water at a temperature of o f. they were examined after an interval of h. or h. the tips of two were found blackened equally all round, so that they could tell nothing and were rejected, being left. of these, were curved from the side which had been touched, where there was a minute brown or blackish mark. five of these radicles, three of which were already slightly deflected, were allowed to enter the water in the jar, and were re-examined after an additional interval of h. (i.e. in h. after the application of the caustic), and now four of them had become hooked, being bent from the discoloured side, with their points directed to the zenith; the fifth remained unaffected and straight. thus radicles out of the were acted on. but the curvature of the four just described was so plain, that they alone would have sufficed to show that the radicles of the bean bend away from that side of the apex which has been slightly irritated by caustic. the power of an irritant on the apex of the radicle * ciesielski found this to be the case ('untersuchungen über die abwartskrümmung der wurzel,' , p. ) after burning with heated platinum one side of a radicle. so did we when we painted longitudinally half of the whole length of radicles, suspended over water, with a thick layer of grease, which is very injurious or even fatal to growing parts; for after hours five of these radicles were curved towards the greased side, two remaining straight. [page ] of the bean, compared with that of geotropism.--we know that when a little square of card or other object is fixed to one side of the tip of a vertically dependent radicle, the growing part bends from it often into a semicircle, in opposition to geotropism, which force is conquered by the effect of the irritation from the attached object. radicles were therefore extended horizontally in damp air, kept at the proper low temperature for full sensitiveness, and squares of card were affixed with shellac on the lower sides of their tips, so that if the squares acted, the terminal growing part would curve upwards. firstly, eight beans were so placed that their short, young, horizontally extended radicles would be simultaneously acted on both by geotropism and by sachs' curvature, if the latter came into play; and they all eight became bowed downwards to the centre of the earth in h., excepting one which was only slightly acted on. two of them were a little bowed downwards in only h.! therefore the cards, affixed to the lower sides of their tips, seemed to produce no effect; and geotropism easily conquered the effects of the irritation thus caused. secondly, oldish radicles, ½ inch in length, and therefore less sensitive than the above-mentioned young ones, were similarly placed and similarly treated. from what has been seen on many other occasions, it may be safely inferred that if they had been suspended vertically they would have bent away from the cards; and if they had been extended horizontally, without cards attached to them, they would have quickly bent vertically downwards through geotropism; but the result was that two of these radicles were still horizontal after h.; two were curved only slightly, and the fifth as much as o beneath the horizon. thirdly, beans were fastened [page ] with their flat surfaces parallel to the cork-lid, so that sachs' curvature would not tend to make the horizontally extended radicles turn either upwards or downwards, and little squares of card were affixed as before, to the lower sides of their tips. the result was that all five radicles were bent down, or towards the centre of the earth, after only h. m. at the same time and within the same jars, radicles of the same age, with squares affixed to one side, were suspended vertically; and after h. m. they were considerably deflected from the cards, and therefore curved upwards in opposition to geotropism. in these latter cases the irritation from the squares had over-powered geotropism; whilst in the former cases, in which the radicles were extended horizontally, geotropism had overpowered the irritation. thus within the same jars, some of the radicles were curving upwards and others downwards at the same time--these opposite movements depending on whether the radicles, when the squares were first attached to them, projected vertically down, or were extended horizontally. this difference in their behaviour seems at first inexplicable, but can, we believe, be simply explained by the difference between the initial power of the two forces under the above circumstances, combined with the well-known principle of the after-effects of a stimulus. when a young and sensitive radicle is extended horizontally, with a square attached to the lower side of the tip, geotropism acts on it at right angles, and, as we have seen, is then evidently more efficient than the irritation from the square; and the power of geotropism will be strengthened at each successive period by its previous action--that is, by its after-effects. on the other hand, when a square is affixed to a vertically dependent radicle, and the apex begins to [page ] curve upwards, this movement will be opposed by geotropism acting only at a very oblique angle, and the irritation from the card will be strengthened by its previous action. we may therefore conclude that the initial power of an irritant on the apex of the radicle of the bean, is less than that of geotropism when acting at right angles, but greater than that of geotropism when acting obliquely on it. sensitiveness of the tips of the secondary radicles of the bean to contact.--all the previous observations relate to the main or primary radicle. some beans suspended to cork-lids, with their radicles dipping into water, had developed secondary or lateral radicles, which were afterwards kept in very damp air, at the proper low temperature for full sensitiveness. they projected, as usual, almost horizontally, with only a slight downward curvature, and retained this position during several days. sachs has shown* that these secondary roots are acted on in a peculiar manner by geotropism, so that if displaced they reassume their former sub-horizontal position, and do not bend vertically downwards like the primary radicle. minute squares of the stiff sanded paper were affixed by means of shellac (but in some instances with thick gum-water) to the tips of secondary radicles of different ages, generally the uppermost ones. most of the squares were fixed to the lower sides of the apex, so that if they acted the radicle would bend upwards; but some were fixed laterally, and a few on the upper side. owing to the extreme tenuity of these radicles, it was very difficult to attach the square to the actual apex. whether owing to this or some other circumstance, only nine of the squares induced any * 'arbeiten bot. inst., würzburg,' heft iv. , p. - . [page ] curvature. the curvature amounted in some cases to about o above the horizon, in others to o, and then the tip pointed to the zenith. in one instance a distinct upward curvature was observed in h. m., but usually not until h. had elapsed. although only out of radicles were affected, yet the curvature was so distinct in several of them, that there could be no doubt that the tip is sensitive to slight contact, and that the growing part bends away from the touching object. it is possible that some secondary radicles are more sensitive than others; for sachs has proved* the interesting fact that each individual secondary radicle possesses its own peculiar constitution. sensitiveness to contact of the primary radicle, a little above the apex, in the bean (vicia faba) and pea (pisum sativum).--the sensitiveness of the apex of the radicle in the previously described cases, and the consequent curvature of the upper part from the touching object or other source of irritation, is the more remarkable, because sachs** has shown that pressure at the distance of a few millimeters above the apex causes the radicle to bend, like a tendril, towards the touching object. by fixing pins so that they pressed against the radicles of beans suspended vertically in damp air, we saw this kind of curvature; but rubbing the part with a twig or needle for a few minutes produced no effect. haberlandt remarks,*** that these radicles in breaking through the seed-coats often rub and press against the ruptured edges, and consequently bend round them. as little squares of the card-like paper affixed with shellac to the tips were highly efficient in causing the radicles to bend away from them, similar pieces (of about / th * 'arbeiten bot. instit., würzburg,' heft, iv. , p. . ** ibid. heft iii. , p. . *** 'die schutzeinrichtungen der keimpflanze,' , p. . [page ] inch square, or rather less) were attached in the same manner to one side of the radicle at a distance of or mm. above the apex. in our first trial on radicles no effect was produced. in a second trial on the same number, three became abruptly curved (but only one strongly) towards the card within h. from these cases we may infer that the pressure from a bit of card affixed with shellac to one side above the apex, is hardly a sufficient irritant; but that it occasionally causes the radicle to bend like a tendril towards this side. we next tried the effect of rubbing several radicles at a distance of mm. from the apex for a few seconds with lunar caustic (nitrate of silver); and although the radicles had been wiped dry and the stick of caustic was dry, yet the part rubbed was much injured and a slight permanent depression was left. in such cases the opposite side continues to grow, and the radicle necessarily becomes bent towards the injured side. but when a point mm. from the apex was momentarily touched with dry caustic, it was only faintly discoloured, and no permanent injury was caused. this was shown by several radicles thus treated straightening themselves after one or two days; yet at first they became curved towards the touched side, as if they had been there subjected to slight continued pressure. these cases deserve notice, because when one side of the apex was just touched with caustic, the radicle, as we have seen, curved itself in an opposite direction, that is, away from the touched side. the radicle of the common pea at a point a little above the apex is rather more sensitive to continued pressure than that of the bean, and bends towards the pressed side.* we experimented on a variety (york- * sachs, 'arbeiten bot. institut., würzburg,' heft iii. p. . [page ] shire hero) which has a much wrinkled tough skin, too large for the included cotyledons; so that out of peas which had been soaked for h. and allowed to germinate on damp sand, the radicles of three were unable to escape, and were crumpled up in a strange manner within the skin; four other radicles were abruptly bent round the edges of the ruptured skin against which they had pressed. such abnormalities would probably never, or very rarely, occur with forms developed in a state of nature and subjected to natural selection. one of the four radicles just mentioned in doubling backwards came into contact with the pin by which the pea was fixed to the cork-lid; and now it bent at right angles round the pin, in a direction quite different from that of the first curvature due to contact with the ruptured skin; and it thus afforded a good illustration of the tendril-like sensitiveness of the radicle a little above the apex. little squares of the card-like paper were next affixed to radicles of the pea at mm. above the apex, in the same manner as with the bean. twenty-eight radicles suspended vertically over water were thus treated on different occasions, and of them became curved towards the cards. the greatest degree of curvature amounted to o from the perpendicular; but so large an angle was only once formed. on one occasion a slight curvature was perceptible after h. m., and it was generally well-marked after h. there can therefore be no doubt that with the pea, irritation from a bit of card attached to one side of the radicle above the apex suffices to induce curvature. squares of card were attached to one side of the tips of radicles within the same jars in which the above trials were made, and five of them became plainly, and one slightly, curved away from this side. other [page ] analogous cases will be immediately described. the fact is here mentioned because it was a striking spectacle, showing the difference in the sensitiveness of the radicle in different parts, to behold in the same jar one set of radicles curved away from the squares on their tips, and another set curved towards the squares attached a little higher up. moreover, the kind of curvature in the two cases is different. the squares attached above the apex cause the radicle to bend abruptly, the part above and beneath remaining nearly straight; so that here there is little or no transmitted effect. on the other hand, the squares attached to the apex affect the radicle for a length of from about to even mm., inducing in most cases a symmetrical curvature; so that here some influence is transmitted from the apex for this distance along the radicle. pisum sativum (var. yorkshire hero): sensitiveness of the apex of the radicle.--little squares of the same card-like paper were affixed (april th) with shellac to one side of the apex of vertically suspended radicles: the temperature of the water in the bottom of the jars was o - o f. most of these radicles were acted on in h. m.; and eight of them became in the course of h. conspicuously, and the remaining two slightly, deflected from the perpendicular and from the side bearing the attached squares. thus all were acted on; but it will suffice to describe two conspicuous cases. in one the terminal portion of the radicle was bent at right angles (a, fig. ) after h.; and in the other (b) it had by this time become hooked, with the apex pointing to the zenith. the two bits of card here used were . inch in length and . inch in breadth. two other radicles, which after h. m. were moderately deflected, became straight again after h. another [page ] trial was made in the same manner with radicles; but from circumstances, not worth explaining, they were only once and briefly examined after the short fig. . pisum sativum: deflection produced within hours in the growth of vertically dependent radicles, by little squares of card affixed with shellac to one side of apex: a, bent at right angles; b, hooked. interval of h. m.; and we merely record in our notes "almost all bent slightly from the perpendicular, and away from the squares; the deflection amounting in one or two instances to nearly a rectangle." these two sets of cases, especially the first one, prove that the apex of the radicle is sensitive to slight contact and that the upper part bends from the touching object. nevertheless, on june st and th, other radicles were tried in the same manner at a temperature of o - o f., and after h. only was decidedly bent from the card, slightly, doubtfully, and not in the least. the amount of curvature was unaccountably small; but all the radicles which were at all bent, were bent away from the cards. we now tried the effects of widely different temperatures on the sensitiveness of these radicles with squares [page ] of card attached to their tips. firstly, peas, most of them having very short and young radicles, were placed in an ice-box, in which the temperature rose during three days from o to o f. they grew slowly, but out of the became in the course of the three days very slightly curved from the squares; the other were not affected; so that this temperature was too low for any high degree of sensitiveness or for much movement. jars with other radicles were next placed on a chimney-piece, where they were subjected to a temperature of between o and o f., and after h., were conspicuously curved from the cards, slightly, and not at all; so that this temperature was rather too high. lastly radicles were subjected to a temperature varying between o and o f., and none of them were in the least affected by the squares. the above several trials, especially the first recorded one, indicate that the most favourable temperature for the sensitiveness of the radicle of the pea is about o f. the tips of vertically dependent radicles were touched once with dry caustic, in the manner described under vicia faba. after h. four of them were bent from the side bearing a minute black mark; and the curvature increased in one case after h., and in another case after h., until the terminal part projected almost horizontally. the two remaining radicles were not affected. with radicles of the bean, when extended horizontally in damp air, geotropism always conquered the effects of the irritation caused by squares of card attached to the lower sides of their tips. a similar experiment was tried on radicles of the pea; the squares being attached with shellac, and the temperature between o - o f. the result was somewhat different; for [page ] these radicles are either less strongly acted on by geotropism, or, what is more probable, are more sensitive to contact. after a time geotropism always prevailed, but its action was often delayed; and in three instances there was a most curious struggle between geotropism and the irritation caused by the cards. four of the radicles were a little curved downwards within or h., always reckoning from the time when the squares were first attached, and after h. three of them pointed vertically downwards, and the fourth at an angle of o beneath the horizon. these four radicles therefore did not seem fig. . pisum sativum: a radicle extended horizontally in damp air with a little square of card affixed to the lower side of its tip, causing it to bend upwards in opposition to geotropism. the deflection of the radicle after hours is shown at a, and of the same radicle after hours at b, now forming a loop. to have been at all affected by the attached squares. four others were not acted on by geotropism within the first or h., but after h. were much bowed down. two others remained almost horizontal for h., but afterwards were acted on. so that in these latter six cases the action of geotropism was much delayed. the eleventh radicle was slightly curved down after h., but when looked at again after h. the terminal portion was curved upwards; if it had [page ] been longer observed, the tip no doubt would have been found again curved down, and it would have formed a loop as in the following case. the twelfth radicle after h. was slightly curved downwards; but when looked at again after h., this curvature had disappeared and the apex pointed upwards; after h. the radicle formed a hook, as shown at a (fig. ); which hook after h. was converted into a loop (b). the thirteenth radicle after h. was slightly curved downwards, but within h. had curved considerably up, and then down again at an angle of o beneath the horizon, afterwards becoming perpendicular. in these three last cases geotropism and the irritation caused by the attached squares alternately prevailed in a highly remarkable manner; geotropism being ultimately victorious. similar experiments were not always quite so successful as in the above cases. thus radicles, horizontally extended with attached squares, were tried on june th at a proper temperature, and after h. m. none were in the least curved upwards and none were distinctly geotropic; whereas of radicles without any attached squares, which served as standards of comparison or controls, became slightly and almost rectangularly geotropic within the h. m.; but after h. the two lots were equally geotropic. on july th another trial was made with horizontally extended radicles, with squares attached in the same manner beneath their tips; and after h. m., were slightly geotropic, remained horizontal, and was curved upwards in opposition to gravity or geotropism. this latter radicle after h. formed a loop, like that at b (fig. ). an analogous trial was now made, but instead of attaching squares of card to the lower sides of the [page ] tips, these were touched with dry caustic. the details of the experiment will be given in the chapter on geotropism, and it will suffice here to say that peas, with radicles extended horizontally and not cauterised, were laid on and under damp friable peat; these, which served as standards or controls, as well as others which had been touched on the upper side with the caustic, all became strongly geotropic in h. nine radicles, similarly placed, had their tips touched on the lower side with the caustic; and after h., were slightly geotropic, remained horizontal, and were bowed upwards in opposition to gravity and to geotropism. this upward curvature was distinctly visible in h. m. after the lower sides of the tips had been cauterised. little squares of card were affixed with shellac on two occasions to the tips of young and short secondary radicles, which had been emitted from the primary radicle whilst growing in water, but were now suspended in damp air. besides the difficulty of attaching the squares to such finely pointed objects as were these radicles, the temperature was too high,--varying on the first occasion from o to o f., and on the second being almost steadily o f.; and this probably lessened the sensitiveness of the tips. the result was that after an interval of h. m., of the radicles were bowed upwards (one of them greatly) in opposition to gravity, and laterally; the remaining were not affected. considering the unfavourable circumstances, and bearing in mind the case of the bean, the evidence appears sufficient to show that the tips of the secondary radicles of the pea are sensitive to slight contact. phaseolus multiflorus: sensitiveness of the apex of the radicle.-- fifty-nine radicles were tried with squares [page ] of various sizes of the same card-like paper, also with bits of thin glass and rough cinders, affixed with shellac to one side of the apex. rather large drops of the dissolved shellac were also placed on them and allowed to set into hard beads. the specimens were subjected to various temperatures between o and o f., more commonly at about the latter. but out of this considerable number of trials only radicles were plainly bent, and others slightly or even doubtfully, from the attached objects; the remaining not being at all affected. it is therefore clear that the tips of the radicles of this phaseolus are much less sensitive to contact than are those of the bean or pea. we thought that they might be sensitive to harder pressure, but after several trials we could not devise any method for pressing harder on one side of the apex than on the other, without at the same time offering mechanical resistance to its growth. we therefore tried other irritants. the tips of radicles, dried with blotting-paper, were thrice touched or just rubbed on one side with dry nitrate of silver. they were rubbed thrice, because we supposed from the foregoing trials, that the tips were not highly sensitive. after h. the tips were found greatly blackened; were blackened equally all round, so that no curvature to any one side could be expected; were much blackened on one side for a length of about / th of an inch, and this length became curved at right angles towards the blackened surface, the curvature afterwards increasing in several instances until little hooks were formed. it was manifest that the blackened side was so much injured that it could not grow, whilst the opposite side continued to grow. one alone out of these radicles became curved from the blackened side, the [page ] curvature extending for some little distance above the apex. after the experience thus gained, the tips of six almost dry radicles were once touched with the dry caustic on one side; and after an interval of m. were allowed to enter water, which was kept at a temperature of o - o f. the result was that after an interval of h. a minute blackish speck could just be distinguished on one side of the apex of five of these radicles, all of which became curved towards the opposite side--in two cases at about an angle of o--in two other cases at nearly a rectangle-- and in the fifth case at above a rectangle, so that the apex was a little hooked; in this latter case the black mark was rather larger than in the others. after h. from the application of the caustic, the curvature of three of these radicles (including the hooked one) had diminished; in the fourth it remained the same, and in the fifth it had increased, the tip being now hooked. it has been said that after h. black specks could be seen on one side of the apex of five of the six radicles; on the sixth the speck, which was extremely minute, was on the actual apex and therefore central; and this radicle alone did not become curved. it was therefore again touched on one side with caustic, and after h. m. was found curved from the perpendicular and from the blackened side at an angle of o, which increased in nine additional hours to o. it is therefore certain that the apex of the radicle of this phaseolus is extremely sensitive to caustic, more so than that of the bean, though the latter is far more sensitive to pressure. in the experiments just given, the curvature from the slightly cauterised side of the tip, extended along the radicle for a length of nearly mm.; whereas in the first set [page ] of experiments, when the tips of several were greatly blackened and injured on one side, so that their growth was arrested, a length of less than mm. became curved towards the much blackened side, owing to the continued growth of the opposite side. this difference in the results is interesting, for it shows that too strong an irritant does not induce any transmitted effect, and does not cause the adjoining, upper and growing part of the radicle to bend. we have analogous cases with drosera, for a strong solution of carbonate of ammonia when absorbed by the glands, or too great heat suddenly applied to them, or crushing them, does not cause the basal part of the tentacles to bend, whilst a weak solution of the carbonate, or a moderate heat, or slight pressure always induced such bending. similar results were observed with dionaea and pinguicula. the effect of cutting off with a razor a thin slice from one side of the conical apex of young and short radicles was next tried. six of them after being operated on were suspended in damp air; the tips of the other eight, similarly suspended, were allowed to enter water at a temperature of about o f. it was recorded in each case which side of the apex had been sliced off, and when they were afterwards examined the direction of the curvature was noted, before the record was consulted. of the six radicles in damp air, three had their tips curved after an interval of h. m. directly away from the sliced surface, whilst the other three were not affected and remained straight; nevertheless, one of them after additional hours became slightly curved from the sliced surface. of the eight radicles with their tips immersed in water, seven were plainly curved away from the sliced surfaces after h. m.; and with [page ] respect to the eighth which remained quite straight, too thick a slice had been accidentally removed, so that it hardly formed a real exception to the general result. when the seven radicles were looked at again, after an interval of h. from the time of slicing, two had become distorted; four were deflected at an angle of about o from the perpendicular and from the cut surface; and one was deflected at nearly o, so that it projected almost horizontally, but with the extreme tip now beginning to bend downwards through the action of geotropism. it is therefore manifest that a thin slice cut off one side of the conical apex, causes the upper growing part of the radicle of this phaseolus to bend, through the transmitted effects of the irritation, away from the sliced surface. tropaeolum majus: sensitiveness of the apex of the radicle to contact.-- little squares of card were attached with shellac to one side of the tips of radicles, some of which were subjected to o f., and others to a much lower temperature. only became plainly curved from the squares, slightly, doubtfully, and not at all. these seeds were, as we believed, old, so we procured a fresh lot, and now the results were widely different. twenty-three were tried in the same manner; five of the squares produced no effect, but three of these cases were no real exceptions, for in two of them the squares had slipped and were parallel to the apex, and in the third the shellac was in excess and had spread equally all round the apex. one radicle was deflected only slightly from the perpendicular and from the card; whilst seventeen were plainly deflected. the angles in several of these latter cases varied between o and o from the perpendicular; and in two of them it amounted after h. or h. to about o. in one instance a loop [page ] was nearly completed in h. there can, therefore, be no doubt that the apex is highly sensitive to slight contact, and that the upper part of the radicle bends away from the touching object. gossypium herbaceum: sensitiveness of the apex of the radicle.--radicles were experimented on in the same manner as before, but they proved ill-fitted for our purpose, as they soon became unhealthy when suspended in damp air. of radicles thus suspended, at temperatures varying from o to o f., with squares of card attached to their tips, were plainly and slightly or even doubtfully deflected from the squares and from the perpendicular; not being affected. we thought that perhaps the above temperature was not high enough, so radicles with attached squares, likewise suspended in damp air, were subjected to a temperature of from o to o f., but not one of them was acted on, and they soon became unhealthy. lastly, radicles were suspended in water at a temperature from o to o f., with bits of glass or squares of the card attached to their tips by means of canada-balsam or asphalte, which adhered rather better than shellac beneath the water. the radicles did not keep healthy for long. the result was that were plainly and doubtfully deflected from the attached objects and the perpendicular; not being affected. the evidence consequently is hardly conclusive, though from the two sets of cases tried under a moderate temperature, it is probable that the radicles are sensitive to contact; and would be more so under favourable conditions. fifteen radicles which had germinated in friable peat were suspended vertically over water. seven of them served as controls, and they remained quite straight during h. the tips of the other eight radicles [page ] were just touched with dry caustic on one side. after only h. m. five of them were slightly curved from the perpendicular and from the side bearing the little blackish marks. after h. m., out of these were deflected at angles between o and o from the perpendicular. on the other hand, one which had been slightly curved after h. m., now became straight. after h. the curvature in two cases had considerably increased; also in four other cases, but these latter radicles had now become so contorted, some being turned upwards, that it could no longer be ascertained whether they were still curved from the cauterised side. the control specimens exhibited no such irregular growth, and the two sets presented a striking contrast. out of the radicles which had been touched with caustic, two alone were not affected, and the marks left on their tips by the caustic were extremely minute. these marks in all cases were oval or elongated; they were measured in three instances, and found to be of nearly the same size, viz. / of a mm. in length. bearing this fact in mind, it should be observed that the length of the curved part of the radicle, which had become deflected from the cauterised side in the course of h. m. was found to be in three cases , , and mm. cucurbita ovifera: sensitiveness of the apex of the radicle.--the tips proved ill-fitted for the attachment of cards, as they are extremely fine and flexible. moreover, owing to the hypocotyls being soon developed and becoming arched, the whole radicle is quickly displaced and confusion is thus caused. a large number of trials were made, but without any definite result, excepting on two occasions, when out of radicles were deflected from the attached squares [page ] of card, and were not acted on. rather large squares, though difficult to affix, seemed more efficient than very small ones. we were much more successful with caustic; but in our first trial, radicles were too much cauterised, and only two became curved from the blackened side; the others being either killed on one side, or blackened equally all round. in our next trial the dried tips of radicles were touched momentarily with dry caustic, and after a few minutes were immersed in water. the elongated marks thus caused were never black, only brown, and about ½ mm. in length, or even less. in h. m. after the cauterisation, of them were plainly curved from the side with the brown mark, slightly, and not at all. the latter proved unhealthy, and never grew; and the marks on of the slightly curved radicles were excessively minute, one being distinguishable only with the aid of a lens. of control specimens tried in the same jars at the same time, not one was in the least curved. in h. m. after the cauterisation, of the radicles out of the (the one unhealthy one being omitted) were deflected at about o, and at about o from the perpendicular and from the side bearing the brown mark. after h. all radicles had increased immensely in length; in of them the curvature was nearly the same, in it had increased, and in it had decreased. the contrast presented by the controls, after both the h. m. and the h. intervals, was very great; for they had continued to grow vertically downwards, excepting two which, from some unknown cause, had become somewhat tortuous. in the chapter on geotropism we shall see that radicles of this plant were extended horizontally on and beneath damp friable peat, under which conditions [page ] they grow better and more naturally than in damp air; and their tips were slightly cauterised on the lower side, brown marks about ½ mm. in length being thus caused. uncauterised specimens similarly placed became much bent downwards through geotropism in the course of or hours. after h. only of the cauterised ones were bowed downwards, and this in a slight degree; remained horizontal; and were curved upwards in opposition to geotropism and from the side bearing the brown mark. ten other specimens had their tips cauterised at the same time and in the same degree, on the upper side; and this, if it produced any effect, would tend to increase the power of geotropism; and all these radicles were strongly bowed downwards after h. from the several foregoing facts, there can be no doubt that the cauterisation of the tip of the radicle of this cucurbita on one side, if done lightly enough, causes the whole growing part to bend to the opposite side. raphanus sativus: sensitiveness of the apex of the radicle.--we here encountered many difficulties in our trials, both with squares of card and with caustic; for when seeds were pinned to a cork-lid, many of the radicles, to which nothing had been done, grew irregularly, often curving upwards, as if attracted by the damp surface above; and when they were immersed in water they likewise often grew irregularly. we did not therefore dare to trust our experiments with attached squares of card; nevertheless some of them seemed to indicate that the tips were sensitive to contact. our trials with caustic generally failed from the difficulty of not injuring too greatly the extremely fine tips. out of radicles thus tried, one became bowed after h. at an angle of o, a second at o, [page ] and a third very slightly from the perpendicular and from the cauterised side. aesculus hippocastanum: sensitiveness of the apex of the radicle.--bits of glass and squares of card were affixed with shellac or gum-water to the tips of radicles of the horse-chestnut; and when these objects fell off, they were refixed; but not in a single instance was any curvature thus caused. these massive radicles, one of which was above inches in length and . inch in diameter at its base, seemed insensible to so slight a stimulus as any small attached object. nevertheless, when the apex encountered an obstacle in its downward course, the growing part became so uniformly and symmetrically curved, that its appearance indicated not mere mechanical bending, but increased growth along the whole convex side, due to the irritation of the apex. that this is the correct view may be inferred from the effects of the more powerful stimulus of caustic. the bending from the cauterised side occurred much slower than in the previously described species, and it will perhaps be worth while to give our trials in detail. [the seeds germinated in sawdust, and one side of the tips of the radicles were slightly rubbed once with dry nitrate of silver; and after a few minutes were allowed to dip into water. they were subjected to a rather varying temperature, generally between o and o f. a few cases have not been thought worth recording, in which the whole tip was blackened, or in which the seedling soon became unhealthy. ( .) the radicle was slightly deflected from the cauterised side in one day (i.e. h.); in three days it stood at o from the perpendicular; in four days at o; on the fifth day it was curved up about o above the horizon; so that it had passed through an angle of o in the five days, and this was the greatest amount of curvature observed. ( .) in two days radicle slightly deflected; after seven days [page ] deflected o from the perpendicular and from the cauterised side; after eight days the angle amounted to nearly o. ( .) after one day slight deflection, but the cauterised mark was so faint that the same side was again touched with caustic. in four days from the first touch deflection amounted to o, which in an additional day increased to o. ( .) after two days slight deflection, which during the next three days certainly increased but never became great; the radicle did not grow well and died on the eighth day. ( .) after two days very slight deflection; but this on the fourth day amounted to o from the perpendicular and from the cauterised side. ( .) after three days doubtfully, but after four days certainly deflected from the cauterised side. on the fifth day deflection amounted to o from the perpendicular, and this on the seventh day increased to about o. ( .) after two days slightly deflected; on the third day the deflection amounted to o from the perpendicular, and this did not afterwards increase. ( .) after one day deflection distinct; on the third day it amounted to o, and on the fourth day to o from the perpendicular and the cauterised side. ( .) after two days deflection slight, yet distinct; on the third day the tip was again touched on the same side with caustic and thus killed. ( .) after one day slight deflection, which after six days increased to o from the perpendicular and the cauterised side. ( .) after one day decided deflection, which after six days increased to o from the perpendicular and from the cauterised side. ( .) after one day slight deflection, which on the second day amounted to o, on the fourth day to o, and the sixth day to o from the perpendicular and the cauterised side. ( .) whole tip blackened, but more on one side than the other; on the fourth day slightly, and on the sixth day greatly deflected from the more blackened side; the deflection on the ninth day amounted to o from the perpendicular. ( .) whole tip blackened in the same manner as in the last case: on the second day decided deflection from the more blackened side, which increased on the seventh day to nearly o; on the following day the radicle appeared unhealthy. ( .) here we had the anomalous case of a radicle bending [page ] slightly towards the cauterised side on the first day, and continuing to do so for the next three days, when the deflection amounted to about o from the perpendicular. the cause appeared to lie in the tendril-like sensitiveness of the upper part of the radicle, against which the point of a large triangular flap of the seed-coats pressed with considerable force; and this irritation apparently conquered that from the cauterised apex.] these several cases show beyond doubt that the irritation of one side of the apex, excites the upper part of the radicle to bend slowly towards the opposite side. this fact was well exhibited in one lot of five seeds pinned to the cork-lid of a jar; for when after days the lid was turned upside down and viewed from directly above, the little black marks made by the caustic were now all distinctly visible on the upper sides of the tips of the laterally bowed radicles. a thin slice was shaved off with a razor from one side of the tips of radicles, in the manner described under the common bean; but this kind of irritation did not prove very effective. only out of the radicles became moderately deflected in from to days from the sliced surface, and several of the others grew irregularly. the evidence, therefore, is far from conclusive. quercus robur: sensitiveness of the apex of the radicle.--the tips of the radicles of the common oak are fully as sensitive to slight contact as are those of any plant examined by us. they remained healthy in damp air for days, but grew slowly. squares of the card-like paper were fixed with shellac to the tips of radicles, and ten of these became conspicuously bowed from the perpendicular and from the squares; two slightly, and three not at all. but two of the latter were not real exceptions, as they were at first very short, and hardly grew afterwards. some of the more [page ] remarkable cases are worth describing. the radicles were examined on each successive morning, at nearly the same hour, that is, after intervals of h. [no. . this radicle suffered from a series of accidents, and acted in an anomalous manner, for the apex appeared at first insensible and afterwards sensitive to contact. the first square was attached on oct th; on the st the radicle was not at all curved, and the square was accidentally knocked off; it was refixed on the nd, and the radicle became slightly curved from the square, but the curvature disappeared on the rd, when the square was removed and refixed. no curvature ensued, and the square was again accidentally knocked off, and refixed. on the morning of the th it was washed off by having reached the water in the bottom of the jar. the square was refixed, and on the th, that is, ten days after the first square had been attached, and two days after the attachment of the last square, the radicle had grown to the great length of . inches, and now the terminal growing part had become bent away from the square into a hook (see fig. ). fig. . quercus robur: radicle with square of card attached to one side of apex, causing it to become hooked. drawing one-half natural scale. no. . square attached on the th; on the th radicle slightly deflected from it and from the perpendicular; on the st deflected at nearly right angles; it remained during the next two days in this position, but on the th the upward curvature was lessened through the action of geotropism, and still more so on the th. no. . square attached on the th; on the st a trace of curvature from the square, which amounted on the nd to about o, and on the rd to o from the perpendicular. no. . square attached on the st; on the nd trace of curvature from the square; on the rd completely hooked with the point turned up to the zenith. three days afterwards (i.e. th) the curvature had wholly disappeared and the apex pointed perpendicularly downwards. no. . square attached on the st; on the nd decided [page ] though slight curvature from the square; on the rd the tip had curved up above the horizon, and on the th was hooked with the apex pointing almost to the zenith, as in fig. . no. . square attached on the st; on the nd slightly curved from the square; rd more curved; th considerably curved; th all curvature lost, and the radicle was now directed perpendicularly downwards. no. . square attached on the st; on the nd a trace of curvature from the square, which increased next day, and on the th amounted to a right angle. it is, therefore, manifest that the apex of the radicle of the oak is highly sensitive to contact, and retains its sensitiveness during several days. the movement thus induced was, however, slower than in any of the previous cases, with the exception of that of aesculus. as with the bean, the terminal growing part, after bending, sometimes straightened itself through the action of geotropism, although the object still remained attached to the tip. the same remarkable experiment was next tried, as in the case of the bean; namely, little squares of exactly the same size of the card-like sanded paper and of very thin paper (the thicknesses of which have been given under vicia faba) were attached with shellac on opposite sides (as accurately as could be done) of the tips of radicles, suspended in damp air, at a temperature of o - o f. the result was striking, for out of these radicles became plainly, and very slightly, curved from the thick paper towards the side bearing the thin paper. in two of these cases the apex became completely hooked after two days; in four cases the deflection from the perpendicular and from the side bearing the thick paper, amounted in from two to four days to angles of o, o, o, and o, but in two other cases to only o and o. it should, however, be stated that in the [page ] case in which the deflection was o, the two squares had accidentally come into contact on one side of the apex, and thus formed a lateral gable; and the deflection was directed in part from this gable and in part from the thick paper. in three cases alone the radicles were not affected by the difference in thickness of the squares of paper attached to their tips, and consequently did not bend away from the side bearing the stiffer paper. zea mays: sensitiveness of the apex of the radicle to contact.--a large number of trials were made on this plant, as it was the only monocotyledon on which we experimented. an abstract of the results will suffice. in the first place, germinating seeds were pinned to cork-lids without any object being attached to their radicles, some being exposed to a temperature of o - o f., and others to between o and o; and none of them became curved, though some were a little inclined to one side. a few were selected, which from having germinated on sand were crooked, but when suspended in damp air the terminal part grew straight downwards. this fact having been ascertained, little squares of the card-like paper were affixed with shellac, on several occasions, to the tips of radicles. of these the terminal growing part of became within h. conspicuously curved away from the attached squares and from the perpendicular; out of the forming hooks with their points directed towards the zenith, and forming loops. moreover, other radicles out of the , were slightly and two doubtfully deflected from the cards. there remain which were not affected; but of these ought not to be counted; for one was diseased, two had their tips quite surrounded by shellac, and the squares on had slipped so as to stand parallel to the apex, instead of obliquely [page ] on it. there were therefore only out of the which certainly were not acted on. some of the radicles which were experimented on were young and short, most of them of moderate length, and two or three exceeded three inches in length. the curvature in the above cases occurred within h., but it was often conspicuous within a much shorter period. for instance, the terminal growing part of one radicle was bent upwards into a rectangle in h. m., and of another in h. on one occasion a hook was formed in h. six of the radicles in a jar containing nine seeds, which stood on a sand-bath, raised to a temperature varying from o to o f., became hooked, and a seventh formed a complete loop, when first looked at after hours. the accompanying figures of four germinating seeds (fig. ) show, firstly, a radicle (a) the apex of which has become so much bent away from the attached square as to form a hook. secondly (b), a hook converted through the continued irritation of the card, aided perhaps by geotropism, into an almost complete circle or loop. the tip in the act of forming a loop generally rubs against the upper part of the radicle, and pushes off the attached square; the loop then contracts or closes, but never disappears; and the apex afterwards grows vertically downwards, being no longer irritated by any attached object. this frequently occurred, and is represented at c. the jar above mentioned with the six hooked radicles and another jar were kept for two additional days, for the sake of observing how the hooks would be modified. most of them became converted into simple loops, like that figured at c; but in one case the apex did not rub against the upper part of the radicle and thus remove the card; and it consequently made, owing [page ] to the continued irritation from the card, two complete loops, that is, a helix of two spires; which afterwards became pressed closely together. then geotropism prevailed and caused the apex to grow perpendicularly downwards. in another case, shown at (d), the apex fig. . zea mays: radicles excited to bend away from the little squares of card attached to one side of their tips. in making a second turn or spire, passed through the first loop, which was at first widely open, and in doing so knocked off the card; it then grew perpendicularly downwards, and thus tied itself into a knot, which soon became tight! secondary radicles of zea.--a short time after the first radicle has appeared, others protrude from the [page ] seed, but not laterally from the primary one. ten of these secondary radicles, which were directed obliquely downwards, were experimented on with very small squares of card attached with shellac to the lower sides of their tips. if therefore the squares acted, the radicles would bend upwards in opposition to gravity. the jar stood (protected from light) on a sand-bath, which varied between o and o f. after only h. one appeared to be a little deflected from the square, and after h. formed a loop. four others were considerably curved from the squares after h., and three of them became hooked, with their tips pointing to the zenith,--one after h. and the two others after h. by this latter time a sixth radicle had become bent at a right angle from the side bearing the square. thus altogether six out of the ten secondary radicles were acted on, four not being affected. there can, therefore, be no doubt that the tips of these secondary radicles are sensitive to slight contact, and that when thus excited they cause the upper part to bend from the touching object; but generally, as it appears, not in so short a time as in the case of the first-formed radicle. sensitiveness of the tip of the radicle to moist air. sachs made the interesting discovery, a few years ago, that the radicles of many seedling plants bend towards an adjoining damp surface.* we shall here endeavour to show that this peculiar form of sensitiveness resides in their tips. the movement is directly the reverse of that excited by the irritants hitherto considered, which cause the growing part of the * 'arbeiten des bot. institut., in würzburg,' vol. i. , p. . [page ] radicle to bend away from the source of irritation. in our experiments we followed sachs' plan, and sieves with seeds germinating in damp sawdust were suspended so that the bottom was generally inclined at o with the horizon. if the radicles had been acted on solely by geotropism, they would have grown out of the bottom of the sieve perpendicularly downwards; but as they were attracted by the adjoining damp surface they bent towards it and were deflected o from the perpendicular. for the sake of ascertaining whether the tip or the whole growing part of the radicle was sensitive to the moist air, a length of from to mm. was coated in a certain number of cases with a mixture of olive-oil and lamp-black. this mixture was made in order to give consistence to the oil, so that a thick layer could be applied, which would exclude, at least to a large extent, the moist air, and would be easily visible. a greater number of experiments than those which were actually tried would have been necessary, had not it been clearly established that the tip of the radicle is the part which is sensitive to various other irritants. [phaseolus multiflorus.--twenty-nine radicles, to which nothing had been done, growing out of a sieve, were observed at the same time with those which had their tips greased, and for an equal length of time. of the , curved themselves so as to come into close contact with the bottom of the sieve. the place of chief curvature was generally at a distance of or mm. from the apex. eight radicles had their tips greased for a length of mm., and two others for a length of ½ mm.; they were kept at a temperature of o - o c. after intervals of from h. to h. all were still vertically or almost vertically dependent, for some of them had moved towards the adjoining damp surface by about o. they had therefore not been acted on, or only slightly acted on, by the damper air on one side, although the whole upper part was freely exposed. after h. three of these radicles became [page ] considerably curved towards the sieve; and the absence of curvature in some of the others might perhaps be accounted for by their not having grown very well. but it should be observed that during the first h. to h. all grew well; two of them having increased and mm. in length in h.; five others increased to mm. in h.; and two, which had been at first and mm. in length, increased in h. to and mm. the tips of radicles, which likewise grew well, were coated with the grease for a length of only mm., and now the result was somewhat different; for of these curved themselves to the sieve in from h. to h., whilst did not do so. five of the latter were observed for an additional day, and now all excepting one became curved to the sieve. the tips of radicles were cauterised with nitrate of silver, and about mm. in length was thus destroyed. they were observed for periods varying between h. and h., and were found to have grown well. one of them had curved until it came into contact with the sieve; another was curving towards it; whilst the remaining three were still vertically dependent. of not cauterised radicles observed at the same time, all had come into contact with the sieve. the tips of radicles were protected by moistened gold-beaters' skin, which adheres closely, for a length varying from ½ to ½ mm. after h. to h., of these radicles were clearly bent towards or had come into contact with the sieve; were slightly curved in this direction, and not at all. all had grown well. of control specimens observed at the same time, all excepting one had closely approached the sieve. it appears from these cases that a cap of goldbeaters' skin checks, though only to a slight degree, the bending of the radicles to an adjoining damp surface. whether an extremely thin sheet of this substance when moistened allows moisture from the air to pass through it, we do not know. one case indicated that the caps were sometimes more efficient than appears from the above results; for a radicle, which after h. had only slightly approached the sieve, had its cap ( ½ mm. in length) removed, and during the next ½ h. it curved itself abruptly towards the source of moisture, the chief seat of curvature being at a distance of to mm. from the apex. vicia faba.--the tips of radicles were coated with the grease for a length of mm.; and it should be remembered that with these radicles the seat of chief curvature is about [page ] or mm. from the apex. four of them were examined after h., three after h., and six after h., and none had been attracted towards the damp lower surface of the sieve. in another trial radicles were similarly treated, and of them still pointed perpendicularly downwards after h., whilst were a little curved towards the sieve; by an accident they were not subsequently observed. in both these trials the radicles grew well; of them, which were at first from to mm. in length, were after h. between and mm.; which were at first from to mm. after h. were . to mm. in length; and lastly, radicles which were at first to mm. after h. were to mm. in length. the control or ungreased radicles were not invariably attracted towards the bottom of the sieve. but on one occasion out of , which were observed for periods between h. and h., were thus attracted. on two other occasions taken together, out of were similarly attracted. on another occasion only out of behaved in this manner, but after two more days the proportion of the curved increased to out of . on a last occasion only out of were thus attracted. if we add up these numbers, we find that out of of the control specimens curved themselves towards the bottom of the sieve. of the specimens with greased tips, alone out of the (but of these were not observed for a sufficiently long time) thus curved themselves. we can, therefore, hardly doubt that the tip for a length of mm. is the part which is sensitive to a moist atmosphere, and causes the upper part to bend towards its source. the tips of radicles were cauterised with nitrate of silver, and they grew as well as those above described with greased tips. after an interval of h., of them were not at all curved towards the bottom of the sieve; were curved towards it at angles of o and o from their former vertical position, and had come into close contact with it. thus the destruction of the tip for a length of about mm. prevented the curvature of the greater number of these radicles to the adjoining damp surface. of control specimens, were bent to the sieve, and on a second occasion out of were similarly curved in a greater or less degree. these control trials are included in those given in the foregoing paragraph. avena sativa.--the tips of radicles, which projected between and mm. from the bottom of the sieve, many of [page ] them not quite perpendicularly downwards, were coated with the black grease for a length of from to ½ mm. the sieves were inclined at o with the horizon. the greater number of these radicles were examined after h., and a few after h., and within these intervals they had grown so quickly as to have nearly doubled their lengths. with the ungreased radicles the chief seat of curvature is at a distance of not less than between . and . mm., and not more than between and mm. from the apex. out of the radicles with greased tips, had not moved at all towards the sieve; were deflected towards it and from the perpendicular by angles varying between o and o; and had come into close contact with it. it appears, therefore, at first sight that greasing the tips of these radicles had checked but little their bending to the adjoining damp surface. but the inspection of the sieves on two occasions produced a widely different impression on the mind; for it was impossible to behold the radicles with the black greased tips projecting from the bottom, and all those with ungreased tips, at least to in number, clinging closely to it, and feel any doubt that the greasing had produced a great effect. on close examination only a single ungreased radicle could be found which had not become curved towards the sieve. it is probable that if the tips had been protected by grease for a length of mm. instead of from to ½ mm., they would not have been affected by the moist air and none would have become curved. triticum vulgare.--analogous trials were made on radicles of the common wheat; and greasing their tips produced much less effect than in the case of the oats. after h., of them had come into contact with the bottom of the sieve; had moved towards it o and o, and one alone remained perpendicular. not one of the very numerous ungreased radicles failed to come into close contact with the sieve. these trials were made on nov. th, when the temperature was only . o c. at a.m. we should hardly have thought this case worth notice, had it not been for the following circumstance. in the beginning of october, when the temperature was considerably higher, viz., o to o c., we found that only a few of the ungreased radicles became bent towards the sieve; and this indicates that sensitiveness to moisture in the air is increased by a low temperature, as we have seen with the radicles of vicia faba relatively to objects attached to their tips. but in the present instance it is possible that a difference in the dryness [page ] of the air may have caused the difference in the results at the two periods.] finally, the facts just given with respect to phaseolus multiflorus, vicia faba, and avena sativa show, as it seems to us, that a layer of grease spread for a length of ½ to mm. over the tip of the radicle, or the destruction of the tip by caustic, greatly lessens or quite annuls in the upper and exposed part the power of bending towards a neighbouring source of moisture. we should bear in mind that the part which bends most, lies at some little distance above the greased or cauterised tip; and that the rapid growth of this part, proves that it has not been injured by the tips having been thus treated. in those cases in which the radicles with greased tips became curved, it is possible that the layer of grease was not sufficiently thick wholly to exclude moisture, or that a sufficient length was not thus protected, or, in the case of the caustic, not destroyed. when radicles with greased tips are left to grow for several days in damp air, the grease is drawn out into the finest reticulated threads and dots, with narrow portions of the surface left clean. such portions would, it is probable, be able to absorb moisture, and thus we can account for several of the radicles with greased tips having become curved towards the sieve after an interval of one or two days. on the whole, we may infer that sensitiveness to a difference in the amount of moisture in the air on the two sides of a radicle resides in the tip, which transmits some influence to the upper part, causing it to bend towards the source of moisture. consequently, the movement is the reverse of that caused by objects attached to one side of the tip, or by a thin slice being cut off, or by being slightly cauterised. in a future chapter it will be shown that sensitiveness to the attraction of [page ] gravity likewise resides in the tip; so that it is the tip which excites the adjoining parts of a horizontally extended radicle to bend towards the centre of the earth. secondary radicles becoming vertically geotropic by the destruction or injury of the terminal part of the primary radicle. sachs has shown that the lateral or secondary radicles of the bean, and probably of other plants, are acted on by geotropism in so peculiar a manner, that they grow out horizontally or a little inclined downwards; and he has further shown* the interesting fact, that if the end of the primary radicle be cut off, one of the nearest secondary radicles changes its nature and grows perpendicularly downwards, thus replacing the primary radicle. we repeated this experiment, and planted beans with amputated radicles in friable peat, and saw the result described by sachs; but generally two or three of the secondary radicles grew perpendicularly downwards. we also modified the experiment, by pinching young radicles a little way above their tips, between the arms of a u-shaped piece of thick leaden wire. the part pinched was thus flattened, and was afterwards prevented from growing thicker. five radicles had their ends cut off, and served as controls or standards. eight were pinched; of these were pinched too severely and their ends died and dropped off; were not pinched enough and were not sensibly affected; the remaining were pinched sufficiently to check the growth of the terminal part, but did not appear otherwise injured. when the u-shaped wires were removed, after an * 'arbeiten bot. institut., würzburg,' heft iv. , p. . [page ] interval of days, the part beneath the wire was found to be very thin and easily broken, whilst the part above was thickened. now in these four cases, one or more of the secondary radicles, arising from the thickened part just above the wire, had grown perpendicularly downwards. in the best case the primary radicle (the part below the wire being ½ inch in length) was somewhat distorted, and was not half as long as three adjoining secondary radicles, which had grown vertically, or almost vertically, downwards. some of these secondary radicles adhered together or had become confluent. we learn from these four cases that it is not necessary, in order that a secondary radicle should assume the nature of a primary one, that the latter should be actually amputated; it is sufficient that the flow of sap into it should be checked, and consequently should be directed into the adjoining secondary radicles; for this seems to be the most obvious result of the primary radicle being pinched between the arms of a u-shaped wire. this change in the nature of secondary radicles is clearly analogous, as sachs has remarked, to that which occurs with the shoots of trees, when the leading one is destroyed and is afterwards replaced by one or more of the lateral shoots; for these now grow upright instead of sub-horizontally. but in this latter case the lateral shoots are rendered apogeotropic, whereas with radicles the lateral ones are rendered geotropic. we are naturally led to suspect that the same cause acts with shoots as with roots, namely, an increased flow of sap into the lateral ones. we made some trials with abies communis and pectinata, by pinching with wire the leading and all the lateral shoots excepting one. but we believe that they were too old when experimented on; and some were pinched too severely, and [page ] some not enough. only one case succeeded, namely, with the spruce-fir. the leading shoot was not killed, but its growth was checked; at its base there were three lateral shoots in a whorl, two of which were pinched, one being thus killed; the third was left untouched. these lateral shoots, when operated on (july th) stood at an angle of o above the horizon; by sept. th the unpinched one had risen o; by oct. th it had risen o, and by jan. th o, and it had now become a little curved inwards. part of this rise of o may be attributed to ordinary growth, for the pinched shoot rose o within the same period. it thus follows that the unpinched shoot stood, on jan. th, o above the horizon, or o from the vertical; and it was thus obviously almost ready to replace the slowly growing, pinched, leading shoot. nevertheless, we feel some doubt about this experiment, for we have since observed with spruce-firs growing rather unhealthily, that the lateral shoots near the summit sometimes become highly inclined, whilst the leading shoot remains apparently sound. a widely different agency not rarely causes shoots which naturally would have brown out horizontally to grow up vertically. the lateral branches of the silver fir (a. pectinata) are often affected by a fungus, aecidium elatinum, which causes the branch to enlarge into an oval knob formed of hard wood, in one of which we counted rings of growth. according to de bary*, when the mycelium penetrates a bud beginning to elongate, the shoot developed from it grows vertically upwards. such upright shoots after- * see his valuable article in 'bot. zeitung,' , p. , on these monstrous growths, which are called in german "hexenbesen," or "witch-brooms." [page ] wards produce lateral and horizontal branches; and they then present a curious appearance, as if a young fir-tree had grown out of a ball of clay surrounding the branch. these upright shoots have manifestly changed their nature and become apogeotropic; for if they had not been affected by the aecidium, they would have grown out horizontally like all the other twigs on the same branches. this change can hardly be due to an increased flow of sap into the part; but the presence of the mycelium will have greatly disturbed its natural constitution. according to mr. meehan,* the stems of three species of euphorbia and of portulaca oleracea are "normally prostrate or procumbent;" but when they are attacked by an aecidium, they "assume an erect habit." dr. stahl informs us that he knows of several analogous cases; and these seem to be closely related to that of the abies. the rhizomes of sparganium ramosum grow out horizontally in the soil to a considerable length, or are diageotropic; but f. elfving found that when they were cultivated in water their tips turned upwards, and they became apogeotropic. the same result followed when the stem of the plant was bent until it cracked or was merely much bowed.** no explanation has hitherto been attempted of such cases as the foregoing,- -namely, of secondary radicles growing vertically downwards, and of lateral shoots growing vertically upwards, after the amputation of * 'proc. acad. nat. sc. philadelphia,' june th, , and july rd, . ** see f. elfving's interesting paper in 'arbeiten bot. institut., in würzburg,' vol. ii. , p. . carl kraus (triesdorf) had previously observed ('flora,' , p. ) that the underground shoots of triticum repens bend vertically up when the parts above ground are removed, and when the rhizomes are kept partly immersed in water. [page ] the primary radicle or of the leading shoot. the following considerations give us, as we believe, the clue. firstly, any cause which disturbs the constitution* is apt to induce reversion; such as the crossing of two distinct races, or a change of conditions, as when domestic animals become feral. but the case which most concerns us, is the frequent appearance of peloric flowers on the summit of a stem, or in the centre of the inflorescence,--parts which, it is believed, receive the most sap; for when an irregular flower becomes perfectly regular or peloric, this may be attributed, at least partly, to reversion to a primitive and normal type. even the position of a seed at the end of the capsule sometimes gives to the seedling developed from it a tendency to revert. secondly, reversions often occur by means of buds, independently of reproduction by seed; so that a bud may revert to the character of a former state many bud-generations ago. in the case of animals, reversions may occur in the individual with advancing age. thirdly and lastly, radicles when they first protrude from the seed are always geotropic, and plumules or shoots almost always apogeotropic. if then any cause, such as an increased flow of sap or the presence of mycelium, disturbs the constitution of a lateral shoot or of a secondary radicle, it is apt to revert to its primordial state; and it becomes either apogeotropic or geotropic, as the case may be, and consequently grows either vertically upwards or downwards. it is indeed pos- * the facts on which the following conclusions are founded are given in 'the variation of animals and plants under domestication,' nd edit. . on the causes leading to reversion see chap. xii. vol. ii. and p. , chap. xiv. on peloric flowers, chap. xiii. p. ; and see p. on their position on the plant. with respect to seeds, p. . on reversion by means of buds, p. , chap. xi. vol. i. [page ] sible, or even probable, that this tendency to reversion may have been increased, as it is manifestly of service to the plant. summary of chapter. a part or organ may be called sensitive, when its irritation excites movement in an adjoining part. now it has been shown in this chapter, that the tip of the radicle of the bean is in this sense sensitive to the contact of any small object attached to one side by shellac or gum-water; also to a slight touch with dry caustic, and to a thin slice cut off one side. the radicles of the pea were tried with attached objects and caustic, both of which acted. with phaseolus multiflorus the tip was hardly sensitive to small squares of attached card, but was sensitive to caustic and to slicing. the radicles of tropaeolum were highly sensitive to contact; and so, as far as we could judge, were those of gossypium herbaceum, and they were certainly sensitive to caustic. the tips of the radicles of cucurbita ovifera were likewise highly sensitive to caustic, though only moderately so to contact. raphanus sativus offered a somewhat doubtful case. with aesculus the tips were quite indifferent to bodies attached to them, though sensitive to caustic. those of quercus robur and zea mays were highly sensitive to contact, as were the radicles of the latter to caustic. in several of these cases the difference in sensitiveness of the tip to contact and to caustic was, as we believe, merely apparent; for with gossypium, raphanus, and cucurbita, the tip was so fine and flexible that it was very difficult to attach any object to one of its sides. with the radicles of aesculus, the tips were not at all sensitive to small bodies attached to them; but it does not follow from this [page ] fact that they would not have been sensitive to somewhat greater continued pressure, if this could have been applied. the peculiar form of sensitiveness which we are here considering, is confined to the tip of the radicle for a length of from mm. to . mm. when this part is irritated by contact with any object, by caustic, or by a thin slice being cut off, the upper adjoining part of the radicle, for a length of from or to even mm., is excited to bend away from the side which has been irritated. some influence must therefore be transmitted from the tip along the radicle for this length. the curvature thus caused is generally symmetrical. the part which bends most apparently coincides with that of the most rapid growth. the tip and the basal part grow very slowly and they bend very little. considering the widely separated position in the vegetable series of the several above-named genera, we may conclude that the tips of the radicles of all, or almost all, plants are similarly sensitive, and transmit an influence causing the upper part to bend. with respect to the tips of the secondary radicles, those of vicia faba, pisum sativum, and zea mays were alone observed, and they were found similarly sensitive. in order that these movements should be properly displayed, it appears necessary that the radicles should grow at their normal rate. if subjected to a high temperature and made to grow rapidly, the tips seem either to lose their sensitiveness, or the upper part to lose the power of bending. so it appears to be if they grow very slowly from not being vigorous, or from being kept at too low a temperature; also when they are forced to germinate in the middle of the winter. [page ] the curvature of the radicle sometimes occurs within from to hours after the tip has been irritated, and almost always within h., excepting in the case of the massive radicles of aesculus. the curvature often amounts to a rectangle,--that is, the terminal part bends upwards until the tip, which is but little curved, projects almost horizontally. occasionally the tip, from the continued irritation of the attached object, continues to bend up until it forms a hook with the point directed towards the zenith, or a loop, or even a spire. after a time the radicle apparently becomes accustomed to the irritation, as occurs in the case of tendrils, for it again grows downwards, although the bit of card or other object may remain attached to the tip. it is evident that a small object attached to the free point of a vertically suspended radicle can offer no mechanical resistance to its growth as a whole, for the object is carried downwards as the radicle elongates, or upwards as the radicle curves upwards. nor can the growth of the tip itself be mechanically checked by an object attached to it by gum-water, which remains all the time perfectly soft. the weight of the object, though quite insignificant, is opposed to the upward curvature. we may therefore conclude that it is the irritation due to contact which excites the movement. the contact, however, must be prolonged, for the tips of radicles were rubbed for a short time, and this did not cause them to bend. here then we have a case of specialised sensibility, like that of the glands of drosera; for these are exquisitely sensitive to the slightest pressure if prolonged, but not to two or three rough touches. when the tip of a radicle is lightly touched on one side with dry nitrate of silver, the injury caused is [page ] very slight, and the adjoining upper part bends away from the cauterised point, with more certainty in most cases than from an object attached on one side. here it obviously is not the mere touch, but the effect produced by the caustic, which induces the tip to transmit some influence to the adjoining part, causing it to bend away. if one side of the tip is badly injured or killed by the caustic, it ceases to grow, whilst the opposite side continues growing; and the result is that the tip itself bends towards the injured side and often becomes completely hooked; and it is remarkable that in this case the adjoining upper part does not bend. the stimulus is too powerful or the shock too great for the proper influence to be transmitted from the tip. we have strictly analogous cases with drosera, dionaea and pinguicula, with which plants a too powerful stimulus does not excite the tentacles to become incurved, or the lobes to close, or the margin to be folded inwards. with respect to the degree of sensitiveness of the apex to contact under favourable conditions, we have seen that with vicia faba a little square of writing-paper affixed with shellac sufficed to cause movement; as did on one occasion a square of merely damped goldbeaters' skin, but it acted very slowly. short bits of moderately thick bristle (of which measurements have been given) affixed with gum-water acted in only three out of eleven trials, and beads of dried shellac under / th of a grain in weight acted only twice in nine cases; so that here we have nearly reached the minimum of necessary irritation. the apex, therefore, is much less sensitive to pressure than the glands of drosera, for these are affected by far thinner objects than bits of bristle, and by a very much less weight than / th of a grain. [page ] but the most interesting evidence of the delicate sensitiveness of the tip of the radicle, was afforded by its power of discriminating between equal-sized squares of card-like and very thin paper, when these were attached on opposite sides, as was observed with the radicles of the bean and oak. when radicles of the bean are extended horizontally with squares of card attached to the lower sides of their tips, the irritation thus caused was always conquered by geotropism, which then acts under the most favourable conditions at right angles to the radicle. but when objects were attached to the radicles of any of the above-named genera, suspended vertically, the irritation conquered geotropism, which latter power at first acted obliquely on the radicle; so that the immediate irritation from the attached object, aided by its after-effects, prevailed and caused the radicle to bend upwards, until sometimes the point was directed to the zenith. we must, however, assume that the after-effects of the irritation of the tip by an attached object come into play, only after movement has been excited. the tips of the radicles of the pea seem to be more sensitive to contact than those of the bean, for when they were extended horizontally with squares of card adhering to their lower sides, a most curious struggle occasionally arose, sometimes one and sometimes the other force prevailing, but ultimately geotropism was always victorious; nevertheless, in two instances the terminal part became so much curved upwards that loops were subsequently formed. with the pea, therefore, the irritation from an attached object, and from geotropism when acting at right angles to the radicle, are nearly balanced forces. closely similar results were observed with the horizontally extended radicles of cucurbita ovifera, [page ] when their tips were slightly cauterised on the lower side. finally, the several co-ordinated movements by which radicles are enabled to perform their proper functions are admirably perfect. in whatever direction the primary radicle first protrudes from the seed, geotropism guides it perpendicularly downwards; and the capacity to be acted on by the attraction of gravity resides in the tip. but sachs has proved* that the secondary radicles, or those emitted by the primary one, are acted on by geotropism in such a manner that they tend to bend only obliquely downwards. if they had been acted on like the primary radicle, all the radicles would have penetrated the ground in a close bundle. we have seen that if the end of the primary radicle is cut off or injured, the adjoining secondary radicles become geotropic and grow vertically downwards. this power must often be of great service to the plant, when the primary radicle has been destroyed by the larvae of insects, burrowing animals, or any other accident. the tertiary radicles, or those emitted by the secondary ones, are not influenced, at least in the case of the bean, by geotropism; so they grow out freely in all directions. from this manner of growth of the various kinds of radicles, they are distributed, together with their absorbent hairs, throughout the surrounding soil, as sachs has remarked, in the most advantageous manner; for the whole soil is thus closely searched. geotropism, as was shown in the last chapter, excites the primary radicle to bend downwards with very little force, quite insufficient to penetrate the ground. such penetration is effected by the pointed * 'arbeiten bot. institut, würzburg,' heft iv. , pp. - . [page ] apex (protected by the root-cap) being pressed down by the longitudinal expansion or growth of the terminal rigid portion, aided by its transverse expansion, both of which forces act powerfully. it is, however, indispensable that the seeds should be at first held down in some manner. when they lie on the bare surface they are held down by the attachment of the root-hairs to any adjoining objects; and this apparently is effected by the conversion of their outer surfaces into a cement. but many seeds get covered up by various accidents, or they fall into crevices or holes. with some seeds their own weight suffices. the circumnutating movement of the terminal growing part both of the primary and secondary radicles is so feeble that it can aid them very little in penetrating the ground, excepting when the superficial layer is very soft and damp. but it must aid them materially when they happen to break obliquely into cracks, or into burrows made by earth-worms or larvae. this movement, moreover, combined with the sensitiveness of the tip to contact, can hardly fail to be of the highest importance; for as the tip is always endeavouring to bend to all sides it will press on all sides, and will thus be able to discriminate between the harder and softer adjoining surfaces, in the same manner as it discriminated between the attached squares of card-like and thin paper. consequently it will tend to bend from the harder soil, and will thus follow the lines of least resistance. so it will be if it meets with a stone or the root of another plant in the soil, as must incessantly occur. if the tip were not sensitive, and if it did not excite the upper part of the root to bend away, whenever it encountered at right angles some obstacle in the ground, it would be liable [page ] to be doubled up into a contorted mass. but we have seen with radicles growing down inclined plates of glass, that as soon as the tip merely touched a slip of wood cemented across the plate, the whole terminal growing part curved away, so that the tip soon stood at right angles to its former direction; and thus it would be with an obstacle encountered in the ground, as far as the pressure of the surrounding soil would permit. we can also understand why thick and strong radicles, like those of aesculus, should be endowed with less sensitiveness than more delicate ones; for the former would be able by the force of their growth to overcome any slight obstacle. after a radicle, which has been deflected by some stone or root from its natural downward course, reaches the edge of the obstacle, geotropism will direct it to grow again straight downward; but we know that geotropism acts with very little force, and here another excellent adaptation, as sachs has remarked,* comes into play. for the upper part of the radicle, a little above the apex, is, as we have seen, likewise sensitive; and this sensitiveness causes the radicle to bend like a tendril towards the touching object, so that as it rubs over the edge of an obstacle, it will bend downwards; and the curvature thus induced is abrupt, in which respect it differs from that caused by the irritation of one side of the tip. this downward bending coincides with that due to geotropism, and both will cause the root to resume its original course. as radicles perceive an excess of moisture in the air on one side and bend towards this side, we may infer that they will act in the same manner with respect to moisture in the earth. the sensitiveness to moisture * 'arbeiten bot. inst., würzburg,' heft iii. p. . [page ] resides in the tip, which determines the bending of the upper part. this capacity perhaps partly accounts for the extent to which drain-pipes often become choked with roots. considering the several facts given in this chapter, we see that the course followed by a root through the soil is governed by extraordinarily complex and diversified agencies,--by geotropism acting in a different manner on the primary, secondary, and tertiary radicles,--by sensitiveness to contact, different in kind in the apex and in the part immediately above the apex, and apparently by sensitiveness to the varying dampness of different parts of the soil. these several stimuli to movement are all more powerful than geotropism, when this acts obliquely on a radicle, which has been deflected from its perpendicular downward course. the roots, moreover, of most plants are excited by light to bend either to or from it; but as roots are not naturally exposed to the light it is doubtful whether this sensitiveness, which is perhaps only the indirect result of the radicles being highly sensitive to other stimuli, is of any service to the plant. the direction which the apex takes at each successive period of the growth of a root, ultimately determines its whole course; it is therefore highly important that the apex should pursue from the first the most advantageous direction; and we can thus understand why sensitiveness to geotropism, to contact and to moisture, all reside in the tip, and why the tip determines the upper growing part to bend either from or to the exciting cause. a radicle may be compared with a burrowing animal such as a mole, which wishes to penetrate perpendicularly down into the ground. by continually moving his head from side to side, or circumnutating, he will feel any stone [page ] or other obstacle, as well as any difference in the hardness of the soil, and he will turn from that side; if the earth is damper on one than on the other side he will turn thitherward as a better hunting-ground. nevertheless, after each interruption, guided by the sense of gravity, he will be able to recover his downward course and to burrow to a greater depth. [page ] chapter iv. the circumnutating movements of the several parts of mature plants. circumnutation of stems: concluding remarks on--circumnutation of stolons: aid thus afforded in winding amongst the stems of surrounding plants-- circumnutation of flower-stems--circumnutation of dicotyledonous leaves-- singular oscillatory movement of leaves of dionaea--leaves of cannabis sink at night--leaves of gymnosperms--of monocotyledons--cryptogams--concluding remarks on the circumnutation of leaves; generally rise in the evening and sink in the morning. we have seen in the first chapter that the stems of all seedlings, whether hypocotyls or epicotyls, as well as the cotyledons and the radicles, are continually circumnutating--that is they grow first on one side and then on another, such growth being probably preceded by increased turgescence of the cells. as it was unlikely that plants should change their manner of growth with advancing age, it seemed probable that the various organs of all plants at all ages, as long as they continued to grow, would be found to circumnutate, though perhaps to an extremely small extent. as it was important for us to discover whether this was the case, we determined to observe carefully a certain number of plants which were growing vigorously, and which were not known to move in any manner. we commenced with stems. observations of this kind are tedious, and it appeared to us that it would be sufficient to observe the stems in about a score of genera, belonging to widely distinct families and inhabitants of various countries. several plants [page ] were selected which, from being woody, or for other reasons, seemed the least likely to circumnutate. the observations and the diagrams were made in the manner described in the introduction. plants in pots were subjected to a proper temperature, and whilst being observed, were kept either in darkness or were feebly illuminated from above. they are arranged in the order adopted by hooker in le maout and decaisne's 'system of botany.' the number of the family to which each genus belongs is appended, as this serves to show the place of each in the series. [( .) iberis umbellata (cruciferae, fam. ).--the movement of the stem of a young plant, inches in height, consisting of four internodes (the hypocotyl included) besides a large bud fig. . iberis umbellata: circumnutation of stem of young plant, traced from . a.m. sept. th to same hour on following morning. distance of summit of stem beneath the horizontal glass . inches. diagram reduced to half of original size. movement as here shown magnified between and times. on the summit, was traced, as here shown, during h. (fig. ). as far as we could judge the uppermost inch alone of the stem circumnutated, and this in a simple manner. the movement was slow, and the rate very unequal at different times. in part of its course an irregular ellipse, or rather triangle, was completed in h. m. ( .) brassica oleracea (cruciferae).--a very young plant, bearing three leaves, of which the longest was only three-quarters of an inch in length, was placed under a microscope, furnished with an eye-piece micrometer, and the tip of the largest leaf was [page ] found to be in constant movement. it crossed five divisions of the micrometer, that is, / th of an inch, in m. s. there could hardly be a doubt that it was the stem which chiefly moved, for the tip did not get quickly out of focus; and this would have occurred had the movement been confined to the leaf, which moves up or down in nearly the same vertical plane. ( .) linum usitatissimum (lineae, fam. ).--the stems of this plant, shortly before the flowering period, are stated by fritz müller ('jenaische zeitschrift,' b. v. p. ) to revolve, or circumnutate. ( .) pelargonium zonale (geraniaceae, fam. ).--a young plant, ½ inches in height, was observed in the usual manner; but, in order to see the bead at the end of the glass filament fig. . pelargonium zonale: circumnutation of stem of young plant, feebly illuminated from above. movement of bead magnified about times; traced on a horizontal glass from noon on march th to a.m. on the th. and at the same time the mark beneath, it was necessary to cut off three leaves on one side. we do not know whether it was owing to this cause, or to the plant having previously become bent to one side through heliotropism, but from the morning of the th of march to . p.m. on the th, the stem moved a considerable distance in a zigzag line in the same general direction. during the night of the th it moved to some distance at right angles to its former course, and next morning ( th) stood for a time almost still. at noon on the th a new tracing was begun (see fig. ), which was continued till a.m. on the th. between noon on the th and p.m. on the th (i.e. in the course of h.), the stem described a circle. this plant therefore circumnutates, but at a very slow rate, and to a small extent. ( .) tropaeolum majus (?) (dwarfed var. called tom thumb); (geraniaceae, fam. ).--the species of this genus climb by the [page ] aid of their sensitive petioles, but some of them also twine round supports; but even these latter species do not begin to circumnutate in a conspicuous manner whilst young. the fig. . tropaeolum majus (?): circumnutation of stem of young plant, traced on a horizontal glass from a.m. dec. th to a.m. on th. movement of bead magnified about times, and here reduced to half of original scale. variety here treated of has a rather thick stem, and is so dwarf that apparently it does not climb in any manner. we therefore wished to ascertain whether the stem of a young plant, consisting of two internodes, together . inches in height, circumnutated. it was observed during h., and we see in fig. that the stem moved in a zigzag course, indicating circumnutation. fig. . trifolium resupinatum: circumnutation of stem, traced on vertical glass from . a.m. to . p.m. nov. rd. tracing not greatly magnified, reduced to half of original size. plant feebly illuminated from above. ( .) trifolium resupinatum (leguminosae, fam. ).--when we treat of the sleep of plants, we shall see that the stems in several leguminous genera, for instance, those of hedysarum, mimosa, melilotus, etc., which are not climbers, circumnutate in a conspicuous manner. we will here give only a single instance (fig. ), showing the circumnutation of the stem of a large plant of a clover, trifolium resupinatum. in the course of h. the stem changed [page ] its course greatly eight times and completed three irregular circles or ellipses. it therefore circumnutated rapidly. some of the lines run at right angles to one another. fig. . rubus (hybrid): circumnutation of stem, traced on horizontal glass, from p.m. march th to . a.m. th. tracing much magnified, reduced to half of original size. plant illuminated feebly from above. ( .) rubus idaeus (hybrid) (rosaceae, fam. ).--as we happened to have a young plant, inches in height and growing vigorously, which had been raised from a cross between the raspberry (rubus idaeus) and a north american rubus, it was observed in the usual manner. during the morning of march th the stem almost completed a circle, and then moved far to the right. at p.m. it reversed its course, and now a fresh tracing was begun, which was continued during ½ h., and is given in fig. . we here have well-marked circumnutation. ( .) deutzia gracilis (saxifrageae, fam. ).--a shoot on a bush about inches in height was observed. the bead changed its course greatly eleven times in the course of h. m. (fig. ), and there could be no doubt about the circumnutation of the stem. fig. . deutzia gracilis: circumnutation of stem, kept in darkness, traced on horizontal glass, from . a.m. to p.m. march th. movement of bead originally magnified about times, here reduced to half scale. ( .) fuchsia (greenhouse var., with large flowers, probably a hybrid) (onagrarieae, fam. ).--a young plant, inches in height, was observed during nearly h. the [page ] accompanying figure (fig. ) gives the necessary particulars, and shows that the stem circumnutated, though rather slowly. fig. . fuchsia (garden var.): circumnutation of stem, kept in darkness, traced on horizontal glass, from . a.m. to p.m. march th. movement of bead originally magnified about times, here reduced to half scale. ( .) cereus speciocissimus (garden var., sometimes called phyllocactus multiflorus) (cacteae, fam. ).--this plant, which was growing vigorously from having been removed a few days before from the greenhouse to the hot-house, was observed with especial interest, as it seemed so little probable that the stem would circumnutate. the branches are flat, or flabelliform; but some of them are triangular in section, with the three sides hollowed out. a branch of this latter shape, inches in length and ½ in diameter, was chosen for observation, as less likely to circumnutate than a flabelliform branch. the movement of the bead at the end of the glass filament, affixed to the summit of the branch, was traced (a, fig. ) from . a.m. to . p.m. on nov. rd, during which time it changed its course greatly six times. on the th another tracing was made (see b), and the bead on this day changed its course oftener, making in h. what may be considered as four ellipses, with their longer axes differently directed. the position of the stem and its commencing course on the following morning are likewise shown. there can be no doubt that this branch, though appearing quite rigid, circumnutated; but the [page ] extreme amount of movement during the time was very small, probably rather less than the / th of an inch. fig . cereus speciocissimus: circumnutation of stem, illuminated from above, traced on a horizontal glass, in a from a.m. to . p.m. on nov. rd; and in b from . a.m. on the th to a.m. on the th. movement of the bead in b magnified about times. ( .) hedera helix (araliaceae, fam. ).--the stem is known to be apheliotropic, and several seedlings growing in a pot in the greenhouse became bent in the middle of the summer at right angles from the light. on sept. nd some of these stems were tied up so as to stand vertically, and were placed before a north-east window; but to our surprise they were now decidedly heliotropic, for during days they curved themselves towards the light, and their course being traced on a horizontal glass, was strongly zigzag. during the succeeding days they circumnutated over the same small space at a slow rate, but there could be no doubt about their circumnutation. the plants were kept exactly in the same place before the window, and after an interval of days the stems were again observed during days and their movements traced, and [page ] they were found to be still circumnutating, but on a yet smaller scale. ( .) gazania ringens (compositae, fam. ).--the circumnutation of the stem of a young plant, inches in height, as measured to the tip of the highest leaf, was traced during h., and is shown in the accompanying figure (fig. ). two fig. . gazania ringens: circumnutation of stem traced from a.m. march st to p.m. on nd; plant kept in darkness. movement of bead at the close of the observations magnified times, here reduced to half the original scale. main lines may be observed running at nearly right angles to two other main lines; but these are interrupted by small loops. ( .) azalea indica (ericineae, fam. ).--a bush inches in height was selected for observation, and the circumnutation of its leading shoot was traced during h. m., as shown in the following figure (fig. ). ( .) plumbago capensis (plumbagineae, fam. ).--a small lateral branch which projected from a tall freely growing bush, at an angle of o above the horizon, was selected for observation. for the first h. it moved to a considerable distance in a nearly straight line to one side, owing probably to its having been previously deflected by the light whilst standing in the greenhouse. at . p.m. on march th a fresh tracing was begun and continued for the next h. m. (see fig. ). during the first h. it followed nearly the same direction as before, and then changed it a little; during the night it moved at nearly right angles to its previous course. next [page ] day ( th) it zigzagged greatly, and on the th moved irregularly round and round a small circular space. by p.m. on the th the figure had become so complicated that no more dots could be made; but the shoot continued during the evening of the th, the whole of the th, and the morning of the th to fig. . azalea indica: circumnutation of stem, illuminated from above, traced on horizontal glass, from . a.m. march th to . p.m. on the th. but on the morning of the th only four dots were made between . a.m. and . p.m., both hours included, so that the circumnutation is not fairly represented in this part of the diagram. movement of the bead here magnified about times. fig. . plumbago capensis: circumnutation of tip of a lateral branch, traced on horizontal glass, from . p.m. on march th to p.m. on the th. movement of bead magnified times. plant feebly illuminated from above. circumnutate over the same small space, which was only about the / th of an inch (. mm.) in diameter. although this branch circumnutated to a very small extent, yet it changed its course frequently. the movements ought to have been more magnified. ( .) aloysia citriodora (verbenaceae, fam. ).--the following figure (fig. ) gives the movements of a shoot during [page ] h. m., and shows that it circumnutated. the bush was inches in height. fig. . aloysia citriodora: circumnutation of stem, traced from . a.m. on march nd to p.m. on rd. plant kept in darkness. movement magnified about times. ( .) verbena melindres (?) (a scarlet-flowered herbaceous var.) (verbenaceae).--a shoot inches in height had been laid horizontally, for the sake of observing its apogeotropism, and the terminal portion had grown vertically upwards for a length of ½ inch. a glass filament, with a bead at the end, was fixed fig. . verbena melindres: circumnutation of stem in darkness, traced on vertical glass, from . p.m. on june th to a.m. june th. movement of bead magnified times. upright to the tip, and its movements were traced during h. m. on a vertical glass (fig. ). under these circumstances the lateral movements were chiefly shown; but as the lines from side to side are not on the same level, the shoot [page ] must have moved in a plane at right angles to that of the lateral movement, that is, it must have circumnutated. on the next day ( th) the shoot moved in the course of h. four times to the right, and four times to the left; and this apparently represents the formation of four ellipses, so that each was completed in h. ( .) ceratophyllum demersum (ceratophylleae, fam. ).--an interesting account of the movements of the stem of this water-plant has been published by m. e. rodier.* the movements are confined to the young internodes, becoming less and less lower down the stem; and they are extraordinary from their amplitude. the stems sometimes moved through an angle of above o in h., and in one instance through o in h. they generally bent from right to left in the morning, and in an opposite direction in the afternoon; but the movement was sometimes temporarily reversed or quite arrested. it was not affected by light. it does not appear that m. rodier made any diagram on a horizontal plane representing the actual course pursued by the apex, but he speaks of the "branches executing round their axes of growth a movement of torsion." from the particulars above given, and remembering in the case of twining plants and of tendrils, how difficult it is not to mistake their bending to all points of the compass for true torsion, we are led to believe that the stems of this ceratophyllum circumnutate, probably in the shape of narrow ellipses, each completed in about h. the following statement, however, seems to indicate something different from ordinary circumnutation, but we cannot fully understand it. m. rodier says: "il est alors facile de voir que le mouvement de flexion se produit d'abord dans les mérithalles supérieurs, qu'il se propage ensuite, en s'amoindrissant du haut en bas; tandis qu'au contraire le movement de redressement commence par la partie inférieur pour se terminer a la partie supérieure qui, quelquefois, peu de temps avant de se relever tout à fait, forme avec l'axe un angle très aigu." ( .) coniferae.--dr. maxwell masters states ('journal linn. soc.,' dec. nd, ) that the leading shoots of many coniferae during the season of their active growth exhibit very remarkable movements of revolving nutation, that is, they circumnutate. we may feel sure that the lateral shoots whilst growing would exhibit the same movement if carefully observed. * 'comptes rendus,' april th, . also a second notice published separately in bourdeaux, nov. th, . [page ] ( .) lilium auratum (fam. liliaceae).--the circumnutation fig. . lilium auratum: circumnutation of a stem in darkness, traced on a horizontal glass, from a.m. on march th to . a.m. on th. but it should be noted that our observations were interrupted between p.m. on the th and . p.m. on the th, and the movements during this interval of h. m. are represented by a long broken line. diagram reduced to half original scale. of the stem of a plant inches in height is represented in the above figure (fig. ). fig. . cyperus alternifolius: circumnutation of stem, illuminated from above, traced on horizontal glass, from . a.m. march th to p.m. on th. the stem grew so rapidly whilst being observed, that it was not possible to estimate how much its movements were magnified in the tracing. ( .) cyperus alternifolius (fam. cyperaceae.)--a glass [page ] filament, with a bead at the end, was fixed across the summit of a young stem inches in height, close beneath the crown of elongated leaves. on march th, between . and . p.m. the stem described an ellipse, open at one end. on the following day a new tracing was begun (fig. ), which plainly shows that the stem completed three irregular figures in the course of h. m.] concluding remarks on the circumnutation of stems.--any one who will inspect the diagrams now given, and will bear in mind the widely separated position of the plants described in the series,--remembering that we have good grounds for the belief that the hypocotyls and epicotyls of all seedlings circumnutate,--not forgetting the number of plants distributed in the most distinct families which climb by a similar movement,--will probably admit that the growing stems of all plants, if carefully observed, would be found to circumnutate to a greater or less extent. when we treat of the sleep and other movements of plants, many other cases of circumnutating stems will be incidentally given. in looking at the diagrams, we should remember that the stems were always growing, so that in each case the circumnutating apex as it rose will have described a spire of some kind. the dots were made on the glasses generally at intervals of an hour, or hour and a half, and were then joined by straight lines. if they had been made at intervals of or minutes, the lines would have been more curvilinear, as in the case of the tracks left on the smoked glass-plates by the tips of the circumnutating radicles of seedling plants. the diagrams generally approach in form to a succession of more or less irregular ellipses or ovals, with their longer axes directed to different points of the compass during the same day or on succeeding days. the stems there- [page ] fore, sooner or later, bend to all sides; but after a stem has bent in any one direction, it commonly bends back at first in nearly, though not quite, the opposite direction; and this gives the tendency to the formation of ellipses, which are generally narrow, but not so narrow as those described by stolons and leaves. on the other hand, the figures sometimes approach in shape to circles. whatever the figure may be, the course pursued is often interrupted by zigzags, small triangles, loops, or ellipses. a stem may describe a single large ellipse one day, and two on the next. with different plants the complexity, rate, and amount of movement differ much. the stems, for instance, of iberis and azalea described only a single large ellipse in h.; whereas those of the deutzia made four or five deep zigzags or narrow ellipses in ½ h., and those of the trifolium three triangular or quadrilateral figures in h. circumnutation of stolons or runners. stolons consist of much elongated, flexible branches, which run along the surface of the ground and form roots at a distance from the parent-plant. they are therefore of the same homological nature as stems; and the three following cases may be added to the twenty previously given cases. [fragaria (cultivated garden var.): rosaceae.--a plant growing in a pot had emitted a long stolon; this was supported by a stick, so that it projected for the length of several inches horizontally. a glass filament bearing two minute triangles of paper was affixed to the terminal bud, which was a little upturned; and its movements were traced during h., as shown in fig. . in the course of the first h. it moved twice up and twice down in somewhat zigzag lines, and no doubt travelled in the same manner during the night. on the following [page ] morning after an interval of h. the apex stood a little higher than it did at first, and this shows that the stolon had not been fig. . fragaria: circumnutation of stolon, kept in darkness, traced on vertical glass, from . a.m. may th to . a.m. on th. acted on within this time by geotropism;* nor had its own weight caused it to bend downwards. on the following morning ( th) the glass filament was detached and refixed close behind the bud, as it appeared possible that the circumnutation of the terminal bud and of the adjoining part of the stolon might be different. the movement was now traced during two consecutive days (fig. ). during the first day the filament travelled in the course of h. m. five times up and four times down, besides some lateral movement. on the th the course was even more complicated, and can hardly be followed in the figure; but the filament moved in h. at least five times up and five times down, with very little * dr. a. b. frank states ('die naturliche wagerechte richtung von pflanzentheilen,' , p. ) that the stolons of this plant are acted on by geotropism, but only after a considerable interval of time. [page ] lateral deflection. the first and last dots made on this second day, viz., at a.m. and p.m., were close together, showing that the stolon had not fallen or risen. nevertheless, by comparing its position on the morning of the th and st, it is obvious that the stolon had sunk; and this may be attributed to slow bending down either from its own weight or from geotropism. fig. . fragaria: circumnutation of the same stolon as in the last figure, observed in the same manner, and traced from a.m. may th to a.m. st. during a part of the th an orthogonal tracing was made by applying a cube of wood to the vertical glass and bringing the apex of the stolon at successive periods into a line with one edge; a dot being made each time on the glass. this tracing therefore represented very nearly the actual amount of movement of the apex; and in the course of h. the distance of the extreme dots from one another was . inch. by the same method it was ascertained that the apex moved between a.m. on the th and a.m. on the st a distance of . inch. a younger and shorter stolon was supported so that it projected at about o above the horizon, and its movement was traced by the same orthogonal method. on the first day the apex soon rose above the field of vision. by the next morning it had sunk, and the course pursued was now traced during h. m. (fig. ). the amount of movement was almost the same, [page ] from side to side as up and down; and differed in this respect remarkably from the movement in the previous cases. during the latter part of the day, viz., between and . p.m., the fig. . fragaria: circumnutation of another and younger stolon, traced from a.m. to . p.m. figure reduced to one-half of original scale. actual distance travelled by the apex amounted to . inch; and in the course of the whole day to at least . inches. this is an amount of movement almost comparable with that of some climbing plants. the same stolon was observed on the following day, and now it moved in a somewhat less complex manner, in a plane not far from vertical. the extreme amount of actual movement was . inch in one direction, and . inch in another direction at right angles. during neither of these days did the stolon bend downwards through geotropism or its own weight. four stolons still attached to the plant were laid on damp sand in the back of a room, with their tips facing the north-east windows. they were thus placed because de vries says* that they are apheliotropic when exposed to the light of the sun; but we could not perceive any effect from the above feeble degree of illumination. we may add that on another occasion, late in the summer, some stolons, placed upright before a south-west window * 'arbeiten bot inst., würzburg,' , p. . [page ] on a cloudy day, became distinctly curved towards the light, and were therefore heliotropic. close in front of the tips of the prostrate stolons, a crowd of very thin sticks and the dried haulms of grasses were driven into the sand, to represent the crowded stems of surrounding plants in a state of nature. this was done for the sake of observing how the growing stolons would pass through them. they did so easily in the course of days, and their circumnutation apparently facilitated their passage. when the tips encountered sticks so close together that they could not pass between them, they rose up and passed over them. the sticks and haulms were removed after the passage of the four stolons, two of which were found to have assumed a permanently sinuous shape, and two were still straight. but to this subject we shall recur under saxifraga. saxifraga sarmentosa (saxifrageae).--a plant in a suspended pot had emitted long branched stolons, which depended like fig. . saxifraga sarmentosa: circumnutation of an inclined stolon, traced in darkness on a horizontal glass, from . a.m. april th to a.m. on th. movement of end of stolon magnified . times. threads on all sides. two were tied up so as to stand vertically, and their upper ends became gradually bent downwards, but so slowly in the course of several days, that the bending was probably due to their weight and not to geotropism. a glass filament with little triangles of paper was fixed to the end of one of these stolons, which was ½ inches in length, and had already become much bent down, but still projected at a considerable angle above the horizon. it moved only slightly three times from side to side and then upwards; on the following day [page ] the movement was even less. as this stolon was so long we thought that its growth was nearly completed, so we tried another which was thicker and shorter, viz., / inches in length. it moved greatly, chiefly upwards, and changed its course five times in the course of the day. during the night it curved so much upwards in opposition to gravity, that the movement could no longer be traced on the vertical glass, and a horizontal one had to be used. the movement was followed during the next h., as shown in fig. . three irregular ellipses, with their longer axes somewhat differently directed, were almost completed in the first h. the extreme actual amount of movement of the tip during the h. was . inch. several stolons were laid on a flat surface of damp sand, in the same manner as with those of the strawberry. the friction of the sand did not interfere with their circumnutation; nor could we detect any evidence of their being sensitive to contact. in order to see how in a state of nature they would act, when encountering a stone or other obstacle on the ground, short pieces of smoked glass, an inch in height, were stuck upright into the sand in front of two thin lateral branches. their tips scratched the smoked surface in various directions; one made three upward and two downward lines, besides a nearly horizontal one; the other curled quite away from the glass; but ultimately both surmounted the glass and pursued their original course. the apex of a third thick stolon swept up the glass in a curved line, recoiled and again came into contact with it; it then moved to the right, and after ascending, descended vertically; ultimately it passed round one end of the glass instead of over it. many long pins were next driven rather close together into the sand, so as to form a crowd in front of the same two thin lateral branches; but these easily wound their way through the crowd. a thick stolon was much delayed in its passage; at one place it was forced to turn at right angles to its former course; at another place it could not pass through the pins, and the hinder part became bowed; it then curved upwards and passed through an opening between the upper part of some pins which happened to diverge; it then descended and finally emerged through the crowd. this stolon was rendered permanently sinuous to a slight degree, and was thicker where sinuous than elsewhere, apparently from its longitudinal growth having been checked. cotyledon umbilicus (crassulaceae).--a plant growing in a pan [page ] of damp moss had emitted stolons, and inches in length. one of these was supported, so that a length of ½ inches projected in a straight and horizontal line, and the movement of the apex was traced. the first dot was made at . a.m.; fig. . cotyledon umbilicus: circumnutation of stolon, traced from . a.m. aug. th to a.m. th. plant illuminated from above. the terminal internode was . inch in length, the penultimate . and the third . inches in length. apex of stolon stood at a distance of . inches from the vertical glass; but it was not possible to ascertain how much the tracing was magnified, as it was not known how great a length of the internode circumnutated. the terminal portion soon began to bend downwards and continued to do so until noon. therefore a straight line, very nearly as long as the whole figure here given (fig. ), was first traced on the glass; but the upper part of this line has not been copied in the diagram. the curvature occurred in the middle [page ] of the penultimate internode; and its chief seat was at the distance of / inch from the apex; it appeared due to the weight of the terminal portion, acting on the more flexible part of the internode, and not to geotropism. the apex after thus sinking down from . a.m. to noon, moved a little to the left; it then rose up and circumnutated in a nearly vertical plane until . p.m. on the following day ( th) it was ob- fig. . cotyledon umbilicus: circumnutation and downward movement of another stolon, traced on vertical glass, from . a.m. aug. th to a.m. th. apex close to glass, so that figure but little magnified, and here reduced to two-thirds of original size. served from . a.m. to . p.m., and within this time it moved twice up and twice down. on the morning of the th the apex stood as high as it did at . a.m. on the th. nor did it sink down during the th, but continued to circumnutate about the same place. another stolon, which resembled the last in almost every [page ] respect, was observed during the same two days, but only two inches of the terminal portion was allowed to project freely and horizontally. on the th it continued from . a.m. to . p.m. to bend straight downwards, apparently owing to its weight (fig. ); but after this hour until . p.m. it zigzagged. this fact deserves notice, for we here probably see the combined effects of the bending down from weight and of circumnutation. the stolon, however, did not circumnutate when it first began to bend down, as may be observed in the present diagram, and as was still more evident in the last case, when a longer portion of the stolon was left unsupported. on the following day ( th) the stolon moved twice up and twice down, but still continued to fall; in the evening and during the night it travelled from some unknown cause in an oblique direction.] we see from these three cases that stolons or runners circumnutate in a very complex manner. the lines generally extend in a vertical plane, and this may probably be attributed to the effect of the weight of the unsupported end of the stolon; but there is always some, and occasionally a considerable, amount of lateral movement. the circumnutation is so great in amplitude that it may almost be compared with that of climbing plants. that the stolons are thus aided in passing over obstacles and in winding between the stems of the surrounding plants, the observations above given render almost certain. if they had not circumnutated, their tips would have been liable to have been doubled up, as often as they met with obstacles in their path; but as it is, they easily avoid them. this must be a considerable advantage to the plant in spreading from its parent-stock; but we are far from supposing that the power has been gained by the stolons for this purpose, for circumnutation seems to be of universal occurrence with all growing parts; but it is not improbable that the amplitude of the movement may have been specially increased for this purpose. [page ] circumnutation of flower-stems. we did not think it necessary to make any special observations on the circumnutation of flower-stems, these being axial in their nature, like stems or stolons; but some were incidentally made whilst attending to other subjects, and these we will here briefly give. a few observations have also been made by other botanists. these taken together suffice to render it probable that all peduncles and sub-peduncles circumnutate whilst growing. [oxalis carnosa.--the peduncle which springs from the thick and woody stem of this plant bears three or four sub-peduncles. fig. . oxalis carnosa: flower-stem, feebly illuminated from above, its circumnutation traced from a.m. april th to a.m. th. summit of flower inches beneath the horizontal glass. movement probably magnified about times. a filament with little triangles of paper was fixed within the calyx of a flower which stood upright. its movements were observed for h.; during the first half of this time the flower was fully expanded, and during the second half withered. the figure here given (fig. ) represents or ellipses. although the main peduncle circumnutated, and described one large and [page ] two smaller ellipses in the course of h., yet the chief seat of movement lies in the sub-peduncles, which ultimately bend vertically downwards, as will be described in a future chapter. the peduncles of oxalis acetosella likewise bend downwards, and afterwards, when the pods are nearly mature, upwards; and this is effected by a circumnutating movement. it may be seen in the above figure that the flower-stem of o. carnosa circumnutated during two days about the same spot. on the other hand, the flower-stem of o. sensitiva undergoes a strongly marked, daily, periodical change of position, when kept at a proper temperature. in the middle of the day it stands vertically up, or at a high angle; in the afternoon it sinks, and in the evening projects horizontally, or almost horizontally, rising again during the night. this movement continues from the period when the flowers are in bud to when, as we believe, the pods are mature: and it ought perhaps to have been included amongst the so-called sleep-movements of plants. a tracing was not made, but the angles were measured at successive periods during one whole day; and these showed that the movement was not continuous, but that the peduncle oscillated up and down. we may therefore conclude that it circumnutated. at the base of the peduncle there is a mass of small cells, forming a well-developed pulvinus, which is exteriorly coloured purple and hairy. in no other genus, as far as we know, is the peduncle furnished with a pulvinus. the peduncle of o. ortegesii behaved differently from that of o. sensitiva, for it stood at a less angle above the horizon in the middle of the day, then in the morning or evening. by . p.m. it had risen greatly. during the middle of the day it oscillated much up and down. trifolium subterraneum.--a filament was fixed vertically to the uppermost part of the peduncle of a young and upright flower-head (the stem of the plant having been secured to a stick); and its movements were traced during h. within this time it described (see fig. ) a figure which represents four ellipses; but during the latter part of the time the peduncle began to bend downwards, and after . p.m. on the th it curved so rapidly down, that by . a.m. on the th it stood only o above the horizon. it went on circumnutating in nearly the same position for two days. even after the flower-heads have buried themselves in the ground they continue, as will hereafter be shown, to circumnutate. it will also be seen in the next chapter that the sub-peduncles of the separate flowers of [page ] trifolium repens circumnutate in a complicated course during several days. i may add that the gynophore of arachis hypogoea, fig. . trifolium subterraneum: main flower-peduncle, illuminated from above, circumnutation traced on horizontal glass, from . a.m. july rd to . p.m. th. which looks exactly like a peduncle, circumnutates whilst growing vertically downwards, in order to bury the young pod in the ground. the movements of the flowers of cyclamen persicum were not observed; but the peduncle, whilst the pod is forming, increases much in length, and bows itself down by a circumnutating movement. a young peduncle of maurandia semperflorens, ½ inch in length, was carefully observed during a whole day, and it made ½ narrow, vertical, irregular and short ellipses, each at an average rate of about h. m. an adjoining peduncle described during the same time similar, though fewer, ellipses.* according to sachs** the flower-stems, whilst growing, * 'the movements and habits of climbing plants,' nd edit., , p. . ** 'text-book of botany,' , [[page ]] p. . linnaeus and treviranus (according to pfeffer, 'die periodischen bewegungen,' etc., p. ) state that the flower-stalks of many plants occupy different positions by night and day, and we shall see in the chapter on the sleep of plants that this implies circumnutation. [page ] of many plants, for instance, those of brassica napus, revolve or circumnutate; those of allium porrum bend from side to side, and, if this movement had been traced on a horizontal glass, no doubt ellipses would have been formed. fritz müller has described* the spontaneous revolving movements of the flower-stems of an alisma, which he compares with those of a climbing plant. we made no observations on the movements of the different parts of flowers. morren, however, has observed** in the stamens of sparmannia and cereus a "fremissement spontané," which, it may be suspected, is a circumnutating movement. the circumnutation of the gynostemium of stylidium, as described by gad,*** is highly remarkable, and apparently aids in the fertilisation of the flowers. the gynostemium, whilst spontaneously moving, comes into contact with the viscid labellum, to which it adheres, until freed by the increasing tension of the parts or by being touched.] we have now seen that the flower-stems of plants belonging to such widely different families as the cruciferae, oxalidae, leguminosae, primulaceae, scrophularineae, alismaceae, and liliaceae, circumnutate; and that there are indications of this movement in many other families. with these facts before us, bearing also in mind that the tendrils of not a few plants consist of modified peduncles, we may admit without much doubt that all growing flower-stems circumnutate. circumnutation of leaves: dicotyledons. several distinguished botanists, hofmeister, sachs, pfeffer, de vries, batalin, millardet, etc., have ob- * 'jenaische zeitsch.,' b. v. p. . ** 'n. mem. de l'acad. r. de bruxelles,' tom. xiv. , p. . *** 'sitzungbericht des bot. vereins der p. brandenburg,' xxi. p. . [page ] served, and some of them with the greatest care, the periodical movements of leaves; but their attention has been chiefly, though not exclusively, directed to those which move largely and are commonly said to sleep at night. from considerations hereafter to be given, plants of this nature are here excluded, and will be treated of separately. as we wished to ascertain whether all young and growing leaves circumnutated, we thought that it would be sufficient if we observed between and genera, widely distributed throughout the vegetable series, selecting some unusual forms and others on woody plants. all the plants were healthy and grew in pots. they were illuminated from above, but the light perhaps was not always sufficiently bright, as many of them were observed under a skylight of ground-glass. except in a few specified cases, a fine glass filament with two minute triangles of paper was fixed to the leaves, and their movements were traced on a vertical glass (when not stated to the contrary) in the manner already described. i may repeat that the broken lines represent the nocturnal course. the stem was always secured to a stick, close to the base of the leaf under observation. the arrangement of the species, with the number of the family appended, is the same as in the case of stems. fig. . sarracenia purpurea: circumnutation of young pitcher, traced from a.m. july rd to . a.m. th. temp. o - o c. apex of pitcher inches from glass, so movement greatly magnified. ( .) sarracenia purpurea (sarraceneae, fam. ).--a young leaf, or pitcher, ½ inches in height, with the bladder swollen but with the hood not as yet open, had a filament fixed transversely [page ] across its apex; it was observed for h., and during the whole of this time it circumnutated in a nearly similar manner, but to a very small extent. the tracing given (fig. ) relates only to the movement during the first h. ( ) glaucium luteum (papaveraceae, fam. ).--a young plant, bearing only leaves, had a filament attached to the youngest leaf but one, which was inches in length, including the petiole. the circumnutating movement was traced during h. on both days the leaf descended from before a.m. until about a.m., and then ascended slightly during the rest of the day and the early part of the night. during the latter part of the night it fell greatly. it did not ascend so much during the second as during the first day, and it descended considerably lower on the second night than on the first. this difference was probably due to the illumination from above having been insufficient during the two days of observation. its course during the two days is shown in fig. . fig. . glaucium luteum: circumnutation of young leaf, traced from . a.m. june th to . a.m. th. tracing not much magnified, as apex of leaf stood only ½ inches from the glass. ( .) crambe maritima (cruciferae, fam. ).--a leaf ½ inches in length on a plant not growing vigorously was first observed. its apex was in constant movement, but this could hardly be traced, from being so small in extent. the apex, however, certainly changed its course at least times in the course of h. a more vigorous young plant, bearing only leaves, was then selected, and a filament was affixed to the midrib of the third leaf from the base, which, with the petiole, was inches in length. the leaf stood up almost vertically, but the tip [page ] was deflected, so that the filament projected almost horizontally, and its movements were traced during h. on a vertical glass as shown in the accompanying figure (fig. ). we here plainly see that the leaf was continually circumnutating; but the proper periodicity of its movements was disturbed by its being only dimly illuminated from above through a double skylight. we infer that this was the case, because two leaves on plants growing out of doors, had their angles above the horizon measured in the middle of the day and at to about p.m. on successive nights, and they were found at this latter hour to have risen by an average angle of o above their mid-day position: on the following morning they fell to their former position. now it may be observed in the diagram that the leaf rose during the second night, so that it stood at . a.m. higher than at . p.m. on the preceding night; and this may be attributed to the leaf adjusting itself to the dim light, coming exclusively from above. fig. . crambe maritima: circumnutation of leaf, disturbed by being insufficiently illuminated from above, traced from . a.m. june rd to a.m. th. apex of leaf / inches from the vertical glass, so that the tracing was much magnified, but is here reduced to one-fourth of original scale. ( .) brassica oleracea (cruciferae).--hofmeister and batalin* state that the leaves of the cabbage rise at night, and fall by day. we covered a young plant, bearing leaves, under a large bell-glass, placing it in the same position with respect to the * 'flora,' , p. . [page ] light in which it had long remained, and a filament was fixed at the distance of . of an inch from the apex of a young leaf nearly inches in length. its movements were then traced during three days, but the tracing is not worth giving. the leaf fell during the whole morning, and rose in the evening and during the early part of the night. the ascending and descending lines did not coincide, so that an irregular ellipse was formed each h. the basal part of the midrib did not move, as was ascertained by measuring at successive periods the angle which it formed with the horizon, so that the movement was confined to the terminal portion of the leaf, which moved through an angle of o in the course of h., and the distance travelled by the apex, up and down, was between . and . of an inch. in order to ascertain the effect of darkness, a filament was fixed to a leaf ½ inches in length, borne by a plant which after forming a head had produced a stem. the leaf was inclined o above the horizon, and its movements were traced on a vertical glass every hour by the aid of a taper. during the first day the leaf rose from a.m. to . p.m. in a slightly zigzag course, the actual distance travelled by the apex being . of an inch. during the night the leaf fell, whereas it ought to have risen; and by a.m. on the following morning it had fallen . of an inch, and it continued falling until . a.m. it then rose until . p.m., but the rise was interrupted by one considerable oscillation, that is, by a fall and re-ascent. during the second night it again fell, but only to a very short distance, and on the following morning re-ascended to a very short distance. thus the normal course of the leaf was greatly disturbed, or rather completely inverted, by the absence of light; and the movements were likewise greatly diminished in amplitude. we may add that, according to mr. a. stephen wilson,* the young leaves of the swedish turnip, which is a hybrid between b. oleracea and rapa, draw together in the evening so much "that the horizontal breadth diminishes about per cent. of the daylight breadth." therefore the leaves must rise considerably at night. ( .) dianthus caryophyllus (caryophylleae, fam. ).--the * 'trans. bot. soc. edinburgh,' vol. xiii. p. . with respect to the origin of the swedish turnip, see darwin, 'animals and plants under domestication,' nd edit. vol. i. p. . [page ] terminal shoot of a young plant, growing very vigorously, was selected for observation. the young leaves at first stand up vertically and close together, but they soon bend outwards and downwards, so as to become horizontal, and often at the same time a little to one side. a filament was fixed to the tip of a young leaf whilst still highly inclined, and the first dot was made on the vertical glass at . a.m. june th, but it curved downwards so quickly that by . a.m. on the following morning it stood only a little above the horizon. in fig. fig. . dianthus caryophyllus: circumnutation of young leaf, traced from . p.m. june th to . p.m. th. apex of leaf stood, at the close of our observations, / inches from the vertical glass, so tracing not greatly magnified. the leaf was / inches long. temp. / o - / o c. the long, slightly zigzag line representing this rapid downward course, which was somewhat inclined to the left, is not given; but the figure shows the highly tortuous and zigzag course, together with some loops, pursued during the next ½ days. as the leaf continued to move all the time to the left, it is evident that the zigzag line represents many circumnutations. ( .) camellia japonica (camelliaceae, fam. ).--a youngish leaf, which together with its petiole was / inches in length and which arose from a side branch on a tall bush, had a filament attached to its apex. this leaf sloped downwards at an angle of o beneath the horizon. as it was thick and rigid, and its [page ] petiole very short, much movement could not be expected. nevertheless, the apex changed its course completely seven times in the course of ½ h., but moved to only a very small distance. on the next day the movement of the apex was traced during h. m. (as shown in fig. ), and was nearly of the same nature, but rather less complex. the movement seems to be periodical, for on both days the leaf circumnutated in the forenoon, fell in the afternoon (on the first day until between and p.m., and on the second day until p.m.), and then rose, falling again during the night or early morning. fig. . camellia japonica: circumnutation of leaf, traced from . a.m. june th to . a.m. th. apex of leaf inches from the vertical glass, so figure considerably magnified. temp. o - / o c. in the chapter on the sleep of plants we shall see that the leaves in several malvaceous genera sink fig. . pelargonium zonale: circumnutation and downward movement of young leaf, traced from . a.m. june th to . p.m. th. apex of leaf . inches from the vertical glass, so figure moderately magnified. temp. o - / o c. at night; and as they often do not then occupy a vertical position, especially if they have not been well illuminated during [page ] the day, it is doubtful whether some of these cases ought not to have been included in the present chapter. ( .) pelargonium zonale (geraniaceae, fam. ).--a young leaf, / inch in breadth, with its petiole inch long, borne on a young plant, was observed in the usual manner during h.; and its course is shown in the preceding figure (fig. ). during the first day and night the leaf moved downwards, but circumnutated between a.m. and . p.m. on the second day it sank and rose again, but between a.m. and p.m. it circumnutated on an extremely small scale. on the third day the circumnutation was more plainly marked. ( .) cissus discolor (ampelideae, fam. ).--a leaf, not nearly full-grown, the third from the apex of a shoot on a cut-down plant, was observed during h. m. (see fig. ). the day was cold ( o - o c.), and if the plant had been observed in the hot-house, the circumnutation, though plain enough as it was, would probably have been far more conspicuous. fig. . cissus discolor: circumnutation of leaf, traced from . a.m. may th to p.m. th. apex of leaf / inches from the vertical glass. ( .) vicia faba (leguminosae, fam. ).--a young leaf, . inches in length, measured from base of petiole to end of leaflets, had a filament affixed to the midrib of one of the two terminal leaflets, and its movements were traced during ½ h. the filament fell all morning (july nd) till p.m., and then rose greatly till . p.m.; but the rise this day was so great, compared with that which subsequently occurred, that it was probably due in part to the plant being illuminated from above. the latter part of the course on july nd is alone given in the following figure (fig. ). on the next day (july rd) the leaf again fell in the morning, then circumnutated in a conspicuous manner, and rose till late at night; but the movement was not traced after . p.m., as by that time the filament pointed towards the upper edge of the glass. during the latter part of the night or early morning it again fell in the same manner as before. [page ] as the evening rise and the early morning fall were unusually large, the angle of the petiole above the horizon was measured at the two periods, and the leaf was found to have risen o fig. . vicia faba: circumnutation of leaf, traced from . p.m. july nd to . a.m. th. apex of the two terminal leaflets / inches from the vertical glass. figure here reduced to two-thirds of original scale. temp. o - o c. between . p.m. and . p.m., and to have fallen o seconds between the latter hour and . a.m. on the following morning. the main petiole was now secured to a stick close to the base [page ] of the two terminal leaflets, which were . inch in length; and the movements of one of them were traced during h. (see fig. ). the course pursued is closely analogous to that of the whole leaf. the zigzag line between . a.m. and . p.m. on the second day represents very small ellipses, with their fig . vicia faba: circumnutation of one of the two terminal leaflets, the main petiole having been secured, traced from . a.m. july th to . a.m. th. apex of leaflet / inches from the vertical glass. tracing here reduced to one-half of original scale. temp. o - o c. longer axes differently directed. from these observations it follows that both the whole leaf and the terminal leaflets undergo a well-marked daily periodical movement, rising in the evening and falling during the latter part of the night or early morning; whilst in the middle of the day they generally circumnutate round the same small space. [page ] ( .) acacia retinoides (leguminosae).--the movement of a young phyllode, / inches in length, and inclined at a considerable angle above the horizon, was traced during h. m.; but in the figure here given (fig. ), its circumnutation is shown during only h. m. during part of this time (viz., h. m.) the phyllode described a figure representing or small ellipses. the actual amount of movement in a vertical direction was . inch. the phyllode rose considerably between . p.m. and p.m., but there was no evidence on either day of a regular periodic movement. fig. . acacia retinoides: circumnutation of a young phyllode, traced from . a.m. july th to . a.m. th. apex of phyllode inches from the vertical glass; temp. / o - / o c. ( .) lupinus speciosus (leguminosae).--plants were raised from seed purchased under this name. this is one of the species in this large genus, the leaves of which do not sleep at night. the petioles rise direct from the ground, and are from to inches in length. a filament was fixed to the midrib of one of the longer leaflets, and the movement of the whole leaf was traced, as shown in fig. . in the course of h. m. the filament went four times up and three times down. a new tracing was then begun (not here given), and during ½ h. the leaf moved eight times up and seven times down; so that it described ½ ellipses in this time, and this is an extraordinary rate of movement. the summit of the petiole was then secured to a stick, and the separate leaflets were found to be continually circumnutating. fig. . lupinus speciosus: circumnutation of leaf, traced on vertical glass, from . a.m. to . p.m.; i.e., during h. m. [page ] ( .) echeveria stolonifera (crassulaceae, fam. ).--the older leaves of this plant are so thick and fleshy, and the young ones so short and broad, that it seemed very improbable that any circumnutation could be detected. a filament was fixed to a young upwardly inclined leaf, . inch in length and . in breadth, which stood on the outside of a terminal rosette of leaves, produced by a plant growing very vigorously. its movement was traced during days, as here shown (fig. ). the course was chiefly in an upward direction, and this may be attributed to the elongation of the leaf through growth; but we see that the lines are strongly zigzag, and that occasionally there was distinct circumnutation, though on a very small scale. fig. . echeveria stolonifera: circumnutation of leaf, traced from . a.m. june th to . a.m. th. apex of leaf / inches from the glass, so that the movement was much magnified; temp. o - / o c. ( .) bryophyllum (vel calanchae) calycinum (crassulaceae).--duval-jouve ('bull. soc. bot. de france,' feb. th, ) measured the distance between the tips of the upper pair of leaves on this plant, with the result shown in the following table. it should be noted that the measurements on dec. nd were made on a different pair of leaves: -- a.m. p.m. p.m. nov. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mm.. . . . . . mm. . . .. . . .(?) " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " . . . . . . . ". . . . . . . mm. dec. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ". . . . . . . . ". . . . . . . . " we see from this table that the leaves stood considerably further apart at p.m. than at either a.m. or p.m.; and this shows that they rise a little in the evening and fall or open in the forenoon. ( .) drosera rotundifolia (droseraceae, fam. ).--the movements of a young leaf, having a long petiole but with its tentacles (or gland-bearing hairs) as yet unfolded, were traced during h. m. the figure (fig. ) shows that it circumnutated largely, chiefly in a vertical direction, making two ellipses each [page ] day. on both days the leaf began to descend after or o'clock, and continued to do so all night, though to a very unequal distance on the two occasions. we therefore thought that the movement was periodic; but on observing three other leaves during several successive days and nights, we found this to be an error; and the case is given merely as a caution. on the third morning the above leaf occupied almost exactly the same position as on the first morning; and the tentacles by this time had unfolded sufficiently to project at right angles to the blade or disc. fig. . drosera rotundifolia: circumnutation of young leaf, with filament fixed to back of blade, traced from . a.m. june th to . a.m. june th. figure here reduced to one-half original scale. the leaves as they grow older generally sink more and more downwards. the movement of an oldish leaf, the glands of which were still secreting freely, was traced for h., during which time it continued to sink a little in a slightly zigzag line. on the following morning, at a.m., a drop of a solution of carbonate of ammonia ( gr. to oz. of water) was placed on the disc, and this blackened the glands and induced inflection of many of the tentacles. the weight of the drop caused the leaf at first to sink a little; but immediately afterwards it began to rise in a somewhat zigzag course, and continued to do so till p.m. it then circumnutated about the same spot on a very small scale for h.; and during the next h. it sank in a zigzag line to nearly the same level which it had held when the ammonia was first administered. by this time the tentacles had re-expanded, and the glands had recovered their proper colour. we thus learn that an old leaf [page ] circumnutates on a small scale, at least whilst absorbing carbonate of ammonia; for it is probable that this absorption may stimulate growth and thus re-excite circumnutation. whether the rising of the glass filament which was attached to the back of the leaf, resulted from its margin becoming slightly inflected (as generally occurs), or from the rising of the petiole, was not ascertained. in order to learn whether the tentacles or gland-bearing hairs circumnutate, the back of a young leaf, with the innermost tentacles as yet incurved, was firmly cemented with shellac to a flat stick driven into compact damp argillaceous sand. the plant was placed under a microscope with the stage removed and with an eye-piece micrometer, of which each division equalled / of an inch. it should be stated that as the leaves grow older the tentacles of the exterior rows bend outwards and downwards, so as ultimately to become deflected considerably beneath the horizon. a tentacle in the second row from the margin was selected for observation, and was found to be moving outwards at a rate of / of an inch in m., or / of inch in h. m.; but as it likewise moved from side to side to an extent of above / of inch, the movement was probably one of modified circumnutation. a tentacle on an old leaf was next observed in the same manner. in m. after being placed under the microscope it had moved about / of an inch. during the next ½ h. it was looked at repeatedly, and during this whole time it moved only another / of an inch; and this small movement may have been due to the settling of the damp sand (on which the plant rested), though the sand had been firmly pressed down. we may therefore conclude that the tentacles when old do not circumnutate; yet this tentacle was so sensitive, that in seconds after its gland had been merely touched with a bit of raw meat, it began to curl inwards. this fact is of some importance, as it apparently shows that the inflection of the tentacles from the stimulus of absorbed animal matter (and no doubt from that of contact with any object) is not due to modified circumnutation. ( .) dionoea muscipula (droseraceae).--it should be premised that the leaves at an early stage of their development have the two lobes pressed closely together. these are at first directed back towards the centre of the plant; but they gradually rise up and soon stand at right angles to the petiole, and ultimately in nearly a straight line with it. a young leaf, which with the [page ] petiole was only . inch in length, had a filament fixed externally along the midrib of the still closed lobes, which projected at right angles to the petiole. in the evening this leaf completed an ellipse in the course of h. on the following day (sept. th) its movements were traced during h.; and we see in fig. that it moved in the same general direction, due to the straightening of the leaf, but in an extremely zigzag line. this line represents several drawn-out or modified ellipses. there can therefore be no doubt that this young leaf circumnutated. fig. . dionaea muscipula: circumnutation of a young and expanding leaf, traced on a horizontal glass in darkness, from noon sept. th to a.m. th. apex of leaf ½ inches from the glass, so tracing considerably magnified. a rather old, horizontally extended leaf, with a filament attached along the under side of the midrib, was next observed during h. it hardly moved, but when one of its sensitive hairs was touched, the blades closed, though not very quickly. a new dot was now made on the glass, but in the course of h. m. there was hardly any change in the position of the filament. we may therefore infer that an old and only moderately sensitive leaf does not circumnutate plainly; but we shall soon see that it by no means follows that such a leaf is absolutely motionless. we may further infer that the stimulus from a touch does not re-excite plain circumnutation. another full-grown leaf had a filament attached externally along one side of the midrib and parallel to it, so that the filament would move if the lobes closed. it should be first stated that, although a touch on one of the sensitive hairs of a vigorous leaf causes it to close quickly, often almost instantly, yet when a bit of damp meat or some solution of carbonate of ammonia is placed on the lobes, they close so slowly that generally h. is required for the completion of the act. the above leaf was first observed for h. m., and did not circumnutate, but it ought to have been observed for a [page ] longer period; although, as we have seen, a young leaf completed a fairly large ellipse in h. a drop of an infusion of raw meat was then placed on the leaf, and within h. the glass filament rose a little; and this implies that the lobes had begun to close, and perhaps the petiole to rise. it continued to rise with extreme slowness for the next h. m. the position of the pot was then ( . p.m., sept. th) slightly changed and an additional drop of the infusion given, and a new tracing was begun (fig. ). by . p.m. the filament had risen only a little more, and it fell during the night. on the following morning the lobes were closing more quickly, and by p.m. it was evident to the eye that they had closed considerably; by . . p.m. this was still plainer, and by . p.m. the marginal spikes were interlocked. the leaf fell a little during the night, and next morning ( th) at a.m. the lobes were completely shut. the course pursued, as may be seen in the figure, was fig. . dionoea muscipula: closure of the lobes and circumnutation of a full-grown leaf, whilst absorbing an infusion of raw meat, traced in darkness, from . p.m. sept. th to a.m. th. apex of leaf ½ inches from the vertical glass. figure here reduced to two-thirds of original scale. strongly zigzag, and this indicates that the closing of the lobes was combined with the circumnutation of the whole leaf; and there cannot be much doubt, considering how motionless the leaf was during h. m. before it received the infusion, that the absorption of the animal matter had excited it to circumnutate. the leaf was occasionally observed for the next four days, but was kept in rather too cool a place; nevertheless, it continued to circumnutate to a small extent, and the lobes remained closed. it is sometimes stated in botanical works that the lobes close or sleep at night; but this is an error. to test the statement, very long glass filaments were fixed inside the two lobes of three leaves, and the distances between their tips were measured in the middle of the day and at night; but no difference could be detected. the previous observations relate to the movements of the whole leaf, but the lobes move independently of the petiole, and [page ] seem to be continually opening and shutting to a very small extent. a nearly full-grown leaf (afterwards proved to be highly sensitive to contact) stood almost horizontally, so that by driving a long thin pin through the foliaceous petiole close to the blade, it was rendered motionless. the plant, with a little triangle of paper attached to one of the marginal spikes, was placed under a microscope with an eye-piece micrometer, each division of which equalled / of an inch. the apex of the paper-triangle was now seen to be in constant slight movement; for in h. it crossed nine divisions, or / of an inch, and after ten additional hours it moved back and had crossed / in an opposite direction. the plant was kept in rather too cool a place, and on the following day it moved rather less, namely, / in h., and / in an opposite direction during the next h. the two lobes, therefore, seem to be constantly closing or opening, though to a very small distance; for we must remember that the little triangle of paper affixed to the marginal spike increased its length, and thus exaggerated somewhat the movement. similar observations, with the important difference that the petiole was left free and the plant kept under a high temperature, were made on a leaf, which was healthy, but so old that it did not close when its sensitive hairs were repeatedly touched, though judging from other cases it would have slowly closed if it had been stimulated by animal matter. the apex of the triangle was in almost, though not quite, constant movement, sometimes in one direction and sometimes in an opposite one; and it thrice crossed five divisions of the micrometer (i.e. / of an inch) in m. this movement on so small a scale is hardly comparable with ordinary circumnutation; but it may perhaps be compared with the zigzag lines and little loops, by which the larger ellipses made by other plants are often interrupted. in the first chapter of this volume, the remarkable oscillatory movements of the circumnutating hypocotyl of the cabbage have been described. the leaves of dionaea present the same phenomenon, which is a wonderful one, as viewed under a low power ( -inch object-glass), with an eye-piece micrometer of which each division ( / of an inch) appeared as a rather wide space. the young unexpanded leaf, of which the circumnutating movements were traced (fig. ), had a glass filament fixed perpendicularly to it; and the movement of the apex was observed in the hot-house (temp. o to o f.), with light admitted only from above, and with any lateral currents of air [page ] excluded. the apex sometimes crossed one or two divisions of the micrometer at an imperceptibly slow rate, but generally it moved onwards by rapid starts or jerks of / or / , and in one instance of / of an inch. after each jerk forwards, the apex drew itself backwards with comparative slowness for part of the distance which had just been gained; and then after a very short time made another jerk forwards. four conspicuous jerks forwards, with slower retreats, were seen on one occasion to occur in exactly one minute, besides some minor oscillations. as far as we could judge, the advancing and retreating lines did not coincide, and if so, extremely minute ellipses were each time described. sometimes the apex remained quite motionless for a short period. its general course during the several hours of observation was in two opposite directions, so that the leaf was probably circumnutating. an older leaf with the lobes fully expanded, and which was afterwards proved to be highly sensitive to contact, was next observed in a similar manner, except that the plant was exposed to a lower temperature in a room. the apex oscillated forwards and backwards in the same manner as before; but the jerks forward were less in extent, viz. about / inch; and there were longer motionless periods. as it appeared possible that the movements might be due to currents of air, a wax taper was held close to the leaf during one of the motionless periods, but no oscillations were thus caused. after m., however, vigorous oscillations commenced, perhaps owing to the plant having been warmed and thus stimulated. the candle was then removed and before long the oscillations ceased; nevertheless, when looked at again after an interval of h. m., it was again oscillating. the plant was taken back into the hot-house, and on the following morning was seen to be oscillating, though not very vigorously. another old but healthy leaf, which was not in the least sensitive to a touch, was likewise observed during two days in the hot-house, and the attached filament made many little jerks forwards of about / or only / of an inch. finally, to ascertain whether the lobes independently of the petiole oscillated, the petiole of an old leaf was cemented close to the blade with shellac to the top of a little stick driven into the soil. but before this was done the leaf was observed, and found to be vigorously oscillating or jerking; and after it had been cemented to the stick, the oscillations of about / of an inch still continued. on the following day a little infusion [page ] of raw meat was placed on the leaf, which caused the lobes to close together very slowly in the course of two days; and the oscillations continued during this whole time and for the next two days. after nine additional days the leaf began to open and the margins were a little everted, and now the apex of the glass filament remained for long periods motionless, and then moved backwards and forwards for a distance of about / of an inch slowly, without any jerks. nevertheless, after warming the leaf with a taper held close to it, the jerking movement recommenced. this same leaf had been observed ½ months previously, and was then found to be oscillating or jerking. we may therefore infer that this kind of movement goes on night and day for a very long period; and it is common to young unexpanded leaves and to leaves so old as to have lost their sensitiveness to a touch, but which were still capable of absorbing nitrogenous matter. the phenomenon when well displayed, as in the young leaf just described, is a very interesting one. it often brought before our minds the idea of effort, or of a small animal struggling to escape from some constraint. ( .) eucalyptus resinifera (myrtaceae, fam. ).--a young leaf, two inches in length together with the petiole, produced by a lateral shoot from a cut-down tree, was observed in the usual manner. the blade had not as yet assumed its vertical position. on june th only a few observations were made, and the tracing merely showed that the leaf had moved three times upwards and three downwards. on the following day it was observed more frequently; and two tracings were made (see a and b, fig. ), as a single one would have been too complicated. the apex changed its course times in the course of h., chiefly up and down, but with some lateral movement. the actual amount of movement in any one direction was small. fig. . eucalyptus resinifera: circumnutation of a leaf, traced, a, from . a.m. to p.m. june th; b, from p.m. th to . a.m. th. apex of leaf ½ inches from the horizontal glass, so figures considerably magnified. ( .) dahlia (garden var.) (compositae, fam. ).--a fine young [page ] leaf / inches in length, produced by a young plant feet high, growing vigorously in a large pot, was directed at an angle of about o beneath the horizon. on june th the leaf descended from a.m. till . a.m. (see fig. ); it then ascended greatly till p.m., this ascent being probably due to the light fig. . dahlia: circumnutation of leaf, traced from a.m. june th to . a.m. th, but with a break of h. m. on the morning of the th, as, owing to the glass filament pointing too much to one side, the pot had to be slightly moved; therefore the relative position of the two tracings is somewhat arbitrary. the figure here given is reduced to one-fifth of the original scale. apex of leaf inches from the glass in the line of its inclination, and / in a horizontal line. coming only from above. it zigzagged between p.m. and . p.m., and ascended a little during the night. it should be remarked that the vertical distances in the lower part of the diagram are much exaggerated, as the leaf was at first deflected beneath the horizon, and after it had sunk downwards, the filament pointed in a very oblique line towards the glass. next [page ] day the leaf descended from . a.m. till . p.m., then zigzagged and ascended greatly during the night. on the morning of the th the leaf was probably beginning to descend, though the short line in the diagram is horizontal. the actual distances travelled by the apex of the leaf were considerable, but could not be calculated with safety. from the course pursued on the second day, when the plant had accommodated itself to the light from above, there cannot be much doubt that the leaves undergo a daily periodic movement, sinking during the day and rising at night. ( .) mutisia clematis (compositae).--the leaves terminate in tendrils and circumnutate like those of other tendril-bearers; but this plant is here mentioned, on account of an erroneous statement* which has been published, namely, that the leaves sink at night and rise during the day. the leaves which behaved in this manner had been kept for some days in a northern room and had not been sufficiently illuminated. a plant therefore was left undisturbed in the hot-house, and three leaves had their angles measured at noon and at p.m. all three were inclined a little beneath the horizon at noon, but one stood at night o, the second o, and the third o higher than in the middle of the day; so that instead of sinking they rise a little at night. ( .) cyclamen persicum (primulaceae, fam. ).--a young leaf, . of an inch in length, petiole included, produced by an old root-stock, was observed during three days in the usual manner (fig. ). on the first day the leaf fell more than afterwards, apparently from adjusting itself to the light from above. on all three days it fell from the early morning to about p.m., and from that hour rose during the night, the course being slightly zigzag. the movement therefore is strictly periodic. it should be noted that the leaf would have sunk each evening a little lower down than it did, had not the glass filament rested between and p.m. on the rim of the pot. the amount of movement was considerable; for if we assume that the whole leaf to the base of the petiole became bent, the tracing would be magnified rather less than five times, and this would give to the apex a rise and fall of half an inch, with some lateral movement. this amount, however, would not attract attention without the aid of a tracing or measurement of some kind. * 'the movements and habits of climbing plants,' , p. . [page ] ( .) allamanda schottii (apocyneae, fam. ).--the young leaves of this shrub are elongated, with the blade bowed so much fig. . cyclamen persicum: circumnutation of leaf, traced from . a.m. june nd to . a.m. th. apex of leaf inches from the vertical glass. downwards as almost to form a semicircle. the chord--that is, a line drawn from the apex of the blade to the base of the petiole--of a young leaf, / inches in length, stood at . p.m. on [page ] dec. th at an angle of o beneath the horizon, but by . p.m. the blade had straightened itself so much, which implies the raising of the apex, that the chord now stood at o above the horizon, and had therefore risen o. on the next day similar angular measurements of the same leaf were made; and at noon the chord stood o beneath the horizon, and . p.m. / o above it, so had risen / o. the chief cause of the rising movement lies in the straightening of the blade, but the short petiole rises between o and o. on the third night the chord stood at o above the horizon, and if the leaf occupied the same position at noon, as on the previous day, it had risen o. with older leaves no such change of curvature could be detected. the plant was then brought into the house and kept in a north-east room, but at night there was no change in the curvature of the young leaves; so that previous exposure to a strong light is apparently requisite for the periodical change of curvature in the blade, and for the slight rising of the petiole. ( .) wigandia (hydroleaceae, fam. ).--professor pfeffer informs us that the leaves of this plant rise in the evening; but as we do not know whether or not the rising is great, this species ought perhaps to be classed amongst sleeping plants. fig. . petunia violacea: downward movement and circumnutation of a very young leaf, traced from a.m. june nd to . a.m. june th. n.b.--at . a.m. on the th it was necessary to move the pot a little, and a new tracing was begun at the point where two dots are not joined in the diagram. apex of leaf inches from the vertical glass. temp. generally / o c. [page ] ( .) petunia violacea (solaneae, fam. ).--a very young leaf, only / inch in length, highly inclined upwards, was observed for four days. during the whole of this time it bent outwards and downwards, so as to become more and more nearly horizontal. the strongly marked zigzag line in the figure on p. (fig. ), shows that this was effected by modified circumnutation; and during the latter part of the time there was much ordinary circumnutation on a small scale. the movement in the diagram is magnified between and times. it exhibits a clear trace of periodicity, as the leaf rose a little each evening; but this upward tendency appeared to be almost conquered by the leaf striving to become more and more horizontal as it grew older. the angles which two older leaves formed together, were measured in the evening and about noon on successive days, and each night the angle decreased a little, though irregularly. fig. . acanthus mollis: circumnutation of young leaf, traced from . a.m. june th to . a.m. th. apex of leaf inches from the vertical glass, so movement considerably magnified. figure here reduced to one-half of original scale. temp. o - / o c. ( .) acanthus mollis (acanthaceae, fam. ).--the younger of two leaves, / inches in length, petiole included, produced by a seedling plant, was observed during h. early on each of the three mornings, the apex of the leaf fell; and it continued to fall till p.m., on the two afternoons when observed. after p.m. it rose considerably, and continued to rise on the second night until the early morning. but on the first night it fell instead of rising, and we have little doubt that this was owing to the leaf being very young and becoming through epinastic growth more and more horizontal; for it may be seen in the diagram (fig. ), that the leaf stood on a higher level on the first than on the second day. the leaves of an allied species ('a. spinosus') certainly rose every night; and the rise between noon and . p.m., when measured on one occasion, was o. this rise was chiefly [page ] or exclusively due to the straightening of the blade, and not to the movement of the petiole. we may therefore conclude that the leaves of acanthus circumnutate periodically, falling in the morning and rising in the afternoon and night. ( .) cannabis sativa (cannabineae, fam. ).--we have here the rare case of leaves moving downwards in the evening, but not to a sufficient degree to be called sleep.* in the early morning, or in the latter part of the night, they move upwards. for instance, all the young leaves near the summits of several stems stood almost horizontally at a.m. may th and at . p.m. were considerably declined. on a subsequent day two leaves stood at p.m. at o and o beneath the horizon, and at p.m. at o beneath it. two other leaves on a younger plant were horizontal at p.m., and at p.m. had sunk to o beneath the horizon. with respect to this downward movement of the leaves, kraus believes that it is due to their epinastic growth. he adds, that the leaves are relaxed during the day, and tense at night, both in sunny and rainy weather. ( .) pinus pinaster (coniferae, fam. ).--the leaves on the summits of the terminal shoots stand at first in a bundle almost upright, but they soon diverge and ultimately become almost horizontal. the movements of a young leaf, nearly one inch in length, on the summit of a seedling plant only inches high, were traced from the early morning of june nd to the evening of the th. during these five days the leaf diverged, and its apex descended at first in an almost straight line; but during the two latter days it zigzagged so much that it was evidently circumnutating. the same little plant, when grown to a height of inches, was again observed during four days. a filament was fixed transversely to the apex of a leaf, one inch in length, and which had already diverged considerably from its originally upright position. it continued to diverge (see a, fig. ), and to descend from . a.m. july st to . a.m. aug. st. on august st it circumnutated about the same small space, and again descended at night. next morning the pot was moved nearly one inch to the right, and a new tracing was begun (b). from this time, viz., a.m. august nd to . a.m. on the th, * we were led to observe this plant by dr. carl kraus' paper, 'beiträge zur kentniss der bewegungen wachsender laubblätter,' flora, , p. . we regret that we cannot fully understand parts of this paper. [page ] the leaf manifestly circumnutated. it does not appear from the diagram that the leaves move periodically, for the descending course during the first two nights, was clearly due to epinastic fig. . pinus pinaster: circumnutation of young leaf, traced from . a.m. july st to . a.m. aug. th. at a.m. aug. nd the pot was moved an inch to one side, so that the tracing consists of two figures. apex of leaf ½ inches from the vertical glass, so movements much magnified. growth, and at the close of our observations the leaf was not nearly so horizontal as it would ultimately become. pinus austriaca.--two leaves, inches in length, but not [page ] quite fully grown, produced by a lateral shoot, on a young tree feet in height, were observed during h. (july st), in the same manner as the leaves of the previous species. both these leaves certainly circumnutated, making within the above period two, or two and a half, small, irregular ellipses. ( .) cycas pectinata (cycadeae, fam. ).--a young leaf, ½ inches in length, of which the leaflets had only recently become uncurled, was observed during h. m. the main petiole was secured to a stick at the base of the two terminal leaflets. to one of the latter, / inches in length, a filament was fixed; the leaflet was much bowed downward, but as the terminal part was upturned, the filament projected almost horizontally. the leaflet moved (see fig. ) largely and periodically, for it fell until about p.m. and rose during the night, falling again next morning after . a.m. the descending lines are in a marked manner zigzag, and so probably would have been the ascending lines, if they had been traced throughout the night. fig. . cycas pectinata: circumnutation of one of the terminal leaflets, traced from . a.m. june nd to a.m. june th. apex of leaflet / inches from the vertical glass, so tracing not greatly magnified, and here reduced to one-third of original scale; temp. o - o c. circumnutation of leaves: monocotyledons. ( .) canna warscewiczii (cannaceae, fam. ).--the movements of a young leaf, inches in length and ½ in breadth, produced by a vigorous young plant, were observed during h. m., as shown in fig. . the pot was slided about an inch to the right on the morning of the th, as a single figure would have been too complicated; but the two figures are continuous in time. the movement is periodical, as the leaf descended from the early morning until about p.m., and ascended during the rest of the evening and [page ] part of the night. on the evening of the th it circumnutated on a small scale for some time about the same spot. fig. . canna warscewiczii: circumnutation of leaf, traced (a) from . a.m. june th to . a.m. th; and (b) from . a.m. th to . a.m. th. apex of leaf inches from the vertical glass. ( .) iris pseudo-acorus (irideae, fam. ).--the movements of a young leaf, rising inches above the water in which the plant grew, were traced as shown in the figure (fig. ), during h. m. it manifestly circumnutated, though only to a small extent. on the second morning, between . a.m. and p.m. (at which latter hour the figure here given ends), the apex changed its course five times. during the next h. m. it zigzagged much, and descended as far as the lowest dot in the figure, making in its course two very small ellipses; but if these lines had been added to the diagram it would have been too complex. fig. . iris pseudo-acorus: circumnutation of leaf, traced from . a.m. may th to p.m. th. tracing continued to p.m., but not here copied. apex of leaf inches beneath the horizontal glass, so figure considerably magnified. temp. o - o c. ( .) crinum capense (amaryllideae, fam. ).--the leaves of this plant are remarkable for their great length and narrowness: one was measured and found to be inches long and only . broad at the base. whilst quite young they stand up almost vertically to the height of about a foot; afterwards [page ] their tips begin to bend over, and subsequently hang vertically down, and thus continue to grow. a rather young leaf was selected, of which the dependent tapering point was as yet only ½ inches in length, the upright basal part being inches high, though this part would ultimately become shorter by being more bent over. a large bell-glass was placed over the plant, with a black dot on one side; and by bringing the dependent apex of the leaf into a line with this dot, the accompanying figure (fig. ) was traced on the other side of the bell, during ½ days. during the first day ( nd) the tip travelled laterally far to the left, perhaps in consequence of the plant having been fig. . crinum capense: circumnutation of dependent tip of young leaf, traced on a bell-glass, from . p.m. may nd to . a.m. th. figure not greatly magnified. disturbed; and the last dot made at . p.m. on this day is alone here given. as we see in the figure, there can be no doubt that the apex of this leaf circumnutated. a glass filament with little triangles of paper was at the same time fixed obliquely across the tip of a still younger leaf, which stood vertically up and was as yet straight. its movements were traced from p.m. may nd to . a.m. th. the leaf was growing rapidly, so that the apex ascended greatly during this period; as it zigzagged much it was clearly circumnutating, and it apparently tended to form one ellipse each day. the lines traced during the night were much more vertical than those traced during the day; and this indicates that the tracing would have exhibited a nocturnal rise and a diurnal fall, if the leaf had not grown so quickly. the movement of this same leaf after an interval of six days (may st), by which time the tip had curved outwards into a horizontal position, [page ] and had thus made the first step towards becoming dependent, was traced orthogonically by the aid of a cube of wood (in the manner before explained); and it was thus ascertained that the actual distance travelled by the apex, and due to circumnutation, was / inches in the course of ½ h. during the next h. it travelled ½ inches. the circumnutating movement, therefore, of this young leaf was strongly marked. ( .) pancratium littorale (amaryllideae).--the movements, much magnified, of a leaf, inches in length and inclined at about o above the horizon, were traced during two days. on the first day it changed its course completely, upwards and downwards and laterally, times in h.; and the figure traced apparently represented five ellipses. on the second day it was observed seldomer, and was therefore not seen to change its course so often, viz., only times, but in the same complex manner as before. the movements were small in extent, but there could be no doubt about the circumnutation of the leaf. ( .) imatophyllum vel clivia (sp.?) (amaryllideae).--a long glass filament was fixed to a leaf, and the angle formed by it with the horizon was measured occasionally during three successive days. it fell each morning until between and p.m., and rose at night. the smallest angle at any time above the horizon was o, and the largest o; so that it rose only o at night; but as this was observed each day, and as similar observations were nightly made on another leaf on a distinct plant, there can be no doubt that the leaves move periodically, though to a very small extent. the position of the apex when it stood highest was . of an inch above its lowest point. ( .) pistia stratiotes (aroideae, fam. ).--hofmeister remarks that the leaves of this floating water-plant are more highly inclined at night than by day.* we therefore fastened a fine glass filament to the midrib of a moderately young leaf, and on sept. th measured the angle which it formed with the horizon times between a.m. and . p.m. the temperature of the hot-house varied during the two days of observation between / o and / o c. at a.m. the filament stood at o above the horizon; at . p.m. at o and at . p.m. at o; these two latter angles being the highest and the lowest observed during the day, showing a difference of o. the rising did not become strongly marked until between * 'die lehre von der pflanzenzelle,' , p. . [page ] and p.m. on the next day the leaf stood at only o above the horizon at . a.m., and it remained at about o till past p.m.; at . p.m. it was o, and at . p.m. o; so that the rise was more sudden this evening than on the previous one, and the difference in the angle amounted to o. the movement is obviously periodical, and as the leaf stood on the first night at o, and on the second night at o above the horizon, it appeared very steeply inclined. this case, as we shall see in a future chapter, ought perhaps to have been included under the head of sleeping plants. ( .) pontederia (sp.?) (from the highlands of st. catharina, fig. . pontederia (sp.?): circumnutation of leaf, traced from . p.m. july nd to . a.m. th. apex of leaf ½ inches from the vertical glass, so tracing greatly magnified. temp. about o c., and therefore rather too low. brazil) (pontederiaceae, fam. ).--a filament was fixed across the apex of a moderately young leaf, ½ inches in height, and its movements were traced during ½ h. (see fig. ). on the first evening, when the tracing was begun, and during the night, the leaf descended considerably. on the next morning it ascended in a strongly marked zigzag line, and descended again in the evening and during the night. the movement, therefore, seems to be periodic, but some doubt is thrown on this conclusion, because another leaf, inches in height, appearing older and standing more highly inclined, behaved differently. during the first h. it circumnutated over a [page ] small space, but during the night and the whole following day it ascended in the same general direction; the ascent being effected by repeated up and down well-pronounced oscillations. cryptogams. ( .) nephrodium molle (filices, fam. ).--a filament was fixed near the apex of a young frond of this fern, inches in height, which was not as yet fully uncurled; and its movements were traced during h. we see in fig. that it fig. . nephrodium molle: circumnutation of rachis, traced from . a.m. may th to a.m. th. figure here given two-thirds of original scale. plainly circumnutated. the movement was not greatly magnified as the frond was placed near to the vertical glass, and would probably have been greater and more rapid had the day been warmer. for the plant was brought out of a warm greenhouse and observed under a skylight, where the temperature was between o and o c. we have seen in chap. i. that a frond of this fern, as yet only slightly lobed and with a rachis only . inch in height, plainly circumnutated.* * mr. loomis and prof. asa gray have described ('botanical gazette,' , pp. , ), an extremely curious case of movement in the fronds, but only in the fruiting fronds, of asplenium trichomanes. they move almost as rapidly as the little leaflets of desmodium gyrans, alternately backwards and forwards through from to degrees, in a plane at right angles to that of the frond. the apex of the frond describes "a long and very narrow ellipse," so that it circumnutates. but the movement differs from ordinary [[page ]] circumnutation as it occurs only when the plant is exposed to the light; even artificial light "is sufficient to excite motion for a few minutes." [page ] in the chapter on the sleep of plants the conspicuous circumnutation of marsilea quadrifoliata (marsileaceae, fam. ) will be described. it has also been shown in chap. i. that a very young selaginella (lycopodiaceae, fam. ), only . inch in height, plainly circumnutated; we may therefore conclude that older plants, whilst growing, would do the same. fig. . lunularia vulgaris: circumnutation of a frond, traced from a.m. oct th to a.m. th. ( .) lunularia vulgaris (hepaticae, fam. , muscales).--the earth in an old flower-pot was coated with this plant, bearing gemmae. a highly inclined frond, which projected . inch above the soil and was . inch in breadth, was selected for observation. a glass hair of extreme tenuity, . inch in length, with its end whitened, was cemented with shellac to the frond at right angles to its breadth; and a white stick with a minute black spot was driven into the soil close behind the end of the hair. the white end could be accurately brought into a line with the black spot, and dots could thus be successively made on the vertical glass-plate in front. any movement of the frond would of course be exhibited and increased by the long glass hair; and the black spot was placed so close behind the end of the hair, relatively to the distance of the glass-plate in front, that the movement of the end was magnified about times. nevertheless, we are convinced that our tracing gives a fairly faithful representation of the movements of the frond. in the intervals between each observation, the plant was covered by a small bell-glass. the frond, as already stated, [page ] was highly inclined, and the pot stood in front of a north-east window. during the five first days the frond moved downwards or became less inclined; and the long line which was traced was strongly zigzag, with loops occasionally formed or nearly formed; and this indicated circumnutation. whether the sinking was due to epinastic growth, or apheliotropism, we do not know. as the sinking was slight on the fifth day, a new tracing was begun on the sixth day (oct. th), and was continued for h.; it is here given (fig. ). another tracing was made on the next day ( th) and the frond was found to be still circumnutating, for during h. m. it changed its course completely (besides minor changes) times. it was casually observed for two more days, and was seen to be continually moving. the lowest members of the vegetable series, the thallogens, apparently circumnutate. if an oscillaria be watched under the microscope, it may be seen to describe circles about every seconds. after it has bent to one side, the tip first begins to bend back to the opposite side and then the whole filament curves over in the same direction. hofmeister* has given a minute account of the curious, but less regular though constant, movements of spirogyra: during ½ h. the filament moved times to the left and times to the right, and he refers to a movement at right angles to the above. the tip moved at the rate of about . mm. in five minutes. he compares the movement with the nutation of the higher plants.** we shall hereafter see that heliotropic movements result from modified circumnutation, and as unicellular moulds bend to the light we may infer that they also circumnutate.] concluding remarks on the circumnutation of leaves. the circumnutating movements of young leaves in genera, belonging to families, widely distributed * 'ueber die bewegungen der faden der spirogyra princeps: jahreshefte des vereins für vaterländische naturkunde in württemberg,' , p. . ** zukal also remarks (as quoted in 'journal r. microscop. soc.,' , vol. iii. p. ) that the movements of spirulina, a member of the oscillatorieae, are closely analogous "to the well-known rotation of growing shoots and tendrils." [page ] amongst ordinary and gymnospermous dicotyledons and amongst monocotyledons, together with several cryptogams, have now been described. it would, therefore, not be rash to assume that the growing leaves of all plants circumnutate, as we have seen reason to conclude is the case with cotyledons. the seat of movement generally lies in the petiole, but sometimes both in the petiole and blade, or in the blade alone. the extent of the movement differed much in different plants; but the distance passed over was never great, except with pistia, which ought perhaps to have been included amongst sleeping plants. the angular movement of the leaves was only occasionally measured; it commonly varied from only o (and probably even less in some instances) to about o; but it amounted to o in the common bean. the movement is chiefly in a vertical plane, but as the ascending and descending lines never coincided, there was always some lateral movement, and thus irregular ellipses were formed. the movement, therefore, deserves to be called one of circumnutation; for all circumnutating organs tend to describe ellipses,--that is, growth on one side is succeeded by growth on nearly but not quite the opposite side. the ellipses, or the zigzag lines representing drawn-out ellipses, are generally very narrow; yet with the camellia, their minor axes were half as long, and with the eucalyptus more than half as long as their major axes. in the case of cissus, parts of the figure more nearly represented circles than ellipses. the amount of lateral movement is therefore sometimes considerable. moreover, the longer axes of the successively formed ellipses (as with the bean, cissus, and sea-kale), and in several instances the zigzag lines representing ellipses, were extended in very different directions during the same day or on [page ] the next day. the course followed was curvilinear or straight, or slightly or strongly zigzag, and little loops or triangles were often formed. a single large irregular ellipse may be described on one day, and two smaller ones by the same plant on the next day. with drosera two, and with lupinus, eucalyptus and pancratium, several were formed each day. the oscillatory and jerking movements of the leaves of dionaea, which resemble those of the hypocotyl of the cabbage, are highly remarkable, as seen under the microscope. they continue night and day for some months, and are displayed by young unexpanded leaves, and by old ones which have lost their sensibility to a touch, but which, after absorbing animal matter, close their lobes. we shall hereafter meet with the same kind of movement in the joints of certain gramineae, and it is probably common to many plants while circumnutating. it is, therefore, a strange fact that no such movement could be detected in the tentacles of drosera rotundifolia, though a member of the same family with dionaea; yet the tentacle which was observed was so sensitive, that it began to curl inwards in seconds after being touched by a bit of raw meat. one of the most interesting facts with respect to the circumnutation of leaves is the periodicity of their movements; for they often, or even generally, rise a little in the evening and early part of the night, and sink again on the following morning. exactly the same phenomenon was observed in the case of cotyledons. the leaves in genera out of the which were observed behaved in this manner, as did probably others. nor must it be supposed that in the remaining genera there was no periodicity in their movements; for of them were observed during too short a period for any judgment to be formed on this head, [page ] and were so young that their epinastic growth, which serves to bring them down into a horizontal position, overpowered every other kind of movement. in only one genus, cannabis, did the leaves sink in the evening, and kraus attributes this movement to the prepotency of their epinastic growth. that the periodicity is determined by the daily alternations of light and darkness there can hardly be a doubt, as will hereafter be shown. insectivorous plants are very little affected, as far as their movements are concerned, by light; and hence probably it is that their leaves, at least in the cases of sarracenia, drosera, and dionaea, do not move periodically. the upward movement in the evening is at first slow, and with different plants begins at very different hours;--with glaucium as early as a.m., commonly between and p.m., but sometimes as late as p.m. it should be observed that none of the leaves described in this chapter (except, as we believe, those of lupinus speciosus) possess a pulvinus; for the periodical movements of leaves thus provided have generally been amplified into so-called sleep-movements, with which we are not here concerned. the fact of leaves and cotyledons frequently, or even generally, rising a little in the evening and sinking in the morning, is of interest as giving the foundation from which the specialised sleep-movements of many leaves and cotyledons, not provided with a pulvinus, have been developed. the above periodicity should be kept in mind, by any one considering the problem of the horizontal position of leaves and cotyledons during the day, whilst illuminated from above. [page ] chapter v. modified circumnutation: climbing plants; epinastic and hyponastic movements. circumnutation modified through innate causes or through the action of external conditions--innate causes--climbing plants; similarity of their movements with those of ordinary plants; increased amplitude; occasional points of difference--epinastic growth of young leaves--hyponastic growth of the hypocotyls and epicotyls of seedlings--hooked tips of climbing and other plants due to modified circumnutation--ampelopsis tricuspidata-- smithia pfundii--straightening of the tip due to hyponasty--epinastic growth and circumnutation of the flower-peduncles of trifolium repens and oxalis carnosa. the radicles, hypocotyls and epicotyls of seedling plants, even before they emerge from the ground, and afterwards the cotyledons, are all continually circumnutating. so it is with the stems, stolons, flower-peduncles, and leaves of older plants. we may, therefore, infer with a considerable degree of safety that all the growing parts of all plants circumnutate. although this movement, in its ordinary or unmodified state, appears in some cases to be of service to plants, either directly or indirectly--for instance, the circumnutation of the radicle in penetrating the ground, or that of the arched hypocotyl and epicotyl in breaking through the surface--yet circumnutation is so general, or rather so universal a phenomenon, that we cannot suppose it to have been gained for any special purpose. we must believe that it follows in some unknown way from the manner in which vegetable tissues grow. [page ] we shall now consider the many cases in which circumnutation has been modified for various special purposes; that is, a movement already in progress is temporarily increased in some one direction, and temporarily diminished or quite arrested in other directions. these cases may be divided in two sub-classes; in one of which the modification depends on innate or constitutional causes, and is independent of external conditions, excepting in so far that the proper ones for growth must be present. in the second sub-class the modification depends to a large extent on external agencies, such as the daily alternations of light and darkness, or light alone, temperature, or the attraction of gravity. the first small sub-class will be considered in the present chapter, and the second sub-class in the remainder of this volume. the circumnutation of climbing plants. the simplest case of modified circumnutation is that offered by climbing plants, with the exception of those which climb by the aid of motionless hooks or of rootlets: for the modification consists chiefly in the greatly increased amplitude of the movement. this would follow either from greatly increased growth over a small length, or more probably from moderately increased growth spread over a considerable length of the moving organ, preceded by turgescence, and acting successively on all sides. the circumnutation of climbers is more regular than that of ordinary plants; but in almost every other respect there is a close similarity between their movements, namely, in their tendency to describe ellipses directed successively to all points of the compass--in their courses being often interrupted by zigzag lines, triangles, loops, or small [page ] ellipses--in the rate of movement, and in different species revolving once or several times within the same length of time. in the same internode, the movements cease first in the lower part and then slowly upwards. in both sets of cases the movement may be modified in a closely analogous manner by geotropism and by heliotropism; though few climbing plants are heliotropic. other points of similarity might be pointed out. that the movements of climbing plants consist of ordinary circumnutation, modified by being increased in amplitude, is well exhibited whilst the plants are very young; for at this early age they move like other seedlings, but as they grow older their movements gradually increase without undergoing any other change. that this power is innate, and is not excited by any external agencies, beyond those necessary for growth and vigour, is obvious. no one doubts that this power has been gained for the sake of enabling climbing plants to ascend to a height, and thus to reach the light. this is effected by two very different methods; first, by twining spirally round a support, but to do so their stems must be long and flexible; and, secondly, in the case of leaf-climbers and tendril-bearers, by bringing these organs into contact with a support, which is then seized by the aid of their sensitiveness. it may be here remarked that these latter movements have no relation, as far as we can judge, with circumnutation. in other cases the tips of tendrils, after having been brought into contact with a support, become developed into little discs which adhere firmly to it. we have said that the circumnutation of climbing plants differs from that of ordinary plants chiefly by its greater amplitude. but most leaves circumnutate [page ] in an almost vertical plane, and therefore describe very narrow ellipses, whereas the many kinds of tendrils which consist of metamorphosed leaves, make much broader ellipses or nearly circular figures; and thus they have a far better chance of catching hold of a support on any side. the movements of climbing plants have also been modified in some few other special ways. thus the circumnutating stems of solnanum dulcamara can twine round a support only when this is as thin and flexible as a string or thread. the twining stems of several british plants cannot twine round a support when it is more than a few inches in thickness; whilst in tropical forests some can embrace thick trunks;* and this great difference in power depends on some unknown difference in their manner of circumnutation. the most remarkable special modification of this movement which we have observed is in the tendrils of echinocystis lobata; these are usually inclined at about o above the horizon, but they stiffen and straighten themselves so as to stand upright in a part of their circular course, namely, when they approach and have to pass over the summit or the shoot from which they arise. if they had not possessed and exercised this curious power, they would infallibly have struck against the summit of the shoot and been arrested in their course. as soon as one of these tendrils with its three branches begins to stiffen itself and rise up vertically, the revolving motion becomes more rapid; and as soon as it has passed over the point of difficulty, its motion coinciding with that from its own weight, causes it to fall into its previously inclined position so quickly, that the apex can be seen travelling like the hand of a gigantic clock. * 'the movements and habits of climbing plants,' p. . [page ] a large number of ordinary leaves and leaflets and a few flower-peduncles are provided with pulvini; but this is not the case with a single tendril at present known. the cause of this difference probably lies in the fact, that the chief service of a pulvinus is to prolong the movement of the part thus provided after growth has ceased; and as tendrils or other climbing-organs are of use only whilst the plant is increasing in height or growing, a pulvinus which served to prolong their movements would be useless. it was shown in the last chapter that the stolons or runners of certain plants circumnutate largely, and that this movement apparently aids them in finding a passage between the crowded stems of adjoining plants. if it could be proved that their movements had been modified and increased for this special purpose, they ought to have been included in the present chapter; but as the amplitude of their revolutions is not so conspicuously different from that of ordinary plants, as in the case of climbers, we have no evidence on this head. we encounter the same doubt in the case of some plants which bury their pods in the ground. this burying process is certainly favoured by the circumnutation of the flower-peduncle; but we do not know whether it has been increased for this special purpose. epinasty--hyponasty. the term epinasty is used by de vries* to express greater longitudinal growth along the upper than * 'arbeiten des bot. inst., in würzburg,' heft ii. , p. . de vries has slightly modified (p. ) the meaning of the above two terms as first used by schimper, and they have been adopted in this sense by sachs. [page ] along the lower side of a part, which is thus caused to bend downwards; and hyponasty is used for the reversed process, by which the part is made to bend upwards. these actions come into play so frequently that the use of the above two terms is highly convenient. the movements thus induced result from a modified form of circumnutation; for, as we shall immediately see, an organ under the influence of epinasty does not generally move in a straight line downwards, or under that of hyponasty upwards, but oscillates up and down with some lateral movement: it moves, however, in a preponderant manner in one direction. this shows that there is some growth on all sides of the part, but more on the upper side in the case of epinasty, and more on the lower side in that of hyponasty, than on the other sides. at the same time there may be in addition, as de vries insists, increased growth on one side due to geotropism, and on another side due to heliotropism; and thus the effects of epinasty or of hyponasty may be either increased or lessened. he who likes, may speak of ordinary circumnutation as being combined with epinasty, hyponasty, the effects of gravitation, light, etc.; but it seems to us, from reasons hereafter to be given, to be more correct to say that circumnutation is modified by these several agencies. we will therefore speak of circumnutation, which is always in progress, as modified by epinasty, hyponasty, geotropism, or other agencies, whether internal or external. [one of the commonest and simplest cases of epinasty is that offered by leaves, which at an early age are crowded together round the buds, and diverge as they grow older. sachs first remarked that this was due to increased growth along the upper side of the petiole and blade; and de vries has now shown in more detail that the movement is thus caused, aided slightly by [page ] the weight of the leaf, and resisted as he believes by apogeotropism, at least after the leaf has somewhat diverged. in our observations on the circumnutation of leaves, some were selected which were rather too young, so that they continued to diverge or sink downwards whilst their movements were being traced. this may be seen in the diagrams (figs. and , pp. and ) representing the circumnutation of the young leaves of acanthus mollis and pelargonium zonale. similar cases were observed with drosera. the movements of a young leaf, only / inch in length, of petunia violacea were traced during four days, and offers a better instance (fig. , p. ) as it diverged during the whole of this time in a curiously zigzag line with some of the angles sharply acute, and during the latter days plainly circumnutated. some young leaves of about the same age on a plant of this petunia, which had been laid horizontally, and on another plant which was left upright, both being kept in complete darkness, diverged in the same manner for h., and apparently were not affected by apogeotropism; though their stems were in a state of high tension, for when freed from the sticks to which they had been tied, they instantly curled upwards. the leaves, whilst very young, on the leading shoots of the carnation (dianthus caryophyllus) are highly inclined or vertical; and if the plant is growing vigorously they diverge so quickly that they become almost horizontal in a day. but they move downwards in a rather oblique line and continue for some time afterwards to move in the same direction, in connection, we presume, with their spiral arrangement on the stem. the course pursued by a young leaf whilst thus obliquely descending was traced, and the line was distinctly yet not strongly zigzag; the larger angles formed by the successive lines amounting only to o, o, and o. the subsequent lateral movement (shown in fig. , p. ) was strongly zigzag with occasional circumnutations. the divergence and sinking of the young leaves of this plant seem to be very little affected by geotropism or heliotropism; for a plant, the leaves of which were growing rather slowly (as ascertained by measurement) was laid horizontally, and the opposite young leaves diverged from one another symmetrically in the usual manner, without any upturning in the direction of gravitation or towards the light. the needle-like leaves of pinus pinaster form a bundle whilst young; afterwards they slowly diverge, so that those on the upright shoots become horizontal. the movements of one such [page ] young leaf was traced during ½ days, and the tracing here given (fig. ) shows that it descended at first in a nearly straight line, but afterwards zigzagged, making one or two little loops. the diverging and descending movements of a rather older leaf were also traced (see former fig. , p. ): it descended during the first day and night in a somewhat zigzag line; it then circumnutated round a small space and again descended. by this time the leaf had nearly assumed its final position, and now plainly circumnutated. as in the case of the carnation, the leaves, whilst very young, do not seem to be much affected by geotropism or heliotropism, for those on a young plant laid horizontally, and those on another plant left upright, both kept in the dark, continued to diverge in the usual manner without bending to either side. fig. . pinus pinaster: epinastic downward movement of a young leaf, produced by a young plant in a pot, traced on a vertical glass under a skylight, from . a.m. june nd to . p.m. th. with coboea scandens, the young leaves, as they successively diverge from the leading shoot which is bent to one side, rise up so as to project vertically, and they retain this position for some time whilst the tendril is revolving. the diverging and ascending movements of the petiole of one such a leaf, were traced on a vertical glass under a skylight; and the course pursued was in most parts nearly straight, but there were two [page ] well-marked zigzags (one of them forming an angle of o), and this indicates circumnutation. the still closed lobes of a young leaf of dionaea projected at right angles to the petiole, and were in the act of slowly rising. a glass filament was attached to the under side of the midrib, and its movements were traced on a vertical glass. it circumnutated once in the evening, and on the next day rose, as already described (see fig. , p. ), by a number of acutely zigzag lines, closely approaching in character to ellipses. this movement no doubt was due to epinasty, aided by apogeotropism, for the closed lobes of a very young leaf on a plant which had been placed horizontally, moved into nearly the same line with the petiole, as if the plant had stood upright; but at the same time the lobes curved laterally upwards, and thus occupied an unnatural position, obliquely to the plane of the foliaceous petiole. as the hypocotyls and epicotyls of some plants protrude from the seed-coats in an arched form, it is doubtful whether the arching of these parts, which is invariably present when they break through the ground, ought always to be attributed to epinasty; but when they are at first straight and afterwards become arched, as often happens, the arching is certainly due to epinasty. as long as the arch is surrounded by compact earth it must retain its form; but as soon as it rises above the surface, or even before this period if artificially freed from the surrounding pressure, it begins to straighten itself, and this no doubt is mainly due to hyponasty. the movement of the upper and lower half of the arch, and of the crown, was occasionally traced; and the course was more or less zigzag, showing modified circumnutation. with not a few plants, especially climbers, the summit of the shoot is hooked, so that the apex points vertically downwards. in seven genera of twining plants* the hooking, or as it has been called by sachs, the nutation of the tip, is mainly due to an exaggerated form of circumnutation. that is, the growth is so great along one side that it bends the shoot completely over to the opposite side, thus forming a hook; the longitudinal line or zone of growth then travels a little laterally round the shoot, and the hook points in a slightly different direction, and so onwards until the hook is completely reversed. ultimately it * 'the movements and habits of climbing plants,' nd edit. p. . [page ] comes back to the point whence it started. this was ascertained by painting narrow lines with indian ink along the convex surface of several hooks, and the line was found slowly to become at first lateral, then to appear along the concave surface, and ultimately back again on the convex surface. in the case of lonicera brachypoda the hooked terminal part of the revolving shoot straightens itself periodically, but is never reversed; that is, the periodically increased growth of the concave side of the hook is sufficient only to straighten it, and not to bend it over to the opposite side. the hooking of the tip is of service to twining plants by aiding them to catch hold of a support, and afterwards by enabling this part to embrace the support much more closely than it could otherwise have done at first, thus preventing it, as we often observed, from being blown away by a strong wind. whether the advantage thus gained by twining plants accounts for their summits being so frequently hooked, we do not know, as this structure is not very rare with plants which do not climb, and with some climbers (for instance, vitis, ampelopsis, cissus, etc.) to whom it does not afford any assistance in climbing. with respect to those cases in which the tip remains always bent or hooked towards the same side, as in the genera just named, the most obvious explanation is that the bending is due to continued growth in excess along the convex side. wiesner, however, maintains* that in all cases the hooking of the tip is the result of its plasticity and weight,--a conclusion which from what we have already seen with several climbing plants is certainly erroneous. nevertheless, we fully admit that the weight of the part, as well as geotropism, etc., sometimes come into play. ampelopsis tricuspidata.--this plant climbs by the aid of adhesive tendrils, and the hooked tips of the shoots do not appear to be of any service to it. the hooking depends chiefly, as far as we could ascertain, on the tip being affected by epinasty and geotropism; the lower and older parts continually straightening themselves through hyponasty and apogeotropism. we believe that the weight of the apex is an unimportant element, because on horizontal or inclined shoots the hook is often extended horizontally or even faces upwards. moreover shoots frequently form loops instead of hooks; and in this case the * 'sitzb. der k. akad. der wissensch.,' vienna, jan. , p. . [page ] fig. . ampelopsis tricuspidata: hyponastic movement of hooked tip of leading shoot, traced from . a.m. july th to a.m. th. apex of shoot ½ inches from the vertical glass. plant illuminated through a skylight. temp. / o - o c. diagram reduced to one-third of original scale. extreme part, instead of hanging vertically down as would follow if weight was the efficient cause, extends horizontally or even points upwards. a shoot, which terminated in a rather open hook, was fastened in a highly inclined downward position, so that the concave side faced upwards, and the result was that the apex at first curved upwards. this apparently was due to epinasty and not to apogeotropism, for the apex, soon after passing the perpendicular, curved so rapidly downwards that we could not doubt that the movement was at least aided by geotropism. in the course of a few hours the hook was thus converted into a loop with the apex of the shoot pointing straight downwards. the longer axis of the loop was at first horizontal, but afterwards became vertical. during this same time the basal part of the hook (and subsequently of the loop) curved itself slowly upwards; and this must have been wholly due to apogeotropism in opposition to hyponasty. the loop was then fastened upside down, so that its basal half would be simultaneously acted on by hyponasty (if present) and by apogeotropism; and now it curved itself so greatly upwards in the course of only h. that there could hardly be a doubt that both forces were acting [page ] together. at the same time the loop became open and was thus reconverted into a hook, and this apparently was effected by the geotropic movement of the apex in opposition to epinasty. in the case of ampelopsis hederacea, weight plays, as far as we could judge, a more important part in the hooking of the tip. in order to ascertain whether the shoots of a. tricuspidata in straightening themselves under the combined action of hyponasty and apogeotropism moved in a simple straight course, or whether they circumnutated, glass filaments were fixed to the crowns of four hooked tips standing in their natural position; and the movements of the filaments were traced on a vertical glass. all four tracings resembled each other in a general manner; but we will give only one (see fig. , p. ). the filament rose at first, which shows that the hook was straightening itself; it then zigzagged, moving a little to the left between . a.m. and p.m. from this latter hour on the th to . a.m. on the following morning ( th) the hook continued to straighten itself, and then zigzagged a short distance to the right. but from p.m. to . p.m. on the th the movement fig. . smithia pfundii: hyponastic movement of the curved summit of a stem, whilst straightening itself, traced from a.m. july th to p.m. th. apex ½ inches from the vertical glass. diagram reduced to one-fifth of original scale. plant illuminated through skylight; temp. / o - o c. [page ] was reversed and the shoot became more hooked. during the night, after . p.m. to . a.m. on the th, the hook again opened or straightened itself. by this time the glass filament had become so highly inclined that its movements could no longer be traced with accuracy; and by . p.m. on this same day, the crown of the former arch or hook had become perfectly straight and vertical. there can therefore be no doubt that the straightening of the hooked shoot of this plant is effected by the circumnutation of the arched portion--that is, by growth alternating between the upper and lower surface, but preponderant on the lower surface, with some little lateral movement. we were enabled to trace the movement of another straightening shoot for a longer period (owing to its slower growth and to its having been placed further from the vertical glass), namely, from the early morning on july th to late in the evening of the th. during the whole daytime of the th, the hook straightened itself very little, but zigzagged and plainly circumnutated about nearly the same spot. by the th it had become nearly straight, and the tracing was no longer accurate, yet it was manifest that there was still a considerable amount of movement both up and down and laterally; for the crown whilst continuing to straighten itself occasionally became for a short time more curved, causing the filament to descend twice during the day. smithia pfundii.--the stiff terminal shoots of this leguminous water-plant from africa project so as to make a rectangle with the stem below; but this occurs only when the plants are growing vigorously, for when kept in a cool place, the summits of the stems become straight, as they likewise did at the close of the growing season. the direction of the rectangularly bent part is independent of the chief source of light. but from observing the effects of placing plants in the dark, in which case several shoots became in two or three days upright or nearly upright, and when brought back into the light again became rectangularly curved, we believe that the bending is in part due to apheliotropism, apparently somewhat opposed by apogeotropism. on the other hand, from observing the effects of tying a shoot downwards, so that the rectangle faced upwards, we are led to believe that the curvature is partly due to epinasty. as the rectangularly bent portion of an upright stem grows older, the lower part straightens itself; and this is effected through hyponasty. he who has read sachs' recent essay on the vertical [page ] and inclined positions of the parts of plants* will see how difficult a subject this is, and will feel no surprise at our expressing ourselves doubtfully in this and other such cases. a plant, inches in height, was secured to a stick close beneath the curved summit, which formed rather less than a rectangle with the stem below. the shoot pointed away from the observer; and a glass filament pointing towards the vertical glass on which the tracing was made, was fixed to the convex surface of the curved portion. therefore the descending lines in the figure represent the straightening of the curved portion as it grew older. the tracing (fig. , p. ) was begun at a.m. on july th; the filament at first moved but little in a zigzag line, but at p.m. it began rising and continued to do so till p.m.; and this proves that the terminal portion was being more bent downwards. after p.m. on the th an opposite movement commenced, and the curved portion began to straighten itself, and this continued till . a.m. on the th, but was interrupted by some small oscillations and zigzags, showing movement in different directions. after . a.m. on the th this part of the stem, still considerably curved, circumnutated in a conspicuous manner until nearly p.m. on the th; but during all this time a downward movement of the filament prevailed, caused by the continued straightening of the stem. by the afternoon of the th, the summit, which had originally been deflected more than a right angle from the perpendicular, had grown so nearly straight that the tracing could no longer be continued on the vertical glass. there can therefore be no doubt that the straightening of the abruptly curved portion of the growing stem of this plant, which appears to be wholly due to hyponasty, is the result of modified circumnutation. we will only add that a filament was fixed in a different manner across the curved summit of another plant, and the same general kind of movement was observed. trifolium repens.--in many, but not in all the species of trifolium, as the separate little flowers wither, the sub-peduncles bend downwards, so as to depend parallel to the upper part of the main peduncle. in tr. subterraneum the main peduncle curves downwards for the sake of burying its capsules, and in this species the sub-peduncles of the separate flowers bend * 'ueber orthotrope und plagiotrope pflanzentheile;' 'arbeiten des bot. inst., in würzburg,' heft ii. , p. . [page ] fig. . trifolium repens: circumnutating and epinastic movements of the sub-peduncle of a single flower, traced on a vertical glass under a skylight, in a from . a.m. aug. th to a.m. th; in b from a.m. aug. th to a little after p.m. sept. th. [page ] upwards, so as to occupy the same position relatively to the upper part of the main peduncle as in tr. repens. this fact alone would render it probable that the movements of the sub-peduncles in tr. repens were independent of geotropism. nevertheless, to make sure, some flower-heads were tied to little sticks upside down and others in a horizontal position; their sub-peduncles, however, all quickly curved upwards through the action of heliotropism. we therefore protected some flower-heads, similarly secured to sticks, from the light, and although some of them rotted, many of their sub-peduncles turned very slowly from their reversed or from their horizontal positions, so as to stand in the normal manner parallel to the upper part of the main peduncle. these facts show that the movement is independent of geotropism or apheliotropism; it must there[fore] be attributed to epinasty, which however is checked, at least as long as the flowers are young, by heliotropism. most of the above flowers were never fertilised owing to the exclusion of bees; they consequently withered very slowly, and the movements of the sub-peduncles were in like manner much retarded. to ascertain the nature of the movement of the sub-peduncle, whilst bending downwards, a filament was fixed across the summit of the calyx of a not fully expanded and almost upright flower, nearly in the centre of the head. the main peduncle was secured to a stick close beneath the head. in order to see the marks on the glass filament, a few flowers had to be cut away on the lower side of the head. the flower under observation at first diverged a little from its upright position, so as to occupy the open space caused by the removal of the adjoining flowers. this required two days, after which time a new tracing was begun (fig. ). in a we see the complex circumnutating course pursued from . a.m. aug. th to a.m. on the th. the pot was then moved a very little to the right, and the tracing (b) was continued without interruption from a.m. aug. th to after p.m. sept. th. it should be observed that on most of these days, only a single dot was made each morning at the same hour. whenever the flower was observed carefully, as on aug. th and sept. th and th, it was found to be circumnutating over a small space. at last, on sept. th, it began to bend downwards, and continued to do so until after p.m. on the th, and indeed until the morning of the th, when its movements could no longer be traced on the vertical glass. it was carefully observed during the whole of the th, and by [page ] . p.m. it had descended to a point lower down by two-thirds of the length of the figure as here given; but from want of space the tracing has been copied in b, only to a little after p.m. on the morning of the th the flower was withered, and the sub-peduncle now stood at an angle of o beneath the horizon. if the flower had been fertilised it would have withered much sooner, and have moved much more quickly. we thus see that the sub-peduncle oscillated up and down, or circumnutated, during its whole downward epinastic course. the sub-peduncles of the fertilised and withered flowers of oxalis carnosa likewise bend downwards through epinasty, as will be shown in a future chapter; and their downward course is strongly zigzag, indicating circumnutation.] the number of instances in which various organs move through epinasty or hyponasty, often in combination with other forces, for the most diversified purposes, seems to be inexhaustibly great; and from the several cases which have been here given, we may safely infer that such movements are due to modified circumnutation. [page ] chapter vi. modified circumnutation: sleep or nyctitropic movements, their use: sleep of cotyledons. preliminary sketch of the sleep or nyctitropic movements of leaves-- presence of pulvini--the lessening of radiation the final cause of nyctitropic movements--manner of trying experiments on leaves of oxalis, arachis, cassia, melilotus, lotus and marsilea and on the cotyledons of mimosa--concluding remarks on radiation from leaves--small differences in the conditions make a great difference in the result - description of the nyctitropic position and movements of the cotyledons of various plants-- list of species--concluding remarks--independence of the nyctitropic movements of the leaves and cotyledons of the same species--reasons for believing that the movements have been acquired for a special purpose. the so-called sleep of leaves is so conspicuous a phenomenon that it was observed as early as the time of pliny;* and since linnaeus published his famous essay, 'somnus plantarum,' it has been the subject of several memoirs. many flowers close at night, and these are likewise said to sleep; but we are not here concerned with their movements, for although effected by the same mechanism as in the case of young leaves, namely, unequal growth on the opposite sides (as first proved by pfeffer), yet they differ essentially in being excited chiefly by changes of temperature instead of light; and in being effected, as far as we can judge, for a different purpose. hardly any one supposes that there is any real analogy * pfeffer has given a clear and interesting sketch of the history of this subject in his 'die periodischen bewegungen der blattorgane,' , p. . [page ] between the sleep of animals and that of plants,* whether of leaves or flowers. it seems therefore, advisable to give a distinct name to the so-called sleep-movements of plants. these have also generally been confounded, under the term "periodic," with the slight daily rise and fall of leaves, as described in the fourth chapter; and this makes it all the more desirable to give some distinct name to sleep-movements. nyctitropism and nyctitropic, i.e. night-turning, may be applied both to leaves and flowers, and will be occasionally used by us; but it would be best to confine the term to leaves. the leaves of some few plants move either upwards or downwards when the sun shines intensely on them, and this movement has sometimes been called diurnal sleep; but we believe it to be of an essentially different nature from the nocturnal movement, and it will be briefly considered in a future chapter. the sleep or nyctitropism of leaves is a large subject, and we think that the most convenient plan will be first to give a brief account of the position which leaves assume at night, and of the advantages apparently thus gained. afterwards the more remarkable cases will be described in detail, with respect to cotyledons in the present chapter, and to leaves in the next chapter. finally, it will be shown that these movements result from circumnutation, much modified and regulated by the alternations of day and night, or light and darkness; but that they are also to a certain extent inherited. leaves, when they go to sleep, move either upwards or downwards, or in the case of the leaflets of com- * ch. royer must, however, be excepted; see 'annales des sc. nat.' ( th series), bot. vol. ix. , p. . [page ] pound leaves, forwards, that is, towards the apex of the leaf, or backwards, that is, towards its base; or, again, they may rotate on their own axes without moving either upwards or downwards. but in almost every case the plane of the blade is so placed as to stand nearly or quite vertically at night. therefore the apex, or the base, or either lateral edge, may be directed towards the zenith. moreover, the upper surface of each leaf, and more especially of each leaflet, is often brought into close contact with that of the opposite one; and this is sometimes effected by singularly complicated movements. this fact suggests that the upper surface requires more protection than the lower one. for instance, the terminal leaflet in trifolium, after turning up at night so as to stand vertically, often continues to bend over until the upper surface is directed downwards whilst the lower surface is fully exposed to the sky; and an arched roof is thus formed over the two lateral leaflets, which have their upper surfaces pressed closely together. here we have the unusual case of one of the leaflets not standing vertically, or almost vertically, at night. considering that leaves in assuming their nyctitropic positions often move through an angle of o; that the movement is rapid in the evening; that in some cases, as we shall see in the next chapter, it is extraordinarily complicated; that with certain seedlings, old enough to bear true leaves, the cotyledons move vertically upwards at night, whilst at the same time the leaflets move vertically downwards; and that in the same genus the leaves or cotyledons of some species move upwards, whilst those of other species move downwards;--from these and other such facts, it is hardly possible to doubt that plants must derive some [page ] great advantage from such remarkable powers of movement. the nyctitropic movements of leaves and cotyledons are effected in two ways,* firstly, by means of pulvini which become, as pfeffer has shown, alternately more turgescent on opposite sides; and secondly, by increased growth along one side of the petiole or midrib, and then on the opposite side, as was first proved by batalin.** but as it has been shown by de vries*** that in these latter cases increased growth is preceded by the increased turgescence of the cells, the difference between the above two means of movement is much diminished, and consists chiefly in the turgescence of the cells of a fully developed pulvinus, not being followed by growth. when the movements of leaves or cotyledons, furnished with a pulvinus and destitute of one, are compared, they are seen to be closely similar, and are apparently effected for the same purpose. therefore, with our object in view, it does not appear advisable to separate the above two sets of cases into two distinct classes. there is, however, one important distinction between them, namely, that movements effected by growth on the alternate sides, are confined to young growing leaves, whilst those effected by means of a pulvinus last for a long time. we have already seen well-marked instances of this latter fact with cotyledons, and so it is with leaves, as has been observed by pfeffer and by ourselves. the long endurance of the nyctitropic movements when effected by the aid of pulvini indicates, in addition to the evidence already advanced, the functional import- * this distinction was first pointed out (according to pfeffer, 'die periodischen bewegungen der blattorgane,' , p. ) by dassen in . ** 'flora,' , p. . *** 'bot. zeitung,' , dec. th, p. . [page ] ance of such movements to the plant. there is another difference between the two sets of cases, namely, that there is never, or very rarely, any torsion of the leaves, excepting when a pulvinus is present;* but this statement applies only to periodic and nyctitropic movements as may be inferred from other cases given by frank.** the fact that the leaves of many plants place themselves at night in widely different positions from what they hold during the day, but with the one point in common, that their upper surfaces avoid facing the zenith, often with the additional fact that they come into close contact with opposite leaves or leaflets, clearly indicates, as it seems to us, that the object gained is the protection of the upper surfaces from being chilled at night by radiation. there is nothing improbable in the upper surface needing protection more than the lower, as the two differ in function and structure. all gardeners know that plants suffer from radiation. it is this and not cold winds which the peasants of southern europe fear for their olives.*** seedlings are often protected from radiation by a very thin covering of straw; and fruit-trees on walls by a few fir-branches, or even by a fishing-net, suspended over them. there is a variety of the gooseberry,**** the flowers of which from being produced before the leaves, are not protected by them from radiation, and consequently often fail to yield fruit. an excellent observer***** has remarked * pfeffer, 'die period. beweg. der blattorgane.' , p. . ** 'die nat. wagerechte richtung von pflanzentheilen,' , p. *** martins in 'bull. soc. bot. de france,' tom. xix. . wells, in his famous 'essay on dew,' remarks that an exposed thermometer rises as soon as even a fleecy cloud, high in the sky, passes over the zenith. **** 'loudon's gardener's mag.,' vol. iv. , p. . ***** mr. rivers in 'gardener's chron.,' , p. . [page ] that one variety of the cherry has the petals of its flowers much curled backwards, and after a severe frost all the stigmas were killed; whilst at the same time, in another variety with incurved petals, the stigmas were not in the least injured. this view that the sleep of leaves saves them from being chilled at night by radiation, would no doubt have occurred to linnaeus, had the principle of radiation been then discovered; for he suggests in many parts of his 'somnus plantarum' that the position of the leaves at night protects the young stems and buds, and often the young inflorescence, against cold winds. we are far from doubting that an additional advantage may be thus gained; and we have observed with several plants, for instance, desmodium gyrans, that whilst the blade of the leaf sinks vertically down at night, the petiole rises, so that the blade has to move through a greater angle in order to assume its vertical position than would otherwise have been necessary; but with the result that all the leaves on the same plant are crowded together as if for mutual protection. we doubted at first whether radiation would affect in any important manner objects so thin as are many cotyledons and leaves, and more especially affect differently their upper and lower surfaces; for although the temperature of their upper surfaces would undoubtedly fall when freely exposed to a clear sky, yet we thought that they would so quickly acquire by conduction the temperature of the surrounding air, that it could hardly make any sensible difference to them, whether they stood horizontally and radiated into the open sky, or vertically and radiated chiefly in a lateral direction towards neighbouring plants and other objects. we endeavoured, therefore, to ascertain something on this head by preventing the leaves [page ] of several plants from going to sleep, and by exposing to a clear sky when the temperature was beneath the freezing-point, these, as well as the other leaves on the same plants which had already assumed their nocturnal vertical position. our experiments show that leaves thus compelled to remain horizontal at night, suffered much more injury from frost than those which were allowed to assume their normal vertical position. it may, however, be said that conclusions drawn from such observations are not applicable to sleeping plants, the inhabitants of countries where frosts do not occur. but in every country, and at all seasons, leaves must be exposed to nocturnal chills through radiation, which might be in some degree injurious to them, and which they would escape by assuming a vertical position. in our experiments, leaves were prevented from assuming their nyctitropic position, generally by being fastened with the finest entomological pins (which did not sensibly injure them) to thin sheets of cork supported on sticks. but in some instances they were fastened down by narrow strips of card, and in others by their petioles being passed through slits in the cork. the leaves were at first fastened close to the cork, for as this is a bad conductor, and as the leaves were not exposed for long periods, we thought that the cork, which had been kept in the house, would very slightly warm them; so that if they were injured by the frost in a greater degree than the free vertical leaves, the evidence would be so much the stronger that the horizontal position was injurious. but we found that when there was any slight difference in the result, which could be detected only occasionally, the leaves which had been fastened closely down suffered rather more than those fastened with very long and [page ] thin pins, so as to stand from ½ to / inch above the cork. this difference in the result, which is in itself curious as showing what a very slight difference in the conditions influences the amount of injury inflicted, may be attributed, as we believe, to the surrounding warmer air not circulating freely beneath the closely pinned leaves and thus slightly warming them. this conclusion is supported by some analogous facts hereafter to be given. we will now describe in detail the experiments which were tried. these were troublesome from our not being able to predict how much cold the leaves of the several species could endure. many plants had every leaf killed, both those which were secured in a horizontal position and those which were allowed to sleep--that is, to rise up or sink down vertically. others again had not a single leaf in the least injured, and these had to be re-exposed either for a longer time or to a lower temperature. [oxalis acetosella.--a very large pot, thickly covered with between and leaves, had been kept all winter in the greenhouse. seven leaves were pinned horizontally open, and were exposed on march th for h. to a clear sky, the temperature on the surrounding grass being - o c. ( o to o f.). next morning all seven leaves were found quite killed, so were many of the free ones which had previously gone to sleep, and about of them, either dead or browned and injured were picked off. some leaves showed that they had been slightly injured by not expanding during the whole of the next day, though they afterwards recovered. as all the leaves which were pinned open were killed, and only about a third or fourth of the others were either killed or injured, we had some little evidence that those which were prevented from assuming their vertically dependent position suffered most. the following night ( th) was clear and almost equally cold (- o to - o c. on the grass), and the pot was again exposed, but this time for only m. eight leaves had been pinned out, [page ] and in the morning two of them were dead, whilst not a single other leaf on the many plants was even injured. on the rd the pot was exposed for h. m., the temperature on the grass being only - o c., and not one leaf was injured: the pinned open leaves, however, all stood from ½ to / of an inch above the cork. on the th the pot was again placed on the ground and exposed to a clear sky for between m. and m. by a mistake the thermometer was left on an adjoining sun-dial feet high, instead of being placed on the grass; it recorded o to o f. (- . o to - . o c.), but when looked at after h. had fallen to o f. (- . o c.); so that the pot was perhaps exposed to rather a lower temperature than on the two first occasions. eight leaves had been pinned out, some close to the cork and some above it, and on the following morning five of them (i.e. per cent.) were found killed. by counting a portion of the leaves we estimated that about had been allowed to go to sleep, and of these about were killed (i.e. only per cent.), and about injured. considering these cases, there can be no doubt that the leaves of this oxalis, when allowed to assume their normal vertically dependent position at night, suffer much less from frost than those ( in number) which had their upper surfaces exposed to the zenith. oxalis carnosa.--a plant of this chilian species was exposed for m. to a clear sky, the thermometer on the grass standing at - o c., with some of its leaves pinned open, and not one leaf on the whole bushy plant was in the least injured. on the th of march another plant was similarly exposed for m., when the temperature on the grass was only a little lower, viz., - o to - o c. six of the leaves had been pinned open, and next morning five of them were found much browned. the plant was a large one, and none of the free leaves, which were asleep and depended vertically, were browned, excepting four very young ones. but three other leaves, though not browned, were in a rather flaccid condition, and retained their nocturnal position during the whole of the following day. in this case it was obvious that the leaves which were exposed horizontally to the zenith suffered most. this same pot was afterwards exposed for - m. on a slightly colder night, and every leaf, both the pinned open and the free ones, was killed. it may be added that two pots of o. corniculata (var. atro- [page ] purpurea) were exposed for h. and h. to a clear sky with the temp. on grass - o c., and none of the leaves, whether free or pinned open, were at all injured. arachis hypogoea.--some plants in a pot were exposed at night for m. to a clear sky, the temperature on the surrounding grass being - o c., and on two nights afterwards they were again exposed to the same temperature, but this time during h. m. on neither occasion was a single leaf, whether pinned open or free, injured; and this surprised us much, considering its native tropical african home. two plants were next exposed (march th) for m. to a clear sky, the temperature of the surrounding grass being now lower, viz., between - o and - o c., and all four pinned-open leaves were killed and blackened. these two plants bore other and free leaves (excluding some very young bud-like ones) and only two of these were killed and three somewhat injured; that is, per cent. were either killed or injured, whereas all four pinned-open leaves were utterly killed. on another night two pots with several plants were exposed for between m. and m. to a clear sky, and perhaps to a rather lower temperature, for a thermometer on a dial, feet high, close by stood at - . o to - . o c. in one pot three leaves were pinned open, and all were badly injured; of the free leaves, were injured, that is, per cent. in the other pot leaves were pinned open and all were killed; four other leaves were prevented from sleeping by narrow strips of stiff paper gummed across them, and all were killed; of free leaves, were killed, much injured, and unhurt; that is, per cent. of the free leaves were either killed or much injured. taking the two pots together, we may say that rather more than half of the free leaves, which were asleep, were either killed or injured, whilst all the ten horizontally extended leaves, which had been prevented from going to sleep, were either killed or much injured. cassia floribunda.--a bush was exposed at night for m. to a clear sky, the temperature on the surrounding grass being - o c., and not a leaf was injured.* it was again exposed on * cassia laevigata was exposed to a clear sky for m., and c. calliantha (a guiana species) for m., the temperature on the surrounding grass being - o c., and neither was in the least injured. but when c. laevigata was exposed for h., the temp. on the surrounding grass being between - o and - o c., every leaf was killed. [page ] another night for h., when the temperature of the grass was - o c.; and now all the leaves on a large bush, whether pinned flat open or free, were killed, blackened, and shrivelled, with the exception of those on one small branch, low down, which was very slightly protected by the leaves on the branches above. another tall bush, with four of its large compound leaves pinned out horizontally, was afterwards exposed (temp. of surrounding grass exactly the same, viz., - o c.), but only for m. on the following morning every single leaflet on these four leaves was dead, with both their upper and lower surfaces completely blackened. of the many free leaves on the bush, only seven were blackened, and of these only a single one (which was a younger and more tender leaf than any of the pinned ones) had both surfaces of the leaflets blackened. the contrast in this latter respect was well shown by a free leaf, which stood between two pinned-open ones; for these latter had the lower surfaces of their leaflets as black as ink, whilst the intermediate free leaf, though badly injured, still retained a plain tinge of green on the lower surface of the leaflets. this bush exhibited in a striking manner the evil effects of the leaves not being allowed to assume at night their normal dependent position; for had they all been prevented from doing so, assuredly every single leaf on the bush would have been utterly killed by this exposure of only m. the leaves whilst sinking downwards in the evening twist round, so that the upper surface is turned inwards, and is thus better protected than the outwardly turned lower surface. nevertheless, it was always the upper surface which was more blackened than the lower, whenever any difference could be perceived between them; but whether this was due to the cells near the upper surface being more tender, or merely to their containing more chlorophyll, we do not know. melilotus officinalis.--a large pot with many plants, which had been kept during the winter in the greenhouse, was exposed during h. at night to a slight frost and clear sky. four leaves had been pinned out, and these died after a few days; but so did many of the free leaves. therefore nothing certain could be inferred from this trial, though it indicated that the horizontally extended leaves suffered most. another large pot with many plants was next exposed for h., the temperature on the surrounding grass being lower, viz., - o to - o c. ten leaves had been pinned out, and the result was striking, for on the following morning all these were found much injured or [page ] killed, and none of the many free leaves on the several plants were at all injured, with the doubtful exception of two or three very young ones. melilotus italica.--six leaves were pinned out horizontally, three with their upper and three with their lower surfaces turned to the zenith. the plants were exposed for h. to a clear sky, the temperature on ground being about - o c. next morning the six pinned-open leaves seemed more injured even than the younger and more tender free ones on the same branches. the exposure, however, had been too long, for after an interval of some days many of the free leaves seemed in almost as bad a condition as the pinned-out ones. it was not possible to decide whether the leaves with their upper or those with their lower surfaces turned to the zenith had suffered most. melilotus suaveolens.--some plants with leaves pinned out were exposed to a clear sky during h., the temperature on the surrounding grass being - o c. next morning out of these leaves were in a flaccid condition. there were about free leaves on the plant, and none of these were injured, except or very young ones. but after two days, the plants having been brought back into the greenhouse, the pinned-out leaves all recovered. melilotus taurica.--several plants were exposed for h. during two nights to a clear sky and slight frost, accompanied by some wind; and leaves which had been pinned out suffered more than those both above and below on the same branches which had gone to sleep. another pot, which had likewise been kept in the greenhouse, was exposed for - m. to a clear sky, the temperature of the surrounding grass being between - o and - o c. nine leaves had been pinned out, and all of these were killed. on the same plants there were free leaves, which had been allowed to go to sleep, and of these about were killed, i.e. only per cent. melilotus petitpierreana.--the plants were exposed to a clear sky for - m.: temperature on surrounding grass - o to - o c. six leaves had been pinned out so as to stand about ½ inch above the cork, and four had been pinned close to it. these leaves were all killed, but the closely pinned ones suffered most, as of the which stood above the cork still retained small patches of a green colour. a considerable number, but not nearly all, of the free leaves, were killed or much injured, whereas all the pinned out ones were killed. [page ] melilotus macrorrhiza.--the plants were exposed in the same manner as in the last case. six leaves had been pinned out horizontally, and five of them were killed, that is, percent. we estimated that there were free leaves on the plants, and of these about were killed and badly injured, so that about per cent of the free leaves were killed or injured. lotus aristata.--six plants were exposed for nearly h. to a clear sky; temperature on surrounding grass - . o c. four leaves had been pinned out horizontally, and of these suffered more than those above or below on the same branches, which had been allowed to go to sleep. it is rather a remarkable fact that some plants of lotus jacoboeus, an inhabitant of so hot a country as the cape verde islands, were exposed one night to a clear sky, with the temperature of the surrounding grass - o c., and on a second night for m. with the temperature of the grass between - o and - o c., and not a single leaf, either the pinned-out or free ones, was in the least injured. marsilea quadrifoliata.--a large plant of this species--the only cryptogamic plant known to sleep--with some leaves pinned open, was exposed for h. m. to a clear sky, the temperature on the surrounding ground being - o c., and not a single leaf was injured. after an interval of some days the plant was again exposed for h. to a clear sky, with the temperature on the surrounding ground lower, viz., - o c. six leaves had been pinned out horizontally, and all of them were utterly killed. the plant had emitted long trailing stems, and these had been wrapped round with a blanket, so as to protect them from the frozen ground and from radiation; but a very large number of leaves were left freely exposed, which had gone to sleep, and of these only were killed. after another interval, the plant, with leaves pinned out, was again exposed for h., the temperature on the ground being again - o c. six of the leaves were killed, and one which did not at first appear injured afterwards became streaked with brown. the trailing branches, which rested on the frozen ground, had one-half or three-quarters of their leaves killed, but of the many other leaves on the plant, which alone could be fairly compared with the pinned-out ones, none appeared at first sight to have been killed, but on careful search were found in this state. after another interval, the plant with leaves pinned out, was exposed for - m. to a clear sky and to nearly the same, or perhaps a rather lower, temperature (for the thermometer by an accident had been left on a [page ] sun-dial close by), and of these leaves were killed. of the free leaves (those on the trailing branches not being considered), a good many were killed, but their number, compared with the uninjured ones, was small. finally, taking the three trials together, leaves, extended horizontally, were exposed to the zenith and to unobstructed radiation, and of these were killed and injured; whilst a relatively very small proportion of the leaves, which had been allowed to go to sleep with their leaflets vertically dependent, were killed or injured. the cotyledons of several plants were prepared for trial, but the weather was mild and we succeeded only in a single instance in having seedlings of the proper age on nights which were clear and cold. the cotyledons of seedlings of mimosa pudica were fastened open on cork and were thus exposed for h. m. to a clear sky, with the temperature on the surrounding ground at o f.; of these, were killed. two other seedlings, after their cotyledons had risen up and had closed together, were bent over and fastened so that they stood horizontally, with the lower surface of one cotyledon fully exposed to the zenith, and both were killed. therefore of the seedlings thus tried , or more than half, were killed. seven other seedlings with their cotyledons in their normal nocturnal position, viz., vertical and closed, were exposed at the same time, and of these only were killed.* hence it appears, as far as these few trials tell anything, that the vertical position at night of the cotyledons of mimosa pudica protects them to a certain degree from the evil effects of radiation and cold.] concluding remarks on the radiation from leaves at night.--we exposed on two occasions during the summer to a clear sky several pinned-open leaflets of trifolium pratense, which naturally rise at night, and of oxalis purpurea, which naturally sink at night (the plants growing out of doors), and looked at * we were surprised that young seedlings of so tropical a plant as mimosa pudica were able to resist, as well as they did, exposure for hr. m. to a clear sky, the temperature on the surrounding ground being o f. it may be added that seedlings of the indian 'cassia pubescens' were exposed for h. m. to a clear sky, with the temp. on the surrounding ground at - o c., and they were not in the least injured. [page ] them early on several successive mornings, after they had assumed their diurnal positions. the difference in the amount of dew on the pinned-open leaflets and on those which had gone to sleep was generally conspicuous; the latter being sometimes absolutely dry, whilst the leaflets which had been horizontal were coated with large beads of dew. this shows how much cooler the leaflets fully exposed to the zenith must have become, than those which stood almost vertically, either upwards or downwards, during the night. from the several cases above given, there can be no doubt that the position of the leaves at night affects their temperature through radiation to such a degree, that when exposed to a clear sky during a frost, it is a question of life and death. we may therefore admit as highly probable, seeing that their nocturnal position is so well adapted to lessen radiation, that the object gained by their often complicated sleep movements, is to lessen the degree to which they are chilled at night. it should be kept in mind that it is especially the upper surface which is thus protected, as it is never directed towards the zenith, and is often brought into close contact with the upper surface of an opposite leaf or leaflet. we failed to obtain sufficient evidence, whether the better protection of the upper surface has been gained from its being more easily injured than the lower surface, or from its injury being a greater evil to the plant. that there is some difference in constitution between the two surfaces is shown by the following cases. cassia floribunda was exposed to a clear sky on a sharp frosty night, and several leaflets which had assumed their nocturnal dependent position with their lower surfaces turned outwards so as to be [page ] exposed obliquely to the zenith, nevertheless had these lower surfaces less blackened than the upper surfaces which were turned inwards and were in close contact with those of the opposite leaflets. again, a pot full of plants of trifolium resupinatum, which had been kept in a warm room for three days, was turned out of doors (sept. st) on a clear and almost frosty night. next morning ten of the terminal leaflets were examined as opaque objects under the microscope. these leaflets, in going to sleep, either turn vertically upwards, or more commonly bend a little over the lateral leaflets, so that their lower surfaces are more exposed to the zenith than their upper surfaces. nevertheless, six of these ten leaflets were distinctly yellower on the upper than on the lower and more exposed surface. in the remaining four, the result was not so plain, but certainly whatever difference there was leaned to the side of the upper surface having suffered most. it has been stated that some of the leaflets experimented on were fastened close to the cork, and others at a height of from ½ to / of an inch above it; and that whenever, after exposure to a frost, any difference could be detected in their states, the closely pinned ones had suffered most. we attributed this difference to the air, not cooled by radiation, having been prevented from circulating freely beneath the closely pinned leaflets. that there was really a difference in the temperature of leaves treated in these two different methods, was plainly shown on one occasion; for after the exposure of a pot with plants of melilotus dentata for h. to a clear sky (the temperature on the surrounding grass being - o c.), it was manifest that more dew had congealed into hoar-frost on the closely pinned leaflets, than on those which stood horizontally [page ] a little above the cork. again, the tips of some few leaflets, which had been pinned close to the cork, projected a little beyond the edge, so that the air could circulate freely round them. this occurred with six leaflets of oxalis acetosella, and their tips certainly suffered rather less then the rest of the same leaflets; for on the following morning they were still slightly green. the same result followed, even still more clearly, in two cases with leaflets of melilotus officinalis which projected a little beyond the cork; and in two other cases some leaflets which were pinned close to the cork were injured, whilst other free leaflets on the same leaves, which had not space to rotate and assume their proper vertical position, were not at all injured. another analogous fact deserves notice: we observed on several occasions that a greater number of free leaves were injured on the branches which had been kept motionless by some of their leaves having been pinned to the corks, than on the other branches. this was conspicuously the case with those of melilotus petitpierreana, but the injured leaves in this instance were not actually counted. with arachis hypogaea, a young plant with stems bore free leaves, and of these were injured by the frost, all of which were on two stems, bearing four leaves pinned to the cork-supports. with oxalis carnosa, free leaves were injured, and every one of them belonged to a cluster of leaves, some of which had been pinned to the cork. we could account for these cases only by supposing that the branches which were quite free had been slightly waved about by the wind, and that their leaves had thus been a little warmed by the surrounding warmer air. if we hold our hands motionless before a hot fire, and then wave them about, we [page ] immediately feel relief; and this is evidently an analogous, though reversed, case. these several facts--in relation to leaves pinned close to or a little above the cork-supports--to their tips projecting beyond it-- and to the leaves on branches kept motionless--seem to us curious, as showing how a difference, apparently trifling, may determine the greater or less injury of the leaves. we may even infer as probable that the less or greater destruction during a frost of the leaves on a plant which does not sleep, may often depend on the greater or less degree of flexibility of their petioles and of the branches which bear them. nyctitropic or sleep movements of cotyledons. we now come to the descriptive part of our work, and will begin with cotyledons, passing on to leaves in the next chapter. we have met with only two brief notices of cotyledons sleeping. hofmeister,* after stating that the cotyledons of all the observed seedlings of the caryophylleae (alsineae and sileneae) bend upwards at night (but to what angle he does not state), remarks that those of stellaria media rise up so as to touch one another; they may therefore safely be said to sleep. secondly, according to ramey**, the cotyledons of mimosa pudica and of clianthus dampieri rise up almost vertically at night and approach each other closely. it has been shown in a previous chapter that the cotyledons of a large number of plants bend a little upwards at night, and we here have to meet the difficult question at what inclination may they be said to sleep? according to the view which we maintain, no movement deserves to be called * 'die lehre von der pflanzenzelle,' , p. . ** 'adansonia,' march th, . [page ] nyctitropic, unless it has been acquired for the sake of lessening radiation; but this could be discovered only by a long series of experiments, showing that the leaves of each species suffered from this cause, if prevented from sleeping. we must therefore take an arbitrary limit. if a cotyledon or leaf is inclined at o above or beneath the horizon, it exposes to the zenith about one-half of its area; consequently the intensity of its radiation will be lessened by about half, compared with what it would have been if the cotyledon or leaf had remained horizontal. this degree of diminution certainly would make a great difference to a plant having a tender constitution. we will therefore speak of a cotyledon and hereafter of a leaf as sleeping, only when it rises at night to an angle of about o, or to a still higher angle, above the horizon, or sinks beneath it to the same amount. not but that a lesser diminution of radiation may be advantageous to a plant, as in the case of datura stramonium, the cotyledons of which rose from o at noon to o at night above the horizon. the swedish turnip may profit by the area of its leaves being reduced at night by about per cent., as estimated by mr. a. s. wilson; though in this case the angle through which the leaves rose was not observed. on the other hand, when the angular rise of cotyledons or of leaves is small, such as less than o, the diminution of radiation is so slight that it probably is of no significance to the plant in relation to radiation. for instance, the cotyledons of geranium ibericum rose at night to o above the horizon, and this would lessen radiation by only per cent.: those of linum berendieri rose to o, and this would lessen radiation by per cent. there are, however, some other sources of doubt with [page ] respect to the sleep of cotyledons. in certain cases, the cotyledons whilst young diverge during the day to only a very moderate extent, so that a small rise at night, which we know occurs with the cotyledons of many plants, would necessarily cause them to assume a vertical or nearly vertical position at night; and in this case it would be rash to infer that the movement was effected for any special purpose. on this account we hesitated long whether we should introduce several cucurbitaceous plants into the following list; but from reasons, presently to be given, we thought that they had better be at least temporarily included. this same source of doubt applies in some few other cases; for at the commencement of our observations we did not always attend sufficiently to whether the cotyledons stood nearly horizontally in the middle of the day. with several seedlings, the cotyledons assume a highly inclined position at night during so short a period of their life, that a doubt naturally arises whether this can be of any service to the plant. nevertheless, in most of the cases given in the following list, the cotyledons may be as certainly said to sleep as may the leaves of any plant. in two cases, namely with the cabbage and radish, the cotyledons of which rise almost vertically during the few first nights of their life, it was ascertained by placing young seedlings in the klinostat, that the upward movement was not due to apogeotropism. the names of the plants, the cotyledons of which stand at night at an angle of at least o with the horizon, are arranged in the appended list on the same system as previously followed. the numbers of the families, and with the leguminosae the numbers of the tribes, have been added to show how widely the plants in question are distributed throughout the [page ] dicotyledonous series. a few remarks will have to be made about many of the plants in the list. in doing so, it will be convenient not to follow strictly any systematic order, but to treat of the oxalidae and the leguminosae at the close; for in these two families the cotyledons are generally provided with a pulvinus, and their movements endure for a much longer time than those of the other plants in the list. list of seedling plants, the cotyledons of which rise or sink at night to an angle of at least o above or beneath the horizon. brassica oleracea. cruciferae (fam. ). -- napus (as we are informed by prof. pfeffer). raphanus sativus. cruciferae. githago segetum. caryophylleae (fam. ). stellaria media (according to hofmeister, as quoted). caryophylleae. anoda wrightii. malvaceae (fam. ). gossypium (var. nankin cotton). malvaceae. oxalis rosea. oxalidae (fam. ). -- floribunda. -- articulata. -- valdiviana. -- sensitiva. geranium rotundifolium. geraniaceae (fam. ). trifolium subterraneum. leguminosae (fam. , tribe ). -- strictum. -- leucanthemum. lotus ornithopopoides. leguminosae (tribe ). -- peregrinus. -- jacobaeus. clianthus dampieri. leguminosae (tribe )--according to m. ramey. smithia sensitiva. leguminosae (tribe ). haematoxylon campechianum. leguminosae (tribe )--according to mr. r. i. lynch. cassia mimosoides. leguminosae (tribe ). -- glauca. -- florida. -- corymbosa. -- pubescens. -- tora. -- neglecta. -- other brazilian unnamed species. bauhinia (sp.?. leguminosae (tribe ). neptunia oleracea. leguminosae (tribe ). mimosa pudica. leguminosae (tribe ). -- albida. cucurbita ovifera. cucurbitaceae (fam. ). -- aurantia. lagenaria vulgaris. cucurbitaceae. cucumis dudaim. cucurbitaceae. apium petroselinum. umbelliferae (fam. ). -- graveolens. lactuca scariola. compositae (fam. ). helianthus annuus (?). compositae. ipomoea caerulea. convolvulaceae (fam. ). -- purpurea. -- bona-nox. -- coccinea. [page ] list of seedling plants (continued). solanum lycopersicum. solaneae (fam. .) mimulus, (sp. ?) scrophularineae (fam. )--from information given us by prof. pfeffer. mirabilis jalapa. nyctagineae (fam. ). mirabilis longiflora. beta vulgaris. polygoneae (fam. ). amaranthus caudatus. amaranthaceae (fam. ). cannabis sativa (?). cannabineae (fam. ). brassica oleracea (cruciferae).--it was shown in the first chapter that the cotyledons of the common cabbage rise in the evening and stand vertically up at night with their petioles in contact. but as the two cotyledons are of unequal height, they frequently interfere a little with each other's movements, the shorter one often not standing quite vertically. they awake early in the morning; thus at . a.m. on nov. th, whilst if was still dark, the cotyledons, which had been vertical and in contact on the previous evening, were reflexed, and thus presented a very different appearance. it should be borne in mind that seedlings in germinating at the proper season, would not be subjected to darkness at this hour in the morning. the above amount of movement of the cotyledons is only temporary, lasting with plants kept in a warm greenhouse from four to six days; how long it would last with seedlings growing out of doors we do not know. raphanus sativus.--in the middle of the day the blades of the cotyledons of seedlings stood at right angles to their hypocotyls, with their petioles a little divergent; at night the blades stood vertically, with their bases in contact and with their petioles parallel. next morning, at . a.m., whilst it was still dark, the blades were horizontal. on the following night they were much raised, but hardly stood sufficiently vertical to be said to be asleep, and so it was in a still less degree on the third night. therefore the cotyledons of this plant (kept in the greenhouse) go to sleep for even a shorter time than those of the cabbage. similar observations were made, but only during a single day and night, on other seedlings likewise raised in the greenhouse, with the same result. the petioles of the cotyledons of young seedlings of sinapis nigra were slightly divergent at noon, and the blades stood at right angles to the hypocotyls; at night the petioles were in close contact, and the blades considerably raised, with their bases in contact, but only a few stood sufficiently upright to be called asleep. on the following morning, [page ] the petioles diverged before it was light. the hypocotyl is slightly sensitive, so that if rubbed with a needle it bends towards the rubbed side. in the case of lepidium sativum, the petioles of the cotyledons of young seedlings diverge during the day and converge so as to touch each other during the night, by which means the bases of the tripartite blades are brought into contact; but the blades are so little raised that they cannot be said to sleep. the cotyledons of several other cruciferous plants were observed, but they did not rise sufficiently during the night to be said to sleep. githago segetum (caryophylleae).--on the first day after the cotyledons had burst through the seed-coats, they stood at noon at an angle of o above the horizon; at night they moved upwards, each through an angle of o so as to stand quite vertical and in contact with one another. on the second day they stood at noon at o above the horizon, and again at night were completely closed, each having risen o. on the fourth day the cotyledons did not quite close at night. the first and succeeding pairs of young true leaves behaved in exactly the same manner. we think that the movement in this case may be called nyctitropic, though the angle passed through was small. the cotyledons are very sensitive to light and will not expand if exposed to an extremely dim one. anoda wrightii (malvaceae).--the cotyledons whilst moderately young, and only from . to . inch in diameter, sink in the evening from their mid-day horizontal position to about o beneath the horizon. but when the same seedlings were older and had produced small true leaves, the almost orbicular cotyledons, now . inch in diameter, moved vertically downwards at night. this fact made us suspect that their sinking might be due merely to their weight; but they were not in the least flaccid, and when lifted up sprang back through elasticity into their former dependent position. a pot with some old seedlings was turned upside down in the afternoon, before the nocturnal fall had commenced, and at night they assumed in opposition to their own weight (and to any geotropic action) an upwardly directed vertical position. when pots were thus reversed, after the evening fall had already commenced, the sinking movement appeared to be somewhat disturbed; but all their movements were occasionally variable without any apparent cause. this latter fact, as well as that of the young cotyledons not sinking nearly so much as the older ones, deserves notice. [page ] although the movement of the cotyledons endured for a long time, no pulvinus was exteriorly visible; but their growth continued for a long time. the cotyledons appear to be only slightly heliotropic, though the hypocotyl is strongly so. gossypium arboreum (?) (var. nankin cotton) (malvaceae).--the cotyledons behave in nearly the same manner as those of the anoda. on june th the cotyledons of two seedlings were . inch in length (measured along the midrib) and stood horizontally at noon; at p.m. they occupied the same position and had not fallen at all. on june rd, the cotyledons of one of these seedlings were . inch in length, and by p.m. they had fallen from a horizontal position to o beneath the horizon. the cotyledons of the other seedling were . inch in length, and a minute true leaf had been formed; they had fallen at p.m. to o beneath the horizon. on june th, the true leaf of this latter seedling was . inch in length, and the cotyledons occupied nearly the same position at night. by july th the cotyledons appeared very old and showed signs of withering; but they stood at noon almost horizontally, and at p.m. hung down vertically. gossypium herbaceum.--it is remarkable that the cotyledons of this species behave differently from those of the last. they were observed during weeks from their first development until they had grown to a very large size (still appearing fresh and green), viz. ½ inches in breadth. at this age a true leaf had been formed, which with its petiole was inches long. during the whole of these weeks the cotyledons did not sink at night; yet when old their weight was considerable and they were borne by much elongated petioles. seedlings raised from some seed sent us from naples, behaved in the same manner; as did those of a kind cultivated in alabama and of the sea-island cotton. to what species these three latter forms belong we do not know. we could not make out in the case of the naples cotton, that the position of the cotyledons at night was influenced by the soil being more or less dry; care being taken that they were not rendered flaccid by being too dry. the weight of the large cotyledons of the alabama and sea-island kinds caused them to hang somewhat downwards, when the pots in which they grew were left for a time upside down. it should, however, be observed that these three kinds were raised in the middle of the winter, which sometimes greatly interferes with the proper nyctitropic movements of leaves and cotyledons. [page ] cucurbitaceae.--the cotyledons of cucurbita aurantia and ovifera, and of lagenaria vulgaris, stand from the st to the rd day of their life at about o above the horizon, and at night rise up so as to become vertical and in close contact with one another. with cucumis dudaim they stood at noon at o above the horizon, and closed at night. the tips of the cotyledons of all these species are, however, reflexed, so that this part is fully exposed to the zenith at night; and this fact is opposed to the belief that the movement is of the same nature as that of sleeping plants. after the first two or three days the cotyledons diverge more during the day and cease to close at night. those of trichosanthes anguina are somewhat thick and fleshy, and did not rise at night; and they could perhaps hardly be expected to do so. on the other hand, those of acanthosicyos horrida* present nothing in their appearance opposed to their moving at night in the same manner as the preceding species; yet they did not rise up in any plain manner. this fact leads to the belief that the nocturnal movements of the above-named species has been acquired for some special purpose, which may be to protect the young plumule from radiation, by the close contact of the whole basal portion of the two cotyledons. geranium rotundifolium (geraniaceae).--a single seedling came up accidentally in a pot, and its cotyledons were observed to bend perpendicularly downwards during several successive nights, having been horizontal at noon. it grew into a fine plant but died before flowering: it was sent to kew and pronounced to be certainly a geranium, and in all probability the above-named species. this case is remarkable because the cotyledons of g. cinereum, endressii, ibericum, richardsoni, and subcaulescens were observed during some weeks in the winter, and they did not sink, whilst those of g. ibericum rose o at night. apium petroselinum (umbelliferae).--a seedling had its cotyledons (nov. nd) almost fully expanded during the day; by . p.m. they had risen considerably, and at . p.m. were almost closed, their tips being only / of an inch apart. on the following morning ( rd) the tips were / of an inch apart, * this plant, from dammara land in s. africa, is remarkable from being the one known member of the family which is not a climber; it has been described in 'transact. linn. soc.,' xxvii. p. . [page ] or more than seven times as much. on the next night the cotyledons occupied nearly the same position as before. on the morning of the th they stood horizontally, and at night were o above the horizon; and so it was on the night of the th. but four days afterwards (on the th), when the seedlings were a week old, the cotyledons had ceased to rise at night to any plain degree. apium graveolens.--the cotyledons at noon were horizontal, and at p.m. stood at an angle of o above the horizon. lactuca scariola (compositae).--the cotyledons whilst young stood sub-horizontally during the day, and at night rose so as to be almost vertical, and some were quite vertical and closed; but this movement ceased when they had grown old and large, after an interval of days. helianthus annuus (compositae).--this case is rather doubtful; the cotyledons rise at night, and on one occasion they stood at o above the horizon, so that they might then be said to have been asleep. ipomoea caerulea vel pharbitis nil (convolvulaceae).--the cotyledons behave in nearly the same manner as those of the anoda and nankin cotton, and like them grow to a large size. whilst young and small, so that their blades were from . to . of an inch in length, measured along the middle to the base of the central notch, they remained horizontal both during the middle of the day and at night. as they increased in size they began to sink more and more in the evening and early night; and when they had grown to a length (measured in the above manner) of from to . inch, they sank between o and o beneath the horizon. they acted, however, in this manner only when they had been well illuminated during the day. nevertheless, the cotyledons have little or no power of bending towards a lateral light, although the hypocotyl is strongly heliotropic. they are not provided with a pulvinus, but continue to grow for a long time. ipomoea purpurea (vel pharbitis hispida).--the cotyledons behave in all respects like those of i. caerulea. a seedling with cotyledons . inch in length (measured as before) and . inch in breadth, having a small true leaf developed, was placed at . p.m. on a klinostat in a darkened box, so that neither weight nor geotropism could act on them. at p.m. one cotyledon stood at o and the other at o beneath the horizon. before being placed in the klinostat they stood at o and o [page ] beneath the horizon. the nocturnal position depends chiefly on the curvature of the petiole close to the blade, but the whole petiole becomes slightly curved downwards. it deserves notice that seedlings of this and the last-named species were raised at the end of february and another lot in the middle of march, and the cotyledons in neither case exhibited any nyctitropic movement. ipomoea bona-nox.--the cotyledons after a few days grow to an enormous size, those on a young seedling being / inches in breadth. they were extended horizontally at noon, and at p.m. stood at o beneath the horizon. five days afterwards they were ½ inches in breadth, and at night one stood at o and the other o beneath the horizon. though the blades are thin, yet from their great size and from the petioles being long, we imagined that their depression at night might be determined by their weight; but when the pot was laid horizontally, they became curved towards the hypocotyl, which movement could not have been in the least aided by their weight, at the same time they were somewhat twisted upwards through apogeotropism. nevertheless, the weight of the cotyledons is so far influential, that when on another night the pot was turned upside down, they were unable to rise and thus to assume their proper nocturnal position. ipomoea coccinea.--the cotyledons whilst young do not sink at night, but when grown a little older, but still only . inch in length (measured as before) and . in breadth, they became greatly depressed. in one case they were horizontal at noon, and at p.m. one of them stood at o and the other at o beneath the horizon. the blades are thin, and the petioles, which become much curved down at night, are short, so that here weight can hardly have produced any effect. with all the above species of ipomoea, when the two cotyledons on the same seedling were unequally depressed at night, this seemed to depend on the position which they had held during the day with reference to the light. solanum lycopersicum (solaneae).--the cotyledons rise so much at night as to come nearly in contact. those of 's. palinacanthum' were horizontal at noon, and by p.m. had risen only o minutes; but on the following morning before it was light they stood at o above the horizon, and in the afternoon of the same day were again horizontal. the behaviour of the cotyledons of this latter species seems, therefore, to be anomalous. [page ] mirabilis jalapa and longiflora (nyctagineae).--the cotyledons, which are of unequal size, stand horizontally during the middle of the day, and at night rise up vertically and come into close contact with one another. but this movement with m. longiflora lasted for only the three first nights. beta vulgaris (polygoneae).--a large number of seedlings were observed on three occasions. during the day the cotyledons sometimes stood sub-horizontally, but more commonly at an angle of about o above the horizon, and for the first two or three nights they rose up vertically so as to be completely closed. during the succeeding one or two nights they rose only a little, and afterwards hardly at all. amaranthus caudatus (amaranthaceae).--at noon the cotyledons of many seedlings, which had just germinated, stood at about o above the horizon, and at . p.m. some were nearly and the others quite closed. on the following morning they were again well expanded or open. cannabis sativa (cannabineae).--we are very doubtful whether this plant ought to be here included. the cotyledons of a large number of seedlings, after being well illuminated during the day, were curved downwards at night, so that the tips of some pointed directly to the ground, but the basal part did not appear to be at all depressed. on the following morning they were again flat and horizontal. the cotyledons of many other seedlings were at the same time not in any way affected. therefore this case seems very different from that of ordinary sleep, and probably comes under the head of epinasty, as is the case with the leaves of this plant according to kraus. the cotyledons are heliotropic, and so is the hypocotyl in a still stronger degree. oxalis.--we now come to cotyledons provided with a pulvinus, all of which are remarkable from the continuance of the nocturnal movements during several days or even weeks, and apparently after growth has ceased. the cotyledons of o. rosea, floribunda and articulata sink vertically down at night and clasp the upper part of the hypocotyl. those of o. valdiviana and sensitiva, on the contrary, rise vertically up, so that their upper surfaces come into close contact; and after the young leaves are developed these are clasped by the cotyledons. as in the daytime they stand horizontally, or are even a little deflected beneath the horizon, they move in the evening through an angle of at least o. their complicated circumnutating movements during the day have [page ] been described in the first chapter. the experiment was a superfluous one, but pots with seedlings of o. rosea and floribunda were turned upside down, as soon as the cotyledons began to show any signs of sleep, and this made no difference in their movements. leguminosae.--it may be seen in our list that the cotyledons of several species in nine genera, widely distributed throughout the family, sleep at night; and this probably is the case with many others. the cotyledons of all these species are provided with a pulvinus; and the movement in all is continued during many days or weeks. in cassia the cotyledons of the ten species in the list rise up vertically at night and come into close contact with one another. we observed that those of c. florida opened in the morning rather later than those of c. glauca and pubescens. the movement is exactly the same in c. mimosoides as in the other species, though its subsequently developed leaves sleep in a different manner. the cotyledons of an eleventh species, namely, c. nodosa, are thick and fleshy, and do not rise up at night. the circumnutation of the cotyledons during the day of c. tora has been described in the first chapter. although the cotyledons of smithia sensitiva rose from a horizontal position in the middle of the day to a vertical one at night, those of s. pfundii, which are thick and fleshy, did not sleep. when mimosa pudica and albida have been kept at a sufficiently high temperature during the day, the cotyledons come into close contact at night; otherwise they merely rise up almost vertically. the circumnutation of those of m. pudica has been described. the cotyledons of a bauhinia from st. catharina in brazil stood during the day at an angle of about o above the horizon, and at night rose to o; but it is probable that they would have closed completely, if the seedlings had been kept in a warmer place. lotus.--in three species of lotus the cotyledons were observed to sleep. those of l. jacoboeus present the singular case of not rising at night in any conspicuous manner for the first or days of their life, and the pulvinus is not well developed at this period. afterwards the sleeping movement is well displayed, though to a variable degree, and is long continued. we shall hereafter meet with a nearly parallel case with the leaves of sida rhombifolia. the cotyledons of l. gebelii are only slightly raised at night, and differ much in this respect from the three species in our list. [page ] trifolium.--the germination of species was observed. in most of them the cotyledons rise hardly at all, or only slightly, at night; but those of t. glomeratum, striatum and incarnactum rose from o to o above the horizon. with t. subterraneum, leucanthemum and strictum, they stood up vertically; and with t. strictum the rising movement is accompanied, as we shall see, by another movement, which makes us believe that the rising is truly nyctitropic. we did not carefully examine the cotyledons of all the species for a pulvinus, but this organ was distinctly present in those of t. subterraneum and strictum; whilst there was no trace of a pulvinus in some species, for instance, in t. resupinatum, the cotyledons of which do not rise at night. trifolium subterraneum.--the blades of the cotyledons on the first day after germination (nov. st) were not fully expanded, being inclined at about o above the horizon; at night they rose to about o. two days afterwards the blades at noon were horizontal, with the petioles highly inclined upwards; and it is remarkable that the nocturnal movement is almost wholly confined to the blades, being effected by the pulvinus at their bases; whilst the petioles retain day and night nearly the same inclination. on this night (nov. rd), and for some few succeeding nights, the blades rose from a horizontal into a vertical position, and then became bowed inwards at about an average angle of o; so that they had passed through an angle of o. their tips now almost touched one another, their bases being slightly divergent. the two blades thus formed a highly inclined roof over the axis of the seedling. this movement is the same as that of the terminal leaflet of the tripartite leaves of many species of trifolium. after an interval of days (nov. th) the blades were horizontal during the day, and vertical at night, and now they were no longer bowed inwards. they continued to move in the same manner for the following two months, by which time they had increased greatly in size, their petioles being no less than . of an inch in length, and two true leaves had by this time been developed. trifolium strictum.--on the first day after germination the cotyledons, which are provided with a pulvinus, stood at noon horizontally, and at night rose to only about o above the horizon. four days afterwards the seedlings were again observed at night, and now the blades stood vertically and were in contact, excepting the tips, which were much deflexed, so that they faced the zenith. at this age the petioles are curved [page ] upwards, and at night, when the bases of the blades are in contact, the two petioles together form a vertical ring surrounding the plumule. the cotyledons continued to act in nearly the same manner for or days from the period of germination; but the petioles had by this time become straight and had increased much in length. after from to days the first simple true leaf was formed, and during the ensuing fortnight a remarkable movement was repeatedly observed. at i. (fig. ) we have a sketch, made in the middle of the day, of a seedling about a fortnight old. the two cotyledons, of which rc is the right and lc the left one, stand directly opposite one another, fig. . trifolium strictum: diurnal and nocturnal positions of the two cotyledons and of the first leaf. i. seedling viewed obliquely from above, during the day: rc, right cotyledon; lc, left cotyledon; f, first true leaf. ii. a rather younger seedling, viewed at night: rc, right cotyledon raised, but its position not otherwise changed; lc, left cotyledon raised and laterally twisted; f, first leaf raised and twisted so as to face the left twisted cotyledon. iii. same seedling viewed at night from the opposite side. the back of the first leaf, f, is here shown instead of the front, as in ii. and the first true leaf (f) projects at right angles to them. at night (see ii. and iii.) the right cotyledon (rc) is greatly raised, but is not otherwise changed in position. the left cotyledon (lc) is likewise raised, but it is also twisted so that its blade, instead of exactly facing the opposite one, now stands at nearly right angles to it. this nocturnal twisting movement is effected not by means of the pulvinus, but by the twisting of the whole length of the petiole, as could be seen by the curved line of its upper concave surface. at the same time the true leaf (f) rises up, so as to stand vertically, or it even passes the vertical and is inclined a little inwards. it also twists a little, by which means the upper surface of its blade fronts, and almost comes into contact with, the upper surface of the twisted [page ] left cotyledon. this seems to be the object gained by these singular movements. altogether seedlings were examined on successive nights, and in of them it was the left cotyledon alone which became twisted, with the true leaf always so twisted that its upper surface approached closely and fronted that of the left cotyledon. in only one instance was the right cotyledon twisted, with the true leaf twisted towards it; but this seedling was in an abnormal condition, as the left cotyledon did not rise up properly at night. this whole case is remarkable, as with the cotyledons of no other plant have we seen any nocturnal movement except vertically upwards or downwards. it is the more remarkable, because we shall meet with an analogous case in the leaves of the allied genus melilotus, in which the terminal leaflet rotates at night so as to present one edge to the zenith and at the same time bends to one side, so that its upper surface comes into contact with that of one of the two now vertical lateral leaflets.] concluding remarks on the nyctitropic movements of cotyledons.--the sleep of cotyledons (though this is a subject which has been little attended to), seems to be a more common phenomenon than that of leaves. we observed the position of the cotyledons during the day and night in genera, widely distributed throughout the dicotyledonous series, but otherwise selected almost by hazard; and one or more species in of these genera placed their cotyledons at night so as to stand vertically or almost vertically, having generally moved through an angle of at least o. if we lay on one side the leguminosae, the cotyledons of which are particularly liable to sleep, genera remain; and out of these, the cotyledons of at least one species in genera slept. now if we were to select by hazard genera, excluding the leguminosae, and observed their leaves at night, assuredly not nearly so many as would be found to include sleeping species. we here refer exclusively to the plants observed by ourselves. [page ] in our entire list of seedlings, there are genera, belonging to families, the cotyledons of which in some of the species rise or sink in the evening or early night, so as to stand at least o above or beneath the horizon. in a large majority of the genera, namely, , the movement is a rising one; so that the same direction prevails in these nyctitropic movements as in the lesser periodic ones described in the second chapter. the cotyledons move downwards during the early part of the night in only of the genera; and in one of them, cannabis, the curving down of the tip is probably due to epinasty, as kraus believes to be the case with the leaves. the downward movement to the amount of o is very decided in oxalis valdiviana and sensitiva, and in geranium rotundifolium. it is a remarkable fact that with anoda wrightii, one species of gossypium and at least species of ipomoea, the cotyledons whilst young and light sink at night very little or not at all; although this movement becomes well pronounced as soon as they have grown large and heavy. although the downward movement cannot be attributed to the weight of the cotyledons in the several cases which were investigated, namely, in those of the anoda, ipomoea purpurea and bona-nox, nor in that of i. coccinea, yet bearing in mind that cotyledons are continually circumnutating, a slight cause might at first have determined whether the great nocturnal movement should be upwards or downwards. we may therefore suspect that in some aboriginal member of the groups in question, the weight of the cotyledons first determined the downward direction. the fact of the cotyledons of these species not sinking down much whilst they are young and tender, seems opposed to the belief that the greater movement when they are [page ] grown older, has been acquired for the sake of protecting them from radiation at night; but then we should remember that there are many plants, the leaves of which sleep, whilst the cotyledons do not; and if in some cases the leaves are protected from cold at night whilst the cotyledons are not protected, so in other cases it may be of more importance to the species that the nearly full-grown cotyledons should be better protected than the young ones. in all the species of oxalis observed by us, the cotyledons are provided with pulvini; but this organ has become more or less rudimentary in o. corniculata, and the amount of upward movement of its cotyledons at night is very variable, but is never enough to be called sleep. we omitted to ascertain whether the cotyledons of geranium rotundifolium possess pulvini. in the leguminosae all the cotyledons which sleep, as far as we have seen, are provided with pulvini. but with lotus jacobaeus, these are not fully developed during the first few days of the life of the seedling, and the cotyledons do not then rise much at night. with trifolium strictum the blades of the cotyledons rise at night by the aid of their pulvini; whilst the petiole of one cotyledon twists half-round at the same time, independently of its pulvinus. as a general rule, cotyledons which are provided with pulvini continue to rise or sink at night during a much longer period than those destitute of this organ. in this latter case the movement no doubt depends on alternately greater growth on the upper and lower side of the petiole, or of the blade, or of both, preceded probably by the increased turgescence of the growing cells. such movements generally last for a very short period-- for instance, with brassica and githago for or nights, with beta for or , and with [page ] raphanus for only a single night. there are, however, some strong exceptions to this rule, as the cotyledons of gossypium, anoda and ipomoea do not possess pulvini, yet continue to move and to grow for a long time. we thought at first that when the movement lasted for only or nights, it could hardly be of any service to the plant, and hardly deserved to be called sleep; but as many quickly-growing leaves sleep for only a few nights, and as cotyledons are rapidly developed and soon complete their growth, this doubt now seems to us not well-founded, more especially as these movements are in many instances so strongly pronounced. we may here mention another point of similarity between sleeping leaves and cotyledons, namely, that some of the latter (for instance, those of cassia and githago) are easily affected by the absence of light; and they then either close, or if closed do not open; whereas others (as with the cotyledons of oxalis) are very little affected by light. in the next chapter it will be shown that the nyctitropic movements both of cotyledons and leaves consist of a modified form of circumnutation. as in the leguminosae and oxalidae, the leaves and the cotyledons of the same species generally sleep, the idea at first naturally occurred to us, that the sleep of the cotyledons was merely an early development of a habit proper to a more advanced stage of life. but no such explanation can be admitted, although there seems to be some connection, as might have been expected, between the two sets of cases. for the leaves of many plants sleep, whilst their cotyledons do not do so--of which fact desmodium gyrans offers a good instance, as likewise do three species of nicotiana observed by us; also sida rhombifolia, abutilon darwinii, and chenopodium album. on the other [page ] hand, the cotyledons of some plants sleep and not the leaves, as with the species of beta, brassica, geranium, apium, solanum, and mirabilis, named in our list. still more striking is the fact that, in the same genus, the leaves of several or of all the species may sleep, but the cotyledons of only some of them, as occurs with trifolium, lotus, gossypium, and partially with oxalis. again, when both the cotyledons and the leaves of the same plant sleep, their movements may be of a widely dissimilar nature: thus with cassia the cotyledons rise vertically up at night, whilst their leaves sink down and twist round so as to turn their lower surfaces outwards. with seedlings of oxalis valdiviana, having or well-developed leaves, it was a curious spectacle to behold at night each leaflet folded inwards and hanging perpendicularly downwards, whilst at the same time and on the same plant the cotyledons stood vertically upwards. these several facts, showing the independence of the nocturnal movements of the leaves and cotyledons on the same plant, and on plants belonging to the same genus, lead to the belief that the cotyledons have acquired their power of movement for some special purpose. other facts lead to the same conclusion, such as the presence of pulvini, by the aid of which the nocturnal movement is continued during some weeks. in oxalis the cotyledons of some species move vertically upwards, and of others vertically downwards at night; but this great difference within the same natural genus is not so surprising as it may at first appear, seeing that the cotyledons of all the species are continually oscillating up and down during the day, so that a small cause might determine whether they should rise or sink at night. again, the peculiar nocturnal movement of the left-hand coty- [page ] ledon of trifolium strictum, in combination with that of the first true leaf. lastly, the wide distribution in the dicotyledonous series of plants with cotyledons which sleep. reflecting on these several facts, our conclusion seems justified, that the nyctitropic movements of cotyledons, by which the blade is made to stand either vertically or almost vertically upwards or downwards at night, has been acquired, at least in most cases, for some special purpose; nor can we doubt that this purpose is the protection of the upper surface of the blade, and perhaps of the central bud or plumule, from radiation at night. [page ] chapter vii. modified circumnutation: nyctitropic or sleep movements of leaves. conditions necessary for these movements--list of genera and families, which include sleeping plants--description of the movements in the several genera--oxalis: leaflets folded at night--averrhoa: rapid movements of the leaflets--porlieria: leaflets close when plant kept very dry--tropaeolum: leaves do not sleep unless well illuminated during day--lupinus: various modes of sleeping--melilotus: singular movements of terminal leaflet-- trifolium--desmodium: rudimentary lateral leaflets, movements of, not developed on young plants, state of their pulvini--cassia: complex movements of the leaflets--bauhinia: leaves folded at night--mimosa pudica: compounded movements of leaves, effect of darkness--mimosa albida, reduced leaflets of--schrankia: downward movement of the pinnae--marsilea: the only cryptogam known to sleep--concluding remarks and summary--nyctitropism consists of modified circumnutation, regulated by the alternations of light and darkness--shape of first true leaves. we now come to the nyctitropic or sleep movements of leaves. it should be remembered that we confine this term to leaves which place their blades at night either in a vertical position or not more than o from the vertical,--that is, at least o above or beneath the horizon. in some few cases this is effected by the rotation of the blade, the petiole not being either raised or lowered to any considerable extent. the limit of o from the vertical is obviously an arbitrary one, and has been selected for reasons previously assigned, namely, that when the blade approaches the perpendicular as nearly as this, only half as much of the surface is exposed at night to the [page ] zenith and to free radiation as when the blade is horizontal. nevertheless, in a few instances, leaves which seem to be prevented by their structure from moving to so great an extent as o above or beneath the horizon, have been included amongst sleeping plants. it should be premised that the nyctitropic movements of leaves are easily affected by the conditions to which the plants have been subjected. if the ground is kept too dry, the movements are much delayed or fail: according to dassen,* even if the air is very dry the leaves of impatiens and malva are rendered motionless. carl kraus has also lately insisted** on the great influence which the quantity of water absorbed has on the periodic movements of leaves; and he believes that this cause chiefly determines the variable amount of sinking of the leaves of polygonum convolvulus at night; and if so, their movements are not in our sense strictly nyctitropic. plants in order to sleep must have been exposed to a proper temperature: erythrina crista-galli, out of doors and nailed against a wall, seemed in fairly good health, but the leaflets did not sleep, whilst those on another plant kept in a warm greenhouse were all vertically dependent at night. in a kitchen-garden the leaflets of phaseolus vulgaris did not sleep during the early part of the summer. ch. royer says,*** referring i suppose to the native plants in france, that they do not sleep when the temperature is below o c. or o f. in the case of several sleeping plants, viz., species of * dassen,'tijdschrift vor. naturlijke gesch. en physiologie,' , vol. iv. p. . see also ch. royer on the importance of a proper state of turgescence of the cells, in 'annal. des sc. nat. bot.' ( th series), ix. , p. . ** 'beiträge zur kentniss der bewegungen,' etc., in 'flora,' , pp. , , , etc. *** 'annal. des sc. nat. bot.' ( th series), ix. , p. . [page ] tropaeolum, lupinus, ipomoea, abutilon, siegesbeckia, and probably other genera, it is indispensable that the leaves should be well illuminated during the day in order that they may assume at night a vertical position; and it was probably owing to this cause that seedlings of chenopodium album and siegesbeckia orientalis, raised by us during the middle of the winter, though kept at a proper temperature, did not sleep. lastly, violent agitation by a strong wind, during a few minutes, of the leaves of maranta arundinacea (which previously had not been disturbed in the hot-house), prevented their sleeping during the two next nights. we will now give our observations on sleeping plants, made in the manner described in the introduction. the stem of the plant was always secured (when not stated to the contrary) close to the base of the leaf, the movements of which were being observed, so as to prevent the stem from circumnutating. as the tracings were made on a vertical glass in front of the plant, it was obviously impossible to trace its course as soon as the leaf became in the evening greatly inclined either upwards or downwards; it must therefore be understood that the broken lines in the diagrams, which represent the evening and nocturnal courses, ought always to be prolonged to a much greater distance, either upwards or downwards, than appears in them. the conclusions which may be deduced from our observations will be given near the end of this chapter. in the following list all the genera which include sleeping plants are given, as far as known to us. the same arrangement is followed as in former cases, and the number of the family is appended. this list possesses some interest, as it shows that the habit of [page ] sleeping is common to some few plants throughout the whole vascular series. the greater number of the genera in the list have been observed by ourselves with more or less care; but several are given on the authority of others (whose names are appended in the list), and about these we have nothing more to say. no doubt the list is very imperfect, and several genera might have been added from the 'somnus plantarum' by linnaeus; but we could not judge in some of his cases, whether the blades occupied at night a nearly vertical position. he refers to some plants as sleeping, for instance, lathyrus odoratus and vicia faba, in which we could observe no movement deserving to be called sleep, and as no one can doubt the accuracy of linnaeus, we are left in doubt. [list of genera, including species the leaves of which sleep. class i. dicotyledons. sub-class i. angiosperms. genus family. githago caryophylleae ( ). stellaria (batalin). " portulaca (ch.royer). portulaceae ( ). sida malvaceae ( ). abutilon. " malva (linnaeus and pfeffer). " hibiscus (linnaeus). " anoda. " gossypium. " ayenia (linnaeus). sterculaceae ( ). triumfetta (linnaeus). tiliaceae ( ). linum (batalin). lineae ( ). oxalis. oxalidae ( ). averrhoa. " porlieria. zygophylleae ( ). guiacum. " impatiens (linnaeus, pfeffer, batalin). balsamineae ( ). tropaeolum. tropaeoleae ( ). crotolaria (thiselton dyer). leguminosae ( ) tribe ii. lupinus. " " cytisus. " " trigonella. " tr. iii. medicago. " melilotus. " " trifolium. " " securigera. " tr. iv. lotus. " " psoralea. " tr. v. amorpha (cuchartre). " " daelea. " " indigofera. " " tephrosia. " " wistaria. " " robinia. " " sphaerophysa. " " colutea. " " astragalus. " " glycyrrhiza. " " coronilla. " tr. vi. hedysarum. " " [page ] list of genera (continued). class i. dicotyledons. sub-class i. angiosperms. genus family. onobrychis. leguminosae ( ) tr. vi. smithia. " " arachis. " " desmodium. " " urania. " " vicia. " tr. vii. centrosema. " tr. viii. amphicarpaea. " " glycine. " " erythrina. " " apios. " " phaseolus. " " sophora. " tr. x. caesalpinia. " tr. xiii. haematoxylon. " " gleditschia (duchartre). " " poinciana. " " cassia. " tr. xiv. bauhinia. " tr. xv. tamarindus. " tr. xvi. adenanthera. " tr. xx. prosopis. " " neptunia. " " mimosa. " " schrankia. " " acacia. " tr. xxii. albizzia. " tr. xxiii. melaleuca (bouché). myrtaceae ( ). sub-class i. angiosperms (continued). genus family. aenothera (linnaeus). omagrarieae ( ). passiflora. passifloracea ( ). siegesbeckia. compositae ( ). ipomoea. convolvulacea ( ). nicotiana. solaneae ( ). mirabilis. nyctagineae ( ). polygonum (batalin). polygoneae ( ). amaranthus. amaranthaceae ( ). chenopodium. chenopodieae ( ). pimelia (bouché). thymeteae ( ). euphorbia. euphorbiaceae ( ) phyllanthus (pfeffer). " sub-class ii. gymnosperms. aies (chatin). class ii. monocotyledons. thalia. cannaceae ( ). maranta. " colocasia. aroideae ( ). strephium. gramineae ( ). class iii. acotyledons. marsilea. marsileaceae ( ). githago segetum (caryophylleae).--the first leaves produced by young seedlings, rise up and close together at night. on a rather older seedling, two young leaves stood at noon at o above the horizon, and at night at o, so each had risen o. the angle, however, was less in some cases. similar observations were occasionally made on young leaves (for the older ones moved very little) produced by nearly full-grown plants. batalin says ('flora,' oct. st, , p. ) that the young leaves of stellaria close up so completely at night that they form together great buds. sida (malvaceae).--the nyctitropic movements of the leaves in this genus are remarkable in some respects. batalin informs [page ] us (see also 'flora,' oct. st, , p. ) that those of s. napaea fall at night, but to what angle he cannot remember. the leaves of s. rhombifolia and retusa, on the other hand, rise up vertically, and are pressed against the stem. we have therefore here within the same genus, directly opposite movements. again, the leaves of s. rhombifolia are furnished with a pulvinus, formed of a mass of small cells destitute of chlorophyll, and with their longer axes perpendicular to the axis of the petiole. as measured along this latter line, these cells are only / th of the length of those of the petiole; but instead of being abruptly separated from them (as is usual with the pulvinus in most plants), they graduate into the larger cells of the petiole. on the other hand, s. napaea, according to batalin, does not possess a pulvinus; and he informs us that a gradation may be traced in the several species of the genus between these two states of the petiole. sida rhombifolia presents another peculiarity, of which we have seen no other instance with leaves that sleep: for those on very young plants, though they rise somewhat in the evening, do not go to sleep, as we observed fig. . sida rhombifolia: circumnutation and nyctitropic (or sleep) movements of a leaf on a young plant, ½ inches high; filament fixed to midrib of nearly full-grown leaf, / inches in length; movement traced under a sky-light. apex of leaf / inches from the vertical glass, so diagram not greatly enlarged. [page ] on several occasions; whilst those on rather older plants sleep in a conspicuous manner. for instance a leaf (. of an inch in length) on a very young seedling inches high, stood at noon o above the horizon, and at p.m. at o, so it had risen only o; another leaf ( . inch in length) on a seedling of the same height, stood at the same two periods at o and o, and therefore had risen o. these leaves, which moved so little, had a fairly well-developed pulvinus. after an interval of some weeks, when the same seedlings were ½ and inches in height, some of the young leaves stood up at night quite vertically, and others were highly inclined; and so it was with bushes which were fully grown and were flowering. the movement of a leaf was traced from . a.m. on may th to . a.m. on the th. the temperature was too low ( o - o c.), and the illumination hardly sufficient; consequently the leaves did not become quite so highly inclined at night, as they had done previously and as they did subsequently in the hot-house: but the movements did not appear otherwise disturbed. on the first day the leaf sank till . p.m.; it then rose rapidly and greatly till . p.m., and only a little higher during the rest of the night (fig. ). early on the next day ( th) it fell in a slightly zigzag line rapidly until a.m., by which time it had reached nearly the same place as on the previous morning. during the remainder of the day it fell slowly, and zigzagged laterally. the evening rise began after p.m. in the same manner as before, and on the second morning it again fell rapidly. the ascending and descending lines do not coincide, as may be seen in the diagram. on the th a new tracing was made (not here given) on a rather enlarged scale, as the apex of the leaf now stood inches from the vertical glass. in order to observe more carefully the course pursued at the time when the diurnal fall changes into the nocturnal rise, dots were made every half-hour between p.m. and . p.m. this rendered the lateral zigzagging movement during the evening more conspicuous than in the diagram given, but it was of the same nature as there shown. the impression forced on our minds was that the leaf was expending superfluous movement, so that the great nocturnal rise might not occur at too early an hour. abutilon darwinii (malvaceae).--the leaves on some very young plants stood almost horizontally during the day, and hung down vertically at night. very fine plants kept in a [page ] large hall, lighted only from the roof, did not sleep at night for in order to do so the leaves must be well illuminated during the day. the cotyledons do not sleep. linnaeus says that the leaves of his sida abutilon sink perpendicularly down at night, though the petioles rise. prof. pfeffer informs us that the leaves of a malva, allied to m. sylvestris, rise greatly at night; and this genus, as well as that of hibiscus, are included by linnaeus in his list of sleeping plants. anoda wrightii (malvaceae).--the leaves, produced by very young plants, when grown to a moderate size, sink at night either almost vertically down or to an angle of about o beneath the horizon; for there is a considerable degree of variability in the amount of sinking at night, which depends in part on the degree to which they have been illuminated during the day. but the leaves, whilst quite young, do not sink down at night, and this is a very unusual circumstance. the summit of the petiole, where it joins the blade, is developed into a pulvinus, and this is present in very young leaves which do not sleep; though it is not so well defined as in older leaves. gossypium (var. nankin cotton, malvaceae).--some young leaves, between and inches in length, borne by two seedlings and ½ inches in height, stood horizontally, or were raised a little above the horizon at noon on july th and th; but by p.m. they had sunk down to between o and o beneath the horizon. when the same plants had grown to double the above height, their leaves stood at night almost or quite vertically dependent. the leaves on some large plants of g. maritimum and brazilense, which were kept in a very badly lighted hot-house, only occasionally sank much downwards at night, and hardly enough to be called sleep. oxalis (oxalidae).--in most of the species in this large genus the three leaflets sink vertically down at night; but as their sub-petioles are short the blades could not assume this position from the want of space, unless they were in some manner rendered narrower; and this is effected by their becoming more or less folded (fig. ). the angle formed by the two halves of the same leaflet was found to vary in different individuals of several species between o and o; in three of the best folded leaflets of o. fragrans it was o, o, and o. the angle is often different in the three leaflets of the same leaf. as the leaflets sink down at night and become folded, their lower surfaces are brought near together (see b), or even into [page ] close contact; and from this circumstance it might be thought that the object of the folding was the protection of their lower surfaces. if this had been the case, it would have formed a strongly marked exception to the rule, that when there is any difference in the degree of protection from radiation of the two surfaces of the leaves, it is always the upper surface which is the best protected. but that the folding of the leaflets, and consequent mutual approximation of their lower surfaces, serves merely to allow them to sink down vertically, may be fig. . oxalis acetosella: a, leaf seen from vertically above; b, diagram of leaf asleep, also seen from vertically above. inferred from the fact that when the leaflets do not radiate from the summit of a common petiole, or, again, when there is plenty of room from the sub-petioles not being very short, the leaflets sink down without becoming folded. this occurs with the leaflets of o. sensitiva, plumierii, and bupleurifolia. there is no use in giving a long list of the many species which sleep in the above described manner. this holds good with species having rather fleshy leaves, like those of o. carnosa, or large leaves like those of o. ortegesii, or four leaflets like those of o. variabilis. there are, however, some species which show no signs of sleep, viz., o. pentaphylla, enneaphylla, hirta, and rubella. we will now describe the nature of the movements in some of the species. oxalis acetosella.--the movement of a leaflet, together with that of the main petiole, are shown in the following diagram (fig. ), traced between a.m. on october th and . a.m. on the th. after . p.m. on the th the leaflet sank rapidly, and at p.m. depended vertically. for some time before it assumed this latter position, its movements could, of course, no longer be traced on the vertical glass, and the broken line in the diagram ought to be extended much further [page ] down in this and all other cases. by . a.m. on the following morning it had risen considerably, and continued to rise for the next hour; but, judging from other observations, it would soon have begun to fall again. between a.m. and . p.m. the leaflet moved at least four times up and four times down before the great nocturnal fall commenced; it reached its highest point at noon. similar observations were made on two other leaflets, with nearly the same results. sachs and pfeffer have also described briefly* the autonomous movements of the leaves of this plant. fig . oxalis acetosella: circumnutation and nyctitropic movements of a nearly full-grown leaf, with filament attached to the midrib of one of the leaflets; traced on vertical glass during h. m. on another occasion the petiole of a leaf was secured to a little stick close beneath the leaflets, and a filament tipped with a bead of sealing-wax was affixed to the mid-rib of one of them, and a mark was placed close behind. at p.m., when the leaflets were asleep, the filament depended vertically down, and the movements of the bead were then traced till . p.m., as shown in the following diagram (fig. ). we here see that the leaflet moved a little from side to side, as well as a little up and down, whilst asleep. * sachs in 'flora,' , p. , etc; pfeffer, 'die period. bewegungen,' etc., , p. . [page ] fig . oxalis acetosella: circumnutation of leaflet when asleep; traced on vertical glass during h. m. oxalis valdiviana.--the leaves resemble those of the last species, and the movements of two leaflets (the main petioles of both having been secured) were traced during two days; but the tracings are not given, as they resembled that of o. acetosella, with the exception that the up and down oscillations were not so frequent during the day, and there was more lateral movement, so that broader ellipses were described. the leaves awoke early in the morning, for by . a.m. on june th and th they had not only risen to their full height, but had already begun to fall, that is, they were circumnutating. we have seen in the last chapter that the cotyledons, instead of sinking, rise up vertically at night. oxalis ortegesii.--the large leaves of this plant sleep like those of the previous species. the main petioles are long, and that of a young leaf rose o between noon and p.m., whilst the petiole of an older leaf rose only o. owing to this rising of the petioles, and the vertical sinking of the large leaflets, the leaves become crowded together at night, and the whole plant then exposes a much smaller surface to radiation than during the day. oxalis plumierii.--in this species the three leaflets do not surround the summit of the petiole, but the terminal leaflet projects in the line of the petiole, with a lateral leaflet on each side. they all sleep by bending vertically downwards, but do not become at all folded. the petiole is rather long, and, one having been secured to a stick, the movement of the terminal leaflet was traced during h. on a vertical glass. it moved in a very simple manner, sinking rapidly after p.m., and rising rapidly early next morning. during the middle of the day it moved slowly and a little laterally. consequently the ascending and descending lines did not coincide, and a single great ellipse was formed each day. there was no other evidence of circumnutation, and this fact is of interest, as we shall hereafter see. oxalis sensitiva.--the leaflets, as in the last species, bend vertically down at night, without becoming folded. the much elongated main petiole rises considerably in the evening, but in [page ] some very young plants the rise did not commence until late at night. we have seen that the cotyledons, instead of sinking like the leaflets, rise up vertically at night. oxalis bupleurifolia.--this species is rendered remarkable by the petioles being foliaceous, like the phyllodes of many acacias. the leaflets are small, of a paler green and more tender consistence than the foliaceous petioles. the leaflet which was observed was . inch in length, and was borne by a petiole inches long and . inch broad. it may be suspected that the leaflets are on the road to abortion or obliteration, as has actually occurred with those of another brazilian species, o. rusciformis. nevertheless, in the present species the nyctitropic movements are perfectly performed. the foliaceous petiole was first observed during h., and found to be in continued circumnutation, as shown in the accompanying figure (fig. ). it rose during the day and early part of the night, and fell during the remainder of the night and early morning; but the movement was not sufficient to be called sleep. the ascending and descending lines did not coincide, so that an ellipse was formed each day. there was but little zigzagging; if the filament had been fixed longitudinally, we should probably have seen that there was more lateral movement than appears in the diagram. fig. . oxalis bupleurifolia: circumnutation of foliaceous petiole, filament fixed obliquely across end of petiole; movements traced on vertical glass from a.m. june th to . a.m. th. apex of leaflet ½ inches from the glass, so movement not much magnified. plant inches high, illuminated from above. temp. / o - / o c. a terminal leaflet on another leaf was next observed (the petiole being secured), and its movements are shown in fig. . during the day the leaflets are extended horizontally, and at night depend vertically; and as the petiole rises during the day the leaflets have to bend down in the evening [page ] more than o, so as to assume at night their vertical position. on the first day the leaflet simply moved up and down; on the fig. . oxalis bupleurifolia: circumnutation and nyctitropic movement of terminal leaflet, with filament affixed along the midrib; traced on a vertical glass from a.m. on june th to . a.m. th. conditions the same as in the last case. second day it plainly circumnutated between a.m. and . p.m., after which hour the great evening fall commenced. [page ] averrhoa bilimbi (oxalidae).--it has long been known,* firstly, that the leaflets in this genus sleep; secondly, that they move spontaneously during the day; and thirdly, that they are sensitive to a touch; but in none of these respects do they differ essentially from the species of oxalis. they differ, however, as mr. r. i. lynch** has lately shown, in their spontaneous movements being strongly marked. in the case of a. bilimbi, it is a wonderful spectacle to behold on a warm sunny day the leaflets one after the other sinking rapidly downwards, and again ascending slowly. their movements rival those of desmodium gyrans. at night the leaflets hang vertically down; and now fig. . averrhoa bilimbi: leaf asleep; drawing reduced. they are motionless, but this may be due to the opposite ones being pressed together (fig. ). the main petiole is in constant movement during the day, but no careful observations were made on it. the following diagrams are graphic representations of the variations in the angle, which a given leaflet makes with the vertical. the observations were made as follows. the plant growing in a pot was kept in a high temperature, the petiole of the leaf to be observed pointing straight at the observer, being separated from him by a vertical pane of glass. the petiole was secured so that the basal joint, or pulvinus, of one of the lateral leaflets was at the centre of a graduated arc placed close behind the leaflet. a fine glass filament was fixed to the leaf, so as to project like a continuation of the * dr. bruce, 'philosophical trans.,' , p. . ** 'journal linn. soc.,' vol. xvi. , p. . [page ] midrib. this filament acted as an index; and as the leaf rose and fell, rotating about its basal joint, its angular movement fig. . averrhoa bilimbi: angular movements of a leaflet during its evening descent, when going to sleep. temp. o - o f. could be recorded by reading off at short intervals of time the position of the glass filament on the graduated arc. in order [page ] to avoid errors of parallax, all readings were made by looking through a small ring painted on the vertical glass, in a line with the joint of the leaflet and the centre of the graduated arc. in the following diagrams the ordinates represent the angles which the leaflet made with the vertical at successive instants.* it follows that a fall in the curve represents an actual dropping of the leaf, and that the zero line represents a vertically dependent position. fig. represents the nature of the movements which occur in the evening, as soon as the leaflets begin to assume their nocturnal position. at . p.m. the leaflet formed an angle of o with the vertical, or was only o below the horizontal; but in order that the diagram might get into our page, the leaflet is represented falling from o instead of o. shortly after p.m. it hung vertically down, and had attained its nocturnal position. between . and . p.m. it performed a number of minute oscillations of about o each, occupying periods of or m. the complete state of rest of the leaflet which ultimately followed is not shown in the diagram. it is manifest that each oscillation consists of a gradual rise, followed by a sudden fall. each time the leaflet fell, it approached nearer to the nocturnal position than it did on the previous fall. the amplitude of the oscillations diminished, while the periods of oscillation became shorter. in bright sunshine the leaflets assume a highly inclined dependent position. a leaflet in diffused light was observed rising for m. a blind was then pulled up so that the plant was brightly illuminated (br in fig. ), and within a minute it began to fall, and ultimately fell o, as shown in the diagram. this descent was performed by six descending steps, precisely similar to those by which the nocturnal fall is effected. the plant was then again shaded (sh), and a long slow rise occurred until another series of falls commenced at br', when the sun was again admitted. in this experiment cool air was allowed to enter by the windows being opened at the same time that the blinds were pulled up, so that in spite of the sun shining on the plant the temperature was not raised. the effect of an increase of temperature in diffused light is * in all the diagrams mm. in the horizontal direction represents one minute of time. each mm. in the vertical direction represents one degree of angular movement. in figs. and the temperature is represented (along the ordinates) in the scale of mm. to each . degree c. in fig. each mm. equals . o f. [page ] shown in fig. . the temperature began to rise at . a.m. (in consequence of the fire being lighted), but by . a marked fall had occurred. it may be seen in the diagram that when the temperature was highest there were rapid oscillations fig. . averrhoa bilimbi: angular movements of leaflet during a change from bright illumination to shade; temperature (broken line) remaining nearly the same. of small amplitude, the mean position of the leaflet being at the time nearer the vertical. when the temperature began to fall, the oscillations became slower and larger, and the mean position of the leaf again approached the horizontal. the rate of oscillation was sometimes quicker than is represented in the above diagram. thus, when the temperature was between o and [page ] fig. . averrhoa bilimbi: angular movement of leaflet during a change of temperature; light remaining the same. the broken line shows the change of temperature. [page ] o c., oscillations of a few degrees occurred in m. on the other hand, an oscillation may be much slower; thus a leaflet was observed (temperature o c.) to rise during m. before it fell and completed its oscillation. fig. . porlieria hygrometrica: circumnutation and nyctitropic movements of petiole of leaf, traced from . a.m. july th to about midnight on the th. apex of leaf ½ inches from the vertical glass. temp. / o - / o c. porlieria hygrometrica (zygophylleae).--the leaves of this plant (chilian form) are from to ½ inch in length, and bear as many as or small leaflets on each side, which do not stand opposite one another. they are articulated to the petiole, and the petiole to the branch by a pulvinus. we must premise that apparently two forms are confounded under the same name: the leaves on a bush from chili, which was sent to us from kew, bore many leaflets, whilst those on plants in the botanic garden at würzburg bore only or pairs; and the whole character of the bushes appeared somewhat different. we shall also see that they differ in a remarkable physiological peculiarity. on the chilian plant the petioles of the younger leaves on upright branches, stood horizontally during the day, and at night sank down vertically so as to depend parallel and close to the branch beneath. the petioles of rather older leaves did not become at night vertically depressed, but only highly inclined. in one instance we found a branch which had grown perpendicularly downwards, and the petioles on it moved in the same direction relatively to the branch as just stated, and therefore moved upwards. on horizontal branches the younger petioles likewise move at night in the same direction as before, that is, towards the branch, and are consequently then extended horizontally; but it is remarkable that the older petioles on the [page ] same branch, though moving a little in the same direction, also bend downwards; they thus occupy a somewhat different position, relatively to the centre of the earth and to the branch, from that of the petioles on the upright branches. with respect to the leaflets, they move at night towards the apex of the petiole until their midribs stand nearly parallel to it; and they then lie neatly imbricated one over the other. thus half of the upper surface of each leaflet is in close contact with half of the lower surface of the one next in advance; and all the leaflets, excepting the basal ones, have the whole of their upper surfaces and half of their lower surfaces well protected. those on the opposite sides of the same petiole do not come into close contact at night, as occurs with the leaflets of so many leguminosae but are separated by an open furrow; nor could they exactly coincide, as they stand alternately with respect to one another. the circumnutation of the petiole of a leaf / of an inch in length, on an upright branch, was observed during h., and is shown in the preceding diagram (fig. ). on the first morning, the leaf fell a little and then rose until p.m., and this was probably due to its being now illuminated through a skylight from above; it then circumnutated on a very small scale round the same spot until about p.m., when the great evening fall commenced. during the latter part of the night or very early on the next morning the leaf rose again. on the second day it fell during the morning till p.m., and this no doubt is its normal habit. from to p.m. it rose in a zigzag line, and soon afterwards the great evening fall commenced. it thus completed a double oscillation during the h. the specific name given to this plant by ruiz and pavon, indicates that in its native arid home it is affected in some manner by the dryness or dampness of the atmosphere.* in the botanic garden at würzburg, there was a plant in a pot out of doors which was daily watered, and another in the open ground which was never watered. after some hot and dry weather there was a great difference in the state of the leaflets on these two plants; those on the unwatered plant in the open ground remaining half, * 'systema veg. florae peruvianae et chilensis,' tom. i. p. , . we cannot understand the account given by the authors of the behaviour of this plant in its native home. there is much about its power of foretelling changes in the weather; and it appears as if the brightness of the sky largely determined the opening and closing of the leaflets. [page ] or even quite, closed during the day. but twigs cut from this bush, with their ends standing in water, or wholly immersed in it, or kept in damp air under a bell-glass, opened their leaves though exposed to a blazing sun; whilst those on the plant in the ground remained closed. the leaves on this same plant, after some heavy rain, remained open for two days; they then became half closed during two days, and after an additional day were quite closed. this plant was now copiously watered, and on the following morning the leaflets were fully expanded. the other plant growing in a pot, after having been exposed to heavy rain, was placed before a window in the laboratory, with its leaflets open, and they remained so during the daytime for h.; but after an additional day were half closed. the plant was then watered, and the leaflets on the two following days remained open. on the third day they were again half closed, but on being again watered remained open during the two next days. from these several facts we may conclude that the plant soon feels the want of water; and that as soon as this occurs, it partially or quite closes its leaflets, which in their then imbricated condition expose a small surface to evaporation. it is therefore probable that this sleep-like movement, which occurs only when the ground is dry, is an adaptation against the loss of moisture. a bush about feet in height, a native of chili, which was thickly covered with leaves, behaved very differently, for during the day it never closed its leaflets. on july th the earth in the small pot in which it grew appeared extremely dry, and it was given a very little water. after and days (on the th and th), during the whole of which time the plant did not receive a drop of water, the leaves began to droop, but they showed no signs of closing during the day. it appeared almost incredible that any plant, except a fleshy one, could have kept alive in soil so dry, which resembled the dust on a road. on the th, when the bush was shaken, some leaves fell off, and the remaining ones were unable to sleep at night. it was therefore moderately watered, as well as syringed, late in the evening. on the next morning ( th) the bush looked as fresh as ever, and at night the leaves went to sleep. it may be added that a small branch while growing on the bush was enclosed, by means of a curtain of bladder, during days in a large bottle half full of quicklime, so that the air within must have been intensely dry; yet the leaves on this branch did not suffer in the [page ] least, and did not close at all during the hottest days. another trial was made with the same bush on august nd and th (the soil appearing at this latter date extremely dry), for it was exposed out of doors during the whole day to the wind, but the leaflets showed no signs of closing. the chilian form therefore differs widely from the one at würzburg, in not closing its leaflets when suffering from the want of water; and it can live for a surprisingly long time without water. tropaeolum majus (?) (cultivated var.) (tropaeoleae).--several plants in pots stood in the greenhouse, and the blades of the leaves which faced the front-lights were during the day highly inclined and at night vertical; whilst the leaves on the back of the pots, though of course illuminated through the roof, did not become vertical at night. we thought, at first, that this difference in their positions was in some manner due to heliotropism, for the leaves are highly heliotropic. the true explanation, however, is that unless they are well illuminated during at least a part of the day they do not sleep at night; and a little difference in the degree of illumination determines whether or not they shall become vertical at night. we have observed no other so well-marked a case as this, of the influence of previous illumination on nyctitropic movements. the leaves present also another peculiarity in their habit of rising or awaking in the morning, being more strongly fixed or inherited than that of sinking or sleeping at night. the movements are caused by the bending of an upper part of the petiole, between ½ and inch in length; but the part close to the blade, for about / of an inch in length, does not bend and always remains at right angles to the blade. the bending portion does not present any external or internal difference in structure from the rest of the petiole. we will now give the experiments on which the above conclusions are founded. a large pot with several plants was brought on the morning of sept. rd out of the greenhouse and placed before a north-east window, in the same position as before with respect to the light, as far as that was possible. on the front of the plants, leaves were marked with thread, some of which had their blades horizontal, but the greater number were inclined at about o, beneath the horizon; at night all these, without exception, became vertical. early on the following morning ( th) they reassumed their former positions, and at night again became vertical. on the th the shutters were opened at . a.m., and [page ] by . a.m., after the leaves had been illuminated for h. m. and had acquired their diurnal position, they were placed in a dark cupboard. they were looked at twice during the day and thrice in the evening, the last time at . p.m., and not one had become vertical. at a.m. on the following morning ( th) they still retained the same diurnal position, and were now replaced before the north-east window. at night all the leaves which had faced the light had their petioles curved and their blades vertical; whereas none of the leaves on the back of the plants, although they had been moderately illuminated by the diffused light of the room, were vertical. they were now at night placed in the same dark cupboard; at a.m. on the next morning ( th) all those which had been asleep had reassumed their diurnal position. the pot was then placed for h. in the sunshine, so as to stimulate the plants; at noon they were placed before the same north-east window, and at night the leaves slept in the usual manner and awoke on the following morning. at noon on this day ( th) the plants, after having been left before the north-east window for h. m. and thus illuminated (though not brightly, as the sky was cloudy during the whole time), were replaced in the dark cupboard, and at p.m. the position of the leaves was very little, if at all, altered, so that they are not quickly affected by darkness; but by . p.m. all the leaves which had faced the north-east sky during the h. m. of illumination stood vertical, whereas those on the back of the plant retained their diurnal position. on the following morning ( th) the leaves awoke as on the two former occasions in the dark, and they were kept in the dark during the whole day; at night a very few of them became vertical, and this was the one instance in which we observed any inherited tendency or habit in this plant to sleep at the proper time. that it was real sleep was shown by these same leaves reassuming their diurnal position on the following morning ( th) whilst still kept in the dark. the pot was then ( . a.m. th) replaced, after having been kept for h. in darkness, before the north-east window; and at night the blades of all the leaves (excepting a few on the back of the plants) became conspicuously vertical. at . a.m. ( th) after the plants had been illuminated on the same side as before during only m., the pot was turned round, so that the leaves which had faced the light now faced the interior of the room, and not one of these went to sleep at night; [page ] whilst some, but not many, of those which had formerly stood facing the back of the room and which had never before been well illuminated or gone to sleep, now assumed a vertical position at night. on the next day ( th) the plant was turned round into its original position, so that the same leaves faced the light as formerly, and these now went to sleep in the usual manner. we will only add that with some young seedlings kept in the greenhouse, the blades of the first pair of true leaves (the cotyledons being hypogean) stood during the day almost horizontally and at night almost vertically. a few observations were subsequently made on the circumnutation of three leaves, whilst facing a north-east window; but the tracings are not given, as the leaves moved somewhat towards the light. it was, however, manifest that they rose and fell more than once during the daytime, the ascending and descending lines being in parts extremely zigzag. the nocturnal fall commenced about p.m., and the leaves had risen considerably by . a.m. on the following morning. leguminosae.--this family includes many more genera with sleeping species than all the other families put together. the number of the tribes to which each genus belongs, according to bentham and hooker's arrangement, has been added. crotolaria (sp.?) (tribe ).--this plant is monophyllous, and we are informed by mr. t. thiselton dyer that the leaves rise up vertically at night and press against the stem. lupinus (tribe ).--the palmate or digitate leaves of the species in this large genus sleep in three different manners. one of the simplest, is that all the leaflets become steeply inclined downwards at night, having been during the day extended horizontally. this is shown in the accompanying figures (fig. ), of a leaf of l. pilosus, as seen during the day from vertically above, and of another leaf asleep with the leaflets inclined downwards. as in this position they are crowded together, and as they do not become folded like those in the genus oxalis, they cannot occupy a vertically dependent position; but they are often inclined at an angle of o beneath the horizon. in this species, whilst the leaflets are sinking, the petioles rise up, in two instances when the angles were measured to the extent of o. the leaflets of l. sub-carnosus and arboreus, which were horizontal during the day, sank down at night in nearly the same manner; the former to an angle of o and the latter of o, beneath the horizon; but their petioles [page ] did not move in any plainly perceptible degree. it is, however, quite possible, as we shall presently see, that if a large number of plants of the three foregoing and of the following species fig. . lupinus pilosus: a, leaf seen from vertically above in daytime; b, leaf asleep, seen laterally at night. were to be observed at all seasons, some of the leaves would be found to sleep in a different manner. in the two following species the leaflets, instead of moving downwards, rise at night. with l. hartwegii some stood at noon at a mean angle of o above the horizon, and at night at o, thus forming together a hollow cone with moderately steep sides. the petiole of one leaf rose o and of a second o at night. with l. luteus a leaflet rose from o at noon to o above the horizon at night, and another on a distinct leaf rose from o to o. the petioles, however, sink at night to a small extent, viz., in three instances by o, o, and o seconds. owing to this movement of the petioles, the outer and longer leaflets have to bend up a little more than the shorter and inner ones, in order that all should stand symmetrically at night. we shall presently see that some leaves on the same individual plants of l. luteus sleep in a very different manner. we now come to a remarkable position of the leaves when asleep, which is common to several species of lupines. on the same leaf the shorter leaflets, which generally face the centre of the plant, sink at night, whilst the longer ones on the opposite side rise; the intermediate and lateral ones merely twisting on their own axes. but there is some variability with respect to which leaflets rise or fall. as might have been expected from such diverse and complicated movements, the [page ] base of each leaflet is developed (at least in the case of l. luteus) into a pulvinus. the result is that all the leaflets on the same leaf stand at night more or less highly inclined, or even quite vertically, forming in this latter case a vertical star. this occurs with the leaves of a species purchased under the name of fig. . lupinus pubescens: a, leaf viewed laterally during the day; b, same leaf at night; c, another leaf with the leaflet forming a vertical star at night. figures reduced. l. pubescens; and in the accompanying figures we see at a (fig. ) the leaves in their diurnal position; and at b the same plant at night with the two upper leaves having their leaflets almost vertical. at c another leaf, viewed laterally, is shown with the leaflets quite vertical. it is chiefly or exclusively the youngest leaves which form at night vertical stars. but there [page ] is much variability in the position of the leaves at night on the same plant; some remaining with their leaflets almost horizontal, others forming more or less highly inclined or vertical stars, and some with all their leaflets sloping downwards, as in our first class of cases. it is also a remarkable fact, that although all the plants produced from the same lot of seeds were identical in appearance, yet some individuals at night had the leaflets of all their leaves arranged so as to form more or less highly inclined stars; others had them all sloping downwards and never forming a star; and others, again, retained them either in a horizontal position or raised them a little. we have as yet referred only to the different positions of the leaflets of l. pubescens at night; but the petioles likewise differ in their movements. that of a young leaf which formed a highly inclined star at night, stood at noon at o above the horizon, and during the night at o, so had risen o. the petiole of another leaf, the leaflets of which occupied a similar position at night, rose only o. on the other hand, the petiole of a leaf with all its leaflets sloping down at night, fell at this time o. the petioles of two rather older leaves were subsequently observed; both of which stood during the day at exactly the same angle, viz., o above the horizon, and one of these rose o - o, and the other fell o - o at night. we meet with cases like that of l. pubescens with some other species. on a single plant of l. mutabilis some leaves, which stood horizontally during the day, formed highly inclined stars at night, and the petiole of one rose o. other leaves which likewise stood horizontally during the day, had at night all their leaflets sloping downwards at o beneath the horizon, but their petioles had hardly moved. again, l. luteus offered a still more remarkable case, for on two leaves, the leaflets which stood at noon at about o above the horizon, rose at night to o and o, so that they formed a hollow cone with steep sides. four leaves on the same plant, which had their leaflets horizontal at noon, formed vertical stars at night; and three other leaves equally horizontal at noon, had all their leaflets sloping downwards at night. so that the leaves on this one plant assumed at night three different positions. though we cannot account for this fact, we can see that such a stock might readily give birth to species having widely different nyctitropic habits. little more need be said about the sleep of the species of lupinus; several, namely, l. polyphyllus, nanus, menziesii, speciosus, [page ] and albifrons, though observed out of doors and in the greenhouse, did not change the position of their leaves sufficiently at night to be said to sleep. from observations made on two sleeping species, it appears that, as with tropaeolum majus, the leaves must be well illuminated during the day in order to sleep at night. for several plants, kept all day in a sitting-room with north-east windows, did not sleep at night; but when the pots were placed on the following day out of doors, and were brought in at night, they slept in the usual manner. the trial was repeated on the following day and night with the same result. some observations were made on the circumnutation of the leaves of l. luteus and arboreus. it will suffice to say that the leaflets of the latter exhibited a double oscillation in the course of h.; for they fell from the early morning until . a.m., then rose and zigzagged greatly till p.m., after which hour the great nocturnal fall commenced. by a.m. on the following morning the leaflets had risen to their proper height. we have seen in the fourth chapter, that the leaves of lupinus speciosus, which do not sleep, circumnutate to an extraordinary extent, making many ellipses in the course of the day. cytisus (tribe ), trigonella and medicago (tribe ).--only fig. . medicago marina: a, leaves during the day; b, leaves asleep at night. a few observations were made on these three genera. the petioles on a young plant, about a foot in height, of cytisus fragrans rose at night, on one occasion o and on another o. the three leaflets also bend upwards, and at the same time [page ] approach each other, so that the base of the central leaflet overlaps the bases of the two lateral leaflets. they bend up so much that they press against the stem; and on looking down on one of these young plants from vertically above, the lower surfaces of the leaflets are visible; and thus their upper surfaces, in accordance with the general rule, are best protected from radiation. whilst the leaves on these young plants were thus behaving, those on an old bush in full flower did not sleep at night. trigonella cretica resembles a melilotus in its sleep, which will be immediately described. according to m. royer,* the leaves of medicago maculata rise up at night, and "se renversent un peu de manière à presenter obliquement au ciel leur face inférieure." a drawing is here given (fig. ) of the leaves of m. marina awake and asleep; and this would almost serve for cytisus fragrans in the same two states. melilotus (tribe ).--the species in this genus sleep in a remarkable manner. the three leaflets of each leaf twist through an angle of o, so that their blades stand vertically at night with one lateral edge presented to the zenith (fig. ). we shall best understand the other and more complicated movements, if we imagine ourselves always to hold the leaf with the tip of the terminal leaflet pointed to the north. the leaflets in becoming vertical at night could of course twist so that their upper surfaces should face to either side; but the two lateral leaflets always twist so that this surface tends to face the north, but as they move at the same time towards the terminal leaflet, the upper surface of the one faces about n.n.w., and that of the other n.n.e. the terminal leaflet behaves differently, for it twists to either side, the upper surface facing sometimes east and sometimes west, but rather more commonly west than east. the terminal leaflet also moves in another and more remarkable manner, for whilst its blade is twisting and becoming vertical, the whole leaflet bends to one side, and invariably to the side towards which the upper surface is directed; so that if this surface faces the west the whole leaflet bends to the west, until it comes into contact with the upper and vertical surface of the western lateral leaflet. thus the upper surface of the terminal and of one of the two lateral leaflets is well protected. the fact of the terminal leaflet twisting indifferently to either * 'annales des sc. nat. bot.' ( th series), ix. , p. . [page ] side and afterwards bending to the same side, seemed to us so remarkable, that we endeavoured to discover the cause. we imagined that at the commencement of the movement it might be determined by one of the two halves of the leaflet being a little heavier than the other. therefore bits of wood were gummed on one side of several leaflets, but this produced no effect; and they continued to twist in the same direction as fig. . melilotus officinalis: a, leaf during the daytime. b, another leaf asleep. c, a leaf asleep as viewed from vertically above; but in this case the terminal leaflet did not happen to be in such close contact with the lateral one, as is usual. they had previously done. in order to discover whether the same leaflet twisted permanently in the same direction, black threads were tied to leaves, the terminal leaflets of which twisted so that their upper surfaces faced west, and white threads to leaflets which twisted to the east. these were observed occasionally during days, and they all continued, with a single exception, to twist and bend in the same direction; for [page ] one leaflet, which had originally faced east, was observed after days to face west. the seat of both the twisting and bending movement is in the pulvinus of the sub-petioles. we believe that the leaflets, especially the two lateral ones, in performing the above described complicated movements generally bend a little downwards; but we are not sure of this, for, as far as the main petiole is concerned, its nocturnal movement is largely determined by the position which the leaf happens to occupy during the day. thus one main petiole was observed to rise at night o, whilst three others rose only o and o. the petioles and sub-petioles are continually circumnutating during the whole h., as we shall presently see. the leaves of the following species, m. officinalis, suaveolens, parviflora, alba, infesta, dentata, gracilis, sulcata, elegans, coerulea, petitpierreana, macrorrhiza, italica, secundiflora, and taurica, sleep in nearly the same manner as just described; but the bending to one side of the terminal leaflet is apt to fail unless the plants are growing vigorously. with m. petitpierreana and secundiflora the terminal leaflet was rarely seen to bend to one side. in young plants of m. italica it bent in the usual manner, but with old plants in full flower, growing in the same pot and observed at the same hour, viz., . p.m., none of the terminal leaflets on several scores of leaves had bent to one side, though they stood vertically; nor had the two lateral leaflets, though standing vertically, moved towards the terminal one. at . p.m., and again one hour after midnight, the terminal leaflets had become very slightly bent to one side, and the lateral leaflets had moved a very little towards the terminal one, so that the position of the leaflets even at this late hour was far from the ordinary one. again, with m. taurica the terminal leaflets were never seen to bend towards either of the two lateral leaflets, though these, whilst becoming vertical, had bent towards the terminal one. the sub-petiole of the terminal leaflet in this species is of unusual length, and if the leaflet had bent to one side, its upper surface could have come into contact only with the apex of either lateral leaflet; and this, perhaps, is the meaning of the loss of the lateral movement. the cotyledons do not sleep at night. the first leaf consists of a single orbicular leaflet, which twists at night so that the blade stands vertically. it is a remarkable fact that with m. taurica, and in a somewhat less degree with m. macrorrhiza and petitpierreana, all the many small and young leaves produced during [page ] the early spring from shoots on some cut-down plants in the greenhouse, slept in a totally different manner from the normal one; for the three leaflets, instead of twisting on their own axes so as to present their lateral edges to the zenith, turned upwards and stood vertically with their apices pointing to the zenith. they thus assumed nearly the same position as in the allied genus trifolium; and on the same principle that embryological characters reveal the lines of descent in the animal kingdom, so the movements of the small leaves in the above three species of melilotus, perhaps indicate that this genus is descended from a form which was closely allied to and slept like a trifolium. moreover, there is one species, m. messanensis, the leaves of which, on full-grown plants between and feet in height, sleep like the foregoing small leaves and like those of a trifolium. we were so much surprised at this latter case that, until the flowers and fruit were examined, we thought that the seeds of some trifolium had been sown by mistake instead of those of a melilotus. it appears therefore probable that m. messanensis has either retained or recovered a primordial habit. the circumnutation of a leaf of m. officinalis was traced, the stem being left free; and the apex of the terminal leaflet described three laterally extended ellipses, between a.m. and p.m.; after the latter hour the nocturnal twisting movement commenced. it was afterwards ascertained that the above movement was compounded of the circumnutation of the stem on a small scale, of the main petiole which moved most, and of the sub-petiole of the terminal leaflet. the main petiole of a leaf having been secured to a stick, close to the base of the sub-petiole of the terminal leaflet, the latter described two small ellipses between . a.m., and p.m. at . p.m., after this same leaflet (as well as another) had twisted themselves into their vertical nocturnal position, they began to rise slowly, and continued to do so until . p.m., after which hour they were no longer observed. as m. messanensis sleeps in an anomalous manner, unlike that of any other species in the genus, the circumnutation of a terminal leaflet, with the stem secured, was traced during two days. on each morning the leaflet fell, until about noon, and then began to rise very slowly; but on the first day the rising movement was interrupted between and p.m. by the formation of a laterally extended ellipse, and on the second day, at the same time, by two smaller ellipses. the rising movement then [page ] recommenced, and became rapid late in the evening, when the leaflet was beginning to go to sleep. the awaking or sinking movement had already commenced by . a.m. on both mornings. trifolium (tribe ).--the nyctitropic movements of species were observed, and were found to be closely similar. if we select a leaf of t. repens having an upright petiole, and with the three leaflets expanded horizontally, the two lateral leaflets will be seen in the evening to twist and approach each other, until their upper surfaces come into contact. at the same time they bend downwards in a plane at right angles to that of their former position, until their midribs form an angle of about o with the upper part of the petiole. this peculiar change of position requires a considerable amount of torsion in the pulvinus. the terminal leaflet merely rises up without any twist- fig. . trifolium repens: a, leaf during the day; b, leaf asleep at night. ing and bends over until it rests on and forms a roof over the edges of the now vertical and united lateral leaflets. thus the terminal leaflet always passes through an angle of at least o, generally of o or o, and not rarely--as was often observed with t. subterraneum--of o. in this latter case the terminal leaflet stands at night horizontally (as in fig. ), with its lower surface fully exposed to the zenith. besides the difference in the angles, at which the terminal leaflets stand at night in the individuals of the same species, the degree to which the lateral leaflets approach each other often likewise differs. we have seen that the cotyledons of some species and not of others rise up vertically at night. the first true leaf is generally unifoliate and orbicular; it always rises, and either stands vertically at night or more commonly bends a little over so as to expose the lower surface obliquely to the zenith, in the same manner as does the terminal leaflet of the mature leaf. but it does not twist itself like the corresponding first simple leaf of melilotus. [page ] with t. pannonicum the first true leaf was generally unifoliate, but sometimes trifoliate, or again partially lobed and in an intermediate condition. circumnutation.--sachs described in * the spontaneous up and down movements of the leaflets of t. incarnatum, when kept in darkness. pfeffer made many observations on the similar movements in t. pratense.** he states that the terminal leaflet of this species, observed at different times, passed through angles of from o to o in the course of from ½ to h. we observed the movements of t. subterraneum, resupinatum, and repens. trifolium subterraneum.--a petiole was secured close to the base of the three leaflets, and the movement of the terminal leaflet was traced during ½ h., as shown in the figure on the next page. between . a.m. and p.m. the apex moved times up and times down, completing ellipses in h. m. the ascending and descending lines stand nearer to one another than is usual with most plants, yet there was some lateral motion. at p.m. the great nocturnal rise commenced, and on the next morning the sinking of the leaflet was continued until . a.m., after which hour it circumnutated in the manner just described. in the figure the great nocturnal rise and the morning fall are greatly abbreviated, from the want of space, and are merely represented by a short curved line. the leaflet stood horizontally when at a point a little beneath the middle of the diagram; so that during the daytime it oscillated almost equally above and beneath a horizontal position. at . a.m. it stood o beneath the horizon, and by . a.m. it had risen o above the horizon; so that it passed through o in h. by the aid of the tracing we ascertained that the distance travelled in the h. by the apex of this leaflet was . inch. if we look at the figure, and prolong upwards in our mind's eye the short curved broken line, which represents the nocturnal course, we see that the latter movement is merely an exaggeration or prolongation of one of the diurnal ellipses. the same leaflet had been observed on the previous day, and the course then pursued was almost identically the same as that here described. * 'flora,' , p. . ** 'die period. bewegungen,' , pp. , . [page ] fig. . trifolium subterraneum: circumnutation and nyctitropic movement of terminal leaflet (. inch in length), traced from . a.m. july th to . a.m. th. apex of leaf / inches from the vertical glass, and movement, as here shown, magnified / times, reduced to one-half of original scale. plant illuminated from above; temp. o - o c. trifolium resupinatum.--a plant left entirely free was placed before a north-east window, in such a position that a terminal leaflet projected at right angles to the source of the light, the sky being uniformly clouded all day. the movements of this leaflet were traced during two days, and on both were closely similar. those executed on the second day are shown in fig. . the obliquity of the several lines is due partly to the manner in which the leaflet was viewed, and partly to its having moved a little towards the light. from . a.m. to . a.m. the leaflet fell, that is, the awakening movement was continued. it then rose and moved a little laterally towards the light. at . it retrograded, and at . resumed its original course, having thus completed a small ellipse during the middle of the day. in the evening it rose rapidly, and by a.m. on the following morning had returned to exactly the same spot as on the previous morning. the line representing the nocturnal course ought to be extended much higher up, and is here abbreviated into a short, [page ] curved, broken line. the terminal leaflet, therefore, of this species described during the daytime only a single additional ellipse, instead of two additional ones, as in the case of t. subterraneum. but we should remember that it was shown in the fourth chapter that the stem circumnutates, as no doubt does the main petiole and the sub-petioles; so that the movement represented in fig. is a compounded one. we tried to observe the movements of a leaf kept during the day in darkness, but it began to go to sleep after h. m., and this was well pronounced after h. m. fig . trifolium resupinatum: circumnutation and nyctitropic movements of the terminal leaflet during hours. trifolium repens.--a stem was secured close to the base of a moderately old leaf, and the movement of the terminal leaflet was observed during two days. this case is interesting solely from the simplicity of the movements, in contrast with those of the two preceding species. on the first day the leaflet fell between a.m. and p.m., and on the second between a.m. and p.m. on both days the descending course was somewhat zigzag, and this evidently represents the circumnutating movement of the two previous species during the middle of the day. after p.m., oct. st (fig. ), the leaflet began to rise, but the movement was slow on both days, both before and after this hour, until p.m. the rapid evening and nocturnal rise then commenced. thus in this species the course during h. consists of a single great ellipse; in t. resupinatum of two ellipses, one of which includes the nocturnal movement and is much elongated; and in t. subterraneum of three ellipses, of which the nocturnal one is likewise of great length. securigera coronilla (tribe ).--the leaflets, which stand opposite one another and are numerous, rise up at night, come into close contact, and bend backwards at a moderate angle towards the base of the petiole. [page ] fig. . trifolium repens: circumnutation and nyctitropic movements of a nearly full-grown terminal leaflet, traced on a vertical glass from a.m. sept. th to a.m. oct. st. nocturnal course, represented by curved broken line, much abbreviated. lotus (tribe ).--the nyctitropic movements of species in this genus were observed, and found to be the same. the main petiole rises a little at night, and the three leaflets rise till they become vertical, and at the same time approach each other. this was conspicuous with l. jacoboeus, in which the leaflets are almost linear. in most of the species the leaflets rise so much as to press against the stem, and not rarely they become inclined a little inwards with their lower surfaces exposed obliquely to the zenith. this was clearly the case with l. major, as its petioles are unusually long, and the leaflets are thus enabled to bend further inwards. the young leaves on the summits of the stems close up at night so much, as often to resemble large buds. the stipule-like leaflets, which are often of large size, rise up like the other leaflets, and press against the stem (fig. ). all the leaflets of l. gebelii, and probably of the other species, are provided at their bases with distinct pulvini, of a yellowish colour, and formed of very small cells. the circumnutation of a terminal leaflet of l. peregrinus (with the stem secured) was traced during two days, but the movement was so simple that it is not worth while to give the diagram. the leaflet fell slowly from the early morning till about p.m. it then rose gradually at first, but rapidly late in the evening. it occasionally stood still for about m. during the day, and sometimes zigzagged a little. the movement of one of the basal, stipule-like leaflets was likewise traced in the same manner and at the same time, and its course was closely similar to that of the terminal leaflet. in tribe of bentham and hooker, the sleep-movements of species in genera have been observed by ourselves and [page ] others, but only in robinia with any care. psoralea acaulis raises its three leaflets at night; whilst amorpha fruticosa,* dalea alopecuroides, and indigofera tinctoria depress them. ducharte** states that tephrosia caribaea is the sole example of "folioles couchées le long du pétiole et vers la base;" but a fig. . lotus creticus: a, stem with leaves awake during the day; b, with leaves asleep at night. ss, stipule-like leaflets. similar movement occurs, as we have already seen, and shall again see in other cases. wistaria sinensis, according to royer,*** "abaisse les folioles qui par une disposition bizarre sont inclinées dans la même feuille, les supérieures vers le * ducharte, 'eléments de botanique', , p. . ** ibid., p. . *** 'ann. des sciences nats. bot.' ( th series), ix. . [page ] sommet, les inférieures vers la base du petiole commun;" but the leaflets on a young plant observed by us in the greenhouse merely sank vertically downwards at night. the leaflets are raised in sphaerophysa salsola, colutea arborea, and astragalus uliginosus, but are depressed, according to linnaeus, in glycyrrhiza. the leaflets of robinia pseudo-acacia likewise sink vertically down at night, but the petioles rise a little, viz., in one case o, and in another o. the circumnutating movements of a terminal leaflet on a rather old leaf were traced during two days, and were simple. the leaflet fell slowly, in a slightly zigzag line, from a.m. to p.m., and then more rapidly; by a.m. on the following morning it had risen to its diurnal position. there was only one peculiarity in the movement, namely, that on both days there was a distinct though small oscillation up and down between . and a.m., and this would probably have been more strongly pronounced if the leaf had been younger. coronilla rosea (tribe ).--the leaves bear or pairs of opposite leaflets, which during the day stand horizontally, with fig. . coronilla rosea: leaf asleep. their midribs at right angles to the petiole. at night they rise up so that the opposite leaflets come nearly into contact, and those on the younger leaves into close contact. at the same time they bend back towards the base of the petiole, until their midribs form with it angles of from o to o in a vertical plane, as here figured (fig. ). the leaflets, however, sometimes bend so much back that their midribs become parallel to and lie on the petiole. they thus occupy a reversed position to what they do in several leguminosae, for instance, in mimosa [page ] pudica; but, from standing further apart, they do not overlap one another nearly so much as in this latter plant. the main petiole is curved slightly downwards during the day, but straightens itself at night. in three cases it rose from o above the horizon at noon, to o at p.m.; from o to o; and from o to o--the amount of angular movement in this latter case amounting to o. in several other species of coronilla the leaflets showed only feeble movements of a similar kind. hedysarum coronarium (tribe ).--the small lateral leaflets on plants growing out of doors rose up vertically at night, but the large terminal one became only moderately inclined. the petioles apparently did not rise at all. smithia pfundii (tribe ).--the leaflets rise up vertically, and the main petiole also rises considerably. arachis hypogoea (tribe ).--the shape of a leaf, with its two pairs of leaflets, is shown at a (fig. ); and a leaf asleep, fig. . arachis hypogoea: a, leaf during the day, seen from vertically above; b, leaf asleep, seen laterally, copied from a photograph. figures much reduced. traced from a photograph (made by the aid of aluminium light), is given at b. the two terminal leaflets twist round at night until their blades stand vertically, and approach each other until they meet, at the same time moving a little upwards and backwards. the two lateral leaflets meet each other in this same manner, but move to a greater extent forwards, that is, in a contrary direction to the two terminal leaflets, which they partially embrace. thus all four leaflets form together a single packet, with their edges directed to the zenith, and with their lower surfaces turned outwards. on a plant which was not growing vigorously the closed leaflets seemed too heavy for the [page ] petioles to support them in a vertical position, so that each night the main petiole became twisted, and all the packets were extended horizontally, with the lower surfaces of the leaflets on one side directed to the zenith in a most anomalous manner. this fact is mentioned solely as a caution, as it surprised us greatly, until we discovered that it was an anomaly. the petioles are inclined upwards during the day, but sink at night, so as to stand at about right angles with the stem. the amount of sinking was measured only on one occasion, and found to be o. a petiole was secured to a stick at the base of the two terminal leaflets, and the circumnutating movement of one of these leaflets was traced from . a.m. to . p.m., the plant being illuminated from above. the temperature was o - / o c., and therefore rather too low. during the h. the leaflet moved thrice up and thrice down, and as the ascending and descending lines did not coincide, three ellipses were formed. fig. . desmodium gyrans: leaf seen from above, reduced to one-half natural size. the minute stipules unusually large. desmodium gyrans (tribe ).--a large and full-grown leaf of this plant, so famous for the spontaneous movements of the two little lateral leaflets, is here represented (fig. ). the large terminal leaflet sleeps by sinking vertically down, whilst the petiole rises up. the cotyledons do not sleep, but the first-formed leaf sleeps equally well as the older ones. the appearance presented by a sleeping branch and one in the day-time, copied from two photographs, are shown at a and b (fig. ), and we see how at night the leaves are crowded together, as if for mutual protection, by the rising of the petioles. the petioles of the younger leaves near the summits of the shoots rise up at night, so as to stand vertical and parallel to the stem; whilst those on the sides were found in four cases to have risen respectively / o, o, o, and . o above the inclined positions which they had occupied during the day. for instance, in the first of these four cases the petiole stood in the day at o, and at night at / o above the horizon. in the evening the rising of the petioles is almost completed before the leaflets sink perpendicularly downwards. [page ] circumnutation.--the circumnutating movements of four young shoots were observed during h. m.; and in this time each completed an oval figure of small size. the main petiole also circumnutates rapidly, for in the course of m. (temp. o f.) it changed its course by as much as a rectangle six times, describing a figure which apparently represented two ellipses. fig. . desmodium gyrans: a, stem during the day; b, stem with leaves asleep. figures reduced. the movement of the terminal leaflet by means of its sub-petiole or pulvinus is quite as rapid, or even more so, than that of the main petiole, and has much greater amplitude. pfeffer has seen* these leaflets move through an angle of o in the course of from to seconds. a fine, nearly full-grown leaf on a young plant, inches in height, with the stem secured to a stick at the base of the leaf, was observed from . a.m. june nd to a.m. june th. * 'die period. beweg.,' p. . [page ] in the diagram given on the next page (fig. ), the two curved broken lines at the base, which represent the nocturnal courses, ought to be prolonged far downwards. on the first day the leaflet moved thrice down and thrice up, and to a considerable distance laterally; the course was also remarkably crooked. the dots were generally made every hour; if they had been made every few minutes all the lines would have been zigzag to an extraordinary degree, with here and there a loop formed. we may infer that this would have been the case, because five dots were made in the course of m. (between . and . p.m.), and we see in the upper part of the diagram how crooked the course here is; if only the first and last dots had been joined we should have had a straight line. exactly the same fact may be seen in the lines representing the course between . p.m. and p.m., when six intermediate dots were made; and again at . and . . but the result was widely different after p.m.,--that is, after the great nocturnal descent had commenced; for though nine dots were then made in the course of m., when these were joined (see figure) the line thus formed was almost straight. the leaflets, therefore, begin to descend in the afternoon by zigzag lines, but as soon as the descent becomes rapid their whole energy is expended in thus moving, and their course becomes rectilinear. after the leaflets are completely asleep they move very little or not at all. had the above plant been subjected to a higher temperature than o - o f., the movements of the terminal leaflet would probably have been even more rapid and wider in extent than those shown in the diagram; for a plant was kept for some time in the hot-house at from o - o f., and in the course of m. the apex of a leaflet twice descended and once ascended, travelling over a space of . inch in a vertical direction and of . inch in a horizontal direction. whilst thus moving the leaflet also rotated on its own axis (and this was a point to which no attention had been before paid), for the plane of the blade differed by o after an interval of only a few minutes. occasionally the leaflet stood still for a short time. there was no jerking movement, which is so characteristic of the little lateral leaflets. a sudden and considerable fall of temperature causes the terminal leaflet to sink downwards; thus a cut-off leaf was immersed in water at o f., which was slowly raised to o f., and afterwards allowed to sink to o f., and the sub-petiole of the terminal leaflet then curved downwards. the water was afterwards [page ] fig. . desmodium gyrans: circumnutation and nyctitropic movement of leaf ( / inches in length, petiole included) during h. filament affixed to midrib of terminal leaflet; its apex inches from the vertical glass. diagram reduced to one-third of original scale. plant illuminated from above. temp. o - o c. [page ] raised to o f., and the sub-petiole straightened itself. similar experiments with leaves in water were twice repeated, with nearly the same result. it should be added, that water raised to even o f. does not soon kill a leaf. a plant was placed in darkness at . a.m., and at p.m. (i.e. after h. m.), though the leaflets had sunk considerably, they had by no means acquired their nocturnal vertically dependent position. pfeffer, on the other hand, says* that this occurred with him in from / h. to h.; perhaps the difference in our results may be due to the plant on which we experimented being a very young and vigorous seedling. the movements of the little lateral leaflets .--these have been so often described, that we will endeavour to be as brief as possible in giving a few new facts and conclusions. the leaflets sometimes quickly change their position by as much as nearly o; and their sub-petioles can then be seen to become greatly curved. they rotate on their own axes, so that their upper surfaces are directed to all points of the compass. the figure described by the apex is an irregular oval or ellipse. they sometimes remain stationary for a period. in these several respects there is no difference, except in rapidity and extent, between their movements and the lesser ones performed by the large terminal leaflet whilst making its great oscillations. the movements of the little leaflets are much influenced, as is well known, by temperature. this was clearly shown by immersing leaves with motionless leaflets in cold water, which was slowly raised to o f., and the leaflets then moved quickly, describing about a dozen little irregular circles in m. by this time the water had become much cooler, and the movements became slower or almost ceased; it was then raised to o f., and the leaflets again began to move quickly. on another occasion a tuft of fine leaves was immersed in water at o f., and the leaflets were of course motionless. the water was raised to o, and the leaflets soon began to move; it was raised to o, and the movements became much more rapid; each little circle or oval being completed in from m. s. to m. s. there was, however, no jerking, and this fact may perhaps be attributed to the resistance of the water. sachs states that the leaflets do not move until the surrounding air is as high as o - o f., and this agrees with our * 'die period. beweg.,' p. . [page ] experience on full-grown, or nearly full-grown, plants. but the leaflets of young seedlings exhibit a jerking movement at much lower temperatures. a seedling was kept (april th) in a room for half the day where the temperature was steady at o f., and the one leaflet which it bore was continually jerking, but not so rapidly as in the hot-house. the pot was taken in the evening into a bed-room where the temperature remained at o during nearly the whole night; at and p.m. and at a.m. the leaflet was still jerking rapidly; at . a.m. it was not seen to jerk, but was observed during only a short time. it was, however, now inclined at a much lower angle than that occupied at a.m. at . a.m. (temp. o f.) its inclination was still less than before, and again less at . a.m.; by . a.m. it had risen, and at . a.m. was again seen to jerk. this leaflet, therefore, was moving during the whole night, and the movement was by jerks up to a.m. (and possibly later) and again at . a.m., though the temperature was only o to o f. we must therefore conclude that the lateral leaflets produced by young plants differ somewhat in constitution from those on older plants. in the large genus desmodium by far the greater number of the species are trifoliate; but some are unifoliate, and even the same plant may bear uni- and trifoliate leaves. in most of the species the lateral leaflets are only a little smaller than the terminal one. therefore the lateral leaflets of d. gyrans (see fig. ) must be considered as almost rudimentary. they are also rudimentary in function, if this expression may be used; for they certainly do not sleep like the full-sized terminal leaflets. it is, however, possible that the sinking down of the leaflets between a.m. and . a.m., as above described, may represent sleep. it is well known that the leaflets go on jerking during the early part of the night; but my gardener observed (oct. th) a plant in the hot-house between and . a.m., the temperature having been kept up to o f., and found that all the leaflets were inclined, but he saw no jerking movement until . a.m., by which time the terminal leaflet had risen and was awake. two days afterwards (oct. th) the same plant was observed by him at . a.m. (temp. o f.), and he found that the large terminal leaflets were awake, though not quite horizontal; and the only cause which we could assign for this anomalous wakefulness was that the plant had been kept for experimental purposes during [page ] the previous day at an unusually high temperature; the little lateral leaflets were also jerking at this hour, but whether there was any connection between this latter fact and the sub-horizontal position of the terminal leaflets we do not know. anyhow, it is certain that the lateral leaflets do not sleep like the terminal leaflets; and in so far they may be said to be in a functionally rudimentary condition. they are in a similar condition in relation to irritability; for if a plant be shaken or syringed, the terminal leaflets sink down to about o beneath the horizon; but we could never detect any effect thus produced on the lateral leaflets; yet we are not prepared to assert positively that rubbing or pricking the pulvinus produces no effect. as in the case of most rudimentary organs, the leaflets are variable in size; they often depart from their normal position and do not stand opposite one another; and one of the two is frequently absent. this absence appeared in some, but not in all the cases, to be due to the leaflet having become completely confluent with the main petiole, as might be inferred from the presence of a slight ridge along its upper margin, and from the course of the vessels. in one instance there was a vestige of the leaflet, in the shape of a minute point, at the further end of the ridge. the frequent, sudden and complete disappearance of one or both of the rudimentary leaflets is a rather singular fact; but it is a much more surprising one that the leaves which are first developed on seedling plants are not provided with them. thus, on one seedling the seventh leaf above the cotyledons was the first which bore any lateral leaflets, and then only a single one. on another seedling, the eleventh leaf first bore a leaflet; of the nine succeeding leaves five bore a single lateral leaflet, and four bore none at all; at last a leaf, the twenty-first above the cotyledons, was provided with two rudimentary lateral leaflets. from a widespread analogy in the animal kingdom, it might have been expected that these rudimentary leaflets would have been better developed and more regularly present on very young than on older plants. but bearing in mind, firstly, that long-lost characters sometimes reappear late in life, and secondly, that the species of desmodium are generally trifoliate, but that some are unifoliate, the suspicion arises that d. gyrans is descended from a unifoliate species, and that this was descended from a trifoliate one; for in this case both the absence of the little lateral leaflets on very young seedlings, and their sub- [page ] sequent appearance, may be attributed to reversion to more or less distant progenitors.* no one supposes that the rapid movements of the lateral leaflets of 'd. gyrans' are of any use to the plant; and why they should behave in this manner is quite unknown. we imagined that their power of movement might stand in some relation with their rudimentary condition, and therefore observed the almost rudimentary leaflets of mimosa albida vel sensitiva (of which a drawing will hereafter be given, fig. ); but they exhibited no extraordinary movements, and at night they went to sleep like the full-sized leaflets. there is, however, this remarkable difference in the two cases; in desmodium the pulvinus of the rudimentary leaflets has not been reduced in length, in correspondence with the reduction of the blade, to the same extent as has occurred in the mimosa; and it is on the length and degree of curvature of the pulvinus that the amount of movement of the blade depends. thus the average length of the pulvinus in the large terminal leaflets of desmodium is mm., whilst that of the rudimentary leaflets is . mm.; so that they differ only a little in length. but in diameter they differ much, that of the pulvinus of the little leaflets being only . mm. to . mm.; whilst that of the terminal leaflets is . mm. if we now turn to the mimosa, we find that the average length of the pulvinus of the almost rudimentary leaflets is only . mm., or rather more than a quarter of the length of the pulvinus of the full-sized leaflets, namely, . mm. in this small reduction in length of the pulvinus of the rudimentary leaflets of desmodium, we apparently have the proximate cause of their great and rapid circumnutating movement, in contrast with that of the almost rudimentary leaflets of the mimosa. the small size and weight of the blade, and the little resistance opposed by the air to its movement, no doubt also come into play; for we have seen that these leaflets if immersed in water, when the resistance would be much greater, were prevented from jerking forwards. why, during the reduction of the lateral leaflets of desmodium, or during their reappearance--if they owe their origin to reversion--the pulvinus should have been so much less affected than the blade, whilst with the * desmodium vespertilionis is closely allied to d. gyrans, and it seems only occasionally to bear rudimentary lateral leaflets. duchartre, 'eléments de botanique,' , p. . [page ] mimosa the pulvinus has been greatly reduced, we do not know. nevertheless, it deserves notice that the reduction of the leaflets in these two genera has apparently been effected by a different process and for a different end; for with the mimosa the reduction of the inner and basal leaflets was necessary from the want of space; but no such necessity exists with desmodium, and the reduction of its lateral leaflets seems to have been due to the principle of compensation, in consequence of the great size of the terminal leaflet. uraria (tribe ) and centrosema (tribe ).--the leaflets of uraria lagopus and the leaves of a centrosema from brazil both sink vertically down at night. in the latter plant the petiole at the same time rose / o. amphicarpoea monoica (tribe ).--the leaflets sink down vertically at night, and the petioles likewise fall considerably. fig. . amphicarpoea monoica: circumnutation and nyctitropic movement of leaf during h.; its apex inches from the vertical glass. figure reduced to one-third of original scale. plant illuminated from above; temp / o - / o c. a petiole, which was carefully observed, stood during the day o above the horizon and at night o below it; it therefore fell o. a filament was fixed transversely across the terminal leaflet of a fine young leaf ( / inches in length including the [page ] petiole), and the movement of the whole leaf was traced on a vertical glass. this was a bad plan in some respects, because the rotation of the leaflet, independently of its rising or falling, raised and depressed the filament; but it was the best plan for our special purpose of observing whether the leaf moved much after it had gone to sleep. the plant had twined closely round a thin stick, so that the circumnutation of the stem was prevented. the movement of the leaf was traced during h., from a.m. july th to a.m. july th. in the figure given (fig. ) we see how complicated its course was on both days: during the second day it changed its course greatly times. the leaflets began to go to sleep a little after p.m., and by . p.m. hung vertically down and were completely asleep; but on both nights they continued to move from . p.m. to . and . p.m., quite as much as during the day; and this was the point which we wished to ascertain. we see in the figure that the great sinking movement late in the evening does not differ essentially from the circumnutation during the day. glycine hispida (tribe ).--the three leaflets sink vertically down at night. erythrina (tribe ).--five species were observed, and the leaflets of all sank vertically down at night; with e. caffra and with a second unnamed species, the petioles at the same time rose slightly. the movements of the terminal leaflet of e. crista-galli (with the main petiole secured to a stick) were traced from . a.m. june th, to a.m. on the th. in order to observe the nyctitropic movements of this plant, it is necessary that it should have grown in a warm greenhouse, for out of doors in our climate it does not sleep. we see in the tracing (fig. ) that the leaflet oscillated twice up and down between early morning and noon; it then fell greatly, afterwards rising till p.m. at this latter hour the great nocturnal fall commenced. on the second day (of which the tracing is not given) there was exactly the same double oscillation before noon, but only a very small one in the afternoon. on the third morning the leaflet moved laterally, which was due to its beginning to assume an oblique position, as seems invariably to occur with the leaflets of this species as they grow old. on both nights after the leaflets were asleep and hung vertically down, they continued to move a little both up and down, and from side to side. erythrina caffra.--a filament was fixed transversely across [page ] a terminal leaflet, as we wished to observe its movements when asleep. the plant was placed in the morning of june th under a skylight, where the light was not bright; and we do not know whether it was owing to this cause or to the plant having been disturbed, but the leaflet hung vertically down all day; nevertheless it circumnutated in this position, describing a figure which represented two irregular ellipses. on the next day it circumnutated in a greater degree, describing four irregular ellipses, and by p.m. had risen into a horizontal position. by . p.m. it was asleep and vertically dependent, but continued to circumnutate as long as observed, until p.m. fig. . erythrina crista-galli: circumnutation and nyctitropic movement of terminal leaflet, / inches in length, traced during h.; apex of leaf ½ inches from the vertical glass. figure reduced to one-half of original scale. plant illuminated from above; temp. / o - / o c. erythrina corallodendron.--the movements of a terminal leaflet were traced. during the second day it oscillated four times up and four times down between a.m. and p.m., after which hour the great nocturnal fall commenced. on the third day the movement was equally great in amplitude, but was remarkably simple, for the leaflet rose in an almost perfectly straight line from . a.m. to p.m., and then sank down in an equally straight line until vertically dependent and asleep. [page ] apios tuberosa (tribe ).--the leaflets sink vertically down at night. phaseolus vulgaris (tribe ).--the leaflets likewise sink vertically down at night. in the greenhouse the petiole of a young leaf rose o, and that of an older leaf o at night. with plants growing out of doors the leaflets apparently do not sleep until somewhat late in the season, for on the nights of july th and th none of them were asleep; whereas on the night of august th the same plants had most of their leaflets vertically dependent and asleep. with ph. caracalla and hernandesii, the primary unifoliate leaves and the leaflets of the secondary trifoliate leaves sink vertically down at night. this holds good with the secondary trifoliate leaves of ph. roxburghii, but it is remarkable that the primary unifoliate leaves which are much elongated, rise at night from about o to about o above the horizon. with older seedlings, however, having the secondary leaves just developed, the primary leaves stand in the middle of the day horizontally, or are deflected a little beneath the horizon. in one such case the primary leaves rose from o beneath the horizon at noon, to o above it at p.m.; whilst at this same hour the leaflets of the secondary leaves were vertically dependent. here, then, we have the extraordinary case of the primary and secondary leaves on the same plant moving at the same time in opposite directions. we have now seen that the leaflets in the six genera of phaseoleae observed by us (with the exception of the primary leaves of phaseolus roxburghii) all sleep in the same manner, namely, by sinking vertically down. the movements of the petioles were observed in only three of these genera. they rose in centrosema and phaseolus, and sunk in amphicarpaea. sophora chrysophylla (tribe ).--the leaflets rise at night, and are at the same time directed towards the apex of the leaf, as in mimosa pudica. caesalpinia, hoematoxylon, gleditschia, poinciana.--the leaflets of two species of caesalpinia (tribe ) rose at night. with haematoxylon campechianum (tribe ) the leaflets move forwards at night, so that their midribs stand parallel to the petiole, and their now vertical lower surfaces are turned outwards (fig. ). the petiole sinks a little. in gleditschia, if we understand correctly duchartre's description, and in poin- [page ] ciana gilliesii (both belonging to tribe ), the leaves behave in the same manner. fig. . haematoxylon campechianum: a, branch during daytime; b, branch with leaves asleep, reduced to two-thirds of natural scale. cassia (tribe ).--the nyctitropic movements of the leaves in many species in this genus are closely alike, and are highly complex. they were first briefly described by linnaeus, and since by duchartre. our observations were made chiefly on c. floribunda* and corymbosa, but several other species were casually observed. the horizontally extended leaflets sink down vertically at night; but not simply, as in so many other genera, for each leaflet rotates on its own axis, so that its lower surface faces outwards. the upper surfaces of the opposite leaflets are thus brought into contact with one another beneath the petiole, and are well protected (fig. ). the rotation and other movements are effected by means of a well-developed pulvinus at the base of each leaflet, as could be plainly seen when a straight narrow black line had been painted along it during the day. the two terminal leaflets in the daytime include rather less than a right angle; but their divergence increases greatly whilst they * i am informed by mr. dyer that mr. bentham believes that c. floribunda (a common greenhouse bush) is a hybrid raised in france, and that it comes very near to c. laevigata. it is no doubt the same as the form described by lindley ('bot. reg.,' tab. ) as c. herbertiana. [page ] sink downwards and rotate, so that they stand laterally at night, as may be seen in the figure. moreover, they move somewhat backwards, so as to point towards the base of the petiole. fig. . cassia corymbosa: a, plant during day; b, same plant at night. both figures copied from photographs. in one instance we found that the midrib of a terminal leaflet formed at night an angle of o, with a line dropped [page ] perpendicularly from the end of the petiole. the second pair of leaflets likewise moves a little backwards, but less than the terminal pair; and the third pair moves vertically downwards, or even a little forwards. thus all the leaflets, in those species which bear only or pairs, tend to form a single packet, with their upper surfaces in contact, and their lower surfaces turned outwards. lastly, the main petiole rises at night, but with leaves of different ages to very different degrees, namely some rose through an angle of only o, and others as much as o. cassia calliantha.--the leaves bear a large number of leaflets, which move at night in nearly the same manner as just described; but the petioles apparently do not rise, and one which was carefully observed certainly fell o. cassia pubescens.--the chief difference in the nyctitropic fig. . cassia pubescens: a, upper part of plant during the day; b, same plant at night. figures reduced from photographs. movements of this species, compared with those of the former species, consists in the leaflets not rotating nearly so much; [page ] therefore their lower surfaces face but little outwards at night. the petioles, which during the day are inclined only a little above the horizon, rise at night in a remarkable manner, and stand nearly or quite vertically. this, together with the dependent position of the leaflets, makes the whole plant wonderfully compact at night. in the two foregoing figures, copied from photographs, the same plant is represented awake and asleep (fig. ), and we see how different is its appearance. cassia mimosoides.--at night the numerous leaflets on each leaf rotate on their axes, and their tips move towards the apex of the leaf; they thus become imbricated with their lower surfaces directed upwards, and with their midribs almost parallel to the petiole. consequently, this species differs from all the others seen by us, with the exception of the following one, in the leaflets not sinking down at night. a petiole, the movement of which was measured, rose o at night. cassia barclayana.--the leaflets of this australian species are numerous, very narrow, and almost linear. at night they rise up a little, and also move towards the apex of the leaf. for instance, two opposite leaflets which diverged from one another during the day at an angle of o, diverted at night only o; so that each had risen o above its diurnal position. the petiole of a young leaf rose at night o, and that of an older leaf o. owing to the slight movement of the leaflets and the considerable movement of the petiole, the bush presents a different appearance at night to what it does by day; yet the leaves can hardly be said to sleep. the circumnutating movements of the leaves of c. floribunda, calliantha, and pubescens were observed, each during three or four days; they were essentially alike, those of the last-named species being the simplest. the petiole of c. floribunda was secured to a stick at the base of the two terminal leaflets, and a filament was fixed along the midrib of one of them. its movements were traced from p.m. on august th to . a.m. th; but those during the last h. are alone given in fig. . from a.m. on each day (by which hour the leaf had assumed its diurnal position) to or p.m., it either zigzagged or circumnutated over nearly the same small space; at between and p.m. the great evening fall commenced. the lines representing this fall and the early morning rise are oblique, owing to the peculiar manner in which the leaflets sleep, as already described. after the leaflet was asleep at p.m., and whilst the glass filament hung [page ] perpendicularly down, the movement of its apex was traced until . p.m.; and during this whole time it swayed from side to side, completing more than one ellipse. fig . cassia floribunda: circumnutation and nyctitropic movement of a terminal leaflet ( / inch in length) traced from . a.m. to same hour on following morning. apex of leaflet ½ inches from the vertical glass. main petiole / inches long. temp. o - / o c. figure reduced to one-half of the original scale. bauhinia (tribe ).--the nyctitropic movements of four species were alike, and were highly peculiar. a plant raised from seed sent us from south brazil by fritz müller, was more especially observed. the leaves are large and deeply notched at their ends. at night the two halves rise up and close completely together, like the opposite leaflets of many leguminosae. with very young plants the petioles rise considerably at the same time; one, which was inclined at noon o above the horizon, at night stood at o; it thus rose o; another rose o. whilst the two halves of the leaf are closing, the midrib at first sinks vertically downwards and afterwards bends backwards, so as to pass close along one side of its own upwardly inclined petiole; the midrib being thus directed towards the stem or axis of the plant. the angle which the midrib formed with the horizon was measured in one case at different hours: at noon it stood horizontally; late in the evening it depended vertically; then rose to the opposite side, and at . p.m. stood at only o beneath the horizon, being directed towards the stem. it had thus travelled through o. [page ] owing to this movement--to the leaves being folded--and to the petioles rising, the whole plant is as much more compact at night than during the day, as a fastigiate lombardy poplar is compared with any other species of poplar. it is remarkable that when our plants had grown a little older, viz., to a height of or feet, the petioles did not rise at night, and the midribs of the folded leaves were no longer bent back along one side of the petiole. we have noticed in some other genera that the petioles of very young plants rise much more at night than do those of older plants. tamarindus indica (tribe ).--the leaflets approach or meet each other at night, and are all directed towards the apex of the leaf. they thus become imbricated with their midribs parallel to the petiole. the movement is closely similar to that of haematoxylon (see fig. ), but more striking from the greater number of the leaflets. adenanthera, prosopis, and neptunia (tribe ).--with adenanthera pavonia the leaflets turn edgeways and sink at night. in prosopis they turn upwards. with neptunia oleracea the leaflets on the opposite sides of the same pinna come into contact at night and are directed forwards. the pinnae themselves move downwards, and at the same time backwards or towards the stem of the plant. the main petiole rises. mimosa pudica (tribe ).--this plant has been the subject of innumerable observations; but there are some points in relation to our subject which have not been sufficiently attended to. at night, as is well known, the opposite leaflets come into contact and point towards the apex of the leaf; they thus become neatly imbricated with their upper surfaces protected. the four pinnae also approach each other closely, and the whole leaf is thus rendered very compact. the main petiole sinks downwards during the day till late in the evening, and rises until very early in the morning. the stem is continually circumnutating at a rapid rate, though not to a wide extent. some very young plants, kept in darkness, were observed during two days, and although subjected to a rather low temperature of o - o f., the stem of one described four small ellipses in the course of h. we shall immediately see that the main petiole is likewise continually circumnutating, as is each separate pinna and each separate leaflet. therefore, if the movement of the apex of any one leaflet were to be traced, the course described would be compounded of the movements of four separate parts. [page ] a filament had been fixed on the previous evening, longitudinally to the main petiole of a nearly full-grown, highly-sensitive leaf (four inches in length), the stem having been secured to a stick at its base; and a tracing was made on a vertical glass in the hot-house under a high temperature. in the figure given (fig. ), the first dot was made at . a.m. august nd, and the last at p.m. on the rd. during h. on the first day the petiole moved thrice downwards and twice upwards. within the same length of time on the second day, it moved five times downwards and four times upwards. as the ascending and descending lines do not coincide, the petiole manifestly circumnutates; the great evening fall and nocturnal rise being an exaggeration of one of the circumnutations. it should, however, be observed that the petiole fell much lower down in the evenings than could be seen on the vertical glass or is represented in the diagram. after p.m. on the rd (when the last dot in fig. was made) the pot was carried into a bed-room, and the petiole was found at . a.m. (i.e. after midnight) standing almost upright, and much more highly inclined than it was at . p.m. when observed again at a.m. it had begun to fall, and continued falling till . a.m., after which hour it zigzagged and again circumnutated. similar observations were made on another petiole, with nearly the same result. fig. mimosa pudica: circumnutation and nyctitropic movement of main petiole, traced during h. m. on two other occasions the movement of the main petiole [page ] was observed every two or three minutes, the plants being kept at a rather high temperature, viz., on the first occasion at o - o f., and the filament then described ½ ellipses in m. on the second occasion, when the temperature was o - o f., it made rather more than ellipses in m. therefore, fig. , though now sufficiently complex, would have been incomparably more so, if dots had been made on the glass every or minutes, instead of every hour or half-hour. although the main petiole is continually and rapidly describing small ellipses during the day, yet after the great nocturnal rising movement has commenced, if dots are made every or minutes, as was done for an hour between . and . p.m. (temp. o f.), and the dots are then joined, an almost absolutely straight line is the result. to show that the movement of the petiole is in all probability due to the varying turgescence of the pulvinus, and not to growth (in accordance with the conclusions of pfeffer), a very old leaf, with some of its leaflets yellowish and hardly at all sensitive, was selected for observation, and the plant was kept at the highly favourable temp. of o f. the petiole fell from a.m. till . a.m., it then rose a little in a somewhat zigzag line, often remaining stationary, till p.m., when the great evening fall commenced, which was continued till at least p.m. by a.m. on the following morning it had risen to the same level as on the previous morning, and then descended in a zigzag line. but from . a.m. till . p.m. it remained almost motionless, all power of movement being now lost. the petiole, therefore, of this very old leaf, which must have long ceased growing, moved periodically; but instead of circumnutating several times during the day, it moved only twice down and twice up in the course of h., with the ascending and descending lines not coincident. it has already been stated that the pinnae move independently of the main petiole. the petiole of a leaf was fixed to a cork support, close to the point whence the four pinnae diverge, with a short fine filament cemented longitudinally to one of the two terminal pinnae, and a graduated semicircle was placed close beneath it. by looking vertically down, its angular or lateral movements could be measured with accuracy. between noon and . p.m. the pinna changed its position to one side by only o; but not continuously in the same direction, as it moved four times to one side, and three times to the opposite side, [page ] in one instance to the extent of o. this pinna, therefore circumnutated. later in the evening the four pinnae approach each other, and the one which was observed moved inwards o between noon and . p.m. ten observations were made in the course of h. m. (at average intervals of m.), between . and . p.m.; and there was now, when the leaf was going to sleep, no swaying from side to side, but a steady inward movement. here therefore there is in the evening the same conversion of a circumnutating into a steady movement in one direction, as in the case of the main petiole. it has also been stated that each separate leaflet circumnutates. a pinna was cemented with shellac on the summit of a little stick driven firmly into the ground, immediately beneath a pair of leaflets, to the midribs of both of which excessively fine glass filaments were attached. this treatment did not injure the leaflets, for they went to sleep in the usual manner, and long retained their sensitiveness. the movements of one of them were traced during h., as shown in fig. . on the first day the leaflet sank down till . a.m., and then rose till late in the evening in a zigzag line, indicating circumnutation. on the second day, when more accustomed to its new state, it oscillated twice up and twice down during the h. this plant was subjected to a rather low temperature, viz., o - o f.; had it been kept warmer, no doubt the movements of the leaflet would have been much more rapid and complicated. it may be seen in the diagram that the ascending and descending lines do not coincide; but the large amount of lateral movement in the evening is the result of the leaflets bending towards the apex of the leaf when going to sleep. another leaflet was casually observed, and found to be continually circumnutating during the same length of time. the circumnutation of the leaves is not destroyed by their being subjected to moderately long continued darkness; but the proper periodicity of their movements is lost. some very young seedlings were kept during two days in the dark (temp. o - o f.) except when the circumnutation of their stems was occasionally observed; and on the evening of the second day the leaflets did not fully and properly go to sleep. the pot was then placed for three days in a dark cupboard, under nearly the same temperature, and at the close of this period the leaflets showed no signs of sleeping, and were only slightly sensitive to a touch. on the following day the stem was cemented to a [page ] stick, and the movements of two leaves were traced on a vertical glass during h. the plants were still kept in the dark, excepting that at each observation, which lasted or minutes, fig . mimosa pudica: circumnutation and nyctitropic movement of a leaflet (with pinna secured), traced on a vertical glass, from a.m. sept. th to a.m. th. they were illuminated by two candles. on the third day the leaflets still exhibited a vestige of sensitiveness when forcibly pressed, but in the evening they showed no signs of sleep. nevertheless, their petioles continued to circumnutate distinctly, [page ] although the proper order of their movements in relation to the day and night was wholly lost. thus, one leaf descended during the first two nights (i.e. between p.m. and a.m. next morning) instead of ascending, and on the third night it moved chiefly in a lateral direction. the second leaf behaved in an equally abnormal manner, moving laterally during the first night, descending greatly during the second, and ascending to an unusual height during the third night. with plants kept at a high temperature and exposed to the light, the most rapid circumnutating movement of the apex of a leaf which was observed, amounted to / of an inch in one second; and this would have equalled / of an inch in a minute, had not the leaf occasionally stood still. the actual distance travelled by the apex (as ascertained by a measure placed close to the leaf) was on one occasion nearly / of an inch in a vertical direction in m.; and on another occasion / of an inch in m.; but there was also some lateral movement. mimosa albida.*--the leaves of this plant, one of which is here figured (fig. ) reduced to / of the natural size, present some fig. . mimosa albida: leaf seen from vertically above. interesting peculiarities. it consists of a long petiole bearing only two pinnae (here represented as rather more divergent than is usual), each with two pairs of leaflets. but the inner * mr. thiselton dyer informs us that this peruvian plant (which was sent to us from kew) is considered by mr. bentham ('trans. linn. soc.,' vol. xxx. p. ) to be "the species or variety which most commonly represents the m. sensitiva of our gardens." [page ] basal leaflets are greatly reduced in size, owing probably to the want of space for their full development, so that they may be considered as almost rudimentary. they vary somewhat in size, and both occasionally disappear, or only one. nevertheless, they are not in the least rudimentary in function, for they are sensitive, extremely heliotropic, circumnutate at nearly the same rate as the fully developed leaflets, and assume when asleep exactly the same position. with m. pudica the inner leaflets at the base and between the pinnae are likewise much shortened and obliquely truncated; this fact was well seen in some seedlings of m. pudica, in which the third leaf above the cotyledons bore only two pinnae, each with only or pairs of leaflets, of which the inner basal one was less than half as long as its fellow; so that the whole leaf resembled pretty closely that of m. albida. in this latter species the main petiole terminates in a little point, and on each side of this there is a pair of minute, flattened, lancet-shaped projections, hairy on their margins, which drop off and disappear soon after the leaf is fully developed. there can hardly be a doubt that these little projections are the last and fugacious representatives of an additional pair of leaflets to each pinna; for the outer one is twice as broad as the inner one, and a little longer, viz. / of an inch, whilst the inner one is only / - / long. now if the basal pair of leaflets of the existing leaves were to become rudimentary, we should expect that the rudiments would still exhibit some trace of their present great inequality of size. the conclusion that the pinnae of the parent-form of m. albida possessed at least three pairs of leaflets, instead of, as at present, only two, is supported by the structure of the first true leaf; for this consists of a simple petiole, often bearing three pairs of leaflets. this latter fact, as well as the presence of the rudiments, both lead to the conclusion that m. albida is descended from a form the leaves of which bore more than two pairs of leaflets. the second leaf above the cotyledons resembles in all respects the leaves on fully developed plants. when the leaves go to sleep, each leaflet twists half round, so as to present its edge to the zenith, and comes into close contact with its fellow. the pinnae also approach each other closely, so that the four terminal leaflets come together. the large basal leaflets (with the little rudimentary ones in contact with them) move inwards and forwards, so as to embrace the outside of the united terminal leaflets, and thus all eight leaflets [page ] (the rudimentary ones included) form together a single vertical packet. the two pinnae at the same time that they approach each other sink downwards, and thus instead of extending horizontally in the same line with the main petiole, as during the day, they depend at night at about o, or even at a greater angle, beneath the horizon. the movement of the main petiole seems to be variable; we have seen it in the evening o lower than during the day; but sometimes in nearly the same position. nevertheless, a sinking movement in the evening and a rising one during the night is probably the normal course, for this was well-marked in the petiole of the first-formed true leaf. the circumnutation of the main petiole of a young leaf was traced during / days, and was considerable in extent, but less complex than that of m. pudica. the movement was much more lateral than is usual with circumnutating leaves, and this was the sole peculiarity which it presented. the apex of one of the terminal leaflets was seen under the microscope to travel / of an inch in minutes. mimosa marginata.--the opposite leaflets rise up and approach each other at night, but do not come into close contact, except in the case of very young leaflets on vigorous shoots. full-grown leaflets circumnutate during the day slowly and on a small scale. schrankia uncinata (tribe ).--a leaf consists of two or three pairs of pinnae, each bearing many small leaflets. these, when the plant is asleep, are directed forwards and become imbricated. the angle between the two terminal pinnae was diminished at night, in one case by o; and they sank almost vertically downwards. the hinder pairs of pinnae likewise sink downwards, but do not converge, that is, move towards the apex of the leaf. the main petiole does not become depressed, at least during the evening. in this latter respect, as well as in the sinking of the pinnae, there is a marked difference between the nyctitropic movements of the present plant and of mimosa pudica. it should, however, be added that our specimen was not in a very vigorous condition. the pinnae of schrankia aculeata also sink at night. acacia farnesiana (tribe ).--the different appearance presented by a bush of this plant when asleep and awake is wonderful. the same leaf in the two states is shown in the following figure (fig. ). the leaflets move towards the apex of the pinna and become imbricated, and the pinnae then look like bits of dangling string. the following remarks and measurements [page ] do not fully apply to the small leaf here figured. the pinnae move forwards and at the same time sink downwards, whilst the main petiole rises considerably. with respect to the degree of movement: the two terminal pinnae of one specimen formed together an angle of o during the day, and at night of only o, so each had moved o forwards. the penultimate pinnae during the day formed together an angle of o, that is, they stood in a straight line opposite one another, and at night each had moved o forwards. the basal pair of pinnae were directed fig. . acacia farnesiana: a, leaf during the day; b, the same leaf at night. during the day, each about o backwards, and at night o forwards, so each had moved o forwards. but the pinnae at the same time sink greatly, and sometimes hang almost perpendicularly downwards. the main petiole, on the other hand, rises much: by . p.m. one stood o higher than at noon, and by . a.m. on the following morning it was still higher by o; shortly after this hour the diurnal sinking movement commenced. the course of a nearly full-grown leaf was traced during h.; it was strongly zigzag, and apparently [page ] represented five ellipses, with their longer axes differently directed. albizzia lophantha (tribe ).--the leaflets at night come into contact with one another, and are directed towards the apex of the pinna. the pinnae approach one another, but remain in the same plane as during the day; and in this respect they differ much from those of the above schrankia and acacia. the main petiole rises but little. the first-formed leaf above the cotyledons bore leaflets on each side, and these slept like those on the subsequently formed leaves; but the petiole of this first leaf was curved downwards during the day and at night straightened itself, so that the chord of its arc then stood o higher than in the day-time. melaleuca ericaefolia (myrtaceae).--according to bouché ('bot. zeit.,' , p. ) the leaves sleep at night, in nearly the same manner as those of certain species of pimelia. oenothera mollissima (onagrarieae).--according to linnaeus ('somnus plantarum'), the leaves rise up vertically at night. passiflora gracilis (passifloracae).--the young leaves sleep by their blades hanging vertically downwards, and the whole length of the petiole then becomes somewhat curved downwards. externally no trace of a pulvinus can be seen. the petiole of the uppermost leaf on a young shoot stood at . a.m. at o above the horizon; and at . p.m., when the blade was vertically dependent, at only o, so the petiole had fallen o. that of the next older leaf fell only o. from some unknown cause the leaves do not always sleep properly. the stem of a plant, which had stood for some time before a north-east window, was secured to a stick at the base of a young leaf, the blade of which was inclined at o below the horizon. from its position the leaf had to be viewed obliquely, consequently the vertically ascending and descending movements appeared when traced oblique. on the first day (oct. th) the leaf descended in a zigzag line until late in the evening; and by . a.m. on the th had risen to nearly the same level as on the previous morning. a new tracing was now begun (fig. ). the leaf continued to rise until . a.m., then moved a little to the right, and afterwards descended. between a.m. and p.m. it circumnutated, and after the latter hour the great nocturnal fall commenced. at . p.m. it depended vertically. the dotted line ought to have been prolonged much lower down in the figure. by . a.m. on the following morning ( th) the [page ] leaf had risen greatly, and continued to rise till . a.m., after which hour it redescended. it should be observed that the lines traced on this second morning would have coincided with and confused those previously traced, had not the pot been slided a very little to the left. in the evening ( th) a mark was placed behind the filament attached to the apex of the leaf, and its movement was carefully traced from p.m. to . p.m. fig. . passiflora gracilis: circumnutation and nyctitropic movement of leaf, traced on vertical glass, from . a.m. oct. th to a.m. th. figure reduced to two-thirds of original scale. between and . p.m. the leaf descended in a straight line, and at the latter hour it appeared vertically dependent. but between . and . p.m. the line consisted of a succession of steps, the cause of which we could not understand; it was, however, manifest that the movement was no longer a simple descending one. siegesbeckia orientalis (compositae).--some seedlings were raised in the middle of winter and kept in the hot-house; they flowered, but did not grow well, and their leaves never showed any signs of sleep. the leaves on other seedlings raised in may were horizontal at noon (june nd), and depended at a consi- [page ] derable angle beneath the horizon at p.m. in the case of four youngish leaves which were from to ½ inches in length, these angles were found to be o, o, o, and o. at the end of august when the plants had grown to a height of to inches, the younger leaves were so much curved downwards at night that they might truly be said to be asleep. this is one fig. . nicotiana glauca: shoots with leaves expanded during the day, and asleep at night. figures copied from photographs, and reduced. of the species which must be well illuminated during the day in order to sleep, for on two occasions when plants were kept all day in a room with north-east windows, the leaves did not sleep at night. the same cause probably accounts for the leaves on our seedlings raised in the dead of the winter not sleeping. professor pfeffer informs us that the leaves of another species (s. jorullensis ?) hang vertically down at night. [page ] ipomoea caerulea and purpurea (convolvulaceae).--the leaves on very young plants, a foot or two in height, are depressed at night to between o and o beneath the horizon; and some hang quite vertically downwards. on the following morning they again rise into a horizontal position. the petioles become at night downwardly curved, either through their entire length or in the upper part alone; and this apparently causes the depression of the blade. it seems necessary that the leaves should be well illuminated during the day in order to sleep, for those which stood on the back of a plant before a north-east window did not sleep. nicotiana tabacum (var. virginian) and glauca (solaneae).--the young leaves of both these species sleep by bending vertically upwards. figures of two shoots of n. glauca, awake and asleep (fig. ), are given on p. : one of the shoots, from which the photographs were taken, was accidentally bent to one side. fig. . nicotiana tabacum: circumnutation and nyctitropic movement of a leaf ( inches in length), traced on a vertical glass, from p.m. july th to . a.m. th. apex of leaf inches from glass. temp. / o - / o c. figure reduced to one-half original scale. at the base of the petiole of n. tabacum, on the outside, there is a mass of cells, which are rather smaller than elsewhere, and [page ] have their longer axes differently directed from the cells of the parenchyma, and may therefore be considered as forming a sort of pulvinus. a young plant of n. tabacum was selected, and the circumnutation of the fifth leaf above the cotyledons was observed during three days. on the first morning (july th) the leaf fell from to a.m., which is its normal course, but rose during the remainder of the day; and this no doubt was due to its being illuminated exclusively from above; for properly the evening rise does not commence until or p.m. in the figure as given on p. (fig. ) the first dot was made at p.m.; and the tracing was continued for the following h. when the leaf pointed to the dot next above that marked p.m. it stood horizontally. the tracing is remarkable only from its simplicity and the straightness of the lines. the leaf each day described a single great ellipse; for it should be observed that the ascending and descending lines do not coincide. on the evening of the th the leaf did not descend quite so low as usual, and it now zigzagged a little. the diurnal sinking movement had already commenced each morning by a.m. the broken lines at the top of the figure, representing the nocturnal vertical position of the leaf, ought to be prolonged much higher up. mirabilis longiflora and jalapa (nyctagineae).--the first pair of leaves above the cotyledons, produced by seedlings of both these species, were considerably divergent during the day, and at night stood up vertically in close contact with one another. the two upper leaves on an older seedling were almost horizontal by day, and at night stood up vertically, but were not in close contact, owing to the resistance offered by the central bud. polygonum aviculare (polygoneae).--professor batalin informs us that the young leaves rise up vertically at night. this is likewise the case, according to linnaeus, with several species of amaranthus (amaranthaceae); and we observed a sleep movement of this kind in one member of the genus. again, with chenopodium album (chenopodieae), the upper young leaves of some seedlings, about inches in height, were horizontal or sub-horizontal during the day, and at p.m. on march th were quite, or almost quite, vertical. other seedlings raised in the greenhouse during the winter (jan. th) were observed day and night, and no difference could be perceived in the position of their leaves. according to bouché ('bot. zeitung,' , p. ) the leaves of pimelia linoides and spectabilis (thymeleae) sleep at night. [page ] euphorbia jacquiniaeflora (euphorbiaceae).--mr. lynch called our attention to the fact that the young leaves of this plant sleep by depending vertically. the third leaf from the summit (march th) was inclined during the day o beneath the horizon, and at night hung vertically down, as did some of the still younger leaves. it rose up to its former level on the following morning. the fourth and fifth leaves from the summit stood horizontally during the day, and sank down at night only o. the sixth leaf did not sensibly alter its position. the sinking movement is due to the downward curvature of the petiole, no part of which exhibits any structure like that of a pulvinus. early on the morning of june th a filament was fixed longitudinally to a young leaf (the third from the summit, and / inches in length), and its movements were traced on a vertical glass during h., the plant being illuminated from above through a skylight. each day the leaf fell in a nearly straight line from a.m. to p.m., after which hour it was so much inclined downwards that the movement could no longer be traced; and during the latter part of each night, or early in the morning, the leaf rose. it therefore circumnutated in a very simple manner, making a single large ellipse every h., for the ascending and descending lines did not coincide. on each successive morning it stood at a less height than on the previous one, and this was probably due partly to the increasing age of the leaf, and partly to the illumination being insufficient; for although the leaves are very slightly heliotropic, yet, according to mr. lynch's and our own observations, their inclination during the day is determined by the intensity of the light. on the third day, by which time the extent of the descending movement had much decreased, the line traced was plainly much more zigzag than on any previous day, and it appeared as if some of its powers of movement were thus expended. at p.m. on june th, when the leaf depended vertically, its movements were observed by a mark being placed behind it, and the end of the attached filament was seen to oscillate slowly and slightly from side to side, as well as upwards and downwards. phyllanthus niruri (euphorbiaceae).--the leaflets of this plant sleep, as described by pfeffer,* in a remarkable manner, apparently like those of cassia, for they sink downwards at night and twist round, so that their lower surfaces are turned * 'die period. beweg.,' p. . [page ] outwards. they are furnished as might have been expected from this complex kind of movement, with a pulvinus. gymnosperms. pinus nordmanniana (coniferae).--m. chatin states* that the leaves, which are horizontal during the day, rise up at night, so as to assume a position almost perpendicular to the branch from which they arise; we presume that he here refers to a horizontal branch. he adds: "en même temps, ce mouvement d'érection est accompangé d'un mouvement de torsion imprimé à la partie basilaire de la feuille, et pouvant souvent parcourir un arc de degrés." as the lower surfaces of the leaves are white, whilst the upper are dark green, the tree presents a widely different appearance by day and night. the leaves on a small tree in a pot did not exhibit with us any nyctitropic movements. we have seen in a former chapter that the leaves of pinus pinaster and austriaca are continually circumnutating. monocotyledons. thalia dealbata (cannaceae).--the leaves of this plant sleep by turning vertically upwards; they are furnished with a well-developed pulvinus. it is the only instance known to us of a very large leaf sleeping. the blade of a young leaf, which was as yet only / inches in length and ½ in breadth, formed at noon an angle with its tall petiole of o, and at night stood vertically in a line with it, and so had risen o. the actual distance travelled by the apex (as measured by an orthogonic tracing) of another large leaf, between . a.m. and p.m., was ½ inches. the circumnutation of two young and dwarfed leaves, arising amongst the taller leaves at the base of the plant, was traced on a vertical glass during two days. on the first day the apex of one, and on the second day the apex of the other leaf, described between . a.m. and p.m. two ellipses, the longer axes of which were extended in very different directions from the lines representing the great diurnal sinking and nocturnal rising movement. maranta arundinacea (cannaceae).--the blades of the leaves, which are furnished with a pulvinus, stand horizontally during * 'comptes rendus,' jan. , p. . [page ] the day or between o and o above the horizon, and at night vertically upwards. they therefore rise between o and o at night. the plant was placed at noon in the dark in the hot-house, and on the following day the movements of the leaves were traced. between . and . a.m. they rose, and then fell greatly till . p.m. but by p.m. they had again risen a little, and continued to rise during the rest of the afternoon and night; on the following morning they stood at the same level as on the previous day. darkness, therefore, during a day and a half does not interfere with the periodicity of their movements. on a warm but stormy evening, the plant whilst being brought into the house, had its leaves violently shaken, and at night not one went to sleep. on the next morning the plant was taken back to the hot-house, and again at night the leaves did not sleep; but on the ensuing night they rose in the usual manner between o and o. this fact is analogous with what we have observed with climbing plants, namely, that much agitation checks for a time their power of circumnutation; but the effect in this instance was much more strongly marked and prolonged. colocasia antiquorum (caladium esculentum, hort.) (aroideae).--the leaves of this plant sleep by their blades sinking in the evening, so as to stand highly inclined, or even quite vertically with their tips pointing to the ground. they are not provided with a pulvinus. the blade of one stood at noon degree beneath the horizon; at . p.m., o; at p.m. o; at . p.m., o; and at . p.m., o; so it had now begun to rise; at . p.m. it stood at o, and on the following early morning at o beneath the horizon. the circumnutation of another young leaf (with its petiole only / inches, and the blade inches in length), was traced on a vertical glass during h.; it was dimly illuminated through a skylight, and this seemed to disturb the proper periodicity of its movements. nevertheless, the leaf fell greatly during both afternoons, till either . p.m. or p.m., when it rose a little and moved laterally. by an early hour on both mornings, it had assumed its diurnal position. the well-marked lateral movement for a short time in the early part of the night, was the only interesting fact which it presented, as this caused the ascending and descending lines not to coincide, in accordance with the general rule with circumnutating organs. the movements of the leaves of this plant are thus of the most simple kind; and the tracing is not worth giving. we have seen that in another genus of the aroideae, namely, pistia, the leaves [page ] rise so much at night that they may almost be said to sleep. strephium floribundum* (gramineae).--the oval leaves are provided with a pulvinus, and are extended horizontally or declined a little beneath the horizon during the day. those on the upright culms simply rise up vertically at night, so that their tips are directed towards the zenith. (fig. .) fig. . strephium floribundum: culms with leaves during the day, and when asleep at night. figures reduced. horizontally extended leaves arising from much inclined or almost horizontal culms, move at night so that their tips point towards the apex of the culm, with one lateral margin directed towards the zenith; and in order to assume this position the leaves have to twist on their own axes through an angle of nearly o. thus the surface of the blade always stands vertically, whatever may be the position of the midrib or of the leaf as a whole. the circumnutation of a young leaf ( . inches in length) was traced during h. (fig. ). the movement was remarkably simple; the leaf descended from before . a.m. until or . p.m., and then rose so as to stand vertically at about p.m., descending again late in the night or in the very early morning. * a. brongniart first observed that the leaves of this plant and of marsilea sleep: see 'bull. de la soc. bot. de france,' tom. vii. , p. . [page ] on the second day the descending line zigzagged slightly. as usual, the ascending and descending lines did not coincide. on another occasion, when the temperature was a little higher, viz., o - / o c., a leaf was observed times between . a.m. and . p.m.; it changed its course by as much as a rectangle six times in this interval of h. m., and described two irregular triangles and a half. the leaf, therefore, on this occasion circumnutated rapidly and in a complex manner. fig. . strephium floribundum: circumnutation and nyctitropic movement of a leaf, traced from a.m. june th to . a.m. th; filament fixed along the midrib. apex of leaf / inches from the vertical glass; plant illuminated from above. temp. / o - / o c. acotyledons. marsilea quadrifoliata (marsileaceae).--the shape of a leaf, expanded horizontally during the day, is shown at a (fig. ). each leaflet is provided with a well-developed pulvinus. when the leaves sleep, the two terminal leaflets rise up, twist half round and come into contact with one another (b), and are afterwards embraced by the two lower leaflets (c); so that the four leaflets with their lower surfaces turned outwards form a vertical packet. the curvature of the summit of the petiole of the leaf figured asleep, is merely accidental. the plant was brought into a room, where the temperature was only a little above o f., and the movement of one of the leaflets (the petiole having been secured) was traced [page ] during h. (fig. ). the leaf fell from the early morning till . p.m., and then rose till p.m., when it was asleep. a fig. . marsilea quadrifoliata: a, leaf during the day, seen from vertically above; b, leaf beginning to go to sleep, seen laterally; c, the same asleep. figures reduced to one-half of natural scale. vertically dependent glass filament was now fixed to one of the terminal and inner leaflets; and part of the tracing in fig. , after p.m., shows that it continued to sink, making one zigzag, until . p.m. at . a.m. on the following morning, the leaf was awaking, and the filament pointed above the vertical glass, fig. . marsilea quadrifoliata: circumnutation and nyctitropic movement of leaflet traced on vertical glass, during nearly h. figure reduced to two-thirds of original scale. plant kept at rather too low a temperature. but by . a.m. it occupied the position shown in the figure. the diagram differs greatly in appearance from most of those previously given; and this is due to the leaflet twisting and moving laterally as it approaches and comes into contact with [page ] its fellow. the movement of another leaflet, when asleep, was traced between p.m. and . p.m., and it clearly circumnutated, for it continued for two hours to sink, then rose, and then sank still lower than it was at p.m. it may be seen in the preceding figure ( ) that the leaflet, when the plant was subjected to a rather low temperature in the house, descended and ascended during the middle of the day in a somewhat zigzag line; but when kept in the hot-house from a.m. to p.m. at a high but varying temperature (viz., between o and o f.) a leaflet (with the petiole secured) circumnutated rapidly, for it made three large vertical ellipses in the course of the six hours. according to brongniart, marsilea pubescens sleeps like the present species. these plants are the sole cryptogamic ones known to sleep.] summary and concluding remarks on the nyctitropic or sleep-movements of leaves.--that these movements are in some manner of high importance to the plants which exhibit them, few will dispute who have observed how complex they sometimes are. thus with cassia, the leaflets which are horizontal during the day not only bend at night vertically downwards with the terminal pair directed considerably backwards, but they also rotate on their own axes, so that their lower surfaces are turned outwards. the terminal leaflet of melilotus likewise rotates, by which movement one of its lateral edges is directed upwards, and at the same time it moves either to the left or to the right, until its upper surface comes into contact with that of the lateral leaflet on the same side, which has likewise rotated on its own axis. with arachis, all four leaflets form together during the night a single vertical packet; and to the effect this the two anterior leaflets have to move upwards and the two posterior ones forwards, besides all twisting on their own axes. in the genus sida the leaves of some species move at night through an angle of o upwards, and of others [page ] through the same angle downwards. we have seen a similar difference in the nyctitropic movements of the cotyledons in the genus oxalis. in lupinus, again, the leaflets move either upwards or downwards; and in some species, for instance l. luteus, those on one side of the star-shaped leaf move up, and those on the opposite side move down; the intermediate ones rotating on their axes; and by these varied movements, the whole leaf forms at night a vertical star instead of a horizontal one, as during the day. some leaves and leaflets, besides moving either upwards or downwards, become more or less folded at night, as in bauhinia and in some species of oxalis. the positions, indeed, which leaves occupy when asleep are almost infinitely diversified; they may point either vertically upwards or downwards, or, in the case of leaflets, towards the apex or towards the base of the leaf, or in any intermediate position. they often rotate at least as much as o on their own axes. the leaves which arise from upright and from horizontal or much inclined branches on the same plant, move in some few cases in a different manner, as with porlieria and strephium. the whole appearance of many plants is wonderfully changed at night, as may be seen with oxalis, and still more plainly with mimosa. a bush of acacia farnesiana appears at night as if covered with little dangling bits of string instead of leaves. excluding a few genera not seen by ourselves, about which we are in doubt, and excluding a few others the leaflets of which rotate at night, and do not rise or sink much, there are genera in which the leaves or leaflets rise, often moving at the same time towards the apex or towards the base of the leaf, and genera in which they sink at night. the nyctitropic movements of leaves, leaflets, and [page ] petioles are effected in two different ways; firstly, by alternately increased growth on their opposite sides, preceded by increased turgescence of the cells; and secondly by means of a pulvinus or aggregate of small cells, generally destitute of chlorophyll, which become alternately more turgescent on nearly opposite sides; and this turgescence is not followed by growth except during the early age of the plant. a pulvinus seems to be formed (as formerly shown) by a group of cells ceasing to grow at a very early age, and therefore does not differ essentially from the surrounding tissues. the cotyledons of some species of trifolium are provided with a pulvinus, and others are destitute of one, and so it is with the leaves in the genus sida. we see also in this same genus gradations in the state of the development of the pulvinus; and in nicotiana we have what may probably be considered as the commencing development of one. the nature of the movement is closely similar, whether a pulvinus is absent or present, as is evident from many of the diagrams given in this chapter. it deserves notice that when a pulvinus is present, the ascending and descending lines hardly ever coincide, so that ellipses are habitually described by the leaves thus provided, whether they are young or so old as to have quite ceased growing. this fact of ellipses being described, shows that the alternately increased turgescence of the cells does not occur on exactly opposite sides of the pulvinus, any more than the increased growth which causes the movements of leaves not furnished with pulvini. when a pulvinus is present, the nyctitropic movements are continued for a very much longer period than when such do not exist. this has been amply proved in the case of cotyledons, and pfeffer has given observations to the same effect with respect [page [ ]] to leaves. we have seen that a leaf of mimosa pudica continued to move in the ordinary manner, though somewhat more simply, until it withered and died. it may be added that some leaflets of trifolium pratense were pinned open during days, and on the first evening after being released they rose up and slept in the usual manner. besides the long continuance of the movements when effected by the aid of a pulvinus (and this appears to be the final cause of its development), a twisting movement at night, as pfeffer has remarked, is almost confined to leaves thus provided. it is a very general rule that the first true leaf, though it may differ somewhat in shape from the leaves on the mature plant, yet sleeps like them; and this occurs quite independently of the fact whether or not the cotyledons themselves sleep, or whether they sleep in the same manner. but with phaseolus roxburghii the first unifoliate leaves rise at night almost sufficiently to be said to sleep, whilst the leaflets of the secondary trifoliate leaves sink vertically at night. on young plants of sida rhombaefolia, only a few inches in height, the leaves did not sleep, though on rather older plants they rose up vertically at night. on the other hand, the leaves on very young plants of cytisus fragrans slept in a conspicuous manner, whilst on old and vigorous bushes kept in the greenhouse, the leaves did not exhibit any plain nyctitropic movement. in the genus lotus the basal stipule-like leaflets rise up vertically at night, and are provided with pulvini. as already remarked, when leaves or leaflets change their position greatly at night and by complicated movements, it can hardly be doubted that these must be in some manner beneficial to the plant. if so, we [page ] must extend the same conclusion to a large number of sleeping plants; for the most complicated and the simplest nyctitropic movements are connected together by the finest gradations. but owing to the causes specified in the beginning of this chapter, it is impossible in some few cases to determine whether or not certain movements should be called nyctitropic. generally, the position which the leaves occupy at night indicates with sufficient clearness, that the benefit thus derived, is the protection of their upper surfaces from radiation into the open sky, and in many cases the mutual protection of all the parts from cold by their being brought into close approximation. it should be remembered that it was proved in the last chapter, that leaves compelled to remain extended horizontally at night, suffered much more from radiation than those which were allowed to assume their normal vertical position. the fact of the leaves of several plants not sleeping unless they have been well illuminated during the day, made us for a time doubt whether the protection of their upper surfaces from radiation was in all cases the final cause of their well-pronounced nyctitropic movements. but we have no reason to suppose that the illumination from the open sky, during even the most clouded day, is insufficient for this purpose; and we should bear in mind that leaves which are shaded from being seated low down on the plant, and which sometimes do not sleep, are likewise protected at night from full radiation. nevertheless, we do not wish to deny that there may exist cases in which leaves change their position considerably at night, without their deriving any benefit from such movements. although with sleeping plants the blades almost [page ] always assume at night a vertical, or nearly vertical position, it is a point of complete indifference whether the apex, or the base, or one of the lateral edges, is directed to the zenith. it is a rule of wide generality, that whenever there is any difference in the degree of exposure to radiation between the upper and the lower surfaces of leaves and leaflets, it is the upper which is the least exposed, as may be seen in lotus, cytisus, trifolium, and other genera. in several species of lupinus the leaflets do not, and apparently from their structure cannot, place themselves vertically at night, and consequently their upper surfaces, though highly inclined, are more exposed than the lower; and here we have an exception to our rule. but in other species of this genus the leaflets succeed in placing themselves vertically; this, however, is effected by a very unusual movement, namely, by the leaflets on the opposite sides of the same leaf moving in opposite directions. it is again a very common rule that when leaflets come into close contact with one another, they do so by their upper surfaces, which are thus best protected. in some cases this may be the direct result of their rising vertically; but it is obviously for the protection of the upper surfaces that the leaflets of cassia rotate in so wonderful a manner whilst sinking downwards; and that the terminal leaflet of melilotus rotates and moves to one side until it meets the lateral leaflet on the same side. when opposite leaves or leaflets sink vertically down without any twisting, their lower surfaces approach each other and sometimes come into contact; but this is the direct and inevitable result of their position. with many species of oxalis the lower surfaces of the adjoining leaflets are pressed together, and are thus better protected [page ] than the upper surfaces; but this depends merely on each leaflet becoming folded at night so as to be able to sink vertically downwards. the torsion or rotation of leaves and leaflets, which occurs in so many cases, apparently always serves to bring their upper surfaces into close approximation with one another, or with other parts of the plant, for their mutual protection. we see this best in such cases as those of arachis, mimosa albida, and marsilea, in which all the leaflets form together at night a single vertical packet. if with mimosa pudica the opposite leaflets had merely moved upwards, their upper surfaces would have come into contact and been well protected; but as it is, they all successively move towards the apex of the leaf; and thus not only their upper surfaces are protected, but the successive pairs become imbricated and mutually protect one another as well as the petioles. this imbrication of the leaflets of sleeping plants is a common phenomenon. the nyctitropic movement of the blade is generally effected by the curvature of the uppermost part of the petiole, which has often been modified into a pulvinus; or the whole petiole, when short, may be thus modified. but the blade itself sometimes curves or moves, of which fact bauhinia offers a striking instance, as the two halves rise up and come into close contact at night. or the blade and the upper part of the petiole may both move. moreover, the petiole as a whole commonly either rises or sinks at night. this movement is sometimes large: thus the petioles of cassia pubescens stand only a little above the horizon during the day, and at night rise up almost, or quite, perpendicularly. the petioles of the younger leaves of desmodium gyrans also rise up vertically at night. on the other hand, with amphi- [page ] carpaea, the petioles of some leaves sank down as much as o at night; with arachis they sank o, and then stood at right angles to the stem. generally, when the rising or sinking of several petioles on the same plant was measured, the amount differed greatly. this is largely determined by the age of the leaf: for instance, the petiole of a moderately old leaf of desmodium gyrans rose only o, whilst the young ones rose up vertically; that of a young leaf of cassia floribunda rose o, whilst that of an older leaf rose only o. it is a more singular fact that the age of the plant sometimes influences greatly the amount of movement; thus with some young seedlings of a bauhinia the petioles rose at night o and o, whereas those on these same plants, when grown to a height of or feet, hardly moved at all. the position of the leaves on the plant as determined by the light, seems also to influence the amount of movement of the petiole; for no other cause was apparent why the petioles of some leaves of melilotus officinalis rose as much as o, and others only o and o at night. in the case of many plants, the petioles move at night in one direction and the leaflets in a directly opposite one. thus, in three genera of phaseoleae the leaflets moved vertically downwards at night, and the petioles rose in two of them, whilst in the third they sank. species in the same genus often differ widely in the movements of their petioles. even on the same plant of lupinus pubescens some of the petioles rose o, others only o, and others sank o at night. the leaflets of cassia barclayana moved so little at night that they could not be said to sleep, yet the petioles of some young leaves rose as much as o. these several facts apparently indicate that the movements [page ] of the petioles are not performed for any special purpose; though a conclusion of this kind is generally rash. when the leaflets sink vertically down at night and the petioles rise, as often occurs, it is certain that the upward movement of the latter does not aid the leaflets in placing themselves in their proper position at night, for they have to move through a greater angular space than would otherwise have been necessary. notwithstanding what has just been said, it may be strongly suspected that in some cases the rising of the petioles, when considerable, does beneficially serve the plant by greatly reducing the surface exposed to radiation at night. if the reader will compare the two drawings (fig. , p. ) of cassia pubescens, copied from photographs, he will see that the diameter of the plant at night is about one-third of what it is by day, and therefore the surface exposed to radiation is nearly nine times less. a similar conclusion may be deduced from the drawings (fig. , p. ) of a branch awake and asleep of desmodium gyrans. so it was in a very striking manner with young plants of bauhinia, and with oxalis ortegesii. we are led to an analogous conclusion with respect to the movements of the secondary petioles of certain pinnate leaves. the pinnae of mimosa pudica converge at night; and thus the imbricated and closed leaflets on each separate pinna are all brought close together into a single bundle, and mutually protect one another, with a somewhat smaller surface exposed to radiation. with albizzia lophantha the pinnae close together in the same manner. although the pinnae of acacia farnesiana do not converge much, they sink downwards. those of neptunia oleracea likewise [page ] move downwards, as well as backwards, towards the base of the leaf, whilst the main petiole rises. with schrankia, again, the pinnae are depressed at night. now in these three latter cases, though the pinnae do not mutually protect one another at night, yet after having sunk down they expose, as does a dependent sleeping leaf, much less surface to the zenith and to radiation than if they had remained horizontal. any one who had never observed continuously a sleeping plant, would naturally suppose that the leaves moved only in the evening when going to sleep, and in the morning when awaking; but he would be quite mistaken, for we have found no exception to the rule that leaves which sleep continue to move during the whole twenty-four hours; they move, however, more quickly when going to sleep and when awaking than at other times. that they are not stationary during the day is shown by all the diagrams given, and by the many more which were traced. it is troublesome to observe the movements of leaves in the middle of the night, but this was done in a few cases; and tracings were made during the early part of the night of the movements in the case of oxalis, amphicarpaea, two species of erythrina, a cassia, passiflora, euphorbia and marsilea; and the leaves after they had gone to sleep, were found to be in constant movement. when, however, opposite leaflets come into close contact with one another or with the stem at night, they are, as we believe, mechanically prevented from moving, but this point was not sufficiently investigated. when the movements of sleeping leaves are traced during twenty-four hours, the ascending and descending lines do not coincide, except occasionally and by accident for a short space; so that with many plants a [page ] single large ellipse is described during each twenty-four hours. such ellipses are generally narrow and vertically directed, for the amount of lateral movement is small. that there is some lateral movement is shown by the ascending and descending lines not coinciding, and occasionally, as with desmodium gyrans and thalia dealbata, it was strongly marked. in the case of melilotus the ellipses described by the terminal leaflet during the day are laterally extended, instead of vertically, as is usual; and this fact evidently stands in relation with the terminal leaflet moving laterally when it goes to sleep. with the majority of sleeping plants the leaves oscillate more than once up and down in the twenty-four hours; so that frequently two ellipses, one of moderate size, and one of very large size which includes the nocturnal movement, are described within the twenty-four hours. for instance, a leaf which stands vertically up during the night will sink in the morning, then rise considerably, again sink in the afternoon, and in the evening reascend and assume its vertical nocturnal position. it will thus describe, in the course of the twenty-four hours, two ellipses of unequal sizes. other plants describe within the same time, three, four, or five ellipses. occasionally the longer axes of the several ellipses extend in different directions, of which acacia farnesiana offered a good instance. the following cases will give an idea of the rate of movement: oxalis acetosella completed two ellipses at the rate of h. m. for each; marsilea quadrifoliata, at the rate of h.; trifolium subterraneum, one in h. m.; and arachis hypogaea, in h. m. but the number of ellipses described within a given time depends largely on the state of the plant and on the conditions to which it is exposed. it often happens that a single ellipse may be described during one [page ] day, and two on the next. erythrina corallodendron made four ellipses on the first day of observation and only a single one on the third, apparently owing to having been kept not sufficiently illuminated and perhaps not warm enough. but there seems likewise to be an innate tendency in different species of the same genus to make a different number of ellipses in the twenty-four hours: the leaflets of trifolium repens made only one; those of t. resupinatum two, and those of t. subterraneum three in this time. again, the leaflets of oxalis plumierii made a single ellipse; those of o. bupleurifolia, two; those of o. valdiviana, two or three; and those of o. acetosella, at least five in the twenty-four hours. the line followed by the apex of a leaf or leaflet, whilst describing one or more ellipses during the day, is often zigzag, either throughout its whole course or only during the morning or evening: robinia offered an instance of zigzagging confined to the morning, and a similar movement in the evening is shown in the diagram (fig. ) given under sida. the amount of the zigzag movement depends largely on the plant being placed under highly favourable conditions. but even under such favourable conditions, if the dots which mark the position of the apex are made at considerable intervals of time, and the dots are then joined, the course pursued will still appear comparatively simple, although the number of the ellipses will be increased; but if dots are made every two or three minutes and these are joined, the result often is that all the lines are strongly zigzag, many small loops, triangles, and other figures being also formed. this fact is shown in two parts of the diagram (fig. ) of the movements of desmodium gyrans. strephium floribundum, observed under a high temperature, [page ] made several little triangles at the rate of m. for each. mimosa pudica, similarly observed, described three little ellipses in m.; and the apex of a leaflet crossed / of an inch in a second, or . inch in a minute. the leaflets of averrhoa made a countless number of little oscillations when the temperature was high and the sun shining. the zigzag movement may in all cases be considered as an attempt to form small loops, which are drawn out by a prevailing movement in some one direction. the rapid gyrations of the little lateral leaflets of desmodium belong to the same class of movements, somewhat exaggerated in rapidity and amplitude. the jerking movements, with a small advance and still smaller retreat, apparently not exactly in the same line, of the hypocotyl of the cabbage and of the leaves of dionaea, as seen under the microscope, all probably come under this same head. we may suspect that we here see the energy which is freed during the incessant chemical changes in progress in the tissues, converted into motion. finally, it should be noted that leaflets and probably some leaves, whilst describing their ellipses, often rotate slightly on their axes; so that the plane of the leaf is directed first to one and then to another side. this was plainly seen to be the case with the large terminal leaflets of desmodium, erythrina and amphicarpaea, and is probably common to all leaflets provided with a pulvinus. with respect to the periodicity of the movements of sleeping leaves, pfeffer* has so clearly shown that this depends on the daily alternations of light and darkness, that nothing farther need be said on this * 'die periodischen bewegungen der blattorgane,' , p. , et passim. [page ] head. but we may recall the behaviour of mimosa in the north, where the sun does not set, and the complete inversion of the daily movements by artificial light and darkness. it has also been shown by us, that although leaves subjected to darkness for a moderately long time continue to circumnutate, yet the periodicity of their movements is soon greatly disturbed, or quite annulled. the presence of light or its absence cannot be supposed to be the direct cause of the movements, for these are wonderfully diversified even with the leaflets of the same leaf, although all have of course been similarly exposed. the movements depend on innate causes, and are of an adaptive nature. the alternations of light and darkness merely give notice to the leaves that the period has arrived for them to move in a certain manner. we may infer from the fact of several plants (tropaeolum, lupinus, etc.) not sleeping unless they have been well illuminated during the day, that it is not the actual decrease of light in the evening, but the contrast between the amount at this hour and during the early part of the day, which excites the leaves to modify their ordinary mode of circumnutation. as the leaves of most plants assume their proper diurnal position in the morning, although light be excluded, and as the leaves of some plants continue to move in the normal manner in darkness during at least a whole day, we may conclude that the periodicity of their movements is to a certain extent inherited.* the strength of such inheritance differs * pfeffer denies such inheritance; he attributes ('die period. bewegungen,' pp. - ) the periodicity when prolonged for a day or two in darkness, to "nachwirkung," or the after-effects of light and darkness. but we are unable to follow his train of reasoning. there does not seem to be any more reason for [[page ]] attributing such movements to this cause than, for instance, the inherited habit of winter and summer wheat to grow best at different seasons; for this habit is lost after a few years, like the movements of leaves in darkness after a few days. no doubt some effect must be produced on the seeds by the long-continued cultivation of the parent-plants under different climates, but no one probably would call this the "nachwirkung" of the climates. [page ] much in different species, and seems never to be rigid; for plants have been introduced from all parts of the world into our gardens and greenhouses; and if their movements had been at all strictly fixed in relation to the alternations of day and night, they would have slept in this country at very different hours, which is not the case. moreover, it has been observed that sleeping plants in their native homes change their times of sleep with the changing seasons.* we may now turn to the systematic list. this contains the names of all the sleeping plants known to us, though the list undoubtedly is very imperfect. it may be premised that, as a general rule, all the species in the same genus sleep in nearly the same manner. but there are some exceptions; in several large genera including many sleeping species (for instance, oxalis), some do not sleep. one species of melilotus sleeps like a trifolium, and therefore very differently from its congeners; so does one species of cassia. in the genus sida, the leaves either rise or fall at night; and with lupinus they sleep in three different methods. returning to the list, the first point which strikes us, is that there are many more genera amongst the leguminosae (and in almost every one of the leguminous tribes) than in all the other families put together; and we are tempted to connect this fact with the great * pfeffer, ibid., p. . [page ] mobility of the stems and leaves in this family, as shown by the large number of climbing species which it contains. next to the leguminosae come the malvaceae, together with some closely allied families. but by far the most important point in the list, is that we meet with sleeping plants in families, in all the great divisions of the phanerogamic series, and in one cryptogam. now, although it is probable that with the leguminosae the tendency to sleep may have been inherited from one or a few progenitors, and possibly so in the cohorts of the malvales and chenopodiales, yet it is manifest that the tendency must have been acquired by the several genera in the other families, quite independently of one another. hence the question naturally arises, how has this been possible? and the answer, we cannot doubt is that leaves owe their nyctitropic movements to their habit of circumnutating,--a habit common to all plants, and everywhere ready for any beneficial development or modification. it has been shown in the previous chapters that the leaves and cotyledons of all plants are continually moving up and down, generally to a slight but sometimes to a considerable extent, and that they describe either one or several ellipses in the course of twenty-four hours; they are also so far affected by the alternations of day and night that they generally, or at least often, move periodically to a small extent; and here we have a basis for the development of the greater nyctitropic movements. that the movements of leaves and cotyledons which do not sleep come within the class of circumnutating movements cannot be doubted, for they are closely similar to those of hypocotyls, epicotyls, the stems of mature plants, and of various other organs. now, if we take the simplest [page ] case of a sleeping leaf, we see that it makes a single ellipse in the twenty-four hours, which resembles one described by a non-sleeping leaf in every respect, except that it is much larger. in both cases the course pursued is often zigzag. as all non-sleeping leaves are incessantly circumnutating, we must conclude that a part at least of the upward and downward movement of one that sleeps, is due to ordinary circumnutation; and it seems altogether gratuitous to rank the remainder of the movement under a wholly different head. with a multitude of climbing plants the ellipses which they describe have been greatly increased for another purpose, namely, catching hold of a support. with these climbing plants, the various circumnutating organs have been so far modified in relation to light that, differently from all ordinary plants, they do not bend towards it. with sleeping plants the rate and amplitude of the movements of the leaves have been so far modified in relation to light, that they move in a certain direction with the waning light of the evening and with the increasing light of the morning more rapidly, and to a greater extent, than at other hours. but the leaves and cotyledons of many non-sleeping plants move in a much more complex manner than in the cases just alluded to, for they describe two, three, or more ellipses in the course of a day. now, if a plant of this kind were converted into one that slept, one side of one of the several ellipses which each leaf daily describes, would have to be greatly increased in length in the evening, until the leaf stood vertically, when it would go on circumnutating about the same spot. on the following morning, the side of another ellipse would have to be similarly increased in length so as to bring the leaf back again into its diurnal position, when it would again circumnutate [page ] until the evening. if the reader will look, for instance, at the diagram (fig. , p. ), representing the nyctitropic movements of the terminal leaflet of trifolium subterraneum, remembering that the curved broken lines at the top ought to be prolonged much higher up, he will see that the great rise in the evening and the great fall in the morning together form a large ellipse like one of those described during the daytime, differing only in size. or, he may look at the diagram (fig. , p. ) of the ½ ellipses described in the course of h. m. by a leaf of lupinus speciosus, which is one of the species in this genus that does not sleep; and he will see that by merely prolonging upwards the line which was already rising late in the evening, and bringing it down again next morning, the diagram would represent the movements of a sleeping plant. with those sleeping plants which describe several ellipses in the daytime, and which travel in a strongly zigzag line, often making in their course minute loops, triangles, etc., if as soon as one of the ellipses begins in the evening to be greatly increased in size, dots are made every or minutes and these are joined, the line then described is almost strictly rectilinear, in strong contrast with the lines made during the daytime. this was observed with desmodium gyrans and mimosa pudica. with this latter plant, moreover, the pinnae converge in the evening by a steady movement, whereas during the day they are continually converging and diverging to a slight extent. in all such cases it was scarcely possible to observe the difference in the movement during the day and evening, without being convinced that in the evening the plant saves the expenditure of force by not moving laterally, and that its whole energy is now expended [page ] in gaining quickly its proper nocturnal position by a direct course. in several other cases, for instance, when a leaf after describing during the day one or more fairly regular ellipses, zigzags much in the evening, it appears as if energy was being expended, so that the great evening rise or fall might coincide with the period of the day proper for this movement. the most complex of all the movements performed by sleeping plants, is that when leaves or leaflets, after describing in the daytime several vertically directed ellipses, rotate greatly on their axes in the evening, by which twisting movement they occupy a wholly different position at night to what they do during the day. for instance, the terminal leaflets of cassia not only move vertically downwards in the evening, but twist round, so that their lower surfaces face outwards. such movements are wholly, or almost wholly, confined to leaflets provided with a pulvinus. but this torsion is not a new kind of movement introduced solely for the purpose of sleep; for it has been shown that some leaflets whilst describing their ordinary ellipses during the daytime rotate slightly, causing their blades to face first to one side and then to another. although we can see how the slight periodical movements of leaves in a vertical plane could be easily converted into the greater yet simple nyctitropic movements, we do not at present know by what graduated steps the more complex movements, effected by the torsion of the pulvini, have been acquired. a probable explanation could be given in each case only after a close investigation of the movements in all the allied forms. from the facts and considerations now advanced we may conclude that nyctitropism, or the sleep of leaves [page ] and cotyledons, is merely a modification of their ordinary circumnutating movement, regulated in its period and amplitude by the alternations of light and darkness. the object gained is the protection of the upper surfaces of the leaves from radiation at night, often combined with the mutual protection of the several parts by their close approximation. in such cases as those of the leaflets of cassia--of the terminal leaflets of melilotus--of all the leaflets of arachis, marsilea, etc.--we have ordinary circumnutation modified to the extreme extent known to us in any of the several great classes of modified circumnutation. on this view of the origin of nyctitropism we can understand how it is that a few plants, widely distributed throughout the vascular series, have been able to acquire the habit of placing the blades of their leaves vertically at night, that is, of sleeping,--a fact otherwise inexplicable. the leaves of some plants move during the day in a manner, which has improperly been called diurnal sleep; for when the sun shines brightly on them, they direct their edges towards it. to such cases we shall recur in the following chapter on heliotropism. it has been shown that the leaflets of one form of porlieria hygrometrica keep closed during the day, as long as the plant is scantily supplied with water, in the same manner as when asleep; and this apparently serves to check evaporation. there is only one other analogous case known to us, namely, that of certain gramineae, which fold inwards the sides of their narrow leaves, when these are exposed to the sun and to a dry atmosphere, as described by duval-jouve.* we have also observed the same phenomenon in elymus arenareus. * 'annal. des sc. nat. (bot.),' , tom. i. pp. - . [page ] there is another movement, which since the time of linnaeus has generally been called sleep, namely, that of the petals of the many flowers which close at night. these movements have been ably investigated by pfeffer, who has shown (as was first observed by hofmeister) that they are caused or regulated more by temperature than by the alternations of light and darkness. although they cannot fail to protect the organs of reproduction from radiation at night, this does not seem to be their chief function, but rather the protection of the organs from cold winds, and especially from rain, during the day. the latter seems probable, as kerner* has shown that a widely different kind of movement, namely, the bending down of the upper part of the peduncle, serves in many cases the same end. the closure of the flowers will also exclude nocturnal insects which may be ill-adapted for their fertilisation, and the well-adapted kinds at periods when the temperature is not favourable for fertilisation. whether these movements of the petals consist, as is probable, of modified circumnutation we do not know. embryology of leaves.--a few facts have been incidentally given in this chapter on what may be called the embryology of leaves. with most plants the first leaf which is developed after the cotyledons, resembles closely the leaves produced by the mature plant, but this is not always the case. the first leaves produced by some species of drosera, for instance by d. capensis, differ widely in shape from those borne by the mature plant, and resemble closely the leaves of d. rotundifolia, as was shown to us by prof. williamson of manchester. the first true leaf of * 'die schutzmittel des pollens,' , pp. - . [page ] the gorse, or ulex, is not narrow and spinose like the older leaves. on the other hand, with many leguminous plants, for instance, cassia, acacia lophantha, etc., the first leaf has essentially the same character as the older leaves, excepting that it bears fewer leaflets. in trifolium the first leaf generally bears only a single leaflet instead of three, and this differs somewhat in shape from the corresponding leaflet on the older leaves. now, with trifolium pannonicum the first true leaf on some seedlings was unifoliate, and on others completely trifoliate; and between these two extreme states there were all sorts of gradations, some seedlings bearing a single leaflet more or less deeply notched on one or both sides, and some bearing a single additional and perfect lateral leaflet. here, then, we have the rare opportunity of seeing a structure proper to a more advanced age, in the act of gradually encroaching on and replacing an earlier or embryological condition. the genus melilotus is closely allied to trifolium, and the first leaf bears only a single leaflet, which at night rotates on its axis so as to present one lateral edge to the zenith. hence it sleeps like the terminal leaflet of a mature plant, as was observed in species, and wholly unlike the corresponding leaflet of trifolium, which simply bends upwards. it is therefore a curious fact that in one of these species, viz., m. taurica (and in a lesser degree in two others), leaves arising from young shoots, produced on plants which had been cut down and kept in pots during the winter in the green-house, slept like the leaves of a trifolium, whilst the leaves on the fully-grown branches on these same plants afterwards slept normally like those of a melilotus. if young shoots rising from the ground may be considered as new individuals, partaking to a certain extent of the nature of seedlings, then the peculiar manner in which their leaves slept may be considered [page ] as an embryological habit, probably the result of melilotus being descended from some form which slept like a trifolium. this view is partially supported by the leaves on old and young branches of another species, m. messanensis (not included in the above species), always sleeping like those of a trifolium. the first true leaf of mimosa albida consists of a simple petiole, often bearing three pairs of leaflets, all of which are of nearly equal size and of the same shape: the second leaf differs widely from the first, and resembles that on a mature plant (see fig. , p. ), for it consists of two pinnae, each of which bears two pairs of leaflets, of which the inner basal one is very small. but at the base of each pinna there is a pair of minute points, evidently rudiments of leaflets, for they are of unequal sizes, like the two succeeding leaflets. these rudiments are in one sense embryological, for they exist only during the youth of the leaf, falling off and disappearing as soon as it is fully grown. with desmodium gyrans the two lateral leaflets are very much smaller than the corresponding leaflets in most of the species in this large genus; they vary also in position and size; one or both are sometimes absent; and they do not sleep like the fully-developed leaflets. they may therefore be considered as almost rudimentary; and in accordance with the general principles of embryology, they ought to be more constantly and fully developed on very young than on old plants. but this is not the case, for they were quite absent on some young seedlings, and did not appear until from to leaves had been formed. this fact leads to the suspicion that d. gyrans is descended through a unifoliate form (of which some exist) from a trifoliate species; and that the little lateral leaflets reappear through reversion. however this may be, [page ] the interesting fact of the pulvini or organs of movement of these little leaflets, not having been reduced nearly so much as their blades--taking the large terminal leaflet as the standard of comparison--gives us probably the proximate cause of their extraordinary power of gyration. [page ] chapter viii. modified circumnutation: movements excited by light. distinction between heliotropism and the effects of light on the periodicity of the movements of leaves--heliotropic movements of beta, solanum, zea, and avena--heliotropic movements towards an obscure light in apios, brassica, phalaris, tropaeolum, and cassia--apheliotropic movements of tendrils of bignonia--of flower-peduncles of cyclamen--burying of the pods--heliotropism and apheliotropism modified forms of circumnutation-- steps by which one movement is converted into the other-- transversal-heliotropismus or diaheliotropism influenced by epinasty, the weight of the part and apogeotropism--apogeotropism overcome during the middle of the day by diaheliotropism--effects of the weight of the blades of cotyledons--so called diurnal sleep--chlorophyll injured by intense light--movements to avoid intense light sachs first clearly pointed out the important difference between the action of light in modifying the periodic movements of leaves, and in causing them to bend towards its source.* the latter, or heliotropic movements are determined by the direction of the light, whilst periodic movements are affected by changes in its intensity and not by its direction. the periodicity of the circumnutating movement often continues for some time in darkness, as we have seen in the last chapter; whilst heliotropic bending ceases very quickly when the light fails. nevertheless, plants which have ceased through long-continued darkness to move periodically, if re-exposed to the light are still, according to sachs, heliotropic. apheliotropism, or, as usually designated, negative * 'physiologie veg.' (french translation), , pp. , , etc. [page ] heliotropism, implies that a plant, when unequally illuminated on the two sides, bends from the light, instead of, as in the last sub-class of cases, towards it; but apheliotropism is comparatively rare, at least in a well-marked degree. there is a third and large sub-class of cases, namely, those of "transversal-heliotropismus" of frank, which we will here call diaheliotropism. parts of plants, under this influence, place themselves more or less transversely to the direction whence the light proceeds, and are thus fully illuminated. there is a fourth sub-class, as far as the final cause of the movement is concerned; for the leaves of some plants when exposed to an intense and injurious amount of light direct themselves, by rising or sinking or twisting, so as to be less intensely illuminated. such movements have sometimes been called diurnal sleep. if thought advisable, they might be called paraheliotropic, and this term would correspond with our other terms. it will be shown in the present chapter that all the movements included in these four sub-classes, consist of modified circumnutation. we do not pretend to say that if a part of a plant, whilst still growing, did not circumnutate--though such a supposition is most improbable--it could not bend towards the light; but, as a matter of fact, heliotropism seems always to consist of modified circumnutation. any kind of movement in relation to light will obviously be much facilitated by each part circumnutating or bending successively in all directions, so that an already existing movement has only to be increased in some one direction, and to be lessened or stopped in the other directions, in order that it should become heliotropic, apheliotropic, etc., as the case may be. in the next chapter some observations on the sensitiveness of plants to light, their [page ] rate of bending towards it, and the accuracy with which they point towards its source, etc., will be given. afterwards it will be shown--and this seems to us a point of much interest--that sensitiveness to light is sometimes confined to a small part of the plant; and that this part when stimulated by light, transmits an influence to distant parts, exciting them to bend. heliotropism.--when a plant which is strongly heliotropic (and species differ much in this respect) is exposed to a bright lateral light, it bends quickly towards it, and the course pursued by the stem is quite or nearly straight. but if the light is much dimmed, or occasionally interrupted, or admitted in only a slightly oblique direction, the course pursued is more or less zigzag; and as we have seen and shall again see, such zigzag movement results from the elongation or drawing out of the ellipses, loops, etc., which the plant would have described, if it had been illuminated from above. on several occasions we were much struck with this fact, whilst observing the circumnutation of highly sensitive seedlings, which were unintentionally illuminated rather obliquely, or only at successive intervals of time. fig. . beta vulgaris: circumnutation of hypocotyl, deflected by the light being slightly lateral, traced on a horizontal glass from . a.m. to . p.m. direction of the lighted taper by which it was illuminated shown by a line joining the first and penultimate dots. figure reduced to one-third of the original scale. [for instance two young seedlings of beta vulgaris were placed in the middle of a room with north-east windows, and were kept covered up, except during each observation which lasted for only a minute or two; but the result was that their hypocotyls bowed themselves to the side, whence some light occasionally entered, in lines which were [page ] only slightly zigzag. although not a single ellipse was even approximately formed, we inferred from the zigzag lines - and, as it proved, correctly-- that their hypocotyls were circumnutating, for on the following day these same seedlings were placed in a completely darkened room, and were observed each time by the aid of a small wax taper held almost directly above them, and their movements were traced on a horizontal glass above; and now their hypocotyls clearly circumnutated (fig. , and fig. , formerly given, p. ); yet they moved a short distance towards the side where the taper was held up. if we look at these diagrams, and suppose that the taper had been held more on one side, and that the hypocotyls, still circumnutating, had bent themselves within the same time much more towards the light, long zigzag lines would obviously have been the result. fig. . avena sativa: heliotropic movement and circumnutation of sheath-like cotyledon ( ½ inch in height) traced on horizontal glass from a.m. to . p.m. oct. th. again, two seedlings of solanum lycopersicum were illuminated from above, but accidentally a little more light entered on one than on any other side, and their hypocotyls became slightly bowed towards the brighter side; they moved in a zigzag line and described in their course two little triangles, as seen in fig. (p. ), and in another tracing not given. the sheath-like cotyledons of zea mays behaved, under nearly similar circumstances, in a nearly similar manner as described in our first chapter (p. ), for they bowed themselves during the whole day towards one side, making, however, in their course some conspicuous flexures. before we knew how greatly ordinary circumnutation was modified by a lateral light, some seedling oats, with rather old and therefore not highly sensitive cotyledons, were placed in front of a north-east window, towards which they bent all day in a strongly zigzag course. on the following day they continued to bend in the same direction (fig. ), but zigzagged much less. the sky, however, became between . and . p.m. [page ] overcast with extraordinarily dark thunder-clouds, and it was interesting to note how plainly the cotyledons circumnutated during this interval. the foregoing observations are of some value, from having been made when we were not attending to heliotropism; and they led us to experiment on several kinds of seedlings, by exposing them to a dim lateral light, so as to observe the gradations between ordinary circumnutation and heliotropism. seedlings in pots were placed in front of, and about a yard from, a north-east window; on each side and over the pots black boards were placed; in the rear the pots were open to the diffused light of the room, which had a second north-east and a north-west window. by hanging up one or more blinds before the window where the seedlings stood, it was easy to dim the light, so that very little more entered on this side than on the opposite one, which received the diffused light of the room. late in the evening the blinds were successively removed, and as the plants had been subjected during the day to a very obscure light, they continued to bend towards the window later in the evening than would otherwise have occurred. most of the seedlings were selected because they were known to be highly sensitive to light, and some because they were but little sensitive, or had become so from having grown old. the movements were traced in the usual manner on a horizontal glass cover; a fine glass filament with little triangles of paper having been cemented in an upright position to the hypocotyls. whenever the stem or hypocotyl became much bowed towards the light, the latter part of its course had to be traced on a vertical glass, parallel to the window, and at right angles to the horizontal glass cover. fig. . apios graveolens: heliotropic movement of hypocotyl (. of inch in height) towards a moderately bright lateral light, traced on a horizontal glass from . a.m. to . a.m. sept. th. figure reduced to one-third of original scale. apios graveolens.--the hypocotyl bends in a few hours rectan- [page ] gularly towards a bright lateral light. in order to ascertain how straight a course it would pursue when fairly well illuminated on one side, seedlings were first placed before a south-west window on a cloudy and rainy morning; and the movement of two hypocotyls were traced for h., during which time they became greatly bowed towards the light. one of these tracings is given on p. (fig. ), and the course may be seen to be almost straight. but the amount of light on this occasion was superfluous, for two seedlings were placed before a north-east window, protected by an ordinary linen and two muslin blinds, yet their hypocotyls moved towards this rather dim light in only slightly zigzag lines; but after p.m., as the light waned, the lines became distinctly zigzag. one of these seedlings, moreover, described in the afternoon an ellipse of considerable size, with its longer axis directed towards the window. we now determined that the light should be made dim enough, so we began by exposing several seedlings before a north-east window, protected by one linen blind, three muslin blinds, and a towel. but so little light entered that a pencil cast no perceptible shadow on a white card, and the hypocotyls did not bend at all towards the window. during this time, from . to . a.m., the hypocotyls zigzagged or circumnutated near the same spot, as may be seen at a, in fig. . the towel, therefore, was removed at . a.m., and replaced by two muslin blinds, and now the light passed through one ordinary linen and four muslin blinds. when a pencil was held upright on a card close to the seedlings, it cast a shadow (pointing from the window) which could only just be distinguished. yet this very slight excess of light on one side sufficed to cause the hypocotyls of all the seedlings immediately to begin bending in zigzag lines towards the window. the course of one is shown at a (fig. ): after moving towards the window from . a.m. to . p.m. it bent from the window, and then returned in a nearly parallel line; that is, it almost completed between . and p.m. a narrow ellipse. late in the evening, as the light waned, the hypocotyl ceased to bend towards the window, and circumnutated on a small scale round the same spot; during the night it moved considerably backwards, that is, became more upright, through the action of apogeotropism. at b, we have a tracing of the movements of another seedling from the hour ( . a.m.) when the towel was removed; and it is in all essential respects [page ] similar to the previous one. in these two cases there could be no doubt that the ordinary circumnutating movement of the hypocotyl was modified and rendered heliotropic. fig. . apios graveolens: heliotropic movement and circumnutation of the hypocotyls of two seedlings towards a dim lateral light, traced on a horizontal glass during the day. the broken lines show their return nocturnal courses. height of hypocotyl of a . , and of b . inch. figure reduced to one-half of original scale. brassica oleracea.--the hypocotyl of the cabbage, when not disturbed by a lateral light, circumnutates in a complicated [page ] manner over nearly the same space, and a figure formerly given is here reproduced (fig. ). if the hypocotyl is exposed to a moderately strong lateral light it moves quickly towards this side, travelling in a straight, or nearly straight, line. but when the lateral light is very dim its course is extremely tortuous, and evidently consists of modified circumnutation. seedlings were placed before a north-east window, protected by a linen and muslin blind and by a towel. the sky was cloudy, and whenever the clouds grew a little lighter an additional muslin blind was temporarily suspended. the light from the window was fig. . brassica oleracea: ordinary circumnutating movement of the hypocotyl of a seedling plant. thus so much obscured that, judging by the unassisted eye, the seedlings appeared to receive more light from the interior of the room than from the window; but this was not really the case, as was shown by a very faint shadow cast by a pencil on a card. nevertheless, this extremely small excess of light on one side caused the hypocotyls, which in the morning had stood upright, to bend at right angles towards the window, so that in the evening (after . p.m.) their course had to be traced on a vertical glass parallel to the window. it should be stated that at . p.m., by which time the sky had become darker, the towel was removed and replaced by an additional muslin blind, which itself was removed at p.m., the other two [page ] blinds being left suspended. in fig. the course pursued, between . a.m. and . p.m., by one of the hypocotyls thus fig. . brassica oleracea: heliotropic movement and circumnutation of a hypocotyl towards a very dim lateral light, traced during hours, on a horizontal glass in the morning, and on a vertical glass in the evening. figure reduced to one-third of the original scale. exposed is shown. it may be observed that during the first m. the hypocotyl moved obliquely from the light, and this, [page ] no doubt, was due to its then circumnutating in this direction. similar cases were repeatedly observed, and a dim light rarely or never produced any effect until from a quarter to three-quarters of an hour had elapsed. after . p.m., by which time the light had become obscure, the hypocotyl began to circumnutate about the same spot. the contrast between the two figures ( and ) would have been more striking, if they had been originally drawn on the same scale, and had been equally reduced. but the movements shown in fig. were at first more magnified, and have been reduced to only one-half of the original scale; whereas those in fig. were at first less magnified, and have been reduced to a one-third scale. a tracing made at the same time with the last of the movements of a second hypocotyl, presented a closely analogous appearance; but it did not bend quite so much towards the light, and it circumnutated rather more plainly. fig. . phalaris canariensis: heliotropic movement and circumnutation of a rather old cotyledon, towards a dull lateral light, traced on a horizontal glass from . a.m. sept. th to . a.m. th. figure reduced to one-third of original scale. phalaris canariensis.--the sheath-like cotyledons of this monocotyledonous plant were selected for trial, because they are very sensitive to light and circumnutate well, as formerly shown (see fig. , p. ). although we felt no doubt about the result, some seedlings were first placed before a south-west window on a moderately bright morning, and the movements of one were traced. as is so common, it moved [page ] for the first m. in a zigzag line; it then felt the full influence of the light, and travelled towards it for the next h. m. in an almost straight line. the tracing has not been given, as it was almost identical with that of apios under similar circumstances (fig. ). by noon it had bowed itself to its full extent; it then circumnutated about the same spot and described two ellipses; by p.m. it had retreated considerably from the light, through the action of apogeotropism. after some preliminary trials for ascertaining the right degree of obscurity, some seedlings were placed (sept. th) before a north-east window, and light was admitted through an ordinary linen and three muslin blinds. a pencil held close by the pot now cast a very faint shadow on a white card, pointing from the window. in the evening, at . and again at p.m., some of the blinds were removed. in fig. we see the course pursued under these circumstances by a rather old and not very sensitive cotyledon, . inch in height, which became much bowed, but was never rectangularly bent towards the light. from a.m., when the sky became rather duller, until . p.m., the zigzagging was conspicuous, and evidently consisted of drawn-out ellipses. after . p.m. and during the night, it retreated in a crooked line from the window. another and younger seedling moved during the same time much more quickly and to a much greater distance, in an only slightly zigzag line towards the light; by a.m. it was bent almost rectangularly in this direction, and now circumnutated about the same place. tropaeolum majus.--some very young seedlings, bearing only two leaves, and therefore not as yet arrived at the climbing stage of growth, were first tried before a north-east window without any blind. the epicotyls bowed themselves towards the light so rapidly that in little more than h. their tips pointed rectangularly towards it. the lines traced were either nearly straight or slightly zigzag; and in this latter case we see that a trace of circumnutation was retained even under the influence of a moderately bright light. twice whilst these epicotyls were bending towards the window, dots were made every or minutes, in order to detect any trace of lateral movement, but there was hardly any; and the lines formed by their junction were nearly straight, or only very slightly zigzag, as in the other parts of the figures. after the epicotyls had bowed themselves to the full extent towards the light, ellipses of considerable size were described in the usual manner. [page ] after having seen how the epicotyls moved towards a moderately bright light, seedlings were placed at . a.m. (sept. th) before a north-east window, covered by a towel, and shortly afterwards by an ordinary linen blind, but the epicotyls still moved towards the window. at . a.m. two additional muslin blinds were suspended, so that the seedlings received very little more light from the window than from the interior of the room. the sky varied in brightness, and the seedlings occasionally fig. . tropaeolum majus: heliotropic movement and circumnutation of the epicotyl of a young seedling towards a dull lateral light, traced on a horizontal glass from . a.m. to . p.m. figure reduced to one-half of the original scale. received for a short time less light from the window than from the opposite side (as ascertained by the shadow cast), and then one of the blinds was temporarily removed. in the evening the blinds were taken away, one by one. the course pursued by an epicotyl under these circumstances is shown in fig. . during the whole day, until . p.m., it plainly bowed itself towards the light; and the tip moved over a considerable space. after . p.m. it moved backwards, or from the window, till [page ] . p.m., when the last dot was made. here, then, we have a distinct heliotropic movement, effected by means of six elongated figures (which if dots had been made every few minutes would have been more or less elliptic) directed towards the light, with the apex of each successive ellipse nearer to the window than the previous one. now, if the light had been only a little brighter, the epicotyl would have bowed itself more to the light, as we may safely conclude from the previous trials; there would also have been less lateral movement, and the ellipses or other figures would have been drawn out into a strongly marked zigzag line, with probably one or two small loops still formed. if the light had been much brighter, we should have had a slightly zigzag line, or one quite straight, for there would have been more movement in the direction of the light, and much less from side to side. fig. . tropaeolum majus: heliotropic movement and circumnutation of an old internode towards a lateral light, traced on a horizontal glass from a.m. nov. nd to . a.m. nov. th. broken lines show the nocturnal course. sachs states that the older internodes of this tropaeolum are apheliotropic; we therefore placed a plant, / inches high, in a box, blackened within, but open on one side in front of a north-east window without any blind. a filament was fixed to the third internode from the summit on one plant, and to the fourth internode of another. these internodes were either not old enough, or the light was not sufficiently bright, to induce apheliotropism, for both plants bent slowly towards, instead of from the window during four days. the course, during two days of the first-mentioned internode, is given in fig. ; and we see that it either circumnutated on a small scale, or travelled in a zigzag line towards the light. we have thought this case of feeble heliotropism in one of the older internodes of a plant, [page ] which, whilst young, is so extremely sensitive to light, worth giving. fig. . cassia tora: heliotropic movement and circumnutation of a hypocotyl ( ½ inch in height) traced on a horizontal glass from a.m. to . p.m. oct. th. also its circumnutation in darkness from a.m. oct. th to . a.m. oct. th. cassia tora.--the cotyledons of this plant are extremely sensitive to light, whilst the hypocotyls are much less sensitive than those of most other seedlings, as we had often observed with surprise. it seemed therefore worth while to trace their movements. they were exposed to a lateral light before a north-east window, which was at first covered merely by a muslin blind, but as the sky grew brighter about a.m., an additional linen blind was suspended. after p.m. one blind and then the other was removed. the seedlings were protected on each side and above, but were open to the diffused light of the room in the rear. upright filaments were fixed to the hypocotyls of two seedlings, which stood vertically in the morning. the accompanying figure (fig. ) shows the course pursued by one of them during two days; but it should be particularly noticed that during the second day the seedlings were kept in darkness, and they then circumnutated round nearly the same small space. on the first day (oct. th) the hypocotyl moved from a.m. to . p.m., toward the light in a zigzag line, then turned abruptly to the left and afterwards described a small ellipse. another irregular [page ] ellipse was completed between p.m. and about . p.m., the hypocotyl still bending towards the light. the hypocotyl was straight and upright in the morning, but by p.m. its upper half was bowed towards the light, so that the chord of the arc thus formed stood at an angle of o with the perpendicular. after p.m. its course was reversed through the action of apogeotropism, and it continued to bend from the window during the night, as shown by the broken line. on the next day it was kept in the dark (excepting when each observation was made by the aid of a taper), and the course followed from a.m. on the th to . a.m. on the th is here likewise shown. the difference between the two parts of the figure ( ), namely that described during the daytime on the th, when exposed to a rather dim lateral light, and that on the th in darkness, is striking. the difference consists in the lines during the first day having been drawn out in the direction of the light. the movements of the other seedling, traced under the same circumstances, were closely similar. apheliotropism.--we succeeded in observing only two cases of apheliotropism, for these are somewhat rare; and the movements are generally so slow that they would have been very troublesome to trace. fig. . bignonia capreolata: apheliotropic movement of a tendril, traced on a horizontal glass from . a.m. july th to a.m. th. movements as originally traced, little magnified, here reduced to two-thirds of the original scale. bignonia capreolata.--no organ of any plant, as far as we have seen, bends away so quickly from the light as do the tendrils of this bignonia. they are also remarkable from circumnutating much less regularly than most other tendrils, often remaining stationary; they depend on apheliotropism for coming into [page ] contact with the trunks of trees.* the stem of a young plant was tied to a stick at the base of a pair of fine tendrils, which projected almost vertically upwards; and it was placed in front of a north-east window, being protected on all other sides from the light. the first dot was made at . a.m., and by . a.m. both tendrils felt the full influence of the light, for they moved straight away from it until . a.m., when they circumnutated for a time, still moving, but only a little, from the light (see fig. of the left-hand tendril). after p.m. they again moved rapidly away from the light in zigzag lines. by a late hour in the evening both had moved so far, that they pointed in a direct line from the light. during the night they returned a little in a nearly opposite direction. on the following morning they again moved from the light and converged, so that by the evening they had become interlocked, still pointing from the light. the right-hand tendril, whilst converging, zigzagged much more than the one figured. both tracings showed that the apheliotropic movement was a modified form of circumnutation. cyclamen persicum.--whilst this plant is in flower the peduncles stand upright, but their uppermost part is hooked so that the flower itself hangs downwards. as soon as the pods begin to swell, the peduncles increase much in length and slowly curve downwards, but the short, upper, hooked part straightens itself. ultimately the pods reach the ground, and if this is covered with moss or dead leaves, they bury themselves. we have often seen saucer-like depressions formed by the pods in damp sand or sawdust; and one pod (. of inch in diameter) buried itself in sawdust for three-quarters of its length.** we shall have occasion hereafter to consider the object gained by this burying process. the peduncles can change the direction of their curvature, for if a pot, with plants having their peduncles already bowed downwards, be placed horizontally, they slowly bend at right angles to their former direction towards the centre of the earth. we therefore at first attributed the movement to geotropism; but a pot which had lain horizontally with the pods * 'the movements and habits of climbing plants,' , p. . ** the peduncles of several other species of cyclamen twist themselves into a spire, and according to erasmus darwin ('botanic garden,' canto., iii. p. ), the pods forcibly penetrate the earth. see also grenier and godron, 'flore de france,' tom. ii. p. . [page ] all pointing to the ground, was reversed, being still kept horizontal, so that the pods now pointed directly upwards; it was then placed in a dark cupboard, but the pods still pointed upwards after four days and nights. the pot, in the same position, was next brought back into the light, and after two days there was some bending downwards of the peduncles, and on the fourth day two of them pointed to the centre of the earth, as did the others after an additional day or two. another plant, in a pot which had always stood upright, was left in the dark cupboard for six days; it bore peduncles, and only one became within this fig. . cyclamen persicum: downward apheliotropic movement of a flower-peduncle, greatly magnified (about times?), traced on a horizontal glass from p.m. feb. th to a.m. st. time at all bowed downwards, and that doubtfully. the weight, therefore, of the pods is not the cause of the bending down. this pot was then brought back into the light, and after three days the peduncles were considerably bowed downwards. we are thus led to infer that the downward curvature is due to apheliotropism; though more trials ought to have been made. in order to observe the nature of this movement, a peduncle bearing a large pod which had reached and rested on the ground, was lifted a little up and secured to a stick. a filament was fixed across the pod with a mark beneath, and its move- [page ] ment, greatly magnified, was traced on a horizontal glass during h. the plant was illuminated during the day from above. a copy of the tracing is given on p. (fig. ); and there can be no doubt that the descending movement is one of modified circumnutation, but on an extremely small scale. the observation was repeated on another pod, which had partially buried itself in sawdust, and which was lifted up a quarter of an inch above the surface; it described three very small circles in h. considering the great length and thinness of the peduncles and the lightness of the pods, we may conclude that they would not be able to excavate saucer-like depressions in sand or sawdust, or bury themselves in moss, etc., unless they were aided by their continued rocking or circumnutating movement.] relation between circumnutation and heliotropism.--any one who will look at the foregoing diagrams, showing the movements of the stems of various plants towards a lateral and more or less dimmed light, will be forced to admit that ordinary circumnutation and heliotropism graduate into one another. when a plant is exposed to a dim lateral light and continues during the whole day bending towards it, receding late in the evening, the movement unquestionably is one of heliotropism. now, in the case of tropaeolum (fig. ) the stem or epicotyl obviously circumnutated during the whole day, and yet it continued at the same time to move heliotropically; this latter movement being effected by the apex of each successive elongated figure or ellipse standing nearer to the light than the previous one. in the case of cassia (fig. ) the comparison of the movement of the hypocotyl, when exposed to a dim lateral light and to darkness, is very instructive; as is that between the ordinary circumnutating movement of a seedling brassica (figs. , ), or that of phalaris (figs. , ), and their heliotropic movement towards a window protected by blinds. in both these cases, [page ] and in many others, it was interesting to notice how gradually the stems began to circumnutate as the light waned in the evening. we have therefore many kinds of gradations from a movement towards the light, which must be considered as one of circumnutation very slightly modified and still consisting of ellipses or circles,--though a movement more or less strongly zigzag, with loops or ellipses occasionally formed,--to a nearly straight, or even quite straight, heliotropic course. a plant, when exposed to a lateral light, though this may be bright, commonly moves at first in a zigzag line, or even directly from the light; and this no doubt is due to its circumnutating at the time in a direction either opposite to the source of the light, or more or less transversely to it. as soon, however, as the direction of the circumnutating movement nearly coincides with that of the entering light, the plant bends in a straight course towards the light, if this is bright. the course appears to be rendered more and more rapid and rectilinear, in accordance with the degree of brightness of the light--firstly, by the longer axes of the elliptical figures, which the plant continues to describe as long as the light remains very dim, being directed more or less accurately towards its source, and by each successive ellipse being described nearer to the light. secondly, if the light is only somewhat dimmed, by the acceleration and increase of the movement towards it, and by the retardation or arrestment of that from the light, some lateral movement being still retained, for the light will interfere less with a movement at right angles to its direction, than with one in its own direction.* * in his paper, 'ueber orthotrope und plagiotrope pflanzentheile' ('arbeiten des bot. inst. in würzburg,' band ii. heft ii. [[page ]] ), sachs has discussed the manner in which geotropism and heliotropism are affected by differences in the angles at which the organs of plants stand with respect to the direction of the incident force. [page ] the result is that the course is rendered more or less zigzag and unequal in rate. lastly, when the light is very bright all lateral movement is lost; and the whole energy of the plant is expended in rendering the circumnutating movement rectilinear and rapid in one direction alone, namely, towards the light. the common view seems to be that heliotropism is a quite distinct kind of movement from circumnutation; and it may be urged that in the foregoing diagrams we see heliotropism merely combined with, or superimposed on, circumnutation. but if so, it must be assumed that a bright lateral light completely stops circumnutation, for a plant thus exposed moves in a straight line towards it, without describing any ellipses or circles. if the light be somewhat obscured, though amply sufficient to cause the plant to bend towards it, we have more or less plain evidence of still-continued circumnutation. it must further be assumed that it is only a lateral light which has this extraordinary power of stopping circumnutation, for we know that the several plants above experimented on, and all the others which were observed by us whilst growing, continue to circumnutate, however bright the light may be, if it comes from above. nor should it be forgotten that in the life of each plant, circumnutation precedes heliotropism, for hypocotyls, epicotyls, and petioles circumnutate before they have broken through the ground and have ever felt the influence of light. we are therefore fully justified, as it seems to us, in believing that whenever light enters laterally, it is the [page ] movement of circumnutation which gives rise to, or is converted into, heliotropism and apheliotropism. on this view we need not assume against all analogy that a lateral light entirely stops circumnutation; it merely excites the plant to modify its movement for a time in a beneficial manner. the existence of every possible gradation, between a straight course towards a lateral light and a course consisting of a series of loops or ellipses, becomes perfectly intelligible. finally, the conversion of circumnutation into heliotropism or apheliotropism, is closely analogous to what takes place with sleeping plants, which during the daytime describe one or more ellipses, often moving in zigzag lines and making little loops; for when they begin in the evening to go to sleep, they likewise expend all their energy in rendering their course rectilinear and rapid. in the case of sleep-movements, the exciting or regulating cause is a difference in the intensity of the light, coming from above, at different periods of the twenty-four hours; whilst with heliotropic and apheliotropic movements, it is a difference in the intensity of the light on the two sides of the plant. transversal-heliotropismus (of frank*) or diaheliotropism.--the cause of leaves placing themselves more or less transversely to the light, with their upper surfaces directed towards it, has been of late the subject of much controversy. we do not here refer to the object of the movement, which no doubt is that their upper surfaces may be fully illuminated, but the means by which this position is gained. hardly a better or more simple instance can be given * 'die natürliche wagerechte richtung von pflanzentheilen,' . see also some interesting articles by the same author, "zur frage über transversal-geo-und heliotropismus," 'bot. zeitung,' , p. et seq. [page ] of diaheliotropism than that offered by many seedlings, the cotyledons of which are extended horizontally. when they first burst from their seed-coats they are in contact and stand in various positions, often vertically upwards; they soon diverge, and this is effected by epinasty, which, as we have seen, is a modified form of circumnutation. after they have diverged to their full extent, they retain nearly the same position, though brightly illuminated all day long from above, with their lower surfaces close to the ground and thus much shaded. there is therefore a great contrast in the degree of illumination of their upper and lower surfaces, and if they were heliotropic they would bend quickly upwards. it must not, however, be supposed that such cotyledons are immovably fixed in a horizontal position. when seedlings are exposed before a window, their hypocotyls, which are highly heliotropic, bend quickly towards it, and the upper surfaces of their cotyledons still remain exposed at right angles to the light; but if the hypocotyl is secured so that it cannot bend, the cotyledons themselves change their position. if the two are placed in the line of the entering light, the one furthest from it rises up and that nearest to it often sinks down; if placed transversely to the light, they twist a little laterally; so that in every case they endeavour to place their upper surfaces at right angles to the light. so it notoriously is with the leaves on plants nailed against a wall, or grown in front of a window. a moderate amount of light suffices to induce such movements; all that is necessary is that the light should steadily strike the plants in an oblique direction. with respect to the above twisting movement of cotyledons, frank has given many and much more striking instances in the case of the leaves on [page ] branches which had been fastened in various positions or turned upside down. in our observations on the cotyledons of seedling plants, we often felt surprise at their persistent horizontal position during the day, and were convinced before we had read frank's essay, that some special explanation was necessary. de vries has shown* that the more or less horizontal position of leaves is in most cases influenced by epinasty, by their own weight, and by apogeotropism. a young cotyledon or leaf after bursting free is brought down into its proper position, as already remarked, by epinasty, which, according to de vries, long continues to act on the midribs and petioles. weight can hardly be influential in the case of cotyledons, except in a few cases presently to be mentioned, but must be so with large and thick leaves. with respect to apogeotropism, de vries maintains that it generally comes into play, and of this fact we shall presently advance some indirect evidence. but over these and other constant forces we believe that there is in many cases, but we do not say in all, a preponderant tendency in leaves and cotyledons to place themselves more or less transversely with respect to the light. in the cases above alluded to of seedlings exposed to a lateral light with their hypocotyls secured, it is impossible that epinasty, weight and apogeotropism, either in opposition or combined, can be the cause of the rising of one cotyledon, and of the sinking of the other, since the forces in question act equally on both; and since epinasty, weight and apogeotropism all act in a vertical plane, they cannot cause the twisting of the petioles, which occurs in seedlings under the * 'arbeiten des bot. instituts in würzburg,' heft. ii. , pp. - . [page ] above conditions of illumination. all these movements evidently depend in some manner on the obliquity of the light, but cannot be called heliotropic, as this implies bending towards the light; whereas the cotyledon nearest to the light bends in an opposed direction or downwards, and both place themselves as nearly as possible at right angles to the light. the movement, therefore, deserves a distinct name. as cotyledons and leaves are continually oscillating up and down, and yet retain all day long their proper position with their upper surfaces directed transversely to the light, and if displaced reassume this position, diaheliotropism must be considered as a modified form of circumnutation. this was often evident when the movements of cotyledons standing in front of a window were traced. we see something analogous in the case of sleeping leaves or cotyledons, which after oscillating up and down during the whole day, rise into a vertical position late in the evening, and on the following morning sink down again into their horizontal or diaheliotropic position, in direct opposition to heliotropism. this return into their diurnal position, which often requires an angular movement of o, is analogous to the movement of leaves on displaced branches, which recover their former positions. it deserves notice that any force such as apogeotropism, will act with different degrees of power* in the different positions of those leaves or cotyledons which oscillate largely up and down during the day; and yet they recover their horizontal or diaheliotropic position. we may therefore conclude that diaheliotropic movements cannot be fully explained by the direct action of light, gravitation, weight, etc., any more * see former note, in reference to sachs' remarks on this subject. [page ] than can the nyctitropic movements of cotyledons and leaves. in the latter case they place themselves so that their upper surfaces may radiate at night as little as possible into open space, with the upper surfaces of the opposite leaflets often in contact. these movements, which are sometimes extremely complex, are regulated, though not directly caused, by the alternations of light and darkness. in the case of diaheliotropism, cotyledons and leaves place themselves so that their upper surfaces may be exposed to the light, and this movement is regulated, though not directly caused, by the direction whence the light proceeds. in both cases the movement consists of circumnutation modified by innate or constitutional causes, in the same manner as with climbing plants, the circumnutation of which is increased in amplitude and rendered more circular, or again with very young cotyledons and leaves which are thus brought down into a horizontal position by epinasty. we have hitherto referred only to those leaves and cotyledons which occupy a permanently horizontal position; but many stand more or less obliquely, and some few upright. the cause of these differences of position is not known; but in accordance with wiesner's views, hereafter to be given, it is probable that some leaves and cotyledons would suffer, if they were fully illuminated by standing at right angles to the light. we have seen in the second and fourth chapters that those cotyledons and leaves which do not alter their positions at night sufficiently to be said to sleep, commonly rise a little in the evening and fall again on the next morning, so that they stand during the night at a rather higher inclination than during the middle of the day. it is incredible that a rising movement of o or o, or even of o or o, can be of [page ] any service to the plant, so as to have been specially acquired. it must be the result of some periodical change in the conditions to which they are subjected, and there can hardly be a doubt that this is the daily alternations of light and darkness. de vries states in the paper before referred to, that most petioles and midribs are apogeotropic;* and apogeotropism would account for the above rising movement, which is common to so many widely distinct species, if we suppose it to be conquered by diaheliotropism during the middle of the day, as long as it is of importance to the plant that its cotyledons and leaves should be fully exposed to the light. the exact hour in the afternoon at which they begin to bend slightly upwards, and the extent of the movement, will depend on their degree of sensitiveness to gravitation and on their power of resisting its action during the middle of the day, as well as on the amplitude of their ordinary circumnutating movements; and as these qualities differ much in different species, we might expect that the hour in the afternoon at which they begin to rise would differ much in different species, as is the case. some other agency, however, besides apogeotropism, must come into play, either directly or indirectly, in this upward movement. thus a young bean (vicia faba), growing in a small pot, was placed in front of a window in a klinostat; and at night the leaves rose a little, although * according to frank ('die nat. wagerechte richtung von pflanzentheilen,' , p. ) the root-leaves of many plants, kept in darkness, rise up and even become vertical; and so it is in some cases with shoots. (see rauwenhoff, 'archives néerlandaises,' tom. xii. p. .) these movements indicate apogeotropism; but when organs have been long kept in the dark, the amount of water and of mineral matter which they contain is so much altered, and their regular growth is so much disturbed, that it is perhaps rash to infer from their movements what would occur under normal conditions. (see godlewski, 'bot. zeitung,' feb. th, .) [page ] the action of apogeotropism was quite eliminated. nevertheless, they did not rise nearly so much at night, as when subjected to apogeotropism. is it not possible, or even probable, that leaves and cotyledons, which have moved upwards in the evening through the action of apogeotropism during countless generations, may inherit a tendency to this movement? we have seen that the hypocotyls of several leguminous plants have from a remote period inherited a tendency to arch themselves; and we know that the sleep-movements of leaves are to a certain extent inherited, independently of the alternations of light and darkness. in our observations on the circumnutation of those cotyledons and leaves which do not sleep at night, we met with hardly any distinct cases of their sinking a little in the evening, and rising again in the morning,--that is, of movements the reverse of those just discussed. we have no doubt that such cases occur, inasmuch as the leaves of many plants sleep by sinking vertically downwards. how to account for the few cases which were observed must be left doubtful. the young leaves of cannabis sativa sink at night between o and o beneath the horizon; and kraus attributes this to epinasty in conjunction with the absorption of water. whenever epinastic growth is vigorous, it might conquer diaheliotropism in the evening, at which time it would be of no importance to the plant to keep its leaves horizontal. the cotyledons of anoda wrightii, of one variety of gossypium, and of several species of ipomoea, remain horizontal in the evening whilst they are very young; as they grow a little older they curve a little downwards, and when large and heavy sink so much that they come under our definition of sleep. in the case of [page ] the anoda and of some species of ipomoea, it was proved that the downward movement did not depend on the weight of the cotyledons; but from the fact of the movement being so much more strongly pronounced after the cotyledons have grown large and heavy, we may suspect that their weight aboriginally played some part in determining that the modification of the circumnutating movement should be in a downward direction. the so-called diurnal sleep of leaves, or paraheliotropism.--this is another class of movements, dependent on the action of light, which supports to some extent the belief that the movements above described are only indirectly due to its action. we refer to the movements of leaves and cotyledons which when moderately illuminated are diaheliotropic; but which change their positions and present their edges to the light, when the sun shines brightly on them. these movements have sometimes been called diurnal sleep, but they differ wholly with respect to the object gained from those properly called nyctitropic; and in some cases the position occupied during the day is the reverse of that during the night. [it has long been known* that when the sun shines brightly on the leaflets of robinia, they rise up and present their edges to the light; whilst their position at night is vertically downwards. we have observed the same movement, when the sun shone brightly on the leaflets of an australian acacia. those of amphicarpaea monoica turned their edges to the sun; and an analogous movement of the little almost rudimentary basal leaflets of mimosa albida was on one occasion so rapid that it could be distinctly seen through a lens. the elongated, unifoliate, first leaves of phaseolus roxburghii stood at a.m. at o above the horizon, and no doubt they afterwards sank a little lower. at noon, after having been exposed for about h. to * pfeffer gives the names and dates of several ancient writers in his 'die periodischen bewegungen,' , p. . [page ] a bright sun, they stood at o above the horizon; they were then protected from the rays of the sun, but were left well illuminated from above, and after m. they had fallen o, for they now stood at only o above the horizon. some young plants of phaseolus hernandesii had been exposed to the same bright sunlight, and their broad, unifoliate, first leaves now stood up almost or quite vertically, as did many of the leaflets on the trifoliate secondary leaves; but some of the leaflets had twisted round on their own axes by as much as o without rising, so as to present their edges to the sun. the leaflets on the same leaf sometimes behaved in these two different manners, but always with the result of being less intensely illuminated. these plants were then protected from the sun, and were looked at after ½ h.; and now all the leaves and leaflets had reassumed their ordinary sub-horizontal positions. the copper-coloured cotyledons of some seedlings of cassia mimosoides were horizontal in the morning, but after the sun had shone on them, each had risen / o above the horizon. the movement in these several cases must not be confounded with the sudden closing of the leaflets of mimosa pudica, which may sometimes be noticed when a plant which has been kept in an obscure place is suddenly exposed to the sun; for in this case the light seems to act, as if it were a touch. from prof. wiesner's interesting observations, it is probable that the above movements have been acquired for a special purpose. the chlorophyll in leaves is often injured by too intense a light, and prof. wiesner* believes that it is protected by the most diversified means, such as the presence of hairs, colouring matter, etc., and amongst other means by the leaves presenting their edges to the sun, so that the blades then receive much less light. he experimented on the young leaflets of robinia, by fixing them in such a position that they could not escape being intensely illuminated, whilst others were allowed to place themselves obliquely; and the former began to suffer from the light in the course of two days. in the cases above given, the leaflets move either upwards * 'die näturlichen einrichtungen zum schutze des chlorophylls,' etc., . pringsheim has recently observed under the microscope the destruction of chlorophyll in a few minutes by the action of concentrated light from the sun, in the presence of oxygen. see, also, stahl on the protection of chlorophyll from intense light, in 'bot. zeitung,' . [page ] or twist laterally, so as to place their edges in the direction of the sun's light; but cohn long ago observed that the leaflets of oxalis bend downwards when fully exposed to the sun. we witnessed a striking instance of this movement in the very large leaflets of o. ortegesii. a similar movement may frequently be observed with the leaflets of averrhoa bilimbi (a member of the oxalidae); and a leaf is here represented (fig. ) on which the sun had shone. a diagram (fig. ) was given in the last chapter, representing the oscillations by which a leaflet rapidly descended under these circumstances; and the movement may be seen closely to resemble that (fig. ) by fig. . averrhoa bilimbi: leaf with leaflets depressed after exposure to sunshine; but the leaflets are sometimes more depressed than is here shown. figure much reduced. which it assumed its nocturnal position. it is an interesting fact in relation to our present subject that, as prof. batalin informs us in a letter, dated february, , the leaflets of oxalis acetosella may be daily exposed to the sun during many weeks, and they do not suffer if they are allowed to depress themselves; but if this be prevented, they lose their colour and wither in two or three days. yet the duration of a leaf is about two months, when subjected only to diffused light; and in this case the leaflets never sink downwards during the day.] as the upward movements of the leaflets of robinia, and the downward movements of those of oxalis, have been proved to be highly beneficial to these plants when subjected to bright sunshine, it seems probable that they have been acquired for the special purpose of avoiding too intense an illumination. as it would have been very troublesome in all the above cases to [page ] have watched for a fitting opportunity and to have traced the movement of the leaves whilst they were fully exposed to the sunshine, we did not ascertain whether paraheliotropism always consisted of modified circumnutation; but this certainly was the case with the averrhoa, and probably with the other species, as their leaves were continually circumnutating. [page ] chapter ix. sensitiveness of plants to light: its transmitted effects. uses of heliotropism--insectivorous and climbing plants not heliotropic-- same organ heliotropic at one age and not at another--extraordinary sensitiveness of some plants to light--the effects of light do not correspond with its intensity--effects of previous illumination--time required for the action of light--after-effects of light--apogeotropism acts as soon as light fails--accuracy with which plants bend to the light-- this dependent on the illumination of one whole side of the part--localised sensitiveness to light and its transmitted effects--cotyledons of phalaris, manner of bending--results of the exclusion of light from their tips-- effects transmitted beneath the surface of the ground--lateral illumination of the tip determines the direction of the curvature of the base-- cotyledons of avena, curvature of basal part due to the illumination of upper part--similar results with the hypocotyls of brassica and beta-- radicles of sinapis apheliotropic, due to the sensitiveness of their tips-- concluding remarks and summary of chapter--means by which circumnutation has been converted into heliotropism or apheliotropism. no one can look at the plants growing on a bank or on the borders of a thick wood, and doubt that the young stems and leaves place themselves so that the leaves may be well illuminated. they are thus enabled to decompose carbonic acid. but the sheath-like cotyledons of some gramineae, for instance, those of phalaris, are not green and contain very little starch; from which fact we may infer that they decompose little or no carbonic acid. nevertheless, they are extremely heliotropic; and this probably serves them in another way, namely, as a guide from the buried seeds through fissures in the ground or through overlying masses of vegetation, into the light and air. this view [page ] is strengthened by the fact that with phalaris and avena the first true leaf, which is bright green and no doubt decomposes carbonic acid, exhibits hardly a trace of heliotropism. the heliotropic movements of many other seedlings probably aid them in like manner in emerging from the ground; for apogeotropism by itself would blindly guide them upwards, against any overlying obstacle. heliotropism prevails so extensively among the higher plants, that there are extremely few, of which some part, either the stem, flower-peduncle, petiole, or leaf, does not bend towards a lateral light. drosera rotundifolia is one of the few plants the leaves of which exhibit no trace of heliotropism. nor could we see any in dionaea, though the plants were not so carefully observed. sir j. hooker exposed the pitchers of sarracenia for some time to a lateral light, but they did not bend towards it.* we can understand the reason why these insectivorous plants should not be heliotropic, as they do not live chiefly by decomposing carbonic acid; and it is much more important to them that their leaves should occupy the best position for capturing insects, than that they should be fully exposed to the light. tendrils, which consist of leaves or of other organs modified, and the stems of twining plants, are, as mohl long ago remarked, rarely heliotropic; and here again we can see the reason why, for if they had moved towards a lateral light they would have been drawn away from their supports. but some tendrils are apheliotropic, for instance those of bignonia capreolata * according to f. kurtz ('verhandl. des bot. vereins der provinz brandenburg,' bd. xx. ) the leaves or pitchers of darlingtonia californica are strongly apheliotropic. we failed to detect this movement in a plant which we possessed for a short time. [page ] and of smilax aspera; and the stems of some plants which climb by rootlets, as those of the ivy and tecoma radicans, are likewise apheliotropic, and they thus find a support. the leaves, on the other hand, of most climbing plants are heliotropic; but we could detect no signs of any such movement in those of mutisia clematis. as heliotropism is so widely prevalent, and as twining plants are distributed throughout the whole vascular series, the apparent absence of any tendency in their stems to bend towards the light, seemed to us so remarkable a fact as to deserve further investigation, for it implies that heliotropism can be readily eliminated. when twining plants are exposed to a lateral light, their stems go on revolving or circumnutating about the same spot, without any evident deflection towards the light; but we thought that we might detect some trace of heliotropism by comparing the average rate at which the stems moved to and from the light during their successive revolutions.* three young plants (about a foot in height) of ipomoea caerulea and four of i. purpurea, growing in separate pots, were placed on a bright day before a north-east window in a room otherwise darkened, with the tips of their revolving stems fronting the window. when the tip of each plant pointed directly from the window, and when again towards it, the times were recorded. this was continued from . a.m. till a little after p.m. on june th. after a few observations we concluded that we could safely estimate the time * some erroneous statements are unfortunately given on this subject, in 'the movements and habits of climbing plants,' , pp. , , , and . conclusions were drawn from an insufficient number of observations, for we did not then know at how unequal a rate the stems and tendrils of climbing plants sometimes travel in different parts of the same revolution. [page ] taken by each semicircle, within a limit of error of at most minutes. although the rate of movement in different parts of the same revolution varied greatly, yet semicircles to the light were completed, each on an average in . minutes; and semicircles from the light each in . minutes. it may, therefore, be said that they travelled to and from the light at exactly the same average rate; though probably the accuracy of the result was in part accidental. in the evening the stems were not in the least deflected towards the window. nevertheless, there appears to exist a vestige of heliotropism, for with out of the plants, the first semicircle from the light, described in the early morning after they had been subjected to darkness during the night and thus probably rendered more sensitive, required rather more time, and the first semicircle to the light considerably less time, than the average. thus with all plants, taken together, the mean time of the first semicircle in the morning from the light, was . minutes, instead of . minutes, which is the mean of all the semicircles during the day from the light; and the mean of the first semicircle to the light was only . , instead of . minutes, which was the mean of all the semicircles during the day to the light. similar observations were made on wistaria sinensis, and the mean of semicircles from the light was minutes, and of semicircles to the light minutes, and this difference does not exceed the probable limit of error. during the three days of exposure, the shoot did not become at all bent towards the window before which it stood. in this case the first semicircle from the light in the early morning of each day, required rather less time for its performance than did the first semicircle to the light; and this result, [page ] if not accidental, appears to indicate that the shoots retain a trace of an original apheliotropic tendency. with lonicera brachypoda the semicircles from and to the light differed considerably in time; for semicircles from the light required on a mean . minutes, and to the light, . minutes; but the shoot moved very irregularly, and under these circumstances the observations were much too few. it is remarkable that the same part on the same plant may be affected by light in a widely different manner at different ages, and as it appears at different seasons. the hypocotyledonous stems of ipomoea caerulea and purpurea are extremely heliotropic, whilst the stems of older plants, only about a foot in height, are, as we have just seen, almost wholly insensible to light. sachs states (and we have observed the same fact) that the hypocotyls of the ivy (hedera helix) are slightly heliotropic; whereas the stems of plants grown to a few inches in height become so strongly apheliotropic, that they bend at right angles away from the light. nevertheless, some young plants which had behaved in this manner early in the summer again became distinctly heliotropic in the beginning of september; and the zigzag courses of their stems, as they slowly curved towards a north-east window, were traced during days. the stems of very young plants of tropaeolum majus are highly heliotropic, whilst those of older plants, according to sachs, are slightly apheliotropic. in all these cases the heliotropism of the very young stems serves to expose the cotyledons, or when the cotyledons are hypogean the first true leaves, fully to the light; and the loss of this power by the older stems, or their becoming apheliotropic, is connected with their habit of climbing. most seedling plants are strongly heliotropic, and [page ] it is no doubt a great advantage to them in their struggle for life to expose their cotyledons to the light as quickly and as fully as possible, for the sake of obtaining carbon. it has been shown in the first chapter that the greater number of seedlings circumnutate largely and rapidly; and as heliotropism consists of modified circumnutation, we are tempted to look at the high development of these two powers in seedlings as intimately connected. whether there are any plants which circumnutate slowly and to a small extent, and yet are highly heliotropic, we do not know; but there are several, and there is nothing surprising in this fact, which circumnutate largely and are not at all, or only slightly, heliotropic. of such cases drosera rotundifolia offers an excellent instance. the stolons of the strawberry circumnutate almost like the stems of climbing plants, and they are not at all affected by a moderate light; but when exposed late in the summer to a somewhat brighter light they were slightly heliotropic; in sunlight, according to de vries, they are apheliotropic. climbing plants circumnutate much more widely than any other plants, yet they are not at all heliotropic. although the stems of most seedling plants are strongly heliotropic, some few are but slightly heliotropic, without our being able to assign any reason. this is the case with the hypocotyl of cassia tora, and we were struck with the same fact with some other seedlings, for instance, those of reseda odorata. with respect to the degree of sensitiveness of the more sensitive kinds, it was shown in the last chapter that seedlings of several species, placed before a north-east window protected by several blinds, and exposed in the rear to the diffused light of the room, moved with unerring certainty towards the window, although [page ] it was impossible to judge, excepting by the shadow cast by an upright pencil on a white card, on which side most light entered, so that the excess on one side must have been extremely small. a pot with seedlings of phalaris canariensis, which had been raised in darkness, was placed in a completely darkened room, at feet from a very small lamp. after h. the cotyledons were doubtfully curved towards the light, and after h. m. from the first exposure, they were all plainly, though slightly, curved towards the lamp. now, at this distance of feet, the light was so obscure that we could not see the seedlings themselves, nor read the large roman figures on the white face of a watch, nor see a pencil line on paper, but could just distinguish a line made with indian ink. it is a more surprising fact that no visible shadow was cast by a pencil held upright on a white card; the seedlings, therefore, were acted on by a difference in the illumination of their two sides, which the human eye could not distinguish. on another occasion even a less degree of light acted, for some cotyledons of phalaris became slightly curved towards the same lamp at a distance of feet; at this distance we could not see a circular dot . mm. (. inch) in diameter made with indian ink on white paper, though we could just see a dot . mm. (. inch) in diameter; yet a dot of the former size appears large when seen in the light.* we next tried how small a beam of light would act; as this bears on light serving as a guide to seedlings whilst they emerge through fissured or encumbered ground. a pot with seedlings of phalaris was covered * strasburger says ('wirkung des lichtes auf schwärmsporen,' , p. ), that the spores of haematococcus moved to a light which only just sufficed to allow middle-sized type to be read. [page ] by a tin-vessel, having on one side a circular hole . mm. in diameter (i.e. a little less than the / th of an inch); and the box was placed in front of a paraffin lamp and on another occasion in front of a window; and both times the seedlings were manifestly bent after a few hours towards the little hole. a more severe trial was now made; little tubes of very thin glass, closed at their upper ends and coated with black varnish, were slipped over the cotyledons of phalaris (which had germinated in darkness) and just fitted them. narrow stripes of the varnish had been previously scraped off one side, through which alone light could enter; and their dimensions were afterwards measured under the microscope. as a control experiment, similar unvarnished and transparent tubes were tried, and they did not prevent the cotyledons bending towards the light. two cotyledons were placed before a south-west window, one of which was illuminated by a stripe in the varnish, only . inch ( . mm.) in breadth and . inch ( . mm.) in length; and the other by a stripe . inch in breadth and . inch in length. the seedlings were examined after an exposure of h. m., and were found to be manifestly bowed towards the light. some other cotyledons were at the same time treated similarly, excepting that the little stripes were directed not to the sky, but in such a manner that they received only the diffused light from the room; and these cotyledons did not become at all bowed. seven other cotyledons were illuminated through narrow, but comparatively long, cleared stripes in the varnish--namely, in breadth between . and . inch, and in length between . and . inch; and these all became bowed to the side, by which light entered through the stripes, whether these were directed towards the sky or to one side of [page ] the room. that light passing through a hole only . inch in breadth by . in length, should induce curvature, seems to us a surprising fact. before we knew how extremely sensitive the cotyledons of phalaris were to light, we endeavoured to trace their circumnutation in darkness by the aid of a small wax taper, held for a minute or two at each observation in nearly the same position, a little on the left side in front of the vertical glass on which the tracing was made. the seedlings were thus observed seventeen times in the course of the day, at intervals of from half to three-quarters of an hour; and late in the evening we were surprised to find that all the cotyledons were greatly curved and pointed towards the vertical glass, a little to the left where the taper had been held. the tracings showed that they had travelled in zigzag lines. thus, an exposure to a feeble light for a very short time at the above specified intervals, sufficed to induce well-marked heliotropism. an analogous case was observed with the hypocotyls of solanum lycopersicum. we at first attributed this result to the after-effects of the light on each occasion; but since reading wiesner's observations,* which will be referred to in the last chapter, we cannot doubt that an intermittent light is more efficacious than a continuous one, as plants are especially sensitive to any contrast in its amount. the cotyledons of phalaris bend much more slowly towards a very obscure light than towards a bright one. thus, in the experiments with seedlings placed in a dark room at feet from a very small lamp, they were just perceptibly and doubtfully curved towards it after h., and only slightly, yet certainly, after h. * 'sitz. der k. akad. der wissensch.' (vienna), jan. , p. . [page ] after h. m. the chords of their arcs were deflected from the perpendicular by an average angle of only o. had the light been bright, they would have become much more curved in between and h. several trials were made with seedlings placed at various distances from a small lamp in a dark room; but we will give only one trial. six pots were placed at distances of , , , , , and feet from the lamp, before which they were left for h. as light decreases in a geometrical ratio, the seedlings in the nd pot received / th, those in the rd pot / th, those in the th / th, those in the th / th, and those in the th / th of the light received by the seedlings in the first or nearest pot. therefore it might have been expected that there would have been an immense difference in the degree of their heliotropic curvature in the several pots; and there was a well-marked difference between those which stood nearest and furthest from the lamp, but the difference in each successive pair of pots was extremely small. in order to avoid prejudice, we asked three persons, who knew nothing about the experiment, to arrange the pots in order according to the degree of curvature of the cotyledons. the first person arranged them in proper order, but doubted long between the feet and feet pots; yet these two received light in the proportion of to . the second person also arranged them properly, but doubted between the feet and feet pots, which received light in the proportion of to . the third person arranged them in wrong order, and doubted about four of the pots. this evidence shows conclusively how little the curvature of the seedlings differed in the successive pots, in comparison with the great difference in the amount of light which they received; and it should be noted that there was no [page ] excess of superfluous light, for the cotyledons became but little and slowly curved even in the nearest pot. close to the th pot, at the distance of feet from the lamp, the light allowed us just to distinguish a dot . mm. (. inch) in diameter, made with indian ink on white paper, but not a dot . mm. (. inch) in diameter. the degree of curvature of the cotyledons of phalaris within a given time, depends not merely on the amount of lateral light which they may then receive, but on that which they have previously received from above and on all sides. analogous facts have been given with respect to the nyctitropic and periodic movements of plants. of two pots containing seedlings of phalaris which had germinated in darkness, one was still kept in the dark, and the other was exposed (sept. th) to the light in a greenhouse during a cloudy day and on the following bright morning. on this morning ( th), at . a.m., both pots were placed in a box, blackened within and open in front, before a north-east window, protected by a linen and muslin blind and by a towel, so that but little light was admitted, though the sky was bright. whenever the pots were looked at, this was done as quickly as possible, and the cotyledons were then held transversely with respect to the light, so that their curvature could not have been thus increased or diminished. after m. the seedlings which had previously been kept in darkness, were perhaps, and after m. were certainly, curved, though very slightly, towards the window. after m. some of the seedlings, which had previously been illuminated, were perhaps a little affected, and after m. some of the younger ones were certainly a little curved towards the light. at this time (i.e. after m.) there was a plain difference [page ] in the curvature of the seedlings in the two pots. after h. m. the chords of the arcs of four of the most strongly curved seedlings in each pot were measured, and the mean angle from the perpendicular of those which had previously been kept in darkness was o, and of those which had previously been illuminated only o. nor did this difference diminish during two additional hours. as a check, the seedlings in both pots were then placed in complete darkness for two hours, in order that apogeotropism should act on them; and those in the one pot which were little curved became in this time almost completely upright, whilst the more curved ones in the other pot still remained plainly curved. two days afterwards the experiment was repeated, with the sole difference that even less light was admitted through the window, as it was protected by a linen and muslin blind and by two towels; the sky, moreover, was somewhat less bright. the result was the same as before, excepting that everything occurred rather slower. the seedlings which had been previously kept in darkness were not in the least curved after m., but were so after m. those which had previously been illuminated were not at all affected until m. had elapsed, and then only slightly. after m. some of the seedlings in this latter pot were certainly curved towards the light; and there was now a plain difference between the two pots. after h. m. the chords of the arcs of seedlings in each pot were measured, and the mean angle from the perpendicular was o for those in the pot which had previously been kept in darkness, and only o for those which had previously been illuminated. the curvature of the cotyledons of phalaris towards a lateral light is therefore certainly influenced by the [page ] degree to which they have been previously illuminated. we shall presently see that the influence of light on their bending continues for a short time after the light has been extinguished. these facts, as well as that of the curvature not increasing or decreasing in nearly the same ratio with that of the amount of light which they receive, as shown in the trials with the plants before the lamp, all indicate that light acts on them as a stimulus, in somewhat the same manner as on the nervous system of animals, and not in a direct manner on the cells or cell-walls which by their contraction or expansion cause the curvature. it has already been incidentally shown how slowly the cotyledons of phalaris bend towards a very dim light; but when they were placed before a bright paraffin lamp their tips were all curved rectangularly towards it in h. m. the hypocotyls of solanum lycopersicum had bent in the morning at right angles towards a north-east window. at p.m. (oct. st) the pot was turned round, so that the seedlings now pointed from the light, but by p.m. they had reversed their curvature and again pointed to the light. they had thus passed through o in h., having in the morning previously passed through about o. but the reversal of the first half of the curvature will have been aided by apogeotropism. similar cases were observed with other seedlings, for instance, with those of sinapis alba. we attempted to ascertain in how short a time light acted on the cotyledons of phalaris, but this was difficult on account of their rapid circumnutating movement; moreover, they differ much in sensibility, according to age; nevertheless, some of our observations are worth giving. pots with seedlings were [page ] placed under a microscope provided with an eye-piece micrometer, of which each division equalled / th of an inch ( . mm.); and they were at first illuminated by light from a paraffin lamp passing through a solution of bichromate of potassium, which does not induce heliotropism. thus the direction in which the cotyledons were circumnutating could be observed independently of any action from the light; and they could be made, by turning round the pots, to circumnutate transversely to the line in which the light would strike them, as soon as the solution was removed. the fact that the direction of the circumnutating movement might change at any moment, and thus the plant might bend either towards or from the lamp independently of the action of the light, gave an element of uncertainty to the results. after the solution had been removed, five seedlings which were circumnutating transversely to the line of light, began to move towards it, in , , / , , and minutes. in one of these cases, the apex of the cotyledon crossed five of the divisions of the micrometer (i.e. / th of an inch, or . mm.) towards the light in m. of two seedlings which were moving directly from the light at the time when the solution was removed, one began to move towards it in m., and the other in m. this latter seedling was observed for more than an hour and continued to move towards the light; it crossed at one time divisions of the micrometer ( . mm.) in m. s. in all these cases, the movement towards the light was extremely unequal in rate, and the cotyledons often remained almost stationary for some minutes, and two of them retrograded a little. another seedling which was circumnutating transversely to the line of light, moved towards it in m. after the solution was removed; it then remained [page ] almost stationary for m.; then crossed divisions of the micrometer in m.; and then divisions in m. this unequal rate of movement, interrupted by pauses, and at first with occasional retrogressions, accords well with our conclusion that heliotropism consists of modified circumnutation. in order to observe how long the after-effects of light lasted, a pot with seedlings of phalaris, which had germinated in darkness, was placed at . a.m. before a north-east window, being protected on all other sides from the light; and the movement of a cotyledon was traced on a horizontal glass. it circumnutated about the same space for the first m., and during the next h. m. moved rapidly towards the light. the light was now (i.e. after h. m.) completely excluded, but the cotyledon continued bending in the same direction as before, certainly for more than m., probably for about m. the doubt arose from the necessity of not looking at the seedlings often, and thus exposing them, though momentarily, to the light. this same seedling was now kept in the dark, until . p.m., by which time it had reacquired through apogeotropism its original upright position, when it was again exposed to the light from a clouded sky. by p.m. it had moved a very short distance towards the light, but during the next m. travelled quickly towards it. after this exposure of h. m. to a rather dull sky, the light was again completely excluded, but the cotyledon continued to bend in the same direction as before for m. within a very small limit of error. it was then placed in the dark, and it now moved backwards, so that after h. m. it stood close to where it had started from at . p.m. these observations show that the cotyledons of phalaris, after being exposed to a lateral [page ] light, continue to bend in the same direction for between a quarter and half an hour. in the two experiments just given, the cotyledons moved backwards or from the window shortly after being subjected to darkness; and whilst tracing the circumnutation of various kinds of seedlings exposed to a lateral light, we repeatedly observed that late in the evening, as the light waned, they moved from it. this fact is shown in some of the diagrams given in the last chapter. we wished therefore to learn whether this was wholly due to apogeotropism, or whether an organ after bending towards the light tended from any other cause to bend from it, as soon as the light failed. accordingly, two pots of seedling phalaris and one pot of seedling brassica were exposed for h. before a paraffin lamp, by which time the cotyledons of the former and the hypocotyls of the latter were bent rectangularly towards the light. the pots were now quickly laid horizontally, so that the upper parts of the cotyledons and of the hypocotyls of seedlings projected vertically upwards, as proved by a plumb-line. in this position they could not be acted on by apogeotropism, and if they possessed any tendency to straighten themselves or to bend in opposition to their former heliotropic curvature, this would be exhibited, for it would be opposed at first very slightly by apogeotropism. they were kept in the dark for h., during which time they were twice looked at; but no uniform bending in opposition to their former heliotropic curvature could be detected. we have said uniform bending, because they circumnutated in their new position, and after h. were inclined in different directions (between o and o) from the perpendicular. their directions were also changed after two additional hours, and again on the following morning. we may [page ] therefore conclude that the bending back of plants from a light, when this becomes obscure or is extinguished, is wholly due to apogeotropism.* in our various experiments we were often struck with the accuracy with which seedlings pointed to a light although of small size. to test this, many seedlings of phalaris, which had germinated in darkness in a very narrow box several feet in length, were placed in a darkened room near to and in front of a lamp having a small cylindrical wick. the cotyledons at the two ends and in the central part of the box, would therefore have to bend in widely different directions in order to point to the light. after they had become rectangularly bent, a long white thread was stretched by two persons, close over and parallel, first to one and then to another cotyledon; and the thread was found in almost every case actually to intersect the small circular wick of the now extinguished lamp. the deviation from accuracy never exceeded, as far as we could judge, a degree or two. this extreme accuracy seems at first surprising, but is not really so, for an upright cylindrical stem, whatever its position may be with respect to the light, would have exactly half its circumference illuminated and half in shadow; and as the difference in illumination of the two sides is the exciting cause of heliotropism, a cylinder would naturally bend with much accuracy towards the light. the cotyledons, however, of phalaris are not cylindrical, but oval in section; and the longer axis was to the shorter axis (in the one which was measured) as to . nevertheless, no difference could be * it appears from a reference in wiesner ('die undulirende nutation der internodien,' p. ), that h. müller of thurgau found that a stem which is bending heliotropically is at the same time striving, through apogeotropism, to raise itself into a vertical position. [page ] detected in the accuracy of their bending, whether they stood with their broad or narrow sides facing the light, or in any intermediate position; and so it was with the cotyledons of avena sativa, which are likewise oval in section. now, a little reflection will show that in whatever position the cotyledons may stand, there will be a line of greatest illumination, exactly fronting the light, and on each side of this line an equal amount of light will be received; but if the oval stands obliquely with respect to the light, this will be diffused over a wider surface on one side of the central line than on the other. we may therefore infer that the same amount of light, whether diffused over a wider surface or concentrated on a smaller surface, produces exactly the same effect; for the cotyledons in the long narrow box stood in all sorts of positions with reference to the light, yet all pointed truly towards it. that the bending of the cotyledons to the light depends on the illumination of one whole side or on the obscuration of the whole opposite side, and not on a narrow longitudinal zone in the line of the light being affected, was shown by the effects of painting longitudinally with indian ink one side of five cotyledons of phalaris. these were then placed on a table near to a south-west window, and the painted half was directed either to the right or left. the result was that instead of bending in a direct line towards the window, they were deflected from the window and towards the unpainted side, by the following angles, o, o, o, o, and o. it should be remarked that it was hardly possible to paint one-half accurately, or to place all the seedlings which are oval in section in quite the same position relatively to the light; and this will account for the differences in the angles. five coty- [page ] ledons of avena were also painted in the same manner, but with greater care; and they were laterally deflected from the line of the window, towards the unpainted side, by the following angles, o, o, o, o, and o. this deflection of the cotyledons from the window is intelligible, for the whole unpainted side must have received some light, whereas the opposite and painted side received none; but a narrow zone on the unpainted side directly in front of the window will have received most light, and all the hinder parts (half an oval in section) less and less light in varying degrees; and we may conclude that the angle of deflection is the resultant of the action of the light over the whole of the unpainted side. it should have been premised that painting with indian ink does not injure plants, at least within several hours; and it could injure them only by stopping respiration. to ascertain whether injury was thus soon caused, the upper halves of cotyledons of avena were thickly coated with transparent matter,-- with gum, and with gelatine; they were placed in the morning before a window, and by the evening they were normally bowed towards the light, although the coatings now consisted of dry crusts of gum and gelatine. moreover, if the seedlings which were painted longitudinally with indian ink had been injured on the painted side, the opposite side would have gone on growing, and they would consequently have become bowed towards the painted side; whereas the curvature was always, as we have seen, in the opposite direction, or towards the unpainted side which was exposed to the light. we witnessed the effects of injuring longitudinally one side of the cotyledons of avena and phalaris; for before we knew that grease was highly injurious to them, several were painted down one side [page ] with a mixture of oil and lamp-black, and were then exposed before a window; others similarly treated were afterwards tried in darkness. these cotyledons soon became plainly bowed towards the blackened side, evidently owing to the grease on this side having checked their growth, whilst growth continued on the opposite side. but it deserves notice that the curvature differed from that caused by light, which ultimately becomes abrupt near the ground. these seedlings did not afterwards die, but were much injured and grew badly. localised sensitiveness to light, and its transmitted effects. phalaris canariensis.--whilst observing the accuracy with which the cotyledons of this plant became bent towards the light of a small lamp, we were impressed with the idea that the uppermost part determined the direction of the curvature of the lower part. when the cotyledons are exposed to a lateral light, the upper part bends first, and afterwards the bending gradually extends down to the base, and, as we shall presently see, even a little beneath the ground. this holds good with cotyledons from less than . inch (one was observed to act in this manner which was only . in height) to about . of an inch in height; but when they have grown to nearly an inch in height, the basal part, for a length of . to . of an inch above the ground, ceases to bend. as with young cotyledons the lower part goes on bending, after the upper part has become well arched towards a lateral light, the apex would ultimately point to the ground instead of to the light, did not the upper part reverse its curvature and straighten itself, as [page ] soon as the upper convex surface of the bowed-down portion received more light than the lower concave surface. the position ultimately assumed by young and upright cotyledons, exposed to light entering obliquely from above through a window, is shown in the accompanying figure (fig. ); and here it may be seen that the whole upper part has become very nearly straight. when the cotyledons were exposed before a bright lamp, standing on the same level with them, the upper part, which was at first fig. . phalaris canariensis: cotyledons after exposure in a box open on one side in front of a south-west window during h. curvature towards the light accurately traced. the short horizontal lines show the level of the ground. greatly arched towards the light, became straight and strictly parallel with the surface of the soil in the pots; the basal part being now rectangularly bent. all this great amount of curvature, together with the subsequent straightening of the upper part, was often effected in a few hours. [after the uppermost part has become bowed a little to the light, its overhanging weight must tend to increase the curvature of the lower part; but any such effect was shown in several ways to be quite insignificant. when little caps of tin-foil (hereafter to be described) were placed on the summits of the cotyledons, though this must have added considerably to their weight, the rate or amount of bending was not thus increased. but the best evidence was afforded by placing pots with seedlings of phalaris before a lamp in such a position, that the cotyledons were horizontally extended and projected at right angles to the line of light. in the course of ½ h. they were directed towards the light with their bases bent at right angles; and this abrupt [page ] curvature could not have been aided in the least by the weight of the upper part, which acted at right angles to the plane of curvature. it will be shown that when the upper halves of the cotyledons of phalaris and avena were enclosed in little pipes of tin-foil or of blackened glass, in which case the upper part was mechanically prevented from bending, the lower and unenclosed part did not bend when exposed to a lateral light; and it occurred to us that this fact might be due, not to the exclusion of the light from the upper part, but to some necessity of the bending gradually travelling down the cotyledons, so that unless the upper part first became bent, the lower could not bend, however much it might be stimulated. it was necessary for our purpose to ascertain whether this notion was true, and it was proved false; for the lower halves of several cotyledons became bowed to the light, although their upper halves were enclosed in little glass tubes (not blackened), which prevented, as far as we could judge, their bending. nevertheless, as the part within the tube might possibly bend a very little, fine rigid rods or flat splinters of thin glass were cemented with shellac to one side of the upper part of cotyledons; and in six cases they were in addition tied on with threads. they were thus forced to remain quite straight. the result was that the lower halves of all became bowed to the light, but generally not in so great a degree as the corresponding part of the free seedlings in the same pots; and this may perhaps be accounted for by some slight degree of injury having been caused by a considerable surface having been smeared with shellac. it may be added, that when the cotyledons of phalaris and avena are acted on by apogeotropism, it is the upper part which begins first to bend; and when this part was rendered rigid in the manner just described, the upward curvature of the basal part was not thus prevented. to test our belief that the upper part of the cotyledons of phalaris, when exposed to a lateral light, regulates the bending of the lower part, many experiments were tried; but most of our first attempts proved useless from various causes not worth specifying. seven cotyledons had their tips cut off for lengths varying between . and . of an inch, and these, when left exposed all day to a lateral light, remained upright. in another set of cotyledons, the tips were cut off for a length of only about . of an inch ( . mm.) and these became bowed towards [page ] a lateral light, but not nearly so much as the many other seedlings in the same pots. this latter case shows that cutting off the tips does not by itself injure the plants so seriously as to prevent heliotropism; but we thought at the time, that such injury might follow when a greater length was cut off, as in the first set of experiments. therefore, no more trials of this kind were made, which we now regret; as we afterwards found that when the tips of three cotyledons were cut off for a length of . inch, and of four others for lengths of . , . , . , and . inch, and they were extended horizontally, the amputation did not interfere in the least with their bending vertically upwards, through the action of apogeotropism, like unmutilated specimens. it is therefore extremely improbable that the amputation of the tips for lengths of from . to . inch, could from the injury thus caused have prevented the lower part from bending towards the light. we next tried the effects of covering the upper part of the cotyledons of phalaris with little caps which were impermeable to light; the whole lower part being left fully exposed before a south-west window or a bright paraffin lamp. some of the caps were made of extremely thin tin-foil blackened within; these had the disadvantage of occasionally, though rarely, being too heavy, especially when twice folded. the basal edges could be pressed into close contact with the cotyledons; though this again required care to prevent injuring them. nevertheless, any injury thus caused could be detected by removing the caps, and trying whether the cotyledons were then sensitive to light. other caps were made of tubes of the thinnest glass, which when painted black served well, with the one great disadvantage that the lower ends could not be closed. but tubes were used which fitted the cotyledons almost closely, and black paper was placed on the soil round each, to check the upward reflection of light from the soil. such tubes were in one respect far better than caps of tin-foil, as it was possible to cover at the same time some cotyledons with transparent and others with opaque tubes; and thus our experiments could be controlled. it should be kept in mind that young cotyledons were selected for trial, and that these when not interfered with become bowed down to the ground towards the light. we will begin with the glass-tubes. the summits of nine cotyledons, differing somewhat in height, were enclosed for rather less than half their lengths in uncoloured or transparent [page ] tubes; and these were then exposed before a south-west window on a bright day for h. all of them became strongly curved towards the light, in the same degree as the many other free seedlings in the same pots; so that the glass-tubes certainly did not prevent the cotyledons from bending towards the light. nineteen other cotyledons were, at the same time, similarly enclosed in tubes thickly painted with indian ink. on five of them, the paint, to our surprise, contracted after exposure to the sunlight, and very narrow cracks were formed, through which a little light entered; and these five cases were rejected. of the remaining cotyledons, the lower halves of which had been fully exposed to the light for the whole time, continued quite straight and upright; was considerably bowed to the light, and were slightly bowed, but with the exposed bases of most of them almost or quite straight. it is possible that some light may have been reflected upwards from the soil and entered the bases of these tubes, as the sun shone brightly, though bits of blackened paper had been placed on the soil round them. nevertheless, the cotyledons which were slightly bowed, together with the upright ones, presented a most remarkable contrast in appearance with the many other seedlings in the same pots to which nothing had been done. the blackened tubes were then removed from of these seedlings, and they were now exposed before a lamp for h.; of them became greatly, and moderately, curved towards the light, proving that the previous absence of any curvature in the basal part, or the presence of only a slight degree of curvature there, was due to the exclusion of light from the upper part. similar observations were made on younger cotyledons with their upper halves enclosed within glass-tubes coated with black varnish, and with their lower halves fully exposed to bright sunshine. in these younger seedlings the sensitive zone seems to extend rather lower down, as was observed on some other occasions, for two became almost as much curved towards the light as the free seedlings; and the remaining ten were slightly curved, although the basal part of several of them, which normally becomes more curved than any other part, exhibited hardly a trace of curvature. these seedlings taken together differed greatly in their degree of curvature from all the many other seedlings in the same pots. better evidence of the efficiency of the blackened tubes was incidentally afforded by some experiments hereafter to be given, [page ] in which the upper halves of cotyledons were enclosed in tubes from which an extremely narrow stripe of the black varnish had been scraped off. these cleared stripes were not directed towards the window, but obliquely to one side of the room, so that only a very little light could act on the upper halves of the cotyledons. these seedlings remained during eight hours of exposure before a south-west window on a hazy day quite upright; whereas all the other many free seedlings in the same pots became greatly bowed towards the light. we will now turn to the trials with caps made of very thin tin-foil. these were placed at different times on the summits of cotyledons, and they extended down for a length of between . and . of an inch. the seedlings were exposed to a lateral light for periods varying between h. m. and h. m., which sufficed to cause all the other seedlings in the same pots to become almost rectangularly bent towards the light. they varied in height from only . to . inch, but the greater number were about . inch. of the cotyledons with their summits thus protected, became much bent, but not in the direction of the light, and as they did not straighten themselves through apogeotropism during the following night, either the caps were too heavy or the plants themselves were in a weak condition; and these three cases may be excluded. there are left for consideration cotyledons; of these remained all the time quite upright; the other became slightly inclined to the light, but not in a degree comparable with that of the many free seedlings in the same pots. as the glass-tubes, when unpainted, did not prevent the cotyledons from becoming greatly bowed, it cannot be supposed that the caps of very thin tin-foil did so, except through the exclusion of the light. to prove that the plants had not been injured, the caps were removed from of the upright seedlings, and these were exposed before a paraffin lamp for the same length of time as before, and they now all became greatly curved towards the light. as caps between . and . of an inch in depth were thus proved to be highly efficient in preventing the cotyledons from bending towards the light, other cotyledons were protected with caps between only . and . in depth. of these, two remained vertical, one was considerably and five slightly curved towards the light, but far less so than the free seedlings in the same pots. [page ] another trial was made in a different manner, namely, by bandaging with strips of tin-foil, about . in breadth, the upper part, but not the actual summit, of eight moderately young seedlings a little over half an inch in height. the summits and the basal parts were thus left fully exposed to a lateral light during h.; an upper intermediate zone being protected. with four of these seedlings the summits were exposed for a length of . inch, and in two of them this part became curved towards the light, but the whole lower part remained quite upright; whereas the entire length of the other two seedlings became slightly curved towards the light. the summits of the four other seedlings were exposed for a length of . inch, and of these one remained almost upright, whilst the other three became considerably curved towards the light. the many free seedlings in the same pots were all greatly curved towards the light. from these several sets of experiments, including those with the glass-tubes, and those when the tips were cut off, we may infer that the exclusion of light from the upper part of the cotyledons of phalaris prevents the lower part, though fully exposed to a lateral light, from becoming curved. the summit for a length of . or . of an inch, though it is itself sensitive and curves towards the light, has only a slight power of causing the lower part to bend. nor has the exclusion of light from the summit for a length of . of an inch a strong influence on the curvature of the lower part. on the other hand, an exclusion for a length of between . and . of an inch, or of the whole upper half, plainly prevents the lower and fully illuminated part from becoming curved in the manner (see fig. ) which invariably occurs when a free cotyledon is exposed to a lateral light. with very young seedlings the sensitive zone seems to extend rather lower down relatively to their height than in older seedlings. we must therefore conclude that when seedlings are freely exposed to a lateral light some influence is transmitted from the upper to the lower part, causing the latter to bend. this conclusion is supported by what may be seen to occur on a small scale, especially with young cotyledons, without any artificial exclusion of the light; for they bend beneath the earth where no light can enter. seeds of phalaris were covered with a layer one-fourth of an inch in thickness of very fine sand, consisting of extremely minute grains of silex coated with [page ] oxide of iron. a layer of this sand, moistened to the same degree as that over the seeds, was spread over a glass-plate; and when the layer was . of an inch in thickness (carefully measured) no light from a bright sky could be seen to pass through it, unless it was viewed through a long blackened tube, and then a trace of light could be detected, but probably much too little to affect any plant. a layer . of an inch in thickness was quite impermeable to light, as judged by the eye aided by the tube. it may be worth adding that the layer, when dried, remained equally impermeable to light. this sand yielded to very slight pressure whilst kept moist, and in this state did not contract or crack in the least. in a first trial, cotyledons which had grown to a moderate height were exposed for h. before a paraffin lamp, and they became greatly bowed. at their bases on the shaded side opposite to the light, well-defined, crescentic, open furrows were formed, which (measured under a microscope with a micrometer) were from . to . of an inch in breadth, and these had evidently been left by the bending of the buried bases of the cotyledons towards the light. on the side of the light the cotyledons were in close contact with the sand, which was a very little heaped up. by removing with a sharp knife the sand on one side of the cotyledons in the line of the light, the bent portion and the open furrows were found to extend down to a depth of about . of an inch, where no light could enter. the chords of the short buried arcs formed in four cases angles of o, o, o, and o, with the perpendicular. by the following morning these short bowed portions had straightened themselves through apogeotropism. in the next trial much younger cotyledons were similarly treated, but were exposed to a rather obscure lateral light. after some hours, a bowed cotyledon, . inch in height, had an open furrow on the shaded side . inch in breadth; another cotyledon, only . inch in height, had left a furrow . inch in breadth. but the most curious case was that of a cotyledon which had just protruded above the ground and was only . inch in height, and this was found to be bowed in the direction of the light to a depth of . of an inch beneath the surface. from what we know of the impermeability of this sand to light, the upper illuminated part in these several cases must have determined the curvature of the lower buried portions. but an apparent cause of doubt may be suggested: as the cotyledons are continually circumnutating, they tend to form a minute [page ] crack or furrow all round their bases, which would admit a little light on all sides; but this would not happen when they were illuminated laterally, for we know that they quickly bend towards a lateral light, and they then press so firmly against the sand on the illuminated side as to furrow it, and this would effectually exclude light on this side. any light admitted on the opposite and shaded side, where an open furrow is formed, would tend to counteract the curvature towards the lamp or other source of the light. it may be added, that the use of fine moist sand, which yields easily to pressure, was indispensable in the above experiments; for seedlings raised in common soil, not kept especially damp, and exposed for h. m. to a strong lateral light, did not form an open furrow at their bases on the shaded side, and were not bowed beneath the surface. perhaps the most striking proof of the action of the upper on the lower part of the cotyledons of phalaris, when laterally illuminated, was afforded by the blackened glass-tubes (before alluded to) with very narrow stripes of the varnish scraped off on one side, through which a little light was admitted. the breadth of these stripes or slits varied between . and . inch (. and . mm.). cotyledons with their upper halves enclosed in such tubes were placed before a south-west window, in such a position, that the scraped stripes did not directly face the window, but obliquely to one side. the seedlings were left exposed for h., before the close of which time the many free seedlings in the same pots had become greatly bowed towards the window. under these circumstances, the whole lower halves of the cotyledons, which had their summits enclosed in the tubes, were fully exposed to the light of the sky, whilst their upper halves received exclusively or chiefly diffused light from the room, and this only through a very narrow slit on one side. now, if the curvature of the lower part had been determined by the illumination of this part, all the cotyledons assuredly would have become curved towards the window; but this was far from being the case. tubes of the kind just described were placed on several occasions over the upper halves of cotyledons; of them remained all the time quite vertical; so that sufficient diffused light did not enter through the narrow slits to produce any effect whatever; and they behaved in the same manner as if their upper halves had been enclosed in completely blackened tubes. the lower halves of the other cotyledons became bowed [page ] not directly in the line of the window, but obliquely towards it; one pointed at an angle of only o, but the remaining at angles varying between o and o from the line of the window. at the commencement of the experiment, pins had been laid on the earth in the direction towards which the slits in the varnish faced; and in this direction alone a small amount of diffused light entered. at the close of the experiment, of the bowed cotyledons pointed exactly in the line of the pins, and of them in a line between that of the pins and that of the window. this intermediate position is intelligible, for any light from the sky which entered obliquely through the slits would be much more efficient than the diffused light which entered directly through them. after the h. exposure, the contrast in appearance between these cotyledons and the many other seedlings in the same pots, which were all (excepting the above vertical ones) greatly bowed in straight and parallel lines towards the window, was extremely remarkable. it is therefore certain that a little weak light striking the upper halves of the cotyledons of phalaris, is far more potent in determining the direction of the curvature of the lower halves, than the full illumination of the latter during the whole time of exposure. in confirmation of the above results, the effect of thickly painting with indian ink one side of the upper part of three cotyledons of phalaris, for a length of . inch from their tips, may be worth giving. these were placed so that the unpainted surface was directed not towards the window, but a little to one side; and they all became bent towards the unpainted side, and from the line of the window by angles amounting to o, o, and o. the curvature in this direction extended down to their bases, although the whole lower part was fully exposed to the light from the window. finally, although there can be no doubt that the illumination of the upper part of the cotyledons of phalaris greatly affects the power and manner of bending of the lower part, yet some observations seemed to render it probable that the simultaneous stimulation of the lower part by light greatly favours, or is almost necessary, for its well-marked curvature; but our experiments were not conclusive, owing to the difficulty of excluding light from the lower halves without mechanically preventing their curvature. avena sativa.--the cotyledons of this plant become quickly bowed towards a lateral light, exactly like those of phalaris. [page ] experiments similar to the foregoing ones were tried, and we will give the results as briefly as possible. they are somewhat less conclusive than in the case of phalaris, and this may possibly be accounted for by the sensitive zone varying in extension, in a species so long cultivated and variable as the common oat. cotyledons a little under three-quarters of an inch in height were selected for trial: six had their summits protected from light by tin-foil caps, . inch in depth, and two others by caps . inch in depth. of these cotyledons, five remained upright during hours of exposure, although their lower parts were fully exposed to the light all the time; two were very slightly, and one considerably, bowed towards it. caps only . or . inch in depth were placed over other cotyledons, and now only one remained upright, one was slightly, and two considerably bowed to the light. in this and the following cases all the free seedlings in the same pots became greatly bowed to the light. our next trial was made with short lengths of thin and fairly transparent quills; for glass-tubes of sufficient diameter to go over the cotyledons would have been too heavy. firstly, the summits of cotyledons were enclosed in unpainted quills, and of these became greatly and slightly bowed to the light; so that the mere act of enclosure did not prevent the lower part from becoming bowed. secondly, the summits of cotyledons were enclosed in quills . inch in length, painted so as to be impermeable to light; of these, did not become at all inclined towards the light, but of them were slightly bent more or less transversely with respect to the line of light, and these might perhaps have been altogether excluded; one alone was slightly bowed towards the light. painted quills, . inch in length, were placed over the summits of other cotyledons; of these, one alone remained upright, a second was slightly bowed, and the two others as much bowed to the light as the free seedlings in the same pots. these two latter cases, considering that the caps were . in length, are inexplicable. lastly, the summits of cotyledons were coated with flexible and highly transparent gold-beaters' skin, and all became as much bowed to the light as the free seedlings. the summits of other cotyledons were similarly coated with gold-beaters' skin, which was then painted to a depth of between . and . inch, so as to be impermeable to light; of these remained upright, and were well bowed to the light, almost or quite as well as [page ] the free seedlings. these latter four cases, as well as the two in the last paragraph, offer a strong exception to the rule that the illumination of the upper part determines the curvature of the lower part. nevertheless, of these cotyledons remained quite upright, although their lower halves were fully illuminated all the time; and it would almost be a prodigy to find five free seedlings standing vertically after an exposure for several hours to a lateral light. the cotyledons of avena, like those of phalaris, when growing in soft, damp, fine sand, leave an open crescentric furrow on the shaded side, after bending to a lateral light; and they become bowed beneath the surface at a depth to which, as we know, light cannot penetrate. the arcs of the chords of the buried bowed portions formed in two cases angles of o and o with the perpendicular. the open furrows on the shaded side were, in four cases, . , . , . , and . of an inch in breadth. brassica oleracea (common red).--it will here be shown that the upper half of the hypocotyl of the cabbage, when illuminated by a lateral light, determines the curvature of the lower half. it is necessary to experimentise on young seedlings about half an inch or rather less in height, for when grown to an inch and upwards the basal part ceases to bend. we first tried painting the hypocotyls with indian ink, or cutting off their summits for various lengths; but these experiments are not worth giving, though they confirm, as far as they can be trusted, the results of the following ones. these were made by folding gold-beaters' skin once round the upper halves of young hypocotyls, and painting it thickly with indian ink or with black grease. as a control experiment, the same transparent skin, left unpainted, was folded round the upper halves of hypocotyls; and these all became greatly curved to the light, excepting one, which was only moderately curved. twenty other young hypocotyls had the skin round their upper halves painted, whilst their lower halves were left quite uncovered. these seedlings were then exposed, generally for between and h., in a box blackened within and open in front, either before a south-west window or a paraffin lamp. this exposure was amply sufficient, as was shown by the strongly-marked heliotropism of all the free seedlings in the same pots; nevertheless, some were left exposed to the light for a much longer time. of the hypocotyls thus treated, remained quite upright, and became slightly bowed to the light; but of these latter cases were not really [page ] exceptions, for on removing the skin the paint was found imperfect and was penetrated by many small transparent spaces on the side which faced the light. moreover, in two other cases the painted skin did not extend quite halfway down the hypocotyl. although there was a wonderful contrast in the several pots between these hypocotyls and the other many free seedlings, which were all greatly bowed down to their bases in the direction of the light, some being almost prostrate on the ground. the most successful trial on any one day (included in the above results) is worth describing in detail. six young seedlings were selected, the hypocotyls of which were nearly . inch, excepting one, which was . inch in height, measured from the bases of their petioles to the ground. their upper halves, judged as accurately as could be done by the eye, were folded once round with gold-beaters' skin, and this was painted thickly with indian ink. they were exposed in an otherwise darkened room before a bright paraffin lamp, which stood on a level with the two pots containing the seedlings. they were first looked at after an interval of h. m., and five of the protected hypocotyls were found quite erect, the sixth being very slightly inclined to the light; whereas all the many free seedlings in the same two pots were greatly bowed to the light. they were again examined after a continuous exposure to the light of h. m.; and now the contrast between the two sets was wonderfully great; for the free seedlings had their hypocotyls extended almost horizontally in the direction of the light, and were curved down to the ground; whilst those with the upper halves protected by the painted skin, but with their lower halves fully exposed to the light, still remained quite upright, with the exception of the one which retained the same slight inclination to the light which it had before. this latter seedling was found to have been rather badly painted, for on the side facing the light the red colour of the hypocotyl could be distinguished through the paint. we next tried nine older seedlings, the hypocotyls of which varied between and . inch in height. the gold-beaters' skin round their upper parts was painted with black grease to a depth of only . inch, that is, from less than a third to a fourth or fifth of their total heights. they were exposed to the light for h. m.; and the result showed that the whole of the sensitive zone, which determines the curvature of the lower [page ] part, was not protected from the action of the light; for all became curved towards it, of them very slightly, moderately, and almost as much as the unprotected seedlings. nevertheless, the whole taken together differed plainly in their degree of curvature from the many free seedlings, and from some which were wrapped in unpainted skin, growing in the same two pots. seeds were covered with about a quarter of an inch of the fine sand described under phalaris; and when the hypocotyls had grown to a height of between . and . inch, they were exposed during h. before a paraffin lamp, their bases being at first closely surrounded by the damp sand. they all became bowed down to the ground, so that their upper parts lay near to and almost parallel to the surface of the soil. on the side of the light their bases were in close contact with the sand, which was here a very little heaped up; on the opposite or shaded side there were open, crescentic cracks or furrows, rather above . of an inch in width; but they were not so sharp and regular as those made by phalaris and avena, and therefore could not be so easily measured under the microscope. the hypocotyls were found, when the sand was removed on one side, to be curved to a depth beneath the surface in three cases of at least . inch, in a fourth case of . , and in a fifth of . inch. the chords of the arcs of the short, buried, bowed portions formed angles of between o and o with the perpendicular. from what we have seen of the impermeability of this sand to light, the curvature of the hypocotyls certainly extended down to a depth where no light could enter; and the curvature must have been caused by an influence transmitted from the upper illuminated part. the lower halves of five young hypocotyls were surrounded by unpainted gold-beaters' skin, and these, after an exposure of h. before a paraffin lamp, all became as much bowed to the light as the free seedlings. the lower halves of other young hypocotyls, similarly surrounded with the skin, were thickly painted with indian ink; their upper and unprotected halves became well curved to the light, but their lower and protected halves remained vertical in all the cases excepting one, and on this the layer of paint was imperfect. this result seems to prove that the influence transmitted from the upper part is not sufficient to cause the lower part to bend, unless it be at the same time illuminated; but there remains the doubt, as in [page ] the case of phalaris, whether the skin covered with a rather thick crust of dry indian ink did not mechanically prevent their curvature. beta vulgaris.--a few analogous experiments were tried on this plant, which is not very well adapted for the purpose, as the basal part of the hypocotyl, after it has grown to above half an inch in height, does not bend much on exposure to a lateral light. four hypocotyls were surrounded close beneath their petioles with strips of thin tin-foil, . inch in breadth, and they remained upright all day before a paraffin lamp; two others were surrounded with strips . inch in breadth, and one of these remained upright, the other becoming bowed; the bandages in two other cases were only . inch in breadth, and both of these hypocotyls became bowed, though one only slightly, towards the light. the free seedlings in the same pots were all fairly well curved towards the light; and during the following night became nearly upright. the pots were now turned round and placed before a window, so that the opposite sides of the seedlings were exposed to the light, towards which all the unprotected hypocotyls became bent in the course of h. seven out of the seedlings with bandages of tin-foil remained upright, but one which had a bandage only . inch in breadth, became curved to the light. on another occasion, the upper halves of hypocotyls were surrounded with painted gold-beaters' skin; of these remained upright, and became a little curved to the light: at the same time other seedlings surrounded with unpainted skin, as well as the free ones in the same pots, all became bowed towards the lamp, before which they had been exposed during hours. radicles of sinapis alba.--the radicles of some plants are indifferent, as far as curvature is concerned, to the action of light; whilst others bend towards and others from it.* whether these movements are of any service to the plant is very doubtful, at least in the case of subterranean roots; they probably result from the radicles being sensitive to contact, moisture, and gravitation, and as a consequence to other irritants which are never naturally encountered. the radicles of sinapis alba, when immersed in water and exposed to a lateral light, bend from it, or are apheliotropic. they become bent for a length of about mm. from their tips. to ascertain whether this movement * sachs, 'physiologie végétale,' , p. . [page ] generally occurred, radicles, which had germinated in damp sawdust, were immersed in water and exposed to a lateral light; and they all, with two doubtful exceptions, became curved from the light. at the same time the tips of other radicles, similarly exposed, were just touched with nitrate of silver. they were blackened for a length of from . to . mm., and probably killed; but it should be observed that this did not check materially, if at all, the growth of the upper part; for several, which were measured, increased in the course of only - h. by to mm. in length. of the cauterised radicles one case was doubtful, curved themselves from the light in the normal manner, and , or more than half, were not in the least apheliotropic. there was a considerable difference, which we cannot account for, in the results of the experiments tried towards the end of april and in the middle of september. fifteen radicles (part of the above ) were cauterised at the former period and were exposed to sunshine, of which failed to be apheliotropic, were still apheliotropic, and was doubtful. in september, cauterised radicles were exposed to a northern light, being kept at a proper temperature; and now continued to be apheliotropic in the normal manner, and only failed to bend from the light. looking at the aggregate results at both periods, there can be no doubt that the destruction of the tip for less than a millimeter in length destroyed in more than half the cases their power of moving from the light. it is probable that if the tips had been cauterised for the length of a whole millimeter, all signs of apheliotropism would have disappeared. it may be suggested that although the application of caustic does not stop growth, yet enough may be absorbed to destroy the power of movement in the upper part; but this suggestion must be rejected, for we have seen and shall again see, that cauterising one side of the tip of various kinds of radicles actually excites movement. the conclusion seems inevitable that sensitiveness to light resides in the tip of the radicle of sinapis alba; and that the tip when thus stimulated transmits some influence to the upper part, causing it to bend. the case in this respect is parallel with that of the radicles of several plants, the tips of which are sensitive to contact and to other irritants, and, as will be shown in the eleventh chapter, to gravitation. [page ] concluding remarks and summary of chapter. we do not know whether it is a general rule with seedling plants that the illumination of the upper part determines the curvature of the lower part. but as this occurred in the four species examined by us, belonging to such distinct families as the gramineae, cruciferae, and chenopodeae, it is probably of common occurrence. it can hardly fail to be of service to seedlings, by aiding them to find the shortest path from the buried seed to the light, on nearly the same principle that the eyes of most of the lower crawling animals are seated at the anterior ends of their bodies. it is extremely doubtful whether with fully developed plants the illumination of one part ever affects the curvature of another part. the summits of young plants of asparagus officinalis (varying in height between . and . inches, and consisting of several short internodes) were covered with caps of tin-foil from . to . inch in depth; and the lower uncovered parts became as much curved towards a lateral light, as were the free seedlings in the same pots. other seedlings of the same plant had their summits painted with indian ink with the same negative result. pieces of blackened paper were gummed to the edges and over the blades of some leaves on young plants of tropaeolum majus and ranunculus ficaria; these were then placed in a box before a window, and the petioles of the protected leaves became curved towards the light, as much as those of the unprotected leaves. the foregoing cases with respect to seedling plants have been fully described, not only because the transmission of any effect from light is a new physiological fact, but because we think it tends to modify somewhat the current views on heliotropic movements. until [page ] lately such movements were believed to result simply from increased growth on the shaded side. at present it is commonly admitted* that diminished light increases the turgescence of the cells, or the extensibility of the cell-walls, or of both together, on the shaded side, and that this is followed by increased growth. but pfeffer has shown that a difference in the turgescence on the two sides of a pulvinus,--that is, an aggregate of small cells which have ceased to grow at an early age,--is excited by a difference in the amount of light received by the two sides; and that movement is thus caused without being followed by increased growth on the more turgescent side.** all observers apparently believe that light acts directly on the part which bends, but we have seen with the above described seedlings that this is not the case. their lower halves were brightly illuminated for hours, and yet did not bend in the least towards the light, though this is the part which under ordinary circumstances bends the most. it is a still more striking fact, that the faint illumination of a narrow stripe on one side of the upper part of the cotyledons of phalaris determined the direction of the curvature of the lower part; so that this latter part did not bend towards the bright light by which it had been fully illuminated, * emil godlewski has given ('bot. zeitung,' , nos. - ) an excellent account (p. ) of the present state of the question. see also vines in 'arbeiten des bot. inst. in würzburg,' , b. ii. pp. - . hugo de vries has recently published a still more important article on this subject: 'bot zeitung,' dec. th and th, . ** 'die periodischen bewegungen der blattorgane,' , pp. , , , etc. frank has also insisted ('die naturliche wägerechte richtung von pflanzentheilen,' , p. ) on the important part which the pulvini of the leaflets of compound leaves play in placing the leaflets in a proper position with respect to the light. this holds good, especially with the leaves of climbing plants, which are carried into all sorts of positions, ill-adapted for the action of the light. [page ] but obliquely towards one side where only a little light entered. these results seem to imply the presence of some matter in the upper part which is acted on by light, and which transmits its effects to the lower part. it has been shown that this transmission is independent of the bending of the upper sensitive part. we have an analogous case of transmission in drosera, for when a gland is irritated, the basal and not the upper or intermediate part of the tentacle bends. the flexible and sensitive filament of dionaea likewise transmits a stimulus, without itself bending; as does the stem of mimosa. light exerts a powerful influence on most vegetable tissues, and there can be no doubt that it generally tends to check their growth. but when the two sides of a plant are illuminated in a slightly different degree, it does not necessarily follow that the bending towards the illuminated side is caused by changes in the tissues of the same nature as those which lead to increased growth in darkness. we know at least that a part may bend from the light, and yet its growth may not be favoured by light. this is the case with the radicles of sinapis alba, which are plainly apheliotropic; nevertheless, they grow quicker in darkness than in light.* so it is with many aërial roots, according to wiesner;** but there are other opposed cases. it appears, therefore, that light does not determine the growth of apheliotropic parts in any uniform manner. we should bear in mind that the power of bending to the light is highly beneficial to most plants. there * francis darwin, 'Über das wachsthum negativ heliotropischer wurzeln': 'arbeiten des bot. inst. in würzburg,' b. ii., heft iii., , p. . ** 'sitzb. der k. akad. der wissensch' (vienna), , p. . [page ] is therefore no improbability in this power having been specially acquired. in several respects light seems to act on plants in nearly the same manner as it does on animals by means of the nervous system.* with seedlings the effect, as we have just seen, is transmitted from one part to another. an animal may be excited to move by a very small amount of light; and it has been shown that a difference in the illumination of the two sides of the cotyledons of phalaris, which could not be distinguished by the human eye, sufficed to cause them to bend. it has also been shown that there is no close parallelism between the amount of light which acts on a plant and its degree of curvature; it was indeed hardly possible to perceive any difference in the curvature of some seedlings of phalaris exposed to a light, which, though dim, was very much brighter than that to which others had been exposed. the retina, after being stimulated by a bright light, feels the effect for some time; and phalaris continued to bend for nearly half an hour towards the side which had been illuminated. the retina cannot perceive a dim light after it has been exposed to a bright one; and plants which had been kept in the daylight during the previous day and morning, did not move so soon towards an obscure lateral light as did others which had been kept in complete darkness. even if light does act in such a manner on the growing parts of plants as always to excite in them a tendency to bend towards the more illuminated side--a supposition contradicted by the foregoing experiments on seedlings and by all apheliotropic * sachs has made some striking remarks to the same effect with respect to the various stimuli which excite movement in plants. see his paper 'ueber orthotrope und plagiotrope pflanzentheile,' 'arb. des bot. inst. in würzburg,' , b. ii. p. . [page ] organs--yet the tendency differs greatly in different species, and is variable in degree in the individuals of the same species, as may be seen in almost any pot of seedlings of a long cultivated plant.* there is therefore a basis for the modification of this tendency to almost any beneficial extent. that it has been modified, we see in many cases: thus, it is of more importance for insectivorous plants to place their leaves in the best position for catching insects than to turn their leaves to the light, and they have no such power. if the stems of twining plants were to bend towards the light, they would often be drawn away from their supports; and as we have seen they do not thus bend. as the stems of most other plants are heliotropic, we may feel almost sure that twining plants, which are distributed throughout the whole vascular series, have lost a power that their non-climbing progenitors possessed. moreover, with ipomoea, and probably all other twiners, the stem of the young plant, before it begins to twine, is highly heliotropic, evidently in order to expose the cotyledons or the first true leaves fully to the light. with the ivy the stems of seedlings are moderately heliotropic, whilst those of the same plants when grown a little older * strasburger has shown in his interesting work ('wirkung des lichtes...auf schwärmsporen,' ), that the movement of the swarm-spores of various lowly organised plants to a lateral light is influenced by their stage of development, by the temperature to which they are subjected, by the degree of illumination under which they have been raised, and by other unknown causes; so that the swarm-spores of the same species may move across the field of the microscope either to or from the light. some individuals, moreover, appear to be indifferent to the light; and those of different species behave very differently. the brighter the light, the straighter is their course. they exhibit also for a short time the after-effects of light. in all these respects they resemble the higher plants. see, also, stahl, 'ueber den einfluss der lichts auf die bewegungs-erscheinungen der schwärmsporen' verh. d. phys.-med. geselsshalft in würzburg, b. xii. . [page ] are apheliotropic. some tendrils which consist of modified leaves--organs in all ordinary cases strongly diaheliotropic--have been rendered apheliotropic, and their tips crawl into any dark crevice. even in the case of ordinary heliotropic movements, it is hardly credible that they result directly from the action of the light, without any special adaptation. we may illustrate what we mean by the hygroscopic movements of plants: if the tissues on one side of an organ permit of rapid evaporation, they will dry quickly and contract, causing the part to bend to this side. now the wonderfully complex movements of the pollinia of orchis pyramidalis, by which they clasp the proboscis of a moth and afterwards change their position for the sake of depositing the pollen-masses on the double stigma--or again the twisting movements, by which certain seeds bury themselves in the ground*--follow from the manner of drying of the parts in question; yet no one will suppose that these results have been gained without special adaptation. similarly, we are led to believe in adaptation when we see the hypocotyl of a seedling, which contains chlorophyll, bending to the light; for although it thus receives less light, being now shaded by its own cotyledons, it places them--the more important organs--in the best position to be fully illuminated. the hypocotyl may therefore be said to sacrifice itself for the good of the cotyledons, or rather of the whole plant. but if it be prevented from bending, as must sometimes occur with seedlings springing up in an entangled mass of vegetation, the cotyledons themselves bend so as to face the light; the one farthest off rising * francis darwin, 'on the hygroscopic mechanism,' etc., 'transactions linn. soc.,' series ii. vol. i. p. , . [page ] up, and that nearest to the light sinking down, or both twisting laterally.* we may, also, suspect that the extreme sensitiveness to light of the upper part of the sheath-like cotyledons of the gramineae, and their power of transmitting its effects to the lower part, are specialised arrangements for finding the shortest path to the light. with plants growing on a bank, or thrown prostrate by the wind, the manner in which the leaves move, even rotating on their own axes, so that their upper surfaces may be again directed to the light, is a striking phenomenon. such facts are rendered more striking when we remember that too intense a light injures the chlorophyll, and that the leaflets of several leguminosae when thus exposed bend upwards and present their edges to the sun, thus escaping injury. on the other hand, the leaflets of averrhoa and oxalis, when similarly exposed, bend downwards. it was shown in the last chapter that heliotropism is a modified form of circumnutation; and as every growing part of every plant circumnutates more or less, we can understand how it is that the power of bending to the light has been acquired by such a multitude of plants throughout the vegetable kingdom. the manner in which a circumnutating movement--that is, one consisting of a succession of irregular ellipses or loops--is gradually converted into a rectilinear course towards the light, has been already explained. first, we have a succession of ellipses with their longer axes directed towards the light, each of which * wiesner has made remarks to nearly the same effect with respect to leaves: 'die undulirende nutation der internodien,' p. , extracted from b. lxxvii. ( ). sitb. der k. akad. der wissensch. wien. [page ] is described nearer and nearer to its source; then the loops are drawn out into a strongly pronounced zigzag line, with here and there a small loop still formed. at the same time that the movement towards the light is increased in extent and accelerated, that in the opposite direction is lessened and retarded, and at last stopped. the zigzag movement to either side is likewise gradually lessened, so that finally the course becomes rectilinear. thus under the stimulus of a fairly bright light there is no useless expenditure of force. as with plants every character is more or less variable, there seems to be no great difficulty in believing that their circumnutating movements may have been increased or modified in any beneficial manner by the preservation of varying individuals. the inheritance of habitual movements is a necessary contingent for this process of selection, or the survival of the fittest; and we have seen good reason to believe that habitual movements are inherited by plants. in the case of twining species the circumnutating movements have been increased in amplitude and rendered more circular; the stimulus being here an internal or innate one. with sleeping plants the movements have been increased in amplitude and often changed in direction; and here the stimulus is the alternation of light and darkness, aided, however, by inheritance. in the case of heliotropism, the stimulus is the unequal illumination of the two sides of the plant, and this determines, as in the foregoing cases, the modification of the circumnutating movement in such a manner that the organ bends to the light. a plant which has been rendered heliotropic by the above means, might readily lose this tendency, judging from the cases already given, as soon as it became useless or [page ] injurious. a species which has ceased to be heliotropic might also be rendered apheliotropic by the preservation of the individuals which tended to circumnutate (though the cause of this and most other variations is unknown) in a direction more or less opposed to that whence the light proceeded. in like manner a plant might be rendered diaheliotropic. [page ] chapter x. modified circumnutation: movements excited by gravitation. means of observation - apogeotropism--cytisus--verbena--beta--gradual conversion of the movement of circumnutation into apogeotropism in rubus, lilium, phalaris, avena, and brassica--apogeotropism retarded by heliotropism--effected by the aid of joints or pulvini--movements of flower-peduncles of oxalis--general remarks on apogeotropism--geotropism-- movements of radicles--burying of seed-capsules--use of process--trifolium subterraneum--arachis--amphicarpaea--diageotropism--conclusion our object in the present chapter is to show that geotropism, apogeotropism, and diageotropism are modified forms of circumnutation. extremely fine filaments of glass, bearing two minute triangles of paper, were fixed to the summits of young stems, frequently to the hypocotyls of seedlings, to flower-peduncles, radicles, etc., and the movements of the parts were then traced in the manner already described on vertical and horizontal glass-plates. it should be remembered that as the stems or other parts become more and more oblique with respect to the glasses, the figures traced on them necessarily become more and more magnified. the plants were protected from light, excepting whilst each observation was being made, and then the light, which was always a dim one, was allowed to enter so as to interfere as little as possible with the movement in progress; and we did not detect any evidence of such interference. when observing the gradations between circumnu- [page ] tation and heliotropism, we had the great advantage of being able to lessen the light; but with geotropism analogous experiments were of course impossible. we could, however, observe the movements of stems placed at first only a little from the perpendicular, in which case geotropism did not act with nearly so much power, as when the stems were horizontal and at right angles to the force. plants, also, were selected which were but feebly geotropic or apogeotropic, or had become so from having grown rather old. another plan was to place the stems at first so that they pointed or o beneath the horizon, and then apogeotropism had a great amount of work to do before the stem was rendered upright; and in this case ordinary circumnutation was often not wholly obliterated. another plan was to observe in the evening plants which during the day had become greatly curved heliotropically; for their stems under the gradually waning light very slowly became upright through the action of apogeotropism; and in this case modified circumnutation was sometimes well displayed. [apogeotropism.--plants were selected for observation almost by chance, excepting that they were taken from widely different families. if the stem of a plant which is even moderately sensitive to apogeotropism be placed horizontally, the upper growing part bends quickly upwards, so as to become perpendicular; and the line traced by joining the dots successively made on a glass-plate, is generally almost straight. for instance, a young cytisus fragrans, inches in height, was placed so that the stem projected o beneath the horizon, and its course was traced during h. at first it bent a very little downwards (fig. ), owing no doubt to the weight of the stem, as this occurred with most of the other plants observed, though, as they were of course circumnutating, the short downward lines were often oblique. after three-quarters of an hour the stem began to curve upwards, quickly during the first two hours, but much more slowly during the afternoon and night, [page ] and on the following day. during the second night it fell a little, and circumnutated during the following day; but it also moved a short distance to the right, which was caused by a little light having been accidentally admitted on this side. the stem was now inclined o above the horizon, and had therefore risen o. with time allowed it would probably have become upright, and no doubt would have continued circumnutating. the sole remarkable feature in the figure here given is the straightness of the course pursued. the stem, however, did not move upwards at an equable rate, and it sometimes stood almost or quite still. such periods probably represent attempts to circumnutate in a direction opposite to apogeotropism. fig. . cytisus fragrans: apogeotropic movement of stem from o beneath to o above horizon, traced on vertical glass, from . a.m. march th to . p.m. th. the subsequent circumnutating movement is likewise shown up to . a.m. on the th. nocturnal course represented, as usual, by a broken line. movement not greatly magnified, and tracing reduced to two-thirds of original scale. the herbaceous stem of a verbena melindres (?) laid horizontally, rose in h. so much that it could no longer be observed on the vertical glass which stood in front of the plant. the long line which was traced was almost absolutely straight. after the h. it still continued to rise, but now circumnutated slightly. on the following day it stood upright, and circumnutated regularly, as shown in fig. , given in the fourth chapter. the stems of several other plants which were highly sensitive to apogeotropism rose up in almost straight lines, and [page ] then suddenly began to circumnutate. a partially etiolated and somewhat old hypocotyl of a seedling cabbage ( / inches in height) was so sensitive that when placed at an angle of only o from the perpendicular, it became vertical in minutes. as it could not have been strongly acted upon by apogeotropism in the above slightly inclined position, we expected that it would have circumnutated, or at least have moved in a zigzag course. accordingly, dots were made every minutes; but, when these were joined, the line was nearly straight. after this hypocotyl had become upright it still moved onwards for half an hour in the same general direction, but in a zigzag manner. during the succeeding h. it circumnutated regularly, and described large ellipses. in this case apogeotropism, although acting at a very unfavourable angle, quite overcame the ordinary circumnutating movement. fig. . beta vulgaris: apogeotropic movement of hypocotyl from o beneath horizon to a vertical position, with subsequent circumnutation, traced on a vertical and on a horizontal glass-plate, from . a.m. sept. th to . a.m. th. figure reduced to one-third of original scale. the hypocotyls of beta vulgaris are highly sensitive to apogeotropism. one was placed so as to project o beneath the horizon; it fell at first a very little (see fig. ), no doubt owing to its weight; but as it was circumnutating the line was [page ] oblique. during the next h. m. it rose in a nearly straight line, passing through an angle of o, and then (at . p.m.) stood upright. it continued for m. to move in the same general direction beyond the perpendicular, but in a zigzag course. it returned also in a zigzag line, and then circumnutated regularly, describing three large ellipses during the remainder of the day. it should be observed that the ellipses in this figure are exaggerated in size, relatively to the length of the upward straight line, owing to the position of the vertical and horizontal glass-plates. another and somewhat old hypocotyl was placed so as to stand at only o from the perpendicular, in which position apogeotropism acted on it with little force, and its course accordingly was slightly zigzag. the sheath-like cotyledons of phalaris canariensis are extremely sensitive to apogeotropism. one was placed so as to project o beneath the horizon. although it was rather old and . inch in height, it became vertical in h. m., having passed through an angle of o in a nearly straight line. it then suddenly began to circumnutate in the ordinary manner. the cotyledons of this plant, after the first leaf has begun to protrude, are but slightly apogeotropic, though they still continue to circumnutate. one at this stage of development was placed horizontally, and did not become upright even after h., and its course was slightly zigzag. so, again, a rather old hypocotyl of cassia tora ( / inch in height) required h. to become upright, and its course was distinctly zigzag; whilst younger hypocotyls moved much more quickly and in a nearly straight line. when a horizontally placed stem or other organ rises in a zigzag line, we may infer from the many cases given in our previous chapters, that we have a modified form of circumnutation; but when the course is straight, there is no evidence of circumnutation, and any one might maintain that this latter movement had been replaced by one of a wholly distinct kind. this view seems the more probable when (as sometimes occurred with the hypocotyls of brassica and beta, the stems of cucurbita, and the cotyledons of phalaris) the part in question, after bending up in a straight course, suddenly begins to circumnutate to the full extent and in the usual manner. a fairly good instance of a sudden change of this kind--that is, from a nearly straight upward movement to one of circumnutation--is shown in fig. ; but more striking instances were occasionally observed with beta, brassica, and phalaris. we will now describe a few cases in which it may be [page ] seen how gradually circumnutation becomes changed into apogeotropism, under circumstances to be specified in each instance. rubus idaeus (hybrid).--a young plant, inches in height, growing in a pot, was placed horizontally; and the upward movement was traced during nearly h.; but the plant, though growing vigorously, was not highly sensitive to apogeotropism, or it was not capable of quick movement, for during the above time it rose only o. we may see in the diagram (fig. ) that during the first day of h. it rose in a nearly straight line. when placed horizontally, it was evidently circumnutating, for it rose at first a little, notwithstanding the weight of the stem, and then sank down; so that it did not start on its permanently upward course until h. m. had elapsed. on the second day, by which time it had risen considerably, and when apogeotropism acted on it with somewhat less power, its course during ½ h. was clearly zigzag, and the rate of the upward movement was not equable. during the third day, also of ½ h., when apogeotropism acted on it with still less power, the stem plainly circumnutated, for it moved during this day times up and times down, times to the left and to the right. but the course was so complex that it could hardly be traced on the glass. we can, however, see that the successively formed irregular ellipses rose higher and higher. apogeotropism continued to act on the fourth morning, as the stem was still rising, though it now stood only o from the perpendicular. in this diagram the several stages may be followed by which an almost rectilinear, upward, apogeotropic course first becomes zigzag, and then changes into a circumnutating movement, with most of the successively formed, irregular ellipses directed upwards. fig : rubus idaeus (hybrid): apogeotropic movement of stem, traced on a vertical glass during days and nights, from . a.m. march th to a.m. st. figure reduced to one-half of the original scale. lilium auratum.--a plant inches in height was placed [page ] horizontally, and the upper part of the stem rose o in h., in the manner shown in the accompanying diagram (fig. ). we here see that during the whole of the second day of ½ h., the stem plainly circumnutated whilst bending upwards through apogeotropism. it had still to rise considerably, for when the last dot in the figure was made, it stood o from an upright position. fig. . lilium auratum: apogeotropic movement of stem, traced on a vertical glass during days and nights, from . a.m. march th to a.m. th. figure reduced to one-half of the original scale. phalaris canariensis.--a cotyledon of this plant ( . inch in height) has already been described as rising in h. m. from o beneath the horizon into a vertical position, passing through an angle of o in a nearly straight line, and then abruptly beginning to circumnutate. another somewhat old cotyledon of the same height (but from which a true leaf had not yet protruded), was similarly placed at o beneath the horizon. for the first h. it rose in a nearly straight course (fig. ), so that by . p.m. it was highly inclined, and now apogeotropism acted on it with much less power than before, and it began to zigzag. at . p.m. (i.e. in h. from the commencement) it stood vertically, and afterwards continued to circumnutate in the usual manner about the same spot. here then we have a graduated change from a straight upward apogeotropic course into circumnutation, instead of an abrupt change, as in the former case. avena sativa.--the sheath-like cotyledons, whilst young, are strongly apogeotropic; and some which were placed at o beneath the horizon rose o in or h. in lines almost absolutely straight. an oldish cotyledon, from which the first leaf began to [page ] protrude whilst the following observations were being made, was placed at o beneath the horizon, and it rose only o in h. it behaved rather differently from any other plant, observed by us, for during the first ½ h. it rose in a line not far from straight; during the next ½ h. it circumnutated, that is, it descended and again ascended in a strongly marked zigzag course; it then resumed its upward movement in a moderately straight line, and, with time allowed, no doubt would have become upright. in this case, after the first ½ h., ordinary circumnutation almost completely conquered for a time apogeotropism. fig . phalaris canariensis: apogeotropic movement of cotyledon, traced on a vertical and horizontal glass, from . a.m. sept. th to a.m. th. figure here reduced to one-fifth of original scale. brassica oleracea.--the hypocotyls of several young seedlings placed horizontally, rose up vertically in the course of or h. in nearly straight lines. a seedling which had grown in darkness to a height of / inches, and was therefore rather old and not highly sensitive, was placed so that the hypocotyl projected at between o and o beneath the horizon. the upper part alone became curved [page ] upwards, and rose during the first h. m. in a nearly straight line (fig. ); but it was not possible to trace the upward movement on the vertical glass for the first h. m., so that the nearly straight line in the diagram ought to have been much longer. during the next h. the hypocotyl circumnutated, describing irregular figures, each of which rose a little above the one previously formed. during the night and following early morning it continued to rise in a zigzag course, so that apogeotropism was still acting. at the close of our observations, after h. (represented by the highest dot in the diagram) the hypocotyl was still o from the perpendicular. there can be little doubt that it would ultimately have become upright by describing an additional number of irregular ellipses, one above the other. fig . brassica oleracea: apogeotropic movement of hypocotyl, traced on vertical glass, from . a.m., sept. th to . a.m. th. the upper part of the figure is more magnified than the lower part. if the whole course had been traced, the straight upright line would have been much longer. figure here reduced to one-third of the original scale. apogeotropism retarded by heliotropism.--when the stem of any plant bends during the day towards a lateral light, the movement is opposed by apogeotropism; but as the light gradually wanes in the evening the latter power slowly gains the upper hand, and draws the stem back into a vertical position. here then we have a good opportunity for observing how apogeotropism acts when very nearly balanced by an opposing force. for instance, the plumule of tropaeolum majus (see former fig. ) moved towards the dim evening light in a slightly zigzag line until . p.m., it then returned on its course until [page ] . p.m., during which time it zigzagged and described an ellipse of considerable size. the hypocotyl of brassica oleracea (see former fig. ) moved in a straight line to the light until . p.m., and then from the light, making in its backward course a great rectangular bend, and then returned for a short distance towards the former source of the light; no observations were made after . p.m., but during the night it recovered its vertical position. a hypocotyl of cassia tora moved in the evening in a somewhat zigzag line towards the failing light until p.m., and was now bowed o from the perpendicular; it then returned on its course, making before . p.m. four great, nearly rectangular bends and almost completing an ellipse. several other analogous cases were casually observed, and in all of them the apogeotropic movement could be seen to consist of modified circumnutation. apogeotropic movements effected by the aid of joints or pulvini.--movements of this kind are well known to occur in the gramineae, and are effected by means of the thickened bases of their sheathing leaves; the stem within being in this part thinner than elsewhere.* according to the analogy of all other pulvini, such joints ought to continue circumnutating for a long period, after the adjoining parts have ceased to grow. we therefore wished to ascertain whether this was the case with the gramineae; for if so, the upward curvature of their stems, when extended horizontally or laid prostrate, would be explained in accordance with our view--namely, that apogeotropism results from modified circumnutation. after these joints have curved upwards, they are fixed in their new position by increased growth along their lower sides. lolium perenne.--a young stem, inches in height, consisting of internodes, with the flower-head not yet protruded, was selected for observation. a long and very thin glass filament was cemented horizontally to the stem close above the second joint, inches above the ground. this joint was subsequently proved to be in an active condition, as its lower side swelled much through the action of apogeotropism (in the manner described by de vries) after the haulm had been fastened down for h. in a horizontal position. the pot was * this structure has been recently described by de vries in an interesting article, 'ueber die aufrichtung des gelagerten getreides,' in 'landwirthschaftliche jahrbücher,' , p. . [page ] so placed that the end of the filament stood beneath the -inch object glass of a microscope with an eye-piece micrometer, each division of which equalled / of an inch. the end of the filament was repeatedly observed during h., and was seen to be in constant movement; and it crossed divisions of the micrometer ( / inch) in h. occasionally it moved forwards by jerks, some of which were / inch in length, and then slowly retreated a little, afterwards again jerking forwards. these oscillations were exactly like those described under brassica and dionaea, but they occurred only occasionally. we may therefore conclude that this moderately old joint was continually circumnutating on a small scale. alopecurus pratensis.--a young plant, inches in height, with the flower-head protruded, but with the florets not yet expanded, had a glass filament fixed close above the second joint, at a height of only inches above the ground. the basal internode, inches in length, was cemented to a stick to prevent any possibility of its circumnutating. the extremity of the filament, which projected about o above the horizon, was often observed during h. in the same manner as in the last case. whenever looked at, it was always in movement, and it crossed divisions of the micrometer ( / inch) in ½ h.; but it sometimes moved at a quicker rate, for at one time it crossed divisions in ½ h. the pot had to be moved occasionally, as the end of the filament travelled beyond the field of vision; but as far as we could judge it followed during the daytime a semicircular course; and it certainly travelled in two different directions at right angles to one another. it sometimes oscillated in the same manner as in the last species, some of the jerks forwards being as much as / of an inch. we may therefore conclude that the joints in this and the last species of grass long continue to circumnutate; so that this movement would be ready to be converted into an apogeotropic movement, whenever the stem was placed in an inclined or horizontal position. movements of the flower-peduncles of oxalis carnosa, due to apogeotropism and other forces.--the movements of the main peduncle, and of the three or four sub-peduncles which each main peduncle of this plant bears, are extremely complex, and are determined by several distinct causes. whilst the flowers are expanded, both kinds of peduncles circumnutate about the same spot, as we have seen (fig. ) in the fourth chapter. but soon after the flowers have begun to wither the sub- [page ] peduncles bend downwards, and this is due to epinasty; for on two occasions when pots were laid horizontally, the sub-peduncles assumed the same position relatively to the main peduncle, as would have been the case if they had remained upright; that is, each of them formed with it an angle of about o. if they had been acted on by geotropism or apheliotropism (for the plant was illuminated from above), they would have directed themselves to the centre of the earth. a main peduncle was secured to a stick in an upright position, and one of the upright sub-peduncles which had been observed circumnutating whilst the flower was expanded, continued to do so for at least h. after it had withered. it then began to bend downwards, and after h. pointed a little beneath the horizon. a new figure was now begun (a, fig. ), and the sub-peduncle was traced descending in a zigzag line from . p.m. on the th to a.m. on the nd. it now pointed almost perpendicularly downwards, and the glass filament had to be removed and fastened transversely across the base of the young capsule. we expected that the sub-peduncle would have been motionless in its new position; but it continued slowly to swing, like a pendulum, from side to side, that is, in a plane at right angles to that in which it had descended. this circumnutating movement was observed from a.m. on nd to a.m. th, as shown at b in the diagram. we were not able to observe this particular sub-peduncle any longer; but it would certainly have gone on circumnutating until the capsule was nearly ripe (which requires only a short time), and it would then have moved upwards. the upward movement (c, fig. ) is effected in part by the whole sub-peduncle rising in the same manner as it had previously descended through epinasty--namely, at the joint where united to the main peduncle. as this upward movement occurred with plants kept in the dark and in whatever position the main peduncle was fastened, it could not have been caused by heliotropism or apogeotropism, but by hyponasty. besides this movement at the joint, there is another of a very different kind, for the sub-peduncle becomes upwardly bent in the middle part. if the sub-peduncle happens at the time to be inclined much downwards, the upward curvature is so great that the whole forms a hook. the upper end bearing the capsule, thus always places itself upright, and as this occurs in darkness, and in whatever position the main peduncle may have been secured, [page ] the upward curvature cannot be due to heliotropism or hyponasty, but to apogeotropism. fig. . oxalis carnosa: movements of flower-peduncle, traced on a vertical glass: a, epinastic downward movement; b, circumnutation whilst depending vertically; c, subsequent upward movement, due to apogeotropism and hyponasty combined. [page ] in order to trace this upward movement, a filament was fixed to a sub-peduncle bearing a capsule nearly ripe, which was beginning to bend upwards by the two means just described. its course was traced (see c, fig ) during h., by which time it had become nearly upright. the course is seen to be strongly zigzag, together with some little loops. we may therefore conclude that the movement consists of modified circumnutation. the several species of oxalis probably profit in the following manner by their sub-peduncles first bending downwards and then upwards. they are known to scatter their seeds by the bursting of the capsule; the walls of which are so extremely thin, like silver paper, that they would easily be permeated by rain. but as soon as the petals wither, the sepals rise up and enclose the young capsule, forming a perfect roof over it as soon as the sub-peduncle has bent itself downwards. by its subsequent upward movement, the capsule stands when ripe at a greater height above the ground by twice the length of the sub-peduncle, than it did when dependent, and is thus able to scatter its seeds to a greater distance. the sepals, which enclose the ovarium whilst it is young, present an additional adaptation by expanding widely when the seeds are ripe, so as not to interfere with their dispersal. in the case of oxalis acetosella, the capsules are said sometimes to bury themselves under loose leaves or moss on the ground, but this cannot occur with those of o. carnosa, as the woody stem is too high. oxalis acetosella.--the peduncles are furnished with a joint in fig. . oxalis acetosella: course pursued by the upper part of a peduncle, whilst rising, traced from a.m. june st to a.m. rd. figure here reduced to one-half of the original scale. the middle, so that the lower part answers to the main peduncle, [page ] and the upper part to one of the sub-peduncles of o. carnosa. the upper part bends downwards, after the flower has begun to wither, and the whole peduncle then forms a hook; that this bending is due to epinasty we may infer from the case of o. carnosa. when the pod is nearly ripe, the upper part straightens itself and becomes erect; and this is due to hyponasty or apogeotropism, or both combined, and not to heliotropism, for it occurred in darkness. the short, hooked part of the peduncle of a cleistogamic flower, bearing a pod nearly ripe, was observed in the dark during three days. the apex of the pod at first pointed perpendicularly down, but in the course of three days rose o, so that it now projected horizontally. the course during the two latter days is shown in fig. ; and it may be seen how greatly the peduncle, whilst rising, circumnutated. the lines of chief movement were at right angles to the plane of the originally hooked part. the tracing was not continued any longer; but after two additional days, the peduncle with its capsule had become straight and stood upright.] concluding remarks on apogeotropism.--when apogeotropism is rendered by any means feeble, it acts, as shown in the several foregoing cases, by increasing the always present circumnutating movement in a direction opposed to gravity, and by diminishing that in the direction of gravity, as well as that to either side. the upward movement thus becomes unequal in rate, and is sometimes interrupted by stationary periods. whenever irregular ellipses or loops are still formed, their longer axes are almost always directed in the line of gravity, in an analogous manner as occurred with heliotropic movements in reference to the light. as apogeotropism acts more and more energetically, ellipses or loops cease to be formed, and the course becomes at first strongly, and then less and less zigzag, and finally rectilinear. from this gradation in the nature of the movement, and more especially from all growing parts, which alone (except when pulvini are present) are acted on by apogeotropism, con- [page ] tinually circumnutating, we may conclude that even a rectilinear course is merely an extremely modified form of circumnutation. it is remarkable that a stem or other organ which is highly sensitive to apogeotropism, and which has bowed itself rapidly upwards in a straight line, is often carried beyond the vertical, as if by momentum. it then bends a little backwards to a point round which it finally circumnutates. two instances of this were observed with the hypocotyls of beta vulgaris, one of which is shown in fig. , and two other instances with the hypocotyls of brassica. this momentum-like movement probably results from the accumulated effects of apogeotropism. for the sake of observing how long such after-effects lasted, a pot with seedlings of beta was laid on its side in the dark, and the hypocotyls in h. m. became highly inclined. the pot, still in the dark, was then placed upright, and the movements of the two hypocotyls were traced; one continued to bend in its former direction, now in opposition to apogeotropism, for about m., perhaps for m.; but after m. it moved in an opposite direction. the other hypocotyl continued to move in its former course, after being placed upright, for at least m. different species and different parts of the same species are acted on by apogeotropism in very different degrees. young seedlings, most of which circumnutate quickly and largely, bend upwards and become vertical in much less time than do any older plants observed by us; but whether this is due to their greater sensitiveness to apogeotropism, or merely to their greater flexibility we do not know. a hypocotyl of beta traversed an angle of o in h. m., and a cotyledon of phalaris an angle of o in h. m. on the other hand, the stem of a herbaceous [page ] verbena rose o in about h.; that of rubus o, in h.; that of cytisus o, in h.; that of a young american oak only o, in h. the stem of a young cyperus alternifolius rose only o in h.; the bending being confined to near its base. though the sheath-like cotyledons of phalaris are so extremely sensitive to apogeotropism, the first true leaves which protrude from them exhibited only a trace of this action. two fronds of a fern, nephrodium molle, both of them young and one with the tip still inwardly curled, were kept in a horizontal position for h., and during this time they rose so little that it was doubtful whether there was any true apogeotropic movement. the most curious case known to us of a difference in sensitiveness to gravitation, and consequently of movement, in different parts of the same organ, is that offered by the petioles of the cotyledons of ipomoea leptophylla. the basal part for a short length where united to the undeveloped hypocotyl and radicle is strongly geotropic, whilst the whole upper part is strongly apogeotropic. but a portion near the blades of the cotyledons is after a time acted on by epinasty and curves downwards, for the sake of emerging in the form of an arch from the ground; it subsequently straightens itself, and is then again acted on by apogeotropism. a branch of cucurbita ovifera, placed horizontally, moved upwards during h. in a straight line, until it stood at o above the horizon; it then began to circumnutate, as if owing to its trailing nature it had no tendency to rise any higher. another upright branch was secured to a stick, close to the base of a tendril, and the pot was then laid horizontally in the dark. in this position the tendril circumnutated and made [page ] several large ellipses during h., as it likewise did on the following day; but during this whole time it was not in the least affected by apogeotropism. on the other hand, when branches of another cucurbitaceous plant, echinocytis lobata, were fixed in the dark so that the tendrils depended beneath the horizon, these began immediately to bend upwards, and whilst thus moving they ceased to circumnutate in any plain manner; but as soon as they had become horizontal they recommenced to revolve conspicuously.* the tendrils of passiflora gracilis are likewise apogeotropic. two branches were tied down so that their tendrils pointed many degrees beneath the horizon. one was observed for h., during which time it rose, describing two circles, one above the other. the other tendril rose in a moderately straight line during the first h., making however one small loop in its course; it then stood at about o above the horizon, where it circumnutated during the remaining h. of observation. a part or organ which whilst young is extremely sensitive to apogeotropism ceases to be so as it grows old; and it is remarkable, as showing the independence of this sensitiveness and of the circumnutating movement, that the latter sometimes continues for a time after all power of bending from the centre of the earth has been lost. thus a seedling orange bearing only young leaves, with a rather stiff stem, did not curve in the least upwards during h. whilst extended horizontally; yet it circumnutated all the time over a small space. the hypocotyl of a young seedling of cassia tora, similarly placed, became vertical in h.; that of an older seedling, / inch in height, * for details see 'the movements and habits of climbing plants,' , p. . [page ] became so in h.; and that of another still older one, ½ inch in height, remained horizontal during two days, but distinctly circumnutated during this whole time. when the cotyledons of phalaris or avena are laid horizontally, the uppermost part first bends upwards, and then the lower part; consequently, after the lower part has become much curved upwards, the upper part is compelled to curve backwards in an opposite direction, in order to straighten itself and to stand vertically; and this subsequent straightening process is likewise due to apogeotropism. the upper part of young cotyledons of phalaris were made rigid by being cemented to thin glass rods, so that this part could not bend in the least; nevertheless, the basal part was not prevented from curving upward. a stem or other organ which bends upwards through apogeotropism exerts considerable force; its own weight, which has of course to be lifted, was sufficient in almost every instance to cause the part at first to bend a little downwards; but the downward course was often rendered oblique by the simultaneous circumnutating movement. the cotyledons of avena placed horizontally, besides lifting their own weight, were able to furrow the soft sand above them, so as to leave little crescentic open spaces on the lower sides of their bases; and this is a remarkable proof of the force exerted. as the tips of the cotyledons of phalaris and avena bend upwards through the action of apogeotropism before the basal part, and as these same tips when excited by a lateral light transmit some influence to the lower part, causing it to bend, we thought that the same rule might hold good with apogeotropism. consequently, the tips of cotyledons of phalaris were [page ] cut off for a length in three cases of . inch and in the four other cases of . , . , . , and . inch. but these cotyledons, after being extended horizontally, bowed themselves upwards as effectually as the unmutilated specimens in the same pots, showing that sensitiveness to gravitation is not confined to their tips. geotropism. this movement is directly the reverse of apogeotropism. many organs bend downwards through epinasty or apheliotropism or from their own weight; but we have met with very few cases of a downward movement in sub-aërial organs due to geotropism. we shall however, give one good instance in the following section, in the case of trifolium subterraneum, and probably in that of arachis hypogaea. on the other hand, all roots which penetrate the ground (including the modified root-like petioles of megarrhiza and ipomoea leptophylla) are guided in their downward course by geotropism; and so are many aërial roots, whilst others, as those of the ivy, appear to be indifferent to its action. in our first chapter the movements of the radicles of several seedlings were described. we may there see (fig. ) how a radicle of the cabbage, when pointing vertically upwards so as to be very little acted on by geotropism, circumnutated; and how another (fig. ) which was at first placed in an inclined position bowed itself downwards in a zigzag line, sometimes remaining stationary for a time. two other radicles of the cabbage travelled downwards in almost rectilinear courses. a radicle of the bean placed upright (fig. ) made a great sweep and zigzagged; but as it sank downwards and was more strongly acted on by geotropism, it moved in an [page ] almost straight course. a radicle of cucurbita, directed upwards (fig. ), also zigzagged at first, and described small loops; it then moved in a straight line. nearly the same result was observed with the radicles of zea mays. but the best evidence of the intimate connection between circumnutation and geotropism was afforded by the radicles of phaseolus, vicia, and quercus, and in a less degree by those of zea and aesculus (see figs. , , , , and ); for when these were compelled to grow and slide down highly inclined surfaces of smoked glass, they left distinctly serpentine tracks. [the burying of seed-capsules: trifolium subterraneum.--the flower-heads of this plant are remarkable from producing only or perfect flowers, which are situated exteriorly. all the other many flowers abort, and are modified into rigid points, with a bundle of vessels running up their centres. after a time long, elastic, claw-like projections, which represent the divisions of the calyx, are developed on their summits. as soon as the perfect flowers wither they bend downwards, supposing the peduncle to stand upright, and they then closely surround its upper part. this movement is due to epinasty, as is likewise the case with the flowers of t. repens. the imperfect central flowers ultimately follow, one after the other, the same course. whilst the perfect flowers are thus bending down, the whole peduncle curves downwards and increases much in length, until the flower-head reaches the ground. vaucher* says that when the plant is so placed that the heads cannot soon reach the ground, the peduncles grow to the extraordinary length of from to inches. in whatever position the branches may be placed, the upper part of the peduncle at first bends vertically upwards through heliotropism; but as soon as the flowers begin to wither the downward curvature of the whole peduncle commences. as this latter movement occurred in complete darkness, and with peduncles arising from upright and from dependent branches, it cannot be due to apheliotropism or to epinasty, but must be attributed to geotropism. nineteen * 'hist. phys. des plantes d'europe,' tom. ii. , p. . [page ] upright flower-heads, arising from branches in all sorts of positions, on plants growing in a warm greenhouse, were marked with thread, and after h. six of them were vertically dependent; these therefore had travelled through o in this time. ten were extended sub-horizontally, and these had moved through about o. three very young peduncles had as yet moved only a little downwards, but after an additional h. were greatly inclined. at the time when the flower-heads reach the ground, the younger imperfect flowers in the centre are still pressed closely together, and form a conical projection; whereas the perfect and imperfect flowers on the outside are upturned and closely surround the peduncle. they are thus adapted to offer as little resistance, as the case admits of, in penetrating the ground, though the diameter of the flower-head is still considerable. the means by which this penetration is effected will presently be described. the flower-heads are able to bury themselves in common garden mould, and easily in sand or in fine sifted cinders packed rather closely. the depth to which they penetrated, measured from the surface to the base of the head, was between / and ½ inch, but in one case rather above . inch. with a plant kept in the house, a head partly buried itself in sand in h.: after days only the tips of the reflexed calyces were visible, and after days the whole had disappeared. but with plants growing out of doors we believe, from casual observations, that they bury themselves in a much shorter time. after the heads have buried themselves, the central aborted flowers increase considerably in length and rigidity, and become bleached. they gradually curve, one after the other, upwards or towards the peduncle, in the same manner as did the perfect flowers at first. in thus moving, the long claws on their summits carry with them some earth. hence a flower-head which has been buried for a sufficient time, forms a rather large ball, consisting of the aborted flowers, separated from one another by earth, and surrounding the little pods (the product of the perfect flowers) which lie close round the upper part of the peduncle. the calyces of the perfect and imperfect flowers are clothed with simple and multicellular hairs, which have the power of absorption; for when placed in a weak solution of carbonate of ammonia ( gr. to oz. of water) their protoplasmic contents immediately became aggregated and afterwards displayed the usual slow movements. this clover generally [page ] grows in dry soil, but whether the power of absorption by the hairs on the buried flower-heads is of any importance to them we do not know. only a few of the flower-heads, which from their position are not able to reach the ground and bury themselves, yield seeds; whereas the buried ones never failed, as far as we observed, to produce as many seeds as there had been perfect flowers. we will now consider the movements of the peduncle whilst fig. . trifolium subterraneum: downward movement of peduncle from o beneath the horizon to a nearly vertically dependent position, traced from a.m. july nd to the morning of th. glass filament fixed transversely across peduncle, at base of flower-head. curving down to the ground. we have seen in chap. iv., fig. , p. , that an upright young flower-head circumnutated conspicuously; and that this movement continued after the peduncle had begun to bend downwards. the same peduncle was observed when inclined at an angle of o above the horizon, and it circumnutated during two days. another [page ] which was already curved o beneath the horizon, was observed from a.m. july nd to the th, by which latter date it had become vertically dependent. its course during the first h. is shown in fig. , and its position on the three succeeding mornings until the th, when it was nearly vertical. during the first day the peduncle clearly circumnutated, for it moved times down and times up; and on each succeeding day, as it sank downwards, the same movement continued, but was only occasionally observed and was less strongly marked. it should be stated that these peduncles were observed under a double skylight in the house, and that they generally moved downwards very much more slowly than those on plants growing out of doors or in the greenhouse. fig. . trifolium subterraneum: circumnutating movement of peduncle, whilst the flower-head was burying itself in sand, with the reflexed tips of the calyx still visible; traced from a.m. july th to a.m. on th. glass filament fixed transversely across peduncle, near flower-head. fig. . trifolium subterraneum: movement of same peduncle, with flower-head completely buried beneath the sand; traced from a.m. to . p.m. on july th. the movement of another vertically dependent peduncle with the flower-head standing half an inch above the ground, was traced, and again when it first touched the ground; in both cases irregular ellipses were described every or h. a peduncle on a plant which had been brought into the house, moved from an upright into a vertically dependent position in a single day; and here the course during the first h. was nearly straight, but with a few well-marked zigzags which betrayed the essential nature of the movement. lastly the circumnutation of a peduncle was traced during h. whilst in the act of burying itself obliquely in a little heap of sand. after it had buried itself to such a depth that the tips of the sepals were alone visible, the above figure (fig ) was traced during h. when the flower-head had completely disappeared beneath the sand, another tracing was made during h. m. (fig. ); and here again we see that the peduncle was circumnutating. [page ] any one who will observe a flower-head burying itself, will be convinced that the rocking movement, due to the continued circumnutation of the peduncle, plays an important part in the act. considering that the flower-heads are very light, that the peduncles are long, thin, and flexible, and that they arise from flexible branches, it is incredible that an object as blunt as one of these flower-heads could penetrate the ground by means of the growing force of the peduncle, unless it were aided by the rocking movement. after a flower-head has penetrated the ground to a small depth, another and efficient agency comes into play; the central rigid aborted flowers, each terminating in five long claws, curve up towards the peduncle; and in doing so can hardly fail to drag the head down to a greater depth, aided as this action is by the circumnutating movement, which continues after the flower-head has completely buried itself. the aborted flowers thus act something like the hands of the mole, which force the earth backwards and the body forwards. it is well known that the seed-capsules of various widely distinct plants either bury themselves in the ground, or are produced from imperfect flowers developed beneath the surface. besides the present case, two other well-marked instances will be immediately given. it is probable that one chief good thus gained is the protection of the seeds from animals which prey on them. in the case of t. subterraneum, the seeds are not only concealed by being buried, but are likewise protected by being closely surrounded by the rigid, aborted flowers. we may the more confidently infer that protection is here aimed at, because the seeds of several species in this same genus are protected in other ways;* namely, by the swelling and closure of the calyx, or by the persistence and bending down of the standard-petal, etc. but the most curious instance is that of t. globosum, in which the upper flowers are sterile, as in t. subterraneum, but are here developed into large brushes of hairs which envelop and protect the seed-bearing flowers. nevertheless, in all these cases the capsules, with their seeds, may profit, as mr. t. thiselton dyer has remarked,** by their being kept somewhat damp; and the advantage of such dampness perhaps throws light on the presence of the absorbent hairs on the buried flower-heads of t. subterraneum. according to mr. bentham, as quoted by mr. dyer, * vaucher, 'hist. phys. des plantes d'europe,' tom. ii. p. . ** see his interesting article in 'nature,' april th, , p. . [page ] the prostrate habit of helianthemum prostratum "brings the capsules in contact with the surface of the ground, postpones their maturity, and so favours the seeds attaining a larger size." the capsules of cyclamen and of oxalis acetosella are only occasionally buried, and this only beneath dead leaves or moss. if it be an advantage to a plant that its capsules should be kept damp and cool by being laid on the ground, we have in these latter cases the first step, from which the power of penetrating the ground, with the aid of the always present movement of circumnutation, might afterwards have been gained. arachis hypogoea.--the flowers which bury themselves, rise from stiff branches a few inches above the ground, and stand upright. after they have fallen off, the gynophore, that is the part which supports the ovarium, grows to a great length, even to or inches, and bends perpendicularly downwards. it resembles closely a peduncle, but has a smooth and pointed apex, which contains the ovules, and is at first not in the least enlarged. the apex after reaching the ground penetrates it, in one case observed by us to a depth of inch, and in another to . inch. it there becomes developed into a large pod. flowers which are seated too high on the plant for the gynophore to reach the ground are said* never to produce pods. the movement of a young gynophore, rather under an inch in length and vertically dependent, was traced during h. by means of a glass filament (with sights) fixed transversely a little above the apex. it plainly circumnutated (fig. ) whilst increasing in length and growing downwards. it was then raised up, so as to be extended almost horizontally, and the terminal part curved itself downwards, following a nearly straight course during h., but with one attempt to circumnutate, as shown in fig. . after h. it had become nearly vertical. whether the exciting cause of the downward movement is geotropism or apheliotropism was not ascertained; but probably it is not apheliotropism, as all the gynophores grew straight down towards the ground, whilst the light in the hot-house entered from one side as well as from above. another and older gynophore, the apex of which had nearly reached the ground, was observed during days in the same manner as the first-mentioned short one; and it was found to be always circumnutating. during the first h. it described a figure which * 'gard. chronicle,' , p. . [page ] represented four ellipses. lastly, a long gynophore, the apex of which had buried itself to the depth of about half an inch, was fig. arachis hypogoea: circumnutation of vertically dependent young gynophore, traced on a vertical glass from a.m. july st to a.m. aug. nd. fig. . arachis hypogoea: downward movement of same young gynophore, after being extended horizontally; traced on a vertical glass from . a.m. to . p.m. aug. nd. pulled up and extended horizontally: it quickly began to curve downwards in a zigzag line; but on the following day the ter- [page ] minal bleached portion was a little shrivelled. as the gynophores are rigid and arise from stiff branches, and as they terminate in sharp smooth points, it is probable that they could penetrate the ground by the mere force of growth. but this action must be aided by the circumnutating movement, for fine sand, kept moist, was pressed close round the apex of a gynophore which had reached the ground, and after a few hours it was surrounded by a narrow open crack. after three weeks this gynophore was uncovered, and the apex was found at a depth of rather above half an inch developed into a small, white, oval pod. amphicarpoea monoica.--this plant produces long thin shoots, which twine round a support and of course circumnutate. early in the summer shorter shoots are produced from the lower parts of the plant, which grow perpendicularly downwards and penetrate the ground. one of these, terminating in a minute bud, was observed to bury itself in sand to a depth of . inch in h. it was lifted up and fixed in an inclined position about o beneath the horizon, being feebly illuminated from above. in this position it described two vertical ellipses in h.; but on the following day, when brought into the house, it circumnutated only a very little round the same spot. other branches were seen to penetrate the ground, and were afterwards found running like roots beneath the surface for a length of nearly two inches, and they had grown thick. one of these, after thus running, had emerged into the air. how far circumnutation aids these delicate branches in entering the ground we do not know; but the reflexed hairs with which they are clothed will assist in the work. this plant produces pods in the air, and others beneath the ground; which differ greatly in appearance. asa gray says* that it is the imperfect flowers on the creeping branches near the base of the plant which produce the subterranean pods; these flowers, therefore, must bury themselves like those of arachis. but it may be suspected that the branches which were seen by us to penetrate the ground also produce subterranean flowers and pods.] diageotropism. besides geotropism and apogeotropism, there is, according to frank, an allied form of movement, * 'manual of the botany of the northern united states,' , p. . [page ] namely, "transverse-geotropism," or diageotropism, as we may call it for the sake of matching our other terms. under the influence of gravitation certain parts are excited to place themselves more or less transversely to the line of its action.* we made no observations on this subject, and will here only remark that the position of the secondary radicles of various plants, which extend horizontally or are a little inclined downwards, would probably be considered by frank as due to transverse-geotropism. as it has been shown in chap. i. that the secondary radicles of cucurbita made serpentine tracks on a smoked glass-plate, they clearly circumnutated, and there can hardly be a doubt that this holds good with other secondary radicles. it seems therefore highly probable that they place themselves in their diageotropic position by means of modified circumnutation. finally, we may conclude that the three kinds of movement which have now been described and which are excited by gravitation, consist of modified circumnutation. different parts or organs on the same plant, and the same part in different species, are thus excited to act in a widely different manner. we can see no reason why the attraction of gravity should directly modify the state of turgescence and subsequent growth of one part on the upper side and of another part on the lower side. we are therefore led to infer that both geotropic, apogeotropic, and diageotropic movements, the purpose of which we can generally understand, * elfving has lately described ('arbeiten des bot. instituts in würzburg,' b. ii. , p. ) an excellent instance of such movements in the rhizomes of certain plants. [page ] have been acquired for the advantage of the plant by the modification of the ever-present movement of circumnutation. this, however, implies that gravitation produces some effect on the young tissues sufficient to serve as a guide to the plant. [page ] chapter xi. localised sensitiveness to gravitation, and its transmitted effects. general considerations--vicia faba, effects of amputating the tips of the radicles--regeneration of the tips--effects of a short exposure of the tips to geotropic action and their subsequent amputation--effects of amputating the tips obliquely--effects of cauterising the tips--effects of grease on the tips--pisum sativum, tips of radicles cauterised transversely, and on their upper and lower sides--phaseolus, cauterisation and grease on the tips--gossypium--cucurbita, tips cauterised transversely, and on their upper and lower sides--zea, tips cauterised--concluding remarks and summary of chapter--advantages of the sensibility to geotropism being localised in the tips of the radicles. ciesielski states* that when the roots of pisum, lens and vicia were extended horizontally with their tips cut off, they were not acted on by geotropism; but some days afterwards, when a new root-cap and vegetative point had been formed, they bent themselves perpendicularly downwards. he further states that if the tips are cut off, after the roots have been left extended horizontally for some little time, but before they have begun to bend downwards, they may be placed in any position, and yet will bend as if still acted on by geotropism; and this shows that some influence had been already transmitted to the bending part from the tip before it was amputated. sachs repeated these experiments; he cut off a length of between . and mm. (measured from the apex of the * 'abwartskrümmung der wurzel,' inaug. dissert. breslau, , p. . [page ] vegetative point) of the tips of the radicles of the bean (vicia faba), and placed them horizontally or vertically in damp air, earth, and water, with the result that they became bowed in all sorts of directions.* he therefore disbelieved in ciesielski's conclusions. but as we have seen with several plants that the tip of the radicle is sensitive to contact and to other irritants, and that it transmits some influence to the upper growing part causing it to bend, there seemed to us to be no a priori improbability in ciesielski's statements. we therefore determined to repeat his experiments, and to try others on several species by different methods. vicia faba.--radicles of this plant were extended horizontally either over water or with their lower surfaces just touching it. their tips had previously been cut off, in a direction as accurately transverse as could be done, to different lengths, measured from the apex of the root-cap, and which will be specified in each case. light was always excluded. we had previously tried hundreds of unmutilated radicles under similar circumstances, and found that every one that was healthy became plainly geotropic in under h. in the case of four radicles which had their tips cut off for a length of . mm., new root caps and new vegetative points were re-formed after an interval of days h.; and these when placed horizontally were acted on by geotropism. on some other occasions this regeneration of the tips and reacquired sensitiveness occurred within a somewhat shorter time. therefore, radicles having their tips amputated should be observed in from to h. after the operation. four radicles were extended horizontally with their lower surfaces touching the water, and with their tips cut off for a length of only . mm.: after h. three of them were still horizontal; after h. one of the three became fairly geotropic; and after h. the other two showed a trace of this action. the fourth radicle was vertically geotropic after h.; but by an * 'arbeiten des bot. instituts in würzburg,' heft. iii. , p. . [page ] accident the root-cap alone and not the vegetative point was found to have been amputated; so that this case formed no real exception and might have been excluded. five radicles were extended horizontally like the last, and had their tips cut off for a length of mm.; after - h., four of them were still horizontal, and one was slightly geotropic; after h. the latter had become vertical; a second was also somewhat geotropic; two remained approximately horizontal; and the last or fifth had grown in a disordered manner, for it was inclined upwards at an angle of o above the horizon. fourteen radicles were extended horizontally at a little height over the water with their tips cut off for a length of . mm.; after h. all were horizontal, whilst five control or standard specimens in the same jar were all bent greatly downwards. after h. several of the amputated radicles remained horizontal, but some showed a trace of geotropism, and one was plainly geotropic, for it was inclined at o beneath the horizon. seven horizontally extended radicles from which the tips had been cut off for the unusual length of mm. unfortunately were not looked at until h. had elapsed; three were still horizontal, but to our surprise, four were more or less plainly geotropic. the radicles in the foregoing cases were measured before their tips were amputated, and in the course of h. they had all increased greatly in length; but the measurements are not worth giving. it is of more importance that sachs found that the rate of growth of the different parts of radicles with amputated tips was the same as with unmutilated ones. altogether twenty-nine radicles were operated on in the manner above described, and of these only a few showed any geotropic curvature within h.; whereas radicles with unmutilated tips always became, as already stated, much bent down in less than half of this time. the part of the radicle which bends most lies at the distance of from to mm. from the tip, and as the bending part continues to grow after the operation, there does not seem any reason why it should not have been acted on by geotropism, unless its curvature depended on some influence transmitted from the tip. and we have clear evidence of such transmission in ciesielski's experiments, which we repeated and extended in the following manner. beans were embedded in friable peat with the hilum downwards, and after their radicles had grown perpendicularly down for a length of from ½ to inch, sixteen were selected which [page ] were perfectly straight, and these were placed horizontally on the peat, being covered by a thin layer of it. they were thus left for an average period of h. m. the tips were then cut off transversely for a length of . mm., and immediately afterwards they were embedded vertically in the peat. in this position geotropism would not tend to induce any curvature, but if some influence had already been transmitted from the tip to the part which bends most, we might expect that this part would become curved in the direction in which geotropism had previously acted; for it should be noted that these radicles being now destitute of their sensitive tips, would not be prevented by geotropism from curving in any direction. the result was that of the sixteen vertically embedded radicles, four continued for several days to grow straight downwards, whilst twelve became more or less bowed laterally. in two of the twelve, a trace of curvature was perceptible in h. m., counting from the time when they had first been laid horizontally; and all twelve were plainly bowed in h., and still more plainly in h. in every one of them the curvature was directed towards the side which had been downwards whilst the radicles remained horizontal. the curvature extended for a length of from to, in one instance, mm., measured from the cut-off end. of the twelve bowed radicles five became permanently bent into a right angle; the other seven were at first much less bent, and their curvature generally decreased after h., but did not wholly disappear. this decrease of curvature would naturally follow, if an exposure of only h. m. to geotropism, served to modify the turgescence of the cells, but not their subsequent growth to the full extent. the five radicles which were rectangularly bent became fixed in this position, and they continued to grow out horizontally in the peat for a length of about inch during from to days. by this time new tips had been formed; and it should be remarked that this regeneration occurred slower in the peat than in water, owing perhaps to the radicles being often looked at and thus disturbed. after the tips had been regenerated, geotropism was able to act on them, so that they now became bowed vertically downwards. an accurate drawing (fig. ) is given on the opposite page of one of these five radicles, reduced to half the natural size. we next tried whether a shorter exposure to geotropism would suffice to produce an after-effect. seven radicles were extended horizontally for an hour, instead of h. m. as in the [page ] former trial; and after their tips ( . mm. in length) had been amputated, they were placed vertically in damp peat. of these, three were not in the least affected and continued for days to grow straight downwards. four showed after h. m. a mere trace of curvature in the direction in which they had been acted on by geotropism; and in this respect they differed much from those which had been exposed for h. m., for many of the latter were plainly curved in h. the curvature of one of these four radicles almost disappeared after h. in the second, the curvature increased during two days and then decreased. the third radicle became permanently bent, so that its terminal part made an angle of about o with its original vertical direction. the fourth radicle became horizontal. these two, latter radicles continued during two more days to grow in the peat in the same directions, that is, at an angle of o beneath the horizon and horizontally. by the fourth morning new tips had been re-formed, and now geotropism was able to act on them again, and they became bent perpendicularly downwards, exactly as in the case of the five radicles described in the last paragraph and as is shown in (fig. ) here given. fig. . vicia faba: radicle, rectangularly bent at a, after the amputation of the tip, due to the previous influence of geotropism. l, side of bean which lay on the peat, whilst geotropism acted on the radicle. a, point of chief curvature of the radicle, whilst standing vertically downwards. b, point of chief curvature after the regeneration of the tip, when geotropism again acted. c, regenerated tip. lastly, five other radicles were similarly treated, but were exposed to geotropism during only m. after h. m. only one was doubtfully affected; after h. two were just perceptibly curved towards the side which had been acted on by geotropism; after h. the one first mentioned had a radius of curvature of mm. that this curvature was due to the action of geotropism during the horizontal position of the radicle, was shown after days, when a new tip had been re-formed, for it then grew perpendicularly downwards. we learn from this [page ] case that when the tips are amputated after an exposure to geotropism of only m., though a slight influence is sometimes transmitted to the adjoining part of the radicle, yet this seldom suffices, and then only slowly, to induce even moderately well-pronounced curvature. in the previously given experiments on horizontally extended radicles with their tips amputated, only one grew irregularly in any marked manner, and this became bowed upwards at an angle of o. in ciesielski's experiments the radicles could not have grown very irregularly, for if they had done so, he could not have spoken confidently of the obliteration of all geotropic action. it is therefore remarkable that sachs, who experimented on many radicles with their tips amputated, found extremely disordered growth to be the usual result. as horizontally extended radicles with amputated tips are sometimes acted on slightly by geotropism within a short time, and are often acted on plainly after one or two days, we thought that this influence might possibly prevent disordered growth, though it was not able to induce immediate curvature. therefore radicles, of which had their tips amputated transversely for a length of . mm., and the other for a length of only . mm., were suspended vertically in damp air, in which position they would not be affected by geotropism; but they exhibited no great irregularity of growth, whilst observed during to days. we next thought that if care were not taken in cutting off the tips transversely, one side of the stump might be irritated more than the other, either at first or subsequently during the regeneration of the tip, and that this might cause the radicle to bend to one side. it has also been shown in chapter iii. that if a thin slice be cut off one side of the tip of the radicle, this causes the radicle to bend from the sliced side. accordingly, radicles, with tips amputated for a length of . mm., were allowed to grow perpendicularly downwards into water. twenty of them were amputated at an angle of o with a line transverse to their longitudinal axes; and such stumps appeared only moderately oblique. the remaining ten radicles were amputated at an angle of about o. under these circumstances no less than out of the became much distorted in the course of or days. eleven other radicles were similarly treated, excepting that only mm. (including in this and all other cases the root-cap) was amputated; and of these only one grew much, and two others slightly [page ] distorted; so that this amount of oblique amputation was not sufficient. out of the above radicles, only one or two showed in the first h. any distortion, but this became plain in the cases on the second day, and still more conspicuous at the close of the third day, by which time new tips had been partially or completely regenerated. when therefore a new tip is reformed on an oblique stump, it probably is developed sooner on one side than on the other: and this in some manner excites the adjoining part to bend to one side. hence it seems probable that sachs unintentionally amputated the radicles on which he experimented, not strictly in a transverse direction. this explanation of the occasional irregular growth of radicles with amputated tips, is supported by the results of cauterising their tips; for often a greater length on one side than on the other was unavoidably injured or killed. it should be remarked that in the following trials the tips were first dried with blotting-paper, and then slightly rubbed with a dry stick of nitrate of silver or lunar caustic. a few touches with the caustic suffice to kill the root-cap and some of the upper layers of cells of the vegetative point. twenty-seven radicles, some young and very short, others of moderate length, were suspended vertically over water, after being thus cauterised. of these some entered the water immediately, and others on the second day. the same number of uncauterised radicles of the same age were observed as controls. after an interval of three or four days the contrast in appearance between the cauterised and control specimens was wonderfully great. the controls had grown straight downwards, with the exception of the normal curvature, which we have called sachs' curvature. of the cauterised radicles, had become extremely distorted; of them grew upwards and formed hoops, so that their tips sometimes came into contact with the bean above; grew out rectangularly to one side; only a few of the remaining were quite straight, and some of these towards the close of our observations became hooked at their extreme lower ends. radicles, extended horizontally instead of vertically, with their tips cauterised, also sometimes grew distorted, but not so commonly, as far as we could judge, as those suspended vertically; for this occurred with only out of radicles thus treated. instead of cutting off the tips, as in the first set of experiments, we next tried the effects of touching horizontally extended radicles with caustic in the manner just described. but [page ] some preliminary remarks must first be made. it may be objected that the caustic would injure the radicles and prevent them from bending; but ample evidence was given in chapter iii. that touching the tips of vertically suspended radicles with caustic on one side, does not stop their bending; on the contrary, it causes them to bend from the touched side. we also tried touching both the upper and the lower sides of the tips of some radicles of the bean, extended horizontally in damp friable earth. the tips of three were touched with caustic on their upper sides, and this would aid their geotropic bending; the tips of three were touched on their lower sides, which would tend to counteract the bending downwards; and three were left as controls. after h. an independent observer was asked to pick out of the nine radicles, the two which were most and the two which were least bent; he selected as the latter, two of those which had been touched on their lower sides, and as the most bent, two of those which had been touched on the upper side. hereafter analogous and more striking experiments with pisum sativum and cucurbita ovifera will be given. we may therefore safely conclude that the mere application of caustic to the tip does not prevent the radicles from bending. in the following experiments, the tips of young horizontally extended radicles were just touched with a stick of dry caustic; and this was held transversely, so that the tip might be cauterised all round as symmetrically as possible. the radicles were then suspended in a closed vessel over water, kept rather cool, viz., o - o f. this was done because we had found that the tips were more sensitive to contact under a low than under a high temperature; and we thought that the same rule might apply to geotropism. in one exceptional trial, nine radicles (which were rather too old, for they had grown to a length of from to cm.), were extended horizontally in damp friable earth, after their tips had been cauterised and were kept at too high a temperature, viz., of o f., or o c. the result in consequence was not so striking as in the subsequent cases for although when after h. m. six of them were examined, these did not exhibit any geotropic bending, yet after h., when all nine were examined, only two remained horizontal, two exhibited a trace of geotropism, and five were slightly or moderately geotropic, yet not comparable in degree with the control specimens. marks had been made on seven of these cauterised radicles at mm. from the tips, which includes [page ] the whole growing portion; and after the h. this part had a mean length of mm., so that it had increased to more than ½ times its original length; but it should be remembered that these beans had been exposed to a rather high temperature. nineteen young radicles with cauterised tips were extended at different times horizontally over water. in every trial an equal number of control specimens were observed. in the first trial, the tips of three radicles were lightly touched with the caustic for or seconds, which was a longer application than usual. after h. m. (temp. o - o f.) these three radicles, fig. . vicia faba: state of radicles which had been extended horizontally for h. m.; a, b, c, tips touched with caustic; d, e, f, tips uncauterised. lengths of radicles reduced to one-half scale, but by an accident the beans themselves not reduced in the same degree. a, b, c (fig. ), were still horizontal, whilst the three control specimens had become within h. slightly geotropic, and strongly so (d, e, f) in h. m. a dot had been made on all six radicles at mm. from their tips, when first placed horizontally. after the h. m. this terminal part, originally mm. in length, had increased in the cauterised specimens to a mean length of . mm., and to . mm. in the control radicles, as shown in the figures by the unbroken transverse line; the dotted line being at mm. from the apex. the control or uncauterised radicles, therefore, had actually grown less [page ] than the cauterised; but this no doubt was accidental, for radicles of different ages grow at different rates, and the growth of different individuals is likewise affected by unknown causes. the state of the tips of these three radicles, which had been cauterised for a rather longer time than usual, was as follows: the blackened apex, or the part which had been actually touched by the caustic, was succeeded by a yellowish zone, due probably to the absorption of some of the caustic; in a, both zones together were . mm. in length, and . mm. in diameter at the base of the yellowish zone; in b, the length of both was only . mm., and the diameter . mm.; in c, the length was . mm., and the diameter . mm. three other radicles, the tips of which had been touched with caustic curing or seconds, remained (temp. o - o f.) horizontal for h.; the control radicles having, of course, become geotropic within this time. the terminal growing part, mm. in length, of the cauterised radicles had increased in this interval to a mean length of . mm., and of the controls to a mean of mm. a section of one of the cauterised tips showed that the blackened part was . mm. in length, of which . mm. extended into the vegetative point; and a faint discoloration could be detected even to . mm. from the apex of the root-cap. in another lot of six radicles (temp. o - o f.) the three control specimens were plainly geotropic in ½ h.; and after h. the mean length of their terminal part had increased from mm. to mm. when the caustic was applied to the three cauterised specimens, it was held quite motionless during seconds, and the result was that the black marks were extremely minute. therefore, caustic was again applied, after ½ h., during which time no geotropic action had occurred. when the specimens were re-examined after an additional interval of ½ h., one was horizontal and the other two showed, to our surprise, a trace of geotropism which in one of them soon afterwards became strongly marked; but in this latter specimen the discoloured tip was only / mm. in length. the growing part of these three radicles increased in h. from mm. to an average of . mm. it would be superfluous to describe in detail the behaviour of the remaining cauterised radicles. the corresponding control specimens all became geotropic in h. of the cauterised, were first looked at after h., and one alone showed a trace [page ] of geotropism; were first looked at after h., and one alone of these was slightly geotropic. after - h., of the were still horizontal, slightly, and decidedly, geotropic. after h. some of them became strongly geotropic. the cauterised radicles increased greatly in length, but the measurements are not worth giving. as five of the last-mentioned cauterised radicles had become in h. somewhat geotropic, these (together with three which were still horizontal) had their positions reversed, so that their tips were now a little upturned, and they were again touched with caustic. after h. they showed no trace of geotropism; whereas the eight corresponding control specimens, which had likewise been reversed, in which position the tips of several pointed to the zenith, all became geotropic; some having passed in the h. through an angle of o, others through about o, and others through only o. the eight radicles, which had been twice cauterised, were observed for an additional day (i.e. for h. after being reversed), and they still showed no signs of geotropism. nevertheless, they continued to grow rapidly; four were measured h. after being reversed, and they had in this time increased in length between and mm.; the other four were measured h. after being reversed, and these had increased by , , , and mm. in coming to a conclusion with respect to the effects of cauterising the tips of these radicles, we should bear in mind, firstly, that horizontally extended control radicles were always acted on by geotropism, and became somewhat bowed downwards in or h.; secondly, that the chief seat of the curvature lies at a distance of from to mm. from the tip; thirdly, that the tip was discoloured by the caustic rarely for more than mm. in length; fourthly, that the greater number of the cauterised radicles, although subjected to the full influence of geotropism during the whole time, remained horizontal for h., and some for twice as long; and that those which did become bowed were so only in a slight degree; fifthly, that the cauterised radicles continued to grow almost, and sometimes quite, as well as the uninjured ones along the part which bends most. and lastly, that a touch on the tip with caustic, if on one side, far from preventing curvature, actually induces it. bearing all these facts in mind, we must infer that under normal conditions the geotropic curvature of the root is due to an influence transmitted from the apex to the adjoining part where the bending [page ] takes place; and that when the tip of the root is cauterised it is unable to originate the stimulus necessary to produce geotropic curvature. as we had observed that grease was highly injurious to some plants, we determined to try its effects on radicles. when the cotyledons of phalaris and avena were covered with grease along one side, the growth of this side was quite stopped or greatly checked, and as the opposite side continued to grow, the cotyledons thus treated became bowed towards the greased side. this same matter quickly killed the delicate hypocotyls and young leaves of certain plants. the grease which we employed was made by mixing lamp-black and olive oil to such a consistence that it could be laid on in a thick layer. the tips of five radicles of the bean were coated with it for a length of mm., and to our surprise this part increased in length in h. to . mm.; the thick layer of grease being curiously drawn out. it thus could not have checked much, if at all, the growth of the terminal part of the radicle. with respect to geotropism, the tips of seven horizontally extended radicles were coated for a length of mm., and after h. no clear difference could be perceived between their downward curvature and that of an equal number of control specimens. the tips of other radicles were coated on different occasions for a length of mm.; and they were compared with the controls after h., h., and h. on one occasion, after h., there was very little difference in curvature between the greased and control specimens; but generally the difference was unmistakable, those with greased tips being considerably less curved downwards. the whole growing part (the greased tips included) of six of these radicles was measured and was found to have increased in h. from mm. to a mean length of . mm.; whilst the corresponding part of the controls had increased to . mm. it appears therefore, that although the tip itself, when greased, continues to grow, yet the growth of the whole radicle is somewhat checked, and that the geotropic curvature of the upper part, which was free from grease, was in most cases considerably lessened. pisum sativum.--five radicles, extended horizontally over water, had their tips lightly touched two or three times with dry caustic. these tips were measured in two cases, and found to be blackened for a length of only half a millimeter. five other radicles were left as controls. the part which is most bowed through geotropism lies at a distance of several millimeters from [page ] the apex. after h., and again after h. from the commencement, four of the cauterised radicles were still horizontal, but one was plainly geotropic, being inclined at o beneath the horizon. the five controls were somewhat geotropic after h. m., and after h. were all strongly geotropic; being inclined at the following angles beneath the horizon, viz., o, o, o, o, and o. the length of the radicles was not measured in either set, but it was manifest that the cauterised radicles had grown greatly. the following case proves that the action of the caustic by itself does not prevent the curvature of the radicle. ten radicles were extended horizontally on and beneath a layer of damp friable peat-earth; and before being extended their tips were touched with dry caustic on the upper side. ten other radicles similarly placed were touched on the lower side; and this would tend to make them bend from the cauterised side; and therefore, as now placed, upwards, or in opposition to geotropism. lastly, ten uncauterised radicles were extended horizontally as controls. after h. all the latter were geotropic; and the ten with their tips cauterised on the upper side were equally geotropic; and we believe that they became curved downwards before the controls. the ten which had been cauterised on the lower side presented a widely different appearance: no. , however, was perpendicularly geotropic, but this was no real exception, for on examination under the microscope, there was no vestige of a coloured mark on the tip, and it was evident that by a mistake it had not been touched with the caustic. no. was plainly geotropic, being inclined at about o beneath the horizon; no. was slightly, and no. only just perceptibly geotropic; nos. and were strictly horizontal; and the four remaining ones were bowed upwards, in opposition to geotropism. in these four cases the radius of the upward curvatures (according to sachs' cyclometer) was mm., mm., mm., and mm. this curvature was distinct long before the h. had elapsed, namely, after h. m. from the time when the lower sides of the tips were touched with the caustic. phaseolus multiflorus.--eight radicles, serving as controls, were extended horizontally, some in damp friable peat and some in damp air. they all became (temp o - o c.) plainly geotropic in h. m., for they then stood at an average angle of o beneath the horizon. a rather greater length of the radicle is bowed downwards by geotropism than in the case of vicia faba, [page ] that is to say, rather more than mm. as measured from the apex of the root-cap. nine other radicles were similarly extended, three in damp peat and six in damp air, and dry caustic was held transversely to their tips during or seconds. three of their tips were afterwards examined: in ( ) a length of . mm. was discoloured, of which the basal . mm. was yellow, the apical part being black; in ( ) the discoloration was . mm. in length, of which the basal . mm. was yellow; in ( ) the discoloration was . mm. in length, of which the basal . mm. was yellow. therefore less than mm. was affected by the caustic, but this sufficed almost wholly to prevent geotropic action; for after h. one alone of the nine cauterised radicles became slightly geotropic, being now inclined at o beneath the horizon; the eight others remained horizontal, though one was curved a little laterally. the terminal part ( mm. in length) of the six cauterised radicles in the damp air, had more than doubled in length in the h., for this part was now on an average . mm. long. the increase in length within the same time was greater in the control specimens, for the terminal part had grown on an average from mm. to . mm. but as the cauterised radicles had more than doubled their length in the h., it is manifest that they had not been seriously injured by the caustic. we may here add that when experimenting on the effects of touching one side of the tip with caustic, too much was applied at first, and the whole tip (but we believe not more than mm. in length) of six horizontally extended radicles was killed, and these continued for two or three days to grow out horizontally. many trials were made, by coating the tips of horizontally extended radicles with the before described thick grease. the geotropic curvature of radicles, which were thus coated for a length of mm., was delayed during the first or h., but after h. was nearly as great as that of the control specimens. the tips of nine radicles were coated for a length of mm., and after h. m. these stood at an average angle of o beneath the horizon, whilst the controls stood at an average of o. after h. the two lots differed but little in their degree of curvature. in some other trials, however, there was a fairly well-marked difference after h. between those with greased tips and the controls. the terminal part of eight control specimens increased in h. from mm. to a mean length of [page ] . mm., whilst the mean increase of those with greased tips was . mm. the grease, therefore, slightly checked the growth of the terminal part, but this part was not much injured; for several radicles which had been greased for a length of mm. continued to grow during seven days, and were then only a little shorter than the controls. the appearance presented by these radicles after the seven days was very curious, for the black grease had been drawn out into the finest longitudinal striae, with dots and reticulations, which covered their surfaces for a length of from to mm., or of to . inch. we may therefore conclude that grease on the tips of the radicles of this phaseolus somewhat delays and lessens the geotropic curvature of the part which ought to bend most. gossypium herbaceum.--the radicles of this plant bend, through the action of geotropism, for a length of about mm. five radicles, placed horizontally in damp air, had their tips touched with caustic, and the discoloration extended for a length of from / to mm. they showed, after h. m. and again after h., not a trace of geotropism; yet the terminal portion, mm. in length, had increased on an average to . mm. six control radicles, after h. m., were all plainly geotropic, two of them being vertically dependent, and after h. all were vertical, or nearly so. cucurbita ovifera.--a large number of trials proved almost useless, from the three following causes: firstly, the tips of radicles which have grown somewhat old are only feebly geotropic if kept in damp air; nor did we succeed well in our experiments, until the germinating seeds were placed in peat and kept at a rather high temperature. secondly, the hypocotyls of the seeds which were pinned to the lids of the jars gradually became arched; and, as the cotyledons were fixed, the movement of the hypocotyl affected the position of the radicle, and caused confusion. thirdly, the point of the radicle is so fine that it is difficult not to cauterise it either too much or too little. but we managed generally to overcome this latter difficulty, as the following experiments show, which are given to prove that a touch with caustic on one side of the tip does not prevent the upper part of the radicle from bending. ten radicles were laid horizontally beneath and on damp friable peat, and their tips were touched with caustic on the upper side. after h. all were plainly geotropic, three of them rectangularly; after h. [page ] all were strongly geotropic, most of them pointing perpendicularly downwards. ten other radicles, similarly placed, had their tips touched with caustic on the lower side; after h. three were slightly geotropic, but not nearly so much so as the least geotropic of the foregoing specimens; four remained horizontal; and three were curved upwards in opposition to geotropism. after h. the three which were slightly geotropic had become strongly so. of the four horizontal radicles, one alone showed a trace of geotropism; of the three up-curved radicles, one retained this curvature, and the other two had become horizontal. the radicles of this plant, as already remarked, do not succeed well in damp air, but the result of one trial may be briefly given. nine young radicles between . and . inch in length, with their tips cauterised and blackened for a length never exceeding ½ mm., together with eight control specimens, were extended horizontally in damp air. after an interval of only h. m. all the controls were slightly geotropic, whilst not one of the cauterised specimens exhibited a trace of this action. after h. m., there was the same difference between the two sets, but rather more strongly marked. by this time both sets had increased greatly in length. the controls, however, never became much more curved downwards; and after h. there was no great difference between the two sets in their degree of curvature. eight young radicles of nearly equal length (average . inch) were placed beneath and on peat-earth, and were exposed to a temp. of o - o f. their tips had been touched transversely with caustic, and five of them were blackened for a length of about . mm., whilst the other three were only just visibly discoloured. in the same box there were control radicles, mostly about . inch in length, but some rather longer and older, and therefore less sensitive. after h., the control radicles were all more or less geotropic: after h., eight of them were bent down beneath the horizon at various angles between o and o, the remaining seven being only slightly geotropic: after h. all were rectangularly geotropic. the state of the eight cauterised radicles after the same intervals of time was as follows: after h. one alone was slightly geotropic, and this was one with the tip only a very little discoloured: after h. the one just mentioned was rectangularly geotropic, and two others were slightly so, and these were the three which had been scarcely [page ] affected by the caustic; the other five were still strictly horizontal. after h. m. the three with only slightly discoloured tips were bent down rectangularly; the other five were not in the least affected, but several of them had grown rather tortuously, though still in a horizontal plane. the eight cauterised radicles which had at first a mean length of . inch, after h. had increased to a mean length of . inch; and after h. m. to the extraordinary mean length of inches. there was no plain difference in length between the five well cauterised radicles which remained horizontal, and the three with slightly cauterised tips which had become abruptly bent down. a few of the control radicles were measured after h., and they were on an average only a little longer than the cauterised, viz., . inches. we thus see that killing the extreme tip of the radicle of this plant for a length of about . mm., though it stops the geotropic bending of the upper part, hardly interferes with the growth of the whole radicle. in the same box with the control specimens, the rapid geotropic bending and growth of which have just been described, there were six radicles, about . inch in length, extended horizontally, from which the tips had been cut off in a transverse direction for a length of barely mm. these radicles were examined after h. and again after h. m., and they all remained horizontal. they had not become nearly so tortuous as those above described which had been cauterised. the radicles with their tips cut off had grown in the h. m. as much, judging by the eye, as the cauterised specimens. zea mays.--the tips of several radicles, extended horizontally in damp air, were dried with blotting-paper and then touched in the first trial during or seconds with dry caustic; but this was too long a contact, for the tips were blackened for a length of rather above mm. they showed no signs of geotropism after an interval of h., and were then thrown away. in a second trial the tips of three radicles were touched for a shorter time, and were blackened for a length of from . to . mm.: they all remained horizontal for h., but after h. m. one of them, in which the blackened tip was only . mm. in length, was inclined at o beneath the horizon. six control radicles all became slightly geotropic in h., and strongly so after h. m., with the chief seat of curvature generally between or mm. from the apex. in the cauterised specimens, the terminal growing part, mm. in length, increased during [page ] the h. m. to a mean length of mm.; and in the controls to . mm. in a third trial the tips of five radicles (exposed to a temp. of o - o) were touched with the caustic only once and very slightly; they were afterwards examined under the microscope, and the part which was in any way discoloured was on an average . mm. in length. after h. m. none were bent; after h. m., and again after h. m., they still remained horizontal, excepting one which was now inclined o beneath the horizon. the terminal part, mm. in length, had increased greatly in length during the h. m., viz., to an average of mm. four control radicles became slightly geotropic after the h. m., and plainly so after the h. m. their mean length after the h. m. had increased from mm. to mm. therefore a slight cauterisation of the tip checks slightly the growth of the whole radicle, and manifestly stops the bending of that part which ought to bend most under the influence of geotropism, and which still continues to increase greatly in length.] concluding remarks.--abundant evidence has now been given, showing that with various plants the tip of the radicle is alone sensitive to geotropism; and that when thus excited, it causes the adjoining parts to bend. the exact length of the sensitive part seems to be somewhat variable, depending in part on the age of the radicle; but the destruction of a length of from less than to . mm. (about / th of an inch), in the several species observed, generally sufficed to prevent any part of the radicle from bending within h., or even for a longer period. the fact of the tip alone being sensitive is so remarkable a fact, that we will here give a brief summary of the foregoing experiments. the tips were cut off horizontally extended radicles of vicia faba, and with a few exceptions they did not become geotropic in or h., whilst unmutilated radicles were always bowed downwards in or h. it should be borne in mind that the mere act of cutting [page ] off the tip of a horizontally extended radicle does not prevent the adjoining parts from bending, if the tip has been previously exposed for an hour or two to the influence of geotropism. the tip after amputation is sometimes completely regenerated in three days; and it is possible that it may be able to transmit an impulse to the adjoining parts before its complete regeneration. the tips of six radicles of cucurbita ovifera were amputated like those of vicia faba; and these radicles showed no signs of geotropism in h.; whereas the control specimens were slightly affected in h., and strongly in h. with plants belonging to six genera, the tips of the radicles were touched transversely with dry caustic; and the injury thus caused rarely extended for a greater length than mm., and sometimes to a less distance, as judged by even the faintest discoloration. we thought that this would be a better method of destroying the vegetative point than cutting it off; for we knew, from many previous experiments and from some given in the present chapter, that a touch with caustic on one side of the apex, far from preventing the adjoining part from bending, caused it to bend. in all the following cases, radicles with uncauterised tips were observed at the same time and under similar circumstances, and they became, in almost every instance, plainly bowed downwards in one-half or one-third of the time during which the cauterised specimens were observed. with vicia faba radicles were cauterised; remained horizontal during - h.; became slightly and strongly geotropic. eight of these radicles were afterwards reversed, and again touched with caustic, and none of them became geotropic in h., whilst the reversed control specimens became strongly bowed downwards within this time. [page ] with pisum sativum, five radicles had their tips touched with caustic, and after h. four were still horizontal. the control specimens were slightly geotropic in h. m., and strongly so in h. the tips of other radicles of this plant were touched only on the lower side, and of them remained horizontal for h., or were upturned in opposition to geotropism; were slightly, and plainly geotropic. with phaseolus multiflorus, radicles were cauterised, and remained horizontal for h.; whereas all the controls were plainly geotropic in h. m. of cauterised radicles of gossypium herbaceum, remained horizontal for h. and became slightly geotropic; control radicles were distinctly geotropic in h. m. five radicles of cucurbita ovifera remained horizontal in peat-earth during h., and remained so in damp air during ½ h.; whilst the controls became slightly geotropic in h. m. the tips of radicals of this plant were touched on their lower sides, and of them remained horizontal or were upturned after h., being slightly and strongly geotropic. lastly, the tips of several radicles of vicia faba and phaseolus multiflorus were thickly coated with grease for a length of mm. this matter, which is highly injurious to most plants, did not kill or stop the growth of the tips, and only slightly lessened the rate of growth of the whole radicle; but it generally delayed a little the geotropic bending of the upper part. the several foregoing cases would tell us nothing, if the tip itself was the part which became most bent; but we know that it is a part distant from the tip by some millimeters which grows quickest, and which, under the influence of geotropism, bends most. we have no reason to suppose that this part is injured by the death or injury of the tip; and it is certain [page ] that after the tip has been destroyed this part goes on growing at such a rate, that its length was often doubled in a day. we have also seen that the destruction of the tip does not prevent the adjoining part from bending, if this part has already received some influence from the tip. as with horizontally extended radicles, of which the tip has been cut off or destroyed, the part which ought to bend most remains motionless for many hours or days, although exposed at right angles to the full influence of geotropism, we must conclude that the tip alone is sensitive to this power, and transmits some influence or stimulus to the adjoining parts, causing them to bend. we have direct evidence of such transmission; for when a radicle was left extended horizontally for an hour or an hour and a half, by which time the supposed influence will have travelled a little distance from the tip, and the tip was then cut off, the radicle afterwards became bent, although placed perpendicularly. the terminal portions of several radicles thus treated continued for some time to grow in the direction of their newly-acquired curvature; for as they were destitute of tips, they were no longer acted on by geotropism. but after three or four days when new vegetative points were formed, the radicles were again acted on by geotropism, and now they curved themselves perpendicularly downwards. to see anything of the above kind in the animal kingdom, we should have to suppose than an animal whilst lying down determined to rise up in some particular direction; and that after its head had been cut off, an impulse continued to travel very slowly along the nerves to the proper muscles; so that after several hours the headless animal rose up in the predetermined direction. as the tip of the radicle has been found to be the [page ] part which is sensitive to geotropism in the members of such distinct families as the leguminosae, malvaceae, cucurbitaceae and gramineae, we may infer that this character is common to the roots of most seedling plants. whilst a root is penetrating the ground, the tip must travel first; and we can see the advantage of its being sensitive to geotropism, as it has to determine the course of the whole root. whenever the tip is deflected by any subterranean obstacle, it will also be an advantage that a considerable length of the root should be able to bend, more especially as the tip itself grows slowly and bends but little, so that the proper downward course may be soon recovered. but it appears at first sight immaterial whether this were effected by the whole growing part being sensitive to geotropism, or by an influence transmitted exclusively from the tip. we should, however, remember that it is the tip which is sensitive to the contact of hard objects, causing the radicle to bend away from them, thus guiding it along the lines of least resistance in the soil. it is again the tip which is alone sensitive, at least in some cases, to moisture, causing the radicle to bend towards its source. these two kinds of sensitiveness conquer for a time the sensitiveness to geotropism, which, however, ultimately prevails. therefore, the three kinds of sensitiveness must often come into antagonism; first one prevailing, and then another; and it would be an advantage, perhaps a necessity, for the interweighing and reconciling of these three kinds of sensitiveness, that they should be all localised in the same group of cells which have to transmit the command to the adjoining parts of the radicle, causing it to bend to or from the source of irritation. finally, the fact of the tip alone being sensitive to [page ] the attraction of gravity has an important bearing on the theory of geotropism. authors seem generally to look at the bending of a radicle towards the centre of the earth, as the direct result of gravitation, which is believed to modify the growth of the upper or lower surfaces, in such a manner as to induce curvature in the proper direction. but we now know that it is the tip alone which is acted on, and that this part transmits some influence to the adjoining parts, causing them to curve downwards. gravity does not appear to act in a more direct manner on a radicle, than it does on any lowly organised animal, which moves away when it feels some weight or pressure. [page ] chapter xii. summary and concluding remarks. nature of the circumnutating movement--history of a germinating seed--the radicle first protrudes and circumnutates--its tip highly sensitive-- emergence of the hypocotyl or of the epicotyl from the ground under the form of an arch - its circumnutation and that of the cotyledons--the seedling throws up a leaf-bearing stem--the circumnutation of all the parts or organs--modified circumnutation--epinasty and hyponasty--movements of climbing plants--nyctitropic movements--movements excited by light and gravitation--localised sensitiveness--resemblance between the movements of plants and animals--the tip of the radicle acts like a brain. it may be useful to the reader if we briefly sum up the chief conclusions, which, as far as we can judge, have been fairly well established by the observations given in this volume. all the parts or organs in every plant whilst they continue to grow, and some parts which are provided with pulvini after they have ceased to grow, are continually circumnutating. this movement commences even before the young seedling has broken through the ground. the nature of the movement and its causes, as far as ascertained, have been briefly described in the introduction. why every part of a plant whilst it is growing, and in some cases after growth has ceased, should have its cells rendered more turgescent and its cell-walls more extensile first on one side and then on another, thus inducing circumnutation is not known. it would appear as if the changes in the cells required periods of rest. [page ] in some cases, as with the hypocotyls of brassica, the leaves of dionaea and the joints of the gramineae, the circumnutating movement when viewed under the microscope is seen to consist of innumerable small oscillations. the part under observation suddenly jerks forwards for a length of . to . of an inch, and then slowly retreats for a part of this distance; after a few seconds it again jerks forwards, but with many intermissions. the retreating movement apparently is due to the elasticity of the resisting tissues. how far this oscillatory movement is general we do not know, as not many circumnutating plants were observed by us under the microscope; but no such movement could be detected in the case of drosera with a -inch object-glass which we used. the phenomenon is a remarkable one. the whole hypocotyl of a cabbage or the whole leaf of a dionaea could not jerk forwards unless a very large number of cells on one side were simultaneously affected. are we to suppose that these cells steadily become more and more turgescent on one side, until the part suddenly yields and bends, inducing what may be called a microscopically minute earthquake in the plant; or do the cells on one side suddenly become turgescent in an intermittent manner; each forward movement thus caused being opposed by the elasticity of the tissues? circumnutation is of paramount importance in the life of every plant; for it is through its modification that many highly beneficial or necessary movements have been acquired. when light strikes one side of a plant, or light changes into darkness, or when gravitation acts on a displaced part, the plant is enabled in some unknown manner to increase the always varying turgescence of the cells on one side; so that the ordinary circumnutating movement is [page ] modified, and the part bends either to or from the exciting cause; or it may occupy a new position, as in the so-called sleep of leaves. the influence which modifies circumnutation may be transmitted from one part to another. innate or constitutional changes, independently of any external agency, often modify the circumnutating movements at particular periods of the life of the plant. as circumnutation is universally present, we can understand how it is that movements of the same kind have been developed in the most distinct members of the vegetable series. but it must not be supposed that all the movements of plants arise from modified circumnutation; for, as we shall presently see, there is reason to believe that this is not the case. having made these few preliminary remarks, we will in imagination take a germinating seed, and consider the part which the various movements play in the life-history of the plant. the first change is the protrusion of the radicle, which begins at once to circumnutate. this movement is immediately modified by the attraction of gravity and rendered geotropic. the radicle, therefore, supposing the seed to be lying on the surface, quickly bends downwards, following a more or less spiral course, as was seen on the smoked glass-plates. sensitiveness to gravitation resides in the tip; and it is the tip which transmits some influence to the adjoining parts, causing them to bend. as soon as the tip, protected by the root-cap, reaches the ground, it penetrates the surface, if this be soft or friable; and the act of penetration is apparently aided by the rocking or circumnutating movement of the whole end of the radicle. if the surface is compact, and cannot easily be penetrated, then [page ] the seed itself, unless it be a heavy one, is displaced or lifted up by the continued growth and elongation of the radicle. but in a state of nature seeds often get covered with earth or other matter, or fall into crevices, etc., and thus a point of resistance is afforded, and the tip can more easily penetrate the ground. but even with seeds lying loose on the surface there is another aid: a multitude of excessively fine hairs are emitted from the upper part of the radicle, and these attach themselves firmly to stones or other objects lying on the surface, and can do so even to glass; and thus the upper part is held down whilst the tip presses against and penetrates the ground. the attachment of the root-hairs is effected by the liquefaction of the outer surface of the cellulose walls, and by the subsequent setting hard of the liquefied matter. this curious process probably takes place, not for the sake of the attachment of the radicles to superficial objects, but in order that the hairs may be brought into the closest contact with the particles in the soil, by which means they can absorb the layer of water surrounding them, together with any dissolved matter. after the tip has penetrated the ground to a little depth, the increasing thickness of the radicle, together with the root-hairs, hold it securely in its place; and now the force exerted by the longitudinal growth of the radicle drives the tip deeper into the ground. this force, combined with that due to transverse growth, gives to the radicle the power of a wedge. even a growing root of moderate size, such as that of a seedling bean, can displace a weight of some pounds. it is not probable that the tip when buried in compact earth can actually circumnutate and thus aid its downward passage, but the circumnutating movement will facilitate the tip entering any lateral [page ] or oblique fissure in the earth, or a burrow made by an earth-worm or larva; and it is certain that roots often run down the old burrows of worms. the tip, however, in endeavouring to circumnutate, will continually press against the earth on all sides, and this can hardly fail to be of the highest importance to the plant; for we have seen that when little bits of card-like paper and of very thin paper were cemented on opposite sides of the tip, the whole growing part of the radicle was excited to bend away from the side bearing the card or more resisting substance, towards the side bearing the thin paper. we may therefore feel almost sure that when the tip encounters a stone or other obstacle in the ground, or even earth more compact on one side than the other, the root will bend away as much as it can from the obstacle or the more resisting earth, and will thus follow with unerring skill a line of least resistance. the tip is more sensitive to prolonged contact with an object than to gravitation when this acts obliquely on the radicle, and sometimes even when it acts in the most favourable direction at right angles to the radicle. the tip was excited by an attached bead of shellac weighing less than / th of a grain ( . mg.); it is therefore more sensitive than the most delicate tendril, namely, that of passiflora gracilis, which was barely acted on by a bit of wire weighing / th of a grain. but this degree of sensitiveness is as nothing compared with that of the glands of drosera, for these are excited by particles weighing only / of a grain. the sensitiveness of the tip cannot be accounted for by its being covered by a thinner layer of tissue than the other parts, for it is protected by the relatively thick root-cap. it is remarkable that although the radicle bends away, when one side of the tip is slightly touched [page ] with caustic, yet if the side be much cauterised the injury is too great, and the power of transmitting some influence to the adjoining parts causing them to bend, is lost. other analogous cases are known to occur. after a radicle has been deflected by some obstacle, geotropism directs the tip again to grow perpendicularly downwards; but geotropism is a feeble power, and here, as sachs has shown, another interesting adaptive movement comes into play; for radicles at a distance of a few millimeters from the tip are sensitive to prolonged contact in such a manner that they bend towards the touching object, instead of from it as occurs when an object touches one side of the tip. moreover, the curvature thus caused is abrupt; the pressed part alone bending. even slight pressure suffices, such as a bit of card cemented to one side. therefore a radicle, as it passes over the edge of any obstacle in the ground, will through the action of geotropism press against it; and this pressure will cause the radicle to endeavour to bend abruptly over the edge. it will thus recover as quickly as possible its normal downward course. radicles are also sensitive to air which contains more moisture on one side than the other, and they bend towards its source. it is therefore probable that they are in like manner sensitive to dampness in the soil. it was ascertained in several cases that this sensitiveness resides in the tip, which transmits an influence causing the adjoining upper part to bend in opposition to geotropism towards the moist object. we may therefore infer that roots will be deflected from their downward course towards any source of moisture in the soil. again, most or all radicles are slightly sensitive to light, and according to wiesner, generally bend a little [page ] from it. whether this can be of any service to them is very doubtful, but with seeds germinating on the surface it will slightly aid geotropism in directing the radicles to the ground.* we ascertained in one instance that such sensitiveness resided in the tip, and caused the adjoining parts to bend from the light. the sub-aërial roots observed by wiesner were all apheliotropic, and this, no doubt, is of use in bringing them into contact with trunks of trees or surfaces of rock, as is their habit. we thus see that with seedling plants the tip of the radicle is endowed with diverse kinds of sensitiveness; and that the tip directs the adjoining growing parts to bend to or from the exciting cause, according to the needs of the plant. the sides of the radicle are also sensitive to contact, but in a widely different manner. gravitation, though a less powerful cause of movement than the other above specified stimuli, is ever present; so that it ultimately prevails and determines the downward growth of the root. the primary radicle emits secondary ones which project sub-horizontally; and these were observed in one case to circumnutate. their tips are also sensitive to contact, and they are thus excited to bend away from any touching object; so that they resemble in these respects, as far as they were observed, the primary radicles. if displaced they resume, as sachs has shown, their original sub-horizontal position; and this apparently is due to diageotropism. the secondary radicles emit tertiary ones, but these, in the case of the bean, are not affected by gravitation; consequently they protrude in all directions. thus the general * dr. karl richter, who has especially attended to this subject ('k. akad. der wissenschaften in wien,' , p. ), states that apheliotropism does not aid radicles in penetrating the ground. [page ] arrangement of the three orders of roots is excellently adapted for searching the whole soil for nutriment. sachs has shown that if the tip of the primary radicle is cut off (and the tip will occasionally be gnawed off with seedlings in a state of nature) one of the secondary radicles grows perpendicularly downwards, in a manner which is analogous to the upward growth of a lateral shoot after the amputation of the leading shoot. we have seen with radicles of the bean that if the primary radicle is merely compressed instead of being cut off, so that an excess of sap is directed into the secondary radicles, their natural condition is disturbed and they grow downwards. other analogous facts have been given. as anything which disturbs the constitution is apt to lead to reversion, that is, to the resumption of a former character, it appears probable that when secondary radicles grow downwards or lateral shoots upwards, they revert to the primary manner of growth proper to radicles and shoots. with dicotyledonous seeds, after the protrusion of the radicle, the hypocotyl breaks through the seed-coats; but if the cotyledons are hypogean, it is the epicotyl which breaks forth. these organs are at first invariably arched, with the upper part bent back parallel to the lower; and they retain this form until they have risen above the ground. in some cases, however, it is the petioles of the cotyledons or of the first true leaves which break through the seed-coats as well as the ground, before any part of the stem protrudes; and then the petioles are almost invariably arched. we have met with only one exception, and that only a partial one, namely, with the petioles of the two first leaves of acanthus candelabrum. with delphinium nudicaule the petioles of the two cotyledons are com- [page ] pletely confluent, and they break through the ground as an arch; afterwards the petioles of the successively formed early leaves are arched, and they are thus enabled to break through the base of the confluent petioles of the cotyledons. in the case of megarrhiza, it is the plumule which breaks as an arch through the tube formed by the confluence of the cotyledon-petioles. with mature plants, the flower-stems and the leaves of some few species, and the rachis of several ferns, as they emerge separately from the ground, are likewise arched. the fact of so many different organs in plants of many kinds breaking through the ground under the form of an arch, shows that this must be in some manner highly important to them. according to haberlandt, the tender growing apex is thus saved from abrasion, and this is probably the true explanation. but as both legs of the arch grow, their power of breaking through the ground will be much increased as long as the tip remains within the seed-coats and has a point of support. in the case of monocotyledons the plumule or cotyledon is rarely arched, as far as we have seen; but this is the case with the leaf-like cotyledon of the onion; and the crown of the arch is here strengthened by a special protuberance. in the gramineae the summit of the straight, sheath-like cotyledon is developed into a hard sharp crest, which evidently serves for breaking through the earth. with dicotyledons the arching of the epicotyl or hypocotyl often appears as if it merely resulted from the manner in which the parts are packed within the seed; but it is doubtful whether this is the whole of the truth in any case, and it certainly was not so in several cases, in which the arching was seen to commence after the parts had wholly [page ] escaped from the seed-coats. as the arching occurred in whatever position the seeds were placed, it is no doubt due to temporarily increased growth of the nature of epinasty or hyponasty along one side of the part. as this habit of the hypocotyl to arch itself appears to be universal, it is probably of very ancient origin. it is therefore not surprising that it should be inherited, at least to some extent, by plants having hypogean cotyledons, in which the hypocotyl is only slightly developed and never protrudes above the ground, and in which the arching is of course now quite useless. this tendency explains, as we have seen, the curvature of the hypocotyl (and the consequent movement of the radicle) which was first observed by sachs, and which we have often had to refer to as sachs' curvature. the several foregoing arched organs are continually circumnutating, or endeavouring to circumnutate, even before they break through the ground. as soon as any part of the arch protrudes from the seed-coats it is acted upon by apogeotropism, and both the legs bend upwards as quickly as the surrounding earth will permit, until the arch stands vertically. by continued growth it then forcibly breaks through the ground; but as it is continually striving to circumnutate this will aid its emergence in some slight degree, for we know that a circumnutating hypocotyl can push away damp sand on all sides. as soon as the faintest ray of light reaches a seedling, heliotropism will guide it through any crack in the soil, or through an entangled mass of overlying vegetation; for apogeotropism by itself can direct the seedling only blindly upwards. hence probably it is that sensitiveness to light resides in the tip of the cotyledons of the gramineae, and in [page ] the upper part of the hypocotyls of at least some plants. as the arch grows upwards the cotyledons are dragged out of the ground. the seed-coats are either left behind buried, or are retained for a time still enclosing the cotyledons. these are afterwards cast off merely by the swelling of the cotyledons. but with most of the cucurbitaceae there is a curious special contrivance for bursting the seed-coats whilst beneath the ground, namely, a peg at the base of the hypocotyl, projecting at right angles, which holds down the lower half of the seed-coats, whilst the growth of the arched part of the hypocotyl lifts up the upper half, and thus splits them in twain. a somewhat analogous structure occurs in mimosa pudica and some other plants. before the cotyledons are fully expanded and have diverged, the hypocotyl generally straightens itself by increased growth along the concave side, thus reversing the process which caused the arching. ultimately not a trace of the former curvature is left, except in the case of the leaf-like cotyledons of the onion. the cotyledons can now assume the function of leaves, and decompose carbonic acid; they also yield up to other parts of the plant the nutriment which they often contain. when they contain a large stock of nutriment they generally remain buried beneath the ground, owing to the small development of the hypocotyl; and thus they have a better chance of escaping destruction by animals. from unknown causes, nutriment is sometimes stored in the hypocotyl or in the radicle, and then one of the cotyledons or both become rudimentary, of which several instances have been given. it is probable that the extraordinary manner of germination of megarrhiza californica, [page ] ipomoea leptophylla and pandurata, and of quercus virens, is connected with the burying of the tuber-like roots, which at an early age are stocked with nutriment; for in these plants it is the petioles of the cotyledons which first protrude from the seeds, and they are then merely tipped with a minute radicle and hypocotyl. these petioles bend down geotropically like a root and penetrate the ground, so that the true root, which afterwards becomes greatly enlarged, is buried at some little depth beneath the surface. gradations of structure are always interesting, and asa gray informs us that with ipomoea jalappa, which likewise forms huge tubers, the hypocotyl is still of considerable length, and the petioles of the cotyledons are only moderately elongated. but in addition to the advantage gained by the concealment of the nutritious matter stored within the tubers, the plumule, at least in the case of megarrhiza, is protected from the frosts of winter by being buried. with many dicotyledonous seedlings, as has lately been described by de vries, the contraction of the parenchyma of the upper part of the radicle drags the hypocotyl downwards into the earth; sometimes (it is said) until even the cotyledons are buried. the hypocotyl itself of some species contracts in a like manner. it is believed that this burying process serves to protect the seedlings against the frosts of winter. our imaginary seedling is now mature as a seedling, for its hypocotyl is straight and its cotyledons are fully expanded. in this state the upper part of the hypocotyl and the cotyledons continue for some time to circumnutate, generally to a wide extent relatively to the size of the parts, and at a rapid rate. but seedlings profit by this power of movement only when it is modified, especially by the action of light and [page ] gravitation; for they are thus enabled to move more rapidly and to a greater extent than can most mature plants. seedlings are subjected to a severe struggle for life, and it appears to be highly important to them that they should adapt themselves as quickly and as perfectly as possible to their conditions. hence also it is that they are so extremely sensitive to light and gravitation. the cotyledons of some few species are sensitive to a touch; but it is probable that this is only an indirect result of the foregoing kinds of sensitiveness, for there is no reason to believe that they profit by moving when touched. our seedling now throws up a stem bearing leaves, and often branches, all of which whilst young are continually circumnutating. if we look, for instance, at a great acacia tree, we may feel assured that every one of the innumerable growing shoots is constantly describing small ellipses; as is each petiole, sub-petiole, and leaflet. the latter, as well as ordinary leaves, generally move up and down in nearly the same vertical plane, so that they describe very narrow ellipses. the flower-peduncles are likewise continually circumnutating. if we could look beneath the ground, and our eyes had the power of a microscope, we should see the tip of each rootlet endeavouring to sweep small ellipses or circles, as far as the pressure of the surrounding earth permitted. all this astonishing amount of movement has been going on year after year since the time when, as a seedling, the tree first emerged from the ground. stems are sometimes developed into long runners or stolons. these circumnutate in a conspicuous manner, and are thus aided in passing between and over surrounding obstacles. but whether the circumnutating movement has been increased for this special purpose is doubtful. [page ] we have now to consider circumnutation in a modified form, as the source of several great classes of movement. the modification may be determined by innate causes, or by external agencies. under the first head we see leaves which, when first unfolded, stand in a vertical position, and gradually bend downwards as they grow older. we see flower-peduncles bending down after the flower has withered, and others rising up; or again, stems with their tips at first bowed downwards, so as to be hooked, afterwards straightening themselves; and many other such cases. these changes of position, which are due to epinasty or hyponasty, occur at certain periods of the life of the plant, and are independent of any external agency. they are effected not by a continuous upward or downward movement, but by a succession of small ellipses, or by zigzag lines,--that is, by a circumnutating movement which is preponderant in some one direction. again, climbing plants whilst young circumnutate in the ordinary manner, but as soon as the stem has grown to a certain height, which is different for different species, it elongates rapidly, and now the amplitude of the circumnutating movement is immensely increased, evidently to favour the stem catching hold of a support. the stem also circumnutates rather more equally to all sides than in the case of non-climbing plants. this is conspicuously the case with those tendrils which consist of modified leaves, as these sweep wide circles; whilst ordinary leaves usually circumnutate nearly in the same vertical plane. flower-peduncles when converted into tendrils have their circumnutating movement in like manner greatly increased. we now come to our second group of circumnu- [page ] tating movements--those modified through external agencies. the so-called sleep or nyctitropic movements of leaves are determined by the daily alternations of light and darkness. it is not the darkness which excites them to move, but the difference in the amount of light which they receive during the day and night; for with several species, if the leaves have not been brightly illuminated during the day, they do not sleep at night. they inherit, however, some tendency to move at the proper periods, independently of any change in the amount of light. the movements are in some cases extraordinarily complex, but as a full summary has been given in the chapter devoted to this subject, we will here say but little on this head. leaves and cotyledons assume their nocturnal position by two means, by the aid of pulvini and without such aid. in the former case the movement continues as long as the leaf or cotyledon remains in full health; whilst in the latter case it continues only whilst the part is growing. cotyledons appear to sleep in a larger proportional number of species than do leaves. in some species, the leaves sleep and not the cotyledons; in others, the cotyledons and not the leaves; or both may sleep, and yet assume widely different positions at night. although the nyctitropic movements of leaves and cotyledons are wonderfully diversified, and sometimes differ much in the species of the same genus, yet the blade is always placed in such a position at night, that its upper surface is exposed as little as possible to full radiation. we cannot doubt that this is the object gained by these movements; and it has been proved that leaves exposed to a clear sky, with their blades compelled to remain horizontal, suffered much more from the cold than others which were allowed to assume [page ] their proper vertical position. some curious facts have been given under this head, showing that horizontally extended leaves suffered more at night, when the air, which is not cooled by radiation, was prevented from freely circulating beneath their lower surfaces; and so it was, when the leaves were allowed to go to sleep on branches which had been rendered motionless. in some species the petioles rise up greatly at night, and the pinnae close together. the whole plant is thus rendered more compact, and a much smaller surface is exposed to radiation. that the various nyctitropic movements of leaves result from modified circumnutation has, we think, been clearly shown. in the simplest cases a leaf describes a single large ellipse during the h.; and the movement is so arranged that the blade stands vertically during the night, and reassumes its former position on the following morning. the course pursued differs from ordinary circumnutation only in its greater amplitude, and in its greater rapidity late in the evening and early on the following morning. unless this movement is admitted to be one of circumnutation, such leaves do not circumnutate at all, and this would be a monstrous anomaly. in other cases, leaves and cotyledons describe several vertical ellipses during the h.; and in the evening one of them is increased greatly in amplitude until the blade stands vertically either upwards or downwards. in this position it continues to circumnutate until the following morning, when it reassumes its former position. these movements, when a pulvinus is present, are often complicated by the rotation of the leaf or leaflet; and such rotation on a small scale occurs during ordinary circumnutation. the many diagrams showing the movements of sleeping and non-sleeping leaves and coty- [page ] ledons should be compared, and it will be seen that they are essentially alike. ordinary circumnutation is converted into a nyctitropic movement, firstly by an increase in its amplitude, but not to so great a degree as in the case of climbing plants, and secondly by its being rendered periodic in relation to the alternations of day and night. but there is frequently a distinct trace of periodicity in the circumnutating movements of non-sleeping leaves and cotyledons. the fact that nyctitropic movements occur in species distributed in many families throughout the whole vascular series, is intelligible, if they result from the modification of the universally present movement of circumnutation; otherwise the fact is inexplicable. in the seventh chapter we have given the case of a porlieria, the leaflets of which remained closed all day, as if asleep, when the plant was kept dry, apparently for the sake of checking evaporation. something of the same kind occurs with certain gramineae. at the close of this same chapter, a few observations were appended on what may be called the embryology of leaves. the leaves produced by young shoots on cut-down plants of melilotus taurica slept like those of a trifolium, whilst the leaves on the older branches on the same plants slept in a very different manner, proper to the genus; and from the reasons assigned we are tempted to look at this case as one of reversion to a former nyctitropic habit. so again with desmodium gyrans, the absence of small lateral leaflets on very young plants, makes us suspect that the immediate progenitor of this species did not possess lateral leaflets, and that their appearance in an almost rudimentary condition at a somewhat more advanced age is the result of reversion to a trifoliate predecessor. however this may be, the rapid circumnutating or [page ] gyrating movements of the little lateral leaflets, seem to be due proximately to the pulvinus, or organ of movement, not having been reduced nearly so much as the blade, during the successive modifications through which the species has passed. we now come to the highly important class of movements due to the action of a lateral light. when stems, leaves, or other organs are placed, so that one side is illuminated more brightly than the other, they bend towards the light. this heliotropic movement manifestly results from the modification of ordinary circumnutation; and every gradation between the two movements could be followed. when the light was dim, and only a very little brighter on one side than on the other, the movement consisted of a succession of ellipses, directed towards the light, each of which approached nearer to its source than the previous one. when the difference in the light on the two sides was somewhat greater, the ellipses were drawn out into a strongly-marked zigzag line, and when much greater the course became rectilinear. we have reason to believe that changes in the turgescence of the cells is the proximate cause of the movement of circumnutation; and it appears that when a plant is unequally illuminated on the two sides, the always changing turgescence is augmented along one side, and is weakened or quite arrested along the other sides. increased turgescence is commonly followed by increased growth, so that a plant which has bent itself towards the light during the day would be fixed in this position were it not for apogeotropism acting during the night. but parts provided with pulvini bend, as pfeffer has shown, towards the light; and here growth does not come into play any more than in the ordinary circumnutating movements of pulvini. [page ] heliotropism prevails widely throughout the vegetable kingdom, but whenever, from the changed habits of life of any plant, such movements become injurious or useless, the tendency is easily eliminated, as we see with climbing and insectivorous plants. apheliotropic movements are comparatively rare in a well-marked degree, excepting with sub-aërial roots. in the two cases investigated by us, the movement certainly consisted of modified circumnutation. the position which leaves and cotyledons occupy during the day, namely, more or less transversely to the direction of the light, is due, according to frank, to what we call diaheliotropism. as all leaves and cotyledons are continually circumnutating, there can hardly be a doubt that diaheliotropism results from modified circumnutation. from the fact of leaves and cotyledons frequently rising a little in the evening, it appears as if diaheliotropism had to conquer during the middle of the day a widely prevalent tendency to apogeotropism. lastly, the leaflets and cotyledons of some plants are known to be injured by too much light; and when the sun shines brightly on them, they move upwards or downwards, or twist laterally, so that they direct their edges towards the light, and thus they escape being injured. these paraheliotropic movements certainly consisted in one case of modified circumnutation; and so it probably is in all cases, for the leaves of all the species described circumnutate in a conspicuous manner. this movement has hitherto been observed only with leaflets provided with pulvini, in which the increased turgescence on opposite sides is not followed by growth; and we can understand why this should be so, as the movement is required only for a temporary purpose. it would manifestly be dis- [page ] advantageous for the leaf to be fixed by growth in its inclined position. for it has to assume its former horizontal position, as soon as possible after the sun has ceased shining too brightly on it. the extreme sensitiveness of certain seedlings to light, as shown in our ninth chapter, is highly remarkable. the cotyledons of phalaris became curved towards a distant lamp, which emitted so little light, that a pencil held vertically close to the plants, did not cast any shadow which the eye could perceive on a white card. these cotyledons, therefore, were affected by a difference in the amount of light on their two sides, which the eye could not distinguish. the degree of their curvature within a given time towards a lateral light did not correspond at all strictly with the amount of light which they received; the light not being at any time in excess. they continued for nearly half an hour to bend towards a lateral light, after it had been extinguished. they bend with remarkable precision towards it, and this depends on the illumination of one whole side, or on the obscuration of the whole opposite side. the difference in the amount of light which plants at any time receive in comparison with what they have shortly before received, seems in all cases to be the chief exciting cause of those movements which are influenced by light. thus seedlings brought out of darkness bend towards a dim lateral light, sooner than others which had previously been exposed to daylight. we have seen several analogous cases with the nyctitropic movements of leaves. a striking instance was observed in the case of the periodic movements of the cotyledons of a cassia; in the morning a pot was placed in an obscure part of a room, and all the cotyledons rose up closed; another pot had stood in the sunlight, and [page ] the cotyledons of course remained expanded; both pots were now placed close together in the middle of the room, and the cotyledons which had been exposed to the sun, immediately began to close, while the others opened; so that the cotyledons in the two pots moved in exactly opposite directions whilst exposed to the same degree of light. we found that if seedlings, kept in a dark place, were laterally illuminated by a small wax taper for only two or three minutes at intervals of about three-quarters of an hour, they all became bowed to the point where the taper had been held. we felt much surprised at this fact, and until we had read wiesner's observations, we attributed it to the after-effects of the light; but he has shown that the same degree of curvature in a plant may be induced in the course of an hour by several interrupted illuminations lasting altogether for m., as by a continuous illumination of m. we believe that this case, as well as our own, may be explained by the excitement from light being due not so much to its actual amount, as to the difference in amount from that previously received; and in our case there were repeated alternations from complete darkness to light. in this, and in several of the above specified respects, light seems to act on the tissues of plants, almost in the same manner as it does on the nervous system of animals. there is a much more striking analogy of the same kind, in the sensitiveness to light being localised in the tips of the cotyledons of phalaris and avena, and in the upper part of the hypocotyls of brassica and beta; and in the transmission of some influence from these upper to the lower parts, causing the latter to bend towards the light. this influence is also trans- [page ] mitted beneath the soil to a depth where no light enters. it follows from this localisation, that the lower parts of the cotyledons of phalaris, etc., which normally become more bent towards a lateral light than the upper parts, may be brightly illuminated during many hours, and will not bend in the least, if all light be excluded from the tip. it is an interesting experiment to place caps over the tips of the cotyledons of phalaris, and to allow a very little light to enter through minute orifices on one side of the caps, for the lower part of the cotyledons will then bend to this side, and not to the side which has been brightly illuminated during the whole time. in the case of the radicles of sinapis alba, sensitiveness to light also resides in the tip, which, when laterally illuminated, causes the adjoining part of the root to bend apheliotropically. gravitation excites plants to bend away from the centre of the earth, or towards it, or to place themselves in a transverse position with respect to it. although it is impossible to modify in any direct manner the attraction of gravity, yet its influence could be moderated indirectly, in the several ways described in the tenth chapter; and under such circumstances the same kind of evidence as that given in the chapter on heliotropism, showed in the plainest manner that apogeotropic and geotropic, and probably diageotropic movements, are all modified forms of circumnutation. different parts of the same plant and different species are affected by gravitation in widely different degrees and manners. some plants and organs exhibit hardly a trace of its action. young seedlings which, as we know, circumnutate rapidly, are eminently sensitive; and we have seen the hypocotyl of beta bending [page ] upwards through o in h. m. the after-effects of apogeotropism last for above half an hour; and horizontally-laid hypocotyls are sometimes thus carried temporarily beyond an upright position. the benefits derived from geotropism, apogeotropism, and diageotropism, are generally so manifest that they need not be specified. with the flower-peduncles of oxalis, epinasty causes them to bend down, so that the ripening pods may be protected by the calyx from the rain. afterwards they are carried upwards by apogeotropism in combination with hyponasty, and are thus enabled to scatter their seeds over a wider space. the capsules and flower-heads of some plants are bowed downwards through geotropism, and they then bury themselves in the earth for the protection and slow maturation of the seeds. this burying process is much facilitated by the rocking movement due to circumnutation. in the case of the radicles of several, probably of all seedling plants, sensitiveness to gravitation is confined to the tip, which transmits an influence to the adjoining upper part, causing it to bend towards the centre of the earth. that there is transmission of this kind was proved in an interesting manner when horizontally extended radicles of the bean were exposed to the attraction of gravity for or ½ h., and their tips were then amputated. within this time no trace of curvature was exhibited, and the radicles were now placed pointing vertically downwards; but an influence had already been transmitted from the tip to the adjoining part, for it soon became bent to one side, in the same manner as would have occurred had the radicle remained horizontal and been still acted on by geotropism. radicles thus treated continued to grow out horizontally for two or three days, until a new tip was [page ] re-formed; and this was then acted on by geotropism, and the radicle became curved perpendicularly downwards. it has now been shown that the following important classes of movement all arise from modified circumnutation, which is omnipresent whilst growth lasts, and after growth has ceased, whenever pulvini are present. these classes of movement consist of those due to epinasty and hyponasty,--those proper to climbing plants, commonly called revolving nutation,--the nyctitropic or sleep movements of leaves and cotyledons,--and the two immense classes of movement excited by light and gravitation. when we speak of modified circumnutation we mean that light, or the alternations of light and darkness, gravitation, slight pressure or other irritants, and certain innate or constitutional states of the plant, do not directly cause the movement; they merely lead to a temporary increase or diminution of those spontaneous changes in the turgescence of the cells which are already in progress. in what manner, light, gravitation, etc., act on the cells is not known; and we will here only remark that, if any stimulus affected the cells in such a manner as to cause some slight tendency in the affected part to bend in a beneficial manner, this tendency might easily be increased through the preservation of the more sensitive individuals. but if such bending were injurious, the tendency would be eliminated unless it was overpoweringly strong; for we know how commonly all characters in all organisms vary. nor can we see any reason to doubt, that after the complete elimination of a tendency to bend in some one direction under a certain stimulus, the power to bend in a directly [page ] opposite direction might gradually be acquired through natural selection.* although so many movements have arisen through modified circumnutation, there are others which appear to have had a quite independent origin; but they do not form such large and important classes. when a leaf of a mimosa is touched it suddenly assumes the same position as when asleep, but brucke has shown that this movement results from a different state of turgescence in the cells from that which occurs during sleep; and as sleep-movements are certainly due to modified circumnutation, those from a touch can hardly be thus due. the back of a leaf of drosera rotundifolia was cemented to the summit of a stick driven into the ground, so that it could not move in the least, and a tentacle was observed during many hours under the microscope; but it exhibited no circumnutating movement, yet after being momentarily touched with a bit of raw meat, its basal part began to curve in seconds. this curving movement therefore could not have resulted from modified circumnutation. but when a small object, such as a fragment of a bristle, was placed on one side of the tip of a radicle, which we know is continually circumnutating, the induced curvature was so similar to the movement caused by geotropism, that we can hardly doubt that it is due to modified circumnutation. a flower of a mahonia was cemented to a stick, and the stamens exhibited no signs of circumnutation under the microscope, yet when they were lightly touched they suddenly moved towards the pistil. lastly, the curling of the extremity of a tendril when * see the remarks in frank's 'die wagerechte richtung von pflanzentheilen' ( , pp. , , etc.), on natural selection in connection with geotropism, heliotropism, etc. [page ] touched seems to be independent of its revolving or circumnutating movement. this is best shown by the part which is the most sensitive to contact, circumnutating much less than the lower parts, or apparently not at all.* although in these cases we have no reason to believe that the movement depends on modified circumnutation, as with the several classes of movement described in this volume, yet the difference between the two sets of cases may not be so great as it at first appears. in the one set, an irritant causes an increase or diminution in the turgescence of the cells, which are already in a state of change; whilst in the other set, the irritant first starts a similar change in their state of turgescence. why a touch, slight pressure or any other irritant, such as electricity, heat, or the absorption of animal matter, should modify the turgescence of the affected cells in such a manner as to cause movement, we do not know. but a touch acts in this manner so often, and on such widely distinct plants, that the tendency seems to be a very general one; and if beneficial, it might be increased to any extent. in other cases, a touch produces a very different effect, as with nitella, in which the protoplasm may be seen to recede from the walls of the cell; in lactuca, in which a milky fluid exudes; and in the tendrils of certain vitaceae, cucurbitaceae, and bignoniaceae, in which slight pressure causes a cellular outgrowth. finally it is impossible not to be struck with the resemblance between the foregoing movements of plants and many of the actions performed unconsciously by the lower animals.** with plants an * for the evidence on this head, see the 'movements and habits of climbing plants,' , pp. , . ** sachs remarks to nearly the same effect: "dass sich die le- [[page ]] bende pflanzensubstanz derart innerlich differenzirt, dass einzelne theile mit specifischen energien ausgerüstet sind, ähnlich, wie die verschiedenen sinnesnerven des thiere" ('arbeiten des bot. inst. in würzburg,' bd. ii. , p. ). [page ] astonishingly small stimulus suffices; and even with allied plants one may be highly sensitive to the slightest continued pressure, and another highly sensitive to a slight momentary touch. the habit of moving at certain periods is inherited both by plants and animals; and several other points of similitude have been specified. but the most striking resemblance is the localisation of their sensitiveness, and the transmission of an influence from the excited part to another which consequently moves. yet plants do not of course possess nerves or a central nervous system; and we may infer that with animals such structures serve only for the more perfect transmission of impressions, and for the more complete intercommunication of the several parts. we believe that there is no structure in plants more wonderful, as far as its functions are concerned, than the tip of the radicle. if the tip be lightly pressed or burnt or cut, it transmits an influence to the upper adjoining part, causing it to bend away from the affected side; and, what is more surprising, the tip can distinguish between a slightly harder and softer object, by which it is simultaneously pressed on opposite sides. if, however, the radicle is pressed by a similar object a little above the tip, the pressed part does not transmit any influence to the more distant parts, but bends abruptly towards the object. if the tip perceives the air to be moister on one side than on the other, it likewise transmits an influence to the upper adjoining part, which bends towards the source of moisture. when the tip is excited by light (though [page ] in the case of radicles this was ascertained in only a single instance) the adjoining part bends from the light; but when excited by gravitation the same part bends towards the centre of gravity. in almost every case we can clearly perceive the final purpose or advantage of the several movements. two, or perhaps more, of the exciting causes often act simultaneously on the tip, and one conquers the other, no doubt in accordance with its importance for the life of the plant. the course pursued by the radicle in penetrating the ground must be determined by the tip; hence it has acquired such diverse kinds of sensitiveness. it is hardly an exaggeration to say that the tip of the radicle thus endowed, and having the power of directing the movements of the adjoining parts, acts like the brain of one of the lower animals; the brain being seated within the anterior end of the body, receiving impressions from the sense-organs, and directing the several movements. [page ] index. abies--amphicarpoea. a. abies communis, effect of killing or injuring the leading shoot, -- pectinata, effect of killing or injuring the leading shoot, --, affected by aecidium elatinum, abronia umbellata, its single, developed cotyledon, --, rudimentary cotyledon, --, rupture of the seed coats, abutilon darwinii, sleep of leaves and not of cotyledons, --, nocturnal movement of leaves, acacia farnesiana, state of plant when awake and asleep, , --, appearance at night, --, nyctitropic movements of pinnae, --, the axes of the ellipses, -- lophantha, character of first leaf, -- retinoides, circumnutation of young phyllode, acanthosicyos horrida, nocturnal movement of cotyledon acanthus candelabrum, inequality in the two first leaves, --, petioles not arched, -- latifolius, variability in first leaves -- mollis, seedling, manner of breaking through the ground, , --, circumnutation of young leaf, , -- spinosus, --, movement of leaves, adenanthera pavonia, nyctitropic movements of leaflets, aecidium elatinum, effect on the lateral branches of the silver fir, aesculus hippocastanum, movements of radicle, , --, sensitiveness of apex of radicle, - albizzia lophantha, nyctitropic movements of leaflets, --, of pinnae, allium cepa, conical protuberance on arched cotyledon, --, circumnutation of basal half of arched cotyledon, --, mode of breaking through ground, --, straightening process, -- porrum, movements of flower-stems, alopecurus pratensis, joints affected by apogeotropism, aloysia citriodora, circumnutation of stem, amaranthus, sleep of leaves, -- caudatus, nocturnal movement of cotyledons, amorpha fruticosa, sleep of leaflets, ampelopsis tricuspidata, hyponastic movement of hooked tips, - amphicarpoea monoica, circumnutation and nyctitropic movements of leaves, --, effect of sunshine on leaflets, --, geotropic movements of, [page ] anoda--brassica anoda wrightii, sleep of cotyledons, , --, of leaves, --, downward movement of cotyledons, apheliotropism, or negative heliotropism, , , apios graveolens, heliotropic movements of hypocotyl, - -- tuberosa, vertical sinking of leaflets at night, apium graveolens, sleep of cotyledons, --, petroselinum, sleep of cotyledons, apogeotropic movements effected by joints or pulvini, apogeotropism, , ; retarded by heliotropism, ; concluding remarks on, arachis hypogoea, circumnutation of gynophore, --, effects of radiation on leaves, , --, movements of leaves, -- rate of movement, --, circumnutation of vertically dependent young gynophores, --, downward movement of the same, arching of various organs, importance of, to seedling plants, , ; emergence of hypocotyls or epicotyls in the form of an, asparagus officinalis, circumnutation of plumules, - . --, effect of lateral light, asplenium trichomanes, movement in the fruiting fronds, , n. astragalus uliginosus, movement of leaflets, avena sativa, movement of cotyledons, , . --, sensitiveness of tip of radicle to moist air, --, heliotropic movement and circumnutation of cotyledon, , --, sensitiveness of cotyledon to a lateral light, --, young sheath-like cotyledons strongly apogeotropic, avena sativa, movements of oldish cotyledons, , averrhoa bilimbi, leaf asleep, --, angular movements when going to sleep, - --, leaflets exposed to bright sunshine, azalea indica, circumnutation of stem, b. bary, de, on the effect of the aecidium on the silver fir, batalin, prof., on the nyctitropic movements of leaves, ; on the sleep of leaves of sida napoea, ; on polygonum aviculare, ; on the effect of sunshine on leaflets of oxalis acetosella, bauhinia, nyctitropic movements, --, movements of petioles of young seedlings, --, appearance of young plants at night, beta vulgaris, circumnutation of hypocotyl of seedlings, --, movements of cotyledons, , --, effect of light, --, nocturnal movement of cotyledons, --, heliotropic movements of, --, transmitted effect of light on hypocotyl, --, apogeotropic movement of hypocotyl, bignonia capreolata, apheliotropic movement of tendrils, , bouché on melaleuca ericaefolia, brassica napus, circumnutation of flower-stems, brassica oleracea, circumnutation of seedling, --, of radicle, --, geotropic movement of radicle, [page ] brassica oleracea, movement of buried and arched hypocotyl, , , --, conjoint circumnutation of hypocotyl and cotyledons, , , --, of hypocotyl in darkness, --, of a cotyledon with hypocotyl secured to a stick, , --, rate of movement, --, ellipses described by hypocotyls when erect, --, movements of cotyledons, --, -- of stem, --, -- of leaves at night, , --, sleep of cotyledons, --, circumnutation of hypocotyl of seedling plant, --, heliotropic movement and circumnutation of hypocotyls, --, effect of lateral light on hypocotyls, - --, apogeotropic movement of hypocotyls, , brassica rapa, movements of leaves, brongniart, a., on the sleep of strephium floribundum, bruce, dr., on the sleep of leaves in averrhoa, bryophyllum (vel calanchoe) calycinum, movement of leaves, c. camellia japonica, circumnutation of leaf, , candolle, a. de, on trapa natans, ; on sensitiveness of cotyledons, canna warscewiczii, circumnutation of plumules, , --, of leaf, cannabis sativa, movements of leaves, --, nocturnal movements of cotyledons, cannabis sativa, sinking of the young leaves at night, cassia, nyctitropic movement of leaves, cassia barclayana, nocturnal movement of leaves, --, slight movement of leaflets, -- calliantha, uninjured by exposure at night, , n. --, nyctitropic movement of leaves, -- circumnutating movement of leaves, -- corymbosa, cotyledons sensitive to contact, --, nyctitropic movement of leaves, -- floribunda, use of sleep movements, --, effect of radiation on the leaves at night, --, circumnutating and nyctitropic movement of a terminal leaflet, , --, movements of young and older leaves, -- florida, cotyledons sensitive to contact, --, sleep of cotyledons, -- glauca, cotyledons sensitive to contact, --, sleep of cotyledons, -- laevigata, effect of radiation on leaves, , n. -- mimosoides, movement of cotyledons. --, sensitiveness of, --, sleep of, --, nyctitropic movement of leaves, --, effect of bright sunshine on cotyledons, -- neglecta, movements of, --, effect of light, --, sensitiveness of cotyledons, -- nodosa, non-sensitive cotyledons, --, do not rise at night, -- pubescens, non-sensitive cotyledons, [page ] cassia--crinum cassia pubescens, uninjured by exposure at night, --, sleep of cotyledons, --, nyctitropic movement of leaves, --, circumnutating movement of leaves, --, nyctitropic movement of petioles, --, diameter of plant at night, -- sp. (?) movement of cotyledons, -- tora, circumnutation of cotyledons and hypocotyls, , , , --, effect of light, , --, sensitiveness to contact, --, heliotropic movement and circumnutation of hypocotyl, --, hypocotyl of seedling slightly heliotropic, --, apogeotropic movement of old hypocotyl, --, movement of hypocotyl of young seedling, caustic (nitrate of silver), effect of, on radicle of bean, , ; on the common pea, . cells, table of the measurement of, in the pulvini of oxalis corniculata, ; changes in, centrosema, ceratophyllum demersum, movements of stem, cereus landbeckii, its rudimentary cotyledons, -- speciossimus, circumnutation of stem, , cerinthe major, circumnutation of hypocotyl, --, of cotyledons, --, ellipses described by hypocotyls when erect, -- effect of darkness, chatin, m., on pinus nordmanniana, chenopodium album, sleep of leaves but not of cotyledons, , chenopodium album, movement of leaves, chlorophyll injured by bright light, ciesielski, on the sensitiveness of the tip of the radicles, , circumnutation, meaning explained, ; modified, - ; and heliotropism, relation between, ; of paramount importance to every plant, cissus discolor, circumnutation of leaf, citrus aurantium, circumnutation of epicotyl, --, unequal cotyledons, clianthus dampieri, nocturnal movement of leaves, coboea scandens, circumnutation of, cohn, on the water secreted by lathraea squamaria, , n.; on the movement of leaflets of oxalis, colutea arborea, nocturnal movement of leaflets, coniferae, circumnutation of, coronilla rosea, leaflets asleep, corylus avellana, circumnutation of young shoot, emitted from the epicotyl, , --, arched epicotyl, cotyledon umbilicus, circumnutation of stolons, , cotyledons, rudimentary, - ; circumnutation of, - ; nocturnal movements, , ; pulvini or joints of, - ; disturbed periodic movements by light, ; sensitiveness of, to contact, ; nyctitropic movements of, , ; list of cotyledons which rise or sink at night, ; concluding remarks on their movements, crambe maritima, circumnutation of leaves, , crinum capense, shape of leaves, [page ] crinum--desmodium crinum capense, circumnutation of, crotolaria (sp.?), sleep of leaves, cryptogams, circumnutation of, - cucumis dudaim, movement of cotyledons, , --, sleep of cotyledons, cucurbita aurantia, movement of hypocotyl, --, cotyledons vertical at night, --, ovifera, geotropic movement of radicle, , --, circumnutation of arched hypocotyl, --, of straight and vertical hypocotyl, --, movements of cotyledons, , , , --, position of radicle, --, rupture of the seed-coats, --, circumnutation of hypocotyl when erect, , --, sensitiveness of apex of radicle, - --, cotyledons vertical at night, --, not affected by apogeotropism, --, tips cauterised transversely, curvature of the radicle, cycas pectinata, circumnutation of young leaf, whilst emerging from the ground, --, first leaf arched, --, circumnutation of terminal leaflets, cyclamen persicum, movement of cotyledon, --, undeveloped cotyledons, , --, circumnutation of peduncle, --, --, of leaf, , --, downward apheliotropic movement of a flower-peduncle, - cyclamen persicum, burying of the pods, cyperus alternifolius, circumnutation of stem, --, movement of stem, cytisus fragrans, circumnutation of hypocotyl, --, sleep of leaves, , --, apogeotropic movement of stem, - d. dahlia, circumnutation of young leaves, - dalea alopecuroides, leaflets depressed at night, darkness, effect of, on the movement of leaves, darlingtonia californica, its leaves or pitchers apheliotropic, , n. darwin, charles, on maurandia semperflorens, ; on the swedish turnip, , n.; movements of climbing plants, , ; the heliotropic movement of the tendrils of bignonia capreolata, ; revolution of climbing plants, ; on the curling of a tendril, --, erasmus, on the peduncles of cyclamens, --, francis, on the radicle of sinapis alba, ; on hygroscopic seeds, , n. datura stramonium, nocturnal movement of cotyledons, delpino, on cotyledons of chaerophyllum and corydalis, , n. delphinium nudicaule, mode of breaking through the ground, --, confluent petioles of two cotyledons, desmodium gyrans, movement of leaflets, , n. --, position of leaves at night, --, sleep of leaves, not of cotyledons, --, circumnutation and nycti- [page ] desmodium--eucalyptus tropic movement of leaves, - desmodium gyrans, movement of lateral leaflets, --, jerking of leaflets, -- nyctitropic movement of petioles, , --, diameter of plant at night, --, lateral movement of leaves, --, zigzag movement of apex of leaf, --, shape of lateral leaflet, --, vespertilionis, , n. deutzia gracilis, circumnutation of stem, diageotropism, ; or transverse-geotropism, diaheliotropism, ; or transversal-heliotropismus of frank, ; influenced by epinasty, ; by weight and apogeotropism, dianthus caryophyllus, --, circumnutation of young leaf, , dicotyledons, circumnutation widely spread among, dionoea, oscillatory movements of leaves, , dionoea muscipula, circumnutation of young expanding leaf, , --, closure of the lobes and circumnutation of a full-grown leaf, --, oscillations of, - diurnal sleep, drosera capensis, structure of first-formed leaves, -- rotundifolia, movement of young leaf, , --, of the tentacles, --, sensitiveness of tentacles, --, shape of leaves, --, leaves not heliotropic, --, leaves circumnutate largely, --, sensitiveness of duchartre on trephrosia cariboea, ; on the nyctitropic movement of the cassia, duval-jouve, on the movements of bryophyllum calycinum, ; of the narrow leaves of the gramineae, dyer, mr. thiselton, on the leaves of crotolaria, ; on cassia floribunda, , n., on the absorbent hairs on the buried flower-heads of trifolium subterraneum, e. echeveria stolonifera, circumnutation of leaf, echinocactus viridescens, its rudimentary cotyledons, echinocystis lobata, movements of tendrils, --, apogeotropism of tendrils, elfving, f., on the rhizomes of sparganium ramosum, ; on the diageotropic movement in the rhizomes of some plants, elymus arenareus, leaves closed during the day, embryology of leaves, engelmann, dr., on the quercus virens, epinasty, , epicotyl, or plumule, ; manner of breaking through the ground, ; emerges from the ground under the form of an arch, erythrina caffra, sleep of leaves, -- corallodendron, movement of terminal leaflet, -- crista-galli, effect of temperature on sleep of leaves, --, circumnutation and nyctitropic movement of terminal leaflets, eucalyptus resinifera, circumnutation of leaves, [page ] euphorbia--gymnosperms euphorbia jacquineaeflora, nyctitropic movement of leaves, f. flahault, m., on the rupture of seed-coats, - , flower-stems, circumnutation of, - fragaria rosacea, circumnutation of stolon, - frank, dr. a. b., the terms heliotropism and geotropism, first used by him, , n.; radicles acted on by geotropism, , n.; on the stolons of fragaria, ; periodic and nyctitropic movements of leaves, ; on the root-leaves of plants kept in darkness, ; on pulvini, ; on natural selection in connection with geotropism, heliotropism, etc., --, on transversal-heliotropismus, fuchsia, circumnutation of stem, , g. gazania ringens, circumnutation of stem, genera containing sleeping plants, , geotropism, ; effect of, on the primary radicle, ; the reverse of apogeotropism, : effect on the tips of radicles, geranium cinereum, -- endressii, -- ibericum, nocturnal movement of cotyledons, -- richardsoni, -- rotundifolium, nocturnal movement of cotyledon, , -- subcaulescens, germinating seed, history of a, githago segetum, circumnutation of hypocotyl, , --, burying of hypocotyl, --, seedlings feebly illuminated, , --, sleep of cotyledon, --, -- leaves glaucium luteum, circumnutation of young leaves, gleditschia, sleep of leaves, glycine hispida, vertical sinking of leaflets, glycyrrhiza, leaflets depressed at night, godlewski, emil, on the turgescence of the cells, gooseberry, effect of radiation, gossypium (var. nankin cotton), circumnutation of hypocotyl, --, movement of cotyledon, , --, sleep of leaves, --, arboreum (?), sleep of cotyledons, --, braziliense, nocturnal movement of leaves, --, sleep of cotyledons, -- herbaceum, sensitiveness of apex of radicle, --, radicles cauterised transversely, -- maritimum, nocturnal movement of leaves, gravitation, movements excited by, gray, asa, on delphinium nudicaule, ; on megarrhiza californica, ; on the movements in the fruiting fronds of aesplenium trichomanes, ; on the amphicarpoea monoica, ; on the ipomoea jalappa, grease, effect of, on radicles and their tips, , gressner, dr. h., on the cotyledons of cyclamen persicum, , ; on hypocotyl of the same, gymnosperms, [page ] haberlandt--ipomoea h. haberlandt, dr., on the protuberance on the hypocotyl of allium, ; the importance of the arch to seedling plants, ; sub-aërial and subterranean cotyledons, , n.; the arched hypocotyl, haematoxylon campechianum, nocturnal movement of leaves, , hedera helix, circumnutation of stem, hedysarum coronarium, nocturnal movements of leaves, helianthemum prostratum, geotropic movement of flower-heads, helianthus annuus, circumnutation of hypocotyl, --, arching of hypocotyl, --, nocturnal movement of cotyledons, heliotropism, ; uses of, ; a modified form of circumnutation, helleborus niger, mode of breaking through the ground, hensen, prof., on roots in worm-burrows, henslow, rev. g., on the cotyledons of phalaris canariensis, hofmeister, on the curious movement of spirogyra, , , n.; of the leaves of pistia stratiotes, ; of cotyledons at night, ; of petals, -- and batalin on the movements of the cabbage, hooker, sir j., on the effect of light on the pitchers of sarracenia, hypocotyl, ; manner of breaking through the ground, ; emerges under the form of an arch, hypocotyls and epicotyls, circumnutation and other movements when arched, ; power of straightening themselves, ; rupture of the seed-coats, - ; illustration of, ; circumnutation when erect, ; when in dark, hyponasty, , i. iberis umbellata, movement of stem, . illumination, effect of, on the sleep of leaves, imatophyllum vel clivia (sp.?), movement of leaves, indigofera tinctoria, leaflets depressed at night, inheritance in plants, , insectivorous and climbing plants not heliotropic, ; influence of light on, ipomoea bona nox, arching of hypocotyl, --, nocturnal position of cotyledons, , -- coerulea vel pharbitis nil, circumnutation of seedlings, --, movement of cotyledons, - , --, nocturnal movements of cotyledons, --, sleep of leaves, --, sensitiveness to light, --, the hypocotyledonous stems heliotropic, -- coccinea, position of cotyledons at night, , -- leptophylla, mode of breaking through the ground, , --, arching of the petioles of the cotyledons, --, difference in sensitiveness to gravitation in different parts, --, extraordinary manner of germination, [page ] ipomoea--lotus ipomoea pandurata, manner of germination, , -- purpurea (vel pharbitis hispida), nocturnal movement of cotyledons, , --, sleep of leaves, --, sensitiveness to light, --, the hypocotyledonous stems heliotropic, iris pseudo-acorus, circumnutation of leaves, irmisch, on cotyledons of ranunculus ficaria, ivy, its stems heliotropic, k. kerner on the bending down of peduncles, klinostat, the, an instrument devised by sachs to eliminate geotropism, kraus, dr. carl, on the underground shoots of triticum repens, ; on cannabis sativa, , , ; on the movements of leaves, l. lactuca scariola, sleep of cotyledons, lagenaria vulgaris, circumnutation of seedlings, --, of cotyledons, --, cotyledons vertical at night, lathraea squamaria, mode of breaking through the ground, --, quantity of water secreted, , , n. lathyrus nissolia, circumnutation of stem of young seedling, --, ellipses described by, , leaves, circumnutation of, - ; dicotyledons, - ; monocotyledons, - ; nyctitropism of, ; their temperature affected by their position at night, ; nyctitropic or sleep movements, , ; periodicity of their movements inherited, ; embryology of, ; so-called diurnal sleep, leguminosae, sleep of cotyledons, ; sleeping species, le maout and decaisne, lepidium sativum, sleep of cotyledons, light, movements excited by , ; influence on most vegetable tissues, ; acts on plant as on the nervous system of animals, lilium auratum, circumnutation of stem, --, apogeotropic movement of stem, , linnaeus, 'somnus plantarum', ; on plants sleeping, ; on the leaves of sida abutilon, ; on oenothera mollissima, linum berendieri, nocturnal movement of cotyledons, -- usitatissimum, circumnutation of stem, lolium perenne, joints affected by apogeotropism, lonicera brachypoda, hooking of the tip, --, sensitiveness to light, loomis, mr., on the movements in the fruiting fronds of asplenium trichomanes, lotus aristata, effect of radiation on leaves, -- creticus, leaves awake and asleep, -- gebelii, nocturnal movement of cotyledons, --, leaflets provided with pulvini, -- jacobaeus, movements of cotyledons, , --, pulvini of, [page ] lotus--melilotus lotus jacobaeus, movements at night, , , --, development of pulvini, --, sleep of cotyledons, , --, nyctitropic movement of leaves, -- major, sleep of leaves, -- perigrinus, movement of leaflets, lunularia vulgaris, circumnutation of fronds, lupinus, -- albifrons, sleep of leaves, -- hartwegii, sleep of leaves, -- luteus, circumnutation of cotyledons, , --, effect of darkness, lupinus, position of leaves when asleep, --, different positions of leaves at night, --, varied movements of leaves and leaflets, -- menziesii, sleep of leaves, -- mutabilis, sleep of leaves, -- nanus, sleep of leaves, -- pilosus, sleep of leaves, , -- polyphyllus, sleep of leaves, -- pubescens, sleep of leaves by day and night, --, position of petioles at night, --, movements of petioles, -- speciosus, circumnutation of leaves, lynch, mr. r., on pachira aquatica, , n.; sleep movements of averrhoa, m. maranta arundinacea, nyctitropic movement of leaves, - --, after much agitation do not sleep, marsilia quadrifoliata, effect of radiation at night, --, circumnutation and nyctitropic movement of leaflets, - --, rate of movement, martins, on radiation at night, , n. masters, dr. maxwell, on the leading shoots of the coniferae, maurandia semperflorens, circumnutation of peduncle, medicago maculata, nocturnal position of leaves, -- marina, leaves awake and asleep, meehan, mr., on the effect of an aecidium on portulaca oleracea, megarrhiza californica, mode of breaking through the ground, --, germination described by asa gray, --, singular manner of germination, , melaleuca ericaefolia, sleep of leaves, melilotus, sleep of leaves, -- alba, sleep of leaves, -- coerulea, sleep of leaves, -- dentata, effect of radiation at night, -- elegans, sleep of leaves, -- gracilis, sleep of leaves, -- infesta, sleep of leaves, -- italica, leaves exposed at night, --, sleep of leaves, -- macrorrhiza, leaves exposed at night, --, sleep of leaves, -- messanensis, sleep of leaves on full-grown and young plants, , -- officinalis, effect of exposure of leaves at night, , --, nocturnal movement of leaves, , --, circumnutation of leaves, --, movement of petioles, [page ] melilotus--neptunia melilotus parviflora, sleep of leaves, -- petitpierreana, leaves exposed at night, , --, sleep of leaves, -- secundiflora, sleep of leaves, -- suaveolens, leaves exposed at night, --, sleep of leaves, -- sulcata, sleep of leaves, -- taurica, leaves exposed at night, --, sleep of leaves, , methods of observation, mimosa albida, cotyledons vertical at night, --, not sensitive to contact, --, sleep of cotyledons, --, rudimentary leaflets, --, nyctitropic movements of leaves, , --, circumnutation of the main petiole of young leaf, --, torsion, or rotation of leaves and leaflets, --, first true leaf, --, effect of bright sunshine on basal leaflets, -- marginata, nyctitropic movements of leaflets, -- pudica, movement of cotyledons, --, rupture of the seed-coats, --, circumnutation of cotyledons, --, pulvini of, , --, cotyledons vertical at night, --, hardly sensitive to contact, --, effect of exposure at night, --, nocturnal movement of leaves, --, sleep of cotyledons, --, circumnutation and nyctitropic movement of main petiole, - --, of leaflets, mimosa albida, circumnutation and nyctitropic movement of pinnae, --, number of ellipses described in given time, --, effect of bright sunshine on leaflets, mirabilis jalapa and longiflora, nocturnal movements of cotyledons, --, nyctitropic movement of leaves, mohl, on heliotropism in tendrils, stems, and twining plants, momentum-like movement, the accumulated effects of apogeotropism, monocotyledons, sleep of leaves, monotropa hypopitys, mode of breaking through the ground, morren, on the movements of stamens of sparmannia and cereus, müller, fritz, on cassia tora, ; on the circumnutation of linum usitatissimum, ; movements of the flower-stems of an alisma, mutisia clematis, movement of leaves, --, leaves not heliotropic, n. natural selection in connection with geotropism, heliotropism, etc., nephrodium molle, circumnutation of very young frond, --, of older frond, --, slight movement of fronds, neptunia oleracea, sensitiveness to contact, --, nyctitropic movement of leaflets, --, of pinnae, [page ] nicotiana--oxalis nicotiana glauca, sleep of leaves, , --, circumnutation of leaves, nobbe, on the rupture of the seed-coats in a seedling of martynia, nolana prostrata, movement of seedlings in the dark, --, circumnutation of seedling, nyctitropic movement of leaves, nyctitropism, or sleep of leaves, ; in connection with radiation, ; object gained by it, o. observation, methods of, oenothera mollissima, sleep of leaves, opuntia basilaris, conjoint circumnutation of hypocotyl and cotyledon, --, thickening of the hypocotyl, --, circumnutation of hypocotyl when erect, --, burying of, orange, seedling, circumnutation of, orchis pyramidalis, complex movement of pollinia, oxalis acetosella, circumnutation of flower-stem, --, effects of exposure to radiation at night, , , --, circumnutation and nyctitropic movement in full-grown leaf, --, circumnutation of leaflet when asleep, --, rate of circumnutation of leaflets, --, effect of sunshine on leaflets, --, circumnutation of peduncle, oxalis acetosella, seed-capsules, only occasionally buried, -- articulata, nocturnal movements of cotyledons, -- (biophytum) sensitiva, rapidity of movement of cotyledons during the day, --, pulvinus of, --, cotyledons vertical at night, , -- bupleurifolia, circumnutation of foliaceous petiole, --, nyctitropic movement of terminal leaflet, -- carnosa, circumnutation of flower-stem, --, epinastic movements of flower-stem, --, effect of exposure at night, , --, movements of the flower-peduncles due to apogeotropism and other forces, - -- corniculata (var. cuprea), movements of cotyledons, --, rising of cotyledons, --, rudimentary pulvini of cotyledons, --, development of pulvinus, --, effect of dull light, --, experiments on leaves at night, -- floribunda, pulvinus of cotyledons, --, nocturnal movement, , , -- fragrans, sleep of leaves, -- ortegesii, circumnutation of flower-stems, --, sleep of large leaves, --, diameter of plant at night, --, large leaflets affected by bright sunshine, -- plumierii, sleep of leaves, -- purpurea, exposure of leaflets at night, -- rosea, circumnutation of cotyledons, , [page ] oxalis--phaseolus oxalis rosea, pulvinus of, --, movement of cotyledons at night, , , --, effect of dull light, --, non-sensitive cotyledons, -- sensitiva, movement of cotyledons, , , --, circumnutation of flower-stem, --, nocturnal movement of cotyledons, , --, sleep of leaves, -- tropoeoloides, movement of cotyledons at night, , -- valdiviana, conjoint circumnutation of cotyledons and hypocotyl, --, cotyledons rising vertically at night, , , , --, non-sensitive cotyledons, --, nocturnal movement of cotyledon, , --, sleep of leaves and not of cotyledons, --, movements of leaves, p. pachira aquatica, unequal cotyledons, , n. pancratium littorale, movement of leaves, paraheliotropism, or diurnal sleep of leaves, passiflora gracilis, circumnutation and nyctitropic movement of leaves, , --, apogeotropic movement of tendrils, --, sensitiveness of tendrils, pelargonium zonale, circumnutation of stem, --, and downward movement of young leaf, , , petioles, the rising of beneficial to plant at night, petunia violacea, downward movement and circumnutation of very young leaf, , , . pfeffer, prof., on the turgescence of the cells, ; on pulvini of leaves, , ; sleep movements of leaves, , , ; nocturnal rising of leaves of malva, ; movements of leaflets in desmodium gyrans, ; on phyllanthus niruri, ; influence of a pulvinus on leaves, ; periodic movements of sleeping leaves, , ; movements of petals, ; effect of bright sunshine on leaflets of robinia, ; effect of light on parts provided with pulvini, phalaris canariensis, movements of old seedlings, --, circumnutation of cotyledons, , , --, heliotropic movement and circumnutation of cotyledon towards a dim lateral light, --, sensitiveness of cotyledon to light, --, effect of exclusion of light from tips of cotyledons, --, manner of bending towards light, --, effects of painting with indian ink, --, transmitted effects of light, --, lateral illumination of tip, --, apogeotropic movement of the sheath-like cotyledons, --, change from a straight upward apogeotropic course to circumnutation, --, apogeotropic movement of cotyledons, phaseolus hernandesii, nocturnal movement of leaves and leaflets, --, caracalla, --, nocturnal movement of leaves, --, effect of bright sunshine on leaflets, [page ] phaseolus--quercus phaseolus multiflorus, movement of radicles, --, of young radicle, --, of hypocotyl, , --, sensitiveness of apex of radicle, - --, to moist air, --, cauterisation and grease on the tips, --, nocturnal movement of leaves, --, nyctitropic movement of the first unifoliate leaves, -- roxburghii, effect of bright sunshine on first leaves, --, vulgaris, --, sleep of leaves, --, vertical sinking of leaflets at night, phyllanthus niruri, sleep of leaflets, -- linoides, sleep of leaves, pilocereus houlletii, rudimentary cotyledons, pimelia spectabilis, sleep of leaves, pincers, wooden, through which the radicle of a bean was allowed to grow, pinus austriaca, circumnutation of leaves, , -- nordmanniana, nyctitropic movement of leaves, -- pinaster, circumnutation of hypocotyl, --, movement of two opposite cotyledons, --, circumnutation of young leaf, , --, epinastic downward movement of young leaf, pistia stratiotes, movement of leaves, pisum sativum, sensitiveness of apex of radicle, --, tips of radicles cauterised transversely, plants, sensitiveness to light, ; hygroscopic movements of, plants, climbing, circumnutation of, ; movements of, --, mature, circumnutation of, - pliny on the sleep-movements of plants, plumbago capensis, circumnutation of stem, , poinciana gilliesii, sleep of leaves, polygonum aviculare, leaves vertical at night, -- convolvulus, sinking of the leaves at night, pontederia (sp.?), circumnutation of leaves, porlieria hygrometrica, circumnutation and nyctitropic movements of petiole of leaf, , --, effect of watering, - --, leaflets closed during the day, portulaca oleracea, effect of aecidium on, primula sinensis, conjoint circumnutation of hypocotyl and cotyledon, , pringsheim on the injury to chlorophyll, prosopis, nyctitropic movements of leaflets, psoralea acaulis, nocturnal movements of leaflets, pteris aquilina, rachis of, pulvini, or joints; of cotyledons, - ; influence of, on the movements of cotyledons, ; effect on nyctitropic movements, q. quercus (american sp.), circumnutation of young stem, , -- robur, movement of radicles, , --, sensitiveness of apex of radicle, - [page ] quercus--sachs quercus virens, manner of germination, , r. radiation at night, effect of, on leaves, - radicles, manner in which they penetrate the ground, - ; circumnutation of ; experiments with split sticks, ; with wooden pincers, ; sensitiveness of apex to contact and other irritants, ; of vicia faba, - ; various experiments, - ; summary of results, - ; power of an irritant on, compared with geotropism, - ; sensitiveness of tip to moist air, ; with greased tips, ; effect of killing or injuring the primary radicle, - ; curvature of, ; affected by moisture, ; tip alone sensitive to geotropism, ; protrusion and circumnutation in a germinating seed, ; tip highly sensitive, ; the tip acts like the brain of one of the lower animals, --, secondary, sensitiveness of the tips in the bean, ; become vertically geotropic, - ramey on the movements of the cotyledons of mimosa pudica, and clianthus dampieri at night, ranunculus ficaria, mode of breaking through the ground, , --, single cotyledon, --, effect of lateral light, raphanus sativa, sensitiveness of apex of radicle, --, sleep of cotyledons, rattan, mr., on the germination of the seeds of megarrhiza californica, relation between circumnutation and heliotropism, reseda odorata, hypocotyl of seedling slightly heliotropic, reversion, due to mutilation, rhipsalis cassytha, rudimentary cotyledons, ricinus borboniensis, circumnutation of arched hypocotyl, robinia, effect of bright sunshine on its leaves, -- pseudo-acacia, leaflets vertical at night, rodier, m., on the movements of ceratophyllum demersum, royer, ch., on the sleep-movements of plants, , n.; on the sleep of leaves, ; the leaves of medicago maculata, ; on wistaria sinensis, rubus idaeus (hybrid) circumnutation of stem, --, apogeotropic movement of stem, ruiz and pavon, on porlieria hygrometrica, s. sachs on "revolving nutation," ; intimate connection between turgescence and growth, , n.; cotyledon of the onion, ; adaptation of root-hairs, ; the movement of the radicle, , , ; movement in the hypocotyls of the bean, etc., ; sensitiveness of radicles, , , ; sensitiveness of the primary radicle in the bean, ; in the common pea, ; effect of moist air, ; of killing or injuring the primary radicle, , ; circumnutation of flower-stems, ; epinasty, ; movements of leaflets of trifolium incarnatum, ; action of light in modifying the periodic movements of leaves, ; on geotropism and heliotropism, , n.; on tropaeolum majus, ; [page ] sarracenia--stapelia on the hypocotyls slightly heliotropic, and stems strongly apheliotropic of the ivy, ; heliotropism of radicles, ; experiments on tips of radicles of bean, , ; curvature of the hypocotyl, ; resemblance between plants and animals, sarracenia purpurea, circumnutation of young pitcher, saxifraga sarmentosa, circumn utation of an inclined stolon, schrankia aculeata, nyctitropic movement of the pinnae, , -- uncinata, nyctitropic movements of leaflets, securigera coronilla, nocturnal movements of leaflets, seed-capsules, burying of, seed-coats, rupture of, - seedling plants, circumnutating movements of, selaginella, circumnutation of -- kraussii (?), circumnutation of young plant, sida napoea, depression of leaves at night, --, no pulvinus, -- retusa, vertical rising of leaves, -- rhombifolia, sleep of cotyledons, --, sleep of leaves, --, vertical rising of leaves, --, no pulvinus, --, circumnutation and nyctitropic movements of leaf of young plant, --, nyctitropic movement of leaves, siegesbeckia orientalis, sleep of leaves, , sinapis alba, hypocotyl bending towards the light, --, transmitted effect of light on radicles, , , --, growth of radicles in darkness, sinapis nigra, sleep of cotyledons, smilax aspera, tendrils apheliotropic, smithia pfundii, non-sensitive cotyledons, --, hyponastic movement of the curved summit of the stem, - --, cotyledons not sleeping at night, --, vertical movement of leaves, -- sensitiva, sensitiveness of cotyledons to contact, --, sleep of cotyledons, sophora chrysophylla, leaflets rise at night, solanum dulcamara, circumnutating stems, -- lycopersicum, movement of hypocotyl, --, of cotyledons, --, effect of darkness, --, rising of cotyledons at night, --, heliotropic movements of hypocotyl, --, effect of an intermittent light, --, rapid heliotropism, -- palinacanthum, circumnutation of arched hypocotyl, , --, of cotyledon, --, ellipses described by hypocotyl when erect, --, nocturnal movement of cotyledons, sparganium ramosum, rhizomes of, sphaerophysa salsola, rising of leaflets, spirogyra princeps, movements of, , n. stahl, dr., on the effect of aecidium on shoot, ; on the influence of light on swarm-spores, , n. stapelia sarpedon, circumnutation of hypocotyl, , [page ] stapelia--triticum stapelia sarpedon, minute cotyledons, stellaria media, nocturnal movement of leaves, stems, circumnutation of, - stolons, or runners, circumnutation of, - , strasburger, on the effect of light on spores of haematococcus, , n.; the influence of light on the swarm-spores, . strawberry, stolons of the, circumnutate, but not affected by moderate light, strephium floribundum, circumnutation and nyctitropic movement of leaves, , t. tamarindus indica, nyctitropic movement of leaflets, transversal - heliotropismus (of frank) or diaheliotropism, trapa natans, unequal cotyledons, , n. tecoma radicans, stems apheliotropic, tephrosia caribaea, terminology, thalia dealbata, sleep of leaves, --, lateral movement of leaves, trichosanthes anguina, action of the peg on the radicle, --, nocturnal movement of cotyledons, trifolium, position of terminal leaflets at night, -- globosum, with hairs protecting the seed-bearing flowers, -- glomeratum, movement of cotyledons, -- incarnatum, movement of cotyledons, -- pannonicum, shape of first true leaf, , trifolium pratense, leaves exposed at night, -- repens, circumnutation of flower-stem, --, circumnutating and epinastic movements of flower-stem, - --, nyctitropic movement of leaves, --, circumnutation and nyctitropic movements of terminal leaflets, , --, sleep movements, -- resupinatum, no pulvini to cotyledons, --, circumnutation of stem, --, effect of exposure at night, --, cotyledons not rising at night, , --, circumnutation and nyctitropic movements of terminal leaflets, , -- strictum, movements of cotyledons at night, , --, nocturnal and diurnal movements of cotyledons, - , --, movement of the left-hand cotyledon, -- subterraneum, movement of flower-heads, --, of cotyledons at night, , , --, circumnutation of flower-stem, , --, circumnutation and nyctitropic movements of leaves, --, number of ellipses in hours, --, burying its flower-heads, , --, downward movement of peduncle, --, circumnutating movement of peduncle, trigonella cretica, sleep of leaves, triticum repens, underground shoots of, become apogeotropic, [page ] triticum--wilson triticum vulgare, sensitiveness of tips of radicle to moist air, tropaeolum majus (?), sensitiveness of apex of radicle to contact, --, circumnutation of stem, --, influence of illumination on nyctitropic movements, - , --, heliotropic movement and circumnutation of epicotyl of a young seedling, , --, of an old internode towards a lateral light, --, stems of very young plants highly heliotropic, of old plants slightly apheliotropic, --, effect of lateral light, -- minus (?), circumnutation of buried and arched epicotyl, u. ulex, or gorse, first-formed leaf of, uraria lagopus, vertical sinking of leaflets at night, v. vaucher, on the burying of the flower-heads of trifolium subterraneum, ; on the protection of seeds, verbena melindres (?), circumnutation of stem, --, apogeotropic movement of stem, vicia faba, circumnutation of radicle, , --, of epicotyl, - --, curvature of hypocotyl, --, sensitiveness of apex of radicle, - --, of the tips of secondary radicles, --, of the primary radicle above the apex, - --, various experiments, - --, summary of results, - --, power of an irritant on, compared with that of geotropism, - vicia faba, circumnutation of leaves, - --, circumnutation of terminal leaflet, --, effect of apogeotropism, --, effect of amputating the tips of radicles, --, regeneration of tips, --, short exposure to geotropic action, --, effects of amputating the tips obliquely, --, of cauterising the tips, --, of grease on the tips, vines, mr., on cell growth, vries, de, on turgescence, ; on epinasty and hyponasty, , , ; the protection of hypocotyls during winter, ; stolons apheliotropic, ; the nyctitropic movement of leaves, ; the position of leaves influenced by epinasty, their own weight and apogeotropism, ; apogeotropism in petioles and midribs, ; the stolons of strawberries, ; the joints or pulvini of the gramineae, w. watering, effect of, on porlieria hygrometrica, - wells, 'essay on dew,' , n. wiesner, prof., on the circumnutation of the hypocotyl, , ; on the hooked tip of climbing stems, ; observations on the effect of bright sunshine on chlorophyll in leaves, ; the effects of an intermittent light, ; on aërial roots, ; on special adaptations, wigandia, movement of leaves, williamson, prof., on leaves of drosera capensis, wilson, mr. a. s., on the movements of swedish turnip leaves, , winkler on the protection of seedlings, wistaria sinensis, leaflets depressed at night, --, circumnutation with lateral light, z. zea mays, circumnutation of cotyledon, zea mays, geotropic movement of radicles, --, sensitiveness of apex of radicle to contact, - --, secondary radicles, --, heliotropic movements of seedling, , --, tips of radicles cauterised, zukal, on the movements of spirulina, , n. the end. [transcriber's note: italicized text delimited by underscores (_). bold text delimited by equal signs (=).] [illustration: orange mariposa tulip--calochortus kennedyi.] field book of western wild flowers by margaret armstrong in collaboration with j. j. thornber, a.m. professor of botany in the university of arizona, and botanist of the arizona agricultural experiment station at tucson [illustration] with five hundred illustrations in black and white, and forty-eight plates in color drawn from nature by the author [illustration] c. p. putnam's sons the knickerbocker press new york and london copyright, by margaret armstrong the knickerbocker press, new york preface. in this little book a very large number of the commoner wild flowers growing in the united states, west of the rocky mountains, are pictured and described. it is the first attempt to supply a popular field book for the whole west. the field is vast, including within its limits all sorts of climate and soil, producing thousands of flowers, infinite in variety and wonderful in beauty, their environment often as different as that of heine's _pine and palm_. in such strange homes as the grand canyon and the petrified forest of arizona, or the deserts of utah and southern california, we find the oddest desert plants, forced to curious expedients in order to sustain life amidst almost perpetual heat and drought, but often displaying blossoms of such brilliance and delicacy that they might well be envied by their more fortunate sisters, flourishing beside shady waterfalls, in a "happy valley" like yosemite, or a splendid mountain garden, such as spreads in many-colored parterres of bloom around the feet of mt. rainier. on the wind-swept plains hundreds of flowers are to be found; many kinds of hardy plants brighten the salty margins of the sea cliffs, or bloom at the edge of the snow on rocky mountain peaks, while quantities of humble, everyday flowers border our country roadsides or tint the hills and meadows with lavish color. the field included the states of washington, oregon, california, idaho, nevada, utah, and arizona and to designate this whole field the term west is used in this book. the term northwest designates washington, oregon, northern idaho, and northern california, and the term southwest covers southern california and arizona. the flowers found only in the rocky mountains are not included, and it may be noted here that exceedingly few of the western flowers cross the rockies and are found in the east. this is the only fully illustrated book of western flowers, except miss parsons's charming book, which is for california only. the drawings have all been made from life. allowance must be made for differences in appearance, owing to locality, and the text should be consulted for the size, as, on so small a page, some of the plants must be drawn smaller than others. almost all technical botanical terms have been translated into ordinary english, as this book is intended primarily for the general public, but as a large number of the plants given have never before been illustrated, or even described, except in somewhat inaccessible or technical publications, it is hoped that the scientist also may find the contents both interesting and useful. the nomenclature used, with few exceptions, is that of the american code. where these names differ greatly from those in common usage the latter are given as synonyms in brackets, making the book more useful to all readers. the botanical names are marked with an accent. two accents are used, the grave (`) to indicate the long english sound of the vowel, such as the "i" in "violet," and the acute (´) to show the short sound, such as the "i" in "lily." professor j. j. thornber, of the university of arizona, is responsible for the botanical accuracy of the text and his knowledge and patient skill have made the book possible. thanks are due for most valuable assistance in the determination of a very large number of specimens to miss alice eastwood, of the california academy of sciences. also to dr. w. l. jepson of the university of california; professor a. o. garrett, of salt lake city; professor a. r. sweetser, of the university of oregon; mr. s. b. parish, of san bernardino, cal.; mrs. henshaw, of vancouver, b. c.; dr. a. davidson, of los angeles; and mr. marcus e. jones, of salt lake city. also for advice and assistance to dr. n. l. britton, and dr. h. m. richards of new york; to dr. livingston farrand, of colorado; mr. c. r. orcutt, of san diego; mr. carl purdy, of ukiah, cal.; professor flett, of mt. rainier national park; miss winona bailey, of seattle; professor j. h. paul, of salt lake city; and many other kind friends. the arrangement is that originated by mr. schuyler mathews, in his _field book of american wild flowers_, which has been found very popular in the east, but, in this book, most of the genera, as well as the species, have been very briefly described. margaret armstrong. new york, _january , _. contents. page preface iii list of colored plates xi technical terms xiii key to families xv families: water-plantain (_alismaceae_) lily (_liliaceae_) iris (_iridaceae_) orchid (_orchidaceae_) lizard-tail (_saururaceae_) sandalwood (_santalaceae_) birthwort (_aristolochiaceae_) buckwheat (_polygonaceae_) pigweed (_chenopodiaceae_) four-o'clock (_nyctaginaceae_) carpet-weed (_aizoaceae_) pink (_caryophyllaceae_) purslane (_portulacaceae_) buttercup (_ranunculaceae_) barberry (_berberidaceae_) water lily (_nymphaeaceae_) strawberry shrub (_calycanthaceae_) poppy (_papaveraceae_) bleeding heart (_fumariaceae_) mustard (_cruciferae_) caper (_capparidaceae_) orpine (_crassulaceae_) saxifrage (_saxifragaceae_) hydrangea (_hydrangeaceae_) gooseberry (_grossulariaceae_) apple (_pomaceae_) plum (_drupaceae_) rose (_rosaceae_) pea (_fabaceae_) senna (_cassiaceae_) mimosa (_mimosaceae_) krameria (_krameriaceae_) caltrop (_zygophyllaceae_) flax (_linaceae_) wood-sorrel (_oxalidaceae_) geranium (_geraniaceae_) milkwort (_polygalaceae_) meadow foam (_limnanthaceae_) buckeye (_hippocastanaceae_) buckthorn (_rhamnaceae_) mallow (_malvaceae_) st. john's-wort (_hypericaceae_) fouquiera (_fouquieriaceae_) violet (_violaceae_) loasa (_loasaceae_) rock-rose (_cistaceae_) cactus (_cactaceae_) evening primrose (_onagraceae_) parsley (_umbelliferae_) dogwood (_cornaceae_) heath (_ericaceae_) wintergreen (_pyrolaceae_) indian pipe (_monotropaceae_) primrose (_primulaceae_) olive (_oleaceae_) gentian (_gentianaceae_) milkweed (_asclepiadaceae_) dogbane (_apocynaceae_) buck-bean (_menyanthaceae_) morning-glory (_convolvulaceae_) phlox (_polemoniaceae_) waterleaf (_hydrophyllaceae_) borage (_boraginaceae_) verbena (_verbenaceae_) mint (_labiatae_) potato (_solanaceae_) figwort (_scrophulariaceae_) broom-rape (_orobanchaceae_) madder (_rubiaceae_) valerian (_valerianaceae_) honeysuckle (_caprifoliaceae_) gourd (_cucurbitaceae_) bellflower (_campanulaceae_) sunflower (_compositae_) chicory (_chicoriaceae_) index colored illustrations. facing page orange mariposa tulip _frontispiece_ wild onion covena indian hyacinth dogtooth violet bronze bells butterfly tulip butter balls sand-verbena indian pink foothills larkspur lilac clematis california poppy bush poppy western wallflower cliff rose bi-colored lupine wild sweet pea pride of california hedysarum pabulare desert senna spotted mallow salmon globe mallow hedgehog cactus opuntia basilaris pincushion cactus white evening primrose western azalea snow-plant small shooting star canchalagua scarlet gilia large prickly gilia mountain phacelia phacelia grandiflora baby blue-eyes ramona incana thistle sage paint brush pentstemon cyananthus pentstemon parryi bush monkey flower pink monkey flower wild valerian arizona thistle easter daisy xylorrhiza tortifolia cut-leaved balsam-root technical terms. =corolla.= the flower-cup composed of one or more divisions called petals. =petal.= one of the divisions of the corolla. =calyx.= a flower-envelope, usually green, formed of several divisions called sepals, protecting the bud. =sepal.= one of the divisions of the calyx. =anther.= the pollen-bearing organ, usually yellow. =filament.= the stalk-like support of the anther. =stamen.= anther and filament combined. =ovary.= the seed-bearing organ. =ovary inferior.= with the flower-parts growing from above the ovary. =ovary superior.= with the flower-parts growing from below the ovary. =placenta.= that particular portion of the ovary wall to which the ovules are attached. =ovule.= the body in the ovary which becomes a seed. =style.= the stalk-like projection proceeding from the ovary and terminated by the stigma. =stigma.= the generally sticky and sometimes branching termination of the pistil through which pollination takes place. =pistil.= ovary, style, and stigma combined. =regular flower.= generally symmetrical and uniform in the number of its parts. =perfect flower.= a flower complete in all the common parts. =staminate.= with stamens and without pistils. =pistillate.= with pistils and without stamens. =polygamous.= pistillate, staminate, and perfect flowers, on the same or on different plants. =claw.= the narrow or stalk-like base of some petals. =pedicel.= the stalk of a flower in a cluster. =raceme.= a flower-cluster in which the flowers are borne along the flower-stalk on pedicels of nearly equal length. =spike.= a flower-cluster in which the flowers have no pedicels and are arranged more or less closely along the flower-stalk. =bracts.= small scalelike formations. =involucre.= a circle of bracts below a flower-cluster. =stipule.= small often leaflike formations, confined to the base of the leaf. =capsule.= a dry seed-vessel, composed of more than one part and splitting open. =akene.= a small dry one-seeded fruit, not splitting open. a key to the families. page =a. parts of the flower nearly always in threes; leaves almost always parallel-veined.= a. ovary superior. b. leaves often arrow-shaped; pistils many, in a head. _alismaceae_ b. leaves not arrow-shaped; pistil one. _liliaceae_ a. ovary inferior b. flowers regular; stamens three. _iridaceae_ b. flowers irregular; stamens one or two. _orchidaceae_ =a. parts of the flower mostly in fours or fives; leaves mostly netted-veined.= =b. corolla absent; calyx mostly present, sometimes showy.= a. ovary superior. b. pistils several to many, distinct. _ranunculaceae_ b. pistil one, one to several-celled. c. flowers in long spikes with a white involucre at base. _saururaceae_ c. flowers not in long spikes. d. stipules if present sheathing the stem; sepals three to six. _polygonaceae_ d. stipules absent; sepals mostly five. _chenopodiaceae_ a. ovary inferior or appearing so by the closely fitting calyx. b. ovary six-celled; stamens six to twelve. _aristolochiaceae_ b. ovary one-celled; stamens three to five. c. leaves opposite; flowers often showy. _nyctaginaceae_ c. leaves alternate; flowers not showy. _santalaceae_ =b. both corolla and calyx present.= =c. corolla of separate petals.= =d. ovary superior.= a. stamens more than ten in number. b. pistils several to many, separate or united below. c. pistils separate and distinct. d. pistils enclosed in a hollow receptacle. e. leaves opposite; petals numerous. _calycanthaceae_ e. leaves alternate; petals mostly five. _rosaceae_ d. pistils not enclosed in a receptacle. e. stamens attached to the calyx. _rosaceae_ e. stamens not attached to the calyx. _ranunculaceae_ c. pistils united below into a lobed or beaked ovary. d. water plants with floating leaves. _nymphaceae_ d. terrestrial or land plants. e. pistils forming a ring; filaments united. _malvaceae_ e. pistils not forming a ring. f. pistils inserted on a convex receptacle; stamens attached to the calyx. _rosaceae_ f. receptacle not convex; stamens not attached to the calyx. _papaveraceae_ b. pistil one, the styles and stigmas often several. c. ovary one-celled. d. style and stigma one. e. fruit a drupe (stone-fruit.) _drupaceae_ e. fruit an akene tipped with a tail. _rosaceae_ d. styles or stigmas more than one. e. sepals falling as the flowers expand. f. sepals two or three; fruit a capsule. _papaveraceae_ f. sepals four or six; fruit a berry. _ranunculaceae_ e. sepals persistent; low shrubs. _cistaceae_ c. ovary more than one-celled. d. water plants with floating leaves. _nymphaceae_ d. plants not growing in water. e. leaves with smooth margins and with transparent dots. _hypericaceae_ e. leaves neither smooth-edged, nor with transparent dots. _malvaceae_ a. stamens ten or fewer in number. b. stamens of the same number as the petals and opposite them. c. ovary more than one-celled; calyx four- to five-cleft. _rhamnaceae_ c. ovary one-celled. d. anthers opening by uplifted valves. _berberidaceae_ d. anthers opening by longitudinal slits. _portulacaceae_ b. stamens not of the same number as the petals, or if of the same number, alternate with them. c. ovaries two or more, separate or partly united. d. stamens united with each other and with the large thick stigma. _asclepiadaceae_ d. stamens free from each other and from the pistils. e. stamens inserted on the receptacle. f. leaves and stems fleshy. _crassulaceae_ f. leaves and stems not noticeably fleshy. g. lobes of ovary two to five, with a common style. h. ovary two- to three-lobed. _limnanthaceae_ h. ovary five-lobed. _geraniaceae_ g. ovaries with separate styles. _ranunculaceae_ e. stamens inserted on the calyx. f. stamens twice as many as the pistils. _crassulaceae_ f. stamens not twice as many as the pistils. g. stipules present. _rosaceae_ g. stipules absent. _saxifragaceae_ c. ovary one, the styles and stigmas one to several. d. ovary with one cell and one placenta. e. corolla forming standard, wings and keel; filaments mostly united. _fabaceae_ e. corolla not of standard, wings and keel; filaments mostly not united. f. stamens ten or five; fruit smooth, slender. _cassiaceae_ f. stamens three or four; fruit spiny, globose. _krameriaceae_ d. ovary with one or more cells and styles, and two or more placentae and stigmas. e. ovary one-celled. f. corolla irregular; petals and sepals five. _violaceae_ f. corolla regular or nearly so. g. ovules attached at the center or bottom of the ovary. _caryophyllaceae_ g. ovules attached on two placentae. h. stamens equal; pod on a stalk. _capparidaceae_ h. stamens unequal; pod without a stalk. _cruciferae_ e. ovary more than one-celled. f. ovary three-celled; trees with palmate leaves. _hippocastanaceae_ f. ovary more than three-celled. g. cells of ovary as many as the sepals. h. anthers opening by terminal pores; dwarf evergreen shrubby plants. _pyrolaceae_ h. anthers opening by longitudinal slits. i. ovules and seeds one or two in each cell. j. herbs with lobed or cut leaves. _geraniaceae_ j. evergreen shrubs with varnished leaves. _zygophyllaceae_ i. ovules and seeds several in each cell; leaflets three. _oxalidaceae_ g. cells of ovary twice as many as the sepals. _linaceae_ =d. ovary inferior or more or less so.= a. stamens more than ten in number. b. plant spiny; leaves absent or soon deciduous. _cactaceae_ b. plant not spiny; leaves persisting for the season. c. leaves three-sided, fleshy. _aizoaceae_ c. leaves neither three-sided nor fleshy. d. herbs; leaves rough-hairy. _loasaceae_ d. shrubs or trees. e. leaves opposite; stipules none. _hydrangeaceae_ e. leaves alternate; stipules present. _pomaceae_ a. stamens ten or fewer in number. b. ovules and seeds more than one in each cell. c. ovary one-celled; fruit a berry. _grossulariaceae_ c. ovary with two or more cells. d. stamens four or eight. e. shrubs; filaments two-forked at the apex. _hydrangeaceae_ e. herbs; filaments not two-forked at the apex. _onagraceae_ d. stamens five or ten; styles two or three. _saxifragaceae_ b. ovules and seeds only one in each cell. c. stamens mostly ten; ovary partly inferior. _hydrangeaceae_ c. stamens less than ten; ovary wholly inferior. d. stamens five; fruit dry. _umbelliferae_ d. stamens four; fruit fleshy. _cornaceae_ =c. corolla with petals more or less united.= =e. ovary superior.= a. stamens more than five in number. b. ovary one-celled. c. placenta one. d. corolla very irregular; stamens not protruding from the corolla. _fabaceae_ d. corolla nearly regular; stamens protruding. _mimosaceae_ c. placentae two; corolla irregular. _fumariaceae_ b. ovary two to several-celled. c. ovary two-celled; corolla irregular. _polygalaceae_ c. ovary three or more-celled; corolla regular or nearly so. d. stamens not attached to the corolla. e. style one; leaves simple. _ericaceae_ e. styles more than one. f. styles three; erect spiny shrub. _fouquieriaceae_ f. styles five; low herbs. _oxalidaceae_ d. stamens attached to the corolla, plants without green foliage. _monotropaceae_ a. stamens five or fewer in number. b. corolla regular. c. stamens free from the corolla. _ericaceae_ c. stamens attached to the corolla. d. pistil one. e. stamens of the same number as the corolla lobes and opposite them. _primulaceae_ e. stamens alternate with the corolla lobes or fewer. f. ovary one- or two-celled. g. styles two or occasionally one. h. capsule usually many-seeded; sepals united. _hydrophyllaceae_ h. capsule few-seeded; sepals separate. _convolvulaceae_ g. styles one or none. h. leaves opposite. i. trees with pinnate leaves. _oleaceae_ i. herbs with simple smooth-edged leaves. _gentianaceae_ h. leaves alternate. i. ovary one-celled; leaves with three leaflets. _menyanthaceae_ i. ovary two-celled; leaves various. _solanaceae_ f. ovary three- or four-celled. g. style one; ovary three-celled. _polemoniaceae_ g. styles two; ovary four-celled. _boraginaceae_ d. pistils two. e. stamens and stigmas united; flowers with hood-like appendages. _asclepiadaceae_ e. stamens and stigmas not united; flowers without hood-like appendages. _apocynaceae_ b. corolla more or less irregular. c. fruit a many-seeded capsule. d. ovary two-celled. _scrophulariaceae_ d. ovary one-celled; plants without green foliage. _orobanchaceae_ c. fruit of two or four seed-like nutlets. d. ovary four-lobed; plants mostly aromatic. _labiatae_ d. ovary not lobed; plants rarely aromatic. _verbenaceae_ =e. ovary inferior.= a. stamens eight or ten; evergreen shrubs. _ericaceae_ a. stamens five or fewer in number. b. plants tendril-bearing. _cucurbitaceae_ b. plants not tendril-bearing. c. stamens free, not united. d. leaves alternate; stamens free from the corolla. _campanulaceae_ d. leaves opposite or whorled; stamens inserted on the corolla. e. stamens one to three. _valerianaceae_ e. stamens four to five. f. leaves opposite, never in whorls nor with stipules. _caprifoliaceae_ f. leaves opposite and with stipules, or in whorls and without stipules. _rubiaceae_ c. stamens united by their anthers. d. corollas all strap-shaped and perfect; juice milky. _cichoriaceae_ d. marginal corollas strap-shaped, never perfect; disk corollas perfect; juice not milky. _compositae_ field book of western wild flowers [illustration] water-plantain family. _alismaceae._ a rather small family, widely distributed, growing in fresh-water swamps and streams. the leaves are all from the root, with long sheathing leaf-stalks, and the flowers are regular and perfect, or with only pistils or only stamens; the sepals three; the petals three; the stamens six or more; the ovaries numerous, superior, developing into dry, one-seeded nutlets. there are a good many kinds of sagittaria, with fibrous roots and milky juice; the leaves are usually arrow-shaped; the lower flowers usually pistillate and the upper ones usually staminate; the stamens are numerous and the numerous ovaries are closely crowded and form roundish heads. the name is from the latin for "arrow," referring to the shape of the leaves. [sidenote: =arrowhead= _sagittària latifòlia_ =white summer north america=] an attractive and very decorative plant, with stout, smooth, hollow flower-stems, from eight inches to four feet tall, with very handsome, smooth, olive-green leaves and papery bracts. the flowers are about an inch across, with delicately crumpled, white petals and yellow anthers, forming a bright golden center, and the plants look very pretty standing along the edges of ponds. the leaves are exceedingly variable both in size and shape. this is found throughout north america. the tubers are edible and hence the plant is often called tule potato, and they are much eaten by the chinese in california. the indian name is wapato. [illustration] [illustration: arrowhead--sagittaria latifolia.] lily family. _liliaceae_. a wonderfully beautiful family, large and widely distributed, mostly perennial herbs, growing from bulbs or root-stocks, with perfect, regular, symmetrical flowers and toothless leaves. the flower-cup almost always has six divisions, the outer often called sepals and the inner petals. the six stamens are opposite the divisions and sometimes three of them are without anthers. the styles or stigmas are three and the ovary is superior, developing into a three-celled capsule or berry, containing few or many seeds. there are several kinds of anthericum, rather small, lily-like plants, with grasslike leaves, springing from the base and surrounded by the fibrous remnants of older leaves. the slender stems are leafless, or have one, very small, dry leaf; the roots thick and fleshy-fibrous; the flowers yellow, on pedicels jointed near the middle; the style long and slender; the pod oblong, containing several flattened, angular seeds in each cell. they are common in rocky soil, at altitudes of six thousand to nine thousand feet, from western texas to arizona. [sidenote: =amber lily= _anthéricum tórreyi_ =yellow summer arizona=] a beautiful little plant, with delicate flowers, unusual and pretty in coloring. it grows from eight to fifteen inches tall and has a slender, pale-green stem, springing from a clump of graceful, pale bluish-green, grasslike leaves. the flowers are about three quarters of an inch long, pale orange or corn-color, with a narrow stripe on each division; the pistil green, with an orange stigma; the anthers yellow. the flowers fade almost as soon as they bloom. this grows in open woods. [illustration] [illustration: amber lily--anthericum torreyi.] [illustration] there are several kinds of zygadene, natives of north america and siberia. they mostly have coated bulbs, resembling onions, and white or greenish flowers, in clusters, the leaves long, smooth, folded lengthwise and springing mostly from the root. the flowers are perfect or polygamous, the six divisions alike, with one or two, greenish, glandular spots at the base of each; the styles three, distinct; the fruit a three-lobed capsule, with several or many seeds in each compartment. the name is from the greek for "yoke" and "gland," because some kinds have a couple of glands on each division of the flower. [sidenote: =poison sego= _zygadènus paniculàtus_ =cream-white spring, summer utah, nev., idaho=] a handsome, rather stout plant, about a foot tall, with bright light-green, smooth, graceful leaves sheathing the stem, which has a papery bract around its base. the flowers are in clusters varying in shape, sometimes growing in a long, loose raceme and sometimes in a closer, pointed cluster. the divisions of the rather small, cream-white flowers have short claws, with a yellow gland and a stamen at the base of each. the stamens are conspicuous, with swinging, yellow, shield-shaped anthers, and are at first longer than the three styles, which gradually lengthen and, together with the stamens, give a delicate, feathery appearance to the whole flower cluster. this grows on dry hillsides and in meadows. the bulb is very poisonous. [illustration] [illustration: poison sego--zygadenus paniculatus.] [sidenote: =zygadene= _zygadènus élegans_ =white summer u. s.=] a handsome graceful plant, with one or more stiff stems, from six inches to three feet tall, springing from a large clump of rather stiff, bluish-green leaves, covered with a pale "bloom," and bearing fine clusters of cream-white flowers, less than an inch across, their divisions united below and adhering to the base of the ovary and each with a sticky, bright-green, heart-shaped gland. this grows in moist places in the mountains, across the continent. [sidenote: =star zygadene= _zygadènus fremóntii_ =white spring, summer california=] much like the last, but the foliage with less "bloom" and the flowers handsomer and rather larger. their divisions are free from the ovary, only the inner divisions have claws, and the glands are greenish-yellow and toothed. this grows among bushes, on hillsides and sea-cliffs along the coast. [sidenote: =death camass= _zygadènus venenòsus_ =white spring wash., oreg., cal.=] not nearly so handsome as the two last, but a pretty plant, from one to two feet tall, with dull-green leaves, folded lengthwise, with rough edges. the cream-colored flowers are less than half an inch across, striped with green on the outside, their divisions free from the ovary and all with claws, with roundish, greenish-yellow glands, not toothed, and with long stamens. this grows in meadows and the bulb is very poisonous except to hogs, so it is often called hog's potato. there are several kinds of veratrum, natives of the north temperate zone; tall, perennial herbs, with thick, short, poisonous rootstocks; stems tall and leafy, more or less hairy; leaves broad, plaited, with conspicuous veins; flowers more or less downy, polygamous, whitish or greenish, in a cluster, their six, separate divisions colored alike, adhering to the base of the ovary, without glands, or nearly so, and without claws; stamens opposite the divisions, with heart-shaped anthers; styles three; capsule three-lobed, with several flat, broadly-winged seeds in each compartment. veratrum is the ancient name for hellebore. [illustration: zygadene--z. elegans. death camass--zygadenus venenosus.] [sidenote: =false hellebore= _veràtrum califórnicum_ =greenish-white spring west=] the leaves of this plant are its conspicuous feature. a few near the top are long and narrow, but most of them are boat-shaped, with heavy ribs, and from six to twelve inches long. they are bright yellowish-green and, although somewhat coarse, the general effect is distinctly handsome, as we see masses of them growing luxuriantly in rich, moist meadows and marshes in the mountains. when they first come up in the spring, the shoots are packed into green rosettes, in which the leaves are intricately folded, but they soon grow to a height of three to six feet. the flowers are beautiful, in fine contrast to the coarse foliage. they measure about half an inch across and are cream-white, streaked with green, and form a fine cluster about a foot long. the flowers are far prettier and the plants handsomer than their eastern relations and they flourish at an altitude of six to nine thousand feet. the plants are supposed to be poisonous to cattle, but in a recent bulletin of the agricultural experiment station of the state of washington, it is reported as being a popular food with horses and sheep, particularly the latter, which eat it greedily and without ill effects. there are several kinds of hastingsia, perennials, with bulbs or rootstocks; the stamens on the base of the perianth, with swinging anthers; the ovary with a very short stalk and short style. [sidenote: =reed-lily= _hastíngsia álba (schoenolirion)_ =white summer oreg., cal., nev.=] an attractive marsh plant, with a smooth, stiff, bluish stem, over three feet tall, springing from a cluster of long, narrow, sword-like leaves. the slightly sweet-scented flowers are white, about half an inch across, forming a long, graceful, fuzzy wand of bloom, which has a pretty silvery effect and looks interesting at a distance, but is not very striking close by, as the flowers are too colorless. the seeds are black and shiny. [illustration: false hellebore--veratrum californicum. reed lily--hastingsia alba.] [illustration] [sidenote: =amole soap plant= _chlorógalum pomeridiànum_ =silvery-white summer california=] there are several kinds of chlorogalum. this odd plant springs from a big bulb, which is covered with coarse brown fiber and often shows above the ground. the leaves are sometimes over two feet long, with rippled margins, look like very coarse grass, and usually spread out flat on the ground. the plants are conspicuous and look interesting and we wonder what sort of flower is to come from them. then some day in late summer we find that a rather ugly, branching stalk, four or five feet tall, has shot up from the center of the tuft of leaves. the branches are covered with bluish-green buds, and we watch with interest for the bloom, but we may easily miss it, for the flowers are very short-lived and come out only for a little while in the afternoons. in the lowlands the flowers are rather scattered and straggling, but in yosemite they are lovely, close by. each flower is an inch or more across and looks like an airy little lily, with six spreading divisions, white, delicately veined with dull-blue, and they are clustered along the branches, towards the top of the stalk, and bloom in successive bunches, beginning at the bottom. when they commence to bloom, the tips of the petals remain caught together until the last minute, when suddenly they let go and spring apart and all at once the dull stalk, like aaron's rod, is adorned with several delicate clusters of feathery silver flowers. the thread-like style is slightly three-cleft at the tip and the capsule has one or two blackish seeds in each cell. the bulbs form a lather in water and are used as a substitute for soap by the indians and spanish-californians, and as food by the pomo indians, who cook them in great pits in the ground. _pomeridianum_ means "in the afternoon." [illustration] [illustration: soap plant--chlorogalum pomeridianum.] wild onions are easily recognized by their characteristic taste and odor. they mostly have coated bulbs; their leaves are long and narrow, from the base; the flower-stalk bears a roundish, bracted cluster of rather small, white, pink, or magenta flowers, on slender pedicels, their six divisions nearly alike and each with a stamen attached to its base. the bracts enclose the buds, before blooming, in a case and the capsule contains six, black, wrinkled seeds. there are numerous kinds, very widely distributed, not easily distinguished, some resembling brodiaea, but the latter never smell of onion. _allium_ is the latin for "garlic." [sidenote: =pink wild onion= _Állium acuminàtum_ =pink spring, summer northwest=] from four to ten inches high, with a few leaves. before blooming, the flower cluster is enveloped in two papery bracts, forming a beautiful pink and white, iridescent case, the shape of a turnip, at the tip of the stalk. later these bracts split apart and disclose a cluster of pretty flowers, usually very deep pink in color, the divisions each with a darker line on the outside, the anthers pale-yellow. this is very gay and attractive, often growing in patches on dry hillsides and fields. the flowers last a long time in water, gradually becoming paler in color and papery in texture. the bulb is marked with veins. [sidenote: =wild onion= _Állium biscéptrum_ =pink, white spring utah, nev., cal.=] six to ten inches tall, with two slightly thickish leaves, and usually two slender flower stalks, each bearing a graceful cluster of starry, white, pink or pinkish-purple flowers, each petal delicately striped with pinkish-brown, the anthers pink, the ovary green, with three, tiny, double crests. these flowers are exceedingly delicate and pretty, growing among rocks in shady canyons. the bulb is usually red-coated. the flower cluster of _allium serràtum_ is much more compact than the last and the pink flowers change to deep purplish-pink as they fade, making a pretty, round, papery head, about an inch and a half across. common on low hills in california. [illustration: wild onion--allium acuminatum.] [illustration: wild onions. allium bisceptrum. allium serratum.] there are many kinds of brodiaea, among the prettiest western flowers. they have a small, solid bulb, coated with brownish fibers. the stem bears a bracted, roundish head of flowers at the top, the pedicels varying in length. their leaves, all from the root, are grasslike and soon wither and the flowers dry up, become papery, and remain on the stalk, sometimes keeping form and color for some time. the stamens are in two sets and are attached to the flower-tube, their filaments often winged. sometimes three of the stamens are without anthers and their filaments are broadened, so that they look like small petals alternating with the ordinary stamens. [sidenote: =grass nuts. blue dicks. covena.= _brodiaèa capitàta_ =blue, violet spring california=] all through the spring these lovely flowers grow abundantly all over the hills and fields of california. the slender stalks vary from a few inches to two feet tall. the flowers are usually purplish-blue, but vary from deep-violet to white and are rather translucent in texture. they measure over half an inch across and grow in a cluster of seven or eight flowers, with several membranous, purplish bracts at the base. there are six anthers. the three inner stamens are winged and form a crown in the throat of the flower-tube. these brodiaeas last a long time in water and are great favorites everywhere. the little bulbs are edible and give the name of grass nuts. there are several other names, such as cluster lily and hog-onion. the name wild hyacinth is poor, as it does not resemble a hyacinth in character. _b. capitàta var. pauciflòra_ of arizona is similar, except that the bracts are white. covena is the arizona name. [sidenote: =ookow= _brodiaèa congésta_ =blue, violet spring, summer wash., oreg., cal.=] much like the last, except that only three of the stamens have anthers and the stem is sometimes as much as five feet tall. this grows on open hills in the coast ranges. [illustration: covena--brodiaea capitata var. pauciflora.] [illustration: ookow--brodiaea congesta.] [illustration] [sidenote: =harvest brodiaea= _brodiaèa grandiflòra (hookera coronaria)_ =blue summer cal., oreg., wash.=] in early june, at the time of the hay harvest, these handsome flowers, which look like clusters of little blue lilies, begin to appear among the dried grass of the hillsides and in open places in the woods. they vary in height from a few inches to over a foot and the number of flowers in a cluster also varies very much. sometimes there are as many as ten of the beautiful blossoms, an inch or more long, with pedicels unequal in length and from one to four inches long, in a large cluster at the top of the stalk, with several, whitish, papery bracts at the base of the cluster. the color of the flowers is usually a deep bright blue shading to violet and the six divisions grow paler toward the base and have a brown stripe on the outside; the buds are greenish, striped with brown. the stamens are translucent white, three ordinary stamens, with long erect anthers, alternating with three without anthers, the latter tongue-shaped and petal-like. the leaves, which are thickish and about the same length as the stalk, have withered away before the flowers bloom. this plant very much resembles ithuriel's spear, _triteleia laxa_, but three of the stamens are without anthers and the ovary is not on a long stalk. it is the commonest kind around san francisco. b. _minor_ is much the same, but a smaller plant with fewer and smaller flowers. the three outer divisions are narrow, with pointed tips, and the inner blunt and broad, and the sterile stamens are notched and longer than the fertile ones. this grows on dry hills and plains in middle and southern california. [illustration] [illustration: brodiaea minor. harvest brodiaea--b. grandiflora.] [illustration] [sidenote: =twining brodiaea= _brodiaèa volùbilis._ (_stropholirion californicum_) =pink summer california=] this is a strange, rather grotesque-looking plant, with its slightly roughish, leafless, reddish stem contorted into curious curves, occasionally quite short but usually enormously long, sometimes as much as eight feet, and twining awkwardly in a snake-like way around and over the bushes in its neighborhood. there are sometimes a few long narrow leaves lying on the ground, but when the flower blooms they usually seem to have withered away. the flower-cluster is quite compact, sometimes six inches across, comprising from eighteen to twenty flowers, with several, large, pink, papery bracts. the flowers are rather pretty, dull pink outside but paler inside, the buds are deeper and more purplish pink, both of dry papery texture. the flowers are over half an inch across, their tubes and buds are six-angled, and they have three stamens with anthers and wings, alternating with three, notched, petal-like stamens, without anthers. in the spring the stem grows rapidly for several weeks and then the flower cluster begins to come out at the tip. if the stem is broken off the flower comes out just the same and the stem keeps on growing, even if it is brought into the house. these curious plants are found in the foothills of the coast ranges and the sierra nevada mountains and may be seen in open sunny places along the stage route from yosemite to wawona. in the woods near wawona i saw it twining around a very tall white larkspur and the combination was exceedingly pretty. the capsule is egg-shaped and pointed, the seeds black and angled. [illustration] [illustration: twining brodiaea--brodiaea volubilis.] [illustration] there are four kinds of bloomeria, all californian, resembling brodiaea, but the stamens unlike. they have a fibrous-coated, solid bulb, long narrow leaves, and a bracted cluster of many flowers, at the top of a tall flower-stalk. the flowers are yellow, with six, nearly equal, spreading divisions, the six stamens on the base of the divisions, with slender filaments, which with a microscope are seen to have a short, two-toothed, hairy appendage at base. these are united and form a little cup surrounding the base of the stamens. the style is club-shaped, with a three-lobed stigma. the roundish capsule, beaked with the style, contains several, angular, wrinkled seeds in each cell. [sidenote: =golden stars= _bloomèria aùrea_ =yellow spring, summer california=] in late spring the meadows around pasadena and other places in the coast range are bright with pretty clusters of golden stars. the plant is from six to eighteen inches tall, springing from a small bulb, covered with brown fibers, with a long, narrow, grasslike leaf, and a large flower-cluster, sometimes comprising as many as fifty blossoms, at the top of the stalk. the flowers, about an inch across, with pedicels from one and a half to two inches long, are orange-yellow, the spreading divisions each striped with two dark lines, and the anthers are bright green. this looks very much like golden brodiaea, but the latter has no cup at the base of the stamens. it grows in the southern part of california and is abundant wherever it is found. _b. clevelandi_ is much the same, but the flowers are striped with green and the numerous buds are green, so that it is less golden and the general effect is not so good. it has numerous narrow leaves. [illustration] [illustration: golden stars--bloomeria aurea.] triteleias resemble brodiaeas, but they have six, swinging anthers and the ovary has a stalk. [sidenote: =indian hyacinth= _triteleìa grandiflòra (brodiaea douglasii)_ =blue spring, summer northwest and utah=] though the general appearance of the plant is very different, the individual flowers of this beautiful plant very much resemble the bells of a hyacinth, for they have the same waxy, semi-translucent texture. the bluish-green leaves, folded lengthwise and withering before the flower, are sometimes a foot long and the flower-stalk often reaches a height of two feet and bends beneath the weight of its lovely crown of blossoms. the cluster has four papery bracts at the base and is from three to four inches across, comprising about a dozen flowers, each nearly an inch long. they are pale-violet, with a bright-blue mid-vein on each division, the general effect being blue, with a white pistil and six stamens in two rows, all with blue anthers and the outer ones with broad, white filaments. it is wonderful to find these lovely and exotic-looking flowers, delicately scented, gleaming in the shadow of a dusky oak thicket or a deep canyon. they last a long time in water, becoming papery as they wither. [sidenote: =white brodiaea= _triteleìa hyacinthìna (brodiaea lactea)_ =white spring cal., oreg., wash.=] from one to two feet high, with very pretty flowers, about half an inch long, delicately striped with green on the outside, with six equal stamens, their filaments broad, triangular and slightly united at base, with yellow or purple anthers, and a green pistil. the leaf is grasslike, but thickish, and as long as the flower-stalk. these flowers are quite common and last a long time in water. [sidenote: =ithuriel's spear= _triteleìa láxa (brodiaea)_ =blue, purple spring cal., oreg.=] very much like harvest brodiaea but rather taller, with more flowers in the cluster, and less waxy in texture, varying in color from blue to violet and occasionally white. this is common on hillsides and in adobe fields. the rather fanciful name was suggested by the spear carried by milton's angel ithuriel. [illustration: indian hyacinth--triteleia grandiflora.] [illustration: white brodiaea--triteleia hyacinthina. ithuriel's spear--triteleia laxa.] there are one or two kinds of brevoortia. [sidenote: =fire-cracker flower= _brevoòrtia ida-màia (brodiaea coccinea)_ =red and green spring cal., oreg.=] a handsome plant, most extraordinary both in form and color. the stem is from one to three feet tall, with a few grasslike leaves, and bears a large cluster of six to thirteen flowers, one or two inches long, hanging on slender, reddish pedicels. they have bright-crimson tubes and apple-green lobes, sometimes turned back, showing the tips of the three pale-yellow anthers. there are also three stamens without anthers and broadened so that they look like three white or yellowish petals. the buds are also crimson, tipped with green, and the whole color scheme is wonderfully brilliant and striking. this grows in mountain canyons and on wooded hillsides, blooming in late spring. * * * * * there are several kinds of muilla, much like brodiaea and very much like allium, but with no onion taste or smell. [sidenote: =muilla= _muílla marítima_ =white spring cal., nev.=] a slender little plant, sometimes rather pretty, from three to nine inches tall, with sweet-scented flowers, about three-eighths of an inch or less across, white or greenish, striped with green outside, with six, bluish, swinging anthers. this grows in alkaline fields, on sea cliffs and mesas. * * * * * there are a good many kinds of erythronium, all but one from north america, and, east and west, they are among our prettiest flowers. they have deep, membranous-coated, solid bulbs; a pair of netted-veined, unequal leaves, sometimes mottled with brown; flowers without bracts, large, nodding and bell-shaped, with usually six divisions, all colored alike, the tips turning back, each with a nectar-groove, and each with two or four little scales at base, or only the three inner divisions with scales; stamens on the receptacle, anthers not swinging; style more or less three-lobed; capsule more or less oblong and three-angled. the younger plants are often flowerless, with only one broad leaf, with a long leaf-stalk. the name is from a greek word meaning "red," though these flowers are mostly yellow. the common name, dog-tooth violet, is old, and suggested by the little, white, toothlike offshoot often found on the bulb, but of course they are not in the least like violets. in california they are often called chamise lily, and sometimes adam and eve, because the plant often bears a large and a small flower at the same time. mr. burroughs would like to call it fawn lily, on account of the mottled leaves of some kinds, which slightly suggest the ears of a fawn. adder's-tongue, probably suggested by the long forked pistil, is also an old and usual name. [illustration: muilla maritima. fire-cracker flower--brevoortia ida-maia.] [sidenote: =avalanche lily dog-tooth violet= _erythrònium montànum_ =white summer northwest=] an exquisite kind, peculiarly graceful in form, with from one to nine, pure-white flowers, nearly three inches across, each petal prettily ornamented at the base with some orange-colored markings, arranged in a symmetrical scalloped pattern. the anthers are orange-yellow, the pistil white, the buds are pinkish and the leaves are very bright green and not mottled. this is very common around mt. rainier. [sidenote: =glacier lily dog-tooth violet= _erythrònium parviflòrum_ =yellow summer northwest=] a lovely flower, much like _e. grandiflorum_, but the anthers are white or pale yellow. around mt. rainier these beautiful plants often grow in large patches at the edge of the snow, alongside of the avalanche lily, _e. montanum_, but the two kinds do not seem to mingle. [sidenote: =easter bells dog-tooth violet= _erythrònium grandiflòrum_ =yellow spring, summer northwest and utah=] one of the loveliest of a charming group, growing in rich northern woods. the delicately-scented flowers, from one to six on a stalk, are about two inches across, clear yellow shading to white at the base, with purplish-red anthers, turning brown. a patch of these flowers bordering the edge of a glacier, as if planted in a garden-bed, is a sight never to be forgotten. pushing their bright leaves right through the snow they gayly swing their golden censers in the face of winter and seem the very incarnation of spring. there are several similar kinds. in the utah canyons these flowers in early spring are a wonderful sight, covering the wooded slopes with sheets of gold, and they seem to me to be the largest and handsomest of their clan, growing at an altitude of six thousand to eleven thousand five hundred feet, and blooming from march to july according to height. easter bells is a utah name. [illustration: dogtooth viole--erythronium grandiflorum.] [illustration: avalanche lily--erythronium montanum. glacier lily--e. parviflorum.] [illustration] [sidenote: =desert lily= _hesperocállis undulàta_ =white spring cal., ariz.=] this is the only one of its kind, a wonderfully beautiful desert plant, much like an easter lily. the stout, pale, bluish stem, from six inches to two feet tall, has a delicate "bloom" and springs from a graceful cluster of narrow leaves, which are a foot and a half long, spreading widely, but not lying quite flat on the ground. they are pale bluish-green, with a narrow, crinkled, white border and folded lengthwise. the buds are bluish and the lovely flowers are about three inches long and pure-white, delicately striped with pale-green and blue on the outside, with yellow anthers and a white stigma, and with a papery bract at the base of each pedicel. the flowers are slightly fragrant and become papery and curiously transparent as they wither. in dry seasons these plants do not bloom at all, but the slightest moisture will cause them to send up a stout stem and crown it with exquisite blossoms, which look extraordinarily out of place on the arid desert sand around yuma and ft. mohave. the bulb is eaten by the indians. [illustration] [illustration: desert lily--hesperocallis undulata.] [illustration] lilies, the "lords of gardens," are perhaps the most beautiful and popular flowers everywhere and there are some wonderful ones in the west. they have tall, smooth, leafy stems, springing from scaly bulbs; large showy flowers, solitary or in terminal clusters; smooth, netted-veined leaves, often in whorls, and leaflike bracts. the flower-cup is funnel-formed, or bell-shaped, and has six, equal, spreading divisions, with a honey-bearing groove at the base of each; the stamens, with long anthers, swinging from the tips of long filaments; a long pistil, with a three-lobed stigma and the capsule oblong, with two rows of flat seeds in each of its cells. there are no true lilies in utah. [sidenote: =small tiger lily= _lílium párvum_ =orange-red summer cal., oreg.=] these tall plants carry a brilliant crown of small lilies, glowing like jewels in the dark moist woods they love. the stem is from one and a half to six feet high, covered with a slight down that rubs off, and springs from a small bulb with short, thick scales. the long, pointed, rich-green leaves are in whorls of five or six below, more scattered towards the top of the stalk. the flowers are rather more than an inch long, yellow at the base of the petals, shading through orange to vermilion at the tips and dotted with crimson in the throat. usually there are six or seven in a cluster, but they have been found with many more in favorable situations and single plants in yosemite have been seen with as many as thirty blossoms. the capsule is roundish and less than an inch long. these little lilies are among the most attractive of their kind and grow somewhat freely in the high sierras to an altitude of seven thousand feet and as far north as oregon. [illustration] [illustration: small tiger lily--lilium parvum.] [illustration] [sidenote: =washington lily shasta lily= _lílium washingtoniànum_ =white summer cal., oreg.=] in the sierras, at an altitude of from three to over seven thousand feet, and as far north as the columbia river, we may be fortunate enough to find this glorious lily, growing in the forest in moderate shade and protected by the chaparral. it is not rare but nowhere very abundant. i shall never forget finding a group of three or four, growing near a huge fallen tree, in the woods at wawona near yosemite, where it is very fine. their raiment is even more "white and glistering" than the cultivated easter lilies. the smooth, stout, purplish stem is from two to five feet high, adorned all the way up with successive whorls of handsome dark-green leaves, three or four inches long, thin in texture, with rippling margins, and shining as if they had been varnished. there are from two to twenty blossoms of shining white, each one from three to four inches long and as much across. the petals are cleft to the base, spreading wide apart when the flower is fully open, sometimes finely dotted with purple, and becoming purplish in fading. the anthers are yellow and the pistil green, and the bulb is large, with thin scales. the scent is delicious, having a whiff of spicy carnation added to the usual lily fragrance. this is never found in the coast range and is the only pure white american lily. shasta lily is a variety with a small bulb. _l. párryi_, the lemon lily, of southern california and arizona, is similar in the form of its flowers, which are large and clear yellow, dotted lightly with deeper yellow. it grows in shady, moist spots in cool canyons and is very beautiful. [illustration] [illustration: washington lily--lilium washingtonianum.] [sidenote: =leopard lily= _lílium pardalìnum_ =orange summer wash., oreg., cal.=] a magnificent plant, from three to six feet tall, with bright-green leaves, thin in texture, smooth but not shiny, and mostly in whorls. the stem is crowned by a splendid cluster of flowers, usually about half a dozen together, but sometimes as many as thirty on one stalk. they measure three or four inches across and are pale-orange outside and deep-orange inside, spotted with maroon, often blotched with orange-yellow in the throat and tipped with scarlet. the anthers are purplish, changing to reddish-brown, and the pistil is bright-green. these plants often grow in large companies, in moist spots in the mountains, and are unrivaled in decorative beauty and brilliancy of coloring. [sidenote: =tiger lily= _lílium columbiànum_ =orange summer wash., oreg.=] a good deal like the last, but not so large. the petals are more turned back and they are orange-color all over, dotted with dark-red, and the anthers are pale orange-color, ripening to golden-brown. this is common in the hood river valley. [sidenote: =ruby lily chaparral lily= _lílium rubéscens_ =white, pink summer cal., oreg.=] a glorious plant, from two to five feet tall, with leaves mostly in whorls, with rippled edges. the stem bears a magnificent cluster of blossoms, most wonderful in coloring, for the buds and young flowers are white, dotted with purple inside, with yellow anthers and a pale-green pistil, but they gradually change to pink, and deepen to ruby-purple as they fade, and the anthers and pistil also darken in color. the effect of the whole cluster is therefore white at the top, shading through pink to almost crimson below. the flowers are even more deliciously fragrant than the washington lily, which they resemble, except that they are not quite so large as the latter and stand more erect and the petals are not so spreading. this usually grows among chaparral in the coast ranges. [illustration: tiger lily--lilium columbianum. leopard lily--lilium pardalinum.] there are many kinds of fritillaria, natives of the north temperate zone. in the east there are only cultivated ones, such as the familiar crown imperial, but we have a number growing wild in the west. they have bulbs with round, thick scales, developing into bulblets and sometimes resembling grains of rice. the flowers are bell-shaped, and nodding, with separate and nearly equal divisions, each with a nectar-spot at its base. they resemble lilies, but the style is three-cleft, the honey-gland is a shallow pit and the flowers are smaller. the capsule is roundish and six-angled, containing numerous flat seeds. it is conspicuous and perhaps suggested the latin name, meaning "dice-box." [sidenote: =bronze bells brown fritillary= _fritillària atropurpùrea_ =brown spring, summer west=] this plant is beautiful and decorative, and yet there is something weird about it. the flowers, an inch or more across, grow four or five in a cluster, on a smooth stalk about a foot tall, the long, narrow leaves scattered or in whorls. the bells, nodding on slender flower-stalks, are very unusual in coloring. they are greenish-yellow, streaked and spotted with maroon, and the long curling tips of the three-pronged pistil project like the forked tongue of an adder, so that somehow we feel that, in a previous existence, beautiful as it is now, it may have been a toad or some reptile. when we found this flower growing in the grand canyon, halfway down bright angel trail, it seemed entirely suitable to the mysterious spirit of the place. the general effect is bronze-color and the attractive name of bronze bells, or mission bells, is very appropriate. it has a small bulb of numerous, roundish scales. the pistils are often rudimentary. [sidenote: =yellow fritillary= _fritillària pùdica_ =yellow spring west, except ariz.=] a pretty little flower, a favorite with children, growing on grassy plains, with a smooth stem about six inches tall, and smooth, somewhat thickish, alternate or whorled leaves. the nodding flowers, about an inch long, are usually single, but sometimes as many as six on a stalk, various shades of yellow and orange, tinged with crimson and fading to dull-red. the smooth bulb is pure white, and made up of a number of rounded, thickish scales not resembling grains of rice, so the name rice root is not appropriate and the local utah names, crocus, snowdrop, and buttercup are absurd. [illustration: bronze bells--fritillaria atropurpurea.] [illustration: yellow fritillary--fritillaria pudica.] there are several kinds of yucca, natives of north and central america; large plants, with dagger-like leaves, usually with long, thread-like fibers along the margins; flowers with bracts, nodding in a terminal cluster, somewhat bell-shaped, with six, thickish, white divisions; stamens short, with thickened filaments and small anthers; ovary with three united stigmas; capsule containing many, flat, black seeds. the flowers are pollinated by a little white moth, which lays its eggs in the ovary, but previously gathers pollen from many flowers and pushes it against the stigma after the eggs have been laid. [sidenote: =our lord's candle spanish bayonet= _yúcca whípplei_ =white spring, summer cal., ariz.=] a noble plant, with no trunk, but sending up a magnificent shaft of flowers, from five to fifteen feet tall, springing from a huge, symmetrical bunch of dagger-like, bluish-green leaves. the cluster is composed of hundreds of waxy, cream-colored blossoms, sometimes tinged with purple, two inches across, crowded so closely together along the upper part of the stalk that the effect is a great, solid mass of bloom, three feet long. the white filaments are swollen, tipped with pale-yellow anthers; the pistil cream-color, with green stigmas. the large, white bracts are stiff and coarse, something like parchment, folded back so that the pinkish stalk is ornamented with a series of white triangles, symmetrically arranged. a hillside covered with hundreds of these magnificent spires of bloom, towering above the chaparral, is a wonderful sight. after they have blossomed, the tall, white stalks remain standing for some time, so that the hills look as if they had been planted with numbers of white wands. the genus cleistoyucca resembles yucca, but the divisions of the flower are very thick and there is no style. [sidenote: =joshua tree tree yucca= _cleistoyúcca arboréscens (yucca)_ =greenish-white spring, summer cal., ariz., utah=] a tree, grotesque and forbidding in aspect, but with a weird sort of beauty, looming black against the pale desert landscape, with a great, thick, rough trunk, fifteen to thirty feet high, and a few thick, contorted branches, stretching out like a giant's arms and pointing ominously across the sandy waste. the branches are thatched with the shaggy husks of dead leaves and from their tips they thrust out a great bunch of dagger-like leaves and a big, ponderous cluster of pallid, greenish flowers or heavy, yellowish fruits. the coarse flowers are about two inches across, with a clammy smell like toadstools, and the bracts are dead white. this grows in the mohave desert and is at its best around hesperia, where one may see the most fantastic forest that it is possible to imagine. elsewhere it is smaller and more like other yuccas in shape. it was called joshua tree by the early settlers, it is said because they fancied that its branches pointed towards the promised land. the fruits are relished by the indians, who utilize the fibers from the leaves for weaving baskets, ropes, hats, horse-blankets, etc., and make a pulp from the stems, used for soap. [illustration: our lord's candle--yucca whipplei. [very small part of cluster]] [illustration] * * * * * there are several kinds of trillium, of north america and asia; with tuberous root-stocks; three, netted-veined leaves, in a whorl at the top of the stem; a single flower with three, green sepals, three petals, six, short stamens, and three styles; capsule berry-like and reddish, containing many seeds. the latin name means "triple." [sidenote: =wake-robin birthroot= _tríllium ovàtum_ =white spring, summer northwest=] a charming plant, about a foot tall, with a single beautiful blossom, set off to perfection by its large, rich green leaves. the flower is two or three inches across, with lovely white petals, which gradually change to deep pink. it is a pleasure to find a company of these attractive plants in the heart of the forest, where their pure blossoms gleam in the cool shade along some mountain brook. they resemble the eastern large-flowered trillium and grow in the coast ranges. [illustration] [illustration: wake-robin--trillium ovatum.] there are three kinds of xerophyllum. [sidenote: =squaw-grass bear grass= _xerophýllum tènax_ =white summer northwest=] this is a magnificent plant, from two to six feet high, with a very stout, leafy stem, springing from a very large tuft of wiry, grass-like leaves, which spread out gracefully like a fountain. they are from one to two and a half feet long, dark-green on the upper side and pale-gray on the under, with rough edges. the imposing flower cluster is borne at the top of the stalk and is about a foot long, broad at the base and tapering to a blunt point, and composed of hundreds of fragrant, cream-white flowers, each about half an inch across, with slender, white pedicels, and so closely crowded together that the effect is very solid, yet made feathery by the long stamens. it is a fine sight to come across a company of these noble plants in a mountain meadow, rearing their great shafts of bloom far above their neighbors. they are very handsome around mt. rainier. they are said to blossom only once in five or seven years and then to die. the leaves are used by indians in making their finest baskets. unfortunately the size of this book does not admit of an illustration. * * * * * there are two kinds of maianthemum, an eastern one and the following, which also grows in europe and asia. [sidenote: =wild lily-of-the-valley= _maiánthemum bifòlium_ =white spring, summer wash., oreg., cal.=] this is a very attractive, woodland plant, from four to fourteen inches tall, with handsome, glossy, rich green leaves, and a rather stout stem, bearing a pretty cluster, two or three inches long, of many, small, waxy-white flowers, with four divisions. they have four stamens, with thread-like filaments and small, yellowish anthers, the stigma has two lobes and the berry is red. this grows in rich soil in the mountains and is much handsomer than its eastern relation and strongly sweet-scented. the latin name means "blooming in may." [illustration: wild lily-of-the-valley--maianthemum bifolium.] there are several kinds of streptopus, much like disporum, but the pedicels of the flowers are twisted or bent. [sidenote: =white twisted stalk= _stréptopus amplexifòlius_ =whitish spring, summer u. s. except southwest=] this is a fine plant, two or three feet tall, with a smooth, branching, bending stem and handsome leaves, thin in texture, with strongly marked veins and pale with whitish "bloom" on the under side. the greenish-white flowers are about half an inch long and hang on very slender, crooked pedicels, from under the leaves, and the oval berries are red and contain many seeds. this grows in moist soil, in cold mountain woods, up to an altitude of ten thousand feet and across the continent. the greek name means "twisted stalk." [sidenote: =pink twisted stalk= _stréptopus ròseus_ =pink spring, summer u. s. except southwest=] a smaller plant, from one to two and a half feet tall, with a slightly hairy stem, ornamented with pretty leaves, green on both sides and hairy along the edges, and hung with pretty, little, dull purplish-pink flowers, more or less streaked with deeper color and less than half an inch long. this grows in the same sort of places as the last and is also found across the continent. * * * * * there are two kinds of stenanthella; smooth herbs, with bulbs and small nodding flowers, in bracted clusters, the divisions of the perianth separate, without glands or distinct claws; the short stamens inserted at the base of the divisions; the styles three; the capsule with three beaks and containing oblong, winged seeds. [sidenote: =stenanthella= _stenanthélla occidentàlis_ =brownish spring, summer northwest=] this is a graceful plant, from ten to twenty inches tall, with long, rather narrow leaves and a slender stem, terminating in a long spray of about ten, rather pretty, little brownish-green or purplish flowers, each less than half an inch long. this grows in shady places. [illustration: white twisted stalk--streptopus amplexifolius. pink twisted stalk--streptopus roseus. stenanthella occidentalis.] there are several kinds of camassia, one eastern; herbs with onion-like bulbs, long, narrow leaves and thin, dry bracts. the flowers are blue of various shades, with six, separate, somewhat spreading divisions, each with a stamen on its base, the anthers swinging, the style threadlike, with a three-cleft tip; the capsule three-lobed, with several seeds in each compartment. varieties of camassia have long been cultivated in european gardens. the name is derived from quamash, the indian name for these plants. * * * * * [sidenote: =camass, quamash= _camássia quámash_ =blue summer northwest and utah=] looking across the vivid green of wet meadows and marshes, the deep blue patches of this flower are often conspicuous and beautiful. they grow from one to over two feet high, taller than the grasslike leaves, forming a loose cluster, with papery bracts. the flowers are from an inch and a half to over two inches across, the six divisions spreading out into a star. the buds are tinged with turquoise-blue and striped with purple, giving a fine iridescent effect, and the flowers, which fade very quickly, are often exceedingly handsome, varying in color from dark-blue to white, but usually deep, bright purplish-blue, with a green ovary, a long purple style and yellow anthers, with purple filaments. they are larger and handsomer in northern california than in yosemite. grizzly bears are fond of the bulbs and the indians of the northwest prized them as a delicacy, indeed the nez percé war in idaho was caused by encroachments on a territory where they were abundant. they were cooked elaborately in pits, care being taken to avoid the poisonous bulbs of the death camass, which resemble them. the indians also boil the bulbs in water and make good molasses from them, which they use on festive occasions. this is sometimes called wild hyacinth, but the name is poor, as it does not resemble a hyacinth in character. [illustration: camass--camassia quamash.] there are six kinds of clintonia, of north america and asia; with creeping rootstocks and a few, broad root-leaves; flowers without bracts, their divisions separate, equal or nearly so, each with a stamen at its base; style with two or three, inconspicuous lobes; fruit a berry. these plants were named in honor of de witt clinton, governor of new york, a naturalist, interested in botany, so thoreau need not have been so annoyed at their having been given this name. [sidenote: =red clintonia= _clintònia andrewsiàna_ =red, pink spring, summer oreg., cal.=] a magnificent plant, one or two feet high, with five or six, exceedingly handsome, glossy, rich green leaves, very conspicuous and sometimes a foot long, and a tall, slightly downy flower-stalk, usually with a few flowers scattered along it, and crowned with a large, roundish cluster of beautiful flowers. they are about three-quarters of an inch long, very rich in color, a deep shade of warm reddish-pink, or crimson, not common in flowers. the form of the cluster varies a good deal; sometimes the flowers are not mostly at the top, but clustered quite thickly along all the upper part of the stalk. the large, deep-blue berries are very handsome and, altogether, this is one of our most conspicuous and attractive woodland plants, especially when growing in the deep shade of redwood forests. [sidenote: =queen-cup white clintonia= _clintònia uniflòra_ =white spring northwest=] in rich moist soil, in shady woods, we find this lovely flower, with a white chalice and heart of pale gold, surrounded by two or three, beautiful, large, glossy leaves, resembling those of lily-of-the-valley, and fairly carpeting the ground in favorable situations. the slender flower-stalk is hairy, six to ten inches tall, and usually bears a single flower, an inch or more across, with pure-white petals that soon drop off. the fruit is a handsome blue berry. [illustration: c. uniflora. red clintonia--c. andrewsiana.] there are a good many kinds of vagnera, natives of america and asia, with a single stem, scaly below and leafy above; the leaves alternate, with short leaf-stalks or none; the flowers small, the divisions equal and spreading, white or greenish, in a cluster; the berry round, usually with one or two seeds. [sidenote: =false solomon's seal. wild spikenard= _vágnera amplexicàulis (smilacina)_ =white spring west=] it is a pity that all flowers cannot have really individual names. "false" is especially unattractive and "solomon's seal" is confusing, as the flowers are not alike, but this is the old name used all over the world, so it will have to stand, though unworthy of this pleasing plant. it is from one to three feet high, with large, light-green leaves, usually slightly downy on the under side. the flower-cluster is sweet-scented and composed of numerous, very small, cream-white flowers, the conspicuous parts of which are the stamens, white and larger than the petals, giving a feathery appearance to the whole cluster. the fruit is a light-red berry, very finely sprinkled with dark-red dots. this fine tall plant is very decorative and is common in rich moist woods. the name was given in honor of wagner. [sidenote: =star-flowered solomon's seal= _vágnera sessilifòlia (smilacina)_ =white spring west=] a gracefully bending plant, from one to two feet high, springing from a slender root-stock. the bright light-green leaves, without leaf-stalks and clasping at base, have a slight "bloom" like some lily leaves and are handsome and conspicuous, but not at all coarse, and are usually very smooth, but sometimes minutely downy. the small, delicate, cream-white flowers, on a very slender, angled flower-stalk, grow in a loose cluster and the berries are reddish-purple or nearly black. this charming plant sometimes forms large patches in moist, rich soil in shady places and its pretty foliage is often very noticeable beside the railroad tracks in utah. [illustration: star-flowered solomon's seal--v. sessilifolia. false solomon's seal--vagnera amplexicaulis.] [illustration] fairy bells are graceful plants, growing in rich, moist, mountain woods, with smoothish, or slightly hairy, branching stems, leafy above and with scaly bracts below, springing from slender root-stocks; leaves netted-veined, alternate, without leaf-stalks, smooth and thin in texture and often clasping the stem; rather small, bell-shaped flowers, hanging from under the leaves, with six stamens and a slender style, with one or three stigmas; the fruit a yellow or red berry. _disporum_ is from the greek meaning "double-seed," as in some kinds there are two seeds in each cell of the ovary. [sidenote: =fairy bells drops of gold= _dísporum trachycàrpum (prosartes)_ =yellowish-white spring, summer west=] a very attractive mountain plant, growing near streams. it is from nine to twenty-four inches tall, with an angled stem, pale green above and reddish below. the delicate flowers, about half an inch long, with a three-lobed green stigma and yellow anthers, grow singly or in clusters of two or three, nodding shyly under the pretty leaves, which are dull above and very shiny on the under side, with oddly crumpled edges and set obliquely on the stem. the berry when unripe is orange color and suggested the name drops of gold, but becomes bright red when it matures in june. _d. hookeri_ is similar, but the style is not three-lobed and the leaves are slightly rough to the touch and are not so thin or crumpled. they spread out so flat that they make a green roof over the flowers, completely screening them from the passer-by. this grows in shady woods, but not near streams. [illustration: fairy bells--disporum trachycarpum. drops of gold--disporum hookeri.] perhaps the most characteristic western flowers are the members of the genus calochortus. they grow freely all through the west, as far north as british america, and down into mexico, but they never get east of nebraska, so these gay and graceful flowers may be considered the peculiar property of the west. calochortus means "beautiful grass" and the leaves are usually grasslike, the stems slender and the flowers bright in color, decorative and interesting in form. they have three sepals, often greenish, and three large, colored petals, with a honey-gland, usually covered with hairs, at the base of each. they are allied to true tulips, so the popular name is suitable, and they fall into three groups: globe tulips, with nodding, globular flowers, and nodding capsules; star tulips, with erect, star-like flowers and nodding capsules; and mariposa tulips, with large, somewhat cup-shaped flowers and erect capsules. mariposa means "butterfly" in spanish and is appropriate, for the brilliant hairy spots on the petals are wonderfully like the markings of a butterfly's wing and the airy blossoms seem to have but just alighted on the tips of their slender stalks. they usually grow on dry open hillsides and their leaves have often withered away before the flowers bloom. the various forms run into each other, so that it is impossible to determine all the different species. they have solid bulbs, some of which are edible, considered a delicacy by the indians and called noonas. [sidenote: =golden lily bell yellow globe tulip= _calochórtus amàbilis_ =yellow spring california=] a charming plant, with pale bluish-green foliage, with a beautiful "bloom," which sets off the clear-yellow blossoms to perfection. there are from two to twenty flowers on each stem and the petals are smooth, except for a neat, stiff fringe of hairs along the margins and the matted hairs on the glands, which are often reddish. these lovely flowers, common in northern california, are peculiarly fresh in color and when growing among the grass in the shade of oak trees they have the springlike charm of daffodils in english woods. [illustration: yellow globe tulip--calochortus amabilis.] [illustration] [sidenote: =satin-bell. white globe tulip= _calochórtus álbus_ =white spring california=] beautiful and popular flowers, with a great deal of individuality and quite japanese in the decorative arrangement of the graceful stems and glossy, rich green foliage. the narrow root-leaf is over a foot long and spreads on the ground and other smaller leaves are disposed along the bending stem, which is from one to two feet tall and hung with pretty light-green buds and beautiful drooping blossoms, over an inch long, pearly white, sometimes tinged with lilac, with a satiny sheen and delicate yet crisp in texture. the papery sepals are greenish-white and the petals are sometimes tinged with purple at the base and are prettily fringed with hairs along the edges and often cross their tips in a very engaging way. they are covered inside with long, silky, white or yellow hairs and the glands are crescent-shaped, with close, short, sticky, white or yellow hairs, and form pale-green humps on the outside of the petals; the anthers are cream-color and the pistil whitish. the capsule is one or two inches long, with a short beak and brown seeds. these plants grow on shady banks in the coast ranges and have several pretty common names, such as lantern of the fairies and alabaster tulip, as well as the misleading name hairbell, which causes this flower to be confused with the harebell or campanula. [illustration] [illustration: satin bell--calochortus albus.] [illustration] [sidenote: =white star tulip= _calochórtus nùdus_ =white summer california=] this is a delicate and charming little flower, growing best in meadowy places in the woods of the sierra nevada mountains at moderate altitudes, sometimes to a height of over seven thousand feet. the single, ribbonlike leaf is much taller than the flower-stalk, which is only a few inches high and bears several pretty flowers, measuring over an inch across, with pale-green sepals and three pure-white or pale-lilac, fan-shaped petals, with a little notch in the edge, almost without hairs and marked with a lilac crescent at the base; the honey-gland is divided crosswise by a toothed scale and the anthers are light blue. the nodding capsule is pointed at both ends. [sidenote: =white pussy's ears= _calochórtus maweànus_ =white, gray spring cal., oreg.=] a charming little plant, with lovely little flowers, about an inch across, with white or pale-lilac sepals and white petals, hairy all over inside, often lilac at the base, the crescent-shaped gland covered with violet hairs and the anthers and pistil lilac. usually the general effect is of a most delicate shade of gray and the little blossoms do not droop, but look straight up at one from among the grass. this is common in northern california. [sidenote: =yellow pussy's ears. yellow star tulip.= _calochórtus bénthami_ =yellow spring california=] much like the last in character, from three to seven inches tall, with bluish-green, stiffish leaves and a few quaintly pretty flowers. they are about an inch across, clear light-yellow, with smooth sepals and the petals thickly covered with yellow hairs and sometimes brown at the base. this is common in the sierra foothills. [illustration] [illustration: star tulip--calochortus nudus. pussy's ears--c. maweanus.] [sidenote: =butterfly tulip mariposa tulip= _calochórtus lùteus var. oculàtus_ =many colors spring, summer california=] the commonest kind in northern california, found in both the sierra nevada and coast mountains, and one of the most beautiful of all the mariposas. the broad petals, each about an inch and a half long, are usually white, lilac, or yellowish, with an "eye" like that on a peacock's feather, giving the name _oculatus_. occasionally they are deep rose-color, as in the colored picture, though this is not typical, and have a vivid blotch of shaded maroon and crimson and an orange spot on each petal, with some maroon-colored hairs at the base. the sepals are striped with pink and maroon and twist into spirals as they fade; the pistil and the blunt anthers are mauve; the honey-gland narrowly crescent-shaped; the leaves pale-green and the delicate stem over a foot tall. this mariposa is extremely variable and seems sometimes to merge into _c. venústus_, a similar kind, and gorgeous varieties of both may be seen along the yosemite road on the down grade to wawona. there are many similar mariposas, but the casual flower-lover who finds any of these beautiful flowers will probably be satisfied to know that they are butterfly tulips, without going into the technical peculiarities which differentiate them. [sidenote: =yellow mariposa tulip= _calochórtus lùteus var. citrìnus_ =yellow spring california=] a fine robust plant, about a foot tall, with a stout stem, light, bright green leaves, and exceedingly handsome flowers, over two inches across. the sepals are yellowish, with a black spot and streaks of brown, and the petals are deep lemon-yellow, each with a rich maroon spot near the center and a hairy, brown, crescent-shaped gland below, often flecked with maroon at the margins and base, with cream-colored anthers and a yellowish pistil. this is very much like a tulip in character and looks very gay and cheerful growing in green fields. the typical _c. luteus_ is similar, but smaller and duller in color. [illustration: butterfly tulip--calochortus luteus. var. oculatu.] [illustration: yellow mariposa tulip--calochortus luteus var. citrinus.] [sidenote: =orange mariposa tulip= _calochórtus kénnedyi_ =orange-red spring cal., ariz.=] a wonderful flower, exceedingly brilliant and unusual in color, not quite like anything else in nature. the stout, firm stem is from two inches to over a foot tall and the leaves are dark-green, with a delicate bluish "bloom." the flowers are about two inches across, with pale-green sepals, bordered with pale-pink and orange inside, and beautiful petals, thick in texture and easily bruised, delicate peach-color outside and bright orange-vermilion within, each petal ornamented with a purplish gland, covered with matted hairs and crossed with a band of long vermilion hairs. when the stems are very short the flaming flowers look like crocuses, sprouting out of the barren desert soil, but when they are tall they have the gorgeous effect of tulips. these plants grow in the mohave desert, but are rather rare in california. they are very abundant in the foothills and on the mountain slopes of arizona, giving a beautiful orange-red color to the landscape for miles in spring, there being literally thousands in a small area. [sidenote: =sego lily mariposa tulip= _calochórtus nuttállii_ =white, pale lilac early summer ariz., cal., utah=] these pretty flowers are about two inches across, their white petals tinged with yellowish-green or lilac, and often delicately fluted at the edges, often with hairy spots inside the petals at their base, the whole flower very variable in coloring. these mariposas grow all through the southwest. in the grand canyon they begin to come out early in may, among the dry grasses halfway down the bright angel trail, and are a lovely shade of clear lilac. the slender stem, about a foot tall, often bears a small bulb near the base. it is called sego lily (pronounced sègo) in utah and is the "state flower." its bulbs formed a substantial part of the food of the early mormon pioneers when they crossed the desert and the flower is therefore held in great esteem in utah. [illustration: sego lily--calochortus nuttallii.] iris family. _iridaceae._ a large family, widely distributed and found throughout our continent. perennial herbs, with bracts; the leaves long, narrow, toothless, and sheathing; the flowers showy, perfect and regular, twisted in the bud, not falling off in withering, of three and six parts; the three stamens on the base of the sepals, their anthers turning outward; the single style with three branches; the ovary inferior, becoming a three-celled, usually three-angled, many-seeded capsule. this family is noticeably distinguished from the lily family by the inferior ovary, and from the amaryllis family by the three stamens. there are many kinds of iris. to the casual observer the flowers appear to have nine petals of different sizes, but in reality there are three sepals, three petals, and three petal-like branches of the style. the three outer divisions, or sepals, are large and spread or turn down; the three inner divisions, or petals, are usually narrower and are erect; the style branches arch over and under each is a stamen. the sepals and petals have claws, which are united below and form a tube; the capsule is large and contains many, flat, black seeds, in one or two rows in each cell; the large rootstock is usually fleshy. iris is from the greek for "rainbow," in allusion to the variegated tints, and flower-de-luce from the french "fleur-de-lis," or "lily-flower." many odd and beautiful kinds are cultivated from the old world. orris-root is made from the roots of a florentine species. [sidenote: =western blue flag= _Ìris missouriénsis_ =violet, blue spring, summer west, except wash, and oreg.=] a very handsome and decorative plant, growing in large clumps, in damp situations, from stout, creeping rootstocks. the stiff, sword-shaped leaves, mostly shorter than the stems, are smooth and light bluish-green and the stout stems, from one to two feet high, bear usually two, pale-violet flowers, about three inches long, emerging from thin, papery bracts. the sepals are white, or pale blue, delicately veined with violet, with a yellow-veined rib down the middle, the petals are pale blue or pale violet, veined with purple, and the buds are yellowish, veined with brown. this grows in profusion in the yosemite meadows, at the foot of el capitan, and is delicately beautiful, but would be more effective if the coloring were a little stronger. [illustration: western blue flag-iris missouriensis.] [sidenote: =douglas iris= _Ìris douglasiàna_ =purple, lilac, cream spring, summer cal., oreg.=] a beautiful kind, very common in the coast ranges. it grows in patches, or singly, and has rather dark green leaves, longer than the flower-stalks, and lovely flowers, which vary exceedingly in color. near the coast they are usually bluish-purple, but in mountain woods they run from violet and mauve to pink, yellow, and white. they are often striped with white and yellow, delicately veined with purple, and measure three or four inches across. in the redwood forests, in northern california, they are peculiarly large and beautiful, their delicate tints of cream and straw-color, tinged with mauve and marked with reddish-purple, and wonderfully set off by their dark forest background. this kind often blooms throughout the rainy season, but chiefly in early spring. [sidenote: =hartweg's iris= _Ìris hartwégi_ =yellow and violet summer california=] this odd and pretty little iris grows in half-dry, open forests, in the sierra nevada mountains. the many flower-stems, from six to twelve inches tall, are overtopped by some of the long, narrow leaves and the flowers are from one and a half to two inches long, either yellow, veined with violet, or pale-violet, veined with purple. the two color forms often grow together and attract much attention from tourists. they look very pretty, springing from a carpet of fallen pine-needles, in the forests along the wawona road near yosemite. [sidenote: =ground iris= _Ìris macrosìphon_ =blue, purple spring, winter california=] a beautiful kind, forming low clumps of many, very narrow leaves, from five to twenty inches long and much taller than the flower-stalks. the handsome flowers are over three inches across, bright purplish-blue, the sepals veined with darker color and marked with a white stripe. this is common on grassy hills near the coast and farther inland becomes taller and paler in color. the flowers are slightly sweet-scented and begin to bloom in january. the hupa indians used the leaves for making twine and rope for their nets and snares. there are many other beautiful western irises. [illustration: iris douglasiana.] there are numerous kinds of sisyrinchium, attractive little plants, all american, many from south america; with fibrous roots; grasslike leaves; slender, flat stems, sometimes branching; papery and green bracts and pretty flowers, that soon wither, on very slender pedicels, the six spreading divisions all alike; the filaments of the stamens united; the style branches slender, the capsule roundish, containing round seeds. [sidenote: =blue-eyed grass= _sisyrínchium béllum_ =blue summer cal., oreg.=] the deep blue stars of this pretty plant are a beautiful feature of the fields near santa barbara, and in other parts of california, in summer; in fact they are so plentiful in some places that they are a menace to the farmers. they grow in clumps, about a foot tall, among the grass. the stems are somewhat branching, the leaves are shorter than the stem, and the bracts are about an inch long, green and sheathing. there are about seven flowers on each stem, in a loose cluster, each about an inch across and handsomer than their relations in the east. they vary in tint from bright blue to purple, with a yellow "eye," and their divisions are prettily notched at the tips, with a little prong. the anthers are arrow-shaped, the style short, with three very small stigmas, and the small, oddly-shaped, little capsule is dark-brown when ripe, and perhaps suggested one of the common names, nigger-babies. it is called azulea and villela by spanish-californians. [sidenote: =golden-eyed grass= _sisyrínchium califórnicum_ =yellow spring, summer cal., oreg.=] this is very much like blue-eyed grass, but the flowers are bright yellow, the stems are about a foot tall, broadly winged and not branching, and the leaves are somewhat broader. the pretty flowers are nearly an inch across and there are from three to seven in a cluster. the filaments are united at the base only, the style is cleft to below the middle, and the small capsule is rather oblong. this grows in swampy places near the ocean. _s. arizònicum_ has yellow flowers and branching stems and grows in arizona. _s. Élmeri_ also has yellow flowers, with purple lines, and is found in wet places in the sierras. when pressed and dried the yellow-flowered sisyrinchiums stain the paper reddish-purple. [illustration: blue-eyed grass--sisyrinchium bellum.] orchid family. _orchidaceae._ a very large family, most abundant in the tropics; curious plants, with oddly beautiful flowers. perhaps because they are also rather rare they seem to have a peculiar fascination for the public; in fact almost any strangely-shaped flower is apt to be dubbed an orchid by the passer-by. they are perennial herbs, with various kinds of roots, some of them parasitic, usually with alternate, toothless leaves, the lower ones sheathing the stem. in some kinds the leaves have dwindled to scales. the flowers are perfect, irregular, with six divisions; the three sepals are alike and colored like petals; two of the three petals are alike, but the central one differs in size and shape and is called the lip. this is conspicuously colored, often spurred, and contains nectar for the attraction of "long-tongued" insects, on which these plants depend mostly for cross-pollination. the mechanism for this purpose is curious and interesting. the stigma is usually a broad sticky surface and its style is united with the filaments and forms, in front of the lip, a column which is usually capped by a single two-celled anther, containing two clusters of pollen, one in each cell. each cluster consists of a few waxy grains, held together by cobweb-like threads, which run together and terminate in a sticky disk. these disks adhere to the insects, which push in to get the nectar, and are transported to the gummy stigma of another flower. the inferior ovary develops into a three-valved capsule, containing numerous minute seeds. orchis is the ancient greek name. there is only one kind of cephalanthera in north america; with creeping rootstocks; flowers in terminal spikes, with bracts; sepals and petals nearly equal; petals somewhat united and hooded; lip more or less pouched. [sidenote: =phantom orchis= _cephalanthèra austínae_ =white summer northwest=] in dense mountain forests these strange plants shimmer like pallid ghosts among the dark trees. they are pure translucent white throughout, stem and all, and the leaves have shrunk to white sheaths, an inch or two long. the stems are one to two feet tall and bear spikes of numerous flowers, each over half an inch long, with the lip shorter than the sepals and petals, which are alike. they are beautiful and yet not quite pleasing, for we feel instinctively that there is something unnatural about them and, indeed, the strange absence of any green coloring matter in their make-up indicates that they are incapable of making their own food from the elements and draw their nourishment from decaying vegetation, or are parasitic on other plants. they range northward from yosemite but are nowhere very abundant. i found several growing near the trail from little yosemite valley to cloud's rest and a good many in the woods near the foot of mt. shasta, where they seem to be quite common. [illustration: phantom orchis--cephalanthera austinae.] there are several kinds of serapias, widely distributed; tall, stout herbs, with creeping rootstocks and leafy stems; the leaves plaited lengthwise and clasping at base; the flowers with leafy bracts, in terminal racemes. the flowers have no spur; the sepals and petals are separate and nearly equal; the lip broad, free, concave below, constricted near the middle. [sidenote: =stream orchis chatter-box= _seràpias gigantèa (epipactis)_ =reddish and greenish-yellow summer west, etc.=] a handsome plant, decorative and curious in form and unusual in coloring. it is from one to four feet tall, with a stout, leafy stem bearing three to ten flowers and smoothish leaves, with prominent veins. the sepals are reddish or greenish-yellow and the petals pinkish, veined with maroon. the lip is pouched at the base, with a winged margin and a pendulous tip, which swings freely as if on a hinge, so that it quivers when the plant is shaken. although the flowers are very handsome this curious tremulous motion, which makes them seem almost alive, gives them a quaint likeness to an old woman in a sunbonnet, with a hooked nose and chattering jaw. they have a slight scent and the plant is quite common along streams and in wet places, in the west and in colorado and texas. some botanists think it is identical with a variety which grows in the himalaya mountains. it was named for the egyptian deity, serapis. [illustration: stream orchis--serapias gigantea.] there are several kinds of corallorrhiza, widely distributed in the north temperate zone and growing in dense woods; pinkish or straw-colored plants, more or less parasitic, with large roots resembling branches of coral; the leaves all reduced to sheathing, papery scales; the flowers in terminal racemes, without bracts, on short pedicels, which turn down in fruit, mostly with a short spur, the sepals and petals about equal, the upper ones curving in. [sidenote: =coral-root= _corallorrhìza multiflòra_ =reddish-yellow summer wash., oreg., cal., utah=] the curious knobby rootstock, shaped like a bit of coral, gives the name to this strange and rather unwholesome looking plant. from living on decayed vegetation it has lost its green leaves, and has only a few papery sheaths in their place, and the thick, translucent stem is pale and smooth, from one to two feet tall, pink at the base, shading to golden-brown towards the top. the flowers, less than half an inch across, are usually yellow, with reddish-brown tips, and the white, three-lobed lip is spotted with purple. the buds are yellow and brown and the whole color effect is very pretty, as if the plant were trying to match the russet tints of the floor of the forest. the flowers vary from several to many and grow in a long cluster, hanging down when their seeds begin to ripen. this is widely distributed, growing also in the east, but nowhere common. [sidenote: =coral-root= _corallorrhìza bigelòwii_ =reddish-yellow summer wash., oreg., cal., utah=] this is a similar plant, but handsomer, with much larger flowers, duller in coloring and striped not spotted. instead of a spur the base of the sepals is swollen over the ovary, which develops gradually into an oblong fruit to which the flower still clings, so that the older flowers, on the lower part of the stalk, give an odd effect of having long, swollen necks. the seeds are small and numerous. there are other kinds, similar in general effect. [illustration: flowers of c. bigelowii. coral-root--corallorrhiza multiflora.] there are numerous kinds of limnorchis; the lower leaves clasping or sheathing the stem; the flowers mostly in spikes or racemes; sepals nearly equal, petals mostly smaller than the sepals; lip spreading or drooping, not toothed or lobed, with a spur. the latin name means "marsh-dweller." [sidenote: =sierra rein orchis= _limnórchis leucostàchys_ (_habenaria_) =white summer cal., oreg., wash.=] often in some favorable corner of a marsh, near the woods, we may see a dozen of these lovely plants, their robust leafy stalks sometimes as much as four feet tall, rearing their delicate spires of bloom above the lush grass. the long narrow leaves are bright-green and smooth and the numerous, small, delicate blossoms, sprinkled thickly along the stem, are pure white, each with a very long spur like a little tail, each with a green bract at the base of its little pedicel, and deliciously fragrant. there are several similar kinds, mostly with green flowers; this is the handsomest and least rare. there are many kinds of cypripedium, with large, broad leaves and one or several, large, drooping flowers, with two fertile anthers, with short filaments, one on each side of the column below the stigma, and a conspicuous, petal-like, sterile anther, arching over the stigma. they are easily known by the curious lip, which is a large inflated sac, suggesting both the common names, lady's slipper and indian moccasin, and the greek, meaning "foot of venus." [sidenote: =mountain lady's slipper= _cypripèdium montànum_ =brown and white summer northwest=] beautiful and decorative, with a stout, hairy stem, one to two feet tall and a few handsome flowers, rich and harmonious though not brilliant in coloring, with a lip about an inch long, dull-white, veined with purple, and brownish or purplish sepals and petals, very long, narrow, and twisted. this grows in mountain woods and is found around yosemite. there is a picture in miss parsons's _wild flowers of california_. _c. califórnicum_ is similar, but with more flowers, the sepals and petals greenish-yellow, the lip pinkish. _c. parviflòrum_ has a yellow lip and purplish sepals and grows in northern woods, across the continent. none of these plants is common. [illustration: sierra rein orchis--limnorchis leucostachys.] [illustration] lizard-tail. _saururaceae._ a small family; ours are perennial astringent herbs, with alternate, toothless leaves, with leaf-stalks; flowers perfect, with bracts, in a dense, terminal spike, without calyx or corolla; stamens generally three or six; ovary with one to five stigmas; fruit a capsule or berry. there are two kinds of anemopsis. [sidenote: =yerba mansa= _anemópsis califórnica_ =white spring cal., ariz.=] this plant bears several, large, cream-white flowers, which at the first glance appear to have from five to eight petals and a long, projecting knob in the center, but what appears to be a corolla is in reality an involucre, about an inch and a half across, and surrounding the base of a long, conical spike of numerous, small, greenish flowers. these are half-sunk in the fleshy substance of the spike and have no sepals or petals, but each has a small, white bract at its base, so that the spike appears to be covered with scales symmetrically arranged. the flower has from six to eight stamens on the base of the ovary and from three to four stigmas. the ovaries, which are superior, form small pods, opening at the top when ripe, so that in the end the spike is neatly pitted with holes. the rather thick, hollow, reddish stems are from six inches to two feet tall, covered with hair, and the smooth, light-green leaves, from two to ten inches long, are mostly from the root, with leaf-stalks which broaden at the base and partly sheathe the stem. the creeping rootstocks are peppery and acrid, used medicinally, and considered exceedingly valuable by spanish-californians. these pretty, odd-looking plants grow in alkaline or salty swamps in the south. the name is from the greek meaning "anemone" and "appearance," but the flowers do not look very much like anemones. [illustration] [illustration: yerba mansa--anemopsis californica.] [illustration] sandalwood family. _santalaceae._ this is a very small family in this country, for they prefer the tropics, and in those regions some are trees. ours are usually parasitic on the roots of their neighbors. they have toothless, mostly alternate leaves, mostly without leaf-stalks or stipules, and small flowers, with a four- or five-lobed calyx and no corolla. the four or five stamens are opposite the calyx lobes, at the edge of a fleshy disk, and the ovary is one-celled and inferior, with one style, developing into a one-seeded fruit. there are four kinds of comandra, one of them european; smooth, perennial herbs, with alternate leaves, and flowers in clusters, without bracts. the calyx is more or less bell-shaped, usually with five lobes, its tube lined with a disk, the stamens inserted at base of the lobes and the anthers attached to the lobes by tufts of hairs. [sidenote: =pale comandra= _comándra pállida_ =flesh-color, greenish, purplish spring, summer northwest, nev., utah, ariz.=] this is a rather pretty plant, growing from a few inches to about a foot tall, branching and rather woody below, with pale-green, smooth, slightly thickish, rather stiff leaves, which are reduced to pinkish scales on the lower stem. the flowers are small, usually flesh-color, thickish in texture, with slender pedicels, and form terminal, rather flat-topped clusters. the fruit, which is about the size of a small pea, is crowned by the remains of the calyx, like a rose-hip. this is common on dry plains and hillsides and is noticeable because of its pale and somewhat peculiar coloring. [illustration] [illustration: pale comandra--c. pallida.] [illustration] birthwort family. _aristolochiaceae_ a rather small family, chiefly of warm countries, but widely distributed; herbs or shrubs; the leaves alternate or from the root, with leaf-stalks, more or less heart-shaped, without stipules; the flowers perfect, mostly large, symmetrical or irregular in form, with or without a corolla; the calyx with three or six lobes, or irregular; the stamens six to many, inserted on the pistil; the ovary wholly or partly inferior; the fruit a mostly six-celled capsule, containing many seeds. there are several kinds of asarum. [sidenote: =wild ginger= _Ásarum hartwégi_ =brown spring cal., oreg.=] the handsome leaves of this perennial are its conspicuous feature. they have long, hairy leaf-stalks and are heart-shaped and toothless, from three to five inches broad, dark rich green, prettily veined and often also beautifully mottled with white, smooth on the upper surface and hairy on the under. we notice them immediately in the damp, dark woods they live in, but unless we look carefully we miss the single, large, strange, purplish-brown flower, the color of dead leaves, which nestles close to the ground as if trying to hide itself. this has twelve stamens, with stout filaments, and six styles, united at the base. there are no petals, but the hairy calyx has three lobes, which are sometimes an inch and a half long, and have long points like tails. the seed-vessel is roundish, crowned by the withered calyx and stamens. the rootstock cannot be used as a substitute for ginger, but smells and tastes very aromatic and pungent. this resembles the wild ginger of the east, but is handsomer. [illustration] [illustration: wild ginger--asarum hartwegi.] buckwheat family. _polygonaceae._ a large family, widely distributed, mostly herbs or low shrubs, with toothless leaves, often with stipules sheathing the swollen joints of the stem. the small flowers have no petals, the calyx usually resembles a corolla and has from three to six divisions. there are from four to nine stamens and a superior, mostly triangular, ovary, with two or three styles or stigmas, becoming a dry, one-seeded fruit, generally brown or black. the kind from which flour is made is cultivated from northern asia, and the name buckwheat, from the german, means "beech-wheat," because the grain resembles minute beech-nuts. there are several common "weeds" belonging to this family, such as dock, sorrel, and smartweed. chorizanthes are low herbs, with branching stems, without stipules, the leaves forming a rosette at the base and withering early. the small flowers have six sepals and are clustered in small heads, usually one flower in each papery involucre, which has from two to six teeth, with bristles at the tips; stamens usually nine, on the base of the perianth; styles three, with round-top stigmas. [sidenote: =turkish rugging= _chorizánthe fimbriàta_ =pink spring california=] an odd, dry-looking plant, making pretty patches of purplish color on dry mesas. the stiff, roughish, purplish stem is a few inches tall, springing from a few dull-green or reddish root-leaves, branching abruptly and widely towards the top and bearing many small flowers. the involucres are deep-red or purple, with very prickly teeth, the sepals bright-pink, prettily fringed with white and striped with deeper color, and the filaments are long and threadlike, with purple anthers. the flowers are exceedingly pretty when closely examined, though too small to be very effective, but the plant as a whole is conspicuous both in color and form. _c. staticoìdes_ is similar, but the sepals are not fringed. [illustration: turkish rugging--chorizanthe fimbriata.] [illustration] there are many kinds of rumex, or dock, coarse herbs, with leafy, branching, grooved stems, sheathed with conspicuous, papery stipules, strong tap-roots and acid or bitter juice. the large leaves are alternate, with smooth or wavy edges; the flowers small, greenish or reddish, on jointed pedicels, in branching clusters; the stamens six; the styles three, the stigmas shield-shaped, with a tuft of hairs at the tip. the six divisions of the flower are in two sets, the three outer small and green, the inner ones larger, colored and becoming veiny and larger in fruit, forming valves or wings, (often with a grain on the back of one or all of them,) which closely cover the three-sided fruit. these wings make the fruits of docks more conspicuous than the flower. the latin name comes from a word meaning "to suck," because the romans sucked the leaves to allay thirst. [sidenote: =sand dock= _rùmex venòsus_ =greenish spring, summer west=] in favorable situations this is a very handsome member of a rather plain genus, about a foot tall, with a smooth, stout reddish stem and smooth, pale, blue-green leaves, that feel like thin rubber, with a prominent mid-vein front and back. the small inconspicuous flowers develop into clusters of showy valves or wings, wonderfully odd and beautiful in coloring, resembling begonia flowers. at first these wings are pale green, but they gradually brighten until they are all shades of salmon, rose-color, and red, fading to brown, and forming lovely combinations of vivid color, particularly against the arid background of the sand hills they frequent, and they last a long time in water and are exceedingly decorative. if these wings, which are nearly an inch across, are pulled apart, a three-sided akene, like a little nut, will be found inside them. [illustration] [illustration: sand dock--rumex venosus.] [illustration] there are many kinds of eriogonum, herbs or shrubs, natives of america, mostly western, growing in dry places, very numerous and difficult to distinguish. the leaves, without sheaths or stipules, are often covered with white down and usually grow in a spreading cluster at the base of the stem. the numerous small flowers, on very slender little pedicels, have six sepals, thin in texture and usually colored, and form clusters of various shapes, which emerge from more or less bell-shaped or top-shaped involucres, with six teeth. there are nine stamens, with threadlike filaments, often hairy, and a three-parted style with round-top stigmas. the name is from the greek meaning "wooly knees," in allusion to the wooly joints of the stem. [sidenote: =bottle-plant= _eriógonum inflàtum_ =yellow spring southwest=] this is a most extraordinary looking plant, with queer inflated, hollow stalks, about two feet high, swelling larger towards the top, and the branches, which are also swollen, sticking out awkwardly in all directions and bearing a few minute, yellow flowers. the stalks, which are pale bluish-green, suggest some strange sort of reed, but the dark-green leaves, growing in a rosette at the base, are something like the leaves of cultivated violets and seem entirely out of keeping with the rest of the plant. this grows on the plateau in the grand canyon and in similar places. [sidenote: =swollen-stalk= _eriógonum elàtum_ =white, pink summer northwest=] this is about a foot and a half tall and the stem is swollen, but not so much so as the last, and the flowers are more conspicuous, forming rather flat-topped clusters, about three-quarters of an inch across. the tiny flowers are cream-white or pinkish, the buds are deep-pink, and the stamens are long, with tiny, pinkish anthers. the leaves are dull-green on the upper side and pale with close down on the under and grow in a cluster at the base. [illustration] [illustration: swollen-stalk--e. elatum. bottle-plant--eriogonum inflatum.] [illustration] [sidenote: =butter balls, snow balls= _eriógonum orthocàulon_ =yellow, white spring, summer northwest=] these are attractive plants, with pretty odd little balls of flowers, and are very conspicuous on dry, rocky mesas. they have a number of slender, pale, downy stems, about ten inches tall, springing from a close clump of small, dull-green leaves, pale with down on both sides and the smaller ones almost white, and bearing at the tip a dense flower-cluster, about an inch and a half across, which is very fuzzy and pretty. the little flowers have cream-color, downy involucres, the outer sepals are broader than the inner, and the pedicels, stamens, and pistil are all the same color as the sepals, either very bright sulphur-yellow or cream-white, but not mixed on the same plant, and sometimes tinged with red. these flowers are very popular with children in idaho and they make necklaces of the fuzzy balls, something like "daisy chains." [sidenote: _eriógonum compósitum_ =white, yellow summer northwest=] this is a big handsome plant, with a thick, smooth stem, one or two feet tall and woody at base, and with thickish leaves, slightly downy, dark green in color on the upper side and white with close down on the under. the flowers form feathery, cream-white or yellow clusters, often more than six inches across, with red buds, and are beautiful and conspicuous on bare mountainsides, smelling of honey. [illustration] [illustration: butter balls--eriogonum orthocaulon.] [illustration: eriogonum compositum.] [illustration] [sidenote: =buckwheat bush, flat-top= _eriógonum fasciculàtum_ =white spring, summer southwest=] in favorable situations this is an attractive shrub, from two to four feet high, with shreddy, reddish bark and long, straight branches, standing stiffly up and crowded with small, thickish, stiffish leaves, dark olive-green on the upper side and pale with down on the under, with rolled-back margins. the flowers are about three-eighths of an inch across, dull-white or pinkish, with pink buds, forming large, feathery, flat-topped clusters, on long, stiff, bare, reddish flower-stalks, standing up stiffly all over the bush. this is a very valuable bee-plant and grows on mesas and mountain slopes. [sidenote: =sulphur flower= _eriógonum bàkeri_ =yellow, summer ariz., utah, new mex., col., wyo.=] this plant is quite pretty and conspicuous, as the flowers are bright in color and a peculiar shade of sulphur yellow. the stem is downy and often reddish, about a foot tall, with two or three branches at the top, each bearing a cluster of numerous small sweet-scented flowers with pretty stamens. the gray-green leaves grow mostly in a rosette on the ground and are covered with close white down on the under side. their soft tints tone in well with the bright color of the flowers and the pale sandy soil in which they grow. _e. flàvum_ is similar and widely distributed. _e. incànum_ is the same color but much smaller, often tinged with red, the gray leaves forming a dense velvety mat, and it grows at high altitudes, in sandy spots on rocks, and is found around the yosemite valley. the alpine form is very small. there are several other kinds of sulphur flower. [illustration] [illustration: sulphur flower--e. bakeri. buckwheat bush--eriogonum fasciculatum.] [sidenote: =wild buckwheat= _eriógonum racemòsum_ =pink, white summer ariz., utah=] a pretty desert variety of wild buckwheat. the pale downy stem is from one to two feet tall, rather stout, with two or three erect branches at the top, and the leaves are all from the base, gray-green in color and covered with close white down on the under side. the small white and pink flowers are clustered along the branches in small heads, with reddish involucres, forming a spike about three inches long. the whole effect of the plant is curiously pale, but quite pretty. it grows plentifully on the rim of the grand canyon. there are many kinds of polygonum, east and west, many of them insignificant, some aquatic, some woody at base, with alternate leaves, and sheathing stipules; the sepals four or five; the stamens five to nine; the style with two or three branches and round-top stigmas. the name is from the greek, meaning "many knees," in allusion to the swollen joints of some kinds. [sidenote: =knot-weed alpine smartweed= _polýgonum bistortoìdes_ =white summer west=] this is about two feet tall, very pretty and rather conspicuous, and the general effect of the smooth stem and sheathing, green leaves is somewhat grasslike. the flowers, which are small and cream-white, with pretty stamens and pinkish bracts, grow in close, roundish, pointed heads, an inch or two long, at the tips of the stalks. the buds are pink and the heads in which the flowers have not yet come out look as if they were made of pink beads. this is an attractive plant, growing among the tall grasses in mountain meadows, and smells deliciously of honey. pigweed family. _chenopodiaceae._ a large family, widely distributed, growing usually in salty or alkaline soil; herbs or shrubs, generally succulent and salty or bitter, often covered with white scurf or meal, without stipules; leaves thick, usually alternate, sometimes none; flowers perfect or imperfect, small, greenish, without petals; calyx with two to five sepals, rarely with only one, pistillate flowers sometimes with no calyx; stamens as many as the sepals, or fewer, and opposite them; ovary mostly superior with one to three styles or stigmas; fruit small, dry, with one seed, sometimes with a bladder-like covering. spinach and beets belong to this family; many are "weeds," such as lamb's quarters. [illustration: wild buckwheat--eriogonum racemosum. alpine smartweed--polygonum bistortoides.] there are two kinds of grayia, named after asa gray; low shrubs; the stamens and pistils in separate flowers, on the same or on different plants. [sidenote: =hop sage= _gràyia spinòsa_ (_g. polygaloides_) =greenish, with red bracts spring calif., nev., utah, ariz.=] an odd and beautiful desert shrub, about three feet high, very dense in form, with interlacing, angular, gray branches, spiny and crowded with small, alternate, toothless leaves, pale-green and thickish, but not stiff. the flowers are small and inconspicuous, but the pistillate ones are enveloped in conspicuous bracts, which enlarge and become papery in fruit, something like those of docks, and often change from yellowish-green to all sorts of beautiful, bright, warm tints of pink, or to magenta, and the branches become loaded with beautifully shaded bunches of these curious seed-vessels, giving a strange, crowded look to the shrub, which in favorable situations, such as the mohave desert, makes splendid masses of color, especially when contrasted with the pale gray of sage-brush. there is only one kind of cycloloma; leaves alternate, smooth or downy, irregularly toothed; flowers perfect or pistillate, with five sepals, five stamens, and two or three styles; fruit winged horizontally. [sidenote: =tumbleweed= _cyclolòma atriplicifòlium_ =purple or green summer west of mississippi river=] very curious round plants, six to twenty inches high, usually purple all over, sometimes green and rarely white, giving a brilliant effect in the fall to the sandy wastes they inhabit. they are a mass of interlacing branches, with hardly any leaves, except at the base, and very small flowers. when their seeds are ripe, and they are dry and brittle, the wind easily uproots them and starts them careening across the plain, their seeds flying out by the way. they turn over and over and leap along, as if they were alive, bringing up at last against a wire fence, or some such obstacle, where perhaps a traveler sees them from the train and wonders at the extraordinary-looking, dry, round bunches. there are other tumble-weeds, such as tumbling mustard, _sisymbrium allissimum_, and _amaránthus álbus_, not of this family. [illustration: hop sage--grayia polygaloides.] four-o'clock family. _nyctaginaceae._ a rather large family, widely distributed, most abundant in america. ours are herbs, often succulent, with no stipules; stems often fragile, swollen at the joints; leaves opposite, usually toothless, often unequal; flowers perfect, with no petals, but the calyx colored like a corolla, with four or five lobes or teeth, and more or less funnel-shaped; one or several flowers in a cluster with an involucre; stamens three to five, with slender filaments; style one, with a round-top stigma; the green base of the calyx drawn down around the ovary, making it appear inferior, and hardening into a nutlike fruit; seeds sometimes winged. quamoclidions have the odd habit of opening in the afternoon, hence the common name, four-o'clock. the flowers usually have five stamens, and are grouped several together in a cluster, which emerges from an involucre so much resembling a calyx that it is often mistaken for one. the effect is of the flowers having clubbed together and made one calyx do for the lot. the fruit is hard, smooth, and roundish. [sidenote: =four-o'clock= _quamoclídion multiflòrum._ (_mirabilis_) =pink, purple spring southwest and col.=] the leaves of this low, stout, and spreading perennial are an inch or two long, light bluish-green, somewhat heart-shaped, rather rough and coarse, and the stems are often hairy and sticky. the foliage contrasts strikingly in color with the gaudy pink or magenta flowers, an inch across and slightly sweet-scented, the shape of morning-glories and resembling them, as they have the same stripes of deeper color. the long stamens droop to one side, the pistil is long and purple and the bell-shaped involucre contains about six flowers. these plants are conspicuous and quite handsome. they grow on the plateau in the grand canyon. there are several kinds of hesperonia, much like quamoclidion, but the bell-shaped involucre contains only one flower, which is also bell-shaped, usually with five separate stamens. the fruit is roundish, not angled or ribbed, usually smooth. [illustration: four o'clock--quamoclidion multiflorum.] [sidenote: =california four-o'clock= _hesperònia califórnica_ (_mirabilis_) =magenta, pink spring, summer california=] this is very common in southern california and forms quite large, low clumps of rather yellowish green, sticky and hairy foliage, sprinkled with numbers of bright little flowers, opening in the afternoon. the base is woody and the weak, hairy stems are supported on bushes, as if climbing over them. the leaves are rather thick, about an inch long, and the flowers are open bell-shaped, about three-quarters of an inch across, usually magenta, but often pink of various shades, sometimes quite pale in tint with long stamens drooping to one side, and the involucre is often purplish and very hairy and sticky. the effect at a distance is gay and attractive, though the plant is not quite so pretty close by. [sidenote: _hesperònia glutinòsa var. grácilis_ =white, pinkish spring arizona=] this has a straggling, hairy, sticky stem, over a foot long, and thickish, dull-green leaves, hairy and sticky. the flowers are about half an inch long, white or tinged with pink, and are rather delicate and pretty, though the plant is not especially attractive. it blooms at night, the flowers gradually closing with the morning sun. this variety is common in the southern part of the state, in mountain canyons, and _hesperonia glutinosa_ is common in the north. there are several kinds of abronia, all american, with branching, usually sticky-hairy stems, thick, toothless leaves, with leaf-stalks, in pairs and one of each pair somewhat larger than the other. the flowers are more or less salver-form, with five lobes, a threadlike style, and from three to five, unequal stamens, on the tube of the perianth and not protruding from it. they are numerous and in clusters, with involucres, on long flower-stalks, from the angles of the leaves. the fruit is winged. the name is from the greek meaning graceful, but most of these plants are rather awkward in their manner of growth. [illustration: hesperonia glutinosa var. gracilis. california four o'clock--h. californica.] [sidenote: =sand puffs= _abrònia sálsa_ =white spring, summer, autumn utah=] this plant is, as a whole, so delicately tinted and so decorative in form, that it is most attractive, particularly against the sandy soil where it grows, deserving the greek name more than some of its slightly awkward sisters. it is about fourteen inches tall, with a stoutish, rather straggling, prostrate stem, which is pale, pinkish, sticky and fuzzy. the leaves have long leaf-stalks and are pale bluish-green, leathery and smooth, but fuzzy on the mid-vein of the under side, and the flowers are numerous, rather small, in handsome roundish clusters, which are about two inches across, with a papery, pinkish or yellowish involucre, of about five, separate, rounded bracts. the calyx is corolla-like and salver-form, with a long, yellowish or greenish tube and five lobes, prettily crinkled at the edges. the seed-vessel is very curious, resembling a round, yellowish sponge, with hooks sticking out of it, and the flowers are deliciously sweet-scented. this is sometimes called snowball. [sidenote: =pink sand-verbena= _abrònia villòsa_ =pinkish-lilac summer ariz., cal., utah=] the coloring of this plant, one of the prettiest of its kind, is striking and unusual, and makes it very conspicuous, growing in the sand near the sea or in the desert. the thickish leaves are light bluish-green and the thick stem, which straggles rather awkwardly over the ground, is a peculiar shade of pink and sticky and hairy, as are also the involucres. the small delicate flowers are an odd tint of pinkish-lilac, light but vivid, in striking contrast to the coloring of stems and foliage, and form very pretty clusters, with an involucre of five to fifteen papery bracts. they are very fragrant and look much like garden verbenas, so the name is not so unhappy as some. _a. umbellàta_ has slender stems and almost smooth leaves, sometimes with wavy margins, about an inch long, narrowed at base to a slender leaf-stalk, and deep-pink flowers. it is common all along the california coast and blooms in the summer and autumn. _a. marítima_ is found from santa barbara to san diego and is a very stout, coarse, sticky plant, with small, deep-magenta flowers. [illustration: sand verbena--abronia villosa.] [illustration: sand puffs--abronia salsa.] [sidenote: =yellow sand-verbena= _abrònia latifòlia_ =yellow spring, summer, autumn wash., oreg., cal.=] pretty at a distance, but rather coarse close by, a straggling plant, with long, thick, rubbery stems, lying on the ground, thickish leaves, and small yellow flowers, slightly fragrant and forming pretty clusters about an inch and a half across, with five bracts. this is common along the seashore, blooming more or less all through the year. it has a long, thick root, which is eaten by the indians. there are a good many kinds of allionia, one asiatic, the rest american. the bell-shaped flowers have unequal stamens, usually three, on the receptacle. the peculiar, five-lobed involucre, which becomes large and papery after flowering, contains from three to five flowers. the fruit is ribbed and often hairy. the shape of the involucre probably suggested the common name umbrella-wort. [sidenote: =narrow-leaved umbrella-wort= _alliònia lineàris_ =purple, pink, white summer utah, ariz., etc.=] a pretty plant, one to four feet tall, with a slender stem and long, narrow, bluish-green leaves, with somewhat wavy margins, and almost no leaf-stalks. the flowers are fragile and pretty, of various shades of pink, the shape of small morning-glories, half an inch across, the stamens and style protruding. there are from three to five in a cluster, in a purple and green involucre. this involucre is curious, for before the flowers come out it is closed around a bunch of buds, looking as if it were itself a pretty five-angled bud, and one would not suspect that there were other little buds inside it. when the flowers bloom and drop, which they do very soon, this involucre unfolds and expands until it becomes an exceedingly thin, papery, five-lobed disk, three-quarters of an inch across, veined with purple, very pretty and delicate, looking like an odd little flower without a heart. the smooth stem forks towards the top and the branches, which are slightly hairy, bear numerous clusters of involucres with flowers inside them. this grows in dry soil, is widely distributed and found as far east as illinois. [illustration: involucre of allionia linearis. yellow sand verbena--abronia latifolia.] [illustration] carpet-weed family. _aizoaceae._ not a very large family, mostly natives of warm regions. ours are branching herbs, lying mostly on the ground; leaves mostly opposite or in whorls; flowers perfect; sepals four or five; petals numerous, small or none; stamens few or many, usually on the calyx; ovary sometimes superior; fruit a capsule. in this country most of this family are dull little plants, with inconspicuous flowers. there are many kinds of mesembryanthemum, mostly african; ours are smooth, very succulent perennials; without stipules; leaves opposite; calyx-lobes unequal and leaf-like; petals long, narrow and very numerous, inserted with the innumerable stamens on the calyx-tube; ovary with ten or twelve styles, becoming a sort of berry, containing many minute seeds, and opening at the top in rainy weather. the terribly long name is from the greek, meaning "noonday flower." [sidenote: =ice-plant= _mesembryánthemum crystállinum_ =white, pinkish spring california=] one of the queerest looking plants that it is possible to imagine, the stout stems and large flat leaves thickly encrusted with millions of small translucent beads, resembling glass or ice and giving a glistening effect to the whole plant. they cluster especially thickly along the wavy margins and under sides of the leaves, and on the calyxes, and feel quite hard to the touch, but when they are crushed underfoot they exude a watery juice, which is said to be alkaline and injurious to shoe-leather. the stems and leaves are light bright-green, the tips and margins tinged with bright pinkish-red, especially on dry mesas, where this plant sometimes covers the ground for long distances with flat rosettes, forming a thick, red carpet, beautiful in color. in shadier, damper places, such as the crevices in the sea-cliffs at la jolla, it becomes quite a large, tall plant, scarcely tinged with red and very glistening. the flowers are about an inch across, with a greenish center, surrounded by numerous, small, yellowish anthers and a single row of many, white or flesh-colored petals, suggesting the tentacles of a sea-anemone. in fact the whole plant is curiously suggestive of some low form of animal life. it is very troublesome to farmers in the south near the sea, and also flourishes in the mohave desert, in france and the canary islands. [illustration] [illustration: ice-plant--mesembryanthemum crystallinum.] [sidenote: =sea fig, fig-marigold= _mesembryánthemum aequilateràle_ =pink spring california=] a very strange and conspicuous plant, often clothing sandy slopes with a curious mantel of trailing, fleshy stems and foliage thickly sprinkled with thousands of gaudy flowers. the stems are stout and flattish, several feet long; the leaves three-sided, with flat faces, tipped with a small reddish point; the calyx-lobes three-sided like the leaves. the stems, leaves, and the calyx-lobes are all pale bluish-green with a "bloom" and exceedingly succulent, the watery juice running out in large drops when the plant is broken. the twigs seem to be fitted into a sort of socket, from which they come out very easily, so that the plant comes apart almost at a touch. the fragrant flowers are two or three inches across, bright but crude in color, the numerous, purplish-pink petals resembling the rays of a composite and encircling a fuzzy ring of innumerable stamens, with white, threadlike filaments and small, straw-colored anthers, around a dark-green center, composed of the top of the calyx and the six to ten styles of the ovary. this accommodating plant is very useful and ornamental in hot, sandy places, where not much else will grow, and may be seen hanging its long stems over the sea-cliffs all along the coast, from patagonia to marin county in california. it also grows in africa and is extensively cultivated. the fruit is edible, with pulp and tiny seeds something like a fig. [illustration: sea fig--mesembryanthemum aequilaterale.] pink family. _caryophyllaceae._ a large family, widely distributed, most abundant in the northern hemisphere, including both the handsome pinks and the insignificant chickweeds. they are herbs, with regular, mostly perfect flowers, with four or five sepals; usually with four or five petals, sometimes with none; stamens as many, or twice as many, as the petals; ovary superior, one-celled; styles two to five in number; fruit a capsule, containing several or many, kidney-shaped seeds, opening by valves, or by teeth, at the top; leaves opposite, toothless; stems usually swollen at the joints. the name pink comes from the petals of some kinds being cut into points, or "pinked." there are numerous kinds of arenaria, widely distributed, difficult to distinguish, with small, white flowers with five petals, usually not notched, ten stamens and usually three styles; leaves usually long and narrow, often stiff and growing in tufts; capsule roundish, splitting into usually three valves, each with two parts. these plants often grow in dry, sandy places, some at very high altitudes, some by the sea, hence the latin name meaning "sandy," and the common one, sandwort. [sidenote: =fendler's sandwort= _arenària féndleri_ =white summer utah, ariz., etc.=] this has pretty little white flowers, about half an inch across, and is variable. sometimes the stem is roughish, only three or four inches tall, springing from a tuft of small leaves, stiff and almost prickly. sometimes the stem is smooth, six or eight inches tall, and the leaves resemble rather fine, stiff grass. this grows on dry hills and mountains, up to thirteen thousand feet, from nebraska and wyoming to utah, arizona, and new mexico. there are many kinds of silene, widely distributed, more or less sticky plants, hence the common name, catchfly; flowers mostly rather large; calyx inflated or tubular, with five teeth; petals five, with long claws, which often have scales at the top, forming a "crown"; stamens ten; styles usually three; capsule opening by three or six teeth at the tip; seeds numerous. [illustration: sandwort--arenaria fendleri.] [sidenote: =moss campion. cushion pink= _silène acàulis_ =purple summer alpine regions=] an attractive little dwarf, living only in the high mountains. it has a long tap-root and many spreading stems, crowded with tiny, stiff, pointed, dark-green leaves, forming close tufts, from six to twenty inches across, resembling cushions of harsh moss and spangled all over with pretty little flowers. they are less than half an inch across with a bell-shaped calyx and five bright pinkish-purple petals, occasionally white, with a "crown" of small scales. we find this brave little plant crouching on bleak mountain tops, blossoming gayly at the edge of the snows that never melt, in arctic alpine regions across the world, up to a height of thirteen thousand feet. it is variable. there is a picture in mrs. henshaw's _mountain wild flowers of canada_. [sidenote: =windmill pink= _silène Ánglica_ (_s. gallica_) =white spring northwest, etc.=] a rather inconspicuous "weed" from europe, common in fields and along roadsides, with a slender, hairy stem, about a foot tall, and hairy leaves. the small flowers grow in a one-sided cluster and have a purplish calyx, sticky and hairy, and white or pinkish petals, with a small "crown," each petal twisted to one side like the sails of a windmill. this is widely distributed in nearly all warm temperate regions. [sidenote: =indian pink= _silène califórnica_ =red summer northwest=] from six inches to over a foot tall, with a thick, perennial tap-root, one to two feet long, and branching, half-erect stems, both leaves and stems covered with fine down, the dull-green foliage contrasting well in color with the vivid vermilion of the gorgeous flowers. they are more than an inch across, the petals usually slashed into two broad lobes, flanked by two narrower, shorter points at the sides, the "crown" conspicuous. the flowers are even more brilliant in color than _s. laciniata_ and are startlingly beautiful, glowing like coals of fire on the brown forest floor, in the open mountain woods they usually frequent. it is widely distributed in the coast ranges and sierra nevada mountains, but nowhere very common. _s. hookeri_ has beautiful large pink flowers, often more than two inches across, sometimes white, and grows on shady hillsides in the northwest, except in idaho. [illustration: windmill pink--silene anglica. indian pink--silene californica.] [sidenote: =indian pink= _silène laciniàta_ =red summer california=] this has handsome conspicuous flowers, clear vermilion or pinkish-scarlet in color, about an inch and a half across, with the five petals prettily slashed at the ends into four long divisions. each petal has two little crests, which form a pretty "crown" in the throat of the corolla. the roughish, slender stems, from one to over two feet high, have several branches, the flowers growing two or three at the ends. the leaves are long, narrow, and rather rough and the whole plant is hairy and sticky. this is common around pasadena and other places in southern california and is beautiful on point loma, where the brilliant flowers gleam among the underbrush like bits of flame. _s. laciniàta var. gréggii_ is common in arizona and new mexico. [sidenote: _silène lyalli_ =white summer northwest=] rather pretty, with a slender stem about a foot tall, smooth, bluish-green leaves, and flowers about three-quarters of an inch across; the calyx much inflated, yellowish-white and papery, with brownish veins, and the petals cream-color, with two lobes and a "crown." there are a few kinds of vaccaria, of europe and asia, smooth annuals, with clasping leaves and red or pink flowers in terminal clusters; calyx five-angled and inflated in fruit, five-toothed, without bracts; petals longer than the calyx, without appendages; stamens ten; styles two. both the latin and common names allude to the value of some kinds for fodder. [sidenote: =cow-herb= _vaccària vaccària_ (_saponaria_) =pink summer across the continent=] quite pretty, with a leafy, branching stem, from one to three feet tall, bluish-green leaves, and flowers less than an inch long, with a ribbed, yellowish-green calyx, with reddish teeth, and the petals a very pretty and unusual shade of deep, warm reddish-pink, veined with deeper color. this is a european "weed," common in waste places and cultivated fields. [illustration: indian pink--silene laciniata.] [illustration: cow-herb--vaccaria vaccaria. silene lyalli.] there are many kinds of alsine, widely distributed, low herbs, liking moist ground and shady places, with small, starry white flowers; with four or five sepals; four or five petals, deeply two-lobed or none; three to ten stamens and three to five styles; capsule roundish or oblong, rather shorter than that of cerastium, splitting to below the middle, with twice as many valves as there are styles and many seeds. many of these plants are weeds. they are often called stitchwort. the greek name means "grove," the home of some kinds. [sidenote: =tall chickweed= _alsìne lóngipes._ (_stellaria_) =white summer northwest, nev., utah, etc.=] an attractive little plant, with smooth stems, from six to fifteen inches tall, and pretty little flowers, less than half an inch across, growing singly, or in loose clusters, with white petals which are deeply two-lobed, so that they appear to be ten. the capsule is almost black when ripe. this is common in moist and grassy places in yosemite and when growing in the shade is taller and more slender than in the open. it reaches an altitude of ten thousand feet and is found in the east and in asia. there are many kinds of cerastium, abundant in the temperate zone, resembling alsine, but usually downy and therefore called mouse-ear chickweeds. the flowers are white, usually with five sepals, five petals notched at the tips or with two lobes, ten or five stamens and five stigmas. the cylindrical capsule, often curved, splits at the top into ten teeth. [sidenote: =field chickweed= _cerástium arvénse_ =white spring, summer u. s.=] on the ledges moistened by the mist and spray that blow from the yosemite waterfalls, among the glistening, wet grasses, these pretty little white flowers are quite conspicuous. they smell pleasantly of honey, measure about half an inch across, and have more or less downy stems, from five to ten inches tall. this is the prettiest cerastium, though not so "mousy" as some, and grows in dry as well as moist situations. [illustration: field chickweed--cerastium arvense. tall chickweed--alsine longipes.] [illustration] purslane family. _portulacaceae._ a rather small family, mostly american; herbs, usually with thick, succulent leaves and stems, with flowers opening only in sunlight. they usually have only two sepals, but the petals number from two to five or more; the stamens are sometimes numerous, but when they are of the same number as the petals they are opposite them; the one-celled ovary is superior, becoming a many-seeded capsule. pusley, or purslane, is one of the commonest garden weeds; everybody knows how difficult it is to keep the spreading rosettes out of gravel walks, and we are all familiar with the gaudy, ephemeral flowers of the cultivated portulaca. the purslane-tree, or spek-boom, of south africa is often the principal food of elephants and its foliage gives the characteristic coloring to the landscape. there are several kinds of montia, closely related to claytonia, mostly natives of north america, rather succulent plants, very smooth and often with a "bloom." the flowers are white or pinkish, with two sepals; the five petals, equal or somewhat unequal, separate or more or less united at base; the stamens five or three; the style branches three; the capsule with three valves and one to three, shiny, black seeds, which when ripe are shot out of the capsule by the elastic closing of the valves. [sidenote: =miner's lettuce= _móntia parviflòra_ =white spring, summer west, except ariz.=] the indians gather these pretty succulent little plants for salad and indeed the tender, bright-green leaves look as if they would taste very nice. they grow in a loose bunch, with several stems, a few inches to a foot high. the root-leaves have long leaf-stalks and vary very much in size and shape, the earliest being long and narrow, like little green tongues, but the later ones oval, round and kidney-shaped, and they vary also in tint, in dry places being sometimes a dull yellowish-pink. the stem-leaves are quite odd, for a single pair have united around the stem and become a circular or somewhat two-lobed disk, one or two inches broad, the stalk piercing right through its center. this leaf forms a pretty, shallow saucer, with a small, loose cluster of tiny flowers, on slender flower-stalks, springing from the middle. this is common everywhere in orchards or vineyards, and in shady places in the foothills and canyons, and has long been cultivated in england for salad. it is also called indian lettuce and squaw cabbage. _m. perfoliàta_ is similar. [illustration] [illustration: miner's lettuce--montia parviflora.] [sidenote: =spring beauty= _móntia parvifòlia_ =white and pink spring northwest=] this charming little flower resembles the spring beauty of the east, _claytonia virginica_, and blooms in late spring, among the ferns and wet grasses near the yosemite waterfalls and in similar places. the white flowers, about three-quarters of an inch across, are often tinged with pink and the five stamens are violet. the tender stems, about eight inches tall, are weak and almost trailing and the pale-green leaves are smooth, the lower ones slightly thick and succulent, with little bulblets in the axils, which drop off in drying; the capsule mostly has only one seed. there are several kinds of claytonia, resembling montia. [sidenote: =spring beauty= _claytònia lanceolàta_ =pink and white spring northwest, cal., nev., and utah=] a pretty little plant, three or four inches high, with a juicy, reddish stem and thickish, bluish-green, juicy leaves, the root-leaf narrow, the two stem-leaves broader. the flowers, over half an inch across, are white, tinged and delicately veined with pink, with a little yellow at the base of the petals; the pistil and stamens pink; the two sepals yellowish-green. this grows on moist mountain slopes, up to an altitude of nine thousand feet, sometimes at the edge of the snow, is pretty and delicate and also resembles the eastern spring beauty. [illustration: spring beauties claytonia lanceolata. montia parvifolia.] [illustration] there are only one or two kinds of spraguea, natives of north america; low herbs, not very succulent, with fleshy roots; the leaves alternate, or from the root; the small flowers in coiled clusters; the two sepals and the four petals all papery; the stamens one, two, or three in number; the style long, with two stigmas; the capsule roundish, with two valves, containing few or many, shining, black seeds. [sidenote: =pussy-paws= _spràguea umbellàta_ (_calyptridium_) =pink summer, autumn northwest=] sandy spots in the mountains are often brightened by lovely patches of the soft pink blooms of this attractive and odd-looking little plant. near wawona, on the glacier point trail, i saw at least half an acre of sand carpeted with beautiful rose-color. in moderate altitudes the plants are about ten inches tall, but they get dwarfish as they climb and on the mountain-tops they are only an inch or so high, with close mats of small leaves. they have strong tap-roots and the leaves are dull gray-green, rather thick and stiff but hardly succulent, and grow mostly in rosettes at the base, those on the stem having shrunk to mere bracts, with several, smooth, reddish stalks springing from among them. each stem bears a close, roundish head, two or three inches across, consisting of many tightly-coiled tufts of shaded pink, each composed of innumerable, small, pink flowers, the papery, pink and white sepals and bracts being the most conspicuous part. they overlap each other and have daintily ruffled edges. the three stamens are long and protruding and the style long and threadlike. the flower-clusters are like soft pink cushions, so the pretty little name of pussy-paws is appropriate, both to form and coloring. chipmunks are very fond of the small, black seeds. [illustration] [illustration: pussy-paws--spraguea umbellata.] buttercup family. _ranunculaceae._ the members of this large and handsome family vary so much in appearance that it is difficult for the amateur to realize that they are nearly related. in fact they have no very distinctive characteristics. they are all herbs, except clematis, which is shrubby, and all have bitter juice, which is never milky or colored, numerous stamens and usually several pistils, which are superior and one-celled, bearing a single style, and all the parts of the flower are separate from each other and inserted on the receptacle. the flowers are often of eccentric forms, with spurs or hoods; sometimes they dispense with petals altogether and instead have colored sepals which resemble petals. the leaves are of all sorts and shapes, usually more or less lobed and cut, but have no stipules and often their bases clasp the stem. the fruit is an akene, pod, or berry. many of our most beautiful and popular garden flowers are included in this family, which is large and distributed throughout the world, but not abundant in the tropics. there are numerous kinds of ranunculus, mostly perennials, with fibrous roots, growing in temperate and cold regions. ours have yellow or white flowers, with three to five sepals and from three to fifteen petals, each of the petals with a nectar-gland at its base; the numerous pistils developing into a roundish or oblong head of akenes. the leaves are variously cut and lobed, the stem leaves alternate. some sorts grow in the water and some have creeping stems. some kinds of ranunculus are liable to be confused with some sorts of cinquefoils, but the calyx of a buttercup has no bractlets, as has that of a cinquefoil. the latin name means "little frog," as these plants like marshes. [sidenote: =common western buttercup= _ranúnculus califórnicus_ =yellow winter, spring wash., oreg., cal.=] the commonest kind are attractive, often coloring the fields for miles with bright gold, but the flowers are not so pretty as some common eastern kinds. the stems are branching and more or less hairy, nine inches to a foot and a half tall, with dark-green leaves, smooth, hairy or velvety, and velvety, hairy buds. the flowers are about an inch across, with from nine to sixteen, bright-yellow, shiny petals and pale-green sepals, turned closely back. the akenes have hooked beaks. this runs into many scarcely distinguishable varieties. [illustration: common western buttercup--ranunculus californicus.] few flowers are more beautiful and interesting in color and construction than larkspurs. we are all familiar with their tall spires of oddly-shaped blossoms, growing in gardens, and we find them even more charming in their natural surroundings, glowing like sapphires on desert sands, or adorning mountain woods with patches of vivid color. there are many kinds; ours are perennials, with palmately-divided leaves and usually blue or white flowers, very irregular in form, with five sepals, resembling petals, the upper one prolonged into a spur at the back, and usually four petals, two of which are small and inside the calyx-spur, the larger two partly covering the pistils and the numerous stamens. the pistils, from one to five, become many-seeded pods. some larkspurs are poisonous to cattle. the latin name is from a fancied resemblance of the flower to the dolphin of decorative art. spanish californians call it espuela del caballero, cavalier's spur. [sidenote: =blue larkspur= _delphínium scapòsum_ =blue summer ariz., new mex.=] though sometimes rather small, this is extremely pretty. in the grand canyon, on the plateau, it is about a foot tall, with rather leathery, brownish-green leaves, mostly from the root, and from five to twelve flowers in a cluster. they measure nearly an inch across and are brilliant and iridescent in coloring, as except for two small whitish petals, they are the deepest, brightest blue, exquisitely tinted with violet, with brown anthers. at tucson, among the rocks above the desert laboratory, it grows to over a foot in height, with a cluster over six inches long and light dull-green leaves, slightly stiff and thick, with long leaf-stalks, the lobes tipped with a bristle, forming a handsome clump. this grows on dry plains and rocky hillsides, up to seven thousand feet. the picture is from a grand canyon plant. [sidenote: =larkspur= _delphínium hánseni_ =white, pinkish summer california=] if the flowers were a little less pale in color this would be a gorgeous plant, for it sometimes grows nearly four feet high. the branching stem springs from a cluster of thick, tapering roots, each branch terminating in a long, crowded cluster of twenty or thirty flowers, opalescent in tint, either white, with a bluish or greenish spot on the tip of each sepal, or very pale pink, with a purplish or bluish spot. the dull, yellowish-green leaves are rather thickish and downy, the pods erect. this grows in dryish places, at moderate altitudes, and freely around yosemite. [illustration: foothills larkspur--delphinium scaposum.] [illustration: larkspur--delphinium hanseni.] [illustration] [sidenote: =blue larkspur= _delphínium bícolor_ =blue spring, summer northwest and utah=] a splendid flower when at its best, from six inches to a foot and a half tall, with a smooth stem, reddish below, and smooth, bright-green leaves, pale on the under side, round in general outline, the lower ones with long, reddish leaf-stalks sheathing the stem, the roots thick but not tuberous. the beautiful flowers are sometimes an inch and a half across, on long, rather spreading pedicels, few or many, in a long loose cluster, the buds slightly downy. the general effect of the flowers is deep bright-blue, but when we examine them more closely we find that the slightly woolly spurs are purplish, the blue sepals have on the back protuberances, which are pinkish on the front and greenish on the back, the two, small, upper petals are white, delicately striped with purple, and the lower ones, which are fuzzy with tufts of white down and two-cleft, are deep pinkish-purple; sometimes the whole flower is much paler in color. the anthers are large and green at first, becoming small and yellow, their threadlike filaments curling. this grows on dry hills. _d. párryi_, of california, is about two feet tall, similar in coloring, but even handsomer, with a cluster nearly a foot long, closely crowded with beautiful flowers, each an inch and a half across. the lower leaves are slashed nearly to the center, into seven divisions, each with three, long, narrow lobes. [illustration] [illustration: blue larkspur--delphinium bicolor.] [sidenote: =sacramento larkspur= _delphínium variegàtum_ =purple spring, summer california=] very handsome, over a foot tall, the upper stem downy, the lower more or less hairy and the leaves more or less velvety. the flowers are an inch or more long and rather few, with long pedicels, forming a loose cluster. they are downy on the outside, all bright-purple, except the two upper petals, which are white tipped with purple, the lower petals edged and tipped with hairs, the spur stoutish and wrinkled. these flowers, though described as blue, seem to me to have more true purple than most larkspurs. they probably vary a good deal in color. this grows in the coast ranges and the sacramento valley. there are many similar blue larkspurs. [sidenote: =scarlet larkspur, christmas-horns= _delphínium nudicaùle_ =red spring wash., oreg., cal.=] scarlet seems an odd color for a larkspur, but there are two red ones in the west. this is an exceedingly airy, graceful plant and suggests a columbine more than a larkspur. the stem is slender and branching, from one to over two feet tall, with a "bloom"; the leaves thickish, smooth, dark rich green on the upper side and pale on the under. the flowers are far apart, from two to twelve, on long pedicels, forming a very loose, open cluster. each flower is about an inch long; the sepals scarlet shading to yellow, the spur tipped with deeper red, the petals yellow tipped with crimson, not woolly, the two upper notched and much larger than the two lower ones, which are small and slashed into two points, the edges of both sepals and petals more or less hairy; the buds pale yellowish-green, tinged with pink and red. these charming flowers have an elfin look all their own, as they swing their little pointed red caps in the light shade of cool canyons along the mountain streams they love. in southern california we find _d. cardinàle_, a handsomer plant, sometimes six feet tall, its flowers larger and deeper red and forming a larger, closer cluster. [illustration: scarlet larkspur--delphinium nudicaule.] the picturesque columbine gets its melodious name from the latin for "dove," because the spurs suggest a circle of pretty little pigeons, and this common name is less far-fetched than the latin one, aquilegia, which comes from a fancied resemblance of the spurs to an eagle's claws. these plants are well known and easily recognized by the peculiar shape of the flowers. everything about them is decorative and beautiful, the foliage is pretty and the flowers large, brightly colored, and conspicuous. they are all perennials, with branching stems and compound leaves; the flowers usually nodding, with five sepals all alike and resembling petals, and five petals, also all alike, with conspicuous, hollow spurs. the stamens, the inner ones without anthers, are numerous and the five pistils develop into a head of five, erect, many-seeded pods. there is honey in the spurs, which can be reached only by "long-tongued" insects or humming birds, which thus assist in cross-pollination, and bees obviate the difficulty of having short tongues by ingeniously cutting holes in the spurs. there are a good many beautiful kinds, both east and west. [sidenote: =scarlet columbine= _aquilègia truncàta_ =red and yellow spring wash., oreg., cal.=] this charming plant grows from one to over three feet high, is branching and smooth, and has pretty light-green leaves and nodding flowers, which are over an inch and a half across. the outside of the corolla is pale-scarlet, veined and tipped with yellow, the inside is yellow and the spurs are erect and three quarters of an inch long. the flower resembles the scarlet columbine of the east, but the plant is taller, with fewer flowers. it is common in moist, rich woods in yosemite and the coast ranges, from the foothills well up to the alpine zone. [sidenote: =white columbine= _aquilègia leptocèra_ =white summer northwest and utah=] an exceedingly beautiful flower, a white sister of the large blue columbine, which is the "state flower" of colorado, and sometimes sufficiently tinged with blue to show the relationship. it is a rather slender plant, usually with several stems, from one to two feet tall, the foliage rather bluish-green, the flowers large and usually pure-white, and is found in the mountains. [illustration: scarlet columbine--aquilegia truncata.] [illustration] monkshoods have almost as much charm as their cousins columbine and larkspur, with a quaintness and individuality all their own. there are a good many kinds; mountain plants, growing in temperate regions, with rather weak stems and leaves much like those of larkspur. the blue and white blossoms have a "hood," which gives these plants their very appropriate name. this is formed by the upper and larger one of the five, petal-like sepals arching over and forming a hood, or helmet, under which the two small petals, with spurs and claws, are hidden; sometimes there are three or more petals below, which are minute and resemble stamens. the real stamens are numerous and ripen before the pistils, thus ensuring cross-pollination, and the fruit consists of a head, of from three to five, many-seeded pods. the thick or turnip-shaped root is used medicinally and is virulently poisonous, so these plants are sometimes called wolfsbane. aconite is the ancient greek name and other common names are blue-weed and friar's-cap. [sidenote: =monkshood= _aconìtum columbiànum_ =blue and white summer west=] this handsome perennial, from two to six feet tall, grows near streams, in mountain meadows or open woods. the flowers measure from half an inch to over an inch long and are mostly bright-blue and white, tinged with violet, but shade from almost white to deep-blue, veined with purple. they are paler inside and grow on slender pedicels, in a long loose cluster, on a somewhat bending stem. the two, small, hammer-shaped petals are nearly concealed under the hood. the leaves are alternate, the lower ones with long leaf-stalks, and deeply cleft into three or five, toothed or lobed, divisions. this reaches an altitude of twelve thousand feet. [illustration] [illustration: monkshood--aconitum columbianum.] [illustration] [sidenote: =wild peony= _paeònia bròwnii_ =dark-red winter, spring wash., oreg., cal.=] there are two kinds of peony. this is a robust and very decorative perennial, rich and unusual in coloring, the fine foliage setting off the dark flowers to perfection. the roots are woody, the stems smooth, from eight inches to a foot and a half tall, and the leaves are smooth, rich green, but not shiny. the nodding flowers are an inch and a half across, with five or six greenish-purple sepals, five or six petals, rich deep-red, tinged and streaked with yellow and maroon; dull-yellow stamens and green pistils. the whole flower is quite thick and leathery in texture and rather coarse, sometimes so dark that it is almost black. the flowers are often fragrant, but the plant has a disagreeable smell, something like skunk-cabbage, when crushed. the large seed-pods, usually five, are thick, leathery and smooth, with several seeds and are a very conspicuous feature, the stems drooping as they ripen and the pods resting on the ground in big bunches. the whole plant is rather succulent and the foliage and stems are more or less tinged with red and have a "bloom," especially on the sepals. this grows in all sorts of places, in the hot plains of the south and at the edge of the snow, in northern, mountain canyons. in the south it blooms in january and is sometimes called christmas-rose. the root is used medicinally by the spanish-californians and by the indians, "to give their horses long wind." these plants were named in honor of paion, the physician of the gods. [illustration] [illustration: wild peony--paeonia brownii.] [illustration] there are only a few kinds of actaea, tall perennials, with large, alternate, thrice-compound leaves and small, white flowers, in short, terminal clusters. the sepals number about four and resemble petals; the petals are from four to ten, or sometimes none, with claws; the stamens are numerous, with conspicuous white filaments; the one pistil has a broad, somewhat two-lobed, stigma, and the fruit is a large, showy, red or white, somewhat poisonous berry, containing many, smooth, flat seeds. [sidenote: =baneberry= _actaèa argùta_ =white spring, summer west, except ariz.=] this is a fine plant, from one to two feet tall, with a stoutish, smooth, branching stem and handsome leaves, prettily cut, with pointed teeth, thin and soft in texture, with conspicuous veins. the sepals and petals of the small cream-white flowers are less conspicuous than the numerous white stamens, which give a very feathery appearance to the flower-cluster, which is one or two inches long and speckled with the dark tips of the pistils. the sepals and petals drop off early and the stamens lengthen, so that the cluster becomes very airy and delicate. the general effect of the plant, which grows near shady mountain streams, is striking and graceful. it grows also in the east and is sometimes slightly sweet-scented, but often has an unpleasant smell. the handsome, poisonous berries are oval or round, red or white, with a polished surface, and contain many seeds. this reaches an altitude of ten thousand feet. a very similar kind, _a. viridiflòra_, grows in the mountains of arizona. [illustration] [illustration: baneberry--actaea arguta.] [sidenote: =globe-flower= _tróllius láxus_ =white spring u. s.=] this is our only kind of trollius. it is an exceedingly beautiful flower, particularly when found growing in the snow, or near the edge of a field of melting ice, in high mountains and along the margins of glaciers. the handsome, toothed leaves are palmately-lobed or divided, the lower ones with long leaf-stalks, rich green and glossy and setting off the flowers, which grow singly at the tips of smooth, rather weak stems, from one to two feet tall, and measure about an inch and a half across. the sepals, from five to seven in number, are large, cream-white, slightly greenish outside, and are the conspicuous part of the flower, for the petals are very small and yellow, so that they resemble stamens. from fifteen to twenty-five of these little petals, in a row, surround the numerous, real stamens and form a beautiful golden center. the fruit is a head, measuring an inch across, composed of eight to fifteen small pods, with beaks, containing many, smooth, oblong seeds. this plant looks very much like an anemone but it has these small yellow petals and anemones have none, and the center is larger and brighter yellow and the foliage coarser. there are three kinds of trautvetteria, two american and one asiatic. [sidenote: =false bugbane= _trautvettèria grándis_ =white summer west=] a handsome plant, with a smooth, pale-green stem, from two to three feet tall, and fine large leaves, prettily cut, smooth and rather bright green, the lower ones sometimes eight inches across. the white flower clusters are large, very pretty, airy and feathery, consisting of numerous small flowers, with small petal-like sepals, usually four, and no petals, the numerous stamens, with white filaments, being the conspicuous part and forming a little pompon. the akenes are numerous, inflated and four-angled, and form a head. it is a pity that this attractive plant has such a horrid name. it grows in moist woods at mt. rainier and in similar places. [illustration: false bugbane--trautvetteria grandis.] anemones grow in temperate and cold regions everywhere. they have no petals, but their sepals, numbering from four to twenty, resemble petals. the stem-leaves are in whorls, forming a kind of involucre below the flower. there are many kinds; some have nearly smooth, pointed akenes, some densely woolly ones, and in some the akenes have feathery tails. the name, pronounced anemòne in latin and in english anémone, is appropriate to the fragile kinds, such as the eastern wood anemone, for it means "flower shaken by the wind." [sidenote: =canyon anemone= _anemòne sphenophýlla_ =white spring arizona=] an attractive plant, eight inches to a foot tall, with pretty flowers and foliage. the flowers are white, tinged with pink, less than an inch across, often downy outside, and the head of fruit is oblong, sleek, and silky downy. this grows on dry, rocky slopes in the grand canyon, above the plateau. around tucson the flowers are less pretty, but the foliage handsomer. [sidenote: =three-leaved anemone= _anemòne deltoìdea_ =white summer wash., oreg., col.=] delicate, pale flowers, conspicuous in dark mountain woods, with slightly downy, purplish stems, from eight to ten inches tall, and pretty leaves, thin in texture, the involucre-leaves without leaf-stalks, rather light-green, dull on the upper side, paler and shiny on the under. the pretty flowers are an inch and a half to over two inches across, with five, pure-white sepals, usually two of them larger and longer than the others, and a light bright-yellow center. this is abundant at mt. rainier. _a. quinquefòlia var. gràyi_, of the coast ranges, is similar, the flower often tinged with blue, the involucre-leaves with leaf-stalks. [sidenote: =northern anemone= _anemòne parviflòra_ =white summer northwest=] a pretty little plant, with a rather hairy, reddish stem, from four to twelve inches tall, glossy, dark-green leaves, paler and downy on the under side, and flowers about half an inch across, cream-white, tinged with purple or blue on the outside; the akenes very woolly. this reaches an altitude of ten thousand five hundred feet, growing in the east and in asia and is the smallest of the mountain anemones. [illustration: northern anemone--a. parviflora. three-leaved anemone--a. deltoidea. canyon anemone--a. sphenophylla.] [illustration] [sidenote: =western anemone= _anemòne occidentàlis_ =white spring northwest=] these beautiful mountain flowers bloom in early spring, sometimes poking their pretty faces right through a hole melted in a snow-bank, and the brave little things are quite thickly covered with silky wool all over, as if to keep themselves warm. the flowers, which often bloom before the leaves expand, are about two inches across, with five to eight, cream-white sepals, tinged with blue and hairy on the outside, and are much less delicate looking than most anemones. the stout stems are very woolly, from six to eighteen inches tall, and the leaves are beautiful, cut into numerous, very fine divisions, exceedingly feathery and pretty. the akenes have long, feathery tails and form very large, silky, fluffy heads, which are very handsome and conspicuous. there are a good many kinds of caltha, succulent marsh plants, of temperate and arctic regions; the leaves undivided, mostly from the base and more or less heart-shaped; the flowers with large, petal-like sepals and no petals. this is the latin name of the marigold. [sidenote: =white marsh marigold= _cáltha leptosépala_ =white summer northwest=] a pretty little mountain, marsh plant with a smooth, stout, purplish stem from four to eight inches tall, and smooth, light-green leaves, often veined with purple on the under side. the flowers are an inch and a quarter across, with eight or ten, cream-white sepals, tinged with blue on the outside, and pretty golden centers of numerous stamens. this blooms at the edge of the retreating snow and reaches an altitude of twelve thousand feet. _c. palústris_, the yellow marsh marigold, found in the northwest and common in the east, has beautiful yellow flowers, resembling large buttercups. [illustration] [illustration: western anemone--anemone occidentalis. white marsh marigold--caltha leptosepala.] [illustration] there are many varieties of clematis, or virgin's bower, familiar to us all, both east and west, and general favorites, widely distributed and flourishing in temperate regions; perennials, woody below, which is unusual in this family. usually they are beautiful trailing vines, which climb over bushes and rocks, holding on by their twisting, curling leaf-stalks. the flowers have no petals, or only very small ones, but their sepals, usually four, resemble petals; the stamens are numerous. the numerous pistils form a round bunch of akenes, their styles developing into long feathery tails, and these gray, plumy heads are very conspicuous and ornamental, when the flowers are gone. the leaves are opposite, which is unusual in this family, with slender leaf-stalks, and are usually compound. some plants have only staminate flowers and some only pistillate ones, and the appearance is quite different, the flowers with stamens being handsomer. [sidenote: =virgin's bower, pipe-stem= _clématis lasiántha_ =white, pale-yellow spring california=] near the summit of mt. lowe, and in similar places, we find this beautiful vine clambering over the rocks. the flowers measure an inch and a quarter to over two inches across and they vary in tint from almost pure white to a lovely soft shade of pale-yellow, the handsome clusters forming a beautiful contrast to the dark-green foliage. the stamens and pistils are on different plants. the flowers, leaves, and stems are all more or less velvety and the akenes have tails an inch long, forming a head, about two inches across. the flowers are often so numerous as to make conspicuous masses of pale color on canyon sides, in the coast range and sierra nevada mountains. [illustration] [illustration: virgin's bower--clematis lasiantha.] there are a few kinds of atragene, resembling clematis. [sidenote: =purple clematis= _atrágene occidentàlis (clematis)_ =violet, blue summer west=] this is peculiarly attractive, as the flowers are large and beautiful and the foliage very pretty. the leaves are divided into three, pointed leaflets, which are thin in texture, light bright-green and prettily cut or lobed, and the trailing or climbing stems are almost smooth, slender and purplish above and woody below. the flowers, which are not in clusters, measure from two to three inches across, with four, sometimes five, violet or blue sepals, spreading widely as the flower grows older, and the outer stamens are broad and resemble small petals. the flowers are followed by handsome feathery heads, which are large and silky. this pretty vine is found in the grand canyon, not far below the rim, and in many mountain places. the foliage varies somewhat in different climates. there are many kinds of thalictrum, not easily distinguished, widely distributed, a few in the andes, india, and africa; perennials, with tall stems, from a short rootstock, and handsome, compound leaves; the flowers perfect or imperfect, many, small, in clusters, with four to seven sepals and no petals; the akenes tipped with the long styles and forming a head. some of these plants have a disagreeable smell. they grow in moist places, both east and west. [sidenote: =meadow rue= _thalíctrum féndleri_ =greenish-white summer west=] though its flowers are small and colorless, this plant is conspicuous for delicacy and grace. the leaves of tender green suggest the fronds of maidenhair fern and are almost as beautiful, while the flowers are odd and pretty. a shower of numerous, pale-yellow stamens, with purplish, threadlike filaments, falls from the center of four, greenish-white sepals and forms a charming little tassel. these tassels hang on the ends of very slender pedicels, in loose clusters. the smooth stems are from one to three feet tall and the smooth leaves are thin in texture, thrice-compound, with many, rounded leaflets, the lower leaves with long leaf-stalks. this meadow rue has its pistils and stamens on different plants, the flowers with tassels of stamens being prettier and more conspicuous than the small, green, pistillate ones. the variety _wrìghtii_ is common in arizona. [illustration: lilac clematis--atragene occidentalis.] [illustration: meadow rue--thalictrum fendleri.] barberry family. _berberidaceae._ not a large family, widely distributed; shrubs or herbs; leaves alternate or from the root; flowers perfect; sepals and petals few, many, or none, generally in several overlapping rows; stamens on the receptacle, usually as many as the petals and opposite them; pistil one, with a short style, or none; fruit a berry or capsule. there are several kinds of vancouveria, perennial herbs with slender, creeping rootstocks; named after vancouver the explorer. [sidenote: =inside-out flower, barrenwort= _vancouvèria parviflòra_ =white, lilac spring wash., oreg., cal.=] a charming woodland plant, its airy flower cluster, which has much the effect of an alum-root, in beautiful contrast to the crisp, evergreen foliage. the large leaves are all from the root, with wiry, purplish leaf-stalks and beautifully-shaped leaflets, each an inch or more broad, pale on the under side, the older leaves dark, rich green, leathery and very glossy and the younger ones bright apple-green and thinner in texture. they form a handsome cluster, varying a good deal in size, and the general effect suggests some very crisp and sturdy sort of maidenhair fern. the stem is from one to two feet tall, wiry, purplish, and hairy, and bears a very loose cluster of tiny, drooping, white or lilac-tinged flowers. the six, white sepals resemble petals; the six, white petals are smaller than the sepals, lined with yellow, and there are six to nine bracts, resembling sepals, and six stamens. the minute buds are purplish and the little flowers are exceedingly pretty and odd, when we examine them closely, for the sepals turn back so abruptly from the tiny petals, and from the projecting cluster of stamens, that the name inside-out flower is appropriate. the fruit is a kind of capsule with many seeds. this grows in shady woods, especially among redwoods, up to seven thousand feet. _v. hexándra_ has thinner leaflets, not evergreen, and the leaflets of _v. chrysántha_ have white margins. [illustration: inside-out flower--vancouveria parviflora.] [illustration] there are many kinds of barberry, widely distributed; shrubs, with yellow wood; the leaves often spiny and the flowers yellow; the sepals six to nine, with bracts and resembling petals; the petals six, in two overlapping rows, each with two glands at the base; the stamens six, with anthers that open by little valves like trap-doors, hinged at the top, sensitive and, when they are touched, closing around the shield-shaped stigma; the fruit a berry, with one or few seeds. [sidenote: =oregon grape, trailing barberry= _bérberis rèpens_ =yellow spring cal., ariz., utah, nev.=] this does not look much like the common cultivated kinds of barberry, for it grows close to the ground in a straggling bunch. in favorable situations it is a handsome and conspicuous plant. the leaves, with from three to seven leaflets, are stiff, prickly, and evergreen like holly, and the yellow flowers are in clusters at the ends of the stems, with opposite bracts. the six sepals, petals, and stamens are all opposite, that is, with a petal in front of each sepal and a stamen in front of each petal. in arizona the flowers are rather small and the clusters short, but in utah they are far handsomer, rich golden-yellow and sweet-scented, forming clusters two inches long. the fruit is a handsome blue berry with a "bloom," the color of wild grapes, contrasting well with the foliage when it turns red in the autumn, and delicious jelly is made from them. _b. aquifòlium_, of oregon and washington, is similar, with much more beautiful, very shining leaves. _b. féndleri_, of the southwest, is from three to six feet high, the branches smooth and shiny as if varnished, the leaves with smooth edges or spiny teeth, and the flowers in numerous drooping clusters. the calyx has conspicuous, red bracts and the berry is red. [illustration] [illustration: oregon grape--berberis repens.] [sidenote: =sweet-after-death= _Áchlys triphýlla_ =white summer wash., oreg., cal.=] the only kind, an attractive perennial, popular on account of its sweet-smelling foliage, which, however, is not fragrant until the leaves are dried. it has a very slender rootstock and only one large leaf, with a very long, slender leaf-stalk and three, oddly-shaped leaflets, from two to six inches across, bright-green, smooth and thin in texture, but not glossy. the single, very slender flower-stalk, from one to two feet tall, bears a crowded spike of many, tiny, scentless, white flowers, without either calyx or corolla, but consisting of a cluster of stamens, with long, threadlike filaments, the outer ones broader, and a pistil with a broad stigma and no style. the effect of the cluster is feathery and pretty and the broad leaf is very conspicuous, on account of its size and shape. the crescent-shaped fruit contains one seed, is at first fleshy, but becomes dry and leathery. this grows in the woods in the coast ranges, from near sea-level up to seven thousand feet. it is also called vanilla leaf and deer-foot. water lily family. _nymphaeaceae_. a small family, widely distributed in fresh-water lakes and streams; aquatic, perennial herbs, with thick, horizontal rootstocks, or with tubers, large, floating, or erect leaves, and large, solitary flowers, with long flower-stalks; sepals three to twelve; petals three to many; stamens six to numerous; ovary superior, stigmas distinct or united into a disk. we have no white water lilies in the west. [sidenote: =indian pond lily, spatter-dock= _nymphaèa polysépala (nuphar)_ =yellow summer cal., oreg., wash., col., wyo.=] like the eastern spatter-dock, this is a coarse, but rather handsome and decorative plant. the leathery leaves are shaped like a rounded heart and sometimes a foot long. the cup-shaped calyx, two to four inches across, is the conspicuous part of the flower, consisting of seven to twelve, thickish sepals, yellow and petal-like, the outer greenish. there are twelve to eighteen petals, half an inch long, resembling stamens. the real stamens have dark-red anthers, but yellow pollen, and both petals and stamens are densely crowded around the ovary. the round fruit has a narrow neck, concave top, and many seeds. in quiet mountain ponds we find these yellow flowers, on stout stems standing up out of the water, the lily-pads floating idly on its surface. indians grind the seeds into meal for porridge, or else roast them and eat them like popcorn. [illustration: sweet-after-death--achlys triphylla.] strawberry shrub family. _calycanthaceae_. a very small family, of only two genera, one north american, one japanese; aromatic shrubs, with opposite, toothless leaves, with short leaf-stalks, without stipules; flowers large, solitary, at the ends of leafy branches; sepals, petals, and stamens, indefinite in number, in many, overlapping series, passing one into the other, so that one cannot tell which is which, and all borne on the receptacle, which is hollow, resembling a rose-hip, almost enclosing the numerous pistils; stamens short, the inner ones without anthers; receptacle becoming a large, leathery, oblong or pear-shaped fruit, containing few or many, smooth, shining akenes. there are three kinds of calycanthus in this country, two of them eastern; flowers purple or red, stamens inserted in several rows. [sidenote: =strawberry shrub= _calycánthus occidentàlis_ =red summer california=] this resembles the familiar shrub of old-fashioned gardens and the flowers have the same pleasant and elusive aroma, something like strawberries, much more spicy when crushed. the shrub is four to ten feet high, with rather coarse, harsh foliage and large, handsome flowers, two or three inches across, warm maroon in color, shading to brown and purple, with yellow stamens. this is handsome and conspicuous, because of the uncommon and rich coloring of its flowers, and grows along watercourses in the canyons of the foothills and is most common in northern california. it has many other names, such as sweet shrub, carolina allspice, wineflowers, etc. [illustration: strawberry shrub--calycanthus occidentalis.] poppy family. _papaveraceae_. a rather large family, widely distributed, most abundant in the north temperate zone; herbs, rarely shrubs, with milky, mostly yellow juice and narcotic or acrid properties; the leaves mostly alternate, without stipules; the parts of the flower usually all separate and distinct, borne on a top-shaped receptacle. there are usually two sepals, which fall off when the blossom opens, and usually four petals, overlapping and crumpled in the bud; the stamens are usually numerous and conspicuous, with thread-like filaments; the superior ovary becomes a many-seeded capsule. there are only two kinds of romneya, much alike, smooth, stout, perennial herbs, several feet high, with colorless sap, the leaves alternate and more or less divided; three sepals, each with a broad wing on the back; six, large, white petals; many stamens; the ovary covered with bristles. these plants are nowhere common, but are found from santa barbara south, and in lower california sometimes grow in great profusion. they are extensively cultivated and much admired abroad. [sidenote: =matilija poppy, giant poppy= _romnèya trichocàlyx_ =white summer california=] this is often considered the handsomest flower in the west and it would be hard to find anything more beautiful and striking than its magnificent blossoms. the plant has somewhat the effect of a peony-bush, sometimes, in cultivation, as much as five feet high, with many smooth stems and handsome, smooth, light-green foliage, the leaves cut and lobed, those near the top with a few prickles. the splendid flowers are enormous, from five to nine inches across, with diaphanous, white petals, crinkled like crêpe tissue-paper, and bright golden centers, composed of hundreds of yellow stamens surrounding a greenish-white pistil. the blossoms remain open for several days. the hard, round buds are covered with short, brown hairs. this is the true matilija poppy, (pronounced matíliha,) as it is the kind that grows in the canyon of that name, but the tremendous floods of drowned most of these beautiful plants in that locality. _r_. _còulteri_ is similar, but the buds are smooth and the stems more robust. [illustration: matilija poppy--romneya trichocalyx.] there are several kinds of argemone, natives of the warmer parts of america, with bitter, yellow juice, spiny-toothed leaves and large, conspicuous flowers, the buds erect; sepals two or three, with odd little horns; petals twice as many as the sepals; stamens numerous; style very short, with a radiate stigma; capsule prickly, oblong, opening at the top, containing numerous seeds. [sidenote: =thistle poppy, milk thistle= _argemòne híspida_ =white summer southwest=] the prickly, bluish-green foliage of this decorative and handsome plant is thistle-like both in form and color. the leafy, branching stems, two or three feet high, are covered with dense, white or yellowish prickles and bear several lovely flowers, over three inches across, with delicately crumpled, white petals and beautiful golden centers, composed of numerous yellow stamens, both stem and leaves having a bluish "bloom." the three prickly green sepals each have a spine-like beak and form a queer-looking, three-horned bud; the pistil has a purplish, cap-shaped stigma, with six lobes, and the prickly ovary becomes a very prickly capsule. this grows in dry places and looks very beautiful and striking when we find its fragile flowers waving in the wind against a background of hot desert sand. it varies a good deal in prickliness and in the form both of plant and flower. when there is only one large flower in bloom, surrounded by a circle of prickly buds, it suggests a fairy princess, guarded by a retinue of fierce warriors. the flowers are often quite broad and flat, and then are sometimes given the prosaic name of fried-eggs. there are many kinds of papaver; with milky juice, leaves lobed or cut, nodding flower buds, showy regular flowers, with two or three sepals and four to six petals. the stigmas are united to form a disk with rays and the fruit is a round or oblong capsule, opening near the top. both the latin and common name, poppy, are ancient. opium is made from _p. somníferum_ of the mediterranean. [illustration: thistle poppy--argemone hispida.] [sidenote: =wind poppy= _papàver heterophýllum_ =red spring california=] a slender, graceful plant, one or two feet tall, with smooth, branching, purplish stems, smooth leaves, variously cut and lobed, and charming flowers, gay yet delicate. they are about an inch and a half across, usually with four, scarlet petals, each with a spot of maroon at the base, and a bright-green pistil and maroon filaments with pale-yellow anthers. the buds and seed-pods are smooth. this varies a good deal, smells strong of opium when picked, and its flowers glow like jewels among the underbrush on open hillsides, but fall to pieces when gathered. there are a good many kinds of eschscholtzia, with bitter, watery juice; leaves alternate, cut into many fine divisions; buds erect; flowers yellow; receptacle cuplike, often with a rim; the two sepals united to form a pointed cap, which is pushed off by the four petals as they expand; stamens numerous, with short filaments and long anthers; style very short, usually with four stigmas; pod long, narrow and ribbed, containing many seeds. these plants were collected at san francisco in by von chamisso, a german poet and naturalist, and named in honor of his friend eschscholtz, a botanist. [sidenote: =california poppy= _eschschóltzia califórnica_ =yellow spring cal., oreg.=] probably the most celebrated western flower and deservedly popular. it varies a great deal in general form and coloring, but is usually a fine plant, over a foot tall, with stems and leaves a beautiful shade of light bluish-green, and the flowers two or three inches across, usually bright-yellow, shading to orange at the base, but sometimes almost cream-color. they open in sunlight and when blooming in quantities are a beautiful sight, covering the hillsides with a cloth of gold. in southern arizona a similar kind often borders the dry beds of streams with bright color, with much the same value in the landscape as the marsh marigolds along new england streams. it is the state flower of california and has many poetic spanish names, such as torosa, amapola, and dormidera, besides copa de oro, meaning "cup of gold." [illustration: california poppy--eschscholtzia californica.] [illustration: wind poppy--papaver heterophyllum.] there are several kinds of dendromecon, smooth shrubs, with alternate, toothless, leathery leaves and yellow flowers, with two sepals and four petals; stamens numerous, with short filaments; ovary with a short style and two, oblong stigmas. the name is from the greek for "tree" and "poppy." [sidenote: =tree poppy= _dendromécon rígida_ =yellow all seasons california=] this is not a true poppy, but the flowers are sufficiently like to be quite surprising when we find them growing on what appears to be a small willow tree! it is a handsome and decorative shrub, both in form and color, two to eight feet high, with pale woody stems, the main stem with shreddy bark, and light bluish-green foliage, the leaves something like those of willow, but quite stiff and leathery, with a little pointed tip, the short leaf-stalks twisted so as to bring the leaf into a vertical position. sprinkled all over the bush are numbers of beautiful, clear golden-yellow flowers, one to three inches across, with orange-colored anthers and a pale-yellow pistil. this grows on dry, sunny hillsides, at middle altitudes, and is common in southern california, but is particularly fine near santa barbara. the flowers have a slight smell like cucumber and may be found in bloom at all seasons of the year. the ribbed seed-pod is long and narrow. there is only one kind of platystemon, with stem leaves opposite or in whorls; sepals three, soon falling; petals six; stamens many, with broad, flat filaments. the numerous pistils are at first partly united, forming a compound ovary; when ripe they separate into knotted pods, which break apart between the seeds. the name means "broad stamens." [sidenote: =cream-cups= _platystèmon califórnicus_ =cream-color spring cal., oreg., ariz.=] pretty graceful plants, their creamy blossoms often whitening the spring meadows. the slender hairy stems are about a foot tall, the leaves and the nodding buds light-green and hairy, and the pretty flowers, about an inch across, are delicate cream-color, the petals often stained with bright-yellow, either at the tip or base, or both, with pretty creamy centers. this is common in the foothills, plains, and valleys. [illustration: bush poppy--dendromecon rigida.] [illustration: cream-cups--platystemon californicus.] bleeding heart family. _fumariaceae._ a small family, widely distributed; very smooth, tender, perennial herbs, with watery juice; alternate, compound leaves, finely cut, lobed and fringed into many divisions, and irregular, perfect flowers, of peculiar shape, with two, scale-like sepals, and four petals, the inner pair narrower than the outer and united by their tips over the stamens and style. the six stamens are in two, equal sets, the filaments of each set somewhat united, the middle anther of each set with two cells, the others with only one. the superior ovary develops into a long, dry, one-celled capsule, containing shiny, black seeds. this family has been united to the poppies by bentham and hooker, because the plan of the flowers is similar, though their appearance is unlike. there are several kinds of bicuculla, natives of north america and asia; perennials, with beautiful foliage and decorative flowers, of the curious and intricate shape we are familiar with in old-fashioned gardens. the pedicels have two bracts; the corolla is heart-shaped at base; the outer pair of petals are oblong and concave, with spreading tips and spurred or pouched at base, the inner pair are narrow and clawed, with crests or wings on the back; the style is slender, with a two-lobed stigma, each lobe with two crests. the creeping rootstock is surrounded by a bulb-like cluster of fleshy grains. these plants are often called dutchman's breeches, from the shape of the flower, which, of course, also gives the pretty name bleeding heart. bicuculla is from the latin, meaning "double-hooded." [sidenote: =bleeding heart= _bicucúlla formòsa (dicentra)_ =pink summer cal., oreg., wash.=] this is a very beautiful and interesting plant, about two feet tall, with delicate pale-green leaves, beautifully cut and lobed, all from the root, with very long leaf-stalks, and a few, graceful sprays of purplish-pink flowers, each about three-quarters of an inch long. this has a fleshy, spreading rootstock and grows in shady spots, in rich, moist woods, at moderate altitudes, but is not very common. it is found in the yosemite valley. _b. uniflòra_ is a diminutive alpine plant, from one to three inches high, usually with only one white or flesh-colored flower, about half an inch long, which is often hidden among dead leaves. this grows in rich soil on mountain sides in the wasatch and teton mountains and in the sierra nevada, and is found in the yosemite valley and on mt. lyall, at a height of ten thousand five hundred feet. this is called squirrel corn and steer's head. [illustration: bleeding heart--bicuculla formosa.] [illustration] [sidenote: =golden eardrops= _bicucúlla chrysántha (dicentra)_ =yellow summer california=] the general appearance of this handsome plant is striking and japanese in effect, and the coloring of the feathery, pale-green foliage and the golden-yellow flowers is exceedingly odd and beautiful. the large, finely-cut leaves are sometimes a foot long, and resemble delicate ferns, and the smooth, stout, rather coarse flower-stems bear a few pretty flowers, which are a soft shade of yellow, about three-quarters of an inch long, the usual bleeding heart shape, but not drooping, and with a strong narcotic odor, much like that of poppies. this is sometimes as much as four feet high and grows in sunny places on dry ridges in the coast ranges, but is nowhere common. there are many kinds of capnoides, natives of the north temperate zone and africa. they have oddly-shaped flowers, something like bleeding heart, but with only one spur, at the back on the upper side, instead of two. the name is from the greek, meaning "smokelike," in allusion to the odor of some kinds. [illustration] [illustration: golden eardrops--bicuculla chrysantha.] [illustration] [sidenote: =golden corydal= _capnoìdes aùreum_ (_corydalis_) =yellow spring west=] this has hollow, branching and spreading stems, from six to fourteen inches tall, with very pretty, delicate, pale-green foliage and bright-yellow flowers, each about half an inch long, on slender pedicels, in a loose cluster. the spurs give them a quaint and pert effect. the style stays on the tip of the long curved capsule, which looks like a bean-pod, drooping or sticking out at an awkward angle from the stem. this is especially fine in some of the mountain valleys in utah, making beautiful clumps of foliage; it is widely distributed and is also found in the east. in the west it is sometimes called dutchman's breeches and confused with that plant, but rather absurdly so, for the dutchman could have only one leg! [sidenote: =pink corydalis= _capnoìdes scoúleri_ (_corydalis_) =pink summer wash., oreg.=] a very beautiful and decorative plant, two or three feet tall, with large, exceedingly graceful leaves, vivid yet delicate in color and thin in texture, beautifully cut and lobed. the flowers are about an inch long, pale-pink shaded with deeper color, each with a long, cylindrical spur, and form pretty clusters, which show up very effectively against the tender green of the large clumps of delicate foliage, which are conspicuously beautiful. this grows in rich soil, in mountain woods, and is charming in the forests in mt. rainier national park. [illustration] [illustration: golden corydal--c. aureum. pink corydalis--capnoides scouleri.] mustard family. _cruciferae._ a large family, widely distributed. both the english and latin names are appropriate, for the watery juice of these plants is pungent, like mustard, and the flowers spread out their four petals in the form of a cross. they are herbs, the leaves alternate or from the root, usually with no leaf-stalks. the flowers have four petals, with claws; four sepals, the two outer ones narrow, apt to drop off; six stamens, two of them short. the ovary is superior, usually with a single style and stigma, and usually develops into a pod, divided in two by a transparent partition, which remains after the pod has opened from below; in some kinds the pod remains closed. the flowers generally grow in clusters and though they are often small they produce honey and so are frequented by bees and flies. the family is easily recognized by the four petals and in most species by two stamens being shorter than the others, but the flowers are so much alike that the various kinds have to be determined by examining the fruit. radish and horse-radish, mustard and water-cress all belong to this family, as well as many familiar garden flowers, such as sweet alyssum, candytuft, rockets, and stocks, and many are common weeds, such as peppergrass and shepherd's purse. there are several kinds of dentaria, smooth perennials, with rather large white or pink flowers and tuberous rootstocks. [sidenote: =milk maids, pepper-root= _dentària califórnica_ =white, pink spring cal., oreg.=] a charming plant, with a purplish stem, from six inches to two feet tall, and pretty leaves, varying in shape, those from the root being roundish in outline, or with three leaflets, but the stem-leaves with three or five leaflets. the flowers are about three-quarters of an inch across, with pure-white or pale-pink petals. this is one of the loveliest of the early spring flowers in the coast ranges and usually found in damp spots, both in woods and open places, often whitening the meadows with its blossoms. [illustration: milk maids--dentaria californica.] there are a good many kinds of thelypodium, natives of north america, all western or southwestern; mostly smooth plants, the leaves usually with leaf-stalks, the flowers in clusters; stamens long, conspicuous, with very narrow, arrow-shaped anthers; pods long, cylindrical or four-sided, often twisted, sometimes on a slender stalk; seeds oblong, flattish, in one row in each cell. [sidenote: _thelypòdium torulòsum_ =lilac spring, summer west, etc.=] this has small flowers, but often grows in such quantities on the flats near salt lake that it tints the fields with purple. the purplish stem is from twelve to fifteen inches tall and the leaves are light bluish-green and very smooth, the root-leaves with long leaf-stalks, and the stem-leaves arrow-shaped and clasping at base. the flowers are about half an inch across, with a purplish-tinged calyx and pale pinkish-lilac petals, and form flat-topped clusters. the pods are spreading and rather knobby. this usually grows on dry hills, reaching an altitude of over nine thousand feet, as far east as wyoming. there are many kinds of arabis, widely distributed, with small, white or purplish flowers. [sidenote: =fendler's arabis= _Árabis féndleri_ =magenta spring arizona=] this is a rather pretty plant, a foot or more tall, with more or less hairy stems and leaves and pretty clusters of magenta flowers, each about a quarter of an inch across. it grows on the rim of the grand canyon. there are many kinds of erysimum, most abundant in europe and asia. they are usually biennial or perennial, more or less downy; mostly with yellow flowers; the pods long, narrow and squarish or flattish, rarely round, with numerous seeds, in one row. in europe these plants often grow in the crannies of old walls, hence the common name. [sidenote: =western wallflower= _erýsimum ásperum_ =orange, lemon-yellow spring, summer west, etc.=] the vivid glowing orange of these handsome flowers is exceedingly effective among the dark tree-trunks of the mountain forests where they often grow. they are widely distributed as far east as ohio. the stout, purplish stems are from one to two feet tall and the long, narrow leaves, often toothed, are apt to be purplish on the under side, and both stem and leaves are rather rough. the fragrant flowers, each about three-quarters of an inch across, form a handsome cluster, about three inches across. the calyx is yellow, the pistil green, and the anthers brown. the conspicuous, four-sided pods are spreading or erect, from one to five inches long, with a stout beak. in the high mountains the orange-color gives way to the variety _perénne_, with lemon-colored flowers, perhaps commoner than the orange, not so tall, and wonderfully handsome in the wasatch mountains, around mt. rainier and similar places, and widely distributed. the cream-colored wallflower, _e. capitàtum_, blooms early, growing near the coast; the flowers large, handsome, but not sweet-scented. [illustration: western wall-flower--erysimum asperum.] [illustration: thelypodium torulosum. arabis fendleri.] there are a good many kinds of thlaspi, of temperate and arctic regions: smooth low plants, mostly mountain; root-leaves forming a rosette; stem-leaves more or less arrow-shaped and clasping; flowers rather small, white or purplish; sepals blunt; style slender, sometimes none, with a small stigma; pod flat, roundish, wedge-shaped, or heart-shaped, with crests or wings. [sidenote: =wild candytuft, pennycress= _thláspi glaùcum_ =white spring, summer, autumn northwest and utah=] a rather pretty little plant, with several flower-stalks, springing from rosettes of leaves, dull-green, somewhat purplish and thickish, smooth and obscurely toothed, all more or less covered with a "bloom"; the flowers small, slightly fragrant, forming clusters less than an inch across, the white petals longer than the thin, greenish sepals. this grows on moist, mountain slopes. _t. alpéstre_, of the northwest, is similar, but without "bloom." there are only a few kinds of dithyrea, grayish, hairy plants, resembling biscutella of the mediterranean, with yellowish or whitish flowers. [sidenote: _dithýrea wislizéni_ =white summer ariz., new mex., tex., okla., ark.=] a little desert plant, from six to twelve inches tall, with branching stems; pale, yellowish-green, downy leaves, about an inch long, with wavy or toothed margins; small white flowers and funny little seed-pods, sticking out at right-angles from the stem. this grows at an altitude of three to four thousand feet and is found in the petrified forest. there are many kinds of streptanthus, difficult to distinguish, smooth plants, often with a "bloom"; stems branching; leaves often clasping at base, the lower ones usually more toothed or lobed than the upper. the flowers are very peculiar in shape, not like most mustards, but suggesting the shape of a bleeding heart flower; the sepals usually colored like the petals, two or all of them bulging at base, so that the calyx is broad below and contracted above; the corolla regular or irregular, the petals purple or white, with claws and narrow, wavy or crisp borders; the stamens four long and two short, or in three unequal pairs, the longest pair often united below; the pods long, narrow, flattish or cylindrical, on a broad receptacle; the seeds flat and more or less winged. these plants are called jewel-flower, but the name does not seem particularly appropriate. [illustration: dithyrea wislizeni. wild candytuft--thlaspi glaucum.] [sidenote: =shield-leaf= _streptánthus tortuòsus_ =yellowish, purplish summer california=] nothing about this odd-looking plant is pretty and it almost seems as if it were trying to make up by eccentricity for its lack of beauty. it is common in dry, sandy places in the mountains and our attention is first attracted to the tall, branching stalks, because they are strung with such queer-looking leaves. in summer the upper ones are bright-yellow or dull-purple and they clasp the stem and curve over, so that they look like small brass shields, pierced by the stem. there are three or four of these curving leaves, very smooth and shiny, and several more below, which are flatter and dark-green, and the stem, from six inches to three feet high, is oddly twisted and leans to one side. the small flowers are yellowish or mauve, veined with purple, less than half an inch long and peculiar in shape. the contrast in color between the flowers and leaves is very odd and very ugly, but as if this were not enough, later in the season the curious thing hangs itself with ridiculously long, slender pods, like great hooks, and looks queerer and more disheveled than ever. [sidenote: =arizona streptanthus= _streptánthus arizònicus_ =white spring arizona=] prettier and not so queer-looking as the last. the leaves are arrow-shaped, clasping at base, rather leathery, bluish-green, with a "bloom" and tinged with purple on the backs, the lower ones toothed, and the pods are about two inches long, flat and tinged with purple. the flowers are half an inch long, pearly-white, the petals yellowish, veined with purple, and are quite pretty. this grows in dry places. [illustration: arizona streptanthus--streptanthus arizonicus. shield-leaf--s. tortuosus.] there are only a few kinds of stanleya, all western; tall, stout, smooth perennials, or biennials, with a "bloom"; flowers large, mostly yellow, without bracts, in long, terminal, clusters; sepals long, narrow; petals long, narrow, with long claws; stamens six, very nearly equal; ovary on a short stalk, with a short style or none; pods long, narrow and flattish, with long stalks; seeds numerous. named for lord edward stanley, president of the linnaean society. [sidenote: =golden prince's plume= _stánleya pinnatífida_ =yellow spring southwest and new mex.=] the pretty common name of this tall, handsome plant was given by helen hunt jackson and the long, feathery wand of numerous blossoms is beautiful and suggests a plume. on the other hand, the straggling flowers have such long, narrow, curling petals, the threadlike filaments look so much like curling antennae and the long, thin pods stick out so awkwardly, like insects' legs, from among the flowers on the lower part of the stalk, that we find the general effect is rather weird and spidery. in fact the plant i drew had a large yellow spider, precisely the color of the flowers, half-concealed among them. the stem is from two to five feet high; the leaves are smooth, pale bluish-green, the lower ones with leaflets and a leaf-stalk, and the flowers are bright-yellow, or cream-color, about an inch across. this grows usually in dampish spots, in arid regions. the picture is of one i found in indian garden canyon, a branch of the grand canyon. [sidenote: _dryopétalon runcinàtum_ =white spring arizona=] the only kind, a fine plant, well worth cultivation; smooth and branching, about two feet tall, with handsome, bluish-green leaves, with a "bloom," the root-leaves with long, purplish leaf-stalks and sometimes nine inches long; the flowers half an inch across, with a lilac-tinged calyx and white petals, prettily toothed, forming a pretty, rather flat-topped cluster. the pods are very slender, nearly straight, one or two inches long. this grows among rocks, in protected situations, and is not common. only a few, separate flowers are given in the picture, as the plant i found, near the desert laboratory at tucson, was almost out of bloom. [illustration: dryopetalon runcinatum. golden prince's plume--stanleya pinnatifida.] there are a good many kinds of lesquerella, all american; low plants, more or less hairy or scurfy; flowers mostly yellow, in clusters; petals without claws; pods roundish, more or less inflated, and giving the common name, bladder-pod, also used for _isomeris arborea_. [sidenote: =white bladder-pod= _lesquerélla purpùrea_ =white, pink spring arizona=] pretty little plants, often growing in quantities among rocks in mountain canyons. the slender stems are from a few inches to over a foot tall, springing from a cluster of root-leaves, varying a good deal in shape, dull-green and harsh to the touch. the flowers are half an inch or more across, with white petals, often tinged with pink, with a little yellow in the throat, and form a pretty, rather flat-topped cluster. [sidenote: =yellow bladder-pod= _lesquerélla arizònica_ =yellow summer arizona=] in desert places, such as the terrible sandy wastes of the petrified forest, where it seems a miracle that anything should grow, we find the close, pale, gray-green tufts of this little plant, crowned with racemes of small bright-yellow flowers. the small, thickish leaves are long, narrow and white with close down, the stems, about three inches high, branch at the root and the little pods are tipped with a style of about their own length. _l. gordóni_, of arizona, also has clusters of little yellow flowers, often covering sandy hillsides with bright color; the leaves slightly stiff and rough, the pods much inflated. it resembles _l. purpurea_ in general form and size. there are many kinds of brassica, coarse "weeds" in this country. this is the ancient latin name for cabbage, which belongs to this genus, as well as cauliflower, turnip, and brussels sprouts. [sidenote: =black mustard= _brássica nìgra_ =yellow summer u. s.=] a european "weed," common everywhere. in california it grows to an enormous height, sometimes twelve feet, and when in bloom is a beautiful feature of the landscape, covering the fields with a shimmering sheet of pale gold. the leaves are dark-green, smooth or with a few hairs, all with leaf-stalks, the lower leaves large and jagged, cut into leaflets, the upper leaves mostly toothless. the fragrant flowers form long clusters, each flower about three-quarters of an inch across; the small, cylindrical pods stand erect, close to the branching stem. a valuable, antiseptic oil is made from the black, pungent seeds, exported from california by the ton. [illustration: white bladder-pod--lesquerella purpurea.] caper family. _capparidaceae._ the flowers of this family are much like the mustards, but the stamens are all of equal length and are often more than six; the leaves are alternate and consist of three or several leaflets, with stalks, and the plant usually tastes bitter and disagreeable instead of pungent. there is no partition in the pods, which are on long, threadlike stalks; the ovary is superior and the seeds are kidney-shaped. many flowers have only a rudimentary pistil and never produce fruit. the caper, of which we eat the pickled flower-buds for a relish, is a shrub which grows in the levant. the family is quite large and flourishes in warm regions. there are several kinds of cleomella, resembling cleome, except that the pods are different. [sidenote: =cleomella= _cleomélla lóngipes_ =yellow spring nev., cal., oreg.=] this is a handsome, rather odd-looking plant, with a stout, smooth, yellowish or purplish stem, sometimes branching and over a foot tall. the leaves are bright light-green, smooth, toothless and slightly thickish, and the three leaflets are sometimes each tipped with a hair, and have a tuft of small hairs at the base of the leaf-stalk, in place of a stipule. the flowers are about half an inch across, and are a beautiful warm shade of golden-yellow, the long stamens being of the same color and giving a very pretty feathery appearance to the large cluster. the pods are queer-looking little things and stick straight out from the stem. this has a slightly unpleasant smell, but looks very gay and pretty in the fields and along the edges of the mesas around reno. [illustration] [illustration: cleomella--c. longipes.] [illustration] there are many kinds of cleome; ours are branching herbs, with palmately-divided leaves; the flowers with four sepals, four petals, and six stamens. the ovary has a stalk with a gland at its base and becomes a long pod, with a long stalk and many seeds. [sidenote: =bee-plant= _cleòme serrulàta_ =pinkish-lilac, white summer southwest, etc.=] in arizona this exceedingly handsome plant often covers the dry beds of rivers with acres of beautiful color. the smooth, branching stem is sometimes as much as eight feet high. the upper leaves are long and narrow and the lower are larger and usually have three leaflets, but all are bluish-green and peculiarly soft and smooth to the touch. the buds are purple and the delicate flowers, with threadlike flower-stalks, grow in a handsome, feathery cluster, sometimes a foot long, with numerous bracts. they have four, pinkish-lilac or white petals and six exceedingly long, threadlike stamens with minute, curling, green anthers. the lilac pistil is also very long and before the flower drops off begins to develop into a small, flat, green pod. these gradually lengthen, until the stem is ornamented with many hooklike pods, with slender stalks, hanging all along it. many of the flowers do not produce fruit. the foliage when it is crushed gives off a rank, unpleasant smell, which is responsible for the local name of skunk-weed. this is widely distributed and is found in the central and northern part of the united states, as well as in the southwest. [illustration] [illustration: bee-plant--cleome serrulata.] [illustration] [sidenote: =yellow cleome= _cleòme platycàrpa_ =yellow spring nevada=] an odd-looking plant, with very pretty, feathery flower-clusters. the hairy stem is over a foot tall and the leaves are bright yellowish-green and mostly smooth on the upper side, with hairy margins and hairy on the under side. the flowers are a warm shade of bright golden-yellow and form a handsome, rather flat-topped cluster, with long stamens, and the oblong pods are an inch long or less, flat and much broader than those of the last. the flowers are slightly sweet-scented and the whole plant exudes a faint unpleasant odor. this is conspicuous on the dreary mesas around reno, often growing with _cleomella longipes_, which it very much resembles in general appearance, except for the pods, which are quite different. there is only one kind of isomeris. [sidenote: =bladderpod= _isómeris arbòrea_ =yellow spring california=] this is a shrub about three feet high, which is attractive except for its unpleasant smell. the leaves are smooth, toothless, stiffish and thickish, and bluish-green, with a small bristle at the tip, and mostly with three leaflets. the pretty flowers are nearly an inch across and warm yellow in color, not very bright but pretty in tone, with six very long, yellow stamens, and form a short, oblong cluster. the ovary has such a long stalk, even in the flower, that it gives an odd appearance and it develops into a very curious and conspicuous, drooping pod, an inch and a half long, much inflated and resembling a very fat pea-pod, on a long stalk, with two rows of seeds like little peas inside it, which taste very bitter. this is quite common on southern mesas. the name bladderpod is also used for lesquerella, which belongs to the mustard family. [illustration] [illustration: bladderpod--isomeris arborea.] orpine family. _crassulaceae._ a rather large family, widely distributed; odd-looking, mostly very succulent herbs, with smooth, fleshy leaves and stems, without stipules; flowers in clusters; sepals, petals, pistils, and stamens, all of the same number, usually four or five, sometimes the stamens twice as many; ovary superior; receptacle with honey-bearing scales, one behind each pistil; pistils separate, developing into small dry pods, containing few or many, minute seeds. some of these plants look like tiny cabbages and we are all familiar with their tight little rosettes in the formal garden-beds of hotels and railway stations, where they are so stiff and unattractive that we hardly recognize them when we find them looking exceedingly pretty in their natural homes. the latin name means "thick." there are many kinds of sedum, no one kind very widely distributed; fleshy herbs; leaves usually alternate; flowers star-like, often in one-sided clusters; stamens and pistils sometimes in different flowers on different plants; sepals and petals four or five; stamens eight or ten, on the calyx, the alternate ones usually attached to the petals; styles usually short. the latin name means "to sit," because these plants squat on the ground, and stonecrop is from their fondness for rocks. [sidenote: =douglas stonecrop= _sèdum douglásii_ =yellow spring, summer northwest=] this makes beautiful golden patches, on dry slopes or more or less open hilltops, usually among limestone rocks. the reddish stems are from six to ten inches tall, the leaves are rather long and narrow, thick but flat, forming pretty pale-green rosettes, more or less tinged with pink and yellow, and the pretty starry flowers are three-quarters of an inch across, bright-yellow, with greenish centers, the stamens giving a feathery appearance. [sidenote: =yosemite stonecrop= _sèdum yosemiténse_ =yellow summer california=] on moss-covered rocks, moistened by the glistening spray blowing from the yosemite waterfalls, we find these beautiful plants, covering the stones with a brilliant, many-colored carpet. the flowers are stars of brightest gold, about half an inch across and delicately scented, and form flat-topped clusters, three or four inches across. the upper part of the stalk, which is about six inches tall, and the upper leaves are delicate bluish-green, but both stem and leaves shade to vivid scarlet at the base. spreading out on the ground from the base of the stem in all directions are numerous little runners, each bearing at the end a small rosette of thick, blue-green leaves, forming a beautiful contrast to the vivid color of flowers and stems. the leaves and runners are very brittle and break off at a touch. [illustration: douglas stone-crop--s. douglasii yosemite stonecrop--sedum yosemitense.] there are several kinds of dudleya; perennials, very thick and fleshy; root-leaves in a conspicuous rosette, stem-leaves mostly bract-like, usually with a broad, clasping base; flowers mostly yellow or reddish; calyx conspicuous, with five lobes; petals united at base; stamens ten. most of these plants grow in the south, often on rocks, in such shallow soil, that they would die in dry weather, except that the juicy leaves retain their moisture for a long time and nourish the plant. they resemble sedum in appearance, but as the petals are more or less united the flowers are not starlike. the indians make poultices out of the leaves. [sidenote: =hen-and-chickens= _dúdleya nevadénsis (cotyledon)_ =orange-red summer california=] the succulent, reddish flower-stalks of this handsome plant bear large, loose, rather flat-topped clusters of orange-red flowers, on coiling branches, and are about a foot tall, with scaly bracts, springing from a large handsome rosette on the ground of very thick, pale-green leaves, often tinged with pink. other smaller rosettes form a circle around it, hence its nice little common name. _d. pulverulénta (echeveria)_ is beautiful but weird-looking. it has red flowers, and the rosette, resembling a small century-plant, is covered all over with a white powder which, among ordinary herbage, gives an exceedingly striking and ghostlike effect. this plant is sometimes a foot and a half across, with as many as eight, tall stalks, and is found from san diego to santa barbara. [illustration: hen-and-chickens--dudleya nevadensis.] saxifrage family. _saxifragaceae._ a large family, almost all herbs, living usually in temperate regions. they have no very peculiar characteristics and resemble the rose family, but sometimes their leaves are opposite, usually they have no stipules and have fewer stamens than roses, not more than twice as many as the sepals, and usually the pistils, from two to five in number, with distinct styles, are united to form a compound ovary, which is superior or partly inferior; sepals usually five; petals four, five, or rarely none, alternate with the sepals; petals and stamens borne on the calyx; fruit a dry pod or berry, containing numerous seeds. the latin name means "rock breaker," as many grow among rocks. there are several kinds of parnassia, of north temperate and arctic regions; smooth perennials; leaves toothless, almost all from the root; flowers single; sepals five; petals five, each with a cluster of sterile filaments, tipped with glands, at the base; fertile stamens five, alternate with the petals; ovary superior, or partly inferior, with a very short style, or none, usually with four stigmas; fruit a capsule, containing numerous winged seeds. these plants were called grass of parnassus by dioscorides, but are not grasslike. they resemble the other members of this family so little that they have been made into a separate family by some botanists. [sidenote: =grass of parnassus= _parnássia fimbriàta_ =white summer northwest=] a charming plant, with several slender stems, about a foot tall, springing from a large cluster of handsome, very smooth, glossy leaves. the flowers are about an inch across and have cream-white petals, delicately veined with green and prettily fringed towards the base, and pale yellow anthers. at the base of each petal there is a queer little stiff cluster of sterile filaments, like a tiny green hand. this grows on banks of streams and in moist places, reaching an altitude of eleven thousand feet. _p. californica_ is similar, but the petals not fringed. there are several kinds of leptasea, perennials, with alternate, thick or stiffish leaves; flowers white or yellow, single or in terminal clusters; sepals five; petals five, with claws or claw-like bases; stamens ten; ovary mostly superior. [illustration: grass of parnassus--parnassia fimbriata.] [sidenote: =dotted saxifrage= _leptàsea austromontàna. (saxifraga bronchialis)_ =white summer northwest=] pretty little plants, about six inches tall, forming matted clumps of stiff, rather dark green foliage, the twigs crowded with leathery, toothless leaves, bristly along the edges and tipped with a little stiff point. the pretty flowers are about half an inch across, their white petals dotted with dark red or purple towards the tips, sometimes dotted with yellow near the center, with yellow anthers and a pale green ovary, partly inferior. these little plants sometimes cover rocky slopes for long distances with their leafy mats and are common in the mountains at moderate altitudes. there are several kinds of muscaria, perennial, matted herbs; leaves alternate, usually three-lobed, mostly from the root; flowers white, single, or a few in terminal clusters; sepals five; petals five, without claws; stamens ten; ovary about one-half inferior. [sidenote: =tufted saxifrage= _muscària caespitòsa (saxifraga)_ =white summer northwest, etc.=] pretty little plants, from two to six inches tall, with small leaves, with from three to five lobes or teeth, forming matted patches of pretty foliage, from which spring many slender, slightly hairy flower-stems, with a few bracts or leaves, and bearing one or more pretty flowers, less than half an inch across, with white petals, yellow anthers, and a greenish-yellow ovary. this grows in rocky crevices in the mountains, across the continent, also in arctic and alpine europe and siberia. there are a good many kinds of lithophragma, perennials, bearing bulblets on their slender rootstocks and sometimes also on the stems; leaves more or less divided, mostly from the root; stipules small; flowers few, in a loose, terminal cluster; sepals five; petals five, white or pink, with claws; stamens ten, short; ovary superior or partly inferior, with three short styles. [sidenote: =woodland star= _lithophrágma heterophýlla_ =white spring, summer california=] a little woodland plant, delicate and pretty, with a slender, hairy stem, from nine inches to two feet tall, springing from a pretty cluster of hairy leaves, variable in shape, but usually with three or five lobes. the starry flowers are three-quarters of an inch across, with white petals, prettily slashed. this is sometimes called star of bethlehem, but that name belongs to an ornithogalum, grown in gardens. [illustration: dotted saxifrage--leptasea austromontana. tufted saxifrage--muscaria caespitosa. woodland star--lithophragma heterophylla.] [sidenote: =youth-on-age= _leptáxis menzièsii. (tolmiea)_ =purplish summer wash., oreg., cal.=] the only kind, a perennial, over a foot tall, with a hairy stem bearing a graceful wand of small flowers, springing from a cluster of root-leaves, bright green and thin in texture, but roughish and sparsely hairy. the flowers are about a third of an inch long, the calyx, which is the conspicuous part, dark-purple or pinkish-red and slightly irregular, with three large and two small sepals, and the petals of the same color, but so narrow that they look like long curling filaments. the three stamens are opposite the three upper sepals, the ovary is superior and the capsule has two long beaks. young plants often spring from the base of the leaf, where it joins the leaf-stalk, and this habit gives the common name. this grows in mountain woods and is attractive, for though the flowers are dull in color they are unusual in form and the leaves are pretty. there are a good many kinds of heuchera, north american, difficult to distinguish; perennials, with stout rootstocks; leaves mostly from the root; flowers small, in clusters; calyx-tube bell-shaped, with five lobes; petals small, sometimes lacking, on the throat of the calyx, with claws; stamens five, inserted with the petals; ovary partly inferior, with two slender styles, becoming two beaks on the capsule. [sidenote: =alumroot= _heuchèra micrántha_ =pink and white summer cal., oreg., wash.=] these feathery sprays are so airy and delicate that they might almost be made of mingled mist and moonshine, blown from the waterfalls they love to haunt, but are not so fragile as they look, for the clusters of tiny pink and white flowers last a long time in water. the stem is very slender, rather hairy, from one to three feet tall, springing from a cluster of roundish leaves, prettily lobed and scalloped, bright green, with some white hairs on the backs and on the long leaf-stems, often with red veins. the handsome leaves and lovely feathery spires are conspicuous, decorative and quite common, among mossy rocks in dark, rich mountain woods, up to six thousand feet. [illustration: alumroot--heuchera micrantha. youth-on-age--leptaxis menziesii.] [sidenote: =alumroot= _heuchèra rubéscens_ =pink and white summer southwest, utah, nev.=] this is not so tall and the leaves, with blunt teeth and sometimes slightly lobed, are smaller. in utah they are dark green and shining on the upper side, smooth or slightly downy, with a bristle at the tip of each lobe, often reddish on the under side, and in yosemite quite rough, with hairs on the edges and veins. the flowers are about a quarter of an inch across, the calyx deep-pink, with blunt, green teeth, the petals long, narrow and white, the general effect of the flower being pink. the clusters are not nearly so airy as those of _h. micrantha_ and in the high sierras the stems are shorter and the clusters still more compact. this was first found on one of the islands in great salt lake. there are other similar kinds, some with greenish flowers. there are several kinds of micranthes, perennials, sometimes with bulblets at the base of the stem; leaves thickish, from the root; flowers white, in terminal clusters; petals five, mostly without claws; stamens ten; ovary slightly inferior. [sidenote: =tall swamp saxifrage= _micránthes oregàna (saxifraga)_ =white summer northwest=] this is conspicuous on account of its height, with a stout, stiff, leafless, hairy flower-stalk, three feet or more tall, springing from a loose rosette of smooth, thickish, bright-green leaves, not standing up stiffly but spreading, sometimes nearly a foot long, paler on the under side and obscurely toothed at the ends, with some minute hairs along the lower margins. the flowers are small, with cream-white petals, orange-red anthers and a green ovary, and form a long branching cluster towards the top of the stalk. this grows in swamps in the mountains. [sidenote: =saxifrage= _micránthes rhomboídea (saxifraga)_ =white spring, summer southwest, idaho, utah, col.=] a little alpine plant, growing in moist soil, or on mossy rocks. the sticky-hairy flower-stem is from two to twelve inches tall, springing from a cluster of dull-green root-leaves, toothless, or toothed towards the ends, slightly thickish and very slightly downy and the flowers are small, and form a compact cluster. [illustration: saxifrage--micranthes rhomboidea. tall swamp sáxifrage--m. oregana.] [sidenote: =modesty= _whípplea modésta_ =white spring wash., oreg., cal.=] the only kind, a pretty little under-shrub, with many woody stems, spreading and trailing on the ground, the branches clothed with more or less hairy leaves, with three veins, and bearing clusters of very small flowers, with a pleasant honey-like fragrance. they usually have ten stamens, the ovary is partially inferior, with from three to five styles; sepals whitish; petals white, becoming greenish. the low masses of green foliage, spotted with white flower clusters, are a pretty feature of the coast range forests and thickets, especially among redwoods. there are several kinds of mitella, perennials, of north america and asia. [sidenote: =bishop's cap, mitrewort= _mitélla ovális_ =white summer northwest and utah=] an inconspicuous little plant, of mountain woods, with pretty leaves and tiny flowers. the slender, hairy, leafless stem, about ten inches tall, springs from a cluster of root-leaves, smooth on the upper side, except for a few bristly hairs, with bristly hairs on the under veins and on the long, slender leaf-stalks. the flowers grow in a graceful, one-sided spray and have a five-lobed, green calyx, five minute petals, five stamens with short filaments, and a roundish ovary, almost wholly inferior. the petals have pretty little bits of feathery fringe between them, which make the little flowers look like tiny snow crystals in shape, when we examine them closely. there are several kinds of spatularia, perennials, sometimes with bulblets; leaves from the root, mostly toothed; flowers white, in open clusters; sepals five; petals all clawed, the three upper differing from the two lower; ovary chiefly superior. [sidenote: _spatulària brunoniàna (saxifraga nutkana) (saxifraga bongardi)_ =white summer northwest=] a beautiful plant, with such slender stems and branches that, at a distance, the little white flowers look like specks of foam. the hairy, reddish stems, from a few inches to over a foot tall and very branching, spring from clusters of thickish, stiffish, hairy root-leaves and bear dozens of flowers, about three-eighths of an inch across, with white petals, spotted with yellow or red at the base and slightly irregular, the three upper petals being narrower than the two lower. the anthers are orange; ovary white or pinkish; calyxes and buds purplish-red. this grows among rocks in mountains. [illustration: spatularia brunoniana (small part of cluster). modesty--whipplea modesta. bishop's cap--mitella ovalis.] hydrangea family. _hydrangeaceae._ shrubs or trees, with opposite leaves and no stipules. the flowers are in clusters and usually perfect, but sometimes those at the margins of the clusters are without pistils or stamens and larger than those in the middle; the calyx usually with four to ten sepals, and in sterile flowers often conspicuously enlarged; the petals four to ten; the stamens eight to many; the ovary wholly or partly inferior; the styles separate or united, sometimes lacking; the fruit a capsule. many very ornamental garden shrubs, such as deutzia and hydrangea, are included in this family. there are several kinds of fendlera, natives of north america; shrubs, with white or pink flowers, with four sepals and four petals, the latter with claws. the eight stamens have two-forked filaments and the ovary is partly inferior, with four styles. [sidenote: _féndlera rupícola_ =white, pink spring ariz., utah, nev.=] among the many beautiful plants to be found in the grand canyon one of the most conspicuous is the fendlera. it is a tall, handsome shrub, growing along the upper part of bright angel trail, and in may it is covered with charming white blossoms. these flowers measure an inch across, and have cream-white or pale pink petals, narrowing to a claw at the base, and purplish sepals, and they grow in clusters of three or four, mixed with pink buds, on the ends of short branches. the small oblong leaves have three nerves and the wood is tough and gray, with deeply furrowed bark. though their scent is rather unpleasant, the flowers are lovely and look just like some novel variety of fruit-blossom, but this resemblance is deceptive for they produce nothing but dry pods. there are a good many kinds of philadelphus, natives of north america, asia, and europe; shrubs, with large, white or cream-colored flowers; the calyx top-shaped, with four or five lobes; the petals four or five; the stamens twenty to forty, inserted on a disk; the ovary inferior, with three to five styles; the capsule top-shaped, containing many oblong seeds. these plants were named in honor of king ptolemy philadelphus. they are often called mock-orange, because the flowers often resemble orange-blossoms. the commonest name, syringa, is confusing, because that is the generic name of the lilac. [illustration: fendlera rupicola.] [illustration] [sidenote: =syringa= _philadélphus califórnicus_ =white summer cal., oreg., wash.=] in june and july, in the high sierras, up to an altitude of four thousand feet, this lovely shrub forms fragrant thickets of bloom. it looks very much like the familiar garden syringa and the smell is just as delicious. the bush is from four to twelve feet high, with smooth, pale, woody stems, dark-green leaves, sometimes slightly toothed, very smooth and shiny, and pretty flowers, in clusters at the ends of the branches. they are each about an inch across, with four or five, cream-white petals, rolled in the bud, and a golden center, composed of numerous, bright-yellow stamens. [sidenote: =small syringa= _philadélphus microphýllus_ =white summer ariz., cal., new mex.=] a small shrub, not nearly so handsome as the last, from two to three feet high, with slender, pale-gray, woody stems, branching very abruptly. the small leaves are smooth and very bright green on the upper side, but the under side is very pale and covered with close white down. the flowers are much smaller than the garden syringa, with white petals and numerous yellow stamens, the calyx reddish outside and downy within, and have a delicious smell, like lemon-blossoms. this pretty little shrub may be found growing in small shady canyons, in northern arizona and elsewhere in the southwest. [illustration] [illustration: small syringa--p. microphyllus. syringa philadelphus californicus.] gooseberry family. _grossulariaceae._ a small family, shrubs, with alternate, palmately-lobed leaves, often sticky or resinous; the flowers almost always in clusters; the pedicels with a bract at the base and usually with two bractlets halfway up; petals five, or rarely four, usually smaller than the calyx-lobes; stamens of the same number as the petals and alternate with them; ovary inferior, with two styles, more or less united; fruit a berry, crowned with the withered remains of the flower. there are several kinds of grossularia, or gooseberry; shrubs, sometimes with trailing branches, almost always spiny; flowers with bracts; ovary often spiny. [sidenote: =wild gooseberry= _grossulària roèzli (ribes)_ =maroon and white spring california=] this is a stout shrub, one to four feet high, with thick, short, rigid little branches, the knobby joints more or less spiny. the roundish leaves, less than an inch across, are lobed and scalloped, rather dull green and slightly downy, and the flowers are about half an inch long, with maroon-colored sepals and white petals, the base of the calyx-tube downy. the purple berry is half an inch in diameter and covered with stout prickles. this gooseberry is common at moderate altitudes. the drooping, red and white flowers resemble tiny fuchsias, both in color and form. _g. menzièsii_, the canyon gooseberry, also has pretty fuchsia-like flowers and grows in the coast ranges of california and oregon, blooming in the winter. [sidenote: =fuchsia-flowered gooseberry= _grossulària speciòsa_ =red spring california=] in spite of its name, the flowers of this handsome shrub do not look as much like fuchsias as the two last. the stems are armed with long thorns and the leaves are thick, dark green, and glossy. the flowers have four sepals, four petals, and four stamens and are about an inch long and beautiful bright-red in color. the berry is dry and very prickly. this is common in the southern part of california. [illustration: fuchsia-flowered gooseberry--g. speciosa. wild gooseberry--grossularia roezli.] there are many kinds of ribes, or currant, of temperate regions; shrubs, almost always smooth; flowers sometimes blooming before the leaves, with five petals, smaller than the five calyx-lobes, which are often colored; stamens five; ovary inferior, fruit a smooth, many-seeded berry. in general the low shrubs, with their pretty foliage, may be recognized by their resemblance to cultivated kinds. ribes is the ancient arabic name. [sidenote: =black currant= _rìbes hudsoniànum_ =white spring, summer utah, wash., idaho, etc.=] except that its foliage has a strong disagreeable smell, this is an attractive shrub, three to six feet high, with pale gray, woody stems, without thorns, and smooth, bright green leaves, five-lobed and thin in texture, paler on the under side, with resinous dots and broad, papery stipules, in clusters, with reddish bracts at the base. the flowers form close, erect clusters, less than two inches long, springing from the same bud as the leaves; the calyx, which is the conspicuous part, cream-white, greenish in the center; the petals very small and white. the berry is smooth or hairy, round and black, without "bloom," and possibly edible, but so bad-smelling as to be avoided. this grows beside mountain streams and is found as far north as british columbia. [sidenote: =sierra currant= _rìbes nevadénse_ =pink summer cal., oreg., wash., nev.=] a thrifty, mountain bush, from three to six feet high, the upper stems pale gray and the lower ones reddish; the leaves thin and smooth, prettily scalloped and lobed, often with a few white hairs at the base of the leaf-stalks. the flowers are fragrant and pink, over half an inch long, and form a close cluster, of eight or more. the berry is black, with a white "bloom," and tastes sweet and insipid. this reaches an altitude of eight thousand feet. _rìbes glutinòsum_ is called incense-shrub, because of its strong fragrance. it is a large handsome shrub, sometimes fifteen feet high, with beautiful drooping clusters of gay pink flowers. the leaves are sticky when they first come out and the berry is blue, with a dense "bloom," bristly, dry and bitter, or insipid. this blooms in winter or early spring and is common in canyons near the coast. [illustration: sierra currant--ribes nevadense. black currant--r. hudsonianum.] [sidenote: =golden, missouri or buffalo currant= _rìbes àureum_ =yellow spring, summer west, etc.=] a very handsome bush, from five to twelve feet high, with pretty foliage and smooth, pinkish-gray, woody stems. the bright green leaves, with three or five lobes, are thin in texture, with a few hairs on the leaf-stalks, fresh and glossy-looking, and setting off the bright clusters of clear yellow flowers, of which the calyx, half an inch across, with a long greenish-yellow tube, is the conspicuous part. the small petals are sometimes yellow, but often bright red and the fruit is smooth, yellow, red, or black, and edible. this is deliciously fragrant and spicy, very handsome and attractive, growing beside brooks and in moist canyons, where sometimes, in masses, it has at a distance the effect of forsythia, but purer in color. it grows as far east as missouri and is often cultivated. apple family. _pomaceae._ a rather large family, widely distributed, including many attractive trees and shrubs, such as mountain ash and hawthorn, as well as pears and apples, with pretty blossoms and conspicuous, often edible fruits; leaves alternate; stipules small; flowers regular, perfect, single or in clusters; calyx usually five-toothed or five-lobed; petals mostly five, usually with claws; stamens numerous, or rarely few, separate, with small anthers; ovary inferior and compound; styles one to five. the calyx-tube gradually thickens and becomes a "pome," or apple-like fruit, in which the core is the ovary. there are several kinds of amelanchier, of the north temperate zone; shrubs or trees, with thornless branches and white flowers, usually in clusters; calyx-tube bell-shaped, with five narrow sepals; petals five; stamens numerous, on the throat of the calyx; styles two to five in number, united and hairy at base; ovary wholly or partly inferior; fruit small and berry-like. the name is from the french for the medlar. these shrubs are called shadbush in the east, because they bloom just when the shad are beginning to run in the rivers. [illustration: golden currant--ribes aureum.] [sidenote: =service-berry, june-berry= _amelánchier alnifòlia_ =white spring, summer west, etc.=] a pretty shrub with woody, branching stems, reddish twigs and smooth, bright green leaves, sometimes downy on the under side, toothed only at the ends. the flowers, less than an inch across, have long, narrow, straggling petals, and are so mixed with leaves, and crowded so irregularly on the branches, that the effect is rather ragged. the roundish, pulpy, black fruit is liked by the indians, but though sweet is insipid. when thickets of this shrub are in bloom on mountainsides the effect is very pretty, especially in utah, where the shrubs are more compact and the flowers less straggling than in yosemite, giving at a distance much the effect of hawthorn. it grows as far east as nebraska and in british columbia. plum family. _drupaceae._ a rather small family, widely distributed, trees or shrubs, the bark exuding gum, the foliage, bark, and seeds bitter, containing prussic acid; leaves alternate, toothed, with leaf-stalks; stipules small; flowers mostly perfect, regular, single or in clusters; calyx five-lobed, dropping off after flowering; petals five, inserted on the calyx; stamens numerous, inserted with the petals; pistil one in our genera; ovary superior, developing into a stone-fruit. there are many kinds of prunus, including cherry as well as plum, with white or pink flowers and usually edible fruits. prunus is the ancient latin name for plum. [sidenote: =holly-leaved cherry, islay= _prùnus ilicifòlia_ =white summer california=] mountain slopes near santa barbara are beautiful in june with the creamy flowers of this very ornamental evergreen shrub, from five to twenty-five feet high, with shiny, leathery, dark green leaves, with prickly edges, looking much like holly. the small flowers form close but feathery clusters, from one to three inches long, and smell pleasantly of honey. the sweetish fruit, not particularly good to eat, is a dark red cherry, about half an inch in diameter. in dry places these shrubs are small, but in favorable situations, such as the old mission gardens, where they have been growing for perhaps a hundred years, they develop into small trees. [illustration: islay--prunus ilicifolia. service-berry--amelanchier alnifolia.] rose family. _rosaceae_. a large and important family, widely distributed and including some of our loveliest flowers and most delicious fruits; herbs, shrubs, or trees; generally with stipules and usually with alternate leaves; the flowers rich in pollen and honey and usually perfect. the calyx usually five-lobed, often with bracts, with a disk adhering to its base; the petals of the same number as the calyx-lobes, separate or none; the stamens usually numerous, separate, with small anthers; the ovary superior, or partly inferior; the pistils few or many, separate or adhering to the calyx, sometimes, as in the true rose, enclosed and concealed in a hollow receptacle; the fruit of various kinds and shapes. there are several kinds of opulaster, branching shrubs, with clusters of white flowers and grayish or reddish, shreddy bark. [sidenote: =ninebark= _opuláster malvàceus_ (_physocarpus_) =white summer northwest, utah, ariz.=] this is a handsome bush, from three to six feet high, with pretty, almost smooth, bright green leaves, with large stipules. the flowers are sweet-smelling, about half an inch across, with cream-white petals, and form very beautiful and conspicuous rounded clusters, about three inches across, the long stamens giving a very feathery appearance. at a distance this shrub has the effect of hawthorn in the landscape. it grows on mountainsides in rich soil. [sidenote: =apache plume= _fallùgia paradóxa_ =white spring ariz., new mex.=] there are two kinds of fallugia. this is usually a low undershrub, but in the grand canyon, on the plateau, it is a fine bush, four or five feet high, with pale woody, branching stems; the small, somewhat downy, evergreen leaves, resembling those of the cliff rose, but the flowers larger. they are white, two inches across, like a wild rose in shape, with beautiful golden centers, and grow on long, slender, downy flower-stalks, at the ends of the branches. individually, they are handsomer than the flowers of the cliff rose, but not nearly so effective, as the bloom is much more scattered. the calyx-tube is downy inside and the five sepals alternate with five, small, long, narrow bractlets. the hairy pistils are on a small conical receptacle, surrounded by a triple row of very numerous stamens on the margin of the calyx-tube. [illustration: ninebark--opulaster malvaceus.] wild roses are widely distributed in the northern hemisphere and are too familiar to need much description. there are numerous kinds; some are climbing, all are prickly and thorny, with handsome, often fragrant, flowers and compound leaves, with toothed edges. the numerous yellow stamens are on the thick margin of a silky disk, which nearly closes the mouth of the calyx. the numerous pistils develop into akenes, or small, dry, one-seeded fruits. these look like seeds and we find them inside the calyx-tube, which in ripening enlarges and becomes round or urn-shaped. these swollen calyx-tubes are the "hips," which turn scarlet and add so much to the beauty of the rose-bush when the flowers are gone. rosa is the ancient latin name. [sidenote: =fendler's rose= _ròsa féndleri_ =pink spring, summer idaho, utah, ariz.=] this is a very handsome thrifty bush, about four feet high, with smooth, or slightly downy, bright green leaves, and thorny stems, with slightly curved thorns. the flowers are more or less fragrant and about two inches across, with bright pink petals, which gradually become paler as they fade, and pretty crimson-tipped buds. this has smooth "hips" and is a beautiful and conspicuous kind, growing in valleys and along streams, up to an altitude of nine thousand feet. it is widely distributed and variable, probably including several forms. [sidenote: =california wild rose= _ròsa califórnica_ =pink spring, summer, autumn cal., oreg.=] a large bush, three to six feet high, with erect, branching stems, armed with a few, stout thorns, which turn back. the leaves are more or less downy, especially on the under side, with from three to seven leaflets, and the flowers usually form a cluster of few or many and are each from one to nearly two inches across, with pale pink petals. they are lovely flowers, with a delicious fragrance, and are common at low and moderate altitudes in california, usually growing near streams. [illustration: rosa fendleri. california wild rose--r. californíca.] [sidenote: =redwood rose= _ròsa gymnocàrpa_ =pink spring, summer northwest=] a charming kind, delicate both in foliage and flower, usually growing in shady, mountain woods. the slender bush is from one to three feet high, with dark brown stems, armed with some straight, slender thorns, and light green leaves, usually with quite a number of neat little leaflets, smooth and thin in texture. the flowers are an inch or less across, usually single, with light yellow centers and bright pink petals, very clean and fresh in tone, usually deeper towards the margins. the sepals are not leafy at the tips, the flower-stalks, and sometimes the leaf-stalks also, are covered with small, dark, sticky hairs and the buds are tipped with carmine. neither leaves nor flowers are fragrant. [sidenote: =mountain misery= _chamaebàtia foliolòsa_ =white summer california=] this is the only kind. in open places, in the sierra forests, the ground is often carpeted for acres with the feathery foliage of this charming shrub, sprinkled all over with pretty white flowers. mountain misery does not at first seem an appropriate name for so attractive a plant, but when we walk through the low, green thickets we find not only that the tangled branches catch our feet but that the whole plant is covered with a strong-smelling, resinous substance, which comes off on our clothes in a most disagreeable manner. on a warm day the forest is filled with the peculiar, medicinal fragrance and when, later in the season, we unpack our camping outfit we are apt to be puzzled by the smell of "pond's extract" which our clothes exhale. the shrub is usually less than two feet high, with downy, evergreen foliage, the numerous small leaflets so minutely subdivided and scalloped that they have the appearance of soft ferns. the flowers resemble large strawberry-blossoms, and have a top-shaped, five-lobed calyx, many yellow stamens and one pistil, becoming a large, leathery akene. the smell and foliage attract attention and the shrub has many names, such as bear-mat and kittikit, or kit-kit-dizze, so-called by the indians. bears do not eat it, so the name bear-clover is poor, and tarweed belongs to another plant. it is used medicinally. [illustration: redwood rose--rosa gymnocarpa. mountain misery--chamaebatia foliolosa.] this is the only kind of stellariopsis; perennial herbs; the leaves with many, minute, crowded, overlapping leaflets; the flowers white, in open clusters; bractlets, sepals, and petals five; stamens fifteen; pistil one, surrounded by bristles. [sidenote: =pussy-tails= _stellariópsis santolinoìdes_ (_ivesia_) =white summer california=] the leaves of this odd little plant look like catkins, or the sleek, gray tails of some little animal. they are cylindrical in form, three or four inches long, composed of many minute leaflets, crowded closely around a long, central stem. these little leaflets, hardly more than green scales, are smothered with soft, white down, which gives the whole "tail" a silky, silvery-gray appearance. from the midst of a bunch of these curious leaves, which are mostly from the root, spring several very slender stems, widely branching above, from six to twelve inches tall, and at the ends of the branches are airy clusters of pretty little flowers, like tiny strawberry-blossoms. these little plants grow in sandy soil, at high altitudes, and are plentiful on the gravelly "domes" around yosemite. there are a good many kinds of horkelia; perennial herbs, with compound leaves, usually with many leaflets, and flowers in clusters; calyx cup-shaped, or saucer-shaped, with five teeth and five bractlets; stamens ten; pistils two or many, with long slender styles, and borne on a receptacle like that of potentilla, which these plants resemble, though the flowers are usually smaller, in closer clusters. [sidenote: _horkèlia fúsca_ =white summer cal., oreg., nev.=] a rather attractive plant, for the foliage is pretty, though the flowers are not very conspicuous. the rather stout, roughish stem, often purplish, is from one to two feet tall and the leaves are rather dark green, slightly sticky and sometimes downy. the flowers are about half an inch across, with white petals, tinged with pink, and are well set off by the dark reddish or purplish calyxes and buds, but the petals are too far apart, and there are not enough flowers out at one time, for the effect to be good. this varies a good deal in hairiness and there are several varieties. it is common in yosemite. [illustration: pussy-tails--stellariopsis santolinoides. horkelia fusca.] there are several kinds of cowania. [sidenote: =cliff rose= _cowània stansburiàna_ =yellow spring, summer southwest=] altitude and soil make a great difference in the beauty of this shrub. on the rocky rim of the grand canyon it is from four to eight feet high, picturesquely gnarled and twisted, but stunted looking, the gray bark hanging off the crooked branches and thick, distorted trunk in untidy shreds, the flowers pale, scanty, and but faintly scented. halfway down bright angel trail it is a glorious thing, full of color and fragrance, about twelve feet high, luxuriant and healthy-looking. the small, leathery, evergreen leaves, crowded in bunches along the branches, are glossy and rich in color, setting off the light yellow flowers, with golden centers, which form long wands of bloom. the upper branches are clustered closely their whole length with blossoms, and when the wind sways the flowering branches to and fro they exhale an exquisite fragrance like orange flowers. the bloom is at its best in the canyon in may, but there are still some lingering flowers in august. the calyx is top-shaped, with the petals and the two rows of numerous stamens on the throat of the tube. the pistils, from five to twelve, are densely woolly. the akenes have pale, silky-hairy tails, two inches or more in length, suggesting gone-to-seed clematis. for some occult reason this shrub is called quinine bush at the grand canyon. there are two kinds of aruncus, resembling spiraea; with small white flowers, the stamens and pistils in separate flowers on different plants. aruncus is a word used by pliny to designate a goat's beard. [sidenote: =goat's beard= _arúncus sylvéster_ (_spiraea aruncus_) =white summer northwest, etc.=] a pretty plant, from three to seven feet high, with somewhat branching stems and smooth leaves, thin in texture. the minute, cream-white flowers are crowded closely along the many sprays which make up the very loose cluster, which is about a foot long, the effect of the whole being exceedingly airy and graceful and in fine contrast to the handsome foliage. this grows in mountain woods, across the continent and in europe and asia. [illustration: cliff rose--cowania stansburiana.] [illustration: goat's beard--aruncus sylvester.] there are only a few kinds of adenostoma, evergreen shrubs, with small, narrow, resinous leaves and clusters of small, white flowers. [sidenote: =chamise, greasewood= _adenóstoma fasciculàtum_ =white spring california=] this is a very attractive shrub, from two to ten feet high, with long, slender branches, clothed with close bunches of leaves and bearing large clusters of tiny flowers, something like spiraea. they have a feathery, creamy appearance, owing to the pale yellow stamens, and the olive-green foliage sets them off to perfection, the effect of the whole being very graceful, as the slender, flower-tipped branches sway to and fro in the wind. this is the most abundant and characteristic shrub of the higher coast ranges and sierra nevada mountains and sometimes covers miles of mountain slopes, looking a good deal like heather when it is not in bloom. when the chaparral is composed entirely of this shrub it is called chamisal. _a. sparsifòlium_ of southern california, has scattered leaves and larger flowers. it is very fragrant and used medicinally by spanish californians and indians, who call it yerba del pasmo, or "convulsion herb." there are many kinds of spiraea, natives of the north temperate zone; shrubs, without stipules and with clusters of white or pink flowers. [sidenote: =flat-top meadowsweet= _spiraèa corymbòsa_ =white spring, summer northwest, etc.=] this is an attractive plant, from one to three feet tall, with slender, reddish-brown stems, with but few branches, and smooth, bright green leaves, paler on the under side. the small flowers are cream-white, with pinkish buds, and form very pretty, feathery, flat-topped clusters, about three inches across. this is found on banks and rocky places, in the mountains, and grows also in the east. [sidenote: =pyramid bush= _spiraèa pyramidàta_ (_s. betulaefolia in part_) =pink, white spring, summer northwest=] an attractive plant, but not so pretty as the last. it is about the same height, but more branching, with dark bluish-green leaves, somewhat pale on the under side. the flowers are white or pale pink, with deep pink buds, and form long clusters, not so feathery as the last, because the stamens are not so long. this grows in the mountains. [illustration: chamise--adenostoma fasciculatum. flat-top meadow-sweet--spiraea corymbosa. pyramid bush--s. pyramidata.] [sidenote: =hardhack, steeple-bush= _spiraèa doúglasii_ =pink spring, summer wash., oreg., cal.=] a handsome shrub, from three to five feet high, with rather coarse leaves, smooth, but with a dull surface, and pale with close down on the under side, and bearing many beautiful, compact spires of small, pink flowers, warm in tone and deeper in color towards the center, with numerous, long, pink stamens, which give a very feathery appearance. the flowers are slightly sweet-smelling and bloom first at the top of the cluster, so that the effect of the whole spire, which is six or eight inches long, is light pink and fuzzy at the top, deepening below to the raspberry-pink of the buds. this grows along the edges of meadows and near brooks. there are two kinds of chamaebatiaria, both western; low shrubs; the flowers with five sepals, five petals, and about sixty stamens; the pistils five, more or less united. [sidenote: =fern-bush= _chamaebatiària millefòlium_ (_spiraea_) =white summer arizona=] a pretty and unusual-looking shrub, about three feet high, with reddish stems and shreddy bark, the downy leaves, pale yellowish-green in color, arranged at intervals along the branches in soft feathery bunches. the flowers are like small strawberry blossoms, slightly fragrant, and form pretty clusters. this grows on rocks, along the rim of the grand canyon, clinging to the edge and overhanging the depths. there is only one kind of coleogyne. [sidenote: _coleógyne ramosíssima_ =yellow spring southwest=] the plateau in the grand canyon is covered for miles with this low shrub, which gives the landscape its characteristic pale desert coloring. the flowers, over half an inch across, with one or two pairs of three-lobed bracts at base, grow singly at the tips of the twigs and, unlike most of this family, have no petals and only four, spreading sepals, bright yellow inside, two of them pointed and the alternate two more round in shape. the ovary is enclosed in a yellow, hollow, urn-shaped receptacle, surrounded by numerous stamens inserted on its base, the yellow anthers with threadlike filaments. the very small, narrow, toothless leaves are evergreen, leathery and stiff, opposite, grayish in color and imperceptibly downy, clustered in small separate bunches along the rigid twigs, which are set almost at right angles to the reddish-gray branches and rather swollen at the joints. the whole shrub is from two feet to four feet high, stiff, almost thorny, and rather forbidding in appearance, but the odd little flowers are pretty. [illustration: coleogyne--ramosissima. hardhack--spiraea douglasii. fern-bush--chamaebatiaria millefolium.] there are several kinds of argentina, differing from potentilla in the leaflets and the style. [sidenote: =silver-weed= _argentìna anserìna_ (_potentilla_) =yellow spring, summer, autumn north america, etc.=] this forms large straggling clumps of many, pale, downy stems, lying on the ground and rooting at the joints, like strawberry runners, with handsome foliage and pretty flowers. the leaves are rich green on the upper side and covered with silky white down on the under, giving a silvery appearance, and the flowers are an inch or more across, bright yellow, with centers of the same shade, and have long flower-stalks, sometimes as much as a foot tall. this is common and conspicuous in wet meadows and also grows in europe and asia. there are only a few kinds of dryas, shrubby plants, living in cold and arctic regions. the latin name means "wood-nymph." [sidenote: =alpine avens= _drýas octopétala_ =white summer northwest, etc.=] this is a charming little plant, from two to five inches tall, forming low, matted clumps of many branching stems, lying on the ground and woody at the base, and many stiffish leaves, with prominent veins, dark green and smooth on the upper side and white with close down on the under, their dark tones setting off the pure-white flowers, which have downy flower-stalks and are about an inch across, with about eight petals, a golden center and the calyx covered with sticky hairs. the seed-vessels are large and feathery. this grows in alpine places, across the continent, reaching an altitude of fourteen thousand feet, and in europe and asia. [illustration: silver-weed--argentina anserina. alpine avens--dryas octopetala.] there are many kinds of cinquefoils, mostly natives of the north temperate zone, usually herbs, with compound leaves and yellow, white or purple flowers, always with pedicels; the flat or cup-shaped calyx, with five, main teeth, alternating with five, tooth-like bractlets; petals five, broad, often notched; stamens numerous, with threadlike filaments and small anthers, near the base of the calyx-cup; pistils numerous, on the conical, hairy receptacle, which does not become fleshy or juicy, each pistil maturing into a dry, seed-like akene. potentilla means "powerful," as some sorts are medicinal. they often resemble buttercups, but never have shiny petals, and buttercups do not have bractlets between the calyx-lobes. [sidenote: =arctic cinquefoil= _potentílla emarginàta_ =yellow summer northwest=] a dear little plant, forming low tufts, two or three inches high, with thin, brownish stipules, bright green leaves, more or less hairy, and bright yellow flowers, deeper in color towards the center and about half an inch across. this grows in high northern mountains across the continent and in siberia. [sidenote: =silky cinquefoil= _potentílla pectinisécta_ =yellow spring, summer utah, ariz., wyo.=] the foliage of this plant is a lovely shade of silvery gray, which suits the yellow flowers. it has several stoutish, reddish, stems, a foot to a foot and a half tall, springing from clumps of leaves, with long leaf-stalks and five to seven leaflets. the bright-yellow flowers are each three-quarters of an inch across and the whole plant is conspicuously covered with long, thick, white, silky down, particularly on the under side of the leaves. [sidenote: =shrubby cinquefoil= _dasíphora fruticòsa_ (_potentilla_) =yellow spring, summer west, etc.=] this is the only kind of dasiphora, a pretty shrub, very branching and leafy, one to four feet high, dotted all over with charming flowers. the bark is shreddy and the gray-green leaves are covered with silky down, with rolled back margins, and paler on the under side. the flowers, single or in clusters, are over an inch across, with clear yellow petals and deeper yellow anthers. this is common in the mountains, across the continent, up to an altitude of ten thousand feet, and is a troublesome weed in northern new england. it is also found in europe and asia. [illustration: arctic cinquefoil--p. emarginata. shrubby cinquefoil--dasiphora fruticosa. silky cinquefoil--potentilla pectinisecta.] there are several kinds of sericotheca, much like spiraea, except the fruits. [sidenote: =ocean spray= _sericothèca discolor (spiraea) (holodiscus)_ =white summer northwest and southwest=] a handsome conspicuous shrub, from three to eight feet high, without stipules, with roughish, dull-green leaves, toothed or lobed, but not with leaflets, and pale and woolly on the under side. the tiny flowers form beautiful, plumy, branching clusters, eight inches or more in length and almost as much across, cream-white and fuzzy, drooping and turning brownish as the flowers fade. this is common in the mountains. there are numerous kinds of rubus, in temperate regions, with white, pink, or purple flowers, and red, black, or yellowish "berries." the fruit is not really a berry, but a collection of many, tiny, round stone-fruits, crowded on a pulpy, conical receptacle. that of the raspberry has a "bloom," and falls off the receptacle when ripe, but the blackberry has shining, black fruit, which clings to the receptacle. rubus, meaning "red," is the ancient latin name for the bramble. raspberries were cultivated by the romans in the fourth century. [sidenote: =salmon-berry= _rùbus spectàbilis_ =red summer northwest=] a handsome bush, not at all trailing, from three to nine feet high, with dark-brown, prickly stems, fine foliage and flowers, and conspicuously beautiful fruit. the leaves are nearly smooth, with three leaflets, and the flowers, about two inches across, are a brilliant shade of deep pink, not purplish in tone, with yellow centers, and grow singly, or two or three together. the fruit is a firm, smooth raspberry, over an inch long, bright orange-color, more or less tinted with red, with a rather pleasant but insipid taste and not very sweet. this grows in woods. it is rather confusing that this should be called salmon-berry in the west, for in the east that is the common name of _rubus parviflorus_. [sidenote: =common blackberry= _rùbus vitifòlius_ =white spring, summer california, etc.=] an evergreen bush, a few feet high and more or less erect; or the prickly stems trailing on the ground, or climbing over other shrubs, and sometimes eighteen feet long. the leaves are downy, or almost smooth, usually rather coarse in texture, and all but a few of the upper ones have from three to seven leaflets. the flowers are about an inch across and the petals vary a good deal, being sometimes broad and sometimes rather long and narrow. this is common from southern california to british columbia. [illustration: salmon-berry--r. spectabilis. common blackberry--rubus vitifolius.] [sidenote: =thimble-berry= _rùbus parviflòrus_ =white spring, summer west, etc.=] in shady mountain woods we find this attractive plant, which is called salmon-berry farther east. it also resembles the eastern thimble-berry, but its flowers are prettier, for they are white instead of purplish-pink. it has several branching stems, from two to six feet high, the lower ones woody, with shreddy bark and the upper stems pale green, slightly rough and hairy, but with no thorns. the large maple-like leaves are thin in texture, but almost velvety, with hairs on the veins of the under side and on the leaf-stalks, and are bright green, with three or four, toothed lobes. the flowers are occasionally pinkish and measure about two inches across, and grow, a few together, at the ends of long flower-stalks. the petals are slightly crumpled and there are usually five of them, but both sepals and petals vary a good deal in number; the green sepals are velvety, pale inside and tipped with tails, and the pale yellow center is composed of a roundish disk, covered with pistils and surrounded by a fringe of numerous yellow stamens. the fruit is a flattish, red raspberry, disappointing to the taste, for it is mostly seeds. this is found as far east as michigan. [sidenote: =creeping raspberry= _rùbus pedàtus_ =white summer northwest=] a charming little vine, without prickles, the stems from one to three feet long and rooting at the joints, trailing over rocks and moss and creeping along the ground, ornamented with pretty leaves, with from three to five leaflets, and sprinkled with white flowers, half an inch or more across, and often also with juicy, red raspberries. this grows in rich soil, in mountain woods. [illustration: thimble-berry--rubus parviflorus. creeping raspberry--r. pedatus.] there are a good many kinds of strawberry, natives of the north temperate zone and the andes. they are perennials, with running stems, rooting at the joints; the flowers white, or rarely pink, with slender, often drooping pedicels, forming loose clusters; the flower-stalks springing from tufts of root-leaves, which have three, toothed leaflets and a pair of sheathing stipules at the base of the long leaf-stalk; the sepals five, alternating with sepal-like bractlets; the petals five, with short claws and not notched; the stamens numerous, with slender filaments; the receptacle roundish or cone-shaped, becoming enlarged, red and juicy, in fruit, bearing minute, dry akenes, scattered over its surface, or set in pits. fragum is the latin name for strawberry, meaning "fragrant." [sidenote: =wood strawberry= _fragària bracteàta_ =white spring, summer west=] a slender little plant, growing in light shade, in rich soil, along streams, in rocky woods and producing runners very freely. the stipules are papery and reddish, the thin, dull-green leaves are slightly silky on the upper side, when young, and the leaflets are sharply and coarsely toothed, somewhat wedge-shaped, broad at the tips, the two side ones uneven at base. there is usually a little bract, halfway up, on both the flower-stalk and the leaf-stalk. the flowers are nearly an inch across, with fuzzy, bright yellow centers, and the fruit is light red, with a good flavor, somewhat cone-shaped, the akenes scattered over its smooth, shining, even surface and but slightly attached to it. [sidenote: =sand strawberry= _fragària chiloénsis_ =white spring, summer wash., oreg., cal.=] a charming plant, a few inches tall, with thick, glossy, dark green leaves, paler and hairy on the under side, and pure-white flowers, with bright yellow centers. they are about an inch across and are well set off by the masses of dark foliage. this has large, delicious berries and grows abundantly on beaches and sand dunes near the sea, from san francisco to alaska. it is often cultivated. [illustration: sand strawberry--fragaria chiloensis.] pea family. _fabaceae_. a very large family, including many important plants, such as clover, alfalfa, peas, and beans; herbs, shrubs, vines, and trees, distinguished principally by the flower and fruit, resembling the butterfly-like corolla and simple pod of the common pea; leaves alternate, usually compound, with leaflets and stipules; calyx five-toothed or five-cleft; petals five. the upper petal, or "standard," large, covering the others in the bud, the two at the sides standing out like "wings," the two lower ones united by their edges to form a "keel," enclosing the stamens, usually ten, and the single pistil with a curved style; the ovary superior. there are numerous kinds of anisolotus, widely distributed, common, difficult to distinguish; mostly herbs, some slightly shrubby; leaves with two or many, toothless leaflets; calyx-teeth nearly equal; petals with claws, free from the stamens, wings adhering to the keel, incurved, blunt or beaked; stamens joined by their filaments, in two sets of one and nine, anthers all alike; style incurved; pods two-valved, often compressed between the seeds, never inflated. these plants have several common names, such as bird-foot, trefoil, cat's-clover, etc., and are called crowtoes by milton. [sidenote: =pretty bird-foot= _anisolòtus formosíssimus (lotus) (hosackia)_ =pink and yellow spring wash., oreg., cal.=] a gay and charming kind, with smooth stems, spreading on the ground, light green leaves, with five or more leaflets, and flowers about half an inch long, with a golden-yellow standard, pink or magenta wings and wine-colored keel, forming a flattish cluster, the contrasting colors giving a vivid effect. this grows in damp places along the sea-coast. [sidenote: =bird-foot= _anisolòtus argyraèus (lotus) (hosackia)_ =yellow spring california=] a shrubby, branching plant, a foot and a half high, forming a pretty clump, two or three feet across, with downy, gray-green stems and foliage, sprinkled with clover-like heads of yellow flowers. the leaflets are slightly thickish, covered with silky down, the twigs and young leaves silvery-white. the small flowers are a soft shade of warm-yellow, and the buds form neat, fuzzy, silvery balls. this grows on dry hillsides in the catalina islands. [illustration: pretty bird-foot--a. formosissimus. bird-foot--anisolotus argyraeus.] [sidenote: _anisolòtus strigòsus (lotus) (hosackia)_ =yellow spring, summer, autumn california=] this is only a few inches high, with slender, slightly downy stems, branching and spreading, and bright green leaves, with seven or more, small, narrow leaflets, slightly thickish, with some minute, bristly hairs. the few flowers are about a quarter of an inch long, mostly single, bright yellow, tinged with red, fading to orange, and have a sort of miniature prettiness. this grows in the south. [sidenote: =bird-foot= _anisolòtus decúmbens (lotus) (hosackia)_ =yellow summer northwest=] an attractive little perennial, forming low clumps, harmonious in coloring, of pale gray-green, downy foliage, sprinkled with small clusters of charming little flowers, each less than half an inch long, various shades of yellow, and arranged in a circle. the pods are hairy and it grows on sunny, sandy slopes. [sidenote: =deer-weed= _anisolòtus glàber (lotus) (hosackia)_ =yellow and orange all seasons california=] though the flowers are small and the foliage scanty, the shaded effect of mingled yellow and orange of these plants is rather pretty, as we see them by the wayside. the many, long, smooth, reed-like stems grow from two to five feet high, branching from the root, somewhat woody below, loosely spreading, or sometimes half lying on the ground. the leaves are almost smooth, very small and far apart, with from three to six, oblong leaflets, and the flowers, from a quarter to half an inch long, are clustered in close little bunches along the stem, forming long wands, tipped with green buds, and shading downward through the bright yellow of the larger buds to the orange of the open flowers and the dull red of the faded ones. the pod is incurved, tipped with the long style. this is common and widely distributed, a perennial, but said to live only two or three years. in the south it often makes symmetrical little bushes, pleasing in appearance. it is a valuable bee-plant. _a. wrìghtii_ of arizona, utah, new mexico, and colorado, is quite leafy, with erect stems and branches, bushy and woody at base, the small leaflets from three to five in number. the flowers, without pedicles, are much like the last, but over half an inch long, yellow becoming reddish, with a blunt keel, and scattered all over the plant. [illustration: bird-foot--a. decumbens. deer-weed--anisolotus glaber. a. strigosus.] there are several kinds of thermopsis, of north america and asia; stout, perennial herbs, with woody rootstocks; leaflets three; stipules conspicuous, leaf-like; flowers large, yellow, with short, bracted flower-stalks; calyx bell-shaped, five-cleft; standard broad, in the western species, shorter than the oblong wings, keel nearly straight, blunt, the same length as the wings; stamens ten, separate, curving in; style slightly curving in, stigma small; pod flat, long or oblong, straight or curved, with a very short stalk and several seeds. thermopsis, sometimes called false lupine, is distinguished from lupinus by its stamens, which are separate, instead of united into a sheath. the greek name means "lupine-like." [sidenote: =golden pea buck-bean= _thermópsis montànà_ =yellow spring, summer northwest, utah, ariz.=] a very handsome, thrifty-looking plant, about two feet high, the smooth, bright green foliage contrasting finely with the clusters of clear yellow flowers, each about three-quarters of an inch long. the erect, straight pods, two or three inches long, are silky and also the calyxes and buds. this thrives in the mountains, up to an altitude of nine thousand feet, in somewhat moist spots, and its fresh coloring is most attractive. the foliage seems to me to be especially handsome in northern arizona, but these plants are also beautiful in the utah canyons. the flowers are scentless and last a long time in water. _t. califórnica_ has silvery, silky foliage and is common in california, in damp ground in the hills. there are many kinds of parosela, of western north america, mexico, and the andes, no one sort common; generally shrubs; leaves almost always compound; leaflets odd in number, small, toothless, with minute stipules, often with glandular dots; flowers small, in terminal clusters; calyx with nearly equal, long, occasionally feathery teeth; corolla with wings and keel longer than the standard, their claws adhering to the lower part of the stamen-tube, but the claw of the small, heart-shaped standard free; stamens nine or ten, filaments united, anthers alike; ovary with a short stalk, or none, style awl-shaped; pod small, membranous, included in the calyx, usually with one seed. _p. spinòsa_, the smoke tree, or ghost tree, of western arizona, is almost leafless, with grayish or whitish branches. [illustration: golden pea--thermopsis montana.] [sidenote: _parosèla califórnica (dalea)_ =blue spring california=] this little spiny desert shrub grows two or three feet high and is conspicuous on account of the odd contrast in color between its foliage and flowers. the woody stems and branches are very pale in color and the very small leaflets, so narrow and stiff that they look like evergreen needles, are covered with pale down and have glandular dots. all over this colorless foliage are sprinkled small spikes of indigo-blue flowers, so dark in color that the effect, against a background of desert sand, is of pale gray, speckled with black. it has a pleasant smell like balsam. [sidenote: _parosèla Émoryi (dalea)_ =magenta spring, summer southwest=] a low, desert shrub, with slender, abruptly branching stems and small, soft, thickish leaves, usually with three leaflets, obscurely toothed, the stems and leaves all thickly covered with white down. the flower-clusters are about three-quarters of an inch across, like a small clover-head, the woolly calyxes giving a yellowish-gray effect to the whole cluster, which is ornamented with a circle of tiny purple flowers. the effect of these specks of dark color on the pale bush is odd; the plant smells like balsam and grows in sandy soil. [sidenote: =chaparral pea= _xylothérmia montàna (pickeringia)_ =crimson spring, summer california=] this is the only kind, an evergreen shrub, flourishing on dry hills in the coast ranges, with tough, crooked branches and stout spines, forming chaparral so dense that it is impossible to penetrate. it grows from three to eight feet high, the gnarled, knotty, black branches terminating in long spines, which are often clothed with small leaves nearly to the end, the leaves with one to three, small leaflets and without stipules. the bush is often covered with quantities of pretty, bright, deep purplish-pink flowers, three-quarters of an inch long, forming a fine mass of color. the calyx has four, short, broad teeth; the petals are equal, the standard roundish, with the sides turned back and a paler spot at base, the wings oblong, the keel straight; the filaments of the ten stamens not united; the pod is two inches long, flat, straight, sickle-shaped when young. this very rarely produces fruit. stevenson was probably describing this shrub when he wrote, "even the low thorny chaparral was thick with pea-like blossoms." [illustration: parosela californica. chaparral pea--xylothermia montana. parosela emoryi.] there are so many western kinds of lupinus that it is hopeless for the amateur to distinguish them; herbs, sometimes shrubs; leaves palmately-compound, stipules adhering to the base of the leaf-stalk, leaflets, more than three in number, usually closing at mid-day; flowers showy, in terminal racemes; calyx deeply toothed, two-lipped; standard broad, the edges rolling back, wings lightly adhering above, enclosing the incurved, pointed keel, sometimes beaked; style incurved, stigma bearded; stamens united by their filaments, alternate anthers shorter; pod two-valved, leathery, flat, oblong; seeds two to twelve. lupines always have palmately-divided leaves, and are never trailing, twining, or tendril-bearing and thus may be superficially distinguished from vetches and peas, and from thermopsis, by the united stamens. [sidenote: =river lupine= _lupìnus rivulàris_ =blue and white and purple summer northwest=] a stately perennial, about three feet high, with stout, branching reddish, slightly downy stems, bearing several tall spires of flowers. the handsome leaves are bright green, smooth on the upper side, slightly downy, but not silvery, on the under, with from seven to thirteen leaflets, and the flower-cluster is very erect and compact, eight or ten inches long, beautifully shaded in color, from the pale, silky buds at the tip, to the blue and purple of the open flowers, which are about five-eighths of an inch long, with a lilac standard, tipped with purple. the upper flowers have white wings, veined with blue, and a green calyx, with reddish teeth, and the lower flowers have bright blue wings, veined with purple, and a reddish-purple calyx. this grows in wet places. [sidenote: =tree lupine= _lupìnus arbòreus_ =yellow spring california=] a conspicuous shrub, four to eight feet high, with a thick trunk, gnarled and twisted below, with purplish, downy branches, silvery twigs and dull bluish-green leaves, downy on the under side, with about nine leaflets. the fine flower clusters are sometimes a foot long, composed of beautiful canary-yellow flowers, deliciously sweet-scented. this is easily recognized by its size and fragrance and is common in sandy soil near the sea, where it has been found very useful, as its very long roots keep the sand dunes from shifting. [illustration: river lupine--lupinus rivularis.] [sidenote: =parti-colored lupine= _lupìnus stìversii_ =pink and yellow summer california=] one of the prettiest and most conspicuous kinds, for its coloring is unusual, with branching, downy, leafy stems, about a foot high, thickish leaflets, pale bluish-green in color and rather hairy, and fragrant flowers, over half an inch long, with rose-colored wings and a yellow standard, changing to orange in fading. the combination of pink, orange, and yellow is very striking. this grows in warm, dry spots in yosemite, and other places in the sierras and coast ranges. _l. citrìnus_, of similar situations, has all yellow flowers. [sidenote: =quaker bonnets= _lupìnus laxiflòrus_ =blue spring, summer west=] a handsome perennial, forming fine clumps on dry, gravelly hillsides, with several, slender, rather downy stems, from one to two feet tall, the leaflets six to nine in number, rather bluish-green, downy on the upper side, paler and silkier on the under. the younger leaves and calyxes are silvery with down, the flower buds form long, pretty, silvery clusters, resembling ears of wheat in form, and the flowers are in handsome loose racemes, from five to six inches long, of various shades of blue, mostly bright and somewhat purplish, the standard with a little white at its base and the keel purplish. the pod is covered with silky hairs and contains from three to five seeds. this is very common in utah, handsome and conspicuous, and when growing in quantities, among balsam-roots, forget-me-nots, and wild geraniums, makes a combination unequaled in any flower-garden. [sidenote: =milk-white lupine= _lupìnus lactèus_ =white spring california=] a handsome plant, with a very stout, branching stem and soft, bluish-green leaves, with silky hairs on the edges and under sides, forming a fine clump of foliage, from which the flower-stalks stand up very stiff and straight. the cluster is most symmetrical in form and the flowers, which are nearly three-quarters of an inch long, are a beautiful, pearly white, tinged with yellow at the base of the standard and with creamy buds. the lower lobe of the calyx is large and very dark green, the stems have a pale, satiny surface, sprinkled with hairs and the leaflets are ten or eleven in number. this grows in the grass along the roadsides and is common around san bernardino. [illustration: bi-colored lupine--lupinus stiversii.] [illustration: milk-white lupine--lupinus lacteus. quaker bonnets--l. laxiflorus.] there are numerous kinds of lathyrus, widely distributed and difficult to distinguish. in technical character and habit they very much resemble vetches, but sometimes have no tendrils and the flowers are larger, the leaflets are broader, and the style is flattened and hairy, not only at the tip, but also along the upper side. the leaflets are equal in number, the leaf-stalk usually terminating in a branching tendril; the flowers are in clusters; the calyx with five teeth, the upper commonly shorter; the style flattened and usually twisted; the pod flat or cylindrical, with no partitions between the seeds. lathyrus is the old greek name of the pea. [sidenote: =narrow-leaved sweet pea= _láthyrus graminifòlius_ =pink and violet spring arizona=] this has flowers resembling the cultivated sweet pea, but the whole effect is more airy and graceful. it is a loosely-trailing vine, with slender, angled stems, long, narrow leaflets, eight in number, and three-cleft tendrils. the flowers are about three-quarters of an inch long, brightly yet delicately tinted with shaded pink and violet, and are so lightly poised on the long slender stalks that they look like a row of butterflies about to take flight. this grows on the plateau in the grand canyon and all through arizona in the mountains. [sidenote: =utah sweet pea= _láthyrus utahénsis_ =lilac spring, summer utah, col.=] a smooth, trailing perennial, very graceful, with beautifully tinted flowers and bright green foliage. the stipules are large, broad and leafy, and the leaflets are usually ten in number, veined and thin in texture, one or two inches long, with tendrils. the flowers are nearly an inch long, from four to eight in a cluster, on a long flower-stalk; the standard pinkish-lilac, delicately veined with purple, the wings pale lilac and the keel cream-color. the flowers, as they fade, although keeping their form, gradually change in color to all shades of blue, turquoise, and sea-green, finally becoming buff, so that the effect of the whole cluster is iridescent and very lovely. this grows on mountain slopes, often in oak-thickets, clambering over the bushes to a height of several feet and clinging to everything with its tendrils. [illustration: wild sweet pea--lathyrus graminifolius.] [illustration: utah sweet pea--lathyrus utahensis.] [sidenote: =pride of california= _láthyrus spléndens_ =crimson spring california=] this has such glorious flowers, so superb in color and form, that it is by far the handsomest of its kind and not to be mistaken for any other. the stout, smooth, stems are dark green, the stipules small, and the leaves are smooth, slightly thickish and stiffish, rather dark bluish-green, with about ten leaflets. the flowers are over two inches long, from the tip of the standard to the end of the keel, and form a massive cluster of eight or ten blossoms, hanging on drooping pedicels and shading in color from the pale-salmon of the buds to the brilliant rose, carmine, and wine-color of the open flowers, the older flowers being very dark and rich. only a small part of the flower-cluster is given in the picture. these plants, which are found around san diego and farther south, clamber over the neighboring bushes to a height of several feet and adorn them with wonderful color, giving an effect of tropical splendor. there are innumerable kinds of astragalus; most abundant in asia, usually perennial herbs, sometimes woody; leaves usually with numerous leaflets, flowers narrow, in spikes, with long flower-stalks; calyx tube-shaped, with nearly equal teeth; petals usually narrow, with slender claws, standard erect and somewhat oblong, wings oblong, keel with blunt tip, about the same length as the wings; stamens ten, in two sets of nine and one; pods numerous, more or less two-celled, often inflated, so the wind can distribute the small seeds, therefore these plants are often called rattleweed. another name is milk vetch and many kinds are called loco-weed, from the word "loco," or crazy, because they are poisonous to horses and cattle. i was told by a cow-boy in arizona that "horses eat this because it tastes sweet, but it gives them water on the brain and they die, unless the skull is split with an axe and the water is let out!" [sidenote: _astrágalus menzièsii_ =white spring, summer california=] a decorative plant, its pale flowers contrasting well with the dark foliage, with stout, branching stems, from two to three feet tall, hairy above, and many leaflets, dark-green on the upper side, hairy and paler on the under. the flowers are half an inch or more long, with a pale, yellowish-green, downy calyx and cream-white corolla, and form a fine cluster, from four to ten inches long. the egg-shaped pods are much inflated and almost papery, an inch or more long. this grows on sea-cliffs and in sandy soil near the coast. [illustration: pride of california--lathyrus splendens.] [illustration: astragalus menziesii.] [sidenote: =pink lady-fingers, sheep-pod= _astrágalus utahénsis_ =pink spring, summer, autumn utah, nev.=] a pretty plant, unusual in coloring, the short stems spreading on the ground and springing from a short, perennial root; the foliage all very pale bluish-gray, covered with silvery down, the thickish leaflets from eleven to seventeen in number, the younger leaves and flower buds almost white. the flowers are about an inch long, in loose clusters, with flower-stalks from three to four inches long; the calyx long, pinkish-gray and downy, the standard pale pink, the wings deeper purplish-pink, the keel yellowish-pink. the pod is short, leathery, woolly, and stemless. this grows in dry, gravelly soil and in favorable situations makes low, circular clumps of foliage, suggesting the old-fashioned crochet lamp-mats that we used to see in new england farmhouses, for the pale leaves are symmetrically arranged in neat clusters and ornamented at intervals with pink flowers. unlike, however, the worsted ornament, its coloring is delicately harmonious and beautiful. [sidenote: _astrágalus nothóxys_ =purple spring arizona=] a very slender plant, with trailing stems, one or two feet long, the leaflets odd in number and downy on the under side. the flowers are about half an inch long, with a whitish, downy calyx and a bright purple corolla, shading to white at the base. this grows in mountain canyons and looks a good deal like a vetch, except that it has no tendrils. [sidenote: =rattle-weed, loco-weed= _astrágalus pomonénsis_ =white spring california=] this is a straggling plant, a foot and a half tall, smooth all over, with stout stems and many bluish-green leaflets. the flowers are over half an inch long, with a very pale calyx and yellowish-white corolla, forming a rather pretty cluster, about three inches long. the pods are each over an inch long and much inflated, forming a large bunch, odd and very conspicuous in appearance. [illustration: a. nothoxys. pods of rattle-weed--a. pomonensis. pink lady-fingers--astragalus utahensis.] [sidenote: =loco-weed= _astrágalus macdoùgali_ =white, lilac spring arizona=] an attractive plant, about a foot high, with straggling, reddish stems and delicate foliage. the flowers are over half an inch long, with a hairy calyx and pale lilac and white corolla, and form pretty clusters about two inches long. there are many kinds of hedysarum, some from africa and only a few in this country; perennial herbs, sometimes shrubby; the leaflets toothless, odd in number; the flowers in handsome racemes, with bracts, on stalks from the angles of the stem; the calyx with five, nearly equal teeth; the standard rather large, round, or inverted heart-shaped, narrow at base, the wings oblong, shorter than the standard; the keel blunt, nearly straight, longer than the wings; the stamens in two sets of nine and one, not adhering to the corolla; the pod long, flat, and oddly jointed into several, strongly-veined, one-seeded, roundish divisions, which separate when ripe. the name is from the greek, meaning "sweet-broom." [sidenote: _hedýsarum pabulàre_ =pink spring, summer utah=] a very handsome and decorative plant, with large brilliant flower-clusters, contrasting well with the foliage and making spots of vivid color on dry plains and hillsides. it has many stems, springing from a rootstock, which are from eight to fifteen inches long, yellowish-green, ridged, and covered with inconspicuous down, the leaflets are light bluish-green, thickish, nine to seventeen in number, and the bracts are thin and dry. the flowers are about three-quarters of an inch long, with a pinkish-green and downy calyx, and the corolla all bright deep pink, fading to blue, with a veined standard. the pod has from three to five divisions. this flourishes at rather high altitudes, up to seven thousand feet, and is conspicuously beautiful near the entrance to ogden canyon in utah. there are a great many kinds of trifolium, or clover, difficult to distinguish; low herbs; leaves usually with three leaflets, usually toothed; stipules adhering to the leaf-stalks; flowers in heads or spikes; stamens usually in two sets of nine and one; pods small, mostly enclosed in the calyx, usually with one to six seeds. [illustration: hedysarum pabulare.] [illustration: loco-weed--astragalus macdougali.] [sidenote: =clover= _trifòlium tridentàtum_ =purple spring, summer cal., oreg., wash.=] this is very common from the coast to the sierra foothills, but there are many named varieties. it is smooth all over and grows from eight inches to two feet high, with spreading stems and narrow leaflets, which are toothless, or have teeth and bristles on the edges. the pinkish-purple flowers form a broad head, over an inch across, with an involucre. [sidenote: =sour clover= _trifòlium fucàtum_ =cream-color spring, summer wash., oreg., cal.=] this has queer-looking flowers and is conspicuous on that account. the branching stems are a foot or more tall, the stipules are large, with papery margins, and the leaves are bright green, with a paler spot near the middle of each of the leaflets, which are toothed, or sometimes only bristly on the edges, and the flowers form a head about an inch and a quarter across, with a broad involucre. the calyx is very small and the corolla is cream-color, becoming much inflated and changing to deep pink as the flower withers. the effect of the cluster is curiously puffy and odd in color. this grows rankly in low alkaline and brackish places. there are many kinds of psoralea, widely distributed; ours are perennial herbs, without tendrils, the leaves with three or five leaflets, with glandular dots on them and usually bad-smelling. the flowers are white or purplish, and the pod is short, with only one seed. [sidenote: =native california tea= _psoràlea physòdes_ =white spring, summer cal., oreg., wash.=] this is a rather pleasing plant, for the foliage is pretty, though the flowers are too dull in color to be effective. it is almost smooth all over, a foot or more tall, with several spreading stems and rich green leaves, thin in texture and giving out a rather pleasant aromatic smell when crushed. the flowers are less than half an inch long, with a somewhat hairy calyx, covered with dots and becoming inflated in fruit, and a yellowish-white corolla, more or less tinged with purple. this is common in the woods of the coast ranges. the foliage was used as tea by the early settlers. [illustration: sour clover--trifolium fucatum. clover--t. tridentatum. native california tea--psoralea physodes.] there are many kinds of cytisus, natives of europe, asia, and africa, named for cythrus, one of the cyclades, where the first species was found. [sidenote: =scotch broom= _cýtisus scopàrius_ =yellow spring, summer west, etc., except ariz.=] a handsome branching shrub, about five feet high, with almost smooth or quite hairy leaves, with three, toothless leaflets, and fine clusters of flowers, each an inch or more long, with a yellow two-lipped calyx and a golden-yellow corolla, deeper in color at the base of the standard and at the tips of the wings; the stamens ten, in one set; the style curved in. the pod is flat, smooth on the sides, but hairy along the edges, one or two inches long and curling when ripe. this is said to have been brought to california by cornish miners. senna family. _cassiaceae._ a large family, most of them tropical; trees, shrubs, and herbs, with flowers more or less irregular in form, but not like the flowers of the true pea, though sometimes resembling them; calyx usually with five sepals; corolla with five petals, overlapping in the bud, the petal which corresponds to the standard folded within the two side petals, instead of covering them, as in the pea flower; stamens, ten, or fewer, in number, usually not united; ovar superior; fruit a pod, mostly splitting into two halves, containing one to many seeds. to this family belong the handsome red-bud, or judas tree, of our woodlands, both east and west; the spiny honey-locust; the kentucky coffee-tree, with its fine foliage, of the central and eastern states; the interesting palo verde, with greatly reduced leaves, of the southwest, and the fine bird-of-paradise flowers, of the tropics and mexico, one or two of which are just beginning to grow wild in southern arizona and california. there are many kinds of cassia, abundant in tropical america; herbs, shrubs, or trees; leaflets even in number; flowers usually yellow; calyx-teeth nearly equal; corolla almost regular, with five, nearly equal, spreading petals, with claws; stamens usually ten, sometimes five, often unequal, some of the anthers often imperfect, or lacking; pod flat or cylindrical, often curved, sometimes with partitions between the numerous seeds. [illustration: scotch broom--cytisus scoparius.] [sidenote: =desert senna, golden cassia= _cássia armàta_ =yellow spring southwest=] the peculiar orange-yellow of these handsome flowers at once attracts our attention, for their tint is quite different from the greenish-yellow, which is so much more common. they grow in the desert, forming big clumps, two feet high and two or three feet across, but have almost no foliage. the numerous, smooth stems are very pale in color, often bluish or gray, with a few dark-green leaves, with six, very small, stiff leaflets, and bearing clusters of numerous, sweet-smelling flowers, almost regular and about three-quarters of an inch across, with a downy calyx and the small, flat pod also downy. mimosa family. _mimosaceae._ a large family, most of them tropical; herbs, shrubs, or trees; leaves alternate, generally compound, usually with two or three leaflets; flowers small, regular and perfect, in clusters; calyx with three to six lobes or teeth; petals of the same number, separate, or more or less united, neither sepals nor petals overlapping in the bud; stamens as many as the petals, or twice as many, or numerous, separate or united; ovary superior; fruit a pod. there are several kinds of calliandra, low shrubs or herbs. [sidenote: =fairy dusters= _calliándra eriophýlla_ =pink spring arizona=] an odd little shrub, pretty and very japanese in character, about a foot tall, with a few, pale-gray, spreading branches and very scanty foliage. the small leaves are cut into many tiny leaflets and look like those of a mimosa, the buds are deep pink and the flowers are in clusters towards the ends of the branches and slightly sweet-scented. they are very queer-looking, but exceedingly pretty, for the purplish calyx and corolla are so small that the flower appears to be merely a tuft of many stamens, about an inch long, with threadlike filaments, white at base and shading to bright pink at the tips. the pistil is also long and pink, so the whole effect is a bunch of pink fuzz, airy in form and delicately shaded in color. these little shrubs sometimes bloom when they are only a few inches high, looking very quaint, like dwarf plants in a toy garden, and are among the earliest spring flowers. [illustration: desert senna--cassia armata.] [illustration: fairy dusters--calliandra eriophylla.] krameria family. _krameriaceae._ a small family, distributed from the southern united states to chili; hairy herbs or low shrubs, without stipules; leaves alternate; two bracts on the flower-stalk; flowers purplish, irregular, perfect; sepals four or five, usually large, the outer one commonly wider than the others; petals usually five, smaller than the sepals, the three upper ones with long claws, often united by their claws, sometimes the middle one of the three lacking, the two lower ones reduced to mere fleshy glands and not resembling petals; stamens three or four, united at least at base; ovary superior, with a slender style; fruit spiny, seed one. [sidenote: =crimson-beak= _kramèria gràyi_ =purplish-pink spring arizona=] a desert shrub, with a pleasant smell like balsam, two to four feet high, with gray, woody stems, abruptly branching, armed with long, brown and gray thorns, and clothed with very small, silvery-gray leaves, downy and thickish. the flowers are curious in shape and color, with five, large, purplish-pink sepals and five, small petals, the two lower ones minute and reduced to glands. the pistil is dark red, the three stamens have green filaments and red anthers, the ovary is downy and prickly, and the downy buds are pale pink. caltrop family. _zygophyllaceae._ not a large family, widely distributed in warm and tropical regions; ours are herbs or shrubs, with opposite or alternate, compound leaves, with stipules and toothless leaflets; flowers complete, usually with five sepals and five petals, and usually twice the number of stamens, with swinging anthers, alternate stamens sometimes longer, filaments often with a small scale near the middle; ovary superior, usually surrounded at the base by a disk; style one, with a five- to ten-lobed stigma; fruit dry. there are several kinds of covillea. [sidenote: =creosote-bush, hediondilla= _covíllea glutinòsa (larrea mexicana)_ =yellow all seasons southwest=] a graceful, evergreen shrub, common in arid regions and a characteristic feature of the desert landscape, filling the air with its very strong, peculiar odor. it is from three to ten feet high, with many little branches, with blackish knots at the joints, clothed with sticky, dull yellowish-green foliage, the thickish, resinous leaflets very small, in pairs, with almost no leaf-stalk, and uneven at base. the pretty flowers are nearly an inch across, with bright yellow petals, with claws, and silky, greenish-yellow sepals which soon drop off. the filaments are broadened below into wings and have a scale on the inner side. the ovary is covered with pale, silky hairs, so that the older flowers have a silky tuft in the center, and becomes a round, densely hairy fruit, with a short stalk, tipped with the slender style. these little white, silky balls of down are very conspicuous and, as they are mingled with yellow flowers, the bush has an odd and pretty effect of being spotted all over with yellow and white. [illustration: creosote-bush--covillea glutinosa. crimson-beak--krameria grayi.] flax family. _linaceae._ a small family, widely distributed in temperate and tropical regions. ours are smooth herbs, with loosely clustered, complete flowers, having five sepals; five petals, alternating with the sepals; five stamens, alternating with the petals, with swinging anthers and filaments united at the base; ovary superior; fruit a capsule, containing eight or ten, oily seeds. there are many kinds of flax, sometimes shrubby at base; with tough fibers in the bark; leaves without stipules, sometimes with glands at base in place of real stipules; flowers mostly blue or yellow. there are numerous, small-flowered, annual kinds, difficult to distinguish and usually somewhat local. _l. usitatíssimum_, an annual, with deep blue flowers, is the variety which, from time immemorial, has furnished the world with linen from its fiber and oil from its seeds. linum is the ancient latin name. [sidenote: =blue flax= _lìnum lewísii_ =blue spring, summer west, etc.=] an attractive plant, from one to two feet tall, with several, erect stems, springing from a woody, perennial root, with numerous, small, narrow, bluish-green leaves and loose clusters of pretty flowers, each about an inch across. the petals, delicately veined with blue, vary in tint from sky-blue to almost white, with a little yellow at the base. this is common and widely distributed, from manitoba to texas and westward, but the fiber is not strong enough to be used commercially. [illustration: blue flax--linum lewisii.] wood-sorrel family. _oxalidaceae._ not a large family, mostly tropical. ours are low herbs, with sour juice, often with rootstocks or scaly bulbs; leaves with three or several leaflets; flowers perfect; sepals five, often unequal; petals five, stamens ten to fifteen; ovary superior, five-celled, the five styles usually separate; fruit a capsule, containing several or many seeds. by some botanists this is merged in the geranium family. there are many kinds of oxalis. the greek name means "sour," in allusion to the sour taste of these plants, which contain oxalic acid. the leaves are alternate, at nightfall the leaflets droop and fold together; the stamens are ten, five long and five short, all with anthers, with filaments broadened and united at base. [sidenote: =yellow wood-sorrel= _Óxalis corniculàta_ =yellow spring, summer, autumn southwest=] a pretty little plant, a few inches tall, more or less downy all over, with very slender, reddish, branching stems and light green leaves, about an inch across and thin in texture. the flowers are over half an inch across, with clear yellow petals, often tinged with pale red on the outside, yellow anthers and a green pistil. the capsules are long and downy. [sidenote: =redwood sorrel= _Óxalis oregàna_ =white, pink spring cal., oreg., wash.=] one of the most attractive of our woodland plants. the succulent, hairy, reddish flower-stalks, about six inches tall, with two small bracts near the top, spring from a clump of root-leaves. the larger leaves are three inches across, with long leaf-stalks, pale and hairy on the under side, rich green on the upper, each leaflet marked with an irregular blotch of pale green. the younger leaves are lighter green than the older ones and in the bud are neatly folded together, the middle leaflet inside the other two. the leaflets fold back, when it is either too hot or too cold to suit the plant. the delicate flowers are about an inch and a half across, white, pale pink, or rose-color, often veined with deeper color and with a spot of yellow at the base of each petal, and well set off by the foliage, which makes patches of rich and variegated green in dense forest shade. [illustration: yellow wood-sorrel--oxalis corniculata. redwood sorrel--o. oregana.] geranium family. _geraniaceae._ not a large family, herbs, of temperate regions; leaves lobed or compound, usually with stipules; flowers perfect; sepals and petals usually five and stamens five or ten; ovary superior; fruit a capsule. there are many kinds of geranium; stems with swollen joints; stipules papery; five glands on the receptacle, alternating with the petals; stamens ten, five long and five short, filaments united at base; ovary with a beak formed by the five-cleft style, and becoming a capsule, which splits open elastically, the style-divisions becoming tails on the seeds. the greek name means "crane," in allusion to the long beak of the capsule, and these plants are often called crane's-bill. cultivated geraniums are pelargoniums, from south africa. [sidenote: =wild geranium= _gerànium incìsum_ =pink spring, summer west=] in the sierra woods, and along yosemite roadsides, in summer we see the purplish-pink blossoms and nodding buds of this attractive plant, resembling the wild geranium of the east, growing from thick, perennial roots, with hairy, branching stems, from one to two feet high. the hairy leaves, with three or five, toothed lobes, are fragrant like cultivated geraniums; the flowers, over an inch across, are hairy inside, the petals veined with magenta. they are occasionally white and the plants vary in size and hairiness. _g. furcàtum_, of the grand canyon, has magenta petals, which turn back more. [sidenote: =wild geranium= _gerànium fremóntii_ =pink spring, summer southwest, and utah, ida., col., new mex.=] this has similar flowers, but is a finer plant, forming large, thrifty-looking clumps, one or two feet across, of slightly thickish leaves, dark green on the upper side and paler, with prominent veins, on the under, the root-leaves with about seven, main divisions, the stem-leaves three- to five-cleft, each clump of leaves with several tall, slightly downy flower-stalks springing from it. the calyxes and buds are downy and the flowers bright pink or rose-purple, delicately veined. this grows in somewhat moist ground, at the edges of fields and woody roadsides and on mountain slopes, and is perhaps the handsomest of its clan. [illustration: geranium incisum. wild geranium--fremontii.] [sidenote:= long-stalked crane's-bill= _gerànium columbìnum_ =purple spring, summer california, etc.=] a slender plant, about a foot tall, with pinkish, hairy stems and pretty leaves, thin in texture, with a dull surface; the seed-vessels erect, with bristly beaks. the flowers grow in pairs and are less than half an inch across, with hairy calyxes and notched, purple or magenta petals. this is naturalized from europe, and common in the east and grows along roadsides, at the edges of fields and woods. there are many kinds of erodium, three native in the southwest and several more introduced, weeds in the old world and important forage plants in the west; leaves often unequal, with one stipule on one side and two on the other. they resemble geranium, flower and fruit being nearly the same, but only five of the stamens have anthers, the alternate ones being scale-like, without anthers; styles hairy inside. the greek name means "heron," in allusion to the long beak of the capsule. [sidenote: =red-stem filaree= _eròdium cicutàrium_ =pink all seasons west, etc.=] though not native, this is the commonest kind, in the interior and semi-arid regions, and most valued for forage. when young it forms rosettes close to the ground, but grows taller and more straggling. the stems are often reddish; the leaves somewhat hairy; the flowers small, in clusters of four to eight, with four bracts at the base; the petals purplish-pink, with darker veins, and hairy at the base, the two upper petals slightly smaller; the sepals tipped with one or two bristles. the ovary is beaked by the united styles, the beak, when the seeds ripen, separating into five, long tails, which twist spirally when dry and untwist when moistened. this is common west of the rockies, blooming more or less all the year round, varying in size in different soils. filaree is a corruption of the spanish alfilerilla, from "alfiler," a "pin." other names are pinkets, pinclover, storksbill, and clocks, so-called by children because they amuse themselves by watching the tails twist about like the hands of a clock. white-stem filaree, _e. moschàtum_, common in rich soil, has larger, coarser leaves and a faint scent. [illustration: long-stalked crane's-bill--geranium columbinum. red-stem filaree--erodium cicutarium.] milkwort family. _polygalaceae._ not a very large family, widely distributed; ours are herbs, sometimes shrubby, with no stipules; flowers perfect, irregular, resembling those of the pea family, but not like them in structure; sepals five, the two at the sides large and colored, like "wings," the upper sepal forming a "keel"; petals three, more or less united into a tube; stamens usually eight and united; ovary superior, two-celled, with a broad, curved stigma. there are many kinds of polygala. [sidenote: =california milkwort= _polýgala califórnica_ =pink spring, summer cal., oreg.=] a rather attractive little plant, three to eight inches tall, with smooth leaves and many slender, smooth, woody, stems, springing from slender rootstocks. the purplish-pink flowers become deeper in color as they fade and are quaint in form, over half an inch long, with pink "wings" and yellowish "keel," the petals downy inside and the middle one curving over to form a hood, in which the stamens and style are concealed. this plant has the odd habit of bearing another sort of flower near the root, maturing most of the seed, but without petals, and grows on dry, shady hillsides in the coast ranges. meadow foam family. _limnanthaceae._ a very small family, all north american, included in the geranium family by some botanists; smooth herbs, of wet places, with bitter juice; leaves alternate, lobed and cut, without stipules; flowers perfect; sepals and petals two to five; stamens twice as many as the petals; ovary superior, the five lobes becoming five nutlets; style one. there are several kinds of floerkea; sepals and petals three to five; five, small glands on the receptacle, alternating with the sepals; style two- to five-cleft. [sidenote: =meadow foam= _floérkea douglásii (limnanthes)_ =white, yellow spring cal., oreg.=] a charming plant, often covering the meadows with drifts of creamy bloom. the stems are smooth, succulent, brittle and branching, from six to twelve inches tall; the delicate flowers over an inch across, the petals hairy at base, sometimes pinkish, but usually white and yellow. [illustration: meadow foam--floerkea douglasii. california milk-wort--polygala californica.] buckeye family. _hippocastanaceae._ a small family, widely distributed; trees or shrubs, with opposite, compound leaves, no stipules and terminal clusters of irregular flowers, some perfect and some with only pistils or only stamens; the calyx tubular or bell-shaped, with five, unequal lobes or teeth; the petals four or five, unequal, with claws; the stamens five to eight, with long filaments; the ovary superior, with no stalk, three-celled, with a slender style; the capsule leathery, roundish or slightly three-lobed, smooth or spiny, with one to three, large, polished seeds. there are a good many kinds of aesculus, or horse chestnut, natives of america and asia; the leaves palmately compound, with toothed leaflets; the flowers of two sorts, the fertile ones few in number, near the top of the cluster, with long, thick styles, and the sterile flowers with short styles. [sidenote: =california buckeye= _aésculus califórnica_ =white spring, summer california=] one of our handsomest western shrubs, usually from ten to fifteen feet tall, with gray bark, and dark bluish-green foliage, the leaflets from five to seven in number, glossy on the upper side, pale and dull on the under, and firm in texture. the flowers have a rather heavy scent and are about an inch across, with four or five, slightly irregular, white petals, which become pink in fading, a pinkish ovary and long stamens with curling, white filaments, unequal in length, with buff anthers. they are crowded in a magnificent, pyramidal cluster, about a foot long, which has a pinkish-red, downy stem, and the buds are also downy and pinkish, so that the color effect is warm-pink above, merging into cream-white below, the whole made feathery by the long stamens. the shrub has a rounded top of rich green foliage, symmetrically ornamented with spires of bloom, standing up quite stiffly all over it. the large, leathery pod contains a big, golden-brown nut, supposed to be poisonous to cattle. the leaves fall off very early in the season, leaving the pods hanging on the bare branches. this is at its best in the mountain valleys of middle california, sometimes becoming a good-sized tree. [illustration: california buckeye--aesculus californica.] buckthorn family. _rhamnaceae._ a large family; shrubs, or small trees, of temperate and warm regions, some with bitter, astringent properties, often thorny; leaves mostly alternate; stipules minute; flowers often in showy clusters, small, regular; calyx-lobes and stamens four or five; petals usually four or five, sometimes lacking, with claws. the short calyx-tube is lined with a fleshy disk and on this are borne the petals and the stamens, alternate with the sepals and opposite the petals, with swinging anthers. in some cases, some of the flowers have only pistils or only stamens. the ovary superior or partly inferior; the fruit a berry or capsule. there are many kinds of ceanothus, largely western; flowers small, blue or white, in clusters; calyx bell-shaped, five-lobed, with a colored, petal-like border; petals five, the tips arching to form a tiny hood, with long claws; stamens five, long, protruding, with threadlike filaments; ovary partly inferior; style three-cleft; capsule splitting open elastically so as to scatter the three, hard nutlets. the flowers make a soapy lather when rubbed in water, hence the name soap-bush, and the kinds with rigid branches are called buckbrush. red-root is another name. mountain lilac is the commonest name, but misleading. lilacs belong to another family. [sidenote: =squaw carpets, mahala mats= _ceanòthus prostràtus_ =blue spring, summer cal., oreg.=] this decorative shrub is common in the sierras and carpets the forest floor with a rich green, leafy mat, sprinkled with small, feathery clusters of blue flowers. the trailing stems are clothed with leathery leaves, opposite and very glossy, and the little flowers are deep purplish-blue, with yellow stamens, and slightly scented. these plants are equally attractive late in the season when the flowers are replaced by scarlet seed-vessels, with three horns. [sidenote: =snow brush, mountain lilac= _ceanòthus velùtinus_ =white west, except ariz.=] a fine shrub, two to twelve feet high, with stout trunk and branches, easily recognized by its leaves, which are rich green, thick and resinous, shiny as if varnished on the upper side and sometimes rich chocolate-brown in color, but pale on the under side, with three, conspicuous nerves. the small, sweet-scented flowers are crowded in compact, creamy clusters, sometimes four or five inches long, very handsome, but not so delicate as deer-brush. this is common on hillsides and in the mountains, up to seven thousand feet. [illustration: snow brush--c. velutinus. squaw-carpets--ceanothus prostratus.] [sidenote: =deer-brush, mountain lilac= _ceanòthus integérrimus_ =white, blue summer cal., oreg., wash., ariz.=] a graceful shrub, or small tree, six to fifteen feet tall, the slender trunk and branches covered with dull yellowish-green bark and the bright green foliage setting off the feathery flower clusters, two to six inches long, scattered lightly over the bush and composed of innumerable, tiny, sweet-scented blossoms. the leaves are alternate, half an inch to three inches long, toothless, thin in texture, very slightly downy or smooth, with three veins, and the flowers cream-white, occasionally blue or pink, with conspicuous stamens, which give the plume-like sprays a delicate foamy effect against the dark forest background. this shrub is a beautiful sight when in flower and sometimes covers the mountainsides with drifts of snowy bloom, filling the air with delicate perfume. it is quite variable and sometimes has dark shiny leaves and small compact clusters of flowers. it is often called white tea-tree, because the bark is used medicinally. [sidenote: =blue mountain lilac= _ceanòthus parvifòlius_ =blue summer california=] an attractive mountain shrub, growing in yosemite, and elsewhere in the sierra nevada mountains at similar altitudes, low and spreading, about three feet high, with smooth, pale green branches and small, smooth, toothless leaves, dark green and shining on the upper side, pale on the under. the oblong clusters of minute blue flowers are slightly sweet-scented and about two inches long. mallow family. _malvaceae._ a large family, widely distributed; mostly herbs, with mucilaginous juice and tough, fibrous bark; leaves alternate, mostly palmately-veined and lobed, with stipules; flowers regular, perfect, or the stamens and pistils on different plants; sepals five, often with an outer row of bracts below, resembling another calyx; petals five, their bases or claws united with each other and with the base of the stamen-tube; stamens numerous, united by their filaments into a column, forming a tube enclosing the pistils; fruit a capsule, breaking when ripe into several one-seeded parts, or splitting down the back of the valves, allowing the seeds to escape. the little fruits are commonly called "cheeses." true mallows are introduced "weeds" in this country. [illustration: deer brush--ceanothus integerrimus. blue mountain lilac--c. parvifolius.] [sidenote: =arizona wild cotton= _thurbéria thespesioìdes (ingenhouzia triloba)_ =white summer arizona=] the only kind, a fine shrub, from four to eight feet high, with smooth leaves, most of them with three lobes, and handsome cream-white flowers, tinged with pink on the outside and measuring two inches across. this grows in the mountains of southern arizona and is beautiful under cultivation, often growing to a height of six or eight feet in a season. there are a number of kinds of sidalcea, difficult to distinguish; perennials; leaves round in general outline, variously cut and lobed; flowers showy, in terminal clusters; calyx with no outer bracts, or with only one; stamen-column double; stigmas threadlike, distinguishing them from malvastrum and sidalcea. [sidenote: =rose mallow= _sidálcea califórnica_ =pink spring california=] this has velvety leaves, those from the root much less deeply lobed than the others, and a slender, slightly hairy stalk, one to two feet tall, leaning to one side and bearing a loose raceme of rose-pink flowers, with petals about an inch long. only one or two flowers are open at a time, but they are very pretty and conspicuous in open woods and along the edges of fields, around santa barbara, in may. [sidenote: =oregon mallow= _sidálcea oregàna_ =pink summer, autumn northwest=] a pretty plant, with one or more smooth, pale, branching stems, about two feet tall, and dark green leaves, with conspicuous veins. the buds are downy and the flowers are about three-quarters of an inch across, with pale pink petals, prettily veined, shading to white at the center. the anthers are white and the pistil, when the stigmas have expanded, is prettily tipped with a tiny crimson brush. [illustration: oregon mallow--sidalcea oregana. rose mallow--s. californica.] [illustration] [sidenote: =checker-bloom= _sidálcea malvaeflòra_ =pink spring california=] a pretty perennial, with several leaning, hairy stems, one or two feet tall, and dark green leaves. some plants have perfect flowers, an inch or more across, often very pale pink, and others have only rudimentary stamens and smaller flowers, usually deep pink in color, but the plant is very variable. this is common near the coast. it is sometimes called wild hollyhock. [sidenote: =mallow= _sidálcea neo-mexicàna_ =pink summer ariz., utah, new mex., col., wyo.=] this is from one to three feet tall, with smooth, rather dark green leaves and very pretty, pale purplish-pink flowers with pale-yellow anthers and pinkish pistil. this grows in the mountains. there are many kinds of malvastrum, natives of america and africa; perennial herbs or shrubs; the calyx often with three outer bracts; the stamen-column bearing anthers at the top; the stigmas with round heads. the name is from the greek, meaning "star-mallow." [sidenote: =spotted mallow= _malvástrum rotundifòlium_ =pink spring southwest=] a very pretty desert plant, from six to eight inches tall, the coloring of the flowers, stems, and leaves vivid and oddly contrasting, for the stems are bright red and hairy, and the leaves stiff, hairy, and bronze-green in color, while the lovely globe-shaped flowers, which are over an inch across, are delicately shaded from lilac to rose outside and paler inside, with conspicuous round blotches of orange-vermilion at the base of each petal within. the calyx and buds are very hairy, the petals each have a twist to one side, and the mauve stamens form a pretty cluster in the center. these flowers last a long time in water, closing at night and opening again in the morning. [illustration] [illustration: spotted mallow--malvastrum rotundifolium.] [illustration: checker-bloom--s. malvaeflora. mallow--sidalcea neo-mexicana.] [sidenote: =false mallow= _malvástrum thúrberi_ =pink spring, summer california=] a handsome shrub, from five to ten feet high, woody below, with long, slender, wandlike branches and thick, very downy, light bluish-green leaves. the pretty lilac-pink flowers are from one to nearly two inches across and pleasantly scented, and the foliage is soft and pretty in appearance, though rather harsh to the touch, its pale tones blending harmoniously with the delicate blossoms. this is common in southern california. there are several kinds of lavatera, mostly from the old world. [sidenote: =tree mallow= _lavàtera assurgentiflòra_ =pink spring california=] this was planted in the mission gardens by the fathers and is now common around san francisco. it is a branching shrub, from six to fifteen feet high, with a twisted, gray trunk and large handsome leaves, light green and very soft and smooth to the touch, paler and downier on the under side. the flowers are handsome and conspicuous, two or three inches across, with bright pink petals, warm and rich in tone, beautifully striped with maroon and shading to yellowish-white towards the center, with a purple pistil and grayish anthers. the flowers and seed-vessels hang on curved pedicels, like pipe-stems, giving a rather odd effect. the leaves and twigs are very mucilaginous. there are many kinds of sphaeralcea, much like malvastrum, except that they have two or three ovules, instead of one, in each cavity of the ovary. the name is from the greek, meaning "globe-mallow," in allusion to the usually roundish fruit. [sidenote: =scarlet mallow= _sphaerálcea pedàta_ =red spring southwest=] these graceful wands of brilliant bloom are very common in spring in arizona. the flowers are over an inch across, vivid yet delicate in color, shading from luminous scarlet to clear pale-orange. the buds are tipped with deeper red and the foliage is rather pale green, somewhat hairy and downy. the stems are from one to two feet tall and bend slightly to one side, swaying to and fro in the wind and displaying their flaming blossoms to great advantage. [illustration: salmon globe mallow--sphaeralcea pedata.] [illustration: tree mallow--lavatera assurgentiflora. false mallow--malvastrum thurberi.] st. john's-wort family. _hypericaceae._ not a large family, mostly natives of temperate and warm regions. ours are herbs, sometimes shrubby, without stipules, with opposite, toothless leaves, with clear or black dots; the flowers regular and complete, all the parts borne on the receptacle; the sepals and petals usually five; the stamens usually numerous, sometimes grouped in three to five clusters; the ovary superior; the fruit a capsule. there are many kinds of hypericum, widely distributed; the leaves without leaf-stalks, the flowers yellow, with three to six styles. this is the ancient greek name. these plants bloom in june, about st. john's day, and so tradition gives them magic properties, appropriate to the eve of that day, when fairies and witches are abroad, and they are commonly called st. john's-wort. [sidenote: =st. john's-wort= _hypéricum concínnum_ =yellow summer california=] this has very pretty flowers and grows from three to eighteen inches tall, with smooth stems, branching and woody at base, and smooth, rather bluish-green leaves, usually folded, not clasping at base, usually with only a few dots. the flowers are an inch or more across, with bright golden petals, with some black dots, and numerous stamens in three bunches, forming large, fuzzy, golden centers. this grows on dry hills and is supposed to be poisonous to sheep. [sidenote: =st. john's-wort= _hypéricum formòsum var. scoúleri_ =yellow summer west=] a pretty plant, from six inches to three feet tall, with a stiff stem, often branching towards the top, and rather dull green leaves, blunt, oblong and clasping at base, about an inch long, thin in texture, with black dots on the margins. the flowers are from half an inch to an inch across, with bright yellow petals, dotted with black, and are very pretty, but not so handsome as the last. this grows in moist places, chiefly in the mountains, and is common in yosemite. [sidenote: =creeping st. john's-wort= _hypéricum anagalloìdes_ =orange summer northwest=] an attractive little plant, only a few inches tall, with many weak, slender, branching stems, spreading on the ground and rooting at the joints, and small, smooth, light yellowish-green leaves, often tinged with red. it grows in wet places and forms close mats of foliage, sprinkled with light-orange or salmon-colored flowers, a quarter of an inch or more across, with fifteen to twenty, yellow stamens. the effect is something like anagallis, scarlet pimpernel, hence the name. this is common in yosemite and similar places, up to nine thousand feet. [illustration: h. concinnum. st. john's-wort--hypericum formosum var. scouleri. creeping st. john's-wort--h. anagalloides.] fouquiera family. _fouquieriaceae._ a very small family, with one genus and only a few species; natives of the southwest and mexico; the flowers are brilliant red, in terminal clusters; the sepals five, not united; the petals five, united into a tube, the lobes somewhat spreading; the stamens ten to fifteen, protruding, inserted under the pistil; the ovary imperfectly three-celled; the styles three, long, somewhat united; the seeds three to six, oblong, flattened, surrounded by a membranous wing or long, white hairs. these plants are very puzzling, but interesting, and as they are not nearly related they have at various times been classified with other families. [sidenote: =flaming sword, ocotillo, candle flower= _fouquièra spléndens_ =red spring ariz., cal., new mex.=] a magnificent desert shrub, when in full bloom, but strangely forbidding in aspect in spite of its beauty. its many stiff stems, from six to twenty feet tall, entirely without branches, stand up stiffly from the root, like a bunch of wands, and are armed their whole length with terrible thorns, which in the spring are masked with beautiful foliage, like little apple leaves. from the tip of each wand springs a glorious cluster, from six to ten inches long, composed of hundreds of scarlet flowers, each about an inch long, and crowded closely together, suggesting a flame and waving to and fro in the wind with a startling effect against the pale desert sand. when the flowers and leaves are gone, the clumps of dry, thorny sticks look quite dead and it is hard to believe that they were so splendid early in the season. they make an impenetrable fence and are much used by the indians for hedges. [illustration: flaming sword--fouquiera splendens.] violet family. _violaceae._ a rather large family, widely distributed, but we have only three genera, the principal one being viola, which is the ancient latin name, used by virgil. there are many kinds of viola, widely distributed, blooming in spring, but often flowering again in the autumn; low, perennial herbs, with stipules; leaves alternate, or from the root; flowers complete, irregular, nodding, nectar-yielding, usually single; sepals five, with small ear-shaped projections at the base; petals five, slightly bearded within, so as to afford a foothold for bees, the lowest petal larger and with a spur at the back; stamens five, short, with broadened filaments and anthers opening inward, so as to cover the pistil all but the end of the style, the two lower anthers with spurs at the base, which project into the spur of the petal; ovary superior and one-celled; style club-shaped, with a one-sided stigma. the flowers are often of two kinds, the earlier ones with long flower-stalks, with petals and showy, but not producing seed; the later ones with short stalks, with small or no petals, but fertile, often cleistogamous, that is, fertilized in the bud. the capsule splits open and as the three valves dry they fold firmly together lengthwise and force out the seeds. [sidenote: =pine violet= _vìola lobàta_ =yellow spring, summer cal., oreg.=] a pretty plant, growing in the woods, with leafy stems, from four to fourteen inches high, with leafy stipules and smooth, rather light green leaves, deeply lobed, so that they look unlike most violet leaves. the flowers are more or less clustered, an inch or more across, with bright yellow petals, veined with purple inside, tinged with purplish-brown outside, the two side petals with a little hairy patch at the base inside. [sidenote: =western heartsease= _vìola ocellàta_ =white and yellow spring, summer cal., oreg.=] a shy little woodland plant, from five to twelve inches tall, with creeping rootstocks and small, dry stipules. the flowers are an inch or less across, the two upper petals white, tinged with reddish-purple on the outside, and the other petals white or yellow, with a splash of purple on each of the two side petals and the lower one veined with purple. this grows in shady woods. [illustration: western heartsease--viola ocellata. pine violet--v. lobata.] [sidenote: =yellow mountain violet= _vìola venòsa_ =yellow spring northwest and utah=] an attractive kind, usually about three inches tall, with almost smooth leaves, often with purplish veins, with blunt tips and margins obscurely or coarsely toothed, or almost toothless, and with long leafstalks. the flowers are usually less than half an inch long, with clear yellow petals, more or less tinged with purple on the outside, the lower petal usually with several, purplish-black veins, the two side petals with one or two veins. this has no scent, the capsule is roundish and hairy, and the cleistogamous flowers are abundant. it grows on dry mountainsides and is very variable both as to flower and foliage and much smaller at great altitudes, the whole plant being not more than an inch high. the drawing is of a utah plant. [sidenote: =canada violet= _vìola canadénsis_ =pale-violet, white spring, summer west, etc., except cal.=] this is quite tall, the slender, rather weak stems being sometimes over a foot high, with smooth leaves, often with some hairs on the veins of the under side. the flowers, over half an inch across, with a short petal-spur, are almost white, delicately veined with purple, yellow in the throat and tinged with violet or purple on the outside. occasionally they are pure-white all over and sometimes sweet-scented. the capsule is oval and smooth. this is common in eastern mountain woods, and to eastern eyes looked far from home when we found it in walnut canyon in arizona. [sidenote: =pale mountain violet= _vìola adúnca var. glàbra_ =pale-blue spring, summer utah=] this is small and low, about three inches high, with leafy stems, forming a clump of small, smooth, more or less toothed leaves, with blunt tips, dark green on the upper side and paler on the under, with two, quite large, fringed bracts at the bases of the leaf-stalks, and two, small, fringed bracts on the flower-stems, half an inch below the flower. the flowers are scentless, measure less than half an inch across, and are pale-blue or almost white, with veins of dark blue on the lower petal and tufts of white, fuzzy hairs inside, at the base of the side petals, the spur purplish. this grows in mountain canyons, at a height of five thousand to nine thousand feet, and is very small at great altitudes. [illustration: yellow mountain violet--v. venosa. canada violet--viola canadensis. pale mountain violet--v. adunca var. glabra.] [sidenote: =blue violet= _vìola adúnca var. lóngipes_ =blue, purple spring cal., oreg.=] a pretty plant, two to four inches high, with slightly hairy leaves and flowers nearly an inch long, with bright purplish-blue or violet petals, more or less veined with purple, the side petals hairy at base inside. this grows near the coast. [sidenote: =johnny jump-up, yellow pansy= _vìola pedunculàta_ =yellow spring california=] charming flowers, often growing in quantities on open hillsides. the leafy stems are from two to six inches high, the leaves rather dark green and the scentless flowers, about an inch across, have bright golden petals, with some purple lines at the base of the three lower ones, the spur and upper petals tinged with brownish-purple on the outside, the two side petals hairy at base inside, and the stigma hairy. the spanish-californian name is gallito. there is no technical difference between pansies and violets. loasa family. _loasaceae._ not a very large family, all but one natives of america; herbs, armed with hooked, stinging or sticky hairs; without stipules; the flowers perfect, with five sepals and five to ten petals; the stamens numerous, with threadlike filaments, the outer ones sometimes petal-like, inserted with the petals on the throat of the calyx and usually arranged in clusters opposite the petals; the ovary inferior, with a threadlike style; the capsule crowned with the calyx-lobes. there are many kinds of mentzelia, all western, often with white shining stems and alternate leaves; the calyx cylindrical or top-shaped, with five lobes; the petals five or ten; the styles three, somewhat united. the barbed hairs which clothe the stems and leaves make the plant stick to whatever it touches, probably helping to distribute the seeds, hence the common name stick-leaf. [sidenote: =blazing star= _mentzèlia laevicàulis_ =yellow summer, autumn west, except wash. and ariz.=] a stout, branching biennial, two to over three feet tall, with shining white stems, almost smooth, long, rather narrow, wavy-toothed leaves and enormous flowers, in clusters of two or three at the ends of the branches and opening only in bright sunlight. they are from three to five inches across, with five, broad, light yellow petals and quantities of very long stamens, making a beautiful center. five of the stamens have broadened filaments, resembling narrow petals, the style is three-cleft, and the capsule is oblong, containing many flat, winged seeds. these plants usually grow in dry stream-beds and are not rare, but through various accidents i have never been able to secure a drawing of either this or the next. [illustration: blue violet--v. adunca var. longipes. johnny jump-up--viola pedunculata.] [sidenote: =evening star= _mentzèlia líndleyi_ =yellow summer california=] a more slender plant than the last, with magnificent flowers, two and a half inches across, which open in the evening and remain open during the following morning. they have five, broad petals, with pointed tips, bright golden-yellow, colored with vermilion at the base, and handsome yellow centers. the filaments are very slender, some of the outer ones slightly broadened at base, and the style is not cleft. this grows in the mountains. there is a drawing of it in miss parsons's _wild flowers of california_. it is called buena mujer, or good woman, by the spanish californians, because the leaves stick so tightly to one. [sidenote: _mentzèlia multiflòra_ =yellow spring southwest, utah, etc.=] an odd-looking plant, with very pale, straggling stems and thickish leaves, a pretty shade of pale green, all exceedingly disagreeable to touch. the buds are tipped with salmon-color and the flowers are an inch and a half to two inches across, with a long green calyx-tube with buff lobes, ten petals, bright yellow inside and pale buff outside, and pretty, fuzzy, yellow centers. they open in the evening, about five o'clock, and the plant would be pretty, in spite of its harsh foliage, if more of the flowers were out at one time. this is common along roadsides in the southwest and in new mexico and colorado. [sidenote: _mentzèlia gracilénta_ =yellow spring southwest=] this has several pale greenish or pinkish stems, from a few inches to a foot and a half tall, which look smooth but are very harsh to the touch, springing from a cluster of stiff, harsh, dull-green leaves, variously lobed or toothed. the flowers are nearly an inch across, with glossy, bright yellow petals and beautiful, fuzzy, yellow centers, and are very delicate and pretty. [illustration: mentzelia multiflora. m. gracilenta.] rock-rose family. _cistaceae._ a rather large family, mostly of the mediterranean region; herbs or low shrubs; flowers regular, perfect, all the parts borne on the receptacle; sepals five, the two outer ones smaller and bract-like, or lacking; petals three to five; stamens many; ovary superior, one-celled, with a single style, or none; fruit a capsule, with several or many seeds. there are many kinds of helianthemum, widely distributed, perennials; leaves alternate, undivided, toothless; flowers yellow and, in most north american species, of two sorts; the earlier ones with large, yellow petals, very numerous stamens and a many-seeded pod; the later ones, small, clustered, with small petals or none, three to ten stamens, and small, few-seeded pods. [sidenote: =rock-rose= _heliánthemum scopàrium_ =yellow spring california=] a pretty plant, with many, slender stems and narrow, yellowish-green leaves, forming clumps from one to two feet high. the flowers are half an inch to three-quarters of an inch across, the buds and calyxes reddish and the petals clear yellow, the pistil greenish, with a three-lobed stigma. in favorable situations, such as point loma, this makes attractive little bushes, neat yet feathery, suggesting large clumps of grass, sprinkled thickly with flowers. cactus family. _cactaceae._ a large family, nearly all natives of america and of dry or desert places, with strange characteristics, which make them easily recognized as a whole, but many of the individuals have not yet been studied or described; fleshy plants, with thick stems, often flattened, ridged or covered with knobs, mostly without leaves, usually with spines, which generally protrude from cushions of small bristles; the flowers perfect, regular, showy, and mostly single; sepals, petals, and stamens all numerous; ovary inferior, with a long style and several stigmas; fruit usually a pulpy berry, containing many seeds. there are many kinds of echinocactus, round or oval plants, mostly ribbed, with bunches of spines of several kinds, arranged in straight or spiral rows; the fruits scaly, though spineless. [illustration: rock-rose--helianthemum scoparium.] [sidenote: =barrel cactus, bisnaga= _echinocáctus wislizèni_ =yellow, reddish summer southwest=] a common and useful kind, the shape and often the size of a barrel, covered with spines. the indians cut off the top of the plant and pound the pulp with a stick into a soft mass, which they squeeze with their hands, extracting a large amount of watery juice, which is wholesome and not unpalatable and has often saved lives in the desert. indians use the spines for fish-hooks, hence a common name, fishhook cactus, and the celebrated cactus candy is made from it. the flowers are large. there are many kinds of echinocereus, oblong or cylindrical, spiny plants, generally a few inches tall, usually growing in clumps; stems ridged, or with spiny ribs; fruits spiny. [sidenote: =hedgehog cactus= _echinocèreus polyacánthus_ =red spring ariz., new mex. tex.=] this forms a clump of several stems, each about the shape and size of a cucumber, and armed with bunches of long, stiff spines. the flowers are two or three inches long, with deep red petals, dull pink anthers, and a bright green pistil. this grows in the grand canyon. there are many kinds of opuntia, with jointed stems, cylindrical or flattened, armed with bristles, usually with spines. the fruits and fleshy joints are good for fodder, if the spines are removed, and hence there has been much inquiry into the economic value of these plants. it has been found that the spiny species are the most valuable for fodder, under extremely arid conditions, as the spines can be burned off, while the unarmed forms are subject to the attacks of so many animals that a crop cannot be secured without the protection of fences. the spines are removed either by singeing the growing plant with a torch, or the upper parts are cut off and thrown into a fire, or sometimes the plants are made into fodder by being chopped up, spines and all, in a machine. the prickly pears in sicily and the orient came from america. [sidenote: _opúntia acanthocàrpa_ =yellow spring southwest=] from three to six feet tall, resembling cholla, with long, cylindrical joints and whitish spines. the pretty flowers are about two inches long, with orange-yellow petals and an ivory-white pistil. the fruits are spiny and become dry when ripe. this grows in the desert around needles. [illustration: hedgehog cactus--echinocereus polyacanthus.] [illustration: opuntia acanthocarpa.] [sidenote: =cholla= _opúntia fúlgida_ =red spring, summer arizona=] a horrible shrub, or dwarf tree, four to six feet high, with a thick trunk and several, spreading, contorted branches, with cylindrical joints, twisting in awkward ways. the trunk and larger limbs are brownish-gray, starred with dead, dry spines, but the twigs are pale bluish-green, covered thickly with stars of pale-yellowish spines, each an inch or so long, with a barbed tip. from the numerous magenta flowers strange, yellowish, cup-shaped fruits develop, seeming to spring one out of the other in a haphazard way, hanging in long chains, awkward but rather ornamental, and remaining on the plants for several years without change, except that they grow slightly larger. the distant effect of this plant is a pale, fuzzy mass, attractive in color, giving no hint of its treacherous character--more like a wild beast than a plant! the joints suggest a very ferocious chestnut-burr and break off at a touch, thrusting their spines deeply into the flesh of the unwary passer-by, so that the indian story, that this plant flings its darts at wayfarers from a distance, might almost as well be true, and the barbs making the extraction difficult and painful. the ground under the plants is strewn with fallen joints, which take root and propagate themselves. small animals pile these around their holes for defense, several kinds of birds build in the thorny branches and are safe from enemies, and the fruits, being spineless and succulent, are valuable for fodder, so the cholla is not entirely malevolent. the name is pronounced _choya_. there are many similar kinds, some with very handsome rose-like flowers, others with bright scarlet fruits. they are curious and interesting inhabitants of the desert. [sidenote: =prickly pear= _opúntia basilàris_ =pink spring arizona=] low plants, with no main stem, with spreading, flattened branches, the joints of which are flat disks, resembling fleshy, bluish-green leaves. these disks are half an inch to an inch thick and six inches long, more or less heart-shaped, sprouting one out of the other, at unexpected angles. the beautiful flower is about three inches across, like a tissue-paper rose, pale or very deep pink, with a whitish pistil, yellow anthers, and crimson filaments. the joints have a strong fishy smell, when cut, and are dotted with tufts of small, brown bristles, exceedingly unpleasant to get in one's fingers. this is rare and grows at the grand canyon. prickly pears usually have yellow flowers and long spines. [illustration: opuntia basilaris.] [illustration: cholla (fruit). opuntia fulgida.] [sidenote: =common prickly pear= _opúntia_ =yellow spring, summer southwest=] there are fifty or more common kinds of prickly pear, many of them as yet undescribed and little known. they have flattened joints and yellow flowers, like the one illustrated, which is typical, often measuring three or four inches across, the petals variously tinted outside with salmon, rose, and brown. there are many kinds of cactus, round, cylindrical, or oval plants, covered with knobs, bearing clusters of spines, those of some species having hooked tips. they may be known by their smooth fruits, without scales or spines. [sidenote: =pincushion cactus= _cáctus gràhami (mamillaria)_ =pink spring arizona=] a quaint little plant, often no bigger than a billiard ball, with long, blackish, hooklike spines, projecting from stars of smaller spines. the flowers are pink and the berries are smooth, fleshy fingers of brightest scarlet, edible, pretty and odd. sometimes we see one of these prickly little balls peeping from under a rock and again we find them growing in a colony, looking much like a pile of sea-urchins. this grows in the grand canyon, and there are similar kinds in southern california. there are many kinds of cereus, with cylindrical or oval stems, from a few inches to forty feet tall, not jointed, with ribs or rows of knobs, running lengthwise, and clusters of spines. [sidenote: =column cactus, sahuaro= _cèreus gigantèus_ =white spring, summer arizona=] these tree-like plants are wonderfully dignified and solemn in aspect, with none of the grotesque or ferocious effect so common among their relations. they grow in numbers on the mountain slopes around tucson and are easily recognized by their size and very upright form, rearing their thick, cylindrical branches straight up in the air, to a height of thirty or forty feet. they are smooth and light green, armed with rows of spines in stars along the ridges, and ornamented during may and june with handsome, large, whitish, wax-like flowers, very perfect in form, opening in the daytime, blooming most abundantly on the sunny side of the plant and remaining open but a short time. woodpeckers often make holes for nests in the branches, which are used afterwards by a little native owl, the smallest kind in the world, and by honey-bees, and these holes often lead to decay and to the ultimate death of the tree. the fruits, with crimson flesh and black seeds, are valued by the papago indians for food, and mature in enormous quantities in midsummer, but birds eat up many of the seeds and of the millions reaching the ground only a very few germinate and develop into odd, little round plants, a few inches high, often eaten by some animal before they become sufficiently prickly for protection. [illustration: pincushion cactus--cactus grahami.] [illustration: common prickly pear--opuntia.] evening primrose family. _onagraceae._ a large family, widely distributed, most abundant in america; herbs, with no stipules; flowers usually perfect, their parts usually in fours; calyx-tube attached to the usually four-celled, inferior ovary and usually prolonged beyond it; stamens four or eight, inserted with the petals, on the throat of the calyx-tube, or on a disk; style single with a four-lobed or round-headed stigma; fruit usually a four-celled capsule, containing small seeds or a nut. the flowers are generally showy and many are cultivated. [sidenote: _eulòbus califórnicus_ =yellow spring southwest=] this is the only kind of eulobus. it would be a pretty plant, if more flowers were out at one time and if they did not close so soon. the smooth, hollow, loosely-branching stem is from one to three feet tall, with a "bloom," the leaves are smooth, rather light dull-green, and the buds are erect. the flowers are about three-quarters of an inch across, with a very short calyx-tube, light-yellow petals, fading to reddish-pink, eight stamens, four of them smaller and shorter, and the light-green stigma with a round top. the slender pods are three inches long, smooth, cylindrical, and turning stiffly down, with many seeds. this grows in mountain canyons. [illustration: eulobus californicus.] there are a few kinds of chamaenerion; perennials, often woody at base; leaves alternate; flowers in clusters, perfect, slightly irregular, white or purplish; petals four; stamens eight; style threadlike, with a four-cleft stigma; capsule long, four-sided, containing numerous seeds, tipped with a tuft of hairs. the calyx-tube is not prolonged beyond the ovary, which chiefly distinguishes this genus from epilobium. [sidenote: =fire-weed, great willow-herb= _chamaenèrion angustifòlium (epilobium)_ =purple, pink summer across the continent=] a striking and decorative perennial, from two to six feet tall, with alternate leaves, pale on the under side, the veins making a scalloped border near the margin, the upper leaves and stems sometimes slightly downy, and the drooping buds deep reddish-pink or purple. the flowers form a fine cluster, with small bracts, each flower an inch or more across, the sepals often pink or purple and the petals bright purplish-pink; the stamens drooping, with purplish anthers; the style hairy at base, the capsule two or three inches long. this is very common, both east and west, reaching an altitude of ten thousand feet, and often growing in such quantities in the mountains as to cover large tracts with bright color. the seeds are furnished with tufts of white, silky hairs, making the plant very conspicuous when gone to seed, covering it with untidy bunches of pale down and giving a strange shaggy effect. it often flourishes in places that have been burned over, hence the name fire-weed, and willow-herb is from the leaves and the silky down on the seeds, suggestive of willows. [sidenote: =water willow-herb= _chamaenèrion latifòlium (epilobium)_ =magenta summer northwest=] this grows in wet places; the flowers are larger and handsomer than the last, but it is not so tall. the stems are stout, reddish, and branching, from six to eighteen inches high, both stem and leaves with a "bloom," and the leaves are thickish, bluish-green on the upper side and paler yellowish-green on the under, sometimes toothed, with no veined border. the buds are deep-red and the flowers form a handsomer cluster, shorter than the last, with leafy bracts, each flower from one to over two inches across, with reddish-pink sepals, deep-red outside, and magenta petals veined with deeper color, sometimes notched, one petal longer than the others; the anthers purplish; the pistil drooping and purplish, with a smooth style. this plant is also covered with tufts of white down when gone to seed. the contrasting purples and reds of the flowers give a very vivid effect, set off by the bluish-green foliage, especially when growing among the gray rocks of moraines, watered by icy glacier streams. it reaches an altitude of ten thousand feet, growing in the east and in europe and asia. [illustration: water willow-herb--chamaenerion latifolium. fire-weed--c. angustifolium.] there are many kinds of epilobium, differing from chamaenerion chiefly in the calyx-tube, which is prolonged beyond the ovary. [sidenote: =willow herb= _epilòbium franciscànum_ =pink spring northwest=] a perennial, not especially pretty, with a stout, reddish stem, from one to three feet tall, slightly downy above, and dull green leaves, mostly smooth and the lower ones opposite. the flowers are less than half an inch across, with bright or pale, purplish-pink petals, deeply notched and not spreading. this grows in wet spots around san francisco. there are several kinds of gayophytum; differing from epilobium in the capsule and seeds, and easily distinguished from them by the hairy buds; leaves alternate, long, narrow, and toothless; flowers small; petals four, white or pink, with very short claws; stamens, with swinging anthers, eight, four shorter and usually sterile; capsule club-shaped. the species are difficult to distinguish, because of the smallness of the flowers. [sidenote: _gayophýtum eriospérmum_ =white summer cal., oreg.=] a delicate little plant, with smooth, purplish stems, exceedingly slender branches, dull green leaves, and pretty little flowers, an eighth of an inch to half an inch across, white, with a little yellow in the center, fading to pink. this grows in sandy soil, at rather high altitudes, in yosemite. [illustration: willow-herb--epilobium franciscanum. gayophytum eriospermum.] there are numerous kinds of godetia, variable and difficult to distinguish, not yet fully understood by botanists, all western and mostly californian, with narrow, alternate leaves and handsome flowers, which close at night. they have four petals and resemble onagra, but the flowers are never yellow and the anthers are not swinging, but fixed to the tips of the filaments by their bases; also resembling clarkia, but the petals are without claws. the calyx is often colored, tube more or less funnel-form, lobes turned back, or more or less united and turned to one side; stamens eight, unequal, the shorter ones opposite the petals; style threadlike; stigma with four, short lobes; capsule four-sided, or cylindrical, mostly ribbed, rather leathery, splitting open, with four valves, containing many seeds. these plants bloom in late spring, hence the pretty name, farewell-to-spring. [sidenote: =farewell-to-spring= _godètia defléxa_ =pink summer california=] a branching plant, woody at base, two feet high, with smooth stems; smooth, toothed leaves; nodding buds and large handsome flowers. the petals are pale-pink, about an inch long, the pistil pink, and at a distance the effect of the flower is much like a mallow. as is usual with godetias, the sepals are stuck together and stand out at one side, giving the flower a quaint effect of having thrown back a little hood in order to look about. this grows in light shade. [sidenote: =farewell-to-spring= _godètia quadrivúlnera_ =pink, lilac spring, summer northwest=] this is common in the foothills of the sierras and coast ranges and has a slender stem, about a foot tall, with more or less downy leaves, sometimes slightly toothed, and a few very pretty flowers, about an inch and a half across, with bright lilac-pink petals, usually splashed with carmine. this red spot gives a vivid effect and the delicate flowers look exceedingly gay and charming, as they sway in the wind among tall grasses on open hillsides. [sidenote: _godètia góddardii var. capitàta_ =pink spring, summer california=] from one to two feet tall, with a rather stout, more or less branching stem and soft, rather downy, dull green leaves. the flowers are about an inch across, with purplish-pink petals, often stained with crimson at the tips. this is found on dry hills in the coast ranges. [illustration: g. goddardii var. capitata. godetia quadrivulnera. farewell-to-spring--g. deflexa.] [sidenote: _godètia vimínea_ =purplish-pink summer northwest=] a handsome plant, with nearly smooth, slender, reddish stems, a few inches to two feet tall, and smooth, pale-green, toothless, narrow leaves, mostly without leaf-stalks. the buds are erect and the flowers form a long, loose cluster, with bright purplish-pink petals, half an inch to over an inch long, with a large, magenta blotch near the center, or at the tip, and yellowish at base; the stamens and pistil all purple; the calyx-lobes not caught together, but turned primly back. this forms fine patches of bright color in rather meadowy places in yosemite and elsewhere in the sierra nevada foothills. _g. dudleyàna_ is pretty and slender, with drooping buds and light lilac-pink flowers, the petals paler at base, with darker dots, the calyx-lobes caught together and turned to one side, and also makes beautiful patches of color on sunny slopes around yosemite. there are several kinds of clarkia, resembling godetia, but the petals have claws. the stems are brittle; the leaves mostly alternate, with short, slender leaf-stalks; the buds nodding; the flowers in terminal clusters, with four petals, never yellow, and four sepals, turned back; the stamens eight, those opposite the petals often rudimentary; the stigma four-lobed; the capsule long, leathery, erect, more or less four-angled, with many seeds. named in honor of captain clarke, of the lewis and clarke expedition, the first to cross the rocky mountains to the pacific, in . [sidenote: =clarkia= _clàrkia élegans_ =pink spring, summer california=] a conspicuous plant, on account of the oddly contrasting colors of the flowers, and very variable both in size and smoothness. it grows from six inches to six feet high; the stems more or less branching; the leaves sometimes toothed and often reddish; the buds and calyxes often woolly. the flowers are very gay; the sepals being dark red or purple, the petals, with long, slender claws, bright pink and the anthers scarlet! the stamens, four long and four short, have a hairy, reddish scale at the base of each filament, the anthers of the shorter stamens often white, and the capsule is usually curved, with no stalk, nearly an inch long, often hairy. when the foliage is red, as it often is, the various combinations of red in the flowers and leaves are quite startling. this is common in the foothills of the sierra nevada and coast ranges and is often rather shabby looking, but in favorable situations is very handsome. [illustration: godetia viminea. clarkia elegans.] [sidenote: =clarkia= _clàrkia rhomboídea_ =purple spring, summer northwest, nev., utah=] pretty and delicate and not nearly so conspicuous as the last, with a slender, smooth, branching stem, one to three feet tall, with smooth leaves, mostly alternate, nodding buds, and a few pretty flowers, about three-quarters of an inch across. the sepals are reddish-yellow; the petals pinkish-purple, often dotted with purple at base, with a short, broad, toothed claw; the stigma magenta; the filaments purple, with a whitish, hairy scale at the base of each; the anthers grayish, all perfect; the capsule four-angled, slightly curved, about an inch long. this grows in the foothills of the sierra nevada and coast ranges and is widely distributed in yosemite, but nowhere very abundant. [sidenote: =pink fairies= _clàrkia pulchélla_ =pink summer northwest=] odd and exceedingly charming flowers, with very slender, very slightly downy, purplish, branching stems, from six inches to a foot tall, and smooth leaves. the flowers are fantastic in form, the airiest and most fairy-like blossoms that can well be imagined, over two inches across, their delicate petals with long, toothed claws and three lobes, bright rose-pink, shading to a deeper tint at the base, the calyx slightly downy and reddish. four of the stamens are perfect and four are rudimentary; the anthers are reddish; the pistil white; the capsule an inch long, eight-angled, with a spreading stalk. it is a pretty sight to see these gay flowers dancing in the wind on open mountain slopes. _c. concínna (eucharidium)_, of the coast ranges, is similar, equally beautiful and even more brilliant in coloring; the flowers sometimes in such quantities as to make patches of bright pink color, very effective when growing among yellow sedums, scarlet larkspurs, and scarlet indian pinks, in shady mountain canyons. [illustration: clarkia rhomboidea. pink fairies--c. pulchella.] [illustration] there are several kinds of sphaerostigma; leaves alternate; flowers yellow, white or pink, turning green or reddish; stamens eight, with oblong, swinging anthers; style threadlike, with a round-top stigma; capsule four-celled, usually long and narrow, four-angled, often twisted, with no stalk. [sidenote: =evening primrose= _sphaerostígma bistórta (oenothera)_ =yellow spring california=] a common kind, very variable in its manner of growth, being tall and erect in moist, shady places and spreading flat on the ground in dry, sunny spots. the leaves are dull green, more or less downy and more or less toothed, and the flowers are three-quarters of an inch across, clear yellow, usually with a speck, or blotch, of reddish-brown at the base of each petal; the stamens and pistil also yellow; the pods reddish and very much twisted. gravelly washes are often thickly sprinkled with these gay and charming flowers. [sidenote: _sphaerostígma veitchiànum (oenothera)_ =yellow spring california=] much like the last, but the flowers are only a little over a quarter of an inch across. the pods are dark red and shiny, with a few hairs. [sidenote: =beach primrose= _sphaerostígma viridéscens (oenothera cheiranthifolia var. suffruticosa)_ =yellow all seasons california=] a beautiful seashore plant, forming large, low clumps of reclining stems and pale gray, downy foliage, the twigs and younger leaves silvery-white. the flowers are about an inch and a quarter across, clear yellow, often with two, dark red dots at the base of each petal; the stamens and pistil also yellow of the same shade; the pods pinkish, downy, and much twisted. the flat masses of pale foliage, strewn with golden disks, are exceedingly effective, growing in drifting sand hills along the coast, from san francisco south. [illustration] [illustration: s. veitchianum. beach primrose--sphaerostigma viridescens. evening primrose--s. bistorta.] [sidenote: _sphaerostígma tortuòsa. (oenothera)_ =white spring nevada=] a queer little, stunted-looking, desert plant, with almost no stem, but with several branches, spreading flat on the ground, stiff, smooth and purplish, with crowded clusters of flowers, leaves, and pods, mostly at the ends, the whole forming flat clumps, from six to ten inches across. the leaves are smooth, slightly thickish, pale bluish-green and toothless; the buds are erect, and the flowers are over a quarter of an inch across, white, with yellow anthers and a green stigma. the pods are very much twisted and form odd little snarly bunches. there are only a few kinds of chylisma; the flowers in terminal clusters; the calyx with a more or less funnel-form tube and four lobes; the petals four, not notched; the stamens eight, unequal; the stigma with a round top, the capsule long, membranous, with a stalk. [sidenote: =chylisma= _chylísma scapoìdea var. clavaefórmis (oenothera)_ =white spring ariz., utah=] a charming desert plant, from a few inches to a foot tall, with one or more, pinkish, smooth, rather leafy stems, springing from a pretty clump of smooth, bluish-green leaves. the delicate flowers are about three-quarters of an inch across and form a graceful cluster of several or many blossoms. the petals are white or yellow, often tinted with pink, with some specks of maroon at the base, and the sepals are pinkish-yellow; the stamens pale yellow; the stigma green; the pods erect. there are several kinds of pachylophus; perennials, stemless or nearly so; leaves from the root; calyx downy, with a long tube; petals white or pink; stamens eight, with threadlike filaments, the alternate ones longer; style threadlike; stigma four-cleft; capsule woody. [sidenote: =white evening primrose= _pachýlophus marginàtus (oenothera)_ =white summer ariz., utah, nev., col.=] this has a few large flowers, three inches or more across, with pure-white diaphanous petals, fading to pink, and pink calyx-lobes. the buds are erect, hairy and pink, and the flowers spring from a cluster of long, downy root-leaves, narrowing to slender leaf-stalks, with hairs on the veins and on the toothed and jagged margins, and have almost no flower-stalk, but the hairy calyx-tube is so long, sometimes as much as seven inches, that it looks like a stalk. the root is thick and woody and the capsule is egg-shaped and ribbed, with no stem. there is a patch of these wonderful flowers in the grand canyon on bright angel trail, halfway between the rim and the plateau, where in a shaded spot beside a great rock the pure blossoms seem to shed a moonlight radiance. they are equally beautiful on the dry plains of utah, where they grow in quantities. [illustration: white evening primrose--pachylophus marginatus.] [illustration: chylisma scapoidea var. clavaeformis. sphaerostigma tortuosa.] there are several kinds of anogra, resembling onagra, but with white or pink flowers and the seeds differently arranged; the stems often clothed with papery bark; the buds drooping. the name is an anagram of onagra. [sidenote: =prairie evening primrose= _anogra albicàulis. (oenothera)_ =white spring, summer southwest, etc.=] a conspicuous kind, often growing in large patches, with whitish, downy, branching stems, from a few inches to a foot tall, often with shreddy bark, and downy, pale bluish-green leaves, more or less toothed. the drooping, downy buds are tinted with reddish-pink and the lovely flowers are from one and a half to three inches across, with pure white petals, tinted with yellow at base, changing to pink after pollination and fading to crimson. the stamens have cobwebby threads, white filaments, and yellow anthers, the pistil is green and the curved capsule is downy or hairy. the whole color scheme, of pale sea-green foliage, reddish buds, and white, rose-color, and crimson flowers, is delicate, harmonious, and effective. this grows in sandy places, and on the prairies from dakota to mexico. [sidenote: =cut-leaved evening primrose= _anogra coronopifòlia (oenothera)_ =white summer, autumn ariz., utah, etc.=] a pretty plant, with an erect, leafy stem, six inches to two feet tall, springing from running rootstocks, and pale green, more or less downy, leaves, finely cut into numerous, small, narrow lobes, so that they look like rather dry little ferns. the delicate flowers are the usual evening primrose shape, about an inch across, in the axils of the leaves, with pure white petals, greenish at the base and turning pink in fading, and a calyx-tube two inches long, with turned-back, pinkish-green lobes. the anthers are brown, the pistil green, the throat of the corolla is closed by a fringe of white hairs, the buds are drooping and the capsule is oblong and hairy. this is common on prairies and plains, from nebraska to utah, and south to new mexico, reaching an altitude of nine thousand feet. [illustration: prairie evening primrose--anogra albicaulis.] there are several kinds of onagra, differing from anogra in having yellow flowers and in the arrangement of the seeds; with stems; leaves alternate, with wavy or toothed margins; buds erect; flowers night-blooming, in terminal clusters; calyx-tube long; petals four; stamens eight, equal in length; stigma four-cleft; capsule four-angled, more or less tapering. [sidenote: =evening primrose= _Ónagra hóokeri (oenothera)_ =yellow summer west=] a fine biennial, with stout, leafy stems, from three to six feet high, bearing splendid flowers, over three inches across, with clear yellow petals, fading to pink, and reddish calyx-lobes. the leaves, stems, and buds all downy and the buds erect. the stigma has four, slender lobes, forming a little cross, and the yellow pollen is loosely connected by cobwebby threads, clinging to visiting insects, and is thus carried from flower to flower; the capsule is an inch long. this is much handsomer than the common evening primrose, _o. biénnis_, and especially fine in yosemite. as the mountain shadows begin to slant across the valley the blossoms commence to open, until the meadows are thickly strewn with "patens of bright gold." they stay open all night, withering with the noonday sun. there are several kinds of lavauxia; low, usually stemless; leaves mostly from the root; calyx-tube slender; petals four; stamens eight, the alternate ones longer; ovary short, stigma four-cleft; capsule stout, four-angled or winged. [sidenote: =sun-cups= _lavaùxia primivèris (oenothera)_ =yellow spring arizona=] an attractive little plant, in the desert, with no stem, the flowers with long, slender calyx-tubes, resembling stems, springing from a clump of rather downy root-leaves. the buds are hairy and the flowers are about an inch across, light yellow, with pale yellow stamens and stigma. this plant varies a good deal in size, bearing one or several flowers, and the margins of the leaves almost toothless or irregularly slashed. it superficially resembles _taráxia ovàta_, the sun-cups so common on the southwestern coast, for the flowers have the same little fresh, sunny faces, but the latter has a round-topped stigma. [illustration: evening primrose--onagra hookeri. sun-cups--lavauxia primiveris.] parsley family. _umbelliferae._ a large family, widely distributed, not abundant in the tropics; usually strong-smelling herbs, remarkable for their aromatic oil, mostly with hollow, grooved stems; leaves alternate, compound, generally deeply cut, leaf-stalks often broadened at base; flowers very small, usually in broad, flat-topped clusters, generally with bracts; calyx usually a five-toothed rim around the top of the ovary; petals five, small, usually with tips curled in, inserted on a disk, which crowns the ovary and surrounds the base of the styles; stamens five, with threadlike filaments and swinging anthers, also on the disk; ovary two-celled, inferior, with two threadlike styles; fruit two, dry, seedlike bodies, when ripe separating from each other, and usually suspended from the summit of a slender axis, each body marked with ribs, usually with oil-tubes between the ribs. the examination of these oil-tubes in mature fruits, with a microscope, is necessary to determine most of the genera and species, so description of genera is omitted here, and botanists have added to the difficulties of the amateur by giving almost every genus more than one name. the flowers are much alike, yet the leaves often differ very much in the same genus. many kinds are poisonous, although others, such as parsley, carrot, and parsnip, are valuable food plants. [sidenote: _peucédanum euryptèra_ =yellow spring california=] a fine robust plant, a foot or more tall, with stout, purplish stems and smooth, crisp leaves, the lower ones with three leaflets, the upper with five, and the teeth tipped with bristles. the flowers are greenish-yellow and the main cluster measures four or five inches across, with no bracts at base, but the small clusters have bracts. the flowers are ugly, but the foliage is handsome and the seed vessels richly tinted with wine-color, making the plant decorative and conspicuous on the sea cliffs of southern california. [sidenote: =turkey peas= _orogènia linearifòlia_ =white spring northwest and utah=] a quaint little plant, only about three inches high, with a tuberous root, spreading, slanting stems, and smooth leaves, all from the root, with three, long, narrow leaflets; a reddish, stiff, papery scale sheathing the stem at base. the minute, white flowers form a cluster less than an inch across, without bracts, with a stout, ridged flower-stalk and composed of from two to ten smaller clusters, with small bracts; the anthers red. this grows in rich moist soil, in shady valleys, on mountain ridges; in the wasatch mountains, sometimes on the edge of the snow. [illustration: turkey peas--orogenia linearifolia. (fruit) peucedanum euryptera.] [sidenote: _pterýxia califórnica (cymópterus)_ =yellow summer cal., oreg.=] over a foot tall, with very pretty, dark green foliage and rather ugly, dull yellow flowers, in flat-topped clusters, three inches across. the leaves are in a cluster at the root, with long leaf-stalks sheathing at base, very finely cut and toothed, with stiffish points; the main flower-cluster without bracts, but the smaller clusters with narrow bracts. [sidenote: =whisk-broom parsley= _cogswéllia platycàrpa (peucedanum simplex)_ =yellow spring northwest and utah=] an odd-looking plant, for the foliage looks like pieces of a whisk-broom stuck in the ground. it is six to fourteen inches tall, with a thickish root and minute, sulphur-yellow flowers, forming a flat-topped cluster, about two inches across, without bracts, and composed of three to fifteen smaller clusters, with small bracts; usually only the outermost flowers of both the large and small clusters are fertile. the stem and leaves are stiff and sage-green, the root-leaves with broad leaf-stems, reddish and papery at base, sheathing the stem, and all the leaves cut into narrow divisions, not much thicker than pine needles, folded together so that they appear to be cylindrical. this grows on dry gravelly hills, at an altitude of from six to eight thousand feet. [sidenote: _leptotaènia multífida (ferula)_ =yellowish-green spring, summer northwest, nev., utah, new mex.=] a fine, stout plant, about two feet tall, with a thick, spindle-shaped root and dark, rich-green, feathery foliage; the large leaves, over a foot long, appearing smooth but really imperceptibly downy, finely cut and lobed, with long, stout leaf-stalks; the small flowers, yellowish-green or bronze-color, in flat-topped clusters, two or three inches across, with few or no bracts, with tall, stout flower-stalks, and composed of about eighteen, small clusters, forming round knobs, with many bracts, on slender pedicels of various lengths. this grows in rich soil and is conspicuous on account of its size and foliage. [illustration: pteryxia californica. whisk-broom parsley--cogswellia platycarpa.] [sidenote: _velaèa argùta_ =yellow spring california=] this has a stout, brownish stem, about eight inches tall, and fine, conspicuous foliage, mostly in a clump at the base, the leaves rich-green and very glossy, stiff and crisp in texture, though not thick, with bristle-tipped teeth. the rather ugly little flowers are greenish-yellow and the main cluster has no bracts. this grows in canyons in southern california. [sidenote: =purple sanicle, nigger-babies= _sanícula bipinnatífida_ =purplish spring, summer cal., oreg.=] this has branching, purplish stems, from six inches to three feet tall, and handsome foliage. the flowers are maroon-color and are crowded into balls, less than half an inch across, forming a loose, irregular cluster, with leafy bracts at the base. the effect of the dark flowers and fine foliage is rather attractive and it is common on grassy slopes in the hills. [sidenote: _eulòphus bolánderi_ =white summer northwest=] this has a smooth, stiff stem, one to two feet tall, the leaves cut into long, narrow divisions, and the flowers very small, cream-white or pinkish, forming a flat-topped cluster, about two inches across, with narrow, pale bracts. this is quite pretty and common in yosemite. [sidenote: =indian parsnip= _aulospérmum lóngipes (cymopterus)_ =yellow spring utah, col., wyo.=] decorative in form and color and unusual looking, with smooth, pale bluish-green foliage, with a "bloom," the leaves prettily cut and lobed, with pinkish leafstalks, forming, when young, a large rosette, close to the ground, but the stem gradually lengthens until the cluster of leaves, after the flowers are gone, finds itself on the summit of a long stem, sheathed at base. the minute, bright yellow flowers form flat-topped clusters, with flower-stems two or three inches tall, not hollow, the main cluster about an inch across, usually without bracts, and composed of five to ten smaller clusters, with bracts. when the plant is young the general effect of the flat, pale gray rosette of fern-like leaves, spotted with the contrasting yellow of the flowers, is pretty and striking. sometimes a few of the flowers are purple. this has a thick root and grows on dry sunny hills, in gravelly soil. [illustration: velaea arguta. eulophus bolanderi. purple sanicle--sanicula bipinnatifida.] dogwood family. _cornaceae._ not a very large family, most abundant in the northern hemisphere, mostly trees or shrubs. they have simple, mostly toothless leaves, without stipules, usually opposite or in whorls. the flowers are in round or flat-topped clusters and have four or five sepals and petals and four to many stamens. the inferior ovary becomes a stone-fruit that looks like a berry. cornus is from the greek for "horn," in allusion to the toughness of the wood. there are many kinds of cornus, some natives of mexico and peru, with small, white, greenish or purple flowers, in clusters, which often have an involucre of large, white bracts. [sidenote: =pacific dogwood= _córnus nuttállii_ =white spring, summer oreg., wash., cal.=] a handsome shrub or small tree, from ten to thirty feet high and growing in rich woods, often near streams. the flower clusters are composed of numerous, small, greenish flowers, forming a large, protruding knob, which is surrounded by large, white, petal-like bracts, usually six in number, giving the effect of a single handsome flower, measuring from three to six inches across. it resembles the flowering dogwood of the east, but as the flowers have six instead of four "petals," the tips of which in yosemite are neither puckered nor stained with pink, they look different to eastern eyes and the general appearance, though equally fine, is less picturesque, probably because the shrub is rather larger and less straggling, the flowers bigger and more symmetrical, and the leaves brighter green. the effect of the flat masses of creamy white bloom among the darker forest trees is magnificent, and in washington and oregon the leaves turn to brilliant red in the autumn. the fruit is a cluster of bright red berries. the wood is exceedingly hard and is used in cabinet-making. there is a tradition that when dogwood blooms corn should be planted. [illustration: pacific dogwood--cornus nuttallii.] [sidenote: =red-osier dogwood= _córnus stolonífera var. ripària_ =white spring, summer, autumn utah, ariz., new mex., col.=] a handsome shrub, five to eight feet high, with smooth, dark red branches and bright red twigs. the leaves are thin in texture, smooth and rich-green on the upper side, paler on the under, and the small, cream-white flowers, with long, yellow stamens, form handsome, flat-topped clusters, about two inches across, smelling pleasantly of honey; the berries are dull white. this is common. [sidenote: =bunchberry= _córnus canadénsis_ =white summer west, except ariz.=] a charming little plant, about six inches high, growing in moist, cool woods and common in the east. the slender stem, with one or two pairs of small leaves, springs from creeping, woody shoots and is crowned by a circle of larger leaves, six, or rarely four, in number, smooth and bright green, setting off a pretty white blossom, with a slender flower-stalk. this looks like a single flower, measuring about an inch across, but it is really composed of a number of tiny, greenish flowers, forming a cluster in the center, and surrounded by four white bracts, which look like large petals. the flowers are succeeded by a bunch of red berries, insipid in flavor, but vivid scarlet in hue. heath family. _ericaceae._ a large and interesting family, of very wide geographic distribution, in temperate and cold regions; herbs, shrubs, or trees; the leaves undivided, without stipules; the flowers mostly perfect; the calyx with four or five divisions; the corolla usually regular, with four or five, usually united, petals; the stamens inserted under the pistil, usually as many, or twice as many, as the petals; the ovary usually superior, with one style; the fruit a capsule, berry, or stone-fruit, usually with many small seeds. there are many kinds of gaultheria, mostly of the andes; ours are evergreen shrubs, with alternate, aromatic leaves and nodding flowers; the calyx five-cleft; the corolla more or less urn-shaped, with five teeth; the stamens ten; the fruit a berry, composed of the fleshy calyx surrounding the ovary and containing many seeds. the wintergreen, or checkerberry, used for flavoring, belongs to this genus. [illustration: bunch-berry--c. canadensis. red-osier dogwood--cornus stolonifera var. riparia.] [sidenote: =western wintergreen= _gaulthèria ovatifòlia_ =white summer northwest=] a pretty little shrub, growing in mountain woods, a few inches high, with woody stems, spreading on the ground, and glossy foliage, almost hiding the flowers. the twigs are fuzzy and the leaves are dark rich-green, the small flowers white and the berries red. [sidenote: =salal, shallon= _gaulthèria shállon_ =white, pink spring, summer northwest=] an attractive little shrub, usually from one to three feet high, with handsome foliage. the leaves are finely toothed, dark olive-green, leathery and rather glossy, pale on the under side, and the waxy flowers hang gracefully on a stiffly bending flower-stem, which is sticky and hairy and often bright red, with large, scaly, red bracts at the base of the pedicels and smaller bracts halfway up. the flowers are nearly half an inch long, with a yellowish calyx, covered with reddish hairs, and a white corolla, tipped with pink, or all pink; the filaments hairy, with orange anthers. there is often so much bright pinkish-red about the flower-stems and bracts that the effect, with the waxy flowers and dark foliage, is very pretty. this plant often grows in great quantities, thickly covering the floor of the redwood forests. it is called salál by the oregon indians, who value the black, aromatic berries as an important article of food. there are many kinds of azalea, of north america and asia, mostly tall, branching shrubs; leaves alternate, thin, deciduous; flowers large, in terminal clusters, developing from cone-like, scaly buds; calyx small, five-parted; corolla funnel-form, five-lobed or somewhat two-lipped; stamens five, rarely ten, protruding, usually drooping; style long, slender, drooping; capsule more or less oblong. [sidenote: =western azalea= _azàlea occidentàlis (rhododendron)_ =white summer cal., oreg.=] one of the most beautiful western shrubs, from two to ten feet high, loosely branching, with splendid clusters of flowers and rich-green leaves, almost smooth, from one to four inches long, with a small, sharp tip and clustered at the ends of the twigs. the corolla is from one and a half to three inches long, slightly irregular, white with a broad stripe of warm-yellow on the upper petal and often all the petals striped with pink. the western woodland streams are bordered with these wonderful blossoms, leaning over the water and filling the air with their delicious fragrance. [illustration: western azalea--azalea occidentalis.] [illustration: salal--g. shallon. western wintergreen--gaultheria ovatifolia.] there are many kinds of rhododendron, most abundant in asia, resembling azalea, but with evergreen, leathery leaves. the name is from the greek, meaning "rose-tree." [sidenote: =california rose bay= _rhododéndron califórnicum_ =pink spring, summer northwest=] a magnificent shrub, the handsomest in the west, from three to fifteen feet high, with a grayish trunk and fine, evergreen foliage. the leaves are from three to ten inches long, rich-green and leathery, smooth but not shiny, paler on the under side, spreading out around the large flower-clusters, so as to set them off to great advantage, and the flowers are over two inches across, scentless, with small, pale sepals and pink corollas, almost white at the base and shading to deep pink at the edges, which are prettily ruffled. the upper petal is freckled with golden-brown, or greenish spots and arrow-shaped markings, the pistil is crimson and the stamens, with pale pink filaments and pale yellow anthers, curve in, like little serpents' heads. the coloring of the flower clusters, mixed with the crimson-tipped buds, is a combination of delicate and brilliant tints and in such places as the redwood forests, along the noyo river in california, where the shrub develops into a small tree, the huge clusters, glowing high above us among the dark forest trees, are a wonderful sight. this is the "state flower" of washington. there are a good many kinds of arctostaphylos, mostly western; evergreen shrubs, with very crooked branches; smooth, dark red or brown bark; alternate leaves, and usually nodding, white or pink flowers, with bracted pedicels, in terminal clusters, the parts usually in fives; the corolla urn-shaped; the stamens usually ten, not protruding, the filaments hairy; the ovary raised on a disk on the receptacle; the fruit berry-like, several nutlets surrounded by soft pulp. the leaves, by a twisting of their stalks, assume a vertical position on the branches, a habit which enables many plants of dry regions to avoid unnecessary evaporation. these shrubs are often very abundant and with chaparral pea, buck brush, scrub oak, etc., form the extensive brush thickets known as chaparral, so characteristic of the western mountain scenery. the greek name means "bear-berry," as bears are fond of the berries, and manzanita is from the spanish for "little apple," as the fruits often resemble tiny apples. they are dry but pleasantly acid and are popular with indians, bears, and chipmunks, and jelly can be made from them. the largest manzanita tree known is one in napa county, california, thirty-five feet high and as large across. [illustration: california rose bay--rhododendron californicum.] [sidenote: =green manzanita= _arctostáphylos pátula_ =pink winter, spring california=] a decorative shrub, from four to six feet high, with spreading branches. the leaves are from one to two inches long, smooth, pale green, and leathery and the flowers are waxy, a quarter of an inch or more long, crowded in pretty, roundish clusters, of various shades of pink. the very smooth trunk and branches are picturesquely gnarled and twisted and, in fine contrast to the pale foliage, are rich mahogany-color, with here and there openings in the outer bark, showing the gray, under layer, as if the branches had been dipped in hot chocolate, which had melted off in some places. the berry is about a quarter of an inch across, smooth and fleshy. this forms most of the chaparral on the slopes around the yosemite valley, ranging from over four thousand to nine thousand feet in altitude, and is widely distributed in the sierra nevada mountains. [sidenote: =manzanita= _arctostáphylos bícolor_ =pink spring california=] a handsome shrub, three or four feet high, with rich-green leaves, very glossy on the upper side and covered with close white down on the under. the waxy flowers are a lovely shade of pink and the pretty fruit is about the size of a pea, like a tiny greenish-yellow apple, with a brownish-red cheek. this grows in the south near the coast. [sidenote: =kinnikinic. red bearberry= _arctostáphylos Ùva-Úrsi_ =white spring, summer west, etc.=] an attractive little shrub, with many trailing branches, creeping over the ground and often covering the rocks with a beautiful mat of evergreen foliage. the leaves are small, toothless, shining and leathery and the little white or pinkish, bell-shaped flowers hang in pretty little clusters and are succeeded by smooth, round, red berries. this is common in the mountains, across the continent, reaching an altitude of ten thousand feet. the indians use it medicinally and in the curing of animal skins. there is a picture of this in schuyler mathews' _field book_. [illustration: manzanita--a. bicolor. green manzanita--arctostaphylos patula.] there are a great many kinds of vaccinium, widely distributed; branching shrubs, with alternate leaves and small flowers, usually in clusters; the ovary inferior, the fruit a many-seeded berry, crowned with the remains of the calyx-teeth. this is the classic latin name. these plants include blueberry, huckleberry, and bilberry. [sidenote: =california huckleberry= _vaccínium ovàtum_ =white, pink spring, summer cal., oreg.=] an attractive shrub, from four to eight feet high, with beautiful, glossy, evergreen foliage, which is very ornamental and much used in household decoration. the older leaves are rich dark green, contrasting finely with the younger, apple-green leaves and, in the spring, with the charming little red ones, with which the twigs are tipped. they are leathery in texture and very neatly arranged along the branches, which are ornamented with pretty clusters of waxy, white or pink flowers, a quarter of an inch long, or with purple berries, without a "bloom," which are edible and make excellent preserves. this grows on hills near the coast, especially among the redwoods. there is one kind of azaleastrum; resembling rhododendron, but with deciduous leaves; and resembling azalea, but the flowers developing from lateral instead of terminal buds, the corolla with five, regular lobes, and the stamens shorter. [sidenote: =small azalea= _azaleástrum albiflòrum (rhododendron)_ =white summer northwest=] an attractive shrub, from two to six feet high and loosely branching, with grayish-brown bark and rich-green leaves, glossy, but not stiff or leathery. the flowers are about an inch across, with a sticky, aromatic, pale green calyx and waxy-white corolla, the style and stamens pale yellow or white. they have no scent and are not so handsome as the last, but are very beautiful, growing in high mountains, often close to the snow line. [illustration: small azalea--azaleastrum albiflorum. california huckleberry--vaccinium ovatum.] there are several kinds of kalmia, almost all of eastern north america, the flowers alike in form. [sidenote: =swamp laurel= _kálmia microphýlla (k. glauca var. microphylla)_ =pink summer northwest, etc.=] a very pretty little evergreen shrub, from a few inches to over a foot high, with glossy, leathery, rich-green leaves, whitish on the under side, with the margins rolled back. the flowers are single or in clusters, each about half an inch across, with five sepals and a bright purplish-pink, saucer-shaped corolla, with five lobes, which is prettily symmetrical and intricate in form. there are ten little pouches below the border and in these the tips of the ten anthers are caught, so that the filaments curve over from the center, and at the touch of a visiting insect they spring out of the pouches and dust the visitor's back with pollen, which is carried to another flower. the little, pointed buds, angled and deep in color, are also pretty and the capsule is roundish, with many small seeds. this grows in northern swamps, across the continent. there are several kinds of menziesia, some japanese; branching shrubs, with alternate, deciduous, toothless leaves, and small, nodding flowers, in clusters, developing from scaly buds, their parts almost always in fours; stamens eight, not protruding; capsule more or less egg-shaped. [sidenote: =fool's huckleberry= _menzièsia urcelolària (m. ferruginea)_ =yellowish, reddish summer northwest=] a rather attractive little bush, from two to six feet high, with light brown bark, hairy twigs and slightly hairy leaves, with hairy margins. the flowers are less than half an inch long, with a hairy calyx and dull cream-colored corolla, tinged with dull-pink or red, and hang prettily in a circle, on drooping pedicels, which become erect as the capsules ripen. when crushed, the stems and foliage have a strong skunk-like smell. there are only a few kinds of ledum, all much alike. [sidenote: =woolly labrador tea= _lèdum groenlándicum_ =white spring, summer northwest, etc.=] a loosely-branching, evergreen shrub, from one to four feet high. the bark is reddish and the twigs are covered with reddish wool, the color of iron rust, and the leathery, dark green leaves, which are alternate, with rolled-back margins, are also covered with reddish wool on the under side. the flowers are a good deal less than half an inch across, with five, very small sepals; five, spreading, white petals; a green ovary, and from five to seven, long, conspicuous stamens, giving a feathery appearance to the pretty flower-clusters, which before blooming are enclosed in large, scaly buds. both foliage and flowers are aromatic. this is found across the continent, as far south as pennsylvania, and in greenland. _l. glandulòsum_ is similar, but not woolly. these plants grow in swamps and damp places and are considered poisonous. [illustration: fool's huckleberry--menziesia urcelolaria. swamp laurel--kalmia microphylla. woolly labrador tea--ledum groenlandicum.] there are only a few kinds of phyllodoce, of arctic and alpine regions; low shrubs, with small, leathery, evergreen leaves; flowers nodding, with bracts, in terminal clusters; calyx usually with five divisions; corolla more or less bell-shaped, usually five-lobed; stamens usually ten; stigma with a round top, or four to six lobes; capsule roundish: often called heather, but we have no native heather. [sidenote: =red heather= _phyllódoce bréweri (bryanthus)_ =pink summer northwest=] a charming little shrub, from six to ten inches tall, with gay flowers and dark yellowish-green leaves, standing out stiffly from the stem, like the bristles of a bottle-brush. the flowers are sweet-scented, nearly half an inch across, with reddish calyxes and pedicels and bright pink, saucer-shaped corollas, with from seven to ten, long, purple stamens, a purple pistil and crimson buds. this makes heathery patches on high mountain slopes, up to twelve thousand feet in the sierra nevadas. [sidenote: =red heather= _phyllódoce empetrifórmis (bryanthus)_ =pink summer northwest=] much like the last, but the nodding flowers are smaller and not quite so pretty, with bell-shaped corollas and the stamens not protruding. it forms beautiful patches of bright purplish-pink color on mountainsides, up to eleven thousand feet, farther north than the last. [sidenote: =yellow heather= _phyllódoce glanduliflòra (bryanthus)_ =yellowish summer northwest=] this makes heather-like patches on rocks and has many rough, woody stems, crowded with yellowish-green leaves, shorter and broader than those of red heather. the drooping flowers are about three-eighths of an inch long, with a hairy, greenish-yellow calyx and yellowish corolla, something between cream and pale-lemon in color. at a distance the effect of the flowers is much more yellow than close by, but they are not so pretty as either the red or white heathers. [illustration: red heather--p. breweri. red heather--p. empetriformis yellow heather--phyllodoce glanduliflora.] there are several kinds of cassiope, named for the mother of andromeda, resembling heather; the sepals four or five, without bracts at the base; the corolla bell-shaped, with four or five lobes; differing from phyllodoce in capsule, form of corolla and filaments. [sidenote: =white heather= _cassìope mertensiàna_ =white summer northwest=] this makes thick patches of many woody stems, a few inches high, the twigs thickly clothed with odd-looking, small, dark green leaves, overlapping like scales and ridged on the back. the single flowers are white and waxy, resembling the bells of lily-of-the-valley, often with red calyxes and pedicels, and are pretty and delicate, set off by the stiff, dark foliage. this grows in the highest mountains, at an altitude of ten thousand feet and above. wintergreen family. _pyrolaceae._ a small family, natives of the northern hemisphere; low, generally evergreen, perennials, with branched rootstocks; leaves with leaf-stalks; flowers perfect, nearly regular, white or pink; calyx with four or five lobes; corolla with four or five lobes, or five petals; stamens twice as many as the divisions of the corolla; ovary superior, stigma more or less five-lobed; fruit a capsule, with many minute seeds. [sidenote: =single beauty= _monèses uniflòra_ =white summer northwest, etc.=] the only kind, much like chimaphila, a charming little perennial, with a single flower-stalk, from two to six inches tall, springing from a cluster of glossy, bright green leaves, with toothed edges, and bearing a single, lovely sweet-scented blossom, about three-quarters of an inch across, with usually five sepals and five, spreading, waxy-white petals; the long, straight style, with a five-lobed stigma, projecting from the ovary, which forms a green hump in the center of the flower, surrounded by eight or ten stamens. this little flower modestly turns its face down to the ground and we have to pick it to find how very pretty it is. it grows in wet, northern mountain woods, across the continent. [illustration: single beauty--moneses uniflora. white heather--cassiope mertensiana.] there are a good many kinds of pyrola; leaves mostly from the root; flowers usually nodding, in clusters, with bracted flower-stalks; sepals and petals five; stamens ten; capsule roundish, five-lobed, cobwebby on the edges. these plants are often called shinleaf, because english peasants used the leaves for plasters. pyrola is from the latin for "pear," because of the resemblance of the leaves of some kinds. the aromatic wintergreen, or checker-berry, used for flavoring, is a gaultheria, of the heath family. [sidenote: =pyrola= _pýrola bracteàta_ =pink summer california=] one of our most attractive woodland plants, from six to twenty inches tall, with handsome, glossy, rather leathery, slightly scalloped leaves. the buds are deep reddish-pink and the flowers are half an inch across, pink or pale pink, and waxy, with deep pink stamens and a green pistil, with a conspicuous style, curving down and the tip turning up. the pretty color and odd shape of these flowers give them a character all their own and they are sweet-scented. this is found in yosemite and in other cool, shady, moist places, and there are several similar kinds. there are several kinds of chimaphila, of north america and asia, with reclining stems and erect, leafy branches. [sidenote: =pipsissewa= _chimáphìla menzièsii_ =white summer northwest and california=] a very attractive little evergreen plant, three to six inches high, with dark green, glossy, leathery, toothed, leaves, sometimes mottled with white, and one to three, pretty flowers, about three-quarters of an inch across, with yellowish sepals and waxy-white or pinkish petals, more or less turned back. the ovary forms a green hump in the center and has a broad, flat, sticky stigma, with five scallops, and the ten anthers are pale yellow or purplish. this has a delicious fragrance, like lily-of-the-valley, and grows in pine woods in the sierra nevada and coast ranges. chimaphila is a greek name, meaning "winter-loving." indian pipe family. _monotropaceae._ a small family, mostly north american; saprophytes, (plants growing on decaying vegetable matter,) without leaves; flowers perfect; calyx two- to six-parted; corolla united or not, with three to six lobes or petals, occasionally lacking; stamens six to twelve; ovary superior; fruit a capsule. [illustration: pipsissewa--chimaphila menziesii. pyrola--p. bracteata.] [sidenote: =snow-plant= _sarcòdes sanguínea_ =red spring, summer cal., oreg., nev.=] the only kind, a strange plant, widely celebrated for its peculiar beauty. the name is misleading, for the splendid creatures push their way, not through the snow, but through the dark forest carpet of pine-needles, soon after the snow has melted. the fleshy stems are from six inches to over a foot tall, the leaves reduced to red scales, and the bell-shaped flowers, with five lobes, are crowded towards the upper half of the stem and mingled with long, graceful, curling, red bracts. the plants are shaded with red all over, from flesh color, to rose, carmine, and blood-red, and are translucent in texture, so that when a shaft of sunlight strikes them they glow with wonderful brilliance, almost as if lighted from within. they sometimes grow as many as fifteen together, and are found in the sierras, up to nine thousand feet. they are pointed out to tourists by yosemite stage drivers, but the government forbids their being picked, for fear of extermination. [sidenote: =indian pipe= _monótropa uniflòra_ =white summer west, etc.=] the only american kind, an odd plant, all translucent white, beautiful but unnatural, glimmering in the dark heart of the forest like a pallid ghost, mournfully changing to gray and black as it fades. the stem is about six inches tall, springing from a mass of fibrous roots and bearing a single flower, beautiful but scentless, about three-quarters of an inch long, with two to four sepals, five or six petals, and ten or twelve stamens, with pale yellow anthers. sometimes the whole plant is tinged with pink. this grows in rich moist woods, almost throughout temperate and warm north america, in japan and india, and is also called ghost-flower and corpse-plant. [sidenote: =pine-sap= _hypópitys hypópitys (monotropa)_ =flesh-color summer west, etc.=] there are two kinds of hypopitys. this is much like the last, but not so pallid, with several stout stems, about eight inches tall, bearing a long one-sided cluster of flowers, sometimes slightly fragrant, each about half an inch long. the whole plant is waxy, flesh-color or yellowish, tinged with red or pink, and though interesting is not so delicately pretty as indian pipe. it seems to be a stouter plant around mt. rainier than in the east and grows in thick woods, across the continent and in europe and asia. _h. sanguínea_ is a new kind, recently discovered in the arizona mountains; six to twelve inches tall, growing in dense shade at high altitudes, and brilliant red throughout. [illustration: snow plant--sarcodes sanguine.] [illustration: indian pipe--monotropa uniflora. pine sap--hypopitys hypopitys.] [sidenote: =pine-drops= _pteróspora andromedèa_ =white summer across the continent=] the only kind, found only in north america, a strange plant, harmonious in color, with a fleshy, brownish or reddish stem, from one to four feet tall, with yellowish bracts and covered with sticky hairs, springing from a mass of matted, fibrous, astringent roots. the flowers are a quarter of an inch long, with pink pedicels, brownish bracts, a brownish-pink calyx, with five lobes, and an ivory-white corolla, with five teeth; the stamens ten, net protruding; the style short, with a five-lobed stigma; the capsule roundish, five-lobed, with many winged seeds. we often find dead insects stuck to the stem. in winter, the dry, dark red stalks, ornamented with pretty seed-vessels, are attractive in the woods. this usually grows among pine trees, across the continent, but nowhere common. the greek name means "wing-seeded." it is also called giant bird's-nest and albany beech-drops. _allótropa virgàta_, of the northwest, is similar, but smaller, with five, roundish sepals and no corolla. [sidenote:= flowering-fungus= _pleuricóspora fimbriolàta_ =flesh-color summer california=] there are two kinds of pleuricospora; this is from three to eight inches tall, with flowers half an inch long, deliciously fragrant, with four or five, scale-like, fringed sepals, four or five, separate, fringed petals, resembling the sepals, and eight or ten stamens. the ovary is egg shaped, one-celled, with a thick style and flattish stigma, and the fruit is a watery berry. if the waxy, flesh-colored flowers were set off by proper green leaves they would be exceedingly pretty, but they are crowded on a fleshy stem, of the same color as themselves, mixed with fringed bracts, with brownish scales instead of leaves, and have an unnatural appearance. i found thirty of these curious plants, growing in a little company, pushing their way up through the mold and pine-needles, in the wawona woods. [illustration: flowering-fungus--pleuricospora fimbriolata. pine drops--pterospora andromedea.] primrose family. _primulaceae._ a rather large family, widely distributed; herbs; leaves undivided; flowers perfect, regular, parts usually in fives, corolla mostly with united petals, stamens on the base or tube of the corolla, opposite its lobes, sometimes with some extra, sterile filaments; ovary one-celled, mostly superior, with one style and round-headed stigma; fruit a capsule, with one or many seeds. there are several kinds of anagallis, not native in this country. [sidenote: =scarlet pimpernel poor-man's weather-glass= _anagállis arvénsis_ =red summer west, etc.=] a little weed, common in gardens and waste places, with smooth, four-sided, stems, branching and half trailing on the ground, smooth, toothless, bright green leaves and charming little flowers, a quarter of an inch or more across, with a five-lobed calyx and wheel-shaped, five-lobed corolla, usually bright orange-red and darker in the center, rarely white; the stamens five, with hairy filaments; the capsule smooth and roundish, containing many minute seeds. the flowers and leaves are usually in pairs, the seed-vessels on the tips of slender stems, curving around and toward each other, as if the plant were stretching out its little hands, and opening its little blossoms only in bright weather and closing them at night. the greek name means "amusing." the plant was used medicinally by the ancients. there are three kinds of trientalis, much alike, perennials, with tuberous roots. the latin name means "one third of a foot," the height of these plants. [sidenote: =star-flower= _trientàlis latifòlia_ =white, pink spring, summer northwest, cal., nev.=] a little woodland plant, with a slender stem, from three to six inches tall, bearing at the top a circle of from four to six, smooth, bright green leaves and one or two, threadlike flower-stalks, each tipped with a delicate flower. the corolla is about half an inch across, wheel-shaped, with no tube and usually with six, white or pinkish petals, sometimes deep pink, or flecked with lilac outside. the ovary makes a purplish dot in the center, surrounded by curling, yellow anthers, with threadlike filaments united at base. the capsule contains a few, rather large, white seeds. we often find these dainty little plants growing in companies, their starry blossoms glimmering in the shade, prettily set off by their neat circle of leaves. [illustration: star-flower--trientalis latifolia. scarlet pimpernel--anagallis arvensis.] there are a good many kinds of dodecatheon, of north america and asia; perennials, with root-leaves; flowers in bracted, terminal clusters; calyx with four or five lobes, turned back in flower but erect in fruit; corolla with four or five, long lobes, turned strongly back over the short tube and thick throat; stamens of the same number as the lobes, the anthers pointing straight forward, inserted on the throat of the corolla, filaments short, flat and united, or lacking; style long; capsule containing many seeds. the greek name, meaning "twelve gods," seems far-fetched, but linnaeus fancied the cluster of flowers resembled a little assembly of divinities. common names are prairie pointers, mosquito-bills, wild cyclamen, and american cowslip, the latter poor, because misleading. [sidenote: =large shooting-star= _dodecàtheon jéffreyi_ =pink summer cal., oreg.=] a very decorative plant, with a smooth, stout, reddish stem, five to eighteen inches tall, very slightly hairy towards the top, springing from a cluster of root-leaves, five to eighteen inches long, smooth, sometimes slightly toothed, and bearing a cluster of from five to fifteen beautiful flowers. the corolla is usually an inch or more long, usually with four petals, purplish-pink, paler at the base, with a yellow and maroon ring and maroon "bill." this has a faint, oddly sweet scent and grows in wet, mountain meadows. i found a very beautiful white form at lost lake, in yosemite, more delicate, with lighter green foliage and pure white corollas, ringed with yellow and maroon. [sidenote: =shooting-star= _dodecàtheon clèvelandi_ =white spring california=] not so handsome as the last, but very attractive, with a slightly roughish stem, twelve to sixteen inches tall, bearing a fine crown of flowers and springing from a cluster of smooth, slightly thickish leaves, paler on the under side, with a few teeth. the sepals are slightly downy and the corollas are about three-quarters of an inch long, with pure-white petals, sometimes lilac-tinged, yellow at base, with a ring of maroon scallops and a dark purple "bill." the flowers are deliciously fragrant, like clove pinks. this grows in the south. [illustration: large shooting star--dodecatheon jeffreyi. d. clevelandi.] [sidenote: =small shooting-star= _dodecàtheon pauciflòrum_ =pink spring, summer west=] a charming little plant, growing in wet, rich mountain meadows, with a smooth reddish stem, about eight inches tall, bearing a bracted cluster of several delicate flowers, and springing from a loose clump of smooth leaves. the flowers are about three-quarters of an inch long, with bright purplish-pink petals, with a ring of crimson, a ring of yellow and a wavy line of red, where they begin to turn back; the stamens with united filaments and long purplish-brown anthers; the pistil white. olive family. _oleaceae._ a rather large family, widely distributed, including olive, lilac, and privet; trees and shrubs; leaves mostly opposite; without stipules; flowers perfect or imperfect, with two to four divisions, calyx usually small or lacking, corolla with separate or united petals, sometimes lacking; stamens two or four, on the corolla, ovary superior, two-celled, with a short style or none; fruit a capsule, berry, stone-fruit, or wing-fruit. there are many kinds of fraxinus, almost all trees. [sidenote: =flowering ash, fringe-bush= _fráxinus macropétala_ =white spring arizona=] an odd and beautiful shrub, growing on bright angel trail, in the grand canyon, about as large as a lilac bush, with smooth, bright-green leaves, some of the leaflets obscurely toothed, and drooping plumes of fragrant white flowers. the calyx is very small, and the four petals are so long and narrow that the effect of the cluster is of a bunch of white fringe. the fruit is a flat winged-seed. [illustration: small shooting star--dodecatheon pauciflorum.] [illustration: flowering ash--fraxinus macropetala.] gentian family. _gentianaceae._ a large family, widely distributed, most abundant in temperate regions; smooth herbs, with colorless, bitter juice; leaves toothless, usually opposite, without leaf-stalks or stipules; flowers regular; calyx four to twelve-toothed; corolla with united lobes, twisted or overlapping in the bud, of the same number as the calyx-teeth; stamens inserted on the tube or throat of the corolla, as many as its lobes, alternate with them; ovary superior, mostly one-celled, with a single style or none, and one or two stigmas; fruit a capsule, mostly with two valves, containing many seeds. these plants were named for king gentius of illyria, said to have discovered their medicinal value. there are several kinds of frasera, north american, all but one western; herbs, with thick, bitter, woody roots; leaves opposite or in whorls; flowers numerous; corolla wheel-shaped, with four divisions, each with one or two fringed glands and sometimes also a fringed crown at base; stamens on the base of the corolla, with oblong, swinging anthers, the filaments often united at base; ovary egg-shaped, tapering to a slender style, with a small, more or less two-lobed, stigma; capsule leathery, egg-shaped, with flattish seeds. [sidenote: =columbo, deer's tongue= _fràsera speciòsa_ =greenish-white spring, summer, autumn west, etc.=] a handsome plant, though rather coarse, from two to six feet tall, with a pale glossy stem, very stout, sometimes over two inches across at the base, and very smooth, pale green leaves, in whorls of four and six, the lower ones sometimes a foot long. the flowers are mixed with the leaves all along the upper part of the stem, but mostly crowded at the top in a pyramidal cluster about six inches long, and are each nearly an inch and a half across, with a greenish or bluish-white corolla, the lobes bordered with violet and dotted with purple, and on each lobe two glands covered by a fringed flap, resembling a small petal, these fringes forming a sort of cross on the corolla. the four stamens stand stiffly out between the corolla-lobes and the general effect of the flower is so symmetrical that it suggests an architectural or ecclesiastical ornament. though the flowers are not bright, this plant is decorative on account of its luxuriant size and pale foliage, and if mr. burbank could make the flowers clear white or purple it would be magnificent. it grows in the western mountains, as far east as dakota and new mexico. the finest i ever saw were on an open slope, in a high pass in the wasatch mountains, where they reared their pale spires proudly far above the surrounding herbage. [illustration: columbo--frasera speciosa.] [sidenote: =small columbo= _fràsera nitìda_ =bluish-white summer cal., oreg.=] quite a pretty plant, too colorless to be effective at a distance, but not coarse, with a smooth, pale stem, over a foot tall, and smooth, dull, bluish-green leaves, slightly stiffish, prettily bordered with white, mostly in a clump near the base. the flowers are about half an inch across, shaped like the last; with bluish-white petals, specked with dull-purple, with a green line on the outside, with one green gland near the center, fringed all around; large whitish anthers, becoming pinkish, and a white pistil. there are a good many kinds of erythraea, widely distributed, usually with red or pink flowers; calyx with five or four, narrow lobes, or divisions; corolla salver-form, with five or four lobes; anthers twisting spirally after shedding their pollen; stigmas two, oblong or fan-shaped. the greek name means "red" and the common name, centaury, from the latin, meaning "a hundred gold pieces," alludes to the supposedly valuable medicinal properties of these plants. [sidenote: =canchalagua, california centaury= _erythraèa venústa (centaurium)_ =pink spring, summer california=] from three to twelve inches tall, with apple-green leaves, mostly on the stems, smooth and thin in texture, and flowers an inch or more across, a very vivid shade of purplish-pink, with a yellow or white "eye," bright yellow anthers and green pistil. these are attractive, because they look so gay and cheerful, but the color is a little crude. the flowers are not so large in yosemite as they are in some places, such as point loma, but are very numerous and cover large patches with brilliant color. these plants are called canchalagua by spanish-californians, who use them medicinally. [illustration: canchalagua--erythraea venusta.] [illustration: small columbo--frasera nitida.] [sidenote: =tall centaury= _erythraèa exaltàta (e. douglasii) (centaurium)_ =pink spring, summer, autumn west, etc.=] this has a slender, leafy stem, from a few inches to over a foot tall, and flowers not so large as the last, but pretty and gay, about half an inch across, bright pink with a distinct white "eye." this grows in sandy soil, as far east as wyoming. there are many kinds of gentiana, of northern regions and the andes; calyx tubular, usually with five teeth; corolla variously shaped with from four to seven lobes, often fringed, or with folds between the teeth; style short or lacking; stigma two-lipped. [sidenote: =northern gentian= _gentiàna acùta_ =purple summer west, etc.=] a pretty plant, with leafy, often branching stems, from six to twenty inches tall, and numerous flowers, with stiff pedicels and leafy bracts, forming several small clusters along the upper part of the stem. they are each about half an inch long, various shades of purple or blue, sometimes white, and easily recognized by the little crown of white fringe in the throat of the rather tubular, five-lobed corolla. these plants have very small roots, so that it is difficult to pick them without pulling them up, and as they are annuals they are easily exterminated. they are common in northern mountains, in moist places across the continent, and in europe and asia. [sidenote: =gentian= _gentiàna propínqua_ =purple summer northwest=] this has smooth, thin leaves and pretty flowers, three-quarters of an inch long, with lilac or purple corollas, satiny in texture, with four lobes, pointed at the tips and more or less fringed. this grows in high mountains. [sidenote: =blue gentian= _gentiàna calycòsa_ =blue autumn northwest=] a handsome perennial, with leafy stems, from five to fifteen inches tall, bearing one or several, fine flowers at the top. they are an inch and a half long, with a bright blue corolla, dotted with green, with plaited folds and small teeth between the five lobes. this has been found in yosemite, but is more common at lake tahoe. there are many other handsome large blue gentians in the west. _g. lùtea_, with yellow flowers, is the german kind from which the well-known drug, gentian, is made. [illustration: tall centaury--erythraea exaltata. northern gentian--gentiana acuta. gentian--g. propinqua.] milkweed family. _asclepiadaceae._ a large family, widely distributed, most abundant in warm regions; ours are perennial herbs, usually with milky juice and tough fibrous inner bark; leaves generally large, toothless, without stipules; flowers peculiar in shape, in roundish clusters; calyx with a short tube or none and five lobes; corolla five-lobed; stamens five, on the base of the corolla, with short, stout filaments, anthers more or less united around the disk-like stigma, which covers and unites the two short styles of the superior ovary. the two parts of the ovary develop into two conspicuous pods, opening at the side, containing numerous flattish seeds, arranged along a thick, central axis, usually each with a tuft of silky down to waft it about. there are many kinds of asclepias, with oddly-shaped flowers, interesting and decorative in form; calyx rather small, the pointed sepals turned back; corolla with its petals turned entirely back, so as to cover the sepals and expose the peculiar-looking central arrangements of the flower, called the "crown." in the middle is the large, flat, shield-shaped, five-lobed or five-angled stigma, surrounded by the anthers, which are more or less united to each other and to the stigma, encircled by five, odd, little honey-bearing hoods, the same color as the petals, each with a horn, either enclosed within it or projecting from it, the whole collection of stigma, anthers, and hoods, forming the "crown." the pods are thick and pointed. named for Æsculapius, as some of these plants are medicinal. indians used to make twine from the fibrous bark of some kinds. [sidenote: =showy milkweed= _asclèpias speciòsa_ =pink spring, summer west=] a handsome plant, decorative in form and harmonious in coloring, with a stout stem, from one to four feet tall, and light bluish-green leaves, usually covered with white down. the flowers are sweet-scented, with woolly pedicels, purplish-pink petals, and waxy, white "hoods," the buds yellowish-pink. the cluster, about three inches across, sometimes comprises as many as fifty flowers and is very beautiful in tone, being a mass of delicately blended, warm, soft tints of pink, cream, and purple. this grows in canyon bottoms and along streams. [illustration: showy milkweed--asclepias speciosa.] [sidenote: =pale milkweed= _asclèpias eròsa_ =greenish-white spring california=] this is three feet or more tall, fine-looking, though too pale, with a stout, smooth, gray-green stem and gray-green leaves, mottled with white and very stiff, the under side white-woolly, and flower-clusters two and a half inches across, composed of numerous greenish-white flowers, each half an inch long, their stalks covered with white wool. [sidenote: =desert milkweed= _asclèpias vestìta var. mohavénsis_ =yellow and pink spring california=] a foot and a half tall, with very fragrant flowers, and very woolly all over, especially the upper leaves, stems and buds, which are thick with long white wool. the buds are pinkish-purple and the flowers have dull pink petals and cream-colored hoods, becoming yellow, and form clusters over two inches across. this grows in the mohave desert and the effect is harmonious, but not so handsome as the last. the genus gomphocarpus is distinguished from asclepias by the absence of horns or crests in the hoods. [sidenote: =purple milkweed= _gomphocàrpus cordifòlius (asclepias)_ =purple and yellow summer oreg., cal.=] a handsome plant, smooth all over and more or less tinged with purple, with a stout, purple stem, from one and a half to three feet tall, with rubbery, dull, light bluish-green leaves. the flowers are scentless, with purplish sepals, maroon or purple petals, and yellowish or pinkish hoods, and form a very loose graceful cluster, over three inches across, dark in color and contrasting well with the foliage. this is common in yosemite and elsewhere in california, at moderate altitudes. the genus asclepiodora, of the southern part of north america, resembles asclepias, but the flowers are larger, the petals not turned back, the hoods flatter, with crests instead of horns; leaves mainly alternate; corolla wheel-shaped; petals spreading; hoods oblong, blunt, spreading and curving upward, crested inside; five tiny appendages alternating with the anthers and forming an inner crown around the stigma. the name is from the greek, meaning the gift of Æsculapius. [illustration: pale milkweed--asclepias erosa. purple milkweed--gomphocarpus cordifolius.] [sidenote: =spider milkweed= _asclepiodòra decúmbens_ =green and maroon spring, summer southwest=] a striking plant, though dull in color, from one to one and a half feet tall, with a rough, rather slanting stem, dull green, roughish, rather leathery leaves, and clusters of slightly sweet-scented, queer-looking flowers, each over half an inch across, with greenish-yellow petals, the hoods white inside and maroon outside, their tips curved in, a green stigma and brown anthers. the effect is a dull-yellow rosette, striped with maroon, curiously symmetrical and stiff in form, suggesting an heraldic "tudor rose." the pods, three or four inches long, stand up stiffly, on pedicels curved like hooks. this grows on dry hillsides and is widely distributed. dogbane family. _apocynaceae._ a large family, widely distributed, chiefly tropical; ours are perennial herbs, with milky, bitter juice; leaves toothless, usually opposite, without stipules; flowers perfect, parts in fives; corolla united; stamens on the corolla, as many as its lobes, alternate with them, ovary superior, in two parts, united by a single or two-parted style, developing into two pods; seeds often tufted with hairs. the greek name alludes to the superstition that these plants are poisonous to dogs. there are many kinds of apocynum, with branching stems, tough fibrous bark, and small, white or pink flowers, in clusters; calyx with pointed teeth, its tube adhering to the ovaries by means of a thickish, five-lobed disk; corolla bell-shaped, five-lobed, with five, small, triangular appendages, inside the tube, opposite the lobes; stamens with short, broad filaments and arrow-shaped anthers, slightly adhering to the blunt, obscurely two-lobed stigma; pod slender, cylindrical; seeds numerous, small, feathery. [sidenote: =spreading dogbane, honey-bloom= _apócynum androsaemifòlium_ =white, pink summer west, etc.=] an attractive plant, from one to four feet high, with many, smooth, widely spreading branches, purplish on one side, and smooth leaves, rather dark green above, pale underneath, with yellowish veins. the little flowers are white, tinged with pink, often striped with pink inside, mainly in loose clusters at the ends of the branches, and though not conspicuous are delicate and pretty. the pods are from two to seven inches long. this is widely scattered in fields and open woods, occurring in a variety of forms, and common in the east. [illustration: dog-bane--apocynum androsaemifolium. spider milkweed--asclepiodora decumbens.] buck-bean family. _menyanthaceae._ a small family, widely distributed; perennial herbs, with creeping rootstocks, growing in water or marshes; the leaves smooth, alternate, or from the root; the flowers perfect, regular, in clusters; the calyx five-lobed; the corolla more or less funnel-form with five lobes or teeth; the stamens five, on the corolla and alternate with its lobes; the ovary superior, or partly so, with one cell; the fruit usually an oval capsule, with a few flattish, smooth seeds. [sidenote: =buck-bean= _menyánthes trifoliàta_ =white spring, summer northwest=] this is the only kind, a handsome plant, eight or ten inches tall, with a stout, yellowish-green stem and rich green leaves, with long, sheathing leaf-stalks and three leaflets, with toothless or somewhat scalloped edges. the flowers are about half an inch long, with a white corolla, tinged with pink or lilac, the spreading lobes covered with white hairs, with black and yellow, swinging anthers and a green pistil, with a two-lipped stigma. there are from ten to twenty flowers in each cluster and the effect is charming, suggesting a bunch of little fringed lilies. this grows in northern bogs across the continent and also in europe and asia. it used to be found around san francisco, but is now extinct. morning-glory family. _convolvulaceae._ a large family, most abundant in the tropics; ours are herbs, usually with twining or trailing stems; the leaves alternate, or mere scales, without stipules; the flowers perfect, with five sepals; the corolla with united petals, more or less funnel-form and more or less five-lobed, folded lengthwise and twisted in the bud; the stamens five, on the base of the corolla; the ovary superior, with from one to three styles; the fruit usually a capsule, with from one to four large seeds. [illustration: buck-bean--menyanthes trifoliata.] there are a great many kinds of convolvulus, widely distributed; ours are mostly twining or prostrate perennials; the flowers large, with a slender style and two stigmas; the fruit a capsule, usually with two large seeds. the name is from the latin, meaning "to entwine." these plants are often called bindweed. [sidenote: =field morning-glory= _convólvulus arvénsis_ =white, pinkish spring, summer, autumn west, etc.=] this is a troublesome weed, introduced from europe, with very deep roots and pretty flowers. the leaves are dull green and look roughish, though they are smooth or nearly so, and the flowers are about an inch across, white inside, striped with pink and tinged with yellow at the base, and pink outside, striped with duller, deeper color. the stamens and pistil are white and the buds purplish-pink. the flower stalks usually have a pair of bracts near the middle. [sidenote: =yellow morning-glory= _convólvulus occidentàlis_ =cream-color summer northwest=] an attractive plant, with pretty foliage and large, pale flowers, the stems trailing on the ground and climbing over low bushes. the leaves are smooth and dark bluish-green and the flowers are about two inches and a half across, very pale yellow, almost cream-color, with stripes of slightly deeper yellow, tinged with pink. the anthers and the pistil are pale yellow and the flower-stalks have two bracts just beneath the calyx. there are many kinds of cuscuta, or dodder, widely distributed and difficult to distinguish; leafless parasites, without green coloring, with twining, threadlike stems and inconspicuous flowers, in clusters. the seed germinates in the soil and produces a twining stem, which attaches itself to a neighbor by means of suckers. these plants are easily recognized, for they look like tangled bunches of coarse thread, and are often very conspicuous on account of their coloring, sometimes making fine masses of bright orange-color, beautiful in tone, though the plants are very unattractive. they have other names, such as love-vine and strangle-weed. [illustration: field morning-glory--c. arvensis. yellow morning-glory--convolvulus occidentalis.] phlox family. _polemoniaceae._ not a large family, most abundant in western north america, a few in europe and asia; sometimes slightly woody; the leaves without stipules; the flowers generally regular; the calyx with five united sepals; the corolla with five united petals, rolled up in the bud and often remaining more or less twisted to one side in the flowers; the stamens with slender filaments, with swinging anthers, often unequally inserted, on the tube or throat of the corolla and alternate with its lobes; the ovary superior, with a slender style and three-lobed stigma, but in immature flowers the three branches are folded together so that the style appears to have no lobes; the pod with three compartments, containing few or many seeds, which are sometimes winged and sometimes mucilaginous. there are a good many kinds of polemonium, growing in cool places, usually perennials; the leaves alternate, with leaflets, not toothed; the calyx not ribbed or angled, bell-shaped; the corolla more or less bell-shaped; the stamens equally inserted, but often of unequal lengths; the seeds mucilaginous when wet. this is the greek name, used by dioscorides. [sidenote: =jacob's ladder= _polemònium occidentàle (p. coeruleum)_ =blue summer northwest=] a graceful plant, with attractive and unusual-looking foliage. the juicy stem and tender, bright green leaves are smooth or hairy and the pretty flowers are nearly three-quarters of an inch across, bright rather purplish blue, paler inside and delicately veined with blue, with a yellow "eye." the stamens are protruding, with white anthers, and the pistil is long and protruding, even in quite small buds. this is variable and grows in damp places in the mountains, across the continent and also in the old world. the common name comes from the shape of the leaf and it is also called greek valerian. another handsome sort is _p. carnèum_, with flowers varying in color from salmon to purple, growing in the mountains of california and oregon, but rather rare. [illustration: jacob's ladder--polemonium occidentale.] there are many kinds of linanthus; low, slender annuals, with opposite, palmately-divided leaves and thus differing from gilia, the divisions narrow or threadlike, looking almost like whorls in some kinds, or rarely toothless, occasionally some of the upper leaves alternate; the flowers scattered, or in terminal, roundish clusters; the calyx-tube thin and dry between the ribs or angles, the teeth equal; the corolla more or less wheel-shaped, funnel-form, or salver-form; the stamens equally inserted on the corolla; the seeds few or many, developing mucilage when moistened. the greek name means "flax flower." [sidenote: _linánthus párryae (gilia)_ =white spring california=] a queer little plant, only about two inches high, with almost no stem, very small, stiff leaves, and several large, pretty flowers, with cream-white corollas, about an inch across, with five crests in the throat, and the tube tinged with purple on the outside. they are exceedingly fragile and diaphanous in texture and form little white tufts, which look very odd and attractive, sprinkled over the sand in the mohave desert. [sidenote: _linánthus brevicùlus (gilia)_ =pink, violet spring california=] this has slender, purplish, rather hairy stems, from six to eight inches tall, stiff, dull green, hairy leaves, tipped with bristles, and flowers over half an inch across, with sticky, hairy calyxes. the slender corolla-tubes are half an inch long, with delicate rose-pink or violet petals, white anthers, and a whitish pistil. this looks very pretty growing on the bare sand of the mohave desert. [sidenote: _linánthus androsàceus (gilia)_ =lilac, pink, or white spring, summer california=] this is very pretty, with a stiff, slender, hairy, branching stem, from three inches to a foot tall, with stiffish, dull green leaves, apparently in whorls and cut into very narrow divisions, with bristles or hairs along the margins. the flowers are over half an inch across, with a long threadlike tube, and are usually bright lilac but sometimes pink or white, with a yellow, white, or almost black "eye," orange-colored anthers and a long, yellow pistil. the flower-cluster is mixed with many bracts and the stems often branch very symmetrically, with clusters at the tips. this is common on dry hillsides, growing in the grass, and often makes bright patches of color. there are several named varieties. [illustration: l. androsaceus. l. parryae. linanthus breviculus.] [sidenote: =evening snow= _linánthus dichótomus (gilia)_ =white spring california=] exceedingly pretty flowers, with very slender, brown stems, often branching, from two to twelve inches tall, and a few, rather inconspicuous, dull green leaves. the flowers are an inch or more across, with a salver-form corolla, with a long slender tube, white and beautifully sheeny in texture, bordered with dull pink on the outside, showing where the petals overlapped in the bud; the stamens and pistil not showing in the throat. they have a strong and unpleasant odor, but the effect of the airy flowers is beautiful, especially in the desert, as they sway to and fro in the wind on their slender stalks. they open only in the evening, but stay open all night and keep on opening and closing for several days, getting larger as they grow older. this is common on open slopes and hills, but is variable and not easily distinguished from similar species. [sidenote: =yellow gilia= _linánthus àureus (gilia)_ =yellow spring arizona=] a charming little desert plant, about three inches tall, with a very slender, usually smooth, widely branching stem and small, pale green leaves, apparently in whorls and cut into very narrow divisions, quite stiff and tipped with a bristle. the flowers are about half an inch across, bright yellow, with an orange-colored "eye" and tube, orange anthers and a yellow pistil, and they look exceedingly gay and pretty on the pale sand of the desert. [sidenote: _linánthus parviflòrus (gilia)_ =white, pink, lilac spring california=] a very pretty little plant, slightly hairy, with a slender stem, from three to ten inches tall, and clusters of small, stiff, dark green leaves. the flowers are about three-quarters of an inch across, with long, threadlike, yellow tubes, sometimes an inch and a half long, and white, pink, or lilac petals, with an orange or white "eye" and often brownish on the outside, with yellow anthers and a conspicuously long, yellow pistil. this is common throughout california, growing in open ground on hills and sea-cliffs. _l. parviflorus var. aciculàris_ is similar, but smaller. the flowers are similar, but often have so little white about them that they are yellow in general effect, and are sometimes specked with crimson at the base of the petals. they grow in sandy places in southern california. [illustration: evening snow--l. dichotomus. yellow gilia--l. aureus. linanthus parviflorus.] [sidenote: =ground pink, fringed gilia= _linánthus dianthiflòrus (gilia)_ =pink spring california=] charming little flowers, exceedingly delicate and gay. the stem is usually only a few inches tall, the leaves are very narrow, and the flowers are three-quarters of an inch across, with bright pink petals, prettily toothed at the tips, shading to white and yellow in the center and often with a purple ring in the throat. this is common in southern california and often grows in quantities, sprinkling the ground with its bright little flowers. [sidenote: _linánthus liniflòrus (gilia)_ =white spring, summer california=] this is a few inches tall, with purplish stems, which are so very slender and wiry that they look hardly thicker than hairs and the flowers seem to be hovering in the air, giving an exceedingly pretty and delicate effect. the leaves are stiff and dark green and the flowers are half an inch or more across, with a yellowish tube and white petals, delicately veined with blue, with a pale yellow pistil and orange anthers. this grows on the dry tops of mesas, in southern california. there are many kinds of phlox, natives of north america and asia, usually perennials, the leaves toothless, mostly opposite, at least the lower ones; the calyx five-ribbed; the corolla salver-form; the stamens inserted very unequally in the tube and not protruding; the seeds not mucilaginous. the salver-form corolla and the seeds not being mucilaginous distinguishes phlox from gilia. the name is from the greek, meaning "flame." [sidenote: =alpine phlox= _phlóx douglásii_ =white, lilac summer northwest, etc.=] a charming little plant, with woody stems a few inches tall and partly creeping along the ground, densely crowded with numerous needle-like leaves, forming dull green, cushion-like mats, sometimes over a foot across and suggesting some sort of prickly moss. these prickly cushions are sprinkled thickly all over with pretty lilac flowers and the effect is most attractive. the flowers vary in tint from white to pink and purple and are nearly three-quarters of an inch across and slightly sweet-scented. the tube is longer than the hairy calyx, and the petals fold back in fading. this grows on gravelly slopes and summits around yosemite and in the northwest, from the rocky mountains to nebraska, and its patches of pale color are often conspicuous in dry rocky places, or in open forests, at an altitude of three to seven thousand feet. [illustration: linanthus liniflorus. alpine phlox--phlox douglasii. ground pink--linanthus dianthiflorus.] [sidenote: =wild sweet william= _phlóx longifòlia_ =pink spring, summer, autumn west, etc.=] very attractive common flowers, with many stems, three to eight inches high, from a woody base. the leaves are smooth or somewhat downy, stiffish, pale gray-green and rather harsh, and the flowers are over three-quarters of an inch across, clear pink, of various shades from deep-pink to white, with an angled calyx. only two yellow stamens show in the throat and the style is long and slender. this grows on hills and in valleys, as far east as colorado, and its pretty flowers are very gay and charming, particularly when growing in large clumps in fields or beside the road. _p. stánsburyi_, common on the plateau in the grand canyon, blooming in may, is similar, but has sticky hairs on the calyx. there are many kinds of gilia, variable and not easily distinguished; the leaves nearly always alternate and thus differing from linanthus; the corolla funnel-form, tubular, or bell-shaped, but, unlike phlox, rarely salver-form and the seeds are usually mucilaginous when wet. these plants were named for gil, a spanish botanist. [sidenote: =scarlet gilia, skyrocket= _gília aggregàta_ =red spring, summer, autumn southwest, utah, etc.=] a brilliant biennial or perennial plant, varying in general form and color. in utah it is somewhat coarse and usually has a single, leafy, roughish, rather sticky stem, from one to two feet tall, purplish towards the top, and thickish, somewhat sticky leaves, deeply lobed and cut, in a cluster at the root and alternate along the stem, dull bluish-green in color, smooth on the under side, with more or less sparse woolly down on the upper side, as if partially rubbed off. the flowers have no pedicels, or very short ones, and form small clusters in the angles of the leaves along the upper part of the stem, but are mainly at the top, in a large, handsome, somewhat flat-topped, loose cluster. they are each more than half an inch across, with a corolla of clear scarlet, the lobes shading at base to white, finely streaked with crimson and prettily fringed at the tips. the stamens are equally or unequally inserted in the corolla throat, the buds are prettily twisted and fringed at the tips and usually have a dark purplish calyx. sometimes the flowers are all scattered along the stalk, making a wand of bloom. this grows on mountain sides and sometimes has a very disagreeable smell, hence the local name of polecat plant. in yosemite it is much more delicate in character, with several, smooth or downy, reddish, leafy stems, from one to four feet high, from a branched base, bearing very graceful clusters of flowers, the petals of various shades of scarlet, pink, and crimson, often streaked with white, or yellowish dotted with red, their long points curled back. often the buds are scarlet and the flowers pink, giving a very vivid effect. the protruding stamens are inserted in the notches between the lobes of the corolla, with red or pink filaments and yellow or purple anthers. this has the look of a hothouse flower and is very beautiful and striking when growing in masses in high mountain woods. this has several common names which are very misleading, such as wild cypress and wild honeysuckle. there are several named varieties. it grows in the southwest and also from british columbia to new mexico. [illustration: scarlet gilia--g. aggregata.] [illustration: p. longifolia. wild sweet william--phlox stansburyi.] [sidenote: =bird's eyes= _gília trìcolor_ =white and purple and yellow spring southwest=] a beautiful kind, with rather hairy, branching stems, from six inches to over a foot tall, and dull green, rather hairy leaves, prettily cut into long narrow lobes. the flowers are in clusters, sweet-scented and beautifully marked, with corollas a half-inch or more in length, open funnel-shaped, with a yellow tube marked by a white border, and two dark purple spots in the throat below each of the blue or whitish corolla-lobes, forming an "eye." the calyx lobes often have purple margins, the anthers are bright blue, with lilac filaments, and the pistil is lilac. this is common on low hills in western california. [sidenote: =blue desert gilia= _gília rigídula_ =blue summer arizona=] a strange little desert plant, stunted-looking but with brilliant flowers, forming low, prickly clumps of stiff, dry, dull green, needle-like foliage, suggesting cushions of harsh moss, with numerous woody stems, two or three inches high, and numbers of pretty flowers, half an inch across, deep bright blue, with a little yellow in the center; the stamens, with bright yellow anthers, projecting from the throat. this bravely opens its bright blue eyes in the desert wastes of the petrified forest. [illustration: blue desert gilia--g. rigidula. bird's eye--gilia tricolor.] [sidenote: =downy gilia= _gília floccòsa_ =blue spring southwest=] a little desert plant, about three inches tall, more or less downy all over, the upper leaves and buds covered with soft white down and the lower leaves dark green and stiff, tipped with a bristle. the tiny flowers have a blue corolla, varying from sky-blue to almost white, with a yellow throat and white stamens, and although they are too small to be conspicuous, the effect of the bits of blue on the desert sand is exceedingly pretty. [sidenote: =small prickly gilia= _gília púngens_ =white summer california=] this resembles alpine phlox in general effect, but the corolla is funnel-form instead of salver-form, for the lobes do not spread so abruptly. the many stems are woody below, a few inches high, and crowded with leaves, which are dull green, stiff, and cut into needle-like divisions, which look like single leaves, about half an inch long. the flowers are pretty and fragrant, half an inch across, white or pale pink, often with purplish streaks on the outside, with rounded lobes, the edge of each overlapping the next, and yellow anthers, not projecting from the throat of the corolla. this forms loose mats on rocky ledges, at high altitudes. [sidenote: _gília multicàulis_ =lilac spring california=] a rather pretty little plant, about eight inches tall, with several slender, slightly hairy stems and leaves cut into very narrow divisions. the little flowers are pale lilac, quite delicate and pretty, though not conspicuous, and form clusters at the tips of the branches. this sometimes grows in quantities in the hills of southern california and is variable. [illustration: downy gilia--g. floccosa. g. multicaulis. small prickly gilia--g. pungens.] [sidenote: =large prickly gilia= _gília califórnica_ =pink summer california=] an unusual-looking, conspicuous, shrubby plant, suggesting some kind of small prickly pine or cedar, with lovely flowers. it forms large straggling clumps, about two feet high, with many woody stems and rich-green foliage, the leaves cut into small, spreading, needle-like lobes, and ornamented with numbers of brilliant flowers. they are an inch or more across, with bright pink petals and a white "eye," and are most delicate in texture, with a satiny sheen and smelling sweet like violets. this grows on hills and is very beautiful on mt. lowe. [sidenote: _gília achillaefòlia_ =blue, white spring, summer california=] this varies a good deal in color and beauty. the stems are smooth and slender, from one to two feet tall, and the leaves are alternate, smooth or downy, delicately cut into many fine divisions. the numerous small flowers are funnel-form, with projecting stamens, and form a close round head, which is an inch or more across, without bracts. the calyx is more or less woolly, with sharp triangular teeth, the tips turned back. usually the flowers are blue of some shade, deep or pale, sometimes forming patches of color in the fields, but the prettiest i have seen grew in the woods near santa barbara, the individual flowers larger than usual and pure white, with bright blue anthers. it is common in yosemite, but rather dull bluish-white and not pretty. [sidenote: _gília capitàta_ =blue spring, summer northwest and california=] very much like the last, but the flowers are smaller and form a smaller, more compact head. the corollas are blue, with narrow petals, varying in tint from purplish-blue to pale lilac, the calyx not woolly, and the cluster is about an inch across, the stamens giving it a fuzzy appearance. the leaves are smooth or slightly downy and the seed-vessels form pretty pale green heads. this is common and sometimes grows in such quantities as to be very effective. [sidenote: _gília multiflòra_ =blue summer ariz., new mex.=] the general effect of this plant is inconspicuous, though the flowers are quite pretty close by. the roughish woody stem is only a few inches tall and then branches abruptly into several long sprays, clothed with many very small, narrow, pointed, thickish, dull green leaves and ornamented towards the end with small clusters of flowers, which are lilac or blue, marked with purple lines, less than half an inch across, with five irregular lobes and blue anthers. this grows at the grand canyon and in dry open places in the mountains. [illustration: large prickly gilia--gilia californica.] [illustration: g. capitata. gilia achillaefolia.] there are several kinds of collomia, almost all annuals; leaves alternate, usually toothless; flowers in clusters; differing from gilia and linanthus in the calyx, which increases in size as it grows older; corolla tube-shaped, funnel-form, or salver-form, with spreading lobes; stamens unequally inserted on the corolla-tube, with unequal filaments; seeds usually mucilaginous. [sidenote: _collòmia grandiflòra (gilia)_ =buff summer cal., utah, wash.=] very pretty flowers, which attract attention because of their unusual coloring. the leafy stem is from one to two feet tall and slightly downy and the leaves are generally toothless, smooth, and rather dark green. the flowers form a roundish terminal cluster, which is about two inches across, surrounded by broad bracts, which are sticky to the touch. the corolla is funnel-form, about an inch long, various shades of buff or salmon-color, and as the downy buds are yellow, the newly-opened flowers buff, and the older ones pinkish or cream-white, the combinations of color are odd and effective. this is quite common in yosemite, in warm situations, and much cultivated in germany. it is sometimes called wild bouvardia, but this is a poor name, as it is that of a plant belonging to an entirely different family. [sidenote: _collòmia lineàris (gilia)_ =pink summer west=] from six inches to over a foot tall, with a rather stout, very leafy stem, more or less branching, and alternate leaves, smooth, toothless, and rather dark green, the upper stems and buds hairy and sticky. the flowers have no pedicels and narrow funnel-form or salver-form corollas, bright pink, about a quarter of an inch across, and are crowded in roundish clusters, at the tips of the leafy branches, the larger clusters toward the top. though the tiny flowers are bright and pretty this is not an effective plant. it grows in dry, open, sandy places and the foliage has a rather disagreeable smell when crushed. [illustration: collomia grandiflora. c. linearis.] waterleaf family. _hydrophyllaceae._ herbs or shrubs, mostly natives of western north america; often hairy; with no stipules; the leaves mainly alternate or from the root; the flowers chiefly blue or white, often in coiled clusters; the calyx with five united sepals; the corolla with five united petals; the stamens five, on the base of the corolla and alternate with its lobes, with threadlike filaments and usually with swinging anthers; the ovary superior, the styles two or two-cleft; the fruit a capsule, containing few or many seeds. the leaves were formerly supposed to have water-cavities in them, hence the misleading name. some of this family resemble some of the borages, but the stamens are long, the styles are two, at least above, and the ovary has not the four conspicuous lobes of the latter family. there are many kinds of phacelia, hairy plants, with no appendages between the sepals; resembling hydrophyllum, except that the petals overlap in the bud, instead of being rolled up, and the seeds are different. the name is from the greek, meaning "cluster." [sidenote: =phacelia= _phacèlia lóngipes_ =purple spring california=] this has pretty and rather unusual looking foliage, for the leaves are a peculiar shade of bluish-green, with purplish margins. they are somewhat sticky, soft and velvety, and although hairy are not disagreeable to touch. the hairy, purplish stems grow from a few inches to a foot tall and the pretty flowers are lilac or purple, with yellow anthers, and measure three-quarters of an inch across. this grows on sunny, sandy mountain slopes. [sidenote: =phacelia= _phacèlia glechomaefòlia_ =lilac, white summer ariz., utah, cal.=] a low plant, partly creeping, with weak, brittle, sticky stems and soft, slightly thickish, very dull yellowish-green leaves, sticky and often dingy with dust. the flowers are usually violet, but sometimes pure white, about three-eighths of an inch across, with yellow stamens, and are rather pretty. i found this little plant growing under a huge red rock in the grand canyon, on apparently perfectly dry, bare soil. it has an aromatic and slightly unpleasant smell and is rare. [illustration: phacelia longipes. phacelia glechomaefolia.] [illustration] [sidenote: =phacelia= _phacèlia serícea_ =purple summer northwest, nev., utah=] a mountain plant, which in favorable situations is exceedingly handsome and conspicuous, about a foot tall, but sometimes more, with downy, leafy stems, and handsome, silky-downy foliage, cut into many narrow divisions. the bell-shaped flowers are three-eighths of an inch across, rich purple, with very long, purple filaments and yellow anthers, and are crowded in magnificent clusters, sometimes eight inches long and very feathery. the corolla dries up and remains on the fruit. this has a disagreeable smell and grows at very high altitudes, where it is unusual to find such large showy flowers. in dry unfavorable situations it is often small and pale in color. [sidenote: =phacelia= _phacèlia párryi_ =purple spring california=] this has very handsome flowers, but the plant is too straggling. the branching, reddish stems are very hairy and rather sticky, from one to nearly two feet tall, with dull green, hairy leaves, which are harsh but not disagreeable to touch, and the flowers are over three-quarters of an inch across, with a very hairy calyx and a bright purple corolla, with a cream-colored spot, the shape of a horseshoe, at the base of each petal. the filaments are purple and hairy, with cream-colored anthers and the style is white, tipped with purple. this sometimes grows in such quantities as to give a very brilliant color effect and is found from los angeles to san diego. [sidenote: =vervenia= _phacèlia dístans_ =violet spring southwest=] this is from eight inches to two feet high, with hairy, soft, dull green leaves and hairy stems, which are usually branching and spreading. the flowers are less than half an inch across, with a very hairy, sticky calyx, a violet corolla, varying in tint from dull white to bright blue, fading to purple, and purple filaments with whitish anthers. this grows in dry places and is common, often forming large clumps covered with flowers which are quite effective in color, though the plants are too straggling and hairy to be very attractive close by. _p. ramosíssima_ is similar but coarser, the flowers are larger, and the plant is exceedingly hairy, the calyxes being covered with conspicuous, long, white hairs, and the whole plant unpleasant to touch. [illustration] [illustration: mountain phacelia--phacelia sericea.] [illustration: vervenia. p. distans. phacelia parryi.] [illustration] [sidenote: =phacelia= _phacèlia fremóntii_ =purple spring southwest and utah=] a charming little desert plant, four or five inches high, with one or more, purplish, branching stems, springing from a pretty cluster of thickish, dull green root-leaves. the flowers are half an inch across, with sticky, hairy calyxes and buds and bright purple corollas, with bright yellow throats, from which the stamens do not protrude. these little flowers look very gay and pretty against the desert sand. [sidenote: =phacelia= _phacèlia lineàris_ =purple spring, summer northwest and utah=] this is a delicate and pretty plant, in spite of its hairy foliage, from six inches to a foot high, with a hairy stem, purplish and somewhat branching, and alternate leaves, which are sometimes deeply cleft, usually have no leaf-stalks and are hairy and light yellowish-green in color. the flowers are pretty, grouped in rather long clusters, and are each about half an inch across, with a hairy calyx and a corolla delicately tinted with various shades of clear lilac and blue, shading to white in the center, with long narrow appendages in the throat between the stamens, which are long and conspicuous, giving a feathery appearance to the cluster. the anthers are dark purple and mature before the stigma, and the buds are pink and white. this grows on dry hillsides, often under sage-brush. [illustration] [illustration: phacelia linearis. phacelia fremontii.] [illustration] [sidenote: =phacelia= _phacèlia grandiflòra_ =lilac summer california=] a very handsome kind, though rather coarse, and hairy and sticky all over, but with lovely, delicate flowers. the stems are from one to three feet tall and the dark green leaves are velvety on the upper side and hairy on the under. the flowers often measure two inches across, with a lilac or mauve corolla, shading to white in the center, flecked and streaked with brown, blue, or purple, and the stamens have purple filaments and pale yellow anthers. this plant is unpleasantly sticky, with a viscid fluid which stains everything with which it comes in contact, is poisonous to some people, and is found from santa barbara to san diego. [sidenote: _phacèlia víscida var. albiflòra_ =white spring california=] this is a white variety, with pretty, delicate white flowers. _phacelia viscida_ is very much like _p. grandiflora_, and has about the same range, but is not so large a plant, usually about a foot tall, with smaller flowers, about an inch across. the corollas are blue, with purple or white centers. [sidenote: =wild canterbury-bell= _phacèlia whitlàvia_ =purple summer california=] charming flowers, though the foliage is rather too hairy. the stout, reddish stems are hairy, brittle, and loosely branching, about a foot tall, and the leaves dull green and hairy. the handsome flowers are in graceful nodding clusters, with a bell-shaped corolla, about an inch long, a rich shade of bluish-purple, the long conspicuous stamens and pistils giving an airy look to the blossoms. the filaments are purple and the anthers almost white and, as in other phacelias, when the corolla drops off the long forked style remains sticking out of the calyx like a thread. this grows in light shade in rich moist soil in the hills. [illustration] [illustration: phacelia grandiflora.] [illustration: wild canterbury-bell--p. whitlavia. phacelia viscida var. albiflora.] [sidenote: =alpine phacelia= _phacèlia alpìna_ =lilac summer utah, nev., etc.=] this just misses being a very pretty plant, for the leaves are attractive, but the flowers are too small and too dull in color for the general effect to be good. the stems are about ten inches tall, purplish and downy, and the leaves are dull green and rather downy, with conspicuous veins. the buds are hairy and the flowers are lilac and crowded in coiled clusters, to which the long stamens give a very feathery appearance. this is found in the mountains, as far east as montana and colorado, and reaches an altitude of over twelve thousand feet. [sidenote: =wild heliotrope= _phacèlia crenulàta_ =lilac spring arizona=] this is a fine plant, from six to eighteen inches tall, with purplish stems and handsome coarse foliage, all rough, hairy, and very sticky. the flowers are lilac, with purple stamens and pistil, and the general effect is that of a large coarse heliotrope. the flowers have a pleasant scent, but the foliage has a strong and disagreeable smell, and it grows on the plateau in the grand canyon. [sidenote: =arizona phacelia= _phacèlia arizònica_ =white, mauve spring arizona=] a little desert plant, not very pretty, with several hairy flower-stalks, from three to six inches tall, springing from a rosette of soft thickish leaves, slightly hairy, dull green in color, and something the shape of the leaves of _p. fremontii_, but the lobes not nearly so small. the flowers are in tightly coiled clusters; the corolla a little more than a quarter of an inch across, dull white, with a pinkish line on each lobe and lilac anthers, the general effect being mauve. there are a good many kinds of nemophila, natives of north america, mostly californian, slender, fragile herbs, with alternate or opposite leaves, more or less divided, and usually large, single flowers, with rather long flower-stalks. the calyx has an appendage, resembling an extra little sepal, between each of the five sepals, which makes these plants easy to recognize, and the corolla is wheel-shaped or bell-shaped, usually with ten, small appendages within, at the base, and the petals are rolled up in the bud; the stamens are short; the styles partly united. the name is from the greek, meaning "grove lover," because these plants like the shade. [illustration: alpine phacelia--p. alpina. wild heliotrope--phacelia crenulata.] [illustration] [sidenote: =baby blue-eyes, mariana= _nemóphila insígnis_ =blue and white spring california=] these are exceedingly charming little plants, with slender, weak, hairy stems, varying a good deal in height, but usually low and spreading, and pretty, light green, soft, hairy foliage, sprinkled with many lovely flowers, an inch or more across, with hairy calyxes and sky-blue corollas, which are clear white in the center and more or less specked with brown, with ten hairy scales in the throat. the blue of their bright little faces is always wonderfully brilliant, but they are variable and are usually deeper in color and rather smaller in the south. this is one of the commonest kinds of nemophila in california and it is a general favorite. it is called mariana by the spanish californians. [sidenote: =baby blue-eyes= _nemóphila intermèdia_ =blue and white summer california=] this is much like the last, but it is a taller and more slender plant, usually about ten inches high. the lovely delicate flowers are less than an inch across, with light blue corollas, usually shading to white at the center and delicately veined with blue, or speckled with purple dots. this grows among the underbrush. [sidenote: =spotted nemophila= _nemóphila maculàta_ =white and purple summer california=] these are charming flowers, their corollas oddly and prettily marked. the weak, hairy stems, from three to twelve inches long, are usually spreading and the leaves are opposite, hairy, and light green. the flowers are about an inch across, with hairy calyxes and white corollas, which are prettily dotted with purple and usually have a distinct indigo spot at the tip of each petal, which gives an unusual effect. the filaments are lilac and the anthers and pistil are whitish. this is common in meadows around yosemite and in other places in the sierras at moderate altitudes. [illustration] [illustration: baby blue-eyes--nemophila intermedia.] [illustration: spotted nemophila--n. maculata. baby blue-eyes--nemophila insignis.] [illustration] [sidenote: =climbing nemophila= _nemóphila aurìta_ =purple summer california=] this is a straggling plant, with pretty delicate flowers, which suggest some sort of nightshade. the stems are pale, square, juicy and very brittle, from one to three feet long, and the leaves are bright green and most of them are alternate, with leafstalks which are winged and clasping at base. the backs of the leaves, and the stems and calyxes, are covered with hooked bristles, which enable the plant to climb over its neighbors and give it the feeling of bed-straw to the touch. the flowers are nearly an inch across, with purple corollas, shading to white in the center and paler outside, with purple scales in the throat and purple stamens. this is rather coarser than most nemophilas and grows in light shade on hillsides. there are several kinds of conanthus, low hairy herbs, with alternate, toothless leaves. the calyx and corolla are without appendages; the stamens are not protruding, and are unequal in length and unequally inserted in the tube of the corolla; the style is two-lobed and the capsule is roundish and contains from ten to twenty, smooth seeds. [sidenote: =conanthus= _conánthus aretioìdes_ =pink spring idaho, nev., ariz.=] this is a pretty little desert plant, spreading its branches flat on the ground and bearing tufts of grayish-green, very hairy foliage and a number of charming little flowers, which are three-eighths of an inch across, with very hairy calyxes and bright purplish-pink corollas, with a white and yellow "eye" and a long, slender, yellow tube, which is slightly hairy on the outside. the styles and anthers are of various lengths in different plants. these gay little flowers look very pretty on the dreary mesas around reno and suggest some sort of gilia. [illustration] [illustration: conanthus aretioides. climbing nemophila--n. aurita.] there are only two kinds of romanzoffia. [sidenote: =romanzoffia= _romanzóffia sitchénsis_ =white summer northwest, etc.=] this is a charming little perennial plant, which forms beautiful clumps of delicate foliage and flowers, suggesting some sort of saxifrage. the many, smooth, slender, pale green stems, from four to nine inches tall, spring from slender, threadlike rootstocks, bearing tubers, and the leaves are mostly from the root, smooth, bright green, and prettily scalloped, with long leaf-stalks. the flowers are in loose clusters and are each half an inch or more long, with a white corolla, which is without appendages inside and is exceedingly beautiful in texture, with yellow stamens, unequally inserted, and a long, threadlike style, with a small stigma. these little plants grow in moist, shady spots among the rocks, as far north as alaska and often reach very high altitudes, where it is a delight to find their pearly flowers and lovely foliage in some crevice in the cliffs watered by a glacier stream. these plants are found as far north as alaska and were named in honor of count romanzoff, who sent the kotzebue expedition to alaska. there are several kinds of emmenanthe, much like phacelia, but the stamens not protruding, and the corolla bell-shaped, cream-color or yellow, becoming papery in withering and not falling off, hence the greek name, meaning "lasting flower." [sidenote: =emmenanthe= _emmenánthe lùtea_ =yellow spring, summer idaho, nev., etc.=] a low plant, with many, downy branches, spreading almost flat on the ground, and small, thickish leaves, light dull green, and slightly downy. the flowers are rather more than a quarter of an inch across, with hairy calyxes, and bright yellow corollas, hairy outside, with ten little appendages inside, and grow in coiled clusters. the little flowers are gay and pretty and look bright and cheerful on the desert sands where they live. this is found as far east as oregon. [illustration: emmenanthe lutea. romanzoffia sitchensis.] [sidenote: =whispering bells= _emmenánthe penduliflòra_ =yellowish spring, summer southwest=] pretty plants, from eight to fourteen inches tall, with branching, hairy stems and light green, soft, downy leaves. the flowers are less than half an inch long, with pale yellow corollas, and are at first erect, but gradually droop until they hang gracefully on their very slender pedicels. they become dry and papery as they wither, but keep their form, and when the wind shakes their slender stems they respond with a faint rustling sound. this grows in dry places and is common in the south. in arizona it grows only in protected canyons. there are several kinds of hydrophyllum, perennial or biennial herbs, with fleshy running rootstocks and large, more or less divided leaves, mostly alternate. the corolla is bell-shaped, with a honey-gland at the base of each of the petals, which are rolled up in the bud. the filaments are hairy, the style two-cleft above, both stamens and style are generally long and protruding, and the ovary is one-celled and hairy, containing from one to four seeds. [sidenote: =cat's breeches, waterleaf= _hydrophýllum capitàtum_ =lilac spring northwest, utah=] this is a pretty plant, from six to twelve inches high, with a rather weak stem and conspicuous leaves, which are alternate, pale green, soft and downy, or hairy, with five or seven divisions, prettily lobed and cut, with rather prominent veins, and long, succulent, pinkish leafstalks, sheathing the stem. the flowers are rather small, with short pedicels, and a number are crowded together in roundish clusters, about an inch across, with almost no flower-stalk. the calyx is covered with white hairs, the corolla is lilac or white, somewhat hairy on the outside, and the stamens and style are long and conspicuous, sticking out like cats' whiskers and giving a pretty feathery appearance to the whole cluster, which becomes in fruit a conspicuous, very fuzzy, round head, covered with bristly white hairs, making the children's quaint common name for this plant quite appropriate. it grows in rich soil, in mountain woods, and is one of the earliest spring flowers. it is sometimes called bear's cabbage, but this name is far fetched, both as regards bears and cabbages! [illustration: cat's breeches--hydrophyllum capitatum. whispering bells--emmenanthe penduliflora.] there are several kinds of eriodictyon, shrubs, with alternate, toothed, leathery, evergreen leaves, which are netted-veined, generally green and smooth on the upper side and whitish and downy on the under, with leaf-stalks; the flowers in coiled clusters; the corolla more or less funnel-form or salver-form, without appendages in the tube; the stamens and the two distinct styles not protruding; the capsule small, with few seeds. the name is from the greek for "wool" and "net," in allusion to the netted wool on the under surface of the leaves. [sidenote: =yerba santa, mountain balm= _eriodíctyon califórnicum_ =white, lilac summer cal., oreg., wash.=] a branching shrub, from two to six feet high, with thickish leaves, with toothed or wavy margins, from two to six inches long, dark and shiny on the upper side, pale with close down and netted-veined on the underside. the flowers are not especially pretty, about half an inch long, with white, lilac, or purple corollas, and are slightly sweet scented. the leaves are strongly and pleasantly aromatic when they are crushed and were used medicinally by the indians, hence the spanish name, meaning "holy herb." cough-syrup is made from them and also substitutes for tobacco and hops. this grows on dry hills and is very variable, being sometimes a handsome shrub. there are intermediate forms between this and the next, _e. tomentosum_, which are difficult to distinguish. [sidenote: =woolly yerba santa= _eriodíctyon tomentòsum_ =lilac spring california=] a large leafy shrub, about five feet high and much handsomer than the last, with velvety, light green branches and very velvety, purplish twigs. the beautiful leaves are veined like chestnut leaves and made of the thickest, softest, sea-green or gray velvet, like a mullein leaf in texture, but much smoother and softer. the flowers are three-quarters of an inch long, with a pale pinkish-lilac corolla, shading to purple and white, downy on the outside, and form quite handsome clusters, mixed with pretty gray velvet buds, the lilac of the flowers harmonizing well with the gray foliage. this grows in quantities on point loma, and other places along the coast, from san diego to santa barbara. there are several similar varieties. [illustration: woolly yerba santa--e. tomentosum. yerba santa--eriodíctyon californicum.] borage family. _boraginaceae._ a large family, widely distributed, chiefly rough-hairy herbs, without stipules; usually with alternate, toothless leaves; flowers usually in coiled, one-sided clusters; calyx usually with five sepals; corolla usually symmetrical, with five united petals, often with crests or appendages in the throat; stamens five, inserted in the tube of the corolla, alternate with its lobes; ovary superior, with a single, sometimes two-cleft, style, and usually deeply four-lobed, like that of the mint family, forming in fruit four seed-like nutlets. mature fruit is necessary to distinguish the different kinds. these plants superficially resemble some of the waterleaf family, but the four lobes of the ovary are conspicuous. there are many kinds of lappula, chiefly of the north-temperate zone; leaves narrow; corolla blue or white, salver-form or funnel-form, with a very short tube, the throat closed by five short scales, the stamens, with short filaments, hidden in the tube; ovary deeply four-lobed; style short; nutlets armed with barbed prickles, forming burs, giving the common name, stickseed, and the latin name, derived from "bur." some of them resemble forget-me-nots, but are not true myosotis. [sidenote: =white forget-me-not= _láppula subdecúmbens_ =white spring, summer northwest=] though the foliage is harsh, this plant is so graceful and has such pretty flowers that it is most attractive. it is from ten to eighteen inches tall, with several yellowish, hairy stems, springing from a perennial root and a cluster of root-leaves, the stem-leaves more or less clasping at base, all bluish-green, covered with pale hairs, with prominent veins on the back and sparse bristles along the edges. the flowers form handsome, large, loose clusters and the hairy buds are tightly coiled. the calyx is hairy, with blunt lobes, and the corolla, about half an inch across, is pure white, or tinged with blue, often marked with blue, with two ridges on the base of each petal, and the throat closed by five yellow crests, surrounded by a ring of fuzzy white down. this grows on dry plains and hillsides, sometimes making large clumps. [illustration: white forget-me-not--lappula subdecumbens.] [sidenote: =wild forget-me-not= _láppula velùtina_ =blue summer california=] beautiful flowers, resembling true forget-me-nots, but larger, with velvety, often reddish stems, from one to two feet tall, velvety leaves, and flowers in handsome, loose, somewhat coiling clusters. the corolla is about half an inch across, sky-blue, the most brilliant blue of any flower in yosemite, with five, white, heart-shaped crests in the throat; the buds pink. this is rather common in the sierra nevada at moderate altitudes. _l. nervòsa_, of high altitudes, is similar, but with smaller flowers, the leaves rough-hairy, but green. this has very prickly nutlets, which stick in the wool of sheep and are dreaded by shepherds. _l. floribúnda_, also growing in the mountains of california and oregon, has similar, small, blue flowers, sometimes pink, and hairy, gray foliage. _l. califórnica_, of the northern sierra nevada mountains, has small white flowers. there are many kinds of lithospermum, chiefly of the northern hemisphere; with reddish, woody roots, hairy leaves, without leaf-stalks, and flowers crowded in clusters, mixed with leaves and leafy bracts; corolla funnel-form or salver-form, the throat often hairy or crested; stamens with short filaments, not protruding from the throat of the corolla; ovary four-lobed, with a slender style, stigma with a round head or two lobes; nutlets usually white and smooth. the greek name means "stony seed." puccoon is the indian name, and these plants are also called gromwell, and sometimes indian dye-stuff, because the indians made dye from the roots, which yield a beautiful delicate purple color. [sidenote: =hairy puccoon= _lithospérmum pilòsum_ =yellow spring, summer northwest, utah, etc.=] a rather pretty plant, about a foot tall, with several, stout, yellowish-green stems, covered with white hairs and very leafy, springing from a thick perennial root. the leaves are bluish-gray green and downy, harsh on the under side, and the flowers are numerous and pleasantly scented, with a very hairy calyx and a salver-form corolla, about three-eighths of an inch across, silky outside, the throat downy inside, but without crests. the flowers are yellow, an unusual shade of pale corn-color, and harmonize with the pale foliage, but are not conspicuous, and the flower cluster is so crowded with leaves and leafy bracts that it is not effective. this grows in dry fields, as far east as nebraska, and sometimes makes pretty little bushes, over two feet across. [illustration: hairy puccoon--lithospermum pilosum. wild forget-me-not--lappula velutina.] [sidenote: =pretty puccoon= _lithospérmum angustifòlium_ =yellow spring west, etc.=] these are pretty flowers, but have a disagreeable smell. they are perennials, with a deep root and hairy or downy, branching stems, from six inches to two feet high, and hairy or downy leaves, which are rather grayish green. the flowers are in terminal leafy clusters and are of two sorts. the corollas of the earlier ones are very pretty, clear bright yellow, sometimes nearly an inch and a half long, with toothed lobes, which are charmingly ruffled at the edges, and with crests in the throat, but the later flowers are small, pale, and inconspicuous. this grows in dry places, especially on the prairies, and is very widely distributed in the western and west central states. [sidenote: =gromwell= _lithospérmum multiflòrum_ =yellow summer ariz., utah, etc.=] this has a rough, hairy stem, about a foot tall, and dull green, rough, hairy leaves, with bristles along the edges. the yellow flowers are half an inch long and form rather pretty coiled clusters. this grows in open woods at the grand canyon, and is found as far east as new mexico and colorado. there are a good many kinds of amsinckia, natives of the western part of our country and of mexico and south america. they are rather difficult to distinguish, rough, hairy or bristly, annual herbs, the bristles usually from a raised base, and with yellow flowers, in curved, rather showy, clusters. the corolla is more or less salver-form, without crests, but with folds; the stamens and pistil not protruding, the stigma two-lobed. in order to insure cross pollination by insects, in some kinds the flowers are of two types, as concerns the insertion of the stamens on the corolla and the length of the style. several of these plants are valuable in arizona for early spring stock feed, and the leaves of young plants are eaten by the pima indians for greens and salads. [illustration: pretty puccoon--lithospermum angustifolium. gromwell--l. multiflorum.] [sidenote: =saccato gordo, fiddle-neck, buckthorn weed= _amsínckia inlermèdia_ =yellow spring, summer west=] this has bright flowers, but the foliage is dreadfully harsh. the stem is from one to three feet tall, often widely branching, with white bristles scattered over it, and the leaves are dull green and bristly. the flowers are pretty, about half an inch long, with narrow sepals and bright orange corollas, with five bright red spots between the lobes. the nutlets are roughened with short, hard points. these plants are very common and sometimes form rank thickets in fields and waste places. they are very abundant in southern arizona and are valued as a grazing plant for stock and are therefore known as saccato gordo, which means "fat grass." there are many kinds of cryptanthe, most of them western and difficult to distinguish. they are slender, hairy plants, with small flowers, which are usually white, in coiled clusters; the calyx bristly; the corolla funnel-form, usually with five crests closing the throat; the nutlets never wrinkled. these plants resemble white forget-me-nots and are sometimes so called. the greek name means "hidden flower," perhaps because of the minute flowers of some kinds. [sidenote: =nievitas= _cryptánthe intermèdia_ =white spring cal., ariz.=] a rather attractive little plant, but inconspicuous except when it grows in patches, when it powders the fields with white, like a light fall of snow, and suggests the pretty spanish name, which is a diminutive of "nieve," or snow. the slender, roughish stem is about ten inches tall, the light green leaves are hairy, with fine bristles along the edges, and the pretty little flowers are white, about a quarter of an inch across, with yellow crests in the throat. popcorn flower, _plagiobòthrys nothofúlvus_, of the northwest, is also called nievitas, as it often whitens the ground with its small, fragrant, white flowers, which are very much like the last. [illustration: nievitas--cryptanthe intermedia. saccato gordo--amsinckia intermedia.] there are a good many kinds of mertensia, natives of the northern hemisphere. they are handsome perennials, never very hairy and sometimes perfectly smooth all over, with leafy stems and broad leaves, sometimes dotted, the lower ones with leaf-stalks. the pretty, nodding flowers are in clusters and have a purple, blue, or white corolla, often turning pink, more or less trumpet-shaped, the lobes not spreading much, the throat open, with or without crests; the ovary deeply four-lobed, with a threadlike style and one stigma; the nutlets wrinkled. these plants are all commonly called lungwort. [sidenote: =languid lady, lungwort= _merténsia sibírica_ =blue summer northwest=] a very attractive and graceful mountain plant, with pretty flowers and fine foliage. the stems are hollow and usually smooth, from one to five feet tall, and the leaves are rather thin and soft in texture, usually smooth, with a "bloom." the flowers are in handsome loose clusters, most of them drooping, and have a corolla over half an inch long, which is a beautiful shade of bright light blue, often tinged with pink, with white crests in the throat, and the style is long and protruding. the buds are bright pink, contrasting well with the blue flowers. this grows near streams, in the higher mountains. it is often called mountain bluebell, but that name belongs to campanula and is therefore misleading. (this has recently been "separated" into several species.) [sidenote: =lungwort= _merténsia brevístyla_ =blue spring, summer utah, col., wyo.=] this is an attractive plant and looks a good deal like a forget-me-not. it grows from four to ten inches tall and has dull bluish-green leaves, which are downy on the upper side and smooth on the under, and graceful clusters of pretty little flowers. the buds are pinkish-purple and the flowers are small, with hairy calyxes and brilliant sky-blue corollas, the stamens and style not protruding. this grows in mountain canyons, up to an altitude of seven thousand feet. [illustration: mertensia--m. brevistyla. languid lady--mertensia sibirica.] there are many kinds of heliotrope, widely distributed in temperate and tropical regions; ours have small, white or blue flowers, in coiled spikes; the corolla salver-form or funnel-form, without crests or hairs; the stamens not protruding, the filaments short or none, the anthers sometimes joined by their pointed tips; the ovary not four-lobed, but sometimes grooved, with a short style, the stigma cone-shaped or round. [sidenote: =sea-side heliotrope, chinese pusley= _heliotròpium curassávicum_ =white summer, autumn cal., oreg., etc.=] this is not a pretty plant and is rather insignificant because of its dull coloring. it forms low, branching, straggling clumps, with thickish stems and leaves, which are succulent and perfectly smooth, with a "bloom," and the flowers are small, the corolla white or pale lilac, with a yellow "eye" which changes to purple, forming crowded coiled spikes, mostly in pairs, without bracts. the fruit consists of four nutlets. this is widely distributed, in moist, salty or alkaline places, growing also in the east and in south america and the old world. there are several kinds of oreocarya, natives of western north america and mexico, coarse, hairy, perennial or biennial herbs, with thick woody roots; the leaves narrow, alternate or from the root; the flowers small, mostly white, in clusters, with a funnel-form or salver-form corolla, usually with crests and folds in the throat; the stamens not protruding; the style usually short. the name is from the greek, meaning "mountain-nut," which does not seem very appropriate. [sidenote: =oreocarya= _oreocàrya multicàulis_ =white spring ariz., utah, etc.=] a rather pretty plant, about six inches tall, not rough and harsh like most kinds of oreocarya, for the pale grayish-green stem and leaves are covered with white down. the flowers are quite pretty, about three-eighths of an inch across, with white corollas, with yellow crests in the throat. this is found as far east as southern colorado and new mexico. _o. setosíssima_ is quite tall, growing in the grand canyon, and has a large cluster of small white flowers and is harsh and hairy all over, covered with such long stiff white hairs as to make it conspicuous and very unpleasant to touch. [illustration: chinese pusley--heliotropium curassavicum. oreocarya multicaulis.] verbena family. _verbenaceae._ a large family, widely distributed; herbs and shrubs; leaves opposite, or in whorls; flowers perfect, in clusters; calyx with four or five lobes or teeth; corolla with four or five united lobes, almost regular or two-lipped; stamens on the corolla, usually four, in two sets; ovary superior, with one style and one or two stigmas, when ripe separating into from two to four, one-seeded nutlets. there are many kinds of verbena, chiefly american; perennials; calyx tubular, with five teeth; corolla usually salver-form, with five lobes, usually slightly two-lipped; stigmas with two lobes, only the larger lobe fertile; fruit four nutlets. this is the latin name of some sacred plant. [sidenote: =wild verbena= _verbèna arizònica_ =lilac spring arizona=] this is very much like a garden verbena, an attractive little plant, from four to six inches tall, with hairy stems and prettily shaped leaves, dull green, soft and hairy. the gay little flowers are about half an inch across, with a bright pinkish-lilac corolla, with a white or yellowish "eye," and a sticky-hairy calyx, and form a charming flat-topped cluster. this grows among the rocks, above the desert laboratory at tucson and in similar places. [sidenote: =common vervain= _verbèna prostràta_ =lilac spring, summer, autumn california=] a loosely-branching plant, from one to two feet tall, with dull green, hairy stems, dull green, soft, hairy leaves, and very small flowers in a long spike, too few open at one time to be effective. the corolla is lilac or bluish, often with a magenta tube and magenta "eye." this grows in dry open hill country. mint family. _labiatae._ a very large family, with distinctive characteristics; widely distributed. ours are herbs or low shrubs, generally aromatic, with usually square and hollow stems; leaves opposite, with no stipules; flowers perfect, irregular, in clusters, usually with bracts; calyx usually five-toothed, frequently two-lipped; corolla more or less two-lipped, upper lip usually with two lobes, lower lip with three; stamens usually four, in pairs, on the corolla-tube, alternate with its lobes; ovary superior, with four lobes, separating when ripe into four, small, smooth, one-seeded nutlets, surrounding the base of the two-lobed style, like the four nutlets of the borage family, but the flowers of the latter are regular. these plants are used medicinally and include many herbs used for seasoning, such as sage, thyme, etc. [illustration: wild verbena--v. arizonica. common vervain--verbena prostrata.] there are a few kinds of micromeria; trailing perennials; flowers small; calyx tubular, with five teeth; corolla two-lipped, with a straight tube; stamens four, all with anthers, not protruding. the greek name means "small." [sidenote: =yerba buena, tea-vine= _micromèria chamissónis (m. douglasii)_ =lilac, white spring, summer cal., oreg., wash.=] an attractive little plant, resembling the little eastern gill-over-the-ground, with slender trailing stems, slightly downy foliage, and lilac or whitish flowers, about a quarter of an inch long. the calyx and corolla are hairy on the outside; the corolla has an erect upper lip, sometimes notched, and a spreading, three-lobed lower lip, and the stamens are four, the lower pair shorter. this is common in shady places near the coast. it has a pleasant aromatic fragrance and was used medicinally by california indians, so it was called "good herb" by the mission fathers, and is still used as a tea by spanish-californians, who call it yerba buena del campo, "field herb," distinguishing it from yerba buena del poso, "herb of the well," the garden mint. there are several kinds of monardella, fragrant herbs, all western, chiefly californian; leaves mostly toothless; flowers small, in terminal heads, on long flower-stalks, with bracts, which are often colored; calyx tubular, with five, nearly equal teeth; corolla with erect upper lip, two-cleft, lower lip with three, nearly equal lobes; stamens four, protruding, sometimes the lower pair longer. [sidenote: =western pennyroyal, mustang mint= _monardélla lanceolàta_ =lilac summer california=] an attractive plant, pretty in color and form, with purplish, often branching stems, from six inches to over two feet high, smooth leaves, and small bright pinkish-lilac flowers, crowded in terminal heads, about an inch across, with purplish bracts. the outer ring of flowers blooms first and surrounds a knob of small green buds, so that the effect of the whole flower-head slightly suggests a thistle. this has a strong, pleasant smell like pennyroyal and is abundant in yosemite, and elsewhere in the sierra nevada foothills. [illustration: yerba buena--micromeria chamissonis. mustang mint--monardella lanceolata.] there are several kinds of ramona, abundant in southern california; shrubby plants, with wrinkled leaves and flowers like those of salvia, except for differences in the filaments; stamens two. they are very important honey-plants, commonly called sage, and by some botanists considered to be a species of salvia. [sidenote: =desert ramona= _ramòna incàna (audibertia)_ =blue spring southwest=] a low desert shrub, from two to three feet high, varying very much in color. on the plateau in the grand canyon it is delicate and unusual in coloring, with pale gray, woody stems and branches and small, stiffish, gray-green, toothless leaves, covered with white down. the small flowers are bright blue, projecting from close whorls of variously tinted bracts, and have long stamens, protruding from the corolla-tube, with blue filaments and yellow anthers, and a blue style. the bracts are sometimes lilac, sometimes pale blue, or cream-color, but always form delicate pastelle shades, peculiar yet harmonizing in tone with the vivid blue of the flowers and with the pale foliage. this is strongly aromatic when crushed. in the mohave desert it is exceedingly handsome, but the coloring is often less peculiar, as the foliage is not quite so pale as in other places, such as the grand canyon, and the flowers vary from blue to lilac or white. it blooms in spring and when its clumps of purple are contrasted with some of the yellow desert flowers, clustered about the feet of the dark joshua trees which grow around hesperia, the effect is very fine. [sidenote: =humming-bird sage= _ramòna grandiflòra (audibertia)_ =red spring california=] this is a handsome and very decorative plant, though rather coarse and sticky, with a stout, bronze-colored stem, which is woody at base, from two to three feet tall, and velvety, wrinkled leaves, from three to eight inches long, with scalloped edges and white with down on the under side. the flowers are an inch and a half long, with crimson corollas of various fine shades, which project from the crowded whorls of broad, bronze or purplish bracts, arranged in tiers along the stem. sometimes there are as many as nine of these clusters and the effect of the whole is dark and very rich, especially in shady places. this is common in the hills, from san francisco south. humming-birds are supposed to be its only visitors. [illustration: ramona incana.] [illustration: humming-bird sage--ramona grandiflora.] [sidenote: =white ball sage= _ramòna nívea (audibertia)_ =lilac spring california=] a very conspicuous, shrubby plant, much handsomer than black sage, from three to six feet high, with many, downy, stout, leafy stems, woody below, forming enormous clumps of pale foliage. the leaves are covered with pale down and are a delicate shade of sage-green and feel like soft thick velvet, and the mauve or lilac flowers, about three-quarters of an inch long, are arranged in a series of very round, compact balls along the stiff stalks. this is a honey-plant and smells strong of sage, and is common in the south, giving a beautiful effect of mingled mauve and gray. [sidenote: =white sage= _ramòna polystàchya (audibertia), (salvia apiana)_ =white, lilac spring california=] not so handsome as the last, but a very conspicuous plant, on account of its size and the pale tint of its foliage, though the flowers are too dull in color to be striking. it is shrubby and has a number of stems, which form a loose clump from three to six feet high, with rather leathery, resinous leaves, all but the upper ones with scalloped edges, and the whole plant is covered with fine white down, so that the general effect is pale gray, blending with the white or pale lilac flowers and purplish buds. the flowers are about half an inch long and are very queer in form, for the only conspicuous part is the lower lip, which is very broad with a ruffled edge and is turned straight up and backward, so as to conceal almost all the rest of the flower. the long jointed stamens, which are borne on the lower lip, stand out awkwardly like horns and from one side of the flower's face a long white pistil sticks out, with something the effect of a very long cigar hanging out of the corner of its mouth! all these eccentric arrangements are apparently for the purpose of securing cross-pollination from the bees, which frequent these flowers by the thousand, as this is a famous bee-plant and the white honey made from it is peculiarly delicious. it grows abundantly in valleys and on hillsides, from santa barbara to san diego, and has a very strong disagreeable smell. [illustration: white ball sage--ramona nivea. white sage--r. polystachya.] [sidenote: =black sage, ball sage= _ramòna stachyoìdes (audibertia)_ =lilac, white spring california=] a conspicuous shrubby plant, from three to six feet high, with stiffish leaves, which are downy on the under side, wrinkled on the upper, and grayish-green and downy when young, but become smoother and dark green as they grow older. the flowers are pale lilac or white, half an inch long, and the calyx-lobes and bracts are tipped with bristles. the compact flower clusters, usually about five in number and rather small, are arranged in tiers on long slender stalks, which stand up stiffly all over the bush. this is common on southern hillsides, often forming dense thickets for long distances, smells strong of sage and is an important bee-plant. there are several kinds of hyptis, very abundant in south america and mexico, but only a few reaching the southwestern border of our country; the calyx with five almost equal teeth; the corolla short, the lower lip sac-shaped and abruptly turned back, the other four lobes nearly equal and flat; the stamens four, included in the sac of the lower lobe. [sidenote: =hyptis= _hýptis Émoryi_ =purple spring arizona=] a shrub, from three to five feet high, with very pale, roundish, woody stems and branches and small, very pale gray leaves, thickish and soft, covered with white woolly down. the little fragrant, bluish-purple flowers, with white woolly calyxes, are crowded in close clusters about an inch long. only a few flowers are out at one time and they are too small to be pretty, but the effect of the shrub as a whole is rather conspicuous and attractive, on account of its delicate coloring, the lilac of the flower-clusters harmonizing with the gray foliage, which gives out a very strong smell of sage when crushed. this grows among the rocks above the desert laboratory at tucson and in similar places, blooming in early spring and much visited by bees. [illustration: black sage--ramona stachyoides. hyptis--emoryi.] [sidenote: =self-heal= _prunélla vulgàris_ =purple spring, summer, autumn across the continent=] there are several kinds of prunella, widely distributed, but this is the only one common in this country and is probably not native. it is abundant in dampish places, in the far west often staying green all winter, a perennial, sometimes hairy, from two inches to over a foot high. the leaves, often obscurely toothed, have leaf-stalks and the small flowers are crowded in a series of whorls, with purplish bracts and forming a spike or head. the calyx is two-lipped, with five teeth and often purplish, and the corolla is purple, pink, or occasionally white, with an arched upper lip, a spreading, three-lobed lower lip, and four stamens, under the upper lip of the corolla, the lower pair longer. this is usually not pretty, but in favorable situations in the west is often handsome, with brighter-colored, larger flowers. the name, often spelled brunella, is said to be derived from an old german word for an affection of the throat, which this plant was supposed to cure. there is a picture in mr. mathews' _field book_. there are many kinds of stachys, widely distributed; herbs, often hairy, with a disagreeable smell; the calyx with five, nearly equal teeth; the corolla with a narrow tube, the upper lip erect, the lower lip spreading and three-lobed, the middle lobe longest; the stamens four, in pairs, usually under the upper lip of the corolla. [sidenote: =hedge nettle= _stàchys ciliàta_ =magenta spring, summer northwest=] this is a handsome plant, with a stout, rough, hairy stem, over two feet tall, and very bright green leaves, which are thin in texture but velvety. the flowers are in whorls, making a large cluster, and have a purplish calyx, smooth or with a few stiff hairs, and a corolla about an inch long, deep pink or magenta, sometimes spotted with white inside. though the flowers are rather crude in color, they contrast finely with the bright green foliage. _s. coccínea_ is a very handsome kind, with a tubular scarlet corolla, and grows in the mountain canyons of arizona. [illustration: hedge nettle stachys ciliata.] [sidenote: =common hedge nettle= _stàchys bullàta_ =pink, purple spring, summer wash., oreg., cal.=] this is common and varies in appearance, being often a coarse-looking weed, but sometimes the flowers are pretty. the rough, hairy stem is about a foot tall, the wrinkled leaves are soft and more or less hairy, and the flowers are about half an inch long, usually pale purplish-pink or purple, streaked and specked with deeper color, but are sometimes bright pink and then the long clusters are quite effective, growing in the road-side hedges. the plant is aromatic when crushed. there are many kinds of scutellaria, widely distributed; bitter herbs, some shrubby, with blue or lilac flowers; the calyx with two lips, the upper one with a protuberance on its back; the corolla smooth inside, the upper lip arched, sometimes notched, the lower lip more or less three-lobed; the stamens four, under the lip, all with anthers, the upper pair hairy. the curious helmet-shaped calyx, in which the seeds are generally enclosed at maturity, suggests the common names, skullcap and helmet-flower. [sidenote: =skullcap= _scutellària angustifòlia_ =blue spring, summer cal., oreg., wash.=] a pleasing plant, from six inches to over a foot tall, not aromatic, with almost smooth leaves, most of them toothless. the flowers are pretty, though not striking, in pairs from the angles of the leaves, with a purplish-blue corolla, nearly an inch long, with a white tube, the lower lip woolly inside. the calyx is curiously shaped and after the flower drops off resembles a tiny green bonnet. when these little calyxes are pinched from the sides they open their mouths and show the seeds inside. this is quite common throughout the sierras. _s. antirrhinoìdes_ is similar, growing in utah and the northwest. _s. califórnica_ has cream-white flowers, less than an inch long, the lower lip hairy inside, and downy leaves, narrow at base, the lower leaves purplish on the under side and more or less toothed, the upper ones toothless. it grows in open woods in the coast ranges and sierra nevada mountains. _s. tuberòsa_ is from three to five inches high, with tuberous rootstocks; the leaves more or less oval, downy, thin in texture, with a few teeth, the lower ones purplish on the under side, with long leaf-stalks, the flowers dark blue, about three-quarters of an inch long, each pair, instead of standing out at opposite sides of the stem, generally turn sociably together, first to one side and then to the other. this blooms in spring and grows in the coast ranges of california and oregon. [illustration: common hedge nettle--stachys bullata. skullcap--scutellaria angustifolia.] [illustration] [sidenote: =bladder-bush= _salazària mexicàna_ =blue and white spring southwest=] this is the only kind, a very curious spiny desert shrub, about three feet high, varying a great deal in general appearance in different situations. the stems and foliage are gray-green and imperceptibly downy and the flowers are over three-quarters of an inch long, with a corolla which is hairy outside and has a lilac and white upper lip and a dark blue lower one. the calyxes become inflated and form very curious papery globes, over half an inch in diameter, very pale in color, tinged with yellow, pink, or lilac, and extremely conspicuous. in the desert around needles, in california, the general form of the shrub is very loose and straggling, with slender twisting branches and small, pale gray-green leaves, both flowers and leaves very scanty and far apart, so that the bunches of bladder-like pods are exceedingly conspicuous. in the mohave desert it becomes a remarkably dense shrub, a mass of dry-looking, criss-cross, tangled branches, spiky twigs, and dull green leaves, speckled all over with the dark blue and white flowers and the twigs crowded with pods. sometimes the flowers are magenta instead of blue, but are all alike on one bush. the stems are not square, as in most mints. the drawing is of a plant at needles. [illustration] [illustration: bladder-bush--salazaria mexicana.] there are only a few kinds of sphacele. [sidenote: =pitcher sage, wood-balm= _sphácele calycìna_ =white spring, summer california=] this is a rather handsome shrubby plant, from two to five feet high, woody at base, with many stout, leafy, woolly or hairy stems, and rather coarse leaves, hairy, more or less wrinkled and toothed, and rather dark green. the flowers are over an inch long, in pairs along the upper stem, something the shape of a monkey-flower, with a five-toothed calyx and a corolla with four, short, spreading lobes and the fifth lobe much longer and erect, the tube broad and dull-white, with a hairy ring at the base inside, the lobes tinged with pink or purple; the stamens four, one pair shorter. after the flowers have faded the large, pale green, inflated calyxes, veined with dull purple, become conspicuous. if the flowers were brighter in color this would be very handsome. it is strongly but rather pleasantly aromatic and grows on dry hills in southern california. the name is from the greek, meaning "sage," as these plants have sage-like foliage and smell, but the flowers are quite different. there are several kinds of salvia, widely distributed, herbs or shrubs; flowers usually in whorls, with bracts; upper lip of the corolla erect, seldom two-lobed, lower lip spreading and three-lobed; resembling ramona, except that the two stamens have filaments which are apparently two-forked, one fork bearing an anther cell and the other only the mere rudiment of an anther; the smooth nutlets are mucilaginous when wet. the latin name means "to save," as some kinds are medicinal. [sidenote: =thistle sage, persian prince= _sálvia carduàcea_ =lilac spring, summer california=] a fantastically beautiful and decorative plant, very individual in character. the stout purplish stem, a foot or two tall and covered with white wool, springs from a rosette of thistle-like leaves of palest green, so thickly covered with cushions of white wool that they appear to be inflated, their teeth tipped with brown spines. the stem bears a series of flower-clusters, resembling large, round, pale balls of wool, pierced here and there by long prickles and encircled by lovely flowers, so etherial that they appear almost to hover in the air. they are each about an inch long, the corolla clear bright lilac with an erect upper lip with two lobes, their fringed tips crossed one over the other, and the lower lip with small side lobes and a very large, fan-shaped, middle lobe, which is delicately fringed with white. the pistil is purple and the anthers are bright orange, which gives a piquant touch to the whole color scheme of pale green and lilac. there are several tiers of these soft yet prickly balls, which suggest the pale green turbans of an eastern potentate, wreathed with flowers. the buds poke their little noses through the wool, in a most fascinating way, like babies coming out of a woolly blanket, and fresh buds keep on coming through and expanding as the faded blossoms fall, so that these flowers last longer in water than we would expect from their fragile appearance. the plants when they are crushed give out a rather heavy smell of sage, with a dash of lemon verbena. they grow on the dry open plains of the south. [illustration: thistle sage--salvia carduacea.] [illustration: pitcher sage--sphacele calycina.] [illustration] [sidenote: =chia= _sálvia columbàriae_ =blue spring southwest=] this is an odd-looking plant, but is often quite handsome. the stout purplish stem, from six inches to over two feet tall, springs from a cluster of rough, very dull green leaves, sometimes so wrinkled as to look like the back of a toad, and bears a series of round, button-like heads, consisting of numerous, purple, bristly bracts, ornamented with small, very bright blue flowers. though the flowers are small, the contrast between their vivid coloring and the purple or wine-colored bracts is very effective. the seeds have been for centuries an important food product among the aborigines and this plant in ancient mexico was cultivated as regularly as corn, the meal being extremely nourishing and resembling linseed meal. the mission fathers used it for poultices and it is still in demand among the spanish-californians. this grows on dry hillsides and smells of sage. [illustration] [illustration: chia--salvia columbariae.] there are several kinds of trichostema, all north american; herbs, sometimes shrubby; leaves toothless, or with wavy margins; flowers in clusters; calyx usually with five unequal lobes; corolla with a long slender tube and five oblong lobes nearly alike, forming in bud a roundish ball, enclosing the coiled stamens; stamens four, the upper pair longer, with very long, blue or purple filaments, conspicuously protruding from the corolla, suggesting both the greek name, meaning "hair-like stamens," and the common name, blue-curls. [sidenote: =romero, woolly blue-curls= _trichostèma lanàtum_ =blue summer, autumn california=] this is shrubby and usually has many stems, from two to four feet high, with stiffish leaves, dark green on the upper side, paler and woolly on the under, the margins rolled back, and beautiful flower-clusters, which are sometimes a foot long. the bright blue corolla is nearly an inch long, with a border shaped like a violet, the smaller buds are pink, and the purple stamens and style are two inches long and very conspicuous. the calyxes, stems, and buds are all covered with fuzzy, pink wool, forming a most unusual and beautiful color scheme, giving a changeable almost iridescent effect of mauve and pink, in remarkable contrast to the brilliant blue of the flowers. this grows on rocky hills in southern california, is pleasantly aromatic and used medicinally by spanish-californians. _t. lanceolàtum_ is called camphor weed, because of its strong odor, like camphor but exceedingly unpleasant. it grows on dry plains and low hills in the northwest and is an important bee-plant, blooming in summer and autumn, and is also called vinegar weed. there are a few kinds of agastache, all north american, perennial herbs, mostly tall and coarse; leaves toothed, with leaf-stalks; flowers small, in a terminal spike, with bracts; calyx bell-shaped, with five teeth and slightly two-lipped; corolla with a two-lobed, erect, upper lip, the lower lip spreading and three-lobed, the middle lobe broader and scalloped; stamens four, all with anthers, the upper pair longer; nutlets smooth. the greek name means "many spikes." [illustration: romero--trichostema lanatum.] [sidenote: =giant hyssop= _agástache urticifòlia (lophanthus)_ =pink summer west, etc.=] a handsome plant, from three to five feet high, with stout, branching stems, usually smooth, sometimes hairy, and smoothish, dark green leaves. the small flowers have a green calyx, with mauve teeth, a white or pale violet corolla, and long, protruding stamens, with lilac anthers. they are crowded in spikes, from two to six inches long, and the whole effect is rather bright purplish-pink, feathery and pretty. this has a strong aromatic smell and grows along the edges of meadows and is abundant in yosemite at moderate altitudes, but in other places reaches an altitude of over eight thousand feet and is found as far east as colorado. _a. pallidiflòra_, with greenish-white calyxes and white corollas, too dull in color to be pretty, grows in the grand canyon and in new mexico and colorado. there are several kinds of monarda, all north american; aromatic herbs; leaves toothed; flowers crowded in heads, usually with bracts, which are sometimes colored; calyx tubular, with five teeth, often hairy inside; corolla more or less hairy outside, two-lipped, upper lip erect or arched, sometimes notched, lower lip spreading and three-lobed, the middle lobe larger; stamens two, with swinging anthers, sometimes also two rudimentary stamens; nutlets smooth. these plants are called balm, bergamot, and horse-mint. [sidenote: =horse-mint= _monàrda pectinàta (m. citriodora in part)_ =pink summer ariz., utah, etc.=] this is handsome when growing in masses, though the flowers are not sufficiently positive in color. it grows from one to three feet high, with a stout, roughish stem, sometimes branching, and leaves which are thin and soft in texture, with a dull surface, but not rough, and more or less toothed. the flowers are nearly an inch long and project from crowded heads of conspicuous purplish bracts, tipped with bristles. the calyx is very hairy inside, the lobes tipped with long bristles, and the corolla is pale pink, lilac, or almost white, not spotted, with a very wide open, yawning mouth, the stamens and the curling tips of the pistil protruding from under the upper lip. this grows on dry plains, especially in sandy soil, as far east as colorado and texas, reaching an altitude of six thousand feet, and is strongly aromatic when crushed. [illustration: giant hyssop--agastache urticifolia. horse-mint--monarda pectinata.] potato family. _solanaceae._ a large family, widely distributed, most abundant in the tropics. ours are herbs, shrubs, or vines; leaves alternate, without stipules; flowers perfect, usually regular, in clusters; calyx and corolla usually with five united lobes; stamens on the throat of the corolla, as many as its lobes and alternate with them; ovary superior, two-celled, with a slender style; fruit a berry or capsule, with many seeds. many important plants, such as tobacco, belladonna, tomato, egg-plant, red-pepper, and potato, belong to this family. many have a strong odor. there are several kinds of datura, widely distributed; ours are chiefly weeds, coarse, tall, branching herbs, with rank odor and narcotic properties; leaves large, toothed or lobed, with leaf-stalks; flowers large, single, erect, with short stalks, in the forks of the stems; calyx with a long tube and five teeth, the lower part remaining in the form of a collar or rim around the base of the capsule; corolla funnel-form, with a plaited border and broad lobes with pointed tips; stamens with very long, threadlike filaments, but not protruding; style threadlike, with a two-lipped stigma; fruit a large, roundish, usually prickly capsule, giving these plants the common name, thorn-apple. datura is the hindoo name. [sidenote: =tolguacha, large-flowered datura= _datùra meteloìdes_ =white spring, summer southwest, nev., utah=] a handsome and exceedingly conspicuous plant, forming a large clump of rather coarse, dark foliage, adorned with many magnificent flowers. the stout, velvety stems are bronze-color, from two to four feet high, the leaves are dark green, velvety on the under side, and the flowers are sometimes ten inches long, white, tinged with lilac outside, drooping like wet tissue-paper in the heat of the afternoon, and with sweet though heavy scent. i remember seeing a grave in the desert, marked by a wooden cross and separated from a vast waste of sand by clumps of these great white flowers. it grows in valley lands, reaching an altitude of six thousand feet. it is used as a narcotic by the indians and resembles _d. stramònium_, jimson-weed, from asia, common in the east and found also in the west, but it is far handsomer. _d. suaveòlens_, floriponda or angels' trumpets, is a large shrub, with very large, pendulous, creamy flowers, and is often cultivated in the old mission gardens in california. the flowers are very fragrant at night. [illustration: tolguacha--datura meteloides.] there are many kinds of physalis, most of them american, difficult to distinguish; herbs, often slightly woody below; flowers whitish or yellowish; corolla more or less bell-shaped, with a plaited border; style slender, somewhat bent, with a minutely two-cleft stigma. in fruit the calyx becomes large and inflated, papery, angled and ribbed, wholly enclosing the pulpy berry, which contains numerous, flat, kidney-shaped seeds. the name is from the greek, meaning "bladder," and refers to the inflated calyx, and the common names, ground-cherry and strawberry-tomato, are suggested by the fruit, which is juicy, often red or yellow, and in some kinds is edible. [sidenote: =ground-cherry= _phýsalis crassifòlia_ =yellow southwest=] a pretty, delicate, desert plant, from six to eight inches high, with branching stems and light green leaves. it is sprinkled with pretty cream-yellow flowers, which are not spotted or dark in the center, with yellow anthers, and is hung with odd little green globes, each about three-quarters of an inch long, which are the inflated calyxes containing the berries. [sidenote: =bladder-cherry= _phsýalis féndleri_ =yellow summer ariz., utah=] a straggling perennial plant, about a foot high, with widely-branching, roughish stems, springing from a deep tuberous root. the leaves are dull green, roughish, rather coarse in texture, but not large, mostly less than an inch long, coarsely and irregularly toothed, and the flowers are the shape of a shallow morning-glory, half an inch across, pale dull-yellow, marked with brown inside, with yellow anthers. this does not bear its berries close to the ground, as do many of its relations, and is not pretty. it grows in dry places, reaching an altitude of eight thousand feet. [illustration: ground-cherry--physalis crassifolia.] there are a great many kinds of solanum, abundant in tropical america; herbs or shrubs, sometimes climbing; often downy; calyx wheel-shaped, with five teeth or lobes, corolla wheel-shaped, the border plaited, with five angles or lobes and a very short tube; anthers sometimes grouped to form a cone, filaments short; fruit a berry, either enclosed in the calyx or with the calyx remaining on its base. this is the latin name of the nightshade, meaning "quieting." [sidenote: =purple nightshade= _solànum xánti_ =purple spring, summer california=] this is much handsomer than most of the eastern nightshades, hairy and sticky, with several spreading stems, from one to three feet high, springing from a perennial root, with thin, roughish leaves, more or less toothed. in favorable situations the flowers are beautiful, each about an inch across, and form handsome loose clusters. the corolla is saucer-shaped, bright purple, with a ring of green spots in the center, bordered with white and surrounding the bright yellow cone formed by the anthers. the berry is pale green or purple, the size of a small cherry. this is sometimes sweet-scented and is very fine on mt. lowe and elsewhere in southern california, but is paler and smaller in yosemite. blue witch, _s. umbellíferum_, is very similar, more woody below, with deep green stems, shorter branches, smaller, thicker leaves, and a dull white or purplish berry. it grows in the foothills of the coast ranges and sierra nevada mountains and flowers chiefly in summer, but more or less all through the year. [sidenote: =nightshade= _solànum douglásii_ =white spring, summer southwest=] a branching plant, about two feet high and across, with roughish stems and thin, smooth or slightly hairy, dark green leaves, toothless, or the margins more or less coarsely toothed. the flowers are white, tinged with lilac, with a purplish ring surrounding the yellow cone formed by the anthers. in southern california the flowers are nearly half an inch across, but smaller elsewhere. the berries are black. this is common throughout california near the coast. _s. nìgrum_, the common nightshade, is a weed in almost all countries, common in waste places and in cultivated soil, and has small white flowers and black berries, about as large as peas and said to be poisonous. [illustration: purple nightshade--solanum xanti.] there are many kinds of nicotiana, or tobacco, chiefly american; acrid, narcotic herbs or shrubs, usually sticky-hairy; leaves large, toothless; corolla funnel-form or salver-form, with a long tube and spreading border, plaited in the bud; stamens with threadlike filaments and broad anthers, not protruding; capsule smooth, containing numerous small seeds. the name is in honor of nicot, diplomat and author of the first french dictionary, who sent some of these plants to catherine de' medici from portugal in . [sidenote: =san juan tree, tree tobacco= _nicotiàna glaùca_ =yellow spring southwest=] a very slender, loosely-branching evergreen shrub, from six to fifteen feet high, with graceful, swaying branches and smooth, thick leaves, with a "bloom," the lower leaves eight inches long. the flowers are nearly two inches long, greenish at first and then becoming a rather pretty shade of warm dull-yellow, and hang in graceful clusters from the ends of the branches. the calyx is unequally five-toothed, the tube of the corolla downy on the outside; the anthers whitish; the ovary on a yellowish disk, with a long style and two-lobed stigma, and the capsule oblong, half an inch long. this was introduced into california from south america about fifty years ago and is now common in waste places and cultivated valleys. there are many kinds of lycium, shrubs or woody vines, named for the country lycia. [sidenote: =desert matrimony= _lycium còoperi_ =white spring southwest=] an odd-looking desert shrub, everything about it so closely crowded as to give a queer bunchy and clumsy effect. it is three or four feet high, with thick, dark gray, gnarled, woody branches, crowded with tufts of small, dull, light green leaves, which are thickish, stiffish, obscurely downy and toothless, and mingled with close little bunches of flowers. the flowers are about half an inch long, with a large, yellowish, hairy calyx, with five lobes, a white corolla, which is slightly hairy outside, with five lobes and a narrow, greenish tube, and pale yellow anthers, not protruding. they are rather pretty near by, but the appearance of the whole shrub is too pale to be effective. the familiar matrimony vine of old-fashioned gardens belongs to this genus. [illustration: san juan tree--nicotiana glauca. desert matrimony--lycium cooperi.] figwort family. _scrophulariaceae._ a large family, widely distributed, most of them natives of temperate regions; chiefly herbs, with bitter juice, sometimes narcotic and poisonous; without stipules; the flowers usually irregular; the calyx usually with four or five divisions, sometimes split on the lower or upper side, or on both sides; the corolla with united petals, nearly regular or two-lipped, two of the lobes forming the upper lip, which is sometimes beaklike, and three lobes forming the lower lip; the stamens on the corolla and alternate with its lobes, two or four in number, two long and two short, and sometimes also a fifth stamen which often has no anther, the anthers two-celled; the ovary superior, usually two-celled, the style slender, the stigma sometimes forked; the fruit a pod, splitting from the top into two parts and usually containing many seeds. this is a curious and interesting family, its members very dissimilar in appearance, having expressed their individuality in many striking and even fantastic forms. there are several kinds of maurandia, perennial herbs, climbing by their slender twisted leaf-stalks and occasionally also by their flower-stalks; the leaves triangular-heartshaped or halberd-shaped, only the lower ones opposite; the flowers showy, purple, pink, or white; the corolla with two lines or plaits, instead of a palate, which are usually bearded. [sidenote: =snap-dragon vine= _maurándia antirrhìniflora_ (_antirrhinum maurandioides_) =purple or pink and yellow spring ariz., new mex.=] this is a beautiful trailing or climbing vine, smooth all over, with charming foliage and twining stems, much like those of a morning-glory, springing from a thickened, perennial root. the pretty flowers are over an inch long, with a purple or raspberry-pink corolla, with bright yellow blotches on the lower lip, forming an odd and striking combination of color. this blooms all through the spring and summer and may be found growing in the bottom of the grand canyon, near the river, where its delicate prettiness is in strange contrast to the dark and forbidding rocks over which it clambers and clothes with a mantle of tender green. [illustration: snap-dragon vine--maurandia antirrhiniflora.] there are many kinds of antirrhinum, natives of europe, asia, and western north america; herbs; the lower leaves often opposite, and the upper ones alternate; the sepals five; the corolla two-lipped, swollen at the base on the lower side, but with no spur, the palate nearly closing the throat; the stamens four. the name is from the greek, meaning "nose-like," because the shape of the flowers suggests the snout of an animal. [sidenote: =sticky snap-dragon= _antirrhìnum glandulòsum_ =pink, purple spring california=] this is a conspicuous perennial, handsome though rather coarse, hairy and sticky all over, with stout leafy stems, from two to five feet tall, with branches but no tendrils, and soft, rather dark green leaves. the flowers are half an inch long, the corolla pink with a yellow palate, and they are crowded in fine, long, one-sided clusters. this is common in the south and looks a good deal like some of the cultivated kinds; when its flowers are pinched from the sides they open their mouths in the same funny way. [sidenote: =white snap-dragon= _antirrhìnum coulteriànum_ =white and lilac spring california=] this has tendril-like pedicels, which curl around nearby plants, but the stem is stout and erect, over two feet tall, smooth below and hairy above, with smooth, dark green leaves, and bears a long, crowded, one-sided cluster of pink buds and pretty white flowers. they are each about half an inch long, with hairy calyxes, and the corollas are prettily tinged with lilac or pink, but are too pale in color, though the general effect of the plant is rather striking. the anthers are bright yellow. this grows in the south. _a. vírga_ is a smooth plant, from two and a half to five feet tall, with many wand-like stems, springing from a perennial base, and reddish-purple flowers, about half an inch long, forming a long, rather one-sided cluster. this grows in the chaparral, on ridges of the coast ranges, blooming in june, but is not common. [illustration: white snap-dragon--a. coulterianum. sticky snap-dragon--antirrhinum glandulosum.] [sidenote: =trailing snap-dragon= _antirrhìnum stríctum_ =blue spring california=] this is an odd-looking plant, from one to two feet tall, which seems unable to decide whether or not it is a vine, for the pedicels of the flowers are exceedingly slender and twist like tendrils and by their means the plant clings to its neighbors and raises its weak stems from the ground, or, if it finds no support, it stands almost erect and waves its tendrils aimlessly in the air. it is smooth all over, with dark green leaves and pretty, bright purplish-blue flowers, about half an inch long, with a pale, hairy palate, which almost closes the throat. this grows in the south, near the sea. _a. vàgans_ is similar and is common farther north in california, growing on dry open wooded hills or in canyons of the coast ranges, blooming in summer and autumn. there are many kinds of castilleja, almost always perennials, usually parasitic on the roots of other plants, usually handsome and striking, the conspicuous feature being the large leafy bracts, colored like flowers, which adorn the upper part of the stem. they usually have several stems, springing from woody roots; leaves alternate, without leaf-stalks, green below and gradually merging above into colored bracts; flowers crowded in terminal clusters, mixed with bracts; calyx tubular, flattened, more or less cleft in front or behind, or on both sides, the lobes sometimes two-toothed, colored like the bracts, enclosing the tube of the corolla; corolla less conspicuous and duller in color than the calyx, tubular, two-lipped, the lower lip short and very small, not inflated, with three small teeth, the upper lip long and beaklike, enclosing the four stamens and single threadlike style; stigma cap-shaped or two-lobed; anther-sacs unequally attached to the filament, one by its middle and the other hanging by its tip; capsule egg-shaped or oblong, splitting open, containing many seeds. these gaudy plants are well named indian paint brush, for the flower-cluster and leaf-tips look as if they had been dipped in color. red feather is also good but painted cup is rather poor, as there is nothing cup-like about the flower. they were named for castillejo, a spanish botanist. [illustration: trailing snap-dragon--antirrhinum strictum.] [sidenote: =paint brush= _castillèja miniàta_ =red summer northwest=] this is a very handsome kind, from two to four feet tall, with a smooth stem, and smooth leaves, which are not crinkled, toothed, or lobed, and with more or less hairy bracts, which are beautifully tinted with many shades of pink, red, and purple. this is a magnificent plant, especially when we find it growing along irrigation ditches, among blue lupines, yellow mimulus and other bright flowers, where the combinations of color are quite wonderful, and it is the handsomest and commonest sort around yosemite, where it grows in meadows and moist places, from the foothills nearly up to timber-line. [sidenote: =scarlet paint brush= _castillèja pinetòrum_ =red and yellow summer cal., oreg.=] this is not quite so large or handsome as the last, but gives much the effect of a brush dipped in red paint, for the yellowish bracts are beautifully tipped with scarlet and the flowers are also bright red. the rough stem is a foot or more tall, the roughish dark green leaves are not toothed or lobed, but have crinkled edges, and the bracts usually have three lobes. these plants grow in the mountains and often make bright patches of color in the landscape. [sidenote: =paint brush= _castillèja angustifòlia_ =red spring, summer utah., nev.=] this is very variable, and is usually about a foot high, with several hairy stems, springing from a long yellow root. the leaves are slightly rough, but not coarse, with fine white hairs along the margins, and light gray-green in color, the lowest ones not lobed, a few of the upper ones with two lobes, but most of the leaves, and the bracts, slashed into three lobes. the calyx is covered with white hairs, and the upper lip of the corolla is bright green. the whole plant is most beautiful and harmonious in color, not coarse like many castillejas, and the upper part is clothed with innumerable delicate yet vivid tints of salmon, rose, and deep pink, shading to scarlet and crimson, forming a charming contrast to the quiet tones of the lower foliage. this grows in gravelly soil, on dry plains and hillsides, and the clumps of bloom are very striking among the sage-brush. [illustration: indian paint brush--castilleja miniata.] [illustration: scarlet paint brush--castilleja pinetorum.] there are a good many kinds of stemodia, widely distributed, only two in the united states; the corolla blue or purplish and two-lipped; the stamens four, not protruding. [sidenote: =stemodia= _stemòdia durantifòlia_ =blue spring southwest, etc.=] this is a rather pretty plant, which is quite effective when growing in quantities. the stem is hairy and sticky, from a foot to a foot and a half tall, with hairy leaves, which have a few sharp teeth. the flowers are three-eighths of an inch long, with sticky-hairy calyxes and bright purplish-blue corollas, white and hairy in the throat. this has a slightly unpleasant, aromatic smell and grows in moist spots, often in mountain canyons near streams, as far east as texas and also in the tropics. there are many kinds of linaria, most abundant in the old world; herbs; the upper leaves alternate, the lower opposite, usually toothless; the corolla like antirrhinum, but with a spur; the stamens four, not protruding. [sidenote: =toad flax= _linària canadénsis_ =blue, lilac spring, summer west, etc.=] a slender plant, from six to eighteen inches tall and smooth all over, with branching stems, dark green leaves, and pretty little flowers, delicately scented, from a quarter to half an inch long, with bright purplish-blue or pale lilac corollas, veined with purple. this is found in dry soil across the continent and sometimes grows in such quantities around san diego as to form blue patches in the landscape. there are many kinds of veronica; ours are rather low herbs, though some are trees in the tropics, widely distributed, living in meadows and moist places; flowers small, usually blue or white, never yellow; calyx with four divisions, rarely five; corolla wheel-shaped, with a very short tube and four, rarely five, lobes, the lower one narrower than the others; stamens two, sticking out at each side of the base of the upper lobe; anthers blunt, with slender filaments; ovary two-celled, with a slender style and round-top stigma; capsule more or less flattened, two-lobed or heart-shaped, splitting open, containing few or many seeds. they were named in honor of st. veronica. [illustration: toad flax--linaria canadensis. stemodia--s. durantifolia.] [sidenote: =hairy speedwell= _verónica tournefórtii_ =blue spring, summer, autumn utah, cal., etc.=] this is one of the most attractive of the little speedwells, for its flowers are bright and quite large. the stems are branching, hairy and purplish, some short and erect, others long and trailing, and the leaves are alternate above and opposite below, dull yellowish-green, hairy and rather soft, with scalloped edges. the flowers grow singly, on slender flower-stalks over an inch long, springing from the angles of the upper leaves, and the corolla is three-eighths of an inch across, the upper lobe deep brilliant blue, veined with dark blue, the side lobes similar in color but not so bright, the lower lobe almost white, without blue veins, and each lobe with a little pale yellow at its base. the stamens and pistil are white, the anthers becoming brown and the style bent to one side, and the capsule is somewhat heart-shaped, containing several cup-shaped seeds. this forms patches along roadsides and in fields, the soft foliage dotted with the quaint bright blue flowers, opening a few at a time in bright sunlight and closing at night. this is a native of europe and asia and is found across the continent. [sidenote: =american brooklime= _verónica americàna_ =blue summer across the continent=] in shallow water, or in very wet meadows, we find these little flowers. they are smooth perennials, with straggling, branching, purplish stems, more or less creeping, and rooting from the lower joints, from one to three feet long. the yellowish-green leaves usually have short leaf-stalks and are often toothed and the very small, pale blue flowers, with white centers and veined with purple, grow in loose spreading clusters. [sidenote: =alpine speedwell= _verónica wormskjòldii_ =blue summer northwest, ariz., etc.=] a pretty little plant, with smooth, stiffish, toothless leaves and deep bright blue flowers, with a little white at the base of the petals and veined with purple. this is found in damp spots in the mountains, up to twelve thousand feet, in northern places across the continent, and as far south as arizona. [illustration: hairy speedwell--v. tournefortii. alpine speedwell--v. wormskjoldii. american brooklime--veronica americana.] there are a great many kinds of pentstemon and some of our handsomest and most conspicuous western flowers are included among them. they are natives of north america, chiefly herbs, sometimes branching below; the leaves usually opposite, the upper ones without leaf-stalks and more or less clasping; the flowers showy, in long clusters; the calyx with five lobes; the corolla two-lipped, with a more or less swollen tube, the upper lip two-lobed, the lower three-cleft and spreading; the stamens four, in pairs, and also a fifth stamen, which is merely a filament without any anther, but is conspicuous and often hairy; the style threadlike, with a round-top stigma; the pod usually pointed; the seeds numerous. the common name, beard-tongue, is in allusion to the usually hairy tip of the sterile filament. pentstemon is from the greek meaning five stamens. this name is often mispronounced; the accent should be on the second syllable and long. [sidenote: =large beard-tongue= _pentstèmon glandulòsus_ =lilac, purple summer oreg., wash., idaho=] an exceedingly handsome plant, a foot and a half tall, with a stout reddish stem, rather downy and sticky, and dark green leaves, rather shiny and stiff, and downy on the under side. the flowers are an inch and a half long, so large that they look like fox-glove, and are beautifully shaded from pale lilac to deep reddish-purple, with purple filaments and white anthers and pistil. the calyx is reddish, sticky and downy, and the outside of the corolla glistens with sticky fuzz. this grows in the mountains. [sidenote: =pentstemon= _pentstèmon rattáni var. mìnor_ =blue summer utah, oreg., cal.=] this forms pretty clumps of bright color, with several stems about eight inches tall, smooth below, and smooth dark green leaves. the flowers are less than half an inch long, with a downy calyx and bright purplish-blue corolla, with a purplish throat. this grows in mountain canyons. [illustration: penstemon--p. rattani var. minor. large beard-tongue--p. glandulosus.] [sidenote: =blue pentstemon, beard-tongue= _pentstèmon cyanánthus_ =blue spring, summer utah, ariz., wyo.=] this is perhaps the most beautiful of all the pentstemons, with several smooth, stoutish, pale green, leafy stems, from one to two feet tall and smooth, pale bluish-green leaves, with more or less "bloom," toothless and thickish, the upper ones somewhat clasping. the flowers are not hairy or sticky, and are over an inch long, forming a handsome cluster about eight inches long. the sepals are narrow and pointed, the corolla is tinted with various beautiful shades of blue and purple, often with a white throat and blue lobes, or with a pink throat and deep blue lobes, the sterile filament has a thickened, more or less hairy, yellow tip, and the pale yellow anthers are more or less hairy. this plant is beautiful in every way, for the foliage is fine in form and color and the flowers are brilliantly variegated, yet harmonious and graceful. this grows on hillsides and in mountain valleys, at rather high altitudes, and used to be common and conspicuous on the "benches" around the salt lake valley, but it is gradually being exterminated by sheep. it thrives and improves when transplanted into gardens. _p. acuminàtus_ is similar, but the cluster is looser and the flowers often pink and purple. it forms fine patches of color at the grand canyon. [sidenote: =honeysuckle pentstemon= _pentstèmon cordifòlius_ =red summer california=] a handsome shrub, with much the general appearance of a honeysuckle, woody below, with long slender branches and pretty heart-shaped leaves. the flowers are often in pairs and are each an inch and a half long, with bright scarlet corollas, conspicuously two-lipped, the stamens protruding, and form large clusters towards the ends of the branches. this grows in light shade in the woods and trails its long branches and garlands of bright flowers over the neighboring shrubs and trees. [sidenote: =pride-of-the-mountain= _pentstèmon newbérryi_ =pink, lilac summer california=] a beautiful little shrub, making splendid patches of vivid color on high bare rocks in the mountains, where it is very conspicuous, hanging over the edges of inaccessible ledges. the stems are woody below and very branching, about a foot high, and the leaves are usually toothed, smooth, stiffish, and thickish. the flowers are an inch and a quarter long, with a rather sticky calyx and bright carmine-pink corolla, moderately two-lipped, with a patch of white hairs on the lower lip; the stamens protruding, with conspicuous, white, woolly anthers, and the style remaining on the tip of the capsule like a long purple thread. this is slightly sweet-scented and is common around yosemite. the alpine form is less than four inches high, with larger, lilac flowers and toothless leaves. [illustration: penstemon cyananthus.] [illustration: honeysuckle penstemon--p. cordifolius. pride-of-the-mountain--penstemon newberryi.] [sidenote: =bushy beard-tongue= _pentstèmon antirrhinoìdes_ =yellow spring california=] this is a rather pretty shrub, about four feet high, with pale woody branches, purplish twigs, and many, small, rich green leaves. the flowers have a glossy, bright green calyx and a yellow corolla, which is three-quarters of an inch long, streaked with dull-red outside and slightly hairy, the sterile stamen hairy and yellow. [sidenote: =variable pentstemon= _pentstèmon confértus_ =yellow, blue, purple summer northwest and cal.=] this has a smooth stem and smooth, toothless leaves, but is very variable both in form and color, for the typical plant, from oregon and the rocky mountains, has yellow flowers, but in yosemite the variety _caerùleo-purpùreus_ always has blue or purple flowers, but the plants vary in general appearance. in good soil, such as the floor of the valley, the stem is sometimes two feet tall and the flowers are about half an inch long, grouped in whorls along the stem, but at high altitudes the plant shrinks to a few inches in height. [sidenote: =cardinal pentstemon= _pentstèmon párryi_ =scarlet spring arizona=] these wands of flaming scarlet are conspicuous along the trails in the grand canyon and are exceedingly beautiful, very graceful in form and vivid in color. the smooth, purplish, somewhat leafy stems, from one and a half to two feet tall, spring from a clump of rather small leaves, which are toothless, smooth, and rather light green in color. the flowers are three-quarters of an inch long, the corolla with five rounded lobes and very slightly two-lipped, and look something like scarlet bugler, but are smaller and more delicate, and are sometimes mistaken for cardinal flowers by people from the east. [illustration: penstemon parryi.] [illustration: bushy beard-tongue--p. antirrhinoides. variable penstemon--p. confertus. var. caeruleo-purpureus. p. confertus.] [sidenote: =pentstemon= _pentstèmon wrìghtii_ =pink, purple spring arizona=] this is very much like the last in every way, except the color of its flowers. the leaves are smooth and thickish, bluish-green, with a "bloom," the lower ones with a few irregular, blunt teeth, or with wavy margins, and the flowers, which are the same shape and size as the last, are deep, bright pink, with a magenta line on each lobe and some white hairs on the lower lip. the filaments are purple, with whitish anthers, and the fifth stamen resembles a tiny brush, with yellow bristles on the upper side and pointing into the throat. the whole effect of the graceful flower-cluster is bright, beautiful, and conspicuous, growing among the rocks, on hillsides and in canyons. [sidenote: =pentstemon= _pentstèmon laètus_ =blue, purple summer california=] this is very beautiful and varied in color and is the commonest kind in yosemite, from one to two feet high, with roughish, toothless leaves and several slender, erect, somewhat hairy branches, ending in long loose clusters of flowers. the corollas are an inch long, and vary from deep bright blue through all shades of violet to deep pink, with two white ridges in the throat, and with two white anthers visible and two purple ones hidden in the throat. the flowers' faces have a quaint, wide-awake expression. this grows on dry rocky slopes and is often mistaken for _p. heterophýllus_, which is rather common in open places in the coast ranges. _p. linarioìdes_, blooming in late summer at the grand canyon, is somewhat similar, but the flowers are smaller and more delicate, and the leaves are smooth, small, and narrow. [sidenote: =scarlet bugler= _pentstèmon Èatoni_ =red spring ariz., utah=] very beautiful, from two to three feet high; with purplish stems, smooth leaves, and flowers an inch long, with a bright scarlet, funnel-shaped corolla, not much two-lipped, the stamens not protruding. these graceful wands of vivid color are conspicuous in the grand canyon. _p. centranthifòlius_, common in california, is similar, the corolla less two-lipped, and has very smooth, thickish leaves. _p. bridgésii_, found in yosemite, is similar, but the corolla is decidedly two-lipped. [illustration: penstemon--p. laetus. scarlet bugler--p. eatoni.] [sidenote: =yawning pentstemon= _pentstèmon breviflòrus_ =flesh-color summer california=] a bushy plant, from two to five feet high, with many smooth, slender branches, terminating in long loose clusters of flowers. the leaves are smooth, rather dark green, the lower ones sharply toothed, and the flowers are three-quarters of an inch long; the corolla flesh-color, tipped with pink, with some purple lines on the lower lip, and some fine white hairs on the upper; the buds yellow, tipped with dark red. these flowers are too dull in color to be effective, but they are sweet-smelling and have ridiculous faces with widely yawning mouths. this is quite common in yosemite, forming large clumps on open rocky slopes. indians use the tough stems for making baskets. [sidenote: =scarlet pentstemon= _pentstèmon tórreyi_ =red summer arizona=] exceedingly handsome, with smooth, pale green stems, two feet or more tall, and smooth, rather bluish-green leaves, with slightly rippled edges. the corolla is an inch and a quarter long, vivid scarlet, paler inside, strongly two-lipped, with long, conspicuous stamens, with pale yellow anthers, the style remaining on the tip of the capsule like a long purple thread. this makes splendid clumps of gorgeous color and is common on the rim of the grand canyon. there are a number of kinds of collinsia, natives of north america, with the leaves opposite or in whorls; the flowers single or in whorls; the calyx five-cleft; the corolla irregular, with a short tube and two-lipped; the upper lip two-cleft and more or less erect, the lower lip larger and three-lobed, the side lobes spreading or drooping, the middle lobe keel-like and folded together and enclosing the two pairs of stamens and the threadlike style, which has a small round-top or two-lobed stigma. the fifth stamen is represented by a minute gland on the upper side of the corolla tube near the base. the form of the flowers somewhat suggests those of the pea family. if we pull the lower lip apart we find the odd little crevice in which the stamens are concealed. [illustration: scarlet penstemon--p. torreyi. yawning penstemon--p. breviflorus.] [sidenote: =chinese houses= _collínsia bícolor_ =purple and white spring, summer california=] these are charming plants, from six inches to a foot and a half tall, with very delicately made flowers. the leaves are smooth or downy and more or less toothed, with rough edges, and the flowers are arranged in a series of one-sided clusters along the upper part of the stem, which is more or less branching. the corollas are about three-quarters of an inch long and vary in color, being sometimes all white. in the shady woods around santa barbara they often have a white upper lip, which is tipped with lilac and specked with crimson, and a lilac lower lip, and here they are much more delicate in appearance than on the sea-cliffs at la jolla, where they grow in quantities among the bushes and are exceedingly showy. in the latter neighborhood the flowers are nearly an inch long and the upper lip is almost all white and marked with a crescent of crimson specks above a magenta base, and the lower lip is almost all magenta, with a white stripe at the center, the contrast between the magenta and white being very striking and almost too crude. the arrangement of the flowers is somewhat suggestive of the many stories of a chinese pagoda and the plant is common. [sidenote: =blue-lips= _collínsia multiflòra_ =lilac, blue, and pink summer northwest=] a very attractive little plant, smooth all over, about six inches tall, with toothless, light green leaves and pretty flowers, each over half an inch long. the upper petals are pinkish-lilac, the lower petals a peculiar shade of bright blue, and the tube is pink; the contrast between the blue and pink giving an odd and pretty effect. this grows in the woods around mt. shasta. there are many kinds of scrophularia, most of them natives of europe. they are rank perennial herbs, usually with opposite leaves; the corolla with no spur and with five lobes, all erect except the lowest one, which is small and turned back; the stamens five, four of them with anthers and the fifth reduced to a scale under the upper lip. these plants are supposed to be a remedy for scrofula. [illustration: blue-lips--c. multiflora. chinese houses--collinsia bicolor.] [sidenote: =california bee-plant= _scrophulària califórnica_ =red, green spring, summer northwest, cal.=] this is a coarse plant, smooth, or rather sticky and hairy, with several stout, square stems, and forming a large clump, from two to six feet high. the little flowers have a quaint appearance, but are usually only about a quarter of an inch long, with brownish-red or greenish corollas, which are neither pretty nor conspicuous, but the variety _floribúnda_, of southern california, has flowers which are nearly half an inch long, with rich red corollas, handsome and brilliant in effect. these plants yield a great deal of honey and are common and widely distributed. there are several kinds of diplacus, much resembling mimulus, except that they are shrubs, with evergreen leaves. [sidenote: =sticky monkey-flower, bush monkey-flower= _diplácus longiflòrus (mimulus)_ =salmon-color (varying from pale yellow to red) spring, summer california=] when in full bloom, this is a handsome and very conspicuous shrub, for the flowers are numerous and unusual in coloring, being usually a peculiar shade of salmon-color, which at a distance gives the effect in the landscape of some sort of exotic rhododendron. it is from two to six feet high, with very dark green, sticky, usually toothless leaves, with their margins rolled back, dark sticky buds and large flowers, which are sometimes three inches long, the corolla varying in color from almost white to scarlet, with a white stigma. they bloom more or less all the year round and there are several similar, named varieties. [sidenote: =bush monkey-flower= _diplácus puníceus (mimulus)_ =red spring, summer, autumn california=] this is much like the last, and is often very handsome. in the crevices of the sea-cliffs at la jolla it makes tangled thickets of woody stems and dark green foliage, ornamented with many scarlet or rich deep-red flowers, with a velvety surface like that of a pansy and with orange ribs in the throat. this is common throughout california. [illustration: bush monkey-flower--diplacus longiflorus.] [illustration: california bee-plant--scrophularia californica var. floribunda.] there are many kinds of mimulus, or monkey-flower, usually growing in moist places, with erect or slanting, juicy stems; leaves opposite, usually toothed; flowers generally handsome, on flower-stalks from the axils of the leaves; calyx covering the tube of the corolla, bell-shaped, five-angled and five-toothed, upper tooth usually larger; corolla two-lipped, the upper lip with two lobes, erect or turned back, the lower with three, rounded, spreading lobes, the tube not swollen at base and with a pair of ridges within on the lower side; stamens four, in pairs, not inclosed in the upper lip, their two anther-cells spreading apart, no rudiment of a fifth stamen; style threadlike, stigma with two, flat, spreading tips. when an insect alights it touches the stigma, which immediately folds its tips together, thus exposing the anthers, so that the insect becomes dusted with pollen. this can be observed by touching the stigma with a pencil. the odd little grinning face of these flowers suggested both the common name and the greek, derived from "ape." [sidenote: =monkey-flower= _mímulus brévipes_ =yellow spring california=] a very handsome plant, from one to two feet high, rather hairy and sticky all over, with dark green leaves, usually toothless, and large, clear bright yellow flowers, an inch and a half long, with a pair of ridges in the throat and a pale green stigma. this grows on hillsides, the rich green foliage and bronze-colored buds contrasting finely with the bright flowers. the leaves are quite unlike those of the common yellow monkey-flower. [sidenote: =pink monkey-flower= _mímulus lewísii_ =pink spring, summer west, etc.=] a graceful mountain perennial, growing near streams, from two to three feet tall, with bright green, toothed leaves, thin in texture, more or less hairy, without leafstalks; the stems and buds slightly sticky. the lovely flowers are nearly two inches long, the corolla varying from pale pink to rose-red, with two, hairy, yellow ridges in the throat, the stamens not protruding from the tube. this pink kind takes the place in the high mountains of the scarlet monkey-flower of lower altitudes and is found as far east as colorado. [illustration: pink monkey-flower--mimulus lewisii.] [illustration: monkey-flower--mimulus brevipes.] [sidenote: =scarlet monkey-flower= _mímulus cardinàlis_ =red spring, summer southwest. oreg.=] an exceedingly handsome kind, sometimes nearly five feet high, much like the last, but with vivid scarlet corollas, decidedly two-lipped, the upper lip erect and the lower lobes turned back, the stamens protruding from the tube. i first saw these gorgeous flowers glowing like bits of flame among the ferns and grasses that bordered a beautiful spring in a cave in the grand canyon, where icy water fell on them drop by drop through a crevice in the rocky roof far above them and kept them glistening with moisture. this is often cultivated in gardens. [sidenote: =little yellow monkey-flower= _mímulus primuloìdes_ =yellow summer cal., oreg.=] a charming little plant, from three to six inches tall, with pretty delicate flowers, from half an inch to an inch long, the corolla-lobes all alike, bright yellow, often dotted with crimson, growing singly on the tips of very slender flower-stalks, springing from a cluster of bright yellowish-green leaves, usually toothed, smooth, or sometimes hairy. this grows in moist mountain meadows. [sidenote: =little pink monkey-flower= _mímulus tórreyi_ =pink summer california=] a delicate little plant, from three inches to a foot high, rather hairy and sticky, with very slender branching stems, yellowish-green, toothless leaves, and bright flowers, about three-quarters of an inch long, with almost no flower-stalks; the corolla-lobes pink, veined with purple, the tube crimson, with two yellow ridges in the throat. a patch of these little flowers scattered over a sandy slope in yosemite, sometimes growing with a tiny blue and white lupine that likes the same sort of place, is an exceedingly pretty sight. it grows in the mountains, preferring moderate altitudes, becoming lower and deeper in color in higher places. [sidenote: =desert monkey-flower= _mímulus fremóntii_ =pink spring california=] a charming little plant, something like the last but prettier, three or four inches tall, with very slender, stiff, purplish, branching stems and smooth, thickish, light green leaves, purplish on the under side. the flowers are nearly an inch across, with a hairy calyx and bright purplish-pink corolla, streaked with magenta, with yellow ridges on the lower lip and plaits inside the throat. they look exceedingly pretty on the pale sand of the mojave desert. [illustration: desert monkey-flower--m. fremontii. little pink monkey-flower--m. torreyi. little yellow monkey-flower--mimulus primuloides.] [sidenote: =common yellow monkey-flower= _mímulus langsdórfii_ =yellow spring, summer southwest, utah, etc.=] there are several varieties of this common and attractive plant, some tall and robust, others very short. the stems are smooth, not sticky, thickish and pale, sometimes branching, about a foot tall, and the leaves are from one to three inches long, smooth, or slightly downy, especially on the under side of the upper leaves, and usually bright green, the veins prominent on the back, the upper leaves without leaf-stalks and more or less clasping, the lower ones with leaf-stalks varying in length. the flowers are from three-quarters of an inch to two inches long, clear bright yellow, the throat nearly closed and hairy, usually with some dark red dots between the hairy ridges on the lower lip. this grows in wet places in the mountains and in canyons, is widely distributed in the west, and has now strayed as far east as connecticut. [sidenote: =musk-plant= _mímulus moschàtus_ =yellow spring, summer west, etc.=] this plant is more or less hairy and seems to be wet all over with slimy dew and smells of musk. when the stems are cut and put in water a slimy sort of mucilage drips from them. it is about ten inches tall, with rather pretty yellow flowers, barely an inch long, with some hairs and reddish specks in the throat. this is widely distributed, in wet places, from ontario westward. there are numerous kinds of orthocarpus, many of them californian, difficult to distinguish. like castilleja, their upper leaves often pass into colored bracts and the calyx is colored, but the corolla is not similar, for the upper lip is small and the three-lobed lower lip is swollen and conspicuous; calyx short, four-cleft; stamens four, two of them short, enclosed in the upper lip; style long, with a round-top stigma; leaves without leaf-stalks, usually alternate, often cut into three to five narrow divisions; fruit an oblong capsule with many seeds. perhaps it is called owl's-clover because, in some kinds, the flowers look like the faces of owls. [illustration: musk-plant--m. moschatus. common yellow monkey-flower--mimulus langsdorfii.] [sidenote: =yellow pelican flower= _orthocàrpus faucibarbàtus_ =yellow, whitish spring california=] one of the handsomest of its kind, a fine thrifty plant, but not at all coarse, and much prettier and more effective than the next. the branching stem is about a foot tall, and the leaves are very light, bright yellowish-green, and thin in texture. the flowers are about an inch long, with very clear bright yellow "pouches" and greenish "beaks" tipped with white. they have a curiously solid appearance, as if carved out of yellow wax, and are very pleasing and fresh in color, harmonizing well with the light green bracts, which give a very feathery effect to the top of the cluster. like most of its relations, the flowers are more effective when we look down on them, growing among the grass, than when they are picked and we see them in profile. the corollas are sometimes pinkish-white. this is common in the valleys of the coast ranges. [sidenote: =johnny-tuck= _orthocàrpus eriánthus_ =yellow spring cal., oreg.=] from five to ten inches tall, with a slender, downy, purplish stem, often branching, dull green, downy leaves and purplish-tipped bracts. the sulphur-yellow flowers are usually an inch long, with a magenta "beak" and a very slender, white tube. they are pretty and very common on plains. [sidenote: =pink johnny-tuck, pink popcorn flower= _orthocàrpus eriánthus var. rosèus_ =pink spring california=] a delicate little plant, from five to ten inches tall, with a slender, downy, reddish stem, hairy, dull green leaves and bracts, and very pretty little flowers, nearly an inch long; the corollas varying from almost white to bright pink, but all the same shade on one plant, with a little yellow at the center and a maroon-colored "beak." they are deliciously sweet-scented, like violets, and grow in dry places. the variety _versícolor_, popcorn beauty, has fragrant white flowers. [sidenote: =yellow owl's clover= _orthocàrpus lùteus_ =yellow summer west, etc.=] this often makes patches of bright color. it is from six to twelve inches tall, with stiff, slender, hairy stems, hairy leaves, and pretty bright yellow flowers, nearly half an inch long. this grows in dry sunny places as far east as colorado, reaching an altitude of ten thousand feet. [illustration: johnny-tuck--orthocarpus erianthus. yellow pelican flower--o. faucibarbatus.] [sidenote: =escobita, owl's clover= _orthocàrpus densiflòrus_ =purplish-pink spring california=] the spanish name, which means "little broom," is very appropriate for this pretty plant. the stiff, downy stem is from five to fifteen inches tall and the downy leaves are light green and become tipped with purplish-pink as they mount up the stalk. the flowers are about three-quarters of an inch long and have a white lower lip, which is tipped with yellow and has a crimson dot on each lobe, and the straight, erect "beak" is crimson. the cluster is crowded with purplish-pink and white bracts and though the flowers themselves are not conspicuous the effect is feathery and very pretty, especially when the plants grow in such quantities as to color a whole field with soft pink, or when mixed with beautifully contrasting patches of blue lupine. this is common along the coast. _o. purpuráscens_, common in the northwest and southwest, is similar, but it has a hairy "beak," hooked at the tip, and the general effect is handsomer and much brighter in color, but less feathery. [sidenote: =owl's clover= _orthocàrpus purpureo-álbus_ =pink and white summer ariz., utah, new mex.=] an interesting annual plant, quite pretty, about a foot high, the stem sometimes branching and the branches suggesting those of a candelabrum, clothed with soft, finely divided, dull green leaves and ending in spikes of green bracts and pretty little flowers, three-quarters of an inch long. the calyx is green, the upper lip of the corolla is purplish-pink and the lower lip is swollen, three-lobed and cream-white, turning pink in fading. this grows in dry places at altitudes of from six to eight thousand feet. only one of the branches is given in the picture. [sidenote: =owl's clover= _orthocàrpus exsértus_ =white and pink spring, summer california=] a pretty little plant, from six to eight inches high, with hairy leaves cut into narrow divisions and passing into pinkish-lilac bracts towards the top of the stalk, which are mixed with pink and white flowers, each about an inch long, so that the effect of the whole is a spike of pink and white. the lower lip of the corolla is white and the upper lip is pink, with a furry tip. this grows in fields. _o. attenuàtus_, common in fields in the northwest, is a slender inconspicuous kind, about nine inches tall, with soft, thin, dull green leaves, most of them not lobed, and pale green bracts, often tipped with white. the corollas are dull white, the lower lip dotted with purple or yellow, and the whole effect of the cluster is feathery, very slender, and pale in color. [illustration: owl's-clover--o. purpureo-albus. escobita--orthocarpus densiflorus. owl's-clover--o. exsertus.] there are a good many kinds of pedicularis, usually with finely-cut leaves and spikes of queerly-shaped flowers, usually yellow, sometimes red or white; the corolla conspicuously two-lipped, the upper lip hood-like, long and narrow, the lower lip three-lobed; the stamens four, two of them short, in the upper lip; the capsule flattened or compressed, beaked, splitting open, and containing many seeds. these plants are supposed to cause lice in sheep that feed on them, so they have the ugly name of lousewort, both in english and latin. [sidenote: =indian warrior= _pediculàris densiflòra_ =crimson spring cal., oreg.=] a robust and very decorative plant, with rich coloring. the stout, purplish stems are slightly hairy, from nine inches to nearly two feet tall, and spring from a graceful cluster of large leaves, which are crisp in texture and smooth or slightly downy, rich green and often tinged with bronze. the flowers are an inch or more long, with purplish, hairy calyxes and crimson corollas, and form a very handsome though rather coarse-looking cluster, mixed with purplish bracts, and finely shaded in color, from the carmine buds at the top to the wine-color of the faded flowers at the base. this grows on wooded hillsides and in deep shade. the flowers are sometimes white. [sidenote: =duck-bill= _pediculàris ornithorhýncha_ =pink summer wash., oreg.=] this is an odd-looking plant, about six inches tall, with a stout, purplish stem, woolly at the top, springing from a pretty cluster of smooth, bright green leaves. the flowers are about three-quarters of an inch long, with purplish, woolly calyxes and bright pink corollas, which are veined and tipped with deeper color, with purplish bracts. they are very eccentric in shape and the upper lip has a ludicrous resemblance to the head of a duck. this grows in the mountains. [illustration: duck-bill--p. ornithorhynca. indian warrior--pedicularis densiflora.] [sidenote: =alpine betony= _pediculàris centranthèra_ =magenta and white spring utah, ariz., new mex.=] this grows in dry rocky soil at high altitudes, forming a low clump of pretty bronze-colored leaves, cut into many small crinkled lobes, and giving the effect of stiff little ferns, with a short spike of oddly pretty flowers, each over an inch long, with a purplish, hairy calyx and a corolla with a white tube and magenta lips, the anthers projecting like sharp little teeth from under the arching upper lip. _p. semibarbàta_, growing in dry woods in yosemite, forms a rosette of crinkled bronze foliage, with short spikes of yellow flowers. [sidenote: =elephants' heads, butterfly-tongue= _pediculàris groenlándica_ =pink summer west, etc.=] a handsome plant, with quaint flowers. the smooth, slender, purplish stem is a foot or more tall, with a few alternate leaves, and springs from a cluster of smooth, fern-like foliage, much like that of _p. ornithorhyncha_, often tinged with bronze, and bears a long, crowded spike of many flowers. they are slightly fragrant, about three-quarters of an inch long, with purplish calyxes and deep pink or reddish corollas, which look absurdly like little elephants' heads. this grows in the mountains, across the continent. broom-rape family. _orobanchaceae._ a rather small family, resembling scrophulariaceae, widely distributed; parasitic herbs, without green foliage, with alternate scales instead of leaves; flowers perfect, irregular; calyx five-cleft, or split on one or both sides; corolla two-lipped; stamens four, in pairs, with slender filaments, on the corolla-tube (sometimes also the rudiment of a fifth stamen); ovary superior, style slender, stigma disk-like, with two or four lobes; fruit a capsule. there are several kinds of thalesia. [sidenote: =one-flowered cancer-root= _thalèsia uniflòra (orobanche)_ =purplish spring, summer northwest, utah, etc.=] a queer little thing, but pretty and delicate, with a very short stem, mostly underground, bearing one or more slender, slightly hairy, dull yellow, scaly flower-stems from three to eight inches tall, each with a single flower, less than an inch long, with a dull yellow, hairy calyx, and a hairy, lilac corolla, tinged with dull yellow and veined with purple, with two yellow ridges in the throat. this is not common and is found across the continent. [illustration: alpine betony--pedicularis centranthera. elephants' heads--p. groenlandica. one-flowered cancer-root--thalesia uniflora.] madder family. _rubiaceae._ a large family, widely distributed, chiefly tropical. ours are herbs, or shrubs; leaves opposite or in whorls; flowers regular, usually perfect; calyx with four teeth or none; corolla with four or five united lobes, often hairy inside; stamens on the corolla, as many as its lobes and alternate with them; ovary inferior, with one or two styles; fruit a capsule, berry, or stone-fruit. coffee, quinine, and madder, used for dye, belong to this family. i am told that the latter plant is escaping around salt lake and is well established there. the latin name means "red." there are many kinds of houstonia, north american, usually growing in tufts, leaves opposite; flowers small; calyx four-lobed; corolla funnel-form or salver-form, four-lobed; style slender, with two long stigmas; fruit a capsule. sometimes the flowers are perfect, but usually they are of two kinds, one kind with high anthers and short pistil, the other kind with long pistil and anthers inside the corolla-tube; visiting insects carry pollen from the high anthers of the one to the high stigmas of the other, and from the low anthers to the low stigmas, thus ensuring cross-pollination. [sidenote: =desert innocence= _houstònia rùbra_ =pink and white summer arizona=] a pretty little desert plant, about two inches high, forming close tufts of sage-green foliage, like harsh moss, with stiff needle-like leaves and woody stems, sprinkled with charming little pink and white flowers. the corolla is three-eighths of an inch across, with a long slender tube, the stamens lilac, and the odd little nodding capsules have two round lobes. this grows in the dreadful sandy wastes of the petrified forest. [sidenote: =kelloggia= _kellóggia galioìdes_ =spring, summer white, pink, yellowish west, etc.=] the only kind, a slender little plant, from six inches to a foot tall, usually with smooth leaves, with small stipules. the tiny flowers are white, pink, or greenish-yellow, with a bristly calyx, and the corolla usually has four petals, but sometimes five or three; the stigmas two. the fruit is covered with hooked bristles. this grows in mountain woods, as far east as wyoming. [illustration: kelloggia galioides. desert innocence--houstonia rubra.] there are many kinds of galium, widely distributed; sometimes shrubs; stems square; leaves in whorls, without stipules; flowers small, usually perfect, in clusters; calyx usually with no border; corolla wheel-shaped, four-lobed; stamens four, short; ovary two-lobed; styles two, short, with round-top stigmas; fruit dry or fleshy, consisting of two similar, rounded parts, each with one seed. the common name, bed-straw, comes from a tradition that the manger of the infant christ was filled with these plants. other names are goose-grass and cleavers. [sidenote: =northern bed-straw= _gàlium boreàle_ =white summer northwest, etc.=] a rather attractive, smooth, perennial, with a stout, leafy stem, sometimes branching, and the leaves in fours, with three veins, the margins sometimes rough and hairy. the small flowers are white and so numerous as to be quite pretty. the fruit is small, at first bristly, but smooth when ripe. this grows in northern mountains across the continent, also in europe and asia, up to ten thousand feet. valerian family. _valerianaceae._ not a large family, widely distributed, most abundant in the northern hemisphere; herbs, with opposite leaves and no stipules; flowers usually perfect, rather small, in clusters; the calyx sometimes lacking, or small, but often becoming conspicuous in fruit; corolla somewhat irregular, tube sometimes swollen or spurred at base, lobes united and spreading, usually five; stamens one to four, with slender filaments, on the corolla, alternate with its lobes; ovary inferior, with one to three cells, only one containing an ovule, the others empty; style slender; fruit dry, not splitting open, containing one seed. there are many kinds of valerianella, much alike, distinguished principally by their fruits. [sidenote: =corn-salad= _valerianélla macrosèra (plectritis)_ =pink spring, summer northwest, cal.=] this has a juicy stem, from a few inches to over a foot tall, springing from a clump of smooth, very bright green leaves, and bearing most of the flowers at the top, in a small close cluster, with narrow purplish bracts. they are tiny, with a slightly irregular corolla, light pink, with two tiny crimson dots on each side of the lowest lobe, three dark brown anthers, and a calyx without a border. this is rather pretty, growing in long grass in damp places, but the flowers are too small to be effective. [illustration: corn-salad--valerianella macrosera. northern bedstraw--galium boreale.] there are many kinds of valerian, rather tall perennials, chiefly of cool regions and some in the andes. they are more or less bad-smelling plants, especially the root; the leaves mostly from the base and the small flowers in terminal clusters, some of them perfect, some with stamens and pistils on separate plants, some with the two sorts mixed; the calyx with from five to fifteen bristle-like teeth, curled up and inconspicuous in flower, but spread out and feathery in fruit; the corolla white or pink, more or less funnel-form, with five nearly equal lobes; the stamens three; the style sometimes with three minute lobes. the name is from the latin, meaning "strong," in allusion to the medicinal properties. [sidenote: =wild valerian= _valeriàna sitchénsis_ =white, pinkish summer wash., oreg.=] a very handsome and attractive plant, much like the kind that is cultivated in gardens. it grows from one to three feet tall, from a creeping rootstock, with smooth, juicy, hollow stems and handsome bright green foliage. the leaves are smooth and the leaflets of the stem-leaves are coarsely toothed. the flowers are white or pinkish, with pink buds, and are crowded in fine large, rather flat-topped clusters. the stamens are long and give a pretty feathery appearance to the cluster. the flowers are strongly sweet-scented, but the roots usually have a horrible smell when they are broken. _v. sylvática_ looks much the same, but the leaves are mostly toothless, and it is widely distributed in the united states, both east and west, also growing in asia. both are woodland plants, liking rich moist soil. [sidenote: =arizona valerian= _valeriàna arizònica_ =pink spring arizona=] an attractive plant, from three to nine inches tall, with smooth hollow stems, smooth leaves, and pretty clusters of flowers, but not nearly so large as the last. they are purplish-pink and slightly sweet-scented. this grows in crevices in the rocks in moist places. [illustration: white valerian--valeriana sitchensis.] [illustration: arizona valerian--valeriana arizonica.] honeysuckle family. _caprifoliaceae._ not a large family, mostly of the northern hemisphere; herbs, shrubs, shrubby vines or trees; leaves opposite, usually without stipules; flowers perfect, regular or irregular; calyx with three to five divisions; corolla usually with five united lobes, sometimes two-lipped; stamens on the corolla tube, usually as many as its lobes and alternate with them; ovary inferior, with one style; fruit a berry, stone-fruit, or capsule. there are many kinds of lonicera, shrubs, or twining woody vines; leaves usually without teeth or lobes, the upper ones sometimes united around the stem; flowers usually irregular; calyx with five, minute teeth; corolla more or less funnel-shaped, often two-lipped, four lobes forming the upper lip and one lobe the under, tube often swollen at base; stamens five; style with a cap-like stigma; fruit berrylike. [sidenote: =orange honeysuckle= _lonicèra ciliòsa_ =orange and scarlet summer northwest=] a climbing or trailing shrub, with brilliant flowers, set off by bright green leaves, thin in texture, with pale "bloom" on the under side and usually hairy margins, the lower ones with short leaf-stalks, the upper usually united and forming a disk. the flowers are scentless, about an inch and a quarter long, with smooth, trumpet-shaped corollas, bright orange at base, shading to scarlet above, with a bright green stigma and crimson or brownish anthers. this lives in the woods and sometimes climbs to the tops of quite tall trees, ornamenting them with its splendid clusters of flowers and sprinkling the forest floor with its fallen blossoms in a shower of scarlet and gold. [sidenote: =black twinberry= _lonicèra involucràta_ =yellow spring, summer west=] a bush, from three to seven feet high, with thick, woody, pale gray stems and bright green leaves, glossy and thin in texture, or rather coarse and hairy, with fine hairs along the margins. the flower-stalks each bear a pair of flowers, without scent, emerging from an involucre of two bracts. the corolla is rather hairy and sticky, half an inch or more long, a pretty shade of warm dull yellow, sometimes tinged with red outside, with five, short, nearly equal lobes, the tube swollen at base. the involucre becomes dark red, its lobes turn back and display a pair of berries, disagreeable to the taste, as large as peas, nearly black, the whole affair striking in color and form. this grows in moist mountain woods and seems to have smoother, glossier foliage, and smaller flowers, in utah than elsewhere. [illustration: orange honeysuckle--l. ciliosa. black twinberry--lonicera involucrata.] [sidenote: =pink honeysuckle= _lonicèra hispídula_ =pink summer wash., oreg., cal.=] rather pretty, with a woody trunk and hairy twigs, climbing over shrubs and trees, sometimes to a height of twenty feet. the leaves are pale on the under side, the upper ones usually united around the stem, and the flowers are about three-quarters of an inch long, with pink corollas and long stamens, and form long clusters, which are pretty but not effective, though the translucent, orange-red berries are handsome and conspicuous. this varies very much, especially in hairiness and color of the foliage, and is quite common in canyons and along streams in the coast ranges. the yellow honeysuckle, _l. califórnica_, is similar, but with smooth branches and leaves and pale yellow flowers; growing in oregon and northern california. there are two kinds of linnaea. [sidenote: =twin-flower= _linnaèa boreàlis var. americàna_ =pink summer northwest, utah, etc.=] one of the loveliest of woodland plants; the long, woody stems trail over the ground and send up straight, slender branches, a few inches tall, clothed with leathery, evergreen leaves, bright green and glossy, and terminating in a slender, slightly hairy flower-stalk, which bears a pair of little nodding flowers, about half an inch long, hanging on very slender pedicels, with two bracts. the corollas are regular, with five lobes, delicate pink, veined with deeper color and paler at the margins, with a white pistil and four, white stamens, not protruding. the fruit is roundish and dry, with one seed. this often carpets the forest floor with its glossy foliage, ornamenting the moss with its fairy-like blossoms, which perfume the air with a fragrance like heliotrope. it is found in cold, mountain woods, up to thirteen thousand feet, across the continent and also in europe and asia, and was named after linnaeus because it was a favorite of his. [illustration: pink honeysuckle--lonicera hispidula. twin-flower--linnaea borealis var. americana.] there are several kinds of symphoricarpos, of north america and mexico; low, branching shrubs, with small leaves, scaly leaf-buds, and small, pink or white flowers, with two bracts, in clusters; the calyx roundish, with four or five teeth; the corolla regular, more or less bell-shaped, with four or five lobes; the fruit a roundish, white or red berry, containing two bony seeds. we often find snowberries cultivated in old-fashioned gardens. [sidenote: =snowberry= _symphoricàrpos racemòsus_ =pink spring, summer u. s.=] an attractive shrub, about four feet high, with slender branches and yellowish twigs. the pretty leaves are mostly smooth, rich green, but not glossy, paler and sometimes downy on the under side, thin, but rather crisp in texture, usually with a few shallow scallops along the margins. the flowers are about a quarter of an inch long, with bell-shaped corollas, purplish-pink outside, white and woolly in the inside, the stamens and style not protruding. the berry is large and pure-white, with white, almost tasteless pulp, which is said to be slightly poisonous. this is very common in california, in the hill country, and is found across the continent. [sidenote: =snowberry= _symphoricàrpos longiflòrus_ =white summer arizona=] a straggling shrub, from two to three feet high, with small, slightly velvety, rather pale green leaves, white on the under side, sometimes set edgewise on the stem. the flowers are about half an inch long, with a slender, white, salver-form corolla, with widely separating lobes and very smooth inside, the anthers partially protruding from the throat, and the pretty berries are waxy-white. this grows at the grand canyon. [sidenote: =snowberry= _symphoricàrpos oreóphilus_ =pink spring, summer idaho, utah, ariz.=] a branching shrub, not especially pretty, about three feet high, with shreddy bark, pinkish twigs, and light, bluish-green, toothless leaves, usually smooth. the flowers are about half an inch long, with a tubular corolla, with short lobes, flesh-color, tinged with purplish-pink, the stamens and style not protruding and the buds purplish-pink. this grows in the mountains, up to eight or ten thousand feet. [illustration: s. oreophilus. s. longiflorus. snowberry--symphoricarpos racemosus.] gourd family. _cucurbitaceae._ a large family, chiefly of the tropics, climbing or trailing, herbaceous vines, usually with tendrils, rather juicy, with no stipules; leaves alternate, with leaf-stalks, usually lobed or cut; flowers some staminate and some pistillate; calyx bell-shaped or tubular, usually five-lobed; petals mostly united, usually five, on the calyx; stamens generally three, with short filaments, often united; ovary inferior; fruit fleshy, often with a hard rind, usually with flat seeds. there are many kinds of micrampelis, natives of america. [sidenote: =chilicothe, wild cucumber= _micrámpelis fabàcea (echinocystis)_ =white summer california=] a graceful, decorative vine, with many tendrils and spreading to a great distance, sometimes as much as thirty feet, partly climbing over bushes and partly on the ground, springing from an enormous bitter root as large as a man's body, the leaves slightly rough. the pretty little flowers are half an inch across, the calyx with small teeth or with none and the corolla cream-white, with from five to seven lobes; the staminate flowers in loose clusters and the pistillate ones single. the fruit is peculiar and conspicuous, a big green ball, very prickly and measuring two inches across. the indians used to make hair-oil out of the seeds. this is also called big-root and man-in-the-ground. there are several kinds of cucurbita, natives of america, asia, and africa. this is the latin name for the gourd. [sidenote: =calabazilla, gourd= _cucúrbita foetidíssima_ =yellow spring southwest, etc.=] this is a near relation of the common pumpkin and squash and resembles them. it is an exceedingly coarse, but very decorative vine, with bristly stems, trailing on the ground and sometimes twenty-five feet long. the leaves are about eight inches long, bluish-gray, thick and velvety, covered with bristles and exceedingly unpleasant to touch but handsome in appearance. the gaudy flowers measure five or six inches across, with a bristly calyx and bell-shaped, orange-yellow corolla. the root is enormous, sometimes six feet long, the fruit is a smooth, yellow gourd, and the whole plant has a horrible smell. this is found in dry soil, from nebraska west, and is common in southern california. [illustration: chilicothe--micrampelis fabacea.] bellflower family. _campanulaceae._ a large family, widely distributed. ours are small herbs, with bitter milky juice; leaves alternate, without stipules; flowers perfect, usually with five sepals; corolla with five united lobes; stamens five; ovary inferior, style long, sometimes hairy, with two to five stigmas, which do not expand until some time after the flower opens. there are a great many kinds of campanula; ours are chiefly perennials, with more or less bell-shaped corollas; the capsule tipped with the remains of the calyx and opening at the sides by minute holes. the name is from the latin, meaning "little bell." [sidenote: =harebell, blue bells of scotland= _campánula rotundifòlia_ =violet summer west, etc.=] this is the well-known kind, sung by the poets, and found across our continent and in europe and asia, reaching an altitude of twelve thousand feet. a charming, graceful little plant, with slender stems, from six inches to two feet tall, springing from a cluster of dull green, roundish or heart-shaped leaves, which usually wither away before the flowers bloom; the stem-leaves long and narrow. the flowers hang on threadlike pedicels, usually in a loose cluster, and are less than an inch long, violet or blue and paler at the base, with a long white pistil and pale yellow or lilac anthers. neither the plants nor the flowers are nearly so fragile as they look, for the stems are wiry and the flowers are slightly papery in texture. this plant is variable and may include more than one kind. it seems hardly necessary to remark that it is not to be confused with _calochortus albus_, which is unfortunately sometimes called hairbell and is entirely different, but i have several times been asked whether they were the same. [sidenote: =bellflower= _campánula scoúleri_ =white, lilac summer northwest, cal.=] a pretty little plant, with smooth, slender stems, from six to eight inches tall, and smooth, toothed leaves. the flowers are in a loose cluster and are more the shape of little lilies than of blue bells, white tinged with lilac, or pale blue, with yellow anthers and a long pistil with three pink stigmas. the california harebell, _c. prenanthoìdes_, has blue flowers, similar in shape. [illustration: bell-flower--campanula scouleri. harebell--c. rotundifolia.] sunflower family. _compositae._ the youngest and largest plant family, comprising about seven hundred and fifty genera and ten thousand species, highly specialized for insect pollination, easily recognized as a whole, but many of its members difficult to distinguish. some tropical kinds are trees; ours are usually herbs, sometimes shrubs, without stipules; the leaves opposite, alternate or from the root; the flowers all small and crowded in heads, on the enlarged top of the flower-stalk, which is called the "receptacle," and surrounded by a common involucre of separate bracts, few or many, arranged in one or more rows; the receptacle also sometimes having scale-like or bristle-like bracts among the flowers, its surface smooth, or variously pitted and honey-combed. the flowers are sometimes perfect, or with only pistils, or only stamens, or with stamens and pistils on different plants, or all kinds mixed. the calyx-tube is sometimes a mere ring, or its margin consists of hairs, bristles or scales, called the "pappus." the corollas are chiefly of two sorts; they are tubular and usually have five lobes or teeth, but often the flowers around the margin of the head are strap-shaped, that is, the border of the corolla is expanded into what is called a "ray." for instance, the yellow center, or "disk," of a daisy is composed of a crowded mass of tiny tube-shaped flowers, which is surrounded by a circle of white, strap-shaped flowers, or rays, which look like petals. a thistle, on the other hand, has no rays and the head is made up of tube-shaped flowers only. stamens usually five, on the corolla-tube, alternate with its lobes, anthers usually united into a tube surrounding the style, which has two branches in fertile flowers, but usually undivided in sterile flowers; ovary inferior, one-celled, maturing into an akene, often tipped with hairs from the pappus to waft it about, or with hooks or barbs to catch in fur of animals. (descriptions of genera have been omitted as too technical.) there are many kinds of carduus (cnicus) (cirsium), widely distributed; with tubular flowers only. [sidenote: =thistle= _càrduus còulteri_ =pink, crimson spring, summer california=] a strikingly handsome, branching plant, from three to seven feet high, with light green leaves, very decorative in form, more or less downy on the upper side and pale with down on the under. the flower-heads, about two inches long, have bright lilac-pink or crimson flowers and more or less woolly involucres. this grows in the hills and mountains of the coast ranges. [illustration: thistle--carduus coulteri.] [sidenote: =arizona thistle= _càrduus arizònicus_ =pink summer arizona=] a very striking and decorative plant, both in form and color, from two to six feet tall, with a pale, branching, leafy stem, covered with close, white down, springing from a cluster of large root-leaves. the leaves are gray-green, covered with white down, and show great beauty of design, being sharply and symmetrically lobed and toothed, the margins armed with long yellow prickles. the flower-heads are an inch and a half long, with beautiful carmine and pale-pink flowers, all with no tinge of purple, the vivid spots of color giving a very brilliant effect in contrast with the pale foliage. this grows in the grand canyon and is conspicuous along the berry trail, a little way below the rim. [sidenote: =thistle= _càrduus candadíssimus_ =pink, crimson summer california=] a very handsome and decorative plant, about three feet tall, with spreading stems, covered with white down, and dull-green leaves, pale with down on the under side and often covered with white down all over. the handsome flower-heads are two inches or more long and have deep pink or crimson flowers and very woolly involucres. [sidenote: =california thistle= _càrduus califórnicus_ =white spring california=] a branching plant, from two to six feet tall, very leafy below, with very dark bluish-green leaves, with more or less woolly down on the upper side and pale with matted down on the under side. the flower-heads are nearly three inches across, with cream-white or rarely purple flowers, and the bracts are caught together with silky, cobwebby down. this is common in the sierra nevada. [sidenote: =western thistle= _càrduus occidentàlis_ =red, purple spring cal., oreg.=] a stout plant, two or three feet high, with large prickly leaves, and more or less covered all over with cottony wool. the flower-head is about two inches long, and nearly as wide, and is a ball of white, cobwebby wool, pierced all over with brown spines, and tipped with wine-colored flowers. this is common on sandy hills, near the coast, from san francisco south. yellow-spined thistle, _c. ochrocéntrus_, found in nevada and arizona and as far east as colorado, has purple flowers and leaves deeply slashed and armed with long yellow spines. this grows at the grand canyon. [illustration: arizona thistle--carduus arizonicus.] [illustration: thistles. carduus californicus. c. candadissimus.] there are a good many kinds of anaphalis, natives of the north temperate zone, but only one in north america. [sidenote: =pearly everlasting= _anáphalis margaritàcea_ =white summer u. s., etc.=] this is the prettiest of the everlastings, from one to three feet tall, with a leafy stem, covered with white wool, and alternate, toothless leaves, which are rather long and narrow, gray-green and more or less woolly on the upper side, pale and woolly on the under. the flower-heads are numerous, forming close, roundish clusters. the heads are without rays, but the tiny, yellow, tubular flowers are surrounded by many small, white, papery bracts, resembling petals, making the involucre the conspicuous feature and forming a pretty little, round, white head. this is common in dry places, east and west, and found in asia. there is a picture in mathews' _field book_. rosy everlasting, _antennària ròsea_, has the same general appearance, but the bracts are pink, giving a pretty pink tint to the flower-cluster, and is found in the northwest at high altitudes. another kind of everlasting is _gnaphàlium microcéphalum_, cudweed, a mountain plant of the northwest and california, with similar foliage, but with larger, looser clusters of cream-white flowers, conspicuous at a distance, though not pretty close by. there is a picture of a similar species in mathews' _field book_. there are several kinds of encelia. [sidenote: =encelia= _encèlia eriocéphala_ =yellow spring southwest=] a handsome, desert plant, with rough, purplish stems, a foot and a half tall, dull-green, hairy leaves, and flowers over an inch across, in loose clusters, with bright golden-yellow rays, yellow centers, and woolly involucres. this makes fine conspicuous clumps of bright color on the pale desert sand. [sidenote: =golden hills, brittle-bush= _encèlia farinòsa_ =yellow spring arizona=] a conspicuous shrubby plant, from two to four feet high, with many stout, branching stems, grayish, downy twigs, and large clumps of downy, gray-green leaves, from which spring the long, slender flower-stalks, bearing loose clusters of handsome flowers. they are each over an inch and a quarter across, with bright yellow rays and orange centers and are well set off by the rather pale foliage. this grows on hillsides among the rocks and gives a golden hue which may be seen at a distance of seven or eight miles. [illustration: golden hills--encelia farinosa. encelia frutescens.] [sidenote: =california encelia= _encèlia califórnica_ =yellow spring california=] a handsome conspicuous shrub, two feet or more high, gray and downy when young but becoming smoother and greener, with downy, reddish twigs, dark green leaves, and numerous flowers, on long flower-stalks. they are two or three inches across, with three-toothed, bright yellow rays and very dark maroon or brown centers, specked with yellow, and velvety or hairy involucres. this grows on sea-cliffs, where it makes very effective masses of color, in fine contrast to the blue of the sea below and the sky above. [sidenote: _encèlia frutéscens_ =yellow spring southwest=] a rather straggling shrub, about two feet high, with whitish, woody stems, pale reddish twigs, and bright green leaves, which are roughened with minute prickles on the margins and under sides, but look quite shiny. the flower-heads are over half an inch long, in western arizona usually without any rays, and are not especially pretty, like a starved sunflower whose rays have shrivelled away in the dry heat of the desert, but the effect of the foliage, which suggests little apple leaves, is decidedly attractive in the arid sandy places it frequents. there are many kinds of helianthus, natives of the new world. [sidenote: =common sunflower= _heliánthus ánnuus_ =yellow summer west, etc.=] a handsome kind, with a rough stem, from two to ten feet tall, roughish leaves, more or less toothed, the upper alternate, the lower opposite, and a flower-head from two to four inches across, with bright golden-yellow, toothless rays, a maroon center, and a very dark green involucre, with stiff, overlapping bracts. this is larger in cultivation and is a very useful plant, for its flowers yield honey and a yellow dye, its seeds oil and food, the leaves are good for fodder, and the stalks for textile fiber. it is common nearly everywhere along roadsides, as far east as missouri, and is found as a stray in the east. [illustration: california encelia--e. californica. encelia frutescens. common sunflower--helianthus annuus.] [sidenote: =sunflower= _heliánthus fasciculàris_ =yellow spring nev., ariz., etc.=] a handsome kind, forming a clump from two to four feet high, with several leafy, rough stems and harsh, rather shiny leaves. the fine flowers measure four inches across, with bright yellow rays, deeper yellow centers, and bronze, rough, rather resinous involucres. this is common around reno and grows in dry mountain valleys as far east as colorado. [sidenote: =hairy golden aster= _chrysópsis villòsa_ =yellow summer arizona, etc.=] a striking plant, quite handsome, with a hairy, pale, leafy stem, from six inches to two feet tall, and gray-green, rather velvety leaves, generally toothless. the flowers are an inch or more across, with bright golden-yellow rays and centers of the same shade, growing singly, or in a more or less crowded cluster at the top of the stalk. this is common in open ground and dry hills, up to an altitude of ten thousand feet, as far east as alabama, and there are many varieties. the greek name means "golden aspect." [sidenote: =velvet-rosette= _psathyròtes ánnua_ =yellow spring southwest=] a curious and pretty little desert plant, that looks as if it were trying to protect itself from cold rather than heat, as its pretty foliage and stems seem all made of silvery, gray velvet, forming a symmetrical rosette, dotted with the small, rayless, yellow flower-heads, like fuzzy buttons. the rosette is decorative in form, about a foot across, spreading flat and close to the ground, and is conspicuous on the bare sand of the desert. only one of the branches is given in the picture. [sidenote: =easter daisy, ground daisy= _townséndia exscàpa_ =pink spring ariz., new mex. to saskatchewan=] this is a charming and quaint little plant, with close, downy rosettes of small, gray-green leaves and two or three, pretty, daisy-like flowers, all crowded together close to the ground. the flowers are over an inch across, with numerous, pale-pink rays, deeper pink on the under side, and a bright yellow center, and when they bloom in early spring, on bare rocky soil, they are exceedingly attractive. there are a great many kinds of erigeron, widely distributed, most abundant in the new world, easily confused with asters, but usually with numerous and finer rays, so that the effect is more delicate. [illustration: easter daisy--townsendia exscapa.] [illustration: velvet-rosette--psathyrotes annua. hairy golden aster--chrysopsis villosa. sunflower--helianthus fascicularis.] [sidenote: =fleabane= _erígeron bréweri_ =purple summer california=] this is rather pretty, with slender, brittle, downy stems, from six to eighteen inches tall, and small, narrow, rough, dull green leaves. the flowers grow singly, at the ends of short leafy branches, and are each less than an inch across, with rather few violet or pinkish-purple rays and a yellow center. this is common around yosemite and looks a good deal like an aster. [sidenote: =whip-lash fleabane= _erígeron flagellàris_ =white, pink summer ariz., utah, etc.=] a rather odd-looking plant, with numerous, very slender, weak, branching stems, trailing on the ground, and very small, toothless, grayish-green, downy leaves, forming a rather dense, low bush, about two and a half feet across, the long sprays interlacing and dotted here and there with pretty little flowers, with numerous fine, white, pink-tipped rays and a yellow center. the sprays often take root at the tip. this grows in the grand canyon, and is found as far east as colorado. [sidenote: =rayless fleabane= _erígeron concínnus var. aphanáctis_ =yellow spring utah, nev., cal. etc.=] a rather attractive little plant, forming small clumps, about five inches high, with several very hairy stems and light dull green, very hairy leaves. the many flower-heads are less than half an inch across, deep yellow, without rays. this grows on dry plains and mesas, as far east as colorado, and has a rather starved appearance. [sidenote: =spreading fleabane= _erígeron divérgens_ =violet spring, summer, autumn west, etc.=] a dear little common plant, from six to fifteen inches high, with several slender, branching, hairy stems, and soft, hairy, gray-green leaves, the upper ones small and narrow, without leaf-stalks and the lower ones sometimes with two or three lobes and with leaf-stalks. the flower-heads, several or many, on slender flower-stalks, measure nearly an inch across in spring, but are smaller in summer, and have numerous very narrow rays, white towards the center, shading to bright violet or pink at the tips, with a bright yellow center. this often grows in quantities on dry plains and mountain-sides, as far east as texas, and is quite charming, the tufts of foliage, dotted with pretty delicate little flowers, not touching each other, but sprinkled over a large space, recalling the little flowers in early italian pictures. _e. pùmilis_, of the northwest and utah, is much the same, with white rays. [illustration: spreading fleabane--e. divergens. e breweri. whip-lash fleabane--erigeron flagellaris. rayless fleabane--e. concinnus var. aphanactis.] [sidenote: =large mountain fleabane= _erígeron salsuginòsus_ =lilac summer west, etc.=] a large, handsome kind, abundant in the higher mountains and growing in moist places, as far east as colorado. the stems are downy and leafy, from one to two feet tall, the leaves are smooth or slightly hairy, with bristle-like points, and the flowers are an inch and a half or more across, with bright yellow centers and clear bright lilac rays, not very narrow. [sidenote: =yellow fleabane= _erígeron àureus (aplopappus brandegei)_ =yellow summer wash., oreg.=] a little alpine plant, about three inches tall, with downy stems, thickish, gray-green leaves, covered with close white down and forming a mat of foliage on the rocks at high altitudes. the flowers are rather more than half an inch across, with a woolly involucre, dark yellow center, and deep yellow rays, an unusual color among fleabanes. [sidenote: =seaside daisy, beach aster= _erígeron glàucus_ =violet, pink spring, summer cal., oreg.=] very cheerful, sturdy-looking flowers, with stout, hairy stems, four to ten inches tall, and stiffish, slightly hairy leaves, rather pale in color. the handsome flowers are an inch and a half across, with numerous violet, lilac, or pink rays and rather dark yellow centers. this grows near the sea and is common on cliffs and sandy shores, where it makes beautiful spots of bright color. [sidenote: =skevish, philadelphia fleabane= _erígeron philadélphicus_ =pink, mauve spring, summer u. s.=] a pretty perennial, from one to three feet tall, usually soft and hairy, the slender stems usually branching above and most of the leaves toothed. the flowers usually form a loose cluster at the top, the buds drooping, and the heads are from half an inch to an inch across, with yellow centers and a very feathery fringe of pink or pinkish rays. this grows in fields and woods. there is a picture in mathews' _field book_. _e. còulteri_, the large white mountain daisy, is a beautiful kind, from six to twenty inches tall, with bright green leaves, often toothed, sometimes downy, and the flowers usually single, an inch and a half across, usually with pure white rays. this grows in yosemite meadows and similar mountain places, in utah, california, and colorado. _e. compósitus_ is a little alpine plant, forming dense leafy mats, easily recognized by the broad tips of the leaves being cut into lobes, usually three. the flowers are an inch or more across, with violet or white rays. this grows on the granite peaks around yosemite, and in other alpine regions, as far east as colorado. [illustration: yellow fleabane--e. aureus. seaside daisy--erigeron glaucus. large mountain fleabane--e. salsuginosus.] [sidenote: =ptilonella= _ptilonélla scàbra (blepharipappus)_ =white spring oreg., ida., nev., cal.=] a charming little desert plant, graceful and airy in character, with stiff, very slender, branching, roughish stems, about ten inches tall, and dull green leaves, very rough to the touch, with the edges rolled back. the delicate little flowers are an inch across, with pure white rays, and with white centers, which are specked with black and pink. this is common on the mesas around reno and looks much like some kinds of madia. [sidenote: =desert holly= _perèzia nàna_ =pink spring ariz., tex.=] an odd little desert plant, only two or three inches high, with stiff, smooth, dull bluish-green leaves, with prickly edges, like holly leaves but not so stiff, and one quite pretty, light purplish-pink flower, the head about an inch long, with purplish bracts. the effect of the whole plant is of a little sprig stuck into the sand. [sidenote: =brown-foot= _perèzia wrìghtii_ =pink spring ariz., tex.=] much like the last, but more commonplace looking, for the flowers are smaller and the plant much larger. it is about a foot high and grows among rocks, and the general effect of dull mauve is rather pretty, though not bright in color. the common name alludes to the plant being covered with a mass of brown hairs at the base. there are several kinds of gutierrezia, all american. [sidenote: =brown-weed= _gutierrèzia saròthrae (g. euthamiae)_ =yellow summer, autumn west, etc.=] a bushy plant, resinous, smooth or nearly so, from six inches to two feet high, with many stiff, upright branches and alternate, toothless, narrow leaves, an inch or so long. the flowers have yellow centers and small yellow rays, forming clusters at the ends of the branches, and though very small are so numerous as to make effective clumps of bright color. this grows at the grand canyon, and in dry rocky places, as far east as the central states. [illustration: ptilonella--p. scabra. brown-foot--perezia wrightii. desert holly--p. nana.] there are a good many kinds of helenium, natives of north and central america. [sidenote: =sneeze-weed= _helènium bigelòwii_ =yellow summer, autumn cal., oreg.=] a handsome plant, with a roughish stem, from two to four feet tall, and toothless, rather coarse leaves, rougher on the underside, the lower part of the leaf grown to the stem along its middle in a curious way. the flowers are from an inch and a half to two inches across, with bright golden-yellow rays and a rich-brown center, powdered with yellow pollen, and the budding flower heads look like brown buttons. this grows in meadows and along streams, at moderate altitudes, and is found in yosemite. [sidenote: _hymenopáppus lùteus_ =yellow summer ariz., new mex., col., utah=] a pretty and rather unusual-looking plant, with a cluster of root-leaves, gray-green and downy, cut into many fine divisions, and slender stems, about a foot tall, with two or three, narrow, alternate, toothless leaves, and bearing at the top a few pretty, bright yellow flower-heads, nearly an inch across, with tube-shaped flowers only. this grows in dry, open places. there are many kinds of madia, sticky, heavy-scented herbs, commonly called tarweed and called madi in chili. they are used medicinally by spanish-californians. [sidenote: _common madia, tarweed_ _màdia élegans_ =yellow summer, autumn west=] pretty flowers, with hairy stems, from six inches to three feet tall, and velvety or hairy leaves, more or less sticky and the upper ones alternate. the flowers grow in loose clusters and are from one to over two inches across, with bright yellow rays, sometimes with a spot of maroon at the base which gives an extremely pretty effect, and a yellow or maroon center. this often makes pretty patches of color in sandy places, and is widely distributed and very variable. woodland madia, _m. madioìdes_, is similar, but not so pretty. [sidenote: =gum-weed= _màdia dissitiflòra_ =yellow summer california=] a slender plant, over a foot tall, with hairy stem and leaves, which are aromatic when crushed, and rather pretty little flowers, about half an inch across, with pale yellow rays, yellow centers specked with black, and sticky-hairy involucres. this grows along roadsides and the edges of woods. [illustration: madia--m. elegans. hymenopappus luteus. sneeze weed--helenium bigelowii. gum-weed--madia dissitiflora.] there are many kinds of coreopsis, natives of america, south africa, and australasia, several of them cultivated in gardens. they are called tickseed. [sidenote: =desert coreopsis= _coreópsis bigelòwii_ =yellow spring california=] this is very pretty, with one or several, slender, smooth stems, about ten inches tall, springing from a tuft of pretty, bright green, smooth, shiny leaves, cut into narrow divisions and slightly succulent. the flowers are an inch and a half to two inches across, with bright yellow rays, lighter at the tips, and an orange center, and look exceedingly pretty in the mohave desert. [sidenote: =sea dahlia= _coreópsis marítima (leptosyne)_ =yellow spring california=] a magnificent plant, forming large clumps, two feet high, but not at all coarse in character. the leaves are very bright green, smooth and quite succulent, and cut into narrow lobes, so that the effect is graceful and unusual looking. the superb flowers are often four inches across, with clear light yellow rays and orange-yellow centers, and the lower row of bracts stand out stiffly like a ruffle and are like the leaves in texture and color, contrasting oddly with the upper bracts, which are satiny in texture and almost as yellow as the rays. these plants are conspicuously beautiful on the sea cliffs near san diego. [sidenote: =trixis= _tríxis angustifòlia var. latiúscula_ =yellow spring southwest, new mex.=] a small evergreen shrub, about a foot high, with smooth, light dull green leaves, with a few fine teeth, and loose clusters of rather pretty, bright yellow flowers, the heads about three-quarters of an inch long. this grows on rocky hillsides and is quite effective. there are a great many kinds of chrysanthemum, widely distributed in the northern hemisphere. [sidenote: =ox-eye daisy= _chrysánthemum leucánthemum_ =white spring, summer, autumn northwest, etc.=] this is the well known common kind, a general favorite, except with farmers, naturalized from europe and also found in asia; a perennial weed in pastures, meadows, and waste places, more or less all over the united states, but much more common in the northeast. it grows from one to three feet high, the leaves toothed and cut, and the flower-heads measuring from one to two inches across, with bright golden centers and pure white rays. [illustration: trixis angustifolia--var. latiuscula. desert coreopsis--c. bigelowii. sea dahlia--coreopsis maritima.] there are several kinds of coreothrogyne, some resembling lessingia, others aster. [sidenote: =woolly aster= _coreothrógyne filaginifòlia_ =pink, purple spring, summer, autumn california=] this forms a clump from one to three feet high, with many erect stems, white with woolly down, at least when young, and crowded with alternate, pale grayish-green leaves, thin and soft in texture and covered with down. the flower-heads are an inch across, with purplish-pink rays and dark yellow centers, and contrast rather prettily with the pale foliage. in yosemite this grows on rocky ledges below five thousand feet and blooms late. it is common from monterey to santa barbara, blooming at almost all seasons, and is very variable. [sidenote: _psilóstrophe tagetìna var. sparsiflòra (riddellia)_ =yellow spring, summer arizona=] these flowers do not look much like those of a composite, but give more the effect of yellow wallflowers. the plant is very attractive, from one to two feet tall, with alternate, bluish-green leaves, most of them toothless, and handsome clusters of lemon-yellow flowers. they are each about three-quarters of an inch across, delicately scented, and usually have four large rays, mixed with a few smaller and more irregularly shaped, all much more like petals than rays and becoming papery in fading. the picture is of a plant growing in the grand canyon. [sidenote: =paper flowers= _psilóstrophe coòperi_ =yellow spring southwest=] a pretty, compact, shrubby plant, woody below, about a foot high, with tangled branches, pale downy twigs, and thickish, dull green, downy leaves. the pretty flowers are an inch and a quarter across, with an orange-yellow center and five or six, large, clear bright yellow rays, twisted to one side and puckered at the base, turning back and becoming papery as they fade. this plant is at its best in sandy soil and is very effective in the desert. when fully developed it is very symmetrical in outline, forming a charming yellow globe of flowers. there are several kinds of xylorrhiza, nearly related to the aster group and by some authorities regarded as asters. [illustration: woolly aster--coreothrogyne filaginifolia. psilostrophe tagetina--var. sparsiflora. paper flowers--p. cooperi.] [sidenote: =xylorrhiza= _xylorrhìza tortifòlia_ =lilac spring southwest, utah, col.=] a handsome plant, growing in clumps over two feet high, with prickly leaves and beautiful flowers, two inches and a half across, with rays shading from bright lilac to nearly white and yellow centers. this is common in the grand canyon. there are a good many kinds of arnica, natives of the northern hemisphere. this is the ancient name and a european kind is much used medicinally. [sidenote: =heart-leaved arnica= _Árnica cordifòlia_ =yellow summer west, except ariz.=] a handsome mountain flower, with a hairy stem, from six inches to two feet tall, and velvety leaves, coarsely toothed, the lower ones usually heart-shaped. the flower-heads are usually single, over two inches across, with bright yellow rays, an orange center, and a hairy involucre. this is common in rich moist soil in mountain valleys, as far east as colorado. [sidenote: =broad-leaved arnica= _Árnica latifòlia_ =yellow summer northwest=] a handsome kind, sometimes a foot and a half tall, with pretty flowers, about two inches across, with very bright yellow rays. the bright green leaves are thin in texture and practically smooth, the lower ones more or less roundish, with leaf stalks. this grows in mountain woods. there are many kinds of artemisia; herbs or shrubs, usually bitter and aromatic, widely distributed. [sidenote: =common sage-brush= _artemísia tridentàta_ =yellow summer, autumn west, etc.=] this is the characteristic sort, often immensely abundant and found as far east as colorado, often tinting the landscape for miles with its pale and beautiful foliage and one of the dominant shrubs in the great basin. it is very branching, from one to twelve feet high, with a distinct trunk and shreddy bark, and the twigs and alternate leaves are all gray-green, covered with silvery down, the upper leaves small and toothless, the lower wedge-shaped, with usually three, blunt teeth. the small yellow flowers have no rays and grow in small, close clusters, forming long sprays towards the ends of the branches. sagebrush is a "soil indicator" and when the prospective rancher finds it on land he knows at once that it will be good for even dry farming, as the soil contains no salt or alkali. [illustration: xylorrhiza tortifolia.] [illustration: heart-leaved arnica--a. cordifolia. broad-leaved arnica--a. latifolia.] there are a good many kinds of eriophyllum, common and very variable, woolly plants. [sidenote: =woolly yellow daisy= _eriophýllum lanàtum_ =yellow spring, summer cal., oreg., wash.=] this is a handsome kind, in favorable situations forming large conspicuous clumps, from one to two feet high, covered with bright golden flowers, each over an inch across. the leaves are dull green on the upper side, but the under side and the buds and stems are all covered with fine white down. the leaves are variable in form, sometimes neither lobed nor toothed, and sometimes cut into narrow toothed divisions. this has a variety of forms and grows on hillsides. [sidenote: =eriophyllum= _eriophýllum caespitòsum var. integrifòlium_ =yellow summer northwest, etc.=] this forms low tufts of pale gray downy foliage, contrasting well with the bright yellow flower-heads, each about an inch across. this grows around yosemite and in other mountain places, as far east as wyoming, and has a variety of forms. [sidenote: =golden yarrow= _eriophýllum confertiflòrum_ =yellow summer california=] this has small flowers, but it forms such large clumps that the effect of the golden-yellow clusters is handsome and very conspicuous, on dry hills and mountains and along roadsides in summer. it is woody below, from one to two feet high, and the leaves are more or less woolly. the variety _discoídeum_ has no rays. there are many kinds of anthemis, natives of europe, asia, and africa. [sidenote: =mayweed, chamomile, dog fennel= _Ánthemis cótula_ =white summer, autumn u. s., etc.=] this little weed is common in waste places and fields and along roadsides, almost all over the world. it is a branching annual, from one to two feet tall, with feathery light green foliage, cut into many long, narrow divisions, almost smooth, with a disagreeable smell and strong acrid taste. the many daisy-like flowers have heads about an inch across, with from ten to eighteen white rays and convex yellow centers. there is a picture of this plant in mathews' _field book_. [illustration: golden yarrow--e. confertiflorum. woolly yellow daisy--e. lanatum. eriophyllum caespitosum--var. integrifolium.] there are a good many kinds of chaenactis, the flower-heads with tubular flowers only, but in some kinds the marginal flowers are larger and have a broad border resembling a kind of ray. [sidenote: =chaenactis= _chaenáctis douglásii_ =white spring, summer utah, cal., new mex.=] a rather pretty plant, from eight inches to over a foot tall and more or less downy, with stiffish, gray-green, leaves, cut into many short, blunt lobes and teeth. the flower-heads are about an inch long, and contain numerous small, pearly-white or pinkish, tube-shaped flowers, with long, purplish pistils. this grows in dry open places, the flowers turn pink in fading and are sweet-smelling and quite pretty, though not striking. _c. macrántha_, which grows in the grand canyon, has similar flowers, rather prettier, with a somewhat sickly scent, but it is a lower plant. [sidenote: =golden girls= _chaenáctis lanòsa_ =yellow spring california=] a charming desert plant, with several downy stems, over a foot tall, springing from a feathery cluster of pretty, bright green, thickish leaves, cut into narrow divisions, rather downy and often tinged with red. the flower-head is nearly an inch and a half across, without rays, but the marginal flowers in the head are larger and have broad borders that look like rays. they are a beautiful shade of clear bright yellow. [sidenote: =morning bride= _chaenáctis fremóntii_ =white spring southwest=] this is very much like the last in size, form, and foliage and is equally charming, but the flowers are all pure white, or pinkish, instead of yellow. it is one of the most attractive of the white desert flowers. [sidenote: =desert star= _erimiástrum bellidoìdes_ =lilac spring arizona=] a charming little desert plant, with spreading stems and small, narrow, toothless, gray bluish-green leaves, which are soft, but sprinkled with small, stiff, white bristles, the whole forming a rosette, five or six inches across, growing flat on the sand and ornamented with many pretty little flowers. they are each set off by a little rosette of leaves and are over half an inch across, with pinkish-lilac rays, shading to white towards the yellow center and tinted with bright purple on the back. [illustration: desert star--erimiastrum bellidoides. chaenactis--c. douglasii. golden girls--chaenactis lanosa.] [sidenote: =venegasia= _venegàsia carpesioìdes_ =yellow summer california=] these big, leafy plants, with their bright flowers, are a splendid feature of the california woods and canyons in june, especially on the slopes of the santa inez mountains, where they often cover large areas with green and gold; unfortunately the smell is rather disagreeable. the leafy stems are four or five feet high, nearly smooth, with alternate, bright green leaves, almost smooth and thin in texture, and the flowers, resembling sun-flowers, are over two inches across, with clear yellow rays, an orange center, and an involucre of many green scales, overlapping and wrapped around each other, so that the bud looks much like a tiny head of lettuce. this was named for venegas, a jesuit missionary, and is the only kind, growing near the coast in the south. [sidenote: =lessingia= _lessíngia leptóclada_ =lilac summer california=] this is a slender plant, from six inches to two feet tall, with pale gray green, woolly leaves, the lower ones somewhat toothed, and pale pinkish-lilac flowers, not very conspicuous in themselves, but sometimes growing in such quantities that they form pretty patches of soft pinkish color in sandy places. the flower-head is about half an inch long, with no rays, but the outer flowers in the head are larger and have long lobes resembling rays. this is very variable, especially in size, and is common along dry roadsides and quite abundant in yosemite. the picture is of a small plant. _l. germanòrum_, which is common on sandy hills along the coast from san francisco to san diego, has yellow flowers and blooms in autumn. there are many kinds of baeria, not easily distinguished. [sidenote: =sunshine, gold fields= _baéria grácilis_ =yellow southwest=] this is a dear little plant, often covering the fields with a carpet of gold. the slender stems are about six inches tall, with soft, downy, light green leaves, usually opposite, and pretty fragrant flowers, about three-quarters of an inch across, with bright yellow rays and darker yellow centers. this is sometimes called fly flower, because in some places it is frequented by a small fly, which is annoying to horses. _b. macrántha_ is a much larger plant, a biennial, with a tuberous root, from seven inches to a foot and a half tall, with long, narrow, toothless leaves, with hairy margins, and flower-heads from an inch to an inch and a half across, with yellow rays and hairy involucres. this grows along the coast in california, blooming in may and june. [illustration: venegasia--v. carpesioides. sunshine--baeria gracilis. lessingia--l. leptoclada.] there are several kinds of bahia, natives of western north america, mexico, and chile, herbs or shrubs, more or less woolly. [sidenote: =bahia= _bàhia absinthifòlia_ =yellow spring arizona=] this is from eight to fifteen inches tall, with pretty flowers, an inch and a half across, with bright yellow rays and deep yellow centers, contrasting well with the pale gray-green foliage, which is covered with close white down. this grows in arid situations on the mesas and often forms clumps. there are several kinds of crassina, natives of the united states and mexico. [sidenote: =desert zinnia= _crassìna pùmila (zinnia)_ =white spring arizona=] nothing could look much less like a garden zinnia than this dry, prickly-looking dwarf shrub. it is from three inches to a foot high, the branches crowded with very small, stiff, dull green leaves, and the flowers are about an inch across, rather pretty but not conspicuous, with a yellow center and four or five, broad, cream-white rays, often tinged with dull pink. this plant grows on the plains and is a "soil-indicator," as it flourishes on the poorest, stoniest, and most arid land. [sidenote: =wild marigold= _bàileya multiradiàta_ =yellow spring, summer, etc. southwest, tex.=] charming flowers, with a thrifty, cultivated appearance like that of a garden flower. the plant is a foot tall, with grayish-green, woolly stems and foliage, and the handsome flower is an inch and a half across, with a fine ruffle of many bright yellow rays, prettily scalloped, and a yellow center, rather deeper in color. in arizona bouquets of these flowers may be gathered during every month in the year. [sidenote: _bàileya pauciradiàta_ =yellow spring southwest=] an odd little desert plant, about six inches tall, with a thickish stem and soft, thickish leaves, covered all over with silky, white wool, giving a pale, silky effect to the whole plant, which is quite pretty, though the pale yellow flowers, each about half an inch across, are not striking. [illustration: desert zinnia--crassina pumila. baileya pauciradiata. bahia absinthifolia. wild marigold--baileya multiradiata.] [sidenote: =pentachaeta= _pentachaèta àurea_ =yellow spring california=] gay, yet delicate little flowers, with slender branching stems, about eight inches tall, and light green, very narrow leaves. the flowers are an inch across, with a feathery ruffle of very numerous narrow rays, light yellow at the tips, growing deeper towards the orange-colored center, and the pretty buds are often tinged with pink or purple. this often grows in patches and is common in southern california. [sidenote: =daisy dwarf= _actinolèpis lanòsa_ =white spring arizona=] a quaint little desert plant, only two or three inches tall, with thickish, pale gray-green leaves, covered with close white down, and pretty little flowers, growing singly at the ends of tiny branches, each half an inch across, with a yellow center and pure white rays, which fold back at night. these little flowers are too small to be very conspicuous, but are charming in effect, sprinkled over the bare sand, and when growing in quantities on nearly bare mesas give a whitish appearance to the ground. there are a good many kinds of blepharipappus. [sidenote: =yellow tidy-tips= _blepharipáppus élegans (layia)_ =yellow spring california=] very pretty flowers, with slender, branching, hairy stems, about a foot tall, and light green, hairy leaves. the flowers are about two inches across, with yellow rays, tipped with white or very pale yellow, neatly arranged around the deep yellow centers, which are specked with black. the rays twist up in fading and turn to a pretty shade of dull pink. this is common and a very handsome kind. [sidenote: =white tidy-tips= _blepharipáppus glandulòsus (layia)_ =white spring southwest, oreg., wash.=] a beautiful kind, eight or nine inches tall, with pale green, hairy leaves, the lower ones toothed, and a slender stem, bearing a charming flower, nearly an inch and a half across, with neat pure white rays and a bright yellow center. this grows in mountain canyons and is widely distributed as far north as british columbia. there are several kinds of gaillardia, all american. they are much cultivated in gardens, were named in honor of gaillard de merentonneau, a french botanist. [illustration: daisy dwarf--actinolepis lanosa. pentachaeta aurea. white tidy-tips--b. glandulosus. yellow tidy-tips--blepharipappus elegans.] [sidenote: =blanket-flower, gaillardia= _gaillàrdia pinnatífida_ =yellow summer ariz., col., tex.=] this is handsome and conspicuous, with a slender, rough stalk, about a foot tall, dull green, stiff, rather hairy leaves, mostly from the root, and beautiful flowers, an inch and a half across, with golden-yellow rays, with three teeth, and a center of shaded maroon and yellow, which is very velvety and pretty and becomes an attractive, purplish, fuzzy, round head when the rays drop off. this grows on the plains. _g. aristàta_, found throughout the west and as far east as colorado, is an exceedingly handsome kind, sometimes over two feet tall, with beautiful yellow flowers, sometimes measuring four inches across. [sidenote: =arizona gaillardia= _gaillàrdia arizònica_ =yellow spring arizona=] a pretty little desert plant, from four to eight inches tall, with a slender, downy flower-stalk, springing from a cluster of roughish, light dull green leaves, more or less hairy and bearing a single handsome flower, nearly two inches across, with a downy involucre and three-toothed rays of an unusual and pretty shade of dull light yellow, finely veined with brown on the back, surrounding a darker yellow, fuzzy center. [sidenote: =tiny tim= _hymenathèrum hartwégi_ =yellow spring arizona=] a neat little evergreen, shrubby plant, only about three inches high, with branching stems, clothed with small, narrow, dull green leaves, which look prickly but are actually not very stiff, though tipped with tiny bristles. the flowers are three-eighths of an inch across, very perfect in outline, with bright yellow rays and deeper yellow centers, and the whole effect, of a tiny shrub sprinkled with flowers, is quite attractive, growing on very dry ground along the roadside. the plant has a pronounced smell, which is not unpleasant. [sidenote: =tall purple aster= _machaeranthèra incàna (aster)_ =purple spring southwest, utah, new mex.=] this looks a good deal like an aster, a branching plant, from two to nearly three feet high, with grayish-green, slightly downy leaves, with very sharp teeth. the flowers are an inch and a half across, with narrow, bright violet rays and bright yellow centers. this grows abundantly in valleys. [illustration: purple aster--machaeranthera incana. tiny tim--hymenatherum hartwegi. blanket-flower--gaillardia pinnatifida. arizona gaillardia--g. arizonica.] [sidenote: _laphàmia bisetòsa_ =yellow summer ariz., new mex., tex.=] an insignificant plant, except that it grows on the sides of bare, red rocks or head-downward on the under side of overhanging ledges, apparently needing little or no soil, and is therefore noticeable. it forms round clumps, one or two feet across, with many slender stems, about six inches high, small, pale yellowish-green, roughish leaves, and small yellow flower-heads, without rays. this is rare and grows in the grand canyon. there are several kinds of grindelia, common in the west, recommended as a remedy for poison oak. [sidenote: =gum plant= _grindèlia latifòlia_ =yellow spring california=] coarse but rather effective flowers, with smooth, stiff, branching stems, about three feet high, and dark dull green leaves. the flower-heads are over an inch and a half across, with bright yellow rays and centers and very resinous, shiny buds. there are several kinds of balsamorrhiza. both the latin and common names allude to the aromatic roots. [sidenote: =arrow-leaf balsam-root, big root= _balsamorrhìza sagittàta_ =yellow spring utah, ida., cal., nev., col.=] a very handsome plant, the contrast between the gray-velvet leaves and the great yellow flowers being very striking. it forms large clumps, about a foot and a half high, with slightly downy flower-stalks and heart-shaped or arrow-shaped, toothless leaves, pale gray-green and velvety, covered with silvery down, whiter on the under side. the flowers are over three inches across, with clear bright yellow rays, and a deeper yellow center, fuzzy and greenish-yellow in the middle. the involucre is almost white, thickly covered with silvery, silky wool, and the flowers are pleasantly sweet-smelling. this grows on dry hillsides. [sidenote: =cut-leaved balsam-root= _balsamorrhìza macrophýlla_ =yellow spring, summer utah, wyo.=] a strikingly handsome plant, forming clumps even larger than the last, with similar flowers, but with quite different foliage. the leaves are rich-green, and decorative in form, more or less slashed into lobes and very sticky, with hairy margins and leaf-stalks, and are nearly as tall as the hairy, sticky flower-stems, from one to two feet high. this grows in rich soil in mountain valleys. [illustration: cut-leaved balsam root--balsamorrhiza macrophylla.] [illustration: laphamia bisetosa. gum plant--grindelia latifolia. arrow-leaf balsam-root--balsamorrhiza sagittata.] [sidenote: =balsam-root= _balsamorrhìza hóokeri_ =yellow spring west, except ariz.=] rather handsome, though a coarse plant, over a foot tall, with hairy, dull green or grayish leaves, crisp and harsh to the touch, variously lobed and cut, chiefly in a clump at the root. the flowers are numerous, from an inch and a half to over two inches across, with deep orange-yellow rays, and grow singly on long flower-stalks. this flourishes on dry plains and mesas. there are several kinds of wyethia, resembling balsam-roots, but their thick roots not resinous. [sidenote: =yellows, mule-ears= _wyéthia amplexicàulis_ =yellow spring, summer utah, nev., etc.=] a robust and exceedingly handsome plant, one or two feet tall, with rich foliage and gorgeous flowers. the leaves are stiffish, dark rich green, smooth but somewhat sticky, often toothed; the stem-leaves alternate, their bases partly clasping, and the root-leaves a foot or two long and two or three inches broad, with leaf-stalks. the flower-heads are about four inches across, with bright yellow rays, almost orange color, and the center with three rows of yellow disk-flowers, surrounding a clump of pointed, overlapping, stiff, greenish scales in the middle. this sometimes forms immense patches on dry hills at rather high altitudes, as far east as colorado. it is sometimes called compass plant, because its leaves are thought to point north and south, and the indian name is "pe-ik." [sidenote: =woolly wyethia= _wyéthia móllis_ =yellow summer california=] not so handsome as the last, but a striking plant, from one to four feet high, with gray-green, velvety foliage, all covered with soft wool, forming large clumps of leaves, from six to fifteen inches long. the flowers are two or three inches across, with orange rays and very woolly involucres. this is common in dry places in yosemite. there are several kinds of rudbeckia, all north american. [sidenote: =black eyed susan= _rudbéckia hírta_ =yellow summer california, etc.=] from one to four feet high, with rough leaves and one or a few handsome flowers, from one to four inches across, with deep yellow rays and a purplish-brown conical center. this comes from the mississippi valley, is very common in the east, and becoming common in yosemite meadows. [illustration: woolly wyethia--w. mollis. balsam-root--balsamorrhiza hookeri.] [sidenote: =brass buttons, butter-heads= _cótula coronopifòlia_ =yellow spring, summer, autumn cal., oreg.=] this little weed comes from south africa, but is now common in wet places, especially in the salt marshes around san francisco bay, often carpeting the sand and mud with its succulent, trailing stems. the bright green leaves are alternate and smooth, clasping the stem at base, some with toothless edges, others variously cut and lobed, and the flower-heads are about half an inch or less across, like the bright yellow center of a daisy, without rays. _matricària matricarioìdes_ is another little weed, common along roadsides, with conical, greenish-yellow flower-heads, without rays, and feathery foliage, which has a strong pleasant fruity smell when crushed, giving it the name of pineapple-weed and manzanilla. [sidenote: =tetradymia= _tetradýmia spinòsa_ =yellow spring west, etc.=] an odd desert shrub, about three feet high, with gray bark and crooked, gnarly, tangled branches, armed with long spines and clothed with small, downy, pale green leaves. the flower-heads are three-quarters of an inch long, without rays, with pale yellow tube-shaped flowers and downy, white involucres, and are so crowded on the twigs that they appear to be loaded with them, but the coloring is too pale to be effective. this is common in the mohave desert and elsewhere on dry hills and plains, as far east as colorado. there are a great many kinds of solidago, most of them natives of north america. on the whole, the western golden-rods are not so fine as the eastern ones, nor are there so many kinds, though there are quite enough to puzzle the amateur, as they are difficult to distinguish. [sidenote: =arizona golden-rod= _solidàgo trinervàta_ =yellow summer arizona=] a handsome kind, from one to two feet high, with flower-heads nearly three-eighths of an inch across, with bright yellow rays and centers, forming a large, handsome, plume-like cluster. the stem and leaves are dull bluish-green, rather stiff and rough, the lower leaves with a few obscure teeth. this grows at the grand canyon. _s. occidentàlis_, western golden-rod, is smooth all over, with leafy stems, from three to five feet tall, toothless leaves, and flat-topped clusters of small, yellow, sweet-scented flowers. this grows in marshes and along the banks of streams, in california, oregon, and washington, blooming in summer and autumn. _s. califórnica_, california golden-rod, is from two to four feet high, with grayish-green, roughish leaves, the lower ones toothed, and small yellow flowers, forming dense pyramidal clusters, from four to thirteen inches long. this grows on dry plains and hillsides and in the mountains, throughout california and in oregon, blooming in the autumn. it is called orojo de leabre by the spanish-californians. [illustration: tetradymia spinosa. arizona golden-rod--solidago trinervata. brass buttons--cotula coronopifolia.] there are probably over a thousand different kinds of senecio, very widely distributed. the name is from the latin for "old man," in allusion to the long white hairs of the pappus, when "gone to seed." our kinds have many common names, such as groundsel, ragwort, and squaw-weed. [sidenote: =ragwort= _senècio perpléxus var. díspar_ =yellow spring, summer utah, idaho=] a conspicuous plant and quite handsome, though its flowers are rather untidy-looking, for, like many other senecios, the rays do not come out evenly. it is about two feet high, with a stout, hollow, ridged stem, sparsely woolly, and dark green, thickish leaves, with shallow and uneven teeth and covered with sparse, fine, white woolly hairs, as if partially rubbed off. the flowers are over an inch across, with bright yellow rays, curling back in fading, an orange center, fading to brown, and the bracts of the involucre tipped with black. this grows in moist rich soil, in mountain valleys. [sidenote: =creek senecio= _senècio douglásii_ =yellow spring, summer, autumn southwest=] a handsome bush, about three feet high, covered with many flowers, on slender flower-stalks, sticking up out of a mass of rather delicate foliage, which is often covered with white cottony wool. the flowers are an inch and three-quarters across, with bright light yellow, rather untidy rays and yellow centers. this grows in dry stream beds and on warm slopes in the foothills. [illustration: creek senecio--s. douglasii. squaw-weed--s. perplexus var. dispar.] [illustration] [sidenote: _senècio lémmoni_ =yellow spring arizona=] this is quite effective, with attractive flowers and foliage, growing among rocks on hillsides and forming large clumps over a foot high. the stems are slender and often much bent, the leaves are dark green and thin in texture with toothed edges, rolled back, and the numerous flowers are an inch across, with bright yellow rays and deep yellow centers. this plant blossoms both as an annual and as a perennial. [sidenote: =white squaw-weed= _senècio cordàtus_ =white summer northwest=] a rather handsome plant, with a stout stem, about two feet tall; the upper leaves more or less downy and the root-leaves rather thick and soft, covered with whitish hairs on the under side. the flower-heads are about three-quarters of an inch across, with a fuzzy, pale yellow center and white rays. this grows in open woods, at rather high altitudes. [sidenote: _senècio riddéllii_ =yellow spring, winter arizona=] a rather showy plant, from six inches to two feet tall, blossoming both as an annual and as a biennial, after which it dies. the whole plant is smooth and the foliage is green or bluish-green, rather delicate and pretty. the flowers are an inch to an inch and a half across and they begin to appear in winter when there is little else to brighten the desert mesas. this plant is abundant in valley lands, though it has a wide range. [sidenote: _s. multilobàtus_ =yellow summer ariz., utah, etc.=] a rather pretty plant, about a foot tall, with a few small leaves on the slightly woolly stem, but most of them in a rosette at the base. they are smooth, thickish and slightly stiff, about an inch and a half long, and neatly cut into small, toothed lobes. the few flowers are in a loose cluster at the top of the stem and have heads about three-quarters of an inch across, with pale yellow rays and brighter yellow centers. this grows at the grand canyon and on the dry plains of utah and colorado, at altitudes of about seven thousand feet. [illustration: leaf of s. multilobatus. s. riddellii. s. lemmoni. white squaw-weed--senecio cordatus.] [sidenote: =african senecio= _senècio élegans_ =white and mauve spring california=] a handsome plant, which is noticeable on account of its unusual coloring. the stout, smooth stem is two or three feet tall, with smooth, slightly thickish leaves, the margins rolled back, a very peculiar shade of light bright yellowish-green. the handsome flowers are an inch and three-eighths across, with bright deep yellow centers and white rays shading to mauve at the tips, and form a large flat-topped cluster. this is a native of africa and is not yet common in this country, but grows on the sand dunes near san francisco. there are many kinds of baccharis, all american, chiefly shrubs. [sidenote: =groundsel-tree chaparral broom= _báccharis pilulàris_ =whitish, yellowish autumn cal., oreg., wash.=] a branching evergreen shrub, from two to five feet high, with smooth dark green, leathery leaves, an inch or less long, rather wedge-shaped, usually coarsely toothed. the flower-heads are very small, without rays, and are crowded at the ends of the twigs. some plants have only staminate flowers and some only pistillate ones, and the effect of the two sorts is very different, for the staminate flowers are ugly, but the pistillate ones are provided with quantities of long, white, silky pappus, giving a beautiful, snowy appearance to the shrub. this is very variable, being a fine shrub in favorable situations, and is common along the coast on the sand dunes, on low hills and on high mountain slopes. there are a great many kinds of aster, most abundant in north america, difficult to distinguish, the flowers never yellow. though there are some fine ones in the west, they are not so numerous or so handsome as in the east. [sidenote: =aster= _aster chamissónis_ =purple summer, autumn cal., oreg.=] this is one of the commonest kinds and is quite handsome, from two to five feet high, with leafy, branching stems and alternate, lance-shaped leaves, from two to five inches long, usually toothless, without leaf-stalks. the many flowers are an inch or more across, with yellow centers and white, violet, or purple rays, the bracts of the involucre in several rows, with short and rounded tips. this is rather variable. _a. radulìnus_, broad-leaf aster, has stiff, rough leaves, sharply toothed towards the broad tips, and usually many flowers, an inch or so across, with whitish rays. this is rather common on dry hills in california and oregon, blooming in summer and autumn. _a. andersóni_, of yosemite, has toothless, grasslike root-leaves and one beautiful flower, an inch across, with purple rays. [illustration: african senecio--s. elegans.] chicory family. _cicoriaceae._ a large family, of wide geographic distribution, resembling the sunflower family and by some authors included in it. they are herbs, rarely trees, almost always with milky, acrid, or bitter juice; the leaves alternate or from the root; the flowers small and crowded in heads, with involucres, the bracts in one or several rows; the receptacle flat or flattish, sometimes naked or smooth, sometimes scaly, pitted or honeycombed; the flowers all perfect; the calyx-tube without pappus, or with pappus of scales or bristles, sometimes feathery; the corollas not of two sorts, like those of the sunflower family, but all with a strap-shaped border, usually five-toothed, and a short or long tube; the anthers united into a tube around the style, which is very slender and two-cleft or two-lobed; the ovary one-celled and inferior, developing into an akene. there are several kinds of ptiloria, of western and central north america. [sidenote: =flowering-straw= _ptilòria pauciflòra (stephanomeria runcinata)_ =pink spring west, etc.=] in the desert this is a very strange-looking, pale plant, forming a scanty, straggling bush, about two feet high, with slender, brittle, gray stems, most of the leaves reduced to mere scales, and delicate, pale pinkish-lilac flowers, less than half an inch long. this grows on the plains, as far east as texas, and is not always so leafless as in the picture, which is that of a desert plant, but has some coarsely-toothed leaves. [sidenote: =desert pink= _ptilòria wrìghtii (stephanomeria)_ =pink summer ariz., new mex.=] much like the last, but not a queer-looking plant, with pale green foliage and larger, prettier flowers, three-quarters of an inch long, giving the effect of tiny, pale pink carnations. this grows at the grand canyon. [illustration: flowering-straw--ptiloria pauciflora. desert pink--ptiloria wrightii.] there are a good many kinds of agoseris, natives of western and southern north america and of southern south america. [sidenote: =goat chicory, large-flowered agoseris= _agóseris glàuca_ =yellow spring utah, ida., wash., etc.=] a pretty perennial plant, about fourteen inches tall, with a slender, slightly woolly flower-stem, springing from a pretty cluster of smooth bluish-green leaves, sometimes toothless, and bearing a handsome bright yellow flower, from one to two inches across, the involucre often covered with white wool. this grows on dry slopes, as far east as colorado. there are a good many kinds of malacothrix, natives of the western and southwestern united states. [sidenote: _malácothrix glabràta_ =yellow spring southwest, nev., utah=] a very attractive plant, with several flower-stalks, from six inches to a foot tall, springing from a pretty feathery tuft of bright green root-leaves, cut into almost threadlike divisions and often tinged with deep red. the handsome flowers are nearly two inches across, clear very pale yellow, shading to brighter color towards the middle. this is common on open plains in southern california, where it passes almost gradually into _m. califórnica_, which is similar, but conspicuously woolly when young, covered with very long, soft hairs. [sidenote: =snake's head= _malácothrix còulteri_ =white spring california=] a smooth plant, with a "bloom," from five to sixteen inches high, often branching from the base, the leaves cut into wavy lobes, with no leaf-stalk. the handsome flowers are about an inch across, white, turning pink in fading, the involucres with shining, papery, green and white bracts. this is one of the most conspicuous annuals in the san joaquin valley. _m. saxàtilis_, the cliff aster, is a handsome perennial, common in southern california and often growing on sea-cliffs. it has a leafy branching stem, from one to four feet high, the leaves toothless, or cut into slender divisions, and often quite fleshy, and many pretty flowers at the ends of the branches. they are each about an inch across, white, changing to pink or lilac, with an involucre of many narrow bracts, running down the flower-stalk. this is common in southern california, blooming in summer and autumn. [illustration: malacothrix glabrata. goat chicory--agoserìs glauca.] [sidenote: =desert dandelion= _malácothrix féndleri_ =yellow spring arizona=] an attractive little desert plant, about five inches tall, with stiffish, pale bluish-green leaves, forming a rosette, and pretty, very pale yellow flowers, nearly an inch across, like a delicate sort of dandelion. it is a near relation of the common dandelion and blooms early in the spring. [sidenote: =salsify, oyster plant= _tragopògon porrifòlius_ =purple spring, summer west, etc.=] this is the common salsify, the root of which is used as a vegetable. it is naturalized from europe and is now quite common in the west as a "stray" and also in the east. it has a smooth, stout, hollow stem, from two to over four feet tall, rather dark green, smooth leaves, clasping at base, and handsome flowers from two to four inches across, which are a very peculiar shade of reddish-purple, not usually seen in flowers. they open early in the morning, closing by midday and fading almost immediately when picked, and may be seen growing along the edges of fields and just outside garden fences where they are often quite conspicuous. this plant has many common names, such as jerusalem star, nap-at-noon, and vegetable oyster. [sidenote: =desert chicory= _nemosèris neo-mexicàna (rafinesquia)_ =white spring ariz., new mex.=] a straggling desert plant, from a few inches to a foot and a half high, with smooth branching stems and smooth, very pale bluish-green leaves, rather thick in texture. the pretty flowers are from one to two inches across, white, tinged with pink or cream-color and a little yellow in the middle, often striped with magenta on the outside, and the bracts of the involucre tinged with pink and bordered with white. _n. califórnica_ is a branching plant, from one to five feet tall, with a stout stem and smooth oblong leaves, lobed, toothed, or almost toothless, and quite pretty flowers at the ends of the branches. they are about an inch across, white, often tinged with magenta on the outside. this grows in california and oregon, usually in shady or moist places. there are several kinds of cichorium, natives of the old world. the name is from the arabic. [illustration: salsify--tragopogon porrifolius. desert chicory--nemoseris neo-mexicana. desert dandelion--malacothrix fendleri.] [sidenote: =chicory, blue sailors= _cichòrium Íntybus_ =blue summer, autumn northwest, etc.=] this is a straggling plant, from one to three feet tall, a perennial, with a long, deep tap-root, stiff, branching stems, and leaves irregularly slashed into toothed lobes and chiefly from the root. the pretty flowers are from an inch to an inch and a half across, much like those of desert chicory, but very brilliant blue, occasionally white. this plant has escaped from cultivation and is now very common in waste places and along roadsides in the east and often found in the west. the ground-up root is used as a substitute for coffee. there is a picture in mathews' _field book_. there are several kinds of microseris, rather difficult to distinguish. [sidenote: =silver-puffs= _microsèris linearifòlia_ =yellow spring southwest, nev.=] this is about a foot tall, with smooth, hollow flower-stems, smooth leaves, and rather small yellow flowers, not particularly pretty. the "gone-to-seed" flower-heads are, however, very conspicuous, for they are nearly an inch and a half across, and each seed is tipped by a little silvery paper star, the effect before the wind carries them away being exceedingly pretty, a good deal like a dandelion puff. this grows in the grand canyon on the plateau. there are many kinds of sonchus, natives of the old world. [sidenote: =sow thistle= _sónchus oleràceus_ =yellow all seasons west, etc.=] a common weed, from europe, found across the continent, coarse but decorative in form, with a stout leafy stem, from one to four feet tall, and smooth leaves, with some soft prickles on the edges, the upper ones clasping the stem and the lower ones with leaf-stalks. the pale yellow flowers are three-quarters of an inch or more across. there are several kinds of taraxacum, natives of the northern hemisphere and southern south america. [sidenote: =dandelion= _taráxacum taráxacum_ =yellow all seasons u. s., etc.=] this is a weed in all civilized parts of the world, growing in meadows, fields, and waste places. it has a thick, deep, bitter root, a tuft of root-leaves, slashed into toothed lobes, and several hollow flower-stalks, from two to eighteen inches tall, each bearing a single, handsome, bright yellow flower, from one to two inches across, which is succeeded by a beautiful silvery seed puff. this plant has many common names, such as blow-ball, monk's-head, lion's-tooth, etc. [illustration: sow thistle--sonchus oleraceus. silver-puffs--microseris linearifolia.] [illustration] there are a great many kinds of crepis, natives of the northern hemisphere. [sidenote: =gray hawksbeard= _crèpis occidentàlis_ =yellow spring, summer west, etc.=] this is a pretty plant, for the gray-green foliage sets off the yellow flowers. it is from six to eighteen inches high, more or less hairy or downy all over, with one or several, stout, branching, leafy stems, and thickish leaves, variously cut, mostly jagged like dandelion leaves, with crisp margins, dark bluish-green in color and often covered on the under side with obscure white down, the root-leaves narrowed to leaf-stalks at the base. the flower-heads are about an inch across, with bright yellow rays, the involucre sprinkled with short, dark hairs. this grows on dry plains, as far east as colorado. [sidenote: =smooth hawksbeard= _crèpis vìrens_ =yellow summer cal., oreg., etc.=] this is a weed from europe, growing in fields and waste places, in the east and on the pacific coast. it is a smooth plant, from one to two feet tall, with green leaves the shape of dandelion leaves, chiefly in a bunch at the root. the many, small, yellow flowers, each about a quarter of an inch long, are in a loose cluster at the top of the stem. this is very variable. [sidenote: =hawksbeard= _crèpis acuminàta_ =yellow spring, summer west, except ariz.=] a handsome and conspicuous plant, often forming large clumps, from one to three feet tall, with dull green, downy, rather leathery leaves, irregularly slashed and cut, and large clusters of light bright yellow flowers, each about three-quarters of an inch across. this grows on hillsides and on high dry mesas. [illustration] [illustration: gray hawksbeard--c. occidentalis. hawksbeard--crepis acuminata.] index. _abronia_, . _abronia latifolia_, . _abronia maritima_, . _abronia salsa_, . _abronia umbellata_, . _abronia villosa_, . _achlys triphylla_, . _aconitum_, . _aconitum columbianum_, . _actaea_, . _actaea arguta_, . _actaea viridiflora_, . _actinolepis lanosa_, . adam and eve, . adder's tongue, . _adenostoma_, . _adenostoma fasciculatum_, . _adenostoma sparsifolium_, . _aesculus_, . _aesculus californica_, . _agastache_, . _agastache pallidiflora_, . _agastache urticifolia_, . _agoseris_, . _agoseris glauca_, . agoseris, large-flowered, . _aizoaceae_, . alfalfa, . alfilerilla, . _alismaceae_, . _allionia_, . _allionia linearis_, . _allium_, . _allium acuminatum_, . _allium bisceptrum_, . _allium serratum_, . _allotropa virgata_, . _alpine avens_, . _alsine_, . _alsine longipes_, . alumroot, , . amapola, . _amaranthus albus_, . _amelanchier_, . _amelanchier alnifolia_, . amole, . _amsinckia_, . _amsinckia intermedia_, . _anagallis_, . _anagallis arvensis_, . _anaphalis_, . _anaphalis margaritacea_, . _anemone_, , . _anemone deltoidea_, . _anemone occidentalis_, . _anemone parviflora_, . _anemone quinquefolia var. grayi_, . _anemone sphenophylla_, . anemone, canyon, . anemone, northern, . anemone, three-leaved, . anemone, western, . anemone, wood, . _anemopsis californica_, . angels' trumpets, . _anisolotus_, . _anisolotus argyraeus_, . _anisolotus decumbens_, . _anisolotus formosissimus_, . _anisolotus glaber_, . _anisolotus strigosus_, . _anisolotus wrightii_, . _anogra_, . _anogra albicaulis_, . _anogra coronopifolia_, . _antennaria rosea_, . _anthemis_, . _anthemis cotula_, . _anthericum_, . _anthericum torreyi_, . _antirrhinum_, . _antirrhinum coulterianum_, . _antirrhinum glandulosum_, . _antirrhinum maurandioides_, . _antirrhinum strictum_, . _antirrhinum vagans_, . _antirrhinum virga_, . apache plume, . _aplopappus brandegei_, . _apocynaceae_, . _apocynum_, . _apocynum androsaemifolium_, . apple family, . apple, . _aquilegia_, . _aquilegia leptocera_, . _aquilegia truncata_, . _arabis_, . _arabis fendleri_, . _arabis, fendler's_, . _arctostaphylos_, . _arctostaphylos bicolor_, . _arctostaphylos patula_, . _arctostaphylos uva-ursi_, . _arenaria_, . _arenaria fendleri_, . _argemone_, . _argemone hispida_, . _argentina_, . _argentina anserina_, . _aristolochiaceae_, . _arnica_, . _arnica cordifolia_, . _arnica latifolia_, . arnica, broad-leaved, . arnica, heart-leaved, . arrowhead, . arrow-leaf, . _artemisia_, . _artemisia tridentata_, . _aruncus_, . _aruncus sylvester_, . _asarum hartwegi_, . _asclepiadaceae_, . _asclepias_, , . _asclepias erosa_, . _asclepias speciosa_, . _asclepias vestita var. mohavensis_, . _asclepiodora_, . _asclepiodora decumbens_, . ash, flowering, . _aster_, , , , , . _aster andersoni_, . _aster chamissonis_, . _aster radulinus_, . aster, beach, . aster, broad-leaf, . aster, cliff, . aster, hairy golden, . aster, tall purple, . aster, woolly, . _astragalus_, . _astragalus macdougali_, . _astragalus menziesii_, . _astragalus nothoxys_, . _astragalus pomonensis_, . _astragalus utahensis_, . _atragene_, . _atragene occidentalis_, . _audibertia_, , , . _aulospermum longipes_, . _azalea_, . _azalea occidentalis_, . azalea, small, . azalea, western, . _azaleastrum_, . _azaleastrum albiflorum_, . azulea, . baby blue-eyes, . _baccharis_, . _baccharis pilularis_, . _baeria_, . _baeria gracilis_, . _baeria macrantha_, . _bahia_, . _bahia absinthifolia_, . _baileya multiradiata_, . _baileya pauciradiata_, . balm, . balm, mountain, . balsam-root, , . balsam-root, cut-leaved, . _balsamorrhiza_, . _balsamorrhiza hookeri_, . _balsamorrhiza macrophylla_, . _balsamorrhiza sagittata_, . baneberry, . barberry family, . barberry, . barberry, trailing, . barrenwort, . bean, . bearberry, red. bear's cabbage, . bear-clover, . bear grass, . bear-mat, . beard-tongue, , . beard-tongue, bushy, . beard-tongue, large, . bedstraw, northern, . beech-drops, albany, . bee-plant, . bee-plant, california, . beet, . belladonna, . bellflower family, . bellflower, . betony, alpine, . _berberidaceae_, . _berberis_, . _berberis aquifolium_, . _berberis fendleri_, . _berberis repens_, . bergamot, . berry, salmon, , . berry, thimble, . _bicuculla_, . _bicuculla chrysantha_, . _bicuculla formosa_, . _bicuculla uniflora_, . big root, . bilberry, . bird's eyes, . bird-foot, , . bird-foot, pretty, . bird-of-paradise, . birthroot, . birthwort family, . _biscutella_, . bishop's cap, . bisnaga, . blackberry, . blackberry, common, . black-eyed susan, . bladder-bush, . bladder-cherry, . bladderpod, , . bladderpod, white, . bladderpod, yellow, . blanket-flower, . blazing star, . bleeding heart family, . bleeding heart, . _blepharipappus_, , . _blepharipappus elegans_, . _blepharipappus glandulosus_, . _bloomeria_, . _bloomeria aurea_, . _bloomeria clevelandi_, . blow-ball, . bluebell, mountain, . blue bells of scotland, . blueberry, . blue-curls, . blue-curls, woolly, . blue dicks, . blue-eyes, baby, . blue-eyed grass, . blue-lips, . blue sailors, . blue-weed, . blue witch, . _boraginaceae_, . borage family, . borage, . bottle-plant, . bouvardia, wild, . brass buttons, . _brassica_, . _brassica nigra_, . _brevoortia, ida-maia_, . brittle-bush, . _brodiaea_, . _brodiaea capitata_, . _brodiaea capitata var. pauciflora_, . _brodiaea coccinea_, . _brodiaea congesta_, . _brodiaea douglasii_, . _brodiaea grandiflora_, . _brodiaea lactea_, . _brodiaea minor_, . _brodiaea volubilis_, . brodiaea, golden, . brodiaea, harvest, , . brodiaea, twining, . brodiaea, white, . bronze bells, . brooklime, american, . broom, chaparral, . broom, scotch, . broom-rape family, . brown-foot, . brown-weed, . _brunella_, . brussels sprouts, . _bryanthus_, . buck-bean family, . buck-bean, , . buckbrush, . buckeye family, . buckeye, california, . buckthorn family, . buckthorn weed, . buckwheat bush, . buckwheat family, . buckwheat, wild, . buena mujer, . bugbane, false, . bunchberry, . butter balls, . buttercup family, . buttercup, , . buttercup, common western, . butter-heads, . butterfly-tongue, . butterfly tulip, . cabbage, . _cactaceae_, . cactus family, . cactus, . _cactus grahami_, . cactus, barrel, . cactus, column, . cactus, fish-hook, . cactus, hedgehog, . cactus, pincushion, . calabazilla, . _calliandra_, . _calliandra eriophylla_, . _calochortus_, . _calochortus albus_, . _calochortus amabilis_, . _calochortus benthami_, . _calochortus kennedyi_, . _calochortus luteus_, . _calochortus luteus var. citrinus_, . _calochortus luteus var. oculatus_, . _calochortus maweanus_, . _calochortus nudus_, . _calochortus nuttallii_, . _calochortus venustus_, . _caltha_, . _caltha leptosepala_, . _caltha palustris_, . caltrop family, . _calycanthaceae_, . _calycanthus_, . _calycanthus occidentalis_, . _calyptridium_, . camass, . camass, death, , . _camassia_, . _camassia quamash_, . _campanulaceae_, . _campanula_, . _campanula prenanthoides_, . _campanula rotundifolia_, . _campanula scouleri_, . camphor weed, . campion, moss, . cancer-root, one-flowered, . canchalagua, . candle flower, . candle, our lord's, . candytuft, . candytuft, wild, . canterbury bell, wild, . caper family, . caper, . _capnoides_, . _capnoides aureum_, . _capnoides scouleri_, . _capparidaceae_, . _caprifoliaceae_, . cardinal flower, . _carduus_, . _carduus arizonicus_, . _carduus californicus_, . _carduus candadissimus_, . _carduus coulteri_, . _carduus occidentalis_, . _carduus ochrocentrus_, . carolina allspice, . carpet-weed family, . carrot, . _caryophyllaceae_, . _cassiaceae_, . _cassia_, . _cassia armata_, . cassia, golden, . _cassiope_, . _cassiope mertensiana_, . _castilleja_, . _castilleja angustifolia_, . _castilleja miniata_, . _castilleja pinetorum_, . catchfly, . cat's breeches, . cat's-clover, . cauliflower, . cavalier's spur, . _ceanothus_, . _ceanothus integerrimus_, . _ceanothus parvifolius_, . _ceanothus prostratus_, . _ceanothus velutinus_, . _centaurium_, , . centaury, california, . centaury, tall, . _cephalanthera_, . _cephalanthera austinae_, . _cerastium_, . _cerastium arvense_, . _cereus_, . _cereus giganteus_, . _chaenactis_, . _chaenactis douglasii_, . _chaenactis fremontii_, . _chaenactis lanosa_, . _chaenactis macrantha_, . _chamaebatia foliolosa_, . _chamaebatiaria_, . _chamaebatiaria millefolium_, . _chamaenerion_, . _chamaenerion angustifolium_, . _chamaenerion latifolium_, . chamise, . chamomile, . chatter-box, . checkerberry, , . checker-bloom, . _chenopodiaceae_, . cherry, . cherry, holly-leaved, . chia, . chickweed, . chickweed, field, . chickweed, mouse-ear, . chickweed, tall, . _chicorium_, . _chicorium intybus_, . chicory family, . chicory, . chicory, desert, . chicory, goat, . chilicothe, . _chimaphila_, . _chimaphila menziesii_, . chinese houses, . chinese pusley, . _chlorogalum pomeridianum_, . cholla, . _chorizanthe_, . _chorizanthe fimbriata_, . _chorizanthe staticoides_, . christmas-horns, . christmas-rose, . _chrysanthemum_, . _chrysanthemum leucanthemum_, . _chrysopsis villosa_, . _chylisma_, . _chylisma scapoidea var. clavaeformis_, . _cicoriaceae_, . cinquefoil, , . cinquefoil, arctic, . cinquefoil, silky, . cinquefoil, shrubby, . _cirsium_, . _cistaceae_, . _clarkia_, , . _clarkia concinna_, . _clarkia elegans_, . _clarkia pulchella_, . _clarkia rhomboidea_, . _claytonia_, , . _claytonia lanceolata_, . cleavers, . _cleistoyucca_, . _cleistoyucca arborescens_, . _clematis_, , , . _clematis lasiantha_, . clematis, lilac, . clematis, purple, . _cleome_, . _cleome platycarpa_, . _cleome serrulata_, . cleome, yellow, . _cleomella_, . _cleomella longipes_, , . cliff rose, . _clintonia_, . _clintonia andrewsiana_, . _clintonia uniflora_, . clintonia, red, . clintonia, white, . clocks, . clover, , , . clover, sour, . _cnicus_, . _cogswellia platycarpa_, . coffee, . _coleogyne ramosissima_, . _collinsia_, . _collinsia bicolor_, . _collinsia multiflora_, . _collomia_, . _collomia grandiflora_, . _collomia linearis_, . columbine, blue, . columbine, scarlet, . columbine, white, . columbo, . columbo, small, . _comandra_, . _comandra pallida_, . comandra, pale, . compass plant, . _compositae_, . _conanthus_, . _conanthus aretioides_, . _convolvulaceae_, . _convolvulus_, . _convolvulus arvensis_, . _convolvulus occidentalis_, . copa de oro, . coral-root, . _corallorrhiza_, . _corallorrhiza bigelowii_, . _corallorrhiza multiflora_, . _coreopsis_, . _coreopsis bigelowii_, . _coreopsis maritima_, . coreopsis, desert, . _coreothrogyne_, . _coreothrogyne filaginifolia_, . _cornaceae_, . _cornus_, . _cornus canadensis_, . _cornus nuttallii_, . _cornus stolonifera var. riparia_, . corn-salad, . corpse-plant, . _corydalis_, . corydal, golden, . corydalis, pink, . cotton, arizona wild, . _cotula coronopifolia_, . _cotyledon_, . covena, . _covillea glutinosa_, . _cowania stansburiana_, . cow-herb, . cowslip, american, . crane's-bill, . crane's-bill, long-stalked, . _crassina_, . _crassina pumila_, . _crassulaceae_, . cream-cups, . creosote-bush, . _crepis_, . _crepis acuminata_, . _crepis occidentalis_, . _crepis virens_, . crimson-beak, . crocus, . crown imperial, . crowtoes, . _cruciferae_, . _cryptanthe_, . _cryptanthe intermedia_, . _cucurbitaceae_, . _cucurbita_, . _cucurbita foetidissima_, . cucumber, wild, . cudweed, . currant, black, . currant, buffalo, . currant, golden, . currant, missouri, . currant, sierra, . _cuscuta_, . cyclamen, wild, . _cycloloma_, . _cycloloma atriplicifolium_, . _cymopterus_, , . cypress, wild, . _cypripedium_, . _cypripedium californicum_, . _cypripedium montanum_, . _cypripedium parviflorum_, . _cytisus_, . _cytisus scoparius_, . dahlia, sea, . daisy, daisy dwarf, . daisy, easter, . daisy, ground, . daisy, ox-eye, . daisy, seaside, . daisy, white mountain, . daisy, woolly yellow, . _dalea_, . dandelion, . dandelion, desert, . _dasiphora fruticosa_, . _datura_, . _datura meteloides_, . _datura stramonium_, . _datura suaveolens_, . datura, large-flowered, . deer-brush, . deer-foot, . deer-weed, . deer's tongue, . _delphinium_, . _delphinium cardinale_, . _delphinium bicolor_, . _delphinium hanseni_, . _delphinium nudicaule_, . _delphinium parryi_, . _delphinium scaposum_, . _delphinium variegatum_, . _dendromecon_, . _dendromecon rigida_, . _dentaria_, . _dentaria californica_, . desert holly, . desert star, . desert zinnia, . _deutzia_, . _dicentra_, , . _diplacus_, . _diplacus longiflorus_, . _diplacus puniceus_, . _disporum_, . _disporum hookeri_, . _disporum trachycarpum_, . _dithyrea_, . _dithyrea wislizeni_, . dock, , . dock, sand, . dodder, . _dodecatheon_, . _dodecatheon clevelandi_, . _dodecatheon jeffreyi_, . _dodecatheon pauciflorum_, . dogbane family, . dogbane, spreading, . dog fennel, . dog-tooth violet, . dogwood family, . dogwood, flowering, . dogwood, pacific, . dogwood, red-osier, . dormidera, . drops of gold, . _drupaceae_, . _dryas_, . _dryas octopetala_, . _dryopetalon runcinatum_, . duck-bill, . _dudleya_, . _dudleya nevadensis_, . _dudleya pulverulenta_, . dutchman's breeches, , . easter bells, , . _echeveria_, . _echinocactus_, . _echinocactus wislizeni_, . _echinocereus_, . _echinocereus polyacanthus_, . _echinocystis_, . egg-plant, . elephants' heads, . _emmenanthe_, . _emmenanthe lutea_, . _emmenanthe penduliflora_, . _encelia, californica_, . _encelia eriocephala_, . _encelia farinosa_, . _encelia frutescens_, . encelia, california, . _epilobium_, , . _epilobium franciscanum_, . _epipactis_, . _ericaceae_, . _erigeron_, . _erigeron aureus_, . _erigeron breweri_, . _erigeron compositus_, . _erigeron concinnus var. aphanactis_, . _erigeron coulteri_, . _erigeron divergens_, . _erigeron flagellaris_, . _erigeron glaucus_, . _erigeron philadelphicus_, . _erigeron pumilis_, . _erigeron salsuginosus_, . _erimiastrum bellidoides_, . _eriodictyon_, . _eriodictyon californicum_, . _eriodictyon tomentosum_, . _eriogonum_, . _eriogonum bakeri_, . _eriogonum compositum_, . _eriogonum elatum_, . _eriogonum fasciculatum_, . _eriogonum flavum_, . _eriogonum incanum_, . _eriogonum inflatum_, . _eriogonum orthocaulon_, . _eriogonum racemosum_, . _eriophyllum_, . _eriophyllum caespitosum var. integrifolium_, . _eriophyllum confertiflorum_, . _eriophyllum confertiflorum var. discoideum_, . _eriophyllum lanatum_, . _erodium_, . _erodium cicutarium_, . _erodium moschatum_, . _erysimum_, . _erysimum asperum_, . _erysimum asperum var. perenne_, . _erysimum capitatum_, . _erythraea_, . _erythraea douglasii_, _erythraea exaltata_, . _erythraea venusta_, . _erythronium_, . _erythronium grandiflorum_, . _erythronium montanum_, . _erythronium parviflorum_, . _eschscholtzia_, . _eschscholtzia californica_, . escobita, . espuela del caballero, . _eucharidium_, . _eulobus californicus_, . _eulophus bolanderi_, . evening primrose family, . evening primrose, , . evening primrose, cut-leaved, . evening primrose, prairie, . evening primrose, white, . evening snow, . evening star, . everlasting, pearly, . everlasting, rosy, . _fabaceae_, . fairy bells, . fairy dusters, . _fallugia paradoxa_, . farewell-to-spring, . _fendlera_, . _fendlera rupicola_, . fern-bush, . _ferula_, . fig-marigold, . figwort family, . fiddle-neck, . filaree, red-stem, . filaree, white-stem, . fire-cracker flower, . fire-weed, . flag, western blue, . flaming sword, . flat-top, . flax family, . flax, blue, . fleabane, . fleabane, large mountain, . fleabane, philadelphia, . fleabane, rayless, . fleabane, spreading, . fleabane, whip-lash, . fleabane, yellow, . fleur-de-lis, . _floerkia_, . _floerkia douglasii_, . floriponda, . flower-de-luce, . flowering-fungus, . flowering-straw, . fly flower, . forget-me-not, , . forget-me-not, white, , . forget-me-not, wild, . _fouquieriaceae_, . fouquiera family, . _fouquiera splendens_, . four-o'clock family, . four-o'clock, . four-o'clock, california, . _fragaria_, . _fragaria bracteata_, . _fragaria chiloensis_, . _frasera_, . _frasera nitida_, . _frasera speciosa_, . _fraxinus_, . _fraxinus macropetala_, . friar's cap, . fried-eggs, . fringe-bush, . _fritillaria_, . _fritillaria atropurpurea_, . _fritillaria pudica_, . fritillary, brown, . fritillary, yellow, . _fumariaceae_, . _gaillardia_, . _gaillardia aristata_, . _gaillardia arizonica_, . _gaillardia pinnatifida_, . gaillardia, arizona, . _galium_, . _galium boreale_, . gallito, . _gaultheria_, , . _gaultheria ovatifolia_, . _gaultheria shallon_, . _gayophytum_, . _gayophytum eriospermum_, . _gentianaceae_, . _gentiana_, . _gentiana acuta_, . _gentiana calycosa_, . _gentiana lutea_, . _gentiana propinqua_, . gentian family, . gentian, . gentian, blue, . gentian, northern, . _geraniaceae_, . _geranium_, . _geranium columbinum_, . _geranium fremontii_, . _geranium furcatum_, . _geranium incisum_, . geranium family, . geranium, wild, . ghost tree, . ghost-flower, . giant bird's-nest, . _gilia_, , , , , . _gilia achillaefolia_, . _gilia aggregata_, . _gilia californica_, . _gilia capitata_, . _gilia floccosa_, . _gilia multicaulis_, . _gilia multiflora_, . _gilia pungens_, . _gilia rigidula_, . _gilia tricolor_, . gilia, blue desert, . gilia, downy, . gilia, fringed, . gilia, large prickly, . gilia, scarlet, . gilia, small prickly, . gilia, yellow, . ginger, wild, . globe-flower, . globe tulip, white, . globe tulip, yellow, . _gnaphalium microcephalum_, . goat's beard, . _godetia_, . _godetia deflexa_, . _godetia dudleyana_, . _godetia goddardii var. capitata_, . _godetia quadrivulnera_, . _godetia viminea_, . golden eardrops, . golden-eyed grass, . golden girls, . golden hills, . golden stars, . golden-rod, arizona, . golden-rod, california, . golden-rod, western, . gold fields, . _gomphocarpus_, . _gomphocarpus cordifolius,_ . gooseberry family, . gooseberry, canyon, . gooseberry, fuchsia-flowered, . gooseberry, wild, . goose-grass, . gourd family, . gourd, . grass nuts, . grass of parnassus, . _grayia_, . _grayia polygaloides_, . _grayia spinosa_, . greasewood, . greek valerian, . _grindelia_, . _grindelia latifolia_, . gromwell, , . _grossulariaceae_, . _grossularia_, . _grossularia menziesii_, . _grossularia roezli_, . _grossularia speciosa_, . ground-cherry, . groundsel, . groundsel-tree, . gum plant, . gum-weed, . _gutierrezia_, . _gutierrezia euthamiae_, . _gutierrezia sarothrae_, . hairbell, , . harebell, , . harebell, california, . hardhack, . _hastingsia_, . _hastingsia alba_, . hawksbeard, . hawksbeard, gray, . hawksbeard, smooth, . hawthorn, . heartsease, western, . heath family, . heather, . heather, red, . heather, white, . heather, yellow, . hediondilla, . _hedysarum_, . _hedysarum pabulare_, . _helenium_, . _helenium bigelowii_, . _helianthemum_, . _helianthemum scoparium_, . _helianthus_, . _helianthus annuus_, . _helianthus fascicularis_, . _heliotropium_, . _heliotropium curassavicum_, . heliotrope, sea-side, . heliotrope, wild, . hellebore, . hellebore, false, . helmet-flower, . hen-and-chickens, . _hesperocallis undulata_, . _hesperonia_, . _hesperonia californica_, . _hesperonia glutinosa_, . _hesperonia glutinosa var. gracilis_, . _heuchera_, . _heuchera micrantha_, , . _heuchera rubescens_, . _hippocastanaceae_, . hog's potato, . hog-onion, . holly, desert, . hollyhock, wild, . holly-leaved cherry, . _holodiscus_, . honey-bloom, . honey-locust, . honeysuckle family, . honeysuckle, pink, . honeysuckle, orange, . honeysuckle, yellow, . honeysuckle, wild, . _hookera coronaria_, . _horkelia_, . _horkelia fusca_, . horse chestnut, . horse-mint, . horse-radish, . _hosackia_, , . _houstonia_, . _houstonia rubra_, . huckleberry, . huckleberry, california, . huckleberry, fool's, . hyacinth, indian, . hyacinth, wild, , . _hydrangeaceae_, . hydrangea family, . hydrangea, . _hydrophyllaceae_, . _hydrophyllum_, . _hydrophyllum capitatum_, . _hymenatherum hartwegi_, . _hymenopappus luteus_, . _hypericaceae_, . _hypericum_, . _hypericum anagalloides_, . _hypericum concinnum_, . _hypericum formosum var. scouleri_, . _hypopitys hypopitys_, . _hypopitys sanguinea_, . _hyptis_, . _hyptis_, _emoryi_, . hyssop, giant, . ice-plant, . incense-shrub, . indian dye-stuff, . indian pipe family, . indian pipe, . indian warrior, . _ingenhouzia triloba_, . innocence, desert, . inside-out flower, . _iridaceae_, . _iris_, . _iris douglasiana_, . _iris hartwegi_, . _iris macrosiphon_, . _iris missouriensis_, . iris family, . iris, douglas, . iris, ground, . iris, hartweg's, . islay, . isomeris arborea, . ithuriel's spear, , . _ivesia_, . jacob's ladder, . jerusalem star, . jimson-weed, . johnny jump-up, . johnny-tuck, . johnny-tuck, pink, . joshua tree, . judas tree, . june-berry, . _kalmia_, . _kalmia glauca var. microphylla_, . _kalmia microphylla_, . _kelloggia galioides_, . kentucky coffee-tree, . kinnikinic, . kittikit, . kit-kit-dizze, . knot-weed, . _krameriaceae_, . _krameria grayi_, . krameria family, . _labiatae_, . labrador tea, woolly, . lady's slipper, mountain, . lamb's quarters, . languid lady, . lantern of the fairies, . _laphamia bisetosa_, . _lappula_, . _lappula californica_, . _lappula floribunda_, . _lappula nervosa_, . _lappula subdecumbens_, . _lappula velutina_, . larkspur, . larkspur, blue, , . larkspur, foothills, . larkspur, sacramento, . larkspur, scarlet, . _larrea mexicana_, . _lathyrus_, . _lathyrus graminifolius_, . _lathyrus splendens_, . _lathyrus utahensis_, . laurel, swamp, . _lavatera_, . _lavatera assurgentiflora_, . _lavauxia_, . _lavauxia primiveris_, . _layia_, . _ledum_, . _ledum glandulosum_, . _ledum groenlandicum_, . _leptasea_, . _leptasea austromontana_, . _leptaxis menziesii_, . _leptosyne_, . _leptotaenia multifida_, . _lesquerella_, , . _lesquerella arizonica_, . _lesquerella gordoni_, . _lesquerella purpurea_, . _lessingia_, , . _lessingia germanorum_, . _lessingia leptoclada_, . lettuce, indian, . lilac, blue mountain, . lilac, mountain, , . _liliaceae_, . _lilium_, . _lilium columbianum_, . _lilium pardalinum_, . _lilium parryi_, . _lilium parvum_, . _lilium rubescens_, . _lilium washingtonianum_, . lily family, . lilies, . lily, amber, . lily, avalanche, . lily bell, golden, . lily, chamise, . lily, chaparral, . lily, cluster, . lily, desert, . lily, fawn, . lily, glacier, . lily, indian pond, . lily, lemon, . lily, leopard, . lily, ruby, . lily, sego, . lily, shasta, . lily, small tiger, . lily, tiger, . lily-of-the-valley, wild, . lily, washington, . lily, water, . _limnanthaceae_, . _limnanthes_, . _limnorchis_, . _limnorchis leucostachys_, . _linaceae_, . _linanthus_, . _linanthus androsaceus_, . _linanthus aureus_, . _linanthus breviculus_, . _linanthus dianthiflorus_, . _linanthus dichotomus_, . _linanthus liniflorus_, . _linanthus parryae_, . _linanthus parviflorus_, . _linanthus parviflorus var. acicularis_, . _linaria_, . _linaria canadensis_, . _linnaea borealis var. americana_, . _linum_, . _linum lewisii_, . _linum usitatissimum_, . lion's-tooth, . _lithophragma_, . _lithophragma heterophylla_, . _lithospermum_, . _lithospermum angustifolium_, . _lithospermum multiflorum_, . _lithospermum pilosum_, . lizard-tail family, . _loasaceae_, . loasa family, . loco-weed, , , . _lonicera_, . _lonicera californica_, . _lonicera ciliosa_, . _lonicera hispidula_, . _lonicera involucrata_, . _lophanthus_, . lotus, , . lousewort, . love-vine, . lungwort, . _lupinus_, . _lupinus arboreus_, . _lupinus citrinus_, . _lupinus lacteus_, . _lupinus laxiflorus_, . _lupinus rivularis_, . _lupinus stiversii_, . lupine, bi-colored, . lupine, false, . lupine, milk-white, . lupine, parti-colored, . lupine, river, . lupine, tree. _lycium_, . _lycium cooperi_, . _machaeranthera incana_, . madder family, . madder, . _madia_, . _madia dissitiflora_, . _madia elegans_, . _madia madioides_, . madia, common, . madia, woodland, . mahala mats, . _maianthemum_, . _maianthemum bifolium_, . _malacothrix_, . _malacothrix californica_, . _malacothrix coulteri_, . _malacothrix fendleri_, . _malacothrix glabrata_, . _malacothrix saxatilis_, . mallow family, . mallow, , . mallow, false, . mallow, oregon, . mallow, rose, . mallow, salmon globe, . mallow, scarlet, . mallow, spotted, . mallow, tree, . _malvaceae_, . _malvastrum_, . _malvastrum rotundifolium_, . _malvastrum thurberi_, . _mamillaria_, . manzanilla, . manzanita, . manzanita, green, . mariana, . marigold, white marsh, . marigold, wild, . marigold, yellow marsh, . mariposa tulip, , . mariposa tulip, orange, . mariposa tulip, yellow, . _matricaria matricarioides_, . matrimony, desert, . matrimony vine, . _maurandia_, . _maurandia antirrhiniflora_, . mayweed, . meadow foam family, . meadow foam, . meadow rue, . meadowsweet, flat-top, . _mentzelia_, . _mentzelia gracilenta_, . _mentzelia laevicaulis_, . _mentzelia lindleyi_, . _mentzelia multiflora_, . _menyanthaceae_, . _menyanthes trifoliata_, . _menziesia_, . _menziesia ferruginea_, . _menziesia urcelolaria_, . _mertensia_, . _mertensia brevistyla_, . _mertensia sibirica_, . _mesembryanthemum_, . _mesembryanthemum aequilaterale_, . _mesembryanthemum crystallinum_, . _micrampelis_, . _micrampelis fabacea_, . _micranthes_, . _micranthes oregana_, . _micranthes rhomboidea_, . _micromeria_, . _micromeria chamissonis_, . _micromeria douglasii_, . _microseris_, . _microseris linearifolia_, . milk maids, . milkweed family, . milkweed, desert, . milkweed, pale, . milkweed, purple, . milkweed, showy, . milkweed, spider, . milkwort family, . milkwort, california, . _mimosaceae_, . mimosa family, . _mimulus_, , . _mimulus brevipes_, . _mimulus cardinalis_, . _mimulus fremontii_, . _mimulus langsdorfii_, . _mimulus lewisii_, . _mimulus moschatus_, . _mimulus primuloides_, . _mimulus torreyi_, . miner's lettuce, . mint family, . mint, horse, . mint, mustang, . _mirabilis_, , . _myosotis_, . mission bells, . _mitella_, . _mitella ovalis_, . mitrewort, . _moccasin, indian_, . mock-orange, . modesty, . _monarda_, . _monarda citriodora_, . _monarda pectinata_, . _monardella_, . _monardella lanceolata_, . _moneses uniflora_, . monkey-flower, . monkey-flower, bush, . monkey-flower, common-yellow, . monkey-flower, desert, . monkey-flower, little pink, . monkey-flower, little yellow, . monkey-flower, pink, . monkey-flower, scarlet, . monkey-flower, sticky, . monk's-head, . monkshood, . _monotropaceae_, . _monotropa_, . _monotropa uniflora_, . _montia_, . _montia parviflora_, . _montia parvifolia_, . _montia perfoliata_, . morning bride, . morning-glory family, . morning-glory, field, . morning-glory, yellow, . mosquito-bills, . moss campion, . mountain ash, . mountain lilac, , . mountain misery, . _muilla_, . _muilla maritima_, . mule-ears, . _muscaria_, . _muscaria caespitosa_, . musk-plant, . mustard family, . mustard, . mustard, black, . mustard, tumbling, . _myosotis_, . nap-at-noon, . _nemophila_, . _nemophila aurita_, . _nemophila insignis_, . _nemophila intermedia_, . _nemophila maculata_, . nemophila, climbing, . nemophila, spotted, . _nemoseris californica_, . _nemoseris neo-mexicana_, . nettle, common hedge, . nettle, hedge, . _nicotiana_, . _nicotiana glauca_, . nievitas, . nigger-babies, , . nightshade, . nightshade, purple, . ninebark, . noonas, . _nuphar_, . _nyctaginaceae_, . _nymphaceae_, . _nymphaea polysepala_, . ocean spray, . ocotillo, . _oenothera_, , , , . _oenothera cheiranthifolia var. suffruticosa_, . _oleaceae_, . olive family, . _onagraceae_, . _onagra_, . _onagra biennis_, . _onagra hookeri_, . onion, pink wild, . onion, wild, . ookow, . _opulaster_, . _opulaster malvaceus_, . _opuntia_, , . _opuntia acanthocarpa_, . _opuntia basilaris_, . _opuntia fulgida_, . _orchidaceae_, . orchid family, . orchis, phantom, . orchis, sierra rein, . orchis, stream, . oregon grape, . _oreocarya_, . _oreocarya multicaulis_, . _oreocarya setosissima_, . _ornithogalum_, . _orobanchaceae_, . _orobanche_, . _orogenia linearifolia_, . orojo de leabre . orpine family, . _orthocarpus_, . _orthocarpus attenuatus_, . _orthocarpus densiflorus_, . _orthocarpus erianthus_, . _orthocarpus erianthus var. roseus_, . _orthocarpus erianthus var. versicolor_, . _orthocarpus exsertus_, . _orthocarpus faucibarbatus_, . _orthocarpus luteus_, . _orthocarpus purpureo-albus_, . _orthocarpus purpurascens_, . owl's-clover, , . owl's-clover, yellow, . _oxalidaceae_, . _oxalis_, . _oxalis corniculata_, . _oxalis oregana_, . oyster plant, . oyster, vegetable, . _pachylophus_, . _pachylophus marginatus_, . _paeonia brownii_, . paint brush, . paint brush, indian, . paint brush, scarlet, . painted cup, . palo verde, . pansy, yellow, . _papaveraceae_, . _papaver_, . _papaver heterophyllum_, . _papaver somniferum_, . paper flowers, . _parnassia_, . _parnassia fimbriata_, . _parnassia californica_, . _parosela_, . _parosela californica_, . _parosela emoryi_, . _parosela spinosa_, . parsley family, . parsley, . parsley, whisk-broom, . parsnip, . parsnip, indian, . pea family, . pea, . pea, chaparral, . pea, golden, . pear, . _pedicularis_, . _pedicularis centranthera_, . _pedicularis densiflora_, . _pedicularis groenlandica_, . _pedicularis ornithorhynca_, . _pedicularis semibarbata_, . pe-ik, . _pelargonium_, . pelican flower, yellow, . pennycress, . pennyroyal, western, . _penstemon_, . _penstemon acuminatus_, . _penstemon antirrhinoides_, . _penstemon breviflorus_, . _penstemon bridgesii_, . _penstemon centranthifolius_, . _penstemon confertus_, . _penstemon confertus var. caeruleo-purpureus_, . _penstemon cordifolius_, . _penstemon cyananthus_, . _penstemon eatoni_, . _penstemon glandulosus_, . _penstemon heterophyllus_, . _penstemon laetus_, . _penstemon linarioides_, . _penstemon newberryi_, . _penstemon parryi_, . _penstemon rattani var. minor_, . _penstemon torreyi_, . _penstemon wrightii_, . penstemon, blue, . penstemon, cardinal, . penstemon, honeysuckle, . penstemon, scarlet, . penstemon, variable, . penstemon, yawning, . _pentachaeta aurea_, . peony, wild, . peppergrass, . pepper-root, . _perezia nana_, . _perezia wrightii_, . persian prince, . _peucedanum euryptera_, . _peucedanum simplex_, . _phacelia_, , , , . _phacelia alpina_, . _phacelia arizonica_, . _phacelia crenulata_, . _phacelia distans_, . _phacelia fremontii_, . _phacelia glechomaefolia_, . _phacelia grandiflora_, . _phacelia linearis_, . _phacelia longipes_, . _phacelia parryi_, . _phacelia ramosissima_, . _phacelia sericea_, . _phacelia viscida_, . _phacelia viscida var. albiflora_, . _phacelia whitlavia_, . phacelia, _alpine_, . phacelia, arizona, . phacelia, mountain, . _philadelphus_, . _philadelphus californicus_, . _philadelphus microphyllus_, . _phlox_, . _phlox douglasii_, . _phlox longifolia_, . _phlox stansburyi_, . phlox family, . phlox, alpine, , . _phyllodoce_, . _phyllodoce breweri_, . _phyllodoce empetriformis_, . _phyllodoce glanduliflora_, . _physalis_, . _physalis crassifolia_, . _physalis fendleri_, . _physocarpus_, . _pickeringia_, . pigweed family, . pimpernel, scarlet, , . pinclover, . pineapple-weed, . pine-drops, . pine-sap, . pink family, . pink, . pink, cushion, . pink, desert, . pink, ground, . pink, indian, , . pink, windmill, . pink lady-fingers, . pink fairies, . pinkets, . pipe-stem, . pipsissewa, . _plagiobothrys nothofulvus_, . _platystemon_, . _platystemon californicus_, . _plectritis_, . _pleuricospora fimbriolata_, . plum family, . plum, . polecat plant, . _polemoniaceae_, . _polemonium_, . _polemonium carneum_, . _polemonium coeruleum_, . _polemonium occidentale_, . _polygalaceae_, . _polygala californica_, . _polygonaceae_, . _polygonum_, . _polygonum bistortoides_, . _pomaceae_, . poor-man's weather-glass, . popcorn beauty, . popcorn flower, . popcorn flower, pink, . poppy family, . poppy, bush, . poppy, california, . poppy, giant, . poppy, matilija, . poppy, thistle, . poppy, tree, . poppy, wind, . _portulacaceae_, . _portulaca_, . potato family, . potato, . _potentilla_, , . _potentilla emarginata_, . _potentilla pectinisecta_, . prairie pointers, . prickly pear, , , . pride of california, . pride-of-the-mountain, . _primulaceae_, . primrose family, . primrose, beach, . prince's plume, golden, . _prosartes_, . _prunus_, . _prunus ilicifolia_, . _prunella vulgaris_, . _psathyrotes annua_, . _psilostrophe cooperi_, . _psilostrophe tagetina var. sparsiflora_, . _psoralea_, . _psoralea physodes_, . _pterospora andromedea_, . _pteryxia californica_, . _ptilonella scabra_, . _ptiloria_, . _ptiloria pauciflora_, . _ptiloria wrightii_, . puccoon, hairy, . puccoon, pretty, . purslane family, . purslane-tree, . pusley, . pusley, chinese, . pussy's ears, yellow, . pussy's ears, white, . pussy-paws, . pussy-tails, . pyramid bush, . _pyrolaceae_, . _pyrola_, . _pyrola bracteata_, . quaker bonnets, . quamash, . _quamoclidion_, . _quamoclidion multiflorum_, . queen-cup, . quinine, . quinine bush, . radish, . _rafinesquia_, . ragwort, . _ramona_, . _ramona grandiflora_, . _ramona incana_, . _ramona nivea_, . _ramona polystachya_, . _ramona stachyoides_, . ramona, desert, . _ranunculaceae_, . _ranunculus_, . _ranunculus californicus_, . raspberry, . raspberry, creeping, . rattleweed, , . red-bud, . red feather, . red-pepper, . red-root, . reed-lily, . _rhamnaceae_, . _rhododendron_, , , . _rhododendron californicum_, . _ribes_, , . _ribes aureum_, . _ribes glutinosum_, . _ribes hudsonianum_, . _ribes nevadense_, . rice root, . _riddellia_, . rocket, . rock-rose family, . rock-rose, . _romanzoffia_, . _romanzoffia sitchensis_, . romero, . _romneya_, . _romneya coulteri_, . _romneya trichocalyx_, . _rosaceae_, . _rosa_, . _rosa californica_, . _rosa fendleri_, . _rosa gymnocarpa_, . rose family, . rose bay, california, . rose, california wild, . rose, cliff, . rose, fendler's, . rose, redwood, . _rubiaceae_, . _rubus_, . _rubus parviflorus_, , . _rubus pedatus_, . _rubus spectabilis_, . _rubus vitifolius_, . _rudbeckia_, . _rudbeckia hirta_, . _rumex_, . _rumex venosus_, . saccato gordo, . sage, , . sage, ball, . sage, black, . sage, hop, . sage, humming-bird, . sage, pitcher, . sage, thistle, . sage, white, . sage, white ball, . sage-brush, common, . _sagittaria_, . _sagittaria latifolia,_ . sahuaro, . sailors, blue, . salal, . _salazaria mexicana_, . salmon-berry, . salsify, . _salvia_, , . _salvia apiana_, . _salvia columbariae_, . _salvia carduacea_, . sandalwood family, . sand dock, . sanicle, purple, . _sanicula bipinnatifida_, . san juan tree, . sand puffs, . sandwort, . sandwort, fendler's, . _santalaceae_, . _saponaria_, . _sarcodes sanguinea_, . satin-bell, . _saururaceae_, . _saxifragaceae_, . _saxifraga_, , . _saxifraga bongardi_, . _saxifraga bronchialis_, . _saxifraga nutkana_, . saxifrage family, . saxifrage, . saxifrage, dotted, . saxifrage, tall swamp, . saxifrage, tufted, . scarlet bugler, , . _schoenolirion_, . _scrophulariaceae_, . _scrophularia_, . _scrophularia californica_, . _scrophularia californica var. floribunda_, . _scutellaria_, . _scutellaria angustifolia_, . _scutellaria antirrhinoides_, . _scutellaria californica_, . _scutellaria tuberosa_, . sea dahlia, . sea fig, . _sedum_, . _sedum douglasii_, . _sedum yosemitense_, . sego lily, . sego, poison, . self-heal, . _senecio_, . _senecio cordatus_, . _senecio douglasii_, . _senecio elegans_, . _senecio lemmoni_, . _senecio multilobatus_, . _senecio perplexus var. dispar_, . _senecio riddellii_, . senecio, african, . senecio, creek, . senna family, . senna, desert, . _serapias_, . _serapias gigantea_, . _sericotheca_, . _sericotheca discolor_, . service-berry, . shadbush, . shallon, . sheep-pod, . shepherd's purse, . shield-leaf, . shinleaf, . shooting-star, . shooting-star, large, . shooting-star, small, . _sidalcea_, . _sidalcea californica_, . _sidalcea malvaeflora_, . _sidalcea neo-mexicana_, . _sidalcea oregana_, . _silene_, . _silene acaulis_, . _silene anglica_, . _silene californica_, . _silene gallica_, . _silene hookeri_, . _silene laciniata_, . _silene laciniata var. greggii_, . _silene lyalli_, . silver-puffs, . silver-weed, . single beauty, . _sisymbrium allissimum_, . _sisyrinchium_, . _sisyrinchium arizonicum_, . _sisyrinchium bellum_, . _sisyrinchium californicum_, . _sisyrinchium elmeri_, . skevish, . skullcap, . skunk-weed, . skyrocket, . smartweed, . smartweed, alpine, . smoke tree, . snake's head, . snap-dragon, sticky, . snap-dragon, trailing, . snap-dragon vine, . snap-dragon, white, . sneeze-weed, . snow-balls, , . snowberry, . snow brush, . snowdrop, . snow-plant, . soap-bush, . soap plant, . _solanaceae_, . _solanum_, . _solanum douglasii_, . _solanum nigrum_, . _solanum umbelliferum_, . _solanum xanti_, . _solidago_, . _solidago californica_, . _solidago occidentalis_, . _solidago trinervata_, . solomon's seal, false, . solomon's seal, star-flowered, . _sonchus_, . _sonchus oleraceus_, . sorrel, . sorrel, redwood, . sow thistle, . spanish bayonet, . spatter-dock, . _spatularia_, . _spatularia brunoniana_, . speedwell, alpine, . speedwell, hairy, . spek-boom, . _sphacele calycina_, . _sphaeralcea_, . _sphaeralcea pedata_, . _sphaerostigma_, . _sphaerostigma bistorta_, . _sphaerostigma tortuosa_, . _sphaerostigma veitchianum_, . _sphaerostigma viridescens_, . spikenard, wild, . spinach, . _spiraea_, , , . _spiraea aruncus_, . _spiraea betulaefolia_, . _spiraea corymbosa_, . _spiraea douglasii_, . _spiraea pyramidata_, . _spraguea_, . _spraguea umbellata_, . spring beauty, . squaw cabbage, . squaw carpets, . squaw-grass, . squaw-weed, . squaw-weed, white, . squirrel corn, . _stachys_, . _stachys bullata_, . _stachys ciliata_, . _stachys coccinea_, . _stanleya_, . _stanleya pinnatifida_, . star of bethlehem, . star, blazing, . star, evening, . star-flower, . star tulip, white, . star tulip, yellow, . star, woodland, . steeple-bush, . steer's head, . _stellaria_, . _stellariopsis_, . _stellariopsis santolinoides_, . _stemodia_, . _stemodia durantifolia_, . _stenanthella_, . _stenanthella occidentalis_, . _stephanomeria_, . _stephanomeria runcinata_, . stickseed, . stitchwort, . st. johnswort family, . st. johnswort, . st. johnswort, creeping, . stock, . stonecrop, douglas, . stonecrop, yosemite, . storksbill, . strangle-weed, . strawberry, . strawberry, sand, . strawberry, wood, . strawberry shrub family, . strawberry shrub, . strawberry-tomato, . _streptanthus_, , . _streptanthus arizonicus_, . _streptanthus tortuosus_, . streptanthus, arizona, . _streptopus_, . _streptopus amplexifolius_, . _streptopus roseus_, . _stropholirion californicum_, . sulphur flower, . sun-cups, . sunflower family, . sunflower, , . sunflower, common, . sunshine, . sweet-after-death, . sweet alyssum, . sweet pea, narrow-leaved, . sweet pea, utah, . sweet shrub, . sweet william, wild, . swollen-stalk, . _symphoricarpos_, . _symphoricarpos longiflorus_, . _symphoricarpos oreophilus_, . _symphoricarpos racemosus_, . syringa, . syringa, small, . _taraxia ovata_, . _taraxacum_, . _taraxacum taraxacum_, . tarweed, , . tea, native california, . tea-tree, white, . tea-vine, . _tetradymia spinosa_, . _thalesia uniflora_, . _thalictrum_, . _thalictrum fendleri_, . _thalictrum fendleri var. wrightii_, . _thelypodium_, . _thelypodium torulosum_, . _themopsis_, . _themopsis californica_, . _themopsis montana_, . thimble-berry, . thistle, , . thistle, arizona, . thistle, california, . thistle, milk, . thistle, sow, . thistle, western, . thistle, yellow-spined, . _thlaspi_, . _thlaspi alpestre_, . _thlaspi glaucum_, . thorn-apple, . _thurberia thespesioides_, . thyme, . tickseed, . tidy-tips, white, . tidy-tips, yellow, . tiny tim, . toad-flax, . tobacco, , . tobacco, tree, . tolguacha, . _tolmiea_, . tomato, . torosa, . _townsendia exscapa_, . _tragopogon porrifolius_, . _trautvetteria_, . _trautvetteria grandis_, . trefoil, . _trichostema_, . _trichostema lanatum_, . _trichostema lanceolatum_, . _trientalis_, . _trientalis latifolia_, . _trifolium_, . _trifolium fucatum_, . _trifolium tridentatum_, . _trillium_, . _trillium ovatum_, . _triteleia_, . _triteleia grandiflora_, . _triteleia hyacinthina_, . _triteleia laxa_, , . _trixis_, . _trixis angustifolia var. latiuscula_, . _trollius laxus_, . tule potato, . tulip, alabaster, . tulip, butterfly, . tulip, mariposa, , , . tulip, orange mariposa, . tulip, yellow mariposa, . tulip, globe, . tulip, white globe, . tulip, yellow globe, . tulip, star, . tulip, white star, . tulip, yellow star, . tumbleweed, . turkey peas, . turkish rugging, . turnip, . twinberry, black, . twin-flower, . twisted stalk, pink, . twisted stalk, white, . _umbelliferae_, . umbrella-wort, narrow-leaved, . _vaccaria_, . _vaccaria vaccaria_, . _vaccinium_, . _vaccinium ovatum_, . _vagnera_, . _vagnera amplexicaulis_, . _vagnera sessilifolia_, . _valerianaceae_, . _valeriana_, . _valeriana arizonica_, . _valeriana sylvatica_, . _valeriana sitchensis_, . valerian family, . valerian, arizona, . valerian, greek, . valerian, wild, . _valerianella_, . _valerianella macrosera_, . _vancouveria_, . _vancouveria chrysantha_, . _vancouveria hexandra_, . _vancouveria parviflora_, . vanilla leaf, . _velaea arguta_, . velvet-rosette, . _venegasia carpesioides_, . _veratrum_, . _veratrum californicum_, . _verbenaceae_, . _verbena_, . _verbena arizonica_, . _verbena prostrata_, . verbena family, . verbena, yellow sand, . verbena, pink sand, . verbena, wild, . _veronica_, . _veronica americana_, . _veronica tournefortii_, . _veronica wormskjoldii_, . vervain, common, . vervenia, . vetch, . vetch, milk, . villela, . vinegar weed, . _violaceae_, . _viola_, . _viola adunca var. glabra_, . _viola adunca var. longipes_, . _viola canadensis_, . _viola lobata_, . _viola ocellata_, . _viola pedunculata_, . _viola venosa_, . violet family, . violet, blue, . violet, canada, . violet, dog-tooth, . violet, pine, . violet, pale mountain, . violet, yellow mountain, . virgin's bower, . wake-robin, . wallflower, cream-colored, . wallflower, western, . wapato, . water-cress, . waterleaf family, , . waterleaf, . water lily family, . water-plantain family, . _whipplea modesta_, . whispering bells, . willow-herb, . willow-herb, great, . willow-herb, water, . wineflowers, . wintergreen family, . wintergreen , . wintergreen, western, . wolfsbane, . wood-balm, . woodland star, . wood-sorrel family, . wood-sorrel, yellow, . _wyethia_, . _wyethia amplexicaulis_, . _wyethia mollis_, . wyethia, woolly, . _xerophyllum tenax_, . _xylorrhiza_, . _xylorrhiza tortifolia_, . _xylothermia montana_, . yarrow, golden, . yellows, . yerba buena, . yerba buena del campo, . yerba buena del poso, . yerba mansa, . yerba del pasmo, . yerba santa, . yerba santa, woolly, . youth-on-age, . _yucca_, . _yucca whipplei_, . yucca, tree, . _zinnia_, . zinnia, desert, . zygadene, , . zygadene, star, . _zygadenus_, . _zygadenus elegans_, . _zygadenus fremontii_, . _zygadenus paniculatus_, . _zygadenus venenosus_, . _zygophyllaceae_, . _a selection from the catalogue of_ g. p. putnam's sons [illustration] complete catalogue sent on application _by f. schuyler mathews_ field book of wild birds and their music mo. with colored and other full-page illustrations, and numerous musical diagrams. cloth, net $ . full flexible leather, net . (postage, cents) field book of american wild flowers mo. revised and enlarged edition. with colored plates and full-page illustrations in the text. cloth, net $ . full leather, net . (postage, cents) field book of american trees and shrubs mo. uniform with "field book of wild birds." many illustrations, some in color, and maps. cloth, net $ . full leather, net . (postage, cents) g. p. putnam's sons new york london [transcriber's note: page , "limnorchis leuchostachys" was changed to read "limnorchis leucostachys", typo in illustration. page , "tetradimia spinosa" was changed to read "tetradymia spinosa", typo in illustration. inconsistent spelling and punctuation are as in the original.] proofreading team. [illustration: violets.] [illustration: almond and apple blossom.] the country-life-readers by arthur o. cooke flowers of the farm contents i. introduction ii. in the coppice iii. flowers on the walls iv. three handsome weeds v. clover vi. in "ashmead" vii. in the hay-field viii. in the hay-field (_continued_) ix. in the corn-field x. in the corn-field (_continued_) xi. on the chase xii. in the lanes chapter i introduction i think that some of you have been with me at willow farm before to-day. when we were there we went into the farmer's fields in early spring, and saw the men and horses at work with ploughs and harrows. a little later on we saw some of the crops sown, such as barley and turnips. in summer we were in the hay-and corn-fields, and later still we saw the ricks being made. to-day we are at willow farm again, and i want to show you some of the flowers that grow there. i do not mean those which mrs. hammond, the farmer's wife, grows in her garden, pretty as they are. we will look rather at the wild flowers in the fields, the hedges, and by the road-side in the lane. no one sows their seed nor takes care of them in any way; yet they grow and blossom year after year, and nearly all of them are beautiful. before we begin to look at them we must make sure that we quite understand just what a flower is. even those of you who live in large towns and have perhaps never been in the country, see flowers of some sort, i feel sure; you see them in shop windows and they are also often sold in the streets. you have seen wallflowers and daffodils in the spring, roses in the summer, violets in winter, as well as other kinds. you do not need to be told that these are flowers. what about the grass on lawns, and in such places as battersea park and hyde park in london? "oh," you say, "that is not a flower at all--that is just grass." yes, it is grass, but the grass has a flower as well as a rose bush or a violet-plant. it is only because the grass is kept cut short that you do not see its flower on a lawn. if grass is not cut, or eaten by animals, it grows tall in spring; then in may or june you would see the flowers on tall straight stems which stand among the blades of grass. many of these grass flowers are very beautiful and we will look presently at some of them in one of the farmer's fields. perhaps some of you have gardens or grass plots at your own homes. if you see some dandelions in the lawn, or groundsel among the flowers or vegetables in the garden beds, you say, "those weeds must be pulled up." you call the dandelion and the groundsel weeds, but they have flowers all the same; the dandelion is perhaps one of the most lovely yellow flowers that we have. they are weeds certainly in your lawn or garden beds, for they ought not to be there. weeds are plants in the wrong place. by and by, in the farmer's fields, we shall see many pretty flowers which he calls weeds. we speak of the nettle as a weed, and do not usually admire it; yet the nettle has a flower, as we shall see. then what do you think of a tree having a flower? that is perhaps a new idea to you. yet if you look at a horse-chestnut tree in june you will see at once the large spikes of beautiful white flowers with which it is covered. apple trees have a beautiful pink, or pink and white flower, and the almond tree bears a lovely pink flower. all other trees have flowers too, but they are often small. the flowers of the oak and the beech are small, but, though you may not notice them, they are on the tree each spring. almost all plants, including large trees, have flowers--they are flowering plants. just a few plants have no flower; ferns have none, nor have the mosses and lichens which grow on walls and rocks and on the stems of trees. fungi, too, such as the mushroom, have no flowers. nearly all other plants have flowers. it is by the flower or blossom that a plant is reproduced. after the flower has faded comes the fruit and seed; the seed falls into the ground or is sown, and from it springs another plant. without the flower there would be no seed. you see that there are rather more flowers than you had thought. still, while we are strolling in the fields and lanes at willow farm, we shall look most at what are generally called flowers; we shall look at comparatively small plants in which the flower or blossom is easily noticed because it is large, or bright-coloured, or sweet-scented. but while we are admiring a daisy or a dandelion in the spring, we must not forget that the great oak-tree above it also has a flower of its own--we must remember that the oak-tree also is a flowering plant. chapter ii in the coppice outside the front door of willow farm is a broad curving gravel drive, at the far end of which a white gate opens into the lane. on one side of this drive is a narrow strip of ground planted with flowers and shrubs, and close to the front door there is a patch of grass on which stands a large old mulberry tree. on the other side of the drive is a lawn. beyond that are more flowers and then the vegetable garden; further on still is a little wood or coppice of nut bushes. on this march morning we shall find some wild flowers in this little wood. between the vegetable garden and the wood is a low grassy bank. it is bright to-day with yellow primroses. the primrose always blossoms early here, for the bank is sunny and is sheltered from cold winds. [illustration: primrose.] i daresay most of you have seen a primrose before to-day. each pale yellow blossom is made up of five petals, which are joined together forming a tube or corolla. the petals are notched or indented on the outer edge. at the centre of the blossom, where the petals meet, each petal is marked with a spot of darker yellow. each flower grows alone on a long slender stem. at the top of the stem is a kind of green tube out of which the yellow blossom appears. the primrose blossoms have a scent; not strong, but very sweet and pleasant. the leaves are called "radical" or "root" leaves. they are so called because each leaf _appears_ to grow direct from the root. but the leaves really grow from a short stem at the top of the root--a stem so short that it does not appear above the ground at all. among the bushes of the coppice itself we will notice the flowers which first catch our eye--the pretty blossoms of the wood anemone. the whole coppice is starred with the beautiful white flowers. we pick one and see that it has six--six what? "six petals," you say. no, these are not petals, for the anemone has none. they are sepals. the sepals of a plant generally enclose the blossom before it is opened, and they are usually green. in the anemone the petals are absent; the sepals take their place and are white instead of green. their under side is often not pure white, but is streaked with pale pink. several blossoms which we pick have six of these sepals. that is the usual number, but sometimes there are only five, and sometimes more than six. the blossoms of the anemone grow on longer and stronger stalks than those of the primrose, and on each stalk are three leaves. these leaves grow round the stalk in a ring. each leaf is "tri-partite"--in three parts or divisions; the edges of these divided leaves are deeply serrated. besides the three leaves on each flower-stalk similar leaves grow from underground stems which creep along not far below the surface of the soil. such creeping underground stems are usually called "rhizomes." at the further side of the coppice, where a hedge separates it from the little meadow called home close, are sweet violets. we catch their fragrant scent before we see them, for the tiny flowers are half hidden among broad green leaves. each blossom has five petals of a dark purple colour; there are white sweet violets too, but none are growing in our little wood to-day. at the base of the blossom--the part where it joins the stem--one of the petals has a little spur which points back towards the stem. the blossom is therefore said to be spurred; we may presently see other plants with spurred flowers. there is another violet which grows wild in england--the dog violet. it is larger than our sweet violets here, but it has no scent. [illustration: anemone.] while we have been examining the flowers on the ground, the nut bushes above our heads are waiting to remind us of what we said just now--that trees also have flowers. the flowers of the nut bush or hazel are easily seen, for they appear before the leaves are open. what we see to-day are often called catkins, but the name which country children give them is lambs'-tails. it is a very good name, too, for they are more like the tail of some tiny lamb than anything else. these catkins are yellowish-white in colour, and soft and almost woolly to the touch. they hang in clusters from the hazel twigs, and in the strong march wind which blows to-day, they shake and flutter like the tails of lambs at play. some of them leave a dusty powder on our fingers when we handle them; that is the pollen of the flower. it is not where these yellow "catkins" are dancing on the twigs to-day that the hazel nuts will appear in autumn. the nuts will grow on twigs where there are very small red flowers--something like tiny paint-brushes. these are the female flowers; they will be fertilized by the yellow pollen of the catkins, and will produce the nuts. chapter iii flowers on the walls behind the narrow strip of ground with flowers and shrubs on the other side of the drive there is a low stone wall. a piece of the lawn on which the mulberry tree stands has been cut away, and a flight of steps leads down to a little gate into the foldyard. this wall between the garden and the foldyard is very old and rough--not like the smooth brick walls you see in towns. the stones are of different shapes and sizes, the mortar has fallen out of it in many places, and here and there are holes and crevices. yet it is a very beautiful old wall, for many things grow on it; mosses and grasses, and other flowers too, are there. on this may morning we not only see, but also smell, one of the flowers which grow upon the wall--it is the beautiful sweet-scented wallflower. it grows here and there along the top of the wall, and a few plants of it are even springing from the sides. some of the plants are quite large and their stems are tough. these have grown here for a long time. the wallflower is a perennial plant; unless it is killed or torn up by the roots it will live and grow for many years. others are quite young and only a few inches high. these have grown from seeds dropped last autumn by the older plants. you very likely wonder how the wallflower or any other plant can grow upon the wall, for there is no earth to be seen--nothing but stones and crumbling mortar. but if we pull up one of the smaller plants we shall find earth clinging to its roots. dry dusty earth has been blown upon the wall by wind, and has lodged in chinks and holes. dust and soil, too, were mixed with the mortar when the wall was built; and dead leaves falling on it and decaying have produced a little more--for decayed leaves make earth or "soil." wallflowers and other plants which grow on walls and rocks find very little soil sufficient for their needs. most of the blossoms of the wallflowers upon this wall are of a golden yellow colour and are very sweet. some of the blossoms are, however, a darker yellow than others, and here and there are petals which are quite brown. if we look at the garden behind us we shall see that mrs. hammond has several beds of wallflower this year; it is a flower of which she is very fond. there are wallflowers of two different colours in her beds. one kind has bright golden blossoms, rather deeper in colour than any of those upon the wall; the other has flowers that are a rich dark brown. [illustration: wallflower.] these plants are sturdier and more bushy than those upon the wall, and there are more flowers on each plant. the flowers are finer, too, and have a stronger scent. if mrs. hammond had wished she could have sown seed to produce many different shades of brown and yellow wallflowers. she might also have had a purple wallflower, and even a wallflower of so pale a yellow as to be almost white. if you and i were clever gardeners and had plenty of time and patience, we could get purple or nearly white wallflowers from these yellow-flowered plants upon the wall. it would perhaps take us many years, but we should succeed at last. this is how we should set about it. suppose that we wished to have a wallflower nearly white. we should look carefully along the wall in spring, when the blossoms are out, until we found the very palest yellow blossom we could see. we should mark that plant, and when the flower was over and the seed was ripe, we should collect the seed. among the plants grown from this seed we should choose again the plant that had the palest flowers, and should save the seed from _that_. we might have to go on doing this for twenty years or more, but in time we should have a wallflower so pale as to be almost white. _quite_ white we should never get our wallflower, for no _pure_ white flower can be obtained from a yellow one. however pale our wallflower might be there would still always be just a tinge of yellow or cream colour in it. if, on the other hand, we wanted a purple or a very dark brown wallflower, we should save seed from those blossoms which were nearest to the colour we wanted--dark brown or with a tinge of purple in them. we should sow seed from the darkest blossoms again and again, and at last we should get what we wished to have. [illustration: red valerian.] [illustration: stinging nettle.] [illustration: white dead nettle.] besides choosing seed from the lightest or darkest blossoms, we should tend our plants very carefully and well, giving them plenty of good rich soil. this would make them grow bushy and with many flowers, as we see them in mrs. hammond's garden beds. many of our garden flowers have been produced in this way, by selecting and improving wild flowers. of course all flowers grow wild _somewhere_; some in england, but many more in foreign countries, where the air is warmer and the soil richer and better. the pansy is a little english wild flower with yellow, blue, and red petals. from this little flower gardeners have produced large and beautiful pansies of many different colours and shades of colours--white, yellow, blue, and brown. this has been done by careful selection, just as we spoke of doing with the wallflowers. but if the large single-coloured pansies of which i have told you, or mrs. hammond's dark brown wallflowers, were allowed to seed themselves--that is, were allowed to drop and sow their own seed year after year--do you know what would happen? they would gradually revert or turn back to their original form and colour. the flowers would become mixed in colour and less fine in size; at last they would be simple wild flowers again. [illustration: pansy.] now it is june, and the blossoms of the wallflower have faded and fallen. the old wall is, however, growing gay with another plant--the red valerian. we must be careful to remember that it is the red valerian, for there are other valerians. there is the great valerian which does not grow on walls or rocks, but in damp and shady places; its flowers are pale pink. the blossoms of the red valerian on the wall are bright crimson, and they grow in rows on small stems which spring from a stout stalk a foot or two in height. each blossom of five petals forms a little tube or corolla. the base or foot of each little tube appears as a point on the under side of the flower stem; the red valerian, like the violet, is a spurred flower. the leaves are long and pointed, and they grow in pairs, on opposite sides of the stalk. sometimes the edges of the leaves are quite smooth; sometimes they are serrated, or toothed, like the edge of a saw. if we pulled a plant of red valerian from the wall we should find the roots very long and branching; they need to be so, for the plant often grows on rocks and other places where it is exposed to wind. if the roots had not a firm hold the tall stems laden with blossoms might be blown down. the red valerian flowers all through the summer. its clusters of crimson flowers are as great an ornament to the old wall as were the wallflowers in may. now let us go down the steps into the foldyard; there is a wall on either side of us as we descend. the wall which faces the north is nearly always in shadow, and there are ferns growing but of it between the stones. one of these is a beautiful hartstongue fern, with large and shining leaves. we said just now, however, that ferns have no flowers, so we will turn to something that grows on the wall opposite. this is the ivy-leaved toadflax. it grows on walls and rocks, as the red valerian does, but it is a very different plant in appearance. the stems of the red valerian are tall and upright; those of the toadflax are slender and drooping. there is a large mass of it on the side of the wall, and we find that the root is at the highest point of the whole mass. the stems with the flowers and leaves hang down below the root; it is a trailing plant. there are, however, other roots clinging to the wall here and there below the main root. the plant, like several others, is able to throw out fresh roots from the joints of its stems, and these give it a firmer hold. the flowers are small, and their colour is a pale lilac-blue with a bright yellow spot in the centre. these flowers too are spurred. the leaves are smooth and thick--what is called fleshy. they are divided into five lobes or divisions, and are not unlike an ivy-leaf in shape. when we turn a leaf or two over we see that the under side of some is dark purple. [illustration: ivy-leaved toadflax.] this little plant is usually said to prefer a damp situation, and to blossom from may till october. this wall beside the steps is certainly rather damp, for the moisture from the garden above soaks down to it. in my own garden, however, the ivy-leaved toadflax grows on some very dry old walls, and i have found it in flower in the middle of december. neither the toadflax nor the red valerian are really natives of england. they were brought to our country many hundreds of years ago. they have spread so much that they have now become wildflowers. in the same way many others of our wild flowers were once unknown in england. now that we have come down the steps into the foldyard we see that it lies a good deal below the house and garden. built round the foldyard are the stables for the cart-horses, the cowhouses, and the great barn. behind the stables is the rickyard. that, like the garden, is above the foldyard; from it there are only two or three steps to the door of the loft or "tallet" above the stables. it is there that we will go now. the wall of the tallet is of stone and is very old; the roof is tiled. there is a little hole cut in the bottom of the door, and you will see one like it in the door of the granary. it is made so that old tib and the other cats can go in and catch mice. growing between the stones of the wall just by the tallet door is the plant i want to show you now. it is the stonecrop. some of the stems grow upright, while others are trailing. at the top of each upright stem is a cluster of bright yellow flowers. some of these are fully open, and we see that each blossom has five pointed petals. the trailing stems have no flowers at all, they are barren; but the leaves on the barren stems are much more numerous and closer together than those on the upright flowering stems. [illustration: common stonecrop.] these leaves are very curious. they are not flat like the leaves of the red valerian, the toadflax, and most other flowers; they are very thick and fleshy--something like a short round pointed stick. they grow close against the stalk, not in pairs, but alternately, first a leaf on one side of the stalk, then a leaf on the other. they are erect too; that is, they point in the same direction as the stalk. on the barren stems the leaves grow so closely that they quite cover the stalk. they have a hot sharp taste, and the plant is sometimes called "wall-pepper." the roots are very thin and can spread easily through narrow chinks of the wall. we will see one more plant of the walls before we look for flowers elsewhere. our next plant is not very common at willow farm; still i know where to look for it. built against one side of the big barn in the foldyard is a little lean-to shed. often there are calves in it; but just now we are more interested in something that is on the roof. standing close to the wall of the shed is a cattle crib--a kind of big square box or trough on legs, in which hay or chaff is put for the cattle. the shed is not very high, and by standing on the crib we can scramble on to the roof. here is the plant we want to see. it is the houseleek, of which a clump is growing between the tiles. almost flat on the tiles is a dense mass of large green fleshy leaves. these leaves are evergreen, they do not die and fall off in winter. from this cluster of leaves rise straight thick stems nearly a foot high. the stems are thickly covered with erect leaves which grow smaller towards the top of the stem. at the top of the stem is a cluster of very handsome rosy-red flowers. each blossom is star-shaped when fully open, and generally has twelve petals. [illustration: house leek.] if we could see the roots we should find them very thread-like or fibrous, like those of other flowers we have been looking at to-day. i do not think i can very well show you the roots, however; we should have to pull up a plant, and that would not please ben, the cowman, at all. there is a belief in country places that it is bad luck to disturb the houseleek--that someone in the house on which it grows is sure to die soon afterwards. certainly the plant is not growing on a house here--only on the calves' cot. still, if any misfortune should happen to the calves we might be blamed by ben. besides, it would be a pity to disturb so handsome a plant, would it not? we have spent some time in looking at these flowers on the walls and roof because we think them very wonderful. we see how little soil they can have in which to grow, and how, in dry weather, they can have very little moisture either. yet the leaves of several of them are thick and fleshy, and the flowers of some are large and beautiful. what could be more handsome than the blossoms of the wallflower, the red valerian, and the houseleek? chapter iv three handsome weeds at the end of the drive, near the front door, another white gate leads to the "nag" stables, where mr. hammond keeps the two horses which he rides and drives. billy, the old brown pony, has a little stable of his own close by, and further on are the granary and the poultry yard. perhaps you have heard the saying, "ill weeds grow apace." it is certainly a true one, for most of the plants which we call weeds grow quickly and well wherever they are allowed to remain. we shall not have far to look for the three weeds which i want to show you this morning. the first of them is the stinging nettle. it grows round the wood-pile in the middle of the poultry-yard, and there are great clumps of it beside the hedge which divides the poultry-yard from the kitchen garden. it is really a very handsome plant, though you may not have thought so before. look how tall and straight the stems are, and how evenly and regularly the dark green pointed leaves grow from it. they grow in pairs, on opposite sides of the stem, and are serrated. there is something rather unusual about the stem of the nettle which we will notice at once. i have brought out a pair of thick leather gloves, so that we can pick a stem without being stung. you know what shape the trunks of trees are. round? yes; round or nearly so. so are the stems of most plants; the stems of the red valerian are round. the stem of the nettle, however, is square, or if not perfectly square, it has four distinct sides. perhaps you had never noticed this before, for the nettle is certainly not a plant with which one cares to have very much to do. both the stems and leaves are covered with tiny hairs. these hairs are really small hollow tubes ending in a sharp point. when the nettle stings you it first pricks the skin with these sharp points, and then a drop of poison falls from the tube into the wound the point has made. if you happen to get stung by a nettle do _not_ bathe your hand with cold water; that will only make the pain worse. while you are waiting for the pain to pass off remember that in india there are nettles whose sting causes great pain which lasts for several days. you might be much worse off, you see! the small greenish-yellow flowers of the stinging nettle grow in long feathery clusters on stalks which spring from the main stem close to a pair of leaves. the young leaves of the nettle are said to be very nice boiled as vegetables; i cannot say that i have ever eaten them myself. years ago country people used to take a great deal of nettle tea as medicine in spring. nowadays they seem to prefer patent medicines from the chemist's shop. a dye is made from the roots of the nettle, and another dye from the stem and leaves. the young leaves or tops, when chopped up, are good for poultry, especially for turkeys. so nettles are useful, you see--not merely stinging weeds. the nettle, too, is a relation of the hemp plant from which we get our string and ropes. [illustration: traveller's joy.] you may sometimes see or hear of the white, red, and yellow dead nettle, but these are not really nettles at all. their leaves are somewhat similar, but they are quite different plants. hanging over this great patch of nettles by the hedge there is another weed, the traveller's joy, or old man's beard. its stem has climbed not only up the hedge, but high into a hawthorn bush which stands there. it has many small white feathery flowers with a pleasant scent. on each leaf stem there are usually five leaflets, one at the end of the stem and two pairs lower down. these leaf stems are long and tough, and it is chiefly by them that the plant can climb as it does; they twine round any branch or twig they touch, and give the traveller's joy a firm support. i have seen trees in woods covered with this plant to a height of twenty feet from the ground. in the autumn and early winter you would admire the traveller's joy as much as you do now. the flowers will certainly be gone, but each seed which takes the place of a blossom will have a little plume of silky white threads attached to it--a sort of feathery tail. these serve as wings by which the seeds are often carried long distances by the wind. the seeds of some other plants which we shall see have something of the same kind. there is another climbing plant in the hedge, the large bindweed or convolvulus. to look at it, however, we will go round into the garden where there is more of it than mrs. hammond cares to see. it is certainly a beautiful plant, with its large three-sided pointed leaves, and its great pure white bell-shaped flowers--something like the mouth of a trumpet. in the farmhouse garden, however, it is certainly a weed--a plant in the wrong place. we see that at once. close to the hedge are some gooseberry and currant bushes, and into these the bindweed has climbed. the bindweed's stems are twined round the stems and branches of the bushes till they are almost hidden by it, and are bent down by the weight. [illustration: large bindweed.] the bindweed climbs, as we see, by twisting its stem round the tree to which it clings; but though it is a climbing plant its stems can grow for a foot or more from the ground without support. some of the shoots of the bindweed are two or three feet away from the stems of the fruit bushes, but they have grown unsupported till they could reach an overhanging bough and cling to that. every now and then, dan, who looks after the garden when he has time, cuts oft all the bindweed close to the ground, and pulls some of it up by the roots; but fresh shoots soon appear again. it is of little use to dig up the ground near the bushes, for the bindweed is twisted all among their roots. you think the bindweed and the traveller's joy beautiful flowers, and so they are. at the same time these plants are far more troublesome and dangerous weeds than the stinging nettle. nearly all plants that cling to other plants do harm; they prevent the stems and boughs to which they cling from swelling freely. see how tightly the bindweed stems are twisted round the boughs of this currant bush. ivy, bindweed, and other clinging plants often kill or seriously injure valuable trees in this way. chapter v clover i said all i could to make you admire the nettle, and to see what a handsome and even useful plant it is. i am afraid, however, that you do not care much for it; i do not see that any of you have gathered a handful to take home. when we go in to dinner presently, if mrs. hammond were to say, "will you have green peas or nettle-tops?" i believe you would all say, "peas, if you please!" so we had better look for a flower that you may like better. we will go to ashmead, where the cows are grazing, and will find some clover. mr. hammond grows clover in some of his fields every year. those of you who have been at willow farm before, and have walked about the farmer's fields, know this, for we saw the bailiff sowing clover broadcast. besides the fields of clover, however, there is always plenty of it growing among the meadow grass. we find some directly we go through the gate into ashmead. it is a plant with a bright purplish-red blossom. let us sit down and examine it carefully. the blossom is a little knob, or ball of colour, almost round. it is made up of a great many little purple stalks, standing upright and very close together. pull a few of these stalks from the blossom and put their lower ends between your lips. they are quite sweet like sugar. nearly all flowers contain honey, or rather _nectar_ of which the bees make honey. some flowers have much nectar, some less, and some have none at all; the clover contains a great deal. now look at the leaves; each has three leaflets. if you can find a leaf with four of these leaflets, the country children will think you very fortunate, for a four-leaved clover is said to bring good luck, just as a four-leaved shamrock does in ireland. a four-leaved clover is, however, rather rare; i hope you may find one, but i am rather afraid you will not. here is another clover, not quite so handsome as the red clover at which we have just been looking; the flowers are white, and are rather smaller. this is white or dutch clover. it is a perennial plant, and one which spreads over a great deal of ground if it is allowed to do so. we saw, you remember, that the ivy-leaved toadflax on the wall by the foldyard steps sent out fresh roots from its stems as it grew. the white clover does the same. the stems creep along the ground, send out fresh roots, and in this way the plant spreads quickly. keeping a few stems of both these clovers in our hands we will go a little further up the lane. there, in a field, we shall see something that even country people cannot see every day. the clover which farmers usually sow is either the red clover or the white, or else another kind called alsike. this year mr. hammond has sown a field with a fourth kind--crimson clover. did you ever see a more beautiful sight? the whole field is a blaze of rich crimson colour. i shall never forget the day i first saw a field of crimson clover. i was so delighted that i asked the farmer--not mr. hammond, but another friend--if he would have a field of it for me to admire every year! he said he would tell me by and by. at the end of the year he said he did not find it such a useful food for his animals as the red and white clovers, and he should not sow it again--at least not very soon. you see pretty things are not always the most useful. let us see what differences we can find between the three clovers we have gathered. we look first at the blossoms. that of the red clover is, as we have said, like a little round ball, or knob. the flower of the white clover is of much the same shape, but is less fine. the flower of the crimson clover is altogether different in shape. it has indeed many small crimson stems, but these do not form a round ball. they are arranged in the form of a little circular cone or pyramid which is large at the bottom and pointed at the top. [illustration: clover leaves. . white; . crimson; . red.] there are other differences. immediately below the flower of the red clover is a pair of leaves; the blossom is said to be "sessile" or seated on these leaves. other leaves, and also other blossoms, grow on the same stem. now look at the white clover. the blossom grows on a stalk without any leaves or other blossoms on it--only the single blossom at the top of the stalk. the blossom of the crimson clover has leaves below it. to-day we easily distinguish one clover from the others by the flowers. supposing, however, that we looked at them some day before the flowers were out; what then? are there any differences in the leaves? all three have leaves formed of three leaflets--they are trefoils--but the leaves are otherwise different. those of the red clover grow on stems branching from the flower stem, and sometimes on the flower stem itself. both leaves and stems are hairy, and on the leaves there is generally a white mark, something the shape of a horseshoe. the leaves of the white clover grow, like the flower, at the top of the stem--a single leaf on each stem. the under sides of the leaves are smooth and glossy. the leaves of the crimson clover grow on the flower stems like those of the red clover; but the leaflets are broader and rounder than the red clover leaflets. the crimson clover is an annual, while the others are perennials. all these clovers are good food for the farmer's animals or stock. the red clover is, perhaps, the most useful. bees, however, prefer the white clover, for they can more easily get at its nectar. sheep are exceedingly fond of clover, but mr. hammond is always careful not to turn them into a field of clover when they are very hungry, or to let them stray in by accident. if they got in they would eat it ravenously, and many would very likely die. too hearty a meal of clover has the same effect on them as a great quantity of new bread would have on you or me. we have spent so much time this morning looking at the clovers that we have only a minute or two to stand at the gate of a field of beans. the blossoms are pretty--white with dark spots--and they are very fragrant. a field of beans in flower gives us one of the most delightful of all country scents. chapter vi in "ashmead" there are many other flowers besides the clover in ashmead to-day, and this afternoon we will look at some that grow among the grass. one of these you may perhaps call a weed, yet it is one of the most beautiful wild flowers in england. i mean the golden dandelion. on a lawn or in a garden bed it would certainly be a weed, and a very troublesome one. here among the grass we need only think of it as a very lovely flower. see what a rich golden yellow the little florets of the blossom are. plants like the dandelion, in which the blossom is composed of a number of florets, are called "composite" plants. if we examine the plant closely we shall find that each stalk which bears a blossom, and each long deeply indented leaf, grows, like the flower-stem and leaf of the primrose, from a very short underground stem. it is from the indented leaves that the dandelion gets its name. the leaves have something the appearance of the teeth of a lion. now the french name for lion's tooth is _dent de lion_, and we english have corrupted this into _dandelion._ each flower-stem is round and, when we pull one, we see that it is a hollow tube. we bite a piece of the stalk as we did with the clover blossom. what a difference! the clover was quite sweet, but the dandelion is very bitter. you may not like the taste perhaps, but the white milky-looking juice is quite wholesome. dandelion tea and dandelion beer are often made by country people, and the leaves give a pleasant flavour to a salad. shall we pull up a plant and examine the root? i am afraid we cannot, unless you care to go back to the house for a fork or a trowel. the dandelion has a very long strong root--tap-root--which goes deep into the ground; and there is no tall main stem of which we can take hold--the leaves and flower stalks only break off in our hands. here is a stalk from which the flower has fallen, leaving only the seed. of what does it remind you? of the traveller's joy in autumn? yes; the dandelion has what is called a "pappus" attached to its seed, rather similar to the feathery tail of the traveller's joy. this makes the dandelion a troublesome weed; the seeds are easily carried by the wind and, if a patch of dandelions is allowed to go to seed, it will produce fresh plants quite far away. before the seeds are scattered each head is like a round white fluffy ball. here are daisies, with their dainty white florets often tinged with pink. in the centre of each blossom is a yellow spot. every night the white florets fold up over the yellow centre, and do not open until the morning. this fact explains to us the daisy's name; it is the day's eye which opens at dawn and shuts at night. the daisy is a little flower which everyone knows and loves, yet in the wrong place it is a weed. it is a perennial and it spreads very fast. of course both perennials and annuals spread by means of their seed, but perennials also spread in other ways as well. we will see how the daisy does this. there; with my pocket knife i have easily dug up a plant. the root is small and compact, not long like that of the dandelion. but, when i try to lift the daisy plant from the grass, i find that it is still held down by a stout tough thread branching from the root. this thread is connected with another daisy plant; from that one there is another thread connected with a third plant. when we have at last got our plant clear away from the ground, three more are hanging to it by these threads. that is how the daisy spreads; it throws out these thread-like shoots from the root, and from these grow another root and plant. i knew only too well what we should find; there are far too many daisies in my lawn at home, and i found out long ago the way in which they spread so fast. if daisies are allowed to increase in this way they form large clumps which smother and kill the grass. we notice that each flower-stem and each leaf of the daisy springs from a very short underground stem, as those of the dandelion do. daisies and dandelions are plentiful in ashmead, and so are the yellow buttercups. there are, however, not quite so many buttercups as you might think at first. the real name of what we call the buttercup is the bulbous crowfoot, and there is also a meadow crowfoot in the field. a third crowfoot is the corn crowfoot. to-day we will notice one or two differences between the two plants we see here. [illustration: bulbous crowfoot.] the blossoms of both plants have five smooth shining yellow petals. we see, however, that those of the bulbous crowfoot or buttercup form a real cup, while the petals of the meadow crowfoot spread out almost flat. the meadow crowfoot grows two or three feet high; the buttercup is a shorter plant. the flowers are pretty, but that, i am afraid, is all that we can say for either of these plants. they are both of them bitter and unwholesome, and horses and cattle avoid eating them. some people even say that to carry a bunch of the stems will make the hands sore; so i think that we will only look at and admire the flowers where they grow. the cowslip is a very different plant indeed and we will not call it a weed. even mr. hammond is not sorry to see it here; for he is fond of a glass of the sweet cowslip wine which mrs. hammond will make if we busy ourselves and take home some large basketfuls of the drooping blossoms. before we set to work, however, let us examine the plant. looking at a stalk of cowslip blossoms we see something peculiar about it at once--something unlike the other flowers we have seen. six or seven drooping blossoms grow from the stalk we have picked, and they all grow from the very top of the stalk. the point at the top of the stalk from which the blossoms grow is called the "umbel." each blossom has five yellow petals joined together to form a corolla. in the centre of the blossom, where these petals meet, each is marked with a spot of deep orange-red colour. the yellow petals are comparatively small, and peep out of a long pale green sheath called the "calyx." surely we have seen a flower like this before--the primrose in the little coppice. yes; the primrose had five pale yellow petals, rather larger than those of the cowslip, and joined together to form a corolla; they grew out of a long green calyx. also each petal had a spot of darker yellow in the centre of the blossom. the leaves of both the primrose and the cowslip are much wrinkled, and they grow from a short underground stem. but, you say, each primrose blossom grew alone on the top of a long stem. yes, but if we had dug up a primrose plant, we should have found that several flower stems grew from the same point--the top of a very short stem which hardly appeared above the ground. they grew from an umbel, and the primrose is closely related to the cowslip. the difference is that the blossoms of the primrose grow on _long_ stems from a _short_-stemmed umbel. those of the cowslip grow on _short_ stems from a _long_-stemmed umbel. chapter vii in the hay-field here we are in the hay-field at the end of june. it is not really the hay-field yet, but it will be so as soon as the grass is cut for hay. this will be done in a few days, so we must lose no time if we wish to look at some of the flowers before they are cut down. we must not stroll all over this field as we did in ashmead, for the long grass should not be trampled down, or it will be difficult for the machine to cut. quite near the gate, however, are plenty of flowers, and we shall find others if we step carefully along the side of the hedge. we will look first at those flowers which are most important to the farmer, the flowers of the grass. we saw, you remember, that the grass has flowers just as the rose and the wallflower have. if you had thought that the flowers of all grass would be alike, you see now that you were quite mistaken; there are many different grass flowers here. [illustration: section of grass stem.] not only are the flowers different, but so are the stems, and also the leaves or blades. mr. hammond could come into the field in early spring or autumn, when the grass is not in flower, and could tell you to which kind of grass any blade belonged. to-day we shall easily distinguish the different kinds of grasses by their flowers, though we will also notice differences in their stems and leaves. let us pick a stem or culm of grass. we see that the greater part of it is hollow; but at intervals there are joints, and here the stem is solid. from each joint grows a leaf-sheath which is wrapped round the stem for a little distance above the joint. out of each sheath grows a leaf. all grass leaves are long and narrow compared with those of most other plants, but some grass leaves are longer and narrower than others. now for a flower. the stem which we have picked is the stem of perennial rye grass. the blossom, we see, consists of several small spikelets; there are eighteen on our stem. they grow alternately on two opposite sides of the stem, first one on one side, then one on the other. they have no stalk of their own; they are sessile or seated on the stem. as the spikelets are flat and grow on two sides of the stem only, each stem looks as if it had been pressed in a book, as perhaps you have sometimes pressed flowers. the leaves are dark green, glossy and shining. on the under side of each leaf there is a prominent rib which extends the whole length. this rib is one of the signs by which mr. hammond can tell a blade of rye grass at once without seeing the flower. this is one of the farmer's most useful grasses. it forms a close thick carpet or sward, and, the more it is trodden on by animals grazing, the better it seems to thrive. here is another excellent grass, with a flower quite different in appearance from the last. it is called timothy grass. it was first cultivated in america by a man named timothy hanson, and it is now always known by his christian name. mr. hammond knows this, and now you know it too; but a good many farmers who have plenty of timothy grass in their fields do not know the reason of its name. [illustration: cowslip.] [illustration: honeysuckle and wild rose.] [illustration: grasses. . cocksfoot; . sweet vernal; . meadow foxtail; . common timothy; . tufted hair; . common rye grass.] the spikelets of timothy are very small and grow in dense clusters at the end of the stem, so that the blossom forms a kind of tail. indeed timothy is sometimes called meadow catstail, a name which gives a very good idea of its appearance. this cluster or tail of spikelets is green and also rather rough to the touch. notice these two points about it; we shall see the reason presently. the green leaves have a greyish tint and are broader than many grass leaves. when cut and made into hay, the leaves are rather stiff and hard. timothy grows in good thick clumps, but does not make a very spreading sward. moist weather suits it best, though it can stand a dry summer fairly well. it is a late grass. other grasses in the field are in full flower to-day, but there are only a few ears of timothy to be seen; its flowering-time is july. in one way it is a valuable grass for hay; it is heavy, and hay is always sold by weight. on the other hand timothy hay is rather hard. now here is a grass something like timothy, yet different in several ways. it is meadow foxtail. the ear formed by the cluster of spikelets is of the same shape as an ear of timothy, like a round tail slightly pointed. but the ear of timothy was green, while this is a beautiful silvery grey. timothy was rough; the ear of meadow foxtail is very soft and silky to the touch. the silkiness and the silvery grey colour are given to the ear by a soft hair called the "awn" which grows from each spikelet. the leaves are broad and juicy, and there are many of them. meadow foxtail, unlike timothy, is an early grass; you may find it in flower in april. an early grass is always valuable to the farmer, who wants herbage for his sheep and cattle after the long winter. the foxtail, moreover, is a spreading grass. some of its stems are prostrate; they do not stand upright but creep along the ground. from these prostrate stems fresh roots grow and produce fresh plants. thus meadow foxtail makes a good sward. another useful grass is cocksfoot. each culm has four or five thick clusters of spikelets growing on small stalks of their own. the clusters grow from the culm in a way which reminds us of the claw of a fowl; that is the reason of the name. cocksfoot is a tall and quick growing plant, and both the stem and flower feel rough and hard. the blue-green leaves are very juicy. the root goes deep into the soil, so that this grass resists drought well. we must notice the sweet vernal grass, though there is not much of it in the field; for this grass, when it is dry, gives out much of the sweet scent we smell in or near a hay-field. if we chew a stalk, we notice the scent ourselves, and animals like the pleasant flavour which it gives to hay. though it is an early grass it also lasts till late in the autumn. the spikelets make a cluster or tail at the end of the stalk, but they do not grow so closely together as those of the timothy and meadow foxtail. look at this tufted hair grass. it is very pretty, perhaps one of the prettiest grasses we have seen; but the farmer looks upon it as a weed. it has a large and spreading head of flower; the spikelets grow on stems, and become gradually smaller towards the top of the stalk. the flower is purple, with a shining silvery light upon it. it grows in thick clumps or tussocks, and cattle do not care about the leaves. chapter viii in the hay-field (_continued_) there are many other grasses in the field; some of them are useful, while others the farmer would call weeds. we must now look at other flowers, and, as the grass is so tall, it will be better to choose tall flowers which can easily be seen. we soon spy a thistle among the grass near the gate. there are several kinds of thistle in england--the milk thistle, the nodding thistle, and some others. this is the common field thistle. it is far too common to please mr. hammond or any other careful farmer. it is true that it is only an annual; but, like the dandelion, it has a pappus attached to its seed. however hard mr. hammond tries to get rid of thistles from his fields, fresh seeds are constantly blown into them from thistles on the road-side banks, or in the fields of farmers not so careful as himself. it is very disheartening to a good farmer to have careless neighbours. when mr. hammond hears that a new tenant is coming to a neighbouring farm, he always hopes that he will be a "clean" farmer--that he will try to keep his fields free from weeds. the stiff stem of the thistle is often three or four feet tall, and divides into smaller branches which bear a flower at the end. these flowers are a little like those of the red clover; each blossom has many small upright florets, purplish-red in colour. the leaves are not very tempting to touch, but they are very interesting. they are divided into several lobes or divisions, and each lobe ends in a sharp point. they have no leaf stem to connect them with the stalk of the plant. what is curious about them is that they do not grow from a small point on the stalk. they are "decurrent," or running along the stalk; a broad strip at the base of each leaf is attached to the stalk. docks too are far too numerous among the grass. they are very troublesome weeds; they are perennials, and they also scatter a great deal of seed. they have large clusters of small flowers without any true petals. the leaves are very large and pointed, growing on long leaf stems. the stems of the dock are tough, and they blunt the mowers' scythes and the knives of the mowing-machine. some people have a good word even for the dock. they say that a dock leaf wrapped round the part stung by a nettle will lessen the pain; others advise us to rub the part with dock _seed._ i do not think myself that either remedy has much effect; but the leaves of the sorrel, which is a relative of the dock, _will_ lessen the pain of nettle stings. mrs. hammond always uses dock leaves to wrap round the pats of butter which she sends to market. above us, in the hedge, are two of the sweetest flowers of the farm. the pink dog rose is one. the petals of each blossom are five in number--what a number of five-petalled flowers we have seen! the leaves have five, or sometimes seven, serrated leaflets, one of which is always at the end of the leaf stem. these leaflets are not always perfectly straight; sometimes the pointed end turns a good deal to one side. of course we want to gather some of the flowers--who does not want to gather roses? we want some fully opened blossoms and many of the dainty buds. but the straggling stems of the rose soon teach us the truth of the proverb: "no rose without a thorn." the stems are thickly covered with thorns; these are not only sharp, but hooked as well, and we do not get our bunch of roses without a scratch or two. the other beauty of the hedge is the honey-suckle--a lovely flower which may also be a dangerous weed. the tight grasp of its strong twining stem will soon seriously injure any young tree to which it clings. here it is doing little harm, and we need only think of the clusters of fragrant flowers. each cluster grows at the end of a stalk. some are pale pink, others golden yellow, while some are almost white. after the blossom comes the bright red berry which contains the seed. the leaves grow in pairs. those low down on the stem have leaf stalks, but the upper ones are sessile on the stem. taking care not to trample the grass, we have strolled down the hedge-side till we have reached the other end of the field, where there is a ditch. at once there is a fragrant scent in the air--a scent like that of almonds. it is the meadow sweet which grows on the banks of streams or damp ditches. [illustration: meadow sweet.] it is a beautiful plant, as well as a fragrant one. at the top of the tall stems are large clusters of small five-petalled flowers, creamy-white. the stem itself is handsome; it is often three or four feet high, smooth, stout, and of a reddish colour. the large leaves grow alternately on the stem; they are made up of several pairs of leaflets with a single leaflet at the end. the upper surface of the leaves is dark green, but the under side is generally covered with a soft white down. the scent of meadow sweet is very pleasant in the field to-day, but i think we should find it rather too strong if we took a bunch into the house. yet queen elizabeth is said to have loved meadow sweet strewn on the floors of her apartments. chapter ix in the corn-field one morning early in july, while we are having breakfast at willow farm, we ask mr. hammond if he thinks we shall find any flowers in his wheat-field. the farmer laughs and says he hopes we shall not, but he is very much afraid that we shall. as we are here on purpose to look for flowers we are glad to find them anywhere. mr. hammond thinks more about his crops than about flowers, and does not care to see a single blossom in his corn, however pretty it may be. we are soon at the field, and there is no mistake about the flowers being there too. close to the gate, where the wheat is not quite so thick as elsewhere, there is a splendid patch of scarlet poppies. this is perhaps the very brightest wild flower that we have. some plants, as we have seen, are annuals, others are perennials. an annual only lives for one year. the plant springs up from the seed, grows through the summer, and in the autumn or the winter dies. a perennial lives for many years. the flowers fade and fall as those of annuals do; even the leaves and stems may droop and die. the roots and lower part of the stem do not die; they live in the ground through the winter, and in the following year fresh stems appear. the white clover which we found in ashmead is a perennial, the crimson clover is an annual. if you sowed a patch of your garden with poppy seed you would have the flowers growing there year after year. you might therefore say, "surely the poppy is a perennial. i only sowed the seed one year, yet the poppies appear again and again." that is because the plants sowed their own seed. the flowers faded; then the seed-cases shed their seed upon the ground. next spring the seeds produced fresh plants. most annual wild flowers sow their own seed in this way, but we must not mistake them for perennials because year after year they grow in the same place. in your patch of garden you can easily prevent the poppies from growing more than one year if you wish to do so. all that is necessary is to pick off every flower before it fades. then no seed will fall and you will be rid of the poppies. mr. hammond might do the same, you think, if he wishes to rid his field of poppies. but you see there are many poppies growing among the wheat all through the field. to get at each plant and cut off all the flowers would trample down the wheat and do more harm than good. all that the farmer can do is to have as many weeds as possible hoed up while the wheat is young and short. even then many more come up later in the spring. the seeds of the poppy have no pappus like those of the thistle and some other plants; they are not blown far away by the wind, but fall close to the plant. there are, however, an immense number of very tiny seeds in each seed-case, as we see by opening the round cup-like case on a stem from which the flower has fallen. this great number of seeds adds to the difficulty of getting rid of poppies. we, i am afraid, are hardly sorry that the poppies are among the corn to-day. the glorious scarlet blossoms give a rich fiery tint to the whole field. on a poppy plant close to the gate there are several blossoms. some of them are fully open, some of them are still only buds. you see a difference between the open flowers and the buds at once. the open flowers stand upright on the stalk; the buds hang down. here is a bud just opening. the green case, called the calyx, which contains the scarlet petals, is already partly open; it is splitting in half, and the flower will soon be out. then the calyx will fall off. here is a blossom from which the calyx has just dropped. the four large scarlet petals, two of which are slightly larger than the other two, have lain inside all crumpled up--not neatly folded as is the case with most flowers. yet in a very short time after the calyx has dropped off, the sap will flow into the petals and will smooth them out. they will be as glossy, smooth, and shining as the other blossoms fully open on the plant. the brilliant poppy is more beautiful than useful--to the farmer and the bees at any rate. most flowers contain nectar, but the poppy has none at all. if the bees come to it, it is for the dusty yellow pollen to make into wax. the seed pods of some flowers open when ripe, and the seeds fall out. in others the pod or case does not open but rots away. the poppy has a different way of scattering its seed. there is a ring of tiny holes in the seed case, and through these holes the seed is shaken out. the leaves are long, but vary a good deal in size and shape. the stems are covered with stiff and bristly hairs. chapter x in the corn-field (_continued_) besides the poppies there is charlock in the field; not much, mr. hammond will be glad to know, for he has been trying for many years to get rid of this plant altogether. pretty as the yellow blossoms of the charlock are, it is one of the most troublesome weeds which the farmer has to fight. it is only an annual certainly, and each seed-pod holds no more than six or seven seeds. the seeds, however, are oily, and this oiliness preserves them. if they are ploughed deep into the ground, they may live there for several years, and will produce a plant when turned up again by the plough or the scuffle. mr. hammond tells me that some years ago this field was full of charlock, and in the early summer there would be more charlock than wheat to be seen. this is how he got rid of it. every year he ploughed the field and got it ready for the crop as early as possible. then the charlock sprang up before the crop of corn or turnips was sown; thus it could be rooted out. still, as we see to-day, there is a little left, though it is growing less each year. charlock is wild mustard. there is more seed than blossom here to-day, for the flowering time for charlock is in june. if we chew some seed from a pod, we shall find it hot and biting to the tongue. in some parts of england many farmers grow mustard as one of their crops. near willow farm some farmers grow mustard as a catch-crop. they sow it in autumn, as soon as another crop has been taken off the field. in the spring it is eaten by sheep, or else it is ploughed in. a catch-crop ploughed in like this enriches the land. moreover a number of weeds are buried with the catch-crop before they have time to blossom and to shed their seed. the yellow blossom of the charlock is pretty, and the poppy is the finest scarlet wild flower we have. there is a third flower among the wheat to-day, the beautiful blue corn flower or corn bluebottle. it is no more welcome to the farmer than the poppy and the charlock are. it is a perennial, and therefore difficult to get rid of. moreover when we pull up a stem we find it quite hard work, it is so tough. these tough stems blunt the sickles of the reapers and the knives of the reaping machine. [illustration left: creeping field thistle.] [illustration right: field scabious.] [illustration left: evergreen alkanet.] [illustration center: cornflower.] [illustration right: smaller bindweed.] [illustration: charlock.] to us it is only a very beautiful flower. the florets in the centre of each blossom are dark purple, but the outer ones are of a brighter blue. the leaves are long and narrow; those near the bottom of the stem are rather broader than those higher up. the stems themselves are not round, but angular. we can feel corners or angles as we hold one in our hand. they are also covered with a kind of down. there is another flower which we shall see better if we come to the stubble field after the wheat is cut; but some of it is near the gate to-day. this is the smaller bindweed. we see that it is a relation of the large bindweed in the garden hedge. it has leaves and flowers of the same shape, but the flowers are smaller, and are pink and white. those of the large bindweed are rarely anything but pure white. this is another troublesome weed here. it does not climb, as the large bindweed does, but creeps along the ground, twining round everything it meets. in the potato field it is often even more troublesome than here. corn is _cut_, but potatoes are _dug_ out of the ground. the small bindweed forms such a thick carpet over the field, and twines round the potato stems so closely, that it is often very difficult to dig up the potatoes. here is another little flower which i am glad to show you now, the scarlet pimpernel. this and the poppy are the only _scarlet_ wild flowers we have. there are many _pink_, and also many _purple_ flowers, but only these two are really _scarlet_. the pimpernel differs from the poppy in almost everything except its colour. the poppy has a tall stout stem and its blossoms are very large. the pimpernel trails on the ground and has tiny flowers. the blossoms of the poppy have four petals, those of the pimpernel have five. these are a beautiful scarlet, but not _quite_ so bright a scarlet as those of the poppy. the leaves grow in pairs, and the small bare stalks which carry a flower at their ends spring from the stem beside the leaves. the leaves are sessile on the stem. turning a leaf over we find that on its under side are black or dark purple spots. [illustration: pimpernel.] the blossoms of the pimpernel close up when rain is near, and it is often called the poor man's weatherglass. sometimes, but very rarely, a plant is found which has pink, or even pure white blossoms. there is also a blue pimpernel. another pimpernel is the bog pimpernel; but we shall not find it in this dry field of corn, as you may guess by the name. one more flower we will look at, and then it will be time to leave our corn-field and to search elsewhere. growing on the hedgebank at the side of the field is a pretty lilac-blue flower on a long bare stalk. it is the field scabious. the blossoms are in shape like a round ball very much flattened--like a round pincushion. there are no large petals here, as with the poppy, but a great number of small florets. those on the outer edge of the blossom are larger than those inside. each floret is a tiny tube or pipe. the leaves are on separate stalks from those which bear the flowers, and they grow in pairs. they are divided into several pairs of lobes, with a single lobe at the end of each leaf. some leaves grow from that part of the stem which is underground, and these are larger than the others, and are sometimes of a different shape. both the leaves and the stem are hairy. chapter xi on the chase we have now seen a good many flowers of the farm; we have found them in the coppice, on the garden wall, and in the fields. to-day we will go a little further off, three miles away. you say, "surely that is a long way off for the farmer to have a field." it is not exactly a field. the chase is a great open common or moor, which belongs to the village or parish where willow farm is. nearly all the people of the village have certain rights of pasturage on it; they may let their horses and cattle and sheep graze there. every now and then mr. hammond sends some of his sheep to the chase to feed there for a few weeks. it is very high dry ground, and that is good for sheep. the road runs through the middle of the great common without any hedge or fence on either side. there are horses and sheep and cattle here on this may morning; donkeys too. all the sheep are marked, and we soon see some which belong to willow farm; they are stamped on the back in large letters "w.h." for william hammond. a farmer easily knows his own horses and cows; sheep are less easy to recognise, and are usually marked. [illustration: gorse.] one of the flowers of the chase we see at once. in whatever direction we look across the common there is a perfect blaze of gold--the blossoms of the prickly gorse or furze. spring is the time to see its mass of golden yellow blossoms best; but i do not think there is a week, or even a day, in the whole year when some of the flowers are not out. did you ever hear the saying, "kissing is out of season when the gorse is out of bloom." that is never! the gorse flowers are beautiful and their scent is sweet. as to gathering them, however, there is a terrible difficulty. the flowers grow among long sharp spikes which cover the stems closely; you would almost as soon gather nettles! there are very few real leaves, and they are small and not easily seen; but the thorns are beautiful to look at, if not to touch--they are such a rich dark green. nor is gorse a useless plant. if the prickly stems are bruised or mashed a little they form a fodder which animals like. indeed, a pony near us seems to enjoy them as they are; he is tearing off and eating piece after piece from a gorse bush. his mouth must be less tender than ours! later in the summer we visit the chase again to find some flowers that were not out in may. on our way we pass a potato field in blossom--a very pretty sight. these blossoms are a palish purple, but sometimes the potato flowers are white. the hairbell is a flower which we shall now find on the chase--a great contrast to the stout and thorny bush of gorse. the hairbell's stem is almost as slender as a thread, although it stands upright. each blossom is a dainty little blue bell of five petals. white blossoms are sometimes found, but not often. there are leaves as well as flowers on the stem. growing from the lower part of the stem, close to the ground, we may perhaps find some broader, rounder leaves; perhaps not, however, for these lower leaves soon wither and die away. [illustration: hairbell.] the hairbell loves to grow where there is fresh pure air. here on the chase we are high up; it has been a long steep climb from willow farm, and we are more than five hundred feet above sea level. far below us, a few miles away, we see a broad river on which steamers and sailing-ships are passing up and down. away to the west is the sea, from which a breeze is nearly always blowing across the chase. no wonder that the little hairbell loves the spot. we have found a yellow flower and a blue one on the chase, and now we have not far to look for something red. here is a clump of heath or ling, and not far off a patch of heather too. we must be careful to distinguish heath from heather; let us look at the heath first. on the heath, as on the hairbell, we find bell-shaped flowers; but the blossoms of the heath are very small, and grow from a tough woody stem. they are a reddish-purple. on little side branches growing from the stems are the very tiny leaves. the whole plant is low, bushy, and spreading. [illustration: heath and heather.] the flowers of the heather are rather larger, deep crimson in colour, and grow in clusters. on the flower stems grow very small narrow leaves; there are generally three of them together and they do not grow so thickly as the leaves of heath. among these leaves are some that are made up of several leaflets. gorse, heather, and heath are spreading plants, and, if they were allowed to grow unchecked, they would soon smother and destroy the turf. every few years therefore the chase is burnt. in winter or spring both gorse and heath burn easily, the fire spreading fast from one patch to another. the smoke of the burning chase may then be seen from many miles away. when the fire has burnt out, the chase looks very black and dismal. but the roots and underground stems of both the heather and the gorse are still alive. fresh shoots will grow, and soon the gorse will be golden in the spring, the heather purple in the summer, as they were before. chapter xii in the lanes this is the last day that we can spend in looking for wild flowers at willow farm. perhaps some of you already knew something about flowers before this visit. if so, you may have been disappointed that we have not seen some favourite flower of your own. you may think we have passed over many flowers which deserved to be noticed. for that matter i think _every_ wild flower deserves to be noticed; but we certainly should not have time for all. i showed you several plants growing on the walls and roof, because it was interesting to see that quite beautiful flowers, such as the wallflower and the houseleek, could grow with very little soil. we looked rather closely at the clovers and at the grasses in the hay-field, because these plants are important to the farmer; they are part of his crops. then, too, we noticed several weeds which do him harm. to-day i am going to take a kind of holiday. i shall show you three flowers, not because they have much to do with the farmer, but because they are great favourites of my own. none of these are very common at willow farm, although i know where to find each one. we will go first down the little stony lane which leads from near the foldyard gate to the cottages where the shepherd and the bailiff live. here we shall find the alkanet. it is a perennial, and it blossoms here year after year. i only know one other place in the village where it grows. like some other flowers we have seen, it is not really a native of england. it has a very beautiful blue blossom, a little like the blossom of the forget-me-not which perhaps you know, but the flower of the alkanet is of a deeper, richer blue. here again, as with so many other flowers we have seen, the blossom is formed of the five lobes of a corolla. in the centre of each blue blossom is a small white spot. the blossoms grow in little clusters on a short stalk, and on this stalk there is always one pair of small leaves. the leaves on the main stems of the plant are larger; the lower leaves have stalks, but those on the upper part of the stem are sessile. the leaves are hairy, and so are the stems, which often grow two or three feet high. we saw that the poppy and the pimpernel were the only two true _scarlet_ wild flowers of our fields. in the same way there is only one other english wild flower which has such a _deep blue_ blossom as the alkanet. that is the borage; and the borage, like the alkanet, is not really a native of england. for a fine golden yellow flower i do not know anything which can beat the dandelion. if we have not seen _every_ wild flower which grows at willow farm, we have at any rate seen three which have the deepest and richest colours. now for my next favourite. this time we go to the shady lane leading from willow farm to the church; that is the only place near here where i have found the lesser periwinkle. there is also a larger periwinkle, very similar to my favourite here, except in size. [illustration: lesser periwinkle.] to find the periwinkle in full flower we should have to come in spring, but, though it is july now, we shall still find a blossom here and there, i hope. even in winter we might do so too. the lesser periwinkle has a blue flower, but the blue is a pale lilac blue. here again the petals are really the five spreading lobes of the corolla. there is something curious about these lobes. they are of a peculiar irregular shape that is not easy to describe; they are not exactly pointed, and they are not regular in shape. you could cut the petal of a buttercup into two equal parts; it would be almost impossible to do this with the lobes of the periwinkle blossom. the leaves are dark green, glossy and pointed, and they grow in pairs. often, however, we find two pairs of leaves growing so closely together that they seem to grow in fours. the leaves are evergreen; they do not fade and die in autumn. some of the periwinkle stems are erect and are about six inches high; others are creeping. it is only the erect stems which bear flowers; the creeping ones are barren. they do useful work, however, for they form fresh roots, as we have seen the stalks of some other plants do. in this way the whole bank beside the lane has become covered with the pretty plant. the periwinkle is a comparatively small plant. the last flower--the foxglove--that we shall see at willow farm is quite different. it is a very tall plant. it is generally described as growing from three to five feet high, but i have seen a stem of eight or nine feet. we shall find it growing on the hedgebank in little orchard, and it also often grows in woods. some plants, as we know, are annuals, others are perennials. the foxglove is neither; it is a biennial--that is a two years' plant. if you sow foxglove seed you will have no flowers the first year, only a root and a great bunch of leaves. in the second year tall stems which bear the flowers will appear. in the autumn after it has flowered the foxglove generally dies, though sometimes it may live for another year, or even two. foxgloves, of course, will reproduce themselves by seed, as annuals and perennials do. [illustration: foxglove.] the foxglove is something different from anything that we have seen as yet. the flowers grow on short flower stalks and hang down from the tall stems, a great many on each stem. here there are no petals, but what we see and admire so much is the bell-shaped corolla, purple-red in colour. this purple bell is spotted with white inside. bell-shaped is perhaps not a very good description; the flower is more like a large thimble or the finger of a glove. "a glove for a fox--that is the meaning of the name," you perhaps say. no, it has nothing to do with a fox. many years ago nearly everyone believed in fairies, and the fairies were often called the good folk or good people. it is they, and not the fox, who were supposed to use the purple blossoms as a glove. if you say "folk's glove" quickly, you will see how easily it comes to sound foxglove. so our last thought among the flowers is of the fairies, in whose existence hardly anyone believes to-day. trees worth knowing [illustration: a bend in the trail] _little nature library_ trees worth knowing by julia ellen rogers (_author of_ _the tree book_, _the tree guide_, _trees every child should know_, _the book of useful plants_, _the shell book_, _etc., etc._) [illustration: "fructus quam folia"] _with forty-eight illustrations, sixteen being in color_ published by doubleday, page & company for nelson doubleday, inc. _copyright, , by_ doubleday, page & company _all rights reserved, including that of translation into foreign languages, including the scandinavian_ printed in the united states at the country life press. garden city, n. y. contents page introduction xi part i the life of the trees part ii the nut trees the walnuts; the hickories; the beech; the chestnuts; the oaks; the horse-chestnuts; the lindens part iii water-loving trees the poplars; the willows; the hornbeams; the birches; the alders; the sycamores; the gum trees; the osage orange part iv trees with showy flowers and fruits the magnolias; the dogwoods; the viburnums; the mountain ashes; the rhododendron; the mountain laurel; the madroña; the sorrel tree; the silver bell trees; the sweet leaf; the fringe tree; the laurel family; the witch hazel; the burning bush; the sumachs; the smoke tree; the hollies part v wild relatives of our orchard trees the apples; the plums; the cherries; the hawthorns; the service-berries; the hackberries; the mulberries; the figs; the papaws; the pond apples; the persimmons part vi the pod-bearing trees the locusts; the acacias; miscellaneous species part vii deciduous trees with winged seeds the maples; the ashes; the elms part viii the cone-bearing evergreens the pines; the spruces; the firs; the douglas spruce; the hemlocks; the sequoias; the arbor-vitaes; the incense cedar; the cypresses; the junipers; the larches part ix the palms general index list of colored illustrations page canoe or paper birch _on cover_ a bend in the trail _frontispiece_ shagbark hickory mockernut fruit and leaves a grove of beeches chestnut tree weeping beech black walnut white oak bur or mossy-cup oak leaves and fruit horse-chestnut in blossom weeping willow tulip tree, flower and leaves flowering dogwood american elm eastern red cedars and hickory list of other illustrations page black walnut shoots shagbark hickory american linden leaves and fruit trembling aspen catkins and leaves - pussy willow flowers - american hornbeam--a fruiting branch the tattered, silky bark of the birches sycamore bark and seed-balls - bark, seeds, and seed-balls of the sweet gum - osage orange leaves, and flowers dogwood bark, blossom, fruit, and buds mountain ash flowers and leaves sassafras flowers, fruit, and leaves foliage and flowers of the smooth sumach - buds, leaves, and fruit of the wild crabapple - canada plum--flowers and trunk wild black cherry--flowers and fruit fruiting branch of cockspur thorn service-berry tree in blossom hackberry--flowers, fruit, and leaves honey locust's trunk, and black locust's flowers and leaves sugar maple - red maple flowers - seed keys and new leaves of soft or silver maple white ash buds and flowers a group of white pines - shortleaf pine cones and needles - the sugar pine leaves and cones of hemlock and of norway spruce black spruce cones and needles spray of arbor-vitae american larch cones and needles introduction occasionally i meet a person who says: "i know nothing at all about trees." this modest disclaimer is generally sincere, but it has always turned out to be untrue. "oh, well, that old sugar maple, i've always known that tree. we used to tap all the sugar maples on the place every spring." or again: "everybody knows a white birch by its bark." "of course, anybody who has ever been chestnutting knows a chestnut tree." most people know lombardy poplars, those green exclamation points so commonly planted in long soldierly rows on roadsides and boundary lines in many parts of the country. willows, too, everybody knows are willows. the best nut trees, the shagbark, chestnut, and butternut, need no formal introduction. the honey locust has its striking three-pronged thorns, and its purple pods dangling in winter and skating off over the snow. the beech has its smooth, close bark of quaker gray, and nobody needs to look for further evidence to determine this tree's name. so it is easily proved that each person has a good nucleus of tree knowledge around which to accumulate more. if people have the love of nature in their hearts--if things out of doors call irresistibly, at any season--it will not really matter if their lives are pinched and circumscribed. ways and means of studying trees are easily found, even if the scant ends of busy days spent indoors are all the time at command. if there is energy to begin the undertaking it will soon furnish its own motive power. tree students, like bird students, become enthusiasts. to understand their enthusiasm one must follow their examples. the beginner doesn't know exactly how and where to begin. there are great collections of trees here and there. the arnold arboretum in boston is the great dendrological noah's ark in this country. it contains almost all the trees, american and foreign, which will grow in that region. the shaw botanical garden at st. louis is the largest midland assemblage of trees. parks in various cities bring together as large a variety of trees as possible, and these are often labelled with their english and botanical names for the benefit of the public. yet the places for the beginner are his own dooryard, the streets he travels four times a day to his work, and woods for his holiday, though they need not be forests. arboreta are for his delight when he has gained some acquaintance with the tree families. but not at first. the trees may all be set out in tribes and families and labelled with their scientific names. they will but confuse and discourage him. there is not time to make their acquaintance. they overwhelm with the mere number of kinds. great arboreta and parks are very scarce. trees are everywhere. the acquaintance of trees is within the reach of all. first make a plan of the yard, locating and naming the trees you actually know. extend it to include the street, and the neighbors' yards, as you get ready for them. be very careful about giving names to trees. if you think you know a tree, ask yourself _how_ you know it. sift out all the guesses, and the hearsays, and begin on a solid foundation, even if you are sure about only the sugar maple and the white birch. the characters to note in studying trees are: leaves, flowers, fruits, bark, buds, bud arrangement, leaf scars, and tree form. the season of the year determines which features are most prominent. buds and leaf scars are the most unvarying of tree characters. in winter these traits and the tree frame are most plainly revealed. winter often exhibits tree fruits on or under the tree, and dead-leaf studies are very satisfactory. leaf arrangement may be made out at any season, for leaf scars tell this story after the leaves fall. only three families of our large trees have opposite leaves. this fact helps the beginner. look first at the twigs. if the leaves, or (in winter) the buds and leaf scars, stand opposite, the tree (if it is of large size) belongs to the maple, ash, or horse-chestnut family. our native horse-chestnuts are buckeyes. if the leaves are simple the tree is a maple; if pinnately compound, of several leaflets, it is an ash; if palmately compound, of five to seven leaflets, it is a horse-chestnut. in winter dead leaves under the trees furnish this evidence. the winter buds of the horse-chestnut are large and waxy, and the leaf scars look like prints of a horse's hoof. maple buds are small, and the leaf scar is a small, narrow crescent. ash buds are dull and blunt, with rough, leathery scales. maple twigs are slender. ash and buckeye twigs are stout and clumsy. bark is a distinguishing character of many trees--of others it is confusing. the sycamore, shedding bark in sheets from its limbs, exposes pale, smooth under bark. the tree is recognizable by its mottled appearance winter or summer. the corky ridges on limbs of sweet gum and bur oak are easily remembered traits. the peculiar horizontal peeling of bark on birches designates most of the genus. the prussic-acid taste of a twig sets the cherry tribe apart. the familiar aromatic taste of the green twigs of sassafras is its best winter character; the mitten-shaped leaves distinguish it in summer. it is necessary to get some book on the subject to discover the names of trees one studies, and to act as teacher at times. a book makes a good staff, but a poor crutch. the eyes and the judgment are the dependable things. in spring the way in which the leaves open is significant; so are the flowers. every tree when it reaches proper age bears flowers. not all bear fruit, but blossoms come on every tree. in summer the leaves and fruits are there to be examined. in autumn the ripening fruits are the special features. to know a tree's name is the beginning of acquaintance--not an end in itself. there is all the rest of one's life in which to follow it up. tree friendships are very precious things. john muir, writing among his beloved trees of the yosemite valley, adjures his world-weary fellow men to seek the companionship of trees. * * * * * "to learn how they live and behave in pure wildness, to see them in their varying aspects through the seasons and weather, rejoicing in the great storms, putting forth their new leaves and flowers, when all the streams are in flood, and the birds singing, and sending away their seeds in the thoughtful indian summer, when all the landscape is glowing in deep, calm enthusiasm--for this you must love them and live with them, as free from schemes and care and time as the trees themselves." _tree names_ two latin words, written in italics, with a cabalistic abbreviation set after them, are a stumbling block on the page to the reader unaccustomed to scientific lore. he resents botanical names, and demands to know the tree's name in "plain english." trees have both common and scientific names, and each has its use. common names were applied to important trees by people, the world over, before science was born. many trees were never noticed by anybody until botanists discovered and named them. they may never get common names at all. a name is a description reduced to its lowest terms. it consists usually of a surname and a descriptive adjective: mary jones, white oak, _quercus alba_. take the oaks, for example, and let us consider how they got their names, common and scientific. all acorn-bearing trees are oaks. they are found in europe, asia, and america. their usefulness and beauty have impressed people. the britons called them by a word which in our modern speech is _oak_, and as they came to know the different kinds, they added a descriptive word to the name of each. but "plain english" is not useful to the frenchman. _chêne_ is his name for the acorn trees. the german has his _eichenbaum_, the roman had his _quercus_, and who knows what the chinaman and the hindoo in far cathay or the american indian called these trees? common names made the trouble when the tower of babel was building. latin has always been the universal language of scholars. it is dead, so that it can be depended upon to remain unchanged in its vocabulary and in its forms and usages. scientific names are exact, and remain unchanged, though an article or a book using them may be translated into all the modern languages. the word _quercus_ clears away difficulties. french, english, german hearers know what trees are meant--or they know just where in books of their own language to find them described. the abbreviation that follows a scientific name tells who first gave the name. "linn." is frequently noticed, for linnaeus is authority for thousands of plant names. two sources of confusion make common names of trees unreliable: the application of one name to several species, and the application of several names to one species. to illustrate the first: there are a dozen ironwoods in american forests. they belong, with two exceptions, to different genera and to at least five different botanical families. to illustrate the second: the familiar american elm is known by at least seven local popular names. the bur oak has seven. many of these are applied to other species. three of the five native elms are called water elm; three are called red elm; three are called rock elm. there are seven scrub oaks. only by mentioning the scientific name can a writer indicate with exactness which species he is talking about. the unscientific reader can go to the botanical manual or cyclopedia and under this name find the species described. in california grows a tree called by three popular names: leatherwood, slippery elm, and silver oak. its name is _fremontia_. it is as far removed from elms and oaks as sheep are from cattle and horses. but the names stick. it would be as easy to eradicate the trees, root and branch, from a region as to persuade people to abandon names they are accustomed to, though they may concede that you have proved these names incorrect, or meaningless, or vulgar. nicknames like nigger pine, he huckleberry, she balsam, and bull bay ought to be dropped by all people who lay claim to intelligence and taste. with all their inaccuracies, common names have interesting histories, and the good ones are full of helpful suggestion to the learner. many are literal translations of the latin names. the first writers on botany wrote in latin. plants were described under the common name, if there was one; if not, the plant was named. the different species of each group were distinguished by the descriptions and the drawings that accompanied them. linnaeus attempted to bring the work of botanical scholars together, and to publish descriptions and names of all known plants in a single volume. this he did, crediting each botanist with his work. the "species plantarum," linnaeus's monumental work, became the foundation of the modern science of botany, for it included all the plants known and named up to the time of its publication. this was about the middle of the eighteenth century. the vast body of information which the "species plantarum" contained was systematically arranged. all the different species in one genus were brought together. they were described, each under a number; and an adjective word, usually descriptive of some marked characteristic, was written in as a marginal index. after linnaeus's time botanists found that the genus name in combination with this marginal word made a convenient and exact means of designating the plant. thus linnaeus became the acknowledged originator of the binomial (two-name) system of nomenclature now in use in all sciences. it is a delightful coincidence that while linnaeus was engaged on his great work, north america, that vast new field of botanical exploration, was being traversed by another swedish scientist. peter kalm sent his specimens and his descriptive notes to linnaeus, who described and named the new plants in his book. the specimens swelled the great herbarium at the university of upsala. among trees unknown to science before are the magnolia, named in honor of the great french botanist, magnol. robinia, the locust, honors another french botanist, robin, and his son. kalmia, the beautiful mountain laurel, immortalizes the name of the devoted explorer who discovered it. inevitably, duplication of names attended the work of the early scientists, isolated from each other, and far from libraries and herbaria. any one discovering a plant he believed to be unknown to science published a description of it in some scientific journal. if some one else had described it at an earlier date, the fact became known in the course of time. the name earliest published is retained, and the later one is dropped to the rank of a _synonym_. if the _name_ has been used before to describe some other species in the same genus, a new name must be supplied. in the "cyclopedia of horticulture" the sugar maple is written: "_acer saccharum_, marsh. (_acer saccharinum_, wang. _acer barbatum_, michx.)" this means that the earliest name given this tree by a botanist was that of marshall. wangheimer and michaux are therefore thrown out; the names given by them are among the synonyms. our cork elm was until recently called "_ulmus racemosa_, thomas." the discovery that the name _racemosa_ was given long ago to the cork elm of europe discredited it for the american tree. mr. sargent substituted the name of the author, and it now stands "_ulmus thomasi_, sarg." occasionally a generic name is changed. the old generic name becomes the specific name. box elder was formerly known as "_negundo aceroides_, moench." it is changed back to "_acer negundo_, linn." on the other hand, the tan-bark oak, which is intermediate in character between oaks and chestnuts, has been taken by professor sargent in his manual, , out of the genus _quercus_ and set in a genus by itself. from "_quercus densiflora_, hook. and arn." it is called "_pasania densiflora_, sarg.," the specific name being carried over to the new genus. about one hundred thousand species of plants have been named by botanists. they believe that one half of the world's flora is covered. trees are better known than less conspicuous plants. fungi and bacteria are just coming into notice. yet even among trees new species are constantly being described. professor sargent described native species in his "silva of north america," published - . his manual, , contains . both books exclude mexico. the silva of the tropics contains many unknown trees, for there are still impenetrable tracts of forest. the origin of local names of trees is interesting. history and romance, music and hard common sense are in these names--likewise much pure foolishness. the nearness to mexico brought in the musical _piñon_ and _madroña_ in the southwest. _pecanier_ and _bois d'arc_ came with many other french names with the acadians to louisiana. the indians had many trees named, and we wisely kept hickory, wahoo, catalpa, persimmon, and a few others of them. woodsmen have generally chosen descriptive names which are based on fact and are helpful to learners. botanists have done this, too. bark gives the names to shagbark hickory, striped maple, and naked wood. the color names white birch, black locust, blue beech. wood names red oak, yellow-wood, and white-heart hickory. the texture names rock elm, punk oak, and soft pine. the uses name post oak, canoe birch, and lodge-pole pine. the tree habit is described by dwarf juniper and weeping spruce. the habitat by swamp maple, desert willow, and seaside alder. the range by california white oak and georgia pine. sap is characterized in sugar maple, sweet gum, balsam fir, and sweet birch. twigs are indicated in clammy locust, cotton gum, winged elm. leaf linings are referred to in silver maple, white poplar, and white basswood. color of foliage, in gray pine, blue oak, and golden fir. shape of leaves, in heart-leaved cucumber tree and ear-leaved umbrella. resemblance of leaves to other species, in willow oak and parsley haw. the flowers of trees give names to tulip tree, silver-bell tree, and fringe tree. the fruit is described in big-cone pine, butternut, mossy-cup oak, and mock orange. many trees retain their classical names, which have become the generic botanical ones, as acacia, ailanthus, and viburnum. others modify these slightly, as pine from _pinus_, and poplar from _populus_. the number of local names a species has depends upon the notice it attracts and the range it has. the loblolly pine, important as a lumber tree, extends along the coast from new jersey to texas. it has twenty-two nicknames. the scientific name is for use when accurate designation of a species is required; the common name for ordinary speech. "what a beautiful _quercus alba_!" sounds very silly and pedantic, even if it falls on scientific ears. only persons of very shallow scientific learning use it on such informal occasions. let us keep the most beautiful and fitting among common names, and work for their general adoption. there are no hard names once they become familiar ones. nobody hesitates or stumbles over chrysanthemum and rhododendron, though these sonorous greek derivatives have four syllables. nobody asks what these names are "in plain english." trees worth knowing trees part i the life of the trees the swift unfolding of the leaves in spring is always a miracle. one day the budded twigs are still wrapped in the deep sleep of winter. a trace of green appears about the edges of the bud scales--they loosen and fall, and the tender green shoot looks timidly out and begins to unfold its crumpled leaves. soon the delicate blade broadens and takes on the texture and familiar appearance of the grown-up leaf. behold! while we watched the single shoot the bare tree has clothed itself in the green canopy of summer. how can this miracle take place? how does the tree come into full leaf, sometimes within a fraction of a week? it could never happen except for the store of concentrated food that the sap dissolves in spring and carries to the buds, and for the remarkable activity of the cambium cells within the buds. what is a bud? it is a shoot in miniature--its leaves or flowers, or both, formed with wondrous completeness in the previous summer. about its base are crowded leaves so hardened and overlapped as to cover and protect the tender shoot. all the tree can ever express of beauty or of energy comes out of these precious little "growing points," wrapped up all winter, but impatient, as spring approaches, to accept the invitation of the south wind and sun. the protective scale leaves fall when they are no longer needed. this vernal leaf fall makes little show on the forest floor, but it greatly exceeds in number of leaves the autumnal defoliation. sometimes these bud scales lengthen before the shoot spares them. the silky, brown scales of the beech buds sometimes add twice their length, thus protecting the lengthening shoot which seems more delicate than most kinds, less ready to encounter unguarded the wind and the sun. the hickories, shagbark, and mockernut, show scales more than three inches long. many leaves are rosy, or lilac tinted, when they open--the waxy granules of their precious "leaf green" screened by these colored pigments from the full glare of the sun. some leaves have wool or silk growing like the pile of velvet on their surfaces. these hairs are protective also. they shrivel or blow away when the leaf comes to its full development. occasionally a species retains the down on the lower surface of its leaves, or, oftener, merely in the angles of its veins. the folding and plaiting of the leaves bring the ribs and veins into prominence. the delicate green web sinks into folds between and is therefore protected from the weather. young leaves hang limp, never presenting their perpendicular surfaces to the sun. another protection to the infant leaf is the pair of stipules at its base. such stipules enclose the leaves of tulip and magnolia trees. the beech leaf has two long strap-like stipules. linden stipules are green and red--two concave, oblong leaves, like the two valves of a pea pod. elm stipules are conspicuous. the black willow has large, leaf-like, heart-shaped stipules, green as the leaf and saw-toothed. most stipules shield the tender leaf during the hours of its helplessness, and fall away as the leaf matures. others persist, as is often seen in the black willows. with this second vernal leaf fall (for stipules are leaves) the leaves assume independence, and take up their serious work. they are ready to make the living for the whole tree. nothing contributed by soil or atmosphere--no matter how rich it is--can become available for the tree's use until the leaves receive and prepare it. every leaf that spreads its green blade to the sun is a laboratory, devoted to the manufacture of starch. it is, in fact, an outward extension of the living cambium, thrust out beyond the thick, hampering bark, and specialized to do its specific work rapidly and effectively. the structure of the leaves must be studied with a microscope. this laboratory has a delicate, transparent, enclosing wall, with doors, called stomates, scattered over the lower surface. the "leaf pulp" is inside, so is the framework of ribs and veins, that not only supports the soft tissues but furnishes the vascular system by which an incoming and outgoing current of sap is kept in constant circulation. in the upper half of the leaf, facing the sun, the pulp is in "palisade cells," regular, oblong, crowded together, and perpendicular to the flat surface. there are sometimes more than one layer of these cells. in the lower half of the leaf's thickness, between the palisade cells and the under surface, the tissue is spongy. there is no crowding of cells here. they are irregularly spherical, and cohere loosely, being separated by ample air spaces, which communicate with the outside world by the doorways mentioned above. an ordinary apple leaf has about one hundred thousand of these stomates to each square inch of its under surface. so the ventilation of the leaf is provided for. the food of trees comes from two sources--the air and the soil. dry a stick of wood, and the water leaves it. burn it now, and ashes remain. the water and the ashes came from the soil. that which came from the air passed off in gaseous form with the burning. some elements from the soil also were converted by the heat into gases, and escaped by the chimneys. take that same stick of wood, and, instead of burning it in an open fireplace or stove, smother it in a pit and burn it slowly, and it comes out a stick of charcoal, having its shape and size and grain preserved. it is carbon, its only impurity being a trace of ashes. what would have escaped up a chimney as carbonic-acid gas is confined here as a solid, and fire can yet liberate it. the vast amount of carbon which the body of a tree contains came into its leaves as a gas, carbon dioxide. the soil furnished various minerals, which were brought up in the "crude sap." most of these remain as ashes when the wood is burned. water comes from the soil. so the list of raw materials of tree food is complete, and the next question is: how are they prepared for the tree's use? the ascent of the sap from roots to leaves brings water with mineral salts dissolved in it. thus potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, sulphur, nitrogen, and phosphorus are brought to the leaf laboratories--some are useful, some useless. the stream of water contributes of itself to the laboratory whatever the leaf cells demand to keep their own substance sufficiently moist, and those molecules that are necessary to furnish hydrogen and oxygen for the making of starch. water is needed also to keep full the channels of the returning streams, but the great bulk of water that the roots send up escapes by evaporation through the curtained doorways of the leaves. [illustration: _see page _ shagbark hickory] [illustration: _see page _ mockernut fruit and leaves] starch contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the last two in the exact proportion that they bear to each other in water, h^{ }o. the carbon comes in as carbon dioxide, co^{ }. there is no lack of this familiar gas in the air. it is exhaled constantly from the lungs of every animal, from chimneys, and from all decaying substances. it is diffused through the air, and, entering the leaves by the stomates, comes in contact with other food elements in the palisade cells. the power that runs this starch factory is the sun. the chlorophyll, or leaf green, which colors the clear protoplasm of the cells, is able to absorb in daylight (and especially on warm, sunny days) some of the energy of sunlight, and to enable the protoplasm to use the energy thus captured to the chemical breaking down of water and carbon dioxide, and the reuniting of their free atoms into new and more complex molecules. these are molecules of starch, c^{ }h^{ }o^{ }. the new product in soluble form makes its way into the current of nutritious sap that sets back into the tree. this is the one product of the factory--the source of all the tree's growth--for it is the elaborated sap, the food which nourishes every living cell from leaf to root tip. it builds new wood layers, extends both twigs and roots, and perfects the buds for the coming year. sunset puts a stop to starch making. the power is turned off till another day. the distribution of starch goes on. the surplus is unloaded, and the way is cleared for work next day. on a sunless day less starch is made than on a bright one. excess of water and of free oxygen is noticeable in this making of starch. both escape in invisible gaseous form through the stomates. no carbon escapes, for it is all used up, and a continual supply of co^ sets in from outside. we find it at last in the form of solid wood fibres. so it is the leaf's high calling to take the crude elements brought to it, and convert them into food ready for assimilation. there are little elastic curtains on the doors of leaves, and in dry weather they are closely drawn. this is to prevent the free escape of water, which might debilitate the starch-making cells. in a moist atmosphere the doors stand wide open. evaporation does not draw water so hard in such weather, and there is no danger of excessive loss. "the average oak tree in its five active months evaporates about , gallons of water"--an average of about gallons a day. in the making of starch there is oxygen left over--just the amount there is left of the carbon dioxide when the carbon is seized for starch making. this accumulating gas passes into the air as free oxygen, "purifying" it for the use of all animal life, even as the absorption of carbon dioxide does. when daylight is gone, the exchange of these two gases ceases. there is no excess of oxygen nor demand for carbon dioxide until business begins in the morning. but now a process is detected that the day's activities had obscured. the living tree breathes--inhales oxygen and exhales carbonic-acid gas. because the leaves exercise the function of respiration, they may properly be called the lungs of trees, for the respiration of animals differs in no essential from that of plants. the bulk of the work of the leaves is accomplished before midsummer. they are damaged by whipping in the wind, by the ravages of fungi and insects of many kinds. soot and dust clog the stomates. mineral deposits cumber the working cells. finally they become sere and russet or "die like the dolphin," passing in all the splendor of sunset skies to oblivion on the leaf mould under the trees. _the growth of a tree_ the great chestnut tree on the hillside has cast its burden of ripe nuts, flung down the empty burs, and given its yellow leaves to the autumn winds. now the owner has cut down its twin, which was too near a neighbor for the well-being of either, and is converting it into lumber. the lopped limbs have gone to the woodpile, and the boards will be dressed and polished and used for the woodwork of the new house. here is our opportunity to see what the bark of the living tree conceals--to study the anatomy of the tree--to learn something of grain and wood rings and knots. the most amazing fact is that this "too, too solid flesh" of the tree body was all made of dirty water and carbonic-acid gas. well may we feel a kind of awe and reverence for the leaves and the cambium--the builders of this wooden structure we call a tree. the bark, or outer garment, covers the tree completely, from tip of farthest root to tip of highest twig. under the bark is the slimy, colorless living layer, the _cambium_, which we may define as the separation between wood and bark. it seems to have no perceptible diameter, though it impregnates with its substance the wood and bark next to it. this cambium is a continuous undergarment, lining the bark everywhere, covering the wood of every root and every twig as well as of the trunk and all its larger divisions. under the cambium is the wood, which forms the real body of the tree. it is a hard and fibrous substance, which in cross section of root or trunk or limb or twig is seen to be in fine, but distinctly marked, concentric rings about a central pith. this pith is most conspicuous in the twigs. now, what does the chestnut tree accomplish in a single growing season? we have seen its buds open in early spring and watched the leafy shoots unfold. many of these bore clusters of blossoms in midsummer, long yellow spikes, shaking out a mist of pollen, and falling away at length, while the inconspicuous green flowers developed into spiny, velvet-lined burs that gave up in their own good time the nuts which are the seeds of the tree. the new shoots, having formed buds in the angles of their leaves, rest from their labors. the tree had added to the height and breadth of its crown the exact measure of its new shoots. there has been no lengthening of limb or trunk. but underground the roots have made a season's growth by extending their tips. these fresh rootlets clothed with the velvety root hairs are new, just as the shoots are new that bear the leaves on the ends of the branches. there is a general popular impression that trees grow in height by the gradual lengthening of trunk and limbs. if this were true, nails driven into the trunk in a vertical line would gradually become farther apart. they do not, as observation proves. fence wires stapled to growing trees are not spread apart nor carried upward, though the trees may serve as posts for years, and the growth in diameter may swallow up staple and wire in a short time. normal wood fibres are inert and do not lengthen. only the season's rootlets and leafy shoots are soft and alive and capable of lengthening by cell division. the work of the leaves has already been described. the return current, bearing starch in soluble form, flows freely among the cells of the cambium. oxygen is there also. the cambium cell in the growing season fulfills its life mission by absorbing food and dividing. this is growth--and the power to grow comes only to the cell attacked by oxygen. the rebuilding of its tissues multiplies the substance of the cambium at a rapid rate. a cell divides, producing two "daughter cells." each is soon as large as its parent, and ready to divide in the same way. a cambium cell is a microscopic object, but in a tree there are millions upon millions of them. consider how large an area of cambium a large tree has. it is exactly equivalent to the total area of its bark. two cells by dividing make four. the next division produces eight, then sixteen, thirty-two, sixty-four, in geometric proportion. the cell's power and disposition to divide seems limited only by the food and oxygen supply. the cambium layer itself remains a very narrow zone of the newest, most active cells. the margins of the cambium are crowded with cells whose walls are thickened and whose protoplasm is no longer active. the accumulation of these worn-out cells forms the total of the season's growth, the annual ring of wood on one side of the cambium and the annual layer of bark on the other. what was once a delicate cell now becomes a hollow wood fibre, thin walled, but becoming thickened as it gets older. for a few years the superannuated cell is a part of the sap wood and is used as a tube in the system through which the crude sap mounts to the leaves. later it may be stored full of starch, and the sap will flow up through newer tubes. at last the walls of the old cell harden and darken with mineral deposits. many annual rings lie between it and the cambium. it has become a part of the heart wood of the tree. the cells of its own generation that were crowded in the other direction made part of an annual layer of bark. as new layers formed beneath them, and the bark stretched and cracked, they lost their moisture by contact with the outer air. finally they became thin, loose fibres, and scaled off. the years of a tree's life are recorded with fair accuracy in the rings of its wood. the bark tells the same story, but the record is lost by its habit of sloughing off the outer layers. occasionally a tree makes two layers of wood in a single season, but this is exceptional. sometimes, as in a year of drought, the wood ring is so small as to be hardly distinguishable. each annual ring in the chestnut stump is distinct from its neighboring ring. the wood gradually merges from a dark band full of large pores to one paler in color and of denser texture. it is very distinct in oak and ash. the coarser belt was formed first. the spring wood, being so open, discolors by the accumulation of dust when exposed to the air. the closer summer wood is paler in color and harder, the pores almost invisible to the unaided eye. the best timber has the highest percentage of summer wood. if a tree had no limbs, and merely laid on each year a layer of wood made of parallel fibres fitted on each other like pencils in a box, wood splitting would be child's play and carpenters would have less care to look after their tools. but woods differ in structure, and all fall short of the woodworker's ideal. the fibres of oak vary in shape and size. they taper and overlap their ends, making the wood less easily split than soft pine, for instance, whose fibres are regular cylinders, which lie parallel, and meet end to end without "breaking joints." fibres of oak are also bound together by flattened bundles of horizontal fibres that extend from pith to cambium, insinuated between the vertical fibres. these are seen on a cross-section of a log as narrow, radiating lines starting from the pith and cutting straight through heart wood and sap wood to the bark. a tangential section of a log (the surface exposed by the removal of a slab on any side) shows these "pith rays," or "medullary rays" as long, tapering streaks. a longitudinal section made from bark to centre, as when a log is "quarter-sawed," shows a full side view of the "medullary rays." they are often an inch wide or more in oak; these wavy, irregular, gleaming fibre bands are known in the furniture trade as the "mirrors" of oak. they take a beautiful polish, and are highly esteemed in cabinet work. the best white oak has per cent. to per cent. of its substance made up of these pith rays. the horny texture of its wood, together with its strength and durability, give white oak an enviable place among timber trees, while the beauty of its pith rays ranks it high among ornamental woods. the grain of wood is its texture. wide annual rings with large pores mark coarse-grained woods. they need "filling" with varnish or other substance before they can be satisfactorily polished. fine-grained woods, if hard, polish best. trees of slow growth usually have fine-grained wood, though the rule is not universal. ordinarily wood fibres are parallel with their pith. they are straight grained. exceptions to this rule are constantly encountered. the chief cause of variation is the fact that tree trunks branch. limbs have their origin in the pith of the stems that bear them. any stem is normally one year older than the branch it bears. so the base of any branch is a cone quite buried in the parent stem. a cross-section of this cone in a board sawed from the trunk is a _knot_. its size and number of rings indicate its age. if the knot is diseased and loose, it will fall out, leaving a _knot hole_. the fibres of the wood of a branch are extensions of those just below it on the main stem. they spread out so as to meet around the twig and continue in parallel lines to its extremity. the fibres contiguous to those which were diverted from the main stem to clothe the branch must spread so as to meet above the branch, else the parent stem would be bare in this quarter. the union of stem and branch is weak above, as is shown by the clean break made above a twig when it is torn off, and the stubborn tearing of the fibres below down into the older stem. a half hour spent at the woodpile or among the trees with a jack-knife will demonstrate the laws by which the straight grain of wood is diverted by the insertion of limbs. the careful picking up and tearing back of the fibres of bark and wood will answer all our questions. basswood whose fibres are tough is excellent for illustration. when a twig breaks off, the bark heals the wound and the grain becomes straight over the place. trees crowded in a forest early divest themselves of their lower branches. these die for lack of sun and air, and the trunk covers their stubs with layers of straight-grained wood. such timbers are the masts of ships, telegraph poles, and the best bridge timbers. yet buried in their heart wood are the roots of every twig, great or small, that started out to grow when the tree was young. these knots are mostly small and sound, so they do not detract from the value of the lumber. it is a pleasure to work upon such a "stick of timber." a tree that grows in the open is clothed to the ground with branches, and its grain is found to be warped by hundreds of knots when it reaches the sawmill. such a tree is an ornament to the landscape, but it makes inferior, unreliable lumber. the carpenter and the wood chopper despise it, for it ruins tools and tempers. besides the natural diversion of straight grain by knots, there are some abnormal forms to notice. wood sometimes shows wavy grain under its bark. certain trees twist in growing, so as to throw the grain into spiral lines. cypresses and gum trees often exhibit in old stumps a veering of the grain to the left for a few years, then suddenly to the right, producing a "cross grain" that defies attempts to split it. "bird's-eye" and "curly maple" are prizes for the furniture maker. occasionally a tree of swamp or sugar maple keeps alive the crowded twigs of its sapling for years, and forms adventitious buds as well. these dwarfed shoots persist, never getting ahead further than a few inches outside the bark. each is the centre of a wood swelling on the tree body. the annual layers preserve all the inequalities. dots surrounded by wavy rings are scattered over the boards when the tree is sawed. this is bird's-eye grain, beautiful in pattern and in sheen and coloring when polished. it is cut thin for veneer work. extreme irregularity of grain adds to the value of woods, if they are capable of a high polish. the fine texture and coloring, combined with the beautiful patterns they display, give woods a place in the decorative arts that can be taken by no other material. _the fall of the leaves_ it is november, and the glory of the woods is departed. dull browns and purples show where oaks still hold their leaves. beech trees in sheltered places are still dressed in pale yellow. the elfin flowers of the witch hazel shine like threads of gold against the dull leaves that still cling. the trees lapse into their winter sleep. last week a strange thing happened. the wind tore the red robes from our swamp maples and sassafras and scattered them in tatters over the lawn. but the horse-chestnut, decked out in yellow and green, lost scarcely a leaf. three days later, in the hush of early morning, when there was not a whiff of a breeze perceptible, the signal, "let go!" came, and with one accord the leaves of the horse-chestnut fell. in an hour the tree stood knee deep in a stack of yellow leaves; the few that still clung had considerable traces of green in them. gradually these are dropping, and the shining buds remain as a pledge that the summer story just ended will be told again next year. perhaps such a sight is more impressive if one realizes the vast importance of the work the leaves of a summer accomplish for the tree before their surrender. the shedding of leaves is a habit broad-leaved trees have learned by experience in contact with cold winters. the swamp magnolia is a beautiful evergreen tree in florida. in virginia the leaves shrivel, but they cling throughout the season. in new jersey and north as far as gloucester, where the tree occurs sparingly, it is frankly deciduous. certain oaks in the northern states have a stubborn way of clinging to their dead leaves all winter. farther south some of these species grow and their leaves do not die in fall, but are practically evergreen, lasting till next year's shoots push them off. the same gradual change in habit is seen as a species is followed up a mountain side. the horse-chestnut will serve as a type of deciduous trees. its leaves are large, and they write out, as if in capital letters, the story of the fall of the leaf. it is a serial, whose chapters run from july until november. the tree anticipates the coming of winter. its buds are well formed by midsummer. even then signs of preparation for the leaf fall appear. a line around the base of the leaf stem indicates where the break will be. corky cells form on each side of this joint, replacing tissues which in the growing season can be parted only by breaking or tearing them forcibly. a clean-cut zone of separation weakens the hold of the leaf upon its twig, and when the moment arrives the lightest breath of wind--even the weight of the withered leaf itself--causes the natural separation. and the leaflets simultaneously fall away from their common petiole. there are more important things happening in leaves in late summer than the formation of corky cells. the plump green blades are full of valuable substance that the tree can ill afford to spare. in fact, a leaf is a layer of the precious cambium spread out on a framework of veins and covered with a delicate, transparent skin--a sort of etherealized bark. what a vast quantity of leaf pulp is in the foliage of a large tree! as summer wanes, and the upward tide of sap begins to fail, starch making in the leaf laboratories declines proportionately. usually before midsummer the fresh green is dimmed. dust and heat and insect injuries impair the leaf's capacity for work. the thrifty tree undertakes to withdraw the leaf pulp before winter comes. but how? it is not a simple process nor is it fully understood. the tubes that carried the products of the laboratory away are bound up with the fibres of the leaf's skeleton. through the transparent leaf wall the migration of the pulp may be watched. it leaves the margins and the net veins, and settles around the ribs and mid vein, exactly as we should expect. dried and shriveled horse-chestnut leaves are still able to show various stages in this marvellous retreat of the cambium. if moisture fails, the leaf bears some of its green substance with it to the earth. the "breaking down of the chlorophyll" is a chemical change that attends the ripening of a leaf. (leaf ripening is as natural as the ripening of fruit.) the waxy granules disintegrate, and a yellow liquid shows its colors through the delicate leaf walls. now other pigments, some curtained from view by the chlorophyll, others the products of decomposition, show themselves. iron and other minerals the sap brought from the soil contribute reds and yellows and purples to the color scheme. as drainage proceeds, with the chemical changes that accompany it, the pageant of autumn colors passes over the woodlands. no weed or grass stem but joins in the carnival of the year. crisp and dry the leaves fall. among the crystals and granules that remain in their empty chambers there is little but waste that the tree can well afford to be rid of--substances that have clogged the leaf and impeded its work. we have been mistaken in attributing the gay colors of autumnal foliage to the action of frost. the ripening of the leaves occurs in the season of warm days and frosty nights, but it does not follow that the two phenomena belong together as cause and effect. frost no doubt hastens the process. but the chemical changes that attend the migration of the carbohydrates and albuminous materials from the leaf back into twig and trunk and root for safe keeping go on no matter what the weather. in countries having a moist atmosphere autumn colors are less vivid. england and our own pacific coast have nothing to compare with the glory of the foliage in the forests of canada and the northeastern states, and with those on the wooded slopes of the swiss alps, and along the rhine and the danube. long, dry autumns produce the finest succession of colors. the most brilliant reds and yellows often appear long before the first frost. cold rains of long duration wash the colors out of the landscape, sometimes spoiling everything before october. a sharp freeze before the leaves expect it often cuts them off before they are ripe. they stiffen and fall, and are wet and limp next day, as if they had been scalded; all their rich cell substance lost to the tree, except as they form a mulch about its roots. but no tree can afford so expensive a fertilizer, and happily they are not often caught unawares. under the trees the dead leaves lie, forming with the snow a protective blanket for the roots. in spring the rains will leach out their mineral substance and add it to the soil. the abundant lime in dead leaves is active in the formation of _humus_, which is decayed vegetable matter. we call it "leaf mould." so even the waste portions have their effectual work to do for the tree's good. the leaves of certain trees in regions of mild winters persist until they are pushed off by the swelling buds in spring. others cling a year longer, in sorry contrast with the new foliage. we may believe that this is an indolent habit induced by climatic conditions. leaves of evergreens cling from three to five years. families and individuals differ; altitude and latitude produce variations. an evergreen in winter is a dull-looking object, if we could compare it with its summer foliage. its chlorophyll granules withdraw from the surface of the leaf. they seek the lower ends of the palisade cells, as far as they can get from the leaf surface, assume a dull reddish brown or brownish yellow color, huddle in clumps, their water content greatly reduced, and thus hibernate, much as the cells of the cambium are doing under the bark. in this condition, alternate freezing and thawing seem to do no harm, and the leaves are ready in spring to resume the starch-making function if they are still young. naturally, the oldest leaves are least capable of this work, and least is expected of them. gradually they die and drop as new ones come on. as among broad-leaved trees, the zone of foliage in evergreens is an outer dome of newest shoots; the framework of large limbs is practically destitute of leaves. _how trees spend the winter_ nine out of every ten intelligent people will see nothing of interest in a row of bare trees. they casually state that buds are made in the early spring. they miss seeing the strength and beauty of tree architecture which the foliage conceals in summertime. the close-knit, alive-looking bark of a living tree they do not distinguish from the dull, loose-hung garment worn by the dead tree in the row. all trees look alike to them in winter. yet there is so much to see if only one will take time to look. even the most heedless are struck at times with the mystery of the winter trance of the trees. they know that each spring reënacts the vernal miracle. thoughtful people have put questions to these sphinx-like trees. secrets the bark and bud scales hide have been revealed to those who have patiently and importunately inquired. a keen pair of eyes used upon a single elm in the dooryard for a whole year will surprise and inform the observer. it will be indeed the year of miracle. a tree has no centre of life, no vital organs corresponding to those of animals. it is made up, from twig to root, of annual, concentric layers of wood around a central pith. it is completely covered with a close garment of bark, also made of annual layers. between bark and wood is the delicate undergarment of living tissue called _cambium_. this is disappointing when one comes to look for it, for all there is of it is a colorless, slimy substance that moistens the youngest layers of wood and bark, and forms the layer of separation between them. this cambium is the life of the tree. a hollow trunk seems scarcely a disability. the loss of limbs a tree can survive and start afresh. but girdle its trunk, exposing a ring of the cambium to the air, and the tree dies. the vital connection of leaves and roots is destroyed by the girdling; nothing can save the tree's life. girdle a limb or a twig and all above the injury suffers practical amputation. the bark protects the cambium, and the cambium is the tissue which by cell multiplication in the growing season produces the yearly additions of wood and bark. buds are growing points set along the twigs. they produce leafy shoots, as a rule. some are specialized to produce flowers and subsequently fruits. leaves are extensions of cambium spread in the sun and air in the season when there is no danger from frosts. the leaves have been called the stomachs of a tree. they receive crude materials from the soil and the air and transmute them into starch under the action of sunlight. this elaborated sap supplies the hungry cambium cells during the growing season, and the excess of starch made in the leaf laboratories is stored away in empty wood cells and in every available space from bud to root tip, from bark to pith. the tree's period of greatest activity is the early summer. it is the time of growth and of preparation for the coming winter and for the spring that follows it. winter is the time of rest--of sleep, or hibernation. a bear digs a hollow under the tree's roots and sleeps in it all winter, waking in the spring. in many ways the tree imitates the bear. dangerous as are analogies between plants and animals, it is literally true that the sleeping bear and the dormant tree have each ceased to feed. the sole activity of each seems to be the quiet breathing. do trees really breathe? as truly and as incessantly as you do, but not as actively. other processes are intermittent, but breathing must go on, day and night, winter and summer, as long as life lasts. breathing is low in winter. the tree is not growing. there is only the necessity of keeping it alive. [illustration: _see page _ a grove of beeches] [illustration: _see page _ the chestnut] leaves are the lungs of plants. in the growing season respiration goes on at a vigorous rate. the leaves also throw off in insensible vapor a vast quantity of water. this is called _transpiration_ in plants; in animals the term used is _perspiration_. they are one and the same process. an average white oak tree throws off gallons of water in a single summer day. with the cutting off of the water supply at the roots in late fall, transpiration is also cut off. the skin is the efficient "third lung" of animals. the closing of its pores causes immediate suffocation. the bark of trees carries on the work of respiration in the absence of the leaves. bark is porous, even where it is thickest. look at the twigs of half a dozen kinds of trees, and find the little raised dots on the smooth surface. they usually vary in color from the bark. these are _lenticels_, or breathing pores--not holes, likely to become clogged with dust, but porous, corky tissue that filters the air as it comes in. in most trees the smooth epidermis of twigs is shed as the bark thickens and breaks into furrows. this obscures, though it does not obliterate, the air passages. cherry and birch trees retain the silky epidermal bark on limbs, and in patches, at least, on the trunks of old trees. here the lenticels are seen as parallel, horizontal slits, open sometimes, but usually filled with the characteristic corky substance. they admit air to the cambium. there is a popular fallacy that trees have no buds until spring. some trees have very small buds. but there is no tree in our winter woods that will not freely show its buds to any one who wishes to see them. a very important part of the summer work of a tree is the forming of buds for next spring. even when the leaves are just unfolding on the tender shoots a bud will be found in each angle between leaf and stem. all summer long its bud is the especial charge of each particular leaf. if accident destroy the leaf, the bud dies of neglect. when midsummer comes the bud is full grown, or nearly so, and the fall of the leaf is anticipated. the thrifty tree withdraws as much as possible of the rich green leaf pulp, and stores it in the twig to feed the opening buds in spring. what is there inside the wrappings of a winter bud? "a leaf," is the usual reply--and it is not a true one. a bud is an embryo shoot--one would better say, a shoot in miniature. it has very little length or diameter when the scales are stripped off. but with care the leaves can be spread open, and their shape and venation seen. the exact number the shoot was to bear are there to be counted. take a horse-chestnut bud--one of the biggest ones--and you will unpack a cluster of flowers distinct in number and in parts. the bud of the tulip tree is smaller, but it holds a single blossom, and petals, stamens, and pistil are easily recognizable. some buds contain flowers and no leaves. some have shoots with both upon them. if we know the tree, we may guess accurately about its buds. there is another popular notion, very pretty and sentimental, but untrue, that study of buds is bound to overthrow. it is the belief that the woolly and silky linings of bud scales, and the scales themselves, and the wax that seals up many buds are all for the purpose of keeping the bud warm through the cold winter. the bark, according to the same notion, is to keep the tree warm. this idea is equally untenable. there is but feeble analogy between a warm-blooded animal wrapped in fur, its bodily heat kept up by fires within (the rapid oxidation of fats and carbohydrates in the tissues), and the winter condition of a tree. hardy plants are of all things the most cold blooded. they are defended against injuries from cold in an effective but entirely different way. exposure to the air and consequent loss of its moisture by evaporation is the death of the cambium--that which lies under the thick bark and in the tender tissues of the bud, sealed up in its layers of protecting scales. the cells of the cambium are plump little masses of protoplasm, semi-fluid in consistency in the growing season. they have plenty of room for expansion and division. freezing would rupture their walls, and this would mean disintegration and death. nature prepares the cells to be frozen without any harm. the water of the protoplasm is withdrawn by osmosis into the spaces between the cells. the mucilaginous substance left behind is loosely enclosed by the crumpled cell wall. thus we see that a tree has about as much water in it in winter as in summer. green wood cut in winter burns slowly and oozes water at the ends in the same discouraging way as it does in summertime. a tree takes on in winter the temperature of the surrounding air. in cold weather the water in buds and trunk and cambium freezes solid. ice crystals form in the intercellular spaces where they have ample room, and so they do no damage in their alternate freezing and thawing. the protoplasm stiffens in excessive cold, but when the thermometer rises, life stirs again. motion, breathing, and feeding are essential to cell life. it is hard to believe that buds freeze solid. but cut one open in a freezing cold room, and before you breathe upon it take a good look with a magnifier, and you should make out the ice crystals. the bark is actually frozen upon a stick of green stovewood. the sap that oozes out of the pith and heart wood was frozen, and dripped not at all until it was brought indoors. what is meant by the freezing of fruit buds in winter, by which the peach crop is so often lost in northern states? when spring opens, the warmth of the air wakes the sleeping buds. it thaws the ice in the intercellular spaces, and the cells are quick to absorb the water they gave up when winter approached. the thawing of the ground surrounds the roots with moisture. sap rises and flows into the utmost twig. warm days in january or february are able to deceive the tree to this extent. the sudden change back to winter again catches them. the plump cells are ruptured and killed by the "frost bite." it is a bad plan to plant a tender kind of tree on the south side of a house or a wall. the direct and the reflected warmth of the sun forces its buds out too soon, and the late frosts cut them off. there is rarely a good yield on a tree so situated. there is no miracle like "the burst of spring." who has watched a tree by the window as its twigs began to shine in early march, and the buds to swell and show edges of green as their scales lengthened? then the little shoot struggled out, casting off the hindering scales with the scandalous ingratitude characteristic of infancy. feeble and very appealing are the limp baby leaves on the shoot, as tender and pale green as asparagus tips. but all that store of rich nutritive material is backing the enterprise. the palms are lifted into the air; they broaden and take on the texture of the perfect, mature leaf. scarcely a day is required to outgrow the hesitation and inexperience of youth. the tree stands decked in its canopy of leaves, every one of which is ready and eager to assume the responsibilities it faces. the season of starch making has opened. cut some twigs of convenient trees in winter. let them be good ones, with vigorous buds, and have them at least two feet long. you may test this statement i have made about the storing of food in the twigs, and the one about the unfolding of the leafy shoots. get a number of them from the orchard--samples from cherry, plum, and apple trees; from maple and elm and any other familiar tree. put them in jars of water and set them where they get the sun on a convenient window shelf. give them plenty of water, and do not crowd them. it is not necessary to change the water, but cutting the ends slanting and under water every few days insures the unimpeded flow of the water up the stems and the more rapid development of the buds you are watching. when spring comes there are too many things that demand attention. the forcing of winter buds while yet it is winter is the ideal way to discover the trees' most precious secrets. part ii the nut trees the walnuts--the hickories--the beech--the chestnuts--the oaks--the white oak group--the black oak group--the horse-chestnuts, or buckeyes--the lindens, or basswoods the walnuts hickories are included with their near relatives, the walnuts, in one of the most important of all our native tree groups. they are distinct, yet they have many traits in common--the flowers and the nut fruits, the hard resinous wood, with aromatic sap and leaves of many leaflets, instead of a single blade. the walnuts are decidedly "worth knowing." all produce valuable timber and edible nuts, and all are good shade trees. four native walnuts are well known in this country, for in october, every tree in every bit of woods is likely to be visited by school boys with bags, eager to gather the nuts before some other boy finds the tree, and thus establishes a prior claim upon it. the curiously gnawed shells outside the winter storehouse of some furry woods-dweller reveal the most successful competitor boys have, the constant watcher of the nut trees, a harvester who works at nothing else while the season is on. =the southwestern walnut= _juglans rupestris_, engelm. the walnut of the southwest grows into a spreading, luxuriant tree, where its roots find water. but on the canyon sides, and higher on mountain slopes, it becomes a stunted shrub, because of lack of moisture. the nut is smaller than that of the eastern walnuts and has a thick shell, but the kernel is sweet and keeps its rich flavor for a long time. the mexicans and indians are glad to have this nut added to the stores they gather for their winter food. one striking feature of this tree is the pale, cottony down on its twigs, which sometimes persists three or four years. the long limbs droop at the extremities, almost deserving to be called "weeping." but nothing could be more cheerful in color than the yellow-green foliage, shining in the sun, against the white bark of the tree. in autumn the foliage turns bright yellow. a specimen, much admired, grows in the arnold arboretum in boston. =the california walnut= _j. californica_, wats. the california walnut is a stocky, round-headed tree, with heavy, drooping branches, and bark that is white and smooth on limbs and on trunks of young trees. ultimately the trunk turns nearly black, and is checked into broad, irregular ridges. in bottom lands, along the courses of rivers, back thirty miles from the coast, these trees are found, from the sacramento valley to the southern slopes of the san bernardino mountains. the foliage is bright pale green, feathery, the leaflets often curved to sickle form, showing paler silky linings. californians admire and plant this tree for shade and ornament. its greatest value is as a hardy stock upon which the "english" walnut is grafted by nurserymen, for planting orchards of this commercial nut. the fruit of the native nut is excellent, but it cannot compete with the thin-shelled nut that came from persia, _via_ england. =the butternut, white walnut, or oilnut= _j. cinerea_, linn. in eastern woods the butternut is known by its long, pointed nuts, with deeply and raggedly sculptured shells, in fuzzy, clammy, sticky husks that stain the hands of him who attempts to get at the oily meat before the husks are dry. this dark stain was an important dye in the time when homespun cotton cloth was worn by men and boys. the modern khaki resembles in color the "butternut jeans," in which backwoods regiments of the civil war were clad. butternut husks and bark yield also a drug of cathartic properties. pickling green oilnuts in their husks is a housewifely industry, on the summer programme of many housewives still, if the woods near by furnish the raw material for employing her great-grandmother's recipe, brought from england, or perhaps from france. the green nuts are tested with a knitting needle. if it goes through them with no difficulty, and yet the nuts are of good size, they are ready. vigorous rubbing removes the fuzz after the nuts are scalded. then they are pickled whole, in spiced vinegar, and are a rare, delectable relish with meats for the winter table. [illustration: weeping beech _see page _] [illustration: black walnut _see page _] a butternut tree, beside the road, or elsewhere, with room to grow, has a short trunk, and a low, broad head, with a downward droop to the horizontal limbs. the bark is light brown, the limbs grayish green, the twigs and leaves all ooze a clammy, waxy, aromatic sap, and are covered with fine hairs of velvety abundance. because it is low and rather wayward in growth, late to leaf out in spring, and early to shed its leaves in summer, the butternut is not a good street tree. it breaks easily in the wind, and crippled trees are more common than well-grown specimens. insect and fungous enemies beset the species, and take advantage of breaks to invade the twigs through the chambered pith. short-lived trees they are, whose brown, satiny wood is used in cabinet work, but is not plentiful. =the black walnut= _j. nigra_, linn. the black walnut (_see illustrations, pages , _) is the second species east of the rocky mountains, and the tree chiefly depended upon, during the century just closed, by the makers of furniture of the more expensive grades. black walnut wood is brown, with purplish tones in it, and a silvery lustre, when polished. its hardness and strength commend it to the boat and ship builder. gunstock factories use quantities of this wood. in furniture and interior woodwork, the curly walnut, found in the old stumps of trees cut long before, is especially sought for veneering panels. old furniture, of designs that have passed out, are often sold to the factories, and their seasoned wood cut thin for veneering. walnut trees one hundred and fifty feet high were not uncommon in the forests primeval, in the basin of the ohio and wabash rivers. these giants held up their majestic heads far over the tops of oaks and maples in the woods. they were slaughtered, rolled together, and burned by the pioneers, clearing the land for agriculture. these men had a special grudge against walnut trees, they were so stubborn--so hard to make away with. how unfortunate it is that our ancestors had the patience to go forward and conquer the unconquerable ones. had they weakly surrendered, and let these trees stand, we should have had them for the various uses to which we put the finest lumber trees to-day. unhappily, the growing of young trees has not been extensively undertaken to replace those destroyed. the newer forestry is awake to the need, and the loss may be made good, from this time forward. the black walnut is nearly globular, deeply sculptured, with a sweet nut rich in oil, very good if one eats but a few at a time. locally, they find their way to market, but they soon become rancid in the grocer's barrel. at home, boys spread them, in their smooth, yellow-pitted husks, on the roof of the woodshed, for instance, so the husks can dry while the nuts are seasoning. no walnut opens its husk in regular segments, as the hickories all do. but the husking is not hard. the thick shells require careful management of the hammer or nut-cracker, to avoid breaking the meats. dark as is its wood and bark, no walnut tree in full leaf is sombre. the foliage is bright, lustrous, yellow-green, graceful, dancing. a majestic tree, with a luxuriant crown from may till september, this walnut needs room to display its notable contour and size. it deserves more popularity than it enjoys as a tree for parks. no tree is more interesting to watch as it grows. the bitter spongy husk deters the squirrels from gnawing into the nut until the husk is dry and brittle. hidden in the ground, the shell absorbs moisture, and winter frost cracks it, by the gentle but irresistible force of expanding particles of water as they turn to ice. so the plantlet has no hindrance to its growth when spring opens. imitating nature, the nurseryman lays his walnuts and butternuts in a bed of sand or gravel, one layer above another, and lets the rain and the cold do the rest. in spring the "stratified" nuts are ready for planting. sometimes careful cracking of the shell prepares the nut to sprout when planted. the japanese walnuts (_j. sieboldiana_ and _j. cordiformis_) are grown to a limited extent in states where the english walnut is not hardy. they are butternuts, and very much superior to our native species. a manchurian walnut has been successfully introduced, but few people but the pioneers in nut culture know anything about these exotic species. south america and the west indies have native species. so we shall not be surprised, in our travels, to find walnuts in the woods of many continents. =the english walnut= _j. regia_, linn. originally at home in the forests of persia and northwestern india, the english walnut was grown for its excellent nuts in the warm countries of europe and asia. it was a tree of great reputation when linnaeus gave it the specific name that means _royal_. indeed, this is the tree which gave to all the family the name "_juglans_," which means, "jove's acorn," in the writings of roman authors. kings made each other presents of these nuts, and so the range of the species was extended, even to england, by the planting of nuts from the south. it became the fad of gardeners, before the fifteenth century, to improve the varieties, and to compete with others in getting the thinnest shell, the largest nut, the sweetest kernel, just as horticulturists do now. in the herbalist parkinson wrote about a variety of "french wallnuts, which are the greatest of any, within whose shell are often put a paire of fine gloves, neatly foulded up together." another variety he mentions "whose shell is so tender that it may easily be broken between one's fingers, and the nut itsself is very sweete." in england, the climate prevents the ripening of the fruit of walnut trees. but the nuts reach good size, and are pickled green, for use as a relish; or made into catsups--husks and all being used, when a needle will still puncture the fruit with ease. in america, the first importations of the walnuts came from the mediterranean countries, by way of england, "the mother country." in contradistinction to our black walnuts and butternuts, these nuts from overseas were called by the loyal colonists "english walnuts," and so they remain to this day in the markets of this country. it was natural and easy to grow these trees in the southern states. but little had been done to improve them, or to grow them extensively for market, until california undertook to compete with europe for the growing american trade. now the crop reaches thousands of tons of nuts, and millions of dollars come back each year to the owners of walnut ranches. hardy varieties have extended the range of nut-orcharding; and so has the grafting of tender varieties on stock of the native black walnut of california. the beauty of this eurasian walnut tree would justify planting it merely for the adornment of parks and private grounds. its broad dome of bright green foliage in summer, and its clean gray trunk and bare branches in winter, are attractive features in a landscape that has few deciduous trees. a fine dooryard tree that bears delicious nuts, after furnishing a grateful shade all summer, is deserving the popularity it enjoys with small farmers and owners of the simplest california homes. as a lumber tree, the walnut of europe has long been commercially important. it is the staple wood for gun-stocks, and during wars the price has reached absurd heights, one country bidding against its rival to get control of the visible supply. furniture makers use quantities of the curly walnut often found in stumps of old trees. the heart wood, always a rich brown, is often watered and crimped in curious and intricate patterns, that when polished blend the loveliest dark and light shades with the characteristic walnut lustre, to reward the skilled craftsman. in the united states this wood is rarely seen, because the trees are grown for their nuts. they require several years to come into bearing, are long-lived, have few enemies, and need little pruning as bearing age approaches. the hickories americans have a right to be proud that the twelve hickory species are all natives of this country. eleven of the twelve are found in the eastern half of the united states; one, only, strays into the forests of mexico. no other country has a native hickory. indians of the algonkin tribe named this tree family, and taught the early colonists in virginia to use for food the ripe nuts of the shagbark and mockernut. after cracking the shells, the procedure was to boil and strain the mixture, which gave them a rich, soupy liquid. into this they stirred a coarse meal, made by grinding between stones the indian corn. the mush was cooked slowly, then made into cakes, which were baked on hot stones. no more delicious nor wholesome food can be imagined than this. frequently the soup was eaten alone; its name, "powcohicora," gave the trees their english name, part of which the botanist, rafinesque, took, latinized, and set up as the name of the genus. cut a twig of any hickory tree, and you realize that the wood is close-grained and very springy. the pith is solid, with a star form in cross-section, corresponding to the ranking of the leaves on the twigs. the wind strews no branches under a hickory tree, for the fibres of the wood are strong and flexible enough to resist a hurricane. (_see illustrations, pages , ._) hickory wood is unequalled for implements which must resist great strain and constant jarring. the running-gear of wagons and carriages, handles of pitchforks, axes, and like implements require it. thin strips, woven into baskets for heavy market use, are almost indestructible. no fuel is better than seasoned hickory wood. =shagbark or shellbark= _hicoria ovata_, britt. the shagbark has gray bark that is shed in thin, tough, vertical strips. attached by the middle, these strips often spring outward, at top and bottom, giving the bole a most untidy look (_see illustrations, pages , _), and threatening the trousers of any boy bold enough to try climbing into the smooth-barked top to beat off the nuts. in spite of the ragged-looking trunk, a shagbark grown in the open is a noble tree. the limbs are angular, but they express strength to the utmost twig, as the bare oblong of the tree's lofty head is etched against a wintry sky. the nuts are the chief blessing this tree confers upon the youngsters of any neighborhood. individual trees differ in the size and quality of their fruit. the children know the best trees, and so do the squirrels, their chief competitors at harvest time. frost causes the eager lads to seek their favorite trees, and underneath they find the four-parted husks dropping away from the angled nuts. there is no waiting, as with walnuts, for husking time to come. the tree is prompt about dropping its fruit. spread for a few weeks, where they can dry, and thieving squirrels will let them alone, hickory nuts reach perfect condition for eating. fat, proteid, and carbohydrates are found in concentrated form in those delicious meats. we may not know their dietetic value, but we all remember how good and how satisfying they are. no tree brings to the human family more valuable offerings than this one, rugged and ragged though it be. =the big shellbark= _h. lacinata_, sarg. the big shellbark, like the little shellbark, is a common forest tree in the middle west and middle atlantic states. it has a shaggy trunk, stout limbs, picturesquely angular, and it bears nuts that are sweet and of delicious flavor. in winter the orange-colored twigs, large terminal buds, and persistent stems of the dead leaves are distinguishing traits. these petioles shed the five to nine long leaflets and then stay on, their enlarged bases firmly tied by fibre bundles to the scar, though the stems writhe and curve as if eager to be free to die among the fallen blades. "king nuts," as the fruit of this tree is labelled in the markets, do not equal the little hickory nuts in quality, and their thick shells cover meats very little larger. but the nut in its husk on the tree is often three inches long--a very impressive sight to hungry nut-gatherers. in summer the downy leaf-linings and the uncommon size of the leaves best distinguish this tree from its near relative, whose five leaflets are smooth throughout, small, very rarely counting seven. [illustration: _see page _ white oak] [illustration: _see page _ bur, or mossy-cup, oak--leaves and fruit] =the pecan= _h. pecan_, britt. the pecan tree bears the best nuts in the hickory family. this species is coming to be a profitable orchard tree in many sections of the south. most of the pecan nuts in the market come from wild trees in the mississippi basin. but late years have seen great strides taken to establish pecan growing as a paying horticultural enterprise in states outside, as well as within, the tree's natural range. and these efforts are succeeding. experiment stations have tested seedling trees and selected varieties of known merit, until they know by actual experiment that pecans can be raised successfully in the carolinas and in other states where the native species does not grow wild. thin-shelled varieties, with the astringent red shell-lining almost eliminated, have been bred by selection, and propagated by building on native stock. the trees have proved to be fast-growing, early-fruiting, and easy to grow and protect from enemies. the market pays the highest price for pecans. the popularity of this nut is deserved, because by analysis it has the highest food value combined with the most delicate and delicious flavor. no nut is so rich in nutriment. none has so low a percentage of waste. the demand for nuts is constantly increasing as the public learns that the proteid the body needs can be obtained from nuts as well as from meat. pecans have suffered in competition with other nuts because they are difficult to get out of the shells without breaking the meats. the old-fashioned hammer and block is not the method for them. a cracker i saw in use on the street corner in chicago delighted me. clamped to the nut-vendor's stall, it received the nut between two steel cups and, by the turn of a wheel, crowded it so that the shell buckled and broke where it is thinnest, around the middle, and the meat came out whole. =the mockernut= _h. alba_, britt. the mockernut is a mockery to him who hopes for nuts like those of either shagbark. the husk is often three inches long. inside is a good-sized nut, angled above the middle, suggesting the shagbark. but what a thick, obstinate shell, when one attempts to "break and enter!" and what a trifling, insipid meat one finds, to repay the effort! quite often there is nothing but a spongy remnant or the shell is empty. (_see illustration, page ._) as a shade tree, the mockernut has real value, showing in winter a tall, slender pyramidal form, with large terminal buds tipping the velvety, resinous twigs. the bark is smooth as that of an ash, with shallow, wavy furrows, as if surfaced with a silky layer of new healing tissue, thrown up to fill up all depressions. mockernut leaves are large, downy, yellow-green, turning to gold in autumn. crushed they give out an aroma suggesting a delicate perfume. the flowers are abundant, and yet the most surprising show of colors on this tree comes in late april, when the great buds swell. the outer scales fall, and the inner ones expand into ruddy silken sheathes that stand erect around the central cluster of leaves, not yet awake, and every branch seems to hold up a great red tulip! the sight is wonderful. nothing looks more flower-like than these opening hickory buds, and to the unobserving passerby the transformation is nothing short of a miracle. in a day, the leaves rise and spread their delicate leaflets, lengthening and becoming smooth, as the now useless red scales fall in a shower to the ground. =the pignut= _h. glabra_, britt. the pignut deserves the better name, "smooth hickory," a more ingratiating introduction to strangers. a graceful, symmetrical tree, with spreading limbs that end in delicate, pendulous branches, and gray bark checked into a maze of intersecting furrows, it is an ornament to any park, even in the dead of winter. in summer the tree laughs in the face of the sun, its smooth, glossy, yellow-green leaflets, five to seven on a stem, lined with pale green or yellow. in spring the clustered fringes among the opening leaves are the green and gold stamen flowers. the curiously angled fertile flowers, at the tips of twigs, are green, with yellow stigmas. autumn turns the foliage to orange and brown, and lets fall the pear-shaped or rounded fruit, each nut obscurely four-angled and held fast at the base by the thin, -ridged husk, that splits scarcely to the middle. the kernel is insipid, sometimes bitter, occasionally rather sweet. country boys scorn the pignut trees, leaving their fruit for eager but unsophisticated nut-gatherers from the towns. pigs used to be turned into the woods to fatten on beech- and oak-"mast." they eagerly devoured the thin-shelled nuts of _h. glabra_, and thus the tree earned the friendly regard of farmers, and a name that preserves an interesting bit of pioneer history. the range of the pignut is from maine to florida on the atlantic seaboard, west to the middle of nebraska and texas, and from ontario and michigan south to the gulf. the beech =the american beech= _fagus americanus_, sweet. one of the most widely distributed trees in our country, this is also one of the most useful and most beautiful in any forest. it is the sole representative of its genus in the western hemisphere. one species is a valuable timber tree in europe. three are natives of asia. a genus near of kin includes the beech trees of the southern hemisphere, twelve species in all. there is closer resemblance, however, between our beeches and their next of kin, the chestnuts and oaks. from the great lakes to the gulf of mexico, from florida to texas, from new england to wisconsin, beech trees grow; and where they grow they are very likely to form "pure forests," on the slopes of mountains and rich river bottoms. the largest specimens grow in the basin of the lower ohio river, and on the warm slopes of the alleghany mountains. standing alone, with room for full development, the beech is a fine, symmetrical tree, with horizontal or slightly drooping branches, numerous, thickly set with slender, flexible twigs. the stout trunk supports a round or conical head of very dense foliage. one hundred and twenty feet is the maximum height, with a trunk diameter of three to four feet. (_see illustrations, pages , ._) the older the trees, the greater the amount of red heart wood in proportion to the white sap-wood, next to the bark. red and white beech wood are distinguished by lumbermen. red beech makes superior floors, toolhandles, chairs, and the like, and there is no more perfect fuel than seasoned beech wood. it is unreasonable to think that any but the blind could live where beech trees grow and not know these trees at a glance. the bark is close, unfurrowed, gray, often almost white, and marked with blotches, often nearly round of paler hue. the branches are dark and smooth and the twigs polished to the long, pointed winter buds. throughout, the tree is a model of elegant attire, both in color and texture of the investing bark. in the growing season the leaves are the tree's chief attraction. they are closely plaited, and covered with silvery down, when the bud scales are pushed off in the spring. in a day, the protective fuzz disappears, and the full-grown leaf is seen, thin, strongly feather-veined, uniformly green, saw-toothed. summer shows the foliage mass almost as fresh, and autumn turns its green to pale gold. still unblemished, it clings, often until the end of winter, lighting the woods with a ghostly glow, as the rain fades the color out. the silky texture is never quite lost. the delicate flowers of the beech tree are rarely seen, they fade so soon; the stamen tassels drop off and the forming nuts, with their prickly burs, are more and more in evidence in the leaf angles near the ends of new shoots. with the first frost the burs open, the four walls part, releasing the two nuts, three-angled, like a grain of buckwheat. the name of this grain was suggested by its resemblance in form to the beechnut, or "buck mast," sweet, nutritious food of so many dwellers in the forest. buck mast was the food of man when he lived in caves and under the forest cover. we know that beechnuts have a rich, delicate flavor that offsets the disadvantages of their small size and the difficulty of opening their thin but leathery shells. all along the centuries european peoples have counted on this nut, and oil expressed from it, for their own food and the dried leaves for forage for their cattle in winter. the american pioneer turned his hogs into the beech woods to fatten on the beech-mast, and thanksgiving turkeys were always finer if they competed with the wild turkey on the same fare. birds and lesser mammals do much to plant trees when they carry away, for immediate or future use, seeds that are not winged for flight. beechnuts are light enough to profit, to some extent, by a high wind. and beech trees in their infancy do well under the shade of other trees. so each fruiting tree is the mother of many young ones. but the seedling trees are not so numerous and important as the sapling growth that rises from the roots of parent trees. by these alone, a few isolated beeches will manage to take possession of the ground around them and to clothe it with so dense a foliage screen that all young growth, except certain ferns and grasses, dies for lack of sun. before we can realize what is going on, the tract is a pure forest of beech, rapidly enlarging on all sides by the same campaign of extension. the chestnuts =chestnut and chinquapin= _castanea dentata_, borh., and _c. pumila_, mill. our native chestnut and its little brother, the chinquapin, are the american cousins of the sweet chestnut of southern europe. japan has contributed to american horticulture a native species which bears large but not very sweet nuts, that are good when cooked. our two trees bear sweet nuts, of a flavor that no mode of cooking improves. in truth, there is no finer nut; and the time to enjoy it to the highest degree is a few weeks after the frost opens the burs and lets the nuts fall. "along about thanksgiving," they have lost some of their moisture and are prime. in foreign countries the chestnut is a rich, nourishing food, comparable to the potato. who could go into ecstasies over a vegetable that is a staple food for the peasants of europe, asia, and north africa? our chestnut is no staple. it is a delicacy. it is treasure trove from the autumn woods, and the gathering of the crop is a game in which boys and squirrels are rivals. ernest thompson seton, always a boy, knows the impatience with which the opening of the burs is watched for, as the belated frosts keep off, and the burs hang tantalizingly closed. the cruel wounds made by the spines and the raw taste of the immature nuts are poor recompense for the labor of nutting before nature gives the sign that all's ready. here is mr. seton's estimate of the chestnut of "brown october's woods." "whenever you see something kept under lock and key, bars and bolts, guarded and double-guarded, you may be sure it is very precious, greatly coveted. the nut of this tree is hung high aloft, wrapped in a silk wrapper, which is enclosed in a case of sole leather, which again is packed in a mass of shock-absorbing, vermin-proof pulp, sealed up in a waterproof, ironwood case, and finally cased in a vegetable porcupine of spines, almost impregnable. there is no nut so protected; there is no nut in our woods to compare with it as food." what a disaster then is the newly arisen bark disease that has already killed every chestnut tree throughout large areas in the eastern states. scientists have thus far struggled with it in vain and it is probable that all chestnuts east of the rockies are doomed. chinquapins grow to be medium-sized trees in texas and arkansas, but east of the mississippi they are smaller, and east of the alleghanies, mere shrubby undergrowth, covering rocky banks or crouching along swamp borders. they are smaller throughout, but resemble the chestnut in leaf, flowers, and fruit. the bur contains a single nut. the chestnut tree grows large and attains great age, its sturdy, rough gray trunk crowned with an oblong head of irregular branches, hidden in summer by the abundant foliage mass. (_see illustration, page ._) the ugly cripple that lightning has maimed covers its wounds when may wakes the late-opening buds and the leaves attain full size. each leaf tapers at both ends, its length three or four times its width. strong-ribbed and sharp-toothed, and wavy on the midrib, dark, polished, like leather, these units form a wonderful dome, lightened in midsummer by the pencil-like plumes of the staminate flowers, with the fertile ones at their bases. as autumn comes on the leaf crown turns to gold, and the mature fruits are still green spiny balls. the first frost and the time to drop the nuts are dates that every schoolboy knows come close together. when a chestnut tree falls by the axe, the roots restore the loss by sending up sprouts around the stump. the mouldering pile nourishes a circle of young trees, full of vigor, because they have the large tree's roots gathering food for them. no wonder their growth is rapid. besides this mode of reproduction, chestnut trees, growing here and there throughout a mixed forest, are the offspring of trees whose nuts were put away, or dropped and lost by squirrels. when spring relieves the danger of famine, many of the rodent class abandon their winter stores before they are all devoured. such caches add many nut trees to our native woods. the oaks this is the great family of the cup-bearers, whose fruit, the acorn, is borne in a scaly cup that never breaks into quarters, as does the husk that holds a chestnut, beechnut, or hickory nut. all oak trees bear acorns as soon as they come to fruiting age. this is the sign by which they are known the world over. seldom is a full-grown oak without its little insignia, for the cups cling after the nut falls, and one grand division of the family requires two seasons to mature its fruit. for this reason, half-grown acorns are seen on the twigs after the ripe ones fall. we cannot say of oak trees that they all have sturdy trunks, rough bark, and gnarled limbs, for not all of them have these characteristics. but there is a certain likeness in oak leaves. they are simple, five-ranked, generally oval, and the margins are generally cut into lobes by deep or shallow bays. most oak leaves have leathery texture, strong veins, and short petioles. they are leaves that outlast the summer, and sometimes persist until spring growth unseats the stalks; sometimes, as in the "live oaks," they hang on three to five years. the twigs of oak trees are more or less distinctly five-angled, and the winter buds cluster at the ends. this insures a group of young shoots, crowded with leaves, on the ends of branches, and a dense outer dome of foliage on the tree. nearly three hundred distinct species of oaks are recognized by botanists, and the list is growing. new species are in the making. for instance, a white oak and a bur oak grow near enough for the wind to "cross-fertilize" their pistillate flowers. the acorns of such mixed parentage produce trees that differ from both parents, yet reveal characteristics of both. they are "hybrids," and may be called new varieties of either parent. other species of oak are intercrossing by the same process--the interchange of pollen at the time of blossoming. this proves that the oak family is young, compared with many other families, whose members are too distantly related to intercross. though geologically young, the oak family is one of the most important, furnishing timber of superior strength and durability for bridge-building, ship-building, and other construction work. tanning has depended largely upon oak bark. as fuel, all oak trees are valuable. fifty species of oak are native to north american forests. twice as many grow east of the rocky mountains as west of the great divide. no species naturally passes this barrier. the temperate zone species extend southward into tropical regions, by keeping to high altitudes. thus we find american oaks in the andes and colombia; asiatic species occur in the indian archipelago. no old world species is native to america. each continent has its own. east of the rocky mountains the oaks hold a place of preëminence among broad-leaved trees. they are trees of large size, and they often attain great age. they are beautiful trees, and therefore highly valued for ornamental planting. this has led to the introduction of oaks from other countries. we have set european, japanese, and siberian oaks in our finest parks. europe has borrowed from our woods the red oak and many others. all countries are richer by this horticultural exchange of trees. our native oaks fall into two groups: the annual-fruiting and the biennial-fruiting species. the first group matures its acorns in a single season; the second requires two seasons. it happens that annuals have leaves with rounded lobes, while biennials have leaves with lobes that end in angles and bristly tips. the bark of the annual trees is generally pale; that of the biennials, dark. hence the white oak group and the black oak group may be easily distinguished at a glance, by the bark, the leaf, and the acorn crop. the white oak group =the white oak= _quercus alba_, linn. the white oak has no rival for first place in the esteem of tree-lover and lumberman. its broad, rounded dome, sturdy trunk, and strong arms (_see illustration, page _), and its wide-ranging roots enable a solitary tree to resist storms that destroy or maim other kinds. strength and tenacity in the fibre of root and branch make it possible for individuals to live to a great age, far beyond the two centuries required to bring it to maturity. such trees stir within us a feeling of reverence and patriotism. they are patriarchs whose struggles typify the pioneer's indomitable resistance to forces that destroyed all but the strong. white oak trees in the forest grow tall, lose their lower branches early, and lift but a small head to the sun. the logs, quarter-sawed, reveal the broad, gleaming "mirrors" that make a white oak table beautiful. the botanist calls these the _medullary rays_--thin, irregular plates of tissue-building cells, that extend out from the central pith, sometimes quite to the sap-wood, crowding between the wood fibres, which in the heart-wood are no longer alive. a slab will show only an edge of these mirrors. but any section from bark to pith will reveal them. the pale brown wood of the white oak distinctly shows the narrow rings of annual growth. each season begins with a coarse, porous band of "_spring wood_," followed by a narrower band of fine, close-grained "_summer wood_." white oak is streaked with irregular, dark lines. these are the porous lines of spring wood, discolored by foreign matter. count them, allow a year for each, and you know how long one white oak tree required to make an inch of wood. the supreme moment in the white oak's year comes in spring, when the gray old tree wakes, the buds swell and cast off their brown scales, and the young leaves appear. the tree is veiled, not with a garment of green, but with a mist of rose and silver, each twig hung with soft limp velvety leaves, red-lined, and covered with a close mat of silky hairs. it is a spectacle that seems unreal, because it is so lovely and gone so soon. the protecting hairs and pigments disappear, and the green leafage takes its place, brightened by the yellow tassels of the stamen flowers, and the growing season is on. in autumn the pale-lined leaves of the white oak turn slowly to sombre violet and dull purplish tones. clinging there, after the acorns have all fallen and been gathered by squirrels, the foliage fades into the gray of the bark and may persist until spring growth sets in. =the bur oak= _q. macrocarpa_, michx. the bur oak (_see illustration, page _) is called the mossy-cup on account of the loose, fringed scales about the rim of the cup that holds the large acorn--largest in the whole oak family. often the nut is completely enclosed by the cup; often it is small. this variable fruit is sweet, and it is the winter store of many furry wood-folk. the leaf has the rounded lobing of the family, with the special peculiarity of being almost cut in two by a pair of deep and wide opposite sinuses, between the broad middle, and the narrow, tapering base. not all leaves show this odd form, but it is the prevailing pattern. the dark green blade has a pale, fuzzy lining, that lasts until the leaves turn brown and yellow. the bur oak is a rugged, ragged tree, compared with the white oak. its irregular form is picturesque, its wayward limbs are clothed in a loose garment of untidy, half-shed bark. the twigs are roughened with broad, corky wings. the trunk is brownish, with loosened flakes of gray, separated by shallow fissures. the wood is classed with white oak, though darker in color. it has the same ornamental mirrors, dear to the heart of the cabinet-maker. it serves all the purposes for which a tough, strong, durable wood is needed. the range of the species is from nova scotia to montana, and it grows in large tracts from winnipeg to texas, doing well in the arid soil of western nebraska and dakota. suckers from the roots spread these trees till they form the "oak openings" of the bluffs of the missouri and other streams of iowa and minnesota. in kansas it is the commonest oak tree. the largest trees of this species grow in rich bottom lands in the ohio valley. =the post oak= _q. minor_, sarg. the post oak has wood that is noted for its durability when placed in contact with the soil. it is in demand for fence posts, railroad ties, and for casks and boat timbers. "iron oak" is a name that refers to the qualities of the wood. "knees" of post oak used to be especially in demand. in the mississippi basin this tree attains its largest size and greatest abundance on gravelly uplands. it is the commonest oak of central texas, on the sandy plains and limestone hills. farther north, it is more rare and smaller, becoming an undersized oak in new york and westward to kansas. in winter the post oak keeps its cloak of harsh-feeling, thick, coarse-veined leaves. tough fibres fasten them to the twigs. in summer the foliage mass is almost black, with gray leaf-linings. the lobes and sinuses are large and squarish, the blades four or five inches long. the limbs, tortuous, horizontal, form a dense head. =the chestnut oak= _q. prinus_, linn. the chestnut oak has many nicknames and all are descriptive. its leaves are similar in outline and size to those of the chestnut. the margin is coarsely toothed, not lobed, like the typical oak leaf. "tanbark oak" refers to the rich store of tannin in the bark, which makes this species the victim of the bark-peeler for the tanneries wherever it grows. "rock chestnut oak" is a title that lumbermen have given to the oak with exceptionally hard wood, heavy and durable in soil, adapted for railroad ties, posts, and the like. unlike other white oaks, the bark of this tree is dark in color and deeply fissured. without a look at the leaves, one might call it a black oak. the centre of distribution for this species seems to be the foothill country of the appalachian mountains, in tennessee and north carolina. here it predominates, and grows to its largest size. from maine to georgia it chooses rocky, dry uplands, grows vigorously and rapidly, and its acorns often sprout before falling from the cup! the chestnut oak is one of the most desirable kinds of trees to plant in parks. it is symmetrical, with handsome bark and foliage. the leaves turn yellow and keep their fine texture through the season. the acorn is one of the handsomest and largest, and squirrels are delighted with its sweet kernel. =the mississippi valley chestnut oak= _q. acuminata_, sarg. in the mississippi valley the chestnut oak is _q. acuminata_, sarg., with a more slender and more finely-toothed leaf that bears a very close resemblance to that of the chestnut. the foliage mass is brilliant, yellow-green, each leaf with a pale lining, and hung on a flexible stem. "yellow oak" is another name, earned again when in autumn the leaves turn to orange shades mingled with red. on the wabash river banks these trees surpass one hundred feet in height and three feet in diameter. the base of the trunk is often buttressed. back from the rich bottom lands, on limestone and flinty ridges, where water is scarce, these trees are stunted. in parks they are handsome, and very desirable. the bark is silvery white, tinged with brown, and rarely exceeds one half an inch in thickness. =the swamp white oak= _q. platanoides_, sudw. the swamp white oak loves to stand in wet ground, sometimes even in actual swamps. its small branches shed their bark like the buttonwood, the flakes curling back and showing the bright green under layer. on the trunk the bark is thick, and broken irregularly into broad, flat ridges coated with close, gray-brown scales often tinged with red. [illustration: _see page _ horse-chestnut in blossom] [illustration: _see page _ weeping willow] in its youth the swamp white oak is comely and symmetrical, its untidy moulting habit concealed by the abundant foliage. one botanist calls this species _bicolor_, because the polished yellow-green upper surfaces contrast so pleasantly with the white scurf that lines each leaf throughout the summer. yellow is the autumn color. never a hint of red warms this oak of the swamps, even when planted as a street or park tree in well-drained ground. =the basket oak= _q. michauxii_, nutt. the basket oak is so like the preceding species as to be listed by some botanists as the southern form of _q. platanoides_. they meet on a vague line that crosses maryland, kentucky, and tennessee. both have large leaves silver-lined, with undulating border, of the chestnut oak pattern. both are trees of the waterside, tall, with round heads of gnarled limbs. the red-tinged white bark sets the basket oak apart from all others. its head is broader and its trunk stouter than in the other species. the paired acorns are almost without stalks, the nuts large, the kernels sweet. in autumn, farmers turn their hogs into the woods to fatten on this oak-mast. the edibility of these nuts may account for the common name, "cow oak." the wood splits readily into thin, tough plates of the summer wood. this is because the layer formed in spring is very porous. bushel baskets, china crates, and similar woven wares are made of these oak splints. the wood is also used in cooperage and implement construction, and it makes excellent firewood. =the live oak= _q. virginiana_, mill. the live oak with its small oval leaves, without a cleft in the plain margins, looks like anything but an oak to the northerner who walks along a street planted with this evergreen in richmond or new orleans. it is not especially good for street use, though often chosen. it develops a broad, rounded dome, by the lengthening of the irregular limbs in a horizontal direction. the trunk becomes massive and buttressed to support the burden. the "knees" of this oak were in keenest demand for ship-building before steel took the place of wood. in all lines of construction, this lumber ranks with the best white oak. the short trunk is the disadvantage, from the lumberman's viewpoint. its beauty, when polished, would make it the wood _par excellence_ for elegant furniture, except that it is difficult to work, and it splits easily. the spanish moss that drapes the limbs of live oaks in the south gives them a greenish pallor and an unkempt appearance that seems more interesting than beautiful to many observers. it is only when the sight is familiar, i think, that it is pleasing. northern trees are so clean-limbed and so regular about shedding their leaves when they fade, that these patient hosts, loaded down with the pendent skeins of the tillandsia, seem to be imposed upon. in fact, the "moss" is not a parasite, sapping the life of the tree, but a lodger, that finds its own food supply without help. =california white oak= _q. lobata_, née. the california white oak far exceeds the eastern white oak in the spread of its mighty arms. the dome is often two hundred feet in breadth and the trunk reaches ten feet in diameter. such specimens are often low in proportion, the trunk breaking into its grand divisions within twenty feet of the ground. the ultimate spray is made of slender, supple twigs, on which the many-lobed leaves taper to the short stalks. dark green above, the blades are lined with pale pubescence. the acorns are slender, pointed, and often exceed two inches in length. their cups are comparatively shallow, and they fall out when ripe. the bare framework of one of these giant oaks shows a wonderful maze of gnarled branches, whose grotesque angularities are multiplied with added years and complicated by damage and repair. it is hard to say whether the grace and nobility of the verdure-clad tree, or the tortuous branching system revealed in winter, appeals more strongly to the admiration of the stranger and the pride of the native californian, who delights in this noble oak at all seasons. its comparatively worthless wood has spared the trees to adorn the park-like landscapes of the wide middle valleys of the state. =pacific post oak= _q. garryana_, hook. the pacific post oak is the only oak in british columbia, whence it follows down the valleys of the coast range to the santa cruz mountains. it is a tree nearly one hundred feet high, with a broad, compact head, in western washington and oregon. dark green, lustrous leaves, with paler linings, attain almost a leathery texture when full grown. they are four to six inches long and coarsely lobed. in autumn they sometimes turn bright scarlet. the wood is hard, strong, tough, and close-grained. it is employed in the manufacture of wagons and furniture, and in ship-building and cooperage. it is a superior fuel. the black oak group a large group of our native oaks require two seasons to mature their acorns; have dark-colored bark and foliage, have leaves whose lobes are sharp-angled and taper to bristly points and tough acorn shells lined with a silky-hairy coat. =the black oak= _q. velutina_, lam. the black oak of the vast region east of the rocky mountains is the type or pattern species. its leathery, dark green leaves are divided by curving sinuses into squarish lobes, each ending in one or more bristly tips. the lobes are paired, and each has a strong vein from the midrib. underneath, the leaf is always scurfy, even when the ripening turns its color from bronze to brown, yellow or dull red. under the deep-furrowed, brown surface bark is a yellow layer, rich in tannin, and a dyestuff called _quercitron_. this makes the tree valuable for its bark. the wood is coarse-grained, hard, difficult to work, and chiefly employed as fuel. a distinguishing trait of the bare tree is the large fuzzy winter bud. the unfolding leaves in spring are bright red above, with a silvery lining. the autumn acorn crop may be heavy or light. trees have their "off years," for various reasons. but always, as leaves and fruit fall and bare the twigs, one sees, among the winter buds, the half-grown acorns waiting for their second season of growth. the pointed nut soon loosens, for the cup though deep has straight sides. the kernel is yellow and bitter. =the scarlet oak= _q. coccinea_, moench. the scarlet oak is like a flaming torch set among the dull browns and yellows in our autumnal woods. in spring the opening leaves are red; so are the tasselled catkins and the forked pistils, that turn into the acorns later on. this is a favorite ornamental tree in europe and our own country. its points of beauty are not all in its colors. the tree is slender, delicate in branch, twig, and leaf--quite out of the sturdy, picturesque class in which most oaks belong. the leaf is thin, silky smooth, its lobes separated by sinuses so deep that it is a mere skeleton compared with the black oak's. the trimness of the leaf is matched by the neat acorn, whose scaly cup has none of the looseness seen in the burly black oak. the scales are smooth, tight-fitting, and they curl in at the rim. there is lightness and grace in a scarlet oak, for its twigs are slim and supple as a willow's, and the leaves flutter on long, flexible stems. above the drifts of the first snowfall, the brilliance of the scarlet foliage makes a picture long to be remembered against the blue of a clear autumnal sky. the largest trees of this species grow in the fertile uplands in the ohio valley. but the most brilliant hues are seen in trees of smaller size, that grow in new england woods. in the comparatively dull-hued autumn woods of iowa and nebraska the scarlet oak is the most vivid and most admired tree. =the pin oak= _q. palustris_, linn. the pin oak earns its name by the sharp, short, spur-like twigs that cluster on the branches, crowding each other to death and then persisting to give the tree a bristly appearance. the tree in winter bears small resemblance to other oaks. the trunk is slender, the shaft carried up to the top, as straight as a pine's. the branches are very numerous and regular, striking out at right angles from the stem, the lower tier shorter than those directly above them, and drooping often to the ground. on the winter twigs, among the characteristic "pins," are the half-grown acorns that proclaim the tree an oak beyond a doubt, and a _black_ oak, requiring a second summer for the maturing of its fruit. it is likely that there will be found on older twigs a few of the full-grown acorns, or perhaps only the trim, shallow saucers from which the shiny, striped, brown acorns have fallen. hunt among the dead leaves and these little acorns will be discovered for, though pretty to look at, they are bitter and squirrels leave them where they fall. the leaves match the slender twigs in delicacy of pattern. thin, deeply cut, shining, with pale linings, they flutter on slender stems, smaller but often matching the leaves of the scarlet oak in pattern. sometimes they are more like the red oak in outline. in autumn they turn red and are a glory in the woods. one trait has made this tree a favorite for shade and ornament. it has a shock of fibrous roots, and for this reason is easily transplanted. it grows rapidly in any moist, rich soil. it keeps its leaves clean and beautiful throughout the season. washington, d. c., has its streets planted to native trees, one species lining the sides of a single street or avenue for miles. the pin oaks are superb on the thoroughfare that reaches from the capitol to the navy yard. they retain the beauty of their youth because each tree has been given a chance to grow to its best estate. in spring the opening leaves and pistillate flowers are red, giving the silvery green tree-top a warm flush that cheers the passerby. in european countries this oak is a prime favorite for public and private parks. =the red oak= _q. rubra_, linn. the red oak grows rapidly, like the pin oak, and is a great favorite in parks overseas, where it takes on the rich autumnal red shades that give it its name at home. such color is unknown in native woods in england. the head of this oak is usually narrow and rounded; the branches, short and stout, are inclined to go their own way, giving the tree more of picturesqueness than of symmetry, as age advances. sometimes the dome is broad and rounded like that of a white oak, and in the woods, where competition is keen, the trunk may reach one hundred and fifty feet in height. the red oak leaf is large, smooth, rather thin, its oval broken by triangular sinuses and forward-aiming lobes, that end in bristly points. the blade is broadest between the apex and the middle, where the two largest lobes are. no oak has leaves more variable than this. under the dark brown, close-knit bark of a full-grown red oak tree is a reddish layer that shows in the furrows. the twigs and leaf-stems are red. a flush of pink covers the opening leaves, and they are lined with white down which is soon shed. the bloom is very abundant and conspicuous, the fringe-like pollen-bearing aments four or five inches long, drooping from the twigs in clusters, when the leaves are half-grown in may. the acorns of the red oak are large, and set in shallow saucers, with incurving rims. few creatures taste their bitter white kernels. =the willow oak= _q. phellos_, linn. the willow oak has long, narrow, pointed leaves that suggest a willow, and not at all an oak. the supple twigs, too, are willow-like, and the tree is a lover of the waterside. but there is the acorn, seated in a shallow, scaly cup, like a pin oak's. there is no denying the tree's family connections. a southern tree, deservedly popular in cities for shade and ornamental planting, it is nevertheless hardy in philadelphia and new york; and a good little specimen seems to thrive in boston, in the arnold arboretum. as a lumber tree, the species is unimportant. =the shingle, or laurel, oak= _q. imbricaria_, michx. the shingle or laurel oak may be met in any woodland from pennsylvania to nebraska, and south to georgia and arkansas. it may be large or small; a well-grown specimen reaches sixty feet, with a broad, pyramidal, open head. the chief beauty of the tree, at any season, is the foliage mass--dark, lustrous, pale lined, the margin usually unbroken by any indentations. in autumn the yellow, channelled midribs turn red, and all the blades to purplish crimson, and this color stays a long time. it is a wonderful sight to see the evening sunlight streaming through the loose, open head of a laurel oak. no wonder people plant it for shade and for the beauty it adds to home grounds and public parks. =the mountain live oak= _q. chrysolepis_, liebm. the mountain live oak cannot be seen without climbing the western slopes of the mountains from oregon to lower california, and eastward into new mexico and arizona. on levels where avalanches deposit detritus from the higher slopes, sufficient fertility and moisture are found to maintain groves of these oaks, wide-domed, with massive, horizontal branches from short, buttressed trunks--the western counterpart of the live oak of the south, but lacking the familiar drapery of pale green moss. the leaves are leathery, polished, oval blades, one or two inches in length, with unbroken margins, abundant on intricately divided, supple twigs, that droop with their burden and respond to the lightest breeze. the leaves persist until the bronze-green new foliage expands to replace the old, and keep the tree-tops evergreen. the acorns are large, and their thick, shallow saucers are covered with yellow fuzz. for this character, the tree is called the gold-cup oak. in june, the copious bloom is yellow. even at an altitude of eight thousand feet the familiar gold-cup acorns are borne on shrubby oaks not more than a foot high! the maximum height of the species is sixty feet. the wood is the most valuable oak of the west coast. it is used for wagons and agricultural implements. =the live oak= _q. agrifolia_, née. the live oak (_q. agrifolia_, née.) called also "encina," is the huge-limbed, holly-leaved live oak of the lowlands, that reaches its greatest abundance and maximum stature in the valleys south of san francisco bay. the giant oaks of the university campus at berkeley stretch out ponderous arms, in wayward fashion, that reach far from the stocky trunk and often rest their mighty elbows on the ground. the pointed acorns, usually exceeding an inch in length, are collected by woodpeckers, and tucked away for further reference in holes they make in the bark of the same oaks. from the mountain slopes to the sea, and from mendocino county to lower california, groves of this semi-prostrate giant are found, furnishing abundant supply of fuel, but no lumber of any consequence, because the trunks are so short and the limbs so crooked. the horse-chestnuts, or buckeyes =the horse-chestnut= _aesculus hippocastanum_, linn. at the head of this family stands a stately tree, native of the mountains of northern greece and asia minor, which was introduced into european parks and planted there as an avenue tree when landscape gardening came into vogue. by way of england it came to america, and in eastern villages one often sees a giant horse-chestnut, perhaps the sole remnant of the street planting of an earlier day. longfellow's "spreading chestnut tree" was a horse-chestnut. and the boys who watched the smith at his work doubtless filled their pockets with the shiny brown nuts and played the game of "conquerors" every autumn as regularly as they flew their kites in spring. what boy has not tied a chestnut to each end of a string, whirled them round and round at a bewildering rate of speed and finally let them fly to catch on telegraph wires, where they dangle for months and bother tidy folks? the glory of the horse-chestnut comes at blooming time, when the upturning branches, like arms of candelabra, are each tipped with a white blossom-cluster, pointed like a candle flame. (_see illustration, page ._) each flower of the pyramid has its throat-dashes of yellow and red, and the curving yellow stamens are thrust far out of the dainty ruffled border of the corolla. bees and wasps make music in the tree-top, sucking the nectar out of the flowers. unhappily for us humans, caterpillars of the leopard and tussock moths feed upon the tender tissues of this tree, defacing the foliage and making the whole tree unsightly by their presence. sidewalks under horse-chestnut trees are always littered with something the tree is dropping. in early spring the shiny, wax-covered leaf buds cast off and they stick to slate and cement most tenaciously. scarcely have the folded leaflets spread, tent-like, before some of them, damaged by wind or late frosts or insects' injury, begin to curl and drop, and as the leaves attain full size, they crowd, and this causes continual shedding. in early autumn the leaflets begin to be cast, the seven fingers gradually loosening from the end of the leaf-stalk; then comes a day when all of the foliage mass lets go, and one may wade knee deep under the tree in the dead leaves. the tree is still ugly from clinging leaf-stems and the slow breaking of the prickly husks that enclose the nuts. with all these faults, the horse-chestnut holds its popularity in the suburbs of great cities, for it lives despite smoke and soot. bushey park in london has five rows of these trees on either side of a wide avenue. when they are in bloom the fact is announced in the newspapers and all london turns out to see the sight. paris uses the tree extensively; nearly twenty thousand of them line her streets, and thrive despite the poverty of the soil. the american buckeyes are less sturdy in form and less showy in flower than the european species, but they have the horse-shoe print with the nails in it where the leaf-stalk meets the twig. the brown nuts, with the dull white patch which fastens them in the husk, justifies the name "buckeye." one nibble at the nut will prove to any one that, as a fruit, it is too bitter for even horses. bitter, astringent bark is characteristic of the family. =the ohio buckeye= _ae. glabra_, willd. the ohio buckeye has five yellow-green leaflets, smooth when full grown, pale, greenish yellow flowers, not at all conspicuous, and bitter nuts in spiny husks. the whole tree exhales a strong, disagreeable odor. the wood is peculiarly adapted to the making of artificial limbs. the great abundance of this little tree in the ohio valley accounts for ohio being called the "buckeye state." =the sweet buckeye= _ae. octandra_, marsh. the sweet buckeye is a handsome, large tree with greenish yellow, tubular flowers and leaves of five slender, elliptical leaflets. cattle will eat the nuts and paste made from them is preferred by bookbinders; it holds well, and book-loving insects will not attack it. these trees grow on mountain slopes of the alleghanies from western pennsylvania southward, and west to iowa and texas. =the california buckeye= _ae. californica_, nutt. the california buckeye spreads wide branches from a squat trunk, and clothes its sturdy twigs with unmistakable horse-chestnut leaves and pyramids of white flowers. sometimes these are tinted with rose, and the tree is very beautiful. the brown nuts are irregular in shape and enclosed in somewhat pear-shaped, two-valved husks. this western buckeye follows the borders of streams from the sacramento valley southward; they are largest north of san francisco bay, in the canyons of the coast range. shrubby, red-flowered buckeyes, often seen in gardens and in the shrubbery borders of parks, are horticultural crosses between the european horse-chestnut and a shrubby, red-flowered native buckeye that occurs in the lower mississippi valley. the lindens, or basswoods this tropical family, with about thirty-five genera, has a single tree genus, _tilia_, in north america. this genus has eighteen or twenty species, all told, with representatives in all temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, with the exception of central america, central asia, and the himalayas. tilia wood is soft, pale-colored, light, of even grain, adaptable for wood-carving, sounding-boards of pianos, woodenwares of all kinds, and for the manufacture of paper. the inner bark is tough and fibrous. it has been used since the human race was young, in the making of ropes, fish nets, and like necessities. it was a favorite tying material in nurseries and greenhouses until the more adaptable raffia came in to take its place. the bark of young trees is stripped in spring to make the shoes of the russian peasantry. an infusion of basswood flowers has long been a home remedy for indigestion, nervousness, coughs, and hoarseness. experiments in germany have successfully extracted a table oil from the seed-balls. a nutritious paste resembling chocolate has been made from its nuts, which are delicious when fresh. in winter the buds, as well as the tiny nuts, stand between the lost trapper and starvation. the flowers yield large quantities of nectar, and honey made near linden forests is unsurpassed in delicacy of flavor. about the time of louis xiv, the french fashion arose of planting avenues to lindens, where horse-chestnuts had formerly been the favorite tree. the fashion spread to england of bordering with "lime trees" approaches to the homes of the gentry. "pleached alleys" were made with these fast-growing trees that submitted so successfully to severe pruning and training. all sorts of grotesque figures were carved out of the growing lime trees in the days before topiary work in gardens submitted to the rules of landscape art, and slower growing trees were chosen for such purposes. in cultivation, lindens have the virtues of swift growth, superb framework, clean, smooth bark, and late, profuse, beautiful and fragrant bloom, which is followed by interesting seed clusters, winged with a pale blade that lightens the foliage mass. one fault is the early dropping of the leaves, which are usually marred by the wind soon after they reach mature size. propagation is easy from cuttings and from seed. =the american linden, or basswood= _tilia americana_, linn. the american linden or basswood is a stately spreading tree reaching one hundred and twenty feet in height and a trunk diameter of four feet. the bark is brown, furrowed, and scaly, the branches gray and smooth, the twigs ruddy. the alternate leaves are obliquely heart-shaped, saw-toothed, with prominent veins that branch at the base, only on the side next to the petiole. (_see illustration, page ._) occasionally the leaf blades are eight inches long. a dense shade is cast by a linden tree in midsummer. the blossoms, cream-white and clustered on pale green, leaf-like blades, open by hundreds in june and july, actually dripping with nectar, and illuminating the platforms of green leaves. a bird flying overhead looks down upon a tree covered with broad leaf blades overlapping like shingles on a roof. it must look underneath to see the flowers that delight us as we look up into the tree-top from our station on the ground. in midsummer the linden foliage becomes coarse and wind-whipped; the soft leaf-substance is attacked by insects that feed upon it; plant lice deface them with patches of honey-dew, and the sticky surfaces catch dust and soot. riddled and torn, they drop in desultory fashion, their faded yellow not at all like the satisfying gold of beech and hickory leaves. [illustration: _see page _ the black walnut the young shoots are velvety and aromatic. the pistillate flowers, in groups of to , are on terminal spikes] [illustration: _see page _ shagbark hickory is known and named by its loose, stripping bark] the flight of basswood seeds on their wing-like blades goes on throughout the winter. this alone would account for the fact that basswoods greatly outnumbered all other trees in the virgin forests of the ohio valley. the seeds are not the tree's sole dependence. suckers grow up about the stump of a tree the lumberman has taken, or the lightning has stricken. any twig is likely to strike root, and any cutting made from a root as well. the finest specimen i know grew from a walking-stick cut in the woods and thrust into the ground, by a mere chance, when the rambler reached home. it is the roof tree of a mansion, tall enough to waft its fragrance into the third-story windows, and to reach high above the chimney pots. the range of this tree extends from new brunswick to dakota and south to virginia and texas. its wood is used for carriage bodies, furniture, cooperage, paper pulp, charcoal, and fuel. =the bee tree, or white basswood= _t. heterophylla_, vent. the bee tree or white basswood of the south has narrower leaves than the species just described, and they vary in form and size; but always have linings of fine, silvery down, and the fruits are fuzzy. a wonderful, dazzling play of white, pale green, and deeper shades is seen when one of these trees flutters its leaf mass against a background, sombre with hemlocks and an undergrowth of rhododendron. the favorite haunts of this species are the sides of mountain streams. wild bees store their hoard of honey in the hollow trunks of old trees; and it is the favorite holiday of many country folk to locate these natural hives and despoil them. in order to do this the tree must come down, and the revenge of the outraged swarm is sometimes a high price to pay for the stolen sweets. this linden is found from ithaca, new york, southward along the appalachian mountains to northern alabama, and westward into illinois and tennessee. it is best and most abundant in the mountains of eastern tennessee and north carolina, at a considerable altitude. =the downy basswood= _t. pubescens_, ait. the downy basswood has leaves that are green on both sides, but its young shoots and leaf-linings are coated with rusty hairs. it is a miniature throughout of the american basswood, except that the blade that bears the flower-cluster is rounded at its base, while the others taper narrowly to the short stem. this species occurs on long island, and is sparingly seen along the coast from the carolinas to texas. =the common lime= _t. vulgaris_ "unter den linden," the famous avenue in berlin, is planted with the small-leaved common lime of europe, beside which the american basswood is a coarse-looking tree. very disappointing docked trees they are, along this thoroughfare; for city streets are never places where a tree can reach its best estate. in the rural sections of france and germany this tree reaches noble stature and great age. linnaeus, the swedish botanist, had his name from a fine linden tree, when his peasant father rose to the dignity of a surname. "linn" is the swedish word for linden. "carl linne," meaning "charles of the linden tree," it was at first when he played as a boy in the shadow of its great branches. "carolus linnaeus" he became when he was appointed professor of the university at upsala, and through all time since. gerarde discourses quaintly upon the linden tree in his "grete herball" published in england in . "the male tree," he says, "is to me unknown." we smile at his notion that there are male and female trees in this family, but we wonder at the accuracy of observation evinced by one who lived and wrote before the science of botany had any existence. evidently master gerarde had a good pair of eyes, and he has well expressed the things he saw. i quote a paragraph: "the female line, or linden tree waxeth very great and thicke, spreading forth its branches wide and fare abroad, being a tree which yieldeth a most pleasant shadow, under and within whose boughs may be made brave summer houses and banqueting arbors, because the more that it is surcharged with weight of timber and such like, the better it doth flourish. the bark is brownish, very smooth and plaine on the outside, but that which is next to the timber is white, moist and tough, serving very well for ropes, trases and halters. the timber is whitish, plaine, and without knots; yea, very soft and gentle in the cutting and handling. the leaves are smooth, greene, shining and large, somewhat snipt or toothed about the edges: the floures are little, whitish, of a good savour, and very many in number; growing clustered together from out of the middle of the leaf: out of which proceedeth a small whitish long narrow leafe: after the floures succeed cornered sharp pointed nuts, of the bignesse of hasell nuts. this tree seemeth to be a kinde of elme, and the people of essex (whereas great plenty groweth by the waysides) do call it broad-leafed elme." part iii the water-loving trees the poplars--the willows--the hornbeams--the birches--the alders--the sycamores, or buttonwoods--the gum trees--the osage orange the poplars the poplars are plebeian trees, but they have a place to fill and they fill it with credit. they are the hardy, rude pioneers that go before and prepare the way for nobler trees. let a fire sweep a path through the forest, and the poplar is likely to be the first tree to fill the breach. the trees produce abundant seed, very much like that of willows, and the wind sows it far and wide. the young trees love the sun, and serve as nurse trees to more valuable hardwoods and conifers, that must have shade until they become established. by the time the more valuable species are able to take care of themselves, the poplars have come to maturity and disappeared, for they are quick-growing, short-lived trees. the wind plays havoc with their brittle branches. seldom has a good-sized poplar tree any claim to beauty. tenacity of life, if not of fibre, belongs to the poplar tribe. twigs strike root and the roots send up suckers from underground: cutting off these suckers only encourages them to fresh activity. the only way to get rid of the young growth that springs up about an old tree is to use the grubbing-hoe thoroughly and patiently. poplar blossoms, borne in catkins, show the close relationship between this genus and the willows. the leaves, however, are always broad and leathery, and set on long stems. twenty-five species are known, twelve of which are american. =the white poplar= _populus alba_, linn. the white poplar is sometimes called the silver-leaved poplar because its dark, glossy leaves are lined with cottony nap. this sprightly contrast of light and shade in the foliage is most unusual, and very attractive in early spring; but the leaf-linings collect soot and dust, and this they carry to the end of the season--a fact which should not be forgotten by those considering the advisability of planting this tree in a city where much soft coal is burned. the white bark of this european poplar reminds us of the birch family, though it has no silky fringe shedding from the surface. the leaves often imitate the maple in the divisions of their margins, justifying the name "maple-leaved poplar." as a dooryard tree this species has a wider popularity than it deserves. the wind breaks the brittle branches, and when these accidents threaten its life, the tree sends up suckers which form a grove about the parent trunk, and defy all efforts to eradicate them, until the grubbing-hoe and axe have been resorted to. =the black poplar= _p. nigra_, linn. the lombardy poplar, a variety of the black poplar of europe, is a familiar tree figure along roadsides, and often marks boundary lines between farms. each tree is an exclamation point, its branches short and numerous, rising toward the zenith. the roundish leaves that twinkle on these aspiring branches make the tree pretty and interesting when young--just the thing to accent a group of round-headed trees in a park. but not many years are attained before the top becomes choked with the multitude of its branches. the tree cannot shed this dead wood and the beauty of its youth is departed. the trunk grows coarse, warty, and buttressed at the base. suckers are thrown up from the roots. there is little left to challenge admiration. since the tree gives practically no shade, we must believe that the first planters were attracted by its odd shape and its readiness to grow, rather than by any belief in its fitness for avenue and highway planting. =the cottonwood= _p. deltoidea_, marsh. the cottonwood justifies its existence, if ever a tree did. on our western plains, where the watercourses are sluggish and few and often run dry in midsummer, few trees grow; and the settler and traveler is grateful for the cottonwoods. the pioneer on the western prairie planted it for shade and for wind-breaks about his first home. many of these trees attain great age and in protected situations are magnificent though unsymmetrical trees, shaking out each spring a new head of bright green, glossy foliage, each leaf responsive to the lightest breeze. "necklace-bearing poplar," it has been called, from the fact that children find pleasure in stringing for beads the green, half-grown pods containing the minute seeds. they also delight in gathering the long, red caterpillar-like catkins of the staminate flowers, the pollen bearers, from the sterile trees. a fertile tree is sometimes counted a nuisance in a dooryard because its pods set free a great mass of cotton that collects in window screens, to the annoyance of housewives. but this seed time is soon over. just these merits of quick growth, prettiness, and tenacity of life, belong to the carolina poplar, a variety of native cottonwood that lines the streets of the typical suburban tract opened near any american city. the leaves are large and shine with a varnish which protects them from dust and smoke. but the wind breaks the branches, destroys the symmetry of the tree's head, and in a few years the suburban community takes on a cheap and ugly look. the wise promoter will alternate slow-growing maples and elms with the poplars so that these permanent trees will be ready to take their places in a few years. =the aspen= _p. tremuloides_, michx. the trembling aspen, or quaking asp, is the prettiest tree of all the poplar tribe. its bark is gray and smooth, often greenish and nearly white. an aspen copse is one of the loveliest things in the spring landscape. in march the bare, angular limbs show green under their bark, one of the first prophecies of spring; then the buds cast their brown scales and fuzzy gray catkins are revealed. there are few shades of olive and rose, few textures of silk and velvet that are not duplicated as the catkins lengthen and dance like chenille fringe from every twig. with the flowers, the new leaves open; each blade limp, silky, as it unrolls, more like the finest white flannel than anything else. (_see illustrations, pages - ._) soon the leaves shed all of this hairy, protective coat, passing through various tones of pink and silver on their way to their lustrous, bright green maturity. their stems are flattened in a plane at right angles with the blade. being long and pliant besides, they catch the breeze on blade or stem, and so the foliage is never still on the quietest of summer days. "popple" leaves twinkle and dance and catch the sunlight like ripples on the surface of a stream, while the foliage of oaks and other trees near by may be practically motionless. =the balsam poplar= _p. balsamifera_, linn. the balsam poplar is the balm of gilead of the early settlers, the tacamahac of the northern indians. they squeezed the fragrant wax from the winter buds and used it to seal up the seams in their birch-bark canoes. the bees taught the indian the uses of this glutinous secretion, which the tree used to seal the bud-scales and thus keep out water. when growth starts with the stirring of the sap, this wax softens; then the bees collect and store it against a day of need. whether their homes be hollow trees or patent hives, weather-cracks are carefully sealed up with this waterproof gum, which the bee-keeper knows as "_propolis_." forests of balm of gilead cover much of the vast british possessions north of the united states, and reach to the ultimate islands of the aleutian group. they dip down into the states as far as nebraska and nevada. in cultivation, the species has proved itself a tree of excellent habit, easily propagated and transplanted, and of rapid growth. it has all the good points of the carolina poplar and lacks its besetting sin of becoming so soon an unsightly cripple. =narrow-leaved cottonwood= _p. angustifolia_, james. =lance-leaved cottonwood= _p. acuminata_, rydb. =mexican cottonwood= _p. mexicana_, wesm. these three cottonwoods line the banks of mountain streams at high elevations in the great system of mountain chains that stretch from british columbia southward. the dancing foliage, bright green in summer, golden in autumn, lends a charming color note to the dun stretches of arid plain and the sombre green of pine forests. these trees furnish the settler fuel, shade, and wind-breaks while he is converting his "homestead" into a home. =black cottonwood= _p. trichocarpa_, hook. farther west, covering the mountain slopes from alaska to mexico, and liking even better the moist, rich lowlands, is the black cottonwood, the giant of the genus, reaching two hundred feet in height, and seven to eight feet in trunk diameter. tall and stately, it lifts its broad rounded crown upon heavy upright limbs. in the yosemite the dark, rich green of these poplar groves along the merced river makes a rich, velvet margin, glorious when it turns to gold in autumn. =swamp cottonwood= _p. heterophylla_, linn. the swamp cottonwood of the south has leaves of variable but distinctly poplar form, always large, broadly ovate, with slim round petioles. the white down of the unfolding leaves often persists into midsummer. on account of the fluttering leaves the trees were called, by the early acadians, "_langues de femmes_" a mild calumny traceable to the herbalist, gerarde, who compares them to "women's tongues, which seldom cease wagging." the wood of poplars, soft, weak, and of slight value for fuel or lumber, has within two decades come into a position of great economic importance. wood pulp is made of it, and out of wood pulp a thousand articles, from toys to wheels of locomotives, are made. a state forester declared: "if i could replace the maples in the state forest by poplars to-day, i would do it gladly. it would be worth thousands of dollars to the state." the willows along the watercourses the willow family finds its most congenial habitat. it is a very large family, numbering more than one hundred and seventy species, which are, however, mostly shrubs rather than trees. america has seventy species of willows, and new forms are constantly being discovered, which are the results of the crossing of closely related species. these "natural hybrids" have greatly confused the botany of the willow family. not more than half a dozen american willows ever attain the height of good-sized trees, and many of these are more commonly found in the tangled shrubbery of river banks, or covering long semi-arid strips of ground far to the north, or on mountain sides where their growth is stunted. little trees, six inches high, bearing the characteristic catkins and narrow leaves of the willow, are found on the arctic tundras. the wood of willows is pale in color, soft in texture, and of very little use as lumber or fuel, except in localities where trees are scarce. the indian depended upon the inner bark of the withy willow for material for his fish nets and lines, and farmers in the pioneer days took the tough, supple stems, when spring made the sap run freely, for the binding together of the rails of their fences. knotted tight and seasoned, these twigs hardened and lasted for years. in europe the white willow has long been used for the making of wooden shoes, artificial limbs, and carriage bodies. its wood makes the finest charcoal for gunpowder. willow wares, such as baskets and wicker furniture, are as old as civilization, and that in its primitive stages. it is a common sight in europe to see groves of trees from which the long twigs have been taken yearly for these uses. the stumps are called "pollards" and the trees "pollarded willows" whose discouraging task has been to grow a yearly crop of withes for the basket-makers; yet each spring finds them bristling with the new growth. the hosts of cæsar invading england in the first century found the britons defending themselves behind willow-woven shields, and living in huts of wattled willows, smeared with mud. from that time to the present the uses of these long shoots have multiplied. the roots of willows are fibrous and tough as the shoots. for this reason they serve a useful purpose in binding the banks of streams, especially where these are liable to flood. nature seems to have designed these trees for just this purpose, for a twig lying upon the ground strikes root at every joint if the soil it falls on is sufficiently moist. the wind breaks off twigs and the water carries them down stream where they lodge on banks and sand bars, and these are soon covered with billows of green. willows start growth early in spring, putting out their catkins, the two sexes on different trees, before the opening of the leaves. before the foliage is full grown, the light seeds, each a minute speck, floats away in a wisp of silky down. its vitality lasts but a day, so it must fall on wet ground at once in order to grow. but the willow family is quite independent of its seeds in the matter of propagation. chop the roots and twigs into bits and each will grow. chop a young willow tree into sticks and fence posts and each one, if it is stuck green into the ground, covers itself with a head of leafy twigs before the season is over. =weeping willow= _salix babylonica_ the weeping willow, much planted in cemeteries and parks, came originally from asia and is remarkable for its narrow leaves that seem fairly to drip from the pendulous twigs. (_see illustration, page ._) the foliage has a wonderful lightness and cheerfulness of expression, despite its weeping habit. =the pussy willow= _s. discolor_, muehl. the pussy willow is the familiar bog willow, whose gray, silky catkins appear in earliest spring. a walk in the woods in late february often brings us the charming surprise of a meeting with this little tree, just when its gray pussies are pushing out from their brown scales. we cut the twigs and bring them home and watch the wonderful color changes that mark the full development of the flowers. turning them in the light, one sees under the sheen of silky hairs the varied and evanescent hues that glow in a hungarian opal. in midsummer a pussy willow tree is lost among the shrubby growth in any woods. it is only because it leads the procession of the spring flowers that every one knows and loves it. (_see illustrations, pages - ._) the hornbeams two genera of little trees in the same family with the birches are frequently met in the woods, often modestly hiding under the larger trees. one is the solitary representative of its genus: the other has a sister species. the hornbeams grow very slowly and their wood is close-grained, heavy, and hard. in flexibility, strength, and ability to stand strain, it rivals steel. before metals so generally became competitors of woods in construction work, hornbeam was the only wood for rake teeth, levers, mallets, and especially for the beams of ox yokes. it outwore the stoutest oak, the toughest elm. springiness adapted it for fork handles and the like. bowls and dishes of hornbeam lasted forever, and would never leak nor crack. "ironwood" is the name used wherever the wood was worked. =american hornbeam= _carpinus carolinianum_, walt. the american hornbeam has bluish gray bark, very fine in texture, from which the name "blue beech," is common in some localities. "water beech" points out the tree's preference for rich swamp land. the trunk and limbs are strangely swollen, sometimes like a fluted column, oftener irregularly, the swelling under the bark suggesting the muscular development of a gymnast's arm. in favorable places the hornbeams grow into regular oval heads, their branches dividing into a multitude of wiry, supple twigs. crowded under oaks and other forest growth, they crouch and writhe; and their heads flatten into tangled masses of foliage. the delicate leaves, strong-ribbed, oval, pointed, turn to red and orange in autumn. (_see illustration, page ._) the paired nutlets are provided with a parachute each, so that the wind can sow them broadcast. this wing is leafy in texture, shaped like a maple leaf, and curved into the shape of a boat. after they have broken apart, the nutlets hang by threads, tough as hornbeam fibres always are. at last, away they sail, to start new trees if they fall in moist soil. the european hornbeam was a favorite tree for making the "pleached alleys," of which old-world garden-lovers were proud. a row of trees on each side of a promenade were pruned and trained to cover an arching framework, and to interlace their supple branches so that at length no other framework was needed, and one walked through a tunnel of green so closely interlaced as to make walls and roof that shut out light and wind and rain! hedges, fences, and many fancies of the gardener were worked out with this hornbeam, so willingly did it lend itself to cutting and moulding into curious forms. =hop hornbeam= _ostrya virginiana_, willd. the hop hornbeam has habits like the other ironwood and an equal reputation for the hardness of its wood. the tree, however, wears scaly, shaggy brown bark, suggesting in its manner of scaling off the shagbark hickory. its nutlets are packed separate in loose papery bags, and together form a loose, cone-like cluster, like the fruit of a hop vine. the wind scatters these buoyant little bags, that travel far. this tree often twists in growing, and the trunk shows spiral furrows. "hard-tack," "beetle-wood," "lever-wood"--all take us back to the pioneer who put this wood to such good uses, and who was glad to have these little trees growing in his wood-lot. in hickories, even, he had not the equal of them for strength and hardness. [illustration: _see page _ the american linden the broad leaves are unsymmetrical. dry seed-balls are scattered by winter winds, the leathery bracts serving as wings] [illustration: _see page _ trembling aspen catkins and newly opened, flannel-like leaves] [illustration: _see page _ the pussy willow --mature staminate flower. --immature staminate flowers. --mature pistillate flowers] [illustration: _see page _ the american hornbeam a fruiting branch showing the thin beech-like leaves and the seeds on their leafy triangular bracts] =knowlton's ironwood= _o. knowltoni_, cov. knowlton's ironwood is found nowhere but in a thick grove on the southern slope of the canyon of the colorado in arizona, about seventy miles north of flagstaff. here these trees are numerous, crouching under oaks, their twisted branches ending in drooping twigs, bearing the characteristic pale green hops in autumn, small oval leaves, and the catkin flowers in spring. such a restricted distribution for a distinct species of trees is unmatched in the annals of botany. the birches grace and gentility of appearance are attributes of this most interesting, attractive, and valuable family of trees. _shabby_ gentility, one may insist, thinking of the untidy, frayed-out edges that adorn the silky outer bark of almost every birch tree in the woods. (_see illustration, page ._) not one of them, however, but lends a note of cheerfulness to the landscape. there is beauty and daintiness in leaf, flower, and winged seed, and despite the inferiority of most birch wood, the history of the family is a long story of usefulness to the human race. about thirty species of birches grow in the northern hemisphere, ten of them are north american. the white birch of europe extends across the northern half of asia, and is cultivated in delicate cut-leaved and weeping forms, as a lawn and park tree in this country. =the canoe birch= _betula papyrifera_, marsh. the canoe birch or paper birch is the noblest member of the family. (_see cover of book._) ernest thompson seton calls it "the white queen of the woods--the source of food, drink, transport, and lodging to those who dwell in the forest--the most bountiful provider of all the trees." then he enumerates the sweet syrup yielded by its sap; the meal made by drying and grinding the inner bark; the buds and catkins upon which the partridge feeds; and the outer bark, which is its best gift to primitive man. "the broad sheets of this vegetable rawhide, ripped off when the weather is warm, and especially when the sap is moving, are tough, light, strong, pliant, absolutely waterproof, almost imperishable in the weather; free from insects, assailable only by fire. it roofs the settler's shack and the forest indian's wigwam. it supplies cups, pails, pots, pans, spoons, boxes; under its protecting power the matches are safe and dry; split very thin, as is easily done, it is the writing paper of the woods, flat, light, smooth, waterproof, tinted, and scented; but the crowning glory of the birch is this--it furnishes the indispensable substance for the bark canoe, whose making is the highest industrial exploit of the indian life." from the atlantic to the pacific, and from our northern tier of states to the arctic seas, woodsmen, red and white, have found this white-barked tree ready to their hand, their sure defense against death by cold and by starvation. the weather is never so wet but that shreds of birch bark burn merrily to start a campfire, and the timber of the trunk burns readily green or dry. =the white birch= _b. populifolia_, marsh. the white birch is a small, short-lived tree that grows in swampy ground, its bark chalky white or grayish, with triangular rough patches of black, where branches are or have been. (the canoe birch has a clean bole, chalky white, with none of these ugly black patches.) a vagabond tree it is, with thin pointed leaves and long pencil-like catkins and seed cones. the chief contributions of the poplar-leaved birch to the well-being of men are that it clothes with beauty the most uninviting situations, and that it comes again, after fire or other general slaughter, promptly and abundantly, from stump and scattered seed. =the yellow birch= _b. lutea_, michx. the yellow birch shows gleams of yellow under every rent in its gray, silky, frayed-out surface. here is a timber tree of considerable size and value: its hard wood furnishes the frames of northern sledges; the knots and burs make good mallets; the curiously knotted roots show a curly grain, valuable to the cabinet-maker. from new england to minnesota, and south along the appalachian range, this tree is found, always telling its name by the color of its shaggy bark. =the red birch= _b. nigra_, linn. red birch or river birch wears its name in its chocolate-hued or terra-cotta bark, whose scaly surface flaunts a series of tattered fringes to the very twig ends. tall and graceful fountains of living green, these birches lean over stream borders from minnesota and new york to the gulf of mexico, and reach westward to the foothills of the rockies. close-grained and strong, the pale brown wood is used for furniture, shoe lasts, and a multitude of woodenwares. in the bayous of the lower mississippi, where its roots and the base of the trunk are inundated for half the year, the tree reaches its greatest size. the cones stand erect and shed their heart-shaped, winged seeds in june--an exception to the autumn-fruiting of all other birches. =the cherry birch= _b. lenta_, linn. the cherry birch has dark, irregularly checked bark like the wild cherry, but the oval, pointed leaf, the catkin flowers, and the cone fruits of its family. birch beer is made of its aromatic sap and wintergreen oil is extracted from the leaves. indians shred the inner bark and dry it in the spring when it is rich in starch and sugar. these shreds, like vermicelli, are boiled with fish and form a nourishing dish. the wood is heavy, hard, and close-grained, valuable for the manufacture of furniture and implements, especially wheel hubs, and for fuel. it is one of the handsomest, most symmetrical, and most luxuriant of all our birch trees, and a worthy addition to any park. the alders closely related to the hornbeams and birches is a genus of small water-loving trees that grow rapidly and serve definite, special uses in the old and new world. the genus _alnus_ includes twenty species, nine of which grow in north america; six of these reach the height of trees. =the black alder= _alnus glutinosa_, gaertn. of the alders, the black alders of europe is the largest and most important timber tree. its range includes western asia and northern africa. it was introduced successfully into our northeastern states in colonial times and has become naturalized in many localities. these trees sometimes reach seventy feet in height and a trunk diameter of three feet. their dark green foliage, glutinous when the leaves unfold in the spring, ranks these giant alders among the beautiful and picturesque trees. the lumberman esteems alder wood only for special purposes. it grows in water and its wood resists decay better than any other kind when saturated through indefinite periods. in the old days it was the wood for the boat-builder. the piles of the rialto in venice and along the canals of amsterdam and other dutch cities are of black alder. water pipes and troughs, pumps, barrel staves, kneading troughs, sabots and clogs were made of alder wood. the bark and cones are rich in tannin and a yellow dye used in making ink. willow and alder make the best charcoal for gunpowder. warty excrescences on old trees and twisted roots furnished the inlayer with small but beautifully veined and very hard pieces, beautiful in veneer work when polished. in america the black alder is often met in horticultural varieties. the daintiest are the cut-leaved forms, of which _imperialis_, with leaves fingered like a white oak, is a good example. one of the best uses to which alders are put in europe is planting in hedges along borders of streams, where their closely interlacing roots hold the banks from crumbling and keep the current clear in midstream. no english landscape is more beautiful than one through which a little river winds, its banks and the boggy spots tributary to it softened by billows of living green. "he who would see the alder in perfection must follow the banks of the mole and surrey through the sweet vales of dorking and wickleham." =seaside alder= _a. maritima_, nutt. the seaside alder shares with the witch hazel the peculiar distinction of bearing its flowers and ripening its fruit simultaneously in the fall of the year. the alder comes first, hanging out its golden catkins in clusters on the ends of the season's shoots in august and september. nothing is left of them when the witch hazel scatters its dainty stars along the twigs in october and november. the seaside alder follows stream borders near but not actually on the seacoast, through eastern delaware and maryland, but ranges comfortably on drier soil as far west as oklahoma and is hardy in gardens and parks as far north as boston, where it blooms profusely and is much admired for both flowers and glossy foliage through the late summer. =oregon alder= _a. oregona_, nutt. the oregon or red alder reaches eighty feet in height and its trunk may exceed three feet in diameter. this western tree exceeds the old world alder in size. the smooth, pale-gray bark reminds us of the beech and sets this tree apart from the white alder whose bark is brown and deeply furrowed. the flowers and cone fruits are very large. the ovate leaves are cut-toothed and often lobed. this is the alder of the west coast, largest where it comes down to the sea near the shores of puget sound, but climbing the mountains and canyon sides wherever there is water, from sitka to santa barbara. the reddish brown wood is light, easily worked, and beautifully satiny when polished. in washington and oregon it is largely used in the manufacture of furniture. the indian dug-outs are made of the butts of large trees. the sycamores, or buttonwoods =the buttonwood= _platanus occidentalis_, linn. our eastern buttonwood is a tree to which, in america, we supply the name sycamore. its european counterpart is the plane tree of the old world. it is one of the easiest trees to recognize, for its most prominent trait is fairly shouted at us from a distance, whenever one of these trees comes within the range of our vision. the smooth bark that covers the branches is thin, very brittle, and has the habit of flaking off in irregular plates, leaving white patches under these plates that contrast sharply with the dingy olive of the unshed areas. on old trunks the bark is reddish brown and breaks into small, irregular plates; but above, and out among the branches, the tree looks downright untidy, and as though it had been splashed with whitewash by some careless painter. (_see illustrations, pages - ._) white birches grow in copses in low ground, a whole regiment of their white stems slanting upward. but the ghostly sycamore is apt to stand alone along the river-courses, scattered among other water-loving trees. the tree is wayward in its branching habit, its twigs irregular and angular. when the leaves are gone, it is a distressed-looking object, dangling its seed-balls in the wind until the central, bony cob is bare, the seeds having all sailed away on their hairy parachutes. in the warmer south our buttonwood is a stalwart, large-limbed tree of colossal trunk, that shelters oaks and maples under its protecting arms. and there are some large specimens on long island. the buttonwood leaf in a general way resembles a maple's, being as broad as long, with three main lobes at the top. the leaf stem forms a tent over the bud formed in summer and containing the leafy shoot of the next year. the leaf scar, therefore, is a circle and the leaf base a hollow cone. at first a sheathing stipule, like a little leafy ruffle, grows at the base of each leaf, but this is shed before midsummer. =oriental plane= _p. orientalis_, linn. the oriental plane is almost as familiar a tree as our native species, for it is planted as a street tree in every city and village, and is a favorite shade and lawn tree besides. the city of washington has set the example and so has philadelphia. one third of the street trees of paris are plane trees. the chief merits of this tree immigrant are its perfect hardiness, its fine, symmetrical, compact pyramid, its freedom from injury by smoke and dust, and its rapid growth in the poor soil of the parkings of city and village. in leaf and fruit and bark-shedding habit, it is easily recognized as a sycamore, though in this species more than one ball dangles from each stem. the exactions of city life limit the number of tree species that will do well. our native sycamore patiently endures the foul breath of factory chimneys, and helps, in the smallest, downtown city parks, to make green oases in burning deserts of brick and stone pavements. but it is subject to the ravages of insect and fungous enemies to a greater extent than the oriental species. the gum trees southern people talk more about "gum trees" than people in the north. two of our three native species of nyssa belong solely to southern swamps, and the third, which comes north to canada, is oftener called by other names. all these trees are picturesque, with twiggy, contorted branches; tough, cross-grained wood; alternate, simple, leathery, but deciduous leaves, beautiful at all seasons; minute flowers and fleshy, berry-like fruits. =the sour, or black, gum= _nyssa sylvatica_, marsh. the sour or black gum of the south has a wide range, being hardy to southern ontario and maine. to the new englander this is the "pepperidge"; the indians called it "tupelo"; but the woodsman, north and south, calls it the gum tree, as a rule. "black gum" refers to its dark gray, rough bark, which is broken into many-sided plates. by this, it is easily distinguished from the "red gum" or liquid amber, which grows in the same situations, but is not related to it. "sour gum" refers to the acid, blue-black berries, one to three in a cluster, ripe in october. we shall know this tree by its tall, slender trunk, clothed with short, ridged, full-twigged, horizontal branches. with no claim to symmetry, the black gum is a striking and picturesque figure in winter. it is beautiful in summer, covered with the dark polished leaves, two to four inches long. in autumn patches of red appear as the leaves begin to drop. this is the tupelo's signal that winter is coming. soon the tree is a pillar of fire against yellowing ashes and hickories. the reds of the swamp maple and scarlet oak are brighter, but no tree has a richer color than this one. a spray brought in to decorate the mantelpiece lasts till christmas holly displaces it. the leaves, being leathery, do not curl and dry, as do thin maple leaves, in the warm air of the house. =the cotton gum= _n. aquatica_, marsh. the cotton gum is draped in cottony white down as the new shoots start and the leaves unfold in spring. in midsummer this down persists in the leaf-linings, lightening the dark green of the tree-tops. the dark blue fruits of this species have no culinary value. the wood is used for crating material. the tree reaches its maximum height--one hundred feet--in the cypress swamps of louisiana and texas, its abundant, corky roots adapting it to its habitat. =the sweet gum= _liquidamber styraciflua_, linn. the sweet gum is a tall tree with a straight trunk, four to five feet in diameter, with slender branches covered with corky bark thrown out in wing-like ridges. at first the head is regular and pyramidal, but in old age it becomes irregularly oblong and comparatively narrow. the bark is reddish brown, deeply furrowed between rough scaly plates, marked by hard, warty excrescences. the leaves are lobed like a maple's, but more regularly, so as to form a five-pointed star. brilliant green in summer, they become streaked with crimson and yellow. wherever these gum trees grow, the autumn landscape is painted with the changeful splendor of the most gorgeous sunset. "the tree is not a flame, it is a _conflagration_!" often along a country road the rail fence is hidden by an undergrowth of young gum trees. their polished star leaves may pass from green into dull crimsons and then into lilacs and so to brown, or they may flame into scarlets and orange instead. always, the foliage of the sweet gum falls before it loses its wonderful colors. the flowers of the sweet gum are knobby little bunches; the swinging balls covered with curving horns contain the winged seeds, small but shaped like the key of the maple. one recognizes the gum tree in winter by these swinging seed-balls, an inch in diameter, like the balls of the buttonwood, except that those are smooth. (_see illustrations, pages - ._) the best distinguishing mark of sweet gums in winter are the corky ridges on the branches, and the star-shaped leaves under the trees. sweet gum sap is resinous and fragrant. chip through the bark, and an aromatic gum soon accumulates in the wound. the farther south one goes, the more copious is the exudation. in mexico a spanish explorer described, in , "large trees that exude a gum like liquid amber." this is the "copalm balm" gathered and shipped each year to europe from new orleans and from mexican ports. the fragrant gum, _storax_ or _styrax_, derived from forests of the oriental sweet gum in asia minor, is used as incense in temples of various oriental religions. it blends with frankincense and myrrh in the censers of greek and roman catholic churches. it is used in medicines also, and as a dry gum is the standard glove perfume in france. beautiful and interesting in every stage of growth, our native sweet gums are planted largely in the parks of europe and are earning recognition at home, through the efforts of tree-lovers who would make the most of native species in ornamental planting. the name, gum tree, is applied to our tupelos, and to the great tribe of australian eucalyptus trees, now largely planted in the southwest. =the osage orange= _toxylon pomiferum_, raff. related to figs and mulberries, but solitary in the genus _toxylon_, is the osage orange, a handsome round-headed tree, native of eastern north america, whose fleshy roots and milky, bitter, rubbery sap reveal its family connections with the tropical rubber plants. (_see illustration, page ._) the fruits are great yellow-green globes, four to five inches in diameter, covered on the outside by crowded, one-seeded berries. this compound fruit reveals the tree's relationship to both figs and mulberries. the aborigines, especially of the osage tribe, in the middle mississippi valley, cherished these trees for their orange-yellow wood, which is hard, heavy, flexible, and strong--the best bow-wood to be found east of the rocky mountains. when the settlers came the sharp thorns with which the branches are effectually armed appealed strongly to the busy farmers and the tree was widely planted for hedges. nurserymen produced them by thousands, from cuttings of root and branch. these trees made rapid growth and seemed most promising as a solution of the fencing problem, but they did not prove hardy in iowa and neighboring states. even now remnants of those old winter-killed hedges may be found on farm boundaries, individual trees having been able to survive. the native osage orange timber is about all gone, for the rich bottom lands where it once grew most abundantly in oklahoma and texas have been converted into farm land. however, the growing of osage orange timber for posts is on the increase. systematically maintained, plantations pay well. the wood is exceptionally durable in soil. good prices are paid for posts in local markets. twenty-five posts can be grown to the rod in rows of a plantation; they grow rapidly and send up new shoots from the roots. the brilliant, leathery leaves and conspicuous green fruits make this native bow-wood a very striking lawn tree. it holds its foliage well into the autumn and turns at length into a mass of gold. it harbors few insects, has handsome bark, and is altogether a distinguished, foreign-looking tree. experiments of feeding osage orange leaves to silkworms have been successfully made at different times, but nowhere in america has silk culture succeeded. since the white mulberry is hardy here and its foliage is the basis of the silk-growing industry in the old world, it is futile to look for substitutes in the osage orange or any other tree. part iv trees with showy flowers and fruits the magnolias--the dogwoods--the viburnums--the mountain ashes--the rhododendron--the mountain laurel--the madroña--the sorrel tree--the silver bell trees--the sweet leaf--the fringe tree--the laurel family--the witch hazel--the burning bush--the sumachs--the smoke tree--the hollies the magnolias four of the ten genera in the magnolia family are represented in north america. of these, two are trees. all are known by their large, simple, alternate leaves, with margins entire; their showy, solitary, terminal flowers, perfect and with all parts distinct; and their cone-like fruits, compounded of many one- or two-seeded follicles, shingling over each other upon a central spike. the wood is soft and light throughout the family, and the roots are fleshy. the sap is watery and the bark is bitter and aromatic. the genus _magnolia_, named by linnaeus in honor of pierre magnol, a french botanist, includes twenty species; twelve are native to eastern and southern asia, two to mexico, and six to eastern north america. they are of peculiar interest to horticulturists and to the general public, because they have the largest flowers of any trees in cultivation. a white blossom from six inches to a foot across is bound to attract attention and admiration when set off by a whorl of lustrous evergreen leaves. the petals of most magnolia blossoms are notably thick and waxy in texture and deliciously fragrant. last but not least are the cone-like fruits, which flush from pale green to rose as they ripen against the dark, leathery foliage; at maturity their follicles open in a peculiar fashion and hang out their bright red seeds on slender elastic threads. foliage, flowers, or cones alone would make magnolias superb as ornamental trees. all these qualities combined have given them a preëminent place in every country where ornamental planting is done. north america is fortunate in having so large a number of species that assume tree form. when you see a magnolia in the north blossoming before the leaves, you may be sure it is an exotic species, and if the flowers are colored you may be equally sure that it is a hybrid between two oriental species, and belongs to the group of which the type is _m. soulangeana_. the owner may be a magnolia enthusiast, able to show you on his premises both parents of this interesting and beautiful hybrid. [illustration: _see page _ the tattered, silky bark of the birches] [illustration: _see page _ blotched bark of the sycamore, and the seed-balls that hang on all winter] [illustration: _see page _ the warty, ridged bark, the swinging seed-balls, and the winged seeds of the sweet gum] [illustration: _see page _ tulip tree, flower and leaves] =yulan magnolia= _magnolia yulan_ the yulan magnolia, for centuries a favorite in japanese gardens, covers itself before the leaves appear with pure white, fragrant flowers, bell-shaped and fully six inches across. in our eastern gardens it is quite as much at home, and though young trees are oftenest seen, the older specimens are as large as any native magnolia. this is one parent. the other is but a shrub, the purple magnolia, _m. obovata_, that must be protected against the rigors of our northern winters. it blooms in may or june, and its purple flowers, with rosy linings, are relatively small and almost scentless. the children of this parentage get their tints of pink and rose and crimson from this purple magnolia shrub. splendid, hardy, fragrant, big-flowered varieties have arisen from this cross. all are small trees, suitable for planting in city yards, where they are decorative throughout the season. =starry magnolia= _m. stellata_ the starry magnolia blooms in march or april, covering itself with star-shaped white flowers made of strap-like petals that form a flat whorl instead of a cup. this is the earliest magnolia and wonderfully precocious, blooming when scarcely two feet high. the southern states can grow the splendid campbell's magnolia, which is in its glory in the high mountain valleys of the himalayas, where it reaches one hundred feet in height. the fragrant flower-cups, from six to ten inches in diameter, shade from pink to crimson. it is rare in cultivation because it is not easy to grow, and northern horticulturists fail utterly to grow it outdoors; but the fact that it is the most beautiful of all exotic species must encourage its culture in the south, and difficulties will be overcome when the tree's peculiar needs are fully understood. =the great laurel magnolia= _m. foetida_, sarg. the great laurel magnolia is oftenest seen in cultivation as a small tree of pyramidal or conical habit, with stiff, ascending branches, bearing a lustrous mass of leathery oval leaves, five to eight inches long, lined with dull green, or with rusty down, persistent until the second spring. when small these magnolia trees are as conventional as the rubber plants in hotel lobbies, whose foliage resembles theirs. but in the forests of louisiana, where this tree reaches its greatest perfection, it earns the characterization that sargent gave it, "the most splendid ornamental tree in the american forests." with a trunk four feet thick, and its head lifted from fifty to eighty feet above the ground and with each leaf cluster holding up a great white flower, waxy as a camellia, seven to eight inches across, the tree is indeed superb. william bartram likened these flowers to great white roses, distinctly visible from a distance of a mile. the purple heart of the flower, made by a spot of color at the base of each petal, and the overpowering odor, rather sickening as the flowers fade, lure insects to the nectar store at the bottom of the flower-cup. this odor, disagreeable to many people, is the one objection to this flower when brought indoors. a drawback that florists discover is that the slightest bruise of the waxy petals produces a brownish discoloration, which prevents the shipment of these flowers. the splendid foliage, however, travels perfectly, and a new and growing industry is the gathering of magnolia branches in southern woods for christmas decoration. these branches are offered in all northern cities, and this demand threatens the extinction of the tree, which until comparatively recent years has enjoyed immunity because of the worthlessness of its soft wood. the tree's natural range is from the north carolina coast to tampa bay, and west along the gulf coast to texas and southern arkansas. as an ornamental tree, it is safely planted in philadelphia, but its life is precarious farther north. it is widely grown in southern california as a street tree, notably in pasadena and in parks and gardens for its blossoms, foliage, and fuzzy, horny cones. =the swamp bay= _m. glauca_, linn. the swamp bay has lustrous, bright green leaves with silvery linings. in florida and across to texas and arkansas it grows into a superb evergreen tree, fifty to seventy-five feet in height. northward along the atlantic coast its growth is stunted as the climate becomes more rigorous, until it reaches massachusetts and long island, where it becomes a many-stemmed shrub, whose beautiful leaves fall in the autumn. on the streets of cities near the new jersey swamps the flowers of the swamp bay are offered for sale in may. the buds are almost globular, and each one is surrounded by a cluster of new leaves. to spring back these waxy white petals, that are marred by a touch, is criminal; but it is the common practice with boys who hawk these flowers on the streets. most of the charm is gone from flowers thus defiled by dingy fingers. the finest flowers are borne on strong young shoots. the florists collect and handle them with extreme care. much of the swamp land now useless along the atlantic seaboard could be profitably planted to this magnolia, for the florist trade alone. the flowers bloom slowly through a period of several weeks. the enterprising owner of tracts planted to swamp bay could reap two harvests a year, almost from the first season: the flowers in spring and the leafy shoots for holiday decorations. in the south the leaves are evergreen. =the large-leaved cucumber tree= _m. macrophylla_, michx. the large-leaved cucumber tree exceeds all other magnolias in the size of its leaves and flowers. in fact, no tree outside the tropics can match it, for its blades are almost a yard in length. the flowers are great white bowls, sometimes a foot across, made of six white waxy petals, much broader than the three protecting sepals outside. the inner petals have purple spots at the base. the fruits are almost globular, two to three inches long, turning red as they mature, equally showy when the scarlet seeds dangle from the open follicles. these trees are at home in fertile valleys among the foothills of the alleghanies, from north carolina to middle florida, and west to central arkansas. their range is not continuous. they occur in scattered groups that have come from seed. the horticulturist has greatly aided nature in the spread of this tree in this country and in europe, where its flowers and leaves attract universal attention. the mistake usually made is to plant it in the middle of a lawn where the wind lashes the broad leaves into ribbons before they have reached their full size. every twig or leaf that touches a petal mars it with a brown bruise. the only way to enjoy one of these remarkable trees is to plant it in the most sheltered situation, where the sunshine will reach it and the breezes will not. then the silver-lined foliage and the superb white blossoms can come to perfection and the sight is worth going miles to see. =the cucumber tree= _m. acuminata_, linn. the cucumber tree is the hardiest of our native magnolias, tropical-looking by reason of its heart-shaped leaves, six to ten inches long. its chosen habitat is rocky uplands, where the fleshy roots can find moist soil. it ranges from western new york to illinois, kentucky, and arkansas, and follows the mountain foothills through pennsylvania and tennessee into alabama and mississippi. the flowers are like tulips, and though large can scarcely be seen among the new leaves, because they are all yellowish green in color. the petals are leaf-like and the flowers have no fragrance to make up for their lack of beauty. imperfect pollination results in distorted, fleshy cones that resemble cucumbers that have twisted and shrunken in spots as they grew. these fruits turn from pink to red as they mature, redeeming their ugly shape by their vivid color as the leaves turn yellow. in september, the scarlet seeds hang out and the wind whips them until they dangle several inches below the fruit. one by one they drop and new cucumber trees come up from this planting. the wood of the cucumber tree is light, close-textured, weak, and pale brown in color. it has only local use in cabinet-making and for flooring. the tree is far more valuable in horticulture. it is a splendid stock on which to graft less hardy magnolias. it is a superb avenue and shade tree for northern cities, and in this capacity it is as yet little known. it grows vigorously from seed, and stands transplanting, if care is used that the brittle roots are not mutilated nor dried. =the umbrella tree= _m. tripetala_, linn. the umbrella tree has an umbrella-like whorl of leaves surrounding the flower whose white cup stands above three recurving white sepals. the whole tree suggests an umbrella, so closely thatched is its dome of thin, bright green leaves. the stout contorted branches and twigs lack symmetry, from the forking habit. side twigs strike out at right angles from an erect branch, then turn up into a position parallel with the parent branch, and bear terminal flowers, which induce another branching system the following year. despite its angularity this is the trimmest and one of the handsomest of our native magnolias, and it has the merit of hardiness even in new england, where it attains large size. its native range extends from pennsylvania near the coast, along the atlantic seaboard, and westward to southern alabama and arkansas. it loves swamp borders and the banks of mountain streams, but behaves well in the moderately rich soil of parks and gardens. =the tulip tree= _liriodendron tulipifera_, linn. the tulip tree is a cousin, rather than a sister, to the foregoing magnolias. it stands alone in its genus in america, but has a sister species that grows in the chinese interior. a tall, stately forest tree, it reached two hundred feet in height, and a trunk diameter of ten feet, in the lower ohio valley, when it was covered with virgin forest. this species still holds its own as a valuable lumber tree on mountain slopes of north carolina and tennessee. smaller, but still stately and beautiful, it is found in woods from vermont to florida and west to illinois, arkansas, and mississippi. in europe the tulip tree has been a favorite since its discovery and exportation by the american colonists. more and more it is coming to be appreciated at home as a lawn and shade tree, for there is no time in the year when it is not full of interest and beauty, and no time in its life when it is not a distinct and beautiful addition to any plantation. in the dead of winter young tulip trees are singularly straight and symmetrical compared with saplings of other trees. there is usually a grove of them, planted by some older tree that towers overhead, and still holds up its shiny cones, that take months to give up their winged seeds. the close, thick, intricately furrowed bark of the parent tree contrasts sharply with the smooth rind of its branches and the stems of the saplings. tulip trees are trim as beeches until the trunks are old. the winter twigs are set with oblong blunt leaf-buds. the terminal one contains the flower, when the tree is old enough to bloom. (_see illustration, page ._) in spring the terminal buds of saplings best show the peculiarity of the tree's vernation. two green leaves with palms together form a flat bag that encloses the new shoot. hold this bag up to the light and you see, as a shadow within, a curved petiole and leaf. the bag opens along its edge seam, the leaf-stem straightens, lifting the blade which is folded on the midrib. at the base of the petiole stands a smaller flat green bag. as the leaf grows to maturity the basal palms of its protecting bag shrivel and fall away, leaving the ring scar around the leaf base. now the growing shoot has carried up the second bag, which opens and another leaf expands, sheds its leafy stipules, and a third follows. the studies of this unique vernation delight children and grown-ups. it is absolutely unmatched in the world of trees. the leathery blades of the tulip tree are from four to six inches broad and long, with basal lobes, like those of a maple leaf, and the end chopped off square. occasionally there is a notch, made by the two end lobes projecting a trifle beyond the midrib. the leaves are singularly free from damage, keeping their dark lustrous beauty through the summer, and turning to clear yellow before they fall. the winged seeds fall first from the top of the erect cones, the wind whirling them far, because the flat blades are long and the seed-cases light--many of them empty in fact. far into winter a tulip tree seems to be blossoming, because its bare branches are tipped with the remnants of the seed cones, faded and shining almost white against the dark branches. tulip wood is soft and weak, pale brown, and light in weight. it is easily worked and is used locally for house and boat-building. wood pulp consumes much of the yearly harvest. it is known as "poplar," whose wood it resembles. ordinary postal cards are made of it. the bark yields a drug used as a heart stimulant. the dogwoods foliage of exceptional beauty is the distinguishing trait of the trees in the cornel family, from the standpoint of the landscape gardener and the lover of the woods. showy flowers and fruit belong to some of the species; extremely hard, close-textured wood belongs to all; and this means slow growth, which is a limitation in the eyes of the planter who wishes quick results. but he who plants a cornel tree and watches it season after season, finds it one of the most interesting of nature studies through the whole round of the year. the dogwoods are slender-twigged trees of small size, with simple, entire leaves, strongly ribbed, and with one exception, set opposite upon the twigs. fifty species are distributed over the northern hemisphere; one crosses the equator into peru. four of the seventeen species found in the united states are trees; the rest are shrubs, one of them the low-growing bunchberry of our northern woods. =the flowering dogwood= _cornus florida_, linn. the flowering dogwood (_see illustration, page _) is a little tree whose round, bushy, flat-topped head is made of short, horizontal branches. the twigs hold erect in the winter a multitude of buds, large, squat, enclosed in four scales, like the husk of a hickory nut. all the delicate tints that the water-colorist delights in are found in these buds and the twigs that bear them. when spring comes, these scales loosen, expand, turn green, then fade into pure white--forming the four banners, ordinarily called petals--of the bloom of the dogwood. the true flowers are small and clustered in the centre. these white expanses are merely modified bud scales, the botanist will tell you, and the notch at the end is where the horny winter scale broke away, while its base was growing into the large white palm. from march till may one finds the dogwood clothed in white (_see illustration, page _), and the glossy leaves passing through changing hues from rose to green. the wayward arrangement of the blossoms on the branch is the delight of artists. lured by the white signals, bees and other nectar-loving insects come to the flowers, cross-fertilizing them while they supply their own needs. in midsummer the pale green clusters of berries replace the flowers, and when in autumn the foliage, still glossy and smooth, changes to crimson and scarlet, the berries are brighter still, until the birds have taken every one. the bark of the dogwood is checkered like alligator skin but with deep furrows that make it very rough. the wood is used for wood engraving blocks, for tool handles, hubs, and cogs. but it is becoming very scarce. the deplorable destruction of the dogwoods comes not so much from the lumberman as from the irresponsible people who tear the trees to pieces in blossoming time. the wanton mutilation of the dogwoods in natural woodlands belonging to cities can be curbed only by policing the tracts. the saving of every flowering dogwood tree is a duty owed to his community by every wood-lot owner within the range of this hardy, handsome tree. though exterminated over much of its range, it is able and willing to grow in any state east of the mississippi river. it is one of the most deservedly popular trees planted for ornament in this country and in europe. =western dogwood= _c. nuttallii_, aud. the pacific coast outdoes the rest of the country in the size of its forest trees. superlatives in vegetation abound where the breath of the japan current tempers the air. the western dogwood often reaches one hundred feet in height in the forests near seattle. its flowers have six, instead of four, of the petal-like, white bracts, each narrower and pointed, and without the terminal notch. the tree in blossom is more magnificent than the eastern species, for the flowers are often twice as large, and the spectacle of one of these trees, after the leaves turn to scarlet in autumn, and it leans against the sombre evergreens that cover the mountain-side, is always startling, even in a country where surprises are the rule. =european dogwood= _c. mas._ the european dogwood or cornel is often planted in the eastern states as an ornamental tree, but not for its flowers alone, though these tiny, button-like clusters cover the bare branches in earliest spring. the showy fruits look like scarlet olives hanging among the glossy foliage in late summer. these fruits are edible, and in europe are used in preserves and cordials. the viburnums the honeysuckle family, which includes a multitude of ornamental shrubs, furnishes two genera with three representatives. handsome foliage, showy flowers, and attractive fruits justify the popularity of this family in gardens and parks. the viburnums are distributed over the northern hemisphere and extend into the tropics. there are about one hundred species, including the old-fashioned snowball bush, perhaps the best-known species in this country. discriminating gardeners have replaced it by the japanese snowball, because the latter has much more handsome foliage and perfect flowers, instead of the barren flower cluster that has nothing to show for itself once the bloom is past. this new species wears the autumn decoration of bright red berries well into the winter. =the sheepberry= _viburnum lentago_, linn. in our native woods the sheepberry is a small round-headed tree, with slim, drooping branches and oval leaves, finely cut-toothed and tapering to wavy-winged petioles. in autumn these leathery leaves change to orange and red, their shiny surfaces contrasting with the dull lining, pitted with black dots. the fruit, a loose cluster of dark blue berries, on branching red stems, is an attractive color contrast, and the birds flutter in the trees until they have eaten the last one. the fragrant white flowers light up the tree from april to june with their flat clusters three to five inches across. the opposite arrangement of the leaves and that short-winged petiole identify the little tree, whether it grows by the swamp borders, along the streams, or in parks and gardens. at any season it is good to look upon. its range covers the eastern half of the country, extending almost to the gulf of mexico and west into wyoming. =the rusty nannyberry= _v. rufidulum_, raff. the rusty nannyberry is easily distinguished by the rusty hairs that clothe its new shoots and the stems and veins of the leaves. white flower clusters are succeeded by bright blue berries of unusual size and brilliance, ripe in october, on red-stemmed pedicles. the handsome polished leaves are rounded at the tips. the wood of this little tree has a very unpleasant odor, but this trait has no bearing upon its merits as a garden ornament. it is found wild from virginia to illinois and southward. in cultivation it is hardy in the latitude of boston. =the black haw= _v. prunifolium_, linn. the black haw has the characteristic flowers and fruit of its genus, but is smaller throughout than the other two, and its branches are stout. in european parks and gardens it is known as the "stagbush." its fruit turns dark when dead ripe, and persists well into the winter. in the wilds, this little viburnum is found from southern new england to michigan, and south to georgia and texas. the mountain ashes the handsome foliage and showy flower clusters make the mountain ashes a favorite group of little trees for border shrubberies and other ornamental planting. the foliage is almost fern-like in delicacy and it spreads in a whorl below the flower clusters in spring and the scarlet berry clusters in autumn. far into the winter after the foliage has dropped the berries persist, supplying the birds with food, especially in snowy winters, when their need is greatest, and brightening the dull thickets of bare twigs on dreary days. =eastern mountain ash= _sorbus americana_, marsh. the common eastern mountain ash reaches thirty feet in height--a slender, pyramidal tree, with spreading branches and delicate leaves of from thirteen to seventeen leaflets. the flat-topped cluster of creamy white flowers (_see illustration, page _) appears in may and june, above the dark yellow-green foliage; and the scarlet berries, ripe in september when the leaves have turned yellow, may persist until spring. along the borders of swamps and climbing rocky bluffs, often scattered in plum thickets, these trees are handsome at any season. along the mountains of tennessee and north carolina home remedies are made out of the berries. from newfoundland to manitoba and southward the tree grows wild and is planted for ornament in home grounds. =elder-leaved mountain ash= _s. sambucifolia_, roem. the elder-leaved mountain ash overlaps the first species, and is even more daring as a climber. it ranges from labrador to alaska, follows the rocky mountains to colorado, and in the eastern states goes no farther south than pennsylvania. its leaves are graceful and drooping like the elder. the flowers and fruits are large; the whole tree tropical looking, its open, pyramidal head giving each leaf a chance at the sun. =european mountain ash= _s. aucuparia_, linn. most common in cultivation is the european mountain ash called in england the rowan tree. this trim round-headed species is very neat and conventional compared with its wild cousins, but in the craggy highlands of scotland and wales it much resembles our mountain ashes. old superstitions cluster around the rowan tree in all rural sections. these are preserved in the folk-lore and the literature of many countries. rowans were planted by cottage doors and at the gates of church yards, being considered effectual in exorcising evil spirits. leafy twigs hung over the thresholds, crosses made of "roan" wood given out on festival days, were worn as charms or amulets. milkmaids, especially, depended upon these for the defeat of the "black elves" who constantly tried to make their cows go dry, and unless prevented got into the churns--and then the butter would never come! the farther north a tree can grow, the more likely it is to have close relatives in the old world. one mountain ash of japan is hardly distinguishable from our western species, and some authorities believe that our two native species are but varieties of the rowan tree of europe. the rhododendron the heath family, of about sixty-seven genera, distributed over the temperate and tropical countries of the earth, has twenty-one genera in the united states, seven of which have tree representatives. azaleas, the multitude of the heathers, the huckleberries, the madroñas, call to mind flower shows we have seen--under glass, in gardens, in parks, and among mountain fastnesses brightened by the loveliness of the mountain laurel, azalea, and rhododendron. in this wonderful family the leaves are simple and mostly evergreen. rarely are the fruits of any importance. it is the flowers in masses that give the chief distinction to a family with over a thousand species, which have been the subjects of study and cultivation through centuries. the type of the family is the scotch heather, immortalized in song and story. in london the christmas season is marked by the sale of half a million little potted plants of heather! each is about a foot in height and bears a thousand tiny bells, rosy, with white lips. this is the poor man's christmas flower. it costs a shilling and lasts a month or more. [illustration: _see page _ flowering dogwood] [illustration: _see page _ the osage orange flowers appear in june, after the lustrous leaves] trees are scarce in the heath family. shrubs are in the majority. the azaleas, which the belgian gardeners have brought to such perfection and developed in such a great number of varieties, are among the best known of the heaths. the profuse blossoms in potted azaleas entirely extinguish the foliage, and the flowers are almost as lasting as if they were artificial. the genus rhododendron in american woods is represented by a mountain shrub and a tree. both are evergreen and both are widely planted for ornament during the entire season. carloads of these wonderful plants are shipped from the mountain slopes of the alleghanies for mass planting on rocky ground, and to cover embankments along the drives in great estates. because of the altitude of their native habitat, they are hardy in new england, and even as far as the great lakes. in time of bloom, these masses are the great flower show of the countryside, and in winter nothing is more beautiful than the evergreen foliage of rhododendrons, lifted out of the snow. =great laurel or rose bay= _rhododendron maximum_, linn. among the alleghany mountains, from virginia southward, the great laurel rises to a height of forty feet, and interlaces its boughs with those of fraser's magnolia and the mountain hemlock in the dense forest cover. thickets of rhododendron trees are common, and though its stature is reduced, it follows the highlands into new york, and is one of the most striking and beautiful shrubs in the pennsylvania mountains. scattered and becoming more rare and more stunted, it reaches lake erie and on into new brunswick. the leaves crown each of the stiff branches with an umbrella-like whorl, that stands guard in winter time about a large scaly bud. in spring the scales fall and a cone-like flower cluster rises. each blossom is white, marked with yellow or orange spots, in the bell-like corolla's throat; or the flowers may be pale rose, with deeper tones in the unopened buds. a great tree in blossom, with its flower clusters lighting up the umbrella-like whorls of glossy, evergreen leaves, illuminates the woods, and makes every other tree look commonplace beside it. in late summer, green capsules, each with a curving style at the top, cluster where the flowers stood, but these are scarcely ornamental. the evergreen leaves and the buds, full of promise for june blossoming, are the beautiful features of rhododendrons in winter. the wonderful array of color and profusion of bloom, seen in an exhibit of rhododendrons and azaleas, is the most convincing proof of what crossing and careful selection can do in developing races of flowering plants. the ancestry of all these tub-plants is a matter of record, and goes back to a few comparatively insignificant wild species, competing with all the rest of the native flora for a livelihood. the mountain laurel the mountain laurel (_kalmia latifolia_, linn.) grows from nova scotia to lake erie and southward through new england and new york, and along the alleghanies to northern georgia. hardier than the rhododendrons, smaller in blossoms and in foliage, the laurel is in many points its superior in beauty. in june and july the polished evergreen foliage of the kalmia bushes is almost overwhelmed by the masses of its exquisite pink blossoms, beside which the bloom of rhododendrons looks coarse and crude in coloring. coral-red fluted buds with pointed tips show the richest color, making with the yellow-green of the new leaves one of the most exquisite color combinations in any spring shrubbery. the largest buds open first, spreading into wide five-lobed corollas, with two pockets in the base of each forming a circle of ten pockets. ten stamens stand about the free central pistil, and the anther of each is hid in a pocket of the corolla--the slender filament bent backward. this is a curious contrivance for insuring cross-fertilization through the help of the bees. (_see "flowers worth knowing."_) linnaeus commemorated in the name of this genus the devoted and arduous labors of peter kalm, the swedish botanist, who sent back to his master at the university of upsala specimens of the wonderful and varied flora found in his travels in eastern north america. most of the names accredited to linnaeus were given to plants he never saw except as dried herbarium specimens from the new world. the madroÃ�a the madroña (_arbutus menziesii_, pursh.), another member of the heath family, is one of the superbly beautiful trees in the forests that stretch from british columbia southward into california. south of the bay of san francisco and on the dry eastern slopes of california mountains it is stunted to a shrub, but on the high, well-drained slopes through the coast region and in the redwood forests of northern california it is a tree that reaches a hundred feet in height. john muir writes: "the madroña, clad in thin, smooth, red and yellow bark, with big, glossy leaves, seems in the dark coniferous forests of washington and vancouver island like some lost wanderer from the magnolia groves in the south." all the year around this is one of the most beautiful of american trees. it bears large conical clusters of white flowers above the vivid green of its leathery leaves, that are wonderfully lightened by silvery linings. in autumn the red-brown of the branches is enriched and intensified by the luxuriant clusters of scarlet berries against the red and orange of the two-year-old leaves. among the giant redwoods this tree commands the highest admiration. the sorrel tree the sorrel tree, or sour-wood (_oxydendrum arboreum_, dc.) belongs among the heaths. its vivid scarlet autumn foliage is its chief claim to the admiration of gardeners. in spring the little tree is beautiful in its bronze-green foliage, and in late july and august it bears long branching racemes of tiny bell-shaped white flowers. this multitude of little bells suggests the tree's relationship to the blossoming heather we see in florists' shops. the leaves give the tree its two common names: they have a sour taste, resembling that of the herbaceous sorrels. the twigs, even in the dead of winter, yield this refreshing acid sap, that flows through the veins of the membranous leaves in summer. many a hunter, temporarily lost in southern woods, quenches his thirst by nibbling young shoots of the sour-wood. after the flower comes a downy capsule, five-celled, with numerous pointed seeds. the leaves are not unlike those of a plum tree except that they attain a length of five to seven inches. in the woods from pennsylvania, ohio, and indiana, southward to florida, alabama, louisiana, and arkansas this tree ranges, and we often see it in cultivation as far north as boston. it grows to its largest size on the western slopes of the big smoky mountains in tennessee, attaining here a height of sixty feet. in cultivation it is one of the little, slender-stemmed, dainty trees, beautiful at any season. it is the sole representative of its genus in the world, so far as botanists know. the silver bell trees the silver bell tree (_mohrodendron tetraptera_, britt.) earns its name in may when among the green leaves the clustered bell flowers gradually pale from green to white, with rosy tints that seem to come from the ruddy flower-stems. a "snowdrop tree" may be eighty feet in height, in the mountains of east tennessee and western north carolina, but ordinarily we see it in gardens and parks as a delicate, slender-branched tree, that stands out from every other species in the border as the loveliest thing that blooms there. not a moment in spring lacks interest if one has a little mohrodendron tree to watch. for weeks the ruddy twigs grow ruddier by the opening of leaf and flower buds; then comes the slow fading of the flowers, when sun and rain seem to work together to bleach them into utter purity of color and texture. gradually the white bells fade and a queer little green, tapering seed-case enlarges and ripens. through the late summer these pale green fruits are exceedingly ornamental as the leaves turn to pale yellow. in cultivation, the silver bell tree is hardy in the new england states, but in its native woods it grows north no farther than west virginia and illinois. it is easily transplanted and pruned to bush form, if one desires to keep the blossoming down where the perfection of the flowers can be enjoyed at close range. =snowdrop tree= _m. diptera_, britt. a second species called the snowdrop tree skirts the swamps along the south atlantic and gulf coast and follows the mississippi bayous to southern arkansas. it is smaller in stature than the silver bell tree, but has larger leaves and more showy flowers. the botanical names record the chief specific difference between the two species: this one has but two wings on its seed-cases, while the other has four. this species is hardy no farther north than philadelphia. the flowers have their bells cleft almost to the base, whereas the bell of the other species is merely notched at the top. the sweet leaf two genera of trees in this country are temperate zone representatives of a tropical family which furnishes benzoine, torax, and other valuable balsams of commerce. it is easy to see that these trees are strangers from warm countries, for many of their traits are singularly unfamiliar. =the sweet leaf= _symplocos tinctoria_, l'her. the sweet leaf is our sole representative of a large genus of trees native to the forests of australia and the tropics in asia and south america. they yield important drugs and dyestuffs, particularly in british india. but the sweet leaf is a small tree, rarely over twenty feet in height, with ashy gray bark, warty and narrowly fissured. in earliest spring its twigs are clothed with yellow or white blossoms that come in a procession and cover the tree from march until may, preceding the leaves, and breathing a wonderful fragrance into the air. the leaves are small, leathery, dark green, lustrous above, deciduous in the regions of colder winters, persistent from one to two years in the warmer part of its range. the flowers are succeeded by brown berries that ripen in summer, or early autumn. the flesh is dry about the single seed. horses and cattle greedily browse upon the foliage, which has a distinctly sweet taste. the bark and leaves both yield a yellow dye, and the roots a tonic from their bitter, aromatic sap. "horse sugar" is another local name for this little tree, which is found sparingly from delaware to florida, west to the blue ridge mountains, and in the gulf states to louisiana and northward into arkansas and to eastern texas. it is a shade-loving tree, usually found under the forest cover of taller species, skirting the borders of cypress swamps, and climbing to elevations of nearly three thousand feet on the slopes of the blue ridge. a wonderful new species of _symplocos_ has come into cultivation from japan and will enjoy a constantly increasing popularity. its fragrant white blossoms, before the leaves, make the tree look like a hawthorn; but its unique distinction is that the racemed flowers give place to berries of a brilliant turquoise blue, which make this shrubby tree a most striking and beautiful object in the autumn when the leaves are turning yellow. the fringe tree native to the middle and southern portions of the united states is a slender little tree (_chionanthus virginica_, linn.), whose sister species inhabits northern and central china. both of them cover their branches with delicate, fragrant white flowers, in loose drooping panicles, when the leaves are about one third grown. each flower has four slender curving petals an inch long, but exceedingly narrow. in may and june the tree is decked with a bridal veil of white that makes it one of the most ethereal and the most elegant of lawn and park trees at this supreme moment of the year. later the leaves broaden and reach six to eight inches in length, tapering narrowly to the short petioles. thick and dark green, with plain margins, and conspicuously looped venation near the edges, these leaves suggest a young magnolia tree. blue fruits the size of plums succeed the flowers in september, denying the magnolia theory and shading to black before they fall. the flesh is dry and seeds solitary under the thick skin of the drupe. as in many other instances, european gardeners have led in the appreciation of this american ornamental tree. however, new england has planted it freely in parks and gardens, and popularity will follow wherever it becomes known. its natural distribution is from southern pennsylvania to florida, and west to arkansas and texas. in cultivation it is hardy and flourishes far north of its natural range. no garden that can have a fringe tree should be without it. fortunately its wood is negligible in quantity, and the temptation to chop down these trees does not come to the ignorant man with an axe. whoever goes to the woods in may is rewarded for many miles of tramping if he comes upon a "snow-flower tree" in the height of its blooming season, led perhaps by its delicate fragrance when the little tree is overshadowed by the deep green of the forest cover. it is an experience that will not be forgotten soon. the laurel family the laurel family, a large group of aromatic trees and shrubs found chiefly in the tropics, includes with our sassafras, laurels, and bays the cinnamon and camphor trees. =california laurel= _umbellaria californica_, nutt. the california laurel climbs the western slopes of the sierra nevada from the forests of southwestern oregon to the san bernardino range near los angeles. "up north" it is called pepperwood. it is a lover of wet soil, so it keeps near streams. with the broad-leaved maple it gives character to the deciduous growth near the northern boundaries of california, where it reaches eighty to ninety feet in height, and a trunk diameter of four to five feet. sometimes it is tall, but usually it divides near the ground into several large diverging stems, forming a broad round head. in southern california, and at high elevations, it oftenest occurs as a low shrub. the willow-like leaves, lustrous and evergreen, last often through the sixth season. unfolding in winter or early spring, they continue to appear as the branches lengthen until late in the autumn, turning to beautiful yellow or orange and falling one by one. beginning during the second season, they continue to drop, as new shoots loosen their hold. these leaves are rich in an aromatic oil which causes them to burn readily when piled green upon a campfire. plum-like purple fruits succeed the small white fragrant flowers, borne in clusters in the axils of the leaves. the seeds germinate before the fruit begins to decay. indeed the plantlet has attained considerable size before the acid flesh shows any signs of change. this tree is a superb addition to the parks and gardens of the pacific coast. it is strikingly handsome in a land of handsome trees, native and exotic. its wood is the most beautiful and valuable produced in the forests of pacific north america for the interior finish of houses and for furniture. it is heavy, hard, strong, fine-grained, light brown, of a rich tone, with paler sap-wood, that includes the annual growth of thirty or forty seasons. the leaves yield by distillation a pungent, aromatic, volatile oil, and the fruit a fatty acid commercially valuable. =the red bay= _persea borbonia_, streng. another laurel native to stream and swamp borders, from virginia to texas and north to arkansas, is the red bay, whose bark, thick, red, and furrowed into scaly ridges on the trunk, becomes smooth and green on the branches. the evergreen leaves are narrowly oval, three to four inches long, bright green, polished, with pale linings. the white flowers are very minute bells borne in axillary clusters, succeeded in autumn by blue or black shiny berries, one half inch long, one-seeded, making a pretty contrast with the clear yellow of the year-old leaves and the bright green of the new ones. this native laurel, lover of rich, moist soil, deserves the place in cultivation more commonly granted its european cousin, _laurus nobilis_, linn., the familiar tub laurel of hotel verandas in the northern states, and much grown out of doors in southern california and in milder climates east. the tree is occasionally sixty to seventy feet high, with trunk two to three feet in diameter. such specimens furnish the cabinet-maker and carpenter with a beautiful, bright red, close-grained wood for fine interior finish and furniture. formerly it was used in the construction of river boats, but the timber supply is now very limited. =the avocado= _p. gratissima_, gaertn. in florida and southern california the avocado or alligator pear is being extensively cultivated. this laurel grows wild in the west indies, brazil, peru, and mexico. its berry attains the size of a large pear. it has been developed in several commercial varieties, all having smooth green or purple skin, and soft oily pulp like marrow surrounding a single gigantic seed. it is usually cut in two like a melon and eaten raw as a salad dressed with vinegar, salt, and pepper. once a stranger acquires the taste, he is extremely fond of this new salad fruit. the growing of the trees is easy and very profitable. at present the fruits are in great demand in city markets, and the prices are too high for any but the rich to enjoy this luxury. where a market is difficult to reach, the abundant oil is expressed from these fruits and used for illumination and the manufacture of soap. the seeds yield an indelible ink. it is interesting to the student of trees to note how many tropical families have representation in north america, due to the fact that florida extends into the tropics, and the west indies seem to form a sort of bridge over which central american and south american species have reached the floridian keys and the mainland. =the sassafras= _sassafras_, karst. the sole remnant of an ancient genus is the aromatic sassafras familiar as a roadside tree that flames in autumn with the star gum and the swamp maples. in the deep woods it reaches a height of more than a hundred feet and is an important lumber tree. in the arctic regions and in the rocky strata of our western mountains, fossil leaves of sassafras are preserved, and the same traces are found in europe, giving to the geologist proofs that the genus once had a much wider range than now. but no living representative of the genus was known outside of eastern north america, until the report of a recently discovered sassafras in china. the indians in florida named the sassafras to the inquiring colonists who came with columbus. they explained its curative properties, and its reputation traveled up the atlantic seaboard. the first cargo of home products shipped by the colonists back to england from massachusetts contained a large consignment of sassafras roots. to-day we look for an exhibit of sassafras bark in drug-store windows in spring. people buy it and make sassafras tea which they drink "to clear the blood." "in the southwestern states the dried leaves are much used as an ingredient in soups, for which they are well adapted by the abundance of mucilage they contain. for this purpose the mature green leaves are dried, powdered (the stringy portions being separated), sifted and preserved for use. this preparation mixed with soups gives them a ropy consistence and a peculiar flavor, much relished by those accustomed to it. to such soups are given the names _gombo file_ and _gombo zab_." (_seton._) emerson says that in new england a decoction of sassafras bark gave to the housewife's homespun woolen cloth a permanent orange dye. the name "ague tree" originated with the use of sassafras bark tea as a stimulant that warmed and brought out the perspiration freely for victims of the malarial "ague," or "chills and fever." sassafras wood is dull orange-yellow, soft, weak, light, brittle, and coarse-grained, but it is amazingly durable in contact with the soil, as the pioneers learned when they used it to make posts and fence rails. it is largely used also in cooperage, and in the building of light boats. oil of sassafras distilled from the bark of the roots is used for perfuming soaps and flavoring medicines. with all its practical uses listed above, we must all have learned to know the tree if it grows in our neighborhood, and if we observe it closely, month by month throughout the year, we shall all agree that its beauty justifies its selection for planting in our home grounds, and surpasses all its medicinal and other commercial offerings to the world. in winter the sassafras tree is most picturesque by reason of the short, stout, twisted branches that spread almost at right angles from the central shaft, and form a narrow, usually flat, often unsymmetrical head. the bark is rough, reddish brown, deeply and irregularly divided into broad scaly plates or ridges. the branches end in slim, pale yellow-green twigs that are set with pointed, bright green buds, giving the tree an appearance of being thoroughly alive while others, bare of leaves, look dead in winter. what country boy or girl has not lingered on the way home from school to nibble the dainty green buds of the sassafras, or to dig at the roots with his jack-knife for a sliver of aromatic bark? as spring comes on the bare twigs are covered with a delicate green of the opening leaves, brightened by clusters of yellow flowers (_see illustration, page _) whose starry calyxes are alike on all of the trees; but only on the fertile trees are the flowers succeeded by the blue berries, softening on their scarlet pedicels, if only the birds can wait until they are ripe. midsummer is the time to hunt for "mittens" and to note how many different forms of leaves belong on the same sassafras tree. first, there is the simple ovate leaf; second, a larger blade oval in form but with one side extended and lobed to form a thumb, making the whole leaf look like the pattern of a mitten cut out by an unskilled hand; third, a symmetrical, three-lobed leaf, the pattern of a narrow mitten with a large thumb on each side. not infrequently do all these forms occur on a single twig. only the mulberry, among our native trees, shows such a variety of leaf forms as the sassafras. there is quite as great variation in the size of the leaves. one law seems to prevail among sassafras trees: more of the oval leaves than the lobed ones are found on mature trees. it is the roadside sapling, with its foliage within easy reach, that delights boys and girls with its wonderful variety of leaf patterns. here the size of the leaves greatly surpasses that of the foliage on full-grown trees, and the autumnal colors are more glorious in the roadside thickets than in the tree-tops far above them. sassafras trees grow readily from seed in any loose, moist soil. a single tree spreads by a multitude of fleshy root-stalks, and these natural root-cuttings bear transplanting as easily as a poplar. every garden border should have one specimen at least to add its flame to the conflagration of autumn foliage and the charming contrast of its blue berries on their coral stalks. the witch hazel eighteen genera compose the sub-tropical family in which _hamamelis_ is the type. two or three asiatic species and one american are known. the witch hazel (_hamamelis virginiana_, linn.) is a stout, many-stemmed shrub or a small tree, with rough unsymmetrical leaves, strongly veined, coarsely toothed, and roughly diamond-shaped. the twigs, when bare, are set with hairy sickle-shaped buds. nowhere in summer would an undergrowth of witch hazel trees attract attention. but in autumn, when other trees have reached a state of utter rest, the witch hazel wakes and bursts into bloom. among the dead leaves which stubbornly cling as they yellow, and often persist until spring, the tiny buds, the size of a pin-head, open into starry blossoms with petals like gold threads. the witch hazel thicket is veiled with these gold-mesh flowers, as ethereal as the haunting perfume which they exhale. frost crisps the delicate petals but they curl, up like shavings and stay till spring. at no time is the weather cold enough to destroy this november flower show. among the blossoms are the pods in clusters, gaping wide if the seeds are shed; closed tight, with little monkey faces, if not yet open. the harvest of witch hazel seeds is worth going far to see. damp weather delays this most interesting little game. dry frosty weather is ideal for it. go into a witch hazel thicket on some fine morning in early november and sit down on the drift of dead leaves that carpet the woods floor. the silence is broken now and then by a sharp report like a bullet striking against the bark of a near-by trunk, or skipping among the leaves. perhaps a twinge on the ear shows that you have been a target for some tiny projectile, sent to its mark with force enough to hurt. [illustration: _see page _ bark, blossom, fruit, and winter flower buds of the flowering dogwood] [illustration: _see page _ the mountain ash the flat, crowded cluster of tiny white flowers is set in a whorl of dark-green leaves in may or june] the fusillade comes from the ripened pods, which have a remarkable ability to throw their seeds, and thus do for the parent tree what the winged seeds of other trees accomplish. the lining of the two-celled pod is believed to shorten and produce a spring that drives the seeds forth with surprising force when they are loosened from their attachment. this occurs when the lips part. frost and sun seem to decide just when to spring the trap and let fly the little black seeds. a young botanist went into the woods to find out just how far a witch hazel tree can throw its seeds. she chose an isolated tree and spread white muslin under it for many yards in four directions. the most remote of the many seeds she caught that day fell eighteen feet from the base of the tree. the indians in america were the first people to use the bark of the witch hazel for curing inflammations. an infusion of the twigs and roots is now made by boiling them for twenty-four hours in water to which alcohol has been added. "witch hazel extract," distilled from this mixture, is the most popular preparation to use for bruises and sprains, and to allay the pain of burns. druggists and chemists have failed to discover any medicinal properties in bark or leaf, but the public has faith in it. the alcohol is probably the effective agent. witch hazel comes honestly by its name. the english "witch hazel" is a species of elm to which superstitious miners went to get forked twigs to use as divining rods. no one in the countryside would dream of sinking a shaft for coal without the use of this forked twig. in any old and isolated country district in america there is usually a man whose reputation is based in his skilful use of a forked witch hazel twig. sent for before a well is dug, he slowly walks over the ground, holding the twig erect by its two supple forks, one in each hand. when he passes over the spot where the hidden springs of water are, the twig goes down, without any volition of the "water-witch." at least, so he says, and if water is struck by digging, his claims are vindicated and scoffers hide their heads. the burning bush american gardeners cherish with regard that amounts almost to affection any shrub or tree which will lend color, especially brilliant color, to the winter landscape. thus the holly, the japanese barberry, many of the haws, the mountain ash, and the rugosa rose will be found in the shrubbery borders of many gardens, supplying the birds with food when the ground is covered with snow, and sprinkling the brightness of their red berries against the monotony of dull green conifers. the burning bush (_euonymus atropurpureus_, jacq.) lends its scarlet fruits to the vivid colors that paint any winter landscape. they hang on slender stalks, clustered where the leaves were attached. four flattish lobes, deeply separated by constrictions, form each of these strange-looking fruits. in october each is pale purplish in color and one half an inch across. now the husk parts and curls back, revealing the seeds, each of the four enveloped in a loose scarlet wrinkled coat. until midwinter the little tree is indeed a burning bush, glowing brighter as the advancing season opens wider the purple husks, and the little swinging maltese cross, made by the four scarlet berries, is the only thing one sees, looking up from below. birds take the berries, though they are bitter and poisonous. in spring the slender branchlets of this little tree are covered with opposite, pointed leaves, two to five inches long, and in their axils are borne purplish flowers, with four spreading recurving petals. in the centre of each is supported a square platform upon which are the spreading anthers and styles. it does not require much botanical knowledge to see a family relationship between this tree and the woody vine we call "bitter-sweet"; the flowers and fruits are alike in many features. in oklahoma and arkansas and eastern texas the burning bush becomes a good-sized tree and its hard, close-grained wood is peculiarly adapted to making spindles, knitting needles, skewers, and toothpicks. "prickwood" is the english name. chinese and japanese species have been added to our list of flowering trees and vines. two shrubby species of _euonymus_ belong to the flora of north america, but the bulk of the large family is tropical. our dainty little american tree skirts the edges of deep woods from new york to montana, and southward to the gulf. in cultivation it extends throughout new england. "wahoo," the common name in the south, is probably of indian origin. the sumachs the sumach family contains more than fifty genera, confined for the most part to the warmer regions of the globe. two fruit trees within this family are the mango and the pistachio nut tree. commercially important also is the turpentine tree of southern europe. the japanese lacquer tree yields the black varnish used in all lacquered wares. the cultivated sumachs of southern europe are important in the tanning industry, their leaves containing from twenty-five to thirty per cent. of tannic acid. in the flora of the united states three genera of the family have tree representatives. the genus _rhus_, with a total of one hundred and twenty species, stands first. most of these belong to south africa; sixteen to north america where their distribution covers practically the entire continent. of these, four attain the habit of small trees. fleshy roots, pithy branchlets, and milky, or sometimes caustic or watery juice, belong to the sumachs, which are oftenest seen as roadside thickets or fringing the borders of woods. the foliage is fern-like, odd-pinnate, rarely simple. the flowers are conspicuous by their crowding into terminal or axillary panicles, followed by bony fruits, densely crowded like the flowers. =the staghorn sumach= _rhus hirta_, sudw. the staghorn sumach is named for the densely hairy, forking branchlets, which look much like the horns of a stag "in the velvet." the foliage and fruit are also densely clothed with stiff pale hairs, usually red or bright yellow. the leaves reach two feet in length, with twenty or thirty oblong, often sickle-shaped leaflets, set opposite on the stem, and terminating in a single odd leaflet. bright yellow-green until half grown, dark green and dull above when mature, often nearly white on the under surface, these leaves turn in autumn to bright scarlet, shading into purple, crimson, and orange. no sunset was ever more changeful and glorious than a patch of staghorn sumach that covers the ugliness of a railroad siding in october. after the leaves have fallen, the dull red fuzzy fruits persist, offering food to belated bird migrants and gradually fading to browns before spring. the maximum height of this largest of northern sumachs is thirty-five feet. the wood of such large specimens is sometimes used for walking-sticks and for tabourets and such fancy work as inlaying. coarse, soft, and brittle, it is satiny when polished, and attractively streaked with orange and green. the young shoots are cut and their pith contents removed to make pipes for drawing maple sap from the trees in sugaring time. but the best use of the tree is for ornamental planting. in summer, the ugliness of the most unsightly bank is covered where this tree is allowed to run wild and throw up its root suckers unchecked. the mass effect of its fern-like foliage in spring is superb, when the green is lightened by the fine clusters of pink blossoms. no tree carries its autumn foliage longer nor blazes with greater splendor in the soft sunshine of the late year. the hairy staghorn branches, bared of leaves, hold aloft their fruits like lighted candelabra far into the waning winter. for screens and border shrubs this sumach may become objectionable, by reason of its habit of spreading by suckers as well as seed. its choice of situations is broken uplands and dry, gravelly banks. its range extends from new brunswick to minnesota and southward through the northern states, and along the mountains to the gulf states. in cultivation, it is found in the middle west and on the atlantic seaboard, and is a favorite in central and northern europe. =the dwarf sumach= _r. copallina_, linn. the black dwarf, or mountain sumach, is smaller, with softer, closer velvet coating its twigs and lining its leaves, than the burly staghorn sumach wears. it grows all over the eastern half of the united states, even to the foothills of the rocky mountains, and rises to thirty feet in height above a short, stout trunk in the mountains of tennessee and north carolina. its leaves are the most beautiful in the sumach family. they are six to eight inches long, the central stalk bearing nine to twenty-one dark green leaflets, lustrous above, lined with silvery pubescence. a striking peculiarity is that the central leaf-stem is winged on each side with a leafy frill between the pairs of leaflets. in autumn, the foliage mass changes to varying shades of scarlet and crimson. the flower clusters are copious and loose, and the heavy fruits nod from their great weight and show the most beautiful shades, ranging from yellow to dull red. sterile soil is often covered by extensive growths of this charming shrubby tree which spreads by underground root-stocks. it is the latest of all the sumachs to bloom. in the south the leaves are sometimes gathered in summer to be dried and pulverized for use in tanning leather. a yellow dyestuff is also extracted from them. it is a favorite sumach for ornamental planting in this country and in europe. =the poison sumach= _r. vernix_, linn. the poison sumach is a small tree with slender drooping branches, smooth, reddish brown, dotted on the twigs with orange-colored breathing holes, becoming orange-brown and gray as the bark thickens. the trunk is often somewhat fluted under a smooth gray rind. this is one of the most brilliant and beautiful of all the sumachs, but _unfortunately it is deadly poisonous, more to be dreaded than the poison ivy of our woods_, and the poisonwood of florida, both of which are near relatives. by certain traits we may always know, with absolute certainty, a poison sumach when we find it. _look at the berries. if they droop and are grayish white, avoid touching the tree_, no matter how alluring the wonderful scarlet foliage is. _poison sumachs grow only in the swamps. we should suspect any sumach that stands with its feet in the water_, whether it bears flowers and fruit or not. the temptation is strongest when one is in the woods gathering brilliant foliage for decoration of the home for the holidays. the bitter poisonous juice that exudes from broken stems turns black almost at once. this warning comes late, however, for as it dries upon the hands it poisons the skin. handled with care, this juice becomes a black, lustrous, durable varnish, but it is not in general use. =the smooth sumach= _r. glabra_, linn. the smooth sumach (_see illustrations, pages - _) is quite as familiar as the staghorn, as a roadside shrub. it forms thickets in exactly the same way, and its foliage, flowers and fruit make it most desirable for decorative planting, especially for glorious autumnal effects. the stems are smooth and coated with a pale bluish bloom. this is the distinguishing mark, at any season, of the sumach that often equals the other species in height, but does not belong in this book, for the reason that it never attains the stature of a tree. the smoke tree a favorite tree in american and european gardens is the smoke tree (_cotinus_), a genus which has native representatives in both continents. the european _c. cotinus_, sarg., was brought to this country by early horticulturists and in some respects it is superior to our native_ c. americanus_, nutt. cultivation for centuries has given the immigrant species greater vigor and hardiness, which produces more exuberant growth throughout. bring in a sapling of the native tree and it looks a starveling by comparison. the glory of the smoke tree is the utter failure of its clustered flowers to set seed. branching terminal panicles of minute flowers are held high above the dark green simple leaves. as they change in autumn to brilliant shades of orange and scarlet, the seed clusters are held aloft. the seeds are few but the panicles have expanded and show a peculiar feathery development of the bracts that take the place of the fruits. the clusters take on tones of pink and lavender and in the aggregate they form a great cloud made up of graceful, delicate plumes. at a little distance the tree appears as if a great cloud of rosy smoke rested upon its gorgeous foliage. or the haze may be so pale as to look like mist. this wonderful development of the flower cluster is unique among garden shrubs and it places _cotinus_ in a class by itself. no garden with a shrubbery border is complete without a smoke tree, which is interesting and beautiful at any season. in its native haunts our american smoke tree is found in small isolated groves or thickets, along the sides of rocky ravines or dry barren hillsides in missouri, oklahoma, and texas, and in eastern tennessee and northern alabama. the hollies the holly family, of five genera, is distributed from the north to the south temperate zones, with representation in every continent. it includes trees and shrubs of one hundred and seventy-five species, seventy of which grow in northern brazil. the dried and powdered leaves of two holly trees of paraguay are commercially known as maté, or paraguay tea, to which the people of south america are addicted, as we are to the tea of china. "yerba maté" has a remarkable, stimulating effect upon the human system, fortifying it for incredible exertions and endurance. indulged in to excess, it has much the effect of alcohol. china and japan have thirty different species of holly. america has fourteen, four of which assume tree form; the rest are shrubby "winterberries." =european holly= _ilex aquifolium_, linn. the holly of europe is perhaps the most popular ornamental tree in the world, cultivated in europe through centuries, and now coming to be a favorite garden plant wherever hardy in the united states. some indication of its popularity abroad is found in the fact that one hundred and fifty-three distinct horticultural varieties are in cultivation. the englishman makes hedges of it, and depends upon it to give life and color to his lawn and flower borders in the winter. the fellfare or fieldfare, a little thrush, feeds upon the tempting red berries in winter; but even when these dashes of color are all gone, the brilliance of the spiny-margined leaves enlivens any landscape. americans know the european holly chiefly through importations of the cut branches offered in the markets for christmas decoration. the leaf is small, brilliantly polished, and very deeply indented between long, spiny tips, giving it a far more decorative quality than the native evergreen holly of the south. many varieties of the european holly are found in american gardens, particularly near eastern cities. north of washington they must be tied up in straw for the winter, and in the latitude of boston it is a struggle to keep them alive. from southern california to vancouver, no such precautions are necessary, and the little trees deserve a much wider popularity than they yet enjoy. grown commercially, they are the finest of christmas greens. =american holly= _i. opaca_, ait. the american holly also yields its branches for christmas greens. in the remotest village in the north one may now buy at any grocery store a sprig of red-berried holly to usher in the holiday season. the tree is a small one at best, slow-growing, pyramidal, twenty to forty feet in height, with short, horizontal branches and tough, close-grained white wood. it is rare to find so close an imitation of ivory, in color and texture, as holly wood supplies. it is the delight of the wood engraver, who uses it for his blocks. scroll work and turnery employ it. it is used for tool handles, walking-sticks, and whip-stocks. veneer of holly is used in inlay work. in southern woods and barren fallow fields where hollies grow, collectors, without discrimination, cut many trees each autumn, strip them of their branches, and leave the trunks to rot upon the ground. the increasing demand for christmas holly seriously threatens the present supply, for no methods are being practised for its renewal. it will not be long before the wood engraver will have to buy his blocks by the pound, as he does the eastern boxwood. the range of this holly tree extends from southern maine to florida, throughout the gulf states, and north into indiana and missouri. =the yaupon= _i. vomitoria_, ait. the yaupon is a shrubby tree of spreading habit, with very small, oval, evergreen leaves and red berries. it grows from virginia to florida and west to texas and arkansas. a nauseating beverage, made by boiling its leaves, was the famous "black drink" of the indians. a yearly ceremonial, in which the whole tribe took part, was the persistent drinking of this tea for several days, the object being a thorough cleansing of the system. part v wild relatives of our orchard trees the applesâ��the plumsâ��the cherriesâ��the hawthornsâ��the service-berriesâ��the hackberriesâ��the mulberriesâ��the figsâ��the papawsâ��the pond applesâ��the persimmons the apples the chance apple tree beside the road, with fruit too gnarly to eat, is common on roadsides throughout new england. occasionally one of these trees bears edible fruit, but this is not the rule. perhaps the seed thus planted was from the core of a very delicious apple, nibbled close, and thrown away with regret. but trees thus planted are seedlings and seedling apple trees "revert" to the ancient parent of the race, the wild apple of eastern asia. horticulture began long ago to improve these wild trees, and through the centuries improvement and variation have stocked the orchards of all temperate countries with the multitude of varieties we know. a visit in october to nova scotia or to the yakima valley in washington, is an eye-opener. thousands of acres of the choicest varieties of this most satisfying of all fruits show the debt we owe to patient scientists, whose work has so enriched the food supply of the world. the pear, the quince, and the curious medlar, with its core exposed at the blossom end--all relatives of the apple--trace their lineage to european and asiatic wild ancestors. the siberian crab, native of northern asia, is the parent of our hard-fleshed, slender-stemmed garden crabapples. japan has given us some wonderful apple trees, with fruit no larger than cherries, cultivated solely for their flowers. the ornamental flora of america has been greatly enriched by these varieties. four native apples are found in american woods. horticulturists have produced new varieties by crossing some of these sturdy natives with cultivated apples, or their seedling offspring. =the prairie crab= _malus ioënsis_, britt. the prairie crabapple is the woolly twigged, pink-blossomed wild crab of the woods, from minnesota and wisconsin to oklahoma, texas, and louisiana. it has crossed with the roadside "wilding" trees and produced a hybrid known to horticulture as the soulard apple, from its discoverer. these wild trees bear fruit that is distinctly an improvement upon that of either parent. it is regarded as a distinctly promising apple for the coldest of the prairie states, and has already become the parent of several improved varieties. =the wild crab= _m. coronaria_. mill. throughout the wooded regions, from the great lakes to texas and alabama, the wild crabapple brightens the spring landscape with its rose-colored, spicy-scented blossoms. the little trees huddle together, their flat tops often matted and reaching out sidewise from under the shade of the other forest trees. the twigs are crabbed indeed in winter, but they silver over with the young foliage in april. the coral flower buds sprinkle the new leaves, and through may a great burst of rose-colored bloom overspreads the tree-tops. it is not sweetness merely that these flowers exhale, but an exquisite, spicy, stimulating fragrance, by which one always remembers them. the pioneers made jellies and preserves out of the little green apples (_see illustrations, pages - _), which lost some of their acrid quality by hanging on until after a good frost. there are those who still gather these fruits as their parents and grandparents did. in their opinion the wild tang and the indescribable piquancy of flavor in jellies made from this fruit are unmatched by those of any other fruit that grows. the plums the genus _prunus_ belongs to the rose family and includes shrubs and trees with stone fruits. of the over one hundred species, thirty are native to north america; but ten of them assume tree form, and all but one are small trees. related to them are the garden cherries and plums, native to other countries, and the peach, the apricot, and the almond, found in this country only in horticultural varieties. the wood of _prunus_ is close-grained, solid, and durable, and a few of the species are important timber trees. the simplest way to identify a member of the genus is to break a twig at any season of the year and taste the sap. if it is bitter and astringent with hydrocyanic acid (the flavor we get in fresh peach-pits and bitter almonds), we may be sure we have run the tree down to the genus _prunus_. =the wild red plum= _prunus americanus_, marsh. the wild red or yellow plum forms dense thickets in moist woods and along river banks from new york to texas and colorado. its leafless, gnarled, and thorny twigs are covered in spring with dense clusters of white bloom, honey-sweet in fragrance, a carnival of pleasure and profit to bees and other insects. in hot weather this nectar often ferments and sours before the blossoms fall. the abundant dry pollen is scattered by the wind. the plum crop depends more upon wind than upon insects, for the pollination period is very brief. after the frost in early autumn, the pioneers of the prairie used always to make a holiday in the woods and bring home by wagon-loads the spicy, acid plums which crowded the branches and fairly lit up the thicket with the orange and red color of their puckery, thick skins. in a land where fruit orchards were newly planted, "plum butter" made from the fruit of nature's orchards was gratefully acceptable through the long winters. even when home-grown sorghum molasses was the only available sweetening, the healthy appetites of prairie boys and girls accepted this "spread" on the bread and butter of noon-day school lunches, as a matter of course. [illustration: _see page _ flowers, fruit, and odd leaf patterns of the sassafras tree] [illustration: _see page _ foliage and flower cluster of the smooth sumach] [illustration: _see page _ buds, leaves, and fruit of the wild crabapple] [illustration: _see page _ the canada plum its white, fragrant flowers turn pink in fading; and its stiff, zigzag branches are beset with spiny stubs] =the canada plum= _p. nigra._, ait. the canada plum (_see illustration, page _) whose range dips down into the northern tier of states, is so near like the previous species as to be called by waugh a mere variety. its leaves are broad and large, and the flowers and fruit larger. a peculiarity of blossoming time is that the petals turn pink before they fall. this tree furnished the settler with a relish for his hard fare, and the horticulturist a hardy stock on which to graft scions of tenderer and better varieties of plums. it is a tree well worth bringing in from the woods to set in a bare fence-corner that will be beautified by the blossoms in spring, and in late summer by the bright orange-colored fruit against the ruddy foliage. exotic plums have greatly enriched our horticulture, giving us fruits that vie with the peach in size and lusciousness. in new-england gardens, the damsons, green gages and big red plums are imported varieties of the woolly twigged, thick-leaved european, _p. domestica_, which refused utterly to feel at home on its own roots in the great middle prairies of the country. these european plums have found a congenial home in the mild climate of the west coast. japan has furnished to the middle west and south a hardy, prolific species, _p. triflora_, generally immune to the black knot, a fungous disease which attacks native plums. crosses between the japanese and american native plums promise well. california now ranks first in prune raising as an industry, with france a close second. prunes are the dried fruit of certain sweet, fleshy kinds of plums. many cultivated varieties of japanese plums have enriched the horticulture of our west coast. the almond, now grown commercially in california, is the one member of the genus prunus whose flesh is dry and woody, and whose pit is a commercial nut. the cherries small-fruited members of the genus prunus, wild and cultivated, are grouped under the popular name, cherries, by common consent. the pie cherry of new-england gardens is _prunus cerasus_, linn. it often runs wild from gardens, forming roadside thickets, with small sour red fruits, as nearly worthless as at home in the wilds of europe and asia. this tree has, through cultivation, given rise to two groups of sour cherries cultivated in america. the early, light-red varieties, with uncolored juice, of which the early richmond is a familiar type, and the late, dark-red varieties, with colored juice, of which the english morello is the type. the sweet cherry of europe (_p. avium_, linn.) has given us our cultivated sweet cherries, whose fruit is more or less heart-shaped. japan celebrates each spring the festival of cherry blossom time, a great national fête, when the gardens burst suddenly into the marvelous bloom of _sakura_, the cherry tree, symbol of happiness, in which people of all classes delight. the native species (_p. pseudo-cerasus_), has been cultivated by japanese artist-gardeners in the one direction of beauty for centuries. not in flowers alone, but in leaf, in branching habit, and even in bark, beauty has been the ideal toward which patience and skill have striven successfully. "spring is the season of the eye," says the japanese poet. of all their national flower holidays, cherry blossom time, in the third month, is the climax. =the wild cherry= _prunus pennsylvanica_, linn. the wild red, bird, or pin cherry grows in rocky woods, forming thickets and valuable nurse trees to hardwoods, from newfoundland to georgia, and west to the rocky mountains. the birds enjoy the ruddy little fruits and hold high carnival in june among the shining leaves. many an ugly ravine is clothed with verdure and whitened with nectar-laden flowers by this comparatively worthless, short-lived tree; and in many burnt-over districts, the bird-sown pits strike root, and the young trees render a distinct service to forestry by this young growth, which is gone by the time the pines and hardwoods it has nursed require the ground for their spreading roots. =the wild black cherry= _p. serotina_, ehrh. the wild black cherry or rum cherry (_see illustration, page _), is the substantial lumber tree of the genus, whose ponderous trunk furnishes cherry wood, vying with mahogany and rosewood in the esteem of the cabinet-maker, who uses cherry for veneer oftener than for solid furniture. the drug trade depends upon this tree for a tonic derived from its bark, roots, and fruit. cherry brandies, cordials, and cherry bounce, that good old-fashioned homebrewed beverage, are made from the heavy-clustered fruits that hang until late summer, turning black and losing their astringency when dead ripe. from ontario to dakota, and south to florida and texas, this tree is found, reaching its best estate in moist, rich soil, but climbing mountain canyons at elevations of from five to seven thousand feet. a worthy shade and park tree, the black cherry is charmingly unconventional, carrying its mass of drooping foliage with the grace of a willow, its satiny brown bark curling at the edges of irregular plates like that of the cherry birch. =the choke cherry= _p. virginiana_, linn. the choke cherry is a miniature tree no higher than a thrifty lilac bush, from the eastern states to the mississippi, but between nebraska and northern texas it reaches thirty-five feet in height. the trunk is always short, often crooked or leaning, and never exceeds one foot in diameter. its shiny bark, long racemed flowers and fruit, and the pungent odor of its leaves and bark might lead one to confuse it with a black cherry sapling. but there is a marked difference between the two species. the choke cherry's odor is not only pungent, but rank and disagreeable besides. the leaf of the choke cherry is a wide and abruptly pointed oval. the fruit until dead ripe is red or yellow, and so puckery, harsh, and bitter that children, who eat the black cherries eagerly, cannot be persuaded to taste choke cherries a second time. birds are not so fastidious; they often strip the trees before the berries darken. it is probably by these unconscious agents of seed distribution that choke-cherry pits are scattered. from the arctic circle to the gulf of mexico, and from the atlantic to the rocky mountains this worthless little choke cherry is found in all wooded regions. the hawthorns in the same rose family with apples, plums, cherries, and service-berries is listed the genus _crataegus_, a shrubby race of trees, undersized as a rule, with stiff, zigzag branches set with thorns. over one hundred species have been described by charles sargent in his "manual of trees of north america," published in . the centre of distribution for the hawthorn is undoubtedly the eastern united states. from newfoundland the woods are full of them. a few species belong to the rocky mountain region, a few to the states farther west. europe and asia each has a few native hawthorns. =the english hawthorn= _crataegus oxyacantha_, linn. the english hawthorn is the best-known species in the world. when it first came into cultivation, no man knows. englishmen will tell you it has always formed the hedge-rows of the countryside. this is the "blossoming may." the sweetness of its flowers, snowy white, or pink, or rose-colored, turns rural england into a garden, while linnets and skylarks fill the green lanes with music. american "forests primeval" were swept with the woodman's axe before the hawthorns had their chance to assert themselves sufficiently to attract the attention of botanists and horticulturists. the showy flowers and fruits, the vivid coloring of autumn foliage, and the striking picturesqueness of the bare tree, with its rigid branches armed with menacing thorns, give most of these little trees attractiveness at any season. they grow in any soil and in any situation, and show the most remarkable improvement when cultivated. their roots thrive in heavy clay. when young the little trees may be easily transplanted from the wild. they come readily from seed, though in most species the seed takes two years to germinate. with few exceptions, the flowers of our hawthorns are pure white, perfect, their parts in multiples of five--a family trait. each flower is a miniature white rose. rounded corymbs of these flowers on short side twigs cover the tree with a robe of white after the leaves appear. in autumn little fleshy fruits that look like apples, cluster on the twigs. inside the thick skin, the flesh is mealy and sweetish around a few hard nutlets that contain the seed. as a rule, the fruits are red. in a few species they are orange; in still fewer, yellow, blue, or black. it is not practicable to describe the many varieties of our native hawthorns in a volume of the scope of this one. a few of the most distinctive species only can be included, but no one will ever confuse a hawthorn with any other tree. =the cockspur thorn= _c. crus-galli_, linn. the cockspur thorn is a small, handsome tree, fifteen to twenty feet high, with stiff branches in a broad round head. the thorns on the sides of the twig are three to four inches long, sometimes when old becoming branched, and reaching a length of six or eight inches. stout and brown or gray, they often curve, striking downward as a rule, on the horizontal branches. the leaves, thick, leathery, lustrous, dark green above, pale beneath, one to four inches long, taper to a short stout stalk, seeming to stand on tiptoe, as if to keep out of the way of the thorns. from the ground up, the tree is clothed in bark that is bright and polished, shading from reddish brown to gray. the flowers come late, in showy clusters; and the fruit gleams red against the reddening leaves. as winter comes on the leaves fall and the branches are brightened by the fruit clusters which are not taken by the birds (_see illustration, page _). all the year long the cockspur thorn is a beautiful, ornamental tree and a competent hedge plant, popular alike in europe and america. =the scarlet haw= _c. pruinosa_, k. koch. the scarlet haw found from vermont to georgia, and west to missouri, prefers limestone soil of mountain slopes, and is more picturesque than beautiful. the foliage is distinctive; it is dark, blue-green, smooth, and leathery, pale beneath, and turns in autumn to brilliant orange. in summer the pale fruit wears a pale bloom but at maturity it is dark purplish red and shiny. =the red haw= _c. mollis_, scheele the red haw is the type of a large group, ample in size, fine in form and coloring, of fruit and foliage. this tree reaches forty feet in height, its round head rising above the tall trunk, with stout branchlets and stubby, shiny thorns. the twigs are coated with pale hairs, the young leaves, and ultimately the leaf-linings and petioles are hairy, and the fruits are downy, marked with dark dots. the only fault the landscape gardener can find with this red haw, is that its abundant fruit, ripe in late summer, falls in september. the species is found from ohio to dakota, nebraska, and kansas. =the scarlet haw= _c. coccinea_, linn. the scarlet haw, native of the northeastern states, is one of the oldest native thorns in cultivation. it is a favorite in new england gardens, because of its abundant bloom, deep crimson fruit and vivid autumn foliage. it is a shrubby, round-headed tree, with stout ascending branches, set with thorns an inch or more in length. =the black haw= _c. douglasii_, lindl. in the west the black haw is a round-headed, native tree found from puget sound southward through california and eastward to colorado and new mexico. it is a round-headed tree reaching forty feet in height, in moist soil. its distinguishing feature is the black fruit, ripe in august and september, lustrous, thin-fleshed, sweet, one-half an inch long. the thorns are stout and sharp, rarely exceeding one inch in length. the leathery dark-green leaves, one to four inches long, commend this black-fruited thorn of the west to the eastern horticulturists. it has proved hardy in gardens to the atlantic seaboard and in nova scotia. the service-berries a small genus of pretty, slender trees related to apples, and in the rose family, has representatives in every continent of the northern hemisphere, and also in north africa. their natural range is greatly extended by the efforts of horticulturists, for the trees are among the best flowering species. =the service-berry= _amelanchier canadensis_, t. & g. the eastern service-berry, june-berry, or shad-bush, is often seen in parks and on lawns; its delicate, purple-brown branches covered in april, before the oval leaves appear, with loose, drooping clusters of white flowers. (_see illustration, page ._) under each is a pair of red silky bracts and the infant leaves are red and silky, all adding their warmth of color when the tree is white with bloom. the blossoms pass quickly, just about the time the shad run up the rivers to spawn. we may easily trace this common name to the early american colonists who frugally fished the streams when the shad were running, and noted the charming little trees lighting up the river banks with their delicate blossoms, when all the woods around them were still asleep. in june the juicy red berries call the birds to a feast. then the little tree quite loses its identity, for the forest is roofed with green, and june-berries are quite overshadowed by more self-assertive species. the borders of woods in rich upland soil, from newfoundland to the dakotas and south to the gulf, are the habitat and range of this charming little tree. =the western service-berry= _a. alnifolia_, nutt. the western service-berry grows over a vast territory which extends from the yukon river south through the coast ranges to northern california and eastward to manitoba and northern michigan. in the rich bottom lands of the lower columbia river, and on the prairies about puget sound, it reaches twenty feet in height, and its nutritious, pungent fruits are gathered in quantities and dried for winter food by the indians. indeed, the horticulturists consider this large juicy fine-flavored, black berry quite worthy of cultivation, as it grows in the wild to one inch in diameter--the average size of wild plums. the hackberries fifty or sixty tropical and temperate-zone species of hackberries include two north american trees which have considerable value for shade and ornamental planting. one hardy japanese species has been introduced; three exotic species are in cultivation in the south. one is from south africa, a second from the mediterranean basin, and a third from the orient. it is easy to mistake the hackberry for an elm; the habits of the two trees lead the casual observer astray. the leaf is elm-like, though smaller and brighter green than the foliage of the american elm. a peculiarity of the foliage is the apparent division of the petiole into three main ribs, instead of a single midrib. at base, the leaves are always unsymmetrical. the bark is broken into thick ridges set with warts, separated by deep fissures. the absence of terminal buds induces a forking habit, which makes the branches of a hackberry tree gnarled and picturesque. the hackberry is not familiarly known by the inhabitants of the regions where it grows, else it would more commonly be transplanted to adorn private grounds and to shade village streets. =the hackberry= _celtis occidentalis_, linn. the hackberry reaches one hundred and twenty-five feet in height in moist soil along stream borders or in marshes. it is distributed from nova scotia to puget sound, and south to florida, tennessee, missouri, texas, and new mexico. the beauty of its graceful crown is sometimes marred by a fungus which produces a thick tufting of twigs on the ends of branches. the name, "witches' brooms" has been given to these tufts. growths of similar appearance and the same name are produced by insect injury on some other trees. the fruit of the hackberry is an oblong, thin-fleshed sweet berry, purple in color, one fourth to one half inch long. it dries about the solitary seed and hangs on the tree all winter, to the great satisfaction of the birds. (_see illustration, page ._) emerson says: "the wood is used for the shafts and axle-trees of carriages, the naves of wheels, and for musical instruments. the root is used for dyeing yellow, the bark for tanning, and an oil is expressed from the stones of the fruit." the best use we can make of the hackberry tree is to plant it for shade and ornament. it is easily transplanted, for the roots are shallow and fibrous, so that well-grown trees may be moved in winter time. the autumn yellow of the foliage is wonderfully cheerful, and the warty bark, checked into small thick plates, is interesting at any season. =european nettle tree= _c. australis_ the european nettle tree is supposed to have been the famous "lotus" of classical literature. homer tells of the lotus-eaters who, when they tasted the sweet fruit, straightway forgot their native land or could not be persuaded to return. this innocent tree, against which the charge has never been proved, bears a better reputation for the qualities of its wood. it is as hard as box or holly, and as beautiful as satin-wood when polished. figures of saints and other images are carved out of it. hay-forks are made of its supple limbs. rocky worthless land is set apart by law in some countries for the growing of these trees. suckers from the roots make admirable ramrods, coach-whip stocks and walking-sticks. shafts and axle-trees of carriages are made of the larger shoots; oars and hoops are supplied from these coppiced trees. from northern africa, throughout europe, and on to india, the tree is planted for shade, and its foliage is used as fodder for cattle. the mulberries the mulberry family includes fifty-five genera and nearly a thousand species of temperate-zone and tropical plants. the genus _ficus_ alone includes six hundred species. hemp, important for its fibrous, inner bark, and the hop vine are well known herbaceous members of the mulberry family, which stands botanically between the elms and the nettles--strange company, it would seem, but justified by fundamental characteristics. three genera of this family have tree forms in america--the mulberry, the osage orange, and the fig. two native mulberries and three exotic species are widely cultivated for their fruit, their wood, and as ornamental trees. weeping mulberries are among the most popular horticultural forms. =the red mulberry= _morus rubra_, linn. the red mulberry grows to be a large dense, round-headed tree, with thick fibrous roots and milky sap. its alternate leaves, three to five inches long, are variable in form, often irregularly lobed, very veiny, usually rough, blue-green above, pale and pubescent beneath, turning yellow in early autumn. the inconspicuous flower spikes are succeeded by fleshy aggregate fruits like a blackberry, sweet, juicy, dark purple or red, each individual fruit single-seeded. birds and boys alike throng the trees through the long period during which these berries ripen. they are hardly worthy to rank with the cultivated mulberries as a fruit tree. but planted in poultry yards and hog pastures the dropping fruits are eagerly devoured by the occupants of these enclosures. the chief value of the tree lies in the durability of its orange-yellow wood, which, though coarse-grained, soft and weak, is very durable in the soil and in contact with water. hence it has always commended itself to fence- and boat-builder. it is sometimes planted for ornament, but its dropping fruit is a strong objection to it as a street or lawn tree. one of the mulberry's chief characteristics is its tenacity to life. its seeds readily germinate and cuttings, whether from roots or twigs, strike root quickly. indians discovered that rope could be made out of the bast fibre of mulberry bark. they even wove a coarse cloth out of the same material. the early settlers of virginia, who found the red mulberry growing there in great abundance, dreamed in vain of silk culture as an industry based upon this native tree. their hopes were not realized. silk culture has never yet become a new-world industry. =the white mulberry= _m. alba_, linn. the white mulberry is a native of northern china and japan. from this region it has been extensively introduced into all warm temperate climates. its white berries are of negligible character. it is the leaves that give this oriental mulberry a unique position in the economic world. they are the chosen food of silkworms. no substitute has ever robbed this tree of its preëminence, maintained for many centuries in its one field of usefulness. the hardy russian mulberries are derived from _m. alba_. these have done much to enrich the horticulture of our northern states, but the parent tree, though it thrives in the eastern united states and in the south, has not been the means of establishing silk culture on a paying basis in this country. =the black mulberry= _m. nigra_, linn. the black mulberry, probably a native of persia, has large, dark red, juicy fruits, for which it is extensively cultivated in europe. in this country it is hardy only in the southern and the pacific coast states. it is the best fruit tree of its family, yet no mulberry is able to take rank among profitable fruit trees. the fruits are too sweet and soft, and they lack piquancy of flavor. they ripen a few at a time and are gathered by shaking the trees. the dark green foliage of the black mulberry gives ample shade throughout the season. planted in the garden or in the border of the lawn where no walk will be defaced by the dropping fruits, the mulberry is a particularly desirable tree because it attracts some of our most desirable song-birds to build on the premises. given a mulberry tree and a bird-bath near by, and the smallest city lot becomes a bird sanctuary through the summer and a wayside inn for transients during the two migratory seasons. the figs the genus _ficus_ belongs to all tropical countries, and this remarkable range accounts for the six hundred different species botanists have identified. the rubber plant, popular in this country as a pot and tub plant, is one of the best-known species. in its east indian forest home it is the "assam rubber tree." it may begin life as an air plant, fixing its roots in the crotch of another tree, in which a chance seed has lodged. a shock of aërial roots strikes downward and reaches the ground. after this the tree depends upon food drawn from the earth. the supporting host tree is no longer needed. the young rubber tree has by this time a trunk stiff enough to stand alone. assam rubber, which ranks in the market with the best brazilian crude rubber, comes from the sap of this wild fig tree, _ficus elasticus_. clip off a twig of your leathery-leaved rubber plant and note the sticky white sap that exudes. in the highest priced automobile tires you find the manufactured product. dried figs have always been an important commercial fruit. these imported figs are from trees that are horticultural varieties of a wild asiatic species, _ficus carica_. smyrna figs are best for drying. they form a delicious, wholesome sweet, which has high food value and is more wholesome than candy for children. tons of this dried fruit are imported each year from the countries east of the mediterranean sea. now california is growing smyrna figs successfully. the banyan tree of india is famous, striking its aërial rootlets downward until they reach the ground and take root, and thus help support the giant, horizontal limbs. these amazing trees, members of the genus _ficus_, sometimes extend to cover an acre or more of ground. to walk under one is like entering the darkness of a forest of young trees. by the clearing away of most of these aërial branches, a great arbor is made for the comfort of people in regions where the sun's rays are overpowering in the middle of the day. our own fig trees in north america are but sprawling parasitic trees, unable to stand alone. they are found only in the south of florida, and therefore are generally unknown. [illustration: _see page _ flowers and fruit of the wild black cherry] [illustration: _see page _ a fruiting branch of the cockspur thorn] =the golden fig= _ficus aurea_, nutt. the golden fig climbs up other trees and strangles its host with its coiling stems and aërial roots. one far-famed specimen has grown and spread like a banyan tree, its trunk and head supported by secondary stems that have struck downward from the branches. smooth as a beech in bark, crowned with glossy, beautiful foliage, like the rubber plants, this parasitic fig is a splendid tropical tree, but the host that supports all this luxuriance is sacrificed utterly. the little yellow figs that snuggle in the axils of the leaves turn purple, sweet, and juicy as they ripen. they are sometimes used in making preserves. an interesting characteristic of the wood of the golden fig is its wonderful lightness. bulk for bulk, it is only one fourth as heavy as water. the papaws two of the forty-eight genera of the tropical custard-apple family are represented by a solitary species each in the warmer parts of the united states. important fruit and ornamental trees in the tropics of the old world are included in this family, but their new-world representatives are not the most valuable. however, they have a sufficient number of family traits to look foreign and interesting among our more commonplace forest trees; and because their distribution is limited they are not generally recognized in gardens, where they are planted more for curiosity than for ornament. =the papaw= _asimina triloba_, dunal. the papaw has the family name, custard-apple, from its unusual fruit, whose flesh is soft and yellow, like custard. the shape suggests that of a banana. the fruits hang in clusters and their pulp is enclosed in thick dark brown skin, wrinkled, sometimes shapeless, three to five inches long. dead ripe, the flesh becomes almost transparent, fragrant, sweet, rather insipid, surrounding flat, wrinkled seeds an inch long. the fruit is gathered and sold in local markets from forests of these papaws which grow under taller trees in the alluvial bottom lands of the mississippi valley. in summer the leaves are tropical-looking, having single blades eight to twelve inches long, four to five inches broad, on short, thick stalks. these leaves are set alternately upon the twig, and cluster in whorls on the ends of branches. the flowers appear with the leaves and would escape notice but for their abundance and the unusual color of their three large membranous petals. at first these axillary blossoms are as green as the leaves; gradually the dark pigment overcomes the green, and the color passes through shades of brownish green to dark rich wine-red. the full-grown foliage by midsummer has become very thin in texture, and lined with pale bloom. the tree throughout exhales a sickish, disagreeable odor. the fruit is improved in flavor by hanging until it gets a nip of frost. this "wild banana tree" is the favorite fruit tree of the negroes in the black belt. its hardiness is surprising. from the southern states, it ranges north into kansas, michigan, new york, and new jersey. =the melon papaw= _carica papaya_, linn. the melon papaw does not belong to the custard-apple family, but it grows in southern florida and throughout the west indies, and has the name of our little "wild banana tree," so it may as well have mention here, as it is the sole representative of the true papaw family, and it is universally cultivated for its fruit in the warm regions of the world. by selection the fruit has been improved until it ranks as one of the most wholesome and important of all the fruits in the tropics. in florida the papaw grows on the rich hummocks along the indian river, and on the west coast southward from bay biscayne. it is very common on all the west indian islands. it grows like a palm, with tall stem crowned by huge simple leaves, one to two feet across, deeply lobed into three main divisions, and each lobe irregularly cut by narrow sinuses. the veins are very thick and yellow, and the hollow leaf-stalks lengthen to three or four feet. the bark of this tree is silvery white--a striking contrast with the lustrous head of foliage. the flowers are waxy, tubular, fragrant, turning their yellow petals backward in a whorl. on fertile trees the fruits mature into great melons, sometimes as large as a man's head; but these are the cultivated varieties. wild papaws rarely exceed four inches long, and usually they are smaller. when full grown the fruit turns to bright orange-yellow. the succulent pulp separates easily from the round seeds. in the west indies, the trees often branch and attain much greater size than in florida, where fifteen feet is the maximum, in the wilds. the leaves of this papaw contain, in their abundant sap, a solvent, _papain_, which has the property of destroying the connective tissue in meats. they are bruised by the natives and tough meat, wrapped closely in them, becomes tender in a few hours. the fruits are eaten raw and made into preserves. negroes use the leaves also as a substitute for soap in the washing of clothes. the pond apples the pond apple (_anona glabra_, linn.) is our only representative of its genus that reaches tree form and size, and it is the second of our native custard-apples. it comes to us _via_ the west indies, and reaches no farther north than the swamps of southern florida. it is a familiar tree on the bahama islands. thirty to forty feet high, the broad head rises from a short trunk, less than two feet in diameter, but very thick compared with the wide-spreading, contorted branches and slender branchlets. it is often buttressed at the base. the leaves are oval and pointed, rarely more than four inches long, bright green, leathery, paler on the lower surface, plain-margined. the flowers in april form pointed, triangular boxes by the touching of the tips of the yellowish white petals, whose inner surfaces near the base have a bright red spot. the fruit, which ripens in november, is somewhat heart-shaped, four to six inches long, compound like a mulberry. the smooth custard-like flesh forms a luscious mass between the fibrous core and the surface, studded with the hard seeds. fragrant and sweet, these wild pond apples have small merit as fruit. little effort has been made to improve the species horticulturally. its rival species in the west indies have a tremendous lead which they are likely to keep. =the cherimoya= _anona cherimolia_, mill. the cherimoya, native of the highlands of central america, has long been cultivated, and its fruit has been classed, with the pineapple and the mangosteen, as one of the three finest fruits in the world. certainly it deserves high rank among the fruits of the tropics. this also has been introduced into cultivation in southern florida, but its culture has assumed much more importance in california, where it seems to feel quite at home. the tree is a handsome one, with broad velvety bright green leaves, deciduous during the winter months. it grows wherever the orange is hardy, and its fruit, heart-shaped or oval, green or brown, is about the size of a navel orange. conical protuberances cover the surface and enclose a mass of white, custard-like pulp, with the flavor of the pineapple, in which are imbedded twenty or thirty brown seeds. a taste for this tropical pond apple is as easily acquired as for the pineapple, which has become universally popular. every garden in the orange belt should have a cherimoya tree for ornament and for its fruit. the persimmons the persimmon tree of the southern woods belongs to the ebony family, which contains some important fruit and lumber trees, chiefly confined to the genus _diospyros_, which has two representatives among the trees of north america. doubtless a climate of longer summers would enable our persimmon trees to produce wood as hard as the ebony of commerce, whose black heart-wood and thick belt of soft yellow sap-wood are the products of five different tropical species of the genus--two from india, one from africa, one from malaysia and one from mauritius. the beautiful, variegated wood called _coromandel_ is produced by a species of ebony that grows in ceylon. fossil remains of persimmon trees are found in the miocene rocks of greenland and alaska, and in the later cretaceous beds uncovered in nebraska. these prove that _diospyros_ once had a much wider range than now, extending through temperate to arctic regions, whereas now our two persimmons and the chinese and japanese species, are the only representatives outside the tropics. =the persimmon= _diospyros virginiana_, linn. the persimmon will never be forgotten by the northerner who chances to visit his virginia cousins in the early autumn. strolling through the woods he notes among other unfamiliar trees a tall shaft covered with black bark, deeply checked into squarish plates. the handsome round head, held well aloft, bears a shock of angular twigs and among the glossy, orange-red leaves hang fruits the size and shape of his northern crabapples. the rich orange-red makes it extremely attractive, and the enthusiasm with which the entire population regards the approaching persimmon harvest focuses his interest likewise upon this unknown southern fruit. he is eager to taste it without delay, and usually there is no one to object. forthwith he climbs the tree, or beats a branch with a long pole until a good specimen is obtained. its thin skin covers the mellow flesh--but the first bite is not followed by a second. the fruit is so puckery that it almost strangles one. but after the frosts and well on into the winter the persimmons grow more sweet, juicy, and delicious, and lose all their bitterness and astringency. to find a few of these sugary morsels in the depths of the woods at the end of a long day's hunting is a reward that offsets all disappointments of an empty bag. no fruit could be more utterly satisfying to a dry-mouthed, leg-weary, hungry boy. the opossum is the chief competitor of the local negro in harvesting the persimmon crop. individual trees differ in the excellence of their fruit. these special trees are "spotted" months before the crop is fit to eat. it would seem as if the opossums camp under the best persimmon trees and take an unfair advantage, because they are nocturnal beasts and have nothing to do but watch and wait. one thing solaces the negro, when he sees the harvest diminish through the unusual industry and appetite of his bright-eyed, rat-tailed rival. he knows what brush-pile or hollow tree shelters the opossum, while he sleeps by day. every persimmon the opossum steals helps to make him fat and tender for the darkey's thanksgiving feast, so it is only a question of patience and strategy to recoup his losses by feasting on his fat 'possum neighbor, and to boast to the friends who join him at the feast, of the contest of wits at which he came off victorious. in summer time a persimmon tree is handsome in its oval pointed leaves, often six inches long, with pale linings. the flowers that appear in axillary clusters on the sterile trees are small, yellowish green and inconspicuous. on the fertile trees the flowers are solitary and axillary. the fruit is technically a berry, containing one to eight seeds. the following first impressions of persimmons in virginia woods are from the pen of a traveler in the early part of the seventeenth century, whom pocahontas might have introduced to a fruit well known to the indians: * * * * * "they have a plumb which they call pessemmins, like to a medler, in england, but of a deeper tawnie cullour; they grow on a most high tree. when they are not fully ripe, they are harsh and choakie, and furre in a man's mouth like allam, howbeit, being taken fully ripe, yt is a reasonable pleasant fruiet, somewhat lushious. i have seen our people put them into their baked and sodden puddings; there be whose tast allows them to be as pretious as the english apricock; i confess it is a good kind of horse plumb." * * * * * "'simmon beer" and brandy are made from the fruit, and its seeds are roasted to use when coffee is scarce. the inner bark of the tree has tonic properties, and the country folk use it for the allaying of intermittent fevers. the wood is used in turnery, for shoe lasts, plane stocks and shuttles. it is a peculiarity of the persimmon tree that almost one hundred layers of pale sap-wood, the growth of as many years, lie outside of the black heart-wood, upon which the reputation of ebony rests. the japanese persimmon kaki the native persimmon of japan has been developed into an important horticultural fruit. china also has species that are fruit trees of merit. in the fruit stalls of all american cities, the japanese persimmon is found in its season, the smooth, orange-red skin, easily mistaken for that of a tomato as the fruits lie in their boxes. the pointed cones differ in form, however, and the soft mellow flesh, with its melon-like seeds and leathery calyx at base, mark this fruit as still a novelty in the east. in southern california no garden is complete without a japanese persimmon tree to give beauty by its cheerful, leathery, green leaves and its rich-colored fruits. but the beginner will establish a grave personal prejudice against this fruit unless he wait until it is dead ripe, for it has the astringent qualities of its genus. no fruit is more delicate in flavor than a thoroughly ripe kaki, so soft that it must be eaten with a spoon. the department of agriculture at washington has established a number of varieties of these oriental fruit trees in the warmer parts of the united states. our native persimmons are being used as stock upon which to graft the exotics. a distinct addition to the fruits of this country has thus been made and the public is fast learning to enjoy the luscious, wholesome japanese persimmons. part vi the pod-bearing trees the locusts--the acacias or wattles--other pod-bearers whenever we see blossoms of the sweet-pea type on a tree or pods of the same type as the pea's swinging from the twigs, we may be sure that we are looking at a member of the pod-bearing family, _leguminosae_, to which herbaceous and woody plants both belong. the family is one of the largest and most important in the plant kingdom, and its representatives are distributed to the uttermost parts of the earth. four hundred and fifty genera contain the seven thousand species already described by botanists. varieties without number belong to the cultivated members of the family, and new forms are being produced by horticulturists all the time. this great group of plants has fed the human race, directly and indirectly, since the first man appeared on earth. clovers, alfalfas, lentils, peas, beans yield foodstuffs rich in all the elements that build flesh and bone and nerve tissues. they take the place of meat in vegetarian dietaries. besides foods, the pod-bearers yield rubber, dyestuffs, balsams, oils, medicinal substances, and valuable timber. a long list of ornamental plants, beautiful in foliage and flowers, occurs among them, chiefly of shrub and tree form. last, but not least, among their merits stands the fact that leguminous plants are the only ones that actually enrich the soil they grow in, whereas the rest of the plant creation feed upon the soil, and so rob it of its plant food and leave it poorer than before. pod-bearers have the power to take the nitrogen out of the air, and store it in their roots and stems. the decay of these parts restores to the soil the particular plant food that is most commonly lacking and most costly to replace. farmers know that after wheat and corn have robbed the soil of nitrogen, a crop of clover or cow peas, plowed under when green and luxuriant, is the best restorer of fertility. it enriches by adding valuable chemical elements, and also improves the texture of the soil, increasing its moisture-holding properties, which commercial fertilizers do not. seventeen genera of leguminous plants have tree representatives within the united states. these include about thirty species. valuable timber trees are in this group. all but one, the yellow-wood, have compound leaves, of many leaflets, often fern-like in their delicacy of structure, and intricacy of pattern. with few exceptions the flowers are pretty and fragrant in showy clusters. the ripening pods of many species add a striking, decorative quality to the tree from midsummer on through the season. thorns give distinction and usefulness to certain of these trees, making them available for ornamental hedges. the locusts three representatives of the genus _robinia_ are among our native forest trees. they are known in early summer by their showy, pea-like blossoms in full clusters, and their compound leaves, that have the habit of drooping and folding shut their paired leaflets when night comes on, or when rain begins to fall. the pods are thin and small, splitting early, but hanging late on the twigs. =the black locust= _robinia pseudacacia_, linn. the black or yellow locust is a beautiful tree in its youth, with smooth dark rind and slender trunk, holding up a loose roundish head of dark green foliage. each leaf is eight to fourteen inches long, of nine to nineteen leaflets, silvery when they unfold, and always paler beneath. in late may, the tree-top bursts into bloom that is often so profuse as to whiten the whole mass of the dainty foliage. the nectar-laden, white flowers have the characteristic "butterfly" form, the banner, wings, and keel of the type pease-blossom. (_see illustration, page _). the bees lead the insect host that swarms about them as long as a locust flower remains to offer sweets to the probing tongues. cross-fertilization is the advantage the tree gains for all it gives. the crop of seeds is sure. the angled twigs of the black locust break easily in windy weather. the rapid growth of the limbs spreads the narrow head, and its symmetry is soon destroyed, unless the tree grows in a sheltered situation. an old locust is usually an ugly, broken specimen, ragged-looking for three-fourths of the year. the twigs look dead, because their winter buds are buried out of sight! the bark is dull, deeply cut into irregular, interlacing furrows, roughened by scales and shreds on the ridges. in winter the pods chatter querulously, as the wind plays among the tree tops. the black locust is found from pennsylvania to iowa, and south from georgia to oklahoma. the lumber is coarse-grained, heavy, hard, and exceptionally durable in contact with the soil or water. this makes it especially adaptable for fence posts and boat bottoms. crystals, called _raphides_, in the wood cells, take the edges off tools used in working locust lumber. yet it is sought by manufacturers of mill cogs and wheel hubs, and railroad companies plant the trees for ties. the locust-borer has ruined plantations of this tree of late years, and trees in the woods have become infested except in mountainous regions not yet reached by the pest. trees become distorted with warty excrescences and the lumber is riddled with burrows made by the larvae. until the entomologist finds a remedy in some natural parasite of the locust-borer, the outlook for locust culture seems dark enough. no insecticide can reach an enemy that hides in the trunk of the tree it destroys. =the clammy locust= _r. viscosa_, vent. the clammy locust has beautifully shaded pink flowers in clusters, each blossom accented by the dark red, shiny calyx, and the glandular exudation of wax, that covers all new growth. a favorite ornamental locust, this little tree has been widely distributed in this and other temperate countries of the globe. its leaves are delicately feathery, with the dew-like gum brightening them, as it does also the hairy, curling pods that flush as they ripen. in winter the twigs are ruddy. the trees grow wild on the mountains of the carolinas and nowhere else. =the honey locust= _gleditsia triacanthos_, linn. the honey locust is a tall handsome flat-topped tree, with stiff horizontal, often drooping branches, ending in slim brown polished twigs, with three-branched thorns, stout and very sharp, set a little distance above the leaf scar of the previous season. occasionally a thornless tree occurs. inconspicuous greenish flowers, regular, bell-shaped, appear in elongated clusters, the fertile and sterile clusters distinct, but on the same tree. the leaves are almost full-grown when the blossoms appear. their feathery, fern-like aspect is the tree's greatest charm in early june. when the pods replace the flowers they attract attention and admiration as their velvety surfaces change from pale green to rose and they curve, as they lengthen, into all sorts of graceful and fantastic forms. the sweet, gummy pulp of the honey locust pods is considered edible by boys, who brave the thorns to get them. as the autumn approaches, the pulp turns bitter, and dries around the shiny black seeds. the purple pods cling and rattle in the wind long after the yellow leaves have fallen. one by one, they are torn off, their s-curves tempting every vagrant breeze to give them a lift. on the crusty surface of snowbanks and icy ponds, they are whirled along, and finally lodge, to rot and liberate the seeds. it takes much soaking to prepare the adamantine seeds for sprouting. the planter scalds his seed to hasten the process. nature soaks, freezes, and thaws them, and thus the range of the honey locust is extended. in the wild, this tree is found from ontario to nebraska, and south to alabama and texas. it chooses rich bottom lands, but is found also on dry gravelly slopes of the alleghany mountains. trunks six feet in diameter are still in existence, preserved from the early forests of the wabash basin in indiana. they tower nearly one hundred and fifty feet above the ground, and their branches are a formidable array of thorns (_see illustration, page _), that have grown into proportions unmatched in trees of slender build and fewer years. such a veteran honey locust is one of the most picturesque figures in a winter landscape. honey locust wood is hard, coarse-grained, heavy, and durable in contact with water and soil. it is made into wheel-hubs, fence-posts, and fuel. in all temperate countries this species has been used as a shade and ornamental tree and as a hedge plant. =the kentucky coffee tree= _gymnocladus dioicus_, k. koch the kentucky coffee tree is the one clumsy, coarse member of a family that abounds in graceful, dainty species. its head is small and unsymmetrical, above a trunk that often rises free from limbs for fifty feet above ground. the branches are stiff and large, bare until late spring, when the buds expand and the shoots are thrown out. the leaves are twice compound, often a yard in length and half as wide; the leaflets, six to fourteen on each of the five to nine divisions of the main rib. no other locust can boast a leaf numbering more than one hundred leaflets, each averaging two inches in length. when the tree turns to gold in autumn, it is a sight to draw all eyes. the flower spray is large, but the flowers are small, imperfect, salver-form, purplish green--the fertile ones forming thick, clumsy pods that dangle in clusters, and seem to weigh down the stiff branchlets. the fresh pulp used to be made into a decoction used in homeopathic practice. the ripe seeds were used in revolutionary times as a substitute for coffee. how the pioneer ever crushed them is a puzzle to all who have tried to break one with a nut-cracker. in china the fresh pulp of the pods of a sister species is used as we use soap. the wood is not hard, but in other respects it resembles other locust lumber. it is sometimes used in cabinet work, being a rich, reddish brown, with pale sap-wood. the range of the coffee tree extends from new york to nebraska, and south through pennsylvania, tennessee and oklahoma, with bottom lands as the tree's preference. nowhere is this species common. occasionally, it is planted as a street tree, in this country and abroad. =the redbud= _cercis canadensis_, linn. the redbud covers its delicate angled, thornless branchlets with a profusion of rosy-purple blossoms, typically pea-like, before the leaves appear. the unusual color, so abundant where little redbuds form thickets on the outskirts of a woodland, leads to a very general recognition of this tree among people who go into the april woods for early violets. it vies with the white banner of the shad-bush, in doing honor to the spring. later, the broad heart-shaped leaves cover and adorn the tree, concealing the dainty tapering pods that turn to purple as the polished leaf blades, unmarred by insect or wind, change from green to clear yellow before falling. [illustration: _see page _ service-berry in blossom the flowers appear in april, before the leaves] [illustration: _see page _ the hackberry leaves, berries, and (a) pistillate and (b) staminate flowers] tradition has given this charming little locust tree the name, "judas-tree," from its european cousin, rumored to have been the one upon which the choice of judas fell when he went out and hanged himself. it is an unearned stigma, better forgotten, for it does prejudice the planter against a tree that should be on every lawn, preferably showing its rosy flowers against a bank of evergreens. its natural range extends from new jersey to florida and west from ontario to nebraska and southward. the largest specimens reach fifty feet in height in texas and arkansas, in river bottom lands, and in the southwest the tree is an abundant undergrowth--making a beautiful woodland picture in early spring. =the yellow-wood= _cladrastis lutea_, k. koch. the yellow-wood was named by the wife of a pioneer, surely, for she soaked the chips and got from them a clear yellow dye, highly prized for the permanent color it gave to her homespun cotton and woolen cloth that must have gone colorless, but for dyestuffs discoverable in the woods. the satiny grain of the wood, and its close hard texture, commended it to the woodsman, who used it for gun stocks. but the tree is too small to be important for the lumber it yields. in winter the smooth pale bark of the "virgilia," as the nurseryman calls it, reminds one of the rind of the beech. the broad rounded head, often borne on three or more spreading stems, is formed of drooping graceful branches, ending in brittle twigs. summer clothes these twigs with a light airy covering of compound leaves, of seven to eleven broadly oval leaflets, on a stalk less than a foot in length. in autumn, the foliage turns yellow. white flowers, pea-like, delicate, fragrant, in clusters a foot long, and so loose that the flowers seem to drip from the twig ends, drape the tree in white about the middle of june, when the young leaves show many tints of green to form a background for the blossoms. this is the supreme moment of the year for one of the most charming of trees, in any park that cherishes one of these virgilias. in the wilds of eastern tennessee, northern alabama, and central kentucky the species is found in scattered places. but the wild trees have scant food and they show it. the full beauty of the species is seen only in cultivation, as one sees it in the arnold arboretum, and in private gardens near boston. even the little pods, thin, satiny pointed, add a harmonious note of beauty; their silvery fawn color blending with the quiet quaker drab worn by the tree all winter. fortunately, this hardy beautiful park tree is easily raised from seeds and from root cuttings. it thrives on soil of many different kinds. it has no bad habits, no superior, and few equals among flowering trees. the acacias, or wattles australia has contributed to southern california's tree flora a large number of forms of the acacia tribe, shrubs and trees of great variety and beauty of flowers and evergreen foliage. they are hardy and perfectly at home, and are planted in such profusion as to be the commonest of all street and ornamental trees. the leaves are set on a branching pinnate stem, making them "twice compound" of many tiny leaflets, fascicled on the sides of the twigs, alternate on the terminal shoots of the season. the lacy, fern-like foliage of most acacias would justify the planting of them for this trait alone. but the abundant mass of bloom usually overwhelms the tree-tops, obscuring the foliage with a veil of golden mesh. sometimes white, but oftenest yellow, the individual flowers are very small; but they crowd in button-like heads or elongated spikes, set close in axillary clusters. in their native woods these trees flower much less freely than in the land of their adoption. the curling pods are in most species and varieties ornamental, as they pass through many color changes before they finally discharge their seeds. acacias compose a genus of four hundred species, and an untold and constantly increasing number of cultivated varieties. the continent of australia has the greatest representation of native species. others belong to africa--tropical, northern, and southern regions. asia, in its warmer southern territory, and in southwestern china, has many native acacias. tropical and temperate south america, the west indies, central america, mexico, the southwestern region of the united states, and the islands of the south pacific, all have representatives of this wonderful and far-scattered genus. there is no country interested in horticulture that does not grow acacias as ornamental shrubs and trees, even if they must be grown under glass the year round. in southern england the acacias, grown in open ground, and known as "tassel trees," attain good size. valuable lumber, tanbarks, dyes, perfumes, and drugs are yielded by acacias. gum arabic is the dried sap of several oriental species, particularly, _acacia arabica_, linn. of egypt and southern asia. as a rule, acacias have slender branches armed with spines. often these are too small to attract notice, or to make the species useful as a hedge plant. all spines are modifications of the stipules at the base of leaf or leaflet. thorns, however, are modified twigs, strong, stiff and sharp, often branched. the honey locust shows true thorns, not spines or prickles. the armament of canes of blackberry is only skin deep. this means of defence is best called "prickles." =the black acacia= _acacia melanoxylon_ the black acacia, called at home in australian woods, the "blackwood-tree," for its black heart-wood, is a familiar street and shade tree in california. in narrow parkings it is likely to surprise the planter by outgrowing in a few years the space allotted to it, and upheaving both cement walk and curb, by the irresistible force of its thick roots. it is one of the large timber acacias, and even in the cool climate of england reaches fifty feet. in suitable situations in california it grows much higher, and its compact conical head of dense evergreen foliage, gives abundant shade at all seasons. the flowers are white or cream-colored, lightening the yellow-green of the new shoots and the dull, opaque of the older leaves, with abundant clusters in earliest spring. the succeeding fruits are curling thin pods that hang in brownish sheaves, giving the tree a rusty look. each seed is rimmed with a frill of terra cotta hue that serves as a wing for its flight, when detached by the wind. the roots send up suckers and the seeds are quick to grow. so any one can have black acacias with little trouble or expense. its shedding of leaves and pods makes much litter, however, a trait sometimes overlooked which seriously diminishes its desirability as a street and shade tree. =the silver wattle= _a. dealbata_ the silver wattle of nursery catalogues is named for its abundant, silvery-pubescent, feathery foliage. its flowers--fluffy golden balls, small but abundant--make this a wonderfully showy tree. sea-green and turquoise-blue leaves, with abundant canary-yellow bloom, are traits of many different acacias in cultivation, all of which are rapid growers, and soon repay the planter who wants quick results. from being mere ornaments they rise to the stature of shade trees, and merely multiply the charms that made them admired when young. varieties with sharp spines are employed as hedge plants. curious leaf forms and unusual, edgewise position of the foliage, make us wonder at some of the glorious "golden wattles" and "knife-leaved acacias," that bring us glimpses of the forests of australia and other strange far countries. other pod-bearers =the mesquite= _prosopis juliflora_, dc. the mesquite or honey pod is one of the wonderful plants of the arid and semi-arid regions from colorado and utah to texas and southern california. at best it is a tree sixty feet high along the rivers of arizona. in the higher and more desert stretches it is stunted to a sprawling shrub, with numerous stems but a few feet high. its leaves are like those of our honey locust but very much smaller, and the tree furnishes little shade. the bark of the trunk is thick, dark reddish brown, shallowly fissured between scaly ridges. in winter the tree looks dead enough, but the young shoots clothed with tender green bring it to life in early spring, and the greenish fragrant flowers, thickly set in finger-like clusters, appear in successive crops from may to july. these are succeeded by pods four to nine inches long in drooping clusters, each containing ten to twenty beans. not its beauty of leaf and blossom but its usefulness is what makes this tree almost an object of worship to desert dwellers, red men and white. the long fat pods supply mexicans and indians with a nutritious food, green or ripe. cattle feed upon the young shoots and thrive, when other forage is scant or utterly lacking. the fuel problem of the desert is solved by the mesquite in a way that is a great surprise to the newcomer. his sophisticated neighbor takes him on a wood-gathering expedition. stopping where a shrubby mesquite sprawls, he hitches his team to a chain or rope that lays hold of the trunk, and hauls the plant out by its roots. and what roots the mesquite has developed in its search for water! there is a central tap root that goes down, down, sometimes sixty feet or more. secondary roots branch out in all directions, interlock, thicken, and form a labyrinth of woody substance, in quantity and quality that makes the timber above ground a negligible quantity. this wood is cut into building and fencing materials--two great needs in the desert. the waste makes good fuel, and every scrap is precious. posts, railroad ties, frames for the adobe houses, furniture, fellies of wheels, paving blocks, and charcoal are made of this wonderful tree's root system. a gum resembling gum-arabic exudes from the stems. =the screw-bean= _p. pubescens_, benth. the screw-bean or screw-pod mesquite is a small slender-trunked tree with sharp spines at the bases of the hoary foliage. the marked distinction between this species and the preceding one is in the fruit, which makes from twelve to twenty turns as it matures, and forms when ripe a narrow straight spiral, one to two inches long; but when drawn out like a coiled spring the pod is shown to be more than a foot in length. these sweet nutritious pods are a most useful fodder for range cattle, and the wood is used for fencing and fuel. this tree grows from southern utah and nevada through new mexico and arizona into san diego county, california, western texas and northern mexico. =the palo verde acacia= _cercidium torreyanum_, sarg. the palo verde is another green-barked acacia whose leaves are almost obsolete. miniature honey-locust leaves an inch long unfold, a few here and there in march and april, but they are gone before they fully mature, and the leaf function is carried on entirely by the vivid green branches. clustered flowers, like little yellow roses, cover the branches in april, and the pointed pods ripen and fall in july. in the colorado desert of southern california, in the valley of the lower gila river in arizona, on the sides of low canyons and on desert sandhills into mexico, this small tree, with its multitude of leafless, ascending branches, is one of the brightest features on a hopelessly dun-colored landscape. =the jamaica dogwood= _icthyomethia piscipula_, a. s. hitch. the jamaica dogwood is a west indian tree that grows also in southern florida and mexico. it is one of the commonest tropical trees on the florida west coast from the shores of bay biscayne to the southern keys. the leaves are four to nine inches long, with leaflets three to four inches in length, deciduous, vivid green, making a tree fifty feet high an object of tropical luxuriance. its beauty is greatly enhanced in may by the opening of the pink, pea-like blossoms that hang in drooping clusters a foot or more in length. the necklace-like pods are frilled on four sides with thin papery wings. the wood of this tree is very durable in contact with water, besides being heavy, close-grained, and hard. it is locally used in boat-building, and for fuel and charcoal. all parts of the tree, but especially the bark of the roots, contain an acid drug of sleep-inducing properties. in the west indies the powdered leaves, young branches, and the bark of the roots have long been used by the natives to stupefy fish they try to capture. =the horse bean= _parkinsonia aculeata_, linn. the horse bean or retama, native to the valleys of the lower rio grande and colorado river, is a small graceful pod-bearing tree of drooping branches set with strong spines, long leaf-stems, branching and set with many pairs of tiny leaflets. the bright yellow, fragrant flowers are almost perennial. in texas the tree is out of bloom only in midwinter. in the tropics, it is ever-blooming. the fruit hangs in graceful racemes, dark orange-brown in color, and compressed between the remote beans. as a hedge and ornamental garden plant, this tree has no equal in the southwest. it is met with in cultivation in most warm countries. =the texas ebony= _zigia flexicaulis_, sudw. the texas ebony is a beautiful, acacia-like tree of southern texas and mexico. one of the commonest and most beautiful trees on the bluffs along the coast, south of the rio grande. its leaves are feathery, fern-like, its flowers in creamy clusters, its pods thick, almost as large as those of the honey locust. the seeds are palatable and nutritious, green or ripe. immature, the pods are cooked like string beans; ripe, they are roasted, and the pods themselves are ground and used as a substitute for coffee. the wood is valuable in fine cabinet work, and because it is almost indestructible in contact with the ground, it is largely used for fence posts. it makes superior fuel. besides being more valuable than any other tree of the rio grande valley, though it rarely exceeds thirty feet in height, it is worthy of the attention of gardeners as well as foresters in all warm temperate countries. prof. sargent calls it the finest ornamental tree native to texas. =the frijolito= _sophora secundiflora_, dc. the frijolito or coral-bean is a small, slender narrow-headed tree, with persistent, locust-like leaves, fragrant violet-blue flowers, and small one-sided racemes. the pods are silky white, pencil-like, constricted between the bright scarlet seeds. the tree grows wild in canyons in southern texas and new mexico, forming thickets or small groves in low moist limestone soil and stream borders. it is a close relative of the famous pagoda tree of japan, _s. japonica_, universally cultivated; and it deserves to be a garden tree throughout the southern states. part vii deciduous trees with winged seeds the maples--the ashes--the elms the maples a single genus, _acer_, includes from sixty to seventy species, widely distributed over the northern hemisphere. a single species goes south of the equator, to the mountains of java. all produce pale close-grained, fairly hard wood, valued in turnery and for the interior finish of houses. the clear sap of some american species is made into maple sugar. the signs by which we may know a member of the maple family are two: opposite, simple leaves, palmately veined and lobed; and fruits in the form of paired samaras, compressed and drawn out into large thin wings. no amount of improvement changes these family traits. no other tree has both leaves and fruits like a maple's. the distribution of genus _acer_ is interesting. the original home of the family is in the far east. in china and japan we may reckon up about thirty indigo maples, while only nine are native to north america. of these, five are in the eastern half of the continent, three in the west, and one grows indifferently on both sides of the great divide. =the sugar maple= _acer saccharum_, marsh. the sugar maple (_see illustration, page - _) is economically the most important member of its family in this country. as an avenue and shade tree it is unsurpassed. it is the great timber maple, whose curly and bird's-eye wood is loved by the cabinet-maker; and whose sap boiled down, yields maple sugar--a delicious sweet, with the distinctive flavor beloved by all good americans. in october the sugar maple paints the landscape with yellow and orange and red. its firm broad leaves, shallowly cleft into five lobes, are variously toothed besides. the flowers open late, hanging on the season's shoots in hairy yellow clusters. the key fruits are smooth and plump, with wings only slightly diverging. they are shed in midsummer. hard maple wood outranks all other maple lumber, though the curly grain and the bird's-eye are accidental forms rarely found. flooring makes special demands upon this wood. much is used in furniture factories; and small wares--shoe lasts, shoe pegs and the like--consume a great deal. as fuel, hard maple is outranked only by hickory. its ashes are rich in potash and are in great demand as fertilizer in orchards and gardens. the living tree, in the park, on the street, casting its shade about the home, or glowing red among the trees of the woods, is more valuable than its lumber. slow-growing, strong to resist damage by storm, clean in habit and beautiful the year round--this is our splendid rock maple. rich, indeed, is the city whose early inhabitants chose it as the permanent street tree. =the black maple= _a. nigrum_, michx. the black maple is so like the sugar maple that they are easily confused, but its stout branchlets are orange-colored, the leaves are smooth and green on both sides, scantly toothed, and they droop as if their stems were too weak to hold up the blades. the keys spread more widely than those of the sugar maple. the black maple is the sugar maple of south dakota and iowa. it becomes rarer as one goes east. it is an admirable lumber tree, as well as a noble street and shade tree. two soft maples are found in the eastern part of the country, their sap less sweet, their wood softer than the hard maples, and their fitness for street planting correspondingly less. =the red maple= _a. rubrum_, linn. the red maple is a lover of swamps. it thrives, however, on hillsides, if the soil be moist; and is planted widely in parks and along village streets. in beauty it excels all other maples. in early spring its swelling buds glow like garnets on the brown twigs (_see illustrations, pages - _). the opening flowers have red petals, and the first leaves, which accompany the early bloom, are red. in may the dainty flat keys, in clusters on their long, flexible stems, are as red as a cock's comb, and beautiful against the bright green of the new foliage. in early september in new england, a splash of red in the woods, across a swamp, is sure to be a scarlet maple that suddenly declares its name. against the green of a hemlock forest these maples show their color like a splash of blood. the tree is gorgeous. in winter the lover of the woods, re-visiting the scenes of his summer rambles, knows the scarlet maple by the knotty, full-budded twigs which gleam like red-hot needles set with coral beads, against the clean-limbed, gray-trunked tree. the red maple never quite forgets its name. as a street tree, it makes rapid progress when it once becomes established, though it is apt to stand still for a time after being transplanted. its branches are short, numerous, and erect, making a round head, admirably adapted to the resistance of heavy winds. it is particularly suited to use in narrow streets. =the soft maple= _a. saccharinum_, linn. the soft maple or silver maple (_see illustration, page _) has a white-lined leaf, cleft almost to the midrib and each division again deeply cut. it is quick and ready to grow, and has been widely planted as a street tree, especially in prairie regions of uncertain rainfall. it is one of the poorest of trees for street planting, because it has a sprawling habit and weak brittle wood. the heavy limbs have great horizontal spread, and are easily broken by ice and windstorms. when planted on streets, they require constant cutting back to make them even safe. thick crops of suckers rise from the stubs of branches, but the top thus formed is neither beautiful nor useful. wier's weeping maple, a cut-leaved, drooping variety of this silver maple, is often seen as a lawn tree, imitating the habit of the weeping willow. =the oregon maple= _a. macrophyllum_, pursh. the oregon maple grows from southern alaska to lower california, along the banks of streams. the great leaves, often a foot in diameter, on blades of equal length, are the distinguishing marks of this stout-limbed tree, that grows in favorable soil to a height of a hundred feet. in southern oregon it forms pure forest, its huge limbs forming magnificent, interlacing arches that shut out the sun and make a wonderful cover for ferns and mosses far below. the wood of this tree is the best hard-wood lumber on the west coast. =the vine maple= _a. circinatum_, pursh. the vine maple reminds one of the lianas of tropical woods, for it has not sufficient stiffness to stand erect. it grows in the bottom lands and up the mountain sides, but always following watercourses, from british columbia to northern california. its vine-like stems spring up in clusters from the ground, spreading in wide curves, and these send out long, slender twigs which root when they touch the ground, thus forming impenetrable thickets, often many acres in extent. the leaf is almost circular and cut into narrow equal lobes around the margin; green in midsummer, it changes to red and gold in autumn, and the woodsman, almost worn out with the labor of getting through the maze these trees form, must delight, when he stops to rest, in the autumn glory of this wonderful ground cover. these little maples lend a wonderful charm to the edges of forest highways in the eastern states. like the hornbeams, hazel bushes, and ground hemlock, they are lovers of the shade; and they fringe the forest with a shrubbery border. =the striped maple= _a. pennsylvanicum_, linn. the striped maple is quickly recognized by the pale white lines that streak in delicate patterns the smooth green bark of the branches. the leaves are large and finely saw-toothed, with three triangular lobes at the top. the yellowish bell-flowers hang in drooping clusters, followed by the smooth green keys, in midsummer. this tree is called "moosewood," for moose browse upon it. the shrubbery border of parks is lightened in autumn by the yellow foliage of this little tree, and in winter the bark is very attractive. "whistlewood" is the name the boys know this tree by, for in spring the bark slips easily, and they cut branches of suitable size for whistles. =the mountain maple= _a. spicatum_, lam. the mountain maple is a dainty shrub with ruddy stems, large, three-lobed leaves, erect clusters of yellow flowers and tiny brown keys. it follows the mountains from new england to northern georgia, and from the great lakes extends to the saskatchewan. [illustration: _see page _ _see page _ the thorny trunk of the honey locust, and the foliage and flowers of the black locust] [illustration: _see page _ sugar maple maple sugar is made in february; the trees bloom in may; their seeds ripen in october] [illustration: _see page _ the red maple's pistillate (_left_) and staminate (_right_) flowers] [illustration: _see page _ seed keys and new foliage of the soft or silver maple] =the dwarf maple= _a. glabrum_, torr. the dwarf maple ranges plentifully from canada to arizona and new mexico. its leaves, typically three-lobed and cut-toothed, vary to a compound form of three coarse-toothed leaflets. the winged keys are ruddy in midsummer, lending an attractive dash of color to the woods that border high mountain streams. very common in cultivation are the japanese maples--miniature trees, bred and cultivated for centuries, wonderful in the variations in form and coloring of their leaves. tiny maple trees in pots are often very old. some leaves are mere skeletons. the japanese people are worshippers of beauty and they delight particularly in garden shows. in the autumn, when the maples have reached perfection, the populace turns out in holiday attire to celebrate a grand national fête. a sort of æsthetic jubilee it is, like the spring jubilee of the cherry blossom. to each careful gardener who has patiently toiled to bring his maples to perfection, it is sufficient reward that the people make this annual pilgrimage to view them. =the box elder= _a. negundo_, linn. the box elder is the one maple whose leaves are always cleft to the stem, making it compound of irregularly toothed leaflets. the clusters of flattened keys, which hang all winter on the trees, declare the kinship of this tree to the maples. fast-growing, hardy, willing to grow in treeless regions, this tree has spread from its eastern range throughout the plains, where shelter belts were the first needs of the settlers. pretty at first, these box elders are soon broken down and unsightly. they should be used only as temporary trees, alternating with elms, hard maples, and ashes. where they are neglected, or continue to be planted, the character of the town or the premises must be cheap and ugly. =the norway maple= _a. platanoides_, linn. the norway maple is counted the best maple we have for street planting. broad, thin leaves, three-lobed by wide sinuses, cover with a thick thatch the rounded head of the tree. green on both sides, thin and smooth, these leaves seem to withstand remarkably the smoke, soot, and dust of cities, and also the attacks of insects. the keys are large, wide-winged, set opposite, the nutlets meeting in a straight line. these pale green key clusters are very handsome among the green leaves in summer--the tree's chief ornament until the foliage mass turns yellow in autumn. a peculiarity of the norway maple is the milky juice that starts from a broken leaf-stem. =the sycamore maple= _a. pseudo-platanus_, linn. the sycamore maple is another european immigrant, whose broad leaf is thick and leathery in texture, and pale underneath. its late-opening flowers are borne in long racemes, followed by the small key fruits which cling to the twigs over winter, making the tree look dingy and untidy. this tree has not the hardiness nor the compact form of the norway maple, and it is subject to the attack of borers. it is the "sycamore" of europe, famed as a lumber and an avenue tree abroad, but with us it proves short-lived, and we have no reason for choosing it. the copious seed production of the far preferable norway maple puts it within the reach of all. the ashes few large trees in our american woods have their leaves set opposite upon the twig. still fewer of the trees with compound leaves show this arrangement. consult the first broad-leaved tree you meet, and the chances are that its leaves are set alternately upon the twigs. there is a multitude of families in this class; but if the leaves are paired and set opposite, we narrow the families to a very few. are the leaves simple? then the tree may be a maple or a dogwood, or a viburnum. are the leaves opposite and compound? then you have one of two families. are the leaflets clustered on the end of the leaf-stalk? then the tree is a buckeye or a horse chestnut--members of the buckeye family. are the leaflets set along the sides of the central stem? then the tree is an ash. a few exceptions may be discovered, but the rule holds in the general forest area of north america. ash trees have lance-shaped, winged seeds, borne in profuse clusters, and often held well into the winter. but there is no season when the leaf arrangement cannot be at once determined by the leaf scars, prominent upon the twigs; and under the tree there will always be remnants of the cast-off foliage, to show that it is compound. ash trees are usually large and stately when full grown, with trunks clothed in smooth bark, checked into small, often diamond-shaped plates. this gives the trees a trim, handsome appearance in the winter woods. as shade trees, ashes are very desirable, and they are valuable for their timber. the near relatives of ashes surprise us. they belong to the olive family, whose type is the olive tree of the mediterranean region, now extensively cultivated in california for its fruit. privets, lilacs, and forsythias, favorites in the gardens of all countries that have temperate climates, are cousins to the ash tree. one of its most charming relatives is the little fringe tree of our own woods. thirty species of ash are known; half of that number inhabit north america. there are ash trees in every section of our country except the extremes of latitude and altitude. tropical ash trees are native to cuba, north africa, and the orient. =the white ash= _fraxinus americana_, linn. the white ash is one of the noblest trees in the american forest, the peer of the loftiest oak or walnut. when young it is slim and graceful, but it grows sturdier as it approaches maturity, lifting stout, spreading branches above a tall, massive trunk. in the forest the head is narrow, but in the open the dome of a white ash is as broad and symmetrical as that of a white oak. a gray rind covers the young branches and the bark is gray. the foliage has white lining and each of the seven leaflets has a short stalk. these are all characters that distinguish the white ash from other species and enable one to name it at a glance. in the south the white ash is undersized and the wood is of poor quality. in the northeastern and central states it is one of the most important and largest of our timber trees, with wood more valuable than any other ash. its uses are manifold: it is staple in the manufacture of agricultural implements, carriages, furniture, and in the interior finish of buildings. tool handles and oars are made of white ash and it is superior as fuel. the reddish-brown heart-wood, with paler sap-wood, is tough, elastic, hard, and heavy. it is not durable in soil and becomes brittle with age. ash trees are late in coming into leaf. when all the forest is green and full of blossoms, the ash trees are still naked. not until may do the rusty yellow winter buds of the white ash swell and throw out on separate trees their staminate and pistillate flower clusters from the axils of last year's foliage. (_see illustration, page ._) then the leaves unfold; downy at first, becoming bright and shiny above, but always with pale linings. on fertile trees the inconspicuous flowers mature into pointed fruits, one to two inches long. the wing is twice the length of the seed and is rounded to a blunt point. the seed itself is round and pointed, on branching stalks that form clusters from six to eight inches long. as a street tree the white ash deserves much more general favor in cities than it has yet achieved, for it is straight and symmetrical, and its light foliage grows in irregular, wavy masses, through which some sunlight can always sift and let grass grow under the tree. this tree is a rapid grower, perfectly hardy in most sections of the country, and has no serious insect enemies. the foliage turns to brownish purple and yellow in the autumn. =the black ash= _f. nigra_, marsh. the black ash is a lover of marshes, found from newfoundland to manitoba, and from virginia to arkansas. its blue-black winter buds, the sombre green of its foliage, and the dark hues of its bark and wood have justified the popular name of this handsome, slender tree. the leaflets, oval and long-pointed, are sessile on the hairy leaf stalk, except the terminal one. at maturity the leaves are a foot or more in length, of seven to eleven leaflets, that turn brown and fall early in autumn. the keys of the black ash are borne in open panicles, eight to ten inches long; each has a short, flat seed, with a broad blade, thin, rounded, and notched instead of pointed, at the extremity. the wood of black ash has the tough, heavy coarse-grained qualities of the white ash, but differs in being very durable and in being easily split into thin layers--each a year's growth. the indians taught the early settlers to weave baskets out of black ash splints. these splints are easily separated by bending the split wood over a block. the strain breaks loose the tissue that forms the spring wood, and separates the bands of tough, dense summer wood into strips suitable for basket weaving. black ash is used for chair seats, barrel hoops, furniture, and cabinetwork. the saplings are oftenest chosen for hop and bean poles. as a lawn tree, the black ash has little to recommend it for it often dies of thirst in the loam of a garden. at best it is short-lived. planted in swampy ground, the tree spreads by seeds, and suckers from the roots, soon forming extensive thickets, and drinking up the moisture at a marvelous rate. =the red ash= _f. pennsylvanica_, marsh. the red ash follows the courses of streams and lake margins from new brunswick to the black hills and south into florida, alabama, and nebraska. this tree is much planted for shade and ornament in new england, and in other eastern sections. the tree is small, spreading into a compact though irregular head of twiggy, slender branches. the yellow-green foliage, a foot long, of seven to nine short, stalked, lustrous leaflets, is lightened by a pale pubescence on petioles and leaf-linings. the same velvety down covers the new shoots. summer and winter this sign never fails. red ash seeds are extremely long and slender, and have the most graceful outlines of all the darts that various ash trees bear. the heavy, round body has a wing twice its length by which the wind carries the seeds far away. very gradually an ash tree launches its seeds. it is easy to understand why the family is so scattered through any woods, for the wind is the sower. the reddish bark of the twigs and trunk of this tree seems to be the justification for its name. its brown wood is inferior to white ash. =the green ash= _f. pennsylvanica_, variety _lanceolata_, sarg. the green ash has narrower, shorter leaves than the parent species and usually more sharply saw-toothed margins. instead of having pale linings, the leaflets are bright green on both surfaces. this is the ash tree of the almost treeless prairies from dakota southward, where it not only lives, but flourishes as well as in its native habitat, the rich soil of stream banks farther east. its range crosses the rocky mountains and reaches the slopes of the wasatch mountains in utah. east of the alleghanies the tree is little known. it is in the west that it is the dominant ash. it is one of the few important agencies which have turned the "great american desert" into a land of shady roads and comfortable, protected homesteads. =the blue ash= _f. quadrangulata_, michx. the blue ash has four-angled twigs, often winged at the corners with a thin plate of bark. the sap contains a substance that gives a blue dye when the inner bark is macerated in water. the tree reaches one hundred and twenty feet in height, above a slender trunk, and has small spreading branches that terminate in stout twigs, characteristically angled. the tree is occasionally cultivated in parks and gardens in the eastern states where it is a distinct addition to the list of handsome shade trees. it is hardy, quick of growth, and unusually free from the ills that beset trees. in the forests it reaches its best estate on the limestone hills of the big smoky mountains. its wood ranks with the best white ash and exceeds it in one particular; it is the most durable ash wood when exposed alternately to wet and dry conditions. it is used for vehicles, for flooring and for handles of tools especially pitchforks. =the oregon ash= _f. oregona_, nutt. the oregon ash follows the coast south from puget sound to san francisco bay, and from the western foothills of the sierra nevada to those of the mountains of southern california. in southwestern oregon the tree reaches the height of eighty feet, with a trunk three to four feet in diameter. the stout branches form a broad crown where there is room, and the luxuriant foliage is wonderfully light in color, pale green above, with silvery pubescent leaf-linings. of the five to seven leaflets, all are sessile or short-stalked, except the terminal one, which has a stem an inch long. all are oval and abruptly pointed, thick and firm in texture, turning yellow or russet brown in autumn. the lumber is counted equal to white ash and is one of the most valuable of deciduous timber trees in the western coast states. a number of little ash trees, distinct in species from those described already, are native to limited sections of the country. all have the family traits by which they are readily recognized, if seed form, leaf form, and leaf arrangement are kept in mind. in the corner where colorado, nevada, and utah meet, is an ash with its leaf reduced to a single leaflet, but the seeds are profusely borne to declare the tree's name to any one who visits its restricted territory. in rich soil, three leaflets are occasionally developed. =the european ash= _f. excelsior_, linn. the _european ash_ is the large timber ash from the atlantic coast of europe to western asia. the earliest writers have ranked its wood next to oak in usefulness. it was known as "the husbandman's tree." its uses were listed at interminable length, for "ploughs, axle-trees, wheel-rings, harrows, balls ... oars, blocks for pulleys, tenons and mortises, poles, spars, handles, and stocks for tools, spade trees, carts, ladders.... in short, so good and profitable is this tree that every prudent lord of a manor should employ one acre of ground with ash to every twenty acres of other land, since in as many years it would be more worth than the land itself." the saplings, cut when three to six years old, made excellent fork and spade handles on account of the toughness and pliability of their fibre. crates for china were made of the branches. steamed and bent, this wood lent itself to the making of hoops for barrels and kegs. the cutting off of the main trunk set the roots to sending up a forest of young shoots, ready for cutting again when they reached the size for walking-sticks and whip-stocks. quite independent of its lumber value, but possibly correlated with it, was the great reputation the ash tree achieved in the myths and superstitions of widely separated peoples. in south europe, tradition declared that a race of brazen men sprung from the ash tree. in the north, the norse mythology made _igdrasil_, the ash, the "world tree," from whose roots the whole race of men sprung. the roots of this mythological tree penetrated the earth to its lowest depths and its giant top supported the heavens. wisdom and knowledge gushed from its base as from a fountain, and underneath were the abodes of the gods, giants, and the fates. superstitions of all kinds have come down with the language of different peoples, making the history of the ash tree a most interesting study. a chinese ash yields a valuable white wax which exudes from the bark of the twigs. _f. ornus_, linn., native to south europe and asia minor, exudes a waxy secretion from bark and leaves. this is the manna of commerce. last but not least of the products of the ash tree are the curious and beautiful contortions of the grain found in "burls" on the trunks of old trees of many species. these warty excrescences are eagerly bought by special agents for cabinet-makers. woodwork from these abnormal growths shows exquisitely waved lines when polished, as delicate as those in a banded agate. fancy boxes, bowls, and other articles brought fancy prices when made of "ram's horn" or "fiddleback" ash, which often went under the trade name of green ebony. the black ash in america is particularly subject to contortions of the grain. the elms elms of sixteen distinct species are native to boreal and temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, with this single exception: western north america is without a representative. europe has three species, two of which extend their range into eastern asia and northern africa. southern and central asia have their own species. five are native to our eastern states. two european species are in cultivation in the north atlantic states, especially in the neighborhood of boston, where they are as familiar as the native species, in street planting. elm trees are valuable for shade and for lumber; their wood is hard, heavy, tough, pale in color, often difficult to split. the trees are distinguished from others by their simple, unsymmetrical, strong-ribbed leaves, saw-toothed, short-stalked, always unequal and often oblique at the base of the blade. the flowers, usually perfect, are inconspicuous, and the seeds are flat, entirely surrounded by a thin papery wing, that forms two hooks at the tip. wind-carried, these seeds have had much to do with the wide distribution of elms. =the white elm= _ulmus americana_, linn. the white or american elm is widely known as a tall, graceful wide-spreading tree, usually of symmetrical, vase shape, with slender limbs and drooping twigs. (_see illustration, page ._) it has the rough furrowed bark characteristic of the genus, dark or light gray, with paler branches and red-brown twigs. the leaves are alternate, two to six inches long, broadest near the abruptly pointed apex. distinctly one-sided at the tapering base, the leaves have a fashion of arranging themselves in a flat spray so as to present almost a continuous leaf area to the sun. one spray overlaps another, and leaves varying in size fit in to fill every little corner to which sunlight comes. this "leaf mosaic" is not confined to elms alone. it is especially noticeable on the southern border of any dense wood. winter offers the best opportunity for the study of tree forms. our common elm shows at least five different patterns. the first is the "vase form," the commonest and most beautiful. this is best realized by old trees which have had plenty of room. in it the branches spread gradually upward at first but at a considerable height sweep boldly out forming a broad, rounded, or flattened head. second is the "plume form," in which two or three main limbs rise to a great height before branching, and then break into feathery spray. trees crowded in woods are likely to take this form. third, the "oak tree form" shows a horizontal habit of branching, and an angularity of limbs usually more noticeable among oaks. fourth, the "weeping willow form," where trees have short trunks, from which the branches curve rapidly outward and end in long, drooping branchlets. fifth is the "feathered elm," marked by a fringe of short twigs which outline the trunk and limbs. this "feathering" is caused by the late development of latent buds. it may occur in any of the tree types just mentioned, but it is more noticeable in individuals of the plume form. the american elm is very familiar for it grows everywhere east of the rocky mountains. not to know this tree is a mark of indifference and ignorance. no village of any pride but plants it freely as a street tree. it is hardy and cheerful, reflecting the indomitable spirit of the pioneer, whom it accompanied by seed and sapling from the eastern states into the treeless territories of the middle west. with him the tree seized the land and made it yield a living. elms, which have outlived the cottonwoods and willows, are not so large yet as the patriarchal trees in old new-england villages, yet time alone is needed to match, in the valley of the missouri, the elms in the valley of the connecticut. i think, with due appreciation of its summer luxuriance of foliage, and the grace and strength of the elm's framework in winter, that the moment of greatest charm in the life of a roadside elm comes in the first warm days of late march. the brown buds on the sides of the twigs are swelling and a flush of purple overspreads the tree, while snow still covers the ground. a tremendous "fall of leaves" ensues, for the tiny bud scales that enclose the elm flowers are but leaves in miniature. the elms are in blossom! each flower of each cluster has a calyx with scalloped edges, and a fringe of four to nine stamens hanging far out and surrounding the central solitary ovary. the color is in the yellow anthers and the dark red calyx lobes. speedily, the stamens shrivel and pale green pendants, which are the seeds, cluster upon the twigs. winged for flight, these ripen and are scattered before the leaves are fairly open, and the growth of the season's shoots begins. only the pussy willow, the quaking asp, and the earliest maples bloom as early as the elm. how much they have missed, who never saw an elm tree in blossom! the hubs of the "one-hoss shay" were of "ellum," its interlacing fibres peculiarly fitting this wood for indestructibility. saddle trees, boat timbers, cooperage, and flooring employ it in quantities. it is also used for flumes and piles, for it resists decay on exposure to water. =the slippery elm= _u. fulva_, michx. the slippery elm is also known as the red elm and moose elm, because its wood is red and moose are fond of browsing its young shoots. in regions where moose are rarely seen, it is the small boy who browses and often utterly destroys every specimen of this valuable tree. under the bark of young shoots a sweet substance is found, which gives the tree its common name. what man lives who in the heydey of youth has not had the spring craze for slippery elm bark, as surely as he had the fever for kite-flying and playing marbles? the trees in every fence row show the wounds of jack-knives; stripping the bark, the boys scrape from its inner surface the thick, fragrant mucilaginous _cambium_--a delectable substance that allays both hunger and thirst. fortunately the bark of the limbs supplies the demand; many a veteran tree still suffers the pollarding process, serving one generation of schoolboys after another. the inner bark, dried and ground and mixed with milk, forms a valuable food for invalids. poultices of slippery elm bark relieve throat and chest ailments. fevers and acute inflammatory disorders are treated with the same bark, which has passed from the list of mere home remedies to an established place on the apothecary's shelf. how shall we tell a slippery elm tree from the american elm? by its leaf in summer. the roughness of the foliage is one of its striking characteristics. crumple a leaf, and its surfaces grate harshly, for they are covered with stiff, tubercular hairs. the leaves are larger, often reaching seven inches in length. there is a reddish or tawny pubescence on all young shoots, and especially on the bud scales in winter. the tree itself, in winter or summer, is much more coarse than its cousin. it is also unsymmetrical in habit, each limb striking out for itself. very often one meets a tree quite as one-sided in form as its leaf, and this without any apparent reason. but given a chance to grow without mutilation, the slippery elm attains a height of seventy feet, forming a broad, open head, in comparatively few years. it is well worth planting for its lumber and for shade. =the rock elm= _u. thomasi_, sarg. the rock elm or cork elm chooses dry, gravelly upland and low heavy clay soil, on rocky slopes and river cliffs, from ontario and new hampshire westward through northern new york, southern michigan to nebraska and missouri. it is more abundant and of largest size in ontario and in the southern peninsula of michigan. its leaf is small, thick, and firm, dark green, and turns to brilliant yellow in the autumn. its flowers and fruits are borne in racemes. at any season, one knows this cork elm by the shaggy bark on its stout limbs that make the tree resemble a bur oak. "rock elm" and "hickory elm" are names that refer to the hardness of the wood. the wheelwright counts it the best of all elms. compact, with interlacing fibres, there are spring, strength, and toughness in this wood which adapt it for bridge timbers, heavy agricultural implements, wheel stocks, sills, and axe-handles. the name "cork elm" refers to the corky bark which runs out in winged ridges, even to the twigs. [illustration: _see page _ the white ash winter buds pistillate flowers staminate flowers] [illustration: _see page _ a group of white pines] [illustration: _see page _ leaves and cones of the shortleaf pine] [illustration: _see page _ american elm] =the winged elm= _u. alata_, michx. the winged elm, or wahoo, is dainty and small, its leaves and the two thin corky blades that arise on each twig befitting the smallest elm tree in the family. despite its corky wings, it has none of the ruggedness of the cork elm, but is a pretty round-headed tree. it is distributed from virginia to florida and west to illinois and texas. "mountain elm" and "small-leaved elm" are local names. "wahoo" is local also, belonging chiefly to the south. even the little seed of this tree is long and slender, its wing prolonged into two incurving hooks. =the english elm= _u. campestris_, linn. the english elm is often seen in the eastern states, planted with the american elm in parks and streets, where the two species contrast strikingly. the english tree looks stocky, the american airily graceful. one stands heavily upon its heels, the other on tiptoe. one has a compact, pyramidal or oblong head, the other a loose open one. in october the superb english elms on boston common are still bright green, while their american cousins have passed into "the sere and yellow leaf." =the scotch elm= _u. montana_, linn. the scotch or wych elm is planted freely in parks and private grounds. it is a medium-sized tree of rather more strict habit of growth than the american elm. before the leaves open the tree often looks bright green from a distance. this appearance is due to the winged seeds which are exceptionally large and crowd the twig in great rosettes. one horticultural variety of this species is the weeping form known as the camperdown elm, which arches its limbs downward on all sides, forming when full-grown a natural arbor. one often sees this tree planted on lawns of limited extent, and so near the street as to render utterly absurd its invitation to privacy. to serve that reasonable and delightful end, the tree should be planted in a retired corner of one's grounds, where an afternoon siesta may be enjoyed undisturbed. part viii the cone-bearing evergreens the pines--the spruces--the firs--the douglas spruce--the hemlocks--the sequoias--the arbor-vitaes--the incense cedar--the cypresses--the junipers--the larches, or tamaracks the cone-bearers, or conifers, are a distinct race that we commonly call evergreens. they include pines, hemlocks, spruces, firs, sequoias, cypresses, cedars, and junipers. besides these, the tamaracks and the bald cypress must be included, although their leaves are shed in the autumn. the term "evergreen" applies equally well to magnolias, laurels, and many oaks. birches and alders and magnolias bear cone-like fruits. notwithstanding such exceptions, the cone-bearing trees are mostly evergreen, and their family traits are so strongly marked that even the beginner in tree study eliminates the exceptional instances early in his studies. the pines and their relatives in the coniferous group are an ancient race, composed of proud old "first families." along the shores of the silurian seas they stood up, straight and tall, their only companions that stood erect, the giant horse-tails and tree ferns. this was long before modern tree families had any existence. there were no broad-leaved trees. in the coal measures are found the mummied remains of these prehistoric conifers. the cycads in the everglades of florida are some of their surviving representatives. these are facing extinction, and the conifers, too, are declining. they had reached their prime as a race when the broad-leaved trees appeared upon the earth. the vigor of the new race enabled it to seize the richest, well-watered regions. they drove the conifers to seek the swamps, the exposed seacoasts, the barren and rocky mountain slopes. man has ruthlessly destroyed for timber the coniferous forests of this country and much of the territory denuded by the axe is either devoted to agriculture or has been seized by broad-leaved species of trees, more tenacious of life and with seeds more quick and sure to germinate than those of the conifers. the time is not far distant, geologically speaking, when this ancient and declining family of trees will exist only as man fosters it by cultivation. the conifers have resinous wood, with stiff, needle-like or scale-like leaves, and inconspicuous flowers of two sorts, borne in clusters like catkins. the pistillate catkin matures into a woody cone made of overlapping scales attached to a central stem. on each scale are borne one or more winged seeds. the one character which is constant in the whole coniferous group and sets it apart from the rest of the plant kingdom, is expressed in the name _gymnosperm_, applied to this botanical grand division. it means "naked seed." there is no ovary in the flower. the naked ovules are borne on the scales of the fertile spike or catkin, which is held apart and erect in blossoming time. they are pollinated by the wind, which sifts them with golden pollen dust, abundant in the staminate catkins clustered on the same tree. contact of pollen grains and naked ovules is followed by their coalescence--the "setting of seeds." the distinguishing trait of the higher plants that form the grand division known as _angiosperms_, is that the ovules are borne in a closed ovary, and the pollen lodges on the end of a stigma. "pollen tubes" grow down through the long style, finally reach the hidden ovule, and seed is set. this complicated process is found in the majority of flowers one studies in botany classes. gymnosperms, and the still lower groups of flowerless ferns and mosses, are merely glanced at by amateur botanists. the more primitive plant forms are too difficult for beginners. the habit of the conifers is a character upon which we may depend. with rare exceptions, there is a central shaft, "the leader," and short horizontal branches in whorls forming platforms. the side branches, also whorled, are generally flattened into a horizontal spray. the leaves are narrow, needle-like, or scale-like, and waxy or resinous. the tough fibre of the wood enables the conifers to resist damage by wind and by ice. snowflakes sift to the ground instead of accumulating upon the branches and breaking them by their cumulative weight. the wind, which pollinated the fertile flowers of coniferous forests long before nectar-gathering insects came upon the earth, is the harvester of their seeds. it scatters them far and wide; each seed has a wing that adapts it to long journeys in front of a gale. the resinous sap that courses through the veins of coniferous wood seals up the bark, leaves, and cones against the invasion of enemies, and acts as an antiseptic dressing for wounds. without these special adaptations to a life of hardship, the conifers would never have held their own as they have done. they inhabit regions where conditions discourage all but a few of the broad-leaved trees. the pines in a forest of needle-leaved evergreens it is perfectly easy to distinguish the pines by their leaves. look along the twigs and you will find the needles arranged in bundles, with a papery, enclosing sheath at the base. follow farther back and these sheaths are missing, but on long stretches between the growing tip and the leafless part of the branch the characteristic sheathed needle-bundles declare this evergreen to be a pine. no other conifer has this trait, no pine grows but shows it every day in the year. one half of the eighty known species of pines grow in north america. pure forests of great extent are found in the southern states, in the great lakes region, and on the mountain slopes in the western and northern parts of the continent. smaller areas occur in the eastern states. very soon these forests must be spoken of in the past tense, for a century of destructive lumbering has almost cleared the northeast of pine timber, and though the exploitation of the pine forests of the south and about the great lakes came later, as population increased in the middle west, the work has progressed much more rapidly. the idea of forest conservation, crystallized into federal law by popular demand, has come too late to save from wasteful exploitation the superb pine forests west of the rockies. yet thousands of acres of forests are now under government control and here a great object lesson in rational methods of forest maintenance is being given. the pineries of the future depend upon the success of methods there employed. the uses of pines are not all counted in terms of the lumberman. there are pines for every situation, soil, and climate. on low seaboard plains they come down to the highwater mark. they wade into inundated swamps and climb to the timber line on arid, rocky mountain-sides. the bravest species go out into the desert. almost as brave are those which survive the smoke and dust of cities like pittsburg and st. louis, though theirs is a losing fight with sulphurous fumes and cramped root space in the smoky town. as shelter belts, as wind-breaks, as shade and ornamental trees, there are pines in cultivation in all parts of the country, their winter usefulness and beauty making them universally the choice of home-makers, rich and poor. by-products of pine wood are chiefly turpentine, pitch, resin, and oil, derived from the resinous sap. "naval stores" these products are called, for their consumption is greatest in shipyards. turpentine is extensively used in the arts and industries. if the southern pine forests are allowed to dwindle, the deficit in lumber will not affect world commerce as disastrously as the cutting off of the naval stores production. the lumberman's division of the pines is a convenient one. "soft pines" have soft, light wood, not heavily impregnated with resin. it is the delight of wood-workers. "hard pines" have heavy, dark-colored wood, full of resin, which is a nuisance to the carpenter, because it "gums up" his tools. the one little sign enables us to distinguish hard and soft pines without examination of the wood. soft pines shed the papery sheath of their leaf bundles before the leaves themselves begin to fall. hard pines retain the leaf sheath until the leaves are shed. a glance at any leafy pine branch will enable us to determine to which of the two classes a given tree belongs. the soft pines the outward and visible sign of a soft pine is the loose, deciduous sheath of its leaf bundles. the scales of its cones are usually unarmed with horns or prickles. the wood is soft, light colored, close-grained. the number of leaves in a bundle is the principal key to the species. =the white pine= _pinus strobus_, linn. the white pine (_see illustrations, pages - _) is the only pine east of the rocky mountains that bears its leaves in bundles of five. this semi-decimal plan is found in three western soft pines and two western hard pines; but in the east, a native tree with needles in fives, leaves no doubt as to its name. from a distance this plan of five can be seen in the five branches that form a platform each year around the central shaft. study a sapling pine and you see in its vigorous young growth the fulfillment of nature's plan, before storms have broken any of the branches and changed the mathematics of the pattern. stroke the flexible, soft leaves that sway graceful and lithe in the wind. if it is spring, note that the terminal bud has pushed out, and around it five-clustered buds are forming a circle of shoots. in autumn, after the season's growth is finished, each twig ends in a single bud, with a whorl of five buds around it. from the ground upward, count the platforms of branches. each whorl of five marks a year in the tree's growth. the terminal bud carries the height a foot or two upward, and its surrounding five buds grow in the horizontal plane, forming the last and smallest platform of leafy shoots. each branch is a year younger than the shoot that bears it. note throughout this little tree the plan of five, from leaf cluster to largest branch. now go to the largest white pine in your neighborhood, study the plan of five in this tree, and find out the reason for any failures. notice the conflict between the branches in the close platforms. find branches where this conflict is in progress. pick out the winner. read the age of the tree by the platforms of branches on the trunk. no evergreen is more beautiful than a white pine grown in rich soil in a situation sufficiently sheltered to defend its supple branches from breakage by severe winds. its soft, plume-like twigs are dark blue-green, with pale lines lining each individual leaf. the young shoots are yellowish green, and they lighten in a wonderful manner the sombre coloring of the older foliage. at the bases of the new shoots cluster the staminate catkins, in early june. yellow and becoming loose and pendulous as the wind shakes them, they are soon empty of their abundant pollen, which drifts like gold dust and fills the air. among the youngest leaves, toward the end of the shoot, the purplish rosy lips of the erect pistillate cone-flowers catch the dust from neighbor trees, and their naked ovules absorb it and set seed. close shut are the lips again, against any other invasion, while these ovules mature. we shall find them standing erect until autumn, but next season they hang down with their added weight, and at the end of the second summer the scales change from green to brown, open and give their ripe winged seeds to the wind for distribution. because the tree is biennial-fruited, it always carries two sizes of cones. the large ones are one year older than the small ones. ripe cones are five to ten inches long, with thin, broad, unarmed scales, squarish at the tips. the most hopeful phase of the white pine problem to-day is the fact that new forests are coming up naturally where the early lumbering deforested great tracts in the eastern states. careful forestry improves upon nature's method, and so the pines are being restored on land unfit for agricultural crops. white pine is one of the most profitable timber crops to plant at the present time. =the mountain pine= _p. monticola_, d. don. the mountain pine is scattered through mountain forests from the columbia river basin in british columbia to vancouver island, along the western slopes of the rocky mountains to northern montana and idaho, and south along the sierra nevada and cascade ranges in washington and oregon, well into california. from the bottom lands of streams, where it is most abundant and reaches a height of one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet, and a trunk diameter of five to eight feet, it climbs to elevations of eight to ten thousand feet on the california sierras. the bark of young trees and on the branches of old ones is smooth and pale-gray. the leaves, five in the bundles, range from one to four inches in length, stiff, blue-green, whitened by two to six stripes on the inner side. the cones are twelve to eighteen inches long, with thickened, pointed scales ending in an abrupt beak. the larger cone, denser, stiffer foliage, and the white bark make this white pine of the western mountains a great contrast to the eastern white pine. unlike many trees whose size diminishes with increase in altitude, this white pine grows to majestic size at altitudes of nearly two miles, its noble figure more striking and impressive because of the dwindling size of its companions on the mountain-sides. the lumberman looks with despair upon these giant white pines, quite out of his reach. in the arnold arboretum in boston a fine seedling specimen of this western silver pine fruited when but twelve feet high, and proves vigorous and altogether happy in this absolutely changed climatic environment. in europe the same success attends the cultivation of these trees, which have become very popular in parks and private grounds. their introduction into our eastern states can now be assured of success. =the sugar pine= _p. lambertiana_, dougl. the sugar pine (_see illustration, page _) belongs in the class with those tree giants, the sequoias, with which it grows in the mountain forests of oregon and california. john muir calls it "the largest, noblest, and most beautiful of all the pine trees in the world." trees two hundred feet high, with trunk diameter of six to eight feet, are not uncommon. the maximum given by sargent is twelve feet across the stump. the head of a sugar pine is rounded and broad, with pendulous branches, tufted with stout, dark green leaves, three to four inches long. the cones are the largest known, reaching eighteen inches in length, rarely longer. the black or dark brown seeds are one to five inches long, including the flat, blunt wings. indians, bears, and squirrels gather the abundant harvest of these cones, which are rich in nutriment and pleasant to the taste. crystals of sugar form white masses like rock candy, but with a taste of maple sugar, wherever a break in the bark of a sugar pine permits the escape of the sweet sap. this gives the tree its name. no other pine has sap with such a noticeable sugar content. fortunately, these gigantic soft pines belong to the high sierras and do not go down to the sea, where lumbermen could sacrifice them without effort. nature has fenced them in by many barriers, and the government, by reservation in national parks, insures the preservation of some of the finest sugar pine groves, for the use and inspiration of all the people. a visit to yosemite is the experience of a lifetime to any american. here grow the most gigantic trees in the world, and the sugar pines are nobler even than the giant "big trees," for the latter are often decrepit, while the sugar pines are hale and youthful by comparison. leaving behind the scrawny gray digger pines on the foothills, the traveler enters the belt of the yellow pines, on the higher elevations, and passing these he comes to the grand sugar pines along the highest level of the stage road that leads into the national park. the road is no wider than the broad stumps of sugar pines, scattered here and there. the standing trees amaze one with their height and girth. it is impossible to shake off the impression that some magic has put magnifiers in our eyes; for trees, beetling cliffs, and rushing cataracts are bigger than their counterparts in other regions of the world far-famed for their scenery. the sugar pine trunks seem like great builded columns, too large for any real tree to grow, and the "big trees" in the mariposa grove intensify this impression of unreality. in a day or two the traveler becomes accustomed to his surroundings. he goes out of the park and down into the world of men and affairs, his soul enlarged, his life enriched by an experience he can never quite forget. he is a bigger, better man for his brief association with nature in her noblest manifestations. the wood of the sugar pine is soft, golden, satiny, fragrant, inviting the woodworker through every one of his senses. a single tree often yields five thousand dollars' worth of marketable lumber, the finest, straight-grained soft pine in the world. the shame of the century is the wanton destruction of sugar pine trees by vagrant shingle-makers and thieving mill-owners, who despoiled the grandest trunks of their choicest wood, wastefully leaving the bulk to cumber the ground and invite forest fires. late and slowly, but surely also is the popular mind awakening to the fact that forests belong to the nation and should be conserved and maintained for the whole people--not wasted for the temporary enrichment of private owners, as forest wealth has been squandered in past years. =rocky mountain white pine= _p. flexilis_, james the rocky mountain white pine inhabits mountain slopes from alberta to mexico, including the sierra nevada range. in northern new mexico and arizona it occasionally reaches eighty feet in height, but ordinarily does not exceed fifty. its rounded dome, as broad as an oak, bravely dares the wind on exposed cliffs, and crouches as a stunted shrub at altitudes of twelve thousand feet. the "limber pine" it is called, from the toughness of its fibre, which alone enables its long limbs to sustain the whipping they get. the leaves form thick, beautiful dark-green tufts, which are not shed until the fifth or sixth year. the cones are three to ten inches long, purplish; scales rounded, abruptly beaked at the apex; narrow wings entirely surround the seeds, which fall in september. this is the lumber pine of the semi-arid ranges of "the great american desert"; the main dependence of builders, too, on the eastern slopes of the rockies in montana. =the white-bark pine= _p. albicaulis_, engelm. the white-bark pine is a rippled, gnarled, squatting tree, whose matted branches, cumbered with needles and snow, make a platform on which the hardy mountain-climber may walk with safety in midwinter. it offers him a springy mattress for his bed, as well. the trunk is covered with snowy bark that glistens like the icemantle that lies on the treeless mountain-side just above the timber line. from a twelve-thousand-foot elevation on the rocky mountains, in british columbia and south to the yellowstone, the tree clambers down to the five-thousand-foot line, where it sometimes attains forty feet in height; its dark green, rigid leaves persist from five to eight years, always five in a bundle, and never more than two and a half inches long. the cones, horny-tipped, dark purple, one to three inches long, are ripe in august; the large sweet seeds are gathered and eaten by indians. in california the tree's range extends into the san bernardino mountains. the two "foxtail" pines two western pines are distinguished by the common name "foxtail pine," because the leaves are crowded on the ends of bare branchlets. _p. balfouriana_, m. murr., has stiff, stout dark green leaves with pale linings. the tree is wonderfully picturesque when old, with an open irregular pyramid, on the higher foothills of the california mountains, or crouching as an aged straggling shrub at the timber-line. its cones are elongated, the scales thickened and minutely spiny at tip. the second five-leaved foxtail pine is _p. aristata_, engelm., also called the "prickle-cone pine," from the curving spines that arm the scales of the purplish brown fruits. this is a bushy tree, with sprawling lower branches and upper ones that stand erect and are usually much longer, giving the tree a strange irregularity of form. the leaves are short and crowded in terminal brushes. from a stocky tree forty feet high, to a shrub at the timber line, this tree is found near the limit of tree growth, from the outer ranges of the mountains of colorado to those of southern utah, nevada, northern arizona and southeastern california. in eastern parks it is occasionally seen as a shrubby pine with unusually interesting, artistic cones. the nut pines the nut pines, four in number, supply indians and mexicans of the southwest with a store of food in the autumn, for the seeds are large and rich in oils and they have keeping qualities that permit their hoarding for winter. the four-leaved _p. quadrifolia_, sudw., scattered over the mountains of southern and lower california, has four leaves in a cluster, as a rule. a desert tree, its foliage is pale gray-green, harmonizing with the arid mesas and low mountain slopes, where it is found. the cones are small with few scales, but the nut is five-eighths of an inch long and very rich. _p. cembroides_, zucc., with two to three leaves, is the "piñon," that covers the upper slopes of arizona mountains with open forests fifteen to twenty feet high. the leaves are one to two inches long, dark green with pale lines, the branchlets orange-colored and matted with hairs. the large nuts are very oily, and so abundant in the mountains of northern mexico that they are sold in large quantities in every town. [illustration: _see page _ eastern red cedars and hickory] [illustration: _see page _ the sugar pine "the largest, noblest, and most beautiful of all pine trees in the world"] the piñon (_p. edulis_, engelm.) ranges from the eastern foothills of the colorado rockies to western texas and westward to the eastern borders of utah, southwestern wyoming, central arizona and on into mexico, often forming extensive open forests, and reaching an elevation of seven thousand feet. short, stiff leaves in clusters of two or three, dark green, ridged, stout, often persist for eight or nine years. the tree is a broad compact pyramid; in age, dense, round-topped, with stout branchlets and abundant globose cones. each scale covers two seeds, wingless, about the size of honey locust seeds, oily, sweet, nutritious and of delicious flavor. this is the pine nut _par excellence_, whose newest market is among confectioners and fancy grocers throughout the states. the one-leaved nut pine (_p. monophylla_, torr.), spreads like an old apple tree, and forms a low, round-topped, picturesque head, its lower limbs drooping to the ground. the reduction of the leaves in the clusters to lowest terms, gives the tree a starved look, and the eighteen or twenty rows of pale stomates on each leaf give the tree-top a ghostly pallor. the vigor of the tree is expressed in its abundant fruit, short, oblong, one to two inches in length, with rich plump brown seeds upon which the indians of nevada and california have long depended. the wood supplies fuel and charcoal for smelters; and this stunted tree, rarely over twenty feet in height, forms nut orchards for the aborigines and the scattered population of whatever race, between altitudes of five and seven thousand feet. from the western slopes of the wasatch mountains of utah, it ranges to the eastern slopes of the southern sierra nevada, to their western slopes at the head waters of king's river, and southward to northern arizona and to the mountains of southern california. john muir says: "it is the commonest tree of the short mountain ranges of the great basin. tens of thousands of acres are covered with it, forming bountiful orchards for the red man. being so low and accessible, the cones are easily beaten off with poles, and the nuts are procured by roasting until the scales open. to the tribes of the desert and sage plains these seeds are the staff of life. they are eaten either raw or parched, or in the form of mush, or cakes, after being pounded into meal. the time of nut harvest is the merriest time of the year. an industrious, squirrelish family can gather fifty or sixty bushels in a single month before the snow comes, and then their bread for the winter is sure." the pitch pines pitch pines have usually heavy coarse-grained, dark-colored wood, rich in resin--a nuisance to the carpenter. the leaf-bundles have persistent sheaths. the cone scales are thick and usually armed. "hard pine" is a carpenter's synonym. the group includes some of the most valuable timber trees in american forests. =the longleaf pine= _p. palustris_, mill. the longleaf pine is preëminent in importance in the lumber trade and in the production of naval stores. it stretches in a belt about one hundred and twenty-five miles wide, somewhat back from the coast, all the way from virginia to tampa bay and west to the mississippi river. isolated forests are scattered in northern alabama, louisiana, and texas. the trees are tall, often exceeding one hundred feet in height; with trunks slender in proportion, rarely reaching three feet in diameter. the narrow, irregular head is formed of short stout twisted limbs on the upper third of the trunk. the leaves are from twelve to eighteen inches long, forming dense tufts at the ends of the branches. being flexible they droop and sway on the ends of erect branches like shining fountains, their emerald lightened by the silvery sheaths that invest each group of three. sapling longleaf pines have recently entered the market for christmas greens in northern cities. this threatens the renewal of longleaf forests that have fallen to the axe of the lumberman. unless federal restriction comes to the rescue, there is little hope of saving this young growth, for nothing can exceed in beauty a three-foot sapling of longleaf pine as a christmas decoration. the lumber of this species is the "southern pine" of the builder. heavy, strong, yellowish brown, durable, it has a tremendous vogue for flooring and the interior finish of buildings. it is used in the construction of railway cars. its durability in contact with water accounts for its use in bridge-building, and for masts and spars of vessels. a great deal of this lumber is exported for use in european shipyards. it has replaced the dwindling supply of white pine for building purposes throughout the north, and the strong demand for it has been followed by lumbering of the most destructive and wasteful type, because the forests are owned privately. in the early days the american colonists in virginia tapped the longleaf pine, collected the resin from the bleeding wounds, and boiled it down for pitch and tar. these crude beginnings established an industry now known as the "orcharding" of the longleaf pine. after a century of wastefulness and wanton destruction of the trees, it has become patent to all that scientific methods must be resorted to in the production of turpentine and other products derived from the living trees. otherwise the dwindling industry will soon come to an end. resin is the sap of the tree. the first problem is to draw it in a manner least wasteful of the product, and least dangerous to the life of the tree. the second process is the melting of the collected resin in a still and the drawing off of the volatile turpentine. what is left solidifies and is known as _rosin_. "boxing" the trees was the cutting of a grooved incision low on the trunk, with a hollow at the base of the vertical trough to hold the discharge of the bleeding sap-wood. resin-gatherers visited the tapped trees and emptied the pockets into buckets by means of a ladle. they also scraped away the hardened sap and widened the wounds to induce the flow from new tissues. this method cost the life of the tree in two or three years, and it became a prey to disease and a menace to the whole forest, as fuel for fires accidentally started. nowadays, all reasonable owners of longleaf pine have discarded the old-fashioned boxing and installed methods approved by the department of forestry. tar was formerly derived from the slow burning of wood in a clay-lined pit. the branches, roots and other lumber refuse, cut in small sizes were heaped in a compact mound and covered with sods and earth. smoldering fires soon induced a flow of smoky tar, thick as molasses, in the bottom of the pit. in due time the flow ceased, the fires went out, and charcoal was the result of this slow burning. removing the charcoal, the tar became available for various purposes; boiled until it lost its liquid character, it became tough sticky _pitch_. this primitive pit method of extracting tar and making charcoal has been abandoned wherever intelligence governs the industry, and distillation processes have been installed. =the shortleaf pine= _p. echinata_, mill. the shortleaf pine ranks second to the longleaf in importance to the lumber industries of the east and south. it ranges from staten island, new york, to north florida, and west through west virginia, eastern tennessee, southern missouri, louisiana and eastern texas. it reaches its largest size and greatest abundance west of the mississippi river, where great forests, practically untouched thirty years ago, have become the centre of the "yellow pine" industry, out of which vast fortunes have been made. the wood is preferred by builders, because it is less rich in resin, softer and therefore more easily worked. young trees yield turpentine and pitch, and with the longleaf and the cuban pine much forest growth has suffered destruction in the production of these commodities. the slender tree equals the longleaf in height and bears its dark green leaves in clusters of twos and threes, scattered on short branches that form a narrow loose head. the pale green, stout branchlets are lightened by the silvery sheaths of the young leaves (_see illustrations, pages - _) which are short only in comparison with the companion species, the longleaf. the cones are abundant; the seeds numerous, winged for flight, retaining their vitality longer than most pine seeds. the tree is less sensitive to injuries and has the propensity, unusual in the pine family, of throwing up suckers from the roots. in open competition, this pine will hold its own against the invasion of other trees, if only allowed to do so. much of the deforested territory, let alone, will cover itself with a ripe crop of shortleaf pine lumber in a hundred years. =the cuban pine= _p. caribaea_, morelet the cuban pine stands third in the triumvirate of lumber pines of the south. this is the "swamp pine" or "slash pine," found in the coast regions from south carolina throughout florida, and along the gulf coast to the pearl river in louisiana. it is a beautiful pine--tall, with dense crown of dark green leaves, in twos and threes, eight to twelve inches long, falling at the end of their second season, before they lose their brightness. a large part of the turpentine of commerce has been derived from these coast forests, as well as lumber, which takes its place in the northern market with the longleaf and the shortleaf. natural reforestation has taken place in the southeast, and a large part of the turpentine exported by georgia and south carolina to-day, is from second-growth cuban pine, on land from which the lumber companies have stripped the virgin growth. =the loblolly pine= _p. taeda_, linn. the loblolly or old field pine chooses land generally sterile and otherwise worthless. it grows in swamps along the atlantic coast, from new jersey through the carolinas, and follows the gulf from tampa bay into texas. inland, it is found from the carolinas to arkansas and louisiana. it has remarkable vitality of seed and seedlings, which do equally well on sterile uplands, on water-soaked ground, or where soil is light and sandy. it is very apt to take possession of land once cleared for agriculture. the young trees crowd together and grow with tremendous vigor the first years of their lives, successfully holding large tracts in pure forests. the limbs are short, thick, matted, forming a compact rounded head; the leaves slender, stiff, twisted, pale-green, six to nine inches long, in groups of threes. the wood is rich in resin, but differs greatly in quality with age and the fertility of the soil. "rosemary pine" was heavy, hard, close-grained, with a thin rim of soft sap-wood. this famous lumber, preferred by shipbuilders of many countries for masts, grew in the virgin forest of the carolinas. giants were cut in the rich marsh lands back from the sounds. but the small loblolly pine, grown on sandy soil, is but third-grade lumber, the sap-wood three times as thick as the heart-wood and exceedingly coarse-grained. one merit has recently been discovered in this lumber, that formerly blackened before it was seasoned, by the invasion of a fungous growth. it quickly absorbs creosote, which renders it immune from decay. it is used in the building of docks, cars, boats, and locally in house-building. its wood makes a sharp, quick heat when dried. it is used in bakeries and brick kilns, and in charcoal-burning. =the pitch pine= _p. rigida_, mill. the pitch pine goes down to the very water's edge on the sand-dunes along the new-england coast, and spreads on worthless land from new brunswick to georgia and west to ontario and kentucky. occasionally in cultivation the tree is symmetrical, and grows to considerable size. in the most favorable situations, however, it rarely exceeds fifty feet in height, with gnarled rough branches, oftenest irregular in form and becoming painfully grotesque with age. the persistence of its clustered black cones adds to the tree's ugliness; and the tufted, scant foliage has a sickly yellowish-green color when new, and becomes darker and twisted the second year. the cones are armed with stout thorns and often remain on the trees ten or twelve years. the knots, particularly, are rich in resin--the delight of camping parties. "pine-knots" and "candlewood" are household necessities in regions where these trees are the prevailing species of pine. starved as is its existence, the pitch pine springs up with amazing vigor after a fire. suckers are sent up about the roots of the fire-killed trees, and the wind scatters the seeds broadcast for a new crop. the chief merit of the tree is that it grows on worthless land, and holds with its gnarled roots the shifting sand-dunes of the new-england coast better than any other tree. =the gray pine= _p. divaricata_, sudw. the gray pine goes farther north than any other pine, following the mckenzie river to the arctic circle. from nova scotia to the athabasca river, it covers barren ground, reaching its greatest height, seventy feet, in pure forests north of lake superior. in michigan it forms the "jack-pine plains" of the lower peninsula. as a rule it is a crouching, sprawling tree, its twigs covered with scant short dingy leaves in twos, averaging an inch in length. the wood is a great boon to the regions this tree inhabits. it is light, soft, weak, and close-grained; used for posts, railroad ties, building material and fuel. its seeds germinate better from cones that have been scorched by fire. =the digger pine= _p. sabiniana_, dougl. the digger pine is a western california tree of the semi-arid foothill country. gray-green, sparse foliage on the gnarled branches gives the tree a forlorn starved look, as it stands or crouches, singly or in scattered groups, along the gravelly sun-baked slopes. the great cones, six to ten inches long, fairly loading the branches, express most emphatically the vigor of the tree. the thickened scales protrude at a wide angle from the central core, and each bears a strong beak, triangular, flattened like a shark's tooth, but curved. the rich oily nuts, as big as lima beans, furnish a nourishing food to the indians. the digger tribe harvested these nuts, and the pioneer gave the tree the tribal name. =the western pitch pine= _p. coulteri_, d. don. the western pitch pine, most abundant in the san bernardino and san jacinto mountains, at elevations of about a mile above the sea, has cones not unlike those of the digger pine, in the armament of their scales. these are notable by being the heaviest fruits borne by any pine tree. occasionally they exceed fifteen inches in length and weigh eight pounds. the seeds are one-half an inch in length, not counting the thin wing, which is often an inch long. the leaves of this "big-cone" pine match the cones. they are stout, stiff, dark blue-green, six to sixteen inches long, three in a bundle, which has a sheath an inch or more in length. crowded on the ends of the branches, these leaves would entitle this tree to qualify as a "foxtail" pine, except for the fact that the foliage persists into the third and fourth year, which clothes the branches far back toward the trunk and gives the tree a luxuriant crown. the dry slopes and ridges of the coast ranges of california are beautified by small groves and scattered specimens of this striking and picturesque pine, so unlike its neighbors. its wood is used only for fuel. in european countries this is a popular ornamental pine, planted chiefly for its great golden-brown cones. =the knob-cone pine= _p. attenuata_, lemm. the knob-cone pine inhabits the coast ranges from the san bernardino mountains northward on the western slopes of the sierra nevada and cascade mountains, into southwestern oregon, where it forms pure forests over large areas, its altitude limit being four thousand feet. it is a tall slim tree of the hot dry fire-swept foothills, and it comes again with absolute certainty after forest fires. the clustered cones, three to six inches long, are amazingly hard and do not open at maturity, but wait for the death of the tree. leaves three to seven inches long, in clusters of three, firm, rigid, pale yellow or bluish green, cover the tree with a sparse thin foliage-mass; but the branches, new and old, are covered with cones, many of which are being swallowed up by the growth of wood on trunk and limb. thirty or forty years these cones may hang, their seeds never released and never losing their vitality, until fire destroys the tree. then the scales open and the winged seeds are scattered broadcast. they germinate and cover the deforested slopes with a crop of knob-cone pine saplings that soon claim all standing room and cover the scars of fire completely. =the monterey pine= _p. radiata_, d. don. the monterey pine, like its companion, the torrey pine, is restricted to a very narrow area. they grow together on santa rosa island. at point pinos, south of monterey bay, this tree stands a hundred feet in height, with trunks occasionally five to six feet in diameter, its branches spreading into a round luxuriant, though narrow, head. from pescadero to san simeon bay, in a narrow belt a few miles wide, and on the neighboring islands, this tree finds its limited natural range; but the horticulturist has noted the silvery sheen of its young growth and the rich bright green that never dulls in its foliage. its quick growth and handsome form in cultivation make it the most desirable pine for park and shade planting in california. indeed it is a favorite park tree north to vancouver along the coast. it has been introduced into europe and is occasionally met in parks in the southeastern states. =the western yellow pine= _p. ponderosa_, laws. the western yellow pine forms on the colorado plateau the most extensive pine forests of the american continent. mountain slopes, high mesas, dry canyon sides, even swamps, if they occur at elevations above twenty-five hundred feet, furnish suitable habitats for this amazing species, in some of its varying forms. from british columbia and the black hills it follows the mountains through the coast ranges, sierras, and the great continental divide, to the highlands of texas and into mexico, forming the most extensive pine forests in the world. all sorts of construction work draw upon this wonderful natural supply of timber, from the droughty western counties of the dakotas, nebraska and texas, to the pacific coast. the typical tree has thick plates of cinnamon-red bark, a massive trunk, five to eight feet in diameter, one hundred to two hundred feet high, with many short, thick, forked branches in a spire-like head. in arid regions the trunk is shorter and the head becomes broad and round-topped. near the timber line and in swamps, the trees are stunted and the bark is nearly black. the leaves of this pine tree are two or three in a bundle, stout, dark yellow-green, five to eleven inches long, deciduous during their third season. their color has given the name to the species, for the wood is not yellow, but light red, with nearly white sap-wood. on the way to the yosemite, the traveler meets the yellow pine--splendid tracts of it--with the giant sugar pine, in open park-like areas, where each individual tree has room to manifest the noble strength of its tall shaft. the flowers appear in may, brightening the even color of the shiny leaves with their pink or brown staminate clusters two or three inches wide. the crimson pistillate cones hide at the ends of the branches, lengthening into fruits three to ten inches in length, and half as wide. strong, recurving tips, armed with slender prickles, are seen in the scales of the reddish-brown cones that fall soon after they spread and liberate the winged seeds. these are produced in abundance, are scattered widely by the wind, and accomplish the renewal of these mountain forests. the bark is usually very thick at the bases of the trunks, reaching eighteen inches on the oldest trees. with this cloak wrapped about its living cambium, the yellow pine is able, better than most trees, to survive a sweeping forest fire. botanists have found _p. ponderosa_ extremely variable, and they quarrel among themselves about species and variety, for the tree endures many climates, adapts itself to varying conditions and develops a type for each habitat and region. in old lake basins on the sierra slopes, "variety _jeffreyi_, vasey," is the name given to the gigantic yellow pine, which there finds food and moisture in abundance and reaches its finest proportions and its greatest lumber value. in the rocky mountains, "variety _scopulorum_, engelm.," is the type. "but all its forms can be traced to a common origin and so the parent species stands; and despite man's devastating axe the yellow pine flourishes in the drenching rains and fog of the northern coast at the level of the sea, in the snow-laden blasts of the mountains, in the white glaring sunshine of the interior plateaus and plains, and on the borders of mirage-haunted deserts, volcanoes, and lava beds,--waving its bright plumes in the hot winds undaunted, blooming every year for centuries, and tossing big ripe cones among the cinders and ashes of nature's hearths." (_john muir._) =the scrub pine= _p. contorta_, loud. the scrub pine is the humble parent of one of the splendid western lumber pines, whose description comes under its varietal name. down the coast of alaska, usually in sphagnum bogs, on sand-dunes, in tide-pools and deep swamps to cape mendocino, the indomitable, altogether-admirable scrub pine holds its own against cold, salt air and biting arctic blasts. no matter how stunted, gnarly and round-shouldered these trees are, one thing they do, often when only a few inches high: _they bear cones_, and keep them for years; and each season add more. up from the sea the scrub pine climbs, ascending the coast ranges and western slopes of the cascade mountains, changing its habit to a tree twenty to thirty feet tall with thick branches and dark red-brown bark, checked into oblong plates. gummy exudations of this pitch pine make it peculiarly liable to running fires. thousands of acres are destroyed every summer, but they seize the land again and soon cover it with the young growth. this happens because the burned trees drop their cones, which open and set free the seeds which have never lost their vitality. in all the vast region over which this vagrant tree swarms, it furnishes firewood and shelter. the pioneer blesses it, and a great multitude of wild things, both plant and animal, maintain their lives in comfort and security because of its protection. the lodge-pole pine or tamarack pine is but a variety (_murrayana_) of _p. contorta_, that grows in forests on both slopes of the rocky mountains of montana and wyoming, at elevations of from seven to eight thousand feet, and stretches away into british columbia and alaska, and southward to the san jacinto range. between eight thousand and nine thousand five hundred feet in altitude, along the sierra nevada in california, it reaches its greatest size and beauty, and forms extensive dense forests. the young trees have very slender trunks, and often stand crowded together like wheat on the prairie. an average forest specimen is five inches in diameter, when thirty or forty feet in height. no wonder the indian in wyoming and colorado called it "the lodge-pole pine," for their supple trunks fitted these trees, while yet saplings, to support the lodge he built. richer, moister ground nourishes this fortunate offspring of the scrub pine. the two-leaved foliage, usually about two inches long, wears a cheerful yellow-green, while the parent tree is dark and sombre, with leaves an inch in length. the hard, strong, brown wood of _contorta_ contrasts strikingly with that of its variety, which is light yellow or nearly white--soft, weak, straight-grained and easily worked. its abundance in regions where other timber is scarce, brings it into general use for construction work. it also furnishes railroad ties, mine timbers and fuel, with the minimum of labor, since trunks of proper sizes can easily be selected. the indians, whose food supply was always precarious, gathered branches and made a soft pulp of the inner bark, scraped out in the growing season. this they baked, after shaping it into huge cakes, in pit ovens built of stones, and heated for hours by burning in them loads of firewood. when the embers were burned out, the oven was cleaned and the cakes put in. later they were smoked with a damp fire of moss, which preserved them indefinitely. "hard bread" of this type provisioned the indian's canoe on long trips. inedible until boiled, it was a staple winter food at home and on long expeditions, among various tribes of the northwest. =the red pine= _p. resinosa_, ait. the red pine, also called the "norway pine" for no particular reason, is something of an anomaly. its wood is soft like that of the white pine with which it grows, and though _resinosa_ means "full of resin," it is not so rich as several other pitch pines. its paired leaves and red bark reveal its kinship with the scotch pine, a european species, very common in cultivation in america. seemingly intermediate between soft and hard pines, _p. resinosa_ appeals to lumbermen and landscape gardeners because it embodies the good points of both classes. no handsomer species grows in the forests, from new brunswick to minnesota and south into pennsylvania. the sturdy red trunk makes a bright color contrast with the broad symmetrical pyramid of boughs clothed in abundant foliage. the paired, needle-like leaves, dark green and shining, are six inches in length. the flowers are abundant and bright red, more showy than is ordinary in the pine family. brown cones one to three inches long with thin unarmed scales, discharge their winged seeds in early autumn, but cling to the branches until the following summer. [illustration: _see page _ _see page _ leaves and cones of hemlock (_left_) and of norway spruce (_right_)] [illustration: _see page _ the spiny foliage and fast-clinging cones of the black spruce] the wood of red pine is pale red, light in weight, close-grained with yellowish or nearly white sap-wood. logs a hundred feet and more in length used to be shipped out of canadian woods to england. singularly free from large knots and other blemishes, they made huge spars and masts of vessels, as well as piles for dockyards, bridges, etc. other woods have proved more durable, and the largest red pine timber has been harvested. so its importance in the lumber trade has declined. but in cultivation the red pine holds its own for its quick growth, its hardiness, its lusty vigor and its beauty of color contrasts. it grows on sterile ground exposed to the sea, forming groves of great beauty where other pines would languish and die. for shelter belts, inland, it is equally dependable, and as specimen trees in parks and gardens it has few equals. at no season of the year does it lose its fresh look of health. young trees come readily from seed, and throughout their lives they are unusually free from injuries by insects and fungi. the spruces the distinguishing mark of spruce trees is the woody or horny projection on which the leaf is set. look at the twigs of a tree which you think may be a fir or a spruce. wherever the leaves have fallen, the spruce twig is roughened by these spirally arranged leaf-brackets. leaf-scars on a fir twig are level with the bark, leaving the twig smooth. spruce twigs are always roughened, as described above. most spruce trees have distinctly four-angled leaves, sharp-pointed and distributed spirally around the shoot, not two-ranked like fir leaves. they are all pyramidal trees with flowers and fruits of the coniferous type. the cones are always pendent and there is an annual crop. the wood is soft, not conspicuously resinous, straight-grained and valuable as lumber. the genus picea comprises eighteen species, seven of which belong to american forests. these include some of the most beautiful of coniferous trees. =the norway spruce= _picea excelsa_, link. the norway spruce (_see illustration, page _) is the commonest species in cultivation. it is extensively planted for wind-breaks, hedges and shelter belts, where its long lower arms rest on the ground and the upper limbs shingle over the lower ones, forming a thick leafy shelter against drifting snow and winds. =the black spruce= _p. mariana_, b. s. & p. the black spruce is a ragged, unkempt dingy tree, with short drooping branches, downy twigs, and stiff dark blue-green foliage, scarcely half an inch long. its cones, least in size of all the spruce tribe, are about one inch long and they remain on the branches for years (_see illustration, page _). rarely higher than fifty feet, these scraggly undersized spruces are ignored by horticulturists and lumbermen, but the wood-pulp man has taken them eagerly. the soft weak yellow wood, converted into paper, needs very little bleaching. from the far north the species covers large areas throughout canada, choosing cold bogs and swamp borders, or well-drained bottom lands. in the united states it extends south along the mountains to virginia and to central wisconsin and michigan. =the red spruce= _p. rubens_, sarg. the red spruce forms considerable forests from newfoundland to north carolina, following the mountains and growing best in well-drained upland soil. this eastern spruce is more deserving of cultivation than the one just described, for its leaves, dark yellow-green and shining, make the tree cheerful-looking. the slender downy twigs are bright red, and there is a warm reddish tone in the brown bark. the winter buds are ruddy; the flowers purple; and the glossy cones, one to two inches long, change from purple to pale reddish brown before they mature and drop to pieces. even in crowded forests this spruce keeps its lower limbs and looks hale and fresh by the prompt casting of its early ripening cones. the pale red wood is peculiarly adapted for sounding-boards of musical instruments. it has been used locally in buildings, but of late the wood-pulp mills get most of this timber. =the engelmann spruce= _p. engelmanni_, engelm. the engelmann spruce is the white spruce of the rocky mountains and the cascade range of washington and oregon, which forms great forests on high mountain slopes from montana and idaho to new mexico and arizona. always in damp places, this thin-barked beautiful tree is safest, from fire. the leaves are blue-green, soft and flexible but with sharp callous tips. the cones are about two inches long, their thin scales narrowing to the blunt tips. each year a crop of seeds is cast and the cones fall. running fires destroy the seed crop with the standing trees, making renewal of the species impossible in the burnt-over tracts. for this reason, this beautiful spruce tree is oftenest found on the higher altitudes, or where wet ground and banks of snow defend it from its arch enemy. the tree is satisfactory in cultivation, but never equal to the wild-forest specimens. the wood is used locally for building purposes, for fuel and charcoal. =the blue spruce= _p. parryana_, sarg. the blue spruce well known in eastern lawns as the "colorado blue spruce," is a crisp-looking, handsome tree, broadly pyramidal, with rigid branches and stout horny-pointed leaves, blue-green to silvery white, exceeding an inch in length. at home on the mountains of colorado, utah and wyoming, it reaches a hundred to a hundred and fifty feet in height and a trunk diameter of three feet, and becomes thin and ragged at maturity. the same fate overtakes the trim little lawn trees, so perfect in color and symmetry for a few years. =tideland spruce= _p. sitchensis_, carr. the tideland spruce is the most important lumber tree in alaska. it inhabits the coast region from cape mendocino, in california, northward; and is abundant on wet, sandy and swampy soil. the conspicuous traits of this tree are its strongly buttressed trunk, one hundred to two hundred feet tall, often greatly swollen at the base; the graceful sweep of its wide low-spreading lower limbs; and the constant play of light and shadows in the tree-top, due to the lustrous sheen on the bright foliage. it is a magnificent tree, one of the largest and most beautiful of the western conifers, indomitable in that it climbs from the sea-level to altitudes three thousand feet above, and follows the coast farther north than any other conifer. the firs in a forest of evergreens the spire form, needle leaves, and some other traits belong to several families. to distinguish the firs from the spruces, which they closely resemble in form and foliage, notice the position of the cones. all fir trees hold their ripe cones erect. no other family with large cones has this striking characteristic. all the rest of the conifers have pendent cones, except the small-fruited cypresses and arbor-vitaes. all fir trees belong to the genus _abies_, whose twenty-five species are distributed from the far north to the highlands of tropical regions in both the eastern and western hemispheres. all are tall pyramidal trees, with wide-spreading horizontal limbs bearing thick foliage masses, and with bark that contains vesicles full of resinous balsam. the branches grow in whorls and spread like fern fronds, covered for eight or nine years with the persistent leaves. circular scars are left on the smooth branches when they fall. the leaves are the distinguishing character of the genus when cones are lacking. they are usually flat, two-ranked on the twig, without stems, and blunt, or even notched at the tip. for these typical leaves one must look on the lower sterile branches of the tree, and back of the growing shoots, where leaves are apt to be crowded and immature. the cones are borne near the tops of the trees, and on these branches the leaves are often crowded and not two-ranked as they are below. the flowers of fir trees are abundant and showy, the staminate clusters appearing on the under sides of the platforms of foliage; the pistillate held erect on platforms higher up on the tree's spire. always the flowers are borne on the shoots of the previous season. the cone fruits are cylindrical or ovoid, ripening in a single season and discharging their seeds at maturity. the stout tapering axis of the cone persists after seeds and scales have fallen. the bark of fir trees is thin, smooth, and pale, with abundant resin vesicles, until the trees are well grown. as age advances the bark thickens and becomes deeply furrowed. the wood is generally pale, coarse-grained, and brittle. =the balsam fir= _abies balsamea_, mill. the balsam fir is probably best known as the typical christmas tree of the northeastern states and the source of canada balsam, used in laboratories and in medicine. fresh leaves stuff the balsam pillows of summer visitors to the north woods. in the lumber trade and in horticulture this fir tree cuts a sorry figure, for its wood is weak, coarse, and not durable, and in cultivation it is short-lived, and early loses its lower limbs. throughout new england, northward to labrador, and southward along the mountains to southwestern virginia, this tree may be known at a glance by its two-ranked, pale-lined leaves, lustrous and dark green above, one half to one and one half inches long, sometimes notched on twigs near the top of the tree. rich dark purple cones, two to four inches long, with thin plain-margined, broad scales, stand erect, glistening with drops of balsam, on branches near the top of the tree. the same balsam exudes from bruises in the smooth bark. by piercing the white blisters and systematically wounding branch and trunk, the limpid balsam is made to flow freely, and is collected as a commercial enterprise in some parts of canada. "oil of fir" also is obtained from the bark. =the balsam fir= _a. fraseri_, poir. this balsam fir, much more luxuriant in foliage, and worthier of cultivation as an ornamental tree, is native to the appalachian mountains of southwestern virginia, tennessee and north carolina. the purple cones are ornamented by pale yellow cut-toothed bracts that turn back over the edge of the plain scale. limited in range, but forming forests between the limits of four and six thousand feet in altitude, this tree is confined to local uses as lumber and fuel. all the other firs of america are western, and among these are some of the tree giants of the world. =the red fir= _a. magnifica_, a. murr. the magnificent red fir is called by john muir "the noblest of its race." in its splendid shaft that reaches two hundred and fifty feet in height, and a trunk diameter of seven feet, there is a symmetry and perfection of finish throughout that is achieved by no other tree. one above another in graduated lengths the branches spread in level collars, the oldest drooping on the ground, the rest horizontal, their framework always five main branches that carry luxuriant flat plumes of silvery needles. each leaf is almost equally four-sided, ribbed above and below, with pale lines on all sides, so wide as to make the new growth silvery throughout the season. later these leaves become blue-green, and persist for about ten years. only on the lower side of the branch are the leaves two-ranked. the bark of this fir tree is covered with dark brown scales, deeply divided into broad rounded ridges, broken by cross fissures when old. out toward the tips of the branches the bark is silvery white. in mid-june the flowers appear, the staminate in profuse clusters against the silvery leaf-linings, bright red, on the under sides of the platforms. it is a blind or stupid person who can travel in fir woods and fail to notice this wonderful flower pageant, that may be viewed by merely looking upward. the pistillate flowers, greenish yellow, tipped with pink, are out of sight as a rule, among the needles in the tree-tops. they ripen into tall cylindrical cones, six to eight inches long and half as wide, that fall to pieces at maturity, discharging their broad thin scales with the purple iridescent winged seeds. pure forests of this splendid fir tree are found in southern oregon among the cascade mountains, between five and seven thousand feet above the sea. it is the commonest species in the forest belt of the sierra nevada, between elevations of six thousand and nine thousand feet. from northern california, it follows the western slope of the sierra nevada, climbing to ten thousand feet in its southernmost range. a variety, _shastensis_, lemm., is the red fir with bright yellow fringed bracts on its stout cones. this ornament upon its fruits seems to be the chief distinguishing character of the form which occurs with the parent species on the mountains in oregon and northern california, and recurs in the southern sierra nevada. the best defense of this superb red fir is the comparative worthlessness of its soft, weak wood. coarse lumber for cheap buildings, packing cases and fuel makes the only demands upon it. in european parks it is successfully grown as an ornamental tree, and has proved hardy in eastern massachusetts. =the noble fir= _a. nobilis_, lindl. the noble fir or red fir is another giant of the northwest. on the western slopes of the cascade mountains of washington and oregon it reaches occasionally two hundred and fifty feet in height, differing from _magnifica_ in being round-topped instead of pyramidal before maturity. its red-brown wood, furrowed bark and the red staminate flowers justify its name. the twigs are red and velvety for four or five years. the leaves are deeply grooved above, rounded and obscurely ribbed on the lower surface, blue-green, often silvery through their first season, crowded and curved so that the tips point away from the end of the branch. the oblong cylindrical cones, four to five inches long, are velvety, their scales covered by bracts, shaped and notched like a scallop shell, with a forward-pointing spine, exceeding the bract in length. forests of this tree at elevations of twenty-five hundred to five thousand feet are found in washington and northern oregon, from which limited quantities of the brownish-red wood enter the lumber trade under the name of "larch." =the white fir= _a. grandis_, lindl. the white fir is a striking figure, from its silvery lined, dark green foliage, its slender pyramidal form that reaches three hundred feet in height, and the vivid green of its mature cones that are destitute of ornament and slenderly cylindrical. from vancouver island southward to mendocino county in california, this tree is common from the sea level to an elevation of four thousand feet. eastward it extends into idaho, climbing to seven thousand feet, but choosing always moist soil in the neighborhood of streams. various uses, woodenwares, packing cases, and fuel consume its soft, coarse wood to a limited extent. the delicate grace of its sweeping down-curving branches makes it one of the most beautiful of our western firs. it grows rapidly, and is a favorite in european parks. =the white fir= _a. concolor_, lindl. and gord. this white fir is a giant of the sierras, but a tree of medium height in the rocky mountains. its leaves are often two to three inches long, very unusual for a fir tree, curving to an erect position, pale blue or silvery at first, becoming dull green at the end of two or three years. on the california sierras, this silver fir tree lifts its narrow spire two hundred and fifty feet toward the sky and waves great frondlike masses of foliage on pale gray branches. as a much smaller tree, it is found in the arid regions of the great basin and of southern new mexico and arizona, territory which no other fir tree invades. in gardens of europe and of our eastern states this is a favorite fir tree, often known as the "blue fir" and the "silver fir" from its pale bark and foliage, whose blue cast is not always permanent. eastern nurseries obtain their best trees from seeds gathered in the rocky mountains. the douglas spruce the douglas spruce (_pseudotsuga mucronata_, sudw.), ranks with the giant arbor-vitaes, firs, and sequoias in the forests of the pacific coast. thousands of square miles of pure forest of this species occur in oregon, washington, and british columbia. here the trees stand even, like wheat in a grain field, the tallest reach four hundred feet, the redwood its only rival. nowhere but in the redwood forests is there such a heavy stand of timber on this continent. no forest tree except sequoias equals the douglas spruce in massiveness of trunk and yield of straight-grained lumber. the genus _pseudotsuga_ stands botanically in a position intermediate between firs and hemlocks. our tree giant is as often called the douglas fir as douglas spruce. the lumberman sells the output of his mills under the trade name, "oregon pine." this is perhaps the best known lumber in all the western country. it has a great reputation abroad, where timbers of the largest size are used for masts, spars, piles for wharves and bridges, and for whatever uses heavy timbers are needed. the wood is stronger in proportion to its weight than that of any other large conifer in the country. it is tough, durable, and elastic. its only faults are its extreme hardness and liability to warp when cut into boards. these faults are noted only by carpenters who use the wood for interior finish of houses. "red pine" it is called in regions of the great basin, where the trees grow smaller than on the coast, and are put to general lumber purposes. it is variable in quality, but always pale yellow, striped with red, and handsomely wavy when quarter-sawed; distractingly so in the "slash grain," oftenest seen in the interior finish of the typical california bungalow. the living tree is a superb, broad-based pyramid, bearing a load of crowded drooping branches, where it has a chance to assume its normal habit. a delicate lace-like drooping spray of yellowish or bluish green leaves, flat, spreading at right angles from the twig, gives the douglas spruce its hale, abundant vigor. the dark red staminate flowers glow in late winter against the yellow foliage mass of the new leaves; but even the flowers are not so showy as the drooping cones, two to four inches long, their plain scales adorned with bracts, notched and bearing a whip that extends half an inch beyond the scales. blue-green, shading to purple, with red-lipped scales and bright green bracts, these cones are truly the handsomest ornaments worn by any tree. finally, this paragon of conifers surprises eastern nurserymen by outstripping other seedlings in vigor and quickness of growth. rocky mountain seed does best. the oregon trees furnish seed to european nurseries and seedlings from europe grow quickly into superb ornamental trees. the hemlocks unlike any other conifer, the hemlock mounts its evergreen leaves on short petioles, jointed to projecting, horny brackets on the twig. at any season this character determines the family name of a group of exceptionally graceful pyramidal conifers. the eastern hemlocks have their leaves arranged in a flat spray, silvery white underneath, by pale lines on the underside of the flat blunt-pointed blade (_see illustration, page _). an abundance of pendent cones is borne annually. the wood of hemlocks is comparatively worthless but the bark is rich in tannin, and so the tree is important in the leather trade. =the hemlock= _tsuga canadensis_, carr. the hemlock lifts its dark green, feathery spray above the sturdy trunk into a splendid broad pyramid. in all rocky uplands from nova scotia to alabama and west to minnesota, the drooping lower branches sweep the ground, and the tree is often half buried in snow. but in spring every twig is dancing and waving yellow plumes of new foliage, the picture of cheerfulness as the sunlight sifts through the tree-tops. in may the new blossoms sprinkle all the leafy twigs--the staminate, yellow; the pistillate, pale violet. looking up from below, one sees a charming iridescent effect when the blossoms add their color to the shimmering silver which lines the various platforms of foliage. the little red-brown cones cling to the twigs all winter, slowly parting their scales to release the winged seeds. squirrels climb the trees in the fall and cut off these cones to store away for winter use. "peelers" go into the woods in may, when the new growth is well started and the bark will peel readily. they fell and strip hemlock trunks and remove the bark in sheets, which are piled to dry and be measured like cord-wood, and later shipped to the tanneries. the cross-grained coarse wood is left to rot and feed forest fires. locally, it is useful for the timbers of houses and barns, because it is rigid and never lets go its hold upon a nail or spike. =the western hemlock= _t. heterophylla_, sarg. the western hemlock is a giant that dominates other trees in the western mountain forests, famous for their giants of many different names. it is a noble pyramidal tree that reaches two hundred feet in height and a maximum trunk diameter of ten feet. its heavy horizontal branches droop and hold out feathery tips as light and graceful in the adult monarch as in the sapling of a few years' growth. the characteristic hemlock foliage, lustrous green above and pale below, is two-ranked by the twisting of the slender petioles. from southeastern alaska, eastward into montana and idaho, and southward to cape mendocino in california, this tree climbs from the lowlands to an altitude that exceeds a mile. wherever there are rich river valleys and the air is humid, this hemlock is superb, the delight of artists and lumbermen. at its highest range it becomes stunted, but always produces its oval, pointed cones in abundance. its wood, the strongest and most durable in the hemlock family, is chiefly used in buildings, and the bark for tanning. =the mountain hemlock= _t. martensiana_, sarg. the mountain hemlock of the west is called by john muir "the loveliest evergreen in america." sargent endorses this judgment with emphasis. it grows at high altitudes, fringing upland meadows, watered by glaciers, with groves of the most exquisite beauty. the sweeping, downward-drooping branches, clothed with abundant pea-green foliage, silver-lined, resist wind storms and snow burdens by the wonderful pliancy of their fibres. in early autumn the trees are bent over so as to form arches. young forests are thus buried out of sight for six months of the year. with the melting of the snow they right themselves gradually, and among the new leaves appear the flowers, dark purple cones and staminate star-flowers, blue as forget-me-nots. three-angled leaves, whorled on the twig, and cones two to three inches long, set this hemlock apart from its related species, but the leaf-stalk settles once for all the question of its family name. [illustration: _see page _ the flat, frond like spray of the ornamental arbor-vitae] [illustration: _see page _ fruit and leaves of the american larch] the sequoias nowhere else in the world are conifers found in such extensive forests and in such superlative vigor and stupendous size as in the states that border the pacific ocean. california is particularly the paradise of the conifers. all of the species that make the forests of the northwest the wonder of travelers and the pride of the states are found in equally prodigal size and extent in california. to these forests are added groves of sequoias--the big tree and the redwood, the former found nowhere outside of california, the latter reaching into oregon. once the sequoias had a wide distribution in the old and the new world. with magnolias and many other luxuriant trees found in warm climates, five species of sequoia extended over the north temperate zone in both hemispheres, reaching even to the arctic circle. the glacial period transformed the climate of the world and destroyed these luxuriant northern forests under a grinding continuous glacier. the rocks of the tertiary and cretaceous periods preserved in fossils the story of these pre-glacial forests. two of the species of sequoia escaped destruction in tracts the ice sheet did not overwhelm. for ten thousand years, perhaps, the sequoia has held its own in the california groves. indeed, both species are able to extend their present range if nature is unhindered. the three enemies that threaten sequoia groves are the axe of the lumberman, the forest fire kindled by the waste about sawmills, and the grazing flocks that destroy seedling trees. =the big tree= _sequoia wellingtonia_, seem. the big tree is the most gigantic tree on the face of the earth, the mightiest living creature in existence. among the giant sugar pines and red firs it lifts a wonderfully regular, rounded dome so far above the aspiring arrow-tips of its neighbors as to make the best of them look like mere saplings. the massive trunk, clothed with red-brown or purplish bark, is fluted by furrows often more than a foot in depth. the trunk is usually bare of limbs for a hundred or two hundred feet, clearing the forest cover completely before throwing out its angular stout arms. these branch at last into rounded masses of leafy twigs, whose density and brilliant color express the beauty and vigor of eternal youth in a tree which counts its age by thousands of years already. to see this big tree in blossom one must visit the high sierras while the snow is eight to ten feet deep upon the buttressed base of the huge trunk. it is worth a journey, and that with some hardship in it, to see these trees with all their leafy spray, gold-lined with the multitude of little staminate flowers that sift pollen gold-dust over everything, and fill the air with it. the pistillate flowers, minute, pale green, crowd along the ends of the leafy sprays, their cone scales spread to receive the vitalizing dust brought by the wind. when spring arrives and starts the flower procession among the lower tree-tops, the spray of the big tree is covered with green cones that mature at the end of the second season. they are woody, two to three inches long, and spread their scales wide at a given signal, showering the surrounding woods with the abundant harvest of their minute winged seeds. each scale bears six to eight of them, each with a circular wing that fits it for a long journey. the cones hang empty on the trees for years. the leaves of the big tree are of the close, twig-hugging, scaly type, never exceeding a half inch in length on the most exuberant-growing shoots. for the most part they are from one fourth to one eighth of an inch in length, sharp pointed, ridged, curved to clasp the stem, and shingled over the leaves above. john muir believes there is no absolute limit to the existence of any tree. accident alone, he thinks, not the wearing out of vital organs, accounts for their death. the fungi that kill the silver fir inevitably before it is three hundred years old touch no limb of the big tree with decay. a sequoia must be blown down, undermined, burned down, or shattered by lightning. old age and disease pass these trees by. their heads, rising far above the spires of fir and spruce, seem not to court the lightning flash as the lower, pointed trunks do; and yet no aged sequoia can be found whose head has not suffered losses by jove's thunderbolts. cheerfully the tree lets go a fraction of its mighty top, and sets about the repair of the damage, with greatly accelerated energy, as if here was an opportunity to expend the tree's pent-up vitality. it is strange to see horizontal branches of great age and size strike upward to form a part of a new, symmetrical dome to replace the head struck off or mangled by lightning. with all the signs of damage lightning has done to these tree giants of the sierras, but one instance of outright killing of a tree is on record. the wood of the big tree is red and soft, coarse, light, and weak--unfit for must lumber uses. it ought, by all ordinary standards, to be counted scarcely worth the cutting; but the vast quantity yielded by a single tree pays the lumberman huge profits, though he wastes thousands of feet by blasting the mighty shaft into chunks manageable in the sawmill. shingles, shakes, and fencing consume more of the lumber than general construction--ignoble uses for this noblest of all trees. the best groves of big trees now under government protection are in the grand sequoia national park. near the yosemite is the famous mariposa grove that contains the "grizzly giant" and other specimen trees of great age and size. more than half of the big trees are in the hands of speculators and lumber companies. exploitation of nature's best treasure is as old as the human race. the idea of conservation is still in its infancy. the ruin by the lumbering interests of a sequoia grove means the drying up of streams and the defeat of irrigation projects in the valleys below. big trees inhabit only areas on the western slopes of the sierras. wherever they grow their roots have made of the deep soil a sponge that holds the drainage of melting snowbanks and doles it out through streams that flow thence to famishing, hot, wind-swept plains and valleys. when the trees are gone, turbulent, short-lived spring floods exhaust the water supply and do untold damage in the lowlands. big trees have not succeeded in cultivation in our eastern states, but for many years have been favorites in european gardens and parks. in the native groves the seedlings do not show the virility of the redwoods, though to the south the range of the species is being gradually extended. no tree is more prodigal in seed production and more indifferent, when mature, to the ills that beset ordinary forest trees; yet government protection must be strengthened, private claims must be bought, and scientific forestry maintained in order to prevent the extinction of the species, with the destruction of trees that are, as they stand to-day, the greatest living monuments in the world of plants. =the redwood= _s. sempervirens_, endl. the redwood comes down to the sea on the western slopes of the coast range, from southern oregon to monterey county in california, tempting the lumberman by the wonderful wealth and accessibility of these groves of giant trees. the wood is soft, satiny, red, like the thick, fibrous, furrowed bark that clothes the tall, fluted trunks. redwoods are taller than big trees, have slenderer trunks and branches and a more light and graceful leaf-spray. the head is pyramidal in young trees, later becoming irregular and narrow, and exceedingly small in forests by the crowding of the trees and the death of lower branches. the leaves on the terminal shoots spread into a flat spray, two-ranked, like those of a balsam fir. each blade is flat, tapering to both ends, and from one fourth to one half an inch in length. awl-shaped and much shorter leaves are scattered on year-old twigs, back of the new shoots, resembling the foliage of the big tree. the cones are small and almost globular, maturing in a single season, scarcely an inch long, with three to five winged seeds under each scale. seedling redwoods come quickly from this yearly sowing, and thrive under the forest cover, unless fire or the trampling feet of grazing flocks destroy them. after the lumberman, the virile redwood sends up shoots around the bleeding stumps, thus reinforcing the seedling tree and promising the renewal of the forest groves in the centuries to come. redwood lumber is the most important building material on the pacific coast. the hardest and choicest wood comes in limited quantities from the stumps which furnish curly and bird's-eye wood, used by the makers of bric-à-brac and high-priced cabinet work. shingles, siding, and interior finish of houses consume quantities of the yearly output of the mills. demand for fence posts, railway ties and cooperage increases. quantities of lumber are shipped east to take the place of white pine no longer obtainable. in cultivation the redwood is a graceful, quick-growing, beautiful evergreen, successful in the southeastern states, and often met in european parks and gardens. weeping forms are very popular abroad. government and state protection has made sure the safeguarding for coming generations of some groves of redwoods, containing trees whose size and age rival those of the most ancient big trees. but the fact that the redwood, restricted on the map to such a limited territory, is the most important timber tree on the coast, is a blot upon our vaunted democracy, which has allowed the cunning of a few small minds to defeat the best interests of the whole people and rob them of forest treasure which might yield its benefits continuously, if properly managed. government purchase of all sequoia-bearing land, followed by rational methods of harvesting the mature lumber and conserving the young growth, is the ideal solution of the problem. such a plan would assure the saving of the monumental giants. the arbor-vitaes minute, scale-like leaves, four-ranked, closely overlapping, so as to conceal the wiry twig, mark the genus _thuya_, which is represented in america by two species of slender, pyramidal evergreen trees, whose intricately branched limbs terminate in a flat, open spray (_see illustration, page _). "tree of life" is the english translation, but the latin name everywhere is heard. =eastern arbor-vitae= _thuya occidentalis_, linn. the eastern arbor-vitae, called also the white cedar, is found in impenetrable pure forest growth, from nova scotia and new brunswick northwestward to the mouth of the saskatchewan river, always in swampy regions, or along the rocky banks of streams. in the east it follows the mountains to tennessee, and from lake winnipeg it extends south to middle minnesota and northern illinois. in cultivation it is oftenest seen as an individual lawn and park tree, or in hedges on boundary lines. it submits comfortably to severe pruning, is easily transplanted, and comes readily from seed. plantations grow rapidly into fence posts and telegraph poles. the wood is durable in wet ground, but very soft, coarse, and brittle. =the red cedar= _t. plicata_, d. don. the red cedar or canoe cedar is the giant arbor-vitae of the coast region from british columbia to northern california and east over the mountain ranges into idaho and northern montana. its buttressed trunk is a fluted column one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet high in western washington and oregon, along the banks of mountain streams and in the rich bottom land farther seaward. the leaves in a flat spray at once distinguish this tree from any other conifer, for they are pointed, scale-like, closely overlapping each other in alternate pairs. the clustered cones, with their six or eight seed-bearing scales, seem absurdly small fruits on so huge a tree. none exceeds one half an inch in height, but their number makes up for size deficiency and the seed crop is tremendous. the alaskan indian chooses the tall bole of a red cedar for his totem pole, and from the massive butt hollows out the war canoe and "dug-out" which solve his problems of transportation in summer. durability is the chief merit of this soft, brittle wood, which is easily worked with the indian's crude tools. the bark of the tree furnishes the walls of the indian huts and its inner fibre is the raw material of his cordage--the harness for his dog team, his nets and lines for fishing; and it is the basis of the squaw's basket-weaving industry. this is the best arbor-vitae for ornamental planting. its success in europe is very striking, and from european nurseries it has been successfully re-introduced into the united states, where it is hardy and vigorous. but it fails when taken directly into the north atlantic states. it must come in via europe, as nearly all west coast trees have to do in order to succeed. the incense cedar one tree, so magnificent in proportions that it ranks among the giants in our western forests, stands as the sole american representative of its genus. its nearest relatives are the arbor-vitaes, sequoias, and the bald cypress of the south. the incense cedar (_librocedrus decurrens_, torr.) has its name from its resinous, aromatic sap. the tree, when it grows apart from others, forms a perfect tapering pyramid, with flat, plume-like sprays that sweep downward and outward with wonderful lightness and grace. the leaves are scale-like, closely appressed to the wiry twigs, in four ranks, bright green, tinged with gold in late winter, by the abundance of the yellow staminate flowers. the cones are small, narrowly pointed, made of few paired scales, each bearing two seeds. the bark is cinnamon-red in color. the trees occur scattered among other species in open forests from three thousand to six thousand feet above the sea, reaching a height of two hundred feet and a trunk diameter of twelve feet on the sierra nevada glacial moraines. the lumber resembles that of arbor-vitae, and is used for the same purposes. in cultivation the tree is hardy and thrives in parks in the neighborhood of new york. in europe it has long been a favorite. the cypresses three genera of pyramidal conifers, with light, graceful leaf-spray, and small woody cones, held erect, compose the group known as cypresses. all have found places in horticulture, for not one of them but has value for ornamental planting. some species have considerable lumber value. =the monterey cypress= _cupressus macrocarpa_, cord. the monterey cypress is now restricted to certain ocean-facing bluffs about monterey bay in california. these trees are derelicts of their species. wind-beaten into grotesqueness of form, unmatched in any other tree near the sea-level, their matted and gnarled branches make a flat and very irregular top above a short, thick, often bent and leaning trunk. clusters of globular cones stud the twigs behind the leafy spray composed of thread-like wiry twigs, entirely covered with scaly, four-ranked leaves. in cultivation this cypress grows into a luxuriant, pyramidal tree, often broadening and losing its symmetry, but redeeming it by the grace of its plume-like, outstretched branches. one by one the native cypresses on the crumbling bluffs will go down into monterey bay, for the undermining process is eating out their foundations. wind and wave are slowly but surely sealing their doom. but the species is saved to a much wider territory. =the european cypress= _c. sempervirens_, linn. a tall, narrow pyramid of sombre green, the european cypress is found in cemeteries in south europe and everywhere, planted for ornament. this is the classic cypress, a conventional feature of italian gardens, the evergreen most frequently mentioned in classical literature. slow-growing and noted for its longevity, it was the symbol of immortality. it is hardy in the south-atlantic and pacific-coast states, and is a favorite evergreen for hedges in the southwest. three other members of the genus occur on mountain foothills--one in arizona, two in california--all easily recognized by their scale-like leaves and button-like woody cones, which require two years to mature. =the white cedar= _chamaecyparis thyoides_, britt. the genus _chamaecyparis_ includes three american species, of tall, narrow pyramidal habit and flat leaf-spray like that of the arbor-vitae. annual erect globular cones of few, woody scales, produce one to five seeds under each. this white cedar is the swamp-loving variety of the atlantic seaboard--its range stretches from maine to mississippi. the durability of its white wood gives it considerable importance as a lumber tree. it is particularly dependable when placed in contact with water and exposed to weather. cedar shingles, fence posts, railroad ties, buckets, and other cooperage consume quantities each year. the trees are important ornamental evergreens, planted for their graceful spray and their dull blue-green leaves. their maximum height is eighty feet. =the lawson cypress= _c. lawsoniana_, a. murr. the lawson cypress lifts its splendid spire to a height of two hundred feet, on the coast mountains of oregon and california, forming a nearly continuous forest belt twenty miles long, between point gregory and the mouth of the coquille river. spire-like, with short, horizontal branches, this species bears a leaf-spray of feathery lightness, bright green, from the multitude of minute paired leaf-scales, and adorned with the clustered pea-sized cones, which are blue-green and very pale until they ripen. the wood of this giant cypress is used in house-finishing and in boat-building; for flooring, fencing, and for railroad ties. =the bald cypress= _taxodium distichum_, rich. the bald cypress is the one member of the cypress group that sheds its foliage each autumn, following the example of the tamarack. in the far south, river swamps are often covered with a growth of these cypresses whose trunks are strangely swollen at the base, and often hollow. the flaring buttresses are prolonged into the main roots, which form humps that rise out of the water at some distance from the tree. these "cypress knees" are not yet explained, though authorities suspect that they have something to do with the aëration of the root system. inundated nine or ten months of the year, these cypress swamps are often dry the remaining time, and it is a surprise to southerners to find these trees comfortable and beautiful in northern parks. cleveland and new york parks have splendid examples. the leaves of the bald cypress are of two types. they are scale-like only on stems that bear the globular cones. on other shoots they form a flat spray, each leaf one half to three-fourths of an inch long, pea-green in the southern swamps, bright yellow-green on both sides in dry ground, turning orange-brown before they fall. the twigs that bear these two-ranked leaves are also deciduous, a unique distinction of this genus. cypress wood is soft, light brown, durable, and easily worked. quantities of it are shipped north and used in the manufacture of doors and interior finishing of houses, for fencing, railroad ties, cooperage, and shingles. the junipers the sign by which the junipers are most easily distinguished from other evergreens, is the juicy berries instead of cones. in some species these are red, but they are mostly blue or blue-black. before they mature it is easy to see the stages by which the cone-scales thicken and coalesce, instead of hardening and remaining separate, as in the typical fruit of conifers. juniper leaves are of two types: scale-like in opposite pairs, pressed close to the twig, as in the cypresses; and stiff, spiny, usually channelled leaves, which stand out free from the twig in whorls of threes. the wood is red, fragrant, durable, and light. =the dwarf juniper= _juniperus communis_, linn. the dwarf juniper departs from the pyramidal pattern and forms a loose, open head above a short, stout trunk. the slender branchlets are clothed with boat-shaped leaves which spread nearly at right angles from the twigs in whorls of three. each one is pointed and hollowed, dark green outside, snowy white inside, which is really the upper side of the leaf. it requires three years to mature the bright blue berries, and they hang on the tree two or three years longer. each fruit contains two or three seeds, and these require three years to germinate. it is plain to see that time is no object to this slow-growing dwarf juniper, found in both the eastern and western hemispheres, covering vast stretches of waste land. from greenland to alaska it is found and south along the highlands into pennsylvania, new mexico, and california. its hardiness gives it importance as a cover for waste land on seashores and for hedges and wind-breaks in any exposed situation. it is a tree reaching thirty feet in height on the limestone hills of southern illinois. in other situations it is usually a sprawling shrubby thing, the cringing parent of a race of dwarf junipers, known in many and various horticultural forms. =the western juniper= _j. occidentalis_, hook. the giant of its race is the western juniper, one of the patriarchial trees of america, ranking in age with the sequoias. never a tall tree, it yet attains a trunk diameter of ten feet, and an age that surely exceeds two thousand years. at elevations of seven to ten thousand feet this valiant red cedar is found clinging to the granite domes and bare glacial pavements where soil and moisture seem absolutely non-existent. sunshine and thin air are abundant, however, and elbow room. upon these commodities the tree subsists, crouching, stubbornly clinging, while a single root offers foothold, its gnarled branches picturesque and beautiful in their tufts of gray-green leaves. avalanches have beheaded the oldest of these giants, but their denuded trunks throw out wisps of new foliage with each returning spring. when they succumb, their trunks last almost as long as the granite boulders among which they are cast by the wind or the ice-burden that tore them loose. the stringy bark is woven into cloth and matting by the indians, and the fine-grained, hard, red wood finds no better use than for the mountaineer's fencing and fuel. =the eastern red cedar= _j. virginiana_, linn. the eastern red cedar is a handsome, narrow pyramid in its youth, often becoming broad and irregular, or round-topped above a buttressed, twisted trunk, as it grows old. the scale-like leaves are four-ranked, blue-green when young, spreading, and sometimes three fourths of an inch long, on vigorous new shoots. the dark blue berries are covered with a pale bloom and have a resinous, sweet flesh. this juniper is familiar in abandoned farms and ragged fence-rows, becoming rusty brown in foliage to match the stringy red bark in winter time. the durable red wood is used for posts and railroad ties, for cedar chests and pencils. the tree is profitably planted by railroad companies, as cedar ties are unsurpassed. in cultivation the tree forms an interesting, symmetrical specimen, adapted to formal gardens. (_see illustration, page _.) =the red juniper= _j. barbadensis_, linn. the red juniper, much more luxuriant than its close relative of the north, is the handsomest juniper in cultivation. its pyramid is robbed of a rigid formal expression by the drooping of its fern-like leaf-spray. the berries are silvery white and abundant. the wood is used principally for pencils. this species grows in the gulf states. the larches, or tamaracks the notable characteristic of the small genus, _larix_, is that the narrow leaves are shed in the autumn. here is a tall pyramidal conifer which is not evergreen. it bears an annual crop of small woody cones, held erect on the branches, and the leaves are borne in crowded clusters on short lateral spurs, except upon the terminal shoots, where the leaves are scattered remotely but follow the spiral plan. larch wood is hard, heavy, resinous, and almost indestructible. the tall shafts are ideal for telegraph poles and posts. =the tamarack= _larix americana_, michx. the tamarack or american larch (_see illustration, page _) goes farther north than any other tree, except dwarf willows and birches. above these stunted, broad-leaved trees pure forests of tamarack rise, covering northern swamps from newfoundland and labrador to hudson bay and west across the rocky mountains, the trees dwindling in size as they approach the arctic tundras, the limit of tree growth. the wood of these bravest of all conifers is a god-send over vast territories where other supply of timber is wanting. the tough roots of the larch tree supply threads with which the indian sews his birch canoe. in cultivation the american species is too sparse of limb and foliage to compete with the more luxuriant european larch, yet it is often planted. its fresh spring foliage is lightened by the pale yellow of the globular staminate flowers and warmed by the rosy tips of the cone flowers. in early autumn the plain, thin-scaled cones, erect and bright chestnut-brown, shed their small seeds while the yellow leaves are dropping, and the bare limbs carry the empty cones until the following year. =the western larch= _l. occidentalis_, nutt. the western larch is the finest tree in its genus, reaching six feet in trunk diameter and two hundred feet in height, in the cascade forests from british columbia to southern oregon and across the ranges to western montana. this tree has the unusual distinction of exceeding all conifers in the value of its wood, which is heavy, hard, strong, dense, durable, of a fine red that takes a brilliant polish. it is used for furniture and for the interior finish of houses. quantities of it supply the demand for posts and railroad ties, in which use it lasts indefinitely, compared with other timber. part ix the palms palms are tropical plants related to lilies on one hand and grasses on the other. one hundred genera and about one thousand species compose a family in which tree forms rarely occur. a few genera grow wild in the warmest sections of this country, and exotics are familiar in cultivation, wherever they are hardy. the leaves are parallel-veined, fan-shaped, or feather-like, on long stalks that sheath the trunk, splitting with its growth. the flowers are lily-like, on the plan of three, and the fruits are clustered berries, or drupes. sago, tapioca, cocoanuts, and dates are foods derived from members of this wonderful family. the fibres of the leaves supply thread for weaving cloth and cordage to the natives of the tropics, where houses are built and furnished throughout from the native palms. the royal palm, crowned with a rosette of feather-like leaves, each ten to twelve feet long, above the smooth, tall stems, is a favorite avenue tree in tropical cities. in florida it grows wild in the extreme southwest, but is planted on the streets of miami and palm beach. its maximum height is one hundred feet. in california the favorite avenue palm of this feather-leaved type is the canary island palm, whose stout trunk, covered with interlacing leaf-bases, wears a crown of plumes that reach fifteen feet in length and touch the ground with their drooping tips. huge clusters of bright yellow, dry, olive-shaped berries ripen in midsummer. the date palm of commerce, once confined to the tropical deserts of asia minor and north africa, has been successfully established by the government in hot, dry localities of the southwest. fruit equal to any grown in plantations of the old world is marketed now from the imperial and coachella valleys in california, and from orchards near phoenix, arizona. dry air and a summer temperature far above the hundred degree mark is necessary to insure the proper sugar content and flavor in these fruits, which are borne in huge clusters and ripen slowly, one by one. fan-shaped leaves plaited on the ends of long stalks that are usually spiny-edged are borne by the stocky florida palmettos and the tall desert palm of california, planted widely in cities of the southwest and in europe. several genera of this fan-leaved type are represented in palm gardens, and in the general horticulture of warm regions of this country. the end general index page _abies balsamea_, _abies concolor_, _abies fraseri_, _abies grandis_, _abies magnifica_, _abies nobilis_, _acacia dealbata_, _acacia melanoxylon_, _acacia_, palo verde, acacias, the, - _acer circinatum_, _acer glabrum_, _acer macrophyllum_, _acer nigrum_, _acer negundo_, _acer pennsylvanicum_, _acer pseudo-platanus_, _acer rubrum_, _acer saccharinum_, _acer saccharum_, _acer spicatum_, _aesculus californica_, _aesculus glabra_, _aesculus hippocastanum_, _aesculus octandra_, "ague tree", alder, black, alder, oregon, alder, red, alder, seaside, alders, the, - alligator pear, almond, _alnus glutinosa_, _alnus maritima_, _alnus oregona_, _amelanchier alnifolia_, _amelanchier canadensis_, american beech, american elm, american holly, american hornbeam, american larch, american linden, annual rings, _anona cherimolia_, _anona glabra_, apples, the, - arbor-vitaes, the, - arboreta, xiv _arbutus menziesii_, arnold arboretum, xiv ash, black, ash, blue, ash, european, ash, green, ash, oregon, ash, red, ash, white, ashes, mountain, - ashes, the, - _asimina triloba_, aspen, assam rubber tree, autumn leaves, avocado, bald cypress, balm of gilead, balsam fir, balsam poplar, "banana tree, wild", banyan tree, bark, xv, basket oak, basswood, downy, basswood, white, basswoods, the, - bay, red, bay, rose, bay, swamp, bee tree, beech, american, "beech, blue", "beech, water", "beetle-wood", _betula lenta_, _betula lutea_, _betula nigra_, _betula papyrifera_, _betula populifolia_, "big-cone" pine, big shellbark, big tree, birch, canoe, birch, cherry, birch, paper, birch, red, birch, river, birch, white, birch, yellow, birches, the, - bird cherry, "bird's-eye" maplewood, black acacia, black alder, black ash, black cherry, wild, black cottonwood, black dwarf sumach, black gum, black haw, , black locust, black maple, black mulberry, black oak, black oak group, - black poplar, black spruce, black walnut, blackwood-tree, blue ash, "blue beech", blue fir, blue spruce, box elder, buckeye, california, buckeye, ohio, buckeye, sweet, buds, , bur oak, burning bush, butternut, buttonwoods, the, - california walnut, california white oak, cambium, , campbell's magnolia, camperdown elm, canada plum, canary island palm, canoe birch, canoe cedar, _carica papaya_, carolina poplar, _carpinus carolinianum_, _castanea dentata_, _castanea pumila_, - cedar, canoe, cedar, eastern red, cedar, incense, cedar, red, cedar, white, _celtis australis_, _celtis occidentalis_, _cercidium torreyanum_, _cercis canadensis_, _chamaecyparis lawsoniana_, _chamaecyparis thyoides_, chemistry of trees, - cherimoya, cherries, the, - cherry birch, chestnut oak, chestnuts, the, - chinquapin, - _chionanthus virginica_, chlorophyll, breaking down of the, choke cherry, _cladrastis lutea_, clammy locust, cockspur thorn, coffee tree, kentucky, colorado blue spruce, common lime, cone-bearing evergreens, - conifers, - coral-bean, "cork elm", cornel, _cornus florida_, _cornus mas_, _cornus nuttallii_, _cotinus_, cotton gum, cottonwood, cottonwood, black, cottonwood, lance-leaved, cottonwood, mexican, cottonwood, narrow-leaved, cottonwood, swamp, crab, prairie, crab, wild, _crataegus coccinea_, _crataegus crus-galli_, _crataegus douglasii_, _crataegus mollis_, _crataegus oxyacantha_, _crataegus pruinosa_, cuban pine, cucumber tree, cucumber tree, large-leaved, _cupressus macrocarpa_, _cupressus sempervirens_, "curly maplewood", custard-apple, , cypresses, the, - date palm, digger pine, _diospyros virginiana_, dogwood, european, dogwood, flowering, dogwood, jamaica, dogwood, western, dogwoods, the, - douglas spruce, downy basswood, dwarf juniper, dwarf maple, dwarf sumach, eastern arbor-vitae, eastern mountain ash, eastern red cedar, eastern service berry, ebony, texas, elder, box, elder-leaved mountain ash, elm, american, elm, camperdown, "elm, cork", elm, english, elm, hickory, elm, moose, elm, mountain, elm, red, elm, rock, elm, scotch, elm, slippery, elm, small-leaved, elm, white, elm, winged, elm, wych, elms, the, - "encina", engelmann spruce, english elm, english hawthorn, english walnut, _euonymus atropurpureus_, european ash, european cypress, european dogwood, european holly, european mountain ash, european nettle tree, evergreens, cone-bearing, - evergreens, leaves of, _fagus americanus_, fibres of wood, _ficus aurea_, _ficus elasticus_, "fiddleback" ash, figs, the, - fir, balsam, fir, blue, fir, noble, fir, red, fir, red (_a. nobilis_), fir, silver, fir, white, fir, white (_a. concolor_), firs, the, - flowering dogwood, "foxtail" pines, the, _fraxinus americana_, _fraxinus excelsior_, _fraxinus nigra_, _fraxinus oregona_, _fraxinus ornus_, _fraxinus pennsylvanica_, _fraxinus pennsylvanica_ (_lanceolata_), _fraxinus quadrangulata_, frijolito, fringe tree, gerarde, _gleditsia triacanthos_, golden fig, grain of wood, gray pine, great laurel, great laurel magnolia, green ash, "grete herball", gum, cotton, gum, sour or black, gum, sweet, gum trees, the, - _gymnocladus dioicus_, gymnosperms, - hackberries, the, - _hamamelis virginiana_, "hard-tack", haw, black, , haw, red, haw, scarlet, - hawthorns, the, - hazel, witch, heath family, hemlocks, the, - _hicoria alba_, _hicoria glabra_, _hicoria lacinata_, _hicoria ovata_, _hicoria pecan_, hickories, the, - hickory elm, hollies, the, - holly, american, holly, european, honey locust, honey pod, hop hornbeam, hornbeam, american, hornbeam, hop, horse bean, horse-chestnut foliage, horse-chestnuts, the, - "horse sugar", _icthyomethia piscipula_, _ilex aquifolium_, _ilex opaca_, _ilex vomitoria_, incense cedar, "iron oak", "ironwood," _see also_ hornbeam ironwood, knowlton's, jack pine, jamaica dogwood, japanese persimmon, japanese walnut, "judas-tree", _juglans, californica_, _juglans cinerea_, _juglans cordiformis_, _juglans nigra_, _juglans regia_, _juglans rupestris_, _juglans sieboldiana_, june-berry, junipers, the, - _juniperus barbadensis_, _juniperus communis_, _juniperus occidentalis_, _juniperus virginiana_, kaki, kalm, peter, xx _kalmia latifolia_, kentucky coffee tree, knob-cone pine, knowlton's ironwood, lance-leaved cottonwood, "_langues de femmes_", larches, the, - large-leaved cucumber tree, _larix americana_, _larix occidentalis_, laurel family, - laurel, great, laurel, mountain, laurel oak, _laurus nobilis_, lawson cypress, leaves, , - "lever-wood", _librocedus decurrens_, lime, common, "lime trees," _see_ lindens linden, american, lindens, the, - linnaeus, xviii, _liquidamber styraciflua_, _liriodendron tulipifera_, live oak, live oak (_q. aquifolia_), loblolly pine, locusts, the, - lodge-pole pine, lombardy poplar, longleaf pine, madroña, _magnolia acuminata_, magnolia, campbell's, _magnolia foetida_, _magnolia glauca_, magnolia, great laurel, _magnolia macrophylla_, magnolia, starry, _magnolia stellata_, _magnolia tripetala_, _magnolia yulan_, magnolias, the, - _malus coronaria_, _malus ioensis_, maple, "bird's eye" and "curly", maple, black, maple, dwarf, maple, mountain, maple, norway, maple, oregon, maple, red, maple, silver, maple, soft, maple, striped, maple, sugar, maple, sycamore, maple, vine, maple, wier's weeping, maples, the, - melon papaw, mesquite, mexican cottonwood, mississippi valley chestnut oak, mockernut, _mohrodendron diptera_, _mohrodendron tetraptera_, monterey cypress, monterey pine, moose elm, _morus alba_, _morus nigra_, _morus rubra_, mountain ashes, - mountain elm, mountain hemlock, mountain laurel, mountain maple, mountain pine, mountain sumach, muir, john, xvi mulberries, the, - names of trees, xvii-xxiii nannyberry, rusty, narrow-leaved cottonwood, "necklace-bearing" poplar, nettle tree, european, noble fir, nomenclature of trees, xvii-xxiii norway maple, norway pine, norway spruce, nut pines, - nut trees, the, - _nyssa aquatica_, _nyssa sylvatica_, oak, basket, oak, black, oak, bur, oak, california white, oak, chestnut, oak, "iron", oak, live, oak, live (_q. agrifolia_), oak, mississippi valley chestnut, oak, pacific post, oak, pin, oak, post, oak, red, oak, "rock chestnut", oak, scarlet, oak, single or laurel, oak, swamp white, oak, white, oak, willow, oak, "yellow", oaks, black, - oaks, the, - oaks, white, - ohio buckeye, oilnut, old field pine, one-leaved nut pine, oregon alder, oregon ash, oregon maple, oriental plane, osage orange, _ostrya knowletoni_, _ostrya virginiana_, _oxydendrum arboreum_, pacific post oak, palms, the, palo verde acacia, papaws, the, - paper birch, _parkinsonia aculeata_, pecan, "pepperidge", _persea borbonia_, _persea gratissima_, persimmons, the, - _picea engelmanni_, _picea excelsa_, _picea mariana_, _picea parryana_, _picea rubens_, _picea sitchensis_, pie cherry, pignut, pin cherry, pin oak, pine, "big-cone", pine, cuban, pine, digger, pine, gray, pine, jack, pine, knob-cone, pine, loblolly, pine, lodge-pole, pine, longleaf, pine, monterey, pine, mountain, pine, norway, pine, old field, pine, one-leaved nut, pine, pitch, pine, prickle-cone, pine, red, "pine, red", pine, rocky mountain white, pine, rosemary, pine, scrub, pine, shortleaf, pine, slash, pine, "southern", pine, sugar, pine, swamp, pine, tamarack, pine, western pitch, pine, western yellow, pine, white, pine, white bark, pines, "foxtail", pines, nut, - pines, the, - piñon, _pinus albicaulis_, _pinus aristata_, _pinus attenuata_, _pinus balfouriana_, _pinus caribaea_, _pinus cembroides_, _pinus contorta_, _pinus coulteri_, _pinus divaricata_, _pinus echinata_, _pinus edulis_, _pinus flexilis_, _pinus lambertiana_, _pinus monophylla_, _pinus monticola_, _pinus palustris_, _pinus ponderosa_, _pinus quadrifolia_, _pinus radiata_, _pinus resinosa_, _pinus rigida_, _pinus sabiniana_, _pinus strobus_, _pinus taeda_, pitch pine, pitch pine, western, pitch pines, the, plane, oriental, _platanus occidentalis_, _platanus orientalis_, plums, the, - "pod-bearers," the, - poison sumach, pond apples, the, - poplar, balsam, poplar, black, poplar, carolina, poplar, lombardy, poplar, "necklace-bearing", poplar, silver-leaved, poplar, white, poplars, the, - _populus acuminata_, _populus alba_, _populus angustifolia_, _populus balsamifera_, _-populus deltoidea_, _populus heterophylla_, _populus mexicana_, _populus nigra_, _populus tremuloides_, _populus trichocarpa_, post oak, prairie crab, prickle-cone pine, prickwood, _prosopis pubescens_, _prosopis tuliflora_, _prunus americanus_, _prunus avium_, _prunus cerasus_, _prunus nigra_, _prunus pennsylvanica_, _prunus pseudo-cerasus_, _prunus serotina_, _prunus virginiana_, _pseudotsuga mucronata_, pussy willow, quaking asp, _quercus acuminata_, _quercus agrifolia_, _quercus alba_, _quercus chrysolepis_, _quercus coccinea_, _quercus garryana_, _quercus lobata_, _quercus macrocarpa_, _quercus michauxii_, _quercus minor_, _quercus palustris_, _quercus phellos_, _quercus platanoides_, _quercus prinus_, _quercus rubra_, _quercus velutina_, _quercus virginiana_, ram's horn ash, red alder, red ash, red bay, red birch, red cedar, red cedar, eastern, red elm, red fir, red fir (_a. nobilis_), red haw, red juniper, red maple, red mulberry, red oak, red pine, "red pine", red plum, wild, red spruce, redbud, redwood, retama, rhododendron, _rhododendron maximum_, _rhus copallina_, _rhus glabra_, _rhus hirta_, _rhus vernix_, rings, the annual, river birch, _robinia pseudacacia_, _robinia viscosa_, "rock chestnut" oak, rock elm, rocky mountain white pine, rose bay, rosemary pine, rowan tree, royal palm, rubber plant, rum cherry, rusty nannyberry, _salix babylonica_, _salix discolor_, sap, sargent, professor, xxi sassafras, scarlet haw, scarlet oak, scientific names, xvii scotch elm, screw-bean, screw-pod, scrub pine, seaside alder, _sequoia sempervirens_, _sequoia wellingtonia_, sequoias, the, - service-berries, the, - shad-bush, shagbark, shaw botanical garden, xiv sheepberry, shellbark, shellbark, big, shingle oak, shortleaf pine, "silva of north america", xxi silver bell trees, silver fir, silver-leaved poplar, silver maple, silver wattle, slash pine, slippery elm, small-leaved elm, smoke tree, smooth sumach, snowdrop tree, "snowdrop tree", soft maple, soft pines, - _sophora secundiflora_, _sorbus americana_, _sorbus aucuparia_, _sorbus sambucifolia_, sorrel tree, sour gum, sour-wood, "southern" pine, southwestern walnut, "_species plantarum_", xix spruce, black, spruce, blue, spruce, douglas, spruce, engelmann, spruce, norway, spruce, red, spruce, tideland, spruces, the, - staghorn sumach, starch, starry magnolia, striped mapl, sugar maple, sugar pine, sumach, black dwarf, sumach, dwarf, sumach, mountain, sumach, poison, sumach, smooth, sumach, staghorn, sumachs, the, - swamp bay, swamp cottonwood, swamp pine, swamp white oak, sweet buckeye, sweet cherry, sweet gum, sweet leaf, sycamore maple, sycamores, the, - _symplocos tinctoria_, tamarack pine, tamaracks, the, - "tassel trees", _taxodium distichum_, texas ebony, _thuya occidentalis_, _thuya plicata_, tideland spruce,, _tilia americana_, _tilia heterophylla_, _tilia pubescens_, _tilia vulgaris_, _toxylon pomiferum_, transpiration, trees, bark of, xv, trees, breathing of, trees, buds of, , trees, chemistry of., - trees, food of, trees, growth of, - trees, how to know the, xiv-xvi trees in winter, - trees, leaves of, , - trees, life of, - trees, names of, xii, xvii-xxiii trees, opposite-leaved, xv trees, sap of, trembling aspen, _tsuga canadensis_, _tsuga heterophylla_, _tsuga martensiana_, tulip tree, "tupelo", _ulmus alata_, _ulmus americana_, _ulmus campestris_, _ulmus fulva_, _ulmus montana_, _ulmus thomasi_, umbrella tree, _viburnum lentago_, _viburnum prunifolium_, _viburnum rufidulum_, viburnums, the, vine maple, "virgilia", wahoo, "wahoo", walnut, black, walnut, california, walnut, english, walnut, japanese, walnut, southwestern, walnut, white, walnuts, the, - "water beech", wattles, the, - weeping maple, wier's, weeping willow, western dogwood, western hemlock, western juniper, western larch, western pitch pine, western service-berry, western yellow pine, white ash, white-bark pine, white basswood, white birch, white cedar, white elm, white fir, white fir (_a. concolor_), white mulberry, white oak, white oak group, - white pine, white pine, rocky mountain, white poplar, white walnut, wier's weeping maple, "wild banana tree", wild black cherry, wild cherry, wild crab, wild red plum, willow oak, willow, pussy, willow, weeping, willows, the, - winged elm, winter, trees in, - "winter berries", witch hazel, wood, - wych elm, yaupon, yellow birch, yellow locust, "yellow oak", yellow pine, western, yellow plum, yellow-wood, yulan magnolia, _zigia flexicaulis_, transcriber's notes where images split paragraphs and in some cases would split off a short section of a species description, the text was moved above or below the images to rejoin the text. small caps formatting is usually converted to all caps. although the section header lists on the chapter title pages were printed in small caps and the section header text are printed in all caps where they occur within the chapter, it was decided that the header lists would be left as mixed caps for better readability. where text is printed as superscripts, they are presented using a carat symbol (ex., co^ for the carbon dioxide). when text is printed as subscripts, an underscore is used (ex., h_{ }o for water). although current usage would display the numbers in chemical formulæ as subscripts (ex., h_{ }o, co_{ } and c_{ }h_{ }o_{ }), they are displayed here as printed. original gramatical constructions were left as is (ex. p. , "...the light seeds ... floats away..."). in order to match the most commonly used spelling, the instances where arbor-vitae was printed with an ae ligature were converted to individual letters. the oe ligature on page xxi was converted to the letters "oe". as three variant spellings birdseye, birds-eye and bird's-eye appear, the others were converted to the most prevalent form--bird's-eye. this was also the case with a number of other words which were changed; but are not specifically listed here. typographical corrections page correction raffinesque => rafinesque uniniviting => uninviting hawthrons => hawthorns black haw, - => black haw, , diospyrus => diospyros bardadensis => barbadensis rew haw => red haw emphasis notation =text= - bold _text_ - italic file made using scans of public domain works at the university of georgia.) the botanical magazine; or, flower-garden displayed: in which the most ornamental foreign plants, cultivated in the open ground, the green-house, and the stove, are accurately represented in their natural colours. to which are added, their names, class, order, generic and specific characters, according to the celebrated linnæus; their places of growth, and times of flowering: together with the most approved methods of culture. a work intended for the use of such ladies, gentlemen, and gardeners, as wish to become scientifically acquainted with the plants they cultivate. by _william curtis_, author of the flora londinensis. vol. xiii. "---- all alone, amid her garden fair, "from morn to noon, from noon to dewy eve, "she spent her days, her pleasing task to tend "the flowers; to lave them from the water-spring; "to ope the buds with her enamoured breath, "rank the gay tribes, and rear them in the sun. ---- ---- "thus plied assiduous her delightful task, "day after day, till every herb she named "that paints the robe of spring." bruce. _london_: printed by stephen couchman, throgmorton-street, for w. curtis, nº , _st. george's-crescent_, black-friars-road; and sold by the principal booksellers in great-britain and ireland. m dcc xcix. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] azalea pontica. yellow azalea. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ campanulata. _stamina_ receptaculo inserta. _caps._ - locularis polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ azalea _pontica_ foliis nitidis lanceolatis, utrinque glabris, racemis terminalibus. _linn. sp. pl. app. p. ._ _pall. fl. ross. t. . p. ._ chamÆrhodendros pontica maxima mespili folio flore luteo. _tourn. cor. hist. rei. herb. ._ _act. paris . p. ._ _buxb. cent. . p. . t. ._ descr. shrub from two to three feet or more in height, the thickest part of the stem not exceeding the size of the little finger, covered with a smooth brown bark, irregularly branched; flowers appearing before the leaves are fully expanded, and produced in umbels at the extremities of the branches, from eight to twelve or more in an umbel, of a fine yellow colour and agreeable fragrance; each blossom is about the size of that of the horse-chestnut, and as some of them are produced much earlier than others, the plant of course continues a considerable time in bloom, standing on short peduncles; calyx very short, viscous, and irregularly divided, most commonly into five ovato-lanceolate segments; corolla, tube cylindrical, viscous, grooved, brim divided into five segments, undulated and somewhat wrinkled, ovate, pointed, three turning upwards, two downwards, of the three uppermost segments the middle one more intensely yellow than the others and inclining to orange, with which it is sometimes spotted; stamina usually five, yellow, projecting beyond the corolla, and turning upwards near their extremities; antheræ orange-coloured; pollen whitish and thready; germen somewhat conical, evidently hairy, and somewhat angular; style yellowish, filiform, projecting beyond the stamina, and turning upwards; stigma forming a round green head. the figure and description here given were taken from a plant which flowered by means of artificial heat, in the spring of , at mr. watson's, nurseryman, islington, and which had been introduced the same year, by mr. anthony hove, of warsaw. as an hardy ornamental shrub, it bids fair to prove an acquisition truly valuable, its flowers produced in the months of june and july, being highly ornamental as well as fragrant. we have the best authority for regarding this plant as the _chamærhodendros pontica_ of tournefort, it agrees with his own specimens in sir joseph banks's herbarium, it accords also with his description, and figures, more especially of those flowers which are of their natural size; nor have we any doubts of its being the _azalea pontica_ of prof. pallas, figured in the _flor. rossica_, since it corresponds generally with his description, though not in all points with his figure, which bears evident marks of inaccuracy, the stigma, for instance, is represented as trifid. tournefort found this plant on the eastern side of the black sea, mr. hove on the north side near oczakow, and elsewhere; professor pallas on mount caucasus. as yet there has been no opportunity of ascertaining the best means of propagating this new denizen, but there is every reason to suppose that it will succeed with the treatment bestowed on the other _azalea's_. prof. pallas relates that the honey of bees frequenting the flowers of this plant is supposed to be narcotic, and that goats, kine, and sheep on eating its leaves have been poisoned thereby. by permission and with the approbation of mr. anthony hove, the following extracts from his journal are here inserted. "june , , found a few of this species of _azalea_ on the river dnieper in swampy ground, four feet high, beginning to blow, called here the stupifying shrub, and considered by some as highly efficacious in curing the venereal disease. "june , found this species on the river dniester, on the estate of count stanislaus sczesny potocki, about sixteen english miles from the town of mohilow, in peat earth, from four to twenty feet high; regarded by the common people as intoxicating, and used in the cure of various diseases. "july , near oczakow, found thousands of these plants fully blown, in a marsh, every spring-tide overflown by the sea; found there also, a tartarian farmer, who lived entirely by the profits arising from the honey which the bees extracted from the flowers of this plant, sold to constantinople and other parts of turkey for medicinal uses. "july , arrived at trebizond, found a valley about ten english miles from the sea covered with these plants." on cultivation, mr. hove relates that he found the _azalea's_ from trebizond much more tender than those from the borders of the dnieper and the dniester, and was therefore inclined to regard them as strong varieties if not distinct species. the leaves, when fully expanded, are in size and figure like those on the plate, hairy on both sides, and terminating in a very remarkable blunt mucro or point, which has not been noticed either by those who have described or figured the plant as it deserves, for it appears to form a very strong character. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] oxybaphus viscosus. viscid umbrella-wort. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus campanulatus. _cor._ infundibuliformis. _nux_ -gona -sperma calyce explanato persistenti circumdata. _specific character and synonyms._ oxybaphus _viscosus_. _l'herit. monograph._ mirabilis _viscosa_ floribus racemosis; foliis cordatis orbiculato-acutis tomentosis. _cav. icon. i. n. . t. ._ the present is one of those plants which is entitled to our admiration, for its curious and singular structure, rather than for any extraordinary figure it makes in a collection; not that its flowers are without a certain share of beauty. it is an annual, growing to about the height of two feet; the whole plant is viscous, and, if bruised, smells somewhat disagreeably; the flowers do not open at any particular time as those of the _mirabilis_ do, and each contains only three stamina; when they fall off, which they do soon after expanding, the calyx closes on the germen, enlarges, droops, and becomes deeply plaited; on the ripening of the seed it turns brown, expands, and is suspended like a little umbrella over the seed, which when perfectly ripe drops out on the ground; the expanded calyx in this state appears somewhat like the flower of a physalis. this plant flowers from june to october, and ripens its seeds in the open air; it is not difficult of culture, requires the same treatment as other tender annuals from peru. our figure was drawn from a plant which flowered , in the collection of the marchioness of bute, and was raised from peruvian seeds, sent her by prof. ortega of madrid, under the name of _mirabilis triandra_; mons. cavanille has figured and described it as the _mirabilis viscosa_; mons. l'heritier, from a consideration of all its characters, has been induced to make a new genus of it, which he has called _oxybaphus_. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] gnaphalium ericoides. heath-leaved gnaphalium, or everlasting. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia superflua. _generic character._ _recept._ nudum. _pappus_ plumosus. _cal._ imbricatus: squamis marginalibus rotundatis scariosis coloratis. _specific character and synonyms._ gnaphalium _ericoides_ fruticosum foliis sessilibus linearibus, calycibus exterioribus rudibus, interioribus incarnatis. _linn. am. acad. v. . p. ._ _syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. hort. kew. p. ._ in the th vol. of the _amoenitates academicæ_, linnæus describes this species of _gnaphalium_, most probably from dried specimens collected at the cape, where it is a native; so insignificant did the plant appear to him, that in his description, he calls it _misera_; compared with the more magnificent species, such a term might not perhaps be inapplicable: but, though small, the plant possesses much beauty when cultivated, and hence is generally kept in our green-houses. it flowers from march to august. its branches, naturally weak and trailing, require to be carefully tied up; if this business be executed with taste and judgment, the natural beauty of the plant may be considerably heightened. it is readily increased by cuttings. was introduced to the royal garden at kew, by mr. masson, in . [ ] [illustration: nº. ] hibiscus præmorsus. bitten-leaved hibiscus. _class and order._ monadelphia polyandria. _generic character._ _cal._ duplex: exterior polyphyllus. _caps._ -locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ hibiscus _præmorsus_ foliis subrotundis, dentato-serratis retusis pubescentibus. _ait. kew. v. . ._ hibiscus _præmorsus_ hirsutus, foliis ovatis basi angustato-cordatis apice præmorsis crenatis, calycibus tomentosis, seminibus tuberculatis. _linn. suppl. pl. p. ._ pavonia _cuneifolia_. _cavan. diff. . p. . t. . f. ._ urena _præmorsa_. _l'herit. stirp. nov. t. ._ though not so shewy a plant as many of the genus, we find this species of _hibiscus_ in most collections of green-house plants about london, flowering from june to september. its foliage is singular, its blossoms sulphur coloured with a tint of orange on the under side and without scent; if suffered to grow, this shrub will acquire a considerable height; it seeds freely, by which the plant is readily increased, and by these it requires to be renewed once in two or three years. is a native of the cape, from whence it was introduced, by mr. masson, in . _ait. kew._ it will be seen by the synonyms, that authors have been divided in their opinions as to the genus of this plant; linnæus the younger, in his _suppl._ makes it an _hibiscus_; cavanille, a _pavonia_; l'heritier, an _urena_; mr. aiton, an _hibiscus_; not partial to the multiplying of genera, unless there be an obvious necessity for it, we have in the present instance followed the first and last of these writers. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] hydrangea arborescens. shrubby hydrangea. _class and order._ decandria digynia. _generic character._ _caps._ -locularis, -rostris, infera, foramine inter stylos dehiscens. _specific character and synonyms._ hydrangea _arborescens_ caule arboreo. _linn. syst. nat. ed. ._ _gmel. syst. veget. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ anonymos floribus albis parvis, in umbella lata magna dispositis odoratis, foliis amplis acuminatis serratis pediculis insidentibus ex adverso binis, caule fruticoso præalto non ramoso, vasculo parvo, bicapsulari, seminibus minutissimis repleto, duobus parvis filamentis seu corniculis recurvis coronato. _clayt. n. ._ _mill. icon. t. ._ _duham. arb. . t. ._ as a shrub commonly cultivated for ornament in our gardens and plantations, the _hydrangea arborescens_ has a right to appear in this work, nevertheless it is more with a view to illustrate a peculiar character of the genus that it is here figured. this shrub is a native of virginia, and was introduced in , by p. collinson, esq. it is of low growth, rarely exceeding four feet in height; its flowers are produced on the summits of the branches, somewhat in the manner of the _laurustinus_; they are small, crowded, nearly white, with a tinge of red in them which is not very brilliant, and some fragrance; they are produced in july and august, and sometimes followed by ripe seeds here. is easily propagated by parting its roots the latter end of october, prefers a moist soil, but will grow in a dry one; if in severe frosts the stalks, which are rather soft, should be killed, new ones will be put up the following spring. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] hydrangea hortensis. garden hydrangea. hydrangea _hortensis_ foliis ellipticis serratis glaberrimis staminibus æqualibus. _smith icon. rar. t. ._ hortensia. _commmers. jussieu gen. ._ primula _mutabilis_ caule suffruticoso multiplici, foliis ovatis serratis, floribus nudis. _loureir coch. chin. v. . p. ._ viburnum _tomentosum_ foliis ovatis acuminatis serratis venosis subtus tomentosis, umbellis lateralibus. _thunb. jap. p. . ?_ sambucus aquatica surculis pinguibus punctatis, &c. sijo vulgo adsai et ansai et adsiki. _kæmpf. am. exot. p. ._ var. fl. albo, pila florida major. it appears to be a point not yet fully determined, whether the present plant exhibits the appearances belonging to it in a state of nature, or those which are in a certain degree the effect of accident, or of art; in its fructification it certainly is not so completely barren as the guilder rose, _viburnum opulus_, cultivated in our gardens, since it has most of its parts perfect; yet as none of the authors who have seen it in china or japan (where it is said not only to be much cultivated but indigenous[ ]) describe its fruit, we are inclined on that account to regard it, in a certain degree, as monstrous. it will appear by the synonyms, that authors have entertained very different opinions as to what this plant really is; jussieu following commerson makes it an _hortensia_, thunberg a _viburnum_, loureiro, ridiculously enough, a _primula_, and dr. smith an _hydrangea_. in the original description of the characters of the genus _hydrangea_ by linnæus, there is no mention made of two different kinds of florets, as in the _viburnum_, nor has any author that i am acquainted with described the _hydrangea arbor._ as producing such; yet, to my great surprise, in a plant of this sort which flowered in my garden at brompton in july , three of the cymæ, and three only, threw out each of them from their circumference a very different flower from those in the centre, smaller indeed, but very similar to the flowers of the _hydrang. hort._ see pl. . in , mr. walter published his _fl. carolin._ in which he describes a second species of _hydrangea_, which he calls _radiata_,[ ] having very distinctly, as in the _viburnum_, two different kinds of florets in the same cyma, this variation in the florets is added by him to the generic character: the similarity which exists between the flowers of mr. walter's _hydrangea radiata_, and those of the present plant sufficiently justify dr. smith in making it an _hydrangea_; the appearances observed by loureiro[ ] on dissecting the germen, and our discovery of the existence of two different kinds of flowers in the _hydrangea arborescens_, tend still more to confirm its propriety; we may add, that in the very habit of these several plants there exists a considerable similarity; still, however, it is only by ripe seed-vessels of the present plant, that this doubtful matter can be satisfactorily cleared up; but it will not follow, that if it be not an _hydrangea_ it must be a _viburnum_. this magnificent and highly ornamental plant, according to dr. smith, was introduced from china to the royal garden at kew, by sir joseph banks, bart. in ; it was imported by mr. slater about the same time, with whom it is said to have first flowered in this country. if room were allowed us, it would be superfluous to describe minutely a plant now so very common; suffice it to say, that from a strong perennial root, rise a number of half-shrubby, irregular, somewhat spongy stalks, strongly spotted when young with purple, from one to three feet high, terminated by large bunches of flowers, at first green, then rose-coloured, and finally green a second time; these are the most common changes to which they are liable: but it will sometimes happen that a plant which has produced red flowers one year, shall produce blue another, though growing in the same pot; this we saw happen in the year to a plant in the possession of the countess of upper ossory, whose refined taste and superior judgment have in several instances contributed to render our works more acceptable to the public: the coloured changeable part of the flower is regarded as the calyx, in the centre of which is the corolla, containing the stamina, &c. all varying greatly in point of number; besides these, there are other flowers without any calyx, but the parts which they contain do not seem to be more perfect than those of the others, nor more productive of ripe fruit. since the introduction of this plant, trials have been made in regard to its hardiness, and it is found to survive mild winters if planted in very warm sheltered situations; but in others, both stalks and leaves are liable to be killed by slight frosts, though the roots are not; if persons are anxious to have it in the open border, the best mode will be to cut down the stems at the approach of winter, and cover over the root with rotten tan, or some light substance; in the spring fresh stalks will shoot forth, but it is more common to keep this plant during winter in a green-house or well secured frame; by artificial heat it may be brought to flower in april or may, without such, it begins to blossom about june, and continues in bloom till october; when successfully treated, it will acquire the height of three feet, and produce bunches of flowers supremely magnificent: such plants in pots are admirably adapted for decorating court-yards, balconies, &c. unless carefully cut in, it is apt to grow too large for the green-house, therefore it is proper to have a succession of young plants from cuttings, which strike very freely; this plant loves water, is indeed almost an aquatic, a rich soil, and plenty of pot room. footnotes: [ ] _habitat_ et ob pulchritudinem colitur cantone sinarum, _loureir. coch. chin. v. . p. ._ crescit in sylvis variis, inter miaco et jedo, etiam cultum, _thunb. fl. jap. p. _, who refers to kæmpfer, whose plant is certainly ours; yet it must be acknowledged that thunberg's description does not well accord with it. [ ] this plant, or one extremely similar to it, was introduced by mr. williams, nurseryman at paris, a few years since; we saw it in full bloom, at mr. colvill's, king's-road, in the summer of . [ ] pericarpium abortit, quod ex dissecto germine et per microscopium viso apparet polyspermum. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] illicium floridanum. red-flowered illicium, or aniseed-tree. _class and order._ polyandria polygynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _petala ._ _caps._ plures, in orbem digestæ, bivalves, monospermæ. _specific character and synonyms._ illicium _floridanum_ floribus rubris. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ellis act. angl. . (v. .) p. . t. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ of the genus _illicium_ there are at present only two known species, viz. the _anisatum_ and _floridanum_, the former a native of china and japan, the latter of florida; both of them are cultivated in this country, but the latter more generally, on account of the superior beauty of its flowers, which are of a fine deep red colour, and have the appearance of being double, though the petals are not preternaturally multiplied; when the plant is in bloom the peduncles hang down, when the petals drop they become erect; the blossoms are not distinguished by their fragrance, though the seed-vessels, and seeds (which do not come to perfection with us) are said to be strongly odoriferous; the foliage of this plant is also much admired: taking it indeed altogether, there are few shrubs held in higher estimation. according to mr. aiton, this species was introduced by john ellis, esq. in ; but isaac walker, esq. of southgate, was the first who possessed it in this country, he informs me by letter, that he received plants of it from pensacola in , by the hands of mr. john bradley, and that he communicated some of them to dr. fothergill, dr. pitcairn, and mr. ellis. it flowers from april to july. cultivators differ widely as to their treatment of this plant, some keeping it in the stove, others in the green-house, while some have ventured to plant it in the open ground in warm situations; it probably is more hardy than we imagine; all agree in propagating it by layers, or by seeds if they can be procured. linnæus, contrary to his usual practice, distinguishes the two species by their colour only, and thunberg is disposed to regard them as mere varieties. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] erica albens. pallid heath. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _cor._ -fida. _filamenta_ receptaculo inserta. _antheræ_ apice bifidæ, pertusæ. _caps._ -locularis, -valvis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ erica _albens_ antheris muticis inclusis, corollis ovatis oblongis acutis, foliis ternis, racemis secundis. _linn. syst. vegetab. murr. ed. . p. ._ _mant. ._ erica _albens_ mutica, foliis ternis trigonis pilosis, floribus lateralibus, calyce villoso. _thunb. prodr. p. ._ this species, a native of the cape, has been introduced since the publication of the _hort. kew._ and is now to be found in most green-house collections near town. * * * * * in its habit, its foliage, and its flowers, it is very distinct from all our other heaths; flowers from april to june, is readily increased by cuttings, and easily kept with the common treatment. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] antholyza merianella. dwarf antholyza. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ tubulosa, irregularis, recurvata. _caps._ infera. _specific character and synonyms._ antholyza _merianella_ corollis infundibuliformibus, foliis linearibus. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ watsonia _humilis_ foliis lineari-ensiformibus, tubo floris longissimo. _mill. ic. . t. . f. ._ this very rare species is perfectly distinct from the _meriana_, of more humble growth, the flowering stem seldom rising to more than a foot in height, and producing from four to six flowers, which are proportionably longer, more closed, and of a deeper red colour than those of _meriana_. was introduced from the cape by capt. hutchinson, in . _ait. kew._ is readily increased by offsets, and requires the same treatment as the _anthol. meriana_ already figured. flowers in may and june. our drawing was made from a plant which flowered with mr. fairbairn, at the apothecaries garden, chelsea, may , . [ ] [illustration: nº. ] genista linifolia. flax-leaved broom. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ -labiatus / . _vexillum_ oblongum, a pistillo staminibusque deorsum reflexum. _specific character and synonyms._ genista _linifolia_ foliis ternatis sessilibus linearibus subtus sericeis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ cytisus _argenteus_ linifolius insularum stæchadum. _tourn. inst. ._ the _genista linifolia_ is a native of spain, and was introduced to the royal garden at kew, by sir francis drake, in the year . _ait. kew._ the bright yellow flowers, which are abundantly produced on this plant during may and june, joined to the silky appearance of its foliage, has rendered it worthy the notice of most lovers of plants, in whose collections it is now generally found. it is most successfully propagated by seeds, which usually ripen in this country; it may also be raised from cuttings, but not readily, agreeing in this respect with leguminous plants in general. we do not find in linnæus's works any figure of this plant referred to; but there is a minute description of it in his _sp. pl._ it is usually kept in the greenhouse; being a native of spain, it may probably be more hardy than we imagine. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] erica physodes. sticky-flowered heath. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _cor._ -fida. _filamenta_ receptaculo inserta. _antheræ_ apice bifidæ pertusæ. _caps._ -locularis, -valvis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ erica _physodes_ antheris cristatis, corollis ovatis inflatis, stylo incluso, foliis quaternis, floribus subsolitariis. _linn. syst. vegetab. murr. p. ._ _berg. cup. ._ erica _physodes_ cristata, foliis quaternis linearibus, floribus umbellatis viscosis, calyce ovato brevi. _thunb. prodr. p. ._ the _erica physodes_ is a native of the cape, and another of those species which have been introduced since the publication of the _hort. kew._ of mr. aiton. * * * * * it is principally distinguished by the form, and delicate whiteness of its blossoms, which are so extremely viscid as to retain flies and other insects which settle on them. * * * * * is scarcely to be increased by cuttings, more readily by seeds, which sometimes ripen here. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] canarina campanula. canary bell-flower. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _cor._ -fida, campanulata. _stigmata ._ _caps._ infera, -locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ canarina _campanula_ caule erecto, foliis hastatis ternis oppositisve. _martyn mill. dict. linn. syst. veg. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ _linn. mant. p. ._ campanula _canariensis_ capsulis quinquelocularibus, foliis hastatis dentatis oppositis petiolatis. _linn. sp. pl. ed. . p. ._ campanula _canariensis_ regia _s._ medium radice tuberosa, foliis sinuatis cæsiis atriplicis æmulis ternis circum caulem ambientibus, flore amplo pendulo colore flammeo rutilante. _pluk. alm. . t. . f. ._ the flowers of this plant so strongly resemble those of the campanula, that it is no wonder the older botanists regarded it as such, linnæus himself did so at first, and miller also; and even now it may perhaps be doubted whether it ought to be made a distinct genus of, since it is found to differ principally in the number of its parts of fructification. it is a native of the canary islands, whence its name, was cultivated in the royal garden, hampton-court, as long since as the year [ ], and is a tender herbaceous plant, to be found in most of our greenhouses; its stem rises to the height of six or more feet, its flowers produced singly from the fork of the stalk are large and shewy, they begin to open at the commencement of winter, and continue to blow till march. "is propagated by parting of its roots, which must be done with caution; for, as the root is fleshy, if they are broken or wounded, the milky juice will flow out plentifully; so that if these are planted before the wounds are skinned over, it occasions their rotting: the best time for transplanting and parting of their roots is in july, soon after the stalks are decayed; the soil should he a light sandy loam, mixed with a fourth part of screened lime rubbish." miller. footnote: [ ] ait. kew. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] coronilla emerus. scorpion senna. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ -labiatus: / : dentibus superioribus connatis. _vexillum_ vix alis longius. _legumen_ isthmis interceptum. _specific character and synonyms._ coronilla _emerus_ fruticosa, pedunculis subtrifloris, corollarum unguibus calyce triplo longioribus, caule angulato. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ colutea siliquosa _s._ scorpioides major. _bauh. pin. p. ._ authors have given to this plant the name of scorpion senna, its seed-vessels, from their slender and jointed appearance, bearing some resemblance to the tail of a scorpion. it is a native of france and germany, and a very old inhabitant of our gardens, having been cultivated by gerard in ; it is of low and slow growth: there is a shrub of it in the apothecaries garden, chelsea, which grew there in the time of miller, and which now is not more than five feet high. in the nurseries we have observed two varieties of it, one in which the flowers have been tinged with bright red inclining to orange and which is by far the most common, the other with flowers wholly yellow, scarcely worth cultivating. its blossoms are produced in may and june, and sometimes again in autumn; neatly trained to a wall or paling, it makes a beautiful appearance when in flower, the shortness of its shoots renders it a very proper object for this purpose. is propagated by seeds, layers, and cuttings; the first are not produced in any great plenty with us. the leaves by a proper fermentation are said to produce a dye like that of indigo. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] psoralea bracteata. oval-spiked psoralea. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ punctis callosis adspersus longitudine leguminis monspermi. _specific character and synonyms._ psoralea _bracteata_ foliis ternatis obovatis recurvato-mucronatis, mucronatis, spicis ovatis. _linn. mant. ._ _berg. cap. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ trifolium fruticans. _linn. sp. pl. ed. . p. ._ trifolium africanum fruticans flore purpurascente. _comm. hort. . p. . t. ._ the old authors, and indeed linnæus himself at first, regarded this plant as a trifolium; afterwards the latter changed it to _psoralea_, and minutely described it in his _mantissa_. as a green-house plant, this small and delicate species has long been cultivated[ ], and still continues to hold a place in all collections of note. its inflorence to us has more the appearance of a _capitulum_ than a _spike_, and which when the plant is in full bloom, is by no means ovate, but rather hemispherical; the purple colour of the vexillum, contrasted with the white of the alæ, gives to the flowers a very pleasing parti-coloured appearance. in its leaves we have a good example of the _folium mucronatum_. it is a native of the cape, flowers in june and july, and is usually propagated by cuttings. footnote: [ ] by miller, in . [ ] [illustration: nº. ] erica empetrifolia. crowberry-leaved heath. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _cor._ -fida. _filamenta_ receptaculo inserta. _antheræ_ apice bifidæ pertusæ. _caps._ -locularis, -valvis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ erica _empetrifolia_ foliis oblongis ciliatis, floribus verticillatis: calyce ciliato. _thunb. prodr. p. ._ _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . gmel. p. ._ _linn. pflanzen syst. . t. . f. ._ erica _empetrifolia_ antheris cristatis, corollis ovatis, foliis quaternis, floribus sessilibus lateralibus. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ it is a most pleasing circumstance, when plants afford characters by which they may with certainty be distinguished; most of the heaths are of this kind, and the present one in particular: exclusive of its great peculiarity of growth, so obviously expressed in our representation of it, its flowers diffuse a strong honey-like fragrance, which, if other characters were wanting, would at once discriminate it. it is one of those heaths which are enumerated in the _hort. kew._ of mr. aiton, and was introduced to the royal garden by mr. masson, in ; is now to be met with in most of the collections of green-house plants about town, and flowers in may and june. is usually propagated by cuttings. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] mesembryanthemum micans. glittering fig-marygold. _class and order._ icosandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus. _petala_ numerosa, linearia. _caps._ carnosa, infera, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ mesembryanthemum _micans_ foliis subcylindricis papulosis distinctis, caule scabro. _linn. syst. veg. ed. . murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ mesembryanthemum _micans_ flore phoeniceo: filamentis atris. _dill. elth. . t. . f. ._ ficoides capensis, tereti folio, flore croceo. _pet. gaz. t. . f. ._ ficoides capensis, folio tereti argenteo, petalis perplurimis aurantiacis. _bradl. succ. . p. . t. ._ the _mesembryanthemum micans_, so called from the glittering particles which are conspicuous on its stalks and leaves, is a species which has long been introduced to our gardens (having been cultivated by prof. bradley in ) for the beauty of its flowers, which in richness of colour are indeed surpassed by few; they are produced in the months of july and august, but do not expand fully, unless the sun shines powerfully on them; nor do they long retain that regular expansion observable in some species, but quickly assume a somewhat ragged appearance; nevertheless, upon the whole, it is one of those species which is highly deserving of culture, by those who are partial to this tribe of plants. it is a native of the cape, and readily propagated by cuttings. varies with flowers of a paler hue. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] dillenia speciosa. shewy dillenia. _class and order._ polyandria polygynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _petala ._ _caps._ polyspermæ, connatæ, pulpa repletæ. _specific character and synonyms._ dillenia _speciosa_ foliis oblongis rotundato-acutis denticulatis, pedunculis unifloris. _thunb. in linn. trans. . p. ._ dillenia _indica_. _linn. syst vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ syalita malabaris. _rheede hort. malab. tom. iii. p. . t. . ._ the name of _dillenia_ was given by linnæus to this genus of plants, in honour of john james dillenius, professor of botany at oxford, and the celebrated author of the _hist. muscorum_, _hort. elthamensis_, &c. until the publication of the first volume of the _linnean transactions_, only one species of _dillenia_ was generally known; in that work prof. thunberg minutely describes five others, three of which are there figured; all these, and one more described by dr. roxburgh in his work on the coromandel plants, are inserted by prof. martyn in his new and highly improved edition of miller's _dictionary_. the present species, which now loses its name of _indica_ in that of _speciosa_, and which though not enumerated in the _hort. kew._ has many years been cultivated at kew, and in the stoves of the curious near town, is a native of malabar and java; in its native soil it becomes a vast tree, here we rarely see it more than two or three feet high; its flowers are large and shewy, but quickly deciduous, and remarkable for the unpleasantness of their scent, which is like that of the _lycium japonicum_, but not being readily exhaled does not infect the air of the stove. this species is increased without difficulty by cuttings, which quickly produce flowering plants. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] gladiolus watsonius. watson's corn-flag. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ -partita, tubulosa, ringens. _stamina_ adscendentia. _specific character and synonyms._ gladiolus _watsonius_ corollis infundibuliformibus, limbi laciniis subæqualibus, foliis linearibus ad oras revolutis. _jacq. icon. rar. . t. . collect. . p. ._ _linn. sp. pl. ed. wilden. p. ._ gladiolus _watsonius_ monostachyus corollis cernuis, tubo duplici, limbi laciniis oblongis, foliis linearibus glabris. _thunb. prod. p. ._ professors jacquin and thunberg have both described this rare bulbous plant, a native of the cape, and newly introduced to this country from holland among a great variety of others: it seems highly probable that the descriptions of both these authors were taken from dried specimens, since they accord so little with the living plant as it flowers with us. at first sight, one would be led to regard this plant as an _antholyza_ rather than a _gladiolus_, its flowers bearing a great affinity to those of the _antholyza meriana_, which differs widely from those of the _gladiolus communis_: prof. thunberg having thought fit to make a _gladiolus_ of that plant, he could do no less than regard this as a _gladiolus_ also; we regret that the infinite variety to which all the productions of nature are subject should give occasion to versatile minds perpetually to alter genera, often without due consideration. this species flowers in february and march, requires the same treatment as other cape bulbs, and is propagated in the same manner. descr. stalk from twelve to eighteen inches high, upright, smooth; leaves about three or four, the lowermost a sheath merely, the second leaf springs from a long sheath, is puckered at its base, three inches in length, upright, rigid, flat, linear-lanceolate, having three strong ribs, one in the middle, two at the margin, which, projecting on each side, give to the edge of the leaf a thick appearance, the leaves as they ascend, gradually differ from this, and finally become hollow bracteæ, which at first envelope the flowers, and afterwards contribute to support them; flowers from two to three, each standing on a peduncle-like tube, enclosed by a bifid spatha, contained within and about half the length of the bracteæ; corolla bright red, funnel-shaped, tube bent somewhat downwards, nearly cylindrical, a little flattened, and glossy, limb divided into six ovato-lanceolate segments, spreading outwards, the uppermost segment incumbent, the three lowermost smaller than the others; filaments three, whitish, nearly straight; antheræ oblong, straight, purple; style red; stigma trifid, each segment dividing into two villous lips. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] blakea trinervia. three-ribbed blakea. _class and order._ dodecandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ inferus, -phyllus, superus, integer. _petala ._ _capsula_ -locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ blakea _trinervia_ bicalyculata, foliis enerviis transversim subtilissime striatis. _linn. suppl. p. ._ _syst. veg. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ blakea foliis ellipticis trinerviis nitidis, floribus lateralibus. _brown. jam. . t. ._ the wild rose. "this vegetable is certainly one of the most beautiful productions of _america_. it is but a weakly plant at first, and supports itself for a time by the help of some neighbouring shrub or tree; but it grows gradually more robust, and at length acquires a pretty moderate stem, which divides into a thousand weakly declining branches, well supplied with beautiful rosy blossoms on all sides that give it a most pleasing appearance in the season. "it is chiefly found in cool, moist, and shady places, and grows generally to the height of ten or fourteen feet; but rises always higher when it remains a climber, in which state it continues sometimes. it thrives best on the sides of ponds or rivulets, and those that would choose to have it flourish in their gardens, where it must naturally make a very elegant appearance, ought to supply it with some support while it continues young and weakly. "it is called _blakea_, after mr. martin blake, of antigua, a great promoter of every sort of useful knowledge, and a gentleman to whose friendship the natural history of jamaica chiefly owes its early appearance." _brown's jamaic._ our figure was drawn from a very fine healthy plant which flowered in the collection of lady downe, at her villa of bookham-grove, near leatherhead, in april ; though not enumerated in the _hortus kewensis_, it had produced blossoms in several other collections near town long before this period; those when they once expand are of short duration, but the foliage when healthy is always handsome. it is usually kept in the stove with other jamaica plants, and propagated by layers. we cannot see the propriety of applying _foliis enerviis_ to the description of this species, since linnæus himself, in his _sp. pl._ describes the leaves as _trinervia_; three strong ribs they always have, and usually two others near the margin which are finer. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] cardamine trifolia. three-leaved cuckow-flower. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliquosa. _generic character._ _siliqua_ elastice dissiliens valvulis revolutis. _stigma_ integrum. _cal._ subhians. _specific character and synonyms._ cardamine trifolia foliis ternatis obtusis, caule subnudo. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ nasturtium alpinum trifolium. _bauh. pin. ._ cardamine trifolia. trefoile ladies smockes. _parkins. parad. p. ._ such as are attached to the smaller alpine plants, will regard this species of _cardamine_ as worthy a place in their collections; one would scarcely have expected to find it in parkinson's _parad._ yet there it is described, and the following account given of its introduction: "it was sent me by my especial good friend john tradescante, who brought it among other dainty plants from beyond the seas, and imparted thereof a root to me." this species is perennial, hardy, and of very humble growth; the leaves grow thickly together, forming a kind of tuft; the flowering stems rarely rise above the height of six inches, and produce on their summits numerous flowers, waved on their edges; all those which we have had an opportunity of seeing have been perfectly white, parkinson and haller describe them as being sometimes tinged with red or purple; they begin to appear towards the end of march and continue through april, the shelter of a hand-glass open at top is often necessary to protect and improve the flowering of this and other such early-blowing plants. it grows readily either in a pot or in the open border, succeeds best when planted in bog earth in a situation moderately moist and shady, and is readily increased by parting its roots, which are somewhat of the creeping kind. grows spontaneously in most of the northern parts of europe, especially lapland, switzerland, and austria. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] amaryllis reginæ. mexican lily. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ hexapetaloidea irregularis. _filamenta_ fauci tubi inserta, declinata, inæqualia proportione vel directione. _linn. fil._ _specific character and synonyms._ amaryllis _reginæ_ spatha subbiflora, pedicellis divaricatis, corollis campanulatis breve tubulosis nutantibus, fauce tubi hirsuta, foliis lanceolatis patulis. _linn. fil. ait. kew. . mill. ic. p. . t. ._ lilium americanum puniceo flore belladonna dictum. _herm. par. . t. ._ descr. "bulb green, scape round, somewhat flattened: corolla scarlet, with a bottom of a whitish green, the three outer petals round at the tip, the three inner fringed at the base; the style red, the flower stems seldom rise more than one foot high; each stem supports two, three, or four flowers, rarely more; they are large, and of a bright copper colour, inclining to red; the spathe which cover the buds before they open, divides into two parts to the bottom, standing on each side the umbel of flowers joined to the peduncles. "it flowered in mr. fairchild's garden at hoxton, in , when the late dr. james douglass caused a figure of it to be drawn, and wrote a folio pamphlet on it. he gave it the title of _lilium reginæ_, because it was in full beauty on the first of march, which was the late queen's birth-day. mr. fairchild told me the roots were brought from mexico; so he gave it the name of mexican lily, which is still continued to it by the english gardeners. it flowers constantly in the spring, when it is placed in a very warm stove. it is in beauty in february, and those which are in a moderate temperature of air will flower in march or april. "not being so hardy as some others, it must be placed in a warm stove, and if the pots are plunged into a hot-bed of tanner's bark, the roots will thrive better, and the flowers will be strong. "it is increased by offsets." _mill. dict. ed. mart._ [ ] [illustration: nº. ] canna indica. common indian reed or shot. _class and order._ monandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ -partita erecta: labio bipartito, revoluto. _stylus_ lanceolatus, corollæ adnatus. _calyx_ -phyllus. _specific character and synonyms._ canna _indica_ foliis ovatis utrinque acuminatis nervosis. _sp. pl. ._ _ait. kew. vol. . p. ._ cannacorus. _rumph. amb. . p. . t. . f. ._ arundo indica latifolia. _bauh. pin. ._ canna indica flore rubro. red flowred indian reede. _park. parad. p. ._ the _canna indica_, a native of both the indies, is a plant greatly admired for the beauty of its foliage and flowers, and on that account generally cultivated; it has been called by some _indian shot_, from the roundness and hardness of its seeds. we find it to have existed in our gardens in the time of gerard, . parkinson was acquainted with that variety of it which has yellow spotted flowers: prof. martyn, in his edition of _miller's dict._ has quoted the chief of what these authors say of it, which as a matter of curiosity we shall here transcribe: "gerard informs us, that in his time it was in the garden at padua, that he had planted it in his garden divers times, but it never came to flowering; and that it must be set or sown in a pot, with fine earth, or in a bed made of horse-dung, in such manner as cucumbers and musk-melons are: parkinson says, in some kindly years this beautiful plant has borne its brave flowers, but never any ripe seed, and that it will not abide the extremities of our winters, unless it meet with a stove, or hot-house, such as are used in germany; for neither house nor cellar will preserve it: clusius saw it flowering by house-sides in spain and portugal, and says, that the inhabitants there use the seeds for making their rosaries." mr. aiton enumerates four varieties of it, viz. _rubra_, _lutea_, _coccinea_, and _patens_. "being a native of the warmest parts of america, it requires to be placed in a moderate stove in winter, where they always flower in that season, at which time they make a fine appearance, and in the summer place them abroad in a sheltered situation with other tender exotic plants, where they generally flower again, and produce ripe seeds annually." _mill. dict._ "these plants will continue many years with proper management, but as young plants always flower better than the old root, so it is scarce worth while to continue them after they have borne good seeds, which should be sown on a hot-bed in the spring." _mill. dict._ [ ] [illustration: nº. ] aloe retusa. cushion aloe. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ erecta, ore patulo fundo nectarifero. _filam._ receptaculo inserta. _specific character and synonyms._ aloe _retusa_ acaulis foliis quinquefariis deltoideis. _thunb. aloe, n. . ait. kew. ._ aloe _retusa_ floribus sessilibus triquetris bilabiatis labio inferiore revoluto. _linn. sp. pl. ._ aloe _africana_ brevissimo crassissimoque folio, flore viridi. _comm. hort. . p. . t. ._ _till. pis. . t. ._ though the flowers of this aloe have little to recommend them, there is much to admire in the form and structure of its leaves; and this pleasing circumstance attends it, it is perfectly distinct from all the other species: when first introduced, it was no doubt an object of great admiration; fairchild, the celebrated gardener of hoxton, who preceded miller, had it engraved, with several other succulents, on a plate which is prefixed to dr. blair's _botanic essays_, and which he described to the doctor, betwixt whom and mr. fairchild there appears to have subsisted a great degree of intimacy: the essays were printed in . this species is a native of the cape, and flowers in june, but not regularly so, increases very fast by offsets: mr. aiton makes it as he does all the aloes indiscriminately, dry stove plants, but it may be kept in a good green-house, taking care to place it in the driest and most airy part, and to guard it at all times from much wet, but more especially in the winter season. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] diosma serratifolia. serrated or saw-leaved diosma. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ -petala. _nectaria_ supra germen. _caps. . s. ._ coalitæ. _sem._ calyptrata. _specific character._ diosma _serratifolia_ follis lanceolatis glanduloso-serrulatis, pedunculis axillaribus oppositis subunifloris. it was in the green-house of mr. whitley, nurseryman at old brampton, that we first saw this plant in flower, on the th of march ; previous to this period it had flowered in the royal garden at kew, and specimens of it had been deposited in the herbarium of sir joseph banks, under the name of _diosma serratifolia_. it forms a neat pretty shrub, which is rendered more desirable by its early flowering; its blossoms are pure white, set off by antheræ of a lively purple colour; the whole plant has a strong scent very like that of pennyroyal, but more powerful. this shrub is one of the many which have been raised within these few years from botany-bay seeds, is a greenhouse plant, of easy culture, blows freely, and is readily increased by cuttings. descr. twigs somewhat angular, reddish purple; leaves opposite, narrow, on very short footstalks, spreading, slightly truncated at the extremity, finely toothed, a transparent gland in the angle of each tooth, beset on both sides with numerous glands, which project and give to the upper surface a manifest roughness; flowers from the alæ of the leaves, opposite, on peduncles about one-third of an inch long, usually supporting one, sometimes two flowers; calyx composed of five leaves which are tinged with red and permanent; corolla five petals, white, ovato-lanceolate; stamina filaments five, white, hairy, at first upright, afterwards bending back betwixt the petals; antheræ before they open purple; pollen yellow; nectaries of two kinds, five white, springing up between each filament, and which may perhaps be considered as so many imperfect stamina, they are broader, much smoother, and about one-third of the length of the filaments, terminating in a transparent gland instead of an anthera; five green, forming a kind of calyx to the germen, from the top of which they spring, they consist of five roundish, fleshy, spreading, green leaves, edged with hairs; besides these, there is a glandular ring at the base of the germen; style white, tapering, very hairy; stigma simple; flowers usually dropping off without ripening the seeds. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] aloe plicatilis. fan aloe. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ erecta, ore patulo, fundo nectarifero. _filam._ receptaculo inserta. _specific character and synonyms._ aloe _plicatilis_ subacaulis, foliis linguæformibus lævibus distichis, floribus racemosis pendulis cylindricis. _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ aloe _disticha_ var. [greek: e]. _linn. sp. pl. ed. . p. ._ aloe _plicatilis_ foliis ensiformibus inermis ancipitibus, floribus laxe spicatis, caule fruticoso. _mill. dict. ed. . to._ aloe africana arborescens montana non spinosa, folio longissimo plicatili, flore rubro. _comm. hort. . p. . t. ._ "the fan aloe grows to the height of six or seven feet, with a strong stem, towards the upper part of which are produced two, three, or four heads, composed of long, compressed, pliable leaves, of a sea-green colour, and ending obtusely; these are placed in a double row, lying over each other, with their edges the same way; the flowers are produced in short loose spikes, are of a red colour, and appear at different times of the year." _mill. dict._ linnæus originally made this plant a variety of his _aloe disticha_, the leaves in their mode of growth are indeed truly distichous, few plants afford a better example of such, but they differ materially from those of the real _disticha_ both in form and colour: mr. miller, with great propriety, made a distinct species of it, by the name of _plicatilis_, or _fan aloe_, which mr. aiton has continued; and by the name of _fan aloe_ it is very generally known: we may remark, however, that though this term may be justified by the form into which the leaves expand, the _folium plicatile_ of linnæus is a very different kind of a leaf. both the foliage and flowers of this plant are very handsome, in the course of many years it grows to a great size; in the chelsea garden there are some fine plants of it, which grew there in the time of miller, by whom it was cultivated in . it is native of africa, requires the same treatment as the other aloes, and is propagated by dividing and planting its heads. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] aristea cyanea. grass-leaved aristea. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _petala ._ _stylus_ declinatus. _stigma_ infundibuliforme hians. _caps._ infera polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ aristea _cyanea_. _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ ixia _africana_ floribus capitatis, spathis laceris. _linn. sp. pl. ed. . p. ._ morÆa _africana_ floribus capitatis spathis laceris. _murr. syst. vegetab. ed. . p. ._ ixia foliis ad radicem nervosis gramineis, floribus ac fructu convolutis. _burm. afric. . t. . f. ._ bermudiana capensis, capitulis lanuginosis. _pet. sicc. ._ gramen eriophorum africanum flore lanato. _pluk. mant. ._ it will be seen, on consulting the synonyms, that this native of the cape, though introduced to the kew garden by mr. masson in , was long before known to a considerable number of botanists, and it is curious to see the different opinions which they entertained of it; we abide by that of mr. aiton, who has called it _aristea_, from the bearded appearance, we apprehend, of the spathæ. it is a small fibrous-rooted plant, rarely exceeding when in bloom the height of six or eight inches, and would be too insignificant for a green-house collection, were not its flowers of a very brilliant blue colour; indeed miller, who appears evidently to have cultivated it, says, the flowers make little appearance, and so the plant is only kept for the sake of variety. _dict. to. ed. . ixia africana._ mr. aiton tells us, that it flowers from april to june, yet mr. andrews, intent on giving to messrs. lee and kennedy the credit of flowering it first, disregards this information, and is pleased to conjecture that the plant never flowered at kew, because mr. aiton, as he alleges, has not given to it any specific character; not aware that, as a new genus, its parts of fructification are described at the end of the _hort. kew._ and that no specific character is ever given to a plant, where there is only one of a genus, and that for the most obvious reason. the _aristea_ is a plant easily propagated by parting its roots, as well as by seeds, will succeed in a small pot, and though a green-house plant, will not be hurt by the moderate heat of the stove, but flower the better for it. the blossoms do not expand fully unless the sun shines hot on them. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] convolvulus cneorum. silvery-leaved bind-weed. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ campanulata, plicata. _stigmata ._ _caps._ -locularis loculis dispermis. _specific character and synonyms._ convolvulus _cneorum_ foliis lanceolatis tomentosis, floribus umbellatis, calycibus hirsutis, caule erecto. _linn. syst. veg. ._ _ait. kew. vol. . p. ._ convolvulus argenteus umbellatus erectus. _tournef. inst. ._ convolvulus major erectus creticus argenteus. _moris. hist. . p. s. . t. . f. ._ convolvulus saxatilis erectus villosus perennis. _barr. rar. . t. ._ _bocc. mus. . p. . t. ._ cneorum album folio argenteo molli. _bauh. pin. ._ the _convolvulus cneorum_ is a native of spain and the levant, was cultivated in the botanic garden at chelsea in , and flowers from may to september. _ait. kew._ in size, habit, &c. this species has some affinity to the _convolvulis linearis_, figured pl. , but differs from it, and other species usually cultivated with us, in the silky appearance of its foliage, which it is not in the artist's power to imitate, and for the beauty of which, more than that of its flowers, it is very generally kept in collections of green-house plants; its blossoms are nearly white and rarely or never productive of seeds in this country, hence it is increased by cuttings. it is a hardy green-house plant, requiring a dry rather than a moist regimen. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] maurandya semperflorens. climbing maurandya, or bastard foxglove. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _caps._ bilocularis, truncata, bisulca, apice inæqualiter dehiscens. _cor._ ringens, tubulosa campanulata, ventricosa, bisulcato-plicata. _specific character and synonyms._ maurandya _semperflorens_ caule fruticoso scandente, foliis hastatis nervosis. _c. g. orteg. nov. pol. dec. . p. ._ usteria. _cavanill. icon. vol. . p. . num. . t. ._ the plant whose elegant form is here so happily delineated by the masterly pencil of mr. edwards, according to dr. ortega, is an inhabitant of mexico, where its seeds originally were collected by dr. martin sesse, and sent to the royal garden at madrid, in which the plant produced flowers and seeds in abundance; from thence seeds were obtained by the marchioness of bute, about the year , who most kindly communicated them to different persons in the neighbourhood of london, and among others to my most generous benefactor, james vere, esq. in whose collection at his villa, kensington-gore, by the careful management of his gardener, william anderson, it was first brought to flower in this country, anno . mons. cavanille, who resides at madrid, where he seizes every opportunity of publishing whatever new plants appear there, has figured and described the present one, under the name of _usteria_, not aware that wildenou had previously bestowed that name on a different plant; for this and other reasons[ ], dr. ortega, in a new work of his above referred to, has changed the term _usteria_ to that of _maurandya_; and, though we cannot cordially coincide with the doctor in the propriety either of his generic or trivial name, we have adopted them. this climber rises with a shrubby stalk to the height of many feet, is very prolific in branches, and produces flowers abundantly from july to september, which are succeeded by ripe seed-vessels and seeds.--as the plant is easily propagated by cuttings, as well as by seeds, it will soon become common to our greenhouses, though it is rather better suited to the conservatory; if its blossoms, which have a great affinity to those of the foxglove, had more colour in them, the plant would be more desirable: at some future period such may probably be obtained from seeds. footnote: [ ] observ. quandoquidem usteriæ nomen huic generi à clar. cavanilles, qui primus id descripsit, impositum permanere non potest ut pote antea ab illust. wildenou alii generi inditum; propterea illud d. catharinæ pancratiæ maurandy, lectissimæ feminæ, d. augustini juan, reg. botanic. horti carthaginensis professoris uxori, et botanicorum laborum sociæ, nuncupandum duxi; oblataque opportunitate usus plantam denuo recognovi, et tum characterem genericum, tum etiam descriptionem specificam ad incudem revocans reformavi. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] jasminum fruticans. yellow jasmine. _class and order._ diandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ -fida. _bacca_ dicocca. _sem._ arillata. _antheræ_ intra tubum. _specific character and synonyms._ jasminum _fruticans_ foliis alternis ternatis simplicibusque ramis angulatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ jasminum _fruticans_ foliis alternis ternatis foliolis obovatis cuneiformibusque obtusis ramis angulatis laciniis calycinis subulatis. _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ jasminum _luteum_, vulgo dictum bacciferum. _bauh. pin. ._ polemonium sieu trifolium fruticans. shrubby trefoil. _ger. herb. p. . f._ the yellow jasmine is often planted against walls, pales, &c. as the branches are weak and slender and it will grow to be ten or twelve feet high if thus supported; it may however be planted in shrubbery quarters, to which it is better suited than the white jasmine. the young shoots are of a fine strong green colour, angular, and a little hairy. the leaves are trifoliate, though sometimes they grow singly. they are placed alternately on the branches, are of a thick consistence, smooth, and of a fine deep green colour. these leaves in well-sheltered places remain until the spring before they fall off, so that this plant may not improperly be planted among the evergreens, especially as the young shoots are always of a strong green. the flowers are yellow, and do not possess the fragrance of the common jasmine. they are produced chiefly in june, and the blow is soon over. they are succeeded by berries, which when ripe are black, whence its name of berry-bearing jasmine. although this shrub possesses a certain stiffness, which gives it somewhat the appearance of an artificial flower, yet the fine yellow colour of its blossoms contrasts so well with the rich green of the foliage, that in the flower-pot or bouquet it never fails to have a conspicuous and pleasing effect. is a native of the south of europe and the levant, was cultivated by mr. john gerard, in , and flowers from may to october. _ait. kew._ is easily propagated by suckers or layers; as the flowers have no scent, is not so much cultivated as formerly. _miller's dict._ [ ] [illustration: nº. ] anthemis pyrethrum. pellitory of spain. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia superflua. _generic character._ _recept._ paleaceum. _pappus_ nullus. _cal._ hemisphæricus, subæqualis. _flosculi_ radii plures quam . _specific character and synonyms._ anthemis _pyrethrum_ caulibus simplicibus unifloris decumbentibus foliis pinnato multifidis. _linn. syst. veget. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _woodville's medical botany, p. ._ chamÆmelum specioso flore, radice longa fervida. _shaw. afr. ._ pyrethrum flore bellidis. _bauh. pin. ._ the pellitory of spain is more celebrated as an useful than an ornamental plant, the root which is of a very hot and biting nature being a common application for the cure of the tooth-ach; but, divested of its utility as a medicinal plant, it merits a place in collections on account of the beauty both of its foliage and flowers, the latter are more handsome when in bud than when fully expanded, the underside of the florets being of a fine purple colour, the upper pure white; it is moreover a very rare plant in this country, notwithstanding it was cultivated here so long since as : parkinson evidently grew it, as he observes that the roots of the cultivated plant, were much larger than those of the wild one; he tells us also, that it was too tender to endure our winters: to the latter cause, as well as to the difficulty of propagating it, for it does not ripen its seeds in this country, we may attribute its present scarcity: mr. miller raised this plant in , in a very curious way, from seeds picked out from among raisins. in its place of growth it is not confined to spain, but is found in the levant, syria, arabia, and elsewhere; flowers with us from may to july, and may be increased by cuttings of the roots, a mode of propagating by which we sometimes happily succeed with rare and valuable plants when all others fail. it is a plant not very nice as to the quality of the soil in which it grows, but must have a warm dry situation, will succeed very well in a pot, or it may be planted in the open border; but especial care must be taken to secure it against frost in the winter. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] epidendrum ciliare. fringed epidendrum. _class and order._ gynandria diandria. _generic character._ _cor._ -petala. _nectarium_ turbinatum, obliquum reflexum. _caps._ infera -locularis, -valvis, fenestrata. _specific character and synonyms._ epidendrum _ciliare_ foliis oblongis aveniis, nectarii labio tripartito ciliato: intermedia lineari, cauli bifolio. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _jacq. amer. pict. p. . t. ._ of this parasitical tribe the number of species described in the third edition of the _sp. pl. linn. _, amounts to thirty; in gmelin's thirteenth edition of the _syst. nat. linn. _, no less than seventy-five are enumerated, which is a vast accession in so short a period; most of these are natives of hot climates, and on that account require a stove heat in this country; from their nature also they require a situation not to be exactly imitated, they are therefore to be regarded as plants very difficult of culture, and we are not to be surprised that three species only are enumerated in the _hort. kew._--but, since the publication of that work, many others have been added to the royal collection, and this among the rest. the rare and singular species here represented, a native of the warmer parts of america, and the west-indies, flowered with mr. whitley, nurseryman, old-brompton, in feb. , and at irregular periods before that time; he informs me that it is not constant as to the time of its blowing, and that though the plant flowers with him, it never assumes a fine healthy green appearance, he propagates it by dividing its limbs or branches, which often put forth small roots; the plant grows in a pot, in a mixture of loam and peat or bog-earth, and is kept constantly plunged in the tan-pit of the stove. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] sisyrinchium gramineum. grass-leaved sisyrinchium. _class and order._ gynandria triandria. _generic character._ _spatha_ -phylla. _petala_ -plana. _caps._ -locularis infera -valvis. _specific character and synonyms._ sisyrinchium _gramineum_ caule ancipiti lato, germinibus glabris. sisyrinchium _angustifolium_ foliis lineari-gladiolatis, pedunculis longioribus. _mill. dict._ sisyrinchium _cæruleum_ parvum, gladiato caule, virginianum. _pluk. alm. . t. . f. ._ bermudiana graminea, flore minore cæruleo. _dill. elth. . t. . f. ._ gladiolus cæruleus hexapetalus caule etiam gladiato. _banist. virg. ._ in a former number of this work, we gave a figure of the large variety of _sisyrinch. bermud._ of _linn._ regarding it as a distinct species, and naming it _iridioides_, conformably to dillenius's specific description; we regret now that we did not continue to it the name of _bermudiana_ (it being the true bermudas plant) and which cannot with propriety be applied to the present species, a native of virginia, far more diminutive, with flowers much smaller, of a paler blue colour, a much hardier plant also, and of more ready growth; it is indeed a truly hardy perennial, adapted to the open border, in which it will grow readily, and produce abundance of flowering stems in june and july; the flowers expand to the sun, and are followed by numerous seed-vessels which ripen their seeds, by which the plant may be increased, or by parting its roots in the autumn. its stalk affords an excellent example of the _caulis anceps_. we readily embrace the opportunity here afforded us of correcting an error in regard to the hardiness of the _sisyrinch. iridioides_, which we were led into partly by miller's account, and partly from observing the plant to survive a mild winter in the open ground; we have since found that it is a tender plant, and to be ranked with those of the greenhouse; an additional proof of its being a distinct species from the one here figured, which has long[ ] been cultivated in our gardens. footnote: [ ] by mr. jacob bobart, in . _ait. kew._ [ ] [illustration: nº. ] indigofera angustifolia. narrow-leaved indigo. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ patens. _cor._ carina, utrinque calcari subulato patulo. _legumen_ lineare. _specific character and synonyms._ indigofera _angustifolia_ foliis pinnatis linearibus, racemis elongatis, caule fruticoso. _linn. syst. veget. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _mant. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ this small, delicate, and rather elegant species of indigo, to be found in most collections of greenhouse plants near town, rises with an upright, shrubby stem, to the height of several feet; its leaves, of a lively green colour, are furnished with pinnæ, which are numerous and unusually narrow, whence its name; its flowers, produced on long racemi springing from the sides of the stem or branches, are of a singular dull red colour, and rarely followed by seeds with us. it is a native of the cape[ ], from whence it was introduced by mr. masson, in ; flowers from june to october, and is usually increased by cuttings. there is a description of this species in the _mantiss. pl. linn._ but we know of no figure of it that has yet been published. footnote: [ ] _ait. kew._ [ ] [illustration: nº. ] calycanthus præcox. japan all-spice. _class and order._ icosandria polygynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus, urceolatus, squarrosus: foliolis coloratis. _cor._ calycina. _styli_ plurimi, stigmati glanduloso. _sem._ plurima, caudata, intra calycem succulentum. _specific character and synonyms._ calycanthus _præcox_ petalis interioribus minutis. _linn. sp. pl. ed. . p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. . tab. x._ obai _s. robai_. jasminum flore pleno suavi foetido, fructu turbinato, semine phascoli. _kæmpf. amæn. exot. p. ._ the learned and instructive kæmpfer in his _amæn. exot._ that vast fund of most useful information, gives a figure of this plant, in which it is represented both with flowers and seed-vessels, accompanied with a description and short account of it; from which we learn that it is cultivated in japan as an ornamental plant, that the flowers are produced in february, before the leaves, that they have the scent of the violet, but become unpleasant on being long smelt to. hearing that lord coventry was the first who possessed this plant in england, i took the liberty of writing to his lordship in january , to request some information on this point, as well as some others relative to its culture, &c. on the th of the same month, his lordship had the goodness to send me a beautiful specimen of the plant in bloom, a seedling plant one year old, together with a seed-vessel of the year , and some seeds; in the earl's letter is the following passage:--"the beauty of the _calycanthus præcox_ at this moment surpasses all description, it is covered with blossoms from top to bottom, and the fragrance of it may be perceived at the distance of fifty yards from the conservatory." by his lordship's direction, i received at the same time from his gardener, mr. william dean, the following information, in answer to my queries:--"my lord received the plant from china in :--it was planted in a conservatory, is now sixteen feet high, and expands ten feet wide:--bears a succession of flowers from september to march:--the time of its first blowing i cannot precisely ascertain, but believe it to be nearly twenty years back:--it is propagated by layers, cuttings, and seeds, the latter it produces most years at croome, but i believe at no other place in england:--there are plants of it at croome six feet high, in a warm situation in the open border, which have stood out several years by being covered with a single mat in severe weather." not expecting to receive a plant from lord coventry in bloom, our drawing was made from one which flowered with mr. whitley, nurseryman, old-brompton, december , , and which came originally from croome, his lordship having presented most of the nurserymen about town with plants of it; the blossoms of that from croome were somewhat larger than those here represented, and the petals were less striped, indeed almost wholly tinged with purple, the leaves also proceeded more from the summit of the stalks and were of a much greener hue, owing no doubt to its being kept in the conservatory, while mr. whitley's plant was tacked to the outside of the bottom of the greenhouse. in the number of its stamina, which is rarely more than five, it does not accord with the character of the class icosandria, nor do the seeds agree with the generic character as described by linnæus. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] dracocephalum virginianum. virginian dragon's-head. _class and order._ didynamia gymnospermia. _generic character._ _cor._ faux inflata: labium superius fornicatum. _specific character and synonyms._ dracocephalum _virginianum_ foliis lineari-lanceolatis serratis, floribus confertis. _linn. syst. nat. ed. . gmel. p. ._ dracocephalum _virginianum_ floribus spicatis, foliis lanceolatis serratis. _linn. syst. veg. ed. . murr. p. ._ dracocephalum _virginianum_ floribus spicatis confertis, foliis lineari-lanceolatis serratis. _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ this elegant species of _dracocephalum_, a native of virginia, and other parts of north-america, is a hardy herbaceous plant, rising to the height of about two feet, and producing numerous flowers in long spikes, usually arranged on each side of the stalk. it comes near to the _denticulatum_ already figured, but differs in its superior height, the form of its leaves, the number of its flowers, and many other particulars. it flowers from july to september, and with me has generally ripened much of its seed, from which it may be easily raised, as also by parting of its roots in spring or autumn; it succeeds best in a moist situation, and its stalks require to be carefully and timely sticked. was cultivated as long since as , by mr. james sutherland. [ ] [illustration: nº. ] oenothera tetraptera. white-flowered oenothera. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus. _petala ._ _caps._ cylindrica infera. _sem._ nuda. _specific character and synonyms._ oenothera _tetraptera_ foliis lanceolatis, basi pinnatifido-dentatis, capsulis pedicellatis obovatis quadrialatis. _linn. sp. pl. edit. wildenou._ oenothera foliis alternis subpinnatis crispis, flore mutabili fructû tetraptero. _cavanill. icon. t. . p. . tab. ._ of this genus we have already figured six different species; this is another newly discovered one, which, like most of its kind, displays its beauties chiefly in the night. it is the only one, as far as we yet know, that has white blossoms; these, when first expanded, are beautifully so, but in the morning they change to a purple colour, fade, and their place is supplied by a fresh succession. in this remarkable change of colour, it bears some affinity to the _oenothera anomala_, which may be considered as strengthening our opinion that the latter plant belongs to this genus rather than to that of _gaura_. the _oenothera tetraptera_ is a native of mexico, its duration as yet not certainly ascertained, but may be treated as a tender annual; and such plants as do not flower the first year, may be preserved under glasses through the winter. it was raised from seeds sent by mr. donn, from cambridge; but was probably first introduced into this country from seeds sent to the marchioness of bute, by prof. ortega, of madrid. index. in which the latin names of the plants contained in the _thirteenth volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ alöe plicatilis. alöe retusa. amaryllis reginæ. anthemis pyrethrum. antholyza merianella. aristea cyanea. azalea pontica. blakea trinervia. calycanthus præcox. canarina campanula. canna indica. cardamine trifolia. convolvulus cneorum. coronilla emerus. dillenia speciosa. diosma serratifolia. dracocephalum virginianum. epidendrum ciliare. erica albens. erica empetrifolia. erica physodes. genista linifolia. gladiolus watsonius. gnaphalium ericoides. hibiscus præmorsus. hydrangea arborescens. hydrangea hortensis. jasminum fruticans. illicium floridanum. indigofera angustifolia. maurandya semperflorens. mesembryanthemum micans. oenothera tetraptera. oxybaphus viscosus. psoralea bracteata. sisyrinchium gramineum. index. in which the english names of the plants contained in the _thirteenth volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ allspice, japan. aloe, cushion. aloe, fan. antholyza, dwarf. aristea, grass-leaved. azalea, yellow. bell-flower, canary. bindweed, silvery-leaved. blakea, three-ribbed. broom, flax-leaved. corn-flag, watson's. cuckow-flower, three-leav'd. dillenia, shewy. diosma, serrated or saw-leaved. dragon's head, virginian. epidendrum, fringed. fig-marygold, glittering. gnaphalium or everlasting, heath-leaved. heath, crowberry-leaved. heath, sticky-flowered. heath, pallid. hibiscus, bitten-leaved. hydrangea, garden. hydrangea, shrubby. jasmine, yellow. illicium, red-flowered or aniseed tree. indian reed or shot, common. indigo, narrow-leaved. lily, mexican. maurandya or bastard foxglove, climbing. oenothera, white-flowered. pellitory of spain. psoralea, oval-spiked. senna, scorpion. sisyrinchium, grass-leaved. umbrella wort, viscid. _london_: printed by stephen couchman, throgmorton-street. note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h.zip) transcriber's note: text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=). trees of indiana (first revised edition) by chas. c. deam april, fort wayne printing company contractors for indiana state printing and binding fort wayne, indiana the department of conservation state of indiana w. a. guthrie, chairman. stanley coulter. john w. holtzman. e. m. wilson, secretary. publication no. richard lieber. director. [illustration: plate . sycamore near worthington. ind., the largest broad-leaved tree in the u. s. five feet above the ground it is ft. in. in circ.; the east branch is ft. in. in circ. and the west branch is ft. in. in circ. see jour. heredity, vol. : : .] preface the first edition of deam's "trees of indiana" was published in . by limiting the distribution, the edition of , lasted about three years. the demand for a book of this kind was so great that a second edition of , copies was published in march . this edition was exhausted within five days after its publication was announced, and thousands of requests for it could not be filled. these came from all classes of people, but the greatest demand was from the school teachers of the state. since forestry is an integral part of agriculture which is now taught in our public schools, and since a book on the trees of the state is in demand, the conservation commission has authorized a revised edition of "the trees of indiana." what was formerly bulletin no. of the division of forestry is now published as publication no. of the department. the reader's attention is called to a new departure in illustrations, which were made from photographic reproductions of specimens in mr. deam's herbarium. the photographs were taken by mr. harry f. dietz of the division of entomology. it is believed that it will be gratefully received by the public and will stimulate an interest in forestry that should achieve practical results. richard lieber, director, the department of conservation. table of contents. preface list of illustrations introduction key to families trees of indiana excluded species measurements of some large trees that grow in indiana specific gravity of indiana woods index illustrations. plate number plates page . frontispiece; sycamore, largest hardwood tree in u.s. . pinus strobus (white pine) . pinus banksiana (gray or jack pine) . pinus virginiana (scrub pine) . larix laricina (tamarack) . tsuga canadensis (hemlock) . taxodium distichum (cypress) . thuja occidentalis (arbor-vitæ) . juniperus virginiana (red cedar) . salix nigra (black willow) . salix amygdaloides (peach-leaved willow) . salix alba (white willow) . salix fragilis (crack willow) . salix discolor (pussy willow) . populus alba (silver-leaf poplar) . populus heterophylla (swamp cottonwood) . populus deltoides (cottonwood) . populus grandidentata (large-toothed aspen) . populus tremuloides (quaking aspen) . juglans cinerea (butternut) . juglans nigra (black walnut) . carya illinoensis (pecan) . carya cordiformis (pignut hickory) . carya ovata (shellbark hickory) . carya laciniosa (big shellbark hickory) . carya alba (white hickory) . carya glabra (black hickory) . carya ovalis (small-fruited hickory) . carya buckleyi var. arkansana . carpinus caroliniana (water beech) . ostrya virginiana (ironwood) . betula lutea (yellow birch) . betula populifolia (gray or white birch) . betula papyrifera (paper or canoe birch) . betula nigra (black or red birch) . alnus incana (speckled alder) . alnus rugosa (smooth alder) . fagus grandifolia (beech) . castanea dentata (chestnut) . quercus alba (white oak) . quercus bicolor (swamp white oak) . quercus muhlenbergii (chinquapin oak) . quercus michauxii (cow or basket oak) . quercus prinus (chestnut oak) . quercus stellata (post oak) . quercus macrocarpa (bur oak) . quercus lyrata (overcup oak) . quercus imbricaria (shingle oak) . quercus rubra (red oak) . quercus palustris (pin oak) . quercus schneckii (schneck's red oak) . quercus ellipsoidalis (hill's oak) . quercus velutina (black oak) . quercus coccinea (scarlet oak) . quercus falcata (spanish oak) . quercus marilandica (black jack oak) . ulmus fulva (slippery or red elm) . ulmus americana (white elm) . ulmus thomasi (hickory or rock elm) . ulmus alata (winged elm) . celtis occidentalis (hackberry) . celtis pumila var. deamii (dwarf hackberry) . celtis mississippiensis (sugarberry) . morus rubra (red mulberry) . maclura pomifera (osage orange) . magnolia acuminata (cucumber tree) . liriodendron tulipifera (tulip tree or yellow poplar) . asimina triloba (pawpaw) . sassafras officinale (sassafras) . liquidambar styraciflua (sweet gum) . platanus occidentalis (sycamore) . malus glaucescens (american crab apple) . malus lancifolia (narrow-leaved crab apple) . malus ioensis (western crab apple) . amelanchier canadensis (juneberry or service berry) . amelanchier lævis (smooth juneberry or service berry) . cratægus crus-galli (cock-spur thorn) . cratægus cuneiformis (marshall's thorn) . cratægus punctata (large-fruited thorn) . cratægus margaretta (judge brown's thorn) . cratægus collina (chapman's hill thorn) . cratægus succulenta (long-spined thorn) . cratægus neo-fluvialis (new river thorn) . cratægus calpodendron (pear thorn) . cratægus chrysocarpa (round-leaved thorn) . cratægus viridis (southern thorn) . cratægus nitida (shining thorn) . cratægus macrosperma (variable thorn) . cratægus basilica (edson's thorn) . cratægus jesupi (jesup's thorn) . cratægus rugosa (fretz's thorn) . cratægus filipes (miss beckwith's thorn) . cratægus gattingeri (gattinger's thorn) . cratægus pruinosa (waxy-fruited thorn) . cratægus coccinoides (eggert's thorn) . cratægus coccinea (scarlet thorn) . cratægus mollis (red-fruited or downy thorn) . cratægus phænopyrum (washington's thorn) . prunus americana (wild red plum) . prunus americana var. lanata (woolly-leaf plum) . prunus nigra (canada plum) . prunus hortulana (wild goose plum) . prunus pennsylvanica (wild red cherry) . prunus serotina (wild black cherry) . cercis canadensis (redbud) . gleditsia triacanthos (honey locust) . gleditsia aquatica (water honey locust) . gymnocladus dioica (coffeenut tree) . robinia pseudo-acacia (black locust) . ailanthus altissima (ailanthus or tree of heaven) . acer negundo (box elder) . acer saccharinum (silver maple) . acer rubrum (red maple) . acer nigrum (black maple) . acer saccharum (sugar maple) . Æsculus glabra (buckeye) . Æsculus octandra (sweet buckeye) . tilia glabra (linn or basswood) . tilia heterophylla (white basswood) . nyssa sylvatica (black gum) . cornus florida (dogwood) . oxydendrum arboreum (sour wood or sorrel tree) . diospyros virginiana (persimmon) . fraxinus americana (white ash) . fraxinus biltmoreana (biltmore ash) . fraxinus lanceolata (green ash) . fraxinus pennsylvanica (red ash) . fraxinus profunda (pumpkin ash) . fraxinus quadrangulata (blue ash) . fraxinus nigra (black ash) . adelia acuminata (pond brush or crooked brush) . catalpa bignonioides (catalpa) . catalpa speciosa (hardy catalpa) . viburnum prunifolium (black haw) . county map of indiana . map showing certain areas of forest distribution . english and metric scales compared trees of indiana _introduction_ the present edition has been entirely rewritten. while the general plan of the first edition has been followed, some changes have been made. the number of trees included has been wholly arbitrary. all woody plants of the state which generally attain a maximum diameter of cm. ( inches) at breast high are regarded as tree forms. _alnus rugosa_ which so closely resembles _alnus incana_, is an exception, and a description of it is given to aid in the identification of our tree form of _alnus_. also several species of cratægus are included which commonly do not attain tree size. the species of all cratægus begin to flower and fruit many years before they attain their maximum size. the genus is much in need of study, and the smaller forms are included to stimulate a study of the genus, and in order that the larger forms may be more easily and certainly identified. the number of introduced trees has been limited to those that more or less freely escape at least in some parts of the state. the one exception is _catalpa bignonioides_, which is given to help separate it from our native catalpa, both of which are now commonly planted. =botanic description.=--the botanic descriptions have been made from specimens collected in indiana. in most instances the material has been quite ample, and collected from all parts of the state. technical terms have been avoided, and only when precision and accuracy were necessary have a few been used which can be found in any school dictionary. the length of the description varies in proportion to the importance and interest of the species and the number of characters necessary to separate it from other forms. the characters used are those which are the most conspicuous, and are generally with the specimen at hand. in most instances mature leaves are at hand, and these are most fully described. when leaves are discussed, only mature and normal leaves are considered. the descriptions are not drawn to include the leaf forms, and sizes of coppice shoots or seedlings. measurements of simple leaves do not include the petiole unless mentioned. when the term twig is used, it means the growth of the year. branchlets and branches mean all growth except the present year. by seasons are meant the calendar seasons. the size of trees is designated as small, medium and large. these terms are defined as follows: small trees are those that attain a diameter of dm.; medium-sized trees are those whose maximum diameter is between dm. and dm.; large-sized trees are those which are commonly more than dm. in diameter. diameter measurements are at dm. ( - / ) feet above the ground, or breast high. the common names given are those most generally used in our area. where common names are rarely applied to our forms, the common commercial or botanical common name is given. in some instances where a tree is known by several names, one or more of which are often applied to a related species, the liberty has been taken to select a common name which should be restricted to the one species. botanical names are usually pronounced according to the english method of pronouncing latin. the accented syllables have been marked as follows: the grave (\) accent to indicate the long english sound of the vowel and the acute (/) accent to show the short or otherwise modified sound. measurements have been given in the metric system, and in some instances the english equivalent has also been given. the nomenclature attempted is that of the international code. the sequence of families is that of gray's manual, th edition. =distribution.=--the general distribution of the species is first given, which is followed by the distribution in indiana. the general distribution has been obtained by freely consulting all the local floras and general works on botany. the indiana distribution has been obtained for the greater part from specimens represented in the writer's herbarium and from notes in doing field work during the past years. since the first edition of the "trees of indiana" was published the writer has traveled over , miles in indiana, via auto, making a special study of the flora of the state, and has visited every county and has traversed practically every township in the state. in discussing numbers in distribution it was decided to use terms already in common use, but to assign a definite meaning to each as follows: very common means more than trees to the acre; common, - trees to the acre; frequent - trees to the acre; infrequent, tree to - acres; rare, tree to every - acres; very rare, tree to more than acres; local when the distribution is circumscribed or in spots. where a species has the limit of its range in our area, its distribution is sometimes given at length for scientific reasons. it should be remembered that some of the older records of distribution were made by geologists or inexperienced botanists, and when such records are questioned it is done with a spirit of scientific accuracy. some of our early authors did not distinguish between cultivated and native trees, which involves the distribution of certain species. the habitat of many species is discussed; which suggests forestal, horticultural and ornamental possibilities. then too, the habitat of a tree, helps to identify it. when associated trees are given, those are enumerated which are characteristic of the species throughout its range in our area and they are arranged in the order of their abundance. a county map of the state is included which will assist in finding the range of each species. a forestal area map is also added to visualize certain habitats of the state. the range and distribution of the species in the state has been given considerable attention to encourage investigation along this line. =remarks.=--under this title the economic uses of the trees and their products have been given. in addition horticultural and unclassified information is included. =illustrations.=--all of the illustrations except two are photographic reproductions of specimens in the writer's herbarium. the two drawings were used in the first edition. about of the photographs were made by paul ulman, and the remainder by harry f. dietz, who has laboriously tried to obtain good reproductions from the material at hand. =explanation of map of certain forestal areas.=--in describing the distribution of certain species of trees within the state, it was found convenient to speak of certain forestal areas which are here described, and are illustrated by a map which may be found at the end of the text. _lake region_:--the southernmost lakes in indiana are those located in the southwestern part of wells county; lake galacia about five miles northeast of fairmount in grant county; lake cicott in cass county; and kate's pond about - / miles northwest of independence in warren county. roughly estimated, all of indiana north of a line connecting these lakes might be considered the lake area of the state. _prairie area_:--while the interior of indiana has quite a few small areas called prairies, the real western prairie did not extend far into the state. the dividing line is very irregular, and several elongated lobes extended farther east than indicated by the map. the larger areas east of the line were the extensive prairie area of the kankakee valley; the northern part of pulaski county; and parts of white and tippecanoe counties. _"knob" area_:--this is the hilliest part of the state and is located in the southcentral part. it is contained in the unglaciated portion of the state, and includes the "knobs" of the knobstone, chester and mansfield sandstone areas of indiana. in this area are included the scrub pine and chestnut oak, with one exception; sorrel tree and the chestnut, with two possible exceptions. _the flats_:--this is a level stretch of country, here and there deeply eroded. being level, and the soil a fine compact clay, the drainage is poor which suggested the local name "flats." _the lower wabash valley_:--this is part of knox, gibson and posey counties which is usually inundated each year by the wabash river. =acknowledgments.=--the character and qualities of the wood have for the greater part been taken from the works of britton and brown, hough, and sargent, to whom indebtedness is acknowledged. the _salicaceæ_, except the genus _populus_ was written by c. r. ball, of the bureau of plant industry, washington, d. c. the _malaceæ_ was contributed by w. w. eggleston, also of the bureau of plant industry, washington, d. c. these authors were asked to make their part conform to the general plan of the book. mr. ball and mr. eggleston are recognized authorities on the respective parts they have written and users of this book will appreciate the value of having these difficult parts written by our best authorities. the author wishes to gratefully acknowledge this great favor. the most grateful acknowledgement is given to prof. stanley coulter, dean, school science, purdue university, who has read all of the manuscript and made valuable suggestions, corrections and criticisms. i wish to acknowledge the assistance of stella m. deam, my wife, in field and clerical work. i wish to thank the department of conservation for the opportunity of doing this work. key to the families. page leaves linear or scale-like. pinaceæ leaves not as above. a. leaves compound. leaves palmately compound. Æsculaceæ leaves without an odd leaflet at the end. cæsalpinaceæ leaves with an odd leaflet at the end. leaves alternate. leaflets toothed all around. juglandaceæ leaflets entire, or with - teeth near the base. trees with thorns, leaflets entire, generally less than cm. ( - / inches) long. fabaceæ trees without thorns, leaflets entire or with - teeth near the base, generally longer than cm. ( - / inches). simarubaceæ leaves opposite. leaflets - , fruit in pairs. aceraceæ leaflets - , fruit single. oleaceæ a. leaves simple. leaves opposite or whorled. petioles more than cm. ( - / inches) long. blades palmately - lobed. aceraceæ blades entire or with or lateral lobes. bignoniaceæ petioles less than cm. ( - / inches) long. flowers -parted, stone of fruit round. cornaceæ flowers -parted, stone of fruit flattened. caprifoliaceæ leaves alternate. b. leaves entire. trees with thorns and a milky sap. maclura in moraceæ trees without thorns, sap not milky. leaves - nerved at the base. leaves -nerved at the base. celtis in ulmaceæ leaves -nerved at the base. cercis in cæsalpinaceæ leaves with primary nerve. leaves usually more than . dm. ( inches) long, flowers solitary. flowers appearing before or with the leaves. anonaceæ flowers appearing after the leaves. magnoliaceæ leaves less than . dm. ( inches) long, flowers in clusters. bark and leaves aromatic lauraceæ bark and leaves not aromatic. fruit dry, an acorn quercus imbricaria in fagaceæ fruit fleshy. fruit with one seed, stone cylindrical nyssa in cornaceæ fruit with more than one seed, rarely one, seeds flat ebenaceæ b. leaves finely serrate, coarsely toothed or lobed. c. leaves with one primary vein. bark and leaves aromatic lauraceæ bark and leaves not aromatic. staminate and pistillate flowers and fruit in catkins. scales of winter buds , ovary many-seeded, seeds with a tuft of hairs at the summit salix in salicaceæ scales of winter buds more than , ovary -seeded, seeds without a tuft of hairs at the summit betulaceæ staminate and pistillate flowers and fruit not in catkins. fruit dry. fruit a samara ulmus in ulmaceæ fruit not a samara bark smooth; fruit spiny fagaceæ bark furrowed; fruit a smooth capsule ericaceæ fruit fleshy. flowers more than mm. ( / inch) broad, fruit edible, apple-like. trees mostly with thorns, fruit with remnant of calyx at apex of fruit, normally with more than seed. malaceæ trees without thorns, fruit with no remnant of calyx at the apex, fruit a -seeded edible drupe. amygdalaceæ flowers less than mm. ( / inch) across, fruit a non-edible drupe cornaceæ c. leaves with more than primary vein. staminate and pistillate flowers in catkins. fruit dry populus in salicaceæ fruit fleshy morus in moraceæ staminate and pistillate flowers not in catkins. pistillate and staminate flowers separate. leaves -nerved at the base, fruit a -seeded drupe celtis in ulmaceæ leaves -nerved at the base, fruit a head of carpels or achenes. bark fissured, not peeling off in flakes, leaves aromatic altingiaceæ bark peeling off in flakes, leaves not aromatic platanaceæ pistillate and staminate flowers in one. fruit dry tiliaceæ fruit fleshy malaceæ =pinÀceae.= the pine family. trees and shrubs with a resinous sap, which yields rosin, tar, turpentine and essential oils. the leaves are linear or scale-like, alternate, whorled or clustered; flowers naked, appearing in the spring; fruit a cone or sometimes berry-like. a large family of trees and shrubs, containing over species, found in many parts of the world, and of great economic importance. in indiana only nine species are native, and the distribution of seven of these species has always been very limited. leaves linear, in clusters of , , or more than . leaves in bundles of - . pinus. leaves in bundles of more than . larix. leaves linear and solitary, or scale-like. leaves all linear. leaves obtuse. tsuga. leaves sharp-pointed. leaves green on both sides, alternate. taxodium. leaves glaucous beneath, opposite or whorled. juniperus. leaves all scale-like, or some of the branches with linear sharp-pointed leaves. leaves all scale-like, fruit a cone of - imbricated scales. thuja. leaves scale-like or some linear and sharp-pointed, fruit berry-like. juniperus. = . pÌnus.= the pines. evergreen trees with needle-shaped leaves in bundles of - or ; flowers appearing in the spring, the staminate clustered at the base of the season's shoots, the pistillate on the side or near the end of the shoots; fruit a woody cone which matures at the end of the second season, or more rarely at the end of the third season; scales of the cone variously thickened; seeds in pairs at the base of the scales. there are about species of pines of which three are native to indiana. commercially the pines are classed as soft and hard. in our area the soft pines are represented by the white pine, while the gray and jersey pines are classed as hard pines. leaves in a bundle, - cm. long. p. strobus. leaves - in a bundle. scales of cones unarmed, leaves usually - cm. long. p. banksiana. scales of cones tipped with a short spine, leaves usually over cm. long. p. virginiana. = .= =pinus stròbus= linnæus. white pine. plate . bark greenish and smooth on young trees, becoming reddish or gray and furrowed on old trees; young twigs scurvy-pubescent, soon smooth and light brown; leaves normally in a bundle, sometimes more, - cm. long, -sided, sharp-pointed, bluish-green, maturing and falling at end of second season; cones ripening at end of second season, usually - cm. long; wood light, soft, not strong, works easily, takes a good polish, and warps little. =distribution.=--newfoundland to manitoba, south to iowa, kentucky and along the alleghany mountains to northern georgia. the mass distribution of this species is to the north of our area, and in indiana it is local and found in small numbers. it is a common tree on some of the dunes bordering lake michigan, and is found locally throughout the area bordering lake michigan. its distribution in this part of the state has not been studied, but it is believed that in lake and porter counties it is not at present found far from the lake. blatchley[ ] reports "a thicket of this species about a peat bog on the hayward farm one mile east of merrillville in lake county." the writer has seen it as a frequent tree in a black oak woods about four miles southwest of michigan city, also quite a number of large trees seven miles northeast of michigan city in a swampy woods, associated with white elm, black ash, soft maple, etc. nieuwland[ ] reports a single tree found in a tamarack swamp miles east of michigan city near lydick in st. joseph county. the next appearance of this species is to the south in warren county on the outcrops of sandstone along big pine, little pine, rock and kickapoo creeks. it is found more or less on bluffs of these creeks. it was the most abundant along big pine creek, and followed up the creek for a distance of about ten miles, or midway between rainsville and indian village. to the south it is next found in fountain county on the outcrops of sandstone along big shawnee and bear creeks. franklin watts who owns the "bear creek canyon" just south of fountain says he remembers the area before any cutting was done along the creek. he says that the white pine was a common tree along the creek for a distance of half a mile and that a few scattered trees were found as far as rods from the creek. he stated that the largest trees were about inches in diameter and as high as the highest of the surrounding trees. moving southward it is next found on a ridge of sandstone in montgomery county on the south side of sugar creek about a mile east of the shades. here it is closely associated with hemlock which is absent in all of the stations to the north. coulter[ ] reports a colony in the "knobs" of the northeast corner of floyd county. this species was also reported from clark county by baird and taylor. the writer has made inquiry and diligently searched for this species in this county but failed to locate it. in the vicinity of borden where the jersey pine grows, millmen distinguish two kinds of pines. investigation showed that both are jersey pine. the one with resinous exudations along the trunk is one kind, and trunks without exudation is the other. since baird and taylor include cultivated trees in their list of the plants of clark county, it is proposed to drop this reference. [illustration: plate . pinus strobus linnæus. (× / .) white pine.] =remarks.=--white pine on account of the excellent qualities of its wood is in great demand, and has always ranked as one of our leading timber trees. in fact it was so highly prized that practically all of the original stand of this species has been cut. the tree adapts itself to many habitats, hence has been used extensively for forestry purposes both in america and europe. in fact it was the most used tree in forestry until about ten years ago when the white pine blister rust was discovered in america. this disease is now found in practically all of the states where this species forms dense stands. however, federal and state authorities are trying to stamp out the disease. in indiana it is a species well worth a trial for forestry purposes, especially in windbreaks where other species are used. = .= =pinus banksiàna= lambert. gray pine. jack pine. plate . a small tree - m. high with reddish-brown bark, broken into short flakes; shoots of season yellow-green, turning reddish-brown, smooth; leaves dark green, in twos, - cm. long, divergent, curved or twisted, rigid, sharp-pointed, persisting for two or three years; cones sessile, sharp-pointed, oblique at the base, - cm. long, usually pointing in the direction of the branch; wood light, soft and weak. =distribution.=--the most northern of all of our pines. nova scotia to northern new york, northern illinois, minnesota and northward. in indiana it is found only on and among the sand dunes in the immediate vicinity of lake michigan, and in no instance has it been seen more than three miles from the lake. found sparingly in lake, porter and laporte counties. it is the most abundant in the vicinity of dune park. [illustration: plate . pinus banksiana lambert. gray or jack pine. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . pinus virginiana miller. jersey or scrub pine. (× / .)] = .= =pinus virginiàna= miller. jersey pine. scrub pine. plate . bark dark-brown with rather shallow fissures, the ridges broken, somewhat scaly; shoots green, light brown or purplish with a bloom, becoming a gray-brown; leaves in bundles of two, rarely three, twisted, usually about - cm. long, deciduous during the third or fourth year; cones sessile or nearly so, narrowly conic when closed, - cm. long, opening in the autumn of the second season; scales armed with a curved spine - mm. long; wood light, soft, weak, brittle and slightly resinous. =distribution.=--long island to south carolina, alabama and north to indiana and licking county, ohio. the distribution in indiana is quite limited, and has never been understood by authors who variously give it as found throughout the southern part of indiana. it is confined to the knob area of floyd, clark and scott counties, and the southeastern part of washington county. in the original forest it is confined to the tops of the knobs where it is associated with quercus prinus (gray's man. th edition). it propagates easily from self-sown seed, hence is soon found on the lower slopes of cut-over lands, and soon occupies fallow fields. it is now found in the open woods several miles east of the knobs in the preceding counties, but pioneers of this section say it was not a constituent of the original forests but has come in since the original forests were heavily cut over. it is believed that it crowned the knobs over our area from - miles wide extending through the counties named and extending northward about miles. this species is found in the open woods on a few hills on the millport ridge in the northern part of washington county, and it appears as if native, but investigation showed that it had spread from a tree on the site of a pioneer's cabin. it is also found as a frequent escape on the wooded bluff of raccoon creek in the southern part of owen county, and appears as native here. it is associated on the bluff and slope with hemlock. chas. green, a man of sixty years, who owns the place says the trees were seeded by a tree planted in his father's yard nearby. his father also planted a white pine in his yard, and it is to be noted while the jersey pine has freely escaped the white pine has not, although the habitat seems favorable. =remarks.=--in its native habitat on the exposed summits of the "knobs" it is usually a small tree about dm. in diameter and m. high. when it finds lodgement on the lower slopes and coves it may attain a diameter of dm. and a height of m. this tree is really entitled to be called "old field pine" on account of its ability to establish itself on them. from the ease with which this species propagates itself from seed it seems worthy a trial for forestry purposes in the "knob" area of the state. however, all attempts to grow this species from seedlings at the forest reserve have failed. = . lÀrix.= the larches. =larix laricìná= (du roi) koch. tamarack. plate no. . tall spire-like trees, usually - dm. in diameter, rarely as large as dm. in diameter; bark gray or reddish-brown, scaly; twigs slender, smooth, light brown, becoming a dark gray brown; leaves scattered along the shoots of the season, in fascicles on the older branches, usually - in a bundle; filiform, - . cm. long, obtuse at apex, triangular in cross-section, all falling off late in autumn; staminate flowers borne on the short leafless branches, the pistillate appear with the leaves on the branches of the previous season; cones borne on short, stout branchlets, normally erect or inclined to be so, - mm. long, purplish brown while growing, turning to a light brown at maturity, persisting on the tree for about a year; wood hard, heavy, light brown, variable in strength. =distribution.=--labrador, newfoundland south to southern new york, west virginia, northern ohio and indiana, wisconsin, minnesota and northward. in indiana it is confined to the northern part of the state, and has not been reported south of the northern part of cass county. the most southern station in the eastern part of the state is about lake everett in the northwest part of allen county. it is found on low borders of lakes, in swamps and in bogs. in all of its stations in indiana it is found growing near the water level in great depths of organic matter more or less decomposed or in beds of peat, which contain little or practically no soil. where it is found, it usually forms a pure stand. =remarks.=--formerly the tamarack was a common tree in its area. recently many of the tamarack swamps have been drained. this with heavy cutting has reduced the supply of tamarack in indiana to an insignificant amount. the tamarack is popularly classed as white and yellow--the yellow being considered the better of the two. in our area it is used principally for poles and posts. there is a diversity of opinion as to the durability of tamarack in contact with the soil. the most authentic information places the life of fence posts at about ten years. [illustration: plate . larix laricina (du roi) koch. tamarack. (× .)] = . tsÙga.= the hemlocks. =tsuga canadénsis= (linnæus) carrière. hemlock. plate . tall trees, - dm. in diameter, with reddish-brown or grayish bark, deeply furrowed; shoots very slender and hairy, becoming smooth in a few years; leaves apparently -ranked, persisting for about three years, linear, short petioled, - mm. long, usually about mm. long, usually flat, obtuse or notched at apex, bright green and shiny above, bluish-white beneath; staminate flowers appear early in the spring from buds in the axils of the leaves of the previous season, the pistillate terminal, erect, oblong; cones almost sessile and pendulous, borne on the end of last year's branch, maturing the first season, ovoid, . - . cm. long; wood light, soft, brittle, not durable, difficult to work, splintery but holds a nail well. =distribution.=--nova scotia south to delaware, west to minnesota and southeastward through indiana and eastern kentucky, thence southward on the mountains to northern alabama. in indiana it is not found[ ] north of brown county. it is found in limited numbers at the following places: on a bluff of bean blossom creek in brown county; on a steep wooded slope on the south side of a small creek about one and a half miles north of borden in clark county, and also reported on the bank of silver creek between clark and floyd counties; a few trees on the top and sides of the cliffs about one mile east of taswell in crawford county; a few trees on the bluff of guthrie creek in jackson county; a few trees along the north fork of the muscatatuck river between vernon and north vernon in jennings county; a few trees on the south bank of back creek near leesville in lawrence county; frequent on the banks of sugar creek near the "shades" in montgomery county; a few trees on the bank of raccoon creek in the southern part of owen county; frequent on the bank of sugar creek in turkey run state park in parke county; a few trees on the banks of raccoon and walnut creeks in putnam county. also reported by beeler[ ] as found on a bluff of white river in morgan county. in all of its stations it is found on sandstone bluffs on the south side of streams, giving it a north or northwest exposure. in a few of the stations there are no small trees, but in montgomery county along sugar creek it is reproducing well. =remarks.=--hemlock is of no economic importance in indiana. the bark is much used in tanning. hemlock is frequently used for a hedge plant, also as a specimen tree in parks, etc. [illustration: plate . tsuga canadensis (linnæus) carrière. hemlock. (× / .)] = . taxÒdium.= the bald cypress. =taxodium dístichum= (linnæus) l. c. richard. cypress. plate . large tall straight trees, up to dm. in diameter and m. high, usually with a buttressed base which is frequently hollow. in wet situations it develops steeple-shaped projections from the roots to above the water level, known as "knees"; bark gray or reddish-brown, separating from the trunk in long thin narrow strips; shoots light green, smooth, turning reddish-brown the first year, then a darker brown; leaves spirally arranged, appearing as if -ranked on vegetative shoots, linear, - mm. long, sessile, acute, yellowish-green, turning brown in the fall and dropping off; staminate flowers numerous, borne on long terminal panicles, pistillate flowers solitary in the axils of the leaves; fruit a cone, globose, about . cm. in diameter, the surface with some wrinkles made by the edges of the closely fitting scales; wood light, soft and straight-grained, rather weak, does not warp or shrink much and reputed to be very durable when exposed to soil or weather. =distribution.=--along the atlantic coast from delaware to florida and along the gulf west to texas and north along the mississippi valley to indiana. in indiana it has a peculiar and limited distribution. the mass distribution was just north and west of decker in knox county. collett[ ] estimates that , acres were "covered with a fine forest of cypress". wright[ ] maps the other places in the southern part of knox county where the cypress was known to have occurred. at present the only cypress in knox county is in the extreme southwest part of the county, and is known as little cypress swamp. here it is associated with such trees as white elm and schneck's oak. it is believed that it extended only a few miles north of the deshee river. going southward it has not been seen in gibson county, and is first noted in posey county along the wabash river in a cypress pond about miles southwest of mt. vernon. then again in posey county along the ohio river on the shores of hovey lake, and in a slough about miles east of mt. vernon. it occurred in a few spots in vanderburg county along the ohio river southwest of evansville. it again appears in limited numbers along cypress creek a few miles east of newburg in warrick county, which is its eastern[ ] known limit. the cypress in all of its stations is found only in places that are for the greater part of the year under water. =remarks.=--the original stand of cypress in indiana has practically all been cut, and the swamps drained and now under cultivation. in the slough east of mt. vernon for several years, thousands of seedlings of the year have been noted, but for some reason they do not survive a second year. the present indications are that the cypress will be extinct in indiana before many years because practically no small trees can be found. [illustration: plate . taxodium distichum (linnæus) l. c. richard. cypress. (× / .)] this species is highly recommended by some nurserymen for ornamental planting. it proves hardy in the southern part of the state. it is a fast growing tree, adapted to a wet soil, but will succeed in drier situations. = . thÙja.= arbor-vitæ. =thuja occidentàlis= linnæus. arbor-vitæ. plate . small evergreen trees with a conical crown, bark on old trees reddish-brown or dark gray, shreddy; branchlets compressed, reddish-brown; leaves all closely appressed, in alternate pairs, scale-like, about mm. long on young branchlets, on old branches somewhat longer together with a spine - mm. long; flowers appear early in the spring from the ends of the branches; cones mature the first season, about cm. long and . cm. in diameter; wood soft, brittle, weak and durable. =distribution.=--new brunswick to manitoba, south to minnesota and new jersey thence southward along the alleghanies to north carolina and tennessee. in indiana it is found native[ ] only in lake and porter counties. in lake county a few isolated specimens have been found in several places near lake michigan. in porter county it is known only in a large tamarack swamp north of the mineral springs stop on the traction line, and about a mile from lake michigan. here about trees are found scattered over an area of less than two acres. the largest specimen measures cm. in circumference. this species is doomed to early extinction in our area. no doubt it already has vanished from lake county, and it is probable that the colony north of mineral springs is the last of the species in indiana. =remarks.=--while only found in a swamp in indiana, this species adapts itself to all kinds of soils and exposures. it transplants readily and is used for ornamental purposes, and for windbreaks. dwarf forms are frequently planted for hedges. the wood is used principally for poles and posts, and is commercially known as white cedar. = . junÍperus.= the junipers. evergreen shrubs or trees, leaves opposite or whorled, sessile, scale-like or short-linear; fruit berry-like; seeds - . =juniperus virginiàna= linnæus. red cedar. plate . a small tree, usually - dm. and rarely up to dm. in diameter; bark shreddy; branches usually more or less ascending which gives the tree a narrow conic appearance; shoots green, soon turning light to reddish-brown and on older branches gray or dark brown; leaves -ranked, scale-like and . - mm. long, or subulate, decurrent at base and - mm. long on vigorous branches or very small trees; flowers terminal; fruit ripening the first season, berry-like, globose but longer than wide, with a bloom and a very resinous pulp about the seeds which are usually or ; wood light, brittle, close-grained, durable and fragrant. [illustration: plate . thuja occidentalis linnæus. arbor-vitæ. (× / .).] =distribution.=--nova scotia south to florida, west to texas and north to south dakota. it is found in all parts of indiana, although sparingly in the northern part, especially where streams with bluffs are absent. no doubt this species in the original forests was confined principally to the bluffs of streams and rocky ravines. since the forests have been cut, it is now found growing along fences, in open dry woods, and in southern indiana it is a common tree in old abandoned fields, and in waste places. =remarks.=--red cedar has had many uses, and the large trees have been practically all harvested. it is now used principally for poles, posts, crossties, cigar boxes and lead pencils. it is the best wood known for lead pencils. the odor is so objectionable to insects that a market has been made for chests of this wood in which to store clothing and furs. =salicÀceae.=[ ] the willow family. trees or shrubs with bitter bark; simple alternate leaves; flowers in catkins, which fall off as a whole, the staminate after flowering, the pistillate after ripening and scattering of the seeds, the staminate and pistillate on different plants (dioecious); flower scales single, below each flower; fruit a lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate capsule opening lengthwise into recurving carpels or valves; seeds numerous, minute, oblong, bearing a tuft of hairs at the base. genera , _salix_, the willows, and _populus_, the aspens and poplars, or cottonwoods, separated by the following characters, those applying only to indiana trees species in parentheses: buds covered by a single scale; (leaf-blades mostly enlongated, more than twice as long as wide); flower scales entire or rarely shallowly toothed at apex; stamens mostly or - or salix. buds covered by numerous scales; (leaf-blades mostly cordate-ovate, less than twice as long as broad); flower scales deeply cut or lacerate; stamens more than populus. [illustration: plate . juniperus virginiana linnæus. red cedar. (× / .)] = . sÀlix.= the willows. trees or shrubs (occasionally herbaceous) with usually clustered teims, twigs round; leaf-blades lanceolate and long-acuminate or elliptic-lanceolate and short pointed in all indiana tree species, finely toothed or nearly entire; catkins appearing before (precocious), with (coetaneous), or after the leaves (serotinous); each pistillate flower with a little gland at the base of the pedicel on the inside. a large genus of several hundred species varying from tiny shrubby or subherbaceous plants scarcely an inch in height to . m. ( feet) or more in diameter, in alluvial lowlands; occurring under indiana conditions from cold bogs and river banks to dry sand dunes. willows are used for many purposes, among them ornament, shade, hedges, posts, poles, mattresses, revetments to protect levees, baskets, fish-weirs, whistles, etc., while the wood is used for charcoal, which is especially prized for gunpowder making, and the bark is used for tanning and furnishes salicin, which is used in medicine as a substitute for quinine and as a tonic and febrifuge. small to large trees; leaves narrowly to broadly lanceolate, mostly long pointed, finely and rather closely toothed; flowers appearing with the leaves; capsules not hairy. native trees; leaves green on both sides (no. ) or white (glaucous) beneath (no. ), and then with very long points and long slender twisted petioles which are never glandular; stamens - - or more. twigs dark green, spreading; leaves narrowly lanceolate, green on both sides; petioles short s. nigra. twigs yellowish, somewhat drooping; leaves broadly lanceolate, glaucous beneath; petioles long, twisted s. amygdaloides. european trees, cultivated for ornament and use; leaves always glaucous beneath; stamens always . teeth on edge of leaf - to each cm. ( - to the inch); petioles usually glandular; capsules almost sessile s. alba. teeth on edge of leaf - per cm. ( - to the inch); petioles usually glandular; pedicels . - mm. long s. fragilis. shrubs or rarely small trees; leaves elliptical or oblanceolate, short pointed; margin entire or coarsely wavy or shallow-toothed; flowers before the leaves; stamens ; capsules long, hairy. twigs and leaves not hairy; leaves thin s. discolor. twigs and sometimes the lower surface of the leaves densely hairy, leaves thicker s. discolor eriocephala. [illustration: plate . salix nigra marshall. black willow. (× / .)] = .= =salix nìgra= marshall. willow. black willow. plate . shrub or tree - m. ( - feet) high, dark green in mass color; bark of trunk thick, rough, flaky, dark brown to nearly black; twigs brittle at base, the younger pubescent and green, becoming glabrous and darker with age; buds ovate, small, - mm. ( / inch) long; petioles - or mm. ( / - / inch) long; stipules small, ovate to roundish; leaf blades narrowly lanceolate, acute or rounded at base, long-acuminate at the apex, - cm. ( - / - - / inches) long, - mm. ( / - / inch) wide, often falcate (scythe-shaped), the so-called variety =falcata=, finely serrate, green on both sides, shining above, paler and dull beneath, glabrous or sometimes pubescent beneath on midrib and larger veins; flowers appearing with the leaves in late april in the southern part of the state and well into may in the northern part; catkins slender, - or cm. ( / - or - / inches) long, the staminate bright yellow; capsules - mm. ( / inch) long, ovoid or ovoid-lanceolate, on pedicels - mm. ( / inch) long. =distribution.=--new brunswick and new england, westward to the eastern part of the great plains area from north dakota to texas, and, in some forms, westward across that state and into mexico. it is interesting that this species, the first willow published in america, in the first book on american botany ever published in this country, should be abundantly and widely distributed in the united states. specimens have been seen from the following counties in indiana:--allen (deam); bartholomew (deam); clark (deam); crawford (deam); dearborn (deam); dubois (deam); decatur (deam); floyd (deam); fulton (deam); harrison (deam); hendricks (deam); henry (deam); jackson (deam); jay (deam); jennings (deam); knox (deam); kosciusko (deam); lagrange (deam); marion (mrs. chas. c. deam); marshall (deam); miami (deam); morgan (deam); noble (deam); ohio (deam); parke (deam); perry (deam); porter (deam); posey (deam); pulaski (deam); ripley (deam); steuben (deam); sullivan (deam); tippecanoe (deam); vermillion (deam); wabash (deam); warrick (deam); white (deam). =economic uses.=--the black willow is used very extensively along the lower reaches of the mississippi river in making mattresses which protect the levees from washing. in , it was estimated that , cords were used annually. = .= =salix amygdaloìdes= andersson. willow. peach-leaved willow. plate . trees - m. ( - feet) high, yellowish-green in mass color; bark of trunk fissured, dark brown or reddish-brown; twigs longer and less brittle than those of _salix nigra_, yellowish to reddish-brown, usually somewhat drooping, giving a "weeping" effect, which, with the color, makes the species easily recognizable from a distance; buds ovoid, about mm. ( / inch) long, colored as the twigs; petioles long, slender, twisted, - or mm. ( / - / inch) long; leaves lanceolate to broadly lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, rounded or somewhat acute at base, long-pointed at apex, closely serrulate, - cm. ( - inches) long, . - cm. ( / - - / inches) wide, yellowish-green above, glaucous beneath, glabrous; flowers appear from late april throughout may, usually later than those of _salix nigra_; catkins slender, - cm. ( - inches) long, the fertile becoming - cm. ( - / - inches) long in fruit; capsules lanceolate, - mm. ( / inch) long; pedicels slender, mm. ( / inch) long. [illustration: plate . salix amygdaloides andersson. peach-leaved willow. (× / .)] =distribution.=--from western quebec and central new york, west to the cascade mountains in british columbia, washington and oregon, south to colorado and northwest texas. in indiana fairly common in the northern third, rare in the central third, and lacking in the southern portion of the state. specimens have been seen from indiana from the following counties: elkhart (deam); fulton (deam); henry (deam); jasper (deam); kosciusko (deam); lake (deam), (umbach); laporte (deam); marion (mrs. chas. c. deam); marshall (deam); pulaski (deam); steuben (deam); wells (deam); white (deam). = .= =salix álba= linnæus. willow. white willow. plate . trees with - spreading stems, - m. ( - feet) high; bark rough, coarsely ridged, gray to brownish; twigs brittle at base, green or yellowish, glabrous; buds - mm. ( / inch) long; petioles - mm. ( / - / inch) long, seldom glandular; leaves lanceolate, - cm. ( - inches) long, - . cm. ( / - inch) wide, acuminate at apex, usually acute at base, leaves bright green above, glaucous beneath, thinly to densely silky on both sides when young, often permanently silky beneath, margins with about - teeth per cm. ( / inch), usually glandular; flowers with the leaves, in april and may; catkins slender, cylindrical, - cm. ( - / - - / inches) long; scales pale yellow; capsules ovoid-conical, - mm. ( / inch) long, almost sessile. the common form usually is referred to variety =vitellina= (linnæus) koch, with orange twigs and more glabrate leaves. =distribution.=--a native of europe which has been frequently planted and sometimes escapes. specimens have been seen from indiana from the following counties: gibson (schneck); hamilton (mrs. chas. c. deam); harrison (deam); switzerland (deam); warren (deam); wells (deam). = .= =salix frágilis= linnæus. willow. crack willow. plate . tree very similar to _salix alba_; twigs very brittle at the base (hence the name), green to reddish; petioles - mm. ( / - / inch) long, glandular just below the base of the leaf; leaves lanceolate, acuminate, - cm. ( - inches) long, - . cm. ( / - - / inches) wide, coarsely serrate with - teeth to each cm. ( / inch) of margin, dark green and shining above, paler to glaucous beneath, rarely green, glabrous on both sides; catkins appearing with the leaves in late april and during may, - cm. ( - / - inches) long; capsules slenderly conical, - mm. ( / inch) long, on pedicels . - mm. ( / inch) long. [illustration: plate . salix alba linnæus. white willow. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . salix fragilis linnæus. crack willow. (× / .)] =distribution.=--a native of europe. it has been frequently planted and often escapes. specimens have been seen from the following indiana counties: benton (deam); clark (deam); laporte (deam); switzerland (deam); union (deam); wells (deam). =economic uses.=--this species and the white willow are introduced from europe and extensively grown for the production of charcoal to use in powder making. = .= =salix díscolor= muhlenberg. pussy willow. swamp willow. glaucous willow. plate . shrub or small tree, - or occasionally - m. ( - or feet) high; bark thin, usually smooth, reddish brown; twigs stoutish, reddish-purple to dark brown, often pubescent (see the variety); buds large, - mm. ( / - / inch) long, colored as the twigs; stipules large, mostly roundish, entire or toothed; leaves short-lanceolate to elliptic or elliptic-oblanceolate, acute or short-acuminate at the apex, rounded or acute at the base, - cm. ( - inches) long, - . cm. ( / - - / inches) wide, nearly entire to coarsely wavy-toothed on the margins, dark shining green above, densely glaucous and occasionally somewhat pubescent beneath, especially on midrib and primaries; flowers appear in late march or in april before the leaves; catkins sessile, on old wood, stout, dense, the staminate very beautiful (pussies), without leaf-bracts at base, - cm. ( - inches) long, the pistillate becoming - cm. ( - / - inches) long in fruit; scales elliptic-oblanceolate, densely clothed with long shining hairs; capsules conic-rostrate, - or mm. ( / - / inch) long, densely gray-woolly; pedicels . - mm. ( / - / inch) long. =distribution.=--nova scotia south to delaware and west to the eastern edge of the great plains area. fairly well distributed over the entire state of indiana. specimens have been seen from the following counties: allen (deam); dearborn (deam); decatur (deam); elkhart (deam); fulton (deam); gibson (schneck); hancock (mrs. chas. c. deam); henry (deam); jackson (deam); jay (deam); jefferson (deam); jennings (deam); knox (deam); lake (deam); marion (mrs. chas. c. deam); marshall (deam); newton (deam); porter (deam); randolph (deam); ripley (deam); shelby (mrs. chas. c. deam); sullivan (deam); tippecanoe (deam); wabash (deam); warren (deam); wayne (deam); wells (deam); white (deam). = a.= =salix discolor= variety =eriòcéphala= (michaux) andersson. differs from the species chiefly in rather densely pubescent twigs and buds; thicker and more lanceolate leaves, usually more or less pubescent beneath; and the sometimes more densely pubescent catkins. [illustration: plate . salix discolor muhlenberg. pussy willow. (× / .)] =distribution.=--range of the species but less common. specimens have been seen from the following indiana counties: cass (deam); decatur (deam); fulton (deam); gibson (schneck); jackson (deam); jay (deam); knox (deam); laporte (deam); pulaski (deam); sullivan (deam); warren (deam); wayne (deam). = . pÓpulus.= the poplars. rapidly growing trees; buds usually large, scaly and more or less resinous; leaves alternate, broad, toothed or sometimes lobed; flowers appearing before the leaves on large pendulous catkins; anthers red or purple. in the following key mature leaves from trees are considered: petioles round or channeled, scarcely or not at all flattened laterally. leaves chalky-white tomentose beneath, some of them more or less lobed, blades - cm. long p. alba. leaves pubescent or whitish tomentose while young, never lobed, blades - cm. long p. heterophylla. petioles strongly flattened laterally especially near the blade. winter buds more than mm. in length, stamens more than , capsules more than mm. in diameter, leaves broadly deltoid, majority more than cm. wide p. deltoides. winter buds less than mm. in length, stamens fewer than , capsules less than mm. in diameter, leaves roundish ovate, majority less than cm. wide. winter buds more or less pubescent, dull; leaves generally with less than teeth to a side p. grandidentata. winter buds smooth or rarely somewhat pubescent, glossy; leaves with more than teeth to a side p. tremuloides. = .= =populus álba= linnæus. silver-leaf poplar. plate . short-trunked trees with a round top, up to a meter or more in diameter; bark on young trees smooth, greenish-white or gray, becoming furrowed on old trees, gray or dark brown; shoots white tomentose, becoming smooth in age; leaves ovate or triangular, - lobed or irregularly toothed, hairy on both surfaces on expanding, becoming dark green and glabrous above, remaining white tomentose beneath; stamens about ; wood light, soft and weak. =distribution.=--introduced from europe and escaped in all parts of the state. =remarks.=--this tree has long been under cultivation, and several horticultural forms have been introduced. it is falling into disuse on account of its habit of sending up root shoots. it adapts itself to all kinds of soil, grows rapidly, transplants easily, stands pruning well and has few insect or fungous enemies. [illustration: plate . populus alba linnæus. silver-leaf poplar. (× / .)] = .= =populus heterophylla= linnæus. swamp cottonwood. swamp poplar. plate . tall trees up to - dm. in diameter; bark of old trees very thick, broken into long ridges which are separated by deep furrows, reddish-brown but generally weathered to ash-color; shoots densely woolly at first, becoming glabrous before the second season; leaves broadly-ovate with petioles - cm. long, more or less woolly on both surfaces on unfolding, becoming glabrous above and remaining woolly beneath, at least on the larger veins, rarely becoming entirely glabrous, usually cordate at the base, blunt at apex, margins rather regularly crenate-serrate; flowers in april; capsules ripening in june, about mm. in diameter, on stalks - mm. long; wood same as the next species. =distribution.=--along the atlantic coast from connecticut to florida and along the gulf to louisiana, and northward along the mississippi valley to michigan. it is found in many parts of indiana. in the northern counties it is found in "gumbo" soils in swamps. it is a common tree in the river swamps of the lower wabash valley where it reaches its greatest size. there are no records for the extreme southeastern part of the state, although it has been found in swamps in harrison and clark counties and is found in many counties of ohio. =remarks.=--the pith of the shoots of this species is orange which easily distinguishes it from all other species of the genus which have a white pith. this species in all of its range is closely associated with the common cottonwood, and millmen make no distinction in the price or qualities of the timber. = .= =populus deltoìdes= marshall. cottonwood. carolina poplar. (_populus balsamifera_ var. _virginiana_ (castiglioni) sargent). plate . one of the largest trees of the indiana forests; bark of very old trees very thick, broken into ridges up to dm. or more in thickness, separated by deep furrows, reddish-brown, weathering to a gray; leaves hairy on both surfaces as they unfold, soon glabrous except on the margins which are more or less ciliate, broadly-deltoid, usually - cm. long, and about as wide, base more or less truncate or cordate, or somewhat wedge-shaped, with rather short acuminate tips, crenate-serrate; capsules ovate, about mm. in diameter, on stalks - mm. long; wood light, soft, weak, sap wood white, heartwood small and brown; warps badly on drying. =distribution.=--quebec to florida and west to the rocky mountains. throughout indiana in low ground along streams, in swamps and about lakes. on account of its habit of growing only in low ground it is infrequent in the hill country of southern indiana. [illustration: plate . populus heterophylla linnæus. swamp cottonwood. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . populus deltoides marshall. cottonwood. (× / .)] =remarks.=--the cottonwood is adapted to a moist soil, propagates easily, grows rapidly and is one of the best trees for forestry purposes for planting overflow lands, and for planting where a quick shade is desired or for temporary windbreaks. the leaves of this tree are quite variable and several forms have been described. the carolina poplar of nurserymen has an upright habit of growth and was formerly much planted as a shade tree. its undesirable qualities have condemned it, and most cities now prohibit its planting. cottonwood has many uses, and was formerly a very important timber tree, but the supply has so diminished that large trees have become quite scarce. the thick bark was much used by the boys of the pioneers for whittling out toys, etc. = .= =populus grandidentàta= michaux. large-toothed aspen. plate . a small or medium-sized tree, - dm. in diameter; bark smooth, grayish-green or whitish, becoming furrowed and dark brown on the trunks of old trees that grow in the northern part of the state, especially when growing in a swampy habitat. in the southern part of the state where the tree usually grows on the top of hills, the bark does not darken so much, frequently remaining a light to dark gray until maturity. shoots more or less woolly at first, becoming glabrous, reddish-brown; leaves on sprouts and very young trees very velvety beneath, slightly hairy above, ovate in outline, cordate at base and with blades up to cm. in length; leaves on older trees a yellow green, glabrous, ovate, blades usually - cm. long, coarsely and unevenly toothed, the base slightly rounded, rarely truncate or slightly cordate, the apex pointed or rounded; petioles strongly flattened laterally; stamens - ; capsule about mm. long on a stalk about mm. long; wood soft, light and not strong. =distribution.=--nova scotia west to northern minnesota and south to the ohio river, and along the alleghany mountains to south carolina. found throughout indiana, except we have no authentic records for gibson[ ] and posey[ ] counties. in the northern part of indiana it is found in great colonies about lakes, etc. or rarely a few trees on the crests of gravel and sand ridges. in southern indiana it is found in the "knob" area in small colonies on the tops of the ridges associated with scrub pine and chestnut oak and is rarely found in low ground in this part of the state. =remarks.=--this species is too rare to be of much economic importance. it could be most profitably used for excelsior and pulp wood. [illustration: plate . populus grandidentata michaux. large-toothed aspen. (× / .)] = .= =populus tremuloìdes= michaux. quaking aspen. plate . a straight narrow tree up to dm. in diameter, usually about - dm. in diameter; bark usually smooth, greenish-white or gray, on older trees becoming rough or fissured, and turning darker; shoots glabrous or with a few hairs, turning reddish-brown the first season, later to a gray; leaves of sprouts and very small trees usually ovate with a cordate base and two or three times as large as leaves of older trees; mature leaves on older trees variable, glabrous, the prevailing type has a bluish-green leaf which is widely ovate or nearly orbicular, - cm. long, truncate or slightly rounded at the base, usually abruptly short-pointed at apex, finely and regularly serrate, the unusual type of leaf is thinner, yellow-green, ovate, / as wide as long, rounded or wedge-shaped at base, gradually tapering to a point at the apex, otherwise as the prevailing form; stamens - ; capsules about mm. long, on stalks about mm. long; wood light, soft and weak. =distribution.=--one of the most widely distributed of north american trees. it ranges from labrador south to pennsylvania, thence southwest to northern mexico, and then north to northern alaska. it is found at sea level and at elevations of , feet. there are records of its occurrence in all parts of indiana. in all of its indiana stations it grows only in low ground about lakes, swamps, ponds, low places between sand dunes, and along streams. in many places in the lake region it is found in almost pure stands over small areas. =remarks.=--in indiana this species is not of sufficient size and abundance to be of much economic importance. =juglandÀceae.= the walnut family. trees with large, aromatic, odd pinnate leaves; flowers appearing after the leaves unfold, the staminate in catkins, the pistillate solitary or in clusters; fruit a nut in a fleshy or hard fibrous shell; kernel edible or astringent. pith of twigs chambered; staminate catkins thick, sessile or short stalked; stamens - , glabrous; nuts with a network of rough projections juglans. pith of twigs not chambered; staminate catkins slender, long-stalked; stamens - , hairy; nuts more or less angled but smooth carya. = . jÙglans.= the walnuts. trees with furrowed bark; pulp surrounding nut continuous, without lines of dehiscence on the surface. [illustration: plate . populus tremuloides michaux. quaking aspen. (× / .)] bark gray, ridges smooth; upper part of leaf-scar of last year's twigs with a mat of hairs; pith dark-brown; fruit oblong, husk clammy j. cinerea. bark dark brown, ridges rough; upper part of leaf-scar of last year's twigs without a mat of hairs; pith light brown; fruit orbicular to slightly elongate, husk not clammy j. nigra. = .= =juglans cinèrea= linnæus. butternut. plate . a medium sized tree, usually less than dm. in diameter; leaf-scars with upper margin convex or rarely notched; leaves - dm. in length; leaflets - , the middle pairs the longest, clammy, almost sessile, oblong-lanceolate, - cm. long, fine serrate, rounded at base and acuminate at apex; flowers in may or june; fruit ripens in october, - cm. long with prominent longitudinal ridges; kernel sweet and very oily; wood light, soft, not strong, coarse-grained but takes a good polish. =distribution.=--valley of the st. lawrence river south to the gulf states and west to nebraska. found in all parts of indiana, although very sparingly in some counties. it is an infrequent tree in our range, and in only a few localities is it frequent or common. it is found along streams and in ravines, and in two instances it has been noted in old tamarack marshes. it prefers a well drained gravelly soil, and is rarely if ever found in a compact soil. thrifty trees of any size in the woodland are now rarely seen. the tops of the larger trees are usually found in a more or less dying condition. benedict and elrod[ ] as early as make the following observation in a catalogue of the plants of cass and wabash counties: "a few scrubby, half dead trees were seen, the last of their race. it seems unable to adapt itself to new conditions, and is rapidly dying out." =remarks.=--this tree is often called the white walnut to distinguish it from the black walnut from which it is easily separated. it is too rare in indiana to be of economic importance, except that trees growing in the open are spared for the nut crop. trees growing in the open develop a short trunk with a wide spreading top and are apparently much healthier than when grown under forest conditions. the bark of the root is used in medicine as a hepatic stimulant. [illustration: plate . juglans cinerea linnæus. butternut. (× / .)] = .= =juglans nìgra= linnæus. walnut. plate . one of the largest and most valuable trees of the indiana forest. leaf-scars with the upper margin notched; leaves - dm. long, mature leaves glabrous above and pubescent beneath, leaflets, usually - , almost sessile, ovate-lanceolate, - cm. long, finely serrate, long-pointed at apex; flowers in may or june; fruit ripens the first year, in september and october, globose to oblong, - cm. in diameter; nut variable, from subglobose to ovoid or elliptical, more or less rounded or pointed at the ends, . - . cm. through the widest diameter; kernel edible; wood heavy, hard, strong, rather coarse, heart wood dark brown, durable, works easily and takes a high polish. =distribution.=--ontario south to the gulf states and west to texas and nebraska. it was more or less frequent to common in all parts of indiana in well drained rich soils. =remarks.=--this tree is frequently called black walnut. on account of the many excellent qualities of the wood, the walnut has been a choice timber tree from pioneer days to the present. it served the pioneer for rails, and in his buildings for sleepers, rafters, interior finish, furniture, etc. it soon sprung into commercial importance, and has been used for almost everything for which wood is used. indiana and ohio have furnished the greatest amount of walnut. the supply of lumber from old forest-grown trees has become so scarce that it is sought in old buildings, rail fences, old stumps and old furniture has been worked over. that the demand for walnut timber will not cease is assured; this should encourage land owners to grow this tree. it is adapted to a moist, rich, deep soil and will do well in such a habitat in all parts of the state. where such land is set aside for forestry purposes, no better tree could be used for planting. since the tree develops a long tap root which makes it difficult to transplant, it is recommended that the nuts be stratified in the fall, and the germinated nuts be planted in april or may. the foliage of the walnut is often attacked by the "tent caterpillar" which can be easily destroyed by burning about sun down when the larvæ collect in a bunch on or near the trunk of the tree. since the nut of the walnut is of considerable commercial value, it is recommended that the walnut be planted along fences, about orchards and as one of the species in windbreaks. = . cÀrya.= the hickories. trees with hard, tight or scaly bark; leaflets alternate, odd-pinnate, glandular-dotted beneath; leaflets serrate, usually unequal at the base, the lateral sessile or nearly so, the terminal short-stalked, the lowest pair the smallest, upper pair and terminal the largest, bruised leaflets characteristically aromatic; staminate flowers in slender catkins, anthers hairy; pistillate flowers in small clusters; fruit a bony nut contained in a woody husk which separates more or less completely from the nut into four parts. [illustration: plate . juglans nigra linnæus. black walnut. (× / .)] there are now recognized[ ] fifteen species and several varieties of hickory, all of which grow in the united states east of the rocky mountains. hickory grows in no other place in the world, except one species in northern mexico. the wood of the different species of hickory is not of equal commercial value, but the wood of the commercial species heads the list of indiana woods for strength, toughness and resiliency. the individuals of the several species vary much in respect to their bark, size and pubescence of the twigs, number and size of the leaflets, size and shape of the nuts. no attempt will be made to deal with all of the extreme forms, and only those reported by heimlich[ ] and sargent[ ] will be discussed. bud scales - , valvate (in pairs), leaflets generally curved backward. leaflets - , generally about ; nut elongated, circular in cross-section; kernel sweet c. illinoensis. leaflets - , generally - ; nut about as broad as long, compressed in cross-section; kernel bitter c. cordiformis. bud scales more than , imbricated (not in pairs); leaflets not curved backward. branchlets usually stout; terminal buds large, - mm. long; the year's growth usually more or less hairy; dry husks - mm. thick. prevailing number of leaflets c. ovata. prevailing number of leaflets more than . trees of low ground; bark of young trees tight and light, of older trees scaly, separating into long thin plates; branchlets usually light orange color; nuts usually large, compressed, - cm. long, pointed at base c. laciniosa. trees of high ground; bark of young trees tight and dark, of older trees tight and deeply furrowed, the thick ridges broken into short lengths which on very old trees loosen at the base; branchlets reddish-brown; nuts usually about half as large as the preceding and usually with a rounded base c. alba. branchlets usually slender; terminal buds small, - mm. long; the year's growth usually glabrous, rarely hairy; dried husk - . mm. thick. branchlets and leaves not covered when they first appear with rusty-brown pubescence. prevailing number of leaflets ; fruit usually smooth and tapering at base to a short stem (fig-like); shell of nut thick, kernel sweet and astringent c. glabra. prevailing number of leaflets generally ; fruit usually granular, rarely tapering at the base to a short stem (fig-like); shell of nut thin, kernel sweet without astringency c. ovalis. branchlets and leaves densely covered when they first appear with rusty-brown pubescence c. buckleyi. = .= =carya illinoénsis= (wangenheim) k. koch. pecan. plate . very tall slender trees up to dm. in diameter; bark tight, sometimes becoming scaly on very old trees, fissured, ridges narrow, ashy-brown tinged with red; twigs at first hairy, becoming smooth or nearly so and reddish-brown by the end of the season; leaves - dm. long; leaflets - , ovate to oblong-lanceolate, somewhat curved backward, - cm. long, taper-pointed, hairy when they unfold, becoming at maturity smooth or nearly so, dark green above, and a yellow-green beneath; clusters of staminate catkins sessile; fruit single or in small clusters, oblong . - cm. long, the winged sutures extending to the base, the husk splitting to below the middle; nut ovoid-oblong, reddish-brown; wood heavy, hard and not strong. =distribution.=--in the mississippi valley from indiana and iowa south to texas. in indiana it was a native of the southwest part of the state. it was a common tree in the river bottoms of point township of posey county, and in the bottoms of the southwest part of gibson county. it was found more or less frequently in the bottoms of the wabash valley, as far north as to within four miles of covington where the author collected specimens in . it followed the bottoms of the ohio river east at least as far as clark county. michaux[ ] gives it as rare in the vicinity of louisville. victor lyons of jeffersonville says that it was a native to the east part of survey of the illinois grant, and one tree in the northwest corner of no. ; and there were nine trees - dm. in diameter in floyd county on "loop island". a large tree grew in the bottoms near bethlehem in clark county, which is said to have been a native. young[ ] says that there are two trees in jefferson county, one planted, the other probably native. coulter[ ] says "there are several trees in the river bottoms." [illustration: plate . carya illinoensis (wangenheim) k. koch. pecan. (× / .) the two nuts to right are from the mccallister hybrid pecan tree.] there are several trees on the elisha golay farm about one mile east of vevay which are in rows, which show that they were planted. the largest has a trunk . m. long and a circumference of dm. it followed the north fork of white river as far as greene county, and the south fork of white river as far as seymour. a pioneer told me he remembered a small colony in the eastern part of washington county in the bottoms near the muscatatuck river. in indiana it is found only in very low land which is subject to overflow. =remarks.=--so far as the wood is concerned, the pecan is the poorest of all hickories. it has only about one-half the strength and stiffness of the shellbark hickory. although the wood is inferior, the pecan has the distinction of producing the best nut of any native tree of america. the pecan was well known to the indians, and some authors say the range of the species was extended by planting by the indians. it has been a nut of commerce ever since the area of its range has been settled. it was planted by the pioneers, and recently nurserymen took up the subject of growing stock by budding and grafting from superior trees. at present there are about horticultural varieties. the horticulturist has developed forms twice the size of the native nuts, and with shells so thin as to be styled "paper-shelled." the pecan has been extensively planted for commercial purposes in the southern states, but information obtained from owners of pecan trees in indiana indicate that the winters are too severe for profitable pecan culture in indiana. during the winter of - the whole of a tract of year old pecan trees on the forest reserve in clark county was killed back to the ground. in noble county about one mile south of wolf lake is a tree planted about years ago that is about dm. in circumference that frequently sets nuts but they never mature on account of the early frosts. = .= =carya cordifórmis= (wangenheim) k. koch. pignut hickory. plate . large tall trees with tight bark, usually a light gray, sometimes darker, fissures shallow and very irregular; twigs at first green, somewhat hairy, soon becoming smooth or nearly so, and a yellowish-brown, or reddish-brown by the end of the season; leaves and leaflets variable, the prevailing type of trees have smaller leaves with long and narrow leaflets, the unusual form has larger leaves up to dm. in length with terminal leaflets up to dm. in length and . cm. in width, and the last pair almost as large; fruit subglobose or rarely oblong, - . cm. long; wings of sutures extending to below the middle, rarely one reaching the base; husk about . mm. thick, tardily separating to about the middle; nut ovoid or oblong, slightly flattened laterally, often as wide or wider than long, depressed, obcordate, with a short or long point at the apex, ovoid or rounded at the base, smooth or rarely with four distinct ridges; shell very thin and brittle; kernel very bitter; wood heavy, very hard, strong, tough and close-grained. it has about per cent of the strength and about per cent of the stiffness of shellbark hickory. [illustration: plate . carya cordiformis (wangenheim) k. koch. pignut hickory. (× / .) the nuts are from different trees to show variation.] =distribution.=--valley of the st. lawrence river west to nebraska and south to the gulf states. in indiana a map distribution of the species in the state shows that it has been found in practically all of the counties on the west, north and east borders. it is usually found in rich soil along streams and in rich woods, and may be found in all of the counties of the state. despite the fact that no animal agency was active against the propagation of this tree, it was rarely found more than as an infrequent tree throughout our range. =remarks.=--the hickories as a class, except the pecan, can not stand "civilization," especially much tramping about the base. it appears that the pignut hickory is the most easily affected. in parke county about coxville great numbers of the trees have been killed by the borers. for the uses of the wood see shellbark hickory. since this species does not produce as much marketable lumber as the shellbark hickory, and the nuts are valueless, it should not be recommended for planting in the farmer's woodlot. the rossed bark of this species is preferred by manufacturers of split-bottomed chairs, and is known by them as "yellow-bud" hickory. = .= =carya ovàta= (miller) k. koch. shellbark hickory. plate . large and very tall trees; bark of young trees tight, beginning to scale when the trees reach - dm. in diameter, separating into long thin strips on old trees; twigs at the end of the season usually stout, - mm. in diameter near the tip, but some are slender and as small as . mm. in diameter, at first covered with hairs, becoming smooth at the end of the season or remaining hairy, reddish-brown; winter buds hairy, the terminal one on vigorous shoots long-ovoid, outer scales sharp-pointed; ordinary leaves - dm. long; leaflets - , the lateral sessile or nearly so, the terminal one on a stalk about dm. long, up to cm. wide and cm. long, leaflets variable in shape from ovate to oval, oblong-oval or obovate, all long taper-pointed, hairy beneath when they unfold and remaining hairy until maturity or sometimes becoming almost glabrous; fruit variable in size, - cm. long, usually subglobose, furrowed along the sutures at least near the outer end; husk freely splitting to the base, except one tree which was noted where the husk remains on the nut, rarely opening for only a short distance at the apex, very variable in thickness from - mm.; nut exceedingly variable, compressed, -angled, the angles generally visible to the base, - cm. long, more or less pointed, rarely rounded at the base or obcordate at the apex, generally ovate to oval in outline, some almost freakish in shape; shell generally thin; kernel sweet; wood heavy, very hard and strong, close-grained, light brown, sap wood white and thin on old trees. [illustration: plate . carya ovata (miller) k. koch. shellbark hickory. (× / .) the nuts are from different trees to show variation.] =distribution.=--quebec west to southern minnesota, kansas and eastern texas, thence eastward to the atlantic through the north part of the gulf states. it is frequent to common in all parts of indiana except on the hills of the southern part. it prefers rich moist soil and is generally found in bottom lands or on rolling land, and if in dryer situations on the sides of hills. it is generally associated with red oak, big shellbark hickory, swamp white oak, sweet gum, linn, white ash, slippery elm, sugar maple, beech, etc. in the forest it is a tall straight tree with few main branches for a crown. no tree carries its taper better than this species. when grown in the open the side branches do not shade off, and it grows to a medium height with a wide spreading crown. =remarks.=--the writer has one specimen from wells county which no doubt should be referred to this species, but the description has not been drawn to cover it. the twigs are very slender and pubescent; the leaves are normal and pubescent; the fruit is obovoid, - cm. long; husk less than mm. thick at outer end and mm. thick at the base; nut obovoid, - cm. long, little compressed, rounded at the base, rounded at the apex, slightly angled, angles obscure on lower half; otherwise as the type. the species is very variable and no dependence can be placed upon such characters as pubescence of the twigs, leaves or fruit, size of the twigs, color of the anthers, size or shape of the nuts. the wood of the shellbark and the big shellbark hickories is the most used of all the hickories because it is generally freer from knots and blemishes. hickory is used principally for carriage and wagon stock, agricultural implements, handles and fuel. the supply of hickory is fast waning, and in the near future will be limited. the hickories are very slow growing trees. they develop a long tap root, hence are hard to transplant. hickory should constitute an important part of the woodlot. if this species is not well represented, germinated nuts should be planted. the nut of this species usually sells for $ . to $ . per bushel, which should encourage land owners to plant it in the open along fences and about the orchard. it should be remembered that hickory will not stand much tramping by stock. = a.= =carya ovata= variety =fraxinifòlia= sargent. trees and shrubs : : . is described as having leaflets lanceolate to slightly oblanceolate, acuminate, thick and firm in texture, lustrous above, pubescent along the midribs below, the terminal . - . dm. long from . - cm. wide, and raised on a slender puberulous petiolule, the lateral leaflets unsymmetrical at the base, sessile, those of the lowest pair - cm. long, and from . - cm. wide. sargent[ ] says "this variety occurs in indiana," basing his authority upon my specimens of which he has duplicates. heimlich[ ] reports this variety from white county, and at the same time he reported the variety from daviess, martin and wells counties, based upon specimens collected by the author and determined by sargent. i have carefully studied the specimens from daviess, martin and wells counties, and they do not agree with sargent's description of the variety. while most of the leaves of the specimens in question agree with the description, some do not, which excludes it from the variety. = b.= =carya ovata= variety =nuttallii= sargent. trees and shrubs : : . this variety is described as having "nut rounded, obcordate or rarely pointed at apex, rounded or abruptly pointed at the base, much compressed, prominently angled, about . cm. long and - . cm. thick; the involucre - mm. thick, splits freely to the base. except in size of the fruit there appears to be no character by which the variety can be distinguished from the common shagbark." heimlich[ ] reported this variety from dekalb county, based upon specimens collected by the author and determined by sargent. the nuts of the specimens from dekalb county are cm. long. the author has specimens from wells county that agree with the description. = .= =carya laciniòsa= (michaux filius) loudon. big shellbark hickory. plate . large tall trees with trunks like those of the shellbark hickory; bark of young trees tight, beginning to scale when the trees reach a diameter of - dm., on older trees separating and scaling off into long thin narrow strips; twigs at the end of the season stout, - mm. thick near the tip, the twigs of the season hairy at first, becoming glabrous or nearly so by the end of autumn, yellowish or late in autumn a rusty brown, frequently retaining the leaf-stalks of the leaves of the previous season until spring which is peculiar to this species; terminal buds large, ovoid to ovoid-oblong, - mm. long; ordinary leaves - dm. long; leaflets - , prevailing number , ovate to oblong-lanceolate or obovate, the largest - dm. long, velvety beneath when they unfold and remaining hairy beneath until maturity, rarely nearly glabrous; fruit ovate, subglobose, oblong or obovate, . - cm. long; dry husk . - mm. thick; nut variable, generally much compressed, up to . cm. long, usually circular in outline, but varying from ovate to obovate and oblong, usually each side has or ridges which extend more or less often to the base; shell very thick; kernel sweet; wood and uses same as that of the shellbark hickory. [illustration: plate . carya laciniosa (michaux filius) loudon. big shellbark hickory. (× / .) the nuts are from different trees to show variation.] =distribution.=--southwestern ontario south to alabama and west to louisiana, nebraska and iowa. found throughout indiana, except there are as yet no records from the extreme northwest counties. it is frequent to common in moist rich woods, or in river bottoms which is its favorite habitat. it is usually associated with the shellbark hickory where it grows in moist situations. sometimes in the river bottoms it grows in situations too wet for the shellbark hickory. in the lower wabash bottoms it becomes a common tree. =remarks.=--this hickory is also known as the big scaly-bark hickory and hard-head hickory. the nuts are an article of commerce and by some are preferred to the shellbark hickory although the nuts are hard to crack. this objection is easily overcome by wetting the nuts, and drying them by using heat which cracks the shell, making them easy to crack. = .= =carya álba= (linnæus) k. koch. white hickory. plate . medium sized tall trees up to dm. in diameter; bark tight, of two types, one light colored, thin and fissured into a network. this form has been seen only in the river bottoms of the southwestern part of the state. the common type of bark is thick, with thick ridges, dark but on the older trees it weathers to a light gray and becomes thickly covered with lichens; terminal twigs of branches at end of season stout, . - mm. in diameter near the tip, densely hairy at first and remaining hairy throughout the season or becoming almost glabrous, reddish-brown; terminal bud large, ovate, - mm. long; ordinary leaves - dm. long, the rachis and under side of leaflets densely hairy when they unfold, remaining pubescent until maturity; leaflets - , prevailing number , long-oval, ovate-lanceolate, or obovate; fruit usually globose, more rarely short elliptic, ovate or obovoid, the husk rather tardily opening to nearly the base, or only checking open at the top; dried husk - mm. thick; nut variable in shape, little compressed, somewhat globose, a little longer than wide, more rarely wider than long or short elliptic, usually . - . cm. long, generally rounded at the base and short-pointed at the apex, more rarely pointed at the base and long pointed at the apex, (one specimen is at hand that is almost a square box), usually with - angles, on some forms obscure; shell thick; kernel very small, sweet; wood and uses same as shellbark hickory. [illustration: plate . carya alba (linnæus) k. koch. white hickory. (× / .) the nuts are from different trees to show variation.] =distribution.=--southwestern ontario south to the gulf and west to texas, missouri and iowa. found throughout indiana, except there are no records from the extreme northwestern counties. this species except in the lower wabash valley is confined to the uplands. it is rather a rare tree in northern indiana, but becomes more or less frequent in the western part of the state south of the wabash river and more or less frequent to common on the hills in all of the state south of marion county. it is most abundant in the unglaciated area. =remarks.=--this species is called mockernut by text books, and bull hickory in the vicinity of new albany. = a.= =carya alba= variety =subcoriàcea= sargent. trees and shrubs : : . only one tree of this variety is known in indiana and it is located in posey county on the bank of the cypress swamp about miles southwest of mt. vernon. specimens from this tree were sent to sargent and he referred them to this variety.[ ] it differs from the type in the larger size and shape of the fruit and nut. the dried fruit is cm. long, oblong. the nut is oblong, . cm. long, pointed at both ends, or some nuts somewhat ovate in shape and more rounded at the base, little compressed and strongly angled; shell very thick, mm. at the thinnest place; kernel very small and sweet. the nut easily distinguishes it from all forms of hickory. the author has bought hickory nuts for table use for several years from posey county and this nut is frequently found in the assortment which shows that this variety is more or less frequent in that section. = .= =carya glàbra= (miller) spach. black hickory. plate . very tall medium sized trees, up to dm. in diameter; bark tight, usually dark, fissures shallow on some and quite deep on others; twigs reddish-brown, glabrous, terminal buds small, ovoid, about - mm. long; ordinary leaves - dm. long; leaflets generally lanceolate, sometimes quite wide, or wider beyond the middle, prevailing number , the terminal usually - cm. long, somewhat pubescent on unfolding, more or less pubescent below at maturity, usually only the midrib, axils and larger veins with hairs; fruit generally smooth and obovoid, rarely globose or oval, - mm. long; husk sometimes not opening, more often one or more of the sutures open to less than half way, - mm. thick; nut about - mm. long and - mm. wide, rounded at the apex, elongated and rounded at the base, angles wanting or obscure; shell very hard and thick, about . mm. thick at the thinnest point; kernel sweet and astringent; wood and uses same as that of the shellbark hickory. [illustration: plate . carya glabra (miller) spach. black hickory. (× / .) fruit from different trees to show variation.] =distribution.=--southern ontario south to the gulf states and west to texas and iowa. this species is reported for all parts of the state. however, the records for the northern counties were made when this species was not separated from _carya ovalis_, and since the latter species is quite frequent in the northern counties it is best to refer the early records to _carya ovalis_. the most northern station based upon an existing specimen is the north side of the mississinewa river east of eaton in delaware county. it is a frequent, common to very common tree on the hills in the southern part of the state. it has its mass distribution in the unglaciated part of the state, although it is locally a frequent to a common tree of the hills of the other southern counties. it appears that this species has the ability to invade areas after the virgin forest is cut, and it is not an uncommon sight to see this species in almost pure stands on the hills of cut-over lands. =remarks.=--this species is often called pignut. sargent wisely suggests that this name be used exclusively for _carya cordiformis_. the great abundance of this species in brown, morgan and monroe counties has been instrumental in building up a large business in the manufacture of hickory chairs and furniture. frames of furniture are made from the very young trees, and backs and seats from the bark of old trees, which are cut, stripped of their bark, and often left to rot. = a.= =carya glabra= variety =megacárpa= sargent[ ]. this variety was reported for indiana by heimlich.[ ] his report was based on a specimen collected by the author in franklin county. it was named by sargent who has a duplicate specimen. sargent in his revision of the hickories does not include indiana in its range. the size of the fruit is the character that marks the variety and i do not believe this is sufficient to warrant its separation. i have, therefore, included all indiana forms under the type. = .= =carya ovàlis= (wangenheim) sargent. small-fruited hickory. plate . medium sized tall trees; bark usually tight on the trunk for a distance up to . - m., then becoming more or less scaly like the shellbark hickory, on some trees the bark is very thick and is quite scaly but it does not flake off in thin plates as the shellbark hickory; twigs purplish or reddish-brown, generally smooth by the end of the season, generally - mm. thick near the tip; terminal winter buds ovoid, - mm. long, covered with yellow scales and more or less pubescent; average size leaves - dm. long; leaflets - , prevailing number usually , sometimes , usually lanceolate, frequently oval or slightly obovate, the terminal - cm. long, at maturity usually pubescent beneath in the axils of the veins, more rarely also the veins covered with hairs; fruit varies greatly in size and shape, the most common form is obovoid, more rarely oval, or subglobose, - mm. in length, granular and covered with yellow scales; husk usually splitting to the base, although tardily on some, often quite aromatic, dry husk . - mm. thick; nut variable in size and shape, from elliptic to obovoid, - mm. long, compressed, generally about per cent wider than thick, usually rounded at the base, generally slightly obovoid with the apex rounded, or obcordate; a common form has the four sides rounded, as wide as long or almost so, with the ends abruptly rounded so as to appear almost truncate, the elliptic form with both ends pointed is our rarest and smallest form; the surface on all forms is quite smooth, except the elliptic forms which have the angles usually extending from the tip to the base, on other forms the nuts are usually not prominently angled and on some the angles are very obscure except at the apex; shell usually thin, - . mm. thick; kernel sweet; wood and uses the same as that of the shellbark hickory. [illustration: plate . carya ovalis (wangenheim) sargent. small-fruited hickory. (× / .) the nuts show the species and its varieties.] sargent[ ] has described five varieties of this species, three of which he credits to indiana. the writer has sent him specimens from over trees of this species, and he has variously distributed them to the type and varieties. heimlich has reported sargent's determination of many of these specimens in the proc. ind. acad. science, : - : . the writer cannot agree with the determinations and believes further field study is necessary to discover characters by which the several forms can consistently be divided. to stimulate the study of this species, the original description of the varieties together with sargent's characterization of the type are quoted because they are contained in a book not usually found in libraries. to these descriptions are added new characters which sargent gives in his revision of the hickories in bot. gaz. : - : . =carya ovalis= (type). "in the shape of the fruit and in the thickness of its involucre this tree is of four distinct forms; in all of them the involucre splits freely to the base, or nearly to the base, the shell of the nut is thin and the seed, although small, is sweet and edible. the extremes of these forms are very distinct, but there are forms which are intermediate between them, so that it is difficult to decide sometimes to which of the forms these intermediate forms should be referred. the first of these forms, as the fruit agrees with wangenheim's figure, must be considered the type of the species. the fruit is oval, narrowed and rounded at the base, acute at the apex, usually from . - cm. long and about . cm. in diameter. the involucre is from - . mm. thick and occasionally one of the sutures remains closed. the nut is oblong, slightly flattened, rounded at the base, acute or acuminate and four-angled at the apex, the ridges extending for one-third or rarely for one-half of its length, from - . cm. long and about . cm. in diameter. the shell is usually about mm. thick." "the type of this species and its varieties have glabrous or rarely slightly pubescent leaves, with usually thin leaflets." = a.= =carya ovalis= variety =obcordàta= (muhlenberg) sargent. "the fruit varies from subglobose to short-oblong or to slightly obovate, showing a tendency to pass into that of the other varieties of the species. it varies from - cm. in diameter, and the involucre, which is from - mm. thick, splits freely to the base or nearly to the base by narrowly winged sutures, one of them rarely extending only to the middle of the fruit. the nut is usually much compressed, often broadest above the middle, slightly angled sometimes to below the middle, rounded at the base and much compressed, often broadest above the middle, slightly angled sometimes to below the middle, rounded at the base and rounded and often more or less obcordate at the apex." = b.= =carya ovalis= variety =odoràta= (marshall) sargent. "the name may have been given by marshall to this variety on account of the strong resinous odor of the inner surface of the fresh involucre of the fruit, which i have not noticed in that of the other forms. the fruit is subglobose or sometimes slightly longer than broad, flattened and usually from . - . cm. in diameter. the involucre varies from - . mm. in thickness and splits freely to the base by distinctly winged sutures. the nut is rounded or acute at the base with a short point, rounded at the apex, very slightly or not at all ridged, pale colored, from . - . cm. long and wide and from - . cm. thick." = c.= =carya ovalis= variety =obovàlis= sargent. "in the fourth form the fruit is more or less obovate, about . cm. long and cm. in diameter, and the involucre varies from - mm. in thickness. the nut is much compressed, pointed or rounded at the apex, rounded at the base, usually about cm. long, nearly as broad and about . cm. thick." "the fruit resembles in shape that of _carya glabra_, but the involucre is thicker and splits easily to the base or nearly to the base." = d.= =carya ovalis= variety =obcordàta=, =f. vestita= sargent. bot. gaz. : : . this is a form described from a specimen collected by the author on the border of dan's pond in knox county. it differs from "the variety _obcordata_ in the thick tomentose covering of the branchlets during their first year. the leaves of this form are slightly pubescent in the autumn on the under surface of the midribs. although the nuts are more compressed than those of the ordinary forms of var. _obcordata_, the fruit is of that variety. the branchlets are unusually stout for a form of _carya ovalis_ and are covered with rusty tomentum during their first year and are more or less pubescent in their second and third seasons." =distribution.=--western new york west to illinois and south to north carolina, georgia, alabama, mississippi, arkansas and missouri. the species is found in all parts of the state, although the distribution of the varieties has not been worked out. the habitat of this species is high ground, and only rarely is it found in low ground. it prefers hills, slopes, base of the terraces of streams, and in the northern part of the state gravelly ridges and sandy soil. in all of its range it is usually associated with white and black oak. it is infrequent in the southern part of the state but north of the wabash river it becomes more frequent and in some places it becomes common to very common. it is a common tree in wells county north of the wabash river and in the northern part of lagrange county, and in both places a wide range of forms occur, some of which are not covered by the preceding description. no one of our trees offers a better opportunity for intensive study than this hickory. =remarks.=--text books call this species the small-fruited hickory. it is not commonly distinguished from the other hickories, but in wells county where it is common the boys call it "ladies' hickory." = .= =carya búckleyi= variety =arkansàna= sargent.[ ] plate . medium sized trees, bark tight, dark, deeply furrowed; mature twigs more or less pubescent, reddish brown; terminal buds ovoid, about mm. long, thickly covered with yellow scales, and more or less pubescent; leaves - . dm. long, rachis permanently pubescent; leaflets - , prevailing number , lanceolate, terminal one about cm. long, tawny pubescent on unfolding, more or less glabrous at maturity; fruit ellipsoid to slightly obovoid, very aromatic, about . - cm. long, covered with yellow scales; husk usually splitting to below the middle, - mm. thick; nut oblong to slightly obovoid, - . cm. long, scarcely compressed, rounded at each end, the four ridges faint except at the apex; shell thick, about mm. at the thinnest point; kernel sweet; wood same as the white hickory which it most closely resembles. =distribution.=--southwestern indiana, south in the mississippi valley to louisiana and texas. known in indiana only from one tree in knox county on the sand ridge on the east side of what was formerly a cypress swamp, about two miles north of decker. the soil is the knox sand. it is associated with black and black jack oaks. =remarks.=--the description has been drawn from ample material from this single tree. [illustration: plate . carya buckleyi var. arkansana sargent. (× / .)] =betulÀceae.= the birch family. trees or shrubs with simple, petioled, alternate (in pairs on the older branches of _betula_) leaves; staminate flowers in long drooping catkins, - in the axil of each bract, the pistillate in short lateral or terminal aments; fruit a nut or samara. staminate flowers solitary in the axil of each bract, without a calyx, pistillate flowers with a calyx; nut wingless. bark of tree smooth; staminate aments in winter enclosed in bud scales; nut exposed, its subtending bract more or less irregularly -cleft carpinus. bark of older trees shreddy; staminate aments in winter naked; nut enclosed in a bladder-like bract ostrya. staminate flowers - in the axil of each bract, with a calyx, pistillate flowers without a calyx; nut winged. winter buds sessile; stamens ; fruit membranous and hop-like; fruiting bract deciduous at the end of the season when the nut escapes betula. winter buds stalked; stamens ; fruit woody and cone-like; fruiting bracts woody and persisting after the nuts escape alnus. = . carpÌnus.= the hornbeam. =carpinus caroliniàna= walter. water beech. blue beech. plate . a small tree up to dm. in diameter, usually - . dm. in diameter with fluted or ridged trunks; bark smooth, close, gray; twigs hairy at first, soon becoming glabrous; leaves ovate-oblong, average leaves - cm. long, pointed at the apex, double-serrate, hairy when young, glabrous at maturity except on the veins and in the axils beneath, pubescent, not glandular, staminate catkins appearing in early spring; nut at the base of a -cleft bract about cm. long, nut broadly ovate, compressed, pointed and about mm. long; wood heavy, hard, tough and strong. =distribution.=--nova scotia west to minnesota and south to florida and texas. in indiana it is frequent to common throughout the state in moist rich woods. it prefers a moist rich soil; however, it has a range from the tamarack bog to the dry black and white oak slope. it is tolerant of shade and is seldom found outside of the forest. =remarks.=--this tree is too small and crooked to be of economic importance. it is regarded as a weed tree in the woodland, and should be removed to give place to more valuable species. [illustration: plate . carpinus caroliniana walter. water or blue beech. (× / .)] = . Óstrya.= the hop hornbeam. =ostrya virginiàna= (miller) willdenow. ironwood. plate . small trees up to dm.[ ] in diameter, usually about - dm. in diameter; bark smooth and light brown on small trees, shreddy on older trees; shoots hairy, becoming at the end of the season glabrous or nearly so and a reddish-brown; leaves oblong-ovate, other forms rare, average size about - cm. long, acuminate, usually double-serrate, hairy on both surfaces when they unfold, glabrous or nearly so above at maturity, more or less pubescent beneath, especially on the midrib and veins; staminate spikes develop in early winter; fruit hop-like about - cm. long; nut oblong-ovate about mm. long and half as wide, compressed, light brown; wood very hard, tough, close-grained, strong, light brown. =distribution.=--nova scotia west to manitoba, south to the gulf states and west to texas. it is frequent to common in all of the counties of the state. however, it is entirely absent in the lower wabash bottoms, except rarely on high grounds in this area. it prefers well drained dry soil, and is most frequent when it is associated with beech and sugar maple, although it is often quite plentiful in white oak woods. it is shade enduring and is one of the under trees in the forest where it grows very tall and slender and free from branches. when it grows in exposed places such as bluffs, it retains its side branches and is usually bushy. =remarks.=--the trees are too small to be of much economic importance. it is per cent stronger than white oak, and per cent more elastic. these exceptional qualities were recognized by the indians and it was used by them where wood of great strength and hardness was desired. likewise the pioneer used it where he could for handles, wooden wedges, etc. since it grows neither large nor fast, it is usually regarded as a weed tree in the woodland, and should be removed to give place to more valuable species. =ostrya virginiàna= variety =glandulòsa= spach. this is the name given to the form which has the twigs, petioles, peduncles and often the midrib and veins of the leaves beneath covered more or less with short erect, reddish, glandular hairs. it is found with the species, but is not so frequent. [illustration: plate . ostrya virginiana (miller) k. koch. ironwood. (× / .)] = . bÉtula.= the birches. trees and shrubs with bark tight, scaly or separating into very thin plates and peeling off transversely, whitish or dark colored; staminate catkins developing in autumn and dehiscing in early spring before or with the appearance of the leaves, pistillate catkins ovoid or cylindric; fruit a small winged flat seed, bearing at the apex the two persistent stigmas. bark of twigs usually with a slight wintergreen flavor; leaves with - , usually - pairs of prominent veins; rounded or slightly cordate at the base; fertile catkins generally mm. or more in diameter. b. lutea. bark of twigs usually bitter, not wintergreen flavored; leaves with - , usually - pairs of prominent veins, more or less obtusely angled at the base; fertile catkins generally less than mm. in diameter (rarely mm. or more, _b. nigra_). bark of trunk chalky-white; fruiting aments drooping or spreading. bark below base of lateral branches darkened-triangular in outline; leaves long acuminate and lustrous above; staminate catkins usually solitary. b. populifolia. bark below base of lateral branches not darkened; leaves ovate and not lustrous above; staminate catkins usually - . b. papyrifera. bark of trunks dark; fruiting aments erect or nearly so. b. nigra. = .= =betula lùtea= michaux filius. birch. yellow birch. plate . medium size trees; bark of small trees and of the branches of old trees smooth, silver or dark gray, freely peeling off in thin strips, becoming on older trees a dark brown, rarely tight, usually fissured into wide plates and rolling back from one edge; the shoots of the year hairy, greenish gray, becoming glabrous or nearly so and reddish-brown by the end of the second year, not aromatic when bruised but when chewed sometimes a faint wintergreen odor can be detected; winter buds pointed, reddish-brown, the lower scales more or less pubescent, generally with a fringe of hairs on the margins; leaves usually appearing in pairs, ovate to ovate-oblong, - cm. long, taper-pointed, oblique and wedge-shape, rounded or slightly cordate at the base, sharply and rather coarsely serrate, hairy on both sides when they appear, becoming at maturity glabrous or nearly so above, and remaining more or less pubescent below, especially on the veins, both surfaces with few to numerous resinous dots; petioles permanently hairy, generally - mm. long; flowers appear in may; staminate spikes in clusters at the ends of the branches, about cm. long, scales broadly ovate, blunt, fringed with hairs, green-tipped with a margin of reddish-brown; pistillate spikes solitary in the axils of the leaves, mature spikes . - cm. long, generally . - cm. long, commonly about half as thick as long, recurved to ascending, commonly about horizontal, sessile or on short stalks; scales very variable, - mm. long, generally - mm. long, sometimes as wide as long but generally about one-fourth longer than wide, densely pubescent on the back, or rarely glabrous on the back, ciliate, glabrous or nearly so on the inside, commonly with a few brown or black glands on the margin, commonly lobed to more than one-third of their length, lobes ascending or divaricate, the lateral generally the larger and almost as long as the narrower middle lobe; nuts divested of the wings, slightly obovate, about mm. long, wings about two-thirds as wide as the nut and usually with a fringe of hairs at the blunt apex. [illustration: plate . betula lutea michaux filius. yellow birch. (× / .)] =distribution.=--the distribution of this species is variously given as from newfoundland west to manitoba and south in the alleghenies to georgia. it is now definitely known that the species of _betula_ hybridize which may account for the peculiar forms often encountered. that there are geographic races or mendelian segregates of this species is evidenced by the different interpretations given this species by different authors. _betula alleghanensis_ britton appears to be one of them. the descriptive difference between _betula lenta_ and _betula lutea_ is not clear, which has resulted in many authors crediting _betula lenta_ to indiana and the area west of indiana. the preceding description does not agree with that of _betula lutea_ exactly, and has been drawn to cover the specimens at hand from indiana which the author has from allen, crawford, lagrange, lake, marshall, porter and steuben counties. it has recently been reported from white county by heimlich.[ ] he says: "specimens were taken from two trees about two miles south of buffalo near the water's edge of the river." the writer has visited this locality and found here, and also on the island above the bridge a little farther down the river, _betula nigra_, but could not find _betula lutea_. since heimlich did not report _betula nigra_, which unmistakably occurs here, i assume he has confused the two species. it is very local in its distribution, and appears to be confined to swamps, borders of lakes, and streams in the extreme northern part of the state. it has not been seen south of the northern end of the state, except a few small trees found clinging to the walls of the cliffs of a ravine about one mile east of taswell in crawford county. the walls of this ravine are about meters high; associated with it were a few trees of hemlock, and on the top of the cliffs, laurel (_kalmia latifolia_). large trees of this species in indiana are usually from - dm. in diameter and about m. high. the number in any one station is usually few, although there were formerly patches where it was plentiful. van gorder[ ] reports for noble county _betula lenta_ which should be transferred to this species, and he says: "there is a marsh of several acres of birch in section of york township." the largest area now known is that contained in the large tamarack swamp near mineral springs in porter county. in this swamp are found tamarack and white cedar. it was in this swamp that the writer found a peculiar form of birch which has been determined as _betula sandbergi_. since this species[ ] is recognized as a hybrid of _betula papyrifera_ and _betula pumila_ variety _glandulifera_, and the last parent of this hybrid is not found in the vicinity, a discussion of this form is not presented. in the immediate vicinity are found only _betula lutea_ and _betula pumila_. _betula papyrifera_ is found about a mile distant to the south. it is assumed that this form is a cross between _betula lutea_ and _betula pumila_. = .= =betula populifòlia= marshall. gray or white birch. plate . a small tree; bark a chalky-white, not separating into thin layers, inner bark orange, on the trunks of old trees nearly black; shoots at first covered with numerous glands, becoming smooth and yellowish or reddish-brown; leaves generally long-deltoid, average blades - cm. long, usually long taper-pointed, truncate or nearly so at the base, irregularly double-serrate, slightly pubescent on the veins when young, soon becoming glabrous; fertile catkins . - cm. long and about mm. in diameter; bracts of eastern trees differ from those of indiana trees which are about - mm. long, lobed to about / of the distance from the apex, lateral lobes the largest and strongly divaricate, puberulent on the back; seed strongly notched at the apex; nut slightly obovoid; wings much broader than the nut. =distribution.=--nova scotia west to southern ontario and south to delaware and pennsylvania. in indiana it has been reported from lake, laporte, porter, st. joseph and tippecanoe counties. there may be some doubt about the tippecanoe record, since many of the older records were made from cultivated trees. the numbers of the species in indiana were always limited. it is not able to meet changed conditions and it has already almost disappeared from our area. i was told that formerly this species was found all about a lake in laporte county, but it has all died out. its appearance in indiana is peculiar since it is not found west of us, or north in michigan or east in ohio. this small group of trees near lake michigan is three or four hundred miles from the nearest of their kind. =remarks.=--this species is called white and gray birch. the largest tree seen in indiana was about dm. in diameter and m. high. [illustration: plate . betula populifolia marshall. white or gray birch. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . betula papyrifera marshall. paper or canoe birch. (× / .)] = .= =betula papyrífera= marshall. paper or canoe birch. plate . rather a small tree; bark thin, creamy white; chalky, dark near the base on old trees, separating in thin papery layers; shoots green, glandular and hairy, becoming glabrous and reddish-brown; leaves ovate or rhombic-ovate, acute to long taper-pointed, truncate, rounded or wedge-shape at the base, average blades - cm. long, usually irregularly double-serrate, hairy at first, becoming glabrous above or nearly so, remaining more or less pubescent below, especially on the veins and with tufts of hairs in the axils of the veins, minutely glandular on both surfaces, sometimes with only a few glands on the midribs above; fertile catkins - cm. long and about - mm. wide, bracts about mm. long, pubescent on both faces, lobed to about one-third the distance from the apex, the lateral lobes the largest, divaricate or slightly recurved; seed deeply notched at apex, nut oval, pubescent at the apex, wings as broad as, or broader than the nut. =distribution.=--alaska to labrador, south to new york, northern indiana, colorado and washington. in indiana it has been reported from lake, laporte, marshall and st. joseph counties. it has not been found as a native in ohio. this species is another example of a northern form finding its southern limit near lake michigan. =remarks.=--this species in other parts of the country is known as white, paper and canoe birch. i have not seen specimens more than dm. in diameter in indiana. = .= =betula nìgra= linnæus. black or red birch. plate . a medium sized tree; bark on young trees peeling off transversely in thin reddish-brown strips which roll back and usually persist for several years, bark of older trees dark brown, furrowed and separating into short plates or peeling off in strips; young twigs hairy, becoming glabrous and reddish at the end of the season; leaves rhombic-ovate, acute, short and broadly wedge-shaped at the base, blades of ordinary leaves - cm. long, irregularly toothed, glabrous above and pubescent beneath, rarely entirely glabrous; fertile catkins generally - cm. long, and usually slightly less than cm. wide; bracts - mm. long, pubescent, ciliate, lobed to near the middle, the lobes about equal; nuts broadly ovate, broader than its wings, pubescent at the apex; wood light, strong, close-grained, heart wood light brown. =distribution.=--massachusetts west to minnesota and south to florida and texas. in indiana it is found more or less frequent in the counties bordering the kankakee river, and as far east as st. joseph, marshall and miami counties. along the kankakee river it is frequently a tree of - dm. in diameter. this species has not been found in michigan, northeastern indiana or northern ohio. it has never been noted near lake michigan, and the nearest point is cedar lake in lake county about miles south of the lake. it is more or less frequent along certain streams throughout the southwestern part of the state. it is found as far north as putnam and marion counties and eastward as far as bartholomew, scott and clark counties. there are no records for this species for eastern indiana or western ohio. about hovey lake in posey county it reaches its greatest size, where trees up to dm. in diameter and m. high are to be found. in the "flats" in certain parts of jackson and scott counties it becomes a common tree, associated with pin oak and sweet gum. [illustration: plate . betula nigra linnæus. black or red birch. (× / .)] =remarks.=--this is the most abundant birch of indiana. in fact all other species are too rare to be of economic importance. the fact that other species of birch are so rare in indiana, is the reason that this species is simply called "birch." outside of indiana it is known as red birch and river birch. the principal use of this wood in this state is for heading. all of the birches, especially the horticultural forms, are used more or less for ornamental planting. they are beautiful trees but are short lived. = . Álnus.= the alders. trees or shrubs; bark astringent; staminate and pistillate catkins begin to develop early in summer and flower the following year early in the spring before the leaves appear; bracts of the fertile catkins thick and woody, obdeltoid with -rounded lobes at the apex; nuts obovate, reddish-brown. leaves sharply double-serrate, the ends of the primary veins forming the apex of the larger teeth, glaucous beneath; nuts with a narrow thick margin a. incana. leaves single-serrate, pale beneath; nuts without margins a. rugosa. = .= =alnus incàna= (linnæus) muenchhausen. speckled alder. plate . shrubs or small trees; bark generally smooth and a reddish-brown with a tinge of gray, with grayish dots, hence its name; twigs hairy at first, becoming smooth by the end of the season and a golden or reddish-brown with many fine dark specks; leaves broadly-oval, acute or short-pointed at apex, usually broadly rounded at the base, average blades . - cm. long, glaucous beneath, hairy on both sides on unfolding, at maturity becoming glabrous above or with a few hairs on the veins, beneath remaining more or less hairy until late in autumn when usually only the veins are hairy; pistillate catkins resembling small cones, - . cm. long and usually - mm. wide, near the ends of the branches, usually in clusters of - . [illustration: plate . alnus incana (linnæus) muenchhausen. speckled alder. (× / .)] =distribution.=--newfoundland to the saskatchewan, south to new york, northeastern ohio, northern indiana and nebraska. in indiana it is confined to the northern tier of counties. i have specimens from elkhart, lagrange, lake and porter counties. it was reported from carroll county by thompson, but in the absence of a verifying specimen i am inclined to think this citation should be referred to _alnus_ _rugosa_. this species grows in low ground on the borders of streams, borders of swamps and in almost extinct sloughs near lake michigan. it is also found along pigeon river in the eastern part of lagrange county. in the vicinity of mineral springs in porter county it is locally a common shrub or tree. it has the habit of stooling out, and commonly the several specimens will be deflected from a vertical from - degrees. the largest specimens are from - . dm. in diameter and about m. high. =remarks.=--this species could be used to good advantage in ornamental planting in low ground. it grows rapidly, is easily transplanted and its foliage is dense and attractive. = .= =alnus rugòsa= (du roi) sprengel. smooth alder. plate . shrubs with fluted or angled trunks, resembling _carpinus_; bark thin, smooth or nearly so, reddish-brown, weathering gray; twigs hairy at first, becoming gray or reddish-brown by the end of the season and more or less glabrous and covered with small dark specks; leaves obovate, barely acute or rounded at apex, wedge-shape at base, average blades - cm. long, hairy on both surfaces while young, becoming smooth or nearly so above, remaining more or less hairy beneath, especially on the veins, under surface of leaves sufficiently glutinous to adhere to paper if pressure be applied, margins set with short callous teeth, about . - mm. long; fertile catkins cone-shape, - mm. long and about mm. in diameter, borne at the ends of branches in clusters of - . =distribution.=--maine to minnesota, south to florida and texas. in indiana it is quite local. it has been reported in many of the counties of northern indiana north of the wabash river. it has been found in several of the southern counties and as far north as salt creek in monroe county. no reports for the central part of the state. it is absent also in all of the eastern counties of the state, and the western part of ohio. it is found growing in clumps in wet woods, swamps, cold bogs and along streams. it is usually a tall slender shrub; however, a specimen has been seen that measured cm. in diameter and m. in height. =remarks.=--of no value except for ornamental planting in wet ground. =fagÀceae.= the beech family. trees with simple, alternate, petioled leaves; flowers of two kinds; fruit a one-seeded nut. this is the most important family of trees occurring in the state. [illustration: plate . alnus rugosa (du roi) sprengel. smooth alder. (× / .)] winter buds long and slender, at least times as long as wide; staminate flowers in globose heads on drooping peduncles; nuts sharply -angled fagus. winter buds not long and slender and less than times as long as wide; staminate flowers in slender catkins; nuts not as above. staminate catkins erect or spreading; nut flattened on one side and enclosed in a spiny, woody husk castanea. staminate catkins drooping; nuts not flattened on one side, seated in a scaly, woody cup quercus. = . fÀgus.= the beech. =fagus grandifòlia= ehrhart. beech. plate . large tall trees with bark from light to dark gray; twigs densely covered at first with long hairs, soon becoming glabrous and turning to a reddish-brown; terminal winter buds about cm. long; leaves ovate to ovate-oblong, long taper-pointed to merely acute, wedge-shape to cordate at base, regularly and usually minutely serrate, average blades - cm. long, silky when young, becoming at maturity glabrous above and nearly so beneath except on the veins; flowers appear in may; fruit a bur, supported on a club-shaped pubescent peduncle about . cm. long, covered with short recurved prickles, densely rufous-pubescent, its -valves enclosing the two triangular brown nuts; nuts edible; wood very hard, strong, usually tough, difficult to season, close-grained, takes a high polish, sap wood white, heart wood reddish. =distribution.=--nova scotia, southern ontario to wisconsin, south to the gulf states and texas. it is found in every county of the state, although it is local in the prairie and dry sandy regions of the northwestern part of the state. it is a frequent to a very common tree on the high ground in many parts of the state. if the high ground and hills of the state are not forested with white and black oak, beech is almost certain to be the prevailing species. wherever beech is found it is usually a frequent to a common tree, and it is not uncommon to see areas which are almost a pure stand of this species. it is also a frequent to a common tree in southern indiana in what is called the "flats." here it is associated with sweet gum and pin oak. on the slopes of hills of the southern counties it is associated with a great variety of trees. in the central part of the state its most frequent associate is the sugar maple. in the northern counties it has a wider range of associates, including white oak, ash, slippery elm, buckeye, ironwood, etc. it should be added that tulip is a constant associate except in the "flats." in point of number it ranks as first of indiana trees. [illustration: plate . fagus grandifolia ehrhart. beech. (× / .)] =remarks.=--specimens with the habit of retaining their branches which lop downward, usually have thicker sap wood and are harder to split. this form is popularly styled the white beech. the form with smooth tall trunks with upright branches usually has more heart wood, splits more easily and is popularly distinguished as red beech. the term yellow beech is variously applied. this species is a large tree in all parts of the state, although the largest specimens are found in the southeastern part of the state. in the virgin forests trees almost m. in diameter and m. high were frequent. beech was formerly used only for fuel, but in the last few decades it has been cut and used for many purposes, and the supply is fast diminishing. the beauty of this tree both in summer and winter, sunshine or storm makes it one of the most desirable for shade tree planting, but i have failed to find where it has been successfully used. it is one of the few trees that does not take to domestication. when the original forest is reduced to a remnant of beech, as a rule, the remaining beech will soon begin to die at the top. it is difficult to transplant. when planted the hole should be filled with earth obtained from under a living tree, in order to introduce the mycorrhiza that is necessary to the growth of the tree. = . castÀnea.= the chestnut. =castanea dentàta= (marshall) borkhausen. chestnut. plate . large trees with deeply fissured bark, smooth on young trees; young twigs more or less hairy, soon becoming glabrous and a reddish-brown; leaves lanceolate, average blades - cm. long, taper-pointed, wedge-shape or obtuse at the base, coarsely serrate, teeth usually incurved, at maturity glabrous on both sides; flowers appear after the leaves in the latter part of june or early in july, the staminate catkins from the axils of the leaves of the year's growth, . - dm. long, pistillate flowers in heads on short stalks in the axils of the leaves, usually on the branch beyond the greater part of the staminate catkins; fruit a globular spiny bur - cm. in diameter which contains the nuts; nuts usually - , rarely , flattened on one side, edible; wood light, soft, not strong, checks and warps on seasoning, yellowish-brown, durable in contact with the ground. [illustration: plate . castanea dentata (marshall) borkhausen. chestnut. (× / .)] =distribution.=--maine, southern ontario, michigan, south to delaware and in the mountains to alabama, and west to arkansas. in indiana it is found locally in the south central counties. the most northern station where i have seen trees that are native to a certainty is in morgan county a short distance north of martinsville. there are a few trees on the south bank of white river in mound park about miles east of anderson. this site was formerly an indian village, and the trees may have been introduced here. the late a. c. benedict formerly of the state geological survey, told me he saw a colony in in fayette county on the farm of dr. b. ball, about miles west of connersville on the east side of little williams creek. the trees were at least dm. in diameter. the western line of distribution would be a line drawn from martinsville to a point a few miles west of shoals and south to tell city. =remarks.=--the greatest numbers of this species are found on the outcrops of the knobstone in clark, floyd, harrison, jackson, lawrence, martin, orange and washington counties. it grows on high ground, associated with white and black oak, beech, etc. the species in all of our area grows to be a large tree. in the ind. geol. rept. : : there is a reference to a "stump in jackson county that was ft. and in. in diameter." this species is rather gregarious in habit, and rarely are isolated trees found. it is quite local in its distribution, but where found it is usually a common tree. the bark was much used in tanning, and the timber for poles, ties and posts. the demand for this species has led to heavy cutting, so that the present supply is practically limited to inferior or small trees. the nut crop in this state is usually badly infested by the weevil. this species is easily propagated by seed or seedlings. it is recommended for forest planting in all parts of its natural range and other parts of the state where the soil is very sandy and free from limestone. this species never attains to an old age when growing close to the limestone. it grows rapidly and requires little pruning. the only objection to planting it for forestry purposes is that it might be infested by the chestnut bark disease which is fatal to this tree. this disease is far to the east of us, and there are wide barriers to its western migration. since a chestnut grove would soon grow into post and pole size, in the event the grove would be killed by the bark disease, the crop could be harvested and the loss would be more of the nature of a disappointment than a financial one. if planted in a cleared area the seedlings should be spaced about  ×  feet if no cultivation can be done. if the trees can be cultivated, plant  ×  or  ×  feet and grow corn for one or two years between the rows. = . quÉrcus.= the oaks. the leaves of indiana oaks are deciduous; flowers appear in april or may, very small, the staminate on slender pendulous catkins, the pistillate solitary or in clusters in scaly bud-like cups; fruit an acorn which takes one or two years to mature, ripening in september or october. the species that mature their fruit the first year are popularly and commercially classed as "white oaks." those that mature their fruit the second year are classed as "red, black or bristle-tipped oaks." the oaks are the largest genus of indiana trees, and commercially are the most important of all trees of the state. they are the longest lived of all the trees that occur in the state, and while they have numerous insect enemies none of them prove fatal to it, except a certain gall insect. note:--in collecting leaf specimens of oaks for identification it should be borne in mind that the foliage is quite variable. the leaves of seedlings, coppice shoots and of vigorous shoots of old trees sometimes vary considerably in size, form and leaf-margins. also leaves of old trees that grow in the shade usually have the margins more nearly entire than the typical leaves. for example leaves may be found on the lower and interior branches of a pin oak which are not lobed to beyond the middle, which throws them into the red oak group. bark gray, (except in no. ) more or less scaly; mature leaves never with bristle tips; fruit maturing the first year. mature leaves smooth beneath. q. alba. mature leaves pubescent beneath. primary veins beneath show regular pinnate venation. some of the primary veins beneath end in a sinus. q. bicolor. all primary veins beneath end in teeth of the margin. tips of leaves of fruiting branches sharp-pointed, usually forming an acute angle; fruit sessile or nearly so. q. muhlenbergii. tips of leaves of fruiting branches rounded or if sharp-pointed, it rarely forms an acute angle; fruit peduncled. petioles green and woolly pubescent beneath (rarely almost glabrous); under surface of leaves velvety to the touch; bark gray, scaly, of the white oak type; trees of low ground. q. michauxii. petioles yellowish and smooth beneath, or rarely somewhat pubescent; under surface of leaves not velvety to the touch; bark dark, and tight, of the red oak type; trees of high ground (in indiana confined to the "knobstone" area). q. prinus. primary veins beneath show irregular venation. last year's growth pubescent; acorns generally less than mm. in diameter. q. stellata. last year's growth glabrous or nearly so; acorns more than mm. in diameter. leaves sinuate dentate, sometimes lobed near the base, velvety to the touch beneath; peduncles of fruit longer than the petioles. q. bicolor. leaves irregularly lobed, harsh or rarely velvety or smooth to the touch beneath; peduncles of fruit shorter than the petioles. cup of fruit fringed; apex of lobes of leaves generally rounded; trees of lowland. q. macrocarpa. cup of fruit not fringed; apex of lobes of leaves generally acute; trees of swamps in the extreme southwestern counties of indiana. q. lyrata. bark dark, tight and furrowed; leaves with bristle tips; fruit maturing the second year. leaves entire q. imbricaria. leaves more or less deeply lobed, the lobes and teeth conspicuously bristle pointed. mature leaves smooth beneath, except tufts of hairs in the axils. leaves lobed to about the middle, the lateral lobes broadest at the base; cup saucer-shaped; nut about . - cm. in diameter; terminal buds reddish. q. rubra. leaves lobed to beyond the middle, frequently those grown in dense shade not so deeply lobed, some or all of the lateral lobes broadest toward the apex. cup saucer-shaped, rarely enclosing the nut for more than / its length; trees of the low lands and swamps. leaves glossy above; blades usually - cm. long; cups usually . cm. or less broad; terminal buds chestnut brown. q. palustris. leaves dull above, usually about cm. long; cups . - . cm. broad, rarely as narrow as . cm.; terminal buds grayish brown. q. schneckii. cup hemispheric, generally enclosing the nut for half its length; trees of the uplands. inner bark yellowish or orange; kernel of nut yellowish or orange, and very bitter. terminal buds usually mm. or less in length, ovoid and generally blunt, reddish-brown; scales of cup closely appressed; trees local in the extreme northwest part of the state. q. ellipsoidalis. terminal buds usually longer than mm., usually angled and sharp-pointed; scales of cup not closely appressed; trees of all parts of the state q. velutina. inner bark reddish or gray; kernel white and not very bitter q. coccinea. mature leaves more or less pubescent on the whole under surface. leaves grayish or yellowish pubescent beneath; scales of cup with a reddish-brown border; nut enclosed for about / its length q. falcata. leaves brownish or rusty pubescent beneath, sometimes appearing grayish; scales of cup without a dark border; nut enclosed for about half of its length. leaves expanded at the apex, and generally with three lobes; mature twigs generally scurvy-pubescent q. marilandica. leaves deeply lobed; mature twigs generally glabrous. q. velutina. = .= =quercus álba= linnæus. white oak. plate . large trees with gray, fissured bark, flaky on the branches, on the upper part of the trunks of some trees the bark loosens at the fissures and peels back, forming flat strips which remain attached at one side; twigs at first hairy, becoming smooth; leaves mostly obovate in outline, generally - cm. long on petioles . - cm. long, more or less deeply lobed into - lobes, the lobes ascending and generally blunt and entire, sometimes the lobes have one or two secondary lobes, leaves narrowed and oblique at the base, smooth above, smooth and glaucous beneath; acorns sessile or on stalks up to cm. long; nuts quite variable on different trees as to size and shape, ovoid or oblong, - mm. long; cup flat on the bottom, tuberculate and encloses about / of the nut; scales blunt and woolly. =distribution.=--maine, southern ontario, minnesota south to florida and texas. found in all parts of indiana. in point of number it is exceeded only by the beech, although it has a more general distribution. it is adapted to many types of soil, and is found in almost all situations in indiana except in very wet soils. it is sparingly found in the sand dune area. on the clay soils of the northern part of the state it is a frequent to an abundant tree, and in the southern part of the state it often forms complete stands on the slopes of the hills. the white oak is one of the largest and possibly the longest lived tree of indiana. while it is able to adapt itself to many situations, it grows to the largest size in a porous, moist and rich soil. =remarks.=--wood heavy, hard, close-grained, tough, strong and durable. on account of its abundance, and wide range of uses, it has always been the most important timber tree of indiana. formerly the woods were full of white oak - . meters ( - ft.) in diameter, but today trees of a meter ( ft.) in diameter with long straight trunks are rare indeed. michaux who traveled extensively in america - , while the whole mississippi valley was yet a wilderness, remarks: "the white oak is the most valuable tree in america." he observed the ruthless destruction of this valuable tree, and predicted that the supply would soon be depleted, and that america would be sorry that regulations were not adopted to conserve the supply of this valuable tree. michaux's prediction has come true, and yet no constructive measures have been provided to insure the nation an adequate supply of this timber. it should be remembered that it requires two to three hundred years to grow a white oak a meter in diameter, and if we are to have white oak of that size in the next generation the largest of our present stand must be spared for that harvest. [illustration: plate . quercus alba linnæus. white oak. (× / .) acorns from different trees to show variation.] white oak was formerly much used in construction work, but it has become so costly that cheaper woods take its place. at present it is used principally in cooperage, interior finish, wagon and car stock, furniture, agricultural implements, crossties, and veneer. indiana has the reputation of furnishing the best grade of white oak in the world. little attention has been given this valuable species either in horticultural or forestal planting. this no doubt is due in a great measure to the slow growth of the tree. it should be used more for shade tree, ornamental and roadside tree planting. there are good reasons why white oak should be much used in reforestation. the cheapest and most successful method of propagating white oak is to plant the seed in the places where the trees are desired to grow. this is best done by planting the acorns as soon as they fall or are mature. the best results will be obtained if the nuts are planted with the small end down, and covered about an inch deep with earth. if the ground is a hard clay soil and the small end of the nut is placed down a half inch of earth on the nut is sufficient. rodents often destroy the nuts, and if this danger is apprehended it is best to poison the rodents or to stratify the seed, or grow seedlings and plant them when they are one year old. in forestal planting it is suggested that the planting be  ×  feet. the white oak is quite variable in the lobing of the leaves, and in size and shape of the fruit, and in the length of its peduncle. the variable lobing of the leaves has lead several authors to describe varieties based on this character. the latest is that of sargent[ ] who describes: "the trees with leaves less deeply divided, with broad rounded lobes and usually smaller generally sessile fruit," as =quercus alba= variety =latiloba=. =quercus alba × muhlenbérgii= (× _quercus deami_ trelease). this rare hybrid was discovered in a woods about miles northwest of bluffton indiana by l. a. williamson and his son e. b. williamson in .[ ] the tree is still standing and in bore a heavy crop of seed. a liberal quantity was sent for propagation to the arnold arboretum, new york botanical gardens, and missouri botanical gardens. the arboretum succeeded in germinating several seed. the new york gardens succeeded in getting seedlings. the missouri gardens failed to get any to germinate. about a gallon of seeds was planted in the clark county state forest nursery and all failed. = .= =quercus bícolor willdenow.= swamp white oak. plate . large trees; leaves on petioles - mm. long, - cm. long, obovate, wedge-shaped or narrowly rounded at base, rounded or pointed at the apex, margins coarsely divided with rounded or blunt teeth or somewhat pinnatifid, primary venation beneath somewhat regular, but usually some of the veins end in a sinus of the margin, both surfaces hairy at first, becoming smooth above and remaining velvety pubescent beneath; the upper surface of the leaf a bronze or dark green and the under surface grayish due to the dense tomentum, which in some instances becomes sparse and short, in which case the under surface is a light green; acorns usually in pairs on stalks - cm. long; nuts ovoid, - . cm. long, enclosed for / - / their length in the cup; scales of cup acute to very long acuminate, scurvy pubescent and frequently tuberculate; kernel sweetish. =distribution.=--maine, southern ontario, southern minnesota south to georgia and arkansas. found in all parts of indiana. it is always found in wet places. in most of its range it is associated with the bur oak from which it is not commonly separated. in the northern counties it is usually associated with pin and bur oak, and white elm; in the flats of the southeastern part of the state it is usually associated with cow oak and sweet gum, while in the southwestern counties it is found most commonly with spanish and pin oak. =remarks.=--commercially the wood is not distinguished from white oak, and the cut is sold for that species. = .= =quercus muhlenbérgii= engelmann. chinquapin oak. sweet oak. yellow oak. chestnut oak. plate . large trees; leaves on petioles - cm. long, blades very variable in size, shape and leaf margins, generally - cm. long, oblong-lanceolate to broadly obovate, narrowed or rounded and more or less unequal at the base, taper-pointed at the apex, the apex always forming an acute angle, margins coarsely and rather regularly toothed, primary veins beneath regular and straight, and end in a prominent gland in the point of the teeth, teeth more or less incurved, leaves smooth and dark green above, and grayish pubescent beneath; acorns generally sessile, but often on short stalks up to cm. long; nut ovoid to oblong ovoid, - mm. long, enclosed for / - / its length in a very thin cup; scales of cup ovate, blunt-pointed or merely acute, sometimes tuberculate near the base of the cup, grayish pubescent without; kernel sweet, and the most edible of all of our oaks. [illustration: plate . quercus bicolor willdenow. swamp white oak. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . quercus muhlenbergii engelmann. chinquapin oak. (× / .) detached acorns and leaves from different trees.] =distribution.=--vermont, southwestern ontario to wisconsin and south to florida and west to texas. found in limited numbers in all parts of indiana, although hill's record for lake county is the only record in the block of the northwest counties. it is without a doubt found in every county south of the wabash river. it is a rare or an infrequent tree in practically all parts of its range. it is generally found on the dry banks of streams, river terrace banks, rocky bluffs of streams, and only rarely in level dry woods. in the southern counties it is sometimes found on clay or rocky ridges. in most of its range it is now so rare that most of the inhabitants do not know the tree. =remarks.=--wood similar to white oak, and with the same uses. in white county a pioneer was found who knew the tree only by the name of pigeon oak. he said it received this name from the fact that the wild pigeons were fond of the acorns. the leaves of this tree vary greatly in size, shape, and leaf margins. the fruit also varies on different trees in the shape of the nut, and the depth of the cup. these variations have lead some authors to separate the forms and one histological study[ ] seems to support minor differences. it has been observed that the leaves in the top of some trees may be thick, narrow and with long incurved teeth, while the leaves of the lower branches will be strongly obovate, thinner, and the teeth more dentate. in a general study it is best to include the polymorphic forms under one name. the distribution of the shallow and deep cup forms is so general that no regional or habitat areas can be assigned to either of them in indiana. = .= =quercus michaúxii= nuttall (_quercus prinus_ sargent). cow oak. basket oak. plate . large trees; leaves on petioles - cm. long, generally - dm. long, obovate, narrowed or narrowly rounded at the base, short taper-pointed, the apex generally blunt, the margins coarsely toothed, the teeth broad and rounded or more rarely acute, shaded leaves sometimes with margins merely undulate, hairy on both surfaces when young, becoming at maturity a dark yellow green and glabrous above, sometimes remaining somewhat pubescent along the midrib and the principal veins, leaves grayish and woolly pubescent beneath; acorns solitary or in pairs, sessile or on very short stalks, up to almost a cm. in length; nuts ovoid or oval with a broad base, enclosed for about / their length by the cup, the cups thick and generally - cm. broad; scales ovate, acute, rather blunt-pointed and more or less tuberculate near the base of the cup, tomentose on the back; kernel sweet. [illustration: plate . quercus michauxii nuttall. cow or basket oak. (× / .)] =distribution.=--delaware, southern indiana, missouri, south to florida and west to texas. in indiana it is believed that its distribution is pretty well known and well defined. it is an inhabitant of low wet woods, although large trees may be found in fairly dry woods which have been made dry by drainage. in discussing the distribution it must be remembered that this species was reported as _quercus prinus_ before the sixth edition of gray's manual which was published in . gorby's[ ] reference to miami county should be ignored, because he compiled his list of trees from a list of common names to which he appended the scientific names. his list includes several species which are not native, and his water willow (_dianthera americana_) is an herbaceous plant. wilson's[ ] report for hamilton county i believe also to be an error. wilson preserved no specimen. since hamilton county has no cow oak habitat, and wilson was not acquainted with the species, i think this reference should be transferred to the broad-leaf form of _quercus muhlenbergii_. the author has collected and distributed authentic specimens from a point - / miles southwest of napoleon in ripley county. this species is reported by meyncke for franklin county as scarce, and by collins for dearborn county. since the habitat of the species is found in these counties, it is fair to admit them into the range of the species. this species is a frequent to a very common tree in the flats of clark, scott, jefferson, jackson, jennings, and ripley counties, where it is usually associated with beech and sweet gum. it is now known to range as far north as the northern parts of jackson, jennings and ripley counties. it is an infrequent tree of the lower wabash valley as far north as southern knox county and no doubt followed eastward along white river. it follows the ohio river eastward at least to a point six miles east of grandview in spencer county. it no doubt was an occasional tree along the ohio river up to dearborn county. it has also been reported by aiken for hamilton county, ohio. in the lower wabash valley it is associated with spanish and pin oak. =remarks.=--wood and uses similar to white oak. in the flats of southeastern indiana it is generally called white oak, and in some places it is known as bur oak. it grows very rapidly and to a large size. a tree was measured in in the klein woods about miles north of north vernon that was . meters ( feet, inches) in circumference, breast high, and was estimated to be m. ( feet) to the first branch. this species when grown in the open forms a large oval head, and in moist soil would make one of the best shade and roadside trees to be had. it is not known how it would adapt itself to high ground, but it is believed this species is worthy a trial as a shade tree. it is apparently hardy in the northern counties. =quercus bèadlei= trelease. (_quercus alba × michauxii_). this hybrid between the white and cow oak was found by the writer in in the white river bottoms miles east of medora in jackson county. the tree measured . meters ( inches) in circumference breast high. specimens were distributed under no. , , and the determination was made by william trelease, our leading authority on oaks. = .= =quercus prìnus= linnæus. (_quercus montana_ willdenow of some recent authors). chestnut oak. plate . medium to large sized tree; bark dark, tight, deeply fissured, the furrows wide, and the ridges continuous; leaves on petioles - cm. long, - dm. long, obovate to lanceolate, those growing in the shade usually the widest, rounded at the base, usually narrowly so or even wedge-shaped, short or long taper-pointed at the apex, the apex blunt, margins coarsely and nearly regularly crenate-toothed, the teeth broad and rounded, dark green above at maturity, a lighter and usually a yellow or grayish green beneath, only slightly hairy above when young, soon becoming entirely glabrate, very pubescent beneath when young and usually remaining so until maturity; petioles, midrib and primary veins beneath are usually conspicuously yellow, which is a distinctive character of this species; acorns solitary or in pairs, on short stalks usually about cm. long, sometimes sessile; nuts large ovoid or oblong-ovoid, - cm. long, enclosed generally for about / their length in a thin cup; scales with triangular blunt tips, generally somewhat tuberculate and pubescent on the back; kernel sweet. =distribution.=--maine, northern shore of lake erie, to west central indiana and south to northern georgia and alabama. in indiana its distribution is limited to the knobstone and sandstone area of the state. its distribution has been fairly well mapped. two large trees on the edge of the top of the bluff of the ohio river at marble hill which is located in the south corner of jefferson county is the eastern limit of its range. it crowns some of the ridges, sometimes extending down the adjacent slopes a short distance, from floyd county north to the south side of salt creek in brown county. its range then extends west to the east side of monroe county, thence southwestward to the west side of martin county, thence south to the ohio river. where it is found it is generally such a common tree that the areas are commonly called chestnut oak ridges and are regarded as our poorest and most stony land. in floyd and clark counties it is usually associated with scrub pine. in the remainder of its range it is generally associated with black jack post and black oaks. in our area this species is never found closely associated with limestone, and reports of this species being found on limestone areas should be referred to _quercus muhlenbergii_. [illustration: plate . quercus prinus linnæus. chestnut oak. (× / .) acorns and loose leaves from different trees.] =remarks.=--wood similar and uses generally the same as white oak. the tree usually grows in such poor situations that it never acquires a large diameter, and it is only when a tree is found in a cove or in richer and deeper soil that it grows to a large size. the amount of this species is very limited and it is therefore of no especial economic importance as a source of timber supply. the bark is rich in tannin. the crests of chestnut oak ridges are often cut bare of this species. the trunks are made into crossties, and the larger branches are peeled for their bark. the nuts germinate on top of the ground as soon as they fall, or even before they fall. usually a large percentage germinate. the tree grows rapidly where soil conditions are at all favorable. it is believed that this species should be used to reforest the chestnut oak ridges of the state, and possibly it would be one of the best to employ on the slopes of other poor ridges. = .= =quercus stellàta= wangenheim. post oak. plate . medium to large trees; bark resembles that of the white oak except on old trees the fissures are deeper when compared with a white oak of equal size, and the ridges are usually broken into shorter lengths; twigs stout, yellowish-brown at first, remaining this color more or less to the end of the season, at first densely covered with hairs which remain throughout the season, and usually one year old branchlets are more or less tomentose; leaves on hairy petioles . - cm. long, generally about cm. long; leaves obovate in outline, commonly - dm. long and about / as wide, and generally lobed into five principal lobes which are disposed as follows: the two basal are formed by two deep sinuses just below the middle of the leaf which cut off a large roughly triangular portion, one angle of which forms the base, the top two angles prolonged on each side into a rounded lobe which may be long or short; the terminal lobe is produced by two deep sinuses which constrict the blade at about / - / its length from the apex; the two basal and two terminal sinuses form the two lateral lobes which in size are equal to about one half of the leaf area; the lateral lobes are generally ascending with the terminal portion usually indented with a shallow sinus which produces two short lobes; the terminal lobe of the leaf commonly has two or three shallow secondary lobes; all the lobes of the leaf are rounded; base of leaf narrowed or rounded; leaves very thick at maturity, when they first appear both surfaces are densely covered with a yellowish pubescence, at maturity the upper surface is a dark glossy green, and smooth or nearly so, except some leaves retain fascicles of hairs, and the midrib and principal veins may be more or less rough pubescent, the under surface at maturity is a gray-green, and remains more or less densely covered with fascicles of hairs; acorns single or in clusters, sessile or nearly so; nuts small, ovoid - mm. long and - mm. wide, inclosed for about / their length in the cup; scales ovate, gray or reddish brown, tomentose on the back, blunt except those near the top of the cup which are sometimes acute; kernel sweet. [illustration: plate . quercus stellata wangenheim. post oak. (× / .) acorns from different trees.] =distribution.=--massachusetts, indiana, south to florida, and west to oklahoma and texas. in indiana it is confined to the southwestern part of the state. in our area it is found on the crest of ridges in the knob area where it is generally associated with black, and black jack oaks, hence in our poorest and thinnest soils. west of the knob area it takes up different habitats. from vigo county southward it is found on sand ridges associated with black and black jack oaks. west of the knob area it is frequently found in black oak woods and in warrick county about two miles southwest of tennyson it is a frequent tree in the little pigeon creek bottoms which are a hard light clay soil. here it is associated with pin oak and cork elm (_ulmus alata_). in the lower wabash valley, especially in point township of posey county in the hard clay of this area it is a frequent to a common tree, associated with spanish, pin, swamp, white and shingle oaks, and sweet gum. in this area it grows to be a large tree. this species has been reported for hamilton county by wilson, but i regard this reference a wrong identification which will relieve hamilton county of the reputation of having "post oak" land. it was reported, also, by gorby for miami county. since gorby's list is wholly unreliable, it is best to drop this reference. higley and raddin[ ] reported a single tree near whiting. nieuwland[ ] reported this species from near mineral springs in porter county, the report being based on his number , which i have not seen. there is no reason to doubt these references, because it is not an unusual thing to find a southern form jump from southern indiana to a congenial habitat about lake michigan. =remarks.=--wood is similar but tougher than white oak, and its uses are the same as white oak. since in our area the tree is usually medium sized, most of the trees are worked up into crossties. a tree in a black oak woods miles east of washington in daviess county measured . meters ( - / inches) in circumference breast high. this species in some localities is called iron oak, and in gibson county on the sand dune area it is called sand bur oak. [illustration: plate . quercus macrocarpa michaux. bur oak. (× / .) acorns from different trees. the right two belong to the variety olivÆformis.] = .= =quercus macrocàrpa= michaux. bur oak. plate . large trees; branchlets of young trees generally develop corky wings which are usually absent on mature trees; leaves on petioles - cm. long, obovate in outline, generally - . dm. long, the margins more or less deeply cut so that there are usually lobes, sometimes only , or as many as or , sometimes the sinuses extend to the midrib, giving the leaf a "skeleton" appearance, the lobes are very irregular in shape and variously arranged, but often appear as if in pairs, lobes rounded and ascending, the larger lobes are sometimes somewhat lobed, the three terminal lobes are usually the largest and considered as a whole would equal in size one half or more of the entire leaf area, the base of the leaf is wedge-shape or narrowly rounded; leaves at maturity are dark green and smooth above, or somewhat pubescent along the midrib, a gray-green and woolly pubescent beneath; acorns usually solitary, sometimes in pairs or clusters of three, sessile or on short stalks, sometimes on stalks as long as . cm.; nuts very variable in size and shape, ovoid to oblong, often very much depressed at the apex, - cm. long, enclosed from / to almost their entire length in the cup which is fringed at the top; cups thick and large, sometimes . cm. in diameter; scales tomentose on the back and somewhat tuberculate, blunt near the base of the cup, but at and near the top of the cup they become long attenuate and on some trees appear almost bristle like; kernel sweet. =distribution.=--nova scotia to manitoba, south to georgia and west to texas and wyoming. found in all parts of indiana, although we have no reports from the knob area where no doubt it is only local. it is a tree of wet woods, low borders of streams, etc., except among the hills of southern indiana, it is an occasional tree of the slopes. in favorable habitats it was a frequent to a common tree. its most constant associates are white elm, swamp white and red oak, linn, green and black ash, shellbark hickory, etc. it is sometimes called mossy-cup oak. =remarks.=--wood and uses similar to that of white oak. in point of number, size and value it ranks as one of the most valuable trees of the state. michaux[ ] says: "a tree three miles from troy, ohio, was measured that was fourteen feet and nine inches in diameter six feet above the ground. the trunk rises about fifty feet without limbs, and with scarcely a perceptible diminution in size." = a.= =quercus macrocarpa= var. =olivæfórmis= (michaux filius) gray. this variety is distinguished from the typical form by its shallow cup, and the long oval nut which is often cm. long. the cup is semi-hemispheric, and encloses the nut for about one-half its length. authentic specimens are at hand from wells county, and it has been reported from gibson and hamilton counties. no doubt this form has a wider range. = .= =quercus lyràta= walter. overcup oak. plate . medium sized trees; bark generally intermediate between that of the swamp white and bur oak; leaves on petioles - mm. long which are generally somewhat reddish toward the base, - cm. long, obovate or oblong-obovate, margins very irregularly divided into - short or long lobes, ascending and generally acute, ordinarily the three terminal lobes are the largest, base of leaves wedge-shape, or narrowly rounded, upper surface at maturity dark green and smooth, the under surface densely covered with a thick tomentum to which is added more or less long and single or fascicled straight hairs; when the leaves are as described on the under surface they are gray beneath; however, a form occurs which is yellow green beneath and has little or no tomentum, but is thickly covered with long single or fascicled straight hairs; acorn single or in pairs, on stalks generally about cm. long, sometimes the stalks are cm. long, the stalk lies in a plane at a right angle to the base of the acorn which is a characteristic of this species; nut depressed-globose, about . cm. long, generally almost completely enclosed in the cup, or sometimes enclosed only for about / its length; cup generally very thick at the base, gradually becoming thinner at the top, and often it splits open; scales tomentose on the back, those near the base, thick and tuberculate on the back and blunt, but those near the top of the cup are acute or long attenuate; kernel sweet. =distribution.=--maryland to missouri,[ ] and south to florida and west to texas. in indiana it is found only about river sloughs or deep swamps in the southwestern counties. at present it is known only from knox, gibson, posey and spencer counties. it was reported by nieuwland[ ] for marshall county on the authority of clark. this specimen was taken during a survey of lake maxinkuckee, and is deposited in the national museum. i have had the specimen examined by an authority, who reports that it is some other species. its habitat is that of areas that are inundated much of the winter season. it is so rare that its associates could not be learned. in one place it grew in a depression lower than a nearby pin oak, and in another place it grew in a depression in a very low woods, surrounded by sweet gum, big shell bark hickory, and pin oak. it is generally found singly in depressions, but it is a common tree on the low border of the west side of burnett's pond in gibson county. =remarks.=--wood and uses similar to that of white oak. in our area it is usually known as bur oak. [illustration: plate . quercus lyrata walter. overcup oak. (× / .) acorns from different trees.] = .= =quercus imbricària= michaux. shingle oak. plate . medium to large sized trees; leaves on petioles generally . - cm. long, - cm. long, elliptic to oblong-lanceolate, narrowed or rounded at the base, apex generally sharp-pointed and ending with a bristle, sometimes very wide leaves are blunt at the apex, margins entire, when they first appear the upper surface is somewhat woolly and the under surface whitish with a dense tomentum, soon glabrous and a dark green above, remaining more or less densely woolly or pubescent beneath; acorns sessile or nearly so, solitary or in pairs; nuts ovoid, about cm. long and enclosed for about / their length in the cup; cup rounded at the base; scales pubescent on the back and obtuse. =distribution.=--pennsylvania, michigan to nebraska, south to georgia and west to arkansas. found throughout indiana. it is essentially a tree of low ground, but it is sometimes found near the base of slopes, and in the knob area it is sometimes found on the crest of ridges. in all parts of indiana except the southwestern part it is found only locally and then usually in colonies of a few trees. in wells county, i know of only two trees located at the base of a slope bordering a pond in jackson township. in the southwestern part of the state it is frequent to a common tree in its peculiar habitat. it appears that when drainage basins decrease in size, and leave sandy river bottoms, and bordering low sand dunes, that the shingle oak is the first oak to occupy the area. on the sand ridges it is crowded out by the black, black jack and post oaks. in the bottoms it is succeeded by pin, schneck's, spanish, swamp white and post oaks. special notes were made on its distribution on a trip through gibson, pike, daviess, greene and sullivan counties, going from francisco northward through the patoka bottoms where in many places it forms pure stands. usually in situations a little higher than the pin oak zone. thence eastward to winslow and then north to sandy hook in daviess county, thence north to washington, montgomery, odon, newberry, lyons, marco and sullivan. in its habitat all along this route it was a frequent to a very common tree. a few miles northeast of montgomery is a small area which a pioneer informed me was originally a prairie. typical prairie plants are yet found along the roadside and fences in the area. i was informed that the shingle oak was the only species found on the area, and on the border of the area. it is believed the mass distribution of the species was in the area indicated by the preceding route. both east and west of this area the species becomes less frequent. =remarks.=--wood similar to red oak, but much inferior. evidently it is rather a slow growing tree, but it might find a use as a shade or ornamental tree in sandy habitats where the pin oak would not thrive. it is also called black oak, peach oak, jack oak and water oak. [illustration: plate . quercus imbricaria michaux. shingle oak. (× / .)] = .= =quercus rùbra= linnæus. [_quercus maxima_ (marshall) ashe of some recent authors]. red oak. plate . large trees; winter buds ovoid, pointed, reddish, outer scales glabrous, sometimes pubescent on the edges; twigs soon smooth and reddish; leaves on petioles . - cm. long, - cm. long, oval to oblong-obovate, broadly wedge-shape or truncate at the base, the margins divided by wide or narrow sinuses generally into - lobes, sometimes as many as , the lobes not uniform in size or shape, lobes broadest at the base and ending generally in - bristle points, pubescent above and below at first, soon becoming smooth at maturity and a dark green above, paler and yellowish-green beneath and smooth or with tufts of tomentum in the axils of the veins; acorns solitary or in pairs, sessile or on very short stalks; nuts ovoid, flat at the base, and rounded at the apex, - cm. long, enclosed for about / their length in the shallow cup; cups - cm. in diameter, thick, saucer-shape, flat or only slightly rounded at the base; scales ovate, blunt, appressed, and pubescent on the back; kernel somewhat bitter, eaten by hogs and cattle, but not relished by wild animals. =distribution.=--nova scotia to minnesota, south to florida and west to texas. found throughout indiana, although local in the knob area. its preferred habitat is that of moist, rich and fairly well drained woods. it does not thrive in situations that are inundated much of the winter season such as the pin oak will endure. in the southern part of the state, especially in the flats it is frequently found on the high bluffs of streams and very large forest trees are frequent on a dry wooded slope of ten acres, on the davis farm four miles south of salem. in a congenial habitat it was a frequent to a common tree, although such a thing as nearly a pure stand would never be met with, such as was often formed by the white, black, shingle or pin oak. =remarks.=--wood hard, heavy, strong, close-grained, but not as good as white oak in any of its mechanical qualities. commercially all of the biennial oaks are usually considered as red oak. the true red oak, however, is generally considered the best of all the biennial oaks. until recently, when white oak became scarce, red oak was not in much demand, and was used principally for construction material. now it is substituted in many places for white oak, and the uses now are in a great measure the same as those of white oak. the red oak grows rapidly, and is able to adapt itself to many soil conditions. it has been used in european countries for two centuries for shade and ornamental planting. it reproduces easily by planting the acorns, and should receive attention by woodlot owners as a suitable species for reinforcing woodlands, or in general forest planting. [illustration: plate . quercus rubra linnæus. red oak. (× / .) acorns from different trees.] = .= =quercus palústris= du roi. pin oak. plate . medium to large trees with very tight bark, the furrows shallow and generally wide; twigs at first pubescent, soon becoming smooth and reddish-brown; leaves on petioles generally - cm. long, blades about - cm. long, usually about / as wide, sometimes as wide as long, ovate to obovate in outline, narrowed to broadly truncate at the base, the margins divided into - lobes by deep and wide sinuses, except leaves that grow in the shade, the sinus cuts the blade to more than half way to the midrib, the lobes are widest at the base, or sometimes widest near the apex, the lobes usually somewhat toothed or lobed and end in - bristle tips, leaves hairy when they first appear, soon becoming glabrate and a glossy dark green above, a paler green beneath and smooth except tufts of hairs in the axils of the principal veins; acorns sessile or nearly so, single or in clusters; nuts subglobose or ovoid, generally - mm. long, the ovoid form somewhat smaller, covered about / their length by the shallow cups; cups saucer-shape and generally flat on the bottom, those with the ovoid nuts are rounded on the bottom; scales pubescent on the back, and rounded or blunt at the apex. =distribution.=--massachusetts, southwestern ontario, michigan to iowa and south to virginia and west to oklahoma. found in every county of indiana. it is found only in wet situations where it is a frequent to a common tree. it prefers a hard compact clay soil with little drainage hence is rarely met with on the low borders of lakes where the soil is principally organic matter. =remarks.=--wood similar to red oak, but much inferior to it. it is tardy in the natural pruning of its lower branches, and when the dead branches break off they usually do so at some distance from the trunk. the stumps of the dead branches which penetrate to the center of the tree have given it the name of pin oak. it is also sometimes called water oak, and swamp oak. for street and ornamental planting it is one of the most desirable oaks to use. it is adapted to a moist soil, grows rapidly, and produces a dense shade. when grown in the open it develops a pyramidal crown. the nut of this species always has a depressed form, except a tree or two in wells county which produce ovate nuts which are cone-pointed, and in bulk about half the size of the ordinary form. this form should be looked for to ascertain its area of distribution. [illustration: plate . quercus palustris muenchhausen. (× / .) acorns from different trees. those on the left the common form, those on the right the rare form.] [illustration: plate . quercus schneckii britton. schneck's oak. (× / .) specimens from type tree.] = .= =quercus schnéckii= britton. schneck's oak. plate . large trees; bark somewhat intermediate between pin and red oak; twigs gray by autumn; winter buds large, about . cm. long, ovoid, glabrous and gray; leaves on petioles - cm. long, blades generally - cm. long, generally truncate at the base, sometimes wedge-shaped, leaves ovate to obovate in outline, divided into - lobes, by deep rounded and wide sinuses, the sinuses cutting the blade to more than half way to the midrib, except the leaves of lower branches that grow in the shade, the lobes variable in shape and size, usually the lowest are the shortest and smaller, the middle the longest and largest, the lobes are sometimes widest at the base, and sometimes widest at the apex, the end of the lobes are more or less toothed or lobed; the leaves at maturity are bright green, glossy and smooth above, a paler and yellow green and smooth beneath except tufts of hairs in the axils of the principal veins; acorns solitary or in pairs, usually on stalks about . cm. long; nuts ovoid, sometimes broadly so, or oblong, broad and flat or slightly convex at base, usually . - cm. long, enclosed in the cup from / - / their length; cups flat or convex at the base: scales generally pubescent on the back, gray or with a reddish tip on those of the lower wabash valley, or reddish gray and with margins more or less red of trees of the upper wabash valley. =distribution.=--in indiana this species has been reported only from wells, bartholomew, vermillion, knox, gibson and posey counties. this species was not separated from our common red oak until after all of the local floras of indiana had been written, and it may have a much wider range than is at present known. in wells county it is the prevailing "red oak" of the county, and no doubt is distributed throughout the wabash valley. in this area it is associated with all moist ground species. in the lower wabash valley, especially in gibson, knox and posey counties it is associated with spanish, pin, and shingle oaks, sweet gum, etc. several trees were noted in knox county in little cypress swamp where it was associated with cypress, pin oak, white elm, red maple and swell-butt ash. =remarks.=--this anomalous red oak has a range from indiana to texas. when the attention of authors was directed to it, several new species were the result. later authors are not agreed as to whether this form, which has such a wide range and hence liable to show considerable variation within such a long range, is one or several species. c. s. sargent who for years has studied this form throughout its range has seen the author's specimens and calls those with shallow cups typical or nearly typical _quercus shumardii_ buckley[ ] and those with the deep cups _quercus shumardii_ variety _schneckii_ (britton) sargent. the writer has made rather an intensive study of the forms in wells county and in the lower wabash valley and has not been able to satisfy himself that, allowing for a reasonable variation, there is even a varietal difference in indiana forms. the description has been drawn to cover all of the forms of indiana. dr. j. schneck of mt. carmel, illinois, was one of the first to discover that this form was not our common red oak, and when he called dr. britton's attention to it, dr. britton named it _quercus schneckii_ in honor of its discoverer. = .= =quercus ellipsoidàlis.= e. j. hill. hill's oak. plate . medium sized trees; inner bark yellowish; twigs pubescent at first, becoming smooth and reddish brown by autumn; leaves on petioles - cm. long, ovate to slightly obovate or nearly orbicular in outline, - cm. long, wedge-shape or, truncate at the base, margin divided into - long lobes by wide sinuses which usually extend to more than half way to the midrib, sinuses rounded at the base, lobes broadest at the base or the apex, ending in - bristle points, leaves at first pubescent, both above and below, soon becoming glabrous above, and smooth beneath except tufts of hairs in the axils of the principal veins; acorns nearly sessile or on short stalks, single or in pairs; nuts oval to oblong, - mm. long, enclosed for / - / their length in the cup; scales obtuse, light reddish-brown, pubescent on the back; kernel pale yellow and bitter. =distribution.=--northwestern indiana to manitoba and south to iowa. in indiana it has been reported only from lake and porter counties by hill, and from white county by heimlich. according to hill, who has made the most extensive study of the distribution of this species in our area, the tree is found on sandy and clayey uplands, and in moist sandy places. it closely resembles the pin oak for which it has been mistaken. it also resembles the black and scarlet oaks. we have very little data on the range or distribution of the species in this state. = .= =quercus velùtina= lamarck. black oak. plate . medium to large sized trees; inner bark yellow or orange; leaves on petioles - cm. long, ovate oblong or obovate, very variable in outline and in size, those of young trees and coppice shoots being very large, those of mature trees usually - cm. long, wedge-shape or truncate at the base, the margin divided into - lobes by wide and usually deep sinuses which are rounded at the base, the lobes variable in shape and size, the terminals of many of the lobes toothed or slightly lobed and ending in one or more bristles, leaves pubescent on both sides at first, soon becoming smooth, glossy and a dark green above; leaves of fruiting branches usually smooth beneath except the tufts of brown hairs in the axils of the principal veins, or rarely more or less pubescent over the whole under surface, the under surface of leaves of sterile branches and young trees usually are the most pubescent beneath, the leaves of some trees are much like those of the scarlet oak, but on the whole are larger; acorns sessile or nearly so, single or in pairs; nuts ovoid, oblong or subglobose, . - cm. long, enclosed for about half their length in the cup-shaped cup; scales light-brown, densely pubescent on the back, obtuse, loose above the middle of the cup; kernel bitter. [illustration: plate . quercus ellipsoidalis e. j. hill. hill's oak. (× / .) specimens from type tree.] [illustration: plate . quercus velutina lamarck. black oak. (× / .)] =distribution.=--maine, southern ontario, southern minnesota, southern nebraska south to florida and west to texas. found throughout indiana. it was no doubt found in every county or nearly every county of the state. it of course would be a rare tree throughout the rich black loam soils of the central indiana counties. the black oak is confined to the poorer soils of the state, such as clay and gravelly ridges, sand dunes, sand ridges, and the hills of southern indiana that are not covered with beech or white oak. it is a frequent to a common tree in the southwestern part of the state in the bottom lands where it is associated with schneck's, shingle, and post oaks. in the northern part of the state it is generally associated with the white oak and if the soil is very poor it will form almost pure stands. on the poor ridges of southern indiana it is generally associated with the white, and scarlet oaks, and invades habitats still poorer which are occupied by post, black jack, or chestnut oaks. wherever the black oak is found it is generally more than a frequent tree and is usually a common tree or forms the principal stand. while the black is not so uniformly distributed over the state as the white oak, yet in point of numbers it nearly equals it, or may even exceed it. in floyd and harrison counties are certain small areas which were known to the early settlers as the "barrens." these areas were treeless. they were covered with a growth of some sort of oak which the natives call "scrub" oak, hazel, and wild plum. the height of the growth in any part would "not hide a man on horse back." these areas are now all under cultivation, and are no longer distinguished from the forested areas. however, many parts of the barrens are now covered with forests, but these forests are a complete stand of black oak. last year one of these areas was cut off, and the age of the trees were ascertained to be about years old. the barrens of southern indiana and adjacent states offer a good problem for ecologists. =remarks.=--wood similar to that of red oak, but often much inferior. the uses of the best grades of black oak are practically the same as red oak. where the black and scarlet oaks are associated, the scarlet oak is rarely separated from it. the two species superficially much resemble each other. the black oak is always easily distinguished by cutting into the inner bark which is yellow, while that of scarlet oak is gray or reddish. the inner bark imparts a yellow color to spittle, and the scarlet does not. when mature fruiting branches are at hand they may be separated by the appearance of the acorns. the scales of the cups of the black oak are dull, and loosely imbricated near the top while those of the scarlet oak are rather glossy and closely imbricated. the scales of the scarlet oak, however, become somewhat loose after the acorn has matured, and fallen for some time. this species is sometimes called yellow oak. since the chinquapin oak is also often called yellow oak, it is best to always call this species black oak. = .= =quercus coccínea= muenchhausen. scarlet oak. plate . medium sized trees with bark resembling the black oak, inner bark gray or reddish; twigs reddish by autumn; winter buds reddish-brown and pubescent; leaves on petioles . - cm. long, broadly oval to obovate, blades - cm. long, truncate or wedge-shape at the base, the blade divided into - lobes by deep and wide sinuses which cut the blade more than half the distance to the midrib, sinuses rounded at the base, the lobes variable in size and shape, usually the lowest are the shortest and smallest, the middle lobes the largest and longest, the lobes widest either at the base or the apex, the terminal part toothed or lobed, the terminal lobe generally -lobed or -toothed, both surfaces of the leaves at first pubescent, soon smooth and a dark glossy green above, and paler and smooth beneath except tufts of hairs in the axils of the principal veins; acorns sessile or nearly so, solitary or in pairs; nuts ovoid to oblong, . - cm. long, enclosed for about half their length in the thick cup-shape cup; scales triangular but blunt, closely appressed, pubescent on the back except the center which is generally elevated and smooth and shiny, giving the cup a glossy appearance which easily separates it from its nearest ally the black oak whose cup is a dull, ash or reddish gray color; kernel white within, and less bitter than the black oak. =distribution.=--maine, southern ontario to southern nebraska, south to north carolina, alabama and arkansas. it has been reported for the northwest counties and the southern part of indiana, but we have no records for the east-central portion of the state. clark reports it as common about winona lake, but does not report _quercus velutina_ which is a common tree of the vicinity, and it is believed that clark has confused the two species. in the northern part of the state its habitat is that of sand and gravel ridges associated with black oak. in the hill part of southern indiana it is intimately associated with the black oak on the poorer ridges. we have no authentic records for the southwestern counties. the author has schneck's specimens on which the record for gibson and posey county was based. i determined the specimens as belonging to the spanish oak, and william trelease verified the determination. i have no doubt that scarlet oak occurred on the sand ridges of that area. [illustration: plate . quercus coccinea muenchhausen. scarlet oak. (× / .)] in the northern part of the state it is a rare or infrequent tree, while in favorable habitats in the hill country of the southern part of the state it is a frequent to a common tree. =remarks.=--wood similar but much inferior to red oak. the cut in this state is marketed as black oak, from which it is rarely separated. = .= =quercus falcàta= michaux. spanish oak. plate . large trees; bark thick, rather deeply fissured, furrows usually narrow, ridges generally broad and broken into short lengths, the outer bark is reddish, except sometimes it becomes grayish by weathering; twigs densely pubescent at first, remaining more or less pubescent during the first year, or becoming smooth or nearly so and a reddish brown by autumn; leaves on petioles . - cm. long, ordinarily about - cm. long, blades very variable in outline, ovate, ovate-oblong or obovate, usually somewhat curved, wedge-shaped, rounded or truncate at the base, shallow or deeply lobed, generally about / of the distance to the midrib; lobes - , commonly - , the number, size and shape of the lobes exceedingly variable, the longest lateral lobes are generally near the middle of the leaf, sometimes the lowest pair, sometimes the upper pair are the longest, terminal lobe triangular or oblong, generally widest at the base, although frequently widest at the apex, lateral lobes widest at the base and gradually becoming narrower, towards the apex, rarely somewhat wider at the apex, generally somewhat curved, lobes generally sharp-pointed, sometimes wide-angled or rounded at the apex, margins of lobes entire, wavy, toothed or lobed, sinuses wide and rounded at the base; leaves densely pubescent on both surfaces at first, gradually becoming smooth and dark green above by autumn, the under surface remaining covered with a tomentum which is grayish or yellowish; acorns sessile or nearly so, solitary or in pairs; nuts broadly ovoid, generally - mm. long, broadly rounded at the base, rounded at the apex, enclosed about one-half their length by the cup; cups strongly convex at the base; scales blunt, grayish and pubescent on their backs, their margins reddish and generally smooth. =distribution.=--new jersey and missouri, south to florida and west to texas. the known distribution in indiana would be that part of the state south of a line drawn from vincennes to north madison. it is local except in the southwestern counties. in our area it is found on both high and low ground. in jefferson and clark counties it is found only in the flats where it is associated with beech, sweet gum, pin oak, red maple and black gum. a colony was found in washington county on high ground, about eight miles southwest of salem associated with black and post oak. in harrison county about two miles southeast of corydon it was found on the crest of a ridge with white and black oak. in daviess county about four miles east of washington it is associated with black and post oak. in knox, gibson, pike and warrick counties it is local on sand ridges with black oak. it occurs in the greatest abundance in the river bottoms of gibson, posey and spencer counties, where it is generally associated with pin, schneck's, shingle, swamp white, black and post oaks, and sweet gum. in the last named counties it is fairly well distributed, and is a frequent to a common tree. brown's[ ] report for fountain county should not be recognized without a verifying specimen, since his list was compiled from a list of common names of the trees which he obtained. [illustration: plate . quercus falcata michaux. spanish oak. (× / .)] =remarks.=--wood and uses similar to that of red oak. in indiana it is all sold as red oak. in all parts of its range in indiana it is known as red or black oak. however, the best accepted common name of this species throughout its range is spanish oak, and since no other species is known by this name, it should be used for this species. the bark of this species varies considerably in color and tightness. the leaves are exceedingly variable in form. the leaves on the same tree will vary from -lobed to -lobed. usually the lobing is deepest in the leaves nearest the top of the tree. leaves of small trees, coppice shoots, and of the lower branches of some trees are often all or for the greater part -lobed. the color of the pubescence of the lower surface of the leaves varies from a gray to a yellow-gray. the variations have lead authors to divide this polymorphic species into several species and varieties. the author has included all the forms that occur in indiana under one name. this species is variously known as _quercus digitata_, _quercus triloba_, _quercus pagodaefolia_, and by the most recent authors as _quercus pagoda_ and _quercus rubra_ and its varieties. specimens in the author's collection from jefferson county were reported by sargent[ ] as _quercus rubra_ var. _triloba_. = .= =quercus marilándica= muenchhausen. black jack oak. plate . mature trees generally - cm. in diameter; bark resembles that of a gnarled black oak; twigs generally scurvy-pubescent the first year; leaves on petioles from nearly sessile to . cm. long, usually less than a cm. long, blades - cm. long, broadly obovate, often almost as wide as long, narrowly rounded at the base, with three primary lobes at the apex, sometimes with two small lateral lobes, the apex is sometimes almost rounded and the position where the lobes usually occur is indicated by three primary veins which end in a bristle, the apex of the leaf is generally about equally divided into three lobes by two very shallow rounded sinuses, the lobes are rounded or merely acute; sometimes the terminal lobes develop a secondary lobe, leaves very pubescent both above and beneath when they first appear, becoming smooth and glossy above at maturity, and remaining more or less pubescent beneath; acorns sessile or nearly so, single or in pairs; nuts ovoid or oblong, - . cm. long, broadly rounded at the base, rounded or somewhat conic at the apex, enclosed for about half their length in the cup-shaped cup; scales blunt, not closely appressed, pubescent on back, light reddish-brown; kernel bitter. [illustration: plate . quercus marilandica muenchhausen. black jack oak. (× / .)] =distribution.=--new york to nebraska, south to florida and west to texas. in indiana it is known to the author from sullivan, greene and clark counties and southwestward. it has been reported from jefferson county by barnes which is no doubt correct. doubtful records are those by brown for fountain county, miami county by gorby, and phinney's report for the area of delaware, jay, randolph and wayne counties. it has been reported for the vicinity of chicago by higley and raddin. it may be local on sterile, sandy ridges of the northern part of the state, but very local if it does occur. it is generally found in very poor soil on the crest of ridges associated with black and post oak. however, it has been found in greene, sullivan and knox counties on sand ridges and at the base of sand ridges associated with black and post oak. the species has a very limited mass distribution and is only occasionally found and in colonies of a few trees each. =remarks.=--trees too small and scarce to be of any economic importance. ulmÀceae. the elm family. trees or shrubs with simple, alternate, -ranked, petioled leaves; sepals - , petals none, stamens as many as the sepals and opposite them, stigmas . branchlets with solid pith; leaves with primary veins parallel; flowers borne on the twigs of the preceding season ulmus. branchlets with chambered pith at the nodes; leaves -veined at the base; flowers borne on the twigs of the season celtis. . Úlmus. the elms. trees with furrowed bark; leaves short petioled, with lateral veins prominent and parallel, oblique or unequally heart-shaped at the base, taper-pointed at the apex, mostly double-serrate; flowers of indiana species expanding before the leaves in march or april; fruit a samara surrounded with a wide membranous margin, maturing in the spring. inner bark mucilaginous; leaves very rough above; flowers nearly sessile; fruit not ciliate u. fulva. inner bark not mucilaginous; leaves smooth or somewhat rough above; flowers on slender pedicils; fruit ciliate. branches without corky wings; sides of samara glabrous u. americana. branches (at least some of them) with corky wings; at least one side of the samara pubescent. buds ovate, not twice as long as wide, obtuse, or short-pointed, dark brown; scales pubescent and ciliate; leaves usually not twice as long as wide, base of petiole glabrous beneath; calyx lobes - u. thomasi. buds small, narrow, twice as long as wide, very sharp-pointed, light brown; scales glabrous or merely puberulent; leaves usually twice as long as wide, base of petiole pubescent all around u. alata. = . ulmus fúlva= michaux. slippery elm. red elm. plate . fairly large trees with deeply fissured reddish-brown bark without white streaks between the layers of the ridges, twigs very pubescent and green at first, becoming gray or reddish-brown at the end of the season and remaining more or less pubescent for a year or more; buds ovate, a very dark reddish brown, the scales more or less pubescent; leaves ovate, oval or slightly obovate, average blades - cm. long, hairy on both surfaces at first, remaining more or less pubescent beneath until maturity, and becoming very rough above with a few scattered hairs remaining, fragrant when dried, fragrance remaining for years; fruit ripening the last of april or the first of may before or with the unfolding of the leaves; samara orbicular or obovate, usually longer than wide, average size - mm. long and - mm. wide, the margin as wide or wider than the seed, margin glabrous, seed densely pubescent on both sides; wood hard, strong, light when well seasoned and not warping as badly as white elm. =distribution.=--quebec south to florida, west to texas, nebraska and north dakota. found in all parts of indiana. in the prairies or in the "flats" it may be absent in one or more contiguous counties and may be entirely absent on the crests and upper slopes of ridges. it prefers a moist well drained soil, and where it is found it is usually a frequent to a common tree, although rarely is it found as a very common tree. it is usually associated with sugar maple, beech, white ash, linn, tulip, white oak, etc. =remarks.=--this tree usually is from - dm. in diameter and tall for its diameter. however, larger trees occur. in the ind. geol. rept. : : mention is made of a tree in jackson county that was " feet in circumference." the uses of the wood are similar to that of white elm. the inner bark collected in spring is much used in medicine under the name of slippery elm. [illustration: plate . ulmus fulva michaux. red or slippery elm. (× / .)] = . ulmus americàna= linnæus. white elm. plate . large trees; bark deeply fissured, gray, the ridges showing white streaks between the layers; twigs more or less hairy at first and usually becoming glabrous by the end of the season; buds ovate, acute and glabrous; leaves ovate, oval or obovate, average blades - cm. long, hairy on both sides on expanding, becoming at maturity glabrous above and smooth or rough, sometimes very rough on vigorous young shoots, remaining pubescent beneath, rarely glabrous; fruit ripening before or as the leaves unfold, generally oval in shape, about cm. long, both surfaces glabrous, margins about as wide as the seed and fringed with hairs; wood hard, tough, flexible, generally hard to split, warps badly in seasoning. =distribution.=--quebec to florida, west to texas and nebraska. found throughout indiana, and doubtless in every county. it is frequent to common or very common on the flood plains of streams, in wet woods and in low ground generally. =remarks.=--this species is also called water elm, swamp elm, gray elm, bitter elm, sour elm and in southwestern counties it is often called red elm. in perry county it is often called hub elm. it is generally known as "elm" and when this term is used, it refers to this species. the wood has a very wide range of uses. the greatest amount has been used for hoops, staves and heading. large quantities have been used in the manufacture of agricultural implements, hubs, furniture, basket handles, etc. white elm is usually considered very difficult to split, but i was informed by a pioneer timber cutter that the heart wood of the veterans of the forest splits as well as oak, and that he worked many a tree up into staves. he told me that he made into staves a tree in paulding county, ohio, that was eight feet in diameter at the stump. there is little attempt being made by woodlot owners to propagate this tree. however, the natural propagation of the species is probably greater than any other species because it produces seed at an early age, and culls of the forest are not cut because they are not good for fuel which leaves them to produce seed. then the seed are light, and are scattered to great distances by the wind and water. it is propagated very easily from seedlings. the tree when grown in the open has a tendency to be bushy and unless it is given some pruning will have a very short clear trunk. it has always been regarded as one of the best species for shade tree planting. for beauty of form it is not excelled by any tree for shade or ornamental planting. however, it has several insect enemies that require spraying to keep them under control. [illustration: plate . ulmus americana linnæus. white elm. (× / .)] = . ulmus thomási= sargent. hickory elm. rock elm. plate . large trees; bark deeply fissured and grayish like the bark of the white elm; twigs light brown, generally densely hairy and remaining more or less pubescent until the end of the season or later, the twigs of some specimens are glabrous or only slightly hairy at first and soon become glabrous and somewhat glaucous, after the first year some of the branchlets begin to develop - corky ridges from a few millimeters to or mm. in thickness, the ridges are wide and rounded at the top, dark gray, brown and discontinuous, rarely a corky ridge will appear on a branchlet the first year; leaves oval or obovate, average blades - cm. long, at maturity glabrous and smooth or rough to very rough above, permanently pubescent beneath especially on the veins; fruit ripens late in may or early in june when the leaves are from / to / grown; samara oval, usually . - cm. long, oblique at the base, with a beak - mm. long at the apex, both faces pubescent, wing about as wide as the seed; wood hard heavy, strong, flexible, uses the same as white elm. =distribution.=--southern quebec and ontario south to northern new jersey and west to minnesota and missouri. the distribution in indiana has not been studied. the frequency of its occurrence is not known, and all of the known stations are given. the published records are as follows: dearborn (collins); franklin (meyncke); hamilton (wilson); jefferson (barnes) and (deam); noble (vangorder); parke (hobbs); st. joseph (nieuwland); steuben (bradner); wayne (petry and markle); wells (deam). additional records are hendricks, noble, ripley, vermillion and wayne by deam. the published record for posey county by deam and schneck should be referred to _ulmus alata_. it prefers a well drained soil and is most frequently found near the base of the slope or on the top of flood plain banks of streams, in ravines, or in a habitat like a beech-sugar maple woods. it is reported to have been frequent in franklin, noble and wells counties. its appearance and habit of growth is so much like the white elm that it is not commonly distinguished from it, which accounts for the lack of definite knowledge of its range in our area. [illustration: plate . ulmus thomasi sargent. hickory or rock elm. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . ulmus alata michaux. winged elm. (× / .)] = . ulmus alàta= michaux. winged elm. plate . small to medium sized trees; bark rather closely fissured, grayish or reddish-brown, in appearance like white elm; twigs hairy at first, generally remaining more or less pubescent throughout the season, rarely becoming entirely glabrous before the end of the season, a light brown gradually becoming a gray-brown; branchlets usually begin to develop two thin narrow corky ridges, becoming by the end of the second year - mm. thick, the year's growth of corky layer a light brown, the older layers a darker brown, the two main corky ridges are on opposite sides of the twigs, and between these there are generally additional corky excrescences, especially on the older branches; leaves oblong-lanceolate or oval, some somewhat falcate, average blades - cm. long, pubescent on both sides on unfolding, becoming at maturity glabrous or nearly so above, some are rough above at maturity, remaining pubescent until maturity beneath; petioles short, generally - mm. long, rarely mm. or longer; fruit ripening before or with the unfolding of the leaves; samara - mm. long, pubescent on both faces. =distribution.=--virginia west through southern indiana to southern missouri, south to the gulf and west to texas. in indiana it is confined to the southwestern part of the state. gorby's report for miami should be ignored. it has been reported as far north as vigo and monroe counties by blatchley, and as far east as clark county by baird and taylor. the author has collected it in crawford, dubois, martin, orange, perry, posey, spencer and warrick counties. the tree has two rather distinct habitats. in the hill counties it is found on the sides of cliffs, steep slopes or on the top of the ridges with such species as the black, chestnut and scarlet oaks and chestnut. in this habitat it is usually a small scrubby tree with an excessive number of side branches. such specimens usually have the corky ridges well developed on all of the branches and the tree presents a weird appearance. the second habitat is in the hard clay flats of the southwestern counties. in warrick county along big pigeon creek west of boonville i measured a specimen dm. in circumference and i estimated the clear bole at m. it was associated with sweet gum, black gum, white elm, red birch, red oak, etc. it is found throughout this county both in the "flats" and on the sandy ridges. in posey county it is a frequent tree in the low woods about miles southwest of mt. vernon. in these woods it acquires a diameter of - dm. and is associated with post oak, spanish oak, sweet gum, shingle oak, etc. it is to be noted that specimens that grow in these conditions and those that acquire a large size do not develop such conspicuous corky branches. a large tree over dm. in diameter was noted in the eastern part of gibson county growing in low sandy soil which was destitute of corky branches so far as could be seen from the ground. all of the branches examined were free from corky ridges, and only a few corky excrescences were present. the specimen could easily be identified by the leaves. another large tree dm. in circumference in a black oak woods miles south of marengo in crawford county was also free from corky ridges. this is an interesting tree and requires further study to establish its range in indiana and to learn its habits. in jasper, indiana, it is a frequent shade tree. no doubt the trees were obtained from a nearby woods along the patoka river where this species is known to occur. = . cÉltis.= the hackberries. trees with pith of branchlets chambered; flowers in indiana species appear before the leaves, the leaves generally with primary veins at the base; staminate flowers usually in clusters, the pistillate solitary or few together in the axils of the leaves, and near the end of the twigs; fruit a globose drupe, sometimes elongated, pulp thin and sweet, frequently remaining on the tree until late winter, relished by birds; stone bony, wrinkled. some of the american species of hackberry are very variable. the habitat of the species varies from deep swamps to arid rocky slopes. in fact, a single species as now understood may have a variable habitat. the following variations may be noted on the same tree or on different trees of the same species. the twigs may be glabrous, or pubescent; the leaves may vary in size, shape and texture, leaf margin, and in the roughness or smoothness of the surfaces; the petioles may be smooth or hairy; the pedicels may be glabrous or pubescent, shorter or longer than the petioles; the fruit also varies in shape. leaves have been seen on the same tree which were smooth above, while others were quite rough above, the difference being due to the exposure to light. the original descriptions of the species are too short to sufficiently characterize the species, which adds to the confusion. however, c. s. sargent[ ] has recently revised the species and varieties of our area. prof. sargent has examined and named all of my material for me. mr. b. f. bush, who has extensively studied the hackberries in the field, also has examined my specimens. the writer has paid special attention to the hackberries of the state for the past few years and is still in doubt as to the status of the species that occur in the state. since i am not following the determinations made by sargent and bush, and am following the nomenclature of the first edition, i regard the present treatment as tentative only. margins of all the leaves sharply serrate all around except at base; nutlets - mm. long c. occidentalis. margins of leaves of fruiting branches generally entire, or some with a few teeth on one side or with a few teeth on both sides; margins of the leaves of vegetative branches and shoots similar to those of fruiting branches or with the margins serrate nearly all around; nutlets - mm. long. leaves of a rather broad ovate type; mature fruit a dark cherry-red; usually shrubs, sometimes very small trees, of a dry habitat c. pumila. leaves of an ovate-lanceolate type; mature fruit a light cherry-red; medium-sized trees of a wet habitat c. mississippiensis. [illustration: plate . celtis occidentalis linnæus. hackberry. (x / .)] = . celtis occidentàlis= linnæus. hackberry. plate . medium to large-sized trees; bark of old trees irregularly furrowed, sometimes some of the surface warty and rough; twigs smooth or pubescent, the fruiting ones generally smooth; leaves of an ovate type on petioles . - cm. long, the blades of fruiting twigs - cm. long, those of vegetative twigs sometimes larger, oblique or slightly cordate at base, gradually tapering to a point at apex, or long acuminate at the apex, often becoming thick at maturity, especially those exposed to full sunlight, generally smooth above at maturity, especially those of fruiting twigs, or sometimes rough, especially those of vegetative branchlets or those growing in the shade, the under surface more or less pubescent along the veins at maturity; fruit matures in late autumn, very dark red, sometimes appearing almost black, globose or somewhat oblong, generally about - mm. in diameter, borne on pedicels which are longer or up to twice as long as the petioles; the pedicels which are always ascending are straight or somewhat curved upwards; nutlets globose, a little longer than wide. =distribution.=--valley of the st. lawrence river, southern ontario, to north dakota, and south to the gulf states and west to texas. more or less frequent along streams throughout the state, except in the hilly counties of the southern part of the state. it is always found in moist soil, except in the hilly counties where it may be found on wooded slopes or on high rocky bluffs bordering streams. in all of our area the species is practically confined to drainage basins, and is generally close to streams. =remarks.=--the wood is yellowish-white and before seasoning very much resembles ash for which it was generally sold. it has good bending qualities and is now much sought after for hoops. it was formerly often known as hoop ash. the supply is now becoming scarce, but when bought sells for the same price as good white elm. some writers include under the name _celtis occidentalis_ only those forms which are small trees and have ovate, short-pointed leaves. this type of tree has not been found in indiana. the form with long acuminate pointed leave which is the common form in our area, is regarded as a variety of _celtis occidentalis_. trees having the upper surface of the leaves very rough are called _celtis crassifolia_ lamarck, or are merely regarded as a variety of _celtis occidentalis_. this form is found throughout our area. the hackberry is sometimes used as a shade tree. it can scarcely be recommended because its leaves and twigs are often affected by galls which detract from its appearance. [illustration: plate . celtis pumila var. deamii sargent. dwarf hackberry. (× / .)] = . celtis pùmila= (muhlenberg) pursh. dwarf hackberry. plate . bark thin, smooth and gray on shrub-like forms, warty or deeply fissured on the larger forms; ridges flat and broken, dark gray-brown; twigs at first hairy, becoming smooth or nearly so by autumn; leaves of an ovate type, broadly-ovate, oblong-ovate to narrow ovate, on petioles . - . cm. long, blades of fruiting branchlets - cm. long, those of sterile twigs sometimes larger, oblique, rounded or somewhat cordate at the base, taper-pointed, sometimes acuminate at the apex, margins entire or with a few teeth usually about or above the middle, becoming thick and smooth above at maturity, sometimes rough, especially on vigorous shoots, generally somewhat pubescent along the veins beneath; fruit matures late in the autumn, usually an orange or light cherry color late in summer, becoming a very dark cherry color late in the autumn, globose to ellipsoidal, on pedicels about as long as the petioles; sometimes the pedicels are shorter but usually about one-half longer; pedicels generally ascending, rarely recurved, when recurved the pedicels are short. =distribution.=--pennsylvania to northern illinois, south to florida and west to arkansas. local in indiana. it has been collected by the writer in lake county near the mouth of the grand calumet river where it was collected by e. j. hill who has given us the most detailed account of this species.[ ] also collected on a high, gravelly hill on the east side of hog-back lake, steuben county; on a rocky wooded slope in hamar's hollow southeast of mitchell in lawrence county; on a "knob" in floyd county; on a rocky wooded slope near big spring in washington county; frequent on a rocky wooded slope near the ohio river east of elizabeth in harrison county; on the bank of blue river near milltown in crawford county; and in perry county along the bluffs of the ohio river about six miles east of cannelton, and also on the crest of a ridge about six miles southwest of derby. it has also been reported by nieuwland for clark in marshall county. =remarks.=--this species is usually a small shrub, and usually bears fruit when only . - meters ( or feet) tall. only a few trees have been seen that were cm. ( inches) in diameter. the small size at which this species fruits, easily distinguishes it from other species in our area. its habitat also serves to distinguish it. along lake michigan it grows on the dry sand dunes, and in southern indiana it grows on dry rocky slopes. sargent who has examined all of my specimens credits indiana with the typical species, and separates from it a form which he calls _celtis pumila_ variety _deamii_[ ]. this variety is based upon my no. , , and the type specimen has been photographed to illustrate this species. the writer is not able to separate the two forms in our area, and believes that all belong either to _celtis pumila_ or to the new variety. = . celtis mississippiénsis= bosc. (_celtis laevigata_ willdenow). sugarberry. hackberry. plate . medium sized trees with the bark of the trunk of large trees irregularly covered with wart-like excrescences, rarely somewhat irregularly fissured, bark of the upper part of trunk and larger branches resembling that of the beech; leaves of an ovate-lanceolate type, as a whole narrower than the preceding species; on petioles - mm. long, blades of fruiting twigs - cm. long, usually rounded at the base, sometimes oblique, slightly cordate or somewhat narrowed at the base, usually gradually long-taper pointed at apex, margins generally entire, rarely a few teeth toward the apex, green on both surfaces, generally mature leaves are smooth above and below, more rarely somewhat rough above, and with some pubescence along the veins beneath; fruit in late summer an orange red color, gradually becoming darker until late autumn when it becomes red; pedicels shorter or longer than the petioles, usually slightly longer and ascending, fruit nearly globose, a trifle smaller than the preceding, and about two-thirds as large as the first. =distribution.=--virginia, southern indiana, missouri, eastern kansas, south to the gulf states and west to texas. in indiana it is confined to the southwestern counties. it is now known to definitely occur in sullivan, gibson, posey, warrick and spencer counties. two trees were noted also, in the muscatatuck bottoms near delany creek in washington county. a "single bush about eight feet high" was reported from jefferson county by young. this may have been the preceding species. it was also reported by haymond from franklin county. =remarks.=--with one exception all the specimens of this species have been found in very low ground. usually it is associated with such low ground species as pecan, sweet gum, swell-butt ash, and the cane. one very peculiar specimen was found on the crest of a ridge about seven miles north of salem in washington county. it was a tree about fifteen feet tall, and had very narrow entire leaves. =morÀceae.= the mulberry family. trees or shrubs with a milky sap; leaves simple, alternate, petioled, - nerved at the base; fruit fleshy. branches without spines; leaves serrate; pistillate flowers in spikes morus. branches with spines; leaves entire; pistillate flowers in heads. maclura. [illustration: plate . celtis mississippiensis bosc. sugarberry. (× / .)] = . mÒrus.= the mulberries. trees with leaves -nerved at the base; flowers of two kinds on different branches of the same tree or on different trees; the staminate in long catkins, calyx -parted, petals none, stamens , the pistillate catkins short; fruit an aggregate of drupes. leaves softly pubescent beneath m. rubra. leaves glabrous beneath, or with a few hairs on the veins or in the axils m. alba. = . morus rùbra linnæus.= red mulberry. plate . medium sized trees with short trunks and round heads; twigs at first green and puberulent, soon becoming glabrous and later usually turning gray; leaves ovate or somewhat orbicular, frequently - lobed, average mature blades - cm. long, more or less cordate at the base, abruptly taper-pointed, rough and glabrous above and finely pubescent beneath; fruit ripening in june or july, . - cm. long, dark purple or nearly black, edible; wood light, soft, rather tough, coarse-grained, and durable in contact with the soil. =distribution.=--southern ontario west to eastern dakotas, south to the gulf states and west to texas. found throughout indiana, although there are no records for the extreme northwestern counties. throughout our area it must be regarded as infrequent. it is only here and there that you find a tree, and i have never seen it where there were even a small number of trees close together. in the northern part of the state it is usually found in a moist well drained soil, associated with trees such as beech and sugar maple, or in lower ground with slippery elm and linn. it has no particular affinity for streams. in the southern part of the state it is found in both rich and poor soils. however, it is most often met with near the base of slopes. =remarks.=--this tree seldom has a clear bole of more than - m. and is usually a tree about cm. in diameter, rarely as large as dm. in diameter, although there is a record[ ] of a tree in georgia that was " feet in diameter at feet above the ground." the wood has been a favorite for fence posts since pioneer times. it transplants easily. the fruit is a favorite with birds and for this reason it should be planted about orchards and in woodlots. it is sometimes called the red mulberry to distinguish it from the following species.[ ] [illustration: plate . morus rubra linnæus. red mulberry. (× / .)] = . maclÙra.= the osage orange. =maclura pomífera= (rafinesque) schneider. hedge. osage orange. (_toxylon pomiferum raf._) plate . trees with brown shreddy bark on old trees; mature twigs greenish gray, zigzag; spines about - mm. long; leaves ovate to oblong lanceolate, average blades - cm. long, wedge-shape, rounded or cordate at the base, long taper-pointed at the apex, margins entire, pubescent on both sides while young, becoming at maturity lustrous and glabrous above, remaining pubescent beneath; fruit globose, about dm. in diameter; wood heavy, very hard and strong, the most durable in contact with the soil of any of our post timbers. =distribution.=--missouri and kansas south to texas. introduced into indiana for hedge fences. there is some question as to the ability of this species to escape. i have heard that it frequently sends up root shoots at several feet from hedge fences, and that it frequently seeds itself along old hedge fences. for the past few years i have given the species especial attention and i have never seen it as an escape except in three instances. =remarks.=--this species was formerly much planted for farm fences, but since land has become so valuable, its use has been discontinued, and the old fences are being dug up. the tree grows a short trunk, and one was noted in grant county that was at least dm. in diameter that was estimated to be less than fifty years old. this species is subject to the san jose scale and in some localities it has been killed by it. it has been but little used for forest planting, and the plantations are not yet old enough to measure their success. [illustration: plate . maclura pomifera (rafinesque). schneider. osage orange. (× / .)] =magnoliÀceae.= the magnolia family. trees or shrubs with alternate and petioled leaves; flowers large, terminal and solitary with numerous stamens and pistils. buds silky white pubescent; leaves entire; fruit fleshy, dehiscent magnolia. buds glabrous; leaves lobed; fruit a cone of dry carpels, indehiscent liriodendron. = . magnÒlia.= the magnolias. =magnolia acuminàta= linnæus. cucumber tree. plate . large trees with furrowed bark which is gray and much resembles the tulip tree except the ridges are shallower and closer; twigs downy at first, becoming glabrous or nearly so and a light to a cherry brown by the end of the season; leaves oval, average blades - cm. long, rounded to truncate at the base, abruptly short-pointed, pubescent on both sides at first, becoming glabrous above, and remaining pubescent beneath, rarely entirely glabrous; flowers about cm. long, bell-shaped, pale yellowish-green; fruit cylindrical, - cm. long, - cm. diameter, the large scarlet seeds begin to push out of their receptacle in september; wood light, soft, not strong, close-grained and durable. =distribution.=--north shore of lake erie, western new york, eastern ohio, southern indiana, southern illinois and along the appalachian mountains to southern alabama and west to arkansas. it doubtless occurred in all or nearly all of the counties in southern indiana south of a line drawn from franklin to knox counties. it no doubt was extremely local. for instance a pioneer years old who had always lived in washington county told me that there were two trees on his farm near pekin, and these were the only two trees he knew of in the vicinity. these trees were popular because the neighbors came for the fruit to put into whisky for making bitters which were a specific for all ailments. i have seen only a shrub on the forest reserve in clark county. on a beech and sugar maple ridge about miles northwest of medora in jackson county on the geo. w. scott farm two trees were still standing in . mr. scott, a pioneer, said the species was found on the ridge for about miles and that there were about a half dozen trees to the acre, and the largest was about a meter in diameter. it is known in two other places in this county. a tree is still standing in lawrence county on the sam mitchell farm - / miles south of bedford. mr. mitchell is a pioneer and says that a few trees were found in the vicinity on the ridges. it has been reported for franklin, floyd and jefferson counties. there is hearsay evidence that it occurred in other counties. [illustration: plate . magnolia acuminata linnæus. cucumber tree. (× / .)] =remarks.=--the cucumber tree has been too rare in indiana to be of economic importance. the greatest interest with us is its distribution. the uses of the wood are similar to that of tulip with which it is botanically related. it is said that the greater part of the lumber which is produced in the south is sold as tulip. the seeds of this tree are extremely bitter and no bird, squirrel or mouse will carry or touch them. however, man after macerating them in whisky can use them for medicine. = . liriodÈndron.= the tulip tree. =liriodendron tulipífera= linnæus. tulip. yellow poplar. plate . large trees with deeply furrowed grayish bark; twigs glabrous and glaucous at first, becoming reddish-brown by the end of the season, then gray or dark brown; leaves very variable, - lobed, average blades - cm. long, truncate and notched at the apex, more or less rounded, truncate or cordate at the base, glabrous above and below at maturity or with a few hairs on the veins beneath; flowers appear in may or june, large bell-shaped, about cm. deep, greenish-yellow, sometimes tinged with orange-red; fruit upright, cone-shaped, - cm. long; wood light, weak, soft, stiff, straight and moderately coarse-grained, seasons and works well. sap wood white, heart wood a light yellow. =distribution.=--vermont, southern ontario, southern michigan, south to florida and west to arkansas and missouri. found throughout indiana, and doubtless is found in every county. it is rare to infrequent in most of the counties north of the wabash river. it gradually becomes more frequent toward the south and where its habitat is found it is frequent to common. it prefers a moist rich well drained soil and thrives best in protected coves and near the lower part of slopes of hills. it is found with beech, sugar maple and white oak. it is rarely found in a black loam soil, but prefers a sandy soil. it was generally a common tree and of very large size in practically all of the counties in the southern two-thirds of the state. =remarks.=--this tree is generally known by botanists as tulip tree. by lumbermen it is usually known as yellow poplar, or more often shortened to poplar. it is also known as blue, white and hickory poplar, or as white wood. the tulip tree is the second largest tree of indiana. in the ind. geol. rept. : : , is the following: "i measured four poplar trees that stood within a few feet of each other; the largest was thirty-eight feet in circumference three feet from the ground, one hundred and twenty feet high, and about sixty-five feet to the first limb. the others were, respectively eighteen and a half, eighteen and seventeen feet in circumference at three feet from the ground." the range of the uses of the wood is not so great as the oak, but it has many uses. the demand has been so great that practically all of the large trees have been cut. small trees have so much sap or white wood that they are not sought for lumber, but can be used for pulp and excelsior. [illustration: plate . liriodendron tulipifera linnæus. tulip or yellow poplar. (× / .)] the tulip transplants easily, grows rapidly, tall and with short side branches. experiments in growing this tree indicate that it is one of the very best trees for reinforcing the woodlot, and other forest planting. it can be recommended for roadside planting because it grows tall and has a deep root system. where conditions of life are not too severe it could be used for shade tree planting. =anonÀceae.= the custard apple family. =asÍmina.= the pawpaw. =asímina tríloba= (linnæus) dunal. pawpaw. plate . shrubs or small trees; bark smooth except on very old trees when it becomes somewhat furrowed; twigs at first covered with rusty brown hairs, becoming glabrous and reddish-brown by the end of the season; leaves obovate-lanceolate, average blades - cm. long, abruptly taper-pointed, wedge-shape at base, margins entire, somewhat rusty pubescent at first, becoming at maturity glabrous above, and glabrous or nearly so beneath; flowers appear in may or early june, maroon color, drooping; fruit edible, ripening in september and october, - cm. long, greenish-yellow, smooth, pulp white or yellow, with a few large, dark-brown flattened seeds; wood light, soft and weak. =distribution.=--new york, north shore of lake erie, southern michigan, nebraska, south to florida and west to texas. found in all parts of indiana, although it is found in the greatest abundance in the central counties. it prefers a moist rich soil, although it is quite adaptive. sometimes it is found in a black loam soil in low woods or about lakes, but its preference is for a beech and sugar maple woods or habitats approximating it. in the southern counties it is absent on the sterile wooded ridges, but may be a common shrub at the base of the slopes. it is a constant companion of the tulip tree and where one will grow the other is likely to be found. it is a great tree to send up suckers, hence it is always found in clumps, or forms real thickets. this species with us is usually - meters high; however, there are records of large trees. collett in ind. geol. rept. : : , in a geological report of gibson county says: "a forest of pawpaw bushes attracted our attention by their tree-like size, being nearly a foot in diameter." [illustration: plate . asimina triloba (linnæus) dunal. pawpaw. (× / .)] =remarks.=--this species is also known as the yellow and white pawpaw. recently some enthusiasts have christened it the "hoosier banana". there has been an attempt for years to cultivate the pawpaw, and some varieties have been named. the fruit is variable. the one with a white pulp is rather insipid and is not considered good to eat. the form with a yellow pulp is the kind that is regarded as the most palatable. the two forms are not botanically separated but prof. stanley coulter has made some observations on the two forms in the ind. geol. rept. : : . he says: "two forms, not separated botanically are associated in our area. they differ in time of flowering, in size, shape, color and flavor of the fruit, in leaf shape, venation and odor and color of the bark. they are of constant popular recognition and probably separate species, never seeming to intergrade." it is desirable for ornamental planning on account of its interesting foliage, beautiful and unique flowers and delicious fruit. it is very difficult to transplant a sucker plant, and in order to get a start of this species it is best to plant the seed or seedlings. it is usually found growing in the shade, but does well in full sunlight. mr. arthur w. osborn of spiceland, who has done much experimental work in propagating this species, reports some interesting cases of pawpaw poisoning. he says he knew a lady whose skin would be irritated by the presence of pawpaws. some individuals after eating them develop a rash with intense itching. in one instance he fed a person, subject to the rash from eating the pawpaw, a peeled pawpaw with a spoon, and the subject never touched the pawpaw, and the results were the same. the american genetic association has taken up the subject of improving the fruit of this tree, and there is no doubt but that in the future this species will be of considerable economic importance. the tree is free from all insect enemies, and since it can be grown in waste places, there is no reason why it should not receive more attention than it does. =laurÀceae.= the laurel family. =sÁssafras.= the sassafras. =sassafras officinàle= nees and ebermaier. sassafras. red sassafras. white sassafras. plate . small to large trees; bark aromatic, smooth on young trees, reddish-brown and deeply furrowed on old trees, resembling that of black walnut; branchlets yellowish-green, splotched more or less with sooty spots; twigs at first more or less hairy, soon becoming smooth or remaining more or less hairy until autumn, more or less glaucous, especially the smooth forms; buds more or less pubescent, the axillary ones usually more or less hairy, the outer scales of the terminal one usually smooth and glaucous; leaves simple, alternate, ovate, elliptic to obovate, blades - cm. long, entire or with - lobes, narrowed at the base, the apex and terminal of the lobes acute, both surfaces hairy when they expand, generally becoming smooth above and beneath, or more often remaining more or less pubescent beneath, the midrib and two lateral veins usually prominent beneath; petioles . - cm. long, hairy at first, becoming smooth or more often retaining some pubescence; flowers appear before or with the leaves in april or may, small, yellow or greenish, the male and female generally on different trees, on racemes up to cm. long; flower stalks usually pubescent, sometimes smooth; fruit an oblong, blue-black, glaucous berry which matures late in summer; fruit generally - mm. long, on a stalk including the pedicel and raceme up to cm. long. [illustration: plate . sassafras officinale nees and ebermaier. sassafras. (× / .)] =distribution.=--maine, southern ontario to iowa and south to florida and west to texas. no doubt it was formerly found in every county of indiana. in the northern part of the state it is more local in its distribution than in the southern counties. in the northern counties where it is local it is found in colonies on sandy or clayey ridges. sassafras is usually considered an indicator of poorer soils, hence, in the central counties it is often very local. it is frequent to common throughout the hilly counties of the southern part of the state. in this part of the state it becomes a pernicious weed tree. it soon invades fence rows and fallow fields, and is extremely difficult to kill out. it is rarely found in wet situations; however, in sullivan and clay counties large trees have been observed in low alluvial ground, associated with the white elm, etc. =remarks.=--wood light, soft, coarse-grained, aromatic, heartwood brownish. in our area sassafras wood is used principally for posts and crossties. the roots contain a volatile oil which is much used in medicine and perfumery. every one is familiar with the sassafras peddler who in the spring sells a small bundle of roots or bark for making sassafras tea. the tea is reputed "to thin the blood." the aromatic character of the wood led the earliest inhabitants to attribute many medicinal and other qualities to the wood which, in many instances bordered on superstition. in some of the southern states bedsteads were made of sassafras with the belief that they would produce sounder sleep. floors were made of sassafras to keep out the rats and mice. perches of chicken houses were made of sassafras poles to keep off the lice. to successfully make soap, it was necessary to stir the contents of the kettle with a sassafras stick. the sassafras is usually about one-fourth of a meter in diameter. however, on the charles hole farm about three miles southeast of butlerville grew two of the largest trees of which we have record. the trees grew within seven meters of each other on a slope now grown up with large sugar maple. they were cut by mr. hole's father, on whose farm they were located. the largest was cut in the later sixties and the smaller in the early seventies. the stumps were seen by the writer in . both are now hollow although the outside is quite solid after having been cut about fifty years. chips were cut from the root spurs and the wood was almost as aromatic as if the tree had just been cut. "the stumps have been burned at least three times," says mr. hole, yet the smaller now measures . m. ( inches) in diameter at a meter high. the largest stump now measures . m. ( inches), in diameter at a meter high. mr. hole says that the smallest tree had a clear hole of at least meters, and the largest tree was . m. ( inches) in diameter meters from the stump. sassafras deserves more consideration than it has received as a shade and ornamental tree. the autumnal coloring of its foliage is scarcely surpassed by any tree; and it is free from injurious insect pests. it adapts itself to almost all kinds of soils, and grows rapidly. it is, however, transplanted with difficulty; this means only more care in digging the tree and planting it. commonly the sassafras is classed as red and white sassafras. the roots of the white sassafras are said to be whiter, the aroma of the wood has a suggestion of camphor, and the wood is less durable. this belief is common throughout the area of its distribution, but so far as the writer knows, no scientific work has been published to verify this division of the species. sassafras is extremely variable, but most botanical authors have considered the many variations as one species. nuttall in was the first author to make a division of the forms, and he has been followed by some recent authors. nuttall separated those forms with smooth twigs, buds, and under surface of leaves, from those with pubescent twigs, buds, and under surface of leaves. nieuwland[ ] separates a variety from the smooth forms which he calls =sassafras albida= variety =glauca=, and reports it as occurring in the counties in the vicinity of lake michigan. the writer has at hand specimens from counties in indiana, including all of the lake michigan counties, and he has not been able to find a single character that is constant enough to make a division of our forms, consequently all the indiana forms are included under one and the old name for sassafras. [illustration: plate . liquidambar styraciflua linnæus. sweet or red gum. (× / .)] =altingiÀceae.= sweet gum family. =liquidámbar styracíflua= linnæus. sweet gum. plate . large trees with resinous sap; bark deeply furrowed, grayish; twigs when very young somewhat hairy, soon becoming glabrous, a light reddish-brown by the end of the season, later a gray, usually some or all of the branchlets develop one or more corky ridges running lengthwise of the branchlets, or in some cases only corky excrescences; leaves simple, alternate, long-petioled, orbicular in outline, cleft into wedge-shaped lobes, rarely lobes, average blades - cm. long, truncate or cordate at the base, margins finely serrate, hairy on both surfaces on unfolding, soon becoming glabrous above, and remaining more or less hairy beneath especially in the axils of the veins, at maturity turning to a dull or brilliant red; flowers in heads, expanding in april or may; fruit a globular, horny aggregate of carpels, - cm. in diameter including the horns; wood heavy, hard, not strong, close-grained, inclined to shrink and warp in seasoning, takes a good polish, heart wood a rich brown which can be finished to imitate walnut or mahogany. =distribution.=--connecticut, southern ohio to missouri, south to florida and west to texas, and in the mountains in mexico south to guatemala. in indiana it is confined to wet woods in the southern half of the state. the most northern records are from franklin, shelby, putnam and parke counties. wherever it is found it is usually a frequent to a common or very common tree. it is most frequently associated with the beech, but in the very wet woods it is found with pin oak, red birch, cow oak and white elm. =remarks.=--this species grows rapidly; is somewhat hard to transplant; grows straight and tall with few side branches, and adapts itself to a wet, compact soil. in the "flats" of southern indiana where it is associated with pin oak, red birch and beech, it is to be preferred for forest planting to these or any other species that could be grown in the "flats." it is practically free from all injurious insects. sweet gum should be one of the principal species in wet places of the woodlots of southern indiana. this species is one of the best for ornamental planting in all parts of the state where it is hardy. it is doubtful if it is wise to use it in the northern part of the state. several trees in the northern part of the state are known to be quite hardy, but there are reports that it sometimes winter-kills. it can also be recommended for roadside and street planting. [illustration: plate . platanus occidentalis linnæus. sycamore. (× / .)] =platanÀceae.= the plane tree family. =plÁtanus.= the plane tree. platanus occidentàlis linnæus. sycamore. plate . the largest tree of the state; bark thin, smooth, on age separating into thin plates and exfoliating, base of the trunks of very old trees somewhat roughened or fissured, gray to grayish-green, splotched with white; twigs at first covered with a scurvy pubescence, becoming at maturity glabrous except a ring at the node about the leaf-scar, gray or light brown, and zigzag; leaves alternate, long-petioled, nearly orbicular in outline, the blades somewhat deltoid, blades large, variable in size and shape, average blades - cm. long, frequently much larger on vigorous shoots, generally with - main lobes, sometimes the lobes are indistinct and the leaves appear only irregularly toothed, margins toothed, rarely entire between the lobes, truncate or cordate at the base, acute or acuminate at the apex; one form has been noted with leaves obovate, scarcely lobed and with a wedge-shaped base; leaves covered on both sides at first with a dense tomentum, becoming at maturity glabrous above--rarely tardily pubescent, nearly glabrous beneath, except on the veins and in the axils, petioles remaining pubescent; flowers appear in may with the leaves in heads on long woolly peduncles; fruit a globose head of many seeds, - . cm. in diameter, maturing late in the year; the seed are scattered by the wind during the winter months; wood heavy, hard, weak, close-grained, difficult to split and work, takes a high polish; when used as a container it does not communicate an objectional taste or odor to contents. =distribution.=--maine, ontario to nebraska, south to the gulf states and west to texas. found in all parts of indiana, although there are no records for the extreme northwestern counties. it is a tree of a low ground habitat, and is found principally in low ground along streams, about lakes, and ponds. in such habitats it is a frequent tree in all parts, except in the "flats" of the southern counties. in some places it is a common to a very common tree, especially along the upper courses of white river. =remarks.=--in this state this species is always called the sycamore tree. it is the largest tree of the state, and the largest deciduous tree of the united states. indiana has the distinction of having the largest living sycamore in the united states. it is located near worthington, indiana, and "in , measured feet and inches in circumference at five feet above the ground." see frontispiece. the sycamore grew to great diameters in all parts of the state. it was commonly hollow, because it is believed the tree in early life is usually more or less injured by floating ice and debris which starts inner decay. hollow sycamore logs were commonly used by the pioneers in which to smoke their meat, and sections of hollow logs about dm. ( feet) long were used to store grain in, and were known as "gums." the value of sycamore lumber has been very much underestimated. it has many uses such as butcher blocks, interior finish, furniture, piling, tobacco boxes, veneer berry boxes, handles, wooden ware, etc. indiana has led in the production of sycamore lumber for years. the sycamore is well adapted for shade, ornamental and forestry purposes. it transplants easily, grows rapidly, stands pruning well and is comparatively free from injurious insects. it grows straight, tall and usually with a rather narrow crown. it prefers a moist soil, but adapts itself to dry situations. for planting overflow lands, or on the banks of streams it is one of the best species we have. it is also one of the best species for roadside tree planting, because it is deep rooted, grows tall, and does not produce a dense shade. =malÀceae.=[ ] the apple family. the trees of this family that occur in our area have simple, alternate leaves; perfect, regular flowers, -merous calyx and corolla; fruit a more or less fleshy pome. flowers in racemes, cavities of mature fruit twice as many as the styles, seeds less than mm. ( / inch) long amelanchier. flowers in cymes or corymbs, cavities of mature fruit as many as the styles, seeds more than mm. ( / inch) long. fruit green, mature carpels papery malus. fruit red, orange, blue-black or yellow, mature carpels bony cratægus. =i. mÀlus.= the apples. _malus angustifolia_ has been reported from the state, but it is a species of more southern range. both _malus ioensis_ and _malus lancifolia_ may easily be mistaken for this species. leaves and petioles glabrous or only slightly pubescent; calyx tube and outside of calyx lobes glabrous or only slightly pubescent. leaves distinctly lobed, at least those of vigorous shoots; petioles pubescent above m. glaucescens. leaves serrate, not lobed; petioles glabrous m. lancifolia. leaves (at least the lower surfaces) and petioles densely tomentose; calyx lobes densely tomentose on both sides m. ioensis. = . malus glaucéscens= rehder. american crab apple (_m. fragrans_ rehder). plate . bark reddish, fissured and scaly; leaves on glandless petioles, petioles usually - cm. ( / - - / inches) long, leaves narrow ovate to almost triangular, those on the lateral branchlets of the ovate type, those of the terminal branchlets and vigorous shoots of the triangular type, - cm. ( - / - inches) long, acute at the apex, mostly rounded or somewhat cordate at the base, sometimes tapering, those of the triangular type usually truncate, margin of the ovate type of leaves more or less sharply serrate, the basal third of the leaf with shallow teeth or entire, margins of the triangular type more deeply serrate to almost lobed, hairy above and below when they expand, becoming smooth both above and below, sometimes a few hairs are found on the veins beneath at maturity, bright green above, paler beneath; flowers appear in may when the leaves are about half grown, usually or in a cluster, white or rose-color, very fragrant, - cm. ( - / - inches) broad when fully expanded; calyx lobes lanceolate-acuminate, tomentose on the inside, glabrous outside; fruit depressed-globose, without angles, yellow-green, - . cm. ( / - inches) thick, - . cm. ( / - inch) long, very fragrant and covered with a waxy bloom. =distribution.=--central new york, lower peninsula michigan, western new jersey to northern alabama and missouri. found in all parts of indiana. no doubt in the original forests it was rare, but the removal of the large trees has been favorable to its growth until today it is somewhat frequent in moist open woods, along streams and neglected fences. it is most frequent among the hills in southern indiana, and in all its distribution it is usually found in clumps. in our area it is a small tree about - cm. ( - inches) in diameter and - m. ( - feet) high, with a spreading crown. an exceptionally large tree is located on the south bank of round lake in whitley county which measures . m. ( inches) in circumference at one meter ( feet) above the ground where the first branch appears. specimens which were collected by the person whose name follows the county have been seen by the writer from the following counties of indiana: allen (deam) ; brown (deam) ; clark (deam) ; daviess (deam) ; decatur (deam) ; delaware (deam) ; floyd (very) ; fountain (deam) ; hamilton (mrs. chas. c. deam) ; kosciusko (deam) ; laporte (deam) ; morgan (deam) ; noble (deam) ; owen (deam) ; posey (deam) ; randolph (deam) , ; steuben (deam) ; warren (deam) ; wayne (deam) ; wells (e. b. williamson) , (deam) , , , . [illustration: plate . malus glaucescens rehder. american crab apple. (× / .)] = . malus lancifòlia= rehder. narrow-leaved crab apple. (_m. coronaria_ of manuals, in part.) plate . leaves ovate, oblong to oblong-lanceolate, . - cm. ( / - - / inches) wide, . - cm. ( - / - inches) long, acute or shortly acuminate at the apex; rounded or broadly cuneate at the base, finely serrate often doubly serrate, slightly tomentose when young, becoming entirely glabrous; bright yellow-green on both sides. flowers - . cm. broad, - in a cluster, pedicels slender, glabrous. calyx lobes oblong, lanceolate, glabrous outside, slightly villous inside, fruit subglobose, - cm. ( / - - / inches) in diameter, green. =distribution.=--pennsylvania to the mountains of north carolina, west to indiana and south to missouri. specimens have been seen from the following counties of indiana: allen (deam) ; daviess (deam) ; delaware (deam) ; dubois (deam) ; fountain (deam) ; henry (deam) , ; jay (deam) ; jennings (deam); knox (deam) , ; noble (deam) ; posey (deam) ; spencer (deam) ; starke (deam) ; union (deam) ; vermillion (deam) . = . malus ioénsis= (wood) britton. western crab apple. iowa crab apple. plate . leaves oblong to ovate-oblong, - cm. ( - / - inches) long, - cm. ( / - - / inches), wide, obtuse or acute at the apex, rounded or broadly cuneate at the base, dentate-crenate or doubly so, slightly pubescent above, becoming glabrous, dark green, slightly rugose above, densely white-tomentose below, remaining so at least along the veins; petioles . - cm. ( / - - / inches) long, densely white-tomentose; corymbs - flowered, pedicels pubescent; calyx densely white-tomentose, calyx lobes lanceolate-acuminate, densely tomentose on both sides; flowers similar to those of _malus coronaria_; fruit globose, without angles, green, - . cm. ( / - - / inches) thick, - cm. ( / - - / inches) long. =distribution.=--indiana, central kentucky, louisiana, wisconsin, southern minnesota, eastern kansas and texas. a tree in habit, similar to _malus glaucescens_. specimens have been seen from allen (deam) ; benton (deam) ; cass (deam) ; daviess (deam) ; delaware (deam) ; floyd (very) ; huntington (deam); jasper (deam) ; knox (deam) ; lake (deam) ; lagrange (deam) ; laporte (deam) , ; newton (deam) ; porter (deam) ; posey (deam) ; putnam (grimes); sullivan (deam) , ; tippecanoe (dorner) , (deam) ; vigo (deam) , ; warren (deam) ; white (deam) ; whitley (deam) . [illustration: plate . malus lancifolia rehder. narrow-leaved crab apple. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . malus ioensis (wood) britton. western crab apple. (× / .)] =malus ioensis × lancifolia= n. hyb. specimens collected by deam in grant county in and huntington county in appear to be this cross. it would be strange indeed if such closely related species as these _malus_ and many _cratægus_ would not cross. = . amelÁnchier.= the service berries. leaves densely white tomentose when young, becoming green. a. canadensis. leaves nearly or quite glabrous a. lævis. = . amelanchier canadénsis= (linnæus) medicus. juneberry. service berry. plate . leaves obovate, ovate, oval or oblong, - cm. ( - / - inches) long, . - cm. ( - inches) wide, cordate at base, acute, or acuminate at apex, sharply and doubly serrate; blades and petioles densely white tomentose when young, persisting particularly on petioles with age, green or yellowish green, not unfolded at flowering time; racemes short, dense, silky tomentose pedicels, - mm. ( / - inch) long in fruit; petals linear or linear-oblong - mm, ( / - / inch) long; calyx . - mm. broad, campanulate, glabrous or somewhat woolly, calyx lobes oblong-triangular, obtuse, tomentose - mm. long, abruptly reflexed at the base when the petals fall; summit of ovary glabrous; fruit scanty, maroon-purple, dry and tasteless; flowers in april or may; fruit ripening june or july. =distribution.=--southern maine to southern michigan, iowa, kansas, missouri and south to georgia and louisiana. bushy tree or shrub sometimes meters ( feet) high. specimens have been seen from the following counties: clark (deam) ; clay (deam) ; crawford (deam) ; floyd (deam) ; fountain (l. a. williamson) ; jackson (deam) ; jefferson (deam) ; jennings (deam); lagrange (deam) ; tippecanoe (dorner) ; warren (deam) . = . amelanchier laévis= wiegand. smooth juneberry. service berry. (_amelanchier canadensis_ of manuals, in part.) plate . leaves ovate-oval to ovate-oblong or sometimes obovate or elliptical, - cm. ( / - - / inches) long, . - cm. ( - - / inches) wide, apex short, acuminate, base cordate, rounded or sometimes acute, sharply serrate, glabrous or with a few hairs when young, dark green and slightly glaucous when mature, one-half or two-third grown at flowering time; petioles glabrous; racemes many flowered, drooping, glabrous or nearly so; fruiting pedicels - mm. ( - / - inches) long; petals oblong-linear, - mm. ( / - / inch) long; calyx campanulate, . - mm. wide, glabrous, sepals triangular, lanceolate, - mm. long, abruptly reflexed at base when petals fall; summit of ovary glabrous; fruit purple to nearly black, glaucous, edible; flowers in april or may; fruit, june or july. [illustration: plate . amelanchier canadensis (linnæus) medicus. june or service berry. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . amelanchier laevis wiegand. smooth juneberry or service berry. (× / .)] =distribution.=--newfoundland, northern michigan, kansas, missouri and south in the mountains to georgia and alabama. specimens have been seen from the following counties: brown (deam) ; dubois (deam) ; grant (deam) ; jackson (deam) ; jefferson (deam) ; lagrange (deam) ; lake (deam) ; laporte (deam) , ; lawrence (deam) ; owen (deam) ; perry (deam) ; porter (deam) and (agnes chase); putnam (mrs. chas. c. deam) ; ripley (deam) ; st. joseph (deam) ; steuben (deam) ; wells (deam) . trees or shrubs, sometimes meters ( feet) high. in the mountains of vermont the fruit is often abundant, very juicy and sweet, and in much demand both by man and the birds. the berries on the long racemes ripen at different times and are perhaps two weeks in maturing, thus furnishing food for some time. = . crataÈgus.= thorn apples. red haws. large shrubs or small trees, most at home in a limestone region. this genus has been studied a great deal in this country. much work is still necessary in indiana since there are a number of other species that belong in this range. the "knob country" and southwestern indiana are likely to produce the best results. a. leaves not deltoid-cordate; pubescent or glabrous. i. leaves broadest at the middle or apex, cuneate. a. leaves broadest towards the apex. leaves not impressed-veined above, shining i. crus-galli. c. crus-galli. leaves impressed-veined above, dull. ii. punctatæ. fruit glabrous; calyx lobes entire. fruit ellipsoidal; nutlets usually or . leaves bright yellow-green, slightly impressed above; fruit ellipsoidal. c. cuneiformis. leaves dull gray-green, strongly impressed-veined; fruit short ellipsoidal. c. punctata. fruit globose. c. margaretta. fruit villous; calyx lobes glandular-serrate. c. collina. b. leaves broadest at the middle. leaves impressed-veined; nutlets deeply pitted on inner face. iii. macracanthæ. leaves dark green, glabrous and shining above, coriaceous. fruit sometimes mm. ( / inch) thick; stamens usually ; leaves and anthers large. c. succulenta. fruit sometimes mm. ( / inch) thick; stamens - ; leaves and anthers small. c. neo-fluvialis. leaves gray-green, pubescent and dull above, subcoriaceous. c. calpodendron. leaves not impressed-veined; nutlets without pits. calyx glandular margined, fruit more than mm. ( / inch) thick; leaves not trilobate. iv. rotundifoliæ. c. chrysocarpa. calyx lobes not glandular margined; fruit - mm. ( / - / inch thick); leaves often trilobate towards the apex. v. virides. fruit bright red, glaucous, - mm. ( / - / inch) thick; leaves serrate. c. viridis. fruit dull dark red, - mm. ( / - / inch) thick; leaves coarsely serrate. c. nitida. ii. leaves broadest at the base. a. leaves . - cm. ( / - - / inches) long and wide, membranaceous; calyx lobes usually entire. leaves yellow-green, often slightly pubescent; fruit soft at maturity. vi. tenuifoliæ. fruit ellipsoidal, ovoid or pyriform. c. macrosperma. fruit compressed, globose or subglobose. c. basilica. leaves blue-green, glabrous; fruit hard at maturity. vii. pruinosæ. leaves elliptic-ovate. c. jesupi. leaves usually cordate. fruit conspicuously angled, strongly pruinose. c. rugosa. fruit without conspicuous angles, slightly pruinose. c. filipes. leaves usually cuneate. leaves deltoid. c. gattingeri. leaves ovate. c. pruinosa. b. leaves - cm. ( - inches) long and wide; calyx lobes usually serrate. viii. coccineæ. mature leaves usually glabrous above; young foliage bronze-green; anthers pink. corymbs and fruit glabrous. c. coccinioides. corymbs and fruit pubescent or tomentose. c. coccinea. mature leaves tomentose above; young foliage yellow-green; anthers yellow. c. mollis. b. leaves conspicuously deltoid-cordate. ix. cordatæ. c. phænopyrum. = . crataegus crus-gálli= linnæus. cock-spur thorn. newcastle thorn. plate . bark dark gray, scaly; spines many, strong, straight, - cm. ( - inches) long; leaves obovate to elliptical, - cm. ( / - inches) long, - cm. ( / - - / inches) wide, sharply serrate, except towards the base, acute or rounded at the apex, cuneate, dark green and shining above, coriaceous, glabrous or occasionally slightly pubescent; petioles slightly winged above, glandless, - cm. ( / - / inch) long; corymbs glabrous or occasionally pubescent, many flowered; flowers appear in may or june, about . cm. ( / inch) wide; stamens - ; anthers usually pink; calyx lobes lanceolate-acuminate, entire; styles and nutlets usually ; fruit ripens in october, ellipsoidal-ovoid to subglobose, about cm. ( / inch) thick, greenish to red; flesh hard and dry, rather thin. =distribution.=--northern new york to ontario, eastern kansas and south through western connecticut to georgia and texas. introduced near montreal, about lake champlain and nantucket island. well distributed in indiana (but apparently more common in the southern part of the state). a small tree, sometimes m. ( feet) high, with spreading branches and a broad crown; but often a large shrub. this is a variable species and has received many names. i have seen specimens from the following counties: allen (deam); crawford (deam); dearborn (deam); decatur (mrs. chas. c. deam); delaware (deam); dubois (deam); franklin (deam); gibson (schneck), (deam); grant (deam); hancock (mrs. chas. c. deam); jackson (deam); knox (schneck); lawrence (deam); marion (mrs. chas. c. deam); posey (deam); owen (grimes); randolph (deam); scott (deam); tippecanoe (deam); vermillion (deam); vigo (blatchley); washington (deam); wells (deam). = . crataegus cuneifórmis= (marshall) eggleston. (_c. pausiaca_ ashe). marshall's thorn. plate . bark dark brown, scaly; spines numerous, - cm. ( / - inches) long; leaves oblanceolate-obovate, acute at the apex, cuneate at the base, serrate or doubly serrate - cm. ( / - - / inches) wide, dark vivid yellow-green, glabrous and impressed veined above when mature, subcoriaceous; petioles - cm. ( / - / inch) long, slightly winged above; corymbs usually slightly pubescent, many flowered; flowers appear in may, . - . cm. ( / - / inch) wide; calyx lobes lanceolate-acuminate, entire; stamens, - ; anthers dark pink; styles and nutlets - ; fruit ripens in october, ellipsoidal-pyriform, scarlet or dark red, about mm. ( / inch) thick, flesh hard, thick. =distribution.=--western new york and pennsylvania to southwestern virginia, west to central illinois. [illustration: plate . crataegus crus-galli linnæus. cock-spur thorn. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . crataegus cuneiformis (marshall) eggleston. marshall's thorn. (× / .)] a small tree sometimes m. ( feet) high, with spreading branches, forming a flat or round crown. this species is intermediate between _crus-galli_ and _punctata_ and has been found as yet only in a region where both these species are known. i have seen specimens from the following counties: clark (deam); floyd (deam); gibson (schneck), (deam); hamilton (mrs. chas. c. deam); knox (schneck); marion (mrs. chas. c. deam); posey (deam); vigo (blatchley); wells (deam). = . crataegus punctàta= jacquin. large-fruited thorn. dotted haw. plate . bark grayish-brown, scaly; leaves light grey, - cm. ( / - inches) long, - cm. ( / - inches) broad, dull gray-green and markedly impressed-vein above, pubescent, becoming nearly glabrous above when mature, acute or obtuse at the apex, sharply cuneate at the base, serrate, doubly serrate or lobed at the apex, subcoriaceous; petioles - cm. ( / - / inch) long, slightly winged above; corymbs tomentose or canescent, many flowered; flowers appear in june, about cm. ( / inch) wide; calyx lobes lanceolate, acuminate, entire; stamens about ; anthers white or pink; styles and nutlets usually or ; fruit ripens in october or november, green, yellow or red, short-ellipsoidal, . - . cm. ( / - inch) thick, flesh hard, thick; calyx lobes spreading. =distribution.=--quebec to pennsylvania, southeastern minnesota, iowa, kentucky and south to the high alleghenies. well distributed over indiana. a small tree, sometimes m. ( feet) high, with distinctly horizontal branches and a broad, flat crown. specimens have been seen from the following counties: allen (deam); bartholomew (deam); dearborn (deam); fulton (deam); gibson (deam); grant (deam); hamilton (mrs. chas. c. deam); hendricks (deam); howard (deam); jennings (deam); johnson (deam); marion (deam); noble (deam); putnam (grimes); vermillion (deam); vigo (blatchley); wayne (deam); wells (deam). = . crataegus margarètta= ashe. judge brown's thorn. mrs. ashe's thorn. plate . bark dark grayish-brown; spines curved, - cm. ( / - - / inches) long; leaves oblong-obovate or ovate, sometimes broadly so, - cm. ( / - - / inches) long, - cm. ( / - - / inches) wide, obtuse or acute at the apex, cuneate or rounded at the base, serrate or doubly serrate with or pairs of acute or obtuse lobes towards the apex, glabrous when mature, dark green above, membranaceous; petioles - cm. ( / - - / inches) long, slightly winged; corymbs slightly pubescent, becoming glabrous, - flowered; flowers appear in may, . - cm. ( / - / inch) wide; stamens about ; anthers yellow; styles and nutlets usually ; calyx lobes lanceolate-acuminate, slightly pubescent inside; fruit ripens in october, dull rusty green, yellow or red, compressed-globose, to short ellipsoidal, angular, - mm. ( / - / inch) thick, flesh yellow, mealy, hard, thick; calyx lobes reflexed, deciduous. [illustration: plate . crataegus punctata jacquin. large-fruited thorn. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . cratÆgus margaretta ashe. judge brown's thorn. mrs. ashe's thorn. (× / .)] =distribution.=--southern ontario to central iowa, western virginia, tennessee and missouri. known in indiana only from the northern part of the state. a small tree sometimes m. ( feet) high, with spreading branches. specimens have been seen from the following counties: allen (deam); blackford (deam); cass (mrs. ida jackson); delaware (deam); elkhart (deam); fulton (deam); grant (deam); henry (deam); huntington (deam); johnson (deam); lagrange (deam); lawrence (deam); noble (deam); randolph (deam); steuben (deam); tipton (mrs. chas. c. deam); wayne (deam); wells (deam). = . crataegus collìna= chapman. chapman's hill thorn. plate . bark dark gray, scaly; spines numerous, about - cm. ( - - / inches) long; often numerous branched thorns on the trunk - cm. ( - inches) long, brown; leaves obovate to oblanceolate, - cm. ( / - - / inches) long, . - cm. ( / - inches) wide, acute or obtuse at the apex, strongly cuneate, serrate or doubly serrate with obtuse lobes towards the apex, subcoriaceous, yellow-green, young leaves somewhat pubescent, becoming glabrous with age; petioles about . cm. ( inch) long, slightly hairy, somewhat winged; corymbs and calyx pubescent; flowers about mm. ( / inch) wide; stamens - , usually , anthers usually yellow; styles and nutlets, - ; calyx lobes glandular-ciliate or glandular-serrate; fruit ripens in october, globose or compressed-globose, red or orange-red, - mm. ( / - / inch) thick; calyx tube somewhat prominent, the lobes reflexed. =distribution.=--virginia to georgia, indiana, missouri and mississippi. only one station known in indiana; deam's no. from dearborn county. a tree sometimes meters ( feet) high with spreading branches and a broad flat crown. = . crataegus succulénta= schrader. long-spined thorn. plate . bark gray; spines numerous, strong, - cm. ( - / - inches) long, chestnut-brown; leaves rhombic-ovate to obovate, - cm. ( - / - - / inches) long, . - cm. ( - - / inches) wide, acute at the apex, broadly cuneate at the base, serrate or doubly serrate with fine teeth, often lobed towards the apex, coriaceous, dark shining green above, pubescent along the veins beneath; petioles - cm. ( / - / inch) long, slightly winged above; corymbs slightly villous, many-flowered; flowers appear in may, about cm. ( / inch) broad; stamens - , usually ; anthers pink or occasionally yellow or white, large; styles and nutlets usually or ; calyx lobes lanceolate-acuminate, glandular-laciniate, villous; fruit ripens in september, subglobose, - mm. ( / - / inch) thick, dark red, shining, flesh thin, glutinous; nutlet with deep pits on the inner faces; calyx-lobes villous, reflexed. [illustration: plate . cratÆgus collina chapman. chapman's hill thorn. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . cratÆgus succulenta schrader. long-spined thorn. (× / .)] =distribution.=--nova scotia to minnesota, nebraska and south in the higher alleghenies to north carolina and in the rocky mountains to southern colorado. as yet reported only from northern to central indiana. a small tree sometimes m. ( feet) high, with ascending branches and a broad, irregular crown; more often, however, a large shrub. specimens have been seen from the following counties: allen (deam); cass (mrs. ida jackson); fulton (deam); noble (vangorder); putnam (grimes); tippecanoe (deam); wells (deam). =horticultural uses.=--highly ornamental for parks and hedges because of the abundant flowers, dark green shining leaves and its dark red shining fruit. = . crataegus neo-fluviàlis= ashe. new river thorn. plate . bark grayish; spines numerous, . - cm. ( - inches) long; leaves elliptical-ovate to obovate, . - cm. ( - inches) long, - cm. ( / - - / inches) wide, acute or obtuse at the apex, cuneate at the base, sharply and doubly serrate, with obtuse or acute lobes towards the apex, coriaceous, dark green and shining above, pubescent along the veins beneath; petioles - cm. ( / - / inch) long, slightly winged-above; corymbs and calyx-tubes glabrous or slightly villous, many-flowered; flowers appear in may, . - . cm. ( / - / inch) broad, stamens - , anthers usually pink, small; styles and nutlets usually or ; calyx lobes more villous on the inside, lanceolate-acuminate, glandular-laciniate; fruit ripens in september, globose or short ellipsoidal, dark red, - mm. ( / - / inch) thick, flesh thin, glutinous, nutlets with deep pits in the inner faces; calyx lobes reflexed, glabrous or slightly hairy. =distribution.=--western vermont to eastern wisconsin, iowa and south in the alleghenies to north carolina. a small tree sometimes m. ( feet) high, with ascending and spreading branches. specimens have been seen from allen (deam); fulton (deam); shelby (deam); wells (deam). [illustration: plate . cratÆgus neo-fluvialis ashe. new riverthorn. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . cratÆgus calpodendron (ehrhart) medicus. pear-thorn. (× / .)] = . crataegus calpodéndron= (ehrhart) medicus. pear-thorn. pear or red haw. plate . bark pale gray to dark brown, furrowed; spines occasional, slender - cm. ( - / - inches) long; leaves rhombic-ovate, - cm. ( - / - - / inches) long, - cm. ( - / - inches) wide, acute or acuminate at the apex, finely and doubly serrate, those on the vegetative shoots obtuse and more entire than the others, pubescent on both sides, becoming scabrate above, subcoriaceous, dull green above; petioles about cm. ( / inch) long, wing margined, glandular hairy; corymbs white-tomentose, many flowered; flowers appear in june, about . cm. ( / inch) broad; stamens about ; anthers small, pink; styles and nutlets usually or ; calyx lobes lanceolate-acuminate, glandular laciniate; fruit ripens in september, pyriform to ellipsoidal, orange-red or red, - mm. ( / inch) thick, flesh glutinous; nutlets with deep pits in their inner faces; calyx lobes reflexed. =distribution.=--central new york, northeastern new jersey to minnesota and missouri and south in the mountains to northern georgia. a large shrub or occasionally a tree m. ( feet) high, with ascending branches forming a broad crown. specimens have been examined from the following counties: boone (deam); floyd (deam); hancock (mrs. chas. c. deam); harrison (deam); marion (mrs. chas. c. deam); posey (deam); putnam (grimes); tippecanoe (stanley coulter); wells (deam); white (deam); whitley (deam). = . crataegus chrysocárpa= ashe. (_crataegus dodgei_ sargent. _crataegus rotundifolia_, borckhausen.) round-leaved thorn. plate . bark dark red-brown, scaly; spines numerous, chestnut-brown, curved, - cm. ( - inches) long; leaves ovate-orbicular or obovate, - cm. ( - / - - / inches) long, - cm. ( / - - / inches) wide, acute at the apex, broadly cuneate at the base, doubly serrate with rather coarse teeth and with or pairs of acute lobes, subcoriaceous, dark yellow-green and shining above, slightly pubescent or glabrous; corymbs glabrous or slightly pubescent; flowers - mm. ( / - / inch) wide; stamens - ; anthers light yellow; styles and nutlets usually - ; calyx lobes lanceolate, acuminate, usually entire, but glandular margined; fruit depressed-globose to short ovoid, about mm. ( / inch) thick, flesh soft; calyx lobes reflexed. =distribution.=--nova scotia and new brunswick to saskatchewan, south to nebraska and pennsylvania and in the mountains to north carolina and new mexico. round topped shrub or tree sometimes meters ( feet) high. specimens have been seen from the following counties: delaware and lagrange (deam). [illustration: plate . cratÆgus chrysocarpa ashe. round-leaved thorn. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . cratÆgus viridis linnæus. southern thorn. (× / .)] = . crataegus víridis= linnæus. southern thorn. plate . bark gray to light orange; spines uncommon, - cm. ( / - - / inches) long; leaves oblong-ovate, - cm. ( / - - / inches) long, - cm. ( / - inches) wide, acute, acuminate or even obtuse at the apex, serrate or doubly serrate, often with acute or obtuse lobes towards the apex, dark green, shining and slightly impressed veined above, sometimes pubescent along the veins beneath; petioles - cm. ( / - / inch) long, slightly winged above; corymbs glabrous, many flowered; flowers appear in may, - . cm. ( / - / inch) broad; stamens about ; anthers usually yellow, sometimes pink; styles and nutlets or ; calyx lobes lanceolate-acuminate, entire, slightly pubescent inside; fruit ripens in october, globose or compressed-globose, bright red or orange, glaucous, - mm. ( / inch) thick, flesh thin, hard, edible. =distribution.=--moist, alluvial soil along streams and lakes, southeastern virginia to northern florida and southwestern indiana to eastern kansas and texas. a tree from - m. ( - feet) high, with ascending branches and a broad crown. specimens have been examined from the following counties: dubois (deam); gibson (schneck), (deam); knox (schneck); posey (deam). = . crataegus nítida= (engelmann) sargent. shining thorn. plate . bark dark and scaly; spines occasional, - cm. ( - inches) long; leaves oblong-ovate to oval, - cm. ( - / - inches) long, - cm. ( / - - / inches) wide, acute at the apex, cuneate at the base, coarsely serrate or twice serrate with acute lobes towards the apex, dark green and shining above, glabrous; petioles - cm. ( / - / inch) long, slightly winged above, slightly villous when young; corymbs glabrous, many-flowered; flowers appear in may, . - cm. ( / - / inch) broad; stamens about ; anthers light yellow; styles and nutlets - ; calyx lobes lanceolate-acuminate, entire; fruit ripens in october, globose to short-ellipsoidal, dark dull red, - mm. ( / - / inch) thick; flesh yellow, mealy, hard. =distribution.=--river bottoms southwestern indiana to southern illinois. a tree sometimes m. ( feet) high, with ascending and spreading branches and a broad crown. specimens have been seen from gibson (schneck); posey (deam). [illustration: plate . cratÆgus nitida (engelmann) sargent. shining thorn. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . cratÆgus macrosperma ashe. variable thorn. (× / .)] = . crataegus macrospérma= ashe. variable thorn. plate . bark brown, scaly; spines numerous, stout, curved, - cm. ( / - - / inches) long; leaves broadly elliptical-ovate to broadly ovate, - cm. ( / - - / inches) long and wide, acute at the apex, rounded, truncate or rarely cordate at the base, serrate or doubly serrate, slightly villous, becoming glabrate, dark yellow-green above, membranaceous; petioles slender, - cm. ( / - - / inches) long, slightly winged above; corymbs glabrous or slightly villous, many-flowered; flowers appear in may, . - cm. ( / - / inch) broad; stamens - , usually - ; styles and nutlets usually or ; calyx lobes lanceolate-acuminate, entire; fruit ripens in august or september, ellipsoidal or pyriform, scarlet to crimson, often glaucous, - . cm. ( / - / inch) thick, flesh succulent, edible; calyx lobes persistent, erect or spreading. =distribution.=--nova scotia and maine to southeastern minnesota and south in the mountains to north carolina and tennessee. usually a large shrub but occasionally a small tree, sometimes m. ( feet) high, with ascending branches. specimens have been seen from the following counties: allen (deam); bartholomew (deam); clark (deam); decatur (deam); fulton (deam); hancock (mrs. chas. c. deam); madison (deam); porter (deam); randolph (deam); shelby (mrs. chas. c. deam); washington (deam); wells (deam); whitley (deam). =crataegus macrosperma= ashe. var. =matura= (sargent) eggleston. lobes of the leaves acuminate, often recurved; fruit ripens early. =distribution.=--known in indiana only from deam's specimen no. from wells county. = . crataegus basilìca= beadle. (_crataegus alnorum_ sargent. _crataegus edsoni_ sargent). edson's thorn. plate . bark brown, scaly; spines . - cm. ( - - / inches) long, stout, curved; leaves ovate, - cm. ( - / - - / inches) long, acute at the apex, broadly cuneate or truncate at base, serrate or doubly serrate with acute lobes, dull dark yellow-green above, paler beneath; corymbs glabrous, many flowered; flowers - mm. ( / - / inch) broad; stamens about ; anthers pink; styles and nutlets - ; fruit subglobose, slightly angular, dark cherry-red, - mm. ( / - / inch) thick, flesh succulent; calyx lobes erect or spreading. =distribution.=--new england to southern michigan, northern indiana and pennsylvania to mountains of north carolina and tennessee. a broad shrub or small tree sometimes . meters ( feet) high, branches ascending. specimens examined: wells (deam). [illustration: plate . cratÆgus basilica beadle. edson's thorn. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . cratÆgus jesupi sargent. jesup's thorn. (× / .)] = . crataegus jésupi= sargent. jesup's thorn. twin mountain thorn. plate . bark grayish-brown; spines stout, straight - cm. ( / - - / inches) long; leaves elliptical-ovate, . - cm. ( - / - inches) long, - . cm. ( - inches) wide, acute or acuminate at the apex, broadly cuneate to truncate-cordate, serrate or doubly serrate, with or pairs of acute lobes, yellow-green above, paler beneath, glabrous; petioles slender, - . cm. ( / - - / inches) long, slightly winged above; corymbs glabrous, many-flowered; flowers appear in may, about cm. ( / inch) broad; stamens about ; anthers dark red; styles and nutlets usually or ; calyx lobes entire; fruit ripens in october, short-ellipsoidal to pyriform, dark red, slightly angled, lacking bloom when mature, about cm. ( / inch) thick, flesh yellow, firm; calyx lobes mostly deciduous. =distribution.=--western vermont, to southwestern wisconsin and south to pennsylvania and owen county, indiana. a shrubby tree, sometimes m. ( feet) high, with ascending branches and a round crown. specimens examined: owen (mrs. chas. c. deam). = . crataegus rugòsa= ashe. (_crataegus deltoides_ ashe). fretz's thorn. plate . spines numerous, - cm. ( - / - - / inches) long, stout curved; leaves broadly ovate, - cm. ( - - / inches) long and broad, acute or acuminate at the apex, cordate or truncate at the base, serrate or twice serrate with - pairs of broad acuminate lobes, glabrous, membranaceous; petioles - cm. ( / - - / inches) long, glabrous; corymbs many-flowered, glabrous; flowers appear in may, about cm. ( / inch) broad; stamens - ; anthers pink; styles and nutlets usually or ; calyx lobes deltoid-acuminate, entire or slightly serrate at the base; fruit ripens in october, depressed-globose, bright red, angular, glabrous, waxy, - . cm. ( / - / inch) thick, flesh yellow, somewhat succulent; calyx lobes persistent, spreading, the tube rather prominent. =distribution.=--southwestern new england to southern indiana and the mountains of north carolina. a shrub or tree sometimes m. ( feet) high, with ascending branches and an irregular crown. specimens examined: allen (deam); decatur (deam); grant (deam); jennings (deam); owen (deam); perry (deam); wells (deam). = . crataegus fílipes= ashe. miss beckwith's thorn. (_crataegus silvicola_ var. _beckwithae_ (sargent) eggleston). plate . spines numerous, curved, chestnut-brown, . to cm. ( - - / inches) long; bark slightly scaly; leaves - cm. ( / - - / inches) long, - cm. ( / - - / inches) wide; leaves ovate, acute or acuminate at apex, rounded, truncate or on vegetative shoots cordate at base, serrate or doubly serrate, lower pair of acuminate lobes often deeply cut, membranaceous, glabrous; corymbs glabrous; flowers about cm. ( / inch) broad; stamens about ; anthers pink; styles and nutlets - ; fruit globose or compressed-globose, cherry-red, - mm. ( / inch) thick, ripens in october. [illustration: plate . cratÆgus rugosa ashe. fretz's thorn. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . cratÆgus filipes ashe. miss beckwith's thorn. (× / .)] =distribution.=--western new england to central michigan and south to pennsylvania and southern indiana. a shrub or tree sometimes meters ( feet) high, with irregular ascending branches. specimens have been seen from perry county, deam's no. . = . crataegus gattíngeri= ashe. (_crataegus coccinea_ var. _oligandra_ torrey and gray). dr. clapp's thorn. gattinger's thorn. plate . spines numerous, . - cm. ( - inches) long; leaves narrowly ovate to deltoid, . - cm. ( - - / inches) long, - cm. ( / - inches) wide, acuminate at the apex, broadly cuneate or rounded at the base, serrate or doubly serrate, lobed towards the apex, membranaceous, glabrous, dark green above; petioles glabrous, - cm. ( / - - / inches) long; corymbs glabrous, many-flowered; flowers appear in may, about cm. ( / inch) broad; stamens - ; anthers small, pink; styles and nutlets usually or ; fruit ripens in october, globose, angular, red, slightly waxy, . - . cm. ( / - / inch) thick, flesh hard; calyx tube prominent, the lobes triangular, spreading. =distribution.=--southern pennsylvania and southern indiana to west virginia and central tennessee. shrub or small tree sometimes . m. ( feet) high, with ascending, irregular branches. specimens seen from: floyd (dr. clapp, before ); knox (schneck); perry (deam); steuben (deam); wells (deam). = . crataegus pruinòsa= (wendland) k. koch. waxy-fruited thorn. plate . bark dark brown; spines numerous, slender, - cm. ( - / - - / inches) long; leaves elliptic-ovate to broadly ovate, . - cm. ( - - / inches) long and wide, acute or acuminate at the apex, abruptly cuneate, rounded or occasionally cordate at the base, serrate or doubly serrate with or pairs of broad acute lobes towards the apex, blue-green, glabrous, membranaceous; petioles or cm. ( / - - / inches) long, glabrous; corymbs glabrous, many-flowered; flowers appear in may, about cm. ( / inch) broad; stamens - ; anthers pink or sometimes yellow or white; styles and nutlets or ; calyx lobes lanceolate-acuminate, entire, slightly serrate at the base; fruit ripens in october, depressed-globose to short-ellipsoidal, strongly angled, waxy, apple green, becoming scarlet or purple, . - . cm. ( / - / inch), thick, firm, yellow, sweet; calyx tube prominent, the lobes spreading, persistent. =distribution.=--rocky, open woods, western new england to michigan and south to north carolina and missouri. well distributed in indiana. [illustration: plate . cratÆgus gattingeri ashe. dr. gattinger's thorn. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . cratÆgus pruinosa (wendland) k. koch. waxy-fruited thorn. (× / .)] a small shrubby tree sometimes m. ( feet) high, with irregular branches and crown. specimens have been seen from the following counties: allen (deam); clark (deam); decatur (deam); delaware (deam); gibson (deam); hamilton (deam); hancock (mrs. chas. c. deam); lagrange (deam); madison (deam); marion (deam); monroe (deam); porter (deam); putnam (grimes); randolph (deam); steuben (deam); sullivan (deam); tipton (deam); vermillion (deam); warren (deam); wayne (deam); wells (deam). = . crataegus coccinioìdes= ashe. eggert's thorn. (_crataegus eggertii_ britton). plate . bark grayish-brown, scaly; spines curved, - cm. ( / - - / inches) long; leaves broadly ovate, - cm. ( - / - - / inches) long, . - cm. ( - / - inches) wide, acute at the apex, rounded or truncate at the base, doubly serrate with several pairs of broad, acute lobes, dark green above, paler and slightly tomentose along the veins beneath, membranaceous; petioles to cm. ( / - - / inches) long, slightly pubescent; corymbs glabrous, - flowered; flowers appear in may, about cm. ( / inch) broad; stamens about ; anthers pink; styles and nutlets usually or ; calyx lobes ovate, acute, glandular-serrate; fruit ripens in september, subglobose, obtusely angled, . - cm. ( / - inch) thick, flesh reddish, subacid, edible; calyx tube prominent, the lobes spreading. =distribution.=--montreal island to rhode island and west to eastern kansas and missouri. a small tree sometimes m. ( feet) high, with ascending and spreading branches and a broad, round-topped crown. specimens have been seen from: floyd (dr. clapp, before ), (deam); gibson (schneck); marion (deam); martin (deam); vigo (blatchley); whitley (deam). = . crataegus coccínea= linnæus. scarlet thorn. red haw. (_crataegus pedicillata_ sargent). plate . bark light gray, spines stout, curved, - cm. ( / - inches) long; leaves broadly ovate, - cm. ( - / - inches) long, - cm. ( - / - - / inches) wide, acute or acuminate at the apex, broadly cuneate to truncate at the base, serrate, doubly serrate or lobed, slightly pubescent, becoming scabrous above, nearly glabrous beneath, membranaceous; corymbs glabrous or sometimes slightly villous, many-flowered; flowers appear in may, . - cm. ( / - / inch) broad; stamens - ; anthers pink; styles and nutlets - ; fruit ripens in september, pyriform to short ellipsoidal, scarlet or red, glabrous or slightly pubescent, . - cm. ( / - / inch) thick, flesh thick, dry and mealy; calyx lobes lanceolate-acuminate, glandular-serrate, erect or spreading, rather persistent. [illustration: plate . cratÆgus coccinoides ashe. eggert's thorn. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . cratÆgus coccinea linnæus. scarlet thorn. (× / .)] =distribution.=--connecticut to ontario, illinois, delaware and pennsylvania. a small tree sometimes m. ( feet) high, with ascending and spreading branches and a broad, round-topped crown. specimens have been seen from the following counties: floyd (deam); knox (deam); noble (vangorder); steuben (deam); white (deam). =horticultural uses.=--this fine tree has been in the gardener's hands several centuries. there are specimens in the kew gardens, england, more than two hundred years old. = a. crataegus coccinea= var. =ellwangeriàna=, n. nom. (_crataegus pedicillata_ var. _ellwangeriana_ (sargent) eggleston). corymbs densely villous; fruit slightly villous. =distribution.=--known in indiana from deam's specimen no. from warren county. = . crataegus móllis= (torrey and gray) scheele. red-fruited or downy thorn. red haw. plate . bark grayish-brown, fissured and scaly; spines curved, - cm. ( - inches) long; leaves broadly ovate, acute at the apex, cordate to truncate at the base, serrate or twice serrate with narrow acute lobes, - cm. ( - / - inches) long, - cm. ( - / - inches) wide, slightly rugose, densely tomentose beneath, tomentose above, becoming scabrous, membranaceous; petioles - cm. ( / - - / inches) long, tomentose; corymbs tomentose, many-flowered; flowers appear in may, about . cm. ( inch) broad; stamens about ; anthers light yellow; styles and nutlets or ; fruit ripens in september, short-ellipsoidal to subglobose, scarlet, . - . cm. ( / - inch) thick, flesh thick, yellow, edible; calyx lobes glandular-serrate, swollen, erect or spreading, deciduous. =distribution.=--southern ontario to south dakota, south to central tennessee and arkansas. this thorn is well distributed over indiana. a small tree often m. ( feet) high, with ascending and spreading branches, forming a broad, round-topped crown. specimens have been examined from the following counties: allen (deam); cass (mrs. ida jackson); dearborn (deam); decatur (deam); delaware (deam); floyd (deam); gibson (schneck), (deam); hancock (deam); hendricks (deam); henry (deam); jackson (deam); knox (schneck), (deam); madison (deam); marion (mrs. chas. c. deam); montgomery (grimes); posey (deam); putnam (grimes); shelby (deam); sullivan (deam); vermillion (deam); wells (deam); whitley (deam). [illustration: plate . cratÆgus mollis (torrey and gray) scheele. red-fruited thorn. (× / .)] = . crataegus phænopyrum= (linnæus fils) medicus. washington thorn. scarlet haw. (_crataegus cordata_ aiton). plate . bark grayish-brown, scaly; spines numerous, slightly curved, - cm. ( / - inches) long; leaves ovate-triangular, - cm. ( / - inches) long and wide, simply or doubly serrate, often - lobed, acute at the apex, rounded to cordate at the base, bright green above, glabrous; petioles slender, . - cm. ( / - inches) long, glabrous; corymbs glabrous, many-flowered; flowers appear in june, - mm. ( / - / inch) broad; stamens about ; anthers pink; styles and nutlets usually ; calyx lobes deltoid, entire, deciduous; fruit ripens in october or november, depressed-globose, scarlet, - mm. ( / - / inch) thick, nutlets with a bare apex and smooth back, flesh thin, firm. =distribution.=--virginia to georgia, indiana to arkansas. moist rich soil. naturalized in pennsylvania and new jersey. possibly it may be naturalized at the indiana station. more knowledge of distribution in southern indiana is needed to settle this question. a shrubby tree sometimes m. ( feet) high, with nearly erect branches and an oblong crown. specimens have been seen from wayne (deam). it also occurs in the wabash valley. =horticultural uses.=--this is one of the most desirable thorns for ornamental planting and hedges. its scarlet autumn foliage and beautiful little scarlet fruit persist for a long time. it is also one of the american thorns long in cultivation, both in europe and the united states. =crataegus álbicans= linnæus. this species was reported for indiana by heimlich.[ ] the material at hand is not sufficient to make a satisfactory determination, hence it is omitted in the text. according to the treatment of the genus crataegus in britton and brown's illustrated flora, nd edition, the range of the following species extend into indiana. throughout the state-- in the northern part of the state-- c. boyntoni. c. brainerdi. c. lucorum. in the southern part of the state-- c. roanensis. c. beata. c. berberifolia. c. villipes. c. denaria. c. pringlei. c. fecunda. c. ovata. [illustration: plate . cratÆgus phÆnopyrum (linnæus filius) medicus. washington thorn. (× / .)] =amygdalÀceae.= the plum family. trees or shrubs with alternate, simple, petioled and usually serrate leaves; flowers perfect, calyx and corolla numerous, stamens - ; fruit a -seeded drupe. the characters which separate the species are not at all constant, and the species often vary much in the extremes of their range. =prÙnus.= the plums and cherries. flowers in umbel like clusters, or somewhat corymbose, appearing before or with the leaves on branchlets of the preceding year. margins of leaves with sharp teeth. petioles glabrous beneath p. americana. petioles more or less pubescent all around. p. americana var. lanata. margins of leaves with blunt or crenate teeth. teeth of center of leaves about per cm.; calyx lobes glandular; fruit more than mm. in diameter. principal leaves of fruiting branches generally more than cm. broad; flowers white and generally more than mm. wide. p. nigra. principal leaves of fruiting branches generally less than cm. broad; flowers white which on age show a tinge of pink and generally less than mm. wide. p. hortulana. teeth of center of leaves about per cm.; calyx lobes glandless; fruit less than mm. in diameter. p. pennsylvanica. flowers in racemes, appearing after the leaves on twigs of the present year p. serotina. = . prunus americàna= marshall. wild red plum. plate . small trees with crooked branches; bark of old trees exfoliating in irregular plates; twigs smooth; leaves obovate or oval, - cm. long, . - cm. wide, narrowed or sometimes rounded at the base, acuminate at apex, margins sharply serrate or doubly serrate, glabrous above and smooth below, or hairy on the veins and sometimes more or less pubescent over the whole under surface, inner surface of petiole more or less hairy and sometimes bearing one or two glands; flowers appear in april or may before or with the leaves in clusters of - or sometimes singly, about cm. in diameter, calyx smooth or with some hairs near the base of the lobes which are pubescent within and smooth or hairy without, lobes entire or cut-toothed above the middle, glandless or with inconspicuous glands; fruit ripens in august or september, usually globose, about cm. in diameter, red; stone doubly convex, oval to nearly orbicular, surface usually smooth. [illustration: plate . prunus americana marshall. wild red plum. (× / .)] =distribution.=--massachusetts to florida, west to manitoba and south to new mexico. found throughout indiana. while it has a general distribution, it is not generally distributed through the forests, but is local in colonies in low grounds along streams or in low places in the forest. in the southern counties it is found on the ridges and commonly about the basins of sink-holes. large single trees may be found but they are usually surrounded by many smaller ones which are root shoots. from this habit of the tree to produce root shoots large colonies are formed which has given rise to the term "plum thickets." =remarks.=--the wood of this tree is of no economic importance, but the species from a horticultural standpoint is one of the most important of all of the plums. many named varieties belong to this species. it should be noted that all species of plums are quite variable, and one must not be surprised to find specimens that will not come entirely within the descriptions. = . prunus americana= var. =lanàta= sudworth. woolly-leaf plum. plate . small trees with the characteristic wild plum tree bark, except on age it becomes more furrowed; twigs generally puberulent or sometimes smooth; leaves obovate, oblong-obovate, or sometimes somewhat ovate, generally about - cm. long, and - cm. wide, rounded at the base, acute or short acuminate at the apex, margins sharply serrate, or doubly serrate, upper surface covered with short appressed hairs, lower surface permanently pubescent with longer hairs; petioles more or less pubescent and often bearing one or more glands; flowers appear in april or may in umbels of - , upper part of calyx, and its lobes pubescent both inside and out, the lobes more or less cut-toothed and bearing inconspicuous glands; fruit ripening in september, globose, reddish with a bluish bloom; stone nearly orbicular and turgid. =distribution.=--indiana west to indian territory and south to the gulf. the range of this variety has not been well understood, and it is believed that forms of this variety in the northern part of its range have been included in the preceding species. it is certain that in our area the two forms are separated with difficulty; especially is this true of certain individuals. specimens at hand show it to occur in floyd, clark, bartholomew, martin, warren, vermillion, gibson, warrick, and perry counties. =remarks.=--this form intergrades with the preceding to such an extent that there is little difference between the extremes of the two forms. [illustration: plate . prunus americana variety lanata sudworth. woolly-leaf plum. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . prunus nigra aiton. canada plum. (× / .)] = . prunus nìgra= aiton. canada plum. plate . small trees with the characteristic bark of the genus; twigs smooth; leaves obovate or oval, - cm. long and - cm. wide, rounded or somewhat narrowed at the base, abruptly short acuminate toward the apex, smooth or sparsely covered above with a short appressed pubescence, more or less pubescent beneath especially along the veins, usually pubescent on the veins at maturity, margins crenate-serrate, the teeth ending in persistent glands, petioles more or less pubescent on the inner surface, and generally bearing a pair of glands, which number varies from to , or sometimes absent; flowers appear in april or may in umbels of - , about cm. in diameter--the largest of the genus in indiana, calyx smooth, the lobes smooth without and within, except toward the base which is pubescent, the lobes reddish and the margins studded with numerous red glands; fruit ripens in july, globose, red; stone short oval and very flat. =distribution.=--new brunswick to massachusetts and west to minnesota and south to central indiana. in indiana it is definitely known only from wells, blackford and marion counties. no doubt it ranges throughout the northern part of indiana, but it has not been separated from _prunus americana_. higley and raddin[ ] in , when our text books did not separate this species, in a flora which included a part of lake county indiana, remark: "there are two distinct forms of _prunus americana_; one with slender branches and large flowers with glandular calyx, found in swamps and another found with stout branches and much smaller flowers with the calyx less glandular, grows in dry soil." this no doubt refers to the species under discussion. in the author found this species growing in a swamp in wells county, and transplanted a specimen to high ground in his orchard. it has persisted ever since, growing vigorously and freely suckering from the roots, but it has been quite susceptible to the san jose scale. = . prunus hortulàna= bailey. wild goose plum. plate . small trees with bark exfoliating in plates or rolls on old trees; twigs smooth; leaves oblong-oval, oval, slightly ovate or obovate, generally - cm. long and . - . cm. wide, rounded and often slightly oblique at the base, acuminate at the apex, margins finely serrated with short rounded and glandular teeth, generally glossy and smooth above, more or less pubescent all over beneath with long hairs, the midrib and lateral veins usually prominent below, petioles pubescent on the inner face and usually bearing one or more glands; flowers appear with the leaves in april or may in umbels of - ; calyx glabrous, the lobes glabrous on the outer face, and more or less pubescent within, margins glandular; fruit ripens in august, generally globose, red; stone generally short oval, very turgid, face reticulated. [illustration: plate . prunus hortulana bailey. wild goose plum. (× / .)] =distribution.=--central kentucky northwestward to central iowa and southwestward to kansas and east to northwest tennessee. in indiana the specimens at hand show it to be confined to the southwestern part of the state, although pepoon[ ] reports a single tree found near dune park in porter county. it is found on sandy roadside cuts, base of sandy wooded slopes, etc., and is a common tree in sullivan county for miles on the wooded bank of the terrace of the wabash river. = . prunus pennsylvánica= linnæus filius. wild red cherry. plate . small trees with smooth cherry-like bark, somewhat roughened near the base on old trees; twigs smooth, at least at maturity; leaves oval, oval-lanceolate, or ovate, sometimes slightly falcate, - cm. long, and . - cm. wide, rounded or narrowed at the base, long acuminate at the apex, margins finely serrate with glandular incurved teeth, glossy and smooth above, generally smooth beneath, sometimes pubescent along the midrib and veins, petioles generally smooth, rarely pubescent; flowers appear with the leaves in may in umbels of - , or sometimes raceme-like but the rachis shorter than the pedicels; calyx glabrous, the lobes glabrous within and without, entire and glandless; fruit ripens in august, globose, - mm. in diameter, red; stone roundish-oval, surface granular. =distribution.=--newfoundland and new england to the rocky mountains, south to colorado and eastward through northern indiana to pennsylvania and thence in the mountains to north carolina. in indiana it is definitely known to occur only in lake, porter, laporte, st. joseph and lagrange counties. it is frequently found on the black oak ridges about lake michigan. all other reports of this species for indiana should be looked upon with suspicion. the one by chipman from kosciusko county may be correct. the one by ridgway[ ] for posey county is undoubtedly an error. no doubt phinney's[ ] record for central eastern indiana (jay, delaware, randolph and wayne counties) is an error. the range of the species is to the north of our area, and like a few others it is found about the great lakes south of its general range. in ohio it is reported only from cuyahoga county which borders lake erie. [illustration: plate . prunus pennsylvanica linnæus fils. wild red cherry. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . prunus serotina ehrhart. wild black cherry. (× / .)] = . prunus serótina= ehrhart. wild cherry. cherry. =wild black cherry.= plate . medium to large sized trees; bark of young trees smooth, becoming on old trees irregularly fissured and separating in small scaly plates; twigs slender and smooth, sometimes pubescent while young; leaves oval, oblong-oval, ovate or narrowly ovate, generally - cm. long and - cm. wide, generally narrowed at the base, sometimes rounded, short or long acuminate at the apex, margin finely serrate with incurved sharp callous teeth, smooth above and below, sometimes slightly pubescent beneath while young; flowers appear in may, when the leaves are almost grown, on the ends of the year's growth, in racemes generally - cm. long; fruit ripens in july and august, globose, about - mm. in diameter, dark red to almost black. =distribution.=--nova scotia to south dakota, south to florida and west to texas. found in all parts of indiana. it prefers a moist loose soil and is usually found with beech, sugar maple, tulip, white ash and white oak. in the original forest it was a rare to a frequent tree, and only rarely and locally did it ever become common. it grew to be several feet in diameter and was as tall as the highest trees of the forest. the trunk of the tree, however, was inclined to be crooked. it has now become a frequent tree along fences. =remarks.=--the wood of wild cherry from pioneer times has been a favorite wood, and for this reason the tree soon disappeared and today large trees are very rare. the wood is strong, close-grained, reddish-brown, and very much resembles mahogany. in value it stands second in indiana woods. it is used principally for furniture, office and store fixtures. the wild cherry grows readily from seed; is not difficult to transplant; adapts itself to almost all kinds of soils and grows rapidly. in spring it is one of the very first trees to put out its leaves. it is not shade enduring, which no doubt, in a great measure, accounts for its rarity in the primeval forests. when grown in the open the tree usually produces an abundance of fruit which is much relished by birds. this species has many good features, and might be used to advantage in forest planting. =caesalpinÀceae.= the senna family. leaves simple; flowers pink; seed pod papery cercis. leaves compound; flowers not pink; seed pod woody or leathery. trees with thorns; stamens - , longer than the corolla; pods flat and leathery; seeds about cm. ( / inch) long gleditsia. trees without thorns; stamens , shorter than the corolla; pods swollen, woody; seeds about cm. ( inch) long gymnocladus. = . cÉrcis.= the redbud. =cercis canadénsis= linnæus. redbud. plate . small trees; bark of trunk of old trees fissured, reddish-brown; twigs glabrous, light brown, becoming a dark brown; leaves alternate, broadly ovate, average blades - cm. long, cordate at base, short-pointed, sometimes short-acuminate or rarely rounded at the apex, margins entire, glabrous or pubescent on unfolding, at maturity usually glabrous on both sides, or with a few hairs in the axils of the veins or along the veins, sometimes more or less pubescent beneath, and with hairs on the veins above; petioles generally - cm. long; flowers appear in april or may before the leaves, in clusters of - on the branches of the preceding season, pink or rose color; pods - cm. long, thin, flat and glabrous; wood heavy, hard and weak. =distribution.=--in canada along the shores of lake erie and ontario, new york west through michigan to iowa, south to the gulf states and west to texas. found throughout indiana except there are no records from the counties bordering lake michigan. in the northern part of the state it is rare or frequent in alluvial soil along streams or in rich woods. in the southern part of the state it is a frequent to a common tree in ravines and on slopes. it is never found in wet situations, and consequently is absent in the "flats" of the southern counties. =remarks.=--the redbud is the common name for this tree throughout the state. in one locality it was known as the fish blossom because the larger fish spawn when this tree is in flower. in text books it is also called judas tree. it is usually a tree - . dm. in diameter and - m. high. it is of no economic importance and is classed as a weed tree in the woodlot and should be removed. it is frequently recommended for ornamental planting. it prefers a rich moist soil, and is shade enduring, although it succeeds best in the open or in a light shade. = . gledÍtsia.= the honey locust. pods more than cm. long; seeds oval g. triacanthos. pods less than cm. long; seeds orbicular g. aquatica. = . gleditsia triacánthos= linnæus. honey locust. plate . medium to large sized trees; bark of old trunks fissured and peeling off in strips; spines on trunk large and often much branched, sometimes dm. long; spines on branches not so large, generally more or less forked; twigs at first green, turning a light brown; leaves pinnate or bipinnate, - dm. long, rachis permanently pubescent; leaflets - pairs, fewer on the bipinnate forms, petiolules about mm. long, form variable from ovate to lanceolate, sometimes somewhat falcate, generally - cm. long, usually more or less pubescent beneath; flowers appear in may or june, inconspicuous, greenish-yellow, rich in honey, their appearance being announced by the hum of the swarm of insects visiting them; fruit a flat, linear twisted pod, - dm. long, glabrous and lustrous or pubescent on the sides; seeds several, oval, about mm. wide, and mm. long, glabrous and chestnut brown; wood heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained and takes a good polish. [illustration: plate . cercis canadensis linnæus. redbud. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . gleditsia triacanthos linnæus. honey locust. (× / .)] =distribution.=--pennsylvania, southern michigan to iowa, and south to the gulf states and west to texas. found infrequently throughout indiana along streams, except that it is absent about lake michigan and that in the southwestern counties it becomes a frequent tree in the wabash bottoms. in its native habitat it is rarely found except near a stream, pond, lake, etc. however, in the southeastern counties it has spread all over many of the hillsides which were once cleared and have been abandoned for agricultural purposes and left to natural forest regeneration. it was interesting to learn how this tree was able to propagate itself on the steep bare slopes. it was found that the seeds were scattered by cattle that greedily eat the fruit. it is a medium sized tree, except in the wabash bottoms of the southwestern part of the state where it grows to be one of the largest trees of the forest, and is more luxuriant than in any other part of its range. =remarks.=--in making a study of the fruit of this species, it was found that the sides of all the pods of all the specimens at hand except one are glabrous, even those of young fruit. the margins of the pods are pubescent. however, a specimen collected on august th in vermillion county has the entire pod covered with long hairs. in consulting the literature on the subject it is found that some authors describe the fruit as glabrous while others describe it as hairy. it would be interesting to study the significance of this character to learn if each form has a geographic range. the wood is used principally for interior finish, furniture, posts and crossties. the tree has a grace that recommends it for ornamental planting despite its thorns. however, a thornless variety is now offered by nurserymen. it adapts itself to all kinds of soils, although it prefers a moist rich soil; grows rapidly and is comparatively free from insect damage. [illustration: plate . gleditsia aquatica marshall. water honey locust. (× / .)] = . gleditsia aquática= marshall. water honey locust. plate . a medium sized tree with rather smooth bark, which becomes rough and flaky on large trees; twigs greenish, turning to a light brown by the end of the year; branchlets a greenish-gray brown; spines all usually more or less flattened, those of the branchlets and branches, rather few and usually simple, - cm. long, those of the trunk branched, spines do not develop on the year's growth; leaves from old wood pinnate, from the year's growth bipinnate; rachis grooved and pubescent or puberulent above and smooth below; leaflets generally - pairs, variable in shape and size, generally lanceolate and . - . cm. long, on petiolules about mm. long, glabrous; flowers similar to the preceding species; fruit a glabrous, shining, oblique pod about - cm. long, containing seed; seeds orbicular, flat, chestnut brown, about cm. in diameter. =distribution.=--atlantic coast from north carolina south to florida, and the mississippi valley from southwestern indiana southward to texas. in indiana this species is rare and limited to the banks of river sloughs, locally called ponds and to one cypress swamp. it is known to have occurred on the banks of wabash and dan's ponds and little cypress swamp in the southwest corner of knox county, and in gibson county on the bank of a slough near skelton and about burnett's pond. the reference to posey county is without a verifying specimen, although it may be found in the county. the writer has visited about every place in the county where the species might occur, and has never found it. gorby's[ ] reference for miami county is without doubt an error. in our area it is a low crooked tree and grows with its base submerged more or less during the year. the idea of the proportions of this tree can be obtained from the measurements taken from the largest tree now known in indiana, which is located on the shore of dan's pond in knox county. it measures cm. ( inches) in circumference at m. above the ground, and is estimated to be m. ( feet) high. this species is too rare to be of economic importance. =gleditsia aquatica × triacanthos.= dr. schneck[ ] found two honey locust trees which he described as hybrids of the two species. the one was located on the bank of dan's pond in knox county, and the other in gibson county. the original description is as follows: "in both instances the pods are the distinguishing feature. these are very much alike in both trees, being about inches long, - / inches wide, smooth, shining, of a light brown color and entirely destitute of pulp. otherwise the tree cannot be distinguished from the trees among which they stand. they are both about feet high, with short stems and spreading branches, and stand about miles apart." the writer has five fruiting specimens from these two trees, taken by dr. schneck. two of the sheets have the round and branched spines of _g. triacanthos_. = . gymnÓcladus.= the coffee tree. =gymnocladus dioíca= (linnæus) koch. coffeenut tree. plate . medium sized trees; bark of trunks fissured, the ridges often curling up along the sides, very hard; twigs at first hairy, becoming glabrous and mottled gray-brown by the end of the season, robust, usually about cm. in diameter; leaves alternate, twice pinnate, - dm. long, leaflets usually - pairs, ovate, generally from - cm. long, generally oblique and rounded, wedge-shape or truncate at the base, acute or very sharp-pointed at the apex, petiolules about mm. long, pubescent on both sides at first, becoming glabrous or nearly so at maturity; flowers of two kinds, the male and female on separate trees, appearing in may or june; fruit a pod generally about - dm. long, thick, curved; seeds generally - , large, flattened about cm. in diameter; wood heavy, not hard, coarse-grained and takes a high polish. =distribution.=--new york, southwestern ontario to southern minnesota south to tennessee and arkansas. this species has been reported or is known to exist in counties in various parts of the state. it no doubt was native to every county of the state, except it be those bordering lake michigan from which we have no reports. it is a rare tree in all parts. only exceptionally is it found even frequently. a few trees may be found in one place, and it will not be found again for many miles. no doubt there are many areas with a radius of to miles where this tree never occurred. it is usually found in alluvial soil along streams, or nearby terraces. =remarks.=--this species generally is not very tall, and is usually found in open places in the forest or cut-over lands. however, one specimen was seen in posey county that was as tall as a specimen of pecan of equal size that grew nearby. this species was so rare in this vicinity that i was asked to drive three miles to identify this tree which no one could name. coffeenut, which is sometimes called kentucky coffeenut, has always been so rare as to be of little economic importance. it has no qualities to recommend it for ornamental planting. =fabÀceae.= the pea family. trees, shrubs, vines or herbs with alternate leaves, mostly compound; flowers with five petals which are pea-like (papilionaceous); stamens generally ; fruit a legume. [illustration: plate . gymnocladus dioica (linnæus) koch. coffeenut tree. (× / ).] =robÍnia.= the locusts. =robinia pseùdo-acàcia= linnæus. locust. black locust. plate . medium sized trees with deeply furrowed bark; twigs at first green and hairy, becoming at the end of the season glabrous and a light brown, the stipules developing in about a year into a pair of woody spines about cm. long; leaves pinnate, . - dm. long; leaflets - on short stalks, ovate to oblong, - cm. long, rounded at base, rounded or pointed and with a small indenture at apex, margin entire, pubescent on both sides at first, becoming at maturity glabrous above and remaining more or less pubescent below, especially on the midrib; flowers in loose racemes, white, expanding in may or june; fruit a flat and slightly curved pod about - cm. long, glabrous; seeds usually - in each pod, about mm. long and . mm. wide; wood heavy, very hard, close-grained, takes a good polish, very durable in contact with the soil. =distribution.=--appalachian mountains from pennsylvania south to northern georgia, and in arkansas. in indiana it is found as an escape in all parts and was doubtless native along the ohio river, at least in the southeastern part of the state. thomas[ ] says: "we had gazed at the majestic beech of this country (near rising sun) three feet in diameter; we had seen the honey locust, the black walnut, a buckeye of equal magnitude; and then we saw with surprise, the black locust almost a rival in stature." drake[ ] says: "the flowering locust is abundant in kentucky. along the ohio river it is rarely found more than miles north of the river." =remarks.=--this tree is generally known as the locust tree, but is sometimes called the yellow locust. locust wood is somewhat lighter than white oak, but it is percent stiffer and per cent stronger. these remarkable qualities added to its durability in contact with the ground make it one of the most desirable trees for forest planting. the wood has been used principally for posts, ties, tree nails, etc. the locust when grown close together usually grows to - inches in diameter. there are, however, specimens that have grown in the open that are almost three feet in diameter. the pioneers used it extensively for ornamental planting, and it has escaped from such planting in all parts of the state. it propagates easily by root shoots which is the principal mode of spreading, except where the seed fall on exposed soil. [illustration: plate . robinia pseudo-acacia linnæus. black locust. (× / .)] the locust has of recent years been extensively planted for post timber. it is very easily propagated from seedlings and grows rapidly. it is adapted to all kinds of soil, except a wet one. it prefers a well drained soil and seems to grow as fast in a loose clay soil as in a black loam. when used for forest planting the spacing should be from  ×  feet to  ×  feet. the spacing should be governed by the quality of the soil, and the amount of pruning that can be done. the locust has the habit of having the terminal to end in a fork and having one or more very large side branches. the best management requires that the very large side branches be removed as soon as they are noted, and one part of the terminal forks be cut off. the locust until recently gave great promise of being an important tree for planting sterile, washed and eroded slopes, on which it usually thrives and in many cases grows thriftily. however, reports from all parts of the state show that locust groves wherever planted are being killed by the locust body borer. the locust has also been attacked by the twig borer, bag worm and the leaf miner. at present there are no known economic means of controlling these destructive pests, and until they can be controlled, the planting of locust for commercial purposes will not prove profitable. =simarubÀceae.= the quassia family. =ailÁnthus.= tree of heaven. =ailanthus altíssima= (miller) swingle. tree of heaven. stink tree. (_ailanthus glandulosa_ desfontaines). plate . medium sized trees with dark gray bark, thin, rough or fissured on old trees; branchlets very robust; twigs smooth; leaves compound and very large, especially on coppice shoots, usually about - dm. long, odd-pinnate, arranged spirally on the branchlets; leaflets - , ovate-oblong, acuminate, oblique at base, entire or with a few blunt teeth toward the base, smooth or hairy when they unfold, becoming smooth at maturity, dark green above, lighter beneath; flowers appear in june in large terminal panicles, the staminate and pistillate on different trees; fruit maturing in autumn, consists of many light brown, twisted and broadly-winged samaras which are about cm. wide and - cm. long. =distribution.=--a native of china. introduced and spreading in cities, and into fields and woods in the southern part of the state. the most notable occurrence is in jefferson county on the wooded bluffs of the ohio river between madison and hanover. =remarks.=--where the sugar and black maple can not be used for shade tree planting this tree should receive attention. it adapts itself to all kinds of soils, and to all kinds of growing conditions such as smoke, etc. the crown is of an oval or rounded type. it stands pruning and injury to trunk or branches quite well. it is practically free from all diseases and insect injury. the leaves appear late but they do not fall until the first killing frost when they are killed, and frequently practically all of the leaves will fall in one day. the staminate flowers exhale a fetid odor for a few days which is about the only objectionable feature in this tree. in order to obviate this objection, nurserymen are now offering for sale pistillate trees which have been grafted on common stock. [illustration: plate . ailanthus altissima (miller) swingle. ailanthus or tree of heaven. (× / .)] =acerÀceae.= the maple family. =Àcer.= the maples. trees with terete branches; scaly buds; long petioled, opposite leaves; fruit consists of two long-winged samaras which are joined at their base, separating at maturity. the sap of some of the species, when concentrated, yields the maple sugar and sirup of commerce. leaves trifoliate or pinnate a. negundo. leaves simple. winter buds blunt; flowers appear from lateral buds before the leaves; fruit maturing in the spring or early summer. leaves entirely glabrous beneath at maturity, -lobed; the two sinuses between the three largest lobes generally somewhat closed, formed as it were by the arcs of two circles which meet to form the sinus, and which if they were extended outward would cross each other within a few dm. of the sinus; fruit more or less pubescent at maturity a. saccharinum. leaves are never all entirely glabrous at maturity, - lobed; the two largest sinuses are generally angular with straight sides which if extended outward would never cross; fruit smooth at maturity. twigs smooth at maturity; leaves at maturity smooth beneath except a few hairs in the axils of the veins, or more rarely the entire lower surface covered more or less with a short pubescence; mature fruit generally - . cm. long a. rubrum. twigs more or less pubescent at maturity; leaves beneath covered with a dense tomentum which remains until maturity or sometimes becoming scanty; fruit about - cm. long var. drummondii. winter buds acute, sometimes somewhat blunt; flowers appear from terminal buds after the leaves; fruit maturing in the autumn. leaves yellow green beneath; base of the petiole of the terminal leaves enlarged at the base, smooth or somewhat pubescent about the enlarged base. a. nigrum. leaves not yellow green beneath; base of the petiole of the terminal leaves not enlarged, petioles smooth, or if pubescent at the base the pubescence will be more or less evident the entire length of the petiole. petioles smooth; leaves - lobed, blade as long or longer than wide, not densely pubescent beneath at maturity. a. saccharum. petioles smooth; leaves -lobed, blades wider than long. a. saccharum var. rugelii. petioles pubescent, rarely smooth; leaves -lobed, rarely -lobed, the under surface densely pubescent at maturity. a. saccharum var. schneckii. = . acer negúndo= linnæus. box elder. plate . a medium-sized tree with a short trunk and round head; bark of young trees smooth and gray, becoming thick on old trees, light to dark brown and more or less furrowed or rarely somewhat flaky; twigs smooth and greenish; leaves of average size are . - dm. long, generally with leaflets on the flowering branches, sometimes or rarely with , on sterile branches or on growing shoots - , the petioles generally / - / the length of the leaf and glabrous or nearly so at maturity; leaflets all on stalks more or less pubescent, the lateral stalks short, the terminal ones much longer, leaflets of varying size and shape, the margins usually varying from lobed to serrate or entire, pinnately veined, smooth above at maturity and remaining more or less pubescent beneath, especially along the veins; flowers appear just before the leaves the last of april or the first of may, the staminate and pistillate on separate trees; fruit matures late in summer, the body of the samara green and more or less pubescent. =distribution.=--new england to florida, west to minnesota and south to eastern texas. in indiana, it is found throughout the state in moist or wet places along creeks and rivers, and infrequently on the highlands along roadsides and fences. its original distribution in the state can only be conjectured. judging from its tolerance to shade and its habitat, and from the earliest reports of its occurrence in the state, this species was quite rare in the northern part of the state, becoming infrequent to frequent in its habitat in the southern part of the state. even today it is rather local in its distribution. i have never seen it on the low mucky border of a lake. =remarks.=--this species on account of its rapid growth was formerly much used in our area as a shade tree. it is believed that most of the trees now found along roadsides, fences, clearings and on the drier banks of streams are from seed distributed by the wind from planted trees. this species is now little used as a shade tree and is never recommended because it sheds its leaves early, and is subject to injury from disease and insects. [illustration: plate . acer negundo linnæus. box elder. (× / .)] = a. acer negundo= variety =violàceum= kirchner. (_rulac nuttallii_ nieuwland). this variety is distinguished by its glaucous twigs and by the body of the fruit being glabrous at maturity. in most instances when the bloom is rubbed from the twigs they show a purple tinge, hence the varietal name. =distribution.=--i have this variety in indiana from the following counties: brown, cass, elkhart, franklin, fulton, hendricks, henry, jennings, lagrange, martin, posey, st. joseph, vermillion and wayne. = . acer saccharìnum= linnæus. silver maple. soft maple. white maple. plate . medium sized trees; bark of small trees smooth and gray, becoming on old trees reddish-brown, and freely splitting into thin scales; branchlets light to reddish-brown and generally turning upward at their tips; leaves generally about dm. long, generally somewhat cordate at the base, sometimes truncate, deeply -lobed, each of the lateral lobes with an additional lobe below, margins of all of the lobes more or less irregular or even lobed, the two principal sinuses generally show a tendency to close, leaves hairy beneath when young, glabrous above and below at maturity and very glaucous beneath; flowers appear in march or april in the axils of the leaves of the previous year, the staminate and pistillate in separate clusters on the same or different trees; fruit on pedicels . - cm. long, maturing in the spring or early summer, green, densely hairy while young and remaining more or less hairy at maturity, - cm. long, wings - cm. wide. =distribution.=--new brunswick to florida, west to south dakota and south to texas. locally frequent to very common in all parts of indiana. this species is always found in wet or moist places, and in the lower wabash bottoms in low overflow lands or in or about old sloughs it often forms the principal stand. it is more frequently associated with black willow, white elm, red birch, sycamore, etc. =remarks.=--the silver maple has been used extensively for shade tree planting. the branches are very brittle, and ice storms sometimes break off so many branches that the tree may be badly injured. the shade trees of this species are in many parts of the state being killed by scale insects, and for this reason it should not be used. on account of its rapid growth it has also been much used for windbreaks but this practice should be discouraged and better species used. [illustration: plate . acer saccharinum linnæus. silver maple. (× / .)] = . acer rùbrum= linnæus. red maple. soft maple. swamp maple. plate . medium to large sized trees; bark of small trees smooth and gray, becoming dark brown on old trees, somewhat furrowed and scaly; branchlets smooth and reddish; twigs generally smooth but sometimes hairy, becoming glabrous by autumn; leaves - cm. long, - lobed, more or less cordate at the base, sometimes truncate or rounded, sinuses acute, those of -lobed leaves generally wider angled than those of -lobed ones, the lobes more or less irregularly serrate or dentate, hairy while young, glabrous above and more or less hairy beneath at maturity, glaucous beneath; flowering period march or april; flowers red or reddish, in the axils of the leaves of the previous year, the staminate and pistillate in separate clusters on the same or different trees; fruit maturing late in spring, on pedicels - cm. long, generally red, sometimes green, glabrous at maturity, rarely somewhat pubescent, . - . cm. long. =distribution.=--newfoundland to florida, west to minnesota and south to texas. it is found in all parts of indiana. its preferred habitat is that of low ground about lakes, swamps, along streams and in the "flats" in the southeast part of the state. throughout its range in indiana where it is found in low ground, it is in places rich in organic matter, except in the "flats" of the southern part of the state where it grows in a hard clay soil with sweet gum, red birch, etc. in contrast the silver maple is generally found growing in wet places with little organic matter; especially is this true in the lower wabash bottoms. the red maple grows also on high ground. in the northern part of the state it is only an occasional tree of gravelly ridges or on high ground about lakes or along streams. in the southern part of the state it is a local to a frequent tree in most parts of the "knob" area where it is associated with white oak, black oak, black gum, etc. it is also an occasional tree on the top of bluffs and cliffs. =remarks.=--the red maple is not abundant enough in indiana to be of any economic importance. it grows rapidly and should replace the silver maple for shade tree planting since its branches are not broken off as easily by ice storms and it is more resistant to insect attack. = a. acer rubrum= variety =drummóndii= (hooker and arnott) torrey and gray. this variety of the red maple is a form found in the dense swamps of the lower wabash valley. it is distinguished from the type by its twigs which generally remain more or less hairy until maturity; by the under surface of the leaves remaining more or less tomentose during the summer, and by its larger fruit. this variety is known with certainty only from little cypress swamp in knox county about miles southwest of decker. here it is a frequent to a common tree associated with cypress, swell-butt ash, button-bush, sweet gum, etc. all of the trees of this locality have -lobed leaves. [illustration: plate . acer rubrum linnæus. red maple. (× / .)] a specimen collected in the "bottoms" about two miles east of huntingburg in dubois county has -lobed leaves which are tomentose beneath at fruiting time and has fruit intermediate in size between the type and variety _drummondii_ which i doubtfully refer to variety tridens wood. = . acer nìgrum= f. a. michaux. black maple. black sugar. plate . medium to large sized trees with dark furrowed bark on old trees; leaves a little wider than long, - cm. long, on petioles usually - cm. long which are more or less swollen at the base and by maturity develop a scale like appendage on each side of the petiole at the base--especially on each of the terminal pair of leaves, sometimes with foliar stipules which are - cm. long on stalks of equal length, leaves with three main lobes, the two lower lobes generally have a small lobe at their base, margins of lobes entire and undulating, sinuses between main lobes generally rounded at the base, wide and shallow, base with a narrow sinus, the lower lobes often overlapping, rarely somewhat dentate, dark green above and a paler yellow green below, hairy on both surfaces when young, becoming at maturity glabrous above and remaining more or less pubescent beneath; flowers appear in may when the leaves are about half grown on long hairy pedicels, the staminate and pistillate in separate clusters on the same or different trees; fruit matures in autumn, the samaras about cm. long. =distribution.=--quebec to georgia, west to south dakota and south to louisiana. found in all parts of indiana and invariably associated with sugar maple, and often with beech in addition. frequently almost pure stands of sugar maple may be found with the black maple absent. where found it is usually a frequent to common tree, and when it occurs on a wooded slope it is more frequent near the base and appears to be able to advance farther into moist situations than its congener. =remarks.=--this tree cannot be distinguished from the sugar maple by its form, but at short range can be separated from it by its richer green foliage and by the drooping habit of the lower lobes of the leaves. it is commonly separated from the sugar maple by the darker color and by the narrower and shallower furrows of the bark, but these characters will not always separate the two species. hence, when buying black maple trees from a nurseryman you may receive the sugar maple. those who distinguish the two species agree that the black maple is the more desirable tree for shade tree planting. the black and sugar maple are the two most desirable trees for shade tree planting in indiana. they are long lived, have a very desirable form, beautiful foliage, a long leaf period, and are quite free from disease and insect injury. [illustration: plate . acer nigrum. f. a. michaux. black maple. (× / .)] = . acer sáccharum= marshall. sugar maple. sugar tree. hard maple. rock maple. plate . usually large, tall trees. the bark of small trees is smooth or rough, becoming fissured on old trees, tight or on very old trees sometimes the ridges loosen on one edge and turn outward. the leaves are extremely variable on different trees, and frequently show a wide variation on the same tree, as to form and in the presence or absence of hairs on the petioles and on the under surface of the leaves. in our area all of the forms which have the majority of the leaves longer than wide or about as wide as long, may be considered as falling within the type. the average sized leaves are - cm. long, - lobed, more or less cordate at the base, generally with a broad sinus, sometimes truncate or slightly wedge-shape, sinuses generally wide-angled and rounded at the base, sometimes acute, hairy beneath when young, becoming smooth at maturity except for a few hairs along the veins or in the main axils of the veins, or sometimes remaining more or less pubescent over the whole under surface, more or less glaucous beneath; flowers appear in april or may, on hairy pedicels - cm. long, the staminate and pistillate in clusters on the same or different trees; fruit ripening in autumn, samaras glabrous and usually - cm. long. =distribution.=--newfoundland to georgia, west to manitoba and south to texas. a frequent to a very common tree in all parts of indiana. it is confined to rich uplands, or along streams in well drained alluvial soil. throughout our area it is constantly associated with the beech. it is absent in the "flats" of the southeastern part of the state, and on the crest of the ridges of the "knob" area of indiana, but it is a frequent or common tree on the lower slopes of the spurs of the "knobs." =remarks.=--the under surface of the leaves of the sugar maple in the northern part of its range are green, while those of the southern part of its range are quite glaucous beneath. to distinguish these two intergrading forms the southern form has been called =acer saccharum= var. =glaucum= sargent[ ]. all of the trees seen in indiana have leaves more or less glaucous beneath. this character, however, is not always evident in dried specimens. the writer prefers not to apply the varietal name to the forms of our area. the sugar maple always has been and will continue to be one of the most important trees of the state. in its mass distribution in indiana it ranks not less than third. in the quality and uses of its wood it is equalled or exceeded only by the oak, ash and hickory. when compared with white oak it is a little lighter but thirty per cent stronger and fifty-three per cent stiffer. the greatest amount of the annual cut of maple is worked into flooring which is shipped to all parts of the world. it is much used in the manufacture of furniture and ranks third in use for veneer and hard wood distillation, and as a fuel wood is excelled only by hickory. since pioneer times, the sap of this tree has been made into sirup and sugar and their manufacture now forms a valuable industry. on an average it takes to gallons of sap to make a pound of sugar, and an average sized tree will annually yield about to pounds of sugar. [illustration: plate . acer saccharum marshall. sugar maple. (× / .)] the sugar maple on account of its slow growth has not been used much in reforestation. it is very tolerant of shade, can adapt itself to almost all kinds of soils, thrives either in a pure or mixed stand, and is practically free from injury of insects and diseases. it has, however, been extensively used as a shade tree. for this purpose it is scarcely excelled by any other tree. when grown in the open it almost invariably assumes a symmetrical oval form, and the autumnal coloration of its foliage is rarely surpassed by any of our trees. where a large tree is desired for street or ornamental planting the sugar maple can safely be recommended. = a. acer saccharum= variety =rugélii= (pax) rehder. this variety of the sugar maple has leaves much wider than long, smaller and -lobed. the lobes are long acuminate and usually entire, sometimes the lower lobe has a small lobe near the base. this variety is included in our flora on the authority of c. s. sargent who has given this name to specimens from indiana in the writer's herbarium. the specimens so named are from the southern part of the state. while there is a wide range of difference in the shape of the leaves of the typical -lobed _acer saccharum_ and its variety _rugelii_, all intermediate forms can be easily found. the leaves of a tree will vary most on those trees whose average shaped leaves are farthest from the typical form. = b. acer saccharum= variety =schnéckii= rehder. this variety in its extreme form is well marked by having the petioles and under surface of the leaves densely covered with hairs. the variety is characterized by having a "fulvous pubescence," but the specimens at hand show the color of the pubescence on both young and mature specimens to range from white to fulvous. the leaves of all specimens at hand are -lobed and show a variation of leaves with petioles and under surface of leaves densely pubescent to those with petioles glabrous and with densely pubescent under surface. the habitat is that of a dry soil and associated with beech. it has been found in gibson, martin, perry, posey and vanderburgh counties. =aesculÀceae.= the buckeye family. =aÉsculus.= the buckeyes. trees with dark or ashy-gray colored bark; twigs stout; buds large, leaves opposite, palmately divided into - ovate or oblong divisions, the divisions serrate; flowers in terminal panicles; fruit a -lobed capsule. the fruit is poisonous to stock, although it rarely proves fatal. anthers protruding from the flower; fruit warty a. glabra. anthers included in the flower; fruit smooth a. octandra. = . Æsculus glàbra= willdenow. buckeye. plate . medium to large sized trees[ ]; bark of old trees fissured, not tight; branchlets robust; twigs at first more or less pubescent, remaining more or less hairy until maturity; leaves large, -foliate, rarely or foliate, petioles more or less pubescent; leaflets sessile or on very short stalks, ovate-oblong, oval-oblong, or obovate, about dm. long, acuminate, narrowed to a wedge-shaped base, more or less pubescent beneath until maturity, especially along the principal veins, margins irregularly serrate except near the base; flowers generally appear in may when the leaves are almost full size, but in the southern part of the state the flowers sometimes appear the last of march, flower clusters - . dm. long, the whole inflorescence usually densely covered with white hairs, flowers pale-greenish yellow; fruit a globular spiny capsule, generally - cm. in diameter, which usually contains - large glossy chocolate-colored nuts. the pubescence on the petioles, leaflets and inflorescence is generally white, but often with it are reddish and longer hairs which are scattered among the other hairs, except in the articulations of the flowers, pedicels and leaflets, where they appear in tufts. =distribution.=--pennsylvania south to alabama, west to iowa and south to the indian territory. found in all parts of indiana. it is usually associated with beech, sugar maple and linn. on account of the poisonous character of its fruit, land owners have almost exterminated it. from the data at hand it appears that the buckeye was a rare tree in the northern tier of counties. however, as soon as the basin of the wabash is reached it becomes a frequent to a common tree where beech, sugar maple, and linn are found. in all of our area it prefers a rich moist soil, except in the southern counties it may be found even on the bluffs of streams with the species just named. in the lower wabash valley especially in posey county it was a rare tree, or entirely absent. [illustration: plate . aesculus glabra willdenow. buckeye. (× / .)] =remarks.=--in our area the buckeye is the very first tree to put out its leaves. on this account in early spring it can be easily distinguished in the forest. this character together with its large clusters of flowers which appear early are features which recommend it for shade tree and ornamental planting. the tree has now become so rare in indiana as to have no economic importance. = . Æsculus octándra= marshall. buckeye. sweet buckeye. plate . medium to large sized trees with smooth bark which on old trees becomes more or less scaly. this tree closely resembles the preceding from which it can be easily distinguished by the following characters. its smoother and lighter colored bark; by the entire under surface of the leaves remaining permanently pubescent; the hairs more or less fulvous; by the included anthers; and by its smooth capsule. =distribution.=--western pennsylvania, westward along the ohio to iowa, south to georgia and west to louisiana and texas. in indiana it is confined to a few counties along the ohio river. the records of mccaslin for jay and phinney for delaware counties are doubtless errors in determination. the writer has diligently tried to extend the range of this species in indiana and has found it only in dearborn, jefferson, clark and crawford counties, and in no place more than a mile from the ohio river. no doubt under favorable situations it found its way to a greater distance from the river. on account of the poisonous character of its fruit, it has been almost exterminated, and only along the precipitous bluffs of the ohio river are trees yet to be found. doubtless its exact range in our area can never be determined. dr. drake[ ] minutely described this species and remarks: "this species delights in rich hills, and is seldom seen far from the ohio river. it frequently arrives at the height of feet and the diameter of four feet." =remarks.=--the wood is soft, white and resembles the sap wood of the tulip tree for which wood it is commonly sold. too rare in indiana to be of economic importance. young[ ] reported a purple flowered form of buckeye from jefferson county, but since no specimen was preserved and the size of the plant is not given, it will not be considered here. the form was reported as rare under the name of =Æsculus flava= var. =purpurascens=. [illustration: plate . aesculus octandra marshall. sweet buckeye. (× / .)] tiliÀceae. the linden family. tÍlia. the basswoods. trees with medium sized twigs; leaves alternate, mostly taper-pointed, oblique cordate or truncate at the base, serrate; flowers in axillary or terminal cymes, white or yellow, fragrant, peduncles of the cymes with a leaf-like bract adhering to about half their length; fruit nut-like, woody, -celled. leaves smooth or nearly so beneath t. glabra. leaves densely white or gray pubescent beneath t. heterophylla. = . tilia glàbra= ventenat (_tilia americana_ linnæus of authors). linn. basswood. plate . medium to large sized trees with deeply furrowed bark, much resembling that of white ash or black walnut; twigs when chewed somewhat mucilaginous, usually somewhat zigzag; leaves on petioles - cm. long, blades ovate to nearly orbicular, - cm. long, short or long acuminate at the apex, margins more or less coarsely or finely serrate with teeth attenuate and ending in a gland, dark green and smooth above, a lighter green and generally smooth beneath at maturity except tufts of hairs in the axils of the principal veins, or sometimes with a scanty pubescence of simple or stellate hairs beneath; flowers appear in june or july, when the leaves are almost mature; bracts of the peduncles very variable, generally about - cm. long, rounded, or tapering at the base, obtuse or rounded at the apex, smooth both above and beneath at maturity; peduncles from very short up to cm. in length; pedicels of flowers variable in length on the same and on different trees, generally about one cm. long; styles pubescent near the base on all of the specimens at hand; fruit woolly, globose or somewhat ellipsoidal, generally about mm. in diameter. =distribution.=--new brunswick to manitoba, south to georgia and west to texas. more or less frequent to common in rich moist soil in all parts of indiana. it is the most frequent and common in the lake area of the state but was almost as frequent and common throughout the central part of the state until the hilly area is reached where its habitat disappears for the greater part. in the hill area it is confined to the basins of streams, although sometimes found on the high rocky bluffs of streams. rare or absent in the flats. in most of its area it is associated with white ash, slippery elm, beech, maple, shellbark hickory, etc. =remarks.=--wood soft, light, straight and close-grained, white and seasons well. on account of its softness and lightness it has always been a favorite wood where these two factors were important considerations. is practically odorless, hence, is a desirable wood to contain food products. its principal uses are lumber, heading, excelsior and veneer. the supply of this species in indiana is now practically exhausted. [illustration: plate . tilia glabra ventenat. linn or basswood. (× / .)] in indiana this species is commonly called linn, and only in a few counties near the michigan line is it known as basswood. the name basswood is a corruption of the name bastwood, meaning the inner tough and fibrous part of the bark, which was used by pioneers for tying shocks of corn, and other cordage purposes. however, dr. schneck gives the name whittle-wood as one of its common names; and in some localities it is called bee tree, because bees find its flowers rich in honey. linn is adapted to a rich moist soil, transplants fairly well, and grows rapidly. it has been used to some extent as an ornamental and shade tree, but its use as a street shade tree is no longer recommended because it is not adapted to city conditions, and is killed by the scale. it could, however, be recommended as an integral part of a windbreak, or woodlot where the land owner has an apiary. = . tilia heterophylla= ventenat. linn. white basswood. plate . usually large trees; bark similar to the preceding but lighter in color; twigs similar to the preceding species; leaves on petioles - cm. long, blades ovate to nearly orbicular, generally - cm. long, generally oblique at the base, oblique-truncate or cordate at the base, abruptly short or long acuminate at the apex, margins serrate with teeth attenuate and ending in a gland, at maturity smooth and a dark yellow-green above, the under surface generally densely covered with a silvery or gray tomentum, however, on some specimens the pubescence is thin and appears as a stellate pubescence, the tufts of hairs in the principal axils of the veins are reddish brown, in addition to the pubescence reddish glands are often found on the veins beneath; flowers appear in june or july when the leaves are almost mature; bracts very variable. - cm. long, generally on short peduncles, rounded or wedge-shape at the base, generally rounded at the apex, sometimes merely obtuse, glabrous both above and below, or more or less densely pubescent beneath and generally sparingly pubescent above; pedicels of flowers variable in length, usually about cm. long; styles of flowers pubescent at the base; fruit globose or somewhat ellipsoidal generally - mm. in diameter. =distribution.=--this species as understood by sargent ranges from west virginia to indiana and south to florida and west to alabama. in indiana it is confined to counties near the ohio river. specimens are in the writer's herbarium from dearborn, ripley, switzerland, jefferson, clark, harrison, crawford, perry, southeastern dubois and east spencer counties. practically in all of its range in indiana it is found on the tops of high bluffs along streams or on the slopes of deep ravines. it is an infrequent to a common tree where found. in general in the counties just mentioned it supplants the other species of _tilia_. it was reported from wayne county by phinney, and schneck says a single tree was found near the mouth of white river. the last named tree may be _tilia neglecta_ which is said to be found just west in illinois. [illustration: plate . tilia heterophylla ventenat. white basswood. (× / .)] =remarks.=--wood and uses similar to that of the preceding species. in indiana the species are not commercially separated. a satisfactory division of the species of _tilia_ of the united states has long been a puzzle. c. s. sargent[ ] has recently published his studies of the species and credits indiana with two species and one variety. his range of _tilia neglecta_ might include a part of indiana, and it may be that the pubescent forms of _tilia glabra_ in our area should be referred to that species. specimens no. and in the writer's herbarium collected from trees on the high bluff of graham creek in jennings county, sargent refers to =tilia heterophylla= variety =michauxii= sargent. while sargent's key to _tilia_ quite distinctly separates the species and varieties, yet when specimens are collected from an area where the species overlap and seem to intergrade, the task of referring a specimen to the proper species or variety is not an easy one. in fact the writer acknowledges his inability to satisfactorily classify our forms of _tilia_, and the present arrangement should be accepted as provisional. cornÀceae. the dogwood family. trees or shrubs; leaves simple, alternate, opposite or whorled; fruit mostly a drupe, or seeded. leaves alternate; flowers of two kinds, the staminate in heads, -parted; stigmas lateral. nyssa. leaves opposite; flowers perfect, -parted; stigmas terminal. cornus. = . nyssa.= the tupelos. =nyssa sylvática= marshall. gum. black gum. sour gum. yellow gum. pepperidge. plate . medium to large sized trees; bark on old trees deeply and irregularly furrowed, the ridges broken up into small lengths; twigs at first pubescent, becoming glabrous; leaves oval-obovate or oblong, blades - cm. long on petioles . - cm. long, rather abruptly acuminate at apex, narrowed at the base, sometimes rounded, margins entire, petioles and both surfaces pubescent when they unfold, becoming glabrous above and glabrous or nearly so beneath at maturity; flowers appear in may or june, the staminate in clusters, numerous, small greenish-white, the pistillate - or solitary; fruit ripens in autumn, a fleshy drupe, - of a cluster ripening on a pedicel - cm. long, ovoid, usually - mm. long, blue-black, sour and astringent; stone generally cylindric and tapering at each end and with - indistinct ribs. [illustration: plate . nyssa sylvatica marshall. black gum. (× / .)] =distribution.=--maine, southern ontario, southern michigan, southeastern wisconsin[ ] to missouri and south to the gulf. found throughout indiana and no doubt was a native of practically every county. it is an infrequent to a very rare tree in the northern half of the state, becoming a common tree in certain parts of the southern counties. in the northern part of the state it is usually found on dry ground associated with the oaks, although it is also found with sugar maple and beech. =remarks.=--wood heavy, soft, very difficult to split. woodsmen always speak of two kinds of black gum. there is one form which splits easily which is designated as "yellow gum." this distinction has not been substantiated. the uses of gum are many. the quality of not splitting makes many uses for it. the greater amount of gum is used as rough stuff. in the manufactures it is used for mine rollers, heading, boxes, hatter's blocks, water pipes, firearms, wooden ware, musical instruments, etc. the distinctive habit of growth of the black gum together with the gorgeous coloring of the autumnal foliage recommend this species for ornamental planting. it has an upright habit of growth, although the trunk is more or less crooked. the crown when grown in the open is usually pyramidal, composed of horizontal crooked branches. = . cÒrnus.= dogwood. =cornus flórida= linnæus. dogwood. flowering dogwood. plate . usually a small tree[ ] - dm. in diameter; bark deeply fissured, the ridges divided into short oblong, pieces; branchlets slender, in winter condition turning up at the tips; twigs green and smooth or nearly so from the first; leaves oval or slightly obovate, blades generally - cm. long on petioles about cm. long, generally abruptly taper-pointed at apex, gradually narrowed and generally oblique at the base, margins thickened and entire, or very slightly crenulate, appressed pubescent both above and beneath, light green above and a grayish-green beneath; flowering heads surrounded by an involucre of large white or pinkish bracts; the mature bracts are obovate, - cm. long, notched at the apex, appear before the leaves in april or may; flowers are in a head, numerous, small and greenish, opening usually about the middle of may as the leaves appear or even when the leaves are one-third grown; fruit ripens in september or october, an ovoid red drupe about cm. long, usually about - flowers of a head mature fruit; stone elliptic and pointed at each end. [illustration: plate . cornus florida linnæus. dogwood. (× / .)] =distribution.=--southern maine, southern ontario, southern michigan, to missouri and south to florida and west to texas. found in all parts of indiana. frequent to very common in all beech-sugar maple woods of the state. it is very rare or absent in the prairie area of the northwest part of the state, although it has been found in upland woods in all of the counties bordering lake michigan. it is also a frequent or more common tree in most parts of the state associated with white oak, or in the southern part of the state with black and white oak. it prefers a dry habitat, and is rarely found in wet situations. =remarks.=--wood hard, heavy, strong, close-grained and takes a high polish. the indians made a scarlet dye from the roots. it was used much by the pioneers for wedges, mallets and handles for tools. the trees are so small that they do not produce much wood. the present supply is used principally for shuttles, golfheads, brush blocks, engraver's blocks, etc. the mature fruit is much relished by squirrels and birds. the tree is quite conspicuous in the flowering season, and when the fruit is maturing. these features recommend it for ornamental planting, and it is used to some extent. the tree has a flat crown, and is quite shade enduring. it is very difficult to transplant, and when the tree is transplanted, if possible, some earth taken from under a live dogwood tree, should be used to fill in the hole where it is planted. =ericÀceae.= the heath family. =oxydéndrum arbòreum= (linnæus) decandolle. sour wood. sorrel tree. plate . small trees with a gray and deeply fissured bark, much resembling that of a young sweet gum tree; twigs and branchlets greenish and smooth; leaves alternate, on petioles about a cm. long, oblong-oval, generally - cm. long, narrowed at the base, acute or acuminate at the apex, margins entire toward the base or sometimes all over, usually about three-fourths is irregularly serrate with very short incurved teeth, glabrous above and beneath except a puberulence on the midrib and sometimes on the petiole to which an occasional prickle is added beneath; flowers appear in june when the leaves are full grown, in large panicles at the end of the year's growth, white, the whole inflorescence covered with a short gray pubescence; fruit a capsule about . cm. long on an erect and recurved pedicel of about the same length, maturing in autumn. [illustration: plate . oxydendrum arboreum (linnæus) decandolle. sour wood. sorrel tree. (× / .)] =distribution.=--a tree of the elevated regions of the area from southeastern pennsylvania to florida and west to southern indiana and south to louisiana. in indiana it is definitely known to occur only in perry county at the base of a beech spur of the van buren ridge about miles southeast of cannelton. here it is a common tree over an area of an acre or two. the largest tree measured was about . dm. in diameter and meters high. here it is associated with beech, sugar maple, dogwood, sassafras, etc. when coppiced it grows long slender shoots which the boys of the pioneers used for arrows. a pioneer who lived near this colony of trees is the author of this use of the wood and he called the tree "arrow wood." =ebenÀceae.= the ebony family. =diospyros virginiàna= linnæus. persimmon. plate . small or medium sized trees with deeply and irregularly fissured bark, the ridges broken up into short lengths; twigs pubescent; leaves alternate, oval, oblong-oval or ovate, generally - cm. long and - cm. wide, narrowed, rounded or cordate at the base, short pointed at the apex, margin entire but ciliate, slightly pubescent above when young, becoming glabrous on age, more or less pubescent beneath, sometimes glabrous except the midrib and margin; flowers appear in may or june on the year's growth when the leaves are about half grown, greenish yellow, the staminate on one tree and the pistillate on another; fruit ripens in august, september or october, depressed-globose or oblong in shape, - cm. in diameter, generally with - very hard flat seed. =distribution.=--connecticut to iowa and south to the gulf. in indiana it is confined to the south half of the state. we have no record of wild trees being found north of indianapolis, except prof. stanley coulter reports three trees growing in tippecanoe county in situations such as to indicate that they are native. it is doubtful if it was ever more than a frequent tree in the original forest. in some of the hill counties of the south central part of the state, it has become a common tree in clearings and abandoned fields. it grows long surface roots from which numerous suckers grow which form the "persimmon thickets." it seems to thrive in the poorest and hardest of soils. however, it reaches its greatest size in the alluvial bottoms of the lower wabash valley. here large and tall trees have been observed on the low border of sloughs, associated with such water-loving plants as water-locust, button-bush, swell-butt ash, etc. it thrives equally well on the high sandy ridges of knox and sullivan counties. [illustration: plate . diospyros virginiana linnæus. persimmon. (× / .)] =remarks.=--the fruit is edible and the horticultural possibilities of this tree have never received the attention they deserve. the opinion is current that the fruit does not ripen and is not edible until it is subjected to a frost. this is an error. the best and largest fruit i have ever eaten ripened without a frost. a large native tree on the forest reserve in clark county ripens its fruit in august, which is of an excellent quality and usually has only one, and rarely more than three seeds. the fruit of this tree is of the oblong type. the fruit varies much in size, time of ripening and quality. some is scarcely edible. some of the native trees bear fruit when they are not over eight feet tall, some are usually prolific bearers while others bear sparingly. for this reason if one wishes to grow persimmon trees it is best to buy grafted trees from some reliable nurseryman. the tree is hardy throughout indiana and while it is a very slow growing tree, it can nevertheless be recommended for ornamental and roadside tree planting. it is to be noted that cattle will not browse persimmon, and that hogs greedily eat the ripe fruit. the fruit of many trees does not fall until early winter, and such trees are a granary for several kind of animals of the forest. the wood is hard, heavy, strong and close-grained. practically the whole output of persimmon lumber is used in making shuttles. in indiana the tree is too rare to furnish much lumber. =oleÀceae.= the olive family. leaves compound; fruit dry, a samara. fraxinus. leaves simple; fruit fleshy, a drupe. adelia. = . frÁxinus.= the ashes. trees with opposite, odd-pinnate leaves; flowers appear in april or may in clusters from the axils of last year's leaves, the staminate and pistillate on different or sometimes on the same tree; fruit a -seeded samara. bark of mature trees furrowed; fruit not winged to the base. body of fruit robust, round and rather abruptly passing into the wing; the body rarely winged / its length. shoots and axis of leaves smooth. f. americana. shoots and axis of leaves velvety pubescent, at least when young. f. biltmoreana. body of fruit flattened and gradually passing into the wing; the body usually winged more than / its length. shoots glabrous, or practically so. f. lanceolata. shoots velvety pubescent, at least when young. calyx of fruit less than mm. long; body of samara just below the wing less than mm. wide, rarely mm. wide, usually . - . mm. wide; samaras - . cm. long. f. pennsylvanica. calyx of fruit more than mm. long, generally - mm. long; body of samara just below the wing more than mm. wide, usually - mm. wide; samaras generally - cm. long. f. profunda. bark of mature trees scaly or flaky; fruit winged to the base. twigs usually angled; leaflets on very short stalks. f. quadrangulata. twigs round; leaflets sessile. f. nigra. = . fraxinus americàna= linnæus. white ash. gray ash. plate . large trees with deeply furrowed bark; twigs smooth, greenish gray and often covered with a bloom; leaves generally - . dm. long, rachis smooth; leaflets - , usually , generally - cm. long, on stalks generally . - cm. long, the terminal one on a stalk - times as long, leaflets ovate to narrow-oblong, narrowed, rounded or oblique at base, short or long acuminate at apex, sometimes merely acute, margins entire or irregularly serrate, usually not serrated to the base, teeth short, dark green and smooth above, glaucous beneath, sometimes almost green beneath about lake michigan and in the northern tier of counties, usually pubescent beneath along the midrib and along the veins, sometimes glabrous; calyx persistent on the fruit, about mm. long; fruit ripens in september and october, linear, - . cm. long, variable in size and shape, body of samara cylindrical, somewhat narrower than the wing and usually / - / the length of the samara, each face of the body usually striated longitudinally with about faint lines; wing terminal, generally about . cm. wide, pointed or notched at apex. =distribution.=--nova scotia to minnesota and south to the gulf. frequent to common in all parts of indiana. it is the most abundant in the northern two-thirds of the state, where it is associated principally with beech, sugar maple, linn, slippery elm and red oak. in the hilly part of the state it is found principally near water courses and in ravines, and rarely on the white and black oak ridges. it is rarely found in the low "flats" of the southeast part of the state, or in the shingle oak bottoms along the patoka river. =remarks.=--the foliage of the white ash is quite variable in the texture of the leaflets. leaflets on some trees are quite thin while those of other trees are thick and leathery, and no doubt would be classed by sargent as variety =subcoriacea=[ ]. [illustration: plate . fraxinus americana linnæus. white ash. (× / .)] a form of white ash with reddish-purple fruit is found from steuben to clark county. this form is the prevailing type of white ash in wayne county in the vicinity of centerville. it has been described by fernald as forma =iodocarpa=.[ ] the wood is heavy, hard, strong, elastic, sap wood white and the heart wood light brown. it is one of the most valuable of indiana woods, and is used by almost all wood using industries. its principal uses include handles, butter tubs, car and vehicle stock, automobiles and implements. the white ash has been under cultivation at the clark county state forest for fifteen years, and the present indications are that it is one of the very best species to use for forest planting. it is hardy; grows in nearly all kinds of soil, although it prefers a moist, rich soil; transplants successfully; grows rapidly; bears pruning well; erect in habit of growth, and so far in our area forest plantings have not been destroyed by injurious insects. however, in some parts of the state, where trees have grown in the cities, some have been killed by scale insects. aside from this the white ash would be an excellent tree for roadside planting, because it comes into leaf late, and never produces a dense shade. at present seed collectors are not able to separate the species of ash, and as a consequence white ash seedlings bought from a nursery are not always true to name. for this reason it is suggested that to obtain seedlings true to name that seed be collected and planted from a tree true to name. the seed should be planted in a sandy soil in rows, about seeds to the foot, and covered about an inch deep with earth. the trees should be planted  ×  ft. to  ×  ft. apart. = . fraxinus biltmoreàna= beadle. biltmore ash. plate . large forest trees, resembling the white ash. young trees acquire the furrowed bark character earlier than the white ash, furrows of the bark of mature trees are usually deeper, and the ridges correspondingly farther apart; twigs are robust like the white ash and always velvety pubescent except in age when they may become smooth; leaves generally - . dm. long, rachis pubescent; leaflets - , usually - , generally - cm. long, on stalks generally . - cm. long, the terminal one on a stalk - times as long, leaflets broadly ovate to narrow ovate, or oblong to narrow oblong, narrowed, rounded, or oblique at the base, short or long acuminate at apex, sometimes merely acute, margins generally entire, sometimes with a few short teeth toward the apex, dark green and smooth above, glaucous and more or less pubescent beneath; fruit similar to the preceding species. [illustration: plate . fraxinus biltmoreana beadle. biltmore ash. (× / .)] =distribution.=--this species has only recently been separated from the white ash and its range has not been ascertained. it is known to occur in the appalachian mountains from pennsylvania to georgia. in indiana it is known to occur as far north as wells county. it is commonly associated with the white ash, but much less frequent except in a few districts where it is the prevailing type. such a district is in gibson county north of owensville. here as well as in other parts of gibson county very large trees have been observed. in the original forest the pioneers called the very large specimens of ash with deeply furrowed bark "the old fashion" ash. it is believed that most of these specimens were of this species. in the hilly parts of indiana this species is found in situations too dry for the white ash, and for this reason should be given preference in hillside planting. on the wooded bluff of white river in fairview park north of indianapolis is a specimen that measures dm. in circumference, b.h. the deepest furrows on the north side of the tree are cm. deep. =remarks.=--this species is not yet commonly separated from the white ash and is known to the trade as white ash. mr. beadle who first recognized the species, named it biltmore ash in honor of the biltmore estate on which the first tree was discovered. authors ever since have so called it, and the common name which this form should bear is biltmore ash. on the clark county state forest is a planting of sixteen year old white ash in which are mixed quite a number of biltmore ash. this species at a distance, can be distinguished from the white ash by the rougher bark of the trunks and the darker green color of its foliage, and in the autumn by its more colored foliage. a closer view shows that the leaflets of the biltmore ash stand in a plane above the rachis higher than those of the white ash. the wood is not commercially distinguished from the white ash, but its mechanical properties rank it somewhat below that species.[ ] [illustration: plate . fraxinus lanceolata borkhausen. green ash. (× / .)] = . fraxinus lanceolàta= borckhausen. white ash. green ash. swamp ash. plate . medium to large sized trees with fissured bark, the ridges and furrows narrower than those of the white ash; twigs slender and glabrous at maturity; leaves generally - dm. long, rachis smooth, rarely slightly pubescent; leaflets - , usually , generally - cm. long, on stalks generally about . cm. or less in length, the terminal one on a stalk - times as long, leaflets generally narrow-oblong or ovate to narrow ovate-oblong, generally with a narrowed base, sometimes rounded and oblique, short or long acuminate at apex, margin entire near the base, the remainder of the margin generally sparsely serrate with short teeth, dark green and smooth above, a lighter green beneath and more or less pubescent on the petiolules, midrib and veins; calyx persistent, about mm. long; fruit ripens in september and october, linear or spatulate, - cm. long, variable in size and shape, body / - / the length of samara, compressed or flattened and gradually narrowed to the base, usually less than half as wide as the wing, each face of the body usually striated with about - lines which are stronger than those near the edge of the body; wing generally - mm. wide, pointed or notched at apex, and decurrent on the sides of the body for about one-half of its length. =distribution.=--lake champlain to the saskatchewan and south to the gulf. found in all parts of indiana. it is usually found in low ground along streams, in swamps, and in low woods. it is usually associated with white elm, red maple, cottonwood, aspens, linn, bur oak, etc., in the south to this list should be added silver maple and cypress. it prefers a habitat wetter than that of the white ash, although the two are found together in wet woods. in swampy woods it is often a common tree. while it has a general distribution in the state, it is much more local than the white ash. =remarks.=--this form is not usually separated from the next species, and both are known in books and by nurserymen as green or red ash. the common name, green ash, should be applied to this species to separate it from the true white ash, and the next. in ash forest plantings on the clark county state forest, it is to be noted that this and the next species bear fruit while the trees are as small as . cm. in diameter, while the white and biltmore ash which are much older and - cm. in diameter have never borne fruit. this species and the next bear fruit oftener and in greater abundance than the white or biltmore ash. it is also to be noted that practically all of the volunteer ash trees found along fences and roadsides, except very large trees, are of the green ash species. the wood is similar to that of white ash, and the cut is usually sold as that species. however, it ranks below white ash in its mechanical qualities.[ ] while the native green ash is found growing in swamps, it adapts itself to drier situations. it is planted more than any other species of ash in the cold and dry regions of the west and northwest. [illustration: plate . fraxinus pennsylvanica marshall. red ash. (× / .)] = . fraxinus pennsylvánica= marshall. red ash. white ash. swamp ash. plate . usually medium sized trees much like the preceding; twigs velvety pubescent at maturity; leaves generally - dm. long, rachis pubescent; leaflets - , usually , generally - cm. long, on stalks generally about . cm. long, the terminal one on a stalk - times as long, leaflets generally ovate, ovate-oblong, or oblong to narrow-oblong, generally with a narrowed base, sometimes rounded and oblique, short or long acuminate at the apex, margins sometimes entire, generally entire near the base, the remainder more or less serrated with shallow teeth, dark green and smooth above, a lighter green beneath and more or less densely pubescent all over the lower surface, especially on the midrib and veins; calyx persistent, about mm. long; fruit can not be distinguished from the preceding. =distribution.=--quebec to manitoba, and south to florida. found sparingly in all parts of indiana. it is usually found in low ground, but frequently on bluffs, and flood plain banks. =remarks.=--this species is not commonly separated from the white ash group, but in books it is known as the red ash. this is the common name that should be applied to this form. this species is not usually separated from the preceding, but it is easily distinguished from it by its pubescent twigs. it can be distinguished from the next by its smaller twigs, smaller calyx and smaller fruit. the wood is similar to that of the white ash, and the cut is usually sold as that species. in mechanical qualities it is on a par with the green ash. = . fraxinus profúnda= bush. swell-butt ash. plate . medium or large trees with fissured bark similar to the white ash; twigs robust and velvety pubescent at least while young; leaves generally - dm. long, rachis densely pubescent, rarely almost smooth; leaflets - , generally , on stalks . - cm. long, the terminal one on a stalk - times as long, leaflets ovate, narrow-ovate to narrow-oblong, narrowed or rounded and oblique at the base, short or long taper-pointed at the apex, margins entire, rarely with a few short teeth, dark green and smooth above, a lighter green and densely pubescent beneath, rarely somewhat smooth; calyx persistent, generally - mm. long, rarely as short as mm.; fruit ripening in september and october, linear, generally - cm. long, variable in size and shape, body about / the length of the samara, compressed or flattened and gradually narrowed to the base, the striations on the face of the body not prominent and usually not distinct the full length of the body, samara often unilateral or somewhat falcate; wings notched or merely rounded at the apex, decurrent on the body / - / its length, sometimes almost terminal. [illustration: plate . fraxinus profunda bush. swell-butt or pumpkin ash. (× / .)] =distribution.=--virginia, indiana and missouri, and south to florida. in indiana the distribution has not been determined. it is a common to an infrequent tree of the river sloughs and cypress swamps of the southwestern counties. authentic specimens are at hand from knox, gibson, posey, perry, bartholomew, jackson, marion and daviess counties, and specimens from hamilton, tipton and starke counties, i doubtfully refer to this species. the preferred habitat of this species is inundated swamps, and when it grows in such situations it generally develops a base swollen to a point somewhat above the water level. in bartholomew county it was found associated with the cow oak, and the trunk resembled the white ash. =remarks.=--this species is known by authors and commercially as pumpkin ash. the wood is similar to white ash but is inferior to that species. on account of its habitat this species was little cut until the past few years when ash became scarce. during the past few years most of the deep river and cypress swamps have been invaded and all of the ash cut. = . fraxinus quadrangulàta= michaux. blue ash. plate . medium to large sized trees with light gray bark, not regularly fissured, scaly at least above; twigs and branchlets more or less distinctly -angled, the angles of vigorous shoots develop corky wings about mm. high; leaves generally - dm. long; leaflets - , generally - cm. long, on short stalks, usually - mm. long, sometimes sessile, the terminal one on a stalk generally about - cm. long, leaflets ovate to lanceolate, narrowed or rounded at the base, generally long acuminate at the apex, margins rather regularly and coarsely serrated with short incurved teeth, yellow-green and smooth above, about the same color beneath and generally smooth except along the veins, midrib and petiolules which are permanently pubescent; calyx very small, usually about . mm. long, and persisting more or less in fruit; fruit ripens last of june to august, samaras twisted, generally - cm. long and - mm. wide, rounded at the base, notched or rounded and apiculate at the apex, the apical end of all specimens at hand twisted to the right, the wing surrounds the body. =distribution.=--southern ontario to iowa, and south to northern alabama and arkansas. found sparingly in most parts of indiana, except the northwest part. there are no records northwest of white and noble counties. in the northern two-thirds of the state it is a rare to very rare tree, generally found only along the bluffs of streams. in many areas it is so rare that even the pioneers do not know the tree. it was the most frequent in the southeastern part of the state. here also it is found principally along the higher banks of streams. while the species is confined principally to high ground it also grew in lower ground. the largest tree seen is on level ground at a fork of the road between charlestown and jeffersonville about miles northeast of jeffersonville. in this tree measured . dm. ( - / inches) in circumference breast high. [illustration: plate . fraxinus quadrangulata michaux. blue ash. (× / .)] this species has not been observed in the "knob" area of the state or anywhere in the flats of the lower wabash valley. schneck reports it as rare on the hills of this area. the tree is too rare to definitely determine its associates, although sugar maple is usually found with it. =remarks.=--this species is becoming too scarce to be of much economic importance. the cut is usually sold as white ash. the uses of the wood are practically the same as the white ash. the fruit and foliage of this species most closely resembles that of the black ash, from which it can be distinguished by its greenish-yellow foliage and the habitat in which it grows. = . fraxinus nìgra= marshall. black ash. plate . medium sized, tall and straight trees with a light gray bark, broken up into small thin plates on old trunks; twigs round, robust and smooth at maturity; leaves . - dm. long, leaflets generally - and - cm. long, sessile, the terminal one generally on a stalk . - cm. long, oblong or oblong-lanceolate, narrowed or rounded at the base, and short or long acuminate at the apex, margins coarsely and rather irregularly serrate with short teeth which are usually somewhat incurved, dark green and glabrous above, not much lighter beneath and glabrous or pubescent along the midrib and larger veins; calyx and corolla none; fruit ripens the last of june to august, similar to the fruit of the blue ash, samaras generally - cm. long, and - mm. wide, body winged all around, the base of the samara rounded, the apex notched or rounded, the apical end of the samara twisted more or less to the right in all specimens at hand. =distribution.=--nova scotia to manitoba, south to virginia and northern arkansas. local in all parts of indiana except in the "knob" area of the state. it is generally found in places that are inundated much of the winter season. its habitat is in cold swampy woods or similar places about lakes. it has no special affinity for streams. it is local in its distribution. where it is found it is generally a frequent to common tree. in the lake area of indiana its habitat conditions are frequent, consequently colonies of it are frequent. south of the lake area of the state it becomes rare to extremely local. in the southwest part of the state it has been sparingly found in a few cypress swamps. it is usually associated with white elm, cottonwood, aspens, red maple, bur oak, and is one of the first species to invade extinct tamarack swamps. [illustration: plate . fraxinus nigra marshall. black ash. (× / .)] =remarks.=--the wood is tougher but in most qualities is inferior to white ash and cannot be used for handles. the layers of growth separate easily which enables the wood to be separated into thin strips. this fact was known to the indians who used this wood for making baskets. this use was continued by the white man and in addition it was a favorite wood for making hoops, and in many sections it is known as the "hoop ash." the wood has many uses such as for baskets, splint boxes, butter tubs, vehicle stock, interior finish, furniture, etc. the black burls of the trunk are much sought for by veneer manufacturers. = . adÈlia.= =adèlia acuminàta michaux.= pond brush. crooked brush, plate . small trees, or shrub like, with gray smooth bark, becoming rough or fissured on large trees, the ridges short and broken; branchlets numerous and somewhat spiny; twigs glabrous; leaves opposite on petioles about cm. long, ovate to elliptic-ovate, - cm. long, with a long narrow base, long acuminate at the apex, margins entire near the base, the remainder more or less coarsely serrated with short rounded teeth, rarely entire, smooth above and beneath; flowers appear last of march to the first of may, the staminate in small sessile clusters along the branchlets, the pistillate in short panicles; fruit a dark purple drupe, oblong, about mm. long; stone with many longitudinal ribs. =distribution.=--southwestern indiana and southern illinois south to northern florida and texas. in indiana it has been found only in knox, gibson, posey and perry counties. it grows on the low borders of river sloughs, swamps and river banks. it is very tolerant of shade and may be found growing under larger trees. it usually forms dense thickets on the bank that surrounds standing water and is usually associated with button-bush. a straight specimen is rarely seen because the area where it grows overflows each winter, and the small trees are usually covered more or less with debris, and then the following season the side branches assume a vertical growth. the top may be released by the next inundation, and then other branches may assume leadership, and so on until the top is a mass of branches growing in several directions. the specimens found in perry county grew on the low bank of the ohio river about miles east of cannelton. the species is quite local in the area where it is found. it may border one river slough, and be entirely absent from another nearby. =remarks.=--of no economic use. in books it is called "swamp privet" but in the area where it grows it is not known by that name. [illustration: plate . adelia acuminata michaux. pond brush. crooked brush. (× / .)] =bignoniÀceae.= the trumpet creeper family. =catÁlpa.= the catalpas. leaves simple, opposite or whorled, with long petioles; flowers in terminal panicles or corymbs; fruit a long round pod which splits into halves; seed many, flat, papery with a tuft of long hairs at each end. a small genus of widely distributed trees. the species freely hybridize, and have been cultivated and planted so extensively that it is difficult to find typical specimens. bark of old trees thin and scaly; odor of bruised leaves fetid; lower lobe of corolla entire. catalpa bignonioides. bark of old trees fissured and ridgy; odor of bruised leaves not fetid; lower lobe of corolla notched at the apex. catalpa speciosa. = . catalpa bignonioìdes= walter. catalpa. (_catalpa catalpa_ (linnæus) karsten). plate . medium to large sized trees, usually with a trunk - meters in length, and a wide crown; bark a grayish-brown, scaly and flaking off in small thin plates; leaves ovate, blades usually . - dm. long, cordate at the base, taper-pointed at apex, margins entire, or with or lateral lobes, yellow-green and smooth above, and pubescent beneath; flowering period the last of may to the first of july, about two weeks later than the next species; inflorescence in a rather compact large panicle; flowers white, usually - cm. across at expanded end; marked on the lower inner surface by two rows of yellow blotches, the lower lobes marked with purplish spots, the lower lobe entire or nearly so; fruit a long pod, generally - develop in each panicle, usually . - dm. long, about cm. thick, somewhat flattened, the valves meeting at an angle which forms a ridge which is sensible to the fingers, the valves of the pod are thin, and become flat after they open; seed . - . cm. long, including the tufts of hairs at each end, and about - mm. wide, the tuft of hairs usually converging to a point. =distribution.=--supposed to be native to parts of florida, georgia, alabama and mississippi. it has been introduced throughout the eastern part of the united states. in indiana it has been used in all parts as an ornamental and shade tree. it has few qualities to recommend it, and since the difference between this and the next species has been known the next species is usually substituted for it. [illustration: plate . catalpa bignonioides walter. catalpa. (× / .)] [illustration: plate . catalpa speciosa warder. catalpa. hardy catalpa. (× / .)] = . catalpa speciòsa= warder. catalpa. hardy catalpa. catalfa. plate . medium to large sized trees with long and rather straight trunks when grown in the forest; bark dark grayish-brown, fissured and much resembling the bark of a linden or black walnut in appearance; leaves ovate, generally . - dm. long, cordate or somewhat rounded at the base, long taper-pointed at apex, margins entire, dark green and smooth above, pubescent beneath; flowering period may or june; flowers in large terminal panicles, white with yellow and purplish spots within, expanded part about cm. across; fruit a long cylindrical pod which matures late in autumn or early winter, - dm. long, and about . cm. in diameter, usually or and rarely pods develop in a panicle, the valves of the pod remaining semi-terete after separating; seed many, thin and papery, . - cm. long, and - mm. wide, body of samara about equals in length the tuft of hairs at each end, the hairs remain separated and are little inclined to form a tuft at the end. =distribution.=--known to have been a native of the southwestern part of indiana, and to have followed the valley of the ohio and mississippi rivers to the southeastern part of missouri and the northeastern part of arkansas. the tree has practically disappeared from the forests of indiana, and the exact range in indiana can never be known. being such a conspicuous tree, it was thought that the memory of living pioneers might be relied upon to fix the limits of its range in indiana. one pioneer living near austin in scott county said it was a native of the muscatatuck bottoms, and another said it was a native in the flats of the southwestern part of clark county. in its native habitat it was found only in very low ground, usually with such associates as pin oak, sweet gum, southern hackberry, big shellbark hickory, pecan, etc. in its native habitat it was an infrequent to a frequent tree, never a common tree. a pioneer was interviewed who settled in the knox county bottoms about three miles west of decker, when the whole area was a virgin forest. he said the catalpa was an occasional tree in the bottoms throughout the area; that he did not recall that it was ever found in as low situations as the cypress; that the tree was as tall as its associates, straight, and usually about dm. in diameter, and that he never saw a tree a meter in diameter; that on account of the durable quality of the wood that it was cut for fence posts and rails. a pioneer who lived near the mouth of deer creek in perry county said it was a native in his vicinity. the information at hand would fix the mass distribution of the species to the southwest of a line drawn from terre haute to a point about miles east of grandview in spencer county. =remarks.=--attention was directed to this tree about by dr. john a. warder and dr. geo. engelmann, and it has had enthusiastic admirers ever since. in indiana its most enthusiastic advocate was john p. brown of connersville. its popularity was based upon the durability of its wood and its rapid growth. nurserymen grew seedlings and through their agents plantations of all sizes were sold in many states. the trees were planted to grow posts, telephone poles and crossties. in indiana there is one plantation years old, but the majority are only to years old. the tree has been planted long enough in our area to definitely conclude that it should not be planted in any part of indiana for economic purposes. the range of the catalpa sphinx which defoliates the tree is rapidly increasing, and now ranges as far north as wells county. in the southern part of the state the trees are usually defoliated twice each year by the larvæ of this insect, and as a consequence the trees make very little growth, and some owners of plantations have abandoned them on this account. a new insect is appearing which kills the young shoots, which will interfere with the upright habit of the tree. the catalpa is not recommended for forest planting in indiana, and its use for this purpose has practically ceased. the catalpa prefers a moist, deep, rich soil, but will grow in almost all kinds of situations. in the northern part of the state, the young trees are frequently winter killed. the tree is quite tenacious of life and when cut off at the ground, usually sends up several coppice shoots. this species can be recommended for planting for shade for hog lots, and as a specimen tree in parks, etc. it is not a desirable street tree. =caprifoliÀceae.= the honeysuckle family. =vibÚrnum.= the viburnums. =viburnum prunifòlium= linnæus. black haw. plate . small trees or shrubs; bark of old trees reddish-brown, furrowed and the ridges broken into short lengths; leaves simple, opposite, on petioles . - . cm. long; the lower pairs of leaves are generally smaller and have their petioles more or less winged, red and more or less densely covered with a rusty tomentum which may extend along the midrib and veins beneath or may sometimes cover a considerable part of the lower surface of the leaf while young, sometimes the margined petioles are only rough on the margins; leaf blades very variable in size and shape, usually - cm. long, ovate to slightly obovate, or narrow-oval to nearly orbicular, narrowed or rounded at the base, pointed at the apex, or sometimes rounded, margins finely serrate, glabrous both above and beneath at maturity; flowers appear the last of april or in may in cymes which are sessile or nearly so, flowers white, numerous, and generally about . cm. in diameter, fruit ripens in september and october, oval, oblong or nearly globose, generally - mm. long, dark blue, covered with a bloom, edible, and if not eaten by birds they persist on the branches until late autumn; stone oval and very flat. [illustration: plate . viburnum prunifolium linnæus. black haw. (× / .)] =distribution.=--connecticut to iowa and south to georgia and west to texas. it is more or less frequent in moist woods throughout indiana, except in the hilly counties where it becomes more or less rare. in the hilly counties its place is taken by the southern black haw, _viburnum rufidulum_ which only rarely attains tree size. =remarks.=--this species could be used to advantage in ornamental planting where small trees or shrubs are required for a screen or back ground. the fruit of the black and red haws attract several species of birds. this species is quite variable in the shape, and texture of its leaves, and in the size and shape of its fruit. in the southern part of the state specimens are found that have very thick leaves with margined and tomentose petioles which very much resemble the southern species. =species excluded.= the following species have been reported for indiana but have been excluded for want of satisfactory evidence to warrant their inclusion: the reasons for exclusion are discussed under the name of the species. it is needless to say that critical examination has been given doubtful species, and doubtful records, and every effort possible has been made to validate them. =pinus echinàta= miller. short-leaf pine. this species does not occur in our area and all reference to it should be transferred to _pinus virginiana_. references to this species are instances of wrong determination. =pinus resinòsa= aiton. norway pine. this species was reported as an escape in wabash county by coulter[ ] for jenkins. =pinus rígida= miller. pitch pine. baird and taylor[ ] reported this species for clark county. the range of this species is to the east of our area. they also reported _pinus strobus_, which has not been seen since they reported it, and they failed to report _pinus virginiana_ which is a common tree on the "knobs" of clark county. a study of their flora of clark county shows that they did little or no collecting in the "knobs." they also freely reported field crop, garden and flower escapes, and it is believed that their reference to _pinus rigida_ and _pinus strobus_ should be regarded as to cultivated trees. =Àbies balsàmea= (linnæus.) miller. balsam fir. heimlich[ ] reports this as occurring in porter county about dune park. he cites for his authority bot. gaz. vol. : apr. . the article referred to is cowles' article on the flora of the sand dunes of lake michigan, in which he discusses the flora from glen haven in northern michigan to dune park, indiana in porter county, which has confused heimlich in separating the trees reported at several stations. it has never been found in indiana. =chamæcyparis thyoìdes= (linnæus) britton, sterns and poggenberg. white cedar. the range of this species is east of the alleghany mountains and no doubt was never native in our area. the first reference to it is by dr. drake in his picture of cincinnati, published in , page , in which he says: "the white cedar and cypress are found on the banks of the wabash." schneck[ ] in his flora of the lower wabash valley says: "wet places near the mouth of the wabash river." i am certain it is not on the indiana side of the river. gorby[ ] reports it for miami county. all of his botanical records are too unreliable to receive serious consideration. coulter[ ] reports it as found in allen county on the authority of dr. c. r. dryer. i saw dr. dryer recently and he says he has no recollections about it. =juniperus commùnis= linnæus. juniper. this species has been reported from all parts of the state. the distribution of the species is to the north of indiana, and examining herbarium specimens it is found that subulate forms of _juniperus virginiana_ are frequently named _juniperus communis_. in the older floras it was a custom to include cultivated forms, and not distinguish them as such. since juniper has been for years a common ornamental shrub, especially in cemeteries, it is highly probable that many records have such a basis. it is proposed to drop this species from our flora. i refer higley and raddin's[ ] record to the decumbent variety. vangorder's and bradner's records may also be the decumbent form. heimlich's record i regard as an error, see remarks under _abies balsamea_. =populus balsamífera= linnæus. balsam poplar. this species was reported by bradner for steuben county. in a letter from the late prof. bradner, he said he had no specimen and had no recollection of the tree. j. m. coulter reported it for jefferson county, but young who also wrote a flora of jefferson county does not mention it. baird and taylor also reported it for clark county. the last two records may have been from cultivated trees or mistaken for _populus grandidentata_ which was not reported and is in the area, and is a frequent tree in the "knobs" in clark county. heimlich reports it in proc. ind. acad. sci. : : for cowles. i regard this as an error. see discussion under _abies canadensis_ on page . since the range of the species is to the north of indiana, it is here proposed to drop it from our flora. it should be looked for on the "divide" in steuben county and about lake michigan. =populus cándicans= aiton. balm of gilead. this species has been included in a few local floras, but it is believed that it has not yet escaped from cultivation. phinney[ ] gives it as "an important timber tree of delaware county," which is an error. =populus nìgra= var. =itálica= du roi. lombardy poplar. reference is made to this tree by blatchley[ ], meyncke[ ] and nieuwland[ ] but it is scarcely more than an accidental escape. =carya aquática= nuttall. water hickory. this species is listed as one of the principal trees occurring along the wabash in the coblenz edition of prince maximilan's travels in north america. it is recorded as "water bitternut (_juglans aquatica_)." if it occurs in our area it most likely would be found in the extreme southwestern counties. it has been reported from gallatin county, illinois, bordering posey county on the west. there are two other records of its occurrence in the state, which are doubtful. ryland t. brown[ ] reported it in a list of the principal trees of fountain county in a report of the geology of fountain county. _carya laciniosa_, which is sometimes called swamp hickory and which is more or less frequent in the county, he failed to report. it is believed this reference to _carya aquatica_ should be referred to _laciniosa_. b. c. hobbs also reported it as common in parke county in a short list of the principal trees. he named only four of the five or more species of hickory that occur in the county, and it is believed since he was no botanist, that he confused the names. elliott in his trees of indiana gives "_carya aquatica_" as common, but no doubt this reference should be transferred to some other species. =carya myristicæfórmis= nuttall. nutmeg hickory. this tree also was reported by prince maximilian as occurring along the wabash river. the known range of the species is from north carolina to arkansas, and for this reason the species is not included in this list. =betula lénta= linnæus. black birch. this species has been reported for indiana as occurring in fulton, gibson, miami, noble, posey, st. joseph and steuben counties. sargent[ ] says: "this species has until recently been badly misunderstood. the range of the species is southern maine to northwestern vermont, eastern kentucky, and south to delaware and along the appalachian mountains to northern georgia and alabama." no doubt all of the indiana records should be transferred to _betula lutea_, except the gibson and posey county record which may be _betula nigra_. =castanea púmila= (linnæus) miller. chinquapin. this species was given a place in our flora in coulter's catalogue upon the authority of sargent, ridgway and schneck. ridgway, in giving an additional list of the trees of the lower wabash valley[ ] says: "there is some doubt as to no. _castanea pumila_, which is given on prof. sargent's authority; but there is a possibility of an error having been made from the circumstances that the name 'chinquapin' is in that region almost universally applied to the fruit of _quercus muhlenbergii_." the posey county record was based on a specimen in dr. schneck's herbarium, which proves to have been taken from a cultivated tree near poseyville. =quercus ilicifòlia= wangenheim. bear oak. this species is credited to our flora by will scott in his ecological study of "the leesburg swamp" in kosciusko county, published in the indiana academy of science, , page . in a reply to an inquiry addressed to him he says no herbarium material was preserved. this ecological work was done during the summer months while working at the biological station at winona lake. in a footnote in this paper we are informed that for the identification of the trees listed, apgar's trees of the northern united states was used. in this key to the trees, _quercus velutina_ (black oak) is given only as a variety of _quercus coccinea_ (scarlet oak), and the distinction between _quercus velutina_ with its many formed leaves, and _quercus ilicifolia_ is not made apparent. in view of the fact that the natural habitat of _quercus ilicifolia_ is sandy barrens and rocky hillsides and its western range is eastern ohio, it is believed what mr. scott had in hand was a variable form of _quercus velutina_, which is frequent in that vicinity. the evidence is not encouraging enough to include it. =quercus nìgra= linnæus. water oak. this species has been reported by several authors for indiana. it is believed that a majority of the records should be transferred to _velutina_ and _imbricaria_ or _marylandica_. gorby and schneck call _quercus nigra_ black jack oak, which is generally the common name for _quercus marilandica_. ridgway in his writings of the flora of the lower wabash valley, likewise speaks of _quercus nigra_ as jack oak and says it is found in poor soil. coulter in his catalogue of indiana plants regarded these references to _nigra_ as errors and did not include it in his list. the report for crawford county by deam should be transferred to _marilandica_. since the range of the species is not north of kentucky, the reference to the species in the state should be dropped. the published records are as follows: carroll (thompson); crawford (deam); delaware, jay, randolph and wayne (phinney); jay (mccaslin); fountain (brown); miami (gorby); parke (hobbs). =quercus phéllos= linnæus. willow oak. this species has been reported from various counties of the state. the tree is said to grow in swamps and on sandy uplands, ranging from staten island, new york, south to florida and west to texas, and north to southern kentucky. if it occurs within our area it no doubt would have been found by dr. schneck, who was an enthusiastic student of the oaks. he reported it as occurring in the lower wabash in his early writings, but his herbarium contained no specimens. the writer while in search for this species in posey county met three men in widely separated parts of the county who were acquainted with the species in the south and they said they had never seen it in indiana. one of the men was an old man who had spent his boyhood in arkansas and he was well acquainted with the willow oak before he came to indiana. it is believed what has been reported for _q. phellos_ has been narrow-leaved forms of _q. imbricaria_ (shingle oak), and that the records should be transferred to that species. the published records are as follows: gibson, knox and posey (schneck); knox (thomas); miami (gorby). =quercus prinoìdes= willdenow. scrub or dwarf chestnut oak. reported for marshall county by nieuwland[ ] on the authority of a specimen deposited in the national museum collected by clark. i had this reference checked by e. s. steele and in a letter to me dated january , , he says: "i find no specimen labeled _quercus prinoides_, but there is one named _q. prinus_. there is no ground for calling it _q. prinoides_." since the specimen in question is a very immature one, i propose not to take it into consideration since the range of the species would be extended on a dubious specimen. =planèra aquática= (walter) j. f. gmelin. planer-tree. water elm. this tree was included in coulter's catalogue upon the authority of sargent, who includes indiana in the range of the species in his "forest trees of north america," vol. , u.s. census report, , page . dr. schneck spent a lifetime along the lower wabash bottoms and very carefully preserved specimens of all the flora of the region where this species is reported to occur. in his report of the flora of this region in he does not include this tree. an examination of his herbarium material showed no specimens of this tree either from indiana or illinois. it is fair to presume if he had been acquainted with the tree he would have had it represented in his herbarium. since the white elm is frequently called water elm, as well as the planer-tree, it is easy to understand how confusion might arise in separating these trees by non-professional people. =morus nìgra= linnæus. black mulberry. this species is reported by phinney[ ] as one of the "more important and common forest trees observed in delaware county." he also enumerates _morus rubra_. a splendid example of careless work. this species is reported by brown[ ] for fountain county, and by mccaslin[ ] for jay county. these authors reported this species as a native forest tree. since this species is not a native of the united states the citations no doubt should be referred to our native mulberry, _morus rubra_ (red mulberry). =Ìlex opàca= aiton. holly. this species was included in coulter's catalogue of the plants of indiana on the authority of robert ridgway. i find no reference to this species in the writings of ridgway. in shawnee park on the west side of louisville, kentucky is a large tree of this species. i was told that it was a native. a timber buyer of tell city told me that there was a native tree on his grandfather's farm in the southern part of perry county. since this species has been reported for grayson county, kentucky, which is less than forty miles to the south, it is quite probable that a few trees were found as far north as indiana. =acer pennsylvánicum= linnæus. moosewood. the only record of this species occurring in indiana is in a report of the trees occurring along the wabash river by prince maximilian. since the report does not definitely state where the species was observed or how frequently it occurred and since the greater part of maximilian's time was spent on the illinois side of the wabash, it is more than likely that he observed it on the illinois side of the wabash. while indiana is within the possible range of the species, it has not been discovered since. if not extinct in our area it is most likely to be found among the hills of the southern counties or in the vicinity of lake michigan. robert ridgway says that he and dr. schneck saw it growing in a wooded cove near a cavern called flory's cave in johnson county, illinois. =nyssa aquática= linnæus. tupelo gum. several early authors erroneously reported _nyssa sylvatica_ as this species. this species inhabits deep swamps. dr. schneck and robert ridgway, recognized authorities and best acquainted with the swamp area of the southwestern counties, at first thought it was a member of our flora, but later decided that it should be excluded. michael catt, years old, who lived nearly years about three miles west of decker on the border of the cypress swamp in the south part of knox county, told me that he is positive that the tupelo gum was an occasional tree in the cypress swamp west of decker. =fraxinus caroliniàna= miller. water ash. this species was included in coulter's catalogue of indiana plants upon the authority of dr. schneck. it is asserted that specimens were sent to missouri botanical gardens for verification. the writer has carefully examined all the specimens of _fraxinus_ in the missouri botanical gardens, and all of schneck's specimens in the herbarium are now correctly named _fraxinus profunda_. since this species is not in our range it should be dropped from our flora. table of measurements of the largest trees of some species that occur in indiana. ---------+-----------+-----------------------+-----------+-------+------- authority| county. | name. | circum- | clear | total | | | ference. | bole. |height. ---------+-----------+-----------------------+-----------+-------+------- | | | cm.ft.in.|dm. ft.|dm. ft. | | | | | deam |laporte |pinus strobus | |... .. | | | (white pine) | | | deam |lake |pinus banksiana | |... .. | | | (jack pine) | | | schneck |l. w. v.[a]|taxodium distichum | | | | | (cypress) | | | ridgway |l. w. v. |salix nigra | ..|... .. | | | (black willow) | | | schneck |l. w. v. |populus deltoides | ..| | | | (cottonwood) | | | ridgway |l. w. v. |populus grandidentata | | | | | (quaking aspen) | | | ridgway |knox |populus heterophylla | | | | | (cottonwood) | | | deam |marshall |populus tremuloides | ..| | | | (quaking aspen) | | | schneck |l. w. v. |juglans nigra | ..| | | | (black walnut) | | | schneck |l. w. v. |carya alba | | | | | (white hickory) | | | ridgway |l. w. v. |carya glabra | |... .. | | | (black hickory) | | | ridgway |l. w. v. |carya ovalis | ..| | | | (small-fruited | | | | | hickory) | | | schneck |l. w. v. |carya illinoensis | ..| | | | (pecan) | | | deam |madison |ostrya virginiana | |... .. | | | (ironwood) | | | ridgway |knox |carpinus caroliniana | | | | | (blue beech) | | | deam |porter |betula papyrifera | |... .. | | | (paper birch) | | | deam |porter |alnus incana | |... .. | | | (tag alder) | | | schneck |l. w. v. |fagus grandifolia | ..|... .. | | | (beech) | | | bot. gaz.|jackson |castanea dentata | ..| |... ... june ' | | (chestnut) | | | schneck |l. w. v. |quercus alba | ..| | | | (white oak) | | | schneck |l. w. v. |quercus schneckii | | | | | (schneck's oak) | | | ridgway |l. w. v. |quercus falcata | ..| | | | (spanish oak) | | | schneck |l. w. v. |quercus macrocarpa | ..| | | | (burr oak) | | | ridgway |l. w. v. |quercus michauxii | ..| | | | (cow oak) | | | schneck |l. w. v. |quercus palustris | ..| | | | (pin oak) | | | ridgway |gibson |quercus rubra | ..| |... ... | | (red oak) | | | ridgway |knox |quercus rubra | ..| | | | (red oak) | | | schneck |l. w. v. |quercus velutina | ..| | | | (black oak) | | | ridgway |l. w. v. |ulmus americana | ..| | | | (white elm) | | | ridgway |gibson |celtis occidentalis | ..| | | | (hackberry) | | | schneck |l. w. v. |liriodendron tulipifera| ..| | | | (yellow poplar) | | | schneck |posey |asimina triloba | |... .. | | | (pawpaw) | | | johnson |posey |sassafras officinale | | | | | (sassafras) | | | schneck |l. w. v. |liquidambar styraciflua| ..| | | | (sweet gum) | | | schneck |l. w. v. |platanus occidentalis | , | | | | (sycamore) | | | bot. gaz.|daviess |platanus occidentalis | , ..| |... .. june ' | | (sycamore) | | | deam |steuben |amelanchier lævis | |... .. | | | (juneberry) | | | deam |porter |prunus pennsylvanica | ..|... .. | | | (wild red cherry) | | | ridgway |knox |cercis canadensis | | | | | (redbud) | | | ridgway |l. w. v. |gleditsia aquatica | ..|... .. | | | (water honey locust) | | | schneck |posey |gleditsia triacanthos | ..| | | | (honey locust) | | | deam |posey |acer negundo | | | | | (box elder) | | | schneck |l. w. v. |acer rubrum | ..| | | | (red maple) | | | schneck |l. w. v. |acer saccharum | | | | | (sugar maple) | | | schneck |l. w. v. |tilia glabra | | | | | (linn) | | | deam |jefferson |tilia heterophylla | | | | | (white linn) | | | ridgway |l. w. v. |nyssa sylvatica | ..|... .. |... ... | | (black gum) | | | deam |posey |diospyros virginiana | | | | | (persimmon) | | | ridgway |l. w. v. |diospyros virginiana | | | | | (persimmon) | | | schneck |l. w. v. |catalpa speciosa | ..| | | | (catalpa) | | | ---------+-----------+-----------------------+-----------+-------+------- [a] l. w. v.--lower wabash valley. specific gravity of indiana woods.[ ] the specific gravity was derived from wood dried at ° centigrade ( fah.) until it ceased to lose weight. carya ovata (shellbark hickory) . quercus stellata (post oak) . viburnum prunifolium (black haw) . quercus lyrata (overcup oak) . ostrya virginiana (ironwood) . carya alba (white hickory) . carya glabra (black hickory) . cornus florida (flowering dogwood) . carya laciniosa (big shellbark hickory) . quercus michauxii (cow oak) . diospyros virginiana (persimmon) . amelanchier canadensis (juneberry) . maclura pomifera (osage orange) . quercus bicolor (swamp white oak) . carya cordiformis (pig hickory) . quercus imbricaria (shingle oak) . quercus prinus (chestnut oak) . ulmus alata (cork elm) . quercus alba (white oak) . quercus macrocarpa (bur oak) . quercus coccinea (scarlet oak) . gleditsia aquatica (water honey locust) . robinia pseudo-acacia (black locust) . quercus marilandica (black jack oak) . celtis occidentalis (hackberry) . carpinus caroliniana (water beech) . ulmus thomasi (hickory elm) . prunus americana (wild plum) . fraxinus quadrangulata (blue ash) . carya illinoensis (pecan) . malus glaucescens (crab apple) . quercus velutina (black oak) . ulmus fulva (slippery elm) . quercus palustris (pin oak) . gymnocladus dioica (coffeenut) . quercus falcata (spanish oak) . acer nigrum (black maple) . acer saccharum (sugar maple) . fagus grandifolia (beech) . gleditsia triacanthos (honey locust) . betula lutea (yellow birch) . fraxinus americana (white ash) . quercus rubra (red oak) . ulmus americana (white elm) . cercis canadensis (redbud) . nyssa sylvatica (black gum) . adelia acuminata (swamp privet) . fraxinus nigra (water ash) . fraxinus pennsylvanica (red ash) . larix laricina (tamarack) . acer rubrum (red maple) . juglans nigra (black walnut) . betula papyrifera (paper birch) . liquidambar styraciflua (sweet gum) . morus rubra (red mulberry) . prunus serotina (wild black cherry) . betula nigra (river birch) . betula populifolia (white birch) . platanus occidentalis (sycamore) . pinus virginiana (jersey pine) . acer saccharinum (silver maple) . sassafras officinale (sassafras) . prunus pennsylvanica (wild red cherry) . juniperus virginiana (red cedar) . pinus banksiana (gray pine) . magnolia acuminata (cucumber tree) . alnus rugosa (alder) . populus grandidentata (quaking aspen) . alnus incana (tag alder) . taxodium distichum (cypress) . Æsculus glabra (buckeye) . tilia glabra (linn) . castanea dentata (chestnut) . salix amygdaloides (willow) . catalpa bignonioides (catalpa) . salix nigra (black willow) . acer negundo (box elder) . Æsculus octandra (sweet buckeye) . tilia heterophylla (white linn) . tsuga canadensis (hemlock) . liriodendron tulipifera (yellow poplar) . catalpa speciosa (catalpa) . populus heterophylla (downy cottonwood) . juglans cinerea (butternut) . populus tremuloides (quaking aspen) . asimina triloba (pawpaw) . populus deltoides (cottonwood) . pinus strobus (white pine) . thuja occidentalis (arbor-vitæ) . [illustration: plate . county map of indiana.] [illustration: plate . county map of indiana showing certain areas of forest distribution.] [illustration: plate . english and metric scales compared. these can be cut out and pasted on wood.] footnotes: [ ] ind. geol. rept. : : . [ ] amer. mid. nat. : : . [ ] proc. ind. acad. sci. : : . [ ] see discussion under abies balsamea on page . [ ] proc. ind. hort. soc. : : . [ ] ind. geol. surv. rept. : : . [ ] proc. ind. acad. sci. : : . [ ] baird & taylor's reference to this species is regarded as a cultivated tree or as an error: manual public schools of clark county, ind. - , page . [ ] hamilton county by wilson, no doubt from a cultivated tree. [ ] contributed by c. r. ball, bureau plant industry, washington, d.c., except the genus populus. [ ] coulter's record for gibson county by schneck is regarded as an error because schneck himself does not report it, and there was no specimen in the schneck herbarium. [ ] deam's record in rept. ind. st. board forestry : : was a manuscript error. [ ] ind. geol. rept. : : . [ ] sargent in bot. gaz. vol. : : . [ ] heimlich in proc. ind. acad. sci. : : : credits most of my records jointly with prof. g. n. hoffer. this is an error. on my invitation prof. hoffer accompanied me nine days in the field doing mycological work. while he gave me valuable assistance in collecting during these days, his assistance and responsibility stopped there and he never asked or expected to be considered joint author. again on our trip we collected only in daviess, gibson, fountain, knox, lawrence, martin, pike and sullivan counties. [ ] sargent .c. [ ] andré michaux's travels - . [ ] flora of jefferson county. ind. geol. surv. rept. : : . [ ] flora of jefferson county. ind. geol. surv. rept. : : . [ ] bot. gaz. vol. : : . [ ] proc. ind. acad. sci. : : . [ ] proc. ind. acad. sci. : : . [ ] bot. gaz. : : . [ ] bot. gaz. : : . [ ] proc. ind. acad. sci. : : . [ ] trees and shrubs : - : and bot. gaz. : : . [ ] bot. gaz. : : . [ ] in in allen county along cedar creek, i measured a specimen that was . dm. in circ. b.h. with a clear bole of about m. [ ] proc. ind. acad. sci. : : . [ ] ind. geol. rept. : : . [ ] minnesota bot. studies : : . [ ] sargent in bot. gaz. vol. : : . [ ] this hybrid was described in the report of the indiana state board of forestry for . [ ] elliott: histological variations of _quercus muhlenbergii_. university of kansas science bul. : : : plates: . [ ] gorby: trees and shrubs indigenous to miami county, ind. geol. rept. : - : . [ ] wilson: flora of hamilton and marion counties, indiana. proc. ind. acad. science. : - : . [ ] higley and raddin: flora of cook county illinois, and a part of lake county indiana. bul. chicago acad. sci. vol. : : [ ] nieuwland: notes on our local flora. amer. mid. nat. vol. : : . [ ] michaux: north american silva. j. j. smith's trans. vol. : : . [ ] nieuwland: notes on our local flora. amer. mid. nat. vol. : : . [ ] prof. b. shimek told me that recently a few trees were found about miles west of iowa city, iowa. [ ] sargent: notes on north american trees. bot. gaz. vol. : : . [ ] brown: trees of fountain county, ind. geol. rept. vol. : : . [ ] sargent: notes on north american trees. bot. gaz. vol. : : . [ ] bot. gaz. vol. : - : . [ ] hill: notes on celtis pumila, etc. bul. torrey club: vol: : - : . [ ] bot. gaz. vol. : - : . [ ] garden & forest : : . [ ] =morus alba= linnæus. white mulberry. a small crooked tree; leaves ovate, sometimes lobed, blades - cm. long, cordate at the base, acute at apex, at maturity glabrous above and glabrous beneath or with some hairs on the veins and in the axils of the veins; fruit subglobose or oblong, - cm. long, white to pinkish. this is an introduced tree and has been reported as an escape in many parts of the state, especially by the older botanists. =morus alba= variety =tatarica= loudon, the russian mulberry, has been reported as an escape. the writer has seen single specimens as an escape in woods in cass and marshall counties. it can be distinguished by practically all of the leaves being more or less lobed and the reddish fruit. this form was introduced into the united states in great numbers about fifty years ago by the mennonites. it was especially recommended by nurserymen for fence posts and it has been planted to some extent in indiana, but it cannot be recommended. it grows too slowly and is too crooked to compensate for any lasting qualities the wood may have. =morus nigra= has been reported from indiana by phinney, brown and mccaslin as a forest tree. since this is an introduced tree, and is not supposed to be hardy in our area, their reports should be transferred to some other species. [ ] amer. midland naturalist vol. : : . [ ] contributed by w. w. eggleston, bureau plant industry, washington, d.c. [ ] proc. ind. acad. sci. : : . [ ] higley and raddin: flora of cook county illinois and a part of lake county indiana. bul. chic. acad. sci. vol. : : . [ ] trans. ill. acad. science, : . [ ] amer. nat. : : . [ ] rept. ind. geol. surv. : : . [ ] ind. geol. rept. : : . [ ] plant world : : . [ ] thomas' western travels, page : . [ ] drake in picture of cincinnati, page , . [ ] bot. gaz. vol. : : . [ ] s. coulter: size of some trees of jefferson county, ind. bot. gaz. vol. : : . he says: "fifty trees were measured at three feet above the ground with an average diameter of ft. and inches. an equal number of _Æsculus octandra_ were measured at the same height from the ground with an average diameter of ft. and inches." [ ] drake: picture of cincinnatus: : . [ ] young: botany of jefferson county, ind. geo. surv. ind. rept. : : . [ ] sargent: notes on north american trees. bot. gaz. vol. : - and - : . [ ] wadmond: flora of racine and kenosha counties. trans. wis. acad. sci. vol. : : . the author says: "two trees near berryville, the only known trees of this species in the state." [ ] in i measured a specimen near yankeetown in warrick county that had a clear bole of meters ( feet), and a circumference of dm. ( inches) b.h. [ ] bot. gaz. vol. : - : . [ ] rhodora vol. : : . [ ] sterrett: utilization of ash. u. s. dept. agri. bul. : . [ ] sterrett: utilization of ash, u. s. dept. agri. bul. : . [ ] proc. ind. acad. sci. : : . [ ] manual public schools clark county, ind. - , page . [ ] proc. ind. acad. sci. : : . [ ] rept. geol. surv. ind. : : . [ ] rept. geol. surv. ind. : : . [ ] rept. geol. surv. ind. : : . [ ] sci. bul. chic. acad. vol. : : . [ ] ind. geol. rept. : : . [ ] blatchley's, mss. flora of monroe county, ind. june . [ ] bul. brockville nat. hist. soc. no. : : [ ] amer. midland nat. vol. : : . [ ] it is said that this list and that of hobb's list of trees of parke county were prepared by obtaining from farmers a list of the common names of the trees to which they attached botanical names. [ ] sargent in a letter to the author. [ ] proc. u.s. nat. mus. : . [ ] american midland naturalist : : . [ ] ind. geol. rept. : : . [ ] ind. geol. rept. : : . [ ] ind. geol. rept. : : . [ ] adapted from sargent's "trees of north america." index the accepted botanical names are in bold-face type. synonyms are placed in italics. where the subject receives the most extended notice the page number is in bold-face type. page =abies balsamea=, = = =aceracea=, = = =acer=, = = negundo, = =, , , =negundo= variety =violaceum=, = = =nigrum=, = =, , =pennsylvanicum=, = = =rubrum=, = =, , , =rubrum= variety =drummondii=, = = =rubrum= variety =tridens=, = = =saccharinum=, , , =saccharum=, , , , =saccharum= variety =glaucum=, = = =saccharum= variety =schneckii=, = = =saccharum= variety =rugelii=, = = acknowledgments, =adelia=, = = =acuminata=, = =, , =Æsculaceæ=, = = =Æsculus=, = = _flava_ variety _purpurascens_, _ _ =glabra=, = =, , =octandra=, = =, , =ailanthus altissima=, = =, _glandulosa_, _ _ alder, , smooth, , speckled, , =alnus=, = =, =incana=, , = =, , , =rugosa=, , , = =, , =altingiaceæ=, = = =amelanchier canadensis=, = =, =lævis=, = =, , , =amygdalaceæ=, = = =anonaceæ=, = = apple, american crab, , , iowa crab, narrow-leaved crab, , western crab, , thorn, arbor-vitæ , , arrow wood ash biltmore , black , blue , , gray green , hoop , pumpkin red , , swamp , swell-butt , water white , , , =asimina triloba= = =, , , aspen, large-toothed , quaking , , ball, carleton r balm of gilead banana, hoosier basswood , white , beech , , , blue , , red water , , white yellow =betulaceæ= = = =betula= = = =alleghenensis= = = =lenta= , , = =, =lutea= = =, , , =nigra= , = =, , , =papyrifera= = =, , , =papyrifera × pumila glandulifera= = = =populifolia= = =, , =sanbergi= = = =bignoniaceæ= = = birch , , black , , canoe , , gray , paper , , , , red , , river , white , , , yellow , , botanic descriptions, comments on box elder , britton and brown buckeye , , , sweet , , butternut , , =cæsalpinaceæ= = = =caprifoliaceæ= = = =carpinus caroliniana= = =, , , =carya= = = =alba= = =, , =alba= variety =subcoriacea= = = =aquatica= = = =buckleyi= variety =arkansana= = =, =cordiformis= = =, , , =glabra= = =, , =glabra= variety =megacarpa= = = =illinoensis= = =, , =laciniosa= = =, , , =myristicæformis= = = =ovalis= , = =, , =ovalis= variety =obcordata= = = =ovalis= variety =obcordata= forma =vestita= = = =ovalis= variety =obovalis= = = =ovalis= variety =odorata= = = =ovata= = =, , =ovata= variety =fraxinifolia= = = =ovata= variety =nuttallii= = = =castanea dentata= = =, , , =pumila= = = catalfa catalpa , , hardy =catalpa= = = =catalpa bigonnioides= , = =, , _catalpa catalpa_ _ _ =speciosa= = =, , , , cedar, red , , white =celtis= = = _laevigata_ _ _ =mississipiensis= = =, =occidentalis= , = =, , =occidentalis= variety =crassifolia= = = =pumila= = =, =pumila= variety =deamii= , = = =cercis canadensis= = =, , , =chamæcyparis thyoides= = = cherry, wild wild black , , wild red , , , chestnut , , , chinquapin coffeenut , , contents, table of conservation, the department of =cornacea= = = =cornus florida= = =, , cottonwood , , , downy swamp , coulter, stanley, commissioner , , =cratægus= = = =albicans= = = _alnorum_ _ _ =basilica= = =, =beata= = = =berberifolia= = = =boyntoni= = = =brainerdi= = = =calpodendron= = =, =chrysocarpa= = =, =coccinea= = =, =coccinea= variety =elwangeriana= = = _coccinea_ variety _oligandra_ _ _ =coccinoides= = =, =collina= = =, _cordata_ _ _ =crus-galli= = =, =cuneiformis= = =, _deltoides_ _ _ =denaria= = = _dodgei_ _ _ _edsoni_ _ _ _eggertii_ _ _ =fecunda= = = =filipes= = =, =gattingeri= = =, =jesupi= = =, =lucorum= = = =macrosperma= = =, =macrosperma= variety =matura= = = =margaretta= = =, =mollis= = =, =neo-fluvialis= = =, =nitida= = =, =ovata= = = _pausiaca_ _ _ _pedicillata_ _ _ _pedicillata_ variety _elwangeriana_ _ _ =phænopyrum= = =, =pringlei= = = =pruinosa= = =, =punctata= = =, =roanensis= = = _rotundifolia_ _ _ =rugosa= = =, _silvicola_ variety _beckwithae_ _ _ =succulenta= = =, =villipes= = = =viridis= , = = crooked brush , cucumber tree , , cypress, bald , , , deam, stella m. dietz, harry f. , =diospyros virginiana= = =, , , distribution of trees, terms used to define dogwood , flowering , =ebenaceæ= = = eggleston, w. w. , elder, box , , , elm bitter cork gray hickory , , hub red , , rock , slippery , , sour swamp water , white , , winged , english and metric scales compared =ericaceæ= = = =fabaceæ= = = =fagaceæ= = = =fagus grandifolia= = =, , , fir, balsam =fraxinus= = = =americana= = =, , =americana= forma =iodocarpa= = = =americana= variety =subcoriacea= = = =biltmoreana= = =, =caroliniana= = = =lanceolata= = =, =nigra= = =, , =pennsylvanica= = =, , =profunda= = =, , =quadrangulata= = =, , frontispiece =gleditsia aquatica= = =, , =aquatica x triacanthos= = = =triancanthos= = =, , gum black , , sour sweet , , , tupelo yellow =gymnocladus dioica= = =, , hackberry , , , , dwarf , haw, black , , dotted pear , red , , , scarlet southern black hedge hemlock , , hickory big scaly-bark big shellbark , , , black , , , hard-head nutmeg pignut , , , shellbark , , , small-fruited , , , ladies water white , , , yellow-bud holly , hop hornbeam hough, r. b. =ilex opaca= = = illustrations, explanation of list of introduction ironwood , , =juglandaceæ= = = =juglans= = = _aquatica_ _ _ =cinerea= = =, , =nigra= = =, , , juneberry , , smooth , juniper =juniperus communis= = = =virginiana= = =, , , =kalmia latifolia= = = key to the families of indiana trees larch =larix laricina= = =, , =lauraceæ= = = laurel lieber, richard linn , , , =liquidambar styraciflua= = =, , , =liriodendron tulipifera= = =, , , locust black , , honey , , , water honey , , , yellow =maclura pomifera= = =, , =magnoliaceæ= = = =magnolia acuminata= = =, , =malaceæ= = = =malus= = = =angustifolia= = = _coronaria_ _ _, _fragrans_ _ _ =glaucescens= = =, , =ioensis= = = =ioensis= × lancifolia = = =lancifolia= = =, maple, black , , black sugar hard red , , , rock silver , , soft , sugar , , , swamp white map of certain forestal areas of indiana explanation of map of indiana moosewood =moraceæ= = = =morus= = = =alba= = = =alba= variety =tatarica= = = =nigra= , = = =rubra= = =, , , mulberry, red , , , , black white nomenclature =nyssa aquatica= = = =sylvatica= = =, , , oak basket , bear black , , , , , black jack , , bur , , , , , chestnut , , , chinquapin , cow , , , dwarf chestnut hill's , iron jack mossy cup over cup , , peach pigeon pin , , , post , , red , , , , , sand bur scarlet , , schneck's , scrub shingle , , spanish , , , , swamp swamp white , , sweet water , , white , , , willow yellow , =oleaceæ= = = osage orange , , =ostrya virginiana= = =, , =virginiana= variety =glandulosa= = = =oxydendrum arboreum= = =, pawpaw , , white yellow pecan , , , mccallister pepperidge persimmon , , , =pinaceæ= = = pine gray , , jack , , jersey , , , norway pitch scrub , , short-leaf white , , , , =pinus= = = =banksiana= = =, , =echinata= = = =resinosa= = = =rigida= = = =strobus= = =, , , =virginiana= , = = =planera aquatica= = = planer-tree plane tree =platanaceæ= = = =platanus occidentalis= , , , plum, canada , wild goose , wild red , , woolly-leaf , pond brush , poplar , balsam blue carolina , hickory lombardy silver-leaf , swamp white yellow , , =populus= = = =alba= = =, =balsamifera= = = _balsamifera_ variety _virginiana_ _ _ =candicans= = = =deltoides= = =, , , =grandidentata= = =, , , , =heterophylla= = =, , , =nigra= variety =italica= = = =tremuloides= = =, , , preface privet swamp =prunus= = = =americana= = =, , =americana= variety =lanata= = =, =hortulana= = =, =nigra= = =, =pennsylvanica= = =, , =serotina= = =, , quaking aspen , =quercus= = = =alba= = =, , , =alba= variety =latiloba= = = =alba x michauxii= = = =alba x muhlenbergii= = = =beadlei= = = =bicolor= = =, , =coccinea= = =, , =deami= = = _digitata_ _ _ =ellipsoidalis= = =, =falcata= = =, , , =illicifolia= = = =imbricaria= = =, , =lyrata= = =, , =macrocarpa= , = =, , =macrocarpa= variety =olivæformis= = = =marilandica= = =, , , _maxima_ _ _ =michauxii= = =, , , _montana_ _ _ =muhlenbergii= = =, , , , =nigra= = = _pagoda_ _ _ _pagodaefolia_ _ _ =palustris= = =, , , =phellos= = = =prinoides= = = =prinus= , = =, , , =rubra= = =, , , , _rubra_ variety _triloba_ _ _ =schneckii= = =, , , _shumardii_ _ _ _shumardii_ variety _schneckii_ _ _ =stellata= = =, , _triloba_ _ _ =velutina= = =, , , , redbud , , , remarks, explanation of =robinia pseudo-acacia= = =, , _rulac nuttallii_ _ _ =salicaceæ= = = =salix= = = =alba= = =, =alba= variety =vitellina= = = =amygdaloides= = =, , =discolor= = =, =discolor= variety =eriocephala= = = =fragilis= = =, =nigra= = =, , =nigra= variety =falcata= = = sassafras , , , red white _sassafras albida_ variety _glauca_ _ _ =officinale= = =, sargent, c. s. service berry =simarubaceæ= = = sorrel tree , sour wood , specific gravity of some of the woods of indiana stink tree sugar berry sugar, black sugar tree sycamore , , , , tamarack , , =taxodium distichum= = =, , , thorn, mrs. ashe's , miss beckwith's , judge brown's , chapman's hill , dr. clapp's cock-spur , downy eggert's , fretz's , dr. gattinger's , jesup's , large-fruited , long-spined , marshall's newcastle new-river , pear , red-fruited , round-leaved , scarlet , shining , southern , variable , washington , waxy-fruited , =thuja occidentalis= = =, , =tiliaceæ= = = =tilia= = = _americana_ _ _ =glabra= = =, , , =heterophylla= = =, , _heterophylla_ variety _michauxii_ _ _ =neglecta= = = =toxylon pomiferum= = = tree of heaven , trees, key to families occurring in indiana species excluded from indiana flora measurement of some of the largest found in indiana terms used to define distribution of =tsuga canadensis= = =, , tulip , tupelo =ulmaceæ= = = ulman, paul =ulmus= = = =alata= = =, , =americana= = =, , , =fulva= = =, , =thomasi= = =, , =viburnum prunifolium= = =, , =rufidulum= = = walnut , , black , , , white , williamson, l. a. williamson, e. b. willow , , , black , , , crack , glaucous peach-leaved , pussy , swamp white , wood, specific gravity of some species that occur in indiana wood, white whittle * * * * * transcriber's note footnote was not indicated in the text and so was assumed to be associated with the text associated with e. j. hill's account of the species _celtis pumila_. the last three items in the key on page were renumbered as " " appeared twice. on page , "dr. jno. a. warder" was changed to "dr. john a. warder". formatting of the titles for the sections listed in the table of contents was standardized. hyphenation and æ ligature use was standardized. the [oe] ligature was converted to oe. small captioned text was not converted to upper case as that is used in the text for the family headers. sea-weeds, shells and fossils. by peter gray, a.b.s. edin.; and b. b. woodward, _of the british museum (natural history), south kensington._ [illustration] london: swan sonnenschein, le bas & lowrey, paternoster square. butler & tanner, the selwood printing works frome, and london. sea-weeds. by peter gray. algæ, popularly known as sea-weeds, although many species are inhabitants of fresh water, or grow on moist ground, may be briefly described as cellular, flowerless plants, having no proper roots, but imbibing nutriment by their whole surface from the medium in which they grow. as far as has been ascertained, the total number of species is about or , . many of them are microscopic, as the desmids and diatoms, others, as lessonia, and some of the larger laminariæ (oarweeds), are arborescent, covering the bed of the sea around the coast with a submarine forest; while in the pacific, off the northwestern shores of america, nereocystis, a genus allied to laminaria, has a stem over feet in length, which, although not thicker than whipcord, is stout enough to moor a bladder, barrel-shaped, six or seven feet long, and crowned with a tuft of fifty leaves or more, each from thirty to forty feet in length. this vegetable buoy is a favourite resting place of the sea otter; and where the plant exists in any quantity, the surface of the sea is rendered impassable to boats. the stem of macrocystis, which "girds the globe in the southern temperate zone," is stated to extend sometimes to the enormous length of feet. it is no thicker than the finger anywhere, and the upper branches are as slender as pack-thread; but at the base of each leaf there is placed a buoy, in the shape of a vesicle filled with air. although the worthlessness of algæ has been proverbial, as in the "alga inutile" of horace and virgil's "projecta vilior alga," they are not without importance in botanical economics. a dozen or more species found in the british seas are made use of, raw or prepared in several ways, as food for man. of these edible algæ, dr. harvey considers the two species of porphyra, or laver, the most valuable. berkeley says, "the best way of preparing this vegetable or condiment, which is extremely wholesome, is to heat it thoroughly with a little strong gravy or broth, adding, before it is served on toast, a small quantity of butter and lemon juice." a species of nostoc is largely consumed in china as an ingredient in soup. a similar use is made of enteromorpha intestinalis in japan. many species of fish and other animals, turtle included, live upon sea-weed. fucus vesiculosus is a grateful food for cattle. in norway, cattle, horses, sheep, and pigs are largely fed upon it, and on our own coasts cattle eagerly browse on that and kindred species at low water. in some northern countries, fucus serratus sprinkled with meal is used as winter fodder. [illustration: fig. . group of sea-weeds (chiefly laminariæ)] all the marine algæ contain iodine; and even before the value of that substance in glandular complaints had been ascertained, stems of a sea-weed were chewed as a remedy by the inhabitants of certain districts of south america where goître is prevalent. chondrus crispus and (gigartina) mamillosa constitute the irish moss of commerce, which dissolves into a nutritious and delicate jelly, and the restorative value of which in consumption doubtless depends in some degree on the presence of iodine. the freshwater algæ not only furnish abundant and nourishing food to the fish and other animals living in ponds and streams, but by their action in the decomposition of carburetted hydrogen and other noxious gases purify the element in which they live, thus becoming important sanitary agents. the value of aquatic plants in the aquarium is well known. a chinese species of gigartina is much employed as a glue and varnish; and also much used in china in the manufacture of lanterns and transparencies, and in that country and japan for glazing windows. handles for table knives and forks, tools, and other implements have been made from the thick stems of oarweeds, and fishing lines from chorda filum. tripoli powder, extensively used for polishing, consists mainly of the silicious shells of diatoms. on various parts of our coast, the coarser species of sea-weed, now used as a valuable manure, were formerly extensively burnt for kelp, an impure carbonate of soda. this industry, when carried on upon a large scale, became a fruitful source of income to some of the poorest districts in the kingdom, bringing, in the last decade of last century, nearly £ , per annum into orkney alone. since the production of soda from rock salt has become general, kelp is now only burnt for the extraction of iodine, this being the easiest way of obtaining that substance. although the vegetable structure and mode of reproduction are essentially the same in all algæ, as regards the former they vary from the simple cell, through cells arranged in threads, to a stem and leaves simulating the vegetation of higher tribes. and although the simpler kinds are obviously formed of threads, most of the more compound may also be resolved into the same structure by maceration in hot water or diluted muriatic acid. in substance some are mere masses of slime or jelly, others are silky to the feel, horny, cartilaginous or leather-like, and even apparently woody. a few species secrete carbonate of lime from the water, laying it up in their tissues; others cover themselves completely with that mineral, while some coat themselves with silex or flint. many algæ are beautifully coloured, even when growing at depths to which very little light penetrates. as in their vegetative organs, so in their reproductive, algæ exhibit many modifications of structure without much real difference. in the green sea-weeds reproduction is effected by simple cell division in the unicellular species, and by spores resulting from the union of the contents of two cells in the others. the red sea-weeds have a double system of reproduction, a distinctly sexual one, by spores and antheridia, and another by tetraspores, which by some are considered to be of the nature of gemmæ, or buds. the spores are generally situated in distinct hollow conceptacles (favellæ, ceramidium, coccidium). the tetraspore is also sometimes contained in a conceptacle. it consists of a more or less globular, transparent cell, which when mature contains within it four (rarely three) sporules. reproduction in the olive sea-weeds is also double, by zoospores, generally considered gemmæ, and by spores and antherozoids, which is a sexual process. [illustration: fig. . a, species of gleocapsa, one of the palmelleæ, in various stages. a becomes b, c, d, and e by repeated division. magnified diameters.] following the classification adopted by professor harvey, which is that generally employed in english systematic manuals, we divide the order into three sub-orders, named from the prevailing colour of their spores. . chlorospermeæ, with green spores; . rhodospermeæ, with red spores; and . melanospermeæ, with olive-coloured spores. the entire plant in the first group is usually grass-green, but occasionally olive, purple, blue, and sometimes almost black; in the second it is some shade or other of red, very seldom green; and in the third, while generally olive green, it is occasionally brown olive or yellow. the chlorospermeæ are extremely varied in form, often threadlike, and are propagated either by the simple division of the contents of their cells (endochrome), by the transformation of particular joints, or by the change of the contents of the cells into zoospores, which are cells moving freely in water by means of hairlike appendages. in their lower forms they are among the most rudimentary of all plants, and thus of special interest physiologically, as representing the component parts of which higher plants are formed. they are subdivided into twelve groups, as follows: the first group, palmelleæ, are unicellular plants, the cells of which are either free or surrounded by a gelatinous mass, and they are propagated by the division of the endochrome. one of the most remarkable of the species of this family is protococcus cruentus, which is found at the foot of walls having a northern aspect, looking as if blood had been poured out on the ground or on stones. protococcus nivalis, again, is the cause of the red snow, of which early arctic navigators used to give such marvellous accounts. (fig. .) [illustration: fig. . a, fragment of a filament of zygnema, one of the conjugateæ; b, closterium; c, euastrium; two desmids.] the desmideaceæ, together with the plants of the next succeeding group, are favourite subjects of investigation or observation by the possessors of microscopes, an attention they merit from the beauty and variety of their forms. they are minute plants of a green colour, consisting of cells generally independent of each other, but sometimes forming brittle threads or minute fronds, and are reproduced by spores generated by the conjugation of two distinct individuals. the process of conjugation in desmids and diatoms consists in the union of the endochrome of two individuals, each of which in these families is composed of a single cell. this ultimately forms a rounded body or resting spore, which afterwards germinates, the resulting plant not however acquiring the normal form until the third generation. (fig. .) the diatomaceæ, closely allied to the preceding group in structure and reproduction, are however distinguished from them by their flinty shells, which are often beautifully sculptured. their endochrome is a golden brown, instead of green as in the desmideaceæ. the latter, also, are confined to fresh water, while the diatomaceæ are found, though not exclusively, in the sea, where their shells sometimes, microscopically minute as they are individually, form banks extending several hundred miles. it is stated that in the collection made by sir joseph hooker in the himalayas the species closely resemble our own. in the next group, confervaceæ, we are introduced to forms more like the general notion of what a plant should be. the individuals of which it consists are composed of threads, jointed, either simple or branched, mostly of a grass-green colour, and propagating either by minute zoospores or by metamorphosed joints. they are found both in fresh and salt water, and in damp situations. the number of species is very great. a considerable number consist of unbranched threads; the branched forms grow sometimes so densely as to assume the form of solid balls. after floods, when the water stands for several days, they sometimes increase to such an extent, as to form on its subsidence a uniform paper-like stratum, which while decomposing is extremely disagreeable. the name conferva has been almost discontinued as a generic title, the majority of british species being now ranged under clado- and chæto-phora. the latter are branched, and require great care and attention in order to distinguish them, on account of their general resemblance to each other. good characters are however to be found in their mode of branching and the form and comparative size of the terminal joints. the batrachospermeæ constitute a small but very beautiful group, consisting of gelatinous threads variously woven into a branched cylindrical frond. the branches are sometimes arranged, as in the british species, so that the plants appear like necklaces. in colour they pass from green, through intermediate shades of olive and purple, to black. in common with some of the higher algæ, the threads of the superficial branches send joints down the stem, changing it from simple to compound. the native species are all fluviatile. the hydrodicteæ are among the most remarkable of algæ. hydrodictyon utriculatum, the solitary british species, is found in the large pond at hampton court, and in similar situations in various parts of the country, but not very generally. it resembles a green purse or net, from four to six inches in length, with delicate and regular meshes, the reticulations being about four lines long. its method of reproduction is no less than its form. each of the cells forms within itself an enormous mass of small elliptic grains. these become attached by the extremities so as to form a network inside the cell, and, its walls being dissolved, a new plant is set free to grow to the size of the parent hydrodictyon. the nostochineæ grow in fresh water, or attached to moist soil. they consist of slender, beaded threads surrounded by a firm jelly, and often spreading into large, wavy fronds. the larger beads on the inclosed threads are reproductive spores. (fig. , a.) [illustration: fig. . a, fragment of a filament of nostoc. b, end of a filament of oscillatoria.] the oscillatoreæ are another remarkable group, on account of the peculiar animal-like motions they exhibit. they occur both in salt and fresh water, and on almost every kind of site in which there is sufficient moisture. the threads of which they are composed are jointed, and generally unbranched; they are of various tints of blue, red, and green, and, where their fructification has been ascertained, are propagated by cell division. the most curious point about them is, however, the movements of their fronds. according to dr. harvey, these are of three kinds--a pendulum-like movement from side to side, performed by one end, whilst the other remains fixed, so as to form a pivot; a movement of flexure of the filament itself, the oscillating extremity bending over from one side to the other, like the head of a worm or caterpillar seeking something on its line of march; and lastly, a simple onward movement of progression, the whole phenomenon being, dr. harvey thinks, resolvable into a spiral onward movement of the filament. whatever is the cause of this motion, it is not, as used to be supposed, of an animal nature; for the individuals of this group are undoubted plants. (fig. , b.) several species of rivularia, belonging to the oscillatoreæ, are found both in the sea and in fresh water. they are gelatinous, and have something of the appearance of nostoc, in aspect as well as in minute structure. the conjugatæ are freshwater articulated algæ, which reproduce themselves by the union of two endochromes. they are very interesting objects under the microscope, owing to the spiral or zigzag arrangement of the endochrome of many of them, and the delicacy of all. the bulbochæteæ constitute a small group, some half-a-dozen species being british. they are freshwater plants, composed of articulate branched filaments, with fertile bulbshaped branchlets. the endochrome is believed to be fertilized by bodies developed in antheridia, the contents of each fertilized cell dividing into four ovate zoospores. the last two groups of green sea-weeds consist chiefly of marine plants. of these the first, siphoneæ, is so called because the plant, however complicated, is composed invariably of a single cell. it propagates by minute zoospores, by large quiescent spores, or by large active spores clothed with cilia. it includes the remarkable genus codium, three species of which inhabit the british seas. in codium bursa the filamentous frond is spherical and hollow, presenting more the appearance of a round sponge or puff-ball than a sea-weed, and is somewhat rare. another species greatly resembles a branched sponge, and the third forms a velvety crust on the surface of rocks. another genus, vaucheria, is of a beautiful green colour, forming a velvety surface on moist soil, on mud-covered rocks overflowed by the tide, or parasitic on other sea-weeds. the most attractive plants of this family are however those of the genus bryopsis, two of which are found on the british shores. the most common one is b. plumosa, the fronds of which grow usually in the shady and sheltered sides of rock pools. the fronds of the last of the green-weed groups, the ulvaceæ, are membranous, and either flat or tubular. two of them, ulva latissima, the green, and porphyra laciniata, the purple laver, are among the most common sea-weeds, growing well up from low-water mark. the propagation in all of them is by zoospores. an allied genus, enteromorpha, is protean in its forms, which have been classed under many species. they may, however, be reduced to half a dozen. some of them are very slender, so as almost to be mistaken for confervoid plants. with the rhodospermeæ we enter a sub-order of algæ, exclusively marine, the plants in which have always held out great attractions to the collector. in structure they are expanded or filamentous, nearly always rose-coloured or purple in colour. of the fourteen groups into which they are divided by harvey, the first is ceramiaceæ, articulate algæ, constituting a large proportion of the marine plants of our shores. of the genus ceramium, c. rubrum is the most frequent, and it is found in every latitude, almost from pole to pole. it is very variable in aspect, but can always be recognized by its fruit. c. diaphanum is a very handsome species, growing often in rock pools along with the other. there are about fifteen native species altogether, some of them rare, and all very beautiful, both as displayed on paper and seen under the microscope. crouania attenuata is a beautiful plant, parasitic upon a cladostephus or corallina officinalis. it is however extremely rare, being only found in england about land's end. a more common and conspicuous, but equally handsome plant is ptilota plumosa (fig. ), which is mostly confined to our northern coasts; although p. sericea, a smaller species, or variety, is common in the south, and easily distinguished from its congener, which it otherwise greatly resembles, by its jointed branchlets and pinnules. callithamnion, halurus and griffithsia, articulate like ceramium, furnish also several handsome species. (fig. .) [illustration: fig. . species of callithamnion.] the group spyridiaceæ contains only one english plant, spyridia filamentosa, which is curiously and irregularly branched, the branches being articulate and of a pinky red. one of its kinds of fruit, consisting of crimson spores, is contained in a transparent network basket, formed by the favellæ, or short branches, whence its name. [illustration: fig. . chondrus crispus.] the cryptonemiaceæ are very numerous in genera and species. they all have inarticulate branches, some are thread-like. grateloupia filicina is a neat little plant, met with rarely on the south and west coasts. gigartina mamillosa, a common plant everywhere, is the plant sold, along with chondrus crispus, as irish or carrageen moss. a handsome little plant, stenogramme interrupta, is very rare, but it has been gathered both on the irish and english coasts. the phyllophoræ, one species of which is frequent on all our shores, may be recognised by the way in which the points and surfaces of their fronds throw out proliferous leaves. gymnogongrus has two british species, one much resembling chondrus crispus, already named, of which it was formerly considered a congener. their fructification is however very different. ahnfeltia plicata is a curiouswiry, entangled plant, almost black in colour, and like horse-hair when dry, and can scarcely be mistaken. cystoclonium purpurascens is very commonly cast up by the tide on most of our coasts. it varies in colour, but is easily distinguished by the spore-bearing tubercles imbedded in its slender branches. callophyllis laciniata is a handsome species, of a rich crimson colour, and sometimes a foot square. it can scarcely have escaped the notice of the sea-side visitor, for it is widely distributed and often thrown out in great abundance; one writer describes the shore near tynemouth as having been red for upwards of a mile with this superb sea-weed. kalymenia reniformis is another of the broad, flat algæ, but it is scarcer, and of a colour not so conspicuous. among the most frequent of our sea-weeds, both as growing in the rock pools and cast ashore, is chondrus crispus, already twice referred to in connexion with its officinal uses. it is very variable in form, one author figuring as many as thirty-six different varieties. (fig. .) chylocladia clavellosa, which is sometimes cast ashore a foot and a half long, is closely set with branches, and these again clothed with branchlets in one or two series. the whole plant is fleshy, of a rose-red or brilliant pink colour, turning to golden yellow in decay. there is another small species, confined to the extreme north of britain. halymenia ligulata is another flat red weed, but sometimes very narrow in its ramifications. furcellaria fastigiata has a round, branched, taper stem, swollen at the summit, which contains the fruit, consisting of masses of tetraspores in a pod-like receptacle. schizymenia edulis, better known perhaps by its old name iridea, is a flat, inversely egg-shaped leaf with scarcely any stem. it is one of the edible algæ, and pretty frequent in shady rock pools. gloiosiphonia capillaris is a remarkably beautiful plant, and not common, being confined to certain parts of the southern coasts. the stem is very soft and gelatinous; the spores are produced in red globular masses imbedded in the marginal filaments, which have a fine appearance under the microscope when fresh. [illustration: fig. . rhodomenia palmata.] [illustration: fig. . wormskioldia sanguinea.] the rhodomeniaceæ are purplish or blood-red sea-weeds, inarticulate, membranaceous, and cellular. among the dark-coloured is rhodomenia palmata, better known as dulse, a common and edible species. (fig. .) wormskioldia sanguinea is not only the most beautiful sea-weed, but the finest of all leaves or fronds. it is usually about six inches long, but sometimes nearly double that length and six inches broad, with a distinct midrib and branching veins, and a delicate wavy lamina, pink or deep red. the fruit is produced in winter from small leaflets growing upon the bare midrib. (fig. .) the commonest of all red sea-weeds on our coast, one of the most elegant, and much sought after by sea-weed picture makers, plocamium coccineum, belongs to this group. calliblepharis ciliata and jubata are coarser plants, the latter being the more frequent. they were formerly included in the genus rhodymenia, from which they were removed when their fruit was better understood. [illustration: fig. . ptilota plumosa.] wrangelia and naccaria are the only british genera in wrangeliaceæ. there is only one native species in each, both being rare, the latter especially. the helminthocladiæ are also a limited group, of a gelatinous structure; so much so that on being gathered they feel like a bunch of slimy worms, whence the name of the family. helminthora purpurea and divaricata with nemaleon multifidum and scinaia furcellata represent them in britain. they are nearly all very rare, pretty plants, and very effective as microscopic objects. the squamariæ, formerly included in the corallinaceæ, are a small group of inconspicuous plants resembling lichens, of a leathery texture, and growing on rocks and shells attached by their lower surface. a single genus only, polyides, represents the spongiocarpeæ. polyides rotundus resembles furcellaria fastigiata very closely, but differs widely in the fruit, which consists of spongy warts surrounding the frond, composed of spores and articulated threads. of the next group represented in britain, gelidiaceæ, we have only one plant, gelidium corneum, very common on our shores, and perhaps the most variable of all vegetable species. the sphærococcidæ include both membranaceous and cartilaginous species. of the latter is sphærococcus coronopifolius, which cannot easily be mistaken, owing to the numerous berry-like fruits that tip its branchlets. it is rather rare on the northern, but often thrown ashore in large quantities on the southern coasts. the genus delesseria has four british species, the largest being the well-known d. sinuosa, the fronds of which resemble an oak leaf in outline. the handsomest are d. ruscifolia and d. hypoglossum, which are more delicate and of a finer colour than sinuosa. there are three british species of gracillaria, in two of which the branches are cylindrical, and in the other flat. g. compressa makes an excellent preserve and pickle, but unfortunately it is the rarest of the three. nitophyllum is one of the greatest ornaments of this tribe. there are six british species, which are amongst the most delicate and beautiful of our native algæ. the corallinaceæ are remarkable for the property they possess of absorbing carbonate of lime into their tissues, so that they appear as a succession of chalky articulations or incrustations. the most common is corallina officinalis. there are two british species of corallina, and two also of the nearly allied genus, jania. of the foliaceous group there are likewise two british genera, melobesia and hildenbrantia. the next group, the laurenciaceæ, are cartilaginous and cylindrical or compressed, the frond in the greater portion of them being inarticulate and solid. they contain several species valued by collectors, although some of them are amongst our commonest plants. their colour is, when perfect, a dull purple or brownish red, but they change under the influence of light and air, while fresh water is rapidly destructive to their tints. (fig. .) [illustration: fig. . laurencia pinnatifida.] the chylocladiæ are curiously jointed plants, removed by agardh to a new genus, lomentaria, and a new order chondriæ. bonnemaisonia asparagoides is the most rare and beautiful of the tribe. the last tribe of red weeds, rhodomelaceæ, varies greatly in the structure of the frond, but the fruit is more uniform. polysiphonia and dasya contain the finest of the filiform division; the leafy one, odonthalia, a northern form, is a very beautiful sea-weed both as respects form and colour. well-grown specimens are not unlike a hawthorn twig, and of a blood red colour. the plants of the sub-order melanospermeæ, are, like the red sea-weeds, exclusively marine. they are usually large and coarse, and confined mostly to comparatively shallow water. in the laminariaceæ we find the gigantic oarweeds already briefly referred to. lessonia, which encircles in submarine forests the antarctic coasts, is an erect, tree-like plant, with a trunk from five to ten feet high, forked branches, and drooping leaves, one to three feet in length, and has been compared to a weeping willow. sir joseph hooker says, that from a boat there may on a calm day be witnessed in the antarctic regions, over these submarine groves, "as busy a scene as is presented by the coral reefs of the tropics. the leaves of the lessoniæ are crowded with sertulariæ and mollusca, or encircled with flustra; on the trunks parasitic algæ abound, together with chitons, limpets, and other shells; at the base and among the tangled roots swarm thousands of crustaceæ and radiata, while fish of several species dart among the leaves and branches." of these and other gigantic melanosperms, flung ashore by the waves, a belt of decaying vegetable matter is formed, miles in extent, some yards broad, and three feet in depth; and sir j. hooker adds that the trunks of lessonia so much resemble driftwood that no persuasion could prevent an ignorant shipmaster from employing his crew, during two bitterly cold days, in collecting this incombustible material for fuel. macrocystis and nereocystis are also giant members of this sub-order. some of the laminariæ which form a belt around our own coasts not seldom attain a length of from eight to twelve feet. the common bladder-wrack (fucus vesiculosus) sometimes grows in jutland to a height of ten feet, and in clusters several feet in diameter. the colour of most of the plants in this sub-order is some shade of olive, but several of them turn to green in drying. the first group, ectocarpeæ, is composed of thread-like jointed plants, the fructification of which consists of external spores, sometimes formed by the swelling of a branchlet. the typical genus, ectocarpus, abounds in species, a dozen or so of which, very nearly allied plants, being found around our own shores. one or two of them are very handsome. there are also some very beautiful plants in the genus sphacelaria, belonging to this group, several of them resembling miniature ferns. all the sphacelariæ are easily recognized by the withered appearance of the tips of the fruiting branches. myriotrichia is a genus of small parasitical plants, the two british species of which grow chiefly on the sea thongs (chorda). the chordariæ are sometimes gelatinous in structure, in other cases cartilaginous. the fruit is contained in the substance of the frond. the genus chordaria consists of plants which have the appearance of dark coloured twine. there are two british species, one being rather common. chorda filum, sea-rope, another string-like sea-weed, grows in tufts from a few inches to many feet in length, and tapering at the roots to about the thickness of a pig's bristle. in quiet land-locked bays with a sandy or muddy bottom, it sometimes extends to forty feet in length, forming extensive meadows, obstructing the passage of boats, and endangering the lives of swimmers entangled in its slimy cords, whence probably its other name of "dead men's lines." [illustration: fig. . padina pavonia.] the mesogloieæ in a fresh state resemble bundles of green, slimy worms. there are three british species, two of which are not uncommon. although so unattractive in external aspect, they, like many others of the same description, prove very interesting under the microscope. one of the cartilaginous species, leathsia tuberiformis, has the appearance, when growing, of a mass of distorted tubers. the species of elachista, composed of minute parasites, are, as well as unattractive like the mesogloieæ, inconspicuous, but are beautiful objects when placed under the microscope. myrionemæ are also parasitic, and even smaller than the plants of the preceding genus. in the dictyoteæ the frond is mostly flat, with a reticulated surface, which is sprinkled when in fruit with groups of naked spores or spore cysts. this tribe includes not a few of the most elegant among the algæ. in structure they are coriaceous, and include plants both with broad and narrow, branched and unbranched fronds. in haliseris there is a distinct midrib. the largest of the british dictyoteæ is cutleria multifida, sometimes found a foot and a half long; and the best known is doubtless padina pavonia, much sought after by seaside visitors where it grows. its segments are fan-shaped, variegated with lighter curved lines, and fringed with golden tinted filaments. (fig. .) owing to its power of decomposing light, its fronds, when growing under water, suggest the train of the peacock, whence its specific name. taonia atomaria somewhat resembles cutleria, but exhibits also the wavy lines of padina. the plant of this group most often cast ashore is dictyota dichotoma. it makes a handsome specimen when well dried, and is interesting on account of the manner in which it varies in the breadth of its divisions. the variety intricata is curiously curled and entangled. dictyosiphon foeniculaceus, the solitary british example of its genus, is a bushy filiform plant, remarkable for the beautiful net-like markings of its surface. the punctariæ have flattened fronds, marked with dots, which sufficiently distinguish them from all the others. a small form is often found parasitic on chorda filum, spreading out horizontally like the hairs of a bottle brush. asperococcus derives its name from its roughened surface, occasioned by the thickly scattered spots of fructification. the laminariaceæ are inarticulate, mostly flat, often strap-shaped. their spores occur in superficial patches, or covering the whole frond. the plants of this order, as we have already seen, include the giants of submarine vegetation. in point of mass they constitute the larger part of our native algæ, although they number only a few species. they are popularly known as tangle or oarweeds, and the stems of laminaria saccharina and the midrib of alaria esculenta are used as food. the sporochnaceæ are a small but beautiful tribe, inarticulate, and producing their spores in jointed filaments or knob-like masses, and remarkable for their property of turning from olive brown to a verdigris green when exposed to the atmosphere. [illustration: fig. . fucus serratus, showing a transverse section of the conceptacle, and antheridium with antherozoids escaping.] they are deep sea plants, or at least grow about low water mark. the largest of the group is desmarestia ligulata, which, with the other british species, d. aculeata, is often cast ashore. the latter species, at an early period of its existence, is clothed with tufts of slender hairs, springing from the margin of the frond. desmarestia viridis is the most delicate and also the rarest of the three. nothing like fruit has been discovered on any of them. arthocladia villosa and sporochnus pedunculatus are branched sea-weeds, covered also with tufts of closely set hairs. carpomitra cabreræ, a rare species, bears, in common with the two preceding species, its spores in a special receptacle. in the first the receptacle is pod-like; in the second knotted; and in the last mitriform. the concluding group of algæ is the fucaceæ, including the universally known sea wrack (fucus). the frond in all of them is jointless. they are reproduced by means of antheridia and oogonia developed in conceptacles, clustered together at the apex of the branches. both from their bulk and their decided sexual distinctions, they deserve to rank at the head of the order. of all sea-weeds they are also perhaps of the greatest use to man. one of the most interesting among them is the gulfweed (sargassum bacciferum), occupying a tract of the atlantic extending over many degrees of latitude. pieces of it, and of its congener, s. vulgare, are occasionally drifted to our shores, and they consequently find a place in works on british algæ, although they have no claim to be considered native plants. on rocky coasts the various species of fucus occupy the greater part of the space between tide-marks, the most plentiful being fucus vesiculosus. f. serratus (fig. ) is the handsomest of the genus, the other species being f. nodosus, said to be the most useful for making kelp, and f. canaliculatus. halidrys siliquosa is remarkable for its spore receptacles, which have quite the appearance of the seed vessel of a flowering plant. the species of cystoseira, chiefly confined to the southern coasts, are also very interesting. their submerged fronds are beautifully iridescent, and the stems, of the largest species at least, are generally covered with a great variety of parasites, animal and vegetable, the former consisting of hydrozoa and polyzoa, and other curious forms. himanthalia lorea is another remarkable plant. it has conspicuous forked fruit-bearing receptacles; but the real plants are the small cones at the base of these, and from which they are shed when ripe. as to conditions of site and geographical distribution, algæ do not differ from land plants. latitude, depth of water, and currents influence them in the same way as latitude, elevation, and station operate on the latter; and the analogy is maintained in the almost cosmopolitan range of some, and the restricted habitat of others. not many extra-european species of desmids are known, but those of diatoms are far more widely diffused, and extend beyond the limits of all other vegetation, existing wherever there is water sufficient to allow of their production; and they are found not only in water, but also on the moist surface of the ground and on other plants, in hot springs and amid polar ice. they are said to occur in such countless myriads in the south polar sea as to stain the berg and pack ice wherever these are washed by the surge. a deposit of mud, chiefly consisting of the shells of diatoms, miles long, miles broad, and of unknown thickness, was found at a depth of between and feet on the flanks of victoria land in ° south latitude. such is their abundance in some rivers and estuaries that professor ehrenberg goes the length of affirming that they have exercised an important influence in blocking up harbours and diminishing the depth of channels. the trade and other winds distribute large quantities over the earth, which may account for the universality of their specific distribution; for sir joseph hooker found the himalayan species to closely resemble our own. common british species also occur in ceylon, italy, virginia, and peru. the typical species of the confervaceæ are also distributed over the whole surface of the globe. they inhabit both fresh and salt water, and are found alike in the polar seas and in the boiling springs of iceland, in mineral waters and in chemical solutions. some of the tropical ones are exceedingly large and dense. batrachospermum vagum, in the next tribe, a native of england, is also found in new zealand. an edible species of nostochineæ, produced on the boggy slopes bordering the arctic ocean, is blown about by the winds sometimes ten miles from land, where it is found lying in small depressions in the snow upon the ice. the common nostoc of moist ground in england occurs also in kerguelen's land, high in the southern hemisphere. floating masses of monormia are often the cause of the green hue assumed by the water of ponds and lakes. certain species of oscillatoria of a deep red colour live in hot springs in india, and the red sea is supposed to have derived its name from a species of this tribe, which covers it with a scum for many miles, according to the direction of the wind. the lake of glaslough in county monaghan, ireland, owes its colour and its name to oscillatoria ærugescens, and large masses of water in scotland and switzerland are tinted green or purple by a similar agency. a few species of siphoneæ have a very wide range, two british species of codium occurring in new zealand. the ulvaceæ abound principally in the colder latitudes. enteromorpha intestinalis, a common british species, is as frequent in japan, where it is used, when dried, in soup. the rhodosperms are found in every sea, although the geographical boundaries of genera are often well-marked. gloiosiphonia, one of our rarest and most beautiful algæ, is widely diffused. of melanosperms the laminariæ affect the higher northern latitudes, sargassa abound in the warmer seas, while durvillæa, lessonia, and macrocystis characterize the marine flora of the southern ocean. the fucaceæ are most abundant towards the poles, where they attain their greatest size. the marine meadows of sargassum, conceived by some naturalists to mark the site of the lost atlantis, and which give its name to the sargasso sea, extending between ° and ° north latitude, in ° west longitude, occupy now the same position as when the early navigators, with considerable trepidation, forced through their masses on the way to the new world. sargassum is drifted into this tract of ocean by currents, the plants being all detached; and they do not produce fruit in that state, being propagated by buds, which originate new branches and leaves. (fig. .) [illustration: fig. . the gulf-weed (sargassum bacciforum).] owing to their soft, cellular structure, algæ are not likely to be preserved in a fossil state; but what have been considered such have been found as low down as the silurian formation, although their identity has been disputed, and several of them, it is more than probable, belong to other orders, and some even to the animal kingdom. freshwater forms, all of existing genera and species, are believed to have been detected in the carboniferous rocks of britain and france; others also of the green-coloured division are said to occur from the silurian to the eocene, and the florideæ to be represented from the lias to the miocene. the indestructible nature of the shells of the diatomaceæ has enabled them to survive where the less protected species may have perished. tripoli stone, a tertiary rock, is entirely composed of the remains of microscopic plants of this tribe. it is from their silicious shells that mineral acquires its use in the arts, as powder for polishing stones and metals. ehrenberg estimates that in every cubic inch of the tripoli of bilin, in bohemia, there are , , of gaillonella distans. districts recovered from the sea frequently contain myriads of diatoms, forming strata of considerable thickness; and similar deposits occur in the ancient sites of lakes in this and other countries. * * * * * before setting out in search of algæ the collector ought to provide himself with a pair of stout boots to guard his feet from the sharp-pointed rocks, as well as a staff or pole to balance himself in rock-climbing, which ought to have a hook for drawing floating weed ashore. a stout table-knife tied to the other end will be found very useful. a basket--a fishing-basket does very well--or a waterproof bag, for stowing away his plants, is also necessary. it is advisable to carry a few bottles for the very small and delicate plants, and care should be taken to keep apart, and in sea-water, any specimens of the sporochnaceæ; for they are not only apt to decay themselves but to become a cause of corruption in the other weeds with which they come in contact. these bottles should always be carried in the bag or pocket, never in the hand. sea-weeds, as every visitor to the coast knows, are torn up in great numbers by the waves, especially during storms, and afterwards left on the shore by the retiring tide. many shallow-growing species are also to be found attached to the rocks, and in the rock pools, between high and low water mark. there are three points on the beach where the greatest accumulations of floating algæ are found: high water mark, mid-tide level, and low water mark. low water occurs about five or five and a half hours after high water. the best time for the collector to commence is half an hour or so before dead low water. he can then work to the lowest point safely, and, retiring before the approaching tide, examine the higher part of the beach up to high water mark. if the coarse weeds in the rock pools and chinks are turned back, many rare and delicate algæ will be found growing under them, especially at the lowest level. the most effective method of collecting the plants of deeper water is by dredging, or going round with a boat at the extreme ebb, and taking them from the rocks and from the laminaria stems, on which a great number have their station. stems of laminaria thrown out by the waves should also be carefully examined. in all cases the weed should be well rinsed in a clear rock pool before being put away in the bag or other receptacle. the next thing to be considered is the laying out and preserving of the specimens selected for the herbarium. wherever possible these should be laid out on paper, and put under pressure as soon as gathered, or on the same day at all events. when this is impracticable, they may be spread between the folds of soft and thick towels and rolled up. thus treated the most delicate plants will keep fresh until next day. another way is to pack the plants in layers of salt, like herrings; but the most usual method of roughly preserving sea-weeds collected during an unprepared visit to the shore is by moderately drying them in an airy room out of the direct rays of the sun. they are then to be placed lightly in bags, and afterwards relaxed by immersion and prepared in the usual way. the finer plants, however, suffer more or less by this delay. if carried directly home from the sea the plants should be emptied into a vessel of sea-water. a flat dish, about fourteen inches square and three deep, is then to be filled with clean water. for most plants this may be fresh, for some it is essential that it should be salt. some of the polysiphonias and others begin to decompose at once if placed in fresh water. the griffithsias burst and let out their colouring matter, and a good many change their colour. the appliances required are some fine white paper--good printing demy, thirty-six pounds or so in weight per ream, does very well,--an ample supply of smooth blotting paper, the coarse paper used by grocers and called "sugar royal," or, best of all, bentall's botanical drying paper, pieces of well-washed book muslin, a camel's hair brush, a bodkin for assisting to spread out the plants, a pair of scissors, and a pair of forceps. the mounting paper may be cut in three sizes: in. by in., ½ in. by ¼ in., and in. by ½ in. then having selected a specimen, place it in the flat dish referred to above, and prune it if necessary. next take a piece of the mounting paper of suitable size, and slip it into the water underneath the plant, keeping hold of it with the thumb of the left hand. having arranged the plant in a natural manner on the paper, brush it gently with the camel's hair brush to remove any dirt or fragments, draw out paper and plant gently and carefully in an oblique direction, and set them on end for a short time to drain. having in this way transferred as many specimens as will cover a sheet of drying paper, lay them upon it neatly side by side, and cover them with a piece of old muslin. four sheets of drying paper are then to be placed upon this, then another layer of plants and muslin and four more sheets of drying paper, until a heap, it may be six or eight inches thick, is built up. place this between two flat boards, weighted with stones, bricks, or other weights; but the pressure should be moderate at first, otherwise the texture of the muslin may be stamped on both paper and plant. the papers must be changed in about three hours' time, and afterwards every twelve hours. in three or four days, according to the state of the weather, the muslin may be removed, the plants again transferred to dry paper, and subjected to rather severe pressure for several days. the very gelatinous plants require particular treatment. one way is to put them in drying paper and under a board but to apply no other pressure, change the drying paper at least twice during the first half hour, and after the second change of dryers apply very gentle pressure, increasing it until the specimens are fully dry. a safer and less troublesome way, for the efficacy of which we can vouch, is to lay down the plants and dry them without any pressure, afterwards damping the back of the mounting papers and placing them in the drying press. some algæ will scarcely adhere to paper. these should be pressed until tolerably dry, then be immersed in skim-milk for a quarter of an hour, and pressed and dried as before. a slight application of isinglass, dissolved in alcohol, to the under side of the specimen is sometimes necessary. before mounting, or at all events before transference to the herbarium, care should be taken to write in pencil on the back of the paper the name of the plant, if known, the place where gathered, and the date. the coarse olive weeds, such as the bladder-wrack, halidrys, and the like, may in the case of a short visit to the coast be allowed to dry in an airy place, and taken home in the rough. before pressing, in any case, they should be steeped in boiling water for about half an hour to extract the salt, then washed in clean fresh water, dried between coarse towels, and pressed and dried in the same way as flowering plants. a collection of algæ may be fastened on sheets of paper of the usual herbarium size and kept in a cabinet or portfolios, or attached to the leaves of an album. for scientific purposes, however, the latter is the least convenient way. there are few objects more beautiful than many of the sea-weeds when well preserved; but the filiform species, especially those of the first sub-order, do not retain their distinguishing characters when pressed as has been described. portions of these, however, as well as sections of stems and fruit, may be usefully dried on small squares of thin mica, for subsequent microscopic examination, or they may be mounted on the ordinary microscope slides. this is the only course possible with desmids and diatoms. the former are to be sought in shallow pools, especially in open boggy moors. the larger species commonly lie in a thin gelatinous stratum at the bottom of the pools, and by gently passing the fingers under them they will be caused to rise towards the surface, when they can be lifted with a scoop. other species form a greenish or dirty cloud on the stems and leaves of other aquatic plants, and by stripping the plant between the fingers these also may be similarly detached and secured. if they are much diffused through the water, they may be separated by straining through linen; and this is a very common way of procuring them. living diatoms are found on aquatic plants, on rocks and stones, under water or on mud, presenting themselves as coloured fringes, cushion-like tufts, or filmy strata. in colour the masses vary from a yellowish brown to almost black. they are difficult, both when living and dead, to separate from foreign matter; but repeated washings are effectual in both cases, and, for the living ones, their tendency to move towards the light may also be taken advantage of. when only the shells are wanted for mounting, the cell contents are removed by means of hydrochloric and nitric acid. the most satisfactory medium for preserving fresh desmids and diatoms is distilled water, and if the water is saturated with camphor, or has dissolved in it a grain of alum and a grain of bay salt to an ounce of water, confervoid growths will be prevented. for larger preparations of algæ, thwaites' fluid is strongly recommended. this is made by adding to one part of rectified spirit as many drops of creasote as will saturate it, and then gradually mixing with it in a pestle and mortar some prepared chalk, with sixteen parts of water; an equal quantity of water saturated with camphor is then to be added, and the mixture, after standing for a few days, to be carefully filtered. for authorities on the morphology and classification of the algæ, students may be referred to sachs' "text book" and le maout's "system of botany," of which there are good translations, and the "introduction to cryptogamic botany," by the rev. m. j. berkeley; for descriptions and the identification of species, to the text and figures of harvey's "phycologia britannica," and "nature-printed sea-weeds." both of these are however costly. among the cheaper works are "british sea-weeds," by s. o. gray (lovell, reeve & co.), "harvey's manual" and an abridgment by mrs. a. gatty, with reduced but well executed copies of the figures, of the phycologia. this synopsis can often be picked up cheap at second-hand book-stalls; and there is a very excellent low-priced work suitable for amateurs, grattann's "british marine algæ," containing recognizable figures of nearly all our native species. landsborough's "popular history of british sea-weeds," and mrs. lane clarke's "common sea-weeds," are also cheap and useful manuals on the subject. [illustration: floral design] shells. by b. b. woodward. [illustration: pond snails.] shells. introductory. in the very earliest times, long before there was any attempt at the scientific classification and arrangement of shells, they appear to have been objects of admiration, and to have been valued on account of their beauty, for we find that the pre-historic men, who, in company with the mammoth, or hairy elephant, and other animals now extinct, inhabited southern france in days long gone by, used to bore holes in them, and, like the savage of to-day, wear them as ornaments. the greek physician and philosopher, aristotle, is said to have been the first to study the formation of shells, and to raise the knowledge thus acquired into the position of a science; by him shells were divided into three orders--an arrangement preserved, with some small changes, by linnæus. it is possible that the world-wide renown of the swedish naturalist during the last century, and the ardour with which he pursued his investigations, may have given an impetus to the study of natural objects, for we find that at that period large sums were often given by collectors for choice specimens of shells. nor is this to be wondered at, for few things look nicer, or better repay trouble expended on them, than does a well-arranged and carefully mounted and named collection of shells. certainly nothing looks worse than a number of shells of all descriptions, of every kind, shape, and colour, thrown promiscuously into a box, like the unfortunate animals in a toy noah's ark, to the great detriment of their value and beauty; for, as the inevitable result of shaking against each other, the natural polish is taken off some, the delicate points and ornaments are broken off others, the whole collection becoming in time unsightly and disappointing, and all for want of a little care at the outset. in this, as in every other undertaking, "how to set about it" is the chief difficulty with beginners; and here, perhaps, a few hints gathered from experience may not be without value. one thing a young collector should always bear in mind, however, is, that no instructions can be of any avail to him unless, for his part, he is prepared to bring patience, neatness, and attention to detail, to bear upon his work. since it is important to know the best way of storing specimens already acquired, we will, in the first place, devote a few words to this point, and then proceed to describe the best means of collecting specimens, and of naming, mounting, and arranging the same. how to make a cabinet. it is a common mistake, both with old and young, to imagine that a handsome cabinet is, in the first instance, a necessity; but no greater blunder can be made: the cabinet should be considered merely an accessory, the collection itself being just as valuable, and generally more useful, when kept in a series of plain wooden or cardboard boxes. we intend, therefore, to describe the simplest possible means of keeping a collection of shells, leaving elaborate and costly methods to those who value the case more than its contents. the first thing required is some method of keeping the different species of shells apart, so that they may not get mixed, or be difficult to find when wanted. the simplest plan of doing this is to collect all the empty chip match-boxes you can find, throw away the cases in which they slide, and keep the trays, trying to get as many of a size as possible. (the ordinary bryant & may's, or bell & black's, are the most useful, and with them the trays of the small swedish match-boxes, two of which, placed side by side, occupy nearly exactly the same space as one and a half of the larger size, and so fit in with them nicely.) in these trays your shells should be placed, one kind in each tray; but although very convenient for most specimens, they will of course be too small for very many, and so the larger trays must be made. this may easily be done as follows: cut a rectangular piece of cardboard two inches longer one way than the length of the match-tray, and two inches more the other way than twice the width of the match-tray; then with a pencil rule lines one inch from the edges and parallel with them (fig. ); next cut out the little squares (_a_ _a_, _a_ _a_) these lines form in the corners of the piece of cardboard, and then with a penknife cut _half_ through the card, exactly on the remaining pencil-lines, and bend up the pieces, which will then form sides for your tray; and by binding it round with a piece of blue paper, you will have one that will look neat, uniform with the others, and yet be just twice their size. if required, you can make in the same way any size, only take care that they are all multiples of one standard size, as loss of space will thereby be avoided when you come to the next process in your cabinet. this is, to get a large box or tray in which to hold your smaller ones. [illustration: fig. . how to cut a cardboard tray.] +---+-----------+---+ |_a_| |_a_| +---+-----------+---+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +---+-----------+---+ |_a_| |_a_| +---+-----------+---+ the simplest plan is to get some half-dozen cardboard boxes (such as may be obtained for the asking or for a very trifling cost at any draper's), having a depth of from one to two inches (according to the size of your shells); in these your trays may be arranged in columns, and the boxes can be kept one above the other in a cupboard or in a larger box. more boxes and trays can, from time to time, be added as occasion requires, and thus the whole collection may be kept in good working order at a trifling cost. a more durable form of cheap cabinet may be made by collecting the wooden boxes so common in grocers' shops, cleaning them with sand-paper, staining and varnishing them outside, and lining them inside with paper; or, if handy at carpentering, you may make all your boxes, or even a real cabinet, for yourself. how to collect shells. provision being thus made for the comfortable accommodation of your treasures, the next consideration is, how to set about collecting them. mollusca are to be found all over the globe, from the frozen north to the sun-baked tropics, on the land or in lakes, rivers, or seas--wherever, in fact, they can find the food and other conditions suitable for their growth and development; but the collector who is not also a great traveller, must of course rely for his foreign specimens upon the generosity of friends, or else procure them from dealers. in most districts of our own country, there are, however, to be found large numbers of shells whose variety and beauty will astonish and reward the efforts of any patient seeker. begin with your own garden,--search in the out-of-the-way, and especially damp, corners; turn over the flower-pots and stones which have lain longest in one place, search amongst the roots of the grass growing under walls, and in the moss round the roots of the trees, and you will be surprised at the number of different shells you may find in a very short space of time. when the resources of the garden have been exhausted, go into the nearest lanes and again search the grass and at the roots of plants, especially the nettles which grow beside ditches and in damp places; hunt amongst the dead leaves in plantations, and literally leave no stone unturned. all the apparatus it is necessary to take on these excursions consists of a few small match or pill-boxes in which to carry home the specimens; a pair of forceps to pick up the smaller ones, or to get them out of cracks; a hooked stick to beat down and pull away the nettles; and, above all, sharp eyes trained to powers of observation. the best time to go out, is just after a warm shower, when all the grass and leaves are still wet, for the land-snails are very fond of moisture, and the shower entices them out of their lurking-places. where the ground is made of chalk or limestone, they will be found most abundant; for as the snail's shell is composed of layers of animal tissue, strengthened by depositions of calcareous earthy-matter which the creature gets from the plants on which it feeds, and these in their turn obtain from the soil--it naturally follows that the snail prefers to dwell where that article is most abundant, as an hour's hunt on any chalk-down will soon show. when garden and lanes are both exhausted, you may then turn to the ponds and streams in the neighbourhood, where you will find several new kinds. some will be crawling up the rushes near the margin of the water, others will be found in the water near the bank, while others may be obtained by pulling on shore pieces of wood and branches that may be floating in the water; but the best are sure to be beyond the reach of arm or stick, and it will be necessary to employ a net, which may be easily made by bending a piece of wire into a circle of about four inches in diameter, and sewing to it a small gauze bag; it may be mounted either on a long bamboo, or, better still, on one of those ingenious japanese walking-stick fishing-rods. for heavier work, however, such as getting fresh-water mussels and other mollusca from the bottom, you will require a net something like the accompanying figure (fig. ), about one foot in diameter. this, when attached to a long rope, may be thrown out some distance and dragged through the water-weeds to the shore, or if made with a square instead of a circular mouth, it may be so weighted that it will sink to the bottom, and be used as a dredge for catching the mussels which live half-buried in the mud. to carry the water-snails home, you will find it necessary to have tin boxes (empty mustard-tins are the best), as match-boxes come to pieces when wetted. [illustration: fig. . net for taking water-snails.] the finest collections of shells, however, are to be made at the sea-side, for the marine mollusca are both more varied in kind and more abundant than the land and fresh-water ones, and quite an extensive collection may be made in the course of an afternoon's ramble along the shore; it is necessary, however, to carefully reject such specimens as are worn by having been rolled by the waves upon the beach, as they are not of any great value in a collection; it is better, in fact, if possible, to go down to the rocks at low water and collect the living specimens. search well about and under the sea-weeds, and in the rock-pools, and, when boating, throw your dredge-net out and tow it behind, hauling it in occasionally to see what you have caught, and to empty the stones and rubbish out. at low tide also, look out for rocks with a number of round holes in them, all close together, for in these holes the pholas (fig. ) dwells, having bored a burrow in the solid rock, though _how_ he does it we do not yet quite know. the razor-shells and cockles live in the sand, their presence being indicated by a small round hole; but they bury themselves so fast that you will find it difficult to get at them. some good specimens, too, of the deeper water forms are sure to be found near the spots where fishermen drag their boats ashore, as they are often thrown away in clearing out the nets; moreover, if you can make friends with any of the said fishermen, they will be able to find and bring you many nice specimens from time to time. the reason that so much has been said about collecting living specimens, is not only because in them the shell is more likely to be perfect, but also because in its living state the shell is coated with a layer of animal matter, sometimes thin and transparent, at others thick and opaque, called the _periostracum_ (or _epidermis_), which serves to protect the shell from the weather, but which perishes with the animal, so that dead shells which have lain for some time tenantless on the ground, or at the bottom of the water, exposed to the destructive agencies that are constantly at work in nature, have almost invariably lost both their natural polish and their varied hues, and are besides only too often broken as well. since, however, even a damaged specimen is better than none at all, such should always be kept until a more perfect example can be obtained. how to prepare the shells for the cabinet. the question with which we have next to deal is, after collecting a number of living mollusks, how, in the quickest and most painless manner possible, to kill the animals in order to obtain possession of their shells. there is but one way we know of in which this may be accomplished, and that is by placing the creatures in an earthen jar and pouring _boiling_ water on them. with land, or fresh-water snails, the addition of a large spoonful of table-salt is advisable, as it acts upon them chemically, and not only puts them sooner out of pain, but also renders their subsequent extraction far easier. death by this process is instantaneous, and consequently painless; but to leave snails in cold salt water is to inflict on them the tortures of a lingering death; while for the brutality of gardeners and other thoughtless persons who seek to destroy the poor snail they find eating their plants by crushing it under foot on the gravel path, no words of condemnation are too strong, since it must always be borne in mind that snails have not, like us, _one_ nervous centre, but three, and are far more tenacious of life; hence, unless all the nerves are destroyed at once, a great deal of suffering is entailed on the poor creature; and if merely crushed under foot, the mangled portions _will live for hours_. hot water has also the advantage of tending to remove the dirt which is almost sure to have gathered on the shells, and so helping to prepare them better for the cabinet. as soon as the water is cool enough, fish out the shells one by one and proceed to extract the dead animals. this, if the mollusk is _univalve_ (_i.e._, whose shell is composed of a single piece), such as an ordinary garden snail, can easily be done by picking them out with a pin; you will find, probably, that some of the smaller ones have shrunk back so far into their shells as to be beyond the reach of a straight pin, so it will be necessary to bend the pin with a pair of pliers, or, if none are at hand, a key will answer the purpose if the pin be put into one of the notches and bent over the edge until sufficiently curved to reach up the shell. you will find it convenient to keep a set of pins bent to different curves, to which you may fit handles by cutting off the heads and sticking them into match stems. it is a good plan to soak some of the smaller snails in clean cold water before killing them, as they swell out with the water, and do not, when dead, retreat so far into their shells. if you have a microscope, and wish to keep the animals till you have time to get the tongues out, drop the bodies into small bottles of methylated spirit and water, when they will keep till required, otherwise they should of course be thrown away at once. the now empty shells should be washed in clean warm water, and, if very dirty, gently scrubbed with a soft nail or tooth brush, and then carefully dried. in such shells as the periwinkle, whelk, etc., whose inhabitants close the entrance of their dwelling with a trap-door, or _operculum_ as it is called, you should be careful to preserve each with its proper shell. if you are cleaning _bivalves_, or shells composed of two pieces, like the common mussel, you will have to remove the animal with a penknife, and while leaving the inside quite clean, be very careful not to break the ligament which serves as a hinge; then wash as before, and tie them together to prevent their gaping open when dry. sometimes the fresh-water or marine shells are so coated over with a vegetable growth that no scrubbing with water alone will remove it, and in these cases a weak solution of caustic soda may be used, but very carefully, since, if too strong a solution be employed, the surface of the shell will be removed with the dirt, and the specimen spoilt. in some shells the periostracum is very thick and coarse, and must be removed before the shell itself can be seen; but it is always well to keep at least one specimen in its rough state as an example. in other shells the periostracum is covered over with very fine, delicate hairs (_helix sericea_ and _helix hispida_, fig. ), and great care must then be taken not to brush these off. [illustration: fig. . (_a_) _helix sericea_ and (_b_) _helix hispida_.] how to mount the shells for the cabinet. when the specimens are thoroughly cleaned, the next process is to sort out the different kinds, placing each description in a different tray, and then to get them ready for mounting, for no collection will look well unless each kind is so arranged that it may be seen to the best advantage, and is also carefully named. where you have a good number, pick out first the largest specimens of their kind, then the smallest, then a series, as you have room for them, of the most perfect; and finally those which show any peculiarity of structure or marking. try, too, to get young forms as well as adult, for the young are often very different in appearance from the full-grown shell. mark on them, especially on such as you have found yourself, the locality they came from, as it is very important to the shell collector to know this, since specimens common enough in one district are often rare in another. either write the name of the place in ink on a corner of the shell itself, or gum a small label just inside it, or simply number it, and write the name of the place with a corresponding number against it in a book kept for the purpose. next select a tray large enough to hold all you have of this kind; place a piece of cotton wool at the bottom, and lay your shells upon it. for small shells, however, this method is not suitable, as the cotton wool acts on them like a spring mattress, and they are liable on the least shock to be jerked out of their trays and lost. this difficulty may be met by cutting a piece of cardboard so that it just fits into your tray, and then gumming the shells on to it in rows; but remember that, in this plan of mounting, it is impossible to take the shells up and examine them on all sides as you do the loose ones, and so you must mount a good many, and place them in many different positions, so that they may be seen from as many points of view as possible. the gum used should always have nearly one-sixth of its bulk of pure glycerine added to it; this prevents it from becoming brittle when dry, otherwise your specimens would be liable after a time to break away from the card and get lost. if the shells will not stay in the position you require, wedge them up with little pieces of cork until the gum is dry. when the shells are mounted, you must try, if you have not already done so, to get the proper names for them; it is as important to be able to call shells by their right names as it is to know people by theirs. the commoner sorts you will be able to name from the figures of them given in text-books, such as those quoted in the list at the end of this little work; but some you will find it very difficult to name, and it will then be necessary to ask friends who have collections to help you, or to take them to some museum and compare them with the named specimens there exhibited. when the right name is discovered, your label must then be written in a very small, neat hand, and gummed to the edge of the tray or on the card if your specimens are mounted. at the top you put the latin name, ruling a line underneath it, and then, if you like, add the english name; next, put the name of the place and the date at which it was found, thus:-- ===================================== helix aspersa (common snail), ----------------------------- lane near hampstead heath, july th, . ===================================== a double red ink line ruled at the top and bottom will add a finished appearance to it. how to classify the shells for the cabinet. all the foregoing processes, except the naming of your specimens, are more or less mechanical, and are only the means to the end--a properly arranged collection. for, however well a collection may be mounted, it is practically useless if the different shells composing it be not properly classified. by classification is meant the bringing together those kinds that most resemble each other, first of all into large groups having special characteristics in common, and then by subdividing these into other smaller groups, and so on. thus the animal kingdom is divided, first of all, into _sub-kingdoms_, then each _sub-kingdom_ into so many _classes_ containing those which have further characteristics in common, the _classes_ into _orders_, the _orders_ into _families_, the _families_ into _genera_, and these again into species or kinds. the mollusca, or soft-bodied animals, of whose protecting shells your collection consists, form a sub-kingdom, and are subdivided into four classes:-- . cephalopoda. . gasteropoda. . pteropoda. . lamellibranchiata (or conchifera). and these again into families, genera, and species. the space at our disposal being limited, it is impossible to do more than furnish some general outlines of the different forms. for further details it will be necessary to refer to one of the larger works, a list of which will be found on the last page. [illustration: fig. . _argonauta argo._] [illustration: fig. . "bone" of _sepia officinalis_.] class i.--the cephalopoda (head-footed) contains those mollusca that, like the common octopus, have a number of feet (or arms) set round the mouth, and is divided into those having two gills. (order i. dibranchiata); and those with four (order ii. tetrabranchiata). order i. is again divided into: (_a._) those with _eight_ feet like the argonaut (or paper-nautilus, fig. ), which fable has so long endowed with the power of sailing on the surface of the ocean, (it is even represented in one book as propelling itself through the air!) and the common octopus. (_b._) those with _ten_ feet, such as the loligo (or squid, fig. ), whose delicate internal shell so much resembles a pen in shape; the cuttle-fish (sepia, figs. & ), whose so-called "bone" (once largely used as an ink eraser) is frequently found on our southern coasts; and the pretty little _spirula_ (fig. ). [illustration: fig. . _loligo vulgaris_, and "pen."] [illustration: fig. . _sepia officinalis._] the only representative of the four-gilled order now living is the well-known pearly nautilus; but in former times the tetrabranchiata were extremely numerous, especially the _ammonites_. [illustration: fig. . _spirula_.] class ii.--gasteropoda (belly-footed) comprises those mollusca which, like the common snail, creep on the under-surface of the body, and with one exception (_chiton_, fig. ) their shells are univalve (_i.e._, composed of one piece). but before we go further, it may be well to point out the names given to different parts of a univalve shell. the aperture whence the animal issues is called the _mouth_, and its outer edge the _lip_; each turn of the shell is a _whorl_; the last and biggest, the _body-whorl_, the whorls, from the point at the top, or _apex_, down to the mouth form the _spire_; and the line where the whorls join each other is called the _suture_. the axis of the shell around which the whorls are coiled is sometimes open or hollow, and the shell is then said to be _umbilicated_ (as in fig. _b_); when closely coiled, a pillar of shell, or _columella_, is left (as in fig. ). sometimes the corner of the mouth farthest from the spire and next the columella, is produced into a channel, the _anterior canal_ (as in fig. ); whilst where the mouth meets the base of the spire there may be a kind of notch which is termed the _posterior canal_. most gasteropods are _dextral_, that is to say, the mouth is to the right of the axis as you look at it; a few, however, are _sinistral_, or wound to the left (like _physa_); whilst reversed varieties of both kinds are met with. gasteropods of the first order have comb-like gills placed in advance of the heart, and are hence termed prosobranchiata. they are divided into two groups: (_a_) _siphonostomata_ (tube-mouthed), in which the animal has a long proboscis, and a tube, or siphon, from the breathing-chamber that passes along the anterior canal of the shell, which in this group is well developed. they have a horny operculum, or lid, with which to close the aperture. (_b_) _holostomata_ (or whole-mouthed). in these the siphon is not so produced, and does not want to be protected; accordingly the mouth of the shell is _entire_, _i.e._ has no canal. the operculum is horny or shelly. the former (group _a_) includes several families: . _strombidæ_, comprising shells, like the huge _strombus_, or "fountain-shell," which is so often used to adorn the mantelpiece or rockery, and from which cameos are cut. . the _muricidæ_, of which the _murex_ (an extraordinary form of this is the "venus' comb," _murex tenuispina_, fig. ), the mitre-shells, and the red-whelks (_fusus_) are examples. [illustration: fig. . _murex tenuispina._] . the _buccinidæ_, taking its name from its type, the common whelk (_buccinum undatum_), and including such other forms as the dog-whelk (_nassa_), the _purpura_, the strange _magilus_, and the lovely harp-shells and olives (fig. ). [illustration: fig. . _oliva tessellata._] . the _cassididæ_, or "helmet-shells." _cassis rufa_, from west africa, is noted as the best species of shell for cameo engraving; with it are classed the "tun" (_dolium_) and the great "triton" (_triton tritonis_), such as the sea-gods of mythology are represented blowing into by way of trumpet, and which are used by the polynesian islanders to this day instead of horns. . the _conidæ_, whose type, the "cone-shell" (fig. ), is at once distinctive and handsome, but which in the living state is covered by a dull yellowish-brown periostracum that has to be carefully removed before the full beauties of the shell are displayed. [illustration: fig. . conus vermiculatus.] . the _volutidæ_, embracing the volutes and "boat-shells" (_cymba_). . the _cypræidæ_, or cowries (fig. ), which owe their high polish to the size of the shell-secreting organ (mantle), whose edges meet over the back of the shell, concealing it within its folds. with these is classed the "china-shell" (_ovulum_). [illustration: fig. . cypræa oniscus.] the second group, or _holostomata_, is divided into nineteen families, beginning with-- . the _naticidæ_, whose type, the genus _natica_, is well known to all shell-collectors through the common _natica monilifera_ of our coasts. . the _cancellariadæ_, in which the shells are cancellated or cross-barred by a double series of lines running, one set with the whorls, and the other across them. . the _pyramidellidæ_, which are high-spired, elongated, and slender shells, with the exception of the genus _stylina_, which lives attached to the spines of sea-urchins or buried in living star-fishes and corals. . the _solaridæ_ or "staircase-shells," whose umbilicus is so wide that, as you look down it, the projecting edges of the whorls appear like a winding staircase. it is a very short-spired shell. . the _scalaridæ_, "wentle-traps" or "ladder-shells," which may be readily recognised from their white and lustrous appearance and the strong rib-like markings of the periodic mouths that encircle the whorls. . the _cerithiadæ_, or "horn-shells," which are very high-spired, and whose columella and anterior canal are produced in the form of an impudent little tail, the effect of which, however, in the genus _aporrhais_, or "spout-shells," is taken away by the expanded and thickened lip. . in the next family, the _turritellidæ_, or "tower-shells," the type turritella is spiral; but in the allied form _vermetus_, though the spire begins in the natural manner, it goes off into a twisted tube resembling somewhat an ill-made corkscrew. the mouth in this family is often nearly round. . the _melaniadæ_, and . the _paludinidæ_, are fresh-water shells. the former are turreted, and the latter conical or globular. both are furnished with opercula, but the mouth in the first is more or less oval and frequently notched in front, while in the latter it is rounded and entire. . the _litorinidæ_, or periwinkles, need no word from us. . the _calyptræidæ_ comprise the "bonnet-limpet," or _pileopsis_, and "cup-and-saucer-limpets" (_calyptræa_). they may be described briefly as limpets with traces of a spire left. the genus _phorus_, however, is spiral, and resembles a _trochus_. they have been called "carriers" from their strange habit of building any stray fragments of shell or stone into their house, thus rendering themselves almost indistinguishable from the ground on which they crawl. . the _turbinidæ_, or "top-shells," are next in order, and of these the great _turbo marmoreus_ is a well-known example, being prepared as an ornament for the whatnot or mantelpiece by removing the external layer of the shell in order to display the brilliant pearly nacre below. these mollusca close their mouths with a horny operculum, coated on its exterior by a thick layer of porcelain-like shelly matter. with them are classed the familiar _trochus_ and other closely allied genera. . the _haliotidæ_ offer in the representative genus _haliotis_, or the "ear-shell," another familiar mantelpiece ornament. . the _ianthinidæ_, or "violet-snails," that float about in mid-atlantic upon the gulf-weed, and at certain seasons secrete a curious float or raft, to which their eggs are attached, are next in order, and are followed by-- . the _fissurellidæ_, or "key-hole" and "notched limpets," whose name sufficiently describes them. to these succeed-- . the _neritidæ_, an unmistakable group of globular shells, having next to no spire and a very glossy exterior, generally ornamented with a great variety of spots and bands. . the _patellidæ_, or true limpets, are well known to every sea-side visitor: large species, as much as two inches across, are to be found on the coast of devon, but these are pigmies compared with a south american variety which attains a foot in diameter. . the _dentaliadæ_, represented by the genus _dentalium_, or "tooth-shell," are simply slightly curved tubes, open at both ends and tapering from the mouth downwards, and cannot be mistaken. . lastly, we have the _chitonidæ_, whose single genus _chiton_ possesses shells differing from all other mollusca in being composed of eight plates overlapping each other, and in appearance reminding one of the wood-louse. this animal is not only like the limpet in form but also in habits, being found adhering to the rocks and stones at low-water. order ii.--pulmonifera. contains the air-breathing _gasteropods_, and to it consequently belong all the terrestrial mollusca, though some few aquatic genera are also included. the members of this order have an air-chamber instead of gills, and are divided into two groups, (_a_) those without an operculum, and (_b_) those having an operculum. foremost in the first group stands the great family-- . _helicidæ_, named after its chief representative, the genus _helix_. it also includes the "glass-shell" (_vitrina_), the "amber-shell" (_succinea_), and such genera as _bulimus_, _achatina_, _pupa_, _clausilia_ (fig. ), etc., which differ from the typical _helix_ in appearance, possessing as they do comparatively high spires. [illustration: fig. . _clausilia biplicata._] . the _limacidæ_, or "slugs," follow next; of these only one, the genus _testacella_, has an external shell stuck on the end of its tail; the rest have either a more or less imperfect shell concealed underneath the mantle, or else none at all. . the _oncidiadæ_ are slug-like, and devoid of shell. . the _limnæidæ_ embrace the "pond-snails," chief of whom is the well-known, high-spired _limnæa stagnalis_. other shells of this family associated with _limnæa_ are, however, very different in shape; for instance, _physa_ has its whorls turning to the left instead of to the right; _ancylus_ (fig. ), or the freshwater limpet, is of course limpet-like; while _planorbis_, or the "coil-shell," is wound like a watch-spring. . the _auriculidæ_ includes both spiral shells, such as _auricula_ and _charychium_, and a limpet-like one _siphonaria_. at the head of group _b_ stands , _cyclostomidæ_. _cyclostoma elegans_ is a common shell on our chalk-downs, and well illustrates its family, in which the mouth is nearly circular. foreign examples of this genus are much esteemed by collectors. the other two families are, ( ) _helicinidæ_ and ( ) _aciculidæ_. order iii.--opisthobranchiata. these animals carry their gills exposed on the back and sides, towards the rear of the body. only a few have any shell. . the _tornatellidæ_, which have a stout little spiral shell. . the _bullidæ_, in which the spire is concealed (fig. ). . the _aplysiadæ_, where the shell is flat and oblong or triangular in shape. the remaining families are slug-like and shell-less. [illustration: fig. . _bulla ampulla._] order iv.--nucleobranchiata. derives its name from the fact that the animals constituting it have their respiratory and digestive organs in a sort of nucleus on the posterior part of the back, and covered by a minute shell. as they are pelagic, the shells are not readily to be obtained. they are divided into two families, _firolidæ_ and _atlantidæ_. class iii.--pteropoda. like the last, these pretty little mollusca are ocean-swimmers. the members of one division of them, to which the _cleodora_ belongs, is furnished with iridescent external shells. [illustration: fig. . _petunculus guerangeri._] [illustration: fig. . _venus plicata._] class iv.--the lamellibranchiata (plate-gilled), or conchifera (shell-bearing), includes the mollusca commonly known as "bivalves," the animal being snugly hidden between two more or less closely fitting shelly valves. the oysters, cockles, etc., are examples of this class. the two valves are fastened together near their points, or beaks (technically called _umbones_), by a tough elastic ligament, sometimes supplemented by an internal cartilage. if this be severed and the valves parted, it will be found that in most cases they are further articulated by projecting ridges or points called the _teeth_, which, when the valves are together, interlock and form a hinge; the margin of the shell on which the teeth and ligament are situated is termed the _hinge-line_. a bivalve is said to be _equivalve_ when the two shells composing it are of the same size, _inequivalve_ when they are not. if the umbones are in the middle, the shell is _equilateral_ (fig. ); but _inequilateral_ when they are nearer one side than the other (fig. ). if the shell be an oyster or a scallop, you will find on the inside a single circular scar-like mark near the centre; this is the point to which the muscles that close the valves and hold them so tightly together are attached. in the majority of bivalves, however, there are two such muscular impressions, or scars, one on either side of each valve of the shell. the former group on this account are often called _monomyaria_ (having one shell-muscle), and the latter _dimyaria_ (having two shell-muscles). in the last named the two muscular impressions are united by a fine groove (or _pallial-line_), which in some runs parallel to the margin of the shell (fig. ), whilst in others it makes a bend in (_pallial-sinus_) on one side of the valve towards the centre (fig. ). in monomyaria it will be found running parallel to the margin of the shell. it marks the line of attachment of the mantle or shell-secreting organ of the animal to the shell which grows by the addition of fresh matter along its edges, so that the concentric curved markings so often seen on the exterior correspond in their origin with the periodic mouths of the gasteropods. the bivalves are all aquatic, and many bury themselves in the sand or mud by means of a fleshy, muscular foot. these are furnished with two siphons, or fleshy tubes, sometimes united, sometimes separate, through which they respire, drawing the water in through one and expelling it by the other. those kinds whose habit it is to bury themselves below the surface of the mud or sand are furnished with long retractile siphons, and to admit of their withdrawal into the shell, the mantle is at this point attached farther back, giving rise to the _pallial-sinus_ above described; this sinus is deeper as the siphons are proportionately longer, and in many cases, too, the valves do not meet at this point when the shell is closed. attention to these particulars is necessary when arranging your bivalves, as on them their classification depends, the class being divided into-- _a._ asiphonida (siphonless). _b._ siphonida _integro-pallialia_ (with siphons).--pallial-line entire. _c._ siphonida _sinu-pallialia_ (with siphons).--sinus in pallial-line. division _a_.--asiphonida--is next subdivided into-- . the _ostreidæ_, or oysters, which are deservedly a distinct family in themselves. . the _anomiadæ_, comprising the multiform and curiously constructed _anomia_, with the "window-shells" (_placuna_). . the _pectinidæ_, taking its name from the genus _pecten_, or "scallop-shells," of which one kind (_p. maximus_) is frequently to be seen at the fishmongers' shops. the "thorney oysters" (_spondylus_) take rank here, and are highly esteemed by collectors, one specimen indeed having been valued at £ ! . the _aviculidæ_, or "wing-shells," among which are numbered the "pearl-oyster" of commerce (_meleagrina margaritifera_). the strange t-shaped "hammer oyster" belongs to this family, as does also the _pinna_. the pinnas, like the mussels and some other bivalves, moor themselves to rocks by means of a number of threads spun by the foot of the mollusc, and termed the _byssus_, which in this genus is finer, more silky, than in any other, and has been woven into articles of dress. . the _mytilidæ_, or mussels, including the _lithodomus_, or "date-shell," which bores into corals and even hard limestone rocks. [illustration: fig. . hinge-teeth of _arca barbata_.] . the _arcadæ_, or "noah's-ark-shells," characterized by their long straight hinge-line set with numerous very fine teeth (fig. ). the "nut-shell" (_nucula_) belongs to this family. . the _trigoniadæ_, whose single living genus, the handsome _trigonia_ (fig. ), is confined to the australian coast-line, whereas in times now long past they had a world-wide distribution. [illustration: fig. . _trigonia margaritacea._] . the _unionidæ_, comprising the fresh-water mussels. division _b_.--siphonida _integropallialia_. . the _chamidæ_, represented by the reef-dwelling _chama_. . the _tridacnidæ_, whose sole genus _tridacna_ contains the largest specimen of the whole class of bivalves, the shells sometimes measuring two feet and more across. . the _cardiadæ_, or cockles. . the _lucinidæ_, in which the valves are nearly circular, and as a rule not very attractive in appearance, though the "basket-shell" (_corbis_) has an elegantly sculptured exterior. . the _cycladidæ_, whose typical genus _cyclas_, with its round form and thin horny shell, is to be found in most of our ponds and streams. . the _astartidæ_, a family of shells having very strongly developed teeth, and the surface of whose valves is often concentrically ribbed. [illustration: fig. . hinge of _cardita sinuata_.] . the _cyprinidæ_, which have very solid oval or elongated shells and conspicuous teeth (fig. ). the "heart-cockle" (_isocardia_) belongs to this family. division _c_.--siphonida _sinu-pallialia_. . the _veneridæ_. the hard, solid shells of this family are for elegance of form and beauty of colour amongst the most attractive a collector can posses. their shells are more or less oval and have three teeth in each valve (fig. ). [illustration: fig. . hinge of _cytherea crycina_.] [illustration: fig. . hinge of _lutraria elliptica_] . the _mactridæ_ are somewhat triangular in shape, and may be at once recognised by the pit for the hinge-ligament, which also assumes that form, as seen in the accompanying figure of _lutraria elliptica_ (fig. ). . the _tellinidæ_ comprise some of the most delicately tinted, both externally and internally, of all shells. in some, coloured bands radiate from the umbones, and well bear out the fanciful name of "sunset shells" bestowed upon them. their valves are generally much compressed. . the _solenidæ_, or "razor-shells," rank next, and are readily recognised by the extreme length of the valves in proportion to their width, and also by their gaping at both ends. . the _myacidæ_ or "gapers," have the siphonal ends wide apart (in the genus _mya_ both ends gape), and are further characterized by the triangular process for the cartilage, which projects into the interior of the shell. one valve (the left) is generally smaller than the other. . the _anatinidæ_ have thin, often inequivalve pearly shells. the genus _pandora_ is the form most frequently met with in collections. . the _gastrochænidæ_ embraces two genera (_gastrochæna_ and _saxicava_) of boring mollusca, which perforate shells and rocks, and also, the remarkable tube-like "watering-pot-shell" (_aspergillum_) which is hardly recognisable as a bivalve at all. [illustration: fig. . _pholas dactylus._] . the _pholadidæ_ concludes the list of bivalves, and comprises the common rock-boring pholas (fig. ) of our coasts and the wood-boring shipworm "teredo" (fig. ). * * * * * although the _brachiopoda_, or "lamp-shells," are not true mollusca, they are not very far removed from them, and are so often to be found in cabinets that it will not do to pass them over, especially since in past times they were very abundant, an enormous number occurring in the fossil state. only eight genera are now living. shells belonging to this class are readily recognised by the fact of one valve being larger than the other, and possessing a distinct peak, the apex of which is perforated. the _terebratulidæ_ are the most extensive family of this class. [illustration: fig. . _teredo navalis._] how to arrange the shells in the cabinet. when you have arranged your specimens in the order above indicated, proceed to place them in your boxes, arranging and labelling them after the manner shown in the accompanying diagram. +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ | class. | | | | | +----------+ species. | species. | species. | species. | | order. | | | | | +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ | family | | | | | | name. | | | | | +----------+ species. | species. | species. | species. | | generic | | | | | | name. | | +----------+ | +----------+----------+----------+ family +----------+ | | | | name. | | | species. | species. | species. +----------+ species. | | | | | generic | | +----------+----------+----------+ name. +----------+ | | | +----------+ | | | generic | | | | | species. | name. | species. | species. | species. | | | | | | | +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ | | | | | generic | | species. | species. | species. | species. | name. | | | | | | | +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ | | | generic | | | | species. | species. | name. | species. | species. | | | | | | | +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ | | | | | | | species. | species. | species. | species. | species. | | | | | | | +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ on the lid, or on a slip of paper or card placed at the head of your columns of trays, write the class and order, with its proper number (i., ii., etc., as the case may be); then at the top of your left-hand column place the family and its number, and under it the name of the first genus. the species (one in each tray) come next, then the name of the next genus following it, succeeded by its species, and so on. the object of the young collector should be to obtain examples of as many _genera_ as possible, since a collection in which a great number of genera are represented is far more useful and instructive than one composed of a great many species referable to but few genera. he will also find it very convenient to separate the british shells from his general collection, sub-dividing them for convenience into "land and fresh-water," and "marine." of these he should endeavour to get every species, and even variety, making the thing as complete as possible. or a separate collection may be made of all those kinds which he can find within a certain distance of his own home. a collection of this sort possesses, in addition to its scientific worth, an interest of its own, owing to the local associations that invariably connect themselves with it. table of some of the more important genera, showing the approximate number of species belonging to each genus and their distribution. class i.--cephalopoda. order i.--dibranchiata. section a.--_octopoda._ family. genus. no. of species. distribution. . argonauta tropical seas. . octopus rocky coasts in temperate and tropical regions. section b.--_decapoda_. . loligo cosmopolitan. . sepia on all coasts. . spirula all the warmer seas. order ii.--_tetrabranchiata_. . nautilus or chinese seas, indian ocean, persian gulf. class ii.--gasteropoda. order i.--prosobranchiata. division _a_.--_siphonostomata._ no. of family. genus. species. distribution. . strombus w. indies, mediterranean, red sea, indian ocean, pacific--low water to fathoms. pteroceras india, china. . murex on all coasts. columbella sub-tropical regions, in shallow water on stones. mitra tropical regions, from low water to fathoms. fusus on all coasts. . buccinum northern seas, from low water to fathoms. eburna red sea, india, australia, china, cape of good hope. nassa world-wide--low water to fathoms. purpura world-wide--low water to fathoms. harpa tropical--deep water, sand, muddy bottoms. oliva sub-tropical--low water to fathoms. . cassis tropical regions, in shallow water. dolium mediterranean, india, china, w. indies, brazil, new guinea, pacific. triton temperate and sub-tropical regions, from low water to fathoms. ranella tropical regions, on rocks and coral-reefs. pyrula sub-tropical regions, in to fathoms. . conus equatorial seas--shallow water to fathoms. pleurotoma almost world-wide--low water to fathoms. . voluta on tropical coasts, from the shore to fathoms. cymba west coast of africa, lisbon, straits of gibraltar. marginella mostly tropical. . cypræa warmer seas of the globe, on rocks and coral-reefs. ovulum britain, mediterranean, w. indies, china, w. america. division _b_.--_holostomata._ . natica arctic to tropical regions, on sandy and gravelly bottoms, from low water to feet. sigaretus e. and w. indies, china, peru. . cancellaria w. indies, china, s. america, e. archipelago--low water to fathoms. . pyramidella w. indies, mauritius, australia, in sandy bays and on shallow mud-banks. odostomia britain, mediterranean, and madeira--low water to fathoms. chemnitzia world-wide--low water to fathoms. eulima cuba, norway, britain, india, mediterranean, australia-- to fathoms. . solarium sub-tropical and tropical--widely distributed. . scalaria world-wide--low water to fathoms. . cerithium world-wide. potamides africa and india, in mud of large rivers. aporrhais labrador, norway, britain, mediterranean-- to fathoms. . turritella world-wide--low water to fathoms. vermetus portugal, mediterranean, africa, india. . melania s. europe, india, philippines and pacific islands--in rivers. melanopsis spain, australia, asia minor, new zealand--in rivers. . paludina northern hemispheres, africa, india, china, etc.--in lakes and rivers. ampullaria s. america, w. indies, africa, india--in lakes and rivers. . litorina on all shores. rissoa world-wide--in shallow water on sea-weed to fathoms. . calyptrea world-wide--adherent to rocks, etc. crepidula west indies, mediterranean, cape of good hope, australia. pileopsis britain, norway, mediterranean, e. and w. indies, australia. hipponyx w. indies, galapagos, philippines, australia. phorus w. indies, india, javan and chinese seas--in deep water. . turbo on the shores of tropical seas. phasinella australia, pacific, w. indies, mediterranean. imperator s. africa, india, etc. trochus world-wide--from low water to fathoms. rotella india, philippines, china, new zealand. stomatella cape, india, australia, etc. . haliotis britain, canaries, india, australia, california--on rocks at low water. stomatia java, philippines, pacific, etc.-- under stones at low water. . ianthina gregarious in the open seas of the atlantic and pacific. . fissurella world-wide--on rocks from low water to fathoms. emarginula britain, norway, philippines, australia--from low water to fathoms. . nerita on the shores of all warm seas. neritina in fresh waters of all warm countries, and in britain. navicella india, mauritius, moluccas, australia, pacific--in fresh water, attached to stones. . patella on all coasts--adhering to stones and rocks. . dentalium world-wide--buried in mud. . chiton world-wide--low water to fathoms. order ii.--pulmonifera. division _a_.--_inoperculata._ no. of family. genus. species. distribution. . helix , } succinea } world-wide--on land in moist places. bulimus } achatina world-wide--burrowing at roots and bulbs. pupa world-wide--amongst wet moss. clausilia europe and asia--in moist spots. . limax europe and canaries--on land in damp localities. testacella s. europe, canaries, and britain-- burrowing in gardens. . oncidium britain, red sea, mediterranean--on rocks on the seashore. . limnæa europe, madeira, india, china, n. america--in ponds, rivers, lakes, etc. physa america, europe, s. africa, india, philippines--in ponds, rivers, lakes, etc. ancylus europe, n. and s. america--in ponds, rivers, lakes, etc. planorbis europe, n. america, india, china--in ponds, rivers, lakes, etc. . auricula tropical--in salt marshes. siphonaria world-wide--between high and low water. division _b_.--_operculata._ . cyclostoma s. europe, africa } cyclophorus india, philippines }--on land. pupina philippines, new guinea } . helicina w. indies, philippines, central america, islands in pacific--on land. . acicula britain, europe, vanicoro--on leaves and at roots of grass. geomelania jamaica--on land. order iii.--opisthobranchiata. division _a_.--_tectibranchiata._ no. of family. genus. species. distribution. . tornatella red sea, philippines, japan--in deep water. . bulla widely distributed--low water to fathoms. . aplysia britain, norway, w. indies--low water to fathoms on sea-weed. . pleurobranchus britain, norway, mediterranean. division _b_.--_nudibranchiata._ - . all shell-less. order iv.--nucleobranchiata. no. of family. genus. species. distribution. . firola atlantic, mediterranean. carinaria atlantic and indian oceans. . atlanta warmer parts of the atlantic. class iii.--pteropoda. division _a_.--_thecosomata._ no. of family. genus. species. distribution. . hyalea } cleodora } atlantic, mediterranean, indian ocean. . limacina arctic and antarctic seas. division _b_.--_gymnosomata._ . clio, etc. shell-less. class iv.--lamellibranchiata. no. of family. genus. species. distribution. division _a_.--_asiphonida._ . ostrea world-wide--in estuaries, attached. . anomia india, australia, china, ceylon-- attached to shells from low water to fathoms. placuna scinde, north australia, china--in brackish water. . pecten world-wide--from to fathoms. lima norway, britain, india, australia-- from to fathoms. spondylus tropical seas--attached to coral-reefs. . avicula britain, mediterranean, india-- fathoms. perna in tropical seas--attached. pinna united states, britain, mediterranean, australia, pacific--low water to fathoms. . mytilus world-wide--between high and low water mark. modiola british and tropical seas--low water to fathoms. . arca in warm seas--from low water to fathoms. pectunculus west indies, britain, new zealand-- from to fathoms. nucula norway, japan--from to fathoms. . trigonia off the coast of australia. . unio world-wide--in fresh waters. anodon north america, europe, siberia--in fresh waters. division _b_.--_siphonida._ . chama in tropical seas on coral reefs. . tridacna indian and pacific oceans, chinese seas. . cardium world-wide--from the shore line to fathoms. . lucina tropical and temperate seas--sandy and muddy bottoms--from low water to fathoms. kellia norway, new zealand, california--low water to fathoms. . cyclas temperate regions--in all fresh waters. cyrena from the nile and other rivers to china--and in mangrove swamps. . astarte mostly arctic--from to fathoms. crassatella australia, philippines, africa, etc. . cyprina from britain to the most northerly point yet reached--from to fathoms. circe britain, australia, india, red sea-- to fathoms. isocardia mediterranean, china, japan--burrowing in sand. cardita tropical seas--from shallow water to fathoms. . venus } world-wide--buried in sand, from low cytherea } water to fathoms. artemis northern to tropical seas--from low water to fathoms. tapes widely distributed--burrowing in sand, from low water to fathoms. venerupis britain, canaries, india, peru--in crevices of rocks. . mactra world-wide--burrowing in sand. lutraria widely distributed--burrowing in sand. . tellina in all seas--from the shore line to fathoms. psammobia britain, pacific and indian oceans-- from the littoral zone to fathoms. sanguinolaria w. indies, australia, peru. semele brazil, india, china, etc. donax norway, baltic, britain--in sand near low water mark. . solen world-wide--burrowing in sand. solecurtus britain, africa, madeira, mediterranean--burrowing in sand. . mya north seas, w. africa, philippines, etc.--river mouths from low water to fathoms. corbula united states, britain, norway, mediterranean, w. africa, china-- from to fathoms. . anatina india, w. africa, philippines, new zealand. thracia greenland to canaries and china--from to fathoms. pandora spitzbergen, panama, india--from to fathoms, burrowing in sand and mud. . gastrochæna w. indies, britain, red sea, pacific islands--from shore line to fathoms. saxicava arctic seas, britain, mediterranean, canaries and the cape--in crevices and boring into limestone and rocks. aspergillum red sea, java, new zealand--in sand. . pholas almost universal--from low water to fathoms. xylophaga norway, britain, s. america--boring into floating wood. teredo in tropical seas--from low water to fathoms. some works of reference. mollusca in general. "a manual of mollusca." by dr. s. p. woodward. "tabular view of the orders and families of the mollusca." published by the society for promoting christian knowledge. "cassell's natural history," latest edition, article on the mollusca. by dr. henry woodward. british mollusca. "a history of british mollusca and their shells." by professor e. forbes and s. hanley. "british conchology." by j. g. jeffreys. "common shells of the sea-shore." by rev. j. g. wood. british land and fresh-water mollusca. "land and fresh-water mollusca indigenous to the british isles." by lovell reeve. "a plain and easy account of the land and fresh-water mollusca of great britain." by ralph tate. [illustration] fossils. by b. b. woodward. fossils. introductory. geology is of all "hobbies" the one best calculated not only to develop the physical powers, but also, if pursued with any degree of earnestness, to train and extend the mental faculties. to study geology properly, the rocks themselves must be visited and carefully observed, their appearance noted, and the fossils, if any, which they contain, collected. this necessitates many a pleasant walk into the open country to quarries and cuttings, or rambles along the sea-shore to cliffs which may be worth investigating, whilst botany, entomology, or any other congenial pursuit, may be followed on the way; for natural science in its different branches has so many points of connection that it is impossible to study one of them without increasing one's interest in, and knowledge of, all the others. again, in arranging, classifying, and studying at home the specimens collected on these expeditions, many an hour may be usefully spent; habits of exactitude and neatness are acquired; whilst in endeavouring to draw correct conclusions as to the way in which particular rocks were formed, and by what agencies brought to their present position, the reasoning faculties are exercised and developed. the existence of fossil shells and bones in various strata of the earth's crust attracted attention at a very early date of the world's history; the egyptian priests were aware of the existence of marine shells in the hills bounding the nile valley, and from this fact herodotus drew the conclusion that the sea formerly covered the spot. the bones of the larger mammalia (rhinoceros, elephant, etc.), were, however, thought by the ancients to be human, and hence arose the idea of a race of giants having existed at some previous period of the earth's history. it was not, however, until near the end of the last century that geology began to be recognised as a science, and the true bearing of fossils in relation to the rocks in which they were found was conclusively proved. william smith in england, and werner in germany, while working independently of each other, both came to the same conclusion, viz. that the numerous strata invariably rested on each other in a certain order, and that this order was never inverted,[ ] whilst william smith in addition proved that each group of rocks, and even each stratum, had its own peculiar set of fossils, by which it might be recognised wherever it occurred. from that time forth the study of the various fossils began to be considered as a separate science apart from that of the beds containing them; this is now known as palæontology, the study of the composition of the rocks themselves being termed petrology. [ ] except in such cases where the rocks themselves have been displaced by movements of the earth's crust. at this moment, however, we are less concerned with the study of rocks and fossils than with the best and simplest way of collecting, preparing, and arranging specimens as a means to this study. the cabinet. with regard to the cabinet for such specimens as you are able to collect, the same advice holds good as that given in a previous manual (the young collector's shell book), namely, the simpler the cabinet the better, though of course card-board boxes would not as a rule be strong enough to stand the weight of the specimens, and hence it is advisable to have wooden ones. the boxes in which oakey's wellington knife-powder is sent out (they measure about in. × in. × in.) are on the whole the most convenient size, and are easily obtainable at any oil and colourman's. these, when painted over with berlin black, after first removing the external labels, look very neat. the inside may be papered according to taste, when the trays may be arranged in order ready for the reception of your specimens.[ ] [ ] for description of trays, see "the young collector's shell-book." implements required when collecting. a certain amount of apparatus is needful in collecting geological specimens. it is necessary to break open the hard rocks in order to get at the fossils within, and for this purpose a strong hammer is required. one end of the hammer-head should be square, tapering, slightly, to a flat striking face; for when thus shaped the edges and corners are less likely to break off; the other side should be produced into a rather long, flat, and slightly curved pick, terminating in a chisel-edge at right-angles to the handle; the total length of the head should not exceed ½ in., the striking face being in. from the centre of the eye in which the handle ( in. long) is inserted; the latter should be made of the toughest ash, american hickory, or "green-heart," and fixed in with an iron wedge ("roughed" to prevent its coming out again), taking care that ¼ in. of the handle protrudes on the other side. it is the usual practice, but a mistaken one, to cut it off level with the hammer head, which is likely, under these circumstances, to come off after it has been in use for a time, whereas, by leaving a small portion of the wedged-out end projecting, this mischance is avoided, and your weapon will not fail even when used to drag its owner up a stiff ascent. it is better to shape and fix the handle yourself, as by this means you can not only cut it to fit your hand, but may rely upon its being properly fastened in. by filing grooves around it an inch apart, it will serve to take rough measurements with, while a firm grasp may be insured by bees-waxing instead of polishing it. another and much smaller hammer will also be necessary, chiefly for home use, to trim the specimens before putting them away in the cabinet; the head of this hammer must not be more than ½ inches long, the handle springing from the centre; one end has a flat striking face, square in section, the other, instead of being formed like a pick, is wedge-shaped, the sharp edge being at right-angles to the handle. next to a hammer, a cold chisel is indispensable to the collector, since without its aid many a choice specimen embedded in the middle of a mass of rock too large to break with the hammer would have to be left behind. there is one thing, however, to beware of in using this tool--it has sometimes to be hit with great force, and should you chance to miss it and strike your hand instead, the result may be more serious than even a severe bruise. to prevent this, procure from the shoemaker or saddler a piece of thick leather, about inches in diameter, having a hole cut in the centre through which to pass the shank of the chisel, and, thus protected, you may wield the hammer with impunity. for digging fossils out of clay, an old, stout knife, such as the worn-down stump of a carver, is handy, and in sandy beds an ordinary garden trowel is very useful, whilst in a chalk-pit a small saw is sometimes of great aid in extricating a desirable specimen. the same may be said of an ordinary carpenter's wood-chisel. for picking up small and delicate specimens, a pair of forceps should be carried, whilst without a pocket lens no true naturalist ever stirs abroad. an ordinary stout canvas satchel, such as is commonly used by schoolboys, is the best thing for carrying home your specimens; this may be made much stronger by the addition of two short strips of leather stitched on the back and running, one from each ring, to which the strap passing over the shoulder is fastened, down to the bottom of the bag; by leaving a small portion unstitched near the bottom of each of these, wide enough for the shoulder-strap to pass through, the satchel may at a moment's notice be slung knapsackwise on the shoulders--a method of carrying it which is, as all who have tried it know, by far the most convenient when it is heavily laden or not in immediate requisition. a stout leather belt may be worn in which to carry all your hammers, supporting it on the side where the heavy hammer hangs by a band passing over the opposite shoulder. before starting on an excursion, make a practice of seeing that you have everything with you, or when the critical moment comes, and some choice and fragile specimen is ready to be borne off, you may find that you are without the means necessary for taking it home. for ordinary hard specimens, newspaper well crumpled around them is without its equal, but some of the more delicate must be first wrapped in tissue paper or even cotton-wool, whilst the most fragile fossils should be packed in tins with bran or sawdust, the particles of which fill in all the corners and press equally everywhere, a useful faculty which cotton wool does not possess. when neither of these are to be obtained, dry sand will answer quite as well, though it is heavier to carry. although not absolutely necessary in the field, it is often useful to have a small bottle of acid in your pocket (nitric acid diluted to - th with distilled water is the best) with which to test for limestones; a drop of acid placed on a rock will, if there be any carbonate of lime in it, immediately begin to fizz. finally, every young collector should carry a note-book, and carefully record in it what he sees in each pit he visits, while, if it can be procured or borrowed, a geological map of the district you are exploring is a great help, for with its aid and that of a good compass you become practically independent of much extraneous assistance. how to use your implements. we will suppose by way of illustration that near us flows a river, on the rising ground above which is a pit that we propose to visit for the purpose of putting our apparatus into practical operation. when we have reached the floor of the pit, and stand looking up at the section before us, we are at first rather puzzled as to what the beds, which we see before us, are; for as the pit has not been worked for some time, its sides are partially overgrown with grass, and in places bits and pieces of the upper beds have fallen down and form a heap beneath which the lower ones lie buried. we must therefore make our way to those spots where the beds are left clear, and find out, if possible, what they are. by climbing up one of the heaps of fallen earth (_talus_) we reach the top, where, first of all, under the roots of the grass and shrubs, we find the mould in which these grow, and which is formed of the broken up (_disintegrated_) rocks forming the still higher ground above, and which the rains, frosts and snows, aided afterwards by the earthworms, have converted into mould. this, geologically speaking, is called _surface soil_, and is here about two feet deep. just below it we find a layer of coarse gravel; the pebbles of which this is composed are of all sorts, sizes, and shapes, and are stained a deep brown by oxide of iron. most of them are flints, and by diligent search you may find casts and impressions in these of sponges, shells, spines of sea urchins, etc. flints, whether from gravel or their parent rock the chalk, are easiest broken by a light smart tap of the hammer, though when it is desired to shape them for the cabinet a soft iron hammer should be used, and the piece to be shaped placed on a soft pad on the knee, for when struck with a steel hammer flints splinter in all directions, and often through the very portion you most desire to preserve. in one spot we find a mass of sand included in the gravel; this mass is thickest in the middle, and tapers away towards each end, its total length being about fifty feet. could we see the whole mass, we should probably find it to be a patch lying on the gravel and thinning out all around its edges; in other words it would be shaped like a lens--"_lenticular_" as geologists term it. when we examine this mass more closely, we find that the layers of sand do not run parallel with the bed, but are inclined in different directions, sometimes lying one way, sometimes another. this _false bedding_ is due to the sand having been thrown down in waters agitated by strong currents that swept over the spot, now in one direction and now in another, scattering at one moment half the sand they had just piled up one way only to redeposit it the next minute in another. in the gravel also may be observed a similar though less marked arrangement, owing to the larger size of its constituents, which of course required a still stronger current action to wash them down. amongst the sand we now see some shells, and set to work to dig them out very carefully, for they are exceedingly brittle. the best specimens are to be obtained by throwing down masses of the sandy material and searching in it; but only the stronger and finer examples will bear such usage. we next notice that these shells are precisely similar to those still found with living occupants in the river below, only they are no longer of a brownish colour, but owing to the loss of the animal matter of the shell have an earthy, dirty-white appearance. to carry these home they should be packed in bran in one of your tins with a note as follows made on a piece of paper and placed just inside--"sand in gravel: topmost bed ---- pit, august nd, -." then if you are not able to work them out at once on reaching home, you will not forget whence they came. from the appearance of these sands and gravels, and the presence in them of shells exactly like those in the river below, it may reasonably be inferred that they once formed a portion of the bed of that river long ago, before it had scooped out its valley to the present depth. there is, however, something else in this sand-bed--a piece of bone protruding; clear away the sand above it, and dig back until the whole is visible. it is broken through in one or two places, but otherwise is in fair condition; remove the pieces carefully one by one, and wrap them in separate pieces of paper, and then proceed to search for others. these bones, which are plentiful in some of our river valley gravel-beds, are the remains of animals that once roamed in the forests which at that time covered the country; they were probably either drowned in crossing the water, or got stuck in the mud on the banks on coming down to drink. a fine collection was made at ilford by the late sir antonio brady, and is now in the british museum (natural history) at south kensington. besides the bones of animals, you may expect to find examples of all, or nearly all, the different rocks in which the river has cut its valley, and samples of these may be picked out and taken home. each specimen should be wrapped in a separate piece of paper to prevent its rubbing against others, care being taken to note the locality either by writing it on the paper or by affixing to the specimen a number corresponding to one in your note book against the description you have written of the bed. the gravel, with its accompanying bed of sand, may be traced down, by scraping away the surface, for about ten feet, when you will discover that it rests unevenly upon the beds below, which, instead of being horizontal, slope (_dip_) in a n.n.e. direction, making an angle of about ° with the floor of the pit; the gravel therefore rests successively upon the upturned ends of the lower beds, and, geologically speaking, is "unconformable" to them. now as these underlying rocks were of course originally deposited in an horizontal position, they must have been pushed up and the upper parts worn away (_denuded_) before the gravel was deposited on them, for the accomplishment of which process an amount of time must have elapsed that it would be impossible to reckon by years. when we come to examine these lower beds, we find first a stratum of stiff dark-brown clay containing fossils disposed in layers: those near the outer surface have been rendered so brittle by the weather, that it is necessary to make use of the pick end of the hammer and dig a little way into the face of the section before we come upon some which will bear removal by cutting them out with a knife. pack them in a tin with bran, or, where much clay still adheres to them, wrap them in paper. the true top of this bed is not visible, being concealed beneath a heap of earth in the corner of the pit, but we can see and measure about six feet of it. the next bed in order is a light brownish band of sandy clay that splits along its layers into thin pieces or "_laminæ_," whence we may describe it as a sandy, _laminated_ clay. on the freshly split surface of one piece we see scattered a number of small darker brown fragments; an examination with a pocket lens clearly shows that these are little bits of leaves and stems, with here and there a more perfect specimen. these beds must have been deposited in the still waters just off the main stream of a large river which brought the plants floating down to this spot, where they became water-logged and sunk; so, too, if you examine the shells in the bed immediately above, you will see that they are very like though not the same as those which at the present day love to dwell in the mud off the estuaries of big rivers in warmer parts of the globe; hence we discover that at some far distant period a big river, but one which had no connection with that running close by, once flowed over this very spot. on tracing the leaf-bed down, we come all at once, at about three feet from its upper surface, upon a narrow band one or two inches thick of a substance composed of numerous bits of sticks and stalks closely matted together and partially mineralized. vegetable matter in this form is known as lignite, and is one of the first stages towards the formation of coal out of plant remains. below this lignite band we find our leaf-bed getting sandier and sandier, and losing all trace of the plants by degrees till it becomes almost pure sand. here and there, however, it contains some curiously shaped masses, which, when broken through with the hammer, seem composed of nothing but the same grains of sand cemented together into a hard mass. in one there is, however, a curiously shaped hollow, which, upon examining it closely, you will see is a perfect cast of a small shell that has itself disappeared. a drop of acid on it fizzes away and sinks in between the grains of sand which in this spot become loose. a mass of sand or particles of clay thus cemented together, be it by iron, lime, or any other substance, is termed a "_nodule_" or "_concretion_," and in this particular instance has been formed as follows:--the rain-water falling on the sand where it comes to the surface sinks in and filters through the bed. now there is always a certain amount of carbonic acid in rain-water, and this acid acted on the carbonate of lime of which the shell was composed, dissolving and dispersing it amongst the neighbouring grains of sand where it was re-deposited, cementing them together as we have seen. the bottom of this bed of sand we find to be just fifteen feet from the lignite band when measured at right-angles to the bed, and it is succeeded by a hard greyish rock, which requires a smart blow of the hammer to break it, but the surface of which, where it has been exposed to the weather, is much crumbled ("_weathered_"), and breaks readily into small pieces. it is easily scratched with the point of a knife, and therefore is not flint; moreover, it fizzes strongly when touched with acid--hence there is a great deal of carbonate of lime in it, and we know that it is limestone. limestones are very largely, sometimes almost entirely, made up of the calcareous portions of marine creatures, such as the hard parts of corals, the tests of sea-urchins, the shells of mollusca, etc., welded, so to speak, into one mass by the heat, pressure, and chemical changes which the bed has undergone since its deposition at the bottom of the sea. there would be every reason, therefore, one might suppose, to expect a number of fossils in this bed; but, alas! disappointment awaits the young explorer, for with the exception of chalk and a few other limestones, these rocks are generally of such uniform texture that on being struck with the hammer they split through fossils and all, the fractured surface only too frequently showing nought save a few obscure markings. but what we fail to accomplish in our impatience, nature effects by slow degrees, and if you will turn over the weathered pieces and blocks lying about, you will soon find plenty of fossils sticking out all over them; by a judicious use of hammer and chisel any of these may be detached and added to your stock, each being separately packed in paper and the locality written on the outside. some seventy or eighty feet is all that is visible of this limestone; the rest is unexcavated. before leaving the pit, it will be as well to select such rock specimens as you wish to place in your cabinet, trimming them to the required size on the spot, for should you, as is not unlikely, spoil two or three, you can readily pick a fresh one. having secured our specimens, we will take a look at our note-book, to see if we have noted all the details we require. if so, our entries should run something as follows:--first, we have made a rough sketch of the position of the beds, carefully numbering each one; then follow our notes on the individual beds, preceded by numbers corresponding with those in the sketch, thus:-- . surface soil ft. . river gravel, including a lenticular mass of } . sand, with land and fresh-water shells and bones of } ft. animals } . stiff dark-brown clay, with estuarine shells ft. seen. . light-brown sandy clay, with leaves and stems of plants ft. . band of lignite in. . same as , passing into-- } . pure sand, with layers of concretions containing casts } of shells } ft. . dark-grey limestone, with numerous fossils ft. seen. beds to dip at an angle of ° to the n.n.e. our imaginary pit is of course only a sort of geological juan fernandez, but it will serve in some degree to illustrate the method of dealing with various rocks and fossils when met with in the field, and how they may best be collected and carried home. a few additional suggestions where to look for fossils may, however, be given here. to begin with, i never neglect to search the fallen masses, especially their weathered surfaces, or to look carefully over the heaps of quarried materials, whatever they may happen to be, piled on the floor of the pit. in working at the beds themselves, remember that fossils frequently occur in layers which of course represent the old sea-bottom of the period; to find these, it is necessary to follow the beds in a direction at right angles to their stratification, till you arrive at the sought-for layers, or _zones_. do not be surprised, when collecting from a formation you have never before studied, if the fossils are not at first apparent, though many are known to be present. the eye requires a few days in which to become accustomed to its fresh surroundings, and when the same spot has been carefully hunted over every day for a week, it is astonishing what a quantity of fossils are discernible where not one in the first instance was recognised. how to prepare the specimens for the cabinet. the first thing to be done on unpacking our specimens is to pick out those which require the least attention, and get them out of the way. these will be your rock specimens, which, if they have been trimmed properly in the pit, will not need much further manipulation; a word or two, however, as to the best method of proceeding when it is desirable to reduce a specimen, will not be out of place. if you wish to divide it in two, or detach any considerable portion, the specimen may, while held in the hand, be struck a smart blow with the hammer; as, however, it not frequently happens that even with the greatest care the specimen under this treatment breaks in an opposite direction to that required, it is advisable to adopt a somewhat surer method, namely, to procure a block of tough wood, and in the centre bore a hole just large enough to receive the shank of the cold chisel, and thus hold it in an upright position with the cutting edge uppermost; placing the specimen on this, and then hitting it immediately above with the hammer, it may be fractured through in any required direction. to trim off a small projection, hold the specimen in your hand with the corner towards you and directed slightly downwards, then with the edge of the striking face of the hammer hit it a smart blow at the line along which you wish it to break off; the object of inclining the specimen is to make sure that the blow shall fall in a direction inclined away from the portion you wish to preserve, a _modus operandi_ which it is necessary to bear well in mind if you would not spoil many a choice specimen. anything beyond very general directions, however, it is impossible to give in such matters as this: experience, and a few hints from those who have themselves had practice in collecting and arranging specimens, are worth more than any written description, however lengthy and elaborate. having reduced your specimen to the required size and shape, the next thing to be done is to write a neat little label for it--the smaller the better--stating, first the nature of the specimen, secondly the geological formation to which it belongs, thirdly the locality from which it was procured, and fourthly the date when acquired, thus-- limestone. lower carboniferous. quarry, mile n.w. of ---- . . -. ruling a neat line at the top and bottom (red ink lines give a more finished appearance than black). when the label is dry, damp it to render it more pliant, and gum it on to the flattest available surface of the specimen, pressing it well into any small inequalities that it may hold the firmer. a small quantity of pure glycerine (about an eighth part) should be added to the gum before use, in order to prevent its drying hard and brittle. the specimen is now ready to place in its tray and be put away in the cabinet. in the next place, pick out the fossils which you obtained from the limestone. with the cold chisel set in its block of wood, and the trimming hammer, remove as much of the surrounding rock (_matrix_) as you can without damaging the fossil, and with a smaller chisel any pieces that may be sticking to and obscuring it. fossils in soft limestone, such as chalk, are best cleaned with an old penknife, and needles fixed into wooden handles, and finished off by the application of water with a nail-brush. should you have the misfortune to break any specimen in the process of trimming, it should at once be mended. the most effectual cement for this purpose is made by simply dissolving isinglass in acetic acid, or, where the specimen contains much iron pyrites, and there would be a danger in starting decomposition, shellac dissolved in spirits of wine. when, however, neither of these are handy, chalk scraped with a penknife into a powder, and mixed with gum to the consistency of a thick paste, answers admirably. failing this, however, gum alone will frequently suffice. the next thing is to place the like kinds together in their several trays, writing a label, as before, for each tray, but leaving a blank space at the top for the insertion of the name when ascertained. the commoner sorts may be named from the figures of them given in the text-books (see list at the back of the title page); but failing this, it will be the best plan to seek the help of any friends who have collections, or to take the fossils to some museum, and compare them with the named specimens there exhibited. the label may be laid at the bottom of the tray with the fossils loose on the top of it, each fossil being marked with a number corresponding to one on the label. another plan is to fasten the label by one of its edges to the side of the tray; or, if the fossils are small and mounted on a piece of card fitting into the tray, it may be gummed with them to the card. now let us take the shells we obtained from the dark-blue clay, with those and the bones from the old river bed up above. gently turn them out of the tins, in which they were packed in the quarry, on to a paper or the lid of a card-board box, and with a pair of forceps pick them carefully out of the bran, and place them in large shallow trays, taking care not to mix those from the different beds. as we found when collecting them, these shells are extremely brittle from loss of animal matter, and our first object is therefore to harden them by some process, so that they will bear handling. to accomplish this you must get a saucepan, one of those wire contrivances for holding eggs when boiling, or a big wire spoon, such as formerly was used for cooking purposes, a packet of gelatine, and some flat pieces of tin, which last are easily procured by hammering out an old mustard or other tin, having previously melted in a gas flame the solder wherewith it is joined. half fill the saucepan with clean water, and put in as much gelatine as when cold will make a stiff jelly; melt this over the fire, placing the fossils meanwhile in a warm (not hot) corner of the fire-place; then when the gelatine is quite dissolved, pile as many of them, whole or in pieces, into the egg-boiler, or spoon, as it will contain, hold them for a second in the steam, and then lower them gradually into the hot gelatine until it completely covers them. little bubbles of air will rise and float on the surface. as soon as these cease to appear, raise the fossils above the surface and allow them to drip; then pick them up one by one with the forceps, and spread them out on pieces of tin before the fire, but not too close to it. as soon as their exterior surfaces become dry, and before the gelatine gets hard, they should be taken up (they may be handled fearlessly now), and the superfluous gelatine sticking to the surface gently removed with a camel's-hair brush dipped in clean warm water; otherwise, when dry, they present an unnatural varnished appearance, and have a tendency, on small provocation, to become unpleasantly sticky. small bones may be treated in like manner, but for large ones, weak glue is to be preferred to gelatine, which is only suitable for the finer and more delicate objects. where it is desired to harden only a few things, it is better to mix the gelatine in a gallipot, which can be heated when required by standing it in a saucepan of water on the fire. in any case the gelatine need never be wasted, as it will keep almost any length of time, and can therefore be put by for future use. in default of the egg-boiler or wire-net spoon, an equally useful plan is to make a strainer from a piece of perforated zinc by turning up the edges all around, and attaching copper wire to it by which to lower the fossils into the gelatine, and raise them again. when the fossils are quite dry they can be sorted, and those which have come to pieces may be mended with diamond cement (_i.e._ isinglass dissolved in acetic acid), and then properly labelled and placed in trays, or mounted as previously described. to the plant remains and lignite there is little that can be done beyond trimming them to suit the trays. should there be much iron pyrites in the lignite, it is sure, sooner or later, to decompose, when all that can be done is to throw it away. in the case, however, of valuable fruits and seeds, such as those from the london clay of sheppey, it is worth while to preserve them, if possible, in almost the only way known, viz. by keeping them in glycerine in wide-mouthed stoppered bottles, or by saturating them with paraffin. having prepared the specimens for the cabinet, the next thing is to arrange them in proper order. there are several ways of doing this, but for those who have not had much experience the following plan will be found the best:--group the specimens according to the formations to which they belong, and arrange these groups in proper sequence (_vide_ table, p. ); then take each group, and arrange the specimens it comprises in columns. beginning at the top of the left-hand corner, place first the specimens of the rock itself, and under it any examples of minerals, concretions, etc., found in that rock; next the fossil plants, if any; and finally, such animal remains as you have arranged according to their zoological sequence, beginning with the lower forms (_vide_ table, p. ). unless cramped for room, each formation should begin a new box, its name being written on a slip of paper and placed at the head of the columns of trays. a label setting forth its contents should be fixed outside each of the boxes, which can then be put away on your cupboard shelves. table of the principal fossiliferous strata arranged in chronological order. _land plants._-----------+ _invertebrata._--------+ | _fishes._------------+ | | _amphibia._--------+ | | | _reptiles._------+ | | | | _birds._-------+ | | | | | _mammalia._--+ | | | | | | _man._-----+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | {alluvial deposits, | | | | | | | | _quaternary, { river valley | | | | | | | | or { gravels and | | | | | | | | pleistocene._ { cave deposits. | | | | | | | | {drift and glacial | | | | | | | | { deposits. v | | | | | | | | | | | | | | _cainozoic, {pliocene. | | | | | | | or {miocene. | | | | | | | tertiary._ {eocene. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | { {chalk. | | | | | | | m { _cretaceous._ {upper greensand. | | | | | | | e { {gault. | | | | | | | s { | | | | | | | o { _neocomian._ {lower greensand. | v | | | | | z { {wealden. | : | | | | | o { | : | | | | | i { { {purbeck. | : | | | | | c, { {_upper._{portland. | : | | | | | { { {kimmeridge clay. | : | | | | | or { { | : | | | | | { { _mid._ {coral rag. | : | | | | | s { { _oo- { {oxford clay. | : | | | | | e { {lites._{ | : | | | | | c { { { {cornbrash and | : | | | | | o { { { { forest marble. | : | | | | | n { _jurassic._{ {_lower._{great oolite. | : | | | | | d { { { {fullers' earth. | : | | | | | a { { { {inferior oolite. | : | | | | | r { { | : | | | | | y { { lias. | : | | | | | | : | | | | | { {trias, or new | : | | | | | p { _poikilitic._ { red sandstone. v ? v | | | | a { {permian. | | | | l { | | | | Æ { {coal measures. v | | | o { {millstone grit | | | z { _carboniferous._ { and yoredale | | | o { { rocks. | | | i { {carboniferous | | | c, { { limestone, etc. | | | { | | | or { devonian and old | | | { red sandstone. | | | p { | | | r { {ludlow beds. | | | i { {wenlock beds. | | v m { _silurian._ {woolhope beds. | | a { {tarannon shale. | | r { {llandovery or may | | y. { { hill group. v | { | { {bala and | { { caradoc beds. | { {llandeilo flags. | { {arenig group. | { _cambrian._ {tremadoc slates. | { {lingula flags. | { {menevian beds. | { {longmynd and | { { harlech group. v { : { pre-cambrian and : { laurentian. ? notes on the different formations mentioned in the table. recent.--the alluvial deposits of most river valleys and some estuaries still in course of formation, containing fossil shells and mammals, all of living species. quaternary, post-pliocene, or pleistocene.-- . including the raised beaches around the coast, the older gravels of river valleys and the cave deposits, in all of which the shells are identical with those living in the rivers and seas of to-day, whilst the animals are many of them extinct, only a few being now found living on the spot. . the glacial drifts that cover all england north of the thames, and which consist of sands, gravels, and clays, full of big angular stones frequently flattened on one side, scratched and sometimes polished from having been fixed in moving ice and forced over other rocks. a very interesting collection of these "boulders," as they are called, can be easily made, for they belong to almost every formation in england, and have some of them been brought from great distances, whilst the number and variety obtainable from a single pit is astonishing. cainozoic, or tertiary.--beds of this age, in england at all events, are for the most part made up of comparatively soft rocks, gravels, sands, and clays, and are found in the eastern and south-eastern counties. they are divided into-- . pliocene, mainly consisting of a series of iron-stained sands, with abundant shell remains, and locally known as "crags." the shells are very partial in their distribution, the beds in places being almost entirely made up of them, whilst in others scarcely one is to be found. the great majority are of the same species as many still living. the pliocene is subdivided into three groups:-- _a._ the _norwich crag series_, sometimes called the "mammaliferous crag," as at its base the bones of mastodon, elephant, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and some deer have been found. the shells in it are such as still abound on the beaches of the eastern coast to-day--whelks, scallop shells, cockles, periwinkles, etc. _b._ the _red_ or _suffolk crag_, its two names indicating its characteristic colour (a dark red-brown) and chief locality. from the base are obtained the celebrated phosphatic nodules miscalled "coprolites," whence is manufactured an artificial manure, and with them are found the rolled and phosphatized bones and teeth of whales, sharks, etc. amongst the shells the reversed whelks (_fusus contrarius_), _fecten opercularis_, _pectunculus glycimeris_, several kinds of _mactra_ and _cardium_, etc., are the commonest. walton-on-the-naze, felixstowe, and woodbridge are the best known localities. _c._ the _white_ or _coralline crag_ is generally of a pale buff colour, and is in places almost entirely composed of the remains of polyzoa. these (formerly called corallines, whence the name coralline crag) are beautiful objects for a low-power microscope, or pocket lens, and are easily mounted in deep cells on slides. the bits of shell and sand that stick to them should be carefully removed with the point of a needle. a very large number of shells occur in this crag: of bivalves, the _pecten_ is very abundant, and its valves are frequently thickly grown over with polyzoa; _cyprina islandica_, _cardita senilis_ are also plentiful; and of univalves, the genus _natica_ is common. the coralline crag is best seen in the neighbourhood of aldborough, orford, woodbridge, and other places in suffolk. . miocene, possibly represented in the british isles by a small patch of clays and lignites at bovey tracey. . eocene, divided into-- _a._ _upper eocene_, consisting of a series of very fossiliferous sands, clays, and limestones, exposed in the cliffs at the eastern and western ends of the isle of wight and on the neighbouring coast of hampshire. they are partly of freshwater origin, when they contain the remains of freshwater shells such as _limnoea paludina_, _planorbis_, etc.; partly of marine origin, when shells belonging to such genera as _ostrea_, _venus_, etc., take their place; partly of estuarine, when the brackish water mollusca are found with bones and scutes of crocodiles and tortoises. _b._ _middle eocene_, or the _bagshot beds_, composed of sands and clays. the beautiful coloured sands of alum bay, the sands of the surrey and hampstead heaths, are familiar examples of the beds of this age. very few fossils indeed have been found in them. the clay-beds on the contrary as seen at barton and hordwell on the hampshire coast and again in the isle of wight, abound with shells belonging to genera such as _conus_, _voluta_ and _venus_, that inhabit warm seas. with them are the nummulites, looking externally very like buttons, but on the inside divided into innumerable chambers in which the complex animal that formed the nummulite dwelt. _c._ _lower eocene_, the well-known london clay, may almost be said to compose this division, for the underlying sands, gravels, and clays are in mass comparatively insignificant. the london clay contains plenty of fossils, only as they are disposed in layers (_zones_) at a considerable distance apart, they are not often hit upon. layers of septaria or cement-stones are of frequent occurrence. sheppy is the great locality for london clay fossils, as the sea annually washes down large masses of the cliffs and breaks them up on the beach. a great many fossil fruits and seeds, remains of crabs, shells of nautili, volutes, and other mollusca, besides turtles, a species of snake, a bird with teeth, and a tapir-like animal, have at different times and in various places been found in this deposit, which sometimes attains a thickness of over ft. the "bognor rock" is a local variety of the basement bed of this formation. [illustration: _aturia zic-zac_ (from the london clay).] the mesozoic or secondary rocks embrace a series of limestone, clays, sands, and sandstones that on the whole are well consolidated. the main mass of them lies to the west of a line drawn across the map of england from the mouth of the tyne, in northumberland, southwards to nottingham, and thence to the mouth of the teign in devonshire. in the south-eastern counties they underlie the tertiary rocks of the london and hampshire basins, as they are called, at no great depth from the surface. outlying patches of secondary rocks occur in scotland, where they are found near brora on the east coast, and in the islands of skye and mull on the west. in ireland they are scantily represented round about the neighbourhood of antrim. the secondary rocks are divided into-- . cretaceous. _a._ the _chalk_ is too well known to need description, though technically it may be described as a soft white limestone chiefly built up of the microscopic shells of _foraminifera_, and characterized in its upper part by nodules and bands of flint. these flints frequently inclose casts of fossils (sponges, sea-urchins, etc.), and sometimes shells themselves. fossils, too, are fairly abundant, scattered throughout the mass. amongst the commoner may be noticed the sea-urchins, such as the "sugar loaf" (_ananchytes_) and the heart-shaped _micraster_, the brachiopods or lamp-shells (_terebratula_, _rhynchonella_), a "thorny oyster" (_spondylus spinosus_), besides ammonites, belemnites (part of the internal shell of a kind of cuttle-fish), and the teeth of several species of sharks. altogether the chalk is about , feet thick. [illustration: _ammonites various_ (from the chalk).] _b._ _upper greensand_ is a series of greenish-grey sands and sandstones. the green colour, on close inspection, is seen to be due to the presence of innumerable small green grains of a mineral called glauconite. these are frequently casts of the chambers of the very same foraminifera that the chalk is so largely composed of. [illustration: _rhynchonella depressa_ (a brachiopod, from the upper greensand).] nodules and layers of "chert" (an impure kind of flint) occur in it, whilst in places it forms a hard rock called "firestone." the commonest fossils are brachiopods, very similar to those in the chalk, a scallop-shell with four strongly marked ribs on it (_pecten quodricostatus_), an oyster with a curved beak (_exogyra columba_), and a pear-shaped sponge (_siphonia pyriformis_). the upper greensand is better seen at places in the southern part of the isle of wight, in cliffs on the dorsetshire coast, in wiltshire, at sidmouth, and in some parts of surrey. [illustration: _ammonites auritus_ (from the gault).] _c._ _gault_, a stiff blue clay abounding in fossils: ammonites often retaining their pearly shell; belemnites, a bivalve with very deep furrows on it (_inoccramus sulcatus_), and its first cousin (_i. concentricus_, p. ), in which the ridge-like markings correspond with the lines of growth, besides many others, may be obtained in abundance from it. layers of phosphatic nodules occur at irregular intervals. the gault is best studied at east wear bay, near folkstone; it may also be seen in dorsetshire, wiltshire, and cambridgeshire; lately it has been found as far west as exeter. . neocomian. _a._ the so-called _lower green sand_, named in contradistinction to the _upper green sand_, includes a series of iron stained sands, sandstones and clays of great thickness. the clayey beds are seen at atherfield in the isle of wight, and at nutfield in surrey, while the sandy beds are met with at speeton, at folkestone, and near reigate. besides brachiopods and oysters, these beds have furnished a species of _perna_ (_p. mulleti_), an elongated mussel (_gervillia anceps_), a pretty _trigonia_ (_t. cordata_), some _ammonites_ and nautili, with the teeth and bones of big reptiles. the celebrated "kentish rag" and the sponge gravels of farringdon are of this age. _b._ _wealden._ the main mass of these rocks occupies the area inclosed between the north and south downs, and forms the valley of the weald, whence they take their name. they consist of a series of sands, sandstones, clays, and shelly limestones that were deposited in the delta and off the mouth of a big river. the shells in them belong to freshwater genera, _cyrena_, _unio_, _paludina_, etc. bones of a huge lizard that hopped along on his hind legs (_iguanodon_), and those of crocodiles, etc., are from time to time brought to light. the wealden rocks occur also on both eastern and western sides of the isle of wight, and in dorsetshire. [illustration: _inoceramus concentricus_ (from the gault).] . oolites (or roe-stones) are so named because the characteristic limestones of this formation resemble very much the roe of a fish. the small round grains, of which the typical examples are built up, when cut or broken through will be seen to be formed of numerous layers of carbonate of lime, disposed like the coats of an onion, around some central nucleus, generally a grain of sand, a fragment of coral, or the shell of one of the foraminifera. they are divided into upper, middle, and lower oolites, and these again are subdivided as follows-- upper oolite. _a._ _purbeck beds_, a series of fresh-water, with a few estuarine, or marine beds, which in point of fact connect the deposits we are next coming to with the wealden just passed. they contain numerous fresh-water shells--_paludina_, _physa_, _limnæa_, etc., with the microscopic valves of the little fresh-water crustacean _cypris_, whose descendants are abundant in the rivers and lakes of to-day. an oyster occurs in the "cinder bed" and plant remains in the "dirt beds." but the purbecks are best known for the numerous remains of small mammals (_plagiaulax_) allied to the kangaroo rat, at present living in australia. _b._ the _portland stone and sand_, which come next in order, are largely quarried in the island whence they take their name. the quarrymen point out fossils in the stone, which they call "horses'-heads" and "portland screws." the former is the cast of a _trigonia_ shell; the latter, that of a tall spired univalve (_cerithium_). in wiltshire, a coral (_isastrea oblonga_) is found in the sandy beds, the original calcareous matter of which has been replaced by silex. _c._ _kimmeridge clay._ this, by the pressure of the rocks subsequently deposited on it, has in greater part been hardened, and possesses a tendency to split in thin layers, and hence is termed by geologists a shale. it is seen at various points between kimmeridge on the dorsetshire coast and the vale of pickering in yorkshire, and forms broad valleys. the principal fossils in it are ammonites, a triangular-shaped oyster (_ostrea deltoidea_), and one resembling a comma (_exogyra virgula_). middle oolites. _a._ the _coral rag_, or _coralline oolite_, comprises a most variable set of beds, but principally a series of limestone, with fossil corals still in the position in which they grew, and resembling in form the reef-building corals of the pacific. they rest on _b._ _oxford clay_, a dark blue or slate-coloured clay without any corals, but containing a great many _ammonites_ and _belemnites_. the _kelloway rock_, a sandy limestone at the base of the oxford clay, is well developed in yorkshire, and furnishes amongst other fossils a large belemnite and an oyster (_gryphæa dilatata_). lower oolites. _a._ _cornbrash_, a very shelly deposit of pale-coloured earthy, and rubbly or sometimes compact limestone with plenty of fossils. the commonest are brachiopods, limas, oysters (_ostrea marshii_), pholadomyas and ammonites. it is best seen in dorsetshire, somersetshire, and near scarborough in yorkshire. _b._ _forest marble_ and _bradford clay_. the former is an exceedingly shelly limestone, often splitting into thin slabs. on the surfaces of some of the beds may be seen the ripple marks the sea made countless years ago, and the tracks of worms and crabs that dwelt in the mud or crawled on its surface at a time when it was soft mud. the bradford clay is a very local deposit, taking its name from bradford in wiltshire, where it is most developed, and its characteristic fossil is the pear-shaped encrinite or "stone-lily" (_apiocrinus parkinsoni_). _c._ the _great_ or _bath oolite_, comprising a series of shelly limestones and fine oolites, or freestones. the latter are largely quarried in the neighbourhood of bath, and used for mantelpieces and the stone facings of windows. the great oolite is rich in univalve mollusca, amongst which may be noted a limpet (_patella rugosa_) and the handsome, tall-spired _nerinæa voltzii_, numerous bivalves belonging to the genera _pholadomya trigonia_, _ostrea_ (_o. gregaria_), and _pecten_, besides brachiopods (_terebratula digona_, which looks very like a sack of flour, and _t. perovalis_, etc.). at the base of the great oolite are the "stonesfield slates," so-called--a series of thin shelly oolites, etc., that split readily into very thin slabs. they are principally of interest to geologists on account of the discovery in them of the remains of small insect-feeding and possibly pouched mammals. with these are associated the bones of that big reptile the _megalosaurus_; the flying lizards called pterodactyles; fish teeth and spines; lamp shells; oysters, a _trigonia_ (_t. impressa_); and the impressions of insects, including a butterfly, and of plants. _d._ _fullers' earth_, a clayey deposit occurring in the southwestern parts of england, but not in the north. it abounds with a small oyster (_o. acuminata_) and brachiopods (e.g. _terebratula ornithocephala_), etc. _e._ _inferior oolite_ (including the midford sands). as these beds are followed across the country from the south-west of england to yorkshire, they are found to change greatly in character. limestone and marine beds in the south are replaced by sandy and estuarine beds in the north. amongst other fossils from beds of this age may be found several echinoderms, a crinkly lamp shell (_terebratula frimbriata_), and a spiny one (_rhynchonella spinosa_), bivalves belonging to the genera _ostrea_, _trigonia_, _pholadomya_, etc., and some very handsome ammonites (e.g. _a. humphresianus_). [illustration: _ichthyosaurus_, or fish-lizard (from the lias).] [illustration: _plesiosaurus_ (from the lias).] . lias. this for the most part consists of very regular alternations of argillaceous (clayey) limestone and clay, or shale. it is of great thickness, and hence for convenience has been divided into (a) _upper lias_, (b) _middle lias_ or _marl-stone_, and (c) _lower lias_. a large number of fossils are to be found in it. lyme regis and whitby are perhaps the best known localities; the former, on account of the great number of specimens obtained of the huge fish-lizard (_ichthyosaurus_, p. ), and long-necked _plesiosaurus_ (p. ), besides numberless fish; whilst the latter is renowned for its jet (or fossilized wood) and its "snake-stones" (_ammonites_), concerning which curious old stories are told. _ammonites_ are plentiful in the lias, which has been subdivided into zones, or layers, named after the ammonite occurring in greatest numbers in that particular zone. there is one thin limestone band in the marlstone composed entirely of the shells of _ammonites planicostatus_. a curious kind of oyster (_gryphæa incurva_), locally known as the devil's toenail, a huge _lima_ (_l. gigantea_), a magnificent encrinite (_extracrinus briareus_), and numerous other fossils, are also to be obtained by patient search. [illustration: _belemnitas elongatus_(from the lias).] . rhætic, penarth beds, or white lias. these beds are not of any considerable thickness, but are very persistent, and of great interest, inasmuch as they yield the remains of the oldest known mammal (_microlestes_), a small insect-feeder. they are composed of limestones, shales and marls (_i.e._ limey clays), and are best studied in somersetshire and dorsetshire. the "landscape marble" belongs to this formation, which also contains a bone bed, or thin layer made up of the bones and teeth, etc., of fish. shells are not numerous, though the casts of one species (_avicula contorta_) is plentiful. . trias, or new red sandstone, a thick series of sandstones and marls, the great mass of which forms the subsoil of the western midland counties, birmingham being nearly in the centre, thence they extend in three directions, one branch passing towards the north-west, through cheshire, to the sea at liverpool, reappearing on the coast line of lancashire, westmoreland, and cumberland, where it also forms the valley of the eden. another branch extends through derby and york to south shields, whilst the third may be traced southwards in isolated patches down into devonshire. there are scarcely any fossils in it, but in worcestershire and warwickshire the bivalve shell of a small crustacean (_estheria minuta_) occurs in the upper beds; whilst now and again the teeth and bones of some strange amphibians (_labyrinthodon_), or the impressions of their feet (_cheirotherium_) where they crawled on the then soft mud of the foreshore, are found. the trias is divided into upper trias or keuper, and lower trias or bunter. the middle beds (muschelkalk), which are found in germany, where they contain plenty of fossils, are wanting in this country. in the lower beds of the keuper, layers of rock salt, sometimes of great thickness, occur, whilst casts (called pseudomorphs) of detached salt-crystals are found abundantly in the sandy marls. northwich, nantwich, droitwich, and several other towns in cheshire and worcestershire, are famed for their salt works, the salt being either mined or pumped up as brine from these beds. [illustration: _ceratites nodosus_ (from the muschelkalk).] palÆozoic or primary.--beds of this age generally possess a more crystalline and slaty structure than any of those already mentioned, are usually more highly inclined and disturbed, and form for the most part more elevated ground. they are the principal store-houses of our mineral wealth, containing as they do coal, iron, and other metals. the palæozoic rocks are found in england to the north and west of the secondary series, beneath which they disappear when traced to the south-east. wales, and the greater part of scotland and ireland, consist of beds of this age. . permian. under this term are included beds of red sandstones and marls, closely resembling those of trias, and like them containing but few fossils, as well as a very fossiliferous limestone, known as the magnesian limestone, from the abundance of magnesia it contains. a pretty polyzoan (_fenestella retiformis_), a spiny brachiopod (_productus horridus_), various genera of fish, chiefly found in a marl state underlying the limestone, some labyrinthodonts and plant remains, are the principal forms met with in this formation. . carboniferous. this, from a commercial point of view, is the most important of all the formations, comprising as it does the coal-bearing strata. it is subdivided into-- _a._ _coalmeasures_, a series of sandstones and shales with which are interstratified the seams of coal, varying in thickness from six inches to as much in one instance as thirty feet. coal is the carbonized remains of innumerable plants, chiefly ferns and gigantic clubmosses, that grew in swamps bordering on the sea-coast of the period. each coal seam is underlain by a bed of clay called "under-clay," containing the roots of the plants that grew on it. some of the best impressions of ferns, etc., are to be obtained in the shaley beds forming the roof of the coal seam; many good specimens, however, are to be got by searching the refuse heap at the pit's mouth. besides plants, the remains of fish are abundant in some of the beds of shale. and in nova scotia the bones of air-breathing reptiles and land snails have been discovered. cockroaches and other insects were also denizens of the carboniferous forests. the following are the principal coalfields:-- . northumberland and durham coalfield. . south lancashire coalfield. . derbyshire coalfield. . leicestershire and staffordshire coalfields. . south wales coalfield. . bristol and somerset coalfields. _b._ _millstone grit_ or _farewell-rock_. the former term explains itself, the latter designation has been applied to it in the southern districts, because when it is reached, then good-bye to all workable coal-seams. it consists of coarse sandstones, shales, and conglomerates with a few small seams of coal. fossils are not very common in it. _c._ yoredale rocks, a series of flagstones, gritstones, limestones and shales, with seams of coal, occurring in the northern counties. it is underlain by-- _d._ _carboniferous_ or _mountain limestone_, which in places is upwards of , feet thick, and full of fossils. the stems of encrinites, or "stone-lilies," corals, brachiopods (_e.g._ _productus_, _orthis_, etc.), and mollusca, including some cephalopods, like _goniatites_ and the straight nautilus (_orthoceras_), with fish teeth, etc., go to compose this tough, bluish-grey limestone which is largely quarried for marble mantlepieces, etc. _e._ the _tuedian group_ in the north, and _lower limestone shale_ in the south, follow next, and consist of shales, sandstones, limestones, and conglomerates, varying greatly in different districts, and containing few fossils. . devonian or old red sandstone. to this age are assigned a perplexing series of strata, the principal members of which consist of (_a_) a thick limestone, well seen in the cliffs and marble quarries of south devon, and full of fossil-corals (_e.g._ _favosites polymorpha_ [or _cervicornis_]) brachiopods, and mollusca, etc. _b._ a series of sandstones, slates, and limestones in north devon containing trilobites (_phacops_, _bronteus_, etc.), brachiopods, and other fossils. _c._ the _old red sandstone_ of wales, the north of england, and scotland, consisting of red and grey sandstone and marly beds, with remains of fish. these fish, unlike most now living, were more or less covered with hard external plates, and possessed merely a cartilaginous skeleton. in one set of individuals, indeed (_pterichthys_), the armour plates formed quite a little box. these creatures propelled themselves by means of two arm-like flippers, rather than fins. they were but a few inches long, and appear pigmies in contrast to the strange half-lobster-like crustacean, _pterygotus_, that lived with them, and attained sometimes as much as five feet in length. . silurian. named by sir roderick murchison after a tribe of ancient britons that dwelt in that part of wales, where these rocks were first observed. some of murchison's lower silurian beds were included by professor sedgwick in his cambrian, of which we shall have to speak next; and as these two geologists never could agree on a divisional line between their respective formations, and since succeeding observers have followed sometimes one and sometimes the other method of classification, considerable confusion has resulted. here, however, for several reasons, we propose to follow sedgwick's arrangement; and hence, under the term silurian, retain only murchison's upper beds. they consist of a series of sandstones, gritstones, conglomerates, shales, limestones, etc. amongst the more important fossils, which are very abundant in the limestones, are various corals (_e.g._ the chain-coral _halysites_), star-fish, crinoids, trilobites (_phacops_, etc.), polyzoa, brachiopods and mollusca, especially cephalopoda (_orthoceras_, _nautilus_, etc.). these rocks occur principally in the border land between england and wales, and the adjacent counties; but are also represented in westmoreland, scotland, and ireland. their principal subdivisions are given in the table on p. . [illustration: trilobite (_asaphus candatus_), (from the silurian).] [illustration: _orthoceras subannulatum_ (from the silurian).] . cambrian. under this term, derived from the old name for wales, are included many sandstones, grits, slates and flags, with here and there a limestone band. they form the greater part of the western counties of wales, where they rise to a considerable height above the sea level. the highest hills of westmoreland and more than half of scotland are composed of beds of this age. the fossils, save in the limestone bands, are not easy to find, but in places they are fairly abundant. brachiopods are far more numerous than the mollusca properly so-called. of these, the genus _orthis_ was most abundant at about the close of this period. certain beds of this age have received the name of lingula flags, owing this prevalence in them of the curious brachiopod _lingula_ so like the species now living in some of the warm seas of the tropics. the trilobites included several forms, and one species (_paradoxides davidis_) attained the length of nearly two feet. a few star-fish, some hydrozoans (_graptolites_), and the tubes and casts of annelides and tracks of trilobites, complete the list of more remarkable fossils. the subdivisions of the cambrian rocks will be found in the table on p. . . pre-cambrian.--near st. david's head and some other places in wales, in anglesea, shropshire, etc., some yet older rocks have been found. they are probably for the most part of volcanic origin, but they have been so much changed since they were first deposited, and as hitherto no fossils have been found in them, little is known concerning them. parts of the western coast of northern scotland and the hebrides are composed of a crystalline rock called gneiss, and supposed to be the oldest member of the british strata. no fossils have been found in it. [illustration: skull of _deinotherium giganteum_, a huge extinct animal, related to the elephants (from the miocene of germany).] volcanic rocks. although there are fortunately no volcanoes to disturb the peace of our country at the present day, there is abundant evidence of their existence in the past. not only are some of the beds, especially those of paleozoic age, composed of the dust and ashes thrown out of volcanoes, with here and there a lava flow now hardened into solid rock, but the stumps of the volcanoes themselves are left to tell the tale. the cones indeed are gone, carried off piecemeal by the rain and frosts, and other destructive agencies, in the course of countless ages: not so the once fluid rock within; _that_ cooled down into granite, and though originally below the surface, it now, owing to the removal of the overlying softer strata, forms raised ground overlooking the surrounding country. the granite masses of cornwall, of dartmoor, in the south-west of mt. sorrel; the variety called syenite at malvern and charnwood forest; the basalts of the cheviot hills and of antrim; the volcanic rocks of arthur's seat, edinburgh, and of the islands of skye and mull, etc., are examples of this class of rock. they are of different ages, and belong to different periods of the earth's history, from early palæozoic down to miocene times. table of the principal divisions of the animal kingdom, to show the order in which the fossils should be arranged. invertebrata. _foraminifera_, minute chambered shells like the nummulite. _spongida_, sponges. _hydrozoa_, graptolites, etc. _actinozoa_, corals. _echinodermata_, sea-urchins, stone-lilies, starfish, etc. _annelida_, worm tracks. _crustacea_, trilobites, crabs, etc. _arachnida_, scorpions and spiders. _myriapoda_, centipedes. _insecta_, beetles, butterflies, etc. _polyzoa_ (_bryozoa_) or moss animals. _brachiopods_, lampshells. { _lamellibranchiata_, bivalves. _mollusca_ { _gasteropoda_, univalves. { _cephalopoda_, cuttlefish, ammonites. vertebrata. _pisces_, fish. _amphibia_, labyrinthodonts, frogs, and newts. _reptilia_, reptiles. _aves_, birds. _mammalia_, mammals. works of reference. for naming common fossils. =tabular view of characteristic british fossils stratigraphically arranged.= by j. w. lowry. _soc. prom. christ. knowledge._ . =figures of the characteristic british tertiary fossils (chiefly mollusca) stratigraphically arranged.= by j. w. lowry and others. _london_ (_stanford_). . palÆontology. =the ancient life history of the earth.= by h. a. nicholson. vo. _edinburgh and london._ . =a manual of palæontology.= by h. a. nicholson. nd edition. vols. vo. _edinburgh and london._ . petrology. =the study of rocks.= by f. rutley. (text books of science.) vo. _london._ . field geology. =a text-book of field geology.= by w. h. penning. with a section on palæontology, by a. j. jukes-brown. nd edition. vo. _london._ . geology in general. =the student's elements of geology.= by sir charles lyell, bart. th edition. vo. _london._ . =the principles of geology.= by sir charles lyell, bart. th edition. vols. vo. _london._ . =phillip's manual of geology.= nd edition. by seeley and etheridge. vols., vo. _london._ . =tabular view of geological systems, with their lithological composition and palæontological remains.= by d. e. clement. _london (sonnenschein)._ . british geology. =the physical geology and geography of great britain.= by sir andrew c. ramsey. th edition. vo. _london._ . =the geology of england and wales.= by horace b. woodward. vo. _london._ . =geology of the counties of england and wales.= by w. j. harrison. vo. _london._ . * * * * * popular illustrated scientific books, published by swan sonnenschein & co. uniform with this volume. all fully illustrated. =british butterflies, moths, and beetles.= by w. f. kirby (brit. mus.). crown vo, cloth, _s._ =mosses, lichens, and fungi.= by peter gray and e. m. holmes. crown vo, cloth, _s._ =english coins and tokens.= by llewellynn jewitt, f.s.a.; with a chapter on =greek and roman coins=, by barclay v. head, m.r.a.s. crown vo, cloth, _s._ =flowers and flower lore.= by rev. hilderic friend, f.l.s. illustrated. third edition, demy vo, cloth gilt, _s._ _d._ =the dynamo: how made and how used.= by s. r. bottone. numerous cuts. crown vo, cloth, _s._ _d._ =a season among the wild flowers.= by rev. h. wood. illustrated. crown vo, cloth gilt, _s._ _d._ =history of british ferns.= by e. newman, f.l.s. fifth edition, illustrated. mo, cloth, _s._ =the insect hunter's companion.= by rev. j. greene. third edition. cuts. mo, boards, _s._ =tabular view of geological systems.= by dr. e. clement. crown vo, limp cloth, _s._ swan sonnenschein & co., paternoster square. * * * * * transcriber's notes: as there appear to be section and subsections in the second and third units (shells and fossils) of this book, tables of contents were created for the electronic edition. a number of the images were moved where they split paragraphs. there is a reference to a figure for ancylus; but no fig. was included. the reference to fig. for bullidæ was assumed to be a reference to fig. . bulla ampulla. with the exception of the following items, all page number references in the original text were retained. there are references to two tables on page . the first was listed a "vide table, p. " and the second as "vide table, p. " which appear to refer to the tables on page and respectively. the page references were corrected. species name are assumed to be correct for the time of publication (ca. ). for example, charychium is today listed as carychium. text emphasis _text_ - italics =text+ - bold typographic corrections page correction ---- ------------------------ fond => foot it => if pencil => brush beak => peak tis => its keilia => kellia inever => "i never" crustucean => crustacean [transcriber's note: italic text is rendered with underscores _like this_, and bold with equal signs =like this=] mushrooms of america, edible and poisonous. edited by julius a. palmer, jr. published by l. prang & co., boston. (copyright, . by l. prang & co.) general directions. these charts are prepared for popular use, rather than for students of botanical science; all technical terms are, therefore, as far as possible, avoided. the names "mushroom" and "toadstool" are indefinite, are both applied with equal reason to any fleshy fungus, and are here used as synonymes, like the corresponding term "plant" and "vegetable," or "shrub" and "bush," in common conversation. no general test can be given by which a poisonous mushroom may be distinguished from an edible mushroom. but each species of fungus has certain marks of identity, either in appearance, quality, or condition of growth, which are its own, and never radically varied; none can contain a _venomous_ element at one time, and yet be harmless under other conditions. like other food, animal or vegetable, however, mushrooms may, by decay or conditions of growth, be unfit for table use; yet in this state no _fatality_ would attend such use. therefore the identification of species is a safe guide, and is the only means of knowing what mushrooms should be eaten, and what varieties of fungus should be rejected. having once learned to distinguish any species of mushrooms as esculent, perfect security may be felt in the use of that species wherever and whenever found; but any specimen varying from the type in the slightest degree should be rejected by an amateur. there are about one thousand varieties of mushrooms (exclusive of small or microscopic fungi) native to the united states; many will therefore be found which are not represented on either of these plates. those here depicted are of three classes, namely, the lycoperdaceæ, or puff-ball fungi; the agaricini, or gill-bearing fungi; and the boleti, which last is one division of the polyporei, or pore-bearing fungi. the following definitions are here given, and will be found necessary:-- =_pileus._= the expanded disk or cap of the mushroom or toadstool. =_gills._= the thin plates set on their edges under the pileus, running to a common centre at the stem. =_tubes._= the spongy collection of pores which take the place of gills under the pileus of a boletus. =_veil._= a web or membrane which extends from the margin of the pileus to the stem when the mushroom is young, and thus encloses the gills. =_ring._= a part of the veil adherent to the stem, and forming a collar around it. =_volva._= the sheath or wrapper enclosing the young mushroom, when below or just above the ground; the remains of which are found in the ring, the veil, at the base of the stem, and in the warty or scurfy top of some varieties of mushrooms. =_spores._= the reproductive bodies, analogous to seeds in some other plants, found under the caps of the agaricini and boleti, and appearing like fine dust when the cap is left for a time lying under-side downward. * * * * * there are as many different flavors and tastes among esculent fungi as are found in any other varieties of diet, and the very general ignorance of this fact is a sufficient reason for the issue of this work. many persons claim to know a mushroom from a toadstool. this means that there is one variety out of a thousand of which they eat with safety, and it means nothing more. a person might as well select one fish from the sea, and avoid all other members of the finny tribe on the ground that there are poisonous fishes. it is strange that this general ignorance is most apparent in the case of the english-speaking people. the fungus eaters form a little clique in england, but the majority of her people know nothing of this gratuitous offering from nature's storehouse. no country is richer in mushroom food than america. were the poorer classes of russia, germany, italy, or france to see our forests during the autumn rains, they would feast on the rich food there going to waste. for this harvest is spontaneous; it requires no seed-time, and asks for no peasant's toil. at the same time, the economic value of mushroom diet ranks second to meat alone. with bread, and mushrooms properly gathered and prepared, a person may neglect the butcher during the summer months. this is self-evident to the unscientific mind by the simple facts that mushrooms make the same use of the air we breathe as is made by animals, that cooked they resemble no form of vegetable food, and that in decay their odor in some cases cannot be distinguished from that of putrid meat. to this feast, abundantly provided by nature for the poorest as well as the most epicurean, we invite the american people. in gathering mushrooms for food, cut the stem off about an inch below the cap, and place them in the basket or dish, gills upward. never twist or pull them, as the gills become thereby full of dirt, which is not easily removed. by placing them gills downward, they will shed their spores largely and thus lose flavor. the stem in cutting will often exhibit fine holes; this indicates that maggots have entered the mushroom. if the substance of the pileus continues firm and hard, the mushroom may be cooked and eaten by those not over-nice; but if perforated and soft, the consequent decomposition might induce nausea, and even serious sickness. mushrooms may be noxious as food in three ways:-- ( .) they may disagree with the system, by their toughness, indigestibility, or use in a state of decay. ( .) they may be slimy, acrid, or otherwise nauseous. ( .) they may contain a subtle poison without taste, smell, or other indication of its presence. most noxious fungi appertain to the first or second class above given, and taste or common-sense would readily reject them, unless they were cooked with other food or excessively spiced. for this reason plain cooking is advised, and further, no amateur should venture to mingle with good varieties others to him unknown. of the third class, there is one family, many of whose members contain a violent and deadly poison. this is known as the _amanita_ family; and although out of fourteen varieties, four are known to be edible, yet it is here advised to avoid all fungi as food which have these its distinguishing marks:-- ( .) a scurfy or warty top, the protuberances of which rub easily off, leaving the skin intact. in a number of specimens many will be found entirely smooth, while near them are others of the same variety where more or less of the specks remain. ( .) a ring; generally large and reflexed or falling downward. ( .) a volva; more or less enclosing the young plant, and remaining at the base of the older specimen, so that when the mushroom is pulled up a socket is left in the ground. these three marks should all exist in the typical plant of this family, and the experienced eye will see signs of their presence, even where they are wanting. but the _volva_ rarely or never decays during the life of the specimen, and to reject everything with this mark is recommended to all amateurs. so far as known, there are no cases of death by the use of mushrooms except from this one family. in all well-defined cases of fatal poisoning, the cause is just as well defined, namely, the use of the mushroom represented by plates ix. and x. in this sheet. therefore, when one has become perfectly acquainted with this family, and learned to always reject them, he has very little to fear in the choice of mushrooms for the table. the poisonous varieties of the amanita family are extremely common. the antidote for this poison is found in the skilful use of the alkaloids from the family of the solanaceæ or nightshades, especially in subcutaneous injections of atropine. but to the public generally, in cases of poisoning, no other advice can be given than to call a physician without delay. plate vi. represents several members of the russula family. having once learned to identify it without danger of error, this family is quite safe for use as food; for all the non-esculent russulas are hot or nauseous to the taste, while the edible ones are very nutty and pleasant. the student should, therefore, taste each specimen when preparing them for cooking. some authorities consider all boleti fit for table use, but there are those which are too bitter for food, and one such as the specimen numbered , plate xi., would spoil a whole stew. the tubes of this boletus (_felleus_) are light rose, although they appear to be white when fresh and young. a good rule for amateurs is to avoid all the lurid boleti; by this is meant all those that have the slightest shade of red to the tubes, although i have often eaten of such. the mild-colored members of this family, having white, yellow, or greenish tubes, if pleasant to the taste, may be considered safe eating. plate viii. represents some of the esculent puff-balls. there are some warty fungi growing on wood, which, in early growth, resemble puff-balls, whose qualities are not yet known. but all those varieties of clear white fungi, which appear in little balls on the open ground after rains, may be eaten with perfect safety, if fresh, white inside, and hard; if soft and yellowish, or black in the pulp, they should be avoided, as they are approaching decay. the most important advice to the student is to learn to recognize the amanita family, and to avoid them all; next, to define and recognize any mushroom he is using for food, so that he could pick a single specimen of the same out of a basketful of assorted fungi; and finally, never to pick mushrooms at random for food, unless he has tested by actual use each and all of the varieties so used. there is a large family of mushrooms resembling the russulas, which exude a milky juice if broken or cut. the amateur will do well to avoid all such, although they are esculent where the milk is mild to the taste. additional plates, displaying other varieties of esculent mushrooms, may possibly be issued in the future. julius a. palmer, jr. [illustration: plate i. agaricus campestris et arvensis, or mushroom proper. =description.= pileus. dry, silky or downy from the first; globular, margin united to the stem by the veil, then expanded, bell-shaped, at last even flat. color variable, from white to dark brown. cuticle easily separable in pasture variety. gills. at first pink, then purple, finally almost black, never white; of different lengths. stem. nearly solid, even in size, easily removed from the socket. volva. none; but veil present, at first enclosing gills, then making a ring, finally absent. spores. purple or purplish brown. taste and smell fragrant and agreeable. grows in open pastures, lanes or roadsides; never in forests. (b.) similar to above, but coarser, more brittle and of stronger flavor; turns rust of iron color when bruised; grows on banks, street-sweepings and in hot-houses. =to cook.= stew in milk or cream; prepare to serve with meat as described under plate ii., or broil as directed under plate iii. =to roast in the oven.= cut the larger specimens into fine pieces, and place them in a small dish, with salt, pepper and butter to taste; put in about two tablespoonfuls of water, then fill the dish with the half-open specimens and the buttons; cover tightly and place in the oven, which must not be overheated, for about twenty minutes. the juice of the larger mushrooms will keep them moist, and, if fresh, yield further a most abundant gravy. n. b. in gathering the pasture variety, cut them just below the cap (_don't pull them_); they can then be cooked without washing or peeling. the cultivated mushrooms are often so dirty as to require both washing and peeling.] [illustration: plate ii. coprinus comatus, or shaggy-maned mushroom. =description.= pileus. at first oval and hard; margin then separating from the stem; then equally cylindrical, margin turning black; finally expanded, and decaying by dissolution into inky fluid. color of pileus variable from brown to pure white, always woolly, shaggy, the cuticle coming off in layers like the scales of a fish. gills. at first white, crowded; possibly pink, then dark purple, or black, and moist. stem. thick at base, equal above ground, hollow, appearing like macaroni cooked. volva. none, but ring present, and movable in the full-grown specimen. spores. black. smell strong, especially at centre of pileus. taste. pleasant raw, but should not be eaten after it is moist and black. grows in rich lawns, roadsides, or newly filled city grounds, in groups or solitary. =to cook.= for about twenty mushrooms, put into a saucepan one gill of milk or cream, add salt and pepper to the taste, with a piece of butter the size of the larger specimens above; when it boils, put in the stems and small hard mushrooms; after ten minutes' boiling add the larger specimens; keep the dish covered and boiling for ten minutes longer, then pour the stew over dry toast, and serve. =to serve with meat.= chop the mushrooms fine, let them simmer ten minutes in one half gill of water, with butter, salt and pepper as for oyster sauce; thicken with flour or ground rice; pour over the meat and cover quickly. n. b. but very little fluid is needed in cooking this mushroom, as it yields a rich juice of its own. it should always be cleaned before cooking, by scraping it smooth and until it is perfectly white.] [illustration: plate iii. marasmius oreades, or fairy-ring champignon. =description.= pileus. leathery, tough, and of an equal cream color, pliable when moist; shrivelling, wrinkled, even brittle when dry, changing from the former to the latter with a dew or rain followed by a hot sun, and also _vice versa_. cuticle not separable. gills. broad, wide apart, of the same color as pileus, or a little paler. stem. solid, of equal circumference; tough, not breaking easily if bent or twisted. volva and ring, none. spores white. taste and smell musky, rather strong, but nutty and agreeable. grows in rings or groups in rich lawns or roadsides. =to cook.= for serving with meat or fish, cut the tops clear from the stems just below the gills. to a pint of mushrooms, if moist, add about a gill of water, pepper and salt to the taste, and a piece of butter half the size of an egg. simmer together over the fire ten or fifteen minutes, thicken with flour or ground rice, and pour over the cooked meat or fish. =to broil.= place the tops like oysters on a fine wire gridiron; as soon as they are hot, butter them lightly, and salt and pepper to the taste. put them back over the coals, and when they are heated through they are cooked. butter them, if required, and place in a hot dish. n. b. when the mushrooms are dried, swell them in water before cooking.] [illustration: plate iv. agaricus cretaceus, or chalk mushroom. =description.= pileus. pure white, dry at first, nearly globular, then bell-shaped, finally expanded and becoming darker, even smoky in color. in early growth very brittle, cuticle always peeling easily. gills. at first pure white, then pinkish, finally rusty; withered in color and texture; always turning pink or dark if exposed to dry heat. stem. hollow, bulbous at base in small specimens, then elongated and equal; leaves the socket easily, without breaking into the gills. volva. none; veil distinct and entire, enclosing the gills at first, then ruptured, forming the ring. spores. pale pink or rosy. taste, mild, agreeable, but insipid. odor, none. grows in lawns and richly cultivated grass plots; rarely or never in forests. =to cook.= this mushroom, while sweet and of firm body, has little or no flavor of its own. it may, therefore, be best to stew it as directed under plate i., with milk, or under plate iii., with water; in either case mixing some proportion of either or all of the three preceding kinds. in such case, it will completely absorb their flavor. for those who like spices it is very nice cooked as number three for meat or fish, adding to that receipt chopped parsley, an onion, or a clove of garlic, chopped fine, with a tablespoonful of worcestershire sauce. if served with any meat making an abundant gravy, cook as directed under the plate of edible russulas.] [illustration: plate v. agaricus procerus, or parasol mushroom. =description.= pileus. brown from first to last; thick skinned, very scaly and shaggy; at first egg-shaped, then swollen, finally expanded, a little point in the centre becoming prominent; always pliable and leathery. gills. pure white. stem. fibrous, hollow, equal in size, freckled, deeply sunk into the cap, from which it withdraws free from the gills, leaving a deep socket. volva. none; veil ragged, ring well defined and movable. spores. white. taste sweetish, not marked; odor slight. grows in open fields and lawns or margins of forests. =to cook.= stew in milk or cream as directed under plate ii., except that this mushroom is dry and firm, and more liquid may be used, for it will make little or no gravy of its own. it is not of suitable character to be stewed in water, but is very good broiled, requiring the liberal use of butter, or placed under meat as directed with the edible russulas.] [illustration: plate vi. edible russulas. , . russula heterophylla. . russula virescens. . russula lepida. . russula alutacea. =description.= pileus. many colored; white, drab, green, purple or bright red; cuticle very thin, peeling from the edge, adherent toward the centre; bell-shaped, at first compressing the gills, then expanded, until finally the centre of the cap becomes depressed or concave. gills. generally pure white, sometimes creamy or buff; nearly or quite equal in length, rigid, brittle, breaking into unequal segments if pressed. stem. stout, solid or stuffed; in substance the same as the flesh of the cap, often tapering quite abruptly to a point at the base. volva, ring, and veil all entirely absent at every age of the plant. spores. white. taste, excellent raw, like nuts; odor none. grows in woods, woody paths or clearings; often found gnawed by squirrels or other animals. =to cook.= remove the skin as far as it peels easily, and wash the centre of the cap clean; then place on a gridiron and let them heat through; butter plentifully, and salt and pepper to the taste, then place them in a hot dish in the oven, and after broiling a beefsteak or chicken put it thereon that the gravy may run out and be absorbed by the mushrooms. n. b. the noxious members of this family resemble the esculent so closely that, to the amateur, tasting each one as gathered is the only guide; the hurtful ones being always hot and acrid. equal gills, extreme brittleness, and dry, firm texture are characteristic of the whole russula family.] [illustration: plate vii. boleti. . boletus bovinus. . boletus edulis. . boletus scaber. . boletus sub-tomentosus. . boletus chrysenteron. . boletus strobilaceus. =description. no. .= boletus bovinus. pileus flat, smooth, viscid; the thin, transparent skin easily peeling. flesh white, unchangeable in color (stem same color as pileus). tubes whitish yellow, yellow or gray, shallow. very variable in size. no. . boletus edulis. pileus cushion-like, dry, brown-gray or drab, thick. flesh white, unchangeable. tubes white-yellow to green. stem very thick, often abortive in shape, bulbous at base, very pleasant to taste. no. . boletus scaber. pileus bell-shaped at first and hard, then broad, uneven, soft and flat, variable in color from dark-brown to reddish drab. stem rough, scabby, fibrous. flesh dirty white, often changing to black. tubes white, rusty, often iron-stained in color in spots. no. . boletus sub-tomentosus. pileus very variable in form, from bell to cushion shaped; also in color, from light-brown or olive to any shade of red. stem touched with red, smooth or with light lines, often twisted. flesh and tubes and stem changing to blue wherever bruised or cut. tubes yellow, shading at times toward green. tastes like walnuts. no. . boletus chrysenteron. very similar to no. , except that the pileus is often brick-red. the flesh is sulphur-yellow and scarcely changeable, and the stem with more red. no. . boletus strobilaceus. whole plant blackish, turning red when bruised or cut, broken into thick fir-cone segments or scales. tubes white or rusty, often enclosed by a veil. =to cook.= beat up a batter, or simply some fresh eggs, lay the mushrooms in the same, turning them so as to have the liquid adhere to them. then fry in hot boiling fat, or on a buttered griddle, according to your liking, with salt and pepper to the taste. broil, bake or serve under meat as in other recipes here given. of the above, nos. , and may be stewed, but the others, and, in fact, all boleti are so moist or viscous that they are much better cooked by dry heat. n. b. all the above, and many other varieties of esculent boleti, have tubes colored white, gray, green, or yellow; none are even slightly red.] [illustration: plate viii. lycoperdaceÆ, or puff-balls. . lycoperdon giganteum. giant puff-ball. . lycoperdon saccatum. little puff-ball. . lycoperdon gemmatum. pear-shaped puff-ball. there are many varieties corresponding in most points with some one of the three above named, some growing on stumps, but most of them appearing on sandy soils after heavy rains. none are poisonous. =to cook.= make a batter, properly seasoned as for frying egg-plant, or beat up eggs for the same purpose; cut the puff-balls into slices half an inch thick, and fry in boiling fat or on a buttered griddle. puff-balls are also very good stewed with the coprinus, or with the ordinary mushroom, as their porous substance absorbs the stronger flavor.] [illustration: plate ix. agaricus (amanita) vernus, or poisonous white mushroom. =description.= pileus. at first ovate or bulbous, enclosed in the volva, then expanded, always pure white, usually clammy or viscid to the touch; cuticle thin, separable. gills. pure white, unequal, free from the stem. stem. long, rough or woolly, stuffed or a little hollow toward the cap. volva. always present. ring marked at medium growth; often absent at maturity of the plant; and the same is true of the warts or scurf on the cap. n. b. this mushroom to many persons has no disagreeable taste or smell. it grows in and on the borders of woods, and when half open may easily be taken for those in plates i. or iv., if attention is not paid to the volva. it is deadly poison.] [illustration: plate x. poisonous mushrooms of the genus amanita. . agaricus (amanita) muscarius. , . agaricus (amanita) phalloides. . agaricus (amanita) mappa. =general description of above.= plant when just below the soil enclosed in a volva or wrapper, which as it matures remains ( ) at the base continuing to sheathe the stem; ( ) in the collar or ring; ( ) on the pileus in the form of easily separable scales or warts. generally free from disagreeable taste or smell, except at decay, when the variety illustrated by figures no. and no. is putrid and nauseous. gills pure white at every stage of growth. pileus very variable in color, from pure white to bright orange or red. all contain a deadly poison.] [illustration: plate xi. poisonous or suspicious boleti. . boletus felleus, bitter boletus. . boletus alveolatus, crimson boletus. , . boletus luridus, lurid boletus. figure above is very much like figures and , plate vii., of edible mushrooms, from which it is easily distinguished by its bitter taste and rosy tubes. figure is a distinctively american species, and the authority for suspecting it is found in the fact that all boleti which have red or red-mouthed tubes have been considered poisonous. although valuable for an illustration of the lurid boleti, this variety is probably edible. figure is easily confounded with figures and , plate vii., of edible mushrooms, if attention is not paid to the color of the tubes.] [illustration: plate xii. poisonous or false champignons. , . agaricus (naucoria) semi-orbicularis. , . agaricus (stropharia) semi-globatus. , . agaricus (naucoria) pediades. figure and figure above are of a small mushroom which grows in lawns and pastures, and is very easily mistaken for those on plate iii. of edible mushrooms; but, first, they have no point, but are strictly orbicular; second, the gills are always discolored in age or decay as in figure above; third, the texture is soft, and the mushroom does not dry hard by the sun and re-expand with moisture as a _marasmius_. figures and as also and illustrate species oftenest found in or on manure, and the above distinctions are equally true of these two varieties. the above are not known to be assuredly poisonous, but have none of the esculent qualities of the fairy-ring champignon. there are also other small fungi of soft texture and doubtful quality closely resembling these which grow in lawns and pastures, and the object of this plate is to teach the amateur to avoid all such. the suspicious varieties of marasmius do not grow with the edible species, but in woods.] european fungus flora agaricaceae european fungus flora agaricaceae george massee, f.l.s., principal assistant (cryptogams), royal botanic gardens, kew. president of the quekett microscopical club; chairman of the mycological section of the yorkshire naturalists' union; member of the scottish cryptogamic society; member of the new zealand institute; hon. member of the royal horticultural society, windsor and eton scientific society, hertfordshire natural history society, essex field club, &c. author of _a text-book of plant diseases_; _british fungi_; _british fungus-flora_; _a monograph of the myxogastres_; &c., &c. [illustration] london duckworth & co. henrietta street, w.c. cambridge: printed by j. and c. f. clay, at the university press. _to my friend dr m. c. cooke, to whom in matters mycological i cannot sufficiently express my indebtedness; i have much pleasure in dedicating this attempt to introduce to british mycologists, the agarics of european countries._ _geo. massee._ contents. page dedication iii preface v agaricaceae, definition of agaricaceae, definition of sections of leucosporae, analysis of genera abbreviations chlorosporae, analysis of genera rhodosporae, analysis of genera ochrosporae, analysis of genera melanosporae, analysis of genera addenda corrections bibliography index preface. observations extending over a period of twenty-five years, made at fungus forays and kindred meetings where mycologists assemble together, has led to the conviction that familiarity with the fungi and literature pertaining thereto, of one country only, leads to a false impression as to the significance of the term 'species.' it conveys the idea that species are much more sharply defined than proves to be the case, when the entire fungus flora of europe is included. in all large genera common to european countries, the continental species can be sandwiched between british species. even in large genera there are as a rule not more than eight or ten primary differentiating specific characters present, and it is the constant correlation of two or three of those primary characters that constitute a species, as understood at the present day. if two british species are characterised respectively by the marks , , and , , then we find that two continental species belonging to the same genus will be indicated by the characters , , and , , respectively. primary specific characters should include only those features that are constant, and not materially modified by geographical or exceptional local conditions as to environment, etc., and such alone should constitute a specific diagnosis. trivial or local characteristics should follow the essential diagnosis as a rider. with the introduction of characters due to local conditions, a description ceases to be a specific diagnosis in the proper sense, and is merely a description of a certain state of a species occurring under a given set of conditions. such, however, is too frequently the nature of so-called specific characters given in local floras. a lengthy and laboured description suggests lack of power to grip essentials on the part of the compiler, and does not as a rule facilitate the recognition of the species intended. the idea of this work is to give the essential characters of each species as presented by pileus, gills, stem and spores respectively. this, however, owing to the views of some authors as to the predominant value of one feature to the exclusion of others, has not always been possible. for this reason the species of britzelmayr are not included, as his descriptions, even when aided by what are presumably intended as figures, could not in many instances be construed into an intelligible diagnosis. in cooke and quélet's _clavis synoptica hymenomycetum europaeorum_ ( ), species of agarics are recorded as european, and of these are given as british. the present work includes descriptions of european species, of which are british, a number considerably in excess of that recorded for the species of any other european country. the species indicated by brackets have not been recorded as british. g. m. kew, _june, _. agaricaceae, fries. hymenium covering the entire surface of radiating lamellae or gills. spores one-celled. primary divisions of the agaricaceae depend on the colour of the spores as seen in the mass, when deposited on an opaque substance; and not as seen under the microscope by transmitted light. i. leucosporae. spores white. in some cases with a tinge of yellow or pink. in some species of _russula_ the spores are clear ochre, but such species belong obviously to _russula_ notwithstanding. ii. chlorosporae. spores clear green or bluish-green. iii. rhodosporae. spores salmon-colour or pink. iv. ochrosporae. spores ochraceous or rust-colour. v. melanosporae. spores black, blackish-brown, or black with a purple tinge. leucosporae. i. haplophyllae. margin of gills acute; i.e. not longitudinally split or grooved. * molles. more or less fleshy, soft, and soon decaying or shrivelling (not corky, woody, or rigid). + _ring, or volva, or both present, or gills free._ =amanita=. volva and ring present. gills usually free, rarely adnexed or adnate. (volva sometimes not evident round base of stem, but loose patches on pileus prove its presence.) =amanitopsis=. volva present, ring absent; gills free. =lepiota=. ring present, volva absent; gills free. (in some sp. the ring is imperfect, and in a few the gills are slightly attached.) =hiatula=. gills free; volva and ring absent. =armillaria=. ring present, volva absent; gills attached. ++ _gills adnexed or adnate; ring and volva absent._ =tricholoma=. gills sinuate; stem fleshy. =russula=. pileus fleshy; gills very rigid, brittle. =mycena=. pileus slender, campanulate, usually striate, margin straight and adpressed to stem when young. =collybia=. pileus rather fleshy, more or less plane, margin incurved when young; stem cartilaginous outside. =marasmius=. tough, drying up and reviving when moistened; gills often connected by veins. +++ _gills decurrent._ =lactarius=. gills and flesh exuding milk when broken. (in some sp. the gills are adnate.) =hygrophorus=. gills thick at the base, edge acute, rather waxy, often branched; pileus often hygrophanous. (in some sp. the gills are adnate or even free.) =clitocybe=. gills thin, pliant, sometimes powdered with the spores; stem fibrous outside. =omphalia=. gills thin, pliant, stem cartilaginous outside. =pleurotus=. growing on wood. stem lateral or excentric when present. =cantharellus=. gills narrow, edge thick, rather waxy, forking. =arrhenia=. gills reduced to very slight wrinkles or veins. =nyctalis=. gills thick, edge blunt. parasitic on fungi, or among dead leaves, &c. ** tenaces. coriaceous, corky, or woody, persistent, rigid when dry. =lentinus=. pileus coriaceous; gills decurrent, edge toothed or eroded. =panus=. pileus coriaceous; gills decurrent, edge quite entire. =xerotus=. pileus coriaceous; gills forking, edge thick. =lenzites=. horizontal, sessile, woody or corky; gills radiating from behind. ii. schizophyllae. margin of gills split open. =trogia=. gills resembling folds or wrinkles, edge grooved. (in the only european species the edge of gills not grooved.) =schizophyllum=. margin of gills split, the split portions rolling outwards. abbreviations used. cm. = centimetres; compr. = compressed; decur. = decurrent; depr. = depressed; exp. = expanded; g. = gills; hygr. = hygrophanous; infundib. = infundibuliform; mm. = millimetres; p. = pileus; s. = stem; sp. = spores; umb. = umbonate; umbil. = umbilicate. the measurement given of the stem is that of its average length; that of the pileus, its average breadth when expanded. the measurement of the spores is given in micro-millimetres, usually indicated by the greek letter µ. amanita, fries. * _margin of volva free, persistent._ + _pileus red or deep orange._ [=caesarea=, scop. p. hemispherical then exp. orange or red, edge striate, flesh yellowish; g. yellow; s. stout, yellow, ring and volva lax; sp. - × . edible. ++ _pileus white, sometimes tinged yellow or green._ =virosa=, fr. entirely white. p. - cm. conical, then expanded; viscid when moist; g. free, crowded; s. - cm. slightly thinner upwards, squamulose, ring near apex, torn, volva large, lax; sp. subglobose, - . poisonous. =phalloides=, fr. p. - cm. viscid, obtuse, white, tinted yellow or greenish; g. free, white; s. - cm. white, tapering upwards, bulbous, ring large, volva large, margin irreg. free; sp. subglobose, - . poisonous. =mappa=, fr. smell strong. p. - cm. convex then expanded, dry, white or yellowish, usually with patches of the volva; g. adnexed, white; s. - cm. white, bulbous, ring torn, volva without a large, free margin; sp. subglobose, - . poisonous. differs from _a. phalloides_ in shorter equal stem. [=ovoidea=, bull. white. p. silky, margin incurved, even; s. squamulose. [=coccola=, scop. white; margin of p. incurved, sulcate; s. villose; sp. - × . [=lepiotoides=, barla. at first entirely closed in brown volva. p. exp. edge striate, squamulose, whitish, cuticle broken into greyish tawny areolae or scales; g. broad, whitish, brownish when bruised; s. yellowish-white, squamulose, ring thin, fugacious. +++ _pileus yellow, sometimes tinged red._ [=junquillea=, q. p. pale orange or lemon yellow, viscid, deeply striate; g. adnexed; s. and fugacious ring yellowish-white, base ovoid-bulbous, volva circumscissile. [=vernalis=, gillet. p. exp. pale dingy yellow with tinge of red, with scattered white scales; g. free, white, broadest in front; s. white, squamulose below the ring, base bulbous, volva ample margin free. in early spring. [=lutea=, otth. p. conical, exp. yellow or yellowish ochre, edge invol. slightly striate, disc papillose, viscid, usually with broad scattered scales; g. white, crowded; s. rather narrowed upwards, base bulbous, ring thin, white, volva membranous. ++++ _pileus brownish or grey._ [=porphyria=, a. & s. p. brownish or with a violet tinge; g. adnexed; s. slender, ring distant brownish; sp. - . =recutita=, fr. p. - cm. soon expanded, dry, glabrous, fragments of volva present as a rule, grey or brownish; g. forming lines down the stem; s. narrowed upwards, silky, white, ring distant, white, edge of volva not free; sp. ----. differs from _a. porphyria_ in ring not being tinged brown. [=cinerea=, bresad. small. p. conico-campan. edge striate, livid-grey; g. free, crowded, white, edge fimbriate; s. equal, almost glabrous, partly hollow, colour of p., ring apical, persistent, white; volva free, sheathing, limb lobed, whitish; sp. - × . ** _volva without a free loose margin, or almost obsolete._ + _pileus red, reddish-brown or dingy brown._ =muscaria=, fr. p. - cm. soon plane, striate, viscid, scarlet or orange with white patches; gills forming lines down the stem, white; s. - cm. stout, white, ring lax, volva broken up into concentric ridges; sp. × . poisonous. var. _regalis_, fr. large. p. liver-colour. var. _formosa_, pers. p. yellow or tawny orange, scales usually absent; s. elongated, yellowish. var. _umbrina_, viv. p. umber or livid, disc fuscous; s. hollow. a slender form. =rubescens=, fr. p. - cm. convex then expanded, dingy red-brown, sprinkled with small pale warts, flesh brownish when broken; g. whitish, forming lines down the stem; s. - cm. stout, narrowed upwards, squamulose, whitish, ring large, bulbous base concentrically grooved; sp. × . edible. [=roseola=, steinh. p. exp. rosy, with rosy mealy warts or naked, flesh rosy; g. crowded, adnexed, white; s. cylindrical, somewhat bulbous, with rufous squamules below ring, volva obsolete; sp. - × - . [=eliae=, q. p. reddish-lilac, margin sulcate; g. adnexed; s. white, striate, volva obsolete; sp. long. =magnifica=, fr. p. - cm. soon almost plane, striate, reddish-brown or bay, with mealy patches, flesh reddish; g. slightly decurrent; s. - cm. bulbous, nearly equal, scaly and coloured like pileus up to the large ring; sp. - × . very close to _armillaria_. =megalodactyla=, berk. strong scented. p. - cm. soon expanded, subgibbous, reddish-grey; g. free, becoming tinged red; s. - cm. rather bulbous, fibrillose, white, ring large; sp. × . =aspera=, fr. p. - cm. soon plane, dusky olive, livid, or brownish, with small, crowded, angular warts, flesh reddish under the cuticle; g. free; s. - cm. white, squamulose, bulb rugulose, ring entire; sp. × . var. _francheti_, boud. p. pale yellowish-green with golden warts; sp. × . =excelsa=, fr. p. - cm. soon plane, viscid, brownish-grey, warts greyish, soon disappearing; g. free, white; s. - cm. squamose up to the imperfect ring, and base bulbous, no free edge to volva; sp. - × - . poisonous. =pantherina=, fr. p. - cm. soon plane, viscid, striate, yellow-brown, grey, or whitish, with flat mealy warts; g. free but close to stem, white; s. - cm. bulbous, whitish, silky, ring distant, extreme edge of volva free, sp. × . [=valida=, fr. p. dark, with mucronate dark pointed warts; g. running down stem in lines. =spissa=, fr. p. - cm. soon plane, umber or grey with small grey warts, flesh persistently white; g. running in lines down stem, white; s. - cm. white, bulbous, slightly rooting, concentrically cracked or squamulose, ring large; sp. - × . ++ _pileus clear yellow or orange._ =aureola=, kalchb. p. - cm. soon plane, orange or golden, viscid, naked; g. free; s. - cm. slender, white, floccosely-squamulose, ring sup. volva marginate; sp. ----. =citrina=, gon. & rab. p. convex, obtuse, - cm. bright yellow with white patches; g. white, broad, free; s. - cm. long, stout, white, volva imperfect, ring large; sp. globose, warted, - . [=amici=, gill. p. conical, then obtusely umb., striate, slightly viscid, yellowish ochre, disc brownish and covered with large irreg. greyish persistent patches; g. free, ventricose, narrowed at both ends; s. hollow, bulbous, ring small inf., no free edge to volva. +++ _pileus whitish or greyish._ =nitida=, fr. p. - cm. hemispherical, whitish, with thick, angular, brownish warts; g. free, crowded; s. - cm. conical, bulbous, squamulose, white, ring torn; sp. ----. =solitaria=, bull. - cm. soon plane, whitish or tinged rufous, warts angular, small, floccose, easily removed; g. white, broad, narrowed behind and adnexed; s. - cm. with imbricated scales below, ring torn, base swollen, rooting, volva marginate; sp. - × - . =echinocephala=, vitt. white. p. convex then plane, shining, bristling with acute, deciduous pyramidal warts; g. adnexed; s. solid, scaly, base bulbous, rooting, ring distant; sp. diam. [=persoonii=, fr. p. greyish-white, margin even; g. free; s. solid, nearly equal, rooting. [=arida=, fr. p. soon plane, grey, margin sulcate; g. adnexed; s. subglabrous, ring distant, volva absent. =strobiliformis=, vitt. p. - cm. convex then expanded, white, grey, or dingy ochre, with large pyramidal, hard warts; g. free; s. floccosely scaly, bulbous, ring large, torn, volva forming concentric rings; sp. - × - . [=cariosa=, fr. p. soft, even, umber or dark grey, with mealy patches; g. adnate; s. equal throughout; sp. long. amanitopsis, roze. * _pileus coloured._ =vaginata=, bull. p. - cm. plane, margin striate, grey, yellow, brown, or white; g. pallid; s. - cm. narrowed upwards, minutely squamulose, volva large, margin free; sp. × - . the grey form is edible, the brown form is unpalatable. =strangulata=, fr. p. - cm. soon plane, livid-bay or grey, with patches of the volva, margin striate; g. free, white; s. - cm. stout, thinner upwards, pale, volva breaking up and forming - ring-like ridges on the stem; sp. - × . perhaps a vigorous form of _a. vaginata_. [=urceolata=, viv. p. thin, hemispher. then slightly depr. umb. viscid, mouse-colour, edge striate; g. adnate, shining white; s. white, even, naked, volva urceolate. [=friabilis=, karst. p. exp. thin, rather viscid, greyish, edge sulcate, with broad crowded warts or scales; g. free, white, edge darker, crenulate; s. conical, everywhere floccosely scaly, white or greyish; volva broken up into fragments; sp. glob. - . differs from _a. vaginata_ in smaller size and imperfect volva. [=praetoria=, paul. p. thin, campan. then exp. naked, pectinately sulcate, maroon or brownish; g. annulato-adnexed; s. ventricose, volva large, lax. =lenticularis=, fr. p. - cm. globose, then convex, even, naked, reddish-tan; g. free, crowded, pallid; s. - cm. subbulbous, white, ring large; sp. ----. [=godeyi=, gillet. p. pale honey-colour, naked, striate; g. free, crowded; s. cylind., volva large, torn; sp. - long. [=scobinella=, trog. p. exp. fuscescent, pellicle broken up into minute, deciduous, darker wart-like squamules, near margin even and silky; g. white; s. conical, base white-squamulose. [=gemmata=, paul. exp. vermilion with angular warts; g. pure white; s. solid, bulbous, whitish, no distinct volva. =adnata=, w. g. sm. p. - cm. yellowish-buff with patches of the volva; g. adnate, crowded, white; s. - cm. fibrillose, buff, volva almost obsolete; sp. subglobose, - . [=insidiosa=, letell. p. exp. even, glabrous, lurid, greenish-olive, &c.; g. free, white; s. solid, slightly thinner upwards, edge of volva free; sp. ----. differs from _a. baccata_ in even p. and free margin of volva. fries suggests _a. phalloides_ without the ring. [=bresadolae=, sacc. volva subglobose, not sheathing, edge stellate, tinged brown; p. exp. glabrous, whitish, often with angular umber warts; g. almost free, whitish; s. cylindr. whitish; sp. subg. - . superficially resembles _volvaria parvula_. ** _pileus white._ [=leiocephala=, d. c. shining white. p. convex then plane, silky, edge even; g. free; s. solid, short, firm, volva very large, lax. [=cygnea=, schulz. white. p. soon plane; g. attenuato-adnexed; s. clothed with adnate patches above the ample sheathing volva. [=hyperborea=, karst. (= _ag. gemmatus_ var. _lapponicus_ karst.). entirely white. p. thin, convex, exp. covered with angular warts, edge pectinato-sulcate; g. free, shining white; s. bulbous, attenuated upwards, ring absent; sp. glob. - . perhaps a var. of _a. vaginatus_. [=leccina=, scop. p. exp. obtuse, naked, whitish or yellowish, edge even; g. adnate; s. equal, edge of ring reddish; sp. × . [=baccata=, fr. p. white, covered with globose warts; g. free; s. equal, volva obtusely marginate; sp. × . [=boudieri=, barla. p. globose then exp. or depr., satiny, white, disc tinged, warted, edge even; g. broad, white then tinged yellow, subadnexed; s. long, subcylindrical, white and scurfy at apex, rest yellowish-white, bulb turbinate, volva obliterated, brownish, ring thin, caducous; sp. ellipsoid, elongated. differs from _a. baccata_ in longer sp. lepiota, fr. a. _epidermis dry._ * _ring free, distinct from the volva._ =procera=, scop. p. soon expanded, umbonate, with brownish scales, - cm.; g. free, crowded; s. - cm., base thickened, brownish, transversely cracked, ring free; sp. - × - . edible. =rachodes=, vitt. p. - cm. soon expanded, not umbonate, with brown scales, flesh brownish when broken; gills free; s. white, not cracked, - cm., ring free; sp. × . edible. differs from _l. procera_ in the flesh turning brown when cut. var. _puellaris_, fr. small, entirely white, stem flocculose. [=olivieri=, barla. p. convex, then exp. or depr., whitish tinged fawn at disc, covered with fawn adpr. fibrillose scales; g. broad, free yellowish-white; s. whitish, base swollen, ring cottony, caducous; flesh white, brick-red then brownish when broken. allied to _l. rachodes_ with which it agrees in size. =prominens=, viv. p. - cm., umbo very strong, ochraceous, scaly; g. white; s. - cm. slender, base swollen, ring free; sp. × . =permixta=, barla. p. convex, more or less umb. campan. then exp. silky, greyish fawn, centre darker, with adpr. brown scales and becoming deprived of cuticle at edge; g. pale wax or tinged red; s. cylindr. dingy white cracked into brown adpr. scales, base swollen, ring brownish; flesh reddish when broken. resembles _l. procera_ in size and marking of s.; _l. rachodes_ in flesh becoming red; and _l. excoriata_ in having border deprived of cuticle. [=molybdites=, mey. p. globose then campan. broken into crustaceous scales up to middle; g. remote, white then tinged blue; s. hollow, blackish-brown, bulbous, ring equal. an introduced species. =excoriata=, schaeff. p. globose then plane, - cm. bistre or whitish, silky or squamulose; g. free; s. cylindrical, white, - cm. hollow, ring free; sp. - × - . _l. naucina_ differs in the fragmentary ring. [=carneifolia=, gill. p. fleshy, exp. brown or purple brown, glabrous then minutely broken up into fascicles of fibrils; g. fleshy, crowded, distant from s.; s. white, fibrillose, thickened at base, ring large, soon free. =densifolia=, gill. p. obtuse, white, soon broken up into adpressed fibrillose scales; g. closely crowded, thin, white, broadest in front; s. white, shining, ring free. =gracilenta=, kromb. p. soon expanded, obtusely umbonate, - cm., brown patches on white ground; g. free, broad; s. thickened at base, - cm., white, ring floccose, disappearing; sp. - × . . differs from _l. procera_ in smaller size and more especially in the fugacious ring. _l. prominens_ differs in very large umbo and permanent, free ring. =mastoidea=, fr. entirely whitish. p. - cm. with small disappearing warts; g. free; s. narrow up from bulbous base, - cm., ring free; sp. - × . the smallest species of the present section. like _l. gracilenta_ in miniature. ** _ring fixed, homogeneous with the universal veil clothing the stem._ =friesii=, lasch. p. - cm. expanded, subumb. with adpressed, tomentose brown scales; g. free, crowded; s. - cm. subbulbous, scaly, brownish, ring pendulous; sp. - × . =acutesquamosa=, weinm. p. - cm. convex, obtuse, pale rusty with numerous small pointed warts; g. free, crowded; s. - cm. narrowed from swollen base, white with rusty scales below, ring large; sp. - × . differs from _l. friesii_ in rigid deciduous warts, and broad gills very close to stem. =badhami=, berk. p. - cm. expanded, obtuse, squamulose, dark brown, cracked into patches, flesh like that of stem saffron-red when broken; g. free; s. - cm. bulbous, whitish, ring rather loose; sp. × . =emplastra=, cke. and mass. p. - cm. convex, glabrous, dark brown, cracked and showing white ground; g. free; s. - cm. whitish, ring brown outside; sp. - × - . differs from _l. badhami_ in glabrous pileus and larger spores. =meleagris=, sow. p. - cm. soon plane, minute black scales on a pale ground, flesh becoming red; g. free; s. - cm., with blackish squamules, stuffed, ring obsolete; sp. - × . =biornata=, b. and br. p. - cm. convex, white tinged yellow, sprinkled with red scales; g. free; s. - cm. long, ventricose, white spotted red as is also the ring; sp. - × . =hispida=, lasch. p. - cm. soon expanded, umb. tawny-brown, tomentose then hispid; g. free, crowded; s. - cm. floccosely-scaly up to ring, tawny; sp. - × . [=lignicola=, karst. p. exp. whitish- or yellowish-rusty, with innate, erect, rusty concentric scales, edge fibrillose; g. crowded, free, edge crenulate; s. curved, rusty, squamulose up to obsolete ring; sp. - × - . superficially resembles _phol. squarrosa_. [=helveola=, bres. p. exp. umb. scaly, reddish-brown; g. free, ventricose, white; s. white then fawn, ring white. poisonous. [=boudieri=, bres. subcaespitose. p. campan. exp. fawn, with minute darker scales; g. densely crowded, white, edge purple primrose; s. bulbillose, brownish and fibrillose up to ring; sp. - × . . [=ignicolor=, bres. p. conico-campan. subexp. umb. squamulose or fibrillose then almost glabrous, dry, fiery tawny; g. yellowish, edge tawny; s. colour of p., base somewhat rooting with bright tawny fibrils; ring evanescent; sp. - × . - . [=castanea=, q. p. umb. squamulose, brown; s. and ring white with tawny flecks. [=echinella=, q. and bern. smell like radishes. p. camp. then convex and umb. bay, bristling with brown pyramidal hairs; g. free, pallid, tinged red; s. rosy, blackish scales below silky ring, pale above. much more slender than _l. hispida_. [=morieri=, gill. p. exp. umb. white, shining, covered with reddish scales, umbo smooth, edge appendiculate; g. white, edge denticulate; s. fibrillose, white, shining, ring ample. =clypeolaria=, bull. - cm. campan., at first incrusted, umb. tawny, remainder with brownish scales; g. free; s. - cm., fibrillosely squamulose up to ring, striate above; sp. × . differs from _l. hispida_ in pileus not being tomentose, and paler colour. from _l. cristata_ by squamulose stem. [=brunneoincarnata=, chod. and mart. p. subglobose then campan.-conic and umb. with scattered rufescent scales; g. free, white; s. fistulose, equal, colour of p. [=forquignoni=, q. p. white, silky, umbo olive; g. becoming rosy; s. white. =felina=, pers. p. - cm. camp. expanded, umbo black, rest with concentric black scales on a white ground; g. free; s. - cm., white, sometimes with black specks; sp. × . =metulaespora=, b. and br. p. - cm. campan. then expanded, margin coarsely striate, whitish-yellow with pale squamules; g. almost free; s. - cm., pale lemon yellow inside and out; sp. fusiform, - × . =cristata=, a. and s. p. - cm. soon expanded, reddish-brown cuticle at first continuous, then broken up into concentric scales on a whitish ground; g. free; s. - cm., whitish, fibrillose; sp. × . differs from _l. clypeolaria_ in stem not being squamulose. [=lilacea=, bres. p. convex-campan. exp. depr. sometimes umb. purple-lilac then pale and broken up into fuscous squamules; g. free, white; s. fibrillosely scurfy, then almost glabrous, whitish then pinkish lilac, ring inf. persistent blackish violet underneath; sp. - × - . . differs from _lepiota cristata_ in absence of smell, a feature which also separates it from _l. bucknallii_. =nigro-marginata=, mass. p. - cm. soon expanded, buff with small, brown, concentric scales; g. narrow, pallid; s. - cm. slender, smooth, buff, peronate up to distant ring; sp. - × . [=magnusiana=, p. henn. p. cylindrico-campan. then exp. papillately scaly, white, centre yellowish with age, edge striate; g. free, crowded, lanceolate, white then reddish; s. equal, white then reddish, ring membranaceo-flocculose; sp. - × - . =erminea=, fr. white. p. - cm., camp. then expanded, even, glabrous, then silky towards margin; g. free; s. - cm. fibrillose; sp. - × - . =micropholis=, b. and br. p. - . cm., soon plane, white with minute radiating blackish squamules; g. free; s. - . cm., white, ring spreading; sp. × . =citriophylla=, b. and br. p. . - cm. expanded, umb. lemon yellow with rufous squamules; g. free, lemon yellow; s. - cm. squamulose, yellow; sp. - × . differs from _l. amianthina_ by free gills and white flesh; and from _l. metulaespora_ in squamulose stem. =atro-crocea=, w. g. sm. p. . cm. soon plane, margin often lobed, deep orange, covered with purple-brown fibrils; g. slightly attached, tinged yellow; s. - cm. orange; sp. ----. *** _ring superior, fixed, subpersistent; universal veil adnate to the pileus._ =vittadinii=, fr. p. - cm. expanded, obtuse, whitish, densely covered with small erect warts; g. free, with a greenish tinge; s. - cm. with concentric scales up to large ring, whitish or scales tipped red; sp. ----. differs from _l. nympharum_ in solid stem and superior ring. [=strobiliformis=, gill. p. convex, edge irreg. covered with strong brown, angular and pyramidal warts; g. closely crowded, narrow; s. cylindrical, stout, whitish, ring membranous. [=furnacea=, let. p. white with a black cortex splitting radially; s. white with concentric black scales. =nympharum=, kalchb. p. - cm. soon expanded, umb. often tinged brown, rest white with overlapping scales; g. free; s. white, hollow, glabrous; sp. globose. [=colubrina=, kromb. p. convex, obtuse, tinged fuscous, covered with tomentose imbricated scales; g. white; s. solid, very long, ring distant. =holosericea=, fr. very soft. p. - cm. soon plane, obtuse, floccose, whitish or tinge of tan; g. free; s. - cm. bulbous, whitish, silky, ring large; sp. - × . =naucina=, fr. white. p. - cm. globose then plane, subumb. glabrous then breaking up into granules; g. free; s. - cm. tapering to thickened base, fibrillose, ring sup. thin, disappearing; sp. subg. - . differs from _l. excoriatia_ in the ephemeral ring. =leucothites=, vitt. p. - cm. subumbonate, white, disc tinged brown, silky then squamulose; g. white then pink; s. - cm. white, smooth, bulbous, ring large, persistent; sp. hyaline, × . [=rorulenta=, paniz. tufted. p. whitish, campan. umb. sulcate, softly granulato-squamulose; g. closely crowded, tinged rosy; s. slender, elongated, base thickened. =cepaestipes=, sow. yellow. p. - cm. expanded, umb., scaly, margin plicate; g. free; s. swollen below, - cm. floccose; sp. - × . there is a white form. [=medioflava=, boud. p. exp. striate, snow-white, very minutely silky tomentose, centre depr. but the prominent umbo yellowish; g. free, white; s. fistulose, white, minutely scurfy above median reflexed ring, thickened base often yellowish; sp. - × . =licmophora=, b. and br. pale yellow. p. - cm. glabrous, coarsely grooved; g. free; s. - cm. thicker below, smooth; sp. - × . differs from _l. cepaestipes_ in glabrous pileus. [=brebissoni=, godey. p. exp. subumb. very thin, striate to middle, brownish, paler towards edge, with brown scales at centre and paler ones at margin; g. distant, edge toothed; s. swollen below, silvery white, pruinose above the ring. resembles some sp. of _coprinus_ in transparency and fragility. [=schulzeri=, kalchbr. white. p. convex then exp. umb. even, glabrous; g. free, remote, narrowed behind; s. hollow, narrowed from a subbulbous base, naked, ring median, small. [=straminella=, bagl. entirely straw-colour. p. obtuse, sulcate, with glutinous mealy flecks; g. attached to ring behind, s. floccose, bulbous. **** _pileus granular or warted. universal veil of pileus and stem at first continuous, on rupturing forming an inferior ring._ =cinnabarina=, a. and s. p. - cm. obtuse, more or less gibbous, scurfy, persistently brick-red; g. free; s. - cm. with red scales up to imperfect ring; sp. - × . var. _terreyi_, b. and br. p. subglobose, bright tawny red, rough with warts. differs from _l. granulosa_ by larger size and persistently red pileus. =carcharias=, pers. smell strong. p. - cm. soon plane, subumb. pale flesh colour or yellowish-pink, granular; g. adnexed, white; s. - cm. granular and coloured like pileus up to ring; sp. ----. var. _terrei_, b. and br. p. orange-red, convex; s. nearly equal; g. broad, ventricose. [=tuberculata=, brig. p. globoso-exp. cuticle thick, breaking into tubercles, pale tan; g. white; s. subbulbous, fibrillose. [=venusta=, bagl. p. convex, edge very thin, crenulate, sulcate, cuticle tawny cracking in the centre; g. adnexed by a tooth; s. solid, thickened upwards, peronate half way up. [=pauletii=, fr. p. exp. bristling with spines, brownish; g. crowded; s. short, white. =granulosa=, batsch. p. - cm. expanded, obtusely umb. scurfy or granular, rusty or brownish-orange, pale and hoary when dry; s. - cm. floccosely scaly and coloured like pileus up to ring; sp. ----. pileus often wrinkled, sometimes pale. var. _rufescens_, b. and br. entirely white, becoming rufous when dry. _l. amianthina_ differs in adnate gills and yellow flesh of stem. differs from _l. carcharia_ in absence of unpleasant smell. =amianthina=, scop. p. - . cm. soon plane and subumb. granular, ochraceous, flesh yellow; g. adnate, yellowish; s. - cm. squamulose up to ring, flesh yellow; sp. ----. var. _broadwoodiae_, b. and br. p. yellow; g. white. =polysticta=, berk. p. - cm. soon expanded, reddish or yellow-brown broken up into minute scales; g. free, yellowish; s. - cm. scaly and coloured like pileus up to ring; sp. ----. ***** _cuticle of pileus dry, entire, not granular nor scaly; small, slender._ =parvannulata=, lasch. p. - . cm. expanded, subumb. silky, white or tinged yellow; g. free, crowded; s. - cm. white, fibrillose up to distant small spreading ring; sp. × . . _l. erminea_ differs in superior, torn ring, glabrous pileus, and radishy smell. =sistrata=, fr. p. - cm. expanded, whitish, disc often tinged yellow or reddish, pruinose with glistening particles; g. nearly free, crowded; s. - cm. white, silky, ring fibrillose; sp. ----. _l. seminuda_ differs in mealy stem, and _l. mesomorpha_ in glabrous pileus and stem, and entire ring. =seminuda=, lasch. p. - cm. expanded, umbonate, whitish or tinged fleshcolour, mealy then naked; g. reaching the stem; s. - cm. whitish, mealy, ring small, superior; sp. × . _l. sistrata_ differs in fibrillose stem and pileus covered with glistening particles. =bucknallii=, b. and br. p. - cm. convex, white with violet powder; g. reaching stem; s. - cm. white with violet powder; sp. × . smell strong, like gas-tar. =ianthina=, cke. p. cm. expanded, umb. whitish, disc violet, fibrillose; g. free; s. - cm. wavy, white, ring distant, disappearing; sp. ----. =mesomorpha=, bull. p. about . cm. expanded, subumb. pale brown or yellowish, even, glabrous; g. free; s. - cm. pale, glabrous, ring superior; sp. ----. [=denudata=, rab. p. campan.-exp. pale sulphur, very thin, floccosely scurfy then naked; g. ventricose; s. subequal, with a minute very fugacious ring. [=serena=, fr. white. p. campan. glabrous; s. slender, subbulbous, ring thin, deciduous. =martialis=, cke. and mass. p. - . cm. soon plane, deep rose; g. free; s. - cm. pink up to broad ring; sp. × . b. _cuticle of pileus viscid, not broken up._ [=demisannulata=, secr. p. thin, umb. even; g. free, crowded, white; s. nearly equal, with black fibrils, ring pendulous. =medullata=, fr. white. p. - cm. soon expanded, glabrous, viscid, veil in fragments at margin; g. free; s. - cm. dry, obsoletely squamulose below, ring torn; sp. ----. differs from _l. illinita_ in dry stem. =glioderma=, fr. p. . - cm. campan. then convex, even, viscid reddish-bay; g. free; s. - cm. dry, whitish, densely squamulose up to torn ring; sp. ----. =delicata=, fr. p. - cm. convex then plane, even, viscid, granular, rufescent or yellowish; g. free; s. - cm.; s. dry, whitish floccosely squamulose up to ring; sp. ----. differs from _l. glioderma_ in p. not being campanulate, and stem floccose, not squamose. =illinita=, fr. p. - cm. white or tinged tan, subumb. glabrous, viscid; g. free; s. - cm. white, glutinous, ring obsolete; sp. ----. distinct from all species by glutinous stem. [=pingua=, fr. p. white or greyish, viscid, as is also the ring; s. short, dry. [=inoculata=, fr. p. exp. obtuse, honey colour, even, viscid; g. crowded, broad; s. abruptly vaginate by the veil. =georginae=, w. g. sm. white. p. . - . cm. mealy, viscid, changing to crimson when touched, as do also the gills and stem. [hiatula, fr. [=wynniae=, b. and br. p. - cm. membranaceous, splitting along back of gills, pale; g. rather distant, white; st. - cm. hollow. introduced from queensland. phosphorescent. armillaria, fr. * _gills sinuate, adnexed._ =bulbigera=, a. and s. p. - cm. brownish, dry, fibrillose near margin; g. emarginate; s. marginately bulbous, pale, ring soon disappearing; sp. - × . [=phoenicea=, weinm. p. exp. glabrous, viscid, red; g. free, shining white; s. bulbous, with red fibrils, ring fugacious. =focalis=, fr. p. - cm. reddish-tawny, silky, obtuse; g. almost free; s. - cm. equal, fibrillose, ring median; sp. ----. var. _goliath_, fr. larger than type, s. rooting, ring almost obsolete. =robusta=, a. and s. p. - cm. dry, rufous-bay, flesh thick; g. nearly free; s. - cm. stout, base narrowed, brownish floccose up to ring, white above; sp. ----. differs from _a. aurantia_ in deeply emarginate, broad, whitish gills. [=squamea=, barla. smell like cucumber. p. convex then exp. reddish cinnamon, covered with brown-red scales; edge incurved; g. broad, subdecur. whitish tinged red; s. subventricose with a long tapering base, reddish-brown and scaly up to torn ring, white above; flesh-white, saffron when broken. allied to _armill. robusta_ but larger. [=caussetta=, barla. smell like cucumber. p. exp. depr. dry, silky, squamulose at centre, rather viscid when moist, brick-red, edge incurved then spreading; g. broad, pale or tinged red; s. stout, narrowed at base, fibrillose and reddish up to ring, white above; flesh white, reddish when broken. [=caligata=, viv. smell strong. p. exp. tawny, spotted with adpressed silky scales; g. emarginate; s. solid, with brownish concentric scales below the membranous persistent ring. [=megalopoda=, bres. smell strong. p. convex, exp. or depr. even, glabrous, rather viscid, chestnut; g. crowded, whitish then straw-colour; s. brownish-squamulose up to median ring, white above; sp. glob. - . [=luteovirens=, a. and s. all except white squamulose stem straw-colour; p. torn into squamules, greenish when mature; ring imperfect. =aurantia=, schaeff. p. - cm. rusty orange; g. adnexed; s. - cm. stout, orange and concentrically squamose up to ring, white above; sp. ----. [=dehiscens=, viv. p. hemispher. then depr. yellowish ochre; g. adnexo-decur., broad; s. cylindric, scaly, viscid, ring very narrow, persistent. =ramentacea=, bull. p. - cm., obtuse, whitish or yellowish with darker squamules; g. adnexed becoming free; s. - cm. with brown squamules up to the oblique fugitive ring; sp. ----. [=ambrosii=, bres. p. convex, exp. dry, soft, floccosely-downy, snow-white, edge append.; g. white; s. even above ring, floccose below, white; ring inferior, torn, deciduous, sp. - × . . [=cingulata=, fr. p. thin umb. greyish brown, squamosely fibrillose; g. greyish white; s. even, ring median. [=scruposa=, paulet. p. exp. glabrous, rough with contorted ridges, subfuscous; g. sinuato-adnate; s. solid, equal, rooting, ring firm, narrow. [=albosericea=, brig. white. p. exp. broadly umb., even; g. crowded; s. silky, base tuberous, ring remote, fugacious. =constricta=, fr. all white. p. - cm. obtuse, dry, glabrous, silky; g. emarginate, adnexed, or almost free; s. - cm. solid, fibrillose or squamulose, ring apical, narrow; sp. much stouter than _a. subcava_. [=verrucipes=, fr. pure white. p. glabrous; s. with brown warts up to annular zone, ring absent; g. sinuato-adnate. ** _gills narrowed behind, more or less decurrent, with no sinus._ [=imperialis=, fr. p. brown with darker scales; g. deeply decurrent; ring double, sp. - × . [=laschii=, fr. p. fawn colour, even, glabrous, thin ring erect; g. crowded, white. [=tumescens=, viv. p. exp. even, glabrous, whitish; g. adnate, pale ochre, then tinged red; s. solid, stout, narrowed from the base, whitish, ring fugacious. [=rhadigosa=, fr. p. depr. moist, whitish with brownish adpressed scales at disc; g. decur., broad, white; s. short, equal, ring reflexed. =mellea=, vahl. p. - cm. soon expanded, yellowish-brown, squamulose, margin striate; g. slightly decurrent; s. - cm. floccose up to spreading ring, base honey-colour; sp. × - . mycelium forming long black strands. a destructive parasite. =denigrata=, fr. p. - cm. obtuse, dark brown, rather viscid, spotted with droplike depressions, and with elevated warts, margin even; g. rather decurrent; s. - cm. solid tinged brown, ring disappearing; sp. ----. [=morio=, fr. p. campan.-exp. irreg. cracked, viscid, greyish brown then rufescent; g. adnate; s. solid, fibrous, ring narrow. [=viviani=, fr. p. convex, glabrous, dark bay then whitish; g. adnate, pale fawn; s. elongated, white, ring narrow. [=griseofusca=, d. c. p. convex, even, glabrous, brownish grey, discoid; g. decur.; s. equal, glabrous, ring persistent. [=pleurotoides=, fr. p. subexcentric, ring toothed; s. whitish with a flesh-coloured tint. =citri=, inz. p. - cm. soon plane, subumb., even, yellow; g. adnate; s. - cm., slender, ring spreading; sp. subgl. × . =subcava=, schum. p. - cm. white, umbo brownish, striate to middle; g. decurrent; s. equal, hollow upwards, - cm., even up to torn ring, punctate above, white; sp. ----. differs from _a. constricta_ by longer thinner stem, and striate pileus. =haematites=, b. and br. p. - cm. obtuse, liver-coloured; g. adnato-decurrent; s. - cm. coloured like pileus up to ring, whitish above; sp. × . *** _gills adnate without a sinus._ [=laqueata=, fr. white. p. - cm. hemispherical, obtuse, viscid when moist, smooth; g. adnate; s. - cm. solid, squamulose or fibrillose below the ring, base tinged brown; sp. ----. =mucida=, schrad. p. - cm. soon expanded, white or grey, rugulose, glutinous; g. striately decurrent; s. - cm. base thickened, ring apical, striate, tumid; sp. - × - . =jasonis=, cke. and mass. p. - cm., camp. then expanded, umb., yellow, disc tawny, papillate; g. adnate; s. - cm. coloured like pileus, squamulose up to torn ring; sp. × µ. [=fracida=, fr. smell rancid. p. convex, obtuse, even, spotted, brownish-olive; g. becoming free, white; s. base narrowed, squamulose, smooth above the spreading torn ring. [=pinetorum=, gill. p. exp. umb. granular, pale or yellowish white, covered with reddish squamules; g. sinuato-decur., pallid; s. colour of p., squamulose up to spreading ring which is also squamulose outside. tricholoma, fr. a. _pileus viscid, scaly, or villose._ i. limacina. _pileus viscid when moist, innately fibrillose or squamulose, but not broken up._ * _gills not changing colour, not becoming rufescent._ =equestre=, linn. p. - cm. exp. obtuse, viscid, squamulose, yellow or tinged green; g. sulphur yellow; s. - cm. yellow; sp. - × . =coryphaeum=, fr. p. - cm. soon exp. viscid, yellowish with darker squamules; g. white, edge yellow; s. solid, obclavate; sp. subglobose, - . _t. equestre_ differs in having gills entirely yellow, and _t. sejunctum_ in its pure white gills. =sejunctum=, sow. p. - cm. expanded, yellow with brown streaks, viscid; g. pure white; s. - cm. white, apex squamulose; sp. subgl. - . =portentosum=, fr. p. - cm. viscid, sooty often with purple tinge, viscid, streaked with dark lines; g. white, very broad; s. - cm. whitish, glabrous; sp. subgl. - × . =fucatum=, fr. p. - cm. soon plane, viscid, dingy yellow with darker stains; g. white or tinged yellow; s. - cm. fibro-squamulose, whitish; sp. ----. =quinquepartitum=, fr. p. - cm. viscid, even, glabrous, pale yellowish; g. broad, white; s. - cm. white, striate, glabrous; sp. - × - . differs from _t. portentosum_ in p. not being virgate, and from _t. fucatum_ in glabrous striate stem. =resplendens=, fr. white. p. - cm. expanded, viscid, even, glabrous, shining when dry, margin straight; g. very emarginate; s. - cm., solid, apex flocculose; sp. - × . differs from _t. spermaticum_ in solid stem. =spermaticum=, fr. white. p. - cm. expanded, viscid, wavy, glabrous, shining when dry, margin at first incurved; g. margin eroded; s. - cm. twisted; sp. ----. ** _gills becoming discoloured, usually spotted with brownish-red._ =colossus=, fr. p. - cm. expanded, margin at first incurved, dull red or reddish umber, glabrous then squamulose, flesh very thick, reddish when broken; g. broad, reddish; s. - cm. stout, apex constricted, solid, reddish; sp. × . [=aurata=, fr. p. exp. obtuse, even, yellow then rufescent; g. yellow; s. solid, fibrillose, yellow. =nictitans=, fr. p. - cm. exp. obtuse, even, glabrous, viscid, yellowish; g. yellow; s. - cm. solid, yellow, apex squamulose; sp. - × . differs from _t. flavobrunneum_ in squamulose apex of stem. =fulvellum=, fr. p. - cm. exp. viscid, even, yellowish tan disc darker and wrinkled; g. white then tinged rufescent; s. - cm. fibrillose, apex naked, white tinged rufous; sp. subgl. - . =flavobrunneum=, fr. p. - cm. soon exp. viscid, bay, virgate-squamulose, flesh yellow then tinged rufous; g. pale yellow; s. - cm. ventricose, hollow, brownish, flesh yellow, viscid at first; sp. - × - . =albobrunneum=, fr. p. - cm. obtuse, viscid, brown, streaked with fibrils, disc papillose; g. broad, whitish; s. - cm. equal, rufescent, solid, flesh white; sp. - × - . =irregulare=, karst. p. convex then exp. very irreg. rather viscid, fibrillosely virgate, pale, tinged tawny rufous; g. white then reddish or spotted; s. equal, curved, white, apex flocculose. smell strong. differs from _t. albobrunneum_ in paler, irreg. p. and smell. [=salero=, barla. smell strong, mealy. p. exp. obtuse, even, viscid when moist, satiny when dry, chestnut; g. white then reddish; s. cylindrical, white and squamulose at apex, fibrillose and reddish at middle; flesh white, reddish when broken, very bitter. =ustale=, fr. p. - cm. exp. umb. then nearly plane, even, glabrous, disc rugulose bay; g. white tinged brown later, decur. tooth; s. - cm. equal, somewhat rooting, apex naked, whitish; sp. - × . =pessundatum=, fr. p. - cm. obtuse, wavy, glabrous, viscid, bay or rufescent, granular or spotted; g. almost free, white then tinged rufous; s. - cm. white, floccosely squamulose; sp. × . . =stans=, fr. p. - cm. exp. viscid, rufescent, even, flesh red under cuticle; g. crowded, spotted reddish; s. - cm. whitish, squamulose; sp. - × . =russula=, schaeff. p. - cm. exp. viscid, rosy red, granulated; g. subdecurrent; s. - cm. rosy, apex squamulose; sp. × . =frumentaceum=, bull. p. - cm. exp. viscid, glabrous, pallid, streaked or stained reddish; g. crowded; s. - cm. solid, fibrillose, white, variegated red; sp. × . . ii. genuina. _pellicle not viscid, torn into scales, or fibrillose._ * _gills not changing colour, neither spotted with rufous nor black._ =rutilans=, schaeff. p. - cm. exp. coated with purplish down, flesh yellow; g. yellow, edge downy, orange; s. - cm. yellow with purple squamules; sp. subgl. - . =variegatum=, scop. p. - cm. exp. yellow with purplish squamules; g. pale yellow, edge entire not darker coloured; s. - cm. pale yellow, more or less variegated with red; sp. - × - . differs from _t. rutilans_ in edge of gills. [=albofimbriatum=, trog. p. exp. obtusely umb. fibrillose, scaly towards edge, brownish; g. sinuate, closely crowded, yellow then rufescent, edge white-fimbriate; s. yellow-rufescent. [=aestuans=, fr. p. conico-exp. umb. with fugacious longitudinal fibrils, yellow-rufescent; g. very broad, yellow then pallid; s. equal, glabrous, striate. =centurio=, kalchb. p. campan. strongly umb. edge incurved then spreading and wavy, fuscous then livid; g. deeply emarginate, almost free, pallid; s. ventricose, stout, white. =luridum=, fr. p. - cm. exp. rather wavy, dry, glabrous, then torn into livid squamules, yellowish-grey; g. broad, crowded; s. - cm. glabrous, white; sp. - × - . differs from _t. saponaceum_ in persistently white flesh. =guttatum=, schaeff. p. - cm. exp. cinnamon or with a pink tinge, dry, granulose or floccose, margin remotely sulcate; g. with decurrent line down stem, crowded; s. - cm., white, mealy; sp. ----. differs from _t. tigrinum_ in white gills and sulcate margin of pileus. [=goniospermum=, bres. p. fleshy, compact, hemispher. tinged fuscous or livid yellowish; g. much crowded, smoky-grey or lilac then yellowish; s. solid, whitish or lilac above, base brownish; sp. more or less cruciform rarely subtriangular, - × - . [=psammopodium=, kalchb. p. obtuse or subumb. dry, with scattered fibrillose squamules, dusky cinnamon then tawny; g. yellowish; s. ventricose, colour of p. with darker squamules downwards. [=impolitum=, lasch. p. exp. flocculose, then broken into scales and subdepr.; g. crowded; s. solid, fibrillose, floccosely scaly above. =columbetta=, fr. white, here and there spotted with red. p. - cm. dry, glabrous then fibrillose; g. subserrulate; s. - cm. stout, solid, striate; sp. - × - . =scalpturatum=, fr. p. - cm. conical then exp. dingy, tomentose then broken up into rufous or umber scales; g. white then yellowish; s. - cm. whitish, fibrillose; sp. - × . . var. _argyraceum_, bull. slender; p. silvery grey. var. _chrysites_, jungh. pale, p. and g. becoming yellowish. var. _virescens_, wharton. yellow-green when bruised. these are forms rather than varieties. ** _gills rufous or greyish; edge usually spotted with rufous or black._ =imbricatum=, fr. p. - cm. exp. obtuse, dry, rufous umber, innately squamulose, margin involute and downy at first; g. sinuate, crowded; s. - cm. solid, paler than p. apex white-pulverulent; sp. × . =vaccinum=, fr. p. - cm. exp. umb. dry, rufous, squamulose, margin at first involute and downy; g. almost adnate; s. - cm. hollow, fibrillose, brownish; sp. subg. - . differs from _t. imbricatum_ in hollow stem and reddish flesh. [=polyphyllum=, d. c. p. obtuse, irreg. with adpressed fibrillose scales; rufous umber; g. white then tinged red; s. solid, white, squamulose, apex striate. =immundum=, berk. p. - cm. greyish, silky-squamulose, stained, margin incurved; g. greyish pink, separating readily from flesh; s. - cm. greyish, fibrillose; sp. subg. - . every part blackish when bruised. =inodermeum=, fr. p. - cm. acute then umb. rufous brown, fibrillose and with radiating scales; g. free, ventricose, white, spotted red when bruised; s. - cm. fibrous, white with rufous tinge, apex powdered white; s. - × . [=furvum=, fr. p. campan.-exp. wavy, dry, brownish, fibrillosely striate; g. entire, white then greyish; s. solid, fibrillose. [=unguentatum=, fr. p. exp. umb. grey, viscid, floccosely-squamulose; g. very broad, crowded, whitish; s. white, solid, fibrillose. [=gausapatum=, fr. p. bullate, obtuse, wavy, covered with dense superficial fibrils, edge at first incurved and with white wool; g. adnate, grey; s. solid, white, fibrillose. =terreum=, schaeff. p. - cm. exp. umb. bluish grey with minute squamules; g. greyish, sinuate; s. whitish, fibrillose; sp. subgl. - . var. _orirubens_, q. edge of g. reddish. var. _atrosquamosum_, chev. p. grey with small black scales, g. whitish. var. _argyraceum_, bull. entirely pure white, or p. greyish. var. _chrysites_, jungh. p. tinged yellowish or greenish. [=squarrulosum=, bres. p. convex then exp. umb. dry, fuscous then lurid tan, centre black, with black squamules, edge fibrillose, exceeding gills; g. broad, crowded, whitish grey, reddish when bruised; s. colour of p. punctato-squamulose; sp. - × - . [=triste=, fr. p. conic then exp. umb. fuscous, fibrillosely scaly; g. white then greyish; s. fistulose, slender, floccose. iii. rigida. _pellicle rigid, punctato-granulate, or broken up into glabrous fragments when dry._ * _gills white or pallid, not rufous or grey spotted._ =macrorhizum=, lasch. smell strong. p. - cm. exp. ochraceous, darker and cracked when old; g. almost free; s. - cm. stout, ochraceous, rooting, solid, ventricose; sp. subgl. - . [=compactum=, fr. p. soon plane, even, dry, glabrous, livid grey, compact; g. yellow; s. solid, white. =saponaceum=, fr. smell strong. p. exp. obtuse, dry, livid, tinged olive, glabrous then often squamulose or punctate, flesh reddish; g. pallid with greenish tinge; s. - cm. whitish, somewhat rooting; sp. × . var. _atrovirens_, p. thin, wavy, obscure green with crowded black squamules. [=boudieri=, barla. p. exp. even, dry, satiny maroon or vinous with coppery tint, then sooty brown with deeper granules at centre; g. tinged green then ochre; s. subcylindrical, rather unequal, fibrillose, whitish tinged red, then brownish-fawn; flesh white then reddish. differs from _trich. saponaceum_ in the copper coloured p. [=miculatum=, fr. p. exp. obtuse, glabrous, granulated then cracked, umber; g. subadnate; s. solid, fibrillosely floccose. =cartilagineum=, bull. p. - cm. soon exp. and wavy, margin persistently incurved, blackish, then broken up into small black spots; g. crowded then greyish; s. - cm. glabrous, pure white; sp. ----. =tenuiceps=, cke. and mass. p. - cm., flesh very thin, obtuse, dry, granular, dusky brown; g. narrowed in front, white; st. - cm. ochraceous white, everywhere granular, base abrupt with cord-like mycelium; sp. subgl. - . =loricatum=, fr. smell strong. p. - cm. tough, convex, wavy, rather viscid, brown, cuticle thick, tough, separable; g. almost free, pallid; s. - cm. tough, often twisted, brownish red; sp. ----. =atrocinereum=, pers. p. - cm. soon plane, grey, prominent disc darker, often cracked; g. crowded, hyaline; s. - cm. cylindrical, stuffed, glabrous, apex naked, whitish; sp. ----. =cuneifolium=, fr. smell strong. p. . - . cm. soon plane, dry, brown, glabrous then squamulose; g. crowded, white, broad and obliquely truncate in front; s. . cm. hollow, narrowed at base, pallid, apex mealy; sp. subgl. - . differs from _t. atrocinereum_ in hollow stem. ** _gills discoloured, with rufous or grey, spotted._ =crassifolium=, berk. smell strong. p. - cm. exp. wavy, flesh thin, umb. ochraceous, disc darker; g. nearly free, becoming yellowish, thick; s. solid, paler than p., pruinose; sp. ----. [=geminum=, fr. stout, compact. p. obtuse, rufous cinnamon, velvety then rimose; g. crowded; s. solid, floccose. =sudum=, fr. p. - cm. soon plane, dry, greyish brown, glabrous, disc often squamulose; g. deeply emarginate, white then tinged rufous; s. - cm. solid, pallid, fibrillosely-squamulose, striate; sp. - × . . =tumidum=, p. smell slight. p. - cm. bullate, deformed then exp. and wavy, livid grey, spotted, somewhat shining, cracking; g. white then grey with rufous tinge; s. - cm. stout, tumid, striate, white, rooting; sp. × . var. _keithii_, phil. and plowr. p. rufous grey; s. dingy white, tinged red near base. =murinaceum=, bull. smell strong. p. - cm. exp. sometimes subumb. grey, silky, cracking into squamules; g. deeply sinuate, broad, grey; s. grey with darker squamules; sp. ----. [=bisontinum=, roll. p. pulvinate, cuticle thick, brown with greenish tinge, virgate with minute adpr. fibrils; g. thick, grey, with flat, transverse, more or less branched veins; s. solid, narrowed below, fibrillosely striate, with minute dark granules above, pale; - × . =hordum=, f. p. exp. subumb. grey, dry, glabrous then breaking up into squarrose scales; g. rather distant, becoming greyish; s. - cm. whitish, glabrous; sp. =virgatum=, fr. p. rigid, - cm. exp. umb. very dry, greyish, virgate with radiating blackish lines; umb. often broken up into squamules; g. broadly emarginate, becoming greyish, crowded; s. - cm. striate, glabrous, whitish; sp. - × - . the only dry sp. with a virgate pileus. [=dissultans=, karst. p. fragile, thin, convexo-plane, acutely umb. very dry, hoary with dense subreticulately interwoven superficial fibrils, grey; g. hoary; s. hollow, equal, white, loosely fibrillose, apex pruinose; sp. - × . [=elytroides=, scop. p. exp. obt. scabrid, disc floccosely scurfy, grey; g. broad, grey; s. with dense fibrils directed upwards. [=opicum=, fr. p. umb. even, soon squamulose, greyish as is also the flesh; g. arcuato-adfixed, hoary; s. stuffed, equal, almost glabrous. iv. sericella. _pileus at first silky, soon glabrous, quite dry._ * _gills broad, thickish, rather distant._ =sulphureum=, fr. strong smelling. entirely sulphur yellow or p. tinged rufous. p. - cm. subumb. silky, even; g. distant; s. - cm. striate, same colour inside; sp. - × . =bufonium=, pers. p. - cm. soon plane, subumb. silky, soon glabrous, rugulose, opaque, purplish brown, umber, or tan; g. yellowish-tan then pallid; s. - cm. flocculose, coloured like p.; sp. subgl. - . =lascivum=, fr. smell strong. p. - cm. exp. and subdepressed, even, silky then glabrous, tan colour then pallid; g. arcuately adnexed, crowded, white; s. - cm. solid, rigid, tomentose, whitish, apex mealy, rooting; sp. - × - . var. _robustum_, cke. robust. p. whitish, silky; smell weak or none. =interveniens=, karst. p. convexo-plane, depr. silky then glabrous, rugulose near edge, tan then pale; g. arcuato-adnex. crowded, pallid; s. solid, equal, rooting, fibrillose, pallid; sp. - × - . . =inamoenum=, fr. foetid. white. p. - cm. exp. umb. silky then glabrous, even; g. arcuato-adnexed, crowded; s. - cm. equal, solid, rooting; sp. - × - . the only white, foetid _tricholoma_. ** _gills thin, crowded, narrow._ =cerinum=, pers. p. - cm. exp. obtuse or depressed, even, dry, almost glabrous, wax-yellow or brown; g. crowded, yellow; s. - cm. stuffed, fibrillosely striate, yellowish, base darker; sp. ----. [=chrysenterum=, bull. entirely yellowish outside and inside. p. fleshy, convexo-plane, obsoletely umb. silky then almost glabrous; g. free, crowded, narrow; s. solid, base with white wool. [=stiparophyllum=, fr. smell strong. p. exp. silky then glabrous, yellowish white; g. crowded, white; s. hollow, white, glabrous, apex mealy. [=cerinum=, pers. p. exp. depr. almost glabrous, waxy yellow or fuscescent; g. crowded, yellow; s. stuffed, fibrillosely striate, base glabrous, often brownish. [=onychinum=, fr. p. exp. subumb. dingy purple or brown, margin silky; g. yellow, crowded; s. pallid, apex reddish. =ionides=, bull. p. - cm. soon plane, umb. even, dingy violet then pale; g. crowded, white, edge irreg.; s. - cm. elastic, fibrillose, coloured like p.; sp. - × . . differs from _t. humile_ and _t. sordidum_ in white gills. var. _parvum_, lasch. p. reddish brown. var. _persicolor_, fr. p. convexo-plane, peach-colour, then pale; g. sinuate, white; s. paler than p. =carneum=, bull. p. . - . cm. fragile, exp. obtuse, glabrous, persistently reddish flesh colour; gills pure white; s. - . cm. coloured like pileus, not fading; sp. × . [=carneolum=, fr. small. p. plano-depr. obtuse, even, flesh-red then pale; g. closely crowded, very broad behind, shining white. =caelatum=, fr. p. - . cm. persistently umbilicate glabrous, brown then greyish, becoming cracked; g. crowded; s. . cm. glabrous, brown; sp. × . b. _pileus even, glabrous, neither villose, scaly nor viscid._ v. guttata. _pileus fleshy, soft, fragile, with drop-like markings; stem solid._ * _gills not discoloured._ =gambosum=, fr. p. - cm. flesh thick, exp. and wavy, glabrous, spotted, pallid tan, margin incurved and downy at first; g. crowded, ventricose; s. - cm. stout, flocculose at apex, white; sp. - × - . edible. [=georgii=, clus. p. exp. rather wavy, dry, flocculosely soft, ochraceous, edge even, naked, ochraceous; g. linear, transversely striate, whitish; s. solid, stout, fibrillose. edible. =albellum=, fr. p. - cm. conical then exp. gibbous, whitish, pallid, greyish when dry, mottled with spots, margin naked; g. crowded, broadest in front; s. - cm. fibrillosely striate, solid, white; sp. - × . =boreale=, fr. p. - cm. irreg. subumb. glabrous, rivulose when dry, margin even, naked, flesh-colour becoming pale; g. crowded; s. - cm. solid, elastic, base narrowed, whitish; sp. subg. - . ** _gills discoloured, rufescent or smoky._ =amethystinum=, scop. p. - cm. exp. wavy, glabrous, livid and spotted with bluish patches; g. crowded, white then rufescent; s. - cm. solid, narrowed at base, paler than p.; sp. ----. [=graveolens=, fr. p. compact, obt. glabrous, margin even, rivulose when dry, dusky brown; g. white then fuliginous; s. solid, firm, fibrillose. =tigrinum=, schaeff. p. - cm. exp. often wavy, glabrous, margin invol. pale brown or greyish with brown spots; g. crowded, narrow, white then greyish; s. - cm. and nearly as thick, solid, white, pruinose; sp. subgl. . differs from _t. guttatum_ in glabrous pileus with an even margin. [=leucophaeatum=, karst. (= _coll. leucophaeatus_, fr.). p. convexo-plane, broadly and obtusely umb. pallid grey; with thin hoary tomentum; g. crowded, whitish then dingy, broadest behind; s. equal, often curved, pallid, base strigose; sp. ----. =pes-caprae=, fr. p. - cm. conical then exp. umb. unequal, greyish brown, glabrous; g. broad, greyish white; s. - cm. naked, white; sp. × . var. _multiforme_, schaeff. p. irreg., caespitose, smaller than type. vi. spongiosa. _pileus compact then spongy, obtuse, even, glabrous, not hygrophanous._ * _gills not discoloured._ =schumacheri=, fr. p. - cm. exp. obtuse, livid grey, even, moist, edge beyond gills incurved; g. narrow, crowded, pure white; s. - cm. white, solid, fibrillosely-striate; sp. ----. [=amicus=, fr. p. fuscous; g. distant, white; s. bulbous, solid, white. =patulum=, fr. p. - cm. plane, obtuse, wavy, even, glabrous, pale grey or pallid; g. sides veined, pallid; s. elastic, equal, glabrous, - cm.; sp. - × . =circumtectum=, cke. and mass. p. - cm. dry, obt. or subumb. wavy, margin incurved, downy, greenish olive then tan; g. white; s. - cm. whitish, striate, base pointed; sp. subgl. - . [=maluvium=, fr. p. campan.-convex, obtuse, glabrous, greenish; g. rounded, crowded, pallid; s. solid, firm, elastic. [=conglobatum=, vit. densely clustered. p. unequal, even, edge thin, inflexed, somewhat pruinose, blackish fuscous; g. free; s. stems solid, ventricose, subtomentose, springing densely from a common tuber. =arcuatum=, bull. p. - cm. brownish white then tan, exp. margin incurved, glabrous, flesh-coloured; g. arcuate, crowded, white; s. - cm. solid, fibrilloso-squamulose, pale brown, base darker, bulbous; sp. ----. differs from _t. panaeolum_ in having white gills, and from _t. melaleucum_ in having coloured flesh. var. _cognatum_, bull. larger. gilvous outside and inside or dingy tan; p. obtuse, discoid; g. tan. _oreinum_, fr. p. - cm. soon plane, obtuse, glabrous, fuscous, even; g. rounded, free, white; s. solid, short, - cm. whitish, apex white squamulose; sp. ----. separated from _t. humile_ by the gills projecting beyond the margin of pileus. =album=, schaeff. entirely white, taste acrid. p. - cm. convex then depr. even, glabrous, dry, disc sometimes tinged yellow; g. rather crowded; s. - cm. narrowed upwards, solid, elastic; sp. - × . var. _caesariatum_, fr. p. white or yellowish, exp. fibrillosely silky, then glabrous; s. slender, fragile, apex rather mealy; g. nearly free. [=lentum=, post. entirely white not becoming spotted. p. convex, unpolished and at first rather velvety, disc tinged pallid when old; g. sinuate or subdecurr.; s. base narrowed, apex usually longitudinally costate; sp. . - × . - . [=raphanicum=, karst. smell very strong, like radishes. p. convex, often gibbous, white, disc tinged tan; g. white; s. rooting, flocculose above; sp. glob. - . =leucocephalum=, fr. pure white, smell mealy. p. - cm. plane, even, moist, glabrous after silky veil has gone; g. crowded; s. - cm. hollow, smooth, cartilaginous, tough, rooting; sp. - × - . _t. album_ differs in having no smell, and _t. inamoenum_ in strong disagreeable smell and very broad gills. ** _gills discoloured._ =acerbum=, bull. p. - cm. expanded, margin at first involute, sulcate and rugulose, viscid, whitish then tinged rufous; g. narrow rufescent; s. - cm. pale, apex squamulose; sp. subg. - . =militare=, lasch. smell and taste unpleasant. p. - cm. convex, gibbous, margin even, viscid, cinnamon; g. white, torn, then spotted; s. - cm. solid, squamulose, pallid, base subbulbous; sp. ----. differs from _t. civile_ in strong smell and spotted gills. =civile=, fr. p. - cm. soft, soon exp. glabrous, moist, pale yellow brown, cuticle separable; g. crowded, white then yellowish; s. - cm. solid, soft, fragile, fibrillosely squamulose, whitish; sp. ----. =duracinum=, cke. p. - cm. convex, gibbous, even, dry, shining, grey with olive tinge; g. arcuate, grey; s. - cm. reticulately squamulose above, striate below, greyish white; sp. ----. [=irinum=, fr. p. spongy-compact, convex then plane, moist, obsoletely innately virgate, flesh-colour then pale, edge even, pruinose; crowded, narrow, quite entire, greyish then lurid; s. solid, subbulbous, reticulately fibrillose. =personatum=, fr. p. - cm. regular, obtuse, even, glabrous, margin invol. and downy, tan or with a lilac tinge; g. rounded-free, crowded, broad, violet then dingy; s. - cm. solid, stout, dingy purple, villose; sp. - × - . flesh of stem white. in _t. nudum_ tinted violet. =saevum=, gillet. p. - cm. convex then plane, buff, margin naked, flesh thick; g. crowded, narrow, pallid; s. - cm. long, cm. or more thick, purple, slightly squamulose; sp. × . differs from _t. personatum_ in the short, stout, squamulose stem, and absence of purple tint on gills. [=glaucocanum=, bres. p. rather soft, convex, exp. glabrous, edge involute subflocculosely pruinose, glaucous-grey; g. closely crowded, greyish violet, easily separating; s. solid, fibrillosely striate, apex subsquamulose, base bulbous, colour of p.; sp. × . =nudum=, bull. whole fungus violet at first. p. - cm. soon exp. often wavy, flesh thin; g. narrow, becoming rufescent; s. - cm. equal, elastic, rather mealy; sp. × . . flesh of stem tinted violet. in _t. personatum_ white. [=violaceonitens=, bagl. p. convex, umb. dusky violet, shining, edge wavy, rugulosely sulcate; g. crowded, dingy white; s. solid, stout, base narrowed, colour of p. =cinerascens=, bull. p. - cm. convex, even, glabrous, white then greyish; g. dingy, easily separating from flesh; s. - cm. solid, equal, glabrous; sp. ----. =panaeolum=, fr. p. - cm. convex then almost plane, dusky grey with a grey bloom, often spotted; g. grey with rufous tinge; s. - cm. solid, fibrous-striate, greyish; sp. subgl. - . var. _calceolum_, sterb. p. spongy, deformed, thin, soft, exp. edge incurved, sooty-grey or reddish-grey; g. smoky; s. excentric, fusiform, very short. =cnista=, fr. p. - cm. exp. moist, glabrous, pale tan or whitish, margin incurved, naked, even; g. white, veined, reddish when bruised; s. - cm. solid, glabrous, white; sp. - × . differs from _t. panaeolum_ in p. not becoming grey. =fallax=, peck. p. - cm. soon plane, yellow, disc darker, even; g. becoming yellowish; s. . cm. yellow, hollow; sp. - × . vii. hygrophana. _pileus thin, subumbonate, hygrophanous._ * _gills whitish, not spotted._ =melaleucum=, pers. p. - cm. convex then plane, umb. blackish then paler, glabrous; g. emarginate adnexed, white; s. - cm. equal, elastic, whitish with dark fibrils; sp. × - . _coll. stridula_ much resembles this sp. but has a brownish stem. _t. arcuatum_ has flesh tinged brown. _t. oreinum_ has apex of stem squamulose. var. _adstringens_, pers. p. exp. pitch black and rather shining when dry; g. tinged pink; s. naked. var. _polioleucum_, fr. p. obtusely umb. livid then grey; s. apex white-pruinose. var. _porphyroleucum_, bull. p. fleshy, umbo disappearing, sooty or fuscous-rufescent; s. solid, subfibrillose; g. white. [=microcephalum=, karst. p. - cm. convexo-plane, livid-sooty then pale; g. much crowded, soft, white; s. tall, - cm. splitting easily into fibres, pallid, glabrous; sp. subg. - × . [=turritum=, fr. p. conico-exp. umb. moist, obscure purple, somewhat spotted; g. soon free, white; s. stuffed then hollow, white with dusky fibrils. =grammopodium=, bull. p. - cm. camp. conv. then depr. umb. glabrous, ruddy then pallid; g. arcuato-adnate, crowded; s. - cm. stuffed, coarsely striate, glabrous, pallid; sp. - × . [=strictipes=, karst. p. soft, gibbous, plane or depr. white or yellowish-white, centre often tinged; g. closely crowded, shining white, entire; s. solid, equal, cylindrical, base usually thickened, straight, white, glabrous; sp. - × - . =brevipes=, bull. p. - cm. brown then pale, glabrous, convex then plane; g. crowded, tinged fuscous then pale; s. - . cm. solid, rigid, brown outside and inside; sp. × . =humile=, pers. p. - cm. umb. then convex or depressed, even, glabrous; g. crowded, ventricose; s. - , greyish white, villosely pulverulent, stuffed; sp. - × . differs from _t. brevipes_ in pale stem and tufted habit. =exsiccum=, fr. p. - cm. exp. then umb. greyish brown then hoary; g. crowded, narrow, pure white; s. - cm. solid, glabrous, rather shining; sp. - × . =subpulverulentum=, pers. p. - cm. greyish white, pulverulent, convex then depr. even, extreme edge persistently incurved; g. crowded, narrow, white; s. - cm. solid, whitish, slightly striate; sp. × . [=persicinum=, fr. p. obtuse, even, glabrous, flesh-colour then pale; s. cartilaginous, glabrous; g. arcuate, white. [=juranum=, q. obtuse, rufous then pale, white-floccose, margin crenulate, mealy; g. white, crowded; s. solid, white, apex mealy. ** _gills violet, grey or smoky._ [=urbum=, fr. p. campan.-exp. brownish black with bluish tinge, subumb., margin straight; g. densely crowded, like flesh, bluish white; s. incurved, fibrillose, bulbous. =sordidum=, fr. p. . - cm. plano-depr. subumb. glabrous, brownish lilac then dusky; g. rounded, dingy violet then dusky; s. - cm. coloured like p. fibrillosely striate, slightly curved as a rule; sp. - × - , minutely rugulose. differs from _t. nudum_ in being smaller, tougher, and hygrophanous. var. _feuilleauboisii_, lucand and quel. the broadly gibbous p. and s. dark umber; g. deep violet. =paedidum=, fr. p. - cm. soon depr. round conical umbo, smoky grey, somewhat streaked; g. crowded, adnexed, narrow, white then greyish; s. - cm. dingy grey, slightly striate base thickened; sp. - × - . differs from _t. sordidum_ in having no trace of violet colour; _t. lixivium_ differs in the free truncate gills. =lixivium=, fr. p. - cm. greyish brown, soon plane and umb. margin expanded, membranaceous, striate; g. truncato-free, grey; s. - cm. grey, whitish floccose, often flexuous; sp. × - . [=rasile=, fr. soft. p. campan.-exp. umb. fibroso-virgate, undulate, fuliginous; g. connected by veins, greyish-umber, edge white floccose; s. equal, fibrillose. [=favillarum=, fr. p. exp. depr. round umbo, even, glabrous, moist, edge spreading, even, whitish when dry; g. closely crowded, greyish. =putidum=, fr. smell strong, rancid. p. - cm. umb. even, soft, olive grey, hoary when dry; g. adnexed, crowded, grey; s. - cm. greyish, pruinose; sp. - × - . _coll. rancida_ differs in glabrous, rooting stem. [=hospitans=, fr. shining white, campan. obtuse, even, edge straight, adpressed to stem at first; g. free, very ventricose; s. solid, fibrous, glabrous, apex pruinose. resembling a _mycena_ but s. solid and fibrous. russula, fr. i. taste mild. * _gills ochraceous_ (not clear yellow). =alutacea=, fr. p. - cm. viscid, exp. depr. red, dark purple, disc becoming pale, at length striate and tuberculose at margin, flesh white; g. broad, rather distant, ochre, naked; s. - cm. white or tinged red; sp. - . differs from _r. integra_ in gills not being powdery. =integra=, fr. p. - cm. viscid, exp. depr. red or greenish, margin at length sulcate and tuberculose, flesh white; g. broad, yellow, powdered with the ochre spores; s. - cm. even, ventricose, white; sp. - . var. _alba_, cke. whole fungus except gills creamy white. =xerampelina=, fr. p. - cm. compact, exp. then depr., dry, rosy purple sometimes tinged olive, disc paler, cracked into granules, flesh tinged yellow; g. forked, white then ochre; s. - cm. clavate, white, more or less tinged red; sp. - × - . differs from _r. integra_ by narrow gills not powdered with the spores. =nauseosa=, fr. smell strong. p. - cm. viscid, plane then depr., purple or lilac, disc darker, coarsely striate; g. rather distant, ochre; s. - cm. slightly striate, white; sp. - . _r. nitida_ differs in the yellow, shining gills. var. _flavida_, cke. p. primrose yellow. =vitellina=, fr. strong scented. p. - cm. soon plane, yellow, edge tuberculose, striate; g. saffron ochre; s. - cm. slender, white; sp. - . differs from _r. lutea_ in strong smell and tuberculose margin. var. _major_, cke. similar to type, but larger. =lilacea=, q. p. - cm. exp. depr., viscid, violet becoming pallid; g. white, broad; s. - cm. fragile, white or base tinted rose; sp. - . =ochracea=, fr. every part inside and outside ochraceous. p. - cm. viscid, coarsely striate; g. broad; s. - cm. wrinkled; sp. - . _r. fellea_ differs in bitter taste. =lutea=, fr. p. - cm. plano-depr. viscid, yellow becoming pale; g. connected by veins, egg-yellow; s. - cm. even, white; sp. - × - . differs from _r. vitellina_ by even margin of p. and absence of smell. =elegans=, bresad. p. - cm. convex then depr., tuberculose and striate with age, rosy, yellowish towards margin, densely granular everywhere; g. ochraceous orange; s. - cm. white; sp. - . differs from _r. vesca_ in granular, rosy pileus. =armeniaca=, cke. p. - cm. soon depr., peach colour, margin even; g. deep ochraceous; s. - cm. white, hollow; sp. × . [=ravida=, fr. p. depr. wavy and more or less lobed, brownish grey then yellowish, opaque, edge even, flesh grey; g. broad, ochre; s. pallid, brown striate. =xanthophaea=, boud. p. depr., edge sulcate and tuberculose, brownish bay; gills clear ochre; s. white; taste mild. differs from _r. pectinata_ in ochre gills and mild taste, and from _r. ravida_ in pectinate and tuberculose margin. ** _gills yellow, without an ochraceous tinge._ =coerulea=, fr. p. - cm. convex then exp., polished, edge even, bluish or bluish purple; g. adnate, pale yellow; s. - cm. white; sp. - . much the appearance of _r. cyanoxantha_, differs in crowded yellow gills. =nitida=, fr. smell unpleasant. p. - cm. plane or slightly depr., viscid, purplish-bay, reddish, &c., shining, edge striate; g. sulphur yellow, naked; s. - cm. white then pallid; sp. - × - . _r. nauseosa_ differs in ochre, powdered gills. var. _cuprea_, cke. p. copper colour. =aurata=, fr. p. rigid, - cm. plane, yellow, orange or reddish, disc darker, margin striate, flesh yellow under the viscid cuticle; g. broad, edge lemon yellow; s. - cm. white or yellow; sp. - . =decolorans=, fr. p. - cm. globose then exp., regular, viscid, orange red then yellowish, margin becoming striate; flesh turning grey; g. yellowish; s. - cm. white then grey, especially inside; sp. - . differs from _r. depallens_ in the long s., and the yellow gills. =punctata=, gillet. p. - cm. convex then plane, viscid, rosy, punctate with brown warts, striate; g. yellowish, edge often reddish; s. - cm. coloured like p. base whitish; sp. - . var. _leucopus_, cke. stem white. =olivacea=, fr. p. - cm. convex then plane or depr., margin even, minutely silky squamulose, purple with olive tinge, or brownish olive; g. broad, yellow; s. - cm. pale rose; sp. - . differs from _r. rubra_ in deeper yellow colour of g. and unpolished p. and mild taste. =linnaei=, fr. p. - cm. plane then depr., polished, edge even, blood red or dark rose; g. adnato-decur. yellowish; s. - cm. blood red; sp. ----. =chamaeleontina=, fr. p. - cm. plane or subdepr., slightly viscid, edge becoming slightly striate, rose red, purplish lilac, &c., then yellowish; g. closely crowded, plane, yellow; s. - cm. white; sp. - . =puellaris=, fr. p. - cm. almost membranaceous, conico-convex then exp., tuberculose striate to the middle, purplish livid then yellowish, disc brown; g. pale yellow, naked; s. - cm. yellowish white, soon hollow; sp. × - . p. not shining as in _r. nitida_. var. _intensior_, cke. p. deep purple, blackish at disc. var. _roseipes_, secr. s. sprinkled with rosy meal. [=bona=, schwalb. p. often irreg., lilac, centre pallid or obscure, velvety; g. adnexed, pale yellow then pale egg-yellow; s. unequal, often curved, white, hollow; taste mild; - . [=grisea=, fr. p. exp. depr., polished, grey or olive, disc purplish, edge even, flesh under cuticle violet; g. adnate, white then yellow s. even, polished, white. *** _gills white or creamy white._ + _pileus white or cream colour_ (often becoming blackish when old). =virginea=, cke. and mass. persistently pure white. p. - cm. soon exp., viscid, polished when dry; g. subdecur., narrow, repeatedly forked, veined; s. - cm. solid, rugulose; sp. - . =semicrema=, fr. p. - cm. persistently white, edge involute, even, glabrous; g. decur. crowded, white; s. - cm. white, becoming blackish; sp. - . differs from _r. adusta_ and _r. densifolia_ in persistently white p.--flesh also--and g., and from _r. delica_ in flesh of stem becoming blackish. =lactea=, fr. entirely white or pallid. p. - cm. obtuse, even, unpolished then minutely cracked; g. free, thick, distant; s. - cm. solid, stout; sp. - . var. _incarnata_, q. p. white tinged rose, then pale tan. =nigricans=, fr. p. - cm. exp. umbilicato-depr. whitish, soon sooty-olive, flesh white, reddish when broken; g. rounded, very thick and distant; s. - cm. stout, solid, pallid then black; sp. - . every part black when old. =adusta=, fr. p. - cm. exp. depr. white then brownish, at length scorched; g. thin, crowded, pallid; s. - cm. solid, pallid then dusky grey; sp. - . differs from _r. nigricans_ in much closer gills, and in flesh not changing to red. =densifolia=, gillet. p. - cm. convex then depr. white then brownish, flesh red when broken; g. thin, crowded, pallid; s. - cm. slightly mealy, white then grey, at length blackish; sp. - . differs from _r. adusta_ in flesh turning red, and from _r. nigricans_ in crowded gills. =delica=, fr. white. p. - cm. exp. umbil. polished, edge incurved, even, glabrous; g. decur. thin, distant, white; s. - cm. solid, compact; sp. - × - . this species has been confounded with _r. chloroides_, bres. (= _r. delica_, mass. fung. fl. iii, , _lact. exsuccus_, otto, &c.) but differs in polished pileus, pure white gills, &c. =chloroides=, bresad. (= _lact. exsuccus_, otto; _agaricus chloroides_, krombh.; _russula delica_, mass, &c. not of cooke). p. - cm. depr. edge involute, whitish, pubescent, flesh thick, white; g. decurrent, white with a tinge of green, connected by veins, forked; s. - cm. stout, white, tomentose, sometimes with a pale green zone at apex; sp. - . differs from _r. delica_ in pubescent pileus and stem, and green tinted gills. ++ _pileus clear yellow._ =citrina=, gillet. p. - cm. slightly viscid, convex then depr.; g. broadest in front, forked, white; s. - cm. white, solid, slightly rugulose; sp. - . =fingibilis=, britz. p. - cm. exp. depr. even, slightly viscid; g. almost free, white; s. - cm. white, becoming hollow; sp. - . +++ _pileus greenish or olive._ =olivascens=, fr. p. - cm. exp. umbil. olive disc becoming yellowish, edge even; g. white then tinged yellow; s. - cm. stout, firm, even; sp. - . =heterophylla=, fr. p. - cm. exp. depr. even, polished, greenish, yellow-brown, &c., disc becoming ochre, flesh white; g. very narrow, closely crowded; s. - cm. solid, white; sp. - . var. _galachroa_, fr. p. milky white then greenish. differs from _r. cyanoxantha_ in very narrow, crowded gills. [=smaragdina=, q. p. thin, viscid, somewhat zoned, clear green, edge white; g. narrow, white; s. slender, pruinose, white; taste mild. =azurea=, bres. p. - cm. exp. depr. pale glaucous green, with white bloom; g. pale cream colour; s. - cm. white, rugulose; sp. - . differs from _r. cyanoxantha_ in white meal on the pileus. =virescens=, fr. p. - cm. exp. umbil. dingy opaque green, innately flocculose, areolately cracked; g. rather crowded, forked; s. - cm. stout, white; sp. - . edible. [=luteo-viridans=, c. mart. p. convex then depr. then edge erect and sulcate, pellicle viscid, separable, yellow with green or brown stains; g. broad; s. reticulated, base narrowed. acrid. var. _bicolor_, c. mart. disc of p. yellow, edge brown; g. dark ochre. var. _purpurea_, c. mart. p. purple, disc yellow. =furcata=, fr. p. - cm. rigid, depr. sometimes subinfund. even, dark lurid green, even, frosted with a white silkiness; g. adnato-decur. thickish, forked; s. - cm. firm, even, white; sp. - . var. _pictipes_, cke. s. rosy at apex, greenish below. var. _ochroviridis_, cke. disc of p. olive or sooty, ochraceous towards edge. =aeruginea=, lindbl. p. - cm. exp. darker disc depr., verdigris green, edge striate; g. narrow behind, slightly adnexed, pure white; s. - cm. firm, even, persistently white; sp. - . ++++ _pileus red, brownish, purple, sometimes with green intermingled._ =lepida=, fr. p. - cm. compact, depr. not polished, blood red, becoming pale, minutely cracked into squamules; g. much forked; s. - cm. even, white with rosy tinge; sp. - . =atropurpurea=, kromb. p. - cm. hard, convex then exp. depr. smooth, even, deep blood red or purple red; g. adnate, white; s. - cm. white or tinged red. differs from _r. rubra_ in being quite mild. [=cerasina=, c. mart. p. viscid, depr. subcyathiform, edge sulcate, pellicle separable, cherry-red, disc yellow, flesh purple under cuticle; g. adnato-decur. ochre; s. rugulose, white. acrid. =cutefracta=, cke. p. - cm. exp. depr. even, purple, dull red, etc., cracking into areolae from edge towards disc; g. adnexed, crowded; s. - cm. solid, white with tinge of purple; sp. - . =vesca=, fr. p. - cm. exp. depr. flesh colour, disc darker, viscid, rugulose; g. adnate, crowded; s. - cm. solid, white, reticulately wrinkled; sp. - . var. _duportii_, phil. p. disc rufous, edge bluish, flesh reddish when cut. smells of crab. var. _lilacea_, q. p. violet or purple, flesh violet under the cuticle. var. _barlae_, q. p. peach colour. =depallens=, fr. p. - cm. firm, undulate, viscid, reddish, crimson, or brownish, disc paler at length; g. crowded, forked; s. - cm. base narrowed, white then grey; sp. - . differs from _r. decolorans_ in having white gills. [=pallida=, karst. acrid. p. convex then exp. mostly undulate, rather viscid, constantly pallid, here and there tinged rose, edge even; g. white, edge sometimes sulphur; s. white, often curved; sp. - . differs from _russula pallescens_ in being more robust and even margin of p. =cyanoxantha=, schaeff. p. - cm. globose then depr. or infundib. viscid, lilac, purplish, olive green, &c., edge generally bluish; g. broad, forked; s. - cm. even, white; sp. - . =elephantina=, fr. p. - cm. convex, umbil. margin incurved, brownish tan, wavy; g. obtusely adnate, arcuate, rather crowded, thin; s. firm, white; sp. ----. differs from _r. nigricans_ and _r. adusta_ in not turning black or red when old. =mustelina=, fr. p. - cm. depr. edge upturned, even, opaque, brownish or dingy yellowish, flesh persistently white; g. crowded, thin, connected; s. - cm. even, white; sp. - . ii. taste acrid. * _gills yellow or ochraceous._ + _pileus yellow or ochraceous._ =fellea=, fr. every part, outside and inside, pale ochraceous or straw colour, very acrid. p. - cm. exp. not becoming pale; g. adnate; s. even, - cm. differs from _r. ochracea_ in being very acrid. =aurata=, fr. p. - cm. rigid, exp. polished, citrin or orange, sometimes reddish, edge becoming striate, flesh under cuticle citrin; g. broad, shining citrin; s. - cm. white tinged yellow; sp. ----. [=rhytipes=, fr. foetid. p. depr. dry, yellowish, blotched purple or olive, corrugated, flesh sulphur yellow; g. broad, yellow, edge darker; s. conical, reticulately rugose, greyish purple. no account of mild or acrid taste is given, hence its position is uncertain. has points in common with _r. aurata_. =claroflava=, grove. p. - cm. bullate then plane, chrome yellow; g. white, lemon yellow, then tinged ochre; s. - cm. white then grey or blackish; sp. - . differs from _r. ochroleuca_ in bright yellow p. ++ _pileus red or purple._ =rubra=, fr. p. - cm. rigid, convex exp. depr. dusky blood red or with a tinge of purple, polished and even when dry; g. adnate whitish; s. - cm. hard, white sometimes tinged red; sp. - . differs from _r. atropurpurea_ in very acrid taste. =drimeia=, cke. (= _r. expallens_, gil.). p. - cm. firm, exp. depr. bright purple to rose colour; g. clear yellow; s. - cm. purple, paler than p.; sp. - . intensely acrid. =veternosa=, fr. p. - cm. plano-depr. rosy or flesh colour then pale, slightly viscid; g. adnate, narrow, white then straw colour; s. - cm. spongy then hollow, white; sp. - . =maculata=, q. p. - cm. thin, firm, exp. viscid, reddish flesh-colour, then pale and blotched brownish; g. sulphur then peach colour; s. - cm. white or tinged rose, then spotted ochre; sp. - . differs from _r. depallens_ in being smaller, acrid, and stem not grey. =serotina=, q. p. - . cm. globose then more or less exp. purple brown or olive, edge lilac, with white bloom at first; g. almost free, white then tinged yellow; s. - cm. white; sp. - . ** _gills white._ + _pileus ochraceous or umber._ =ochroleuca=, fr. p. - cm. exp. depr. viscid at first, ochraceous then pale, disc cracked into granules, margin almost even; g. rounded behind, broad, subequal, whitish; s. - cm. soft, white then grey, reticulately rugulose; sp. - . differs from _r. granulosa_ in stem becoming grey. =granulosa=, cke. p. - cm. exp. often depr. viscid at first, ochraceous, disc darker and granular; s. - cm. white, granular; g. nearly free, white; sp. - . close to _r. ochroleuca_, differing in granular persistently white stem. =foetens=, fr. foetid. p. - cm. bullate, then exp. and depr. rigid, viscid, edge at first incurved, tuberculato-sulcate, ochraceous then pale; g. very unequal, forked, whitish; s. - cm. soon hollow, whitish; sp. - . [=foetida=, c. mart. smell foetid. p. viscid, sulcate, yellow-brown, flesh under cuticle brown, rest white; g. forked near stem, white then yellow; s. very fragile, hollow, white, often spotted red below. mild. =consobrina=, fr. p. - cm. exp. depr. viscid, edge even, brown or dark grey, flesh grey under the cuticle; g. forked, white; s. - cm. white then grey; sp. - × . var. _sororia_, fr. edge of p. striate. =pectinata=, fr. smell nauseous. p. - cm. exp. then depr. or broadly infundib., rigid, brownish tan then pale except disc, viscid, margin sulcate, flesh yellowish under cuticle; g. attenuato-free, equal, white; s. rigid, striate, white; sp. - . differs from _r. consobrina_, var. _sororia_ in tubercular sulcate edge, and gills not connected by veins. [=intermedia=, karst. acrid. p. exp. depr. irreg. viscid, edge even, at length sulcate and tuberculose, tawny, disc darker, discoloured; g. white then yellowish; s. white. near to _russ. integra_, differs in taste and colour. =sardonia=, fr. p. - cm. plane, wavy, viscid, edge even, dingy yellow, then pale; g. adnate, closely crowded, white then yellowish; s. - cm. white often tinged red; sp. - . differs from _r. rosacea_ and _r. expallens_ in yellowish colour. ++ _pileus red or purplish._ =emetica=, fr. p. - cm. exp. depr. shining, rosy to blood red, then pale or white, edge at length sulcate, flesh white, red under cuticle; g. free, white; s. - cm. even, white or tinged red; sp. - . poisonous. var. _clusii_, fr. flesh and gills tinged yellow. =rosacea=, fr. p. - cm. exp. unequal, viscid then dry and spotted, rosy; edge acute, even; g. adnate, white; s. - cm. white or tinged rose; sp. - . differs from _r. sanguinea_ in irregular, often excentric p. and broader gills. =sanguinea=, fr. p. - cm. exp. depr. or infundib. polished, blood-red then pale, edge acute, even; g. decur. closely crowded, white; s. - cm. striate, white or tinged red; sp. - . _r. rubra_ differs in rigid p. and g. tinged yellow. =fragilis=, fr. p. - cm. thin, fragile, exp. flesh colour or red, soon pale, rather viscid, edge tubercular-striate; g. thin, crowded, ventricose, white; s. - cm. white, polished; sp. - × . var. _nivea_, cke. entirely white. var. _violacea_, q. p. violet, with narrow pale edge. var. _fallax_, cke. disc of p. very dark, rest pale reddish purple. =queletii=, fr. p. - cm. soon plane, viscid, dark violet, edge slightly striate, lilac; g. white; s. - cm. purple; sp. - . var. _purpurea_, cke. (= _r. purpurea_, gillet). stem whitish, tinged rosy at middle part; g. pale yellow. mycena, fr. i. calodontes. _edge of gills denticulate, dark coloured._ =pelianthina=, bolton. p. . - cm. obtuse, hygr. purplish then pale; g. broad, adnexed, purplish with darker fimbriated margin; s. - cm. equal, pallid; sp. × . =balanina=, b. p. - cm. exp. umb. pale yellowish brown, striate when moist; g. adnate, separating, pinkish-white, edge purple; s. - cm. tinged brown, squamulose above, brown and thin below. [=crenulata=, schum. p. camp. umb. purplish-bay; g. adnexed, paler than p., edge distinctly crenulated but scarcely darker; s. even, glabrous, base narrowed. =mirabilis=, cke. and q. (= _ag. marginellus_, fr., non pers.). p. - . cm. camp. pale bluish grey, umb. darker, then tan, finely striate; g. whitish, edge darker with minute particles; s. greyish, minutely floccose, rooting and tomentose at base; sp. ----. =aurantiomarginata=, fr. p. - cm. subumb. even, brownish olive then pale; g. adnexed, edge flocculent, orange; s. - cm. base ventricose and strigose; sp. ----. =elegans=, pers. p. . - cm. umb. striate, brown or livid-yellow; g. adnate, edge saffron; s. - cm. equal, livid; sp. - × - . =olivaceomarginata=, mass. p. - . cm. striate up to disc, honey colour; g. adnexed, pallid, edge brownish olive; s. - cm. shining, coloured like p.; sp. × - . [=avenacea=, fr. p. camp. obt. fuscous then livid grey, slightly striate; g. adnate, white, edge fuscous; s. even, glabrous, without juice, base fibrillose. [=atromarginata=, fr. p. exp. sulcate, viscid; g. white with a very narrow black edge; s. tall, striate, glabrous. =rubromarginata=, fr. p. - cm. camp. obtuse, striate, hygr. grey, livid, reddish &c., paler; g. adnate, whitish, edge purple brown; s. - cm. even, pallid; sp. ----. var. _fuscopurpurea_, lasch. p. purple brown; g. edge eroded, brownish. [=luteorufescens=, karst. p. campan. often oblique, striato-virgate, yellowish fuscous, disc rufescent, opaque; g. distant, whitish glaucous; s. yellowish, glabrous; sp. - × - . [=viridimarginata=, karst. p. campan. exp. umb. sulcate, glabrous, brownish honey-colour, not hygr.; g. white then glaucous; s. rigid, fragile, honey-colour then pale, not rooting; sp. - × - . =strobilina=, fr. every part deep red. p. - . cm. acutely umb. not becoming pale; g. adnate edge dark blood red; s. - cm. rigid; sp. - × . var. _coccinea_, sow. edge of g. not darker. differs from _m. rosella_ in larger size, and in not becoming pale, acute umbo, &c. =rosella=, fr. every part pale rose colour. p. - mm. obtusely umb. striate, becoming pale; g. adnate, edge darker; s. - cm. slender; sp. - × . [=venustula=, q. p. white, diaphanous, with rosy granules; g. few, white, edge rosy; s. white, hyaline. =carneosanguinea=, rea. p. . - cm. livid grey, umbo rufous, even, flesh becoming blood-red when broken; g. purplish-brown, edge dark purple, denticulate; s. cm. grey, base thickened; sp. - × - . [=citrinomarginata=, gill. p. campan. striate to apex, yellow; g. distant, pale, edge citrin; s. thickened and downy at base, pale. [=fuscomarginata=, godey. p. campan. even, pale tan then pallid; g. pale, edge brownish or reddish-purple; s. bay, summit pale. ii. adonideae. _stem juiceless, gills all one colour, colour clear, bright, not brownish or greyish._ =pura=, pers. smell like radishes. p. - cm. umb. margin striate, lilac, reddish, &c., then pale; g. sinuato-adnexed, very broad, connected by veins, pale; s. - cm. even, pale or tinged like pileus; sp. - × - . . _m. pelianthina_ differs in dark edged gills. _m. pseudopura_ and _m. zephira_ have no smell. _m. ianthina_ differs in persistently conical pileus. [=fimicola=, karst. p. convex then plane, umb. or papillate, umb. striate, glabrous, reddish ochre then tan; g. whitish then tan; s. equal, wavy, tough, glabrous, rusty then bay; sp. - × - . var. _multicolor_, bres. p. clear greyish blue, umbo tawny, edge striate; g. grey; s. rosy-purple, base yellowish, tomentose; sp. - × - . =pseudopura=, cke. p. cm. exp. obtusely umb. vaguely striate, rosy then pale; g. adnate, whitish; s. - cm. rigid, pallid rosy, brownish when dry, naked; sp. × . _m. pura_ differs in larger size of entire fungus, and smaller spores. _m. zephira_ differs in squamulose stem. =zephira=, fr. p. - cm. diaphanous, obtuse, striate to middle, reddish or pinkish; g. adnate white; s. - cm. tinged pinkish rufescent, squamulose, base cottony; sp. ----. differs from _m. pura_ in absence of smell. [=caesiolivida=, bres. p. campan. exp. or revolute, subirreg. glabrous, hygr. livid blue or grey then rosy livid; g. white then rosy, at length livid flesh colour; s. short, greyish or bluish livid, base strigosely rooting; - × . - . [=renati=, q. p. rosy lilac, disc brownish; g. white then tinged rosy; s. pellucid, amber yellow. [=seynii=, q. p. vinous, shining; g. rosy lilac; s. fistulose, hyaline, purplish, base hairy, white. [=punicella=, fr. p. conical, obtuse, subviscid, scarlet, edge striate, yellow; g. free, pallid; s. diaphanous, rooting, base dusky green, apex yellowish. =flavipes=, q. tufted, smells like radishes. p. - cm. camp. obtuse, rosy pink or lilac; g. adnexed, whitish; s. - cm. polished, yellow, rooting; sp. × - . [=rubella=, q. p. campan. striate, orange red; g. white then tinged rosy; s. hyaline, apex rosy. =adonis=, bull. p. - cm. conical then campan. rosy; g. uncinately adnexed, narrow, white tinged pink; s. equal, white; sp. ----. [=chlorantha=, fr. p. camp. obtuse, green; g. sinuato-adnexed, white; s. short, glabrous, greenish. =lineata=, bull. p. - cm. obt. glabrous, everywhere finely striate, tinged yellow or whitish; g. adnate, white; s. - cm. even, base downy; sp. ----. =farrea=, lasch. p. - . cm. very thin, expanded, furfuraceous with shining particles, pale, sulcate; g. adnate, snow-white; s. - cm. silky, striate; sp. ----. among moss and grass. the only known _mycena_ with a furfuraceous pileus. =luteoalba=, bolton. p. - cm. campan. then exp. and umb. pale yellow; g. adnate, broad, white; s. - cm. shining, glabrous, yellowish; sp. ----. =flavoalba=, fr. p. - cm. exp. umb. often cracked at margin, yellowish or white; g. soon free, distant; s. - cm. white, pellucid, apex pruinose; sp. - × - . _m. lactea_ differs in adnate gills and downy base of stem. _m. luteoalba_ has a yellowish stem. =lactea=, pers. white. p. - . cm. subumb. striate, even when dry; g. adnate, narrow, crowded; s. - cm. toughish, not quite straight, glabrous; sp. - × - . differs from _m. gypsea_ and _m. tenuis_ in scattered habit. var. _pithya_, fr. smaller, p. becoming almost plane; s. thin, base bubillose, downy. forma _pulchella_, fr. milk-white; g. linear, ascending; s. attenuated. solitary. [=olida=, bres. smell very strong, rancid. p. thin, conico-campan. obtuse, then exp. and umb. yellow soon pale straw; g. uncinato-decur. connected by veins, white; s. hyaline, strigosely rooting; sp. - × . =gypsea=, fr. caespitose. pure white, rarely with a yellow tinge. p. - cm. conical then campan. striate up to umbo, glabrous; g. subuncinate; s. - cm. straight, narrowed upwards from hairy base; sp. - × . [=nivea=, q. shining white. p. sulcate, diaphanous; g. uncinate; s. pruinose, base rather swollen, fibrillose. [=galeropsis=, fr. p. conico-camp. even, gilvous; g. free, whitish; s. straight, narrowed upwards, fragile, not rooting, ferruginous below. [=nucida=, brig. p. campan. obtuse, even, downy under a lens, deep rust-colour, hygr.; g. free, white then rosy; s. silky shining, base snow-white, apex mealy. [=benzonii=, fr. p. very thin, campan. exp. umbil. finely striate, pallid or reddish; g. white; s. equal, glabrous, white. an introduced species. [=melanops=, west. p. convexo-camp. plicate, umbo blackish-brown; g. adnexed to a collar; s. slender, glabrous base fibrillose. [=pruinatus=, fr. shining white. p. thin, conico-campan. papillate, edge deflexed, sulcate, pruinose; g. crowded; s. bulbous, naked. iii. rigidipedes. _stem firm, rigid, rather tough, juiceless, base strigosely rooting, gills discoloured, grey, reddish, &c., often connected by veins._ =cohaerens=, fr. p. - cm. camp. obtuse, tawny cinnamon, soft and velvety; g. free, distant, very broad, pallid; s. - cm. horny, rigid, even, shining, bay, base downy, rooting; sp. × - . [=raeborhiza=, lasch. p. acute camp. exp. glabrous, striate, rather tawny then pale; g. almost free, connected by veins; s. even, floccosely pruinose, rooting, tinged tawny. =prolifera=, sow. caespitose. p. - cm. camp. then exp. subumb., margin coarsely striate, yellowish tan; g. adnexed; s. - cm. glabrous, shining, striate, brownish below, rooting; sp. ----. =excisa=, lasch. (non berk.). p. - cm. camp. then obtuse, greyish fuscous or pallid; g. scarcely adnexed, narrowed behind, very broad in front, pallid; s. - cm. tough, even, grey, rooting; sp. ----. differs from _m. polygramma_ in smooth stem. var. _fagetorum_, fr. slender. p. even, striate to middle, smoky or livid then pale; g. joined to a collar; s. incurved at base, fixed to leaves by down. =rugosa=, fr. p. - cm. camp. then exp. subumb. tough, irreg. radially rugulose, greyish; g. arcuately adnate, white then tinged grey; s. - cm. tough, even, glabrous, pallid; sp. ----. =sudora=, fr. white. p. - cm. umb. striate, viscid; g. obtusely adnate, sometimes tinged pink; st. - cm. even, dry, rooting; sp. ----. =galericulata=, scop. p. - cm. conic camp. exp. striate up to umbo, dry, brownish, livid, &c.; adnate with decurrent tooth, connected by veins, pinkish when old; s. - cm. polished, even, glabrous; sp. - × . _m. rugosa_ differs from present sp. in having grey gills and rugulose pileus. [=simillima=, karsten. p. conico-campan. even, dry, glabrous, livid or dingy pallid; g. emarginato-decur. crowded, white, very slightly tinged rose; s. fragile, polished, even, glabrous, base curved, rooting; sp. ----. very near to _mycena galericulata_, differing in being fragile and in becoming pale. =polygramma=, bull. p. - cm. conic camp. subumb. dry, striate, dark grey or blackish-blue when young; g. pale pinkish-grey tinge; s. - cm. rigid, tough, shining, longitudinally striate, strigosely rooting, grey; sp. - × . differs from _m. plicata_ in striate stem. [=inclinata=, fr. p. camp. obtuse, striate to middle, everywhere brownish; g. adnate, whitish, base grey; s. rigid, twisted, pruinosely fibrillose, upwards interruptedly striate. =parabolica=, fr. p. - cm. oval then camp. striate to middle, disc blackish-violet, margin paler, becoming pale; g. adnate; s. - cm. even, glabrous, base strigose, dark coloured; sp. - × . differs from _m. galericulata_ in absence of decurrent tooth of gills, also their pinkish colour. =tintinabulum=, fr. p. - cm. tough, camp. even, bay, yellow brown, pallid, &c., viscid when moist; g. adnate with a decurrent tooth, crowded; s. - cm. even, glabrous, pallid, strigosely rooting; sp. - × . differs from _m. galericulata_ in short stem and even pileus. =berkeleyi=, mass. (= _excisa_, b.). p. - cm. camp. striate up to umbo, hygr. dingy brown then paler; g. broadly sinuate with decurrent tooth, tinged flesh colour; s. - cm. long, purplish brown, base rooting; sp. × . . [=laevigata=, lasch. constantly white. p. hemispher.-exp. obtuse, even when dry; g. with decur. tooth, crowded, distinct, joined to a collar; s. even, glabrous, lubricous, base strigose. requires to be carefully distinguished from white forms of _m. galericulata_ and _m. rugosa_. s. lubricous when moist, not viscid. [=lasiosperma=, bres. caespitose. p. thin, conico-campan. exp. umb. edge then upturned, rather viscid, striate to umbo, livid grey with a grey bloom at first; g. sinuato-unc. connected by veins, whitish then grey; s. pallid above, chestnut and white-pruinose below; sp. globose, aculeate, - . iv. fragilipedes. _stem fragile, dry, juiceless. pileus hygrophanous. gills often discoloured._ =atroalba=, bolton. p. - cm. campan. obtuse, disc blackish or fuscous, whitish towards striate margin; g. free, crowded, glaucous; s. - cm. pallid, apex darker, base swollen, strigose; sp. ----. =dissiliens=, fr. smell strong, very fragile, conico-camp. obtuse, greyish-brown then pale, grooved to middle; g. broadest in front, base tinged grey; s. - cm. subincurved, slightly striate, dusky grey, base strigose; sp. ----. when compressed the stem splits into pieces which curl outwards elastically. =atrocyanea=, batsch. p. - . cm. convex-camp. sulcate, dark brown then blue-grey, powdered with white meal, deformed umbo obtuse; g. adnexed, whitish; s. - cm. slender, glabrous, blackish-blue; sp. ----. =pullata=, b. and cke. smell slightly nitrous. p. . - cm. dark brown, disc blackish, obtusely umb. striate to middle; g. white; s. - cm. coloured like pileus, rooting; sp. × . _m. leucogala_ and _m. galopoda_ differ in white milk in stem. _m. atrocyanea_ differs in dark blue tinge of p. and s. [=cinerella=, karst. smell very strong of meal. p. campan. entirely striate, grey or greyish-pallid; g. broadly adnato-decur. greyish-white; s. greyish-white, base fibrillose, not rooting; sp. ----. =psammicola=, b. and br. smell strong. p. - mm. hemispherical, brown, paler towards striate margin, sprinkled with minute particles; g. adnexed, sinuate; s. . - cm. umber, paler upwards, everywhere pulverulent; sp. ----. differs from _m. paupercula_ in pulverulent stem and pileus. =paupercula=, b. smell strong. p. - mm. conical, exp. pale ochraceous, minutely fibrillose; g. free, whitish; s. - . cm. slender, whitish, rooting; sp. ----. =leptocephala=, pers. smell strong, solitary, entirely grey. p. - . cm. umb. sulcate, pruinose, opaque; g. emarginate; s. - cm. slightly striate, opaque, dry; sp. ----. =alcalina=, fr. smell strong. p. . - . cm. camp. obtuse, naked, deeply striate when moist, shining when dry, pallid or tinged yellowish-green; g. adnate; s. - cm. yellowish, viscid, glabrous, shining, base villose; sp. × . =ammoniaca=, fr. smell strong. p. . - cm. conico-exp. umb. naked, discoid, opaque, dark brown or greyish, striate at paler margin; g. adnate; s. even, glabrous, rooting, pallid, - cm.; sp. ----. _m. alcalina_ differs in tufted habit, viscid stem with yellow tinge of colour. =metata=, fr. smell weak, alkaline, soft. p. obt. striate, hygr. grey--rarely yellowish or pinkish--even, opaque, and whitish when dry; g. adnate, not connected by veins, whitish; s. - cm. firm, even, glabrous, base fibrillose; sp. ----. =cinerea=, mass. and crossl. entirely grey, smell strong, like radishes. p. . - cm. subgibbous, exp. pale, silky and even when dry; g. adnate; s. - cm. glabrous, downy and white at base; sp. × ; cystidia fusiform. _m. leptocephala_ differs in sulcate p., and _m. metata_ in white gills. _m. plumbea_ has no smell. =plicosa=, fr. . - . cm. exp. plicato-sulcate, greyish brown, opaque when dry; g. thick, distant, veined, grey; s. - cm. polished, greyish; sp. globose, - . [=subplicosa=, karst. p. campan. obtuse, with distant grooves, almost plicate, glabrous, grey then pallid; g. adnate, whitish; s. rigid, shining, hyaline or livid, base strigose not rooting; sp. - × - . =consimilis=, cke. p. . - . cm. camp. grey, umbo darker, striate to middle, margin upturned and splitting; g. adnexed, grey; s. . - . cm. dry, smooth, paler than p.; sp. ----. more or less resembling several species. _m. leptocephala_ and _m. metata_ differ in strong smell. _m. peltata_ in orbicular plane pileus. _m. rugosa_ differs in rugose pileus. =peltata=, fr. p. . - cm. orbicular, soon plane, disc fleshy, blackish brown then grey, margin striate; g. with decurrent tooth, grey; s. - cm. even, glabrous, base downy; sp. ----. differs from _m. pelliculosa_ in absence of viscid pellicle. =aetites=, fr. p. . - cm. camp.-convex, coarsely striate, hygr. broad obtuse umbo prominent, brownish; g. uncinate, thin, connected by veins; s. - cm. glabrous, shining subcompressed; sp. ----. =stannea=, fr. p. - cm. exp. hygr. grey, even, and tin colour with a silky sheen when dry; g. with decurrent tooth, connected by veins, greyish white; s. - cm. even, shining, often compressed; sp. ----. differs from _m. vitrea_ in decurrent tooth to gills. =vitrea=, fr. p. . - . cm. livid brown, finely striate all over, no trace of umbo or fleshy disc; g. adnate, not connected by veins; s. - cm. slightly striate, polished, pale, base fibrillose; sp. ----. differs from _m. aetites_ and _m. stanneus_ in gills not having a decurrent tooth and not connected by veins. =tenuis=, bolton. white, tufted. p. - . cm. brittle, camp. obtuse, then exp. striate; g. adnate; s. - cm. thin, pellucid, glabrous; sp. ----. _m. gypsea_ differs in decurrent tooth of gills, and strigose base of stem. v. filipedes. _stem very slender, flaccid, rooting, dry, juiceless. gills discoloured, edge paler._ =filopes=, bull. p. - . cm. camp. then exp. striate, livid grey; g. free, white; s. - cm. flaccid, glabrous, rooting, base downy; sp. ----. =iris=, b. p. - cm. exp. obtuse, slightly viscid, striate, blue when young, then brownish with blue fibrils; g. free, tinged grey; s. - cm. bluish below, tinged brown above, with scattered fascicles of down; sp. ----. =amicta=, fr. p. up to cm. conico-camp. greyish, striate to middle, dry, glabrous; g. free, grey; s. - cm. filiform, tough, downy-pulverulent; sp. ----. =plumbea=, fr. p. - cm. convex then flattened, obtuse, sulcate, lead colour powdered with white meal; g. adnate horizontal, grey; s. - cm. elongated, pulverulent, grey, apex hyaline, base strigose, fragile; sp. ----. [=ianthina=, fr. p. conical, striate all over, glabrous, lilac; g. broadest in front, greyish-white; s. attenuated, flaccid, glabrous, slightly striate, brownish lilac. differs from _p. pura_ in persistently conical pileus. =urania=, fr. p. camp. then convex, dark violet when young, then blue becoming pale; g. uncinato-adnate, white; s. flaccid, even, glabrous, base rather rooting, floccose. =debilis=, fr. p. - . cm. camp.-convex, striate, whitish or livid then brownish, opaque, rugulose when dry; g. broadly adnate; s. - cm. flaccid, base fibrillose not rooting; sp. ----. [=lasiosperma=, bres. p. striate, grey, umbo darker; g. greyish white; s. white, pruinose, base brownish, strigosely rooting; sp. globose, aculeate. =vitilis=, fr. p. - mm. conical then exp. papillate, deeply striate when moist, brownish or greyish then pale; g. narrowed and adnate, greyish white; s. - cm. livid, flexile, rooting; sp. ----. var. _amsegetes_, secr. p. conico-campan. everywhere striate; g. not connected by veins, edge entire; s. thicker, short. [=latebricola=, karst. p. campan. then plano-convex, disc depr. striate, livid, fuscescent when dry; g. adnato-decurr., whitish; s. filiform, tough, glabrous, pallid, root strigose; sp. ----. [=canescens=, weinm. p. hemispher. then plane, subumbil., white then tinged grey; g. adnate, greyish; s. filiform, sooty grey, base fibrillose. =collariata=, fr. p. - cm. convex, subumb. striate, brownish or greyish then pale; g. adnate to a collar, whitish then tinged pink; s. - cm. pale, polished, tough; sp. ----. [=cimmeria=, fr. p. convex, slightly striate, dry, yellowish brown; g. adnexed, saffron yellow, edge white; s. glabrous, fibrillosely rooting. [=cladophylla=, lév. p. camp.-convex, wavy, glabrous, greyish white, shining; g. adnate, branched; s. naked, white, base brownish. [=epiphloea=, fr. p. persistently acutely conical, papillate, everywhere striate, whitish, apex tinged brown; g. free, ventricose, distant; s. diaphanous, pallid. [=supina=, fr. small. p. obtuse, striate; g. almost free, ventricose, white; s. short, incurved, tough, glabrous, white. =speirea=, fr. p. cm. convex, dark disc becoming depr. greyish with brown lines; g. plane then decurrent, shining white; s. - cm. tough, polished, fibrillosely rooting; sp. ----. =tenella=, fr. tufted. p. up to cm. obtuse, whitish, pellucid, margin striatulate; g. uncinate, white then pink; s. cm. glabrous, base downy; sp. ----. caespitose. altogether white or livid-rosy. pileus exceedingly delicate. =acicula=, schaeff. p. - mm. camp., orange red, margin striate; g. yellow; s. - cm. yellowish, base rooting; sp. ----. pileus at first subumbonate. gills subovate, almost free, yellow then pale. vi. lactipedes. _gills and rooting stem dry, giving out milk when broken._ =haematopoda=, pers. caespitose. p. - cm. camp. obtuse, edge denticulate, reddish disc darker; g. adnate, whitish, edge the same; s. - cm. reddish, white pulverulent, containing dusky red juice. =cruenta=, fr. p. cm. conico-camp. margin striate, edge entire, reddish; g. adnate, entirely white; s. - cm. containing dusky red juice; sp. =sanguinolenta=, a. and s. p. cm. convexo-camp. striate, reddish, edge darker; s. - cm. reddish with dark red juice; sp. ----. =crocata=, fr. p. . - . cm. conico-camp. umb. reddish; g. white; s. - cm. narrowed, downy rooting, containing saffron-red juice; sp. ----. =chelidonia=, sow. p. cm. camp. then obtuse, nearly even, pinkish with yellow tinge; g. adnate, tinged yellow; s. - cm. smooth, rooting, often compr. with yellow juice; sp. - × . =galopoda=, fr. p. - . cm. camp. umb. striate sooty or greyish; g. glaucous; s. slender, pallid, fibrillosely rooting, containing white milk; sp. - × . _m. leucogala_ differs in the grey gills. =leucogala=, cke. p. - . cm. camp. umb. sulcate, sooty or purple brown; g. adnate, grey; s. - cm. dark with whitish down at base, containing a large quantity of white milk; sp. ----. _m. pullata_ and _m. atrocyanea_ differ in having no milk. vii. glutinipedes. _stem juiceless, viscid or glutinous._ =epiterygia=, scop. p. - . cm. camp. then exp. striate with a separable viscid pellicle, greyish or greenish yellow; g. adnate; s. - cm. tough, glabrous, viscid, rooting, yellowish; sp. - × - . resembling _m. alcalina_, but no smell. =clavicularis=, fr. p. - cm. exp. striate, dry, not pelliculose, disc becoming depr. brownish, yellowish or pale; g. adnate, white; s. - cm. glabrous, viscid, whitish, base fibrillose; sp. ----. =pelliculosa=, fr. p. - cm. convex, obtuse, finely striate, viscid pellicle separable, grey or brownish; g. rather fold-like; s. - cm. glabrous, viscid, livid; sp. ----. differs from _m. vulgaris_ in separable cuticle. =vulgaris=, pers. p. - mm. convex then depr. with central papilla, viscid brownish or grey with darker lines; g. decur. white; s. viscid, pale, fibrillosely rooting; sp. × . . =citrinella=, pers. p. - mm. viscid, camp. then exp. umb. yellow; g. uncinate, white; s. cm. tough, viscid, yellow; sp. - × - . =plicato-crenata=, fr. p. cm. conical, subumb. coarsely plicate, edge crenate, pale yellow; g. white; s. - cm. viscid, tinged red or brownish, inside yellow; sp. ----. =rorida=, fr. p. up to cm. convex, umbil. sulcate, dry, pale ochre; g. subdecur. white; s. - cm. whitish, very glutinous; sp. ----. viii. basipedes. _stem dry, base expanded into an orbicular disc or bubillose and strigose_. =stylobates=, pers. white. p. - mm. obtuse, striate, subpilose; g. free; s. - cm. filiform, glabrous, inserted on a plane, orbicular, downy, striate disc; sp. × . [=dilatata=, fr. white. p. convexo-plane, obtuse, edge slightly striate; g. sublinear, connected into a collar; s. filiform, base orbicular, convex, glabrous. var. _clavicularis_. p. greyish, disc subrotund. =tenerrima=, b. white. p. - mm. convex, scurfy; g. free; s. - cm. minutely hairy below, fixed by a minute downy disc; sp. subgl. - . =discopoda=, lév. white. p. - mm. conical, obtuse, with white meal; g. adnate, distant; s. - mm. mealy, expanding at base into a minute downy disc; sp. ----. =saccharifera=, b. & br. whitish. p. - mm. convex; g. arcuately decur. dusted with shining particles; s. - mm. filiform, minute disc fixed by filaments; sp. ----. var. _eclectica_, buck. white. p. sulcate, and like gills and stem, sparkling with granules. [=mammillata=, pass. p. conico-campan. mammilate, sulcate, glabrous, shining white then greyish; g. adnate, broad; s. floccose below, base ending in a flat orbicular disc. [=mucor=, batsch. minute, fugacious. p. plicate, grey; g. adnate, distant, greyish white; s. hyaline, white, inserted in an orbicular disc. [=echinipes=, lasch. minute, white. p. camp. hyaline, striate; g. thick, distant; s. thickish, glabrous, base slightly bulbous, hairy. =pterigena=, fr. pale rose colour. p. - mm. camp. obtuse; g. adnate, broad, distant; s. - mm. thin, wavy, smooth, ending in a radially strigose disc; sp. ----. [=trachelina=, fr. p. brown, fibrillose; g. adnate, broad floccoso-fimbriate; s. villosely squamulose, bulbillose, strigosely rooting. [=cyanorhiza=, q. p. striate, greyish white; g. broad, whitish; s. greyish white, base somewhat swollen, hairy, blue. ix. insititiae. _stem very slender, not rooting nor attached by a disc but penetrating the substratum abruptly. gills adnate._ =corticola=, fr. p. - mm. obtuse, umbil. sulcate, blackish, brown, grey, &c.; g. adnate, broad; s. . cm. slender, incurved, minutely scurfy; sp. ----. =hiemalis=, osbeck. p. - mm. camp. umb. striate, pinkish, rufescent, white, &c., often pruinose; g. narrow; s. - cm. curved, base downy; sp. - × . differs from _m. corticola_ in narrow gills, and striate not sulcate pileus. =codoniceps=, cke. p. - mm. high and . mm. broad, pale umber, not exp. sulcate, delicately hairy; g. adnate; s. - mm. umber below; sp. × . . =setosa=, sow. white. p. mm. obtuse, smooth, g. almost free; s. - cm. slender, covered with delicate spreading hairs; sp. ----. =capillaris=, fr. white. p. mm. camp. obtuse, then umbil.; g. adnate, few; s. . - . cm. hair-like, wavy, glabrous; sp. - × . [=stipularis=, fr. very minute and delicate. p. convex subumbil. rosy, as are also the gills; s. downy, yellowish. =juncicola=, fr. p. - mm. striate, glabrous, rufescent or rosy; g. adnate, distant; s. - . cm. glabrous, fuscous; sp. ----. collybia, fr. a. _gills white or clear coloured, not grey; flesh white._ i. striaepedes. _stem stout, hollow or loosely stuffed, sulcate or fibrillosely striate._ * _gills white, rather distant._ =radicata=, relh. p. - cm. exp. gibbous, rugose, viscid, brownish ochre; g. distant, white; s. - cm. attenuated upwards, glabrous, rooting; - × - . =longipes=, bull. p. - cm. exp. umb. dry, minutely velvety, pale brown; s. - cm. velvety, with a rooting base, brownish; sp. ----. differs from _c. velutipes_ in dry, velvety pileus. =veluticeps=, rea. p. - cm. velvety, tawny; g. sinnato-adnate, deep ochre; st. - cm. fusiform, striate, slightly velvety, with rhizomorphic mycelium; sp. - × - . caespitose. [=elevata=, weinm. p. tough, exp. subfibrillose, umbo evanescent, greyish white, shining, floccosely scaly; g. shining white then dingy; s. long, striate, abruptly rooting. =platyphylla=, fr. p. - cm. exp. obtuse, moist, fibrillosely virgate, brown or greyish; g. truncate behind, white; s. - cm. striate, pallid, base abrupt, with cord-like strands of mycelium; sp. - × . var. _repens_, ach. p. depr.; s. hollow, compr. apex pruinose, rhizomorphic mycelium copious, anastomosing. =semitalis=, fr. p. - cm. exp. obtuse, glabrous, moist, sooty or livid ochraceous, pale when dry; g. white, blackish when bruised, finally obscure; s. - cm. fibrillose, with a thin cartilaginous cuticle, brownish or grey; sp. - × - . [=lentiniformis=, karst. p. convexo-plane, umbil. or depr. irreg. even, glabrous, rufescent; g. almost free, crowded, white then spotted black; s. apex thickened and silky, whitish, blackish when bruised; sp. - × - . resembling _lentinus cochleatus_ in form and colour. [=concolor=, del. white then tan. p. umboniform then exp. even, rarely scaly; g. adnexed, pallescent; s. solid, equal, glabrous. [=loripes=, fr. caespitose. p. exp. flexuose, lax, yellowish rufous, even, glabrous; g. white then sulphur yellow; s. pallid, flexuous, fibrillosely striate. [=aerina=, q. p. flexuous, tomentose, coppery olive; g. distant, yellow; s. striate, orange yellow. =fusipes=, bull. p. - cm. exp. umbo at length disappearing, rufous or dingy tan, often cracked; g. adnexed, white then dingy; s. - cm. ventricose, grooved, rooting, glabrous, cartilaginous; sp. - × - . tufted. edible. var. _oedematopa_, schaeff. subcaespitose, p. conical then flattened, rufous bay; g. pallid; s. ventricose, fibrillosely pulverulent. var. _contorta_, bull. caespitoso-connate, pileus and twisted stem thinner; g. crowded, white. =lancipes=, fr. p. - cm. exp. umb. radiately rugulose, margin striate, pale flesh colour then pallid; g. connected by veins, tinged flesh colour; s. - cm. striate, narrowed towards rooting base; sp. ----. differs from _c. fusipes_ in rugulose pileus, and in growing singly. =mimica=, w. g. sm. smell strong, fishy. p. - cm. obtuse, with separable cuticle, dingy ochraceous, as are the broad g.; s. narrowed towards base, ochraceous, - cm.; sp. × - . ** _gills crowded, narrow._ =maculata=, a. & s. white; p. - cm. obtuse, compact, becoming spotted with rust colour; g. free, closely crowded; s. - cm. more or less ventricose, grooved, narrowed below, spotted rusty; subgl. - . var. _immaculata_, cke. not becoming spotted; g. minutely serrulate. var. _scorzonera_, batsch. smaller, yellowish, stem long, rooting, often wavy; g. yellowish. [=serpentina=, otth. p. campan. yellowish white, glabrous, somewhat shining, whitish, edge involute, white-fibrillose; g. crenulate, whitish, becoming tinged red; s. whitish, striate, silky shining, hollow, ending in a long contorted serpentine root running amongst leaves. =prolixa=, fl. dan. p. - cm. lax, exp. gibbous, even, glabrous, tawny or brick red tinge; g. free, crowded, narrow, not spotted; s. solid, subequal, not rooting, sulcate, brick-red, - cm.; sp. - × . =distorta=, fr. p. lax, - cm. exp. umb. glabrous, even, bay then pale; g. narrow, much crowded, soon spotted red; s. - cm. narrowed from ventricose base, sulcate, more or less twisted, pallid; sp. - × . =butyracea=, bull. p. - cm. exp. umb. even, glabrous, moist and shining, reddish brown then pallid, flesh whitish; g. crenulate; s. - cm. conical, striate, rufous; sp. - × - . var. _bibulosa_, mass. p. dingy olive at first. var. _aurorea_, larb. p. thinner, edge striate, flesh rufescent; s. hollow. [=funicularis=, karst. (= _coll. dryophila_, var. _funicularis_, fr.). p. rufous then pale, even; g. sulphur then pale; s. sulcate, apex thickened, curved, yellowish white; sp. × - . [=phaeopodia=, fr. p. exp. even, glabrous, moist, umbo evanescent, flesh brownish, fuscous brown; g. white; s. blackish brown, thickened at both ends. [=epipphia=, fr. p. discoid, viscid, striate to middle; g. white, connected by veins; s. narrowed upwards, striate, white. [=asema=, weinm. p. thin, umb. hygr. livid, whitish when dry, flesh watery, horny-grey near gills; g. crowded, entire, whitish; s. striate, livid. =stridula=, fr. p. soft, soon exp. even, moist, hygr. blackish then pale; g. arcuato-adnexed, white; s. fibrilloso-striate, livid brown. distinguished from _trich. melaleucum_ by the dark stem. [=pulla=, schaeff. p. campan.-exp. obtuse, even, glabrous, hygr. purple bay then pallid fuscous; g. transversely pellucidly striate, whitish; s. twisted, soft. =xylophila=, fr. p. - cm. lax, campan. then exp. gibbous, disc brownish tan, rest paler; g. adnate, very narrow, much crowded; s. - cm. subflexuous, fibrillose, whitish; × . . caespitose. _c. confluens_ and _c. ingrata_ differ in downy stem. [=jurana=, q. p. thin, fleshy-buff colour, white floccose, margin crenulate; g. whitish tinged flesh colour; s. fibrillose, whitish. [=ramosa=, bull. pure white. p. exp. disc depr. slightly striate; g. crowded; s. stuffed, subequal, rooting, glabrous. [=strumosa=, fr. white. p. wavy, glabrous, margin at first incurved and downy; g. crowded; s. hollow, equal, flexuous, surface crisped and wavy, striate. [=globularis=, weinm. white. p. globose, disc becoming plane and umbil., edge roundly incurved; g. adnate, crowded, broad; s. apex flocculose, base tomentose. ii. vestipedes. _stem thin, equal, fistulose or medullate, even, velvety, floccose or pruinose._ * _gills broad, rather distant._ =velutipes=, fr. - cm. exp. viscid, yellow, glabrous; g. yellowish; s. - cm. velvety, blackish brown below, rooting; sp. × - . . var. _rubescens_, cke. p. tawny; g. ochraceous. var. _lactea_, q. p. white; g. broad; s. velvety. =laxipes=, fr. p. - cm. obtuse, glabrous, moist, whitish; g. distant; s. - cm. lax, stuffed, with rufous velvety down; sp. ----. much smaller and slenderer than _c. velutipes_. [=declinis=, weinm. p. conico-campan. umb. moist, at length rivulose, pale fuscous; g. scarcely adnexed, pallid, edge floccoso-crenulate; s. white, apex flocculoso-pulverulent. [=benoistii=, boud. soft. p. convex then plane, rather hygr. dark purple-bay then paler, edge striate, pellucid; g. nearly free, whitish then tinged purple-bay; s. bay, apex paler and scurfy, pale flocculose; flesh coloured. =floccipes=, fr. p. - cm. convex, umb. even, sooty brown then pale; g. thick; s. - cm. whitish and rough with minute black points, rooting; sp. ----. [=trochila=, lasch. p. convex, glabrous, umbilicately depr. discoid, hyalino-striate, pallid fuscous; g. adnate, narrow; s. long, rigid, blackish brown. =vertiruga=, cke. p. - cm. subpulverulent, exp. dull brown or grey, radially wrinkled; g. adnate; s. - cm. tawny, minutely velvety, base strigose; sp. ----. differs from _c. stipitaria_ in adnate gills and dingy pileus. =stipitaria=, fr. p. - . cm. exp. umb. velvety-squamulose, whitish with brown fibrils; g. ventricose; s. . - cm. bay, fibrillose or hairy; sp. ----. [=sobolewski=, weinm. p. thin, hemispher. obtusely umb. white-pulverulent, shining white then tinged rosy; g. free; s. slender, tinged fuscescent, shining, white-fibrillose. [=alumna=, schum. white. p. thin, globose-campan. exp. glabrous, striate; g. adnate, broad; s. subulate from thickened base, downy below. habitat on fungi like _c. tuberosa_, from which it differs in adnate gills. ** _gills very narrow, closely crowded._ =hariolorum=, bull. p. - cm. exp. glabrous, dingy tan; g. white then pallid; s. - cm. narrowed upwards, rufescent, woolly-hirsute; sp. - × - . =confluens=, pers. p. - cm. obtuse, flaccid, glabrous, rufescent then pallid; g. closely crowded; s. - cm. more or less compressed, rufous, everywhere with white down; sp. subgl. - . differs from _c. hariolorum_ in densely tufted habit. =ingrata=, schum. p. - cm. convex, umb. even, brownish tan; g. free, pallid; s. - cm. twisted, subcompressed, with white meal above, umber and naked below, equal; sp. ----. [=lilacea=, q. subtomentose, lilac; p. thin, hoary; g. amethyst; s. slender, base with white down. [=lupuletora=, weinm. p. exp. depr. even, glabrous, livid or pale tan then pallid; g. adnate, crowded, white; s. not rooting, white and pulverulently scaly above, brownish, glabrous, and narrowed below. [=foetidissima=, gill. smell extremely foetid. p. convex, umbil. wavy, yellowish white; g. whitish; s. white. [=orbicularis=, secr. p. exp. umb. brown, disc with small viscid blackish warts; g. adnexed, crowded; s. rufescent with white meal. [=myosura=, fr. p. orbicular, exp. obtuse, rufous, becoming pale; g. free, much crowded; s. rufescent, apex powdered, root long, glabrous. =conigena=, pers. - cm. exp. subumb. glabrous, reddish-yellow or pale; g. free, much crowded, pallid; s. - cm. pulverulent, pallid, base strigose, rooting; sp. - × . differs from _c. tenacella_ and _c. esculenta_ in free, crowded, narrow gills. var. _lutea_, vogl. p. yellow; g. densely crowded, white. =cirrhata=, fr. - . cm. exp. at length umbilicate, silky, opaque, white; g. adnate; s. - cm. slender, wavy, whitish, with a downy root; sp. - × - . differs from _c. conigena_ in adnate gills, and from _c. tuberosa_ in downy rooting stem not springing from a sclerotium. =tuberosa=, bull. p. about cm. white, exp. umb. even; g. adnate; s. . - cm. thin, white, root glabrous and springing from a sclerotium; sp. - × - . =racemosa=, pers. p. up to cm. convex, papillate, grey, subtomentose; g. adnate; s. - cm. base dark, springing from a blackish sclerotium; several minute stems with abortive pilei often spring from the stem; sp. ----. iii. laevipes. _stem thin, equal, fistulose, naked, glabrous (except base), not conspicuously striate._ * _gills broad, lax, usually more or less distant._ =collina=, scop. p. - cm. exp. umb., brownish then pale; g. adnexed then free; s. - cm. equal, even, glabrous, base abrupt, downy; sp. ----. =thelephora=, cke. and mass. p. - cm. camp. lax, umb. apiculate, dingy ochraceous, disc darker; g. adnate; s. - cm. equal, hollow, glabrous, base dark; sp. × . =ventricosa=, bull. p. - cm. camp. umb. glabrous, pale tan; g. with rufous tinge; s. - cm. rufescent, base ventricose, rooting; sp. ----. differs from _c. dryophila_ in ventricose, rooting stem. =leucomyosotis=, cke. strong scented, rather fragrant. p. - cm. exp. grey then paler; g. adnate, sinuate, white; s. - cm. equal, brittle, pallid; sp. × . =stevensoni=, b. and br. p. - . cm. obtuse, viscid, pale yellow; g. broadly adnate, broad, white; s. - cm. rufous, equal, fibrillose, rooting; sp. - × - . differs from _c. esculenta_ in broad, adnate gills. =psathyroides=, cke. ivory white. p. . - cm. broad and nearly . cm. high, camp. obtuse, rather viscid; g. broadly adnate, broad; s. - cm. equal, straight, hollow; sp. × . =xanthopoda=, fr. p. . cm. exp. umb. glabrous, lax, yellow or tan colour then pale; g. truncate behind; s. - cm. equal, hollow, tough, glabrous, yellowish, strigosely rooting; sp. ----. differs from _c. dryophila_ in umbo, broad gills, and strigosely rooting stem. =nitellina=, fr. p. - cm. exp. even, shining, tawny, hygroph.; g. adnate, white then tinted; s. - cm. equal, rigid, glabrous, tawny; sp. ----. =succinea=, fr. p. - . cm. even, exp. then subdepressed, pale rufous, often cracked; g. adnexed, broad, thickish, serrulate; s. - cm. polished, rufescent, not rooting; sp. ----. differs from _c. dryophila_ by broader, thicker, less crowded gills, and from _c. xanthopoda_ by absence of an umbo. =nummularia=, bull. p. - cm. exp. subdepressed round small umbo, pallid; g. free; s. - cm. glabrous, pallid, apex thickened; sp. ----. =esculenta=, wulf. p. - cm. orbicular, exp. obtuse, glabrous, pallid tan; g. adnate, lax, whitish; s. . cm. indistinctly hollow, even, polished, yellowish tan, rooting, base glabrous; sp. ----. _c. tenacella_ differs in fibrillose rooting base, and snow-white gills. =tenacella=, pers. p. . - cm. exp. subumb. even, glabrous, brownish then pale; g. broad, snow-white; s. - cm. narrowly fistulose, straight, even, glabrous, tawny, long root strigose; sp. - × . var. _stolonifer_, jungh. p. springing from a long, creeping, cord-like mycelium. =eustygia=, cke. smell of rancid meal. p. - cm. exp. subdepr. often wavy, whitish, shining when dry; g. dark grey; s. - cm. white above and sprinkled with pointed scales; darker below, rooting; sp. subgl. - . [=rhodella=, pat. p. thin, convexo-plane, reddish-brown, disc rugulose, edge striate; g. adnate, distant, white, tinged pink; s. tinged brown, twisted, wavy. =retigera=, bres. p. - cm. campan.-exp. umb. dry, glabrous, fuscous-grey then pale, centre somewhat tawny, raised veins forming a network on the surface; g. broad, edge paler, fimbriate; s. - cm. pallid, whitish fibrillose, often compressed, somewhat rooting; sp. ----. [=plumipes=, kalchb. p. campan. exp. subumb. slightly innato-fibrillose, livid fuscous, shining; g. broad, white; s. glabrous, white, base fibrilloso-strigose. differs from _c. conigena_ in glabrous s. and broad g. [=planipes=, brig. caespitose. p. orbicular, exp. rather viscid, bay; g. free; s. colour of p., rooting. [=gussonei=, inzeng. p. convex, subumb., rather striate, brick-red, edge dingy yellow; g. adnate, broad, crimson; s. compr. ochre with a crimson zone. ** _gills narrow, crowded._ =acervata=, fr. caespitose. p. - cm. exp. obtuse, then umb., reddish then pale; g. free, narrow, closely crowded; s. - cm. equal, glabrous, rufous, base downy, rooting; sp. - × . . differs from _c. confluens_ in glabrous stem, and from _marasmius erythropus_ in narrow, closely crowded gills. =dryophila=, bull. p. . cm. obtuse, then subdepr. reddish or pale tan, even; g. sinuate, crowded, narrow; s. - cm. hollow, glabrous, rufescent or yellowish; sp. - × . =aquosa=, fr. every part honey-colour. p. - . cm. obtuse, hygr. margin striate; g. rounded and free, crowded; s. - cm. polished, surface slightly wavy; sp. × . var. _bulliardii_. p. reddish ochre then pale; s. tawny. =extuberans=, fr. p. - . cm. exp. umb. prominent, bay or umber; g. crowded, narrow; s. - cm. equal, straight, glabrous, pallid, rooting; sp. ----. =exsculpta=, fr. p. - cm. exp. umbilicate, persistently tawny brown; g. closely crowded, sulphur-yellow; s. - cm. yellow; sp. ----. [=luteifolia=, gill. p. exp. edge lobed, irreg. reddish or cinnamon; g. sulphur yellow; s. glabrous, colour of p. [=cinnamomaeifolia=, gill. p. convex, subdepr. with a slight umbo, whitish yellow; g. crowded, pale cinnamon; s. reddish. =macilenta=, fr. entirely yellow. p. - . cm. obtuse, even, glabrous; g. linear; s. minutely fistulose, glabrous, tough, rooting, - cm.; sp. - × . =clavus=, l. p. - mm. obtuse, even, orange-red, shining; g. crowded, white; s. . - . cm. very slender, whitish, glabrous; sp. × . . _mycena acicula_ differs in yellow gills and rooting stem. =ocellata=, fr. p. - . cm. exp. disc depr. round pale small umbo, rufous or yellowish; g. crowded, white; s. - cm. slender, tough, glabrous, tinged fuscous, base rooting, fibrillose; sp. ----. distinguished from _c. cirrhata_ by glabrous stem. [=floridula=, fr. p. exp. obtuse, slightly striate, tinged flesh colour then pale; g. pale rose colour; s. pellucid, white. [=micheliana=, fr. pure white. p. obtuse, margin slightly striate; g. adnexed, crowded; s. thin, glabrous, base slightly thickened. =muscigena=, schum. pure white. p. - mm. obtuse, even; g. adnate; s. . - . cm. very slender, wavy, equal, glabrous; sp. ----. known from small sp. of _mycena_ by the broadly adnate gills and even pileus. [=ludia=, fr. pure white. p. subumb. exp. revolute, undulate and irreg. lobed, even; g. rather distant; s. slender, wavy, naked, root creeping, branched, fibrillose. b. _gills grey._ iv. tephrophanae. _brown or greyish._ * _gills crowded, rather narrow._ =rancida=, fr. smell strong. p. - cm. umb. dusky grey with a white silkiness; g. free, narrow, grey; s. - cm. glabrous, grey, rooting; sp. - × - . distinguished among strong-smelling species by the rooting stem. [=ignobilis=, karst. p. plane, subdepr. edge spreading, livid, hoary, pale when dry; g. crowded, dingy pallid; s. livid, floccosely pruinose; sp. - × . [=daemonica=, karst. p. convex then exp. subumb. glabrous, rather virgate, livid fuscous, disc blackish, pale when dry; g. adnate, crowded, smoky, blackish when bruised; s. equal, glabrous, wavy, fibrillosely striate, pallid, apex white flocculose; sp. - × - . =coracina=, fr. smell strong. p. - cm. exp. naked, hygr. brownish then grey; g. greyish-white; s. - cm. hollow, rigid, not rooting, brown, apex mealy-squamulose; sp. ----. differs from _c. rancida_ in the short stem thickened at base, and not rooting; _c. ozes_ differs from present in long, slender, flexuous stem. =ozes=, fr. smell strong. p. - cm. exp. umb. naked, glabrous, hygr. margin striate, greyish brown; g. adnexed, grey then olive; s. - cm. subflexuous, slender, fragile, slightly striate, grey, apex with white meal; sp. ----. _c. rancida_ differs in free gills and rooting stem. [=mephitica=, fr. smell strong. p. exp. subumb. even, adpressedly innately silky, whitish; g. obtusely adnate, crowded, whitish; s. filiform, obsoletely fistulose, tough, grey, pruinosely velvety. =inolens=, fr. p. - cm. exp. umb. glabrous, livid or pale tan; g. adnexed, greyish-white; s. - cm. livid, undulate, base white-strigose, apex white squamulose; sp. - × - . _c. plexipes_ and _c. protracta_ differ in having the stem glabrous at the apex. =plexipes=, fr. p. - cm. camp. rather rugulose, slightly striate, glabrous, sooty; g. free; s. - cm. livid, silky fibrillose, rooting; sp. - × . differs from _c. protracta_ in free gills. [=miser=, fr. p. subumb. glabrous, margin striate; g. adnate, grey; s. fuscous, apex mealy. [=atramentosa=, kalchb. p. exp. subumb. rugulose, livid then sooty, flesh black; g. narrow, becoming blackish; s. naked, colour of p. [=fuliginaria=, weinm. p. fuscous, with down; g. glaucous; s. fuscous, flocculose. =atrata=, fr. p. - cm. pitch-black then brown, even, exp. or depr. margin arched; g. adnate; s. - . cm. even, glabrous, brown outside and inside; sp. ----. =ambusta=, fr. p. - cm. exp. papillate, slightly striate, glabrous, livid brown; g. adnate, tinged fuscous; s. . - cm. somewhat stuffed, tough, livid; sp. - × - . differs from _c. atrata_ in umbonate pileus. ** _gills very broad, more or less distant._ =lacerata=, lasch. p. . - . cm. camp. moist, streaked dark brown on pale ground; g. adnexed, broad, thick, greyish; s. - cm. twisted, fibrous, apex floccose; sp. ----. [=phalliodorus=, alex. foetid, convex, subumbilicate, at length lobed, dingy ochraceous; g. adnate, white; s. glabrous. =murina=, fr. p. - cm. exp. umbilicate, glabrous then rugulosely squamulose, dark brown then pale; g. slightly adnexed, broad; s. - cm. hollow, cylindrical, not rooting, grey; sp. × . somewhat resembling _c. atrata_, differing in very broad almost free gills. [=glacialis=, fr. p. watery, fragile, obtuse, dusky fuscous then pale; g. free, grey; s. grey, naked. =protracta=, fr. p. . - cm. exp. shining, disc fleshy, depressed, subpapillate, greyish brown, margin striate; g. broad, grey; s. - cm. glabrous, root long fibrillosely strigose; sp. ----. =tesquorum=, fr. p. - . cm. plane, obtuse, even, blackish then pale; g. free, greyish brown; s. - cm. thin, brown, apex pruinose; sp. ----. [=cessans=, karst. p. exp. then depr. glabrous, striate, pallid fuscous then pale and hoary, sublubricous; g. adnate, then adnato-decur. connected by veins, whitish; s. solid, pallid, apex pruinose. =clusilis=, fr. p. - cm. exp. umbilicate, glabrous, hygr. livid then pale; g. arcuately adfixed, semicircular, broad; s. - cm. glabrous, pallid, not rooting; sp. ----. differs from _c. tylicolor_ and _c. nummularia_ in umbilicate pileus, and decurrent tooth to gills. [=erosa=, fr. p. exp. striate, hygr. silky when dry, grey; g. broadly emarginate, greyish; s. greyish-white, glabrous. =tylicolor=, fr. p. - cm. exp. subumb. even, glabrous, bluish-grey, with white meal when young; g. free, distant, broad, grey; s. - cm. pulverulent, grey; sp. ----. _introduced species._ =dorotheae=, b. p. cm. globose then exp. subumb. dark brown then paler, sulcate, squarroso-setulose; g. white, distant; s. - cm. slender, minutely discoid at base, granulated like pileus and beset with white bristles. =caldarii=, b. p. cm. hemispherical, umb. brown, rugose; g. grey; s. - cm. pale grey, cartilaginous; sp. ----. marasmius, fr. a. collybia. _margin of pileus incurved at first. stem cartilaginous; mycelium floccose._ i. scortei. _stem solid, or stuffed then hollow, fibrous inside; outside villose over the cartilaginous cortex. gills becoming free._ * _base of stem strigosely woolly._ =urens=, fr. p. acrid. - cm. exp. glabrous, even, pinkish buff, pale when dry; g. free, becoming brownish, at length remote; s. - cm. everywhere covered with white farinose down; sp. × . the acrid taste separates this sp. from _m. oreades_. [=subannulatus=, trog. p. plane or depr. even, yellowish; g. adnate, reddish then brownish; s. with an incomplete ring about the middle, base with white down. =peronatus=, fr. acrid. p. exp. reddish brown, then tan colour, becoming lacunose, margin striate; g. adnexed, seceding, pallid then rufescent; s. - cm. villosely downy, lower portion coarsely strigose, yellowish; sp. × - . =porreus=, fr. smell of garlic. p. - cm. dingy yellowish then paler, striate, disc even, flaccid; g. distant, firm, yellow then pale; s. - cm. reddish-brown, pubescent; sp. subgl. . differs from _m. prasiosmus_ in yellowish gills and stem everywhere pubescent. [=mulleus=, fr. mild. p. plane or depr. even, yellow brown then paler; g. citrin; s. bay towards fusiform rooting base, with a purplish tomentose ring. [=queletii=, schulz. white. p. diaphanous, umb.; g. free, white; s. stuffed; with grey rooting mycelium. [=foeniculaceus=, fr. p. tough, convex-umb. then plano-depr. pallid then white; g. broad, thick, adnex. distant, whitish; s. fibrous, glabrous, base abrupt, with rufous fibres. used as a condiment. ** _base of stem naked, often formed of twisted fibres._ =oreades=, fr. p. - cm. subumb. glabrous, brownish then pale; g. free, broad, distant, pale; s. - cm. pallid, everywhere with a downy surface; sp. × . edible. [=globularis=, fr. p. globose campan. umb. hygrophanous, pellucidly striate; g. free, white then dingy; s. pulverulent, white. =plancus=, fr. p. -... cm. pliant, plane or depr. even, rufescent then pale; g. narrow, tinged ochraceous-brown; s. - cm. with white down, base narrowed, naked; sp. ----. differs from _m. oreades_ in narrower, darker coloured gills. [=pyramidalis=, fr. p. umb. shining, dingy brown then pale; g. arcuately adnexed, white then reddish; s. narrowed upwards, flocculose, whitish, rooting. =scorteus=, fr. p. - . cm. pallid, exp. obtuse, even, wrinkled; g. broad, distant, white; s. - cm. obsoletely hollow, equal, tinged fuscous, glabrous, apex slightly mealy; sp. × . resembling _m. oreades_, but smaller and stem glabrous. ii. tergini. _stem rooting, distinctly tubular, not fibrous, evidently cartilaginous. gills becoming free._ * _stem woolly below, glabrous above._ =prasiosmus=, fr. smell of garlic. p. . - cm. pale yellow or whitish disc, often darker, wrinkled, g. adnexed; s. - cm. pallid and glabrous above, thickened and subtomentose below and brownish; sp. - × . differs from _m. porreus_ in white gills and estriate pileus. =varicosus=, fr. p. . - cm. reddish brown, plane or depr. wavy, subumb. darker when dry; g. closely crowded, very narrow; s. - cm. reddish, with red juice, base with reddish down; sp. × . =fuscopurpureus=, fr. - . cm. exp. often umbilicate, purplish brown then pale; g. attached to collar then free, tinged reddish; s. . - cm. dry, dingy purple, base with reddish down; sp. - . =terginus=, fr. p. . - . cm. exp. obtuse, shining, reddish, then pale, striate at margin; g. narrow, free; s. - cm. glabrous, shining, pallid, reddish below with white down, rooting; sp. - × . much like _m. prasiosmus_ and _m. porreus_, differing from both in absence of smell. [=gelidus=, q. p. campan. exp. thin, rugosely striate, pruinose, translucent; g. free, hyaline or tinged rose; s. filiform, striate, pruinosely-pubescent, base cottony, recurved; sp. - . [=putillus=, fr. p. rufescent then tan; g. rufous, margin paler, entire; s. short, rufescent, abrupt base with white down. [=carpathicus=, kalchb. p. exp. subumb. rather viscid, brownish, hygr. edge striatulate; g. rotundato-adnexed, pallid; s. even, naked above, pallid, rest bay, white downy base rooting. ** _stem (at least when dry) everywhere pruinosely velvety._ =wynnei=, b. and br. p. . - cm. soon plane, subumb. lilac-brown; g. adnexed, lilac; s. - cm. paler than p., scurfy; - × . =erythropus=, fr. p. - cm. obtuse, even, then rugulose, pallid; g. broad, lax, pallid, connected by veins; s. - cm. hollow, striate, glabrous, dark red, base with white down; sp. - × - . differs from _collybia acervata_ by the broad distant gills. [=dispar=, fr. p. subumb. whitish, margin striate; g. nearly free, crowded, narrow; s. purplish-brown, pruinose, base with white down. =archyropus=, fr. p. . - . cm. plane or depr. glabrous, pallid; g. crowded, linear, pallid; s. - cm. rigid, straight, pale rufescent, coated with white down, base similar; sp. subgl. - . differs from _m. terginus_ in tufted habit, and from _m. prasiosmus_ in absence of smell. =torquescens=, q. p. - . cm. plane, rugosely striate, pallid; g. free; s. - cm. brown, minutely velvety, apex pale and glabrous; sp. × . =impudicus=, fr. smell foetid. p. . - . cm. rugulosely striate, reddish bay, then pale; g. tinged red then pale; s. - cm. equal, purplish, covered with white down when dry, base naked, rooting; sp. × - . differs from _m. foetidus_ in free gills. [=saxatilis=, fr. p. depr. striate, reddish; g. adnate, white; s. glabrous, apex pruinose, reddish. iii. calopodes. _stem short, not rooting, entering matrix abruptly, often with a small floccose tubercle at base. gills adnate then subdecur. when p. expands._ * _stem very glabrous upwards, shining, base simple._ =scorodonius=, fr. smell of garlic. p. . - cm. soon plane, dry, rufous then pale, wrinkled; g. adnate, whitish; s. . - cm. equal, everywhere glabrous, shining, rufous; sp. × . =calopus=, fr. p. - . cm. exp. even then wrinkled, glabrous, whitish; g. emarginately adnexed; s. - . cm. even, glabrous, bay, shining, not rooting; × . habit of _m. scorodonius_, but no smell. =vaillantii=, fr. p. . - . cm. depr. plicately rugose, whitish; g. broad, subdecurrent; s. - . cm. glabrous, bay, apex paler and thickened; sp. × . _m. impudicus_ differs in purplish stem with white down when dry. _m. foetidus_ differs in strong smell. =angulatus=, fr. p. - . cm. soon exp. at length folded and angular, whitish or tinge of tawny; g. distant; s. - cm. greyish rufescent, thickened at both ends; sp. × . closely resembling _m. curreyi_ and _m. graminum_; differs from former in ventricose gills not attached to a collar; from the latter in the gills not being attached to a collar. _m. calopus_ differs in the shining, bay stem. [=kirchneri=, thurn. p. often umb. pallid whitish brown; g. subdecur. distant, whitish fuscous; s. filiform, glabrous, brown. =languidus=, fr. p. . - cm. umbil. flocculose, rugosely sulcate, whitish tinged yellow or flesh colour; g. narrow; s. - cm. thickened upwards, pale, naked, base tawny; sp. - × . =rubricatus=, mass. p. up to cm. soon plane, whitish tinged red; g. adnexed, white then brownish; s. - cm. slender, incurved, hollow; sp. × . ** _stem velvety pruinose, base subtuberculose._ =foetidus=, fr. foetid. p. - cm. exp. and umbil. or wavy, striato-plicate, tawny bay or rufous, pruinose when dry; g. rufescent with a yellow tinge; s. - cm. hollow, bay, minutely velvety; sp. × . =inodorus=, pat. p. thin, exp. reddish brown with adpr. silky down; g. adnate, crowded, whitish; s. blackish red, apex pale, entirely covered with white bloom. differs from _m. foetidus_ in absence of smell. [=xerotoides=, tr. p. umbilicate, umber, striate; g. broadly adnate, becoming greyish; s. velvety, base thickened, strigose. [=lagopinus=, fr. p. convex, even, glabrous, pallid; g. adnate, pallid; s. pallid, white floccose half way up, apex naked. =amadelphus=, fr. p. - mm. soon plane, disc slightly pruinose, margin at length striate, pale reddish-yellow; g. broadly adnate, broad; s. pallid, bay below, slightly pruinose - . cm.; sp. × . . var. _insignis_. g. very distant, pale umber. =ramealis=, fr. p. - mm. opaque, rugulose, not striate, white, disc often tinged rufescent; g. rather distant, narrow, white, adnate; s. cm. white, mealy, base darker; sp. × . =candidus=, bolt. entirely white. p. up to . cm. pellucid, wrinkled, naked; g. adnexed; s. - cm. whitish, slightly pruinose, base tinged brownish; sp. × . b. mycena. _stem horny, fistulose but often with a pith, tough, dry, mycelium rhizomorphoid, cortex not floccose, edge of pileus straight and adpressed to stem at first._ i. chordales. _stem rigid, rooting, or adnate by a dilated base._ =alliaceus=, fr. smell of garlic. p. . cm. subumb. even then striate or sulcate, greyish; g. free; s. - cm. minutely velvety, blackish; sp. - × . =molyoides=, fr. smell somewhat unpleasant. p. soon plane, even, brownish then pale; g. free, crowded, white; s. tall, hollow, glabrous, blackish brown. [=chordalis=, fr. p. plicate, brownish; g. adnato-decurrent, white; s. elongated, straight, velvety, blackish brown, stuffed, rooting. =cauticinalis=, fr. p. about cm. yellowish, even then striato-sulcate; g. adnato-decur. connected by veins, yellow; s. - cm. flocculose, bay, paler and mealy upwards; sp. × - . [=schizopus=, secr. p. very thin, campan. plicato-sulcate, whitish; g. thick, distant, white, with a collar; s. whitish, base a darker dilated tubercle. [=torquatus=, fr. p. campan. sulcate, whitish; g. thick, attached to a collar; s. whitish, with a darker tubercular dilated base. ii. rotulae. _stem filiform, flaccid, base entering matrix abruptly._ * _stem very glabrous, shining._ =rotula=, fr. p. - mm. umbilicate, plicate, whitish or disc slightly tinged; g. attached to a free collar encircling the stem; s. - cm. glabrous, blackish, shining; sp. × - . [=littoralis=, q. p. umbil. plicate, white; g. free, distant; s. horny, umber, apex pale, base downy. =graminum=, berk. p. up to cm. umb. striate or sulcate, pale rufous, disc darker; g. attached to a collar encircling stem, few in number; s. - cm. black, shining, glabrous, apex paler; sp. subgl. - . [=epodius=, bres. p. convexo-campan. exp. usually umb. and depr. edge at first incurved, sulcate, centre usually reticulated, reddish-yellow then pale; g. free, white then yellowish; s. very glabrous, rufescent then bay, apex hyaline, base bulbillose substrigose; sp. - × . - . [=menieri=, boud. p. - mm. excentric, broadly subumb. punctulate tawny; g. fold-like, few, branched, paler than p.; s. curved, tawny, base black; sp. - × - . [=faveolaris=, fr. p. sulcate, exp. disc coloured; g. attached to a ring, anastomosing to form cells; s. glabrous, subulate, bay below. =androsaceus=, fr. p. - . cm. whitish, umbilicate striate; g. adnate to stem; s. - cm. black, glabrous, polished; sp. × - . [=sclerotipes=, bres. p. thin, convex, edge incurved then plane, ruguloso-striate, shining white, umbil. yellowish, subflocculose; g. distant, adnate, white, edge fimbriate; s. filiform, tinged rufescent downwards, adnate to a rufescent sclerotium. passed as _collybia cirrhata_ very frequently. the latter differs in not springing from a sclerotium. _collybia tuberosa_ differs in growing on fungi. [=bulliardi=, q. p. plicate, dingy yellow brown; g. whitish; s. bay. =splachnoides=, fr. inodorous. p. up to cm. whitish, subumbilicate, striate; g. subdecurrent; s. - cm. polished, reddish-brown; sp. × . similar in habit to _m. perforans_, but no smell, and white subdecurrent gills. [=limosus=, q. very minute. p. plicate, diaphanous, whitish; s. capillary, brownish. =flosculus=, q. p. white, umbil. sulcate; g. adnate, white; s. short, incurved, bay, apex pale. =curreyi=, b. & br. p. up to cm. pale rufous, coarsely striate, umb. tawny; g. attached to collar; s. - cm. polished, blackish, apex white; sp. × - . ** _stem velvety or pilose._ =perforans=, fr. foetid. p. up to cm. whitish or tinged rufous, plane, not striate, rugulose; g. adnate; s. - cm. minutely velvety, blackish brown; sp. × . =insititius=, fr. inodorous. p. - . cm. subumbilicate, at length plicate, pale yellow-brown then whitish; g. broadly adnate, simple, unequal, distant; s. - cm. floccose or scurfy, reddish-brown; sp. × . . =hudsoni=, pers. p. - mm. rugulose, tinged brown, covered with spreading purplish hairs; g. white; s. - . cm. with hairs like the pileus; sp. × . [=buxi=, fr. p. sulcate, minutely squamulose, tawny; g. few; s. blackish purple, pilose below, glabrous above. =epichloe=, fr. p. - mm. plane, papillate, even, whitish, disc darker; g. broadest behind; s. - cm. bay, coarsely striate, striae setulose; sp. × . =actinophorus=, b. & br. p. - mm. umbilicate, pale bay with darker radiating lines, wrinkled when dry; g. adnexed; s. - cm. paler than pileus; sp. subgl. - . =saccharinus=, batsch. p. - mm. subpapillate, glabrous, sulcate, whitish; g. broadly adnate, connected by veins; s. . - . cm. reddish, minutely flocculose, then almost glabrous; sp. × . resembling _m. polyadelphus_, but not clustered, and papillate pileus. =epiphyllus=, fr. p. - cm. umbilicate, wrinkled, white; g. adnate, distant, veined; s. - cm. bay, minutely velvety, apex pale; sp. × . c. apus. _pileus sessile, resupinate._ =spodoleucus=, b. & br. p. - mm. shell-shaped, resupinate, sessile, grey, slightly pulverulent; gills few, white. [=recubans=, q. p. hemisph. sulcate, white; g. white; s. capillary, villose, brown. lactarius, fr. * _milk yellow, acrid._ [=resimus=, fr. p. fleshy, umbil. then infundib. even, glabrous, viscid, white or pallid, edge incurved and tomentose then spreading and naked; g. decur. white; s. stout, hollow, villose; milk soon sulphur colour; sp. - × - . =scrobiculatus=, scop. p. - cm. yellowish, depr. zoneless, incurved margin fibrillose; g. decur. whitish; s. - cm. stout, yellow, pitted; milk soon sulphur yellow; sp. subgl. echin. - . ( - × - sacc.) =chrysorrheus=, fr. p. - cm. umbil. then infundib. pale yellowish flesh colour, zoned; g. yellowish; s. white, - cm.; milk white then golden yellow; sp. - . =intermedius=, kromb. p. - cm. infundib. viscid, ochraceous, incurved margin tomentose at first; g. decur.; s. - cm. stout, yellowish, pitted; milk soon yellowish; sp. ----. differs from _l. scrobiculatus_ in infundibiliform pileus. =theiogalus=, bull. p. - cm. depr. viscid, tawny rufous; g. pale rufescent; s. - cm. colour of p.; milk white then sulphur yellow, becoming acrid; sp. - . agrees with _l. chrysorrheus_ in yellow milk, but differs in tawny rufous stem. ** _milk violet._ + _milk acrid._ =aspideus=, fr. dingy straw colour. p. - cm. zoneless, convex then depr. at first with white down; g. narrow, thickish; s. - cm. glabrous, dry; milk white soon becoming lilac; sp. echin. - . differs from _l. uvidus_ in narrow gills. =uvidus=, fr. p. - cm. thin, depr. zoneless, dingy tan; g. broad, white; s. - cm. viscid, pallid; milk white soon lilac; sp. - . ( - sacc.) [=flavidus=, boud. p. exp. viscid pale primrose yellow; g. whitish; s. solid, white with yellow tinge; milk white then deep violet; sp. - . ++ _milk sweet._ [=violascens=, fr. p. depr. glabrous, grey with darker zones; g. white; s. solid, greyish white; milk violet. *** _milk reddish, saffron, or brownish._ + _milk acrid._ =deliciosus=, fr. p. - cm. convex, umbil. dusky orange, zoned; g. subdecurrent, orange; s. - cm. smooth; milk saffron red; sp. - × - . every part becoming red then greenish when bruised; sp. - . edible. [=flammeolus=, fr. p. subumb. not zoned, flame coloured; g. adnate, yellow; s. hollow, pale orange; milk reddish, slowly acrid. differs from _l. mitissimus_ in red milk. =acris=, fr. p. - cm. soon infundib. viscid, sooty grey; g. pale yellow; s. often excentric, pallid, narrowed below; milk white then reddish; sp. - × - . =fuliginosus=, fr. p. - cm. soon depr. obtuse, even, at first with sooty-brown powder, then naked and greyish tan; g. adnate, white then tan; s. - cm. stuffed, naked, greyish tan; milk and flesh white then reddish-yellow; sp. - . distinguished from allies by pileus not being velvety. [=fuscus=, roll. caespitose, scented. p. exp. and slightly depr. round the umb. edge grooved, fibrillose or squamulose, sooty grey or dingy violet, often zoned; g. forked, pallid then ochre; s. firm ochre or tinged red, pruinose. [=argematus=, fr. white. p. thin, exp. glabrous, edge even; g. adnate, crowded; s. stuffed, short, glabrous; milk slowly acrid, white then rufescent. ++ _milk mild._ =retisporus=, mass. p. - cm. depr. smoky brown, velvety, radially rugulose, minutely velvety; g. deeply sinuate, pale ochre; s. - cm. glabrous, paler than p.; milk white then brown; sp. globose, - , with a raised network. close to _l. ligniotus_, differing especially in the spores. [=sangifluus=, fr. p. depr. even, not zoned, blood-red; s. narrowed upwards, paler; g. thin, white; milk blood-red; sp. . **** _milk becoming grey._ =vietus=, fr. p. - cm. subumb. then plane and umbil. flesh colour, pale and silky when dry; g. subdecurrent; - cm. soon hollow, livid; milk white then grey, becoming acrid; sp. - . [=musteus=, fr. p. convex then depr. zoneless, very viscid when moist, gilvous then pallid; g. closely crowded, whitish; s. short, whitish; milk scanty, slightly acrid, whitish then grey, as is the flesh when cut; sp. - . ***** _milk becoming glaucous-green._ =glaucescens=, crossl. p. - cm. whitish, depressed, flesh thick; g. adnate, narrow, pallid; s. . - long by . thick, whitish; milk white then glaucous-green; sp. echinulate, - µ. ****** _milk persistently white._ + _milk mild._ § _gills rufescent or yellowish._ =volemus=, fr. p. - cm. rigid, depr. obtuse, dry, glabrous, golden tawny at length minutely broken up; g. decur. crowded, yellowish; s. - cm. solid, stout, coloured like p. pruinose; milk white; sp. - . edible. =ichoratus=, batsch. p. - cm. thin, depr. even, glabrous, wavy, tawny, zoned; g. adnate, white then ochre; s. - cm. glabrous, tawny; milk white; sp. - × - . differs from _l. volemus_ in zoned p. and in being altogether more slender. _l. tithymalinus_ differs in acrid milk and pinkish gills. =mitissimus=, fr. p. . cm. depr. papillate, dry, even, zoneless, deep orange, shining; g. crowded, paler than p.; s. - cm. hollow, orange; milk white; sp. - × - . differs from _l. subdulcis_ in bright orange, shining p., and copious milk. =quietus=, fr. smell oily. p. - cm. depr. viscid at first, reddish cinnamon, pale and rather silky when dry; g. paler than p.; s. - cm. colour of p. glabrous; milk white; sp. - × - . =serifluus=, fr. p. - cm. plane then depr. rather wavy, glabrous, not zoned, tawny brown, margin incurved; g. crowded, yellowish; s. - cm. slightly incurved, paler than p. solid; milk scanty, watery; sp. - . differs from _l. subdulcis_ in solid stem. =camphoratus=, fr. smell strong, pleasant. p. - cm. thin, depr. dry, glabrous, reddish-brown, slightly zoned, rather wavy; g. adnate, reddish-yellow; s. - cm. subundulate, colour of p.; milk white; sp. - . smell strong and fragrant, especially when dry. _l. cimicarius_ has a very strong smell when quite fresh, but none when dry. =subumbonatus=, lindgr. p. - cm. thin, depr. subumb. rugose, punctate, wavy, dusky cinnamon, flesh grey then yellowish; g. adnate, pinkish rufous; s. - cm. stuffed, rufescent; milk watery, whitish; sp. - . ( , sacc.) smell foetid when dry. =tomentosus=, otto. p. - cm. umb. then depr. or infundib. downy, dingy flesh colour or brownish; g. tinged reddish-yellow; s. - cm. soon hollow, pallid, naked, smooth; milk white; sp. - . =helvus=, fr. p. - cm. fragile, plane, subumb. pale brick red, broken up into floccose squamules; g. decurrent, soon ochraceous; s. - cm. brick red, pruinosely pubescent; milk scanty, white, rather sweet; sp. - . _l. tomentosus_ differs in the naked stem. =squalidus=, kromb. p. - cm. umbil. pale greyish olive or lurid; g. narrow, yellowish; s. - cm. solid, equal, glabrous, pale brown; milk whitish; sp. - . about size of _l. pyrogalus_, but gills narrow and milk mild. =ligniotus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. umb. plicato-rugulose, pruinosely velvety, sooty umber; g. adnate, snow-white then tinged ochre; s. - cm. colour of p., apex constricted and plicate; milk white; sp. echinulate, - . known by rugulose pileus and mild milk. §§ _gills pallid._ =pallidus=, fr. p. - cm. umbil. viscid, pale ochraceous tan, zoneless; g. crowded, pallid, pruinose; s. - cm. pallid tan, soon hollow; milk white; sp. - × - . =cremor=, fr. p. - cm. soon plane, minutely punctate, tawny, margin striate; g. adnate, pallid; s. - cm. hollow, coloured like p.; milk whitish, watery; sp. - . var. _pauper_, karst. p. cm. margin sulcate; milk none; sp. . [=rubrocinctus=, fr. p. plane, tawny then paler; g. adnate, pallid; s. pallid with a pale red zone at the apex; milk scanty, white. ++ _milk acrid._ § _gills whitish or pallid._ =vellereus=, fr. white. p. - cm. umbil. tomentose, zoneless; g. decurrent, distant; s. solid, pubescent, - cm.; milk scanty, white; sp. × . =piperatus=, fr. white. p. - cm. thick, firm, umbil. then infundib. edge erect, glabrous, even; g. decur. crowded, narrow, forked; s. - cm. stout, smooth, solid; milk copious, white, acrid; sp. - . =pergamenus=, fr. white. p. - cm. plane then depr. wavy, rugulose; g. adnate, very narrow, horizontal, tinged straw colour; s. glabrous, discoloured, - cm.; milk white; sp. × . differs from _l. piperatus_ in crowded narrow gills, longer stem, and thinner pileus. =scoticus=, b. and br. pallid white, smell pungent. p. . cm. soon plane, tomentose then smooth except incurved margin; g. thin, rather broad; s. - cm. solid, tinged pink; milk white; sp. - . =involutus=, soppitt. white. p. - cm. plane or depr. incurved edge silky; g. subdecurrent, very narrow, densely crowded; s. - . cm. glabrous, solid; milk white; sp. elliptical, × . differs from _l. scoticus_ and all known species in the smooth, elliptical spores. =torminosus=, schaeff. p. - cm. obt. depr. slightly zoned, margin strongly involute and shaggy, tinged flesh colour or ochre; g. subdecur. pale; s. - cm. paler than p.; milk white; sp. echin. - × - . differs from _l. cilicioides_ in zoned pileus and white milk. =cilicioides=, fr. p. - cm. soft, not zoned, exp. and depr. margin fibrillose, pale flesh colour with rufous tinge; g. decur. somewhat branched; s. - cm. stuffed, even, silky, not spotted, pallid; milk white or faintly tinged yellow; sp. × - , echinulate. =pubescens=, fr. p. - cm. thin, exp. umbil. zoneless, whitish, margin pubescent; g. crowded, tinged pink; s. - cm. pinkish then pale, narrowed downwards; milk white; sp. echin. - . differs from _l. torminosus_ and _l. cilicioides_ in the margin being only downy. =insulsus=, fr. p. - cm. soon infundib. viscid, slightly zoned, yellowish or reddish, margin naked; g. forked, pallid; s. - cm. stuffed then hollow, pallid; milk white; sp. echin. × . _l. zonarius_ differs in the solid stem. =hysginus=, fr. p. - cm. rigid, umbil. viscid, thin margin incurved, reddish flesh colour; g. crowded; s. - cm. stuffed then hollow; milk white; sp. × - . [=luridus=, fr. p. fleshy, almost plane, even, viscid, slightly zoned, rufous-grey, edge bent down; g. decur. whitish; milk white, acrid; s. hollow, pallid; sp. × . =zonarius=, fr. p. - cm. compact, viscid, pale orange or yellowish, zoned; g. whitish; s. - cm. solid, yellowish; milk white; sp. - × . =circellatus=, fr. p. - cm. soon plane, wavy, viscid, brownish, zones and umbilicate disc darker; g. crowded, whitish; s. solid, narrowed below, pallid; milk white; sp. - . _l. flexuosus_ differs in yellow gills. =trivialis=, fr. - cm. depr. viscid, zoneless, pale yellowish or pinky tan, margin incurved; g. crowded, white; s. - cm. paler than p., hollow; milk white; sp. - . =turpis=, fr. p. - cm. rigid, depr. zoneless, viscid, olive-umber, margin at first with yellow down; g. thin, pallid; s. - cm. viscid, olive, narrowed at base; milk white; sp. echin. - . differs from _l. blennius_ in absence of circles of spots on pileus. =umbrinus=, pers. p. - cm. plane, umbil. wavy, dry, floccose, umber, not zoned; g. crowded, pallid; s. solid, very short, cm. greyish white; milk white, forming grey spots; sp. - . =blennius=, fr. p. - cm. depr. glutinous, dingy olive grey, often concentrically spotted, margin at first incurved; g. crowded; s. - cm. viscid, coloured like pileus; milk white; sp. - × . [=lividus=, lamb. p. convex then plane or depr. not distinctly zoned, pale livid, centre fuscescent, viscid (?); g. subdecur. pale livid, crowded; s. livid, solid, curved; milk white, acrid. [=impolitus=, fr. p. convex then depr. subumb. dry, silky, not zoned, becoming pale; g. adnate, crowded, pallid; s. glabrous but not polished, reddish white; milk white, acrid. §§ _gills rufescent or yellowish._ =rufus=, scop. p. - cm. umb. depr. flocculose then glabrous, zoneless, rufous bay, shining; g. yellowish rufous; s. - cm. rufescent; milk white; sp. - . [=decipiens=, q. p. moist then puberulent, reddish flesh-colour; g. narrow, tinged flesh-colour; s. slender, paler than p., milk very acrid; sp. - . [=maliodorus=, boud. smell unpleasant. p. infundib. dry, rather viscid when moist, tawny ochre or tawny brick-red, zones formed of darker spots, edge glabrous; g. subdecur. pallid then like p.; s. short, rugose; flesh tawny, milk white, acrid. differs from _l. quietus_ in brighter colour and acrid milk. =capsicum=, schulz. p. - cm. obtuse, deep chestnut colour, margin strongly incurved; g. tawny; s. white with tawny fibrils; milk white; sp. - . [=tithymalinus=, fr. p. umb. then convex, depr. dry, even, glabrous, not zoned, yellow, disc rufescent; g. adnate, crowded, yellowish then flesh-colour; s. glabrous, colour of p.; milk white, acrid. =subdulcis=, fr. p. - cm. thin, at length depr. papillate, even, glabrous, zoneless, bay or rufous cinnamon, not turning pale; g. adnate, paler than p.; s. - cm. soon hollow, equal, rufescent, slightly pruinose; milk white, sweet at first then very slightly acrid; sp. - . var. _concavus_, fr. p. rufous bay; g. reddish, pruinose; mild. var. _sphagneti_, fr. p. shining, margin crenate; s. hollow, glabrous. =terrei=, b. and br. caespitose. p. - cm. wrinkled, depr. bay; g. decur. pallid; s. thickened at base, hollow, with orange down; smell sweet. [=rubescens=, bres. p. convexo-plane then depr. rarely subumb. polished, dry, edge at first incurved and white-pruinose, pinkish brick-red then paler; g. crowded, pallid then pinkish-rufescent, subdecur.; s. colour of p.; milk white, sparingly acrid; sp. - . =cimicarius=, batsch. smell unpleasant, oily. p. - cm. depr. or infund. wavy, dark bay brown; g. reddish ochre, subdecur.; s. - cm. paler than p.; milk white; sp. - . smell strong, said to resemble bugs. =obnubilus=, lasch. p. - cm. thin, convex, umbil. sooty brown, slightly striate; g. rather crowded, yellowish; s. - cm. stuffed, slender, paler than p.; milk white; sp. - . var. _crenatus_, mass. p. - cm. sooty brown, coarsely sulcate, margin crenate. =flexuosus=, fr. p. - cm. dry, depr. wavy, lead colour or with lilac tinge, becoming squamulose; g. thick, distant, yellow; s. - cm. stout, solid, greyish; milk white; sp. - . var. _roseozonatus_, fr. p. rose colour, zones darker. differs from _l. blennius_ in yellow gills. =plumbeus=, fr. p. - cm. convex then infundib. dry, dull, sooty then blackish brown; g. crowded, tinged yellow; s. solid, equal, stout; milk white, acrid; sp. - × - . [=capsicoides=, fr. p. compact, convex-incurved, wavy, dry, glabrous, not zoned, flesh-colour; g. broad, crowded, whitish; s. solid, short, thick. differs from _l. flexuosus_ in broad, crowded, white g. [=jecorinus=, fr. p. convex then plano-depr. rugulose with elevated ridges, zoneless, viscid, reddish liver-colour; g. distant, yellow; s. hollow, pallid; milk white, acrid; sp. . [=crampylus=, fr. p. convex, umbil. everywhere rugulosely tomentose, zoneless, sooty red, edge downy; g. yellow; s. greyish; milk white, acrid. =pannucius=, fr. p. plano-discoid, zoneless, glabrous, brick-red, edge white-tomentose at first; g. yellow; s. elongated; milk white, acrid. [=fluens=, boud. p. convex, viscid, blackish olive, centre scarcely zoned, edge pale; g. adnate, ochre with grey tinge later; s. solid, rather viscid greyish ochre, brown when bruised like gills; milk acrid, white then brownish. differs from _l. blennius_ in larger size, tufted habit, convex p. and darker colour. =fascinans=, fr. p. convex then depr. viscid, brownish brick-red, zoneless, edge downy white at first; g. thickish, yellowish; s. hollow, pallid; milk white. =cyathicula=, fr. p. - cm. plane, umb. brick-red then pale, broken up, opaque; g. decurrent, crowded, yellowish; s. - cm. pallid; milk white; sp. - . =glyciosmus=, fr. strong scented. p. - cm. soon exp. umb. squamulose, greyish or brownish, opaque; g. soon pale ochre; s. - cm. pubescent, pallid; milk white; sp. - . var. _flexuosus_, fr. p. wavy, somewhat zoned. =pyrogalus=, bull. p. - cm. exp. depr. livid grey; g. thin, ochraceous; s. - cm. hollow, pallid; milk white; sp. - . _l. flexuosus_ differs in larger size, thick gills, and squamulose dark pileus. =utilis=, weinm. p. - cm. exp. then infund. glabrous, tan; g. adnate; s. - cm. hollow, even, coloured like p.; milk white; sp. - × - . =mammosus=, fr. p. - cm. acutely umb. then depr. zoneless, dry, greyish brown or lurid, covered with grey down; g. adnate, pale rusty; s. - cm. stuffed then hollow, pallid, downy; milk white, slowly acrid; sp. - . =aurantiacus=, fr. p. - cm. depr. even, zoneless, slightly viscid dull orange; g. decurrent, ochre; s. - cm. coloured like p.; milk white, becoming acrid; sp. - . _l. volemus_ differs in pruinose stem, and _l. mitissimus_ in mild milk. [=porinae=, roll. p. very firm, rugose, glabrous, viscid, orange yellow, generally with red zones, convex then plane, at length infundib. irreg. subumb. edge even incurved; g. yellow then ochre, crowded; s. ochre, rooting; milk white, scanty, rather acrid; sp. . . =picinus=, fr. p. - cm. convex then plane, umb. brownish umber, at first villosely velvety then disc almost glabrous; g. adnate, much crowded, ochre; s. - cm. even, glabrous, paler; milk white; sp. - . ( - sacc.) velvety p. and acrid milk mark this species. =spinulosus=, q. p. - cm. depr. umbo acute, flesh colour or rosy, with minute erect spines towards margin; g. decur. flesh colour with yellow tinge; s. - cm. flexuous, rugulose, paler than p.; milk white; sp. . var. _violaceus_, cke. p. rosy violet; s. almost smooth. =lilacinus=, lasch. p. - cm. depr. papillate, rosy-lilac, floccose when dry; g. adnate, tinged pink; s. - cm. pallid with a white bloom; milk white; sp. - . =lateritioroseus=, karst. p. plano-depr. often subinfundib. and irreg. granulose or squamulose especially near the edge, zoneless or nearly so, pale brick-red with rosy tinge; g. decur. pinkish; s. solid, colour of p., apex with white meal; milk scanty, white, acrid; sp. - × - . differs from _lact. lilacinus_ in decur. g. and pileus not floccose. =controversus=, pers. p. - cm. umbil. then infundib. whitish with red spots or zones; g. closely crowded, soon with flesh-coloured tint; s. - cm. white; milk white; sp. echin. - . [=viridis=, fr. p. depr. wavy, dry, green; g. white tinged rufous; s. hollow, stout, base narrowed; milk white; sp. . × . [=tabidus=, fr. p. submembranaceous, acutely umb., reddish then pale, edge striate when moist; s. subfistulose, pallid; g. flaccid, pallid; milk; sp. × - . recognised by very thin, acutely umbonate p.; owing to absence of description of milk, position uncertain. [=rutaceus=, lasch. p. subdepr. almost glabrous, opaque, reddish-fawn; g. subdecur. crowded, narrow, yellowish clay-colour. smell like _ruta graveolens_, taste bitter and of camphor. _stem excentric or lateral; growing on wood._ [=lateripes=, fr. p. white tinged rosy, subdimidiate; g. crowded, pallid; s. lateral; milk white, rather acrid. [=hometi=, gill. p. lateral, fleshy, convex, pale yellowish ochre, edge irreg. flesh white then violet; g. slightly decur. narrowed at both ends, pallid, spotted violet; s. lateral, stout, colour of p. =minimus=, w. g. sm. p. cm. convex, subumb. excentric, pallid tan; g. subdecur. pallid; s. cm. solid, coloured like p.; milk abundant, white; sp. - . =obliquus=, fr. smell strong. p. - cm. thin, depr. oblique, lobed, zoned greyish, silky; g. crowded; s. subexcentric, curved; milk white; sp. - . hygrophorus, fr. i. limacium. _pileus viscid, stem also often so; secondary veil floccose, forming a ring or attached to edge of p.; s. squamulose, or scabrid at apex; g. adnato-decur._ * _white or yellowish._ [=ligatus=, fr. white. p. convexo-plane, even; g. thick, distant; s. long, fibrillose, apex naked, ring inferior, subappend.; sp. - × - . sometimes tinged yellow, rarely spotted red. =chrysodon=, fr. white, edge of p. gills and upper part of stem tinged yellow. p. - cm. exp.; g. broad, thin; s. - cm. yellow squamules forming ring at apex; sp. × . [=gliocyclus=, fr. p. exp. pallid-white, very glutinous; g. decur. distant, permanently white; s. with inferior glutinous ring. [=hyacinthinus=, q. fragrant. p. snow-white, viscid, silky-shining, margin pubescent; s. slender, striate, pruinose. =eburneus=, bull. white. p. - cm. exp. even, edge soon naked; g. decur. distant, firm; s. - cm. viscid, rough with points at apex; sp. × . differs from _h. cossus_ in pure white colour and absence of unpleasant smell. [=subpurpurascens=, allesch. p. hemispher. viscid, white, tan or brownish when dry; g. decur. white, brownish-purple when dry; s. viscid, narrowed below and rooting, white, apex white-scurfy; sp. - × - . =cossus=, sow. smell strong. p. - cm. exp. glutinous, shining when dry, white with yellow tinge, edge naked; g. subdecur. distant, firm; s. scurfy-punctate upwards; sp. - × - . [=melizeus=, fr. straw colour. p. exp. depr. even; g. decur. thin, distant; s. soft, narrowed below, apex with white squamules. =penarius=, sow. p. - cm. p. umb. then exp. and obtuse, usually dry, compact, pallid tan, opaque; g. decur. distant, thick; s. - cm. glutinous then dry and rugulose, fusiformly rooting; sp. - × - . ** _reddish._ [=purpurascens=, fr. p. whitish, disc with purplish squamules; g. decur. white tinged purple; s. white, bristling with purplish squamules, ring inferior. [=capreolarius=, kalchbr. entirely purple rufous. p. soon dry, virgate with darker fibrils, centre squamulosely punctate, flesh reddish; g. rigid, purplish then changing to cinnamon; s. reticulately striate with darker purple-umber fibrils. =erubescens=, fr. p. - cm. gibbous then convexo-plane, white then deep rosy or dingy red; g. soft, white spotted red; s. - cm. reddish fibrillose, apex red punctate; sp. - × - . usually growing in circles. pileus and flesh white suffused with red everywhere. =pudorinus=, fr. p. - cm. convex depr. viscid, clear reddish flesh colour; g. distant, thick, shining white; s. - cm. white, apex constricted and rough with points; sp. × . differs from _h. erubescens_ in pure white gills, and clearer colour of p. =rubescens=, beck. p. convex, shining, flesh-colour or yellowish, disc often somewhat tawny; g. very distant, adnate, scarcely decur., pale flesh-colour; s. clavate from base, yellowish white, narrowed and floccosely-verruculose below gills; sp. . - × - ; flesh of p. reddish. differs from _h. pudorinus_ and _h. discoideus_ in clavate s. and red flesh. [=queletii=, bres. p. convex-plane, subumb. white with pinkish flecks at centre, epidermis becoming squamulose, edge at first incurved and white-floccose, viscid; g. adnato-decur. white or yellowish, edge citrin; s. solid, white, scurfy with reddish flecks; sp. - × . sometimes entirely white and p. concentrically cracked. =glutinifer=, fr. p. - cm. exp. rufescent, pellicle glutinous, disc rugosely punctate; g. arcuato-decur. white; s. - cm. stuffed, ventricose below, viscid, colour of p., apex white squamulose; sp. ----. [=leucophaeus=, fr. p. exp. pallid gilvous, disc rugosely punctate; g. adnate then decur. pallid; s. hollow, narrowed below, pallid, apex white floccose; sp. - × . [=secretani=, henn. (= _ag. suaveolens_, var. d. secr.) smell strong, like aniseed. p. camp. exp. white, disc with rosy fibrils; g. adnato-decur. distant, thick, white then tan or yellowish; s. white, glabrous, apex white-floccose; sp. - × - . [=persicinus=, beck. p. conic then hemispher. edge incurved, peach colour or somewhat orange, shining, even; g. thick, both ends narrowed, decur. edge very obtuse, fuscescent; s. constricted below gills, pale lilac-peach-colour, base yellowish; sp. - × - . [=miniaceus=, beck. p. convex then exp. fleshy, vermilion brick-red, centre innately floccose; g. adnate, very distant, broad, white; s. orange flesh-colour; flesh white soon reddish, deep rose under cuticle of p.; sp. - . *** _tawny or yellow._ =arbustivus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. viscid, innately virgate, tawny; g. adnate, thick, white; s. solid, - cm. pallid, apex with loose white mealy granules; sp. × . =discoideus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. depr. glutinous, pale gilvous, disc dark and rusty; g. adnato-decur. soft, colour of p. then pallid; s. viscid, flocculose, with white points upwards, - cm.; sp. - × - . [=friesii=, sacc. (_h. nitidus_, fr. mon., not b. and c.). p. convex then plane, obtuse, viscid, yellow; g. deeply decur. white then pallid; s. solid, glabrous, viscid, apex even, white; sp. × - . [=nitidus=, fr. p. exp. viscid, yellow; g. deeply decur. distant, white then pallid; s. solid, glabrous, viscid, apex smooth, white. =aureus=, arrh. p. - cm. exp. glutinous, golden yellow; g. adnato-decur. white; s. - cm. reddish tawny and glutinous up to imperfect ring; sp. × . [=bresadolae=, q. p. campan.-exp. umb. glutinous, clear yellow, umb. orange tawny; g. distant, thick, attenuato-decur. citrin or more or less white; s. apex white, yellow-flocculose below ring, glutinous; sp. - × . [=lucorum=, kalchb. p. plano-depr. subumb. viscid, whitish, disc bright citrin, altogether yellowish when old; g. adnato-decur. pallid or citrin, edge white; s. slender, base subbulbous, colour of p.; sp. × . =aromaticus=, sow. p. - cm. exp. very fragile, cinnamon, glutinous; g. subdecur. white with pink tinge; s. - cm. equal, colour of p. smell spicy, taste like peppermint. a fungus of uncertain affinity. **** _olivaceous-umber._ =limacinus=, fr. p. - cm. convex, obtuse, umber then smoky olive, edge paler; g. adnato-decur. greyish white; s. - cm. solid, viscid, apex squamulose; × . differs from _h. olivaceo-albus_ in squamulose apex of stem, and from _h. agathosmus_ in viscid stem. [=vignolius=, paniz. p. obtuse, very glutinous, olive; g. adnate, greyish-purple then rusty, edge white; s. with dark concentric scales or glutinous and fibrillose. =olivaceo-albus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. even, with olive gluten which disappears leaving surface pale, umbo brown; g. adnato-decur. white; s. - cm. viscid, with a floccose ring at first, scaly and spotted brown, apex glabrous; sp. - × . =hypothejus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. and more or less depr. thin, olive gluten disappearing and leaving p. yellowish-olive or brownish, virgate; g. decur. yellow; s. - cm. viscid, paler than p., trace of ring when young; sp. - × - . _h. olivaceo-albus_ differs in white gills. =cerasinus=, b. smell strong, like cherry-laurel. p. - cm. obtusely umb. viscid, pale umber then greyish, margin downy; g. very distant, tinged pink; s. - cm. white, apex squamulose; sp. × . ***** _brownish grey or livid._ =fusco-albus=, lasch. p. - cm. exp. even, viscid, brownish grey; g. decur. broad, snow-white; s. - cm. equal, dry, apex white-floccose; sp. - × - . =agathosmus=, fr. smell like aniseed. p. - cm. exp. gibbous, viscid, livid grey, disc with crowded pellucid papillae; g. decur. soft, white; s. - cm. dry, fibrillosely striate, rough with squamules upwards; sp. - × . [=pustulatus=, fr. p. exp. umb. viscid, livid grey, umbo fuscous, cracked into papillae; g. adnato-decur. white, often glaucous; s. equal, white, rough with black points; sp. - × - . var. _terebratus_, fr. p. subumb. glabrous; g. triquetrous; s. wavy, pure white, apex with black points. [=tephroleucus=, fr. p. exp. then depr. round the brown umbo, viscid, grey, adpressedly squamuloso-fibrillose; g. decur. white; s. solid, with black fibrils above. [=hyporrhodius=, otth. p. convex then depr. greyish brown, disc squamulose; g. slightly decur. both ends acute, rosy white, connected by veins; s. equal, white, granulosely squamulose. [=albidus=, karst. p. convexo-plane, umb. cuticle longitudinally interwoven, rugosely papillate near edge, even, whitish, viscid; g. adnato-decur. distant, shining white; s. equal, flocculose, white; sp. - × . =mesotephrus=, b. p. - cm. hemispher. hygr. viscid, striate, whitish with brown disc; g. decur. white, s. - cm. slender, flexuous, white, viscid, apex granular; sp. - × . =livido-albus=, fr. p. - cm. even, glabrous, viscid, exp. obtuse, thin, everywhere livid; g. decur. white; s. slender, even, almost smooth; sp. × . differs from _h. eburneus_ in livid p. and glabrous s. =calophyllus=, karst. p. conico-convex, exp. obsoletely umb. viscid, even, glabrous, sooty-fuscous; g. decur. distant, joined by veins, rosy or at length whitish; s. thicker below, wavy, pallid then sooty, glabrous, even, dry; sp. - × - . ii. camarophyllus. _veil absent. stem not punctate or scabrid. pileus firm, moist in wet weather but not viscid. gills distant, arcuate._ * _gills deeply and at length obconically decurrent._ =caprinus=, scop. p. - cm. fleshy, fragile, exp. umb. rather wavy, sooty, fibrillose; g. very broad, thick, very distant, white then glaucous; s. - cm. solid, sooty fibrillose; sp. × - . =leporinus=, fr. p. - cm. convex, gibbous, reddish-yellow, fibrilloso-floccose, opaque; g. decur. gilvous; s. - cm. fibrillose, pallid; sp. subgl. - . differs from _h. pratensis_ in floccose p. [=alutaceorubens=, otth. p. convex then flat, yellowish red, disc darker; g. scarcely decur. reddish-yellow; s. cylind. rather twisted, apex reddish and mealy, whitish below. [=velutinus=, borsz. p. exp. gibbous then subdepr. even when moist, floccosely squamulose when dry, tawny yellow; g. deeply decur. thick, orange; s. fibrillosely squamulose, darker; sp. × . =nemoreus=, fr. p. - cm. equally fleshy, exp. almost glabrous, tawny orange; g. thick, distant, colour of p.; s. squamulose, fibroso-striate, base narrowed, pale; sp. - × . differs from _h. pratensis_ in squamulose, pale s., and from _h. leporinus_ in glabrous p. =pratensis=, fr. every part tawny-yellow or buff. p. - cm. disc very fleshy, gibbous, margin thin, altogether obconic; g. deeply decur. thick, distant; s. - cm. stuffed, even, glabrous, narrowed downwards; sp. × . edible. variable in size, sometimes all white or grey, s. often pale. var. _cinereus_, fr. p. and g. grey, s. whitish, slender. var. _pallidus_, b. and br. p. depr. or infundib., edge wavy, entirely pale ochre. [=bicolor=, karst. p. compact and thick, obconoid, convex, often depr. whitish, even, glabrous, g. deeply decur. gilvous; s. long, solid, narrowed below, glabrous, whitish; sp. × . [=suberosus=, jacobasch. p. convex, subdepr. subturbinate, not umb. reddish yellow, g. decur. pallid; s. pallid, equal, floccosely tomentose; sp. . - . . [=karstenii=, sacc. and cub. p. fleshy, disc compact, convexo-plane, glabrous, even, whitish; g. deeply decur. distant, yellow; s. solid, narrowed below, wavy, whitish; sp. × . =virgineus=, wulf. white. p. - cm. fleshy, exp. obtuse then depr. becoming cracked and floccose when dry; g. distant, thickish; s. - cm. stuffed, firm, short, narrowed downwards; sp. - × . edible. var. _roseipes_, mass. stem rosy downwards. =niveus=, fr. white. p. . - . cm. tough, membranaceous, convex, umbil. viscid; g. thin, arcuate, distant; s. - cm. slender, equal; sp. - × - . differs from _h. virgineus_ in smaller size, thin p. and slender equal s. =russo-coriaceus=, b. and br. white, fragrant. p. . - cm. convex, disc fleshy, edge thin; g. thick, very distant; s. . - . cm. solid, smooth, base narrowed; sp. × . differs from _h. niveus_ in thick disc, and smell resembling russian leather. [=helvella=, boud. p. hygr. glabrous, greyish ochre, obconic-campan. edge sometimes wavy; g. shortly decur. narrow, grey; s. whitish, equal, scurfy above, base thickened and downy. [=glaucus=, karst. p. convexo-plane, umb. then depr. and somewhat wavy, moist, glabrous, shining, even, glaucous; g. deeply decur. rather branched, glaucous; s. wavy, with white down then glabrous, white; sp. - , glob. [=clivalis=, fr. white, fragile. p. campan. exp. shining, edge at first incurved then spreading, striate; g. narrowed behind, nearly free, ventricose, distant; s. solid, short, fragile, narrowed below; sp. - × . =ventricosus=, b. and br. white. p. - cm. convex, disc fleshy, edge thin, sometimes irreg.; g. deeply decur. narrow; s. - cm. ventricose, solid, smooth; sp. × . known among white sp. by fleshy p. and stout, ventricose stem. ** _gills ventricose, sinuato-arcuate or plano-adnate._ =fornicatus=, fr. p. - cm. campan. then exp. even, glabrous, viscid, white or livid; g. sinuato-adnexed, thick, white; s. - cm. firm, equal, tough, glabrous, white; sp. - × . stem solid below, apex hollow. pileus obsoletely umb. rather wavy; gills sometimes free, with a decurrent tooth, not decurrent as in _h. virgineus_. =distans=, b. p. - cm. exp. or depr. umbil. thin, viscid, white with silky sheen, sometimes stained with brown; g. adnate, very distant, white; s. - cm. white above, rather narrowed and greyish below; sp. × . [=streptopus=, fr. fragile, splitting. p. campan. exp. greyish white; g. sinuato-adnate, rather crowded, white; s. hollow, rather twisted, white. =clarkii=, b. and br. p. - cm. fragile, thin, exp. subumb. viscid, livid grey; g. adnate with decur. tooth, broad, thick, distant, white; s. - cm. grey, base white; sp. subgl. × . _h. distans_ differs in white umbilic. p. =metapodius=, fr. p. - cm. compact, exp. viscid then silky squamulose, brownish; g. arcuato-decur. thick, distant, greyish; s. - cm. glabrous, grey, reddish inside; sp. × . =ovinus=, bull. p. - cm. thin, conical then exp. gibbous, viscid then squamulose, fuscous; g. arcuato-adnate, connected by veins, grey then rufescent; s. - cm. glabrous, often twisted, pallid or dark; sp. × - . differs from _h. metapodius_ in thin p. subequal s. and thinner g. [=connatus=, karst. p. thin, convexo-exp. unequal, dry, even, grey then pallid, silky-white then glabrous; g. decur. distant, branched, narrow, grey; s. solid, rather wavy, squamulose above, colour of p.; sp. - × - . [=flavus=, lamb. smell like new meal. p. convex, exp. then umbil. edge sublobed, glabrous, even, yellowish; g. adnexed with decur. tooth, very broad, ventricose, distant, whitish; s. equal, even, cylindrical, colour of p. =subradiatus=, fr. p. - cm. submembranaceous, subumb. radiato-striate, brownish; g. adnate with decur. tooth, thin, white; s. - cm. fistulose, glabrous, pallid; sp. × . var. _lacmus_, fr. p. plano-depr. lilac then pallid, disc sometimes fibrillose; g. grey. =irrigatus=, fr. p. - cm. thin, campan. then exp. subumb. livid, lubricous; g. whitish, with a decur. tooth; s. - cm. grey, very viscid; sp. - × . _h. unguinosus_ differs in the sooty-grey gluten. iii. hygrocybe. _veil absent. entire fungus thin, watery, fragile. p. viscid when moist, shining when dry, rarely floccose. often bright coloured._ * _gills decurrent or adnate with decur. tooth._ =colemannianus=, blox. p. - cm. campan. then exp. and strongly umb. pale umber paler except disc when dry; g. deeply decur. connected by veins, pale brown; s. - cm. white, silky upwards; sp. × . =foetens=, phill. very foetid. p. - cm. exp. umber; g. grey; s. - cm. olive yellow, squamulose; sp. subgl. - . =sciophanus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. slightly viscid, opaque, pale brick red, or tawny, striate; g. decur. connected by veins, tinged red; s. - cm. hollow, subflexuous, smooth; sp. ----. [=sulcatus=, karst. p. campan. exp. viscid, sulcate except disc, deep tawny; s. hollow, equal, glabrous, viscid, yellowish; g. decur. yellowish. =laetus=, fr. (= _h. houghtoni_, b.). p. - cm. thin, convexo-plane, viscid, tawny; g. thin, distant, paler than p. decur.; s. - cm. tough, equal, viscid, colour of p.; sp. × - . differs from _h. sciophanus_ in viscid stem. =vitellinus=, fr. every part clear lemon yellow, paler when dry. p. . - . cm. viscid, edge plicato-striate; g. decur. rather distant; s. - cm. hollow, fragile; sp. × . =ceraceus=, wulf. p. - cm. fragile, thin, exp. viscid, shining, wax-yellow; g. adnate, subdecur. distant, broad, almost triangular, yellow; s. hollow, - cm. hollow, colour of p. often flexuous; sp. × . differs from _h. vitellinus_ in broad gills and wax-yellow s. and p. =coccineus=, schaeff. p. . - cm. fragile, thin, convexo-plane, obtuse, viscid, glabrous, scarlet then pale; g. adnate with decur. tooth, connected by veins, reddish or yellowish; s. - cm. hollow, compr. yellowish, crimson above; sp. - × . ( - × - .) differs from _h. puniceus_ in adnate g. and yellow base of s., from _h. miniatus_ in glabrous p. and yellow base of s. =miniatus=, fr. p. - cm. fragile, thin, convex then umbil. scarlet then pale, opaque and squamulose; g. adnate, distant, yellow and red; s. - cm. terete, polished, scarlet; sp. × . =turundus=, fr. p. - cm. thin, convex then umbil. very brittle, covered with greyish-brown down then squamulose; g. decur. distant, white then yellowish; s. - cm. tawny, polished; sp. ----. p. soon broken up into smoky squamules, but golden and viscid at first. var. _mollis_, b. and br. p. golden with fibrils of same colour; s. yellow; g. shortly decur. var. _lepidus_, boud. brilliant golden orange; p. convex, squamulose or hirsuto-tomentose, umbil. then golden, centre deepest; g. thick distant, deeply and abruptly decur. pallid; s. elongated, colour of p.; sp. - × - . =mucronellus=, fr. p. - cm. submembranaceous, fragile, conic then campan. acutely umb. glabrous, vermilion then pale; g. decur. triangular, thick, yellow; s. - cm. slender, colour of p. base white; sp. ----. =wynniae=, b. and br. (= _clitocybe xanthophylla_, bres., _fide_ berk.). p. . - . cm. thin, convex then umbil. or infundib., striate, lemon yellow, greenish when dry; g. decur. yellowish then tinged green; s. - cm. colour of p.; sp. - × . [=syrjensis=, karst. p. thin convex, disc depr. glabrous, even, dry, fuscous-white or dingy yellowish; g. deeply decur. brownish, somewhat branched; s. equal, pallid; sp. × - . =micaceus=, b. and br. p. - . cm. thin, exp. yellow then grey with green tinge, wrinkled, micaceous; g. decur. pale umber; s. - . cm. slender, yellow, base brown; sp. × . ** _gills adnexed then separating from stem._ =puniceus=, fr. p. - cm. campan. obtuse, wavy, viscid, crimson then pale; g. slightly adnexed, thick, distant, yellow; s. - cm. hollow, striate, colour of p. base white; sp. × . differs from _h. coccineus_ in adnexed g. and striate stem with white base. var. _nigrescens_, q. becoming blackish everywhere. p. orange, virgate, then grey and silky; s. striate, yellow, apex red. =obrusseus=, fr. p. - cm. conico-convex, wavy, golden yellow, shining; g. adnato-ventricose, thick, distant; s. - cm. hollow, subcompressed, glabrous, even, yellow, base tawny; sp. - × . tawny base of stem not always evident. [=citrino-croceus=, beck. p. convex, flattened, glabrous, shining, citrin-saffron, disc golden, edge whitish, slightly upturned; g. very distant, broad, shortly decur. white; s. solid, subequal white or spotted citrin; sp. . - . × . - . =intermedius=, pass. p. - cm. thin, campan. then exp. silky-fibrillose, golden then greyish; g. adnate, ventricose, white then yellow; s. - cm. yellow, fibrillosely striate; sp. - × . differs from _h. obrusseus_ in strong mealy smell, and p. becoming grey. =conicus=, fr. p. - cm. conical, acute, often lobed, yellow or tinged crimson; g. nearly free, thin, yellowish; s. - cm. hollow fibroso-striate, colour of p.; sp. - × - . every part blackish when bruised or old. [=albus=, otth. p. conical, obtuse, even, white; g. free, snow-white; s. white, striate, shining. differs from _hygr. conicus_ in colour and obtuse p. =calyptraeformis=, b. p. - cm. acutely conical then splitting and exp. clear rose then paler; g. slightly adnexed, tinged rose; s. - cm. hollow, white; sp. × . var. _niveus_, cke. entirely white. =chlorophanus=, fr. p. - cm. fragile, very thin, convex, obtuse, viscid, yellow, sometimes crimson; g. emarginate, adnexed, white tinged yellow; s. viscid when moist, even, everywhere yellow, - cm.; sp. × . differs from _h. conicus_ in not becoming black. =psittacinus=, schaeff. p. . - cm. campan. then exp. umb. striate, yellow and orange, with green gluten; g. thick, distant, greenish; s. - cm. glutinous, yellow, apex green; sp. × . =spadiceus=, fr. p. - cm. thin, conical, acute, fibrilloso-virgate, with olive-bay gluten, blackish and shining when dry; g. citrin; s. - cm. hollow, dry, tawny-fibrillose; sp. - × . differs from _h. conicus_ in virgate p. and thicker g. not narrowed behind. [=squalidus=, lasch. fragile. p. campan. exp. gibbous, and with the glabrous hollow s. sooty and glutinous, orange after the gluten has gone; g. thick, livid then fuscous, edge orange. =unguinosus=, fr. p. - cm. fragile, thin, obtuse, uneven, smooth, with smoky-brown dripping gluten, becoming cracked; g. white; s. - cm. hollow, with smoky gluten; sp. × - . [=obscuratus=, karst. p. fragile, convex, obtuse, dry, squamulose, sooty or livid blackish, mouse-colour when dry; g. sinuato-adnate, whitish or glaucous; s. unequal, usually inflated below, wavy, glabrous, pallid, centre often tinged smoky; sp. - × - . =nitratus=, pers. smell strong, nitrous. p. - cm. deformed, viscid, soon dry and squamulose, brownish-grey; g. broad, distant, white then glaucous; s. - cm. polished, white or tinged yellow; sp. × . there are two forms, a large one in woods, and a smaller one in pastures, structure that of _h. coccineus_, but colours very different. readily distinguished by the strong nitrous smell. [=schulzeri=, bres. p. hemispher. exp. or depr. dry, even, livid cinnamon; g. distant, subdecur. white then greyish; s. dry, colour of p., apex white-scurfy; inodorous; sp. glob. - . . [=glauconitens=, fr. rigid. p. fibrillosely virgate, olive-black or sooty then pale; g. glaucous; s. equal, shining; sp. - × - . fries thinks this may be a young state of _h. nitratus_. smell same but weaker. [=marzuolus=, bres. (= _clitocybe marzuolus_, bres.). p. . - cm. s. - cm. base clavate; sp. - × - . bresadola considers this sp. is the _clitocybe_ of fries. clitocybe, fr. a. _p. fleshy, not hygr. pale and silky when dry._ * disciformes. _p. fleshy, convex then plane or subdepressed._ + _p. greyish or brownish._ =nebularis=, batsch. p. - cm. convex then subgibbous, grey, at first with grey meal; g. narrow, subdecur. crowded, pallid; s. - cm. narrowed upwards, fibrillose, pale; sp. × . . edible. =clavipes=, pers. p. - cm. convex then plane, naked, grey or brownish; g. decur. down stem, rather distant; s. obconic, fibrillose, - cm. livid sooty; sp. - × . =comitalis=, fr. p. - cm. soon plane, obtuse, sooty umber; s. - cm. obconic, sooty; g. plane, crowded; sp. - × . =gangraenosa=, fr. foetid. p. - cm. soon plane, obtuse, whitish, variegated black, greenish, livid &c.; g. dingy white; s. - cm. striate, somewhat bulbous; sp. ----. =polius=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, regular, grey; g. decur. closely crowded, white; s. - cm. equal, glabrous, whitish; sp. ----. _c. fumosa_ differs in cartilaginous substance, mealy apex of stem, hygr. &c. =inornata=, sow. p. - cm. plane or depr. pale greyish tan often with olive tinge, cuticle separable; g. adnate then decur. grey; s. - cm. glabrous, greyish; sp. ----. [=cardarella=, fr. convex then plano-depr. glabrous, shining, covered with a thick separable pellicle, blackish red, very viscid; g. decur. broad, shining white; s. solid, stout, white. edible. [=auricula=, d. c. p. hemispher. even, glabrous, edge incurved, naked, greyish brown; g. white; s. solid, glabrous, white. [=nimbata=, batsch. p. camp.-convex, even, thin margin incurved, white mealy; g. crowded, arcuate, white; s. solid, innately squamulose, squamules becoming blackish. [=luscina=, fr. p. exp. even, glabrous, edge spreading, naked, fuscous then livid; g. subdecur. crowded; s. solid, short, narrowed downwards, powdered with white meal. [=curtipes=, fr. p. exp. oblique, obtuse, brown then pale, flesh brown; g. closely crowded, white; s. short, rigid, fuscous, thickened upwards, pale and subpruinose. =hirneola=, fr. p. - . cm. convex then plane, silky shining, grey then pale; g. crowded, hoary; s. - cm. slender, subflexuous, grey, apex with white meal; sp. × . var. _major_, fr. p. wavy, slightly zoned, whitish. var. _undulata_, ----. p. exp. slightly wavy and zoned, whitish; s. thickened downwards. [=dothiophora=, fr. p. exp. oblique, gibbous, hoary; g. decur. crowded, whitish; s. solid, short, excentric, glabrous. ++ _pileus violet or rufescent._ =cyanophaea=, fr. p. - cm. plane, obtuse, brownish-blue; g. deeply decur. violet then pale; s. - cm. narrowed upwards, bluish when young, apex abruptly white; sp. ----. differs from _trich. nudum_ in decurrent gills, &c. [=tyrianthina=, fr. exp. even, purplish flesh colour, pellicle separable when dry; g. rosy violet; s. villose then striate. differs from _c. gilva_ in springing from a fiery-red mycelium. somewhat resembling _trich. personatum_. =opiparia=, fr. p. - cm. nearly plane, obtuse, yellowish flesh-colour, shining; g. white, connected by veins; s. - cm. solid, glabrous, whitish; sp. ----. =amara=, fr. taste very bitter. p. - cm. plane, obtuse or subumb. floccosely broken up, rufescent; g. crowded, narrow, white; s. - cm. white, solid, floccose then glabrous; sp. × . [=vulpecula=, kalchb. p. exp. depr. gilvous-rufescent; g. acutely adnate, narrow; s. hollow, naked, whitish. =socialis=, fr. p. - cm. umb. even, yellowish-red; g. tinged yellow; s. - cm. reddish, rooting base hairy; sp. ----. stem strigose as in _marasmius personatus_. +++ _pileus becoming yellowish._ =amarella=, pers. smell strong, taste bitter. p. - cm. plane, subumb. reddish-yellow or fawn colour; g. tinged grey, shining; s. - cm. pallid grey, white down at base; sp. ----. [=veneris=, fr. p. exp. gibbous, yellow; g. crowded, shining white; s. elastic, glabrous, white. =vernicosa=, fr. p. - cm. obtuse, even, glabrous, gilvous or deep yellow; g. yellow; s. - cm. glabrous, yellow; sp. ----. distinguished from _trich. cerinum_ by decur. gills. =venustissima=, fr. p. - cm. exp. obtuse, striate, orange, tinged red; g. decur. orange; s. - cm. long, glabrous, orange-red; sp. × . . =alutacea=, cke. and mass. p. - . cm. convex then umbil. edge incurved, even, tan; g. narrow, crowded, arcuate, decur. paler than p.; s. - cm. smooth, pale; sp. × . =subalutacea=, batsch. p. - cm. plano-depr. obtuse, yellowish then pale; g. broad, whitish; s. - cm. firm, elastic, glabrous; sp. ----. ++++ _pileus greenish or pallid._ =odora=, sow. smell fragrant. p. - cm. wavy, pale, dingy opaque green; g. adnate, not crowded, pallid; s. - cm. elastic; sp. - × - . =trogii=, fr. smell fragrant. p. - cm. compact, greyish white; g. crowded, white; s. - cm. whitish, solid; sp. ----. stouter than _c. odora_, and p. greyish, not green. [=vilis=, karst. p. convex, exp. umb. glabrous, pellucidly striate, livid, pallid when dry; g. decur. pallid; s. equal, wavy, glabrous, umber, apex white-scurfy, livid when dry; sp. . - . × . [=bifurcata=, weinm. p. exp. rather silky, clay-colour then pale, edge substriate; g. adnato-decur. simple or bifurcate, white; s. fibrillose. =rivulosa=, pers. p. - cm. exp. or depr. obtuse, flesh-colour, rufescent &c. then pale, glabrous then with white down; g. broad, rather crowded, faintly tinged pink; s. - cm. tough, rather fibrillose, whitish; sp. × . . var. _neptunea_, cke. smaller than type. [=rigidata=, karst. p. rigid, plane, depr. unequal, even, glabrous, pallid then whitish; g. adnate, pallid; s. thickened upwards, often compr. rooting, pallid; sp. - × - . +++++ _pileus white, shining when dry._ =cerussata=, fr. white. p. - cm. plane, obtuse, even, subglabrous; g. closely crowded, adnate; s. - cm. smooth, elastic; sp. ----. var. _difformis_. tufted, p. lobed; s. rugose; g. pallid. var. _obtextus_, lasch. snow-white. p. fibrillosely interwoven then glabrous, rather viscid; g. subdecur. crowded. [=puellula=, karst. p. convexo-plane, subumb. even, glabrous, shining white; g. adnate, crowded, white; s. subequal, straight, elastic, white with blackish squamules; sp. - × - . allied to _clito. cerrusatus_ but smaller and with black squamules on stem. [=adsentiens=, karst. p. convexo-plane, obtuse, even, at length scaly, white; g. adnate, closely crowded, white; s. short, base thickened, white with blackish scales; sp. ----. =phyllophila=, fr. whitish-tan. p. - cm. convexo-plane, umbil. not becoming pale, veil forming a silvery zone near margin; g. rather distant, white then pallid; silky-fibrous, tough, - cm.; sp. × . =pithyophila=, fr. white. p. - cm. exp. umbil. glabrous, becoming shining white; g. crowded, permanently white; s. - cm. often compr. base downy; sp. ----. =tornata=, fr. white. p. - cm. orbicular, subdepr. glabrous, shining; g. rather crowded; s. stuffed, glabrous, - cm.; - × - µ. very regular in form. var. _opala_, fr. white. p. viscid. [=olorina=, fr. whitish. p. exp. even, glabrous; s. hollow, rigid, cylindrical, squamulose; g. subdecur. crowded. =candicans=, pers. white. p. - cm. plane or subdepr. umbil. with adpressed silkiness, shining white when dry; g. adnate then decur. crowded; s. - cm. subfistulose, cartilaginous, shining; sp. - × . =dealbata=, sow. white. p. - cm. plane then upturned and wavy, glabrous, rather shining; g. adnate, crowded, white; s. - cm. entirely fibrous, thin, equal, stuffed; sp. - × . . =gallinacea=, scop. white, taste acrid. p. depr. even, dry, opaque; g. crowded, narrow; s. - cm. equal, even, solid; sp. ----. differs from _c. dealbata_ in dingy white, opaque p. and acrid taste. ** difformes. _pileus fleshy at the disc, margin thin, umb. at first, then exp. depr. and irregular._ =decastes=, fr. clustered. p. - cm. wavy, subumb. glabrous, uniformly dingy brown or livid, then pale; g. crowded, wavy, white; s. - cm. long, solid, glabrous, white, apex pruinose; sp. globose, - . =subdecastes=, cke. and mass. clustered. p. - cm. convex, obtuse, ochre, paler towards lobed margin; g. crowded, white; s. - cm. fibrillose, whitish; sp. globose, - . =ampla=, pers. p. - cm. convex then exp. wavy, sooty then livid, even; g. broad, smoky then dingy white; s. - cm. subcartilaginous, naked, white, apex somewhat downy; sp. ----. [=molybdina=, bull. p. camp. exp. umb. glabrous, sooty, disc livid rufous, then pale; g. horn colour then pallid; s. stout, fibrillosely striate, mealy squamulose upwards, pallid. [=coffeata=, fr. p. brownish fawn then sooty grey, fawn colour and shining when dry, virgate or spotted; g. decur. dingy white, as is also the glabrous s. =aggregata=, schaeff. tufted. p. - cm. wavy, greyish or reddish yellow, then pale, silkily virgate; g. yellowish flesh colour; s. - cm. fibrillose, narrowed below and often grown together at base; sp. ----. [=hortensis=, pers. caespitose, elastic. p. exp. obsoletely umb. sooty, blackish; g. decur. white then flesh-colour; s. hollow, rather wavy. [=tabescens=, scop. (= _coll. tabescens_, fr.). p. conico-campan. exp. umb. depr. round umbo, tawny honey-colour, or tawny-brown, disc scaly; g. decur. pallid then pinkish tan; s. fibrillosely scaly, pallid or lurid yellow, elongated; sp. - × - . closely resembling _armillaria mellea_, but no ring on stem. [=anapacta=, pers. p. depr. wavy, brown, edge incurved; g. broad, dingy tan; s. narrowed below, pallid. =elixa=, sow. p. - cm. unequal, wavy, disc umb. smoky buff, edge paler; g. distant; s. - cm. solid, dingy, subfloccose; sp. × . =fumosa=, pers. tufted. p. - cm. subcartilaginous, obtuse, wavy, sooty brown then pale; g. adnate, livid; s. - cm. often twisted, dingy, apex minutely mealy; sp. subgl. - . differs from _c. elixa_ in obtuse, non-virgate p. [=effocatella=, viv. caespitose. p. convex, even, glabrous, livid chestnut or umber; g. adnate, crowded, white; s. naked, ventricose below. =tumulosa=, kalchbr. tufted. p. . cm. umb. even, umber then pale; g. soon greyish; s. - cm. solid, dingy, floccosely pruinose; sp. ----. =pergamena=, cke. tufted. p. - cm. convex then plane, subumb. pallid; g. broadly adnate with decur. tooth, white; s. - cm. whitish, apex squamulose; cartilaginous; sp. ----. [=humosa=, fr. p. fragile, exp. wavy, fuscous; g. adfixed, both ends narrowed; s. short, whitish like the gills. [=adunata=, secr. tufted, foetid. p. exp. gibbous then depr. white becoming spotted red then rufous, becoming viscid; g. decur. crowded, eroded, dingy red; s. stout, twisted, narrowed below, whitish. =cryptarum=, letell. tufted. p. somewhat conical, flocculose, spotted brown; g. decur. narrow, white; s. white, striate. a doubtful species. [=hebepodia=, fr. p. exp. depr. unequal, even, grey then pale; g. decur. white; s. woolly, white. [=connata=, schum. shining white. p. conical exp. unequal, moist, obtuse umbo disappearing; g. unequally decur. narrow, crowded; stems numerous, hollow, collected at base into a tuberous mass. =opaca=, fr. white. p. - cm. umb. often depr. and wavy, minutely flocculose; g. closely crowded; s. - cm. fibrillose, wavy; sp. ----. differs from _c. cerrusata_ in umbonate p. =occulta=, cke. p. - cm. depr. virgate, viscid, disc smoky rest whitish; g. adnate, white; s. - cm. fibrillosely striate, solid, white; sp. ----. =monstrosa=, sow. p. - cm. umb. wavy, opaque white; g. adnato-decur. creamy; s. - cm. opaque white, streaked; sp. ----. =marzuola=, fr. p. compact, exp. subdepr. even, wavy, dusky; g. unequally decur.; s. stout, short, white. *** infundibiliformes. _pileus fleshy at disc, thinner towards the margin, becoming deeply umbilicate or infundibuliform._ + _pileus coloured, or becoming pallid, silky._ =gigantea=, sow. (= _pax. giganteus_, fr.) p. - cm. infundib. whitish or tinged tan, edge coarsely striate; g. closely crowded; s. pallid, solid, glabrous, - cm.; sp. × . =maxima=, fr. - cm. infundib. subumb. whitish or tinged tan, edge even; g. deeply decur.; s. - cm. compact, fibrillosely striate, whitish; sp. × . =infundibiliformis=, schaeff. p. - cm. convex, umb. then infundib. yellowish pink then pale, innately silky; g. deeply decur.; s. - cm. thinner upwards, pallid; sp. - × - . var. _membranacea_, fr. p. not umb.; s. equal; altogether more slender than type. [=squamulosa=, pers. p. obtuse, tan, squamulose, at first obtuse, deeply infundib.; g. decur. distant, white; s. narrowed upwards, elastic. [=nauseosodulcis=, karst. very foetid when old. p. irregular, convex then plane, glabrous, often areolately squamulose, entirely clay-colour; g. decur. pallid; s. excentric, rarely central, usually unequal and curved, solid, whitish; sp. - × . connato-caespitose, resembling _pleurotus sapidus_. [=panizzii=, barla. caespitose. p. convex then umbil. or infundib. white or grey, edge lobed, wavy; g. thin, narrow, striately decur. pale or tinged rose; s. long, wavy, white; flesh elastic, white. =trullaeformis=, fr. p. - cm. obtuse then infundib. edge spreading, greyish brown, floccosely villose; g. decur. connected by veins; s. - cm. striate, grey; sp. ----. differs from _c. cyathiforme_ in pure white flesh and gills. =incilis=, fr. p. - cm. plane then umbil. or infundib. margin silky, incurved, crenate, brick red; g. white then pallid, connected by veins; s. - cm. base narrowed, red; sp. × . [=pulla=, gill. p. depr. then infundib. glabrous, hygr. brown then pale; g. united by veins, lilac grey; s. swollen at base which is downy, colour of p. white-fibrillose below, wavy. near _c. obbata_, which differs in striate margin, equal s. and distant gills. [=lenticulosa=, gill. p. exp. umbil. then infundib. dry, reddish orange, tuberculose near the even edge; g. crowded, white then tinged rose, finally colour of p.; s. solid, paler than p. differs from _c. lentiginosa_ in solid s. and edge of p. not striate. =sinopica=, fr. smell strong, mealy. p. - cm. brick red then pale, plane then umbil. at length flocculose; g. closely crowded, white then yellow; s. red, fibrillose, - cm.; sp. ----. differs from _c. incilis_ in solid stem, even edge of p. and yellowish g. [=arnoldi=, boud. p. depr. then infundib. wavy, subtomentose, minutely squamulose, ochrey brick-red; g. whitish; s. colour of p. fibrillose below; sp. - × - . [=lentiginosa=, fr. p. plane, deeply umbil. with concentric zones of minute tubercles, yellowish ochre; g. deeply decur. yellow; s. hollow, equal, yellowish fuscous. =parilis=, fr. p. . - cm. disc depr. edge involute, greyish white, ornately flocculose; g. narrow, greyish white; s. . cm. fibrous, sooty; sp. ----. ++ _pileus coloured or pallid, glabrous._ =geotropa=, bull. p. - cm. plane then infundib. obtusely umb. pallid; g. crowded, white then pallid; s. - cm. solid, fibrillose, flesh white; sp. - × - . [=candida=, bres. large. p. fleshy, plano-convex then depr. edge involute, even, pubescent, white becoming tinged tan; g. much crowded, narrow, attenuato-decur. white then pallid; s. stout, short, white; flesh white; sp. × . close to _c. geotropa_ and _c. gigantea_. differs in pure white colour and in sp. =gilva=, pers. p. - cm. soon depr. and wavy, dingy ochre, flesh same colour; g. closely crowded, ochre; s. - . cm. solid, ochre; sp. subgl. - . =subinvoluta=, batsch. p. - cm. convex then depr. tinged brick red, fibrillose, zoned; g. pale tan; s. - cm. reddish, grooved; sp. ----. =spinulosa=, w. g. sm. p. - cm. depr. gibbous, yellowish pink, edge even, incurved; g. white then pale yellow; s. - cm. fibrillose, whitish, zoned with tan; sp. globose, spinulose, - . =splendens=, pers. p. - cm. plane then depr. or infund. pinkish-yellow, shining; g. deeply decur. white; s. - cm. glabrous, yellow; sp. ----. differs from _c. gilva_ in white flesh. =inversus=, scop. p. - cm. convex then infundib. edge involute, rufescent; g. soon tinged rufous; s. - cm. hollow, rigid, paler than p. flesh pallid; sp. subg. - . often tufted. =flaccidus=, sow. p. - cm. thin, flaccid, umbil. then infund. edge reflexed, tawny or rusty; g. yellowish; s. - cm. rusty, rather wavy; sp. - × - . often tufted. var. _lobatus_, fr. tufted. p. darker, edge lobed. [=rhodoleuca=, rom. fleshy, almost glabrous, in dry weather pure white except gills which are tinted rose; in rainy weather everywhere inside and out deep rose, gills darkest. p. obconic, convex or almost flattened above; sp. - × - . . [=zizyphana=, viv. p. convex then infundib. often excentric, rufous brown, flesh reddish white; g. yellow; s. equal, pallid. [=cervina=, hoffm. p. plano-infundib. oblique, glabrous, edge convex, greyish fawn, subzoned; g. pallid, edge darker; s. cylindrical, base tuberous. [=garidelli=, fr. p. convex, at first umbil. edge incurved, deep rose to flesh colour; g. decur. crowded, edge red; s. short, stout, flesh colour. edible. [=ambigua=, karst. p. tough, orbicular, convex, obtuse, glabrous, even, pallid rufous tinged pink then pale; g. adnato-decur. pallid; s. glabrous, wavy, whitish, base woolly; sp. - × . [=paropsis=, fr. p. plano-depr. glabrous, edge spreading, flaccid, rufous or flesh-colour; g. narrow, shining white; s. cylindrical, base rather bulbous. =vermicularis=, fr. p. - cm. convex, umbil. then infund. edge incurved, often wavy, reddish tan then pale, flesh same colour; g. closely crowded, white; s. - cm. hollow, elastic, striate, paler than p.; sp. × . [=cacaba=, fr. p. flaccid, infundib. glabrous, edge broadly reflexed, sooty; g. very deeply decur. closely crowded, dark grey; s. striate, base thickened, downy. =senilis=, fr. p. - cm. infundib. brownish tan, concentrically cracked, edge spreading; g. narrow, soon colour of p.; s. - cm. solid, glabrous, pallid; sp. - × . +++ _pileus clear white._ =catina=, fr. p. - cm. plane then infundib. glabrous, white, discoloured when old; g. decur. somewhat crowded, white; s. - cm. elastic, white; sp. ----. _c. infundibiliformis_ differs in not being umb. and in being glabrous. _c. phyllophila_ differs in adnate gills. =tuba=, fr. white. p. - cm. umbil. margin even, shining with a silky lustre when dry; g. broad, closely crowded, decur.; s. - cm. equal, soon hollow and compressed; sp. ----. differs from _c. pithyophila_ in umbil. p.; g. deeply decurrent. =ericetorum=, bull. white. p. - cm. fleshy, subturbinate, glabrous, shining when dry; g. distant, connected by veins; s. - cm. glabrous; sp. ----. resembling _hygr. niveus_ in appearance. b. _pileus thin, hygrophanous, soft, watery._ **** cyathiformes. _p. thin, depressed then cup-shaped. colour dingy when moist._ =cyathiformis=, bull. p. - cm. deeply depr. edge incurved, sooty-brown then pale; g. dingy; s. - cm. stuffed, elastic, narrowed upwards, reticulately fibrillose, sooty; sp. ----. var. _cinerascens_, fr. smaller. p. pale grey-brown; g. tinged yellow. =expallens=, pers. p. - cm. plane then deeply depr. greyish brown then pale, margin soon expanded; g. greyish white; s. - cm. greyish white, hollow, equal; sp. ----. =obbata=, fr. p. - cm. plane, umbil. then deeply depr. sooty brown, edge at length striate; g. decur. distant, greyish, pruinose with white; s. - cm. glabrous, greyish brown, hollow; sp. ----. [=fritilliformis=, lasch. convex-umbil. then infundib. glabrous, grey then pallid, becoming fuscescent when dry, edge sublobed; g. thickish, pallid; s. subtomentose, thickened upwards. [=calatha=, fr. p. exp. infundib. hygr. edge soon spreading, even, sooty; g. deeply decur. violet then reddish; s. solid, tough, striately rugose, narrowed below, violet then reddish. =pruinosa=, lasch. p. - cm. umbil. then deeply depr. brown, powdered with grey bloom; g. decur. crowded, narrow, dingy; s. - cm. fibrillose, pallid; sp. ----. =concava=, scop. p. - cm. broadly and deeply umbil. flaccid, wavy, dark grey; g. decur. narrow, smoky; s. - cm. equal, glabrous, grey; sp. ----. [=vibecina=, fr. p. exp. then infundib. greyish livid then pale, margin soon extended, striate; g. deeply decur. greyish white; s. hollow, glabrous, rather wavy. [=queletii=, fr. p. convex, umbil. whitish with brown squamules when dry; g. deeply decur. whitish; s. flocculose, whitish. =suaveolens=, fr. fragrant. p. - cm. convex then concave, discoid, buff, hygr. margin striate; gills crowded, pallid; s. - cm. thinner upwards, tinged brown; sp. × . among grass. differs from _c. fragrans_ in concave pileus with striate margin. =brumalis=, fr. p. . - . cm. umbil. then deeply depr. flaccid, glabrous, wavy, livid, pale when dry; g. pallid; s. - cm. glabrous, whitish, often curved; sp. - × - . ***** orbiformes. _pileus rather fleshy, convex then flattened or depressed, polished; g. adnate; dingy, becoming pale._ + _gills grey or olive._ =orbiformis=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, even, smoky grey; g. greyish white; s. - cm. naked, narrowed upwards, grey; sp. ----. differs from _c. cyathiforme_ in plane p. [=applanata=, secr. p. exp. disc depr. flaccid, lurid then hoary; g. greyish white; s. fuscous with white down, pallid and silky fibrillose upwards. [=insignis=, gill. p. conical, convex, then exp. edge more or less wavy and upturned, much depr. round strong umbo, even, glabrous, red, umb. rusty; g. closely crowded, clear white; s. cylindrical, solid, colour of p. [=papillata=, gillet. p. convex then exp. with a little persistent brown umbo, glabrous, hygr. slightly striate, clear reddish; g. pallid; s. subequal, wavy, white-pruinose, apex colour of p. [=radicellata=, godey. p. convex, umbil. purplish brown, grey-pruinose; g. crowded, soon yellowish grey; s. equal, curved, colour of g. with a white bloom, base white with a number of branched strands. [=ochracea=, gill. p. irreg. umb. uniformly ochre, silky or pruinose; g. distant; s. excentric, colour deeper than p. [=macrophylla=, karst. p. thin, convex, orbicular, livid-white then paler and shining; g. adnate, very broad, triangular, white; s. wavy, whitish, glabrous, base thickened; sp. ----. [=lepiphylla=, gill. p. convex then depr. uniformly pale grey then pallid; g. decur. tinged grey; s. elastic, wavy, grey, with a white bloom, with longitudinal whitish striae. =metachroa=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane then depr. brownish grey, then livid, at last pallid; g. pale grey; s. - cm. grey, apex mealy; sp. ----. =zygophylla=, cke. and mass. p. - cm. thin, wavy, slightly depr. greyish ochre then pallid, edge plicate; g. deeply decur. grey, veined; s. - cm. smooth, pallid; sp. × . =pausiaca=, fr. p. - cm. soon plane, umber with olive tinge, often silky; g. adnate, olive; s. - cm. striate, coloured like p., apex powdery; sp. ----. =ditopa=, fr. smell strong, mealy. p. - cm. plane then depr. brownish grey then pale, often wavy; g. adnate, dusky grey; s. . cm. hollow; sp. ----. differs from _c. metachroa_ in mealy smell. [=nubila=, fr. p. exp. umb. livid then tan, glabrous; g. subdecur. rather distant, brownish tan; s. slender, apex pruinose. [=obola=, fr. p. convexo-plane, obtuse, glabrous, hygr. livid then whitish; g. adnate, livid; s. equal, thin, striate, naked, livid. ++ _gills whitish._ =diatreta=, fr. p. - cm. plane then depr. edge involute, pubescent, often wavy, flesh colour then pallid tan; g. with an acute decur. tooth, crowded, narrow; s. - cm. pallid, straight, terete; sp. ----. =fragrans=, sow. smell strong, spicy, - cm. depr. pallid; g. subdecur. rather crowded; s. - cm. elastic, glabrous; sp. ----. _c. suaveolens_ differs in cup-shaped p. and brownish stem. =angustissima=, fr. p. - cm. plano-depr. edge spreading, pallid, shining white when dry; g. subdecur. narrow, closely crowded; s. - cm. white, naked, flexuous; sp. × . [=isabellina=, q. p. yellowish white, umb. hygr.; g. thick, often branched, whitish; s. fistulose, wavy, white, base narrowed. =obsoletus=, batsch. smell spicy, but weak. p. - cm. plano-depr. even, pale pinky tan, pale when dry; g. obtusely adnate, broad; s. - cm. elastic, soon hollow, whitish; sp. ----. [=mortuosa=, fr. p. plano-depr. umber or brown then pale, even; g. adnate, closely crowded, narrow, whitish; s. short, glabrous, compr. whitish. [=gyrans=, fr. p. convex-umb. even, glabrous, hygr. edge broadly incurved, whitish; g. crowded, white; s. hollow, glabrous. ****** versiformes. _pileus thin, convex then deformed, squamulose or furfuraceous; g. adnate, broad; usually distant and powdered with the white spores._ =ectypa=, fr. p. - cm. exp. then depr. revolute, dingy yellow or rufescent, slightly streaked with dark fibrils, edge slightly striate; g. adnate, pallid then spotted with red and powdered with the spores; s. - cm. dingy yellowish, fibrillose; sp. × . [=difformis=, pers. p. convex, plane, subumbil. glabrous, hygr. striate when moist, even when dry, at length subsquamulose, livid then whitish; g. adnate, distant; s. hollow, glabrous, shining. var. _stygia_, fr. p. campan. umbil.; g. adnexed, ventricose; s. long, slender. [=incompta=, fr. p. plane then depr. blackish olive, virgate with adglutinated blackish fibrils, viscid; g. pale grey; s. fibrillosely striate, grey. [=xanthophylla=, bres. p. convex-umbil. dry greyish-hoary, virgate especially at centre with brownish fibrils; g. decur. clear yellow; s. greyish-white, fibrillose. [=nigropunctata=, secr. p. exp. umb. whitish, mealy, disc dotted with black; g. crowded, pallid then yellowish; s. hollow, striate with black. [=pachyphylla=, fr. p. convexo-plane, dingy yellow or rufescent, floccosely squamulose; g. thick, distant, yellow; s. tough, yellow. var. _absinthiata_. p. scurfy-squamulose, brown-ochre; g. very broad, grey then pallid. =bella=, pers. p. - cm. exp. depr. or umbil. orange yellow with darker squamules; g. yellow, connected by veins, mealy; s. - cm. yellowish; sp. - , subgl. warted. =laccata=, scop. (= _laccaria_, b. and br.). p. exp. subumbil. irreg. mealy subsquamulose, violet or brown, whitish when dry, - cm.; g. thick, distant, coloured like p., mealy; s. - cm. fibrous, colour of p.; sp. globose, warted, - . =proxima=, boud. p. - cm. convex then plane, glabrous, yellowish-brown; g. adnato-decurrent, pinkish; s. - cm. even, smooth, paler than pileus; sp. × . . resembling the brown form of _c. laccata_, differing in the elliptical, warted spores and glabrous pileus. [=sandicina=, fr. p. convexo-plane, umbil. deformed, even, hygr. at length greyish-mealy; g. adnate, crowded, purplish, almost naked; s. hollow, unequal, glabrous, purplish. [=grumata=, scop. p. campan.-convex, glabrous, cracked into squamules, disc depr. yellow; g. broadly adnate, distant, white; s. equal, pallid. =sadleri=, berk. this is only an abnormal condition of _hypholoma fasciculare_. omphalia, fr. i. collybiarii. _pileus expanded from the first, edge incurved._ * _usually large, gills narrow, closely crowded._ =hydrogramma=, fr. livid white, white when dry. p. - cm. flaccid, thin, umbil. hygr. edge spreading, striate; g. closely crowded; s. - cm. base rooting; sp. ----. differs from _clito. phyllophila_ in polished stem. [=chrysoleuca=, fr. p. very thin, umbil. shining, white, edge reflexed, substriate; g. yellowish; s. smooth, base thickened; sp. - × . [=ventosa=, fr. p. infundib. glabrous, flaccid, flesh-colour, hygr.; g. white then flesh-colour; s. colour of p. [=dumosa=, fr. p. very thin, plane, subumbil. rigid, deep brick-red; g. pallid; s. glabrous, colour of p. =detrusa=, fr. p. - cm. rather fleshy, umbil. dark grey; g. with a decur. tooth, whitish; s. - cm. glabrous, dark grey; sp. ----. [=umbilicata=, fr. p. umbil. then infundib. edge reflexed, even, hygr. tinged brown, then pale but disc darker; g. whitish; s. terete, apex striate with white fibrils; sp. - × . =maura=, fr. p. - cm. thin, deeply umbil. hygr. striate, sooty brown, pale and silky when dry; g. shining white; s. - cm. rigid, straight, blackish; sp. - × - . differs from _col. atrata_ in decur. narrow gills. [=lituua=, fr. p. thin, plane, deeply umbil. hygr. even, bay then tan; g. grey; s. slightly wavy, grey. =offuciata=, fr. p. - cm. plano-depr. flesh-colour then pale; g. colour of p.; s. - cm. glabrous, reddish; sp. ----. [=scyphoides=, fr. shining white. p. infundib. silky, unequal; g. narrow; s. subvillose, short; sp. × . [=albula=, q. p. umbil. thin, wavy, glabrous; s. solid, slender, incurved; g. adnato-decur. unequal, yellowish; sp. - long. [=giovanellae=, bres. p. thin, convex and umbil. then exp. and umbil., edge striate, silky-flocculose, grey then hoary brown; g. decur. crowded, colour of p.; s. glabrous, colour of p.; sp. × . differs from _omp. scyphoides_ in hoary-grey colour of every part. ** _medium size; gills rather distant, narrow, narrowed at both ends._ =chrysophylla=, fr. p. - cm. thin, umbil. flaccid, floccose, brownish yellow then paler, edge reflexed; g. deep golden yellow; s. - cm. yellow; sp. × . differs from _o. postii_ in the floccose pileus. =postii=, fr. p. - cm. thin, umbil. glabrous, orange; g. whitish; s. - cm. glabrous, yellow; sp. ----. var. _aurea_, mass. p. very regular; g. slightly decur.; sp. × . . =vesuviana=, brig. p. infundib. orange, edge at length wavy; g. thickish, narrow; s. fibrillose, colour of p. =pyxidata=, bull. p. . - cm. thin, infundib. rufous-red, radiately striate, pale when dry, hygr.; g. flesh-colour then yellowish; s. . - cm. tough, pale tawny; sp. - × - . =leucophylla=, fr. p. - cm. thin, quite infundib. dark grey, even; g. shining white; s. - cm. grey; sp. long. =luffii=, mass. fragrant. p. - cm. convex then depr. glabrous, pallid then white; g. crowded, decur. pallid; s. - cm. solid, pallid, polished, often wavy; sp. × . ground among grass &c. differs from _clito. fragrans_ in short, polished stem. =costatula=, bres. p. infundib. then revolute, brown, glabrous, edge striate wavy; g. decur. straw-colour, joined by veins; s. glabrous, tinged straw-colour, base brownish; sp. × . =striaepileus=, fr. p. - cm. plane, umbil. glabrous, entirely striate, livid brown, hygr.; g. white; s. - cm. tough, tinged brown; sp. rough, - . =nevillae=, b. p. - . cm. depr. rugose, disc granulated, striate, brown then pale; g. white, veined; s. - cm. brownish, rough, base downy; sp. ----. _o. affricata_ differs in scaly p. =sphagnicola=, b. p. - cm. thin, soon deeply umbil. squamulose, dingy ochraceous; g. dingy ochre; s. - cm. slightly flexuous, colour of p.; sp. × . =telmatiaea=, b. p. - cm. thin, pliant, soon infund. edge arched and drooping, umber, hygr. pale and silky when dry; g. pallid; s. - cm. grey, base cottony, white; sp. × . [=affricata=, fr. p. umbil. then infundib. not striate, edge bent down, everywhere with blackish squamules; g. grey; s. glabrous, greyish. [=epichysia=, pers. soft. p. thin, exp. umbil. sooty grey, pallid when dry, silky or floccosely scaly; g. plano-decur. whitish then grey; s. grey; sp. - × - . =philonitis=, lasch. p. - cm. deeply umbil. edge erect, hygr. floccose when dry, grey; g. deeply decur. greyish; s. - cm. glabrous, grey; sp. - × . . differs from _o. oniscus_ and _o. epichysium_ in erect margin of p. [=campestris=, rom. p. campan. umbil. then exp. sooty-fuscous, sulcate when dry; g. greyish-white, decur.; s. equal, glabrous, colour of p. appearing late in the season; glabrous; sp. - × - . =oniscus=, fr. p. . - . cm. thin, infundib. wavy, flaccid, glabrous, even, grey; g. grey; s. - cm. wavy, grey; sp. × . [=oniscoides=, karst. p. convex-umbil. sometimes reflexed and concave, glabrous, everywhere pellucidly striate, sooty or livid fuscous, pallid grey when dry; g. adnate, then subdecur. white or greyish, edge denticulate, s. tinged fuscous, base darkest; sp. - × . =caespitosa=, bolt. p. - cm. thin, hemisph. umbil. sulcate, whitish ochre; g. whitish; s. - cm. coloured like p., base thickened; sp. × . [=arenicola=, fr. p. thin, cup-shaped, wavy, with wart-like spots, umber; g. paler than p.; s. short, umber. =glaucophylla=, fr. p. - . cm. infundib. plicato-striate, hygr. mouse-colour then paler; g. olive; s. stuffed, firm; sp. ----. =rustica=, fr. p. - mm. thin, slightly convex, umbil. striate, hygr. greyish brown then paler and silky; g. grey, edge arcuate; s. - . cm., colour of p.; sp. ----. differs from _o. umbellifera_ by gills being narrowed behind. [=scyphiformis=, fr. white. p. infundib. glabrous; g. decur. thin; s. thin, short, glabrous. differs from _o. scyphoides_ in glabrous stem. *** _gills truly distant, broad, usually thick._ [=tricolor=, a. and s. p. ochraceous white, thin, umbil.; g. orange, at first with rosy pruinose; s. yellowish. [=cortiseda=, karst. p. convex then plane, radiato-striate, glabrous, pallid; g. adnato-decur. very distant, thickish, few, pallid; s. equal, hyaline, pallid; sp. - × - . [=sciopoda=, q. p. convex then umbil. rather crisped, pale straw-colour, pruinose; g. adnate, thick, sometimes branched, straw-colour then tinged rose; s. slender, wavy, velvety-pruinose, white above, grey below. =demissa=, fr. p. - . cm. thin, plane then umbil. striate, shining rufous then pale; g. purplish; s. cm., colour of p.; sp. × . ( - × - sacc.) [=grisella=, karst. p. convex, disc depr. silky, sulcate, pale fuscescent, whitish when dry; g. adnate, distant, plane, whitish; s. equal, glabrous, apex pruinose, pale, becoming more or less smoky; sp. - × - . =hepatica=, fr. p. . - . cm. tough, rigid, infundib. glabrous, brownish flesh-colour then pale; g. narrow, whitish, connected by veins; s. cm. very tough, colour of p.; sp. - × - . differs from _o. pyxidata_ in toughness, even edge of p. and pallid gills. =muralis=, sow. p. - cm. becoming infundib. radiato-striate, rufous brown; g. pallid; s. - . cm. glabrous, coloured like p.; sp. rough, × . [=cuneifolia=, karst. very fragile. p. convex then plane, obtuse, dry, glabrous, pellucidly striate when moist, sooty, tan when dry; g. adnate, distant, thickish; broad, ventricose or broadest in front, obliquely truncate, greyish; s. apex scurfy, solid; sp. - × - . [=lilacina=, laest. p. plane, violet then pale; g. deeply decur. connected by veins, yellow; s. persistently violet. =umbellifera=, l. p. - cm. convexo-plane, radiately striate, even and rather silky when dry, grey, yellow, brownish, pallid, &c.; g. very distant and broad behind, colour of p.; s. cm. colour of p.; sp. × . . var. _myochroa_, fr. p. brownish umber; s. strigosely rooting. var. _abiegena_, b. and br. pale yellow. var. _viridis_, fl. dan. every part pale green. [=kalchbrenneri=, bres. p. tough, convex, umbil. subexp. glabrous, hygr. subochre; g. deeply decur. whitish; s. colour of p., base often brownish; sp. - × - . [=velutina=, q. downy, greyish. p. umbil. striate; g. arcuate; s. filiform, base white floccose; sp. long. =infumata=, b. and br. p. - mm. obtuse, greenish then smoky; g. few, broad, yellow; s. cm. thin, yellow, tomentose below. [=griseolilacina=, steinh. entirely greyish lilac, grey when dry; p. umb. then exp. edge incurved, even, glabrous; g. adnate then decur.; s. cylindrical, equal; sp. - × - . =buccinalis=, sow. white. p. up to cm. trumpet-shaped, plane or depr.; g. deeply decur. triangular; s. expanding into p.; sp. ----. [=hirsuta=, q. (= _o. caricicola_, lasch). hyaline-white, soon flaccid. p. umbil. convex, very thin; gills or folds obliterated; s. capillary, short, pilose, base bulbillose; sp. rough, long. =retosta=, fr. p. - cm. plano-depr. umber, polished and pale when dry; g. distant, broad, narrowed at both ends, paler than p.; s. cm. glabrous, paler than p.; sp. ----. differs from _o. umbellifera_ in having gills narrowed behind. =abhorrens=, b. and br. foetid. p. - . cm. umbil. brown then pale; g. narrow, pale; s. cm. slender, apex thickened, colour of p.; sp. ----. =pseudoandrosacea=, bull. p. convex, umbil. then infundib. plicate, edge crenulate, whitish or grey; g. deeply decur. segmentoid; s. slender; sp. - × - . =griseo-pallida=, desm. p. plane, umbil. even, glabrous, brownish grey then pale; g. broadest behind, grey; s. stuffed, fuscous, cm.; sp. ----. differs from _o. umbellifera_ and _o. rustica_ by p. not being striate when moist. =albidopallens=, karst. p. convex, orbicular, scarcely umbil. pellucidly striate, naked, hyaline white or pallid; g. adnate, decur. crowded, pallid; s. equal, naked, pallid; sp. - × . [=schizoxylon=, fr. p. thin, almost plane, umbil. glabrous, grey; g. narrow, paler than p.; s. rufous brown. [=bibula=, q. p. umbil. when moist, silky, olive-yellow then grey; g. arcuate, broad, citrin; s. tinged citrin. near to if not identical with _hygr. wynniae_. =stellata=, fr. white. p. convex, umbil. diaphanous, striate; g. very distant, thin, broad; s. equal, base radiately floccose; sp. × . ii. mycenarii. _p. at first campanulate, margin straight, adpressed to stem._ * _gills broad, perfect, unequal._ =campanella=, batsch. p. cm. convex, umbil. striate, hygr. rusty yellow; g. connected by veins, arcuate, yellow; s. - cm. horny, bay, base narrowed, tawny-strigose; sp. - × - . var. _badipus_, cke. base of s. slightly bulbous. var. _papillata_, fr. p. acutely conical. var. _myriadea_, kalchbr. small, caespitose. [=incomis=, karst. p. convex, umbil. glabrous or broken up into squamules, pale fuscous; g. adnato-decur. broad, white; s. tough, thinner below, colour of p.; sp. ----. [=psilocyboides=, karst. p. convex, umbil. glabrous, tawny yellow; g. very broad, yellowish-white; s. - cm. equal, bay, white-fibrillose, apex paler and pruinose; sp. ----. [=brunneola=, q. chestnut umber. p. umbil. squamulose; g. arcuate, white; s. floccosely punctate, base with spreading fawn-coloured down; sp. . [=atripes=, rab. p. thin, plano-depr. infundib. brown, pale and silky shining when dry; g. very broad behind, brownish, albo-pruinose; s. black, base bluish-pruinose. [=laestadii=, fr. p. hemispherical, umbil. even, tawny-bay, shining; g. distinct, yellow; s. rigid rufous bay. =picta=, fr. p. cm. campan. cucullate, umbil. glabrous, striate, fuscous; g. very broad, pallid; s. horny, bay, membranous spreading base tawny; sp. - × . =camptophylla=, b. p. cm. convex then exp. deeply striate, disc brown, rest pale grey; g. ascending then abruptly decur. white; s. - cm. very slender, whitish, base radiately strigose; sp. - × - . [=cyanophylla=, fr. p. thin, camp. umbil. striate, livid or bluish becoming yellowish; g. clear blue; s. glabrous; sp. - × - . [=cornui=, q. p. umbil. tawny; g. yellow with violet tinge; s. horny, bay, base inflated, downy, yellow. [=reclina=, fr. p. thin, rigid camp. then entirely infundib. livid; g. thick, white or grey; s. tough; sp. × - . [=deflexa=, karst. p. campan.-convex, mostly umbil. everywhere striate, fuscescent or pale livid, pale when dry; g. decur. arcuate, white; s. solid, tough, pallid, glabrous; sp. - × - . =umbratila=, fr. p. cm. thin, campan. then convex, umbil. umber brown, hygr.; g. broad, brownish; s. - cm. stuffed, brownish; sp. × . readily mistaken with _coll. atrata_ and _c. ambusta_, differs in subdecur. gills. [=invita=, karst. p. convex, umbil. glabrous, striate when moist, sooty or livid sooty, pale when dry; g. adnate, very broad, white; s. colour of p.; sp. glob. - . =grisea=, fr. p. - . cm. camp. glabrous, everywhere striate, livid grey then hoary; g. distant, greyish; s. greyish-white, apex thickened, - cm.; sp. - × . [=setipes=, fr. p. convex, subpapillate, everywhere striate, brownish-grey; g. greyish white, connected by veins; s. filiform, base pubescent; sp. - × - . =fibula=, bull. p. up to cm. cucullate then exp. umbil. striate, orange yellow then pale; g. deeply decur. pale; s. - cm. very slender, weak, pale orange; sp. - × . var. _swartzii_, fr. apex of stem violet. [=chlorocyanea=, pat. small, entirely bluish green outside and inside. p. convex; g. distant, decur. unequal; s. solid, slender. =directa=, b. and br. p. - mm. nail-shaped flat at apex, white; g. decur. white; s. rather wavy, cm. whitish, tinged rufous, with long hairs at base. =belliae=, johnst. p. cm. thin, dry, top-shaped, infundib. pallid; g. decur. thick, veined; s. - cm. brownish, adhering by a cottony base. [=pectinata=, rom. entirely white, glabrous, hygr. p. thin, convex, umbil. edge wavy or lobed, sulcate to middle; g. decur. distant; s. subequal, almost glabrous; sp. - × . =gracillima=, weinm. snow-white. p. - mm. downy, sulcate; g. decur. distant, thin; s. . cm. filiform, base cottony; sp. - × . [=gracilis=, q. snow-white. p. apiculate, striato-sulcate, glabrous; g. arcuate, distant; s. filiform, pellucid, pruinose, base downy, rooting; sp. × . [=candida=, bres. shining white. p. thin, convex, exp. often papillate, glabrous, pellucidly striate; g. deeply decur. connected by veins at base; s. splitting into fibres, glabrous, base rooting, strigose; sp. - × . - . =bullula=, brig. white. p. - mm. even, hemisph. diaphanous; g. arched, decur.; s. cm. filiform. ** _gills fold-like, narrow._ =integrella=, pers. white. p. - mm. hemisph. then exp. pellucid-striate; g. equal, fold-like, distant, rather branched; s. very slender, pubescent; sp. - × . [=microscopica=, wirt. minute, diaphanous. p. - mm. infundib. - , sulcate; g. very narrow, arcuate; s. capillary. =polyadelphus=, lasch. pure white. p. - mm. coarsely striate and minutely flocculose; g. decurrent; s. - cm. very slender, base downy; sp. × . . [=cuspidata=, q. hyaline white. p. very acuminate, striate, flocculose; g. decur. branched; s. filiform, pulverulent, the slight bulb hairy; sp. long. [=crispula=, q. white, diaphanous. p. crisped, pruinose; g. wrinkled, very thin; s. short, filiform, pruinose; sp. long. [=gibba=, pat. (= _cyphella infundibuliformis_, fr.). white, minute. p. trumpet-shaped, gibbous then deeply infundib. downy; g. mere traces of folds; s. slender, downy. pleurotus, fr. a. excentrici. _pileus entire, extended laterally, excentric but not truly lateral._ * _veil forming a ring on the stem._ =corticatus=, fr. p. - cm. convex then exp. covered with dense greyish down then floccosely squamulose; g. decur. white, anastomosing behind; tinged yellow when old; s. - cm. subexc. rooting, ring torn; s. - × - . [=albertinii=, fr. p. convex, dimidiate, sooty, with black squamules; g. decur. distinct, white; s. with black squamules up to sooty ring. =dryinus=, pers. p. - cm. oblique or subcircular, hard, whitish with brownish spot-like squamules, flesh white then yellowish; g. decur. not anastomosing behind, white tinged yellow; s. - cm. sublateral, ring fugacious, torn; sp. × . differs from _p. corticatus_ in gills not anastomosing behind. =spongiosus=, fr. p. - cm. spongy, pulvinate, greyish tomentose; g. sinuato-adnexed, white, simple; s. - cm. tomentose, white, ring white, soon torn; sp. - × . [=calyptratus=, lindbl. p. soft, lateral-dimidiate, horizontal, reniform, glabrous, viscid, sooty or livid; g. adnate to a nodule, crowded, white then yellowish; s. a downy nodule, viscid membranous ring torn. ** _gills sinuate or obtusely adnate._ =ulmarius=, bull. p. - cm. convex then plane, glabrous, livid then pale, spotted; g. adnexed, broad, whitish; s. - cm. base thickened, tomentose; sp. - , glob. =tessulatus=, bull. p. - cm. convex then plane or depr. behind, glabrous, tawny then paler and spotted; g. uncinato-adnate, white then yellowish; s. - cm. glabrous; sp. ----. [=pardalis=, schulz. caespitose. p. fleshy, convex, subcentral, glabrous, chestnut then spotted; g. free, crowded, pallid; s. stout, solid, connate at base, white. [=decorus=, fr. yellow. p. thin, convex then exp. obtuse, rough with adnate blackish scales; g. obtusely adnate, crowded; s. stuffed then hollow, fibrillose; sp. glob. . [=ornatus=, fr. p. convexo-plane, umb. with rusty floccose squamules that disappear; g. adnate, very broad, yellow; s. spongy, yellow; sp. long. [=properatus=, c. mart. p. membranous, form various, always umbil. central or excentric, yellowish white with concentric brown scales; g. adnato-decur. tinged yellow, edge eroded; s. cylindric with concentric brown scales, ring membranaceous, fugacious. =subpalmatus=, fr. p. - cm. caespitose. convex then depr. rugulose, rufescent, cuticle gelatinous; g. adnate, connected behind, dingy; s. - cm. incurved; sp. ----. remarkable for the variegated flesh. [=coripellis=, fr. p. rigid, glabrous, moist, somewhat bay, thick pellicle separable, disc compact, umb.; g. arcuato-adnate, plane, crowded, white; s. excentric, vertical, rigid, fibrillosely striate, whitish. p. almost black but fawn or yellow-brown when dry. flesh tinged fuscous. =craspedius=, fr. caespitose. p. - cm. thin, crenate or lobed, brick-red or paler, glabrous; g. adnate, narrow, crowded, white; s. - cm. solid, elastic, glabrous, pallid; sp. . =fimbriatus=, bolt. p. - cm. thin, plane then depr. margin sinuate or lobed, hygr. hyaline, whitish; g. adnate, closely crowded, white; s. - cm. firm, compr. downy; sp. ----. =lignatilis=, fr. whitish. p. tough, convex then plane, umbil. irreg. floccosely pruinose then glabrous; g. adnate, crowded, narrow, shining white; s. irreg. rather downy; sp. × . var. _tephrocephalus_, fr. p. more compact, disc black then grey, edge white. =ruthae=, b. and br. p. - cm. more or less fan-shaped, whitish or yellowish-buff, cuticle gelatinous, rather hispid; g. anastomosing behind, white then reddish, veined; s. - cm. reddish, hispid; sp. ----. differs from _p. pantoleucus_ in g. anastomosing behind, and not decurrent. =circinatus=, fr. white. p. - cm. plane, orbicular, silky-pruinose; g. adnato-decur. crowded; s. - cm. equal, glabrous, rooting; sp. ----. [=olearius=, d. c. caespitose. p. subexcentric plane or umbil. dry, reddish tawny or deep brown; g. decur. narrow, yellow; s. solid, firm, reddish-brown; sp. × . gills phosphorescent. var. _carpini_ (= _p. carpini_, fr.). p. convexo-exp. angular, rivulosely scaly when dry; s. slender, short, excentric or lateral; g. adnexed, thin, rusty. [=juglandinus=, kalchbr. p. plano-convex, even, glabrous, dingy golden-yellow, rather lobed; g. decur. distant, ends narrowed; s. excentric, solid, brown-pilose; sp. . × . . *** _gills decurrent; stem almost vertical._ [=aquifolii=, fr. p. rather wavy, soft, convex then plane, dusky tan; g. thick, dusky, joined in a ring behind; s. stout, equal, white. edible. [=eryngii=, d. c. p. fleshy, tough, exp. depr. irreg. rufous-grey, scabrid-virgate; g. broad, tinged pink; s. naked, whitish, solid; sp. - × . . [=nebrodensis=, inzeng. p. compact, convex then depr. even, glabrous, grey; g. decur. whitish; s. solid, excentric or lateral, short, ascending, whitish. [=nauseosodulcis=, karst. p. soft, irreg. unequal, exp. even, glabrous, entirely tan; g. decur. crowded, pallid; s. excentric, rarely central, solid, tomentose, whitish; sp. - × . =sapidus=, kalchbr. caespitose. p. fleshy, deformed, centre depr. glabrous, pallid; g. decur. whitish; several stems springing from a common base; sp. - × . more or less trumpet-shaped. edible. [=cornucopoides=, pers. p. very variable in form, convex, depr. glabrous, white then livid yellow; g. decur. white; s. subexcentric to lateral, expanding into p. [=lingulatus=, paulet. p. dimidiate or entire, umbil. convex, deformed, even, pale ochre, edge incurved; g. subdecur. closely crowded, paler than p.; s. solid, long, subcompr. white; sp. - long. [=melanopus=, fr. p. excentric or dimidiate, deformed, somewhat lobed, glabrous pale rufous; g. decur. crowded, narrow, whitish red; s. solid, glabrous, ascending, black. [=spodoleucus=, fr. p. plane, orbicular, even, glabrous, greyish; g. crowded, white, separate behind; s. solid, glabrous, paler than p.; sp. - × - . =pantoleucus=, fr. white. p. - cm. even, glabrous, spathulate, depr. behind, marginate; g. crowded, distinct at base; s. - cm. ascending, glabrous, not rooting; sp. - × . differs from _p. spodoleucus_ in pileus being white and depressed behind. [=pometi=, fr. white. p. fleshy, rather flaccid, convex, even, disc depr.; g. decur. crowded, not joined behind; s. elastic with a downy rooting base; sp. - × - . [=battarrae=, q. white. p. cyathiform, spotted with blackish brown squamules; g. milk-white; s. slender, attenuated; sp. long. [=lignicola=, sacc. white. p. tough, irreg. exp. subumbil. floccosely pruinose; g. adnato-decur. crowded, shining white; s. long, incurved, flocculose at first; sp. × . =mutilus=, fr. white. p. - . cm. fleshy, irreg. silky when dry; g. narrow, simple; s. - cm. long, terete, base downy; sp. ----. resembles _omph. scyphoides_. differs in nearly glabrous, irreg. p. not becoming infundib. [=macropus=, bagl. large, caespitose. p. excentric, exp. glabrous, sooty-grey; g. decur. white; s. joined at base, firm, long, thickly tomentose. [=luteo-caesius=, bagl. p. subexcentric, exp. fibrillosely rivulose, tawny brown, edge wavy, incurved; g. subdecur. narrow, greyish yellow; s. solid, fibrillose, long rooting. [=lutincola=, lasch. caespitose, fuscous; p. glabrous; g. adnate with a tooth running down stem to torn ring; s. often excentric. [=pulvinatus=, pers. p. pulvinate, rather wavy, glabrous, whitish, disc tinged flesh-colour; g. decur. crowded, white; s. very short, solid, hard. **** _veil absent; gills deeply decur.; pileus lateral, sessile or produced behind into a short stem-like base._ =ostreatus=, jacq. tufted. p. - cm. fleshy, shell-shaped, ascending, blackish then grey or pallid; g. rather distant, anastomosing behind, pallid; s. widening into p. very short, downy or strigose at base; sp. - × - . esculent. var. _euosmus_, b. smell strong. gills and spores tinged pink. var. _columbinus_, q. p. dark bluish-grey. var. _nudipes_, boud. s. quite glabrous. [=ambiguus=, oud. excentric. p. sessile or shortly stalked, shining, blackish or deep violet, edge incurved; g. deeply decur. anastomosing behind, lilac; s. firm, elastic, thickened upwards, base strigose. =revolutus=, kickx. p. - cm. fleshy, firm, elastic, shining, depr. behind, smoky-yellow then grey, edge incurved; g. serrulate, white; s. - cm. short, thick, whitish; sp. ----. var. _anglicus_. edge of p. not or very slightly incurved; g. pallid ochraceous. [=staringii=, oud. excentric. p. lateral, produced at base into a short oblique stem, suborbicular or reniform, exp. very glabrous, smoky fuscous, centre paler; g. white, anastomosing behind. =salignus=, pers. p. - cm. fleshy, spongy, becoming depr. behind and strigose, horizontal, yellow brown or dusky; g. somewhat branched, edge eroded, dingy; s. short, firm, tomentose; sp. - × - . [=saccardianus=, arc. subexcentric, usually sinuately lobed, even, glabrous, at length exp. and wavy, tan or grey; g. narrow, thin, crowded; s. striate, glabrous, grey or umber; sp. - × - . [=roseocinereus=, allesch. p. thin, campan. edge becoming split and striate, fibrously silky, rosy-grey; g. very broad, pallid flesh-red; s. shining white, fibrously striato-sulcate; sp. pale rufous, - . =acerinus=, fr. white. p. - cm. tough, circular, silky-villose; g. closely crowded, white then yellowish; s. subobsolete, downy; sp. ----. [=pathenopejus=, comes. large, caespitose. p. excentric, generally dimidiate, conchate, elliptical or rounded, mouse-grey then pale, viscid, squamulose; g. deeply decur. base anastomosing, white then tinged yellow; sp. - × - . [=gemmellari=, inzeng. large, sessile. p. lateral, convex then exp. yellowish, striate, upper stratum gelatinous; g. decur. broad, anastomosing behind, white then sulphur. b. dimidiati. _p. definitely lateral, without a free margin behind; not resupinate at first._ [=geoginus=, d. c. p. erect, subinfundib. even, glabrous, edge wavy, reflexed, brownish; g. decur. crowded, white; s. very short, thick, tuberous. =petaloides=, bull. p. - cm. thin, ascending, spathulate, entire, disc depr. brownish then pale; g. crowded, narrow, whitish; s. short, compressed, downy; sp. - × . _p. porrigens_ differs in being white and stemless. [=semiinfundibuliformis=, karst. erect, simple, semiinfundib. even, glabrous, rusty tan, edge wavy, reflexed; g. deeply decur. crowded, whitish then yellowish; s. exactly lateral, pallid; sp. - , subgl. =pulmonarius=, fr. p. - cm. obovate or reniform, rather convex, glabrous, greyish or tan; g. plano-decur. simple, albo-livid; s. round, very short, downy; sp. ----. differs from _p. serotinus_ in very short s., and glabrous p. var. _juglandis_, fr. gregarious; g. greyish brown. [=pulmonariellus=, karst. p. convex, reniform, rather strigose, even, yellowish, intermediate stratum thick, gelatinous; g. plano-decur. crowded, white then yellowish; s. very short. [=almeni=, fr. p. thin, reniform, glabrous, brownish tawny, narrowed behind into a very short stem; g. determinately decur. divergent, paler than pileus; sp. - × - . =serotinus=, schrad. p. - cm. fleshy, compact, viscid, reniform or obovate, yellowish-green, or sooty-olive; g. crowded, yellow then pallid; s. cm. with blackish squamules; sp. ----. =mitis=, pers. p. - cm. tough, reniform, dry, rufescent then whitish; g. crowded, distinct, white; s. cm. compressed, dilated upwards, whitish-squamulose; sp. × . =gadinoides=, w. g. sm. white. p. - . cm. horizontal, shell-shaped, hygr. floccose, dry; g. crowded, branched; s. minute or absent; sp. × . =limpidus=, fr. white. p. - cm. obovate or reniform, even, glabrous, hygr., narrowed behind to point of attachment; g. white, decur. to base; sp. ----. differs from _p. mitis_ in being shining white and subsessile. [=limpidoides=, karst. p. obovoid or reniform, often lobed, soft, even, velvety, dark grey then livid; g. decur. whitish; upper stratum of flesh gelatinous; sp. - × - . [=subrufulus=, karst. p. soft, subgelatinous, orbicular or reniform, even, glabrous, rufous- or pinkish-white; g. crowded, white; s. lateral, strigose, very short. [=planus=, fr. minute, subsessile, violet then flesh-colour. =reniformis=, fr. p. - cm. horizontal, reniform, grey, disc depr. plane; g. spreading from tubercular stem-like base, divergent, grey; sp. ----. [=kerneri=, wettst. p. obovate or reniform, lateral, not immarginate behind, sessile, entire, edge lobed, convex, grey, base blackish, minutely pulverulent; g. grey, simple; sp. glob. - . =tremulus=, fr. p. - cm. reniform, even, glabrous, disc depr. greyish brown then pale; g. rather distant, grey; s. cm. subterete, ascending, grey; sp. - × - . differs from _p. reniformis_ in having a stem. =lauro-cerasi=, b. and br. p. - cm. thin, horizontal, circular or shell-shaped, sulcate, brownish, attached by narrowed base; g. broad at middle, whitish; sp. × . [=dictyorhizus=, d. c. white. p. very thin, orbicular, sinuate, subsessile, base reticulately-fibrillose; g. simple, unequal; sp. long. =acerosus=, fr. p. - cm. very thin, reniform, plane, striate, sublobed, grey, silky white when dry; g. narrow, crowded, grey; s. obsolete, base substrigose; sp. glob. - . [=severinii=, com. shining white. velvety then almost glabrous, orbicular, edge entire, incurved; g. decur. simple; s. short, incurved. c. resupinati. _pileus at first resupinate; gills radiating from an excentric point; then reflexed, sessile._ * _pileus fleshy, uniform in texture._ =porrigens=, pers. white. p. - cm. thin, tough, resup. then ascending, ear- or fan-shaped, glabrous upwards; g. very narrow; sp. - × . resembling _p. petaloides_ in habit but white, and no stem-like base. [=pinsitus=, fr. p. fleshy, soft, horizontal, silky-villose, wavy, hygr. dingy then white; g. broad, distinct; sp. rough, - long. [=nidulans=, pers. p. subreniform, tomentose, yellow; g. broad, tawny-orange; sp. - × . [=caesiozonatus=, rab. p. subsessile, tough, plane then depr. behind, downy, ochre-brown, zoned with bluish grey; g. broad, brownish yellow. =septicus=, fr. p. - cm. rather fleshy, resup. then reflexed, pubescent, white; s. thin, - mm. incurved, disappearing; g. distant; sp. - × . _claudopus variabilis_ differs in tinted gills and spores. [=roseolus=, q. p. convex, conchoid, translucent, striate, rather woolly, rosy-purple; g. rosy, edge darker; s. curved, downy, colour of p.; sp. . ** _pileus fleshy, striate, upper surface gelatinous, or with a viscid pellicle._ =mastrucatus=, fr. p. - cm. resup. then exp. and horizontal, often lobed, brown, with erect bristly squamules; g. broad, greyish white; sp. ----. [=rivulorum=, pat. and doas. p. subgelatinous, pellucid, rusty brown and covered with white down, horizontal or ascending; g. grey then vinous; s. lateral, tubercular, downy, white, rosy when touched; sp. - . [=tremens=, q. p. reniform or flabellate, diaphanous, rosy-violet, tremelloid; g. sinuate, pinkish; s. lateral, colour of p.; sp. rough, - . =atrocoeruleus=, fr. p. - cm. fleshy, downy, dusky blue; g. broad, whitish; sp. glob. - . p. sometimes brownish, and g. sometimes yellowish. [=myxotrichus=, lév. p. reniform, at first viscid, becoming spongy, covered with white down, sessile or with a short stem; g. rather broad, crowded; sp. - long. [=furvellus=, karst. p. dusky or bluish rosy, yellowish-white then brownish when old; sp. - × - . allied to _p. unguicularis_ but larger and becoming pale. =leightoni=, b. p. - . cm. at first obliquely conical then shell-shaped, umber or lead-colour, scurfy and with short black bristles; g. distant, tan, forked at base; sp. ----. =algidus=, fr. p. - cm. horizontal, reniform, pellicle thin, viscid, reddish-brown or grey; g. crowded, yellowish. =fluxilis=, fr. p. reniform, gelatinoso-viscid above, umber; g. radiating from a lateral point, distant, whitish; sp. long. [=unguicularis=, fr. p. resup. covered with a viscid pellicle, grey or blackish; s. incurved then ascending, very short, white; g. distant, white; sp. - × . . [=silvanus=, sacc. p. thin, sessile, cupulate or dimidiate, resupinate then reflexed, very even, glabrous, greyish black, very minutely white-scurfy; g. broad, dingy white; sp. strongly curved, - × . - . =cyphellaeformis=, b. p. - mm. pendulous, cup-shaped, downy or mealy, upper layer gelatinous, grey; g. narrow, distant, pure white; sp. ----. resembling a _cyphella_ in habit. [=nivosus=, q. p. thin, campan. sessile, gelatinous, white and like parchment when dry, granularly rugose, striate, subpellucid, smoky grey, when moist with hyaline warts; g. narrow, white; sp. reniform, × . =applicatus=, batsch. p. - mm. dusky grey, sessile, thin, rather firm, cupulate, resupinate then reflexed, slightly striate, subpruinose, base downy; gills broad, paler; sp. glob. - . differs from _p. tremulus_ in absence of distinct s. [=mustialensis=, karst. p. resupinate, subgelatinous within, sessile or with an exceedingly short lateral stem, black, white-tomentose; g. distant, narrow, paler; sp. - × . differs from _p. applicatus_ in black p. with white down, and dark g. *** _pileus membranaceous, not viscid._ =hobsoni=, b. p. - mm. reniform or semicircular, horizontal, pale grey, downy; g. radiating, pallid; sp. ----. differs from _p. applicatus_ in being plane. =striatulus=, fr. p. - mm. very thin, pale grey, slightly cup-shaped, striate, glabrous; g. few, distant. [=canus=, q. p. thin, dimidiate, reniform, edge mostly lobed, whitish, downy, striate; g. very distant, adnate, white, edge fimbriate; s. rudimentary; sp. - × . [=arenarius=, lasch. hoary-pallid, subsulcate, slightly tomentose; g. distant, thick, broad; s. absent or very short, white-floccose. allied to _p. striatulus_. [=perpusillus=, fr. white. p. very thin, resup. then reflexed, even, glabrous; g. few, broad. [=subplicatus=, karst. p. very thin, resup. orbicular, usually entire, almost plane, striato-plicate, rather silky, white, fixed by a white downy base; g. radiating from an excentric point, broad, whitish; sp. - × - . var. _cinereus_, karst. entirely pale grey or glaucous. =hypnophilus=, b. p. - mm. very thin, flat, white, rather reniform, nearly smooth; g. radiating, distant, simple; sp. × . resembling _claudopus variabilis_, but gills and spores white. =chioneus=, pers. snow white. p. - mm. very thin, subresupinate, downy; s. short, downy, evanescent; g. rather broad; sp. long. _p. septicus_ is larger; s. more distinct; p. thicker. differs from _p. hypnophilus_ in downy pileus. [=craterellus=, dur. and lév. cupulate, white, even, downy, edge entire; sp. long. [=pudens=, q. p. downy, hygr. coriaceous, cup-shaped, g. radiating, thin, wavy, white tinged lilac; s. central, short. cantharellus, adans. a. mesopus. _pileus entire. stem central._ * _pileus and stem fleshy and solid._ =cibarius=. every part opaque yellowish-buff. p. - cm. wavy then turbinate, glabrous; g. thick, distant; s. - cm. narrowed below; sp. × - . edible. smell none when fresh, like apricots when kept for some time. sometimes all whitish. var. _rufipes_, gillet. flesh pale ochraceous, s. rufous at base. [=amethysteus=, q. p. thick, egg-yellow, edge flocculose violet flesh-colour; g. reticulate, yellow; s. obconic, colour of p.; sp. long. =friesii=, q. p. - cm. convex then depr. villose, somewhat orange; g. fold-like, branched, yellow; s. cm. slender, downy, base white, narrowed; sp. - × - . with gills of _c. cibarius_ and habit of _c. aurantiacus_. =aurantiacus=, fr. p. - cm. thin, depr. soft, subtomentose, dingy orange then pale; g. crowded, dichotomous, orange, rather broad; s. - cm. expanding upwards, orange, base often dark; sp. × . poisonous. perhaps should be placed under _clitocybe_. [=hypnorum=, brond. p. campan. tomentose, yellowish or pale ochre; g. decur. branched, yellow; s. slender, solid, wavy, almost glabrous, yellowish. [=rufescens=, fr. p. plano-depr. almost glabrous, gilvous, thin; g. crowded, thin; s. elongated, stuffed, narrowed upwards. [=olidus=, q. (= _c. rufescens_, q. not fr.) p. fleshy, edge downy, white, convex then cyathiform, flesh white then pinkish; g. decur. pinkish; s. rosy; sp. - long. taste sweetish. smell of burnt sugar when dry. [=brachypodes=, chev. p. thin, infundib. almost glabrous, fuscous; the short stuffed stem and straight gills yellowish. =brownii=, b. and br. p. rather fleshy, convex, subumb. pale ochre then reddish; g. very narrow, simple or forked, whitish; s. - cm. slender, tough; sp. × . gills very narrow, vein-like, hardly decur. [=subdenticulatus=, mont. small, entirely apricot colour. p. rather scurfy, convex and umb. then subdepr. edge spinously toothed; gills fold-like, thickish, decur.; s. solid, flocculose above, base narrowed; sp. globose. [=parvus=, otth. p. infundib. fibrously scaly, brownish-grey; g. fold-like, scarcely prominent, yellowish; s. slender, twisted, greyish-yellow, sulcate. =carbonarius=, a. and s. p. - cm. umbil. bay then blackish, striato-squamulose; g. straight, narrow, white; s. . cm. paler than p. rooting; sp. - × - . fasciculate, - pilei often appearing to spring from a branched stem. =umbonatus=, fr. p. . - . cm. thin, umb. then depr. flocculose, blackish grey; s. - cm. equal, paler; g. straight, crowded, white; sp. × - . resembling an agaric in habit. =albidus=, fr. p. . - . cm. infundib. wavy, glabrous, pallid, sometimes indistinctly zoned; g. dichotomous, white; s. - cm. solid, subequal, glabrous; sp. ----. tough, sometimes tinged brown or yellow. [=longipes=, lamb. p. centre prominent, edge thin, upturned, dry, even, chestnut; g. fold-like, decur. closely crowded, forked, yellowish; s. long, pale grey. [=turrissi=, inz. straw-colour. p. fleshy-waxy, hygr. convex then digitaliform, often umbil.; g. decur. white, thick, fold-like, simple, rarely branched; s. white, ventricosely fusiform. ** _pileus submembranaceous; stem tubular, polished._ =tubaeformis=, fr. p. - cm. infundib. wavy, lobed, flocculose, brownish then pale; g. thick, distant, much branched, smoky yellow, not pruinose; s. - cm. hollow, glabrous, lacunose, tawny-orange; sp. × - . var. _lutescens_, fr. p. convex, umbil. almost regular, nearly glabrous; g. less divided. connects present sp. with _c. infundibuliformis_. var. _lutescens_, fr. p. convex, umbil. almost even and regular; g. less divided. differs in more equal stem narrowed upwards. connects _c. tubaeformis_ with _c. infundibuliformis_. =infundibuliformis=, fr. p. - cm. thin; infundib. floccoso-rugose, smoky yellow then pale; g. thick, dichotomous, greyish yellow, pruinose; s. fistulose, even, glabrous, yellow; sp. - × . =cinereus=, fr. p. - cm. thin, infundib. open at base, blackish grey, villosely-squamulose; g. thick, distant, grey; s. - cm. paler than p.; sp. × . ( - sacc.) resembling _craterellus cornucopioides_ but having distinct gills. [=leucophaeus=, nouel. p. thin, tough, infundib. glabrous, brownish umber; g. distant, simple, mixed with dichotomous ones, white; s. stuffed, thin, even, colour of p. =cupulatus=, fr. p. - . cm. plano-infundib. wavy, hygr. pallid fuscous or brownish, flocculose when dry; g. very distant, branched, grey; s. - cm. stuffed, polished, colour of p.; sp. × . =houghtoni=, phil. p. - cm. convex, umbil. wavy, whitish; g. slightly decur. narrow, tinged pink; s. - cm. equal, whitish, stuffed; sp. × . =stevensoni=, b. and br. p. - mm. orbicular, umbil. pallid, smooth; g. decur. pallid; s. - . cm. slender, cylindrical, white then darker, pulverulent; sp. ----. =replexus=, fr. p. . - . cm. campan. convex, exp. and inversed, striate, brown then grey; g. adnato-decur. veined, branched, distant, white or glaucous; s. - cm. fistulose, glabrous, thickened upwards; sp. ----. habit of a _mycena_ but g. thick and fold-like. var. _devexus_, fr. p. cucullate; s. stuffed; g. simple, grey. [=hygrophanous=, c. p. laest. p. infundib. punctate, hygr. edge involute, obtuse; g. decur. branched, edge obtuse; s. fistulose, tough, silky-shining. [=coriaceus=, preuss. p. depr. rusty brown, edge rather wavy and then incurved; g. vein-like, forked, pale yellow; s. stuffed, thick, pallid. b. merisma. _stems very numerous, united into an elongated column, or branched._ [=fascicularis=, strauss. p. tubiform, split on one side, cochleate, downily scaly; flesh and connate stems violet. [=ramosus=, schulz. lurid yellow. p. fleshy, plano-depr. at length deeply umbil. fibrous; s. solid, caespitose, divided into branches each dilating into a pileus at its apex; g. vein-like, anastomosing. [=polycephalus=, bres. branched. p. convex then subinfundib. white, edge lobed; g. decur. white, connected by veins; s. white, downy, apex branched; sp. × . . [=ochraceus=, gill. p. unequally infundib. edge upturned, lobed, yellowish ochre; g. decur. almost to base of stem, anastomosing, rosy-white; s. branched, even, spotted ochre. c. pleuropus. _stem exactly lateral._ [=spathulatus=, fr. p. fleshy, spathulate, glabrous, brownish; g. dichotomous, crowded, white; s. thin, glabrous. =muscigenus=, fr. p. - . cm. spathulate, horizontal, glabrous, zoned, yellowish brown or fuscous, greyish white when old; g. thick, distant, branched, colour of p.; s. short, base downy; sp. - × - . differs from _c. glaucus_ in being brown when moist, and from _c. retirugis_ in having a distinct lateral stem. =glaucus=, batsch. grey. p. cm. ligulate, ascending, silky, not zoned; g. fold-like, tumid, distant, forked; s. short, pruinose; sp. × . d. resupinate. _pileus cup-shaped at first, fixed by the vertex, then subreflexed._ * _growing on mosses._ [=bryophilus=, fr. p. thin, cupulate, white, vertex forming a stem-like point of attachment, villose; g. broad, dichot., radiating from centre. gills acute, much resembling an agaric. [=juranus=, q. and pat. (= _dictyolus_.) p. wavy, - mm. diam. snow-white, becoming split, thin, downy, springing from cobweb-like mycelium; g. fold-like, branched, broad, thin, white then cream; sp. - long. close to _c. bryophilus_. =retirugus=, fr. p. - cm. thin, exp. wavy and lobed, greyish-white, adfixed by fibrils behind; g. radiating from centre, very thin, reticulated; sp. × . =lobatus=, fr. p. - cm. horizontal, lobed, brown then pale; g. fold-like, distinct, branched, divergent; sp. ----. [=muscorum=, fr. p. thin, gelatinous, ear-shaped, dingy rufous, glabrous; g. crisped, folds divided near the margin of p.; sp. - × - . ** _growing on wood._ [=applicatus=, lév. p. lobed, margin byssoid, tomentose, white; g. vein-like, radiating from the centre, forked, white. [=odorus=, wetts. reddish-yellow, strongly-scented. p. entire, solid, fleshy, convex then turbinate or subconcave, often umbil. or subwavy, glabrous, edge slightly incurved; g. thick, forked, decur.; s. solid, glabrous; sp. subgl. - . [=crucibulum=, fr. p. cup-shaped, downy, white; g. dichotomous, broad, dingy yellow, edge obtuse. [=coemansii=, rab. p. campan. tomentose, whitish, edge incurved; g. fold-like, somewhat forked, cinnamon. arrhenia, fr. * _stem lateral._ [=auriscalpium=, fr. brown. p. thin, convex, glabrous; g. vein-like, few, distant, simple; s. exactly lateral, straight, downy. resembling _hyduum auriscalpium_ in form, but smaller. ** _pileus sessile._ [=tenella=, fr. p. . - cm. effuso-reflexed, thin, soft, blackish, becoming lobed; g. vein-like, simple, with shorter ones, dark. [=cupularis=, fr. p. - mm. resupinate, soft, orbicular, outside even, downy, grey; g. vein-like, simple, radiating from centre. resembles young condition of _pleurotus applicatus_. [=fimicola=, bagl. p. resupinate, thin, concavo-patellate, flesh-colour, with a byssoid border; veins very slight, distant. nyctalis, fr. a. speleae. _gills crowded, more or less coalescent. very doubtful, probably morbid forms of agarics._ [=verpoides=, fr. p. campan. obtuse, glabrous, brown; g. very thick, coalescent; s. equal, rigid, striate, glabrous. [=cryptarum=, secr. foetid. p. conico-deformed, brown; g. adnexed, undulate, subcoalescent, flocculose, fleshy-grey; s. unequal, flexuose, hoary-fibrillose. [=canaliculata=, pers. p. pallid white, oblique, subumbil. almost glabrous; g. crowded, distinct, almost simple, edge slightly canaliculate; s. solid, subundulate, naked. =caliginosa=, w. g. sm. p. subumb. edge incurved, greyish, white and silky when dry, cm.; g. subdecur. thick, narrow, branched, grey; s. - cm. often inflated, whitish, silky, hollow, rusty inside; sp. × . b. parasitae. _gills distinct from each other, distant. growing on decaying fungi._ [=nauseosa=, weinm. smell nauseous. p. fleshy, globose then hemisph. ochraceous, pulverulent, edge involute; g. distant, forked, pallid; s. fistulose, thick, obliquely sulcate and twisted, pallid. larger than _n. asterophora_. =asterophora=, fr. p. - . cm. conical then hemispher. fawn, mealy with large stellate conidia; g. adnate, distant, rather forked, dingy; s. - . cm. whitish pruinose then brownish, twisted; sp. × . =parasitica=, fr. p. - cm. conical then exp. irreg. with grey meal formed of large, elliptical, smooth conidia; g. adnate, thick, distant, then forked and anastomosing, dusky; s. - cm. whitish, floccosely downy; sp. × . . [=microphylla=, corda. p. hemispher. soft, glabrous, naked, white; g. adnate, entire, dingy white; s. glabrous, bluish. [=vopiscus=, fr. p. cup-shaped, reflexed then recurved, pallid; g. thick, radiating from centre; s. short, excentric, curved, flocculose, pallid. lentinus, fr. a. mesopodes. _pileus subentire; stem distinct._ * _pileus squamulose._ =tigrinus=, fr. p. - cm. orbicular, umbil. whitish, with blackish innate scales; g. very narrow, tinged yellow; s. - cm. slender, squamulose; sp. × . . =dunalii=, fr. p. umbil. deformed, pallid with spot-like adpressed scales which disappear; g. crowded, pallid; s. . - cm. rather silky; sp. ----. =lepideus=, fr. p. - cm. tough, depr. irreg. pale ochre breaking up into darker spot-like scales; g. sinuato-decur. broad, whitish; s. - cm. stout, rooting, tomentosely squamulose; sp. × . ( - × sacc.) var. _contiguus_, fr. p. thinner, plano-depr. and with the slender stem, even. [=gallicus=, q. p. ivory colour with tawny lilac flecks, then areolate; s. pubescent, white, apex sulcate, then torn into scales, flesh coloured; g. white, decur. in lines; sp. - long. [=sitaneus=, fr. p. elastic, convex, unequal, grey, fibrillosely scaly; g. deeply decur. base anastomosing; s. firm, curved, fibrillose. [=degener=, kalchb. p. hemispher. exp. ochre with tawny scales; g. very narrow, anastomosing; s. stout, scaly, base blackish. [=contortus=, fr. p. orbicular, umbil. tawny rufescent with darker scales; g. crowded, subdecur.; s. twisted, subsulcate, squamulose. [=queletii=, schulz. p. at first regular, edge incurved, umber, then depr. edge wavy and split, and becoming pale or almost white, scaly; g. pale ochre, edge torn; s. branched, excentric, colour of p. squamulose; sp. - × . ** _pileus villose or pulverulent._ =leontopodius=, schulz. p. - cm. tough, irreg. slightly tomentose, disc depr. tan, edge bent down, lobed; g. decur. connected by veins, sides rugose; s. - cm. stout, woody, pulverulent, tan, base blackish; sp. - long. [=domesticus=, karst. very large. p. tough, edge thin, subinfundib. oblique, irregular, cuticle broken up into darker adpressed revolute scales, rusty; g. deeply decur. toothed, narrowed at both ends, very broad, pale tawny rusty then reddish; s. excentric, solid, rusty, squamulose; sp. - × - . [=hornotinus=, fr. p. deformed, pulverulent, grey; g. crowded, white; s. caespitosely branched, unequal, rather woody. [=pulverulentus=, scop. p. tough, convex, yellow, white-pulverulent; g. toothed, white; s. stout, equal, rigid, with white powder. [=lusitanicus=, kalchb. p. oblique, not compact, depr. sublobed, tomentose, becoming naked, tan; g. decur. crowded, anastomosing, white; s. short, excentric or lateral, solid, even, glabrous, colour of p.; sp. ----. =resinaceus=, fr. p. - cm. tough, excentric, cinnamon-ochre, villose, matted with resin; g. crowded, shining white; s. cm. partly hollow, downy; sp. ----. =adhaerens=, a. and s. p. - cm. tough, irreg. lacunose, rather pulverulent; g. decur. in lines, very thin, torn, white; s. colour of p. glutinous, rooting; sp. ----. p. and s. appear as if lacquered from the dried gluten. *** _pileus glabrous._ [=suffrutescens=, fr. p. tough, convex then infundib. glabrous, somewhat rusty; g. crenato-torn, yellowish; s. elongated, somewhat branched, woody. [=auricolor=, brig. subcaespitose, golden yellow, oblique; g. decur.; s. fibroso-woody, subexcentric, distorted. [=anisatus=. p. tough, subflabelliform or obliquely subinfundib. somewhat lobed, whitish; g. decur. tinged yellow, edge entire; s. lateral or excentric, short, pallid; sp. - × . . [=jugis=, fr. white. p. irreg. lobed, glabrous, rather viscid; g. dentate; s. short, irreg. scaly. [=umbellatus=, fr. p. tough, umbil. pervious, glabrous, yellowish grey; g. very narrow, white; s. branched, sulcate. =cochleatus=, fr. p. - cm. tough, flaccid, irreg. depr. or infundib. reddish cinnamon; g. crowded, serrate, pinkish white; s. solid, length variable, several frequently more or less grown together, sulcate, glabrous; sp. ----. edible. smell sometimes spicy, at others almost none. [=friabilis=, fr. caespitose, fleshy-fibrous, fragile, becoming pale. p. thin, subdimidiate, umbilicate, pervious into partly hollow contorted s.; g. crowded, narrow. [=omphalodes=, fr. solitary. p. thin, tough, at first deeply umbil. livid straw-colour then pale, limb convex then exp. and wavy; g. decur. arcuate, pallid; s. central, thin, tough, glabrous, scrobiculate. [=bisus=, q. p. tough, convex, exp. deeply umbil. irreg. excentric, edge lobed, livid grey, umbil. fuscous; g. sinuato-decur. greyish white, edge toothed; s. brown, longitudinally sulcate, twisted, excentric; sp. glob. - . [=badius=, bres. p. thin, tough, regular, excentric, or subdimidiate, with longitudinal cristate veins, bay then pale; g. very distant, edge deeply and irreg. crenate; s. short, greyish-lilac; sp. - × - . . [=bresadolae=, schulz. (= _l. divisus_, schulz.) p. soon irreg. infundib. wavy and sinuate, glabrous, even, pale smoky fuscous; g. distant, spuriously decur.; s. very tough, obconic, subrooting, tinged reddish; sp. - long. [=hispidosus=, fr. caespitose. p. thin, subdimidiate, lobed, infundib. hispidly scaly, rusty, edge torn, proliferous; g. serrulate; s. many, growing out of each other. b. pleuroti. _dimidiate, sessile or with a sublateral stem._ =scoticus=, b. and br. p. - cm. thin, umbil. or infundib. smooth, pallid or brownish, hygr.; g. decur. when stem is present, pallid, strongly toothed; s. excentric or lateral, variable, darker than p. springing from a branched brown mycelium; sp. - × . =fimbriatus=, currey. p. - cm. thin, depr. behind, pale fawn with darker scales, margin hairy; g. narrow, tinged brown; s. . cm. thin, whitish; sp. ----. [=ursinus=, fr. p. sessile, imbricated, ear-shaped, ascending, even, rufous brown, brownish tomentose behind with age, edge entire, glabrous; g. broad, torn, whitish. [=castoreus=, fr. p. subsessile, imbricate, pilei tongue-shaped, glabrous, subrugose, rufous then tan, edge involute, entire; g. closely crowded, rufescent. =vulpinus=, fr. p. - cm. tough, shell-shaped, imbricate, connate behind, longitudinally corrugated with ribs, floccoso-scrupose, tan, edge incurved, entire; g. broad, torn, white; sp. glob. . [=auricula=, fr. white, caespitosely imbricated, p. dimidiate, sessile, ascending, glabrous, at length revolute; g. linear, densely crenulate; sp. glob. . habit of _pleur. porrigens_. [=suavissimis=, fr. smell very pleasant. subsessile, white, thin, peltate, even, glabrous; g. dentate, decurrent from base, anastomosing. =flabelliformis=, fr. p. - cm. subsessile, thin, tough, reniform, glabrous, fawn-colour, edge crenato-fimbriate; g. broad, torn, pallid. [=tomentellus=, karst. subsessile, imbricately tufted, coriaceous, p. horizontal, tongue-shaped or obovoid, tomentose, whitish then tinged rufescent, yellowish when dry, edge wavy, incurved; g. much crowded, narrow, whitish, tinged red when dry, edge toothed. [=hygrophanus=, harz. p. conchate, woolly, digitately lobed, white then yellowish ochre, glabrous, hygr. fragile, fixed by a narrow lateral point; g. densely and acutely dentato-serrate; sp. glob. - . . panus, fr. * _pileus irregular; stem excentric._ [=farneus=, fr. p. compact, hard, irreg. circinate, nearly plane, unequal, dingy yellow; g. adnate, crowded; s. short, glabrous, sulcate, pinkish. [=cyathiformis=, schaeff. p. obliquely cup-shaped, wavy, squamulose, brick-red then pale; g. crowded, pallid then yellowish; s. very short, even, firm, excentric. [=fulvidus=, bres. p. tough, thin, convex or subcampan. exp. gibbous or umb. tawny then pale, with brown squamules, edge fibrilloso-sulcate; g. almost free, white; s. solid, white, narrowed to a rooting base, apex sulcate; sp. - × - . [=urnula=, fr. subsessile, imbricated. p. subexcentric, urniform, even, glabrous, fuscous, pale when dry, edge lobed; g. attenuato-decur. grey. [=vaporarius=, bagl. caespitose imbricate. p. subcoriaceous, base narrowed, erect, spathulate then utriculiform, undulately lobed, pruinose, dingy white then livid violet; g. decur. very narrow, tinged rose. =conchatus=, fr. p. tough, thin, unequal, excentric, dimidiate, cinnamon then pale, becoming squamulose, - cm.; g. decur. in lines, somewhat branched, pinkish then ochre; s. - cm. unequal, base pubescent; sp. ----. rigid and the gills crisped or wavy when dry. =torulosus=, fr. p. - cm. plano-infundib. even, flesh colour then ochre; g. decur. rather distant, reddish then tan; s. - cm. stout, oblique, greyish-tomentose; sp. ----. =rudis=, fr. caespitose. p. - cm. tough, depressed, sinuate, reddish-tan, bristling with tufts of hairs; g. decur. narrow, crowded, pale buff; s. very short or obsolete, hirsute; sp. ----. [=lamyanus=, mont. p. orbicular, edge incurved, and, with the central stem, tawny umber and fasciculately hirsute; g. narrow, thick, forked, decur. [=granulatus=, berk. and mont. entirely rusty-saffron; p. semiorbicular; s. short, excentric, granular; g. sparingly connected by veins. [=schurii=, schulz. p. coriaceous, flattened, centre concave, wavy, obconic, even, glabrous, whitish; g. decur. narrow, pallid; s. central, fibrillose, short or almost absent. [=inverse-conicus=, lerchenf. and schulz. p. flattened, broadly umbil. whitish, edge incurved, inversely conical; g. decur. both ends acute; s. central, cylindrical, white then brown. ** _stem definitely lateral._ [=foetens=, fr. foetid. p. spongy, spathulate, convex then depr. yellowish white, rather silky, base continued into a long stem channelled above; g. decur. firm, crowded, reddish-yellow. [=cochlearis=, pers. caespitose, tawny. p. oval, convex, spathulate, hirsute, edge involute, entire; s. lateral; g. decur. =stipticus=, fr. taste hot and pungent. p. thin, flexible, reniform, cinnamon then pale, broken up into scurfy squamules; g. determinate, thin, reticulately joined, cinnamon; s. lateral, very short, dilated into the p.; sp. × . [=flabellulum=, a. and s. p. dimidiate, flabellate, subsquamulose, produced into a short stem-like base, white then fawn; g. decur. crowded; sp. . - . . [=tenuis=, wetts. p. thin, reniform or suborbicular, convex then exp. ochre or subfuscous, glabrous, somewhat shining; g. numerous, very thin, colour of p.; s. lateral, oblique; sp. . × . . =farinaceus=, schum. p. . - cm. flexuous, dusky cinnamon, broken up into greyish-white scurf which falls away; g. free, distinct, pale; s. lateral, short; sp. ----. var. _albido-tomentosus_, cke. and mass. p. with short, whitish velvety down, semicircular; g. honey colour; sp. subgl. . [=schultzii=, kalchb. p. spathulato-flabelliform, rigid, coriaceous, concentrically sulcate, radiately rugose, dingy brick-red; g. crowded, paler than p., edge brownish; s. expanding into pileus, apex virgate; sp. × . allied to _p. stypticus_. *** _pileus resupinate, sessile or produced to a point of attachment behind._ [=violaceofulvus=, q. p. resupinate, thin, hygr. cup-shaped then exp. and reflexed, pulverulent, violet-umber; g. pale violet. [=ringens=, fr. p. resupinate, thin, flaccid, orbicular then partly closed over and gaping, reddish-brown, edge striate; g. simple, flesh-colour. =patellaris=, fr. p. - cm. resupinate, plano-depr. orbicular, pallid scurfy or downy, edge involute; g. ochraceous; sp. × . =stevensonii=, b. and br. p. spathulate, olive yellow; s. dilated above convex, golden, slightly hispid; g. narrow, entire; flesh greenish-yellow. [=pudens=, q. p. cup-shaped then pendulous, with white pubescence, edge becoming rosy; g. tinted lilac. [=delastri=, mont. resupinate, coriaceous, urceolato-turbinate, vertex protruding as a tomentose stem, edge incurved; g. brownish purple, edge white-pruinose. [=lithophilus=, fr. p. resupinate, flattened, sessile, adnate, downy, edge free; g. radiating from a point, amethyst. xerotus, fr. =degener=, fr. p. . - . cm. thin, plano-infundib. edge entire, greyish bay, slightly zoned when moist; g. distant, decur. simple or dichot. greyish; s. - cm. brown with white down. a very uncertain sp. probably some _clitocybe_. quélet says it is an old condition of _cantharellus carbonarius_. [=romanus=, fr. p. glabrous, thin, exp. umbil. even, brownish, edge lobed; g. thick, crisped, rufescent; s. rigid, fistulose, black. lenzites, fr. * _growing on angiosperms._ [=albida=, fr. p. corky, soft, plane, zoneless, whitish, tomentose; g. thin, dichot. anastomosing, entire, whitish. effuso-reflexed. =betulina=, fr. p. - cm. firm, long, - cm. broad, broadly attached, flesh - mm. thick, pallid or tinged brown, rather zoned, tomentose; g. thin, forked, whitish; sp. × . =flaccida=, fr. p. - cm. flaccid, more or less flabelliform, thin, strigose, zoned, pallid; g. broad, crowded, unequally branched, whitish; sp. × . [=variegata=, fr. p. rigid, plane, velvety, zoned with different colour, edge whitish; g. broad, thickish, anastomosing, white, edge torn. habit and colour of _poly. versicolor_. [=trabea=, fr. p. coriaceous, flattened, rugulose, almost glabrous, brownish; g. straight, simple and forked, freely anastomosing, entire, reddish. habit of _dedaelea quercina_ but thinner. [=cinnamomea=, fr. p. coriaceous, flattened, firm, downy, concentrically sulcate, inside and out cinnamon; g. rather distant, straight, unequal, almost simple, narrow, entire, colour of p. var. _crocata_, sacc. p. strigosely velvety, sulcate, brown; g. yellow, edge unequal, paler, trama bright saffron. [=tricolor=, fr. p. corky, plane, base gibbous, scabrid, zoned and radiately rugulose, yellow then dingy; g. thin, distant, forked, anastomosing behind, citrin then umber. ** _growing on gymnosperms._ =sepiaria=, fr. p. - cm. long, hard, zoned, bay, strigose, rough; g. branched, anastomosing, yellowish; sp. × . =abietina=, fr. p. - cm. effuso-reflexed, umber-tomentose then nearly glabrous, hoary; g. decur. simple, unequal, with white meal; sp. - × . [=pinastri=, kalchb. p. coriaceous, rigid, convex, tomentose, obsoletely zoned, disc hoary, edge with broad rusty band; g. densely anastomosing, pallid. [=queletii=, schulz. p. generally reniform, corky, pale ochre becoming deep yellow when wet, closely zoned; g. thick, anastomosing and forming pores behind, whitish, edge tan; sp. - × - . var. _populina_, schulz. p. narrowed into stem-like base, tomentose, greyish or ochre; g. sometimes greyish, edge subserrulate. var. _crassior_, schulz. p. blackish grey and scabrid behind, rest hispid-tomentose; sp. × . [=bresadolae=, schulz. (= _l. tricolor_, kalch. not of fr.). p. semiorbicular, broadly adnate, gibbous, subtomentose, multizoned, interruptedly radially wrinkled, umber then tawny; edge of g. colour of p., sides paler; flesh fuscous. =reichardtii=, schulz. subimbricated. p. semiorbicular, adnate, base brownish, ochre or whitish towards edge, grey when old, imperfectly zoned; g. tan, at first white mealy, some forked. [=heteromorpha=, fr. coriaceous, thin, effuso-reflexed, gibbous, fibroso-rugose, pallid, margin incised into broad plates, crowded, somewhat branched, white, excurrent. var. _resupinata_, fr. resupinate, porose. [=labyrinthica=, q. and schulz. p. irregularly rounded, edge sinuate, produced behind into a short stem-like base, greyish white, base darker, not zoned but with scattered warts; lamellate in front underneath, behind white, glabrous and sterile; g. tan, anastomosing and forming labyrinthiform pores; sp. - × - . [=faventina=, caldesi. p. dimidiate, sessile, corky, tuberculato-scrobiculate, whitish then grey; g. radiating, irreg. porose behind, tinged yellow, edge acute, darker. [=mollis=, heufler. p. broadly exp. incurved, soft, edge brown with darker zones, centre grey; g. strongly anastomosing, greyish or wood-colour. [=septentrionalis=, karst. p. sessile, dimidiate, gibbous behind, floccose, radiately rugulose, pallid brownish with darker zones, almost glabrous, edge thin, blackish; g. simple, crowded, very broad, fuscous. [=sorbina=, karst. p. corky, effuso-reflexed, imbricate, almost glabrous, usually even, not zoned, thin, pallid, edge obtuse; g. anastomosing, dingy white, thickish. trogia, fr. =crispa=, fr. p. - cm. shallowly cup-shaped, reflexed, lobed, downy, yellowish brown, edge whitish; g. fold-like, dichotomous, crisped, greyish-white; sp. subgl. - . in the only european sp. the edge of gills not channelled. schizophyllum, fr. =commune=, fr. p. thin, more or less fan-shaped or reniform, often much lobed, narrowed behind to a point of attachment, whitish, downy then strigose; g. radiating, narrow, brownish, edge split; sp. subgl. - . var. _multifidum_, mass. (= _s. multifidum_, fr.) p. deeply incised, segments narrow. chlorosporae. =chlorospora=. gills free; veil appendiculate; volva and ring absent. [=chlorophyllum=. gills free; veil forming a persistent ring on the stem, volva absent. not european.] chlorospora. =eyrei=, mass. (= _schulzeria eyrei_, mass.) p. - cm. campan. then exp. and umb. even, glabrous, pale tan, edge appendiculate; g. free, clear pale green then deep bluish-green; s. - cm. equal, slightly wavy, pallid; sp. green, - × . the only known european representative of the chlorosporae. rhodosporae. a. _gills free._ =volvaria=. volva present; ring absent. =annularia=. volva absent; ring present, often falling away. =pluteus=. volva and ring both absent. b. _gills adnexed, rarely adnate._ =entoloma=. gills sinuate behind; edge of pileus incurved when young; stem fibrous or fleshy. =nolanea=. stem cartilaginous; pileus campanulate, edge straight and adpressed to stem when young. =leptonia=. stem cartilaginous; pileus convexo-plane, edge incurved at first; gills soon separating from stem. c. _gills decurrent._ =clitopilus=. stem central, fibrous; edge of p. incurved at first. =eccilia=. stem central, cartilaginous; pileus umbilicate. =claudopus=. stem excentric, minute, or absent. species minute, membranaceous. volvaria, fr. * _pileus dry, silky, or fibrillose._ =bombycina=, schaeff. p. - cm. campan. then exp. and subumb. white, silky-fibrillose; g. flesh-colour; s. - cm. solid, attenuated, glabrous, white, volva ample; sp. - × . [=regia=, fr. p. convex then exp. white or with a reddish tinge, glabrous, dry; g. crowded; s. white or tinged yellow, solid, glabrous; ring persistent; volva white, large. =volvacea=, bull. p. - cm. campan. then exp. obtuse, grey or greyish-yellow, virgate with adpressed black fibrils; g. flesh-colour; s. - cm. solid, subequal, white, volva large; sp. - × . - . [=arenaria=, otth. p. campan. exp. umb. silky fibrillose, whitish brown, disc darker, dry; g. crowded, near to stem, subventricose; s. rather shining, whitish, base thickened; volva mostly adherent, laciniate, brownish. =loveiana=, berk. p. - cm. convex, obtuse, white, silky; g. pinkish-salmon; s. bulbous, narrowed upwards, solid, white, volva irreg. lobed; sp. - × . parasitic on _clitocybe nebularis_. =taylori=, berk. p. - cm. conical then obtuse, livid, edge paler, striately cracked; g. narrowest behind; s. - cm. equal, solid, whitish; volva lobed, brownish; sp. × . - . differs from _v. volvacea_ by gills being narrowed behind, and small brown volva. [=grisea=, q. p. flexuous, silky-villose; g. crisped, hoary; s. short, tomentose; volva trilobed; sp. - . [=murinella=, q. p. campan. villose, grey; g. remote, ventricose; s. slightly striate, white; volva - lobed, white; sp. - × - . [=hypopithys=, fr. small. shining white. p. conical then campan. dry, silky; g. white then flesh-colour; s. solid, equal, pubescent, adpressedly silky; volva bilobed; sp. - × . ** _pileus more or less viscid and (one species excepted) glabrous._ [=rhodomela=, lasch. p. campan. then exp. somewhat sooty, squamulose, viscid; g. reddish; s. solid, attenuated, delicately floccoso-downy then almost glabrous; volva small, floccose. =speciosa=, fr. p. - cm. p. soft, campan. then exp. obtuse, glabrous, viscid edge even, white or disc greyish; g. flesh-colour; s. - cm. subbulbous, solid, attenuated, villose, white; volva lax, villose; sp. - × . [=theiodes=, saut. p. campan. then exp. citrin, mealy, with deciduous squamules, broadly umb. edge sulcate; g. free, broad; s. hollow, fuscous. =gloiocephala=, d. c. p. - cm. campan. then exp. umb. glutinous, sooty, edge striate; g. reddish; s. - cm. solid, glabrous, whitish, tinged brown below; volva adnate except a small free margin; sp. - × - . =viperina=, fr. p. persistently conical, acute, grey; g. tinged yellow then flesh-colour; s. solid, equal, closely sheathed by the thin volva. =media=, schum. p. - cm. exp. obtuse, viscid, silky when dry, white or disc tinged brown; g. rosy; s. - cm. solid, equal, glabrous, white; volva lobed; sp. × . . intermediate in size between _v. speciosa_ and _v. parvula_; differs from former in glabrous s. and volva, and from latter in solid stem. =parvula=, fr. white. p. . - . cm. campan. then plane, umb. disc often tinged brown; g. flesh-colour; s. - cm. equal, subfistulose, silky; volva lax, usually - lobed; sp. × . . var. _biloba_, cke. s. stuffed, pubescent; volva bilobed. =temperata=, berk. p. - . cm. convex then exp. and umb., disc tinged tawny, rest whitish, striate; g. pale salmon; s. . - . cm. whitish, volva rather large, lobed; sp. × . . annularia, schulz. =laevis=, krombh. p. - cm. convex subumb. whitish; g. free, narrowed behind, becoming pale flesh-colour; s. - cm. base swollen, white, ring large, free; sp. subgl. - . [=fenzlii=, schulz. p. ovate then exp. sulphur then egg-yellow; g. ventricose, rosy; s. soon hollow, subattenuated, sulphur below the median ring. [=alutacea=, pers. p. campan. obtusely umb. glabrous, tan; g. crowded; s. glabrous, ring lax. [=xanthogramma=, ces. p. convex, umb. squamulosely punctate from the umbo, milk-white with densely crowded yellow striae; g. very broad, crowded; s. stuffed, thin, obsoletely annulate below middle. =transilvanica=, schulz. p. campan. striate to vertex, whitish, apex darker, edge lobed; g. crowded, unequal; s. hollow, paler than p., flocculose, ring complete, membranous. pluteus, fr. * _cuticle of pileus fibrillose or floccose._ =cervinus=, schaeff. p. - cm. campan. exp. even, glabrous, then broken up into fibrillose squamules which fall away, smoky with a yellowish or fawn-coloured tinge; g. white then flesh-colour; s. - cm. solid, whitish with black fibrils; sp. - × - ; cystidia ventricose. var. _rigens_, pers. p. grey, blackish, virgate or squamulose; s. glabrous, somewhat shining. var. _patricius_, schulz. p. whitish then grey with umber or tan scales, then almost glabrous, silky shining, and radiately cracked; s. even, white. var. _eximius_, saund. and sm. large and showy. p. even, with a separable viscid pellicle, reddish-umber, vermilion near edge when young; s. fibrillose, at length blackish. var. _petasatus_, fr. p. umb. glabrous, greyish white, with a separable pellicle, at length striate to middle; s. fibrillosely striate, at length tawny. var. _bullii_, berk. p. convex, smooth, even, pallid, disc darker; s. pale brown. [=sororiata=, karst. p. campan. exp. floccosely scaly, yellow; g. flesh-colour; s. pallid then yellowish; sp. - × . [=montellicus=, sacc. p. flesh spongy, dry, exp. yellowish, almost glabrous; g. olive-grey; s. fibrous, rufescent, incurved; sp. × . =umbrosus=, pers. p. - cm. campan. then exp. lacunose-rugose, at first downy, umber, edge ciliato-fimbriate; g. edge smoky-fimbriate; s. - cm. solid, squamulosely downy, pale; sp. - × ; cystidia ventricose. differs from _p. cervinus_ in downy p. and dark-edged gills. =ephebius=, fr. p. - cm. exp. obtuse, covered with bluish down, edge naked; g. yellowish flesh-colour; s. - cm. stuffed, glabrous, slightly striate, whitish or tinged grey; sp. × . differs from _p. cervinus_ in minutely downy p. which is sometimes brownish-violet. var. _drepanophyllus_, schulz. p. umber; s. at length hollow. [=granulatus=, bres. (= _plautus_, q., not of fr.) p. campan. then exp. hygr. edge striate, rufescent, densely covered with minute granules of same colour; g. free, edge fimbriate; s. hyaline-white, often compressed, grooved, rather scurfy, somewhat rooting; sp. - . =violarius=, mass. p. . - . cm. hemisph. then nearly plane, minutely velvety, watery, dark purple, flesh grey; g. flesh-colour, edge serrulate; s. - cm. hollow, whitish upwards, base pale brown with black fibrils; sp. subgl. - . =salicinus=, pers. p. - cm. exp. subumb. bluish-grey, disc darker and floccosely rugose; g. rosy; s. - cm. stuffed, fibrillose, bluish-white; sp. ----. var. _beryllus_, pers. p. greenish. var. _floccosus_, karst. p. floccosely scaly. =hispidulus=, fr. p. - . cm. convexo-plane, pilose or silky, grey, edge at length slightly striate; g. flesh-colour; s. - cm. fistulose, even, glabrous, silvery-white; sp. ----. [=curtus=, karst. p. convexo-exp. obtuse, longitudinally fibrillose or cracked, with short, stout, erect, muricately squarrose scales at disc, pallid then fuscescent; g. adnexed, broad, ventricose; s. rigid, short, equal, wavy, floccosely squamulose, fuscescent, apex naked; sp. rough, × - . resembling _inocybe lacera_ but smaller and shorter. =pellitus=, fr. white. p. - cm. convexo-plane, even, dry, silky; g. flesh-colour; s. - cm. stuffed, glabrous, even, shining; sp. ----. var. _punctillifer_, q. p. exp. whitish, centre tinged fuscous, and with minute umber squamules; s. whitish, squamulose below; sp. - . var. _gracilis_, bres. p. white, becoming very faintly tinged umber at disc; s. cylindrical, glabrous; sp. - long. [=roberti=, fr. p. convex then plane, obtuse, slightly hairy, not sulcate, white tinged fuscous; g. very broad, shining white; s. apex hollow, solid below and slightly thickened. fries considers this sp. as near to _p. semibulbosus_ notwithstanding the white gills. ** _pileus atomately pruinose, subpulverulent._ [=plautus=, weinm. p. campan. exp. even, glabrous, tan when moist, smoky hoary; g. flesh-colour; s. fistulose, soft like velvet, blackish brown. var. _terrestris_, bres. p. exp. edge wavy, dry, pruinosely velvety, sooty black, rugulose; g. edge subfimbriate; s. velvety, blackish; sp. × . [=cinereus=, q. scurfy-flocculose, grey. p. with raised veins forming pits; s. springing from a white byssoid mycelium; sp. glob. - . =nanus=, pers. p. - cm. exp. obtuse, rugulose, smoky, sprinkled with floccose bloom; g. flesh-colour; - cm. solid, rigid, striate, white; sp. subgl. echin. - . var. _lutescens_, fr. stem and g. or first only, yellowish. var. _major_, cke. larger. p. even, greyish. all the forms differ from _p. cervinus_ and its vars. in having subglobose spores. [=exiguus=, pat. p. exp. reddish brown, bristling with minute squamules; g. distant from stem, ventricose; s. white, pruinose, thickened at base, solid; sp. - × . near _p. nanus_, but smaller and p. squamulose. =melanodon=, secr. p. convexo-plane, umb. pulverulent, edge slightly striate, dull yellow; g. pale flesh-colour, edge with minute black teeth; s. fistulose, slender, firm, glabrous, shining. =spilopus=, b. and br. (= _spodopileus_, sacc.) p. - cm. exp. subumb. radiately rugulose, brownish or dark fawn; g. pale salmon; s. - cm. equal, whitish or tinged fawn, with scattered black points, solid; sp. subgl. - . =semibulbosus=, lasch. white. p. - cm. hemispher. obtuse, atomately mealy, sulcate; g. pale flesh-colour; s. . - cm. pubescent, base swollen; sp. ----. [=candidus=, pat. small. p. convex, even, white, silky; g. rosy; s. white, downy, base thickened. *** _pileus naked, glabrous._ =roseoalbus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. even, glabrous, rosy, edge naked; g. rather distant, flesh-colour; s. - cm. solid, attenuated, whitish or tinged red, with white meal; sp. rough, subgl. - . =leoninus=, schaeff. p. - cm. thin, campan. then exp. glabrous, naked, yellow, or tinged tawny; g. yellowish flesh-colour; s. - cm. solid, glabrous, striate, whitish; sp. ----. var. _coccineus_, cke. p. crimson-orange or vermilion. [=luteomarginatus=, roll. p. obtuse, umb. campan. deformed then exp. yellow, but at same time covered with sooty down, striato-virgate; g. crowded, rosy, edge golden-yellow; s. silky, yellow with rosy fibrils; sp. . × . =chrysophaeus=, schaeff. p. - cm. campan. exp. naked, glabrous, virgate, cinnamon, edge striate; g. white then flesh-colour; s. imperfectly hollow, glabrous, whitish or yellowish; sp. ----. =phlebophorus=, ditm. p. - cm. convex then exp. rugosely veined, umber, edge even, naked; g. white then flesh-colour; s. - cm. subincurved, glabrous, shining, whitish; sp. ----. var. _marginatus_, q. p. rugose, granulate, clear brown; g. with sooty crenulate edge; s. pellucid, white; sp. glob. . [=godeyi=, gill. p. campan. then exp. umb. very glabrous, rugulose, striate, livid grey sometimes tinged green, rather viscid; g. broad, joined by veins; s. white or tinged grey. [=aurantio-rugosus=, trog. p. campan. then conico-exp. areolately wrinkled, reddish yellow, disc almost vermilion; g. crowded, serrulate, broad; s. yellowish, thickened below and tinged red, brown-fibrillose; sp. globose. [=cyanopus=, q. p. rugosely granular, pruinose, umber-bay; g. remote from s., white then glaucous; s. silky, blue, base cottony, white; sp. diam. =umbrinellus=, sommerf. p. convex, exp. even, edge fimbriate; g. white then flesh-colour; s. fistulose, rooting, tough, glabrous, shining. [=tenuiculus=, q. p. rather small, subglobose, striate, umber; g. semiorbicular; s. slender, pruinose, white; sp. glob. . entoloma, fr. i. genuini. _pileus glabrous, moist or viscid._ =sinuatum=, fr. p. - cm. compact, exp. and depr. wavy, even, yellowish white; g. very broad, crowded; s. - cm. solid, fibrillose, white; sp. rough, - . poisonous. =lividum=, bull. p. - cm. exp. dry, even, longitudinally fibrillose, livid tan; g. broad; s. - cm. white, glabrous, apex pruinose; sp. subgl. rough, - . var. _roseus_, cke. p. whitish ochre, disc rosy. =prunuloides=, fr. p. - cm. campan. then exp. and umb. glabrous, rather viscid, yellowish or livid then pale; g. emarginato-free, ventricose; s. - cm. solid, unequal, white; sp. subgl. rough, - . =porphyrophaeum=, fr. p. - cm. campan. then exp. umb. and wavy, smoky fuscous then pale; g. truncate behind, almost free; s. - cm. solid, narrowed from the thickened base, fibrous, naked, smoky purple; sp. rough, - . differs from _e. jubatum_ in glabrous p. and hollow s. =repandum=, bull. p. - cm. conical then exp. umb. pale ochre striate or spotted with darker colour, edge incurved, lobed; g. broadest in front; s. - cm. solid, silky, white; sp. globose, rough, . ( × sacc.) =erophilum=, fr. p. exp. obtuse, dry, pale grey, virgate or venosely striate; g. rounded-adnate, broad; s. solid, short, pruinose; sp. × . often growing in large circles. [=holophaeum=, bres. and schulz. (_ag. plebejoides_, schulz.) entirely umber outside and inside, pileus and base of stem darkest; g. at length greyish; sp. r. - . [=pyreniacum=, q. p. umb. silky-virgate, silvery grey; g. greyish; s. white, fibrillosely striate; sp. rough, long. =placenta=, fr. p. - cm. exp. umb. plane, even, regular, livid purplish; g. crowded, thickish; s. - cm. solid, fibrously striate, brown; sp. glob. . =helodes=, fr. p. - cm. exp. plane, subumb. livid purplish or smoky, often spotted; g. attenuato-adnate, white then rosy; s. - cm. hollow, pallid, fibrillose, base somewhat thickened; sp. globose, rough, . [=quisquilaris=, karst. p. convex exp. subumb. slightly pruinose, reddish or reddish-bay, disc darker, edge incurved, even; g. crowded; s. subequal, reddish then blackish-bay; sp. - × - . [=fuliginarium=, karst. p. convex then subdepr. glabrous, edge incurved at first, pellucidly striate, pitch-black then livid; g. adnate, crowded, oblong, pallid; s. paler than p., apex white pruinose; sp. ----. =bulbigenum=, b. and br. (= _e. persoonianum_, phil. and plow.) p. - cm. campan. or hemispher. obtuse, slightly tomentosely scaly, white; g. adnexed; s. - cm. fibrillose, whitish, hollow, base somewhat bulbous; sp. rough, - . =batschianum=, fr. p. - cm. umb.-convex then plane and depr. even, viscid, blackish; g. grey; s. - cm. tough, adpressedly fibrillose, grey, base narrowed; sp. subgl. rough, - . [=cudon=, fr. p. tough and cartilaginous, conical, acute, blackish umber, edge incurved; g. crowded, smoky purple; s. short; glabrous, pallid. =bloxami=, berk. p. - cm. campan. obtuse, dingy blue, purple, or slate-colour, edge inclined to be lobed; g. pale rose; s. - cm. solid, colour of p.; sp. globose, rough, - . =ardosiacum=, bull. p. - cm. campan.-convex, obtuse, deep blue with brown tinge, then greyish; g. free; s. - cm. hollow, blue, base white; sp. subgl. rough, - . [=nitidum=, q. (= _e. ardosiacum_, fr. ic. t. , f. , not of bull.) p. campan. silky-shining, dusky bluish-violet, edge lilac, flesh white; g. free, broad, white then flesh-colour; s. slender, often twisted, shining, colour of p.; sp. rough, . =madidum=, fr. smell strong. p. - cm. campan. exp. obtuse, viscid, blackish-violet, sooty when old; g. greyish white; s. - cm. hollow, violet, thickened base white; sp. rough, . =liquescens=, cke. p. - cm. exp. broadly umb. ochre, disc darker; g. free, white then dingy lilac; s. - cm. white, hollow; sp. subgl. rough, - . gills deliquesce when mature. [=excentricum=, bres. p. campan. exp. mammilate, glabrous, tinged tan; g. emarginate; s. cylindrical, colour of p. apex scurfy, always excentric; sp. rough, - . [=viridans=, fr. p. conical then exp. viscid, umb. olive-green; g. nearly free, crowded; s. hollow, glabrous. [=rubellum=, scop. p. exp. obtuse, even, viscid, reddish; g. crenulate, rosy; s. hollow, slightly downy, white; sp. × . =ameides=, b. and br. p. - cm. campan. often irreg. flocculent, soon glabrous and silky, pale reddish-grey; g. deeply rounded behind, rugulose; s. cm. whitish; sp. subgl. rough, . ii. leptonidei. _pileus flocculose, somewhat scaly, absolutely dry, not hygr._ =saundersii=, fr. p. - cm. campan. exp. wavy and lobed, adpressedly tomentose, white, tinged brown when old; g. broad, distant; s. - cm. solid, equal, white; sp. ----. =fertilé=, b. p. - cm. convex then plane, dry, pulverulently scaly, pallid reddish or reddish ochre; g. rounded behind; s. - cm. equal, base thickened, whitish, fibrilloso-squamulose, solid; sp. ----. [=rozei=, q. p. umb. grey, silky shining, edge lilac; s. slender, fibrillose, white; sp. rough. =jubatum=, fr. p. - cm. campan. exp. umb. downy-squamose or fibrillose, mouse-colour; g. crowded, smoky; s. - cm. hollow, equal, fibrillose, fuscous; sp. rough, - × . differs from _e. porphyrophaeum_ in squamulose p. and hollow s. [=scabiosum=, fr. p. campan. then plane, obtusely umb. sooty, rough with crowded, erect papillose scales; g. free, greyish-white; s. hollow, fibrillose, sooty; sp. rough, - . =resutum=, fr. p. - cm. convex, obtuse, fuscous, disc darkest, adpressedly scaly or fibrillose; g. ventricose, greyish; s. - cm. somewhat stuffed, glabrous, grey; sp. rough, - × . =griseocyaneum=, fr. p. - cm. campan.-convex, obtuse, floccosely scaly, grey tinged lilac; g. white then flesh-colour; s. - cm. hollow, floccosely fibrillose, pallid then blue; sp. rough, - . resembling _leptonia_, but soft not cartilaginous. =dichroum=, pers. p. camp. exp. umb. squamulosely fibrillose, violet then livid mouse-colour; g. sinuato-adnexed; s. blue, fibrillosely mealy; sp. reddish fuscous, rough, - × - . =sericellum=, fr. shining white. p. . - cm. exp. depr. silky; g. adnate, then seceding; s. - cm. fibrillose then polished; sp. subgl. rough, . differs from _e. speculum_ in smaller size and silky p. var. _sublutescens_, fr. p. more regular, convex, even, yellowish; g. almost adnate; s. fistulose. var. _lutescens_, henn. p. campan. more or less exp. at first white and silky-floccose, then glabrous and dingy yellow; s. white then yellowish; sp. rough, . =cookei=, c. rich. (= _pluteus phlebophorus_, var. _reticulatus_, cke.) p. convex then exp. reddish orange or pale brick-red, covered with raised veins forming a network; g. adnexed; s. - cm. solid; sp. globose, rough, . =thomsoni=, b. and br. p. - cm. exp. umb. grey, with a network of raised ribs; g. slightly adnexed; s. - cm. paler than p.; sp. × . . [=subrubens=, karst. p. conico-exp. umb. adpressedly squamulose or fibrillose, glabrous, mouse-colour; g. sinuato-adnexed, edge crenate; s. hollow, scurfy then glabrous, paler than p. reddish; sp. rough, - × - . [=indutum=, boud. small, entirely grey. p. campan. then exp. umb. coarsely fibrillose; g. broad, uncinate, powdered with the rosy spores; s. slender, fibrillose. =tortipes=, mass. p. - cm. convex then exp. umb. often depressed, dark brown then tan and shining; g. broadly adnate; s. - cm. silky-fibrillose, flexuous, white tinged tan; sp. × . differs from _e. clypeatum_ in elliptical sp. iii. nolanidei. _pileus thin, hygr. rather silky when dry. often wavy and deformed._ =clypeatum=, l. p. - cm. campan. then exp. umb. lurid then greyish; g. serrulate; s. - cm. stuffed, attenuated, fibrillose, pallid; sp. subgl. rough, - . =nigrocinnamomeum=, kalchbr. p. - cm. convex then exp. depressed round the umbo, blackish umber, even, glabrous; g. reddish cinnamon; s. - cm. hollow, somewhat twisted, fibrillose, greyish fuscous; sp. subgl. rough, × . differs from _e. clypeatum_ in hollow stem and entire edge of gills. =rhodopolium=, fr. p. - cm. campan. then exp. gibbous then subdepr. edge wavy at first incurved, brown or livid then pale and silky shining; g. adnate then sinuate; s. - cm. hollow, glabrous, shining white; sp. rough, - × - . [=pluteoides=, fr. p. splitting, convex, exp. obtuse, greyish white when moist, dingy yellowish when dry; g. emarginato-adnexed, crowded; s. hollow, rigid, cuticle fibrillose, white, usually rooting. [=elaphinum=, fr. p. convex, obtuse, glabrous, bright fawn when moist, pallid fuscous when dry, edge striate; g. somewhat truncate behind, very broad; s. hollow, naked, livid; sp. rough, × . [=turbidum=, fr. p. campan. convex, umb. margin at first straight and adpressed to stem, then split into striae, somewhat fuscous, grey when dry; g. crowded, greyish white; s. hollow, inflato-clavate, glabrous, even, silvery shining; sp. - × - . =majale=, fr. p. - cm. campan.-convex, umb. edge spreading, wavy, cinnamon, yellowish when dry; g. crenate; s. - cm. twisted, striate, whitish, base with white down; sp. rough, - × - . =wynnei=, b. and br. smell unpleasant. p. - cm. convex then exp. subumb. often wavy, smoky grey, velvety then squamulose; g. broad, transversely ribbed; s. - cm. smoky blue, base downy, white; sp. rough, - × - . smell resembling that of bugs. =costatum=, fr. p. - cm. bullate then plane, subumbil. wavy, glabrous, livid, fuscous then shining; g. nearly free, entire, transversely ribbed, pallid; s. - cm. deformed, substriate, grey, apex with white squamules; sp. rough, - × - . [=cordae=, karst. differs from _e. costatum_ in blackish umbilicate p.; smaller sp. rough, - . other points identical. =sericeum=, fr. smell strong, like meal. p. - cm. exp. greyish fawn when moist, livid and silky shining when dry; g. grey, emarginate; s. - cm. fistulose, fibrillose, paler than p.; sp. globose, rough, - . differs from _nolanea pascua_ in mealy smell, and broad distant gills cut out behind. [=mimicum=, karst. p. campan. obtuse, then exp. glabrous, fuscescent; g. adnate, whitish then dingy; s. hollow, equal, cartilaginous, glabrous, livid; sp. - . [=venosum=, gill. smell strong of meal. p. thin, convex, subumb. brownish, silky and shining when dry; g. free, broad, transversely veined, reddish-grey; s. fragile, fibrillose, rather squamulose at apex. differs from _e. sericeum_ in free g. [=praecox=, karst. p. fragile, conico-convex, at length umb. glabrous, silky-shining; g. ventricose, crowded, dingy then flesh-colour; s. fistulose, equal, compr. glabrous, striate, pallid; sp. - . =nidorosum=, fr. smell alkaline. p. - cm. convex then exp. and subdepr. greyish fawn, livid and with a silky sheen when dry; g. broad, wavy; s. - cm. stuffed, equal, glabrous, pallid, apex with white meal; sp. rough, - × - . smell sometimes very faint. =speculum=, fr. whitish. p. - cm. exp. subdepr. very glabrous, shining when dry, edge incurved, wavy; g. emarginate, broad; s. equal, very fragile, striate; sp. subgl. rough, . ( - × - sacc.) nolanea, fr. * _gills grey or somewhat fuscous. pileus dusky, hygr._ =pascua=, pers. p. - cm. conico-exp. subumb. striate, livid bistre, paler and shining when dry; g. crowded, narrowed behind, greyish; s. - cm. silky-fibrous, striate, pale; sp. rough, - . var. _umbonata_, q. p. acute, umb. bay; s. fibrilloso-striate, silvery. [=proletaria=, fr. p. campan.-exp. obtuse, somewhat umber, disc darker, villose; g. sooty grey; s. fibrous, very fragile, grey; sp. rough, - × . [=versatilis=, fr. p. convex then flattened, glabrous, shining, livid aerugineous; g. grey; s. greyish white, with a silvery sheen when dry. [=limosa=, fr. smell strong of meal. p. campan. obtuse, glabrous, sooty, hoary-silky when dry; g. adnate, grey; s. polished, base inflated, glabrous. =babingtonii=, blox. p. - . cm. conico-campan. pale grey, silky, with fasciculate fibrils, disc squamulose; g. adnate, grey; s. - cm. hollow, rather wavy, strigose and covered with brown down; sp. rough, - . =mammosa=, fr. p. . - . cm. conico-campan. papillate, striate, glabrous, fuscous, pale when dry; g. grey; s. - cm. rigid, polished, apex with white meal; sp. rough, - × - . [=papillata=, bres. p. subcampan. exp. papillate, striate, fuscous-bay then paler; g. sinuato-adnate; s. shining, glabrous, base with white down; sp. - -angled, - × - . [=bresadolae=, mass. (= _n. clandestina_, bres.). p. campan. exp. umb. or papillate, glabrous, shining, striate, umber-bay or almost black then rufescent; g. thick, umber then fuscous-purple; s. polished, blackish-bay, subequal; sp. - -angled, - × . [=clandestina=, fr. umber. p. hemispher. umb. slightly striate, glabrous, silky when dry; g. very distant, thick, umber then purplish; s. short, naked. [=bryophila=, boud. and roze. p. conico-campan. striate, apiculate, pale rufous brown, apex blackish; g. nearly free; s. cartilaginous, semipellucid, equal. =juncea=, fr. p. . - cm. conical then exp. radiately striate, sooty umber, disc subumbil. subsquamulose; g. obovate, grey then brownish purple; s. - cm. slender, fuscous; sp. rough, - . [=fumosella=, wint. (= _a. fumosus_, rab.). p. subconic, then subexp. umbil. subpellucid virgate, reddish grey, sometimes white-floccose, silky shining when dry; g. adnexed, subtriangular, closely crowded, grey then brownish; s. colour of p., base albo-floccose, rooting, slightly viscid. =fulvostrigosa=, b. and br. p. - cm. conico-campan. subumb. rugulose, ochre with olive tinge; g. adnexed; s. - cm. hollow, mealy-squamulose, base densely strigose with reddish fibrils; sp. rough, × ; cystidia conical. ** _gills yellowish or reddish._ =nigripes=, trog. smell of stinking fish. p. - cm. conico-campan. obtuse, even, fuscous with paler flecks; g. yellowish pink; s. - cm. twisted, glabrous, black; sp. ----. =pisciodora=, ces. smell of stinking fish. p. - cm. conico-campan. obsoletely umb. tawny cinnamon, soft like velvet; g. adnexed; s. - cm. chestnut then blackish, apex paler, rather velvety; sp. ----. =rufocarnea=, b. p. - cm. hemispher. umbil. reddish brown slightly fibrillose; g. ventricose, veined, salmon; s. - cm. hollow, pale reddish brown, apex paler; sp. - × . [=vinacea=, fr. p. campan.-convex, obtuse, slightly striate, rufescent; g. distant; s. even, glabrous, yellow. var. _squamulosa_, karst. p. campan. subumbil. coarsely striate, scurfy; g. edge floccosely crenulate, golden; s. glabrous, yellowish; sp. rough, - × - . [=cetrata=, fr. p. camp. then exp. glabrous, furcato-sulcate, yellow; g. pallid yellow; s. fragile, glabrous, yellow; sp. rough, - × . [=cuneata=, bres. p. conico-cuspidate, glabrous, striate, lurid yellow, cusp yellowish, g. pale yellow then brownish flesh-colour; s. yellowish, apex with white scurf, base with contorted fibres; sp. angular, - × - . [=carneovirens=, jungh. p. campan. deeply striate, greenish yellow; g. free, broad; s. solid, glabrous, dusky aerugineous; sp. - × - . =icterina=, fr. p. - cm. campan.-convex, striate, papillate, yellowish green, hygr.; g. distant, ventricose; s. - cm. rigid, floccosely mealy, colour of p. or brownish; sp. rough, - × . =subglobosa=, a. and s. p. cm. hemispher. even, viscid, yellowish; g. nearly free, rhomboid; s. - cm. striate, pale; sp. × . [=hesperidium=, brig. p. broadly campan. even, waxy yellow, disc darker; g. free, crowded; white then greyish violet, edge at length blackish; s. even, shining white. [=pleopodia=, bull. p. campan. then exp. and edge upraised, even, yellowish; g. narrowed behind, dingy flesh-colour; s. equal, yellowish white, apex pruinose; sp. - × . *** _gills white then rosy. hygroph._ =picea=, kalchbr. smell of stinking fish. p. - cm. conical then campan. papillate, even, glabrous, pitch brown then umber; g. emarginate; s. - cm. slightly pruinose, colour of p.; sp. - × . differs from _n. pisciodora_ in colour of gills and p. [=hirtipes=, fl. dan. p. conico-campan. fuscous; g. free, obovate, rosy; s. slender, glabrous, colour of p. hirsute below; sp. rough, - . =infula=, fr. very tough. p. cm. conical then exp. papillate, shining, dark grey then pale; g. narrow, closely crowded, pure white then rosy; s. - cm. rigid, glabrous, naked, fuscous; sp. ----. var. _versiformis_, fr. p. convex then depr. or even infundib. but persistently papillate. [=viridifluens=, lasch. p. campan. subumbil. dry, fibrous, fuscous olive; g. adnate, broad; s. greenish-yellow. exuding a green juice when broken. [=staurospora=, bres. p. conico-campan. hygr. brownish umber, margin striate; g. subadnexed, white then flesh-colour; s. livid, fibrilloso-striate, often twisted, tall, albo-floccose at base; sp. almost quadrangular-stellate, - . differs from _n. hirtipes_ in larger size, fibrillose stem, downy, not strigose at base. **** _gills whitish. not hygr._ =verecunda=, fr. p. - . cm. campan.-convex, disc rather fleshy, subumb. watery reddish, striate towards edge, flocculose; g. adnate; s. - cm. pallid, apex mealy; sp. - × - . =coelestina=, fr. p. . - cm. campan. obtuse, blue, disc darker, scabrid; g. adnate, very broad; s. - cm. blackish blue, apex pruinose; sp. glob. . [=cruentata=, q. p. campan. mammilate, edge exp. pruinose, bluish-lilac; g. broad; s. slender, glaucous or bluish, rufescent when touched; sp. rough, . =exilis=, fr. p. cm. conico-exp. striate, livid grey, apex darker and papillate; g. adnexed; s. - cm. filiform, bluish green, apex naked; sp. ----. [=kretzschmarii=, rab. p. ovate then exp. reddish then greyish white, umbo rather fleshy, pellucidly striate at edge; g. decur.; s. yellowish brown, base floccosely rooting. =rubida=, berk. p. up to cm. convex then exp. umbil. whitish grey then rufescent, minutely silky; g. adnate, slightly decur.; s. - mm. white; sp. - × . [=cocles=, fr. small. p. at first cucullate, furcato-sulcate, disc umbil., umber, scabrid, becoming exp.; g. adnate, broad, distant; s. glabrous, livid. [=monachella=, q. p. campan. apiculate, striate, diaphanous, white, centre spotted sooty; g. adnate, uncinate; s. bulbillose, white, hyaline; sp. rough, - × - . [=minuta=, karst. p. convex, sometimes subumbil. striate up to umbilicus, glabrous, pallid fuscous, paler when dry and shining; g. adnate, pallid; s. pallid fuscous, glabrous; sp. rough, - . leptonia, fr. * _gills whitish. pileus rather fleshy, not striate, not hygr._ [=linkii=, fr. p. convexo-plane, fibrillosely virgate, sooty black then grey, disc darker; g. white then flesh-colour, edge black; s. glabrous, smoky, base incurved; sp. long. [=forquignoni=, q. p. umbil. wavy, rugulosely striate, granulated, olive, diaphanous; g. eroded, hoary; s. slightly striate, silky; sp. rough, long. =placida=, fr. p. - cm. convex, obtuse, grey or bluish, downy disc darker, fibrillosely scaly; g. adnexed, broad, entirely whitish; s. - cm. blackish-blue, apex with white bloom and very minutely spotted black; sp. ----. differs from _l. lappula_ in p. not being umbil. =anatina=, lasch. p. - cm. campan. indistinctly umb. greyish brown, longitudinally fibrillosely squamulose; g. adnexed, broad; s. - cm. bluish, pruinose then fibrillosely squamulose, apex even (not spotted black); sp. × . ( - × - sacc.) differs from _l. placida_ and _l. lappula_ in not having black points at apex of stem. =lappula=, fr. p. - cm. exp. umbil. grey, even, the darker umbilicus with erect fibrils, giving a muricellato-punctate appearance; g. broad, crowded; s. - cm. brownish-lilac or blackish-purple, apex naked and with black points; sp. ----. =lampropoda=, fr. p. - cm. convex then exp. or subdepr. flocculose then squamulose, sooty grey then paler; g. adnate, ventricose; s. - cm. even, firm bluish violet, apex not black spotted; sp. rough, - × - . differs from _l. asprella_ in even p. not being umbilicate. var. _cyanulus_, lasch. slender. p. subumbil. floccosely villose, blackish blue; s. capillary. =aethiops=, fr. p. . - . cm. plano-depr. even, shining, black then smoky, glabrous but innately fibrillosely virgate; g. adnate, entirely whitish; s. - cm. blackish brown, black punctate upwards; sp. rough, × . differs from _l. lampropoda_ in black punctate s. =solstitialis=, fr. p. - . cm. exp. at length depr. papillate, rugulose, obsoletely innately fibrillose, fuscous; g. emarginate, broad; - cm. smoky, glabrous; sp. rough, - × . [=camelina=, lasch. p. obtuse, pallid rufous; g. arcuate, crowded; s. stuffed, fibrillose, base curved. [=turci=, bres. p. convex, umbil. then exp. brown-umber then tan, densely downy then squamulose; g. broad; s. hollow, compr. livid cinnamon; flesh white, rosy when broken; sp. angular, - × - . ** _gills at first bluish or grey._ =serrulata=, pers. p. - cm. hemispher. exp. umbil. rather scaly, blackish blue; g. broad, edge black-serrulate; s. - cm. paler than p. with black points above; sp. rough, - × - . =euchroa=, pers. p. . - cm. campan.-convex, obtuse, fibrillosely scaly, violet; g. violet, edge darker, entire; s. - cm. violet, not black punctate; sp. rough, × - . differs from _l. chalybea_ and _l. lazulina_ by growing on wood. =chalybea=, pers. p. - cm. convex, subumb. not striate, flocculose then squamulose, dark violet; g. greyish-white, edge rather paler; s. - cm. blue, not punctate; sp. × . differs from _l. lazulina_ by p. not being striate. =lazulina=, fr. p. . - cm. campan. striate, at first glabrous then cracked into squamules, sooty black; g. adnate, equally narrowed from stem to edge of p. pallid grey; s. - cm. blue, not punctate; sp. × . [=bresadolae=, schulz. p. subglobose then exp. umbil. and depr. umber, minutely squamulose; g. pale violet; s. bright blue, base bulbous with white down; sp. rough, - . [=bizzozeriana=, sacc. p. umb. exp. dusky grey with dark scurf; g. dusky vinous-purple; s. dusky purple; sp. × . [=gorteri=, weinm. p. convex, obtuse, velvety-squamulose, grey then pale, edge white-fimbriate; g. fuscous purple, shining; s. purple violet. *** _gills fuscous- or dusky-purple._ [=calimorpha=, weinm. p. conico-convex, umb. densely squamulose, sooty or black; g. nearly free, ventricose, with a purple sheen, edge black; s. blackish-purple. [=aquila=, fr. p. exp. deeply umbil. bay; g. sinuato-adnexed, very broad; s. stuffed, fuscous, thickened upwards. [=pyrenaica=, pat. and doas. p. convexo-plane, - mm. slightly umb. edge incurved, reddish brown; g. pale red, adnate with a tooth; s. solid, curved, colour of p.; sp. - . **** _gills pallid. pileus yellow or greenish then pale._ =incana=, fr. p. - cm. exp. umbil. glabrous, somewhat virgate, brownish green; g. adnate with decur. tooth, greenish white; s. - cm. shining, brownish green; sp. rough, - . [=euchlora=, lasch. p. campan. convex, not striate, yellow-green with brown fibrils, darker disc impressed; g. adnate; s. squamulosely fibrillose, greenish-yellow, base aerugineo-tomentose; sp. - × - . =formosa=, fr. p. - cm. exp. subumbil. slightly striate, yellow wax-colour with brown adpressed fibrils and scattered squamules; g. adnate, pallid yellow; s. - cm. striate, shining, yellow; sp. - × . var. _suavis_, lasch. s. becoming bluish. =chloropolius=, fr. p. - cm. exp. striate, livid, centre with black squamules; g. adnate, pallid; s. - cm. even, bluish-green; sp. rough, - × . ( - × - sacc.) [=pallens=, karst. p. convex exp. disc slightly depr. glabrous, livid, pale and shining when dry; g. adnate, seceding; s. pallid, glabrous; sp. rough, - . [=melleo-pallens=, karst. p. convex, entirely striate, glabrous, shining, brownish honey-colour then pale; g. soon free, edge darker; s. colour of p. base with white down; sp. rough, - × - . ***** _gills grey or glaucous. pileus hygr. substriate._ =asprella=, fr. p. - cm. exp. glabrous or fibrillose, striate, umbilicus downy then squamulose, sooty then livid grey; g. adnate, equally narrowed to the edge; s. - cm. slender, even, glabrous, livid, tinged green or blue; sp. - × - . [=scabrosa=, fr. p. exp. umbilic. from the first, not striate, squamulose, sooty-brown, then grey, hygr.; g. adnate, segmentoid, grey; s. even, apex with black points and white meal. =nefrens=, fr. p. - cm. exp. then infundib. hygr. rather wavy, livid sooty, depression darkest, pale when dry; g. broad, edge blackish, entire; s. - cm. glabrous, livid fuscous; sp. - × . differs from _l. serrulata_ in entire edge of g. and absence of black points at apex of s. [=sarcita=, fr. fragile. p. exp. radiato-striate, uniform, hygr. torn into fibrillose scales, smoky, hoary when dry; g. linear, thick, distant, glaucous; s. short, glabrous; sp. - × . ****** _gills white._ [=kervernii=, guern. p. fleshy-ochre or buff-yellow, dotted with flecks; g. free, ventricose; s. slightly squamulose, shining white, often compr. base cottony. [=queletii=, boud. p. white with scattered rosy-amethyst flecks; g. white then rosy; s. white then yellowish; sp. rough, . [=sericella=, bull. shining white. p. silky; g. flesh-colour; s. slender, fibrillose. [=gillotii=, q. diaphanous, becoming hyaline white. p. striate, umbil. tinged olive; s. fistulose, silky, base white-downy; sp. rough, . [=parasitica=, q. pruinose, shining white. p. orbicular; g. sinuate, white then rosy; s. arcuate, apex dilated. [=aemulans=, karst. p. convex, umbil. innately squamulose, grey, opaque; g. adnate, broad, smoky; s. glabrous, dusky livid, base whitish. resembles _clitopilus vilis_. clitopilus, fr. i. orcelli. _gills deeply decur. pileus irreg. subexcentric, wavy, scarcely hygr. edge at first flocculose._ =prunulus=, scop. smell like new meal. p. - cm. compact, convex and regular then wavy, dry, pruinose, greyish white; g. rather distant; s. - cm. ventricose, naked, striate, white; sp. - × . edible. =orcella=, bull. smell like new meal. p. - cm. soft, plano-depr. irreg. from first, silky, rather viscid when moist, yellowish-white; g. crowded; s. cm. flocculose, thickened upwards; sp. × . =mundulus=, lasch. p. - cm. plano-depr. unequal, dry, white; g. closely crowded, narrow; s. - cm. floccosely villose, white, becoming blackish inside; sp. × . [=pseudoorcella=, fr. p. exp. depr. even, somewhat fuscous, but silkily hoary; g. broad, distant, greyish white; s. solid, short, outside and inside greyish-brown. =popinalis=, fr. entirely grey. p. - cm. flaccid, rather wavy, glabrous; g. crowded, dark grey; s. - cm. equal, naked; sp. rough, - . =undatus=, fr. p. - cm. deeply umbil. wavy, fragile, sooty grey, pale and silky opaque; g. dark grey; s. - cm. hollow, colour of p.; sp. rough, - . ( - , quél.) var. _viarum_, fr. p. often excentric, greyish hoary, shining, with darker zones. [=concentricus=, gill. p. convex, umbil. edge wavy, greyish or reddish with brown broken concentric lines; g. reddish grey; s. pale reddish with abundant white down at base. =cancrinus=, fr. p. - cm. convex-umbil. then exp. unequal, flocculose, smooth, pale reddish-white; g. decur. distant; s. cm. tough, glabrous, white; sp. rough, - . =cretatus=, b. and br. p. - cm. convex then umbil. thin, dead white but shining, edge incurved; g. very decur.; s. - mm. white; sp. subgl. - . ( × phil., - long, quél.) [=lentulus=, karst. p. plano-depr. often irreg. rather silky, rather viscid when moist, whitish; g. decur. closely crowded, narrow, pallid; s. solid, equal, wavy, flocculose, pallid; sp. rough, - . ii. sericelli. _pileus regular silky or hygr.-silky, edge involute, naked. gills adnate, slightly decur._ =carneoalbus=, wither. p. . - . cm. convex then exp. and depr. edge drooping, white, polished; g. crowded; s. - cm. equal, solid, white; sp. rough, - . [=angustus=, pers. p. convexo-plane, subumb. grey, silky-shining when dry; g. tinged flesh-colour; s. glabrous, white, base incurved, downy; sp. - × . =sarnicus=, mass. p. - cm. becoming plane, subumbonate, grey, silky; g. plane then suddenly decurrent near the stem, reddish; s. - cm. flexuous, white, smooth; sp. nodulose, - × . [=nidusavis=, secr. p. plano-umb. floccosely-scurfy, greyish brown, at length wavy; g. broad, thickish, white then flesh-colour; s. flocculose, thickened at both ends, base with white down; sp. - × . [=hydroionides=, cesati. tough, violet then grey. p. convex, obsoletely umb. hygr.; g. adnato-decur. whitish; s. hollow, short, even. =vilis=, fr. p. - cm. convex, umbil. slightly striate, grey, silky-flocculose; g. crowded, white then greyish; s. hollow, fibrillosely striate, grey; sp. - × . [=ionipterus=, cesati. p. plano-depr. glabrous, violet; g. adnato-decur. bluish; s. solid, pallid, cracked into fibres outside. [=cicatrisatus=, lasch. p. convex, umbil. glabrous, not striate, rivuloso-rugulose when adult, fuscous; g. broad, pallid; s. even, base strigose, rooting. [=neglectus=, lasch. p. convex then umbil. not striate, floccosely-fibrillose, whitish ochre then pallid; g. adnato-decur.; s. solid, weak, whitish. =straminipes=, mass. p. - cm. fragile, whitish, shining, soon exp. and depr.; g. whitish then rosy; s. - cm. straw-colour below, mealy above, hollow; sp. rough, - . =stilbocephalus=, b. and br. p. - cm. campan. obtuse, edge straight, yellowish-white or greyish, sparkling with atoms; g. veined, adnate or emarginate; s. - cm. silky-fibrous, white; sp. rough, × - . =smithii=, mass. p. - cm. soon plane and orbicular, often wavy, atomate, white or tinged yellow; g. broadly adnate; s. - cm. surface undulated, pallid with a reddish tinge below; sp. glob. . eccilia, fr. [=polita=, pers. p. umbil. glabrous, hygr. livid, shining when dry; g. crowded; s. equal, livid, polished, apex subpruinose. [=apiculata=, fr. p. convex, depr. umb. even, hygr. livid, silky when dry; g. rather distant, grey; s. equal, glabrous, livid. =parkensis=, fr. p. . - cm. exp. deeply umbil. glabrous, fuscous, striate to middle; g. crowded; s. cm. colour of p. glabrous; sp. rough, - . =carneogrisea=, b. and br. p. - cm. convex, umbil. finely striate, greyish pink, edge darker, micaceous; g. subdecur. edge irreg. darker; s. - cm. colour of p. white down at base; sp. rough, × . =griseorubella=, lasch. p. - cm. deeply umbil. then plane, striate, hygr. umber then hoary; g. slightly decur.; s. - cm. glabrous, paler than p.; sp. rough, - . [=mougeotii=, fr. (= _e. atrides_, q.). p. umbil. then infundib. fibrillose then squamulose, greyish lilac, edge blue; g. lilac then pallid; s. elongated, fibrillose, apex floccose, greyish lilac; sp. - . var. _minor_, sacc. p. convex then umbil. fuscous violet; g. lilac; s. violet; sp. rough, × . =atrides=, lasch. p. plane, deeply umbil. striate, black or brown, black virgate, then pale; g. pallid, edge with black points; s. pallid with black points above; sp. ----. fries thinks this may be an abnormal form of _lept. serrulata_. =nigrella=, pers. tufted, small. p. smooth, umbil. becoming blackish, not virgate; g. flesh colour then grey, edge same colour; s. short, glaucous, not dotted black; sp. ----. united by fries with _e. atrides_, but considered distinct by berk. and broome. [=nigellus=, q. small, bay then blackish; p. striate, umbil. granulated; g. decur. narrow, grey; s. short, glabrous, base woolly; sp. rough, . =atropuncta=, pers. p. - cm. soft, hemispherical, pale grey; g. decur. arcuate, rosy-grey; s. - cm. rather tough, pallid, shining, with black dot-like squamules; sp. rough, - . [=calophylla=, pers. p. hemispher. umbil. sooty umber; g. decur. reddish-purple; s. narrowed upwards, rather thick, somewhat viscid, colour of p., at first purplish, shining. =rhodocylix=, lasch. p. - . cm. umbil.-infundib. remotely striate when moist, somewhat fuscous, flocculose and grey when dry; g. very distant, broad; s. - cm. glabrous, grey; sp. rough, . [=rusticoides=, gill. p. convex, umbil. striate, glabrous, hygr. brown, paler when dry; g. decur. thick, distant, forked, rufous-brown; s. slender, colour of p. =flosculus=, w. g. sm. p. . - cm. deeply umbil. with crystalline particles, irreg. black brown, whitish with age; g. decur. rather wavy; s. cm. reddish; sp. rough. probably introduced. =acus=, w. g. sm. p. - . cm. deeply umbil. densely pruinose, white, edge striate and incurved; g. thick, distant; s. - cm. smooth, whitish; sp. rough. probably introduced. [=tristis=, bres. smell like spirit-of-wine. p. convexo-subcampan. umbil. edge crisped, striate, moist, glabrous, brown; g. distant, thick, broad, arcuato-decur. fleshy-brown; colour of p. glabrous; sp. rough, - . claudopus, w. g. sm. [=translucens=, d. c. p. subsessile, thin, orbicular, wavy, pellucid, white tinged reddish; g. free, pallid then reddish lilac; sp. - long. =variabilis=, pers. p. - . cm. resupinate, then reflexed, tomentose, white, attached by a very short incurved downy stem which disappears when the pileus turns over; g. radiating from an excentric point, distant, white then pink; sp. × . var. _sphaerosporus_, pat. p. white, tomentose; g. paler than type; sp. globose, echinulate, tinged red. =depluens=, batsch. p. - . cm. more or less convex, edge incurved, resupinate then reflexed, white or tinged reddish, usually with a very short downy s.; g. broad, ventricose, grey then tinged rufescent; sp. glob. rough, - . ( - × - sacc.) differs from _c. variabilis_ in globose, warted s. [=inaequabilis=, sacc. entirely rusty, stipitate; p. oblique, almost glabrous; g. sinuato-free, ventricose; s. very excentric, short, base dilated, incurved; sp. × . [=macrosporus=, pat. and doas. p. exp. depressed at an excentric point corresponding to insertion of stem, reddish brown, striate up to depression; g. broad, distant, reddish; s. short, excentric, enlarged into a flat plate at base; sp. - × . =byssisedus=, pers. p. - cm. resupinate then horizontal, reniform, plane, downy, grey then pale; g. adnato-decur. greyish-white, reddish with the spores; s. incurved, downy, base surrounded with white fibrils; sp. glob. rough, - . differs from _pleurotus applicatus_ by presence of s. and pink sp. [=zahlbruckneri=, beck. p. resupinate then reflexed, sessile, reniform, shining white, downy; g. radiating, reddish, edge paler, denticulate; sp. minutely warted, subg. - . differs from _c. variabilis_ in denticulate edge of gills and sp. [=klukii=, blonski. p. shell-shaped, reniform, downy, greyish-tan; g. crowded, decur. whitish then bright rosy; s. slightly curved, base white and downy; sp. - × . allied to _c. byssisedus_ but larger. [=peteauxi=, q. p. cupulate then reniform, wavy, thin, fragile, minutely tomentose, shining white; g. free, sinuate, radiating from a central point which is continued into a very short, white tomentose stem; sp. long. ochrosporae. a. _gills separating spontaneously, or very easily from flesh of pileus._ =paxillus=. margin of pileus persistently involute; gills decurrent or adnato-decurrent. b. _gills not separating spontaneously, nor easily from flesh of pileus._ * _stem furnished with a volva, or an interwoven ring, or with both._ =locellina=. volva and ring both present. =pholiota=. ring alone present. ** _volva and ring both absent._ + _stem central._ =pluteolus=. gills free. =bolbitius=. pileus membranaceous; gills deliquescent at maturity. =inocybe=. stem fleshy, fibrous externally; pileus fibrillose or scaly; gills sinuato-adnexed. =hebeloma=. stem fleshy, fibrous externally; pileus glabrous, viscid; gills sinuato-adnexed. =naucoria=. stem cartilaginous externally; edge of pileus incurved at first; gills adnexed or adnate. =galera=. stem cartilaginous externally; edge of pileus straight at first; gills adnexed or adnate, often with a decurrent tooth. =tubaria=. stem cartilaginous externally; gills broadest behind, decurrent or adnato-decurrent. =flammula=. stem fleshy, fibrous externally; gills adnate or decurrent. =cortinarius=. universal veil cobweb-like, not forming an interwoven ring, often collapsing and forming a ring-like zone on the stem; stem fleshy, fibrous. ++ _stem excentric or absent._ =crepidotus=. paxillus, fr. a. lepista. _pileus entire, central._ [=sordarius=, fr. p. convexo-gibbous then plano-depr. dingy white, edge at length spreading and sulcate; g. adnate, crowded; s. spongy-stuffed, equal, striate, greyish white; sp. × . =alexandri=, fr. p. - cm. compact, plane then depr. dry, fawn, edge strongly incurved; g. subdecur. yellowish; s. - cm. stout; sp. - × - . =lepista=, fr. p. - cm. plano-depr. dry, dingy white, edge incurved, even, naked; g. deeply decur. rather branched, crowded, whitish; s. solid, stout, pallid; sp. × . differs from large sp. of _clitocybe_ by strongly incurved p. and dingy spores. =extenuatus=, fr. p. - cm. rigid, campan. exp. naked, glabrous, moist, brownish tan, edge incurved, downy, even; g. deeply decur. closely crowded, white then dingy; s. - cm. solid, base tuberous, rooting; sp. ----. =panaeolus=, fr. p. - cm. thin, exp. subdepr. glabrous, moist, white, edge incurved, thin; g. slightly decur. crowded, narrow, pale rusty; s. - cm. rufescent, thickened below; sp. subg. . var. _spilomaeolus_, fr. p. with drop-like spots; s. slender, yellowish white; g. pale rusty. [=nitens=, lamb. p. convex, fleshy, glutinous in damp weather, shining and velvety when dry, yellow-brown, edge incurved, paler; g. free, sinuate, closely crowded, becoming olive-brown; s. reddish-yellow, base darker. =orcelloides=, cke. and mass. p. - cm. thin, exp. snow-white then with greyish blotches, edge incurved; g. adnato-decur. white then brownish; s. - cm. tapering to base, ochre; sp. × . differs from _p. panaeolus_ in tapering stem and sp. =lividus=, cke. p. - cm. convex, disc depr. margin arched and incurved, dingy white or livid ochre; g. decur. broad, white; s. - cm. narrowed downwards, white; sp. glob. - . , whitish. probably a sp. of _clitocybe_. =revolutus=, cke. p. - cm. convex, pale ochre, edge thin, sometimes tinged lilac, a little upturned; g. deeply decur. pale tan; s. - cm. narrowed downwards, paler than p., often tinged violet at base; sp. glob. . - . differs from _p. lividus_ in deeply decur. coloured g. b. tapinia. _pileus usually excentric or resupinate._ =involutus=, fr. p. - cm. convex then depr. moist, rusty orange, incurved edge downy, flesh pallid; g. branched, broad, anastomosing behind, dingy ochre; s. solid, firm, - cm.; sp. - × - . var. _excentricus_, fr. p. excentric; s. short, growing on wood. =paradoxus=, cke. p. - cm. convex then exp. sometimes irreg. densely tomentose, rufous umber with purple tinge; g. decur. connected by veins, yellow; s. - cm. fibrillose, red and yellow; sp. - × - . =leptopus=, fr. p. - cm. excentric, gibbous then depr. yellow-brown, torn into downy squamules, flesh yellow; g. simple, very narrow, yellowish then darker; s. - cm. solid, base narrowed; sp. - × . =atrotomentosus=, fr. p. - cm. compact, excentric, gibbous then plano-infundib. dry, torn into granules, rusty; g. adnate, yellowish; s. solid, rooting, densely covered with blackish tomentum; sp. × . [=griseotomentosus=, fr. p. convexo-plane, gibbous, excentric, oblique, glabrous, tan, becoming rusty when bruised, edge incurved, downy; flesh watery; g. decur. broad, tan; s. stout, tuberous, velvety with grey down; sp. long. [=chrysophyllus=, trog. p. campan.-plane, horizontal, cracked into scales, pale cinnamon; g. decur. broad, white then citrin; s. short, ascending, pallid. =crassus=, fr. p. - cm. oblique, nearly plane and even, becoming rusty; g. rather distant, cinnamon; s. very short, excentric, ascending; sp. - × - . strongly suggests the genus _flammula_. [=ionipus=, q. p. - cm. shell-shaped, oboval or oblong, glabrous, straw-colour with a tinge of olive, narrowed into a short, bulbous, tomentose, amethyst or lilac stem; flesh soft, citrin; g. decur. transversely veined, branched, tinged olive then cinnamon; sp. - long. =panuoides=, fr. p. - cm. shell-shaped, downy then glabrous, sessile becoming resupinate, dingy yellow; g. decur. crowded, branched, crisped, yellow; sp. - × - . var. _fagi_, cke. gregarious, crisped; g. crisped, orange. [=lamellirugis=, d. c. p. - cm. resupinate, cup-shaped then shell-shaped, downy, yellow; g. decur. branched, wavy and crisped, alveolate at the base, saffron then cinnamon; sp. long. perhaps identical with _p. panuoides_. locellina, gillet. =alexandri=, gill. p. convex, umb. viscid, yellowish-tan, appendiculate; g. adnato-decur. flesh-colour; s. slender, wavy, whitish, with a fibrillose cinnamon veil, base bulbous, volva torn at free edge. =acetabulosa=, sacc. (= _acetabularia acetabulosa_, b.). p. - cm. tan, edge deeply striate; g. free, brown; s. - cm. white, hollow, volva small. pholiota, fr. a. humigeni. _terrestrial, not attached to mosses; rarely caespitose._ * _spores rusty._ =aurea=, matt. p. - cm. hemispher. exp. obtuse, somewhat velvety, pulverulent or obsoletely squamulose, golden tawny; g. adnexed, ventricose, paler than p.; s. - cm. stuffed, nearly equal, even; sp. × . var. _vahlii_, schum. p. even, glabrous; g. almost free. =caperata=, pers. p. - cm. ovate, exp. with incrusted white flecks, yellow; g. adnate, clay-colour; s. - cm. white, ring superior, thin, apex scaly; sp. × - . =terrigena=, fr. (incl. _p. cookei_, fr.). p. - cm. exp. fibrillosely silky, dingy yellow; g. adnate, pale yellow rusty olive; s. - cm. equal, variegated with rusty wart-like scales; veil forming a ring and appendiculate; sp. × . ( × - .) [=secretani=, fr. p. convex, exp. yellow with darker deciduous scales, then glabrous; g. adnate, golden then orange; s. solid, bulbous, floccosely squamulose below ring. =erebia=, fr. p. - cm. exp. glabrous, rather viscid, lurid umber then pale, edge striate; g. adnate; s. - cm. pallid, apical ring reflexed and striate; sp. ----. =ombrophila=, fr. p. - cm. exp. even, rusty, hygr.; g. ventricose; s. - cm. hollow, pallid, ring entire, distant; sp. × . . ( - × - sacc.) var. _brunneola_, fr. p. obtuse, brown; g. narrow. =togularis=, fr. p. - cm. exp. even, pale ochre; g. yellowish; s. - cm. apex pale, ring median; sp. × . . var. _filaris_, fr. p. thin, campan. exp. obtuse, even, ochre; g. adnate, ventricose, yellow then pale rusty; s. filiform, wavy, glabrous, pallid, ring entire, distant. smaller than type, and s. not so yellow. =blattaria=, fr. p. - cm. exp. subumb. rusty, hygr. edge striate; g. rounded and free, ventricose, cinnamon; s. - cm. equal, straight, rusty, ring white; sp. × . ** _spores rusty-fuscous._ =dura=, bolton. p. - cm. rather compact, exp. glabrous, at length cracked into areolae, edge even, tawny then paler; g. adnate; s. - cm. hard, pale ochre, apex mealy, ring somewhat torn; sp. - × - . var. _xanthophylla_, bres. g. sulphur yellow then umber; sp. - × - . =praecox=, pers. p. - cm. soft, exp. obtuse, even, pallid tan; g. crowded, white then fuscescent; s. - cm. cylindrical, downy then glabrous, ring white; sp. - × - . var. _minor_, fr. small; ring torn, appendiculate. [=phragmatophylla=, guern. p. convex, depr. round broad umbo, maroon-bay then paler; g. narrow, adnato-decur. connected by numerous veins; s. tinged brown, squamulose, ring persistent, whitish. =sphaleromorpha=, bull. p. - cm. yellowish, even, soon expanded; g. rather broad, slightly decur. dry, yellowish then tawny; s. - cm. silky, pale, base thickened, ring distant, membranous; sp. × . [=gibberosa=, fr. p. exp. dry, tan, umbo darker; g. quite free, closely crowded; s. slender, equal, white, ring torn. b. truncigeni. _growing on wood, or epiphytic; often clustered._ * _pileus naked, not scaly but usually rivulose; gills pallid then rufous or fuscous._ =radicosa=, bull. smell strong. p. - cm. equal, obtuse, even, glabrous, spotted, pale greyish tan; g. free, ventricose; s. - cm. solid, rooting, mealy above, squarrosely scaly below ring; sp. × . . =pudica=, fr. p. - cm. exp. even, dry, glabrous, whitish or tinged tawny; s. - cm. solid, even, whitish, ring spreading, persistent; sp. - × . . =leochroma=, cke. p. - cm. exp. glabrous, tawny; g. adnate; s. - cm. nearly equal, solid, whitish, ring sup. tawny; sp. ----. [=radicellata=, gill. p. ovoid then convex, striate, deep yellow-ochre; g. numerous, slightly adnexed, colour of p.; s. white, ring fugacious, long rooting. =capistrata=, cke. p. - cm. edge incurved, slightly striate, pale dingy yellow, rather viscid; g. subdecur.; s. - cm. equal, squamulose, whitish, ring sup. spreading; sp. ----. [=cylindracea=, d. c. p. convex-gibbous, even, glabrous, rather viscid, dingy yellow, disc darker; g. adnexed, crowded, whitish then rusty; s. equal, rigid, subsquamulose, whitish, ring persistent apical, white; sp. × . =aegerita=, fr. p. - cm. exp. rivulose, rugulose, tawny, edge pale; g. adnate, pallid then fuscous; s. - cm. equal, silky-white, ring sup. tumid; sp. × . [=brigantii=, fr. p. convex, white, reticulately sulcate then cracked into wart-like areolae, polygonal, apex truncate and fuscous; g. with decur. tooth; s. solid, equal, white with bay scales, ring apical subobsolete. =luxurians=, fr. p. - cm. convex-gibbous then exp. unequal, silky then squamulose, pale then rufo-fuscous; g. decur. greyish flesh-colour then fuscous; s. - cm. white then tawny, solid, rigid, floccose, ring apical, imperfect; sp. × . ** _pileus scaly, not hygr., gills becoming discoloured._ + _gills pallid then fuscous, olive, clay-coloured, not pure rusty._ =destruens=, brig. p. unequal, yellowish white, with paler large woolly floccose scales when dry; g. striato-decur. crenulate, broad, umber at last; s. solid, narrowed upwards, white-scaly, base swollen and rooting, ring fugacious; sp. - × - . parasitic on living trees. =comosa=, fr. p. - cm. convex, viscid, tawny with whitish deciduous scales; g. subdecur. white then brownish tan; s. - cm. solid, rather bulbous, white, ring floccose, soon disappearing; sp. × . ( . - . × - sacc.) [=magna=, schulz. p. convex-umb. wood-yellow, with broad scattered adpressed scales; g. sinuate, yellow then umber; s. cylindrical, thick, squarrosely scaly, yellowish; sp. - × - . =heteroclita=, fr. p. - cm. exp. very obtuse, subexcentric, whitish or yellowish, with scattered scales; g. very broad; s. - cm. solid, hard, bulbous, rooting, whitish, fibrillose, veil apical; sp. - × - . [=cerifera=, karst. p. convex, even, upper stratum thick, waxy-gelatinous, glabrous, yellow, edge white-squamulose at first; g. crowded, broad, pallid; s. central, solid, equal, curved, rooting, hard, white-squamulose, whitish; sp. - × - . =aurivella=, batsch. p. - cm. campan. convex, gibbous, tawny yellow, with darker scales, rather viscid; g. sinuato-adfixed; s. - cm. curved, with rusty adpressed squamules, ring rather distant; sp. × . . ( - × - sacc.) var. _filamentosa_, schaeff. p. thinner, scales adnate, concentric, ring floccoso-radiate. =squarrosa=, müll. smell strong. p. - cm. campan. convex, exp. dry, rusty saffron, with darker concentric, squarrose, revolute scales; g. narrow, pallid olive then rusty; s. - cm. squarrosely scaly up to ring; sp. × . var. _mülleri_, fr. p. obtuse, pallid, adpressedly scaly, moist; g. fuscescent. var. _reflexa_, schaeff. p. thin, cuspidately umbonate, scaly; s. partly hollow, long, equal. var. _verruculosa_, lasch. p. compact, obtuse, yellow, papillate scales crowded, cinnamon; s. villosely squamulose. [=humicola=, quel. p. campan. convex, pale yellow, spotted; g. yellow; s. slender, fistulose, yellowish, spotted; sp. - long. probably a var. of _pholiota squarrosa_. =subsquarrosa=, fr. p. - cm. convex, viscid, rusty brown with darker adpressed floccose scales; g. almost free, crowded, yellow then dingy tan; s. - cm. rusty yellow, with darker scales up to zone of ring; sp. ----. differs from _p. squarrosa_ in nearly free g. [=djakovensis=, schulz. p. pulvinate-umb. fleshy, edge for a long time bent down, golden, darker and adpressed scaly at disc, very viscid in rain; g. crowded, free, tan then purple-brown, edge entire; s. somewhat rooting, ascending, subbulbous, scaly up to ring, colour of p.; sp. - long. [=fusca=, q. p. - cm. convex, umb. viscid, brown with buff flecks near the edge; g. pale then lilac, at length brown; s. fibrous-fleshy, curved, subbulbous, yellowish-white, apex pulverulent, covered with fine flecks below the floccose annular zone; sp. long. ++ _gills yellow then pure rusty or tawny._ =spectabilis=, fr. p. - cm. compact, exp. dry, bright tawny orange then paler, broken up into fibrous scales; g. adnato-decur. crowded, narrow, yellow then rusty; s. - cm. solid, ventricose, rooting, ring inf.; sp. × . a destructive parasite on timber trees. [=villosa=, fr. p. exp. dry, everywhere floccosely villose, yellow tawny; g. narrow, yellow; s. elongated, stout, fibrillose, base thickened, yellow, ring narrow, entire. =adiposa=, fr. p. - cm. exp. yellow, glutinous, with darker, concentric, deciduous scales; g. adnate, broad; s. - cm. subbulbous, yellow, with darker glutinous squamules; sp. × - . an injurious parasite to beech and ash. =lucifera=, fr. p. - cm. exp. then umb. viscid, yellow with darker adpr. deciduous scales; g. crenulate, narrow; s. - cm. equal, rather squamulose, base rusty, ring inf.; sp. - × - . [=violacea=, vogl. p. convex, viscid, violet, disc darkest; g. arcuato-decur. brownish, edge eroded; s. dark violet, ring distant, violet. =flammans=, fr. p. - cm. exp. subumb. dry, tawny with superficial sulphur squamules; g. crowded, entire, yellow; s. - cm. equal, rather wavy, squarrosely scaly up to ring; sp. × . ( × , sacc.) =junonia=, fr. p. - cm. exp. obtuse, dry, glabrous, yellow or tawny yellow; g. yellow then tawny; s. - cm. solid, equal, incurved, scurfy above entire ring; sp. - × . - . =tuberculosa=, schaeff. p. - cm. exp. dry, tawny yellow, broken up into adpressed innate squamules; g. broad, serrulate; s. - cm. incurved, bulbous, ring deciduous; sp. × . =curvipoda=, a. and s. p. - cm. exp. tawny yellow, torn into floccose adpressed scales; g. adnate, broad; s. - cm. thin, incurved, fibrillose, ring floccosely radiating, yellow; sp. - × - . [=kolaënsis=, karst. p. convex-exp. yellow, covered with rusty or cinnamon indumentum; g. at first yellowish; s. incurved, short, rusty and fibrillosely scaly below. =muricata=, fr. p. exp. obtuse, umbil. dry, yellow with tawny fasciculate flocci forming a muricate or granular covering; g. broad, yellow; s. thin, squamulose below the fugacious ring. [=tersa=, fr. p. exp. adpressedly squamulose, entirely yellow; g. free; s. elongated, equal, rusty below. [=trichocephala=, trog. p. campan. exp. obtuse, with shining straw-coloured hair-like squamules; g. free, distant, white then rusty; s. solid, base thickened, glabrous. =cruentata=, cke. and sm. p. - cm. exp. dry, yellow, breaking up into darker adpressed scales, edge incurved; g. yellow then tan; s. curved, colour of p. - cm. curved, base dark red brown, rooting, ring superior. flesh red; sp. ----. *** _gills cinnamon_ (not yellow at first). =paxillus=, fr. entirely cinnamon. p. - cm. convexo-gibbous then exp. even, moist, rather wavy; g. decur. broad; s. - cm. solid, elongated, stout, ring narrow, spreading; sp. ----. =dissimulans=, b. and br. p. - cm. exp. edge involute, often gibbous or obtusely umb. hygr. slightly viscid, lurid then pale; g. sinuately adnate; s. - cm. thickened downwards, white, ring superior; sp. × . =confragosa=, fr. p. - cm. exp. hygr. floccosely-scurfy, edge striate, rufous cinnamon then tawny; g. adnate, closely crowded; s. - cm. fistulose, equal, fibrillose below spreading ring; sp. × . [=sublutea=, fl. dan. p. exp. umb. squamulose, moist, edge striate, yellow; g. decur.; s. stuffed, glabrous, yellow, ring spreading. =phalerata=, fr. p. exp. glabrous but with superficial deciduous pale scales, yellow; g. adnato-decur.; s. fasciculately pilose, adpressedly flocculose above distant ring. =mutabilis=, schaeff. p. . - cm. exp. subumb. glabrous, deep cinnamon then pale; g. adnato-decur. crowded; s. - cm. rigid, squarrosely scaly up to ring, base dark rusty; sp. - × - . [=gregaria=, wettst. p. convex then exp. glabrous, edge thin, striate; sometimes becoming raised, pale fuscous centre darker; g. adnato-decur. broad, crowded, pallid then cinnamon; s. erect or curved, fistulose, fibrous, tough, slender, squarrosely squamulose up to spreading rusty ring, rusty below and pale above ring; sp. - × . =marginata=, batsch. p. - cm. exp. glabrous, hygr. edge striate, honey-colour then pale; g. adnate, crowded; s. - cm. not scaly, ring fugacious, dark base with white velvety down; sp. - × . _p. mutabilis_ differs in scaly s. =sororia=, karst. p. convex, exp. slightly striate, squamulose, tawny-cinnamon; g. sinuato-adnate, crowded; s. equal, wavy, colour of p. then paler, variegated with white squamules, apex scurfy; sp. - × - . close to _pholiota marginata_. =mustelina=, fr. p. - . cm. campan.-convex, even, glabrous, dry, yellow then ochre; g. adnate, tawny cinnamon; s. - . cm. even, pallid, white-mealy above superior ring, base thickened, with white down; sp. ----. =unicolor=, fl. dan. p. - . cm. campan.-convex, subumb. hygr. bay then ochre; g. subtriangular; s. - cm. colour of p., ring slender; sp. - × . [=mellea=, karst. p. convex exp. even, glabrous, honey-colour; g. crowded, fuscescent; s. wavy, glabrous, whitish, ring persistent; sp. - × - . differs from _pholiota unicolor_ in colour. c. muscigeni. _resembling a galera with a ring; hygr._ =pumila=, fr. p. - . cm. hemispher. even, ochre; g. adnate, crowded, broad, yellow then pallid; s. - cm. slender, ring fugacious, forming a zone; sp. - × - . [=muscigena=, q. honey yellow then pale ochre. p. campan. umb. thin, striate; g. triquetrous, thin, pale then ochre; s. slender, fistulose, fibrillose, slightly striate, cottony at the base; ring membranous, narrow, saffron-ochre; sp. - long. =mycenoides=, fr. p. - cm. campan.-convex, everywhere striate, hygr. rusty then tawny or pallid; g. adnate; s. - cm. rusty, glabrous, ring white; sp. - × - . =rufidula=, kalchbr. p. exp. depr. not striate, rather rufous brick-red then pale, white-flocculose at edge; g. adnate, branched; s. watery rufescent, white-fibrillose, ring superior; sp. - × - . pluteolus, fr. =reticulatus=, fr. p. - cm. campan. exp. viscid, reticulated with raised anastomosing wrinkles, pale violet; g. free, rusty saffron; s. - cm. fragile, fibrillose; sp. × . [=dictyotus=, kalchbr. entirely pale ochraceous. p. campan. exp. umb. dry, with anastomosing raised veins; g. free; s. fragile, even, glabrous. differs from _p. reticulatus_ in colour, and in growing on the ground. =aleuriatus=, fr. p. - cm. conical then convexo-plane, viscid, striate, grey, livid, rosy, &c.; g. free, ventricose, saffron-ochre; s. thin, pulverulent, subincurved, white; sp. ----. bolbitius, fr. =grandiusculus=, cke. and mass. p. . - cm. thin, campan. exp. slightly striate, pale yellow, disc rufous; g. free, rusty ochre; s. - cm. narrowed upwards, hollow, white; sp. × - . =vitellinus=, fr. p. - cm. ovate then exp. viscid, egg-yellow, even then sulcate at the edge; g. adnexed, ochre then tan; s. - cm. equal, white, squamulose, hollow; g. × . differs from _b. flavidus_ in white stem, and from _b. boltoni_ in clear yellow p. not depressed at disc. =boltoni=, fr. p. - cm. viscid, even, edge becoming sulcate, yellow then pale, disc darker and subdepr.; g. subadnate, yellow then livid fuscous; s. - cm. narrowed upwards, yellowish, at first flocculose; sp. × . =flavidus=, bolton. p. - cm. glutinous, conical then exp. disc a little elevated, pale yellow, edge striate; g. almost free, yellow then brownish; s. - cm. slightly tapering, yellow; sp. × . =fragilis=, fr. p. . - . cm. viscid, pellucid, edge striate, subumb. yellow then pale; g. yellowish then pale cinnamon; s. - cm. narrowed upwards, naked, glabrous, yellow; sp. × . . ( - × - sacc.) [=bulbillosus=, fr. p. convex-campan. exp. not striate, pale yellowish fuscous; g. free, ventricose, rusty; s. attenuated upwards from a somewhat marginate bulb, whitish yellow, glabrous; sp. - × . =affinis=, mass. (sp. nov.) p. - cm. campan. then exp. umb. glabrous, dry, edge striate, yellowish tawny like the narrow, adnexed g.; s. - cm. attenuated upwards from a marginate bulb, white, shining; sp. × . differs from _b. bulbillosus_ in the pure white s., and umbonate, striate, tawny yellow p. which is whitish when dry. [=conocephalus=, bull. p. - cm. conico-campan. fragile, slightly striate, viscid at the apex, creamy yellow; g. free, ventricose, becoming ochre; s. slender, elongated, pruinose at the apex, white; sp. long. =titubans=, bull. p. - cm. ovoid-campan. thin, glabrous, diaphanous, yellow, becoming striate, plaited and greyish at the edge; g. free, yellow then reddish or ochre; s. hollow, slender, very fragile, - cm. mealy, white, shining; sp. - × . =apicalis=, w. g. sm. p. - cm. high, conical, not exp. striate and brown up to ochre disc; g. free, rusty; s. cm. base thickened, striate, white; sp. × - . =rivulosus=, b. and br. p. - cm. campan. striate, rivulose, dingy tan; g. cinnamon; s. - cm. narrowed upwards, smooth, white; sp. - × - . =niveus=, mass. p. - cm. campan. obtusely umb. smooth, rather viscid, edge striate, pure white; g. free, salmon-colour; s. - cm. clavato-bulbous and gradually narrowed upwards; sp. salmon-colour, × - . =tener=, berk. p. - cm. long, not exp. even, smooth, moist, yellowish-white; g. nearly free, salmon-colour; s. - cm. clavato-bulbous, white; sp. salmon-colour, - × - . =luteolus=, lasch. very thin, p. campan. plicato-sulcate, yellow; g. free, yellow then livid; s. filiform, glabrous, pallid. =pusillus=, borsz. very thin, campan. sulcato-plicate above middle, viscid; g. free, cinnamon; s. pale yellow, white-squamulose. =purifluus=, lasch. p. very thin, exp. flocculose, sulcate, yellow; g. free, narrow, subochraceous; s. narrowed, mealy, yellowish. [=ozonii=, schulz. p. thin, conico-campan. exp. disc even, cinnamon or fuscous, rest pale ochre and densely striate; g. adnexed, closely crowded, pale then colour of p.; s. - springing from a common fleshy mass, or solitary and subbulbous, white; sp. - × . inocybe, fr. a. squarrosi. _pileus at first squarrose, stem scaly, both somewhat fuscous._ =hystrix=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, mouse-colour, with revolute, squarrose scales; g. grey then fuscous; s. - cm. thickened upwards, with rings of reflexed scales, pale above ring; sp. × . =relicina=, fr. p. - cm. conico-exp. with squarrose tomentose scales, sooty; g. yellow then olive; s. - cm. solid, equal, floccosely scaly; sp. ----. =calamistrata=, fr. smell strong. p. - cm. campan. obtuse, squarrose with rigid recurved scales, brown; g. white then rusty; s. - cm. solid, rigid, base blue, squarrosely scaly everywhere, fuscous; sp. - × . flesh reddish. =hirsuta=, lasch. p. . - . cm. conico-campan. acute, squarrose with scales formed of fascicles of hairs, fuscous-ochre, disc sometimes greenish; g. narrow, pallid then fuscous; s. - cm. solid, slender, floccosely scaly above, base greenish; sp. ----. =lanuginosa=, bull. p. - cm. hemispher. exp. obtuse, floccosely scaly, those of disc erect, umber then yellowish; g. toothed, pallid then clay-colour; s. - cm. thin fibrillosely scaly, apex with white meal; sp. rough, or ; × (cke.) =squarrulosa=, karst. (= _clypeus_, karst.) p. convex then plane, obtuse, fibrillose, fuscescent, disc squarrosely squamulose, fuscous; g. crowded, white-crenulate; s. equal, brownish-squamulose; sp. × - . =dulcamara=, a. and s. p. - cm. convex, umb. pilosely-scaly, fuscous-olive; g. pallid then olive; s. - cm. fibrillosely squamulose from the veil, apex mealy; sp. - × . =plumosa=, bolton. p. - cm. convexo-plane, disc with erect pilose fascicles, edge fibrillose, mouse-grey; g. quite entire, whitish then smoky; s. - cm. slender, wavy, floccosely scaly, apex naked; sp. - × - . =cincinnata=, fr. p. . - . cm. convexo-plane, squarrosely squamose, somewhat fuscous; g. fuscous violet; s. - cm. solid, slender, scaly; sp. - . ( - × sacc.) =haemacta=, b. and cke. p. - cm. campan. obtuse, floccosely fibrillose with dark fibrils, disc scaly and darker; g. dingy tan; s. - cm. scarcely fibrillose, whitish above, tinged verdigris at base; sp. × - . flesh turning blood-red when bruised. =leucocephala=, boud. p. white, convex, entirely covered with erect scales; g. free, broad, fawn; s. short, white, coarsely fibrillose throughout; sp. rough, - × - . b. laceri. _pileus torn into scales or fibrils (not cracking); stem coloured, paler than pileus, fibrillose._ =pyriodora=, pers. smell pleasant. p. - cm. umb. adpressedly fibroso-scaly, fuscous ochre then pale; g. emarginate, rather distant; s. - cm. solid, equal, fibrillose, pale, apex pruinose; sp. × . flesh with red tinge. [=corydalina=, q. strong-scented. p. whitish, umbo bluish-green; g. narrow, white then fuscous; stem white pruinose; sp. long. var. _roseolus_, pat. larger than type. p. entirely bluish green, edge white-append.; flesh tinged rosy. [=violascens=, q. p. splitting, fawn, umbo lilac; g. lilac; s. hollow, white, apex striate, lilac, ring floccose, white; sp. - long. =incarnata=, bres. p. - cm. campan. convex, broadly umb. fibrillose then squamulose, edge fimbriate, yellowish then tinged red; g. sinuate, edge fimbriate becoming spotted or tinged red; s. - cm. fibrillose, rosy, apex white and mealy; sp. × . =scaber=, fr. p. - cm. conico-convex, obtusely gibbous, with scattered adpressed fibrillose scales, smoky then pallid; g. crowded, somewhat smoky; s. - cm. thick, equal, silky fibrillose; sp. × , cke.; × - , pat. var. _firma_, fr. p. fuscous tan with fuscous scales; s. velvety. =maritima=, fr. p. - cm. convex, exp. flocculosely fibrillose, hygr. umber then grey; g. broad, grey then rusty; s. - cm. solid, floccosely fibrillose, smoky; sp. rough, - . =violaceafusca=, cke. and mass. p. - cm. convex then exp. obtusely umb. concentrically scaly, fibrillose, dry, umber, edge torn; g. violet then umber, edge paler, serrulate; s. - cm. equal, smooth, violet above; sp. - × . =lacera=, fr. p. - cm. convex, exp. obtusely umb. fibrillosely scaly, mouse-grey then pale; g. broad pale rufescent then mouse-grey; s. - cm. fuscous-fibrillose, apex naked, red inside; sp. × . distinguished from _i. scabra_ and _i. mutica_ by being reddish inside of s. [=abjecta=, karst. p. convex exp. even, fuscescent, white-fibrous, disc fibrously scaly; g. adnate, broad, ventricose in front, cinnamon tinged olive; s. pallid, white-floccose, apex white-pruinose; sp. - × - . [=trivialis=, karst. p. conico-campan. exp. usually depr. obtusely umb. rimose, disc sometimes scaly pallid or mouse-colour changing to bay; g. crowded; s. solid, equal, subrufescent, at length dusky outside and inside, not bulbous; sp. - × - . [=rhodiola=, bresad. p. conico-campan. exp. umb. fibrillosely scaly then almost glabrous, rufous-umber then pale; g. becoming rusty-olive, edge white-pruinose, becoming rufous spotted; s. fibrillose, subequal, apex glabrous tinged yellow, reddish downwards, spotted reddish when bruised; flesh whitish, base of s. red; sp. - × - . =fasciata=, cke. and mass. caespitose. p. - cm. campan.-convex, pale tan disc rufous, silky, covered with small, dark, squarrose scales; g. pallid; s. - cm. fibrillose, reddish outside and inside at base, rest pallid, solid; sp. rough, × . [=rufoalba=, pat. and doass. p. convex, mammillate, brown, silky white tomentum everywhere except umbo; g. nearly free, rusty brown; s. equal, pubescent, rusty, not bulbous; sp. rough, - × - . =flocculosa=, berk. smell strong. p. . - . cm. umb. subcampan. silkily squamulose, tawny brown; g. fawn then rusty; s. - cm. fibrillose, reddish, pulverulent above; sp. × - . =bongardii=, weinm. smell pleasant, like bergamot. p. - cm. campan. obtuse, disc scaly, fibrillose towards edge, fuscous then pale; g. broad, pale reddish then cinnamon; s. - cm. solid, rigid, pallid rufous, silky and red below, apex with white meal; sp. - × . [=merletii=, q. p. convex, hoary, virgate with brownish fibrils; g. milky white then brownish fawn; s. whitish, stuffed, fibrillosely striate, ring floccose, white; sp. - long. [=capucina=, fr. p. conico-campan. acute, everywhere fibrillosely scaly, dusky fuscous, edge paler; g. adnate, crowded, fuscous; s. solid, short, fibrillose, fuscous; sp. rough, . [=cucullata=, c. mart. smell like camphor. p. variable in form, campan. campan.-convex, sometimes irreg. scaly, tawny, disc darker; g. broad, edge white, serrulate; s. subequal, hollow, glabrous, paler than p.; sp. smooth. [=asinina=, kalchbr. p. convex then plane, rather gibbous, adpressedly fibrillose, hoary then rufescent tan; g. greyish yellow then cinnamon; s. solid, brownish tan, loosely fibrillose and cingulate from the superior veil. [=connexifolia=, gill. smell like ripe fruit. p. conical then exp. umb. with adpressed fibrillose scales especially at centre; g. arcuate, connected by veins, whitish, olive-rufous, finally cinnamon; s. fibrously squamulose, white then tinged pink, white above; sp. smooth. flesh reddish when cut. =mutica=, fr. p. - cm. convex then plane, very obtuse then depr. squamulose, whitish, fuscous-fibrillose; g. adnate, crowded; s. hollow, pale straw-colour then fuscescent; sp. × . ( × sacc.) =carpta=, fr. p. - cm. convex exp. depr. dingy fuscous, with woolly filaments; g. broad, fuscous brown; s. - cm. fibrillosely woolly, hollow, narrowed downwards; sp. - × . [=tenebrosa=, q. p. campan. cracked into squamules, umber; s. fibrillosely striate, blackish olive, apex whitish; sp. - long. =deglubens=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, umb. torn into adpressed fibrils, disc rather scaly, rufous bay then yellowish; g. dingy then cinnamon; s. - cm. solid, pallid, apex with dark scurf; sp. × . differs from _i. lacera_ in dark scurfy apex of s. =obscura=, pers. p. . - . cm. campan. then plane, umb. longitudinally fibrillose, disc scaly, blue then fuscous; g. olive then brown; s. - cm. fibrillose, brownish violet; sp. - × - . var. _rufus_, pat. p. brownish rufous, g. ventricose, violet. [=gaillardii=, gill. p. convex then exp. umbo and around scurfy, margin torn, reddish rusty; g. crowded, free, broad, colour of p.; s. slender, paler than p.; sp. globose with long slender spines. [=calospora=, q. p. minutely squamulose, brownish; g. milk-white; s. slender, slightly bulbous, pruinose, whitish rufous; sp. glob. strongly aculeate, . [=hirtella=, bres. p. conico-campan. exp. umb. edge soon splitting, yellowish straw-colour, densely covered with darker pilose scales; g. adnate, whitish then fuscescent, edge white-mealy; s. white becoming tinged straw-colour with a subterranean subbulbous base; sp. - × . allied to _i. calospora_, q. =echinata=, roth. p. - cm. campan. then exp. pulverulent then scaly, silky, dingy brownish yellow; g. nearly or quite free, deep rose to blood-red; s. - cm. floccosely pulverulent up to imperfect ring, dull red, hollow; sp. × . c. rimosi. _pileus longitudinally fibrillose, soon cracked, often adpressedly scaly; stem whitish, paler than pileus, fibrillose._ =schista=, cke. and sm. p. - cm. campan. broadly subumb. cracking longitudinally, fibrillose, bay brown; g. adnate, rufous, edge pale, serrate; s. - cm. stout, equal, twisted, solid, paler than p.; sp. ----. =fibrosa=, sow. p. - cm. campan. umbo broad, silky, even then cracked, edge wavy, pallid; g. free, crowded, dingy ochre, edge uneven; s. - cm. solid, narrowed upwards, striate, flocculosely scaly above; sp. slightly rough, - × . _i. perlata_ differs in darker p. and smooth sp. =phaeocephala=, bull. p. - cm. conico-campan. umb. wavy, squamulose, bay then sooty; g. free, arcuate, umber; s. - cm. solid, somewhat bulbous; colour of p. above, below white and downy; sp. × . [=jurana=, pat. p. umb. cracked and torn, fibrillose, rather squamulose towards the edge, reddish violet, disc deep violet; g. broad, ochraceous; s. tall, fibrous, apex pruinose, violet downwards; sp. × . =fastigiata=, schaeff. p. - cm. thin, conico-campan. longitudinally fibrous and cracked, edge often lobed, yellow brown; g. free, fuscous-olive; s. - cm. solid, stout, rather twisted, silky-fibrous; sp. rough, - × - . _i. pyriodora_ differs in smell and reddish flesh. [=praetervisa=, q. p. campan. fibrillosely virgate, fawn; g. milk-white then fawn; s. pubescent, pale straw-colour; sp. warted, - × - . [=godeyi=, gillet. smell strong, unpleasant. p. campan. edge slightly incurved, scaly and fibrillosely rimose, dingy yellow then tinged reddish-ochre as is every part of fungus more or less; g. free, pale olive; s. rather floccose at apex, colour of p. flesh white, tinging red; sp. - × - . [=cookei=, bres. p. conico-campan. exp. umb. edge becoming upturned and split, fibrillose and silkily rimose, centre glabrous, straw-colour then lurid yellowish; g. crowded, attenuato-adnexed, greyish white then yellowish cinnamon; s. colour of p. silky fibrillose, base marginately subbulbous, apex naked; sp. - × . allied to _i. fastigiata_. =hiulca=, fr. p. - cm. conico-exp. umb. fibrillose, cracked into scales, fuscous or olive; g. broad, becoming olive; s. - cm. rigid, silky fibrillose, apex and flesh pinkish white, with white meal; sp. - × . =curreyi=, berk. p. - cm. convex then exp. longitudinally fibrillose, squamulose at disc rather cracked, pale yellow brown; g. yellowish then tinged olive; s. - cm. rather fibrillose, colour of p. solid, flesh dingy; sp. × . differs from _i. pyriodora_ in absence of smell, and from _i. fastigiata_ in smooth sp. =perlata=, cke. p. - cm. convex then exp. broadly umb. longitudinally fibrous with darker fibrils, fuscous, edge paler, incurved, disc very dark; g. adnexed, pale umber; s. - cm. sometimes twisted, striate, pallid; sp. - × . differs from _i. schista_ in umber gills. [=maculata=, boud. p. campan. then exp. umb. silky-fibrillose, cracked, dingy fawn-colour, and with concentric white adpr. scales; g. almost free, fawn with olive tinge; s. fibrillose, paler than p. apex scurfy; - × - . differs from _i. rimosa_ in the white scales on p. =rimosa=, bull. p. - cm. campan. silky-fibrous, longitudinally cracked when exp. yellow brown; g. free; s. - cm. solid, firm, almost glabrous; sp. smooth, - × . _i. eutheles_ differs in being umbonate, and _i. pyriodora_ in strong smell. [=albipes=, gill. p. exp. plane, mammilate, fibrillosely rivulose, edge wavy, dingy yellow disc darker; g. free, crowded; s. entirely white, squamulose; sp. rough. =asterospora=, q. p. - cm. campan. subumb. silkily fibrous, longitudinally cracked when dry, yellow brown, or umber; g. almost free; s. - cm. slightly submarginately subbulbous, solid, pallid or pinkish tinge; sp. subgl. warted, - . ( - × - sacc.) differs from _i. rimosa_ in spores. [=proximella=, karst. p. exp. umb. rimose and torn into fibres, pallid, umb. darker; g. adnate, crowded, ventricose; s. subfibrillose, pallid, flesh white, no trace of bulb; sp. warted, - × - . differs from _ino. asterospora_ in absence of bulb, curved fibrillose stem, etc. [=umbrina=, bres. p. campan.-convex, plane, umb. chestnut brown, rather viscid, woolly-fibrillose at length rimose, disc sometimes slightly warted; g. crowded, lurid citrin then reddish cinnamon, edge darker; s. fibrillose, colour of p. subbulbous; sp. substellate, - × - . close to _i. asterospora_, q. =eutheles=, b. and br. p. - cm. campan. exp. strongly umb. undulate, shining, silky, squamulose, fawn; g. broadly adnate, pallid, edge whitish, toothed; s. - cm. equal, striate, pallid; sp. - × . differs from _i. fastigiata_ in adnate gills, and from _i. curreyi_ in strong umbo and adnate g. =margaritispora=, berk. p. - cm. campan. then exp. wavy, broadly umb. silky, with adpressed fibrillose scales, fawn; g. adnexed, pallid; s. - cm. equal, fibrillose, pallid; sp. warted, . differs from _i. eutheles_ in globose, warted s., and from _i. asterospora_ in squamulose p. =destricta=, fr. p. - cm. campan.-exp. umb. cracked, fibrillose, then torn into scales, pallid then rufescent; g. uncinato-adnate; s. - cm. solid, glabrous, fibrillose, striate, reddish-white; sp. × . differs from _i. rimosa_ by adnexed g. and reddish s. _i. asterospora_ differs in warted globose sp. =perbrevis=, weinm. p. - cm. convex, obtusely umb. fibrously scaly, edge rather striate at length splitting, fuscous then yellowish rufous; g. uncinato-adnexed; s. - . cm. pallid, white-fibrillose, base rather narrowed; sp. - × . [=putilla=, bres. p. conico-campan. then exp. umb. silky-fibrillose, surface at length cracked and torn, tan or greyish-brown, or fuscous then pale, edge persistently lurid whitish; g. sinuato-adnate, white then tan, edge crenulate; s. very faintly tinged rose, white-fibrillose then glabrous, apex white-scurfy, base rather narrowed; sp. angular, - × - . =descissa=, fr. p. . - cm. conico-campan. fibrillose, splitting open, whitish fuscescent; g. almost free, crowded, whitish then fuscescent; s. - cm. partly hollow, equal, undulate, fibrillose, apex white-pulverulent; sp. × - . resembling _i. geophylla_ but slenderer; s. white outside and inside. var. _auricoma_, batsch. smaller. p. yellowish, edge striate; g. adfixed, ventricose white then fuscous. [=grammata=, q. p. campan. fibrous-striate, whitish then fawn; g. tawny; s. striate, tomentose, shining white then rosy; sp. rough, . [=brunnea=, q. p. umb. fibrillosely silky, chestnut; s. fibrilloso-striate, fuscous, apex white, pruinose; sp. long. [=grata=, weinm. p. conico-campan. fibrillose, umbonate, cracked when exp. whitish- or yellowish-rufescent, scaly disc darker; g. crowded, olive then pallid fuscescent; s. shining, fibrillose, wavy, whitish rufescent. =trinii=, weinm. smell like clove-pinks. p. - cm. hemispher. obtuse, longitudinally rufescent-fibrillose, whitish-rufescent, tawny when dry; g. rounded, ventricose, cinnamon, edge white-floccose; s. - cm. equal, slender, loosely rufous-fibrillose, powdered with white; sp. rough, - . d. velutini. _pileus not rimose, cuticle of interwoven fibrils, almost smooth, or adpressedly scaly, disc even; stem polished, glabrous, whitish, apex mealy._ =sambucina=, fr. white, smell strong. p. - cm. firm, convex, exp. obtuse, silky fibrillose, even, sometimes tinged yellow; g. crowded, whitish; s. - cm. stout, solid, glabrous, striate, white; sp. - × . =caesariata=, fr. p. . - cm. convex exp. gibbous, somewhat tawny, ochraceous-fibrillose or subsquamulose; g. entire, pale ochre; s. - cm. solid, equal, fibrillose, pale ochre; sp. × . ( - × sacc.) [=delecta=, karst. (= _i. caesariata_, var. _fibrillosa_, fr.). p. exp. even, fibrillosely scaly, dingy tawny- or rufous-honeycolour, paler when dry; g. at length fuscous, edge paler and floccoso-crenate; s. solid, dingy yellow or pallid, white-fibrillose; sp. ----. [=subgranulosa=, karst. p. convex then exp. or slightly depr. obsoletely umb. even, pale ochre, disc more especially with minute erect dark squamules; g. adnate, greenish- then brownish-cinnamon; s. hollow, curved or wavy, paler than p.; sp. - × - . =lucifuga=, fr. smell strong. p. - cm. convex-plane, subumb. adpressedly fibrilloso-squamulose, fuscous or olive then pale; g. yellowish white then olive; s. cm. solid, firm, equal, glabrous, apex rather pruinose; sp. × . [=decipiens=, bres. p. exp. umb. floccosely silky, disc smooth then broken up into scales, cinnamon ochre; g. greyish white then lurid cinnamon; s. glabrous, apex slightly pruinose, rather striate, pallid; sp. rough, - × - . [=tomentella=, fr. p. convex, obtuse, fibrillosely tomentose, brownish; g. subadnate; s. solid, equal, white, apex pruinose, with a cortinate median annular zone, otherwise glabrous. =sindonia=, fr. p. - cm. thin, conico-convex, obtusely gibbous, velvety-villose, dingy white or yellowish, edge appendiculate; g. lanceolate, whitish then fuscous; s. - cm. with a separate pith which disappears, then hollow, almost glabrous; sp. × . ( × sacc.) differs from _i. geophylla_ in larger size and hollow s. [=cortinata=, roll. p. campan. then exp. strongly umb. whitish straw-colour, umb. darker, becoming rimose, white veil at margin; g. adnato-decur. dingy ochre, edge flocculose, paler; s. white, fibrilloso-striate, curved, ring median. perhaps a cortinate form of _i. sindonia_. =clarkii=, b. and br. p. - cm. campan. obtuse, whitish, silky; g. adnexed, pallid, edge white; s. - cm. nearly equal, solid, white; sp. - × . differs from _i. sindonia_ in solid s. and pale g. =geophylla=, fr. p. - cm. conical then exp. umb. even, silky-fibrillose, white or lilac; g. adnexed, crowded, dingy white then umber; s. - cm. equal, firm, apex with white meal, veil fibrillose; sp. - × . _i. scabella_ differs in brownish squamulose p. var. _fulva_, pat. p. rufous-ochre, edge paler; sp. - × . var. _violacea_, pat. p. violet; sp. × . [=commixta=, bres. p. conico-campan. exp. umb. shining white or tinged grey; fibrillosely silky, edge often split, dry; g. closely crowded, free, white then greyish cinnamon; s. solid, white, equal, apex scurfy, base minutely turbinately bulbous; sp. angular, × . closely resembling _i. geophylla_, differing in base of s. and angular sp. [=umbratica=, q. shining white. p. umb. silky-pruinose; g. white then rosy-fawn; s. flocculose; sp. rough, - . =scabella=, fr. p. - cm. campan. then plane, dry, torn into squamulose fibrils, umbo obtuse, even, glabrous, rufescent or yellowish; g. adnexed, dingy; s. - cm. glabrous, rufescent or pallid, apex pruinose; sp. rough, × . [=debilipes=, karst. p. conico-convex, exp. pallid fuscous then rather rusty, everywhere torn into scales which become stuck down, then rimose; g. adnexed, crowded, pallid rusty, edge fuscous-crenulate; s. wavy, pallid, spotted with minute fuscescent squamules; sp. - × - . [=confusa=, karst. p. exp. umb. glabrous, cuticle cracked, fibrillose, rusty, tawny yellow or bay; g. crowded, yellowish then olive; s. solid, firm, nearly glabrous, pale; sp. - × . [=inconcina=, karst. p. exp. obtuse, even, glabrous, innately fibrillose, rusty then pale; g. sinuato-adnate, crowded, pale olive then rusty, edge paler and floccosely crenulate; s. equal, wavy, pallid, apex white-pruinose; sp. - × - . [=curvipes=, karst. p. exp. obtuse, adpressedly fibrillose or squamulose, brownish; g. adnexed, crowded; s. curved, wavy or twisted, narrowed below, fibrillose, pallid; sp. rough, - × - . [=conformata=, karst. p. exp. umb. slightly adpressedly floccosely squamulose, rusty or brownish then pale; g. adnexed, ventricose, pallid then brownish; s. equal, rather wavy, minutely fibrillosely flocculose; sp. - × - . [=pusio=, karst. p. exp. umb. fibroso-rimose, pallid fuscous; g. adnexed with decur. tooth, tan; s. apex pruinose and at first violet, usually wavy; sp. - × - . [=flavella=, karst. p. acutely conical then exp. acutely umb. innately fibrillosely rimose, glabrous, yellowish, rather shining; g. crowded, yellowish then olive, edge paler, floccosely crenulate; s. solid, equal, wavy, apex white-flocculose, yellowish white; sp. - × - . [=fulvella=, bres. p. conico-campan. exp. umb. silky-flocculose, centre glabrous, olivaceous honey-colour then brownish olive, umbo darker; g. lilac then tan, edge fimbriate; s. lilac then rufescent, glabrous, wavy. =subrimosa=, mass. (_clypeus subrimosus_, karst.). p. - cm. conico-campan. umbo prominent, edge often wavy, even, glabrous, then longitudinally fibrillose and cracked, bay or rusty ochre; g. dingy tan; s. - cm. solid, equal, polished, with a minute marginate bulb, white, mealy; sp. - , spiny. =mamillaris=, pass. p. convex, mammillate, squamulose; g. emarginato-adnexed; s. hollow, equal, flexuous; sp. smooth. =renneyi=, b. and br. p. - cm. hemispher. slightly fibrillose, disc brown, rest fawn; g. rounded behind, dingy ochre; s. - cm. slightly narrowed downwards, fibrillose, solid, paler than p.; sp. rough, × - . var. _major_, b. and br. colour of type, but larger; g. broadly adnate. e. viscidi. _pileus almost smooth, viscid._ =trechispora=, berk. p. convex then exp. umb. viscid, soon dry and silky, umbo brownish rest whitish; g. pinkish grey; s. - cm. equal; often rather wavy, whitish, mealy; sp. × - . differs from _i. geophylla_ in dark umbo and rough sp. [=viscosissima=, fr. (= _i. umbonata, q._) p. convex acutely umb. umber-brown, dripping with gluten then silky; g. rounded and free, ventricose, rufescent; s. equal, glabrous, pallid; sp. ----. allied to _i. trechispora_, differing in being very glutinous and in rounded free gills. [=imbecilis=, pass. p. glabrous, rather viscid, white then clay-colour; g. whitish then rusty-rose; s. solid, long, cylindrical, watery, with white meal above. =vatricosa=, fr. p. - . cm. convex then plane, subumb. glabrous, viscid, silky at margin, whitish; g. white then fuscescent; s. - cm. fistulose, contorted, pulverulent; sp. ----. habit of _i. geophylla_ but smaller and viscid at first. =whitei=, b. and br. p. . - . cm. convex, tawny, edge whitish, at length exp. and all tawny, fibrillose, rather viscid; g. white then pallid; s. - cm. slightly thickened at base, white then brownish; sp. × . =tricholoma=, a. and s. whitish. p. - cm. plano-depr. rather viscid, with adpr. white fibrils, edge strigosely fringed; g. decur.; s. - cm. slender, squamulose above; sp. rough, . =strigiceps=, fr. p. convex-obtuse then exp. strigosely silky with long fibrils, rufescent, edge at first involute, strigosely ciliate; g. adnato-decur.; s. stuffed, downy, white. var. _eriocephala_, fr. p. yellowish-white, silky, with appendiculate white down at edge; g. adnate; s. fistulose, becoming compressed. hebeloma, fr. a. indusiati. _veil evidently cortinate, hence the pileus is often superficially silky near the margin._ =mussivum=, fr. p. - cm. convex exp. obtuse, viscid, at length squamulose, yellow disc often brownish; g. emarginate, yellowish; s. - cm. solid, equal, entirely fibrillose, yellowish, apex rather pruinose; sp. × . =sinuosum=, fr. p. - cm. exp. wavy, viscid, even, almost glabrous, yellowish or pale brick-red then pale; g. emarginato-free, broad, pallid then rusty; s. - cm. hollow, stout, fibrous, soft, white floccosely-scaly above; sp. ----. =fastibile=, fr. smell unpleasant. p. - cm. compact, exp. wavy, viscid, glabrous, pale yellowish tan; g. emarginate, rather distant, pallid then cinnamon, lacrymose; s. - cm. subbulbous, white, fibrously scaly, veil evident; sp. × . var. _alba_, fr. s. longer, equal, partly hollow, apex fibrously scaly; g. distant. var. _elegans_, lindgr. edge of p. sulcate or rugoso-plicate. form b. pileus purple-brown. =senescens=, batsch. p. - cm. exp. rather viscid, ochre or flesh-colour with tinge of rust, rusty yellow when old, edge crisped, hoary; g. dusky rust colour; s. - cm. thinner and whitish upwards, scaly and darker below; sp. × . =glutinosum=, lindg. p. - cm. exp. glutinous, with white superficial scales, yellowish white, discoid; g. crowded, yellowish then cinnamon; s. - cm. subbulbous, whitish squamulose, apex mealy; sp. - × . =testaceum=, batsch. smells like radishes. p. - cm. campan.-convex, even, rather viscid, brick-red then pale, rather opaque; g. nearly free, crowded, rusty; s. - cm. hollow, subbulbous, floccosely fibrillose, pallid, apex mealy; sp. × - . [=rubrum=, otth. p. campan. then conico-exp. splitting into shreds, clear red, yellowish when dry; flesh reddish; g. free; s. equal, fibrous, often slightly bulbous, colour of p. =firmum=, pers. p. - cm. campan. exp. umb. viscid, brick-red, discoid; g. dry, edge white toothed; s. - cm. solid, pallid, everywhere floccosely scaly; sp. × . [=mitratum=, fr. p. campan.-gibbous, viscid, often cracked, yellowish brick-red, umbo prominent, stout, fuscous then pale, g. crowded, sinuato-adnate; s. solid or becoming hollow, equal, yellowish-white, fibrous, dusky yellow from veil. =claviceps=, fr. p. - cm. convex, exp. disc gibbous, even, naked, pallid; g. dry, pallid; s. - cm. equal, everywhere white mealy, fuscous downwards; sp. - × . differs from _h. firmum_ in dark base of s. and paler g. [=fusipes=, bres. smell like spirit of wine. p. convex-gibbous, edge broadly incurved, viscid, glabrous, tinged tan; g. broad, edge white-fimbriate; s. pallid, base fusiformly rooting; sp. - × - . [=birrum=, fr. p. exp. discoid, disc rugulose, pale tan, with superficial white squamules near edge; g. rounded then truncate and free; s. solid, fusiformly rooting, rather woolly with white imbricated squamules. =punctatum=, fr. p. - cm. exp. silky then almost glabrous, the darker disc punctate with viscid warts, tan, paler when dry; g. narrow, crowded, pallid then rusty bay; s. - cm. hollow, equal, apex white pruinose; sp. - × - . =versipelle=, fr. p. - cm. viscid with tough gluten, discoid, at length wavy, crust-colour, adglutinated and silky at edge, then glabrous; g. crowded, broad, reddish white then tan; s. - cm. silky-white, apex pruinose; sp. long. [=subtortum=, karst. p. convex then plane, obtuse, even, glabrous, irreg. at first, silky near edge from veil, viscid, pale brick-red or pallid, disc darker; g. adnato-subdecur. crowded, edge crenate; s. hollow, usually twisted, whitish, apex mealy; sp. - × - . =mesophaeum=, fr. p. - cm. conico-convex then plane, even, viscid, almost naked, gilvous, disc bay; g. emarginate, crowded, thin; s. - cm. tough, equal, slender, fibrillose, whitish then rusty, apex pruinose; sp. - × - . disc of p. sometimes umber. var. _holophaeum_, fr. p. umb. everywhere dusky fuscous; s. fuscescent, subannulate. =strophosum=, fr. p. - cm. expanded, subumbonate, viscid, disc bay, edge white with veil; g. crowded; s. - cm. hollow, silky, whitish, ring near the apex distinct but imperfect; sp. - × . [=elatellum=, sacc. (= _roumeguerites elatellus_, karst.) p. hemisph. even, glabrous, naked, pale fuscescent, sometimes spotted, yellowish livid when dry; g. adnate, much crowded, narrow, pale tan; s. tall, equal, naked, whitish, ring, inf. entire, persistent, membranous, tinged fuscous; sp. - × - . =subcollariatum=, b. and br. p. - cm. convex, exp. rather glutinous, pale ochre-tan, centre darker; g. broadly adnate, soon separating from s. and attached to a collar, pale tan, edge whitish; s. - cm. flexuous, pale, brownish below, pulverulent; sp. - × . =violascens=, otth. p. convex, umb. dry, silky shining, bright violet, disc adpressedly squamulose and brownish; g. reddish violet then brownish; s. pale violet then rufous-fibrillose, base slightly bulbous, yellowish. [=deflectens=, karst. p. exp. depr. rugulose, dry, scurfy-squamulose, bright yellow-tan; g. crowded, lanceolate; s. equal, fistulose, tough, rooting, paler than p. everywhere white-scurfy; sp. - × - . b. denudati. _pileus glabrous, veil absent from the first._ =sinapizans=, fr. smell like radishes. p. - cm. compact, exp. rather wavy, even, glabrous, rather viscid, pale tan; g. deeply emarginate, broad, dry, crowded, entire; s. - cm. stout, equal, fibrillose, white, apex white-scaly; sp. × . differs from _h. sinuosum_ in strong smell and absence of veil. =crustuliniforme=, bull. p. - cm. convex then exp. glabrous, rather viscid, often rather wavy, yellowish-red, disc darker then pale; g. sinuate, thin, narrow, whitish then brown, edge crenulate and with beads of moisture; s. - cm. solid, firm, subbulbous, whitish, with minute white recurved flecks; sp. - × . [=syrjense=, karst. p. convex, exp. obtuse, dry, even, glabrous, brick-red; g. adnexed, crowded, pallid, edge crenulate; s. equal, wavy, twisted, white, white-flocculoso-pulverulent above, at length entirely umber; sp. - × - . subcaespitose; stems cohering at base. =hiemale=, bres. (= _h. crustuliniforme_, var. _minor_, cke.) p. exp.-gibbous or depr. viscid, glabrous, edge incurved and white flocculose at first, pallid tan, centre reddish tan; g. crowded, sinuate and almost free, edge white-floccose; s. whitish, apex with white scurf; sp. - × - . near to _h. crustuliniforme_, but smaller and smell obsolete. [=subsaponaceum=, karst. smell strong, soapy. p. exp. obtuse, even, naked, dry, gilvous then pallid, darker when dry; g. adnate, dry; s. elongated, equal, rather wavy, adpressedly fibrillose, apex rather mealy, pale, umber below when touched; sp. - × - . [=stocseki=, schulz. p. convex, even, whitish then yellow, centre tawny; g. adnexed, narrow, both ends narrowed, rufescent; s. cylindrical, thickened below, whitish, often striately-twisted; sp. × - . [=quéletii=, schulz. p. umbonato-campan. then convex, white then ochre, sometimes rufous-brown, very even, subviscid in rainy weather, pellicle separable; g. subsinuato-adnexed, rounded in front, whitish then pale cinnamon; s. cylindrical, often curved at base, white base tinged brown; sp. - × . [=involuta=, lamb. (= _paxillus nitens_, lamb.) p. convex, glutinous when moist, shining as if varnished when dry, yellow brown, paler at edge which remains for a long time incurved; flesh yellowish, glabrous; g. free, cut out behind, narrow, crowded, brownish olive at last; s. reddish yellow above, darker below. =elatum=, batsch. smell strong of radishes. p. - cm. convex, umb. glabrous, viscid, pinkish ochre whitish towards the edge; g. uncinate, wavy, crowded, dry, pale flesh-colour then bistre; s. - cm. soft, cylindrical, twisted, white then bistre, apex mealy, fibrillose or downy; sp. - × . =longicaudum=, pers. p. - cm. exp. even, subumb. glabrous, viscid, rather wavy, tan then whitish; g. crowded, dry, serrulate; s. - cm. partly hollow, fragile, fibrillose, subequal, white, apex with white meal; sp. × . var. _radicatum_, cke. s. fusiform, rooting. =lugens=, jungh. smell strong. p. - cm. exp. glabrous, rather viscid, brown then yellowish; g. pale rusty, edge crenulate, darker; s. - cm. shining, fibrillosely striate, subbulbous, apex white-mealy; sp. × . =truncatum=, schaeff. p. - cm. exp. undulately wavy, almost dry, somewhat rufous, edge paler; g. crowded, dry; s. . - cm. solid, stout, equal, everywhere slightly pruinose, white; sp. - × . [=mentiens=, karst. p. convexo-plane, edge angularly bent down, even, glabrous, dry, yellowish-tan, tinged tawny when dry; g. subadnate, broad, thin, white, yellowish when dry; s. hollow, fibrous, flexuous, glabrous, white, apex thickened and rather pruinose; sp. - × - . =nudipes=, fr. p. - cm. exp. even, almost glabrous, slightly viscid, tan then pale, edge thin; g. crowded, dry; s. - cm. solid, equal, pelliculose, glabrous, naked, shining white, base fibrillose; sp. × . ( - × - sacc.) [=sacchariolens=, q. smell strong, like burnt sugar. p. campan. then convex, - cm. thin, glabrous, viscid, whitish with the centre buff; g. sinuate, crinkled, whitish then buff bordered with white; s. slender, subfistulose, slightly striate, silky, pruinose at the summit, white, streaked with fawn fibrils below; sp. long. [=circinans=, karst. p. campan.-convex, lubricous, smoky-ochre, edge revolute downy and whitish; g. sinuate, crowded, reddish, edge white, crenulate; s. slender, whitish, subbulbous, with reflexed circinate fibrils; sp. - long. =nauseosum=, cke. smell nauseous. p. - cm. convex then exp. gibbous, viscid, whitish ochre; g. very broad; s. - cm. whitish, mealy above; sp. × . differs from _h. crustuliniforme_ in glabrous s. =capnicocephalum=, bull. p. - cm. exp. even, glabrous, gilvous, disc darker, edge becoming blackish; g. broad, rusty; s. - cm. narrowed downwards, fibrillosely-striate, pale rufescent; sp. × . ( - × - , sacc.) =ischnostylum=, cke. p. - cm. exp. broadly umb. rather viscid, white or a little pallid at disc; g. edge serrulate; s. - cm. smooth, naked, whitish; sp. × . differs from _h. nudipes_ in whitish p. [=diffractum=, fr. p. convex, obtuse, glabrous, nearly dry, at length broken up into scales, tan; g. broad; s. hollow, white, narrowed below, whitish floccosely scaly above; sp. - × - . [=subzonatum=, weinm. p. campanulato-exp. viscid, with darker innately scaly zones, whitish; g. crowded, narrow; s. equal, rather bulbous, fibrillose, apex pruinose. [=spoliatum=, fr. p. exp. obtuse, viscid, even, glabrous, reddish tan; g. broad, crowded; s. equal, rooting, tough, glabrous, apex pruinose; sp. × . [=tortuosum=, karst. p. convex, exp. gibbous, even, rufous-tan then pale, glabrous; g. pallid then honey-colour; s. narrowed below, hollow, contorted, pallid, apex with white floccose scales; sp. - × - . c. pusilli. _pileus scarcely an inch broad._ =magnimamma=, fr. p. - cm. exp. umbo strongly mammiform, naked, brick-red then pale; g. obtusely adnate, crowded; s. - cm. equal, glabrous, gilvous then pallid; sp. ----. [=sterile=, jungh. p. campan.-exp. glabrous, even, dry, violet; g. free, narrow, rusty; s. solid, equal, glabrous, violet, apex floccosely pruinose. [=odini=, fr. p. exp. obtuse, naked, bay, edge tawny; g. slightly sinuate, yellow then tawny; s. fibrillose, tawny bay. =petiginosum=, fr. p. . - cm. conico-convex then exp. yellowish, gibbous disc fuscous, margin silkily hoary; g. free, yellow then olive bay; s. cm. rufescent, pulverulent; sp. × . naucoria, fr. a. gymnoti. _pileus glabrous. veil absent. spores rusty, not dingy rusty brown._ * _gills free or slightly adnexed._ =lugubris=, fr. p. - cm. campan.-exp. wavy, often viscid, even, pallid becoming rusty, opaque; g. free, very broad, crowded; s. - cm. glabrous, fusiformly rooting, pallid; sp. × . a form in pine woods has p. bullate, disc bay; s. short. =festiva=, fr. p. . cm. convex, subgibbous, even, glutinous, usually olive-brown, isabelline when dry; s. free, crowded, ventricose, rusty; s. - cm. hollow, fusiformly rooting, colour various, violet, rufous, &c.; sp. × . ( × sacc.) every part variable in colour. [=christinae=, fr. p. conico-acute, rather wavy, viscid, fiery cinnamon when moist, tawny and shining when dry, then pale; g. free, pallid then fiery saffron; s. cylindric, glabrous, rooting, dull blood-red; sp. - × - . [=medullosa=, bres. smell weak, like radishes. p. conico-campan. exp. subumb. viscid, glabrous, tawny then paler; g. crowded, almost free, edge white-pruinose; s. tinged fuscous, apex pale, pruinose, base thickened and white-downy, pith white, separable; sp. - × - . [=hilaris=, fr. p. thin, even, rather viscid, tawny orange, shining; g. yellowish rusty; s. hollow, shining yellow. [=subglobosa=, a. and s. p. hemisph. even, rather viscid, yellowish; g. nearly free, very broad, rhomboid; s. stuffed, thin, short, striate; sp. × . =hamadryas=, fr. p. - cm. convex, exp. gibbous, even, rusty bay, yellowish red when dry and old; g. attenuato-adnexed, rusty; s. - cm. hollow, equal, glabrous, pallid; sp. - × . [=nimbosa=, post. p. convex exp. umb. pruinosely velvety, rufous brown; g. broad, rusty, edge fimbriate; s. everywhere pruinosely velvety, fuscous below, pale above; sp. - × . =cidaris=, fr. p. - cm. conical then campan. even, cinnamon tan, paler when dry, edge wavy, striate; g. ventricose, honey-colour; s. . - cm. fusiform, blackish brown; sp. long. differs from _m. cucumis_ in absence of smell. [=jennyae=, karst. p. conical, exp. subumb. acute, even, glabrous, dry, orange-bay; g. crowded; s. cartilaginous, fibrous inside, tough, fusiformly narrowed below, apex thickened, reddish bay; sp. - × - . =cucumis=, pers. smell strong, like cucumber. p. . - . cm. broadly campan. brownish bay when moist, edge paler; g. pallid then saffron; s. - cm. blackish brown, apex thickened, hollow, pruinose; sp. - × - . =anguinea=, fr. p. - cm. campan. convex, gibbous, even, yellowish tan, a silky zone near the edge; g. crowded, linear, rusty; s. - cm. bay, densely coated with white fibrils; sp. ----. [=micans=, fr. p. convex, gibbous, even, rather shining, yellow; g. greenish yellow then rusty; s. rufo-fuscous, pruinate. =centuncula=, fr. p. . - . cm. convexo-plane, lurid green then yellowish, becoming pale; g. thick, broad, greyish yellow; s. . cm. base with white down, apex white-pulverulent; sp. - × . stem usually incurved, often excentric. [=laeta=, lamb. entirely clear yellow. p. convex, obtuse, glabrous; g. free, crowded, narrow; s. slender, elongated, glabrous. =horizontalis=, bull. watery cinnamon. p. - cm. exp. even; g. broad; s. cm. incurved, naked; sp. - × - . [=rimulincola=, rab. cinnamon. p. hemisph. umbil. plicate, rugulosely tomentose; g. thick, very broad, edge white, crenulate; s. subexcentric, short, curved; sp. - × . =semiflexa=, b. and br. p. cm. exp. chestnut, edge fringed with white silky veil, hygr.; g. broad and distant; s. cm. incurved, pale, solid; sp. × . [=pygmaea=, bull. p. exp. obtuse, edge striate, ochre-tan; g. ventricose, rusty; s. fistulose, thin, wavy, glabrous, white. =rubricata=, b. and br. gregarious. p. concave then exp. and depr. - mm. whitish then tinged rufous or ochre; g. adnexed, whitish then pinkish, finally brownish, rounded in front; s. slender, incurved, base scurfy or downy; sp. ----. ** _gills adnate, pileus convexo-plane._ [=enchymosa=, lund. p. exp. glabrous, disc minutely punctate, olive when moist, tan when dry; g. tawny then rusty; s. pallid then colour of p. [=hyperella=, fr. p. convex then plane, umbonate, fuscescent, hoary-rusty when dry; g. crowded, obscure rusty; s. filiform, silky fibrillose, pallid. =abstrusa=, fr. p. - cm. convex, obtuse, even, glabrous, viscid, rusty tan; g. crowded; s. - cm. rigid, glabrous, rusty; sp. × . _n. melinoides_ differs in striate p. [=flacca=, karst. p. conoid-campan. tan or yellowish-cinnamon; g. adnate, soon free, colour of p.; s. cartilaginous, equal, paler than p. umber below, white-fibrillose; sp. - × . =innocua=, lasch. p. - cm. convex, obtuse, almost glabrous, striate, rufous then pale; g. yellowish ochre; s. - cm. white-fibrillose; sp. × - . =cerodes=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, orbicular, even, hygr. wax-colour then ochre; g. broad, ochre cinnamon; s. - cm. equal, naked, yellow, base rusty; sp. × . ( - × - , sacc.) [=solstitialis=, karst. p. campan. exp. depr. umb. fragile, glabrous, edge striate then torn, honey-colour then rusty cinnamon, rusty when dry; g. entire, cinnamon; s. equal, straight, pallid then greenish umber; sp. - × - . =melinoides=, fr. p. . - . cm. convexo-plane, obtusely umb. even, glabrous, tawny, ochre when dry; g. triquetrous-oblong, honey-colour, toothed; s. - cm. hollow, thickish, with yellow meal above, base white; sp. - × - . =pusiola=, fr. p. cm. hemispher. exp. obtuse, even, glabrous, rather viscid, tawny yellow; g. broad; s. cm. slender, glabrous, yellow, shining; sp. × . [=miserrima=, karst. p. plane, umb. sulcate then splitting, whitish when dry, glabrous; g. adfixed, distant, broad, ventricose, subochre; s. equal, base and apex slightly thickened, fistulose, straight, naked, whitish; sp. ----. *** _gills adnate; pileus campan. then exp._ =nucea=, bolt. p. globoso-campan. umbil. punctate, pale chestnut, edge incurved, rather lobed; g. rather crisped, cinnamon; s. - cm. silky fibrillose, white; sp. - × . =scolecina=, fr. p. - cm. campan.-convex then plane, edge slightly striate, rusty bay; g. white then rusty, edge flocculose; s. - cm. wavy, rusty rufous, white-mealy; sp. × . [=amarescens=, q. p. slightly rugulose, brown then tan; g. uncinato-ventricose, whitish then tawny; s. striate, whitish saffron then umber; sp. long. =sideroides=, bull. p. - cm. campan. exp. umb. glabrous, viscid, reddish-yellow, ochre and shining when dry; g. uncinately adfixed with a decur. tooth, narrow, crowded; s. even, glabrous, apex white-mealy, pallid, base brownish; sp. - × - . =glandiformis=, w. g. sm. p. - cm. obtusely campan. then nut-shaped, nut-brown, smooth, even; g. very broad, umber; s. - cm. equal, pallid; sp. - × - . [=stictica=, fr. p. convexo-plane, orbicular, even, rough with minute superficial granules; hygr. brownish ochre then tan; g. crowded, pale cinnamon; s. rusty brown. [=typhicola=, p. henn. p. thin, fragile, campan.-exp. subumb. flocculose then smooth, edge striate, hygr. fuscescent; g. unequal, subdistant, ventricose, flesh-colour then tawny; s. hollow, slender, mealy-squamulose then smooth, whitish, base bulbous, white tomentose; sp. - × - . =badipes=, fr. p. - cm. campan.-convex subumb. glabrous, pellucidly striate from umbo when moist, rusty yellow then pale, edge almost straight; g. adnate, ventricose; s. - cm. rusty, with white fibrillose squamules up to middle; sp. × . =hydrophila=, mass. p. - cm. campan. then slightly exp. acutely umb. glabrous, edge striate when moist, pale tan with tinge of green; g. brownish, edge pale; s. - cm. equal, flexuous, hollow, with red and green tints; sp. - × - . =striaepes=, cke. p. - cm. campan. then exp. more or less gibbous, ochre; g. broad, tawny cinnamon; s. - cm. straight or wavy, hollow, white, distinctly longitudinally striate; sp. × . [=camerina=, fr. p. campan.-convex, obtusely umb. glabrous, moist, edge striate, ochraceous tan, paler when dry, disc darker; g. crowded, yellowish cinnamon; s. wavy, adpressedly fibrillose, equal, umber. =triscopoda=, fr. p. cm. conical then hemispher. then convexo-plane, umb. bay, ochre when dry; g. obscure rusty; s. - cm. filiform, glabrous, rusty, base umber; sp. - × - . b. phaeoti. _pileus naked. gills and spores brownish-rusty._ * pediadei. _growing in fields and pastures._ [=amoena=, weinm. p. almost plane, even, rather viscid, dingy yellow disc tinged rusty, then pale; g. adnate with decur. tooth, rusty; s. fibrously stuffed, equal, fibrillose, shining white; sp. - × - . =vervacti=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, umb. even, glabrous, viscid, shining when dry, yellow; g. adnate with decur. tooth, crowded; s. - cm. stuffed then hollow, attenuated, glabrous, rigid, not rooting, whitish; sp. - × - . =pediades=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, obtuse or depr. dry, at length minutely rivulose, yellowish ochre then tan; g. adnexed, broad; s. - cm. with a pith, rather wavy and silky, yellowish, base slightly bulbous; sp. - × - . =semiorbicularis=, bull. p. - cm. hemispher. then exp. even, glabrous, rather viscid, at length rivulose, tawny rusty then ochre; g. adnate, very broad, crowded; s. - cm. pale rusty, shining, containing a free tube inside; sp. × - . =arvalis=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, yellow brown, ochre when dry; g. adnexed; s. - cm. fistulose, thin, pulverulent, yellowish, with a long filiform root; sp. × . differs from _n. orbicularis_ in long rooting s. =tabacina=, d. c. p. . - . cm. bay brown, almost plane, very obtuse, edge involute, hygr.; g. adnate, crowded, cinnamon bay; s. - cm. hollow, glabrous, cinnamon; sp. - × - . [=tabacella=, sacc. entirely cinnamon-brown. p. convex, centre squamulose; s. terete, toughish, fibrillose, base rather thickened; sp. - × . [=undulosa=, jungh. p. convex, even, umbo fleshy, bay, shining; g. adnate, ovate, distant; s. solid, firm, wavy, naked, colour of p.; sp. × . ** scorpoidei. _growing in damp uncultivated places or in woods._ =tenax=, fr. p. . - . cm. campan. exp. glabrous, rather viscid, hygr. cinnamon then ochre; g. adnate, edge entire, whitish; s. - cm. equal, yellowish fuscous, striate with adpr. fibrils, almost glabrous, veil fugacious; sp. × . =myosotis=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, subumb. with a viscid pellicle, olive or greenish brown then yellowish; g. adnato-decur. edge serrate, white; s. - cm. slender, pallid, fibrilloso-scaly-cortinate; sp. - × . ( - × - sacc.) [=tavastensis=, karst. p. convex, exp. disc, often depr. near edge with concentric large yellowish floccose scales, livid-yellow then dingy tawny tan; g. adnate, crowded; s. straight, subequal, solid, fibrillosely scaly, pallid then tinged fuscous, ring torn, yellowish; sp. - × - . [=scorpioides=, fr. p. conico-convex, exp. glabrous, scarcely viscid, depr. round umbo, somewhat reddish tan then pale; g. adnate with a decur. tooth, edge coloured like rest, entire; s. slender, wavy, dry, pallid, white-fibrillose, apex pruinose; sp. - long. =temulenta=, fr. p. . - . cm. campan. convex, glabrous, subumb. hygr. edge slightly striate, rusty then ochre; g. adnate, narrow in front, lurid then rusty umber; s. - cm. fistulose but with a loose pith, thin, tough, polished, wavy, glabrous, apex powdery; sp. × . =subtemulenta=, lamb. p. campan. then convex, slightly umb. striate, hygr. brown ochre when wet, tan when dry; g. crowded, narrow, almost free, colour of p.; s. slender, colour of p. thickened towards base and dark rusty. =latissima=, cke. p. . - cm. subglobose, edge at first incurved, deep chestnut brown; g. adnexed, very broad, tawny umber; s. - cm. narrowed downwards into a rooting base, dark brown below, pale above; sp. ----. differs from _n. glandiformis_ in tapering, rooting s. [=heliophila=, fr. p. convex, umb. convex, dry, golden tawny, shining; g. adnate, closely crowded, plane, pallid; s. not polished, with scattered black points. =reducta=, fr. p. convexo-plane, hygr. striate to middle, membranaceous, rather olive or brownish honey-colour; g. dingy yellow then rusty; s. narrowed upwards, tough amber-brown, apex paler, pruinose. c. lepidoti. (naucoria typical.) _pileus flocculose or squamulose. veil evident. spores rusty._ * _scales of pileus superficial, disappearing._ =porriginosa=, fr. p. - cm. convex, exp. obtuse, viscid, tawny then pale, with scattered superficial saffron flecks; g. adnate, yellow-cinnamon; s. - cm. equal, silky, pallid. [=lapponica=, laest. p. convex, umb. then plane, viscid, rufous brown, discoid, with scattered yellow pilose scales; g. serrulate, white then brown; s. elongated, cuticle separating. =sobria=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, rather viscid and silky, yellowish, veil pruinose, fugacious; g. adnate, crowded, broad, saffron then pallid, edge pale; s. - cm. fibrillose, base brownish, white-floccose; sp. - × . var. _dispersa_, b. and br. p. . - cm. convex, ochre, punctulate, edge scurfy; s. scurfy, ring append.; g. pallid, edge white. ** _pileus innately squamulose._ =erinacea=, fr. p. - cm. dry, convex, subumbil. squamulose with fascicles of hairs, rusty-umber; g. adnate, quite entire; s. - . cm. incurved, hairy, colour of p.; sp. - × - . dry as in _marasmius_. differs from _n. siparia_ in entire edge of g. and stem squamulose throughout. =siparia=, weinm. p. - cm. plane, obtuse, woolly-scaly, reddish rusty; g. broad, edge floccose; s. . - cm. squamulose, apex glabrous; sp. - × - . =conspersa=, pers. p. - . cm. fragile, convexo-plane, obtuse, hygr. soon broken up into scurfy squamules, cinnamon bay then ochre; g. adnate, crowded; s. - cm. fibrillose, apex scurfy-squamulose, colour of p.; sp. - × . =escharoides=, fr. p. - cm. conico-convex, exp. obtuse scurfy-squamulose, whitish tan disc becoming darker; g. lax, ventricose; s. - cm. wavy, adpressedly fibrillose pale then darker; s. × . [=suavis=, bres. smell pleasant, like ripe pears. p. campan. exp. umb. brownish, centre lurid tawny then pale, squamulose; g. crowded, pallid then tawny brown; s. equal, fuscous; sp. - × . - . [=limbata=, bull. p. exp. obtuse, even then concentrically floccosely squamulose, ochraceous-tan, edge striate then split; g. free, ochre-tan; s. fistulose, glabrous, white then yellowish; sp. - × - . var. _sublimbata_. differs in solid s. which like p. is brick-red then pale; g. rusty. [=weislandri=, fr. p. exp. obtuse, glabrous, tawny, cuticle cracked into areolae, hence the surface is crowded with minute dark wart-like papillae; g. adnate, broad, dark rust; s. filiform, almost naked, blackish. *** _pileus destitute of scales, silky or atomate._ [=segestria=, fr. p. soft, convex, exp. or depr. silky, hygr. tan then pale; g. adnate, crowded, narrow; s. soft, tough, fibrillose, pallid; sp. - × . [=pannosa=, fr. p. thin, exp. fuscescent, silky with white hairs; g. ventricose, distant, pale umber; s. filiform, almost glabrous, pallid. [=hibala=, karst. p. convexo-depr. hygr. surface loose and pannose, sooty-umber or olive-brown, yellowish-grey when dry; g. adnate, narrow, crowded, edge grey-flocculose, subdentate; s. base with white down, pulverulent-velvety with yellowish particles. [=bryophila=, roze and boud. p. conico-campan. acute umbo blackish, rest reddish brown, striate; g. almost free, pale rose; s. cylindrical, almost translucent, brown, curved. =carpophila=, fr. p. - mm. thin, convex, obtuse, shining with scurfy particles, yellowish then pallid; g. broad, crenulate, ochre; s. - cm. scurfy then naked, pallid. =graminicola=, nees. p. - mm. convex, papillate, hairy-tomentose, fuscous then reddish ochre; g. rather distant, ochre then pallid; s. cm. tough, hairy, brownish; sp. × . [=pityrodes=, brig. p. dry, convex, plane, umb. very minutely downy-squamulose, whitish then rufescent, edge striate, toothed; g. ventricose, pallid; s. fistulose, tough, scabrid-squamulose, tawny, strigose below. =effugiens=, q. very minute. p. thin convexo-plane, diaphanous, ochre, at length greyish olive and covered with shining crystalline grains; g. yellowish; s. incurved, mealy. =echinospora=, w. g. s. p. at first rather scurfy, moist, hygr. citrin, greenish marginate then pallid, edge slightly striate; g. citrin; s. reddish-brown, white squamulose; sp. rough, × . galera, fr. i. conocephali. _pileus conico-campanulate, hygr. almost even, atomate when dry; stem straight, gills somewhat crowded, ascending._ [=apala=, weinm. p. campan. equal, obtuse, even, hygr. pallid livid, white when dry; g. almost free, whitish then ochre; s. tall, fragile, narrowed upwards, white-velvety; sp. - × - . var. _sphaerobasis_, post. p. campan. even; s. shorter, glabrous, base spherical. =lateritia=, fr. p. - cm. high, nut-shaped then conical, even, hygr. gilvous then ochre, edge densely striate when moist; g. very narrow, tawny-rust; s. - cm. fragile, narrowed upwards, white-pruinose; sp. - × - . differs from _g. ovalis_ by narrow, ascending g. =tenera=, schaeff. p. - cm. high, conico-campan. obtuse, hygr. pale yellowish rusty, pale and rather atomate when dry; g. adnate, crowded, rather broad, cinnamon; s. - cm. straight, fragile, rather shining, colour of p.; sp. - × . var. _pilosella_, pers. p. and s. covered with short erect pubescence when moist. [=flexipes=, karst. p. campan. obtuse, rusty and slightly pellucidly striate, ochraceous when dry; g. adnexed, crowded, pallid then rusty, edge crenulate; s. equal, fistulose, wavy, pallid then rusty, white-fibrillose, apex white-pruinose; sp. - × - . [=pubescens=, gillet. p. conical, reticulately wrinkled, atomate, very minutely pubescent, brown or ochre, hygr.; g. narrow, veined at base, rusty; s. tall, rigid, coarsely longitudinally striate above, finely pubescent, paler than p. =siliginea=, fr. p. - . cm. globose, then campan. finally exp. unequal, even, greyish, not becoming pale; g. adnate, ochre; s. - cm. rather wavy, equal, pallid, rather pruinose; sp. - × - . =campanulata=, mass. smell strong. p. - cm. persistently campan. subacute, even, hygr. deep cinnamon, whitish, atomate and rather rugulose when dry; g. adnate, tawny cinnamon; s. - cm. wavy, pallid; sp. × . =ovalis=, fr. p. - cm. thin, ovato-campan. even, hygr. dark rusty, yellowish when dry; g. nearly free, ventricose, very broad, rusty; s. - cm. straight, equal, slightly striate, colour of p. hollow; sp. × . veil sometimes subannulate. [=rabenhorstii=, fr. p. acutely conical then exp. umbil. pellucidly striate, olive; g. lanceolate, white then rufous-brown; s. fibrously striate, brownish-white, base thickened, somewhat floccosely rooting. =antipoda=, lasch. p. . - . cm. campan.-convex, even, ochre, whitish and atomate when dry; s. - cm. striate, mealy, base bulbous and fusiformly rooting; g. almost free, crowded, yellowish-ochre; sp. - × . =conferta=, bolt. p. - cm. acutely conico-campan. striate, glabrous, hygr. fuscous, fuscous ochre when dry; g. slightly adnexed, white then brownish ochre; s. - cm. silky, shining, naked, with an equal very long rooting base; sp. ----. densely crowded, very fragile. =spicula=, lasch. p. conico-campan. striate when moist, brown-ochre, flocculose when dry; g. adnate; s. straight, slender, white-floccose, base thickened, fibrillose. =spartea=, fr. p. - cm. campan.-convex, exp. obtuse, hygr. even when dry, glabrous, cinnamon then pale; g. adnate, crowded; s. - cm. rigid, flexile, glabrous; sp. ----. resembling _g. tener_ but smaller, and s. not straight. =pygmaeo-affinis=, fr. p. - cm. campan. exp. dry, not striate, slightly wrinkled, honey-tan; g. thin, crowded, very narrow, rusty-ochre; s. - cm. equal, shining white; sp. ----. fries says this is possibly a tall form of _naucoria pygmaea_. ii. bryogeni. _pileus membranaceous, campanulate, striate, glabrous, hygr. even, opaque and rather silky when dry; stem slender, lax, flexile; gills broadly and abruptly adnate, broad, somewhat denticulate._ =vittaeformis=, fr. p. . - . cm. conico-campan. papillate, striate, somewhat bay; g. adnate, ascending; s. - cm. equal, flexile, even, reddish; sp. × . =rubiginosa=, fr. p. . - cm. campan. obtuse, everywhere deeply striate, hygr. cinnamon or honey-colour, tan when dry; g. distant, broad, opaque; s. - cm. glabrous, reddish; sp. × . =hypnorum=, batsch. p. . - cm. campan. subpapillate, glabrous, striate, hygr. ochre or tawny-ochre then pale; g. broad, lax; s. - cm. wavy, colour of p. apex pruinose; sp. × . var. _bryorum_, pers. larger, watery cinnamon, papilla somewhat horny; sp. × . var. _sphagnorum_, pers. two to three times larger than type, yellowish-ochre; s. elongated, subfibrillose, tawny. [=hypnicola=, karst. p. conico-campan. obtuse, disc gibbous, deeply lineato-striate, livid fuscous, soon paler; g. crowded; s. equal, lax, flaccid, silky flocculose from veil, soon glabrous, pallid; sp. - × . =mniophila=, lasch. p. - . cm. campan. subpapillate, striate, brownish yellow; g. broad, yellowish-ochre; s. - cm. equal, flexile, yellow, apex mealy; sp. × . =minuta=, q. p. - mm. campan. striate, pale tawny bistre; g. arcuate, as broad as long; s. - cm. hair-like, tawny, shining, woolly and white at base; sp. × . [=aquatilis=, fr. p. campan.-convex, subpapillate, glabrous, watery, edge striate, pallid honey-colour or hyaline, then whitish; g. distant, triquetrous, pallid; s. very long, slender, even, very glabrous, pallid; sp. - × . [=tenuissima=, weinm. p. campan. obtuse, glabrous, slightly striate, tinged olive; g. crowded, cinnamon; s. very slender, flexile, glabrous, cinnamon; sp. - long. iii. eriodermi. _pileus submembranaceous; veil evident, superficial, deciduous; at first--especially near the edge--silky or squamulose._ =pityria=, fr. p. campan. exp. glabrous, viscid, lurid, tan when dry, fugacious veil append.; g. slightly adnexed, crowded, rusty; s. fistulose, firm, glabrous, silvery, apex with white meal. =ravida=, fr. p. . - cm. campan. then hemispher. even when moist, greyish, dingy ochre when dry, edge at first toothed with white veil; g. nearly free, gilvous; s. - cm. fibrilloso-striate, pallid, silvery; sp. - × . =mycenopsis=, fr. p. - cm. campan. exp. disc even, striate to middle, at first silky-white near edge, ochre then pale; g. white then ochre; s. - cm. attenuated, white, silky; sp. - × - . [=morchelloides=, de brond. p. conoid, obtuse, subgibbous, with anastomosing wrinkles, edge wavy, tawny ochre; g. whitish then fuscous; s. equal, squamulose, rufous. [=vestita=, fr. p. campan. striate, tawny yellow when moist, ochre when dry, edge fimbriately toothed with the veil; g. adnate, yellow then ochre; s. rigid, pulverulent, yellowish; sp. × - . [=sahleri=, q. minute. p. conical, acute, striate, chestnut tawny, honey-colour when dry, deciduous silky fibrils at margin; g. adnate, tawny ochre; s. fibrillose, shining; sp. - × - . tubaria, w. g. sm. i. genuini. _spores rusty._ =cupularis=, bull. p. - cm. plano-depr. obtuse, even, glabrous, rufescent then yellowish, hygr.; g. decur. crowded, tawny; s. - cm. fistulose, naked, narrowed upwards, whitish; sp. × . =furfuracea=, pers. p. . - cm. convex then plane and at length umbil. yellowish-cinnamon, hygr. hoary with the silky-squamulose veil, especially near edge; g. adnato-decur. rather distant, cinnamon; s. - cm. fistulose, flocculose, rigid, pallid; sp. × . var. _heterosticha_, fr. p. subumb. depr. cinnamon, ochre then pallid when dry; s. almost naked. var. _trigonophylla_, fr. small, becoming pale; g. very broad, triangular, more distant, ochre with a tawny tinge. =anthrocophila=, karst. p. convex, exp. wavy, dry, rusty-cinnamon pale when dry, with concentric white deciduous flecks near edge; g. adnate, dentate; s. wavy, often compr. pallid rusty, white-fibrillose; sp. - . × - . close to _t. furfuracea_. =paludosa=, fr. . - . cm. p. conic then convex, umb. not striate, yellowish fuscous, with silky pallid superficial flecks; g. decur. very broad behind, crowded, watery ochre; s. - cm. slender, elongated, flexuous, floccose, ochre or pale citrin; sp. × . =stagnina=, fr. p. - cm. conical then convex, obtuse, rather viscid and striate when moist, rusty bay, even and pale ochre when dry, with white concentric floccose scales near edge; g. decur. very broad, ochre then rusty; s. - cm. reddish bay; sp. × . p. sometimes depr. and umbil. [=vestita=, q. p. - cm. thin, campan. creamy ochre, edge with a white dentate fringe formed by the torn ring; g. yellow, then fawn with a cream edge; s. fistulose, slender, mealy, creamy white; ring membranous, thin, white, caducous; sp. long. =pellucida=, bull. p. - cm. conical then campan. umb. cinnamon, hygr. silky-squamulose near the striate edge; g. subdecur. very broad behind, triangular, paler than p.; s. - cm. narrowed upwards, shining, pale, apex mealy; sp. ----. =muscorum=, pers. p. . - cm. convex, centre becoming depr. striate, glabrous, yellow-fuscous; g. subdecur. paler; s. short, base thickened, colour of p.; sp. - × . =embola=, fr. p. - cm. campan. then convex, obtuse, lineato-striate, glabrous, yellowish tawny, hygr.; g. very broad behind, triangular, thick, distant; s. - cm. thickened upwards, glabrous, shining yellow when dry; sp. × - . differs from _omph. umbellifera_ in glabrous finely striate p. and s. thickened upwards. [=viscidula=, karst. p. campan. striate, viscid, somewhat ochre; g. adnate, distant, white then rusty; s. equal, rusty, paler upwards, white-flocculose; sp. - × - . =autochthona=, b. and br. p. . - cm. hemispher. obtuse, pale ochre, silky, edge flocculose; g. adnate with decur. tooth, honey-colour; s. - cm. wavy or curved, thickened above and below, base woolly; sp. × . differs from _t. furfuracea_ in the p. not becoming pale, and sp. paler. ii. phaeoti. _spores fuscous-rusty._ =crobula=, fr. p. - cm. convex then plane, obtuse, not striate, rather viscid, covered with deciduous floccose subsquarrose scales, then naked, greyish tan; g. subdecur. crowded; s. - . cm. tough, fuscous, densely covered with white floccose scales; sp. × . almost a large-sized _t. inquilina_ with the veil of _a. furfuracea_, but evidently annulate. =inquilina=, fr. p. - cm. convex then plane, glabrous, rather viscid, striate when moist, hygr. tawny or hoary-tan; g. subdecur. rather distant, triangular, tan then brownish umber; s. - cm. tough, bay, white-fibrillose; sp. × . close to _t. crobula_, differs in glabrous p., striate when moist, and nearly glabrous s. var. _ecbola_, fr. p. tan; s. rooting; g. crowded, rusty. [=caricicola=, p. henn. p. thin, convex, depr. centre brownish, even, glabrous, yellowish-brown, silky when dry; g. shortly decur. rusty; s. slender, curved, brown, base darker; sp. - × . - . . flammula, fr. i. gymnoti. _veil absent; pileus dry, often squamulose_. =gymnopodia=, bull. rusty brown. p. - cm. fleshy, campan.-convex, squamulose; g. deeply decur. arcuate, crowded, rusty; s. - cm. solid, almost glabrous, equal; sp. ----. =aldridgei=, mass. p. - cm. convex then infundib. edge incurved, dry, orange brick-red, minutely velvety; g. deeply decur. rusty orange; s. - cm. wavy, smooth, colour of p.; sp. × . =vinosa=, bull. p. - cm. exp. then depr. rusty fawn-colour; g. decur. crowded, narrow, rusty; s. - cm. solid, firm, base rather thickened, minutely flocculose; sp. × . [=tamii=, fr. p. convex, dry, floccosely silky, dusky yellow, with tinge of brown; g. adnate, orange tawny; s. solid, silky fibrillose, equal, yellowish rufous. [=abrupta=, fr. p. convexo-plane, disc becoming depr. obsoletely umb. glabrous, shining tawny; g. adnate with decur. tooth, pallid then tawny; s. fibrillose, tawny yellow; sp. - × - . =floccifera=, b. and br. caespitose. p. - cm. convex, exp. tawny, white-fibrillose, somewhat zoned when dry; g. adnate, wrinkled, rusty, edge white; s. cm. narrowed downwards, scurfy at apex, white and silky-squamulose below; sp. ----. [=muricella=, fr. p. convex then plane, tawny, covered everywhere with suberect darker erect innate squamules; g. adnate, crowded, dingy yellow; s. solid, equal, glabrous, pallid. =decipiens=, w. g. sm. p. - cm. deep clear brown then pale, convex, obtuse or umb. dry, minutely scaly, flesh yellow; g. decur. orange-brown; s. - cm. narrowed downwards, tawny, striate; sp. - × . differs from _f. carbonaria_ in decur. bright g. =clitopila=, cke. and sm. p. - cm. convex then exp. depr. and umbil. smooth, dry, purplish brown; g. dingy yellowish; s. - cm. ventricose, smoky brown, hollow; sp. × - . ii. lubrici. _pileus covered with a viscid, continuous, partly separable cuticle; veil evident, fibrillose._ =lenta=, pers. p. - cm. convexo-plane, even, viscid, livid or tan, at first with scattered scales; g. adnate, whitish then tan; s. - cm. equal, scaly; sp. × . ( - × - sacc.) sometimes entirely whitish; p. glutinous when moist. stevenson considers the present and _hebeloma glutinosum_ to be identical. =lubrica=, fr. p. - cm. exp. plane, even, viscid, cinnamon or tawny or pallid and disc tawny and spotted with squamules; g. adnate, broad, tan; s. - cm. somewhat narrowed, fibrillose, whitish, apex striate; sp. × . =lupina=, fr. p. - cm. exp. and depr. even, viscid; g. adnato-decur. broad, pallid tan; s. - cm. short, firm, unequal, with rusty tinged adpressed fibrils, apex white; sp. × . there are two forms: a. smell strong, pungent, p. fuscous then tan; s. becoming rusty. b. milder, p. tawny; s. and g. yellowish. =mixta=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, viscid, crust-colour, disc darker, rugulose; g. subdecur. crowded; s. - cm. hollow, pallid, fusco-fibrillose, rufous-scaly below; sp. × . =juncina=, w. g. sm. p. - cm. hemispher. exp. even, glabrous, sulphur, disc brown; g. decur. sulphur then reddish brown; s. - cm. tapering downwards, sulphur, base tawny; sp. ----. =decussata=, fr. p. plane, obscurely umb. viscid, virgate with innate radiating fibrils, crust-colour; g. adnate, crowded, narrow, yellowish then tan; s. tawny. =gummosa=, lasch. p. - cm. plane, floccosely scaly then even, viscid, yellow or greenish; g. adnate, crowded, yellow then cinnamon; s. - cm. silky fibrillose, base reddish; sp. ----. =spumosa=, fr. p. - cm. exp. even, viscid, yellowish; g. adnate, yellow then rusty; s. - cm. equal, slender, fibrillose, yellowish; sp. × . [=henningsii=, bres. p. convex, exp. greenish-yellow or citrin, centre tinged fuscous, with disappearing brownish squamules; g. sinuato-adnate, crowded, yellow then tawny cinnamon; s. fibrillosely squamulose then almost glabrous, tawny-yellow; sp. - × . . [=carbonaria=, fr. p. - cm. almost plane, even, viscid, somewhat tawny, flesh yellow; g. adnate, tan becoming fuscescent; s. - cm. rigid, squamulose, pallid; sp. - × - . iii. udi. _cuticle of pileus continuous, not distinct or separable, glabrous_ (frequently with superficial down), _moist or slightly viscid in rainy weather. veil evident, appendiculate._ spores not tawny nor ochre. allied to _pholiota_, caespitose, growing on wood. =fusus=, batsch. p. - cm. compact, convexo-exp. even, rather viscid, reddish tan, flesh yellowish, veil append.; g. subdecur. yellowish then rusty; s. - cm. fibrillosely striate, base narrowed, colour of p. rooting; sp. × . var. _superba_, mass. p. - cm. deep orange; s. pale orange; g. narrow, bright yellow. =filia=, fr. p. - cm. exp. glabrous, moist in rainy weather but not viscid, pale reddish yellow; g. adnate, arcuate, tawny yellow; s. - cm. glabrous, pale yellow, hollow; sp. × . [=cortinata=, d. c. caespitose. p. convex, glabrous, discoid, veil append.; g. adnate, rusty; s. hollow, unequal, squamulose, white. var. _cortinella_, dub. p. ovoid-convex, yellow or greyish-yellow; g. whitish then rufous-lilac, at length vinous. =astragalina=, fr. p. - cm. exp. discoid, at first superficially silky near edge, saffron blood-red, flesh same; g. adnate, crowded, pale yellow then rusty; s. - cm. wavy, fibrillosely scaly, pallid; sp. long. =alnicola=, fr. p. - cm. exp. moist, even, at first subfibrillosely scaly then nearly glabrous, yellow then rusty, rarely greenish; g. broad, pallid then rusty; s. - cm. partly hollow, narrowed to a rooting base, fibrillose, yellow then rusty; sp. × . =flavida=, schaeff. p. - cm. exp. equal; glabrous, moist, yellow; g. yellow then rusty; s. - cm. yellow then rusty; - × . =inaurata=, w. g. sm. sulphur yellow. p. - cm. moist, smooth, with a distinct veil; g. adnate with a decur. tooth; s. - cm. with innate scales; sp. ----. =conissans=, fr. p. - cm. thin, exp. equal, moist, glabrous, yellowish tan; g. crowded, pallid then dingy tan; s. - cm. hollow, silky fibrillose, pallid; sp. × . habit of _hypholoma fasciculare_. =inopoda=, fr. p. - cm. exp. moist, glabrous, honey-coloured tan; g. linear, yellowish white then pallid; s. - cm. slender, wavy, adpressedly fibrillose, at length reddish below; sp. × . =apicrea=, fr. - cm. exp. even, glabrous, moist, tan or dingy orange, disc tawny; g. crowded, shining rusty; s. - cm. hollow, equal, not rooting, pallid, base with rusty fibrils; sp. × . differs from _f. alnicola_ in unchangeable gills, flesh hygr.; p. clay-colour, disc tawny becoming pale, smell sweet. [=austera=, fr. p. campan.-convex exp. obtuse, moist, discoid, fibrillose then glabrous, hygr. honey-colour, disc tawny; g. subdecur. always cinnamon; s. hollow, equal, not rooting, silky fibrillose, whitish. [=azyma=, bull. p. convex-exp. obtuse, moist, even, hygr. pale rusty, flocculose and rimosely squamulose when dry; g. adnate, gilvous, edge whitish; s. fibrillosely cortinate, pallid; sp. long. iv. sapinei. pileus hardly pelliculose (flesh cracking or torn into squamules towards disc), not viscid. _veil_ adpressedly fibrillose to the stem, _not appendiculato-cortinate, almost none, or forming a zone on stem_. known more especially by yellowish or tawny yellow gills and ochre or tawny spores. subcaespitose, always growing on pines or on pine branches etc. on the ground. [=stabilis=, weinm. p. compact, exp. even, glabrous, ochre, gibbous disc darker; g. whitish then tawny cinnamon; s. stout, rigid, whitish with ochre fibrils. =penetrans=, fr. p. exp. dry, almost glabrous, golden or orange tawny; g. yellowish-white spotted tawny; s. silky then striate, pallid, very fugacious flocculose veil white; sp. - × - . =hybrida=, fr. p. - cm. hemispher. exp. obtuse, glabrous, even, moist, tawny cinnamon then tawny orange; g. adnate, pale yellow then tawny; s. - cm. narrowed upwards, tawny, whitish cortinate and cingulate; sp. - × - . [=harmoge=, fr. p. campan. adpressedly squamulose, rather viscid, disc fleshy, verdigris green, rest lilac or pinkish; g. adnate, broad, sulphur then tawny-saffron; s. colour of p. veil floccosely radiating. =sapinea=, fr. p. - cm. exp. very obtuse, minutely flocculosely squamulose then rimosely broken up, golden tawny; g. adnate, broad, golden then tawny cinnamon; s. - cm. deformed, thick, grooved, rooting, yellowish; sp. × . [=studeriana=, fayod. p. convex then exp. edge acute, deep orange, covered with deciduous, purple-brown radiating silky fibrils; g. adnexed, brownish-tan, not spotted; s. cylindrical, fibrillose and coloured like p.; sp. rough, × - . =liquiritiae=, pers. p. - cm. splitting, convexo-plane, subumb. glabrous, moist, edge at length slightly striate, tawny orange; g. broad, golden then tawny cinnamon; s. - cm. hollow, fibrous, striate, silky and white then tawny-rusty; sp. ----. =picrea=, fr. p. - cm. cracking, convexo-exp. even, glabrous, rufous- or bay-cinnamon then tawny; g. crowded, narrow, yellow then rusty; s. - cm. fistulose, thin, somewhat umber, narrowed upwards, pulverulent at first; sp. - × - . =nitens=, cke. and mass. caespitose. p. - cm. hemispher. obtuse, shining, persistently purple brown; g. pallid then umber; s. - cm. fibrillose, pale pinkish brown, solid; sp. × - . [=limulata=, fr. p. convex then irreg. densely papillosely-rivulose with innate flecks, tawny; g. crowded, yellow then cinnamon; s. thin, fibrillose, rather downy, fuscescent; sp. - × - . v. sericelli. _cortinate, cuticle of pileus rather silky, dry or viscid at first._ [=agardhii=, fr. p. convex then exp. obtuse, dry, fibrillosely silky, almost even, tawny-rusty; g. adnato-decur. crowded, tan then brown-rusty, edge paler, crenulate; s. equal, wavy, fibrillosely cortinate. =ochrochlora=, fr. caespitose. p. - cm. convexo-exp. obtusely umb. dry, rather silky, subsquamulose, greenish straw-colour; g. adnate, crowded, greenish-white then olive; s. - cm. hollow, scaly and white-floccose, wavy, base and inside rusty; sp. × . resembling _hypholoma fasciculare_, differing in rusty sp. =helomorpha=, fr. white. p. . - . cm. exp. gibbous, unequal, viscid, silky when dry, edge naked; g. adnato-decur. crowded, white then tan; s. - cm. solid, unequal, curved, even, almost glabrous; sp. × . =scamba=, fr. p. - cm. exp. subdepr. floccosely downy, viscid in damp weather, white then tinged tan; g. subdecur. yellowish tan; s. - cm. short, incurved, flocculosely cortinate, white, base narrowed; sp. - × - . _introduced species._ =filicea=, cke. p. - cm. convexo-exp. or slightly depr. squamulosely fibrillose, deep yellow disc tawny, veil reddish, append.; g. adnate, sulphur then tawny; s. - cm. hollow, sulphur, base tawny; sp. × . =purpurata=, cke. and mass. p. - cm. exp. obtusely umb. purple or purple-brown, squamulose, dry; g. adnate, yellow then rusty; s. - cm. incurved, purplish and granulose below; sp. × . cortinarius, fr. _key to the subgenera._ i. =phlegmacium=. partial veil cobwebby. pileus equally fleshy, viscid; stem firm, dry. p. . ii. =myxacium=. universal veil glutinous, hence the pileus and scarcely bulbous stem are viscid. pileus rather thin; gills adnate or decurrent. p. . iii. =inoloma=. pileus equally fleshy, dry, at first scaly, fibrillose or innately silky, not hygrophanous. veil simple. stem fleshy, subbulbous. p. . iv. =dermocybe=. flesh of pileus thin, everywhere equal, at first downy or subinnately silky, but glabrous when adult, dry, not hygrophanous. p. . v. =telamonia=. pileus hygrophanous, at first glabrous or with whitish superficial fibrils. flesh entirely thin or the margin abruptly so, splitting. universal veil peronate, or forming a ring low down on the stem, apex somewhat cortinate, hence the veil is double. p. . vi. =hydrocybe=. pileus glabrous or covered with superficial white fibrils, not viscid but moist when growing, losing the deep colour and becoming pale when dry, flesh very thin, splitting, disc rarely thicker. stem rather rigid, not peronate; veil thin, fibrillose, rarely collapsing and forming an irregular zone round the stem. p. . i. phlegmacium. _partial veil cobwebby. pileus equally fleshy, viscid. stem firm, dry._ * cliduchii. _partial veil superior, forming a pendulous ring round the apex of the subequal or clavate stem._ + _gills pallid then tan._ =triumphans=, fr. p. - cm. convex then exp. even, yellow, at first with a few adpr. darker scales; g. emarginate, crowded, quite entire; s. - cm. solid, clavate, with several concentric squamulose tawny rings; sp. - × - . [=crocolitus=, q. p. disc, with saffron squamules; g. white, lilac, then tan; s. squamulose, ring thin, yellowish-white. =claricolor=, fr. p. - cm. firm, exp. glabrous, shining when dry, yellow, often cracked into scales; g. subadnexed, crowded, serrate, greyish white then pallid; s. solid, at first floccoso-squamulose from white veil; sp. - × - . =turmalis=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, even, glabrous, discoid, dingy yellow; g. emarginato-decur. crowded, subserrate, tan; s. - cm. cylindric, white, at first woolly-peronate; sp. - × . =crassus=, fr. p. - cm. flesh thick, plano-depr. dingy yellow, disc glabrous, rest fibrilloso-strigose; g. crowded, quite entire, tan; s. - cm. stout, fibrillose, white, apex mealy; sp. × . =balteatus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. compact, soon dry and broken up into flecks, tawny, edge violet or bluish; g. emarginato-decur. crowded, entire, whitish; s. at first peronato-tomentose, white, apex velvety; sp. ----. =sebaceus=, fr. p. - cm. incurved then exp. rather wavy, pallid, white-pruinose; g. emarg. not crowded, tan; s. - cm. solid, equal, fibrillose, pallid; sp. × . =lustratus=, fr. wholly whitish. p. - cm. exp. even, glabrous, edge fibrillose, cortinate; g. closely crowded; s. - cm. solid, nearly equal; sp. ----. resembling _entol. prunuloides_, but sp. ochre. ++ _gills violet or purplish, then cinnamon._ =varius=, fr. p. - cm. compact, discoid, edge glabrous, flesh white, rusty; g. crowded, entire, purplish then cinnamon; s. - cm. conical, adpr. flocculose, whitish; sp. ----. =cyanopus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. even, glabrous, bay or tawny, flesh whitish; g. adnato-emarg. broad, violet then pale; s. - cm. violet then whitish, bulb depressed, oblique; sp. ----. =variicolor=, fr. p. - cm. compact, discoid, tomentose edge violet, rest bay; g. decur.-emarginate, bluish then tan; s. - cm. villose at first blue then whitish; sp. - × . flesh bluish then pallid. var. _nemorensis_, fr. p. - cm. yellowish-bay, edge at first bluish; s. clavate, cm. apex hollow, mealy; g. rotundato-subdecur. =largus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. wavy, subgibbous, tan or reddish, flesh grey then white; g. broad, crowded, entire, grey then cinnamon; s. - cm. solid, fibrillose, curved, violet then white; sp. - × . [=spadiceus=, fr. p. exp. smoky bay, pellicle separable; g. blue then brownish-tan; s. fibrilloso-striate, pallid. [=pelmatosporus=, c. mart. p. subglobose then campan. or convex, brown or chestnut, centre darker, edge sulcate, incurved then exp. white fibrillose veil persistent; s. stuffed, stout, apex white, violet below, bulb submarginate, yellow; g. sinuate, adnexed; sp. very large. =riederi=, fr. p. - cm. campan. then exp. glutinous, ochre, shining when dry; g. adnate, eroded, violet then cinnamon; s. clavate, silky lilac, tawny fibrillose, - cm.; sp. × . +++ _gills yellow, cinnamon, or ferruginous (not whitish violet at first)._ [=percomis=, fr. p. convexo-plane, even, very glabrous, gilvous; g. sulphur yellow then tan, broad; s. clavate, sulphur inside. [=vitellinopes=, secr. p. exp. depr. edge of margin upturned, discoid, glabrous, egg-yellow; g. rusty cinnamon; s. solid, rather wavy, white above ring, fibrillose and yellow below. =saginus=, fr. p. - cm. plano-convex, unequal, glabrous, yellow; g. decur. broad, eroded, pallid then cinnamon; s. cm. somewhat bulbous, yellowish, apex naked; sp. ----. [=cliduchus=, fr. p. depr. shining, discoid, bright yellow; g. serrate, rusty-cinnamon; s. slightly curved, fibrillose, yellow. =russus=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, silky fibrillose near edge, coppery; g. adnate, broad, connected by veins, rusty; s. - cm. attenuated, pallid, fibrillose; sp. - × . ++++ _gills olive._ [=cephalixus=, fr. p. plane, rather wavy, olive, edge yellowish, disc with brown granules; g. adnexed, thin, eroded, white then rusty olive; s. clavate, brownish squamulose below. =infractus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. virgate, edge thin, incurved, olive or yellowish; g. broad, crowded, olive-umber; s. - cm. ovately bulbous, tinged olive; sp. × . =anfractus=, fr. p. - cm. unequal, bent inwards, wavy, olive then tawny fuliginous; g. crisped, rather distant, sooty-olive then tan; s. - cm. unequal, apex violet; sp. ----. =berkeleyi=, cke. p. - cm. convex then exp. edge incurved, rugulose, pale, rest brown; g. narrow, cinnamon with olive tinge; s. - cm. base bulbous, solid, white; sp. - × - . whole young fungus enclosed in a white volva, patches of which often remain on p. ** scauri. _bulb depressed or turbinate, marginate, stem fleshy, fibrous; veil inferior, springing from margin of bulb; pileus equally fleshy; gills subsinuate._ + _gills whitish then tan or pale cinnamon._ =multiformis=, fr. p. - cm. exp. equal, glabrous, yellow or tawny all over, flesh white; g. serrate, white then tan; s. - cm. yellowish white; sp. - × , rough. var. _flavescens_, cke. flesh and gills yellow. [=rapaceus=, fr. p. convexo-plane, even, whitish-tan, not becoming paler; flesh white; g. crowded, entire, white then tan; s. stuffed, short, white, bulb depr. marginate. =napus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. glutinous, edge incurved, tawny; g. rather distant, crisped, smoky; s. - cm. equal, white, bulb obconic and oblique; sp. × . =allutus=, fr. p. - cm. conico-convex, orange yellow, intense yellow when dry, then pale, edge darker, flesh rufescent; g. adnate, crenulate, white then rufous; s. - cm. viscid, white, rufous striate below, marginately bulbous; sp. ----. =talus=, fr. p. - cm. convex, even, dingy yellow then pale, edge yellowish olive; g. pale ochre; s. - cm. cylindric, glabrous, marginately bulbous, pallid; sp. - × - . ++ _gills violet, blue, purplish, becoming cinnamon._ =glaucopus=, fr. p. - cm. compact, incurved then expanded, rather wavy, viscid then floccoso-squamulose or fibrillose, olive-bay then tawny yellow; g. broad; s. - cm. striate, bluish then yellowish, base marginate; sp. × - . [=pansa=, fr. p. compact, incurved, wavy, glabrous, spotted with innate scales, shining, tawny orange, flesh white; g. entire, blue; s. marginate, yellow. [=variegatus=, bres. p. convex then exp. and umb. edge incurved, rufous brick-red, white fibrillose then glabrous and yellowish tan; g. closely crowded; s. fibrillose, whitish then tinged rusty, base narrowed and somewhat rooting, or marginately bulbous with a clear violet silky basal zone; sp. - × . - . =calochrous=, fr. p. - cm. exp. flesh compact, white; tawny yellow; g. serrate, bluish-purple; s. - cm. fibrillose, yellowish (never blue), bulb abruptly marginate; sp. - × . =caerulescens=, fr. p. - cm. convex then exp. dingy yellow or tan, flesh blue then pale; g. entire, at first pure deep blue; s. - cm. solid, attenuated, naked, bulb marginate blue or violet becoming whitish; sp. - × . =purpurascens=, fr. p. - cm. exp. rather wavy, glutinous, bay or reddish, then tawny olive, spotted, flesh everywhere blue; g. blue then tan, purple when bruised; s. - cm. fibrillose, deep blue, darker when bruised, marginate bulb disappearing; sp. - × - . var. _subpurpurascens_, fr. p. thinner, subvirgate, becoming pale; s. stuffed, bluish white. +++ _gills rusty, tawny, or yellowish._ =dibaphus=, fr. p. - cm. convex then exp. purplish, disc yellowish, variegated with lilac; flesh yellow, violet under the cuticle; g. rusty purple; s. - cm. yellow, apex purplish, bulb marginate; sp. × . var. _xanthophyllus_, cke. g. for a long time yellow. =turbinatus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. orbicular, dingy yellow or greenish, all one colour, glabrous, becoming pale; g. crowded, entire; s. - cm. cylindrical, bulb turbinate, marginate, whitish or tinged yellow; sp. - × , rough. =corrosus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. umbil. glabrous, viscid, ferruginous then pale tan, at length rivulose or subfloccose, opaque when dry, flesh firm, white; g. closely crowded, narrow; s. - cm. white, cortina fibrillose, apex naked, bulb depr. marginate; sp. ----. =fulgens=, fr. p. - cm. exp. silky-fibrillose, viscid, tawny orange, flesh becoming spongy and tan; g. emarginate, tawny; s. - cm. colour of p. fibrillose and woolly, bulb large, depr. marginate; sp. × . stem viscid when young in damp weather. [=sulfurinus=, q. p. convex, sulphur yellow, edge white, disc with saffron points; g. sulphur then tawny; s. silky, yellowish white. =fulmineus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. tawny, edge orange, with adpressed tawny scales; g. at first pure yellow; s. - cm. yellow, naked, apex with a white veil, bulb ample, rooting; sp. × - . stem slightly viscid at first. _c. fulgens_ differs in tan-coloured flesh. =elegantior=, fr. p. exp. even, glabrous, edge at first incurved, tawny, flesh yellowish; g. egg-yellow then olive; s. yellowish, marginately bulbous. =orichalceus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. with a viscid pellicle, disc reddish tawny cracked into patches, edge livid; g. sulphur then greenish; s. - cm. fibrillose, yellowish, marginately bulbous; sp. ----. =testaceus=, cke. p. - cm. exp. obtusely umb. or depr. brick-red then paler; g. adnate; s. - cm. whitish above, tinged rufous below, bulb submarginate, flesh tinged reddish; sp. × , rough. ++++ _gills olivaceous._ [=rufoolivaceus=, pers. p. exp. rufous then paler; g. crowded, olive; s. green then yellowish, bulb submarginate. =prasinus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. dingy bluish-green, spotted as if scaly, edge incurved; g. rather distant, olive-yellow; s. - cm. marginately bulbous, pale olive-green; sp. × . =atrovirens=, kalchbr. p. - cm. convex, dusky-green or dusky-olive, flesh yellowish green; g. yellow-green then tan; s. - cm. bulb marginate, subturbinate, flesh tinged greenish; sp. × . =scaurus=, fr. p. - cm. equal, exp. smoky-tawny then pale, spotted, edge thin becoming striate; g. crowded, purplish-olive; s. - cm. greenish or bluish, never yellow, narrowed upwards from marginate bulb; sp. × . =herpeticus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. olive then dingy tan, flesh violet then whitish; g. violet-umber then sooty-olive; s. - cm. fibrillose, pallid, bulb napiform, marginate; sp. × . *** elastici. _veil simple, thin, fugacious, median or inferior. stem never marginately bulbous or peronate, but elastic, rigid, externally polished, shining, cartilaginous._ + _gills white then tan or dingy cinnamon._ =cumatilis=, fr. p. - cm. obtuse, with bluish-violet gluten, disc brownish; g. adnexed, serrate; s. - cm. subbulbous, white, veil forming a volva at base; sp. ----. =serarius=, fr. p. - cm. gibbous, not polished, viscid, opaque, reddish-tan; g. arcuato-adfixed; s. - cm. fibrillose, shining, and like the flesh white; sp. ----. =emollitus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. wavy, slightly fibrillose-virgate, tawny then ochre and shining; g. white then ochre; s. - cm. scarcely bulbous, fibrillose, white as is also the flesh; sp. ----. =cristallinus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. very glabrous, viscid, shining, hygr. pallid, edge whitish; g. crowded, tan; s. - cm. hollow, nearly equal, white; sp. × . =decoloratus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. soon dry and flocculose, tan then pale, often corrugated when old; g. greyish-tan; s. - cm. base thickened, fibrillosely-striate, silvery; sp. × . ++ _gills violet, purplish or flesh-colour._ =decolorans=, fr. p. - cm. exp. all one colour, yellow; g. dry, purplish then tan; s. - cm. narrowed upwards, and like the flesh, white; sp. × . =porphyropus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. thin, virgate, ochre, often spotted; g. rather crowded, thin; s. - cm. somewhat attenuated, lilac, purplish when bruised as is also the flesh; sp. - × . [=rubropunctatus=, karst. p. thin, convexo-plane, even, glabrous, glutinous, yellow; g. adnexed, crowded, white then ochre; s. wavy, fibrillose, white, apex pruinose red-punctate; sp. - × - . =croceocoeruleus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. lilac; g. lilac then orange-tan; s. - cm. hollow, fragile, white; sp. × . [=maculosus=, fr. p. conico-convex then exp. and wavy, whitish spotted with umber scales; g. pinkish-white, grey then tan; s. squamosely fibrillose, white. +++ _gills pure ochre, tawny, or rusty._ =corruscans=, fr. p. - cm. plane, even, glabrous, yellowish ochre often spotted; g. plano-decur. closely crowded, ochre; s. - cm. solid, elastic, white; sp. ----. =papulosus=, fr. p. - cm. discoid, soon rivulose, granulato-punctate, honey-tan, disc darker; g. adnato-decur.; s. - cm. fibrillose, white; sp. ----. [=intentus=, fr. p. exp. soft, ochre or tawny; g. adnate, closely crowded, bright saffron; s. hollow, rigid, fragile, yellowish. [=compar=, fr. p. exp. even, yellowish, edge thin; g. adnate, rusty-cinnamon; s. fibrillose, apex lilac. [=subsimilis=, fr. p. exp. sooty brown, flesh white; g. adnate, smoky then tan; s. solid, equal, fibrillose, tawny. ++++ _gills olive or smoky._ [=olivascens=, fr. p. exp. olive then sooty at length pale; g. tan tinged olive; s. silvery-pallid. taste very acrid. ii. myxacium. _universal veil glutinous, hence pileus and scarcely bulbous stem viscid. pileus rather thin. gills adnate or decurrent._ * colliniti. _stem floccosely peronate, flocci at first covered with gluten._ [=alutipes=, lasch. p. exp. obtuse, even, yellow-brown or bay; g. adnate, rather distant, tawny cinnamon; s. solid, stout, peronato-annulate, glutinous. =arvinaceus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. edge patent, golden-tawny or reddish-tan; g. adnato-decur. straw-colour then ochre; s. - cm. cylindric, yellowish-white, silky-viscid; sp. ----. =collinitus=, fr. p. - cm. fleshy, convex and incurved then exp. even, shining, tawny-orange; g. adnate, greyish tan then cinnamon; s. - cm. cylindric, floccosely glutinous broken up into transverse squamules; sp. × . var. _mucosus_, fr. firmer. s. even, silky; g. whitish then rusty. [=alpinus=, boud. p. convex camp. firm, viscid, tawny yellow; s. white, apex sulcate, ring and below glutinous; g. adnate, broad, cinnamon, edge paler. flesh pale ochraceous. differs from _c. collinitus_ and _c. livido-ochraceus_ in very convex p. and permanently white s. grooved at apex. =mucifluus=, fr. p. - cm. campan.-exp. smeared with hyaline gluten that disappears, edge striate livid-tan or yellowish; g. adnate, tan; s. - cm. narrowed downwards, viscid and floccosely squamulose, white or tinged violet; sp. × . =elatior=, fr. p. - cm. cylindrical then exp. thin except disc, plicato-rugose, livid yellow then dingy ochre; g. adnate, very broad, connected by veins; s. - cm. narrowed to both ends, whitish or tinged lilac; sp. × . =grallipes=, fr. p. - cm. thin, campan. then exp. umb. even, hygr. rusty then ochre; g. adnato-decur. very broad; s. - cm. stuffed then hollow, rather wavy, yellowish; sp. ----. habit of _c. hinnuleus_, but viscid. =livido-ochraceus=, b. p. - cm. very thin, exp. ochre; g. rounded behind and slightly adnexed, cinnamon; s. - cm. narrowed at both ends, whitish; sp. - × - . [=suratus=, fr. p. convex, equal, yellow, shining, disc depr. brownish, cracked; g. adnate, violet then dingy flesh-colour; s. solid, rather bulbous, flexuous, with yellowish scales, apex naked, tinged violet. ** delibuti. _veil entirely viscid, stem not floccosely peronate but only viscid, shining when dry._ + _gills whitish then tan._ =nitidus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. or depr. discoid, honey-coloured tan then pale, disc tan; g. truly and equally attenuato-decur. crowded; s. - cm. clavate, white, apex with white meal; sp. - × . [=emunctus=, trog. p. campan. convex, pale violet then grey; g. adnate, subdistant; s. glutinous, pallid, apex naked, white. [=liquidus=, fr. p. exp. even, glutinous, yellowish, silky and whitish when dry; g. truly decur. distant; s. attenuated, glutinous, white. ++ _gills at first violet, bluish or reddish._ =salor=, fr. p. - cm. exp. gibbous, innately fibrillose, violet; g. adnate, tan, edge violet; s. - cm. solid, conically attenuated, bulbous, glabrous, covered at the apex with the blue glutinous veil; sp. - × . [=naevosus=, fr. p. exp. subdepr. reddish yellow, crowded with minute spot-like scales; g. emarginate, broad, blue then tan; s. solid, pallid grey, with yellowish hyaline gluten. =delibutus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. obtuse, yellowish with viscid hyaline gluten; g. adnate, serrulate, pallid blue then rusty; s. - cm. thin, attenuated, with whitish gluten; sp. × . var. _elegans_, fr. p. and s. quite glabrous, with yellow viscidity, shining when dry; flesh yellowish white. =illibatus=, fr. p. - cm. campan.-convex, then exp. and subumb. yellow disc darker; g. adnato-decur. crowded, rosy then tan; s. - cm. white, glabrous, often with reddish spots above; sp. - × - . +++ _gills at first ochraceous or cinnamon._ [=epipoleus=, fr. p. exp. gibbous, hoary-shining; g. decur. edge wavy, rather distant, tan; s. bulbous, clavate, obsoletely violet, viscid. =stillatitius=, fr. p. - cm. exp. subumb. even, smeared at first with blue gluten, then livid fuscous, finally greyish-white; g. emarginate, broad; s. - cm. hollow, very soft, with blue mucus; sp. × . somewhat resembling _c. elatior_ but smaller, and veil not floccose. =vibratilis=, fr. p. - cm. thin, almost plane, subgibbous, hygr. yellow or tawny, golden and shining when dry; g. adnato-decur. crowded; s. soft, conical, snow-white, glutinous veil fugacious; sp. × . habit of _c. armeniacus_ and _c. causticus_. differs from both in very soft, snow-white stem, and glutinous veil. =pluvius=, fr. p. . - . cm. globose, then convex, viscid, hygr. yellowish tawny, tan and opaque when dry; g. decur. then seceding, white then ochre; s. - cm. slender, subequal, soft, white then pallid; sp. × . [=oliveus=, q. p. fibrilloso-virgate, viscid, olive green, flesh yellowish-olive; s. silky, citrin, base clavate; g. reddish amethyst. iii. inoloma. _pileus equally fleshy, dry, at first scaly, fibrillose or innately silky, not hygrophanous. veil simple. stem fleshy, subbulbous._ * _gills at first white or pallid._ =opimus=, fr. p. - cm. hard, exp. unequal, dry, with adpressed tan tomentum, rimoso-rivulose; g. emarginate, white then tan; s. . - cm. hard, stout, pallid, with white fibrils; sp. ----. var. _fulvobrunneus_, fr. p. glabrous then rivulose; g. very broad. [=argutus=, fr. p. conical then exp. subgibbous, silky-fibrillose, ochraceous; g. adnate; s. solid, ventricose, fibroso-squamose, yellowish white. =turgidus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. atomate then glabrous, whitish tan, shining, edge at first silky; g. emarginate, crowded, edge entire; s. - cm. bulbous, rimosely-striate, glabrous, silvery shining; sp. ----. differs from _c. argentatus_ in very obtuse p. and entire edge of gills. [=praestans=, cord. p. convex, orbicular, silky-shining, brownish violet; g. hyaline then grey; s. fibrous inside, solid, whitish, cylindrical, sometimes wavy, rather bulbous. esculent. =argentatus=, krombh. p. - cm. convex, almost glabrous, silvery grey, shining, disc subgibbous, pallid, near the edge at first silky-lilac; g. emarginate, crowded, serrate; s. - cm. stout, white; sp. × . var. _pinetorum_, fr. smaller. at first lilac and silky. ** _gills with veil and stem more or less violet._ =violaceus=, l. p. - cm. very fleshy, dark violet, with downy scales; g. broad, thick, distant, dark; s. - cm. bulbous, spongy, downy, greyish violet; sp. - × - . dark violet both outside and inside. =cyanites=, fr. p. - cm. obtuse silky, even, pale blue; g. at first clear blue; s. - cm. blue, bulbous, with red juice; sp. × - . var. _major_, fr. p. and s. slowly becoming reddish; g. dark blue-grey. [=calopus=, karst. p. convex, exp. even, hoary, silky-lilac near edge at first, then more or less rusty; g. adnate, at first pale cinnamon, entire; s. solid, equal, base thickened, usually curved, purple-lilac then pale, floccosely-scaly then pale; sp. - × - . =muricinus=, fr. p. - cm. obtuse, rufous violet, edge fibrillose; g. rather crowded; s. - cm. bulbous, juiceless, downy, purplish violet; sp. - × - . flesh sky-blue then whitish. [=cinereo-violaceus=, fr. p. obtuse, violet then umber, squamulosely punctate; g. adnate, purple-umber; s. clavato-bulbous, firm, juiceless, reddish violet then pallid. =albo-violaceus=, fr. p. - cm. convex, silky, at length broadly gibbous, whitish violet; g. serrulate, greyish violet; s. - cm. clavate, whitish violet, with a median ring-like zone; sp. × - . =malachius=, fr. p. - cm. pale lilac then brownish, tan when dry, white-fibrillose at first; g. crowded, pale purple then rusty; s. - cm. bulbous, bluish-peronate; sp. - × - . =camphoratus=, fr. smell strong. p. - cm. obtuse, lilac, silky, then whitish or yellowish, flesh blue; g. clear blue then purplish; s. - cm. bulbous, juiceless, bluish from the cortina, inside the base white; sp. × . =hircinus=, fr. smell strong, foetid. p. - cm. obtuse or gibbous, with adpr. silky violet fibrils then pale, disc glabrous becoming rusty; g. broad, violet then cinnamon; s. - cm. bulbous, juiceless, violet then pallid, base yellowish inside; sp. ----. *** _gills and veil cinnamon, red or ochre._ =traganus=, fr. smell strong, foetid. p. - cm. obtuse, lilac-fibrillose then pale; g. thick, crenate, at first saffron-ochre; s. - cm. bulbous, spongy, tinged violet, inside saffron; sp. - × . var. _finitimus_, weinm. smell not so foetid as in type; s. yellowish and mottled inside. =tophaceus=, fr. p. - cm. obtuse, tawny-ochre, villosely scaly, flesh white; g. emarginate, tawny cinnamon; s. - cm. villoso-scaly, yellowish; sp. × . entirely ochraceous or yellow. var. _redemitus_, fr. p. slender, at length broadly gibbous, golden-yellow, with darker adpressed fibrils; s. fibrillosely striate, base slightly thickened. =suillus=, fr. p. - cm. obtuse, brick-red then paler, margin silky then innately squamulose; g. adnate, broad, opaque, tan; s. - cm. clavate, spongy, adpressedly woolly below, middle fibrillose, apex silky, even, violet; sp. ----. gills fragile, connected by veins at base. =callisteus=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, tawny-yellow, nearly glabrous, even, innately squamulose, flesh yellowish; g. adnate, floccosely connected behind; s. - cm. bulbous, tawny fibrillose; sp. ----. =bulliardi=, fr. smell strong. p. - cm. campan.-convex, subgibbous, even, or squamulose, rufescent; g. adnexed, broad, rusty-purplish; s. - cm. bulbous, short, firm, vermilion fibrillose below, apex whitish; sp. - × . =vinosus=, cke. p. - cm. subgl. then exp. vinous red, smooth, even, shining; g. adnexed, ventricose, rusty tan; s. - cm. thickened abruptly into a reddish marginate bulb, pale violet above; sp. - × . [=pavonius=, fr. p. convex, obtuse, broken up into broad vermilion scales; g. violet then cinnamon; s. solid, short, bulbous, with rufous fibrils. =bolaris=, fr. p. - cm. exp. obsoletely umb. reddish-yellow, variegated with saffron-red, innate, pilose adpressed scales, then pale; g. subdecur. crowded; s. - cm. stuffed then hollow, nearly equal, scaly, colour of p.; sp. × . [=craticus=, fr. p. fleshy, campan.-exp. obtusely umb. covered with reddish brick-coloured, innate interwoven fibrils; g. crowded; s. solid, narrowed upwards, glabrous, reddish below, becoming pale, base tomentose. **** _gills and veil dusky, fuscous, or olive._ =pholideus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. obtusely umb. fawn, densely squamulose with blackish fascicles of hairs; g. violet then tan; s. - cm. with dusky squarrose squamules up to ring, apex even, violet; sp. × - . =sublanatus=, fr. smell resembling radishes. p. - cm. campan.-exp. umb. brownish tan, with innate pilose squamules; g. olive then yellowish; s. - cm. attenuated from a bulbous base, glabrous and pallid above, squamulose with fuscous down below; sp. - × - . =phrygianus=, fr. smell like radishes. p. - cm. obtuse, honey colour, hispid with crowded simple black fibrils; g. dingy yellow; s. bulbous, with a lax reticulation of black fibrils; sp. ----. =arenatus=, fr. p. - cm. convex, gibbous at first, reddish tawny, granular with floccose squamules; g. yellowish tan; s. - cm. brownish squamulose above the middle, apex even, pallid; sp. × . _c. phrygianus_ differs in blackish squamules of p. and s. and strong smell of radishes. both are often tinged olive when young. [=melanotus=, kalchbr. p. convex, yellow, covered with minute, adpressed, blackish-olive scales, flesh olive-yellow; g. yellowish cinnamon; s. solid, narrowed upwards, yellowish, with small umber scales up to ring. =penicillatus=, fr. p. - cm. convex, umb. rusty-brown, densely floccose with innate scales; g. dusky brown; s. - cm. slender, equal, with adpressed rusty-brown scales; sp. - × . iv. dermocybe. _flesh of pileus thin, everywhere equal, at first downy or subinnately silky, but glabrous when adult, dry, not hygr._ * _gills at first whitish or pallid._ =ochroleucus=, fr. p. - cm. gibbous then obtuse, even, pallid white; g. crowded becoming ochre-tan; s. - cm. solid, firm, ventricose, white; sp. × - . =decumbens=, fr. p. - cm. exp. even, white then yellowish, shining; g. tan from first; s. - cm. hollow, clavato-bulbous, ascending, pallid; sp. ----. =riculatus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. gibbous, yellowish, with adpressed silky bloom, becoming whitish, disc naked; g. adnate; s. - cm. hollow, pallid, base thickened. =tabularis=, fr. p. - cm. soon plane, flocculose then almost glabrous, brownish tan then pale; g. emarginate; s. - cm. white, adpressedly fibrilloso-scaly then almost glabrous; sp. ----. [=ochrophyllus=, fr. p. exp. dry, glabrous, brownish olive then pale; g. ochre then tan; s. solid, pallid, variegated with darker adpressed scales. =camarus=, fr. fragile. p. - cm. gibbous, hoary brown then pale; g. subadnate; s. - cm. partly hollow, equal, curved, inside and outside white, apex silvery shining; sp. - × - . =diabolicus=, fr. p. - cm. hemispher. obtuse then gibbous, fuscescent with a grey bloom, then glabrous and tawny yellow; g. subemarginately adnexed; s. - cm. glabrous, pallid, apex grey; sp. - × . ** _gills at first violet then purplish._ =caninus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. nearly glabrous, rufous-brick-red, tawny when dry; g. broad, purple then cinnamon; s. - cm. clavately bulbous, subperonate, pallid, apex violet; sp. × - . =myrtillinus=, fr. p. - cm. gibbous then flattened, sooty, hoary with white fibrils; g. rather distant, amethyst-blue then bluish tan; s. - cm. bulbous silky, not zoned, whitish; sp. × . apex of stem violet; no purple in g. =azureus=, fr. p. - cm. silky or atomate shining, hoary lilac; g. clear blue-violet; s. - cm. glabrous, slightly striate, base thickened, downy, whitish; sp. × . =albocyaneus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. hoary silky then glabrous, white then yellowish; g. broad, crowded, bluish purple then subochre; s. - cm. subclavate, naked, whitish; sp. - × - . differs from _c. anomalus_ in clavate s. and flattened p. =anomalus=, fr. p. . - cm. obtuse then gibbous, sooty-rufous, hoary fibrillose then glabrous and tawny; g. crowded, bluish-purple then cinnamon; s. - cm. thin, attenuated, fibrillose, somewhat scaly, violet then pallid; sp. - × . =spilomeus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. gibbous, dry, fuscous then tan; g. crowded, narrow; s. - cm. whitish lilac variegated with tawny rufous scales; sp. ----. differs from _c. anomalus_ in scaly stem. =lepidopus=, cke. p. - cm. exp. gibbous, umber with a tinge of violet at edge, becoming rufescent; g. adnate, violet then cinnamon; s. - cm. narrowed upwards, rather wavy, whitish or tinged lilac, with concentric darker zones; sp. × . [=lebretonii=, q. p. lilac then fawn; s. lilac, dotted with saffron flecks. *** _gills shining cinnamon, red, or yellow. stem and fibrillose cortina coloured._ =miltinus=, fr. p. - cm. convex, bay-cinnamon, soon very glabrous and shining; g. adnate, narrow, crowded, rusty; s. - cm. equally narrowed upwards, cinnamon, reddish-fibrillose; sp. × . =cinnabarinus=, fr. smell strong, like radishes. every part crimson-lake. p. - cm. obtuse, silky then almost glabrous, shining; g. adnate, broad, rather distant, darker; s. - cm. fibrillose; sp. × . differs from _c. sanguineus_ in stuffed s., radishy smell, and broad gills with an olive tinge. =sanguineus=, fr. entirely blood-red. p. - cm. obtuse, innately silky or squamulose; g. crowded, broadish; s. - cm. stuffed then hollow, thin, equal; sp. - × . =anthracinus=, fr. p. . - cm. convex exp. umb. somewhat chestnut; g. adnate, crowded, scarlet, blood-red when bruised; s. - cm. fibrillose, deep blood-red; sp. × . =cinnamomeus=, fr. p. . - cm. obtuse, umb. somewhat cinnamon with yellowish innate fibrils; g. adnate, broad, crowded, shining, yellowish; s. - cm. equal, with flesh and veil yellowish; sp. - × - . var. _croceus_, fr. smaller. p. subsquamulose, sometimes tinged olive; g. less crowded, yellowish and sometimes olive, as is also the s. var. _semisanguineus_, fr. g. blood-red or orange-red. =uliginosus=, b. p. - cm. conico-campan. then exp. strongly umb. bright red-brown or brick-red, flesh olive-yellow; g. adnate, yellow, olive, tan; s. - cm. flexuous, paler than p.; sp. × - . =croceoconus=, fr. p. - cm. conico-campan. persistently acute, tawny cinnamon; g. linear, crowded; s. - cm. slender, flexuous, hollow; sp. ----. =orellanus=, fr. p. - cm. obtusely umb. villosely squamulose or fibrillose orange-tawny, flesh reddish; g. adfixed, broad; s. - cm. solid, fibrillosely striate, tawny; sp. - × - . differs from _c. cinnamomeus_ in solid stem and reddish flesh. =malicorius=, fr. p. - cm. exp. obtuse, velvety-fibrillose, tawny-golden, flesh splitting, yellow then olive-green; g. crowded, tawny orange, edge becoming flocculose; s. - cm. hollow, fibrillose, golden; sp. ----. differs from _c. cinnamomeus_ in persistently hollow s. golden then olive-brown; flesh yellow then greenish- or golden-olive. =infucatus=, fr. p. - cm. convex, obtuse, bright yellow; g. adnate, crowded, tawny then cinnamon; s. - cm. narrowed from clavate base, fibrillose, whitish or yellowish; sp. × . [=fucatophyllus=, lasch. p. acutely umb. fibrillosely scaly, brownish; g. broad, yellow with crimson spots, denticulate; s. fibrillose, yellowish, veil reddish. =colymbadinus=, fr. p. subgibbous, with seceding yellow fibrils, yellowish; flesh splitting, yellowish; g. rather distant, broad, thick, rusty, edge white-floccose; s. equal, fibrillosely striate, naked, pallid. **** _becoming olivaceous. veil dingy, pallid or tinged fuscous. pileus not broken up into scales._ =cotoneus=, fr. p. - cm. olivaceous, campan. exp. bullate, wavy, innately velvety; g. olive then brownish tan; s. - cm. solid, base thickened, pale olive, veil forming a fuscous zone; sp. - × . =subnotatus=, fr. p. - cm. campan. then exp. olive then fuscous, at first clothed with superficial hoary squamules, soon glabrous; g. yellowish then olive tan; s. - cm. conical, squamulose with yellowish fragments of veil, apex glabrous, shining; sp. × . =valgus=, fr. fragile. p. - cm. convex, subgibbous, almost glabrous, olive then brick-red, edge submembranaceous; g. dingy yellow red then brick-red; s. - cm. twisted, naked, pallid, shining, apex striate, tinged violet, bulb with white down, rooting; sp. ----. =raphanoides=, fr. smell strong, like radishes. p. - cm. campan. then exp. gibbous, silky with innate fibrils, olive then tawny; g. olive then cinnamon; s. - cm. firm, fibrillose, paler; sp. × . [=depexus=, fr. p. thin, convex then plane, brick-red becoming pale; g. adnate, yellowish then cinnamon, opaque; s. equal, fibrillosely striate, pallid. =venetus=, fr. p. - cm. thin, convex then exp. silky-villose, olive then yellowish, opaque; g. broad, veined, yellowish-olive then olive-cinnamon; s. - cm. fibrilloso-striate, with the veil colour of p.; sp. × . p. obtusely umb. sea-green or clear yellow-green as is the flesh. [=olivascens=, karst. p. thin, edge submembr. firm, equal, convex then plane, even, glabrous, olive; s. pallid, fibrillose, ring fugacious; g. adnexed, very broad tawny rusty; sp. - × - . v. telamonia. _pileus hygr. at first glabrous or with whitish superficial fibrils. flesh entirely thin or the margin abruptly so, splitting. universal veil peronate or forming a ring low on the stem; apex somewhat cortinate, hence the veil is somewhat duplex._ * platyphilli. _gills very broad, thickish, more or less distant. stem spongy or entirely fibrous._ (colour when dry given in brackets.) + _stem and veil white or whitish._ =macropus=, fr. p. - cm. convex, incurved, then exp. hoary with minute squamules, brick-red then rusty; g. distant, very broad; s. - cm. equal, fibrillose, whitish, ring distant; sp. × . [=testaceo-canescens=, f. p. convex, brick-red, with greyish squamules; g. emarginato-adnate; s. rigid, equal, silky-shining. =laniger=, fr. p. - cm. exp. woolly with white superficial scales, then glabrous and bright or dusky tawny; g. saffron-tawny; s. white, peronate up to distinct ring, veil shining white; sp. ----. =bivelus=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-exp. glabrous, tawny brick-red; g. adnate, bright tawny cinnamon; s. - cm. subbulbous, dingy white, peronate, ring spurious, fugacious; sp. × - . =bulbosus=, fr. p. - cm. campan. exp. glabrous, bay (dusky brick-red) disc subgibbous; g. adnate, opaque; s. - cm. stout, bulbous, pallid, peronate with white veil up to ring; sp. × - . =urbicus=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, glabrous, silvery white; g. emarginate, broad; s. - cm. equal, peronate, white and downy above ring; sp. ----. =licinipes=, fr. p. - cm. convex then exp. umb. glabrous, yellowish red; g. adnate, very broad; s. - cm. pallid floccose with white scales; sp. ----. =microcyclus=, fr. p. - cm. thin, plano-convex, fuscous brick-red then pale; g. adnate, very broad, lilac then cinnamon; s. - cm. narrowed from base, pallid, white annular zone evident; sp. ----. differs from _c. decipiens_ in somewhat bulbous stem and white annular zone. ++ _stem and gills violet._ cortina usually white with a violet tinge, but universal veil white. =torvus=, fr. p. - cm. convex-exp. obtuse, bay or tinged violet at first then brick-red, hoary with fibrillose squamules then almost glabrous; g. thick, distant, very broad, purplish umber then cinnamon; s. - cm. bulbous then elongated and equal, vaginate with the white persistent veil, apex violet cortinate; sp. × - . flesh usually bored by larvae. =impennis=, fr. p. - cm. fleshy, convex, obtuse, rigid, glabrous, somewhat brick-red then pale; g. thick, distant, violet, purplish, then cinnamon; s. - cm. rather bulbous, pallid, imperfect ring and apex violet, whitish cortinate, solid; sp. - × . =lucorum=, fr. p. - cm. even bay brick-red when moist; g. emarginate, cinnamon with a fugacious tinge of flesh-colour violet; s. - cm. clavate, very fibrillose, one colour, becoming pale; sp. × . =plumiger=, fr. p. - cm. conico-campan. gibbous, brownish-olive, densely covered with white feathery flecks; g. crowded, broad, edge entire, coloured like rest; s. - cm. clavato-bulbous, floccose, pale; sp. × . =scutulatus=, fr. p. - cm. ovate, exp. obtuse, purplish umber (brick-red) silky white round edge at first, then broken up into squamules; g. adnate, violet purple; s. - cm. solid, rigid, rather bulbous, outside and inside dusky violet, peronate and more or less ringed white; sp. × . =evernius=, fr. p. - cm. conico-campan. exp. glabrous, purplish bay (brick-red and hoary) at length torn into fibrils; g. adnate, very broad, violet purple; s. - cm. cylindrical, soft, violet, obsoletely ringed from the veil; sp. × . =quadricolor=, fr. p. - cm. conical then exp. whitish yellow (becoming tawny) edge radiato-striate; g. adnate, broad, serrate, purplish then cinnamon; s. - cm. stuffed then hollow, equal, thin, whitish violet, veil forming an oblique white zone; sp. - × - . +++ _stem and veil reddish or yellowish. gills tawny or cinnamon, not violet nor becoming brown._ =armillatus=, fr. p. - cm. campan. exp. soon innately fibrillose and torn into squamules, reddish brick-colour; g. very broad, distant; s. - cm. solid, bulbous, rufescent, with two or three red zones; sp. × . differs from _c. hematochelis_ in distant gills, and more than one red zone on stem. =haematochelis=, bull. p. - cm. gibbous, silky fibrillose, brownish brick-red (pallid); g. adnate, crowded, rather narrow; s. - cm. solid, narrowed upwards, with one red zone; sp. × - . [=paragaudis=, fr. p. campan. exp. umb. bay (tawny tan); g. adnexed, ventricose; s. elongated, twisted, pale red, peronate with adpressed fibrillose reddish squamules. var. _praestigiosus_, fr. p. thin, striate, silky-fibrous towards edge; s. hollow, equal, slender; g. thin, distant, tawny cinnamon. =croceofulvus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. umb. even, tawny orange; g. adnate, rusty; s. - cm. solid, equal, reddish-yellow, with a narrow orange zone; sp. - × . flesh yellow. =limonius=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, obtuse, glabrous, tawny (yellowish ochre), at length squamulose; g. rather distant, yellow then tawny cinnamon; s. - cm. solid, firm, floccosely squamulose, colour of p.; sp. ----. base of s. becoming deep saffron. [=arenarius=, q. p. pruinose, ochraceous-fawn; g. pale fuscescent; s. rooting, fibrillosely floccose, sulphur. =helvolus=, fr. p. - cm. incurved then exp. glabrous, hygr. tawny-rusty then cracked umbo obtuse, vanishing; g. very broad, thick; s. - cm. attenuated, veil silky, almost smooth, peronate, terminated by a rusty edged annular zone; sp. × . =hinnuleus=, fr. p. - cm. thin, conico-campan. exp. subumb. glabrous, pallid tawny-cinnamon (somewhat tawny); g. distant, broad, quite entire, tawny cinnamon; s. - cm. rigid, somewhat tawny, narrowed below, white silky veil almost smooth forming a pallid zone at apex; sp. - × - . =gentilis=, fr. p. . - . , conico-exp. acutely umb. even, glabrous then cracked, tawny cinnamon (yellow); g. adnate, thick, very distant, entire, edge coloured like rest; s. - cm. slender, equal, scaly, tawny cinnamon, scales and oblique ring, yellow; sp. - × . =helvelloides=, fr. p. . - . , thin, subconvex, obsoletely umb. rusty (tawny then pale), then cracked; g. adnate, violet-umber then cinnamon, edge floccose, white; s. - cm. slender, undulate, silky fibrillose, with the imperfect ring and veil yellowish; sp. × . =rubellus=, cke. p. - cm. campan. then exp. rufous orange umbo darkest, flesh reddish-ochre; g. adnate, sinuate, bright rusty-red; s. - cm. pale above, dark below, with darker concentric bands; sp. × . ++++ _stem fuscescent, veil fuscous or dingy, gills dusky._ [species of _inoloma_ and _dermocybe_ are often peronately ringed, but the pileus is not hygr. and scaly or silky at first.] =bovinus=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, even, glabrous, watery cinnamon (somewhat tawny); g. very broad; s. - cm. stout, spongily bulbous, greyish then fuscous-cinnamon, whitish above fuscous zone; sp. ----. =nitrosus=, cke. stinking. p. - cm. obtuse, exp. edge wavy, fawn or tawny, disc darker, soon breaking up into darker, minute concentric scales; g. violet then dilute cinnamon; s. - cm. equal, ochre, base darker, with dark concentric squamules; sp. × . =brunneus=, fr. p. - cm. campan. exp. umber (reddish tan dingy), naked, broken up into innate fibrils near edge, umbo fleshy, obtuse; g. adnate, thick, distant, purplish then umber-cinnamon; s. - cm. narrowed upwards, elastic, fuscescent, white-striate, veil forming a brownish white zone; sp. - × . [=disjungendus=, karst. p. convex, gibbous, even, glabrous, tawny umber, white-striate; g. adnate at first, distant; s. solid, equal, base thickened and radiating, dingy, curved; sp. - × - . =injucundus=, weinm. p. - cm. compact, convexo-plane, obtuse, fuscous-cinnamon, fibrillose; g. very broad, lilac then tan; s. - cm. solid, clavate, colour of p. then tawny-yellow, fibrils and veil fuscous; sp. × . =brunneofulvus=, fr. p. - cm. thin, campan. exp. subumb. even, innately fibrillose, virgate, tawny cinnamon, edge at first white-fibrillose; g. adnate, very broad, opaque; s. - cm. narrowed from base, fibrillosely striate, fuscescent, at length pale tawny outside and inside; sp. ----. =glandicolor=, fr. entirely umber. p. . - . cm. exp. umb. hoary-fuscous when dry; g. adnate, broad, distant, entire; s. - cm. equal, slender, straight, veil forming a distant white zone; sp. ----. var. _curta_, fr. s. - cm. long, wavy, peronate with white veil, cingulate, umbo blackish. =punctatus=, fr. p. . - . cm. thin, conico-convex, glabrous, hoary-umber (tan), at length even; g. adnate, very distant, entire, brownish-cinnamon; s. - cm. slender, undulate, fibrillosely striate, brownish-yellow, a zone formed by the fugacious pale fuscous veil; sp. × . ** leptophylli. _gills narrow, thin, more or less crowded. pileus thin. stem somewhat cartilaginous and rigid outside, stuffed or hollow, often narrowed below._ + _stem whitish or pallid, floccosely scaly._ =triformis=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, subumb. hygr. opaque, almost glabrous, yellow-brown; g. subadnate; s. - cm. clavate, almost glabrous, pallid, ring white; sp. × . var. _melleopallens_, fr. p. dingy honey-colour; s. yellowish then pallid, becoming hollow, ring interwoven. var. _fuscopallens_, fr. p. umb. fuscescent then pallid; g. narrow, watery white. =biformis=, fr. p. - cm. conico-campan. exp. glabrous, shining, rusty bay, umbo fleshy, prominent; g. adnate, crenulate; s. - cm. base narrowed, fibrillosely striate, pale, ring oblique, white; sp. ----. [=fallax=, q. p. thin, becoming pallid; g. pallid then ochre; s. wavy, slender, pallid, apex blue, ring white, fugacious. [=lindgrenii=, fr. p. exp. obtuse, glabrous, rusty (ochre-tan), then wavy; g. crowded, watery cinnamon; s. short, adpressedly silky, whitish, ring subapical, reflexed. ++ _stem violet._ =periscelis=, fr. p. - cm. campan. then convex, lilac, white-silky, umbo fleshy, rest very thin; g. adnate, crowded, narrow; s. - cm. fibrillose, colour of p. interwoven brownish veil subannulate; sp. - × - . usually several imperfect brownish rings on s. [=bibulus=, q. greyish-lilac; p. ellipsoid, moist, fibrillosely silky; g. dusky violet; s. slender, covered with curled white flecks. =flexipes=, fr. p. . - . cm. conical then exp. acutely umb. violet then brownish cinnamon (reddish tan) fibrillosely hoary; g. adnate, broad, umber-violet then tan; s. - cm. wavy, subundulate, fibrillosely scaly, apex violet, veil white, subannulate; sp. ----. =flabellus=, fr. smell strong, like radishes. p. - cm. conical, exp. obtusely umb. fuscous-olive (tan) hoary fibrillose; g. adnate, connected by veins, linear, olive then rusty; s. - cm. wavy, floccosely scaly pallid, scales and ring white; sp. ----. +++ _stem and pileus tawny or rusty._ =psammocephalus=, fr. every part tawny cinnamon, inside also; p. - cm. convexo-exp. then umb. scurfily-scaly; g. adnate, arcuate, crowded; s. - cm. narrowed, squamulosely peronate from the contiguous veil; sp. × . =incisus=, fr. p. - cm. conico-convex, exp. umb. naked but soon innately fibrillosely scaly, hygr. rusty (tawny); g. adnate; s. - cm. equal, fibroso-fibrillose, rusty, ring of white veil almost obsolete; sp. × . =iliopodius=, fr. p. - cm. convex, subumb. silkily hoary then almost glabrous, reddish yellow (tan), at length rimose; g. adnate; s. - cm. equal, thin tawny (inside and outside), peronate with even pallid veil, naked and fibrillose above ring; sp. - × . ++++ _stem floccosely scaly, and like pileus fuscescent._ =hemitrichus=, fr. p. - cm. convex then plane, umb. fuscous (fuscous tan), silky towards the margin with white curled fibrils; g. adnate, crowded; s. - cm. hollow, subequal, pale fuscous, veil white, floccose, as also is ring; sp. - × - . =stemmatus=, fr. p. - cm. convex, exp. obtuse, bay, hoary-silky near the edge, fibrillose and pale when dry; g. adnate, crowded, bay; s. - cm. floccosely scaly, subannulate, rusty-bay; sp. ----. differs from _c. uraceus_ in squamulose s. =rigidus=, fr. strong scented. p. - cm. conico-convex, umb. glabrous, shining, bay (reddish); g. adnate, broad; s. - cm. equal, wavy, paler than p., veil white-squamulose, cingulate; sp. ----. =paleaceus=, fr. p. - cm. conico-exp. umb. rather fuscous (tan), silky with white downy squamules; g. adnate, truly crowded, whitish then tan; s. - cm. wavy, undulate, whitish-squamulose, apex with whitish ring; sp. - × . =iris=, massee. p. - cm. hemispher. then exp. acutely umb. pale brown-ochre, silky, white-fibrillose; g. much cut out behind, orange-brown, edge entire; s. - cm. conical, solid, orange-brown and squamulose below ring, smooth and violet at first above ring; sp. × . vi. hydrocybe. _pileus glabrous or covered with superficial white fibrils, not viscid but moist when growing, discoloured when dry; flesh very thin, splitting, disc rarely compact. stem rather rigid, not peronate; veil thin, fibrillose, rarely collapsing and forming an irreg. zone._ * firmiores. _pileus rather fleshy, convex then campan.-convex, expanded, obtuse or at length gibbous, edge at first incurved. stem generally narrowed upwards._ (colour when dry given in brackets.) + _stem and veil white._ =firmus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. obtuse, glabrous, rusty ochre, flesh compact, white; g. crowded; s. - cm. solid, stout, rather bulbous, white, veil rusty; sp. ----. differs from _c. subferrugineus_ by clear colour of p. and white s. =subferrugineus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. yellowish brick-red becoming rusty, subhygr.; g. scarcely crowded, broad, opaque, rusty; s. - cm. solid, spongy, rigid outside, subbulbous, white then dingy; sp. - × - . =armeniacus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. gibbous, glabrous, tawny cinnamon (yellowish tan), shining; g. adnate, crowded; s. - cm. conical, rigid, subperonate, white; sp. - × . var. _falsarius_, fr. p. yellow, white when dry. [=umbilicatus=, karst. p. convexo-plane, minutely umbil. undulate, obtuse, even, glabrous, brown-bay; g. very broad, cinnamon; s. equal, base thickened, whitish; sp. - . × - . . =damascenus=, fr. p. - cm. thin, exp. bay-cinnamon (brick-red, rivulose); g. adnate, crowded; s. - cm. solid, firm, cylindrical, whitish; × . =privignus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. gibbous, glabrous, pallid fuscous, silvery-hoary (tan then pallid); g. adnate, serrate; s. - cm. fragile, silvery white; sp. × . =duracinus=, fr. p. - cm. rigid, exp. gibbous, watery brick-red (tan, opaque), edge strongly incurved, silky; g. adnate, thin; s. - cm. rigid, unequal, rooting, glabrous, white; sp. × . [=candelaris=, fr. p. conico-campan. obtuse, glabrous, reddish dun (tawny, shining) edge slightly incurved white-silky; g. adnato-decur.; s. rigid, yellowish white, rooting. =illuminus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. gibbous, glabrous, tawny brick-red (brick-red, tan) edge thin; g. adnate; s. - cm. partly hollow, pallid becoming rusty; sp. - × - . =tortuosus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. glabrous, even, shining, rusty bay (brick-red); g. adnate, tawny blood-red or purplish when touched; s. somewhat twisted, silvery; sp. - × . =dilutus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. subumb. glabrous, even, opaque, reddish dun (tan); g. broad, crowded; s. - cm. soft, pallid, base thickened; sp. × . [=erugatus=, weinm. p. exp. subumb. even, nearly glabrous, shining, ochraceous, brick-red; g. subadnate, crowded; s. elongated, thinner upwards, fibrillosely striate, pallid. [=hoeftii=, fr. p. exp. obtuse, watery brick-red (tan, opaque), with a silky bloom; g. adnate, crowded, connected by veins; s. subfistulose, equal, silvery. ++ _stem and gills usually violet._ in certain sp. of preceding section there is an ephemeral tinge of violet at apex of stem. [=livor=, fr. p. exp. obtuse, glabrous, dusky olive then tan; g. emarginate, crowded, broad, semicircular, watery cinnamon; s. narrowed from subbulbous base, short, violet; sp. ----. =saturninus=, fr. p. - cm. campan. exp. glabrous, moist, dusky bay (brick-red), with white silky veil round edge; g. adnexed, crowded, purplish then rusty; s. - cm. violet, base thickened; sp. ----. =imbutus=, fr. p. - cm. convex, obtuse, glabrous, gilvous becoming pale, edge subfibrillose; g. adnate, rather distant, broad, greyish-violet then cinnamon; s. - cm. whitish, apex violet; sp. - × - . [=cypriacus=, fr. p. almost membranaceous, campan. exp. gibbous, glabrous, cinnamon (tawny); g. crowded; s. colour of p., striate with adpr. fibrils. [=plumbosus=, fr. p. convex, plane, umb. moist, blackish lead-colour, then paler and with satiny sheen near edge; g. olive-violet then cinnamon; s. hollow, attenuated upwards, violet then pallid. [=sciophyllus=, fr. p. thin, convex, exp. deep bluish fuscous (bluish), silky-white round edge at first; g. adnate, dusky umber; s. solid, violet, narrowed from thickened base. =castaneus=, bull. p. - cm. campan. exp. gibbous, even, chestnut (shining); g. violet then rusty; s. - cm. cartilaginous, violet or pallid reddish, stuffed then hollow; sp. ----. =bicolor=, cke. p. - cm. campan. exp. umb. dingy white or tinged lilac; g. adnate, purplish violet then tan; s. - cm. pale violet then pale, solid; sp. - × - . =balaustinus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. obtuse, virgate, rusty rufous (tawny brick-red, shining); g. adnate, broad rusty rufous; s. - cm. conical, pallid, then rusty outside and in; sp. × - . =colus=, fr. p. - cm. convex, subgibbous, glabrous, rufous brown (paler and shining); g. adnate, dusky cinnamon; s. - cm. fibrillosely striate with fiery-saffron mycelium; sp. × . =isabellinus=, fr. p. - cm. subumb. honey-colour, glabrous (yellowish and shining); g. adnate, yellow then tan; s. - cm. rigid, striate, yellowish; sp. × . =renidens=, fr. p. - cm. exp. even, glabrous, shining, tawny (ochre); g. crowded, tawny; s. - cm. equal and with fibrous veil, yellow; sp. - × . =angulosus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. wavy, hygr. reddish tawny (ochre, opaque); g. adnate, thickish, distant, tawny; s. - cm. equal, twisted, rather tawny; sp. ----. var. _gracilescens_, fr. s. hollow, slender, tortuous, base rather narrowed. [=zinziberatus=, fr. p. exp. umb. tawny honey-colour (yellowish), edge silky-fibrillose; g. adnate, quite entire, crisped; s. outside and base also inside, yellowish. +++ _stem fuscescent, veil pallid-dingy or white_ (_not yellow_); _gills dusky._ =uraceus=, fr. p. - cm. campan.-convex, subgibbous, even, glabrous, umber (tan, torn into fibres); g. adnate, bay brown; s. - cm. blackish fuscous, apex becoming olive; sp. - × . =jubarinus=, fr. p. - cm. campan. exp. glabrous, bright tawny cinnamon (shining); g. adnate, tawny cinnamon; s. - cm. fibrillosely striate, tawny, veil fugacious, white; sp. × . closely resembling _c. cinnamomeus_, differing in white fibrillose fugacious veil. [=rubricosus=, fr. p. exp. umb. brownish bay (brick-red, shining); g. obtusely adnate, bright rusty; s. narrowed downwards, brownish, white veil collapsing and forming a silky zone. [=nitens=, karst. p. exp. umb. white-silky from veil then glabrous and shining, brownish bay; g. tawny cinnamon; s. subequal, fuscous, white veil forming oblique bands; sp. × . . [=irregularis=, fr. p. exp. umb. wavy, fuscous brown (tawny rusty, shining); g. decur. closely crowded, rusty; s. naked, brick-red with white striae. =pateriformis=, fr. p. - cm. plano-depr. obtuse, orbicular, chestnut brown with white deciduous fibrils; g. brick-red; s. hollow, equal, tinged fuscous; sp. ----. [=phaeophyllus=, karst. p. convex exp. umb. entirely even, edge silky, glabrous, watery cinnamon, ochre and shining when dry; g. adnate, brown-tan, edge honey-colour; s. equal, usually wavy, silky-fibrillose, pallid-white; sp. - × - . =unimodus=, britz. p. - cm. campan. then exp. usually depr. round umbo, shining, rufous brown; g. adnexed, brown; s. - cm. fibrous, brown below; sp. - × . ** tenuiores. _pileus submembranaceous, conical then exp. umbo acute, rarely obtuse or nearly obsolete, edge at first straight._ + _stem white._ =dolabratus=, fr. p. - cm. campan. exp. obtuse, glabrous, brick-red (even and tan), silky near the edge; g. adnate, very broad, distant, tan; s. - cm. stout, cylindrical, shining white; sp. - × - . smell very disagreeable. =rigens=, fr. p. - cm. conical then convex, obtuse, glabrous, opaque, tan (whitish tan); g. adnato-subdecur.; s. - cm. cartilaginous, rigid, rooting, white; sp. - × . [=fulvescens=, fr. p. exp. shining, cinnamon (brick-red), at length fibrillose, umbo persistent rather acute; g. adnate; s. attenuated, soft, rather wavy, becoming pale. =krombholzii=, fr. p. - cm. conico-campan. then gibbous, even, glabrous, tan, edge append.; g. nearly free, broad, rusty edge yellowish; s. - cm. equal, naked, white; sp. × - . =reedii=, berk. p. - cm. conical then exp. and strongly umb. shining, persistently brown; g. free; s. - cm. equal, rather bulbous, white, solid; sp. - × . =leucopus=, bull. p. . - . cm. conical then exp. and umb. even, glabrous, yellowish red (clay-colour, shining); g. subadnexed, crowded; s. - cm. equal, shining white; sp. × - . differs from _c. pluvius_ in not being viscid. =scandens=, fr. p. - cm. conical, exp. tawny rusty to watery honey-colour (clay-colour), umbo fleshy, edge striate; g. adnate, tawny cinnamon, edge same colour; s. - cm. wavy, even, apex thickened, base attenuated, whitish; sp. × . ++ _stem somewhat violet or reddish._ =erythrinus=, fr. p. - cm. conical, exp. rufous bay, prominent umbo darker; g. adnexed; s. - cm. equal, somewhat curved, violet above; sp. ----. var. _argyropus_. slenderer than type; stem silvery, apex mealy. =decipiens=, fr. p. - cm. conical, glabrous, shining, fuscous-bay, depr. round darker umbo (brick-red); g. adnate; s. equal, slender, with a pale separable cuticle; sp. × . s. usually without any violet, pale red inside. var. _insignis_, fr. p. paler; s. flexuous, glabrous. =germanus=, fr. smell strong. p. - cm. conico-exp. obtusely umb. rather silky, fragile, fuscescent (clay-colour); g. adnate, broad; s. thin, equal, glabrous, lilac then pallid; sp. ----. =ianthipes=, secr. p. conical then exp. umb. fibrillose, shining, brown, edge yellowish; g. white then greyish olive; s. shining, violet, rufous below. +++ _stem yellowish, usually becoming pale._ =detonsus=, fr. p. - cm. conical, exp. subumb. glabrous, brick-red or yellowish (tan and silky); g. adnate, yellowish then brick-red, quite entire; s. - cm. glabrous, tinged yellow then pallid; sp. × . =saniosus=, fr. p. conical then convex and umb. not striate, glabrous, tawny fuscous (tawny, shining), edge fibrillosely torn; g. adnate, quite entire; s. curved, yellowish, veil fibrillose, yellow. =obtusus=, fr. p. - cm. conico-campan. striate to middle, shining, reddish yellow (ochre then pallid, opaque, fibrillosely torn); g. adnato-ventricose, edge white-fimbriate; s. hollow, soft, ventricose, becoming pale, - cm.; sp. × . =acutus=, fr. p. . - cm. conical, acutely umb. entirely striate, yellowish red (clay-colour, silky then even); g. adnate, ochre, entire; s. - cm. equal, slender, wavy, pale; sp. × . ++++ _stem becoming fuscescent._ =junghuhnii=, fr. p. - cm. conical, exp. papillate, persistently minutely velvety with thin innate white fibrils, shining cinnamon (somewhat tawny); g. adnate, orange brick-red; s. - cm. shining, adpressedly fuscous-fibrillose; sp. × - . =depressus=, fr. p. - cm. conico-convex, umb. glabrous, at first superficially silky near striate edge, fuscous then rusty; g. adnate, saffron then yellowish; s. hollow, reddish, base fuscous, white-silky; sp. ----. =milvinus=, fr. strong scented. p. conico-exp. subumb. striate to disc, somewhat olive (tan then pallid), edge crowned with white innate squamules; g. adnate, rusty olive, base veined; s. - cm. equal, curved, fuscous then pallid, spotted with the white silky veil; sp. - × . =fasciatus=, fr. p. - cm. conico-exp. glabrous, fuscescent (brick-red then pallid and silky) umbo acute, blackish; g. adnate, distant; s. - cm. rather wavy, glabrous, fibrously splitting, pallid fuscous; sp. × . differs from _c. acutus_ in very distant g. crepidotus, fr. =palmatus=, bull. p. - cm. compact, convex then exp. irreg. glabrous, pelliculose, rusty; g. fixed to a collar, colour of p.; s. excentric or lateral, incurved, glabrous, whitish; sp. subg. . differs from _pleurotus subpalmatus_ in rusty sp. a form with a central s. occurs. [=hypsophilus=, r. fries. subcaespitose. p. fleshy, compact, irreg. laterally produced, entire, convex then plane, edge becoming upturned, glabrous, fuscous tan; g. emarginate, crowded, dingy yellow; s. very excentric, short, curved whitish. [=nidulans=, mass. (= _pleurotus nidulans_, fr., _crepidotus junquillea_ (paulet) lucand.) p. fleshy, at first resupinate then expanded, sessile, subreniform, tomentose, yellow; g. broad, rather distant, tawny-orange; sp. tawny. =alveolus=, lasch. p. - cm. soft, lateral, obovate, wavy, plane, glabrous, ochre-fuscous, sessile or produced behind into a short stem-like downy base; g. broad; sp. - long. [=stiriacus=, wetts. p. fleshy-fibrous, ovate-shell-shaped, semiorbicular, or cuneiform, simple, lobed or partite, tomentose; g. dense, ochre-fuscous; s. lateral, very short; sp. - × . =mollis=, fr. p. - cm. gelatinously fleshy, soft, obovate or reniform, flaccid, subsessile, glabrous, pallid then greyish; g. decur. from base, crowded, linear, whitish then watery cinnamon; sp. - × - . =putrigenus=, b. and c. imbricate, sessile; p. - cm. subreniform, whitish, tomentose; g. broad, rusty-brown; sp. subglobose, - , rusty. =applanatus=, fr. p. - cm. soft, fragile, plane, reniform or cuneate, whitish, produced behind into a very short white-downy base; g. determinate, crowded, whitish then pale cinnamon; sp. × . [=scalaris=, fr. imbricated. p. submembranaceous, very soft, effuso-reflexed, even, glabrous, clear dilute ochre, pellucid when fresh; g. decur. from base, distant, thin, whitish then cinnamon. =calolepis=, fr. p. - cm. dimidiate, sessile and fixed by a downy nodule, white, marginate behind, variegated with minute rufescent scales; g. radiating from base, at length brownish rusty; sp. ----. =haustellaris=, fr. p. - cm. flaccid, exactly lateral, reniform, plane, even, very slightly downy, tan; g. rounded behind, pallid then fuscous-cinnamon; s. distinct, narrowed upwards, downy, white; sp. ----. [=peteauxii=, q. p. resupinate then cup-shaped, lateral, reniform, tomentose, snow-white; g. free, whitish then ochre. =rubi=, berk. (= _naucoria effugiens_, q.) p. . - cm. convexo-plane, edge incurved, pale yellowish tan, sprinkled with glistening particles; g. adnato-decur. rather broad, greyish then umber; s. - mm. incurved; sp. - long. =chimnophilus=, b. and br. p. - mm. convex, edge incurved, downy, whitish; g. attenuated behind, distant, narrow, pale tan; s. very short or obsolete; sp. × µ. =epibryus=, fr. white. p. - mm. resupinate, sessile, adnate by the vertex, silky then smooth; g. radiating from the centre, thin, crowded, whitish then reddish-yellow; sp. ----. [=inhonestus=, karst. p. resupinate, sessile, adnate laterally or by the vertex, rather silky, orbicular or subreniform, whitish; g. broad, thin, white then brownish; sp. - × . =phillipsii=, b. and br. p. - cm. rather fleshy, oblique, striate, smooth, pale umber; g. narrow, ventricose, slightly adnate, pale tan; s. short, solid, incurved; sp. - × . µ. =pezizoides=, nees. p. - mm. sessile, thin, cup-shaped then recurved, mealy, subtomentose, whitish; g. radiating from the centre, rather distant, brownish-olive then tawny. =luteolus=, lamb. p. thin, stipitate at first then resupinate and stem disappearing, tomentose, clear yellow then pale; g. crowded, orange-yellow then cinnamon; sp. rusty. =ralfsii=, b. and br. p. - cm. convex, edge incurved, delicately hispid or scurfy, yellow, fixed by cottony mycelium, stem obsolete; g. rather broad, ventricose, pale tan, edge whitish; sp. ----. =parisotii=, pat. minute. p. sessile, minutely velvety, bright citrin, stem almost obsolete, white, downy, edge incurved; g. very distant, reddish; sp. - × . only appears to differ from _c. luteolus_ in being somewhat smaller. [=subintiger=, schulz. p. thin, cylindrical then cyphelliform, fixed by centre, orbicular-reniform, whitish, slightly tomentose; g. radiating from centre, free, distant, ventricose, yellowish brown, edge wavy and fimbriate; sp. - long. [=pallescens=, q. p. umbil. downy, yellowish white; g. adnate, white then pallid; s. short incurved, downy, white; sp. long. [=scutellinus=, q. p. convexo-plane, vertex minutely mucronate, pellucid, rivulosely striate, whitish then ochre; s. filiform, arcuate, short, downy, colour of p.; g. narrow, adnate, denticulate, white then pale ochre; sp. long. [=cesatii=, rab. p. sessile, resupinate, rather tough, soft, whitish or pallid gilvous; g. broad, pallid; sp. pale yellow; sp. - × - . habit of _claudopus variabilis_, but p. not tomentose, g. not reddish, and pale sp. [=proboscideus=, fr. p. resupinate, campan. vertex prominent, pedunculate, even, pubescent, ochraceous; g. radiating from an excentric point, thin, straight, colour of p. must be carefully distinguished from _pax. panuoides_. =epigaeus=, pers. p. - cm. thin, reniform or flabellate, reddish-grey, base downy, whitish; g. distinct, narrow, diverging, watery rufescent; sp. × . entire fungus soft and watery; growing on naked damp earth. melanosporae. a. _gills free from stem._ =chitonia=. volva present, ring absent. =agaricus=. (= _psalliota_, fr.) ring present, volva absent. =pilosace=. volva and ring both absent. b. _gills attached to stem._ (quite free from stem in some species of _coprinus_.) + _stem with a distinct membranous ring._ =stropharia=. gills adnate dark brown or purplish. =anellaria=. gills adnexed, grey and clouded with the black spores. ++ _ring very imperfect or absent; gills decurrent._ =gomphidius=. gills subgelatinous. +++ _gills not decurrent, not adhering laterally when young, not deliquescent._ =hypholoma=. gills sinuate, dark brown or blackish-purple; veil often hanging in fragments from edge of pileus. =panaeolus=. edge of pileus extending beyond the gills, pileus not striate. =psathyrella=. pileus sulcate or striate. =psathyra=. stem fragile; edge of pileus straight when young. =psilocybe=. stem tough; edge of pileus incurved when young. ++++ _gills adhering laterally when young, deliquescing at maturity._ =coprinus=. ring and volva present in some species, ring alone others, both absent in others; gills adnate, adnexed or free. +++++ _flesh of pileus entirely absent, the gills radiating from the stem free and unconnected by flesh above._ =montagnites=. volva present, buried in the ground. chitonia, fr. =rubriceps=, cke. and mass. p. - cm. campan. then exp. umb. reddish-brown; g. free, purplish-brown; s. - cm. hollow, paler than p., volva large, free edge torn; sp. × . introduced along with living plants into kew gardens. [=coprinus=, fr. (= _ag. involucratus_, mont.) p. fleshy, convex, viscid, yellowish, sometimes floccosely scaly from fragments of volva; g. free, smoky-black; s. fistulose, naked, whitish, volva very small. unless the small volva is noticed, this fungus will be considered as a sp. of _coprinus_. agaricus, l. a. edules. _large, fleshy._ =augustus=, fr. p. - cm. globose then exp. very obtuse, disc even, rest fibrillosely-scaly, pale yellow-brown; g. crowded, narrow, fuscous, remote from stem; s. - cm. solid, ring superior, large, areolately squamulose below; sp. × . . edible. =peronatus=, mass. p. hemispher. then exp. dull ochre, densely scaly; g. distant from stem, crowded, purple-brown; s. - cm. equal, marginately bulbous, hollow, with large spreading white scales up to broad spreading ring; sp. × . edible. differs from _a. augustus_ in hollow, peronate stem. =elvensis=, b. and br. p. - cm. subglobose then exp. fibrillose, broken up into large persistent brown scales, edge warted; g. crowded; s. - cm. narrowed at base, fibrillose, ring large, thick, warted below; sp. × . edible. [=praenitens=, beck. p. hemispher. exp. white, with densely imbricated chestnut scales which become smaller and denser at disc; g. remote, purple-brown, edge white; s. clavato-bulbous, concentrically scaly up to large ring, white; sp. - × . =arvensis=, schaeff. p. - cm. conico-campan. then exp. smooth, even, white often stained yellow, flesh white, unchangeable; g. close to stem, narrow; s. - cm. hollow, whitish, floccosely stuffed, ring pendulous, double, exterior radiately split; sp. × . ( - × sacc.) edible. var. _purpurascens_, cke. smaller than type. p. tinged purple. differs from _ag. xanthodermus_ in the persistently white flesh. =xanthodermus=, genev. (= _ag. flavescens_, roze.) p. - cm. fleshy, convex, even, glabrous, greyish-white, cuticle becoming yellowish when touched, and the white flesh changing to yellow when broken; g. free, sinuate, pale rose then grey, finally purple-brown; s. cylindrical, stuffed, ring thin, flesh deep yellow at base, rest white; sp. ----. differs from _a. arvensis_ in flesh becoming yellow, and in yellow base of stem. [=ammophilus=, ménier. p. convex, exp. thick, whitish; g. free, crowded, rosy; s. stout, solid, base more or less thickened, whitish, ring membranous, strongly adherent to apex of s. slightly striate, with a circular canal; sp. - . × - . =cretaceus=, fr. p. - cm. globose then convex, shining white, at first smooth and silky, then fibrillosely squamulose; g. for a long time white, then blackish-brown; s. - cm. white, hollow, ring large, superior, fixed; sp. × . edible. =pratensis=, schaeff. p. - cm. ovoid then exp. even or squamulose, greyish-white; g. rounded behind, grey then brown; s. - cm. stuffed, base thickened, naked, ring median, simple, deciduous; sp. × . . var. _fulveolus_, lasch. p. squamuloso-fibrillose, yellowish or reddish; s. hollow, yellowish; g. tawny-denticulate. [=bernardii=, q. compact, white, tomentose under a lens. p. - cm. convex then exp. cracked into areolae, greyish-white; s. solid, stout, ovate, striate at the apex, ring membranous, striate above; g. free, greyish-pink then bay-brown; flesh white, becoming purplish then brownish when broken; sp. subgl. . foetid. edible. =campestris=, l. - cm. convex then plane, floccosely silky or fibrillose, whitish, flesh reddish-brown when cut; g. close to stem, subliquescent, fleshy then umber; s. stuffed, even, white, ring median, torn; sp. - × - . edible. var. _alba_, berk. p. rather silky white; s. short. var. _praticola_, vitt. p. with rufous scales, flesh reddish. var. _rufescens_, berk. p. rufous, minutely scaly; s. elongated. var. _umbrina_, vitt. p. even, umber; s. stout, squamulose. var. _fulvaster_, viv. p. even, ochraceous-tawny; s. solid; g. rosy then blackish. var. _villaticus_, brond. p. cortex breaking up into scales; s. peronately scaly up to inf. ring. var. _silvicola_, vitt. p. almost smooth, white, shining; s. stuffed, elongated, subbulbous, ring simple, flesh not changing colour. var. _robustissimus_, pen. p. equal, large, cm.; g. very broad, up to cm.; s. tall, cm. high, cm. thick. var. _exsertus_, viv. p. fleshy, almost even, glabrous, white, flesh red; s. hollow, slender, rather wavy, smooth ring small and torn, appendiculate. var. _hortensis_, cke. p. fibrillose or squamulose, brownish. the variety commonly cultivated in england. var. _costatus_, viv. p. sulcate, wavy. var. _vaporarius_, otto. p. and s. with a brown pilose covering. var. _exannulatus_, cke. p. squamulose; s. elongated, equal, solid, ring evanescent or obsolete. =perrera=, schulz. (= _psal. bresadolae_, schulz.) p. - cm. hemispher. then exp. yellowish, centre tawny, covered with concentrically arranged tawny scales; g. remote, crowded, joined in a ring behind, rosy then fuscous; s. equal, - cm. stuffed then hollow, base submarginately bulbous, with evanescent tawny scales below the large superior ring; sp. - × . [=bitorquis=, q. p. - cm. globose then exp. almost glabrous, milk-white then cream or ochre at the edge; g. remote from s. becoming deep brown; s. solid, ovoid, glabrous, white, with a membranous ring near the apex and a volva-like ring near the base, separated by a concave notch; sp. - long. edible. [=flavescens=, gillet. p. globose then convex, dry, satiny, white, soon tinged yellow or reddish-yellow; g. broad, brown; stem with a turbinate bulb, white, suffused with reddish-yellow; flesh white, ring fugacious; sp. × . =silvaticus=, schaeff. p. - cm. thin, campan. then exp. gibbous, fibrillose or squamulose, centre brownish becoming paler at edge; g. crowded, dry; s. - cm. hollow, equal, whitish, ring simple, distant; sp. × . =haemorrhoidarius=, kalchbr. p. - cm. ovate then exp. rufous-brown, covered with broad adpressed scales, edge at first incurved, flesh deep red when broken; g. crowded, purple-umber; s. - cm. white, soon hollow, fibrillose base solid, subbulbous, stains red when bruised, ring superior, large; sp. - × . edible. [=sanguinarius=, karst. flesh blood-red when broken. p. campan. exp. obtuse, usually wavy, even, pale fuscous, broken up into squamules; g. free, crowded, white, rosy-umber; s. elongated, subequal, curved, silky-flocculose then almost glabrous, white, ring superior, pendulous, fixed, persistent, areolately-scaly outside near edge; sp. - × - . [=niveorubens=, q. floccose, shining white, everywhere becoming red. quélet now considers this to be a form of _ag. sylvatica_, schaeff., to which sp. he also refers _ag. setigera_, paul., _ag. haemorrhoidaria_, kalchb., _ag. rubella_, gill., and _ag. vaillantii_, roze and rich. =setiger=, fr. p. exp. obtuse, smooth and silky, pale umber; g. umber; s. stuffed, elongated, equal, squamuloso-fibrillose, colour of p., ring thin, fugacious. [=rubellus=, gillet. p. exp. obtusely umb. with reddish scales, especially at the disc, which is deep red-brown, paler towards edge; g. crowded; s. hollow, cartilaginous, base swollen; ring fugacious; flesh white. [=lecensis=, harz. smells like aniseed. p. convex then almost plane, yellowish-white, often broken up into brown polygonal pyramidal patches; g. white, rosy-violet, then brown, both ends narrowed; s. solid, coarsely scaly above, white becoming tinted rosy or yellow; ring conspicuous, radiately striate, outside scaly; sp. - × . - . [=caldarius=, wettst. p. convex then exp. white, disc even, brownish squamulose towards edge; g. remote, narrow; s. glabrous, whitish; sp. - × - . b. minores. _flesh of pileus thin._ =comptulus=. p. - cm. convexo-plane, adpressedly silky, white; g. flesh-colour then rosy; s. - cm. hollow, yellowish-white, ring median; sp. - × - . =sagatus=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, tawny, glabrous; g. ventricose, umber; s. - cm. hollow, equal, pale, ring distant, spreading; sp. × - . [=amethystinus=, q. p. - cm. convex then plane, umb. downy or fibrillose, white with the centre rose, lilac or amethyst; g. free, ventricose, clear grey then bay-brown; s. slender, with a silky pith, somewhat bulbous, fragile, glabrous, white, with a satiny, white ring; sp. - long. [=semotus=, fr. p. exp. even, glabrous, brick-red, disc darker; g. rather distant from stem, pallid; s. fistulose, reddish and more or less peronate up to spreading ring, pale above; sp. - × - . [=dulcidulus=, kalchbr. p. plane, subgibbous, almost glabrous, dry, lurid white or ochre; g. crowded, grey then blackish; s. subbulbous, colour of p., ring median, persistent. umbo often tinged fuscous or violet. =rusiophyllus=, lasch. p. - cm. soon plane, umbonate, silky, ruddy, becoming pale; g. crowded, rosy then brown; s. - cm. thickened downwards, white, ring persistent; sp. × . [=zonarius=, brond. p. cm. convex, with pellucid brown-violet zones; g. free, rosy then bay-bistre; s. solid, elongated, ring membranous, white. [=geniculatus=, brig. p. campan. exp. tumid, glabrous, pale bay, edge split here and there; g. free, remote from stem; s. bent, base thickened, ring inf. remarkable in this genus for growing on wood. [=haematospermus=, bull. p. campan. then exp. then umb. and scaly, brownish tan then blackish; g. rosy-blood-red then fuscous; s. fistulose, equal, glabrous, colour of p., ring median, erect; sp. - × . =subgibbosus=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, umb. even, glabrous but silky towards edge, yellowish; g. remote from stem, white then greyish-fuscous; s. - cm. fistulose, slender, ring fugacious. pilosace, fr. =algeriensis=, fr. p. - cm. convex then exp. even, glabrous, white then disc tinged brownish; flesh very thick, white; g. very narrow, rosy then umber; s. - cm. very stout, white, base thickened, solid; sp. subgl. µ. [=bresadolae=, schulz. p. very thin and very fragile, irreg. campan. then exp. and edge wavy, margin split, pale yellow-fuscous, glabrous, even; g. free, blackish-brown, edge white-mealy; s. often slightly wavy, apex abruptly contracted, white; sp. × - . many plants spring from a subterranean fleshy mass. [=phoenix=, fr. p. thin, campan. exp. even, glabrous, hygr. fuscous then pale; g. free, ventricose, pallid then umber; s. stuffed, striate, subbulbous, rooting, pallid. stropharia, fr. a. viscipelles. _pellicle of pileus even or scaly, often viscid._ * mundi. _not growing on dung._ [=depilata=, pers. p. exp. even, glabrous, viscid, yellowish-livid then tan; g. adnato-decur. broad, white then blackish; s. solid, with white revolute squarrose white scales below the ample ring; sp. - × - . =percevali=, b. and br. p. - cm. rather viscid, umb. then exp. ochre, scaly at first near edge; g. adnexed, broad distant; s. - cm. squamulose up to ring, dark inside; sp. - × . _s. squamosa_ differs in adnate, crowded g. =versicolor=, with. p. - cm. convexo-plane, scaly, edge incurved; g. decur. pallid then reddish-brown; s. cm. whitish then brownish, ring persistent. a species about which little is known. =aeruginosa=, curt. p. - cm. convex then exp. subumb. or quite plane, at first with bluish-green mucus and sometimes with white squamules, then yellowish; g. adnate, purplish; s. - cm. viscid, squamulose below ring, tinged green, often quite glabrous; sp. × . very variable within certain limits. often stout and deep coloured in shady woods. slender and soon dry in open pastures. =squamulosa=, massee (= _s. aeruginosa_; var. _squamulosa_, mass.). p. - cm. soon plane, deep verdigris-green, dry, squamulose; g. crowded, brown; s. - cm. stout, fibrilloso-squamulose, green, ring fragmentary; sp. - × . superficially like _s. aeruginosa_, but dry and silky, innately squamulose, and brown g. =albocyanea=, desm. . - cm. exp. umb. viscid, greenish-blue then whitish; g. purplish; s. - cm. slender, flexuous, pallid or tinged green, ring incomplete; sp. - × - . differs from _s. worthingtoni_ in greenish p. [=tavastense=, karst. p. convex then flat, disc often depr. sometimes umb. glabrous, with concentric yellowish-white squamules near edge, yellowish livid then dingy tawny tan; g. adnexed, crowded; s. straight, fragile, almost equal, solid, pale then fuscescent, ring torn, fugacious. [=consentiens=, karst. p. convex, exp. umb. then depr. even, glabrous, rather viscid, yellowish-livid, tinged olive, edge involute; g. adnate, paler than p.; s. subequal, stuffed, wavy, apex pruinose, yellowish rusty. [=coprinifacies=, roll. p. hygr. conico-campan. then exp. viscid, umber brown then pallid, with blue mucus; g. ventricose, both ends narrowed, dusky purple, edge white; s. dingy white tinged blue, ring median; sp. × . =inuncta=, fr. p. - cm. exp. subumb. with livid purple gluten that disappears, then pale; g. adnate, pale brown; s. - cm. flexuous, white, fibrillose below distant imperfect ring; sp. × . =coronilla=, bull. p. - cm. plane, tawny-ochre then pale, edge white flocculose; g. sinuato-adnate, violet, edge white; s. - cm. white, ring median, violet-striate; sp. × . =ventricosa=, mass. p. . - cm. exp. broadly gibbous, slightly viscid, tawny-ochre then paler; g. almost free, purplish; s. - cm. ventricose below middle, base rooting, pale, ring large, striate, apical; sp. × . [=fusoidea=, pat. p. - . cm. campan. then exp. and umb. edge striate, ochre; g. adnate, purplish; s. elongated, slender, smooth, strongly ventricose near the base, whitish, ring distant; sp. - × - . differs from _s. ventricosa_ in being smaller, and in the small, distant ring. =obturata=, fr. p. - cm. exp. becoming cracked into squamules, almost dry, yellow; g. adnate, purplish-umber; s. - cm. stuffed, short, narrowed downwards, white, ring tumid; sp. × . [=capillacea=, gillet. p. conico-campan. very finely wrinkled, reddish brown with whitish flecks near margin more especially; g. blackish brown, edge toothed; s. whitish, squamulose, ring fugacious. =melasperma=, bull. p. - cm. convexo-plane, rather viscid, white or yellowish; g. ventricose, blackish violet; s. - cm. hollow, equal, white, ring superior, deciduous; sp. × . =squamosa=, fr. p. - cm. exp. subviscid, yellowish-tan with evanescent concentric scales; g. adnate, blackish, edge white; s. - cm. pallid, rusty near base, squamulose up to distant ring; sp. × . var. _thrausta_ (_ag. thrausta_, kalchbr.). slender, fragile, hygr. not scaly; sp. - × . var. _aurantiaca_, cke. p. orange or brick-red. [=albonitens=, fr. p. thin, exp. gibbous, viscid, glabrous, hyaline-white, shining white when dry; g. adnate, crowded, pale fuscous; s. stuffed with pith, everywhere floccosely villose, pale straw when dry; sp. - × - . =worthingtoni=, fr. p. - cm. campan. viscid, yellow; g. adnate, broad, brown; s. - cm. slender, flexuous, dark blue, ring incomplete; sp. × . differs from _s. albocyanea_ in the yellow p. [=palustris=, q. p. hemispher. umb. rather viscid, hygr. greyish-tawny, disc brown; g. adnate, very broad; s. slender, white, covered with transverse tawny scales, ring distant. ** merdarii. _ring often incomplete._ =luteonitens=, fl. dan. p. - cm. conico-campan. umb. viscid, yellow, edge squamulose; g. adnexed, ventricose; s. - cm. fistulose, even, pruinose above distant ring, whitish; sp. - × . ( × - sacc.) intermediate between _s. squamosa_ and _psilocybe coprophila_, having scaly p. and ring of former, and stature of latter. =merdaria=, fr. p. . - . cm. exp. obtuse, glabrous, moist, hygr. dingy yellow-brown or pale bay; g. adnate, broad; s. - cm. flocculose, dry, pallid, ring fugacious; sp. × . ( - × - sacc.) [=mammilata=, kalchbr. p. thin, exp. conico-papillate, even, viscid, pale ochre; g. rotundato-adnate, blackish brown; s. glabrous, white then yellowish, ring fugacious. =stercoraria=, fr. p. - cm. hemispher. then discoid, rather viscid, glabrous, yellow; g. adnate, broad, olive-black; s. - cm. stuffed with free pith, elongated, flocculose below the distant ring, rather viscid, white tinged yellow; sp. - × - . =semiglobata=, batsch. p. - cm. persistently hemispher. even, glutinous, yellow; g. adnate, broad, clouded black; s. - cm. glabrous, glutinous, yellowish, ring imperfect, inferior; sp. × . differs from _p. stercoraria_ in persistently hemispher. p. and glabrous s. [=siccipes=, karst. p. hemispher. exp. obtuse, orbicular, naked, even or edge slightly pellucidly striate, viscid, whitish clay-colour; g. adnato-subdecur. clay-colour then fuscous and clouded; s. pallid, dry, straight or wavy, flocculose, pruinose above the distant, dry ring; sp. - × - . intermediate between _s. stercoraria_ and _s. semiglobata_. [=paradoxa=, p. henn. p. campan. papillately umb. viscid, centre brown, edge broadly revolute, even, glabrous; g. adnato-decur. wavy, veined, dusky brown; s. wavy, striate, fibrous, yellow, base white-downy, ring black, floccose, deciduous; sp. - × - . b. spintrigeri. _pileus without a pellicle, but innately fibrous, not viscid._ [=calceata=, schaeff. p. exp. adpressedly fibrillose, moist, stoutly umb. even, dingy yellow then pale; g. nearly free; s. solid, glabrous, white, base marginately bulbous, limb free like a volva. [=ocreata=, holmsk. p. globoso-campan.-exp. obtuse, granulose then imbricately scaly, red then gilvous; g. nearly free; s. peronate up to imperfect ring. [=medusa=, brig. p. globose then convex, even, subrimosely squamulose when dry, yellowish white, edge lobed; g. nearly free, sooty, edge crenulate; s. solid, subtuberous, fibrillose, white, ring fugacious. =caput-medusae=, fr. p. - cm. ovate, exp. lacunose, squamulose, discoid, umber-brown, edge ochre; g. adfixed; s. - cm. peronate with squarrose scales up to superior ring, scales at length falling away; sp. × . ( - × sacc.) =scobinacea=, fr. p. - cm. exp. gibbous, somewhat sulcate, at first covered with crowded, blackish adpressed squamules; g. adnate, crenulate, purplish; s. - cm. hollow, fibrillose, white, apex mealy, ring superior, fugacious; sp. ----. [=sulcata=, gill. p. conico-campan. umb. covered except at summit with branched ridges, reddish; g. distant; s. white, striate below and mealy above the ring. [=sulcatula=, gill. p. convex, rugosely ridged, when young with reddish superficial scales, then naked and whitish or tinged red at disc; sooty-brown, edge whitish, denticulate; s. elongated, squamulose up to ring, striate above, white, base rooting very cottony. [=cotonea=, q. at first entirely white. p. - cm. spherical then convex, snow-white, covered with floccose squamules; g. sinuate, white, then purple, at length brownish-purple, edge white; s. - cm. fistulose, curved, floccosely scaly, apex glabrous, ring floccose; sp. long. quélet considers this species to be identical with _hyph. lacrymabundum_, fries. =battarrae=, fr. p. hemispher. then exp., more or less olive, covered with adpressed squamules most crowded at the disc; g. sinuate, white then rosy, finally purple-brown, edge white; s. fistulose, whitish, with brownish or olive squamules up to ring, apex pruinose, ring thin, white, partly appendiculate; sp. long. [=punctulata=, kalchbr. p. thin, convex, dry, pallid, squamulosely punctate from the veil, then naked; g. sinuato-adnate with a decur. tooth, pale umber; s. stuffed, pallid, squamulose from the veil above. =jerdoni=, b. and br. p. - cm. exp. umbo fleshy, broad, ochraceous with snow-white evanescent flecks; g. adnate with a decur. line, transversely striate; s. - cm. snow-white and pulverulent above, brownish squamulose below, ring superior; sp. × . =spintrigera=, fr. p. - cm. ovate then exp. obtuse, even, glabrous, brownish or pinkish tan then pale; g. adnate, crowded; s. - cm. hollow, floccosely-fibrillose, white, ring distant, fugacious; sp. ----. =hypsipoda=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, even, glabrous, hygr. brownish yellow; g. white then fuscous; s. - cm. hollow, equal, glabrous, whitish, ring median, persistent; sp. - × - . =cothurnata=, fr. p. exp. obtuse, even, thin, white, not hygr.; g. adnexed, crowded; s. floccosely villose up to median ring, white. anellaria, karst. =separata=, karst. p. - cm. campan. obtuse, not exp. viscid, dull ochre then pale and often rugulose; g. adfixed, greyish black; s. - cm. straight, white, base thickened, ring distant; sp. × . ( - × - sacc.) =scitula=, mass. p. - . cm. campan. obtuse, smooth, viscid, drab or dingy ochre; g. almost free, grey; s. - cm. peronate up to inferior ring; sp. - × . =fimiputris=, karst. p. . - cm. conico-exp. thin, subgibbous, viscid, dusky grey; paler when dry; g. adfixed, livid blackish; s. - cm. pallid, slender, equal, pallid, with ring reduced to a zone; sp. - × . gomphidius, fr. =glutinosus=, schaeff. p. - cm. obtuse, glutinous, purplish-brown; g. slightly decur. whitish then grey; s. - cm. whitish, ring indistinct, solid, flesh white, yellow at base; sp. - × - . var. _roseus_, fr. smaller. p. rosy; s. white, base rosy outside and inside. =viscidus=, sow. p. - cm. fleshy, at length umb. edge acute, viscid, reddish-brown; g. decur. purple-umber, branched; s. - cm. yellow-brown, flesh yellow-brown, deepest at base; sp. - × . var. _testaceus_, fr. p. and base of s. outside and in brick-red; g. plano-decur. =maculatus=, scop. p. - cm. convex, viscid, whitish, spotted with black when old; g. decur. branched, umber; s. - cm. cylindrical, yellow, flesh reddish. var. _cookei_, mass. p. - cm. convex then either subdepr. or gibbous, viscid, whitish with black stains; g. decur. whitish then brownish; s. cm. narrowed downwards, pale then blackish, flesh dark at base; sp. × - . =gracilis=, b. p. - cm. conical then hemispher. sometimes depr. and subumb. vinous brown, or tan with gluten that leaves blackish spots; g. decur. whitish then bistre; s. - cm. flexuous, pallid, base yellow; sp. - × . hypholoma, fr. * fasciculares. _pileus tough, glabrous, bright coloured when dry, not hygr._ =silaceum=, pers. p. - cm. convex, orange-rufous, edge whitish and silky; g. adnate, grey then olive; s. - cm. bulbous, shining; sp. ----. fries says it is solitary, secretan says caespitose from a common base. =sublateritium=, schaeff. p. - cm. convexo-plane, discoid, dry, becoming glabrous, orange brick-red, edge pale, flesh compact, whitish; g. adnate, white then smoky olive; s. - cm. fibrillose, rusty; sp. × . var. _schaefferi_, fr. p. yellow; s. hollow, equal. var. _squamosa_, fr. p. brick-red, edge yellow with superficial scales, flesh thick, yellowish. [=transversum=, gill. p. exp. obtusely umb. glabrous, brick-red, disc darker; g. yellowish, narrowed at both ends, connected by strong veins; s. solid, glabrous, pale above, base rusty. =capnoides=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, obtuse, very glabrous, yellow or tinged tawny; g. adnate, grey then purplish; s. - cm. pallid, slightly silky; sp. × . =epixanthum=, fr. p. - cm. exp. subgibbous, silky then glabrous, pale yellow, disc often tawny, flesh yellow; g. yellowish white then grey; s. - cm. floccosely fibrillose, whitish, apex mealy; sp. × . =elaeodes=, fr. p. - cm. exp. subumb. dry, glabrous, brick-red, flesh yellow; g. green then pure olive; s. - cm. fibrillose, rusty; sp. - × - . =fasciculare=, huds. fasciculate, taste bitter. p. - cm. exp. subumb. tawny, edge pale; g. adnate, closely crowded, yellow then greenish, subliquescent; s. - cm. hollow, fibrillose, flesh like that of p. yellow; sp. × . said to be a parasite on the roots of raspberry. =instratum=, britz. p. - cm. convex, broadly umb. dark brown, radially rugose; g. adnate; s. - cm. squamulose and brownish downwards; sp. × . [=aelopodium=, fr. p. fleshy, convex then plane, obtuse, glabrous, rufescent; g. adnate, yellowish then brownish-olive; s. fistulose with a free tube inside, variegated with minute red squamules. =dispersum=, fr. p. . - . cm. p. fleshy, exp. obtuse, tawny, honey-colour near the edge and silky; s. - cm. tough, silky-fibrillose, base brownish; g. subventricose, crowded, then clouded; sp. × - . ( × sacc.) [=irroratum=, karst. p. convex, plane, gibbous, even, tawny honey-colour, edge silky pruinose; g. adnate, crowded, edge dentate, straw-colour then darker and tinged green; s. tough, fibrillosely-silky, pallid, equal, wavy below and with dense rusty down, rooting; sp. - × . smell and taste very sour. differs from _h. dispersum_ in stem and silky silvery edge of p. ** viscidi. _pileus naked, viscid._ [=gilletii=, alex. p. exp. glutinous, rusty or ochre, edge lilac; g. adnate, reddish-violet; s. solid, curved, strigosely-squamose, colour of p. =incomptum=, mass. p. - cm. campan. then exp. broadly umb. viscid when moist, deep bay-brown, tawny-orange when dry, edge wavy; g. olive clouded purple; s. - cm. rusty squamulose; sp. × . . =oedipus=, cke. p. . - . cm. hemispher. edge ragged, glutinous, umber edge paler; g. adnate; s. - cm. enlarged downwards to the bulbous base, ring median; sp. ----. [=buxbaumii=, weinm. p. exp. even, glabrous, viscid, yellowish-white; g. adnate, greyish-black; s. solid, long, equal, shining-white; sp. ----. [=prescotii=, weinm. p. exp. glabrous, viscid, rufescent; g. adnate, crowded, grey then fuscous-violet; s. stuffed, equal, elastic, white, with pale rufescent squamules. *** velutini. _pileus innately fibrillose, silky or virgate._ =storea=, fr. p. - cm. convexo-plane, umb. dry, fibrillose with longitudinal fibrils, pale fuscous then pallid; g. adnate, dry, edge white-serrulate; s. - cm. solid, pallid; sp. ----. =lacrymabundum=, fr. p. - cm. convex, obtuse, piloso-squamose, scales innate darker, whitish then darker; g. adnate, crowded, brownish-purple; s. hollow, fibrillosely-squamulose, whitish, flesh whitish; sp. × - . var. _hypoxanthum_ (= _ag. hypoxanthus_, phil. and plow.). base of s. and mycelium yellow; sp. - × . quélet considers this species to be identical with his _stroph. cotonea_. =pyrotrichum=, holmsk. p. - cm. hemispher. densely covered with tawny-red squamules of fasciculate hairs; flesh and veil tawny; g. adnate; s. - cm. fibrillose, tawny; sp. × . var. _egregius_, mass. s. with spreading whitish squamules largest near ring. =velutinum=, pers. p. - cm. campan. then exp. at length obtusely umb. hygr. at first tomentose with adpr. fibrils then glabrous, livid then paler, flesh very thin; g. seceding, brownish-bay, spotted black; s. hollow, silky, pallid; sp. - × - . var. _leiocephalum_, b. and br. smaller; disc rugged, smooth except margin. quélet considers this species to represent the true _ag. lachrymabundus_ of bulliard, tab. . [=melantinum=, fr. p. campan. then exp. umber then pale, variegated with black innate pilose squamules; g. adnexed, ventricose, pale umber; s. fistulose, pallid, fibrillosely hispid; sp. - × - . [=lepidotum=, bres. p. convex, exp. subgibbous, chestnut, centre fuscous, with black fibrils which are here and there compacted into squamules, densely striate; g. crowded, almost free, purple-brown, edge fimbriate, white; s. white, apex white-scurfy, veil evanescent; sp. - × - . **** floccolusi. _pileus with superficial, floccose scales which fall away._ =cascum=, fr. p. - cm. oval then exp. rugulose, becoming glabrous, greyish ochre then pale; g. ventricose, dry, very broad, grey then blackish brown; s. - cm. hollow, fibrillose, white; sp. ----. [=sylvestre=, gill. p. conical then exp. obtuse, white at first, soon covered with large, adpressed brown or blackish, fibrillose scales, margin appendiculate at first; g. crowded; s. cylindrical, wavy, white. =punctulatum=, kalchbr. caespitose. p. - cm. convex, edge incurved, pallid, minutely squamulose; g. sinuato-adnate; s. - cm. squamuloso-fibrillose up to ring; sp. ----. [=coriarium=, vitt. p. convex then depr. discoid, floccosely scaly then almost glabrous, clay-colour, disc darker; g. pinkish then ochre; s. hollow, clavate, apex dilated. [=intonsum=, pass. p. flocculosely tomentose, veil membranaceous, appendiculate spreading; g. adnate, rosy then bay, edge white crenulate; s. hollow, white, striate, apex flocculose. [=artemisiae=, passer. p. thin, exp. flocculose, edge incurved, white veil evident; g. adnate, crowded, white then fuscescent, edge white, entire; s. thick, white, apex narrowed and striate, base floccose. ***** appendiculati. _pileus glabrous, hygrophanous._ =lanaripes=, cke. p. - cm. exp. edge upturned, centre conical, pallid, squamose, veil attached to margin; g. adnexed; s. - cm. fibrillose, white; sp. ----. [=coronatum=, fr. p. exp. obtuse, glabrous, subisabelline centre darker and variegated with darker spots, edge with tooth-like fragments of veil; g. adnate, closely crowded, very narrow; s. glabrous, even, white. =candolleanum=, fr. p. - cm. campan. then exp. bay then whitish, apex tinged ochre, pruinose; g. sinuate, lilac then purple-brown, edge white; s. - cm. fistulose, slender, fibrillose, apex striate, veil membranous, forming a ring or appendiculate, white; sp. - × - . differs from _h. appendiculatum_ in the gills being lilac or violet when young. [=violaceo-atrum=, letell. caespitose. p. conical then exp. umb. dusky violet; g. brownish violet; s. fistulose, even, whitish. =appendiculatum=, bull. p. - cm. ovate then exp. bay then whitish, rugulose, and atomate; g. white then fleshy brown; s. - cm. glabrous, white; sp. × . . ( - × - sacc.) differs from _h. candolleanum_ by absence of violet in gills when young. =hydrophilum=, bull. (_bolbitius_, fr.). tufted. p. - cm. convex then exp. often rather wavy and rugulose, glabrous, bay then ochre; g. adnexed, crowded, with beads of moisture, fuscous-cinnamon; s. - cm. pallid; sp. × , rusty cinnamon. differs from _psil. spadicea_ in the rusty cinnamon gills and spores. [=sublentum=, karst. p. tough, campan.-convex, exp. obtuse, wavy, rugulose towards the edge which is silky from veil, glabrous, hygr. smoky rufous or brown then pale; g. adnate, purplish brown, edge white, flocculosely crenate; s. fibrous, hollow, white, veil append.; sp. - × - . [=subpapillatum=, karst. caespitose. p. exp. wavy, glabrous, rough with minute crowded warts, bay or rufous-cinnamon then pale ochre and wrinkled; g. dry; s. equal, silky-shining, apex striate and pruinose, becoming pale; sp. × . - . differs from _hypholoma appendiculatum_ in granulose p. =catarium=, fr. p. . - cm. hemispher. exp. ochraceous then pale; g. adnate, white then fuscous; s. - cm. white, rather shining, base thickened and white-floccose; sp. × . =leucotephrum=, b. and br. tufted. p. - cm. campan. exp. whitish, rugose, append.; g. grey then blackish; s. - cm. apex coarsely striate, ring ample; sp. × . [=felinum=, pass. p. hemispher. exp. glabrous, hygr.; g. adnate, white, then fuscous; s. fistulose, short, slender, somewhat shining, base thickened and white floccose, apex striate. =egenulum=, b. and br. solitary. p. - cm. exp. umb. watery white, smooth, edge appendiculate; g. purplish umber, edge white; s. - cm. fistulose; sp. ----. =pilulaeforme=, bull. p. . - cm. globose then exp. even, fuscous then ochre; g. white then brownish; s. - cm. white, at first with a ring; sp. ----. panaeolus, fr. * _pileus viscid, shining when dry._ =leucophanes=, b. and br. p. cm. campan. obtuse, whitish, satiny, edge with fragments of veil; g. adnate, edge white; s. - cm. white, slightly wavy; sp. - × - . =egregius=, mass. p. - cm. ovate-campan. even, orange-brown; g. adnexed, broad, edge paler; s. - cm. pale brown; sp. - × - . =phalenarum=, fr. p. - cm. campan.-convex, obtuse, greyish then yellowish, veil append.; g. broad, greyish then black; s. - cm. equal, pruinose, pale rufescent; sp. × . differs from _p. papilionaceus_ in viscid p. ** _pileus not viscid, moist, subflocculose when dry._ =retirugis=, fr. p. - cm. globose then hemisph. subumb. pinkish tan, atomate, opaque, with anastomosing raised ribs; g. greyish black; s. - cm. equal, pruinose, purplish; sp. - × . ( - × - sacc.) margin often appendiculate. [=remotus=, schaeff. p. campan.-convex, subumb. flocculosely-rugulose when dry, smoky-tawny; g. free, at length remote, ventricose, black; s. fistulose, slender, fuscescent; sp. - × - . =sphinctrinus=, fr. p. . - cm. parabolic, obtuse, even, moist, grey or smoky-black, livid and rather silky when dry, veil append.; g. adnate, grey or olive then blackish with a very narrow white edge; s. - cm. sooty grey, apex even; sp. - × - . *** _pileus not viscid, smooth, rather polished, zoneless._ =campanulatus=, l. p. - cm. campan. slightly viscid, sooty grey, paler and the cuticle often cracking or peeling when dry; g. adfixed, crowded, grey spotted with black, often with beads of moisture; s. fistulose, rufescent or reddish-grey, everywhere pruinose, summit striate; sp. - × . ( - × - , sacc.) =papilionaceus=, fr. p. - cm. hemispher. pruinose, greyish, cracked into squamules when dry; g. broadly adnate, very broad, grey spotted with black; s. - cm. whitish, apex with white meal; sp. - × . ( long, quélet.) [=subfirmus=, karst. p. convex then plane, centre subdepr. but also subumb. even, glabrous, shining, disc subrugulose, dry, pale, smoky line often present near edge; g. adnexed with decur. tooth, lanceolate, black; s. wavy, glabrous, pale, apex flocculosely scaly; sp. - × - . =caliginosus=, jungh. p. cm. campan. obtuse, even, brown; g. adnexed, lanceolate; s. - cm. equal, even, naked, colour of p.; sp. × - . ( - × sacc.) [=quéletii=, schulz. solitary, hygr. p. conical, even, pale umber disc fuscescent; g. free, ventricose, blackish, edge white; s. straight, thinner upwards, tinged reddish; sp. - long. **** _pileus dry, with a dark marginal zone._ =subbalteatus=, b. and br. caespitose. p. - cm. convex, hygr. fawn-colour, rugose when dry; g. adnate, edge white, serrulate; s. - cm. red-brown, fibrous, white-fibrillose; sp. - × - . =acuminatus=, fr. p. conico-campan. . - . cm. thin, glabrous, shining, pinkish-buff, with a dark line near the edge; g. adnexed, very broad, whitish then grey, finally dusky bistre; s. - cm. slender, fistulose, whitish, shining, base brownish, thickened, white and downy; sp. long. [=guttulatus=, bres. p. convexo-exp. often subumb. edge involute then spreading, black, then disc tawny, at first with grey bloom; g. colour of p. edge white pruinose then fringed with drops; s. equal, fistulose, tinged fuscous then greyish-scurfy; sp. × . =fimicola=, fr. p. cm. campan.-convex, obtuse, grey then yellowish; g. adnate, broad; s. - cm. pallid, with white meal upwards; sp. × - . var. _cinctulus_, bolton. p. reddish-cinnamon; s. dingy brown. [=hypomelas=, batt. p. exp. rufous-tomentose, disc blackish; g. crowded, intensely black; s. stuffed, narrowed downwards, greyish-white. [=gomphodes=, batt. p. campan.-convex, gibbous, dusky rufous, pannose when dry; g. free, blackish; s. stout, rigid, ascending, flocculose, rufescent, veil arachnoid. [=larchenfeldii=, schulz. p. subgl. silvery, silky shining, subumbil. deeply sulcate, edge grey, wavy; g. irreg. plicate; s. hollow, with brown fibrils. psathyrella, fr. * _stem straight, glabrous._ =subatrata=, fr. p. - cm. campan. obtuse, rufous-umber, paler when dry, edge striate; g. adnate, crowded; s. - cm. fistulose, white then pallid; sp. - × - . =gracilis=, fr. p. - cm. campan. smoky or greyish then rosy, slightly striate only when moist; g. broadly adnate, edge rosy; s. - cm. fragile, straight, pallid; sp. × . . ( - × - sacc.) pileus tinged rose and rugulose when dry. [=longicauda=, karst. p. convex, glabrous, pellucidly striate to umbo, smoky yellow, hygr.; g. adnate, crowded, blackish purple, edge white; s. fistulose, equal, subglabrous, apex white-mealy, remarkably rooting; sp. - × - . differs from _p. gracilis_ in larger sp., white edge to g., and rooting stem. [=squamifera=, karst. p. campan. obtuse, pellucidly striate to middle, rugulose, livid fuscous, pale tan when dry, with scattered, white fibrillose scales; g. adnate, entirely grey then fuscescent; s. equal, silky, apex pruinoso-flocculose then almost glabrous, pallid, base oblique, strigosely rooting; sp. - × . differs from _p. gracilis_ in silky s., gills all one colour, &c. [=impatiens=, fr. p. thin, campan. obtuse, livid yellow, furcato-sulcate; g. adnate; s. straight, weak, white; sp. - × - . [=biformis=, schulz. p. conic, even, glabrous, white then tinged flesh-colour; g. sinuato-adnexed, ventricose; s. filiform, glabrous, even, whitish; sp. - × . =hiascens=, fr. p. - cm. campan. brownish, fisso-sulcate; g. adnato-linear; s. - cm. straight, glabrous, white; sp. × . . ( - × - sacc.) [=gracilipes=, pat. p. persistently campan. sulcate up to disc, reddish-brown; g. nearly free, broad, blackish, subdeliquescent; s. slender, tall, rigid, hollow, whitish, ring median, very distinct, fugacious; sp. × . =arata=, b. p. - cm. campan.-conic, rather acute, brown then paler, coarsely sulcate; g. free; s. - cm. white; sp. ----. =trepida=, fr. p. - cm. campan. obtuse, fragile, densely and finely striate, dusky; g. ventricose, crowded; s. - cm. pellucid, hyaline; sp. diam. =hydrophora=, bull. p. - cm. campan. then exp. and striate, edge revolute, disc rufous; g. adnate, crowded, narrow; s. - cm. straight from a curved base, white, beaded with drops of water; sp. - × - . [=graveolens=, sacc. smell strong. p. convex, exp. obtusely umb. blackish fuscous, silky-atomate; g. rather crowded, broadish, black; s. slender, cylindrical, glabrous, fuscous; sp. - × . [=ampelina=, foex and viala. p. conical then exp. almost smooth, pale brown, thin, slightly pilose; g. crowded, narrow, rosy violet then greyish brown; s. white, shining, springing from a copious creeping mycelium; sp. - long. ** _stem more or less flexuous, apex mealy._ =caudata=, fr. p. - cm. conico-campan. striate, hygr. dry, disc even, pinkish tan; g. adnate, very broad; s. - cm. slightly narrowed to rooting base, whitish; sp. - × - . [=circellatipes=, ben. caespitose, hygr. p. conico-campan. pilose then glabrous, rufous-brown then tawny ochre, at last pale ochre; g. blackish, edge white, denticulate; s. long, white or pallid, apex mealy, base with several delicate, narrow, tawny ochre rings; sp. - × - . [=sulcata=, dun. p. campan. umb. bay then blackish; g. broad, subliquescent; s. stuffed, equal. [=asperella=, q. p. cinnamon, apex darker, becoming pale, whitish and transparent, squamulose when young; g. distant, narrowed at both ends, whitish then powdered with the black spores; s. short, thick, cylindrical then elongated, wavy, white, base often swollen; sp. - × . =prona=, fr. p. . - cm. hemispher. striate, hygr. smoky, opaque and silky-atomate when dry; g. adnate, grey then dusky-violet, edge often rosy; s. - cm. equal, flexuous, whitish; sp. × - . ( - × - sacc.) =empyreumatica=, b. and br. strong scented. p. - cm. exp. hygr. rufous then pale and atomate; g. adnate, broad, connected by veins, edge pale; s. - cm. silkily-scurfy, pale; sp. ----. closely resembling _pholiota confragosa_. [=infida=, q. p. conical, cm. very thin, floccosely downy, greyish bistre; g. adnate, triangular, distant, creamy then flesh-colour, finally bay with a white edge; s. fistulose, filiform, wavy, somewhat pruinose, pinkish bistre; sp. long. =atomata=, fr. p. - cm. campan. obtuse, slightly striate, hygr., rugulose, atomate, pale ochre, whitish, or tinged rose when dry; g. adnate, broad; s. - cm. slightly flexuous, white, apex scurfy; sp. × . ( - × - sacc.) differs from _p. gracile_ in flexuous and scurfy s. and not rose-edged gills. var. _expolita_, fr. smaller. p. conical, edge striate; s. undulating, glabrous; sp. - × . [=subatomata=, karst. p. campan. obtuse, fragile, deeply striate, hygr. rugose when dry, grey or livid, centre more or less bay, tinged rosy when dry; g. adnexed, ventricose, greyish then black, edge rosy; hyaline, pallid, white when dry, apex pruinose, base fibrously rooting; sp. - × - . [=subrosea=, karst. p. campan.-convex, obtuse, entirely striate, naked, livid fuscous, rosy in dry weather; g. adnate, segmentoid, grey, edge rosy; s. wavy, naked, whitish; sp. - × - . [=expolita=, fr. small. p. conical, edge striate, and with the wavy stem, glabrous; g. not crowded, greyish-brown; s. - × . =crenata=, lasch. p. . - cm. hemispher. sulcate, edge crenate, yellowish and atomate when dry; g. adnate; s. - cm. whitish, striate and mealy upwards; sp. - × - . =disseminata=, pers. densely tufted. p. - . cm. ovate-campan. furfuraceous then naked, sulcate, yellowish then grey; g. adnate; s. - cm. lax, scurfy then glabrous; sp. - × - . [=consimilis=, bres. and henn. p. conico-campan. exp. hyaline yellowish at first then centre yellowish, edge greyish-fuscous, striate, glabrous; g. rotundato-adnate, white then flesh-colour, then blackish-brown, edge white fimbriate; s. hyaline white, fibrillose then almost glabrous; sp. - × . - , cystidia fusoideo-ventricose. [=subtilis=, fr. p. campan. obtuse, almost glabrous, hygr. pellucidly striate when moist, ochre then pale; g. adnate, edge whitish; s. filiform, lax, glabrous; sp. - × - . with a scurfy veil when young? psathyra, fr. i. conopilei. _pileus conico-campanulate; gills ascending, adnexed, often free._ =elata=, mass. p. - cm. high, obtusely campan. even, glabrous, dark brown then pale and atomate; g. adnate; s. - cm. straight, slightly narrowed upwards, white, shining; sp. × - . =conopilea=, fr. p. - cm. campan. even, glabrous, bay then pale; g. slightly adnexed; s. - cm. narrowed upwards, white, shining; sp. × . =mastigera=, b. and br. p. - cm. nearly cylindrical obtuse then conico-campan. with a strong umbo, usually wavy, brown then pale; g. affixed, umber, edge pale; s. - cm. whitish or tinged purple; sp. - × - . =glareosa=, b. and br. p. . cm. campan. grey, striate, minutely tomentose; g. broadly adnate; s. - cm. brown with white fibrils; sp. ----. [=griseobadia=, pat. p. hemispher. striate, pruinosely pulverulent, dry, tough, reddish-fuscous; g. numerous, unequal, entire, adnate, fuscous; s. slender, glabrous, reddish, dry, tough; sp. × . [=loscosii=, rab. p. thin, campan.-exp. greyish fuscous, sulcate, folds at length granulato-crenate, edge incurved; g. adnate; s. long, tough, equal, pallid fuscescent. =corrugis=, pers. p. - cm. campan. umb. rather rugose, pale ochre often tinged pink; g. sinuate, adnexed; s. - cm. equal, glabrous, white; sp. - × . var. _vinosus_, corda. p. with rosy tinge; s. short. var. _gracilis_, bull. (= _p. pellosperma_, cke.). slenderer than type. [=barlae=, bresad. p. campan. exp. purplish brown then reddish umber, centre tawny, reticulately rugulose; g. purplish then fuscous, edge white; s. tall, stout, hollow, purplish upwards inside and out, pale below, base strigose, veil white; sp. - × - . [=torpens=, weinm. p. campan. obtuse, even, becoming pale; g. dry, brown, edge white; s. slender, glabrous, white. var. _astrospora_, q. subhygr. very fragile, blackish grey then fuscescent, glabrous; g. adnato-decur. dusky brown-purple then blackish; s. straight, rigid, hollow, white, striate and white-mealy above; sp. black, - × . =tenuicula=, karst. p. very thin, campan. subexp. everywhere striate, whitish, then livid or smoky, pale when dry; g. adnate, pallid then grey; s. usually wavy, hyaline, pellucid, glabrous; sp. - × . [=subliquescens=, schum. p. conico-exp. brown-striate, viscid; g. nearly free, subliquescent; s. elongated, attenuated, straight, pale brown. [=typhae=, kalchb. small. p. thin, convex, striate, glabrous, pallid ochre then pale umber; g. nearly free, whitish then fuscous; s. naked, whitish, seated on an orbicular membranaceous arachnoid mycelium. var. _iridis_, boud. p. fuscous, striate, umbo rugulose, semipellucid; s. with a median ring; sp. - × - . [=stricta=, trog. p. campan. silky-even, dry, pallid; g. adnexed, subdeliquescent, purplish umber; s. tall, straight, glabrous, white. =gyroflexa=, fr. p. - cm. conico-campan. striate, atomate, grey, disc rufescent when dry; g. adnexed; s. - cm. flexuous, silky, white; sp. - × - . ii. obtusati. _pileus campanulato-convex, expanding, glabrous or atomate, gills plano- or arcuato-adfixed._ =spadiceo-grisea=, schaeff. p. - cm. conico-campan. then exp. subumb. glabrous, striate to middle, hygr. bay then greyish; g. narrow; sp. - long. =obtusata=, fr. p. - cm. campan. then exp. obtuse, glabrous, corrugated, hygr. rather shining, umber then pale; g. adnate; s. - cm. pallid, base incurved; sp. - × . [=ombrophila=, karst. p. plane, orbicular, subgibbous, even, granular; g. adnexed, blackish; s. reddish, base subtuberous; sp. yellowish, - × - . =neglecta=, mass. p. - mm. convex then exp. even, glabrous, pale ochre, atomate and whitish when dry; g. purple-brown; s. - cm. rather wavy, white, pellucid; sp. × ; cystidia abundant, fusiform. differs from _p. urticaecola_ in glabrous p. [=fagicola=, lasch. p. thin, campan. obtuse, striate, viscid, greenish-blue, sublivid, fuscescent; g. adnexed then separating, subliquescent, brown. [=falkii=, weinm. p. thin, hemispher.-exp. pellucid, moist, hygr. mealy grey when dry; g. laxly adfixed, ventricose, umber then fuscous-purple. [=solitaria=, k. fragile. p. campan.-exp. glabrous, umber, pallid tan when dry; s. fistulose, equal, whitish, fibrillose, base with white down; sp. - × , cystidia ventricose-fusoid. [=pallens=, karst. p. convex, even, often rugulose when dry, atomate, naked, whitish when dry; g. subadnate, ascending, grey, edge rosy; s. equal, straight, naked, pallid; sp. - × - ; cystidia fusoid. iii. fibrillosi. _pileus and stem floccose or fibrillose at first from the universal veil._ =frustulenta=, fr. p. - cm. hemisph. obtuse, slightly striate, albo-floccose at edge, pallid brown, hygr.; g. adnate, cinnamon; s. - cm. rather wavy, flocculose, white; sp. × , pale rusty brown. ( - × - sacc.) much like a _galera_ in colour of sp. [=bipellis=, q. p. campan. then exp. - cm. hygr. purple-bay then micaceous and rosy, edge with white silky flecks; g. adnate, rosy then dusky violet with a narrow white edge; s. fistulose, fragile, mealy at the apex, downy then satiny, white, often tinged violet; sp. long. [=subunda=, karst. p. conico-convex, exp. umb. atomate, pellucidly striate, even, glabrous, pale tan or pale livid, whitish when dry, with scattered fibrils; g. adnate, crowded, grey then tinged violet, finally brown; s. cylindrical, shining, white; sp. - × . [=schulzeri=, q. (= _ag. flavescens_, q.) p. conoid-hemisph. then exp. white, apex yellow or brown, even; g. purple-brown, edge whitish; s. cartilaginous, glabrous, white; sp. - long. =bifrons=, b. and br. p. - cm. campan. obtuse, rugulose, brownish-ochre, at first fibrillose; g. adnate, edge toothed; s. - cm. naked, shining, white; sp. × . var. _semitincta_, phil. p. pinkish; sp. × . =semivestita=, b. and br. p. . - cm. ovate-campan. obtuse, even, bay then pale ochre, when young lower half white-fibrillose; g. broad; s. - cm. white, fibrillose below; sp. - × . =fatuus=, fr. p. - cm. ovato-campan. then exp. rugose, fibrillose then glabrous, dingy ochre then pale; g. adnate, brown; s. - cm. white, apex striate, mealy; sp. - × - . =fibrillosa=, pers. p. - cm. campan. then exp. slightly striate, fibrillose, livid then pale; g. adnate, very broad behind; s. - cm. white, fibrilloso-squamulose; sp. × - . =gordoni=, b. and br. densely tufted. p. - cm. campan. pale grey then white, floccose, edge sulcate; g. grey; s. - cm. white, floccose below; sp. - long. =helobia=, kalchbr. p. - cm. campan. then plane with concentric ridges; radiately rugose, subumb. sooty brown, pale when dry; g. adnate, sooty brown; s. - cm. reddish umber with white squamules; sp. × . =pennata=, fr. p. - cm. campan. obtuse, even, with feathery white squamules, pale ochre; g. adnexed, broad; s. - cm. villose, silvery; sp. - × . var. _fimicola_, bern. p. rusty ochre; g. black, with a decur. tooth. var. _squamosa_, karst. stem everywhere with squarrose white floccose scales; sp. - × . =gossypina=, bull. p. . - . cm. campan. then exp. tomentose, soon glabrous, edge striate, pale ochre; g. adnexed; s. - cm. tomentose, whitish; sp. × . [=squamosa=, karst. p. campan. exp. tawny-fuscous, tan and scaly when dry; g. adnate, crowded; s. equal, wavy, undulate, apex mealy then glabrous, shining; sp. - × - . differs from _p. gossypina_ and _p. pennata_ in colour of p. and smaller sp. =noli-tangere=, fr. very fragile. p. - cm. campan.-exp. everywhere striate, hygr. squamulose near edge, pale umber then pale; g. adnate, broad; s. brownish, apex smooth; sp. × . [=laureata=, q. p. convex, mammilate, glabrous, slightly viscid, greyish bistre, edge with a double row of snow-white flecks; g. subdecur. broad, triangular, greyish lilac; s. pruinose at summit, minutely velvety, clear grey; sp. long. resembles _p. noli-tangere_ in appearance. =microrhiza=, lasch. p. - cm. campan. even, dry, atomate, at first yellow-pilose; g. crowded, narrow; s. - cm. silky, white, rooting; sp. - × . =urticaecola=, b. and br. p. - mm. campan. flocculent, edge becoming striate, white; g. chocolate; s. - cm. flocculent, white; sp. × . psilocybe, fr. i. tenaces. _veil accidental, rarely conspicuous. stem callous, flexile, often coloured. pileus pelliculose, often viscid in damp weather, becoming somewhat pale, clear coloured._ * _gills ventricose, not decurrent._ =sarcocephala=, fr. p. - cm. compact, exp. mealy then glabrous, pallid rusty; g. adnate, very broad, grey then purplish bistre; s. - cm. whitish, apex mealy; sp. × . . [=pertinax=, fr. p. convexo-plane, obtuse, reticulately rugose, dusky-brown, disc even; g. adnate, crowded, rusty-brown; s. hollow, fibrillosely striate, pallid. =nemophila=, alex. p. exp. brick-red, even; g. deeply decur. very narrow, edge crisped-dentate; s. solid, pale, fusiformly narrowed. =helvola=, schaeff. p. - cm. conical then convex, yellow-brown, disc darkest; g. broadly adnate, broad, purple-umber, edge whitish; s. - cm. flexuous, pale, hollow; sp. obliquely elliptical, warted, - × - . =atrobrunnea=, lasch. p. campan.-convex, umb. even, brownish; g. adnexed then seceding, rather distant, brownish; s. stuffed, long, fibrillose, apex white-mealy; sp. - × - . =ericaea=, pers. p. - cm. exp. viscid when moist, tawny or bay then yellowish and shining; g. adnate, broad, pruinose, at length black, edge white; s. - cm. tough, pallid; sp. - × . =subericaea=, fr. p. - cm. convex, obtuse, becoming plane, even, smooth, tawny then pale; g. sinuate, adnexed, broad; s. - cm. equal, smooth, yellowish, hollow; sp. × . differs from _p. ericaea_ in short s. and attachment of broad g. [=dichroa=, karst. p. campan. subumb. edge slightly striate, bay then tan; g. adfixed, broad, brownish-purple, edge whitish; s. pallid, then fuscescent, silky. var. _minor_, karst. smaller. p. striate to middle; g. umber. [=lipophila=, oud. p. convex, exp. obtuse, glabrous, viscid when moist, pale rusty; g. adnexed then decur. broad; s. whitish, apex white, base with white down; sp. - × . [=mutabilis=, karst. p. tough, convex, obtuse, watery umber when moist, tawny when dry, glabrous; g. adnate, crowded, broad; s. hollow, rigid, equal, whitish-silky, tinged rusty especially downwards; sp. - × - . =uda=, pers. p. . - . cm. exp. dry, rugulose, tawny then yellowish; g. adfixed, purplish; s. - cm. pale, thin, tough, fibrillose base rusty; sp. × . ( - × - karst.) var. _polytrichi_, fr. p. campan.-convex then plano-depr. even, glabrous, dry, pale yellow then whitish, edge pale; g. becoming decur.; s. elongated, wavy, glabrous, pale tawny. var. _elongatus_, pers. p. campan.-convex, striate when moist, livid- or greenish-yellow, even and yellowish when dry. [=corneipes=, fr. p. campan.-convex, glabrous, bay, edge striate; g. adnate, very broad behind; s. horny, rigid, shining, blackish bay. =canofaciens=, cke. p. - cm. campan. then exp. disc fleshy, bay, with white fibrils; g. adnate, umber; s. - cm. colour of p.; sp. × , some much larger. =areolata=, klotzsch. p. - cm. exp. brownish ochre, cracked up into patches; g. adnate; s. - cm. dingy white, fibrillose; sp. - × . =virescens=, mass. p. - cm. exp. brown then greenish yellow, cracked into patches; g. adnexed, dingy purple, edge pale; s. - cm. apex striate, greenish, base white; sp. × . =agraria=, fr. p. cm. exp. white, not hygr.; g. adnate, white then brown; s. - cm. glabrous, white; sp. ----. =chondroderma=, b. and br. p. - cm. campan. bright dark brown, very smooth, sometimes cracked, edge thin, append.; g. adfixed, brown, edge white; s. - cm. subequal, paler than p., fibrillose, base squamulose; sp. × . . =scobicola=, b. and br. p. - cm. convex, umbil. white, glabrous; g. adnexed, broad, reddish-brown; s. - cm. whitish, fibrillose, hollow; sp. × , pale. ** _gills plane, very broad behind, subdecur._ =ammophila=, mont. p. - cm. exp. umb. yellow-rufous, fibrillose; =coprophila=, bull. p. . - cm. slightly viscid, hemispher. then exp. umb. yellowish rufous; g. arcuato-subdecur. broad; s. - cm. narrowed upwards, white, floccose then almost glabrous; sp. - × . differs from _p. bullacea_ in absence of striae on p. =bullacea=, bull. p. - cm. hemispher. then exp. umb. finely striate to middle, rather viscid, bay or brownish brick-red, then pale, often with a white fringe at the edge, cuticle separable; g. adnate, almost triangular, grey then brownish purple; s. - cm. slender, apex pruinose, fawn, fibrillose, base rusty; sp. - × - . =physaloides=, bull. p. . - cm. campan. then exp. umb. striate, rather viscid, purple brown or bay then pale; g. subdecur. rather rusty then purplish brown; s. - cm. fibrillose, base bay; sp. × . [=ferrugineo-lateritia=, vogl. p. convex, subumbil. edge substriate, glabrous, subhygr. rusty brick-red; g. adnato-decur. purple-black; s. cylindrical, colour of p. base white; sp. - × . [=libertata=, fr. p. obconic, umbo hemispher. prominent, at first hoarily silky then glabrous, dusky umber then pale; g. deeply decur.; s. flexile. =atrorufa=, schaeff. p. - . cm. convex, obtuse, glabrous, edge striate, purple-brown then pale; g. subdecur. broad, brown-violet with a white edge; s. - cm. pale bay or fawn, pruinose, fibrillose at base; sp. - × . ( - × - karst.) =nuciseda=, fr. p. . - cm. convex, obsoletely umb. rather silky when dry and yellowish, dusky brown at first; g. adnate, broad; s. - cm. brownish with white down, base narrowed; sp. × . *** _gills sublinear, ascending._ =tegularis=, schum. p. campan. glabrous, tan, areolately cracked; g. attenuato-adnexed; s. stuffed, narrowed upwards from a thickened base, pallid. =compta=, b. and br. p. - cm. conico-campan. then exp. subumb. edge striate, pale ochre and atomate when dry; g. broad, adnate; s. - cm. pale rufous; sp. ----. [=callosa=, fr. p. conico-campan. obtuse, even, glabrous, dry, white or yellowish; g. adnate, ascending, ventricose, sooty black; s. tough, equal, glabrous, pallid. =semilanceata=, fr. p. - cm. exp. acutely conical, slightly viscid and striate when moist, pallid, often tinged yellow or green; g. adnexed; s. - cm. flexuous, pallid; sp. - × . var. _caerulescens_, cke. p. rather obtuse; s. bluish at base. ii. rigidi. _veil absent. stem rigid. gills adnexed, very rarely adnate._ [=phoenix=, secr. p. campan. then exp. even, glabrous, hygr. fuscous then pale and shining; g. free; s. stuffed, striate, pallid, subbulbous. =canobrunnea=, fr. p. - cm. exp. obtuse, subviscid when moist, hygr. fleshy-brown then pale; g. nearly free, brownish purple; s. - cm. hollow, short, squamulose, whitish or greyish pink, rooting; sp. ----. [=gilletii=, karst. p. campan.-convex, often obliquely umb. glabrous, livid grey with olive tinge, umb. tawny, then pale ochre; g. subadnate soon free, grey- then livid-purple; s. fistulose, straight, equal, glabrous, bay, apex paler and pruinose; sp. - × - . [=simulans=, karst. p. conico-convex, exp. usually obtusely umb. glabrous, pale rusty with honey-colour tinge, pellucidly striate, edge at first incurved, yellow tawny when dry; g. greyish with honey or olive tinge; s. wavy, ascending, rather lubricous, shining, bay, apex paler; sp. - × . =spadicea=, fr. subcaespitose. p. - cm. glabrous, humid, convex then exp. edge at first incurved, dark bay or bistre-brown then pale; g. adnate with decur. tooth, crowded, whitish then pinkish, at last purple-brown; s. fistulose, equal, rigid, silky, whitish; sp. × . var. _hygrophila_, fr. larger. p. fuscous then tan; s. subfusiformly rooting; g. emarginate with a long decur. line. var. _polycephala_, fr. very densely tufted. p. rigid; s. slender, slightly flexuous; g. nearly free, fuscous-umber. this is the commonest form in britain. _hypholoma hydrophilum_ differs in having fuscous-cinnamon, lachrymose gills. =cernua=, fl. dan. p. . - cm. campan.-convex then exp. glabrous, micaceous, hygr. rugulose and pallid when dry; g. adnate; s. - cm. white, apex even, pruinose; sp. × . =squalens=, fr. p. - cm. exp. depr. even, glabrous, hygr. lurid then pale; g. adnato-decur. tan then brown; s. - cm. not rooting, apex striate, colour of p.; sp. ----. [=murcida=, fr. p. convex, obtuse, slightly striate, hygr. even when dry, bay then tan or rosy; g. adnate, segmentoid, umber; s. slender, fragile, straight, naked. [=hebes=, fr. p. exp. obtuse, glabrous, hygr. edge striate, lurid then pale; g. adnate, triangular; s. glabrous, pallid. =foenisecii=, fr. p. . - cm. campan.-exp. obtuse, dingy brown then pale; g. adnate, ventricose, umber; s. - cm. not rooting, pale reddish, glabrous; sp. × - . =clivensis=, b. and br. p. - cm. hemispher. pale brown then pale ochre or whitish; g. broad, adnate, emarginate, edge pale; s. cm. silky, base subclavate; sp. × . [=vicina=, fr. p. convex then plane, obtuse, glabrous, umber then pale; g. slightly adnexed, grey then blackish; s. stuffed, wavy, grey, apex pruinose. =catervata=, mass. densely fasciculate. p. - cm. campan. obtuse, white; g. slightly adnexed, crowded, edge entire, white; s. - cm. white; sp. × ; cystidia fusiform. coprinus, fr. _key to the sections._ i. volva distinct with a free edge; ring present or absent. p. . ii. volva absent; ring present on stem. p. . iii. volva and ring absent. veil practically absent. pileus either glabrous or with minute innate squamules, especially near the apex, not splitting along the lines of the gills. p. . iv. volva and ring absent. veil very evident--at least in a young state--as a felty coating, which breaks up during expansion of the pileus into patches, cottony, squamulose, fibrillose or mealy. not glistening nor micaceous. p. . v. volva and ring absent. pileus covered with glistening micaceous particles when young. p. . vi. volva, ring, and veil absent. flesh very thin, pileus soon splitting along the lines of the gills, scurfy or glabrous. p. . i. _volva distinct, with a free margin; ring present or absent._ * _large; pileus more than cm. high and wide._ + _stem white._ =sterquilinus=, fr. p. - cm. high, coarsely sulcate, silvery grey, disc tawny with squarrose squamules; g. free; s. - cm. white, dark when bruised; volva with free margin, sometimes a ring on stem; sp. - × - . [=solstitialis=, sacc. p. cylindric-ovate, whitish with concentric over-lapping scales, expanding and blackish, grooved; g. free; s. white, base volvate, ring imperfect. smaller than _c. sterquilinus_, and stem not blackish when bruised. =oblectus=, bolton. p. - cm. coarsely striate, whitish, glabrous, then pale tawny and sprinkled with rose-coloured powder; g. free; s. - cm. white; volva with recurved edge; sp. × - . ++ _stem coloured._ =umbrinus=, mass. at first entirely enclosed in a white volva, which leaves patches on p. p. - cm. umber, sulcate up to disc; g. free; s. - cm. umber, margin of volva recurved; sp. - × . differs from _c. stenocoleus_ in sulcate pileus and umber stem. [=stenocoleus=, lindbl. p. - cm. umb. even, blackish with white squamules; g. free; s. - cm. pale tawny; margin of volva free; sp. ----. ** _small; pileus less than cm. high and wide._ + _volva entire._ [=cyclodes=, fr. p. . - cm. high, campan. striate, glabrous, bay; g. soon black; s. - cm. white, rather flexuous; edge of volva recurved; sp. ----. [=equinus=, chelch. p. ovate then campan. greyish white, disc darkest, covered with darker scurf or flecks; g. free; s. long, glabrous, base rather swollen, volva with a free edge which sometimes breaks away as a ring; sp. - . [=trappenii=, oud. p. campan. - . cm. apex with fragments of volva, then glabrous; g. purplish then black; s. - . cm. white, volva entire; sp. ----. =volvaceo-minimus=, crossl. p. - mm. striate, grey with white squamules; g. slightly adnexed; s. - . cm. glabrous, hyaline, base bulbous, volva with broad free edge; sp. - . differs from _c. hendersonii_ in distinct volva and subglobose sp. _c. bulbillosus_ differs in absence of a marginate volva. ++ _volva torn into shreds._ =dilectus=, fr. p. . - cm. very thin, campan., obtuse, finely striate, rosy white then tawny, furfuraceo-floccose with rosy meal, at length splitting, revolute and naked; g. free, sublanceolate, crowded; s. - cm. whitish and powdered with rosy meal, base thickened, volva reduced to squamules; sp. ----. differs from _c. oblectus_ in very rudimentary volva, and generally smaller size. =roseotinctus=, rea. p. - × - mm. cylindr. then revolute, umb. brown with rosy meal; g. adnexed, broad; s. up to cm. bulbous, white, with rosy meal when young; sp. - × - . perhaps too closely allied to _c. dilectus_. ii. _volva absent, ring present on stem._ * _large; pileus - cm. high._ =comatus=, fr. p. cylindr. then campan. - cm. high, whitish or tinged ochre, becoming broken up into large reflexed scales; g. very slightly adnexed; s. - cm. white, base bulbous, rooting, ring loose; sp. - × - . edible. var. _clavatus_, q. p. ovate, g. free, white then black, no intermediate pink colour; s. without a ring. =ovatus=, schaeff. p. - cm. high, ovate then exp. striate, soon broken up into broad adpressed scales; g. free; s. white, base bulbous, rooting, ring deciduous; sp. × . edible. differs from _c. comatus_ in smaller size, and ovate form when young. =atramentarius=, fr. p. rather fleshy, - cm. high, ovate then campan. fluted, edge uneven, silvery grey, apex squamulose; g. free; s. - cm. white, hollow, ring basal, evanescent; sp. × . edible. =soboliferus=, fr. p. thin, ovate then exp. plicate below, disc truncate, brownish with darker squamules, rest greyish white; g. free; s. - cm. white, stuffed, ring fugacious; sp. × . edible. differs from _c. atramentarius_ in squamulose truncate disc, stuffed stem, and larger spores. [=pyrenaeus=, q. p. narrowly ellipt. up to cm. long, striate, pearl grey, with a dense veil of free white fibrils; g. free; s. - cm. hollow, white, ring basal, fugacious; sp. subgl. - . differs from _c. atramentarius_ in white veil. [=praegnans=, fr. p. campan. - cm. high, not striate, grey, crowded with white squamules; g. free, umber from first; s. solid, fusiform, rooting, squamulose, ring free; sp. ----. differs from _c. atramentarius_ in solid s. ** _small; pileus never exceeding cm. high._ =hendersonii=, fr. p. subcylindrical then exp. up to cm. apex tawny rest grey, fluted, minutely pruinose; g. free; s. - cm. with a permanent ring below middle; sp. - × . [=bulbillosus=, pat. p. - mm. grey disc yellow, striate, covered with white meal; g. grey; s. - cm. white, base bulbous, ring loose, median; sp. - × - . differs from _c. hendersonii_ in bulbous stem. [=ephemeroides=, fr. p. campan. plicato-sulcate, whitish, disc tinged yellow, up to cm. sprinkled with superficial flecks; g. free; s. - cm. whitish, ring free, base with a pilose bulb; sp. - × - . differs from _c. bulbillosus_ in squamulose pileus and strigose bulb. var. _muscorum_, sp. - × - . [=scauroides=, godey. p. ovate then campan. striate, white then purplish, floccosely squamulose; g. free; s. white, with a marginate bulb and ring. [=bresadolae=, schulz. p. subcylindrical, greyish-white, apex tinged brown; g. black, edge white; s. tapering upwards, white, glabrous, ring deciduous. iii. _volva and ring absent. veil practically absent; p. either glabrous or with minute innate squamules, especially near the apex, not splitting along the lines of the gills._ * _gills attached to the stem._ =fuscescens=, fr. p. - cm. ovate then exp. not lobed, disc fuscous, rest greyish brown, powdered with meal at first; g. narrow towards the front; s. white, hollow, somewhat fibrillose; sp. - × - . differs from _c. atramentarius_ in rufous p. not lobed. [=tergiversans=, fr. p. conical then exp. - cm. rusty brown, grooved, cracked into squamules; g. broadly adnate; s. white, apex sulcate. allied to _c. micaceus_; differs in squamulose and not micaceous p. [=lerchenfeldii=, schulz. p. hemispher. apex elevated, brownish grey, edge wavy silvery grey then violet; g. violet, shining; s. fibrillose or squamulose. ** _gills free._ [=cylindricus=, fr. p. cylindrical then exp. - cm. across, rimosely striate, a few adpr. squamules, whitish brown; g. narrow; s. - cm. equal, fibrillose. [=mayrii=, allesch. p. campan. exp. white, striate, small yellow-brown squamules near edge, disc sparingly scaly; g. free; s. white, striate, base globose, marginate, hollow to swollen base; sp. - × - . allied to _c. atramentarius_. =flocculosus=, fr. p. ovate then exp. - cm. across, dingy white, striate, squamules innate; g. narrow; s. - cm. white, silky, hollow; sp. × - . differs from _c. aratus_ in white p., and from _c. lagopus_ in glabrous stem. =squamosus=, morgan. p. - cm. sulcate, grey, with persistent spreading brown scales; g. free; s. - cm. with brown spreading scales up to ring; sp. - × . iv. _volva and ring absent. veil very evident--at least in young state--as a felty coating, which breaks up during expansion of p. into patches; cottony, squamulose, fibrillose or mealy. not glistening or micaceous._ * _veil thick and felty, breaking into patches._ + _gills attached to stem._ =aphthosus=, fr. p. campan. even, livid, - cm. white veil at first continuous then broken into floccose patches; g. adnate; s. cm. white, hollow, fibrillose; sp. - × . differs from _c. varicus_ in hollow stem. [=phaeosporus=, karst. p. conico-cylindrical then flattened, everywhere delicately striate, at first enclosed in a rufescent veil which breaks up into patches, soon naked and white; g. adnexed; s. glabrous, white, hollow; sp. - × - . differs from _c. albus_ by glabrous s. ++ _gills free._ =picaceus=, fr. p. campan. glutinous, striate up to disc, blackish with white patches; g. free; s. - cm. white, hollow, base swollen; sp. × . =tomentosus=, fr. p. cylindr. then narrowly conical, at length exp. - cm.; pallid yellow, covered with a greyish felt which breaks into scales; g. free; s. cm. hollow, greyish, velvety; sp. ----. [=velatus=, q. p. cylind. then exp. - cm. yellowish, sulcate, veil white, thin; g. free but close to s.; s. - cm. white, villose, coarsely striate; sp. × . [=forquignoni=, mass. (_c. quéletii_, forq.). p. conico-campan. veil thick, ochraceous, then broken up into persistent patches, whitish, - cm. high; g. remote; s. white, floccosely fibrillose, ending in a tawny bulb; sp. × . [=varicus=, fr. p. white or livid towards the split edge, with patches of white veil; g. free; s. - cm. often incurved, white, glabrous, solid, tough. differs from _c. picaceus_ in white p. and solid s. ** _veil breaking up into superficial scales, cottony or fibrillose._ + _gills attached to stem._ § _pileus white or grey._ =niveus=, fr. all pure white. p. - . cm. campan. floccose; g. slightly adnexed; s. - cm. hollow, villose; sp. × - . var. _astroideus_, fr. p. squamose, naked, grey, cm.; s. up to cm. slender, glabrous. [=albus=, q. snow white. p. ovoid then exp. . - cm. floccosely mealy then pearl grey and grooved, with tawny flecks at disc; g. adnate, seceding; s. coarsely striate upwards; sp. - long. [=rostrupianus=, hansen. white. p. thin campan. then exp. tomentose, squamulose; g. free, grey then blackish; s. narrowed upwards, glabrous above, downy below, base with white tomentum. medium sized, allied to _c. niveus_. [=pilosus=, beck. p. cylindr. apex rounded, white, densely covered with septate acute white hairs, then exp. and centre almost glabrous and yellowish, edge slightly striate; s. slender, pubescent, base floccose; sp. - × - . =exstinctorius=, fr. p. - cm. across, campan. whitish, apex tinged brown, at first with evanescent floccose scales; g. reaching stem; s. - cm. smooth, white, hollow, swollen at base and rooting; sp. - × - . differs from _c. fimetarius_ in pileus becoming bald from disc to margin. [=roris=, q. p. soon convex and centre depr. pearl grey, transparent, covered at first with a thin tawny-white veil, - . cm.; g. adnate; s. - cm. greyish, villosely floccose; sp. - long. differs from _c. plicatilis_ in adnate g. and from _c. diaphanus_ in villose stem. =similis=, b. and br. p. ovate then campan. pallid disc darker, striate, studded with brown tipped pointed warts, . cm.; g. adnate; s. white, hollow. [=brunandi=, q. p. campan. - mm. high, very delicate, striate, greyish lilac, at first with crystalline interwoven filaments; g. adnate then free; s. white, floccose, bulbous; sp. long. allied to _c. lagopus_. §§ _pileus tawny or brownish._ =domesticus=, fr. p. campan. obtuse, sulcate, disc even, bay, rest paler, scurfy-floccose, - cm.; g. adnexed; s. - cm. white, silky; sp. - × . [=alopecia=, fr. p. - . cm. campan. obtuse, sulcate, pale brown or ochre, at first with adpr. fibrils; g. adnexed; s. - cm. densely scaly, hollow. [=boudieri=, q. p. - cm. campan. coarsely striate, pale tawny apex darker, covered with fine white down; g. adnate; s. - cm. white, pruinose and pubescent; sp. angularly globose, - . [=subcoeruleo-griseus=, schulzer. p. acutely conical then plane, slightly striate, disc pale yellowish-pink, rest greyish blue, with minute fugacious scales; g. adnexed; s. white, floccosely pruinose, then glabrous, hollow; sp. - × - . ++ _gills free._ § _stem glabrous._ =nycthemerus=, fr. p. conico-cylindr. then exp. . - cm. plicate, ribs forked near edge, mealy then naked, grey, disc tawny; g. free; s. - cm. white, glabrous, flaccid, hollow; sp. ----. [=gonophyllus=, q. p. . cm. hemisph. striate, blackish grey, shining, veil floccose, whitish, soon disappearing; g. free, triangular, edge serrate; s. cm. glabrous, slightly striate, white; sp. × . =spraguei=, b. and curt. p. conical then campan. . - cm. tomentose, striate, greyish, disc tawny; g. few, distant; s. - cm. pale reddish ochre; sp. × . =spegazzinii=, karst. p. cylindr. or oval, then exp. and splitting up to disc, greyish, soon naked and grooved; g. free; s. white, hollow, thickened below and rooting; sp. - × - . =platypus=, b. and cke. p. white then yellowish, flocculose, - mm.; g. free; s. . - cm. base discoid; sp. × . §§ _stem floccose or pulverulent at first._ =narcoticus=, fr. foetid. p. cylindric-clavate then exp. . - cm. hyaline, striate, at first with white floccose squamules; g. free; s. - cm. white, downy at first, hollow; sp. × - . [=muralis=, allesch. smell strong, ammoniacal. p. cylindr. then campan. white then grey, covered with white floccose squamules; g. free, narrow; s. equal, hollow, floccosely scaly then glabrous, white, shining, base densely fibrous; sp. subg. . =lagopus=, fr. p. cylindr. then campan. coarsely striate up to brown disc, at first with white flocci; g. free; s. - cm. everywhere with white floccose down; sp. - × - . differs from _c. narcoticus_ in absence of smell. _c. lagopoides_ differs in tomentum breaking up into scales, and g. very distant from stem. [=lagopoides=, karst. p. campan. sulcate, disc livid, with free white scales, - cm.; g. distant from stem; s. up to cm. white, floccose; sp. - × - . =macrocephalus=, b. p. cylindr. then campan. striate, ashy grey, disc brownish, sprinkled with pointed scales, cm.; g. free; s. - cm. dingy white, fibrillose below; sp. - × - . differs from _c. lagopus_ in dark grey p. [=tigrinellus=, boud. p. elliptic-oblong then campan. striate, snow-white edge becoming rosy, pulverulent, with tawny flecks; g. free; s. cm. white, base rather bulbous and often with blackish flecks; sp. × . differs from _c. friesii_ in being at first covered with brown tomentum which breaks up into flecks. [=friesii=, q. p. elliptic-oblong then exp. - cm. finely striate, white apex tinged yellow, edge rosy; g. free, reddish then black; s. cm. white, pulverulent, base swollen and floccose; sp. angularly glob. . differs from _c. tigrinellus_ in not having a brown veil. [=cupulatus=, e. jacob. p. subcampan. greyish yellow, with a floccose greyish white veil then pubescent, sulcate, - mm.; g. free; s. - cm. white, downy, striate, base swollen; sp. - × - . =fimetarius=, fr. p. - . cm. clavate then conico-exp. soon splitting, disc even brownish, at first covered with squarrose floccose scales, then naked; g. free; s. - cm. white, squamulose, base solid; sp. - × - . var. _pullatus_, fr. p. with adpressed squamules, soon naked, dark; s. soon smooth. var. _cinereus_, fr. p. floccosely mealy then naked, grey; s. rootless, hollow to base. var. _macrorhiza_, fr. p. at first with feathery squamules; s. short, rooting. [=queletii=, schulzer. p. ellipsoid-conical then exp. deeply sulcate, whitish, apex glabrous tinged cinnamon, with fugacious flecks; g. free; s. white, flocculose then glabrous, ventricose below, rooting with long brown fibres; sp. - × - . [=laxus=, bres. and schulz. p. subglobose, grey, disc yellowish cinnamon, granularly floccose; g. free; s. white, tinged brown at base, with white flecks, bending over as it dries; sp. - × - . [=albertinii=, karst. p. campan. sulcate, greyish-white, disc brownish, with fine network of fibrils; g. free; s. white, silky-floccose; sp. - × . [=strossmayeri=, schulzer. p. digitaliform, then conico-campan. whitish then grey, apex darker, finally pale ochre, with deciduous squarrose scales; g. free; s. white, pruinose, springing from a compact, branching blackish-brown mycelium; sp. - long. *** _veil formed of white meal, or hyaline vesicles. not glistening or micaceous._ =tuberosus=, q. p. campan. - mm. finely striate, white then greyish, veil of hyaline vesicles; g. blackish violet; s. - cm. slender, wavy, white, downy, springing from a small black sclerotium; sp. long. smaller than _c. niveus_, and springing from a sclerotium. [=cineratus=, q. p. campan. - cm. striate, white then greyish violet, veil of dusky hyaline vesicles; g. free, close to stem; s. - cm. white, base rather swollen and sheathed by remains of a volva; sp. × . =filiformis=, b. and br. p. - mm. cylindrical, striate, grey, mealy; g. linear; s. - . cm. slender, hyaline, sprinkled with hairs; sp. subg. × . [=luxoviensis=, mont. p. ovoid then campan. striate, mealy then naked and grey, disc tawny; g. distant; s. with spreading fibrils, soon naked, white, springing from a spreading mycelium; sp. ----. [=caducus=, harz. p. oval then cylindrical, striate, grey then blackish brown, at first densely covered with white meal which becomes grey; g. from a collar; s. greyish brown above, whitish below; sp. - × - . [=britzelmayri=, sacc. and cub. (= _c. macrosporus_, brit.) p. and s. covered with snow-white meal; g. adnexed; s. tall; sp. × - . [=albulus=, q. p. almost hemispherical, mm. pellucid, striate, pulverulent; g. arcuately adnate; s. cm. filiform, pulverulent, lower half with white flecks; sp. long. [=divergens=, brit. p. parabolic, brownish then dark grey, deeply striate; g. blackish-grey; s. pellucid, whitish; sp. - × - . intermediate between _c. tomentosus_ and _c. niveus_. v. _volva and ring absent. pileus covered with glistening particles when young._ =micaceus=, fr. p. - cm. oval then campan. glistening then naked, sulcate, tawny ochre; g. adnexed; s. - cm. white, silky, hollow. [=marcescens=, karst. p. campan. sulcate, whitish at first, soon dingy ochre, then pale sooty grey, disc brownish yellow, micaceous; g. adnexed; s. white, silky; sp. - × - . differs from _c. micaceus_ in p. becoming sooty grey. =aratus=, b. p. - cm. narrowly elliptical then campan.-umber, grooved up to disc; g. slightly adnexed; s. - cm. snow-white, silky, hollow; sp. × - . =stercorarius=, fr. p. . - cm. ovate then campan. edge striate, densely covered with white glistening meal; g. adnexed; s. - cm. white, hollow, minutely mealy at first; sp. - × . _c. niveus_ differs in tomentose p., and _c. albus_ in sulcate p. =radians=, fr. p. ovate then campan. . - cm. edge striate, disc granuloso-squamulose, tawny ochre then pale, glistening; g. slightly adnexed; s. - cm. white, smooth, base with dense radiating strands of mycelium; sp. × . =truncorum=, fr. p. globose at first then campan. glistening then naked, tawny ochre, striate, - cm.; g. free, rosy then black; s. - cm. slender, white, glabrous, hollow; sp. - × . differs from _c. micaceus_ in p. being globose at first, and not sulcate, and in free, rosy g. [=inamoenus=, karst. foetid. p. subcylindrical then exp. blackish with white micaceous scurf; g. fixed to a remote collar; s. hyaline, at first downy, often rather wavy, several stems springing at intervals from a prostrate mycelium; sp. - × - . [=intermedius=, penzig. p. campan. pallid, even, with dense reddish micaceous scurf near apex; g. free; s. glabrous, tinged pink; sp. . - × . [=frustulosum=, sacc. p. campan. rather acute, even, covered with reddish micaceous meal; g. free; s. conical then cylindrical, white; sp. × . vi. _volva, ring, and veil absent; flesh very thin, pileus soon splitting along the lines of the gills, scurfy or glabrous._ * _pileus more or less scurfy._ + _gills attached to stem._ § _pileus white._ [=conditus=, godey. p. globose then ovoid, striate, sometimes tinged yellow; g. adnate; s. - mm. shining, scurfy; sp. ----. [=stellaris=, q. p. ovoid then campan. - mm. striate, snow-white then greyish, crowned with pellucid vesicles; g. adnate; s. - cm. long, filiform, hyaline, velvety; sp. long. §§ _pileus coloured._ [=coöpertus=, fr. p. conico-campan. . cm. striate, lurid, densely micaceous, yellowish grey when dry; g. adnate, broad; s. - cm. pallid, apex with white flecks; sp. ----. [=pseudo-plicatilis=, vogl. p. campan. umb. soon exp. and sulcate, yellowish grey, umbo yellowish, scurfy; g. adnate; s. white, woolly, thickened and floccose below; sp. - × . =velox=, godey. p. obovate, striate then grooved, scurfy between the ribs, disc also greyish and scurfy, - mm.; g. close to stem; s. . - cm. with white floccose down; sp. ----. =ephemerus=, fr. p. very delicate, ovate then campan. sulcate, slightly scurfy, disc elevated, even, rufescent, - cm.; g. slightly adnexed; s. - cm. glabrous, whitish, pellucid; sp. - × - . [=mycenopsis=, karst. p. campan. then exp. sulcate, sooty-grey, livid disc prominent, scurfy, soon naked; g. adnate; s. tall, glabrous, white, striate upwards; sp. - × . ++ _gills free._ § _stem fibrillose or downy._ =cothurnatus=, godey. p. conico-campan. then exp. and umb. densely scurfy, whitish, yellowish or reddish, - cm.; g. free; s. - cm. white, squamulose below; sp. ----. [=evanidus=, godey. p. obovate then campan. striate, whitish, rather scurfy, disc prominent, tinged brown; - mm.; g. free, distant; s. . - . , pellucid, white, downy; sp. ----. §§ _stem glabrous._ =sociatus=, fr. p. ovate then campan. plicate, subsquamulose or scurfy, disc umber and becoming depr. cm.; g. narrowed behind, attached to a collar; s. - cm. white, glabrous, not pellucid; sp. ----. gills much nearer s. than in _c. plicatilis_, much narrowed behind, black. [=sulcato-crenatus=, steinh. p. cylindrical then campan. soon plane, sulcato-crenate, almost glabrous, yellow, disc brown, even, becoming depr.; g. remote from stem, distant; s. yellow, apex brown; sp. obtusely triangular, compressed. differs from _c. plicatilis_ in yellow p. and s. [=patouillardii=, q. p. conico-campan. then plane, coarsely striate up to disc, grey, disc rough with minute reddish granules; g. attached to collar distant from s.; s. - cm. white, glabrous, fragile; sp. angularly globose, - . differs from _c. nycthemerus_ in white s.; and from _c. velaris_ in rough disc. =papillatus=, fr. p. elliptical then campan. becoming plane and upturned; disc prominent and rough with minute warts, dark, striate, covered with greyish scurf, . - cm.; g. free; s. . cm. white, hyaline, hollow; sp. × . [=affinis=, karst. p. conico-cylindr. then exp. greyish white, disc pale rufous, plicate, scurfy; g. free; s. flaccid, glabrous, pallid; sp. - × - . =radiatus=, fr. p. cylindrical, soon plane and splitting, yellowish, disc darker, then whitish, minutely pilose when young; g. almost free; s. - cm. hyaline, pilose; sp. - × . =gibbsii=, mass. and crossl. very minute, p. . mm. hemispher. then exp. striate, glabrous, pale ochre; g. adnate, few; s. - mm. white, glabrous; sp. subcircular, compressed, - diam.; cystidia piriform. [=lanatus=, boud. p. soon campan. plicately striate, greyish rufous disc darker; g. free; s. glabrous, white, slightly bulbous. ** _pileus glabrous._ + _gills attached to stem._ § _stem downy or pulverulent._ =tardus=, karst. p. ovoid then campan. . - cm. coarsely striate, bay then ochre, glabrous; g. adnate; s. - cm. white, slightly flexuous, equal; sp. angularly ellipt. - × - . differs from _c. deliquescens_ in smooth disc and adnate g. [=gilletii=, jacobasch. (= _cop. intermedius_ gill.). p. ovato-campan. grey, disc yellow; pulverulent then glabrous, edge striate; g. ovato-elongate, blackish; s. slender, glabrous, hollow, with a membranaceous, distant, fixed erect ring. [=attenuatus=, gill. p. conico-campan. even, glabrous, edge sulcate, upturned when dry, apex yellowish; g. broad, ventricose, reddish-brown; s. long, slender, hollow, narrowed towards base. §§ _stem glabrous._ [=auricomus=, pat. p. elliptic-oblong then campan. finely striate, pale greyish red disc darker, glabrous, . - cm.; g. adnate; s. - cm. white, glabrous; sp. ----. young plant enveloped in a golden yellow weft (= ozonium). =congregatus=, fr. p. cylindrical then campan. edge slightly striate, glabrous, viscid, ochre, . - cm.; g. slightly adnexed; s. - cm. smooth, hollow, white; sp. ----. =alternatus=, fr. p. hemisph. then discoid, even, glabrous, chalk-white disc pale umber, cm.; g. adnate; s. whitish, hollow, - cm.; sp. × - . =digitalis=, fr. p. ovate then campan. whitish disc darker, glabrous, striate up to disc, . cm.; g. slightly adnexed; s. - cm. whitish, equal; sp. ----. when mature the p. is sometimes livid olive or yellowish grey, and g. appear to be adnate. [=diaphanus=, q. every part translucent and glabrous. p. grooved, edge crenulate, silvery with a central tawny spot, - mm.; g. adnate; s. capillary, glabrous, - cm.; sp. long. differs from _c. plicatilis_ in adnate g. [=sceptrum=, fr. p. campan. papillately umb. deeply sulcate, pellucid, tinged grey; g. adnate to a collar; s. pellucid. =erythrocephalus=, fr. p. cylindrical then campan. reddish vermilion becoming grey, silky, edge very finely striate, cm.; g. slightly adnexed; s. - cm. paler than p. ++ _gills free, sometimes attached to a collar._ § _stem downy or pulverulent._ [=godeyi=, gillet. p. subglobose, distantly grooved, glabrous, pellucid, disc ochre, grey between the ribs, - mm.; g. free; s. cm. pellucid, sprinkled with white flecks below. [=semistriatus=, pat. p. ovate then campan. glabrous, disc even, yellowish, striate and grey up to disc, cm.; g. attached to a collar; s. - cm. white, pruinose; sp. subcircular, compressed, - broad, thick. §§ _stem glabrous._ =plicatilis=, fr. p. thin, cylindric ovate then plane, glabrous, coarsely grooved, pale brown then greyish, disc broad, even, at length depr. darker, - cm.; g. attached to a distant collar; s. - cm. white, smooth, hollow; sp. - × - . =deliquescens=, fr. p. ovate then campan. at length exp. livid grey, disc rufescent, papillose, otherwise glabrous, - cm.; g. free; s. - cm. white, glabrous, hollow; sp. × . differs from _c. atramentarius_ in free gills. [=miser=, karst. p. subglobose then exp. pellucid, tinged grey, plicate, glabrous; g. distant from stem, few in number; s. hyaline, glabrous; sp. - × - . =eburneus=, q. entirely white, shining; elliptic-campan. firm, striate, rarely with a few flecks, - cm.; g. free; s. firm, glabrous; sp. long. =hemerobius=, fr. p. ovate then campan. . - . cm. coarsely grooved, disc even, bay, not depr.; g. attached to an imperfect collar; s. - cm. fragile, pallid; sp. - × . differs from _c. velaris_ in imperfect collar, and from _c. plicatilis_ in disc not being depressed. [=rapidus=, fr. p. cylindrical then plane, coarsely grooved, pale drab, glabrous, often slightly wavy, . - . cm.; g. free, close to stem, brown; s. - cm. white, glabrous. [=phyllophilus=, karst. p. campan. then exp. glabrous, sulcate, dingy ochre becoming sooty; g. close to stem; s. pellucid, pruinose then naked; sp. angularly ovate, - × . [=velaris=, fr. p. . cm. at first globose, then hemisph. coarsely striate, lurid, disc brownish, not depr.; g. black, edge white; s. - cm. pellucid, base downy; sp. - × . [=pellucidus=, karst. p. obovate then hemispher. obtuse, sulcate, glabrous, whitish or yellowish then hyaline and greyish with a darker central spot; g. crowded; s. wavy, glabrous, pellucid; sp. - × . =schroteri=, karst. p. elliptical then exp. sulcate, glabrous, dingy ochre then pale, at length sooty-grey; g. brown; s. slightly pulverulent at first, slightly striate upwards; sp. angularly globose, - × - . var. _proximellus_, massee (= _c. proximellus_, karst.) spores elliptical, - × - , otherwise as type. montagnites, fr. [=candollei=, fr. p. - cm.; g. narrowed behind, broad, dark grey then blackish; s. elongated fibroso-striate, hollow, tawny, volva fleshy, persistent. [=pallassii=, fr. p. thin, plane; g. smooth, black; s. very long rooting, volva absent; sp. × . addenda. _species accidentally omitted, or published during the progress of this work._ =lepiota bresadolae=, schulz. (= _l. cupreus_, schulz.). p. - cm. umb. subcylindrical then broadly campan. at first glabrous and entirely coppery, then broken up into broad, fibrillose subimbricate scales; g. remote, narrowed at both ends, crowded, white then pallid; s. clavate at base which is coppery, pale above, ring white then coppery; sp. - long. (next _l. mastoidea_, p. .) =lepiota minuta=, vogl. p. - mm. slightly fleshy, even, campanulate then exp. brick-red, viscid; g. free, white, densely crowded; s. equal, even, dry, brownish, with a very narrow ring; sp. globose, - . (near _lepiota delicata_, p. .) schulzeria, bresad. flesh of stem distinct from that of pileus; gills free and remote from the stem; spores hyaline; ring and volva absent. this genus follows _lepiota_, from which it differs in the absence of a ring. =schulzeria squamigera=, schulz. and bres. p. about cm. rather fleshy, convex then exp. dry, umber at first then whitish, surface broken up into fibrous brownish-umber scales; g. crowded, subventricose, white, free, somewhat remote from stem, mm. broad; s. equal, whitish, with lax umber scales which soon disappear; flesh white, compact; sp. - × . =schulzeria rimulosa=, schulz. and bres. p. - cm. fleshy, hemispher. then exp. rather irreg. even, glabrous, dry, lurid white, epidermis falling away then becoming areolately cracked; g. rather distant, - mm. broad, white then straw-colour, rounded at both ends, sometimes subsinuate behind, free, remote; s. equal, subexcentric, glabrous, colour of p.; sp. - × . =schulzeria septentrionalis=, karst. p. about cm. fleshy, soft, convex then exp. subumb. even, glabrous, dry, whitish; g. free, remote, broad, whitish, somewhat crowded; s. central, equal, base slightly bulbous, distinct from flesh of p. glabrous, whitish. =tricholoma czarnii=, roum. (= _ag. prasinus_, lasch. in part). p. - cm. very fleshy, convex then convex-plane, rather viscid, yellowish, disc darker, glabrous, edge slightly fibrillose; g. crowded; arcuate, broad, emarginate, pallid, rosy in section; s. solid, straight, clavate, slightly striate, colour of p., not longer than thick; sp. ----. allied to _t. coryphaeum_, differing in general aspect of p., g. never yellow-edged, less viscid, and no smell. (next _t. coryphaeum_, p. .) =tricholoma bresadolae=, schulz. taste very acrid. p. - cm. entirely fleshy, irreg. edge sinuous, sometimes depressed at the centre, rather viscid when young, then dry, even, edge sometimes tuberculoso-sulcate, umber; g. distant, very thick, rounded in front, narrowed behind but not decur., cm. and more broad, whitish; s. cylindrical, obconic or cuspidate towards base, whitish, sometimes tinged umber, glabrous; sp. - × . (next to _t. spermaticum_, p. .) =tricholoma fallaciosum=, quel. and schulz. (= _ag. platyrhizus_, schulz.) p. - cm. irreg. subglobose; vertex elevated but not umb. fleshy, brown, at first very dark then paler at edge, not shining, glabrous, even; g. partly free, rounded behind and cuspidate in front, brownish then pale, edge clear cinnamon; s. somewhat conoid, base pale sulphur yellow with copious strands and plates of white mycelium, central portion pale cinnamon, apex white and pulverulent; sp. - long. (next _t. scalpturatum_, p. .) =tricholoma gauteraudii=, roum. p. - cm. convex then plane, mammillate, centre pale yellowish, somewhat silky, rest glabrous, even, dry, whitish; g. broad, emarginate, whitish; s. white, base yellowish, solid, equal; flesh white, insipid and inodorous. (next _t. inamoenum_, p. .) =clitocybe subviscifera=, karst. p. - cm. thin, convex then plane, sometimes becoming depr. orbicular or somewhat wavy, even, glabrous, viscid, whitish, disc usually become stained with rufous, then discoloured; g. deeply decur. distant, branched or connected by veins, pallid white; s. hollow, equal, flocculosely-scurfy, pallid; sp. - × - . (next to _c. pithyophila_, p. .) =cortinarius= (phleg.) =centrifugus=, fr. p. plano-depr. glabrous, viscid, discoid, yellowish brown-violet then yellow, margin verdigris green; g. emarginate, rather crowded, crenulate, pinkish violet then cinnamon; s. solid, stout, clavato-bulbous, almost glabrous, white; flesh white; sp. ----. (follows _c. riederi_, p. .) =cortinarius= (phleg.) =latus=, fr. p. - cm. exp. almost glabrous, moist, scarcely viscid, tan, disc darker; g. emarginate, subentire, crowded, clay-colour cinnamon; s. solid, fibrillose, pallid white, apex flocculose, cortina forming a superior persistent annulus, bulbous then subequal; flesh white; sp. ----. (next _c. percomis_, p. .) =cortinarius= (phleg.) =subtortus=, fr. p. - cm. convex, exp. obtuse, soft, glabrous, not striate, viscid, tan then pale, becoming rugulose; g. rounded, adnate, connected by veins, very broad, rather distant, greyish olive; s. unequal, rather twisted, becoming pale, apex partly hollow, scarcely tinged blue; sp. ----. (before _c. anfractus_, p. .) =cortinarius= (phleg.) =jasmineus=, fr. p. exp. gibbous, wavy, lacunose, rugose, viscid, dingy olive, disc at first fuscous then yellowish, opaque; flesh yellowish ochre; g. subadnate, very broad, rather crowded, pallid olive; s. stuffed, subequal, bluish, violet punctate, apex white; sp. ----. (next _c. anfractus_, p. .) =cortinarius= (phleg.) =elotus=, fr. acrid. p. subpulvinate, unequal, glabrous, slightly viscid, sooty then tawny tan, edge darker and at length striate; g. emarginate, rather distant, pallid then olive tan; s. short, fibrillose, pallid, marginate bulb obsolete; sp. ----. (next _c. talus_, p. .) =cortinarius= (phleg.) =arquatus=, fr. p. equal, even, very glabrous, viscid, discoid, disc bay, edge yellowish, polished and shining when dry; g. subadnate, crowded, purplish then cinnamon; s. solid, pallid, except the obconic marginate bulb, apex tinged blue inside and out; sp. ----. (next _c. purpurascens_, p. .) =cortinarius= (phleg.) =causticus=, fr. smell strong. p. convexo-plane, obtuse, glabrous, punctate, hygrophanous, very viscid, tawny when moist, then pale; g. ventricoso-emarginate, scarcely crowded, broad, whitish yellow; s. firm, elastic, glabrous, shining white; sp. ----. (next _c. emollitius_, p. .) =cortinarius= (phleg.) =vespertinus=, fr. p. convexo-plane, soft, glabrous, obsoletely viscid, subrugose, yellow, sometimes pale; g. emarginate, very broad, crowded, tawny cinnamon, transversely veined, edge whitish; s. solid, elongated, rather slender, fibrillose, shining white, base thickened; sp. ----. (next _c. intentus_, p. .) =cortinarius= (phleg.) =liratus=, fr. p. - cm. thin, convexo-plane, very glabrous, hygrophanous, viscid, radiately lacunose near the edge, honey-colour then somewhat ochre; g. emarginate, crowded, pale rusty; s. filled with pith limited by a dark horny line, equal, fibrillose, yellowish, base thickened; sp. ----. (before _c. intentus_, p. .) =cortinarius= (phleg.) =amurceus=, fr. p. convexo-plane, squamulosely papillose, viscid, sometimes gibbous, honey-tan; g. entirely adnate, distant, yellowish olive; s. solid, pallid, somewhat attenuated; sp. ----. (next _c. olivascens_, p. .) =coprinus purpureophyllus=, jacobasch. p. - . cm. conico-campan. torn, diaphanous, pale greyish-yellow, sulcate up to apex, covered with grey squamules which soon disappear; g. white then intense purplish violet, finally blackish, linear, ascending, crowded, adnexed, deliquescent; s. white, silky, generally curved, narrowed upwards from the subbulbous strigose base, apex white-mealy, remainder glabrous, fragile; sp. . - . × . . growing on birch branches. (next to _coprinus roris_, p. .) corrections. =armillaria focalis=, fr. (p. ), should be placed in the genus _lepiota_, following _l. naucina_, fr., p. . =cortinarius subsimilis=, fr. (p. ), should be placed under the section "_gills olive or smoky_," p. . =cortinarius karstenii=, sacc. and syd. this name should replace _cort. olivascens_, karsten, p. . there is an earlier _cort. olivascens_, fries, p. . bibliography. _the following short list of comparatively recent works indicates where more detailed descriptions and illustrations of european agarics may be consulted._ general works, containing descriptions of the agarics of more than one country. hymenomycetes europaei, sive epicriseos systematis mycologici; elias fries. ed. ii. upsala, . (although not of recent date, this work cannot be omitted, inasmuch as it embodies the experience of over fifty years of continuous observation on the part of the author, and is the sheet-anchor of the present generation of mycologists. written in latin.) sylloge fungorum omnium hucusque cognitorum; p. a. saccardo. vol. v. padua, . (contains descriptions of all european agarics up to date of publication. later discoveries are contained in various supplements. written in latin.) rysslands, finlands och den skandinaviska halföns hattsvampar; p. a. karsten. helsingfors, . (descriptions of russian, finnish and scandinavian agarics, in swedish. it is in this work where fries' subgenera, as amanita, etc. are first raised to specific rank. written in swedish.) die pilze deutschlands, oesterreichs und der schweiz; georg winter. leipzig, . (this forms the first volume of rabenhorst's 'kryptogamen-flora von deutschland, oesterreich und der schweiz,' and contains along with other fungi, descriptions of the agarics of germany, austria and switzerland, in german.) flore mycologique de la france et des pays limitrophes; lucien quélet. paris, . (this is undoubtedly the best and latest work containing detailed descriptions of the basidiomycetes of central and western europe. the systematic arrangement is new and somewhat perplexing, and the index is a terror. written in french.) great britain. illustrations of british fungi; m. c. cooke. london, - . (this is by far the most important, and at the same time the most comprehensive series of coloured figures of agarics ever published in any country, including plates.) handbook of british fungi; m. c. cooke. london, . (this work is a second edition of cooke's 'handbook of british fungi,' london, , and contains descriptions of all the figures given in the 'illustrations of british fungi.') british fungus-flora; geo. massee. vols. london, - . (the first three volumes include all the british agarics up to date of publication. in addition to a diagnosis of each species, critical notes by fries, berkeley, cooke and other mycologists are appended.) france. les hyménomycètes, ou description de tous les champignons (fungi) qui croissent en france; c. c. gillet. alençon, - . (contains descriptions of all known french hymenomycetes, illustrated by coloured plates, vo. in french.) figures peintes de champignons de la france; l. lucand, - . (a series of beautifully executed figures, mostly agarics, on plates to size. the number of copies was in the first instance very limited, and prepared only for subscribers. no descriptive text; names and synonyms given on the plates.) germany. die pilze schlesiens; j. schroeter. breslau, . (this work constitutes vol. iii. part i. of cohn's kryptogamen-flora von schlesien, and contains full descriptions of all agarics indigenous to silesia. in german.) sweden. icones selectae hymenomycetum nondum delineatorum; elias fries. stockholm, . (an indispensable work to the student of the agaricaceae, containing descriptions and coloured figures of numerous species on to. plates. written in latin.) austria. fungi tridentini novi, vel nondum delineati, descripti, et iconibus illustrati; j. bresadola. tridenti, -. (this work contains very full descriptions of new or critical species, mostly agarics, which are illustrated in colour on plates, vo. written in latin. this work appears in parts at irregular intervals, and is still going on.) italy. flore mycologique illustrée. les champignons des alpes-maritimes; j. b. barla. nice, - . (an excellent work, to size, containing coloured illustrations of new, rare, or critical agarics on plates. in french.) holland. révision des champignons tant supérieurs qu'inférieurs trouvés jusqu'à ce jour dans les pays-bas; c. a. j. a. oudemans. amsterdam, . (vol. i. of this work contains descriptions and valuable original comments of all the hymenomycetes, gasteromycetes, and hypodermei met with in holland. written in french.) index. abhorrens (omp.), abietina (lenz.), abjecta (ino.), abrupta (flam.), abstrusa (nau.), acerbum (trich.), acerinus (pleu.), acerosus (pleu.), acervata (col.), acetabulosa (loc.), acicula (myc.), acris (lac.), actinophorus (mar.), acuminatus (paneo.), acutesquamosa (lepi.), acutus (cort.), acuus (ecc.), adhaerens (lent.), adiposa (phol.), adnata (amtop.), adonis (myc.), adsentiens (cli.), adunata (cli.), adusta (rus.), aegerita (phol.), aelopodium (hyp.), aemulans (lep.), aerina (col.), aeruginea (rus.), aeruginosa (stro.), aestuans (trich.), aethiops (lep.), aetites (myc.), affinis (bolb.), affinis (copr.), affricata (omp.), =agaricus=, agathosmus (hyg.), aghardhii (flam.), aggregata (cli.), agraria (bil.), albellum (trich.), albertinii (copr.), albertinii (pleu.), albida (lenz.), albidus (can.), albidus (hyg.), albidopallens (omp.), albipes (ino.), albobrunneum (trich.), albocyanea (stro.), albocyaneus (cort.), albofimbriatum (trich.), albonitens (stro.), albosericea (arm.), alboviolaceus (cort.), albula (omp.), albulus (copr.), album (trich.), albus (copr.), albus (hyg.), alcalina (myc.), aldridgei (flam.), aleuriatus (pluteo.), alexandri (loc.), alexandri (pax.), algeriensis (pilo.), algidus (pleu.), alliaceus (mar.), allutus (cort.), almeni (pleu.), alnicola (flam.), alopecia (copr.), alpinus (cort.), alternatus (copr.), alumna (col.), alutacea (cli.), alutacea (ann.), alutacea (rus.), alutaceorubens (hyg.), alutipes (cort.), alveolus (crep.), amadelphus (mar.), =amanita=, =amanitopsis=, amara (cli.), amarella (cli.), amarescens (nau.), ambigua (cli.), ambiguus (pleu.), ambrosii (arm.), ambusta (col.), ameides (ent.), amethystinum (trich.), amethystinus (agar.), amethystinus (can.), amianthina (lepi.), amici (aman.), amicta (myc.), amicus (trich.), ammoniaca (myc.), ammophila (psil.), ammophilus (agar.), amoena (nau.), ampelina (psath'lla), ampla (cli.), amurceus (cort.), anapacta (cli.), anatina (lep.), androsaceus (mar.), =anellaria=, anfractus (cort.), anguinea (nau.), angulatus (mar.), angulosus (cort.), angustissima (cli.), angustus (agar.), angustus (clitop.), anisatus (lent.), =annularia=, anomalus (cort.), anthracinus (cort.), anthrocophila (tub.), antipoda (gal.), apala (gal.), aphthosus (copr.), apicalis (bolb.), apicrea (flam.), apiculata (ecc.), appendiculatum (hyp.), applicatus (can.), applicatus (pleu.), applanata (cli.), applanatus (crep.), aquatilis (gal.), aquifolii (pleu.), aquila (lep.), aquosa (col.), arata (psath'lla), aratus (copr.), arbustivus (hyg.), archyropus (mar.), arcuatum (trich.), ardosiacum (ent.), arenaria (vol.), arenarius (cort.), arenarius (pleu.), arenatus (cort.), arenicola (omp.), areolata (psil.), argematus (lac.), argentatus (cort.), argutus (cort.), arida (aman.), armeniaca (rus.), armeniacus (cort.), =armillaria=, armillatus (cort.), arnoldii (cli.), aromaticus (hyg.), arquatus (cort.), =arrhenia=, artemisiae (hyp.), arvalis (nau.), arvensis (agar.), arvinaceus (cort.), asema (col.), asinina (ino.), aspera (aman.), asperella (psath'lla), aspideus (lac.), asprellus (lep.), asterophora (nyc.), asterospora (ino.), astragalina (flam.), atomata (psath'lla), atramentarius (copr.), atramentosa (col.), atrata (col.), atrides (ecc.), atripes (omp.), atroalba (myc.), atrobrunnea (psil.), atrocinereum (trich.), atrocoeruleus (pleu.), atrocrocea (lepi.), atrocyanea (myc.), atromarginata (myc.), atropuncta (ecc.), atropurpurea (rus.), atrorufa (psil.), atrotomentosus (pax.), atrovirens (cort.), attenuatus (copr.), aurantia (arm.), aurantiacus (can.), aurantiacus (lac.), aurantiomarginata (myc.), aurantiorugosus (plut.), aurata (rus.), aurata (rus.), aurata (trich.), aurea (phol.), aureola (aman.), aureus (hyg.), auricolor (lent.), auricomus (copr.), auricula (cli.), auricula (lent.), auriscalpium (arrh.), aurivella (phol.), austera (flam.), autochthona (tub.), avenacea (myc.), azurea (rus.), azureus (cort.), azyma (flam.), babingtonii (nol.), baccata (amtop.), badhami (lepi.), badipes (nau.), badius (lent.), balanina (myc.), balaustinus (cort.), balteatus (cort.), barlae (psath.), batschianum (ent.), battarrae (pleu.), battarrae (stro.), bella (cli.), belliae (omp.), benoistii (col.), benzoinii (myc.), berkeleyi (myc.), bernardii (agar.), betulina (lenz.), bibula (omp.), bibulus (cort.), bicolor (cort.), bicolor (hyg.), biformis (cort.), biformis (psath'lla), bifrons (psath.), bifurcata (cli.), biornata (lepi.), bipellis (psath.), birrum (heb.), bisontinum (trich.), bisus (lent.), bitorquis (agar.), bivelus (cort.), bizzozerianum (lep.), blattaria (phol.), blennius (lac.), bloxami (ent.), bolaris (cort.), =bolbitius=, boltoni (bolb.), bombycina (vol.), bona (rus.), bongardii (ino.), boreale (trich.), boudieri (amtop.), boudieri (copr.), boudieri (lepi.), boudieri (trich.), bovinus (cort.), brachypodes (can.), brebissoni (lepi.), bresadolae (amtop.), bresadolae (copr.), bresadolae (hyg.), bresadolae (lent.), bresadolae (lenz.), bresadolae (lepi.), bresadolae (lep.), bresadolae (nol.), bresadolae (pilo.), bresadolae (trich.), brevipes (trich.), brigantii (phol.), britzelmayri (copr.), brownii (can.), brumalis (cli.), brunandi (copr.), brunnea (ino.), brunneofulvus (cort.), brunneoincarnata (lepi.), brunneola (omp.), brunneus (cort.), bryophila (nau.), bryophila (nol.), bryophilus (can.), buccinalis (omp.), bucknallii (lepi.), bufonium (trich.), bulbigera (arm.), bulbigenum (ent.), bulbillosus (bolb.), bulbillosus (copr.), bulbosus (cort.), bullacea (psil.), bulliardii (cort.), bulliardii (mar.), bullula (omp.), butyracea (col.), buxbaumii (hyp.), buxi (mar.), byssisedus (claud.), cacaba (cli.), caducus (copr.), caelatum (trich.), caerulescens (cort.), caesarea (aman.), caesariata (ino.), caesiolivida (myc.), caesiozonatus (pleu.), caespitosa (omp.), calamistrata (ino.), calatha (cli.), calceata (stro.), caldarii (col.), caldarius (agar.), caligata (arm.), caliginosa (nyc.), caliginosus (paneo.), calimorpha (lep.), callisteus (cort.), callosa (psil.), calochrous (cort.), calolepis (crep.), calophylla (ecc.), calophyllus (hyg.), calopus (cort.), calopus (mar.), calospora (ino.), calyptraeformis (hyg.), calyptratus (pleu.), camarus (cort.), camelina (lep.), camerina (nau.), campanella (omp.), campanulata (gal.), campanulatus (paneo.), campestris (agar.), campestris (omp.), camphoratus (cort.), camphoratus (lac.), camptophylla (omp.), canaliculata (nyc.), cancrinus (clitop.), candelaris (cort.), candicans (cli.), candida (cli.), candida (omp.), candidus (mar.), candidus (plut.), candolleanum (hyp.), candollei (mont.), canescens (myc.), caninus (cort.), canobrunnea (psil.), canofaciens (psil.), =cantharellus=, canus (pleu.), caperata (phol.), capillacea (stro.), capillaris (myc.), capistrata (phol.), capniocephalum (heb.), capnoides (hyp.), capreolarius (hyg.), capsicoides (lac.), capsicum (lac.), capucina (ino.), caput-medusae (stro.), carbonaria (flam.), carbonarius (can.), carcharias (lepi.), cardarella (cli.), caricicola (tub.), cariosa (aman.), carneifolia (lepi.), carneoalbus (clitop.), carneogrisea (ecc.), carneolum (trich.), carneovirens (nol.), carneosanguinea (myc.), carneum (trich.), carpathicus (mar.), carpinus (hyg.), carpophila (nau.), carpta (ino.), cartilagineum (trich.), cascum (hyp.), castanea (lepi.), castaneus (cort.), castoreus (lent.), catarium (hyp.), catervata (psil.), catina (cli.), caudata (psath'lla), caussetta (arm.), causticus (cort.), cauticinalis (mar.), centrifugus (trich.), centunculus (nau.), centurio (trich.), cepaestipes (lepi.), cephalixus (cort.), ceraceus (hyg.), cerasina (rus.), cerasinus (hyg.), cerifera (phol.), cerinum (trich.), cernua (psil.), cerodes (nau.), cerussata (cli.), cervina (cli.), cervinus (plut.), cesatii (crep.), cessans (col.), cetrata (nol.), chalybea (lep.), chamaelontina (rus.), chelidonia (myc.), chimnophilus (crep.), chioneus (pleu.), =chitonia=, chlorantha (myc.), chlorocyanea (omp.), chloroides (rus.), chlorophanus (hyg.), chloropolius (lep.), chondroderma (psil.), chordalis (mar.), christinae (nau.), chrysenterum (trich.), chrysodon (hyg.), chrysoleuca (omp.), chrysophaeus (plut.), chrysophylla (omp.), chrysophyllus (pax.), chrysorrheus (lac.), cibarius (can.), cicatrisatus (clitop.), cidaris (nau.), cilicioides (lac.), cimicarius (lac.), cimmeria (myc.), cincinnata (ino.), cinerascens (trich.), cineratus (copr.), cinerea (aman.), cinerea (myc.), cinerella (myc.), cinereoviolascens (cort.), cinereus (can.), cinereus (plut.), cingulata (arm.), cinnabarina (lepi.), cinnamomaeifolia (col.), cinnamomea (lenz.), cinnamomeus (cort.), circellatus (lac.), circellatipes (psath'lla), circinans (heb.), circinatus (pleu.), circumtectum (trich.), cirrhata (col.), citri (arm.), citrina (aman.), citrina (rus.), citrinella (myc.), citrinocroceus (hyg.), citrinomarginata (myc.), citriophylla (lepi.), civile (trich.), cladophylla (myc.), clandestina (nol.), claricolor (cort.), clarkii (hyg.), clarkii (ino.), claroflava (rus.), =claudopus=, claviceps (heb.), clavicularis (myc.), clavipes (cli.), clavus (col.), cliduchus (cort.), =clitocybe=, clitopila (flam.), =clitopilus=, clivalis (hyg.), clivensis (psil.), clusilis (col.), clypeatum (ent.), clypeolaria (lepi.), cnista (trich.), coccineus (hyg.), coccola (aman.), cochlearis (panus), cochleatus (lent.), cocles (nol.), codoniceps (myc.), coelestina (nol.), coemansii (can.), coerulea (rus.), coffeata (cli.), cohaerens (myc.), colemannianus (hyg.), collariata (myc.), collina (col.), collinitus (cort.), =collybia=, colossus (trich.), colubrina (lepi.), colus (cort.), colymbadinus (cort.), comatus (copr.), comitalis (cli.), committa (ino.), commune (schiz.), comosa (phol.), compactum (trich.), compar (cort.), compta (psil.), comptulus (agar.), concava (cli.), concentricus (clitop.), conchatus (panus), concolor (col.), conditus (copr.), conferta (gal.), confluens (col.), conformata (ino.), confragosa (phol.), confusa (ino.), conglobatum (trich.), congregatus (copr.), conicus (hyg.), conigena (col.), conissans (flam.), connata (cli.), connatus (hyg.), connexifolia (ino.), conocephalus (bolb.), conopilea (psath.), consentiens (stro.), consimilis (myc.), consimilis (psath'lla), consobrina (rus.), conspersa (nau.), constricta (arm.), contortus (lent.), controversus (lac.), cookei (ent.), cookei (ino.), coöpertus (copr.), coprinifacies (stro.), =coprinus=, coprinus (chit.), coprophila (psil.), coracina (col.), cordae (ent.), coriaceus (can.), coriarium (hyp.), coripellis (pleu.), corneipes (psil.), cornucopoides (pleu.), cornui (omp.), coronatum (hyp.), coronilla (stro.), corrosus (cort.), corrugis (psath.), corruscans (cort.), corticatus (pleu.), corticola (myc.), =cortinarius=, cortinata (flam.), cortinata (ino.), cortiseda (omp.), corydalina (ino.), coryphaeum (trich.), cossus (hyg.), costatula (omp.), costatum (ent.), cothurnata (stro.), cothurnatus (copr.), cotonea (stro.), cotoneus (cort.), crampylus (lac.), craspedius (pleu.), crassifolium (trich.), crassus (cort.), crassus (pax.), craterellus (pleu.), craticus (cort.), cremor (lac.), crenata (psath'lla), crenulata (myc.), =crepidotus=, cretaceus (agar.), cretatus (clitop.), crispa (trog.), crispula (omp.), cristata (lepi.), cristallinus (cort.), crobula (tub.), crocata (myc.), croceocoeruleus (cort.), croceoconus (cort.), croceofulvis (cort.), crocolitus (cort.), cruenta (myc.), cruentata (nol.), cruentata (phol.), crucibulum (can.), crustuliniforme (heb.), cryptarum (cli.), cryptarum (nyc.), cucullata (ino.), cucumis (nau.), cudon (ent.), cumatilis (cort.), cuneata (nol.), cuneifolia (omp.), cuneifolium (trich.), _cupreus_ (lepi.), cupularis (arrh.), cupularis (tub.), cupulatus (can.), cupulatus (copr.), curreyi (ino.), curreyi (mar.), curtipes (cli.), curtus (plut.), curvipes (ino.), curvipoda (phol.), cuspidata (omp.), cutefracta (rus.), cyanites (cort.), cyanophaea (cli.), cyanophylla (omp.), cyanopus (cort.), cyanopus (plut.), cyanorhiza (myc.), cyanoxantha (rus.), cyathicula (lac.), cyathiformis (cli.), cyathiformis (panus), cyclodes (copr.), cygnea (amtop.), cylindracea (phol.), cylindricus (copr.), cyphellaeformis (pleu.), cypriacus (cort.), czarnii (trich.), daemonica (col.), damascenus (cort.), dealbata (cli.), debilipes (ino.), debilis (myc.), decastes (cli.), decipiens (cort.), decipiens (flam.), decipiens (ino.), decipiens (lac.), declinis (col.), decolorans (cort.), decolorans (rus.), decoloratus (cort.), decorus (pleu.), decumbens (cort.), decussata (flam.), deflectens (heb.), deflexa (omp.), degener (lent.), degener (xer.), deglubens (ino.), dehiscens (arm.), delastri (panus), delecta (ino.), delibutus (cort.), delica (rus.), delicata (lepi.), deliciosus (lac.), deliquescens (copr.), demisannulata (lepi.), demissa (omp.), denigrata (arm.), densifolia (lepi.), densifolia (rus.), denudata (lepi.), depallens (rus.), depexus (cort.), depilata (stro.), depluens (claud.), depressus (cort.), descissa (ino.), destricta (ino.), destruens (phol.), detonsus (cort.), detrusa (omp.), diabolicus (cort.), diaphanus (copr.), diatreta (cli.), dibaphus (cort.), dichroa (psil.), dichroum (ent.), dictyorhizus (pleu.), dictyotus (pluteo.), difformis (cli.), diffractum (heb.), digitalis (copr.), dilatata (myc.), dilectus (copr.), dilutus (cort.), directa (omp.), discoideus (hyg.), discopoda (myc.), disjungendus (cort.), dispar (mar.), dispersum (hyp.), disseminata (psath'lla), dissiliens (myc.), dissimulans (phol.), dissultans (trich.), distans (hyg.), distorta (col.), ditopa (cli.), divergens (copr.), djakovensis (phol.), dolabratus (cort.), domesticus (copr.), domesticus (lent.), dorotheae (col.), dothiophora (cli.), drimeia (rus.), dryinus (pleu.), dryophila (col.), dulcamara (ino.), dulcidulus (agar.), dumosa (omp.), dunalii (lent.), dura (phol.), duracinum (trich.), duracinus (cort.), eburneus (copr.), eburneus (hyg.), =eccilia=, echinata (ino.), echinella (lepi.), echinipes (myc.), echinocephala (aman.), echinospora (nau.), ectypa (cli.), effocatella (cli.), effugiens (nau.), _effugiens_ (nauc.), egenulum (hyp.), egregius (paneo.), elaeodes (hyp.), elaphinum (ent.), elata (psath.), elatellum (heb.), elatior (cort.), elatum (heb.), elegans (myc.), elegans (rus.), elegantior (cort.), elephantina (rus.), elevata (col.), eliae (aman.), elixa (cli.), elotus (cort.), elvensis (agar.), elytroides (trich.), embola (tub.), emetica (rus.), emollitius (cort.), emplastra (lepi.), empyreumatica (psath'lla), emunctus (cort.), enchymosa (nau.), =entoloma=, ephebius (plut.), ephemeroides (copr.), ephemerus (copr.), epibryus (crep.), epichloe (mar.), epichysia (omp.), epigaeus (crep.), epiphloea (myc.), epiphyllus (mar.), epipoleus (cort.), epipphia (col.), epipterygia (myc.), epixanthum (hyp.), epodius (mar.), equestre (trich.), equinus (copr.), erebia (phol.), ericaea (psil.), ericetorum (cli.), erinacea (nau.), erminea (lepi.), erophilum (ent.), erosa (col.), erubescens (hyg.), erugatus (cort.), eryngii (pleu.), erythrinus (cort.), erythrocephalus (copr.), erythropus (mar.), escharoides (nau.), esculenta (col.), euchlora (lep.), euchroa (lep.), eustygia (col.), eutheles (ino.), evanidus (copr.), evernius (cort.), excelsa (aman.), excentricum (ent.), excisa (myc.), _excisa_ (myc.), excoriata (lepi.), exiguus (plut.), exilis (nol.), expallens (cli.), expolita (psath'lla), exsculpta (col.), exscissum (trich.), exstinctorius (copr.), extenuatus (pax.), extuberans (col.), eyrei (chlor.), fagicola (psath.), falkii (psath.), fallaciosum (trich.), fallax (cort.), fallax (trich.), farinaceus (panus), farneus (panus), farrea (myc.), fasciata (ino.), fasciatus (cort.), fasciculare (hyp.), fascicularis (can.), fascinans (lac.), fastibile (heb.), fastigiata (ino.), fatuus (psath.), faventina (lenz.), faveolaris (mar.), favillarum (trich.), felina (lepi.), felinum (hyp.), fellea (rus.), fenzlii (ann.), ferrugineo-lateritia (psil.), fertile (ent.), festiva (nau.), fibrillosa (psath.), fibrosa (ino.), fibula (omp.), filia (flam.), filicea (flam.), filiformis (copr.), filopes (myc.), fimbriatus (lent.), fimbriatus (pleu.), fimetarius (copr.), fimicola (arrh.), fimicola (myc.), fimicola (paneo.), fimiputris (anel.), fingibilis (rus.), firmum (heb.), firmus (cort.), flabelliformis (lent.), flabellum (panus), flabellus (cort.), flacca (nau.), flaccida (cli.), flaccida (lenz.), flammans (phol.), flammeolus (lac.), =flammula=, flavella (ino.), flavescens (agar.), flavescens (agar.), flavescens (agar.), flavida (flam.), flavidus (bolb.), flavidus (lac.), flavipes (myc.), flavoalba (myc.), flavobrunneum (trich.), flavus (hyg.), flexipes (cort.), flexipes (gal.), flexuosus (lac.), floccifera (flam.), floccipes (col.), flocculosa (ino.), flocculosus (copr.), floridula (col.), flosculus (ecc.), flosculus (mar.), fluens (lac.), fluxilis (pleu.), focalis (arm.), foeniculaceus (mar.), foenisecii (psil.), foetida (rus.), foetidissima (col.), foetidus (mar.), foetens (hyg.), foetens (panus), foetens (rus.), formosa (lep.), fornicatus (hyg.), forquignoni (copr.), forquignoni (lepi.), forquignoni (lep.), fracida (arm.), fragilis (bolb.), fragilis (rus.), fragrans (cli.), friabilis (amtop.), friabilis (lent.), friesii (can.), friesii (copr.), friesii (hyg.), friesii (lepi.), fritilliformis (cli.), frumentaceum (trich.), frustulenta (psath.), frustulosum (copr.), fucatophyllus (cort.), fucatum (trich.), fulgens (cort.), fuliginaria (col.), fuliginarium (ent.), fuliginosus (lac.), fulmineus (cort.), fulvella (ino.), fulvellum (trich.), fulvescens (cort.), fulvidus (panus), fulvostrigosa (nol.), fumosa (cli.), fumosella (nol.), funicularis (col.), furcata (rus.), furfuracea (tub.), furnacea (lepi.), furvellus (pleu.), furvum (trich.), fusca (phol.), fuscescens (copr.), fuscoalbus (hyg.), fuscomarginata (myc.), fuscopurpureus (mar.), fuscus (lac.), fusipes (col.), fusipes (heb.), fusoidea (stro.), fusus (flam.), gadinoides (pleu.), gaillardii (ino.), =galera=, galericulata (myc.), galeropsis (myc.), gallicus (lent.), gallinacea (cli.), galopoda (myc.), gambosum (trich.), garidelli (cli.), gangraenosa (cli.), gausapatum (trich.), gauteraudii (trich.), gelidus (mar.), geminum (trich.), gemmata (amtop.), gemmellari (pleur.), geniculatus (agar.), geoginus (pleu.), geophylla (ino.), georgii (trich.), georginae (lepi.), geotropa (cli.), germanus (cort.), gentilis (cort.), gibba (omp.), gibberosa (phol.), gibbsii (copr.), gigantea (cli.), gilletii (copr.), gilletii (hyp.), gilletii (psil.), gillotii (lep.), gilva (cli.), giovanellae (omp.), glacialis (col.), glandicolor (cort.), glandiformis (nau.), glareosa (psath.), glaucescens (lac.), glaucocanum (trich.), glauconitens (hyg.), glaucophylla (omp.), glaucopus (cort.), glaucus (can.), glaucus (hyg.), glioderma (lepi.), gliocyclus (hyg.), globularis (col.), globularis (mar.), gloiocephala (vol.), glutinifer (hyg.), glutinosum (heb.), glutinosus (gomp.), glyciosmus (lac.), godeyi (amtop.), godeyi (copr.), godeyi (ino.), godeyi (plut.), =gomphidius=, gomphodes (paneo.), goniosperma (trich.), gonophyllus (copr.), gordoni (psath.), gorteri (lep.), gossypina (psath.), gracilenta (lepi.), gracilipes (psath'lla), gracilis (gomp.), gracilis (psath'lla), gracillima (omp.), grallipes (cort.), graminicola (nau.), graminum (mar.), grammata (ino.), grammopodium (trich.), grandiusculus (bolb.), granulatus (panus), granulatus (plut.), granulosa (lepi.), granulosa (rus.), grata (ino.), graveolens (psath'lla), graveolens (trich.), gregaria (phol.), grisea (omp.), grisea (rus.), grisea (vol.), grisella (omp.), griseobadia (psath.), griseocyaneum (ent.), griseofusca (arm.), griseolilacina (omp.), griseopallida (omp.), griseorubella (ecc.), griseotomentosus (pax.), grumata (cli.), gummosa (flam.), gussonei (col.), guttatum (trich.), guttulatus (paneo.), gymnopodia (flam.), gypsea (myc.), gyrans (cli.), gyroflexa (psath.), haemacta (ino.), haematites (arm.), haematochelis (cort.), haematospermus (agar.), haematopoda (myc.), haemorrhoidarius (agar.), hamadryas (nau.), hariolorum (col.), harmoge (flam.), haustellaris (crep.), =hebeloma=, hebepodia (cli.), hebes (psil.), heliophila (nau.), helobia (psath.), helodes (ent.), helomorpha (flam.), helvella (hyg.), helvelloides (cort.), helveola (lepi.), helvola (psil.), helvolus (cort.), helvus (lac.), hemerobius (copr.), hemitrichus (cort.), hendersonii (copr.), henningsii (flam.), hepatica (omp.), herpeticus (cort.), hesperidium (nol.), heteroclita (phol.), heteromorpha (lenz.), heterophylla (rus.), hiascens (psath'lla), =hiatula=, hibala (nau.), hiemale (heb.), hiemalis (myc.), hilaris (nau.), hinnuleus (cort.), hircinus (cort.), hirneola (cli.), hirsuta (omp.), hirsuta (ino.), hirtella (ino.), hirtipes (nol.), hispida (lepi.), hispidosus (lent.), hispidulus (plut.), hiulca (ino.), hobsoni (pleu.), hoeftii (cort.), holophaeum (ent.), holosericea (lepi.), hometi (lac.), hordum (trich.), horizontalis (nau.), hornotinus (lent.), hortensis (cli.), hospitans (trich.), houghtoni (can.), _houghtoni_ (hyg.), hudsoni (mar.), humicola (phol.), humile (trich.), humosa (cli.), hyacinthinus (hyg.), hybrida (flam.), hydrionides (clitop.), hydrogramma (omp.), hydrophila (nau.), hydrophilum (hyp.), hydrophora (psath'lla), hygrophanus (can.), hygrophanus (lent.), =hygrophorus=, hyperborea (amtop.), hyperella (nau.), =hypholoma=, hypnicola (gal.), hypnophilus (pleu.), hypnorum (can.), hypnorum (gal.), hypomelas (paneo.), hypopithys (vol.), hyporrhodius (hyg.), hypothejus (hyg.), hypsipoda (stro.), hypsophilus (crep.), hysginus (lac.), hystrix (ino.), ianthina (lepi.), ianthina (myc.), ianthipes (cort.), ichoratus (lac.), icterina (nol.), ignicolor (lepi.), ignobilis (col.), iliopodius (cort.), illibatus (cort.), illinita (lepi.), illuminus (cort.), imbecilis (ino.), imbricatum (trich.), imbutus (cort.), immundum (trich.), impatiens (psath'lla), impennis (cort.), imperialis (arm.), impolitum (trich.), impolitus (lac.), impudicus (mar.), inaequabilis (claud.), inamoenum (trich.), inamoenus (copr.), inaurata (flam.), incana (lep.), incarnata (ino.), incilis (cli.), incisus (cort.), inclinata (myc.), incomis (omp.), incompta (cli.), incomptum (hyp.), inconcinna (ino.), indutum (ent.), infida (psath'lla), infractus (cort.), infucatus (cort.), infula (nol.), infumata (omp.), infundibiliformis (cli.), infundibuliformis (can.), _infundibuliformis_ (cyph.), ingrata (col.), inhonestus (crep.), injucundus (cort.), innocua (nau.), inoculata (lepi.), =inocybe=, inodermeum (trich.), inodorus (mar.), inolens (col.), inopoda (flam.), inornata (cli.), inquilina (tub.), insidiosa (amtop.), insignis (cli.), insititius (mar.), instratum (hyp.), insulsus (lac.), integra (rus.), integrella (omp.), intentus (cort.), intermedia (rus.), intermedius (copr.), _intermedius_ (copr.), intermedius (hyg.), intermedius (lac.), interveniens (trich.), inuncta (stro.), inversa (cli.), inverseconicus (panus), invita (omp.), _involucratus_ (agar.), involuta (heb.), involutus (lac.), involutus (pax.), ionides (trich.), ionipterus (clitop.), ionipus (pax.), irinum (trich.), iris (cort.), iris (myc.), irregularis (cort.), irrigatus (hyg.), irroratum (hyp.), isabellina (cli.), isabellinus (cort.), ischnostylum (heb.), jasmineus (cort.), jasonis (arm.), jecorinus (lac.), jennyae (nau.), jerdoni (stro.), jubarinus (cort.), jubatum (ent.), jugis (lent.), juglandinus (pleu.), juncea (nol.), juncicola (myc.), juncina (flam.), junghuhnii (cort.), junonia (phol.), junquillea (aman.), _junquillea_ (crep.), jurana (col.), jurana (ino.), juranum (trich.), juranus (can.), kalchbrenneri (omp.), karstenii (hyg.), kerneri (pleu.), kervernii (lep.), kirchneri (mar.), klukii (claud.), kolaensis (phol.), kretschmarii (nol.), krombholzii (cort.), labyrinthica (lenz.), laccata (cli.), lacera (ino.), lacerata (col.), lacrymabundum (hyp.), =lactarius=, lactea (myc.), lactea (rus.), laestadii (omp.), laeta (nau.), laetus (hyg.), laevigata (myc.), laevis (ann.), lagopoides (copr.), lagopus (copr.), lamellirugis (pax.), lampropoda (lep.), lamyanus (panus), lanaripes (hyp.), lanatus (copr.), lancipes (col.), laniger (cort.), languidus (mar.), lanuginosa (ino.), lapponica (nau.), lappula (lep.), laqueata (arm.), larchenfeldii (paneo.), largus (cort.), laschii (arm.), lascivum (trich.), lasiosperma (myc.), lasiosperma (myc.), latebricola (myc.), lateritioroseus (lac.), lateripes (lac.), lateritia (gal.), latissima (nau.), latus (cort.), laureata (psath.), laurocerasi (pleu.), laxipes (col.), laxus (copr.), lazulina (lep.), lebretonii (cort.), leccina (amtop.), lecensis (agar.), leightoni (pleu.), leiocephala (amtop.), lenta (flam.), lenticularis (lepi.), lenticulosa (cli.), lentiginosa (cli.), lentiniformis (col.), =lentinus=, lentulus (clitop.), lentum (trich.), =lenzites=, leochroma (phol.), leoninus (plut.), leontopodius (lent.), lepida (rus.), lepideus (lent.), lepidopus (cort.), lepidotum (hyp.), =lepiota=, lepiotoides (aman.), lepiphylla (cli.), lepista (pax.), leporinus (hyg.), leptocephala (myc.), =leptonia=, leptopus (pax.), lerchenfeldii (copr.), leucocephala (ino.), leucocephalum (trich.), leucogala (myc.), leucomyosotis (col.), leucophaeus (can.), leucophaeus (hyg.), leucophanes (paneo.), leucopheatum (trich.), leucophylla (omp.), leucopus (cort.), leucotephrum (hyp.), leucothites (lepi.), libertata (psil.), licinipes (cort.), licmophora (lepi.), ligatus (hyg.), lignatilis (pleu.), lignicola (lepi.), lignicola (pleu.), ligniotus (lac.), lilacea (col.), lilacea (lepi.), lilacea (rus.), lilacina (omp.), lilacinus (lac.), limacinus (hyg.), limbata (nau.), limonius (cort.), limosa (nol.), limosus (mar.), limpidoides (pleu.), limpidus (pleu.), limulata (flam.), lindgrenii (cort.), lineata (myc.), lingulatus (pleu.), linkii (lep.), linnaei (rus.), lipophila (psil.), liquescens (ent.), liquidus (cort.), liquiritiae (flam.), liratus (cort.), lithophilus (panus), littoralis (mar.), lituua (omp.), livido-albus (hyg.), livido-ochraceus (cort.), lividum (ent.), lividus (lac.), lividus (pax.), livor (cort.), lixivium (trich.), lobatus (can.), =locellina=, longicauda (psath'lla), longicaudum (heb.), longipes (can.), longipes (col.), loricatum (trich.), loripes (col.), loscosii (psath.), loveiana (vol.), lubrica (flam.), lucifera (phol.), lucifuga (ino.), lucorum (cort.), lucorum (hyg.), ludia (col.), luffii (omp.), lugens (heb.), lugubris (nau.), lupina (flam.), lupuletora (col.), luridum (trich.), luridus (lac.), luscina (cli.), lusitanicus (lent.), lustratus (cort.), lutea (aman.), lutea (rus.), luteifolia (col.), luteoalba (myc.), luteocaesius (pleu.), luteolus (bolb.), luteolus (crep.), luteomarginatus (plut.), luteonitens (stro.), luteorufescens (myc.), luteovirens (arm.), luteoviridans (rus.), lutincola (pleu.), luxoviensis (copr.), luxurians (phol.), macelenta (col.), macrocephalus (copr.), macrophylla (cli.), macropus (cort.), macropus (pleu.), macrorhizum (trich.), macrosporus (claud.), maculata (col.), maculata (ino.), maculata (rus.), maculatus (gomp.), maculosus (cort.), madidum (ent.), magna (phol.), magnifica (aman.), magnimamma (heb.), magnusiana (lepi.), majale (ent.), malachius (cort.), malicorius (cort.), maliodorus (lac.), maluvium (trich.), mamillaris (ino.), mammillata (myc.), mammillata (stro.), mammosa (nol.), mammosus (lac.), mappa (aman.), =marasmius=, marcescens (copr.), margaritispora (ino.), marginata (phol.), maritima (ino.), martialis (lepi.), marzuola (cli.), marzuolus (hyg.), mastigera (psath.), mastoidea (lepi.), mastrucatus (pleu.), maura (omp.), maxima (cli.), mayrii (copr.), media (vol.), medioflava (lepi.), medullata (lepi.), medullosa (nau.), medusa (stro.), megalodactyla (aman.), megalopus (arm.), melaleucum (trich.), melanodon (plut.), melanops (myc.), melanopus (pleu.), melanotus (cort.), melantinum (hyp.), melasperma (stro.), meleagris (lepi.), melinoides (nau.), melizeus (hyg.), mellea (arm.), mellea (phol.), melleopallens (lep.), menieri (mar.), mephitica (col.), merdaria (stro.), merletii (ino.), mesomorpha (lepi.), mesophaeum (heb.), mesotephrus (hyg.), metachroa (cli.), metapodius (hyg.), metata (myc.), metulaespora (lepi.), micaceus (copr.), micaceus (hyg.), micans (nau.), micheliana (col.), microcephalum (trich.), microcyclus (cort.), micropholis (lepi.), microphylla (nyc.), microrhiza (psath.), microscopica (omp.), miculatum (trich.), militare (trich.), miltinus (cort.), milvinus (cort.), mimica (col.), mimicum (ent.), miniaceus (hyg.), miniatus (hyg.), minimus (lac.), minuta (gal.), minuta (lep.), minuta (nol.), mirabilis (myc.), miser (col.), miser (copr.), miserrima (nau.), mitis (pleu.), mitissimus (lac.), mitratum (heb.), mixta (flam.), mniophila (gal.), mollis (crep.), mollis (lenz.), molybdina (cli.), molybdites (lepi.), molyoides (mar.), monachella (nol.), monstrosa (cli.), =montagnites=, montellicus (plut.), morchelloides (gal.), morieri (lepi.), morio (arm.), mortuosa (cli.), mougeotii (ecc.), mucida (arm.), mucifluus (cort.), mucor (myc.), mucronellus (hyg.), mulleus (mar.), _multifidum_ (schiz.), multiformis (cort.), mundulus (clitop.), muralis (copr.), muralis (omp.), murcida (psil.), muricata (phol.), muricella (flam.), muricinus (cort.), murina (col.), murinaceum (trich.), murinella (vol.), muscaria (aman.), muscigena (phol.), muscigenus (can.), muscorum (can.), muscorum (tub.), mussivum (heb.), mustelina (phol.), mustelina (rus.), musteus (lac.), mustialensis (pleu.), mutabilis (phol.), mutabilis (psil.), mutica (ino.), mutilus (pleu.), =mycena=, mycenoides (phol.), mycenopsis (copr.), myosotis (nau.), myosurus (col.), myrtillinus (cort.), myxotrichus (pleu.), naevosus (cort.), nanus (plut.), napus (cort.), narcoticus (copr.), naucina (lepi.), =naucoria=, nauseosa (nyc.), nauseosa (rus.), nauseosodulcis (cli.), nauseosodulcis (pleu.), nauseosum (heb.), nebrodensis (pleu.), nebularis (cli.), nefrens (lep.), neglecta (psath.), neglectus (clitop.), nemophila (psil.), nemoreus (hyg.), nevillae (omp.), nictitans (trich.), nidulans (crep.), nidulans (pleu.), _nidulans_ (pleur.), nidorosum (ent.), nidusavis (clitop.), nigellus (ecc.), nigrella (ecc.), nigricans (rus.), nigripes (nol.), nigrocinnamomeum (ent.), nigromarginata (lepi.), nigropunctata (cli.), nimbata (cli.), nimbosa (nau.), nivea (myc.), niveorubens (agar.), niveus (bolb.), niveus (copr.), niveus (hyg.), nivosus (pleu.), nitellina (col.), nitens (cort.), nitens (flam.), nitens (pax.), nitida (aman.), nitida (rus.), nitidum (ent.), nitidus (cort.), nitidus (hyg.), nitratus (hyg.), nitrosus (cort.), =nolanea=, noli-tangere (psath.), nubila (cli.), nucea (nau.), nucida (myc.), nuciseda (psil.), nudipes (heb.), nudum (trich.), nummularia (col.), =nyctalis=, nycthemerus (copr.), nympharum (lepi.), obbata (cli.), oblectus (copr.), obliquus (lac.), obnubilus (lac.), obola (cli.), obrusseus (hyg.), obscura (ino.), obscuratus (hyg.), obsoleta (cli.), obturata (stro.), obtusata (psath.), obtusus (cort.), occulta (cli.), ocellata (col.), ochracea (cli.), ochracea (rus.), ochraceus (can.), ochrochlora (flam.), ochroleuca (rus.), ochroleucus (cort.), ochrophyllus (cort.), ocreata (stro.), odini (heb.), odora (cli.), odorus (can.), oedipus (hyp.), olearius (pleu.), olida (myc.), olidus (can.), olivacea (rus.), olivaceoalbus (hyg.), olivaceomarginata (myc.), olivascens (cort.), olivascens (cort.), olivascens (rus.), oliveus (cort.), olivieri (lepi.), olorina (cli.), ombrophila (phol.), ombrophila (psath.), =omphalia=, omphalodes (lent.), oniscoides (omp.), oniscus (omp.), onychinum (trich.), opaca (cli.), opicum (trich.), opimus (cort.), opiparia (cli.), orbicularis (col.), orbiformis (cli.), orcella (clitop.), orcelloides (pax.), oreades (mar.), oreinum (trich.), orellanus (cort.), orichalceus (cort.), ornatus (pleu.), ostreatus (pleu.), ovalis (gal.), ovatus (copr.), ovinus (hyg.), ovoidea (aman.), ozes (col.), ozonii (bolb.), pachyphylla (cli.), paedidum (trich.), paleaceus (cort.), pallassii (mont.), pallens (lep.), pallens (psath.), pallescens (crep.), pallida (rus.), pallidus (lac.), palmatus (crep.), paludosa (tub.), palustris (stro.), panaeolum (trich.), =panaeolus=, panaeolus (pax.), pannizii (cli.), pannosa (nau.), pannucius (lac.), pansa (cort.), pantherina (aman.), pantoleucus (pleu.), panuoides (pax.), =panus=, papilionaceus (paneo.), papillata (cli.), papillata (nol.), papillatus (copr.), papulosus (cort.), parabolica (myc.), paradoxa (stro.), paradoxus (pax.), paragaudis (cort.), parasitica (lep.), parasitica (nyc.), pardalis (pleu.), parilis (cli.), parisotii (crep.), parkensis (ecc.), paropsis (cli.), parvannulata (lepi.), parvula (vol.), parvus (can.), pascua (nol.), patellaris (panus), pateriformis (cort.), pathenopejus (pleu.), patouillardii (copr.), patulum (trich.), pauletii (lepi.), paupercula (myc.), pausiaca (cli.), pavonius (cort.), =paxillus=, paxillus (phol.), pectinata (omp.), pectinata (rus.), pediades (nau.), pelianthina (myc.), pelliculosa (myc.), pellitus (plut.), pellucida (tub.), pellucidus (copr.), pelmatosporus (cort.), peltata (myc.), penarius (hyg.), penetrans (flam.), penicillatus (cort.), pennata (psath.), perbrevis (ino.), percevali (stro.), percomis (cort.), perforans (mar.), pergamena (cli.), pergamenus (lac.), periscelis (cort.), perlata (ino.), permixta (lepi.), peronatus (agar.), peronatus (mar.), perpusillus (pleu.), perrera (agar.), persicinum (trich.), persicinus (hyg.), personatum (trich.), persoonii (aman.), pertinax (psil.), pes-caprae (trich.), pessundatum (trich.), petaloides (pleu.), peteauxii (claud.), peteauxii (crep.), petiginosum (heb.), pezizoides (crep.), phaeocephala (ino.), phaeophyllus (cort.), phaeopodia (col.), phaeosporus (copr.), phalenarum (paneo.), phalerata (phol.), phalliodorus (col.), phalloides (aman.), phillipsii (crep.), philonitis (omp.), phlebophorus (plut.), phoenicea (arm.), phoenix (pilo.), phoenix (psil.), pholideus (cort.), =pholiota=, phragmatophylla (phol.), phrygianus (cort.), phyllophila (cli.), phyllophilus (copr.), physaloides (psil.), picaceus (copr.), picea (nol.), picinus (lac.), picrea (flam.), picta (omp.), =pilosace=, pilosus (copr.), pilulaeforme (hyp.), pinastri (lenz.), pinetorum (arm.), pingua (lepi.), pinsitus (pleu.), piperatus (lac.), pisciodora (nol.), pithyophila (cli.), pityria (gal.), pityrodes (nau.), placenta (ent.), placida (lep.), plancus (mar.), planipes (col.), planus (pleu.), platyphylla (col.), platypus (copr.), plautus (plut.), pleopodia (nol.), pleurotoides (arm.), =pleurotus=, plexipes (col.), plicatilis (copr.), plicatocrenata (myc.), plicosa (myc.), plumbea (myc.), plumbeus (lac.), plumbosus (cort.), plumiger (cort.), plumipes (col.), plumosa (ino.), pluteoides (ent.), =pluteolus=, =pluteus=, pluvius (cort.), polita (ecc.), polius (cli.), polyadelpha (omp.), polycephalus (can.), polygramma (myc.), polyphyllum (trich.), polysticta (lepi.), pometi (pleu.), popinalis (clitop.), porinae (lac.), porphyria (aman.), porphyrophaeum (ent.), porphyropus (cort.), porreus (mar.), porrigens (pleu.), porriginosa (nau.), portentosum (trich.), postii (omp.), praecox (ent.), praecox (phol.), praegnans (copr.), praenitens (agar.), praestans (cort.), praetervisa (ino.), praetoria (amtop.), prasinus (cort.), prasiosmus (mar.), pratensis (agar.), pratensis (hyg.), prescottii (hyp.), privignus (cort.), proboscideus (crep.), procera (lepi.), prominens (lepi.), proletaria (nol.), prolifera (myc.), prolixa (col.), prona (psath'lla), properatus (pleu.), protracta (col.), proxima (cli.), proximella (ino.), pruinata (myc.), pruinosa (cli.), prunuloides (ent.), prunulus (clitop.), psammicola (myc.), psammocephalus (cort.), psammopodium (trich.), =psathyra=, =psathyrella=, psathyroides (col.), pseudoandrosacea (omp.), pseudoorcella (clitop.), pseudoplicatilis (copr.), pseudopura (myc.), =psilocybe=, psilocyboides (omp.), psittacinus (hyg.), pterigena (myc.), pubescens (gal.), pubescens (lac.), pudens (panus), pudens (pleu.), pudica (phol.), pudorinus (hyg.), puellaris (rus.), puellula (cli.), pulla (cli.), pulla (col.), pullata (myc.), pulmonariellus (pleu.), pulmonarius (pleu.), pulverulentus (scop.), pulvinatus (pleu.), pumila (phol.), punctata (rus.), punctatum (heb.), punctatus (cort.), punctulata (stro.), punctulatum (hyp.), punicella (myc.), puniceus (hyg.), pura (myc.), purifluus (bolb.), purpurascens (cort.), purpurascens (hyg.), purpurata (flam.), _purpurea_ (rus.), purpureophyllus (cort.), pusillus (bolb.), pusio (ino.), pusiola (nau.), pustulatus (hyg.), putidum (trich.), putilla (ino.), putillus (mar.), putrigenus (crep.), pygmaea (nau.), pygmaeo-affinis (gal.), pyramidalis (mar.), pyrenaeus (copr.), pyrenaica (lep.), pyreniacum (ent.), pyriodora (ino.), pyrogalus (lac.), pyrotrichum (hyp.), pyxidata (omp.), quadricolor (cort.), queletii (cli.), queletii (copr.), queletii (heb.), queletii (hyg.), queletii (lent.), queletii (lenz.), queletii (lep.), queletii (mar.), queletii (paneo.), queletii (rus.), quietus (lac.), quinquepartitum (trich.), quisquilaris (ent.), rabenhorstii (gal.), racemosa (col.), rachodes (lepi.), radians (copr.), radiatus (copr.), radicata (col.), radicellata (cli.), radicellata (phol.), radicosa (phol.), raeborhiza (myc.), ralfsii (crep.), ramealis (mar.), ramentacea (arm.), ramosa (col.), ramosus (can.), rancida (col.), rapaceus (cort.), raphanicum (trich.), raphanoides (cort.), rapidus (copr.), rasile (trich.), ravida (gal.), ravida (rus.), reclina (omp.), recubans (mar.), reducta (nau.), reedii (cort.), regia (vol.), reichardtii (lenz.), relicina (ino.), remotus (paneo.), renati (myc.), renidens (cort.), reniformis (pleu.), renneyi (ino.), repandum (ent.), replexus (can.), resimus (lac.), resinaceus (lent.), resplendens (trich.), resutum (ent.), reticulatus (pluteo.), retigera (col.), retirugis (paneo.), retirugus (can.), retisporus (lac.), retosta (omp.), revolutus (pax.), revolutus (pleu.), rhadigiosa (arm.), rhodella (col.), rhodiola (ino.), rhodocylix (ecc.), rhodoleuca (cli.), rhodomela (vol.), rhodopolium (ent.), rhytipes (rus.), riculatus (cort.), riederi (cort.), rigens (cort.), rigidata (cli.), rigidus (cort.), rimosa (ino.), rimulincola (nau.), rimulosa (schulz.), ringens (panus), rivulorum (pleu.), rivulosa (cli.), rivulosus (bolb.), roberti (plut.), robusta (arm.), romanus (xer.), rorida (myc.), roris (copr.), rorulenta (lepi.), rosacea (rus.), rosella (myc.), roseoalbus (plut.), roseocinereus (pleu.), roseola (aman.), roseolus (pleu.), roseotinctus (copr.), rostrupianus (copr.), rotula (mar.), rozei (ent.), rubella (myc.), rubellum (ent.), rubellus (agar.), rubellus (cort.), rubescens (aman.), rubescens (hyg.), rubescens (lac.), rubi (crep.), rubida (nol.), rubiginosa (gal.), rubra (rus.), rubricata (nau.), rubricatus (mar.), rubriceps (chit.), rubricosus (cort.), rubrocinctus (lac.), rubromarginata (myc.), rubropunctatus (cort.), rubrum (heb.), rudis (panus), rufescens (can.), rufidula (phol.), rufoalba (ino.), rufocarnea (nol.), rufoolivaceus (cort.), rufus (lac.), rugosa (myc.), russiophyllus (agar.), russocoriaceus (hyg.), =russula=, russula (trich.), russus (cort.), rustica (omp.), rusticoides (ecc.), rutaceus (lac.), ruthae (pleu.), rutilans (trich.), saccardianus (pleu.), saccharifera (myc.), saccharinus (mar.), sacchariolens (nau.), sadleri (cli.), saevum (trich.), sagatus (agar.), saginus (cort.), sahleri (gal.), salero (trich.), salicinus (plut.), salignus (pleu.), salor (cort.), sambucina (ino.), sandicina (cli.), sangifluus (lac.), sanguinarius (agar.), sanguinea (rus.), sanguineus (cort.), sanguinolenta (myc.), saniosus (cort.), sapidus (pleu.), sapinea (flam.), saponaceum (trich.), sarcita (lep.), sarcocephala (psil.), sardonia (rus.), sarnicus (clitop.), saturninus (cort.), saundersii (ent.), saxatilis (mar.), scabella (ino.), scaber (ino.), scabiosum (ent.), scabrosa (lep.), scalaris (crep.), scalpturatum (trich.), scamba (flam.), scandens (cort.), scauroides (copr.), scaurus (cort.), sceptrum (copr.), schista (ino.), =schizophyllum=, schizopus (mar.), schizoxylon (omp.), schroteri (copr.), schultzii (panus), schulzeri (hyg.), schulzeri (lepi.), schulzeri (psath.), =schulzeria=, , schumacheri (trich.), schurii (panus), sciophanus (hyg.), sciophyllus (cort.), sciopoda (omp.), scitula (anel.), sclerotipes (mar.), scobicola (psil.), scobinacea (stro.), scobinella (amtop.), scolecina (nau.), scorodonius (mar.), scorpioides (nau.), scorteus (mar.), scoticus (lac.), scoticus (lent.), scrobiculatus (lac.), scruposa (arm.), scutellinus (crep.), scutulatus (cort.), scyphiformis (omp.), scyphoides (omp.), sebaceus (cort.), secretani (hyg.), secretani (phol.), segestria (nau.), sejunctum (trich.), semibulbosus (plut.), semicrema (rus.), semiflexa (nau.), semiglobata (stro.), semiinfundibuliformis (pleu.), semilanceata (psil.), seminuda (lepi.), semiorbicularis (nau.), semistriatus (copr.), semitalis (col.), semivestita (psath.), semotus (agar.), senescens (heb.), senilis (cli.), separata (anel.), sepiaria (lenz.), septentrionalis (lenz.), septentrionalis (schulz.), septicus (pleu.), serarius (cort.), serena (lepi.), sericellum (ent.), sericeum (ent.), serifluus (lac.), serotina (rus.), serotinus (pleu.), serpentina (col.), serrulata (lep.), setiger (agar.), setipes (omp.), setosa (myc.), seynii (myc.), severinii (pleu.), siccipes (stro.), sideroides (nau.), silaceum (hyp.), siliginea (gal.), silvanus (pleu.), silvaticus (agar.), similis (copr.), simillima (myc.), simulans (psil.), sinapizans (heb.), sindonia (ino.), sinopica (cli.), sinuatum (ent.), sinuosum (heb.), siparia (nau.), sistrata (lepi.), sitaneus (lent.), smaragdina (rus.), smithii (clitop.), sobolewski (col.), soboliferus (copr.), sobria (nau.), socialis (cli.), sociatus (copr.), solitaria (aman.), solitaria (psath.), solstitialis (copr.), solstitialis (lep.), solstitialis (nau.), sorbina (lenz.), sordarius (pax.), sordidum (trich.), sororia (phol.), sororiata (plut.), spadicea (psil.), spadiceo-grisea (psath.), spadiceus (cort.), spadiceus (hyg.), spartea (gal.), spathulatus (can.), speciosa (vol.), spectabilis (phol.), speculum (ent.), spegazzinii (copr.), speira (myc.), spermaticum (trich.), sphagnicola (omp.), sphaleromorpha (phol.), sphinctrinus (paneo.), spicula (gal.), spilomeus (cort.), spilopus (plut.), spintrigera (stro.), spinulosa (cli.), spinulosus (lac.), spissa (aman.), splachnoides (mar.), splendens (cli.), spodoleucus (mar.), spodoleucus (pleu.), spoliatum (heb.), spongiosus (pleu.), spraguei (copr.), spumosa (flam.), squalens (psil.), squalidus (hyg.), squalidus (lac.), squamea (arm.), squamifera (psath'lla), squamigera (schulz.), squamosa (psath.), squamosa (stro.), squamosus (copr.), squamulosa (cli.), squamulosa (stro.), squarrosa (phol.), squarrulosa (ino.), squarrulosum (trich.), stabilis (flam.), stagnina (tub.), stannea (myc.), stans (trich.), staringii (pleu.), staurospora (nol.), stellaris (copr.), stellata (omp.), stemmatus (cort.), stenocoleus (copr.), stercoraria (stro.), stercorarius (copr.), sterile (heb.), sterquilinus (copr.), stevensoni (can.), stevensoni (col.), stevensonii (panus), stictica (nau.), stilbocephalus (clitop.), stillatitius (cort.), stiparophyllum (trich.), stipitaria (col.), stipticus (panus), stipularis (myc.), stiriacus (crep.), stocseki (heb.), storea (hyp.), straminella (lepi.), straminipes (clitop.), strangulata (amtop.), streptopus (hyg.), striaepes (nau.), striaepileus (amp.), striatulus (pleu.), stricta (psath.), strictipes (trich.), stridula (col.), strigiceps (ino.), strobiliformis (aman.), strobiliformis (lepi.), strobilina (myc.), =stropharia=, strophosum (heb.), strossmayeri (copr.), strumosa (col.), studeriana (flam.), stylobates (myc.), suaveolens (cli.), suavis (nau.), suavissimis (lent.), subalutacea (cli.), subannulatus (mar.), subatomata (psath'lla), subatrata (psath'lla), subbalteatus (paneo.), subcava (arm.), subcoeruleo-griseus (copr.), subcollariatum (heb.), subdecastes (cli.), subdenticulatus (can.), subdulcis (lac.), subericaea (psil.), suberosus (hyg.), subferrugineus (cort.), subfirmus (paneo.), subgibbosus (agar.), subglobosa (nol.), subglobosa (nau.), subgranulosa (ino.), subintiger (crep.), subinvoluta (cli.), sublanatus (cort.), sublateritium (hyp.), sublentum (hyp.), subliquescens (psath.), sublutea (phol.), subnotatus (cort.), subnuda (psath.), subpalmatus (pleu.), subpapillatum (hyp.), subplicatus (pleu.), subplicosa (myc.), subpulverulentum (trich.), subpurpurascens (hyg.), subradiatus (hyg.), subrimosa (ino.), subrosea (psath'lla), subrubens (ent.), subrufulus (pleu.), subsaponaceum (heb.), subsimilis (cort.), subsquarrosa (phol.), subtemulenta (nau.), subtilis (psath'lla), subtortum (heb.), subtortus (cort.), subumbonatus (lac.), subviscifera (clito.), subzonatum (heb.), succinea (col.), sudora (myc.), sudum (trich.), suffrutescens (lent.), suillus (cort.), sulcata (psath'lla), sulcata (stro.), sulcato-crenatus (copr.), sulcatula (stro.), sulcatus (hyg.), sulfurinus (cort.), sulphureum (trich.), supina (myc.), suratus (cort.), sylvestre (hyp.), syrjense (heb.), syrjensis (hyg.), tabacella (nau.), tabacina (nau.), tabescens (cli.), _tabescens_ (coll.), tabidus (lac.), tabularis (cort.), talus (cort.), tamii (flam.), tardus (copr.), tavastense (stro.), tavastensis (nau.), taylori (vol.), tegularis (psil.), telmatiaea (omp.), temperata (vol.), temulenta (nau.), tenacella (col.), tenax (nau.), tenebrosa (ino.), tenella (arrh.), tenella (myc.), tener (bolb.), tenera (gal.), tenerrima (myc.), tenuiceps (trich.), tenuicula (psath.), tenuiculus (plut.), tenuis (myc.), tenuis (panus), tenuissima (gal.), tephroleucus (hyg.), terginus (mar.), tergiversans (copr.), terrei (lac.), terreum (trich.), terrigena (phol.), tersa (phol.), tesquorum (col.), tessulatus (pleu.), testaceocanescens (cort.), testaceum (heb.), testaceus (cort.), theiodes (vol.), theiogalus (lac.), thelephora (col.), thomsoni (ent.), tigrinellus (copr.), tigrinum (trich.), tigrinus (lent.), tintinabulum (myc.), tithymalinus (lac.), titubans (bolb.), togularis (phol.), tomentella (ino.), tomentellus (lent.), tomentosus (copr.), tomentosus (lac.), tophaceus (cort.), torminosus (lac.), tornata (cli.), torpens (psath.), torquatus (mar.), torquescens (mar.), tortipes (ent.), tortuosum (heb.), tortuosus (cort.), torulosus (panus), torvus (cort.), trabea (lenz.), trachelina (myc.), traganus (cort.), transilvanica (ann.), translucens (claud.), transversum (hyp.), trappenii (copr.), trechispora (ino.), tremens (pleu.), tremulus (pleu.), trepida (psath'lla), trichocephala (phol.), =tricholoma=, tricholoma (ino.), tricolor (lenz.), tricolor (omp.), triformis (cort.), trinii (ino.), triscopoda (nau.), triste (trich.), tristis (ecc.), triumphans (cort.), trivialis (ino.), trivialis (lac.), trochila (col.), =trogia=, trogii (cli.), trullaeformis (cli.), truncatum (heb.), truncorum (copr.), tuba (cli.), tubaeformis (can.), =tubaria=, tuberculata (lepi.), tuberculosa (phol.), tuberosa (col.), tuberosus (copr.), tumescens (arm.), tumidum (trich.), tumulosa (cli.), turbidum (ent.), turbinatus (cort.), turci (lep.), turgidus (cort.), turmalis (cort.), turpis (lac.), turrissi (can.), turritum (trich.), turundus (hyg.), tylicolor (col.), typhae (psath.), typhicola (nau.), tyrianthina (cli.), uda (psil.), uliginosus (cort.), ulmarius (pleu.), umbellatus (lent.), umbellifera (omp.), umbilicata (omp.), umbilicatus (cort.), umbonatus (can.), umbratica (ino.), umbratila (omp.), umbrina (ino.), umbrinellus (plut.), umbrinus (copr.), umbrinus (lac.), umbrosus (plut.), undatus (clitop.), undulosa (nau.), unguentatum (trich.), unguicularis (pleu.), unguinosus (hyg.), unicolor (phol.), unimodus (cort.), uraceus (cort.), urania (myc.), urbicus (cort.), urbum (trich.), urceolata (amtop.), urens (mar.), urnula (panus), ursinus (lent.), urticaecola (psath.), ustale (trich.), utilis (lac.), uvidus (lac.), vaccinum (trich.), vaginata (amtop.), vaillantii (mar.), valgus (cort.), valida (aman.), vaporarius (panus), variabilis (claud.), varicosus (mar.), varicus (copr.), variegata (lenz.), variegatum (trich.), variegatus (cort.), variicolor (cort.), varius (cort.), vatricosa (ino.), velaris (copr.), velatus (copr.), vellereus (lac.), velox (copr.), veluticeps (col.), velutina (omp.), velutinum (hyp.), velutinus (hyg.), velutipes (col.), veneris (cli.), venetus (cort.), venosum (ent.), ventosa (omp.), ventricosa (col.), ventricosa (stro.), ventricosus (hyg.), venusta (lepi.), venustissima (cli.), venustula (myc.), verecunda (nol.), vermicularis (cli.), vernalis (aman.), vernicosa (cli.), verpoides (nyc.), verrucipes (arm.), versatilis (nol.), versicolor (stro.), versipelle (heb.), vertiruga (col.), vervacti (nau.), vesca (rus.), vespertinus (cort.), vestita (tub.), vesuviana (omp.), veternosa (rus.), vibecina (cli.), vibratilis (cort.), vicina (psil.), vietus (lac.), vignolius (hyg.), vilis (cli.), vilis (clitop.), villosa (phol.), violaceafusca (ino.), violaceo-atrum (hyp.), violaceofulvus (panus), violaceonitens (trich.), violarius (plut.), violascens (heb.), violascens (ino.), violascens (lac.), vinacea (nol.), vinosa (flam.), vinosus (cort.), viperina (vol.), virescens (psil.), virescens (rus.), virgatum (trich.), virginea (rus.), virgineus (hyg.), viridans (ent.), viridifluens (nol.), viridimarginata (myc.), viridis (lac.), virosa (aman.), viscidula (tub.), viscidus (gomp.), viscosus (cort.), vitellina (rus.), vitellinopes (cort.), vitellinus (bolb.), vitellinus (hyg.), vitilis (myc.), vitrea (myc.), vittadinii (lepi.), vittaeformis (gal.), viviani (arm.), volemus (lac.), volvacea (vol.), volvaceo-minimus (copr.), =volvaria=, vopiscus (nyc.), vulgaris (myc.), vulpecula (cli.), vulpinus (lent.), weislandri (nau.), whitei (ino.), worthingtoni (stro.), wynnei (ent.), wynnei (mar.), wynniae (hiat.), wynniae (hyg.), xanthodermus (agar.), xanthogramma (ann.), xanthophaea (rus.), xanthophylla (cli.), xanthopoda (col.), xerampelina (rus.), xerotoides (mar.), =xerotus=, xylophila (col.), zahlbruckneri (claud.), zephira (myc.), zinziberatus (cort.), zizyphana (cli.), zonarius (agar.), zonarius (lac.), zygophylla (cli.), */ cambridge: printed by j. and c. f. clay, at the university press. _duckworth & co._ =important botanical works.= _jackson, b. daydon._ =a glossary of botanic terms=, with their derivation and accent. by benjamin daydon jackson, secretary of the linnean society of london. crown vo. _s._ net. _athenæum._--"every botanist will praise this work." _gardeners' chronicle._--"a much needed glossary. should find a place in every garden library." _journal of botany._--"mr jackson has supplied what was wanting." _nature._--"exceedingly valuable." _science gossip._--"no botanist can afford to dispense with this work." _percival, john._ =agricultural botany: theoretical and practical.= by john percival, m.a., f.l.s., professor of botany at the south-eastern agricultural college, wye. crown vo, with illustrations by the author. _s._ _d._ net. _second edition. ready now._ incorporated in the text are illustrations, and over three hundred experiments, which specially enhance the value of the book for schools and colleges where botany, agriculture, and horticulture are taught. _nature._--"we have no hesitation in recommending it as _the_ elementary handbook for the agricultural student. the chapters on weeds and on diseases of farm-plants are distinctly better than those in any previous english works dealing with agricultural botany." _journal of education._--"a book which supplies what has for a long time been felt as a serious want in the literature of agricultural textbooks.... the book could hardly have been better." _massee, george._ =a text-book of plant diseases=, caused by cryptogamic parasites. by george massee, f.l.s., mycologist and principal assistant, royal herbarium, kew. with illustrations, drawn from nature by the author. crown vo. _s._ net. _literature._--"the book deserves to become the leading english textbook on the subject." _farmers' gazette._--"the manual which messrs duckworth have so attractively brought out for mr massee is one of the best of its kind that has yet appeared." _moyle rogers, the rev. w._ =a hand-book of british rubi.= by the rev. w. moyle rogers, f.l.s. demy vo. _s._ net. duckworth & co. henrietta street, covent garden. transcriber's notes. the printer used raised dots for the decimal point; they were changed to periods. the dagger symbol was used in the keys; i changed them to the plus sign. there are many inconsistencies in the way words are abbreviated, the hyphenation, the latin word endings and the capitalization of names, as well as the spelling in general; except where noted below, i left them as is. changed "subq." to "subg." on page : "sp. subg. - ." changed comma to period after "rufous" on page : "p. tinged rufous." changed "peristently" to "persistently" on page : "persistently reddish flesh colour." added missing period after "g" on page : "g. deep ochraceous." sometimes the abbreviation "sp." is missing when the spores are described, such as page ; i left them as is. similarly, the abbreviation "p." is sometimes missing when the pileus is described as on page . i also left this as is. added period after "var" on page : "var. violacea." changed "striata" to "striate" on page : "striate at paler margin." changed comma to period in entry for haematopoda on page : "caespitose." changed "mik" to "milk" on page : "giving out milk when broken." changed period to comma after "lax" on page : "lax, campan. then exp." changed "hariolarum" to "hariolorum" on page : "differs from c. hariolorum." although it appears that "p." should be after "acrid.", i left it as is on page in the entry for m. urens. changed "palllid" to "pallid" on page : "pallid then rufescent." the upper limit on the size of the pileus for m. plancus is missing on page . i inserted an ellipsis as a placeholder. added a period after "p" on page : (varicosus) "p. . - cm." changed "sub-umb." to "subumb." on page : "subumb. lilac-brown." the spore size for m. fuscopurpureus on page was left as " - " even though that must be in error. changed semi-colon to comma on page : "with white points upwards, - cm." the authority for m. xerotoides was left as "tr.", although "fr." might have been intended. replaced "]" with ")" on page : "(= _clitocybe marzuolus_, bres.)." the authority for c. hirneola var. undulata was missing on page ; i inserted "----." as a placeholder. inserted period after "s" on page : "s. - cm." changed "floccossly" to "floccosely" on page : "floccosely villose." changed "yelllow" to "yellow" on page : "white then livid yellow." there are two entries for cantharellus tubaeformis var. lutescens on page . although these are almost identical, i kept them both. changed comma to period on page : "plano-infundib." changed "p." to "p." on page : "p. thin, subdimidiate." changed "quelet" to "quélet" on page : "quélet says." removed extra period after "then" on page : "p. campan. then exp." changed "d.c." to "d. c." on page : "lamellirugis, d. c." changed "verdegris" to "verdigris" on page : "tinged verdigris at base." also on page : "verdigris green." removed replaced hyphen with space on page : "apex naked." change "squarrosula" to "squarrulosa" on page : "squarrulosa, karst." inserted period after "var" on page : "var. major, b. and br." removed extra period after "campanulato" on page : "p. campanulato-exp." inserted period after "g" on page : "g. slightly sinuate." changed "hypholama" to "hypholoma" on page : "habit of hypholoma fasciculare." changed "sub-genera" to "subgenera" on page : "key to the subgenera." changed "sub-bulbous" to "subbulbous" on page for consistency: "subbulbous base." also on page : "subbulbous base." changed "fucescent" to "fuscescent" on page : "fuscescent with a grey bloom." sometimes, as on page , the micro character is included with the spore size. i left these where they occurred in the original. inserted comma after "free" on page : "g. free, white then black." removed extra period after "in" on page : "in p. being globose." inserted periods after "jacobasch" and ")" on page for consistency: "jacobasch. (= _cop. intermedius_ gill.)." changed "+" to "×" on page : (pallassii) "sp. × ." added missing ")" to close paragraph on page : "british fungi.')" changed "caeseriata" to "caesariata" on page : "caesariata (ino.), ." changed "cöopertus" to "coöpertus" on page : "coöpertus (copr.), ." changed " " to " " on page : "flaccida (cli.), ." moved period inside parentheses on page : "ephemerus (copr.), ." inserted missing page number in index: "macrocephalus (copr.), ." changed "amv." to "ann." on page : "laevis (ann.), ." left inconsistent capitalization of "var." and "var." available by internet archive (https://archive.org) note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the more than original illustrations, some in color. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h.zip) images of the original pages are available through internet archive. see https://archive.org/details/fieldwoodlandpla furn transcriber's note: text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). the oe_ligature has been replaced by [oe]. field and woodland plants * * * * * the outdoor world series. the outdoor world; or, the young collector's handbook. by w. s. furneaux. with plates ( of which are coloured), and illustrations in the text. crown vo. gilt edges, _s._ net. butterflies and moths (british). by w. s. furneaux. with coloured plates and illustrations in the text. crown vo. gilt edges, _s._ net. life in ponds and streams. by w. s. furneaux. with coloured plates and illustrations in the text. crown vo. gilt edges, _s._ net. field and woodland plants. by w. s. furneaux. with coloured plates and numerous illustrations from drawings by patten wilson and from photographs. crown vo. gilt edges, _s._ net. the sea shore. by w. s. furneaux. with plates in colour and over illustrations in the text. crown vo. gilt edges, _s._ net. british birds. by w.h. hudson. with a chapter on structure and classification by frank e. beddard, f.r.s. with plates ( of which are coloured), and over illustrations in the text. crown vo. gilt edges, _s._ net. country pastimes for boys. by p. anderson graham. with illustrations from drawings and photographs. crown vo. gilt edges, _s._ net. longmans, green, & co. paternoster row, london, new york, bombay, and calcutta. * * * * * [illustration: _plate i._ spring flowers of the woods. . green hellebore. . plantain-leaved leopard's-bane. . lady's slipper. . sand garlic. . wild hyacinth. . wood melic grass.] field and woodland plants by w. s. furneaux author of 'the outdoor world' 'british butterflies and moths' 'life in ponds and streams' 'the sea shore' etc. [illustration] with eight plates in colour, and numerous illustrations by patten wilson, and photographs from nature by the author longmans, green, and co. paternoster row, london new york, bombay, and calcutta all rights reserved preface this additional volume to the young naturalist's 'outdoor world series' is an attempt to provide a guide to the study of our wild plants, shrubs and trees--a guide which, though comparatively free from technical terms and expressions, shall yet be strictly correct and scientific. the leading feature of the book is the arrangement of the plants and trees according to their seasons, habitats and habits; an arrangement which will undoubtedly be of the greatest assistance to the lover of wild flowers during his work in the field, and also while examining and identifying his gathered specimens at home. a large portion of the space has necessarily been allotted to the descriptions of plants, several hundreds of which have been included, and a large proportion of these illustrated; but not a little has been devoted to an attempt to create an interest in some of those wonderful habits which lead us to look upon plants as living beings with attractions even more engrossing than their beautiful forms and colours. it has been thought advisable to give but little attention to aquatic plants and to the flowers which are to be found only on the coast, these having been previously included in former volumes of this series dealing, respectively, with pond life and the sea shore. the thanks of the author are due to his friend, g. du heaume, esq., for his valuable assistance in collecting many of the flowers required for description and illustration. w. s. f. contents chap. page i. introduction--general characters of plants and the identification of flowers ii. the pollination and fertilisation of flowers iii. climbing plants iv. early spring v. woods and thickets in spring vi. the spring-flowering trees and shrubs of woods, thickets, and hedgerows vii. waysides and wastes in spring viii. meadows, fields, and pastures--spring ix. bogs, marshes, and wet places in spring x. woods and thickets in summer xi. wastes and waysides in summer xii. wastes and waysides in summer--composite flowers xiii. wastes and waysides in summer--_continued_ xiv. meadows, fields, and pastures--summer xv. bogs, marshes, and wet places--summer xvi. on heath, down, and moor xvii. in the corn field xviii. on the chalk xix. by the river side xx. on walls, rocks, and stony places xxi. field and wayside in autumn xxii. autumn in the woods xxiii. parasitic plants xxiv. carnivorous plants list of flowers classified according to their habitats and habits list of flowers classified according to their orders and genera glossarial index coloured plates i. spring flowers of the woods _frontispiece_ . green hellebore . plantain-leaved leopard's-bane . lady's slipper . sand garlic . wild hyacinth . wood melic grass ii. flowers of the woods _to face p._ . great valerian . foxglove . succory-leaved hawk's-beard . nettle-leaved bell-flower . broad-leaved helleborine . hairy brome-grass iii. flowers of the wayside _to face p._ . round-leaved crane's-bill . black horehound . evergreen alkanet . bristly ox-tongue . red bartsia . annual meadow grass . hemlock stork's-bill iv. flowers of the field _to face p._ . rough cock's-foot grass . lucerne . crimson clover . blue-bottle . common vetch . meadow clary v. flowers of bogs and marshes _to face p._ . marsh gentian . marsh marigold . marsh orchis . marsh mallow . marsh vetchling . marsh st. john's-wort . bog pimpernel vi. flowers of down, heath, and moor _to face p._ . musk thistle . clustered bell-flower . spiny rest harrow . hairy hawkbit . sheep's-bit . spotted orchis . heath rush vii. flowers of the corn-field _to face p._ . long smooth-headed poppy . field scabious . corn cockle . corn marigold . flax . corn pheasant's-eye viii. flowers of chalky soils _to face p._ . red valerian . narrow-leaved flax . tufted horse-shoe vetch . spiked speedwell . pasque flower . bee orchis . yellow oat grass _erratum._--on plate vi, _for_ 'spring rest harrow' _read_ 'spiny rest harrow.' list of illustrations general characters of plants page forms of roots running underground stem of solomon's seal arrangement of leaves leaf of pansy with two large stipules margins of leaves various forms of simple leaves forms of compound leaves forms of inflorescence longitudinal section through the flower of the buttercup inferior and superior ovary unisexual flowers of the nettle dehiscent fruits the pollination and fertilisation of flowers pollen cells throwing out their tubes climbing plants prickles of the wild rose ivy, showing the rootlets or suckers stem of the bindweed, twining to the left stem of the hop, twining to the right early spring trees in winter or early spring . hazel; . ash; . oak; . lime . birch; . poplar; . beech; . alder twig of lime in spring, showing the deciduous, scaly stipules seedling of the beech woods and thickets in spring the daffodil the wood anemone the goldilocks the wild columbine the dog violet the wood sorrel the sweet woodruff the lesser periwinkle the bugle the broad-leaved garlic the star of bethlehem the hairy sedge spring-flowering trees and shrubs the barberry the spindle tree the wild cherry the crab apple the mountain ash the spurge laurel the elm in flower the oak in flower the beech in fruit the scots pine, with cones the yew in fruit waysides and wastes in spring the shepherd's purse the scurvy grass the common whitlow grass the yellow rocket the procumbent pearlwort the greater stitchwort the chickweed the broad-leaved mouse-ear chickweed the dove's-foot crane's-bill the jagged-leaved crane's-bill the herb robert the grass vetchling the strawberry-leaved cinquefoil the moschatel the white bryony the wild beaked parsley the garden beaked parsley the goutweed the crosswort the colt's-foot in early spring the germander speedwell the white dead nettle the yellow pimpernel the dog's mercury the black bryony the wild arum meadows, fields, and pastures--spring the field pennycress the wild pansy the ragged robin the purple clover the daisy the butterbur the yellow rattle the henbit dead nettle the cowslip the fox-tail grass bogs, marshes, and wet places in spring the marsh potentil the golden saxifrage the marsh valerian the marsh trefoil the marsh lousewort the yellow flag woods and thickets in summer the large-flowered st. john's-wort the common st. john's-wort the dyer's greenweed the sweet milk vetch the wild raspberry the rose bay willow herb the dogwood the wood sanicle the alexanders the elder the guelder rose the saw-wort the ivy-leaved bell-flower twigs of holly the privet the millet grass the bearded wheat the slender false brome wastes and waysides in summer the wild clematis the hedge mustard the felix weed the dyer's weed the deptford pink the red campion the common mallow the musk mallow the bloody crane's-bill the fruit of the stork's-bill the hemlock stork's-bill the bird's-foot trefoil the herb bennet or geum the dog rose the silver weed the agrimony the orpine or livelong the fool's parsley the wild parsnip the cow parsnip or hogweed the honeysuckle the great hedge bedstraw the teasel teasel heads flower head of the marigold florets of a composite flower the yellow goat's-beard the hawkweed picris the prickly lettuce the sharp-fringed sow-thistle the smooth hawk's-beard the nipplewort the burdock the spear thistle the creeping thistle the tansy the wormwood the ragwort the scentless mayweed the yarrow or milfoil the rampion bell-flower the great bindweed the henbane the woody nightshade or bittersweet the deadly nightshade the yellow toadflax the vervein the balm the hedge woundwort the gromwell the hound's-tongue the white goosefoot the spotted persicaria the curled dock the great nettle the canary grass meadows, fields, and pastures--summer the gold of pleasure the bladder campion the white campion the kidney vetch the common melilot the lady's mantle the meadow sweet the burnet saxifrage the wild carrot the devil's-bit scabious the rough hawkbit the autumnal hawkbit the meadow thistle the black knapweed the great knapweed the common fleabane the ox-eye daisy the sneezewort the small bindweed section of the flower of salvia the self-heal the ribwort plantain the butterfly orchis the cat's-tail grass the meadow barley the rye grass or darnel the sheep's fescue bogs, marshes, and wet places--summer the lesser spearwort the great hairy willow herb the purple loosestrife the water hemlock the common water dropwort the marsh thistle the brooklime the water figwort the gipsy wort the round-leaved mint the forget-me-not the water pepper or biting persicaria the bog asphodel the common rush the shining-fruited jointed rush the common sedge the marsh sedge heath, down, and moor the milkwort the broom the furze or gorse the tormentil the smooth heath bedstraw the dwarf thistle the carline thistle the common chamomile the harebell the cross-leaved heath the bell heather or fine-leaved heath the eyebright the wild thyme the autumnal lady's tresses the butcher's broom the common quaking grass the common mat grass in the corn field the mousetail the common red poppy the white or opium poppy the fumitory the black mustard the corn spurrey the shepherd's needle or venus's comb the venus's looking glass or corn bell-flower the scarlet pimpernel the climbing bistort the dwarf spurge on the chalk the rock rose the sainfoin the salad burnet the field gentian the yellow-wort the great mullein the red hemp nettle an orchis flower the sweet-scented orchis by the river side the common meadow rue the hemp agrimony the common skull-cap the comfrey on walls, rocks and stony places the biting stonecrop or wall pepper the wall pennywort or navelwort the london pride the mossy saxifrage the ivy-leaved toadflax the wall pellitory autumn in the woods the alder in autumn the ash in autumn the maple in fruit the wayfaring tree in fruit the strawberry tree parasitic plants the greater dodder the clover dodder the great broomrape the mistletoe a young mistletoe plant carnivorous plants the greater bladder-wort longitudinal section through the leaf of the toothwort the common butterwort the round-leaved sundew field and woodland plants i introduction general characters of plants and the identification of flowers the beginner will often find it difficult, and sometimes quite impossible, to identify some of the flowers seen or gathered during a country ramble; and he will hardly be surprised to experience many disappointments in his attempts to do this when he realises the large number of species among our flowering plants, and the very close resemblance that allied species frequently bear to one another. but there are right and wrong methods of setting to work for the purpose of determining the identity of a plant, and the object of this chapter is to put the beginner on the right track. he must remember, however, that the aid given here is intended to assist him principally in the identification of the commoner species, though it may, at the same time, help him to determine the natural affinities or relationships of other flowers that fall in his way. the directions we are about to give the reader regarding this portion of his work will be understood by him only if he is fairly well acquainted with the general characters of a flowering plant and with the structure of flowers; and as it would hardly be advisable to assume such knowledge, we shall give a brief outline of this part of the subject, dealing only with those points that are essential to our purpose, and explaining the meaning of those terms which are commonly employed in the description of plants and their flowers. the root the root is that portion of the plant which descends into the soil for the absorption of the mineral food required. it really serves a double purpose, for, in addition to the function just mentioned, it fixes the plant in its place, thus forming a basis of support for the stem and its appendages. [illustration: forms of roots . simple fibrous. . branched fibrous. . tap root. . tuberous root.] roots are capable of absorbing liquids only, and all fertile soils contain more or less soluble mineral matter which is dissolved by the moisture present. this matter is absorbed mainly by the minute root-hairs--outgrowths of the superficial cells--which are to be found on the rootlets or small branches that are given off from the main descending axis. the principal forms of roots occurring in our flowering plants are:-- . the _simple fibrous root_, consisting of unbranched fibres such as we see in the bulbous buttercup and the common daisy. . the _branched fibrous root_, as that of the chickweed and grasses. . the _tap root_, which is thick above and tapers downwards, like the roots of the dandelion, carrot and wild parsnip. . the _tuberous root_, common among the orchids. . the _creeping root_, possessed by some grasses in addition to their fibrous roots. besides these common forms there are roots of a somewhat exceptional character, such as the _aerial roots_ or _suckers_ which grow from the stem of the ivy and serve to support the plant; and the roots of the mistletoe, which, instead of penetrating the soil, force their way into the substance of certain trees, from which they derive the necessary nourishment. the student of plant life must always be careful to distinguish between roots and underground stems, for there are many examples of creeping and tuberous stems which resemble certain roots in general appearance. a true root bears no buds, and, therefore, is not capable of producing new plants. if a root creeps under the ground, as does the root of the barley grass, it merely serves the purpose of collecting nourishment from a wider area--a matter of considerable importance when the soil is dry and deficient in suitable mineral food. a creeping stem, on the other hand, developes buds as it proceeds, each bud giving rise to a new plant; and the creeping itself is the result of the growth of a permanent terminal bud. again, when studying plants for the purpose of identification, it is often important to note whether the root is _annual_, _biennial_, or _perennial_; that is, whether the root lives for one season only, lives throughout the winter, and supports the plant for a second season, or retains its life for an indefinite number of years. most of the roots that live over one season are of a fleshy nature, thick and tapering, or tuberous, and contain more or less stored nourishment which assists the new growths that are called forth by the warmth and light of the early spring sun. the stem the stems of plants exhibit a much greater variety of structure and habit than do the roots. their chief functions are to support the leaves and flowers, and to arrange these parts in such a manner that they obtain the maximum of light and air; also to form a means of communication by which the sap may pass in either direction. stems also frequently help to protect the plant, either by the development of thorns or prickles, or by producing hairs which prevent snails and slugs from reaching and devouring the leaves and flowers. the character of the stem is often of some importance in determining the species, so we must now note the principal features that should receive our attention. as regards surface, the stem may be _smooth_ or _hairy_. in general form, as seen in transverse section, it may be _round_, _flattened_, _triangular_, _square_, or traversed longitudinally by ridges and furrows more or less distinct. flattened stems are sometimes more or less _winged_ with leaf-like extensions, as in the everlasting pea, in which case the wings perform the functions of foliage leaves. it should also be noted whether the stems are _herbaceous_, or _woody_, and whether they are _hollow_, or _jointed_. in some plants the stem is so short that the leaves appear to start direct from the root, as in the dandelion and primrose. such stems are said to be _inconspicuous_. [illustration: running underground stem of solomon's seal _a_, terminal bud from which the next year's stem is developed; _b_, stem of the present year; _c_, and _d_, scars of the stems of previous years.] the longer and conspicuous stems are either _simple_ or _branched_, and they may be _erect_, _prostrate_, _trailing_, _climbing_, or _running_. in the case of climbing stems it should be noted whether the necessary support is obtained by means of tendrils, rootlets, or suckers, or by the twining of the stem itself. running stems are those which run along the surface of the ground by the continued growth of a terminal bud, and produce new plants at intervals, as in the case of the wild strawberry. many stems, however, creep under the ground, and these should always be distinguished from running roots, from which they may be known by the production of buds that develop into new plants, as in the iris and solomon's seal. the leaf the arrangement of the leaves on the stem is a matter of great importance for purposes of identification. especially should it be noted whether the leaves are _opposite_, _alternate_, _whorled_ (arranged in circles round the stem), or _radical_ (apparently starting direct from the root). some leaves have smaller leaves or scales at their bases, that is, at the points where they are attached to the stem of the plant. such leaves or scales are termed _stipules_. they are often so well developed that they are as conspicuous as the ordinary foliage leaves, and in such instances they perform the functions of the latter. the presence and character of the stipules should always be noted. a leaf without stipules is said to be _exstipulate_. [illustration: arrangement of leaves . opposite. . alternate. . whorled.] a leaf usually consists of two distinct parts--the _petiole_ or stalk, and the _lamina_ or blade. some, however, have no petiole, but the blade is in direct contact with the stem. these leaves are said to be _sessile_, and some of them clasp the stem, or even extend downwards on the stem, forming a wing or a sheath. [illustration: leaf of the pansy with two large stipules.] a leaf is said to be _simple_ when the blade is in one continuous whole, even though it may be very deeply divided; but when the blade is cut into distinct parts by incisions that extend quite into the midrib (the continuation of the stalk to the tip of the leaf), the leaf is _compound_. the student must be careful to distinguish between compound leaves and little branches or twigs bearing several simple leaves, for they are often very similar in general appearance. the compound leaf may always be known by the total absence of buds, and often by the presence of one or more stipules at the base of its stalk; while a branch bearing a similar appearance usually has a terminal bud, also buds in the exils of its leaves, and never any stipules at the point where it originates. the distinct parts of compound leaves are termed _leaflets_. attention to the form and character of the leaf is often of as much importance as the observation of the flower in the determination of species. not only should we note the general shape of the leaf, but also the character of its surface, its margin, and its apex. the surface may be _smooth_, _hairy_, _downy_, _velvety_, _shaggy_, _rough_, _wrinkled_ or _dotted_. the margin is said to be _entire_ when it is not broken by incisions of any kind. if not entire it may be _toothed_, _serrate_ (sawlike), _crenate_ or _wavy_. sometimes it happens that the teeth bear still smaller teeth, in which case the margin is said to be _doubly toothed_; or, if the teeth are sawlike, it is _doubly serrate_. as regards the apex, it is generally sufficient to note whether it is _acute_ (sharp), _obtuse_ (blunt), or _bifid_ (divided into two). [illustration: margins of leaves . entire. . serrate or sawlike. . doubly serrate. . dentate or toothed. . crenate. . doubly crenate. . sinuate or wavy.] it is not necessary to describe separately all the principal forms of simple and compound leaves. these are illustrated, and the student should either make himself acquainted with the terms applied to the different shapes, or refer, as occasion requires, to the illustrations. concerning the compound leaves, however, their segments are themselves sometimes divided after the manner of the whole, and even the secondary segments may be similarly cut. thus, if the segments of a pinnate leaf are themselves pinnately compound, the leaf is said to be _bi-pinnate_; and, if the secondary segments are also compound, it is a _tri-pinnate_ leaf. inflorescence we must now turn our attention to the different kinds of _inflorescence_ or arrangement of flowers. flowers are commonly mounted on stalks (_peduncles_), but in many cases they have no stalks, being attached directly to the stem of the plant, and therefore said to be _sessile_. whether stalked or sessile, if they arise from the axils of the leaves--the angles formed by the leafstalks and the stem--they are said to be axillary. when only one flower grows on a stalk it is said to be _solitary_; but in many cases we find a number of flowers on one peduncle, in which instances, should each flower of the cluster have a separate stalk of its own, the main stalk only is called the peduncle, and the lesser stalks bearing the individual flowers are the _pedicels_. [illustration: various forms of simple leaves . oval or elliptical. . ovate. . obovate. . orbicular. . lanceolate. . linear. . cordate (heart-shaped). . obcordate. . reniform (kidney-shaped). . sagittate (arrow-shaped). . rhomboidal. . spathulate (spoon-shaped). . peltate (stalk fixed to the centre). . oblique. . runcinate (lobes pointing more or less downwards). . hastate (halberd-shaped). . angled. . palmate. . pinnatifid.] [illustration: forms of compound leaves . binate. . ternate. . digitate. . pinnate.] [illustration: forms of inflorescence . spike. . raceme. . corymb. . umbel. . cyme. . compound raceme or panicle. . capitulum or head. . compound umbel.] it is often convenient to make use of certain terms to denote the various arrangements of flower-clusters, and the principal of these are as follows:-- . _spike._--sessile flowers arranged along a common axis. . _raceme._--flowers stalked along a common axis. . _corymb._--flowers stalked along a common axis, but the lengths of the pedicels varying in such a manner as to bring all the flowers to the same level. . _umbel._--the pedicels all start from the same level on the peduncle. . _cyme._--an arrangement in which the flower directly at the end of the peduncle opens first, followed by those on the branching pedicels. . _panicle._--a compound raceme--a raceme the pedicels of which are themselves branched. . _capitulum_ or _flower-head_.--a dense cluster of flowers, all attached to a common broad disc or receptacle. other forms of inflorescence may also be compound. thus, a _compound umbel_ is produced when the pedicels of an umbel are themselves umbellate. the flower a flower, if complete in all its parts, consists of modified leaves arranged in four distinct whorls, the parts being directly or indirectly attached to a receptacle. the outer whorl is the _calyx_, and is composed of parts called _sepals_, which may be either united or distinct. the calyx is usually green; but, in some cases, is more or less highly coloured. sometimes the calyx is quite free from the pistil or central part of the flower, the sides of which are thus left naked, and the calyx is then said to be _inferior_. if, however, it is united to the surface of the pistil it is _superior_. when it remains after other parts of the flower have decayed, it is said to be _persistent_. the second whorl--the _corolla_--is usually the whorl that gives most beauty to the flower. it is composed of parts, united or distinct, called _petals_. both calyx and corolla vary very considerably in shape. they may be cup-shaped, tubular, bell-shaped, spreading, funnel-shaped, lipped, &c. if the sepals and petals are arranged symmetrically round a common centre, the calyx and corolla, respectively, are said to be _regular_; if otherwise, they are _irregular_. the third whorl consists of the _stamens_, each of which, in its most perfect form, is made up of a _filament_ or stalk, and an _anther_ which, when mature, splits and sets free the _pollen_ that is formed within it. sometimes the stamen has no filament, and the anther is then said to be sessile. the mode of attachment of the stamens is very variable. they may grow from immediately below the pistil, or from its summit; or they may be attached to either the petals or the sepals. the filaments are usually distinct, but sometimes they are united in such a manner as to form a tube, or grow into two or more bundles. the anthers are usually distinct, even when the filaments are united; but these sometimes grow together. [illustration: longitudinal section through the flower of the buttercup showing the calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil. the pistil consists of several distinct carpels, one of which is represented in section to show its single ovule.] the central part of the flower is the _pistil_, and this is made up of one or more parts called _carpels_. each carpel, when distinct, is a hollow case or _ovary_, prolonged above into one or more stalks or _styles_, tipped by a viscid secreting surface called the _stigma_. the ovary contains the _ovules_, attached to a surface called the _placenta_; and these ovules, after having been impregnated by the pollen, develop into seeds which are plants in embryo. the ovary may have no style, and the stigma is then sessile. where the pistil consists of more than one carpel, these carpels may unite in such a manner as to form a single cell, or an ovary of two or more cells. in other cases the carpels remain quite distinct, thus forming a number of distinct ovaries, each with its own stigma. for purposes of identification it is often necessary to note the position of the placenta. this may be at the side of the ovary, in which case it is said to be _parietal_; or it may stand up in the centre of the ovary, without any attachment to the sides, when it is described as _free central_. if, however, it occupies the centre of the ovary, but is attached by means of radiating partitions to the sides, it is termed _axile_. if the ovary is quite free in the centre of the flower, the surrounding parts being attached below it, it is said to be _superior_; but if the perianth (p. ) adheres to it, it is _inferior_. a leaf or scale will often be observed at the foot of a flower stalk or at the base of a sessile flower. this is termed a _bract_, and a flower possessing a bract is said to be _bracteate_. the bract is sometimes so large that it almost completely encloses the flower, or even a cluster of flowers. [illustration: inferior ( ) and superior ( )ovary.] the flower is the reproductive part of the plant, being concerned in the production of the seeds; but the organs directly connected with the seed-formation are the pistil and the stamens, the former containing the ovules, and the latter producing the pollen cells by means of which the ovules are impregnated. thus the stamens and the pistil are the _essential_ parts of the flower, though the corolla and the calyx may perform some subsidiary function in connexion with the reproduction of the species. this being the case, a flower may be described as _perfect_ if it consists of stamens and pistil only, without any surrounding calyx or corolla; and _imperfect_ if it possesses no pistil _or_ no stamens, regardless of the presence or absence of calyx and corolla. [illustration: unisex flowers of the nettle . pistillate. . staminate.] the two outer whorls of a well-developed perfect flower (calyx and corolla) together form the _perianth_. some flowers, however have only one whorl outside the anthers, representing both the calyx and corolla of the more highly organised flower. this one whorl, therefore, is the perianth, and its parts are not correctly termed either petals or sepals, since they represent both. a perfect flower is sometimes spoken of as _bisexual_, for it includes the two sexual organs of the plant--the ovary or female part, producing the ovules; and the stamens or male part, which is concerned in the impregnation or fertilisation of the ovules. many plants produce only _unisexual_ (and therefore imperfect) flowers, which contain either no stamens or no pistil. if such possess stamens and no pistil, they are called _staminate_ or _male_ flowers; and if pistil and no stamens, _pistillate_ or _female_ flowers. these two kinds are sometimes borne on the same plant, when they are said to be _monoecious_; but often on separate plants (_dioecious_), as in some of the nettleworts and the willow tree. spikes of unisexual flowers, such as are common among our forest trees, are called _catkins_. the fruit and seed [illustration: dehiscent fruits . pod. . siliqua. . silicula. . follicles (cluster of three). . capsule splitting longitudinally. . capsule splitting transversely. . capsule splitting by pores.] after the ovules have been impregnated by the pollen they develop into seeds, each of which consists of or contains an embryo plant; and, at the same time, the ovary itself enlarges, changing its character more or less, till it becomes a ripened _fruit_. fruits vary very considerably in their general characters, but may be divided into two main groups--those that split when ripe (_dehiscent fruits_) and those which do not split (_indehiscent fruits_). the principal forms of dehiscent fruits are:-- . the _pod_ or _legume_, which splits into two valves, with placenta on one side. . the _siliqua_, a long, narrow fruit that splits into two valves which separate from a membrane with placenta on both sides. . the _silicula_, of the same nature as the siliqua, but about as broad as it is long. . the _follicle_, which splits on one side only, through the placenta. . all other fruits that split are termed _capsules_. some of these split longitudinally, some transversely, and others by forming pores for the escape of the seeds. the chief kinds of indehiscent fruits are:-- . the _drupe_ or stone-fruit, which consists of a hard stone surrounded by a fleshy covering, as the plum and the cherry. . the _berry_, which is soft and fleshy, and contains several seeds, like the currant and the grape. . the _nut_ or _achene_--a fruit with hard and dry walls, as the filbert and the acorn. . the _samara_ or winged fruit, like that of the sycamore. various modifications of these indehiscent fruits are to be met with; thus, the blackberry is not really a berry, but a cluster of little drupes formed from a single pistil of many carpels. a berry, too, may be made up of many parts, as is the case with the orange. the apple and similar fruits consist of a core (the true fruit) surrounded by a fleshy mass that is produced from the receptacle of the flower; and the strawberry is a succulent, enlarged receptacle of the flower, with a number of little achenes (the true fruits) on its surface. the seed, as we have already observed, is the embryo plant. it consists of one or more seed-leaves or _cotyledons_, a _radicle_ or young root, and a _plumule_ or young bud. in many cases the skin of the seed encloses nothing more than the three parts of the embryo, as named above; but it sometimes contains, in addition, a quantity of nutrient matter in the form of albumen, starch, oil, gum, or other substance. classification of flowering plants our flowering plants are divided into two main groups, the _dicotyledons_ and the _monocotyledons_. these terms suggest that the division is based on the nature of the seed, which is really the case, but the groups are characterised by differences in other parts. thus, the plants which produce seeds with two cotyledons may be known by the nature of the stem, which consists of a central pith, surrounded by wood arranged in one or more rings, and the whole enclosed in an outer epidermis or in a bark. these plants also bear leaves with netted veins, and the parts of the flower are usually in whorls of four or five or multiples of four or five. those plants whose seeds have only one cotyledon may be known by the absence of a central pith and true bark in the stem, while the wood is arranged in scattered bundles instead of in a ring or rings. they have also, generally, leaves with parallel veins; and the parts of the flower are usually in threes or multiples of three. the following table shows these features at a glance:-- _dicotyledons_ _monocotyledons_ embryo with two cotyledons. embryo with one cotyledon. stem with central pith, wood in stem with no central pith, no true rings or rings, and bark. bark, and wood not in rings. leaves with netted veins. leaves with parallel veins. parts of flower usually in fours parts of flower arranged in threes or fives. or multiples of three. these two great divisions or _classes_ are split up into _sub-classes_, each embracing a large number of plants with common characters; and the sub-classes are again divided into _orders_, and the orders into _genera_. the student should always endeavour to determine the order to which any flower he finds belongs; and, if possible, the genus and the species. it is certainly a pleasure to be able to call flowers by their names, but at the same time it must be remembered that a vast deal of pleasure may be gained by the study of flowers--their peculiar structure, habits and habitats--even though their names are unknown; and the student who has learnt to recognise these characters, and to discover the relationships that exist between certain flowers of different species, is certainly much more fortunate than the one who knows abundance of names with only a meagre acquaintance with the flowers themselves. our table of classification gives the most important distinguishing characters of the classes, sub-classes, and orders, of a very large proportion of our wild flowers, and will enable the reader to determine the natural order of almost every one he sees. in order to show how this table is to be used we will take an imaginary example. let us suppose that we find a plant with a square stem; opposite, simple leaves with netted veins; flowers apparently in whorls, in the axils of the leaves; persistent calyx of five united sepals; a lipped corolla, of five united petals, two forming the lower, and three the upper lip; four stamens, attached to the corolla, two longer than the others; a superior, four-lobed ovary; and a fruit of four little nuts; then we proceed to determine the natural order to which it belongs as follows:-- the netted veins of the leaves, and the arrangement of the parts of the flower in whorls of four and five, show us at once that the plant is a _dicotyledon_. then, the presence of both calyx and corolla enables us to decide that the plant belongs to division i. of the dicotyledons--that it belongs to one of the orders to . noting, now, that the corolla is composed of united petals, we are enabled to fix its position in the subdivision i.b, among orders to . next, the superior ovary shows that it must be located in the group i.b --orders to ; and as the stamens are attached to the corolla, we see at once that it is not a member of order . turning now to the synopsis of the natural orders (p. ), we find that the irregular flowers of this group of orders occur only in , , , , and . finally, the square stem, opposite leaves, and character of the fruit, show us that the plant must belong to the order _labiatæ_. the student should, as far as possible, deal with all flowers in this manner, assigning each one to its proper order; and, if he preserves his specimens for future observation, the names of the orders should always be attached, and the plants arranged accordingly. again, should the reader meet with a common flower the name of which was previously known, while he is as yet ignorant as to the order to which it belongs; or, should he find a flower that he can at once identify by means of one of our illustrations; he should not rest satisfied on seeing that the name of the order is given beside the name of the plant, but turn to the synopsis, and note the distinguishing characters which determine the natural position of the plant. in this way he will cultivate the habit of careful observation; will make much more rapid progress in forming an acquaintance with plants in general, and will soon become familiar with those natural affinities which mark, more or less distinctly, a cousinship among the flowers. to aid the reader in this part of his work we have given the name of the natural order with the name of every plant described; and, where difficulties are likely to occur in the identification of similar common species of the same genus, though perhaps only one member of the genus has been selected for description, a few notes are often included with the object of assisting in the identification of the others. in our descriptions of wild flowers we do not always repeat those features which are common to the species of their respective orders. these features are, however, of the greatest importance; and thus it is essential that the reader makes himself acquainted with them, by referring to the synopsis of the orders, before noting those characters which are given as being more directly concerned in the determination of the species themselves. thus, when we describe the pasque flower (p. ) we do not refer to those general characters that apply to all the _ranunculaceæ_ or buttercup family, and which may be seen at once by referring to p. , but give all those details that are necessary to enable one to distinguish between the pasque flower and the other members of the same order. _dicotyledons_ (leaves with netted veins. parts of flower generally in fours or fives or multiples of four or five) i. flowers with both calyx and corolla. a. corolla composed of free and separate petals. . stamens attached to base of flower, beneath the pistil--orders - . . stamens attached above or around the pistil--orders - . b. corolla of united petals. . ovary inferior. _a._ stamens on the corolla--orders - . _b._ stamens on the ovary--orders - . . ovary superior. _a._ stamens free from the corolla--order . _b._ stamens on the corolla--orders - . ii. flowers with calyx or corolla or both absent. a. flowers with corolla absent, and, generally, with stamens and pistil in the same flower. . ovary superior--orders - . . ovary inferior--orders - . b. corolla and calyx usually absent. stamens and pistil usually in separate flowers. . flowers not in catkins--orders - . . flowers in catkins--orders - . _monocotyledons_ (leaves usually with parallel veins. parts of flower in threes or multiples of three) i. perianth (see p. ), coloured or petal-like, not scaly. (sometimes absent.) a. ovary inferior. . leaves with parallel veins--orders - . . leaves with netted veins--order . b. ovary superior--orders - . ii. flowers without perianth, enclosed in scales or husks. a. grassy herbs, with solid stems; leaves forming unsplit sheaths round the stem; flowers in spikelets, with one to three stamens--order . b. grassy herbs, with hollow stems; leaves generally forming split sheaths round the stem; flowers generally perfect, with three stamens--order . synopsis of the natural orders . ranunculaceÃ�.--herbs mostly with alternate leaves and regular flowers. sepals generally , distinct. petals or more. stamens or more. pistil of many distinct carpels. fruit of many one-seeded achenes. (the buttercup family.) . berberidaceÃ�.--shrub with compound spines; alternate, spiny leaves; and pendulous flowers. sepals . petals . stamens . fruit a berry. (the berberry family.) . nymphÃ�aceÃ�.--aquatic plants with floating leaves and solitary flowers. petals numerous, gradually passing into sepals outwards, and into stamens inwards. ovary of many cells, with many seeds. (the water-lily family.) . papaveraceÃ�.--herbs with a milky sap; alternate leaves without stipules; and regular (generally nodding) flowers. sepals , deciduous. fruit a capsule. petals . stamens many. ovary one-celled, but with many membranous, incomplete partitions. (the poppy family.) . fumariaceÃ�.--herbs with much divided, exstipulate leaves; and racemes of small irregular, bracteate flowers. sepals or , deciduous. petals , irregular. stamens , in two bundles. ovary of two carpels, one-celled. (the fumitory family.) . cruciferÃ�.--herbs with alternate, exstipulate leaves, and racemes of regular flowers. sepals . petals , cruciform. stamens , four longer and two shorter. ovary one-or two-celled. fruit a siliqua. (the cabbage family.) . resedaceÃ�.--herbs or shrubs with alternate, exstipulate leaves; and spikes of irregular, greenish flowers. sepals or , persistent. petals to , irregular. stamens many. ovary of lobes, one-celled. (the mignonette family.) . cistaceÃ�.--herbs or undershrubs with entire, opposite leaves; and conspicuous, regular flowers. sepals to . petals , twisted in the bud. stamens many. ovary of carpels, one-chambered. (the rock-rose family.) . violaceÃ�.--herbs with alternate, stipuled leaves; and axillary, irregular flowers. sepals , persistent. petals , unequal, the lower one prolonged into a spur. stamens . ovary of three carpels, one-celled. (the violet family.) . droseraceÃ�.--small marsh plants with radical, glandular leaves; and cymes of small, white, regular flowers. sepals . petals . stamens or . ovary of to carpels, one-celled. (the sundew family.) . polygalaceÃ�.--herbs with alternate, scattered, exstipulate, simple leaves; and racemes of irregular flowers. sepals , the inner ones resembling petals. petals to , unequal. stamens , in two bundles. ovary two-celled. fruit a capsule. (the milkwort family.) . frankeniaceÃ�.--herb with opposite, exstipulate leaves; and small, axillary, red, regular flowers. sepals to , united into a tube. petals to . stamens to . ovary of to carpels, one-celled. (the sea heath.) . elatinaceÃ�.--small aquatic herbs, with opposite, stipulate, spathulate leaves; and minute, axillary, red flowers. sepals, petals and stamens to . fruit a capsule with to valves. (the waterwort family.) . caryophyllaceÃ�.--herbs mostly with jointed stems; opposite, simple leaves; and red or white, regular flowers. sepals or . petals or . stamens or . styles to . fruit a one-celled capsule, opening at top by teeth. (the pink family.) . linaceÃ�.--herbs with slender stems; narrow, simple, entire, exstipulate leaves; and cymes of regular flowers. sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels or . petals twisted in the bud, fugacious (falling early). carpels each with two ovules. fruit a capsule of to cells. (the flax family.) . malvaceÃ�.--herbs or shrubs with alternate, stipuled leaves; and conspicuous, axillary, regular flowers. sepals . petals , twisted in the bud. stamens many, united into a tube. carpels many, each with one ovule. (the mallow family.) . tiliaceÃ�.--trees with alternate, stipuled, oblique, serrate leaves; a large bract adherent to the flower stalk; and cymes of greenish, regular flowers. sepals and petals . stamens many. carpels , each with two ovules. (the linden family.) . hypericaceÃ�.--herbs or shrubs with opposite, simple, exstipulate leaves, often dotted with glands; and cymes of conspicuous yellow, regular flowers. sepals or , with glandular dots. petals or , twisted in the bud. stamens many, united into several bundles. carpels to , with many ovules. fruit a capsule with to cells. (the st. john's-wort family.) . aceraceÃ�.--trees with opposite, palmately-lobed leaves; and small, green, regular flowers. sepals and petals to . stamens , on the disc. fruit a samara. (the maple family.) . geraniaceÃ�.--herbs with lobed, generally stipulate leaves; and conspicuous, regular flowers. sepals to , persistent. petals to . stamens to . carpels to , surrounding a long beak. (the crane's-bill family.) . balsaminaceÃ�.--herbs with simple, alternate leaves; and axillary, irregular, yellow flowers. sepals or , one forming a wide-mouthed spur. petals , four of which are united in pairs. stamens . fruit a capsule with five elastic valves. (the balsam family.) . oxalidaceÃ�.--low herbs, with radical, generally trifoliate leaves; and axillary, regular flowers. sepals . petals , united at the base. stamens . ovary five-celled, with many ovules. (the wood sorrel family.) * * * * * . celastraceÃ�.--trees or shrubs, with opposite leaves; and small, regular flowers in axillary cymes. sepals and petals usually . stamens usually , alternating with the petals. carpels . fruit a fleshy capsule. (spindle tree.) . rhamnaceÃ�.--shrubs with simple leaves; small, greenish flowers; and berry-like fruit. sepals, petals, and stamens or . stamens opposite the petals. ovary superior, three-celled, with one ovule in each cell. (the buckthorn family.) . leguminosÃ�.--herbs or shrubs with alternate, stipuled leaves, generally pinnate or ternate, often tendrilled; and papilionaceous (butterfly-like) flowers. sepals , combined. petals , irregular. stamens generally , all, or nine of them united. ovary superior. fruit a pod. (the pea family.) . rosaceÃ�.--trees, shrubs, or herbs with alternate, stipuled leaves; and conspicuous, regular flowers. sepals or . petals or . stamens many. carpels , , , or many. (the rose family.) . onagraceÃ�.--herbs with mostly entire, simple, exstipulate leaves; and conspicuous, regular flowers. sepals to . petals to , twisted in the bud, or absent. stamens to , or . ovary inferior, with carpels to (usually ), many-seeded. (the willow-herb family.) . haloragiaceÃ�.--aquatic herbs with whorled leaves and minute flowers. sepals to or absent. petals to or absent. stamens , , , or . ovary inferior. carpels to . (the mare's-tail family.) . lythraceÃ�.--herbs with opposite or whorled, entire leaves; and conspicuous, regular flowers. sepals, and petals to . stamens generally twice as many as petals. ovary superior. carpels to . fruit a many-seeded capsule. (the loosestrife family.) . tamariscaceÃ�.--shrub with minute, scale-like leaves; and lateral spikes of small, regular flowers. sepals and petals or . stamens to , on the disc. styles . (the tamarisk.) . cucurbitaceÃ�.--rough, climbing herb, with tendrilled, palmately-lobed leaves; greenish, dioecious flowers in axillary racemes; and scarlet berries. sepals and petals , united. stamens . ovary inferior. carpels . (the white bryony.) . saxifragaceÃ�.--shrubs and herbs with regular flowers. sepals and petals or . stamens or . carpels or , united. (the saxifrage family.) . crassulaceÃ�.--succulent herbs with simple leaves; and small, regular, starry flowers. sepals, petals, and carpels to , usually . stamens twice as many as the petals. carpels superior, forming follicles. (the stonecrop family.) . araliaceÃ�.--climbing shrub with clinging rootlets, evergreen leaves, umbels of yellowish flowers, and black berries. sepals, petals, stamens, carpels, and seeds each. ovary inferior. (the ivy.) . cornaceÃ�.--herbs and shrubs with opposite leaves, small flowers, and berry-like fruits. sepals, petals, and stamens or . ovary inferior. carpels , each with one ovule. (the dogwood family.) . umbelliferÃ�.--herbs with mostly compound, pinnate leaves, sheathing at the base; and compound umbels of small, white flowers. sepals, petals, and stamens . ovary inferior. fruit of two adhering carpels. (the parsley family.) * * * * * . caprifoliaceÃ�.--shrubs and herbs with opposite leaves, and conspicuous (sometimes irregular) flowers. sepals and petals to . stamens to . fruit a berry. (the honeysuckle family.) . rubiaceÃ�.--herbs with whorled leaves; and small, regular flowers. sepals, petals, and stamens to . carpels . (the bedstraw family.) . valerianaceÃ�.--herbs with opposite leaves and small (sometimes irregular) flowers. sepals to , often downy. petals to . stamens or . ovary of three carpels, one-celled. (the valerian family.) . dipsaceÃ�.--herbs with opposite leaves; and heads of small flowers, mostly blue. calyx enclosed in a whorl of scaly bracts. petals or . stamens , free. ovary one-celled and one-seeded. (the teasel family.) . compositÃ�.--herbs with heads of small flowers with tubular or strap-shaped corollas. calyx absent or represented by a whorl of silky hairs (pappus). stamens or , anthers generally united. (the daisy family.) * * * * * . campanulaceÃ�.--herbs with milky sap; alternate, entire, scattered leaves; and usually conspicuous, blue, regular flowers. sepals, petals, and stamens . ovary of to carpels. (the bellflower family.) . vacciniaceÃ�.--low (mostly mountainous) shrubs, with scattered, simple, alternate leaves; small drooping, reddish or pink, regular flowers; and edible berries. sepals, petals, and carpels or . stamens or . (the cranberry family.) * * * * * . ericaceÃ�.--shrubs or herbs with opposite or whorled, evergreen leaves; and small conspicuous, regular, flowers. sepals, petals, and carpels or . stamens to . (the heath family.) * * * * * . aquifoliaceÃ�.--shrub with evergreen, spiny leaves; and small, greenish, regular flowers. sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels or . fruit berry-like, with one-seeded stones. (the holly.) . oleaceÃ�.--trees or shrubs with opposite leaves; and small, regular flowers. sepals and petals , sometimes absent. stamens . fruit a berry or a samara. (the olive family.) . apocynaceÃ�.--slender, prostrate shrubs, with milky sap; opposite, evergreen, entire leaves; and conspicuous, regular, purple flowers. sepals, petals, and stamens . corolla salver-shaped. (the periwinkle family.) . gentianaceÃ�.--bitter herbs with opposite, simple, entire leaves; and regular, conspicuous flowers. sepals, petals, and stamens to . carpels . fruit a capsule. (the gentian family.) . convolvulaceÃ�.--herbs, generally twining, with alternate, simple leaves (sometimes absent); and mostly conspicuous, regular flowers. sepals, petals, and stamens or . ovary two-or four-celled. fruit a four-seeded capsule. (the bindweed family.) . solanaceÃ�.--herbs or shrubs with alternate leaves, and axillary cymes of regular flowers. sepals, petals, and stamens . ovary two-celled. fruit berry-like or a capsule, many seeded. (the nightshade family.) . scrophulariaceÃ�.--herbs with mostly irregular, lipped flowers. sepals and petals or . stamens , or , two longer than the others. carpels . fruit a many-seeded capsule. (the figwort family.) . orobanchaceÃ�.--fleshy, brown, parasitic plants, with scattered scale-leaves; and mostly brownish, irregular flowers. sepals or . petals , lipped. stamens , two longer than the others. carpels . fruit a one-chambered, many-seeded capsule. (the broom-rape family.) . verbenaceÃ�.--an erect, branched herb, with opposite leaves; and a compound spike of small, irregular flowers. sepals and petals . corolla lipped. stamens , two longer than the others. ovary four-celled. fruit of nutlets. (the vervain.) . labiatÃ�.--herbs, mostly aromatic, with square stems, opposite leaves, and whorls or cymes of irregular flowers. sepals and petals . corolla usually lipped. stamens (rarely ), two longer than the others. fruit of one-seeded nutlets. (the dead nettle family.) . boraginaceÃ�.--herbs, mostly rough, with alternate, simple leaves; and spikes of conspicuous, regular flowers. sepals, petals, and stamens . carpels . fruit of one-seeded nutlets. (the borage family.) . lentibulariaceÃ�.--insectivorous, marsh herbs, with radical, entire leaves, or much-divided floating leaves with bladders; and conspicuous, irregular flowers. sepals and petals . corolla usually lipped. stamens . fruit a one-chambered, many-seeded capsule. (the butterwort family.) . primulaceÃ�.--herbs, mostly with radical leaves; and conspicuous, regular flowers. sepals, petals, and stamens to . stamens opposite the petals. ovary one-celled, with free central placenta. fruit a many-seeded capsule. (the primrose family.) . plumbaginaceÃ�.--herbs, mostly maritime, with radical or alternate leaves; and mostly blue, regular flowers. sepals, petals, and stamens . stamens opposite the petals, and usually free. carpels to . ovary one-celled and one-seeded. (the thrift family.) . plantaginaceÃ�.--herbs with (generally) simple, entire, radical leaves; and spikes of greenish flowers. sepals, petals, and stamens . corolla scaly. carpels usually or . fruit a one-to four-chambered capsule. (the plantain family.) _note._--_plants in which calyx or corolla are, or appear to be, absent occur in orders_ , , , , , , , and . * * * * * . amaranthaceÃ�.--a smooth, prostrate herb, with scattered, stalked, exstipulate, simple leaves; and small, axillary, green, monoecious flowers. sepals and stamens to . (the amaranth.) . chenopodiaceÃ�.--herbs with simple, exstipulate leaves, or leafless, jointed stems; and small green flowers. sepals to , persistent. stamens to , opposite the sepals. fruit indehiscent. (the goosefoot family.) . polygonaceÃ�.--herbs with sheathing stipules; alternate, simple leaves; and small flowers. sepals to , green or coloured, usually persistent. stamens to . fruit indehiscent. (the dock family.) . eleagnaceÃ�.--a shrub with silvery scales; alternate, entire, exstipulate leaves; and inconspicuous, dioecious flowers. sepals to , persistent. stamens . fruit berry-like. (the sea buckthorn.) . thymelaceÃ�.--shrubs with tough inner bark; simple, entire, exstipulate leaves; and conspicuous, perfect, sweet-scented flowers. sepals . stamens . fruit berry-like. (the spurge laurel family.) * * * * * . loranthaceÃ�.--a green, parasitic, much branched shrub, with opposite, simple, entire leaves; inconspicuous, dioecious flowers; and whitish viscid berries. sepals and stamens . ovary one-chambered. berry one-seeded. (the mistletoe.) . aristolochiaceÃ�.--herbs and climbing shrubs, with alternate leaves and perfect flowers. sepals or , sometimes coloured, sometimes lipped. ovary with to chambers, containing many ovules. (the birthwort family.) . santalaceÃ�.--a slender, prostrate, root-parasite, with alternate, linear leaves; and inconspicuous, perfect flowers. sepals and stamens or . ovary one-celled. fruit dry, one-seeded. (the bastard toad-flax.) * * * * * . empetraceÃ�.--a mountain, evergreen, resinous shrub, with alternate, narrow leaves; and inconspicuous, dioecious flowers. perianth of scales. stamens . ovary of to cells, with one ovule in each cell. (the crowberry.) . euphorbiaceÃ�.--trees, shrubs, or herbs, generally with a milky sap; simple, entire leaves; and small, inconspicuous flowers, sometimes enclosed in calyx-like bracts. perianth of or parts, or absent. stamens or many. fruit separating into or carpels elastically. (the spurge family.) . urticaceÃ�.--herbs, often with simple, stinging leaves; and small, green, clustered, unisexual flowers. stamens or , opposite the sepals. ovary superior, one-celled. fruit indehiscent. (the nettle family.) . ulmaceÃ�.--trees with alternate, distichous leaves, and perfect flowers. perianth of or parts, bell-shaped. stamens or . ovary superior, with one or two cells. fruit a thin, one-seeded samara. (the elm family.) * * * * * . cupuliferÃ�.--trees or shrubs with alternate, stipuled, simple leaves; and small, green flowers. perianth of or parts. stamens to . fruit a nut, enclosed in a tough cupule. (the oak family.) . betulaceÃ�.--trees or shrubs with alternate leaves and small flowers. stamens or more. fruit small, indehiscent, winged, not enclosed in a cup. (the birch family.) . salicaceÃ�.--trees with alternate, simple leaves; and flowers which generally appear before the leaves. stamens one or more to each scale. fruit many-seeded, not enclosed in a cup. (the willow family.) . myricaceÃ�.--a small aromatic shrub, with alternate, simple leaves; and inconspicuous flowers. stamens to . fruit a drupe. (the bog myrtle.) . coniferÃ�.[ ]--shrubs or trees with rigid evergreen, linear leaves; and resinous juices. male flowers in catkins. female flowers generally in cones. seeds not enclosed in an ovary. (the pine family.) [ ] the members of the pine family do not really belong to the dicotyledons, although their stems increase in thickness in the same way as those of our other trees and shrubs. they belong to the _gymnosperms_ (naked-seeded group), in which the seeds are not produced in ovaries; but it is more convenient, for our present purpose, to place them near our other forest trees. * * * * * . orchidaceÃ�.--herbs mostly with tuberous roots, and conspicuous, irregular, perfect flowers in spikes or racemes. sepals, petals, and carpels . stamens or , united to the style. (the orchid family.) . iridaceÃ�.--herbs with fleshy, underground stems; narrow leaves; and handsome, irregular, perfect flowers. perianth of parts. stamens and carpels . ovary -celled. fruit a many-seeded capsule with three valves. (the iris family.) . amaryllidaceÃ�.--herbs with bulbs, narrow leaves, and handsome, regular, perfect flowers. perianth of parts. stamens . ovary -celled. fruit a -valved capsule. (the narcissus family.) . hydrocharidaceÃ�.--aquatic herbs, with floating or submerged leaves; and conspicuous, regular, dioecious flowers. sepals and petals . stamens to . carpels or . fruit a berry. (the frog-bit family.) * * * * * . dioscoriaceÃ�.--a climbing herb, with broad, glossy leaves; and small, monoecious flowers. sepals, petals, and carpels . stamens . ovary -celled. fruit a berry. seeds . (the black bryony.) * * * * * . liliaceÃ�.--herbs with mostly narrow leaves, and conspicuous, regular, perfect flowers. perianth of parts, stamens . ovary -celled. fruit a berry or capsule. (the lily family.) . alismaceÃ�.--aquatic plants with radical, net-veined leaves; and conspicuous, white, perfect flowers. perianth of parts. stamens or more. carpels numerous, and distinct or nearly so. (the water-plantain family.) . naidaceÃ�.--aquatic plants with mostly floating or submerged leaves; and inconspicuous flowers. perianth of to scales, or absent. stamens and carpels to . (the pond-weed family.) . lemnaceÃ�.--minute floating plants, with green, cellular fronds, rarely flowering. flowers very small, enclosed in a bract. stamen . ovary one-celled. ovules to . (the duckweed family.) . araceÃ�.--herbs with net-veined, radical leaves; and small flowers on a fleshy spadix enclosed in a leafy sheath. perianth of parts, or absent. stamens to . ovary of one to three cells. fruit berry-like. (the cuckoo pint family.) . typhaceÃ�.--erect marsh plants, with long, narrow leaves; and small monoecious flowers in conspicuous spikes or heads. perianth absent. stamens many. fruit a one-seeded drupe. (the reed-mace family.) . juncaceÃ�.--rush-like herbs, with cylindrical or narrow leaves, and small, brown flowers. perianth membranous, of parts. stamens . carpels . fruit a -valved capsule. (the rush family.) * * * * * . cyperaceÃ�.--grassy herbs, with usually solid, triangular stems; and linear leaves, with tubular sheaths. flowers in spikelets, unisexual or perfect. stamens to . carpels and stigmas or . (the sedge family.) . gramineÃ�.--grassy herbs, with hollow stems; and linear leaves, with split sheaths. flowers usually perfect. stamens usually . stigmas or . (the grass family.) ii the pollination and fertilisation of flowers since flowers are the reproductive organs of the plant it seems only natural to suppose that the wonderful variety of colour and form which they exhibit might have some connexion with the processes concerned in the propagation of their respective species, and the more we study the nature of the flowers and observe the methods by which pollen is transferred from stamens to stigmas, the stronger becomes our conviction that the diversities mentioned are all more or less connected with the one great function of reproduction. this being the case, we propose to devote a short chapter to a simple account of the uses of the parts of a flower, and to the various contrivances on the part of the plant to secure the surest and best means of perpetuating the species. it has already been stated that the stamens produce pollen cells, and that the ovary contains one or more ovules. as soon as the anthers are mature, they open and set free the pollen cells they contained. a stigma is said to be mature when it exposes a sticky surface to which pollen cells may adhere, and on which these cells will grow. when a pollen cell has been transferred to such a stigma, it is nourished by the fluid secreted by the latter, and sends out a slender, hollow filament (the pollen tube) which immediately begins to descend through the stigma, and through the style, if any, till it reaches the ovary. [illustration: pollen cells throwing out their tubes] should the reader desire to watch the growth of the pollen tubes, he can easily do so by shaking some pollen cells (preferably large ones, such as those of some lilies) on to a solution of sugar, and watching them at intervals with the aid of a lens. in the course of a few hours the pollen tubes will be seen to protrude, and these eventually grow to a considerable length. in order that the ovules of a flower may develop into seeds, it is necessary that they become impregnated by pollen from the anthers of the same species, and this is brought about in the following manner: the pollen cells having been transferred by some means to the mature stigma, they adhere to the surface of the latter, and, deriving their nourishment from the secretion of the stigmatic cells, as above described, proceed to throw out their tubes. these tubes force their way between the cells of the stigma and style, and enter the ovary. each tube then finds its way to one of the ovules, which it enters by means of a minute opening in its double coat called the micropyle, penetrates the embryo-sac, and reaches the ovum or egg-cell. the ovule is now impregnated or fertilised, and the result is that the ovum divides and subdivides into more and more cells till at last an embryo plant is built up. the ovule has thus become a seed, and its further development into a mature plant depends on its being transferred to a suitable soil, with proper conditions as to heat and moisture. if the flower concerned is a perfect one, and the ovules are impregnated by pollen from its own anthers, it is said to be self-fertilised; but if the pollen cells that fertilise the ovules have been transferred from a distinct flower, it is said to be cross-fertilised. now, it has been observed that although self-fertilisation will give rise to satisfactory results in some instances, producing seeds which develop into strong offspring, cross-fertilisation will, as a rule, produce better seeds. in fact, self-fertilisation is not at all common among flowers, and the pollen has frequently no effect unless it has been transferred from another flower. in a few cases it has been found that the pollen even acts as a poison when it is deposited on the stigma of the same flower, causing it to shrivel up and die. in many instances the structure and growth of the flower is such that self-pollination is absolutely impossible; and where it is possible the seedlings resulting from the process are often very weak. it has already been hinted that the wonderful variety of form and colour exhibited by flowers has some connexion with this important matter of the transfer of pollen, and the reader who is really interested in the investigation of the significance of this great diversity will find it a most charming study to search into the advantages (to the flower) of the different peculiarities presented, especially if he endeavours to confirm his conclusions by direct observations of the methods by which the pollen cells are distributed to the stigmas. pollen cells are usually distributed either by the agency of the wind or by insects; and it is generally easy to determine, by the nature of the flower itself, which is the method peculiar to its species. a wind-pollinated flower is generally very inconspicuous. it produces no nectar, which forms the food of such a large number of insects, and has no gaudy perianth, nor does it emit any odour such as would be likely to attract these winged creatures. its anthers generally shed an abundance of pollen, to compensate for the enormous loss naturally entailed in the wasteful process of wind-distribution, and the pollen is so loosely attached that it is carried away by the lightest breeze. further, the anthers are never protected from the wind, but protrude well out of the flower; and the stigma or stigmas, which are also exposed, have a comparatively large area of sticky surface, and are often hairy or plumed in such a manner that they form effectual traps for the capture of the floating pollen cells. an insect-pollinated flower, on the other hand, has glands (_nectaries_) for the production of nectar, and its perianth is usually of such a conspicuous nature that it serves as a signal to attract the insects to the feast. (in some instances the individual flowers are very small, but these are generally produced in such clusters that they become conspicuous through their number.) often it emits a scent which assists in guiding the insects to their food. its stamens are generally so well protected by the perianth that the pollen is not likely to be removed except by the insects that enter the flower; and the supply of pollen is usually not so abundant as in the wind-pollinated species, for the insects, travelling direct from flower to flower, convey the cells with greater economy. the stigmas, too, are generally smaller, and are situated in such a position that, when mature, they are rubbed by that portion of the insect's body which is already dusted with pollen. as we watch the nectar-feeding insects at work, we not only observe that the flowers they visit possess the general characters given above as common to the insect-pollinated species, but also that, in many instances, the structure of the flower is such that the transfer of pollen from anthers to stigma could only be accomplished by the particular kind of insect which it feeds. various contrivances are also adopted by many flowers to attract the insects which are most useful to them, and to exclude those species which would deprive them of nectar and pollen without aiding in the work of pollination. thus, some flowers are best pollinated by the aid of certain nocturnal insects, which they attract at night by the expansion of their pale-coloured corollas and by the emission of fragrant perfumes. these close their petals by day in order to economise their stores and protect their parts from injury while their helpers are at rest. others require the help of day-flying insects: these are expanded while their fertilisers are on the wing, and sleep throughout the night. we do not propose to give detailed accounts of the various stratagems by which flowers secure the aid of insects in this short chapter. several examples are given in connexion with the descriptions of flowers in subsequent pages, but a few typical instances, briefly outlined here, will give the reader some idea of features which should be observed as flowers are being examined. in many flowers the anthers and the stigma are not mature at the same time, and consequently self-pollination is quite impossible. with these it often happens that the anthers and stigma alternately occupy the same position, so that the same part of the body of an insect which becomes dusted with pollen in one flower rubs against the stigma of another. other flowers, such as the forget-me-not, in which both stamens and stigma are ripe together, project their stigmas above the stamens at first, in order that an insect from another flower might touch the stigma before it reaches the stamens, and thus cross-pollinate them; and their stamens are afterwards raised by the lengthening of the corolla until they touch the stigma. thus the flowers attempt to secure cross-pollination; but, failing this, pollinate themselves. in the common arum or cuckoo pint, described on p. , we have an example of a flower of peculiar construction, surrounded by a very large bract in which insects are imprisoned and fed until the anthers are mature, and then set free in order that they might carry the pollen to another flower of which the stigmas are ripe. sometimes the flowers of the same species assume two or three different forms as far as the lengths of the stamens and pistils are concerned, the anthers of one being of just the same height as the stigma of another, so that the pollen from the former will dust that portion of the body of the insect which rubs against the latter examples are to be found among the primulas, and in the purple loosestrife, both of which are described in their place. in some flowers the stamens are irritable, rising in such a manner as to strike the insects that visit them; and in these cases the anthers almost invariably deposit pollen on that portion of the insect's body which is most likely to come in contact with the stigma of the next flower visited. again, in sages, the anthers are so arranged that they are made to swing, as on a see-saw, to exactly the same end. these few examples will suffice to show that the structure and conformation of flowers are subservient to the one great purpose of securing the most suitable means of the distribution of pollen, and the student who recognises and studies the various forms of flowers in this connexion will find his work in the field doubly interesting. iii climbing plants many plants have stems which grow to a considerable length, and which are at the same time too weak to support the plants in the erect position. a considerable number of these show no tendency to assume an upward direction, but simply trail along the surface of the ground, often producing root fibres at their nodes to give them a firmer hold on the soil and to absorb additional supplies of water and mineral food. some, however, grow in the midst of the shrubs and tall herbage of thickets and hedgerows, or in some other position in which it becomes necessary to strive for a due proportion of light, and such plants would stand but a small chance in the struggle for existence if they did not develop some means of securing a favourable position among their competitors. these latter are collectively spoken of as climbing plants; but it is interesting to note that in their seedling stage they are all erect, and it is only after they reach a certain height that they commence to assume some definite habit by which they obtain the necessary support, or to develop special organs by which they can cling to objects near them. some climbers produce no special organs for the purpose of fastening themselves to surrounding objects, but trust entirely to the wandering and more or less zig-zag nature of their feeble stems, and thus reach the open light merely by a process of interweaving, as in the case of the hedge bedstraw (_galium mollugo_). others adopt this same method of interweaving, but at the same time develop some kind of appendages to give them additional support. thus, the rough water bedstraw (_g. uliginosum_), which sometimes reaches a height of four or five feet, has recurved bristles all along its slender stem, and these serve as so many little hooks, holding the plant securely on to the neighbouring rank herbage of the marsh or swamp in which it grows, while the rigid leaves further assist by catching in the angles of surrounding stems. another good example is to be seen in the common goose-grass or cleavers (_g. aparine_) of our hedgerows, which also reaches a height of four or five feet, and clings very effectually by means of the hooked bristles of its stems and leaves. the marsh speedwell (_veronica scutellata_), though it grows to a height of only one foot, is too weak to stand erect without support, and it has quite a novel method of securing the aid of the plants among which it grows. its two topmost leaves at first stand erect over the terminal bud, so that they are easily pushed through the spaces in the surrounding herbage as the stem lengthens. they then diverge, and even turn slightly downwards, thus forming two supporting arms, the holding power of which is further increased by the down-turned teeth of their margins. this process is repeated by the new pairs of leaves formed at the growing summit of the stem, with the result that the plant easily retains the erect position. [illustration: prickles of the wild rose.] the wild roses and brambles growing in the hedgerows support themselves among the other shrubby growths by the interlacing of their stems, but are also greatly aided by the abundance of prickles with which these stems are armed. the prickles, even if erect, would afford considerable assistance in this respect; but it may be observed that they are generally directed downwards, and often very distinctly curved in this direction, and so serve to suspend the weak stems at numerous points. we often find the bramble growing in abundance on heaths and downs, in situations where suitable props do not exist. in this case the younger shrubs simply trail along the ground, or form low arches as the weight of the stems and their appendages cause the apex to bend to the ground. yet if we turn to the older shrubs of several years' growth we find that they have succeeded in reaching a height of some feet. the first stems of these shrubs formed low arches as we have just described, and then they gave rise to branches which were first erect, but were afterwards bent downwards in the same manner, forming arches rising higher than their predecessors. this continued, year after year, till at last a long series of stems, forming arch above arch, reached the present height, the older stems, at the bottom, now dead, serving to support the whole mass above. [illustration: ivy, showing the rootlets or suckers.] some climbing stems produce little roots by means of which they can cling firmly to available supports. such are very common among tropical plants, but our ivy affords a splendid example. the roots so formed may appear in clusters at special points of the stem, or in long lines running longitudinally on it, and they are produced on trailers as well as on climbers. in fact, we can draw no fine distinction between the former and the latter in this respect, and even the ivy will sometimes trail along the ground after the manner of the periwinkle, which roots itself at several points as it proceeds. the rootlets of the ivy and other climbers of the same habit always avoid the light; and if they are not originally formed on the side of the stem facing the supporting surface, they soon turn towards the latter, and give rise to little clinging suckers that firmly adhere. if they come in contact with a bare rock, or with a surface from which no nutriment can be derived, they serve the one purpose of clinging only; but if they reach even a small amount of nutritive soil, they produce absorbent fibres that are capable of extracting food. the ivy usually clings to the bark of trees or to old walls, the crevices of which often contain some small amount of transported soil, or more or less organic soil formed by the growth and decay of low forms of vegetable life; and thus the tree is enabled to obtain a little food from the objects that give it the necessary mechanical support. the well-known virginian creeper (_ampelopsis_) produces rootlets by means of which it can cling to very smooth surfaces. its light-avoiding 'tendrils' always turn to the wall or other supporting body; and, on coming in contact with it, give off little branches which diverge like the toes of the tree-frog, and produce little adhesive discs which hold on firmly by the aid of a sticky secretion. perhaps the most interesting of all climbing plants are those which twine their stems around the props afforded by the neighbouring growths. as before stated, the stems of these plants are erect when very young; but after they have reached a certain height the top of the stem bends to one side, and then, as the growth proceeds, it turns slowly round and round, describing a circle in the horizontal plane, thus seeking some support round which it can twine. the rate at which the top of the stem revolves varies in different plants, and also in the same plant according to the temperature and other conditions affecting the growth. in some species the upper portion describes a complete circle in less than two hours during warm weather, while in others a single revolution may occupy one or two days. it will be seen, from the nature of these movements, that the revolving stem is far more likely to come in contact with erect, rather than with horizontal supports, and observations made on twining stems will show that they seldom fix themselves round supports which are placed horizontally or only on a slight incline. in fact, some of these stems seem quite unable to twist themselves spirally except round an axis that is either erect or forms a very large angle with the horizontal plane. should the twining stem succeed in reaching a favourable prop, it immediately commences to bend itself round and round, forming a more or less compact spiral; and it is probable that the slight pressure, caused by the contact, acts as a stimulus which incites the peculiar mode of growth. the direction which the spiral takes is not always the same. in the hop, honeysuckle, and the climbing buckwheat or black bindweed, the direction is always the same as that of the hands of a clock; while in the bindweeds the spiral is invariably contra-clockwise. further, it is not possible to compel any species to turn in a direction opposite to that which it naturally follows. its stem may be forcibly twined in the wrong direction any number of times, but the free end will always follow its natural course as soon as it is left undisturbed. [illustration: stem of the bindweed, twining to the left.] should the stem of a young twining plant fail to reach a suitable support, it bends over, not being sufficiently rigid to support itself, and at last the apex reaches the ground. then, starting afresh from this second position of rest, it begins to ascend, and its upper end again commences to revolve as before. the chances are that it will, from this second position, find something round which it can twine; but failing this its summit may again and again bend to the ground, thus renewing its attempts from various positions more or less distant from one another, and in each effort so made the revolving upper end of the stem gradually lengthens, and describes a larger and larger circle in search for a favourable prop. a twining stem sometimes has the advantage of additional support afforded by the stiff nature of the base of the stem, which is often rendered still more rigid by a twist or torsion resembling that of the strands of a rope. such advantage is often still further increased by the presence of longitudinal ridges of the stem, frequently bearing rows of hooked prickles or hairs that hold on to any object touched. again, the base of the stem, even though it reaches nothing round which it can twine, sometimes takes the form of a spiral, thus forming a good foundation for the upper portion as it seeks out a convenient prop. yet another contrivance to secure the same end may be observed in the greater bindweed and some other plants. the stems, failing to secure a favourable hold, twine round one another, thus producing a kind of rigid cable for the support of the upper extremities as they revolve in order to find stems round which to form their spirals. should all the methods and contrivances of the twining plant fail it in its attempts to secure an uppermost place among the surrounding herbage or shrubs, it is compelled to trail along the ground. but such a position is most disadvantageous and unnatural to it, and usually results in a stunted and sickly plant that may produce no flowers. most of the twining plants of our country are of short duration. many, like the climbing buckwheat, are annuals; while others, as the hop and the bindweeds, though they have perennial roots, produce fresh stems each season. the honeysuckle and the bittersweet, however, have perennial, woody stems which increase in thickness year by year, though the latter does not twine very much, and seems to take an intermediate place between the typical twiners and the plants which support themselves by merely interlacing their stems with the neighbouring plants or shrubs. [illustration: stem of the hop, twining to the right.] some twining stems are unable to form their spirals round thick supports, and after making some attempt to do so grow off at a tangent to seek some less bulky prop. it has been observed, for instance, that the hop cannot grasp a pole that is more than four inches in diameter. in many cases, too, the spirals of the twining stem increase in diameter after they are first formed, and can thus adapt themselves to the increasing size of a living stem round which they have grown. the spirals of the honeysuckle, however, do not increase in this way; and consequently, when they surround the trunk or branch of a young tree, the latter is constricted, often to such an extent that it is strangled and becomes stunted in its growth. another class of climbing plants cling to their surroundings by means of tendrils, which are modifications of leaves or shoots that grow spirally like the stems we have been considering. whatever be the origin of a tendril, it generally grows straight until it has reached some favourable support, and in order to obtain such support it performs circular movements similar to those of the tips of twining stems. like these stems, too, the tendril is always sensitive, and forms a close spiral round the object it touches. some tendrils will grow spirally without ever touching a support, but these often become stunted and wither, while those which reach and embrace a stem or other structure are apparently incited to a luxuriant growth by the stimulating effect of the pressure produced. when the tip of a tendril is successful in gripping a stem firmly, the portion behind it often takes part in the spiral movement, thus becoming shorter, and pulling the support towards its own plant in such a manner as to bring it within the reach of additional tendrils. of course the tendrilled plants have a much better chance of securing a suitable support than the twiners, for the latter have to depend on the searching and clinging powers of but one structure, while the tendrils are usually very numerous on the same plant, and throw themselves out in all directions in search of the required aid. the production of tendrils as a means of support is also much more economical than the method of clinging by a twining stem, for the former are usually very slender, while the latter must necessarily be sufficiently thick to convey the nutritive requirements of the whole plant; and thus the process of clinging by tendrils is more in accordance with the usual economy of nature. we have observed that twining stems can, as a rule, twine round only those supports which are erect or nearly so. this is not the case with tendrils, which are better adapted for twisting round horizontal stems and leafstalks. often, too, they pass from one branch or leaf to another, and so secure the plant to which they belong by fastenings both above and below. further, while the clasping part of a tendril often becomes hard and rigid, the portion between this and the plant may remain green and flexible. this latter portion also frequently forms a new spiral in the opposite direction, thus rendering the connexion between the plant and its support so supple and elastic that no damage is likely to accrue from the motions caused by the wind. the tendrils which form long spirals are generally modified stems or leaves, or they may be elongated leaflets of a compound leaf. those which are modified stems may be distinguished by their growth from the axils of the leaves, denoting that they had their origin in axillary buds after the manner of branches generally; and also, sometimes, by the fact that they bear imperfect leaves in the form of little scales. the tendrils of the common or white bryony (p. ) are of this nature; while those of the grape vine are either modified floral stems or altered flower-stalks. in some cases the entire leaf may be changed into a tendril, in which instance its true nature is revealed by the presence of a bud in its axil, as in many ordinary foliage leaves. more frequently, however, the 'leaf-tendril' is an altered leaflet of a compound leaf, such as we see in the peas and vetches; and it is interesting to note in such cases that the loss entailed by the conversion of leaflets into tendrils is often compensated for by the formation of leaf-like stipules which are capable of performing the function of leaves. in fact, we often find that the size of the stipules is proportional to the number of tendrils produced; and that when the leaflets are considerably reduced in number by their conversion into tendrils, not only are the stipules large and leafy, but the stem itself may be extended laterally into broad wing-like expansions which do the work of foliage leaves. interesting illustrations of this are to be found in the yellow vetch--a rather rare plant sometimes seen in sandy fields--in which all the leaves are converted entirely into tendrils, and their function performed by very large leafy stipules; also in the narrow-leaved everlasting pea of bushy places, in which the leaflets of the compound leaves are all converted into tendrils with the exception of two, the work of which is aided by the stipules and by the 'wings' of the stem and petioles. in the rough-podded vetch, too, the stems and petioles are winged to serve the same end; and other british members of this genus have either large stipules or winged stems, or both, to compensate for the loss of leaflets that have been modified into tendrils. in other climbers the blade of the leaf is not reduced in size, even though the leaf serves the purpose of a tendril, the function of clinging being assigned exclusively to the petiole or leaf-stalk. this may be observed in the wild clematis and the bryony, in both of which the petiole forms a ring round any branch or stem with which it comes in contact. these petioles are apparently equally sensitive on all sides, and are therefore ready to cling to any available support, whether above or below. in the clematis the leaves are at first at right angles to the stem of the plant, but they afterwards turn downwards, and thus transform themselves into so many anchors which give additional aid in supporting the climber among the other hedgerow plants and shrubs. iv early spring the work of the botanist is light during the early spring, especially if his attention is directed only to plants and trees in their flowering stages; but, to one whose ambition is to study nature in all her varied phases, this season of the bursting of the bud, when all things are awakening into new life, is full of interest, and demands no small amount of time. the first flowers observed in the spring are mainly those hardy weeds which may be seen in bloom almost through the year, such as the shepherd's purse, chickweed, groundsel, white dead nettle, red dead nettle, and henbit dead nettle. these are soon followed by the furze, strawberry-leaved cinquefoil, snowdrop, hazel, common whitlow-grass, and other flowers that are truly blossoms of the spring. all these will be described in turn, according to their various habitats; the object of the present short chapter being to note those signs of early spring which demand the attention of the lover of nature while flowers are as yet few and inconspicuous. a ramble over bleak downs and moors during the cold days of early spring will probably reveal but little of interest in the way of vegetable life, but in sheltered vales and woods, copses, and protected waysides, there is much to be observed. here it is that we find the hardy weeds which have continued to bloom throughout the winter months; the earliest of the spring flowers; the fresh green foliage of herbs and shrubs that, in more exposed situations, have been completely denuded; the first tender seedlings appearing above the ground long before the frosts are over; and the expanding 'leaf-buds' showing their green while elsewhere all life seems dormant. this is the season when the young botanist requires his notebook more than the collecting-book or vasculum; for his records of early flowers, and of the times of the appearance of the leaf in our trees and shrubs, will prove of great interest when compared with the corresponding events and times of other years. not only do our spring seasons vary considerably from year to year in such a manner as to alter the general times of appearance of leaf and flower, but the vicissitudes of our climate even change the order in which these events occur. the general study of the buds of trees should commence before they begin to burst. we commonly speak of the buds as winter buds, but it should be known that they were formed in the preceding summer or autumn, and have remained dormant throughout the winter. there is usually a _terminal bud_ at the tip of each twig, and _lateral buds_ at the sides. if we examine a lateral bud we find immediately beneath it a more or less distinct scar, denoting the position of a leaf that fell in the autumn, thus showing that the bud in question was formed in the axil or angle of the leaf. these observations should be verified by examining the trees in autumn, while the leaves still exist. it is not sufficient that we are able to recognise trees when in leaf; they should be known equally or almost as well during the winter and early spring while the branches are bare, and this is usually easily accomplished by making ourselves acquainted with the general form of each tree as viewed from a distance, and, on closer inspection, with the nature of the bark and the character of the buds. all our forest trees are of the exogenous type; that is, their stems increase in thickness by the addition of new wood formed outside the older wood and underneath the bark. thus the bark, which is composed of a layer or mass of dead, sapless cells, is gradually pushed outward as the stem thickens. the result is that the bark is either more or less fractured, as in the elm and the oak, or it flakes off and falls to the ground, as is the case with the plane and the birch. a new layer of bark is always formed during each summer, and this, in turn, either cracks or peels away; but while, in the former instance, the accumulated bark presents a very rugged appearance, and becomes very thick, in the latter case it remains smooth, and is always thin. then again, how are we to account for the great variety in the general forms of our different trees--the irregular, crooked nature of the oak; the slender, but denser branching of the airy birch; and the tall, pyramidal form of the lombardy poplar? all this is easily understood if we carefully observe the positions of the buds as seen during the winter months; and watch the development of these buds during early spring. [illustration: trees in winter or early spring . hazel, with catkins. . ash. . oak. . lime, with remains of the last season's fruits.] if the buds are irregularly scattered on the twigs, the lateral buds being as strongly developed as the terminal ones, while, in the spring, as is often the case, certain only of the buds develop into new twigs, the others remaining dormant, then the branches assume that irregular, crooked appearance so characteristic of the oak. if, on the other hand, all the terminal buds are well developed, and the lateral buds are weaker and more regularly distributed, but farther apart, then the tree grows more rapidly in height than in breadth, and assumes more nearly the character of the pyramidal poplar. it will thus be seen that the study of trees in their winter condition is not altogether lacking in interest. referring once more, but briefly, to the matter of dormant buds, we recommend the reader not only to observe that some buds do not expand with the others during the spring, but to make them the subject of experiment. thus, when the horsechestnut is well in leaf, dormant buds will usually be seen on the sides of the twigs, sheltered by the spreading leaves produced at the tips. now remove the whole cluster of leaves formed by the terminal bud, together with the bud itself, and the hitherto dormant laterals, under the influence of increased light and warmth, and supplied with sap that is now directed into new channels, will speedily show signs of growth. similarly, the fruit-gardener will remove the tips of the branches of his fruit trees, which often bear buds that are destined to produce leafy twigs only, and thus encourage the growth of the fruiting buds that are situated lower on the twigs. let us now briefly consider the structure of buds and the manner in which they are protected. most buds are surrounded by brownish scales which are impervious to water, and thus prevent a loss by evaporation at a season when the activity of the roots in absorbing moisture from the soil is suspended. such loss is still further insured in some cases by a covering of natural varnish. on removing this protective coat we find a dense cluster of closely-packed leaves, variously folded or crumpled in different species, and often, in the centre, a cluster of flowers. what, then, is the true definition of a bud? it is a young branch, and may give rise to a mature branch bearing foliage leaves only, floral leaves only, or a combination of both. a transverse section of a bud, examined, if necessary, with the aid of the microscope, will show the nature of the branch it was destined to produce; and, in the case of buds which represent, in embryo, branches bearing flowers, or both leaves and flowers, it is often an easy matter to see the whorls of the future flowers, and even the pollen cells in the anthers and the ovules in the ovary. [illustration: trees in winter or early spring . birch, with catkins. . beech. . poplar. . alder, with catkins, and the old fruit 'cones' of the previous season.] interesting as it is to study the structure of buds in their dormant condition during winter and early spring, even more fascinating is the watching of the gradual expansion of the bud and the unfolding of the young leaves. and it is not always necessary to make frequent visits to the woods in order to carry out such observations, for a large number of buds will develop almost equally well, at any rate through their earlier stages, if the twigs bearing them be placed in vessels of water either in or out of doors; and in many cases all the stages from dormant bud to perfect leaves and fully-expanded flowers may be watched in this way. we have spoken of the protection afforded to the dormant bud during the winter period, but it is interesting to note that protection is necessary for the young leaves even after they have forced themselves well out into the light and air. the reason for this is that the epidermis or outer skin of the young leaf is not properly developed. it is not yet water-tight, and, consequently, the sap of the tender leaves would rapidly evaporate, so that they would soon become dry and shrivelled. the means by which the young leaves are protected will be readily seen if we watch the gradual development of the bud. in many cases these leaves remain folded long after they have left the shelter of the original bud-scales, the manner of folding being the same as that which obtained while within the bud. sometimes they are folded like a fan, or like the leaves of a book; sometimes rolled one within the other, or irregularly crumpled in such a manner that nothing is exposed to the air except the edges of the leaves and the surfaces of the veins. in addition to the protection from evaporation afforded by the folding of the young leaves, many are covered with a dense coat of "wool." young leaves of the horsechestnut are very thickly covered with such a coat, of which only the slightest traces are to be seen in the fully-grown leaf. the young leaves of the beech are folded like a fan for some time after they have left the enclosure of the bud, and the folding is such that the only parts exposed are the margins, the midrib, and the strongly-marked parallel veins. but since all these parts are provided with hairs, the young leaf, as long as it is folded, is surrounded by a complete protective covering. as the epidermis develops, and the danger of loss by evaporation thus reduced, the leaf straightens itself out, and the hairs either fall or become shrivelled. the leaf of the wayfaring tree is protected, while young, by a complete covering of starlike hairs which form a fine felted coat over the whole surface; and when the epidermis is properly formed, the hairs are all shed. some young leaves are preserved by scaly stipules which surround them after they have emerged from the bud; and as soon as the epidermis is sufficiently impermeable the stipules, having done their work, fall to the ground. so great is the shower of these transient structures, in the case of the oak, elm, and lime trees, that the ground is almost completely covered by them. [illustration: twig of the limb in spring, showing the deciduous, scaly stipules.] young leaves have yet another way of preventing the evaporation of their sap, and that is by turning themselves into the erect position so that the warmth of the spring sun has but little effect on them. the young leaves of various grasses turn their apices upwards; while those of the horsechestnut, after having lost the protection afforded by the woolly covering and the original folding, turn themselves with their points downwards. later, when the epidermis is well formed, and the leaves are so far developed that they are capable of utilising the energy of the sun in the performance of their functions, they take up the horizontal position. another interesting matter for spring observation is the relative times of the bursting of the flowering buds and the leafing buds on the same species of tree or shrub. in many cases the former are fully developed before the latter show any signs of active growth, or while the foliage is as yet only passing through its earliest stages. the hazel catkins shed their abundance of pollen before the foliage buds show the slightest signs of green. the blackthorn is white with snowy blossoms before a leaf appears. the upper twigs of the elm appear fluffy in the distance through the formation of its flowers while the foliage buds are still dormant; and the alder, willow, poplar and aspen likewise produce full-blown catkins while their branches are otherwise bare. of the trees above named, the hazel, elm, alder, poplar, and aspen are dependent on the spring winds for the transfer of the pollen, but the pollination of the willow and the blackthorn is brought about by the agency of early insects which visit the flowers for the nectar they provide. [illustration: seedling of the beech, showing the cotyledons and the first foliage leaves.] the same spring sun which calls forth the new leaves and early flowers exerts its vivifying influence on the seeds that fell to the ground before the winter's frosts set in, and in sheltered places myriads of young seedlings of plants and trees may be found in their first stages of growth. the early history of a plant is as interesting a study as that of the mature specimen, and the young botanist will do well if he seeks out the germinating seeds and watches their development. this part of botanical study may, perhaps, be carried on more conveniently at home than in the field, for the seedlings may be grown in soil, wet sawdust, or in water alone, and the stages closely observed. the seed is a plant in embryo. it consists of a young root, a bud, and one or two seed-leaves or cotyledons. some seeds contain nothing but the parts just named, and when this is the case the cotyledons contain a reserve of food material sufficient to maintain the developing plant until the root is enabled to absorb sufficient nutriment from the soil, and the first foliage leaves are so far advanced that they can absorb carbonic acid gas from the air, and build up with the aid of this gas, together with the food obtained from the soil, the compounds required by the growing plant. other seeds contain, in addition to the embryo, a reserve of nutrient material quite distinct from it; and in such instances the cotyledons have the power of taking up this reserve, changing it to a condition suitable to the requirements of the plant, and then distributing it to the growing parts. in some seedlings the cotyledons will remain for some time within, or partially within the seed, in order that they may continue the absorption of this reserve; and while this process is going on the seed may remain below the surface of the soil, or it may be lifted into the air by the upward growth of the cotyledons themselves. in cases where the cotyledons contain the food reserve for the seedling they sometimes remain under the soil, but in many instances they are pushed into the air by the upward growth of that portion of the plant axis immediately below them. in either case they decay as soon as their work is accomplished. this often happens as soon as they have delivered up to the seedling their reserve of food, but frequently the cotyledons which ascend into the air expand, becoming really leaflike in general appearance, assuming a green colour through the development of chlorophyll (the green colouring matter of plants), and then perform all the functions of the ordinary foliage leaves of the plant. such cotyledons often continue to exist long after the first foliage leaves have appeared from the bud, for, although the original food reserve has been exhausted, they are now in a position to manufacture, under the combined influence of the sun's warmth and light, compounds essential for their own growth as well as that of the other parts of the seedling. these cotyledons, however, are never of the same form as the true foliage leaves. the student should obtain a variety of seeds or seedlings of our wild plants and forest trees in order to study these interesting early stages. such employment will prove very valuable at a season when there is but little call for outdoor work. v woods and thickets in spring one of our earliest spring flowers of the wood is the lovely daffodil or lent lily (_narcissus pseudo-narcissus_) of the order _amaryllidaceæ_. this plant develops from a bulb--an underground bud formed of thick, fleshy leaves; and the flowers appear during march and april. the perianth is composed of a tube and six spreading limbs of a delicate yellow colour; and a deep, bell-shaped, golden coronet, beautifully notched and curled at the rim. [illustration: the daffodil.] during april and may we meet with the beautiful little wood anemone (_anemone nemorosa_--order _ranunculaceæ_), often in such abundance that the ground beneath the trees is completely covered by its graceful leaves and flowers. the leaves are radical, stalked, and deeply lobed, springing from an underground stem. on the flower stalk, some distance below the flower, is a whorl of stalked bracts of the same form as the radical leaves. the flower has six spreading sepals, resembling petals, usually white, but often tinged with a delicate pink, or, more rarely, with blue. the fruit consists of a number of downy achenes. [illustration: the wood anemone] belonging to the same order (_ranunculaceæ_) we have two species of hellebore--the green hellebore (_helleborus viridis_) and the stinking hellebore (_h. foetidus_), both found in woods on chalk or limestone during april and may. the former, also known in parts as the bear's-foot (plate i, fig. ), has leaves palmately lobed, consisting of five or seven parts; and the flowers, which are more than an inch across, have spreading green sepals, and small tubular petals which contain nectar that is supposed to be poisonous on account of the small dead flies that are commonly found sticking to it. the stinking hellebore, or setterwort, has evergreen, radical leaves, the lobes of which do not radiate from a common centre; and the flowers, of which there are many on each peduncle, have erect sepals. the goldilocks or wood ranunculus (_ranunculus auricomus_) is a flower very much like the upright meadow buttercup (p. ), though not nearly so tall, being only from six to ten inches high. it grows chiefly in thickets and copses, and flowers from april to july. its root is fibrous; the stem erect, slender, and branched; the radical leaves long-stalked, round or kidney-shaped, divided into three, five, or seven lobes; and the stem leaves few, sessile, and palmately divided to the base into very narrow segments. the calyx is downy, consisting of spreading, yellow sepals; and the petals are often partially or entirely wanting. this plant is widely distributed, but is most frequent in the centre and south of england. [illustration: the goldilocks.] the columbine (_aquilegia vulgaris_), also one of the _ranunculaceæ_, so well known as a garden flower, grows wild in the thickets and copses of several parts, blooming from may to july. its branched stem grows to a height of one or two feet; and the leaves are stalked, with three broad, stalked, three-lobed segments. the pretty, drooping flowers are usually over an inch in diameter, of a white, blue, or purple colour, in a loose, leafy panicle. they have five coloured, deciduous sepals; five petals, each with a curved spur that projects below the base of the calyx; numerous stamens; and an ovary of five carpels which ripen into as many follicles. the dog violet (_viola canina_--order _violaceæ_) is probably too well known to need description, seeing that it is easily distinguished from the other species of the same genus by the absence of scent and by the presence of running stems. it is, however, very variable, both in its habits and habitats, so much so, indeed, that some botanists regard the varieties as distinct species under the titles of wood violet, dark wood violet, pale wood violet, hill violet, bog violet, &c. these different forms are distinguished by the shape of the leaves, which may be broadly-cordate, narrow-cordate, or lanceolate; and also by the nature of the stem and the form and colour of the spur of the corolla. in some the main stem is flowerless, but flowering stems proceed from the axils of its leaves; in others the main stem is long and branched, bearing flowers. the narrow-leaved and branched varieties occur principally on heaths, while the broad-leaved forms, in which the main stem is flowerless, are found chiefly in woods. the student will do well to compare as many forms as possible as an interesting study in variation. [illustration: the wild columbine.] the flowers have five sepals; and five unequal petals, usually of a bluish-purple colour, the lower one prolonged backward into a blunt spur. five stamens closely surround the ovary, which is composed of three carpels, but is one-celled. the mode of the dispersion of the seeds is particularly interesting in this instance. when the seeds are ripe the ovary splits into three valves which spread out till they are at right angles to their former position. each valve is closely packed with smooth, oval seeds; and, as the carpels dry, their sides, originally convex, become gradually straightened so that they press on the seeds. the result is that the seeds are detached from the placenta, one by one, and suddenly shot out to a distance sometimes exceeding a yard. the whole process may be observed by placing some ripe fruits on a large sheet of paper spread in a warm, airy room. another peculiarity of the violet is to be seen in its production of two distinct kinds of flowers. the spring flowers, which we know so well, are conspicuous, and are visited and pollinated by insects, but they produce few or no seeds. in the autumn another kind of flower is formed, inconspicuous ones that often possess no petals, and which do not open. these are fertilised by their own pollen, and produce abundance of seed. [illustration: the dog violet.] soon after the appearance of the dog violet--usually early in may--we meet with the flowers of the wood sorrel or alleluia (_oxalis acetosella_), a plant which is often included with the crane's-bills in the order _geraniaceæ_, but sometimes placed in a separate small order (_oxalidaceæ_) containing only three british species. it is a very pretty little plant, of an acid nature, springing from a creeping rhizome. the leaves are radical, ternate, hairy, and sensitive, folding vertically at night in such a manner that the lower surfaces, containing the stomata, are completely covered, and thus loss by evaporation prevented. the flowers are usually solitary and axillary, and the peduncle has two small bracts about half way up. there are five sepals, united below; five white or pinkish petals; and ten stamens, all united into one bundle, but five shorter than the others. the ovary is five-chambered, and the fruit is a capsule. like the violet, this flower is particularly interesting both as to the nature of its flowers, and to the manner in which it scatters its seeds. it bears two kinds of flowers--the delicate spring flowers just described, which are barren; and the later inconspicuous blooms, without petals, and which do not open, but produce seeds. the latter kind of flower may be seen up to august and september. [illustration: the wood sorrel.] when the ovary is ripe it splits longitudinally along five seams, but the seeds remain attached to the placenta. now, the seed coat is made up of layers, one of the inner of which becomes highly strained as the ripening proceeds, while the outer coat is not so strained. when the seed is quite ripe the cell-walls of the deeper layer swell, thus exerting a pressure on the outer layer, which is at last rent. the edges of the slit formed suddenly roll back, and the seed is violently jerked out through the opening of the capsule immediately in front of it. in april, and from this month to about the end of july, the wood strawberry (_fragaria vesca_--order _rosaceæ_) is in flower. there is no mistaking this species when in fruit, but at other times the barren strawberry (_potentilla fragariastrum_), also called the strawberry-leaved cinquefoil, is often confused with it. the latter may be known by the absence of runners. the chief distinguishing features of the wood strawberry are the running stem; ternate leaves, with sessile, hairy, serrate leaflets; hairy, erect peduncles; and white flowers, about half an inch in diameter, on pedicels which droop when in fruit. in shady woods grows the sweet woodruff (_asperula odorata_--order _rubiaceæ_)--a small, erect and smooth plant, seldom exceeding eight inches in height. the leaves are six to nine in each whorl, lanceolate, with small prickles on the margins. the flowers are white, in terminal panicles, and the fruit is rough with hooked hairs. the herb emits, when dry, a pleasant odour resembling that of new hay. [illustration: the sweet woodruff.] there are two periwinkles (order _apocynaceæ_), both of which have been introduced into britain as garden flowers, but have become established as wild flowers in several parts. one of these--the lesser periwinkle (_vinca minor_)--is moderately common, especially in the west, where it is often seen in thickets and other shady places, flowering during april and may. it has a trailing stem, from one to two feet long, rooting at the nodes; and short, erect, leafy, flowering branches. the leaves are opposite, narrow-elliptical, entire, and quite smooth; and the blue or violet flowers, which are about an inch in diameter, are solitary on short, erect stalks. the calyx is free, and deeply divided into five narrow segments; the corolla has a narrow tube, and five broad, spreading parts; there are five stamens, enclosed in the tube of the corolla; and the carpels are distinct at the base, but connected at the top by the single style. the other species--the greater periwinkle (_vinca major_)--is a very similar plant, but its leaves are broader, with minute hairs on the margin; the calyx segments are also hairy at the edges; and the corolla is larger, with a broad tube. the tooth-wort (_lathræa squamaria_--order _orobanchaceæ_) is a peculiar, fleshy, pinkish plant, to be found among decaying vegetable matter or at the roots of the hazel, elm and a few other trees. it is partly parasitic, deriving its nourishment from the roots of the trees to which it is attached, or sometimes obtaining its food partly or entirely from decaying leaves and stems. its upright stem, which reaches a height of from five to ten inches, is covered with tooth-like, hollow scales, and bears a one-sided raceme of purple-brown flowers. this peculiar plant is not only a parasite on trees, but is also a carnivorous species, provided with the means of capturing and digesting very small animals, and a more detailed account of its form and habits will be found in our short chapter devoted especially to carnivorous plants. the bugle (_ajuga reptans_, of the order _labiatæ_), is a very abundant flower in moist woods and pastures, blooming in may and june. it has a short root-stock, generally with creeping runners; and erect, smooth flowering stems from three to twelve inches high. at the base is a tuft of obovate, radical leaves, from one to two inches long, gradually narrowed into the stalk, with wavy margins; and on the stem are shorter leaves, with very short stalks, the upper ones often deeply tinged with blue or purple. the flowers are blue (occasionally pink or white), and are arranged in whorls of from six to ten in the axils of the upper leaves, the whole forming a leafy spike. they have a five-cleft calyx; a corolla with a short, erect, notched, upper lip; and a longer lower lip with three spreading lobes, the middle one of which is broader and notched. [illustration: the lesser periwinkle.] the stamens, of which there are two pairs, project beyond the upper lip of the corolla; and the four nutlets of the fruit are rough and united. the yellow dead nettle, weasel-snout, or archangel (_galeobdolon lutea_ or _lamium galeobdolon_) of the same order is very much like the white dead nettle (p. ) in habit, but is rather more slender, and less branched. it is not a very common plant, but is abundant in certain localities, forming one of the conspicuous flowers of thickets, copses and shady hedgerows during may and june. its leaves are opposite, stalked, ovate, acute, and coarsely toothed; and the handsome large yellow flowers are in dense whorls of from six to ten in the axils of the upper leaves. the calyx has five short teeth; and the corolla has a short tube, not much longer than the calyx, and two lips, the upper of which is arched, while the lower is spotted with red, and has three lobes. our next example, the lovely primrose (_primula vulgaris_ or _p. acaulis_--order _primulaceæ_), which so beautifully bedecks our woods and banks in april and may, is so well known that a description for purposes of identification is quite unnecessary. there are two distinct forms of the primrose flower, often called the pin-eyed and the thrum-eyed, the two forms growing on different plants. the former has its stamens at a contracted portion of the tube, about half way down, and a style so long that the stigma is visible at the top of the tube. the latter has its stamens at the contracted throat of the tube, while the style is so short that the stigma is half-way down. [illustration: the bugle.] these two forms may be termed the long-styled and the short-styled primrose, respectively, and the difference is of great importance, inasmuch as it helps to bring about the cross-fertilisation of the flower. [illustration: the broad-leaved garlic.] the principal agents concerned in the transfer of pollen from one flower to another are the wind and insects, but it is evident that the work is done, in the case of the primrose, by insects; for not only do we find that the anthers and the stigma are protected from the wind, being more or less hidden in the tube of the corolla, but the showy corolla, the delicate scent emitted by the flower, and the nectar produced at the base of the tube all combine to encourage nectar-loving insects whose proboscis is long enough to reach the sweets. while such an insect is sucking the nectar from a short-styled primrose, the base of its proboscis is rubbing pollen from the anthers at the top of the tube, and the removal of the pollen is assisted by the contracted throat of the corolla in this kind of flower. should that insect then visit a long-styled flower, the base of the proboscis, now dusted with pollen, will transfer some of the pollen cells to the stigma. in the same way pollen will be transferred from the anthers of the long-styled to the short-styled flower, since the stamens and stigma respectively occupy corresponding positions in the tubes of the corollas. [illustration: the star of bethlehem.] on plate i (fig. ) we represent the lady's slipper (_cypripedium calceolus_)--a rare and beautiful orchis found in some of the limestone woods of north england. its stem is downy and leafy, reaching a height of about one foot. the leaves, of which there are three or four, are oblong and ribbed; and the one or two large flowers are brownish with the exception of the lip, which is yellow and inflated. two species of garlic (order _liliaceæ_) are also to be found in woods early in the season. they are both strong-smelling plants with bulbous roots, radical leaves, and flowers arranged in an umbel with membranous spathes. one--the broad-leaved garlic or ramsons (_allium ursinum_)--is very common, grows to a height of from six to twelve inches, and flowers from april to june. the stem is bluntly triangular and leafless; and the broad, radical leaves are much like those of the lily of the valley. the flowers are white, and form a flat umbel with two sharply-pointed bracts at its base. the second species--the sand leek or sand garlic (_a. scorodoprasum_)--grows to two or three feet, and is found almost exclusively in sandy woods of north england, where it flowers a little later than the ramsons. the stem-leaves are linear, and form two-edged sheaths; and the flowers, which are reddish-purple, are in a loose umbel. (plate i, fig. .) [illustration: the hairy sedge.] the star of bethlehem (_ornithogalum umbellatum_) is a pretty flower that was originally introduced for cultivation, but has now become well established as a wild flower in many parts of britain. it is found chiefly in copses and thickets, especially in the neighbourhood of towns and villages, and flowers in april and may. it has an oval bulb containing an abundance of viscid sap; long narrow, limp, radical leaves; and a flowering stem from six to twelve inches high. the flowers are white, from six to ten in number, arranged in a raceme the lower stalks of which are lengthened in such a manner as to bring all the flowers to a level, thus giving the general appearance of an umbel. there is a membranous bract at the base of each pedicel; and each flower has a perianth of six free, spreading, persistent segments, marked outside with a central, green line, and having a nectary at the base. the same order includes the well-known blue-bell or wild hyacinth (_hyacinthus nonscriptus_ or _scilla festalis_), which is occasionally confused with the harebell of the order _campanulaceæ_. the leaves of this plant are linear and channelled, and the drooping flowers form a raceme of from six to twelve blooms. the perianth is bell-shaped, composed of six united parts, usually blue, but rarely pink or white. the anthers are yellow, and as with all the plants of this order, the ovary is superior. (see plate i, fig. .) in damp woods we often meet with the hairy sedge (_carex hirta_), which grows from one to two feet high; and in similar situations, the pendulous wood sedge (_c. sylvatica_)--a tufted species, with a weak, leafy stem, from two to three feet high, and flaccid leaves. the latter has a single terminal, male spikelet, of about an inch long; and slender, drooping female spikelets, of about the same length, on long stalks. on plate i, we also represent the wood melic grass (_melica uniflora_), a slender, graceful species which may be seen in woods, often in bloom as early as the beginning of may. vi the spring-flowering trees and shrubs of woods, thickets, and hedgerows having considered the principal low-growing flowers of the woods, we must now give some attention to the trees and shrubs of the same localities. this portion of the field-naturalist's work will be found at least as fascinating as the observation of the herbaceous plants, for although the flowers of trees are often small and very inconspicuous, many are really beautiful blossoms, and all present features of more or less interest to the botanist. moreover, the observations of these flowers will always be coupled with those of the appearance and expansion of the leaves, for while some trees produce their flowers shortly before their leaves, and others after, leaves and flowers often come about the same time, and the period of the year covered by the present chapter--from about march to april or early june--will include the bursting of the leaf-buds and the expansion of the leaves of all our deciduous trees and shrubs. opportunities should be made at this season to observe not only the parts of the trees just named, but to note all other characters presented by the trees, such as the nature of the trunk and its bark, the mode of branching, the appearance of the young twigs, and the nature of the soil and situation in which each species is found. our first example is the barberry (_berberis vulgaris_)--the only british representative of its order (_berberaceæ_)--a smooth, pale-green shrub, from four to seven feet high, often seen in woods, thickets, and hedgerows, flowering in may and june. its branches generally droop at the tips, and have triple spines at the base of each leaf or cluster of leaves. the latter are obovate, sharply toothed or even prickly, and often reduced to a cluster of spines. the flowers are pale yellow, in hanging racemes. each has several yellow sepals, the outer of which are very small; six petals, in two whorls, with nectaries at their bases; and six stamens. the stamens at first lie on the petals; but they are very sensitive, and when the filaments are touched by an insect as it seeks the nectar at their bases, the stamens immediately spring upward, throwing off their pollen, and often depositing some on the insect's back. it is thus possible that the cross-pollination of the flowers is greatly aided by the insect, especially as it will often happen that the same part of its back which has been touched by the elastic stamen will come in contact with the stigma of another flower. [illustration: the barberry.] the sycamore, also called the great maple and the false plane (_acer pseudo-platanus_--order _aceraceæ_), although not really a british tree, has probably found a home here for nearly five centuries. it has been named the false plane on account of its having been mistaken for, and called, the plane, which tree it somewhat resembles in the form of the leaf, as well as in the character of the smooth, thin bark that peels off, giving the tree a patchy appearance. it should be noted, however, that the leaves of the plane are arranged alternately, while those of the sycamore are in opposite pairs; also that the fruits of the former are in pendulous balls while those of the latter are winged, and generally in two parts. [illustration: the spindle tree.] the sycamore grows to a height of from forty to fifty feet and flowers in may or early june, some time after the appearance of the leaves. the leaves are simple and cut into five lobes, with a palmate venation and irregularly toothed margins. the flowers are small, yellowish green, and produced in graceful, pendulous racemes. each one is about a quarter of an inch in diameter, with five narrow sepals, five narrower petals, eight stamens, and a two-lobed, flattened, hairy ovary which develops into a pair of 'keys' or samaras, with wings about an inch and a half long. the maple (_acer campestre_) is a much smaller tree, with a very rugged, corky bark. in woods it often reaches a height of fifteen to twenty feet, though it produces flowers and fruit long before it is fully grown; and it is often seen, more or less trimmed and stunted, among hedgerow shrubs. its leaves are opposite, two to four inches wide, on slender stalks, palmately veined, and divided to about the middle into five obtuse, entire or crenate lobes. the greenish flowers are much like those of the sycamore, and appear at the same time, but grow in loose, erect, axillary racemes; and the wings of the fruit always spread horizontally in a straight line. on p. is a photograph of a twig of this tree in fruit. the spindle tree (_euonymus europæus_), the only british member of the order _celastraceæ_, is a moderately common wood and hedgerow shrub which is usually from four to ten feet high, when untrimmed, bearing yellowish-green flowers during may and june. its branches are smooth, green and angular; and its leaves are opposite, shortly-stalked, oval, acute, finely toothed, with a shining surface. the flowers are usually from three to five together in loose axillary clusters. they have a small, flat calyx of four short sepals; four spreading petals, about a sixth of an inch long; four stamens, about half the length of the petals; and an ovary of from three to five cells embedded in the fleshy disc. the fruits are very pretty, and often form a conspicuous feature of the hedgerow during late summer. they are lobed capsules which open at the angles, exposing the bright orange mace that encloses the seeds. several of the prettiest of our trees and shrubs belong to the order _rosaceæ_, and among these we may name the dwarf cherry, bird cherry, gean, sloe, bullace, hawthorn, wild pear, crab apple, service tree, white beam tree, and mountain ash. the first of these, known variously as the wild cherry, dwarf cherry, and red cherry (_prunus cerasus_), grows from four to eight feet high, and bears white flowers, in almost sessile umbels, during may and early june. its bark is of a reddish colour, and numerous suckers arise from its root. the leaves are oval-oblong, smooth, firm, and nearly erect; and the fruit is round, juicy, and red. although in the wild state the fruit is very acid, this is the tree from which our sweet, cultivated cherries have been derived. in order to distinguish this from other similar species, it should be noted that the tube of the calyx is _not_ contracted at its mouth. the bird cherry (_p. padus_) is found principally in north england, where it is moderately common in parts. it is larger than the last, often reaching a height of fifteen feet. its leaves are narrow, somewhat egg-shaped, smooth, with a doubly-serrate margin. the flowers, which appear in may or june, are white, and arranged in pendulous racemes; and the fruit is oval, almost black, and bitter. [illustration: the wild cherry.] another wild cherry, generally known as the gean (_p. avium_), is still larger, sometimes reaching a height of thirty feet, and is not uncommon in woods and hedges. the bark is smooth; the leaves abruptly pointed, soft, drooping, and downy beneath; and the beautiful white flowers are in almost sessile umbels. the calyx-tube of this species is contracted at the mouth, and the fruit is either red or black, heart-shaped, and bitter. the leaves turn to a deep red colour in the autumn. among the earliest flowers of spring are the white blossoms of the sloe or blackthorn (_prunus spinosa_), which appear in march and april, some time before the leaves. the shrub grows from four to eight feet high, has a blackish bark, and numerous branches, the smallest of which terminate in hard, rigid thorns. the leaves are ovate, finely-toothed, smooth, stalked, with small, free stipules. the flowers are small, shortly-stalked, with a free, deciduous calyx of five lobes; five spreading petals; from fifteen to twenty stamens; and an ovary which ripens to an almost black, juicy, acrid drupe, about half an inch in diameter, containing a hard stone, and covered with a bluish bloom. this shrub is very common in thickets and hedgerows. the bullace (_prunus insititia_), sometimes regarded as a variety of _p. spinosa_, is a very similar bush, growing in similar situations, and flowering at the same time; but its bark is brown, and the branches less spiny. its leaves, also, are downy beneath; and the flowers, which appear at the same time as the leaves, are in pairs, on downy stalks. the fruit is about double the size of that of the last species, either dark or yellow in colour, less acrid, and drooping. the above two species are the origins of the damsons and plums of our fruit gardens. the may or hawthorn (_cratægus oxyacantha_) is so well known that there would be no necessity to describe it, were it not for the fact that, being so familiar, its distinguishing characters are liable to be overlooked. it is a much-branched shrub, with many of the branches modified into protective spines. the leaves are simple, smooth, deeply-lobed and obtuse, have deciduous stipules, and appear before the flowers. the flowers are generally white, sweetly-scented, and arranged in corymbs. there are five sepals and five petals, and the numerous stamens have pink anthers producing brown pollen. the carpels, one to three in number, are enclosed in the calyx-tube; and the fruit is a bright red pome with a bony core. the wild pear (_pyrus communis_) is occasionally met with in woods and hedgerows, where its white flowers may be seen in april or may. the leaves of this tree are simple, elliptical, and serrate; and the smaller branches often terminate in a spine. the flowers are about an inch in diameter, and arranged in corymbs. they have distinct styles--a feature which serves to distinguish the blossom from that of the wild apple; and the fruit, which tapers towards the base, is a five-chambered, woody pome, with a horny core. two varieties of this species occur, one with the base of the fruit conical, and the other with the base rounded. the crab apple (_p. malus_) is very similar in general appearance, but has no spines; and the flowers, which are in sessile umbels, are white, with delicate shades of pink. the styles, also, are united below; and the fruit is globular, yellow or reddish, concave at the insertion of the stalk, very acid, and five-chambered. this tree is common in hedgerows as well as in woods, and flowers during may or early june. [illustration: the crab apple.] in the woods and hedges of south england we commonly meet with the service tree (_p. torminalis_)--a small tree with downy twigs, and smooth leaves with from six to ten triangular, serrate lobes. its flowers are small, white, and arranged in compound cymes. they bloom in april and may; and in the autumn their place is occupied by small, green fruits, spotted with brown, with a two-chambered, brittle core. the white beam (_p. aria_) is a small tree, commonly found on the outskirts of woods on chalky or limestone soils, which might be confused with the last species. it has large, irregularly-lobed leaves, white and downy beneath, with serrate edges. the general form of the leaf is egg-shaped, while that of the service tree is cordate. the corymbs of white flowers bloom in april; and the fruit, though much like that of _p. torminalis_, is spotted with _red_. there are no less than four varieties of this tree, distinguished mainly by the forms of the leaves, the serration of their edges, and the number of lateral veins. [illustration: the mountain ash.] we have yet another representative of the rose order in the mountain ash, rowan, or fowler's service tree (_p. aucuparia_), which is common in mountainous woods, and supplies an edible fruit. it is a very graceful and beautiful tree, with a smooth greyish bark; and pinnate leaves with from thirteen to seventeen serrate leaflets, downy on the under side. the flowers are small, of a creamy white colour, in large corymbs. they bloom in may and june; and later in the year their place is occupied by the scarlet globular fruits, with a yellow pulp, enclosing from two to four chambers. the black currant (_ribes nigrum_), of the order _grossulariaceæ_, or sometimes included in the _saxifragaceæ_, is sometimes found wild in moist woods, flowering in april or may. it is well known as a garden shrub, and may be easily recognised by the characteristic odour emitted from its stems and leaves when bruised. in some northern woods the red currant (_r. rubrum_) is also found wild. the wayfaring tree or mealy guelder rose (_viburnum lantana_--order _caprifoliaceæ_) is moderately common in the woods and hedges of dry districts, especially on calcareous soils. it grows from ten to twenty feet high, and flowers during may and june. its young shoots are covered with star-like hairs, which give them a characteristic mealy or downy appearance. the leaves are simple, elliptical-cordate, serrate, without stipules, and are downy beneath. the flowers are small, white, perfect, and arranged in terminal cymes. in late summer the tree is rendered conspicuous by its _flattened_ berries, which become scarlet as they ripen and afterwards turn black. a photograph of a twig in fruit is given on p. . the ash tree (_fraxinus excelsior_--order _oleaceæ_) is easily recognised at a distance, either in summer or winter, by the graceful curves of the lower branches, which droop, and then bend upward at their extremities; also, on a closer inspection, by the light ashy colour of the smooth bark of the twigs, and the large, black, triangular, terminal buds. the leaves are pinnate, with from nine to seventeen oblong-lanceolate, sessile, serrate leaflets. the flowers appear before the leaves in april and may, in dense clusters. they have no perianth: some consist only of an ovary, some only of two dark purple stamens, while others are perfect flowers with both ovary and stamens. some trees have male blossoms only, and therefore produce no fruit; others bear dense tufts of pendulous, winged fruits which are ripe in october (p. ), but often remain on the tree till the following spring. the wing of the fruit is slightly twisted, and thus, when the fruit is detached, it falls with a slow, spinning motion that allows it to be carried some distance by the wind, reaching the ground with its seed-end downwards. the seed does not germinate until the second spring. a variety of the ash occurs with simple leaves. very early in the spring--february to april--we may often see the spurge laurel (_daphne laureola_) in flower in woods and copses. this is an erect, smooth shrub, from two to four feet high, with a few erect branches bearing at their summits crowded clusters of thick, glossy, narrow, evergreen leaves. its flowers, of a yellowish green colour, are in drooping, axillary clusters among the leaves. they have a tubular, inferior perianth, with four spreading lobes; eight stamens inserted in the top of the tube; and a free ovary of one cell, containing a single ovule. the perianth falls early; and the ovary afterwards becomes a berry-like fruit with a single stone. [illustration: the spurge laurel.] another similar shrub, known as the mezereon (_daphne mezereum_), is found in similar situations, and flowers at the same time, but it may be known by its deciduous leaves, and by its pale red flowers arranged in threes on the side of the stem. these two species are the only british representatives of the order _thymelaceæ_. two species of elm are common in our woods and hedgerows. the small-leaved or common elm (_ulmus campestris_), and the wych elm (_u. montana_). both are distinguished by their thick, furrowed, corky bark; and their rough oval-cordate leaves with unequal sides. they are often placed in the same order (_urticaceæ_) as the well-known stinging nettles, but some authorities form a distinct order for these two species alone, under the name of _ulmaceæ_. the common elm is not indigenous, but was introduced into our country by the romans. it is, however, one of our commonest trees, and is especially abundant in the south. the midrib of the leaf is covered below with irritating, glandular hairs, somewhat resembling those of nettles in structure and function; and the stipules are deciduous, falling early in the season. the flowers are perfect, appearing before the leaves in march and april, and are in small, dense clusters, principally on the topmost branches. each flower has a little, bell-shaped, persistent perianth; a superior ovary with two styles; and four or five stamens with black anthers. the fruits are very thin oval samaras with the seeds above the centre, but they seldom ripen in our country. they are produced in such abundance that the ground is often almost completely covered with them when they fall. botanists recognise several varieties of this species, but these differ so slightly from one another that they are barely distinguishable. the common elm throws off a large number of suckers from its roots, often producing a dense undergrowth round its bole. [illustration: the elm in flower.] the wych elm is a native of our country, and is also very common, but it occurs principally in the woods of the north. it is very similar in general appearance to the last species, which it also resembles in having several barely distinguishable varieties; but it generally attains a much greater girth, and does not throw off such an abundance of suckers from its roots. its twigs are downy; and the leaves, which are larger than those of _u. campestris_, are irregularly doubly serrate, with hairs on the prominent ribs of the under side, and are arranged in two straight rows, one on each side of the twig. the flowers are very similar to those of the common elm; and the fruit is a broad oblong or almost round samara, with the seed in the _centre_. both species are pollinated by the wind; and, as is the case with wind-pollinated flowers generally, the stamens protrude well out of the flower, and produce abundance of pollen. [illustration: the oak in flower.] four of our forest trees belong to the order _cupuliferæ_; these are the oak, beech, hornbeam and hazel. the first of them--the oak (_quercus robur_)--is easily recognised in the winter by its deeply-furrowed, corky bark, its zigzag, spreading branches, and the clusters of oval buds at the tips of the twigs. in summer it may be known at once by the oval, sinuate leaves with blunt lobes. the flowers of the oak appear with the leaves in april or may; they are imperfect, but both male and female blossoms appear on the same tree. the former are in slender, drooping, interrupted catkins; and each flower has ten stamens. the latter are in clusters of a few only, and each separate flower is enclosed in a cupule of overlapping scales. the ovary has three cells, and contains six ovules; but, as a rule, only one ovule of each flower is fertilised. sometimes, however, two, three, or more of the ovules become fertilised, thus producing an acorn which will give rise to as many separate seedling trees. at times we meet with an oak nearly every acorn of which contains two or more ovules. this tree is remarkable for the number of insects which feed on its leaves, and also for the number of different species of gall-flies which produce galls on its leaves and stems. two well-marked varieties occur: one--_pedunculata_--with sessile leaves and long flower stalks; and the other--_sessiliflora_--with stalked leaves and short flower-stalks. [illustration: the beech in fruit.] the beech (_fagus sylvatica_) is readily recognised during winter and early spring by its smooth, thin, olive-grey bark, and its long tapering, pointed, brown buds. the expanding buds have already been mentioned (p. ) as of special interest as regards the fan-like folding of the young leaves, and the arrangement for preventing undue loss of moisture while the epidermis is as yet very thin and permeable. the leaves of this tree are ovate, smooth and glossy, with strongly-marked parallel veins branching from the midrib. when young they are very silky, but later the fine, silky hairs are seen only on the slightly-toothed margin, and even these disappear as the season advances. the flowers are imperfect, and appear in april or early may. the staminate catkins are of a dark purple-brown colour, rounded and pendulous, with from eight to forty slender stamens having exposed, yellow anthers. the pistillate flowers are grouped in little clusters of from two to four, each one having three stigmas, and being surrounded by a four-lobed prickly cupule which afterwards forms a closed case. the fruits are three-cornered nuts, enclosed in the hardened cupules which split longitudinally, when ripe, into four valves that are lined with soft, silky hairs. the hornbeam (_carpinus betulus_) is a much smaller tree, more or less abundant in the damp, clayey woods of the south. its bark is smooth or slightly furrowed, of a light greyish colour, and its leaves are elliptical-ovate, with a doubly-serrate margin and acute point. the arrangement of the principal veins is the same as that of the beech, and the young leaves are similarly plaited in the bud, but the expanded leaves are broader at the base than those of the beech, are rougher, and are permanently hairy on the under surface. as with the beech, the leaves assume very pleasing tints in the autumn, turning first yellow, and then through shades of orange to brown; and, in sheltered woods, many of them remain on the tree throughout the winter. the flowers appear in may and early june, and are imperfect, male and female flowers being in separate catkins, but on the same tree. the staminate catkins are pendulous and leafy, each flower having oval, acute bracts, and from three to twelve stamens with forked filaments and hairy anthers. the pistillate flowers are in erect catkins and are arranged in pairs. their outer bracts are shed early, but the inner bracts or _bracteoles_, which are three-lobed, grow very large as the fruits ripen, at which time, also, the whole catkin becomes pendulous. each flower has a two-chambered ovary, and two styles; but only one cell develops, and thus the fruits, each with only one seed, lie on the bases of the leafy bracteoles which aid in their dispersion by the wind. our last example of the _cupuliferæ_ is the well-known hazel (_corylus avellana_), which is generally found in trimmed hedges and among the undergrowth of woods. its bark on the trunk and larger branches is grey; but brown, hairy, and dotted with glands, on the young shoots. the leaves are roundish, slightly cordate and unsymmetrical, with a sharp apex and an irregularly-serrate edge; and, when young, are longitudinally plaited in the bud. the flowers appear before the leaves, and are mature in march or early april, but the early stages of the catkins may be observed on the tree throughout the winter, and even in the preceding autumn. the staminate catkins are pendulous, from one to two inches in length when in full bloom, and are commonly known to country children as 'lambs-tails.' they are of a bright yellow colour, and each flower has from four to eight stamens, with hairy anthers that produce abundance of pollen. the pistillate catkins are small, oval, and sessile, hardly to be distinguished from the foliage buds until they protrude their bright crimson stigmas. the minute flowers are enclosed in overlapping bracts which afterwards form the leafy cupules of the large woody nuts; and each one has a two-celled ovary and two styles. our forest trees include three representatives of the order _betulaceæ_--the common birch, the dwarf birch, and the alder. the first of these, the common birch, silver birch, or lady of the woods (_betula alba_), is at once recognised by its smooth, silver-white bark, which peels off in horizontal strips; its copper-brown branches; and its very slender, drooping twigs. the leaves are small, rhomboid or triangular, with an irregularly doubly-serrate margin, a sharp apex, and veins very prominent on the under side. they are also provided with long stalks which, together with the slender character of the weeping twigs, allow them to be moved by the slightest breeze. the male and female flowers are in separate catkins, the former of which may be seen on the tree throughout the winter, but do not bloom until april or may. both are at first erect, but the staminate catkins droop as they mature, and shed abundance of yellow pollen. the flowers have three-lobed, deciduous, scale-like bracts; the male ones consist of two stamens with forked filaments; and the females of a flattened, two-celled ovary. the female catkins droop as they ripen, each one producing a large number of minute, one-seeded and broadly-winged fruits which are easily dispersed by the wind. two varieties of this tree occur, one with the leaves and twigs covered with downy hairs, and the other with leaves of an oval-cordate form. the dwarf birch (_b. nana_) is a mere shrub, seldom exceeding two feet in height, and is to be found only in some of the mountainous districts of scotland. it has rounded, crenate leaves, with short stalks; and the wings of the fruit are very narrow. the alder (_alnus glutinosa_) is common in wet woods, and especially along the banks of streams in wooded valleys. some of the mountain streams of the west of england, wales, and scotland, are bordered with almost continuous lines of alder for miles together. this tree has a very dark grey bark, and the young branches are more or less triangular in form. the leaves are round, with a wedge-shaped base, and are green on both sides. they have very short stalks, are very blunt, and have a wavy, serrate margin. when very young they are hairy and sticky to the touch; hence the specific name of _glutinosa_. the catkins appear before the leaves, and are mature in march or april. the staminate catkins are pendulous, and much like those of the birch; but the flowers have red scales and four stamens. the pistillate catkins are short and erect, and each flower has a fleshy scale within a reddish-brown, woody bract. the fruits are shed in the autumn, but the thickened woody bracts of the female catkin remain on the tree till, and even after, the flowers of the following spring are in bloom. coming now to the order _salicaceæ_, we have to deal with the poplars, of which we have several species, all more or less common, and largely planted in cultivated ground. our first example is the white poplar (_populus alba_), a large tree frequently seen in abundance in most woods. it has a smooth, grey bark, spreading branches, downy shoots and buds, and it throws off many suckers from its roots. the leaves are roundish, approaching a heart-shape, except those of the young shoots, which are divided more or less deeply into five lobes; and they are covered below by a white cottony down. the flowers are imperfect, and the male and female catkins, produced on different trees, are mature in march or april. the male catkins are three or four inches long, and each flower has from six to ten stamens, with red anthers. the female catkins are much shorter, and its flowers have divided stigmas, with long, narrow, yellow segments arranged like a cross. the ovaries ripen into capsules which split open in july, setting free seeds which are provided with cottony filaments; and the seeds often fall in such abundance as to almost completely cover the ground beneath the tree. the grey poplar (_p. canescens_) grows in similar situations, and flowers at the same time. its leaves are roundish, with a waved and toothed margin, and are covered beneath with a slight coating of grey down. those of the youngest shoots are more or less lobed. in this species the two stigmas are purple, wedge-shaped, and divided into from two to four lobes. a third species--the aspen (_p. tremula_) receives its specific name from the tremulous movements of its leaves, which swing with a rotary movement when disturbed even by the slightest breeze. this characteristic is common, to a greater or lesser degree, to all the species of this genus, and is due to the peculiar nature of the leafstalks, which are long, and flattened in a plane at right angles to that of the blade of the leaf. the aspen has a grey bark, spreading branches, and downy shoots. the leaves are nearly round, with a sharp point and a serrate margin. when young they are downy above and beneath, but become smooth later. the catkins are very dense, and the flowers of the female tree have two divided stigmas. the black poplar (_p. nigra_) and the lombardy poplar (_p. fastigiata_), though very common, are not natives of this country. the former is a large, spreading tree, and the latter is readily distinguished by its tall, pyramidal form, with all its branches directed upward. although these two trees are so very unlike in general appearance, yet they resemble one another so closely in the form of the leaves and the character of the flowers that they are sometimes regarded as two varieties of the same species. in both the leaves are very variable in form, being either triangular, rhombic, or nearly circular, with rounded teeth. both have smooth shoots, and sticky buds; and their catkins are not so dense as in the other members of the genus. the leaves also are smooth on both surfaces except when young, at which stage they are slightly downy beneath. the male catkins are two or three inches long, of a deep red colour; and, since they appear before the leaves, are very conspicuous. the female catkins are much shorter and erect, and the ripe capsular fruits burst in june, setting free seeds which are covered with a cottony down. _p. nigra_ has a furrowed grey bark, rendered still more irregular by prominent swellings, and it rarely produces suckers. _p. fastigiata_, on the other hand, often produces numerous suckers, and its trunk generally has a rough, furrowed, and twisted appearance. it is interesting to note that the female of the latter does not occur in our country. the tree was introduced by means of suckers, and it appears certain that suckers of the male tree only were brought over for this purpose. we conclude this chapter by a brief description of the two native conifers of our woods--the scotch fir or scots pine (_pinus sylvestris_) and the yew (_taxus baccata_). the former is very well known, for while its real home is the elevated parts of the north, it has been planted more or less in most southern districts; and it is readily distinguished from other forest trees by its general form, as well as by the nature of its leaves, and by its 'cones.' it should be noted, however, that several similar species, which may be confused with the scots pine, have been introduced into our country, but descriptions of these can hardly be included here. [illustration: the scots pine with the cones of two seasons.] the bark of the scots pine is rough, of a reddish-brown colour, and peels off in thick scales. its trunk reaches a diameter of three or four feet, and it often grows to a height of over one hundred feet. the leaves are long, slender, rigid, grooved above, and always arranged in pairs. when young they are of a bright green colour, but turn to a dark green later, and remain on the tree for two years or more. the male and female flowers grow on the same tree, and are mature in may or june. the male catkins are only about a quarter of an inch in diameter, but are collected into conspicuous spikes, and shed an abundance of pale yellow pollen. the female catkins are in the form of egg-shaped cones, tapering to a point. the carpels of the flowers do not enclose the seeds, but are thick scales beneath which the seeds lie. the cone is two or three inches in length, and takes about eighteen months to ripen, so that the cones of two successive years will generally be found on the tree at the same time. when ripe, the scales are woody and very hard, and as they separate, the winged, naked seeds are set free and dispersed by the wind. the tree has usually a very weather-beaten appearance, due to the fact that the lower branches die as the height increases, and are then more easily detached in stormy weather. [illustration: the yew in fruit.] the yew is a native of mountainous woods, but has been planted largely in other situations. it is an evergreen tree, with a dark brown, fibrous bark; and although it never grows to any great height--seldom exceeding fifty feet, it often has a girth of from twenty to thirty feet, and reaches an age of fifteen hundred or two thousand years. the leaves are very crowded, about one inch in length, and arranged in two rows along the stem. they are linear, pointed, of a dark glossy green above, and lighter below. the flowers are small, sessile, situated in the axils of the leaves, and appear in march or april. the male flower consists of from five to eight anthers, below which is a whorl of overlapping scales. the female is much smaller, and is composed of a fleshy disc with a small ovule at the top and scales below. after fertilisation the ovule enlarges into a green seed, and the disc, which almost completely surrounds it, develops into a roundish, sweet, fleshy cup, about half an inch in diameter, of a bright rose-red colour and of a beautiful waxy appearance. the leaves of the yew are poisonous, but the fruits are quite harmless. a variety of this tree occurs of a pyramidal form, with scattered leaves and an oblong fruit. it should be noted that while the male and female flowers of the yew generally grow on separate trees, the both are occasionally found on the same tree. vii waysides and wastes in spring in the present chapter we shall consider a number of wild flowers that are to be found by the waysides, including banks and hedgerows, and in waste places, during the spring months. our first example is the celandine (_chelidonium majus_), of the poppy family (order _papaveraceæ_), generally spoken of as the _greater_ celandine in order to distinguish it from the lesser celandine (p. ), which belongs to the _ranunculaceæ_. this plant is moderately common in shady hedgerows and waste places, grows to a height of from one to two feet, and flowers from may to july or august. it has a yellow, pungent, poisonous sap. the leaves are pinnate, with an odd leaflet at the tip, of a glaucous green colour; and all the leaflets are bluntly lobed. the flowers are yellow, from three-quarters to an inch in diameter, and are arranged in long-stalked umbels. as in the poppies, there are two sepals which fall early, and four petals which are crumpled in the bud. there are numerous stamens, attached below the superior ovary; and the latter ripens into a pod-like capsule of one chamber, about an inch and a half in length, which splits, when ripe, into two valves. the order _cruciferæ_ is well represented by the wayside and on waste ground during the spring months, and the reader will do well to note the general characters of the flowers of this order (p. ), unless already acquainted with them, before attempting to identify the species here described. our first example--the shepherd's purse (_capsella bursa-pastoris_) is a well-known weed, often troublesome in our gardens, and may be seen in bloom from february to october. it is an erect herb, from six to eighteen inches high, which may be identified at once by reference to our illustration. the small white flowers are in lengthening racemes, and are often made less conspicuous by the conversion of the four petals into stamens. this weed is easily distinguished from all the other plants of the order by the form of the fruit, which is triangular and inversely heart-shaped. when ripe, it splits into two boat-shaped, keeled valves, which separate from a central membrane to which the seeds are attached. [illustration: the shepherd's purse.] the common scurvy grass (_cochlearia officinalis_) is to be found chiefly on the sea shore, but it often extends for miles inland, especially along the banks of the estuaries of rivers. it is a smooth, succulent plant, from four to eight inches high. the little white flowers have spreading petals, and are arranged in a short raceme; and the fruit is globular or oval, nearly a quarter of an inch long, pointed at the top, with several seeds in each cell. this plant commences to flower in may, and continues in bloom until august. the common whitlow grass (_draba verna_) is a very small and inconspicuous plant, abundant on banks and hedgerows, bearing minute, white flowers in april and may. it has a cluster of narrow, toothed, hairy, radical leaves, from a quarter to half an inch long, that spread horizontally close to the ground; and a leafless stem, from one to four inches long, bearing a raceme of flowers on slender pedicels. the petals of the flowers are deeply notched; and the fruits are oblong, about a quarter of an inch long and half that width, containing many seeds. [illustration: the scurvy grass.] [illustration: the common whitlow grass.] two species of winter cress (genus _barbarea_) are common in waste land--the common winter cress or yellow rocket (_b. vulgaris_), and the early winter cress or american cress (_b. præcox_). the former is an erect plant, from one to two feet high, with numerous, small, yellow flowers in a loose raceme, blooming from may to august. the radical leaves are pinnately divided, with a large, rounded, terminal lobe, and side lobes becoming smaller towards the base; and the upper leaves are oval and irregularly toothed. all the leaves are smooth and glossy, and of a deep green colour. the fruits are short, and thicker than the pedicels. a double variety of this flower is commonly cultivated in flower gardens. [illustration: the yellow rocket.] the early winter cress is a very similar plant, flowering at the same time, but is of a more slender habit, and has narrower leaves, the upper of which are pinnately divided. the flowers are also larger, and arranged in a closer raceme; and the fruit is longer, but not thicker than the pedicel. this species is cultivated as a salad, and frequently occurs as a garden escape. two species of _sisymbrium_ are also very common--the garlic mustard (_s. alliaria_), also known as sauce alone and jack-by-the-hedge; and the thale cress or wall cress (_s. thaliana_). the first named is one of the commonest of our hedgerow flowers. it grows to a height of one or two feet, and bears, from april to june, a corymbose cluster of pure white flowers, each about a quarter of an inch in diameter. the stem and leaves, when crushed, emit a distinct odour of garlic. the former is slightly branched; and the leaves are large, stalked, broadly cordate, with many prominent veins, coarsely toothed, and of a delicate green colour. the fruits are erect, about two inches long, on short pedicels. the thale cress grows on dry banks and walls, and displays its minute white flowers from april to the end of the summer. the stem is erect, slender and branched, from six to ten inches in height; and the leaves, which are nearly all radical, are simple, oblong-lanceolate, toothed and downy. the fruits of this species are erect, narrow, with four obscure angles, and about twice as long as their stalks. the rape or cole-seed (_brassica napus_) is a cruciferous weed commonly occurring in cultivated ground, and often cultivated for its seeds. it grows from one to two feet high, and bears corymbose clusters of yellow flowers during may and june. its root is fusiform (spindle-shaped), and all its leaves are smooth and of a sea-green colour. the lower leaves are lyrately pinnate, with toothed edges; and the stem leaves are ovate-lanceolate, acute, embracing the stem. the pods spread as they ripen. the wild turnip (_brassica rapa_) is a very similar plant, producing its yellow flowers from april to july. its root is tuberous and fleshy. the lower leaves are hairy and rough, and not of the glaucous green characterising the last species, while the upper leaves are glaucous and smooth. the sweet violet (_viola odorata_)--the favourite flower of wayside banks--is common in many parts, and is generally very easily distinguished from other similar species of the order (_violaceæ_) by its pleasing fragrance. it has a short root-stock, and, usually, long creeping runners. at the top of the stock is a cluster of long-stalked leaves, broadly heart-shaped in form, blunt, with crenate margins and a slightly downy surface. at the base of the leafstalks are very narrow, entire stipules; and from among these arise the slender flower-stalks, of about the same length as those bearing the leaves, with a pair of small bracts a little above the middle. the flowers are solitary, drooping, of a violet, lilac, or white colour, with obtuse sepals; a short, blunt, straight spur to the lower petal; and a hooked, pointed stigma. the conspicuous, scented flowers with which we are so well acquainted, bloom from march to april; but all through the summer the plant bears small petalless flowers that produce the seeds. of the order _caryophyllaceæ_ our first example is the ciliated pearlwort (_sagina ciliata_), a small, creeping plant, flowering in may and june in dry places. the leaves are very small, narrow, ciliated, terminating abruptly in a sharp point; and the two of each pair are united at their bases. the flowers are very small and stalked; and the petals are either very minute or absent. the sepals, stamens, styles, and valves of the capsule, are each four; and the sepals lie close against the capsule. the procumbent pearlwort (_s. procumbens_), also found in dry places, is a similar little plant, smooth and prostrate, with very small white flowers that appear in may and bloom till the end of the summer. the peduncles of this species curve backward just after flowering, but become erect afterwards; and the sepals, which are sometimes five in number, are not close against the fruit, as in the last, but spreading. [illustration: the procumbent pearlwort.] the genus _stellaria_ includes some plants with pretty, white, star-like flowers, some of which adorn our hedgerows in early spring. the most conspicuous of these is the greater stitchwort or satin flower (_s. holostea_), the flowers of which are three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and are arranged in loose, leafy cymes. the sepals have no veins, and are about half as long as the petals, which are so deeply cleft that the flower, at first sight, appears to possess ten instead of five. the lesser stitchwort (_s. graminea_) is a very similar flower, common in dry places, blooming from may to august. the plant is smooth, and does not possess the glaucous hue of the last species. the stem is very straggling and slender, from one to three feet long; and the leaves are grass-like, sessile, and acute. the flowers are very similar to those of the greater stitchwort, but are smaller. the sepals have each three veins, and are as long as the petals. [illustration: the greater stitchwort.] the little chickweed (_s. media_), so troublesome in our gardens, belongs to the same genus. its decumbent, branching stem has a longitudinal line of hairs placed alternately on opposite sides from joint to joint; and its ovate, smooth, succulent leaves are shortly pointed, the lower ones having hairy stalks. the little star-like, white flowers grow from the axils of the leaves, and have each five hairy sepals, as long as the deeply-cleft petals, with narrow, membranous margins. these three species of _stellaria_, and, in fact, all the species of the genus, are distinguished by their divided petals and the presence of three styles; but there is another group of flowers in the same order known as the mouse-ear chickweeds (_cerastium_), also with divided petals, but having either four or five styles. [illustration: the chickweed.] three of the species of this group may be included among the spring flowers of waysides. one of these is the broad-leaved or clustered mouse-ear chickweed (_cerastium glomeratum_), which flowers from april to the end of the summer. it has an erect, sticky, hairy stem; and pale green ovate leaves. the little white flowers are tufted, on short stalks, with sepals and petals of equal length. a second--the narrow-leaved mouse-ear chickweed (_c. triviale_)--has a similar but spreading stem; and the leaves are narrow, and of a deep green colour. in this one, too, the sepals and petals are equal; but the former are hairy, and the flower-stalks are longer. the other is the field mouse-ear chickweed (_c. arvense_), which has numerous white flowers, in forked cymes, blooming from april to august. its stem is hairy, prostrate, from six to ten inches long; the leaves very narrow; and the sepals only about half as long as the petals. [illustration: the broad-leaved mouse-ear chickweed.] the pretty wild geraniums, of which there are several species, often form a very attractive feature of the wayside. they are readily recognised as a group by the swollen joints of their stems; the simple, stipuled, lobed leaves; the axillary flowers; and the fruit composed of five distinct carpels, with their five long styles adhering to a long central beak. the flowers have five distinct petals and sepals, and ten stamens, five of which become alternately larger. when the fruit is ripe the five carpels separate, and are raised by the curving of the smooth styles which remain for a time attached to the beak. in early april, and from then to august or september, the dove's-foot crane's-bill (_geranium molle_) may be seen in flower by the wayside. the plant is prostrate, soft and downy, with rounded leaves lobed and cut. the pretty pink or lilac flowers are from a third to half an inch in diameter, with abruptly-pointed sepals and notched petals. this species may be readily distinguished from similar plants of the same genus by the smooth, wrinkled capsules, and smooth seeds. a second species--the jagged-leaved crane's-bill (_g. dissectum_)--is also very common in wastes and by waysides. it is a hairy, rather than a downy plant, with spreading stems from one to two feet long; and displays its bright red, shortly-stalked flowers from april to august. the flowers, which vary from a quarter to half an inch in diameter, have long-pointed sepals and notched petals. [illustration: the dove's-foot crane's-bill.] a third species, also very common, is the herb robert (_g. robertianum_), characterised by a strong odour, and red, hairy, spreading, succulent stems one or two feet long. the leaves are compound, with three or five deeply-divided leaflets, and turn to a bright crimson colour in late summer. the flowers are half an inch or more in diameter, with ovate entire petals, of a pink colour and beautifully veined. the sepals have long points, and are rendered very viscid by glandular hairs. a white-flowered variety of this geranium is occasionally seen. we have now to note four of the spring leguminous plants (order _leguminosæ_)--plants belonging to the pea family, distinguished by their butterfly-like flowers, and, usually, by compound, stipuled leaves. our first example is the black medick or non-such (_medicago lupulina_) which is common in wastes, by the waysides and in pastures. this is a procumbent, spreading plant, with stems from six inches to two feet in length, and leaflets inversely egg-shaped, with finely-toothed edges. the flowers, which appear in april, and continue to bloom till near the end of the summer, are small, yellow, and arranged in dense oblong spikes. the calyx has five teeth, and the pods are kidney-shaped, each with only one seed. [illustration: the jagged-leaved crane's-bill.] in shady grassy or bushy places we may see the crimson vetch or grass vetchling (_lathyrus nissolia_) which, although not common, is rather frequent in the midland and southern counties of england. it is a very slender plant, from one to two feet high, bearing crimson flowers in may and june, and may be identified at once by reference to our illustration. [illustration: the herb robert.] the pretty bird's-foot (_ornithopus perpusillus_) is commonly found on waste ground, more particularly on sandy soils. it has a spreading, prostrate stem, from six to eighteen inches long, and pinnate leaves with from about fifteen to twenty-five elliptical, downy leaflets. the flowers appear to be pink when viewed from a distance; but, when examined closely, are seen to have cream coloured petals that are veined with crimson. they are arranged in heads, of a few flowers each, on long stalks, with a leaf immediately below each head. the pods are curved, and made up of from seven to nine oval, one-seeded joints, with a terminal beak resembling the claw of a bird, so that each cluster of pods has much the appearance of a bird's foot. this plant flowers from april to july. our other example of leguminous flowers is the bush vetch (_vicia sepium_)--a climbing plant with stem two or three feet long, very common in hedges, flowering from april to august. the leaves are pinnate, with from twelve to eighteen oval, blunt leaflets which increase in size towards the base. the flowers are pale purple, and are arranged in axillary racemes of from four to six, on very short peduncles. the style is tufted on one side, and the pods are smooth and erect. we have now to note a flower of the rose order (_rosaceæ_), but since it is common for a beginner to be confused by the general resemblance of some of the flowers of this group to some of the _ranunculaceæ_, it may be well to point out that in the latter the stamens are united to the receptacle of the flower, below the carpels, while in the rose order the stamens are attached around or on the ovary itself. [illustration: the grass vetchling.] the strawberry-leaved cinquefoil or barren strawberry (_potentilla fragariastrum_) is very similar to the wild strawberry, with which it is often confused; but no difficulty will arise if it be noted that the species we are now considering produces no running stems. the barren strawberry is a silky little plant, with a thick, prostrate stem; and, as one of its popular names implies, a ternate leaf resembling that of the wild strawberry. the flowers are white, half an inch or less in diameter, on slender peduncles, with notched petals. this is one of our earliest spring flowers, blooming from february or early march to about the end of may; and is very common on banks, in hedgerows, and in weedy wastes. the tuberous moschatel (_adoxa moschatellina_) is a very inconspicuous but an interesting little plant. it is sometimes placed in the same order (_araliaceæ_) as the ivy, while some botanists regard it as belonging to the honeysuckle family (order _caprifoliaceæ_). it has a scaly, creeping, thick, underground stem or rhizome, and a four-angled aerial stem; and the whole plant emits the scent of musk. the flowers are small, of a yellowish-green colour, and are clustered together into five-flowered, terminal heads. the petals are spreading, the stamens four or five in number, and the fruit is berry-like, with one-seeded chambers. the plant is only four or five inches in height, and though not common, may be found in shady places in many parts. it flowers during april and may. [illustration: the strawberry-leaved cinquefoil.] the white or red-berried bryony (_bryonia dioica_) is a very common hedgerow climber, the only british representative of its order (_cucurbitaceæ_). it has a very thick rootstock; a slender stem, that often reaches a length of ten feet or more; large, bright green, palmate leaves with three, five or seven angular, coarsely-toothed lobes; and long simple or branched tendrils. the flowers are imperfect, the males and females growing on separate plants. the former are of a pale yellow colour, in stalked clusters, each one consisting of a spreading, five-lobed corolla, about half an inch in diameter, and five stamens, one of which is free, while the other four are united in pairs: the females are smaller, generally in pairs, each consisting of a globular ovary with three stigmas, and a superior, five-lobed corolla. the fruit is a scarlet or orange-coloured berry, about a third of an inch in diameter, containing several seeds. the whole plant is clothed with small, white hairs, and contains an acrid sap. time of flowering--may to september. [illustration: the moschatel.] the common beaked parsley (_anthriscus vulgaris_), of the order _umbelliferæ_, is very common by waysides, flowering during may and june. the stem of this plant is smooth and shining, from two to three feet high, slightly swollen at the nodes. the leaves are tri-pinnate, with blunt segments, and slightly hairy on the under side. the white flowers are arranged in compound umbels with short stalks, and the umbels droop before the flowers open. there are no bracts at the base of the main pedicels, but five or six _bracteoles_, with fringed edges, lie at the foot of the secondary pedicels. the fruits are short, ovate, with short beaks and hooked bristles. as with the other members of this genus, the petals have an inflexed lip. this genus includes the chervil or wild beaked parsley (_a. sylvestris_), which is very common in hedges and waysides, flowering from april to june. it grows from three to four feet high, and has tri-pinnate leaves with coarsely-serrated edges. the umbels are terminal, on long stalks. there are no bracts, but about five narrow, ovate bracteoles with fringed edges. the flowers are white; and the fruits are long and narrow, smooth, with short beaks. [illustration: the white bryony, climbing over a bed of nettles.] the garden beaked parsley (_a. cerefolium_) is very similar to the last species, but has only three bracteoles in a whorl, and the umbels are lateral and shortly stalked. also, the fruit, which is of the same form, has a longer beak. this species is not a native, but is often found as a garden escape. it grows to a height of about eighteen inches, and flowers from may to july. our last example of the _umbelliferæ_ is the goutweed, bishop-weed or herb gerard (_Ã�gopodium podagraria_), a rather coarse, erect, smooth plant, from one to two feet high, commonly seen in wayside ditches and other damp places. it was formerly cultivated largely for medicinal purposes, consequently it is to be found chiefly near towns and villages, where it occurs as a garden escape. it has a creeping, aromatic stock; a hollow, grooved stem; large long-stalked, biternate radical leaves, with ovate or narrow, toothed segments, two or three inches long; and smaller stem-leaves with fewer segments. the flowers are greenish white, in umbels of many rays, with few or no primary or secondary bracts; and the fruits are oblong, about a sixth of an inch long, with the two diverging styles curved downward. the plant flowers from may to august. [illustration: the wild beaked parsley.] on dry banks by the wayside we may commonly meet with the crosswort or mugwort (_galium cruciatum_) of the bed-straw family (_rubiaceæ_). it is a prostrate plant, with stem from six to eighteen inches long; and soft, downy, elliptical leaves arranged crosswise in whorls of four. its fragrant little yellow flowers are in whorled, axillary cymes, each cluster having from six to eight blossoms. the lower flowers have stamens and no pistil, and the upper ones pistil only. the fruits are smooth. the time of flowering is from april to june. [illustration: the garden beaked parsley.] composite flowers (order _compositæ_) are mostly summer-bloomers, but three at least are very common by waysides in spring. one of these is the mouse-ear hawkweed (_hieracium pilosella_), a slender plant with leafy runners, rendered silky in appearance by long, soft hairs. the stem is almost leafless, but there are elliptical-lanceolate, entire, radical leaves covered, especially on the under side, by starlike hairs. the yellow heads are solitary, on stalks varying from two to ten inches long. this species flowers from may to august. the second species is the common groundsel (_senecio vulgaris_), which may be seen in bloom throughout the year. though so well known, we think it advisable to call attention to one or two of its characteristic features. the leaves are smooth, deeply cut, toothed, and half clasp the stem. the flower-heads have no ray florets; and the outer bracts are very short, with black tips. from march to april almost all damp places are more or less thickly dotted with the bright yellow flowers of the colt's-foot (_tussilago farfara_); and later, after all the flowers have ceased to bloom, the same places are covered with the large, heart-shaped, angular leaves, four or five inches wide, thickly clothed beneath with a loose, cottony down which is also sparingly scattered over the upper surface. the early flowering stems are rather thick and fleshy, about six inches high, and downy. they bear a number of small, narrow, erect, scale-like leaves, and, at the top, a single flower-head, surrounded by a whorl of narrow bracts, and a few smaller outer bracts. the inflorescence consists of several whorls of narrow, strap-shaped, outer florets, with no stamens; and a few central, tubular, perfect florets. the fruits are cylindrical, with a tuft of long, simple hairs. [illustration: the goutweed.] the speedwells (_veronica_) belong to the order _scrophulariaceæ_. they are all herbs, with simple leaves; slightly irregular flowers with an unequally four-cleft, spreading corolla, the lower lobe of which is smallest; and only two stamens. at least six species of this genus may be found by waysides, in flower during the spring months. one of these--the thyme-leaved speedwell (_veronica serpyllifolia_), is common in most waste places. it is a small plant, with a downy, prostrate stem from three to ten inches long. the leaves are broadly elliptical, slightly crenate, blunt, and somewhat leathery in nature. the flowers are about a quarter of an inch across, of a light blue or lilac colour, striped with dark blue veins; and appear from may to july. they are arranged in several spike-like, many-flowered racemes. the corolla tube is very short; the style long and persistent; and the fruits are inversely-cordate capsules. [illustration: the crosswort.] the common speedwell (_v. officinalis_) is a small plant, with hairy, prostrate stems from two to ten inches in length. it is common in dry places. the leaves are opposite, elliptical, serrate, with short stalks. the pale blue flowers, which are only about a sixth of an inch in diameter, are in many-flowered, axillary, spike-like racemes. the capsules are of the same form as in the last species, but are deeply notched. this species flowers from may to july. the germander speedwell (_veronica chamædrys_) is one of our most beautiful and most abundant spring flowers. it is very common on banks and by roadsides, flowering during may and june. its stem is weak, decumbent, rooting at the base, often considerably more than a foot in length, and remarkable for the line of hairs that changes to alternate sides at each node. a raceme of flowers, much longer than the leaves, arises from several of the nodes. the flowers are bright blue, about half an inch in diameter, with a four-cleft calyx; a deeply four-cleft corolla, the lower lobe of which is narrowest; and two prominent stamens. the fruit is a very broad, flat capsule, notched at the top, narrowed towards the base, splitting into two valves when ripe. [illustration: the colt's-foot in early spring.] [illustration: the germander speedwell.] a fourth species, the wall speedwell (_v. arvensis_), is abundant on walls and dry roadsides. it is a prostrate, downy plant, generally more or less thickly covered with dust, flowering from april to about the end of summer. the stem is from four inches to a foot in length, and two lines of hairs run along the branches. the leaves are oval-cordate, crenate, and slightly stalked. the flowers are very small and inconspicuous, and are frequently almost completely hidden by the crowded upper leaves. they have very short corolla-tubes, and are arranged in loose, terminal, spikelike racemes. the grey field speedwell (_v. polita_) is common in waste places and rough fields, flowering from april to september. its flowers are bright blue, about a quarter of an inch across, solitary, axillary, on stalks which are longer than the leaves. the sepals are broadly oval and pointed, and the petals are all of the same colour. the leaves of this plant are stalked, cordate, and irregularly toothed. our last example of the order is the green field speedwell (_v. agrestis_), also common in fields and by the roadside. it has several prostrate stems, from four to eight inches long; and stalked, cordate leaves with irregularly serrate margins. the flowers are small, about a fifth of an inch across, solitary, axillary, on stalks shorter than the leaves. the sepals are narrow, oblong, and blunt; and the lower petal is white. this species flowers from april to the end of the summer. [illustration: the white dead nettle.] the dead nettles (genus _lamium_, of the order _labiatæ_) may be readily distinguished from the stinging nettles, with which they are often confused, by their square stems, and whorls of showy, lipped flowers. further, these flowers may be recognised from among the others of their own order by the ten-ribbed, bell-shaped calyx; and by the one or two teeth on each side of the lower lip of the corolla. three of this group are very common wayside spring flowers. one is the white dead nettle (_lamium album_), with large, white flowers forming whorls in the axils of the leaves. the leaves of this plant are all stalked, cordate, with a very sharp point, deeply serrate, and often marked with white blotches. the teeth of the calyx are narrow, as long as the tube, with long slender points; and the tube of the corolla is curved, longer than the calyx, gradually widening from below upwards. the two lower stamens are longer than the upper pair, and the anthers are black. the plant varies from six to eighteen inches in height, and flowers from april to september. the red dead nettle (_l. purpureum_) grows to the same height, but has much smaller cordate or kidney-shaped leaves, with blunt apices and crenate edges. the upper ones are very crowded, and often tinged with red; and all the leaves are stalked. the flowers are small, of a red-purple colour (rarely white), in crowded whorls in the axils of the upper leaves. the tube of the corolla is straight, longer than the calyx; and the calyx teeth are spreading. [illustration: the yellow pimpernel.] the third species--the cut-leaved dead nettle (_l. incisum_ or _l. hybridum_)--is not so abundant as the other two, but moderately common on waste land. its leaves, which are all stalked, are very deeply cut in a serrate manner; the lower ones being cordate, while the upper are more triangular. the flowers are of a rose-red colour, in crowded whorls near the top of the stem. the tube of the corolla is _shorter_ than the calyx, and straight; and the teeth of the calyx are about as long as its tube. the plant grows from six to eighteen inches in height, and flowers throughout the whole of spring and summer. another common labiate--the ground ivy (_nepeta glechoma_)--may be seen almost everywhere in the spring, in bloom from march to may. it has a procumbent, creeping stem, and deeply-crenate, kidney-shaped leaves. the flowers are of a blue-purple colour, arranged in whorls of three or four in the axils of the leaves. the calyx has five teeth and fifteen ribs; and the two front stamens are shorter. [illustration: the dog's mercury.] the early field scorpion grass (_myosotis collina_) belongs to the order _boraginaceæ_--a family of (usually) hairy herbs with alternate leaves and one-sided spikes or racemes of showy flowers. the flowers have a five-lobed calyx and corolla, five stamens, and a fruit of four nutlets. it is in the same genus as the familiar forget-me-not, and, in fact, somewhat closely resembles that plant, which is often confused with certain species of scorpion grass. it is a slender, more or less prostrate herb, with blunt oblong leaves; and minute, bright blue flowers which are at first hidden among the leaves, but afterwards exposed by the lengthening of the stem. the flowers have very short pedicels; and are in long, slender, leafless, spikelike racemes, with a single flower some distance down, in the axil of the highest leaf. the popular name of scorpion grass has been given on account of the characteristic arrangement of the flowers when in the bud, these being then tightly coiled in a scorpoid fashion. in order that the present species might be distinguished from allied plants, we should note that the pedicels are shorter than the calyx; that the calyx is furnished with hooked bristles, and is open and swollen when the fruits are formed; also that the tube of the corolla is very short. the early field scorpion grass is very common on dry banks. its stems vary from about four to ten inches long, and the flowers appear during april and may. [illustration: the black bryony in fruit.] the wood loosestrife or yellow pimpernel (_lysimachia nemorum_) of shady waysides and woods is a member of the _primulaceæ_ or primrose family. it is altogether a pretty little plant, much like the scarlet pimpernel in general appearance, but somewhat larger and more glossy. it has a prostrate, spreading stem, often tinged with red; and opposite, oval, acute leaves with short stalks. the flowers are yellow, usually a little more than half an inch in diameter, with a spreading corolla. they are axillary, placed singly on very slender peduncles, and have very narrow sepals. this species flowers from may to august. the perennial or dog's mercury (_mercurialis perennis_), of the _euphorbiaceæ_ or spurge family, is one of our earliest spring flowers, and may be seen in abundance on almost all shady waysides, in bloom from march to may, and growing from six to eighteen inches high. the minute green flowers, which have three sepals and no petals, are in racemes or spikes that grow from the axils of the upper leaves. they are unisexual; the staminate flowers in slender racemes, with several erect stamens; and the pistillate ones in short, few-flowered spikes, with a two-celled ovary, two styles, and a few imperfectly formed stamens. the black bryony (_tamus communis_)--order _dioscoriaceæ_--is a pretty climbing plant, the slender stem of which twines for several feet among the hedgerow trees and shrubs. its leaves are cordate and acute, and change either to a bright yellow or a beautiful bronze colour in the autumn. the flowers, which appear in may and june, are yellowish green, in small clusters; and the fruits are oblong berries, turning to a bright scarlet as the leaves assume their autumn tints. [illustration: the wild arum.] our next flower is the peculiar and interesting wild arum (_arum maculatum_), of the order _araceæ_, also known as lords and ladies, cuckoo pint, and wake robin. it is a very common flower of shady waysides, blooming during april and may. the plant is succulent, with a short, fleshy rhizome; and large, smooth, sagittate leaves that are often spotted with purple. the floral stalk is thick and fleshy, and supports numerous unisexual flowers which are clustered round a central axis or _spadix_ that is prolonged above into a club-shaped appendage. the whole of the spadix is surrounded by a large bract or _spathe_ which is contracted a little distance above its base. the portion of the spathe below the constriction encloses the flowers, and remains permanently closed as long as they are in bloom; but the upper part opens on one side, just before the flowers begin to mature, exposing the club of the spathe. the club is thick and fleshy, and coloured either dull purple, bright red, pink, or yellow. the pistillate flowers are clustered round the bottom of the spadix, and consist of a number of sessile ovaries. above them is a ring of imperfect flowers consisting of styles only, and above these again is the cluster of staminate flowers, with some aborted stamens at the top. after fertilisation has taken place the spathe and the spadix soon wither away, and the ovaries develop into a cluster of large berry-like fruits, each containing a few seeds. these fruits, mounted on the summit of the lengthened, fleshy peduncle, are very conspicuous objects in the autumn hedgerows. the contrivance by which cross-fertilisation is secured in these flowers is particularly interesting:--numbers of little insects (midges) are attracted by the brightly coloured club, and, possibly, also by the foetid odour of the flowers. these creep down the spadix, passing through the narrow neck into the closed compartment below. the neck is more or less obstructed by the upper, abortive, staminate flowers, which consist merely of a few whorls of bristles. since, however, many of these bristles point downwards, they offer but little obstruction to insects as they enter; but prevent their escape. thus, on cutting open the lower part of the spathe, we may frequently find quite a number of midges that have been imprisoned, their bodies covered with pollen that has probably been carried from another arum previously visited. the pistillate flowers are mature first, and thus the imprisoned insects, creeping about in their cell during this early stage of the flower, are sure to bring pollen cells in contact with some of the ripened stigmas. after the work of fertilisation has been accomplished, the anthers ripen, setting free abundance of pollen which now covers the bodies of the insects in the place of that which has been rubbed on to the stigmas. then the abortive stamens, which prevented the escape of the insects, wither; and, at the same time, the neck of the spathe relaxes. thus the prisoners are again set free, and possibly a large proportion of them enter another flower and repeat the process of cross-pollination. the commonest of the early-flowering grasses of the wayside is the annual meadow grass (_poa annua_)--a small tufted species, varying from a few inches to nearly a foot in height. it commences to flower in march, and remains in bloom till the end of the summer. it is represented on plate iii. viii meadows, fields and pastures--spring it is, of course, impossible to draw a hard and fast line between the flowers of spring and those of summer, for not only does each individual species vary in the time of its first appearance, according to the nature of the season, but many of the spring and summer flowers overlap in such a manner that it is difficult to decide which season has the greater claim to each one. in the present chapter, however, we shall include those flowers of our fields and meadows which usually _commence_ to bloom before the beginning of june, even though they may continue to produce blossoms well into the summer. one of the most conspicuous features of the meadows in spring is certainly the abundance of those bright yellow flowers known collectively as the buttercups. but the name of buttercup, standing alone, has no definite, scientific meaning, the name being applied to quite a number of flowers of the _ranunculus_ genus of the order _ranunculaceæ_. the earliest of these is undoubtedly the pilewort or lesser celandine (_ranunculus ficaria_), which appears early in april, and often in such abundance as to cover the ground with its leaves and flowers. this flower is not confined to fields and meadows, but often covers large patches of bank and hedgerow, where, together with the greater stitchwort, it produces a most brilliant show of white and yellow stars. the plant has a small rootstock, with a number of little oblong tubers which are renewed every year, and sometimes a branched, creeping stem. its leaves usually all grow direct from the rootstock, and are stalked, heart-shaped, glossy, with crenate or angled margins. the flower-stalks bear a few small leaves, and a single flower with three sepals, and about eight glossy, oblong, yellow petals. the cluster of carpels in the middle of the flower form a large, globular head. a little later in the season our pastures are bountifully bedecked by two of the most familiar buttercups--the creeping buttercup (_r. repens_) and the bulbous buttercup (_r. bulbosus_), both of which appear early in may. [illustration: the field penny cress.] the former grows from six inches to a foot in height, and may be easily distinguished by its creeping stems, which give off root fibres and produce new plants at every node. the flowering stems of this species are clothed with long hairs, and the leaves are divided into three stalked segments which are lobed and toothed, the middle segment projecting much beyond the other two. the flowers are in loose panicles, on long, furrowed stalks, with five yellowish-green, concave, spreading sepals that are shorter than the petals. the carpels are ovate in form, somewhat flattened, arranged in a globular head; and the fruits are smooth. this plant is abundant almost everywhere, and continues to flower till the end of the summer. the bulbous buttercup is very similar to the last species, but may be known at once by its swollen, bulbous root. its leaves are divided into three segments which are more or less toothed and lobed, and the sepals bend backwards on the peduncle as soon as the flower opens. its carpels are smooth, and form a globular head; and the ripened achenes are also smooth. the plant is very abundant. it flowers from may to august. [illustration: the wild pansy.] coming now to the crucifers, we have first to note the field pennycress (_thlaspi arvense_), which may be recognised at once by reference to our illustration. it is an erect, smooth, plant, from six to twenty inches in height, a common weed in cultivated ground, flowering from may to july. its radical leaves are stalked, and wither early; and the small white flowers are soon followed by round siliquas, about half an inch in diameter, with a broad wing notched at the top. the same order includes the cuckoo flower, lady's smock, or meadow bittercress (_cardamine pratensis_), which is certainly one of our prettiest spring flowers, growing in abundance in most moist meadows, and flowering from april to june. it has a short rootstock, with small, fleshy scales, often so much swollen as to resemble tubers; and the stem is erect, either simple or branched, and a foot or more in height. the leaves are pinnately divided, the leaflets of the lower ones being ovate or round, and those of the upper ones very narrow. the flowers are rather large, white or lilac in colour, with stamens about half as long as the petals, and yellow anthers. the fruits are usually more than an inch in length. [illustration: the ragged robin.] one of the common weeds of cultivated fields is the pretty wild pansy or heartsease (_viola tricolor_), of the order _violaceæ_. the plant may be easily recognised by its resemblance to the garden pansy, which is a variety of the same species. it is very variable, both in regard to its general build, and to the colour and size of the flowers. the plant is either smooth or slightly downy, and its branching stem varies from four to ten inches in length. the leaves are oblong or cordate, with crenate edges; and each one has a large, leafy stipule which is divided into oblong or very narrow lobes. the flowers are coloured with varied proportions of yellow, white, and purple; and the lower petal, which is the broadest, is usually purple at the base. this species flowers from may to the end of the summer. in damp meadows, and especially near ditches and in marshy ground, we meet with the ragged robin (_lychnis flos-cuculi_ of the order _caryophyllaceæ_). this is an erect plant, from one to two feet high, with a viscid stem that is slightly downy and never much branched. the leaves are few and small, the upper ones sessile and the lower stalked. the pretty red or rose-coloured flowers are arranged in a very loose terminal panicle, and have no scent. the petals are each divided into four very narrow lobes, of which the two middle ones are longest; and the fruit is a broad oval capsule, which opens, when ripe, by five teeth. the flowers appear first in may, and continue to bloom till the end of june or the beginning of july. several spring-flowering leguminous plants (order _leguminosæ_) are to be found in fields and meadows, and of these we will first notice the spotted medick (_medicago maculata_), generally easily distinguished by the dark spot in the centre of the leaflets of its trifoliate leaves. it is a smooth plant, with procumbent, branching stems varying from six inches to two feet in length. there are fine, spreading hairs on the leafstalks, and the leaflets are obcordate and toothed. at the base of each leafstalk there is a pair of toothed stipules. the small, yellow flowers are in short, dense racemes, only a few in each cluster; and the pods are little compact spirals, almost globular in general form, with three or four ridges, and a central furrow broken by a number of fine, curved prickles. the plant is abundant in the southern counties of england and ireland, where it grows on pasture-land, flowering from may to near the end of the summer. the netted medick (_m. denticulata_), of the same genus, is a similar plant, flowering during the same period, and often seen in the southern and eastern counties of england, especially in fields near the coast. its prostrate stems are of the same length as those of the spotted medick; and its leaves are also very similar, but the stipules are bordered with very fine teeth. the flowers are in small, yellow heads; and the pod forms a loose, flat spiral of two or three coils, deeply netted on the surface, and bordered with curved prickles. we have next to note several species of trefoils (genus _trifolium_), all distinguished by trifoliate, compound leaves, so familiar to us in the clovers; and stipules which adhere to the leafstalks. their flowers are in dense clusters, and each one has a five-toothed calyx, and an irregular corolla of narrow petals which usually remains, in a withered condition, around the ripening pod. there are ten stamens, the upper one free, while the remaining nine, united by their filaments, form a split tube round the ovary. the pod sometimes contains only one seed, and never more than four. the subterranean trefoil (_t. subterraneum_), which is abundant on the dry pastures of south england, is characterised by a stem, from six to eighteen inches long, which is underground for the greater part. the visible portion of the plant is small, and more or less covered with long, spreading hairs. the leaves are on long stalks, with obovate leaflets, and broad stipules. the flowers vary in colour from white to pink or crimson, and are usually in hairy clusters of from two to four. as the fruit ripens, the peduncle lengthens and bends downward. at the same time the calyx turns back on the stalk, exposing short fibres, each with five spreading teeth which fold over the fruit. the flowers appear during may and june. the dutch clover or white clover (_t. repens_) is one of the most familiar of the trefoils. it is very abundant in english pastures, and has been introduced into ireland, where it is now often selected as the national emblem in the place of the wood sorrel (p. ), which is regarded by many as the original 'true shamrock.' the whole plant is smooth or slightly hairy; and its creeping stem, from two to twenty inches in length, sends down root-fibres from its nodes. the leaves have long stalks, with stipules at the base; and the leaflets are broadly oval or obovate, finely toothed, and have usually a lighter, crescent-shaped mark near the middle. the flower-stalks are long, growing from the axils of the leaves; and each one bears a globular head of white or pinkish flowers. the plant flowers from april to the end of the summer. a very similar species--_t. hybridum_--has been introduced into our country, and has now become established in many places where it was formerly cultivated. its stipules are larger than those of the dutch clover; the pod contains only two seeds; and the flowers are usually pinkish. the common purple clover (_t. pratense_) is also largely cultivated for fodder, but it is indigenous, and grows abundantly in most parts as a wild plant. it is very similar to the dutch clover in general build, but its stem is more or less erect, the flowers are purple, and the whole plant is generally more hairy. the stipules are ovate, larger, veined, and have long points; and each flower-head has a pair of trifoliate leaves at its base. the individual flowers are about half an inch long; and the hairy calyx has the lower tooth longer than the others. the pod contains only one seed, and is surrounded by the brown, withered corolla, as well as by the calyx, which remains erect while the fruit ripens. this species also flowers from may to the end of the summer. [illustration: the purple clover.] two of the vetches (_vicia_--of the order _leguminosæ_) are also to be included among our spring-flowering field-plants. one of these is the spring vetch (_v. lathyroides_), which may be found in flower from april to june on dry pastures. it is a small plant, with a hairy stem that gives off spreading branches, from six to eight inches long, at the base. the leaves are pinnate, with two or three pairs of leaflets, rounded and notched at the apex, and no tendrils. the flowers are small, solitary, of a rich purple colour, situated in the axils of the leaves. the pods are smooth and usually less than an inch long. the other species--the common vetch (_v. sativa_)--is a very similar plant, but its trailing stems grow to a length of from one to two feet. its leaves have from four to seven pairs of leaflets, varying in form from linear to obovate or obcordate, and have branched tendrils. at the base of each leaf is a toothed stipule with, usually, a dark spot in the centre. the flowers are axillary and sessile, either solitary or in pairs, rather large, and of a pale purple colour. the pods are narrow, smooth, from one to two inches long, and contain about twelve smooth seeds. the plant is common in fields, and flowers during may and june. it is represented in fig. of plate iv. [illustration: the daisy.] the very pretty meadow saxifrage (_saxifraga granulata_), of the order _saxifragaceæ_, is very abundant in the meadows of some parts of england and scotland, and may sometimes be seen on grassy roadsides. it varies from six to about ten inches high, and flowers during may and june. the stem is erect, simple or slightly branched, and covered with spreading hairs; and the lower leaves are kidney-shaped, either crenate or lobed, having long stalks, while the upper ones are smaller, and either entire or sharply lobed. the rather large white flowers are in terminal cymes of from three to six. the calyx adheres to the ovary, and has blunt segments; the five petals are about twice as long as the sepals; and both petals and stamens are inserted into the bases of the segments of the calyx. the stamens are ten in number, and the ovary is two-celled, with two styles. the principal spring-flowering umbelliferous plant of pastures is the common earthnut or pignut (_bunium flexuosum_ or _conopodium denudatum_). this plant has a smooth, slender, stem, with a few forked branches, and is usually leafless at the base on account of the early decay of the lower leaves. its popular names are due to the large, tuberous rootstock, which has somewhat the appearance of a chestnut, and is often eaten by country folk, and dug out of the ground by pigs. the lower leaves have three stalked segments, each divided pinnately into narrow lobes which are themselves divided; and the upper leaves, which are smaller, are cut into very narrow lobes, the middle one much longer than the others. the small, white flowers are arranged in umbels of from six to ten rays, with a few very narrow bracts or none at all. the umbels are usually terminal, and droop before the flowers are open. the fruit is oval or oblong, slightly flattened, with slightly-spreading styles, and ribs scarcely visible. the plant grows from one to three feet high, and flowers from may to july. dealing next with a few composite flowers (order _compositæ_), we first call attention to the leading characters of the common daisy (_bellis perennis_), which is abundant in fields and meadows almost everywhere, and flowers practically all the year round. it has a tufted, perennial rootstock, from which grows a cluster of obovate leaves, usually smooth, and slightly toothed. the leafless peduncles also start direct from the stock, each one bearing a solitary flower-head with an outer whorl of nearly smooth bracts; a ray of strap-shaped, white or pinkish florets; and a disc of numerous little yellow, tubular florets. the dandelion (_taraxacum dens-leonis_ or _t. officinale_) is equally familiar as a meadow and wayside plant, commencing to flower in march, and continuing in bloom till october. it has a thick tap-root, with a very bitter taste; and direct from the crown of this grow the spreading leaves and the hollow stalks of the solitary flower-heads. the former vary very considerably in shape, but are usually long and narrow, broader at the apex, and cut into triangular lobes which generally point backwards. sometimes, however, the leaves are almost entire; and they also vary in colour, from a bright to a very dull green. the peduncles vary from two to eight inches in length; and the florets of the head, which are all yellow, are surrounded by an inner whorl of narrow, erect bracts, and outer bracts which either overlap or are turned back on the stalk. the little fruits have projecting points towards the top, and are provided with a slender beak, three or four times as long as the achene itself, at the summit of which is a tuft of silky hairs. [illustration: the butterbur.] our last example of the composite flowers is the butterbur, variously named _tussilago vulgaris_, _petasites vulgaris_, and _tussilago petasites_. it resembles the common colt's-foot (_tussilago farfara_) in several respects; and, as will be seen from the above names, is sometimes included in the same genus. its leaves are very large, and very similar to those of the colt's-foot, being cordate and toothed, and appearing after the flowers. the flowering stems each bear a dense cluster of dull pink or purple heads, forming a raceme from four inches to a foot in height. the pistillate and staminate flowers grow almost exclusively on separate plants. in the former case the heads are larger and densely clustered, each one consisting of filiform, pistillate florets only, or almost entirely of these with a few tubular, staminate florets in the centre. on other plants the flower-heads are smaller and not so densely clustered; and each head consists entirely of tubular, male flowers, or has a few filiform, female florets round the outside. the plant is common in many parts of britain. it grows in damp meadows, especially along the banks of streams and ditches, flowering from march to may. [illustration: the yellow rattle.] the yellow rattle (_rhinanthus crista-galli_), of the order _scrophulariaceæ_, is abundant in damp pastures, flowering from may to july. it is a parasitic species, deriving a portion of its food, in the form of ready-made organic compounds, from the roots of surrounding grasses, and its parasitic habits are referred to in chapter xxiii. its stem is erect, from six to eighteen inches high; and the leaves are sessile, opposite, lanceolate, and coarsely toothed. the calyx is almost globular, slightly flattened, with four small teeth. the yellow corolla has a tube longer than the calyx, and terminates in two lips, one or both of which have often a purple spot. the stamens are in two pairs; and the fruit is an almost globular capsule, containing a few large, flat seeds. in similar situations we may find the field louse-wort (_pedicularis sylvatica_) of the same order, also a parasitic species, extracting nourishment from the roots of grasses. it has spreading branches from three to ten inches long, more or less recumbent. its leaves are alternately arranged, and pinnately cut into small, toothed segments. the flowers are sessile in the axils of the upper leaves, and vary in colour from rose to white. the calyx is broadly oblong, with five unequal lobes. the tube of the corolla is considerably longer than the calyx; and its upper lip has a very small tooth on each side, just under the tip. the plant flowers from april to july. [illustration: the henbit dead nettle.] the only common spring labiate flower (order _labiatæ_) of fields is the henbit dead nettle (_lamium amplexicaule_), which is frequently met with on sandy soils, flowering from april to the end of the summer. it is a low plant, seldom reaching a foot in height, with a branching stem that is too weak to stand erect. the upper leaves are sessile, round, much wrinkled, and deeply crenate; while the lower ones, of the same form, are on long petioles. the flowers are arranged in a few compact whorls, in the axils of the upper leaves. the calyx is much shorter than the tube of the corolla; and its five, pointed teeth, which are as long as the tube, bend together as the fruit ripens. the lipped corolla is of a rose or purple-red colour, about half an inch long, with a comparatively long, straight tube. in damp meadows we frequently see the changing scorpion-grass (_myosotis versicolor_), also known as the yellow and blue scorpion grass, deriving its name from the fact that the corolla is yellow at first, and afterwards changes to a dull blue. it is a hairy plant, with an erect stem, from four to ten inches high, slightly branched. the leaves are oval or ovate, narrow, and sessile; the lower ones forming a spreading tuft at the base, while the others, few in number, are erect on the stem. the flowers are very small, almost sessile, and arranged in a one-sided, curved raceme. the calyx is deeply cleft into five parts which close quite over the ripening fruit; and the small corolla has a comparatively long tube and five spreading lobes. the plant flowers from april to june. it belongs to the order _boraginaceæ_. the cowslip (_primula veris_--order _primulaceæ_) is common in pastures in many parts of britain. it usually grows from six to ten inches high, and flowers during may and june. the whole plant is clothed with soft, downy hairs; and its leaves are all radical, obovate, narrowed towards the base, and much wrinkled like those of the primrose. the flowers are arranged in a drooping umbel, on a long stalk. the calyx is tubular, with five broad, blunt teeth; and the corolla has a long, narrow tube, with five spreading lobes that form a shallow cup. [illustration: the cowslip.] two species of sorrel are very common in meadows and pastures during the spring. they are plants very much resembling the docks; in fact, they belong to the same genus (_rumex_) of the order _polygonaceæ_. both have erect, leafy stems, with sheathing stipules; and numerous, small, green flowers which soon turn red. the latter are imperfect, with a deeply-cleft perianth of six lobes. the male flowers have six stamens; and the females have three styles. the fruits are little triangular nuts, more or less enclosed in the segments of the perianth. one of these--the common sorrel (_rumex acetosa_)--is very abundant in damp meadows and pastures all over britain. it varies from one to two feet in height, with a stem that is usually unbranched, and flowers from may to july. the leaves have a very acid juice, and are often used as a salad. the radical ones are oblong, arrow-shaped at the base, with pointed lobes, and have rather long stalks; the stem-leaves are smaller, few in number, with shorter stalks. sometimes both male and female flowers grow on the same plant, but often the plant produces the one kind only. they are arranged in long, leafless panicles; and the outer lobes of the perianth of the female flowers are turned back on the peduncle, while the inner are enlarged and swollen, and close over the fruit. the other species--the sheep's sorrel (_r. acetosella_)--is a much smaller plant, seldom reaching a foot in height, and often only three or four inches. it grows abundantly in dry pastures and on heaths, flowering from may to july. it is much more slender than the common sorrel; and its leaves, which are also acid, are all very narrow, and generally either arrow-shaped or spear-shaped at the base. the flowers are in very slender, terminal panicles, the males and the females always on separate plants; and the latter differ from those of the last species in that all the segments of the perianth close over the fruit. [illustration: fox-tail grass.] coming now to the monocotyledonous plants, we have first to note three flowers of the order _orchidaceæ_, the general features of which are described in chapter xviii; and the reader is advised to refer to this short account of the leading characteristics of the group before attempting to identify the present species. the first is the twayblade (_listera ovata_), frequently seen in moist pastures, as well as in woods, flowering from may to july. the stem of this plant is usually from one to two feet high, with a few sheathing scales at the base; and the species can be recognised at once by its two broad oval leaves, almost exactly opposite one another, from two to four inches long, and about six inches from the ground. the flowers are of a yellowish-green colour, in a long slender raceme; and each one has a long lip, divided into two very narrow lobes. the other two belong to the genus _orchis_. they are the green-winged meadow orchis (_o. morio_), and the early purple orchis (_o. mascula_), and may be distinguished by the following summary of their characteristics: the green-winged orchis.--root with two undivided tubers, and stem from six to twelve inches high. leaves few, narrow, at the base of the stem only; but a few, loose, sheathing scales above them. flowers usually about eight in number, forming a loose spike. bracts thin, pink, about the same length as the ovary. sepals purplish, arching over the smaller petals. lip longer than the sepals, and divided into three short lobes. spur a little shorter than the ovary, and very blunt. the plant is abundant in the south of england and in south ireland, but less common in the north. the flowers appear during may and june. the early purple orchis.--root with two undivided tubers. stem from six to eighteen inches high, including the loose spike of flowers. leaves broad, and often spotted. flowers numerous, usually purple, but sometimes pink or even white. bracts coloured, nearly as long as the ovary. upper sepals and petals arched over the ovary; lateral sepals acute, and turned upwards and backwards. lip about the same length as the sepals, divided into three short lobes, the middle one notched, and the lateral ones turned backward. spur as long as the ovary, obtuse. the plant is generally distributed, growing in moist meadows and in woods, flowering from april to june. finally, we have to note two early-flowering grasses of pastures. one of these is the fox-tail grass (_alopecurus pratensis_), which grows from one to two feet high, and may be identified with the aid of our illustration. the other is the slender fox-tail (_a. agrestis_), a very similar plant, but its spike of flowers is narrower, especially towards the top, and the sheaths of its leaves are not so loose as in the former. ix bogs, marshes and wet places in spring the cold soils of bogs, marshes, and other wet places do not produce a very great variety of flowers during the spring months; but some there are which appear in great profusion; and others, though less conspicuous, are sufficiently abundant and interesting to be included in our list. our first is the beautiful marsh marigold (_caltha palustris_) of the buttercup family (_ranunculaceæ_), which is exceedingly abundant in marshes and by the sides of muddy ditches in most parts of britain, flowering from march to june. it is represented on plate v, and may be distinguished at once from the other members of its family by its glossy leaves, and its large flowers, varying from one to near two inches in diameter. a little later in the season we may meet with the pale blue or lilac flowers of the marsh violet (_viola palustris_--order _violaceæ_), which generally make their first appearance in april, and continue until june or july. the plant is much like the well-known sweet violet in general appearance, but is smaller, with a creeping stock; and the whole is smooth with the exception of a few scattered hairs on the flower-stalks. its leaves are either round, heart-shaped, or kidney-shaped, with slightly-waved edges, and often of a purplish hue beneath. the flowers are smaller than those of the sweet violet, scentless, with pale petals; and the spur of the corolla is very short and blunt. the plant is rather local in the southern counties of england, but is decidedly abundant in the bogs and marshes of north britain. few of the spring bog-flowers are more interesting than the pretty little sundews (_drosera_), so remarkable on account of their carnivorous nature. a description of the three british species will be found in chapter xxiv, which contains also an account of their peculiar habits. coming next to the order _caryophyllaceæ_ we have to note two of the stitchworts or starworts (_stellaria_)--slender plants distinguished by their opposite, pointed leaves; jointed stems; and little, white, star-like flowers. they have five sepals; five petals, deeply divided into two lobes; ten stamens; three styles; and a capsular fruit that splits longitudinally, with many seeds. one of these is the glaucous or marsh stitchwort (_stellaria glauca_ or _s. palustris_), which is widely distributed though not very common. the whole plant is slender, with a four-angled stem from six to eighteen inches high; and narrow, sessile, undivided leaves that taper to a point. its flowers are solitary on axillary peduncles, from half to three-quarters of an inch in diameter, with petals much longer than the three-veined sepals. they first appear in april, and continue to bloom until august. [illustration: the marsh potentil.] the other is the bog stitchwort (_s. uliginosa_)--a smooth, slender plant, with a spreading, four-angled stem, and narrow-ovate leaves that terminate in a stiff point. in marshy or boggy ground its stems are straggling, and often near a foot in length; but on drier soils they are much shorter, and the plant more tufted. the flowers are much smaller--only about a quarter of an inch in diameter, and are arranged in loose, terminal cymes. their petals are shorter than the sepals, and are very deeply divided into two narrow spreading lobes. this species flowers during may and june. the rose family (_rosaceæ_) includes the purple marsh cinquefoil or marsh potentil (_comarum palustre_ or _potentilla palustris_)--a stout plant, varying from six to eighteen inches high, the whole generally more or less tinged with purple. the flowers are of a dull purple-brown colour, in loose clusters, and bloom from may to july. the sepals, which are longer than the petals, have narrow outer segments, and longer, broad, inner segments with long, sharp points. this species is widely distributed, but is very local in the southern counties of england. [illustration: the golden saxifrage.] in shady marshes we may often meet with one or other of the two pretty little golden saxifrages (order _saxifragaceæ_), and sometimes the both growing together. one of them--the common golden saxifrage (_chrysosplenium oppositifolium_), is very abundant, often covering large patches of marsh with its golden leaves and flowers. it is a tender, succulent plant; with a decumbent stem, either simple, or branched near the top, and rooting at the base. the leaves are opposite, almost round, about half an inch in diameter, with wavy margins, and a few scattered hairs on the upper side. the lower ones are shortly stalked, and the upper generally of a golden colour. the flowers are very small, in little, crowded, terminal clusters, surrounded by the upper leaves. they have a calyx of four spreading sepals; no petals; eight stamens joined to the base of the sepals; and an inferior ovary divided above into two conical lobes. the other species is the alternate-leaved golden saxifrage (_c. alternifolium_)--a very similar plant, but generally of a lighter colour, and its leaves are always alternately arranged. both species have yellow flowers which bloom from april to july; and both grow to a height of from two to five inches. the latter is much less common than the former, but is very widely distributed. the marsh pennywort or white rot (_hydrocotyle vulgaris_) is a peculiar umbelliferous plant, common in marshes and bogs, with a slender stem that creeps in the mud, rooting at every joint; and tufts of long-stalked leaves which rise above the surface of the water. the latter are round, with waved margins, about an inch in diameter, glossy, and stalked in the centre. the minute white flowers are collected into little five-flowered umbels, on stalks much shorter than those of the leaves, each individual flower having a very short pedicel, and five spreading petals. this plant flowers from may to august. [illustration: the marsh valerian.] in the marshes of south britain we may often meet with the pretty marsh valerian (_valeriana dioica_) of the _valerianaceæ_. it grows from six to eight inches high, and its flowers, which bloom during may and june, are of a pale rose colour, in a terminal corymb. they are mostly unisexual, the male and female flowers growing on different plants. all have a tubular corolla, pouched at the base, with five spreading lobes; but the female blooms are more densely crowded than the males, and are of a deeper colour. the former have an inferior ovary, with a slender style and a lobed stigma; and the latter have three stamens on the corolla. the _gentianaceæ_ is represented in bogs by the common buckbean or marsh trefoil (_menyanthes trifoliata_), the only member of its family with trifoliate leaves. this plant has a creeping stock; and its flowers, which are pink in the bud and pinkish white when expanded, are in handsome racemes on stalks from six inches to a foot in length. the calyx has five short lobes; and the bell-shaped, fleshly corolla is deeply cut into five lobes which are beautifully fringed above with delicate filaments. the time of flowering is may to july. [illustration: the marsh trefoil.] [illustration: the marsh lousewort.] in the marshes, ditches, and wet meadows of most parts we may see the red rattle or marsh lousewort (_pedicularis palustris_) which belongs to the order _scrophulariaceæ_. it has an erect stem, from six to eighteen inches high, with reddish branches; and pinnate leaves with many oval segments more or less deeply cut. its rather large crimson flowers are on very short stalks in the axils of the upper leaves, forming together a leafy raceme. the calyx is a broad, hairy tube, with two irregularly-toothed lips; and the corolla is much longer than the calyx, with two lips, the upper of which has four minute teeth. after flowering the calyx becomes much swollen; and the superior ovary ripens into a capsule with a few rather large seeds. this plant flowers from may to september. most wet places are characterised by the presence of one or more species of willows--those water-loving trees and shrubs which constitute the genus _salix_ of the order _salicaceæ_. some of them almost invariably establish themselves along the banks of rivers and streams, and may often be seen in long tortuous lines which mark the positions and courses of streams that no longer exist; while others thrive best in the standing water and sodden soils of marshes and bogs. one species in particular, the osier, is largely cultivated for its long, slender twigs, so useful in the manufacture of baskets and other wicker-work; but two or three others are valued for the same purpose, and are either specially cultivated, or pollarded with the object of securing suitable twigs for this work. [illustration: the yellow flag.] nearly all the species have very narrow leaves, with prominent stipules at the base; and their flowers grow in erect or horizontal catkins with undivided scales. the flowers are always unisexual, the male and female blossoms being produced on separate trees. the former have from two to five stamens; and the latter a one-celled ovary that ripens to a capsule containing many seeds, each with a tuft of silky hairs. a few of these trees are common in marshes and bogs, but they are so similar in their general features that the identification of species is somewhat difficult for a beginner. some of our marshes and boggy pools are beautifully decorated from may to july by the large, bright flowers of the yellow iris or flag (_iris pseudacorus_), which belongs to the order _iridaceæ_. this plant has a thick rhizome which creeps horizontally below the ground, and a round stem from one to three feet high. two or three flowers grow on the stem, each with a sheathing bract at the base of its stalk. the perianth consists of six segments, the outer three broadly ovate at the top, and spreading; and the inner three narrower, shorter, and erect. there are three stamens; and an inferior ovary with three large petal-like stigmas, longer than the inner segments of the perianth, divided into two at the tip. the fruit is a large capsule, two or three inches long, containing many brownish-yellow seeds. x woods and thickets in summer a large number of the flowers that grow in woods bloom early in the spring, before the buds of the trees have expanded, or, at least, before the foliage is sufficiently dense to cover the ground with its shadow. some, however, are not so dependent on the direct rays of the sun, but thrive even better in the shaded, moist atmosphere of wooded ground. others there are which seem grateful for the warm rays of the summer sun, but grow to their greatest luxuriance in the moist and partially-shaded ground of underwood and thicket, trusting to the rigidity of their own erect stems, or to the climbing habit which they have acquired, to bring their leaves and blossoms in full view of the sun during some part of the day. plants such as these are selected for description in this chapter; and although we may speak of their flowers as the summer blossoms of woods, thickets and copses, we must be prepared to meet with several of them outside these habitats, particularly in damp places that are more or less protected from the heat of the sun. our first in this series is the lime tree (_tilia europæa_) of the order _tiliaceæ_, which grows wild in many of our woods, but has been planted to such an extent that it may be found in almost every cultivated district except in the extreme north. its leaves are stalked, alternate, heart-shaped or broadly ovate, very pointed, serrate, smooth above, and slightly downy below. the flowers, which appear during june and july, are of a pale yellowish green colour, and are arranged in cymes, on axillary, drooping peduncles that are attached for nearly half their length to a long, leafy bract. there are five sepals, which fall early; five petals; and many stamens that are united at their bases into clusters. the blossoms have a very sweet scent, and produce such an abundance of nectar that they are very attractive to bees and other insects. the fruit is a woody nut, globular or more or less angled, five-celled, with two seeds in each cell. [illustration: _plate ii._ flowers of the woods. . great valerian. . foxglove. . succory-leaved hawk's-beard. . nettle-leaved bell-flower. . broad-leaved helleborine. . hairy brome-grass.] a small-leaved variety, sometimes regarded as a distinct species (_tilia parvifolia_), has a thin, angular fruit; and another, known as _tilia grandifolia_, has very large, broad leaves, downy on both sides, and a downy fruit with from three to five prominent ribs. [illustration: the large-flowered st. john's wort.] several species of st. john's-wort (order _hypericaceæ_) grow in thickets and other wooded spots. they vary considerably in size, as well as in general appearance, but all agree in the following features: their leaves are opposite, entire, without stipules, and either sessile or very shortly stalked. the flowers are regular, with five sepals; five petals, often oblique at the tip; numerous stamens, united or clustered into three or five sets; and a superior ovary that ripens to a capsule with many seeds. no less than four species of the genus (_hypericum_) come within the province of the present chapter. they are:-- . the tutsan (_h. androsæmum_).--an erect, shrubby plant, from one to three feet high, flowering from june to august, common in the thickets of most of the western and southern counties of britain. it has several erect, slightly-flattened stems; and large, blunt, ovate leaves, two or three inches long, with very small, transparent dots that are easily seen when the leaves are held up to the light. the flowers are yellow, about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and form a compact, terminal corymb. the sepals are broad, about a third of an inch long; the petals a little longer, and oblique; and the stamens are in five sets, connected at the base. [illustration: the common st. john's wort.] . the large-flowered st. john's-wort or rose of sharon (_h. calycinum_).--a shrubby plant, from ten to eighteen inches high, with a creeping, woody stock, flowering from july to september. it is not indigenous, but has been largely introduced into parks and gardens, and now grows wild in many parts. this species may be distinguished from all other members of the genus by its large, yellow flowers, from one and a half to three inches in diameter. . the common st. john's-wort (_h. perforatum_).--a very common plant in woods and thickets, growing from one to two feet high, and flowering from july to september. it has short, underground stems, or barren shoots that lie on the ground and root at the nodes, in addition to the erect, flowering stems, which are either round or two-edged, and branched towards the top. the leaves are half an inch long, with opaque veins, many transparent dots, and sometimes a few black dots on the under side. the yellow flowers form a terminal corymb. their sepals are narrow, about half the length of the petals. the stamens are in three sets, united at the base; and both petals and anthers are marked with black dots. . the hairy st. john's-wort (_h. hirsutum_).--a stiff, erect plant, from one to three feet high, common in the woods and thickets of most parts of britain, flowering in july and august. the stem is round, and clothed with soft hairs. the leaves are ovate, oblong or elliptical, tapering at the base into a short stalk, about an inch long, with many transparent dots, and downy along the veins on the under side. the sepals are narrow, acute, about half the length of the yellow petals, and fringed with stalked glands. the stamens are in three sets. [illustration: the dyer's green-weed.] the wood crane's-bill (_geranium sylvaticum_--order _geraniaceæ_), one of the most handsome of our wild geraniums, is not found in the south, but is moderately common in parts of north britain, including north ireland. its stem is erect, from one to two feet high, and branched towards the top. in general form the leaves are heart-shaped or shield-shaped, but they are very deeply divided into five or seven radiating, cut, and toothed lobes. the lower ones are on long stalks; but the upper are shortly stalked or sessile, and less divided. the flowers are of a bluish-purple or rose colour, about an inch in diameter, arranged in a loose panicle with two flowers on each pedicel. the five sepals are about half the length of the petals, and terminate in a very fine point; and the petals are obovate and slightly notched. the plant flowers during june and july. [illustration: the sweet milk vetch.] passing now to the order _leguminosæ_ we note first the dyer's green-weed (_genista tinctoria_)--a shrubby plant, common in the thickets and bushy places of south britain, flowering from july to september. the stem is woody and stiff, but green; its base rests on the ground, but it sends up erect flowering branches from one to two feet high. the yellow flowers are arranged in terminal racemes, each flower having a lanceolate bract at the base of its short stalk, and very small bracts at the base of the calyx. the calyx has five teeth, the three lower ones much narrower than the other two, all terminating in a sharp point; the corolla is much longer than the calyx, with an oblong standard or upper petal; the stamens are all united by their filaments, forming a complete sheath round the ovary; and the pods are smooth, about an inch long, and compressed. in the thickets of most parts of britain, but more especially those of the eastern counties, we may often meet with the sweet milk vetch (_astragalus glycyphyllos_) of the same order. it is a prostrate plant, with pale yellow or cream-coloured flowers that bloom from june to august. the flowers are about half an inch long, in short, dense, shortly-stalked racemes. the calyx has five teeth; the upper stamen is free from the other nine, which form a divided sheath round the ovary; and the pod is smooth, round, curved, over an inch long, and divided by a double membrane into two cells, each of which contains about seven seeds. [illustration: the wild raspberry.] in the same order are two species of everlasting pea (_lathyrus_), both of which grow in thickets and other bushy places. one is the tuberous everlasting pea or tuberous bitter vetch (_l. macrorrhizus_), an erect plant, from six inches to a foot in height, flowering from may to july. its rootstock has small tubers, and the stem is winged. the leaves are pinnate, with from two to four pairs of narrow leaflets and half arrow-shaped stipules; they have no tendrils, but the leafstalk terminates in a fine point. the flowers are of a red-purple colour, changing to greenish blue as they fade; and are in loose racemes of from two to four. the other is the narrow-leaved everlasting pea (_l. sylvestris_), a straggling plant, from two to six feet long, flowering from june to august. it is not so common as the last, but may be found in similar situations. its stem has very narrow wings; and the leaves have very narrow leaflets, flattened stalks, branched tendrils, and half arrow-shaped stipules. the flowers are rather large, of a pale purple colour, with a greenish keel, and a green spot on the large upper petal. they are arranged in loose racemes. [illustration: the rose bay willow herb.] the wild raspberry (_rubus idæus_--order _rosaceæ_) is to be found in the woods and thickets of most parts of britain. it may be easily distinguished from other species of its genus by the following description:--rootstock creeping, with many suckers. stems round, erect, with a soft down and numerous weak prickles. leaves pinnate, with three or five ovate, pointed, toothed leaflets, pale green above, and white and hoary beneath. stipules small, very narrow and pointed, usually attached part way up to the leafstalk. flowers white, in long, terminal, drooping panicles. calyx five-lobed; petals five, short and narrow; stamens numerous; and fruit consisting of a globular cluster of red or yellow, hoary, one-seeded, succulent carpels which usually separate from the conical receptacle when ripe. the bush grows from three to five feet high, and flowers from june to august. two species of willow herb (order _onagraceæ_) grow in copses and thickets, and are easily recognised by their rose-coloured flowers with very long, inferior ovaries. one is the beautiful french willow or rose bay willow herb (_epilobium angustifolium_), an erect plant, varying from two to six feet in height, widely distributed, though not very common, flowering during july and august. its leaves are alternate, narrow-elliptical, entire or with very small teeth, and very shortly stalked. the flowers are about an inch in diameter, numerous, forming a very long, loose, terminal, tapering raceme, with a narrow bract at the base of each pedicel. the calyx is tubular, four-cleft, attached to the top of the long ovary; the corolla consists of four entire, nearly equal, spreading petals; the stamens, eight in number, all bend downwards; and the stigma is deeply divided into four lobes, on a long style which also bends downward. the fruit is a four-celled capsule, two or three inches long, which splits when ripe, its valves curling downwards and exposing numerous minute seeds, each of which has a silky tuft of fine hairs that enables it to be dispersed by the wind. the plant is most frequently seen in damp copses, and among the undergrowth of damp woods. [illustration: the dogwood.] the second species is the pale smooth-leaved willow herb (_e. roseum_), an erect plant, seldom more than two feet high, found principally in the damp copses of the southern counties, flowering in july and august. its stem is four-angled, two opposite angles being much more prominent than the other two; and its leaves are opposite, with longer stalks, lanceolate or elliptical, pointed, toothed, smooth, usually about two inches long. the flowers are not nearly so numerous as those of the last species, are only a little over a third of an inch in diameter, and in a short, leafy panicle, drooping while in the bud. the calyx is deeply divided into four sepals about a sixth of an inch long; the corolla consists of four notched petals, a little longer than the sepals; the stamens, ovary, fruit, and seeds correspond in number and character with those of the last species; but the stigma is either entire or divided into four very short lobes. in the same order we have the enchanter's nightshade (_circæa lutetiana_), distinguished at once from the willow herbs by having only two sepals, two petals, and two stamens. it is an erect, hairy plant, from one to two feet high, flowering from june to august. its stem is slender; and the leaves are opposite, long-stalked, ovate and coarsely toothed. the flowers are very small, white, in terminal, leafless racemes, with deeply-notched petals, and pink stamens. the fruit is a little two-lobed capsule with stiff, hooked hairs. [illustration: the wood sanicle.] the cornel or dogwood (_cornus sanguinea_), of the order _cornaceæ_, is a common shrub in woods and thickets, and is often employed in the making of hedgerows. it grows from five to eight feet high, and flowers during june and july. its leaves are covered, when young, with fine, silky hairs that lie close on the surface, but these almost entirely disappear later; and towards the end of the summer the leaves assume a deep crimson or purple colour. the flowers are very abundant, of a yellowish white colour, and are arranged in dense cymes, about two inches across, without bracts. the four-toothed calyx and the peduncle are both clothed with a mealy down; and the four petals, about a quarter of an inch long, are narrow and pointed. the fruit is a purple-black, globular, berry-like drupe, containing a stone with one or two seeds. in very dense woods, where the light is so much reduced that but few flowers will grow, we may generally find the wood sanicle (_sanicula europæa_), a smooth umbelliferous plant with a short, hard rootstock, and a simple stem from one to two feet high. the leaves, which are all radical, are on long stalks, and are palmately divided into three or five shining lobes that are themselves cut and sharply toothed. the flowers are sessile, in little rounded heads; the whole inflorescence forming an irregular umbel or a loose panicle. they are very minute, of a pinkish white colour; and the outer ones of each head usually have no pistil. they bloom during june and july, and are followed later by little prickly fruits about a sixth of an inch long. [illustration: the alexanders.] in damp woods we commonly meet with the tall, stout, branching angelica (_angelica sylvestris_) of the same order (_umbelliferæ_), with a thick, furrowed stem, two to four feet high, downy above, and usually more or less shaded with purple. its lower leaves are very large, with stalked, ovate leaflets, from one to two inches long, often three-lobed, and always sharply toothed. the upper leaves are much smaller, with fewer leaflets, and often consist only of a broad sheath with a few small leaflets at its summit. the flowers are white, generally tinged with pink, and form a large terminal umbel of from sixteen to forty rays, with two or three narrow primary bracts, and several fine secondary ones. they bloom during july and august, and are succeeded by flattened fruits with three ribs on the back of each of the two carpels. the carpels are also broadly winged; and, as the wings do not adhere, each fruit is surrounded by a double wing. [illustration: the elder.] the order _caprifoliaceæ_ includes the common elder (_sambucus nigra_), the white or cream-coloured flowers of which are so conspicuous in our woods and hedgerows in june. this tree grows to a height of fifteen or twenty feet, and its young branches are remarkable for the large quantity of pith they contain. the general form of the leaves and the arrangement of the flowers are seen in our illustration. each flower has a calyx with five small teeth; a corolla with a short tube and five spreading limbs; five stamens attached to the base of the corolla; and an inferior ovary. the fruit is a black, berry-like drupe containing (usually) eight little, seedlike stones. [illustration: the guelder rose.] the guelder rose or water elder (_viburnum opulus_), of the same order, is a flowering shrub, usually six or eight feet high, moderately common in moist woods and copses, especially in the south, bearing showy cymes of white blossoms in june and july. the cymes are flat-topped, consisting of numerous flowers, the outer of which are much larger, often nearly an inch in diameter, but without stamens or styles, while the others are perfect, with five stamens and three sessile styles. the fruit is a blackish-red, almost globular, slightly-flattened berry, containing a single seed. the cultivated variety of this shrub, known as the snowball tree, has large, globular cymes of flowers, all of which are large and barren. the great valerian or all-heal (_valeriana officinalis_--order _valerianaceæ_) is moderately common in moist woods, and is rather widely distributed. it is an erect plant, from two to four feet high, flowering from june to august. there seems to be two distinct varieties of this plant, one with from four to six pairs of leaflets, and the other with from six to ten pairs, in addition to the terminal leaflet in each case. the flowers are small, flesh-coloured or nearly white, in terminal and axillary corymbs. the little inferior ovary is surmounted by a calyx which is compactly rolled in at first, but which expands into a spreading, feathery pappus as the fruit ripens. the corolla is tubular, with five short, equal, spreading lobes. it is not spurred as in the case of the red valerian (p. ), but the base of the tube is pouched on one side. this plant is shown on plate ii, fig. . we have now to note some composite flowers (order _compositæ_) of wooded and shaded ground. of these we will first take the blunt-leaved or succory-leaved hawk's-beard (_crepis succisæfolia_ or _c. hieracoides_), which is moderately common in the woods of north england and scotland, but does not occur in the south. it is an erect plant, varying from one to three feet in height, smooth or slightly hairy, flowering during july and august. the fruits (achenes) are marked by many fine, longitudinal ridges, and are surmounted by a dense pappus of soft, white hairs which are a little longer than the fruits themselves. this flower is represented in plate ii, fig. . in the woods and thickets of nearly all parts of britain we may see the saw-wort (_serratula tinctoria_), a stiff, erect, smooth plant, from one to three feet high, flowering in august and september. the flower-heads are purple or crimson, forming a loose, terminal corymb; and the florets, all of which are tubular, are imperfect, the males and females being generally on different plants. the involucre is oblong in form, more than half an inch long, consisting of many pointed, closely-placed bracts, of which the inner are usually tipped with red; and that of the male heads is somewhat broader than the involucre of the females. the pappus consists of a tuft of simple hairs, most of which are longer than the achene. the golden rod (_solidago virga-aurea_) is another abundant flower, found in dry woods and thickets in all parts. it is a tufted plant, with stiff, erect, angular, slightly-branched stems, varying from six inches to two feet in height; and narrow-elliptical leaves, entire or slightly toothed, the lower ones stalked. the flowers are very numerous, of a bright golden yellow-colour, forming a dense, terminal panicle. the heads are not large, and each consists of about twenty tubular disc-florets; half the number of strap-shaped ray-florets; and an involucre of many overlapping bracts. the pappus consists of many simple hairs. this species flowers from july to september. two species of leopard's bane (_doronicum_) are occasionally to be seen in damp woods and thickets, especially near villages. they are not indigenous, only occurring as escapes from gardens, but they have now become well established as wild flowers in many parts of britain. both are tall, erect plants, from two to three feet high, with large yellow heads surrounded by two or three rows of narrow, acute bracts. except in colour the heads much resemble the ox-eye daisy. in both species the achenes of the ray have no pappus, but those of the disc have a pappus of stiff hairs in several rows. they flower from may to july. [illustration: the saw-wort.] the great leopard's bane (_d. pardalianches_) has a creeping rootstock and a hollow stem. its radical leaves are broadly heart-shaped, slightly toothed, on long stalks; and the stem leaves are narrower, entire or toothed, the upper ones small, sessile, embracing the stem; and the lower ones stalked, with a broad expansion at the base of the stalk which clasps the stem. the heads are usually three or four in number, on long leafless peduncles. the other species, the plantain-leaved leopard's bane (_d. plantagineum_), has, as its name denotes, leaves similar to those of the plantain. it usually has solitary flower-heads, and is represented on plate i. passing now to the favourite bell-flowers (order _campanulaceæ_), we have to notice four species that are to be found in woods and other shady spots during the summer months. the features common to the four species are:--leaves alternate. calyx adhering to the ovary, with a border of five lobes or teeth. corolla bell-shaped, with five lobes. stamens five, attached to the corolla by the broad bases of the filaments. ovary inferior, ripening to a capsule that opens by longitudinal clefts. the species referred to are: . the giant bell-flower (_campanula latifolia_). a stout plant, from three to five feet high; with an unbranched, leafy stem; and a leafy raceme of large, deep blue or white flowers that bloom in july and august. its leaves are large, ovate to lanceolate, acute, doubly serrate, the lower ones stalked and the upper sessile. each axillary peduncle bears only one flower, the calyx of which has long, narrow segments, and the corolla is hairy within. the capsule is short, opening by slits near the base. this flower is found principally in the north. . the creeping bell-flower (_c. rapunculoides_).--a downy plant, with a creeping rootstock; an erect, simple or slightly-branched stem from one to two feet high; and a one-sided raceme of drooping, deep blue flowers that appear in july and august. the leaves are rough and doubly toothed, the lower ones stalked and heart-shaped, and the upper narrow and sessile. the segments of the calyx are long and narrow, and the capsule is globular, opening by small slits near the base. this species is widely distributed, but not very common. . the nettle-leaved bell-flower (_c. trachelium_).--a very rough plant, with an angled stem, from one to three feet high, bearing a leafy raceme of large blue flowers from july to october. its leaves are much like those of the stinging nettle, being very rough, bristly, and coarsely toothed. the segments of the calyx are rather broad, and very rough with stiff hairs. this species is very abundant in some localities, and is widely distributed. (see plate ii, fig. .) . the ivy-leaved bell-flower (_c. hederacea_).--a pretty little creeping plant that grows in moist woods, flowering during july and august. it is very widely distributed, and is a common flower in many parts of great britain, more especially in the southern counties. its prostrate stem is very slender; and the leaves are small, stalked, very broad, and palmately divided into angular lobes. the flowers are of a pale blue colour, solitary on long, threadlike peduncles; and the capsule is globular, opening by three valves at the top. from may to august is the best season to study the holly (_ilex aquifolium_--order _aquifoliaceæ_). we are all acquainted with this tree in its winter condition, with its bright red or yellow 'berries,' but during the months above named the less familiar flowers are in bloom. the tree is common in the woods of all parts of britain, and is easily distinguished at all times by its smooth, grey bark, as well as by its thick, glossy, spiny, evergreen leaves, which are placed alternately on the branches, attached by very short stalks. as a rule the leaves have waved margins, and are armed with several very strong spines; but commonly the spines of the upper leaves are much fewer, and are sometimes reduced to a single one at the apex. the little white flowers form dense clusters in the axils of the leaves. generally they contain both stamens and pistil, but often they are imperfect, the pistillate flowers predominating on some trees and the staminate ones on others. their parts are arranged in fours, the calyx having four small teeth, and the corolla four spreading lobes, while four stamens are attached to the latter, and the ovary has the same number of cells, and the style terminates in an equal number of small stigmas. the fruits are not really berries, but little, poisonous drupes containing four one-seeded stones. [illustration: the ivy-leaved bell flower.] the privet (_ligustrum vulgare_), which forms, together with the ash, the whole of the order _oleaceæ_, as far as british species are concerned, is very common in the southern counties, where it is often an escape from gardens, the bush being so largely employed in the formation of hedges; but it is truly wild, and very plentiful on the chalky soils of the south and east of england. except during very severe winters the old leaves remain until the early spring leaves are well formed, so that the bush is always green. the flowers are white, with a very characteristic odour, and are arranged in dense, terminal, conical panicles. the calyx forms a little cup with four teeth, but soon falls; and the corolla is funnel-shaped, with four spreading lobes at the top of its tube. the stamens are short, attached to the corolla; and the superior ovary ripens to a black, globular berry containing two or four seeds. the bushes are in bloom during june and july. [illustration: two twigs of holly one from a lower, and one from the topmost branch of the same tree, the former in fruit.] three species of cow wheat (_melampyrum_) are to be found in copses and woods during the summer. they belong to the order _scrophulariaceæ_; and, like other allied plants of this group, are partial parasites (see page ), deriving a portion of their food from the roots of grasses by means of suckers. they have the following features in common:--leaves opposite. calyx tubular, with four narrow teeth. corolla much longer than the calyx, consisting of a very long tube and two lips, the upper lip undivided, with its sides turned back, and the lower with three spreading lobes. a kind of 'palate' also closes the mouth of the tube. the fruit is an ovate capsule, containing from one to four seeds. the three species referred to are:-- . the common cow wheat (_m. pratense_).--a smooth, erect plant, from six to eighteen inches high, with spreading, opposite branches; and sessile, narrow leaves, often coarsely toothed at the base. the flowers are pale yellow, over half an inch long, arranged in pairs in the axils of the upper leaves, and all turned towards one side of the stem. the corolla is three or four times the length of the calyx. this plant is very common in moist copses and thickets, and flowers from june to august. [illustration: the privet.] . the crested cow wheat (_m. cristatum_).--a widely-distributed plant, found principally in the copses and thickets of the eastern and southern counties. its stem is from six to twenty inches in height; and the leaves are very narrow, and generally entire except in the case of a few of the upper ones, which are slightly toothed at the base. the flowers are yellow, more or less variegated with purple, about half an inch long, and they closely overlap one another in a dense, four-sided spike over an inch in length. under each flower is a broad, heart-shaped, strongly-toothed, rose-coloured bract. the plant blooms during july. . the wood or yellow cow wheat (_m. sylvaticum_), sometimes known as the small-flowered cow wheat. this is a much rarer plant, and seems to be found only in the hilly woods of scotland and north england. it is very much like the common cow wheat, but its flowers are of a deep yellow colour, less than half an inch long, with entire bracts, and equal, open lips. the corolla is only twice the length of the calyx, and the lanceolate leaves are very seldom toothed. [illustration: millet grass.] [illustration: bearded wheat.] the same order (_scrophulariaceæ_) contains the handsome and favourite foxglove (_digitalis purpurea_), which grows abundantly in most dry woods and shady wastes, flowering from june to august. its stout, unbranched stem varies from two to six feet in height, a large proportion being the axis of a long one-sided raceme of beautiful, drooping, purple or, occasionally, white flowers. the fruit is an ovate, pointed capsule that splits into two valves and contains many seeds. it is remarkable that this plant does not grow freely on chalk and limestone soils, yet it will often make a sudden appearance in great profusion as we pass over the edge of a calcareous district. the flower is shown on plate ii, fig. . of the order _labiatæ_ we shall note one species only, and that is the pretty wood betony (_stachys betonica_), a very common plant in the woods and thickets of the south of britain. it is a hairy species, with a slender, simple or slightly-branched stem from one to two feet high; and deeply-crenate, oblong leaves. the lower leaves have long stalks, and are heart-shaped at the base; but those of the stem are narrower, sessile or shortly stalked, tapering at the base. the flowers, which bloom from june to august, vary much in colour, ranging from a deep purple or crimson to a rose-pink or (rarely) white; and they form a dense oblong, terminal spike, consisting of whorls of six or more, with a bract at the base of each calyx, and a pair of sessile leaves just below the lowest whorl. the calyx is ribbed, with five very sharp teeth; and the corolla, which is much longer than the sepals, has an erect, oval, upper lip, and a spreading, three-lobed, lower lip. the stamens are in two pairs, immediately under the upper lip; and the fruit consists of four little rounded nuts. [illustration: slender false brome.] in the dry woods of south britain we occasionally meet with the wood scorpion-grass or wood forget-me-not (_myosotis sylvatica_), of the order _boraginaceæ_. this plant is very much like the favourite water forget-me-not, and has equally large flowers, but it is much more hairy. its stem is erect, without runners; and the blue flowers form a one-sided raceme without bracts. as the flowers expand the stalk lengthens considerably, with the result that the fruits are very distant. among other features by which we may distinguish between the wood forget-me-not and the commoner water forget-me-not we may mention that the corolla of the former is flatter; and the calyx, cleft to its base into narrow segments, is very rounded below, and covered with stiff, hooked bristles. the plant flowers from june to august. we conclude this chapter with the names of four species of grasses that are partial to wooded districts, and which flower during the summer months. they are the millet grass (_milium effusum_), the bearded wheat (_triticum caninum_), the slender false brome (_brachypodium sylvaticum_), and the hairy brome grass (_bromus asper_). the first three of these are represented on pages and , and the fourth is shown on plate ii. [illustration: _plate iii._ flowers of the wayside. . round-leaved crane's-bill. . black horehound. . evergreen alkanet. . bristly ox-tongue. . red bartsia. . annual meadow grass. . hemlock stork's-bill.] xi wastes and waysides in summer it will probably have been noticed that several of the spring flowers of our waysides and waste places continue to bloom into the summer. descriptions of these will, of course, not be repeated here, but, for the convenience of those who are endeavouring to identify flowers which have been gathered during the summer months, we append a list of the species referred to: plants of the wayside and waste ground that bloom during both spring and summer greater celandine. shepherd's purse. yellow rocket. early winter cress. thale cress. wild turnip. procumbent pearlwort. lesser stitchwort. mouse-ear chickweed. dove's-foot crane's-bill. jagged-leaved crane's-bill. herb robert. black medick. bird's-foot. bush vetch. chervil. mouse-ear hawkweed. groundsel. common speedwell. wall speedwell. field speedwell. gray field speedwell. white dead nettle. red dead nettle. cut-leaved dead nettle. yellow pimpernel. annual meadow grass. the flowers described in the present chapter are those which do not, as a rule, bloom before the month of june. our first example is the wild clematis, traveller's joy, or old man's beard (_clematis vitalba_), of the order _ranunculaceæ_--a climbing shrub, very common in the hedgerows of the south and centre of england, producing a profusion of white, scented flowers during july and august, and rendered even more conspicuous in the autumn and winter by the dense clusters of feathered fruits. its stem is woody and often very thick at the base; and the annual branches climb over the neighbouring plants, clinging by means of the twisted leafstalks. the leaves are opposite, pinnate, with three or five stalked, ovate or cordate leaflets; and the flowers are in loose, axillary or terminal panicles. the latter have four greenish-white sepals; no petals; numerous stamens; and many one-seeded carpels, each of which, when ripe, is tipped by the persistent style that has become very long and feathered. [illustration: the wild clematis.] the common hedge mustard (_sisymbrium officinale_--order _cruciferæ_) is a very common roadside plant, with stems and leaves so closely set with hairs that they effectually hold the dust. it bears small, yellow flowers, which appear during june and july; and it may be easily distinguished from allied plants by its long and narrow, downy, tapering pods, which lie close against the stem. its stem grows from one to two feet high, and is freely branched. [illustration: the hedge mustard.] the felix weed (_s. sophia_) of the same genus is moderately common, grows to about the same height, and bears small, greenish-yellow flowers from june to august. the stem of this plant is only slightly hairy, slender, erect, and branched; and the leaves are divided in a pinnate manner, with long, narrow segments similarly cut. in this genus the sepals are longer than the petals; and the narrow, tapering fruits are constricted between the numerous seeds. the dyer's weed, also known as the dyer's rocket and the yellow weed (_reseda luteola_), is a plant of a habit similar to that of the wild mignonette, and belongs to the same order (_resedaceæ_), but may be distinguished from the latter by its four sepals and four petals. it owes its popular names to the fact that it was formerly employed for the purpose of dyeing woollen fabrics. this is a common wayside plant, especially in calcareous districts, and often reaches a height of three feet, flowering during july and august. passing to the order _caryophyllaceæ_, we note the deptford pink (_dianthus armeria_)--a downy plant, a foot or more in height, with an erect, slightly-branched stem; and very narrow, opposite leaves, from one to three inches long, joined together at the base, and mostly acute at the tip. the flowers, which bloom in july and august, are rose-coloured with white spots, and are grouped in terminal clusters, with a very narrow, pointed bract below each calyx, usually as long as the calyx itself. this plant is to be found principally on dry banks and on waste ground, but it is not common. [illustration: the felix weed.] the red campion (_lychnis diurna_) is common on the banks of wayside ditches, as well as in copses and other moist and shady places. it has a hairy stem, from one to two feet high; hairy, ovate leaves in pairs; and red (rarely white), unisexual flowers which close at night. the male and female flowers are on separate plants. the former have ten stamens; and the latter a superior ovary which ripens to a globular capsule with five teeth that spread horizontally or even curve downwards. in both the calyx is tubular, with five triangular teeth; and the petals have spreading, deeply-notched limbs. the plant flowers during june and july. [illustration: the dyer's weed.] three species of mallow (order _malvaceæ_) are more or less common by waysides and on waste ground. they are all interesting plants, with large, regular, attractive flowers; and stipuled leaves which are palmately lobed and veined. the flowers have five sepals and five petals, the latter being very curiously twisted in the bud. the stamens, five in number, are freely branched, and are also raised on a tubular structure as the flower matures, so that they appear like a large number of stamens with united filaments. the ovary consists of many carpels, with as many styles; and the fruit splits into a number of one-seeded parts arranged radially. the common mallow (_malva sylvestris_) is a strong, erect, downy plant, from two to three feet high, with branched stem. the flowers are axillary, large and showy, of a pale purple or a lilac colour, marked with crimson veins; and the fruit is smooth. [illustration: the deptford pink.] the dwarf mallow (_m. rotundifolia_) is about as common, and grows in similar situations, but it is a smaller plant, with prostrate stems from six inches to a foot long. the leaves are cordate or almost round, divided into five or seven shallow, crenate lobes. the flowers are smaller than those of _m. sylvestris_, being generally less than an inch in diameter, of a pale lilac colour; and the fruit is hairy. both species flower from june to september. it is interesting to note that these two flowers, which frequently grow together on the same waste ground, and consequently have to compete with one another in the general struggle for existence, are pollinated in totally different ways, the one (_m. sylvestris_) by the aid of insects, and the other (_m. rotundifolia_) probably almost always self-pollinated. in both these flowers the stamens are mounted on the top of a tube as above described; and in both the stamens are crowded round the numerous styles while the flower is yet young, so that insects which visit the flower for nectar can hardly fail to dust themselves with pollen. in _m. sylvestris_, however, the stamens are mature before the stigmas, and the former droop, thus bringing the anthers below the level of the stigmas, so that the flower could hardly fertilise itself even if anthers and stigmas matured simultaneously. but later the styles bend downwards, thus bringing the stigmas to the position of the withered stamens in order to catch the pollen brought by insects from other flowers. further, the pollen cells of this species are covered with minute hooks by means of which they attach themselves to the hairy legs of bees. [illustration: the red campion.] the anthers and stigmas of _m. rotundifolia_ are both matured together; and the styles lengthen, and bend downwards, causing the stigmas to twine themselves among the numerous stamens in such a manner that the flower can hardly fail to fertilise itself. further, if we watch the flowers of these two species on a sunny day, we find that insects visit the flowers of _m. sylvestris_ freely, while they are seldom attracted to the smaller and less conspicuous blooms of _m. rotundifolia_. the third species referred to is the musk mallow (_m. moschata_), so called from the musky odour given off from all parts of the plant, especially when rubbed or crushed. it is often seen in hedgerows, but is not so common as the other two just described, and seems to be rather partial to gravelly soils. the plant is hairy, of a pale green colour, with an erect stem from two to three feet high. the flowers are large and beautiful, of a rich rose colour, and crowded towards the top of the stem. the fruit is hairy. a white variety is occasionally seen, and this is not uncommonly grown as a garden flower. the time of flowering is july and august. [illustration: the common mallow.] some three species of geranium (order _geraniaceæ_) have already been described among the spring wayside flowers, and these were listed at the commencement of the present chapter as continuing to bloom during the summer; but now we have to note other interesting flowers of this and an allied genus as essentially summer bloomers. the first of these is the round-leaved crane's-bill (_geranium rotundifolium_), which rather closely resembles the dove's-foot crane's-bill, but is not nearly so plentiful. it is a downy plant, growing from six to twelve inches high, and flowering in june and july. the flowers are usually nearly half an inch across, of a pink colour; and the petals are _not_ notched. this species is represented on plate iii, fig. . in dry pastures and on stony wastes we may see the bloody crane's-bill (_geranium sanguineum_), which, though not common, is very widely distributed in britain. it has a thick, woody stock; numerous more or less decumbent stems, from one to two feet long, clothed with spreading hairs; and round leaves, divided quite to the base into five or seven deeply-cut segments. the flowers are solitary, dark crimson (occasionally pink) in colour, with hairy sepals terminating in fine points; slightly notched petals about twice as long as the sepals; and ten stamens, five of which are larger, and glandular at the base. this species flowers during july and august. [illustration: the musk mallow.] the small-flowered crane's-bill (_g. pusillum_) also resembles the dove's-foot crane's-bill, but its flowers are usually smaller--about a third of an inch in diameter--and of a pale lilac colour. the stems are prostrate and downy, from six to eighteen inches long; and the leaves roundish and deeply lobed. the sepals terminate in a sharp point, and the petals are notched. this is a very common species, which flowers throughout the summer. british wild flowers of the geranium family are divided into two groups, known popularly as the crane's-bills and the stork's-bills, the former constituting the genus _geranium_, of which several flowers have been described; and the latter forming the genus _erodium_. these two groups are sometimes confused by young botanists, but may be easily distinguished by the aid of the following notes:--the flowers of the crane's-bills are symmetrical, while the petals of the stork's-bills are rather unequal in size and sometimes deficient. in the former there are ten stamens, five of which are alternately larger, as previously mentioned; while the latter have five perfect stamens, glandular at their bases, and five alternating, abortive ones. further, in the genus _geranium_ the persistent styles are straight, while in the stork's-bills they are twisted spirally. [illustration: the bloody crane's-bill.] the manner in which the seeds of stork's-bills are dispersed is particularly interesting:--when the fruit is ripe the carpels separate, and the twisted styles are gradually released from one another, from below upwards, till the fruit is finally set free and blown away by the wind. the carpels thus detached are each furnished with a long style, the lower portion of which is coiled like a corkscrew, while the upper part is straighter but bent to one side. now, these styles are hygroscopic--that is, they are influenced by changes in the condition of the atmosphere as regards moisture. this may easily be shown by placing the fruit in an upright position on a piece of white card, and fixing it so with a little spot of glue or gum, so that the bent upper end of the style is free and serves as a little pointer. if now the open mouth be placed close over the carpel, and moist air be breathed upon it, the corkscrew will partially uncoil, causing the pointer to turn; and as the carpel dries again the pointer will resume its former position. again, if the carpel be placed horizontally on a sheet of rough paper (not fixed), and then alternately treated with moist and drier air, the successive uncoiling and coiling of the spiral, together with the aid of the bent tip and the hairs which give the carpel a hold, will cause it to travel along. thus, in its natural condition, and influenced by the varying state of the atmosphere as regards moisture, the carpels of the stork's-bill will not only travel some distance from the parent plant, but the seed end will even be thrust between the particles of soil, and the seed thus naturally buried. there are three british stork's-bills, of which only one may be described as common. this is the hemlock stork's-bill (_erodium cicutarium_), a very variable plant as regards the form of the leaves and the size and number of flowers, often plentiful in waste places, especially near the sea. its stems are prostrate and hairy, growing from six to eighteen inches in length; and the flowers, which may be seen throughout the summer, are rose-coloured, or, sometimes, white. the petals are not divided or notched, and they soon fall. passing now to the order _leguminosæ_, we deal first with the exceedingly pretty and common bird's-foot trefoil (_lotus corniculatus_), that derives its popular name from the arrangement of the cylindrical seed-pods, which spread in such a manner as to resemble the toes of a bird. its stems are partially prostrate; and its compound leaves are not composed of three leaflets, as the term _trefoil_ suggests, but of five, two of which occupy such a position that they might be mistaken for stipules. the flowers, which bloom in july and august, are of a bright yellow or orange colour, often tinged with red. they are arranged in umbels of from three to ten, with long peduncles and short pedicels. [illustration: the fruit of the stork's-bill.] the genus _vicia_, of the same order, includes the plants commonly known as tares. these are climbing plants which cling by means of tendrils at the tips of their pinnate leaves, and have their flowers in axillary clusters. their styles are threadlike, with a ring or a tuft of downy hairs near the extremity; and the pods are flattened. two species may be included among our summer wayside flowers, one of which--the hairy tare (_vicia hirsuta_)--is very common in fields and hedges, flowering from june to august. the stems of this plant are slender, hairy, and are so much branched that they form tangled masses, often mixed up in a confused manner with neighbouring plants. the leaves have from six to eight pairs of leaflets; and the minute, pale blue flowers, in clusters of from one to six, are on long peduncles. the pods have only two seeds, and are hairy and sessile. [illustration: the hemlock stork's-bill.] the other tare referred to is the slender tare (_v. tetrasperma_), found principally in the south of england. it owes its specific name to the fact that its pods usually contain four seeds. it is more slender and much less branched than the hairy tare, and its leaves have generally only from three to five pairs of leaflets. the flowers are pale blue, appearing from june to august, and are generally solitary or in pairs, on peduncles which are about as long as the leaves. the pods are smooth. [illustration: the bird's-foot trefoil.] the same genus includes the tufted vetch (_vicia cracca_)--a very common plant on hedgerows and bushy waysides, where it climbs over the neighbouring plants and shrubs, covering them with its dense racemes of bluish-purple flowers from june to august. its climbing stem is very weak, but it often grows to a length of six feet or more, supporting itself by means of the branched tendrils at the tips of its leaves. the leaves are pinnate, with about ten pairs of narrow, pointed, silky leaflets, usually from half an inch to three-quarters in length; and at the base of each leaf-stalk is a pair of narrow, half arrow-shaped stipules. the racemes are one-sided, on rather long stalks, with from ten to thirty flowers, each nearly half an inch long. the pods are smooth, flattened, about an inch long, containing from six to eight seeds. [illustration: the herb bennet or geum.] of the order _rosaceæ_ we have several summer wayside flowers, our first example being the common avens, also called the wood avens and the herb bennet (_geum urbanum_), which is common on banks and hedgerows. this is an erect, hairy plant, from one to two feet high, with yellow flowers, from a half to three-quarters of an inch across, on erect stalks. the numerous carpels ripen into a head of one-seeded achenes, on each of which the persistent style forms a curved, hooked awn that readily clings to the hair or wool of animals, thus providing an effectual means by which the seeds are distributed. a variety of the common avens occurs with drooping flowers. [illustration: the dog rose.] [illustration: the silver weed.] the dog rose (_rosa canina_) is one of the prettiest and most abundant flowers of our hedgerows, and may be seen in bloom throughout june and july. the bush has a thick, woody stock; and weak, straggling stems, often reaching a height of six or eight feet, armed with equal, curved prickles. the flowers are pink or white, with a calyx consisting of a globular tube, contracted at the top, and five spreading segments; a corolla of five petals; numerous stamens; and an ovary of several one-seeded carpels with free styles. the carpels are very hairy, and are enclosed within the tube of the calyx, which becomes red and succulent as the fruit ripens; but the calyx segments usually fall before the ripening is complete. [illustration: the agrimony.] the silver weed (_potentilla anserina_), of the same order, is one of the commonest of our roadside flowers, rendered more conspicuous by its pretty, silvery leaves than by its solitary, yellow flowers. it has a creeping stem, from six to twelve inches long, which bears pinnate leaves. the leaflets are deeply serrated, and densely covered beneath (and sometimes also above) with soft, silky hairs. two of the cinquefoils are very common by roadsides. these are the hoary cinquefoil (_potentilla argentea_), and the creeping cinquefoil (_potentilla reptans_). the first of these is a partially prostrate plant, with stem from six to eighteen inches long; and digitate leaves with five, wedge-shaped leaflets. the leaflets are rendered white beneath by woolly hairs that lie close against the surface, and their edges are curled backwards. the flowers, which bloom in june and july, are yellow, small, and clustered. the creeping cinquefoil has a slender stem that creeps on the ground and forms new roots at the nodes. its leaves are digitate and long-stalked, with five obovate, serrate, hairy leaflets. the flowers are yellow, solitary, nearly an inch in diameter, with five sepals and five petals. on banks we frequently meet with the agrimony (_agrimonia eupatoria_), a slender plant, from one to two feet high, covered with soft hairs, and bearing long, tapering, spikelike racemes of small, scattered, yellow flowers during june and july. this plant may be readily identified by means of our illustration. one of the willow herbs--the broad smooth-leaved willow herb (_epilobium montanum_)--is common on roadside banks, flowering during june and july. its stems are slender, downy, and generally unbranched; and the leaves are opposite, stalked (the lower ones almost stalkless), ovate, acute, with serrate edges, and smooth except along the margins and the principal veins, which are more or less downy. the plant grows to a height of one or two feet, and bears small, pale-purple flowers which droop when in the bud. it belongs to the order _onagraceæ_; and, like the others of its genus, has four sepals, four petals, eight stamens, and a long inferior ovary which splits into four valves, setting free a large number of little, tufted seeds. the order _crassulaceæ_ contains a number of low, succulent plants, with small, regular, star-like flowers. some of them are well known as stonecrops and house-leeks. those of the stonecrop group usually have cymes of flowers with perianth leaves in whorls of five, and stamens in two whorls. one member of this group--the orpine or livelong (_sedum telephium_)--is not uncommonly found on shady wayside banks, especially near villages and on the outskirts of towns, where it is probably an escape from gardens. its leaves are large, flat, oval or oblong, with serrate edges. the flowers have five sepals and five petals, are of a purple or crimson colour, and are clustered in close cymes. we have now to consider several species of the order _umbelliferæ_--a group of flowers which contains so many species, with often such close resemblances in general appearance, that it is always more or less puzzling to the beginner, especially as it is frequently necessary to note minute details of structure in order to determine a species. the leading characteristic of the order is that denoted by its name; for the flowers, which are generally very small and white, are arranged in umbels. in a few instances these umbels are simple; but in most they are compound--that is, the stalks which radiate from the same point on the main peduncle, and thus form the _primary umbel_, give rise to the lesser stalks of the _secondary umbels_, which are similarly arranged and bear the flowers. there are often bracts at the base of the primary umbel, in which case they are termed the _primary bracts_; and there are frequently _secondary bracts_ or _involucels_ at the bases of the secondary umbels. [illustration: the orpine or livelong.] the flowers have a superior calyx; with five teeth; but this is often so inconspicuous that it appears like a mere rim round the top of the ovary. there are also five petals, which generally have their points turned inwards; and five stamens. the inferior ovary consists of two united carpels, surmounted by a fleshy disc that supports the petals and the stamens, and bears two styles. special attention must be given to the structure of the fruits of umbellifers, for a close examination of these is often necessary for purposes of identification. the two carpels are close together, with their adjacent surfaces flattened, and are fixed to a central axis called the _carpophore_. as the fruit ripens, the carpophore often divides, from above downwards, becoming y-shaped; and the carpels, thus separated, are for a time suspended on its two arms. each carpel is marked by vertical ridges, generally nine in number, five of them (_primary ridges_) being more prominent than the four intermediate or _secondary ridges_. the ridge on each side of the carpel, nearest to the fissure that divides the fruit into two parts, is often extended so as to form wings by means of which wind-distribution is greatly facilitated; and between the various ridges are the _furrows_ of the fruit. in addition to these features, there are often narrow, light-coloured streaks running parallel with the ridges, in the walls of the fruit. there are usually six of these in each carpel, sometimes more than one in the same furrow, and they mark the positions of narrow oil-sacs or _vittæ_. each carpel contains only one seed. [illustration: the fool's parsley.] as to the general characters of the plants, it may also be noted that the stems of the _umbelliferæ_ are jointed, and frequently hollow; also that the leaves are pinnately divided, and often _decompound_ (compound, with compound leaflets). [illustration: the wild parsnip.] our first example of this family is the common hemlock (_conium maculatum_) of hedges and waste ground--a very graceful plant, with a much-branched stem that grows from two to six or more feet in height. it is distinguished by a foetid odour and poisonous properties. its stem is slender in proportion to the height, furrowed, smooth, and spotted with purple or red. the flowers are white, with hardly a trace of a calyx, and arranged in compound umbels, with three small bracts _on one side_ of the secondary umbels. the fruit is short, swollen, and slightly flattened laterally; and the carpels, without vittæ, have each five thick, waved ridges. the hemlock flowers during june and july. [illustration: the cow parsnip or hogweed.] several of the common umbelliferous plants are called the fool's parsley by those who are unable to distinguish between species, but this name is correctly applied only to _Ã�thusa cynapium_, a smooth, leafy plant, with an unpleasant odour and poisonous properties. the plant grows from a foot to eighteen inches high, flowers during july and august, and is common in cultivated ground as well as in wastes and by waysides. it may be recognised at once by the help of our illustration; but we call special attention to the three, long, drooping bracts on the outer side of each secondary umbel. on roadside banks, particularly in chalky districts, we may often meet with the wild parsnip (_pastinaca sativa_). this is an erect, downy plant, with a tap root; and angular, hollow stem from two to three feet high. its leaves are pinnate, glossy above and downy beneath, with five or seven ovate, sessile, cut and serrate leaflets, and sheathing petioles. the umbels are terminal, without primary or secondary bracts; and the flowers are small, of a bright yellow colour, producing flattened, winged fruits. the flowers bloom during july and august. the cow parsnip or hogweed (_heracleum sphondylium_) is somewhat similar in general appearance, but is much stouter, and grows to a height of four or five feet. its stem is hairy and channelled; and the leaves have a few broad, lobed, serrate leaflets with a rough, hairy surface. the flowers, which bloom during july and august, are of a reddish white colour, and have unequal petals. the upright hedge parsley (_torilis anthriscus_ or _caucalis anthriscus_) is a slender plant, with an erect, solid, rough stem, from two to three feet high. its leaves are hairy, bipinnate, with lobed and toothed, ovate or oblong leaflets. the white or pale pink flowers are arranged in long-stalked, terminal umbels of from about six to twelve rays, with several primary and secondary bracts. the fruits are armed with bristles which, though not hooked, are slightly bent inwards. this is a very common hedgerow plant, flowering from july to september. [illustration: the honeysuckle.] our last example of the _umbelliferæ_ is the rough chervil (_chærophyllum temulum_), which is very common in hedgerows, among the undergrowth of woods, and in other shady places. it has a slender stem, from one to three feet high, swollen at the joints, spotted with purple, and rendered rough by short hairs. the leaves, which are also rough and spotted, are bipinnate, with ovate leaflets that are cut into segments terminating abruptly in a sharp point; and they assume a rich purple tint that makes the plant a conspicuous object in the autumn. the flowers are white, in terminal compound umbels which droop in the bud. the bracts are few in number or altogether absent, but there are several secondary bracts which are fringed and bent downwards. passing now to the order _caprifoliaceæ_, we have to deal with the well-known and favourite honeysuckle or woodbine (_lonicera periclymenum_), so highly prized on account of its lovely fragrant flowers. it is a climbing plant, often reaching a height of ten or twelve feet, supporting itself by twining its woody stem round surrounding shrubs and trees in hedges and the open spaces of woods. the beautiful flowers, which are yellow within, and more or less tinged with red outside, are arranged in terminal, stalked heads; and the united petals form widely-gaping lips. the plant blooms from june to september, and displays its crimson berries in the autumn. two other species of honeysuckle occur in our hedges, but neither of these is common. one is the upright honeysuckle, which has an erect stem; downy, stalked leaves; and pale yellow, scentless flowers that grow in pairs in the axils of the leaves. the other is the perfoliate honeysuckle, so called because its upper leaves are united at their bases, with the stem running through them. in this one the flower-heads have no stalks. [illustration: the great hedge bedstraw.] in the bedstraw family (order _rubiaceæ_) we have two very common, hedgerow plants--the great hedge bedstraw (_galium mollugo_) and the goose-grass or cleavers (_g. aparine_). the first is a very straggling plant, with a square stem, thickened at the joints, that often reaches a length of four or five feet. its leaves are elliptical, with apex terminating suddenly in a bristle-like point, and margins roughened by prickles that are either at right angles or pointing more or less forward. they are arranged in whorls, usually of eight, but sometimes six. the little white flowers, which bloom during july and august, are arranged in panicles with spreading branches, the lower of which are either horizontal or bent downward. the fruit is smooth. the goose grass is so named because it is eaten by geese; and it is also known as the cleavers because its fruits, which are covered with hooked bristles, cling tenaciously to our clothing and to the covering of animals. its straggling stem often reaches a length of four or five feet, and forms tangled masses with the stems and leaves of other hedgerow plants. the leaves are narrow and keeled; and the small, white flowers are arranged in small axillary clusters of two or three. the whole plant is rough with hooked bristles. [illustration: the teasel.] we conclude this chapter with a description of the common teasel (_dipsacus sylvestris_) of the order _dipsaceæ_. this is really a very graceful plant, rarely less than three or four feet high, and sometimes reaching six feet or more. its stem is very stout and prickly; and its large bright green leaves are simple, sessile, and arranged in opposite pairs. they are prickly beneath, and the two leaves of each pair are united at their bases in such a manner that they form hollows in which the rain-water collects. the reservoirs so formed often contain drowned insects which have flown or fallen into the water, or which have been washed down the stem by the rain. their dead bodies decompose, giving rise to nitrogenous and other products of decay which generally discolour the water. these products are valuable as plant food, and it has been said that they are absorbed by the leaves. the flowers of the teasel are collected in large heads, covered with straight, stiff bristles, and have an involucre of bracts which curve upwards. the flowers are of a pale purple colour. they commence to open near the middle of the head, forming a horizontal circle; and then they expand both upwards and downwards from this level. the flowers are not conspicuous individually, nor does each individual flower produce much pollen; but the large heads of bloom attract numerous insects which climb about among the flowers in search of nectar, covering their bodies with pollen, and thus aiding the process of fertilisation. [illustration: teasel-heads. , , and are successive flowering stages. , the elongated head in fruit.] xii waysides and wastes in summer (_continued_) composite flowers there are so many flowers of the order _compositæ_ in bloom by the wayside and on waste ground during the summer months that we devote a chapter entirely to them. this group is the largest of the natural orders, and is computed to contain about a tenth of all the known flowering plants. the chief distinguishing characteristic of the order is the arrangement of the flowers into crowded heads, each consisting of a number of little flowers or _florets_ that are sessile on a common _receptacle_, as in the case of the daisy, the dandelion, and the thistles. the florets of each head or _capitulum_ are generally arranged into two well-defined sets--the florets of the disc, occupying the centre; and the florets of the ray, spreading more or less in a radial manner from the edge of the disc. these two sets are often of different colours, as in the daisy, where the disc florets are of a deep yellow, while the ray florets are white or pink. in some of the composites all the florets of each head are perfect, while in others some are perfect and some imperfect. then, as regards the latter, they may be staminate or male florets, with no pistil; pistillate or female flowers, with no stamens; or neuter florets, possessing neither stamens nor pistil. in some few cases all the florets of one head are staminate, while the pistillate florets alone form other heads; and in these instances the two kinds of heads may be found on one plant, or only one kind may exist on the same plant. in all cases the capitulum is surrounded by one or more whorls of bracts which are often closely overlapping. the florets seldom possess a distinguishable calyx, but there is sometimes an indication of the presence of five sepals; in many, however, the calyx is represented by a whorl of hairs on the summit of the ovary. such a whorl is known as the _pappus_, and it frequently enlarges as the fruit ripens, forming a kind of parachute that allows the fruit to be carried great distances by the wind. the hairs of the pappus are often sessile on the fruit, but sometimes mounted on the summit of a slender stalk, as in the dandelion. further, the hairs which constitute the pappus may be simple or feathered. [illustration: capitulum or flower-head of the marigold, showing the _involucre_ or whorl of overlapping bracts.] the corolla frequently consists of five petals, united into a tube with as many teeth; but it is often _ligulate_ or strap-shaped, in which case the presence of five petals is often denoted by five minute teeth at the tip. where stamens exist they are five in number, attached to the petals, and the anthers are generally united in such a manner that they form a tube within the tube of the corolla. [illustration: florets of a composite flower. in fig. the corolla is strap-shaped; in fig. it is tubular.] fertilisation is brought about much in the same way in many of the composite flowers:--the anthers open inwards, discharging their pollen within the tube formed by themselves, and just above the stigma which, as yet, is immature. the style then lengthens, pushing its way up through the anther-tube, and brushing up the pollen by means of the tufts of hairs on its surface. at this stage a dense cluster of pollen cells, completely covering the top of the style, may be seen projecting above the tube of the corolla, and the pollen is sooner or later scattered, the distribution being aided greatly by the various insects which visit the flowers. the upper part of the style now divides into two parts, and the branches diverge, exposing the stigmatic surfaces which form the inner sides of the fork. it will thus be seen that the florets are not self-pollinated, since the stigma is generally mature after the pollen has all been removed from the same flower. our first example of this order is the yellow goat's-beard (_tragopogon pratensis_), also known as jack-go-to-bed-at-noon. this is a common wayside plant, of a glaucous green colour, with a milky sap. its stem is erect, from one to two feet high, and the whole plant is smooth. the flower-heads are solitary, large, yellow, and surrounded by a single row of narrow bracts that are united below; and the peduncle is thickened at the top. the bracts are generally as long as the florets, and the latter usually close about the middle of the day. the fruit is long and narrow, with longitudinal ridges; and the pappus consists of rows of feathery hairs which interlock and form a very shallow cup. the flowers bloom during june and july. [illustration: the yellow goat's-beard.] the bristly ox-tongue (_helminthia echioides_ or _picris echioides_), also a common plant, is more or less covered with rigid, hooked bristles, each of which arises from a swollen, white base; and it has a milky sap. the stem is stout, branched, very bristly, and grows from two to three feet high. the leaves are simple and toothed, the upper ones cordate and embracing the stem, and the lower ones _auricled_ or eared. the heads are terminal, consisting of yellow, ligulate florets, surrounded by five large cordate bracts. the fruit is brown, curved, with transverse ridges and a stalked pappus of feathery hairs. this species flowers from june to september. it is shown on plate iii. in the same genus we have the hawkweed picris (_p. hieracoides_) which bears yellow flowers from june to september. its stem, more slender than that of the last species, is from two to three feet high, branched towards the top, and rough with hooked bristles; and the leaves are lanceolate and toothed. there are numerous heads of flowers, about an inch in diameter, usually arranged in a corymb, but sometimes in an umbel, and there are bracts on the peduncles. [illustration: the hawkweed picris.] the strong-scented or acrid lettuce (_lactuca virosa_) is moderately common on dry wastes. it is an acrid, glaucous, leafy and prickly plant, with a milky juice. its erect stem grows to a height of three or four feet. its leaves are spreading, obovate in form, with toothed margins, and bristly hairs on the under side of the midrib. the lower leaves are frequently marked with dark spots, and the upper ones have pointed auricles which clasp the stem. the heads of flowers are small, pale yellow, and arranged in a loose, spreading panicle. the bracts overlap, the outer ones being shorter, and the receptacle is flat. each head contains only a few florets. the fruit is flattened, black, with a beak as long as itself and a pappus of many simple hairs. the flowers appear during july and august. another lettuce, known as the prickly lettuce (_l. scariola_), is somewhat rare. it is really less prickly than the last species, but is equally tall, and flowers during the same months. its leaves are erect, lanceolate, sagittate, with a wavy margin; and the upper ones clasp the stem. the fruit of this species is of a greyish colour, and has a beak of the same length. two species of sow-thistle (genus _sonchus_) are included among our wayside composites. they are erect, succulent plants, from two to three feet in height, with a milky juice, and either toothed or pinnatifid leaves. their flower-heads are yellow, arranged in a corymb, and bloom during the whole of the summer. each head is surrounded by several rows of overlapping bracts, and the receptacle is flat and pitted. the fruits are considerably flattened, without beaks; and the pappus consists of several rows of fine, silky, unbranched hairs. [illustration: the prickly lettuce.] one species is known as the sharp-fringed sow-thistle or the common milk-thistle (_s. oleraceus_). its leaves are sometimes deeply divided, but always more or less toothed; and the teeth often terminate in sharp prickles. the upper ones clasp the stem, and have spreading, arrow-shaped ears. the stem is branched and hollow; and the fruit is ribbed and transversely wrinkled. the second is the common sow-thistle (_s. asper_)--a very similar plant, but may be distinguished by its leaves, which are more spinously toothed, with _rounded_ ears. in this one the fruits are also ribbed, but they are not wrinkled transversely. the smooth hawk's-beard (_crepis virens_) has a furrowed, branched stem, from a few inches to three feet in height. its spreading radical leaves are deeply toothed, and narrower towards the base; and the stem leaves are narrow and sagittate. the numerous small heads of yellow flowers are panicled, and the outer florets are often tinged with red. the heads are surrounded by two rows of bracts, the outer of which are shorter and narrower, and the whole involucre assumes a conical form after flowering. the fruit is shorter than the pappus; tapering, but not beaked; and the pappus consists of several rows of unbranched, silky hairs. this plant flowers during july and august. it is very common on waste land, and may be frequently seen growing on old walls, and even on the roofs of country cottages and out-houses. [illustration: the sharp-fringed sow-thistle.] the genus _hieracium_ (hawkweeds) is a puzzle not only to the beginner, but also to experienced botanists, who have not yet agreed as to its division into species. according to some authorities these latter amount to seven, but they, or rather some of them, are so variable, and present so many intermediate characters, that some botanists divide the british members into no less than thirty-three species. all the plants of the group agree in the following particulars:--they have a milky sap. the leaves are nearly all radical. the flower-heads are either yellow or orange, surrounded by several rows of overlapping bracts. the receptacle is pitted. the fruit is not beaked, and its pappus consists of a single row of rigid, brittle, brownish hairs, which are simple and of unequal lengths. one species at least is a common wayside flower, and this is the shrubby hawkweed (_h. boreale_). it grows from two to four feet high, and bears a corymb of many yellow heads, from july to september. its stem is hairy below, downy with fine branched hairs above, and bears rigid, erect branches which are leafy, and often of a reddish colour. this species has no radical leaves. the stem leaves are ovate or lanceolate and toothed, the upper ones broad and slightly clasping the stem. the peduncle is scaly or woolly, and the involucre bracts are of a blackish green colour. [illustration: the smooth hawk's-beard.] the nipplewort (_lapsana communis_) is another very common composite of waysides and wastes. its stem is erect, from one to two feet high, branched, armed with scanty stiff hairs below, and smooth above. the leaves are thin and usually hairy, the lower ones ovate, pinnatifid or coarsely-toothed, with a few smaller lobes along the stalks, and the upper ones small, and entire or only slightly toothed. the flower-heads are small, yellow, in a loose panicle with long slender stalks. the involucre consists of about eight glaucous scales, about a quarter of an inch in length, and a whorl of small outer ones. the fruits are flattened, with many longitudinal nervures, and have no pappus. the flowers may be seen from july to september. the chicory or succory (_cichorium intybus_) is a local plant, but often very abundant where it exists. it has a long tap root; and a strong, erect, bristly and sticky stem. the lower leaves are spreading and hairy, deeply divided, with a large terminal lobe, and smaller lateral lobes which are pointed and coarsely toothed. the upper leaves are lanceolate, clasping the stem, with pointed auricles. the flower-heads are of a bright blue colour, large and conspicuous, mostly in sessile clusters of two or three along the rigid, spreading branches, but a few are terminal. the involucre consists of about eight inner bracts, and a whorl of outer ones that are much shorter. the florets are large; and the fruits are smooth, or nearly so, and closely enveloped in the lower part of the involucre. the time of flowering is from july to october. [illustration: the nipplewort.] our next species is the burdock (_arctium lappa_), familiar as a wayside plant not only on account of its abundance and its large size, but also on account of its globular flower-heads which cling so tenaciously to our clothing by means of the hooked points of the inner involucre bracts. it is a very stout, branching plant, varying from two to six feet in height, with very large, stalked, cordate lower leaves that often exceed a foot in length. the upper leaves are smaller, and broadly ovate; and both these and the lower ones are smooth or nearly so on the upper surface, but often covered with a short white down beneath. all the leaves are also finely toothed, but bear no prickles. the flower-heads are in terminal panicles, and are surrounded by many bracts which are either quite smooth or covered with a white, woolly down. the florets are purple, and all equal in size. the fruits are large, and bear a short pappus of stiff hairs. we now come to the interesting group of thistles, all distinguished by their very hard stems; their cut or toothed leaves, which are generally very prickly; and their round or oval heads of flowers, surrounded by many whorls of overlapping, and usually prickly, bracts. there are no ray florets, but all are tubular and approximately equal in length. our first example is the welted thistle (_carduus crispus_ or _carduus acanthoides_), which is a common plant in the south of england, but much less abundant in the north. in general appearance it closely resembles the musk thistle (p. ), but is usually taller. the stem is covered with prickles which run downwards in lines from the bases of the leaves. the flowers are purple, in small, globular, clustered heads, which droop slightly; and the numerous bracts of the involucre are narrow, more or less erect, and terminate in a spreading or hooked prickle. the pappus consists of rough, unbranched hairs. the above is the description of the commonest form of this thistle, but it is a very variable species. the plants vary from one to three feet in height, and flower from june to august. [illustration: the burdock.] throughout the summer we may meet with the spear thistle (_c. lanceolatus_), a very abundant species which grows on almost all waste places. the plant is a stout one, varying from about one to five feet in height, with a winged, prickly stem. the leaves are cut into short, narrow lobes, with a long and pointed terminal one. they are covered above with stiff hairs, and below with a white down; and all the lobes terminate in stiff spines. the involucre is oval in form, covered with cottony down; and its bracts are lanceolate, terminating with a stiff, spreading spine. the flower-heads are few in number, with purple florets, and measure about an inch and a quarter in diameter. [illustration: the spear thistle.] another common species is the creeping thistle (_c. arvensis_), which has a perennial, creeping rootstock that gives off erect annual stems from two to four feet in height. the stem is not winged, but the prickly leaves clasp it, and sometimes extend a little way down at their bases. the leaves are narrow, smooth, with edges turned inwards, very prickly, and cut into numerous narrow lobes. the flower-heads are small, arranged in loose terminal clusters, and are surrounded by numerous, closely-placed bracts with small, sharp points. the flowers are always imperfect, and the male and female blooms always occur on separate plants. the heads of the male plants are globular in form, with spreading purple florets; while those of the female plant are longer and almost cylindrical in form, with longer bracts and shorter florets. the pappus consists of numerous feathery hairs which grow very long as the fruit ripens. this species flowers during july and august. the tansy (_tanacetum vulgare_) is common in the hedgerows of most localities, and is easily recognised by the powerful odour and bitter taste of its leaves and flowers. it has a creeping root; an erect, strong stem, which is either quite smooth or (generally) slightly downy; and large, pinnate leaves, with narrow, deeply-toothed or pinnatifid segments. there are a large number of flower-heads, nearly half an inch in diameter, of a bright yellow colour, and arranged in large flat-topped corymbs. this plant is common in most parts of britain, grows to a height of about three feet, and flowers during august and september. [illustration: the creeping thistle.] the mugwort (_artemisia vulgaris_) is a very common roadside plant in most districts, valued by many villagers as a remedy for rheumatism. it has a short, woody rootstock; and erect, branching stems varying from two to four feet in height. the leaves are deeply cut into narrow, acute segments which are either coarsely serrate or lobed. they are green and smooth above, but very white with a woolly down below. the flower-heads are very numerous, erect, and arranged in a somewhat crowded, long, terminal panicle. each head is surrounded by a woolly involucre, and consists of from fifteen to over twenty florets, either all perfect or including a few without stamens. they are oval in form, and of a reddish or yellowish-brown colour. the plant blooms throughout the summer. [illustration: the tansy.] in the same genus is the absinth or wormwood (_a. absinthium_), which is not so tall or so slender as the last species, from which it may readily be distinguished by its powerful aroma and bitter taste. the whole of the plant is whitish with a close, fine down; and the erect stems, from one to two feet high, are stiff and hard. the leaves are very similar to those of the mugwort, but are much broader, are silky on both sides, and the narrow lobes of the leaves are blunt at the tips. the flower-heads are also similarly arranged, but they are almost globular in form, very silky, and more or less drooping. the florets are numerous, and of a dull yellow colour, the central ones being mostly fertile, while the outer, without stamens, are small, and often barren. the plant flowers during august and september, is not so common as the last species, but is abundant in districts near the sea. one of the most conspicuous flowers of the summer is the common ragwort (_senecio jacobæa_). it belongs to the same genus as the groundsel, but differs in having very showy, terminal corymbs of large, bright yellow flowers with spreading rays. its erect stem does not branch, as a rule, except near the top, and reaches a height of from one to three or four feet. the outer bracts of the involucre are small and few in number, and both these and the inner ones are generally tipped with black. occasionally we may meet with plants of this species in which the flower-heads have no ray, but in general the ray is well-formed, and consists of about twelve narrow or oblong florets. [illustration: the wormwood.] the common feverfew (_matricaria parthenium_ or _chrysanthemum parthenium_) is a very abundant wayside flower, of which a double variety is commonly grown in gardens. the plant reaches a foot or more in height, and flowers freely from july to september. the stems are erect and branched; and the leaves are stalked and pinnately divided into ovate or oblong, lobed, toothed segments. the numerous flower-heads are arranged in a corymb, and are about half an inch in diameter, with white ray and yellow disc. the plant may be distinguished from similar species of the same genus by the little toothed border on the summit of the ripe fruits, and by the strong and somewhat pleasant odour of all its parts. [illustration: the ragwort.] even more common, in most places, is the corn feverfew or scentless mayweed (_m. inodora_), which flowers from june to the end of the summer. its stem is erect, with spreading branches; and the sessile leaves are two or three times divided into narrow, almost hair-like segments. the flower-heads are much larger than those of the last species, sometimes reaching a diameter of about two inches, and are solitary. the involucre is brown, with a membranous edge; the ray white, and the disc yellow. it is sometimes confused with the wild chamomile, but may be distinguished by the shape of the receptacle, which is hemispherical, and not so conical as in _chamomilla_. [illustration: the scentless mayweed.] [illustration: the yarrow or milfoil.] our last example of the composites of the wayside is the yarrow or milfoil (_achillea millefolium_)--a plant that might be mistaken by the beginner for one of the umbellifers when seen at a distance; but a closer examination will show not only that the level-topped inflorescence is a dense, terminal corymb, but also that the flowers are collected into little heads, each of which consists of a few white or pink, pistillate ray-florets, surrounding a little cluster of tubular, perfect, yellow florets of the disc. the leaves are narrow oblong, and very finely cut into many hair-like, branching segments. the whole plant has a strong and rather pleasant odour. it grows from six to eighteen inches high, and flowers from june to september. xiii wastes and waysides in summer (_continued_) continuing our list of the numerous wayside flowers of the summer months, we take first the rampion bellflower or ramps (_campanula rapunculus_), of the order _campanulaceæ_. the flowers of this order are usually easily distinguished by their bell-shaped corolla, mounted on an inferior ovary, and by their general resemblance to the canterbury bells so familiar to us as favourite garden flowers. the rampion is to be seen on some of the sandy or gravelly wastes of the south of england during july and august, but is rather local in its distribution. it has an angled, erect stem, from two to three feet high, rough with stiff, white hairs. the stem leaves are narrow, pointed, and usually entire; but the lower leaves are broader, with slightly-scalloped edges, on long stalks. the blue flowers are arranged in erect terminal racemes, either simple or branched, each flower having a short stalk. in order to distinguish between this and other species of the same genus we should note that the segments of its calyx are narrow and entire; and that the corolla is divided deeply into five narrow, pointed segments. the great bindweed (_convolvulus sepium_) of the order _convolvulaceæ_, is very conspicuous in most hedgerows, and is probably so well known that a description need hardly be given for purposes of identification, but we must call attention to a few interesting features that might be overlooked. it is both a creeper and a climber, for it has a creeping rootstock that enables it to travel considerable distances below the surface of the ground, and a twining stem, usually four or five feet long, by which it climbs over the surrounding plants or shrubs. the large, white flowers, which bloom from june to august, are arranged singly on short stalks. each has a pair of rather large bracts which completely hide the calyx, and which might at first be mistaken for the calyx itself. the small bindweed is, perhaps, more commonly seen in fields than in hedgerows, and is included among the field flowers on p. ; and the dodders, belonging to the same order, are described with the other parasitic plants in chapter xxiii. [illustration: the rampion bellflower.] the four british plants of the order _solanaceæ_ are all wayside species, flowering from june onwards, and may be considered together here. they possess the following features in common:--the leaves are alternately arranged, without stipules. the flowers are regular, with a five-toothed or five-lobed calyx, and a corolla of (usually) five united petals which are folded in the bud. the number of stamens correspond with that of the lobes of the corolla, and the ovary, which is two-celled, ripens into a berry containing several seeds, except in the henbane, where it forms a capsule. the henbane (_hyoscyamus niger_) is an erect plant, with a branching stem from one to two feet high, and the whole is more or less coarse and hairy, with a viscid touch and an unpleasant odour. the flowers are of a dingy yellow colour, and are arranged, with very short stalks, in one-sided, leafy spikes which are curved backwards before the flowers are open. the calyx is at first short, but grows longer, as the fruits ripen, until it is about an inch long. it has prominent veins, and its five lobes are stiff and bristly. the dingy corolla also reaches a length of an inch or more, and is distinctly marked with dark bluish veins. this plant flowers from june to september, and is moderately common in waste places, especially near houses. the other three flowers of this order referred to are all known as nightshades, and two of them belong to the genus _solanum_, in which the flowers are arranged in few-flowered terminal or lateral cymes, on short stalks. the corolla has scarcely any tube, and the flowers are easily distinguished by the peculiar arrangement of the five anthers, which are on very short filaments, and are placed close against the style in such a manner as to form a compact cone in the centre of the flower. [illustration: the great bindweed.] one species--the black nightshade (_s. nigrum_)--is rather local in its distribution, but often very abundant where it occurs, appearing as a common weed on cultivated soils. it is an erect, spreading herb, either quite smooth or slightly hairy, growing from six inches to two feet high, with swollen angles on its branching stem. its leaves are stalked, ovate, more or less wavy, with large angular teeth; and the small, white flowers are on short lateral stalks. the fruit is a small, round, black or scarlet berry. this species may be seen in flower from june almost to the end of the year. [illustration: the henbane.] the other species--the woody nightshade or bittersweet (_s. dulcamara_)--is much more common, and may be seen straggling among the hedgerow shrubs almost everywhere. it is a woody climber that supports itself by means of its zig-zag stem, and often reaches a height of six feet or more. the flower seems to be very well known, but is often, if not generally, spoken of as the deadly nightshade, which is a much rarer species with quite a different habit and appearance. the leaves are stalked, and usually more or less heart-shaped. sometimes they are entire, but frequently there is a small lobe on each side of the base. the flowers, though rather small, are very pretty, the conspicuous cone of yellow anthers forming a bright centre to the spreading purple corolla. they bloom from june to september; and towards the end of the season the bright red fruits may be seen in abundance while the flowers are still appearing. [illustration: the woody nightshade or bittersweet.] the true deadly nightshade or dwale (_atropa belladonna_), of the same order, is a very local plant, occurring principally in waste places in the south of england. it is an erect, branching herb, either smooth or slightly downy, reaching a height of two or three feet, and flowering from june to september. the leaves are large stalked, ovate, and entire; and each one has, usually, a smaller leaf, growing from the same point on the stem and looking like a stipule. the flowers are very different in general appearance from those of the other nightshades. they are large--about an inch long, and solitary, on short stalks, in the axils of the leaves or in the forks of the stem. the calyx is a broad bell, deeply cut into five lobes; and the corolla is a deep, regular bell, of a pale purple colour, with five short, broad lobes. the fruit is a large, poisonous berry, almost globular, but flattened above. [illustration: the deadly nightshade.] on waysides and in neglected fields we meet with the very common red bartsia (_bartsia odontites_) of the order _scrophulariaceæ_. this is a small, tough plant (see plate iii), from six inches to a foot or more in height, rather downy, with spreading branches. it may be readily recognised by its several one-sided spikes of numerous purple-red flowers, with a bell-shaped, four-pointed calyx, and a corolla that is divided into a longer upper, and a shorter lower, lip. the leaves are long and narrow, with a few teeth; and the fruit is an oblong capsule. the above description applies to the most usual form of this plant, but it is a very variable species, especially as regards the form of the leaves and the branching of the stem. the yellow toadflax (_linaria vulgaris_), of the same order, is a very pretty plant, from one to three feet high, exceedingly common on banks, hedges, and the borders of fields, bearing dense, terminal racemes of yellow flowers from june to october. its calyx is small, and deeply divided into five segments; and the corolla, which has a long pointed spur at the base, is closed above by the bright orange 'palate' of the lower lip. [illustration: the yellow toadflax.] in the order _verbenaceæ_ we have the common vervein (_verbena officinalis_), a common plant in the dry wastes of the south of england, and moderately frequent in some other parts. this is a smooth, erect plant, with long, spreading, wiry, four-angled stems; and small, lilac flowers in long, slender spikes. there are but few leaves towards the top of the plant, and these are narrow and sessile, while the lower leaves are broader, stalked, and coarsely toothed. when the flowers first appear they are close together, but the spike increases in length as the flowering proceeds, so that the lower flowers and fruits become more distant. each flower has a five-toothed calyx, and an irregular corolla with a short tube and five unequal lobes. the vervein grows from one to two feet high, and flowers from july to september. [illustration: the vervein.] passing now to the labiates, we deal first with two species of calamints (genus _calamintha_), which are to be distinguished from the other genera of the order by their axillary cymes of flowers, with calyx and corolla both lipped, and the upper lip of the latter erect and flat. one of these, the common calamint (_calamintha officinalis_), is a hairy plant, with an erect, branched stem, one or two feet high, and stalked, ovate, toothed leaves. the whorls of flowers are compound, in forked, axillary cymes. the calyx is tubular, with thirteen ribs and five pointed teeth. the three upper teeth are united at their base to form the upper lip, while the other two, longer and narrower, form the lower. the corolla is almost twice as long as the calyx, with an upper, erect lip, and a lower lip with three broad lobes. the stamens are four in number, in pairs, under the upper lip. the lesser calamint (_c. nepeta_) is a very similar plant, by some held to be merely a variety of _c. officinalis_. its leaves are shortly stalked, but slightly toothed, and only about half an inch in length. the flowers are about as long as the leaves, arranged in whorls of eight or ten, with corolla about half as long again as the calyx. in both species the mouth of the calyx is hairy, but the hairs are much more prominent in the lesser calamint than in the last. both plants are frequently seen on sunny waysides, flowering during july and august. [illustration: the balm.] the balm (_melissa officinalis_) is a common garden herb in some parts, and in the south of england it is now fairly established as a wild flower, though, at present, it is not often found very far from the habitations of man. it is a hairy plant, much like a calamint in general appearance, growing from one to three feet high, and bearing white flowers in july and august. its leaves are stalked, ovate, acute, toothed or crenate, of a pale green below; and the flowers are shortly-stalked, in few-flowered, axillary whorls. the black horehound (_ballota nigra_), shown on plate iii, fig. , is a coarse, hairy plant, with an unpleasant odour, commonly seen on roadsides and wastes, flowering continuously from the beginning of june to september or october. its erect stem often exceeds three feet in height, and branches more or less freely. the purple flowers are in dense clusters in the axils of the leaves, and beneath them are several narrow, stiff bracts. the calyx is about a third of an inch long, green or purple-green in colour, with ten prominent ribs, and five broad teeth which usually terminate abruptly in a fine, stiff point. the corolla is of a purple colour, twice as long as the calyx, with an arched, oval upper lip; and a slightly longer lower lip of three segments, the middle one of which is the largest. the hedge woundwort. our last example of the wayside labiates is the hedge woundwort (_stachys sylvatica_)--a very abundant and pretty plant that grows most luxuriantly in damp, shady places, such as the borders of ditches, the edges of woods, and shady banks and hedgerows. its square stem is solid and stout, straight and erect, and more or less branched. all the leaves are stalked, the upper ones being narrow and entire, while the lower are large, ovate or cordate, with a crenate or toothed edge and a very pointed apex. the flowers, which bloom from july to september, are in distant whorls of from six to ten, in the axils of the upper leaves, forming long spikes. the calyx is bell-shaped, with ten ribs, and five spreading teeth which are pointed, but not stiff; and the corolla, the tube of which is longer than the calyx, is of a dark, red-purple colour, prettily variegated with white on the lower lip. this plant varies from one to three feet in height and has a very unpleasant odour. we next take a few examples of the borage family (order _boraginaceæ_), all of which are herbs more or less rough with coarse hairs, having alternate, simple leaves, and flowers in one-sided spikes or racemes which are rolled back while in bud. in all of them the calyx has five divisions or teeth, and the corolla consists of five united petals of equal or nearly equal size. there are five stamens within the tube of the corolla, and the fruit consists of four nutlets enclosed in the persistent calyx. one of these--the field scorpion grass (_myosotis arvensis_)--is often called the forget-me-not, but it usually grows in dry waste places, while the true forget-me-not is found in wet situations. the flowers of this species are also very much smaller. the stem of the plant is thin, and bears small, oval, hairy leaves. the small blue corolla has short, spreading, concave segments, and is surrounded by a calyx that is cleft to the middle, and covered with hooked hairs. the sepals spread while the flower is open, but assume an erect position when in fruit. as a further means of distinguishing between this and other similar species of the same genus we should note that the peduncle is longer than the calyx, and that the style is very short. the plant varies from six to eighteen inches in height, and flowers throughout the summer. the gromwell or grey millet (_lithospermum officinale_) is a stout plant with several erect, branched stems. the flowers are small, of a pale yellow colour, in leafy racemes. the calyx is hairy and very deeply cleft into five segments; and the corolla, which is about the same length as the calyx, is funnel-shaped, with small scales in the throat of its tube. this plant derives its generic name of _lithospermum_ from the nature of its fruit, which consists of white, stony nutlets with a smooth and polished surface. its height is from twelve to eighteen inches; and the flowers appear during june and july. our next species--the borage (_borago officinalis_)--is not indigenous, but is found wild in many parts, frequently in great abundance. it is a very bristly plant, from one to two feet high, bearing bright blue flowers from june to august. its stem has spreading branches, and the leaves are obovate, narrowing at the base into the stalk. the upper leaves are narrower than the lower ones, and have shorter petioles. the flowers are of a blue colour, or sometimes almost white, and are drooping on rather long pedicels. the segments of the corolla are spreading and very pointed; and the dark anthers are very conspicuous in the centre of the flower. the two british alkanets (_anchusa_) are interesting plants, though not very common. they are coarse and hairy, and bear large, blue, bracteate flowers, distinguished by a deeply five-cleft calyx; a corolla with five spreading lobes, and a straight tube closed at the mouth by blunt, hairy scales; and five stamens included within the tube. the fruit consists of rather large wrinkled nuts. one species, though generally known as the common alkanet (_anchusa officinalis_), is really a rare plant, occurring only as an escape from cultivation in the neighbourhood of towns and villages. it has an angular stem; narrow leaves--the lower ones very long, on long stalks, and the upper ones smaller; and forked, one-sided, spikes of sessile or shortly-stalked flowers of a rich blue colour. the calyx is bristly, longer than the corolla, and cleft into narrow divisions. this plant grows from one to two feet high, and flowers during june and july. [illustration: the gromwell.] the other species--the evergreen alkanet (_anchusa sempervirens_)--is not uncommon in some southern and south-western districts. it is a stout, very bristly plant, from one to two feet high, with rather large, blue flowers in short, opposite spikes. it is shown on plate iii. our last flower of the borage family is the hound's-tongue (_cynoglossum officinale_), which is moderately common on waste ground, flowering during june and july. this is an erect plant, from one to two feet high, with a very unpleasant odour. its stem is stout, branched and hairy; and the leaves are thickly covered with soft down. the lowest leaves are oval, with long stalks, often ten or twelve inches in length; but the upper ones become smaller and narrower, with shorter stalks, till towards the top they are very narrow, sessile, and clasp the stem. the flowers are in racemes, with short pedicels, and have no bracts. the segments of the calyx are narrow and pointed; and the small corolla is of a reddish purple colour. the fruit is covered with little spines and is about a quarter of an inch in diameter. on dry waysides the buck's-horn plantain (_plantago coronopus_--order _plantaginaceæ_) is common. it may be readily distinguished as a plantain by its slender, cylindrical spikes of small flowers, and its spreading tuft of radical leaves. this species has a thick rootstock, and its leaves are either linear and undivided, or, more commonly, cut into very narrow segments. the flowers are green, with broad, hairy sepals, the whole spike measuring from one to two inches in length. they bloom during june and july. [illustration: the hound's-tongue.] the plants which form the genus _chenopodium_, of the order _chenopodiaceæ_, are essentially plants of the wayside and waste ground, and of these we shall have to note several species. most of them are distinguished by the dusty mealiness of their leaves, though a few do not possess this feature. in general they are characterised by alternate, flat leaves; and small, green flowers in little sessile clusters, forming spikes in the axils of the upper leaves. the little flowers usually have a perianth of five segments which more or less enclose the fruit; also five stamens, and two or three styles. the following summary of the characters of these plants will enable the reader to identify them:-- . stinking goose-foot (_chenopodium olidum_ or _c. vulvaria_.)--a procumbent or spreading plant, with a granular, mealy surface and a nauseous odour resembling that of stale fish, especially when rubbed or bruised. stems from six inches to a foot or more in length, and much branched. leaves stalked, small, ovate, and entire. flowers in dense, leafless, axillary and terminal spikes which are shorter than the leaves. moderately common in many parts, especially in the eastern counties. time of flowering--august and september. [illustration: the white goose-foot.] . many-seeded goose-foot (_c. polyspermum_).--a procumbent or erect, spreading plant, without mealiness or nauseous odour. stem much branched. leaves ovate or elliptical, entire, green, less than two inches long. flowers in axillary and terminal, leafless spikes, with a calyx that does not cover the fruit. common in parts of england, flowering during august and september. . upright goose-foot (_c. urbicum_).--an erect plant, with a stout stem and few branches. leaves green on both sides. lower leaves on long stalks, broad, ovate or triangular, with bases narrowed towards the stalk in such a manner as to approach a rhomboidal form, two or three inches long, and irregularly toothed or lobed. upper leaves narrower, nearly entire, and acute. flowers in small, dense clusters, forming rather long, erect spikes. the green perianth does not completely cover the fruit. common on roadsides and waste ground, flowering in august and september. . white goose-foot (_c. album_).--a very common plant, varying in colour from a pale green to a mealy white. stem stout, erect, from one to three feet high. lower leaves stalked, ovate or rhomboid, more or less toothed or angular, but entire at the base. upper leaves lanceolate, entire. spikes of flowers irregularly clustered, leafy, and usually branched; the upper ones forming a long panicle, intermixed with the upper leaves. perianth entirely covering the fruit. . fig-leaved goose-foot (_c. ficifolium_).--by some regarded as a distinct species, but by others included among the varieties of _c. album_. it closely resembles the latter in general appearance, but its lower leaves are divided into three unequal lobes, and are somewhat spear-shaped. . red goose-foot (_c. rubrum_).--an erect plant, from one to three feet high, with smooth, triangular, irregularly-toothed leaves, resembling those of the upright goose-foot. the spikes, also, closely resemble those of the same plant, but the flowers have generally only two or three segments to the perianth, and these often turn red as the fruit ripens. the flowers appear during august and september. this species is moderately common in most parts, and especially near the sea, where it may be seen growing on the shingle very close to the water's edge. . mercury goose-foot, allgood, or good king henry (_c. bonus-henricus_).--an erect plant, from one to three feet high, growing from a thick, fleshy root like that of the dock. leaves stalked, triangular, acute, wavy or toothed, of a dark green colour. upper leaves smaller, and almost sessile. flowers in clustered, compound spikes, forming a terminal panicle, leafy below. fruit completely enclosed in the perianth. this plant was formerly cultivated as a potherb, and is now commonly found on waste ground near villages. time of flowering--june to august. in the same order we have the common orache (_atriplex patula_)--a very variable plant, from a few inches to three feet in height, with erect or prostrate stem, and more or less mealy in appearance. lower leaves triangular, with spreading lobes at the base. upper leaves narrower, and entire or slightly toothed. flowers in simple spikes, forming leafy, terminal panicles. they are of two kinds--male and female, either mixed, or collected in separate clusters. segments of the perianth united, pointed, sometimes toothed, and spotted above. the plant flowers from july to september, and is abundant in most parts, especially near the sea. the order _polygonaceæ_ also includes several wayside plants which may be easily distinguished as a group by the following characters:--at the bases of the alternate leaves are membranous stipules that form a sheath round the stem. the flowers are small, arranged in clusters in the axils of the leaves, or in terminal spikes or racemes. the fruit is a small nut, enclosed more or less in the persistent perianth. three of the plants to which we refer belong to the genus _polygonum_, in which the sheathing stipule is usually fringed at the edge; and the small flowers are either green or red, with a perianth of five segments, and stamens not exceeding eight in number. the little nuts, too, are either flattened or triangular. the three species may be identified by the following summary of their leading features: [illustration: the spotted persicaria.] . the spotted persicaria (_polygonum persicaria_).--a very common wayside plant, and a weed of almost all cultivated soils, growing from one to two feet high, and flowering from july to october. the leaves have, usually, a dark-coloured patch in the centre; and the stipules are fringed at the top with fine, stiff hairs. the flowers are rose-coloured, with more or less green, arranged in short axillary or terminal spikes without any leaves; and the nuts are rather thick, but flattened, smooth, and glossy. . pale-flowered persicaria (_p. lapathifolium_).--very similar to the spotted persicaria, and sometimes regarded as a variety of that species; but it differs in that its leaves are never spotted, and the lower stipules are not fringed with hairs. the peduncle and perianth, which are smooth in _p. persicaria_, are here rough, being dotted with small, projecting glands; and the styles, which are united to about half way up in the last species, are quite free in the present one. the flowers are pink, with more or less green, and do not usually bloom after august; and the plant often attains a length of three or four feet. . knot-grass or knot-weed (_p. aviculare_).--a very common procumbent weed, with wiry stems from one to two or three feet long. the leaves, seldom as much as an inch in length, are narrow, oblong, and flat; and the stipules are white, membranous, more or less cut at the edges, with a few veins. the flowers are small, very variable in colour, arranged in short-stalked clusters of about three or four in the axils of nearly all the leaves; and the fruit is a triangular nut, shorter than the segments of the perianth. this plant flowers from july to september. an erect variety, growing to a height of two feet or more, may be seen in cornfields. the same order includes the well-known docks (_rumex_), which differ from _persicaria_ as follows:--the root is very thick, and grows to a great depth; the stems are erect and furrowed; and the thin membranous stipules, though never fringed with hairs, often become more or less torn. the flowers are small, green, in axillary clusters or terminal racemes, often turning red as the fruit ripens. the perianth is deeply divided into five segments, three of which become enlarged and close over the triangular nut. two species of this genus are abundant on waysides. they are:-- . the broad-leaved dock (_rumex obtusifolius_).--a stout plant, two or three feet high, and slightly branched. the lower leaves are ovate, cordate at the base, blunt, often eight or nine inches long; and the upper ones narrow and pointed. the flowers are perfect, reddish green, in distant whorls, forming a terminal raceme which is leafless above. the inner segment of the perianth is enlarged, ovate, distinctly toothed, with a long point. time of flowering--july to september. . the curled dock (_r. crispus_).--very similar to the broad-leaved dock in size and habit, but flowering somewhat earlier. the lower leaves are much narrower, six to eight inches long, lanceolate, pointed, and wavy at the edges. the upper leaves are small and narrower, passing gradually into still smaller bracts towards the lower flowers. the flowers are in crowded whorls, on slender pedicels which are longer than the perianths; and the inner segment of the perianth is enlarged, cordate, but not toothed. [illustration: the curled dock.] we have now to note two species of spurge (_euphorbia_) that grow by the wayside; but before doing so it will be well to make ourselves acquainted with the general characters of the interesting group to which they belong. the spurges are herbs with a milky juice, and a stem which is usually unbranched below, bearing alternate leaves. the flowering branches, towards the top of the plant, generally radiate from one point, forming an umbel of from two to five or more rays that proceed from the axil of one or more leaves. each ray is usually forked, and sometimes repeatedly so, with a pair of leaves at each angle, and a little head of yellowish-green flowers between the branches. each flower-head is surrounded by a small cup of united bracts, inside which is a whorl of little yellow or brownish glands, placed horizontally. in the centre of the head is a single female flower, consisting of a three-celled ovary, with a three-cleft style, mounted on a stalk of such a length that the flower droops over the edge of the cup. around this female flower are from ten to fifteen little male flowers, each consisting of a single stamen with a minute scale at its base. the fruit contains three seeds, one in each carpel. the sun spurge (_euphorbia helioscopia_) is a common species, varying from six to eighteen inches high, flowering from june to october. its stem is generally simple, but sometimes branched at the base; and the leaves are obovate or broadly oblong, without stipules, serrate, and narrowed down at the base to a short stalk. the floral leaves are very broad--almost round--and edged with very small teeth. the umbel consists of five rays, each of which is forked, with very short branches; and the glands within the cup are nearly round. the fruits are quite smooth, and the seeds have a netted surface. the other species--the petty spurge (_e. peplus_)--is a smaller plant, seldom exceeding a foot in length, with an erect or decumbent stem branching at the bottom. the stem-leaves are oval or obovate, entire, shortly-stalked and placed alternately; and the floral leaves are cordate or broadly ovate. the flower-heads are small, surrounded by crescent-shaped glands with long points; and the carpels of the fruit have rough keels or wings. [illustration: the great nettle.] passing to the stinging nettles (order _urticaceæ_), we have to deal with three herbs that are remarkable for the stinging hairs which clothe both leaves and stem. the leaves of all are opposite, and the flowers imperfect. the male flowers have four stamens, and a small, green perianth of four segments; while the females consist of an ovary with a tufted stigma, surrounded by a perianth of four segments the two inner of which are larger, or of two segments only. the fruit is a small, flattened nut, enclosed in the persistent perianth. the distinguishing characters of the three species are as follows: . the small nettle (_urtica urens_).--an erect herb, from one to two feet high, with leaves and stem smooth with the exception of the stiff, stinging hairs. the leaves are thin, elliptical, deeply and regularly toothed; and the flowers are in unbranched axillary spikes which are shorter than the petioles, the males and females being intermixed. this is a common species, flowering from june to september. . the great nettle (_u. dioica_).--a dark green herb, from one to four feet high, more or less clothed with soft downy hairs in addition to the stiff, stinging ones. the lower leaves are ovate or cordate, coarsely toothed; and the upper ones narrower. the spikes of flowers are branched, longer than the petioles, in the axils of the leaves. the flowers are very similar to those of the small nettle, but the males and females are usually on separate plants. this is a very common species, flowering from june to september. [illustration: canary grass.] . the roman nettle (_u. pilulifera_).--a coarse, erect plant, from one to two feet high, with stinging hairs more powerful than those of the other species. the leaves are ovate or cordate, deeply and regularly toothed. the male flowers are in clusters along the peduncles, which are often as long as the leaves; and the females are in globular heads at the top of stalks from half an inch to an inch in length. the heads of fruits are about a third of an inch in diameter, thickly covered with stinging hairs. this plant flowers from june to september. it is not so abundant as the other nettles, and is found principally in the neighbourhood of villages, especially in the eastern counties of england. although the hop (_humulus lupulus_) does not sting, the whole plant is rough with stiff hairs resembling those of the nettles, and it is placed in the same order. it is a climber, and clings to the hedgerow shrubs by twining its long stems, which always turn in the same direction as the sun. its leaves are opposite, stalked, broadly heart-shaped in general form, but cut into three or five sharply-toothed lobes. the flowers, like those of the nettles, are imperfect, and the male and female blossoms grow on separate plants. the former are in lax panicles, in the axils of the upper leaves: they are small, of a yellowish green colour, each consisting of five stamens surrounded by a perianth of five segments. the females are arranged in rounded heads or spikes on short stalks in the axils of the leaves. the heads are made up of a number of closely-placed bracts, each with two little flowers at its base; and each flower consists of an ovary, enclosed in a scale, with two long, narrow stigmas. after fertilisation the scales of the head grow very large, forming very conspicuous 'cones' in which the little fruits lie concealed. the hop flowers from july to september, and is common in hedgerows and thickets. of the several wayside grasses we have space for the mention of but one species--the interesting canary grass (_phalaris canariensis_). it is a native of south europe, introduced into this country and cultivated for its seed (canary seed), but is now often seen growing wild in waste places. it is represented on p. . [illustration: _plate iv._ flowers of the field. . rough cock's-foot grass. . lucerne. . crimson clover. . blue bottle. . common vetch. . meadow clary.] xiv meadows, fields and pastures--summer in the present chapter we shall briefly describe a considerable number of flowers which are to be seen in fields and pastures during the summer months; but we must remind the reader that many of the species previously mentioned in chapter viii as flowering in similar situations in the spring, continue to bloom during the whole or a portion of the summer. a list of these is given below; and it should be noted that the flowers described in this chapter are those which do not generally commence to bloom till the month of june. spring flowers of meadows, fields and pastures which continue to bloom in the summer. creeping buttercup. bulbous buttercup. field penny cress. wild pansy. ragged robin. spotted medick. netted medick. white clover. purple clover. earthnut. daisy. dandelion. yellow rattle. field louse-wort. henbit dead nettle. common sorrel. sheep's sorrel. twayblade. the upright buttercup or meadow crowfoot (_ranunculus acris_) is often confused with the two similar species (_r. repens_ and _r. bulbosus_) already described in chapter viii, but it may be easily distinguished from the former by the absence of creeping stems, and from the latter by the spreading calyx and by the fibrous root without any bulbous swelling. the whole plant is covered with soft hairs more or less spreading; and it varies in height from six inches to three feet according to the nature of the soil in which it grows. its leaves are all stalked with the exception of the few upper ones, and are very deeply divided into three, five, or seven radiating segments which are again cut into three lobes with acute divisions. the flowers are rather large, on long terminal stalks, with a calyx of five yellowish-green, concave sepals; and a very bright yellow corolla. the carpels are ovate, slightly flattened, smooth, arranged in a globular head; and the fruits are also smooth. the plant flowers during june and july. another 'buttercup'--the pale hairy crowfoot (_r. hirsutus_) is to be seen in our pastures; and though not so common as the three just mentioned, it is very generally distributed in england and the south of scotland. it seldom exceeds a foot in height, and flowers from june to the end of the summer. its stem is erect, hairy, and freely branched; and its leaves are much like those of the bulbous buttercup (p. ). the flowers, however, are smaller and more numerous than those of the latter, and are of a paler yellow colour; but the sepals are bent back on the flower-stalk as in this species. the fruits are rough when quite ripe, with little tubercles along the margins. [illustration: the gold of pleasure.] cruciferous flowers are not at all abundant in fields and meadows during the summer months, but one species--the gold of pleasure (_camelina sativa_)--may be seen in the flax-fields of south britain and ireland during june and july. the plant has a simple or slightly branched stem, from one to three feet high; and its leaves are all sessile, narrow, arrow-shaped, either entire or slightly toothed, with pointed lobes at the base. the flowers are small, yellow, arranged in a long, loose raceme; and the fruits are oval siliquas, with convex valves, a distinct central vein, and edges flattened into a narrow wing. [illustration: the bladder campion.] the order _caryophyllaceæ_ is represented in pastures by the bladder campion (_silene inflata_ or _s. cucubalis_)--a flower that is easily recognised among the campions and the catchflys by the globular calyx. the stem of the plant is semi-erect, branched below, and from two to three feet high. the leaves are sessile, smooth, oblong, usually acute, and placed in pairs on the jointed stem. the flowers are rather large, arranged in lax, terminal panicles, and often droop slightly. the calyx is globular, veined, and about half an inch or more in diameter; and the five petals, which are deeply cleft into two lobes, have each a scale at the base of the spreading limb. the plant is very widely distributed over britain, and is very common in some districts, flowering during june and july. the same order contains the white campion (_lychnis vespertina_)--a hairy plant, with a branched stem from one to two feet high, and rather large white or very pale pink flowers that open in the evening. it is abundant in most parts of britain, and flowers during june and july. its leaves are oval or oblong, usually pointed, and tapering towards the base. the flowers are in loose cymes, and imperfect; the staminate and the pistillate ones being usually on different plants. the calyx is generally more than half an inch long, hairy, with ten ribs and five narrow teeth. it is tubular at first, but becomes broadly oval, with a contracted mouth, as the fruit ripens. the five limbs of the corolla are spreading and rather deeply cleft into two parts; and the fruit is a capsule that splits at the top by ten teeth which remain erect or curve only slightly outwards. the plant is found principally in fields and in open waste ground. [illustration: the white campion.] our fields and pastures are particularly rich in flowers of the pea family (order _leguminosæ_) during the summer months; and of these we shall first note the pretty kidney vetch or lady's fingers (_anthyllis vulneraria_), which is common in the dry pastures of most parts of britain. the whole plant is covered with short silky hairs which lie close against the surface; and the stem, from six inches to over a foot in length, is either erect or spreading. the leaves are pinnately divided into several entire leaflets which are half an inch or more in length, the terminal leaflet of the lower leaves being generally much larger than the others. the flowers, which bloom from june to august, are usually clustered into two dense heads at the tip of each stalk, with a deeply-divided bract at the base of each head. the calyx is densely covered with silky hairs; and the small corolla varies in colour from pale yellow to red. in the neighbourhood of cultivated fields we may frequently meet with the lucerne or purple medick (_medicago sativa_). this is not a british plant, but it has been introduced and largely cultivated, and is commonly found as an escape. it has an erect stem, from one to two feet high; and the flowers bloom during june and july, followed by smooth, spirally-twisted pods of two or three coils. this plant appears on plate iv, fig. . in the genus _melilotus_, of the same order, we have to note three species, all of which agree in the following particulars:--they have trifoliate leaves; and small, white or yellow flowers in long racemes on axillary peduncles. the calyx has five teeth, and the corolla falls after it fades. the stamens are ten in number, the upper one quite free, while the filaments of the other nine are united into a split tube that surrounds the ovary. the pod is only a little longer than the calyx, rather thick in proportion to its length, with only one or two seeds, and it does not split when ripe. the three species referred to may be identified by the following descriptions:-- [illustration: the kidney vetch.] the common melilot (_melilotus officinalis_) is a smooth plant, with a branched stem from two to four feet high; and long-stalked leaves with roundish or oval leaflets, and narrow, pointed stipules. the flowers are very numerous, yellow, about a quarter of an inch long, in long racemes. the petals are equal; and the hairy pods are only about a sixth of an inch long. the field melilot (_m. arvensis_) is very similar, but not so tall, and the flowers are less numerous. the 'keel' is shorter than the other petals; and the pods are ribbed and blunt. the third species--the white melilot (_m. alba_)--is also very similar, but it has white flowers, in which the 'standard' or upper petal is the longest. all three species flower from june to august, but only the first may be described as common. the genus _trifolium_, containing the clovers and trefoils, resembles _melilotus_ in its trifoliate leaves, five-toothed calyx, and in the arrangement of the stamens; but it differs in that the stipules adhere to the leaf stalks, and the corolla often persists round the ripened fruit. several species of this group are common in fields and pastures. [illustration: the common melilot.] one of these is the clustered clover or smooth round-headed-trefoil (_trifolium glomeratum_)--a smooth plant, with purple or pink flowers, found principally in the dry pastures of south and east england, flowering during june and july. its spreading stems are from six to twelve inches long; and the heads of flowers are small, sessile, globular, and either axillary or terminal. the calyx is ten-veined, shorter than the corolla, with five pointed teeth which bend outwards as the fruit ripens. the strawberry trefoil (_t. fragiferum_) has long-stalked, axillary heads of rose-coloured flowers which become very compact and strawberry-like when fruiting, at which time they are half an inch or more in diameter. its creeping stem roots at the nodes; and the leaves are long-stalked, with toothed leaflets. each head is surrounded below by a whorl of lobed bracts about as long as the calyces which become swollen after flowering. this is common in england, and flowers during july and august. the hare's-foot trefoil (_t. arvense_) is a slender, erect or sub-erect plant, covered with short, soft hairs, flowering from june to the end of the summer. its stem is branched, from six inches to a foot in length; and the heads of flowers, on long, terminal or axillary stalks, are at first nearly globular, but afterwards cylindrical and about three quarters of an inch long. the flowers are small, pink, with corolla shorter than the calyx. the latter has five very long, feathery teeth, giving the whole head of flowers a soft and feathery appearance. the plant is abundant, especially in the southern counties of england. the crimson clover (_t. incarnatum_) was introduced into england and cultivated as fodder, but it is often found wild as an escape from cultivation. the plant is erect, varying from six inches to two feet in height, and is covered with soft, silky hairs. it flowers in june and july. the corolla, which is much longer than the calyx, is sometimes almost white. this flower is shown on plate iv. [illustration: the lady's mantle.] one of the commonest flowers of this genus is the hop trefoil (_t. procumbens_)--a slender plant, with erect or sub-erect stem much branched below. its leaflets are obovate or obcordate, and toothed; and the flower-heads are dense, globular, on long axillary stalks, each consisting of about forty bright yellow flowers. when fruiting the heads are turned downwards, and the pods are then covered by the persistent, brown corollas. this species flowers from june to august. the lesser yellow trefoil (_t. minus_) is very much like the last, and flowers at the same time, but is more slender and more procumbent; and its flower-heads, which consist of from ten to twenty pale yellow flowers, are on stiff peduncles. our last example of the _leguminosæ_ is the meadow pea or meadow vetchling (_lathyrus pratensis_), which is a very common flower of moist pastures. the plant is straggling, with a weak, angled stem that supports itself by interlacing with the surrounding herbage, aided by its branched tendrils. its stipules are large, narrow-oval in form, with an arrow-shaped base. the compound leaf has only one pair of lanceolate leaflets, the remaining leaflets having been modified into tendrils for the support of the plant. the long axillary peduncles each bear a one-sided raceme of from six to ten yellow flowers, which are followed by rather large, smooth pods. the plant flowers from june to september. the order _rosaceæ_ contains the great burnet (_sanguisorba officinalis_), the only british representative of its genus. it is very much like the lesser burnet (p. ) in general appearance, but much taller and larger. it is a smooth plant, with an erect stem from one to two feet high, the upper part of which is almost leafless. the leaves are mostly radical or on the lower part of the stem, and are pinnate, with from seven to thirteen oval or oblong, toothed leaflets. the long peduncles each bear an oval head of crowded flowers of a dark purple colour. each flower has a calyx of four coloured lobes, enclosed within bracts; and four stamens. there are no petals. the plant is moderately common in the damp meadows of england and south scotland, and flowers from june to august. the lady's mantle (_alchemilla vulgaris_) is a common plant in the hilly pastures of north england, but is much less frequent in the south. it varies from six to eighteen inches in height, and bears loose, terminal clusters of small yellowish-green flowers from june to august. the little flowers have a free calyx of eight segments in two whorls of four, the outer ones smaller than the inner; no petals; a few stamens; and an ovary of one or two one-seeded carpels enclosed in the tube of the calyx. in moist meadows and other damp places we commonly see the fragrant meadow sweet or queen of the meadows (_spiræa ulmaria_), of the same order. this is an erect plant, from two to four feet high, bearing densely-crowded cymes of small, creamy-white flowers from june to august. its stem is rather thick, often reddish in colour; and the leaves are large, pinnate, with from five to nine ovate, irregularly-toothed leaflets, two or three inches long, and also several smaller leaflets at the base of the stalk or between the larger ones. each of the little flowers has a five-lobed, free calyx; five petals; numerous stamens; and an ovary that ripens into from five to eight little twisted capsules. [illustration: the meadow sweet.] the burnet saxifrage (_pimpinella saxifraga_), of the order _umbelliferæ_, is a common plant in dry pastures, and is very generally distributed. its stem is from one to two feet high, and but little branched; and the leaves are very variable in form--the radical ones usually pinnate, with from three to nine oval or round leaflets that are either lobed or deeply toothed; and the upper also pinnate, with the segments of the leaflets few and very narrow. the umbels are terminal, with from eight to sixteen slender rays, and no bracts. the flowers are small and white, and appear from july to september. the wild carrot (_daucus carota_) of the same order is also common in pastures. it is an erect plant, with a tap root, and a branching stem from one to two feet high. the lower leaves are two or three times pinnate, with segments pinnately divided into narrow lobes. the upper leaves are much smaller, with narrower divisions. the umbels are large and terminal, on long stalks. the rays are numerous and crowded; the middle ones being shorter, with pale purple flowers; and the outer ones longer, with white flowers. after flowering the rays close together, forming a dense, globular mass, or an inverted cone, concave at the top, thus more or less covering the fruits, in which they are aided by the long, narrow lobes of both the primary and secondary bracts. the fruits are covered with little hooked prickles. [illustration: the burnet saxifrage.] the devil's-bit scabious (_scabiosa succisa_--order _dipsaceæ_) is very common in the pastures of almost all parts of britain, and much resembles the field scabious (p. ) in general habit. its stem is erect, branching, from one to two feet high. the radical leaves are stalked, ovate or oblong, and generally quite entire; and the stem-leaves, which are few, are of the same general form, but are sessile, and sometimes slightly toothed. the heads of purple-blue flowers are on long peduncles, and each one is surrounded at the base by about three whorls of bracts which decrease in length inwards, the outer and longest being about as long as the flowers. the flowers of the head are all nearly of the same size and form. each one is enclosed in a tubular whorl of united bracts with small teeth. this whorl might easily be mistaken for a calyx by those who are not acquainted with the general features of the flowers of this order, but the calyx is really combined with the ovary, its four bristly teeth being very conspicuous round the top of the fruit. the corolla is tubular, deeply cleft into four lobes; and four stamens are inserted into its tube. the fruit is small and seedlike, and does not split. this plant flowers from july to september or october. [illustration: the wild carrot.] coming now to the _compositæ_, we have a considerable number of meadow flowers to describe; and we assume that the reader has already made himself acquainted with the nature of the flowers of this order as given on p. . if such is not the case, we advise him to refresh his memory with regard to them, in order that the terms used in the following descriptions may be thoroughly understood. [illustration: the devil's-bit scabious.] our first species is the rough hawkbit (_leontodon hispidus_), which is very abundant in all parts of britain except the extreme north, its rather large, yellow flower-heads being often mistaken for those of the dandelion that are frequently seen in company with them on pasture land. its specific name is due to the short, stiff hairs, often more or less branched, that clothe all parts of the plant. the leaves are all radical, long and narrow, decreasing in width towards the base, and either coarsely toothed or deeply cut into pointed lobes. the flower-stalk widens immediately below its solitary head, which is surrounded by hairy bracts--two or three whorls of short ones without, and a whorl of long ones within. all the florets are ligulate or strap-shaped, and yellow. the fruits are long achenes, narrower towards the top; and the pappus consists of a few short, outer hairs, surrounding about twice the number of brown, feathered ones three or four times as long. the flower stalks vary from a few inches to a foot or more in height, and the flowers bloom from june to september. [illustration: the rough hawkbit.] equally abundant is the autumnal hawkbit (_leontodon autumnalis_), which is also found in pastures. it is a very similar plant in many respects, but may be easily distinguished by its smaller heads of flowers on branching stalks. the flowering stems are erect, from six to eighteen inches high, each with one or two branches bearing a few small scales and a single head of flowers. the involucre consists of several rows of smooth, closely-overlapping bracts, and is narrowed at the base into the enlarged upper part of the stalk. the florets are all ligulate, as in the last species; and the pappus consists of brown, feathery hairs, all of the same length. the flowers appear during august and september. the meadow thistle (_carduus pratensis_) is abundant in some of the southern counties of britain and ireland, but is rarely seen in the north. nearly all the leaves of this plant are radical, and these are long, narrow, and covered with cottony hairs. the few leaves of the stem are narrow, with short teeth that are only slightly prickly. the stem itself grows from twelve to eighteen inches high, and is usually unbranched, with a single head of flowers; sometimes, however, it has one or two branches, each terminating in a flower-head. the involucre is globular in form, covered with cottony hairs, and composed of closely-placed bracts. the flowers are purple. the plant grows chiefly in moist pastures, and flowers from june to august. [illustration: the autumnal hawkbit.] the black knapweed or hardhead (_centaurea nigra_) is a very common flower of meadows and pastures, flowering from june to september. its stem is erect, tough, branched, from a few inches to three feet in height. the leaves are long and narrow; the upper ones entire or nearly so, and clasping the stem; and the lower coarsely toothed or divided into lobes. the flower-head has somewhat the appearance of a purple thistle, but the involucre is not prickly. the latter consists of an almost globular mass of closely-overlapping bracts, the visible portions of which are dark brown or black fringes. the florets are generally all equal, but the outer ones are sometimes larger than the others, and sterile. [illustration: the meadow thistle.] the great knapweed (_centaurea scabiosa_) is a somewhat similar plant, but usually larger, its stout, branched stem being generally two or three feet high. it may be easily distinguished by its larger flower-heads, the outer, neuter florets of which are considerably enlarged. as a rule the florets are all purple, but occasionally all are white, or the outer ones white and the others purple. the bracts of the involucre are broad, with a green centre and a dark, downy margin. the fruit is surmounted by a pappus of stiff, bristly hairs of about its own length. this plant is common in the south of britain, and flowers during july and august. two species of fleabane have to be noticed. they belong to the genus _inula_, and are distinguished by a distinct division of the flower-head into disc and ray, and also by two minute 'tails' at the bottom of the anthers. one of these is the common fleabane (_i. dysenterica_)--a woolly plant, abundant in the moist pastures of the southern counties, flowering from july to september. its erect stem is loosely branched, from six inches to two feet high. the leaves are oblong and wavy--the lower ones stalked, and the upper clasping the stem with rounded lobes at the base. the flower-heads are yellow, about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, arranged singly on the tips of the branches, or on stalks arising from the axils of the upper leaves. the florets of the ray are spreading, and much longer than those of the disc; and the fruits have a minute cup at the top, from the inside of which spring the hairs of the pappus. the smoke arising from the burning fleabanes was supposed to kill fleas and other vermin; and the specific name _dysenterica_ is due to the fact that this species has been used as a medicine in cases of dysentery. [illustration: the black knapweed.] [illustration: the great knapweed.] the small fleabane (_i. pulicaria_) is a similar plant, but smaller (from six to twelve inches high) and less woolly. its flower-heads are yellow, much smaller, on terminal and axillary stalks; and the florets of the ray are only slightly longer than those of the disc. the hairs of the pappus are not surrounded at the base by a little cup, but by a few minute and distinct scales. this species grows in the south-eastern counties of england, and flowers during august and september. the white ox-eye daisy (_chrysanthemum leucanthemum_) is one of the largest and most conspicuous of our composite flowers, and is abundant in dry pastures all over britain. the plant is generally smooth; and its erect stem, either simple or slightly branched, is from one to two feet high. the lower leaves are obovate, coarsely toothed, on long stalks; and the upper ones are narrow and sessile, with a few teeth. the flower-heads are large, and placed singly on long, terminal stalks. the bracts are closely overlapping, with narrow, brown margins; the ray florets white, strap-shaped, over half an inch long; and the disc florets numerous and tubular. the flowers bloom from june to august. [illustration: the common fleabane.] our last composite flower is the sneezewort (_achillea ptarmica_), which is common in the hilly pastures and meadows of most parts of britain. it has an erect stem, one to two feet high. the leaves are sessile, narrow, with fine, regular teeth, and a smooth surface. the flower-heads are arranged in a loose, terminal, flat-topped corymb. each is surrounded by an involucre of overlapping bracts; and consists of numerous little disc-florets, intermixed with small scales, and about twelve short, broad, white florets of the ray. the time of flowering is july and august. the common centaury (_erythræa centaurium_), of the order _gentianaceæ_, is a very common plant in dry pastures. its stem is erect, simple below, freely branched towards the top, from six to eighteen inches high; and the leaves are ovate, spreading and closely placed below, narrow and more distant above. the flowers are rose-red or pink, in a dense corymb, with a calyx of five very narrow segments, and a corolla consisting of a narrow tube and five spreading lobes. [illustration: the ox-eye daisy.] of the order _convolvulaceæ_ we shall note one species--the small bindweed (_convolvulus arvensis_), so well known as a troublesome weed in cultivated fields. it has a creeping rootstock, and a twining stem, from a few inches to two feet in length, that sometimes climbs, but more commonly trails along the ground and over low-growing plants. the leaves are stalked, arrow-shaped, about an inch and a half long, with sharp, spreading lobes at the base. the axillary peduncles are usually forked, with a single flower on each of the two branches; and there are two small bracts at the angle of the fork, and another one or a pair above these, but some distance below the flower, on each branch. the calyx is very small, but the salver-shaped corolla is usually over an inch in diameter, either pink or pinkish white. the plant flowers from june to august. [illustration: the sneeze-wort.] the meadow clary (_salvia pratensis_--order _labiatæ_), shown on plate iv, fig. , is a rather rare plant, apparently to be seen only in the dry fields of oxfordshire, kent, surrey, and the extreme south-west of england; but it is one of the most handsome of the labiates. its stem is erect, from one to two feet high. the radical leaves are large, stalked, ovate or cordate, toothed, and much wrinkled; and the stem-leaves few, ovate or lanceolate, acute, the upper ones sessile. the flowers are arranged in whorls of from four to six at regular distances, the whole forming a long, simple or branched spike. the calyx is divided into two lips, the upper of which has often three small teeth, while the lower is divided into two lobes; and the corolla is of a bright blue colour, about three times as long as the calyx, with a long, arched upper lip and a three-lobed lower lip. there are two stamens, each with a fertile and an abortive anther connected by a thin stalk which is fastened to the short filament in such a manner that it rocks. this plant flowers from june to august. [illustration: the small bindweed.] the peculiar arrangement of the stamens above described is sufficient in itself to distinguish the genus _salvia_ from all the other labiates, and the importance of the peculiarity in connexion with the pollination of the flower is so interesting that we may well spend a few minutes in studying it before passing on to other species. in the first place it should be mentioned that the stamens of _salvia_ are mature before the stigma, and that, as a consequence, self-pollination is impossible. the lower, abortive anthers of the two stamens are joined together and form a little valve which closes the throat of the corolla tube. each one, however, has a notch in its inner side, and the two notches, meeting in the middle, form a little hole. when a bee visits the flower, it alights on the lower lip of the corolla, and thrusts its tongue through the hole to reach the nectar at the base of the tube. in doing this it pushes the abortive anthers backwards, and the upper, fertile anther cells, which rest under the arched upper lip, are thus made to swing downwards and forwards so that they touch the bee's back; and, if they are ripe, to deposit some pollen. after the pollen has been thus removed, the style lengthens and curves downward, bringing the stigma, which is now mature, to the position previously occupied by the fertile anther cells at the time they were made to swing downwards by the bee. thus, if a bee which has previously visited a flower with mature anthers now comes to one in which the stigma is ripe, the pollen dusted on its back by the former is rubbed against the stigma of the latter, and cross-fertilisation is the result. [illustration: section of the flower of _salvia_. . stigma--not yet mature. . stamen.] [illustration: the self-heal.] the common marjoram (_origanum vulgare_) is an aromatic plant that often grows in great abundance on dry hilly pastures, especially in limestone and chalky districts. its stem is thin and hairy, a foot or more in height; and the leaves are stalked, ovate, blunt, slightly toothed, downy, and about an inch in length. the flowers, which bloom from july to september, are of a rosy purple colour, in numerous globular clusters, the whole inflorescence forming a leafy panicle. the overlapping bracts are about as long as the calyx, and usually tinged with red or purple; the calyx has five, short, equal teeth, and is very hairy in the throat; the corolla is about twice the length of the calyx, and has four lobes, the upper of which is a little broader than the others; and the stamens are in two pairs, one pair longer than the other. it will be noticed that some of the flowers are larger than others, and that these are perfect, while the smaller ones have no stamens. in the same order (_labiatæ_) there is the self-heal (_prunella vulgaris_), a very common plant in moist meadows, flowering from july to the end of the summer. the lower portion of the stem of this plant usually rests on the ground and roots at the nodes, but from this arises the erect branches, four to ten inches high, bearing pairs of oval or oblong, slightly-toothed leaves; and a dense terminal spike of whorled flowers immediately above the last pair. the lipped corolla is of a violet or purple colour, usually about half an inch long. during the flowering stage the spike is very short, but as the fruits ripen it lengthens out to about an inch and a half or two inches. [illustration: the ribwort plantain.] coming now to the plantains (order _plantaginaceæ_) we have two species to note, both of which are very abundant on pasture land. one is the greater plantain (_plantago major_)--a very low plant, with a short, thick rootstock, and a radical cluster of spreading or ascending leaves with grooved stalks. these leaves are ovate, nearly as broad as long, and traversed by five, seven, or nine strong parallel veins which converge into the stalk at the base. each little flower of the long, slender spike has four sepals; a corolla with a tube and four spreading lobes; and four stamens that project beyond the corolla. the fruit is a small capsule which splits transversely when ripe. the plant flowers from june to august. the other is the ribwort plantain (_p. lanceolata_), a somewhat similar plant, the leaves of which are narrow, tapering at both ends, with three or five strong, parallel ribs. each flower-stalk bears a globular or oval spike from half an inch to an inch in length. this species also flowers from june to august. [illustration: the butterfly orchis.] [illustration: . cat's-tail grass. . meadow barley.] there are a few summer-flowering species of orchids that are more or less common in fields and pastures. one of these is the marsh orchis (_orchis latifolia_), a plant so closely resembling the spotted orchis (p. ) that it is sometimes regarded as a variety of the latter. its tubers are palmately divided; and its stem, which is hollow, is usually from twelve to eighteen inches high. the leaves are large, sometimes spotted; and the spike of flowers is large, with leafy bracts longer than the ovaries. the flowers vary in colour from white to a deep purple, have a spur usually thicker than that of the spotted orchis, and a lip indistinctly divided into three lobes, with its sides curved backwards. the flower, which is represented on plate vi, grows in moist meadows, marshes, and on moors, flowering during june and july. [illustration: rye grass or darnel.] [illustration: sheep's fescue.] another species--the butterfly orchis (_habenaria bifolia_)--has (usually) undivided tubers; a stem from six to twelve inches high with two broad leaves near the base, and surrounded below by a few sheathing scales; and a rather loose spike of white or greenish flowers with narrow bracts about as long as the ovaries. the petals and upper sepals are arched, the lateral sepals spreading, the lip narrow and undivided, and the spur about twice as long as the ovary. this flower is not uncommon in moist meadows, where it blooms from june to august. a large variety, with greener flowers, is sometimes known as the great butterfly orchis. a considerable number of summer-flowering grasses are more or less common in fields and meadows. we have not space for the descriptions of these, but introduce illustrations of a few, including the cock's-foot grass (_dactylis glomerata_) which appears on plate iv. xv bogs, marshes and wet places--summer the crowfoot group of the _ranunculaceæ_ contains two bog-plants popularly known as spearworts on account of their spear-like leaves. one of these--the lesser spearwort (_ranunculus flammula_)--is abundant in wet places, especially the edges of muddy pools and ditches, where its buttercup-like flowers may be seen from june to september. it is a slender, smooth plant, with a branched stem, more or less decumbent at the base, from four to twelve inches high. its leaves are narrow-oval in form, stalked, and either slightly toothed or quite entire; and the yellow flowers are about half an inch in diameter, on long peduncles. the other is the greater spearwort (_r. lingua_), a much larger species, varying from two to four feet in height, and flowering during the same months. it has stout, hollow, erect stems which throw off whorls of root fibres from the lowest joints; and the glossy, yellow flowers vary from one to one and a half inches in diameter. this species is not nearly so common as the other, but occurs more or less in most parts of britain. taking next the cruciferous plants (_cruciferæ_), we have first to note a few species of the _nasturtium_ genus, including the water-cress and the yellow-cress. these are all smooth plants, with small yellow or white flowers. they may be distinguished from other crucifers by their loose calyx; simple, rounded stigma on a very short style; and their oblong or narrow pods with the seeds arranged in two rows on each side of the membranous partition. the species with which we are at present concerned are:-- . the water-cress (_nasturtium officinale_).--a succulent plant, with a branched stem rooting at the base, growing freely in ditches, shallow streams and muddy places, and flowering from may or june to the end of the summer. its leaves are pinnately divided into from seven to eleven wavy or slightly-toothed segments, the terminal one of which is usually larger than the others and nearly round. the flowers are small, white, in short, crowded racemes; and the pods are spreading, more than half an inch long. [illustration: _plate v._ flowers of bogs and marshes. . marsh gentian. . marsh marigold. . marsh orchis. . marsh mallow. . marsh vetchling. . the marsh st. john's-wort. . bog pimpernel.] [illustration: the lesser spearwort.] . the marsh yellow cress (_n. palustre_), common in muddy places.--a slender plant with a fibrous root, and pinnate leaves with irregularly-toothed segments which are smaller towards the base. the flowers are yellow, about an eighth of an inch in diameter, with petals no longer than the sepals. they bloom from june to september. the pods are oblong, swollen, slightly curved, a quarter of an inch long. . the amphibious yellow cress (_n. amphibium_).--an erect plant, two or three feet high, with fibrous root and creeping runners, flowering from june to september, moderately common on the banks of muddy streams. its leaves are narrow-oblong, three or four inches long, deeply toothed, or cut into narrow lobes; and the flowers are yellow, similar to those of the other species, and similarly arranged, but with petals twice as long as the sepals. the pods are broad, only about a sixth of an inch long, with a rather long style. in the marshes of the south of england we may often see the marsh mallow (_malva officinalis_ or _althæa officinalis_), of the order _malvaceæ_, flowering during august and september. its stem is hairy, with erect flowering branches two or three feet high; and the leaves are shortly stalked, thick, velvety, broadly ovate, and sometimes divided into three or five lobes. the flowers are shortly stalked in the axils of the upper leaves, or sometimes collected into a terminal raceme. round each one is a whorl of several narrow bracts, shorter than the calyx, and united at their bases. the calyx is five-lobed; and the corolla consists of five broad, rose-coloured petals. this plant is shown on plate v, fig. . [illustration: the great hairy willow-herb.] the marsh st. john's-wort (_hypericum elodes_--order _hypericaceæ_) is a somewhat shaggy little plant, common in the bogs of many parts of britain, more especially in west england and ireland. it varies from a few inches to a foot in length; with prostrate stems rooting at the base; and rounded, opposite leaves without stipules. both stem and leaves are clothed with white, woolly hairs, the latter on both surfaces. the flowers, which bloom during july and august, are of a pale yellow colour, and form a few-flowered, terminal panicle. they have five small, oval sepals, fringed with little red-stalked glands; five petals, about three times as long as the sepals; and many stamens, united to more than half way up into three bundles. (see plate v, fig. .) the blue marsh vetchling or marsh pea (_lathyrus palustris_--order _leguminosæ_) is occasionally to be met with in boggy places, flowering from june to august. it is a smooth plant, with a weak, winged stem, two or three feet long; and pinnate leaves consisting of from two to four pairs of narrow, sharp leaflets, and terminating in a branched tendril. at the base of each leafstalk are two narrow, half arrow-shaped stipules. the flowers are of a bluish purple colour, and are arranged in one-sided racemes, of from two to six flowers on long stalks. the pods are smooth and about an inch in length. this plant is represented on plate v, fig. . [illustration: the purple loosestrife.] some of the willow-herbs (_onagraceæ_) are very partial to wet and boggy places. a few species of other habitats are described in chapters x and xi, and these, together with the members that come within the range of the present chapter, are readily distinguished by their willow-like leaves and the very long inferior ovaries of their flowers. we shall here note three species-- . the great hairy willow-herb or codlins and cream (_epilobium hirsutum_).--a large, erect, hairy plant, from three to six feet high, with numerous underground suckers, and a stout, round, branched stem. its leaves are opposite, sessile, often clasping the stem, narrow, and finely toothed. the flowers are nearly an inch in diameter, of a deep rose colour, arranged in terminal, leafy racemes. they have four broad, notched, spreading petals; eight erect stamens; and a four-lobed stigma. the plant is common in wet places, and flowers during july and august. . the narrow-leaved or marsh willow-herb (_e. palustre_).--a smaller plant, seldom exceeding eighteen inches in height, frequent in bogs and marshes, flowering during june and july. its stem is round, with two lines of downy hairs on opposite sides; and its leaves are sessile, opposite, very narrow, tapering towards the base, and sometimes slightly toothed. the flowers are small, pink, nodding when in bud, arranged in a terminal raceme. both flowers and fruit resemble those of the last species except that the stigmas of the former are not divided. . the square-stalked willow-herb (_e. tetragonum_ or _e. adnatum_).--a similar plant, from one to two feet high, common in bogs and ditches, and easily distinguished from other species of the genus by the four angles of the stem formed by the downward continuation of the margins of the leaves. the flowers are small, in terminal, leafy racemes, and erect when in bud. the petals are of a rose-pink colour, deeply notched; and the stigma is not divided. this species flowers in july and august. our next flower is the beautiful purple loosestrife (_lythrum salicaria_--order _lythraceæ_), which is abundant in the marshes, ditches, and wet places of most parts of great britain. it has a creeping rootstock; a stout, erect, slightly-branched, four-angled stem, from two to four feet high; and sessile, narrow, clasping, entire, acute leaves, two or three inches long, arranged in opposite pairs or in whorls of three or four. the flowers are of a reddish purple or pink colour, nearly an inch across, arranged in whorls on a long, tapering, leafy spike. they have a toothed and ribbed, tubular calyx, with broad inner, and narrow outer segments; oblong, wavy, wrinkled petals; twelve stamens in two whorls of different lengths; and a superior ovary. the time of flowering of this species is july to september. we have now to note several species of umbelliferous plants that grow in bogs and other wet places. the general features of the order (_umbelliferæ_) will be found on p. , and the reader should refer to these, if necessary, before attempting to identify the following:-- the procumbent marsh-wort (_helosciadium nodiflorum_ or _apium nodiflorum_) is a creeping plant, abundant in ditches and other wet places, rooting at the base, with erect flowering stems that are sometimes very short, but often reach a height of three feet. the whole plant is smooth, with hollow stems; pinnate leaves with from three to nine or more pairs of ovate, bluntly-toothed leaflets; and almost sessile umbels of small, white flowers either opposite the leaves or in the angles of the upper branches. these umbels are compound, with about five or six rays, usually without primary bracts, but with several, narrow, secondary ones. the petals have their points turned inwards; and the carpels are oval, each with five narrow ribs. this plant is commonly seen growing in company with the water-cress and the brooklime, and blooms in july and august. [illustration: the water hemlock.] in ditches we occasionally meet with the water hemlock or cowbane (_cicuta virosa_)--a tall plant, from three to four feet high, bearing large, flat umbels of small, white flowers from june to august. its stem is hollow, furrowed, and branched; and the leaves are large, twice pinnate or ternate, with lanceolate, acute leaflets, generally over an inch in length, the margins serrate or (sometimes) doubly serrate. comparing this plant with the common hemlock (p. ), we should note that the secondary bracts of the latter are three in number, almost invariably turned to the outside; and that its calyx teeth are very indistinct, while in the present species they are prominent above the ovary. next follow three species of water dropwort (genus _[oe]nanthe_)--smooth plants, with much-divided leaves and compound umbels of white flowers, with secondary, and sometimes also primary, narrow bracts. in all three species the central flowers of each secondary umbel are perfect and shortly stalked, while the outer ones are on longer stalks, and usually staminate. the petals are notched, with points turned inwards; and the fruits have two rather long styles, are crowned by the five minute teeth of the calyx, and their carpels have each five blunt ribs. the three species referred to are:-- [illustration: the common water dropwort.] . the common water dropwort (_[oe]. fistulosa_).--an erect plant, from two to three feet high, with a fleshy, fibrous root; creeping runners; and a thick, hollow, slightly-branched stem. its radical leaves are bipinnate, with segments cut into three or five narrow lobes; and the stem leaves have long, hollow stalks, with a few narrow segments at the top. the umbels have from three to five rays, usually with no primary bracts, and a few, narrow secondary ones. . the hemlock water dropwort (_[oe]. crocata_) is a larger plant, from two to five feet high, with a tuberous root and a thick, branched stem. its leaves are bipinnate, with stalked, shining leaflets that are irregularly cut. the umbels are on long stalks, and have nearly twenty rays, several narrow secondary bracts, and sometimes a few primary ones. the middle flowers of each secondary umbel are perfect and almost sessile, but the outer ones are stalked and staminate. . the fine-leaved water dropwort (_[oe]. phellandrium_) grows from one to four feet high, and has an erect, creeping or floating stem with runners at the base. the upper leaves are bipinnate, with small, cut segments; and the submerged ones are deeply cut into very narrow, almost hair-like lobes. the umbels are small, on short stalks in the angles of the branches or opposite the leaves. they have about ten rays, narrow secondary bracts, but no primary ones. [illustration: the marsh thistle.] all three of the above species flower from july to september. next follow a few composite flowers (order _compositæ_), the first of which is the marsh thistle (_carduus palustris_) that varies from two to eight feet in height, and bears dense clusters of purple (occasionally white) heads during july and august. its stem is stiff, hollow, slightly branched, and thickly covered with very prickly wings that are continuous with the margins of leaves above them. the leaves are narrow, wavy, deeply divided into prickly lobes, with scattered hairs on both surfaces; the lower ones often seven or eight inches long; and the upper much smaller and narrower. the flower-heads are ovoid, surrounded by an involucre of many closely-overlapping bracts with prickly tips. the two bur marigolds (_bidens_) are more or less common in marshes and other wet places. they are both smooth plants with opposite leaves, and hemispherical heads of yellowish flowers surrounded by two or three rows of bracts, the outer of which are spreading. the receptacle is flat, with membranous scales between the florets; and the fruits are crowned by from two to five stiff, prickly bristles. the more abundant of these is the nodding bur marigold (_b. cernua_), a stout plant, from one to two feet high, distinguished by its narrow, entire, sessile leaves, and its drooping flower-heads. the other--the trifid bur marigold (_b. tripartita_)--has three-cleft, stalked leaves, and heads erect or only slightly drooping. [illustration: the brooklime.] the common ragwort of waste places, described on p. , is represented in marshes and wet places by a very similar plant called the marsh ragwort (_senecio aquaticus_), which varies from one to three feet in height, and flowers in july and august. its stem is more slender than that of _s. jacobæa_, and is usually more branched. the leaves are either deeply toothed, or pinnately cut into segments which decrease in size towards the base. the yellow flower-heads are not so densely crowded as in the common ragwort, and have longer stalks. the _scrophulariaceæ_ contains three common plants of the _veronica_ genus that grow in wet places. all three are similar in that they have opposite leaves; a corolla with a short tube, and four spreading limbs, of which the lowest is narrowest; two stamens; and a capsular fruit, flattened at right angles to its partition, opening by two valves, and containing a few seeds. one of these is the marsh speedwell (_veronica scutellata_), abundant in the marshes and ditches of most parts of britain. it has a weak, straggling stem, from four to eight inches high, with creeping runners at the base; narrow, smooth, sessile leaves, either uncut or only slightly toothed; and slender racemes of pale pink or white flowers on axillary peduncles arranged alternately, there being only one raceme at each node. the second is the water speedwell (_v. anagallis_), a smooth plant, varying from six inches to two feet high, abundant in marshes and ditches, bearing small lilac or white flowers in july and august. its stem is stout, succulent, hollow, erect, and slightly branched; the leaves narrow, acute, toothed, sessile, sometimes clasping the stem; and the racemes axillary and opposite. the flowers are only a fifth of an inch across. [illustration: the water figwort.] the third is the brooklime (_v. beccabunga_), a very abundant plant commonly seen growing in ditches in company with the water cress and the marsh-wort. it is a smooth plant, with a stem from one to two feet long, procumbent at the base and rooting at the joints; erect, succulent flowering branches; thick, elliptical, blunt, slightly-toothed leaves on short stalks; and opposite, axillary racemes of blue (occasionally pink) flowers about a third of an inch across. two of the figworts, belonging to the same order (_scrophulariaceæ_), are abundant in wet places all over britain. they are both tall erect plants, with opposite leaves, and peculiar greenish brown or dull purple flowers. in both the corolla is almost spherical and shortly lipped. two of the five lobes form the upper lip; two are at the sides; and the other, forming the lower lip, is turned down. there are five stamens, four of which are fertile and turned down, while the fifth is barren and scale-like, under the upper lip of the corolla. [illustration: the gipsy-wort.] one species--the water figwort (_scrophularia aquatica_)--grows in marshes and on the banks of ditches and streams. it has a stout, angular stem, the angles of which are drawn out into narrow wings; smooth, opposite, blunt leaves, cordate at the base, with crenate or toothed margins; and long, narrow panicles of flowers with blunt bracts. the five lobes of the calyx are fringed with a conspicuous, transparent, membranous border. the other is the knotted figwort (_s. nodosa_), which is much like the last, but emits a disagreeable odour, and may be further distinguished by the little green, fleshy knots of its rhizome. its stem is sharply four-angled, but not winged; its leaves are acute, and doubly toothed; and the panicle has small, narrow, sharp bracts. passing now to the order _labiatæ_, we come first to the gipsy-wort (_lycopus europæus_), an erect, branched, slightly hairy plant, from one to three feet high, bearing dense whorls of small, white, sessile flowers from june to september. the calyx has five equal teeth with stiff points; and the corolla, which is only slightly longer than the calyx, has four nearly equal lobes. this plant is abundant in most parts of britain, and is generally seen on the banks of ditches. [illustration: the round-leaved mint.] in the same order we have the mints (genus _mentha_)--strongly-scented plants with creeping rootstocks and runners; and small flowers in dense, axillary whorls, or in terminal spikes or clusters. in all the calyx has five equal teeth; and the corolla is bell-shaped, with a short tube, and four lobes of which the upper is broader. there are four erect, equal stamens; and the fruit consists of four small, smooth nuts. three species, more or less abundant, occur in marshy or other wet places. they are:-- . the round-leaved mint (_mentha rotundifolia_).--a moderately common, erect, hairy plant, from one to three feet high, with a powerful but hardly agreeable odour. its stem is green, hairy, and branched; and the leaves are sessile, broadly ovate or round, blunt, wrinkled, green above, and whitish and shaggy beneath. the flowers are small, lilac (occasionally white), in dense, cylindrical, leafy spikes from one to two inches long. the bracts are rather narrow and sharply pointed, and the corolla is hairy. the time of flowering is august and september. . the water mint (_m. aquatica_).--an abundant marsh plant, from one to three feet high, flowering from july to september, possessing a strong, pleasant odour. its stem is much branched, generally clothed with soft hairs; and its leaves are stalked, ovate, serrate, the upper ones passing into bracts which are shorter than the flowers. the latter are lilac, and form dense, terminal, oblong or globular clusters, with, frequently, two or three dense, axillary whorls beneath. the calyx is tubular, about an eighth of an inch long, with very sharp teeth. . the marsh whorled mint (_m. sativa_).--a very similar plant, common in wet places, flowering during july and august. it grows from two to five feet high; and its elliptical, toothed leaves are hairy on both sides. the flowers are lilac, in dense, axillary whorls, without any terminal cluster. there is yet another marsh plant of the _labiatæ_ to be considered, and that is the marsh woundwort (_stachys palustris_), which is very much like the hedge woundwort described on p. . it has a stout, hollow, hairy stem, from one to three feet high; and narrow, coarsely-toothed leaves, from two to four inches long, the upper ones sessile and the lower shortly stalked. the flowers are pale purple or dull, light red, arranged in whorls of from six to ten in the axils of the upper leaves. the calyx is bell-shaped, with ten ribs and five long, acute teeth; and the lower lip of the corolla has its side lobes turned back. [illustration: the forget-me-not.] we now reach the interesting _myosotis_ genus of the _boraginaceæ_, containing the favourite forget-me-not and the similar scorpion-grasses. they are all rather low and weak plants, with small, sessile, narrow leaves; and small flowers in one-sided, curved racemes without bracts. the calyx is cleft into five; and the corolla has a short tube, partially closed by five little scales, and five spreading or concave lobes. the stamens are enclosed in the tubes of the flower. three species are common in wet places. they are-- . the forget-me-not (_myosotis palustris_).--an abundant plant, growing to a foot or more in height, and bearing, from june to august, bright blue flowers, nearly half an inch across, with a yellow centre. it has a creeping rootstock, with runners, and rather weak ascending stems clothed with spreading hairs. the leaves are blunt, and often covered with hairs that lie close against the surface. the calyx is divided to about a third of its length into short, triangular teeth, and is covered with closely-pressed hairs. [illustration: the water pepper or biting persicaria.] . the creeping water scorpion-grass (_m. repens_).--a very similar plant, sometimes regarded as a variety of the last. its stock emits leafy runners above the ground, and the stem is more hairy. the flowers, too, are of about the same size, but of a sky-blue colour, and their stalks are longer, bending downwards when in fruit. the calyx is divided to about the middle into narrow teeth. . the tufted water scorpion-grass (_m. cæspitosa_).--also a similar plant, often regarded as a variety of _m. palustris_; but its flowers are only about half the size, of a sky-blue colour, with narrow calyx teeth almost as long as the corolla. it is of a paler green colour, and the stems are tufted by a free branching at the base. all three of these flower at the same time, and grow in similar situations. several intermediate forms occur, and thus it is often a difficult matter to distinguish between them. we must here mention the butterwort (_pinguicula_) as a summer-flowering plant of marshy places; but this is a carnivorous species; and as such is described, together with other plants of similar habits, in chapter xxiv. in most parts of britain we may meet with the pretty little bog pimpernel (_anagallis tenella_) of the _primulaceæ_. it is a delicate, creeping plant (see plate v, fig. ), only about three or four inches long, with a slender, decumbent stem; and very small, opposite, rounded leaves on short stalks. its flowers are funnel-shaped, of a pale pink colour, on long, slender, erect, axillary peduncles. the calyx is cut into five pointed lobes; and the corolla is deeply cleft into five segments which are much longer than the calyx. the fruit is a globular capsule that splits transversely into two hemispheres, like that of the scarlet pimpernel. ditches are frequently quite overgrown with the water pepper or biting persicaria (_polygonum hydropiper_), which is very much like the spotted persicaria (p. ) of the same order (_polygonaceæ_), but is much more slender, is creeping and rooting at the base, and more or less biting to the taste. its stem is freely branched, from one to three feet high; its leaves narrow and wavy, with membranous stipules much fringed at the top; and the little pinkish-green flowers are in slender, drooping, interrupted spikes, leafy at the base. of the _orchidaceæ_ we shall note here but one species--the marsh helleborine (_epipactis palustris_), which is widely distributed, and really abundant in places, flowering during july and august. it is very much like the broad-leaved helleborine described on p. , and represented on plate ii, but is not so tall, being only about a foot high, and its leaves are narrow. the flowers, too, are fewer than in the broad-leaved helleborine, and the raceme is not one-sided. the sepals are narrow, of a pale green colour, striped with red or purple; and the petals are white, striped with red at the base. the lower lobe of the lip is blunt and thick; and the bracts are shorter than the flowers. rushes and sedges are so abundant in marshes and other wet places that they form quite a characteristic feature of these localities; and the number of common species is so large that we must necessarily confine our attention to a very small proportion. the rushes, which constitute the order _juncaceæ_, are stiff, smooth plants, often of such social habits that they cover large patches of wet or watery soil. their stems are usually erect, and seldom branched; and their stiff, smooth leaves are frequently cylindrical, like the stems, with a soft, pith-like tissue within, but occasionally flat and narrow like those of grasses. the flowers are perfect, with a regular, inferior perianth of six dry segments; and they have generally six stamens, a three-celled ovary, and three slender stigmas. they are very small, either separate or in clusters; and each flower or cluster has a dry, sheathing bract at its base. [illustration: the bog asphodel.] the pretty little bog asphodel (_narthecium ossifragum_) shall first receive our attention because botanists are not yet in agreement as to its correct position among the monocotyledonous plants. it is certainly allied to the rushes, but on account of its larger and more succulent flowers it is often included among the lilies. it has a creeping rootstock, and stiff, erect stems from six to ten inches high. its bright yellow, starlike flowers form a stiff, terminal raceme, with a bract at the base, and another one above the middle of each pedicel. the segments of the perianth are about a third of an inch long, yellow above and greenish below. the stamens are a little shorter than the perianth segments; and their filaments are clothed with white woolly hairs. this plant is common on wet moors and in mountain bogs, flowering from june to august. [illustration: the common rush.] the common rush (_juncus communis_) is a very abundant species, to be found in almost all wet and marshy places, flowering during july and august. its stems are round, leafless, soft, faintly furrowed, solid, with a continuous pith. they are from one to three feet high, and are sheathed at the base by a few brownish scales, but the plant has no true leaves. most of the stems bear a panicled cluster of green or brown flowers about six inches from the top. these panicles are very variable in form and size, being either loose or dense, and varying from one to three inches in diameter. the hard rush (_juncus glaucus_) is a very similar plant, flowering at the same time; but its stem is slender, rigid, deeply furrowed, with the pith interrupted by air spaces. it is generally from one to two feet high; and, like the last species, has no true leaves. the panicle is looser than that of _j. communis_, with fewer and larger flowers; and it is never more than two or three inches below the top of the stem. a few of the rushes form a group known collectively as the jointed rushes, because their cylindrical or slightly-flattened, hollow leaves are divided within by transverse partitions of pith which give them a jointed appearance, especially when they are dried. two or three of the species referred to are very common in wet places. they are very similar in general appearance, and one of them--the shining-fruited jointed rush (_juncus lamprocarpus_) is selected for illustration. another species is the little pale-coloured toad rush (_j. bufonis_), which grows to a height of only a few inches. it has tufted stems that branch from near the base; and its flowers are either solitary or in clusters of two or three. as regards the sedges (order _cyperaceæ_), the species are so numerous that it is impossible to do them justice in a work of this nature. [illustration: the shining-fruited jointed rush.] their stems are solid, usually more or less triangular, not swollen at the nodes as in grasses; and the sheaths of the leaves which surround the stems are not split. the flowers are in little green or brown spikelets that are either solitary at the top of the stem, or collected into a cluster, spike, panicle, or umbel. each spikelet is in the axil of a scaly or leafy outer bract, and consists of several scales or glumes, each with a single sessile flower in its axil. the flowers have no perianth, but there are often a few very small scales or bristles at their base. they have two or (generally) three stamens; a one-celled ovary; and a style that is more or less deeply cleft into two or three slender stigmas. the fruit is a small, one-seeded nut, usually flattened in the species which have two stigmas, and triangular where the stigmas are three. [illustration: the common sedge.] the reader should make himself thoroughly acquainted with the above features of the sedges, in order to avoid any confusion with the rushes, on the one hand, and with the grasses on the other; and he must not be led astray by the fact that some of the sedge family are popularly known as rushes. of this order the pretty cotton grasses (_eriophorum_) often form a very conspicuous feature of marshes and other wet places. they are tufted or creeping plants with terminal spikelets, very much like those of the other sedges, but their flowers are perfect, and the bristles which represent the perianth grow to a considerable length as the flowering advances, protruding far beyond the overlapping glumes, and at last forming dense tufts of fine cottony hairs. two species are decidedly common and widely distributed, more especially the common cotton grass (_eriophorum polystachyon_), which is often so abundant as to give a general whitish appearance to whole patches of boggy land. it is a creeping plant, with solid, rigid, solitary stems, from six inches to over a foot in height; a few shorter, radical leaves; and a few leaves on the stem. its spikelets, three to twelve in number, form a terminal cluster, the inner ones sessile, or nearly so, and the outer stalked and more or less drooping. they are at first oval or oblong, about half an inch long; but in fruit, usually in the month of june, they form dense cottony tufts from one to two inches in length. [illustration: the marsh sedge.] the other is the hare's-tail or sheathing cotton grass (_e. vaginatum_)--a tufted species, common on boggy moors, with many stems which are round below and triangular above, at first about six or eight inches high, but lengthening as the flowering advances. at the top of each stem is a solitary oval spikelet, of a dark brownish-green colour, over half an inch long, with many straight bristles that eventually form a dense, globular, cottony tuft about an inch in diameter. this is an earlier species, flowering during april and may. the large genus _carex_ contains many common sedges with grass-like leaves springing from the base or the lower part of the stem. some of them have a solitary spikelet; others have several spikelets in a terminal cluster or spike, with, sometimes, stalked spikelets below; or they are arranged in a compound spike or panicle. the flowers are all imperfect, without perianth; and the male and female flowers are either in separate spikelets or in different parts of the same one. the glumes overlap all round the axis of the spikelet; there are generally three stamens; and the ovary is enclosed in a little vase-shaped covering with a little hole at the top through which the two or three stigmas protrude. we give illustrations of two of the commonest species; the common sedge (_carex vulgaris_), which flowers from june to august; and the marsh sedge (_c. paludosa_), that flowers in may and june. the former grows to a height varying from six inches to two feet; and the latter to from two to three feet. [illustration: _plate vi._ flowers of down, heath and moor. . musk thistle. . clustered bell-flower. . spiny rest harrow. . hairy hawkbit. . sheep's-bit. . spotted orchis. . heath rush.] xvi on heath, down and moor on the exposed and more or less bleak heath, down and moor we do not meet with many species of spring flowers, and for this reason we have included both spring and summer blossoms in the same chapter. it must not be supposed, however, from the above statement, that we regard these exposed situations as devoid of interest, or even lacking in flowers, for the small number of species flowering early in the season is often compensated for by the profusion in which their blossoms are produced. the golden blaze of the furze or gorse, aided more or less by the similar flowers of its little relative--the petty whin, is alone sufficient to add a charm to the scene, while the large yellow blossoms of the broom often take the place of, or add to, the glorious display, which is frequently varied by the globular flowers of the whortle, and the catkins and early leaves of the dwarf willow. occasionally the scene is still further varied by the evergreen, needle-like foliage of the juniper, intermixed with the little axillary catkins; while among the surrounding grass we see the pretty flowers of the little eyebright; the brown flowers and hairy leaves of the field woodrush, often growing as thickly as the grass itself; and the short, stiff leaves and sessile spikelets of the spring sedge. among the more gaudy flowers we may note the large purple heads of the musk thistle, a common plant on the heaths of some southern counties; and in boggy districts we may see the abundant white, silky tufts of the hare's-tail cotton grass; and the flower-clusters of the yellow sedge. these and the few other spring flowers of heaths and moors are described, in their order, among the summer flowers of the present chapter. some of them are exclusively spring blossoms, and are to be seen only in their fruiting stages during the summer months, but a few continue to bloom after spring has ended, and even far into the summer. the furze, which often commences to flower during the first few weeks of the year, may be seen, still in bloom, during july and early august; and the eyebright may be found in flower even to the beginning of autumn. the musk thistle, too, though its first flower-heads may be observed in may, or, sometimes, even in april, will continue producing new flowers well into october. [illustration: the milkwort.] a good many species are included in the present chapter, and most of these, at least, will be easily identified by the descriptions given. on almost all heaths and downs we may see the pretty little milkwort (_polygala vulgaris_)--the only british representative of its order (_polygalaceæ_), unless we regard some varieties of this variable plant as distinct species, according to the opinions of some authorities. it is a smooth or slightly hairy plant, with a woody stem that gives off several spreading branches varying from two to nine inches in length. the nature of the leaves and the arrangement of the flowers are shown in our illustration. the latter are very variable in colour, ranging from a pure white to lilac and a deep, rich blue; and each has five sepals, of which the two inner ones are wing-shaped, persistent, and coloured like the corolla; and at its base are three bracts, the middle and largest of which is as long as the short pedicel. the petals, three to five in number, are united, smaller than the wing-sepals, and the lowest is keel-shaped. the plant blooms from june to august; and the drooping flowers, though small, are often so abundant as to distinctly modify the general colouring of patches of heath and moor. [illustration: the broom.] two small species of st. john's wort (order _hypericaceæ_) are moderately abundant on downs and commons, especially in south britain. the flowers of this order are all yellow, and may be easily recognised by their stamens, three or five in number, which are so much branched that they give the appearance of a large number of stamens arranged in three or five clusters. in the two species we have to consider these stamens are three in number. one is the trailing st. john's wort (_hypericum humifusum_), a little tufted, prostrate plant, with small oblong leaves marked by minute transparent spots, and by black dots under the margins; and flowers with unequal sepals. the other is the small st. john's wort (_h. pulchrum_) which is erect, from one to two feet high, with cordate leaves that embrace the stem, and panicled flowers which are tipped with red when in the bud. both species flower during july and august. passing now to the _leguminosæ_, we take first the broom (_sarothamus scoparius_ or _cytisus scoparius_)--a smooth or slightly hairy shrub, from two to six feet high, bearing large, yellow flowers during may and june. its branches are long, erect, angular and green; and the leaves are small, ternate, with obovate, silky leaflets, or sometimes reduced to a single leaflet. the large flowers are either solitary or in pairs, shortly stalked, and arranged in the axils of the leaves of the previous summer. the fruits are black pods, usually more than an inch long, hairy round the edges of the valves, and surmounted at first by a spirally-curved style. [illustration: the furze or gorse.] the furze, gorse, or whin (_ulex europæus_) is a bush of about the same size, with more or less erect branches that all terminate in a sharp, rigid point. sometimes little lanceolate leaves may be seen near the bases of the short branches, but normally all the leaves are reduced to sharp, green spines, about half an inch long. the flowers, usually more than half an inch long, are placed singly in the axils of the thorny leaves of the previous season, and are often so abundant as to form dense, showy clusters. the furze is abundant in all parts of great britain with the exception of north scotland, and may be seen in flower from february (or even january if the weather is mild) to july. [illustration: the torementil.] the dwarf furze (_ulex nanus_), also abundant on the heaths of most parts of britain, commences to flower in july--just about the time that the last species ceases to produce its blossoms, and continues in bloom almost to the end of the year. it is a much smaller shrub, usually from one to two feet high, of a deeper green colour. its stem is usually procumbent; its spines weaker, and generally turned downward; and its flowers smaller, and of a deeper, golden yellow. on heaths and downs of most parts of england and scotland we may meet with the needle green-weed, needle whin, or petty whin (_genista anglica_)--a little spiny shrub, varying from a few inches to two feet in height, with erect stem and spreading branches. its lower branches are simple, or are reduced to branched thorns, while the upper are compound, bearing small ovate or narrow leaves; and solitary, axillary, pale yellow flowers in short, leafy clusters. this species flowers during may and june. in the same order (_leguminosæ_) are two species of rest harrow, common on heaths and stony banks. one of these--the common rest harrow (_ononis arvensis_)--is a very variable plant, with pink or rose-coloured flowers that bloom from june to september. its stem is sometimes procumbent and rooting at the base, sometimes ascending or nearly erect, and is thinly clothed on all sides by soft, spreading hairs. the leaves are usually trifoliate, with obovate or oblong, toothed leaflets, but the lateral leaflets are often very small or altogether wanting. the flowers are solitary, sessile or shortly-stalked, on short, lateral branches; and the standard (upper petal) is streaked with a darker colour. the other species, shown on plate vi, fig. , is the spiny rest harrow (_o. spinosa_), which, however, is sometimes regarded as a variety of the last. its flowers are very similar in form and colour, and appear during the same time; but the stem is erect, spiny, without runners, seldom more than a foot high, and has two longitudinal rows of hairs. passing next to the order _rosaceæ_, we first note the dropwort (_spiræa filipendula_), of the same genus as the meadow sweet, frequently met with on the downs and dry pastures of england and scotland. its leaves are mostly radical, three or four inches long, interruptedly pinnate, with many oval or narrow segments which are themselves pinnately lobed or deeply toothed. at the base of each is a pair of stipules which are attached to the leaf-stalk throughout their length. the flowers, which appear during june and july, are white, and very much like those of the meadow sweet (p. ), but are larger, without scent, and generally pink when in the bud. the height of the plant is usually from twelve to eighteen inches. in the same order we have the tormentil (_potentilla tormentilla_), which is very abundant on heaths, dry pastures and stony banks, flowering from june to august. this plant has a prostrate (rarely erect) stem, from six to ten inches long, repeatedly forked, and clothed with silky hairs. the leaves are compound, with three or five deeply-toothed leaflets; the lower ones sometimes shortly stalked, but the upper always sessile. the flowers are rather small, yellow, generally with four petals, on slender peduncles arising from the axils of the leaves or from the forks of the stem. our last example of the _rosaceæ_ is the blackberry (_rubus fruticosus_); but it should be mentioned at once that the popular name of blackberry embraces quite a number of shrubs, often estimated at some scores of species and varieties. we cannot here, however, attempt to divide and classify the group; but we shall simply point out the features by which the shrubs in question may be distinguished, collectively, from allied shrubs that are not properly included under the same popular name. the stem of the blackberry grows to from three to twelve feet long, and has stiff or downy hairs in addition to the prickles. it is sometimes quite prostrate, sometimes erect, but more commonly arched, and rooting at the tips as they bend to the ground. the leaves are very variable, but usually consist of three or five large, ovate leaflets, with toothed edges, more or less downy, having curved prickles along the midrib and stalks. the flowers are white or pink, in terminal panicles, with five free sepals, five distinct petals, and many stamens. the fruit is black, and consists of several one-seeded carpels which do not readily separate from the receptacle when ripe; and the persistent sepals are usually bent downward below it. coming now to the _rubiaceæ_, we have to note four species, all characterised by whorled leaves; a corolla of four, united petals; stamens attached to the corolla; and an inferior ovary, of two carpels, that ripens to a dry fruit. three of the four belong to the bedstraw genus (_galium_), in which the corolla is wheel-shaped. they are:-- . the yellow or ladies' bedstraw (_g. verum_), very abundant on downs and dry banks, flowering from june to september. it has a prostrate or semi-erect, smooth stem, from six inches to two feet in length; and small, narrow leaves, six to eight in a whorl, generally slightly rough on the edges. the flowers are pale yellow, golden yellow, or greenish, arranged in dense, terminal and axillary panicles. the fruit is small and smooth. . the smooth heath bedstraw (_g. saxatile_).--abundant on downs, flowering from june to august. its stem is prostrate, smooth, from four to six inches long; and the leaves are generally in whorls of five or six. the flower-stalks are numerous, erect, weak, angled, smooth, each bearing a terminal panicle of many small, white flowers. the fruit is small, with a granulated surface. . the upright bedstraw (_g. erectum_).--not so common as the preceding, but often found on downs and hilly pastures, flowering from june to august. it is sometimes regarded as a variety of the great hedge bedstraw (_g. mollugo_), described on p. . its stem is erect, from one to two feet high; and the leaves, six to eight in a whorl, are very narrow, with marginal prickles pointing forwards. the flowers are white, in a panicle with slender, erect branches; and the fruit is smooth. [illustration: the smooth heath bedstraw.] the remaining plant of this order is the small woodruff or squinancy-wort (_asperula cynanchica_), which is common in many parts of england and ireland. its stem is smooth, sometimes erect with scattered leaves, and sometimes prostrate, leafy and tufted. it varies in length from six to ten inches. the leaves are very narrow, usually four in a whorl, and very unequal. at the upper nodes two of each whorl are often reduced to mere scales, or are absent altogether. the flowers, which appear during june and july, are white or pinkish, and are clustered at the tips of the erect stems. the fruit is small, with a granulated surface. [illustration: the dwarf thistle.] the small scabious (_scabiosa columbaria_), of the order _dipsaceæ_, is common on the dry heaths of england, and is readily distinguished from the devil's-bit scabious, which it somewhat resembles, by its deeply-divided leaves and pale purple or lilac flowers. its stem is erect, from one to two feet high. the lower leaves are rather crowded, and usually have a large, oval or oblong, terminal segment, deeply toothed or lobed, and some smaller ones below it. the stem leaves are cut into very narrow segments which are either entire or pinnately lobed. the flowers are in dense, terminal heads, surrounded by a whorl of short bracts, and intermixed with the little, narrow scales of the receptacle, the outer flowers of each head being larger than the others, and very irregular. this plant flowers during july and august. of the _compositæ_ we shall first take the hairy hawkbit (_leontodon hirtus_), which is very common on moors in most parts of great britain, flowering during july and august. although known as the _hairy_ hawkbit, this plant is sometimes quite smooth; more commonly, however, the leaves and peduncles are clothed with thinly-scattered, stiff, forked hairs. its leaves are all radical, either oblong or very narrow, with coarsely-toothed or wavy margins. the flower-heads are solitary, on peduncles from three to eight inches long, and of a bright yellow colour. each head is surrounded by a whorl of about a dozen green, smooth bracts, outside which are several shorter ones. all the florets are strap-shaped and perfect; and the fruits, which taper at the top, are mostly crowned by a pappus of feathery hairs as long as the achene itself, with a few shorter ones outside. this species appears on plate vi, fig. . we have next to note a few thistles that are more or less common on downs and moors, the first being the musk thistle (_carduus nutans_), common in the south of england, but much less frequent in the north. it is a stout plant, usually scantily covered with a loose, cottony down, with a furrowed stem from one to three feet high. the leaves are very deeply divided pinnately, very prickly, and extend down the stem in the form of narrow, prickly wings. the flower-heads are very large, of a purple or crimson colour, drooping, usually solitary, but sometimes in loose clusters of from two to four. each head is surrounded by numerous very narrow, stiff bracts, more or less covered with cottony down. all of these terminate in a sharp prickle which is erect on the inner bracts, but spreading or turned backward in the case of the outer ones. this thistle may be seen in flower from may to october. it appears on plate vi, fig. . the next species--the dwarf thistle (_carduus acaulis_)--is found only in the southern and midland counties of england, but is very common on some of the elevated downs of the south-east, especially on chalky soils. it has a very thick and hard rootstock, but hardly any trace of a stem, so that its spreading tuft of radical leaves lie close on the ground, around the large, purple, stemless, and, usually, solitary flower-head. the plant flowers from july to september. [illustration: the carline thistle.] the carline thistle (_carlina vulgaris_), as its name shows, does not belong to the same genus as the others, from which it differs principally in having its inner bracts coloured and spreading. it is an erect plant, with a stiff stem, usually branching, from six to eighteen inches high. its leaves are very prickly, and do not form wings down the stem. the flower-heads are particularly interesting, having much the appearance of everlasting flowers. in fact, the whole plant is of such a stiff and dry nature that it undergoes but little change in appearance when cut and preserved. the outer bracts are leafy and spreading, with strong, prickly teeth or lobes; and the inner ones are very narrow, entire, white or pale yellow, of a chaffy nature and very glossy. the latter are very sensitive to atmospheric conditions, spreading horizontally when the air is dry, and closing over the florets in humid air; and they respond so readily to the changed conditions that their movements may be watched as they are transferred from warm, dry air to a moist chamber, or _vice versa_. this plant is common on the downs of england and ireland, and flowers from july to september. [illustration: the common chamomile.] our last composite flower is the common chamomile (_anthemis nobilis_), which is abundant on the downs of the southern counties of england, flowering from july to september. it is an aromatic herb, with a procumbent stem, from six to twelve inches long, and ascending, leafy, flowering branches. the leaves are bipinnate, slightly downy, with very fine, almost hairlike, segments. the flower-heads are terminal, with a white ray and yellow disc, surrounded by blunt bracts the inner of which have membranous tips. on the receptacle are little broad scales, nearly as long as the disc florets. on heaths almost everywhere we may see the pretty roundleaved bell-flower or harebell (_campanula rotundifolia_), which displays its gracefully drooping bells from july to september. it has a slender, smooth, erect or ascending stem, from six to twenty inches high, which is usually branched. its popular and scientific names both appear to be inappropriate if we examine the plant during its flowering season, for the only leaves then usually observable are the very narrow ones, generally quite entire, attached to the stem; earlier in the year, however, it has a few round or heart-shaped leaves, with long stalks, close to the base of the stem; but these commonly die about the time that the flowers commence to appear. the flowers are sometimes solitary, but often form a loose raceme of several bells. [illustration: the harebell.] the clustered bell-flower (_campanula glomerata_) is common on the downs of most parts of england, and often very abundant in the south. it has a stiff, hairy, erect, angular, unbranched stem, from three to eighteen inches high. on some of the dry, chalky downs of the south the plant is often very dwarfed, being scarcely noticeable among the rather closely-cropped grass. the leaves are oblong or lanceolate, with crenate margins, rough and hairy, the lower ones stalked, but the upper sessile and clasping the stem. the flowers are about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and form a dense cluster among the upper leaves. the corolla is blue, bell-shaped, with five spreading lobes; and the fruit is a short, broad capsule, surmounted by the teeth of the calyx, and opens, when ripe, by slits near the base. this species flowers during july and august. it may be identified by reference to fig. of plate vi. the same order includes the sheep's-bit (_jasione montana_), also known as the sheep's scabious. it certainly resembles a scabious in general appearance (see fig. of plate vi), with its dense clusters of blue or deep lilac flowers, but may be readily distinguished from it by the united anthers of its five stamens, and by the absence of the involucel that surrounds the individual flowers of the scabious flower-head. the dense cluster of flowers, surrounded by a whorl of many ovate bracts, might also be mistaken for that of a composite at first sight; but here again we find exclusive distinguishing features, for the flowers of the cluster are not sessile on a common receptacle; and the fruits, instead of being one-seeded achenes, are two-chambered capsules. the plant is from six to twelve inches high; and its leaves are oblong or very narrow, wavy, blunt, and hairy. the flower-heads are hemispherical, about half an inch in diameter. both calyx and corolla have five narrow, spreading lobes. the plant is common on heaths, and flowers from june to september. [illustration: the cross-leaved heath.] we now come to those interesting plants known collectively as heaths, and which add so much beauty to our heaths and moors. they belong to the order _ericaceæ_, and are all readily distinguished by their bushy appearance, hard woody stems, and small, simple leaves arranged in pairs or whorls. the flowers, too, are very characteristic, each one having an inferior calyx of four sepals; a bell-shaped or pitcher-shaped, persistent corolla, with five lobes; eight stamens free from the corolla; and a four-chambered ovary that ripens to a capsule. the cross-leaved heath (_erica tetralix_) is common all over britain, especially so in the west. it is a wiry little shrub, from a foot to eighteen inches high, much branched at the base. its leaves are short, narrow, downy above, fringed with stiff hairs, and arranged in whorls of four, each whorl forming a cross. the drooping flowers, which appear during july and august, are usually rose-coloured, occasionally white, and are arranged in close, terminal, one-sided clusters. the ciliated heath (_erica ciliaris_), perhaps the most beautiful of the british species, is found only in the west of england, but is really abundant on some of the devon and cornwall moorlands. it is of a somewhat straggling nature, and its ovate leaves, which are downy above, and fringed with stiff hairs, are in whorls of three or four. the flowers are sometimes nearly half an inch long, of a bright rose or crimson colour, and are arranged in broken, one-sided racemes. the corolla is pitcher-shaped, with four lobes round the narrow mouth. the plant reaches a length of from twelve to eighteen inches, and flowers from june to september. [illustration: the bell heather or fine-leaved heath.] our last example of this genus--the bell heather or fine-leaved heath (_e. cinerea_)--is, perhaps, the commonest of all, for it abounds on the moors and heaths of nearly all parts of britain. it is a very tough and wiry shrub, from one to two feet high, with narrow leaves in whorls of three or four, and smaller leaves in their axils. the flowers vary in colour, being either purple, crimson, rose, or occasionally white. they are in dense, leafy racemes, not one-sided, but rather regularly whorled. the time of flowering is from july to september. in the same order is the common ling (_calluna vulgaris_)--a straggling shrub, from one to three feet high, bearing rose-coloured, lilac or white flowers from july to september. this shrub may be identified at once by its leaves, which are very small, and closely overlapping in four rows. its flowers are small, drooping, shortly stalked, each with two pairs of small bracts at its base; and are arranged in irregular, leafy racemes on the topmost branches. still in the same order (_ericaceæ_), but quite distinct from the heaths, are a few moorland shrubs the berries of which are largely eaten by the country-folk. they belong to the genus _vaccinium_, and have scattered, deciduous or evergreen leaves. we have noticed that in the heaths the ovary is superior, but in the present genus it is inferior; that is, it is situated below the calyx and corolla, which parts are attached to its upper border. the calyx has four or five lobes; and the corolla, which is bell-shaped or pitcher-shaped, has the same number of lobes or teeth. the stamens, eight or ten in number, are usually rendered peculiar by the tubular bristles that extend upwards from the anther cells. the berries are globular or nearly so, and contain several seeds. some species of this genus are rare, but three, at least, may be included here. they are-- . the whortleberry or bilberry (_vaccinium myrtillus_).--a smooth shrub, from six to eighteen inches high, common everywhere except in some of the eastern counties, flowering from april to june. its stem is erect or spreading, branched, green, and sharply angular. the leaves are shortly stalked, ovate, serrate, seldom more than an inch long; and the flowers are nearly globular, with small teeth, drooping on short stalks, and placed singly in the axils of the leaves. they are of a greenish rose or flesh-colour, often tinged with red, and have a very waxy appearance. . the great bilberry or bog whortleberry (_vaccinium uliginosum_).--a smaller and more woody shrub, from six to ten inches high, growing only in the moorland bogs of north britain. its stem and branches are round or scarcely angular, and usually procumbent and crooked. the leaves are small, obovate or round, entire, thin, deciduous, with the veins strongly marked on the under side; and the flowers are globular, of a pale pink colour, smaller than those of the last species. this species flowers during may and june. . the red whortleberry or cowberry (_v. vitis-idæa_).--a straggling, much branched, and woody shrub, from six to eighteen inches high, found chiefly on the mountainous heaths of the north. its leaves are evergreen, obovate, dotted beneath, with the margins slightly rolled back; and the flowers are bell-shaped, of a pale pink or flesh-colour, arranged in rather dense, drooping clusters. the latter, which bloom from june to august, are followed by red, globular berries. on wet, marshy heaths we occasionally meet with the marsh gentian (_gentiana pneumonanthe_). it is a very local plant, growing chiefly, though not exclusively, in the northern and midland counties of england. its stem is erect, stiff, leafy and unbranched, usually from six to ten inches high; and its leaves are sessile, linear, obtuse, rather thick, the lower ones broader than the upper. the flowers, which bloom during august and september, are represented on plate v. [illustration: the eyebright.] in the same order (_gentianaceæ_) is the autumn or small-flowered gentian (_gentiana amarella_)--a little erect plant, from three to twelve inches high, common on dry heaths and stony pastures. its stem is square, very leafy, simple or branched, often of a blue-green or purple colour; and the leaves are sessile, opposite, ovate or lanceolate. the flowers are of a pale purple colour, from half to three-quarters of an inch long, arranged in an oblong, leafy cluster. the calyx is divided quite half way down into five unequal, narrow segments; and the corolla has a broad tube with four or five ovate lobes that spread only in the direct rays of the sun. the time of flowering is august and september. one of the dodders--the lesser dodder (_cuscuta epithymum_)--is essentially a plant of heaths and moors, where it is parasitic on heaths, thyme, and other shrubby plants. it is described in chapter xxiii, where will also be found a short account of its growth and parasitic habits. our only example of the _scrophulariaceæ_ as far as this chapter is concerned--the eyebright (_euphrasia officinalis_)--is also a partial parasite, and is referred to, with other plants of the same nature, in chapter xxiii. it is a little plant, the general appearance of which is shown in our illustration. it varies from one to eight inches high, and bears little lilac, lipped flowers, streaked with purple, with a rather large yellow spot at the base of the lower lip. one of the mints--_mentha pulegium_ (order _labiatæ_)--well-known as a garden herb under the name of pennyroyal, is to be found on damp heaths. though not very common, it is widely distributed, occurring in nearly all parts of great britain. it is very aromatic, and is largely cultivated for use as a remedy for colds. the flowers are of a lilac colour, arranged in dense, distant whorls in the axils of the upper leaves. the calyx is downy without, hairy at the throat within; and the corolla has almost equal lobes, the upper of which is notched. the plant flowers in august and september. in the same order is the wild thyme (_thymus serpyllum_)--a little, wiry, prostrate plant, with an aromatic odour, very abundant on the dry heaths of most parts of britain, flowering from june to august. its stem is thin but hard, and much branched, the numerous flowerless branches usually forming a dense tuft close to the ground. the flowers are purple, in whorls of five or six in the axils of the upper leaves. the calyx is lipped, of a deep red colour, and its mouth is closed with hairs after the corolla is shed. the corolla is of a paler colour, and indistinctly divided into two lips, the upper of which is erect and notched, while the lower is cleft into three lobes. the time of flowering is from june to august. the wood sage or wood germander (_teucrium scorodonia_) is very abundant on damp heaths, and is also commonly seen in hedgerows and on banks, especially in hilly and heathy districts. it is an erect plant, from one to two feet high, with a hard, hairy, slightly-branched stem. its paired leaves are stalked, ovate or cordate, toothed, downy, and much wrinkled like the leaves of the true sages. the flowers are yellowish white, arranged in pairs on terminal and axillary racemes, with a small bract at the foot of each short flower-stalk. although not very conspicuous, they are very attractive to bees, providing abundance of nectar. there is no true upper lip to the corolla, the upper part being deeply cleft, with a small lobe on each side; and the stamens and stigma project beyond the petals. this plant flowers during july and august. [illustration: the wild thyme.] on moist heaths, especially in the west of britain, we commonly meet with the lesser skull-cap (_scutellaria minor_), another of the labiates. it is a little plant, seldom more than six inches high, with pale pink flowers that bloom from july to october. the stem is rather slender, and branched; and the paired leaves are broadly ovate below, narrower above, obtuse, very shortly stalked, and either entire or slightly toothed. the flowers are only a quarter of an inch long, shortly stalked, and usually placed singly in the axils of the leaves. the calyx has two lips, the upper of which bears, on the middle of its back, a prominent hollow scale; and the corolla has a long tube with two small lips, the lower of which is divided into three lobes. [illustration: the autumnal lady's tresses.] the dwarf silky willow (_salix repens_--order _salicaceæ_) is very common on heaths. it is a small, straggling shrub, from one to three feet high, sometimes erect, but more commonly procumbent and rooting at the base, with slender branches. its leaves are often less than an inch in length, oblong or narrow, with recurved margins, shining above and silky below. when young, the leaves are silky on both sides; and the young twigs and the buds are also clothed with a silky down. the flowers are imperfect, and are in short, sessile, erect, oblong catkins, which appear in april and early may, before the leaves. the male and female flowers grow on different shrubs; but in both cases the catkins are about half an inch long, with a few leafy bracts at the base, and the flowers are intermixed with silky scales. the capsules split when ripe, liberating numerous minute seeds that are tufted with long, white, silky hairs. the juniper (_juniperus communis_), one of the few british conifers, is not uncommon on dry, gravelly or chalky downs, more especially in the north. it is a profusely-branched, evergreen shrub, either erect or procumbent, and usually from one to five feet high. its leaves are very narrow, half an inch or less in length, concave above, terminating in a very sharp point, and arranged three in a whorl. the male and female flowers grow on separate shrubs, and are clustered in minute catkins, about a twelfth of an inch long, sessile in the axils of the leaves. the fruit is a bluish-black, berrylike cone, about a third of an inch in diameter. the juniper flowers during may and june. [illustration: the butcher's broom, in fruit.] passing now to the _orchidaceæ_ we have to note two species, the first of which is the autumnal lady's tresses (_spiranthes autumnalis_), a moderately common plant on the dry downs of south britain, flowering from august to october. it has two or three thick, oval tubers; and a slender stem, from four to eight inches high, with sheathing, acute scales. the radical leaves, four or five in number, are about an inch long, ovate, sharp, and form a tuft by the side of the stem. the flowers are small, white, scented, and form a single, spiral line on the stem; but while each flower is turned to one side, its bract is erect on the other side of the stem. the sepals and petals are much alike. the upper sepals are joined to the petals, and the lateral ones curve over the base of the lip of the corolla. the other plant of this order is the very common spotted palmate orchis (_orchis maculata_), abundant on the moist heaths and commons of most parts of britain, flowering from june to august. its root has two or three flattened tubers with long, finger-like lobes; and the stem is solid, erect, from six inches to more than a foot high. the leaves are ovate below, narrow above, and usually marked with many dark spots. the spike of flowers is dense, oblong or pyramidal in form, and two or three inches long. at the base of each flower is a bract usually shorter than the ovary. the flowers are pale purple, lilac, or (occasionally) white, and are generally conspicuously marked with irregular lines and spots of a deeper tint. the sepals are spreading, about a quarter of an inch long; and the petals are arched over the column. the lip is broad, deeply three-lobed, more or less toothed, either flat or with the lateral lobes slightly turned back. the spur is slender and a little shorter than the ovary. this orchis is represented on fig. of plate vi. [illustration: the common quaking grass.] our single example of the _liliaceæ_ is the butcher's broom (_ruscus aculeatus_), the only british monocotyledonous shrub. it is of a very dark green colour, varies from one to four feet in height, and is occasionally met with on the wooded heaths of the southern counties. its rigid, evergreen, leaflike appendages, which are ovate in form, terminating in a sharp spine, are not really leaves, but leaflike branches or _cladodes_; for, it will be observed, they bear the flowers and fruits, which are attached to their centres. the only leaves possessed by the plant are the minute, deciduous scales, from the axils of which the cladodes grow. the flowers are white, very small, with a deeply six-cleft, persistent perianth, each one attached to the centre of a cladode by a very minute stalk. they are always on the upper side of the cladode, though it generally happens that they are turned downwards by a twisting of the base of the leaflike branch. the flowers are always imperfect, the male and female blossoms growing on separate shrubs, and both have a small bract at the base. the ovary of the latter develops into a rather large, scarlet, berry-like fruit containing one or two seeds. the flowers appear during march and april. [illustration: the common mat grass.] two of the rushes (order _juncaceæ_) are very common on heaths and moors. one of these is the heath rush (_juncus squarrosus_), which appears on plate vi. this is a rigid rush, varying from four to ten inches high, flowering in june and july. its stems are stout, solid, and generally leafless; and the leaves are narrow, grooved, usually less than half the length of the stem. the flowers are brown, either distinct or in clusters of two or three, arranged in a compound raceme, with a perianth of shining segments membranous at the margins, and about a sixth of an inch long. the capsules are blunt, but terminate in a pointed bristle. the other is the field woodrush (_luzula campestris_), a small plant, usually from four to six inches high, flowering from march to june, and often very abundant among the grass of hilly pastures and heaths. its leaves are fringed with long, soft, white hairs; and the flowers, which are of a very dark brown colour, are arranged in three or four round or oval spikes. the segments of the perianth are very sharp, about an eighth of an inch long, with membranous margins; and the capsules are blunt. we conclude this chapter with a brief notice of two of the grasses of heaths and downs. one of these is the common quaking grass or totter grass (_briza media_).--a very pretty, erect grass, rather rigid, from six to eighteen inches high, common on dry downs except in the extreme north of britain, flowering during june and july. its stems are tufted, or sometimes slightly creeping; and its leaves are narrow and flat. the spikelets are round or broadly ovate, nearly a quarter of an inch long, more or less tinged with purple, on the long, slender branches of a loose, spreading panicle three or four inches long. the broad glumes are all similar in shape, but decrease in size upwards, and are not bristled. the other is the common mat grass (_nardus stricta_), a densely tufted, wiry grass, from four inches to a foot in height, common on heaths and moors, flowering in june and july. the leaves are very fine and stiff, quite bristle-like. the flowers are in a one-sided spike, from one to three inches long, the one-flowered spikelets being placed alternately in two rows, in the notches of the central axis. the spikelets are often of a reddish or purplish colour, and each has a single, narrow, pointed glume, about a third of an inch long, an inner glume with a short bristle, three stamens, and a single style. [illustration: _plate vii._ flowers of the cornfield. . long smooth-headed poppy. . field scabious. . corn cockle. . corn marigold. . flax. . corn pheasant's-eye.] xvii in the corn field the flowers included in the present chapter are to be found principally in cultivated fields; but since they are more particularly associated with corn crops, or occur so commonly in those fields in which grain is one of the products included in the rotation adopted, we separate them from the other flowers of the field, and consider them under the above head. it will be observed that the majority of the flowers thus dealt with are summer-bloomers that flower while the ears of corn are filling out, and consequently are in fruit at the time of harvest. hence, when the corn is cut, their seeds are shaken from the ripe fruits, or the fruits are themselves levelled to the ground, with the result that those which are not ploughed too deeply into the soil spring up almost in the same position in the following season. starting with the species of the buttercup family (order _ranunculaceæ_), we take first the beautiful pheasant's eye (_adonis autumnalis_), which is sometimes seen among the corn, especially in the fields of the southern counties. the plant is not a native, but has become well established as a wild flower in several parts, though it is common in only a few localities. it is erect, from six to twelve inches high, and flowers in summer and autumn. the coloured illustration on plate vii, fig. , renders a written description unnecessary. the little mouse-tail (_myosurus minimus_) of the same order is a very different kind of plant. it seldom exceeds a height of five or six inches, and is commonly only two inches high. its leaves are all radical, very narrow, fleshy, and measure only from one to three inches, including the stalk; and the little yellowish-green flowers, which bloom from april to june, are solitary on radical stalks. each flower has five spreading sepals which are prolonged downward at the base into a short spur; five very narrow, tubular petals; a few stamens; and a spike-like cluster of many carpels in the centre. as the fruit ripens the cluster of carpels lengthens into a slender spike from an inch to an inch and a half long. this species is rather common in the south and south-east of england, and is to be seen most frequently in moist fields. the corn crowfoot (_r. arvensis_) is a slightly hairy plant, with a branched stem from six to eighteen inches in height. the whole is of a pale green colour, and the leaves are deeply cut into narrow, lobed segments. the flowers are pale yellow, about half an inch in diameter, with spreading sepals; and are usually placed opposite the leaves. their carpels are few in number, comparatively large, flattened, and covered with hooked spines. this is an abundant species, especially in the southern counties, and is most common in weedy fields in which corn-crops have been previously raised. it flowers from may to july. [illustration: the mouse-tail.] the same order (_ranunculaceæ_) includes the field larkspur (_delphinium ajacis_) which sometimes grows wild in corn-fields. it is not indigenous, but has been introduced from south europe; and the wild plants are probably escapes from cultivation. the stem is from nine to eighteen inches high, with a few spreading branches; and the leaves are all deeply cut into very narrow segments. the flowers are blue, pink or white, and are arranged in a long, terminal raceme. the five sepals are coloured, the posterior one prolonged into a narrow, hollow spur about half an inch long. there are only two petals, and these are united into a narrow spur which lies within that of the calyx. the fruit consists of a single, downy follicle that contains several seeds. this plant flowers during june and july. we have now to notice a few of the favourite poppies (order _papaveraceæ_); and although these are generally easily distinguished, even by the tyro, from the flowers of other orders, we think it advisable to call attention to the leading features of the group. these plants have a milky sap, and leaves without stipules. their flowers are large, regular, on long stalks, and droop when in the bud. there are only two sepals, and they generally drop very early. the petals, four in number, are very thin and delicate, crumpled in the bud; and the stamens are numerous. the ovary is peculiar, consisting of one cell that is partially divided by a number of membranes (_placentas_) which pass from the wall towards the centre. it is surmounted by a disc on which are several radiating stigmas, corresponding in number with the membranes within. the fruit opens when ripe by the formation of pores just under the edge of the disc. the most abundant species is undoubtedly the common red poppy (_papaver rhæas_), which is to be found in almost every corn-field, as well as in other fields and waste places in cultivated districts, flowering from may to july. it is from one to two feet high, covered with rather stiff spreading hairs; and its leaves are pinnately divided into narrow, pointed lobes which are themselves more or less cut. the beautiful, rich scarlet flowers are about three inches in diameter, often with a black patch at the base of each petal, and are solitary on long peduncles that are covered with hairs. the fruit is almost globular, tapering towards the bottom; and on its disc are from eight to twelve radiating stigmas. the long-headed poppy (_p. dubium_) is a very similar plant, but is generally rather more slender, with hairs that do not spread so much; and its leaves are often more deeply cut into narrower lobes. its flowers are a little smaller, with two opposite petals larger than the other two; and the hairs of the peduncles lie close against the surface. the fruit is oblong, tapering towards the bottom, the length being nearly three times the greatest width. this poppy also flowers from may to july. it is represented in fig. . of plate vii. a third species--the long prickly-headed poppy (_p. argemone_), also known as the pale poppy, is a small, weak plant, seldom exceeding nine inches in height, with leaves divided into a few narrow segments. the flowers are of a pale red colour, usually less than two inches in diameter; and, like those of the commonest species, have usually a dark patch at the base of each petal. the fruit is narrow-oblong, tapering below, in fact, almost club-shaped, and is clothed with a few stiff, bristly hairs. the time of flowering is the same as that of the preceding species. [illustration: the common red poppy.] in the corn-fields of several parts of england we may meet with the white or opium poppy (_p. somniferum_) which is largely grown in warmer countries for the opium it produces, and which was probably introduced into britain from the mediterranean region. it is generally about two feet in height, and quite smooth with the exception of a few spreading, stiff hairs on the flower stalks. the whole plant is of a glaucous green colour. the flowers are large, generally of a bluish white colour, often with a purple patch at the base of each petal; and the fruit is large, globular and smooth. this species flowers from june to august. [illustration: the white or opium poppy.] the pretty little fumitory (_fumaria officinalis_--order _fumariaceæ_) is abundant in most of the cornfields and other cultivated places of most parts of britain, flowering from june to september. it is a very variable plant, quite smooth, and of a delicate, pale green colour. its stem varies from six inches to over two feet in length, sometimes erect, with spreading branches, but often climbing among the neighbouring vegetation, supported by the twisted leafstalks. the leaves are pinnately divided into stalked leaflets which are further cut into three-lobed segments; and the flowers are in racemes that are either terminal or opposite the leaves. at first the racemes are short, but they lengthen out considerably as upper flowers open and the lower ones fruit. each flower has a short pedicel that arises from the axil of a whitish or coloured bract; and the two small sepals are either white or coloured like the bracts. the corolla is oblong, tubular, formed of four petals in two pairs, with a short, blunt spur at the base; and its colour is very variable--usually cream-coloured or pink, and often tipped with crimson. some of the mustards are very common weeds in corn-fields. they belong to the genus _brassica_, of the order _cruciferæ_, and are distinguished by their long siliquas, almost cylindrical in form, terminating in a 'beak' which is formed entirely of the persistent style, or of this together with a modified portion of the fruit containing one or more seeds. one of the commonest of these is the wild mustard or charlock (_brassica arvensis_ or _b. sinapis_), a very abundant weed in most cultivated fields, probably introduced originally from south europe. it is a very coarse plant, with scattered, bristly, spreading hairs, growing from one to two feet high, and bearing racemes of yellow flowers that generally exceed a diameter of half an inch. the leaves are ovate, with short, stiff hairs; all are pinnately lobed, and the lower ones have generally a large oval lobe, with coarsely-toothed segments, and a few narrower segments along the stalk. the fruits are spreading, many-angled pods, usually about an inch in length, constricted between the seeds when ripe, with a beak about a third the length of the whole pod enclosing a single seed at its base. the plant flowers from may to august. the white mustard (_brassica alba_ or _sinapis alba_) is not so common; but it is somewhat largely cultivated for its seedlings, which are used, with those of cress, as salad; and the plant is not unfrequently found as a weed in corn-fields and on other cultivated ground. the whole plant is clothed with rather stiff hairs that are directed downwards, and its height varies from one to two feet. its leaves are pinnately divided into ovate, coarsely-toothed segments, the terminal one largest. the flowers are bright yellow, about half an inch in diameter, in racemes. the pods are usually near an inch long, on spreading stalks; with a stout, flattened beak, longer than the pod itself, containing a single seed. they are constricted between the seeds, and both valves and beak are clothed with stiff, whitish hairs. the plant flowers during june and july. [illustration: the fumitory.] a third member of the same genus--the black mustard (_brassica nigra_ or _sinapis nigra_)--is also cultivated for its seeds, which are used in the preparation of table mustard, and it is also a moderately common weed of cultivation in many parts. it is a hairy plant, from one to three feet high. its lower leaves are rough, and deeply divided into a large terminal and small lateral lobes; and the upper ones are small, very narrow, smooth and undivided. the flowers are yellow, usually less than half an inch across, in long, narrow racemes; and the shortly-stalked pods are four-angled, smooth, and about half an inch long. they do not spread much, and the short beak consists only of the narrow style. this species flowers from june to august. [illustration: the black mustard.] the wild radish or white charlock (_raphanus raphanistrum_) is a common corn-field weed, somewhat resembling the mustards just described in general appearance, but its pods are distinctly constricted between the seeds, and often split when ripe into from three to seven one-seeded joints. the plant is bristly, and grows from one to two feet high, flowering from may to september. the petals are either white with purplish veins, or pale yellow, or lilac; and the pods, over an inch long, are tipped by the conical style, which is about twice as long as the last joint. coming now to the order _caryophyllaceæ_ we have to note the pretty corn cockle (_lychnis githago_), which is commonly seen in the midst of the corn, often growing so tall that its pale purple flowers peep above the ears. its stem is clothed with long, soft, white hairs; and the leaves are all long, narrow and entire. the flowers, which appear during july and august, are usually over an inch in diameter, and are solitary on long, leafless peduncles. this flower appears on plate vii. [illustration: the corn spurrey.] the same order includes the corn spurrey (_spergula arvensis_), a low, procumbent plant, with small, white flowers that bloom from june to august. its slender stem varies from six to eighteen inches long, and the narrow, whorled leaves from one to two inches. the flowers are only a quarter of an inch in diameter, with sepals usually a little shorter than the petals. in the order _linaceæ_ we have the common flax or linseed (_linum usitatissimum_), which is cultivated in some districts, and often appears as a weed in fields. it is an erect, smooth plant, with a slender stem about a foot high, and very narrow, entire, acute leaves, about an inch long. the flowers are in a loose, terminal corymb, and have five acute sepals; five bright blue petals over half an inch long, which fall early; five perfect and five imperfect stamens; and an ovary with five styles. it flowers during july. (see plate vii.) the shepherd's needle or venus's comb (_scandix pecten-veneris_) of the order _umbelliferæ_ derives its name from the long, flat, needle-like beaks of the fruits that are placed almost parallel like the teeth of a coarse comb. the plant is erect, branched, from three to twelve inches high; and the general character of its leaves and inflorescence may be gathered from our illustration. the flowers are small, white, with larger outer petals; and the carpels of the fruit are cylindrical, about a third of an inch long, with beaks about an inch and a half. the plant flowers from june to september. [illustration: the shepherd's needle or venus's comb.] of the order _rubiaceæ_ we shall include the common field madder (_sherardia arvensis_), a little plant, varying from five to ten inches high, the minute lilac flowers of which may be seen from april to october. its branched stems are often decumbent; and the little, narrow, sharply-pointed leaves, rough on the edges, are placed in whorls of from four to six. the umbels are very small, terminal, and surrounded by a leafy involucre that is divided into several lobes longer than the flowers. the corolla consists of an exceedingly slender tube, at the top of which are four spreading lobes; and the fruit is crowned by the five or six teeth of the calyx, which enlarges as the former ripens. the field knautia or field scabious (_knautia arvensis_ or _scabiosa arvensis_), shown on plate vii, is very common on cultivated ground, particularly in corn-growing districts. it is a slightly-branched plant, from one to four feet high, clothed with stiff, bristly hairs. its lower leaves are stalked, simple, narrow, and usually but little cut; and the upper ones sessile, broader at the base, and either coarsely toothed or deeply cut. the flower-heads are large, lilac, on long peduncles. the outer florets are much larger than the inner, and all have four-lobed corollas. the fruit is angular, and is surmounted by the eight or ten bristles of the calyx. this plant flowers from june to august. [illustration: the venus's looking-glass or corn bellflower.] two of the sow thistles (order _compositæ_) have already been noticed among the flowers of waste places (p. ), and a third, known as the corn sow-thistle (_sonchus arvensis_), falls within the range of the present chapter, being a very common corn-field weed. it is an erect plant, from one to four feet high, with a hollow, angular stem, branched only towards the top. its lower leaves are large, stalked, more or less divided into triangular, sharply-toothed lobes that are curved downwards; and the upper ones are sessile, less divided, with broad lobes which clasp the stem. the flower-heads are bright yellow, large, and arranged in a loose, terminal corymb. their stalks and bracts are rough with stiff brown or black hairs; and the pappus of the wrinkled fruits consists of a dense mass of white, silky hairs. the plant blooms during august and september. the bluebottle or cornflower (_centaurea cyanus_) is a pretty cornfield composite, not uncommon in many parts, blooming from june to august. the plant, represented on plate iv, is covered with loose, cottony hairs, and grows from one to two feet high. the heads of flowers are about an inch in diameter, solitary on long, terminal stalks, surrounded by an oval involucre of closely-overlapping bracts with sharp points and toothed, membranous margins. the receptacle is flat, with silvery bristles between the florets. all the florets are tubular; the central ones of a bluish-purple colour, with purple anthers; and the outer ones much larger, curved, irregular, and bright blue. the fruit is surmounted by a pappus of short, simple hairs. one of the most beautiful of the corn-field flowers is the corn marigold or yellow ox-eye daisy (_chrysanthemum segetum_), easily distinguished by its rather large flower-heads, solitary on terminal peduncles, with bright golden-yellow ray and disc. it grows from twelve to eighteen inches high, and flowers from may to july. it may be identified by the aid of the coloured illustration on plate vii. [illustration: the scarlet pimpernel.] the corn chamomile (_anthemis arvensis_), of the same order, is not unfrequently seen in corn fields, flowering from june to august. it is much like the scentless mayweed (p. ) and the common chamomile (p. ) in general appearance, but may be easily distinguished with a little care. it is a rather coarse plant, more or less clothed with a silky down; and its freely-branched stem is usually erect, and from one to two feet high. the leaves are pinnate, with leaflets divided into very narrow, almost hairlike segments; and the flower-heads are rather large, with white ray and yellow disc, solitary on the tops of leafy stalks. the involucre bracts are acute; the receptacle conical; and ray florets always possess a style. [illustration: the climbing bistort.] the stinking chamomile or stinking mayweed (_anthemis cotula_) is another similar corn-field plant, but it may be readily recognised by the minute glands dotted over its surface, the acrid secretion of which emits a f[oe]tid odour when rubbed, and often blisters the hand. the plant is generally smooth, with an erect, branched stem, from nine to fifteen inches high; and pinnate leaves with leaflets divided into short, narrow, pointed lobes. the flowers are similar to those of the previous species, on the tops of long, leafy stalks; but the receptacle, at first convex, lengthens to a tall cone; and the white ray-florets have no style. the involucre bracts are also very narrow, bristly at the top; and the fruits are rendered rough by numerous little glandular projections. this plant flowers from june to september. the corn bellflower or wild venus's looking-glass (_campanula hybrida_), of the order _campanulaceæ_, is not uncommon in the cornfields of the chalky districts of south and east england. it is an erect plant, from six to ten inches high, bearing purple, blue, or (occasionally) white flowers from july to september. in addition to the general features shown in our illustration we may note that its long, inferior ovary is three-angled; and that the fruit splits, when ripe, by the formation of slits near the top. in the order _boraginaceæ_ we have the small bugloss (_lycopsis arvensis_), a branched plant, from six inches to two feet in height, covered all over with stiff bristles that are swollen at the base. its leaves are oblong or very narrow, wavy, and sometimes toothed; the upper ones sessile and often clasping the stem; and the lower frequently shortly stalked. the flowers are small, pale blue, in simple or branched, one-sided spikes. they have a deeply-cleft calyx of five segments; and the species may be distinguished from other, somewhat similar plants of the same order by the form of the tube of the corolla, which is always bent in the middle. this plant is very common in the corn fields of most parts; and flowers during june and july. [illustration: the dwarf spurge.] our next flower is the pretty little scarlet pimpernel or poor man's weather glass (_anagallis arvensis_) of the primrose order (_primulaceæ_), which is very common in cornfields and on other cultivated ground, flowering from may to very late in the autumn. the stem of this plant is procumbent and much branched, the branches sometimes reaching a length of considerably more than a foot; and its leaves are opposite, sessile, broadly ovate, undivided, and dotted beneath. the little flowers are solitary in the axils of the leaves, on long, slender peduncles that are always curved backwards as the fruits ripen. the calyx is deeply cleft into five pointed segments; and the bright scarlet (occasionally pink or white) corolla, fringed with minute hairs, spreads its five lobes only in sunny weather. the fruit is a little globular capsule, enclosed in the persistent calyx, splitting transversely into two hemispheres when ripe. the climbing bistort (_polygonum convolvulus_--order _polygonaceæ_), also known as the climbing buckwheat, climbing persicaria, and black bindweed, is a very troublesome corn-field weed, with the climbing habit of the convolvulus, often strangling the plants round which it twines its angular stem. it varies from one to four feet in height; and its alternate leaves are heart-shaped or arrow-shaped, pointed, with short membranous stipules at the base of the stalk. the flowers are small, pale green, in little loose clusters of from four to twelve. the lower clusters are stalked in the axils of the leaves, and the upper ones form irregular, terminal racemes. the five segments of the calyx are bluntly keeled, and occasionally winged; and the three outer ones closely envelop the fruit--a triangular nut. the plant flowers from july to september. at least two or three of the spurges (_euphorbiaceæ_) are commonly seen in cultivated fields, but one in particular--the dwarf spurge (_euphorbia exigua_)--is common in corn fields. it is a slender, smooth plant, usually from two to ten inches high, with several ascending stems diverging from near the base. the little yellow flowers are in terminal umbels of from three to five rays, sometimes very much contracted; and their glands (see p. ) are crescent-shaped, with their fine points turned outwards. the time of flowering is july to october. our last example of the corn-field plants is the wild oat grass or havers (_avena fatua_)--an erect grass, two or three feet high, with rough leaves, and stem hairy at the joints. its flowers form a loose, spreading panicle, from six to nine inches long; with three-flowered spikelets, about an inch long, on very slender stalks, erect at first but afterwards drooping. the outer glumes are about three quarters of an inch long, tapering to a bristly point, often tinged with purple; and the inner ones, two or three in number, are a little shorter, cleft at the top into pointed lobes, and covered outside with yellowish-brown hairs. the awn is about twice as long as the spikelet, twisted at the base, and usually bent near the middle. this grass flowers during june and july. xviii on the chalk while some flowers are so universally distributed that they may be described as existing almost everywhere, others are restricted to certain kinds of localities, outside which they seldom occur. this restriction is sometimes merely one of light and shade, the same species growing almost equally luxuriantly in open spaces, or, in shady places, regardless of other conditions. some plants, however, are particularly partial to certain conditions of soil, situation, or climate, and are consequently more strictly confined to limited districts. we have already referred to several species which are essentially flowers of the woods, but even these are not distributed evenly in wooded districts; for while some seem to be more universally scattered throughout our wooded parts, others show a decided partiality to particular soils, being found exclusively, or almost so, either in sandy woods, clayey woods, or woods in limestone districts, &c. in fact, the nature of the soil is such an important factor in determining plant distribution that we naturally associate many species with the particular rock strata on which we almost invariably find them. so intimately is the distribution of plants connected with that of the geological strata that when, in the course of a day's ramble, we find a more or less sudden change in the nature of the flora, we may be almost sure that there is a corresponding change in the nature of the rocks or soil over which we have strayed; and the young botanist will find much to interest him in the study of this relation between vegetable life and geological structure. of course we do not mean that the botanist must necessarily be also a geologist, but that he should, at least, be always ready to observe the nature of the habitats of the flowers he finds, noting particularly the kind of soil on which they grow. [illustration: _plate viii._ flowers of chalky soils. . red valerian. . narrow-leaved flax. . tufted horse-shoe vetch. . spiked speedwell. . pasque flower. . bee orchis. . yellow oat grass.] chalky districts are notably attractive to the lover of flowers; for, not only do they yield a number of species that are almost essentially the offspring of calcareous soils, but also produce other blossoms, often in rich profusion, that are less restricted in their habitats. [illustration: the rock rose.] in the present chapter we shall note the principal flowers that grow principally or entirely in calcareous districts, the first being the pasque flower (_anemone pulsatilla_--order _ranunculaceæ_), rare, it is true, but too beautiful to be omitted from our selection. this flower, shown on plate viii, fig. , may be seen on some chalky hills during may and june. it is of a silky nature, and the lovely purple blossoms often reach a diameter of an inch and a half. the leaves are doubly or trebly pinnate, with very narrow segments which increase in length after the flowers have faded. the bracts, which are some distance below the flower, have also linear segments; and the flowers droop while still in the bud, but the peduncle becomes erect as they expand. the stamens are yellow, and the fruits are provided with feathered hairs. on chalky, sandy, and other dry soils we may meet with the round prickly-headed poppy (_papaver hybridum_--order _papaveraceæ_), very much like the common poppy in general appearance, but readily distinguished by its general hairy character, and, more especially, by the globular, furrowed fruit covered with spreading bristles. the flowers vary from one to two inches in diameter, and the crimson or deep scarlet petals are often black at the base. the bitter candytuft (_iberis amara_--order _cruciferæ_), which is so well known as a border-flower of our gardens, grows freely in some of the chalk districts of the south and east of england. unlike most of the crucifers, the flowers are not symmetrical, the two outer petals being much larger than the others. the inflorescence is a raceme, which, like that of the wallflower, becomes longer as the flowering proceeds; and the colour of the petals is white, lilac or red. the height of this plant varies from six to nine inches, and the flowers bloom during july and august. the wild mignonette (_reseda lutea_--order _resedaceæ_) is very common in some chalky districts, generally in fields and other open ground, and may be easily recognised by its close resemblance to the well-known sweet mignonette (_r. odorata_), which is so highly valued as a garden flower on account of its pleasant perfume. it is of a shrubby nature, from one to two feet high, with scattered, stipuled leaves, the lower of which are pinnate, while the upper are three-lobed. the flowers are irregular, yellow, and arranged in short, conical racemes. the six sepals are unequal and linear; and the petals, also six in number, are very unequal, while the posterior one is divided into many parts. the flowers bloom throughout the summer. one of the most characteristic flowers of the chalk is the pretty rock rose (_helianthemum vulgare_--order _cistaceæ_), which is often so abundant that it completely covers large patches of banks and pasture-land. the plant is of a procumbent nature, with woody stems, and opposite, flat, oval or oblong leaves, green above and hoary beneath. the yellow flowers are from three-quarters to an inch in diameter, and are arranged in racemes. there are five sepals, two of which are very small; and the numerous stamens are sensitive, spreading out and lying on the petals when the flower is squeezed. the time of flowering is from june to september. an allied species--the hoary rock rose (_h. canum_ or _h. marifolium_)--may be found in the limestone districts of the west of england, flowering from may to july. the plant is very similar to the last, but the leaves are not stipuled, are smooth or hairy above, and very hoary beneath. the flowers, too, are much smaller. a species of violet--the hairy violet (_viola hirta_--order _violaceæ_)--may be found in some limestone and chalk districts, and also on some dry soils removed from calcareous rocks. it has no runners like those of other species, and its cordate leaves are very hairy, on petioles covered with spreading hairs. the flowers are scentless, pale violet or white, with bracts below the middle of the peduncle; and the spur of the corolla is long, blunt, flattened, and hooked. two species of flax (order _linaceæ_) are to be found on chalky soils. one--the perennial flax (_linum perenne_)--grows in hilly districts, but is not at all common. it is a slender plant, with numerous wiry stems from one to two feet high; and sessile, linear, acute leaves. the petals are of a beautiful sky-blue colour, but so lightly attached that it is difficult to secure a perfect specimen. the other species--the narrow-leaved flax (_l. angustifolium_)--is moderately common on calcareous hills of the south and west of england. it is very similar to the last, and grows to about the same height, but its many stems are more irregularly branched, and the alternate leaves are linear-lanceolate. the corolla is of a lighter lilac-blue colour. _l. perenne_ blooms during june and july, and the narrow-leaved species from june to september. the latter is shown on plate viii. quite a number of species of leguminous plants (order _leguminosæ_), may, as a rule, be met with on dry soils, but only two common ones may be described as particularly partial to chalk and limestone localities. these are the tufted horse-shoe vetch (_hippocrepis comosa_) and the sainfoin or cock's-head (_onobrychis sativa_). the former, represented on plate viii, is a low, smooth, prostrate plant, six to eighteen inches long, with yellow flowers that bloom from may to august. this plant is sometimes confused with the bird's-foot trefoil, which it rather closely resembles in general appearance, but it may be readily distinguished by the pinnate leaves and the peculiar form of the pods. the latter are flattened, and break up, when ripe, into from three to six one-seeded, horse-shoe-shaped segments--a feature which has given rise to the popular name. the sainfoin is often cultivated in the south-east of england as fodder for cattle, but may frequently be found growing wild. it is a very pretty, erect plant, from one to two feet high, with dense racemes of rosy-red flowers beautifully striped with a darker tint. the stem is stout and downy, and the pinnate leaves have membranous stipules and numerous oblong leaflets which terminate abruptly in a point. the pod is compressed, semicircular in form, indehiscent, and toothed along the lower edge. this species flowers during june and july. [illustration: the sainfoin.] on some chalky heaths the true sweet-briar (_rosa rubiginosa_--order _rosaceæ_) is a common shrub, growing from three to six feet high, and flowering during june and july. it is an erect and compact bush, with numerous prickles of varying shapes--the larger ones being hooked, while the smaller are straight and very unequal. the leaves are compound and stipuled, and the leaflets are rounded at the base, downy, and doubly serrate. the flowers often grow singly, but more commonly from two to four together; they are of a deep rose colour, and the persistent sepals are pinnately divided. the fruit is at first pear-shaped, but afterwards becomes almost globular, and turns red when ripe. [illustration: the salad burnet.] in similar situations we may find the lesser burnet or salad burnet (_poterium sanguisorba_) of the same order. this plant is so different in general appearance from the majority of the rose family that the amateur would hardly associate it with the others. the flowers are small, and collected together in dense, purple cymes on the top of long, angular stalks. they have no petals, and the four overlapping sepals are usually deciduous. the stamens, five to thirty in number, are pendulous on long, slender filaments; and the upper flowers display their crimson stigmas before the lower ones produce their stamens. the stem is erect, from six to eighteen inches in height; and the pinnate leaves have many small, sessile, oblong leaflets with coarsely-serrate edges. this plant flowers during june, july, and august. [illustration: the field gentian.] the bedstraw family (order _rubiaceæ_) is represented on the chalk by the rough-fruited corn bedstraw (_galium tricorne_), which is common in fields. it is a spreading plant, with procumbent stems, one to three feet long; and small, long, narrow leaves, rough with recurved prickles, arranged in whorls of from six to eight. the flowers are small and white, grouped in little cymes of three. the fruit is comparatively large, and granulated, but not bristly, and it droops by the bending of the pedicel. the plant flowers from june to october. the red spur valerian (_centranthus ruber_--order _valerianaceæ_) is a glaucous, leafy plant (see plate viii), sometimes growing to a height of two feet or more, often to be seen in chalk-pits and limestone quarries, and frequently on old walls. it is not indigenous, but is cultivated largely as a garden flower, and has now become naturalised. its corolla, which is sometimes white, has five unequal lobes, a long, flattened tube, and a slender spur. the plant flowers from june to september. of the composite flowers we shall note two species, the first being the woolly-headed plume-thistle (_carduus eriophorus_), common in chalky fields, where it throws up its large, cottony heads to a height of from three to five feet during july and august. in order to distinguish it from other similar thistles we must note that its stem is not winged, and that the deeply-divided leaves, with bifid lobes, half clasp the stem at the base; also that the involucre bracts are lanceolate, with long, reflexed spines. the heads of this thistle are of a pale purple colour, of a globular form, two to three inches in diameter, and covered with a thick, cottony growth. [illustration: the yellow-wort.] our other example of the composite flowers is the ploughman's spikenard (_inula conyza_), which is common on chalky banks and pastures, flowering from july to september. it is an erect, downy plant, from two to five feet high, with oval, lanceolate, downy leaves of a dull green colour. the upper leaves are entire and sessile, while the lower are toothed and stalked. the numerous flower heads are of a dull yellow colour, with leaflike bracts, arranged in a branched corymb. the involucre bracts are linear and reflexed, and the ray florets are inconspicuous. two representatives of the order _gentianaceæ_ are commonly found on chalk hills and pastures; they are the field gentian (_gentiana campestris_), and the perfoliate yellow-wort (_chlora perfoliata_, or _blackstonia perfoliata_). the former is an erect plant, from four to ten inches high, with a branched stem; opposite, sessile leaves; and conspicuous, bluish-purple flowers, blooming in august and september. the calyx is cleft into four, the two outer segments being large and ovate. the corolla is also four-cleft, and salver-shaped. [illustration: the great mullein.] the yellow-wort is an erect, glaucous plant, with an unbranched stem from six to eighteen inches in height, and beautiful yellow flowers, from four to nine in number, arranged in a cyme. the leaves are in widely-separated pairs, united at their bases, so that the stem penetrates them. the calyx is deeply divided, and the limbs of the corolla are spreading. this plant flowers from june to september. some species of mullein (_verbascum_) are particularly partial to chalk and limestone districts. they are handsome plants, belonging to the order _scrophulariaceæ_, rendered conspicuous by their woolly leaves and spikes of yellow or white flowers. the great mullein (_v. thapsus_) is common on banks and roadsides, and flowers from june to august. its stem is stout, erect, very woolly, and varies from two to five feet in height. the leaves are very large and thick, and are so woolly on both sides that they resemble flannel. the flowers form a large, dense, club-shaped spike. each has a corolla with five spreading lobes; and five stamens, with white hairs on their filaments, two longer than the other three. the fruit is a capsule containing many seeds and splitting longitudinally. the white mullein (_v. lychnitis_) is not at all common, but may be found in similar situations. its stem is angular, seldom more than three feet high, the leaves nearly smooth above, and the flowers white or cream, blooming from june to august. a third species--the yellow hoary mullein (_v. pulverulentum_)--grows on banks, chiefly in norfolk and suffolk, flowering during july and august. it is about three feet in height; the stem is round, with a mealy surface; and the leaves, which are not continued down the stem, are covered both above and below with starlike hairs that give them a mealy appearance. the flowers form a pyramidal panicle, and are of a bright yellow colour, with scarlet stamens covered with white hairs. [illustration: the red hemp-nettle.] there is yet another species to be found on chalky soils, more especially in hedges and on banks and roadsides. it is the dark mullein (_v. nigrum_), so called on account of the darker hue of the stem and leaves. it grows to a height of about three feet and flowers from june to september. it is a beautiful plant, not so strong in build as the great mullein, with an angular stem, and oblong heart-shaped leaves, nearly smooth above, and covered with starlike hairs which give it a downy appearance, especially on the under surface. the leaves are not continued down the stem, and the lower ones have long stalks. the flowers are bright yellow, very numerous, and form a spike-like panicle. the stamens are covered with purple hairs. the spiked speedwell (_veronica spicata_), of the same order, neither common nor widely distributed, is to be found chiefly in the chalk and limestone districts of the south and west of england, flowering during july and august. it has a long, dense, terminal spike of blue or pink flowers about a quarter of an inch in diameter. the corolla has a long tube, and unequal, narrow lobes; and the flattened capsules split into two valves when ripe. a large variety of this species, known as the tall spiked speedwell, occurs in limestone districts of the west. the normal form is shown in fig. , of plate viii. of the labiates perhaps the one most partial to the chalk is the wild sage or clary (_salvia verbenaca_); and even this is not confined to calcareous soils, but thrives in dry pastures in many parts of the country, particularly near the sea. it is an aromatic herb, from one to two feet in height, with long spikes of bluish purple flowers that bloom from may to september. the leaves, which are not numerous, are oblong-cordate (the upper ones broadly cordate), blunt, coarsely toothed, and wrinkled. other labiates are very similar to this species, but the clary may be distinguished by its two ovate, cordate bracts at the base of each flower, and by its narrow corolla, which is a little shorter than the calyx. the red hemp-nettle (_galeopsis ladanum_), of the same order, is common in chalky fields. it is about a foot in height, and displays its _rose-coloured_ flowers from july to october. the plant is covered with very soft hairs, and the stem is not swollen at the joints. these two features serve to distinguish the species from the common hemp-nettle (_g. tetrahit_) and the large-flowered hemp-nettle (_g. versicolor_) of the same genus. it should also be noted that the corolla is not really red, as the common name suggests, but rose-coloured, while in _g. tetrahit_ it is purple or white, and in _g. versicolor_ it is yellow. the upper lip of the flower, too, is only slightly notched. the viper's bugloss (_echium vulgare_--order _boraginaceæ_) is common on dry soils, especially in calcareous districts, where it is often found close to the sea, even on the beach very near high-water level. it is a very peculiar plant, both stem and leaves being thickly covered with stiff, sharp bristles. the stem is unbranched, from two to three feet high; and the leaves are lanceolate. the flowers are of a bright rose-colour when they first open, and afterwards change to a bright purple-blue; they are arranged in short, lateral, curved, one-sided spikes. both leaves and flowers droop very rapidly after they have been gathered. this plant flowers from june to august. another species of the same genus, known as the purple viper's bugloss (_e. plantagineum_), is common in the channel islands. it may be distinguished by its branched stem and longer spikes of flowers. the lower leaves, too, are oblong and stalked, while the upper ones are cordate and half clasp the stem. no doubt the reader is already acquainted with the commoner plantains (order _plantaginaceæ_), so easily distinguished by their spreading radical leaves, with prominent, parallel ribs, and their dense spikes of greenish flowers. there are five british species, one of which--the hoary plantain or lamb's-tongue (_plantago media_) is particularly partial to chalky districts, where it grows in pastures and on dry banks. its flowering stems grow from three inches to a foot in height, and the flowers bloom from june to september. the leaves are elliptical, either sessile or shortly stalked, and have from five to nine ribs. they lie so closely on the soil that nothing can grow beneath them, and even present the appearance of having been pressed against the ground. they also have a downy surface; and the stalk, where it exists, is flattened. the flowering stem is round, and the spike cylindrical. the calyx is cleft into four, with its segments turned backward; and the sepals are not keeled as they are in some other species. the corolla is tubular, with four spreading limbs; and the cream-coloured anthers are displayed on the tips of long filaments. [illustration: an orchis flower. s, sepals. p, petals. l, lip. c, spur. a, pollen masses. b, stigma.] we have now to consider several representatives of the _orchidaceæ_, and it will be well here to note the general characters of this remarkable order as a whole. the orchids have rounded or palmate tuberous roots, a few glossy leaves which sheath the stem, and simple spikes or racemes of flowers, the prevailing colours of which are red, pink, green and white. the sepals, three in number, often partake more of the nature of petals. there are three petals, the lowest one, forming the lower lip of the flower, often prolonged into a spur, and frequently assuming a remarkable form resembling an insect or some other member of the animal creation. the stamens are united to the style, and form with it a solid _column_, but usually only one produces pollen, and this one commonly consists of one or two club-shaped masses. the ovary is inferior, often twisted so as to invert the flower, and sometimes so long as to be mistaken for a flower stalk. the stigma is hollow, sticky, and situated just in front of the column above mentioned. the fruit is a three-valved capsule, containing many seeds. orchids are generally scented flowers, and produce nectar which is stored either in the cavity of the spur, or within the tissue of the same. in the latter case it cannot be obtained by insects unless they bore into the substance of the spur, and the delay caused renders the removal of the pollen more certain. while the nectar is being withdrawn, the head of the insect is pressed against a sticky disc at the base of the pollen masses, with the result that both disc and pollen masses are bodily removed, and the insect leaves the flower with the whole attached to its head. it often happens, too, that the pollen masses bend forward as the insect flies through the air, and thus they are more likely to be pressed against the stigma when another flower is visited. here, then, is another wonderful contrivance for the purpose of securing cross-fertilisation, and the whole process may be imitated by thrusting the point of a pencil into the spur of a flower which has not been previously visited by an insect, and then inserting the point into the spur of a second flower. it should be noted, also, that the pollen is not all removed by contact with the sticky surface of a stigma against which the pollen masses are pressed, and thus the pollen obtained from one flower will often fertilise several others. our first species--the broad-leaved helleborine (_epipactis latifolia_), is common in hilly woods, where it flowers during july and august. its single stem grows from one to three feet high, and the leaves are broadly ovate and ribbed. the flowers are greenish, with reddish-purple lips, and are arranged in a long, loose, one-sided raceme. the sepals are ovate, longer than the acute lower lobe of the lip; and the bracts are generally longer than the flowers. the ovary is downy, and not so long as the bracts. (plate ii, fig. .) the somewhat similar large white helleborine (_cephalanthera grandiflora_), which bears creamy white flowers in may and june, is also common in some of the woods on calcareous soils. the pyramidal orchis (_o. pyramidalis_) grows in limestone pastures, flowering during july and august. this species varies from six to eighteen inches in height, and has linear, acute leaves. the spike of flowers is very dense, of a pyramidal form, and the individual blooms are small, usually of a rose colour, but occasionally white or nearly so. the sepals are spreading, and the lip of the flower has three equal lobes which are oblong and abruptly cut at the tips. the spur is slender and longer than the ovary. the fragrant gymnadenia or sweet-scented orchis (_habenaria conopsea_ or _gymnadenia conopsea_) is common on chalky heaths and hilly pastures. it grows from twelve to eighteen inches high, has palmate, tuberous roots, and oblong-lanceolate, acute, keeled leaves. the flowers appear from june to august, and are in a dense, elongated spike. the buds are of a deep rose colour, and the open flowers are very fragrant, of a lighter colour, and not spotted. the bracts have three veins; the lateral sepals are spreading; the spur long and slender, much longer than the ovary; and the lip of the flower has three, equal, undivided lobes. [illustration: the sweet-scented orchis.] the green man orchis (_aceras anthropophora_), though rather rare, and confined to the dry, chalky pastures of east england, is too interesting to be omitted from our selection. the plant is from six to twelve inches high, with palmate tubers, and mostly radical leaves. the flowers are sessile, forming a loose spike, and are strange caricatures of the human figure. each has a comparatively large green hood, a slender yellowish lip with two lateral lobes to represent the arms, and two similar terminal lobes for the legs. the lateral sepals are green, ovate and convergent; and the flower has no spur. the time of flowering is june and july. the green musk orchis (_herminium monorchis_), also rather rare, is to be found in chalky pastures of the south, flowering in june and july. it has oval, stalked tubers; two lanceolate, radical leaves, and generally only one leaf on the slender stem. the spike is loose and slender; and the flowers, which are small and green, are sessile, and emit a musky odour during the night. the sepals are broad ovate; the petals narrower; and the lip is three-lobed, pouch-like at the base, with terminal lobe longer than the other two. one of the most remarkable, and, at the same time, one of the most beautiful of orchids is the bee orchis (_ophrys apifera_). although not to be described as common, it is frequently to be seen in moderate numbers on banks and in open ground in calcareous districts. its height is from six to twelve inches, and it flowers during june and july. the leaves are short, oblong, and mostly radical; the bracts large and leafy; and the flowers, numbering from two to six, are arranged in a lax spike, and very closely resemble certain species of bees. the sepals are spreading, oval, and pink inside; and the petals are linear and downy. the lip of the flower is swollen and broad, very velvety, and of a rich brown colour variegated with yellow. it is not longer than the sepals, and has four lobes, the two lower of which are hairy, while the other two are bent under. there is also a sharp, reflexed appendage in the notch. the flower is shown on plate viii. a rare variety, very much like the commoner type just described, is occasionally seen in kent and surrey. it is called the late spider orchis (variety _arachnites_), and is supposed to resemble a spider more than a bee. the petals are more triangular than in the bee orchis, and the lip is longer than the sepals. it may also be distinguished by the appendage in the notch, which is cordate in form, and flat. another rare plant--the spider orchis (_ophrys aranifera_) is to be found in chalky pastures of the south-east. its flowers are smaller, and generally fewer in number. the sepals are yellowish-green inside, and the petals smooth and linear. the lip is swollen and four-lobed, but without any appendage in the notch, and is of a deep purple-brown, with yellowish markings. this is an earlier species, flowering during april and may. our last example of this order is the pretty little fly orchis (_ophrys muscifera_). it is a slender plant, with a few oblong leaves, and usually from two to ten flowers arranged in a loose spike. the sepals are yellowish-green, and the very slender petals resemble the antennæ of an insect. the lip of the flower is of a brownish purple colour, with a blue blotch in the middle; and is oblong, with three lobes, the middle of which is divided into two. this species grows from six inches to a foot in height, and flowers from may to july. it is moderately common in the open spaces and on the banks of some calcareous districts. although a great variety of grasses (order _gramineæ_) are to be found on calcareous soils, there are two common species which are almost exclusively confined to dry, chalky pastures. one is the downy oat grass (_avena pubescens_), which flowers in june and july. it has a creeping stem, and grows from one to two feet high. the radical leaves are short, hairy, with sharply-pointed ligules, and terminate abruptly in a sharp point. the flowers are arranged in a nearly simple panicle, with erect spikelets of five or six flowers. the glumes are nearly equal, the inner one with three ribs. the flowering glume is divided at the tip, and provided with a long, bent, twisted bristle. the other, numbered on plate viii, is the yellow oat grass (_a. flavescens_), which grows to about the same height, and flowers at the same time. in this species the radical leaves are hairy, and also terminate suddenly in a sharp point. the panicle is much branched, with erect spikelets of five or six flowers. in this one, too, the inner glumes have three ribs, but it may be distinguished from the last by the two terminal bristles of the inner scales, and by the blunt ligules (appendages at the base) of the sheathing leaves. xix by the river side we have already dealt with flowers that grow in various damp situations, as moist meadows, woods, &c.; but there are a few such which seem to be particularly partial to the banks of rivers, streams, and ditches: short descriptions of these will be placed separately in the present chapter. it will be understood from the foregoing remark that the species taken here form only a small proportion of the flowers that actually grow by the river side; for although the numerous species commonly seen in moist fields and meadows may flourish quite to the water's edge, yet there are not many which require the extreme wetness of soil that restricts them to the sodden banks of rivers and streams. our first example is the common meadow rue (_thalictrum flavum_). it belongs to the order _ranunculaceæ_, but its pale yellow flowers do not, at first sight, suggest a resemblance to the buttercups, anemones, and other favourite flowers of this group, for they have no petals, very small sepals, and are rendered conspicuous only by their densely-clustered stamens, with their long, projecting, bright yellow anthers. the plant is erect, from two to four feet high; and flowers during july and august. passing over the monk's-hood (_aconitum napellus_), so well known as a garden flower, which is occasionally seen wild near the banks of streams and ditches, we come to the blue meadow crane's-bill (_geranium pratense_)--one of the several species of pretty wild geraniums (order _geraniaceæ_). it is a downy plant, varying from one to four feet high, with an erect stem, swollen at the nodes; and opposite, roundish leaves, deeply divided into five or seven lobes with sharp segments. the flowers are of a bluish purple colour, an inch or more in diameter, usually arranged two on a stalk, the two pedicels spreading while in flower, but turned downwards when in fruit. the five sepals have long points, and the five petals are slightly notched. as in other species of the genus there are ten stamens, five shorter than the other five; and a five-lobed ovary, with an equal number of long styles, all attached to a long, central beak. the five carpels separate when ripe, and are raised by the curling of their styles. this flower is common in wet meadows, especially in the southern counties, and is usually more frequent along the banks of rivers and ditches, but it is sometimes also seen in wet thickets. it flowers in june and july. [illustration: the common meadow rue.] the hemp agrimony (_eupatorium cannabinum_), of the order _compositæ_, is very common along the banks of streams and on the borders of wayside ditches all over britain. it would hardly be taken for a composite flower by those who are acquainted only with the more typical members of the order, but an examination of its rather dull lilac blossoms will soon reveal its affinity to the other members of the group, for the compact, terminal corymb is formed of numerous small heads, each consisting of about five tubular, perfect florets of equal size, surrounded by an involucre of a few overlapping bracts, and remarkable on account of their projecting styles, which are deeply divided into club-shaped branches. the plant is a large one, with erect, reddish stems, varying from two to six feet in height; and it flowers from july to september. [illustration: the hemp agrimony.] we have already noticed the lesser skull-cap (p. ), which is rather common on damp heaths, and there is another british member of the same genus--the common skull-cap (_scutellaria galericulata_)--that is frequently seen on the banks of streams and in other wet places. the latter is a slightly downy plant, with a creeping stock, and a slender, branched stem from eight to sixteen inches high. its leaves are opposite, as in other plants of the same order (_labiatæ_), with very short stalks, and crenate or slightly-toothed edges. the flowers are in pairs in the axils of the leaves, almost sessile, and all turned towards the same side of the stem. on the back of the two-lipped calyx is a hollow, scale-like projection which gave rise to the popular name, for when the corolla falls, the lips of the calyx close over the ripening fruit, and the projection above mentioned then presents somewhat the appearance of a cap. the corolla is over half an inch long, of a dull blue colour without, but much paler inside. this plant flowers from july to september. on the banks of streams and ditches we may often meet with the comfrey (_symphytum officinale_)--a coarse and rough but pretty plant belonging to the _boraginaceæ_. it has a stout, branching stem, two or three feet high; and the stem-leaves extend downward on its surface forming wing-like ridges. the lower leaves are stalked, broader than the upper ones, generally from six to eight inches long; and all the leaves are rough with bristly hairs. the flowers are of a yellowish white or, sometimes, of a purple colour, and are arranged in forked, drooping, one-sided racemes. the calyx is deeply cleft into five lobes; and the corolla consists of a tubular portion, the top of which is closed by five narrow, fringed scales; and, above this, a wider bell-shaped part, of about the same length, with five small, reflexed teeth. this plant blooms during may and june. [illustration: the common skull-cap.] the yellow loosestrife (_lysimachia vulgaris_), of the order _primulaceæ_ is a beautiful river-side plant, common in most parts, flowering during july and august. its stem is stout, erect, branched, slightly downy, from two to three feet high; and its leaves are ovate or lanceolate, sessile, and arranged in opposite pairs or in whorls of three or four. the flowers are rather large, of a bright yellow colour, dotted with orange, and arranged in a large, pyramidal, leafy panicle. the calyx is deeply cleft into five pointed segments with hairy margins; and the broadly bell-shaped corolla is deeply divided into five wide lobes. all the five stamens are united by their filaments, forming a kind of cup around the ovary. [illustration: the comfrey.] there is another beautiful loosestrife--the purple loosestrife--that is often seen on river-banks; but as it is not particularly partial to this habitat, but rather grows in marshes and wet places generally, it is described in another chapter (xv). it should be noted, however, that the two plants are not so nearly allied as the popular names suggest; for while the one described above is of the primrose family, the latter is a member of the _lythraceæ_, and differs in having a corolla of free petals. passing now to the order _polygonaceæ_ we have to note the great water dock (_rumex hydrolapathum_)--a smooth plant, varying from three to six feet in height, much resembling other common docks in general appearance, but found almost always on the borders of streams and ponds. its leaves are lanceolate in form, usually pointed, and either flat or slightly curled at the margins. the upper ones taper down into the stalk; but the lower ones, which are from one to two feet long, are often heart-shaped at the base. the reddish-green flowers are closely-whorled, and form long panicles. the perianth is cleft into six parts, of which the three outer are smaller and covered with little tubercles, while the inner become enlarged and close over the triangular fruit. each flower has six stamens and three very short styles. this plant is in flower during july and august. a few species of willows and sallows that grow on the banks of streams belong to the order _salicaceæ_, and have the following features in common:--their leaves are simple, stipulate, and deciduous. the flowers are imperfect, in erect catkins with small scales at the base, the male and the female flowers being produced on separate trees or shrubs. each male flower consists only of a small scale and two or more stamens; and the female of a similar scale, and a conical ovary of one cell with a forked style. the fruit is a conical capsule of two valves, containing several seeds that are covered with white, silky hairs. the species referred to are the almond-leaved and the bay-leaved willows, the dark-leaved sallow, and the purple osier, but we refrain from introducing descriptions since the identification of these trees is somewhat difficult for a beginner. xx on walls, rocks, and stony places several of our flowering plants are to be seen most frequently on walls and rocks, or in other situations where there is hardly a trace of soil of any kind. some of these thrive in such dry spots, with often such free exposure to the rays of the spring or summer sun, that it is difficult to understand how they manage to survive the periods of drought through which they live until we become acquainted with certain peculiarities of their form and structure. in the first place we must recall the fact that plants lose a considerable amount of moisture by evaporation from the transpirating surfaces of their leaves, and that this loss must necessarily be greatest when the air is warm and dry unless there is some means by which the transpiration is automatically regulated according to the requirements of the plant and to the varying conditions under which it has to exist. the leaves of plants are covered with a thin skin or _epidermis_ which consists of a single layer of cells, and which is practically impermeable to moisture. in this epidermis, however, on one or both sides of the leaf, are minute pores (_stomata_) through which water vapour is free to pass; and beneath the porous epidermis is a loose, cellular tissue, with air-spaces, from which the moisture can readily pass, in the form of vapour, to these stomata. each of the stomata is bordered by a pair of crescent-shaped _guard-cells_, placed with their concave sides towards each other, and joined at the ends. further, the guard-cells are capable of changing their form, becoming straighter, and thus reducing or even closing the aperture between them; and becoming again curved, opening or enlarging the pore. the former change takes place during darkness, thus preserving the plant from the cooling effects of evaporation during the chilly nights; and also during dry weather when the plant is in danger of losing much more moisture than the roots can absorb. so far, however, we have been dealing with a regulating process that is common to green plants in general; but we must look for some additional protection against loss of moisture in the plants which grow in such places that they have to live through longer or shorter periods during which the roots have little or no moisture within reach. from what has been said concerning the structure of the leaf it will be understood that, as a rule, the larger the surface the greater will be the loss of water in a given time. but when we examine the leaves of the plants that grow on dry walls and rocks, we frequently find that they are more or less thick and fleshy--that the material of the leaf is disposed in such a manner as to reduce the area of the surface as compared with other leaves made up of the same amount of tissue. in some species this diminution of surface is carried to the extreme, and the leaves have become very thick, assuming a cylindrical or almost globular form; and such leaves are capable of absorbing and retaining large supplies of water that serve to maintain the plant during those periods in which the roots have no moisture within their reach. we also find that many of the plants in question are further protected from a dangerous loss of moisture by the peculiar arrangement of their leaves, which are often so closely applied to the stem, or so closely overlapping one over another, that the total area of exposed surface is considerably reduced; and it frequently happens that the stem of the plant becomes thick and succulent, as well as the leaves, thus adding to the store of moisture kept in reserve for the rainless days. while some plants are almost invariably found in dry, stony places, others are very diverse in their habitats, sometimes growing in moist and shady places, and sometimes on cliffs or other rocky situations. in the latter we often find considerable modifications of size, form and structure, the same species being more or less luxuriant and thin-leaved when in damp soils, while in rocky places it becomes more or less stunted, with a tendency to produce thick and succulent leaves. a few of the plants that we include in the present chapter are to be found only on wet rocks, and are therefore of a nature very different from that of the species growing in dry places. they are always well supplied with moisture; and, being usually surrounded by a damp atmosphere, they lose but little water by evaporation, and thus require no reserves within their leaves or stems. our first species is the well-known wallflower (_cheiranthus cheiri_), of the order _cruciferæ_. it is a rather shrubby plant, frequent on old walls and ruins, where it flowers during april and may. though too familiar to need any description, we may note that in the wild state it varies from six to twelve inches high, and bears sweetly-scented, yellow or orange flowers. the plant is not indigenous, but has now become naturalised as a wild flower in most parts of britain. the wall rocket (_diplotaxis tenuifolia_ or _brassica tenuifolia_), of the same order, is a very similar plant, growing in similar situations, but it does not commence to flower till the summer is somewhat advanced. its stem is leafy, branched, smooth, woody towards the base, but more slender than that of the wallflower; and its very variable leaves are generally three or four inches long, deeply divided pinnately into narrow segments with irregularly-toothed margins, and emit a rather unpleasant odour when rubbed. the flowers are of a pale yellow colour, fragrant, about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, in terminal racemes, with sepals more or less spreading; and the fruits are narrow, flattened siliquas, with membranous valves, about an inch and a half long. the plant is to be found principally in the southern counties of england, and flowers from july to september or early october. on dry rocks, chiefly in the hilly and mountainous districts of north and west britain, we meet with the vernal sandwort (_arenaria verna_) of the order _caryophyllaceæ_. this is a little tufted plant, only from two to four inches high, with branched stems more or less decumbent at the base; and small, sessile, opposite, very narrow leaves, each with three veins. the starlike, white flowers are about a third of an inch across, on slender stalks, and grouped in terminal, loose, few-flowered cymes. they have five pointed sepals, less than a quarter of an inch long, each with three prominent veins; five spreading petals, a little longer than the sepals; ten stamens; and a superior ovary with three narrow styles. the fruit is a short ovate capsule which opens, when ripe, by three valves. one of the geraniums--the shining crane's-bill (_geranium lucidum_)--is almost essentially a plant of walls and rocks. it is a beautiful species, smooth and shining in all its parts, with a tendency to turn red, like the herb robert; and, as in other plants of its order (_geraniaceæ_), distinguished by the swollen joints of its stem. the leaves are almost round in general outline, but are deeply divided into five, broad, coarsely-toothed segments. the flowers are small, rose-coloured, and generally grow in pairs on axillary stalks. they have five, erect, wrinkled sepals, with long points; and five short, rather broad, entire petals. this species is common in most parts of britain. it varies in height from six to eighteen inches, and flowers from may to september. [illustration: the biting stonecrop or wall pepper.] we have now to consider a few species of the order _crassulaceæ_, which includes some very interesting succulent plants that are peculiarly adapted to a life in the dryest of situations on walls, roofs, &c. in addition to the thick, fleshy nature of their stems and leaves, these plants are distinguished by terminal cymes or corymbs of flowers with (usually) five sepals, the same number of distinct petals, twice as many stamens arranged in two whorls, and carpels equal in number to the petals. three of the plants referred to are known as stonecrops, and may be recognised by the following descriptions:-- . the english stonecrop (_sedum anglicum_).--a smooth plant, two or three inches high, abundant in rocky and stony places, especially in the west and near the sea, flowering from june to august. its stems are more or less decumbent, much branched and rooting at the base; and its leaves are small, thick, almost globular, of a pale green colour with, often, a tinge of red. on the small flowerless branches the leaves are very crowded and overlapping; but on the taller, flowering stems they are more scattered and placed alternately. the little starlike flowers are white, frequently tinged with pink or spotted with red, and arranged in a short, two-forked panicle. they have short, green sepals; narrow, sharply-pointed petals about twice the length; and stamens with bright red anthers. [illustration: the wall pennywort or navelwort.] . the white stonecrop (_s. album_).--a somewhat similar plant, from three to seven inches high, sometimes seen in large clusters on rocks, walls, and roofs, bearing white or pinkish flowers during july and august. the whole plant is smooth; and its short creeping stock gives rise to short barren stems with crowded leaves, and erect flowering stems with scattered leaves. the leaves are very thick, of a bright green colour, about a third of an inch long, and oblong or cylindrical in form. the panicles are much branched, with, usually, reddish stems; and each consists of numerous flowers with short, blunt sepals, and narrow, oblong petals about three times as long. this species is not so common as either the last or the following. . the biting stonecrop or wall pepper (_s. acre_).--a smooth plant, of a yellowish green colour, biting to the taste, very common on rocks, walls and roofs, bearing golden yellow flowers during july and august. it has short, barren stems, covered with closely-overlapping leaves arranged in six rows; and erect flowering branches from two to four inches in height. the leaves are very small, thick, succulent, oval or almost globular in form. the flowers, which are in small, terminal, three-cleft panicles, have very short, blunt sepals; and much longer, narrow, pointed petals. the same order (_crassulaceæ_) includes the house leek (_sempervivum tectorum_)--a plant which has been introduced into britain, and is now commonly seen growing wild on rocks and on the roofs of country houses. its spreading offsets give rise to globular tufts of flowerless shoots, and to thick, succulent, flowering stems that grow to a foot or more in height. the lower leaves are ovate, acute, thick, fleshy, edged with red, and arranged in a dense rosette; and the flowering stem, with its sessile leaves, is covered with a short, sticky down. the flowers are of a dull pink or purple colour, and are sessile along the spreading branches of the stem. they have usually about twelve short sepals; the same number of pointed petals, two or three times the length of the sepals; about twice as many stamens; and an ovary of as many carpels as there are petals and sepals. it is interesting to note that half the stamens--those forming the inner whorl--produce no pollen, and that their anthers are often modified into ovaries, the ovules of which, however, do not mature. this plant flowers in july and august. [illustration: the london pride or st. patrick's cabbage.] our last selection from this order is the wall pennywort or navelwort (_cotyledon umbilicus_)--a peculiar plant, common on rocks and walls in the south and west of england. it has a hard stock, producing an abundance of fleshy leaves early in the year, and flowering stems, from six to eighteen inches high, from june to august. the lower leaves are round, wavy, smooth, very succulent and brittle, and depressed in the centre where the long fleshy stalks are attached. those of the stem have shorter stalks which are more and more removed from the centre from below upwards. the stem is thick and succulent, and bears a long raceme of pendulous yellow-green flowers on short stalks. each flower has a very small calyx of five sepals; a cylindrical corolla, about a quarter of an inch long, with five short teeth; ten stamens, attached to the tube of the corolla; and a superior ovary. [illustration: the mossy saxifrage.] several of the saxifrages grow in rocky and stony places, and four or five species are sufficiently common to demand a notice here. the flowers of this group have a calyx of five sepals that is either quite free or more or less adherent to the ovary; a corolla of five petals; ten stamens, attached with the petals at the base of the calyx; and a two-celled ovary, with two distinct styles, containing several seeds. our first species is the london pride, none-so-pretty, or st. patrick's cabbage (_saxifraga umbrosa_), a native of irish mountains which has been introduced into britain as a garden flower, and has now become established as a wild flower in many parts. its flowering stem grows from six to twelve inches high; and the small white or pink flowers bloom during june and july. [illustration: the ivy-leaved toadflax.] the starry saxifrage (_s. stellaris_) is a somewhat similar plant, but much smaller, rarely exceeding six inches in height. it is frequent on wet rocks in the north, flowering in july and august. its leaves are sessile, oblong or obovate, tapering towards the base, thin, and arranged in spreading rosettes; and the stem is leafless with the exception of little bracts at the base of the pedicels. the starlike flowers, larger than those of the last species, are white, with two yellow spots on each petal, and are arranged in a loose panicle on spreading pedicels. the calyx is adherent to the ovary only at the base, with its segments turned down on the pedicels; and the petals are narrow and spreading. another northern species--the yellow mountain saxifrage (_s. aizoides_)--is abundant on the wet rocks of mountainous districts, flowering from june to september. it is a tufted plant, with branched, decumbent, leafy stems, about six inches long; and crowded, narrow, fleshy leaves, about half an inch long, fringed with hairs at the base. the flowers are yellow, in a loose panicle. the calyx is yellow, like the petals, but much shorter, and erect; and the ovary is adherent to the short tube of the calyx to about half way up. the rue-leaved or three-fingered saxifrage (_s. tridactylites_) is a small species, rarely exceeding four or five inches in height, common on walls in most parts of britain, flowering from april to july. the whole plant is usually more or less tinged with red, and its erect stem is covered with fine glandular hairs. the radical leaves are very small, stalked, and undivided; those of the upper part of the stem are also small and entire, but sessile; and the intermediate leaves, lower on the stem, are palmately divided into three or five narrow segments. the small white flowers are placed singly on rather long terminal and axillary stalks; and the hairy calyx, which adheres to the ovary, has five blunt lobes less than half the length of the petals. [illustration: the wall pellitory.] our last example of this order is the cut-leaved or mossy saxifrage (_s. hypnoides_), a very variable plant, from three to ten inches high, rather rare in south england, but much more common in the rocky parts of north england and scotland. it has numerous procumbent, barren stems with tufted leaves; and erect flowering stems bearing a few small leaves and a loose cyme of a few white flowers. most of the leaves are narrow, pointed, entire, about a quarter of an inch long; but the larger ones, at the base of the plant, are about twice as long, and divided into three or five narrow lobes. the calyx adheres to the ovary to about two-thirds of the length of the latter, and has five lobes about one-third as long as the petals. this species flowers from may to july. old walls, ruins, and limestone cliffs are frequently adorned with the pretty flowers of the snapdragon (_antirrhinum majus_--order _scrophulariaceæ_) which bloom from july to september. the plant varies from one to two feet in height, is tufted and leafy at the base, and has erect stems which bear racemes of large flowers. the leaves are very narrow and entire; and the flowers, which are usually white, pink or crimson, are shortly stalked in the axils of the small upper leaves. the calyx is deeply divided into broad lobes very much shorter than the corolla; and the latter consists of a broad tube and two lips, the whole being over an inch in length. the mouth of the flower is closed by a projecting 'palate,' but is easily opened by pressing the flower at the sides between finger and thumb. there are four stamens on the corolla, two longer than the others; and the fruit is an unsymmetrical capsule that opens when ripe by a few holes near the top. the ivy-leaved toadflax or mother of thousands (_linaria cymbalaria_), of the same order, is a pretty little trailing plant very commonly seen on old walls in many parts of britain, particularly in the south-west. it will grow luxuriantly in places where there is no soil other than that afforded by the crumbling mortar, and will often establish itself even on new walls so compactly built that it is difficult to see how the plant can find the necessary moisture or how its roots can penetrate the hard material to which it is attached. its slender stems vary from a few inches to two feet in length, often rooting at the nodes; and its little leaves are smooth, with three or five lobes, and generally of a purplish colour on the under side. the little flowers, which bloom from may to september, are of a pale blue or lilac colour. the lipped corolla is very similar to that of the last species, with a yellowish palate closing the mouth, but it has a short spur at the base. the one remaining flower of this chapter is the wall pellitory (_parietaria officinalis_), which belongs to the nettle family (_urticaceæ_). it is a somewhat bushy plant, varying from six inches to two feet in height, bearing axillary clusters of small, sessile, green flowers from june to september, and is common on walls and stony banks, more especially in the south of england. most of the flowers are usually imperfect, and the clusters are surrounded by a whorl of a few divided bracts. the males are few in number, each consisting of a hairy perianth, and four stamens which are jointed and very elastic, springing suddenly and shedding their pollen when touched; the females have a tubular, hairy perianth of four lobes, and a single tufted stigma. xxi field and wayside in autumn from the end of september onward the number of wild flowers is rapidly decreasing, but still there is much to be seen that will be interesting to the observant student of nature. many of the summer flowers are quite over, while others continue to bloom till, at last, they succumb to the intensifying frosts; but hundreds of species of the summer-flowering plants are now in fruit, and some of these are almost as interesting in this stage as when in flower. many plants will have been observed in flower before any of their fruits were fully formed, but autumn is the season when a large number of these may be seen in full fruit, and watched as they make arrangements for the dispersal of their seeds. we have already given (p. ) an outline classification of the various kinds of fruits, and if the reader will study this during the autumn months, and examine the field and woodland plants that fall in his way, he will find abundance of work awaiting him on every country ramble. a large number of wind-dispersed fruits and seeds are ripe long before the autumn sets in, and have already been distributed by the summer breezes; but now, with fewer flowers to attract attention, one can give more time to the observations of the movements of tufted and winged seeds and fruits as they sail through the air. and, as we brush by the hedgerows and the borders of fields in search of various flowers and fruits, we soon become acquainted with a variety of bristled, hooked, and barbed fruits that are effectually dispersed by the agency of animals, quite a large number of these having securely fastened themselves to our clothing. many fruits remain attached to their plants long after the last flowers, and even the leaves, have entirely disappeared. some of these await the gales of late autumn and winter, and being now no longer sheltered from the wind, are carried to the spots where they are to produce new plants in the following spring; while sheep and other animals, wandering farther afield in search of food, carry away numerous hooked fruits in their woolly or hairy coats. the feathered fruits of the wild clematis adorn the hedgerows throughout the greater part of the cold season, and form a striking feature of the wayside until they have been dispersed by the winter storms; and the hips of the wild rose, as well as the berries and drupes of various shrubs, now rendered more conspicuous by their bright colouring and the absence of foliage, are devoured by birds which afterwards deposit the indigestible and, therefore, uninjured seeds, with their excrement, at some distant spot. should the reader be interested in the various ways in which the dehiscent fruits discharge their seeds, he will do well to collect a number of species, as yet unopened, and expose them to the sun in a dry place. he will then be able to note not only the directions and extent of the dehiscence, but also to observe the forcible ejection of seeds by those which split elastically, or which, by other mechanical contrivances, have the power of throwing their seeds a considerable distance. we may find still another subject for study in the beautiful autumn tints assumed by the leaves of many plants. such tints are, of course, most conspicuous in the foliage of our forest trees and shrubs; and, when speaking of these, we shall have a word or two to say with regard to the nature of the internal changes that give rise to the beautiful display of colours; but not a few of the hedgerow herbs and shrubs exhibit tints equally rich and varied. note, for instance, the pretty herb robert, still in flower in sheltered places, its blossoms standing out beyond a background of richly-coloured leaves. the vigorous summer growth of flowery banks and hedgerows is often closely trimmed with the sickle for the greater convenience of pedestrians and vehicular traffic, all the flowers and overhanging twigs being closely cut, and the wayside thus destroyed from the nature-student's point of view; but the ground so denuded has recovered itself by the autumn, and a second crop of flowers, arising from the old stocks, often later than their normal season, is frequently the result. a considerable number of summer flowers continue to bloom during the autumn months, while a few are truly autumnal, and are not to be found till the summer has nearly or quite passed. in corn-fields we may still meet with the beautiful pheasant's-eye (_adonis autumnalis_), and in fields the hairy buttercup (_ranunculus hirsutus_), the daisy (_bellis perennis_) and the red hemp-nettle (_galeopsis ladanum_) are yet in flower, while the annual meadow grass (_poa annua_) continues to produce new flowers to the end of the year. on sunny banks in chalk districts we still see the delicate rock rose (_helianthemum vulgare_); and on banks almost everywhere the wild clary (_salvia verbenaca_), and the still more hardy milfoil (_achillea millefolium_), knapweeds (_centaurea nigra_ and _c. scabiosa_), field scabious (_knautia arvensis_), dark mullein (_verbascum nigrum_) and the toadflax (_linaria vulgaris_). then, on downs and heaths we find the yellow bedstraw (_galium verum_), the crimson flowers of the fine-leaved heath (_erica cinerea_), and the rose-coloured or white blossoms of the heather or ling (_calluna vulgaris_): also the carline thistle (_carlina vulgaris_), with its inner involucral bracts broadly spreading while the sun shines, but bent inwards to protect the florets during dull weather when the insects are at rest, the lilac flower-heads of the devil's-bit scabious (_scabiosa succisa_) and the small scabious (_s. columbaria_), and the conspicuous flowers of the chamomile (_anthemis nobilis_), all standing out in bold relief against the background of autumnal foliage. still more numerous are the autumn flowers of the waysides. by the dry and dusty roadside we see the yellow flowers and silvery leaves of the silver-weed (_potentilla anserina_), the little starlike flowers of the chickweed (_stellaria media_), the yellow flower-heads of the dandelion (_taraxacum officinale_), sow thistle (_sonchus oleraceus_) and groundsel (_senecio vulgaris_), the straggling knot-grass (_polygonum aviculare_), the spotted persicary (_polygonum persicaria_), the shepherd's purse (_capsella bursa-pastoris_), the scentless mayweed (_matricaria inodora_), the chamomile (_anthemis nobilis_), the white goose-foot (_chenopodium album_), and oraches (_atriplex hastata_ and _a. patula_). where the soil is more generous we find the herb robert (_geranium robertianum_), the fleabane (_inula dysenterica_), red and white dead-nettles (_lamium purpureum_ and _l. album_), and the petty spurge (_euphorbia peplus_); while on old walls the pellitory (_parietaria officinalis_) is still in flower. xxii autumn in the woods although several of the flowers mentioned in the last chapter as blooming during the present season may be seen along the borders of woods, yet within the wood itself we are struck by the almost total absence of flowers. this loss, however, is compensated for by the beautiful and varied tints assumed by the leaves of the trees and shrubs. important changes are now taking place in these perennial members of the vegetable world in preparation for the coming winter. the temperature of the soil is becoming considerably reduced, and, as a result, the absorbing activity of the roots is greatly decreased, while the winter is coming, when the temperature will be so low at times that the circulation of the sap will practically cease. if the leaves remained on the trees, they would give off from their surfaces more water than the trees could obtain from the soil through their inactive roots, thus endangering the lives of the trees. the leaves, therefore, must be shed. but these leaves contain a considerable amount of nutritious material which they themselves have built up, and which should not be lost. they contain starch, albumen, and other compounds which would be entirely lost to the trees if the leaves were shed in their present condition, except that a small proportion, in the form of products of decomposition, might be re-absorbed. this being the case, arrangements must be made, first, for the passage of the nutritious material in the leaves to some other part of the tree where it can be stored for the winter; and, second, for the removal of the leaves as the roots become less active. so, before the time of leaf-fall, the nutritious substances in the leaves, including the _chlorophyll_ to which the leaf owes its green colour, become changed, and pass back to the stems or the root, where they can be safely stored for the winter. the leaves, thus impoverished, become mere skeletons--mere collections of empty, lifeless cells; and if no further change takes place, they assume a very pale colour, like the leaves of the hornbeam, birch, and the willows. but the transfer of the nutrient matter from leaf to stem or root is accompanied by numerous chemical changes by which new compounds are formed. among these new substances a dark blue compound called anthocyanin is produced in some plants; and where this exists in considerable quantities we find the leaves of a dark bluish-green colour, like that of the autumn foliage of the pine. acids are also sometimes formed as a result of the complicated chemical changes that take place during the transfer above described; and these react on the anthocyanin present, changing its colour to a tint that varies according to the proportion and quantity in which they exist. thus, if anthocyanin is present, together with a small amount of acid, the leaves are turned violet, as in the case of the autumn leaves of the dogwood and the spindle tree; or purple, like those of the service tree. a larger proportion of acid produces, with the anthocyanin, the brownish green tint of the alder leaves; or the brownish yellow of the oak; while still larger proportions will turn the anthocyanin yellow, orange, red, or scarlet, according to the quantity in which the latter is present. thus we can account for the rich yellow of the maple in autumn, the orange of the aspen leaves, the beautiful scarlet tints of the mountain ash and the barberry, and the grand display of varied colours exhibited by the autumn beeches. again, before the leaves are shed, the buds that are destined to produce the new branches of the following spring are already formed. these may be seen on all deciduous trees and shrubs, some of them in the axils of the leaves, and others at the tips of the present twigs. each bud is the embryo branch of the following year. some of them are destined to produce leafy branches only; some are to develop into branches bearing both floral leaves and flowers; while others are to produce flowers without floral leaves; and it is interesting to note that, even at this stage, sections of the buds, examined with the aid of a microscope, will reveal the future leaves and flowers compactly concealed within their scaly, protective coverings. in october we may see the well-formed catkins of the birch that are to bloom in the following april, in company with the ripe fruiting catkins of the present year. the alder also bears its catkins that are to flower five months later, together with the woody remains of the female catkins of the previous spring; and the hazel may be seen with its ripe nuts and its future flowers both on the same twig. [illustration: the alder in autumn, with the catkins which mature in the following spring.] the leaves, having manufactured the materials necessary for the formation of the buds that are to produce the leaves and flowers of the following year, and then transferred their remaining store of nutrient matter to a suitable storehouse for the winter, are now practically empty and lifeless. had they remained alive and active, they would have endangered the life of the tree by giving off more moisture than could be replaced by the inactive roots. in their present, lifeless condition they are useless to the tree; but by falling to the ground, and decomposing where they lie, they improve the soil by the addition of organic matter as well as of the mineral salts they contained. in countries where a moderate temperature is maintained throughout the year, the growth of plants and trees goes on without interruption, and the fall of the leaf is hardly noticeable; for the older leaves die and fall one by one, as they become incapable of performing their functions for want of light, and new ones are being continuously formed close to the tips of the twigs. but where the growth is interrupted, either in hot countries during periods of drought, or in temperate countries by the approach of a cold season, the whole of the foliage is shed within a short period, and new leaves as suddenly appear when favourable conditions return. in our own latitudes, as we all know, the defoliation of the trees is caused by the approach of cold weather, which decreases the activity of the roots, so that the leaves become dry and lifeless. it is very commonly supposed that the fall of the leaf is caused by frost; but this is not the case. the leaves are shed during the cool days of autumn, even though the temperature does not fall to freezing point; but it is equally certain that the leaf-fall is accelerated by the frost when it comes, for the little moisture remaining in the leaves is then frozen, rendering the structures so brittle that they are easily snapped by the wind. the real cause of the rupture of the leaf is the formation of what is called the '_separation layer_.' this consists of soft, succulent cells, really in several layers, which are formed across the leaf-stalk, usually at the base, where the bundles of vessels passing from the twig to the leaf are narrower. the walls of these cells are thin, and are easily separated; and as they extend inwards from the surface all round, they break through the old cells, thus weakening the junction. when the growth of the separation layer is complete, it requires very little force to break off the leaf, and the process is aided by the formation of certain organic acids which act on the cell-walls, causing them to dissolve; and when the leaf has finally separated from the twig, it will be found that the scar left is a clean-cut surface, such as would be produced by the incision of a sharp knife. the recognition of the above facts introduces to us a difficulty for which we can find no explanation:--if the leaf-fall is not caused by frost, but by certain structural alterations that take place in the tree itself, how are we to account for the fact that the tree produces the changes which are necessary for its own preservation every year, just at the proper season? plants and trees do not foresee the coming period of cold weather that necessitates the performance of the functions which they execute, and yet they instinctively prepare for the winter in the manner described above. our autumn observations teach us that there are interesting differences in the times and progress of leaf-fall of different species of trees, and also of trees of the same species when exposed to different external conditions. on open ground, where the trees are fully exposed both to the sun's rays and to the cool autumn breezes, the leaves lose their moisture and fall earlier than would the same species in more sheltered situations; and they retain their moisture and position latest in damp, shady woods. on high hills, where the exposure is extreme, the leaves, which, by the way, do not appear till late in the spring, fall early on account of the low temperature, and consequent decrease of root activity, in the autumn. further, we note that while in some trees, such as the ash, hornbeam, beech and hazel, the leaves fall first at the tips of the branches, and the defoliation extends fairly regularly towards the trunk, in other species, including willows, poplars, and the lime, the branches become bare first at their bases, and finally at their tips. even during the depths of winter we may see a number of dead leaves still attached to the twigs of certain trees, notably the oak and the beech; but where we find practically all the foliage remaining on the tree or on special branches of a tree, we may generally assume that the tree, or the branches in question, are dead--that they died during the summer, before the separation layers of the leaves had been formed. we can also understand, from what has been said, why the dead leaves remain attached to a cut branch, and yet fall from the living tree from which it was severed. in our own country some plants and trees retain their leaves throughout the year, so that we speak of them as evergreens. many of these include herbaceous plants of a hardy nature, some of which remain fresh and green even in exposed situations, while others grow in more sheltered places. in either case they are plants whose roots remain more or less active in the cold season; and some of them, especially the evergreen shrubs, have rather thick leaves which contain a considerable quantity of sap, and which are surrounded by an outer covering or epidermis that does not allow the water within to pass out so readily as in the case of the deciduous leaves. in addition to the observations previously mentioned, we should do well, at this season of the year, to study the autumn fruits of our trees and shrubs, most of which still remain attached to the twigs. [illustration: the ash in autumn, with its 'keys.'] some of these fruits lose most of their moisture as they ripen, thus becoming very light, and are provided with wings that cause them to be dispersed more or less by the wind. the so-called 'keys' of the ash are one-seeded fruits, extended at the end into a long, narrow wing with a slight twist. as a result of this peculiarity they usually fall less rapidly to the ground, spinning as they descend, and are thus carried farther than they otherwise would be by the wind. the fruits of the sycamore and the maple are somewhat similarly winged, and each of these consist of two carpels which separate sooner or later--generally after they have reached the ground. [illustration: the maple in fruit.] on the birch trees we may now see the ripe female catkins, consisting of hundreds of minute fruits, closely packed together, each provided with a wing on either side. they are very light, and easily blown a considerable distance by the wind; and late in the autumn we may observe the stalks of the catkins, from which some of the fruits have been blown, still on the trees. the wings that thus aid in the dispersion of fruits are not always part of the fruit itself. in the hornbeam it is a three-lobed, persistent bract that performs this function; and the fruits of the lime are also blown away by the aid of a large bract from the middle of which the fruit-stalk projects. [illustration: the wayfaring tree, in fruit.] some of our trees present a glorious aspect during the autumn months, displaying conspicuous and more or less brightly-coloured fruits in combination with the varied autumn tints of their leaves. the red foliage of the mountain ash or rowan is accompanied by the still brighter clusters of scarlet fruits--little apple-like pomes, about the size of holly 'berries'; and the wayfaring tree bears pretty clusters of flattened, oval, one-seeded berries which are first red, and then nearly black. the guelder rose, while still in full leaf, is often very heavily laden with its bright red, semi-transparent berries; and the violet foliage of the dogwood is intermingled with clusters of little berry-like drupes which, at first green, have now changed to a rich purple-black. then there is the spindle tree, with its pretty red lobed capsules which split, when ripe, at its angles, disclosing as many cells as there are lobes (usually four), each with a single seed enclosed in an orange jacket. occasionally we meet with the strawberry tree, during early autumn, bearing both flower and fruit at the same time. this tree flowers in september and october, but the fruits which accompany the flowers are those of the previous year, for they require more than twelve months to come to maturity. the fruit is a large berry, of an orange-red colour, with a granulated surface that gives it somewhat the appearance of the strawberry. it should be mentioned that the strawberry tree is not indigenous to england, and is seldom seen outside parks and gardens; but it grows wild in ireland, and is very abundant round killarney and in other parts. in conclusion, we must note one autumn flower of the woods which is exceedingly common--that of the ivy (_hedera helix_), belonging to the order _araliaceæ_. the ivy is an evergreen climber, fixing itself by means of little rootlike suckers attached to the main stem and its branches, while the lower branches trail along the ground. the leaves are thick and glossy, usually of a deep green colour, but often beautifully variegated. those attached to the trailing and climbing stems have three or five lobes, are always turned with one surface towards the light, and are so arranged as to obtain the maximum of light, the less exposed leaves below catching the rays which pass between the lobes of those which are more favourably situated. [illustration: the strawberry tree in flower, with the fruits (almost ripe) of the previous year.] the branches of the tree do not, as a rule, produce flowers as long as they are able to climb; but as soon as they reach the summit of the tree or wall to which they cling, or reach a situation where there is a sufficient abundance of light and air, they change their character in a remarkable way. they now become bushy, cease to produce suckers, and give rise to undivided leaves that turn in all directions for light and air. at the tip of each twig is formed a cluster of yellowish-green flowers, arranged in a short raceme or in an umbel. these flowers have an inconspicuous calyx which forms a border round the middle of the ovary, and five short petals. there are also five stamens, and united styles. the fruit is a smooth, black berry, containing from two to five seeds. xxiii parasitic plants a number of plants extract more or less of the organic material they require from other plants, and thus save themselves the labour of building up this material themselves. these are termed parasites; but we must be careful to distinguish between them and certain other plants which, though apparently parasitic, are not really so. one plant may climb on another, perhaps even producing "rootlets" by which it clings to its living support, and yet it may not be a parasite in the proper sense of the term, for it may not absorb the slightest amount of nutritious matter except from the soil and the air. it is not at all uncommon for the honeysuckle to twine its stems round the trunk and branches of a young tree, with the result that the tree becomes stunted, and assumes a starved appearance, especially in its lower parts; and yet the honeysuckle is not a parasite. it has withdrawn nothing from the tree which supports it, but has coiled itself so tightly round it as to interfere with the circulation of its sap. the lower part of the tree is especially affected because the strangulating coils of the climber prevent the downward flow of the sap contained in the vessels of the bast or inner bark, and this is the sap which holds the constructive materials that have been built up in the leaves, under the influence of light. many of the parasitic plants are of microscopic dimensions, and others are larger species belonging to the fungi or mushroom group. some, however, are flowering plants, and these only fall within the scope of our work. we shall first deal with parasites which have no green leaves or chlorophyll, and are therefore entirely dependent on outside sources for their supply of organic material, starting with the interesting dodders (_cuscuta_), which coil themselves round herbs, shrubs, or even trees, and produce sucking organs on their stems that come in contact with their host. these are all smooth plants, with globular clusters of yellowish-pink flowers, the calyx being of the same colour as the corolla. the former is deeply divided into four or five parts, and the corolla has four or five spreading lobes with as many scales inside its broad tube. the ovary has two distinct styles, and the fruit is a globular capsule. the following summary of distinguishing features will enable the reader to identify the british species of the genus:-- . the greater dodder (_cuscuta europæa_).--a plant of a greenish yellow colour, generally more or less tinged with red, with flowers in sessile, globular clusters nearly half an inch in diameter, each individual flower being about a tenth of an inch. this species is not abundant. it may be met with in hop-fields, and is also parasitic on nettles, various shrubs, and trees, including the elder and the ash. . the flax dodder (_c. epilinum_).--very much like _c. europæa_, but the flowers are fewer in number, larger, and more fleshy. the calyx is nearly as long as the corolla, with sharply-pointed segments; and the corolla tube is always globular. this species is not indigenous, but is sometimes met with in flax-fields. . the lesser dodder (_c. epithymum_).--a more slender plant, with thread-like stems, and flowers in small, compact, globular heads, with red calyx and cylindrical corolla. this species occurs principally on sunny heaths, where it is parasitic on shrubby plants, such as thyme and ling. it is much more common than the foregoing. . the clover dodder (_c. trifolii_).--very much like the lesser dodder, of which it is sometimes regarded as a variety. its calyx is of a very pale colour, and is almost as long as the tube of the corolla, which is cylindrical in form. it is rare, but sometimes appears in undesirable numbers in clover fields. all the species produce their flowers in august and september, but _c. europæa_ may often be seen in bloom very early in july. the seeds of the dodder fall from the opened capsules during late summer and early autumn, alighting on the soil, or on the decomposing foliage that covers the ground, or on the rough barks of the tree that served as a host for the parasitic plant. the seeds of many other plants fall about the same time, but those of the dodder do not begin to germinate until about a month later than the majority of these, in the following season, and consequently the young dodder plants do not appear before their future hosts have had time to grow sufficiently large to support and nourish them. perennial plants, too, which are attacked by the dodder, have also produced strong shoots and leaves from their roots or underground stems by the time that the parasite begins its search for ready-made organic food; and it is clear that if the dodder seeds germinated earlier in the season, the young plants would starve for want of suitable herbs to give them support and nourishment. [illustration: greater dodder, on nettle--a complete plant.] when the seed germinates it sends out a filament which penetrates into the soil and fixes the seedling firmly. the other end grows upward, carrying up with it a little swollen mass of food-reserve, sufficient to support the growing seedling until it has had some chance of reaching a suitable host. the upper end of the seedling now sends out a filament which rapidly elongates, and, growing upward, searches for some stem on which to climb. all this time the little mass of food-reserve is being rapidly exhausted, and if the young seedling fails to reach a suitable plant on which to climb it soon dies, for its lower extremity is unable to absorb sufficient food material from the soil; and the plant itself, having no chlorophyll, cannot decompose carbonic acid gas and build up organic material to add to its substance. [illustration: the clover dodder, with a separate cluster of flowers representing the natural size.] again, should the young plant fail to reach a favourable support, so that it is of necessity compelled to trail along the ground, the filaments which would soon produce suckers when attached to a living plant have no power to form any structures capable of extracting food material from a damp soil. circumstances being more favourable, however, the upper filament eventually finds a stem, and immediately begins to twine itself round it, making a few close coils in a clockwise direction. should the support prove to be a dead stem, little wartlike swellings are produced at points where the two touch, and these serve as a means of attachment for the climbing filament, but no suckers are formed. if, however, the filament surrounds a living stem, each of the swellings gives rise to suckers that penetrate into the tissues of the latter, and withdraw the organic food necessary for the continued existence of the plant. the dodder now grows rapidly, giving off branches which search in all directions for additional supports, sometimes climbing from one plant to another, and producing new suckers whenever a favourable situation has been reached. the plant has now all it requires both in the way of mechanical support and nourishment, and its lower part, thus rendered useless, soon withers, breaking all connexion with the soil on which the seed originally germinated. new branches continue to form, each one producing additional suckers for the extraction of food from the host or hosts, until a tangled mass of clinging stems is the result. then the globular clusters of little flowers appear, followed by balls of small capsules which throw off their lids when ripe, allowing the seeds to be shaken out by the wind. the dodder plant now withers, leaving, in the autumn, its dead tangles of climbing filaments still attached to the withered herbs on which it fed, or to the branches of the tree which served as its host. other parasitic plants possessing no chlorophyll, and therefore incapable of building up organic compounds for themselves, derive their food from the roots of trees and shrubs. among these is the toothwort (_lathræa_), which is carnivorous as well as parasitic, and is described in our chapter (xxiv) dealing with carnivorous plants, so that we need only refer here to its habit as a parasite. the seed of this plant germinates on the damp ground to which it falls in early summer. the young root penetrates into the soil, deriving its nourishment entirely from the food reserve that was stored up in the seed, and soon sends out lateral branches in search of the roots of a suitable host. if it fails to attain this end by the time that the reserve is exhausted, it dies; but if it succeeds in reaching the root of an elm, hazel, hornbeam, ash, poplar, or other tree, it fastens itself to it, and develops suckers which penetrate into the substance of the root to extract its sap. the parasite now grows very rapidly, producing its underground stems, with their fleshy, overlapping scales, as described on p. . the broomrapes of the same order (_orobanchaceæ_) are very similar in their parasitic habits to the toothwort, and, like the latter, they possess no chlorophyll. the seeds germinate on the damp soil, producing a long, narrow embryo that grows downward into the ground until it reaches the root of some herb or shrub. it then gives off suckers which penetrate into the root, and, with the aid of the organic food thus obtained, forms a tuberous swelling on its surface. flowering stems are afterwards produced, and these, rising above the soil, bear terminal spikes of lipped flowers, followed by capsules containing many seeds. [illustration: the great broomrape.] there are several british species of this genus (_orobanche_), and their flowering stems, which are usually unbranched, produce scale-like leaves of the same colour as themselves. each flower of the spike is in the axil of a bract resembling the scales of the lower part of the stem; and in some species there is a pair of smaller bracts close to the base of the calyx. the corolla is either tubular or bell-shaped, and more or less distinctly lipped. each flower has four stamens, arranged in pairs, and a two-lobed stigma. the following outline of leading features will serve for the identification of the common broomrapes:-- . the great broomrape (_o. rapum_).--a plant from twelve to eighteen inches high, of a pale yellow colour at first, but afterwards turning to a dull purple brown. stem thick, especially below, and unbranched. scales lanceolate. flowers sessile, whitish, with only one bract, forming a spike from six to nine inches long. this species is moderately common, and is parasitic on the roots of furze and broom. time of flowering--may to july. . the clove broomrape (_o. caryophyllacea_).--very similar to the great broomrape in colour, but usually smaller, and easily distinguished by the sweet clove-like scent of its flowers. spike not so dense as in the last species, and the corolla tube not so broad. the plant is not uncommon in the southern counties of england. it is parasitic on the roots of the great hedge bedstraw, and flowers from may to july. . the tall broomrape (_o. elatior_).--also much like the great broomrape, of which it is perhaps a variety. it retains its original yellowish colour for a longer period, and is parasitic on the great knapweed, flowering from june to august. . the least broomrape (_o. minor_).--a yellow or pale brown plant, from six inches to over a foot in height, more slender than the preceding species, with smaller flowers. the flowers are whitish, but more or less tinged with purple, and bloom from june to october. it is parasitic on a number of different plants, including the ivy, clovers, hawkweed, wild carrot, &c., and is found in many districts in south and central england. * * * * * we have now to consider those parasites which bear leaves possessing chlorophyll granules, and are therefore able to build up a portion of the organic compounds necessary for their development. most of these, at least as far as the british flowering species are concerned, have also true roots which grow into the soil and absorb mineral food, like those of the non-parasitic plants allied to them, so that it is difficult to understand why they should require the additional nourishment stolen from the roots of neighbouring plants. one, however, the well-known mistletoe, grows on trees at a distance from the ground, and therefore obtains the whole of its food, with the exception of carbonic acid gas, direct from its host. this plant--the mistletoe (_viscum album_), of the order _loranthaceæ_--is attached to the tree on which it grows by a thick stem that becomes woody when old. its branches are of a yellowish-green colour, and are repeatedly forked in such a manner as to form a dense tuft that often reaches a diameter of two feet or more. the leaves are of the same colour as the branches, and are rather thick and fleshy. the flowers grow in the forks of the branches, on very short stalks, and are imperfect, the males and females being on separate plants. the former are in clusters of about three or four, in a cuplike, fleshy bract, each flower having four thick, triangular petals with an anther on the middle. the females are either solitary or in clusters of two or three, with a similar bract, and very small petals. the fruit is a white, glutinous berry, almost transparent, with only one seed. the mistletoe grows on a variety of trees, including the apple, pear, black poplar, and oak; and thrives most luxuriantly on those which have a soft tissue beneath the bark. it is found principally in the southern and western counties of england, and flowers from march to may. [illustration: mistletoe.] there is no doubt but that the seeds of the mistletoe are distributed from tree to tree by the agency of birds, especially the thrushes, which devour the berries in large numbers. the seed of the berry is protected by a covering which remains quite untouched by the digestive fluids of the bird, and consequently it is expelled intact with the excrement, and frequently drops to a branch of the tree, where it lodges in a crevice of the bark, and is securely fixed in its place by the slimy excrement in which it is embedded. here the seed germinates, sending out a little rootlet that always turns towards the bark on which it rests, and subsists for a time on the food-reserve that it contains. when the young root reaches the bark it becomes flattened against the surface, and spreads out, forming a disc that holds the seedling firmly to the tree. a projection (the _sinker_) is then sent inwards from the disc, and this penetrates the bark, reaching the wood beneath, but does not enter the latter. this terminates the growth of the seedling for the first year, but as soon as the warm weather of the following spring commences, the sinker begins to spread over the surface of the outer ring of wood, while at the same time a new annual ring of wood begins to form outside, thus surrounding and banking in the sinker. it would appear, on making a section of the tree, as if the sinker had actually pushed its growth through the outer ring of wood, whereas it does not penetrate the wood at all, but is only banked up by the new wood that grows round it. this is repeated year by year, until the sinker is at last quite deeply set in the branch, being surrounded by the wood of several annual rings. [illustration: a young mistletoe plant on the branch of a tree. the branch is cut longitudinally to show the suckers.] during the second year's growth the sinker sends out little roots which run up and down the stem, beneath the bark, and these give rise to new sinkers that grow down to the surface of the wood, and become, in turn, embedded in the new layers of wood that form round them. and while the young mistletoe plant is thus securing a firm hold on its host, and withdrawing ready-made organic compounds from its sap, the outer green stem develops, and soon gives rise to the first pair of leaves. if food is obtained in abundance, as is the case when the host is a tree of a soft and sappy nature, the growth is rather rapid; but otherwise the development is comparatively slow. in any case the age of the parasite may be ascertained by counting the number of annual rings of wood that lie outside the deepest sinker; and by this means it has been found that the mistletoe may attain an age of over thirty years. we have now to consider a group of plants, the parasitic habits of which would scarcely be suspected by an ordinary observer. they are green plants, with well-developed foliage leaves, and true roots which absorb mineral food from the soil. their seedlings grow in the same way as those of non-parasitic species, deriving no nourishment from neighbouring plants, but obtaining all their food from the air and the soil, and building up all the organic compounds required for their growth by the agency of their own chlorophyll. it is difficult to understand why these plants should afterwards produce suckers on their roots in order to obtain nourishment from other species, but they do this, and experiments have proved that the food thus obtained is more or less essential to their development. some of them die while still young if grown apart from other species, and the others, under similar conditions, though they reach what we may term the adult stage, remain somewhat weak and stunted, and produce but few flowers and fruits. most of the plants referred to belong to the order _scrophulariaceæ_, and among them we may mention the eyebright (_euphrasia_), the yellow rattle (_rhinanthus_), the cow-wheat (_melampyrum_), and the lousewort (_pedicularis_). they generally appear in large numbers close together, often in such abundance as to determine the general colour of the ground on which they grow, and yet they do not apparently cause much damage to the grass and other plants which they rob. these green parasites are described in various chapters, according to their habitats and their flowering seasons; so we shall do no more here than to briefly refer to their parasitic habits. the eyebright (p. ) grows on heaths and downs, where it derives organic food from the roots of the neighbouring grasses. the lousewort, too (p. ), which grows in marshes and moist meadows, is parasitic principally on the roots of grasses, apparently without affecting the latter. the last-named species is a perennial, the roots of which have to find hosts that are capable of supporting it year by year. if the host of the present year should happen to die in the autumn, the suckers that were attached to its roots soon die, and the parasite has to seek a new source of supply. this it does by extending its roots until it reaches a new host, and then producing new suckers. thus we are able to understand the origin of the long roots so often seen on the lousewort, and also the reason why these roots never grow downwards into the soil, but always horizontally, just beneath the surface. further, since the roots extend themselves in search of food at times when the supply is temporarily diminished or stopped, it is clear that some reserve is necessary for the elongation referred to. such a reserve exists in the older, thick portion of the perennial root, near the base of the stem. in the case of the cow-wheat (p. ) no suckers are produced until the lateral branches of the root of the seedling reach a moderate length; but in order to increase the chances of finding a suitable host these branches are developed in large numbers, and extend themselves in all directions. the suckers produced on them cling very firmly to the root-fibres of the host, which they almost completely embrace. the suckers of the yellow rattle (p. ) are globular, often nearly one-eighth of an inch in diameter, and partly surround the root-fibres of the plants to which they are attached. xxiv carnivorous plants quite a number of plants, belonging to different orders, are provided with the means of capturing small animals, and of digesting their prey and absorbing the nutrient matter thus obtained into their own systems. in this way they are enabled to obtain nitrogenous material which, in the ordinary way, is absorbed in the form of mineral solutions, from the soil, by the agency of the roots. the greater number of these carnivorous plants are to be found in tropical lands; but a few are british, and are of such an interesting nature that we propose to devote a short chapter to a description of their peculiar structure and habits. the plants to which we refer are often spoken of as insectivorous species; but although in nearly all cases the animal food consists almost entirely of insects, it is not entirely derived from this one group of animal life, and therefore the term carnivorous is rather more appropriate. in pools we sometimes meet with floating plants that have no true roots, at least at the time of flowering, but consist of a tuft of long, rootlike, submerged branches, bearing much-divided leaves, and sending leafless stalks of yellow flowers above the surface of the water. these plants are the bladderworts (_utricularia_), of the order _lentibulaceæ_, and are so called because they have little air-bladders either attached to the leaves or supported on leafless branches. the leaves are divided into numerous very narrow segments, thus presenting a proportionately large amount of surface to the water for the absorption of dissolved gases required by the plant; and the flowers consist of a deeply two-lobed calyx; a spurred corolla, with its mouth closed or nearly closed by means of a convex 'palate'; two stamens; and a one-celled ovary that ripens into a globular fruit. [illustration: the greater bladder-wort.] as to the little air-bladders mentioned above, they form, perhaps, the most interesting feature of the plant, for they are the traps by means of which small aquatic creatures are caught, and also the organs concerned in the absorption of nutritive products derived from the prey. each bladder has an opening, guarded by a kind of valve which allows easy ingress, but no exit. it does not seem to produce any secretion which would hasten the death of the creatures entrapped, nor does it appear to produce any kind of digestive fluid, as is the case with other carnivorous plants; but small aquatic creatures, such as water-fleas, cyclops, very small larvæ, &c., entering the bladders for shelter or some other purpose, are securely imprisoned until they die of starvation or suffocation; and their bodies then decay, giving rise to soluble gases and other products which are absorbed into the plant by special cells within the bladder. there are three british species of these plants--the greater, the lesser, and the intermediate bladder-worts. the first of these--_utricularia vulgaris_--is rather local in its distribution, and is easily distinguished from the other two by its superior size, having floating branches from a few inches to a foot in length. the second (_u. minor_) is much more common. its floating branches are only two or three inches long at the time of flowering, but they grow longer after; and the flowers are pale yellow, with a short, broad spur. the third (_u. intermedia_), which is very local, has also pale yellow flowers, but with a much longer spur; and the bladders are at the ends of leafless branches. in the preceding chapter we gave an account of certain plants which are parasitic on other plants and trees, deriving more or less of their nutriment from their vegetable hosts. one of these--the tooth-wort (_lathræa squamaria_), of the order _orobanchaceæ_--is not only a parasite, deriving nourishment from the roots of trees, but is also a carnivorous species, feeding on minute animals which are captured and digested by its peculiar leaves; and therefore it may be conveniently considered here. the whole plant is of a fleshy character, and lives entirely underground, attached to the roots of the hazel, elm, or other tree, except during april and may, when it sends up thick flowering stems, from four to ten inches high, bearing a few broad, fleshy scales which gradually pass into bracts, and a one-sided spike or raceme of flowers. the stem and scales above ground are of a pale rose colour, and the flowers are either brown, flesh-colour or slightly bluish. the latter are numerous, closely placed, and either sessile or shortly stalked. the calyx is bell-shaped, nearly half an inch long, with four broad lobes; and the corolla, which is about half as long again as the calyx, is distinctly lipped. [illustration: longitudinal section (enlarged) through a leaf of the tooth-wort.] the whole plant is devoid of chlorophyll, and consequently has not the power of building up organic compounds after the manner of green plants; and, being parasitic on the roots of trees, it derives but little organic material from its host. to compensate for this the underground portion is so constructed that it can capture minute animals which exist in the soil, and has the power of digesting them and of absorbing the products of digestion. the underground stems are quite white, and are thickly covered with broad, cordate, fleshy leaves that closely overlap one another. there appears to be nothing very remarkable in these underground leaves until one has been removed from the stem and closely examined; and then we find that what appears to be the apex of the leaf is really its middle; and that what seems to be, at first sight, the under surface, is really an extension of the upper side; for the leaf is bent backwards in such a manner as to bring its apex close to the stem, immediately below its base. this peculiar folding of the leaf results in the formation of an irregular cavity, and the tip of the leaf, brought close to its base, is curled upward, close to the stem, in such a way as to form a little canal, with several small openings by which the cavity may be reached. it will not be easy to make out this strange folding of the leaf by an examination of the exterior only, but a longitudinal section, made with a sharp knife or razor, will show it clearly. [illustration: common butterwort.] when minute animals enter the cavity of the leaf through the little openings above mentioned, they are seized by means of small filaments that protrude from the lining cells; and although no special digestive secretion has been discovered in the leaves, it appears certain that the creatures entrapped are really dissolved, for nothing remains of them after a time except the harder, indigestible portions. also, there is every reason to believe that the products of digestion are absorbed, probably by the same filaments that are concerned in the capture of the microscopic prey. perhaps the most interesting of the carnivorous plants are those which exhibit distinct movements in connexion with the capture of their prey, and among these are the british butterworts and sundews, which grow in bogs and other wet places. there are three british species of butterwort (_pinguicula_), similar in structure and habit, all growing in bogs and on wet rocks. they have each a rosette of entire, radical leaves, the lowest of which lie close against the soil or rock on which the plant grows; and violet or yellow flowers on leafless peduncles. the calyx has four or five teeth, arranged in two lips; and the corolla, which is also lipped, has a broad, open throat, and a spur. the commonest species is the common butterwort (_p. vulgaris_), which is found in bogs and wet places, principally in the hilly, humid districts of the west of britain and ireland, flowering from may to july. its leaves are succulent and clammy, of a pale green colour, and covered all over with little glistening spots. the flower stems are three or four inches high, each bearing a single violet flower. in this species the throat of the corolla is bell-shaped, and the spur is as long as the rest of the corolla. a second species--the alpine butterwort (_p. alpina_)--with smaller, pale yellow flowers appearing in june and july, is found only in scotland; while a third, known as the pale butterwort (_p. lusitanica_), also with pale yellow flowers, and a curved spur, occurs in south-west england as well as in the boggy districts of ireland and the west of scotland, flowering from june to october. the carnivorous habits of all species are the same. the horizontal leaves lie flat on the wet soil, with their margins turned upward forming a kind of shallow trough; and the upper surface of each is dotted with many hundreds of minute glands which secrete a colourless, sticky fluid, thus giving to the leaf its glistening and clammy appearance. if any mineral or other non-nutritious substance be placed on a leaf, the contact stimulates the little glands, causing them to discharge a larger quantity of fluid, but no change seems to take place in the character or composition of the secretion. but if any nitrogenous organic substance, such as an insect or a small piece of meat, be brought in contact with the glands, not only will the secretion increase in quantity, but it will also assume an acid character, and contain a ferment which is capable of digesting the nitrogenous material. in fact, the secretion produced under these circumstances possesses the same properties as the gastric fluid of the stomachs of animals. the animal food of the butterworts consists of small insects and other little creatures. if an insect alights on the leaf, it is caught by the sticky secretion of the glands, and every effort to escape causes it to become more and more besmeared with the mucilage, till, at last, it is no longer able to move; and its death is probably hastened by the stoppage of its spiracles or breathing-holes. if the insect is a small one, and it settles near the edge of the leaf, the curved margin slowly bends over it until it is more or less enclosed, and the larger number of glands thus brought in contact with its body pour out their digestive secretion, which slowly dissolves the nourishing portions, leaving nothing but the legs, wings, and other indigestible parts. a larger insect, alighting similarly near the edge of the leaf, could hardly be enclosed by the bending of the margin near it; but it is pushed towards the middle as the edge curls over, and then the opposite side also bends over it, till the insect is more or less enclosed, when it is digested as mentioned above. the digestion of an insect and the absorption of nutrient matter by the cells of the leaf occupy from twenty to thirty hours, and when the whole is accomplished the leaf slowly expands, assuming its normal position, and exposing the indigestible residue of its prey to be blown away or washed off by the rain. it has been observed that the butterworts are not exclusively animal feeders, for their leaves readily digest any pollen cells or the spores of the lower plants that are carried to them by the wind. [illustration: the round-leaved sundew.] equally interesting are the habits of the sundew (_drosera_), of which there are three species, all readily distinguished from every other british plant by the glandular hairs that cover the long-stalked, radical leaves. they have leafless flower-stalks, each bearing a one-sided spike or raceme of white flowers. the sepals, petals, and stamens each number five; and the ovary, which ripens into a one-celled capsule of three or four valves, has three or four forked styles. the commonest species--the round-leaved sundew (_drosera rotundifolia_)--is abundant and widely distributed, and may be seen among the bog-mosses, sometimes almost completely covering rather large patches of marshland. its leaves are round, from a quarter of an inch to near half an inch in diameter, spreading in such a manner that they lie close to or near the ground. the flower-stems are slender, erect, from three to six inches long; and the white flowers, which are in a one-sided raceme, bloom during july and august. the long-leaved sundew (_d. longifolia_ or _d. intermedia_) has oval leaves, tapering gradually into the stalk. they are more erect than the leaves of the last species, and are not half so broad as they are long. the plant flowers at the same time as the latter, but is not nearly so common. the third species--the great english sundew (_d. anglica_)--is still rarer. its leaves are still longer and narrower, being sometimes an inch or more in length, and more erect; and the flower-stalk sometimes attains a length of eight inches. the carnivorous habits of these plants are very similar to those of the butterworts, but the movements connected with the capture of the prey are more marked in the red filaments which cover the upper surface of the leaves than in the leaves themselves. those filaments which are situated on the margin of the leaf are longest, and spread outwards, while the others are erect and decrease in length from the edge towards the middle. each filament is swollen at its extremity, and supports an enticing globule of glistening fluid which it secretes, for the enlarged extremity is really a minute gland. the fluid, though quite clear, is so viscid that it can be drawn out into threads, and it serves a purpose similar to that of the sticky globules on the spiral thread of a spider's web. if some grains of sand or other inorganic material be sprinkled on the leaf, the sticky secretion of the glands is appreciably increased, and at the same time assumes an acid character; but it contains no digestive ferment, nor do the filaments change their position to any considerable extent. when, however, a small insect alights on the leaf, attracted by the glistening drops which are probably mistaken for nectar, the secretion not only increases and becomes acid, but a digestive ferment is produced, and the little creature is soon besmeared with the fluid, its condition becoming more and more hopeless through its struggles, till at last further movements are impossible and it dies of suffocation. a few minutes later the filaments of the leaf immediately around the insect begin to bend towards it, and others a little farther off soon partake in the movement, which may finally extend more or less to all the filaments of the leaf, and thus a large number of glands are brought in contact with the prey. the process of digestion now goes on, and, in a day or two, all the digestible portions of the insect are dissolved and absorbed, and the filaments that were concerned in the work have resumed their original position, leaving the indigestible portions to dry and to be eventually blown away. the principal food of the sundews consists of small insects such as ants, midges, flies, small butterflies and moths, caddis-flies, and even small species of dragon-flies. some of these, more particularly the long-bodied dragon-flies, the smallest of which are over an inch in length, are much too large to be caught and devoured by a single leaf; and in this case it is not at all uncommon for two or more leaves to be concerned in the capture and digestion of a single insect, each one converging its filaments towards the part of the body within its reach, and each one digesting and absorbing the portion against which it can apply its glands. insects, however, do not constitute the sole food of these plants, for small worms, spiders, centipedes, &c., are caught and digested in the manner described; and the plants may also be fed artificially on small pieces of meat or other nitrogenous substances, which give rise to the same processes and movements as we have observed in connection with the natural mode of feeding. list of flowers classified according to their habitats and habits the following list of wild flowers, classified according to their habits and principal habitats, will assist the student in his attempts to identify unknown species. a general acquaintance with the chief distinguishing features of the orders, or, failing this, a frequent reference to these features as given in chapter i, will be a valuable help; and, the order once determined, the few particulars added to each name will generally narrow the search down to one or two species, leaving the final decision to the more detailed description given in the text. the first number given after each name is the height, or, in the case of climbing and trailing species, the length of the plant; and this is followed by the colour and diameter, of the flower, or, in the case of the _dipsaceæ_, _compositæ_, and some other plants in which the flowers are densely clustered, the diameter of the cluster or head. abbreviations are used as follows:-- w. = white y. = yellow g. = green r. = red p. = pink c. = crimson v. = violet bl. = blue br. = brown pu. = purple cr. = cream li. = lilac ro. = rose o. = orange sc. = scarlet p. = pale d. = dark or deep. a combination of two of the above denotes an intermediate colour. thus--g.y. denotes a greenish yellow; pu. br., a purple-brown, &c. . woods and thickets--spring (herbaceous plants). page wood anemone. - ins. w. in., green hellebore. - ins. g. in., stinking hellebore. - ft. g. / in., goldilocks. - ins. y. / in., columbine. - ft. w., bl. or pu. in., dog violet. - ins. bl. or pu. / in., wood sorrel. - ins. w. / in., wood strawberry. - ins. w. / in., sweet woodruff. ins. w. / in., lesser periwinkle. - ft. bl. / in., toothwort. - ins. pu.br. / in., bugle. - ins. bl. or pu. / in., yellow dead nettle. - ins. y. / in., primrose. - ins. p.y. to - / in., lady's slipper. ft. br. and y. ins., broad-leaved garlic. - ins. w. / in., sand garlic. - ft. r.pu. / in., star of bethlehem. - ins. w. in. or more, blue-bell. - ins. bl. / in., daffodil. - ins. y. ins., hairy sedge., wood melic grass, . spring flowering trees and shrubs. barberry. - ft. p.y. / in., sycamore. - ft. y.g. / in., maple. - ft. y.g. / in., spindle tree. - ft. y.g. / in., wild cherry. - ft. w. / in., bird cherry. - ft. w. / in., gean. - ft. w. / in., sloe or blackthorn. - ft. w. / in., bullace. - ft. w. / in., hawthorn. - ft. w. / in., wild pear. - ft. w. in., crab apple. - ft. w. and p. - / in., service tree. - ft. w. / in., white beam. - ft. w. / in., mountain ash. - ft. cr.w. / in., black currant. - ft. y.g. / in., red currant. - ft. y.g. / in., wayfaring tree. - ft. w. / in., ash. - ft. br. / in., spurge laurel. - ft. y.g. / in., mezereon. - ft. p.r. / in., common elm. - ft. br. clusters / in., wych elm. - ft. br. clusters / in., oak. - ft. g., beech. - ft. g., hornbeam. - ft. g., hazel. - ft. y.g., common birch. - ft. g., dwarf birch. - ft. g., alder. - ft. r.br., white poplar. - ft. pu.br., grey poplar. - ft. pu.br., aspen. - ft. d.br., black poplar. - ft. pu.br., scots pine. - ft. g.y., yew. - ft. g. / in., note.--the colours given above, in the case of trees bearing catkins, are generally those of the more conspicuous male flowers. . waysides and waste ground--spring. celandine. - ft. y. / in., shepherd's purse. - ins. w. / in., scurvy grass. - ins. w. / in., whitlow grass. - ins. w. / in., yellow rocket. - ft. y. / in., early winter cress. - ft. y. / in., garlic mustard. - ft. w. / in., thale cress. - ins. w. / in., rape. - ft. y. / in., wild turnip. - ft. y. / in., sweet violet. - ins. v., li. or w. / in., ciliated pearlwort. - ins. w. / in., procumbent pearlwort. - ins. w. / in., greater stitchwort. - ft. w. / in., lesser stitchwort. - ft. w. / in., chickweed. - ins. w. / in., clustered mouse-ear chickweed. - ins. w. / in., narrow-leaved mouse-ear chickweed. - ins. w. / in., dove's-foot crane's-bill. - ins. p. / in., jagged-leaved crane's-bill. - ft. r. / in., herb robert. - ft. p. / in., black medick. / - ft. y. heads / in., grass vetchling. - ft. c. / in., bird's foot. - ins. cr. and c. heads / in., bush vetch. - ft. p.pu. / in., barren strawberry. - ins. w. / in., moschatel. - ins. y.g. heads / in., white bryony. - ft. g.w. / in., common beaked parsley. - ft. w. / in., chervil. - ft. w. / in., garden beaked parsley. ins. w. / in., gout-weed. - ft. g.w. / in., crosswort. - ins. y. / in., mouse-ear hawkweed. - ins. y. head in., groundsel. - ins. y. heads / in., colt's-foot. ins. y. heads in., thyme-leaved speedwell. - ins. li. / in., common speedwell. - ins. p.bl. / in., germander speedwell. - ins. bl. / in., wall speedwell. - ins. p.bl. / in., grey field speedwell. - ins. bl. / in., green field speedwell. - ins. bl. / in., white dead nettle. - ins. w. / in., red dead nettle. - ins. pu. / in., cut-leaved dead nettle. - ins. ro. / in., ground ivy. - ins. bl.pu. / in., early field scorpion grass. - ins. bl. / in., yellow pimpernel. - ins. y. / in., dog's mercury. - ins. g. / in., black bryony. - ft. y.g. / in., cuckoo pint. - ins., annual meadow grass., . meadows, fields and pastures--spring. lesser celandine. - ins. y. in., creeping buttercup. - ins. y. / in., bulbous buttercup. - ft. y. in., field penny cress. - ins. w. / in., cuckoo flower. - ft. w. or li. / in., wild pansy. - ins. w.y. and pu. / in., ragged robin. - ft. r. or ro. in., spotted medick. - ins. y. / in., netted medick. - ins. y. / in., subterranean trefoil. - ins. w.p. or c. / in., white clover. - ins. w. / in. heads / in., hybrid trefoil. - ins. w. or p. / in. heads / in., purple clover. - ins. pu. / in. heads - / in., spring vetch. ins. pu. / in., common vetch. - ft. p.pu. / in., meadow saxifrage. - ins. w. / in., earthnut. - ft. w. / in., daisy. - ins. w. and y. heads / in., dandelion. - ins. y. head - / in. or more, butter-bur. - ins. p. or pu. heads / in., yellow rattle. - ins. y. / in., field louse-wort. - ins. ro. / in., henbit dead nettle. - ins. ro. or pu. / in., changing scorpion grass. - ins. y. or bl. / in., cowslip. - ins. y. / in., common sorrel. - ft. r.pu. / in., sheep's sorrel. - ins. r.pu. / in., twayblade. - ft. y.g. / in., green-winged orchis. - ins. g. and pu. / in., early purple orchis. - ins. pu.p. or w., / in., fox-tail grass., . bogs, marshes and wet places--spring. marsh marigold. - ins. y. - / in., marsh violet. - ins. li. / in., sundew. - ins. w. / in., marsh stitchwort. - ins. w. / in., bog stitchwort. - ins. w. / in., marsh cinquefoil. - ins. pu.br. / in., common golden saxifrage - ins. y. / in., alternate-leaved golden saxifrage. - ins. y. / in., marsh pennywort. creeping. w. / in., marsh valerian. - ins. p.ro. / in., marsh trefoil. - ins. p.w. / in., red rattle. - ins. c. / in., willows., yellow flag. - ft. y. ins., . woods, thickets and copses--summer. lime tree. - ft. y.g. / in., tutsan. - ft. y. / in., rose of sharon. - ins. y. ins., common st. john's wort. - ft. y. / in., hairy st john's wort. - ft. y. / in., wood crane's-bill. - ft. bl.pu. in., dyer's green-weed. - ft. y. / in., sweet milk vetch. - ft. p.y. or cr. / in., tuberous bitter vetch. - ins. r.pu. / in., narrow-leaved everlasting pea. - ft. p.pu. / in., wild raspberry. - ft. w. / in., rose bay willow herb. - ft. ro. in., pale smooth-leaved willow-herb. - ft. ro. / in., enchanter's nightshade. - ft. w. / in., dogwood. - ft. y.w. / in. (shrub), wood sanicle. - ft. p.w. / in., angelica. - ft. w. / in., elder tree. - ft. w. or cr. / in., guelder rose. - ft. w. / to / in. (shrub)., great valerian. - ft. p.w. / in., succory-leaved hawk's-beard - ft. y. head / in., saw-wort. - ft. pu. or c. heads / in., golden rod. - ins. y. heads / in., great leopard's-bane. - ft. y. - / ins., plantain-leaved leopard's-bane. - ft. y. ins., giant bell-flower. - ft. bl. - / ins., creeping bell-flower. - ft. bl. in., nettle-leaved bell-flower. - ft. bl. in., ivy-leaved bell-flower. creeping. p.bl. / in., holly tree. - ft. w. / in., privet (shrub). - ft. w. / in., common cow-wheat. - ins. p.y. / in., crested cow-wheat. - ins. y. and pu. / in., wood cow-wheat. - ins. d. y. / - / in., foxglove. - ft. pu. or w. / in., wood betony. - ft. pu., c., p. or w. / in., wood forget-me-not. - ft. bl. / in., millet grass., bearded wheat., slender false brome grass., . waysides and waste ground--summer. wild clematis. - ft. w. / in., hedge mustard. - ft. y. / in., felix weed. - ft. g.y. / in., dyer's weed. - ft. y. / in., deptford pink. - ins. ro. / in., red campion. - ft. r. / in., common mallow. - ft. li. - / in., dwarf mallow. - ins. li. / in., musk mallow. - ft. ro. or w. - / in., round-leaved crane's-bill. - ins. p. / in., bloody crane's-bill. - ft. c. in., small-flowered crane's-bill. - ins. li. / in., hemlock stork's-bill. - ins. ro. or w. / in., bird's-foot trefoil. - ins. y. or o. / in., hairy tare. - ft. p.bl. / in., slender tare. - ft. bl. / in., tufted vetch. - ft. bl.pu. / in., herb bennet. - ft. y. / in., dog rose. - ft. p. or w. ins., silver weed. - ins. y. / in., hoary cinquefoil. - ins. y. / in., creeping cinquefoil. - ins. y. / in., agrimony. - ft. y. / in., broad smooth-leaved willow-herb. - ft. p.pu. / in., orpine. - ins. r.pu. / in., hemlock. - ft. w. / in., fool's parsley. - ins. w. / in., wild parsnip. - ft. y. / in., cow parsnip. - ft. r.w. outer flowers / in., upright hedge parsley. - ft. w. or p. / in., rough chervil. - ft. w. / in., honeysuckle. - ft. y. and r. in., upright honeysuckle. - ft. p.y. / in., perfoliate honeysuckle. - ft. r.w. - / in., great hedge bedstraw. - ft. w. / in., goose grass. - ft. w. / in., teasel. - ft. p.pu. heads ins., . waysides and waste ground--summer. (composite flowers only.) yellow goat's-beard. - ft. y. heads - / in., bristly ox-tongue. - ft. y. heads / in., hawkweed picris. - ft. y. heads in., strong-scented lettuce. - ft. p.y. heads / in., prickly lettuce. - ft. y. heads / in., sharp-fringed sow thistle. - ft. y. heads / in., common sow thistle. - ft. y. heads / in., smooth hawk's-beard. / - ft. y. heads / in., shrubby hawkweed. - ft. y. heads / in., nipplewort. - ft. y. heads / in., chicory. - ft. bl. heads - / in., burdock. - ft. pu. heads / in., welted thistle. - ft. pu. heads / in., spear thistle. - ft. pu. heads - / in., creeping thistle. - ft. pu. heads / in., tansy. ft. y. heads / in., mugwort. - ft. br.y. heads / in., wormwood. - ft. y. heads / in., common ragwort. - ft. y. heads / in., feverfew. - ft. y. and w. heads / in., scentless mayweed. - ft. y. and w. heads - / - in., milfoil. - ins. w. heads / in., . waysides and waste ground--summer (_continued_). rampion bellflower. - ft. bl. / in., great bindweed. - ft. w. ins., great dodder. parasitic. p. heads / in., lesser dodder. parasitic. p. heads / in., flax dodder. parasitic. p. heads / in., clover dodder. parasitic. p. heads / in., henbane. - ft. y. / in., black nightshade. / - ft. w. / in., woody nightshade. - ft. pu. / in., deadly nightshade. - ft. pu. / in., red bartsia. - ins. r. / in., yellow toadflax. - ft. y. / in., vervein. - ft. li. / in., common calamint. - ft. pu. / in., lesser calamint. - ft. pu. / in., balm. - ft. w. / in., black horehound. - ft. pu. / in., hedge woundwort. - ft. r.pu. / in., field scorpion grass. - ins. bl. / in., gromwell. - ins. p.y. / in., borage. - ft. b. / in., common alkanet. - ft. b. / in., evergreen alkanet. - ft. b. / in., hound's-tongue. - ft. r.pu. / in., buck's-horn plantain. - ins. g. spike - ins., stinking goose-foot. - ins. g. / in., many-seeded goose-foot. - ins. g. / in., upright goose-foot. - ft. g. / in., white goose-foot. - ft. g. / in., fig-leaved goose-foot. - ft. g. / in., red goose-foot. - ft. g. / in., mercury goose-foot. - ft. g. / in., orache. / - ft. g. / in., spotted persicaria. - ft. g.ro. / in., pale persicaria. - ft. g.p. / in., knot-grass. - ft. variable / in., broad-leaved dock. - ft. r.g. / in., curled dock. - ft. r.g. / in., sun spurge. - ins. g.y. / in., petty spurge. - ins. y. / in., small nettle. - ft. g. / in., great nettle. - ft. g. / in., roman nettle. - ft. g. / in., hop. - ft. g.y. male racemes - / ins. long. female heads / in., canary grass., . meadows, fields and pastures--summer. upright buttercup. / - ft. y. / in., pale hairy crowfoot. / - ft. p.y. / in., gold of pleasure. - ft. y. / in., bladder campion. - ft. w. / in., white campion. - ft. w. in., kidney vetch. - ins. y. or o. / in., lucerne. - ft. pu. or bl. / in., common melilot. - ft. y. / in., field melilot. - ft. y. / in., white melilot. - ft. w. / in., clustered clover. - ins. pu. or p. / in., strawberry trefoil. - ins. ro. / in. heads / in. or more., hare's-foot trefoil. - ins. / in. heads / in., crimson clover. - ins. c. or p. / in. heads in. or more., hop trefoil. - ins. y. / in. heads / in., lesser yellow trefoil. - ins. p.y. / in. heads / in., meadow vetchling. - ft. y. / in., great burnet. - ft. pu. / in. heads / in., lady's mantle. - ins. y.g. / in., meadow sweet. - ft. cr. w. / in., burnet saxifrage. - ft. w. / in., wild carrot. - ft. p.pu. or w. / in., devil's-bit scabious. - ft. bl.pu. heads / in., rough hawkbit. - ins. y. heads - / in., autumnal hawkbit. - ins. y. heads in., meadow thistle. - ins. pu. heads - / in., black knapweed. / - ft. pu. heads - / in., great knapweed. - ft. pu. or w. heads ins., common fleabane. / - ft. y. heads / in., small fleabane. - ins. y. heads / in., ox-eye daisy. - ft. y. and w. - / in., sneeze-wort. - ft. w. / in., centaury. - ins. ro. or p. / in., small bindweed. / - ft. p. in., meadow clary. - ft. bl. / in., marjoram. - ins. ro. pu. / in., self-heal. - ins. v. or pu. / in., greater plantain. - ins. g. / in. spike - ins., ribwort plantain. - ins. g. / in. spike in., marsh orchis. - ft. w. to pu. / in., butterfly orchis. - ins. w. or g.w. / - / in., cat's-tail grass., meadow barley., sheep's fescue grass., rye grass or darnel., cock's-foot grass., plate iv . bogs, marshes, and wet places--summer. lesser spearwort. - ins. y. / in., greater spearwort. - ft. y. to - / ins., water cress. - ft. w. / in., marsh yellow cress. - ft. y. / in., amphibious yellow cress. - ft. y. / in., marsh mallow. - ft. ro. - / in., marsh st. john's wort. - ins. y. / in., marsh pea. - ft. bl.pu. / in., great hairy willow-herb. - ft. d.ro. / in., marsh willow-herb. - ins. p. / in., square-stalked willow-herb. - ft. ro. / in., purple loosestrife. - ft. p. or pu. / in., procumbent marsh-wort. - ft. w. / in., water hemlock. - ft. w. / in., common water dropwort. - ft. w. / in., hemlock water dropwort. - ft. w. / in., fine-leaved water dropwort. - ft. w. / in., marsh thistle. - ft. pu. or w. heads / in., nodding bur marigold. - ft. g.y. heads / in., trifid bur marigold. - ft. g.y. heads / in., marsh ragwort. - ft. y. heads in., marsh speedwell. - ins. p.p. or w. / in., water speedwell. / - ft. li. or w. / in., brooklime. - ft. bl. or p. / in., water figwort. - ft. g.br. or pu. / in., knotted figwort. - ft. g.br. or pu. / in., gipsy-wort. - ft. w. / in., round-leaved mint. - ft. li. / in., water mint. - ft. li. / in., marsh whorled mint. - ft. li. / in., marsh woundwort. - ft. p.pu. or r. / in., forget-me-not. - ins. bl. / in., creeping water scorpion-grass. - ins. bl. / in., tufted water scorpion-grass. - ins. bl. / in., bog pimpernel. - ins. p. / in., water pepper. - ft. p.g. / in., marsh helleborine. - ins. w. / in., bog asphodel. - ins. y. / in., common rush. - ft. br. / in., hard rush. - ft. glossy br. / in., shining-fruited jointed rush. - ft. br. / in., toad rush. - ins. br. / in., common cotton grass., hare's-tail cotton grass., common sedge., marsh sedge., . heath, down and moor--spring and summer. milkwort. - ins. w. li. or bl. / in., trailing st. john's-wort. - ins. y. / in., small st. john's wort. - ins. y. / in., broom. - ft. y. / in. (shrub), furze. - ft. y. / in. (shrub), dwarf furze. - ft. y. / in. (shrub), needle whin. / - ft. y. / in. (shrub), common rest harrow. - ft. ro. / in., spiny rest harrow. - ins. ro. / in., dropwort. - ins. w. / in., tormentil. - ins. y. / in., blackberry. - ft. w. or p. in., yellow bedstraw. / - ft. y. or g. / in., smooth heath bedstraw. - ins. w. / in., upright bedstraw. - ft. w. / in., small woodruff. - ins. w. or p. / in., small scabious. - ft. p.pu. or li. heads - / ins., hairy hawkbit. - ins. y. heads / in., musk thistle. - ft. pu. or c. heads - / ins., dwarf thistle. - ins. pu. heads - / ins., carline thistle. - ins. y. and pu. heads - / in., chamomile. - ins. y. and w. heads / in., harebell. - ins. bl. / in., clustered bell-flower. - ins. bl. / in., sheep's-bit. - ins. bl. or li. heads / in., cross-leaved heath. - ins. ro. or w. / in., ciliated heath. - ins. ro. or c. / in., bell heather. - ft. pu., ro. or w. / in., ling. - ft. ro., li. or w. / in., whortleberry. - ins. p. or g. / in., great bilberry. - ins. p.p. / in., red whortleberry. - ins. p.p. / in., marsh gentian. - ins. d.b. / in., small-flowered gentian. - ins. p.pu. / in., lesser dodder. parasitic on heaths, &c., eyebright. - ins. p. or li. / in., pennyroyal. - ins. li. / in., wild thyme. - ins. pu. / in., wood sage. - ft. g.w. / in., lesser skull-cap. - ins. p.p. / in., dwarf willow. - ft. (shrub), juniper. - ft. (shrub), autumnal lady's tresses. - ins. w. / in., spotted orchis. - ins. pu., li. or w. / in., butcher's broom. (shrub). - ft. w. / in., heath rush. - ins., field woodrush. - ins., quaking grass., mat grass., . corn fields. pheasant's-eye. - ins. c. / in., mouse-tail. - ins. y.g. / in., corn crowfoot. - ins. p.y. / in., field larkspur. - ins. bl., p., or w., in., common red poppy. - ft. sc. - ins., long-headed poppy. - ft. sc. to - / ins., long prickly-headed poppy. - ins. r. - / to - / ins., opium poppy. - ft. w. or bl. - / to - / ins., fumitory. - ins. p. or c. / - / in., wild mustard. - ft. y. / in., white mustard. - ft. y. / in., black mustard. - ft. y. / to / in., wild radish. - ft. w. li., or p.y., / in., corn cockle. - ft. p.pu., in. or more., corn spurrey. - ins. w. / in., common flax. - ins. bl. / in., shepherd's needle. - ins. w. / in., field madder. - ins. li., / in., field scabious. - ft. li., heads - / in., corn sow-thistle. - ft. y. heads - / ins., corn blue-bottle. - ft. bl. heads in., corn marigold. - ins. y. heads - / in., corn chamomile. - ft. y. and w. heads in., stinking chamomile. - ins. y. and w. heads in., corn bellflower. - ins. pu.bl. or w. / in., small bugloss. / - ft. p.bl. / in., scarlet pimpernel. - ins. sc. / in., climbing persicaria. - ft. p.g. / in., dwarf spurge. - ins y. / in., wild oat grass. - ft., . on the chalk. pasque flower. - ins. pu. - / to - / in., round prickly-headed poppy. - ins. c. - ins., bitter candytuft. - ins. w., li., or r., / in., wild mignonette. - ft. y. / in., rock rose. - ins. y. / - in., hoary rock rose. - ins. y. / in., hairy violet. - ins. p.bl., or w. / in., perennial flax. - ft. bl. in., narrow-leaved flax. - ft. li. or bl. / in., sain-foin. - ft. ro.r. / in., tufted horse-shoe vetch. - ins. y. / in., sweet briar. - ft. ro. - / to - / in., lesser burnet. - ins. pu. / in. heads / in., rough-fruited corn bedstraw. - ft. w. / in., red spur valerian. - ft. ro.r. / in., woolly-headed plume thistle. - ft. p.pu. heads - / ins., ploughman's spikenard. - ft. y. heads / in., field gentian. - ins. bl. pu. / in., yellow-wort. - ins. y. / in., great mullein. - ft. p.y. or w. / in., white mullein. - ft. w. or cr. / in., yellow hoary mullein. - ft. y. / in., dark mullein. - ft. y. / in., spiked speedwell. - ins. bl., or p. / in., wild sage. - ft. bl.pu. / in., red hemp nettle. - ins. ro. / in., viper's bugloss. - ft. ro. or bl.pu. / in., purple viper's bugloss. - ft. bl. / in., lamb's-tongue. - ins. g. / in. spikes - ins., broad-leaved helleborine. - ft. g. and pu. / in., large white helleborine. - ins. cr.w. / in., pyramidal orchis. - ins. ro., or w. / in., sweet-scented orchis. - ins. ro. / in., green man orchis. - ins. g.y. / in., green musk orchis. - ins. g. / in., bee orchis. - ins. pu., br., and p. / in., late spider orchis. - ins. pu. / in., spider orchis. - ins. pu.br. / in., fly orchis. - ins. br.pu., and bl. / in., downy oat grass. - ft., yellow oat grass. - ft., . on river banks. common meadow rue. - ft. p.y. / in., meadow crane's-bill. - ft. bl.pu. to - / in., hemp agrimony. - ft. li. flowers / in. in small heads., common skull-cap. - ins. bl. / in., comfrey. - ft. y.w., or pu. / in., yellow loosestrife. - ft. y. / in., purple loosestrife. - ft. p. or pu. / in., great water dock. - ft. r.g. / in., willows and sallows., . on walls, roofs, and rocks. wallflower. - ins. y. or o. / in., wall rocket. - ft. p.y. / in., vernal sandwort. - ins. w. / in., shining crane's-bill. - ins. ro. / in., english stonecrop. - ins. w. or p. / in., white stonecrop. - ins. w. or p. / in., biting stonecrop. - ins. y. / in., house leek. - ins. pu. or p. / in., wall pennywort. - ins. y.g. / in., london pride. - ins. w., or p. / in., starry saxifrage. - ins. w. / in., yellow mountain saxifrage. - ins. y. / in., rue-leaved saxifrage. - ins. w. / in., mossy saxifrage. - ins. w. / in., snapdragon. - ft. w. to c. / in., ivy-leaved toadflax. - ins. li. / in., wall pellitory. - ins. g. / in., . autumn flowers. (most of the following flowers bloom during the summer, and have been included in foregoing lists; but these, together with the few new species named, may be seen in flower during the autumn months.) pheasant's-eye. - ins. c. / in. (fields), hairy crowfoot. - ins. y. / in. (fields), shepherd's purse. - ins. w. / in. (waysides), rock rose. - ins. y. / in. (banks), chickweed. - ins. w. / in. (waysides), herb robert. - ft. p. / in. (waysides), silver weed. - ins. y. / in. (waysides), ivy. climbing. p.g. / in. (walls and woods), yellow bedstraw. / - ft. y. or g. / in. (downs), small scabious. - ft. li. heads - / in. (heaths), devil's-bit scabious. - ft. pu.bl. heads / in. (pastures), field scabious. - ft. li. heads - / ins. (fields), dandelion. - ins. y. heads - / in. (meadows, &c.), carline thistle. - ins. y. and pu. heads - / in. (downs), black knapweed. / - ft. pu. heads - / in. (meadows), great knapweed. - ft. pu., or w. heads in. (fields), groundsel. - ins. y. heads / in. (waysides), fleabane. - ins. y. heads / in. (moist places), daisy. - ins. y. and w. heads / in. (pastures), scentless mayweed. - ft. y., and w. heads - / - ins. (waysides), chamomile. - ins. y. and w. heads / in. (waysides), milfoil. - ins. w. heads / in. (waysides), ling. - ft. ro. or w. / in. (moors), fine-leaved heath. - ft. p. or w. / in. (moors), strawberry tree. - ft. cr. / in. (woods--ireland), dark mullein. - ft. y. / in. (on chalk), yellow toadflax. - ft. y. / in. (waysides, fields), wild clary or sage. - ft. bl.pu. / in. (on chalk), white dead nettle. - ins. w. / in. (waste places), red dead nettle. - ins. pu. / in. (waste places), red hemp nettle. - ins. ro. / in. (fields, &c.), white goose-foot. - ft. g. / in. (waste places), halberd-leaved orache. / - ft. g. / . (waste places), spotted persicaria. - ft. ro. and g. / in. (wastes), knot-grass. - ft. variable. / in. (waste places), petty spurge. - ins. y. / in. (waste places), wall pellitory. / - ft. g. / in. (walls), annual meadow grass. - ins., . parasitic plants. greater dodder--on hops, nettles, and trees., flax dodder--on flax., lesser dodder--on thyme, ling, &c., clover dodder--on clover., toothwort--on roots of trees., great broomrape--on roots of furze and broom., clove broomrape--on roots of bedstraw., tall broomrape--on roots of knapweed., least broomrape--on various roots., mistletoe--on branches of trees., eyebright--on roots of grasses, &c., yellow rattle--on roots of grasses, &c., cow-wheat--on roots of grasses, &c., lousewort--on roots of grasses, &c., . carnivorous plants. bladderworts--aquatic., tooth-wort--at roots of trees., butterworts--marshes., sundews--marshes., list of flowers classified according to their orders and genera ranunculaceÃ� page _clematis vitalba_, _thalictrum flavum_, _anemone pulsatilla_, " _nemorosa_, _adonis autumnalis_, _myosurus minimus_, _ranunculus ficaria_, " _lingua_, " _flammula_, " _auricomus_, " _acris_, " _repens_, " _bulbosus_, " _hirsutus_, " _arvensis_, _caltha palustris_, _helleborus viridis_, " _foetidus_, _aquilegia vulgaris_, _delphinium ajacis_, berberaceÃ� _berberis vulgaris_, papaveraceÃ� _papaver hybridum_, " _argemone_, " _dubium_, " _rhoeas_, " _somniferum_, _chelidonium majus_, fumariaceÃ� _fumaria officinalis_, cruciferÃ� _thlaspi arvense_, _capsella bursa-pastoris_, _iberis amara_, _cochlearia officinalis_, _draba verna_, _camelina sativa_, _cardamine pratensis_, _barbarea vulgaris_, " _præcox_, _nasturtium officinale_, " _palustre_, " _amphibium_, _sisymbrium officinale_, " _sophia_, " _thaliana_, " _alliaria_, _cheiranthus cheiri_, _brassica napus_, " _rapa_, " _arvensis_, " _alba_, " _nigra_, _diplotaxis tenuifolia_, _raphanus raphanistrum_, resedaceÃ� _reseda luteola_, " _lutea_, cistaceÃ� _helianthemum vulgare_, " _canum_, violaceÃ� _viola palustris_, " _odorata_, " _hirta_, " _canina_, " _tricolor_, droseraceÃ� _drosera rotundifolia_, " _intermedia_, " _anglica_, polygalaceÃ� _polygala vulgaris_, caryophyllaceÃ� _dianthus armeria_, _silene inflata_, _lychnis flos-cuculi_, " _diurna_, " _vespertina_, " _githago_, _sagina ciliata_, " _procumbens_, _spergula arvensis_, _stellaria media_, " _holostea_, " _glauca_, " _graminea_, " _uliginosa_, _arenaria verna_, _cerastium glomeratum_, " _triviale_, linaceÃ� _linum usitatissimum_, " _perenne_, " _angustifolium_, malvaceÃ� _malva moschata_, " _sylvestris_, " _rotundifolia_, _althæa officinalis_, tiliaceÃ� _tilia vulgaris_, hypericaceÃ� _hypericum androsæmum_, " _calycinum_, " _perforatum_, " _humifusum_, " _pulchrum_, " _hirsutum_, " _elodes_, aceraceÃ� _acer campestre_, " _pseudo-platanus_, geraniaceÃ� _geranium sanguineum_, " _sylvaticum_, " _pratense_, " _rotundifolium_, " _pusillum_, " _molle_, " _dissectum_, " _robertianum_, " _lucidum_, _erodium cicutarium_, oxalidaceÃ� _oxalis acetosella_, celastraceÃ� _euonymus europæus_, leguminosÃ� _sarothamus scoparius_, _ulex europæus_, " _nanus_, _genista tinctoria_, " _anglica_, _ononis arvensis_, " _spinosa_, _anthyllis vulneraria_, _medicago sativa_, " _lupulina_, " _maculata_, " _denticulata_, _melilotus officinalis_, _trifolium subterraneum_, " _glomeratum_, " _hybridum_, " _repens_, " _fragiferum_, " _arvense_, " _incarnatum_, " _pratense_, " _procumbens_, " _minus_, _lotus corniculatus_, _astragalus glycyphyllos_, _ornithopus perpusillus_, _hippocrepis comosa_, _onobrychis sativa_, _vicia cracca_, " _lathyroides_, " _sativa_, " _sepium_, " _hirsuta_, " _tetrasperma_, _lathyrus nissolia_, " _pratensis_, " _sylvestris_, " _macrorrhizus_, " _palustris_, rosaceÃ� _prunus spinosa_, " _insititia_, " _padus_, " _cerasus_, " _avium_, _spiræa ulmaria_, " _filipendula_, _geum urbanum_, _potentilla anserina_, " _argentea_, " _reptans_, " _tormentilla_, " _fragariastrum_, _comarum palustre_, _fragaria vesca_, _rubus idæus_, " _fruticosus_, _rosa rubiginosa_, " _canina_, _agrimonia eupatoria_, _sanguisorba officinalis_, _poterium sanguisorba_, _alchemilla vulgaris_, _cratægus oxyacantha_, _pyrus communis_, " _malus_, " _torminalis_, " _aria_, " _aucuparia_, onagraceÃ� _epilobium angustifolium_, " _hirsutum_, " _montanum_, " _roseum_, " _palustre_, " _tetragonum_, _circæa lutetiana_, lythraceÃ� _lythrum salicaria_, cucurbitaceÃ� _bryonia dioica_, grossulariaceÃ� _ribes nigrum_, " _rubrum_, crassulaceÃ� _sedum telephium_, " _anglicum_, " _album_, " _acre_, _sempervivum tectorum_, _cotyledon umbilicus_, saxifragaceÃ� _saxifraga umbrosa_, " _stellaris_, " _aizoides_, " _granulata_, " _tridactylites_, " _hypnoides_, _chrysosplenium oppositifolium_, " _alternifolium_, araliaceÃ� _adoxa moschatellina_, _hedera helix_, cornaceÃ� _cornus sanguinea_, umbelliferÃ� _cicuta virosa_, _hydrocotyle vulgaris_, _sanicula europæa_, _conium maculatum_, _helosciadium nodiflorum_, _Ã�gopodium podagraria_, _bunium flexuosum_, _pimpinella saxifraga_, _[oe]nanthe fistulosa_, " _crocata_, " _phellandrium_, _Ã�thusa cynapium_, _angelica sylvestris_, _pastinaca sativa_, _heracleum sphondylium_, _daucus carota_, _torilis anthriscus_, _scandix pecten-veneris_, _anthriscus vulgaris_, " _sylvestris_, " _cerefolium_, _chærophyllum temulum_, loranthaceÃ� _viscum album_, caprifoliaceÃ� _sambucus nigra_, _viburnum opulus_, " _lantana_, _lonicera periclymenum_, " _caprifolium_, " _xylosteum_, rubiaceÃ� _galium verum_, " _cruciatum_, " _saxatile_, " _erectum_, " _mollugo_, " _aparine_, " _tricorne_, _sherardia arvensis_, _asperula odorata_, " _cynanchica_, valerianaceÃ� _centranthus ruber_, _valeriana dioica_, " _officinalis_, dipsaceÃ� _dipsacus sylvestris_, _scabiosa succisa_, " _columbaria_, _knautia arvensis_, compositÃ� _tragopogon pratensis_, _helminthia echioides_, _picris hieracioides_, _leontodon hirtus_, " _hispidus_, " _autumnalis_, _lactuca virosa_, " _scariola_, _sonchus arvensis_, " _asper_, " _oleraceus_, _crepis virens_, _hieracium pilosella_, " _boreale_, _taraxacum officinale_, _lapsana communis_, _cichorium intybus_, _arctium lappa_, _serratula tinctoria_, _carduus nutans_, " _crispus_, " _lanceolatus_, " _eriophorus_, " _palustris_, " _arvensis_, " _pratensis_, " _acaulis_, _carlina vulgaris_, _centaurea nigra_, " _cyanus_, " _scabiosa_, _bidens cernua_, " _tripartita_, _eupatorium cannabinum_, _tanacetum vulgare_, _artemisia absinthium_, " _vulgaris_, _petasites vulgaris_, _tussilago farfara_, _solidago virga-aurea_, _senecio vulgaris_, " _jacobæa_, " _aquaticus_, _doronicum pardalianches_, " _plantagineum_, _inula conyza_, " _dysenterica_, " _pulicaria_, _bellis perennis_, _chrysanthemum segetum_, " _leucanthemum_, _matricaria parthenium_, " _inodora_, _anthemis nobilis_, " _arvensis_, " _cotula_, _achillea ptarmica_, " _millefolium_, campanulaceÃ� _campanula rotundifolia_, " _rapunculus_, " _latifolia_, " _rapunculoides_, " _trachelium_, " _glomerata_, " _hederacea_, " _hybrida_, _jasione montana_, ericaceÃ� _erica tetralix_, " _ciliaris_, " _cinerea_, _calluna vulgaris_, vacciniaceÃ� (often included in the ericaceÃ�) _vaccinium myrtillus_, " _uliginosum_, " _vitis-idæa_, aquifoliaceÃ� _ilex aquifolium_, oleaceÃ� _ligustrum vulgare_, _fraxinus excelsior_, apocynaceÃ� _vinca minor_, " _major_, gentianaceÃ� _gentiana pneumonanthe_, " _amarella_, " _campestris_, _erythræa centaurium_, _chlora perfoliata_, _menyanthes trifoliata_, convolvulaceÃ� _convolvulus arvensis_, " _sepium_, _cuscuta europæa_, " _epilinum_, " _epithymum_, " _trifolii_, solanaceÃ� _hyoscyamus niger_, _solanum nigrum_, " _dulcamara_, _atropa belladonna_, scrophulariaceÃ� _verbascum thapsus_, " _lychnitis_, " _pulverulentum_, " _nigrum_, _veronica spicata_, " _serpyllifolia_, " _scutellata_, " _anagallis_, " _beccabunga_, " _officinalis_, " _chamædrys_, " _arvensis_, " _agrestis_, " _polita_, _bartsia odontites_, _euphrasia officinalis_, , _rhinanthus crista-galli_, , _melampyrum cristatum_, " _pratense_, , " _sylvaticum_, _pedicularis palustris_, " _sylvatica_, , _scrophularia nodosa_, " _aquatica_, _digitalis purpurea_, _antirrhinum majus_, _linaria cymbalaria_, " _vulgaris_, orobanchaceÃ� _orobanche rapum_, " _caryophyllacea_, " _elatior_, " _minor_, _lathræa squamaria_, , verbenaceÃ� _verbena officinalis_, labiatÃ� _salvia verbenaca_, " _pratensis_, _lycopus europæus_, _mentha rotundifolia_, " _aquatica_, " _sativa_, " _pulegium_, _thymus serpyllum_, _origanum vulgare_, _calamintha officinalis_, " _nepeta_, _melissa officinalis_, _teucrium scorodonia_, _ajuga reptans_, _ballota nigra_, _lamium album_, " _galeobdolon_, " _amplexicaule_, " _purpureum_, " _incisum_, _galeopsis ladanum_, _stachys betonica_, " _sylvatica_, " _palustris_, _nepeta glechoma_, _prunella vulgaris_, _scutellaria galericulata_, " _minor_, boraginaceÃ� _myosotis palustris_, " _repens_, " _cæspitosa_, " _sylvatica_, " _arvensis_, " _versicolor_, " _collina_, _lithospermum officinale_, _symphytum officinale_, _borago officinalis_, _anchusa officinalis_, " _sempervirens_, _lycopsis arvensis_, _cynoglossum officinale_, _echium vulgare_, " _plantagineum_, lentibulaceÃ� _pinguicula vulgaris_, " _alpina_, " _lusitanica_, _utricularia vulgaris_, " _minor_, " _intermedia_, primulaceÃ� _primula vulgaris_, " _veris_, _lysimachia vulgaris_, " _nemorum_, _anagallis arvensis_, " _tenella_, plantaginaceÃ� _plantago major_, " _media_, " _lanceolata_, " _coronopus_, chenopodiaceÃ� _chenopodium olidum_, " _polyspermum_, " _urbicum_, " _album_, " _ficifolium_, " _rubrum_, " _bonus-henricus_, _atriplex patula_, polygonaceÃ� _polygonum persicaria_, " _lapathifolium_, " _hydropiper_, " _aviculare_, " _convolvulus_, _rumex obtusifolius_, " _crispus_, " _hydrolapathum_, " _acetosa_, " _acetosella_, thymelaceÃ� _daphne laureola_, " _mezereum_, euphorbiaceÃ� _euphorbia helioscopia_, " _peplus_, " _exigua_, _mercurialis perennis_, urticaceÃ� _urtica dioica_, " _urens_, " _pilulifera_, _parietaria officinalis_, _humulus lupulus_, ulmaceÃ� _ulmus campestris_, " _montana_, cupuliferÃ� _quercus robur_, _fagus sylvatica_, _carpinus betulus_, _corylus avellana_, betulaceÃ� _betula alba_, " _nana_, _alnus glutinosa_, salicaceÃ� _populus nigra_, " _tremula_, " _canescens_, " _alba_, _salix_, (_willows_) , , coniferÃ� _pinus sylvestris_, _juniperus communis_, _taxus baccata_, orchidaceÃ� _spiranthes autumnalis_, _listera ovata_, _epipactis latifolia_, " _palustris_, _orchis morio_, " _mascula_, " _maculata_, " _latifolia_, " _pyramidalis_, _gymnadenia conopsea_, _habenaria bifolia_, _aceras anthropophora_, _herminium monorchis_, _ophrys apifera_, " _aranifera_, " _muscifera_, _cypripedium calceolus_, iridaceÃ� _iris pseudacorus_, amaryllidaceÃ� _narcissus pseudo-narcissus_, liliaceÃ� _allium scorodoprasum_, " _ursinum_, _ornithogalum umbellatum_, _hyacinthus nonscriptus_, _ruscus aculeatus_, dioscoreaceÃ� _tamus communis_, araceÃ� _arum maculatum_, juncaceÃ� _narthecium ossifragum_, _juncus communis_, " _glaucus_, " _lamprocarpus_, " _bufonius_, " _squarrosus_, _luzula campestris_, cyperaceÃ� _eriophorum polystachyon_, " _vaginatum_, _carex vulgaris_, " _paludosa_, " _hirta_, gramineÃ� _phalaris canariensis_, _phleum pratense_, _alopecurus pratensis_, _milium effusum_, _avena fatua_, _melica uniflora_, _poa annua_, _briza media_, _festuca ovina_, _brachypodium sylvaticum_, _triticum caninum_, _lolium perenne_, _hordeum pratense_, _nardus stricta_, glossarial index page achene. a dry fruit that does not open, acute. sharp. anther. the case at the top of the stamen containing the pollen, axil. the angle formed between leaf-stalk and stem. axillary. situated in an axil, bast. inner bark. berry. a pulpy fruit containing several seeds, bicrenate. doubly notched, bifid. divided into two parts. bisexual. including both male and female organs, bract. a leaf or scale between flower and leaf, bracteate. provided with one or more bracts, calyx. the outer whorl of a complete flower, capitulum. a head of flowers, , capsule. a term applied to some fruits which open, carpels. central parts of a perfect flower, catkin. a spike of imperfect flowers, chlorophyll. the green colouring matter of plants. composite flower. a head of 'florets' all sessile on a common receptacle, cordate. heart-shaped, corolla. the second whorl of a complete flower, corymb. a cluster of stalked flowers, the flowers being all at one level, cotyledons. the lobes of the embryo plant, afterwards forming the 'seed-leaves', , crenate. notched. cupule. a cup, formed of bracts, surrounding a fruit. cyme. an arrangement of stalked flowers in which the terminal or central one is the first to open, deciduous. falling off. applied to leaves, parts of flowers, &c. dehiscent. splitting. applied to fruits which open when ripe, dicotyledon. a plant with two cotyledons in the embryo, digitate. divided into finger-like lobes, disc. a fleshy ring or cup between the base of the stamens and that of the ovary. drupe. a stone-fruit, entire. not divided, epidermis. the outer skin of a plant exstipulate. without stipules, filament. the stalk which bears the anther of the stamen, follicle. a fruit which opens, when ripe, on one side only, fruit. the ripened ovary of the flower, glumes. the scaly bracts of sedges and grasses. herbaceous. green--not woody. hybrid. the offspring of two different species. imperfect flower. a flower which does not possess both stamens and pistil, indehiscent. not splitting. applied to fruits that do not open when ripe, inferior. below. applied to the ovary when the calyx adheres to it; and to the calyx when it is free from and below the ovary, inflorescence. the arrangement of flowers, involucre. a whorl of bracts surrounding a single flower or a flower-head. labiate. lipped. applied to the calyx or the corolla of a flower when it is divided into two lips. lanceolate. long and narrow, like a lance-head, leaflet. one of the distinct parts of a compound leaf, leaves--compound. leaves which are divided, quite to the midrib, into distinct parts, leaves--simple. leaves which are not divided quite to the middle, legume. a pod--a fruit of one cell which splits, when ripe, on both sides, ligulate. strap-shaped, linear. long and very narrow, lyrate. a term applied to a leaf which has a rounded, terminal lobe and several lobes below. micropyle. a small opening in the ovule or seed, midrib. the central vein of a leaf--a continuation of the stalk through the blade. monocotyledon. a plant which has only one cotyledon in its embryo, nectary. a gland that produces nectar. node. the junction of leaf and stem. nut. a dry fruit which does not split, obcordate. inversely heart-shaped, obovate. inversely egg-shaped, obtuse. blunt. orbicular. round, ovary. the part of the pistil which forms the fruit, ovate. egg-shaped, ovule. the unripened seed within the ovary, palmate. a term applied to simple leaves with spreading divisions that radiate from one point, panicle. a compound raceme, pappus. a hairy calyx, which often grows into a silky tuft on the summit of the fruit, pedicel. a secondary flower-stalk of a cluster of flowers, peduncle. the flower-stalk, perfect flower. a flower with both stamens and pistil, perianth. the parts of the flower outside the stamens, or outside the pistil if stamens are absent, persistent. applied to parts of a flower when they do not wither and fall. petal. one of the divisions of the corolla of a flower, petiole. the leaf-stalk, pinnate. applied to a compound leaf when its leaflets are arranged along the midrib on each side, pinnatifid. a term applied to simple leaves when they are deeply divided into lateral lobes, pistil. the inner part or whorl of a complete flower, pistillate. applied to a flower when it has a pistil and no stamens, placenta. the part of the ovary to which the ovules are attached, pod. _see_ legume. pollen. the cellular dust discharged by the anthers, , pollination. the transfer of pollen from anther to stigma, raceme. an inflorescence in which the flowers are stalked along a common axis, radical. growing direct from a point near the summit of the root, ray. the outer, spreading florets of a composite flower, receptacle. the enlarged upper part of a flower-stalk that gives attachment to the parts of the flower. sagittate. arrow-shaped, samara. a winged fruit, sepal. a part of the outer whorl (calyx) of a complete flower, serrate. sawlike, sessile. without a stalk, , silicula. a fruit resembling a siliqua, but shorter and broader, siliqua. a pod-like fruit with two valves that separate from a central membrane to which the seeds are attached, solitary. arranged singly, spathulate. spoon-shaped, spike. an inflorescence in which the flowers are sessile along a common axis, stamens. the flower organs that produce the pollen, staminate. applied to a flower that has stamens but no pistil, stigma. the part of the pistil which receives the pollen, stipulate. having stipules, stipules. scaly or leafy organs at the base of a leaf, stomata. the openings in the epidermis of plants, style. the stalk that supports the stigma, superior. above. applied to the calyx when it is on the ovary, and to the ovary when it is free from the calyx or perianth, ternate. consisting of three parts, umbel. an inflorescence in which the flower-stalks all radiate from one point, whorl. a term applied to organs or parts arranged around a common centre, the end printed by spottiswoode and co. ltd., colchester london and eton * * * * * transcriber's note: inconsistent hyphenation in the original has been retained in this version. p. "net veneid" changed to "net veined" p. "lombardy polar" changed to lombardy poplar p. "which peals off" changed to peels off p. "and peals off" changed to peels p. "of a glaucus green" changed to glaucous p. "wild strawbery" changed to strawberry p. "caprifoliacæ" changed to caprifoliaceæ p. "stems each bears a" changed to bear p. "it leaves are" changed to its p. "glancous" changed to glaucous p. "is usually nubranched" changed to unbranched p. "convolvulacæ" changed to convolvulaceæ plate vi caption. "spring rest harrow" changed to "spiny rest harrow" as detailed in the erratum. p. "which is somewhat resembles" changed to it p. "vacciniam" changed to vaccinium p. "crowberry" changed to cowberry p. "great mullien" changed to mullein p. et seq. section numbers corrected - was omitted in original p. added to entry "toad rush" gowans's nature books, no. our flowering shrubs and how to know them carson & nicol, limited printers, glasgow blocks by annan engraving co., ltd. glasgow _berberis aquifolium, pursh._ [illustration] holly-leaved barberry (mahonia) (flower yellow) mahonia a feuilles de houx (fleur jaune) hulst-sauerdorn (blüte gelb) our flowering shrubs and how to know them _sixty photographs by charles kirk_ gowans & gray, ltd. robert street, adelphi, london, w.c. cadogan street, glasgow _first edition, august, . reprinted, may, (completing )._ _the success of "our trees and how to know them" has encouraged the publishers to issue the present volume, which deals with a branch of botany practically untouched by handbooks at a moderate price. they trust that lovers of plants will show their appreciation of their efforts by endeavouring to make this new departure very widely known._ _berberis darwinii, hook._ [illustration] darwin's barberry (flower yellow) Épine-vinette de darwin (fleur jaune) darwin's sauerdorn (blüte gelb) _berberis stenophylla, moore_ [illustration] narrow-leaved barberry (flower yellow) Épine-vinette à feuilles étroites (fleur jaune) schmaler sauerdorn (blüte gelb) _berberis vulgaris, l._ [illustration] common barberry (flower pale yellow) Épine-vinette (fleur jaune pâle) gemeiner sauerdorn (blüte blassgelb) _cistus laurifolius, l._ [illustration] laurel-leaved cistus (flower white) ciste a feuilles de laurier (fleur blanche) lorbeer-cistrose (blüte weiss) _tamarix pallasii, desv._ [illustration] pallas's tamarisk (flower pink) tamaris de pallas (fleur rose) fünfmännige tamariske (blüte rosa) _ruta graveolens, l._ [illustration] common rue (flower yellow) rue des jardins (fleur jaune) garten-raute (blüte gelb) _choisya ternata, h.b.k._ [illustration] mexican orange-flower (flower white) choisya a feuilles ternées (fleur blanche) echte zimmerraute (blüte weiss) _ptelea trifoliata, l._ [illustration] hop tree or shrubby trefoil (flower green) ptéléa trifoliolé (fleur verte) amerikanischer hopfenstrauch (blüte grün) _ceanothus azureus, desf._ [illustration] blue mountain sweet (flower blue) céanot azuré (fleur bleue) azur-säckelblume (blüte blau) _ceanothus veitchianus, hook._ [illustration] veitch's mountain sweet (flower blue) céanot de veitch (fleur bleue) tiefblaue säckelblume (blüte blau) _genista tinctoria, l._ [illustration] dyers' greenweed (flower yellow) genêt des teinturiers (fleur jaune) färber-ginster (blüte gelb) _spartium junceum, l._ [illustration] yellow spanish broom (flower yellow) genêt d'espagne (fleur jaune) binsen-pfriem (blüte gelb) _cytisus capitatus, jacq._ [illustration] capitate broom (flower yellow) cytise en tête (fleur jaune) kopfiger kleestrauch (blüte gelb) _indigofera gerardiana, wall._ [illustration] gerard's indigo (flower pink) indigotier a grappes (fleur rose) blumen-indigostrauch (blüte rosa) _colutea arborescens, l._ [illustration] bladder senna (flower yellow) baguenaudier commun (fleur jaune) gewöhnlicher blasenstrauch (blüte gelb) _prunus lusitanica, l.f._ [illustration] portugal laurel (flower white) laurier de portugal (fleur blanche) portugiesische lorbeer-kirsche (blüte weiss) _spirÆa douglasi, hook._ [illustration] douglas's spiræa (flower red) spirée de douglas (fleur rouge) kalifornischer spierstrauch (blüte rot) _spirÆa japonica, l.f._ [illustration] rosy bush meadow sweet (flower pink) spirée du japon (fleur rose) japanischer spierstrauch (blüte rosa) _neillia thyrsiflora, d. don_ [illustration] vine-leaved neillia (flower white) neillia a fleurs en thyrse (fleur blanche) echte traubenspiere (blüte weiss) _kerria japonica, d.c., var. flore pleno_ [illustration] jew's mallow (flower yellow) kerria du japon (fleur jaune) japanischer ranunkelstrauch (blüte gelb) _rubus deliciosus, james_ [illustration] rocky mountain bramble (flower white) ronce délicieuse (fleur blanche) köstlicher zimt-beerstrauch (blüte weiss) _rubus laciniatus, willd._ [illustration] cut-leaved bramble (flower pinkish-white) ronce a feuilles laciniées (fleur blanc rosé) geschlitzter brombeerstrauch (blüte rosaweiss) _rubus nutkanus, moc._ [illustration] nutka sound raspberry or salmon-berry (flower white) ronce de noutka (fleur blanche) weisser zimt-beerstrauch (blüte weiss) _potentilla fruticosa, l._ [illustration] shrubby cinquefoil (flower yellow) potentille arbrisseau (fleur jaune) strauch-fingerkraut (blüte gelb) _cotoneaster microphylla, wall._ [illustration] small-leaved rockspray (flower whitish) cotonéaster a petites feuilles (fleur blanchâtre) kleine steinquitte (blüte weisslich) _cotoneaster simonsii, baker_ [illustration] simon's cotoneaster (flower white) cotonéaster de simons (fleur blanche) mennigrote steinquitte (blüte weiss) _deutzia gracilis, sieb. & zucc._ [illustration] graceful deutzia (flower white) deutzie grêle (fleur blanche) zierliche silbergerte (blüte weiss) _philadelphus coronarius, l._ [illustration] common mock orange (sometimes called syringa) (flower white) seringa commune (fleur blanche) jasmin-gertenstrauch (blüte weiss) _philadelphus grandiflorus, willd._ [illustration] large-flowered mock orange (flower white) seringa à grandes fleurs (fleur blanche) geruchloser gertenstrauch (blüte weiss) _escallonia philippiana, masters_ [illustration] philippi's escallonia (flower white) escallonia de philippi (fleur blanche) philippis andenstrauch (blüte weiss) _escallonia punctata, dc._ [illustration] dotted escallonia (flower red) escallonia pointillée (fleur rouge) punktierter andenstrauch (blüte rot) _ribes aureum, pursh._ [illustration] buffalo or missouri currant (flower yellow) groseillier doré (fleur jaune) gold-ribsel (blüte gelb) _ribes rubrum, l._ [illustration] wild or red currant or garnet berry (flower pink) groseillier rouge (fleur rose) rote johannisbeere (blüte rosa) _fuchsia riccartoni, hort._ [illustration] riccarton fuchsia (flower red) fuchsia riccartoni (fleur rouge) winter-fuchsie (blüte rot) _cornus alba, l._ [illustration] white-fruited dogwood or red osier (flower white) cornouillier blanc (fleur blanche) weisser hartriegel (blüte weiss) _aucuba japonica, thunb._ [illustration] japanese aucuba (flower whitish-green) aucuba du japon (fleur vert blanchâtre) scheinorange (blüte weisslichgrün) _sambucus canadensis, l._ [illustration] canadian elder (flower white) sureau du canada (fleur blanche) kanadischer holunder (blüte weiss) _viburnum tinus, l._ [illustration] laurustinus (flower white) viorne-laurier-tin (fleur blanche) lorbeer-schlinge (blüte weiss) _viburnum tomentosum, thunb._ [illustration] tomentose guelder rose (flower white) viorne tomenteuse (fleur blanche) filz-schlinge (blüte weiss) _viburnum tomentosum, thunb., var. plicatum, maxim._ [illustration] japanese guelder rose (flower white) viorne du japon (fleur blanche) japanischer schneeball (blüte weiss) _symphoricarpus racemosus, michx._ [illustration] snowberry (flower pink) symphorine a fruits blancs (fleur rose) echte schneebeere (blüte rosa) _diervilla florida, sieb. & zucc._ [illustration] bush honeysuckle (flower pink) diervilla fleurie (fleur rose) blumiges kapselgeissblatt (blüte rosa) _olearia haastii, hook. f._ [illustration] daisy tree (flower white, disc yellow) oléaria de haast (fleur blanche, disque jaune) haasts duftstrauch (blüte weiss, scheibe gelb) _olearia macrodonta, baker_ [illustration] new zealand daisy tree (flower white) oléaria énorme (fleur blanche) grosszähniger duftstrauch (blüte weiss) _pernettya mucronata, gaudich_ [illustration] prickly heath (flower white) pernettya microné (fleur blanche) stachelige torfmyrte (blüte weiss) _cassandra calyculata, d. don. andromeda calyculata, l._ [illustration] leather-leaf (flower white) cassandrie calycule (fleur blanche) kelch-gränke (blüte weiss) _pieris floribunda, benth. & hook. f._ [illustration] bundle-flowered andromeda (flower white) pieris multiflore (fleur blanche) blumen-gränke (blüte weiss) _ledum latifolium, ait._ [illustration] broad-leaved labrador tea (flower white) ledon à larges feuilles (fleur blanche) breiter porst (blüte weiss) _rhododendron flavum, g. don. azalea pontica, l._ [illustration] common or yellow azalea (flower yellow) rhododendron jaune (fleur jaune) gelbe alpenrose (blüte gelb) _rhododendron ferrugineum, l._ [illustration] rusty-leaved alpenrose (flower pale red) laurier-rose des alpes (fleur rouge pâle) rost-alpenrose (blüte blassrot) _rhododendron ponticum, l._ [illustration] common or pontic rhododendron (flower purple) rhododendron de la mer noire (fleur pourpre) pontische alpenrose (blüte purpurn) _jasminum officinale, l._ [illustration] white jessamine (flower white) jasmin blanc (officinal) (fleur blanche) echter jasmin (blüte weiss) _syringa vulgaris, l._ [illustration] common lilac (flower lilac, pink or white) lilas commun (fleur lilas, rose ou blanche) türkischer flieder (blüte lila, rosa oder weiss) _veronica traversii, hook. f._ [illustration] travers's speedwell (flower pale purple) véronique naine (fleur pourpre pâle) travers' ehrenpreis (blüte blasspurpurn) _lavandula vera, dc._ [illustration] common lavender (flower blue) lavande (fleur bleue) echter lavendel (blüte blau) _laurus nobilis, l._ [illustration] poet's laurel or sweet bay (flower yellowish) laurier sauce (fleur jaunâtre) edler lorbeerbaum (blüte gelblich) _daphne laureola, l._ [illustration] spurge laurel (flower yellowish-green) lauréole, laurier des bois (fleur vert jaunâtre) lorbeer-seidelbast (blüte gelblichgrün) _daphne mezereum, l._ [illustration] mezereon (flower pink) bois-gentil (fleur rose) echter seidelbast (blüte rosa) _ruscus aculeatus, l._ [illustration] butcher's broom (flower white) bois pointu ou petit houx ou fragon épineux (fleur blanche) echter mäusedorn (blüte weiss) some short notes designed to assist the reader in identifying the shrubs illustrated in this volume. by william smith the study of shrubs has greatly increased during recent years, and this has no doubt been brought about by the increasing knowledge of nature study now commonly included in the curriculum of schools and other establishments, and while shrubs have not as yet received the same attention as trees yet they offer quite as interesting a field, while the beauty of certain of the species arrests the attention of even the most casual observer. the term "shrub" means a low, woody-stemmed perennial, but many of the species attain the dimensions of a fair-sized tree. the holly-leaved barberry or mahonia (frontispiece), a north american shrub, is commonly met with either planted as an undergrowth to deciduous trees or as a covert plant in woodlands. it is easily recognised from the leaflets being in two or three pairs, with an odd one at top, in colour of a glossy dark-green, and the leaves of a leathery nature. the flowers are borne in much-crowded, erect racemes which open in early spring, followed later by clusters of purple berries. darwin's barberry (page ) is a densely-branched, spreading evergreen bush about feet high, with numerous racemose flowers which open in may, succeeded by purple berries throughout the summer. leaves are about one inch long, oval-shaped, with five spiny teeth. a near ally to the preceding is the narrow-leaved barberry (page ). it forms a shrub of rare beauty; with slender arching shoots which in early spring are densely covered with golden blossoms. may be known by the narrow sharp-pointed leaves. a british shrub, the common barberry (page ) usually inhabits dry stony soils, and forms a tall shrub about feet high. in early spring the plant is profusely covered with pendulous racemes of yellow flowers, and later by the scarlet berries which are sometimes used for preserves. distinguished by the egg-shaped leaves and three-parted spines at the axils of the leaves. a photograph showing the flowers on a larger scale will be found on page of _wild flowers at home, fourth series_ ("nature book," no. ). the laurel-leaved cistus (page ) is a native of the south of europe, and grows over four feet high. the flowers, resembling in appearance those of the dog-rose, are borne on terminal flower-stalks four and five together, but are very ephemeral in character. the ovate spear-shaped leaves are generally covered with a gummy substance. flowers during july and august. pallas's tamarisk (page ) is one of the shrubs which thrive in bleak exposed places and in dry sandy soils. the leaves are of a minute scale-like character, and from may onwards the long, terminal spikes of rosy-pink flowers are an attractive feature. a hardy evergreen, shrubby plant, the common rue (page ) is well known as a medicinal plant. the leaves are nearly blue and emit a very unpleasant smell and have a bitter taste. flowers are produced in late summer. one of the most fragrant shrubs, the mexican orange-flower (page ), forms a large glossy-leaved bush with axillary stalks of white flowers which, from their appearance and fragrance, resemble orange-blossom. the flowers open in summer, and the leaves are bright-green, long-stalked, with three leaflets to each. the hop tree or shrubby trefoil (page ), flowers from may to july and produces flat-headed inflorescences of a greenish yellow colour, succeeded in autumn by bunches of flat fruits of a greenish colour. as the specific name suggests the leaves are in threes, long-stalked, of an elliptical shape, and terminate in a sharp point. reaches a height of feet. generally grown as a wall-plant, the blue mountain sweet (page ) flowers freely in that position during july and august. the alternate leaves are oblong, sharply-serrated, and downy. from the axils of the leaves spring the elongated spikes of pale blue flowers. a native of mexico. the veitch's mountain sweet (page ) is another plant grown as a wall-shrub, where it often attains a height of feet, and is a most conspicuous plant during its flowering period from may to july when it is literally covered by dense clusters of bright blue flowers relieved by neat, elliptical dark-green leaves. dyers' greenweed (page ), so-called from the plant yielding a yellow dye, is found wild as a native plant in certain parts of britain, and flowers most of the summer. the yellow flowers are produced on spicate racemes, while the leaves are alternate, smooth and spear-shaped. an erect-growing plant about two feet in height. the yellow spanish broom (page ) is a plant which delights in a dry sandy loam, and is capable of resisting long periods of drought. this species is a hardy deciduous shrub with rush-like and nearly leafless branches, and attains a height of six feet. from july to september its spikes of fragrant golden-yellow blossoms are particularly attractive. one of the european species, the capitate broom (page ) forms a shrub over two feet high and opens its flowers from june onwards. the leaflets are egg-shaped, and the whole plant is covered with loose, soft hair. gerard's indigo (page ), a native of india, is one of the most beautiful of the leguminosæ shrubs and is a low branching species. leaves pinnate and of a pale grey-green colour. flowers open from july onwards and are borne in many-flowered spikes. a native of europe, the bladder senna (page ) is one of the few plants that thrive in dry sandy soils. it forms a hardy, deciduous, free-growing shrub feet high, bearing stalks of yellow pea-shaped flowers from july to september. the pinnate leaves are prettily divided into ovate and flat-shaped leaflets. a distinctive feature of this plant in the autumn is the large inflated seed-pods. a popular and well-known evergreen shrub, the portugal laurel (page ) forms a large spreading bush from to over feet in height. the ovate and lanceolate-shaped leaves are of a dense dark-green, and in june the large erect spikes of white flowers are very striking. in autumn the egg-shaped and dull-red coloured fruits are a noticeable feature. douglas's spiræa (page ) forms a crowded cluster of erect shoots about feet high, and in august the dense terminal spikes of rosy-red flowers open. leaves acute, rounded, and downy beneath. _spiræa japonica_ (page ) forms a bush to feet high with much branched shoots terminating in brightly coloured flat flower-heads which open from july onwards, and are relieved by the small spear-shaped, abrupt-pointed, and finely-serrated leaves. a native of nepaul, the vine-leaved neillia (page ) is frequently seen in shrubberies, forming a hardy branching bush about five feet high, the shoots bearing spikes of white flowers in june. a distinctive feature of this plant is the heart-shaped, three-lobed, and serrated leaves. the jew's mallow (page ) is one of the favourite plants commonly grown on cottage walls, and the illustration shows the double-flowering form with the solitary, terminal stalks of flowers, which open in early summer. the foliage is glabrous, spear-shaped and finely-toothed on the margins. few shrubs when in flower are capable of arresting attention so much as the rocky mountain bramble (page ). in may the large, single, white, rose-like flowers are a beautiful feature of this bramble, which attains a height of five feet. the kidney-shaped leaves are three to five-lobed and finely-toothed. a native of north america, where this plant is said to produce large fruits of delicious flavour. the cut-leaved bramble (page ) is frequently seen in a wild state, and is known by its finely-cut leaves. of a pinkish-white colour, the flowers are borne in loose spikes from june to september, whilst fruit can be picked during the latter month. it is a robust climbing plant, and the wood is very prickly. the nutka sound raspberry (page ) is one of the species that send up annual shoots attaining to a height of two feet, on which are borne the large ornamental five-lobed leaves. the large, handsome white flowers open in june, and the large, conical-shaped, red fruits ripen early in autumn. of a much-branched shrubby habit, the shrubby cinquefoil (page ) forms a small bush from two to four feet in height, with pinnate leaves and entire hairy oblong leaflets. a native of the northern hemisphere, this cinquefoil produces flat-headed inflorescences of yellow flowers throughout the summer months. the small-leaved rockspray (page ) forms a prostrate bush about three feet high, and is distinguished by the branches being densely covered by small, acute, and dark-green glossy leaves. the small, white, solitary flowers are borne in the axils of the leaves during april and may. this plant is often grown as a wall plant, in which position it is conspicuous in winter with its bright-scarlet fruits. simons's cotoneaster (page ) forms a much-branching, usually evergreen shrub about six feet high. in april, solitary, white, and sessile flowers are borne on lateral branches. foliage angular-shaped and silky beneath. its bright scarlet fruits are conspicuous in late autumn. _deutzia gracilis_ (page ) is a well-known japanese shrub seen in florists' shops in early spring. it forms a compact-growing bush two feet high, producing in april terminal spikes of pretty white blossoms set amidst the small egg-shaped and narrow-pointed leaves. the common mock orange (page ) is an erect-growing shrub, from six to ten feet high, profusely covered in may with white and strongly orange-scented flowers. the ovate-shaped leaves are said to have the odour and taste of cucumbers when crushed. a native of the south of europe. on page is illustrated the large-flowered mock orange, a shrub from the southern united states. it differs from the common mock orange in its taller growth (fully feet), and in the large white blossoms, which open in midsummer, being practically scentless. the leaves also are more narrow at the point and more rounded at the base. philippi's escallonia (page ) forms a straggling bush, and in july the shoots are densely covered with panicles of small white flowers set amidst small dark-green leaves. the dotted escallonia (page ) is a much-branched evergreen bush, five to six feet high, with the shoots terminated by deep-red-coloured flowers which open in july. the common name of this plant is derived from the leaves having little dot-like swellings (glands) on the lower side of the leaves, which are sharp-pointed, ovate in form, and very glossy on the upper surface. early in may the buffalo or missouri currant (page ) one of the north american currants, opens its golden-yellow flowers, which are borne in drooping clusters on short shoots arising from the main stems. it is a loosely-growing plant, about four feet high, with long-stalked, three-lobed leaves. one of the european (british) shrubs, the wild or red currant (page ) is found in the woodlands, where its red-coloured and acid-tasted fruits are found in late summer. it throws drooping clusters of green-coloured flowers in early spring, and the three to five-angled leaves are a distinctive feature of this plant. it is from this plant that the garden forms of the red currant have arisen. to those familiar with the west coast of scotland, the riccarton fuchsia (page ) will have been noticeable to them there as forming hedges often over six feet in height. it is a handsome plant, with its shoots laden in summer and autumn with drooping red-coloured flowers. the white-fruited dogwood (page ) is usually found in moist situations, and opens its flat-shaped flower-heads in may. they are succeeded in autumn by clusters of small, white-coloured, fruits. a plant that is easily recognisable by its bright-red-coloured shoots and large ovate-shaped and sharp-pointed leaves. one of the most ornamental evergreen shrubs, the japanese aucuba (page ), is grown in mostly all gardens. the leaves are pale green in colour and beautifully spotted with yellow; in form, spear-shaped, leathery to the feel, and very glossy. the flowers open in early spring, but are inconspicuous, and hidden by the foliage. the canadian elder (page ) is a plant frequently seen in shrubberies, opening its large, white-coloured flower-heads in late july, followed in autumn by clusters of purple-coloured berries. the illustration is very typical, the large flower-heads being shown among the pinnate leaves and oblong-shaped leaflets. a native of south europe, the laurustinus (page ) flowers throughout the winter, according to situation, and may be known by the flat corymbs of white flowers. it is an evergreen shrub, with shining, dark-green, and oval-shaped leaves. in the tomentose guelder rose (page ) the flowers are barren around the margin of the truss, and open in early summer, while the leaves are flat, rounded, dark-green in colour, and very wrinkled. the japanese guelder rose (page ) has large, rounded, barren trusses of white flowers, which open in may. it forms a spreading bush from three to four feet high. the snowberry (page ) is familiar through its large, white fruits hanging on the branches most of the winter. in late summer it opens its flowers, which are borne in loose spikes at the end of the branches, and forms a loose-growing bush about four feet high. [a]one of the most ornamental free-flowering shrubs, the bush honeysuckle (page ), produces in early summer large clusters of bell-shaped and rose-coloured flowers, set amidst light-green, ovate-shaped leaves, and attains a height of over six feet. [footnote a: page , the bush honeysuckle is generally known by gardeners under its old latin name of _weigela_, which they often pronounce "vigilia."] a native of new zealand, the daisy tree is one of the most popular free-flowering shrubs. the illustration (page ) shews the foliage completely hidden by the numerous small white and yellow-disked flowers. it is a box-like plant, and grows over six feet high. the leaves are crowded, about one inch long, dull-green colour above and whitish beneath, and acute at each end. the new zealand daisy tree (page ) has large holly-like leaves, which are silvery on the underside, and large flower-heads, which are white, with a red centre, and open in july. forms a loose-growing plant. a densely-growing bush, the prickly heath (page ) flowers from may to july, and the small white flowers are succeeded by berries of various colours borne in the axils of the small, dark-green, rigid, shining leaves. it rarely grows over four feet high. the leather-leaf (page ) is a sparse-growing, dwarf, evergreen shrub from north america. it flowers from april to may, the small, cylindrical-shaped, snow-white flowers being produced from the under sides of the branches. leaves scarce, narrowed to each end, and rusty-coloured beneath. at page is illustrated the bundle-flowered andromeda, a shrub growing about six feet high, which flowers in april, completely covering the plant with spikes of lily-of-the-valley-like blossoms. a plant recognised by the long, egg-shaped and sharply-pointed leaves, leathery in touching, and of a very dark green colour. the labrador tea (page ) derives its common name from the leaves having been used as a substitute for tea. it grows about three feet high, of compact, rounded form, and in early may is profusely covered with trusses of white flowers set amidst narrow rusty-looking foliage. one of the best known shrubs is _rhododendron flavum_ (page ) (commonly known as _azalea pontica_), and in early summer it is one of the freest-flowering plants. a plant easily known by its trusses of yellow-coloured and clammy blossoms with long protruding stamens. the large and shiny leaves are sparsely produced. the rusty-leaved alpenrose (page ) is a european plant rarely growing over three feet high, of compact growth, with shining dotted leaves. from may onwards plants are conspicuous in rock gardens with their small trusses of scarlet and yellow-dotted flowers. for a photograph on a larger scale, see _alpine plants at home_, first series ("nature book" no. ), page . few plants are so well known as the common or pontic rhododendron (page ), and in many parts of britain it has naturalised itself in the woodlands. it forms a tall-growing plant, frequently over feet high, producing trusses of purple-coloured flowers in may, relieved by large, light-green, spear-shaped foliage. from the delicacy and fragrance of its flowers the common white jesamine (page ) ranks as one of the most popular plants of the garden. it forms a slender-growing, climbing plant, with feather-shaped leaves and acutely-pointed leaflets, and flowers from may to october. the common lilac (page ) is familiar with its purple or white-coloured spikes of flowers, which open in may. it forms a tall-growing plant, with large heart-shaped leaves. travers's speedwell (page ) is a charming evergreen shrub about four feet high, with short racemes of pale-mauve-coloured flowers, which open in june and july. the leaves are arranged four-rowed along the shoots, with short footstalks, narrow-oblong in shape, and dark-green in colour. a plant peculiar to cottage gardens is the common lavender (page ), which produces long-stalked spikes of blue flowers throughout the summer. these flowers are usually cut and dried for their lasting fragrance, whilst the much-appreciated lavender water is distilled from the flowers. it forms a dense-growing bush about two feet high, with long narrow-shaped leaves. on page is illustrated the poet's laurel or sweet bay, a beautiful evergreen shrub from south europe. in many parts of britain it grows over feet high, but it is usually grown in tubs for floral decoration. the leaves, which are spear-shaped, have an agreeable, slightly bitter taste, and are used in cooking and for confections. the flowers, which are borne in the axils of the leaves, are yellowish in colour, but inconspicuous, and appear in early spring. the spurge laurel (page ), one of the european (british) shrubs, forms an evergreen bush about three feet high, with thick, shining, spear-shaped leaves. the sweet-scented flowers, of a greenish-yellow colour, appear in february and march, but are inconspicuous, and are borne in drooping clusters at the base of the leaves. fruit of this plant is highly poisonous. the mezereon (page ) is a conspicuous plant early in march through the leafless branches being covered with red, fragrant blossoms, succeeded later in summer by scarlet berries set amidst lance-shaped and acute-pointed leaves. the mezereon forms an erect-shaped bush, about four feet high, of which the bark is used medicinally. a white-flowering form of this plant is in cultivation and bears yellow-coloured berries in summer. another of the british shrubs is illustrated at page in the butcher's broom, a plant growing about two feet high, with rigid, spiny, widened branches on which are borne the small, white solitary flowers, which open in march and april. for a photograph on a larger scale, see _wild flowers at home_, fourth series ("nature book" no. ), page . -------------------- the latin nomenclature adopted for the shrubs in this volume is that of the "hand-list of trees and shrubs" ( ) issued by the royal botanic gardens, kew. the english and french names are compiled from various sources; where none existed, suitable appellations have been coined. the german names are due to the kindness of herr andreas voss. gowans's nature books the object of these little books is to stimulate a love for nature and a desire to study it. each volume contains sixty photographs by the best nature photographers, and is printed on the finest paper obtainable. no. .--wild birds at home. sixty photographs from life, by chas. kirk, of british birds and their nests. no. .--wild flowers at home. first series. sixty photographs from nature, by cameron todd. no. .--wild flowers at home. second series. by the same. no. .--butterflies and moths at home. sixty photographs from life, by a. forrester. no. .--wild birds at home. second series. by chas. kirk. no. .--freshwater fishes. sixty photographs from life, by walford b. johnson and stanley c. johnson, m.a. no. .--toadstools at home. sixty photographs of fungi, by somerville hastings, f.r.c.s. no. .--our trees and how to know them. sixty photographs by chas. kirk. no. .--wild flowers at home. third series. by somerville hastings, f.r.c.s. no. .--life in the antarctic. sixty photographs from life, by members of the scottish national antarctic expedition. no. .--reptile life. sixty photographs from life, by walford b. johnson and stanley c. johnson, m.a. no. .--sea-shore life. sixty photographs by the same. no. .--birds at the zoo. sixty photographs from life, by w.s. berridge, f.z.s. no. .--animals at the zoo. sixty photographs by the same. no. .--some moths and butterflies and their eggs. sixty photographs by a.e. tonge, f.e.s. no. .--wild flowers at home. fourth series. by somerville hastings. no. .--british mammals. sixty photographs from life, by oxley grabham, m.a., t.a. metcalfe, sydney h. smith, and chas. kirk. no. .--pond and stream life. sixty photographs from life, by walford b. johnson and stanley c. johnson, m.a. no. .--wild birds at home. third series. by chas. kirk. no. .--alpine plants at home. first series. sixty photographs by somerville hastings, f.r.c.s. no. .--fossil plants. sixty photographs by e.a. newell arber, m.a., f.l.s., f.g.s. no. .--alpine plants at home. second series. by somerville hastings. no. .--our flowering shrubs and how to know them. sixty photographs by chas. kirk. no. .--wild birds at home. fourth series. sixty photographs by peter webster. no. .--toadstools at home. second series. by somerville hastings. no. .--wild life in the falkland islands. sixty photographs from life, by arthur f. cobb, b.a. no. .--birds at the zoo. second series. by w.s. berridge. [_in preparation._ no. .--animals at the zoo. second series. by w.s. berridge. no. .--wild birds at home. fifth series. sixty photographs by arthur brook. _others in preparation._ special note wild birds at home, series i.-iv., can now be had bound in one volume, in cloth gilt, price / net; postage, d. price d. net each volume: postage d. each. gowans & gray, ltd., london & glasgow chefs-d'oeuvre de poche sous la direction de auguste dorchain this series has been inaugurated with the object of providing readers of french all the world over with some of the great masterpieces of french literature in an attractive form. the cheap reprints that are published in france are not always neat, according to british tastes, and the publishers believe that their attempt to supply reprints at once cheap and pretty will be appreciated. _ready_ . balzac. eugénie grandet. . a. de musset. la confession d'un enfant du siècle. . balzac. ursule mirouët. . mme de la fayette. la princesse de clèves. _price of each volume: cloth, gilt top, s. net; leather limp, gilt top, s. net; postage d. extra._ london & glasgow: gowans & gray, ltd. meisterwerke in taschenausgaben mit einleitungen von richard m. meyer, professor an der universität berlin. this series is intended to supply readers of german with some of the greatest works of german literature, and these only, printed in an attractive, handy, and cheap form in accordance with english tastes, but edited by a great german critic. the volumes are printed in roman type; as there is no doubt the study of german in this country has been much hindered hitherto by fear of damage to the eyes from reading gothic type. _ready_ . goethe. die wahlverwandschaften. . ludwig. zwischen himmel und erde. _in preparation_ . schiller. der geisterseher und andere erzählungen. _others will follow_ _price of each volume: cloth, gilt top, s. net; leather limp, gilt top, s. net; postage d. extra._ london & glasgow; gowans & gray, ltd les chefs-d'oeuvre de la poÉsie lyrique franÇaise selected, with biographical introductions, by auguste dorchain, the well-known french poet and critic. _in preparation_: . les chefs-d'oeuvre lyriques de villon, de marot, et des autres poètes antérieurs a ronsard. . les chefs-d'oeuvre lyriques de victor hugo. _ready_: . les chefs-d'oeuvre lyriques de ronsard et de son École. - . les chefs-d'oeuvre lyriques de malherbe et de l'École classique [de ronsard à chénier]. _deux volumes._ . les chefs-d'oeuvre lyriques d'andrÉ chÉnier. . les chefs-d'oeuvre lyriques de marceline desbordes-valmore. . les chefs-d'oeuvre lyriques d'alfred de vigny. . les chefs-d'oeuvre lyriques d'alfred de musset. _others will follow_ these pretty little volumes contain the best poems, and those only, of the authors included. _price of each volume: in parchment cover, d net; in cloth, s net; in leather, s net; postage, d extra._ london & glasgow: gowans & gray, ltd. die meisterstÜcke der deutschen lyrik mit einleitungen und anmerkungen von richard m. meyer, professor an der universität berlin this new series will contain only the finest lyrics in the german language. believing that, other things being equal, a native critic is the best judge of his country's writers, the publishers have entrusted the editing of the series to dr. meyer, of berlin university, one of the most eminent living authorities on german literature. the _format_ is uniform with that of "les chefs-d'oeuvre de la poésie lyrique française," which have already proved very successful, not least in france itself. _ready._ . die meisterstücke des deutschen volks- und kirchenliedes. . die meisterstücke der vorgoethischen lyrik. - . die lyrischen meisterstücke von goethe. _zwei bände._ _in preparation._ - . die lyrischen meisterstücke von schiller. _zwei bände._ _price of each volume: in parchment cover, d. net; in cloth, s. net; in leather, s. net; postage, d. extra._ london & glasgow: gowans & gray, ltd the first three of gowans's practical picture books price in parchment cover, d. net each, post free d. no. . ambulance illustrated. by wm. cullen, m.d. sixty photographs by w.m. warneuke, illustrating first aid, with concise notes by the author. no. . golfing illustrated. by g.w. beldam. sixty action-photographs of famous golfers, illustrating the different strokes in the game, with short notes on the players' styles by john l. low. none of these photographs has appeared in "great golfers." no. . cricket illustrated. by g.w. beldam. sixty action-photographs of famous cricketers--forty of batters, and twenty of bowlers--with short notes on the players' styles by the author. none of these photographs has appeared in "great bowlers" or "great batsmen." london and glasgow gowans & gray, ltd. gowans's architecture books each volume contains sixty reproductions of very fine photographs of famous examples of the art. _ready_ no. . masterpieces of spanish architecture. sixty photographs by j. lacoste. with short notes on the buildings by s.h. capper, m.a., a.r.i.b.a., professor of architecture in the university of manchester. _in preparation_ no. . masterpieces of moorish architecture. _others will follow_ _price of each volume: in paper cover, d. net.; in cloth, s. net.; postage, d. extra._ london & glasgow: gowans & gray, ltd. nature pictures a magnificent volume, size of page, - / " x ", containing several hundreds of illustrations, every one from life, _and quite different from those in our "nature books_," by the best nature-photographers, of birds, animals, fishes, flowers, fungi, insects, etc. bound in cloth gilt, / net can also be had in twelve d. parts, which can be purchased separately. _special features of some of the parts_: part contains a beautiful series of plates of the oyster-catcher, part of the kittiwake gull, part of the sandwich tern, part of the gannet and of the little tern, and part of the common tern, but every part is full of beautiful photographs. london & glasgow: gowans & gray, ltd. transcriber's note: in "some short notes," the page reference for the bladder senna was corrected from page to page . transcriber's note: italic text has been marked with _underscores_. please see the end of this book for further notes. [illustration: a living bridge such a bridge is described by sir j. d. hooker in his _himalayan journals_.] the romance of plant life interesting descriptions of the strange and curious in the plant world by g. f. scott elliot m.a. cantab., b.sc. edin., f.r.g.s., f.l.s., etc. author of "a naturalist in mid africa," "nature studies--plant life" etc. with thirty-four illustrations philadelphia j. b. lippincott company london: seeley & co. limited contents chapter i the activity of vegetables page plants which move--sensitive plant--a tourist from neptune--the world's and the british harvest--working of green leaves--power of sunshine--work done by an acre of plants--coltsfoot, dandelion, pansies, in sunshine and in cold--woodsorrel and crocus--foxglove--leaves and light--adventures of a carbon atom--the sap--cabbages and oaks requiring water--traveller's tree--the water in trees--an oasis in greece--the associate life of its trees and flowers chapter ii on savages, doctors, and plants savages knew botany--first lady doctors and botanical excursions--true drugs and horrible ornaments--hydrophobia cure--cloves--mustard--ivy--roses and teeth--how to keep hair on--how to know if a patient will recover--curious properties of a mushroom--the scythian lamb--quinine: history and use--safflower--romance of ipecacuanha--wars of the spice trade--cinnamon, logwood, and indigo--romance of pepper--babylonian and egyptian botanists--chinese discoveries--theophrastus--medieval times--the first illustrated book--numbers of plants known--discoveries of painters and poets chapter iii a tree's perilous life hemlock spruce and pine forests--story of a pine seedling--its struggles and dangers--the gardener's boot--turpentine of pines--the giant sawfly--bark beetles--their effect on music--storm and strength of trees--tall trees and long seaweeds--eucalyptus, big trees--age of trees--venerable sequoias, oaks, chestnuts, and olives--baobab and dragontree--rabbits as woodcutters--fire as protection--sacred fires--dug-out and birch-bark canoes--lake dwellings--grazing animals and forest destruction--first kind of cultivation--old forests in england and scotland--game-preserving chapter iv on forests the forests of the coal age--monkey-puzzle and ginkgo--wood, its uses, colour, and smell--lasting properties of wood--jarrah and deodar--teak--uses of birch--norwegian barques--destruction of wood in america--paper from wood pulp--forest fires--arid lands once fertile--britain to be again covered by forests--vanished country homes--ashes at farmhouses--yews in churchyards--history of man _versus_ woods in britain chapter v flowers man's ideas of the use of flowers--sprengel's great discovery--insects, not man, consulted--pollen carried to set seed--flowers and insects of the whinstone age--coal age flowers--monkey-puzzle times--chalk flowers--wind-blown pollen--extravagant expenditure of pollen in them--flower of the pine--exploding flowers--brilliant alpines--intense life in flowers--colour contrasts--lost bees--evening flowers--humming birds and sunbirds--kangaroo--floral clocks--ages of flowers--how to get flowers all the year round--ingenious contrivances--yucca and fig--horrible-smelling flowers--artistic tastes of birds, insects, and man chapter vi on underground life mother-earth--quarries and chalk-pits--wandering atoms--the soil or dirt--populations of worms, birds, germs--fairy rings--roots miles long--how roots find their way--how they do the right thing and seek only what is good for them--root _versus_ stones--roots which haul bulbs about--bishopsweed--wild garlic--dandelion, plantain--solomon's seal--roots throwing down walls--strength of a seedling root chapter vii high mountains, arctic snows the life of a cherry tree--cherries in march--flowering of gorse--chickweed's descendants--forest fires in africa--spring passing from italy to the frozen north--life in the arctic--dwarfs--snow-melting soldanellas--highland arctic-alpine plants--their history--arctic britain--edelweiss--an alpine garden chapter viii scrub famous countries which were covered by it--trees which are colonizing the desert--acacia scrub in east africa, game and lions--battle between acacia and camels, etc.--australian half-deserts--explorers' fate--queen hatasu and the first geographical expedition recorded--frankincense, myrrh, gums, and odorous resins--manna--ladanum--burning bush--olives, oranges, and perfume farms--story of roses--bulgarian attar of roses--how pomade is made--cutting down of forests and mohammed chapter ix on tea, coffee, chocolate, and tobacco english tea-drinking--story of our tea--assam coolies--manufacture in india and china--celestial moisture--danger of tea--the hermit and his intelligent goat--government coffee and cafés--chicory--chocolate--aztecs--kola and its curious effects--tobacco--sir walter raleigh--great emperors and tobacco--could we grow tobacco?--story of a sumatra cigar--danger of young people smoking tobacco chapter x on deserts what are deserts like?--camel-riding--afterglow--darwin in south america--big bad lands--plants which train themselves to endure thirst--cactus and euphorbia--curious shapes--grey hairs--iceplant--esparto grass--retama--colocynth--sudden flowering of the karoo--short-lived flowers--colorado desert--date palms on the nile--irrigation in egypt--the creaking sakkieh--alexandria hills--the nile and euphrates chapter xi the story of the fields what was ancient britain?--marshes and bittern--oak forest--pines--savage country--cornfield--fire--ice--forest--worms--paleolithic family--the first farmers--alfred the great's first government agricultural leaflet--dr. johnson--prince charlie's time--misery of our forefathers--oatmeal, milk, and cabbages--patrick miller--tennyson's _northern farmer_--flourishing days of to --derelict farmhouses and abandoned crofts--where have the people gone?--will they come back? chapter xii on plants which add to continents lake aral and lake tschad--mangrove swamps of west africa--new mudbanks colonized--fish, oysters, birds, and mosquitoes--grasping roots and seedlings--extent of mangroves--touradons of the rhone--sea-meadows of britain--floating pollen--reeds and sedges of estuarine meadows--storms--plants on ships' hulls--kelps and tangles in storms--are seaweeds useless?--fish chapter xiii rocks, stones, and scenery an old wall--beautiful colours--insects--nature's chief aim--hard times of lichens--age of lichens--crusts--mosses--lava flows of great eruptions--colonizing plants--krakatoa--vesuvius--greenland volcanoes--sumatra--shale-heaps--foreigners on railway lines--plants keep to their own grounds--precipices and rocks--plants which change the scenery--cañons in america chapter xiv on vegetable demons animals and grass--travellers in the elephant grass--enemies in britain--cactus _versus_ rats and wild asses--angora kids _v._ acacia--the wait-a-bit thorn--palm roots and snails--wild yam _v._ pig--larch _v._ goat--portuguese and english gorse--hawthorn _v._ rabbits--briers, brambles, and barberry--the bramble loop and sick children or ailing cows--briers of the wilderness--theophrastus and phrygian goats--carline near the pyramids--calthrops--tragacanth--hollies and their ingenious contrivances--how thorns and spines are formed--tastes of animals chapter xv on nettles, sensitive plants, etc. stinging nettles at home and abroad--the use of the nettle--sham nettles--sensitive plants--mechanism--plants alive, under chloroform and ether--telegraph plant--woodsorrel--have plants nerves?--electricity in the polar regions--plants under electric shocks--currents of electricity in plants--the singing of trees to the electro-magnetic ear--experiments--electrocution of vegetables chapter xvi on flowers of the water the first plant--seaweeds in hot baths--breaking of the meres--gory dew--plants driven back to the water--marsh plants--fleur-de-lis--reeds and rushes--floating islands--water-lilies--_victoria regia_--plants feet deep--life in a pond, as seen by an inhabitant--fish-farming--the useful diatom--willows and alders--polluted streams--the hornwort--the florida hyacinth--reeds and grass-reeds--the richest lands in the world--papyrus of egypt--birds and hippopotami--fever and ague chapter xvii on grasslands where is peace?--troubles of the grass--roadsides--glaciers in switzerland--strength and gracefulness of grasses--rainstorms--dangers of drought and of swamping--artificial fields--farmer's abstruse calculations--grass mixtures--tennis lawns--the invasion of forest--natural grass--prairie of the united states, red indian, cowboy--pampas and gaucho--thistles and tall stories--south africa and boers--hunting of the tartars--an unfortunate chinese princess--australian shepherds herds chapter xviii poisons poisoned arrows--fish poisons--manchineel--curare--a wonderful story--antiaris--ordeals--the obi poison--oracles produced by poisons--plants which make horses crazy and others that remove their hair--australian sheep and the caustic creeper--swelled head--madness by the darling pea--wild and tame animals, how they know poisons--how do they tell one another?--the yew tree, when is it, and when is it not poisonous? chapter xix on fruits bright colours of fruits--unripe fruits and their effects--an intemperate fungus--oranges--prickly pear and the monkey--strong seeds--bill-of-fare of certain birds--a wood-pigeon and beans--ants and seeds--bats, rats, bears, and baboons--the rise in weight of a big gooseberry--mr. gideon and the wealthy apple--crossing fruits--breadfruit and banana--dates--figs-- olives--pineapples by the acre--apples and pears--home and canadian orchards chapter xx wandering fruits and seeds ships and stowaway seeds--tidal drift--sheep, broom, migrating birds--crows and acorns--ice--squirrels--long flight of birds--seeds in mud--martynia and lions--the wanderings of xanthium--cocoanut and south sea islands--sedges and floods--lichens of arctic and antarctic--manna of bible--the tumble weeds of america--catapult and sling fruits--cow parsnips--parachutes, shuttlecocks, and kites--cotton--the use of hairs and wings--monkey's dinner-bell--sheep-killing grasses chapter xxi story of the crops bloated and unhealthy plants--oats of the borderers, norsemen, and danes--wheat as a wild plant--barley--rye--where was the very first harvest?--vine in the caucasus--indians sowing corn--early weeds--where did weeds live before cultivation?--armies of weeds--their cunning and ingenuity--gardeners' feats--the ideal bean--diseased pineapples--raising beetroot and carrot--story of the travels of sugar-cane--indian cupid--beetroot and napoleon chapter xxii plants and ants meaning of plant life--captive and domesticated germs--solomon's observations denied by buffon but confirmed by recent writers--ants as keepers and germinators of corn--ant fields--ants growing mushrooms--leaf-cutting ants--plants which are guarded by insects--the african bush--ants boarded by acacias and by imbauba trees--ants kept in china and italy--cockchafer _v._ ant--scale insects--a fungus which catches worms chapter xxiii the peril of insects the phylloxera--french sport--life history of the phylloxera--cockchafer grubs--wireworm--the misunderstood crows--dangerous sucklings of greenflies--"sweat of heaven" and "saliva of the stars"--a parasite of a parasite of a parasite--buds--the apple-blossom weevil--apple-sucker--the codlin moth and the ripening apple--the pear midge--a careless naturalist and his present of rare eggs--leaf-miners--birds without a stain upon their characters--birds and man--moats--dust and mites--the homes of the mites--buds, insect eggs, and parent birds flourishing together chapter xxiv rubber, hemp and opium effects of opium--the poppy-plant and its latex--work of the opium-gatherer--where the opium poppy is grown--haschisch of the count of monte cristo--heckling, scotching, and retting--hempseed and bhang--users of haschisch--use of india-rubber--why plants produce rubber--with the indians in nicaragua--the congo free state--scarcity of rubber--columbus and torquemada--macintosh--gutta-percha chapter xxv on climbing plants robin-run-the-hedge--bramble bushes--climbing roses--spiny, wiry stems of smilax--the weak young stem of a liane--the way in which stems revolve--the hop and its little harpoons--a climbing palm--rapidity of turners--the effect of american life on them--living bridges--rope bridges in india--the common stitchwort--tendrils--their behaviour when stroked or tickled--their sensibility--their grasping power--the quickness with which they curve and their sense of weight--charles darwin--reasonableness of plants--corkscrew spirals--the pads of the virginian creeper--the ivy--does it do harm?--embracing roots--tree ivy chapter xxvi plants which prey on plants the kinds of cannibals--bacteria--spring flowers--pale, ghostly wood-flowers--their alliance with fungi--gooseberries growing on trees--orchid-hunting--the life of an orchid--the mistletoe--balder the beautiful--druids-mistletoe as a remedy--its parasitic roots--the trees it prefers--the _cactus loranthus_--yellow rattle and eyebright, or milk-thief, and their root-suckers--broomrape and toothwort--their colour and tastes--the scales of the toothwort which catch animalcula--sir stamford raffles--a flower a yard across--the dodder--its twining stem and sucker-roots--parasites rare, degenerate and dangerously situated chapter xxvii plants attacking animals brittle star _v._ algæ--fungus _v._ meal-worm--stag-headed caterpillars--liverwort _v._ small insects--natural flower-pots--watercups of bromeliads--sarracenia and inquiring insects--an unfortunate centipede--pitcher plants: their crafty contrivances--blowflies defy them and spiders rob them--bladderwort's traps which catch small fry--hairs and their uses--plants used as fly-papers--butterwort _v._ midges--its use as rennet--sundew and its sensitive tentacles--pinning down an insect--suffocating and chloroforming the sundew--venus' fly-trap which acts like a rat-trap--have plants a nervous system? chapter xxviii mosses and moors peat-mosses and their birds--moorlands--cotton-grass--scotch whisky--growth of peat-moss--a vegetable pump--low-lying and moorland mosses--eruptions and floods of peat--colonizing by heather and scotch fir--peat-mosses as museums--remains of children and troopers--irish elk--story of the plants in denmark--rhododendrons and peat--uses of peat--reclaiming the mosses near glasgow chapter xxix names and superstitions giving names the first amusement--curious and odd names--a spiteful naturalist--the melancholy bartzia--common names--british orchids--dancing girls and columbines--susans--biblical names--almond, apple, locust--spikenard--tares--effects of darnel--daffodil--acanthus leaf--ghost-disturbing branches--elder or bour tree--its powers and medicinal advantage--danewort--mandrake--how to pull it up--the insane root--its properties--plants which make bones pink--the betel nut--henna--egyptian and persian uses--castor oil--leeks, onions, and garlic--ancient use of them index list of illustrations face page i. a sentinel palm in the andreas caÑon, california ii. the garden of eden iii. a giant douglas fir iv. a dragon tree in the canary islands v. shooting the hozu rapids in japan vi. a forest fire vii. thrashing corn in chile viii. wistaria in kamaido park, japan ix. gathering olives in the south of france x. the egyptian queen hataru's expedition xi. weighing the day's work xii. a tobacco plantation in cuba xiii. giant cactus near aconcagua valley, chile xiv. then xv. and now xvi. a ricefield in china xvii. cultivated bamboo in a chinese plantation xviii. calthrops xix. a leaf raft xx. felling of giant trees in california xxi. a bushman digging up elephant's foot xxii. pineapples as a field crop xxiii. banana carriers in jamaica xxiv. a cocoanut grove in ceylon xxv. cotton-fields in georgia, u.s.a. xxvi. ricefields in the ceylon hills xxvii. sugar cane in queensland xxviii. gathering rubber in tehuantepec xxix. a living bridge xxx. in a kentish hop garden xxxi. cinnamon peeling in ceylon xxxii. fungus in caterpillar xxxiii. an arctic alpine plant xxxiv. lake dwellings in early britain the romance of plant life chapter i the activity of vegetables plants which move--sensitive plant--a tourist from neptune--the world's and the british harvest--working of green leaves--power of sunshine--work done by an acre of plants--coltsfoot, dandelion, pansies, in sunshine and in cold--woodsorrel and crocus--foxglove--leaves and light--adventures of a carbon atom--the sap--cabbages and oaks requiring water--traveller's tree--the water in trees--an oasis in greece--the associate life of its trees and flowers. when we remember either the general appearance or the way in which a cabbage or a turnip appears to exist, it does not seem possible to call them active. it is difficult to imagine anything less lively than an ordinary vegetable. they seem to us the very model of dullness, stupidity, and slowness; they cannot move even from one field to the next; they are "fast rooted in the soil"; "they languidly adjust their vapid vegetable loves" like tennyson's oak. in fact one usually speaks of vegetating when anybody is living a particularly dull, unexciting kind of life in one particular place. and it even seems as if the books, which are supposed to give us the best information about the study of plants, and which are not very attractive little books, quite agree with the ordinary views of the subject. for one finds in them that plants differ from animals in being "incapable of motion." this, of course, just means that an animal, or rather most animals, can walk, swim, or fly about, whilst plants have roots and do not move from one spot to another. but it is not true to say that plants cannot move, for most plants grow, which means that they move, and in some few cases, we find that plants behave very much in the same way as animals do when they are touched or excited in any way. we shall have to speak about tendrils, roots, and insect-catching plants later on. but it is perhaps the sensitive plant which shows most distinctly that it can shrink back or shrink together when it is bruised or roughly handled. it will be described in its place, but just to show that this plant can move of its own accord, it is only necessary to hold a lighted or burning match about an inch or so below the end of a long leaf. if one does this then all the little leaflets begin to fold up, and finally the main stalk droops; soon afterwards other leaves higher up the stalk begin to be affected in the same way, and fall limply down one after the other. it is supposed that this movement frightens a grazing animal, who will imagine there is something uncanny about the plant and leave it alone. there are many respects in which this reaction of the sensitive plant resembles that found in animals. it does not take place if the plant is chloroformed or treated with ether; the leaves also get "fatigued" if too often handled, and refuse to rise up again. there are, however, only a very few plants in which an immediate, visible answer to a stimulus can be detected. but all plants are at work; they have periods of rest which correspond to our sleep, but during their ordinary working hours they never slacken off, but continue vigorously active. the life of man is so short that it is difficult to realize all that is being done by the world of plants. it is necessary to get beyond our human ideas of time. that is most conveniently done by considering how our plant world would strike an inhabitant of the planet neptune. our theoretical neptunian would be accustomed to a year of , days ( of our years); we will suppose that three of our years are a neptunian week, and that ten of our days are about three-quarters of a neptunian hour, whilst two earth-hours would be a minute to him. if such a being were to observe our earth, he would be astonished at the rapidity of our vegetable world. the buds would seem to him to swell visibly; in the course of an hour or two, the bare boughs of the trees would clothe themselves with the luxuriant greenery of midsummer. hops would fly round and round their poles, climbing at the rate of a foot a minute. bare places, such as the gravel heaps near a sandpit, or the bare railroad tracks at a siding, would be perhaps in one week entirely covered by rich grass and wild flowers. in six neptunian months a forest of graceful larches would spring up to a height of seventy or eighty feet. so that, if one thinks neptunially, the activity of plants can be easily realized. the truth is that we are so familiar with common annual events, such as the regular harvest every year, that we never seem to realize what it means. there are some , , , human beings on the earth to-day, and they entirely depend on the work done every year by cultivated and wild plants. even in one of the least agricultural of all civilized countries, such as great britain, the cultivation of plants is still the largest national industry. in we grew enough corn to give a ration of lb. per diem to every inhabitant for days, and we manage to get a large amount from every acre ( to bushels per acre). in most other countries the relative importance of land and of agriculture generally is very much greater than it is in britain. moreover, it seems at first sight as if all this harvest had been made out of nothing at all. plants do take in a small amount of mineral matter from the earth, but these minerals form but a very little part of the bulk of a tree or any vegetable substance. a piece of wood can be burnt up in a fire and very little indeed of it is left. a few ashes will indeed remain, which are the minerals taken in from the earth, but all the rest has vanished into the atmosphere. the water which was contained in the wood has become steam and is evaporated; the woody matter consisted chiefly of compounds of a chemical substance, carbon, which also becomes an invisible gas (carbonic acid gas) in a fire and goes back into the atmosphere. when the piece of wood was formed in a growing tree, it is easy to see where the water came from: it was taken in by the roots. just as flowers drink up the water in a vase, and wither if they do not receive enough, so all plants suck up water by their roots. the carbonic acid gas is taken into plants through their leaves and is worked up into sugar, starch, wood, and other matters inside the plant. but there is another very interesting point about the way in which wood is burnt in a fire; heat and light are obtained from a wood fire. where did that heat and light come from? if you walk in summer, under a tree in full leaf, it is much cooler than it is in the sunshine outside. this shows what happens: the sunshine has been taken up or absorbed by the leaves of the tree. it does not pass through the foliage, but the heat and light are stopped by the leaves. the light and heat which were used up by the leaves in making wood, sugar, and starch come back again when that wood or starch is burnt. so that the burning up of a bit of wood is just the opposite to the formation of that wood in sunshine in a living tree. the important point is that it is the sunshine which is used by plants to make all these refractory bodies, such as water, carbonic acid gas, and others, unite together to form sugar, starch, and wood. as the earth revolves upon its axis, sunlight falls successively on every acre of land. almost everywhere it is intercepted by green foliage. each leaf of every plant receives and absorbs as much as it can, and, for so long as the light lasts, its living particles are hard at work: water or sap is hurrying up the stem and streaming out of the leaves as water vapour. carbonic acid gas also is hurrying into the leaves; inside these latter first sugar and then starch is being manufactured, so that the green cells become filled with starch or sugar. so soon as the light fails, the work begins to slacken. when darkness sets in, the starch changes to sugar and passes down the leaf-stalk into the stem, where it is used up in growth, in the formation of new wood or in supplying the developing flowers or young buds. next morning when the sunlight touches the plant all its little living cells set to work again, and another day's task is begun. it is very difficult to understand what is going on inside the leaf. if you were to imagine a square yard of leaves all taking in sunshine and making starch as they do in fine weather; then if you weighed all these leaves, and then weighed them again one hour after they had been in the sunshine, of course that square yard of leaf surface should be heavier, because a certain amount of starch has been formed in it. the amount actually made in one hour has been estimated by dr. horace brown as / lb. so that square yards of leaves working in sunshine for five hours might make one pound of starch. but one can estimate the activity of plants in another way. look at the amount of work done by the grass, etc., on an acre of pasture land in one year. this might entirely support a cow and calf during the summer; all the work done by these animals, as well as all the work which can be done on the beef which they put on, is due to the activity of the grasses on that acre. moreover it is not only these large animals that are supported, but every mouse, every bird, every insect, and every worm which lives on that piece of ground, derives all its energy from the activity of the plants thereon. all work which we do with our brains or muscles involves the consumption of food which has been formed by plants under the warm rays of the sun. so that man's thoughts and labour, as well as that of every living creature, is in the first instance rendered possible by sunshine. but the sunlight, besides this all-important function, affects plants in other ways. one of the most interesting of the early spring flowers is the coltsfoot. on bare blackish and unsightly heaps of shale one may see quantities of its golden blossoms. now if one looks at them on a fine sunny day, every single blossom will be widely opened and each will turn towards the sun. in wet cold weather every blossom will hang its head and be tightly closed up. exactly the same may be observed with the dandelion, which is, indeed, still more sensitive than the coltsfoot. in cold wet weather it is so tightly closed that it is barely possible to make out the yellow colour of the flower, but on warm sunny days it opens wide: every one of its florets drinks in as much as possible of the genial sunshine. both opening and closing are produced by the warmth and light of the sun's rays. it is also the same with pansies. on a fine day they spread out widely, but in cold wet weather the heads hang over and the whole flower shrinks together. perhaps the most interesting of them all are the little woodsorrel and the crocus. both are exceedingly sensitive to sunlight, or rather to the cold. a mere cloud passing over the sun on a fine spring morning will close up the flowers of the crocus. in cold weather, if you bring one of its flowers indoors and put it near a bright light it will open widely, sometimes in a few minutes. what produces these changes? it is very difficult to say, but every change helps towards the general good of the plant. in warm sunny weather insects are flying about, and they can enter the flower if it is open. these insects help in setting the seed (as we shall see in another chapter). in cold wet weather the flowers are best closed, as the rain might injure the florets and because also no insects are abroad. both the foxglove and the blue vetch (_vicia cracca_) are specially ingenious in their way of obtaining light. for the stalk of every separate blossom bends so that its head turns to the best lighted or sunniest side. thus, if you have foxgloves planted against a wall, every flower will turn away from it; if you plant them in a circular bed, every one turns to the outside, so that every flower can get the sunlight. every one who has kept plants in a window knows that the stems turn towards the light. this has the effect of placing the leaves where they can get as much sunshine as possible. the leaves themselves are also affected by sunlight. they seem to stretch out in such a way that they absorb as much of it as they can. that, of course, is what they ought to do, for they want to obtain as much as possible of the sunlight to carry on the work of forming sugar and starch inside the leaf. not only each leaf by itself endeavours to place itself in the best light-position, but all the leaves on the same spray of, for instance, elm, lime, or horsechestnut, arrange themselves so that they interfere with one another as little as possible.[ ] very little light is lost by escaping between the leaves, and very few of the leaves are overshaded by their neighbours on the same branch. [ ] kerner, _natural history of plants_; also scott elliot, _nature studies--plant life_. thus all co-operate in sunlight-catching. but, when a number of different plants are competing together to catch the light on one square yard of ground, their leaves try to overreach and get beyond their neighbours. on such a square yard of ground, it is just the competition amongst the plants, that makes it certain that every gleam of light is used by one or other of them. every one of all those plants of itself alters the slope of its leaves and turns its stems so as to get as much light as possible. this light, as we have seen, is taken in by the plant. it is used to make the gas, carbonic acid,[ ] unite with water: when these are made to join together, they form sugar; if the sugar is burnt the heat and light appear again. [ ] the gas carbonic acid consists of one part of carbon and two of oxygen. it is invisible, just as are the gaseous states of many liquids and solids. water-vapour is not visible, though water (liquid) and ice can of course be seen. starch, sugar, cell wall substance, etc., all contain carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. vegetable fat is not well understood, but starch helps to form it. by changing the amount and arrangement of the molecules in sugar, starch or vegetable fats, and many other substances can be formed. but it is the sunlight that makes all this possible. thus the sun not merely supplies the motive power for all animal and vegetable activity but, by its influence, flowers, leaves, and stems move and turn in such ways that they are in the most convenient position to intercept its light. the sunlight, though all-important in the life of most plants, kills many kinds of bacteria and bacilli which love the darkness. the well-known radium rays are also destructive to bacteria, and hinder the growth of certain fungi (becquerel's rays have a similar effect). the x-rays are not so well understood, but one can close the leaflets of the sensitive plant by means of them. carbonic acid gas forms but a small proportion of the atmosphere which surrounds a growing plant. yet there is no lack of it, for when the leaf is at work forming sugar the particles of gas are rushing into the leaf, and other particles come from elsewhere to take their place. every fire and every breath given off by an animal yields up carbonic acid, so that it is constantly in circulation. this is more easily seen by tracing the probable history of an atom of carbon. we will suppose that it enters a grass leaf as carbonic acid gas and becomes starch: next evening it will become sugar and may pass from cell to cell up the stem to where the fruit or grain is ripening. it will be stored up as starch in the grain. this grass will become hay and in due course be eaten by a bullock. the starch is changed and may be stored up in the fat of the animal's body. when this is eaten at somebody's dinner, the fat will most probably be consumed or broken up; this breaking up may be compared to a fire, for heat is given off, and the heat in this case will keep up the body-temperature of the person. the carbon atom will again become carbonic acid gas, for it will take part of the oxygen breathed in, and be returned to the atmosphere as carbonic acid gas when the person is breathing. another atom of carbon might enter the leaves of a tree: it will be sent down as sugar into the trunk and perhaps stored up as vegetable fat for the winter. next spring the vegetable fat becomes starch and then sugar: as sugar it will go to assist in forming woody material. it may remain as wood for a very long time, possibly to years: then the tree falls and its wood begins to decay. the bark begins to break and split because beetles and woodlice and centipedes are burrowing between the bark and the wood. soon a very minute spore of a fungus will somehow be carried inside the bark, very likely sticking to the legs of a beetle. this will germinate and begin to give out dissolving ferments which, with the aid of bacteria, attack the wood. our carbon atom is probably absorbed into the fungus. very soon the mushroom-like heads of this fungus begin to swell and elongate; they burst through the bark and form a clump of reddish-yellow paddock-stools. a fly comes to the fungus and lays an egg in it. this egg becomes a fat, unpleasant little maggot which eats the fungus, and amongst others devours our carbon atom, which again becomes fat in its body. then a tomtit or other small bird comes along and eats the maggot. that bird stays out too late one evening and is eaten by an owl. the owl, satisfied with a good meal, allows itself to be surprised and shot by a keeper. when its body is nailed to a door and decays away, the carbon atom again takes up oxygen and becomes carbonic acid gas, which escapes into the atmosphere, and is ready for a fresh series of adventures. we must now consider the water which with carbonic acid gas makes up sugar, etc. all plants contain a large percentage of water. this may be as much as to per cent in water plants, and to per cent. in ordinary tissues; it is contained in every sort of vegetable substance. but there is also a stream of water or sap which is almost always entering the roots, rising up the stem, and passing into the leaves. on these leaves there are hundreds of minute openings called stomata, by which the water escapes as water-vapour into the atmosphere. a single oak leaf may have , , of these stomata. it is this current of sap which keeps the leaf fresh and vigorous; it is also by this current that every living cell is supplied with water and kept in a strong, healthy condition. the amount of water used in this way is very great; in four months an acre of cabbages will transpire or give out through its leaves , , pints of water and an acre of hops from - / to millions. a single oak tree, supposed to have , leaves, must apparently have given off into the atmosphere during five months , lb. of water. sometimes the water is so abundant in the plant that it collects as drops on the tips of the leaves and falls off as fluid water. a very young greenhouse plant (_caladium nymphaefolium_) was found by molisch to give off water-drops a minute, and in one night it exuded one-seventeenth of a pint. the water is found stored up in the stems or leaves of plants, especially those of hot or dry climates. the madagascar traveller's tree, _ravenala_, has a considerable amount of water in a hollow at the base of its leaf, and it is possible to drink this water. the usual story is to the effect that a panting traveller finds this palm in the middle of the desert, and saves his life by quenching his thirst with its crystal-clear water. unfortunately the tree never grows far from marshy ground or springs, and the water, which i tasted for curiosity, had an unpleasant vegetable taste, with reminiscences of bygone insect life. these are, of course, exceptional cases; as a rule the tiny root-hairs search and explore the soil; the sap or ascending current passes up the stem and pours out into the atmosphere. there the vapour is hurried off by winds, and eventually condenses and, falling as snow or rain on the earth, again sinks down into the soil. it is very difficult to understand how the sap or water rises in the trunks of tall trees; we know that along the path of the sap inside, the root-hairs and other cells in the root, the various cells in the stem, and finally those of the leaf, are all kept supplied and distended or swollen out with water. all these living cells seem to have the power of absorbing or sucking in water,[ ] and eventually they are so full and distended within, that the internal pressure becomes almost incredible. wieler found in the young wood of a scotch fir that the pressure was sixteen atmospheres, or lb. to the square inch. dixon, when experimenting with leaf-cells, found ten, twenty, or even thirty atmospheres ( to lb. to the square inch). no locomotive engine has cylinders strong enough to resist such internal pressures as these. it is an extraordinary fact, and one almost incredible, that the cells can stand such pressures. [ ] the ascent is assisted by the osmotic absorption of water at the root and by evaporation at the leaves. [illustration: _stereo copyright, underwood & underwood_ _london and new york_ a sentinel palm in the andreas caÑon, california this and such palms are often placed at the mouths of cañons to indicate water, and may, indeed, thus save the lives of passing travellers.] yet these minute living cells not only exist but work at this high tension, and, in some cases, they live to about fifty years. in this favoured country of great britain, it is unusual to find any serious lack of water. but in italy or greece, every drop of it is valuable and carefully husbanded. sometimes in such arid dry countries, a small spring of water will form around itself a refreshing oasis of greenery surrounded everywhere by dreary thorn-scrub or monotonous sand. all the plants in such a spot have their own special work to do: the graceful trees which shade the spring, the green mosses on the stones, the fresh grass and bright flowers or waving reeds, are all associated in a common work. they protect and shelter each other; their dead leaves are used to form soil; their roots explore and break up the ground. it is true that they are competing with one another for water and for light, but they are all forming a mutual protection, and producing an annual harvest. in a climate like our own we cannot, like the greek, suppose a nymph in the shape of a lovely young woman watching over the spring, for she would infallibly suffer from rheumatism and ague. but every living cell in every plant in such an oasis depends upon the water of the spring. all the plants there form an association which can be quite well compared to a city or some other association of human beings. they do compete, for they struggle to do the most work for the good of the community, and they incidentally obtain their livelihood in the process. most plant societies or associations such as those which cover great britain are not so obviously dependent on one particular spring, but the plants composing them are associated in a very similar way. chapter ii on savages, doctors, and plants savages knew botany--first lady doctors and botanical excursions--true drugs and horrible ornaments--hydrophobia cure--cloves--mustard--ivy--roses and teeth--how to keep hair on--how to know if a patient will recover--curious properties of a mushroom--the scythian lamb--quinine: history and use--safflower--romance of ipecacuanha--wars of the spice trade--cinnamon, dogwood, and indigo--romance of pepper--babylonian and egyptian botanists--chinese discoveries--theophrastus--medieval times--the first illustrated book--numbers of plants known--discoveries of painters and poets. if we look back to the time when all men and women were mere savages, living like the esquimaux or the australians of to-day, then it is certain that every person was much interested in plants. nothing was so interesting as daily food, because no one was ever certain of even one good meal in the day. so that in those early times there was a very sound, well-grounded knowledge of roots, bulbs, and fruits. they knew all that were good to eat, all that could possibly be eaten in time of famine and starvation, and also every poisonous and unwholesome plant. some savage genius must have discovered that certain plants were "good medicine"; that certain tree-barks helped to check fever, and that others were worth trying when people had successfully devoured more than they could comfortably digest. the life of a savage meant tremendous meals, followed by days of starvation; even now, when young children are fed on rice in india, a thread is tied round their waist, and, when this bursts, they are not allowed to eat any more. very probably some of these early physicians were lady doctors usually of a certain age. men were too busy with their hunting and warfare to have time to try experiments with drugs, to make concoctions of herbs all more or less disquieting and to find out if these were of any use. so that such medicine-men or witches gradually came to understand enough about poisons or fruits to make themselves respected and even feared. they would, no doubt, make botanical excursions in the forest, accompanied by their pupils, in order to point out the poisonous and useful drugs. it is worth noting, in passing, that this habit of botanical professors going on excursions with medical students has persisted down to our own times, probably without any break in the continuity. but it was soon found advisable to make this knowledge secret and difficult to get. they did not really know so very much, and a mysterious, solemn manner and a quantity of horrible and unusual objects placed about the hut[ ] would perhaps prevent some irate and impatient savage patient from throwing a spear at his wizard--or witch-doctor. [ ] this is still the custom in the huts of the wizard or medicine-man in west africa, where one finds small cushions stuck over with all sorts of poisonous plants, bits of human bones, and other loathsome accessories. shakespeare alludes to this in _macbeth_. "scale of dragon; tooth of wolf; witches' mummy; maw and gulf of the ravin'd salt sea shark; root of hemlock digg'd i' the dark; ... gall of goat and slips of yew"; and so on. most of their cures were faith-cures, and they were, no doubt, much more likely to be successful when the patient believed he was being treated with some dreadful stew of all sorts of wonderful and horrible materials. this explains how it was that the knowledge of medicine became so mixed up with pure charlatanism and swindling that no man could tell which drugs were of real use and which were mere ornaments giving piquancy and flavour to the prescription. it is not possible to say that a snake's head, the brain of a toad, the gall of a crocodile, and the whiskers of a tiger, were all of them absolutely useless. within the last few years it has been found that an antidote to snake-bite can be obtained from a decoction of part of the snake itself, and it has also been discovered that small quantities of virulent poisons are amongst our most valuable and powerful remedies. whether the savages and their successors the doctors of feudal times even down to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, suspected or believed that this was the case must remain a rather doubtful hypothesis, but there is no question "that the hair of the dog that bit him" theory of medicine was very prevalent. the following was a cure for hydrophobia of a more elaborate nature: "i learned of a friend who had tried it effectual to cure the biting of a mad dog; take the leaves and roots of cowslips, of the leaves of box and pennyroyal of each a like quantity; shred them small to put them into hot broth and let it be so taken three days together and apply the herbs to the bitten place with soap and hog's suet melted together" (parkinson). this prescription is not so preposterous as it sounds. box and pennyroyal both contain essences which would be in all probability fatal to the germ of hydrophobia, and the soap and hog's suet would keep air from the wound. other prescriptions read like our modern patent medicines. "good cloves comfort the brain and the virtue of feeling, and help also against indigestion and ache of the stomach" (bartholomew). "senvey" (the old name of mustard) "healeth smiting of serpents and overcometh venom of the scorpions and abateth toothache and cleanseth the hair and letteth" (that is, prevents or tends to prevent) "the falling thereof. if it be drunk fasting, it makes the intellect good." even in those days the people can scarcely have believed that drinking mustard improved the intellect. many of the remedies and cures are obviously false, for example the following:-- "a man crowned with ivy cannot get drunk." "powder of dry roses comforteth wagging teeth that be in point to fall." the fact that the surgeon was also a barber, and also a "face-specialist," appears from the two following:-- "leaves of chestnut burnt to powder and tempered with vinegar and laid to a man's head plaisterwise maketh hair increase and keepeth hair from falling." those whose hair turned grey could employ the following prescription:-- "leaves of mulberry sod in rainwater maketh black hair." if a doctor was not quite sure of the endurance of a patient under these heroic remedies, he could easily find out if he would recover, for it was only necessary to try the following:-- "celandine with the heart of a mouldwarp" (that is mole, _scottice_ moudiewort) "laid under the heade of one that is grievouslie sicke, if he be in danger of death, immediately he will cry out with a loud voice or sing; if not, he will weep." in lightfoot's _flora scotica_, there is an interesting account of the fly mushroom (_agaricus muscarius_) which is not very rare in britain, and which may be easily recognized by the bright red top or cap, with whitish scales scattered over it, and a sort of ring of loose white tissue round the stalk. "it has an acrid and deleterious quality. the inhabitants of kamschatka prepare a liquor from an infusion of this agaric which taken in a small quantity exhilarates the spirits, but in a larger dose brings on a trembling of the nerves, intoxication, delirium and melancholy. linnæus informs us that flies are killed or at least stupefied by an infusion of this fungus in milk and that the expressed juice of it anointed on bedsteads and other places effectually destroys"--what we may describe as certain lively and pertinacious insects with a great affection for man! as a matter of fact the fungus is said to be a deadly poison.[ ] [ ] cooke, _british fungi_. these quotations are enough to show how the real medical knowledge of those times was encrusted with all sorts of faith-curing devices, sheer falsehoods, and superstitions. the most learned men of the middle ages were almost invariably monks and hermits, for there was nothing in the world of those strenuous times to attract a studious, sensitive disposition. the spirit of their learning can be judged from the wearisome disquisitions and lengthy volumes written about the barnacle goose and scythian lamb. in certain deserts along the volga river in russia, a peculiar fern may be found. it might be described as resembling a gigantic polypody; the stem is about as thick as a lamb's body and grows horizontally on the ground like that of the common fern mentioned; thick furry scales cover the outside of its stem, which ends at the tip in an elongated point. the blackish-green leaf-stalks springing from the furry stem end in large divided green leaves. it occurred to some medieval humorist to cut off the upper part of the leaf-stalks, and to make a sort of toy lamb out of the four leaf-stalk stumps and part of the woolly or furry stem. this was palmed off as a wonderful curiosity of nature, as "a plant that became an animal," upon the ingenuous tourist of the period. such a subject was thoroughly congenial to the learned mind in the middle ages, and an enormous quantity of literature was produced in consequence. the general theory is given in the following lines:-- "cradled in snow and fanned by arctic air, shines, gentle barometz, thy golden hair, rooted in earth each cloven hoof descends, and round and round her flexile neck she bends, crops the grey coralmoss and hoary thyme, or laps with rosy tongue the melting rime, eyes with mute tenderness her distant dam, or seems to bleat, a vegetable lamb." such is the old idea of a well-known fern, _cibotium barometz_. yet the original researches of some african "obi" wizard or red indian were not forgotten, and gradually came into practice. [illustration: the garden of eden the title-page of john parkinson's "paradisus." in the distance may be seen a scythian lamb growing on its tree, and in the foreground many plants are shown as well as adam and eve.] it must be remembered that these savages were true scientific experimentalists, and made discoveries which have been of infinite service to mankind. we remember great men like harvey, lister, and pasteur, but we never think of the indian who discovered quinine. the quinine trees, the yellow variety or _calisaya cinchona_, grow in the mountains of north-eastern bolivia and south-eastern peru, in wild, inaccessible places at heights of to feet. the indians probably experimented with almost every part of every wild tree before they discovered the wonderful properties of this particular species. the quinine in nature is probably intended to prevent some fungus or small insect from attacking the bark: when quinine is used in malaria, it kills the fever germ which attacks the blood corpuscles of the sick person, so that it is of the utmost importance in all tropical countries. when the jesuit fathers reached peru and made friends and converts of the indians, they discovered this remedy. soon after the countess de chinchon, wife of the viceroy of peru, fell seriously ill of fever and was cured by the use of jesuit's bark or quinine. it was introduced into europe about , but for a very long time the entire supply came from south america. the british indian government were paying some £ , every year for south american quinine and, at the same time, the supply was running short, for the indians were cutting down every tree. at last, in (on the suggestion of dr. royle in ), the adventurous journeys of clements markham, spruce, and robert cross resulted in the introduction of the cinchona now flourishing in madras, bombay, and ceylon. in british colonies produced about £ , worth of quinine, and the price is now only - / d. or d. a pound! such drugs as safflower are of very ancient date. it was commonly employed in egypt with other dyes and spices for embalming mummies. it is now used with carbonate of soda and citric acid to give a pink dye to silks and satins, and occasionally, in the form of rouge, to ladies' cheeks! how did the ancient egyptians discover that this particular thistle-like plant (_carthamus tinctorius_) had flowers from which a red dye could be extracted by a tedious process of soaking in water? the natural colour of the flowers is not red but yellow. the history of other drugs reads like a romance. ipecacuanha, for instance, was discovered by some unknown indian who lived in the damp tropical forests of brazil and new granada. a worthy merchant in paris obtained a little of the drug in the way of trade. shortly afterwards he became very ill and was attended by a certain dr. helvetius, who was exceedingly attentive to him. the grateful merchant gave the kind-hearted physician some ipecacuanha. in the course of time the great king louis xiv's son fell ill of dysentery, and helvetius received louis d'or for his ipecacuanha. a very interesting and romantic history might be written about the effect of drugs, dyes, and spices in developing trade. during the time when britain was struggling to obtain a share of the foreign trade of holland and france, such spices as clove, cinnamon, and pepper were of the greatest importance. the dutch, especially, adopted every possible method to keep the spice trade in their own hands. they cut down the clove, cinnamon, and other trees, in all the islands not directly under their control. they imposed the most barbarous penalties on any interloper. for instance, any one who sold a single stick of cinnamon in ceylon was punished with death. when the english captured the island in , all such restrictions were of course repealed. nevertheless its cultivation remained a monopoly of the east india company until . logwood (_haematoxylon campechianum_) is closely connected with the story of adventure and colonisation in the west indies. its use was at first forbidden by queen elizabeth as it did not yield fast colours; this was because the dyers of those times did not know of any mordant to fix them. yet this is one of the few vegetable dyes which retain their position in the market in these days of aniline colours, and it is said to be a large constituent, with brandy, of cheap "port wine." indigo was known to the romans, who imported it from india on camel-back by way of the persian and syrian desert. in the fifteenth century, when the dutch began to introduce it in large quantities, it was found to interfere with the "woad"[ ] (_isatis tinctoria_) which was then a very important cultivated plant in europe. in nuremberg, an oath was administered once a year to all the manufacturers and dyers, by which they bound themselves not to use the "devil's dye," as they called indigo. its more recent history shows a very different system. in assam and other parts of british india, enormous sums of money have been invested in indigo plantations. it has been estimated that four million pounds was invested, and that a population of something like europeans and workmen to the square mile in behar, were entirely supported by indigo plantations. [ ] the same "woad" which was used by the britons to paint themselves with. now all these planters are ruined and the population is dispersed, because german indigo manufactured from coal-tar is destroying the sale of the british-grown material. the plant has pretty blue flowers and belongs to the _leguminous_ order. the dye is obtained by steeping the leaves and young branches in water, and it is finally turned out in blue powder or cakes. perhaps the most interesting of all these drugs is pepper. the dutch, in the days of queen elizabeth, had a monopoly of the east indian trade, and they tried to cut down or burn all spice trees except those in their own control. they could thus form a corner in pepper, and alter the price as they felt inclined. at one period they doubled the price, raising it from three shillings to six shillings per pound. this annoyed the london merchants so much that they met together and formed the "society of merchants and adventurers trading to the east indies." this was of course the original source of our great east indian trade, and later on resulted in the indian empire. at present, and for centuries past, the whole world is searched and explored for drugs and spices. our medicinal rhubarb for instance, grows in china on the frontiers of tibet; it is carried over the mountains of china to kiaghta in siberia, and from thence taken right across russian siberia to london and new york. it is closely allied to the common or garden rhubarb, which grows wild on the banks of the volga. it is only our duty to remember with gratitude all those long since departed botanists who have made our life so full of luxury and have supplied our doctors with all kinds of medicines. the first doctors were of course just savage botanists, but as soon as men began to write down their experiences, we find botanical treatises. the first, and for a very long time the only, botanical books were intended to teach medical students the names and how to recognize useful flowers and drugs. medicinal herbs such as mandrake, garlic, and mint are found described on those clay cylinders which were used in babylon instead of books, about b.c., that is some years ago! the egyptians thought that "kindly, healing plants," such as opium, almonds, figs, castor-oil, dates, and olives, were derived from the "blood and tears of the gods"; that would be about b.c. it is not known how far back chinese botany can be traced, but, by the twelfth century before christ, some three hundred plants were known, including ginger, liquorice, rhubarb, and cinnamon. theophrastus, who flourished about b.c., was a scientific botanist far ahead of his time. his notes about the mangroves in the persian gulf are still of some importance. it is said that some two thousand botanical students attended his lectures.[ ] it is doubtful if any professor of botany has ever since that time had so large a number of pupils. dioscorides, who lived about b.c., wrote a book which was copied by the pliny ( a.d.), who perished in the eruption of vesuvius. the botany of the middle ages seems to have been mainly that of theophrastus and dioscorides. in the tenth century we find an arab, ibn sina, whose name has been commemorated in the name of a plant, avicennia, publishing the first illustrated text-book, for he gave coloured diagrams to his pupils. [ ] lascelles, _pharm. journ._, may, . after this there was exceedingly little discovery until comparatively recent times. but grew in and malpighi in began to work with the microscope, and with the work of linnæus in modern botany was well started and ready to develop.[ ] [ ] bonnier, _cours de botanique_. it is interesting to compare the numbers of plants known at various periods, so as to see how greatly our knowledge has been increased of recent years. theophrastus ( b.c.) knew about plants. pliny ( a.d.) knew species by name. linnæus in raised the number to , . saccardo in gives the number of plants then known as follows:-- flowering plants , species ferns " horsetails and club-mosses " mosses " liverworts " lichens " fungi , " seaweeds , " ------- , [ ] [ ] saccardo, _atti d. congresso, bot. intern. di genova_, . but, during the years that have elapsed since , many new species have been described, so that we may estimate that at least , species are now known to mankind. but it is in the inner meaning and general knowledge of the life of plants that modern botany has made the most extraordinary progress. it is true that we are still burdened with medieval terminology. there are such names as "galbulus," "amphisarca," and "inferior drupaceous pseudocarps," but these are probably disappearing. the great ideas that plants are living beings, that every detail in their structure has a meaning in their life, and that all plants are more or less distant cousins descended from a common ancestor, have had extraordinary influence in overthrowing the unintelligent pedantry so prevalent until . yet there were many, not always botanists, of much older date, who made great discoveries in the science. leonardo da vinci, the great painter, seems to have had quite a definite idea of the growth of trees, for he found out that the annual rings on a tree-stem are thin on the northern and thick on the southern side of the trunk. dante[ ] seems to have also understood the effect of sunlight in ripening the vine and producing the growth of plants (_purgatorio_, xxv. ). goethe seems to have been almost the first to understand how leaves can be changed in appearance when they are intended to act in a different way. petals, stamens, as well as some tendrils and spines, are all modified leaves. there is also a passage in virgil, or perhaps more distinctly in cato, which is held to show that the ancients knew that the group of plants, _leguminosæ_, in some way improved the soil. i have also tried to show that shelley had a more or less distinct idea of the "warning" or conspicuous colours (reds, purples, spotted, and speckled) which are characteristic of many poisonous plants (see p. ). [ ] "guarda il calor del sol che si fa vino giunto all' umor che dalla vite cola." he is speaking of wine--that "lovable blood," as he describes it. but if we begin with the unlettered savage, one can trace the very slow and gradual growth of the science of plant-life persisting all through the dark ages, the middle ages, and recent times, until about fifty or sixty years ago, when a sudden great development began, which gives us, we hope, the promise of still more wonderful discoveries. chapter iii a tree's perilous life hemlock spruce and pine forests--story of a pine seedling--its struggles and dangers--the gardener's boot--turpentine of pines--the giant sawfly--bark beetles--their effect on music--storm and strength of trees--tall trees and long seaweeds--eucalyptus, big trees--age of trees--venerable sequoias, oaks, chestnuts, and olives--baobab and dragontree--rabbits as woodcutters--fire as protection--sacred fires--dug-out and birch-bark canoes--lake dwellings--grazing animals and forest destruction--first kind of cultivation--old forests in england and scotland--game preserving. "the murmuring pines and the hemlocks stand like harpers hoar with beards that rest on their bosom."--_longfellow._ of course the hemlock here alluded to is not the "hemlock rank growing on the weedy bank," which the cow is adjured not to eat in wordsworth's well-known lines. (if the animal had, however, obeyed the poet's wishes and eaten "mellow cowslips," it would probably have been seriously ill.) the "hemlock" is the hemlock spruce, a fine handsome tree which is common in the forests of eastern north america. these primeval forests of pine and fir and spruce have always taken the fancy of poets. they are found covering craggy and almost inaccessible mountain valleys; even a tourist travelling by train cannot but be impressed by their sombre, gloomy monotony, by their obstinacy in growing on rocky precipices on the worst possible soil, in spite of storm and snow. [illustration: _canadian pacific railway_ a giant douglas fir this species of fir tree grows to an enormous height in british columbia. it is now being planted in many scotch forests.] but to realize the romance of a pine forest, it is necessary to tramp, as in germany one sometimes has to do, for thirty miles through one unending black forest of coniferous trees; there are no towns, scarcely a village or a forester's hut. the ground is covered with brown, dead needles, on which scarcely even green moss can manage to live. then one realizes the irritating monotony of the branches of pines and spruces, and their sombre, dark green foliage produces a morose depression of spirit. the conifers are, amongst trees, like those hard-set, gloomy, and determined northern races whose life is one long, continuous strain of incessant endeavour to keep alive under the most difficult conditions. from its very earliest infancy a young pine has a very hard time. the pine-cones remain on the tree for two years. the seeds inside are slowly maturing all this while, and the cone-scales are so welded or soldered together by resin and turpentine that no animal could possibly injure them. how thorough is the protection thus afforded to the young seeds, can only be understood if one takes a one-year-old unopened cone of the scotch fir and tries to get them out. it does not matter what is used; it may be a saw, a chisel, a hammer, or an axe: the little elastic, woody, turpentiny thing can only be split open with an infinite amount of trouble and a serious loss of calm. when these two years have elapsed, the stalk of the cone grows so that the scales are separated, and the seeds become rapidly dry and are carried away by the wind. these seeds are most beautiful and exquisitely fashioned. the seed itself is small and flattened. it contains both resin and food material, and is enclosed in a tough leathery skin which is carried out beyond the seed into a long, very thin, papery wing, which has very nearly the exact shape of the screw or propeller of a steamer. this wing or screw is intended to give the seed as long a flight in the air as possible before it reaches the ground. if you watch them falling from the tree, or throw one up into the air and observe it attentively, you will see that it twirls or revolves round and round exactly like the screw of a steamship. it is difficult to explain what happens without rather advanced mathematics, but it is just the reverse of what happens in the steamer. the machinery in the steamer turns the screw, and the pressure of the water, which is thrown off, forces the boat through the water; in the case of the pineseed, the pressure of the air on the flying wings makes the seed twirl or turn round and round, and so the seed must be a much longer time in falling. they often fly to about or yards away from the parent tree. once upon the ground, the seed has to germinate _if it can_; its root has to pierce the soil or find a way in between crevices of rocks or sharp-edged stones. all the time it is exposed to danger from birds, beasts, and insects, which are only kept off by its resin. but it is difficult to see, for its colour is just that of dead pine needles and its shape is such that it easily slips into crevices. then the seven or eight small green seed leaves break out of the tough seed coat, and the seedling is now a small tree two inches high. it may have to grow up through grass or bramble, or through bracken, which last is perhaps still more dangerous and difficult. it will probably be placed in a wood or plantation where hundreds of thousands of its cousins are all competing together. "in this case, the struggle for life is intense: each tree seeking for sunlight tries to push its leader-shoots up above the general mass of foliage; but all are growing in height, whilst the lateral branches which are cramped by the neighbouring trees are continually thrown off. the highest branches alone get sufficient light to remain alive, but they cannot spread out freely. they are strictly limited to a definite area; the crown is small and crowded by those of the trees next to it, and the trunk is of extraordinary length." the above quotation from albert fron's _sylviculture_ (paris, ) refers to an artificial forest cultivated and watched over by man. but the trees in such forests have "extra" dangers and difficulties to fight against. even scientific foresters admit that they are very ignorant of what they are trying to do. in fact, the more scientific they are, the more readily they will confess how little they really know. watch a labourer in a nursery transplanting young pine trees; each seedling tree has a long main root which is intended to grow as straight down into the ground as it possibly can. all the other roots branch off sideways, slanting downwards, and make a most perfect though complicated absorbing system. with his large hand the man grasps a tree and lifts it to a shallow groove which he has cut in the soil. then his very large, heavy-nailed boot comes hard down on the tender root-system. the main root, which ought to point down, points sideways or upwards or in any direction, and the beautifully arranged absorbing system is entirely spoilt. the wretched seedling has to make a whole new system of roots, and in some trees never recovers. all sorts of animals, insects, and funguses are ready to attack our young tree. squirrels in play will nibble off its leading shoots. cattle will rub against its bark, and the roedeer, a very beautiful creature, and yet a destructive little fiend from the tree's point of view, nibbles the young shoots and tears the bark with its horns. a tree's life is full of peril and danger. yet it is most wonderfully adapted to survive them. take a knife and cut into the bark of a pine tree, and immediately a drop of resin collects and gathers on the wound. after a short time this will harden and entirely cover the scar. why? there are in the woods, especially in canada and north russia, hundreds of insects belonging to the most different kinds, which have the habit of laying their eggs in the wood of tree-trunks. in those regions the entire country is in the winter covered with snow and ice for many months. insects must find it difficult to live, for the ground is frozen to a depth of many feet. where are the eggs of these insects to be stored up so that they can last through the winter without injury? there is one insect at least, or rather many, of which the giant sawfly may be taken as an example, which have ingeniously solved this problem. she painfully burrows into the trunk of a tree and deposits her eggs with a store of food at the end of the burrow. a drop of resin or turpentine, which would clog her jaws, makes this a difficult task, but, as we find in many other instances, it is not impossible, but only a difficulty to conquer. if it were not for the resin, trees might be much more frequently destroyed by sawflies than they are. the larvæ of the sawfly is a long, fleshy maggot. just at the end are the strong woodcutting jaws by which it devours the wood and eats its way out as soon as it feels the genial warmth of spring penetrating through the tree-bark. many other insects hibernate or lay their eggs in tree-trunks. some are caterpillars of moths, such as the well-known goat moth; others are beetles, such as one which burrows between the bark and the wood of apple trees. the mother beetle lays a series of eggs on each side of her own track. each egg produces a grub which eats its way sideways away from the track of the mother. the track made by these grubs gets gradually wider, because the maggots themselves grow larger and more fat with the distance that they have got from their birthplace. we shall find other instances of burrowing insects when we are dealing with rubber plants. this resin or turpentine is a very interesting and peculiar substance, or rather series of substances. it is valuable because tar, pitch, rosin, and colophony are obtained by distilling it. when travelling through the coast forests of pine trees in the landes of western france, one notices great bare gashes on the stems leading round and down the trunk to a small tin cup or spout. these trees are being tapped for resin, from which rosin is manufactured. it would be difficult to find any obvious connexion between music and the giant sawfly. yet the rosin used by paganini and kubelik has probably been developed in conifers to keep away sawflies and other enemies. this very district, the landes in france, was once practically a desert, and famous as such in french history. the soil was so barren that no villages or cultivation were found over the whole length of it. now that it is planted with trees which are able to yield firewood and rosin, it is comparatively rich and prosperous. storms are also very dangerous for tree-life. one can only realize the beauty of a tree by watching a pine or ash in a heavy gale of wind. the swing of the branches, the swaying of the trunk, the balancing support of the roots which, buttress-like, extend out into the soil, give some idea of the extraordinary balance, toughness, and strength in trees. except in the case of the common umbrella, which is an inefficient instrument in high wind, engineers have never attempted the solution of the problem satisfactorily solved by trees. a factory chimney only feet in height will have a diameter at the base of at least three feet. this means that the height is about seventeen times its diameter. but the ryeplant, with a diameter at base of millimetres, may be mm. high! that is, the height is five hundred times its diameter, and the ryeplant has leaves and grain to support as well as its own stem! in pine forests on exposed mountain sides there is almost always at least a murmuring sound, which in a storm rises into weird howls and shrieks. with greek insight and imagination, the ancients supposed that spirits were imprisoned in these suffering, straining pines. that is most beautifully expressed in _the tempest_, where the dainty spirit ariel had been painfully confined in a pine tree for a dozen years, and "his groans did make wolves howl and penetrate the breasts of ever-angry bears." one of the most interesting points in botany depends on the fact that evil conditions of any sort tend to bring about their own remedy. endymion's spear was of "toughest ash grown on a windy site" (keats). the prosaic chemical analyses of german botanists have, in fact, confirmed the theory there suggested, for it is found that the wood of trees grown in exposed windy places is really denser and tougher than that of others from sheltered woods.[ ] [ ] hartig finds the specific gravity of the wood in a tree is increased from - to . when the surrounding wood has been cut down.--_bot. central_, vol. xxx, p. . if one realizes all these dangers from insects, animals, and storms, the height to which some trees grow and the age to which they live become matters for astonishment and surprise. the tallest trees in the world are probably certain eucalyptus of australia, which have obtained a height of feet above the ground. they are by no means the _longest_ plants, for there are certain _rattans_ or canes, climbing plants belonging to the palm family, which may be feet long, although their diameter is not more than two inches.[ ] there are also certain seaweeds in the southern ocean, off the coast of chile, which attain a prodigious length of feet (_macrocystis pyriferus_, or "kelp"). that is not so remarkable, for their weight is supported by other plants in the case of the rattans, and as regards the seaweeds, by the water in which they float. [ ] bonnier, _cours de botanique_. the next in order to the eucalyptus are those well-known mammoth or big trees of california (_sequoia gigantea_). they grow only in certain valleys in the sierra nevada, at an altitude of - feet. their height is usually given as from - feet, and the diameter sometimes exceeds thirty-five feet. since they have become a centre of the tourist-industry in the united states, various methods have been adopted to make their size more easily realized. thus a coach with four horses and covered by passengers is (or used to be) driven through a gateway made in one of them. the trunk of another has been cut off some feet from the ground, and a dancing-saloon has been made on the stump. it is at least doubtful if dancing would be very agreeable upon such a cross-grained sort of floor! a complete section of one of them was carried across the united states to make a dining-room table for an american millionaire. the age of one of these trees has been estimated at years. that is to say that it was a seedling in b.c., and has been peacefully growing in a californian valley during all the time when greece, rome, spain, france, britain, and of course the united states, developed their civilizations. the specimen of the mammoth tree in the natural history museum in london was years old. the possible age of many of our common trees is much greater than any one would suppose. the "jupiter" oak in the forest of fontainebleau is supposed to be years old. another oak which was cut down at bordya, in the baltic provinces of russia, was supposed to be about years old. other millennial trees are or were another oak and two chestnuts: the oak grew in the ardennes, the chestnuts still flourish, one at sancerre (france), and the other the famous specimen on mount etna. there are also eight olive trees in the garden of gethsemane at jerusalem, which are certainly years old, and were, according to tradition, in existence in the time of jesus christ. and yet all these trees are mere infants compared to adanson's baobab and the dragon tree of orotava. the celebrated traveller alluded to visited the cape verde islands in and found inscriptions made by english travellers on the trunk years before his time. from the growth since then, he calculated that some of these trees were about years of age, and they were feet in diameter.[ ] [ ] bonnier, _l.c._ [illustration: a dragon tree in the canary islands said to be about eight hundred years old] the record is held by the dragon tree of orotava, in the canary islands. when the spaniards landed in teneriffe in , its diameter was very nearly feet. it was, however, greatly injured by a storm in , and finally destroyed in . (the wood was then made into walking-sticks and snuffboxes.) the age has been estimated at , years, or by other authorities at years only. the "dragon's blood" of the canaries, a well-known remedy in the middle ages, was not, as is popularly supposed, derived from this tree, but was obtained from a totally different plant. but there is a hazy tradition to the effect that the story of the dragon which guarded the golden fruit in the island of the hesperides was nothing but a garbled account of this redoubtable veteran of the plant world. there is no particular advantage in growing to these enormous heights and clinging to life in this way for hundreds and thousands of years. nature seems to have found this out and preferred the ordinary pines, oaks, and larches, which are mature in a few hundred years. in a thousand years, ten generations of larch or pine can be produced, and, as each is probably better than its predecessor, a distinct improvement in the type is possible. all these long-lived giants belong in fact to the less highly specialized orders of plants. they are like the primeval animals, the mammoths, atlantosauri, and sabretoothed tigers. yet when we come to think of the many and diverse perils to which trees are exposed, the existence of even these exceptional monsters seems very wonderful. after a violent storm which had blown down many of the trees in a friend's park,[ ] i visited the scene of destruction and discovered what had apparently in almost every instance produced it. rabbits had overthrown these trees! [ ] dunlop house, kilmarnock. they had nibbled away part of the cork and part of the young wood on the projecting buttress-like roots at the base of the tree. in consequence, water, bacteria, and fungus spores had entered at the injured places, and part of the roots had become decayed and rotten. when the gale began to sway them backwards and forwards and a severe strain came on what should have been a sound anchoring or supporting buttress, the rotten part yielded, and these fine, beautiful trees fell a prey to the rabbit. the influence of forests and timber on the daily life of mankind is a most romantic and interesting chapter in history. every savage tribe, every race of man, however degraded or backward, is acquainted with fire. fuel is therefore a necessity of existence for all savages, and not merely for cooking. there is a very interesting passage in london's _the call of the wild_, when the dog "buck" in his dreams remembers a hairy man crouching over the fire with buck's ancestor at his feet, whilst in the darkness all round them the firelight is reflected from eyes of wolves, bears, and even more terrible and dangerous brutes which have now happily vanished from the world. for protection at night fire was an absolute necessity. even at that long-distant period, therefore, man had commenced to attack the forest. unless one has had to tend a wood fire for twelve hours, it is difficult to realize what a quantity is required. to prepare fire was a long, laborious, and difficult operation; one piece of wood was placed on the ground and held in position by the toes, a pointed stick was taken between the two palms of the hand and twirled vigorously round and round until the heat was enough to ignite a piece of rotten wood placed as tinder. therefore smouldering branches were kept always burning, as they are to-day amongst the fuegians and some other savages. it was a sacred duty to watch this fire, and the woman (usually old) who was entrusted with the task was very probably put to death if she failed. from this very ancient savage custom probably arose the cult of the vestal virgins in ancient rome.[ ] [ ] it will be remembered that they were obliged to keep the sacred fire always burning, and were put to death if they misbehaved. the fire was never allowed to go out during the whole of roman history, and the custom has been even preserved in some roman catholic convents and chapels. another very important factor in savage life was the canoe or piroque necessary for fishing or to cross lakes and rivers. the first chantey of rudyard kipling has a probable theory, and is a beautiful account of how man first thought of using a floating log.[ ] they hollowed out the log and "dug out" the canoe, by first lighting a fire on it and then scraping away the cinders; then the sides were pressed out, and it was trimmed and straightened to the right shape. all this was the idea of some paleolithic genius far more persevering and ingenious than any marine architect of our own days. [ ] _seven seas._ "birchbark" canoes are not so common as dug-outs. the tree, the white or paper birch, is found in canada and the northern united states; those indians who discovered that the light, waterproof cork-bark could be fashioned into a canoe made a very great discovery, and indeed it was their canoes that made travel or exploration possible in north america. when man began to long for a settled permanent home, it was absolutely necessary to find a way of living in safety. wolves, bears, hyenas and other animals were abundant; neighbours of his own or other tribes were more ferocious and more dangerous than wild beasts. some neolithic genius imagined an artificial island made of logs in the midst of a lake or inaccessible swamp. such were the lake dwellings which persisted into historic times, and which are indeed still in existence in some parts of the earth.[ ] [ ] munro, _lake dwellings_. the trees were abundant; they could be felled by the help of fire and an axe, and the lake dwelling gave a secure defence. the wood of some of the piles supporting the great villages in switzerland seems to be still sound, though it has been under water for many centuries. some villages are said to have required hundreds of thousands of trees. the forest afforded man almost everything that he used, bows and arrows, shelter, fuel, and even part of his food. nuts and fruits would be collected and when possible stored. in seasons of famine, they used even to eat the delicate inside portion of the bark of trees. but as soon as the first half-civilized men began to keep cattle, sheep, and especially goats, more serious inroads still were made upon the forest. where such animals are allowed to graze there is no chance for wood to grow (at any rate in a temperate country). the growing trees and the branches of older ones are nibbled away whilst they are young and tender. the days of the forest were nearly over when cultivation commenced. dr. henry describes the process of "nomadic" culture in china as follows: "they burn down areas of the forest; gather one or two crops of millet or upland rice from the rich forest soil; and then pass on to another district where they repeat the destruction."[ ] a very similar process of agriculture existed until the eighteenth century in scotland. [ ] _royal dublin society_, vol. i. part v. no. . [illustration: _stereo copyright, underwood & underwood_ _london and new york_ shooting the hozu rapids in japan the logs in the long train of rafts are of bamboo tied together. in spite of their fragile nature the lumbermen are so fearless and agile that they cleverly steer the frail bundles with but few accidents.] thus the forest was being burnt or cleared for cultivation. it was devastated by black cattle, goats, and other animals, and it was regularly exploited for fuel and building every day by every family for centuries. it is not, therefore, surprising that the ancient forests in britain have disappeared. dr. henry mentions one square mile of virgin forest on the clonbrock estate in ireland. the _silva caledonica_ of the romans is said to exist in scotland at the blackwood of rothiemurchus, at achnacarry, and in a few other places. of the original oak forest, which covered most of england and southern scotland, not a vestige (so far as is known to the writer) remains to-day. there are in places very ancient forests. a few miles from retford are considerable remains of sherwood forest, which is for ever associated with that genial bandit robin hood. one huge oak (called the major) has or used to have a keeper always on guard and paid by lord manvers, but there are hundreds of aged oaks all round it. then there is the knightwood oak and some other ancients in the new forest. but it is not certain that these even date so far back as the time of canute, for so far as the new forest is concerned, it seems that this was formed either by canute or by william i. the saxons seem to have destroyed most of the english forests. in scotland oak forest existed as far north as the island of lewis, in caithness, dornoch, cromarty, and along loch ness, as well as in every county south of these.[ ] the deer forests and grouse moors, now desolate, whaup-haunted muir-land and peat mosses, were flourishing woods of magnificent scots fir at no very distant period. they ascended the hills on the cairngorms to or feet, and in yorkshire to feet.[ ] [ ] niven, _bot. section british association_, . [ ] boyd watt, _cairngorm club journal_, vol. iv. no. , january, ; smith, lewis, _roy. geog. soc. journal_. even in remote historical times, such as those of canute, the forests had become seriously and dangerously destroyed. this king was apparently the first to artificially protect the woods as a hunting preserve. he was followed by william the conqueror and other sovereigns. the game preserves of the landed proprietors to-day are, of course, the remains of the same custom. fortunately, however, we do not kill poachers or cut off their right hands, and we do not cut off the forepaws of poaching dogs, as used to be done in medieval days. this connexion of forests with game no doubt prevented the entire disappearance of wood, but when, as is the case in england, the comfort of pheasants is thought of more importance than the scientific cultivation of forests, the result is often very unfortunate. the use and value of timber is, however, too important a matter to take up at the end of a chapter. chapter iv on forests the forests of the coal age--monkey-puzzle and ginkgo--wood, its uses, colour, and smell--lasting properties of wood--jarrah and deodar--teak--uses of birch--norwegian barques--destruction of wood in america--paper from wood pulp--forest fires--arid lands once fertile--britain to be again covered by forests--vanished country homes--ashes at farmhouses--yews in churchyards--history of man versus woods in britain. what was the first tree like? that is a very difficult question to answer. perhaps the first forests were those of the great coal period, of which the remains, buried for untold ages in the earth, became the coal which we now burn. the flames and red-glowing heat of a fire are the work of the sunlight which fell in these long-past ages through a steamy, misty atmosphere, upon these weird, grotesque vegetables, unlike anything which now exists upon the earth. their nearest allies amongst living plants are the little club-mosses which creep over the peat and through the heather in alpine districts. of course no one can say exactly what these coal forests were like. but although some modern authorities have questioned the general accuracy of the descriptions of heer and others, yet, as they have not given anything better in the way of description, we shall endeavour to describe them according to our own beliefs, and as they probably existed in the lanarkshire coalfield and other places in britain. in that gloomy mirk of the carboniferous epoch, an observer (if there had been any) would have dimly perceived huge trunks rising to sixty or eighty feet and divided at the top into a very few branches. all branches were covered over by comparatively quite small leaves. not a bad idea of the sigillarias, lepidodendrons, etc., which made the forest and can be obtained by carefully looking at a pan of selaginella such as one finds in almost every botanical garden, and imagining this to be eighty feet high. through the bottomless oozy slime which formed the ground, horizontal runners and roots penetrated in every direction. great fern-like plants might be observed here and there. sluggish rivers meandered slowly through these forests, carrying silt and refuse (their deposits are our cannel coals). in the water and in pools, or perhaps in the mud, were curious waterferns with coiled-up crozier-like leaves. perhaps horsetail-like plants of huge size might have formed great reed-beds to which those of to-day are as a plantation of one-year-old firs is to a pine forest that has lasted for a century. fishes and crustaceans, or lobster-like creatures, crawled and squattered through the slime, pursued by salamander-like animals with weak limbs and a long tail. some of these latter were seven to eight feet long. millipedes, scorpions, beetles and maybugs existed, and huge dragonflies preyed on them. but there is one very ancient group of trees, the araucarias or monkey-puzzles, which are by no means uncommon even now. the ordinary one (_araucaria imbricata_) is often planted in the british isles, and it has, if you look closely at it, a most peculiar appearance. it is like the sort of tree that a child would draw; it is a clumsy attempt at one, and very different from the exquisite irregularity of the ash or oak. its leaves are especially curious: they cover the branches very closely, and are hard, rigid, and spiny. its cones, though of the nature of pine-cones, are yet quite unique. the seeds are edible, and used to be an important article of diet to the indians on the slopes of the chilian andes, where monkey-puzzle forests used to exist. this of course is a very out-of-the-way region; other species of araucaria are found scattered about the world in a most perplexing manner. one kind grows in norfolk island, in the pacific; another occurs in the inner mountainous districts of brazil; there are some in australia and others in new caledonia. but in the jurassic period of geology, in the age of ammonites and gigantic lizards and crocodiles, araucarias were the regular, ordinary trees. they grew all over europe, and apparently as far north as greenland, and, indeed, seem to have existed everywhere. perhaps the spiny leaves discouraged some huge lizard, perhaps atlantosaurus himself (he was thirty feet high and one hundred feet long), from browsing on its branches. perhaps the pterodactyls, those extraordinary bird or bat-like lizards, used to feed upon the seeds of the monkey-puzzle, and carried them in their toothed jaws to new caledonia, australia, and norfolk island. other improved types have driven the monkey-puzzles from europe, asia, and africa, and taken their places, but in out-of-the-way districts of south america and australia they are still able to hold their own. an ally of theirs, the ginkgo or maidenhair tree, seems to have been extremely common in certain geological periods. to-day it has almost entirely disappeared. a few trees were discovered in certain chinese temples, where they had been preserved as curiosities for centuries, but it is almost extinct as a wild plant. the bigtree group (_sequoia_ p. ) was a companion of the ginkgo in its flourishing period. so also were the sago palms or cycads. all the ordinary trees, pines, oaks, beeches, and the like, did not appear upon the earth's surface till a much later period. the most important economic product of trees is the timber which they furnish. wood, as we have tried to show in the last chapter, has been always of the greatest importance to mankind. it is easily worked, durable, buoyant, and light, and it is used for all sorts of purposes. silver fir,[ ] which is accustomed, when growing, to be continually swayed and balanced by the wind, is preferred for the sounding-board of pianos and for the flat part of violins, whilst sycamore or hard maple is employed for the back and sides of the latter. [ ] the romans used it for ships' masts and spars. but there are enormous differences in different kinds of woods. the colour of wood varies from white (beech), yellow (satinwood), lemon-yellow and bluish red (sap and heartwood of barberry), to dark and light brown mottled (olive), black (persimmon), and dark brown (walnut). some woods have a distinct smell or perfume. cedarwood, sandalwood, deal, and teak, are all distinctly fragrant. the stinkwood of south africa and the til of madeira have an unpleasant smell. more important in practice are the differences in the hardness and weight of wood. the ironwood of india cannot be worked, as its hardness blunts every tool. it requires a pressure of something like , lb. to force a square-inch punch to a depth of one-twentieth of an inch in _lignum vitæ_. even hickory and oak (if of good quality) require a pressure of lb. to the square inch to do this. on the other hand the cotton tree of india (_bombax malabaricum_) has exceedingly soft wood. it is quite easy to drive a pin into the wood with the fingers. some woods are far too heavy to float: many tropical woods are especially very weighty. perhaps the black ironwood, of which a cubic foot weighs lb., is the heaviest of all. but the same volume of poplar, willow, or spruce does not weigh more than lb. there are many ancient and modern instances of the extraordinary way in which timber lasts when at all carefully looked after. thus the cedar which "hiram rafted down" to make the temple of solomon (probably cedar of lebanon) seems to have been extraordinarily durable. pliny says that the beams of the temple of apollo at utica were sound years after they were erected. cypress wood (_cupressus sempervirens_) was often used to make chests for clothes because the clothes moth cannot penetrate it, and it also lasts a very long time. there is a chest of this wood in the south kensington museum which is - years old. the cypresswood gates of constantinople were eleven centuries old when they were destroyed by the turks in . the fleet of alexander the great, and the bridge over the euphrates built by semiramis, were made of cypress. this wood seems to have been of extraordinary value to the ancients, and was used for mummy cases in egypt, for coffins by the popes, as well as for harps and organ pipes.[ ] [ ] most of these interesting details are found in boulger's valuable treatise on "wood." perhaps the most valuable woods are box, which is used for woodcuts, and walnut, which used to be highly prized for gun-stocks, as much as £ having been paid for a single tree. but the most interesting histories of trade in timber belong to the commoner and more usual woods. the great woods of jarrah (_eucalyptus marginata_) cover , square miles of australia, but they are being rapidly cut down and sawn up into small blocks to be carried right across the world in order to form the pavement which london cabmen and cab-horses prefer to any other. one remembers also the beautiful deodar forests of afghanistan, and the himalayas. logs of deodar were floated down the rivers to form bridges or temple pillars in srinagar, the capital of far cashmere. nowadays great "slides" are made, winding down into the valleys from the recesses of the hills. when winter approaches, water is sprinkled on the logs which make the slide; this freezes and forms a slippery descending surface, down which the deodar timber rushes till it reaches the low ground, where it is cut up into railway sleepers and takes part in the civilizing of india. the fragrant teak has an oleoresin which prevents the destructive white ants from attacking it; it is the most valuable timber for shipbuilding, and grows in many places of india, malaysia, java, and sumatra. it floats down the rivers of burmah, coming from the most remote hill jungles, and elephants are commonly used at the ports to gather the trunks from the water and pile them ready for shipment. the birch is carried all the way from russia to assam and ceylon, in order to make the chests in which tea is sent to england and russia (native indian woods are also used). it is also used in the distillation of scotch whisky, for smoking herrings and hams, for clogs, baskets, tanning, dyeing, cordage, and even for making bread. but one of the most curious and interesting sights in any seaport is sure to be an old white norwegian or swedish sailing barque or brigantine. she will have a battered, storm-beaten appearance, and is yet obviously a comfortable home. the windows of the deck-house may be picked out with a lurid green. the tall, slowmoving, white-bearded skipper and his wife, children, and crew, not to speak of a dog and cats, have their home on this veteran "windjammer." she carries them from some unpronounceable, never-heard-of port in norway, all over the world. you may see her discharging a cargo of deal plank, through the clumsy square holes in her stern, in a forgotten fifeshire village, in madagascar, in china, or in the straits of magellan. all her life she is engaged in this work, and her life is an exceedingly long one, to judge from the viking lines on which she is built. moreover, her work is done so economically that it used to be much cheaper to use her cargo in capetown than to utilize the beautiful forests of the knysna and king williamstown. but there are not wanting signs that the forests of norway, of sweden, and even those of the united states, are doomed. it is said that seven acres of primeval forest are cut down to supply the wood which is used up in making the paper required for one day's issue of a certain new york journal. what a responsibility and a source of legitimate pride this must be to the journalists! let us hope that the end justifies the means. boulger calculates that in all the available timber from , , acres of californian redwood was used in making the sleepers of the railways then existing in the united states. he finds that no less than , , acres of forest are necessary to keep up the supply of sleepers for the old lines and to build new ones. so that, if we remember the wood required for paper, firewood, and the thousand other important requisites of civilized man, the united states must soon exhaust her supply and import wood. then will come the opportunity of british north america. the southern forest of canada, which extended for miles from the atlantic to the head of the st. lawrence, has indeed gone or is disappearing into pulpwood and timber, but there is still the great northern forest from the straits of belleisle to alaska ( miles long and miles broad), and in addition the beautiful forests of douglas spruce and other trees in british columbia covering , square miles. it is the wood-pulp industry which is at present destroying the canadian forests. the penny and halfpenny papers, and indeed most books nowadays, are made of paper produced by disintegrating wood: it is cheap, and can be produced in huge quantities; nevertheless it is disquieting to reflect that probably nineteen-twentieths of the literary output of the twentieth century will be dust and ashes just about the same time (some fifty years) that the writers who produced it reach the same state.[ ] [ ] compare the report by the society of arts. yet, considering the amount daily produced to-day, the future readers of fifty years hence who are now in their cradles, may consider this a merciful dispensation of providence. one very curious use of wood may be mentioned here. near assouan, on the first cataract of the nile, one discovers broken granite or syenite needles, which had been intended by the ancient egyptians for monuments. where the broken pillar lies, there are rows of wedge-shaped holes cut in the rock. they used to drive in wedges of dry wood and then wet them with water. the expansion of the wood split the rock, though this is hard granite or syenite. very often the process failed because the stone cracked. the same method is said to be still used in some quarries. the destruction of the forest is really necessary. most of the corn land and rich pasture of the world has been at one time forest. it could scarcely be such fertile soil if it had not been for the many years during which leaf-mould fell on it, and the roots broke up and penetrated the subsoil below. canada, russia, and the united states are now passing through the same experience as that of great britain in the time of the romans, saxons, and danes. but there is terrible waste by fire. when the trees become dry and withered in the height of summer in either india or the united states, some careless tramp may throw aside a lighted match. if a fire once starts, it spreads with enormous rapidity; great clouds of smoke roll over the surrounding country, and every village sounds the alarm. everybody rushes to help and try to stop the conflagration, or if too late hurriedly saves whatever he can get of his possessions. his log hut and all the accumulations of years of saving may be turned into a heap of ashes in a very few minutes. but the crackling of the leaves and the flaming twigs and scorching bark make such a volume of fire that nothing which man can do is of any avail. of course every beast, every bird and insect is in the greatest possible danger. this is how a fire in new zealand has been described by mr. william satchell:--[ ] [ ] _the toll of the bush._ "for a while it seemed that the battle must go to the wind, the fiery monster withdrew, lay hidden, roaring angrily in the dry heart of the woods; then insidiously he stretched forth his glittering arms, first one, then another, and locking the shuddering trees in an irresistible embrace, sprang once again erect. in an instant the whole bush from edge to edge became a seething, rocking mass of flames. "'fire! fire!' "then, insignificant no longer, transfigured rather beyond all living possibilities of loveliness, the bush stood revealed to its centre. it became less a fire than an incandescence, waxing in brilliance to the point when, as it seemed, it must perforce burst into indistinguishable flame. every leaf and twig of that fairy forest was wrought and hammered in virgin gold, every branch and trunk was a carved miracle of burnished copper. and from the golden leaves to the golden floor, floatingly or swiftly, there fell an unceasing rain of crimson flame petals, gorgeous flame fruits. depth after depth stood revealed, each transcending the last in loveliness. and as the eye sought to penetrate those magic interiors there seemed to open out yet farther vistas, beyond belief beautiful, as of the streets of a city incorruptible, walled and towered, lost in the light of a golden incomparable star." "'fire! fire!' "in the face of that vision of glory the cry rang out with all the ineptitude and inappropriateness of the human weakling. on one side the titanic forces of nature, inexorable, eternal; on the other the man, frail of body, the creature of an hour, matching himself against them. "'fire! fire!' "sheltering his face from the insufferable heat, the swede hammered madly at the solid house-door. at the back, now utterly unapproachable, the kitchen, the roof, and a part of the main wall were already in flames. a few minutes--five at the most--would complete the demolition of the house. to right and left the great trees one after another went off like rockets, the roar of their burning foliage shaking the very earth. a deafening crashing of falling timber came at intervals from the bush beyond." in some countries the destruction of the forests has had a very serious effect on the climate. the rain which falls upon a forest is partly absorbed by the leaves, and but a very small part of it is carried off by burns and streams: most sinks down into the forest soil, and is only gradually given back again after being taken in by the tree roots and evaporated by the leaves. but bare hills denuded of wood allow most of their rain to rush down to the sea in dangerous spates of the rivers and burns, and then the ground becomes afterwards very dry and burnt up. there are very many countries now barren and desolate because they have been robbed of the beautiful forests which once covered the springheads and mountain valleys. perhaps palestine is one of the worst instances. but it is when we remember babylon, nineveh, and all the cities of the coast of asia minor, as they were even a thousand years ago, and compare their present barren, desolate condition, that the full meaning of mountain forests becomes clear. where once there were thriving, prosperous cities with enormous populations, now the goats graze or a few miserable peasants carefully husband the water of a few miserable streams. the same thing has happened in mauritius, in the cape verde and canary islands, and in many other places. but men are now beginning to see how dangerous the destruction of forests may be, and in many countries and especially in britain, new forests are being planted. perhaps in time we may grow in britain so much timber that we shall gain something like £ , , a year, which is what we spend on imported woods. at present plover, whaups, snipe, and grouse, or useless red deer, inhabit what was once the caledonian forest, and every thousand acres of such land nowadays supports perhaps one shepherd and half a gamekeeper. but when it is planted again with woodlands it will afford a living to at least ten foresters, and surely a whole gamekeeper as well. in the lowlands of scotland and in england one often discovers, in walking over the hills, remains of cottages and farmhouses which have now vanished. the people have gone into the towns, and the healthy yeomen and farmers' boys have become weak-chested factory hands and hooligans. such sites of old farms can often be recognized by a patch of nettles, and especially by eight or nine ash trees. these were always planted near the houses to give a ready supply of wood for spears. the ash, "for nothing ill," as spenser puts it, would be available also for repairing the handles of tools, carts, etc. some authorities say that it was the law of scotland that these eight or nine ash trees should be planted at every "farmtoon." so also, when forests began to vanish in england, laws were made to the effect that yew trees should be planted in every village churchyard. probably this was to ensure a good supply of bows for the english archers, who, like the scottish spears, were the best soldiers of their kind in europe. [illustration: a forest fire such fires frequently occur in new zealand, and the maoris have to fly for their lives.] so that if we try to compare the conditions of man and of the forests in great britain from the earliest days, it would be something like this:-- . when the earliest inhabitants lived on shell-fish, seabirds' eggs, nuts, and fruits, almost the whole country was covered by oak, scotch fir, or birch forests. . when man was a hunter of reindeer and other deer, horses, cattle, and birds, he used much wood for fires and for building his lake dwellings. . when man kept herds of swine to eat acorns, black cattle, goats, and ponies, there would be many clearings and a great deal of open wood in which the cattle roamed about. . when man grew corn and other plants, the forest vanished altogether. dr. johnson said he scarcely saw a tree between carlisle and edinburgh. yet first the king, then the barons, had their parks and woodlands for preserving game. moreover, the yews in the churchyards of england, and the ash trees by the scotch farmtoons and peel-towers, were carefully looked after. . when great towns arose, and men became factory hands and steel workers, rich men began to make plantations in the lowlands, and to use the depopulated highlands for grouse moors and deer forests. . when men become wiser than they are now, it will be seen that great forests are necessary on all waste-land and barren places, both to keep a healthy country population and because it will pay. chapter v flowers man's ideas of the use of flowers--sprengel's great discovery--insects, not man, consulted--pollen carried to set seed--flowers and insects of the whinstone age--coal age flowers--monkey-puzzle times--chalk flowers--wind-blown pollen--extravagant expenditure of pollen in them--flower of the pine--exploding flowers--brilliant alpines--intense life in flowers--colour contrasts--lost bees--evening flowers--humming birds and sunbirds--kangaroo--floral clocks--ages of flowers--how to get flowers all the year round--ingenious contrivances--yucca and fig--horrible-smelling flowers--artistic tastes of birds, insects, and man. for many centuries flowers were considered as pleasing and attractive decorations stuck about the world in the same way as they are put in a drawing-room in order to give people pleasure. very soon they were found to be extremely useful in poetry, sometimes to point a moral or disguise a sermon, like the primrose in _peter bell_, but more generally to produce a good impression on the beloved object. burns puts the usual view of flowers very nicely in the following: "but i will down yon river rove amang the woods sae green, and a' to pu' a posie to my ain dear may." possibly this is the meaning also in the exquisite lines of shakespeare about the pansy:-- "yet marked i where the bolt of cupid fell: it fell upon a little western flower,-- before milk-white, now purple with love's wound,-- and maidens call it, love-in-idleness." even if there is no particular meaning, the "little western flower" gives point and beauty to the lines. people only began to understand flowers about the year , when christian conrad sprengel, rector of spandau, near berlin, published a very interesting work. he had discovered that the beauty of flowers and their colour and shape were by no means intended solely to please _human_ eyes, but that they were designed to attract and allure the eyes of _insects_. before his time there had been many guesses. indeed, theophrastus (born b.c., and often mentioned in this work) seems to have quite well understood why flowers produce pollen, and that the fruit would not set and form seed unless pollen was carried to the female part of the flower. he mentions that the pistacio has both male and female plants, and that palms only form dates when the pollen is carried to the female tree. this experiment with the date-palm was tried in by an italian (alpino) in an egyptian tour, and the englishman, jacob bobart, the pole, adam zaluzianski (the latter in the same year) confirmed the general idea. then in the year rudolp jacob camerarius, a german, carried on a few more experiments, but no real definite advance was made until , in the very midst of the french revolution.[ ] [ ] the historical account by bonnier, _cours de botanique_, is very interesting and complete. the great point of sprengel's discovery was in its being an intelligible explanation of the reason why flowers have bright colours, scent, and honey. at his time and indeed for many years afterwards, botanists looked on the stamens, petals, and other parts of the flower exactly in the way that a stamp collector looks at punctures and postmarks, that is without thinking about their meaning. now we find that they are always designed to fulfil a perfectly definite purpose, and that all their details are contrived accordingly. this purpose is to carry the pollen from the stamens of one flower to the stigma of another. the pollen can usually be recognized as a yellowish or reddish dust formed in the stamens; this dust is generally rubbed off on an insect's proboscis or on part of its body. when the insect reaches another flower the pollen is scraped off by a sticky or gummy stigmatic surface. when the pollen has been placed on this surface it grows, germinates, and part of it unites with the egg-cell of the young seed. the latter is then, and not till then, able to become ripe and mature. it may be compared to cross-breeding in animals, though the process does not exactly correspond. but all flowers do not require insects to carry their pollen. in early geological periods we do not find any flowers like those that now exist, nor in those early times were there any flies, bees, or butterflies. the cockroach seems to have existed in silurian (whinstone) times, and many gigantic and extraordinary insects lived in those damp forests of ferns, club-moss, and horsetails, of which the remains now form our british coalfields. mayflies, plantbugs, and especially dragonflies (some of them with wings two feet across) existed, but none of these insects are of much use as pollen-carriers. even much later on, when screw pines, monkey-puzzle trees, ginkgos, and bamboos formed the forests and woods of europe, crickets and earwigs existed; but it is not until that geological period in which the chalk was formed (the cretaceous age) that fossil plants like most of those now familiar to us occur. these had flowers intended for insects, and with the fossil plants we find the fossils of the insects that visited them. bees, butterflies, and ordinary flies appeared upon the scene just as soon as there were flowers ready for them. mr. scudder has even found the fossils of certain plants, and with them the fossils of butterflies closely allied to the present butterflies which now live on present trees allied to those fossils! how then was the pollen of the first flowers carried? it was in all probability blown by the wind or carried in water. even now poplars, alders, birches, and oaks rely chiefly upon the wind to carry their pollen. these plants were amongst the first of our modern flora to appear upon the earth. some of them possess very neat contrivances suited to the wind. the catkins of the alder, for example, hang downwards, so that each little male flower is protected from rain by a little scale or bract above it. the pollen is very light, dusty, or powdery, so as to fly a long distance. the scotch fir (_pinus sylvestris_) has male flowers in little cones. these are upright, and the pollen of each stamen drops on to a small hollow on the top of the stamen below. it is then blown away by the wind on a fine dry day, but it is not allowed to get out in wet weather. it is said that vast clouds of pine pollen occur in america, and that the water of certain lakes becomes quite yellow and discoloured by it at certain seasons. each little particle of pollen has two minute caps or air-balloons which give it buoyancy, so that it can float easily immense distances. a curious little herb, the wall pellitory, and another foreign species, the artillery plant, produces small explosions of pollen. when it is touched, there is a little puff or cloud of dusty pollen. even the common nettle does the same on fine dry days when it is in full flower. but of course this carrying of pollen by the wind is a very expensive arrangement. it is so much a matter of pure chance that a grain arrives at its right destination. suppose that a flower is giving out clouds of pollen, then the chance of a pollen grain reaching a female flower only five feet away is very small, even if the stigma of the female flower is a quarter of an inch in diameter. the chance of pollen reaching it will only be about to ; pollen grains will be wasted[ ] for every one that reaches the stigma. but even this is not quite a fair calculation, for if the female flower is not down wind, none will reach it at all! [ ] the pollen from the great pine forests of the italian alps blown up to the snow becomes used in nourishing the pink or red snow algæ, which colours it a delicate rose-pink. in lower grounds all such pollen becomes, like leaf-mould, a manure for other plants. there is no _waste_, strictly speaking. but if an insect goes to the catkin of an alder or any other male flower, it will see the red points of the stigma and will very likely go there at once. this shows how much more reasonable and efficient insects will be. the immense majority of flowers are, in fact, purple, blue, red, yellow, or white, so that they are conspicuous, and stand clearly out against the green of their leaves. it is well known to all who have arranged flowers for the table that the green of the leaves of different plants varies greatly in its shade and tint. many greens do not match special flowers at all, but it is the fact that the green of any one plant is always quite harmonious, and agrees well with its own flowers! besides varied and beautiful colours, sweet or strong scents and supplies of honey or nectar are provided for insects. how did flowers manage to produce all these attractions? no one has answered that question. we know in a general sort of way that the parts of flowers are modified leaves, and that petals and stamens become yellowish or pure white because they do not form green colouring matter like ordinary leaves. it is also known that on the alps or on any high mountain, where the air is pure and the sun strong, flowers become rich, brilliant, and vivid. in such places as the "jardin" near mont blanc, the pure, deep, rich blue of gentians, the crimsons, reds, and purples of other flowers, impress the most casual and unobservant traveller. "white and red, yellow and blue, brown and green stand side by side on a hand's breadth of space." in that strong mountain air, also, perfumes are stronger, purer, and of finer quality than in the lowlands. there is a more intense, active, and vigorous life going on in flowers than is required by the more prosaic industries in other parts of a plant. flowers also often live at a higher temperature than the surrounding air. kerner has described how the little flowers of soldanella penetrate the snow by actually melting a passage for themselves through it (see p. ). this high temperature and vigorous life, shown also by the rapid transpiration of flowers,[ ] seems to hint that colours and perfumes appear in consequence of rapid chemical transformations.[ ] [ ] _pharmaceutical journal_, may th, . [ ] buscalioni e traverso, _atti del ist. bot. di pavia_, vol. , . it was, of course, by degrees that the extraordinary variation in colour, which exists in nature, came about. no doubt bees, bumble-bees, wasps, and the more intelligent flies were improved and developed æsthetically. we can almost tell by looking at a flower what sort of insect probably visits it. not only so, but there are the neatest imaginable contrasts and blends of colour. the common bluebeard salvia, e.g., has the uppermost leaves (three-quarters to an inch long) of a deep, rich, blue-purple, which the roving bumble-bee will see from a long way off. the bumble-bee flies to this great splash of her favourite hue and for a second buzzes angrily, then she notes the small _bright-blue_ patches on the upper lips of the small flowers below the leaves which are set off by _white_ hairs of the upper and _yellow_ hairs of the lower lip. that bees really do understand and are guided by colour may be gathered from the following unfortunate accident. a certain hive of bees which had been brought up in a blue-striped skep became accidentally scattered. they tried to find their way back to their old home, but many strayed, and it was noticed that they had tried to enter the doors of every blue hive, which were strewn with the bodies of the unfortunate intruders.[ ] [ ] von buttel, _respen_. the rich blue-purple of aconite, the dark strong red of the woundwort (_stachys silvatica_) are specially beloved by bumble-bees and hive-bees. butterflies like any bright colour. those flies which have a long, sucking proboscis, resemble the bees in their tastes, but all these insects are quite capable of finding out where they can get honey most easily, and visit flowers whatever the colour may be. a very strange and wonderful fact is that quite a number of plants prefer the dark, or rather the dim, mysterious light of the gloaming. then the honeysuckle, the evening campion, the night-scented stock, tobacco, and schizopetalon give out their strongest scent and open out their white flowers as widely as possible. that is because they wish to attract the owlet moth and others which come out at this time, when there are fewer enemies and more security. if you look at any of these moth-flowers at mid-day, they are for the most part closed up, they are not particularly attractive, and they are giving out very little scent. the contrast to their condition in the evening is most striking. not only insects but birds are used to carry pollen. the gorgeous little humming birds, with their brilliant metallic crimson, bronze-green, and purple, are of the greatest importance in the new world. in the old world they are replaced by the tiny _nectarinidæ_ or sunbirds, with breastplates almost as exquisitely jewelled. they prefer the most gorgeous reds and scarlets, such as that of _salvia horminum_, _lobelia cardinalis_, and the like. fuchsias are regularly visited by them in tierra del fuego, where sometimes they may be seen busily at work during a shower of snow. in south africa they seize the stem of a redhot poker (_tritoma_) (_kniphofia macowanii_), and twisting their little heads round, they suck the honey from every blossom in succession. still more interesting it is to see them perched on the edge of one of those great tumbler-like heads of protea (e.g. _p. incompta_) and dipping their slender curved beaks repeatedly into the flowers. then the little male bird will alight on a branch and make the most elaborate preparation for a song of triumph. although helped out by fluttering of wings and much display of feathers and tail, the song is a very faint cheep of the feeblest description, and very difficult to hear. not only birds but even animals are sometimes called into the service. there is a group of small mammals which live on the honey of flowers. even the kangaroo is said to occasionally take a draught of nectar from some of the cup-like flowers of the australian dryandra (_proteaceae_). but one of the most interesting and extraordinary facts is the manner in which flowers fit in. they begin early in the morning: one blossom opens out and then another; all endeavouring to catch the attention of some passing insect. _allionia violacea_ opens at three or four a.m., and closes about eleven or twelve. some wild roses open about four or five in the morning, as well as the chicory, roemeria, etc. virginian spiderwort, dandelion, and nightshade are ready at six in the morning. a great many (buttercups, white water lily, etc.) are open by seven a.m. most of these early flowers are shut at noon. others begin to close about three or four in the afternoon. the regular evening moth-flowers open about six p.m., though _cactus grandiflorus_ does not open till nine or ten p.m., and closes at midnight.[ ] extraordinary as these variations seem, they are easily explained. some open early because there are then few competitors. by far the greater number are open from nine a.m. till one or two p.m., because those hours are the favourite working time of most insects. [ ] linnæus and many others have made floral clocks. kerner, _natural history of plants_, describes the opening and closing of flowers very fully. flowers live for very different periods. that of the wheat only lasts for fifteen or twenty minutes (its pollen is carried by wind), and is then over. there are others, hibiscus and calandrinia, which only remain open for three or four hours, but a foxglove will last six days, a cyclamen ten days, whilst orchids may last for from thirty to eighty days (_cypripedium villosum_, seventy days, _odontoglossum rossii_, eighty days). thus the sun every day through the summer, as he calls into life new swarms of insects, sees at every hour of the day new flowers opening their petals to his genial warmth and ready for the new bees and flies. the development of the flower and that of its insect are probably simultaneous, and equally regulated by the sun's warmth. moreover the opening periods do not merely fit in during the day, but each flower has its own special month, and even in scotland there is no month in which some flower may not be found in bloom. any stray wandering insect can get its draught of honey at any season of the year. this is a matter of some importance for those who keep bees, and the following list may be of some use. _february_: _crocus vernus_, snowdrop, black hellebore, and hazel. _march_: the preceding, _arabis alpina_, bulbocodium, _cornus mascula_, _helleborus foetidus_, giant coltsfoot, gooseberry, various species of prunus and pyrus, willow. _april_: the preceding as well as _adonis vernalis_, _barbarea vulgaris_, _brassica napus_. it is not worth while noting those that bloom from may to september, for there are hundreds of good bee-flowers in these months. in _october_: borage, echium, sunflowers, _lycium europæum_, _malope grandiflora_, catmint, tobacco, ocimum, origanum, _phacelia tanacetifolia_, and others. most of these last into november.[ ] in december and january very few plants are in bloom. the following have been noted at edinburgh botanical gardens: _dondia epipactis_, _tussilago fragrans_, snowdrop, _geum aureum_, hepatica, _primula acaulis_, _p. veris_, _aubrietia deltoidea_, _crocus imperati_, _c. suaveolens_, _erica herbacea alba_, helleborus ( species), _polygala chamaebuxus_, _andromeda floribunda_; also sir h. maxwell[ ] mentions _azara integrifolia_, _hamamelis_ _arborea_, and _chimonanthus fragrans_. of wild plants, chickweed, whin or furze, _lamium purpureum_, and dandelion can generally be found in the depth of winter. [ ] huck, _unsere honig u. bienenpflanzen_. these are drawn up for germany, and cannot be warranted for this country. [ ] _memories of the months._ the contrivances which can be found in flowers, and by which the insect is forced to enter exactly along the proper path, are endless. each flower has some little peculiarity of its own which can only be understood by thoroughly examining the plant itself. it is not therefore possible to do justice to the ingenuity of flowers in a work of this sort. there are orchids which throw their insect visitors into a bath of water, so that they have to crawl with wet wings up a certain path where they touch the pollen masses and stigma; others which hurl their pollen masses at the visitor. in the asclepiads a groove is provided into which the leg of the insect slips, so that it has to struggle to get its foot out, and must carry off the pollen masses, though it often fails and leaves its leg behind. some arums and aristolochias have large traps in which they imprison the insects, and only let them go when they are sure to be pollen-dusted. in one of these flowers there are transparent spots on the large petal-prison, which so attract the insects that they remain opposite them instead of flying out (just as flies do on a window-pane). salvia has a stamen which is like a see-saw on a support; the bee has to lift up one end, which brings the other with its pollen flat down on to its back. the barberry has a sensitive spot on its stamen; when the insect touches the spot, the stamen springs up suddenly and showers pollen upon it. in mimulus the two flaps of the stigma close up as soon as they are touched, which will be when they have scraped off any pollen; then when the creature withdraws, covered with the flower's own pollen, none of this can be left on its own stigma, as this is shut up. but instead of reading, one should watch a bumble-bee visiting the foxglove flowers. the sight of her busily thrusting her great hairy body into the bell, which almost exactly fits her shape, while she gurgles with satisfaction, will teach the reader far more about the romance of flowers than many pages of description. if he then carefully examines the flower, he will see how the honey, the arched converging stamens, and the style, are placed exactly in the right place and where they will have the most effect.[ ] [ ] compare shelley, who watched all day "the yellow bees in the ivy bloom," but he "did not heed what things they be." moreover, though he appreciated the general spirit of the bee, it is very unlikely that he saw any of them on the ivy! one orchid, _angraecum sesquipedale_, has a spur eighteen inches long, and the great darwin suggested that there must be an insect somewhere with a tube long enough to reach the honey. such an insect, a large moth, was actually brought home from madagascar, the place where this orchid occurs, after a lapse of many years! perhaps more remarkable than anything else are such cases as the yucca and the yucca-moth or the fig-wasp and the fig. the yucca is a fine lily-like plant resembling the aloes in general appearance. a particular sort of moth lives entirely upon the yucca. when the flowers open, the mother-moth kneads up a ball of pollen and places an egg inside. this ball she thrusts down the style into the ovary of the flower. there a grub develops from the egg and eats the pollen, yet some of this pollen fertilizes the young seeds. if yuccas died out the moth would be exterminated. if the moths were destroyed, no yuccas would ever set their seed! the fig has two sorts of flower. the one (caprifig) produces only male or pollen-yielding flowers. the other is the true edible fig. inside the caprifig are the grubs of the fig-wasp, which rejoice in the name of _blastophaga grossorum_. when grown up these force their way out of the caprifig and, flying to the true fig, the mother-wasp lays her eggs in certain flowers which have been apparently specially modified for the purpose. at the same time she covers the ordinary flowers with pollen from the caprifig. her progeny return to the caprifig. here again the future of a valuable fruit-tree is absolutely bound up with the fortunes of a tiny and in no way attractive wasp! another very remarkable case is that of those flowers (stapelia, etc.), which in colour and general marking closely resemble decaying meat or other objectionable substances. very often the smell of such flowers is exceedingly strong, and resembles the ordinary smell of putrid matter. in one case an artist employed to paint the flower had to use a glass bell, which was put over it. he could only lift it for a second or two at intervals in order to see the exact colour, before the horrible odour obliged him to cover it over again. blowflies and others, which are in the habit of resorting to such substances, seek out these flowers in great numbers and lay their eggs upon them. in so doing they carry the pollen. there are certain fungi which have quite as horrible a smell, and some of them also resemble decaying animal matter. these are most eagerly sought out by the same blow-and other flies (bright green lucilias, yellow-brown scatophagas, bluebottles, etc.). but in the case of these fungi it is the spores, not pollen, which is carried by the insect. the effect of this flowery sort of life is abundantly evident in the structure of the insects themselves. their mouth has been most wonderfully modified into a complex sucking apparatus; their legs have been transformed to act as pollen-carrying baskets, and the habits and tastes of the insects have been modified in the most extraordinary way. perhaps also the association of bright colours with a very pleasant sensation--that of a full, satisfying meal--has raised the artistic sensibilities of butterflies, sunbirds, humming birds, etc. for certainly these flower-haunting birds and butterflies are remarkable for their brilliant colouring. this has probably been brought about by the preference of the females for the most brilliantly coloured male butterflies and humming birds. at any rate bright reds and blues are common to both bird or insect and to the flowers that they frequent. but the most curious point of this whole question lies in the fact that human beings of all grades, south sea islanders, the ancient greeks, peruvians, japanese, romans, as well as the parisians and londoners of to-day, appreciate the beauty of colouring and grace of form which are so obvious in the world of flowers. yet man has had nothing whatever to do with the selection of either these colours or shapes. many of those which he considers most precious (such as the weird, spotted, and outlandish orchids of madagascar and south america) have very likely scarcely ever been seen by man at all. it is to the artistic eye of the honey-bee, bumble-bee, butterfly, and of the humming bird and sunbird, that we owe these exquisite colours. the grace and beauty of outline probably depend upon their perfect symmetry and on the perfect suitability of every curve to its purpose. therefore it seems that the eyes of man, whether savage or civilized, are pleased and comforted by these same colours that delight the little brains of insects and birds. this is indeed a mysterious fact. chapter vi on underground life mother-earth--quarries and chalk-pits--wandering atoms--the soil or dirt--populations of worms, birds, germs--fairy rings--roots miles long--how roots find their way--how they do the right thing and seek only what is good for them--root versus stones--roots which haul bulbs about--bishopsweed--wild garlic--dandelion, plantain--solomon's seal--roots throwing down walls--strength of a seedling root. the word "adam" means red earth. poets and essayists still regularly write about mother-earth and, in so doing, admit one of the most interesting and wonderful facts in nature. if you go to some quarry or cliff where a section has been cut, laying bare the original rock below; then (with hugh miller) you may reflect on the extraordinary value of those few inches of soil which support the growth of all our trees and of all our cultivated plants. it is probable that plant-roots _never_ go deeper than about thirty feet. all our food, our energy, and activity depend therefore on this thinnest surface-layer of an earth which is miles in diameter. but in most places the depth of true soil is far less than thirty feet, generally it is not more than thirty inches, and by far the most valuable part of it is a very thin layer five or six inches thick. it is in this true soil that the roots gain their nourishment, and not only roots, for whole populations of worms, of germs, of insects, even of birds and the higher animals, live upon it. to it return the dead leaves, the bodies of dead insects, and waste products of all kinds. within it, they are broken to pieces and worked up again by the roots of other plants in order to form new leaves, new insects, and food for bird and beast. just as in engine-works, you may see old engines, wheels, and scrap-iron being smashed into pieces; they are melted down and again worked up into engines of some improved design. [illustration: thrashing corn in chile mares are driven at the gallop round the circle, and so beat the corn out of the ear with their hoofs. they do this for twenty minutes at a time, and are then made to go the other way round.] on a chalk-cliff, which dates from the long-distant cretaceous period, the entire thickness formed by the yearly work of plants for millions and millions of years is often less than a foot in depth, and probably only four to five inches are true soil. but this is an exceptionally thin stratum, although it is capable of producing rich turf, fat snails, and excellent mutton. in peat-mosses and in those buried forests which form the coalfields, vegetable matter may accumulate in deposits of thirty feet of coal. yet these stores of carbonaceous matter seem to be at first sight miserly and selfish, at least from a vegetable point of view. they resemble the gold and silver withdrawn from circulation in the world by some hindoo miser and buried deep within the earth. yet somebody is pretty certain to find out and make use of such stores eventually. in the case of the peat and coalfields, an animal of sufficient intelligence to utilize them has already been produced, and now they are used by man as fuel. it is very important to remember that the soil is a sort of last home to which the particles of carbon, of nitrate, and minerals always return after their wanderings in the bodies of plants, of insects, or of other animals. they probably rest but a short time before they again set off on new adventures. one might say the same of the water, and of the carbonic acid gas and oxygen of the atmosphere, for the water, falling as rain upon the earth, trickles down to the underground water-level. then it immediately begins to rise up between the particles of earth and is promptly caught and sucked in by the roots, only to be again given out by their leaves. the carbonic acid gas and oxygen also are always entering and leaving the foliage. even the nitrogen of the air is not left alone in the atmosphere. there are small germs in the soil which are able to get hold of it and make it into valuable nitrates. more curious still is the fact that electric charges can be used to change the comparatively useless air-nitrogen into useful manures. probably the farmer will some day make his own nitrates by electricity. the structure of the soil or earth is a most interesting and romantic part of botany. it is true that a "radical" disposition is necessary if one is to go to the root of the matter, but, unless we do this, it is impossible to realize the romance of roots. down below is the unaltered rock, sand, or clay. next above it comes the subsoil, which consists of fragments of the rock below, or of sand, clay, etc., more or less altered by deep-going roots. even in this subsoil, bacteria or germs may be at work, and the burrows of worms and insects often extend to it. next above the subsoil comes the true soil; there is plenty of the stones, soil, sand, or whatever it may be that constitutes the subsoil, but its richness consists in its contents of valuable minerals, and especially of broken-up leaves, corpses of insects, and manure. above this true soil are first the leaf-mould of two years ago, then that of the year before last, and _on the top_ is the leaf-mould and other decayed products of last winter. all these upper layers are full of life and activity, which probably goes on vigorously all the year round. the population of worms is especially important. the worm is a voracious and gluttonous creature: it is for ever swallowing bits of leaves and rich soil. inside its body there are lime-glands which act upon the vegetable food and improve its quality as manure. the worm comes up to the surface at night or early morning and leaves the worm-casts upon it. the rain then washes the rich, finely-divided matter of the casts down into the soil again. it is said that there are about , worms at work in an acre of good soil. yet their life is full of danger. a keen-eyed population of blackbirds, thrushes, starlings, peewits (plover), and partridges are always watching for and preying upon the poor worm. even in his burrows, which may be six feet deep, he is not safe, for the mole (_moudiewarp_) is also both very hungry and very active, and delights in eating him. in the soil also and even deeper in the subsoil are many insects; some hibernate in the winter, and at other times actively gnaw the roots of plants or devour dead leaves and twigs (see chapter xxiii.). thus there are many burrows and holes, so that there is no want of air in the soil, which is indeed necessary both for these creatures and also for the roots of the plants. rain comes down through the soil, carrying with it carbonic acid, mineral salts, and also germs or bacteria, which form perhaps the most important population of all. no work could be carried on without their help; it is bacteria which, at every stage of decay, assist in breaking up leaves, twigs, insects' bodies, worm-casts, and other manures. the way in which they work is too difficult to explain here, but to get an idea of the romance of the underground world one must try to picture to oneself these swarms and myriads of germs and bacteria all incessantly and busily engaged at their several duties. in the uppermost layers there are probably in a single cubic inch of good soil from , , to , , of these microbes. many are absolutely necessary to the harvest; a few may be of little importance, but there are sure to be some of those dangerous sorts which might devastate a continent with disease in a single summer. there are also quantities of other fungi. the fairy rings which one sees year after year in widening circles of bright, fresh green are the work, not of fairy footsteps, but of an underground fungus (_marasmius oreades_ and others). its threads are thin, white, and delicate; they attack the roots of grasses, etc., on the outer side of the ring. it is therefore on this outer side yellow, dry, and more or less withered. on the inner side, however, the grass is luxuriant and of a rich bright green. here the fungus has died off, and its remains, as well as those of the plants which it destroyed, form a rich manure for the new grass following on its track. every year the ring widens; at a certain time in summer one sees the irregular line of mushroom-like fungi which are formed by the destructive underground absorbing threads. this, however, is but one of the underground fungi. there are many kinds; some are useful, others are very destructive. upon the upper surface of the soil there falls not only rain, but another sort of rain consisting of seeds, dead leaves, insects' bodies, fungus spores, bacteria, and dust. every year when the ploughman turns the sod there is a revolution in the whole of these populations. so far nothing has been said about the roots themselves, which penetrate, explore, and exploit all these layers of dead leaves, soil, and subsoil. the length of roots produced is very much greater than any one would suppose. a one-year-old scotch fir seedling when grown in sand produced in a season a total length (branches, etc.) of no less than thirty-six feet of root. the total surface of this root system was estimated to be about twenty-three square inches. this little scotch fir after six months' growth was laying under contribution a cone of earth twenty to thirty inches deep and with a surface of square inches. in certain kinds of corn the same author estimated the total length of the roots as from to feet. s. clark estimated the length of the roots of a large cucumber plant as amounting to , yards (fifteen miles), and made out that it was occupying a whole cubic yard of ground. clover roots are said to go down to depths of six or nine feet, but many weeds go deeper still. coltsfoot, for instance, may be found, according to a friend of mine, living at a depth of twenty spades. in egypt and other places the roots of acacias go down to twenty feet or even further, so that they can tap the water supplies, which are at a great depth. but a still more extraordinary fact is the manner in which the root-branches arrange to grow in such a way that they search every part of the soil. the main root in many plants grows straight down, or as nearly as it can do so. its branches are inclined downwards at a quite definite angle which is often °- ° to the surface. moreover, these branches come off in quite a regular way. each keeps growing in its own special direction to the east, south-east, or west, or whatever it may be, of its parent root. have they some extraordinary sense of the direction of the points of the compass? it is said that if a side root, which is growing, say for instance downwards and westwards, is turned in some other direction, it will after a time resume its original westerly voyage. this fact is a most extraordinary one, if true, but it can scarcely be said that it has been proved, and, as will be shown later, there are other curious facts in the behaviour of roots which might explain the experiment without assuming that roots know the points of the compass. if one cuts a branch of willow and plants it upside down in the earth, it will very likely take root and grow. its appearance will be most extraordinary, for the roots will grow downwards, whilst the branches, instead of growing in the direction of the old branches, turn round and grow upwards.[ ] [ ] kerner and oliver, _l.c._, vol. , p. . why do roots generally grow downwards? the fact is so familiar that the difficulty of answering does not, at first sight, seem so great as it really is. pfeffer, the great physiologist, has the following interesting comparison. suppose a man is trying to find his way in the dark, then a single lingering ray of light gives him an impulse to walk towards it.[ ] so our root, also in the dark, feels the pull of gravity and endeavours to grow downwards. others have compared the direction of gravity to the sailor's compass, and suppose that the root is guided in the same sort of way. [ ] _annals of botany_, . but a young, vigorous root making or forcing its way in darkness through stones and heavy earth is a most interesting and fascinating study. there are the most extraordinary coincidences in its behaviour. it has the property of always doing exactly the right thing in any emergency. it is of course intended to keep below the ground and in the dark. so we find that if roots are uncovered, they will turn away from the light and burrow into the earth again. they avoid light just as a worm would do. roots are of course intended to absorb or suck in water. if there is a drain in the soil or a place where water collects, the roots will grow towards that place. very often they form a dense spongy mass of fibres which may almost choke the drain. along a riverside one can often find great fibrous masses of tree roots near the water. but how does the root learn that the water is there and turn away from its original track to find it? it certainly does so! then again, herr lilienfeld has recently shown that roots seem able to turn away from poisonous materials in the soil and to seek out and grow towards valuable and nutritious substances. he found that peas, beans, sunflower, and other roots were very sensitive to different substances in the soil, and were directly attracted by what was good for them and turned aside from what was unwholesome. this property and the power of growing towards water probably explain the mysterious sense of direction alluded to above, for roots will take a line which has not been exhausted by their neighbours.[ ] [ ] lilienfeld, _beihefte z. botan. centralblatt_, band xiv., abth , pp. - . the facts were denied by newcombe and rhodes, _bot. gazette_, , . but of all these wonderful properties, the most remarkable is the way in which roots find their way past stones and other obstacles in the soil. they insinuate themselves into winding cracks and crawl round stones with an ingenuity that makes one wonder if they can possibly be without some sort of intelligence. it is the very tip or end of the young root that seems to be responsible; for if, in the course of its journeyings underground, it should strike a stone or something hard, the root does not grow on and flatten itself. but some sort of message is sent back from the tip to the growing part which is a short distance behind it. after this message has been received, the growing part begins to curve sideways, so that the tip is brought clear of the obstacle and can probably proceed triumphantly upon its way. the inexplicable part is that the growing part which curves has never been touched at all, but simply answers to the message from the tip.[ ] [ ] if the growing part itself touches a stone it curves round the stone, not away from it--the reverse of the reaction at the tip! this is perhaps the most reasonable and intelligent behaviour found in the whole vegetable world, and it is not surprising that darwin compared the root-tip to a brain. these extraordinary responses fill one with astonishment, but there are others still more interesting and remarkable. it will be remembered that we have already shown how different the soil is at different levels. the subsoil, soil, and uppermost layers are all quite different from one another. this may explain why it is that many plants seem to prefer to develop their roots at one particular depth below the surface. not only so, but they find their own favourite level in the most persevering way. if, for instance, you sow a barley-corn at too great a depth, the seed germinates and forms a few roots, but it immediately sends out a stem which grows upwards towards the light. as soon as this stem has reached the proper place, which is just below the surface, there is an enormous development of roots, which begin to search and explore their favourite stratum of soil.[ ] [ ] pfeffer, _l.c._, p. . in some few cases one can see in a dim sort of way the reason for the level which certain plants prefer. thus the underground stems of the common thistle, which are very long and fleshy, are found just a few inches below the level usually reached by plough or spade. this makes it very difficult to tear them out. even if grubbers with long spikes which reach as deep as these buried stems are driven through the ground, it generally happens that the stems are only cut in pieces and not dragged up. these hardy weeds are not much injured by little accidents of this kind, for each separate bit will form upright thistle stems next year. in fact if one cuts this fleshy subterranean runner of the thistle into pieces a quarter of an inch long, each piece will probably become a thistle. sometimes indeed these weeds are carried from one field to another by pieces of them sticking in the very machines which are used to eradicate them. the bishopsweed is one of the hardest cases. the writer was once ambitious enough to try to dig up an entire plant of this horrid weed. the first foot or so revealed no sign of the end of the branching runners, and it was not until a hole about four feet deep and five feet across had been excavated that there was any sign of an end to the plant. when it was at last removed, the original deeply buried stem was found to give off branches which again branched in a most complicated manner, until almost every green shoot of bishopsweed[ ] within a space six feet in diameter was seen to be really a branch of this one original plant! so to eradicate the plant it would have been necessary to dig over the whole garden to a depth of at least five or six feet. [ ] this weed is a cure for gout, and seems to have been called bishopsweed because it was supposed that gout was a common ailment of bishops! how did the stem get down to such a depth below the surface? this is one of the most curious stories in plant life, and the process which we shall now try to describe has only been explained within the last few years.[ ] [ ] by the classical researches of rimbach. the seed of the wild garlic (_allium ursinum_) lies at first upon the surface of the ground, but it is soon buried by a growth of the stalk of the seed-leaf, which pushes the germ down below the earth. as soon as it is buried, roots are formed and pass obliquely downwards, where they become fixed by forming root-hairs all round themselves. these root-hairs round every root hold its tip firmly in the earth; then these same roots contract or shorten, which of course hauls down the root a little deeper in the earth. one might compare it to a few men hauling down a balloon by ropes attached to the car. about september to november, roots of quite a different character are formed; these explore the surrounding soil and gather in food and moisture. then the roots rest during the winter, when the buds and young leaves are being formed. in april the buds begin to push out their leaves and a new ring of roots appear. these april roots are quite different from the september ones. they again fix themselves firmly and then contract, becoming fully a third shorter than they were originally. the bulb is dragged down still deeper below the surface. it flowers in may and fruits in june and july. then in september the same series of operations begins again. the process goes on until the plant is three to five inches below the ground. it follows from all this, that every year the roots find new ground to explore and utilize. nor is the wild garlic at all exceptional in this respect. a great many plants have roots which contract and drag the bulb or stem after them deeper into the earth. something of the same sort happens, for instance, to bramble branches. they arch or droop over, when growing, so that the end touches the earth. on the underside of the tip, as soon as it begins to rest on the ground, roots are formed. these roots make their way into the ground, and then, when fixed, they shorten or contract, so that the end of the branch is dragged down to a depth of several inches. after this has happened the old branch generally dies away, and a young, vigorous bramble develops from its buried tip. raspberry branches also are often buried; their roots become coiled or rolled in a very curious manner. the end of the root becomes firmly attached in the soil, and then the rest of it revolves like a tendril so as to draw the stem deeper into the earth.[ ] [ ] scott elliot and fingland, _trans. nat. hist. soc. glasgow_, vol. , new series, part ii., - . on any ordinary roadside in the country one is sure to find the rosettes of the common dandelion and of the rats-tail plantain (_plantago major_). these are two of the most interesting plants in the world, although they are vulgarly common. how is it that their leaves are always at the level of the ground? the stem is always growing upwards; every year fresh circles of leaves are formed above the older ones. yet the crown of the stem is never so much raised up above the ground that the toe of a boot would be likely to knock it off. it is always kept so deep in the earth, that it is by no means easy to kick or "howk" the crown out of the ground. the dandelion root contracts very strongly at the end of the season, and by this shortening or contraction keeps its leaves just at the soil level. the plantain sends out about forty to sixty oblique downward-growing roots, which fix themselves in the soil by throwing out branch roots. these forty to sixty roots are at first about ten inches long, but, as soon as they are firmly attached, they contract, and pull the stem with its crown of leaves about one-third of an inch deeper. this is just enough to keep the leaves flat on the ground and to prevent any possible injury from passers-by. so that in finding their favourite level in the soil, plants are often pulled or hauled about by the roots. but they are not always moved by the roots. even though buried in darkness, they seem able in some way to tell when they are in the most favourable position. every gardener knows that autumn crocus and other bulbs do not remain in the same position. they wander below ground in a curious and inexplicable fashion. the solomon's seal has an underground, fleshy stem, which prefers to grow at a definite depth. if it is planted close to the surface, then the point of the next year's little fleshy bud turns downwards; next year it again turns downwards, and so on every year, until the stem has reached its proper depth. then it grows horizontally. similarly, if it is planted too deep it grows upwards. thus if one wishes to realize the underground life of plants, one must picture to oneself:-- . the usual descending roots, whose system of branching may be compared to the ordinary branching above ground. it is often not unlike the reflection in water of the tree itself, such as one might see on a fine winter's day along the shore of some still lake. . the bold, exploring, horizontal runners of couchgrass, thistle, bishopsweed, etc., vigorously pushing their way at a depth too great for the gardener's spade. . all sorts of bulbs, runners, and roots being slowly hauled or dragged about till they get into exactly the right position, but never remaining for two years in exactly the same place. all have their favourite depth[ ]-- [ ] see rimbach's researches. herb paris / to - / inches deep. solomon's seal - / to - / " " cuckoo pint (_arum maculatum_) to " " colchicum (autumn crocus) - / to - / " " asparagus - / to - / " " the water evaporating on the surface of the soil must, as it rises from the permanent water-level below, pass the gauntlet of all these thirsty rootlets and their hairs. tree-roots will be ready to intercept it at ten feet depth, many herbaceous plants will suck it in at depths of five to six feet, and in the upper layers of soil it will have to pass root-system after root-system from asparagus to paris, so that very little will be lost. perhaps of more importance are the bacteria-germs, and dissolved mineral salts in the rainwater as it trickles down from the surface. the soil particle acts as a filter: at every inch of the descent some of the bacteria and salts will be left, so that by the time the level of asparagus has been reached there will be exceedingly few, and the water is comparatively speaking pure. the effect of this vigorous underground life is often visible on the surface. roots, and particularly tree-roots, are often extraordinarily strong. kerner, in his invaluable _natural history of plants_, has a beautiful picture of a young larch tree which had grown in a fissure of a huge boulder. in attempting to grow, the root had forced up part of this stone. it was estimated that it had lifted a weight of lb., though it was only some ten inches in diameter. along a dry-stone wall, or even near houses, the growth of tree-roots very often damages the entire wall, which may be entirely overthrown if the tree is too near. the force of the growth of the roots is so great that even a six-foot stone wall cannot keep them down. quite a young seedling root, in forcing itself through the soil, may exercise a pressure of two-thirds to four-fifths of a pound! this is of course necessary, if one remembers that it has to drive itself through the earth, pushing aside and compressing the earth particles along its course. chapter vii high mountains, arctic snows the life of a cherry tree--cherries in march--flowering of gorse--chickweed's descendants--forest fires in africa--spring passing from italy to the frozen north--life in the arctic--dwarfs--snow-melting soldanellas--highland arctic-alpine plants--their history--arctic britain--edelweiss--an alpine garden. it is impossible to understand and very difficult to explain the sort of life and consciousness which is enjoyed by plants. that they do live is obvious; we know instinctively that they enjoy fine weather in summer and gentle showers in spring, but we cannot prove it. much of a plant's life is concealed and hidden from us. even the few explanations which have been given by certain observers are by no means generally accepted. this is true even as regards the case of the cherry tree, which has been experimented with, and fought over and argued about by botanists, and yet we only know a very little about its inner life. when the leaves fall in autumn, next season's buds are already formed and are then about one-eighth of their full size. at this time the tree contains enormous quantities of food-stores, for the whole season's work of the leaves has been accumulating until this moment. during the long winter's "sleep" the tree is by no means at rest. it is arranging and packing up those stores in the safest place and in the most convenient form. just as a bear, before it retires to sleep during the winter, takes care to get as fat as possible, so the cherry turns its starch to fat, and stores it away in the innermost and least exposed parts of the tree, that is in the central wood. as soon as the winter ends, and indeed _before_ it has ended, preparations are beginning for the great moment of the year. for weeks there is a slow, gradual, almost imperceptible growth of the buds, then they develop with a rush, and in six to ten days double or treble their weight. then comes the supreme moment, for the flower-buds suddenly burst open and the cherry is in active and vigorous bloom and covered all over with exquisite blossoms. all last year's fats and starches are rapidly used up. very soon the young leaves are beginning to make sugar and other food, which give some help during the ripening of the fruit. the flowers are actively at work. one of our usual misconceptions as to the nature of a flower is that it is an emblem of peace, of restful enjoyment, of serene contemplation of its own beauty. that is very far from being the truth. the petals are actively, vigorously working. if one could take the pulse of a petal, which shows the rapidity of its breathing, one would find that it is twice as fast as that of the leaf. the work of changing water into vapour and pouring it out goes on three times as quickly in the petals (as compared with the leaves). moreover their temperature is higher, and often distinctly above that of the atmosphere. this feverish activity of the flowers themselves is matched by the hurrying crowds of excited and exhilarated insects which are searching every blossom. no wonder that the japanese prime minister, in the midst of their great and famous war, invited the whole cabinet to spend an afternoon watching the cherry trees in bloom! [illustration: _stereo copyright, underwood & underwood_ _london & new york_ wistaria in kamaido park, japan] from the blossom of the springtime all through summer and autumn follows one continuous spell of hard work. day after day an endless stream of food is entering the stem; night after night it is condensed and arranged and repacked, until, when the leaves fall, the period of slow and quiet preparation begins again. under certain conditions it is possible for gardeners to modify the life of a cherry, and to make it bloom much earlier, but this is only possible within well-defined limits. it is no use trying to force it to bloom before january. it _must_ have a quiet time after summer. but by beginning in january and by very carefully managing the temperature, it can be made to produce fruit quite early in the year. the following account is given to show how very carefully gardeners have to work when they upset the ordinary course of nature's events. the plant is taken into a greenhouse, and the temperature kept as follows:-- day night temperature. temperature. first week °- ° f. °- ° f. second week °- ° f. °- ° f. third week °- ° f. °- ° f. till flowering °- ° f. °- ° f. flowering period °- ° f.(!) °- ° f.(!) after flowering °- ° f. °- ° f. during development of stone °- ° f.(!) °- ° f.(!) after development of stone °- ° f. °- ° f. ripening of fruit °- ° f. °- ° f. not merely strong, forcing heat, but a little judicious cold, is necessary to get out the flowers and to ripen the fruit.[ ] [ ] schimper, _pflanzengeographie_. the account is based on the works of pynaert, sachs, askenasy, etc. most flowers have very much the same general history as the cherry, but it must not be supposed that they are all alike. the differences are very interesting and curious. thus, for example, plants of our common gorse, furze, or whin may be found in bloom at almost every season of the year. there are at least four seasons when there is that tremendous display of golden blossom which made the great linnæus fall on his knees and burst into tears. these are about the nd march, th may, th august, and st november; yet there are enough odd flowers blooming in almost every month to give some cause for the saying, "the gorse is out of bloom when kissing is out of favour." the last practice, though uncleanly and dangerous, not only on general grounds, but on account of bacterial germs which may be transferred, has been authoritatively condemned in the united states, but it is still more or less popular in other countries at all seasons. the chickweed and some other of our annual weeds show a hardy disregard of climate. its seeds germinate and grow at any time, so that flowers and seeds can be formed whenever there is a spell of favourable weather. now one chickweed can produce seeds. suppose that there are only five generations in the year, which is a very low estimate. then one seed of chickweed might produce × × × individuals in one season! other plants show much the same tendency. in fine warm autumns a great many annuals bloom a second time. it is on record that forty-four spring species bloomed in one warm november. at the cape and in other warm climates many of our annuals do not die at the end of autumn, but go on growing. they become perennial. it is even possible to make a tree mignonette by pinching off the flower-buds, though this plant is usually an annual. in fact plants are not absolutely confined to one rigid scheme, but they can alter and modify their blooming time if they find it convenient to do so. in the mediterranean some blossom in early spring and others in late autumn, whilst in the dry, hot, and dusty summer very few flower. in central africa during the dry season forest fires are by no means rare. the trees are scattered, and the ground is only covered by dried and withered grasses and sedges. one sees in the distance a rolling cloud of smoke, and soon one comes to a line of flame. it is not dangerous, not even very impressive, for a jump of three feet carries you over the flame and on to a desolate wilderness of black cinders, out of which stand up the scorched trunks and half-burnt branches of gaunt, naked trees. a day or two afterwards, bright blue and white and yellow flowers break out of those scorched branches and also from the ground. it is difficult to understand why this happens, but certainly it is good for the flowers, which can be seen by insects from a long distance. but these are unusual cases. generally the warm breath of spring wakes up the bulbs and buds, and one after another has its moment of flowering. spring travels towards the north pole at an average rate of four miles a day. a pedestrian visiting italy in the end of january might follow the spring northwards, and if he wished to accompany it all the way, it would be quite possible to do so without exceeding an ordinary day's march. he would have to reach north germany by the end of march, sweden in may, and by the end of june and july would find spring beginning in the desolate arctic regions. of course the presence of mountains would make this tour a little difficult and devious, but still it is quite a possible undertaking. it would be very interesting, for he would be able to watch the cold and frost and chilliness of winter disappearing as the sun's rays thaw out a greater and greater extent of the cold and frozen north. the life of an arctic plant is truly set in the midst of many and great dangers. for days the ground is hard frozen and the temperature _never_ above the freezing-point. about the end of may it begins to rise a little, but the plant has to crowd the whole of its life, its flowers, fruits, and seeds, into the space of two months! about the rd to the th june the first flower appears, then follows strong, active growth in uninterrupted sunshine during july and august. the flowers are brilliant in colour and richly produced. the tiny dwarf arctic plants are covered all over with blue or golden yellow or white blossoms. all is in full activity and luxuriance. then suddenly, in a night, the icy grasp of winter falls upon them. hard-frozen flowers, buds, and ripening fruits remain chilled and incapable of life from the th august until the end of may. of course, under such conditions, these hardy and vigorous little plants cannot become trees or shrubs. to show the effect of the climate upon them, a few british plants which are also arctic may be compared. in in the great britain. arctic regions. matweed (_matricaria inodora_) in. to ft. high in. goldenrod (_solidago virgaurea_) - ft. - in. red rattle (_pedicularis palustris_) in. to ft. - in. mugwort (_artemisia vulgaris_) to ft. - in. willow-herb (_epilobium palustris_) to ft. in. grass of parnassus (_parnassia palustris_) in. to ft. in. these wretched little dwarfs seem, however, to have pretty long lives, and, as we have said, deck themselves in the most gaudy colours every summer. in the alps of switzerland and other temperate countries, the flowering season is also a very short one and soon over. it is often not more than six weeks, yet in that short time the rich blue of the gentian, the alpine roses, soldanellas, campanulas, and many others make some of these grass slopes high up in the mountains a perfect garden of loveliness. sometimes in passing over the snowfields of switzerland just before spring, one notices the pretty violet flowers of the soldanella swaying to and fro in the wind above the unmelted snow. one does occasionally see in this country the snowdrop in the midst of snow, but then it has fallen after the snowdrop had blossomed. the alpine soldanella flowers whilst the earth is still covered. it begins as soon as the ground below the snow is thawed. each little developing flower-stalk melts out a grotto in the snow above itself, and so bores, thawing its way up into the air above. it has already been mentioned that, inside a flower, the temperature is often higher than the surrounding air. it is this higher temperature of the flower which thaws a little dome or grotto in the snow above the head of the flower.[ ] when a flock of sheep are covered by a snowdrift, a similar hollow is formed above them by their breath and the high temperature of their bodies: they often seem indeed to be little or none the worse for being buried. the soldanella melts its way in just the same manner. [ ] kerner, _natural history of plants_ (blackie), vol. , p. . in this country we have no such magnificent chain of mountains as the alps, and yet we find on the scotch and welsh mountains quite a number of real alpines. there are, for instance, such flowers as sea-pink (_armeria_), sea plantain (_plantago maritima_), scurvy-grass, and others, which can be found on windy, desolate gullies and corries high up on the highland hills, and which also occur on the sea-coast, but _never between the seashore and the tops of the mountains_. you might search every field, every moor, and every riverside throughout the country, but you would not discover those three plants anywhere between the seashore and the summits. at first sight it seems quite impossible to explain why this should be the case. but all those three plants are found in the arctic regions, and the explanation is in reality quite simple. at one time the shores of england and scotland formed part of the arctic regions. ice and snow covered the hills and mountains; huge glaciers occupied the valleys and flowed over the lowlands, plastering the low grounds with clay which they dragged underneath them, and polishing and scratching any exposed rocks. when the ice began to melt away and left free "berg battered beaches" and "boulder-hatched hills," lincolnshire and yorkshire must have been like the antarctic regions in those days. this is how dr. louis bernacchi describes the antarctic continent:-- "the scene before us looked inexpressibly desolate.... no token of vitality anywhere, nothing to be seen on the steep slopes of the mountains but rock and ice.... gravel and pebbles were heaped up in mounds and ridges. in some places these ridges coalesced so as to form basin-shaped hollows. bleached remains of thousands of penguins were scattered all over the platform, mostly young birds that had succumbed to the severity of the climate." great britain must have been just as savage and desolate when these hardy little arctic plants colonized the shingles and rooted themselves amongst the rocks. they covered not only the seashore, but they probably made a settlement wherever rock or land of any kind was exposed. these original settlers have had three bands of descendants. one band has remained ever since on the seashore of great britain; another set gradually travelled northwards. as the ice melted away, leaving the land bare, first in denmark, then in norway, and finally in greenland, this second set followed it, until now we find them far to the northward, populating the arctic regions of to-day just as they did those of britain in the great ice age. the third set of descendants would at first cover all the land and rocks of the lower hills and valleys near the sea; then as the ice and snow melted and exposed the higher mountain sides, they would climb the hills and eventually reach the exposed summits where they are now living. there they find themselves in an impossible, savage sort of climate, in which they alone are able to exist. violent storms, drenching mist, scorching sunshine (when the rocks become so hot that it is almost impossible to touch them), rainstorms and months of snow and hard frost, cannot kill scurvy-grass, seathrift, or plantain, but there are few other plants which can stand such conditions. lower down on the flanks of the hills and in the valleys, they have long since been dispossessed of the rich and fertile lands by plants which can grow more rapidly and luxuriantly. the little alpine creeping and least willows, for instance, some of which get up to feet in breadalbane, are mere dwarfs only a few inches high, and totally different from their allies in the fertile lowlands, which are trees eighty to ninety feet high. some of the alpine plants which also occur in the arctic regions have not even been able to survive by the seaside in great britain. their nearest allies are in the norwegian mountains. it would be impossible even for shrubs to stand the violent winds and snowstorms of these summits. alpine plants are generally low-growing mats. they are also often clothed all over in cottonwool, such as the edelweiss. this probably keeps them from losing too much water during the dry season, when the rocks on which they grow are strongly heated by the sunlight. yet, like the arctic plants, they have rich, deep, and brilliant colours. a queer point is that they have got so accustomed to this stormy and perilous existence that it is extremely difficult to grow them in a garden. like mountaineers, they dwindle and pine away in the richer soil and softer air of the low grounds. to make an alpine garden, rocks and stones must be arranged with pockets and hollows, like natural crevices and basins, between them. rich leaf-mould must be placed in these hollows. there must be good drainage, and as much sunlight as one can possibly get. chapter viii scrub famous countries which were covered by it--trees which are colonizing the desert--acacia scrub in east africa, game and lions--battle between acacia and camels, etc.--australian half-deserts--explorers' fate--queen hatasu and the first geographical expedition recorded--frankincense, myrrh, gums, and odorous resins--manna--ladanum--burning bush--olives, oranges, and perfume farms--story of roses--bulgarian attar of roses--how pomade is made--cutting down of forests and mohammed. a scrub or half-desert does not seem at first sight to be in the least interesting. but if one remembers such places as cordoba, seville, florence, genoa, sicily, athens, constantinople, the great cities of ephesus, corinth, etc., of st. paul's epistles, persia, arabia, palestine, and carthage, surely the countries which have had such splendid histories deserve a chapter to themselves. what achievements in war, in art, in literature, and in romance are connected with these lands bordering the mediterranean or fringing the great deserts of sahara and central asia! the animals which belong to such country are also interesting. it is the home of the camel, ass, horse, donkey, not to speak of the giraffe, rhinoceros, gazelle, antelope, zebra, lion, and hyena. the plants are full of interest too, and some of them are of great importance to man. the olive, orange, fig, roses, and many perfumes and spice-trees, are natives of scrub. in fact, it is the real centre of all gums, frankincenses, and myrrhs. as man depends upon plants and animals, and as animals also are dependent on the plant world, it is the climate which really is responsible for everything. the world of plants is entirely and exactly regulated by the character of the climate. what, then, is the climate of scrub? those countries enjoy brilliant sunshine, cloudless skies, and yet there is sufficient rain to permit of irrigation and to prevent the unmitigated desolation of the desert. when, as has happened in many of these famous lands, the forests have been cut down and the aqueducts have been neglected, they become arid, dry, and almost useless. but when carefully and industriously worked, as they were in the days of greece, carthage, and rome, they produce results which will for ever live in the history of the world. the meaning of such half-desert climates and of the scrub which covers them has been already suggested. the scrub is trying to occupy the desert. if one takes the sternwheel steamer at the first cataract of the nile and passes southwards, the desolation of black rock and "honey-coloured" sand of the libyan desert is at first unbroken. but here and there the thorny trees of the "seyal". acacia show the beginnings of a scrub region. much further to the south, those acacias and others become great forests which extend all along the south of the sahara desert and furnish the valuable gums of the soudan. if one passes southward through this forest of acacias, it alters in character. the trees become taller, closer together, and climbing plants and undergrowth become more frequent. still further south, one finds the regular tropical forest which is characteristic of the tropics everywhere. [illustration: _photo g. f._ gathering olives in the south of france] the most interesting part, which is also the richest in big game, is the intermediate zone between the desert and the acacia forest or scrub. all sorts of transitions are found. sometimes there are thickets of thorny bushes. occasionally scattered clumps of woodland alternate with stretches of grass or what looks like grass. near the desert one finds pioneer acacias dotted singly here and there; these are the scouts or skirmishers of the army of trees which is trying to occupy and colonize the desert. this explains why this sort of scrub occurs in so many parts of the world. on the european side of the mediterranean, the dry climate of spain, the riviera, and greece must no doubt at one time have supported a scrub vegetation. at present it is difficult to tell what this was. there is a sort of scrub called _maqui_ which covers parts especially of corsica and other mediterranean countries. in greece, also, thorny, woody little bushes are very common. but these are just what the goats, who are fiends from a vegetable point of view, have been unable to destroy. we cannot tell what sort of country revealed itself to the first phoenicians when they landed in southern spain to traffic with the savage inhabitants, or what met the eyes of ulysses when he made his great voyage to unknown lands. but there are places in the world where man has never either kept domestic animals or cultivated the soil. possibly spain and sicily in those early days were not unlike parts of british east africa, such as the taru desert between mombasa and kibwezi. the following may give an idea of how this scrub or desert appeared to me. gnarled and twisted acacias of all sorts and sizes, usually with bright white bark and a thin, naked appearance, cover the whole country. amongst these one finds the curious _trees_ of euphorbia. in britain euphorbias are little green uninteresting weeds, but here some of them are twenty to thirty feet high, with many slender whip-like branches, but no leaves. others are exactly like cactus, and take on weird, candelabra-like shapes. nobody meddles with them for, if the slightest cut is made in the bark, out pours an acrid, white milk which raises painful blisters, and may even cause blindness if a drop touches the eyes. almost all the plants are either covered with thorns or protected by resins, gums, or poisonous secretions. between the scrubby trees the soil is dotted over by little tufts of grass or sedge, but these are so far apart that the tint of the landscape is that of the soil. game is abundant everywhere. sometimes it is a small bustard or a persistent, raucous guinea-fowl that affords a chance for a good dinner. occasionally a tiny gazelle, the "paa," with large ears, springs out of the thorns and vanishes down the path. i saw footprints of giraffes, and came across ostriches more than once. i also made a persevering attempt to slay a clarke's gazelle, an animal with enormous ears and a long thin neck.[ ] [ ] _naturalist in mid-africa._ these long-necked creatures can see far above the usual short thorny bush, and it is exceeding difficult to get near them. water probably exists under the stony grit soil, but at present one has to be contented with that found in the stagnant pools at taru, maungu, etc., which, if not occupied by the decaying remains of a dead antelope, are, as a rule, drinkable.[ ] [ ] _naturalist in mid-africa._ these acacias are quite well fitted to live in this dry and arid region. their roots go down to twenty feet or more, so as to reach the deep-seated water supplies. their leaves are generally adapted to resist any injury from the strong glare of the sunshine. the gums, already alluded to, are also very important, for any crack or break in the tree is promptly gummed up, and there is no loss of precious water thereby. this gum will also prevent or discourage burrowing and boring insects from getting in; they would, if they tried to do so, become "flies in amber," like those found in fossil resin. the trees are generally provided with strong spines, which guard them from the many grazing animals which try to devour the succulent leaflets. the fight between the grazing animal and the plant is, in these scrubs and half-deserts, very severe. in egypt it is said that the whole flora has been entirely altered by the camel and the donkey.[ ] [ ] floyer. but in this case the battle is unfair. man keeps those camels, donkeys, and goats. he provides them with water and protects them from lions, leopards, and snakes. in east africa man has not yet interfered, and the plants probably get the better of the animals. in such places lions, leopards, and hyenas are common. it will be remembered that a lion not very long ago stormed and took charge of a railway station on the line to uganda, and was only routed with very heavy loss. there is also some reason to suppose that the antelopes and other creatures do help the plants in their efforts to colonize the sahara. their droppings will very greatly improve the soil, and more vigorous thickets and undergrowth will spring up when the soil is improved in this way. such a vigorous growth of plants will be better able to resist the long eight or nine months' drought, and so help the wood to develop, until perhaps it is too thick, and the trees are too high, for the antelopes to graze upon them. in this manner the acacia scrub is slowly and painfully colonizing the desert. it is not only in africa that one finds these half-deserts or scrub. there is the brigalow scrub in australia, which has a curious silver-grey shimmering appearance on account of the blue-grey sickle-like leaves of the brigalow acacia. the foliage casts no shade, for the leaves are flat and thin, and place themselves edgewise to the light, so that there is no danger of the strong light injuring them. also in australia is the mallee scrub, covering thousands of square miles between the murray river and the coast. it consists of bushy eucalyptus, six to twelve feet high. its monotonous appearance when seen from a small hill is very striking.[ ] "below lies an endless sea of yellow-brown bushes: perhaps far away one may observe the blue outline of some solitary hill or granite peak, but otherwise nothing breaks the monotonous dark-brown horizon. everything is silent and motionless save perhaps where the scrub-hen utters its complaining cry, or when the wind rustles the stiff eucalyptus twigs."[ ] [ ] drude, _vegetation der erde_. [ ] drude, _l.c._ there is a melancholy interest attaching to both the mallee and brigalow, for in them lie the bones of many gallant and persevering explorers. nor is the east african thorn-tree desert without its victims. the missionary, dr. chalmers, was lost near kibwezi in the taru desert. [illustration: the egyptian queen hataru's expedition the ships of the expedition are drawn up along the shores of punt (in somaliland), and incense trees are being carried on board. notice the baboons on board ship, and the rays and sword-fish in the water.] there are a certain number of valuable plants found in these half-deserts or scrubs. perhaps the earliest geographical expedition of which we have a good account (with illustrations) is that sent by the egyptian queen, hatasu, from thebes, about three thousand years ago. she built on the red sea a fleet of five ships, each able to carry from fifty to seventy people, and sent them to the land of punt, which was probably somaliland. the natives lived in round huts built on piles like the ancient lake dwellings. the object of the journey was to obtain incense. no less than thirty-one incense-bushes were dug up with as much earth as possible about their roots, and carried to the ships, where they were placed upright on the deck and covered with an awning to keep off the sun's rays. whether they did really survive the journey and grow in egypt is uncertain. sacks of resin, ebony, cassia, apes, baboons, dogs, leopard-skins, and slaves, as well as gold and silver, were also taken away. the queen of punt accompanied them. from her appearance it is not probable that the queen of sheba was any relation, although some writers have supposed that sheba and punt were the same place. the whole story is represented in coloured bas-reliefs in the temple at tel-el-bahiri, near thebes.[ ] [ ] rawlinson, _story of egypt_. the incense here alluded to was a very valuable drug in egypt on account of its use in embalming mummies. quite a number of gums, resins, and the like, are obtained from somaliland and similar half-desert countries. the frankincense of the bible, which may be the incense of hatasu, is obtained from _olibanum_ produced by various species of boswellia. in february and march, cuts are made by the incense gatherers in the bark of the trees. tears of resin soon appear and become dried by the sun over the wound. the best kinds still come from saba, in arabia, where the romans obtained it in the time of virgil. besides olibanum, frankincense contains galbanum (_ferula galbaniflua_) and storax (_storax officinale_). equal parts of these were mixed with the horny shield of a certain shell-fish. when the last is burnt, it has a strong pungent odour. the galbanum is now found in persia, and storax in asia minor, both half-desert countries. the true myrrh (_commiphora myrrha_) is also found in east africa and south-west arabia. the name is supposed to be derived from myrrha, the daughter of cinyras, king of cyprus, who in consequence of a great crime was banished to arabia and became the tree which bears her name. the myrrh of the sacred oracles was used as incense at least years ago, and it is mentioned by moses (genesis xxxvii. ). the sovereign of england used always to present gold, frankincense, and myrrh in the chapel royal, london, on the feast of the epiphany, and, strange though it may appear, the symbolic offering is still made each year by our present king. balm of gilead (_balsamodendron gileadense_) belongs to scrub or half-desert regions. cleopatra obtained plants from jericho for her garden at heliopolis. the jews used to sell it regularly to the merchants of tyre. it is still valuable, for the essence is worth from £ to £ per lb. the opoponax described by dioscorides belongs to the orient. it yields a valuable gum resin, which is much used in perfumery (_pastinaca opoponax_). it also is obtained by incisions in the bark[ ] of the tree. [ ] ridley, _l.c._; lindley, _l.c._; maisch, _materia medica_. in fact a very large proportion of these fragrant sweet-smelling substances, myrrh, cassia, bdellium, etc., come from these sunny eastern lands, which are not exactly deserts but very close to them. manna, e.g., is obtained from the flowering ash (_fraxinus ormus_) in sicily by transverse incisions being made in the bark, so that the brownish or yellowish viscid juice exudes and hardens on the wound. _ladanum_ is a varnish or gluey coating found on the leaves of _cistus creticus_, which grows in crete. in old times the glue was collected from the beards of the goats which had been browsing on the plant. although this method, no doubt, increased the strength of the perfume, it has been abandoned, and the ladanum is obtained by a "kind of rake with a double row of long leathern straps." the straps take the glue from the leaves. it is used as a perfume in turkey. another very interesting eastern plant sometimes seen in old-fashioned country gardens in britain is the "burning-bush" (_dictamnus fraxinella_). like a great many of these half-desert plants, it is full of an acrid, ethereal, odorous substance. on a calm, hot summer's day, this material exudes from the leaves and surrounds the plant with an invisible vaporous atmosphere. such an atmosphere probably assists in preventing the water from evaporating or being transpired from the leaves.[ ] [ ] this was suggested by tyndall, but has been denied by others. now if one places a lighted match a little below the leaves or flowers this vapour catches fire, and there is a display of flames and smoke with little explosions, followed by a strong smell. the plant may be injured if it is set on fire too frequently, but generally does not seem to be any the worse for the experiment. the mediterranean is the home of the myrtle and olive, of oranges and lemons, of figs and vines, of almonds and raisins, as well as of many other important and interesting plants. the olive crop in italy yields about ninety millions of gallons of olive-oil every year. the olives are collected as soon as they become ripe, and are crushed in circular stone troughs with a perpendicular millstone. the paste is then pressed in bags and afterwards clarified by passing through cotton wool.[ ] to the eye of a foreigner the white gnarled stems and silver-green foliage of the olive groves are not particularly attractive. [ ] _journal society of arts_, august, . near burriana, in spain, one may walk for miles through the plantations of oranges. the dark-green glossy leaves and golden fruit of the orange make a most beautiful contrast, but the dry, thirsty soil, and the careful way in which the water is regulated and supplied by small gutters, most jealously watched over, make the tourist realize the difficulty of agriculture in so dry and arid a country. the myrtle is not a very important plant nowadays, though its berries are still eaten and myrtle wreaths used to be worn by the bride at every wedding. in classical times it was sacred to venus, but the victors in the olympian games were also crowned with myrtle, and the magistrates at athens had the same privilege. it is no longer used as a medicine and for making wine. it is really a native of persia, but has been introduced to the levant, italy, france, and spain. it is along the riviera that one finds a very curious and interesting industry. this is the manufacture of perfumes and essences from the petals of flowers. a great many different flowers are used, such as the garden violet, mignonette (a native of egypt imported in ), lily of the valley, tuberose, "the sweetest flower for scent that grows," jonquil (_narcissus jonquilla_), heliotrope (imported from peru in ), spanish jasmine (_j. grandiflorum_), which is a native of nepaul, and was brought to europe in , and various roses.[ ] [ ] heuzé, _les plantes industrielles_. most of the following details are obtained from this valuable work. these roses have had a long, interesting, and honourable history. no one knows when they were first cultivated. solomon had his rose-gardens at jericho. queen cleopatra spent some £ on roses in one day, and nero is said to have beaten this record by wasting , , sesterces (£ , ) in roses for a single banquet. rosewater is said to have been first produced by an arab physician called rhazés in the tenth century. when sultan saladin recovered jerusalem from the crusaders in , the pavement and walls of the mosque of omar were washed and purified with rosewater. that stout warrior thibault iv, count de brie et de champagne, brought back roses from damascus on his return to his native land. that was the origin of the valuable provence roses. the lancastrians chose a provence rose as their badge at the beginning of the civil wars of the roses in england. otto of roses, or the essential oil, was discovered by princess nour jehan at the court of the great mogul, and she received as her reward a pearl necklace worth , rupees. the price of otto of roses seems to have been about £ per pound in persia and india when the traveller tavernier visited those countries in . in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, peers of france had to present bouquets and crowns of roses to the assembled parliament. at present there are very important rose plantations in france,[ ] bulgaria,[ ] and in the fayoum in egypt. in france about ten or twelve thousand roses are grown on two and a half acres. the season is from april to may. women gather from twenty to twenty-five pounds daily, and obtain from twopence to threepence for two and a half pounds. each tree will give about a quarter of a pound of roses. the petals are distilled to make rosewater. [ ] , , pounds of roses were produced in france in one year. [ ] in philippopolis produced - kilogrammes of otto of roses, worth to francs the kilo. (_pharm. journ._ sept. st, ). some , people on the slopes of the balkans, at kerzanlik and other places, entirely depend upon their rose plantations. these are on light soil, fully exposed to the sun, at over feet above the sea. it is interesting to find that the pure mountain air strengthens the perfume, for these balkan roses are fifty per cent. richer in essences than those of lowland plants. another interesting plant much cultivated in the riviera is the cassier (_acacia farnesiana_). it is really a native of india, but was introduced from the west indies to europe in . cannes, grasse, antibes, and nice are the places where it is most cultivated. its flowers appear from july to november. an old tree may yield as much as twelve to twenty pounds of flowers, worth about five to six francs. but pounds of flowers only yield about a pound of essence, so that it is not surprising that this last is worth £ the pound. the cultivation is a little uncertain, for a temperature of three or four degrees below the freezing-point kills the trees. the pomades made from many of these flowers are produced as follows: a series of trays are covered with fat or grease; the petals are placed on the grease and replaced by fresh petals every twenty-four hours or so; in the end the grease is so saturated with scent that it forms pomade or pomatum. thus these half-desert countries are by no means without interest from a botanical point of view. the conditions of life are no doubt hard both for plants and animals. the scent so richly produced depends upon the strong sunlight and pure air. it is very useful, partly because it attracts those useful insects which carry the pollen, but also because such odours are distasteful to grazing animals. the gums, incenses, thorns, and spines are all of great use to the plant in its dangerous struggle for existence with hungry camels and thirsty soil. when men understood how to irrigate the soil, and before they were foolish enough to cut down the forests which once guarded the mountain springs, these half-deserts were exceedingly prosperous; they were full of vigorous intellectual life, and of strong, hardy, and industrious peoples. asia minor, turkey, greece, and the northern coast of africa from morocco to egypt, were rich and wonderful countries. but it was not only the destruction of the forests that has ruined them. the curse of mohammed, the fatalism produced by his religion, and the slavery which is a necessary part thereof, have destroyed the people in mind, body, and spirit. even in greece, algiers, and cyprus there has been as yet but small recovery. in the future, not merely these countries, but northern nigeria, british east africa, and south-west cape colony, may have as rich a history as greece, if british brain and energy are helped by the strong muscles of the african. chapter ix on tea, coffee, chocolate, and tobacco english tea-drinking--story of our tea--assam coolies--manufacture in india and china--celestial moisture--danger of tea--the hermit and his intelligent goat--government, coffee and cafés--chicory--chocolate--aztecs--kola and its curious effects--tobacco--sir walter raleigh--great emperors and tobacco--could we grow tobacco?--story of a sumatra cigar--danger of young people smoking tobacco. on every day throughout the year english people drink about , lb. of tea. that is about tons, which would form, when made into the beverage, a lake quite large enough to float a man-of-war! no other civilized nation takes its tea in the reckless way that we do. yet our fellow-subjects in australia drink even more than ourselves. almost the whole of this tea is grown in british colonies or possessions, manufactured by british subjects, and imported in british ships. the coolies who work in the tea-gardens of assam and ceylon, the englishman who manages them, the engineers in glasgow and newcastle who made the machinery, the shipbuilders, shipowners, and crews, are all fellow-countrymen of those who drink the cup that cheers. every sixpence in the £ , , , which is our yearly account for tea, finds its way into the pockets of our fellow-subjects either at home or abroad. [illustration: _photo_ _skeen & co._ weighing the day's work the women in the ceylon tea gardens bring in their baskets in the evening. these are then weighed as shown and the labourers paid accordingly.] every one would suppose that a trade like this, which benefits everybody, would be very carefully fostered by government. far from it, for this is one of those articles that are always being attacked by chancellors of the exchequer, who seem to have a special ill will against tea. indeed, it is so heavily taxed that it is extremely difficult to make a profit on tea-gardens. elsewhere in this chapter some other very curious facts will be found illustrating the extraordinary habits and methods of the british government. the author does not try to explain these facts, but only points them out; a nation that can manage to exist at all when such things are done by its government is a nation to which one is proud to belong. the tea-plant is a native of china and assam. it is a very handsome shrub resembling a camellia, with dark, glossy, green leaves and beautiful flowers. it is said to have been used in china about b.c., and the first plantations in india were made with chinese seed. but a mr. bruce reported the presence of an indigenous wild tea in assam.[ ] three botanists who were sent to investigate the question suggested that this assam variety was only the chinese plant run wild, and advised the introduction of chinese seedlings. this was a very unfortunate mistake, for the wild assam plant gives much better results. [ ] watt, _economic dictionary of the products of india_. this valuable work of reference should be consulted for interesting details as to all the plants cited in this chapter. the jungle is first cut down and cleared away by the native tribes, with the help of elephants. then at the right season, i.e. after the rains begin, the indian women and coolies go into the plantations. they carry on their backs a basket supported by a band across the forehead. these women nip off the first two leaves and a bud with their finger and thumb and throw them into the basket over their shoulders. when the basket is full they take it back to the factory, where their gatherings are weighed. the actual manufacture is, in india and ceylon, all performed by machinery. the tea is first emptied on to trays in a shallow layer: a pound of tea when so spread out covers more than a square yard. these trays are then placed in a room which is heated to a high temperature, for "withering." after six hours it is passed through a machine which "rolls" or gives a twist to the leaves. it is then "fermented" on cement floors, where the tea is covered by strips of moist muslin. it is again rolled and afterwards dried or "fired." the sifting out of the different sorts or blends, and also the packing of the tea in chests, are done by machinery. that is the indian system of manufacture, in which there is scarcely any hand-labour. in china the rolling, and indeed every stage of the process, appears to be done by hand. it is obvious that in the handling, pattings, and rollings of the tea by chinese coolies, "celestial moisture" may be imparted to it. in spite of this, however, the export of chinese tea is steadily diminishing. in the old days, the liverpool "tea clippers," fast and beautiful sailing-ships, raced each other home from china in order to get the first tea upon the market. tea is sometimes dangerous, and especially when it is allowed to stew on the fire for hours at a time. besides _theine_, which is the stimulating, active part of it, and which is a bracing tonic to the nerves, _tannin_ is also found therein. when meat is taken with a large amount of _tannin_, the latter acts on the meat exactly as it does on hides in a tanning factory. it forms a substance resembling leather, which taxes the powers of the strongest digestion. once upon a time in those fertile mountains of abyssinia which have never yet been explored by the white man, there was a very holy and pious hermit. he used to live entirely on the milk of a few goats which he carefully tended with his own hands. one morning he noticed that one of these goats showed signs of unusual excitement. it was frisking about, and obviously was exceedingly well pleased with itself. that was not a usual experience with the holy recluse, who watched the animal carefully. he soon discovered that it was in the habit of grazing on the bright red berries of a very handsome shrub in the hills. the anchorite tasted those fruits and discovered that he also became both pleased with himself and somewhat excited. his disciples soon discovered a brightness and exhilaration, an unusual "snap," in the good man's sermons, and they watched him and also discovered _coffee_! the author refuses to take the responsibility of more than the discovery of the above story. coffee was, however, introduced into arabia by the sheikh dabhani in . it was taken to constantinople about , and about a hundred years later coffee-houses and _cafés_ were regular and habitual daily resorts in london and paris. as usual with stimulants of all kinds, the watchful eye of a moral government discovered something objectionable in coffee, and charles ii in imposed heavy taxes, or rather forbade the use of it altogether. there was in a coffee-plant in the botanical gardens at amsterdam, and in that year some of its seeds were sent to surinam, in dutch guiana. apparently the millions of shrubs in the enormous coffee plantations of the new world are all descended from this particular amsterdam plant. this new world coffee is by far the most important supply. brazil alone exports about £ , , worth of coffee, and that from the new world forms about per cent of the total world's production. the story of coffee in ceylon is a tragedy. there happened to be in the jungle a particular fungus (_hemileia vastatrix_) which got its living on the leaves of wild plants belonging to the coffee order (_rubiaceæ_) and others. when arabian coffee was introduced, the fungus began to attack its leaves. the result was the utter ruin of the industry. it is said that about £ , , was lost by this _hemileia_ disease in ceylon. the plantations require a great deal of care. the shrubs have to be carefully pruned, and the preparation of the coffee bean is not a very easy matter. it is really the seed of a bright red, fleshy berry. the pulp or flesh has to be removed, and also both a horny skin, the "parchment," and a thin delicate membrane, the "silverskin," in which the seed is enclosed. coffee is not nearly so much used in britain as in some other places, and particularly in holland, for the dutch drink about twenty-one pounds per head in the year, whilst we in great britain only use about three-quarters of a pound. it is in fact not very easy to make good coffee, and it is absolutely necessary to grind and roast the beans just before using them. very often also too little coffee is used. tinned coffee is often adulterated with either chicory or endives, but those are only the two most important impurities, for burnt sugar, biscuits, locust-beans, date-stones, rye, malt, and other substances are ground up and mixed with coffee. the use of chicory is, however, more or less recognized. it is the roots which are ground up and mixed with it. they contain no _caffeine_, which is the active part of the coffee bean, and are quite harmless. at one time chicory was grown in essex and other english counties, and was a distinctly profitable crop. here again come in the mysterious ways of the british government. the cultivation of chicory was absolutely forbidden by the inland revenue department; but a considerable amount is still grown in belgium and is imported to this country. those who prefer chicory with their coffee have to pay a heavy duty; but the belgian farmer is allowed and the british farmer is forbidden to take up a paying and profitable industry! the plant is allied to the dandelion. it occasionally occurs in this country as a weed, and is a rather striking plant with bright blue flowers. another of these useful productions which also suffers from a heavy duty is cocoa or chocolate. there are a great many different plants called co co, or by some name very similar to it. the cocoanut palm furnishes not only the nuts but the fibre or coir enclosing them, as well as a great many other useful substances. the _cocaine_ used by dentists, and which deadens or stupefies the nerves of the teeth, is derived from the leaves of a peruvian shrub, "coca" (_erythroxylan coca_). these leaves are chewed in the mouth and have very extraordinary effects, especially on the indian labourers. they are a strong nerve stimulus and take away any feeling of hunger or fatigue. it was by the use of coca leaves that the postmen of the inca emperors in peru were enabled to carry messages at the rate of miles a day. then again the cocoes of the west indian islands is a sort of yam (_colocasia antiquorum_). coco-de-mer is the fruit of a palm common in the seychelles islands (_lodoicea seychellarum_). the cocoa which gives the ordinary chocolate and cocoa of the breakfast table is the seed of a tree (_theobroma cacao_). the name is derived from [greek: theos], god, and [greek: brôma], food. it may be translated, "that which the gods browse upon." this plant is one of those which were cultivated by that ancient, powerful, semi-civilized nation, the aztecs of mexico. they have almost entirely vanished; at any rate their descendants, if they have any, exercise practically no influence in the world, but they have left us chocolate. they fully appreciated the plant, and even more than we do, for they worshipped it with grateful and superstitious awe. in their tombs, chocolate flavoured with vanilla was placed, in order to provide the ghost with sufficient sustenance for his or her aerial flight to the land of the sun. columbus brought home some cocoa on his return from his first voyage. the jesuit fathers in mexico greatly helped in developing the plantation of cocoa in the days of the spaniards. at present the largest amount comes from ecuador, which produces about , , pounds weight. it is a small tree, twenty to thirty feet high, growing in the warm, moist, and sheltered forests of central and south america. it has a large fruit, within which are the numerous cocoa beans, "nibs," or seeds. the tree does not bear until it is five years old. the fermentation and drying of the beans require some care. [illustration: _stereo copyright, underwood & underwood_ _london & new york_ a tobacco plantation in cuba] chocolate is made from the powdered cocoa mixed with sugar and other materials. chocolate, like tea and coffee, depends for its effect on an extremely powerful drug, _theine_ or _caffeine_, of which it contains minute proportions. there are very few other plants known which possess this powerful substance. amongst these is the kola nut, which is everywhere regularly employed in west africa. on the way up to the barracks at freetown, sierra leone, natives were always to be seen seated by the roadside; they sold kola nuts to the soldiers, who were thereby enabled to walk steadily and uprightly past the sentry, and to return his challenge in a clearly articulate voice, although they might previously have been somewhat injudiciously convivial in the town. this kola is one of the very strongest nerve tonics; under its influence men can endure severe physical and mental strain. like the others, however, a depressing reaction inevitably follows, accompanied by insomnia, headache, and other evil effects. when one comes to ask, why do those few plants out of all the vast multitude of the vegetable world possess such extraordinary virtues? it is difficult to find an answer. possibly some obscure insect or fungus enemy finds _caffeine_ poisonous. nor can one find any reason for the curious properties developed in the tobacco leaf by fermentation, except a possible protection to the leaf from the attacks of insects. no doubt the leaf, even in its natural state, would be too strong for them. tobacco is a native of central america. the name _nicotiana tabacum_ is derived (the first) from a certain jean nicot, ambassador to the king of portugal, and the second from the haytian name for a pipe. on columbus's voyage in the use of tobacco was noted. the story of sir walter raleigh's servant, who threw a bucket of water over his master when the latter was smoking a pipe, is not supported by much evidence, but it seems to be probable that sir walter did smoke his pipe on the way to the scaffold. at any rate it was cultivated in europe by the year , and spenser speaks of the "soveraine weed, divine tobacco." from the first it was detested by all governments and authorities. james i published a very intemperate _counterblast against tobacco_. it was prohibited by the czar of russia in , and by the king of france. the great sultan jehanghir in india, sultan amurath ii in turkey, shah abbas the great in persia, and the emperor kang ching in china, all prohibited the use of tobacco in their respective dominions. yet none of these great rulers were able to check its progress. the "herb of amiability," or the "queen herb of the rude barbarian" as it is described in chinese, prevails almost over the whole earth. there is scarcely a people or tribe in existence which does not use it. but almost everywhere it is either heavily taxed or a government monopoly; in the latter case it is always exceedingly bad. we ourselves import tobacco worth about £ , , in the year, and pay a heavy duty. the world probably smokes from , , , to , , , pounds of tobacco every year. the plant is a very pretty one, with large leaves and long pinky or white flowers, which are open and strongly scented at night. it is an annual, and is not at all difficult to cultivate. there is an impression in this country that it is a tropical plant, but by far the greatest amount of our tobacco comes from temperate countries. large quantities are grown in germany, in hungary, and in other parts of europe. as a matter of fact tobacco was once cultivated in both england and scotland. there is evidence to show that in it was successfully grown in roxburghshire, where pounds an acre was obtained. the land was let at about £ to £ per acre. experiments of recent years have also proved very encouraging, and in fact it is difficult to see how any reasonable doubt can exist as to the fact that it would be perfectly easy to grow plenty of that sort of tobacco which we now obtain from holland and germany. a prominent irish statesman has admitted this: "there was no doubt but that tobacco could be grown in ireland, but whether there are irishmen patriotic enough to smoke it, _is_ very doubtful."[ ] [ ] wrightson, _journal r. agr. soc._, second series, vol. , part ii. p. ; jenkins, _ibid._, vol. , part i. p. ; de lanne, _ibid._, vol. , part i. p. . carter, _tobacco in england_. of course every one knows that the differences in tobacco depend chiefly on the preparation, but the _constitutional_ objection to tobacco, illustrated by the above remark, is the real reason why it is not grown. oliver cromwell sent his troopers to ride down the growing crops. charles ii imposed a penalty of £ per acre. modern statesmen are flippant and unfair. the reason of course is that a large income is cheaply obtained by taxing imported tobacco. if this were at all interfered with, new taxes, which would certainly be unpopular, would be required. there is a good deal of interest in the story of the tobacco plantations. many prisoners of the civil war in england were sold to virginia and other places. even nowadays there is some romance in the history of a cigar. in the dutch island of sumatra the jungle is cleared away by the natives under the orders of an english manager. chinese coolies are then imported. the estate provides each coolie with tools, tea, a barber, and sufficient cash to buy rice, fish, or pork, as well as a little over for his opium, to spend in fireworks, and to propitiate his demons. the coolie grows the tobacco, which is bought from him and manufactured by the estate. some of it goes to india, where it is used as the outer wrapper of cigars.[ ] [ ] dunning, _tobacco_, . for adulterating tobacco all sorts of leaves are occasionally employed, such as those of the dock, chicory, burdock, foxglove, comfrey, elm, coltsfoot, plantain, beech, cabbage, lettuce (steeped in tar oil), etc., etc. the substance nicotine is a deadly and dangerous poison. when young people smoke tobacco, it has been quite conclusively proved that they will very probably not reach their full growth, but be miserable weaklings, stunted, half-developed, and below the proper standard of a man. this is not surprising, if one reflects on the constitution of tobacco smoke. this contains "nicotine, empyreumatic resin, oil, ammonia, carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, hydrocyanic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, carburetted hydrogen, and paraffin."[ ] [ ] _journal society of arts_, march, . chapter x on deserts what are deserts like?--camel-riding--afterglow--darwin in south america--big bad lands--plants which train themselves to endure thirst--cactus and euphorbia--curious shapes--grey hairs--iceplant--esparto grass--retama--colocynth--sudden flowering of the karoo--short-lived flowers--colorado desert--date palms on the nile--irrigation in egypt--the creaking sakkieh--alexandria hills--the nile and euphrates. across the whole of africa, at its very broadest part, from the dominions of the emperor of the sahara at cape juby on the atlantic, and to the very borders of british india, stretches a desert of the most uncompromising character. it is famous in history: the strongest races of man, the great religions of the world, as well as most cultivated plants and domestic animals, have originated in some part of this dreary waste. one cannot really appreciate deserts unless one has really seen them. but it is necessary to try to describe what they are like. sometimes the desert is a wilderness of broken, stony hills covered by angular pieces of shivered rock. in other places the soil is hard, and is everywhere covered by pebbles or shingle. often it is a mere waste of sand blown into downs and hillocks which look sometimes like the sand dunes by the coast, and elsewhere like the waves of the sea. one finds valleys in the desert quite like ordinary ones in shape, but instead of water there is only sand in sweeping curves and hollows, like the snow-wreaths and drifts in a highland glen. rocks stand out of this, but their projecting faces are polished smooth and glittering or deeply cut by the flinty particles scraping over them continually in storms and hurricanes. the traveller on camel-back, where his waist has to act as a sort of universal joint giving to every unexpected jolt and wrench of his rough-paced mount, suffers from the heat, for nowhere else in the world are there such high temperatures. he suffers from thirst, and still more from the dust which fills eyes, mouth, nostrils, and ears. yet the dry pure air is most exhilarating. in the evening there is a feast for the eyes in the glorious _afterglow_ when the sun has just set. the light from below the horizon produces an ever-changing, indescribable play of colour from violet to salmon pink and through the most delicate shades of yellow, blue, and rose, until everything fades and there reigns only the mysterious silence of the beautiful starlit night. no wonder the air is dry and pure, for rain only falls on perhaps eight days in the year in some places (ghardiaia). yet plants manage to exist even where there is only about seven inches of rain annually. but this seems still more extraordinary if one remembers that sand may be almost glowing hot during the day, whilst in winter it may be, at night, cooled below the freezing-point. yet a desert absolutely bare of plants is an exceedingly rare phenomenon. such do occur. darwin speaks of "an undulating country, a complete and utter desert." this is not very far from iquique in south america. "the road was strewed with the bones and dried skins of the many beasts of burden which had perished upon it from fatigue. excepting the _vultur aura_, which preys on the carcases, i saw neither bird, quadruped, reptile, nor insect. on the coast mountains, at the height of about feet, where, during this season, the clouds generally hang, a very few cacti were growing in the clefts of rock; and the loose sand was strewed over with a lichen which lies on the surface quite unattached. ... in some parts it was in sufficient quantity to tinge the sand, as seen from a distance, of a pale yellowish colour. farther inland, during the whole ride of fourteen leagues, i saw only one other vegetable production, and that was a most minute yellow lichen, growing on the bones of the dead mules."[ ] [ ] darwin, _naturalist's voyage round the world in the beagle_, p. . rydberg, speaking of the big bad lands in south dakota, says that there are in some places great stretches of land consisting of cañons separated by small ridges, in which not a speck of green is visible over several sections.[ ] (a section is more than a square mile.) [ ] schimper, _l.c._, p. . but though aden looks exactly like "a barrack stove that no one's lit for years and years," plants grow there. even in egypt, when one has left the nile inundation limit, a botanical eye very seldom fails to detect plants of one sort or another even in a dangerous and thorough-going desert. plants are almost as hardy as men; they can adapt themselves to almost any climate. in some curious and inexplicable way the very dangers of the climate seem to produce automatically a means of resisting it. the chief peril, of course, is a loss of the precious water through the leaves. when the skin or epidermis of a plant is being formed, the walls of its cells are laid down, layer by layer, one inside the other, by the secretion of the living matter inside. in a dry desert the loss of water by evaporation will be so rapid that these layers of cell-wall are much thicker than in ordinary plants. the very fact that they are thicker and less penetrable tends to prevent any further loss of water.[ ] [ ] schimper, _l.c._, p. . so that plants in a dry climate have the power of altering themselves to resist its dangers. another author found that, in scandinavia, plants of the same species can acclimatize themselves if necessary. sheep's sorrel which had grown on dry, droughty gravel banks only lost per cent. of its water in the first two days, when it was artificially dried. other sheep's sorrels, which had been luxuriating in meadows where they had no lack of moisture, lost no less than one third ( per cent.) of their water when dried in the same way. that is interesting, because very likely our readers might in crossing a desert be perishing of thirst when a bedouin arab would be perfectly happy. the plants have learnt to do without water just in the same way as the arab has done. of the many interesting desert plants, the succulents, cacti, euphorbias, and others of the same extraordinary, fleshy, dropsical appearance, come first. when a cereus plant (one of the american giant cacti) was dried, it did not lose the whole of its water for days. that is probably the longest time "between drinks" on record. a houseleek (_sempervivum_), which has to grow on dry rocks where it has no water for days together, remained quite fresh for days. [illustration: giant cactus near aconcagua valley, chile this plant was about feet high. the darker part on the tallest branch is the dark red flower of the parasitic horanthus. the thorns covering the branches are quite distinct.] there are several reasons why these plants took so long to dry up. to begin with, they have inside their stems and leaves certain substances which hold water and delay its escape. moreover their extraordinary shapes are of very great assistance. they prefer globular, round, circular, pear-shaped, or cylindrical forms. suppose you were to cut such a round mass into thin slices and lay them out flat, it is quite clear that they would cover a much greater surface. thin leaves also, if squashed up into a round ball, would have a very much smaller surface. the water can only escape from the surface exposed, so that these condensed round balls and fleshy columns have far less water-losing surface than ordinary leaves. as a matter of fact, it was found by calculation that the surface of an echinocactus was times less for the same amount of stuff as that of an aristolochia leaf. if the actual loss of water from the echinocactus, as found by experiment, was reckoned as one unit per square inch, then the amount of water lost from a square inch of the aristolochia was no less than units! this shows that these odd, outrageous shapes of prickly pears, cacti, and other succulents are an extraordinary help to them. we have already pointed out in a previous chapter how necessary their spines and prickles are if they must resist rats, mice, camels, and other enemies. what we may call the "hedgehog" type of plant is also very common in desert countries. there are many woody little, much branched, twiggy shrublets, which bristle all over with thorns and spines. they are not at all fleshy, but do with the least conceivable amount of water. another striking characteristic of the desert flora is noticed by every one. almost every plant is clothed either in white cottonwool, like the lammie's lug of our gardens, or else in grey hairs. the general tint of the landscape is not green, but it is rather the colour of the soil silvered over by these grey-haired plants. the reason of this is, of course, quite easy to understand. we put on a thick overcoat if we are going to walk in a scotch mist, to keep out the moisture. these plants cover themselves with hairs or cottonwool to keep the moisture inside. it does not escape easily through the woolly hairs on the skin. one very strange plant should be noticed here. this is the iceplant (_mesembryanthemum cristallinum_). every part of it is covered with little glittering swellings which shine in the sun like minute ice crystals. the swellings contain a store of water, or rather of colourless sap, which makes it able to exist in dry places. dr. ludwig says that a torn-off branch remained quite fresh for months on his study table. it is probable that these peculiar pearl or ice-like swellings also focus the sunlight, acting like lenses, upon the inner part of the leaf, but that is not as yet fully understood. there are two grasses, growing in the desert, which are of some value; both are called esparto or halfa. they are very dry, woody, or rather wiry grasses, especially common in algeria, tripoli, and also found in spain. one of them, _stipa tenacissima_, grows in rocky soil in morocco, algeria, and tripoli. the arabs search for it in the hills, and dig it up by the roots; they then load their camels with the grass and bring it to the ports whence it is sent to london or other places. a very good and durable paper is made from it, and ropes, mats, and even shoes are also produced from the fibre. part of the "esparto" is, however, furnished by another grass (_lygeum sparteum_). the natives sometimes tie a knot in a halfa leaf, which, according to them, cures a strain of the back. the stipa is also used as fodder, but it is not nutritious and is indeed sometimes dangerous. in one year britain imported , tons of esparto, worth nearly £ , . the yield is said to be about ten tons per acre. another very interesting plant at tripoli and in the north african desert generally, is a sort of broom, the retama (_retama raetam_). it is not very unlike the common broom, but has long, leafless, whip-like branches covered by bright pink-and-white flowers. it can often be seen half submerged in waves of sand, and struggling nevertheless to hold its own. as it has no leaves its loss of water is very much kept down. this is the juniper of the bible, and it is still used for making coals. the length of the roots is very great in most of the broom-like, "hedgehog," and other plants. a quite small plant not more than six or eight inches high will have a root as thick as one's thumb. even at a depth of four or five feet below the surface its root will be as thick as the little finger, so that the root-length is at least twenty times the height of the visible part above ground. these thirsty roots explore the ground in every direction, and go very deep downwards in their search for water. another very interesting plant in the egyptian desert is _citrullus colocynth_, from which the drug colocynth is prepared. the great round yellow-green fruit and finely divided bright green leaves may be seen lying on the sand. it remains green all the summer, but appears not to have any particular protection against loss of water. it is always supplied by its roots with underground water. if a stem is cut through it withers away in a few minutes. this is found also in asia minor, greece, and spain. the pulp of the fruit contains a strong medicinal substance; it is a drastic purgative, and in overdoses is an irritant poison. this was probably the wild vine or gourd which the young prophet gathered, and which produced "death in the pot." he probably mistook it for a water melon. it is still plentiful near gilgal ( kings xiv. - ).[ ] [ ] ridley, _pharmaceutical journal_, may th, . below the surface of the earth, of course, there is not nearly the same dryness or danger of losing water, so that there are often a great number of bulbs, tubers, and the like hidden in the soil. there they wait patiently, sometimes for a whole year or even for a longer period. so soon as a shower of rain falls they start to life, push out their leaves, and live at very high pressure for a few days. after a shower of rain, the karoo in south africa, for instance, is an extraordinarily beautiful country. there are bulbous pelargoniums, a very curious leafless cucurbitaceous plant (_acanthosicyos_), hundreds and thousands of lilies, irids, and amaryllids. a single scarlet flower of a brunsvigia can be seen more than a mile away! these tender and delicate, exquisitely beautiful bulbs flourish amongst the succulent euphorbias and mesembryanthemums, between the hedgehog-like thorny plants and the woody little densely-branched mats of the permanent flora. the rain stimulates even these last to put out green leaves and flowers, but their time comes later on, when by the return of the usual drought every leaf and flower and the fruit of every bulb has been shrivelled up, turned into powder, and scattered in dust by the wind.[ ] [ ] scott elliot, _trans. bot. soc. edin._, vol. , p. . then the karoo becomes unlovely, desolate, and barren-looking, with only its inconspicuous permanent plants visible. the above description applies to bulbs and perennial plants with underground stores of food. yet these are by no means the only plants which manage to exist in the egyptian and arabian desert. after a shower of rain a whole crowd of tiny annuals suddenly develop from seed; they come into full flower and have set their seed before they are killed off by a return of the desert conditions, when the effects of the rain have died away. these plants are not really desert plants at all, for they only grow during the short time that it is not a desert. they are like the ephemerid insects which live for a summer day only. nor is it only in egypt that we find such ephemerals. mr. coville found them in the colorado desert in north america. the plants are quite different, but similar conditions have brought about an entirely similar mode of life on the other side of the globe! in colorado they seem to be much influenced by the quantity of rain. mr. orcutt, after the great rain of february, , found plants of amaranthus (allied to our love-lies-bleeding), which were ten feet in height, but in he found specimens of the same in the same place only nine inches high, though they were perfect plants and in full flower; in this last year there was only the usual very scanty rainfall. it is, however, in deserts when man has set to work and supplies water and strenuous labour, that the most wonderful results appear. the whole of lower egypt, babylon, nineveh, damascus, baghdad, palmyra, and other historic cities, show what the desert can be made to produce. as one slowly steams up the nile from philae or shellal towards wady halfa, there are places where the brown, regular layers of the nubian sandstone form cliffs which advance almost to the water's edge. yet there is a narrow strip of green which fringes the water. it is upon the actual bank itself, which is a gentle slope of ten to fifteen feet, that lupines, lubia beans, and other plants are regularly cultivated. this narrow green ribbon remains almost always on each bank. where the cliffs recede, one notices a line of tall, graceful date palms, mixed occasionally with the branched dôm palm (the nut of which yields vegetable ivory).[ ] tamarisks, conspicuous for their confused, silvery-green foliage, can be noticed here and there. the acacias are common enough, and sometimes one of them is used as a hedge. it is a spreading, intricately-branched little shrub, with very white branches and stout curved thorns. [ ] used to make billiard balls. if one lands and strolls along the banks below the palm trees or amongst plantations of barley, wheat, or lentils, one sees the native women in their dark green robes gathering fruits or digging. goats and donkeys are tethered here and there. there are sure to be castor-oil bushes. small but neat pigeons, with a chestnut-coloured breast and bluish-banded tails are perching on the palms or acacias, and utter their weak little coo. the air is suffering from the horrible creaking and groaning of a "sakkieh" water-wheel. this is made entirely of acacia wood, and is watering the plantations. sometimes it seems like a crying child, then, perhaps, one is reminded of the bagpipes, but its most marked peculiarity is the wearisome iteration. it never stops. one of them is said to supply about - / acres daily at a cost of seven shillings per diem. exactly the same instrument can be seen pictured on the monuments of egypt to years ago. the "shadouf" is of still older date. this is a long pole bearing at one end a pot or paraffin tin and balanced by a mass of dried mud or a stone. all day long a man can be seen scooping up the coffee-coloured water of the nile and pouring it on the land for the magnificent sum of one piastre a day. where not irrigated, the soil is dry and parched and can only carry a few miserable little thorny bushes. the entire absence of grass on the brick-like soil has a very strange effect to english eyes. the date palm, however, requires a little respectful consideration. if one enters a thick grove and looks upwards, the idea of egyptian architecture as distinguished from gothic and others is at once visible. it has quite the same effect as the great hall of columns near luxor. the numerous stems ending in the crown at the top where the leaves spring off was quite clearly in the minds of the architect at karnak and other temples. it goes on bearing its fruits for some two hundred years, and begins to yield when only seven years old. it revels in a hot, dry climate with its roots in water, and seems to require scarcely any care in cultivation. yet during the first few years of its life it is necessary to water the seedling. a single tree may give eight to ten bunches of dates worth about six shillings. generally it is reproduced by the suckers which spring out from the base of the tree. dates make a very excellent food, not merely pleasant but both wholesome and nutritious. sometimes toddy is made by fermenting the sap, but this is a very wasteful process, as it is apt to kill the tree. the stones are often ground up to make food for camels. the feathery leaves are exceedingly graceful. when quite young they are not divided, but they split down to the main stalk along the folds, so that a full-grown leaf affords but little hold to the wind. in some parts of egypt, as for instance at mariout, which is some fifteen miles from alexandria, the wild flowers are probably more beautiful than anywhere else in the world. amongst the corn and barley, which can be there grown without irrigation, masses of scarlet poppies and ranunculus are mingled with golden-yellow composites, bright purple asphodels, and hundreds of other eastern flowers. the result is a rich feast of colour indescribable and satisfying to the soul. so that these deserts under the hand of man rejoice and blossom as the rose. why is it that, as disraeli has pointed out, civilization, culture, science, and religion had their origins in the desert? the answer is not difficult to see: for there is a dry, healthy climate; the severe strain of a long day's journey is varied by enforced leisure, when, resting at his tent-door, the arab is irresistibly compelled to study the stars and to contemplate the infinite beauty of the night. it seems also to have been in the desert of the old world that man first learnt to cultivate the soil. in fact, it was only by irrigation on great tracts of alluvium, such as were furnished by the nile and euphrates, that the enormous populations of egypt, babylon, nineveh, and the other great monarchies could be maintained. so that city life on a big scale first developed there. chapter xi the story of the fields what was ancient britain?--marshes and bittern--oak forest--pines--savage country--cornfield--fire--ice--forest--worms--paleolithic family--the first farmers--alfred the great's first government agricultural leaflet--dr. johnson--prince charlie's time--misery of our forefathers--oatmeal, milk, and cabbages--patrick miller--tennyson's _northern farmer_--flourishing days of to --derelict farmhouses and abandoned crofts--where have the people gone?--will they come back? when the eyes of man first beheld britain, what sort of country was this of ours? it is very interesting to try to imagine what it was like, but of course it is a very difficult task. still it is worth the attempt, for we ought to know something of what has been done by our forefathers. where the great rivers thames, humber, tyne, forth, clyde, mersey, and severn, approached the seashore they lost themselves in wildernesses of desolate, dreary fenlands. here a small scrubby wood of willow, birch, and alder; there a miles-wide stretch of reeds and undrained marsh intersected by sluggish, lazy rivers, or varied by stagnant pools. the bittern boomed in those marshes. herons, geese, swans, ducks, and aquatic birds of all sorts found what is now chelsea a paradise, only disturbed by the eagle, harrier-hawk, vulture, and the like. neither at the mouth nor even much higher up in its valley-course, was a river a steady stream in a defined bed. such beds as it had were probably four or five times their present width; they would be quite irregular, meandering about, changing at every flood, full of islands, loops, backwaters, and continually interrupted by snags of trees. the rolling hills of the lowlands would be an almost unbroken forest of oak, except where perhaps level land and the absence of drainage produced a marsh or horrible peat-moss. but when we say forest, we do not mean a glorified richmond park. in good soil there might indeed be tall and magnificent trees. but it would be quite impossible to see them! the giants of the forest would be concealed in an inextricable tangle of young trees, brushwood, fallen logs, creepers, and undergrowth. where the soil was sandy or stony, it might be a scrub rather than a forest, of gnarled, twisted, and stunted oaks, or possibly thickets of sloe, birch, rowan, hawthorn, brambles, and briers. every stream would be "wild water" leaping down waterfalls and cutting out irregular, little woody ravines. here and there boulders and escarpments of rock would break through the forest soil, which would be mossy, thick with undergrowth, and entangled with rotting fallen trunks and branches, crossing at every conceivable angle. the higher hills were covered by a dreary, sombre pine forest. it was of a monotonous, desolate character. greenish-grey tufts of old man's beard lichen hung from the branches. the ground, treacherous, and broken by boulders, peaty hollows, and dead logs, would be shrouded in a soft, thick cushion of feathery mosses, with blaeberry, ferns, trientalis, linnea, dwarf cornel, and other rare plants. through it descended raging and destructive torrents which here might be checked and foamed over dead logs, whilst in another place they cut out bare earth-escarpments or started new waterfalls which ate back into the hills behind. at the summit of the higher hills, bare rock crags projected out of occasional alpine grassy slopes, or irregular terraces, ravines, and gullies. below, these alpine ravines ended in a peat-moss, which scattered, dwarfed, distorted, and miserable-looking scotch firs and birches painfully endeavoured to colonize. here and there on very steep hillsides, wiry, tussocky grass might be growing instead of forest or peat. a horrible, forbidding, and desolate land, where deer, irish elk, bison, bear, wolf, boar, wolverine, badger, and fox, alone enjoyed themselves. now consider our country to-day. mark the "trim little fields"; "that hedge there must have been clipt about eighty years"; "the lifting day showed the stucco villas on the green and the awful orderliness of england--line upon line, wall upon wall, solid stone dock and monolithic pier."[ ] the road, carefully macadamized, sweeps on correct and straight or gracefully curving from neat village to countrytown. in the heart of the country the roadsides are scraped bare to produce that hideous tidiness which is dear to the soul of the county council roadman. that is if an individual whose life is spent in stubbing up roses, briers, and every visible wild flower, can possibly possess a soul! those fields without a rock, or even a projecting stone, have been drained, dug over, and levelled with the greatest possible care. the very rivers have been straightened and embanked; the rows of pollarded willows have been planted; they may, when in flood, overflow, but the results are very soon no longer visible. even on the moors and in the depths of the highlands, black-faced sheep, draining, and the regular burning of the heather, have quite transformed our country. [ ] kipling. the original woods have long since vanished: those which now exist are mostly quite artificial plantations, and the very trees are often strangers to britain. the story of the herculean labour by which our country, once as wild and as savage as its early inhabitants the icenians and catieuchlanians (and probably with lineaments as barbarous as those of the coritanian and trinobant), has been changed to peaceful, fertile meadowlands or tidy arable, is one long romance. to tell it properly would require a book to itself. in this chapter we shall only try to sketch what may have happened on one particular cornfield which exists on the trap-rocks of kilbarchan, near glasgow.[ ] the reader must bear in mind that even this is a very ambitious attempt! it is an exceedingly difficult undertaking. [ ] as the story probably differs in detail for every district, the author is obliged to confine himself to ground which he has actually seen and studied. the subsoil in this particular cornfield (on pennell brae) lies upon the trap-rock formed by one of those gigantic lava-flows which cover that part of renfrewshire. the whole district at that time must have been exactly like vesuvius during the late eruption. its scenery in this early miocene period consisted of glowing molten rock, accompanied by flames of fire, electrical storms, clouds of gas, dust, ashes, and superheated steam. [illustration: then-- a landscape in ancient britain.] [illustration: and now the same landscape at the present time. notice how the outline of the hills has been softened and its shape rounded. the forest has almost vanished and the river is bridged and confined within definite banks; in fact, only the ravine remains much the same.] every plant and every animal must have been exterminated. that was unfortunate, for, at that time, pines, oaks, guelder rose, willows, as well as sequoias allied to the mammoth tree and sassafras, may have lived in scotland along with tapirs, opossums, marsupials, and other extraordinary beasts. when the lava cooled and became trap-rock, it was at once attacked by frost, by wind, and by rain. then by a very slow process of colonization, vegetation slowly and gradually crept over the trap-rock and rich mould and plant remains accumulated. at a much later date, there was another wholesale destruction. this time, it was the great ice sheet coming down from the highland hills. probably it drove heavily over the top of pennell brae and worked up into fine mud and powder every vestige of the miocene vegetation. the very rocks themselves would be scratched, polished, and rounded off. when the glaciers melted away and left the surface free, it would consist of these rounded rocks alternating with clay-filled hollows. the trap-rock below would be covered by a subsoil due to particles of trap, of highland and other mud, with remains of the miocene vegetation. upon this surface, frost, wind, sunshine, and rain would again begin to perform their work. but the subsoil, thus wonderfully formed by fire in the miocene, by frost in the glacial, and by weather in our own geological period, very soon felt the protecting and sheltering effect of a plant-covering. first a green herb rooted itself every here and there amidst the desolate boulder-clay or perhaps in a crevice where good earth had accumulated. then the scattered colonists began to form groups; soon patches of green moss united them. then a continuous green carpet could be traced over a few yards here and perhaps on a few feet somewhere else. but when things had got as far as this, progress became much more rapid, and soon the whole site of the future cornfield was covered over by a continuous green carpet. only, every here and there, hard stones and uncompromising trap-rocks remained still protruding from the green covering. in another chapter this first covering of the soil will be described at length. so far it has been _subsoil_ and _underlying rock_, but now the roots begin to disintegrate and work up the subsoil; the earthworm has his chance, and forms true _soil_. on this particular hillside, the water would drain away and there would be no danger of mosses strangling and choking the blaeberry and the heather. the worm flourished and multiplied, and the soil became rich and black. here and there a sloe or a rowan, or poplar, or perhaps alder and birch, began to appear. in certain places whins and brooms, brambles and briers, diversified the hillside. then a few scotch firs began to push their way up, through the thickets. at first they were very small and stunted, but as each one formed a dense, deep-going mass of hardy roots, they were able to investigate the riches of the subsoil. every year the amount of leaf-mould above increased, until the original moss-covering was utterly destroyed and a pine forest (see chap. xxviii.) occupied pennell brae. about this time, a paleolithic family may have encamped on the side of the cliff near a little stream which can still be traced. the camp was only a few sticks and branches, with a skin or two for shelter from the north wind. the women lopped down fir branches for firewood, and cut up the young trees. the children set fire to the shrubs on dry days and paths ran here and there through the forest. this would be about , b.c. every year meant a further very gradual, slow destruction of the pine forest. about , b.c., our paleolithic hunters with chipped-stone weapons would be obliged to travel further to the north. new savages with round heads and polished-stone weapons would make life in renfrewshire too uncertain and too diversified by massacres. these last possessed seed corn, a few fruit trees as well as goats, cattle, and perhaps a few hardy, shaggy ponies. at first these settlers would be obliged to live in a lake dwelling, say in linwood moss, which is close at hand. they would then drive their cattle over the surrounding district, and camp in slightly-built villages. near at hand, probably on the hill, they would build a (round) camp or fort, where they could fly for safety in the continual fights and invasions of the period. sooner or later a village would be built near pennell brae. one summer day the villagers attacked the wood that covered it; they cut down all the small brushwood and hacked through the bark of every big tree. after a few weeks, when the trees were dead, the wood was set on fire. then a rough fold made of rude wattle and daub was formed, and every night the cattle and sheep were driven in. after three or four years, this fold would be ploughed up by exceedingly rude instruments. barley or certain kinds of wheat would be grown year after year until the crop was not worth gathering. when that happened, another fold would be ploughed up. probably the whole of pennell brae went through this rude sort of agricultural treatment at one time or another. at the same time goats, cattle, and the demand for firewood, obtained in the most reckless and wasteful manner, would have very seriously interfered with the forest. although no doubt great changes for the better were introduced, the spearmen of wallace of elderslie close by had their "infield" land, which was practically the sheepfold as above described, and their "outfield" or grazing commons. even down to the above system was practised (see below). but when men's minds were stirred up and invigorated by the great revolution of - , all sorts of new agricultural discoveries were made. yet the cornfield on pennell brae was probably not drained or enclosed by stone walls and hedges until to ! about , it was more profitable to its owner than it has ever been since, though even now it forms part of our british farmlands which yield, on the whole, a larger amount of oats per acre than those of any other country in the world (except possibly denmark). let us however look a little closer into the long, long period during which the "fire and stone-axe methods" of farming prevailed. before the romans landed there seem to have been no towns.[ ] there was but little cultivation, for the britons wore skins and lived chiefly on milk and flesh. [ ] mr. chisholm, _geographical journal_, november, . in the time of king alfred, the increase of population made it necessary to take more trouble about farming, so we find a description of what the good farmer ought to do. we might call this the very first government leaflet, and it has led to the agricultural leaflets published by the board of agriculture for great britain and ireland. "sethe wille wyrcan wastbaere lond ateo hin of tham acre aefest sona fearn and thornas and figrsas swasame weods." he was to clear off fern, bracken, thorns, sloe, hawthorn, bramble, whin, and weeds. the names of the months give some idea of anglo-saxon methods of farming. may was _thrimylce_, because the cows might then be milked thrice a day. august was _weodmonath_ (weed-month), november _blotmonath_, or blood-month, because the cattle were then killed to supply salt beef for winter time.[ ] [ ] sir h. maxwell, _memories of the months_, first series. very much later in history, after our english friends had laid waste and depopulated scotland, so that woods sprang up again everywhere, and again long after that time when the gradual increase of population had again utterly destroyed those woods, a certain dr. johnson travelled from carlisle to edinburgh. this gentleman declared that he saw no tree between those places. this statement must not be taken too literally, for he had written a dictionary and considered himself not merely the _times_ but an _encyclopædia britannica_ as well.[ ] [ ] this may of course have been an exaggeration, a sort of joke. but he had no right to make jokes on such a subject. the earl of dundonald (in ) thus describes the agriculture of (prince charlie's days): "the outfield land never receives any manure. after taking from it two or three crops of grain it is left in the state it was in at reaping the last crop, without sowing thereon grass-seeds for the protection of any sort of herbage. during the first two or three years a sufficiency of grass to maintain a couple of rabbits per acre is scarcely produced. in the course of some years it acquires a sward, and after having been depastured for some years more, it is again submitted to the same barbarous system of husbandry" (that is used as a fold and then ploughed up). in the same year ( ) in meigle parish, the land was never allowed to lie fallow: neither pease, grass, turnips, nor potatoes were raised. no cattle were fattened. a little grain (oats or barley) was exported. in or thereabouts, there was only one cart in the parish of keithhall. everything was carried about on ponies' backs, as is the case nowadays in the most unsettled parts of canada. the country in places was almost impassable. bridges did not exist, and the roads were mere tracks. in rannoch the tenants had no beds, but lay on the ground on couches of heather or fern. these houses were built of wattle and daub, and so low that people had to crawl in on hands and feet and could not stand upright. "in the best times that class of people seldom could indulge in animal food, and they were in use to support themselves in part with the blood taken from their cattle at different periods, made into puddings or bread with a mixture of oatmeal. their common diet was either oatmeal, barley, or bear, cleared of the husks in a stone trough by a wooden mallet, and boiled with milk; coleworts or greens also contributed much to their subsistence, and cabbages when boiled and mashed with a little oatmeal."[ ] potatoes were introduced in dumfriesshire some time after , and the use of lime as manure at about the same time. even in the roads were such that no kind of loaded carriages could pass without the greatest difficulty. [ ] mr. john murray, of murraythwaite, referring probably to , from singer, _agricultural survey of dumfriesshire_, . there is a most fascinating account in dr. singer's work of a strong man's difficulties in starting reasonable agriculture in dumfriesshire about the year . this was patrick miller, of dalswinton. (it was on dalswinton loch that he tried the very first steamboat.) "when i went to view my purchase, i was so much disgusted for eight or ten days that i then meant never to return to this county. a trivial accident set me to work, and i have in a great manner resided here ever since.... i have now gone over all of this estate, and this i have done without the aid of a tenant.... i need not inform you that the first steps in improvement are draining when necessary, inclosing sufficiently, removing stones, roots, rubbish of every kind, and liming.... these operations cost me, i reckon, about £ per acre upon an average; and i lay my account with being repaid all my expenses by the first three crops, but at any rate by the fourth. when the land which i make arable will give at least (if brought from a state of nature) twenty times the rent when i began to improve it." major-general dirom, of mount annan, writing from that place in , says that all over scotland for about thirty years (from - ) he has seen "cultivation extending from the valleys to the hills, commons inclosed, wastes planted, and heaths everywhere giving way to corn: ... extension of towns and villages, by new lines of excellent roads, magnificent bridges and inland navigation ... our rapidly increasing population, by our now exporting great quantities of grain from parts of scotland into which it was formerly imported, and by the superior comfort and abundance which appear in the domestic economy of the inhabitants." if you read any newspaper of to-day published in canada or in the argentine republic, you find exactly the same process at work, and the same enthusiasm about it. even in - all these improvements were still vigorously going on. look at tennyson's _northern farmer_ (old style):-- "'an i a stubb'd thurnaby waäste. dobbut looök at the waäste, theer warnt no feeäd for a cow, nowt at all but bracken an fuzz, an looök at it now. warnt worth nowt a haäcre and now there's lots o feeäd, four scoor yows upon it an some on it down i seeäd." even in his days, the good farmer was following king alfred's directions. about - most of the land was in good bearing, and the roads were sufficiently good to admit of the stage-coach with four horses. but they after all lasted but a very short time before the railways again entirely altered the conditions of country life. as we have seen, rents were in places, five times as large in - as they had ever been previously.[ ] therefore it was that about this time the gentlemen's houses were in many places rebuilt on a more magnificent scale. then also were begun those circles and strips, or belts of plantation, which are now conspicuous features of the scotch lowlands. an enormous majority of these plantations are not more than eighty years old. i think avenues were planted in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. the fashion about was to destroy them as unnatural, at least in england. unfortunately no respect was paid to the economic practice of forestry, with very unfortunate results for the proprietor. [ ] the agricultural rents in dumfriesshire were valued in at £ , , in - as £ , , in £ , s. d. in the value per acre was from £ to £ . the rest of this chapter is necessarily unpleasant and distressing reading, but it is necessary if we are to understand the romance of the fields. as one wanders over the grassy pastures of southern scotland, where the black-faced sheep foolishly start away, and where one's ears are irritated by the scolding complaints of the curlew or whaup, it is no rare accident to find a few broken-down walls, a clump of nettles, and badly grown ash trees. that was once a farm steading, where a healthy troop of children used to play together after walking three or more miles barefoot to school. the ash trees were planted at every farm "toon," for the scottish spear was a very necessary weapon until recent times. often also, upon some monotonous grouse moor, one sees the ridges that betoken a little croft where a cottager lived. in one parish (troqueer) over seventy country cottages have been abandoned during the lifetime of a middle-aged person. many families, of which the laird was often the best farmer in the district and his own factor, have disappeared. the fine houses, with their parks and shootings, are let to strangers, who come for a few weeks or months, and then leave it in charge of a caretaker. before this recent development, the "family" lived all the year round upon the land; they spent their income chiefly in wages to the country people. where once forty or fifty people were employed all the year, there are now but three or four. the big house with shuttered windows and weed-grown walks, is a distressing and saddening spectacle. of course such changes must occur. the farmer's and the cottar's children are now carrying out in canada, australia, or the united states, what was done in scotland from - . india, south africa, and china have been developed by the brains and hold the graves of many of the laird's sons. yet this poor old country, abandoned of her children, shows signs of revival. both the poor and the rich are beginning to find out that a country life is healthier, quite as interesting, and sometimes quite as profitable as the overcrowded city with its manufactories, mills, and offices. all new countries are beginning to fill up, and there is some hope that a new and vigorous development of farming may make the countryside once more vigorous, prosperous, and full of healthy children. chapter xii on plants which add to continents lake aral and lake tschad--mangrove swamps of west africa--new mudbanks colonized--fish, oysters, birds, and mosquitoes--grasping roots and seedlings--extent of mangroves--touradons of the rhone--sea-meadows of britain--floating pollen--reeds and sedges of estuarine meadows--storms--plants on ships' hulls--kelps and tangles in storms--are seaweeds useless?--fish. the way in which the savage, rugged, inhospitable britain of the ice age changed into our familiar peaceful country formed the subject of the last chapter. but plants do far more than cover the earth and render it fertile, for some of them assist in winning new land from the sea or from freshwater lakes. the sea of aral, for instance, or lake tschad are rapidly becoming choked up by reeds and other vegetation. blown sand from the deserts around is caught and intercepted by these reeds, so that fertile pastures are gradually forming in what used to be the open water of a deepish lake. by far the most extraordinary of all these plants which form new land are the mangroves. they are only found in the tropics or sub-tropical regions, and are always along the sea-coast. it is where a river ends in a delta, dividing into intricate and confused irregularly winding creeks, that the mangroves are especially luxuriant. such a river will have probably flowed through hundreds of miles of the most exuberant tropical forest, where growth is never checked by the cold grasp of winter. its waters are yellowish brown or _café au lait_ coloured, because they are full of mud and of decaying vegetation, with dead leaves and decaying branches floating on the surface. so full are such rivers of decaying material that they have a distinct and unmistakable smell, which has been compared to "crushed marigolds." so soon as the muddy water reaches the sea, most of its mud is deposited and forms great banks and shoals of shifting odoriferous slime, which confuses and interferes with the discharging mouths of the river. it is upon these changing, horrible-smelling banks of bottomless slime that the mangrove is especially intended to develop. if one takes a canoe in such a delta and paddles inwards on the incoming tide, a dense forest of glossy-green mangroves will be found to cover the whole coast-line, and also to extend far inland by the winding creeks, lagoons, and river channels. the whole theory of the mangroves becomes clearly revealed as soon as the water begins to sink at low tide. first one notices that the stem of every mangrove ends below, not in a single trunk, but in an enormous number of arched, stilt-like supporting roots. not only the stem but the branches also give off descending roots, which branch into four or five grasping arched fingers as soon as they get near the water. when they reach the mud, these fingers grow down into it and form a new supporting root to the tree. it is very difficult to give any idea of the extraordinary appearance of these mangrove roots. imagine an orchard of very old apple trees in winter, and suppose that one were to cut off every tree and plant it upside down in black mud, and also to crowd them so closely together that the branches were all mixed and confused. this may give an idea of the odd and strange appearance of the root-system in a mangrove forest. upon these arching roots, even on those which are not yet attached, multitudes of oysters may be seen. there is also a little fish (a sort of perch) which climbs up on to the roots or out of the mud below, and gasps or squatters about in it. as to the mud itself, it is a horrible, greasy, oozy, black or blue-black slime of bottomless depth. "it is full of organic, putrefying, strongly-smelling material, clearly full of bacteria. the water itself is sometimes covered by a dirty, oily scum, and air-bubbles rising from the bottom, spread out on the surface and let loose their microbes in the atmosphere."[ ] there are many crocodiles, which may be seen reposing on the mud above high tide. it is difficult to distinguish them from a rough log of wood, but it is still more difficult to kill them, for their scales turn any ordinary bullet. there is scarcely any experience more exasperating than when, after one has taken a long, careful, and accurate aim, one observes the sleeping brute suddenly wake and scurry down into the water with a hideous leer on its face. sea-cows or manatees are said to live in these creeks. little ducks of many kinds rise in hundreds and thousands, but the commonest bird is the "curlew" (either a whimbrel or closely allied to it). during the day they sift the mud with their long curved beaks for insects, and at sunset fly down in vast numbers to the mudbanks near the sea. a miserable little white crane called "poor joe" is common, and has the same habit. it is not worth shooting, and it is quite aware of the fact. herons, cormorants, and other birds are often to be seen. monkeys sometimes visit the mangroves, probably to eat oysters or crabs. there are several kinds of crablike creatures which climb up the roots and may be seen running about all over them. but during the three weeks spent by the writer in the mahéla creeks of sierra leone, it was the insects that made the deepest impression upon him; as soon as the evening falls the mosquitoes appear in myriads and in millions. such creeks and mangrove swamps are always feverstricken and dangerous, and probably enjoy the very worst climate in the whole world. of course nowadays, when sir patrick manson and dr. ross have discovered that the mosquito carries the malaria germ, it is possible with great care to guard against malaria. one has also the satisfaction of knowing that the mosquito itself cannot be perfectly at ease with all these tiny parasites attacking its digestive organs. [ ] warming, _lehrbuch der oecol pfl. geog._ at first sight such swamps appear to be useless, impossible, and dangerous. but that is not the case. no one, of course, would ever willingly reside in mangrove swamps, and the mangroves themselves are of scarcely any use to man, although the bark does sometimes furnish a useful tanning material; but, indirectly, the mangroves are one of the most important of all nature's geographical agents. on those horrible, slimy, shifting mudbanks no other plants could manage to exist. if one looks carefully at the seaward side of the last of the mangrove swamps, then it is easy to see that they are colonizing and reclaiming the mud. not only do the roots depending from the branches grasp and colonize new mud, but the seedlings are also specially adapted to fulfil the same office. they remain a long time attached to the parent fruit; they also grow to a considerable length before they fall off. when ready to fall, they have a distinct seedling stem, which swells out towards the base and ends in a pointed root. the seedling is, in fact, like a club hanging upside down and with a pointed end. when it does fall, it goes straight down deep into the mud; then it promptly forms some anchoring roots, and the young mangrove is fixed in new mud and begins to develop. so that the forest continually grows towards the sea. such mudbanks soon become pierced by roots in every direction. then the leaves of the mangroves themselves, as well as silt, soil, and rubbish floating in the water, gradually accumulate about and around these roots. this must raise the level of the ground. eventually the soil becomes hardened and is above the level of the water. when this happens, the mangrove, which likes salt water about its roots, becomes unhealthy and the ordinary jungle trees kill it and take its place. thus in course of time, when the jungle is cleared, fertile ricefields may be thriving on what was once a pure, or rather impure, mudbank. in this way, by the continual development of the mangroves, enormous stretches of land are being added to the continents, and the process continues so long as the character of the coast-line favours it. the shore-line covered by these mangrove swamps is enormous. in fact, within the tropics one finds them almost everywhere along the seashore, but coral, rock, or an exceedingly dry climate such as that of arabia or northern peru, prevents their growth. central and south america, west and east africa, india, polynesia, australia, and much of the asiatic coast-line, is covered by mangroves. [illustration: _stereo copyright, underwood & underwood_ _london and new york_ a ricefield in china the proprietor and two of his coolies are in front of the paddy field. the young rice plants can be seen growing in the water.] theophrastus speaks of those in the persian gulf, and that exceedingly shrewd botanist has some valuable notes about them worth reading even to-day.[ ] [ ] drude, _l.c._; schimper, _l.c._; warming, _l.c._; _colonial reports_, no. , miscellaneous. schimper, _indo-malayische strandflora_. in temperate countries, such as our own, the districts where great rivers enter the sea are for the most part aguish and rheumatic, but, of course, there is nothing so startling and extraordinary as the mangrove swamps. yet, even in temperate countries, the work of winning or gaining new land plods steadily onwards, and it is performed by humble, inconspicuous little plants. where the rhone enters the mediterranean, there are some , acres of sandy and clayey land called the camargue. the bare sand near the sea is often flooded and swept by violent storms in winter; anything which tries to grow there is usually carried[ -b] off and destroyed. [note -b] drude, _l.c._; schimper, _l.c._; warming, _l.c._; _colonial reports_, no. , miscellaneous. schimper, _indo-malayische strandflora_. but, after a time, one finds here and there a solitary plant of a kind of saltwort (_salicornia macrostachya_) which has withstood the strain: its branches gather a little sand and hold it together, and its roots gradually explore and tie down the soil around it. next winter it can stand the sweep and scour of the stormy water; next summer other plants begin to grow on this tiny sand-heap, and the "touradon," as it is called, is now fairly well established. it goes on growing until it may be, after a few years, six feet in diameter. eventually the salt gets washed out of the soil and these little heaps become united by a continuous covering of green plants in which shrubs and then trees begin to grow.[ ] by this time of course the sand has accumulated farther out to sea and the same process is going on there. [ ] flahault, after schimper, _l.c._ in britain we have the "sea meadows" of sea-grass, which covers the submerged sand and mudbanks near the mouths of great rivers. the waving green grasslike leaves form a rich submarine meadow. they are used for stuffing pillows and cushions, especially in venice, but their real importance in the world depends upon their being able to tie down and fix permanently those unseen shifting banks which form a real danger to all navigation. these plants are very remarkable. they lived, no doubt, at one time on the land, like most of the flowering plants. but, like the whale and the seal, they have been driven to take refuge below the ocean. they are not easily seen, and, indeed, one may wander for years along the sea-coast and never suspect that great meadows of zostera (the eelwrack, grasswrack, or sea-grass) are flourishing under water. but, one might ask, how is the pollen of its flowers carried? obviously neither insects nor the wind can be of any service. the pollen of zostera is, however, of the same weight exactly as the water, so that it neither rises to the surface nor sinks to the bottom, but floats to and fro until it reaches the outspread styles of another plant. this is perhaps the most remarkable arrangement known for the carrying of pollen. sometimes along the seashore, or especially on the muddy foreshore of an estuary or tidal river, one can watch those plants which are trying to form new land. one finds generally that there is a broad stretch of marshy meadow interrupted and intersected by small ditches and little winding streams. as one gets towards the shore, sea-pink, scurvy-grass, an aster, and other plants, not to be found elsewhere, become common. then stretching out into the mud there are rows of curious reeds and sedges. try to pull up one of these reeds, and you will find a strong, buried, stringy stem, with hundreds of anchoring roots. these are the pioneers which first fix the sand. over the surface of the sand between these upright stems, one often comes upon a most beautiful, glossy, dark-green, velvety cushion. it is composed of a seaweed called vaucheria, whose twined and interlaced threads form a thick, silky cushion. but it is only beautiful to look at from above. if you pull up a piece of this cushion, you will find that it is growing on black and loathly mud, with many wriggling worms and horrible animalcula. first these pioneer reeds, then this soft, silky carpet of vaucheria, and then the sea-pinks and other estuarine marsh flowers gradually creep forward and extend over the bare muddy sand, so winning it from the sea for the use of cattle. in the worst winter storms, when the waves are thundering heavily over these sands, it seems as if nothing could resist them. yet if you go down when the storm is over, no harm has been done: there is the silky green cushion of vaucheria, and there are the lines of pioneer sedges and reeds quite undisturbed! the reeds bend and sway, yielding to the water; the seaweed is slimy and oily, and the water cannot injure it. but yet the strength of these seaweeds is extraordinary, and, indeed, almost incredible. more remarkable still, perhaps, are those seaweeds which grow upon rocks, often where the full strength of the waves beats upon them. after a heavy storm, when, perhaps, the great timbers of groins and the heavy concrete blocks of an esplanade have been shattered to pieces and tossed all over the shore, one may go down to the shore and there will be no visible difference in the kelps and tangles of the rocks. scarcely any seem to have been broken away. indeed, if one looks in the rubbish left by the last high tide, one finds that when one of these alarias has been broken away, it is often because the stone itself has been torn out of the rock! one finds broken off stones with the seaweed still attached to them. the reason is that the outside of the seaweed is oily, slimy, or slippery, so that the water gets no hold of it. the stem and substance is also elastic and surprisingly strong, so that the daily tossing and wrenching when the tides come in and go out has no effect in tearing it away. but if you go down to a dry dock and look at the hull of a ship which has come in to be cleaned and scraped, you will see that it is entirely covered by seaweeds and shells. that ship has been driven through the water perhaps at ten miles an hour or more, and yet those delicate-looking seaweeds have held on! it is more surprising still if you can get some of them and examine them with a microscope, for amongst them are tiny, delicate, graceful little fronds and sprays which one would think consisted of nothing but jelly. yet they have been able to thrive and grow on the ship's hull while it has been hurrying day and night through the sea, in calm or in tempest, and in currents of hot or cold water. those seaweeds were called by horace _algæ inutiles_, or useless seaweeds; but are they useless? go down to a little pool and watch them waving in the water. could anything be more beautiful than these little graceful red, yellow, or brown sprays? all sorts of seaslugs, shrimps, and minute animals of weird and wonderful design are clearly living on them. fishes live upon these animals, and fishes are an extremely useful and excellent food for man. chapter xiii rocks, stones, and scenery an old wall--beautiful colours--insects--nature's chief aim--hard times of lichens--age of lichens--crusts--mosses--lava flows of great eruptions--colonizing plants--krakatoa--vesuvius--greenland volcanoes--sumatra--shale-heaps--foreigners on railway lines--plants keep to their own grounds--precipices and rocks--plants which change the scenery--cañons in america. at first sight, and when one is striding along at some four miles an hour, there seems to be nothing at all interesting in an old wall. but if one stops and carefully examines the stones, there is a great deal that is interesting. rocks and walls possess a fascination of their own. probably at least british plants are _only_ found upon them, and yet of these, the vast majority are so small and inconspicuous that an ordinary person never perceives a single one of them. it is perhaps on rocks or old walls near the sea that this stone flora is most richly developed. the nearly circular orange-yellow patches of the lichen _physcia parietina_ are quite distinct and conspicuous. but any old wall, provided it is well out in the country, is pretty sure to be interesting. at first it seems to have only a dull grey or neutral tint. but if one goes to four or five feet distance, one discovers that many shades of brown, red, white, and black go to make this grey. but the extraordinary beauty of such a wall is only visible when one peers and scrutinizes the surface very slowly and carefully with the eyes six or seven inches away from it. in doing this, one is often troubled by rude and ribald boys. a botanical friend indeed complained that he had been for months avoided and shunned as a dangerous wandering lunatic on account of his botanical enthusiasm. but true botanists get accustomed to disagreeable incidents like that, and pay no attention to the vulgar crowd. the change in an old wall when one looks at it from a few inches distance is most remarkable. the entire surface is spotted or dusted, sprinkled or entirely covered by thick lichen stains and crusts. the original colour of the stone is nowhere visible. the lichens show the most delicate shades and contrasts in colour; all pleasing and all blending together in harmonious general tones. the fruit of these lichens is like a minute saucer or platter generally with a thin rim or border, but it is exceedingly small, probably only one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter, or even less. the smallest of these crust lichens form continuous, very thin, coatings, covering the stone; and against this background the little saucer-like fruits show up quite distinctly. the coating itself varies from "bright yellow, pale ochre, citron, chestnut colour, to mouse colour, different shades of grey and green, cream colour, lead colour, blue-black or pure black, tawny, brown, rusty red or pure white." the cups of one kind (_lecidea_[ ]) are black, whilst those of _lecanora_ are generally reddish-brown. but they may be a ghostly pale hue which stands out plainly against the grey-green background of the frond. [ ] _lecidea_ has at least species on british stones and rocks (leighton). sometimes they are of the richest deep crimson or lake, set against a pure snow-white crust. those of _lecanora vitellina_ are, though tiny, a brilliant yellow, and quite startling when first one notices them. many of these contrasts and shades are never used by artists, and even from the mere artistic point of view they have great interest. but if, after spending a few minutes in carefully looking over the rocks at a distance of six or seven inches, one stands up and goes back to four or five feet away, the whole of this colour scheme fades away and there is only the monotonous indeterminate grey or neutral tint of the wall. now why is this? why should these delicate and exquisite shades be wasted on such minute and scarcely distinguishable forms? there are always two sides from which one can look at any subject, namely the _inside_ and the _outside_. from the inside (that is from the point of view of the little lichen itself) these colours are decidedly useful. small insects crawl about on such walls or hover a few inches in front of them, and to those insects these cups will be as conspicuous and attractive as a scarlet geranium is to ourselves. just as we habitually go to look at a geranium, so those insects fly towards the cups and crawl about on them. then when the spores and dust of the lichen begin to stick in their hairs and feet, they go to a bare place and clean or brush them off. thus the spores and dust are carried to a new part of the rock, where they will grow if they can find an unoccupied place. the taste in colour of these insects, moreover, is apparently not very different from that of man. but perhaps a still more interesting point of view is that from the outside. why are those lichens there? what are they doing, and are they of any use? the general scheme of nature is to cover the whole world with green, so that every ray of sunlight may find a working leaf or green frond ready to welcome it and use it. nature abhors bare rock, barren sand, and empty water, and never ceases to try to bring it under that beautiful covering of green plants and active vegetable life which supports both man and animals. we all know that there is a romance in the story of man's colonies. first the explorer searches out the country; then the pioneer frontiersman settles and builds his log-hut or rough shanty. next comes the frontier village, which may perhaps in many years' time become a crowded city where active, valuable work is carried on. the story of the colonizing of rocks and stones by plants is just as vividly interesting. these tiny lichens are almost the first pioneers, and prepare the ground for those that follow. upon that bare rock, life is terribly severe. the frost shatters it, sunshine heats it until it almost burns the hand in summer. floods of rain or of sleet beat against it, and it may be frozen over for weeks. what plant can stand such conditions? only these minute, tiny, scarce visible lichen films! gradually new lichen crusts develop upon it. they cover over the first pioneers; first they suffocate them and afterwards devour their remains. nature is very businesslike and severe in her working. the lichen crust may be now about one-sixteenth of an inch thick. it is a very slow process. there is a story of a boy who noticed a patch of lichen near his father's door. he went away to kamschatka or somewhere and came back a very old man of eighty-five years; but he found that the lichen patch was just the same size as when he went away. that, however, is just a story! at any rate, one of these little crust-lichens called _variolaria_ has been known to increase half a millimetre in size (about a sixtieth part of an inch) between the end of february and that of september. now if one tries to realize what the life of such a lichen crust or crottle must be, it is obvious that the stone below it must be a little corroded or weathered, and remains of the first choked pioneers, bacteria, and possibly tiny insects or animalcula will be under the crust, which may now be one-sixteenth of an inch thick. it is the turn now of other lichens to colonize it. these may be the little trumpet or horn and cup lichens, _cladonias_, or perhaps the larger grey kinds, _parmelias_ and _physcias_, which have leaf-like fronds and form circles of perhaps eight to ten inches in diameter. the crust-lichen is overgrown, broken up, disorganized, and devoured by the _parmelias_ and _cladonias_, who are helped by bacteria, insects, and animalcula which shelter below them. these leafy lichens grow much more rapidly. they may increase two-thirds of an inch in one year. but very soon after this, one notices a few inconspicuous green mosses; at first in crevices between the stones or in hollows, and not remarkable, they soon increase and form trailing sprays or branches which grow very quickly. branches of moss four or five inches long extend over the leafy lichens in a season. the _parmelias_ and _cladonias_ struggle on, but they cannot keep pace with the rapid life of the moss, and soon our wall is covered by beautiful moss turfs. underneath such a turf there may be an inch or so of good soil (dead moss and dust with lichen and insect bodies). worms, insects, etc., shelter and flourish and multiply in this soil. but the turn of the moss is coming. here a few grass-blades, there a tiny plant of sandwort, possibly a rock bedstraw, begin to root themselves in the moss. if people would only let the wall alone, it would soon be festooned with hanging plants, and producing quantities of grass, but somebody is sure to find that it looks very untidy, and everything is torn off the wall, which again looks new and raw and clean. then of course the pioneer lichens begin again! some very interesting and remarkable facts have been discovered about the way in which lavas and basalts have been occupied by the plant world. in the great volcanic eruption of , the whole island of krakatoa was covered by hot lava and glowing ashes. in and the sunsets were remarkable for a curious fiery red or orange glow, which was popularly supposed to be due to the volcanic dust of that explosion. it is said that the dust travelled three times round the earth, though i do not know on what authority. however, on krakatoa island there was left a clean "slate." there were neither bacteria, nor leaf-mould, nor living plants of any kind; no spores or seeds could have endured the fiery furnace of the eruption. three years afterwards the botanist treub visited the island. he found that the rocks had been first covered by thin layers of minute freshwater algæ, but that ferns were then occupying and inhabiting the lavas. eleven kinds of ferns, and but very few other plants, were discovered. people were interested in this, and dr. a. f. w. schimper then visited another volcano which had been pouring out huge streams of lava in . he found that there were still plenty of ferns, but also numbers of shrubs and other plants. yet even then there were no trees, and there was no continuous mantle of green plants such as we are accustomed to in this country. he also found many plants growing on the lava which are generally found on the branches of trees, that is, which can do without a thick layer of soil. he also found quantities of a pitcher plant, nepenthes (which lives mainly on insects caught in its pitchers). this does not at first sight seem to agree at all with what has been given for the walls. it is true that sometimes in the highlands, or lowland and lakeland hills, one comes across quantities of the bladderfern and others growing on the "screes." (these last may be described as streams of broken, angular stones, filling small gullies, and spreading out at the base over a considerable space.) often these ferns seem to be all that can thrive in amongst the stones. but in a mild and temperate country like our own, one would expect things to proceed differently. and in fact they do so. every one must have noticed a green stain which covers wet walls, stones, stucco, even marble statues, and especially tree bark in wet or damp situations. this is a minute green seaweed rejoicing in the name of pleurococcus. it is a pretty object for the microscope. this, of course, is the first stage of colonization. it is followed by mosses of sorts. but there is a more interesting series still in a climate resembling our own. the lava-flows from mount vesuvius have been investigated by several observers. there it was found that the first inhabitants were _lichens_ and small green seaweeds; then "different mosses occupied the lava over which a certain quantity of vegetable dust had been scattered." after this, scattered ferns and even small shrubs could be seen even on flows which were red-hot only twenty years before, whilst on old lava-fields herbs, shrubs, bushes, trees, and even true woods had developed.[ ] [ ] engler, _humboldt's centenaarschrift_, . yet in greenland lava-flows dating from - are still only covered by crust-lichens and a very few of the stone-mosses! in sumatra, on the other hand, the volcano of tamboro, which in had entirely destroyed its vegetation, was covered with a fine young wood in ![ ] the strong heat and abundant moisture of sumatra favours, whilst the horrible climate of greenland prevents, the rapid growth of good soil. just as cities of , inhabitants can spring up in a few months in the western united states, whilst the esquimaux of greenland have not managed as yet even to live in villages! [ ] warming, _lehrbuch der oekol. pfl. geog._ the full beauty of this gradual colonization and occupation of bare rock and stones only impresses one properly if one tries to trace the stages, but it is an interesting history. near glasgow one sees great heaps of shale or blaes (generally _blackband_), which are often mistaken for natural hills. this is or was virgin soil, never occupied by plants, and entirely destitute of leaf-mould or any sort of organic plant-food. if one scrambles to the top of one of these heaps, it is easy to see all the details of the occupation. long underground runners of coltsfoot and of horsetail are climbing up the sides, fringes of creeping buttercup, couchgrass, and other hardy weeds occupy, every year, a little more of the flanks, but, on the top, one very soon finds that the dust of the atmosphere, aided by weathering, has afforded a chance to mosses, to hawkweeds, and other rock plants. these in time cover the top, and soon hardy grasses and weeds form a regular turf on the top of the shale. it is interesting to scramble to the top of one of these heaps, especially in summer. one then begins to realize how every plant attends strictly to its own business. all over the sides of the heap there will be hundreds of a rare groundsel (_senecio viscosus_), which is not really a native, and _never_ occurs except on such places. in a grass field close by hundreds of thousands of ragwort (_senecio jacobæa_) make a glorious golden carpet; in the marshy part of the meadow the water ragwort (_senecio aquaticus_) may be found. in the cottage gardens and here and there along the roadside the groundsel (_senecio vulgaris_) is flourishing abundantly. these plants never interfere with or encroach upon one another's grounds. every year thousands of ragweed and groundsel seeds must be blown on to the shale-heap, but they never manage to grow there. it is only the foreigner (_s. viscosus_), accustomed to a very hot and dry climate, and with sticky leaves which catch atmospheric dust and probably insects, that can exist on the bare shaly sides. these slopes of shale are easily heated by the sun, and at the same time radiate the heat rapidly away, so that the viscid groundsel must have a very hard time of it. when its roots have worked up the shale a little, and its dead leaves have covered the surface with mould and organic matter, then possibly others (true british plants) can get a footing and suppress it. along railway tracks, also, the ballast forms a very hot, a very dry, and a very barren soil. many of the regular railway-track plants are foreigners from the far south, even from the sunny shores of the mediterranean. they are mostly annuals, such as the little toadflax (_linaria minor_), which can just manage to exist under those conditions. of course, the sides of the banks and of cuttings on railways are generally formed of good earth or soil, and support a rich and flourishing flora of true britons. besides these slow, laborious lichens, mosses, and others which attack rock, there are other plants which are generally called rock plants, though they behave quite differently. these are those fine hardy hawkweeds, roseroots, sempervivums, mew, and others which establish their roots in cracks or crevices of the rocks. such cracks are soon full of good soil, for the wind blows decayed leaves and dust into them, and the roots are always burrowing into, eating into, and shattering the rocks. most of them have a circle of leaves which are pressed flat to the ground. thus they escape the violent winds and storms always common on such crags and precipices. the flowers, however, supported on tough, strong, and flexible stalks, sway freely to and fro in the wind, and can be seen by insects a long way off. these rock plants are of some importance as stonebreakers and pioneers in a very interesting process. wherever a cliff or precipice of stone is exposed, it is "weathered." water gets into the cracks and freezes in winter. but when water is frozen it expands or widens, and as this happens to the water in the crevices and cracks of rocks, pieces of rock are shivered and broken off. besides frost and wind and rain, these rock plants help to attack the cliff. their roots get into the crevices, and there widen and expand, tearing off great slabs and splinters of rock which fall down to the foot of the cliff. down below plants are every year growing over and covering up or "happing up" with green these bare fragments and splinters. a considerable amount falls down every year, so that the ground is always being raised up below the precipice. at the brow or edge above the precipice, there is also always a loss of rock and stone every year. so that every year the bare rock exposed becomes smaller and smaller, until eventually a steep, green, grass-covered slope covers over the entire site of that precipice. moreover that is not by any means all that plants do in the way of changing the scenery of the country. look at the outlines of the hills in any part of great britain except in the broken, jagged, rocky mountain ranges of scotland and wales (also cumberland, westmorland, parts of derbyshire and dartmoor tors). everywhere there are smooth, flowing, gently undulating rises and falls. no sharp, abrupt descents break these graceful sweeping curves. if you compare the scenery of a cañon in the rainless deserts of western america, the contrast is very striking. there the sides of the valleys are steep cliffs; it is all harsh, precipitous, horrible country, which is obviously very unpleasant and very unattractive to civilized people. it is this green covering of plants which makes the difference. the rain that falls is not allowed to cut out ragged ravines; it is intercepted and soaks into the grasses, which so keep a smooth, gentle outline over hill and valley. if you notice the effect of a heavy shower of rain on a road or bare earth, you will see how soon tiny valleys and cañons and beds of streamlets are cut out. but on the green fields beside the road, there is no change in the surface at all! it seems to be quite unaffected by the heaviest storm of rain. chapter xiv on vegetable demons animals and grass--travellers in the elephant grass--enemies in britain--cactus _versus_ rats and wild asses--angora kids _v._ acacia--the wait-a-bit thorn--palm roots and snails--wild yam _v._ pig--larch _v._ goat--portuguese and english gorse--hawthorn _v._ rabbits--briers, brambles, and barberry--the bramble loop and sick children or ailing cows--briers of the wilderness--theophrastus and phrygian goats--carline near the pyramids--calthrops--tragacanth--hollies and their ingenious contrivances--how thorns and spines are formed--tastes of animals. by far the greater number of wild animals live by eating vegetables. if one thinks of the elephant's trunk, the teeth of a hippopotamus, or even of the jaws and lips of mice, rats, and voles, the thoroughly practical character and efficiency of their weapons become the more astonishing the more one reflects upon them. yet the defences adopted by plants are just as wonderful, and are often most ingenious. it seems at first remarkable that the most usual food of animals, grass, should be apparently unprotected. it is upon grass that the great herds of bison, of buffalo, of antelope, and guanaco, are or were supported. yet grass is so wonderfully reproductive, produces such enormous quantities of buds and foliage, and grows in such luxuriance, that there is no fear of its being killed out. there are many places in the world where vegetation defies the attacks of the animal world. neither man nor elephant can live comfortably in the thick jungles of west africa and the great forests of brazil. nor can either man or elephant utilize great tracts of country in central africa which are covered by the elephant grass. for, perhaps, four or five hours the weary caravan plods on through a sort of burrow, two feet wide, made in this gigantic grass. the stems are ten feet or more in height, and nearly meet overhead. there is nothing whatever to be seen except the narrow path. the atmosphere is stifling and hot. to cut a new road a few hundred yards long through it involves hours of labour. it is only when there has been a long drought that it is possible to set fire to the elephant grass, and then for a very short time the young growing shoots can be grazed. but no cattle can break through when it is fully grown. the very exuberance of vegetation in such cases prevents any harm. perhaps it is best to show how, even in great britain, all plants have many dangerous foes. the roots of trees are nibbled by mice, voles, and sometimes by swine. the bark is injured by cattle, roedeer, reddeer, fallowdeer, who tear the bark with their horns, and especially by rabbits and hares. the leaves are eaten by the same animals and also by horses, goats, sheep, etc. the young buds are attacked by squirrels, who also break off the leading shoots of certain firs when they happen to be in a playful mood. but it is in cultivated lands and in open, rather dry and arid country that one finds the most interesting weapons in the fights between plant and animal. it is in such places that some of the most beautiful and useful creatures have their home. the horse, ass, camel, goat, and sheep probably belong to those wonderful lands which border the great deserts of africa and asia. these animals have been obliged to travel far and fast, and to perfect their bodily strength in order to pick up a living. [illustration: _stereo copyright, underwood & underwood_ _london and new york_ cultivated bamboo in a chinese plantation these giant grasses are sometimes one hundred and twenty feet high and one foot in diameter. they at times grow at the rate of three feet per day, and are used for all sorts of purposes, such as scaffolding poles, flower-pots, as a vegetable, etc. etc.] they have been taught (perhaps we should say learnt) by the thorns and briers of the wilderness. the cactus, prickly pears, or other succulent plants which belong to true deserts, are covered over with most curious and interesting spines. a row of little projections runs down each edge of the round fleshy stem. on each projection there is a rosette of spines. sometimes these are long, slender, and diverging; in other cases they are short, stout, and curving over. now imagine a guanaco in south america, or even a rat or mouse, which is perishing of thirst in the arid desert where such things are found. it will be seen that it is by no means easy for it to taste the water in the juicy stem, for even the thin muzzle of a rat could scarcely get between the thorns. kerner describes how the wild asses in south america root up or try to split the cacti with their hoofs to get at the juicy tissue of the unarmed lower parts. yet they often receive dangerous wounds in doing so from the frightful spines of melocactus[ ] and others. [ ] kerner, _l.c._, vol. i, p. . it is very interesting to see a flock of angora goats in south africa attacking an acacia. the kid is a pretty, white, fluffy little creature, with the most meek, mild, and innocent expression. yet it is a quarrelsome little brute. in a few minutes an acacia will be despoiled, broken, and robbed of its foliage by a flock of them, although it bristles all over with long spines, of which there are a pair at the base of each leaf. even the _kameeldorn_, camelthorn acacia, or the wait-a-bit in south africa cannot defend itself. the wait-a-bit (_wacht een beetje_) is so called from the ingenious nature of its spines. there are two together, of which one is straight and the other curved round like a hook. both are very sharp and strong, so that an incautious traveller is sure to injure himself and his clothes. the straight one runs into his tender flesh, whilst the curved one fixes itself in his clothes. it is by thorns, spines, and prickles that plants often protect themselves against the attacks of grazing animals. but it must be remembered that these are by no means the only safeguard. plants produce poisonous, bitter, or strong-smelling substances which keep off their enemies, and these indeed often afford a more efficient protection (see chap. iii.). these thorns, etc., can be produced in the most unexpected places. there is one rule, however, namely that they are invariably found in the exact spot where they can be most useful. thus there are certain palms which possess green, juicy leaves, much relished by snails. these are protected by a sort of spine entanglement formed upon certain roots, which grow at the base of the leaves. nor is this the only case in which spines are found on roots. there are certain south african bulbs (_moræa_) which are protected from the wild pigs by a dense mass of spiny roots.[ ] on my march to uganda from mombasa, i was very much astonished to see an extraordinary wild yam. it had a huge underground tuberous part full of starchy matter, but it was quite impossible for any marauding wild boar to get at it, for it was entirely enclosed in a sort of arbour of long, arching roots densely covered by stout spines, which made a perfect protection.[ ] [ ] scott, _annals of botany_, vol. , p. . [ ] scott elliot, _naturalist in mid africa_. it is more usual to find thorns developed on the branches or stems. generally these are formed on the outside towards the end of the branches. in the alps, larches have to suffer from the attacks of goats which nibble off the ends of the young shoots. the part behind the scar dries up, but fresh twigs are put out from further back along the branch, until the tree becomes a closely branched, twiggy, bristling mass which looks like the clipped yews in old gardens. but so soon as it has grown tall enough to be above the reach of the goats, an ordinary larch stem develops and may grow into quite a respectable tree. this fact is given by kerner von marilaun (_l.c._, p. ), and is very instructive, as explaining why it is that so often the ends of the branches become hard thorns: the green leaves and twigs are hidden and protected. one of the neatest examples of this is the portuguese gorse or whin, which resembles a little cushion with every branch ending in strong thorns and every leaf terminated by a stout spine. the common whin, furze, or gorse, is very nearly as perfect an example of thorniness and spininess. the southdown sheep do not seem to injure it on those beautiful sussex downs so famous for succulent mutton, yet in the early spring, or in a very wet season, one often finds in the grass at the foot of the bush (or even in the bush itself) small shoots which would be taken at first sight as belonging to some other plant. these little shoots are grey with hairs and have soft trefoil leaves which are quite unprotected, for their spines are quite soft. they are probably seldom eaten, for most of them are in the shelter of the old spiny bushes. yet even the old bushes can be used as fodder for sheep if they are crushed and ground up so as to break the thorns and spines. the gorse is a very hardy plant, and is said to be only out of flower "when kissing is out of fashion" (see p. ). there is still some uncertainty as to the exact way in which animals set to work when they are eating thorny or spiny bushes. this makes the arrangement of the thorns sometimes a little difficult to follow. moreover it is often not so much the leaves as the juicy bark in winter and early spring that is required. sometimes everything above ground is eaten down. rabbits, for instance, do not as a rule touch the hawthorn, yet mr. hamilton says, "the second winter after planting was very severe and this hedge was eaten down to the very ground by rabbits. for about yards i do not think that a single plant was missed."[ ] in frost and snow almost every plant is attacked by rabbits, and indeed by any grazing animal. [ ] mr. thomas hamilton, _researches by lanarkshire teachers_, - . remembering that it is very often the young juicy shoots that are sought after, it is quite easy to see why the young rose suckers and shoots from the base of the stem fairly bristle with long and short prickles. these latter are generally straight, not curved like those of the long arching branches which are supposed to hook themselves on the branches of the surrounding trees. the young light-coloured branches of the cultivated gooseberry are flexible, and hang over in such a way as to make it difficult for an animal to reach the bark: a cow or sheep, if it wished to eat these branches, would begin at the hanging tip and make a sort of upward tearing jerk while its tongue gathered the branch into its mouth. if one copies this with the hand it is easy to see how the length and arrangement of the prickles and the flexible nature of the spray would make such a proceeding on the cow's part most uncomfortable. so also in the barberry, the young juicy upright shoots which spring from the older branches have stout three to seven-branched prongs pointing downwards, of the most efficient character. each is really a modified leaf and is found below each bud. even the mere idea of an animal's tender lips or tongue tearing at these shoots from below gives one a momentary shudder. in the younger, wavy branches of the barberry the spines are straighter or more diverging. the young leaves of the short bud above alluded to are also most efficiently protected by their spines. the hawthorn has a curious arrangement of very long stout thorns, behind which the leaves are sheltered. the younger flexible branches have smaller spines, which become efficient in winter and tend to prevent animals from eating the bark. the cockspur thorns are to - / inches long, and extremely like the spur of a gamecock. bramble prickles are generally curved back in order to hook or cling to the branches of other trees, but any one who has tried to force his way through a clump of brambles knows the difficulty of doing so. the loops made by the branches fixing themselves in the ground (see p. ) were at one time given credit for healing various diseases. children in gloucestershire used to be dragged backwards and forwards under these loops; in cornwall also people afflicted with boils were made to crawl under them. even cows when suffering from paralysis (supposed to be due to a shrew-mouse walking over them) were dragged through the bramble-loop, in which case professor buckman remarks, "if the creature could wait the time of finding a loop large enough and suffer the dragging process at the end, we should say the case would not be so hopeless as that of our friend's fat pig, who, when she was ailing, had a mind to kill her to make sure on her."[ ] the brambles and briers of gilead and ezekiel were probably brambles of which _rubus discolor_ is common in palestine,[ ] and the butcher's broom (_ruscus aculeatus_). this last plant is really of the lily family, and its flat leaf-like branches end in a sharp spine. the rabbit does not eat it.[ ] [ ] lindley's _treasury of botany_. [ ] ridley, _pharmac. journ._, may , . [ ] maxwell, _memories of the months_, first series, , pp. - . amongst foreign thorny and spiny plants it is very difficult to make a selection. theophrastus (one of the very earliest botanists--see p. ) describes a class of shrub very common in phrygia, in which the leaves are produced at the base of the young shoots, which latter end at the top in branch thorns. these thorns, therefore, entirely cover the foliage and keep off that vegetable demon the goat. some of the crucifers, roses, composites, labiates, etc., take on this habit in goat-infested countries.[ ] [ ] kerner, _l.c._ in egypt, near the pyramids, one often finds _carlina acaulis_, a little thistle which has no stem, but is merely a flower seated in the middle of a rosette of leaves which lie flat on the sand. in the centre there is a circle of sharp spines, each of which is from one to two inches in length. the nostril of a hungry camel or donkey is sure to be pierced if it tries to eat the leaves. the spines of this thistle, like those of our carline and the _centaurea calcitrapa_ (thistle of the bible), spring from the bracts surrounding the flower. the ancient "calthrops" or "crawtaes" (first used by the romans) were designed from the spines of the last-named plant[ ] (_calx_, heel, and _trappa_, snare.) it had four iron spines, so that, however it was thrown down on the ground or in a ford, a spine was sure to stick up and to lame man or horse. [ ] ridley _l.c._ [illustration: . old roman calthrops, left on roads, fords, etc., to lame horses. , . fruits of tribulus, showing efficient spines. animals' feet, in passing, must catch them. they are more efficient than calthrops.] the tragacanth plant has also very neat spines. they are the persistent spiny stalks or midribs of the older leaves from which the leaflets have dropped away. the fresh green leaflets are quite protected inside these withered spines. several grasses have leaves which end in sharp or needlelike points. one of these, _festuca alpestris_, actually produces bleeding at the nostrils of grazing cattle, and is detested by all the shepherds of the alps. the holly is one of our most beautiful trees, as john evelyn points out: "this _vulgar_ but _incomparable_ tree.... is there under _heaven_ a more glorious and refreshing object of the kind than an impregnable _hedge_ of near _three hundred_ feet in _length_, _nine_ foot _high_ and _five_ in _diameter_: which i can show in my poor _gardens_ at any time in the year, glittering with its arm'd and vernished _leaves_? the taller _standards_ at orderly distances blushing with their natural _coral_."[ ] this apparently was the identical hedge into which peter the great used to trundle his wheelbarrows. the barrows contained his courtiers. there was a nice run from the top of rising ground close at hand. it was at sales court, deptford. [ ] evelyn, _silva_. the spiny leaves of the holly are unfortunately not nearly strong enough to save it from its enemies. the bark is apparently of a particularly delicious and toothsome nature, for sheep, cattle, and the ubiquitous rabbit are always delighted to destroy the trees. it has been noticed that wild hollies have at the base very spiny leaves, but that higher up on the tree (above the reach of cattle) the leaves have no spines at all. sir herbert maxwell, in his _memories of the months_,[ ] takes up this question. it is best to give the description in his own words:-- [ ] third series, p. . "i strolled out along the banks of tay in that noble woodland which is continuous from dunkeld to murthly. here there are many fine hollies, some on the river banks and cliffs, others on level ground, planted by no hand of man. there was not one of these which did not confirm my observations first made many years ago, and hardly one which did not bear evidence of special growth--not merely as a reaction against pruning or cropping, but _as a precaution_ _against any such contingency_--so regular and deliberate as to suggest that these trees are something more than unconscious automata. "many of these hollies are thirty feet high, with foliage down to the ground. they carry spinous leaves up to a height of three or four feet; above that level all the foliage is absolutely smooth and spineless. one tree rose from the ground in two bare stems, and the lower branches did not reach below the browsing level. but from between the two old stems rose a young shoot about four feet long, clothed throughout its entire length with intensely prickly leaves. this tree was growing in an enclosed wood where cattle could not come; still, roedeer might be about, and the holly armed its young growth at the low level, although the leaders of the old stems, not less vigorous in growth, bore leaves as smooth as a camellia's. i noted one particularly suggestive tree, an unhealthy one. the growth had died back along most of the branches, which stood out bare and dry; but a recuperative effort was in progress; fresh and luxuriant growth was bursting along nearly the whole height of the stem, and the foliage of this was vigorously prickly up to about four feet, and smooth above that height. i noticed many instances of localised prickly growth where boughs, originally above the browsing level, and clothed with spineless leaves, had been weighed down and cropped by cattle. but this is merely a vigorous reaction against external injury, such as makes a clipped holly hedge bear spinous foliage from base to summit."[ ] [ ] _memories of the months_, third series, p. . this quotation shows that there is no doubt as to the facts. it is true that one finds cultivated hollies showing many variations. sometimes all the leaves are spiny, both above and below. in other varieties none of the leaves possess spines at all. yet it must be admitted that these are facts and cannot be denied.[ ] [ ] i had expressed some doubt in my _nature studies: plant life_. moreover, the osmanthus, with its holly-like leaves, the evergreen oak, and some junipers are found to show exactly the same curious difference. the perilously-situated lower leaves are more spiny than those which are above the reach of grazing animals. kerner von marilaun[ ] also has remarked a similar protective arrangement in _gleditschia chinensis_ and in the wild pear. trees of the latter, when they are young, "bristle with the spines into which the ends of the woody branches are transformed"; but tall trees twelve to fifteen feet high are entirely without thorns! [ ] _l.c._, vol. i, p. . it is when one meets coincidences of this nature that the full meaning of plant life begins to dawn upon the mind. how is it that the plant knows the time to produce its spines, and the time to refrain from doing so? there are certain queer facts that have been given on good authority as to the causes which tend to produce thorniness and spininess. linnæus, _philos. bot._, p. , § , says:-- "spinosae arbores cultura saepius deponunt spinas in hortis." lothelier found that barberries grown in a moist atmosphere had no spiny leaves, and that the thorns were far less woody under those conditions, whilst in a perfectly arid and dry atmosphere only spines were formed; a strong light also tended to produce spines. professor sickenberger grew a desert plant (_zilla myagroides_) in the botanic garden at cairo, and found that its spines were much weaker and more slender than the strong rigid thorns which cover it in its natural desert. professor henslow[ ] found that the spiny form of the rest harrow, when grown in a rich soil with an abundance of water, gradually loses its spines. all these experiments certainly show that a dry desert sort of life, and possibly strong sunlight, favour the development of spines and thorns. [ ] _origin of plant structures_, pp. - . of this there cannot be any reasonable doubt, for the extraordinary quantity of thorny, spiny things in deserts shows that there must be some connexion between such a life and their production (see chapter x.). in such places animals are always abundant. but these hollies, pears, and other plants show exactly the opposite to what we should expect. it is when the head of the young holly reaches the sunlight and feels the wind that its leaves become harmless! if one remembers the case of the young larch and its goat enemies on page , it is perhaps possible to think that the lower branches and twigs were for untold generations exposed to laceration and biting. thus, suffering from the loss of water by these regular annual wounds, the leaves developed their spines in response. so far, belief is not more difficult than it is with regard to the origin of any variety. but whenever, by reversion to their ancestral type, the original not-spiny leaves developed on the top of a tree, that tree would have an advantage, for every leaf on it would be more economically produced; a smooth leaf would not require to spend food in order to make spines. such trees, spiny below and smooth above, would be best fitted to survive, healthier and more vigorous, and in the end would leave more descendants. at the same time, such a case as this reveals again that mysterious and exquisite purposefulness which a reverent mind discovers in nature everywhere. at the same time, as we have already pointed out, we are exceedingly ignorant of many of the very commonest facts. léo errera, the great belgian botanist (whose recent death has been a terrible loss to science), collected together some facts as to the taste of cattle for various spiny and thorny plants; he found that cattle wished to eat the following: buckthorn, whin or gorse, raspberry, brambles, the scotch thistle, the creeping thistle, as well as musk, welted and slender thistles, sow thistle, and saltwort. they avoided: barberry, the petty and german whin, rest harrow, the carline, and the other thistles not given above, as well as the common juniper. they disdained or despised: sea holly, common holly, milk thistle, _lactuca_, and _urtica urens_.[ ] [ ] errera, _un ordre de recherches trop négligé_. see also ludwig, _biologie d. pflanzen_, p. . so far as the holly is concerned, it is certainly not despised by sheep and rabbits in this country. but how few are the plants investigated! several of the commonest british plants are omitted just because no one has taken the trouble to watch them. here, then, is an opportunity of discovering something new, fresh, and interesting which should be well within the reach of any one who passes his life in the country. chapter xv on nettles, sensitive plants, etc. stinging nettles at home and abroad--the use of the nettle--sham nettles--sensitive plants--mechanism--plants alive, under chloroform and ether--telegraph plant--woodsorrel--have plants nerves?--electricity in the polar regions--plants under electric shocks--currents of electricity in plants--the singing of trees to the electro-magnetic ear--experiments--electrocution of vegetables. the common nettle is one of our most interesting british plants. it is exposed to great danger; one sees it growing not only in pastures and parks, but in waste places, along roadsides, and near cultivated ground. yet it is very seldom either eaten or even touched. cattle do occasionally eat the young shoots. but this is exceptional, for even in fields where there are plenty of cattle great clumps of nettle luxuriate and increase in size every year. the stinging hairs are hollow and shaped rather like a narrow bulb or flask; the tip is slightly bent over and rounded (not sharp); the hairs contain formic acid. if one grasps the nettle or strokes it in a particular way (from below upwards) the hairs are pressed flat against the stem or broken, so that no wound is made by them in the skin and consequently they do no harm. but if the point of the hair pierces the skin, the well-known irritation is set up. that is because formic acid is poured into the wound. besides the stinging hairs which keep off all the larger animals (including man) there are others, shorter and thickly set, which do not sting at all, but are intended to keep off snails.[ ] [ ] _gard. chronicle_, , . the pain produced by our common nettle is, however, a very trifling matter compared with that produced by some of the foreign species. one of the indian kinds was used to excite and irritate bulls when they were intended to fight with tigers in the games which used to be held at some indian courts. another found in timor is called the devil's leaf; the effect of its sting may last for twelve months and may even produce death. but a still more dangerous stinging plant is a handsome tree (_laportea moroides_) found in australia. it is often - feet high, and has fine dark-green leaves often one foot in length. the sting is so powerful that even horses are killed by touching its leaves. the sting of _jatropha urens_ is so strong that people become unconscious. in java also the sting of _urtica stimulans_ continues to smart for twenty-four hours, and may produce a fever which is very difficult to shake off.[ ] [ ] lindley, _l.c._; ludwig, _l.c._ yet our common nettle is the favourite food-plant of the caterpillars of the small tortoiseshell, red admiral, peacock, camberwell beauty, and other butterflies.[ ] these caterpillars are possibly more intelligent than many of our country folk, who do not know that the nettle is a very useful plant, as the following statements most clearly prove. its young leaves make an excellent spinach, and it was, according to sir walter scott, formerly cultivated in scotland as a pot-herb. pigs, turkeys, geese, and fowls like the leaves when they are chopped up. it is said that the dried leaves and seeds will make hens lay in winter time. the seeds, under pressure, yield quite a good oil. a yellow dye can be obtained by boiling the roots with alum. an excellent string can also be made from the inner bark of the stems, which has, in fact, been used to make twine and even clothing. the nettle is also valuable as an external stimulant in cases of paralysis. [ ] _memories of the month_, first series, p. . a plant with so many wonderful properties would not be so common as it is, or so little disturbed, if it were not for its powerful stings. there are one or two plants which are extremely like the nettle at first sight. lord avebury has an illustration in his excellent little book[ ] in which it is most difficult to tell which are white deadnettles and which are stinging nettles. no doubt the harmless deadnettle is helped to escape injury by this resemblance. the hemp deadnettle and some campanulas are also very like it when growing. these also are sham nettles and may escape in the same way. [ ] _flowers, fruit, and leaves._ there are several common greenhouse primulas which also produce irritation of the skin. when handled by gardeners a painful smart is set up which lasts for some time. _primula obconica_ is the worst of these, but _p. sinensis_, _p. cortusoides_, and _p. sieboldii_ sometimes have the same effect. in all these cases it is due to a peculiar secretion of certain glandular hairs.[ ] [ ] nestler, _sitz. d. k. akad. d. wiss. wien_, vol. , p. . the methods of protection against grazing animals so far described, such as stinging hairs, thorns, spines, etc. (see page ), are obvious enough, but perhaps the most ingenious system of defence is that exhibited by the sensitive plant and a few others. when man or any heavy animal is approaching certain indian plants, their leaves suddenly drop, and the leaflets close together. the mere shaking of the ground or of the air produces these extraordinary movements in the sensitive woodsorrel (_oxalis sensitiva_), in two leguminous plants (_smithia sensitiva_ and _aeschynomene indica_), and in several mimosas. when one leaf-tip of _mimosa pudica_, the sensitive plant (_par excellence_), is touched or injured, a series of changes begin. all the little leaflets shut up one after the other; then the secondary stalks drop; after this the main stalk of the leaf suddenly droops downwards. after a short interval, the next leaf above goes through identically the same movements. if the shaking or injury is severe, every leaf from below upwards moves in the same way. one probable advantage of these movements can be understood from the behaviour of flies, which alight upon the leaves and make them drop. the flies are startled and go away. grazing animals will consider such behaviour in a vegetable as very uncanny, and will probably go to some other less ingeniously protected plant. of course such extraordinary behaviour has been a challenge to the botanical world, and there is an overwhelming mass of speculation, and observations about the sensitive plant. it has been proved that the movements are caused by the thickened part at the base of the main stalk of the leaf. this is swollen, and full of water, and much thicker than the stalk itself. it is by this thickened portion that the leaf is kept at its proper angle. when the tip of the leaf is shaken or injured, the cells on the under side of this swollen part allow their water to exude into the spaces between them, and in consequence down comes the leaf-stalk. this is not, by any means, a full or even a sufficient explanation. there is certainly some peculiar sending of messages from the tip of the leaf to the swollen part itself. it is not safe to say that it is a nerve message, but the process resembles the way in which messages are sent by the nerves in animals. not only so, but the contraction of the under side and a corresponding expansion on the upper side, resembles the muscular movements of contraction and expansion in animals. it must always be remembered that plants are alive; their living matter is not in any way (so far as we know) essentially different from that of animals or of man. their living matter (protoplasm) in leaf-stalks and leaves is cut up into boxes or cells, each enclosed in a case or wall of its own. yet these are not entirely independent and unconnected, for thin living threads run from cell to cell, so that there is an uninterrupted chain of protoplasm all along the leaf, leaf-stalk, and stem. in this particular case of the sensitive plant, the leaves at night regularly take up the position which they adopt when injured or shaken during the daytime. the easiest way to produce the shrinking of the leaves is, as has been mentioned, to hold a lighted match a little below the leaf-tip. severe shaking, a strong electric shock, or a railway journey will also produce closing of the leaves. under chloroform or ether, or if the atmospheric pressure is suddenly diminished, the leaves will also fall. in some respects they are very lifelike, for if too often stimulated they become "fatigued," and will not react unless a sufficient interval of rest is allowed them. the reaction occurs very soon if the plant is in good condition: in less than one second it begins, and the leaf-stalk may fall in two to five seconds, but the recovery is very slow. vivisection is a cruel sort of proceeding, although it may sometimes be necessary. the most curious vivisections have been performed on mimosa. when the leaflets are cut off, it is possible, on a stimulus being applied, to see water oozing out of the cut surface of the stalk. this would go to show that it is the water being discharged from the leaf-base that produces the movement. there are, however, many points in the behaviour of the sensitive plant which have not yet been explained. possibly the curious semaphore or telegraph plants, whose leaflets suddenly and without any obvious reason move with a jerk through an angle of several degrees, may also be protected from animals by this uncanny and unusual behaviour. but though the sensitive plant is certainly protected from grazing animals by these movements, other advantages may be derived. heavy rain, for instance, such as occurs in the tropics, will not injure its delicate leaves. dust-storms will not damage it, and at night there will be no loss of heat by radiation. the "shrunk" or folded condition of the leaflets will decrease any chance of injury by raindrops, for the rain will not fall on the broad surface of the leaflets. a nearly vertical leaf also will not suffer the loss of heat which a horizontal one would endure. besides the plants mentioned above, there are several others in which by a rather severe shaking the leaves can be made to fold up. this is the case with the common woodsorrel (_oxalis acetosella_), with the false acacia (_robinia_), and a few others. the former has a peculiarly delicate leaf. in cold, wet weather its leaflets hang limp and numb from the leaf-stalk all day. in fine weather they are spread out horizontally. on a fine sunny afternoon its leaflets may sometimes take a mid-day sleep, for they hang loosely down in the same way that they do in cold, wet weather or at night. but in the woodsorrel these movements are not for protection against grazing animals. there are other examples amongst plants of a distinct sudden movement which begins whenever part of the plant is touched. the movements of tendrils have been already referred to. the venus' fly trap and the sundew will be mentioned when we are discussing insectivorous plants. there are also several flowers in which the stamens suddenly spring up when they are touched by an insect (barberry, centaurea, and sparmannia), and in mimulus the style-flaps close when touched (see p. ). all these cases seem to involve some sort of mechanism which replaces the nervous system of animals. no very definite laws have yet been discovered as to the way in which plants are affected by electricity, but enough is known to show that there are many interesting discoveries in prospect. professor lemström has made some interesting experiments in the polar regions which go to show that the rich development of plant life in that desolate region may be connected with the peculiar electrical conditions of the polar atmosphere; the aurora borealis, which is a common phenomenon there, being also produced by those conditions. several writers have claimed that slight electric shocks given at frequent intervals help the growth of plants and especially quicken the germination of seeds, but it can scarcely be said that this has been proved. when a branch or leaf-stalk is wounded or injured by being tightly clamped in a vice, then it will be found that a current of electricity passes from the injured spot to the part that is untouched, and then in the reverse direction. changes of current are also produced when a leaf is suddenly exposed to light for a short time and then shaded. one of the most interesting observations is that made by major squiers near lorin station, in america, where the california gas and electric corporation of san francisco has a long-distance transmission telegraph line. the power is transmitted at a voltage of , with a frequency of sixty cycles per second (three-phase). major squiers, from previous experiments, thought that a note corresponding to this frequency might be heard in a telephone receiver. the following was the result:-- "upon connecting the telephone between two nails driven in any growing tree along the route of the line, and at a reasonable distance therefrom, the telephone responded to this note with great clearness, and when the distance was not more than feet, the sound was very loud. for this experiment no microphone need be used, nor any source of electromotive force other than that induced in the tree itself, the telephone being connected directly between two nails driven into the tree.... "several kinds of trees of various sizes and forms were examined along this power transmission line, and all were found to be singing with a loud voice the fundamental note characteristic of the line current. indeed, the strip of vegetation along this line has thus been singing continuously, day and night, for several years, since the operation of the line began; it needed only the electro-magnetic ear to make the sound apparent.... "the general appearance of vegetation along this route is certainly vigorous."[ ] [ ] squiers, "on the absorption of electro-magnetic waves by living vegetable organisms," december , . an interesting little experiment was carried out by the author in glasgow, with the kind help of professor blyth, at the glasgow and west of scotland technical college. by attaching one wire to the upper part of the stem of a young pot-plant whilst the other wire was inserted in the base of the stem, it was easy to show that an electric current was passing--at any rate, during the daytime. in the evening, however, this was not at all distinct. that such currents do occur in living trees seems to be admitted. a similar current was not found in a stick of dead-wood. the mere passage of the water through the plant in transpiration might, however, cause such a current, for the water is evaporated at the leaves. a strong electric shock may of course _electrocute_ a plant by killing the cells. it is possible to cause the mimosa leaves to close by means of an electric shock. chapter xvi on flowers of the water the first plant--seaweeds in hot baths--breaking of the meres--gory dew--plants driven back to the water--marsh plants--fleur-de-lis--reeds and rushes--floating islands--water-lilies--_victoria regia_--plants feet deep--life in a pond, as seen by an inhabitant--fish-farming--the useful diatom--willows and alders--polluted streams--the hornwort--the florida hyacinth--reeds and grass-reeds--the richest lands in the world--papyrus of egypt--birds and hippopotami--fever and ague. what was the first green plant? when was the surface of the earth first covered with flowers? such questions are quite impossible to answer. we cannot even tell how plants ever came to exist on the earth at all. wonderful as are the stories of the hardihood of bacteria, of spores, and of seeds, it is not possible to imagine that they could have been whirled or drifted through infinite space to this particular planet. yet it is at least probable that the first real plant on this world was a seaweed or alga. in germany and austria there are certain springs in which the water coming from immense depths is at an exceedingly high temperature. these hot springs are used as natural hot baths, and have many interesting peculiarities. amongst others there is the fact that certain seaweeds or algæ are found luxuriating in the hot water. some of these can even live in springs with a temperature of ° f.! such algæ may have remained living in exceedingly hot water ever since that long distant time, the very first of all the geological periods, when there was no distinct separation betwixt land and water, and when the waters which were below the firmament had not been separated from those which were above it. then the world seems to have been all fog and mist at a very high temperature. but all theories on the origin of the world might be briefly summarized by the last nine words! at any rate, the first plant was almost certainly a seaweed or alga not unlike those which produce the so-called "breaking of the meres." at some seasons the water of certain lakes, usually quite clear and pure, becomes discoloured, turbid, and everywhere crowded with multitudes of tiny, bright, verdigris-green specks. the fish at once begin to sulk, refuse to take the fly, and live torpid at the bottom of the water. the minute green particles consist of a certain seaweed or alga. mr. phillips put the head of a common pin in the water so as to obtain a very small drop. when placed under a microscope, this minute amount of water was found to contain individual algæ.[ ] this was in newton mere (shropshire), and as this lake extends over acres, it is possible to imagine the millions upon millions of algæ which must have existed in it. the names of these seaweeds are many thousand times longer than the algæ themselves, and it is not really necessary to give them. one of them, however, _aphanizomenon flos-aquæ_, has been noticed "tingeing with its delicate green hue the margin of the smallest of the lochs maben, in dumfriesshire."[ ] yet it is not so big as the dot on the _i_ in its name. many other cases have been recorded of lakes that were coloured sometimes a "pea-green," or even brown or red by similar tiny little seaweeds. as we shall see, the water of such lakes generally contains a very large amount of suspended or floating vegetable life. [ ] cooke, _british freshwater algæ_, on the authority of phillips, _trans. shropshire natural history society_. [ ] dickie, _journal bot. soc. edin._, vol. , p. . another curious appearance is _gory dew_. patches of a deep blood-red or purple colour are found on the ground or on walls. they have just the appearance of recently-shed blood. this also is due to an alga (_porphyridium cruentum_). dr. cooke quotes from drayton as follows: "in the plain, near hastings, where the norman william, after his victory found king harold slain, he built battle abbey, which at last, as divers other monasteries, grew to a town enough populous. thereabout is a place which, after rain, always looks red, which some have attributed to a very bloody sweat of the earth, as crying to heaven for vengeance of so great a slaughter." the ordinary "rain of blood" which appears on _not too fresh_ meat, and looks like minute specks of red-currant jelly, is due to one of the bacteria (_micrococcus prodigiosus_). the original algæ or seaweeds probably had descendants which migrated to the land and eventually after many geological periods became our flowering plants and ferns. but the earth has become so richly supplied with plants of all sorts and kinds that it is now by no means easy for any plant to find a roothold for its existence. so that a considerable number have been forced back to the water, and have accustomed themselves to live in or even under water in company with their lowly cousins, the seaweeds, who remained below its surface. these water plants are very interesting. they are always competing with one another. there is a perpetual struggle going on round every pond and loch, and by every river side. if you look carefully round the edge of a loch or pond which lies in a grass field, certain series of plants are generally found to follow one another in quite a definite way. the first sign of water in grass is generally the presence of moss or "fog" between the grass-stems and the appearance of what farmers call the "blue carnation grass." it is not a grass but a sedge (_carex glauca_ or _c. panicea_) with leaves rather like those of a carnation. a little nearer the border of the pond, there may be a tall coarse grass (_aira caespitosa_ or _festuca elatior_). next there is almost certain to be a fringe of rushes. where the rushes begin to find the ground too wet for them, all sorts of marsh plants flourish, such as water plantain, cuckoo-flower, the spearwort buttercup, woundwort, and the like. as soon as the actual water begins, one finds, whilst it is still shallow, the flag series of yellow or purple irises, bogbeans, marsh cinquefoil, mare's tail, and sedges of various kinds. in this part the water ranges from an inch or two to about eighteen inches deep. the flag or iris is a very common and yet interesting plant. it has a stout, fleshy stem lying flat on the mud, and anchored to it by hundreds of little roots. the flower is the original of the fleur-de-lis, or lily of france, which took the fancy of the king of france as he rode through the marshes towards paris. (it is true that there are some unromantic authors who hold that the emblem was really intended to represent a frog or toad!) the flower consists of three upright petals and three hollow sepals, which make so many canals leading down to the honey, and roofed over by an arched and coloured style. as the bee hurries down the canal to its nectar, its back is first brushed by a narrow lip-like stigma and then dusted with pollen. the leaves overlap in a curious way, and, when they have withered, their stringy remains serve to protect the fleshy stem. _orris root_, which is used in perfumery, is the stem of the _iris florentina_. most of the other plants in this flag series will be found to have prostrate main stems growing under the water, but giving off flowering and foliage stems which stand up above it, so that the leaves and flowers are above the surface. in the next part of the pond, where the water is from eighteen inches to nine feet deep, masses of reeds will be found usually swaying, sighing, and whispering in the wind. there are many kinds, such as bulrushes, phragmites, horsetail, scirpus, etc. it seems to be the depth, the exposure to wind, the character of the soil, and other unknown factors, that determine which of those will be present. all of them are tall, standing well above the water; their main stem is usually flat on the bottom of the pond, or floating horizontally in the water, but giving off many upright branches. floating islands are often formed by some of these horizontal main stems breaking off and being carried away. those chinese who possess no land make floating islands of such reeds for themselves, and grow crops on them. there are hundreds of such islands in the canton river. [illustration: _stereo copyright, underwood & underwood_ _london and new york_ a leaf raft victoria regia, the giant water-lily of the amazons. those shown are in a public park in minnesota and are able to support the weight of a child. in their native home the leaves are said to be ten feet in diameter.] beyond the reeds, one sees the large flat, floating leaves and beautiful cup-like white or yellow flowers of the water-lilies. they grow in water which is not more than fifteen feet deep. their long stalks and leaf-stalks are flexible and yield readily, so as to keep the flowers and leaves floating. there are narrow submerged leaves as well. the actual stem of the white water-lily is about three inches in diameter, and stout and fleshy. it is full of starchy material, and lies upon the mud deep down at the bottom of the pond. there are many advantages in the position of the flowers, for bees, flies, and other useful insects can reach them easily, but slugs, snails, and other enemies cannot do so. the little seeds have a curious lifebelt-like cup, which enables them to float on the surface. of course, our own british water-lilies cannot compare with the magnificent _victoria regia_ of the tropics. its petals are white or pink on the inside, and its gigantic leaves, six feet or more in diameter, can support a retriever dog or a child. there used to be some of them at kew gardens. a curious point about these enormous floating leaves is that they are covered with little spiny points on the under side and at the margin; that is probably to keep some sort of fish from nibbling at the edges. but to return to our pond. beyond the water-lily region and so long as the water is from twelve to twenty-four feet deep, pondweeds are able to grow, and their leaves may be seen in the water, whilst their stalks stand up above the surface so as to allow wind to scatter the pollen. this depth of twenty-four feet seems at first sight very great, but it is a mere nothing compared with the regions entirely below the water, where certain stoneworts (_chara_) and mosses have been found flourishing. the former has been dredged up from depths of ninety feet, and a little moss was discovered in the lake of geneva growing quite comfortably at a depth of feet below the surface. but it is quite impossible to appreciate the wonder and beauty of the life in a pond unless by a strong effort of the imagination. suppose yourself to be a fish two or three inches long, and accustomed to the dim, mysterious light which filters down through the water from the sky above. every here and there great olive-brown leaf-stalks and stems cross and, branching, intercept the light. everything, the surface of the mud, the stems and branches of the submerged water-plants, is covered by an exquisite golden-brown powder, which consists of hundreds and thousands of "diatoms." here and there from the pondweed and other stems hang festoons or wreaths or threads of beautiful green algæ. little branching sprays of them, or perhaps of the brown kind, are attached here and there to the thick stems. even the very water is full of small, floating, vivid green stars or crescents or three-cornered pieces which are free floating algæ or desmids. other diatoms are also free or swim with a cork-screwing motion through the water. great snails and slugs crawl upon the plants, and weird large-eyed creatures, with a superfluity of legs and an entire absence of reserve as to what is going on inside their bodies, skirmish around. so that such a pond is full of vegetable activity. the free-swimming diatoms and desmids make up the food of the snails and crustaceans. these latter in turn are the food of fishes. it is even possible to-day by carefully stocking an artificial pond with water plants, by then introducing mollusca and crustacea, and finally by the introduction of "eyed ova" or fry of the trout, carp, or other fishes, to produce a regular population of fishes which can be made more or less profitable, and the process can be spoken of as "fish-farming." unfortunately there are a great many gaps in our knowledge as to what fish actually feed on, and we know even less about what the mollusca and crustacea require. there is, however, a distinct annual harvest of these minute seaweeds, of which different sorts appear to develop one after the other, just as flowering plants do. the two months january and february, which are almost without flowers, are also those in which most of these minute vegetables take their repose in the form of cysts or spores. but these diatoms are too important and too interesting to be dismissed in such a cursory manner. each consists of a tiny speck of living matter with a drop or two of oil enclosed in a variously sculptured flinty shell. they have, in fact, been compared to little protected cruisers which pass to and fro in the water and multiply with the most extraordinary rapidity. if you ( ) use dynamite to blast a rock, ( ) if you employ a microscope or telescope, ( ) if you paint an oil picture, ( ) if you make a sound-proof partition in a set of offices, the probability is that it has been necessary to use the substance diatomite in each case. this consists of the accumulated shells of myriads of diatoms. nor does that represent by any means the whole of the usefulness of these tiny seaweeds. the oil shales, such as occur in linlithgowshire and elsewhere, are supposed to be the muddy, oily deposits of such ponds as we have endeavoured to describe. the oil found in the shales was probably worked up by these diatoms in long-past geological ages. it may be used to-day either ( ) to drive motors, ( ) to light lamps, ( ) to burn as so-called "wax" candles, ( ) to eat (as an inferior sort of chocolate cream). interesting as these diatoms are, it is not really possible to understand their structure without the use of a microscope, so that we must pass on to another side of the activity of water plants. let us, for instance, notice some of the ordinary plants to be found along a riverside. willows and alders are the ordinary trees, because they are specially fitted to stand the danger of being regularly overflowed. they easily take root, so that branches broken off and floated down are enabled to form new trees without much difficulty. in the united states, it has become a custom to plant willows along the banks, because they are then not so liable to be broken down and worn away. yet when a big willow tree has become undermined, the weight of the trunk may cause it to fall over towards the water, so that a large section of the bank may be loosened and serious damage may be done if it is torn away by a heavy flood. amongst such willows, should be mentioned the "cricket bat" kind, which has to be grown with the very greatest care, and of which a single tree may be worth £ . many of our rivers are, alas, sadly polluted by artificial and other impurities which kill the fishes and destroy the natural vegetation. when this happens a horrible-looking whitish fungus (_apodytes lactea_) coats the stones and banks under water and the water swarms with bacteria. this fungus and the bacteria are really purifying the water, for they break up the decaying matter in it. the oily or slimy character of the outside skin of all submerged plants is of very great importance to them. it allows the water to glide or slip over them without any friction. still keeping to our river bank, let us look for submerged plants. what is that dark green feathery plume? it is the hornwort (_ceratophyllum_) gently wriggling or moving from side to side. it has probably never been still for a moment since it first began to grow. take it out of the water, and it collapses into a moist, unpleasant little body, but as soon as it is put in its natural element again it is seen to have a thin flexible stem along which there are circles of curved, finely divided leaves. watch it in the water and one is filled with astonishment at the perfection of the shape, arrangement, and character of the leaves, which enables them to hold their place even when a flood may cover them with an extra twenty feet of water! the same sort of leaf, but with great difference in detail, is found in the submerged water crowfoot, water milfoil, potamogetons, and others which live under the same conditions. if it were the st. john's river, we might see that extraordinary florida hyacinth which has swollen, gouty-looking leaf-stalks, and grows with such extraordinary rapidity that it covers the whole surface of rivers, choking the paddle-wheels of steamers and destroying the trade in timber, for no logs can be floated down when it covers the water. its rosettes float on the surface, and are very interesting to examine. if you upset one or turn it upside down in the water, the "buoys" or swollen stalks act as a self-righting arrangement, and it slowly returns to its proper position. but in most rivers, one is certain to come across backwaters where it is impossible to force a boat through on account of the reeds and other marsh-plants. there are places on the danube where hundreds of square miles are occupied by waving masses of the feathery-plumed phragmites, almost to the exclusion of any other sort of vegetation. giant specimens of it eighteen feet high have been observed. the same reed occurs in north and south america and far up towards the arctic regions. at first sight it seems as if this was a mistake of nature; why should so much of the surface be occupied by this useless vegetable? but it is necessary to say a little more about its habits and its object in life. the most interesting and curious point is the way in which it grows in dense thickets; the main stem is really horizontal and below the water, but it gives off a number of upright stalks. now every flood will carry in amongst the stalks quantities of silt and rubbish. those upright stems will sift the water: all sorts of floating material, sand, silt, dead leaves, fruit, etc., are left amongst them. so that such a marsh or bed of phragmites is gradually, flood by flood, collecting the deposits of mud, and the bed becomes every year more shallow. at the edge of the marsh there is scarcely any water visible, and grasses and other plants are beginning to grow between the phragmites stems. eventually these latter are choked out, and a marshy alluvial flat occupies the site of the old reed-bed. so that the work of phragmites is of the greatest possible importance: it has to form those fertile alluvial flats which are found along the course of every great river, and which are by far the most valuable lands in the whole world. look, for instance, at the population of belgium, holland, and lower germany, and notice how dense it is upon the alluvial flats where the meuse, rhine, and other rivers approach the sea. it is just the same in britain. london lies on the great alluvial flats of the thames, glasgow on the clyde, liverpool on the mersey. in china it is the yang-tze-kiang valley (especially near its mouth); in india, the ganges, of lower bengal, and in the argentine the la plata river, which show the greatest accumulations of humanity. in every case it is the rich flat alluvium, which is exceedingly fertile when drained and cultivated, that has originally attracted so many people. lower egypt is the gift of the nile, but it is not so much the nile as these neglected water plants which made the rich lucerne, cotton, and food crops of lower egypt possible. amongst the egyptian reeds one especially is of great importance. the _papyrus antiquorum_, ten feet high, has much the same habit as our phragmites and other water plants. it forms dense, almost impassable thickets, sometimes completely occupying and choking a small valley, or leaving only a passage, often changing and half choked, through a larger one. this, with other plants, makes the "sudd" of the nile, which is one enormous accumulation of marsh plants and reeds floating on the water and covering a length of over miles. it was from the papyrus that the ancient egyptians made their paper. the stems are six to seven inches in diameter. "the pith of the larger flowering stems ... cut into thin strips, united together by narrowly overlapping margins, and then crossed under pressure by a similar arrangement of strips at right angles, constitutes the papyrus of antiquity." these great marshes and reed-beds are full of interest to naturalists. the fens of lincolnshire and the norfolk broads show the way in which water plants keep hold of the worn and travelled rubbish of the hills, and prevent most of it from becoming useless, barren sea-sands. these places, however, like the sudd of the nile, and the roman "campagna," have an evil reputation so far as climate is concerned. this used to be the case even in lower chelsea, in london (where snipe were shot not so very long ago). it is as if nature had desired to do her own work in peace and without being disturbed, for fever, ague, mosquitoes, and malaria are very common. yet a certain number of people always live in such places. in france, e.g., the leeches in the great marshes near the landes form a source of riches. such reeds also are or were the home of the hippopotamus, crocodile, and other extraordinary animals. the extinct british hippopotamus no doubt found in the chelsea or other marshes a home as congenial to its tastes as is the sudd of egypt to its living descendants or allies. in other places the enormous quantities of water birds, myriads of ducks, geese, swans, regiments of flamingoes, snipe, and the like, have called into existence peculiar kinds of industry in fowling and netting that are not without importance. the decoys in the fens yield hundreds of birds for the london market, and the duck-punts with their huge guns also bring in quantities of wild fowl. but all this industry is very trifling compared with that of phragmites and its associates, who have strained from the water of the thames most of the ground on which london now stands. chapter xvii on grasslands where is peace?--troubles of the grass--roadsides--glaciers in switzerland--strength and gracefulness of grasses--rainstorms--dangers of drought and of swamping--artificial fields--farmer's abstruse calculations--grass mixtures--tennis lawns--the invasion of forest--natural grass--prairie of the united states, red indian, cowboy--pampas and gaucho--thistles and tall stories--south africa and boers--hunting of the tartars--an unfortunate chinese princess--australian shepherds. where should one seek for peace on earth? the ideal chosen for one well-known picture is a grassy down "close clipt by nibbling sheep," such as the fresh green turf of the south downs. others might prefer the "constable country," near perhaps the famous "valley farm" of which the picture now hangs in the national gallery, and especially in early spring. at any rate, once seen, one remembers for ever afterwards those glossy-coated, well-fed, leisurely cows grazing hock-deep in rich meadows full of bright flowers and graceful grasses, through which there winds a very lazy river bordered by trim pollarded willows. the charm of the south downs and of constable's meadows depends upon their peaceful quiet, and the absence of any sign of the handiwork of disturbing man. but such meadows are entirely artificial. they could no more exist in nature than a coal-mine, if it were not for man's help. moreover, they are in a state of perpetual war! no plant within them experiences the blessings of peace from the time it germinates until the day that it dies. each plant is fighting with its neighbours for light, for air, for water, and for salts in the soil, and it is also trying to protect itself against grazing animals, against the vole which gnaws its roots, and against the insects and caterpillars which try to devour its buds. besides its own private and individual troubles, it is but one of a whole company or army of plants which, like a cooperative society, occupy the field. other societies, such as peat-moss, thickets, and woods, try to drive out the grasses and cover that particular place in its stead. the grassland companions are also always trying to take up new ground, and to cover over any which is not strongly held by other plants. a road, for instance, is always being attacked by the grassland near it. it is sure to have a distinct border of rat's tail plantain, dandelion, creeping buttercup, and yellow clovers. these are the advanced guard of the grassland. however heavily you tread upon these plants, you will do them no injury whatever, for they are specially designed to resist heavy weights. but, if the road were only left alone, these bordering plants would be very soon choked out. the ordinary buttercup would replace the creeping species, and white or red clovers take the place of the little yellow ones, whilst grasses would very soon spring up all over it. but of course the roadman comes and scrapes off all the new growth of colonizing grasses, etc. then the plantains, dandelions, and yellow clovers patiently begin their work again. [illustration: _stereo copyright, underwood & underwood_ _london & new york_ the felling of giant trees in california these sequoias grow to from to feet high, though they are not quite the tallest trees in the world. (see page .)] in switzerland, in those valleys in which the glaciers are melting away, leaving stretches of bare mud, scratched stones, and polished rock, plants immediately begin to settle there. a swiss botanist watched the process during five or six years, and describes how first the yellow saxifrage (_s. aizoides_) establishes itself. next season coltsfoot, willow-herb, oxyria, and two grasses had planted themselves. during the third season another grass came in. by the fourth season, fescues and yarrow had appeared, and by the fifth season, five grasses, clovers, and yarrow had formed a regular grassland upon the new untouched soil.[ ] [ ] coaz, _mittheilungen d. naturf_, berne, . in such cases, nature, who abhors bare ground, is endeavouring to clothe it with useful vegetation. the fights which are going on are of the most ruthless character. many weeds are said to produce some , seeds in one year, and every plant which grows in a meadow is scattering thousands of seeds. but of course the number of plants remains much the same, so that , seeds are wasted (or the seedlings choked out) for every one that grows up! it is probably because of this perpetual warfare that the growth of the grasses is so vigorous, and their whole structure so perfectly adapted. if you watch a flowering grass, you are sure to notice how narrow is its stem compared with the height. a factory chimney only fifty-eight feet high requires to be at least four feet broad at the base, yet a ryeplant millimetres high may be only three millimetres broad near the root. man's handiwork, the chimney, is in height seventeen times its diameter, but the height of the grass is times its diameter. the neatness of design, the graceful curves and perfect balance in the little flowering branches at the top of a haulm, is always worth looking at, and particularly in the early morning when it is beset with sparkling drops of dew. it is all wiry, bending and swaying to the wind so as to produce those waves which roll across a hay-field, and on which the shimmering light is reflected and changes colour. the fight for light and air, the struggle to get their heads up above their competitors, produces all this exquisite mechanism. it is true that a heavy rainstorm may beat the stems flat down to the ground, but, as soon as the weather becomes dry again these same stems will raise themselves up and become upright; they have a special sensitiveness and a special kind of growth which enables them to do this. there are two special dangers which all such artificial meadows have to withstand. let us see what will happen if such a meadow begins to dry up through a sinking of the level of the water below the soil. each grass has its own special favourite amount of moisture. it likes to have its water at just one particular depth below the surface. unfortunately there are not nearly enough sympathetic and careful observations of the preferences of each individual grass. a danish author has worked out the facts in certain localities (geest). suppose first that the water-level of the wells, etc., is - / to - / feet below the surface. this suits the meadow poa grass (_poa pratensis_) exactly. it will grow luxuriantly and flourish. now suppose the weather is very wet, so that the water rises in the wells till they are three to four feet deep. the roughish poa (_p. trivialis_) prefers this moister soil, and it will grow so vigorously that it will kill out the other kind. if it is a season of very heavy floods, or if the drains become choked so that the water rises to within fourteen to twenty-five inches of the surface, then the tufted aira (_deschampsia caespitosa_) will kill out the other kinds and flourish abundantly. but if the water rises higher than this the marsh series comes in (see chap. xvi.). so that the thirsty grasses of the meadow are helped or hindered in their fight for life by changes in the water away down in the soil below their roots. even in great britain one can see distinct differences in very dry and very wet summers, but all these pastures, meadowlands, and hay-fields are, as we have already mentioned, as much due to man's forethought and industry as a factory or coal-mine. it is very difficult to realize this. the best way is to go to the national, or any other good picture-gallery, and look carefully at any landscapes painted before the year . you will scarcely believe that the country as painted can be the land we know. where is the "awful orderliness" of england? where are the trim hedges? where are the tidy roadsides and beautifully embanked rivers that we see to-day? as a matter of fact, until the great macadam made good roads and the great telford and other engineers built stone bridges, it was impossible to rely on getting about with carts and carriages. gentlemen's coaches and wagons used to be literally stuck in the mud! horses were drowned at fords, or died in their struggles to pull very light loads through mud which nearly reached the axles of the wheels (see chap. xi.). besides the change due to roads, fences, drains, and farm buildings, the very grasses themselves are growing unnaturally. the farmer has selected and sown what he thinks best. he is obliged to do so, because grasses vary so much. some of them shoot up quickly and die after the first year. others live for two years, whilst a great many bide their time, developing very slowly, and not reaching their full growth until the fourth or fifth year. some are tall and vigorous, others are short; some flower early in the season, and others very late. many send out quantities of suckers or runners at the base, so that they form a dense, intricate turf--a mass of stems and roots thickly covering the ground. a farmer wants his pasture to begin early and to continue late; he must have a good first year's crop, and it must remain good for years afterwards. so that his calculations as regards the proportions of the different grass seeds which he requires are of the most abstruse character. to sow such "permanent pasture," prepared by blending together grasses and clovers with an eye to all the above necessities, there will be needed some seven million seeds for every acre. the art consists in coaxing the good, lasting, nutritious ones to make both tall hay, rich aftermath, and a close, thick turf below, and, until these are ready, to use the annual and biennial grasses. such beautifully shaven, green, soft turf as one sees in the lawns of cathedrals or the "quads" at oxford and cambridge has been most carefully and regularly watered, rolled, and mown for hundreds of years. it is not easy to keep even a tennis-lawn in good condition. little tufts of daisies appear. their leaves lie so flat that they escape the teeth of the mower, and they are not so liable to be injured by tennis-shoes as the tiny upright grass-shoots which are trying to spring up everywhere. the plantain is even worse, for it is specially built to stand heavy weights, and it has several roots which divide and branch like the prongs which fix teeth in the jaw, so that it is very difficult to howk it out. thus our grasslands in britain are unnatural and artificial productions. if the field drains are choked, moss or fog and rushes appear. still more interesting, however, is what happens if the farmer is not careful to destroy the taller weeds, such as dock, ragweed, cow parsnip, thistles, and the like. if you walk over a grass-field in early spring, you are sure to see some of these pests. at this stage they have a very humble, weak, and innocent appearance: they are quite small rosettes or tufts. yet they are crowded with leaves, which are hard at work busily manufacturing food material. soon they begin to shoot up. their leaves overreach all the neighbouring grasses. their roots spread in every direction, taking what ought to go to the "good green herb intended for the service of man." they finally accomplish their wickedness by producing thousands of seeds, which are scattered broadcast over the fields. by this time the farmer sees what is going on, and endeavours to cut them down; but it is a long, slow, and laborious proceeding. one year's seeding means seven years' weeding. yet these tall thistles and ragweeds are only the first stage of a very interesting invasion. look around the field corners, on railway-banks, or in old quarries, where man has left things alone. you will see these same tall herbs (the ragweed, etc.), but you are sure to find a place where they are being suppressed by rasps, briers, and brambles. these are taller, stronger, and more vigorous than the herbs, and they also last longer, for their leaves are still at work in november. this is the second stage of the invasion. but if the place has been long neglected, hawthorns and rowans, birch and ash will be found growing up. these last show what is happening. a wood is trying to grow up on the grassland. if left alone, an oak or beech forest would, after many years, spread over all our grass pastures and hay-fields. these tall herbs are the pioneers, and the briers and brambles are its advanced guard. as a matter of fact, by far the greatest part of our agricultural land _was_ a forest, but it has been cut down, drained, dug, weeded, hedged, and "huzzed and maazed" with agricultural implements and more or less scientifically selected manures, until it is made to yield good beef, excellent mutton, and almost the largest crops per acre in the world. natural grasslands exist, however, in every continent. the great steppes of southern russia and the pastures that extend far to the eastward even to the very borders of china, the prairies of north america, the pampas of argentina, the great sheep-farms of australia, and a large proportion of south africa, consist of wide, treeless, grassy plains, where forests only occur along the banks of rivers, in narrow hill-valleys, or upon mountains of considerable altitude. upon these great plateaux or undulating hills the rainfall, though it is but small in amount, is equally distributed, so that there is no lengthy and arid dry season. take the american prairie, for instance. these valuable lands, once the home of unnumbered bison and hordes of antelopes, lie between the ancient forests of the eastern states and the half-deserts and true salt deserts of the extreme west. rivers, accompanied in their windings by riverside forests, are found (especially in the east). the real prairie has a blackish, loamy soil, covered sometimes by the rich buffalo or mesquite grass, which forms a short, velvety covering, not exactly a turf such as we find in england, but still true grassland. it is only green in early spring. [illustration: a bushman digging up elephant's foot the bushman is levering up the root of elephant's foot to get the starchy food inside. he does it by a stick run through a rounded stone. the woman has caught a lizard for the boy to eat.] from the spring onwards until the end of summer there is an endless succession of flowers. the first spring blossoms appear in april; great stretches are covered with pentstemons, cypripediums, and many others in may and june; then follow tall, herbaceous phloxes, lilies, and asclepiads, but perhaps the most characteristic flora blossoms still later on, when every one "wants to be in kansas when the sunflowers bloom." over these prairies used to travel the great wagons or "prairie schooners." the cowboy, who almost lives on horseback, watches over great herds of cattle and troops of half-wild horses. yet his life is, or used to be, almost as free, comfortless, and uncivilized as that of the buffalo-hunting indian who preceded him. one must not forget to mention the prairie-dog--able to utilize the abundant grass, and diving into a safe refuge underground when threatened by the wolves or other carnivorous creatures, which, of course, multiplied exceedingly, thanks to the jack-hare, antelopes, and bisons. the pampas in south america is a similar grassland. on the east it stops at the woodlands along the great plate river, but on the west it becomes gradually more dry and arid, until long before the andes are reached it is too dry even to carry sheep, and can only be described as a half-desert. "it is a boundless sea of grasses fading into the distant horizon, which can only be distinguished when the sun is rising or setting." yet amongst the grasses are hundreds of flowers, and, a fact which is very remarkable, many of them, such as fennel, artichoke, milk thistle, burdock, rye grass, etc., are european plants which have dispossessed the natives over miles of country, exactly as the gaucho has driven away or exterminated the indians who lived there. it is covered by tufts of grass betwixt which appears the rich alluvial earth, yet in good years it may become almost a perfect grass floor. "the colour changes greatly, for in spring when the old grass is burnt off, it is coal-black, which changes to a bright blue-green as soon as the young leaves appear; later on it becomes brownish green, which again changes when the silver-white flowers come out to the appearance of a rolling, waving sea of shining silver." here would be the place to mention how an army encamped upon the pampas finds itself next morning imprisoned and doomed to perish miserably in a forest of giant thistles which has sprung up during the night. there is no doubt that thistles and other weeds are very tall in both south and north america. fennels are ten to twelve feet high, and even little chenopodiums (such as in england may reach eighteen inches), become in south america seven to eight feet high, but the tallness of some of the stories is more remarkable even than that of the plants! over the pampas used to roam thousands of guanacos (a creature of the most unlovely type, which resembles both a camel, a mule, a deer, and a horse); here also were darwin's ostriches (_rhea darwinii_) and other game, which were caught by the lasso and by the peculiar "bolas" of the indians. they used to surround the herds and then massacre them by hundreds. the "tuco tuco" also, which is a burrowing rodent with habits very like those of the prairie dog, finds plenty of sustenance in the abundant grasses. upon them subsist pumas, foxes, and other carnivores. we have said that the pampas gradually changes from being very fertile on the east to being almost a desert on the west. here is the place to mention a very interesting, if not romantic, fact. the guanaco does _not_ travel hundreds of miles in order to die in one particular spot as soon as it feels ill, but it does resort especially to certain spots. there the grass is often a bright, fresh green, for it is plentifully manured, and consequently the guanaco helps to encourage the good grasses to occupy a half-desert. on the eastern side of the pampas great changes are beginning to appear. the owners of the great camps, haciendas or cattle-ranches let off small parts of their land to italian "colonists." these people grow crops of indian corn, and when that has been reaped, the valuable alfalfa or lucerne is sown down. this forms the most exquisite and valuable pasture, and consequently far more shorthorn and durham cattle can be maintained. there are in south africa enormous grassy plains, where once springbok and other game used to exist in enormous herds (wangeman records having seen a herd of antelope four miles long), in spite of lions and other beasts of prey, and in spite also of the boer, who was as much a horseman as the gaucho or red indian. the great buck wagons of south africa were almost as much the real homes of the boers as the two-roomed huts which make up his "farms." the great steppes of russia and siberia are also grasslands. "as seen from a distance hills covered by the stipa grass resemble sand-hills, but, when nearer at hand, the sand-grey colour changes into a silvery white, and these ever-moving grasses remind one of the waves of the ocean and, in spite of their monotony, leave a pleasant impression."[ ] [ ] schimper, _l.c._; drude, _l.c._ tulips, hyacinths, veronicas, periwinkles, scotch thistles, euphorbias, wormwoods, and other of our common plants or their near cousins, make up most of the flora of the steppes. yet there are hundreds of others, for it is a vegetation very rich in species. if one reads in gibbon's stately language of the mode of life of the huns, the scythians, and those other barbarians who, originating in these huge grasslands, occasionally overflowed and overwhelmed the civilization of declining rome, the resemblance to red indians, pampas indians, cowboys, gauchos, and boers is not a little striking. read, for instance, the magnificent account of the great hunting matches of the tartar princes. "a circle is drawn of many miles in circumference, to encompass the game of an extensive district; and the troops that form the circle regularly advance towards a common centre, where the animals, surrounded on every side, are abandoned to the darts of the hunters." both the red indians of the prairie and the savages of the pampas used to surround and destroy the game in exactly the same way. the unfortunate chinese princess given over for political advantages to a prince of the huns, "laments that she had been condemned by her parents to a distant exile, under a barbarian husband, and complains that sour milk was her only drink, raw flesh her only food, a tent her only palace." this describes exactly the ordinary life and home of the huns. "the scythians of every age have been celebrated as bold and skilful riders; and constant practice had seated them so firmly on horseback, that they were supposed by strangers to perform the ordinary duties of civil life--to eat, to drink, and even to sleep--without dismounting from their steeds." red indians of pampas and prairie, cowboy and gaucho, lived exactly in the same way. in those pages of gibbon which treat of the huns, scythians, and other hordes, one recognizes sometimes the wagon of the boers; sometimes a migration of the east african masai; then perhaps it is a weapon that is really the lasso, or a disposition and character exactly paralleled by the crows and blackfeet. even the great grass plains of australia, where the kangaroo, the wallaby, and the dingo have been replaced by the sheep and the "waler" horse, one finds, in the shepherd and squatter, traits that remind one of the gaucho or the cowboy. nor is this in the least extraordinary, for when a scanty rainfall produces those great limitless rolling seas of grass, nature provides first large herbivorous animals to eat it down as well as carnivorous beasts to keep their numbers in control, until such time as a race of horsemen appears, whose domestic cattle replace the bisons, guanacos, kangaroos, and antelopes, and so assist in replenishing and subduing the earth. chapter xviii poisons poisoned arrows--fish poisons--manchineel--curare--a wonderful story--antiaris--ordeals--the obi poison--oracles produced by poisons--plants which make horses crazy and others that remove their hair--australian sheep and the caustic creeper--swelled head--madness by the darling pea--wild and tame animals, how they know poisons--how do they tell one another?--the yew tree, when is it, and when is it not poisonous? even to-day all embryo chemists and doctors are required to "pass" in the recognition of the more important medicinal plants. but their knowledge is probably very superficial as compared with that of a bushman in the kalahari desert of south africa. every man, woman, and child in such a tribe knows thoroughly every plant that grows in the neighbourhood. his diet is a varied one, for it includes maggots, fish, frogs, snakes, white ants, and other horrible ingredients, but he lives mainly on roots, bulbs, and herbs of sorts. in times of famine he has had to obtain the most intimate knowledge possible of many plants, that namely which is obtained by eating them, and he has most carefully observed the poisonous kinds. these latter have given him, too, a very powerful weapon, for it is the poisoned arrows which give him the chance of killing game, otherwise utterly beyond his reach. he is on the fair road to becoming a hunter and tribesman, instead of being only a member of a morose, outcast family, always wandering and always hungry. probably poisons were first used in fishing. many vegetable drugs, when thrown into pools and lakes, have the property of stupefying or killing the fish. a great many of these fish poisons are known, and it is quite easy to use them. amongst the dyaks of borneo, screens of basketwork are placed along a stream to prevent the fish escaping. then the dyaks collect along either bank in their canoes. everybody has a supply of the root of the tubai (_menispermum sp._), which they hammer with stones in the water inside the canoe, so as to extract the poison. at a given signal the poisonous stuff is baled into the river, and very soon afterwards a scene of wild excitement begins, for the fish are speared or captured with handnets as they rise, stupefied, to the surface. the women scoop up the small fry in their nets.[ ] [ ] ling roth, _journ. anthrop. inst._, vol. , london, ; and mason, _l.c._ even at the sea of galilee, tristram mentions that arabs sometimes obtain their fish by poisoned bread-crumbs. in the south sea islands, at tahiti, a poison is obtained from the nuts of a kind of betonica, and is used to catch the fish among the reefs near shore.[ ] in west africa several fish poisons are in use (e.g. seeds of _tephrosia vogelii_), and probably the same methods are used almost everywhere. they are by no means extinct even at home, for the occasional poacher sometimes uses fish poisons. tristram, _land of israel_; mason, _origin of inventions_, p. . arrow poison is, however, much more important, and is used by a great number of tribes in almost every part of the world. in , in a war with the dyaks of borneo, the english army lost thirty men by poisoned arrows. they are deadly weapons, for the dart is a very thin piece of reed or cane, which has been dipped in the upas poison (_antiaris toxicaria_). it is propelled from a blow pipe, which in practised hands is able to carry feet. one or two of these darts may cause death in two hours' time. the spaniards, in their conquest of the west indian islands, were often defeated by the poisoned arrows of the caribs. the wounded died in agonies of suffering and delirium, sometimes protracted for twenty-four hours after receiving the wound. the poison in this case is supposed to have been the manchineel (_hippomane_). it is a handsome tree, but a very dangerous one, for the slightest cut on the surface produces a flow of a very fine white milk which is acrid and poisonous. this juice produces temporary or total blindness if the slightest speck enters the eyes, or even if one sits over a fire made of its wood. it is probably not true that people are killed if they merely sleep below it, and grass will probably grow quite well under its shade, although there are stories which deny this. blowpipes and poisoned darts are used by many savages in asia and south america. perhaps the curare or woorali poison is the most wonderful of the south american kinds. the tree, _strychnos sp._, grows along the amazon and in the guianas. the poison is obtained from the wood and bark, and several other vegetable substances are mixed with it. (this is a very common feature of native drugs and increases the chances of doing _something_.) it is a blood poison, and a very deadly one. large animals like the tapir stagger about, collapse, and die after a very few steps, if they have been wounded by a dart. humboldt declares that the earth-eating otomaks were able to kill their antagonists by the mere pressure of their poisoned thumbnails. in africa it is more usual to find poisoned arrows shot from a bow. the exquisitely beautiful seed of _strophanthus kombe_ is used as an arrow poison. the plant is a climber found in forests or bush, and has large woody pods about seven to twelve inches long. when these are open, the inside is seen to be full of the small yellowish seeds; each ends in a fine awn three to four inches long, which carries at the end a beautiful tuft of the finest silky hairs. the seed-coat is also covered with silk hairs. when viewed against a black surface, there is no more lovely object in nature. yet from the seed-coat a very deadly poison is obtained; probably snake-venom and various gluey substances form part of the mixture, which is daubed on the arrows. dr. kolbe saw the hottentots plastering their arrows with the poison of the hooded snake. bushmen use a lily bulb, _haemanthus toxicarius_, but sometimes add part of the inside of a small caterpillar. another african poison which is not so well known is the _acokanthera_, which was the ingredient in the arrows obtained by the writer in british east africa. north america is singularly free from these unsportsmanlike and horrible weapons, but they were not unknown in europe in very ancient times. pliny speaks of the arabian pirates as poisoners, and allusions to their use of deadly arrows can be found in horace, ovid, and homer. in the _odyssey_, the hero goes to ephyra (epirus?) to purchase a deadly arrow poison, but he is refused for fear of the eternal gods. poisoned arrows were employed by the celts in gaul, and also by the saracens in the war of granada in . yet even in the time of homer the sense of humanity seems to have decided against poisoned arrows as being both unnecessary and cruel, just as, in our own times, explosive bullets have been condemned, and are no longer used by civilized nations. but we should remember that until man became so expert with the bow and spear and so civilized by tribal fights as to be able to do without poisons, they were a very useful help in the struggle for civilization. hundreds of thin pieces of bamboo about six inches long were regularly carried by certain african tribes. when dipped in poison and afterwards placed in paths in the ground, they formed a very efficient protection against barefooted enemies. the antiaris alluded to above is the famous upas tree of java. the tree was _said_ to grow in a desert with not another living plant within ten miles of it. such was the virulence of its poison that there were no fish in the waters. neither rat, nor mouse, nor any other vermin had ever been seen there; and when any birds flew so near this tree that the effluvia reached them, they fell dead--a sacrifice to the effects of its poison. out of a population of sixteen hundred persons who were compelled, on account of civil dissensions, to reside within twelve or fourteen miles of the tree, not more than three hundred remained alive in two months. criminals condemned to die were offered the chance of life if they would go to the upas tree and collect some of the poison. they were provided with masks (not unlike our modern motor-veils), and yet not two in twenty returned from the expedition. all the foregoing statements were for years implicitly believed. they were vouched for by a dutch surgeon resident in java. medicine is a profession, and holland is a country which would in no way lead one to expect such magnificent mendacious audacity! for the whole of the preceding statements about antiaris is pure romance. the inner bark of young trees, when made into coarse garments, produces an extremely painful itching, whilst the dried juice is a virulent arrow poison. hellebore and aconite were the favourite poisons of the marquise de brinvilliers and other specialists of the middle ages. the christmas roses or hellebores were known to be poisonous fourteen hundred years before the christian era, and are still used in medicine. aconite, which has a tuberous root-stock, is dangerous, for it is occasionally eaten in mistake for the horse-radish, to which it has a faint resemblance. all kinds of aconite are poisonous. that of one of the indian species is used to tip the arrows employed in shooting tigers. trials by ordeal were very common in ancient times. the theory was that an innocent person was not injured by certain drugs, which, however, proved immediately fatal to the guilty. such trials at one time were customary in almost every part of the world. they were supposed to be perfectly just, so that no man could be held guilty of the death of those who succumbed. in practice, however, they were almost invariably corrupt. the _tanghinia venenifera_ of madagascar was regularly used in ordeals, and is probably still employed by certain tribes. the seeds are exceedingly poisonous, but, if the authorities wish the accused person to escape, a strong emetic is mixed with the powdered seeds, and the poison has no time to act. this, however, is seldom the case, for in any savage nation no one who is popular and in good esteem with the king or other people in authority is at all likely to be accused. the fact of his being accused means in most cases that he is already condemned to die. another ordeal plant is the calabar bean (_physostigma venenosa_), found in west africa. the plant is a climber belonging to the _leguminosæ_, and the seeds, which are about an inch in diameter, are very deadly. the seed is conspicuously marked by the long, dark, sunken scar, where it was attached to the pod. besides being exceedingly poisonous, it has also a curious effect upon the pupil of the eye, which is contracted by this drug.[ ] [ ] the pupil of the eye is _enlarged_ by belladonna. another famous poison is produced from _datura stramonium_ and allied species. in tropical and sub-tropical countries, one is almost sure to find specimens of this handsome plant along almost every roadside. it is in fact one of the commonest tropical weeds. the leaves are large with fine spinose margins, and the flower is most conspicuous, as it is four or five inches long. this is supposed to be one of the drugs employed by the obi wizards and witches. the most horrible rites, accompanied by atrocious cruelties, were performed amongst certain west african tribes and are continued amongst their descendants, the freed slaves of the west indies and of the southern united states. even to-day no white man is allowed to learn anything of the proceedings, but some form of devil-worship or shamanism, accompanied by incantations and the use of poisonous drugs, still flourishes. preparations of various sorts of datura or thorn-apple produce sometimes stupefaction, sometimes frantic, furious delirium, and sometimes death. it is used in medicine as a narcotic and diuretic. burton says that the arabs smoke the leaves in pipes as a cure for influenza and asthma. it is sometimes used in europe for neuralgia and even epilepsy. on the other hand, the priests of the ancient peruvians used datura to produce the ravings mistaken for inspiration, and it is supposed that the priests of apollo at delphi employed an allied species for the same purpose. in india, china, west africa, and amongst the american blacks, it is still very commonly used. a firm belief existed in the middle ages that every plant was a good remedy for something. there is a real basis in fact for this superstition, because every plant in the world has, so far as it can do so, to protect itself. the attacks of all sorts of grazing animals, from the mouse to the elephant, as well as the infinitely more dangerous and destructive insects, bacteria, and fungi, have to be provided for. by far the commonest form of protection is to develop within the plant strong medicinal or strongly smelling substances. these are far better as protective agents than the thorns and spines characteristic of deserts and half-deserts. we have already glanced at the turpentines and resins of coniferous forests and at the odorous gums, frankincense, and myrrh of the acacia scrub. the use of poisons as protection is eminently characteristic of three of the natural orders. the buttercups (_ranunculaceæ_), the potato order (_solanaceæ_) and the lilies. of the first named, the celery-leaved, and indeed all buttercups, are extremely poisonous; so also are all aconites and hellebores, as well as marsh marigold, adonis, clematis, and larkspur. others, though not poisonous, are strongly medicinal, such as blake snakeroot, hydrastis, etc. it is therefore inadvisable to use any of this order for food unless other people have eaten it without any inconvenience! the beauty of the lily order does not prevent it from being a particularly dangerous group of plants. perhaps the worst poisons in this order are those of the meadow saffron (_colchicum autumnale_), herb paris, veratrum, sabadilla, lily of the valley, tulip, and crown imperial bulbs. chamælirium, trillium, squills, garlic, solomon's seal, aloes, and the sarsaparillas are all well-known medicines. the order _solanaceæ_ is perhaps the most interesting, for it includes such dangerous poisons as tobacco, datura, _atropa belladonna_ (deadly nightshade), henbane, bittersweet (_solanum dulcamara_), common nightshade (_solanum nigrum_), and a very great many important drugs. even the common potato contains a poisonous secretion _solanin_, and it is dangerous to eat green potatoes or the foliage. yet the tomato or love apple (so called because it was supposed to excite tender feelings) is both nutritious and delicious. chillies and cayenne pepper (_capsicum spp._) are also commonly used as condiments. such poisonous orders should of course be avoided, but much more dangerous are those deadly plants which appear as it were accidentally in orders which are amongst the most useful friends of man. amongst the grasses there is the deadly darnel (_lolium temulentum_), a first cousin and not very unlike the very commonest and one of the most useful grasses--rye grass (_lolium perenne_). then in the useful carrot order, there are such dangerous and even deadly plants as fool's parsley, water dropwort, and cowbane. _oenanthe crocata_ (water dropwort) is one of the very commonest marsh and ditch plants in great britain. it is perfectly well known to botanists as distinctly poisonous, yet in a veterinary surgeon brought me some of the tuberous roots to name, and told me that six fine young cows were lying dead on a neighbouring farm through having eaten them! a particularly useful order of plants (_leguminosæ_), the beans and peas, contains a few poisonous species. it is said that in every year children are sure to be killed by eating the seeds of the laburnum, and to this order belong also the calabar bean and crab's eyes. the last named is only fatal when introduced below the skin in small quantities. the seeds of the bitter vetch (_lathyrus sativus_) produce paralysis of the legs in man and also in horses. the crazy or loco weed of north america is sometimes eaten by horses in the western united states. the wretched animals stagger about as if intoxicated, and eventually die. belonging to this same order is the wild tamarind, or jumbai, of jamaica (_leucæna glauca_). it is a weedy-looking acacia, and extremely common in all tropical countries. dr. d. morris thus alludes to it:--[ ] [ ] british association, liverpool, , section k. "mr. robert russell, of st. ann's, informs me that horses feeding on the leaves of this plant completely lose the hair from their manes and tails. this ... statement was supported by the testimony of so many people acquainted with the facts that there was no reason to doubt it. many years afterwards (in december, ), i renewed my acquaintance with the plant in the bahamas. the plant was much more plentiful there than in jamaica; it was, in fact, distinctly encouraged in the former islands as a fodder plant. the people were fully aware of the singular effect it produced on horses, and added that it also affected mules and donkeys. its effect on pigs was still more marked. these animals assumed a completely naked condition, and appeared without a single hair on their body. horses badly affected by jumbai were occasionally seen in the streets of nassau, where they were known as 'cigar-tails.' such depilated animals, although apparently healthy, were considerably depreciated in value. they were said to recover when fed exclusively on corn and grass. the new hair was, however, of a different colour and texture, 'so the animals were never quite the same.' one animal was cited as having lost its hoofs as well, and in consequence it had to be kept in slings until they grew again and hardened. the effects of the jumbai on horses, mules, donkeys, and pigs were regarded as accidental--due to neglect or ignorance. the plant was really encouraged to supply food for cattle, sheep, and goats. the latter greedily devoured it and were not perceptibly affected by it. it will be noticed that the animals affected were non-ruminants, while those not affected were ruminants. the probable explanation is that the ruminants, by thoroughly mixing the food with saliva and slowly digesting it, were enabled to neutralize the action of the poison and escape injury. the seeds probably contain the deleterious principle in a greater degree than any other part of the plant. it was a common experience that animals introduced from other localities suffered more than the native animals. the latter were either immune or had learnt to avoid the plant as noxious to them." that animals resident in a district are not poisoned by plants which are often fatal to sheep and cattle when on the march through it, has been often observed in australia. the great "mobs" or droves of sheep passing slowly on their travels through the bush to a new district are often poisoned by the caustic creeper (_euphorbia drummondi_). "the head swells to an enormous extent, becoming so heavy that the animal cannot support it, and drags it along the ground"; but this does not apparently happen to resident cattle. similarly for the darling pea or indigo (_swainsonia galegifolia_). at one place this was growing abundantly where some travelling horses were hobbled for the night. "they had been on the road some nine weeks, and were up to this date caught without any difficulty. on this occasion ... their eyes were staring out of their heads, and they were prancing against trees and shrubs.... when driven they would suddenly stop, turn round and round, and keep throwing their heads up as if they had been hit under the jaw.... two out of nine died, and five others had to be left at the camp."[ ] [ ] _plants reputed poisonous to stock._ bailey & gordon, brisbane. in other natural orders we find one or two dangerous plants amongst a whole series of perfectly harmless or useful forms. the oleander, in the olive order, corncockle (_lychnis floscuculli_), in the pink order, _lactuca scariola_ amongst _compositæ_ and others are all cases in point. so also is the yew amongst _coniferæ_, etc. how do animals recognize these particular plants as being dangerous whilst all their allies are harmless? but the reader will answer that they do not; it is well known that animals _are_ killed by eating poisonous plants, therefore poison cannot possibly be any protection against animals. this is one of those interesting questions in which the suppression of apparently irrelevant details produces confusion. as a matter of fact, wild animals, or even domesticated animals in nearly a wild state, do _not_ eat the poisonous plants of the country in which they and their forefathers have been brought up--that is provided that they are either adult or are accompanied by full-grown animals. almost every case of cattle-poisoning in great britain occurs when young calves, foals, or lambs are turned loose in the fields without any mature older head amongst them. sometimes valuable stable-bred animals are lost, especially by eating yew-leaves, but there are exceedingly few instances of full-grown cattle being caught in such foolishness. when cattle, horses, or sheep are turned loose in a new country, plenty of cases do occur, and it is possible that they might make mistakes with unknown foreign plants which had escaped into their pastures here. but almost every case of poisoning, even of cattle, shows that it is young cattle who foolishly eat foxgloves, dropwort, buttercup, etc., and occasionally die thereby. wild animals, who are of course brought up by their mothers, never seem to be poisoned. they probably recognize the dangerous plant by colour, smell, or taste. as a matter of fact, many are rendered conspicuous by some lurid sort of colour, such as bright red or purple. there is a general garishness of appearance about many of them. aconite, foxglove, herb paris, henbane, and nightshades all show this peculiar appearance. in java it is said that the natives keep away wild pigs by planting hedges of certain species with purplish-red leaves around their plantations. perhaps the most interesting point of all is that it seems to be quite justifiable to conclude that animals do, somehow, manage to tell their offspring and each other what they should and should not eat. youth, with its tendency to rash experiment, is thus kept in check by the mature experience of age. but it must be admitted that it is exceedingly difficult to arrive at the facts in any particular case. i shall be rash enough to give an opinion as to the actual facts in connexion with the common yew (_taxus baccata_). the seeds are poisonous to poultry and pheasants, but the fleshy part round the seed is eaten with impunity by many wild birds (blackbirds, etc.). the leaves are sometimes poisonous and even fatal to horses, cattle, sheep, donkeys, and goats, but they are not eaten by or are harmless to roedeer. when, however, e.g., horses are killed by eating yew, it is generally found that they have been grazing on cut-off branches which have been left lying on the ground. in this condition probably some specially poisonous substance is developed in them. as regards rabbits, it would be extremely comforting to believe that they would eat yew-leaves or anything else which would kill them, but, so far as one can judge, they can eat all sorts of things which ought to do so with perfect impunity. chapter xix on fruits bright colours of fruits--unripe fruits and their effects--an intemperate fungus--oranges--prickly pear and the monkey--strong seeds--bill-of-fare of certain birds--a wood-pigeon and beans--ants and seeds--bats, rats, bears, and baboons--the rise in weight of a big gooseberry--mr. gideon and the wealthy apple--crossing fruits--breadfruit and banana--dates--figs--olives--pineapples by the acre--apples and pears--home and canadian orchards. at christmas time and during late autumn, there is but little colour in the country. most green grasses have become a dull greyish-green, and the leafless brown and grey branches of the trees are not, at first sight, particularly interesting. but amongst this monotony of sober colouring, points of bright red or flaming scarlet may be noticed here and there. sometimes it is a spray of hips (the fruit of the rose), or it may be a cluster of hawthorn berries. at christmas the holly is positively gaudy with its bright scarlet fruit set off by the shining dark green leaves. most fruits are some shade of red, but every fruit is conspicuous and easily seen. [illustration: _queensland government photo_ pineapples as a field crop this is one of the important harvests in some parts of queensland.] there is the most extraordinary range in colour. the snowberry and dwarf cornel are pure white. the mistletoe is a yellowish green. pure yellow fruits are not common, but some of the cucumber orders and lemons are lemon or orange-yellow. the bluish-black of the blaeberry or bilberry, of the bramble, and of many plums and prunes, goes along with a rather peculiar shade of green in the leaves which sets them off. the black elder berries, on the other hand, have bright red or pink stalks which contrast prettily with them. the colours of apples vary: many of them have been rendered a gorgeous, glossy red through cultivation. one of the most beautiful colour contrasts in nature is found in the rich black of the olive, with its background of shining white twigs and silver-green leaves. another very curious harmony is that of the spindle tree fruit, which has a hard dull red case that opens to display the seeds: these are enclosed in a bright orange fleshy cup. changes often occur. the lily of the valley fruit is at first green, then becomes flecked with red, and finally is a rich scarlet. juniper berries change from green to purple. now there is always some meaning in nature for any series of facts such as these. why are these fruits so brightly coloured and so conspicuous? birds and other animals are intended to scatter the fruits and seeds, and so the fruits must be easily distinguished at a distance. the seeds are taken to some other place, where they germinate and form a new plant. this furnishes the clue and guide to many other peculiarities in fruits and seeds. the pleasant smell of ripe apples, plums, strawberries, and other fruits, also attracts birds and other animals. but the sugary juice and delicious flesh is developed entirely for the purpose of making it worth a bird's while to eat it. the amount of sugary matter is enormous, and the seeds seem very small and inconspicuous compared with this luscious mass. the sugar is produced very rapidly towards the end of the ripening period. a cucurbita fruit, for instance, may increase in weight at the rate of· ounce per minute. all who have gathered strawberries know how quickly they ripen. the way in which the sugar is formed is not understood, but unripe fruits contain bitter, unwholesome acids and essences which may produce colic or very unpleasant effects if the fruits are eaten green. thus the colour is a guide to the animal, who is not supposed to eat the fruit until it is ripe; if eaten green, the seeds inside the fruit are quite destroyed and cannot germinate. yet animals are so greedy that young birds, young animals of all sorts (even girls and boys) will and do eat green or half-ripe fruit. in this present year there is no doubt that many children have suffered for having done this. yet if we come to think of it, throughout all the millions of years during which fruits have ripened, nature has every year clearly told young pterodactyls and other lizards, young birds, young monkeys, and young people to wait till the fruit is ripe. none of them have learnt to do so. when investigating by experiment, on the vile body, the properties of plums, strawberries, and other fruits, you are sure to find here and there one that has decayed and become rotten. in most cases this is because a bird has pecked a hole in it, or because the outside skin has been broken by a wasp. the sugar has then begun to ferment. why does it do so? if you gather a few fruits, put them into a jar of sugar-water, and leave it after closing the mouth with a bunch of cotton wool, then in a day or two fermentation begins and alcohol is produced. that is because, on the outside of the fruit, there were hundreds of an objectionable little fungus. it lives upon sugar and turns the latter into alcohol. this yeast fungus is really a living distillery. it lives in the midst of alcohol all its life, dying eventually (like the duke of clarence in his butt of malmsey wine) by alcoholic poisoning, which it has brought about by its own work. this little yeast fungus can only be seen with a microscope. from a rotten fruit it drops on to the ground, where it remains all winter. next spring certain small insects (green-fly and the like) carry some of these yeasts from the earth to next year's fruits. but the skin of the plum or apple, or the hairs on a gooseberry, or the delicate, waxy bloom on a grape, will prevent these insects or wasps from laying open the sugar inside the fruit to the attacks of yeasts and other fermenting fungi. some fruits appear to have "favourites"; they seem to prefer that large animals should eat them. if you look carefully at a piece of orange peel, and cut a small piece across, you will see distinctly small resin pits full of a curious essence which gives the characteristic taste to marmalade. this bitter stuff will prevent wasps from touching the sugar. it is, however, a valuable material, and some kinds of lemons, etc., are grown chiefly for this oil, which is obtained by scraping the peel with a little saucer which is studded with short pins. a still more extraordinary fruit is the prickly pear; this is very delicious though very difficult to eat. indeed, only monkeys and man seem able to enjoy it. the sugary part and the seeds form a little round mass in the inside. the outside part, though also fleshy, contains hundreds of minute mineral needles, which stick in the tongue and lips and cause most painful inflammation. the monkey eats the prickly pear with very great caution, getting his fingers into the top and scooping out the sugary part. man requires a teaspoon to do this satisfactorily. another very curious point about these fleshy fruits (and also ordinary ones) is the strength of the seed inside. it does not look very strong. but an orange seed, for instance, will not be in the least injured if you put it between two glass plates and gradually press upon the upper one up to even a pressure of some thirty pounds. even hemp seed, which seems quite weak, will endure a weight of four pounds. it is impossible to break a prune stone, or to injure a date stone, by standing with your whole weight upon it. such strength is necessary because many of these seeds are eaten by birds and ground up in their crops with bits of china, stones, shells, and the like, which the birds pick up just to help them in crushing their food. fruits and seeds would seem to be exposed to some danger when they are lying on the ground. horses or other heavy animals might tread on them. but the strength of seeds and their shape is such that no harm is likely to accrue. for instance, i arranged a thin layer of garden earth (a quarter of an inch thick) on a glass plate; upon the earth i placed four hemp seeds; then i put a -lb. weight on the top of the seeds. they were not in the least injured, although the seed of the hemp is not a particularly tough one. under such conditions the seed simply slips into the earth. this is made easy for it on account of its shape, which is generally rounded above and below. a transverse section of a seed would be in shape like the arch of a bridge and its shadow in the water, at least in many cases. there are also usually wonderfully thickened cells in the shell or coat of a seed, which makes it tough and strong. the following are a few cases of strong seeds or fruits:--cotton seed bears a weight of to lb.; the hard fruits of the dogrose, lb.; castor-oil seed, lb.; hornbeam nuts, lb.; pine seed (various sorts), from to lb.; yew seeds, lb.; peas, to lb. in every case they are not at all hurt by these pressures. as regards the animals for whom fruit or seeds are of great importance, birds are of course the commonest. the following is part of the bill-of-fare of a few of our common birds:--thrushes eat blaeberries (bilberries), brambles and mulberries. missel-thrush (or mavis) is especially fond of the mistletoe. now the berry of the mistletoe is exceedingly sticky and glutinous, and in the course of the bird's meal these sticky strings get on to the bill and feathers, so that the mavis wipes its bill on the branch of a tree. when it does so the seed becomes attached to the branch, and is drawn close to the latter when the viscous matter dries up, and so takes root on the branch. nightingales and robins eat strawberries and elderberries; blackbirds are very fond of strawberries, gooseberries, and raspberries. wood-pigeons eat beechmast, acorns, and, according to pliny, mistletoe-berries also, but this latter author has not been confirmed by later observers. some of the wild african pigeons are exceedingly fond of castor-oil seeds. when travelling through the central african bush, it is often necessary to shoot your dinner (if you are to have any at all), and castor-oil bushes can be relied upon to produce pigeons, if you are content with and are able to shoot them. there is a widely-spread belief in the country that a great quantity of berries means that a very severe winter is going to follow. but as a matter of fact the winter of was not a severe one, and yet there were enormous quantities of berries. we are still ignorant of many details about birds and berries. it is not quite clear how the seeds are not destroyed, though experiments have shown that they are not injured, by passing through the body of a bird. kerner von marilaun, for instance, tried the fruits and seeds of different plants which were offered to seventeen birds, as well as to marmots, horses, cattle, and pigs. he found that from seventy-five to eighty-eight per cent. of the seeds germinated afterwards so far as regards the blackbird, song-thrush, rock-thrush, and robin. quail also bring seeds from greece and the ionian islands to sicily. mr. clement reid says: "some years ago i found ... in an old chalk-pit the remains of a wood-pigeon which had met with some accident. its crop was full of broad-beans, all of which were growing well, though under ordinary circumstances they would have been digested and destroyed."[ ] such accidents are common. [ ] reid, _origin of the british flora_. but it is not only birds which eat fleshy fruits and seeds. even the tiny, industrious ant drags about seeds of certain plants. sometimes they gather up corn or grasses, such as ant-rice, and store them for use in winter. they even bite off the growing root to prevent the seeds germinating and spoiling. occasionally they seem to carry the seeds by accident, as, for example, those of the cow-wheat and a few others which resemble their cocoons in size, colour, and form. in other cases there is a little fleshy excrescence on the seed which they are fond of eating. cyclamen, snowdrop, violet, and periwinkle seeds are supposed to be carried in this way. many animals occasionally or regularly eat fruits. there are, for instance, the flying-foxes or fruit-eating bats of madagascar and tropical countries, which may be seen hanging from the upper branches of trees by their toes, with their heads tucked away under their wings. when disturbed a little fox-like head appears, and after much chattering, scolding, and expostulation, the creature unhooks itself and flies away with a strong flight not unlike that of a crow. horses are occasionally fed on peaches in chile. rats eat the coffee cherry, and do a great deal of harm in coffee plantations. in cashmir the mulberry and other fruit trees are sometimes visited by sportsmen, who often find bears feeding on the fruits. pigs, of course, eat all sorts of fruit, and several other mammals do the same, but it is especially monkeys that live chiefly on fruit. they plunder the banana plantations, and in south africa melon-patches require to be most carefully watched to prevent baboons from destroying them. it is said that the baboons watch the plantations from a distance, and will only come down if they think no one is there: so five people walk to the patch, and while four go away again, one of them remains in hiding to shoot the baboons, who cannot tell the difference between four and five. man himself is, and has always been, a great eater of fruit. not only so, but he has enormously improved and altered wild fruits until they are modified into monsters of the most extraordinary kind. the ordinary wild gooseberry weighs about dwt. but even in the year some of the cultivated forms weighed double this amount ( dwt.), and in gooseberries which weighed more than dwt. were in existence. what size the largest big gooseberry may be this year is not very easy to say, because the public press is at slack times too energetic about the question. the most usual way of improving fruits is by selecting the finest specimens for reproduction. it is by this means that the original wild banana, which is a rather small fruit with very large seeds and very little flesh, has been altered into something like varieties, of which the immense majority have no seed at all. this is a very extraordinary fact, because the seed is the reason for the existence of the fruit. of course, all such varieties must be reproduced by suckers (like the banana) or by grafts, or in some such non-sexual manner. seedless varieties exist of the cucumber, fig, german medlar, diospyros, and orange. in the case of seedless varieties of the vine, it has been found that it is necessary to carry pollen to the flowers to fertilize them, and the seedless fruit is also very much smaller in this case, not more than a quarter of the size of one that has seeds. the following instance is typical of the manner in which many well-known kinds of fruit have been developed, though the perseverance shown by mr. gideon is certainly not common. about the year this gentleman began planting apple trees of about thirty named varieties. for nine years he continued his experiments. he not only planted trees, but also sowed apple seed sufficient to produce a thousand trees every year. yet the cold winters were so severe that at the end of ten years one small seedling crab apple was the solitary survivor. one seedling of this turned out to be hardy enough for the climate of minnesota, and this, the "wealthy" apple, has been of great importance to the northern mississippi growers. it is to be hoped that the name has been justified in mr. gideon's case. [illustration: _stereo copyright, underwood & underwood_ _london & new york_ banana carriers in jamaica a west indian negro thinks nothing of walking twenty miles with loads such as these.] many other cases could be mentioned of a chance variety produced as a wild plant, and then propagated non-sexually for long periods, e.g. the new rochelle bramble, which was found by the roadside, and which turned out to be exceedingly valuable. it is by crossing or hybridizing that the most extraordinary results have been obtained. sometimes with plums, the hybrids of the first generation are nearly double the size of their parents. some of the crosses are between different plants. the loganberry, for instance, is said to be a cross between a raspberry and a bramble. it ripens in july, and is said to be far in advance of either of its parents as regards juiciness and acidity. in most cases, however, the crosses are between well-established varieties or races of the same species, and both hybridizing and selection are employed to get the desired result. there are several tropical fruits which, with the possible exception of wheat and oats, are more important to mankind than anything else. the breadfruit (_artocarpus incisus_), which is very common in the south sea islands, has a large fruit the size of a melon. when baked in an oven heated by hot stones, it forms a satisfying meal: it is rather like new bread, but has very little flavour. coarse cloth is made of its bark, and the wood is used as timber. the tree also has a milky juice containing indiarubber, and is employed for caulking the canoes. the most interesting point for botanists about this plant is that the fruit is made up of thousands of little flowers, and the fleshy part is really the stalk. fossil trees of this genus (of the chalk period) are found in some parts of europe. still more important to mankind is the banana (_musa paradisiaca_). it is wheat, corn, and potatoes all in one, in tropical and sub-tropical countries. it is found all over the world wherever there is a hot, moist climate and shelter from wind. it is a most generous plant as regards the amount which it will produce. it will yield about - / tons of dry fruit on a single acre, which is about forty-four times the amount given by potatoes and times that of wheat. moreover, it differs from almost every other fruit in being both "rice and prunes," that is, it is nutritious and wholesome, and yet at the same time succulent. there are still people who declare that the taste is that of "cotton wool and windsor soap," but that is a frivolous and unjust remark. it is very difficult to prepare it exactly in the right way for export to great britain, and the slightest change in temperature or period of gathering has the most distressing results. as with many other tropical fruits, the countries where it is most carefully produced and where the trade is most important are just on the borders of the tropics. there europeans can keep enough vigour and vitality to supervise and watch over the labour of natives. it is in the canary islands, queensland,[ ] and jamaica that the cultivation is most carefully looked after. the yield may be from five hundred to a thousand bunches per acre, and the value of the trade is enormous. a plantation is not very beautiful, because the huge leaves break up into irregular, ragged pieces which look untidy. the flowers are visited by the beautiful little honey-sucking sunbirds and humming-birds. monkeys also are very fond of the fruit. [ ] queensland in had acres, and produced , , bunches of bananas. in the tropics it grows everywhere, and with extremely little trouble. it is a doubtful blessing to the negroes, for they get their food so easily that they tend to become incorrigibly lazy. jam, champagne, brandy, and meal can be made from the banana. when this meal can be prepared satisfactorily, it may partly replace wheat in temperate countries. besides this, the leaves are used for thatching, and the stalks which make the stem contain a valuable fibre which is used for string and rope. in egypt and all along the great deserts of sahara and asia the graceful stately date palm gives the favourite food of the people (see chap. x.). the arabs grind up the stones to make food for camels, and sometimes ferment the sap to make toddy. the trees are either male or female. the arabs knew that it was necessary to pollinate the female flowers with male pollen long before the meaning of the process was realized in europe. the fig, a native of the persian gulf, is cultivated all along the mediterranean and in india, australia, and california. it is sometimes fifteen to thirty feet high, and reaches a very great age. there is one at finisterre said to be several centuries old. it yields fruit worth about £ an acre. the most interesting point about the fig is the way in which the fig-wasp carries the pollen (see chap. v.). olives are also one of the most important and characteristic mediterranean trees. the crop in both spain and italy is worth about £ , , to £ , , annually. in california it is also successfully cultivated, and pays very well. the peculiar taste of the dessert olive is obtained by soaking it in lime or potash, and then in vinegar or salt. the pineapple is one of the most delicious fruits, and is interesting in every way. the little sharp spines on the edges of the leaves keep animals off, and also make it a little difficult to harvest. the workmen must wear leather trousers to prevent their being cut and torn by the leaves. in queensland the pineapple is grown in big fields, and about ten thousand fruits (worth about one penny each) can be got from a single acre. it is also grown in the west indies, in india, and in other tropical countries. if you examine the horny outside skin of the fruit with a sharp penknife, you will find that each little piece of the mosaic is a flower in itself; with a little care the bracts, three sepals, three petals, and six stamens can be distinguished. the whole stem and all its flowers unite to make a compound fruit. most varieties have no seeds. it is a native of south america. it is, however, our home fruits, apples, pears, gooseberries, strawberries, raspberries, and currants, that are most important to us in britain. the wild crab apple is found from drontheim, in norway, to the caucasus, and grows over the whole of europe. apples were known to the greeks and romans. unfortunately, in our own climate there are great dangers in the orchard. a touch of frost when the flowers are ripe will very likely kill the tender, green, baby apple. it is perhaps in canada and north america that the growing of apples and pears is most carefully looked after. our beautiful old orchards in devonshire and other places, with comfortable grass below the trees, and moss-covered, picturesque, ancient trunks, are not found in the new world. the regular lines of young trees in bare, carefully-kept earth, with every stem whitewashed and treated with the most scientific monotony, produce a most valuable return. but in this country those who are careful and scientific sometimes obtain extraordinary results. it is on record that a man with a holding of twenty-nine acres near birmingham made £ a year from this small plot and paid £ for labour on it.[ ] [ ] _journal royal horticultural society_, vol. , part iv. mr. gladstone also said that the future of british farmers depended upon jam. yet it must be remembered that the trees take a long time to come into bearing, and the crop is most uncertain. chapter xx wandering fruits and seeds ships and stowaway seeds--tidal drift--sheep, broom, migrating birds--crows and acorns--ice--squirrels--long flight of birds--seeds in mud--martynia and lions--the wanderings of xanthium--cocoanut and south sea islands--sedges and floods--lichens of arctic and antarctic--manna of bible--the tumble weeds of america--catapult and sling fruits--cow parsnips--parachutes, shuttlecocks, and kites--cotton--the use of hairs and wings--monkey's dinner-bell--sheep-killing grasses. the ways in which fruits and seeds are scattered abroad over the face of the earth form one of the most fascinating chapters in the story of plant life. there is an infinite number of ingenious contrivances, so many indeed that it is not at all easy to explain them. however, suppose yourself seated on a grassy cliff near eastbourne or brighton. looking lazily out over the blue waters, you see norwegian timber ships and steamers of all kinds, from the little coasting "puffing billy" to the huge liner departing for australia or south africa. plants are probably using every steamer; in the straw of the packing cases, in the cargoes of corn or grain, in the ore, and in the ballast, there are sure to be seeds. such stowaways are mostly weeds, but of course many valuable garden, farm, orchard, and forest seeds are being intentionally exported. looking down on the seashore, you will notice the high-water mark, a yellowish brown line of floated rubbish which is quite distinct even at a distance. if you now go down and examine it closely (not a particularly pleasant operation, seeing that so much is in a decomposing condition) you will find many seeds amongst the corks and bits of straw, seaweed, and objectionable, if lively, animalcula, and very likely also pieces of plants, such as willow branches, which might quite easily take root. on the coast of norway, and on our own western seaboard, the fruits of a west indian bean (_entada scandens_) are occasionally to be found, and its seeds are probably able to germinate. we know that in long-past geological ages they were floating round the estuary of the thames, where they occur as fossils. it has been found by experiment that fruits and seeds are not killed although they have floated for a year or more in salt water. thus ocean currents are utilized to carry fruits and seeds. but from our comfortable seat on the south downs, still more can be learnt of wandering seeds. the wind which blows across the downs carries with it hundreds of winged or hairy fruits, all of them exquisitely fashioned as miniature airships, aeroplanes, or other winged contrivances. the wind is an important distributer of seeds. one of the south down sheep is trailing behind it a piece of bramble which has caught in its wool; others, which have been grazing on the broken cliff-edge where agrimony, forget-me-not, and burdock are flourishing, are certain to have spiny or sticky fruits entangled in their wool. animals therefore carry seeds in their wool or fur. if it should happen to be a fine, sunny afternoon, and if there are any plants of broom near by, it is quite likely that you may, every now and then, hear a faint, sudden crack. this will be the broom at work scattering its seeds by itself. the little pod, when it dries, contracts in such a way that it splits with a sudden explosive pop, and the seeds are sent flying to a distance of three or four feet. this curious fact was observed in by the naturalist boek. the whin and many other plants act in the same way, for the dry fruit becomes elastic and coils up spirally, flinging away the seed. but here also, on the southern shore of england, we are at a main station of arrival and departure for migrating birds. a landrail or other marsh bird might be flushed in france, and might quite easily cross the channel with french mud sticking to its plumage. in this mud, or in its crop, there may be seeds or fruits which will be left in an english pond. this method is probably a very important one, for these plants growing in duck-haunted places are amongst the most widely distributed of all. mr. reid has a very interesting discussion on this point. the crow or rook could quite well cross the british channel now. in the days when britain was covered with ice and snow, the gap between the french and the english shore was only half the present width. there was at that time much flat land with oak forest bordering the french coast. mr. reid shows that it is probable that rooks regularly carry about acorns in the cup, for he found seedling oaks associated with empty acorn husks, stabbed and torn in a peculiar way. "on october th of , in the middle of an extensive field, bordered by an oak copse and scattered trees, i saw a flock of rooks feeding and passing singly backwards and forwards to the oaks. on driving the birds away, and walking to the middle of the field i found hundreds of empty acorn husks and a number of half-eaten, pecked acorns."[ ] so that crows may have brought the acorns that colonized britain with oak forest in the earliest historical period. [ ] reid, _origin of the british flora_. another means of dispersal is not so obvious on the south downs. in the arctic region a glacier breaks away at its tongue into icebergs, which float off and are stranded somewhere perhaps hundreds of miles distant. upon these icebergs are stones and soil and plants which may be carried to a great distance from their original place. in the glacial period or great ice age, ice may have been an important help in distributing plants, but at present it is difficult to find a good example. from all this it is clear that in order to carry plants to new countries and new homes, everything that moves on the earth's surface can be employed. not only the wind, but ocean currents, river waters, icebergs, and floating ice are used. migrating birds, mammals, and especially the most restless and unsettled animal of all, viz. man, are at work consciously and deliberately, or unconsciously and accidentally, carrying the seeds to form new forest, grasslands, or harvests in other countries. the subject is in truth so vast that it is difficult to select the most interesting and important cases. the way in which squirrels, rats, voles, and lemmings devour nuts and the like often leads to the distribution of the fruit. a squirrel may, like a human being, forget where its store was buried, or be driven from the place. then some of those forgotten nuts will grow into trees. birds are known to travel enormous distances. it is said that one little arctic bird travels from heligoland to morocco in a single flight. it would not, at first sight, seem likely that seeds and fruits could be carried by birds; yet darwin saw that this might possibly be the case. the mud and slime in which so many birds find the small insects which they require is full of seeds. an austrian botanist, kerner von marilaun, examined the mud scraped from the beaks, feathers, and legs of a number of wading and marsh-birds. he found in it the seeds of no less than thirty-one different water and marsh plants (grasses, sedges, toad-rush, etc.). this showed, as is very often the case, that darwin was the first to discover a very important point. it is also interesting to find that these ugly little freshwater mud and marsh plants are at home almost everywhere, from the arctic circle to tierra del fuego and from peru to japan. the most extraordinary cases known of sticking fruits and spines are the martynias and harpagophytons of south africa. the fruit is covered by hooked claws, and becomes a regular pest wherever it occurs. deer, antelopes, and other animals get their hoofs entangled in the fruit, and the wretched creatures have to limp about until the hard thorny fruit is trodden to pieces. dr. livingstone says that the fruit gets into the nostrils of grazing animals which cannot possibly remove it themselves, and so have to wait patiently till the herdsman comes to take it out. according to lord avebury, lions may sometimes be destroyed by these horrible fruits. when a lion is rolling on the sand, the claws (an inch long) stick in his skin, and when the lion tries to tear it away with his teeth his mouth gets full of the fruits and he cannot eat, and perishes miserably of starvation.[ ] [ ] ludwig, _biologie d. pflanzen_. [illustration: _stereo copyright, underwood & underwood_ _london & new york_ a cocoanut grove in ceylon] some of our common british fruits are most perfectly planned to stick or entangle themselves in the wool of sheep or in people's clothes. these, such as the goosegrass (robin-run-the-hedge), burdock, forget-me-not, sanicle, avens, etc., have very often been described. it is only necessary to examine one's clothes after a walk through rough, broken ground to discover some of them, and the ingenuity and neatness of their tiny hooks, harpoons, or prongs can then be realized. we shall give one or two instances of some other spiny plants. there is, for instance, xanthium, which is one of the daisy flowers or composites. unlike most of this order, its little fruits possess no wind-hairs. the outside of the head of flowers is covered by strong curved little crooks. these get so entangled in wool or hair that they become a perfect pest to wool merchants. in xanthium was unknown in the crimea, but by it had covered the whole of the peninsula. in the russian cavalry horses brought it on their manes and tails into wallachia, from whence it travelled to servia. servian pigs carried it into hungary. in it was taken in wool to vienna. by it had reached paris and edinburgh. in frauenfeld saw horses in chile whose manes and tails were so felted together with thousands of these fruits that the animals could scarcely walk. in australia, where it first appeared in , it has caused a very serious loss to the wool merchants and squatters. the loss has been put at per cent. by some authorities.[ ] [ ] ludwig, _l.c._, after ihne, frauenfeld, shaw. we have already alluded to the transference of fruits and seeds by ocean currents. in the _challenger_ expedition, no less than ninety-seven kinds of marine floating fruits were observed. amongst these the most important is the cocoanut. the nut sold in this country is not the whole fruit, but only the inside shell. in the natural state this is enclosed in a dense mass of fibres, which form the valuable "coir" used for brushmaking and a variety of purposes. the entire outside of the fruit is covered by a smooth white skin. the whole fruit is about the size of a man's head, and is so light that it floats easily in the water. it has in fact been carried by the waves to uninhabited islands all over the south seas. it is a very great blessing to polynesia, for a tree yields thirty to fifty nuts, and four of these nuts will furnish enough food for one day. coprah and the oil extracted by boiling the inside are also valuable. spirit or toddy can be made from the young buds. the leaves are used for thatching and the trunk for timber. there are other very curious palm fruits which are also carried by water. sir joseph hooker mentions the large, round fruits of nipa, as big as a cannon-ball, turned over by the paddles of the steamer in the muddy waters at the ganges mouth (_himalayan journal_). in this country a search in the rubbish left by a spate or freshet along a riverside is sure to furnish many floating fruits or seeds. most of these are small and rather difficult to see. perhaps the most interesting are those of the sedges. the real fruit is only about one-sixteenth of an inch in size, but it is enclosed in a little sack or bag a quarter of an inch long and with a narrow opening, so that it floats quite easily. many willow branches, pondweeds, hornweeds, and the like, are also found in the rubbish left by floods, and these can often take root. it is, however, in the exquisite modifications of those fruits which are blown by the wind that we find the most beautiful contrivances of all. they are effective also. seeds are often so small as to be like dust particles, and such may be carried in the air to almost incredible distances. that of _goodyera repens_ weighs only / , , of a pound, that of _monotropa_, · , , lb. it is no doubt by the wind that the spores of lichens are carried from one mountain to another. on a map of the world the distance from the arctic to the antarctic, between the north and south poles, seems enormous. moreover, the amount of water, desert, tropical forest, and cultivated land in this extent of country is very great. there are but few rocks on which lichens could manage to grow. and yet of the antarctic lichens in the south polar regions, and which are also european species, more than per cent. are found in the arctic or north polar regions.[ ] [ ] darbishire, _trans. and proc. of bot. soc. edin._, vol. , part . an arctic lichen spore probably travelled from scandinavia to the german and swiss alps, another journey took it to the atlas mountains, thence to abyssinia, again to mount kenia, and from there, somehow, it wandered to the south orkneys or king edward vii land. while talking of lichens, one must not forget the manna of the bible (_lecanora esculenta_) and two other species, which form warted, wrinkled masses on rocks. it breaks off and may be carried away by the wind, or in heavy rain it may be washed into depressions of the soil, where a man can pick up to lb. in a day. it "is used as a substitute for corn in years of famine--being ground in the same way and baked into bread.... it is also remarkable that all the great so-called rains of manna, of which news has come from the east to europe, especially those of the years , , , , , and , occurred at the beginning of the year, between january and march, i.e. at the time of the heaviest rains.... the inhabitants of the district actually thought that the manna had fallen from heaven, and quite overlooked the fact that this vegetable structure grew and developed (although only in isolated patches and principally as crusts on stones) in the immediate neighbourhood of the spots where they collected it."[ ] [ ] kerner, _natural history of plants_, vol. . amongst the wind-blown fruits and seeds there are cases in which entire plants are dragged out of the soil and hurried away by the wind, which rolls them over and over. they may be blown along for days together. the seeds drop out by the way. in this country one rarely sees anything of the sort, but in the prairies of north america, when under cultivation, these tumble-weeds are a serious and expensive pest. sometimes the farmers dig trenches to catch them, or they may put up fences against which the tumble-weeds become piled or heaped up until they blow over the top. it is not very much use to give the names of these weeds, for they are mostly rare or not british species. such tumble-weeds are generally nearly spherical in general form and have a short, rather weak, root which is easily torn out of the ground. in some grasses, such as "old witch," a well-known pest of the united states, the grass-stalk, with many flowers on it, is pulled out of its sheath and blown away. but it is more usual for the fruits or seeds themselves to break off the parent plant, and to be carried away by the wind. to this end we find the most extraordinary changes. although the flower may droop from its stalk, the latter becomes upright and grows quite a considerable length when the seed or fruit is dispatched on its wanderings. this will raise the fruit or seed as high as possible above the surrounding grasses. then in some cases the fruit opens to allow the seed to escape. small holes appear in it, or the fruit splits. as the dry, elastic, withered stalk swings to and fro in the wind, the seeds are swung out of these openings, and starting with a certain momentum the wind will carry them often to a surprising distance from their parents. in wet or rainy weather these holes or slits generally close together, and no seeds are sent forth on their travels. the little holes in the top of a poppy-head by which the seeds are swung out have little flaps, which close over and shut them up in wet weather. some plants make a sort of catapult to sling or hurl their fruits. kerner von marilaun was the first to describe some of these curious arrangements. he had brought home some fruits of _dorycnium herbaceum_ and laid them on his writing-table. "next day as i sat reading near the table, one of the seeds of the dorycnium was suddenly jerked with great violence into my face." some of the neatest catapult fruits are those of _teucrium flavum_. (there is a british species, the woodsage, but it has not got the same arrangement.) when the petals have fallen off, the four small fruits are left inside the cup-like sepals; the flower-stalk when dry is very elastic, and if an animal touches the sepals it swings violently and shoots out one of the fruits. but that is by no means the whole of the process: there are hairs arranged spirally in the throat of the sepals, and these give a spin or twirling motion like that of a rifle-bullet to the fruit. the fruit also flies out of the sepals in a line of flight which is inclined at an angle of about forty-five degrees to the horizon; at this angle, as is well known, the trajectory or distance travelled will be the greatest possible. but by far the best way to understand these questions is to try with some common weeds in the country towards the end of summer or beginning of autumn. if either the cow parsnip or wild angelica, or myrrhis, be gathered and kept till it is quite dry, then if you take it by the stalk and swing it to the full extent of the arms the fruits fly off to fifteen (or more) feet away. every part is elastic--not only the main stalk, but the thin separate stalks of the flowers and also the delicate piece by which each half-fruit is attached. the half-fruits themselves are also so made that they are of exactly the right shape to take a long flight. ever since the days of icarus, one of the unsatisfied ambitions of mankind has been to fly like a bird, to "soar into the empyrean," and to be no longer chained to the earth's surface. it is a very curious study, that of the many and diverse inventions, almost always useless and very often fatal, by which men have endeavoured to solve this problem. every one of these can be paralleled amongst the many neat contrivances of wind-borne fruits and seeds. the principle of the "parachute," which is more or less like an umbrella, is found in both fruits and seeds. one of the most beautiful is the dandelion fruit, where a series of the most exquisite branched hairs springs from the top of the slender shaft which carries the little hard fruit. most of the composite or dandelion order have, however, more of the "shuttlecock" idea. there is a row or crown of stiff and spreading or feathery hairs. [illustration: _stereo copyright, underwood & _underwood_ _london & new york_ cotton-fields in georgia, u.s.a. negroes picking the cotton harvest.] the classical person above alluded to seems to have copied the bird's wing, sticking on feathers with wax, which of course melted in the sun with the usual result to the inventor of flying machines. many seeds have regular wings which act like those of the bat or flying squirrel. one of the most exquisite of all is the seed of bignonia. the dahlia fruit has also a flying wing, and a great many others might be mentioned. major baden-powell experimented with kites, which were supposed to raise a man high enough in the air to take observations of the enemy's movements. but a most exquisite "kite" is that of the lime tree. the little fruit is hung from a broad, flying bract, and as it very slowly sinks to the ground it solemnly turns round and round. that is because the pressure of the air acts on the flat bract just as it does on an aeroplane, and forces it to revolve. so the fruit remains a long time in the air, and may be carried to nearly a hundred yards away from its parent tree. the traveller's joy (_clematis_) and the cotton have their seeds covered all over by many entangled hairs, which act like a piece of fluff, so that the wind blows the seed away. no one has discovered the original wild cotton plant. the robes of the priests in egyptian temples were made of it. it was introduced into spain by the arabs when they invaded that country. when the spaniards attacked the half-civilized indian people of central and south america, they found cotton was regularly cultivated there. its history in england is rather interesting. in the days of queen elizabeth the great english industry was the production of woollen cloth from yorkshire sheep. a penalty of £ was imposed, even as late as , on any person who imported or even wore cotton cloths. yet this was unable to stop the growth of the trade which, thanks to the flemings and huguenots who took refuge from religious persecution in this country, eventually became our gigantic textile industry employing millions of factory hands. the advantage of these wings and hairs is at once seen if one compares the time that a fruit or seed takes to fall through a given height, first with its wings or hairs, and then after they have been cut off. an artichoke fruit, for instance, will take nearly eight seconds to reach the ground from a height of a few feet. but if you cut away its hairs, it will touch the ground in a little more than one second. a sycamore fruit of which the wing has been removed falls to the ground in about a quarter of the time that it takes when it has not been injured, so that the wing helps it to fly to four times the distance that it could reach if it had none. the ash fruit also remains twice as long in the air as it would do if it had no wing; and so on. we shall finish this chapter by describing two very extraordinary cases. the sandbox tree is a native of tropical america. the fruit, as large as an orange, consists of a number of rounded pieces, each with a single seed inside. when ripe each piece splits off, making a noise like the report of a pistol. the plant is sometimes called the monkey's dinner bell. these pieces may be thrown to a distance of fifty-seven feet from the parent plant. even more remarkable are the hygroscopic grasses. there are four of them, which are widely separated as regards distribution, for one (_stipa capillata_) lives in russia, another (_stipa spartea_) in north america, a third (_aristida hygrometrica_) is found in queensland (australia), and the fourth (_heteropogon contortus_) belongs to new caledonia. yet all these four grasses are said to kill sheep, and do so in a manner that is almost identical. the mechanism is as follows. the fruit is like that of most grasses, enclosed in a folded leaf, the bract (or glume), which in these particular cases is produced into a very long fine tapering hair or awn. this awn is sensitive to changes in the _moisture_ of the air. it is strongly hygrometric: in wet weather it straightens itself, and it coils into corkscrew spirals in dry weather. the widened part of the base, which contains the grain, tapers into a sharp, very hard point; upon this there are, on the outside, many stiff hairs, which point backwards away from the sharp tip. now, suppose this fruit to fall on the ground, the awn or tail is sure to be entangled in neighbouring grasses or herbs, but the hard point will rest upon the ground. every coil and twist made by the entangled awn or tail will push the point a little deeper into the earth, and the backward-pointing stiff hairs will prevent its being pulled out of the soil. therefore all these modified contrivances ensure that the seed will bury itself. but supposing that one of these fruits falls upon a sheep's back. then an exactly similar process will go on. the seed will be forced through the skin into the body of the sheep. in fact, if it should fall above any soft or vulnerable part of the animal, the sheep will very likely be killed. as a matter of fact, sheep are said to be killed by these grasses in all those four countries, distant though they are from one another. we have endeavoured in this chapter to give some faint notion of the hundreds and thousands of ingenious contrivances utilized by plants in order to ensure the dispersal and future prosperity of their children. every species is always trying to colonize new ground, to seek fresh fields and new pastures. plants are not content to keep to the old habitats, but every species tries to scatter its pioneers over all the neighbouring country, so that, as often happens, if it is exterminated or suppressed in one locality, new generations luxuriate elsewhere. chapter xxi story of the crops bloated and unhealthy plants--oats of the borderers, norsemen, and danes--wheat as a wild plant--barley--rye--where was the very first harvest?--vine in the caucasus--indians sowing corn--early weeds--where did weeds live before cultivation?--armies of weeds--their cunning and ingenuity--gardeners' feats--the ideal bean--diseased pineapples--raising beetroot and carrot--story of the travels of sugar-cane--indian cupid--beetroot and napoleon. it is difficult to understand the amount of labour and toil that has been spent on farmlands and pastures, if one only considers england. it is often impossible to discover one square mile still covered by the natural wild plants. it is all under corn or arable, or rich artificial meadowland. but from a scotch hillside, as one looks down at the fertile valley below, one can see _first_ where the mosaic of hedges and dykes stops, _then_ where, after a narrow stretch of rough grass pasture, the cultivation ends; finally, where, ridge after ridge, rolling, heathery moorland, without enclosures and without any sign of man's handiwork, rises up to the highest peaks. this fills one with a respect and reverence towards our forbears, which is increased by a study of corn, turnips, and potatoes. every one of these plants is a thoroughly unnatural, artificially bloated, and overfed sort of creature. its constitution, as is usual with those who habitually overeat themselves, is delicate and unsound. no cultivated plant could exist for more than a season if man did not look after it and protect it from its rivals and weeds. moreover, they are a curiously assorted lot. wheat probably came from asia minor, swedes from scandinavia, mangelwurzel from the mediterranean, and potatoes from chile. turnips and carrots are indeed native britishers, though the original wild carrot or turnip would never be recognized as such by any ordinary person. the history of every one of them is interesting. the oat is the true teutonic and scandinavian grain, which has more "fibre" than any other cereal. there is an interesting passage in froissart's _chronicles_ describing the commissariat of those hardy scotch borderers who raided and ruined the northern english counties whenever they felt inclined to do so.[ ] they lived for the most part on the cattle of their enemies, but each man carried a small sack of oatmeal and a griddle, or iron plate, on which to make oatcake. so that each man supported himself. his little rough pony also was quite able to look after itself. [ ] or whenever they could do so successfully. (_publisher's note._) that hardy plant, the oat (_avena sativa_) can be cultivated as far north as . ° n. lat. it is a native of siberia and western europe. it was oatmeal that supported the norsemen who conquered normandy and england, and who even dominated the mediterranean. the swedes of gustavus adolphus and the danes of canute also lived mainly upon oatmeal and porridge. it is true that in england oats are abandoned to the horses, but those horses are the best in the world. there can, of course, be no question as to whether the scotch or english are the best! the history of wheat is a very complicated one; there are a great number of varieties and sub-species, all closely allied to our ordinary wheat, and difficult to distinguish from it. one variety occurs as a wild plant from mesopotamia, near ararat, over servia, the crimea, and as far as thessaly, where entire hills are covered by it. this grain seems to have been cultivated at troy, for dr. schliemann has found it at hissarlik. it was, however, in cultivation long before the days of achilles; it was grown by the stone age people, who lived in the lake dwellings of switzerland. another kind, "spelt" wheat, seems to have been the mainstay in ancient egypt, in greece, and all through the roman empire. it is now very rare, though it is still grown in spain and in other countries where the soil is poor. grains of the true wheat have been discovered in the pyramids of egypt, so that it also is very ancient. to-day wheat extends to norway ( ° n. lat.), and may be grown up to feet on the alps.[ ] india, united states, russia, the argentine, chile, australia, and many other countries, produce great crops of this useful and nourishing food. its fibre is per cent., albuminous matter - / per cent., and carbo-hydrates · per cent. oat has per cent. fibre, - / per cent. albuminous, and per cent. carbo-hydrates. [ ] hackel, _true grasses_. one guess as to the origin of wheat is that the first-named (mesopotamian sort) is the original wild plant. by cultivation in the rich alluvial valleys of mesopotamia and egypt, improved kinds were formed. these have eventually replaced both "spelt" wheat and the wild race, but could only do so when richly-cultivated fields were ready for them. on poor soil and with bad cultivation, "spelt" is said to be even now the most profitable crop. wild barley grows in arabia and from asia minor to baluchistan. it is very important in the colder regions of northern europe, in tibet, and in china, but with us "john barleycorn" is chiefly used for brewing. rye also comes from asia minor. it was not apparently known in europe until the bronze period, but is now "the chief cereal of the german and slavonic nations." the black rye-bread is familiar to all who have travelled on the continent. the straw is good fodder, and is used for making hats and for paper.[ ] [ ] hackel, _true grasses_. a very interesting point on which, however, it is quite impossible to come to a definite decision, may be noticed here. we will suppose what is quite as likely as any other theory, viz. that man as a gardening creature first settled somewhere in the euphrates or caucasian valleys. what wild plants, then, would have been available for his experiments? this particular region is an interesting and remarkable one. most of our common british plants occur along the shore of the black sea to the caucasus (apple, pear, nut, turnip, cabbage, carrot, and others, are all probably to be found there). on the babylonian side of the mountains, there is a warm sub-tropical climate in which almost every useful plant can be grown. the desert also contains a few other valuable plants. near ararat, noah might have found rye, wheat, and barley growing wild. the wild vine also grows on the south of the caucasus. "it grows there with the luxuriant wildness of a tropical creeper, clinging to tall trees and producing abundant fruit without pruning or cultivation."[ ] in that favoured district, the olive and the fig, the melon and cucumber, onions, garlic, and shallots, and other common garden and medicinal plants, can be found. not far away is the native country of the camel, the ass, the horse, and most other domestic animals. [ ] de candolle, _origin of cultivated plants_. [illustration: _stereo copyright, underwood & underwood_ _london & new york_ ricefields in the ceylon hills the buffaloes are puddling up the soil before the seed is planted.] were these hillsides of ararat or thereabouts, the first place where man sowed and reaped a harvest? at any rate, in those flat, fertile, alluvial plains of the euphrates, and also in egypt, the first great cities arose. but even in the later stone age, which may have been about , b.c., some of these caucasian plants seem to have been in cultivation in switzerland. probably every subsequent invasion, first that of races with bronze weapons, and then of others in the iron age, brought with it new cultivated plants. the oat seems to be an exception to the rule, for, so far as one can gather, it was not a native of asia minor. the first harvest was, however, in all probability, a very casual and occasional kind of thing. mason (_origin of inventions_, page ) has described such a kind of cultivation which was in existence amongst the american indians quite recently. "a company of cocopa or mohave or pima women set forth to a rich and favoured spot on the side of a cañon or rocky steep. they are guarded by a sufficient number of men from capture or molestation. each woman has a little bag of gourd seed, and when the company reach their destination she proceeds to plant the seeds one by one in a rich cranny or crevice where the roots may have opportunity to hold, the sun may shine in, and the vines with their fruit may swing down as from a trellis. the planters then go home and take no further notice of their vines until they return in the autumn to gather the gourds" (e. palmer). there is an interesting point about the cultivation of those early savage peoples who built up for themselves unhealthy but elaborate wooden dwellings in the swiss lakes, in order to escape wild beasts and human beings who were even more dangerous and ferocious than they. weeds occurred in those cornfields, cultivated by stone implements, some , years ago. the seed of an italian weed had been introduced with their corn, and was discovered in switzerland! weeds are an extremely interesting group. a proverb about the hardiness and multiplication of weeds can be discovered in almost every language. "ill weeds grow apace," _unkraut verbessert nicht_, and so on. they are very common. in fact weeds, wayside, and freshwater plants, have by far the widest distribution of all. there are twenty-five species which can be found over at least half the entire land surface of the earth, and more than a hundred occupy a third of it.[ ] [ ] drude, _handbuch pflanzengeographie_, p. . moreover, many of our common weeds existed in britain when the glaciers and ice melted away, and there were as yet no people able to cultivate the ground. the creeping buttercup, chickweed, mint, persicaria, dock, and sheep's sorrel had already colonized the country, before the great ice age came upon them, and at least fourteen weeds were here when the first corn-raising savages landed in britain.[ ] [ ] reid, _origin of the british flora_. at first sight it is difficult to understand where and how they lived. one discovers a very few, however, if one botanizes very carefully along the seashore, or on river banks where landslips have occurred, and in other such places where bare ground exists which is not the result of cultivation. there these weeds fulfil a very important and useful purpose. the "red smear" of a landslip is soon tinted green with coltsfoot, chickweed and the like, and the bare earth, which was useless and supported no green covering, is very soon made once more a part of the earth's fruitful field. in such places the weeds are soon overcome and suppressed by the regular woods, grass, or thicket of the district. it is far otherwise in arable land, where man desires to keep the ground bare in order to give his own domestic plants the best part of the soil. let us look for a little at what actually happens in an ordinary cornfield. it is not merely one generation of weeds, but whole armies, that the farmer has to contend with. when the young corn is growing up ( ) the bright yellow charlock grows much more rapidly, and the whole cornfield is golden with it. the charlock grows to some eighteen inches high, flowers, and sets its seed before it is suppressed by the growth of the cornstalks, which, of course, may be three or four feet or more in height. ( ) another series of weeds, such as spurrey, are growing in the shelter of the tall stalks, and their flowers are ripened and their seed scattered long before the corn is cut. ( ) another series, such as polygonums, etc., become ripe and are about the length of the corn, so that when it is cut and thrashed the seed of the polygonum accompanies the grain and is probably sown with it. ( ) then there are such weeds as the false oat grass, etc., which are taller than the oat, and whose seeds are blown off and scattered all over the field before the harvest. one would think that those exhausted the series, but far from it: the farmer cuts and carries the crop, and for two or three days the ground is almost bare, but if you revisit the field a week afterwards you can no longer see the ground. the cut-off yellow stalks of the corn are set off by a dark continuous green carpet of flourishing weeds. this last, ( ) the "waiting division" of the weeds, remain quietly until the corn is removed and then get through their flowering and seeding before the field is ploughed up or covered by grass. now if one thinks for a little over the cunning and ingenuity of these proceedings, it is obvious that each single weed has somehow learnt how to develop exactly at the right time. those especially which are intended (by themselves) to form part of the seed mixtures must flower exactly at the same time as the corn. as a matter of fact, most seed mixtures are often full of weeds. in a single pound of clover seed, no less than , foreign seeds, including those of forty-four different weeds, have been discovered.[ ] [ ] _report of the botanical department n.j. agricultural experiment station_, . others scattered on the ground will probably be buried and remain five to seven years below the surface, yet they are ready to come up flourishing as soon as they get a chance. how has this been brought about? it is only since about to that our present system of farming has prevailed. in these years, these weeds have found out exactly how to establish themselves. the explanation is probably a very simple one. every weed which did not bloom and seed exactly at the right time was killed and left no seed. this encouraged the others, who have gradually brought about the neat little arrangements above described. a process of selection has been at work. those that would not modify their arrangements to suit new methods of farming have been suppressed. but it is in some of the cultivated plants themselves that one sees the most extraordinary results of selection. the wild cabbage is still to be found on sea-cliffs on the south-western coast of england, and the wild turnip occasionally occurs in fields. there is nothing particularly interesting or attractive about either of them. yet from the one has been produced cabbage, cauliflower, seakale, brussels sprouts, broccoli, and kohlrabi; and the other has given the endless varieties of turnips. for the most part these extraordinary changes have been brought about in a perfectly straightforward way, by just choosing the biggest and finest sorts for seed. some of the feats performed by gardeners in this way are almost incredible. a united states seedsman evolved the idea of a perfect bean from his inner consciousness. it had a particular shape which he described to a noted grower of beans. two years later his ideal bean was produced! the growers of pineapples used to have a great deal of difficulty on account of the pineapple cuttings becoming unhealthy. sometimes per cent. were more or less diseased. then certain growers began to carefully select disease-proof pineapples, and finally reduced the percentage of diseased cuttings to four per cent. another french observer (m. roujon) by continually selecting the smallest seeds, was able to obtain corn only eight inches high. but by far the most interesting and important researches have been those dealing with roots and tubers. several people have, in fact, done in a few years what it took primitive man centuries to accomplish. thus, in , e. v. proskowetz obtained some seeds of the wild sea-beetroot which is found on the south coast of france. by very careful selection he was able in the year to get good beetroots quite like the ordinary cultivated ones. these were biennials (not annuals like the wild plant), and had a large percentage of sugar-- · per cent. this was by selection in good and fertile soil.[ ] vilmorin also obtained quite good carrots in the fourth generation by cultivating the wild form in rich and good soil, and selecting the best. [ ] perceval, _agricultural botany_. in fact there are in natural wild plants great differences between individuals, and when such plants are cultivated in good soil, where they have far more to eat than they require, the result is that they produce extraordinary and monstrous types. these types are, however, more or less delicate, and are weak in constitution and easily killed. to prevent such variations those who wish to keep a race of seed pure are careful to keep it growing on poor land. in the hyacinth (_hyacinthus orientalis_) was introduced from the levant. in there were four varieties, and in eight kinds were known, but in two thousand forms of hyacinth were named and described. besides selection, the method of hybridizing or crossing is often used in order to obtain new or valuable strains. generally both hybridizing and crossing are employed. this method has long been practised. bradley, in , writes as follows: "a curious person may by this knowledge produce much rare kinds of plants as have not yet been heard of"; and, in fact, peaches, potatoes, plums, strawberries, and savoys have all been greatly improved by hybridizing and selection.[ ] by crossing certain kinds of corn, such as the chinese oat and the wild european oat, varieties have been produced by messrs. garton which at the highland and agricultural society's trials produced , , and bushels per acre, as compared with bushels yielded by the ordinary scotch oat.[ ] with potatoes also astonishing results have been got. [ ] masters, _nature_, july, . [ ] _journal farmers' club_, february, . [illustration: _queensland government photo_ sugar cane in queensland the cart is being loaded up to carry the canes to the factory, where it will be crushed by the latest and most perfect machinery.] one single potato was sold for £ not very long ago. the potato, like the indian corn, tobacco, and a few other plants, is an inhabitant of the new world. of other cultivated plants the native country is not known. no one knows where, for instance, sugar-cane was first cultivated, but it has nine sanskrit names, one of which, _khand_, is, or has probably at one time been familiar to us as sugar-candy. it was well-known when the institutes of manu were written, but that may have been somewhere between b.c. and a.d. . one of the hindu indian deities, kámadeva, who corresponds to cupid, the god of love, carries a bow made of sugar-cane, with a string which is composed of bees. "he bends the luscious cane and twists the string with bees: how sweet! but ah! how keen their sting, he with five flowerets tips the ruthless darts which through five senses pierce enraptured hearts." from india it seems to have been carried by alexander the great to asia minor, for it is mentioned by herodotus. in the time of the crusades it was discovered in syria, and the venetians learned something about it when the crusaders returned to europe. the spaniards introduced the sugar-cane to the canary islands in . then the dutch took it to brazil, and when they were expelled from that country by the portuguese they transferred their canes to the west indian islands. our english islands, barbados ( ) and jamaica ( ), soon found the cultivation a very profitable undertaking.[ ] [ ] for full details see watts, _economic dictionary of products of india_; muller, _select extra-tropical plants_. the variations in price of sugar became in process of time of a very serious nature. in the year it is said that in scotland a pound of sugar was worth one ounce of standard silver. but from to the price fell to d. the east indian sugar began to compete with that from the west indies about this time, but this was very soon crushed out by imposing a duty of £ per cwt. the west indies were then very flourishing, but even before this the fatal word _beet-sugar_ had already been heard. it was nothing at first but an interesting experiment by professor marcgraf in a german laboratory, who had extracted a little cane-sugar from beetroot in . but in the beet was already in cultivation. napoleon saw england's monopoly of the cane and judiciously encouraged the beet. the result of his far-seeing policy only became manifest a few years ago, for then the west indian islands, which we conquered and guarded against napoleon at such fearful expense of blood and treasure, were almost worthless; continental beet-sugar had ruined our colonial planters and our home refineries. it is in fact a most curious and interesting example of how a little judicious encouragement by a wise and far-seeing government may destroy the profits of victory in a long, glorious, but yet ruinous war. chapter xxii plants and ants meaning of plant life--captive and domesticated germs--solomon's observations denied by buffon but confirmed by recent writers--ants as keepers and germinators of corn--ant fields--ants growing mushrooms--leaf-cutting ants--plants which are guarded by insects--the african bush--ants boarded by acacias and by imbauba trees--ants kept in china and italy--cockchafer _v._ ant--scale insects--a fungus which catches worms. the world of plants supports all animal life, from the mite to the elephant. there are most intricate relations between one form of life and another. thus a rose tree attacked by an aphis or green-fly may be succoured by the slim ichneumon, or other thin-waisted fly, which lays its egg in that of the aphis. another insect, say a spider, catches the ichneumon. a starling may eat the spider, and be itself eaten by an owl. so that ichneumon and starling are friends to the rose, whilst the other insect, the spider, and the owl are enemies. yet both the starling and the spider are probably, almost certainly on the whole, friends of the rose, although they are unfriendly in this special case. with all other similar series or changes the final term is either a bird or animal of prey or mankind. until we introduce the idea of man as the culminating point of the series, the whole of it seems to be without any special meaning or advantage. but when we think of how man utilizes the work of plants and animals, then the whole scheme becomes intelligible and complete; it is like a well-rounded story with a worthy and adequate end. moreover, what man has done so far is only an instalment of what he will probably succeed in doing. all who have brought up caterpillars or bees know that their greatest difficulty arises from certain minute insects or fungus enemies. we already know enough about these latter to fight them with some chance of success, but there are hundreds of other spores and germs floating in the atmosphere, and coming to rest on animals, on clothing, or on the leaves or petals of plants. these germs are now just as wild as, and infinitely more dangerous than the furious aurochs, the disdainful wild asses, or the ferocious wolves that our forefathers succeeded in domesticating. those bacteria, or germs, for instance, which are only one-thousandth of a millimetre long, are only visible by the help of a microscope. a row of three hundred thousand of them would be required to make an inch in length! yet one of these germs can be mature and divide into two new germs in twenty minutes. in forty minutes there would be four, in an hour eight, and so on. the number after twenty-four hours is almost incredible. these little germs stick to our clothes, fingers, lips, money, newspapers, and anything that is often handled. they hover in the air we breathe, permeate the food we eat, and inhabit water, and especially milk, in enormous numbers. some of them are deadly. one might easily decimate a whole population, as indeed happened in the south sea islands when smallpox was introduced. others are harmless and even necessary. but to-day if you go into a bacteriological laboratory you will find hundreds and thousands of little glass tubes all neatly labelled and stoppered with cotton wool. if you read those labels you will see that the bacteria of all sorts of horrible and loathsome diseases have been captured and imprisoned. there is the deadly anthrax bacillus peacefully discolouring gelatine; in another, possibly the germs of hydrophobia may be undergoing a process of taming or treatment. each of these colonies of germs is under perfect control, and in many of them their natural wickedness has been so much alleviated that they are now useful aids to the doctor, who gives his patient a mild dose of the disease in order to accustom his system to resist accidental infection by the original type. yet what has been done already is only an earnest of what will no doubt be accomplished. every farmer and ploughboy will in time sow his own bacteria; every dairymaid will make all sorts of cheese, from camembert, rochfort, to gorgonzola, by sowing the right kind of germ upon it. man will no doubt cultivate the whole earth in the way that he now cultivates europe and great britain, and will obtain mastery not only over his domesticated plants and animals, but over fungi, bacteria, and insects also. even if man had never risen above the state of the banderlog of mr. kipling, there are other animals which cultivate and even combine together for warfare and conquest. in some respects they are better disciplined even than man himself, and they can defy all sorts of mankind except civilized man. possibly if man had not arisen on the scene, these insects might have developed some sort of civilization like that imagined by mr. wells in his story of the moon. we are only concerned with the relations of these ants to plants. those who are interested in their conquests and civilization must consult the excellent account by mr. selous in his _romance of the insect world_. the most interesting points about them are as follows. they gather a harvest and store it up for the winter. this habit of the ant was well known to the ancients, and is mentioned by solomon. at the time of the french encyclopædists, when the fashion of the times was all for destruction and disbelief, the fact that ants do so was ridiculed and flatly contradicted, and especially by the great naturalist buffon. they pointed out that ants hibernated during the cold weather, and therefore required no food for the winter, so that solomon's story was absolutely ridiculous. for nearly a hundred years people forgot that palestine and those other countries where the habits of ants had been reverently observed possessed a climate much too warm and mild to make the ants hibernate. after careful study it has been discovered that the ants thoroughly understand the first stages of brewing! the corn which they gather is not eaten by them in its hard winter condition. when taken into the winter nest of the ants this corn would very soon germinate and grow into a plant, but the ants manage to prevent this by some method which is not yet understood. if such a nest is left alone by the ants, the corn immediately begins to grow, but it is not allowed to do so till it is required for food. should the store of corn get damp by heavy rain, or mould appear upon it, then the careful ants bring up their store into the sunlight and dry it there. when it is required for food germination is permitted, but is soon stopped: the ants nibble off the growing rootlet of the seed. then when the grain absorbs water and begins to change its starch into sugar, the ants suck in the sugar and reap the reward of all this labour and skill. in the conduct of this germination of the grain they are, of course, far in advance of all the savage races of mankind. there are certain south american species which go at least one step farther. they have their own fields--spaces three or four feet in diameter--which are entirely occupied by one single grass, the so-called ant-rice (_aristida stricta_). dr. lincecum states that the ants "work" these plantations very carefully, removing every weed or other plant that comes up, and sowing every year the new seed at the proper season.[ ] [ ] _proceedings linnean society_, . dr. maccook adds nothing essential, and in no way disproves dr. lincecum's statements. these facts are sufficiently strange and startling, but there are even, apparently, species still more intelligent, who not only sow and reap, but actually prepare a soil and reap a crop of mushrooms, or at least, if not of mushrooms, of fungi. these wonderful little insects gather leaves and cut them into fragments of an appropriate size; they are then collected together so as to form a bed, and the fungus is introduced to this. the fungus is kept at a certain stage of growth by very careful treatment; the fruit-bearing ends are nibbled off, so that the young shoots come up indefinitely. the ants feed upon these fungus shoots, and get a crop indefinitely prolonged. this is, of course, a system of agriculture far beyond that employed by any tribe of savages. only man in a relatively advanced stage of agriculture grows mushrooms for himself. these facts, startling as they may seem, are apparently quite well authenticated and have not been seriously questioned. there are a great number of leaf-cutting ants who are, indeed, amongst the most dangerous of the many insect pests in south america and elsewhere. wallace (_revue scientifique_, , p. ), in speaking of the saauba or leaf-cutters, describes how he placed a large heavy branch across the route of one of their columns. the long line of laden ants was checked, and the greatest confusion set in at the head of the column. each ant, for several feet down the column, then laid down its leaf, and all set to work to tunnel under the obstacle. this was managed in about half an hour's time, and the column then proceeded on its way. amongst other interesting and curious facts connected with these extraordinary insects is that some kinds are actually kept up by certain plants as a sort of standing army or police. there are no less than species of plant which keep these standing armies of ferocious ants, or if they do not keep them, at any rate lay themselves out to attract them. the kinds which are attracted live upon sugar, and are strong, active, and extremely good fighters. when travelling through the bush in africa, it is not unusual in some places to touch inadvertently one of these protected trees. in a moment one's hand and arm are covered by ants whose heads are dug deep down into the skin, biting with all their strength. it is of course impossible to describe all the plants which protect themselves against injurious insects and even large animals in this way, but two of them must be mentioned. there are certain acacias which are particularly interesting. like most of this order, they have large hollow spines instead of stipules at the base of the leaf. it is inside these spines that the troops of the police-insects live. these acacias (oxhorn acacia, as well as _a. sphærocephala_ and _a. spadicigera_) also produce _sugar_, which is secreted by peculiar gland-like organs on the stalks of the leaves, and even _albuminoids_, for at the tips of the leaflets there are peculiar little bodies which contain albuminous matter. the imbauba tree (_cecropia spp._) also possesses a standing army of these ants. it puts them up in the hollow pith in the centre of the tree, which is divided into large roomy spaces and makes a convenient nest. there is a minute opening by which they run in and out. on one occasion a naturalist found that the ants had been benumbed by a period of very cold weather, and in consequence had neglected their duty, and the trees had been stripped of their leaves by leaf-cutting kinds.[ ] [ ] belt, _naturalist in nicaragua_. these last mentioned, the leaf-cutting ants, are especially dreaded by owners of plantations. foreign or introduced plants are not specially guarded against their ravages by special secretions, as is the case with the native flora, so that the coffee and cocoa plantations are often severely injured. in some places man has copied those acacias and imbaubas, for in the orange plantations of the province of canton, in china, ants' nests are collected and placed on the trees. moreover, the different trees are connected together by bamboos, so that the ants can easily pass, as on a bridge, from one tree to another. near mantua, in italy, the same system seems to be adopted, and ants' nests are carefully placed near the fruit trees. their use can be quite well understood, for forel, in his work on the ants of switzerland, estimates that _one ants'_ _nest will require_ a supply of , insects a day during the season. it is quite common to find ants crawling about on the outside of the large heads of the garden centaury and a few other composites. if one looks carefully, one finds that there are streaks of honey to be seen coming from the scales. the honey is not produced in the flowers, and seems at first sight to be of no use at all so far as the plant is concerned, but that is very far from being the case. here comes a cockchafer or other destructive beetle, intent on absolutely devouring and destroying the young flowers. at once the pugnacity and wrath of the ants are aroused. they take up a menacing and ferocious attitude, and the cockchafer passes to some other plant.[ ] [ ] kerner, _l.c._, vol. , fig. , p. . such honey-glands found on the leaves and not connected in any way with the flowers, are more common than one would think. even the common bracken produces curious honey-secreting hairs when it is in a young condition. these attract ants which drive away caterpillars and other dangerous insect foes. many very dangerous insects are too small for birds, and can only be dealt with effectually by insects or fungi. of these perhaps the most dangerous are the "scale" insects. the best-known one is very like a minute mussel shell. it is about one-quarter to one-third of an inch long, and can be sometimes found in quantities on apples; they are generally collected round the stalk. the mother insect has this scaly back, and lies down and dies on the top of her eggs, so that her scaly corpse forms a roof and a shield for her young ones. like all pests of this sort, these creatures increase very rapidly. a certain scale insect was doing an immense amount of harm in the orange plantations of fiji, but it was destroyed by the introduction of lady-birds, and of a certain parasitic fly. it is said that these insects destroyed the "scale" in six months! experiments have also been tried with fungi. there are certain fungi which attack the bodies of living insects. so far, however, it cannot be said that the results have been at all satisfactory, for the propagation and infection of the living insects by fungus spores is not at all easy. there is also a certain feeling of doubt as to what may happen. those fungi, and particularly bacteria, might set up dangerous epidemics. decaying meal contains hundreds of certain very curious worms called _nematodes_. they are short, about one-twenty-fifth of an inch in length, and are smooth and very like minute eels. these creatures are very active, wriggling or swaying to and fro in a characteristic manner. now in decaying meal there is a peculiar fungus. like most fungi, it consists of very minute transparent threads which contain living matter or protoplasm. this particular fungus has branches, but also forms curious loops or belts. when one of these eel-worms is swaying about in the meal, it may quite well happen that its tail slips into one of these loops. if that happens, the fate of the worm is sealed, for the loop is elastic, and the more it wriggles the farther it slips in and the stronger it is held. the fungus then begins to grow, and forms a tube which grows _into the worm_ and kills it. all the material in the worm's body goes to nourish the fungus. this extraordinary fungus has been described and figured by professor zopf, but seems to be a very unusual and rare form. chapter xxiii the peril of insects the phylloxera--french sport--life history of the phylloxera--cockchafer grubs--wireworm--the misunderstood crows--dangerous sucklings of greenflies--"sweat of heaven" and "saliva of the stars"--a parasite of a parasite of a parasite--buds--the apple-blossom weevil--apple-sucker--the codlin moth and the ripening apple--the pear midge--a careless naturalist and his present of rare eggs--leaf-miners--birds without a stain upon their characters--birds and man--moats--dust and mites--the homes of the mites--buds, insect eggs, and parent birds flourishing together. the difficulty in describing the romance of plant life does not arise from a want of romance, but the sieges, battles, and alarms are so difficult to see, and the enemies are so tiny, that the terrific contests continually going on escape our notice altogether. when one does look carefully and closely at the life of a plant, one sometimes wonders how it manages to exist at all in the midst of so many and great dangers. there are great swarms of insects which devour or burrow into it, or suck its life-juices. these are infinitely more dangerous than the relatively clumsy, heavy-footed, grazing animal. every part of a plant has its own special insect foe, and it is really difficult to understand how it can possibly escape. perhaps the "achilles' heel" is the root, for, underground, plants get no help from the watchful and ever-present army of birds, who are, as we shall see, the natural police of the world. the phylloxera, for instance, which ruined the old and valuable vineyards in france, is a terrible little acarid, or mite, which attacks the roots. too small to see, and impossible to kill without killing the plant, it laid waste the fertile hills and valleys of all south and central france, causing millions of pounds damage. one reason for this destruction sprang from the universal sporting instinct innate in every frenchman. everybody goes out with his gun to destroy any lark, sparrow, or titmouse that is idiotic enough to remain in the country. only birds can deal efficiently with insect pests. take this horrible little phylloxera, for instance; a single female in her life of forty-five days will lay about two hundred eggs. each egg becomes a little grub, which after a few moments of uncertainty and agitation settles itself, and begins to suck steadily at any unoccupied part of the vine root. after ten to twelve days' life it will be laying eggs as rapidly as its mother. thus in an ordinary summer the number of young ones produced from a single female becomes quite incalculable. these pests are natives of america. imported on american roots about , they had in thirteen years practically ruined the vineyards in france, spain, portugal, italy, and germany. all sorts of remedies were tried--saturation of the ground by poisons, flooding the vineyards to drown them, artificial cultivation of their insect and plant enemies, and many others. the correct and satisfactory method has been at last discovered. american vines of sorts which are able to resist these yankee mites have been imported, and the valuable french vines have been grafted on to them. another very dangerous root-enemy, which is common in this country, is the cockchafer grub or whitegrub. (but it is not nearly so bad as in france, where in the summer of , a single farmer collected lb. of cockchafers.) the grub (each female lays seventy eggs) burrows into the earth, and for no less than three summers remains below ground devouring indiscriminately the roots of everything he can discover. underground, the mole is almost his only enemy, but the rooks, starlings, and gulls, which follow the plough, are watching for him. the wireworm, clickbeetle, or skipjack, is also an underground demon which lives for three years, and gnaws and worries at plant roots for the whole of that time. it, however, shows itself above the surface. a gentleman who had passed his whole life in the country complained, in my presence, of the damage done by rooks. he had had six thousand of them shot that summer, and remarked that he had seen with his own eyes one of them pulling out a young cabbage plant by the root. of course it was quite unnecessary to point out that the poor bird was merely trying to get at the wireworms and devour them! for some time i used to look out for great attacks of wireworm in turnip-fields: when one was recorded, i never failed to find that the crows had been ruthlessly shot down a season or two before. all these, and many other insects, attack the roots, which would be, one would suppose, quite well protected in the depths of the earth. therefore we find roots producing all sorts of poisonous substances, tannins, and even strong-smelling bodies, which keep off these pests. it is perhaps the sucking battalions of the insect army which do the most harm. in themselves they are weak, stupid, and scarcely move from their birthplace. they live out their life wherever their long, lancet-like proboscis needles have pierced the plant's skin, but it is their power of multiplication that makes them really formidable. huxley calculated that if all the offspring of one "green-fly" lived, and if their broods also lived for ten generations, then the tenth brood of that original green-fly would contain more animal matter than the entire population of china. green-fly would, as a matter of fact, go on increasing at this rate, were it not for the enormous number of enemies that prey upon them. a mathematical friend of mr. buckton calculated that in days the produce of a single green-fly might be ^ , that is multiplied by , and then again by up to times! in summer time one may often notice, especially on sycamores and lime trees, a peculiar shining, sticky, honey-like substance which covers the leaves. it is often so abundant as to drip like a rain of honey from the upper branches. this "honey-dew" was a puzzle which greatly intrigued learned minds in the ancient world. pliny speaks of it as the "sweat of heaven" or "saliva of the stars." in reality, however, it is nothing but the excretions of hundreds of millions of these green-fly or aphides, which will be found established on the under side of the leaves, where, moored by their little anchoring talons and with their proboscis inserted in the fresh green leaf, they are sucking hard and steadily at the sugary juice. in twenty-four hours it was observed that a single individual gave forth forty-eight minute drops of honey. bees are very often tempted to collect this honey so abundantly produced, but this turns their own honey black, and may even make it poisonous. plants try to protect themselves against these pests chiefly by means of sticky or long hairs, by a thick skin, or by unpleasant tasting or smelling substances. but it is to insects such as lady-birds and others which devour the green-fly that they owe a deep debt of gratitude. in particular, there are certain parasitic insects which lay their eggs in their bodies. not only so, but it is known that the eggs of some other insects are laid _in the egg of the green-fly_, and in one instance it has been found that yet another insect laid its egg in the egg of the parasite! some of the most interesting objects in nature are the buds in which, all neatly packed and stowed away, the young leaves and flowers remain awaiting the warm breath of spring. they are most interesting to examine: one finds series after series of overlapping scales which cover one another in the most ingenious way. no two are exactly alike, but each seems to have been moulded exactly to the proper shape. there is no waste anywhere, no useless expenditure of material. very often turpentine or resin or a sticky gum seals up the joining of the scales. every possible precaution seems to have been taken by nature. neither rain nor snow can enter a winter bud. neither can the cold of winter penetrate to the inside where the baby leaves and flower petals are cosily and tightly coiled up. but observe in the very earliest warm days of spring an extraordinary little insect, which has wakened up after its own winter sleep in the moss or lichen covering the rough and crannied bark of an old apple tree. this is the apple-blossom weevil, a beetle only about quarter of an inch in length, but with a curious snout or proboscis half the length of its body. this creature proceeds to the bud, and fixing its legs firmly, proceeds to bore a hole through the scales into the middle of the bud. she then places an egg inside, and goes on to put an egg in each of fourteen to forty-nine other buds. this takes a fortnight, and then she dies, probably satisfied that her duty is fully performed. a little footless, cream-white maggot develops in the apple-bud, which latter becomes rusty-coloured and dies away. another pest is the apple-sucker, which lays her eggs in september on the fine hairs which cover the shoots. as soon as the weather becomes mild and warm, little grubs come out of these eggs; they are very small, and their bodies are almost flat. these tiny flat grubs, as soon as they are born, hurry off to the nearest buds and slip between their scales. they remain sucking the rich juices of the apple blossom until may or june, when they become perfect insects, and fly away so fat and well-nourished that they can live until september without feeding. but those are by no means the only dangers. it is not till the apple blossom, which has escaped all those perils, opens in the spring time, after its petals have unfolded in the warm air and the young apple is already half formed, that the codlin moth begins to attack them. this tiny little moth is then extremely busy. she lays about fifty eggs, but only one on each young apple. it is put in the one weak spot of the apple, just at the top, in the base of the withered flower. the grub tunnels down to the core and feeds upon the seeds, which are entirely destroyed. when it has grown sufficiently, it drives another tunnel straight outwards to the skin. if the apple is still on the tree, the caterpillar lets itself down on a long silken thread and hurries off to hide in any convenient crack or crevice of the bark, or if the apple is already stored away, it conceals itself in the walls or in the flooring of the loft. the moths come out at the end of next may, just when the blossoms are getting ready for them. these codlin-moth apples cannot fail to have been noticed by the reader, as the tunnels in the ripe apple are most conspicuous. the gradual fattening of the caterpillar can also be traced, for its first tunnel down to the seeds is quite narrow, while the way out gets wider and wider as the creature became stouter and fatter whilst eating its way through the flesh. the pear midge attacks at the same place, but the mother insect has a long egg-laying tube, and puts from fifteen to thirty eggs into the opening pear blossom. the pears go on growing, but of course are quite spoilt by the maggots within. these latter have a curious springing or jumping habit, and when they reach the soil bury themselves an inch or two below the surface. so that all the care and neatness with which the young flowers and buds are packed up goes for nothing, and these insect pests get all the benefits of the apple and pear! besides these, there are hundreds of sorts of caterpillars which devour the leaves bodily. cabbage-white butterflies, magpie-moths, gipsy-moths, diamondback-moths, and others, lay their eggs in hundreds. many lay eggs each. in the united states, somebody had sent an entomologist a present of some eggs of one of these moths. they were placed on a paper near a window which happened to be open; the entomologist went out, and the paper must have blown across the street into a garden on the other side. at any rate, two or three years afterwards it was found that some trees were badly attacked by this moth. nobody thought much about this, though of course it was interesting to find a new moth. but the pest became a very serious one. in consequence of the stimulating air of the united states the moth multiplied with the most extraordinary rapidity, and it is said that about , dollars was spent in one year in the attempt to stamp it out. all this happened because an entomologist forgot to lock up his eggs when he went away for half an hour! these caterpillars and the locusts devour the leaves bodily, but there are others which live inside them. these so-called "leaf-miner" caterpillars make white irregularly-winding tunnels between the upper and the lower skin of the leaf. the tunnel increases or widens because the caterpillar itself grows fatter as it eats its tunnel. they can be seen on a great many leaves, and can be at once recognized by this peculiarity. plants cannot run away from their enemies like animals, and it would seem at first sight that their case was very hopeless. but it is not so, for there is a vast, active, keen-eyed, and eager army of helpers always ready for eggs and caterpillars. it is birds that are of the greatest importance. a titmouse will eat , insects in a season. a starling has been seen to fetch food for its young ones from a grass paddock yards away no less than eighteen times in a quarter of an hour. all the following are excellent birds, and without a stain upon their characters: the plover, partridge, robin, wagtail, starling. crows and wood-pigeons are under suspicion, for though the latter do good in devouring the seeds of weeds, and the former in destroying wireworms, both are fond of corn and take large quantities of it. thrushes, mavises, and blackbirds are amongst the most persevering and useful of our friends, but they are certainly fond of fruit. yet the good which they do is very much more than any possible harm which an injudicious indulgence in the juicy fruits of summer might bring about. the sparrow cannot be given a character. indeed, he is objectionable in every way, for he not only does no good himself, but he devours corn and drives away starlings and other valuable and interesting helpers. but it is very difficult to say what will happen if man interferes with the regular working of nature. the starling has been a pest in australia, though here it does nothing but good work. we are still grossly ignorant of many simple but very important facts. even when we do know something, as for instance, that the peewit's or plover's whole life is occupied in clearing the ground of wireworm, daddy-long-legs grub, insects' eggs, and the like, that does not help the bird in the least. plovers' eggs are regularly sold in enormous quantities. every farm-labourer collects them, and the farmer never dreams of interfering. man shoots down owls, kestrels, hawks, who prey upon mice, voles, and sparrows. then, when some farmers are half ruined, he has royal commissions to find out why the voles have increased so much. there are one or two peculiar contrivances found in plants which are intended to keep off insects, and which may be noticed here. thus, the importance of a moat (which almost always formed part of the defence of a medieval castle) had been already found out by one or two plants. in a particular kind of teazle and in a large sunflower-like composite (_silphium laciniatum_) every pair of two opposite leaves run together, so that a little cup-like hollow is formed surrounding the stem, in which water collects. insects climbing up the stem and trying to get at the heads of flowers fall in and get drowned in this water; their bodies may be seen floating about in it, and probably when these decay, their decay-products are of some use to the plant. this curious contrivance is only a development of a very common arrangement. in most leaves you will find that rainwater is intended to run in a particular direction. there are little grooves and canals down which it is supposed to go, and dry, thirsty hairs may be found so arranged as to intercept part of it. thus in summer the plants are not confined entirely to the water from the ground, but are also refreshed by the rain from above. but if you look closely along these little channels, and especially at the base of the leaf where they join the stem, you will find that dust particles washed down by the rain collect and form little streaks and patches. the air is full of all sorts of dust particles which are made up of every conceivable substance. many of these minute grains of dust will be dissolved in the water, and help to supply the plant with food. nor is that all, for if you take a hand-lens and examine these dust particles very closely, you will very probably find small animalcula moving about. they are not pretty; in fact they are quite horrible to look at. these are tiny mites which live in these places. their office is probably to eat up everything eatable (including eggs of insects and spores of fungi), and their excreta as well as their own bodies will probably be dissolved in the water and go to help the plants. the most certain place to find them is on the leaves of the lime and other trees in august. on the under side of the leaf little bushes of hairs can be found just where the veins fork. it is necessary to take a pin and stir up these hairs to frighten them out, but when this has been done, the lens will show the disgusting-looking little creatures running hurriedly away. they are no doubt exceedingly annoyed at being disturbed in the midst of their sleep, for they come out and forage for anything eatable at night, retiring for the day into these hairy grottos. the structure of these grottos is very complicated. they are often like little caves with a narrow entrance, and the sleeping chamber is quite within the leaf. a great many trees have these curious mite homes. the insects are generally the colour of the hairs, and are not easy to distinguish. all those insects mentioned here have so arranged their life histories that they come into existence exactly at the proper season. the warmth of the sun, which opens the apple buds ever so slightly, stirs also the egg of the mite, the egg of the beetle, or the hibernating weevil, so that all these insect populations come into full active life just when they can do the most damage. but one must not stop there; the bird population is also ready, and is building its nests and feeding its young, just so soon as the insect swarms are at their thickest and most dangerous stage. man walks clumsily through this intricate tangle of living plants and animals: he sets his big foot on a hedgehog (good for the insects), or on a mole (so much the better for wireworm), collects plovers' eggs (to the great help of every insect), shoots an owl (to the delight of voles and mice) or a whole brood of partridges, and in other ways makes a---- we had better say, shows that he is not so clever as he supposes himself to be. chapter xxiv rubber, hemp, and opium effects of opium--the poppy-plant and its latex--work of the opium-gatherer--where the opium poppy is grown--haschisch of the count of monte cristo--heckling, scotching, and retting--hempseed and bhang--users of haschisch--use of india-rubber--why plants produce rubber--with the indians in nicaragua--the congo free state--scarcity of rubber--columbus and torquemada--macintosh--gutta-percha. supposing that in china or japan you meet a native who shows the following symptoms:-- ( ) eyes hollow and surrounded by a bluish margin; ( ) pupils much dilated; ( ) with a stupid appearance; ( ) with an emaciated body; ( ) of unsteady and staggering walk; ( ) with a dreamy disposition;--then, you may be sure that he is an opium-smoker. in some of the chinese provinces every man smokes · to · ounce of opium daily, but those who indulge to excess consume · or even · ounce. it is an excellent medicine when employed in a lawful and justifiable manner, for it calms the spirits and makes one sleep. but its use is _always_ dangerous, even when employed in very small quantity, as in laudanum and morphia. in the fen country in england there used to be a very large sale of laudanum pills which keep off asthma and rheumatism, but even there it is a dangerous remedy, for it is only too easy to fall under the control of this drug either by injection of morphia, or by eating or smoking laudanum or morphia. de quincey's _confessions of an opium-eater_ and kipling's _gate of the hundred sorrows_ give a lurid picture of the ruin of body and soul brought about by opium. it is produced from the heads of the opium poppy (_papaver somniferum_). any poppy (or indeed any plant of the poppy order) when scratched or wounded exudes a thick white or orange milky fluid. this is called "latex" (or milk); it is always more or less poisonous, and generally contains some sort of resinous matter. thus when the plant is scratched or pierced, a drop of this milky latex comes out and at once hardens over the wound. of course the plant is much benefited by this, for any destructive insect, unless it is a confirmed opium-eater, will be poisoned or killed; then also, if wounds are caused by wind, heavy rain, or animals passing, the scar is at once healed over and covered by the hardened opium, so that no dangerous fungus spores can get in to attack the plant. there is a mildew fungus and also a smut fungus (_entyloma_) which attack the poppy, but both these enter by the stomata and live between the cells of the plant. the general appearance of the opium poppy is quite familiar; its upright stems, large, clasping, bluish-green leaves and conspicuous flowers may be seen in many gardens. it is rather interesting, and in many ways; when young, the buds droop or hang down, and are entirely enclosed in two large green, hairy sepals. these last are soon thrown off, and then the flowers open out and display the petals with their rich black spots, and the crowded mass of stamens which surround the central greenish head. in bud these petals are "cramb'd up within the empalement by hundreds of little wrinkles or puckers as if three or four fine cambrick handkerchifs [_sic_] were thrust into one's pocket," as an old writer describes it (grew). bees, and especially bumbles, are extremely fond of it, and even seem to be, in a way, opium-eaters, for they get quite exalted, almost intoxicated, and above their ordinary laborious selves. they scurry round and round the flower under the stamens or hover excitedly above it. it is at this stage that the opium-gatherer begins his work; he goes round the beds and collects the petals of the poppy to use later on (see p. ). the poppy-heads are then half grown and bluish-green, but they soon begin to turn yellow and ripen. when ripe they are most interesting to examine. there is a large platform covered by a radiating star-like ornament, which is the stigma. underneath this is a circle of little holes just below the crown, but above the head. each small hole has a flap. now if you gather a ripe poppy-head on a fine dry day all these holes are open, and if you hold it upright and swing it vigorously from side to side the tiny seeds come flying out of the holes and will be thrown to a considerable distance. the stalk is supposed to swing in a high wind, and the seeds are really slung or thrown out of the holes. but if, when you come home, you put your poppy-head in water, or look at the plants in the garden on a very wet day, you will find that every hole closes or is shut up, because the small door mentioned above expands so as to close the opening. the seeds are only sent out on a fine dry day; but they travel well. it was observed in america that certain poppies had been introduced as weeds at a certain place; in fifteen years they were found twenty-five miles farther on, so that they were colonizing the country at the rate of three-fifths of a mile per annum.[ ] the seeds themselves are very light and are of some value; they may be eaten like caraway-seed, as comfits, or crushed to supply an oil for lamps, or used as medicine. it is said that the value of the seed raised in france was in one year £ , . the heads themselves are also valuable (they are worth s. per thousand), and even the dried stalks and leaves, for they may be used as fodder. [ ] this is not quite certain. but the real reason why the plant is cultivated in so many parts of the earth is the great value of the opium obtained from it. this is gathered in the following curious way. as soon as the dew has dried off the plant, the cultivator goes round the beds and scratches every poppy-head with a tool made up of three knives tied together. that is the time recommended by theophrastus, and it is apparently still the usual time to choose. in the late afternoon, from four to seven, he comes round again and scrapes off the congealed milk, which is then worked up into cakes and taken to the factory. it is prepared by being kneaded, dried, and rubbed until it is of a pale golden colour.[ ] finally, it is enclosed in a mass of poppy petals, sometimes mixed with the fruits of a kind of dock, and is then ready for export. [ ] rudyard kipling has a most interesting account of the great opium factory at malwa. it is cultivated in a great many parts of the world--turkey, syria, persia, france, china, the united states, germany, queensland, but especially in british india, where the immense plains at malwa used to furnish opium worth about sixty million rupees annually (after deducting all expenses). this was mostly exported to china, and amounted to a tax of about threepence per head on every chinaman; it was also sufficient to defray about one-sixteenth part of the expenses of our indian empire. the story of how great britain forced china to take our opium is not a creditable one nor agreeable to read. the plant was known in ancient egypt, persia, and rome, and was used in china for at least two hundred years before our times. [illustration: _stereo copyright, underwood & underwood_ _london and new york_ gathering rubber in tehuantepec incisions may be seen in the bark of the tree. the rubber milk runs out from these into the vessel held in the man's hand.] what is supposed to be the original wild plant from which the opium poppy was derived seems to have been cultivated in the ancient swiss lake dwellings, for the seeds of _papaver setigerum_ occur there in abundance. the price of the crop may amount to £ or £ per acre. another very ancient plant is the hemp, _cannabis sativa_. it was known to herodotus, who says that "in the country of the massagetæ there is a tree bearing a strange produce which they casting into a fire inhale its fumes on which they straightway become drunk." it is a tall, rather handsome annual, with stems from three to fifteen feet high. it is cultivated all over the world, from the equator to ° north latitude, but for different purposes. in india it is chiefly for the resin, "haschisch, churrus, bhang." (that was the drug used by the count of monte cristo.) in russia it is for the seed and the fibre that the plant is cultivated, and in france, italy, and austria the fibre seems to be the most important product. some of the plants produce only stamens or male flowers. the fibre given by these is stronger and more tenacious than that of the female plant, which, however, is finer and more supple. the fibre obtained from the cold northern districts of russia is said to be the strongest of all. the preparation of the fibre is a long, tedious, and laborious operation. it is also unhealthy, for the fibre has to be "retted" (steeped in water so that the soft parts decay), "scotched" (that is the hard wood must be broken and removed), and "heckled." this last process is familiar to all who are interested in political matters. it consists of being drawn on hard points difficult to traverse and of a very fine and sharp character! hemp is the commonest fibre for string, rope, etc.; it used to be employed for sailmaking by the romans. catherine de' medici is said to have had two chemises made of hemp. hempseed is much appreciated by poultry and birds of all kinds (which makes both harvesting and sowing rather difficult); but the chief use of the seed is to furnish a fatty oil used for soft soap, lighting, and painting. the remains, after taking the oil, are employed as a cattle food, but it does not form a satisfactory cake. the chief interest of hemp is, however, the drug that is made from the resinous juice. no doubt this has the effect of keeping off dangerous insects, for it is said that plants of hemp even keep off insects from other plants planted close beside them. sometimes the leaves and stalks are dried in order to make the drug "bhang." many allusions to this substance are found in eastern poetry, where it is called the "leaf of delusion," "increaser of pleasure," and "cementer of friendship," but madness is the result of addiction to its use. the resin is collected by making the labourers put on leather aprons, and then run up and down vigorously through the hempfields. the resin is then scraped off the leather, or off their skins if they prefer to do without leather. it is either eaten or smoked. burton describes how at every cottage door in east africa the arabs may be seen smoking bhang with or without tobacco. "it produces a violent cough ending in a kind of scream after a few long puffs." in small doses haschisch (resin) has pleasant effects, for people experience pleasant illusions, good appetite, excitement, and laughter, followed, however, after an interval by stupor and sleep. people addicted to the use of haschisch roll their eyes violently, and have a wild, startled appearance. naturally so dangerous a drug cannot be recommended unless under the most exceptional circumstances, but it is employed in cases of asthma and insomnia. haschisch and opium are the two great curses of the chinese, malays, and the inhabitants of british india and the east. they may be compared to "drink" in this country, but they are important medicines. among the most curious and interesting facts in nature is the extraordinary variety of the ways in which at present gutta-percha and india-rubber are employed. we should not be able to ride bicycles, or in motor-cars; we could not use atlantic cables and many electrical apparatus; our railway carriages would be most uncomfortable; golf would be impossible; we should have no waterproof coats and no goloshes [sic], if it were not for these valuable and extraordinary substances, india-rubber or caoutchouc, and gutta-percha. their history is full of romance, but perhaps the most striking part of it is just this fact. because a few (only a very few) plants found it necessary to protect their wood from burrowing beetles by a specially poisonous and elastic substance, _therefore_ we can play golf and enjoy free-wheel bicycles. the rubber is derived from the resinous latex or milky juice, which pours out from any wound in the bark of certain trees and creeping plants. this milk must be poisonous enough to kill the rash and intrusive mother beetle, who wishes to lay her eggs in the wood. it must be elastic, because the branches and stems swaying to and fro in the wind require a yielding, springy substance, but resin is contained in it, so that it promptly hardens and closes up the scar. the traveller belt, in his _naturalist in nicaragua_, mentions that those trees which had been entirely drained of their rubber by the indian gatherers were riddled by beetles, and in an unhealthy, dying condition. almost all the important rubber plants are found in wet, unhealthy, tropical forests; they are by far the most important jungle product in west africa, as well as on the congo river and in the amazon valley. it is quite impossible to describe the various rubber trees, and the different methods of gathering rubber, but it may be interesting to quote from an account of the method of its collection in nicaragua, by mr. rowland w. cater.[ ] [ ] _chambers's journal_, oct. th, . the best season for tapping the trees of _castilloa elastica_ is from august to february. it is best also to perform the operation early in the morning before the daily rain, "or in the evening after the rain has fallen. the milk ... is white and of the consistency of cream. the tree thrives best in moist but not marshy forests. "it seeds in the tenth year, and ought not to be tapped before its eighth year, or its growth may be much retarded. "on reaching the group of trees, which numbered seventeen of various sizes, my carib friends first cut away the twining creepers that almost hid the trunks, and then carefully removed a couple of buruchas, natural ropes of rubber, formed in the following manner: from incisions in the bark, possibly caused by woodpeckers or some insect, the juice often exudes, trickling down the trunk, in and out of the encircling creepers, and sometimes reaching the ground. the milky stream coagulates and turns black as it runs, forming a long strip or cord, with which the huléros often tie up their bales. "the parasites removed, pete and josé strapped on their espuelas (climbing spurs), fastened at the knee and ankle, and having dug a small pit or basin at the foot of each of a couple of trees, passed a ring of stout rope round the trunks and their own waists, and walked up with their machetes between their teeth. by lifting the rope at every step they were enabled to stand almost erect, and when lying back in the ring both hands were at liberty. "josé, whom i watched closely, commenced operations immediately below the first branch. with his broad-bladed sword he cut in the bark a horizontal canal which almost encircled the trunk and terminated in a v-shaped angle. from the point of the v downwards he next cut a perpendicular canal about two feet in length, which joined another horizontal channel ending in a v, and so on to the ground. in the last cut he inserted a large green leaf to serve as a funnel and guide the milk into the basin. "the brazilian rubber collectors always place a receptacle of tin or earthenware in the hole at the foot of the tree to prevent the admixture of grit or other foreign matters; they also strain the milk through coarse muslin; hence the greater value of pará rubber. but nicaraguan methods are primitive." in the congo free state the taxes are paid by the collection of rubber. it is alleged that "if the demands for rubber or other produce were not satisfied, the people at fault were flogged often most barbarously with a thong of twisted hippopotamus hide, called the _chicotta_. or else the natives were told to catch the women from the offending villages, who were brought to the _chef de poste_ and imprisoned by him as hostages for the industry of their husbands. or else the sentries shot some of the defaulters as examples to the rest. frequently there were armed expeditions into refractory districts and widespread promiscuous slaughter. the cannibal soldiers of the state or of the company sometimes feasting on the bodies of the slain."[ ] [ ] _contemporary review_, dec., . mr. herbert samuel, m.p. the supply of rubber has of recent years shown signs of becoming exhausted. as time goes on the indians of the amazon and orinoco must every year travel deeper into the inaccessible forests of the amazon, orinoco, or in nicaragua. every year also makes it more difficult for the malagasy in madagascar, or the negroes in west africa and the congo, to gather sufficient rubber for the world's ever-growing needs. liberia, the negro republic, is said still to possess plenty of rubber; but it is probable that the true solution of the difficulty will be found in the plantation of rubber trees. the exports from madagascar in were valued at , , francs; from brazil, £ , , ; from nicaragua, , gold pesos (twelve pesos to the £); from the congo, , , francs; but even then about , rupees worth of rubber was exported from plantations in ceylon. unfortunately the trees do not begin to yield until they are eight years old, but the estimated profit per acre is very high, at least according to some authorities, who give a yield of £ per acre (in nicaragua). one cannot help hoping that this will be the case. when one thinks, e.g., of the uachins in the forests at the head of namkong, who spend forty days in carrying their rubber on men's shoulders across the mountains to assam, or of the horrible stories of the congo free state, plantation seems decidedly a more satisfactory method of supplying us with golf balls and bicycle tyres. the first account of india-rubber is found in herrera (columbus's second voyage), who describes the way in which the natives play "with great dexterity and nimbleness." "they struck balls with any part of their bodies." juan de torquemada in gives quite a good description of the castilloa rubber:-- "the tree is held in great estimation, and grows in a hot country. it is not a very high tree: the leaves are round and of an ashy colour: it yields a white milky substance, thick and gummy and in great abundance. it is wounded with axe or cutlass, and from the wound the liquid drops into calabashes: indians who have got no calabashes smear their bodies over with it (for nature is never without a resource), and when it becomes dry remove the whole incrustation."[ ] [ ] collins, _gutta-percha and indiarubber_. the first patent for waterproofing seems to have been granted in . a charles macintosh invented the garment named after him in . very little of the commercial rubber is obtained from the common india-rubber fig (_ficus elasticus_) which we commonly grow indoors. this is one of those species of the fig family which are generally found growing on the branches or trunks of other trees, though their own roots crawl down the trunk of the support to the ground. once these roots have reached the ground, they take firm hold and grow so large and thick that they may be able to hold up the fig tree even if the original support decays and crumbles away. the gutta-percha which we use comes chiefly from singapore, which is a sort of world's market for rubber. there are a great many different varieties and substitutes of this substance, but the best kinds come from malaysia, singapore, sumatra, java, and borneo. the uses of gutta-percha and of vulcanite, which is manufactured from it, are very varied. thus, it is employed for the soles of boots, door-handles, pipes, ear-trumpets, buckets, submarine cables, etc. it is indestructible in sea-water, and does not conduct electricity. a very extraordinary exception to the general rule that latex is highly poisonous, is found in the famous cow tree of venezuela. this tall tree (it is often feet high) is found in large forests near cariaco, on the coast of that country. its milk is said to closely resemble ordinary milk in taste, and to be perfectly wholesome and nutritious, but it is rather sticky. this tree was responsible for all sorts of curious and extraordinary legends in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. chapter xxv on climbing plants robin-run-the-hedge--bramble bushes--climbing roses--spiny, wiry stems of smilax--the weak young stem of a liane--the way in which stems revolve--the hop and its little harpoons--a climbing palm--rapidity of turners--the effect of american life on them--living bridges--rope bridges in india--the common stitchwort--tendrils--their behaviour when stroked or tickled--their sensibility--their grasping power--the quickness with which they curve and their sense of weight--charles darwin--reasonableness of plants--corkscrew spirals--the pads of the virginian creeper--the ivy--does it do harm?--embracing roots--tree ivy. there are many plants which depend upon and cling to other more sturdy kinds, and which would be quite unable to live upon the earth at all if they had not developed the most beautiful methods of doing so. in autumn, as soon as the leaves of the hawthorn have fallen off, one is sure to find upon the hedges the common robin-run-the-hedge (goosegrass, cleavers, or sticky willie, for it is known by all these nicknames as well as by its proper name, _galium aparine_). its stem is exceedingly weak, but it will be found sometimes to be six or seven feet long. it does not support itself, but is resting amongst and entangled in the outer twigs of the hedge in such a manner that it cannot be blown away by the wind or indeed picked out without its being broken. the young stems grow upright and are vigorous at first, but soon they cannot bear their own weight, and fall back upon a branch of the hedge. there are small curved little roughnesses along the stem and on the under side of the leaves of the galium; these hitch on to the twig. up to this point then the stem is supported, and the young part above grows until it also gets a lodgment, and so it goes on until it sometimes reaches right over the top of the hedge. its young flowering branches grow out towards the light away from the main stem, and the yellow withered stem in autumn rests upon the hedge just as a piece of string laid upon it might do. the bramble and rose manage to get a support in very much the same way, but in great britain the bramble generally grows in open ground and its branches take root. the peculiar, curved-back prickles of the bramble and its arching sideways growth would of course hang it on to any horizontal branches in the neighbourhood. kerner measured the length of the stem of a bramble which had interwoven itself into the boughs of a tree, and found that it was over twenty feet long, although it was only one-third of an inch thick. in chile one often finds hedges of brambles ten to fifteen feet in height, which have been formed by the aid of other plants, and also by the way in which the branches become entangled with one another. some climbing roses act in a very similar way, especially if grown on trellis, but the flower shoots always turn to the light like those of the galium. but it is the creepers and lianes of the tropical forests that are the most remarkable of all climbing plants. they twine round the stems and hang in great loops and grotesque folds from the branches. sometimes in the dense shade it may be difficult to see the main stem, for it is quite thin, though as strong as a piece of steel wire. it often happens, when hurrying through a rather open part of the forest after game, that one's leg suddenly catches in a thin, spiny, wiry stem of smilax or some such creeper. the first that one knows of the creeper is when a quarter of an inch of the spine is buried in one's flesh. away up amongst the branches and foliage far above one's head, leaves and flowers are developed on numerous branches which have vigorously pushed out as soon as they got near the sunlight, this tough, spiny, thread-like stem being their only connexion with the ground. the development of these climbing plants is probably connected with the dense shade of forests. in such places a young stem growing up will become long and drawn out; its tip will droop over and hang downwards. but there is a curious peculiarity in the growth of all stems. the stem generally grows more rapidly at any one time on one side, say on the north, and therefore bends over to the opposite side. after a time it will be growing most rapidly on the eastern side and then its head points westwards, and so on. the result is that the tip of the stem swings in an irregular circle round the stem itself. its head turns to every point of the compass in succession. supposing a stone is tied to the end of a piece of string, and one swings the stone horizontally in a circle, then, if an upright stick is put in the ground and the string comes against it, the string will coil itself round the stick because the stone goes on swinging horizontally. our young climbing plant in the shade of the forest acts in exactly the same way. if there is any trunk of a suitable size, it will in the course of its revolving or sweeping round first touch and then coil itself round and round the trunk.[ ] of these twining stems, one of the most interesting and beautiful is the common hop. the young shoots or suckers which come from the ground may be seen waving their stems helplessly round in the air. if they cannot find something to cling to, then they form weak limp curves, but if one such shoot touches a pole it very soon obtains a hold, wraps itself round the support, and easily climbs up to a height of many feet. but the hop is worth examining closely. if one passes the fingers along the stem, it feels rough and prickly. with the aid of a hand-lens, a whole series of most exquisite little hooks will be discovered. they are like small pimples with two or three very fine and minute, sharp grappling-hooks on the top. these prevent the stem from slipping off. it is also helped in climbing by its leaves, which curve outwards, and are also provided with grappling prickles on the under side. at the top of the stem the young leaves are close together, and folded near the point, so as not to interfere with the tip finding its way in and out of a trellis-work or amongst branches. [ ] henslow, _origin of plant structures_; warming, _rev. gen. de bot._, tom. , p. . these grappling-hooks on the hop are as perfect in their way, though by no means so beautiful and elegant as those which are found in the climbing palm, desmoncus, so well described by kerner in his _natural history of plants_. it is one of the rotang palms which reach lengths of feet, though their stem may be no more than - / to inches thick. the leaflets towards the end of the leaf are transformed into strong spiny barbs which are exquisitely adapted to hang on to other plants. in many places, thickets in which these rotang palms have developed are so matted and tangled together that it is quite impossible even to cut into them, and they are practically impenetrable. [illustration: in a kentish hop garden.] some of our common british twiners climb very quickly. a complete turn round the supporting pole was made in england, at charles darwin's home, in the following times. the hop took hrs. mins., wistaria hrs. mins., convolvulus hr. mins., and phaseolus hr. mins. a honeysuckle took hrs. mins. to make one complete turn round the support. recently miss elizabeth a. simons timed the rate of growth of the same plants at the university of pennsylvania. they seem to have been stimulated by the exhilarating atmosphere of the united states, for they were all growing faster. the hop did its turn in hr. mins., phaseolus took from hr. to hr. mins., convolvulus mins. only, lonicera from hr. mins. to hrs. mins., and wistaria hrs.[ ] but there are curious variations in the rate at which these plants revolve. [ ] _trans. and proc. bot. soc. pennsylvania_, session - , vol. , no. . thus when coming towards the light they go as fast as they can, but revolve more slowly, and as it were reluctantly, away from it. it has been found in one case that the shoot took thirty-five minutes to do the semicircle towards the light, and an hour and fifteen to twenty minutes going away from it, but this is not always the case, for sometimes the reverse takes place[ ] (baranetzki). [ ] pfeffer, _pflanzen-physiologie_, vol. , p. . these twining plants are not very common in great britain, and indeed in europe. some of them move or twine to the right (in the same direction as the hands of a watch or of the sun), such as convolvulus (bindweed), phaseolus, ipomoea, and aristolochia. others, like the hop, polygonum, convolvulus, honeysuckle, and elephant's foot, move in the opposite way from right to left, or "widder-shins." but there is nothing very important in this distinction, for the bittersweet may be found twining in either direction, and in some plants part of a stem may be twining one way and the other in the opposite direction. it is in the tropics, and especially in the rank, dark, moisture-laden atmosphere of the coast jungle forests, that these twiners attain their greatest development. they show the most extraordinary variety. sometimes a twiner hangs in elegant festoons from branch to branch, forming a convenient suspension bridge for monkeys. sometimes four or five are wound round one another or twisted together, so that they look like some gigantic cable. in other cases they are knotted, looped, tangled, and twisted in the most inextricable manner. some creepers are flat, like green ribbons or broad bands. in others the dense mass of old, thick creepers and twiners round some sturdy trunk becomes so thick and so fused together that when the trunk dies the lattice-like arrangement of these creepers may keep them upright although the original supporting trunk is quite rotten and decayed away. more usually, a tree will become unhealthy because its branches are overladen with the dense foliage and flowers of heavy lianes, and because both trunk and branches are so strangled in the embrace of great creepers that they cannot expand and develop in the proper way. then a storm will overthrow the dead giant of the forest, and these creepers, entangled with all the surrounding trees, will produce ruin and destruction all around. a regular duty of the foresters in india is to cut the stems of climbing plants. these twining, trailing, rope-like creepers are, in fact, natural ropes, and are used as such in india, burma, and other places. sometimes they form natural bridges of living plants extending across a stream. the great suspension bridges in the valleys of the himalayas are sometimes made without a single nail or plank. they are just three ropes (one for the feet and two to hold on by) made of jungle creepers. crossing one of these swinging, swaying creeper-bridges is not an easy matter for those whose heads are unaccustomed to depths of hundreds of feet below them, especially if combined with a motion of the creeper-bridge sufficient in itself to produce violent seasickness. yet the natives run across them with loads on their heads! but it is not necessary to go to the tropics to find interesting and ingenious climbing plants. there is a very common little british plant, _stellaria holostea_ (the star of bethlehem, great starwort, or stitchwort), which is common in shady places, light woods, and by hedges. in the spring it grows very quickly, and the pairs of leaves are shut together over the growing point, so that the end of the stem is narrow and can insert itself between the leaves and twigs of the neighbouring plants. as soon as such a growing end gets out of the foliage into the light, each pair of leaves opens out and curves backwards, making a pair of broad, curved hooks excellently suited to hang the stem on to the leaves or twigs. then another period of growth follows, and again a new pair of hook-like leaves opens out. the stem may be five or six feet long. in a rather rare speedwell (_veronica scutellata_) a very similar method is used, but the leaves have special little backward-pointing teeth on their edges which assist in the attachment process. but these leaves are not to be compared as regards perfection of mechanism with the tendrils by means of which plants climb. these tendrils are thin, flexible, twining threads, which may be formed by the modification of whole leaves, in other cases of leaflets, or sometimes of branches. sweet peas, vetches, passion-flowers, vines, and many other plants possess them. they are like twining plants in the way in which they revolve or twine so as to wrap themselves round anything which they touch. they move much faster than twining plants. a cobæa tendril only takes twenty-five minutes to make a complete turn, passion-flowers take from half to three-quarters of an hour, and the vine tendril takes a little over an hour to make one complete turn. but in one way they differ altogether, for they are sensitive to contact. if tickled, they contract and embrace closely the object which is touching them. they show a most extraordinary sensibility and sensitiveness. as a matter of fact, these tendrils have a finer sense of touch and a much more delicate feeling of weight than any human being. they detect the weight of twenty-seven inches of a spider's thread. it is, however, best to explain what happens. a half-grown curved tendril of the passion-flower is perhaps the most interesting to experiment with, but any sort of tendril does quite well. if one very gently rubs the inner or concave side of its little hook, then in a very few minutes, or even seconds, the tendril distinctly curves. if this has happened naturally, as when for instance it has been rubbing upon a pea-stick, this curve makes it curl round the stick, and the more it touches the more it curls, until the whole tendril is wrapped round the support. it is, of course, quite impossible to explain it all exactly: the sensitive part on the inside of the curve differs from the outside or convex part of the tendril; the former has a layer of elongated, thin-walled cells, full of the living matter, protoplasm, which are absent on the outer side. immediately the tendril touches the stick, the outer convex surface begins to grow rapidly. it grows from forty to times as fast as the inner side which touches the stick! very soon after it has clasped the stick the tendril becomes woody and forms a strong, woody, spiral coil. these tendrils can be made to curve by a weight exceedingly small. the most sensitive part of our own skins is quite unable to distinguish so small a weight as is perceived by these tendrils. even the sensation of taste can only be produced by a weight eight times as great as that shown by some of them. tendrils curve very quickly after they have been touched. in twenty seconds some tendrils curve (_cyclanthera_), others (_passiflora_) take thirty seconds, and some of them require four to five minutes or even longer before they make up their minds to coil. even more remarkable, however, is the fact that they do not coil when raindrops fall on them, giving a much harder blow than small weights. if one tendril touches or rubs against another, it is said not to curve. they are persevering little things also, for darwin got a passion-flower tendril to curve when struck or rubbed no less than twenty-one times during fifty-four hours. if one reflects on all these curious facts, it is difficult to help feeling that these plants behave very much in the way that a reasonable animal would do. there are many other cases in which some vegetable does exactly what we should expect of reasonable beings under the circumstances. the tip of the root (see p. ), the sensitive plant, the monkey and barberry flowers, are all well-known cases. so that it is difficult to find anything in science to contradict the comfortable belief that wide-open flowers and stretched-out leaves of plants as they drink in the warm rays of the sunlight are really enjoying themselves, whilst they are doing their day's work. all these interesting facts are so beautifully described and so carefully summed up by charles darwin, that we shall only earnestly recommend our readers to get first that fascinating book _the power of movement in plants_, and then read all the rest of his works.[ ] [ ] for the above facts: pfeffer, _pflanzen-physiologie_, vol. , pp. - ; green, _vegetable physiology_, p. ; kerner, _l.c._, p. ; bonnier, _l.c._, p. . there are an extraordinary number of these plants and the tendrils are formed exactly where they will be most useful. every part of a leaf may become a tendril. the whole leaf is changed into one in some kinds of lathyrus. in a very beautiful creeper which is not so often grown in greenhouses as it might be (_gloriosa superba_), the tip of the leaf only acts as a tendril. leaflets are often made into tendrils. the clematis is the most economical of them all, for the leaf-stalk coils round and forms little woody rings which hold up the plant. before leaving the subject of tendrils, it may be interesting to notice the queer corkscrew spirals in which they roll themselves up. these spirals are formed after the end of the tendril has tied itself to the support and become woody. the free part between the end and its own stem goes on revolving; now if you tie a piece of string at both ends and make it revolve, you will see at once that it must coil itself into a double spiral, one part in one direction and the other in the opposite way, with a flat piece between them. one might be disposed to think no more about these double coils; but here comes in one of the curious, inexplicable coincidences which happen so often in plant life. such a coil is much stronger than a straight bit of wire or string would be, because if pulled out it yields and is springy. that of course makes it less probable that the tendril will be broken. attached by a series of wiry springs, the plant yields and sways to the wind, and it is not likely that it will be torn away. besides this, the coiling of the tendril pulls the stem closer to its support, which is also a great advantage. certain virginian creepers and vines behave in quite a different manner. the tendrils grow away from the light and so seek the shadow of the leaves. they are also divided into little branches. at the tip of each little branch is a small knob; if this should touch the wall or the trunk of a tree, etc., it immediately secretes a drop of cement and glues itself firmly to the wall. there is a curious difference in different sorts of _ampelopsis_ in this respect. there is no adhesive pad in one of them (_ampelopsis hederacea_) until it touches, whilst _a. veitchii_ has them more or less ready for gluing before they touch (though they become much larger and better developed as soon as they rub against the wall).[ ] [ ] henslow, _origin of plant structures_, p. . one of the most interesting of our common climbers, "that rare old plant the ivy green," has not yet been mentioned. it is exceedingly decorative on walls, especially on ruins and on old tree-trunks in winter time, where its dark, brilliant green is most effective. a violent controversy rages as to whether it does good or harm. unhappily it does not do any good to trees. it does not suck their sap, for its roots do not get through the bark, but it does choke, with its clinging branches, young tree-stems, and prevents their growing properly. also, in winter storms an ivy-covered tree is much more likely to be blown down. but on walls the ivy certainly does good, for it sucks up the moisture, and ivy-covered walls are much more dry inside than those which are exposed to rain. its method of climbing is very curious. all along the stem quantities of little roots are produced. they dislike light, like most roots, and creep into crevices and cracks, where they wedge themselves in by growing thicker. thus the stem is anchored all along its length. it is curious to find that these roots are formed before a twig is actually touching the wall, so as to be ready for any emergencies.[ ] [ ] henslow, _l.c._ one interesting little point in the growth of the ivy on a tree is perhaps worth mentioning. the main stem runs nearly straight up the trunk, and when young is pulled down into the crevices or cracks in the bark. but its branches leave the main stem at an angle of forty-five degrees or so to it; these latter may often grow in this direction for a foot or eighteen inches, but then they gradually begin to turn more and more distinctly up the tree. still these branches firmly clasp the trunk like arms spread out on either side of it, and make it almost impossible to dislodge the main stem. old plants of ivy entirely surround the trunk. the flowering branches grow straight out into the air, and have no tendency to cling to the bark. their leaves are also different. the ivy may be considered as a root-climber, although the branches assist by growing round the stem. a curious instance has been given me of the longevity of ivy and its power of clinging to life. a correspondent mentions the case of a scotch fir whose life was threatened by an ivy. the trunk of the ivy was sawn through. that did not kill it, at any rate immediately! probably the rain soaked up by the leaves, and by the roots in the crevices of the bark, kept it sufficiently fresh to cling to life. as it refused to die, a ladder was brought, and it was dragged off the tree. no doubt it would have died if the weather had been at all dry. there are some very beautiful tropical plants which also climb by means of their roots. these roots, the so-called girdle roots, grow right round the stem and embrace it, so that the climber is perfectly supported. it is impossible not to be impressed with the extraordinary variety of all these contrivances by which plants are able to escape the trouble of supporting themselves. but such ways of life involve certain disadvantages. supposing there is nothing on which to climb, the stems trail feebly on the ground, and are probably soon choked by the surrounding grasses. curiously enough, there are varieties of the ivy, wistaria, and the french bean which are upright, and do not climb at all. the tree ivy has all its leaves like the leaves of the flowering shoot in the common form. in america, _wistaria sinensis_ is often grown as a standard tree, and does not send out the long shoots, sometimes thirty feet in length, which are common when it grows on walls. the dwarf french bean has a thick stem and requires no support, yet it often puts out a long slender shoot which tries to twine round something. in a tropical forest also, the creepers, though they damage the trees, yet manage to find space for their leaves and flowers: more vegetable matter is formed per square yard of ground than would be the case if there were no climbing plants. chapter xxvi plants which prey on plants the kinds of cannibals--bacteria--spring flowers--pale, ghostly wood-flowers--their alliance with fungi--gooseberries growing on trees--orchid-hunting--the life of an orchid--the mistletoe--balder the beautiful--druids--mistletoe as a remedy--its parasitic roots--the trees it prefers--the _cactus loranthus_--yellow rattle and eyebright, or milk-thief, and their root-suckers--broomrape and toothwort--their colour and tastes--the scales of the toothwort which catch animalcula--sir stamford raffles--a flower a yard across--the dodder--its twining stem and sucker-roots--parasites rare, degenerate and dangerously situated. the word _cannibal_ is often used in a very loose and unscientific way. amongst some savage tribes it is the custom to eat old people and young children; but this is only in seasons of famine and scarcity, when there is no other food available, and not because they are specially fond of them. but amongst other tribes wars are made for the special purpose of capturing fat young people to cook. sometimes they have become so accustomed to such delicacies that they are unable to get their food in any other way. of course, when tribes become "pure cannibals" of this last type they have to be destroyed like wild beasts. among plants we find all sorts of transitions and degrees of cannibalism. there are plants which sometimes, and, as it were, accidentally, attack others. but there are also real cannibal plants which live entirely on the life-juices and sap of other plants, and cannot exist by their own labours at all. moreover, we can find almost every conceivable state of transition. these can be clearly and definitely traced from those plants which depend on the labour of their own roots and leaves to others which have no leaves, and which consist merely of one large flower and a large adhesive sucker fixed on some one else's root. the difficulty is very often to know where to draw the line. probably no flowering plant is quite independent of the labour and work of its neighbours. as we have tried to show in another chapter, a long preliminary cultivation by bacteria, lichens, and mosses is required before flowering plants can develop on bare rock. that is also necessary in all cases where the soil is mineral or _inorganic_, without any _organic_ dust or fragments of vegetable or animal matter. bacteria must always begin the work by preparing nitrates and other salts. so that only those bacteria which weather rocks can be called really free and independent. but other bacteria, such as those which cause typhoid, anthrax, hydrophobia, etc., are the best possible examples of pure cannibals, or, as they are usually described, parasites. this last word is derived from a peculiar class of people in ancient classical times, who used to appear whenever a meal was going to begin, and received food without giving anything in return. they are represented by our tramps or by the "sundowners" in australia, who appear as soon as the evening meal is ready and when there is no possibility of going any further on their journey. the way in which plants became parasites or cannibals is a very interesting part of plant life, and we shall try to trace some of the various stages. to begin with, if one looks out for them in spring one is sure to find a whole series of beautiful spring flowers. there is the primrose, with its bright, hardy, yellow flowers; the violet, whose strong perfume much annoys the huntsman, for it spoils the "scent" and shows him that the end of winter has come; the delicate little moschatel, the lesser celandine, the bluebell or hyacinth, dog's mercury, the male and the lady fern, and many others. most of these begin to grow and are in flower early in the season. that is because they are living on the _dead leaves_ of the last year, or rather of two or three years ago. their roots are breaking up and devouring, with the help of worms, beetles, and insects, the leaf-mould of past seasons. they are quite dependent on the trees; they cannot exist except where such leaf-mould is formed. but it is very difficult to tell whether these humble little herbs which live on the scraps that fall from the tall trees are either parasites or clients, which last do some good in return for their share. probably they are distinctly useful and good for the forest if this is considered as a whole _establishment_. they use light which would otherwise be wasted, and their own dead leaves increase the annual deposit of leaf-mould. there are other plants, such as the bird's-nest (_neottia_) and coralroot[ ] orchids, as well as monotropa and others, which also live on the rich, decaying leaf-mould of forests, but these are generally pale in colour, for they possess but little green chlorophyll. they are more directly dependent on the mould and have ceased to do much work for themselves. most of them in fact have entered into an alliance with fungi, and use these fungi to get their food material from the dead leaves. [ ] in the first, the entangled underground stems and roots resemble a bird's nest; in the second, the peculiar red rhizomes are rather like coral. such fungi are always abundant in good, well-grown forests (see p. ). these orchids and monotropa have their roots and underground stems covered and wrapped round by the fungus threads, which extend from them in every direction, breaking up and decomposing the dead leaves. the colour of monotropa is a pale waxen yellow, that of the others is usually a ghostly pale, opalescent, steel-blue or coral-like hue, which makes them very distinct in the dim, mysterious shades of the forest. these plants are undoubtedly of use, for they break up and decompose the leaf-mould. another very interesting group are not well represented in this country. sometimes one may see on an old tree a gooseberry bush in full foliage quite high up the trunk in the fork of the branches. in sheltered woody ravines, polypody ferns are often established on old moss-clad branches, where their green fronds hang over to catch as much as they can of the sunlight. but orchids, bromeliads, and ferns which grow upon the branches of great trees are one of the most conspicuous and beautiful features of tropical woods. it is for these tree-orchids that the orchid-hunter braves the head-hunters of borneo or traverses the precipices and rugged forests of guatemala and brazil. it is often necessary to cut down a tall tree in order to get the orchids in its higher branches. often, however, this is unsuccessful, for the tree is so held up by creepers and other giants of the forest that it never reaches the ground! [illustration: _photo_ _skeen and co._ cinnamon peeling in ceylon] then, after being stripped from the branches, in some out-of-the-way forest-clad range of burma, celebes, south america, or madagascar, these orchids are dried, put up in crates and packed off to london, where they are carefully cultivated in hot-houses and persuaded to flower. they may be worth sixpence or they may be worth £ each, but no one can tell until they have flowered in london. but the romance of the orchid-hunter is not exactly what we have to describe here. it is rather the romance of the life of the orchid itself. it is perched high up on the branches of the tallest trees in the forest, exposed to sun, exposed to wind, and quite unable to gather either salts or rain from the soil. how, then, does it manage to live? these orchids, it must be remembered, are only found in out-of-the-way and feverish, unhealthy places, where the aboriginal savages still lurk and endure a dreadful existence of hunger and starvation in dense tropical forests. now the word "dense" explains the whole story. those forests are so thick, so full of giant trees and exuberant growth, that civilized man even to-day in can make nothing of them, and leaves them to the savage. the reason why vegetation is so luxuriant is simply that there are both plentiful moisture and a hot, tropical sun. that makes the life of the orchid possible, and also ensures malaria for the hunter. it hangs out into the moist air long pendulous roots which act as so many sponges absorbing and soaking in moisture. the tremendous energy of growth covers bark and branches with creeping plants innumerable, with a profusion of moss, liverworts, and ferns such as we cannot imagine from our own experiences in this country. so the roots of our orchid find on the branches rich leaf-mould, and it lives happily and contentedly on the salts and moisture accumulated by the mosses and other plants. its leaves are fleshy and succulent, rather like those of a desert plant, so that it can store up water against a season of drought. these plants which grow in this way on other plants, do not, as a rule, greatly injure them, but many have not stopped at this stage. take, for instance, the gooseberry growing in the fork of an old tree. some bird has been eating gooseberries and dropped the seed there. the roots of the gooseberry will grow down into the rotten part of the trunk. earth and leaf-mould will accumulate there, and it is quite probable that the whole inside of the tree will decay away. the roots of the gooseberry will, if only indirectly, help in this decay. but it is far otherwise with another set of plants--the mistletoe and its allies. there is plenty of romance connected with the mistletoe. dr. m. t. masters says as follows: "the origin of the modern custom connected with mistletoe is not very clear. like many other customs, its original significance is only guessed at. if known, perhaps, the innocent merriment now associated with the plant would be exchanged for a feeling of stern disapproval, and the mistletoe would be banished from our homes. in such a case ignorance is bliss." it will be remembered that all the gods of iceland were once gathered together so that a general oath might be exacted of every plant "that grew upon the earth," that they would do no harm to balder the beautiful. the mistletoe did not take the oath, because it does not grow upon the earth but upon a tree. then the enemy fashioned an arrow out of the mistletoe, and killed balder. there is a modern idea that the story is a myth representing the death of spring, for a great many similar stories occur in widely distant places. however, it seems pretty certain that the plant was a sacred one to the druids in the time of the romans. ovid speaks of this in the line, "ad viscum druidæ cantare solebant." at their solemn meetings, which were held in remote sacred groves, a druid clad in white robes cut the mistletoe with a golden sickle. then, apparently, human sacrifices were offered and a general festival took place. some remnant of this custom seems to have persisted in herefordshire until recent times, for the tune "hey derry down, down down derry" (which means _in a circle move we round the oak_) is supposed to be a relic of the hymn chanted by the druids when they had found mistletoe on the oak. it was said in the middle ages to be a useful cure for apoplexy, madness, and giddiness. that is not at present the general view. indeed, under present conditions it might conceivably promote the last and even the second of these disorders, though in an agreeable way! the mistletoe and its allies, loranthus and arceuthobium, grow upon the branches of trees like the orchids and gooseberries already mentioned, but they differ altogether in having a special kind of absorbing root which sinks down into the bark until it reaches the wood of the "host" tree. the sap running up the tree is then tapped by this root, and goes to supply the mistletoe with water and salts in solution. it has, however, its own green leaves. thrushes eat the berries of the mistletoe; they will be left upon a branch with the _guano_; as the latter dries up, the seed is drawn to the underside of the branch, and sticks in a crack or crevice; it then sends the sinker-root mentioned above into the branch. every year afterwards new mistletoe "roots" are formed which grow through the soft part of the bark and send down sinkers into the wood. cases of mistletoes forty years old have been recorded. the trees which they prefer are the apple, and after that black poplar, though mistletoe may be found on silver fir, various pines, and others. it is more difficult to get it to grow on the oak than on any other tree. indeed, only seven cases of mistletoe growing on oak have been recorded in this country.[ ] it is quite a valuable crop in some places, and is sent in tons to the london market. [ ] dr. bull, _journal of botany_, vol. , p. . there are many species of mistletoe, and at least one kind attacks, and is parasitic upon, another species of mistletoe. most mistletoes and loranthus have their own green leaves, and only take from the plant to which they are attached sap and mineral salts. but in chile there is a beautiful loranthus that has practically no green leaves at all. its blood-red flowers grow in dense masses upon the giant cactus, which is common on the drier hills, and these are always mistaken for the cactus's own flowers, which are quite different. these almost leafless loranthus, and the curious arceuthobium are more parasitic than ordinary mistletoes, for they obviously take other food material (probably sugar and albuminoids) from their "host." another series of parasites or cannibals are quite common in great britain. one often sees in some meadow that the grasses are growing in a scanty and unhealthy manner; one then notices amongst them numbers of the yellow rattle or the eyebright (which the germans call _milk-thief_). these plants are not very remarkable in any way, but if one examines them closely one sees that the leaves and stems are more purplish-red than is at all usual with our ordinary flowering plants. but if you dig up some specimens very carefully, then the wickedness of the yellow rattle and eyebright becomes apparent; every here and there upon their roots are little whitish swellings which are firmly attached to the roots of other plants (generally of grasses). these two robber plants send from these swellings minute sucker-roots which pierce into the grass-root and intercept the water which the grass has been absorbing for itself. they are therefore parasites, and indeed they may cause a considerable loss of forage in a meadow. a good many other british plants are root thieves. besides these two, there are the cow-wheat, red rattles, toadflax, broomrapes, and toothwort. a curious point about them is that they differ amongst themselves in the degree in which they are dependent on the work of others. some are able to grow quite well without any such extraneous help, but the broomrape and toothwort are entirely dependent on others' labours. they have extremely little chlorophyll and very small leaves, and are clearly parasites "pure and simple." there are about species of broomrape (_orobanche_). all of them attack roots, and most confine their attentions to one particular flowering plant. their colours are generally very striking and unusual. our british species are reddish, flesh-coloured, or dirty white, but some of the foreign kinds are blue or violet, yellow, or yellowish to dark brown. generally the seedling broomrape worms its way down into the earth till its root-tip touches the root of its special favourite host, then the root of the broomrape fixes itself for life; its suckers grow into the host and absorb all the food material which it requires. those kinds which attack tobacco and hemp are dangerous pests and do considerable damage. the toothwort (_lathraea_) is so called because its scales have a sort of resemblance to human teeth. with the curious superstition which prevailed in medieval times, it was supposed that the plant must be a remedy for toothache because it resembled teeth. unfortunately this is not the case. it is, generally, quite like the broomrape in its method of growth, but it sends out long thread-like branching roots with suckers on the ends, which become fastened on the hazel roots. for several years the plant remains underground and forms very odd-looking, white, scaly branches. these scales are rolled back in such a way as to form peculiar and irregular cavities which open to the outside near the tip of the leaf. there is no doubt that animalcula of sorts get into these cavities and probably die there. in that case, their remains will form a useful supplement to the diet of the plant. the following remarks, however, taken from kerner have been disputed by other botanists. certain of the cells lining these cavities "appear to send out delicate filaments. "when small animals penetrate into the labyrinthine chambers of a lathraea leaf and touch the organs just described, the protoplasmic filaments are protruded and lay themselves upon the intruders. they act as prehensile arms in holding the smaller prey, chiefly infusoria, and impede the motion of larger animals so as to cut off their retreat. no special secretion has been observed to be exuded in the foliar chambers of lathraea. but seeing that some time after the creatures have entered the chambers, the only remains of them that one meets with are claws, legs, bristles, and little amorphous lumps, their sarcode-flesh and blood having vanished and left no trace, we must suppose that the absorption of nutriment from the dead prey here ensues...."[ ] [ ] kerner and oliver, _natural history of plants_, vol. , p. . but strange as these broomrapes and toothworts may be, they are quite inconspicuous as compared with the gigantic parasites found in sumatra and java. in , when sir stamford raffles was making a tour in the interior of sumatra, his party came across one of those extraordinary plants which have been called after him. imagine a gigantic flower in shape resembling a very fleshy forget-me-not, but more than a yard across! the colour is a livid, fleshy tint, and the smell is like that of a charnel-house. this extraordinary _rafflesia arnoldii_ is the biggest flower in the world. it has no proper stems or leaves, but consists merely of this huge flower-bud attached to the roots of figs, etc., which traverse the ground in these forests. it is said to be only found in places frequented by elephants, which are supposed to carry its seeds on their feet. there are four other kinds known: all of them occur in sumatra, java, and other neighbouring islands. _r. padma_ for example, has a flower about eighteen inches across. the central part is a dirty blood-red, while the lobes have almost the colour of the human skin. this also has a "cadaverous smell, anything but pleasant." these weird rafflesias seated on the roots "which wind about on the dark forest ground" have impressed every observer. yet if one glances back, it is interesting to see how insensible are the transitional steps which lead from independent life by the plant's own exertions to these last "pure parasites," which are entirely dependent on other plants for everything that they require. the only other flowering plant which we shall mention in this chapter is now fortunately very rare in great britain. this is the dodder, _cuscuta_. it belongs to the convolvulus or bindweed order, but is entirely different from the rest of the family. some climbing plants do throttle or choke the trunks of young trees if they twine round them too closely, but the dodder has an entirely special and peculiar way of supporting itself to the detriment of others. it has no roots, no leaves, and scarcely any green chlorophyll; the dodder is just a twining, thread-like, yellowish stem which carries here and there small round clusters of little convolvulus-like flowers. wherever the dodder thread twines round a hop or other plant, it puts out small suckers which drive their way into the stem of the hop and take from it all the food which the dodder requires. when well developed it forms dense yellowish tangles of intricately entwined threads, which may cover whole bushes and entirely destroy the supporting plants. the flax, clover, and hop dodders are perhaps the worst of them all. there are some rather interesting points in the history of the tiny dodder-seedling. it remains, quietly waiting, for about a month after most other plants have germinated. then it begins to grow rapidly: its tip pierces the soil and becomes fixed in it; then the rest of the little thread-like seedling begins to curve round or revolve. if it touches a grass or even a nettle stem, it twines itself or coils round it, drives in its suckers, and, on the strength of the nourishment which it extracts, it goes on revolving or turning until it forms the dense tangled masses referred to. then an eruption of flowers appears, from which later on hundreds of tiny seeds are let loose which will become dodders in their turn. the series of parasitic plants which have now been mentioned form a very interesting set. it must be pointed out that those which live merely on dead vegetable matter are "good" plants. they help on the quick and thorough employment of worn-out material. nor can we say off-hand that other parasites are "bad." they do kill other plants and do them harm, but then, are they not like a cattle-breeder who sends his inferior cattle to the butcher, keeping only those which are the very best of their kind? perhaps these plants, by destroying the weak and unhealthy kinds, are doing a great deal of good. another interesting point about such parasites is that they are generally _rare_. they must be less common than their "host." yet another is that they are all "degenerates." they show distinct traces of decay and bad development in their flowers and seed. that is also true in the case of parasitic animals. whether they do good or harm to the world of plants is doubtful, but there is no doubt that they are doing harm to their own chances! chapter xxvii plants attacking animals brittle star _v._ algæ--fungus _v._ meal-worm--stag-headed caterpillars--liverwort _v._ small insects--natural flower-pots--watercups of bromeliads--sarracenia and inquiring insects--an unfortunate centipede--pitcher-plants: their crafty contrivances--blowflies defy them and spiders rob them--bladderwort's traps which catch small fry--hairs and their uses--plants used as fly-papers--butterwort _v._ midges--its use as rennet--sundew and its sensitive tentacles--pinning down an insect--suffocating and chloroforming the sundew--venus' fly-trap which acts like a rat-trap--have plants a nervous system? on the whole the animal world preys upon the vegetable world, and is in a way parasitic upon it. indeed, the connexion between the two is very intimate--that of the diner and his dinner. one can scarcely imagine a more intimate connexion than this! there are, however, a great many cases in which plants have turned the tables on their enemies and deliberately laid themselves out to catch and to destroy, to feed upon and to devour insects and small animals. one finds a few examples in almost every group of plants. thus there are certain green seaweeds or algæ which are said to attack and prey upon those peculiar sea-urchins known as brittle stars. the fungus which forms loops, acting exactly like a poacher's rabbit-snare, in order to catch mealworms, has been already mentioned. sometimes in the summer one may notice a little red club about two to three inches long sticking out of short grass. if one carefully pulls this up it is found to be growing out of a dead chrysalis or grub. it is a fungus whose spores have attacked the caterpillar; they have developed inside its body, and eventually, having completely eaten up the insect, form the red club, which is producing hundreds of thousands of spores intended to attack other caterpillars. [illustration: the branches like stag's horns are the fruit of a fungus, cordyceps taylori, which lived inside and killed the caterpillar.] an allied fungus forms a peculiar branched fruit rather like a minute stag's horn, and the caterpillar may be seen for some time crawling about with this extraordinary fungus sticking out of its head. of course the bacteria are, some of them, by far the most dangerous foes of animals (see page ). then there is a small liverwort, a little red, moss-like plant (_frullania tamarisci_), which may be found growing on the bark of trees, which is said to catch animalcula in the small sack-like leaves which are underneath the ordinary ones. but it is amongst the higher flowering plants that one discovers the most extraordinary and purposeful arrangements for capturing and digesting insects and other creatures. in the case of many of these insectivorous plants, traps or pitfalls are prepared for the insect to fall into. there are many plants in which the rain is intended to run in one particular direction, and it is not at all uncommon to find hollows at the base of the leaf where dust, dirt, and dead insects accumulate. one very curious plant of this sort is _dischidia rafflesiana_, in which the leaves have become quite like a pitcher, and have been compared to "natural flower-pots" intended to hold rain and leaf-mould.[ ] [ ] groom, _ann. bot._, , p. . then there is the bromelia or pineapple family, which consists for the most part of plants which live on the branches of trees. in very many of these a small cup is formed in the middle of the rosette or tuft of leaves, and water collects in this central cup. the water smells abominably, and contains the bodies of dead insects, and rubbish of all kinds (see also p. ). the remnants of these drowned insects are probably of use, because any valuable nitrogenous or other material may be absorbed with the water by the plant and help to nourish it, but in such a rough contrivance as this there is nothing comparable to the side-saddle plant, pitcher plant, and others. the former, sarracenia (or side-saddle plant), is a common and rather widespread north american plant, which is especially abundant in florida. it is cultivated in most botanical gardens, but can only be grown in greenhouses. the leaves are about six inches to a foot long, and are hollow, funnel-shaped tubes with a short, flat wing along one edge. they may be an inch or two in diameter at the top or wider end, where there is also a sort of half-open lid which keeps rain from getting into the inside of the leaf. the colour of these tube-like or vase-like leaves varies. it is often variegated with brown, red, and yellow, and is conspicuous enough even at a distance. thus insects fly to these vases and alight on the little cap or lid, where they find honey and enjoy themselves. other insects crawl up along the rim or wing of the vase, finding honey here and there along their road. having got to the lid, the insect, being of an inquiring or inquisitive disposition, will look inside the tube and endeavour to find more honey therein. it reaches the rim of the vase and finds that there is honey inside; it can easily crawl down, and fails to notice that the inside of the vase is lined with long stiff points which all point downwards. these points or hairs do not at all interfere with its passage down, and it proceeds to the honey which forms a smooth, slippery coating. then, after greedily absorbing the honey, it tries to get out again. but that is quite a different matter. each one of these points or hairs is facing it, and the whole inside is smooth and slippery. it struggles, slips, and falls into a pool of water which fills the lower part of the vase. that is what the plant has developed these pitchers for. the body of the insect after a time decays away, and only its empty shell remains. an extraordinary number of insects are caught by these sarracenia vases. sometimes in one which is only ten inches long, three or four inches will be full of the corpses of blackbeetles and other drowned insects, and it is said that birds occasionally visit these vases in order to pick them out. there is probably some sort of secretion in the water. "a centipede - / inches long having fallen into a vase of _sarracenia purpurea_ in the night was found only half-immersed in the water. the upper half of the creature projected above the liquid, and made violent attempts to escape; but the lower part had not only become motionless, but had turned white from the effect of the surrounding liquid; it appeared to be macerated, and exhibited alterations which are not produced in so short a time in centipedes immersed in ordinary rainwater."[ ] [ ] kerner, _natural history of plants_. many details are taken from this work in the present chapter. in some sarracenias the vase is brought up into a sort of hood or dome with the entrance at one side and below. there are thin patches on this dome or cupola, and small insects, attracted by the light which comes through these bare places, remain dashing themselves against them or crawling over them just as flies do on a window-pane, until they become tired and fall down into the water below. there is something horrible in the cold and careful way in which this plant arranges its baits for "confiding insects. the latter are fed with honey, even on the very border of the assassin's den, but after this farewell revel they generally slip upon the smooth edge, and are hurled, like lost souls, down into the abyss."[ ] [ ] dennett. in another plant, the pitcher plant (_nepenthes_, so called from the drug which produces the sleep of death), we find an even more beautifully arranged pitcher which acts in very much the same way. it is, however, only the end of a rather long leaf, or rather of its midrib, that is turned up to act as a pitcher. there are similar stiff hairs pointing downwards, and honey is plentifully secreted. but, in nepenthes, there is also a distinct secretion which digests the bodies of the drowning insects. the ferment resembles the active principle of the gastric and pancreatic juices of the human body, and, as acids are also present, the insect's body becomes changed into nutritious juices which readily diffuse into the plant.[ ] dr. macfarlane found that when the pitchers were stimulated by being given insects, the liquid inside them could digest fibrin to jelly in from three-quarters to one hour's time.[ ] but certain insects have somehow managed to educate their larvæ to resist the gastric juices of nepenthes. [ ] green, _vegetable physiology_, p. . [ ] _annals botany_, vol. , p. , and vol. , p. . near fort dauphin, in madagascar, i found great quantities of _nepenthes madagascariensis_. almost every pitcher was one-third to two-thirds full of corpses, but in some of them large, fat, white maggots, of a very unprepossessing appearance, were quite alive and apparently thriving. these must have been the larvæ of a blowfly similar to that which has been mentioned by others as inhabiting sarracenia. at the same place a white spider was very often to be seen. its web was spun across the mouth of a pitcher, and its body was quite invisible against the bleached remains inside. it had suited its colour to the corpses within, in order that it might steal from the nepenthes the due reward of all its ingenious contrivances! a totally different arrangement is found in an inconspicuous and ugly little marsh and ditch plant called utricularia or bladderwort. it is very difficult to see, for unless it happens to be in flower it is entirely submerged in the water. the flowers, which are purple, are conspicuous and easily seen even at a distance. on these submerged leaves there are hundreds of small bladders. they are about the size of a pea, and are most ingeniously contrived to catch small water-animalcula. the general idea of the bladderwort is exactly that of the eel-pots so common in some parts of the thames. there is a small flap which acts as a trapdoor. small creatures probably take refuge in the bladders when pursued by the larger water-fleas, etc., for it must seem to them to be a safe and secure retreat. but once within the door, they are imprisoned and cannot find their way out again. they perish inside and their bodies are digested by the plant; on the inside of the bladder there are gland hairs which also secrete a digestive fluid. the bladderwort is dangerous to fish, for the little fry, when quite small, run their heads and gills into the bladders and are suffocated. there are a great many kinds of utricularia, and they occur in most of the great floral regions. one of them has chosen a very extraordinary and curious situation. it lives inside the little cups of water which, as we have already mentioned, are formed by the leaves of some bromeliads. the insects in the water which ought to nourish the bromeliad (_tillandsia_) are really used by the utricularia. other utricularias live in damp earth, moss, etc. it is not only by traps and pitfalls that plants catch insects: many have specially modified hairs which are quite efficient insect-catchers. hairs are used by plants for many different purposes, and it is rather interesting to see how quite a simple organ like a hair can be altered. the stinging hair of the nettle has already been mentioned; many grasses possess minute, rough, flinty hairs, which probably prevent snails from eating them. that also is probably the reason of the strong, rough, coarse hairs which cover the borage and the comfrey. then on the chickweed and the bird's-eye speedwell there are lines of rather long, flexible hairs which at first sight appear to be of no use at all. but if you take either of these plants, and, holding it upright, place a large drop of water on the leaves, you will see that these hairs are intended to carry the water down the stem. the water runs along them. it is a very pretty little experiment, especially if done in artificial light, so that these hairs are, like the root hairs, intended to absorb or suck up water as it passes over them. then the edelweiss and the lammie's lug (_stachys lanata_) are entirely covered with white cotton-woolly hairs: these are intended to keep the water in the plant, and do so as effectually as a rough woollen coat will keep out rain and mist. silky hairs, downy hairs, and others are found wrapping up the tiny baby leaves in the bud: they probably keep them warm, and perplex and ward off objectionable insects. but, perhaps, the sticky or glutinous hairs are the most wonderful of all. they are found on many plants, such as _salvia glutinosa_,[ ] plumbago, and catchfly. one can see insects stuck on them and vainly struggling to be free, and the hairs undoubtedly prevent green-fly and other such pests from interfering with the honey of the flower. in some of these cases it has been shown that the body of the insect is actually used as food, but that is more obvious with two interesting plants which specially devote themselves to the capture of insect prey. one of these is very often kept in the boer farmhouses near tulbagh, in south africa, simply to attract the flies, which are a perfect pest in those dry valleys. another drosophyllum, the fly-catcher, grows on sandy and rocky ground in portugal and morocco. this is also used by the peasants near oporto as a convenient fly-paper. [ ] macchiati, _botan. centralblatt_, , . in both of these plants large drops of a sticky, glistening liquid are secreted by the hairs which cover the leaves. any small insect alighting on the latter is sure to get covered by the liquid, and in trying to get away will become hopelessly involved in it. it is probably soon suffocated, for the gummy matter will choke the small air-holes by which it breathes. both these plants are said to secrete both an acid and a digestive secretion. but we have two plants which are even more interesting in this country. walking over the rough marshy pastures or moors of scotland one is sure to notice, generally on wet peaty and barren soil, a little rosette of bright, yellow-green, glistening leaves. if it is the right season there will be a handsome purple flower whose stalk springs from them. this is the butterwort (_pinguicula_), and it is not a bad name, for the leaves remind one of butter. the whole upper surface of the leaves is covered with tiny glands secreting a sticky, glistening matter. it is said that there will be as many as fifty thousand of these glands on a square inch of the upper surface. now in such places every one knows that there are quantities of midges, and also that these insects are always exceedingly thirsty. they prefer blood, it is true, but when they see these bright yellowish leaves they naturally go to them. when, however, the midge touches the leaf, the sticky liquid clings to its wings and legs, and it cannot escape. so far this does not differ from the fly catchers mentioned above, but another very curious action then begins. if the midge or fly is near the margin of the leaf, the edge of the latter begins to curl or roll inwards over it. it does so very slowly, and may not finish rolling over the insect for some hours. whilst this is going on acids and "gastric juice," or ferments which act in the same way, are being poured over the body of the midge, which is finally completely digested. next day, having finished the midge, the leaf majestically unrolls itself again and waits for another. the juice contains rennet, and is used by the lapps in making a horrible delicacy called tätmiölk. it has also been used by the swiss shepherds for at least two hundred years, to cure sores on cows' udders. the other british plant is the sundew (_drosera_). every one who has been on peat-mosses and moors probably knows its little reddish rosettes of small rounded or spoon-shaped leaves lying on bare peat or wet mossy ground. each leaf seems to be covered by hundreds of glittering little dewdrops (whence the name). the hairs or tentacles which cover the leaf secrete this glistening, sticky fluid. there must be about two hundred of them on a single leaf. an insect flying about near the sundew is sure to be attracted by the conspicuous glittering, reddish leaves, and probably alights upon it. then it finds itself caught and begins to struggle, but this simply brings it against more tentacles. now happens the most wonderful part of the whole performance. all the neighbouring tentacles, although they have not been touched, bend over towards the struggling insect and pin it down in the middle of the leaf. they do not bend over very quickly. in two or three minutes they will bend over towards it through an angle of forty-five degrees, and it takes them ten minutes to bend over ninety degrees. there is something rather horrible in the sight of a large insect struggling with these slow, remorseless, well-aimed tentacles; most people free the insect unless, at least, it happens to be a midge. the point which is so difficult to understand is to know how those untouched tentacles know that the insect is there and exactly where it is. there is no doubt that they do know, for they behave exactly as if they were the arms of a spider. if you put two insects on either side of the middle of the leaf, half the tentacles will pin down one and the other half will deal with the other insect. at the same time acids and ferments are poured out which digest the insect. it takes about two days for a leaf to finish off an insect, and then the tentacles again unclose. moreover it is difficult to deceive those tentacles. they will bend in for the tiniest piece of useful substance; for instance, a length of one-seventy-fifth of an inch of woman's hair will make them secrete digestive fluid. one millionth part of a pound of ammonium phosphate will also produce secretion. but a shower of heavy rain, grains of sand, or other useless material, will not cause any secretion, and even if they do bend in a little, they soon discover their mistake and stand out again. if you try the same experiment under a bell-glass from which the oxygen has been withdrawn by an air-pump, nothing happens; or if you chloroform the sundew it will pay no attention to small pieces of meat until it recovers from the effects of the chloroform. when these droseras are taken to a greenhouse and experiments are made on them, they run into very great danger. they are almost certain to die of overfeeding or indigestion. it is impossible to keep people from giving them too much to eat. this wonderful little plant shows quite distinctly that there must be some way of sending messages in its leaves. somehow the message travels from the tentacle which the fly has touched, down the stalk into the leaf, and up into the other tentacles, and tells them that there is something worth stooping for. no one has explained this, and probably no one will ever do so. the last, and in some ways the most interesting, of all these carnivorous plants is venus' fly-trap (_dionæa muscipula_), which grows in north america from rhode island to florida. it is a quite small herb with a small circle of leaves which lie flat on the ground. each leaf ends in a nearly circular piece which is divided by a very marked midrib. the two semicircular halves have a series of teeth along their edges; these margin teeth are stiff and a little bent upwards. in the centre of each half there are three small hairs. on looking closely at these hairs one finds that each has a joint near the base; all over the centre of these leaf halves there are scattered glands which secrete ferments intended to digest any animal matter. the really interesting point is connected with these central jointed or trigger hairs; they are extremely sensitive. but when they are touched it is not they themselves that are affected, but the entire circular end of the leaf! suppose an insect wanders on to the leaf and reaches one of these semicircular halves, nothing happens until it touches one of these hairs, but then _both_ halves suddenly close together, exactly like an ordinary rat-trap! the teeth on the edges of the halves interlock like the teeth of a trap, and the insect is caught and imprisoned. its body is slowly digested away and goes to nourish the plant. the use of the joint in the sensitive hairs can be easily perceived, for when the two halves shut up together, the hairs fold down exactly like the funnel of a river steamboat when it passes under a bridge. the closing of the two halves, which has been well compared to shutting up a half-open book, is very quick, as it does not take more than ten to thirty seconds. there is an abundant flow of "gastric juice," but the leaf takes a long time to digest its food. it may require three weeks to finish one insect. moreover, if overfed, it may turn a bilious or dyspeptic yellow colour, and wither or even die. it only shuts for a short time if a grain of sand touches the sensitive hair, and, like drosera, is not deceived in its food. the dionæa, drosera, the sensitive plant, mimulus, barberry, and others, all show us clearly that plants somehow or other act as if they were conscious of what they ought to do. in fact, in all these cases, it is scarcely possible to help believing in some sort of rudimentary nervous system. at any rate wordsworth comes near this belief, for he has written:-- "it is my faith, that every flower that blows enjoys the air it breathes." chapter xxviii mosses and moors peat-mosses and their birds--moorlands--cotton-grass--scotch whisky--growth of peat-moss--a vegetable pump--low-lying and moorland mosses--eruptions and floods of peat--colonizing by heather and scotch fir--peat-mosses as museums--remains of children and troopers--irish elk--story of the plants in denmark--rhododendrons and peat--uses of peat--reclaiming the mosses near glasgow. in great britain in this present year one finds exceedingly few places where the influence of man cannot be traced. over most of the country, indeed, it is impossible to discover a single acre of land where nature has been allowed to go on working at her own sweet will without interference or restraint. but near stirling, between the lake of monteith and the sea, there is a wide, desolate valley which is probably in exactly the same condition as it was when the roman legions halted to reconnoitre before agricola passed onwards to perth and aberdeen. indeed, this great peat-moss has been probably in very much the same condition for some , years, which is a nice round number to represent the ages that have passed since the great ice age. now, as then, it is inexpressibly dreary and desolate; everywhere saturated with water, and only to be traversed in dry seasons and with much agility. even with the greatest care the pedestrian may sink to the waist in a hole of black, slimy, peaty water. moss, heather clumps, sedges, rushes, and occasionally cotton-grass, almost at one dead level, stretch right across from the one side of the huge valley to the other. even grouse are not common. in summer great numbers of gulls lay their eggs upon the moss. this also is one of the few places in britain where great flocks of wild geese can be heard and seen, but only at a distance. it is almost impossible to get near them, for the upright neck of the sentinel cannot be seen by the stalker as he wriggles towards the flock on his face, until long after the stalker himself has been plainly visible to the bird. of all useless stretches of barren waste, such a moss as this seems one of the worst. it would, of course, be possible to reclaim it; probably, fertile fields and rich meadows _could_ be formed over the whole valley, but it would not pay nowadays. there is so much good land available in canada, the united states, and australia, that this great stretch of our native country will probably remain as useless as it was in agricola's days. in the scottish lowlands and highlands the moorlands are almost as desolate. at a height of to feet in southern scotland there is nothing to be seen but the undulating lines of hills, all dark purple with heather or with the peculiar scorched reddish green of deer's hair and dried sedges. perhaps on the nearer hills small streams may have cut a whole series of intersecting ravines in the black peat. they may be six to ten feet deep, and here and there the bleached white stones which underlie them are exposed. now and then the "kuk-kuk-kuk" of an irate cock grouse, and much too frequently the melancholy squawking of the curlew, irritates the pedestrian as he stumbles over clumps of heather, plunges in and out of the mossy holes, or circumvents impossible peat-haggs. [illustration: an arctic alpine plant this is draba alpina from cape tscheljuskin, and it is drawn the natural size. the stunted, closely set leaves show the inclement character of the climate.] it is indeed a remarkable fact that though these islands support , , of inhabitants, including at least , , paupers and unemployed, one-seventh of ireland and many square miles in scotland are still useless peat-bogs! the bog of allen alone covers , acres, and the peat is twenty-five feet deep. in some few places the peat is still used for fuel, and there is a theory to the effect that peat reek is necessary for the best kinds of scotch whisky, but neither grouse nor black-faced sheep, which live on the young shoots of the heather, employ in at all a satisfactory way these great stretches of land. many attempts have been made to spin the silky threads of the cotton-grass which grows abundantly on the scotch lowlands. it is neither a grass, nor does it supply cotton, but is called eriophorum. it is perhaps the one really beautiful plant to be found on them, for its waving heads of fine silky-white hairs are exceedingly pretty. the heather itself gives a splendid red and purple shade, which in summer and autumn is always changing colour, but it is monotonous. neither the little bog asphodel with its yellowish flowers, nor red drosera, or butter-coloured butterwort, are particularly beautiful. after seeing such a country one understands something of the cameronian covenanters who held their conventicles and took refuge therein. the manner in which these mosses and moors have developed is most interesting, and yet difficult to explain. there are two kinds of peat-mosses, which, although there are many intermediate types, may be kept apart. the first, like the one near stirling, lochar and solway moss, near dumfries, and linwood, near glasgow, have been formed in low-lying flat estuarine marshes. if one refers back to page , it will be seen how reeds and rushes and marsh plants may gradually fill up river backwaters. eventually a saturated, marshy meadow is produced. then comes the chance of that wonderful moss the peat-moss, or sphagnum. it is scarcely possible to appreciate its structure without the help of a microscope and a good deal of trouble in the way of imagination. it is in a small way a sort of vegetable pump which raises water a few inches or so. stem and leaves and branches possess little cistern cells, which act both as capillary tubes raising the water and also retain it. the stems are upright and develop many branches, so that they become a close-ranked or serried carpet of upright moss-stems squeezed together, which floats on the surface of the water. each moss-stem is growing upwards and dying off below. in consequence, the bottom gets filled up by dead mossy pieces, which accumulate there, while the live moss-carpet remains floating on the surface of the loathly, black, peaty water. in many peat-mosses the water gets entirely filled up, but that does not stop the formation of the peat-moss. it is now resting on the water-saturated remains of its forefathers, and if water is abundantly supplied it goes on developing. thus in these lowland or estuarine peat-mosses the moss eventually occupies the water, and goes on growing. after this it develops like the moorland mosses which cover most of the lowlands and highlands of scotland. they cover the hills, and it looks exactly as if some giant had plastered all those hills with a layer of six to ten feet of black peat from feet upwards. the soil would at first be covered by a saturated moss-carpet of _sphagnum_ and other mosses. rainwater falling upon it was all retained, and very little could get away, for the sphagnum carpet is just like a huge sponge soaking up and retaining the water. but it sometimes happens in these great upland mosses that there are enormous falls of rain which continue for days. then the water collects _under_ the living moss-carpet and over the dead peat. it may be gathered together in such quantities that the carpet of living peat above it bursts, and a deluge of peaty water overflows the surrounding country, destroying and spoiling everything that it encounters. the worst of these inundations of black mud that has happened in recent years was in december, , near rathmore, where acres of bog burst and a horrible river of mud overflowed the country for ten miles. nine people perished, and enormous destruction was caused. there have been many other cases. in crowhill bog, near keighley, burst; and in , in lancashire, a space a mile long and half a mile broad was covered by peaty mud. there was also a case in , where forty acres of bog at charleville burst in the same way.[ ] [ ] miall, _nature_, aug., , p. . attempts have often been made to calculate the rate of growth of such peat-mosses. a great many of them began to develop on the mud left by the ice-sheet when the glaciers retreated at the end of the ice age. those mosses are therefore probably , years old. some of our scotch mosses are twenty to twenty-five feet in depth, which gives a foot in , years. by calculation of the weight of the peat formed, aigner made out that a certain moss was , years old, and was growing at the rate of two inches in a century. but in denmark ten feet has been formed in to years, and in switzerland three to four feet of peat-moss has been formed in twenty-four years. this shows quite distinctly that there is no regular rate of growth, and indeed it is obvious that much must depend on the climate, on the rainfall, on the drainage, and other circumstances. sooner or later, however, a limit comes to the growth of the moss. the surface then becomes gently curved: it is highest in the centre, and slopes very gently down in every direction to the edges. what happens next? the first sign is that the surface begins to dry up, and heather, with grey cladonia lichens, begins to grow on the projecting tufts and tussocks. occasionally, if gulls build their nests on such drying-up mosses, patches of bright green grass appear wherever the gulls are in the habit of resting. that is due to the lime in their guano. but under quite natural conditions a much more important and interesting change begins. here and there scattered over the moss, miserable little seedling birches and scotch firs begin to struggle for life. of course, if there are hares and rabbits, or if sheep and cattle are allowed to graze upon the moss, those firs have no chance whatever. they are eaten down to the ground. [illustration: lake dwellings in early britain the irish elk is the result of the day's sport of these prehistoric britons, who lived in houses built on piles actually in the water, or in peat mosses. their only boats were rough dug-out canoes.] but if allowed to go on growing they would no doubt cover the whole moss with a wood of birch and scotch fir. in time that wood would by its roots and its formation of fine leaf-mould so radically alter the ground that a forest of oaks might be possible. it is in fact quite likely that most of our highland and scotch hills were at one time covered by fine forests of scotch fir, of which the _silva caledonica_ spoken of by tacitus was an example. there is, moreover, evidence to show that this was the case. there is one strange peculiarity of peat which renders it a most useful substance to antiquarians. anything lost in a peat-moss does not decay away, but remains in a blackened but still recognizable condition for hundreds of years. not long ago a basket containing the bones of a child was found in a scotch peat-moss. there is also a story that an english trooper of the fourteenth or fifteenth century, and his horse, were discovered in lochar moss, near dumfries. the man's features were traceable at first, but fell into powder when exposed to the air; but the weapons, stirrups, etc., were all perfectly preserved. bones of the extinct irish elk have often been found. not merely so, but the piles of lake dwellings and the rough dug-out canoes which were used by the early inhabitants of britain have been discovered in a great many places. coins of roman, medieval, and modern times have been unearthed, and indeed there is no doubt that if britain is still inhabited two thousand years hence, boots, sardine tins, brass cartridges, clay pipes, and other characteristic products of our own days, will be disentombed from the peat by enthusiastic antiquarians, and displayed in museums to admiring crowds of our descendants. the reason is quite simple: in peat neither those bacteria which cause ordinary decomposition, nor worms of any kind, are able to exist, so that the material does not decay but accumulates, though it may be blackened by peat, water, and humic acid. it is for this reason that a peat-moss is such a bad or rather an impossible soil. neither roots nor bacteria can thrive in saturated peat; therefore the flora of a peat-moss is generally confined to the upper surface, where air and bacteria can reach the roots. peat-mosses are also the home of insectivorous plants, which get their nitrogenous food from the insects which they catch. in consequence of this preserving effect of peat, it is possible to trace the entire history of a peat-moss from the very beginning. remains of the dwarf willow or polar birch have been found in england, showing that those now arctic plants were then flourishing in norfolk. these are generally in the lowest layers of peat-mosses. next follow remains of the birch and aspen, which would be growing, as they do in places to-day, on mossy soil where the peat was still thin. higher up in the peat one finds remains of scotch fir, showing that at that time regular forests of scotch fir existed, e.g. in sutherlandshire and on lochar moss, where they do not grow at present. some hold that the goats, black cattle, and ponies which have been kept since the roman occupation at any rate, are responsible for the destruction of these forests. others hold that they were killed by a change of climate. but they certainly existed. trunks of scotch fir have even been found in peat at feet in yorkshire, and at heights in scotland which are above all the present plantations. about this time it seems that the newer stone age men must have been in switzerland and denmark, for their remains and characteristic weapons occur in those countries at the same level in the mosses as the scotch fir. still higher in the peat comes the bog oak. with it are in denmark remains of the bronze, iron, and roman times. in denmark the uppermost layers of the peat contain remains of beech trees. as this last tree only entered the country in the historic period, it is not found except in the highest layers of all. unfortunately we have not yet obtained in our own country the same evidence from the peat-bogs as to the history of the flora of britain. it is at least probable that it was on very much the same lines. would it be possible to again cover our peat-mosses and moorlands with forests of conifers, pines, larches, and spruces? there can scarcely be any doubt about it: it would be possible, and according to the best authorities it would even pay to change all land which is not yielding more than s. d. an acre into forests of pines. one of the curious facts about peat is that though a peat-moss is one of the worst natural soils, yet broken-up and dried peat is excellent for rhododendrons, for orchids in stoves and greenhouses, and a great many other plants. peat consists of very much the same substances as those that go to form leaf-mould. but the presence of humic and other acids, and the saturation with water and consequently the absence of worms, bacteria, and also of air, make it impossible for plants to grow in a peat-moss. peat-moss due specially to the cotton-grass rather than the sphagnum moss is imported in great quantity from holland, for use as litter for horses. we have in this country plenty of peat quite good for this purpose, but labour is too expensive for our home-grown peat to compete with the produce of dutch moors. but that is by no means all the uses to which peat can be put. it is interesting to mention a few of them. . peat is used as fuel. . growing orchids, etc. . litter for poultry, cattle, and horses. . food for cattle, etc., is made by rubbing the peat into small pieces and saturating with molasses. . paper and a kind of felt can be made of peat. . rugs and carpets can be made of peat-fibre. . string and twine. . rough sacks and mats can be made of peat-fibre. unfortunately, though all these things can be produced out of peat-fibre, it has never paid to manufacture them, and there are very few of the british peat-mosses nowadays where peat is even cut for fuel. it seems much more likely that the end of these peat-mosses will be to become either agricultural land or forest. near glasgow a large area of a useless peat-moss has been reclaimed and made to yield excellent crops, by using the refuse of the city. the disposal of such refuse used to be a most troublesome and expensive process, but now it is turned to good effect. it was suggested a few years ago that peat, which is not worth conveyance, should be burnt on the spot, and the energy transmitted by wires. that would be quite impossible, in at least four years out of five, over most of scotland. chapter xxix names and superstitions giving names the first amusement--curious and odd names--a spiteful naturalist--the melancholy bartzia--common names--british orchids--dancing girls and columbines--susans--biblical names--almond, apple, locust--spikenard--tares--effects of darnel--daffodil--acanthus leaf--ghost-disturbing branches--elder or bour tree--its powers and medicinal advantage--danewort--mandrake--how to pull it up--the insane root--its properties--plants which make bones pink--the betel nut--henna--egyptian and persian uses--castor oil--leeks, onions, and garlic--ancient use of them. man has always taken a certain pleasure in giving names to both plants and animals. it was, of course, a necessity to do this, but it is probable that people enjoyed the process as they do now. at the present moment there must be at least , plants named and described by botanists. so that the number of ecstatic moments enjoyed by humanity has been undoubtedly increased. the egyptians, the babylonians, and the arabs named a great many plants, but for the most part those names are quite lost. most of the knowledge of the egyptians and babylonians remained a close secret confined to their priestly colleges or universities, and has entirely perished. for centuries those fragments of the knowledge of greece and egypt which were preserved seem to have been translated and taught in latin. long after the roman empire had passed away, all knowledge, including that of medicine, of botany, and of law, was imparted in latin, which indeed was supposed to be learnt by every educated person almost until the present century. even now descriptions of new plants have to be given in latin, and the name must have a classical appearance. of course, nowadays, it would be much more convenient and much more generally useful if every person learnt english, german, french, and japanese, but in this case of naming plants, the holy roman empire still exercises its sway over the whole world. very often the names given to plants are of the most extraordinary character. the latin is curious and the greek remarkable, yet sometimes they are both pleasant to the ear and have a pretty and poetical meaning. _poggeophyton_, on the other hand, for example, means the plant discovered by dr. pogge, a german botanical explorer. _wormskioldia_, _zahlbrucknera_, _krascheninikowia_, _acanthosicyos_, _chickrassia_, _orychophragmus_, _warczewiczia_, _lychnophoriopsis_, _krombholtzia_, _pseudorhachicallis_, _sczegleewia_, _zschokkia_, are all names that sound harsh and look odd to us. yet most of them are just called after those who discovered them, or their friends. in many of the smaller microscopic plants the names are really much longer than the plants themselves. thus _pseudocerataulus kinkeri_ is a diatom which cannot possibly be seen without the use of a microscope. names are and were given in the most extraordinary way. not merely great botanists, but themistocles, aristides, aristobulus, virgil, and even gyas and clianthes, have plants named after them. yet that is not inexcusable, if people had not sufficient inventive power to do better. there was a naturalist who quarrelled with the great french scientist buffon. therefore he baptized as _buffonia_ a group of ugly, unimportant little plants which had an unpleasant smell. in other cases people have named plants after their sweethearts or friends. a british plant called bartzia has a rather melancholy, desolate appearance. it was named when the author had just received the news of the death of his friend dr. bartsch. one of the most usual complaints which one hears from those who are beginning to study flowers is that the latin names are so difficult and hard to remember. but they are not really more difficult than the common popular names, and especially those of foreign plants. cheirostemon, for instance, which means stamens like a hand, is much easier to speak and to remember than _macpalxochitlquahuitl_, which is its soft, meandering, spanish-american name. asperula (little rough one) is quite as good as squinancywort, which means a herb good for quinsy (it is moreover of no good in quinsy). perhaps, however, woodruff (which is really "wood rowel," from the resemblance of the leaves to an old-fashioned spur), or waldmeister (master of the woods), are as good names as asperula. then erigeron, which means "soon growing old," is an excellent description of the faded appearance of this little weed, for which the popular name is fleabane (it has no effect upon these creatures whatsoever). how popular names came to be associated with particular flowers is generally quite unknown. a fair number are called from the diseases which they are supposed to cure. lungwort, however, was so called because the lichen pulmonaria has a resemblance to lungs. then in course of time people began to suppose it was a cure for diseases of the lungs, which it is not. the british orchids are called bee, spider, fly, and hanging-man orchids, because of a fancied resemblance to their namesakes. dancing-girls (_mantisia_) was so called from a certain resemblance of the flower to a columbine. the true columbine (_aquilegia_) was so called because of a resemblance which some one saw to a circle of little doves with wings seated on a circular well. the greatest objection to popular names, however, lies in their being so indefinite. entirely different plants are known by the same name, and also in different parts of the country totally different names are given to the same plant. all such difficulties disappear if one takes the trouble to learn the latin names. these also are often quite pretty. luzula, veronica (with its pretty legend), mimulus (the little monkey), circæa (enchanter's nightshade), senecio (_the old man_, from its woolly head of fruits), nymphea, naias, carlina (_the old witch_), and so on, are quite as pretty and as nice as mugwort, devil-in-a-bush, hairy rock cress, and the rest. one curious result of the use of popular names is seen in the biblical names of plants. the rose of sharon seems most probably to have been _narcissus tarzetta_, and not a rose at all. as regards the lilies of the field, mr. ridley has the following remarks. the hebrew word _shushan_ was a generic name given to a mixture of flowers, exactly as we now talk of ferns, herbs, or grass. the sermon on the mount was preached near the plain of gennesaret, and there flourish the anemone (_anemone coronaria_), _ranunculus asiaticus_, and _adonis aestivalis_ and _flammea_, which are exactly of the same colour and follow each other in close succession. this word _shushan_ is the original of the christian name susannah or susan. the arabic name for _anemone coronaria_ is susan. the almond of the bible is the common almond which is wild in syria and palestine. "aaron's rod that budded was a branch of an almond tree; the bowls of the golden candlestick were designed from the almond blossom. even at the present time english workmen call the glass drops for ornamenting candlesticks almonds." the apple of the bible was more probably an apricot. the husks of the prodigal son were probably the locust-beans, sometimes called st. john's bread, but it is quite probable that the "locusts" eaten by st. john were the insects. at any rate, locusts are regularly eaten in the east. the locust tree (_ceratonia siliqua_), or algaroba or carob, has large, dark-purple pods; there is a pulpy material between the seeds which forms a valuable cattle food. the seeds are said to have been the original "carat" weight of jewellers. the spikenard (_nardostachys jatamansi_) belongs to the natural order _valerianaceæ_. it is a wild plant of bhutan found near rangasnati, in india, and in ancient times it was transported on camels by the regular caravan route to syria, greece, and rome. it was then worth about £ . s. per lb. the essence is obtained from the roots, but one hundred pounds of roots will furnish only half a pound of essence. now it has but little value.[ ] [ ] heuzé, _les plantes industrielles_. the tares sown amongst the wheat were probably the seed of the darnel. when growing, this grass is very like wheat, and it would be quite possible to mistake one for the other until the flowers and fruit are formed. darnel is one of the very few poisonous grasses. it is said that the poison is produced by a fungus which is found in the grain. when darnel seed is ground up with wheat the bread becomes dangerous, for the poison produces severe headache, vertigo, and giddiness. other authorities say that it causes in man and rabbits eruptions, fits of trembling, and confusion of sight. it seems not to affect horned cattle, swine, and ducks. as regards those plants which were specially beloved and venerated by the greeks, there is not very much to say. moly seems to have been _allium moly_, one of the onion or garlic family. it is not very remarkable in any way. amaranth was apparently the garden love-lies-bleeding, called in france queue-de-renard and discipline-de-religieuse. the asphodel which covered the elysian fields seems to be _asphodelus ramosus_.[ ] this grows in quantities in apulia, and is said to afford good nourishment for sheep. [ ] figured in kerner's _natural history of plants_. the myrtle, with which the athenian magistrates and victors in the olympic games were crowned, is not really a european plant, though it has a wide range from asia minor to afghanistan. it was sacred to venus, and had some importance as a medicinal plant and for perfumes. it was even used in cookery and for making myrtle wine, which last is said to be still prepared in some parts of tuscany. "narcissus, son of the river cephisus and of liriope, daughter of the ocean, was a young man of great beauty who scorned all the nymphs of the country, and made to die of languor echo, because he would not respond to her passion. but one day returning from the chase weary and fatigued, he stopped at the side of a fountain to refresh himself. there having seen his own face in the water, he was so smitten with it and so greatly loved himself that he died of grief. the gods, touched by his death, changed him into a daffodil, according to the fable." such is the account in m. l'abbé ladvocat's _dictionnaire historique-portatif_, paris, . daffodil means appearing early in the year. the number of races, varieties, and forms of daffodil, jonquil, etc., has become innumerable; yet it is doubtful if any are quite so graceful and absolutely charming as the _narcissus poeticus_, supposed to be the original of the above legend. the acanthus leaf which was so much used in sculpture seems to have been that of _acanthus spinosus_. it can still be traced in modern carving, though, of course, it is very much altered and in a rather degenerate form. it is often very difficult to say why certain plants have received so much attention and veneration in ancient times. in some cases it is clearly because they are poisonous, and therefore become dreadful and awe-inspiring. why, however, should a twig of rowan (_pyrus aucuparia_) be so often placed above the door of a highland cottage? in some way it was supposed to keep off evil spirits, but there is no special reason why it should have been chosen. the "bour tree" or elder (_sambucus_) has been the centre of a whole series of extraordinary and remarkable superstitions. of the ellhorn (low saxon), or _sambucus nigra_, arnkiel gives the following account: "our forefathers also held the ellhorn holy, wherefore whosoever need to hew it down must first make his request, 'lady ellhorn, give me some of thy wood, and i will give thee some of mine when it grows in the forest'--the which, with bended knees, bare head, and folded arms, was ordinarily done." the flowers are an eye-wash and cosmetic, or they may be taken as tea or used as a fomentation. the berries are used for "elderberry wine." a certain cure for rheumatism is to carry about a small piece of elder cut after the fashion of a rude cross. evelyn speaking of it says: "if the medicinal properties of the leaves, bark, berries, etc., were thoroughly known, i cannot tell what our countrymen could ail for which he might not fetch a remedy from every hedge, either for sickness or wound." the other species (_sambucus ebulus_, or danewort) has had its name explained as follows by sir j. e. smith: "our ancestors evinced a just hatred of their brutal enemies the danes in supposing the nauseous, fetid, and noxious plant before us to have sprung from their blood." of all these, however, the mandrake (_mandragora_) is connected with the most extraordinary and remarkable superstitions. the plant is distinctly poisonous, and has peculiar divided roots which sometimes have a very rough resemblance to the human body. it was supposed to be alive, and to utter the most piercing shrieks when it was pulled out of the ground. in those accounts, which are based on that given by josephus, it is the _person_ who pulls out the root, and not the plant, that shrieks, subsequently rolls on the ground, and finally dies in torments. therefore, if you wish to pull up a mandrake, the correct course to pursue is as follows: tie a dog to the plant by its tail, and then whip the dog. it will pull up the mandrake, and then die in frightful agony! this is the "insane root" of macbeth, but its various uses, real or pretended, are too numerous to explain in detail. thus it was used for the following purposes: as a poison, an emetic, a narcotic like chloroform, in love-philtres and love-charms, as well as to dispel demons, who cannot bear its smell or its presence. there are many of these relics of medieval times which are difficult to explain or to find a reason for. why, for instance, should old women always carry a sprig of southernwood to the kirk in their bibles? the leaves are, however, said to be disagreeable to insects. the lavender stalks usually placed in linen both keep away insects and have a pleasant old-world scent. a great many of the properties possessed by plants are of the most extraordinary and unsuspected nature. the roots of the madder (_rubia tinctorum_), for instance, when they are eaten by swine or other animals, change the colour of their bones, which become pink. this curious property has actually been made useful, for physiologists have employed madder in the study of the growth and development of bone. in india and other eastern countries one is often shocked and surprised to find an apparently quite healthy native expectorating blood in a most lavish manner. but the native is only chewing betel nuts, which have the power of turning the saliva red. the fruit is that of _areca catechu_, a fine palm which is cultivated, for this purpose only, in many parts of india and the east. the nuts are cut in pieces and rolled up with a little lime in leaves of the betel pepper. it is said to turn the teeth red and sometimes to produce intoxication; at any rate, people become slaves to this disgusting habit, and they do not seem to be at all injured by indulgence in it. another extraordinary plant is henna (_lawsonia inermis_). the egyptian mummies are found to have the soles of the feet, as well as the palms and finger-and toe-nails, dyed a reddish-orange colour by the use of henna. but the practice is continued to-day in most parts of the east, and no odalisque's toilet would be considered complete without the use of henna. it is even said that men dye their beards with it. the white horse used in processions by the shah of persia has its legs, tail, and body dyed with henna. the powdered leaves are used: they are made into a paste with hot water, and then spread upon the place. it is grown in syria, egypt, algeria, china, morocco, nubia, guinea, and the east indies. in china women dye their eyebrows with an extract of the petals of _hibiscus rosa-sinensis_. one of the first plants to be utilized by man was the castor-oil (_ricinus communis_). it was used by the indians from time immemorial; it is mentioned by herodotus (under the name kiki); seeds have been found in mummy-cases, showing the careful preparations which were made for the dead when starting on their travels in the other world! it is one of the very commonest plants in the tropics and in sub-tropical or warm, temperate countries. it is rather handsome, and has large reddish-green leaves and handsome spikes of flowers. it is said to be sometimes twelve feet high, but is usually only six or seven feet. the seeds are mottled or marbled, and have a distinct resemblance to a beetle when seen from above. it has been suggested that this protects them from birds, or enables the latter to recognize the seed, which is strongly medicinal. that, however, is at least doubtful, and certainly pigeons are exceedingly fond of the seeds and eat them in quantity. the oil is used for lighting, in making soap, and also in painting. another characteristic egyptian plant was the leek, which with the onion and garlic seems to have been one of the very first to be brought into cultivation. herodotus says that on the great pyramid there was an inscription saying that talents had been paid for onions, radishes, and garlic used by the workmen during its erection. the jewish priests were forbidden to eat garlic, which (with cucumber) formed the dishes most regretted by the israelites during their wanderings in the wilderness. the shallot comes from ascalon, where it will be remembered richard the first defeated saladin the sultan, and where also sir sidney smith defeated the emperor napoleon and made him miss his destiny. it was not brought to this country till . probably, therefore, tennyson's lady of shalott lived somewhere else. onions and leeks are of course popular in this country, and especially in wales, where the latter has been the badge of the welsh since they gained a victory over the saxons in the sixth century. they wore it as a badge on that occasion by an order of st. david. but in warmer countries onions and garlic are much more important, where they have flavoured almost every dish since the days of nestor's banquet to machaon in asia, and of the emperor nero in italy, until our own days. but the subject is so inexhaustible, depending as it does upon man's powers of invention and his tendency to weird superstitions, that we must close this chapter and also the book. and we will end by asking the reader to think sometimes of all these many and various ways in which plants help and interest man. it is not merely because our life depends upon them. everything that we eat has been produced by plant life and plant work. tea, coffee, cocoa, and wine are pleasant because plants have produced some essence which is found useful and agreeable by mankind. even water would be tasteless and unwholesome were it not for the minute diatoms and other microscopic vegetables in it. but those who take an interest in flowers and leaves _for themselves_, find that they need never spend a dull hour in the country. there is so much to see and to find out, even in the commonest weed or the tiniest floweret. but it is necessary to sympathize with them, to try to look at things from their point of view, and not merely from an artistic or collector's standpoint. the romance of plant life then becomes a fascinating and engrossing pursuit. but however long one studies it, the knowledge that the wisest naturalist can ever attain to must remain a negligible quantity compared with what he does not know. suppose a mouse happened to stray into the office of the editor of the _times_, he might boast to his fellow-mice of his knowledge of the "higher journalism," but his opinions would not really be of very great value on the subject. however hard we study, and however much we observe and reflect upon the working of this great world of nature, we really cannot expect to know more relatively than that little mouse. in fact, the more we think, the more humble men of heart we become, and the greater also should be our reverence for the creator of this wonderful universe. index acacia, , , , , , acanthus, aconite, acorn, adansonia, adaptations (desert), afterglow, age of trees, agriculture (primitive), akocanthera, alder, alfred, algæ, , " and brittle stars, alluvial flats, almond, alpine flowers, " garden, ancient forests, angraecum, animals and poisons, animals and fruits, ants, - " and centaury, antiaris, ant rice, aphanizomenon, aphis, apple, apple-blossom weevil, apple-sucker, arctic plants, , , arctic times, aristolochia, arrow poisons, , araucaria, arum, asclepiads, ash, asphodel, asses, associations, autumn crocus, aztecs, baboons, babylonian botanists, bacteria, , , , , , , balm of gilead, banana, , barberry, , barley, , bartsia, bats, bean, bears, becquerel rays, bees, , bees and poppy, beetroot, , berries and winter, betel nut, bhang, bible plants, big bad lands, big trees, , birch, birch bark, birds, , " and fruits, , , , " and insects, bird's nest orchid, bishopsweed, bladderwort, blooming of weeds, bluebeard salvia, boers, boulger, box, bracken, bramble, , , , , brazil, breadfruit, breaking of meres, bridges of creepers, brigalow scrub, brier, britain (prehistoric), british agriculture, britons, bromelia, broom, broomrape, brown, dr. horace, buds, buffonia, bulbs, burning bush, bushmen, buttercups, , butterflies, butterwort, cabbage, , cacti, , calabar bean, caledonian forest, calthrops, camargue, canadian forests, cannibals, canoes, cañons, carbon atom, carbonic acid gas, , carboniferous period, , carline thistle, cassier, castor oil, , catapult fruits, catchfly, cattle, cattle poisoning, caustic creeper, cedar, charlock, cherry, chickweed, , chicory, chinese botanists, chocolate, cinnamon, clematis, climate (effect of), climbing plants, clover, cloves, club-mosses, coal period, - coca, cocoa, cocoanut, cockchafer, cockspur thorn, codlin moth, coffee, coffee disease, colocynth, colonizing of lavas, " of shale, colorado desert, colour of birds, " butterflies, " flowers, - " fruits, coltsfoot, , congo, cooke, dr., coralroot orchid, cotton, " grass, " tree, country life, cow tree, cretaceous period, crocus, crows and acorns, cucumber, cultivated plants, , curare, currents and seeds, , cypress, daffodil, dahlia, daisy, dandelion, , , danewort, darling pea, darnel, , date palm, , datura, deer, deodar, depopulation of country, , depth of water (plants), desert, desmids, desmoncus, destruction of plants, - diatoms, dioscorides, dischidia, distribution of seeds, dixon, dr., doctors, dodder, dorynicum, dragon tree, dropwort, drosera, drosophyllum, dundonald, earl of, dwarf plants, egyptian botany, elder, electrical phenomena, - elephant grass, esparto grass, eucalyptus, euphorbia, evening flowers, exploded pollen, fairy rings, fermentation, ferns, fig, , fig wasp, fires, , fish, , fish poison, flag, flies, , floating islands, floral clock, florida hyacinth, flowers, fly catcher, fly mushroom, fog, forestry, , forests, , , , , foxglove, , frankincense, fruits, fuegians, fungi, , " and caterpillar, " and eel-worms, galbanum, garlic, giant sawfly, ginkgo, girdleroots, goats, , , , , gooseberry, , goosegrass, gorse, , , gory dew, grass, , , , grasslands, , , grazing animals, , green of plants, greenfly, guanaco, gums, gutta-percha, hairs of plants, , hair (remedies), , hatasu, hawthorn, , hedgehog, heer, height of trees, hellebore, hemp, henna, henry, dr., , holly, , , honey-dew, hop, hornwort, hot springs, humming-birds, hyacinth, hybridizing, , hydrophobia cures, hygroscopic grasses, ibn sena, ice and seeds, ice plant, ice sheet, imbauba, incense, indiarubber, , indigo, insects, , , ipecacuanha, iris, ironwood, ivy, , jarrah, johnson, dr., kangaroo, karoo, kite, kola, laburnum, lake dwellings, landes, land-forming plants, , larch, latex, lathrea, lava, lavender, lawns, leaf-cutting ants, leaf-miners, leaf-mould plants, leaves and light, lecanora, lecidea, leek, lewis, lianes, , lichens, , - , life of flowers, lilienfeldt, lily order, lions and fruits, liverworts and animalcula, locoweed, locust tree, logwood, loranthus, madder, maidenhair tree, mallee scrub, mammoth trees, man, , , " and flowers, " and forests, manchineel, mandrake, mangroves, manna, , marshes, meadows, medicines, , mimulus, mistletoe, , mites, moats, mohammed, moly, monkey-puzzles, monotropa, moors, mosquitoes, mosses, , movement in plants, mud and seeds, mud rivers, mustard, myrrh, myrtle, , names of plants, narcissus, nepenthes, nettle, , nicotine, nile desert, nipa, nitrates, nomadic agriculture, number of plants, oak, oak forest, oat, obi, oil shales, olive, , , onions, opening of flowers, opium, opopanax, orange, , orchards, orchids, , , oxalis, painters and poets (botanists), palms, , pampas, paper (wood), , papyrus, parasitic insects, " plants, pear, " midge, peat, , peat-mosses, , pepper, perfumes, , , , petals, pfeffer, phragmites, phylloxera, pine forests, , , pine seeds, pineapple, , pink snow, pistacio, pitcher plant, plantain, plantations, plover, poisons, polar regions, pollen, polluted rivers, pomades, pondweeds, poppy, , potato, prairie, pressure inside plants, prickly pear, primula, protoplasm, quinine, rabbits, , , , radium rays, rafflesia, railway plants, rain of blood, rainwater (absorbed), raspberry, rattan, rat's-tail plantain, reeds, , , resin, , restharrow, retama, rhubarb, rimbach, roadside plants, robin-run-the-hedge, rock plants, , , rooks, roots, , , , , , , rose, , , rowan, rubber, , rushes, rye, , safflower, sago palm, saltwort, salvia, sandbox tree, sap, , sarracenia, satchell, savages and plants, scale insect, scenery and plants, schimper, scotch fir, , , , screes, scrub, scythian lamb, scythians, sea-grass, sea meadows, seaweeds, , , , season of flowers, sedges, selaginella, selection (principle of), , semaphore plant, senecio, sensitive plant, , sequoia, , shale, sheep-killing grasses, shelley, sherwood forest, silvia caledonica, silver fir, silurian times, smell (of flowers), smith, dr., snow, soil, , solanaceæ, soldanella, solomon's seal, southernwood, speedwell, sphagnum, spice trade, spikenard, spines, , , , sprengel, spring, , squiers, squirrel, , stapelia, starch, starwort, steppes, sticky fruits, , sticky hairs, stimulus (effect of a), stomata, stones, storms, , strength of roots, " seeds, " trees, strophanthus, strychnos, subsoil, succulents, sugar (fruits), sugar-cane, sunbirds, sundew, sunlight, , sunshine, tanghinia, tartars, taru desert, tea, teak, telegraph plant, temperature (flowers), , tendrils, , tennyson, theophrastus, , , , thistles, thorns, , timber, , tobacco, toothwort, tragacanth, trap, traveller's tree, tumble weeds, turnip, twining stems, united states (forests), underground life, upas tree, utricularia, vaucheria, vegetable demons, venus' fly-trap, vestal virgins, vetch, victoria regia, vine, , , , virginian creeper, wait-a-bit thorn, wall plants, warning colours, water-carried pollen, , " circulation of, , , , " level, " lily, weeds, , wheat, whin, , white flowers, wild garlic, wild tamarind, willows, , wind (effect), " and seeds, , , winged fruits, wood, , , , wood pigeon, woodsorrel, work of sunshine, worms, , xanthium, x-rays, yam, yeast fungus, yew, , , yucca, zostera, plymouth william brendon and son, ltd., printers transcriber's note: minor spelling inconsistencies, mainly hyphenated words, have been harmonized. obvious typos have been corrected. exponents are introduced with the caret character, e.g. ^ . transcriber's note: text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). corrigendum applied at the wish of the principle author: in key the pointers to couplets and were the wrong way round and have been corrected in this edition. * * * * * keys to fungi on dung by m. j. richardson braid road, edinburgh eh je and roy watling royal botanic garden, edinburgh eh lr published by the british mycological society po box , stourbridge west midlands dy pz © british mycological society printed in scotland by bpc-aup aberdeen ltd isbn the first edition of these keys was published in the _bulletin of the british mycological society_ , - ( ) and , - , - ( ) in an attempt to bring together in one place information for the identification of coprophilous fungi which would be useful to teachers and others interested in these fungi. they were issued as a separate publication in , and with corrections in . they were reprinted in with additions. this latest edition is an update of all the earlier ones, with current nomenclature and recent references, and the inclusion of some additional species. m.j.r. r.w. december introduction coprophilous fungi are highly satisfactory for demonstrating the diversity and morphology of a group of related organisms within an ecological system. representative genera of most major groups of fungi can usually be guaranteed to appear on dung after a period of incubation. there is no shortage of dung in our fields and woods, and this material will always produce characteristic fungi at whatever time of year it is collected. dung is best incubated in a light place, for example on a table in a warm room, on layers of moist filter paper or other absorbent material. for rabbit pellets, and samples of similar size, petri dishes are ideal; for horse 'apples', and larger types of dung, large covered dishes such as glass casseroles, plastic sandwich boxes or yoghurt pots are needed. the top third cut from a plastic lemonade or mineral water bottle fits neatly in a petri dish, and replacing the screw cap with a cotton wool plug allows aeration and gives adequate height for developing basidiomycetes. samples should not be kept in airtight containers for any length of time after collection, as in such conditions insects and nematodes tend to break down the dung, and anaerobic conditions which do not favour the fungi rapidly develop. if they cannot be set to incubate soon after collection they can be gently air dried, as most dung fungi will remain alive after such treatment and grow out when the sample is eventually moistened. the absorbent material should be kept moist. although free water will not allow the best development of ascomycetes, the succession of basidiomycetes appears to vary with the wetness of the dung. earthworms and insect larvae should be excluded from the samples as far as possible, for they break up the dung too much; activity of the latter can be reduced by spraying lightly with a household insecticide. if space is limited and cultures are kept nearby, it is very important to prevent mite infestation. containers can be isolated by placing on glass plates lightly smeared with vaseline, to which an acaricide (e.g. methyl benzoate) can be added. fungi are best sought with a stereoscopic binocular microscope, when their full beauty will be seen, but a hand lens or simple magnifier, although less convenient, is sufficient for all but the smallest forms. the larger ascomycetes and most of the basidiomycetes are readily seen with the unaided eye, but the binocular microscope is still very useful for observing the gross features of the veil of the basidiomycetes. perithecia, apothecia and similar structures can be removed with fine needles or forceps quite cleanly for mounting, initially in water, on slides. subsequent irrigation with iodine solution will allow any reaction of ascus wall, tip or pore to be observed, and mounting in diluted indian ink can enhance the visibility of appendages, caudae and sheaths which occur on some spores. spore discharge in the ascomycetes often occurs from mature asci when material is mounted in water, so mature spores can immediately be seen. many of the coprophilous toadstools (agarics), because of their small size and/or rapidly deliquescent nature, often do not give spore prints in the normal way, but mature spores can usually be found on the stipe or in natural spore prints formed on the absorbent material on which the dung is supported. for accurate identification the ability to measure the size of spores and other structures will be necessary. basic microscopical technique and mycological knowledge is assumed. common species are well described and illustrated in popular books, and references are given to specialist works to allow descriptions of less common species to be found. it will be necessary to refer to these for critical taxa. although this edition contains about one half more species than the edition, there are still many species to be described and new records and observations to be made, especially in the ascomycotina. four keys are presented. keys and (mjr) are to the coprophilous ascomycetes, a very diverse group which, although not covering all the possible types of reproductive structure found in the class, contains many of the important types. the information for the identification of these fungi is dispersed throughout the literature, and many new species are still being discovered and described. some appear to be world-wide in their distribution, others more restricted, with a prevalence of reports from either arctic, temperate or tropical regions. these keys are not exhaustive, since there are far too many species to make it practical to include them all. they do, however, include most genera, and the commoner or well known species of temperate regions. specific (and even generic) limits in some cases (e.g. _coprotus_ / _ascophanus_ / _ryparobius_ / _thelebolus_) are still the subject of debate and the choice of names to use in the key for a few taxa has been a compromise. key includes the original 'plectomycete' key (rw), which contains fungi which may not be strictly coprophilous in the normal sense, but fungi which occur on hair, horn, bone and cadavers, and may thus be found on carnivore dung or pellets of owls and other birds of prey. key (rw, p. ) is to the basidiomycetes of dung and associated debris. the part of the key dealing with the agarics attempts to be as complete as possible. since the toadstools have always been thought of as the best known of the coprophilous fungi, attention to their taxonomy has often been careless. in this key the opportunity has been taken to adopt a rather narrow species concept, and to provide in certain places indications of where distinct taxa, even autonomous species, may be found after further laboratory work. many of these types have been cultured and appear to differ vegetatively in ways which support observations of gross morphology. coprophilous agarics are popular material for genetic studies and additional information on veil structure, spore number etc. of individual species is given, even when these are not 'key characters'. key (mjr, p. ) is to the zygomycota (phycomycetes) which are characteristic of dung and amongst the first to appear when freshly dropped dung is incubated. they soon disappear, however, but their fruiting can be prolonged by plating small portions of dung on a nutrient medium (e.g. potato carrot or potato dextrose agar) to which has been added a small amount of antibiotic to reduce bacterial growth. this method is especially suitable for the parasitic and predacious fungi. a cultural approach is essential for the identification of many of these fungi and the above media, and oatmeal agar, are suitable for culture as well as isolation. for this reason the study of this group of fungi is less easy than that of the ascomycetes and basidiomycetes but, because the asexual stages are characteristic, we have attempted to key out the commoner genera which might be found, with notes on common species. the asexual spores are sporangiospores formed in sporangia; some sporangia produce a single spore within a closely fitting sporangium, and have in the past been erroneously described as conidia. a great range of sporangial structure occurs within the orders concerned. the classical structure is the massive (up to µm diam.) multispored sporangium with an internal columella which remains after the spores have been dispersed (e.g. _mucor_); those of _mortierella_ are similar, but smaller and without a columella. other sporangia are much reduced and may be only - µm diam., and contain only a small number of spores (_thamnidium_) or one spore (_chaetocladium_); these small globose structures are termed sporangioles. spores may also form in chains; the chains are in terminal groups and are formed by the differentiation of the contents of cylindrical sporangia which are considered to be part-sporangia (merosporangia). when the sporangial wall has disappeared the spore chains may remain discrete and intact, or they may collapse into a wet droplet of spores (_syncephalastrum_, some _piptocephalis_). members of the kickxellaceae (e.g. _coemansia_, _kickxella_) have single spored merosporangia produced in serried ranks on boat-shaped or swollen structures (sporoclades). the sexual spores (zygospores) are rarely seen without culturing; oatmeal agar is one which favours their production. the key includes one member of the entomophthorales, which also produces single-spored sporangia. other members of this order may be found parasitising the various animals which live in dung; many other predacious fungi may also be seen, e.g. parasites of amoebae (_acaulopage_). the key is of necessity far from complete, and omits members of the dimargaritales, which have been found frequently on dung of small mammals in america. mitosporic fungi ('fungi imperfecti') and myxomycetes have been excluded, since they would expand the range of these keys beyond what was initially intended, although numerous species of both groups occur on dung when incubated in a damp chamber. for mitosporic fungi see seifert, kendrick & murase ( ) and ellis & ellis ( ); for myxomycetes see eliasson & lundqvist ( ). as practical keys, rather than a taxonomic treatment, taxonomic authorities have not been cited. for ascomycetes, cannon, hawksworth & sherwood-pike ( ) have been followed, unless there is a more recent treatment of a group. for the basidiomycetes the 'new checklist of british agarics and boleti' (dennis, orton & hora, , _supplement to the transactions of the british mycological society_ ) has been followed, and _the british fungus flora_ (orton & watling, and watling, ). ascomycete references ahmed, s. i. & cain, r. f. ( ). revision of the genera _sporormia_ and _sporormiella_. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . (keys and descriptions of spp.). apinis, a. e. ( ). revision of the british gymnoascaceae. _mycological paper_ . arx, j. a. von ( ). on _arachniotus_ and related genera of the gymnoascaceae. _persoonia_ , - . arx, j. a. von ( ). revision of _microascus_ with the description of a new species. _persoonia_ , - . arx, j. a. von ( ). on _thielavia_ and some similar genera of ascomycetes. _studies in mycology_ . arx, j. a. von ( ). a key to the species of _gelasinospora_. _persoonia_ , - . arx, j. a. von ( ). the ascomycete genus _gymnoascus_. _persoonia_ , - . arx, j. a. von ( ). a re-evaluation of the eurotiales. _persoonia_ , - . (keys to families and genera). arx, j. a. von, dreyfuss, m. & müller, e. ( ). a re-evaluation of _chaetomium_ and the chaetomiaceae. _persoonia_ , - . (key to species). arx, j. a. von, figueras, m. j. & guarro, j. ( ). sordariaceous ascomycetes without ascospore ejaculation. _beihefte zur nova hedwigia_ , - . arx, j. a. von, & gams, w. ( ). Über _pleurage verruculosa_ und die zugehörige _cladorrhinum_-konidienform. _nova hedwigia_ , - . arx, j. a. von, guarro, j. & van der aa, h. a. ( ). _asordaria_, a new genus of the sordariaceae, and a new species of _melanocarpus_. _persoonia_ , - . barrasa, j. m. & checa, j. ( ). dothideales del parque natural de monfragüe cáceres. i. _boletín sociedad micológica de madrid_ , - . barrasa, j. m., lundqvist, n. & moreno, g. ( ). notes on the genus _sordaria_ in spain. _persoonia_ , - . bell, a. & mahoney, d. p. ( ). coprophilous fungi in new zealand. i. _podospora_ species with swollen agglutinated perithecial hairs. _mycologia_ , - . (key and descriptions of spp.). bezerra, j. l. & kimbrough, j. w. ( ). the genus _lasiobolus_ (pezizales: ascomycetes). _canadian journal of botany_ , - . (key and descriptions of spp.). booth, c. ( ). studies of pyrenomycetes: vi. _thielavia_ with notes on some allied genera. _mycological paper_ . breton, a. & faurel, l. ( ). etudes des affinités du genre _mycorhynchus_ sacc. et description de plusieurs especes nouvelles. _revue de mycologie_ , - . brummelen, j. van ( ). studies on discomycetes--ii. on four species of _fimaria_. _persoonia_ , - . brummelen, j. van ( ). a world monograph of the genera _ascobolus_ and _saccobolus_. _persoonia_, supplement volume . (key and descriptions of spp., and a critical taxonomic treatment). brummelen, j. van ( ). two species of _ascobolus_ new to britain. _persoonia_ , - . brummelen, j. van ( ). the genus _ascodesmis_ (pezizales, ascomycetes). _persoonia_ , - . brummelen, j. van ( ). notes on cup-fungi-- . _lasiobolus._ _persoonia_ , - . brummelen, j. van ( ). notes on cup-fungi-- . on three species of _cheilymenia_. _persoonia_ , - . brummelen, j. van ( ). notes on cup-fungi-- . on two rare species of _ascobolus_. _persoonia_ , - . cailleux, r. ( ). recherches sur la mycoflore coprophile centrafricaine. les genres _sordaria_, _gelasinospora_, _bombardia_ (biologie, morphologie, systématique). _bulletin trimestriel de la société mycologique de france_ , - + plates. cain, r. f. ( ). studies of coprophilous sphaeriales in ontario. _university of toronto studies, biological series_, no. . (reprinted in bibliotheca mycologica, band , by cramer, lehre). cain, r. f. ( ). studies of coprophilous ascomycetes. vii. _preussia._ _canadian journal of botany_ , - . cain, r. f. ( ). studies of coprophilous ascomycetes. viii. new species of _podospora_. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . cain, r. f. & kimbrough, j. w. ( ). _coprobolus_, a new genus of the tribe thelebolae (pezizaceae). _canadian journal of botany_ , - . cain, r. f. & mirza, j. h. ( ). three new species of _arnium_. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . cannon, p. f. & hawksworth, d. l. ( ). a re-evaluation of _melanospora_ corda and similar pyrenomycetes, with a revision of the british species. _botanical journal of the linnean society_ , - . cannon, p. f., hawksworth, d. l. & sherwood-pike, m. a. ( ). _the british ascomycotina. an annotated checklist._ commonwealth agricultural bureaux, slough, u. k. cano, j. & guarro, j. ( ). the genus _aphanoascus_. _mycological research_ , - . (key to species). currah, r. s. ( ). an annotated key to the genera of the onygenales. _systema ascomycetum_ , - . dennis, r. w. g. ( ). _british ascomycetes._ j. cramer, lehre. (or earlier edition, and (as _british cup fungi and their allies_), the ray society, london). (all groups). dissing, h. ( ). three -spored _saccobolus_ species from north east greenland. in _arctic and alpine mycology_ ii (ed. g. a. laursen, j. f. ammirati & s. a. redhead), pp. - . dissing, h. ( ). four new coprophilous species of _ascobolus_ and _saccobolus_ from greenland (pezizales). _opera botanica_ , - . dissing, h. ( ). notes on the coprophilous pyrenomycete _sporormia fimetaria_. _persoonia_ , - . dissing, h. & paulsen, m. d. ( ). _trichophaeopsis tetraspora_, a new coprophilous discomycete from denmark. _botanisk tidsskrift_ , - . elliott, m. e. ( ). _rutstroemia cuniculi_, a coprophilous species of the sclerotiniaceae. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . guarro, j. & arx, j. a. von ( ). the ascomycete genus _sordaria_. _persoonia_ , - . (key to species and checklist). hawksworth, d. l. & webster, j. ( ). studies on _mycorhynchus_ in britain. _transactions of the british mycological society_ , - . (key to spp. and descriptions of some). jain, k. & cain, r. f. ( ). _mycoarctium_, a new genus in the thelebolaceae. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . jeng. r. s., luck-allen, e. r. & cain, r. f. ( ). new species and new records of _delitschia_ from venezuela. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . khan. r. s. & cain, r. f. ( ). five new species of _podospora_ from east africa. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . kimbrough, j. w. ( ). north american species of _thecotheus_ (pezizeae, pezizaceae). _mycologia_ , - . (key and description of spp.). kimbrough, j. w. & korf. r. p. ( ). a synopsis of the genera and species of the tribe thelebolae (pseudoascobolaceae). _american journal of botany_ , - . kimbrough, j. w. & luck-allen, e. r. ( ). _lasiothelebolus_, a new genus of the thelebolaceae (pezizales). _mycologia_ , - . kimbrough, j. w., luck-allen, e. r. & cain, r. f. ( ). _iodophanus_, the pezizeae segregate of ascophanus (pezizales). _american journal of botany_ , - . (key and description of spp.). kimbrough, j. w., luck-allen, e. r. & cain, r. f. ( ). north american species of _coprotus_ (thelebolaceae: pezizales). _canadian journal of botany_ , - . (key and description of spp.). krug, j. c. ( ). an enlarged concept of _trichobolus_ (thelebolaceae, pezizales) based on a new eight-spored species. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . (with key to spp.). krug, j. c. ( ). the genus _fimetariella_. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . (with key to spp.). krug, j. c. & cain, r. f. ( ). additions to the genus _arnium_. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . (key to spp.). krug, j. c. & cain, r. f. ( ). a preliminary treatment of the genus _podosordaria_. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . (key and descriptions of spp.). krug, j. c. & cain, r. f. ( ). new species of _hypocopra_ (xylariaceae). _canadian journal of botany_ , - . (descriptions and synoptic key to spp.). krug, j. c. & scott, j. a. ( ). the genus _bombardioidea_. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . (description and key to spp.). larsen, k. ( ). the genus _saccobolus_ in denmark. _botanisk tidsskrift_ , - . larsen, k. ( ). danish endocoprophilous fungi and their sequence of occurrence. _botanisk tidsskrift_ , - . lohmeyer, t. r. & benkert, d. ( ). _poronia erici_--eine neue art der xylariales (ascomycetes). _zeitschrift fur mykologie_ , - . luck-allen, e. r. & cain, r. f. ( ). additions to the genus _delitschia_. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . (key to spp. and descriptions/illustrations of most). lundqvist, n. ( ). on spore ornamentation in the sordariaceae, exemplified by the new cleistocarpous genus _copromyces_. _arkiv för botanik,_ series . ( ), - . lundqvist, n. ( ). _zygopleurage_ and _zygospermella_ (sordariaceae s. lat., pyrenomycetes). _botaniska notiser_ , - . lundqvist, n. ( ). new podosporae (sordariaceae s. lat., pyrenomycetes). _svensk botanisk tidskrift_ , - . lundqvist, n. ( ). nordic sordariaceae s. lat. _symbolae botanicae upsalienses_ xx. . - . (keys and descriptions of _ca_ spp., and critical taxonomic discussion). lundqvist, n. ( ). on the genus _pyxidiophora_ sensu lato (pyrenomycetes). _botaniska notiser_ , - . lundqvist, n. ( ). _wawelia effusa_ lundqvist, spec. nov. (xylariaceae). _persoonia_ , - . malloch, d. & cain, r. f. ( ). the genus _arachnomyces_. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . malloch, d. & cain, r. f. ( ). five new genera in the new family of pseudeurotiaceae. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . malloch, d. & cain, r. f. ( ). new genera of the onygenaceae. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . malloch, d. & cain, r. f. ( ). four new genera of cleistothecial ascomycetes with hyaline ascospores. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . malloch, d. & cain, r. f. ( ). new cleistothecial sordariaceae and a new family, coniochaetaceae. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . malloch, d. & cain, r. f. ( ). new species and combinations of cleistothecial ascomycetes. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . minter, d. w. & webster, j. ( ). _wawelia octospora_ sp. nov., a xerophilous and coprophilous member of the xylariaceae. _transactions of the british mycological society_ , - . mirza, j. h. & cain, r. f. ( ). revision of the genus _podospora_. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . moravec, j. ( ). a taxonomic revision of the genus _cheilymenia_-- . a new generic and infrageneric classification of _cheilymenia_ in a new emendation. _mycotaxon_ , - . (synopsis of genus, including _coprobia_). moravec, j. ( ). a taxonomic revision of the genus _cheilymenia_-- . the section _cheilymenia_. _czech mycology_ , - . moreau, c. ( ) les genres _sordaria_ et _pleurage_. _encyclopédie mycologique_ , - . (_sordaria_ and _pleurage_ (=_podospora_/_schizothecium_), and _coniochaeta_, _hypocopra_, _sporormiella_, _trichodelitschia_, and other pyrenomycetes for comparison). munk, a. ( ). danish pyrenomycetes. _dansk botanisk arkiv_ ( ), - . orr, g. f. & kuehn, h. h. ( ). notes on gymnoascaceae. i. a review of eight species. _mycologia_ , - . orr, g. f., kuehn, h. h. & plunkett, o. a. ( ). a new genus of the gymnoascaceae with swollen peridial septa. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . (key to _auxarthron_ (_gymnoascus_) species). orr, g. f., kuehn, h. h. & plunkett, o. a. ( ). the genus _myxotrichum_ kunze. _canadian journal of botany_ , - . (key to species). paulsen, m. d. & dissing, h. ( ). the genus _ascobolus_ in denmark, _botanisk tidsskrift_ , - . rehm, h. ( - ). ascomyceten: hysteriaceen und discomyceten. vol. , abt. of _rabenhorst's kryptogamen-flora_. (discomycetes). renny, j. ( ). new species of the genus _ascobolus_. _journal of botany_ , - and plates. (description and illustration of _ascozonus_ spp.). richardson, m. j. ( ). coprophilous ascomycetes on different dung types. _transactions of the british mycological society_ , - . samson, r. a. ( ). notes on _pseudogymnoascus_, _gymnoascus_ and related genera. _acta botanica neerlandica_ , - . seth, h. k. ( ). the genus _lophotrichus_ benjamin. _nova hedwigia_ , - . valldosera, m. & guarro, j. ( ). estudios sobre hongos copróphilos aislados en españa. vi. ascomycetes. _boletín sociedad micológica de madrid_ , - . valldosera, m. & guarro, j. ( ). some coprophilous ascomycetes from chile. _transactions of the british mycological society_ , - . valldosera, m. & guarro, j. ( ). estudios sobre hongos copróphilos aislados en españa. xi. ascomycetes. _boletín sociedad micológica de madrid_ , - . valldosera, m. & guarro, j. ( ). estudios sobre hongos copróphilos aislados en españa. xv. el género _preussia_ (_sporormiella_). _boletín sociedad micológica de madrid_ , - . valldosera, m. & guarro, j. ( ). estudios sobre hongos copróphilos en españa. xvii. ascomycotina. _boletín sociedad micológica de madrid_ , - . valldosera, m. & guarro, j. ( ). estudios sobre hongos copróphilos aislados en españa. xviii. bibliographic catalogue of ascomycotina. _boletín sociedad micológica de madrid_ , - . valldosera, m., guarro, j. & figueras, m. j. ( ). two interesting coprophilous fungi from spain. _mycological research_ , - . winter, g. ( - ). ascomyceten: gymnoasceen und pyrenomyceten. vol. , abt. of _rabenhorst's kryptogamen-flora_. (pyrenomycetes). yao, y-j. ( ). notes on british species of _lasiobolus_. _mycological research_ , - . yao, y-j. & spooner, b. m. ( ). notes on british species of _cheilymenia_. _mycological research_ , - . basidiomycete references moser, m. ( ), in gams, h. (ed.). _kleine kryptogamenflora von mitteleuropa._ fischer verlag. moser, m. ( ). _keys to agarics and boleti_ (english translation by s. plant). roger phillips, london. orton, p. d. & watling, r. ( ). _british fungus flora: coprinus._ her majesty's stationery office, edinburgh. phillips, r. ( ). _mushrooms and other fungi of great britain and europe._ pan books, london. watling, r. ( ). _british fungus flora: bolbitiaceae._ her majesty's stationery office, edinburgh. phycomycete references benjamin, r. k. ( ). the merosporangiferous mucorales. _aliso_ , - . benjamin, r. k. ( ). addenda to the merosporangiferous mucorales. _aliso_ , - . benjamin, r. k. ( ). addenda to the merosporangiferous mucorales. _aliso_ , - . benjamin, r. k. ( ). addenda to the merosporangiferous mucorales. _aliso_ , - . (the papers above are an excellent account of _syncephalis_, _piptocephalis_, _coemansia_ and other unusual allied phycomycetes, republished ( ) as _bibliotheca mycologica_ by j. cramer, lehre). gams, w. & moreau, r. ( ). le genre _mortierella_. _annales scientifiques de l'université de besançon_, series , - . hesseltine, c. w. ( ). genera of mucorales with a note on their synonymy. _mycologia_ , - . (with good key; many other papers by hesseltine, with others, in _mycologia_, _american journal of botany_, _american midland naturalist_ and _lloydia_). ingold, c. t. & zoberi, m. h. ( ). the asexual apparatus of mucorales in relation to spore liberation. _transactions of the british mycological society_ , - . naumov, n. a. ( ). clés des mucorinées. _encyclopédie mycologique_ , - . zycha, h., siepmann, r. & linneman, g. ( ). _mucorales._ j. cramer, lehre. (a revision of zycha, ). general references bell, a. ( ). _dung fungi: an illustrated guide to coprophilous fungi in new zealand._ victoria university press, wellington. bon, m. ( ). _the mushrooms and toadstools of britain and north-western europe._ hodder & stoughton, london. cacialli, g., caroti, v. & doveri, f. ( ). _funghi fimicoli e rari o interssanti del litorale toscano._ schede di micologia vol. . fondazione centro studi micologici dell' a. m. b., vicenza, italy. domsch, k. h., gams, w. & anderson, t. h. ( ). _compendium of soil fungi._ academic press, new york. ellis, m. b. & ellis, j. p. ( ). _microfungi on miscellaneous substrates._ croom helm, london & sydney. gilman, j. c. ( ). _a manual of soil fungi._ iowa state college press. eliasson, u. & lundqvist, n. ( ). fimicolous myxomycetes. _botaniska notiser_ , - . (a list of spp., with some descriptions and illustrations). hawksworth, d. l., kirk, p. m., sutton, b. c. & pegler, d. n. ( ). _ainsworth & bisby's dictionary of the fungi._ th edn. cab international, wallingford. holden, m. (ed) ( ). guide to the literature for the identification of british fungi, th edition. _bulletin of the british mycological society_ , - ; - . massee, g., & salmon, e. s. ( ). researches on coprophilous fungi. _annals of botany, london_ , - . seifert, k. a., kendrick, w. b. & murase, g. ( ). _a key to hyphomycetes on dung._ university of waterloo biology series no. . webster, j. ( ). coprophilous fungi. _transactions of the british mycological society_ , - . key . ascomycota ascoma either globose to flask shaped, usually with an easily observable pore or neck (perithecium or pseudothecium, figs , , , , , , , - ), or discoid (apothecium, figs , , , , - ). spores usually in each ascus (less frequently , , , , etc.). asci ellipsoid to cylindrical, borne in a distinct hymenium, thus appearing in fascicles or distinct groups when the fruit body is squashed. - ascoma globose to subglobose, lacking a definite pore or neck (cleistothecium or gymnothecium, figs , , ). asci globose to subglobose, -spored, not in a distinct hymenium, appearing quite free when the fruit body is squashed. key , (p. ) ( ) ascoma a perithecium or pseudothecium, usually dark in some part, not opening to a disc but remaining globose or flask shaped. asci unitunicate, not operculate but often with an apical pore, which may stain blue in iodine, or bitunicate. key , (p. ) - ascoma an apothecium, white or lightly coloured, soft fleshed, opening out to a disc or cushion shape when mature. asci unitunicate. ( ) asci opening by an operculum (fig. ), a bilabiate vertical split down to a subapical ring of thickening (fig. ), or apparently just bursting. - asci inoperculate, with an apical pore. ( ) spores (occasionally ) in an ascus, colourless, purple or brown. - spores more than in an ascus, colourless. ( ) spores remaining colourless. - spores purple or brown at maturity. ( ) apothecia with obvious hairs. - apothecia without obvious hairs (microscopic hairs up to µm long may be present). ( ) hairs brown. apothecia orange, red orange or yellow orange. (_cheilymenia_, fig. ) - hairs colourless. apothecia colourless or pinkish. (_lasiobolus_, fig. ) ( ) apothecia with stellate hairs. spores - × - µm. _cheilymenia stercorea_ (figs , ) - apothecia without stellate hairs. ( ) spores . - × - . µm. asci - µm diam. apothecia mm diam. or more. _cheilymenia coprinaria_ - spores larger, × µm or more. ( ) apothecia reddish orange, up to mm diam., marginal hairs rooting, wall - µm thick. spores - × - . µm. _cheilymenia fimicola_ - apothecia pale orange yellow, marginal hairs superficial, wall up to µm thick. ( ) asci up to µm diam. spores - × - . µm. _cheilymenia pulcherrima_ - asci wider, µm diam. or more. spores - . × - . µm. _cheilymenia raripila_ [illustration: fig. . _cheilymenia stercorea_, apothecium.] [illustration: fig. . _c. stercorea_, stellate and rooted hairs.] [illustration: fig. . _lasiobolus ciliatus_, apothecium.] [illustration: fig. . _iodophanus carneus_, apothecium and spore.] ( ) hairs µm or longer. spores - × - µm. _lasiobolus macrotrichus_ - hairs shorter, up to µm. ( ) asci clavate, µm diam. or wider. spores - × . - . µm. _lasiobolus cuniculi_ - asci cylindrical, up to µm diam. spores - . × . - . µm. _lasiobolus ciliatus_ (fig. ) ( ) asci blue in iodine solution. - asci not blue in iodine. ( ) spores large, - × - µm, warted, ellipsoid with acute apices. _thecotheus cinereus_ - spores smaller, smooth or only finely ornamented ( ) apothecia brownish, large, cm diam. or more. (_peziza_) - apothecia pale, up to mm diam. asci protruding from hymenium when ripe. ( ) apothecia white to pink, up to mm diam. spores finely verruculose, - × - µm. _iodophanus carneus_ (fig. ) - apothecia pale, variously coloured when fresh, but drying darker. spores smooth. (_thecotheus_) ( ) spores apiculate at each end, smooth. - spores not apiculate, - × - µm. _thecotheus agranulosus_ ( ) spores with a collar at the base of the apiculus. - spores without a collar at the base of the apiculus, - × - µm. _thecotheus apiculatus_ ( ) apothecia white. spores - × - µm, apiculus - µm diam. _thecotheus perplexans_ - apothecia yellowish. spores - × . - µm, apiculus . - . µm diam. _thecotheus africanus_ ( ) spores smooth, without guttules. - spores verruculose or spinulose, - × - µm, with guttule. paraphyses with clavate apices, with brown contents. apothecia asymmetrical, extended on one side. _peziza pleurota_ ( ) spores - × . - µm. apothecia yellowish brown, up to cm diam. _peziza vesiculosa_ - spores up to µm wide. ( ) apothecia ca cm diam., umber with a paler margin. spores - × - µm. _peziza bovina_ - apothecia up to cm diam., pale brown. spores - × - µm. _peziza fimeti_ ( ) apothecia robust, up to mm diam., orange or with brownish or purple tints. - apothecia smaller, rarely more than mm, pale, yellowish green, orange, grey or chestnut. ( ) apothecia orange or red. - apothecia discrete, brownish or purple. (_fimaria_) ( ) apothecia crowded, - mm diam., orange, with a granular surface. asci up to × µm. spores - . × - . µm. paraphyses strongly clavate to apex up to µm diam, filled with orange granules. _coprobia granulata_ - apothecia discrete, - mm diam., orange or red. asci × - µm. spores - × - µm. paraphyses yellow, only slightly swollen from µm to - µm at apex. _ascophanus bresadolae_ ( ) spores - . × - . µm. _fimaria equina_ - spores larger. ( ) spores - × - µm. _fimaria hepatica_ - spores shorter. ( ) spores - × - µm. _fimaria porcina_ - spores - × - µm. ( ) disc punctate with asci. paraphysis tips swollen up to - µm. spores . - × . - µm. _fimaria leporum_ - disc not punctate with asci. paraphysis tips not or only slightly swollen. ( ) apothecia pale yellowish. spores - . × . - . µm. _fimaria theioleuca_ - apothecia chestnut/purplish brown. spores - × - . µm. _fimaria cervaria_ ( ) spores less than µm long. - spores mostly longer than µm. ( ) paraphyses markedly capitate to - µm, with yellowish green contents. apothecia dull at first, yellowish at maturity. spores - × - . µm. _thelebolus microsporus_ (fig. ) - paraphyses only slightly inflated above, without coloured contents. apothecia whitish or grey. ( ) spores - × - µm. asci - × - µm. apothecia smoky grey, . - . mm diam. _ascophanus cinerellus_ - spores larger. apothecia pale, white or yellowish. ( ) apothecia up to . mm diam. asci short stalked, - × - µm. spores . - × . - . µm. _coprotus glaucellus_ - apothecia . - . mm diam. asci attenuate below, - × - µm. spores - × - . µm. _coprotus lacteus_ ( ) apothecia chestnut brown up to mm diam. asci × µm. spores - x - µm. paraphyses forked, with swollen tips. _ascophanus misturae_ - apothecia lighter coloured. asci less than µm long. ( ) spores - × - µm. apothecia pale yellow/orange, up to . mm diam. asci cylindrical, - × - µm. paraphyses yellowish, slightly inflated to - µm at apices. _coprotus ochraceus_ - spores less than µm long. apothecia up to . mm diam. asci less than µm long. [illustration: fig. . _thelebolus microsporus_, ascus and paraphysis.] [illustration: fig. . _ascodesmis microscopica_, ascospores.] ( ) apothecia bright yellow. asci cylindrical clavate, attenuate below, - × - µm. spores - × - . µm. paraphyses branched, apices inflated to - µm, with yellow contents. _coprotus aurorus_ - apothecia white/pale yellow, with darker margin. asci broadly clavate, stalked below - × - µm. spores - × . - . µm. paraphyses inflated above to - µm, hyaline. _coprotus granuliformis_ ( ) spores spherical or broadly ellipsoid, brown, ornamented with warts, anastomosing ridges or a reticulum. asci clavate. apothecium without excipulum. (_ascodesmis_, fig. ) - spores ellipsoid or spherical, hyaline at first, then purple, becoming brown at maturity; epispore smooth, finely verruculose, warted or cracked. asci cylindrical. excipulum present. ( ) spores - . × . - . µm. _ascodesmis macrospora_ - spores up to µm. ( ) spores ± spherical, l/b ratio mostly up to . . - spores ± broadly ellipsoidal, l/b ratio mostly . or more. ( ) spores ornamented with round warts, . - × . - µm. _ascodesmis nana_ - spores ornamented with a network of ridges, . - × - µm. _ascodesmis sphaerospora_ ( ) spores with a prominent reticulum of ridges (fig. ), - . × - . µm. apothecia - µm diam. _ascodesmis microscopica_ (fig. ) - spore ornament not a reticulum. ( ) spores with simple or branched ridge and isolated or occasionally connected warts, - . × - . µm. apothecia up to µm diam. _ascodesmis porcina_ - spores with isolated warts, some joined to form short ridges, but not a reticulum, often capitate, . - . × . - µm. apothecia - µm diam. _ascodesmis nigricans_ ( ) spores separate in the ascus. (_ascobolus_) - spores firmly joined together, both in the ascus and after ejection (fig. ). (_saccabolus_) ( ) spores spherical. - spores ellipsoid. ( ) spores . - . µm, epispore with numerous but isolated warts. _ascobolus brassicae_ (figs , ) - spores . - . ( )µm, epispore with subparallel occasionally anastomosing lines. _ascobolus crosslandii_ ( ) spores very large, mostly - × - µm, almost oblong with rounded ends, typically with few cracks in the epispore. _ascobolus immersus_ (figs , ) - spores smaller, with epispore smooth, warted or with cracks. ( ) epispore strongly and irregularly wrinkled with a vesiculose layer of pigment, . - × . - . µm. paraphyses capitate up to µm. apothecia up to . mm diam. _ascobolus rhytidiosporus_ - epispore not strongly wrinkled/vesiculose. ( ) epispore basically smooth or warted, perhaps with a few irregular cracks. - epispore with a clear pattern of cracks or lines. [illustration: fig. . apothecia of, from left, _ascobolus furfuraceus_, _a. immersus_ and _a. albidus_.] [illustration: fig. . _a. brassicae_, ascus with spores and detail of operculum.] [illustration: fig. . ascospores of, clockwise from left, _a. immersus_, _a. stictoideus_, _a. albidus_, _a. brassicae_ and _a. crenulatus_.] ( ) spores up to µm long. - spores longer, µm or more. ( ) epispore smooth, finely granular or punctate. gelatinous material unilateral, not surrounding spore. - epispore warted, spores . - ( . ) × ( ) - . µm, surrounded by gelatinous sheath. _ascobolus hawaiiensis_ ( ) spores - × - µm. hymenial mucus greenish yellow. excipulum not brown. _ascobolus mancus_ - spores - × - µm. hymenial mucus sulphur yellow. excipulum with rich brown intercellular pigment. _ascobolus boudieri_ ( ) epispore smooth or finely granular, spores - ( ) × - µm. _ascobolus elegans_ - epispore warted. ( ) spores with a regular pattern of warts and intact epispore, - × - . µm. _ascobolus stictoideus_ (fig. ) - spores with irregular patches of thicker pigment, especially at the poles, - × - µm. _ascobolus degluptus_ ( ) spores mostly × µm or larger. - spores mostly smaller than × µm. ( ) apothecia small, mostly up to mm diam., colourless. spores - × - µm, epispore cracks distant, irregular, often anastomosing. _ascobolus albidus_ (figs , ) - apothecia larger, usually mm diam. or more, disc yellowish, greenish, purplish or brownish. ( ) apothecia crowded, purplish or purplish brown with intercellular pigment. spores - × - µm, with longitudinal anastomosing cracks. _ascobolus roseopurpurascens_ - apothecia yellowish or greenish. ( ) spores - × . - µm with a few widely spaced and irregularly oriented cracks. _ascobolus michaudii_ - spores with closely spaced, ± longitudinal, cracks, with varying degrees of anastomosis. ( ) apothecia furfuraceous, sessile. ascus wall blue in iodine. spores - × - µm. _ascobolus furfuraceus_ (fig. ) - apothecia smooth, substipitate. ascus wall only faintly blue in iodine. spores - × . - µm. _ascobolus perplexans_ ( ) apothecia large, stipitate, - mm diam. spores - . × . - µm, with subparallel, longitudinal, only rarely anastomosing lines. _ascobolus lignatilis_ - apothecia up to mm diam. ( ) apothecia white. - apothecia yellow, green or brownish. ( ) spores - × . - . µm, with a coarse reticulum of fine cracks when mature. only recorded on grouse, capercaillie etc. (tetraonidae) dung. _ascobolus carletonii_ - spores - × - µm, with a pattern of longitudinal anastomosing cracks. only recorded on deer dung. _ascobolus sacchariferus_ ( ) spores . - × - µm, epispore lines not densely crowded. _ascobolus cervinus_ - spores smaller, epispore with densely crowded, rarely anastomosing cracks. ( ) apothecia greenish yellow, furfuraceous, with crenulate margin. spores . - × - µm. _ascobolus crenulatus_ (fig. ) - apothecia brownish yellow to brown, smooth, with undifferentiated margin. spores . - . × - . µm. _ascobolus minutus_ ( ) asci -spored. spore clusters - × - µm. spores . - × . - µm, smooth to finely punctate, but with a thick cap or girdle of reticulated or warted pigment. _saccobolus quadrisporus_ - asci -spored. ( ) spore clusters ± globular, - ( ) × - µm. - spore clusters elongated, - times as long as wide. ( ) spore clusters compact, subglobose, with only the exposed surface of spores pigmented, ornamented with small and coarse warts. _saccobolus dilutellus_ - spores loosely united in cluster, ornamented with small isolated warts covering most of their surface. _saccobolus globuliferellus_ ( ) apothecia yellow. spores in rows of longitudinally arranged spores (fig. ). - apothecia hyaline or violaceous (some mature darker). spores in rows of and row of (fig. ). ( ) spore clusters µm or longer. - spore clusters up to µm long. ( ) spore clusters - × - µm. spores - × . - . µm, smooth or rarely finely punctate, with distant irregular cracks. _saccobolus glaber_ (fig. ) - spore clusters - × - µm. spores - × . - µm, with fine isolated warts. _saccobolus citrinus_ ( ) spores - . ( . ) × . - . ( )µm, easily separated at maturity. spore clusters becoming shorter and more rounded with maturity. apothecia up to µm diam., inconspicuous due to their solitary nature and the predominantly brownish colour due to the mature spores. _saccobolus truncatus_ (fig. ) - spores . - . × . - . µm. _saccobolus minimus_ ( ) apothecia white, covered with tapering squamules composed of septate hyphae. spore clusters - × - µm. spores - . × - . µm, smooth or finely punctate. _saccobolus caesariatus_ - apothecia not white, without tapering scales. ( ) spore clusters mostly over µm long. - spore clusters mostly under µm long. ( ) spore clusters - × - µm. spores - . × . - . µm, smooth, finely warted or with reticulate cracks. apothecia . - mm diam. _saccobolus versicolor_ (fig. ) - spore clusters - × - µm. spores very coarsely warted, . - × . - µm (inc. warts). _saccobolus beckii_ [illustration: fig. . spore clusters of, from left, _saccobolus versicolor_, _s. glaber_ and _s. truncatus_.] ( ) spore clusters compact, - × - µm. spores . - × . - . µm, epispore with fine or coarse warts. apothecia . - . mm diam. _saccobolus obscurus_ - spore clusters elongated, - × - µm. spores - . × - . µm, epispore smooth or very finely granular. apothecia . - . mm diam. _saccobolus depauperatus_ ( ) asci operculate or bursting, without a subapical ring. spores ellipsoid. - apothecia white, often minutely hairy at the margin. ascus dehiscing by a vertical slit; the slit is prevented from running right down the ascus by a subapical ring of thickening. spores ellipsoid-fusiform. (_ascozonus_, figs , ) ( ) asci -spored. spores ellipsoid, - × - µm. _coprotus sexdecemsporus_ - asci more than -spored. ( ) asci -spored. - asci more than -spored. ( ) asci very large, nearly . mm long, spores - × - µm ( - × - µm in kimbrough, ). apothecia pale coloured. _thecotheus pelletieri_ - asci and spores smaller. ( ) spores µm or longer. - spores up to µm long. ( ) spores ellipsoid, with minute scattered warts visible under oil-immersion, - × - . µm. apothecia densely crowded, - µm diam., with - asci. asci - × - µm with ( -) spores. paraphyses . - µm, clavate to - . µm. _thelebolus caninus_ - spores subacute at apices, ca × µm (described as 'minute'; this value is suggested by boudier's comparison with _r. dubius_, for which measurements are given). apothecia densely crowded, tawny yellowish-brown. _ryparobius brunneus_ ( ) spores - . × - . µm. asci clavate, - × - µm. paraphyses enlarged to µm at apex. _coprotus albidus_ - spores . - . × - µm. asci - per apothecium, - × - µm. paraphyses filiform. _coprotus rhyparobioides_ ( ) asci with up to spores. - asci with many more than spores--impractical to count. ( ) asci -spored, broad clavate with short stalk, - × - µm. spores - × - µm. _coprotus niveus_ - asci broadly clavate with up to spores, - × - µm. spores - × . - . µm. apothecia superficial, on the surface of the substrate, yellowish brown, gregarious, united into a crust. _thelebolus crustaceus_ ( ) apothecia superficial, - µm diam., with prominent, acuminate, superficial, - -septate hairs, - µm long, often roughened towards their apex, with one +-spored ascus, - × - µm. spores very variable, . - × . - . µm (mostly . - × . - µm). _lasiobolus monascus_ - apothecia minute, rarely above µm diam., globose and immersed in substrate when young. asci broad globose, with - spores. usually only - asci in each apothecium, which dehisce by bursting at the apex. (other _ryparobius_ spp. will key out here [e.g. _r. dubius_, _r. myriosporus_, _r. pachyascus_ and _r. polysporus_]. they all have scattered to gregarious, immersed to semi-immersed apothecia - µm diam., with relatively few asci, each with - ellipsoid to subacuminate ca - × - µm spores. there are insufficient modern observations to allow their identification and separation with confidence). ( ) apothecia with a few, but obvious, setae. spores × µm or larger. - apothecia without setae. spores ellipsoid, - × . - µm. ( ) spores ellipsoid, - × - µm. setae up to µm long. _trichobolus zukalii_ - spores subglobose, - × - µm. setae up to µm long. _trichobolus sphaerosporus_ (fig. ) ( ) apothecia and asci large, - µm diam. _thelebolus stercoreus_ (fig. ) - apothecia and asci small, rarely above - µm diam. _thelebolus nanus_ (fig. ) ( ) asci (- )-spored. spores not closely aggregated into an imbricated mass, - × µm ( - × µm)[ ]. apothecial hairs rough, subulate. _ascozonus parvisporus_ - asci with or more spores. ( ) asci -spored. spores . - × . - µm ( - × - . µm)[ ]. apothecia with a single row of sharp, pointed, roughened hairs. _ascozonus crouanii_ - asci more than -spored. ( ) asci -spored. spores spindle-shaped, - . × . - µm. _ascozonus leveillei_ - asci more than -spored. ( ) asci -spored. - asci more than -spored. ( ) apothecia with a short base of globose cells, with minutely roughened marginal hairs up to × µm. spores elliptic-fusoid, - × - µm. _ascozonus woolhopensis_ (figs , ) - apothecia sessile, with aseptate smooth hairs. spores × . µm ( - × . - µm)[ ]. _ascozonus cunicularis_ [illustration: fig. . _trichobolus sphaerosporus_, apothecium.] [illustration: fig. . _thelebolus stercoreus_, apothecium.] [illustration: fig. . _t. nanus_, mature and immature apothecia, and detail of ascus dehiscence.] [illustration: fig. . _ascozonus woolhopensis_, apothecium and apothecial hair.] [illustration: fig. . _a. woolhopensis_, ascus with spores and detail of dehiscence.] ( ) apothecia with a short base of globose cells, with short, irregular hairs. asci - -spored spores elliptic-fusoid, - . × - . µm ( - × . - µm)[ ]. _ascozonus leveillanus_ - apothecia sessile, dotted with hairs in connate groups of - . asci with or more spores. spores × µm ( × . µm)[ ]. _ascozonus subhirtus_ ( ) apothecia stalked. - apothecia not stalked. ( ) apothecia up to mm diam., with a short cylindrical stalk, light brown. asci × µm. spores hyaline, with oil drops, occasionally -septate, - × . µm. _lanzia cuniculi_ - apothecia up to mm diam., pale olivaceous to grey, with a long, slender, reddish-brown stalk arising from a sclerotium in the dung. asci - × - µm. spores ellipsoid, grey-brown, - . × µm. _martininia panamaensis_ ( ) spores - ( ) × . - . µm. ellipsoid, ellipsoid- fusiform or slightly clavate. apothecia yellowish brown when fresh, drying darker, up to mm diam. asci - × . - µm, pore weakly blue in iodine. _pezizella albula_ - spores and asci smaller. ( ) spores linear, - × µm. asci × µm, cylindrical with a short stipe. paraphyses not clavate but fused to form an epithecium. apothecia pale pellucid, . - mm diam. _orbilia leporina_ - spores longer, subulate, curved. ( ) spores - . × . - . µm. asci - × - µm, gradually tapering to a short base. paraphyses enlarged to µm at apex, covered with brown granules. apothecia light brown, . - .mm diam. _orbilia fimicola_ - spores - . × . - µm. asci - × µm, cylindrical-clavate with narrow tapering base and truncate apex. paraphyses µm diam., the tips with a crust-like secretion fusing together to form a shiny epithecium. apothecia white to yellowish, - µm diam. _orbilia fimicoloides_ key . perithecial, pseudothecial, cleistothecial and gymnothecial fungi perithecia occurring singly or in groups, but directly (key , ) on the dung or buried in it (figs , , , , , , , - ). - perithecia occurring in or on a mass of fungal tissue (stroma) growing in or on the dung (figs , ). ( ) spores black, brown or dark olive-greenish. - spores hyaline or pale coloured, at least under the microscope (may be coppery red _en masse_). ( ) spores smooth, without an ornamentation of hyaline pits. - spores -celled, ornamented with hyaline pits. (_gelasinospora_) ( ) perithecia dark, olive, brown or black. - perithecia reddish brown, orange or golden, globose, with a neck. spores black, limoniform. ( ) perithecia globose, surmounted by a dense tuft of greyish green hairs, which may be branched or simple, straight or curly. spores olivaceous, limoniform. asci clavate, soon disappearing. (a large genus not characteristic of dung, but occurring occasionally). _chaetomium_ (fig. ) - perithecia more pyriform, or if globose then with a distinct neck, may be setose but not densely hairy, with clavate or cylindrical asci. ( ) each spore composed of or more cells in a row (figs , ). asci bitunicate (figs , ). - spores - or -celled. asci bitunicate or unitunicate. ( ) spores - -celled, united firmly together in a bundle both in the ascus and after discharge. germ slits usually absent. (_sporormia_) - spores each with or more cells, each spore free and surrounded by its own gelatinous sheath. germ slits usually present. (_sporormiella_) ( ) spores - -celled. - spores - -celled, - × - µm. _sporormia mirabilis_ ( ) spores -celled, - × - . µm. _sporormia fimicola_ - spores smaller. ( ) spores -celled, - × µm. asci - × - µm. _sporormia sp._ (fig. ) [recorded as _s. fimetaria_ by richardson ( ); see also bell ( ) and dissing ( )] - spores - -celled, - × . - . µm. asci - × - µm. _sporormia fimetaria_ (these two taxa may represent the extremes of _s. fimetaria_). ( ) spores -celled. - spores more than -celled. ( ) spores more than - µm long. - spores less than - µm long. [illustration: fig. . _chaetomium_ sp., perithecium and spore.] [illustration: fig. . _sporormia_ sp., ascus and spores.] [illustration: fig. . _sporormiella ovina_, pseudothecium.] [illustration: fig. . _s. intermedia_, pseudothecium.] [illustration: fig. . _s. intermedia_, immature bitunicate ascus and mature ascus with outer layer ruptured.] [illustration: fig. . ascospores of, from left, _s. ovina_, _s. intermedia_ (with gelatinous sheath characteristic of the genus), _s. lageniformis_, _s. vexans_, _s. bipartis_ and _s. minima_.] ( ) spores - × - µm. _sporormiella megalospora_ - spores longer than µm. ( ) spores - × - µm. asci tapering gradually from the broadest part near the apex to a 'stipe'. _sporormiella ovina_ (figs , ) - spores - × ( ) - µm. asci cylindrical, abruptly contracted below to a short 'stipe'. _sporormiella borealis_ ( ) spores mostly less than µm long. - spores mostly between - µm long. ( ) spores less than µm long. - spores - ( )µm long. ( ) spores ( ) - ( ) × - µm, end cells broadly conical. ascospores uniseriate. asci - µm long. pseudothecia - µm diam. _sporormiella pulchella_ - spores - × . - . µm, end cells subovate. ascospores biseriate. asci - µm long. pseudothecia - µm diam. _sporormiella nigropurpurea_ ( ) spores - . × . - . µm. asci clavate, tapering gradually below to a 'stipe'. _sporormiella leporina_ - spores - ( ) × - ( )µm, tending to break in two at the middle septum. asci cylindrical, abruptly contracted below. _sporormiella minima_ (fig. ) ( ) spores with end cells rounded. asci cylindrical, abruptly contracted below. - spores with end cells tapered and slightly conical. asci clavate, tapering gradually to a long stalk. ( ) spores - × - . µm. _sporormiella intermedia_ (figs - ) - spores - × . - µm. _sporormiella australis_ ( ) spores - × . - µm, germ slits parallel with long axis. _sporormiella grandispora_ - spores - ( ) × - ( )µm. _sporormiella lageniformis_ (fig. ) ( ) spores -celled, - × - µm. _sporormiella pentamera_ - spores more than -celled. ( ) spores - or -celled. - spores -celled, - × - µm. _sporormiella antarctica_ ( ) spores -celled. - spores -celled. ( ) spores - × - µm, readily disarticulating, the end cells longer than wide, the rest shorter than wide. _sporormiella vexans_ (fig. ) - spores - × - µm, end cells rounded. _sporormiella heptamera_ ( ) spores mostly longer than µm. - spores less than µm long, not disarticulating at the central septum. ( ) spores - × - . µm, disarticulating at the central septum, all cells the same width. _sporormiella bipartis_ (fig. ) - spores - × - µm, not disarticulating, rd cell down wider than the others. _sporormiella corynespora_ ( ) spores ( ) - ( ) × - µm, cylindrical. asci abruptly contracted below. _sporormiella pascua_ - spores - × - µm, fusiform cylindrical. asci gradually tapered below. _sporormiella octomera_ ( ) spores obviously -celled at maturity. - spores -celled, or appearing -celled at maturity. (those of _podospora_, _schizothecium_ etc. are -celled in early stages of their development, but only one cell matures to become pigmented; the other remains hyaline, often collapses, and may be difficult to see). ( ) spores - × - µm, upper cell dark, - µm, with close, blunt spines giving the impression of a pitted spore surface, with apical germ pore, the lower cell hyaline, - . µm, smoky-brown. asci unitunicate, -spored. perithecia µm diam. _apiosordaria verruculosa_ (fig. ) - both cells of spore similar in shape, size and colour. ( ) asci unitunicate. spores with a 'gelatinous' appendage at each end. perithecial neck with setae. - asci bitunicate. spores without gelatinous appendages, although a sheath may be present. ( ) spores - × - µm, appendages longitudinally fibrillate. _zygospermella striata_ - spores - × - µm, appendages hollow, not fibrillate. _zygospermella insignis_ (fig. ) ( ) spores with each end truncated by a germ pore. pseudothecia with dark bristles at neck. (_trichodelitschia_) - spores with rounded ends and germ slits along the sides. pseudothecial neck smooth or hairy, but without setae. (_delitschia_, fig. ) ( ) spores - × - µm. _trichodelitschia aedelphica_ - spores smaller. ( ) spores - . × - µm. _trichodelitschia bisporula_ (figs , ) - spores - × - µm. _trichodelitschia munkii_ ( ) asci ca -spored. spores - × - µm. _delitschia myriaspora_ - asci -spored. ( ) spores less than µm long. - spores more than µm long. ( ) spores - × - µm. _delitschia perpusilla_ - spores - µm long. ( ) spores - × - µm. _delitschia marchalii_ - spores longer. ( ) spores - × - µm, uniseriate. asci - × - µm. _delitschia niesslii_ - spores ( ) - ( . ) × - . µm, biseriate. asci - × - µm. _delitschia consociata_ (fig. ) ( ) spores mostly wider than µm. - spores mostly less than µm wide. ( ) spores - × - µm. _delitschia furfuracea_ - spores - × - µm. _delitschia winteri_ (fig. ) ( ) spores - × . - µm, the cells slightly tapered and almost completely separated. pseudothecia hairless, globose, ca µm diam. _delitschia leptospora_ (fig. ) - spores longer and wider. ( ) spores transversely septate. - spores obliquely septate, deeply constricted at the septum, - × - µm. _delitschia didyma_ ( ) pseudothecia hairy. spores - × - µm, not deeply constricted at the septum. _delitschia chaetomioides_ - pseudothecia smooth. ( ) spores biseriate, - × - µm, one cell usually larger than the other, deeply constricted at the septum and readily separating. _delitschia canina_ - spores uniseriate, - × - µm, both cells equal. _delitschia patagonica_ [illustration: fig. . _trichodelitschia bisporula_, pseudothecium.] [illustration: fig. . _t. bisporula_, expanded ascus broken through the outer wall, with spores.] [illustration: fig. . _apiosordaria verruculosa_, ascospores.] [illustration: fig. . _zygospermella insignis_, ascus and ascospore.] [illustration: fig. . ascospores of, from left, _delitschia winteri_, _d. consociata_ and _d. leptospora_.] ( ) spores with colourless 'gelatinous' secondary appendages (caudae, fig. ) at one or both ends (not always easy to see; mounting in indian ink is useful, and essential for some). a hyaline (empty) cell, the primary appendage (fig. ), may also be present. - spores without caudae, although a colourless gelatinous sheath may be present. primary appendages present or absent. ( ) perithecia often hairy or tomentose when young. immature spores long, wavy cylindrical, with a row of globules, and more likely to be seen than mature spores (fig. ). secondary appendages thin, simple, up to × µm. mature spores with a dark cell - × - µm and pedicel (primary appendage) - × - µm. (_cercophora_) - perithecia often with scales or setae at the neck or tomentose. caudae, simple or compound. immature spores clavate or ellipsoid, not long, wavy cylindrical. mature spores readily observed. ( ) immature spores - × - µm. - immature spores smaller, - × - . µm. mature spores with upper (dark) cell - × - µm; hyaline pedicel - × - . µm. _cercophora silvatica_ ( ) perithecia with white or grey tomentum. young spores - × . - µm. mature spores with upper cell - × . - µm and pedicel - µm long. _cercophora coprophila_ (fig. ) - perithecia with flexuose brown hairs and, at the neck, tufts of agglutinated, swollen, obtuse hairs. young spores - × - µm. mature spores with upper cell - × - µm and pedicel - µm long. _cercophora mirabilis_ ( ) primary appendage absent. (_arnium_, fig. ) - primary appendage present. ( ) asci ( -) -spored. spores - × ( ) - µm. perithecial neck sometimes with rigid, brown, septate hairs up to µm. _arnium leporinum_ - asci - or -spored. ( ) asci -spored. - asci -spored. ( ) spores ellipsoid, sometimes inequilaterally flattened, - × - µm, with apical germ pore, caudae not swelling in water. perithecium usually with lateral tufts of agglutinated hairs up to µm long. _arnium arizonense_ - spores evenly ellipsoid-fusiform, - × - µm, with germ pore at each end, caudae covering germ pores, - × - µm, but rupturing and swelling to up to × µm, and becoming diffuse and irregular. perithecial neck covered with rigid hairs up to × . µm. _arnium hirtum_ ( ) perithecial neck distinctly setose with rigid hairs. - perithecial neck without setae. ( ) spores evenly ellipsoid-fusiform, - × - µm, with germ pore at each end, caudae covering germ pores, - × - µm, but rupturing and swelling up to × µm, and becoming diffuse and irregular. perithecial neck covered with rigid hairs up to × . µm. _arnium hirtum_ - spores slightly inequilateral, - × - µm, caudae - × - µm, not covering germ pores. perithecial neck with brown hairs up to µm long. _arnium cervinum_ ( ) perithecia covered with a dense tomentum of septate flexuous hairs. spores mostly longer than µm. only occasionally fimicolous. - perithecia without a tomentum. spores up to µm. ( ) spores ( ) - × - µm, uniseriate. tomentum pale or grayish. _arnium olerum_ - spores - x - µm, biseriate above. tomentum olivaceous brown. _arnium tomentosum_ ( ) spores somewhat inequilateral, rounded below, pointed above, - × - µm, caudae - × - µm, with apical germ pore not covered by cauda. _arnium caballinum_ - spores equilateral, - × - µm, caudae - × - µm, covering germ pores. _arnium mendax_ ( ) perithecia with scales at the neck, composed of inflated and agglutinated cells (fig. , _s. conicum_). (_schizothecium_) - perithecia setose or hairy at the neck, but not with inflated cells, or neck black but almost hairless. (_podospora_) ( ) asci -spored. - asci -spored. ( ) spores - . × . - µm. _schizothecium nanum_ (fig. ) - spores - × - . µm. _schizothecium tetrasporum_ ( ) spores more than µm long. - spores less than µm long. ( ) perithecia crowned with a fascicle of long agglutinated hairs at the neck, up to µm long. spores - × - µm, biseriate. _schizothecium aloides_ - perithecia with shorter, less remarkable tufts. spores - × - µm, ± uniseriate. _schizothecium glutinans_ ( ) perithecial neck with rigid setae, as well as agglutinated hairs (which may be greatly reduced). asci - × - µm, broadest at the markedly rounded apex. spores - × - µm. _schizothecium pilosum_ - perithecial neck without rigid setae. asci broadest in the middle. ( ) spores mostly over µm long. - spores up to µm long. ( ) spores - ( ) × - µm. scales at neck distinct. _schizothecium hispidulum_ - spores wider, - µm ( ) perithecia . - mm high, scales at neck usually well developed. spores ( ) - × - µm. _schizothecium conicum_ (fig. ) - perithecia - mm diam., subpyriform, neck velvety with indistinct scales. spores - × - µm. _schizothecium squamulosum_ ( ) spores - × . - . µm, primary appendage slender cylindrical, - × µm. perithecia . - . mm high, sometimes with poorly developed scales. _schizothecium vesticola_ (fig. ) - spores - × - µm, primary appendage short, µm long, almost triangular. perithecia . - . mm high, with short agglutinated hairs. _schizothecium cervinum_ ( ) asci -spored. spores - × - µm. _podospora pauciseta_ - asci with more than spores. [illustration: fig. . perithecia, from left, of _podospora appendiculata_, _schizothecium conicum_, _p. excentrica_ and _p. decipiens_, with detail of hairs. fig. . ascospores of, from left, _podospora excentrica_, _p. appendiculata_, _s. vesticola_, _s. nanum_, _p. decipiens_, _'p. dagobertii'_ and _arnium_ sp. fig. . _cercophora coprophila_, immature (l) and mature (r) ascospores.] ( ) asci -spored. - asci with more than spores. ( ) spores more than µm long. - spores less than µm long. ( ) spores - × - µm, caudae apparently striate. perithecia superficial, covered with rigid, nonagglutinated hairs up to µm. _podospora fimiseda_ - spores - × - µm, caudae apparently segmented, with an intestine-like appearance. perithecia immersed to superficial, with a long neck, tomentose with long flexuous hairs when young, more or less glabrous when mature. _podospora intestinacea_ ( ) perithecia superficial, ovoid to globose, covered with short (up to µm), sparse, radiating, hyaline tipped, hairs. spores - × - µm, with simple caudae. _podospora appendiculata_ (figs , ) - perithecia with base immersed in substrate, pyriform, without such hairs. ( ) perithecial neck with short tubercular hairs, up to µm long. spores - × - µm, with a long but withering primary appendage. caudae in two rings, one inserted near the base of the primary appendage, the other at the spore apex. the individual filaments may be free, but often clump together to form an apparently broad appendage. _podospora decipiens_ (figs , ) - perithecial hairs longer. caudae single or at each end. ( ) spores with caudae at each end. - spores with a single cauda at each end. ( ) spores - × - µm. _podospora gwynne-vaughaniae_ - spores - × - µm. _podospora communis_ ( ) spores less than × µm. - spores larger than × µm. ( ) spores - × - µm, primary appendage - × µm. perithecia . - . mm diam., neck setose with rigid cylindrical hairs. asci - × - µm, broadest in the middle. _podospora ellisiana_ - spores - × - µm, primary appendage - × µm. perithecia . - . mm diam., neck setose with rigid hairs. asci - × - µm, broadest at the markedly rounded apex. _schizothecium pilosum_ ( ) perithecia ca o. - . mm high × . - . ( . )mm diam., neck not hairy. spores ( ) - × ( . ) - µm, caudae ephemeral and difficult to see, even in indian ink. _podospora pyriformis_ - perithecial neck with tufts of rigid hairs. ( ) perithecia . - . mm high × . - . mm diam., ± immersed, with hairs at the neck up to µm long, grouped in rigid fascicles. spores slightly flattened on one side, - × - µm, caudae invisible in water. _podospora excentrica_ (figs , ) - perithecia ca . - . mm high × . - . mm diam., semi-immersed, hairy all over, flexuous below, rigid and pointed at the neck up to µm. spores - × - µm. _podospora perplexens_ ( ) asci - -spored. perithecial neck with short tubercular hairs. spores - × - µm. caudae in two rings, one inserted at the base of the primary appendage, the other at the spore apex; individual filaments may be separate or clumped to appear as a broad single appendage (cf. _p. decipiens_). _podospora pleiospora_ - asci with more than spores. ( ) perithecia with tufts of rigid hairs at neck. asci with more than spores. - perithecia without tufts of rigid hairs. asci -spored. ( ) spores - × - µm. asci -spored. perithecia ca µm diam., immersed, except for the neck, which has tapered tufts of hairs up to µm. _podospora curvicolla_ - spores larger. perithecia semi-immersed. ( ) spores ( ) - × - µm, caudae of -several filaments covered with granules. asci -spored. perithecia up to mm high × . mm diam., neck with rigid but non-agglutinated hairs up to µm long. _podospora granulostriata_ - caudae simple, without granular appearance. asci -spored. perithecia not larger than µm high × µm diam., with rigid, non-agglutinated hairs up to µm long at neck. ( ) spores - × - µm. _podospora setosa_ - spores - × - µm. _podospora tarvisina_ (see discussion in lundqvist ( ) on these last three names) ( ) spores - × - µm, caudae in two rings, one inserted at the base of the primary appendage, the other at the spore apex; individual filaments may be separate or clumped to appear as a broad single appendage (cf. _p. decipiens_/_p. pleiospora_). perithecia ca . - . mm high × . - . mm diam., covered with flexuous hairs or rarely smooth. _podospora myriaspora_ - spores - × - µm, caudae small, simple and evanescent. perithecia . - . mm high, covered with long flexuous hairs. _podospora collapsa_ ( ) spores with primary appendage. - spores without primary appendage. ( ) spores with primary appendage directed towards base of ascus. - spores with primary appendage directed towards apex of ascus. (_anopodium_) [illustration: fig. . perithecia of, from left, _coniochaeta ligniaria_, _c. scatigena_ and _c. hansenii_. fig. . ascospores of _c. scatigena_ (l) and _c. ligniaria_ (r).] ( ) spores - × - µm, without caudae but surrounded by a thin (ca µm) gelatinous sheath. perithecia ca . - . mm diam., ± smooth. _podospora globosa_ - spores - × - . µm, flattened on one side, convex on the other. perithecia . - . µm diam., with distal cells of agglutinated hairs fimbriate. _podospora fimbriata_ ( ) perithecia hairy. spores - × - µm, appendage - × . - µm. _anopodium ampullaceum_ - perithecia glabrous. ( ) spores - × - µm, appendage - × - . µm. _anopodium epile_ - spores - × - µm, appendage - × µm. _'podospora' dagobertii_ (fig. ) (the combination in _anopodium_ has not been made; see lundqvist, , ) ( ) spores flattened, disc shaped, with a germ slit around the edge. perithecial neck with short (up to µm) setae. (_coniochaeta_, figs , ) - spores ellipsoid. perithecial neck without setae or with very prominent (up to µm) tufts of agglutinated hairs. ( ) asci with numerous ( - ) spores. - asci -spored. ( ) spores - × - × - µm. perithecial setae up to µm long. _coniochaeta hansenii_ (fig. ) - spores - × . - . × . - µm. perithecial setae up to µm long. _coniochaeta_ sp. ( ) spores - × - × - µm, slightly flattened. _coniochaeta leucoplaca_ - spores larger. ( ) spores narrowly elliptical in face view (length more than × width), ca - × - × - µm. _coniochaeta saccardoi_ - spores broadly elliptical to nearly circular in face view (length less than × width). ( ) spores ( ) - ( ) × . - ( ) × ( ) - µm. neck setae - µm long. _coniochaeta ligniaria_ (figs , ) - spores ( ) - × ( ) - × . - ( )µm. neck setae - µm long. _coniochaeta scatigena_ (figs , ) ( ) perithecial neck with prominent agglutinated tufts of rigid setae up to µm long. spores - × - µm, with apical germ pore. a gelatinous sheath which surrounds the whole spore swells in water, and appears fringed at the margin and radially striate. _arnium macrothecium_ - perithecial neck without setae. gelatinous sheaths may be clearly visible around spores, but are not complex in structure. ( ) spores with germ slit along the side. ascus with a large and complex plug at the tip staining blue or red in ki (other genera have asci with blue staining ascus tips, but the feature is very pronounced in this genus and is unlikely to be mistaken). perithecia form singly or severally in a stroma which is usually of limited extent, often without a definite margin. [n.b. if orange and with a stroma see _selinia_, ]. (_hypocopra_, fig. ) - spores without germ slits, but often asymmetrical, and with a small papilla at the basal end. asci without complex apical plug. (_sordaria_, fig. ) ( ) spores mostly less than µm long. - spores more than µm long. ( ) spores - × - µm. _hypocopra parvula_ - spores larger. ( ) stroma with a brown hyphal mat between perithecial necks. spores - × - µm. _hypocopra equorum_ (fig. ) - stroma with white hyphae between black perithecial necks, becoming smooth. spores - × - µm. _hypocopra brefeldii_ ( ) ascospores up to µm wide. - ascospores µm or wider. ( ) ascospores - × - µm, distinctly flattened on one side. ascus plug blue in ki, but becoming reddish. _hypocopra planispora_ - ascospores - × - µm, ellipsoid and narrowed towards their ends. _hypocopra stephanophora_ ( ) ascospores - × - µm. _hypocopra merdaria_ - ascospores - × - µm. _hypocopra stercoraria_ ( ) spores up to µm long. - spores µm or longer. ( ) asci -spored. spores × µm. _sordaria minima_ - asci ca -spored. spores - × - µm. _sordaria polyspora_ ( ) spores relatively narrow, at least twice as long as wide, - × - µm. gelatinous sheath broad, distinct. _sordaria alcina_ - spores relatively broad, less than twice as long as wide. ( ) spores mostly µm or longer. - spores up to µm long. ( ) spores ( ) - ( ) × . - ( )µm, with apiculate base. gelatinous sheath broad, distinct. asci - × - µm. _sordaria superba_ - spores ( ) - × ( ) - µm, with slightly apiculate base. gelatinous sheath broad, distinct. asci - × - µm. _sordaria macrospora_ ( ) spores with gelatinous sheath absent or very thin, . - × . - µm. _sordaria humana_ (fig. ) - spores with gelatinous sheath, up to µm diam. ( ) spores obovoid to broadly ellipsoid, - × - µm. _sordaria lappae_ - spores ellipsoid, - × - µm. _sordaria fimicola_ (fig. ) [illustration: fig. . _hypocopra equorum_, perithecium with limited stroma, and detail of ascus tip with blue staining plug and spore. fig. . ascospores, from left, of _sordaria fimicola_, _s. humana_ and _sphaerodes fimicola_.] ( ) spores - × - µm, with subacute ends, each with a germ pore. _gelasinospora adjuncta_ - spores larger. ( ) asci -spored. spores - × - µm, with rounded ends and one germ pore. _gelasinospora tetrasperma_ - asci -spored. spores - _gelasinospora cerealis_ ( ) perithecia orange to golden, often gregarious, almost spherical, necks ca µm diam., µm high, setae at ostiole hyaline, up to × µm. spores limoniform, with a germ pore at each end, - × - µm. _sphaerodes fimicola_ (fig. ) - perithecia yellow or reddish brown (darker when filled with mature spores), neck µm long, with setae at the ostiole - µm long. spores dark brown to black, limoniform, - × - µm, with apical germ pore. _melanospora brevirostris_ ( ) asci more than -spored. see key at - asci with or fewer spores, or asci evanescent, not readily observed. ( ) perithecia orange/yellow, - µm diam. spores long (over µm) or -celled if shorter. - perithecia smaller, or black or with a neck. spores shorter (less than µm) or septate if longer. ( ) perithecia orange, - µm diam., in small groups on a limited stroma. spores thick walled, - × - µm, with a gelatinous sheath. _selinia pulchra_ - perithecia orange yellow, superficial, ca µm diam., with ostiole in a disc surrounded by silvery triangular tufts of hyphae ca µm long. spores ellipsoid, -septate, - × - µm. _nectria suffulta_ ( ) perithecia reddish brown or pale, hyaline, with a distinct neck. - perithecia black. ( ) perithecia globose, up to µm diam., immersed, reddish brown, with a neck - mm long. asci broad ellipsoid, - . µm, rapidly breaking down and difficult to see. spores ellipsoid-allantoid. . - × . - µm, collecting in a pearly droplet at the fringed tip of the perithecial beak. _viennotidia fimicola_ (fig. ) - perithecia pyriform, very pale in colour, - µm diam., with a neck - µm long. asci rarely visible. spores pointed-fusiform, - septate, often with a sheath and clumped together in fascicles. (_pyxidiophora_, fig. ) ( ) neck - µm long, brown, rugose, with cells arranged in - longitudinal rows visible in one view. spores - µm long. _pyxidiophora badiorostris_ - neck not brown or rugose, composed of hyaline, irregularly arranged cylindrical cells. ( ) spores less than µm long. - spores more than µm long. ( ) spores - µm long, with brown apical or subapical patches of pigment. _pyxidiophora brunneocapitatus_ - spores - µm long, without brown apical or subapical patches of pigment. _pyxidiophora microsporus_ ( ) spores mostly - µm long. - spores mostly longer than µm. [illustration: fig. . _viennotidia fimicola_, perithecium and spores. fig. . _phomatospora coprophila_, perithecium, and ascus with spores. fig. . _pyxidiophora petchii_, perithecium and spores.] ( ) perithecia - µm diam., neck - µm long. spores ( ) - ( )µm long. _pyxidiophora grovei_ - perithecia usually less than µm diam. ( ) perithecial necks mostly less than µm long. spores ( ) - ( )µm long. _pyxidiophora arvernensis_ - perithecial necks up to µm long. ( ) spores - µm long. _pyxidiophora petchii_ (fig. ) - spores - µm long. _pyxidiophora schotterianus_ ( ) spores - µm long. - spores ( ) - ( )µm. perithecia - µm diam., neck - µm long. _pyxidiophora bainemensis_ ( ) perithecial necks - µm long. spores - µm. perithecia - µm diam. _pyxidiophora spinuliformis_ - perithecial necks - µm long. spores - µm. perithecia - µm diam. _pyxidiophora marchalii_ ( ) perithecia small, up to µm diam., with hairy necks. spores hyaline or pale, coppery-red en masse, extruded in tendrils. - perithecia larger, without hairy necks. if smaller than µm, with spores smaller than × µm. ( ) spores reniform, with gelatinous sheath, . × - µm, yellow, reddish brown _en masse_ in extruded tendrils. asci spherical, evanescent. perithecia black, spherical, - µm diam., with cylindrical neck up to µm long, with sparse pointed hairs. _microascus longirostris_ - spores larger, not reniform. perithecia up to µm diam. ( ) perithecial necks long, up to µm, with terminal hairs up to µm, curved or circinate at tips. spores limoniform, - . × . - µm. _lophotrichus ampullus_ - perithecial necks short, ca µm, with long straight tapering hairs. spore shape limoniform/variable, - . × - . µm, with prominent germ pores. _lophotrichus bartletti_ ( ) perithecia up to µm diam., immersed but for a conical neck - µm high. asci × - . µm. spores minute, cylindrical, . - . × . - . µm. _phomatospora coprophila_ (fig. ) - perithecia more obvious, often hairy, or tomentose when young. immature spores up to µm long, wavy cylindrical, with a row of globules inside and a short thin appendage at each end. (see _cercophora_, ) ( ) perithecia immersed, surrounded at the neck by a very limited flange-like stroma which is easily overlooked. see _hypocopra_, or if orange see _selinia_, - stroma very conspicuous. ( ) perithecia in a subglobose group at the tip of the stromatic stalk. spores with germ slit and gelatinous sheath. (_podosordaria_) - perithecia not in a terminal head. ( ) stalk short, - mm. spores ( ) - × - µm, slightly flattened on one side. _podosordaria leporina_ - stalk long, - cm. spores larger. ( ) spores - × - µm. stromatic stalk hairy. _podosordaria tulasnei_ - spores - × - µm. stromatic stalk not hairy. _podosordaria pedunculata_ ( ) stroma externally black, rooted or partially immersed in the dung, expanding at the surface to form a white disc up to mm diam., punctate with black perithecial ostioles. (_poronia_) - stroma not as above. ( ) spores - × - µm, bean shaped, with gelatinous sheath. stroma deeply rooted. especially on horse dung. _poronia punctata_ - spores ( ) - ( ) × ( ) - µm, oblong ellipsoid to slightly fusiform. stroma not deeply rooted. especially on rabbit dung near the sea. _poronia erici_ ( ) stroma spreading over surface of dung or filamentous. spores ellipsoid to slightly flattened on one side, with germ slit. (xerophilic fungi developing after long periods of relatively dry incubation). (_wawelia_) - stroma clavate, black, partly immersed to superficial, usually aggregated in small groups, ca - . mm high × . - . mm diam., each containing a single perithecium. spores ellipsoid with germ pore and gelatinous sheath. (_bombardioidea_) ( ) stroma spreading on substrate, black brown, firm but not brittle. ascomata globose, . - mm, with white hyphae at neck. spores broad limoniform, - × - µm. _wawelia effusa_ - perithecia globose to pyriform, black, brown or dark grey, produced laterally along the length of fine stromatal strand growing from the dung. ( ) asci -spored. - asci -spored. ( ) spores - × - µm. perithecia up to µm diam., dark grey at maturity, single or clustered, the ostiole with a crown of silvery white hyphae. stromata up to × . - . mm. _wawelia_ sp. - spores - × - µm. stromata conical, white, - × - mm. _wawelia regia_ ( ) perithecia hairy, globose, - µm diam., stromatal strands up to mm long. spores ellipsoid, flattened on one side, - × - µm. _wawelia octospora_ - perithecia villose with conidiophores, globose, - µm diam., produced laterally on stromatic filaments - × . - . mm. filaments pink at first, with a white pointed tip, becoming brown, velvety with conidiophores. spores ellipsoid to flattened on one side, . - . × - . µm. _wawelia_ sp. (fig. ) [illustration: fig. . _wawelia_ sp., stromatic filaments with perithecia growing from a rabbit pellet, ascospores, and conidiophore and conidia.] ( ) asci -spored. spores - × . - µm. _bombardioidea bombardioides_ - asci -spored. ( ) spores - × - ( )µm. basal germ pore less distinct than the apical one. _bombardioidea serignanensis_ - spores - × - µm. distinct germ pore at each end of spore. _bombardioidea stercoris_ fruit bodies solitary or in small groups, each a (key , ) subglobose, fertile, light brown head on a slender sterile stalk. head soon bursting to expose the yellow ochraceous spore mass. on mixtures of bird droppings, cast pellets and decaying animal material. - fruit bodies superficial, lacking a distinct stalk. ( ) spores - × - µm. head - mm diam. _onygena corvina_ (fig. ) - spores - × - µm, - µm. head - mm diam. _onygena equina_ ( ) fruit bodies with an external wall of loosely anastomosing and interwoven hyphae, and with ± specialised terminal cells (gymnothecia, fig. ). - fruit bodies with a well defined parenchymatic wall (cleistothecia, fig. ). ( ) gymnothecia with simple thin-walled, ± uniform and poorly developed hyphae constituting the outer hyphal sheath. - gymnothecia with thick-walled hyphae modified at their ends into appendages, or if thin-walled then always accompanied by appendages (i.e. curled, toothed or pointed hyphae). [illustration: fig. . _onygena corvina_, habit sketch, ascus and ascospore.] ( ) gymnothecia red-orange to brick-red. ascospores orange, subglobose to ellipsoid, with an equatorial furrow, smooth, . - . × . - . µm. _arachniotus ruber_ (fig. ) - gymnothecia white or yellow, never orange or brick-red. ascospores without an equatorial furrow. ( ) gymnothecia white. ascospores hyaline, ellipsoid, smooth, - × - . µm. _arachniotus candidus_ - gymnothecia distinctly pigmented, yellow or brown. ascospores larger than µm. ( ) gymnothecia yellow brown. ascospores orange to brownish, slightly lenticular, smooth or slightly roughened, - . × . - . µm. _arachniotus confluens_ - gymnothecia lemon yellow. ascospores lemon yellow, lenticular, smooth, - × - . µm. _arachniotus citrinus_ [illustration: fig. . habit sketch of a gymnothecium and ascus. figs - . spores and peridial hyphae. fig. . _arachniotus ruber._ fig. . _myxotrichum chartarum._ fig. . _gymnoascus californiensis._ fig. . _gymnoascus reesii._ fig. . _ctenomyces serratus._ fig. . _arthroderma curreyi._] ( ) gymnothecia possessing only thick pigmented hyphae. - gymnothecia possessing ± thin, hyaline hyphae with only a few, although often distinctive, appendages (i.e. comb-shaped end cells or dumb-bell shaped asperulate cells accompanying twisted and bent hyphae). ( ) gymnothecia brown-black or dark greenish-grey, with external hyphae with spine-like branches and septate, hooked appendages. ascospores orange brownish, ovate, delicately striate, - . × . - . µm. _myxotrichum chartarum_ (fig. ) - gymnothecia never black, and, if possessing thick-walled hyphae, then appendages never septate. ascospores smooth, or if ornamented then asperulate or echinulate. ( ) gymnothecia rose to orange-brown or yellowish. appendages curved or irregularly branched and pointed, never verticillately branched. ascospores smooth, or at most asperulate. - gymnothecia red-brown with appendages verticillately branched. ascospores - . × - . µm, yellowish brown, lenticular. _actinodendron verticillatum_ ( ) gymnothecia rosy pink when young, becoming browner, with spines and curved, non-septate hairs. ascospores hyaline, globose to subglobose, asperulate, - × . - µm. _gymnoascus californiensis_ (fig. ) - gymnothecia yellow. ascospores smooth. ( ) gymnothecia yellow to yellow-brown, without elongated appendages but with thick-walled branches, few of which are pointed. ascospores globose-ellipsoid, yellow to brownish, - . × . µm. _gymnoascus reesii_ (fig. ) - gymnothecia golden yellow to reddish-brown, with acute-ended appendages. ascospores lenticular, smooth, hyaline, . - . × - . µm. _pseudogymnoascus roseus_ ( ) gymnothecia orange brown, with comb-like appendages. ascospores slightly lenticular, pale orange, . - . × - . µm. _ctenomyces serratus_ (fig. ) - gymnothecia whitish to pale ochraceous, particularly when dry, with few appendages but those present twisted and bent, and their branches constricted with regular or irregular dumb-bell shaped cells. hyphal walls asperulate or with protuberances. ascospores smooth, lenticular, hyaline, . - . × µm. _arthroderma curreyi_ (fig. ) ( ) asci relatively large, - -spored, - /fruit body. 'cleistothecia' minute, < (rarely < )µm diam., immersed. see _thelebolus_ etc. (key , ) - asci with or fewer spores. ( ) ascospores purple at maturity, large, - × - µm, epispore with a few longitudinal cracks. see _ascobolus immersus_ (key , ) - ascospores smaller, hyaline, yellow, olivaceous, brown or black. ( ) ascospores olivaceous, brown or black, at least in part. - ascospores aseptate, hyaline, yellow or other pale colours. ( ) ascospores -celled (cf. _sporormiella_), with germ slits, readily fragmenting. asci clavate, bitunicate. cleistothecia black, shiny, up to µm diam. - ascospores - or -celled. ( ) ascus stalk up to µm long. ascospores - × µm. _preussia vulgaris_ - ascus stalk - µm long. ascospores - × - µm. _preussia funiculata_ (fig. ) ( ) ascospores -celled. - ascospores -celled. ( ) spores unequally -celled, one brown ellipsoid, with an apical germ pore, - × . - . µm, the other a basal hyaline, cylindrical pedicel, - × µm. cleistothecia black, globose, up to µm diam., covered with flexuous brown hairs up to mm long. asci evanescent. _zopfiella erostrata_ - spores equally -celled. ( ) spores not constricted at the septum, ellipsoid, golden-brown, - × - µm with - guttules in each cell. cleistothecia gregarious on a mycelial mat, whitish to pale orange, up to µm diam. _heleococcum aurantiacum_ (fig. ) - spores hyaline, divided into two almost globose cells by the constricting septum. ascomata superficial, globose, dark coloured. (_mycoarachis_) ( ) asci -spored, . - µm diam. spores - . × - . µm. _mycoarachis inversa_ - asci -spored, - . µm diam. spores . - × - . µm. _mycoarachis tetraspora_ ( ) asci broad-clavate, ( )- -( )-spored, - × - µm. spores brown-black with short ridges and warts, subglobose, - . × - . µm, with a single germ pore. _copromyces bisporus_ (fig. ) - asci -spored. ( ) spores globose, sooty brown, µm diam. cleistothecia gregarious, with basal spirally coiled appendages, black, - µm diam., partially immersed in a white to red felty hyphal mat. _pleuroascus nicholsonii_ - spores larger, ellipsoid or limoniform. [illustration: fig. . habit sketch of cleistothecia. figs - . asci and spores. fig. . _preussia funiculata._ fig. . _heleococcum aurantiacum._ fig. . _copromyces bisporus._ fig. . _arachnomyces nitidus._ fig. . _orbicula parietina._ fig. . _roumegueriella rufula._ fig. . _aphanoascus stercoraria._ fig. . _pseudeurotium ovale._] ( ) spores olivaceous, limoniform, usually with an apical germ pore. perithecia greyish or greenish, abundantly hairy, branched or simple, straight or curly. asci pedicellate, soon disappearing. see _chaetomium_ at - spores darker, with or more minute germ pores. cleistothecia distinctly but not abundantly hairy. ( ) spores smoky brown, broadly ovoid, - × - µm. cleistothecial hairs short, up to µm. _thielavia wareingii_ - spores dark brown, flattened limoniform, - × - × - µm. cleistothecial hairs of two types, some smooth, dark brown, arising from the base up to mm long, others greyish green, rough, up to ca µm. _thielavia fimeti_ ( ) cleistothecia produced within a common arachnoid mycelial mass. spores smooth or minutely asperulate, yellow to yellow-brown, broadly ellipsoid, - × - µm. _aphanoascus fulvescens_ - cleistothecia single or gregarious, but not on or in a mycelial mass. ( ) cleistothecia - µm diam., covered with long (several mm when extended), thick-walled, aseptate, helical appendages. asci clavate cylindrical, evanescent, - × - µm. spores ellipsoid, hyaline, - × - µm. _lasiobolidium spirale_ - cleistothecia without coiled appendages. ( ) cleistothecia with hairs or appendages. - cleistothecia smooth. ( ) cleistothecia black, shining, - µm diam., with dark brown-black thick-walled hairs with hooked tips. asci - µm diam. spores straw or copper coloured, ellipsoid, - × . - . µm with de bary bubble and a germ pore at each end. _kernia nitida_ - cleistothecia reddish brown, less than mm diam., with long simple appendages curled at the tips. spores hyaline, oblate, . × - µm. _arachnomyces nitidus_ (fig. ) ( ) ascospores globose, larger than µm. - ascospores ellipsoid, up to µm. asci always subglobose. ( ) ascospores, smooth, - µm. _orbicula parietina_ (fig. ) - ascospores ornamented, - µm asci subglobose. cleistothecia ochraceous, becoming yellowish brown or flushed cinnamon. _roumegueriella rufula_ (fig. ) ( ) ascospores hyaline, then faintly yellowish, minutely spiny, . - × - . µm. cleistothecia pale, then dark brown. _aphanoascus stercoraria_ (fig. ) - ascospores hyaline, then brown, smooth, . - × . - µm. cleistothecia dark brown from the beginning. _pseudeurotium ovale_ (fig. ) key . basidiomycota basidia single-celled (fig. ). - basidia transversely or longitudinally septate (fig. ), or difficult to observe. ( ) fruit body agaricoid, i.e. mushroom-shaped with gills underneath cap (figs , ). - fruit body not agaricoid, without gills (figs , ). ( ) spore print white or pale coloured, hyaline s.m. (usually on straw/dung mixtures, never on raw dung except when very old). - spore print coloured. ( ) spore print pinkish or pale cinnamon, honey-coloured s.m. (usually on straw/dung mixtures, never on raw dung). - spore print darker, in shades of brown or black. ( ) stem eccentric. fruit body pure white. spores ellipsoid, smooth. _pleurotellus_ s. lato (if gills pink and spores longitudinally ridged see _clitopilus passackerianus_, fig. ) - stem central. [illustration: fig. . from left, sketches of holobasidium, with mature basidiospore showing germ pore; auriculariaceous basidium; tremellaceous basidium, lateral view and as often seen in sections.] ( ) fruit body white, ivory or very pale tan, with a smell of cucumber. gills decurrent. _clitocybe augeana_ - fruit body yellow, with scaly cap. gills free or just adnate. fruit body with distinct ring and granular veil. (commonly in plant pots. probably associated with peaty material more than dung). _leucocoprinus birnbaumii_ (_l. cepaestipes_ and _l. lilacinogranulosus_ occur in similar situations). ( ) fruit body with amethyst/purple shades, with eccentric stem. spores subglobose, slightly ornamented to nearly smooth. (on compost heaps in gardens). _lepista nuda_ - fruit body with pink gills and distinct volva at stem base. cap white to pale hazel. stem white. spores broadly ellipsoid, smooth. _volvariella speciosa_ ( ) spore print distinctly brown (fulvous, tawny, rust coloured etc.). - spore print some darker shade, fuscous, fuliginous or violaceous black. ( ) stem distinctly annulate, apex striate. _conocybe percincta_ (has been found on straw/dung mixtures, never on raw dung). - stem lacking a veil. ( ) cap rich chrome yellow, viscid, soon reduced to a sticky mass, easily collapsing. _bolbitius vitellinus_ - cap in shades of brown, never brightly coloured and if collapsing then cap elongate-cylindric and white to pale cream. ( ) spore print dull, sepia or snuff-brown. on rabbit pellets in sand dunes. _agrocybe subpediades_ - spore print, brighter coloured, orange/rust brown. (_conocybe_) ( ) gill edge with irregularly fusoid cystidia with obtuse apices (lageniform). cap viscid. _conocybe coprophila_ - gill edge with distinctly capitate cells resembling a glass stoppered bottle (lecythiform). cap never viscid, often pubescent under a lens. ( ) stem covered in long hairs. - stem covered in lecythiform cells similar to those on gill edge, giving a farinaceous appearance under a lens. never with long hairs. (dung/straw mixtures). large as in a _cortinarius_. spores smooth. _conocybe intrusa_ (_c. leucopus_ has been found on manured soil in gardens; _c. antipus_ has hexagonal spores and grows on dung piles). ( ) stem with both long hairs and lecythiform cystidia. [illustration] - stem with hairs and lageniform cystidia. [illustration] ( ) spores - × - µm. taste and smell strong, of fresh meal. _conocybe farinacea_ - spores large, over × up to µm. taste and smell none or slightly acidic. _conocybe pubescens_ (_c. subpubescens_ might be found on straw/dung mixtures, and differs in spores - × - µm). ( ) basidia -spored. _conocybe rickenii_ - basidia -spored. ( ) spores ellipsoid. - spores lentiform, angular in face view. _conocybe lenticulospora_ ( ) cap grey, contrasting with yellowish cream gills and pale stem. spores . - . × - µm. _conocybe murinacea_ - cap pinkish brown or tawny. ( ) spores - × . - . µm. cap sienna. on raw dung. _conocybe fimetaria_ - spores - × - µm. cap pinkish to cinnamon brown. on manured soil or sewage sludge. _conocybe fuscomarginata_ (_conocybe siennophylla_ might be found on straw/dung mixtures or in soil in greenhouses. it differs in having smaller spores). ( ) cap deliquescing to some degree at maturity. basidia of or different sizes. (_coprinus_) - cap not deliquescing. basidia of one size only. ( ) veil on cap absent, cap either covered with small hairs (setules) or naked. - cap covered with a granular, micaceous, powdery or fibrillar veil. [illustration: fig. . habit sketch of a stipitate agaric, _psathyrella stercoraria_, with section. fig. . sketch of gill section of _psathyrella_ sp., showing position of marginal (m) and facial (f) cystidia. fig. . _coprinus pellucidus_, habit and vertical section of cap cuticle. fig. . _c. pseudoradiatus_, habit and veil constituents. fig. . _c. vermiculifer_, habit and veil constituents. fig. . _c. filamentifer_, veil constituents. fig. . _c. stercoreus_, habit. fig. . _c. cordisporus_, vertical section of cap showing nature of veil cells on the cap cuticle. fig. . veil cells with structural (l) and superficial crystalline (r) ornamentation.] ( ) cap without setules. - cap with setules. ( ) cap minute, - mm high before expanding, reddish orange at first, soon fading. basidiospores almost globose to triangular in one view, elliptic in another, - × - × . - . µm. ( - and -spored forms have been found). _coprinus miser_ - cap larger, up to mm when expanded. basidiospores pip-shaped, . - . × . - × . - . µm. ( -spored). _coprinus nudiceps_ ( ) spores hexagonal, - × . - . µm. cap purplish. _coprinus hexagonosporus_ - spores ellipsoid. cap brown or reddish, without purplish tints. ( ) basidia -spored. - basidia -spored. spores - × . - µm. facial cystidia absent. _coprinus bisporus_ (_coprinus sassii_, not yet recorded in british isles, has -spored basidia with very large ellipsoid spores up to µm long). ( ) cap with a mixture of hyaline and brown thick-walled setules. spores - × . - µm, with eccentric germ pore. facial cystidia absent. _coprinus heterosetulosus_ - cap with only one type of setule. facial cystidia present or absent. ( ) facial cystidia present. spores . - . × . - . µm, with apical germ pore. _coprinus stellatus_ - facial cystidia absent. spores elongate and narrow, rarely greater than µm wide, with apical germ pore. fruit body usually quite small, up to mm before expanding. _coprinus pellucidus_ (fig. ) (several species in the group, e.g. _c. congregatus_ and _c. ephemerus_ have been found on straw/dung mixtures). ( ) veil strongly adhering to cap. spores elliptic ovate, - × - µm. stem with distinct ring. usually on buried dung. _coprinus sterquilinus_ - veil more floccose or powdery. stem lacking ring or, if present (_c. ephemeroides_), fruit body small with -angled spores less than µm long. ( ) veil composed of filamentous units. - filamentous units, if present, masked by a preponderance of rounded cells. ( ) veil composed of strings of sausage-shaped, thin-walled, hyaline cells. - veil composed of rather narrow, slightly thickened hyphae. ( ) spores large, - × - µm. cap up to cm before expanding. fruit body with or without a rooting base. _coprinus radiatus_ - spores smaller, up to µm long. cap up to mm before expanding. fruit body without a rooting base. _coprinus pseudoradiatus_ (fig. ) (_c. cinereus_ is found on straw/dung mixture and _c. macrocephalus_, with large spores, has been recorded on raw dung). ( ) veil citrus- or lime-yellow, or a mixture of hyaline and brown strongly coloured hyphae. - veil grey or whitish. ( ) veil of yellow hyphae. spores . - . × - . µm. _coprinus luteocephalus_ - veil with brown hyphae. spores - × . - µm. _coprinus poliomallus_ ( ) veil hyphae thin-walled. spores . - . × µm, 'shouldered' about the apiculus. _coprinus filamentifer_ (fig. ) - veil hyphae thin- and thick-walled, often with clamps. spores elliptic-oblong, - × - µm. _coprinus vermiculifer_ (fig. ) (_coprinus flocculosus_, with spores . - . × - . µm, can be found on straw/dung mixtures). ( ) stem with small, distinct ring. spores subglobose to lentiform and -angled, - × . - × - µm. _coprinus ephemeroides_ - stem at most with fibrils, even then rarely forming a faint ring zone. ( ) with setules in addition to veil. - cap without setules. ( ) cap cystidia tapered. spores - × - . µm. _coprinus heptemerus_ - cap cystidia capitate. spores - × - µm. _coprinus curtus_ ( ) veil of inflated bladder-like cells attached to filamentous units. spores . - × . - . µm. _coprinus utrifer_ - veil of globose and subglobose cells and filamentous units often encrusted or with minute projections found sometimes at cap margin. ( ) globose cells, if ornamented then possessing crystalline or amorphous material (dissolved by n hcl, fig. .) - globose cells covered in small fine blunt projections on the walls (not removed by n hcl, fig. ). ( ) basidia -spored. - basidia -spored. ( ) spores - × . - × . - µm. _coprinus pachyspermus_ - spores smaller, - × - . × - µm. _coprinus cordisporus_ ( -spored form) ( ) spores less than µm long. _coprinus cordisporus_ (fig. ) (_c. patouillardii_ is known on garden refuse, and an undescribed species with lemon-shaped spores has recently been found). - spores µm or more long. ( ) veil soon discolouring greyish, drab or buff, spores . - . × - × . - µm. _coprinus cothurnatus_ - veil remaining snowy white, only slowly discolouring greyish. ( ) fruit bodies several cm tall. spores - × . - . × - µm. _coprinus niveus_ - cap small, - mm at first. spores - x - × - . µm. _coprinus latisporus_ ( ) basidia -spored. - basidia -spored. ( ) spores narrow, . - × - . µm. _coprinus triplex_ - spores broad, - x - . × - µm, slightly flattened in face view. _coprinus trisporus_ (these are possibly a single taxon). ( ) spores - × - . µm, perispore not visible in water or alkali mounts. _coprinus stercoreus_ (fig. ) - spores µm or more long. ( ) spores - × . - µm. perisporal sac none or incomplete or indistinct. _coprinus foetidellus_ - spores longer, . - . × . - µm, with distinct perispore with dark lines and inclusions. distinctive smell of gas. _coprinus narcoticus_ (_c. sclerotiger_ is found on straw/dung mixtures, and the smaller _c. tuberosus_ on garden refuse etc.). ( ) spores not discoloured in conc. h so . - spores discolouring in conc. h so . gills not spotted at maturity. ( ) cap cuticle cellular. gills spotted at maturity. (more often on rich, 'dungy', soils. _p. subbalteatus_, with copper coloured cap, drying paler but retaining a dark marginal zone, occurs in gardens on mulch etc.). (_panaeolus_) - cap cuticle filamentous. ( ) velar remnants very obvious, either as an appendiculate veil or as a distinct ring. - lacking all velar remnants. ( ) cap distinctly pigmented, with appendiculate veil. - cap pale coloured, smooth, semi-globate, soon cracking. gills with marginal cystidia only. _panaeolus papilionaceus_ ( ) cap brown, smooth, sometimes viscid, not exceedingly wrinkled. _panaeolus campanulatus_ - cap grey, olivaceous, even black, with contrasting white appendiculate veil. _panaeolus sphinctrinus_ ( ) cap with or without appendiculate veil, but always with distinct ring. _panaeolus semiovatus_ - cap lacking veil. ( ) cap pinkish ochraceous to tawny-buff. lacking facial cystidia. _panaeolus speciosus_ - cap whitish or slightly yellowish. with facial cystidia. _panaeolus antillarum_ ( ) gills with facial cystidia often containing yellow amorphous material when seen in ammonia solution or deep blue with cotton blue. (_stropharia_) (blue-green _s. cyanea_ & _s. aeruginosa_ often occur in rich garden soils). - gills lacking facial cystidia. never with yellowing cystidia in ammonia. (_psilocybe_) (red-capped _p. aurantia_ can be found on straw/mulch mixtures in gardens). ( ) cap sticky, semi-globate ± expanding at maturity. on raw dung. _stropharia semiglobata_ - cap plano-convex, often broad with a central umbo, margin flaring with age. on dungy mixtures in gardens. _stropharia stercoraria_ ( ) stipe bluing, with ring. spores ellipsoid, - × . - . µm. fruit body with mealy smell and taste. _psilocybe fimetaria_ - stipe lacking distinct ring, or if with ring or ring zone -spored and/or stem not bluing. fruit body without mealy smell and taste. ( ) stem always with distinct ring. basidia -spored. spores - µm long. _psilocybe luteonitens_ - stem with or without ring. basidia -spored. if with ring, spores smaller. ( ) with ring zone. - lacking velar remnants on stem, or only appendiculate teeth at cap margin. ( ) spores slightly angular/limoniform, - ( ) × - µm. often on sewage sludge. _psilocybe merdaria_ - spores - × . - . µm. _psilocybe moelleri_ ( ) spores - × - µm. _psilocybe subcoprophila_ - spores smaller. ( ) spores lentiform, angled, - ( . ) × . - . × . - . µm. _psilocybe bullacea_ (_p. crobula_, occasional on dung, differs in lacking purple colour in gills, and slightly smaller, ovoid, not angular, spores). - spores larger. ( ) spores ellipsoid to slightly amygdaliform. _psilocybe merdicola_ - spores lentiform, angular. ( ) spores - ( ) × - ( )µm. see _psilocybe merdaria_, - spores - × - . µm _psilocybe coprophila_ ( ) round cells on cap as a micaceous veil. (re-examine gill face; if different sized basidia and facial cystidia separating the gills are present go to _coprinus_ at ). _psathyrella sphaerocystis_ - cap lacking veil, or if present then fibrillar. ( ) white copious veil at margin or also covering cap centre. spores - × . - µm. _psathyrella coprobia_ - lacking copious veil. ( ) with red edge to gill. spores - × - . µm, with central germ pore. _psathyrella stercoraria_ - lacking red gill edge. spores with eccentric germ pore. _psathyrella coprophila_ (_p. fimetaria_ differs in spore size; there are several members of the _p. prona_ group which grow on soil/straw mixtures). ( ) fruit body club-shaped. _typhula setipes_ (fig. ) (_clavaria acuta_ often grows on peaty soil in pots in greenhouses). - fruit bodies effuse, resupinate ( ) fruit-body cobweb-like and greyish white. basal hyphae - . µm wide. spores sub-globose, . µm diam. (generally on old dung or straw/soil mixtures). _athelia coprophila_ (if with spiny spores - µm diam., see the recently recorded _tomentellopsis echinospora_). - fruit-body with pores, white or flushed slightly ochraceous, brownish or greyish. (on clods of soil in dunged land). _cristella candidissima_ ( ) fruit body either a cup containing several 'eggs' or a single orange or yellowish gelatinous sphere. - fruit-body effuse, without distinct shape. ( ) fruit-body whitish or pale yellow, up to . mm diam., splitting at maturity to shoot away the orange/yellow spore mass. _sphaerobolus stellatus_ (fig. ) - fruit-body cup shaped, with silvery-grey 'eggs'. (usually on dung and straw or attached to rabbit pellets). _cyathus stercoreus_ (_cyathus vernicosus_ often grows in plant pots on rich soil). ( ) basidia with transverse septa. spores × µm. fruit body pinkish. _platygloea fimicola_ (not british; included for completeness. _pilacrella solani_, with a glistening stipitate head, has been isolated from dungy soil). - basidia with longitudinal septa. spores - × - µm. fruit body cream-white or ivory. _sebacina incrustans_ [illustration: fig. . habit sketch of _typhula_ sp. note attachment to sclerotium. fig. . _sphaerobolus stellatus_, habit. fig. . _clitopilus passackerianus_, a sessile agaric--habit sketch and section.] key . zygomycota spores formed in multispored sporangia (figs , , , , ) or in few-spored sporangioles (figs , ). - multispored sporangia and globose sporangioles absent. spores formed singly on terminal, lateral or intermediate vesicles (figs , , , - ), or in short chains (figs , , ). ( ) sporangiophore stout, simple, with a subsporangial swelling and a basal swelling buried in the substrate. sporangia tough walled, black, projected some distance towards the light when mature, and sticking to whatever they hit. _pilobolus_ (fig. ) e.g. spores pale yellow, - × - µm - _p. crystallinus_ spores orange, - × - µm. - _p. kleinii_ - sporangiophores not stout; sporangia not violently discharged. ( ) sporangial wall black, tough, not readily broken when touched. sporangia with a sticky base, becoming attached to whatever they contact after the marked elongation of the white sporangiophores at maturity. _pilaira_ (fig. ) e.g. spores yellowish, - × µm - _p. anomala_ spores colourless, - × - µm - _p. moreaui_ - sporangial wall diffluent, spores readily removed in a droplet, or fragile and then spores easily dispersed by external violence. ( ) sporangiophores stiff and metallic in appearance, growing towards the light and often to great length ( - cm). _phycomyces_ e.g. spores . - × . - µm; columella pyriform; sporangiophores up to cm - _p. nitens_ spores - × - . µm; columella spherical or ovoid; sporangiophores up to cm - _p. blakesleeanus_ - sporangiophores white, not reaching extreme lengths. ( ) small lateral sporangia (sporangioles) present. - sporangioles absent. ( ) sporangiophores usually grouped, less often single, connected by stolon-like hyphae. - sporangiophores arising singly, or if grouped then lacking stolon-like hyphae. ( ) stolons joining groups of sporangiophores often with rhizoids at the base of the group. - sporangiophores arising singly or in groups from stolons, which may be 'rooted' at intervals along their length, but rarely beneath the groups of sporangiophores. _absidia_ (fig. ) e.g. sporangiophores grouped, rhizoids poorly developed; spores . - . µm diam. - _a. corymbifera_ sporangiophores grouped, rhizoids strongly developed; spores . - . µm diam. - _a. orchidis_ ( ) sporangiophores mostly unbranched. _rhizopus_ (fig. ) e.g. spores irregularly angular-ovoid, - × µm - _r. nigricans_ - sporangiophores with a whorl of branches beneath the main sporangium, each with a small columellate sporangium. spores - . µm. _actinomucor elegans_ [illustration: fig. . _mucor_, habit and detail of sporangium before and after dehiscence. fig. . _rhizopus_, habit. fig. . _thamnidium elegans_, habit and detail of sporangioles. fig. . _absidia_, habit. fig. . _mortierella_, habit and sporangiophore tip after sporangial dehiscence. fig. . _helicostylum_, sporangioles. fig. . _chaetocladium_, sporangioles. fig. . _pilaira_, sporangiophores before and after elongation, and sporangium. fig. . _pilobolus_, sporangiophore. fig. . _syncephalis_, habit, sporangiophore and merosporangia. fig. . _piptocephalis_, habit and detail of final branch with head cell and merosporangia. fig. . _oedocephalum_, habit and sporing head. fig. . _rhopalomyces_, sporing head. fig. . _syncephalastrum_, habit and detail of merosporangium. fig. . _coemansia_, habit, sporoclade with sporangia and sporangium with spore inside. fig. . _kickxella_, habit and sporoclade. fig. . _cunninghamella_, habit and fertile head. fig. . _mycotypha_ (l) and _ostracoderma_ (r) conidiophores. fig. . _ballocephala_, habit of sporangiophores growing from parasitised tardigrade, sporangiophore and sporangia.] ( ) sporangia often with pigmented walls, yellowish when young, finally grey or black, with well marked columella left after spore dispersal. individual sporangiophores observable with unaided eye, up to mm long. _mucor_ (fig. ) e.g. spores smooth, - × . - . µm - _m. hiemalis_ spores smooth, - x - µm - _m. mucedo_ spores asperulate, - .µm diam. - _m. plumbeus_ (n.b. _zygorhynchus_ would key out with _mucor_. it is more often isolated from soil, and is distinguished from _mucor_ by the presence of zygospores with unequal suspensors) - sporangia white, without a columella, readily becoming a spore droplet. sporangiophores delicate, often only - µm long. fine, white, garlic-smelling mycelium often present. _mortierella_ (fig. ) e.g. spores - µm diam, few in each sporangium; sporangiophores ca µm, with short lateral branches at right angles - _m. reticulata_ spores - x - µm; sporangiophores - mm high, with ascending branches - _m. bainieri_ spores - µm; sporangiophores richly branched - _m. candelabrum_ ( ) sporangioles formed at the final tips of a densely dichotomous system of branchlets, originating some distance below a terminal sporangium (which may be absent in young specimens). sporangioles up to µm diam., with up to spores. spores - × - µm. _thamnidium elegans_ (fig. ) - sporangioles either at the curved tips of slender branches, or clustered in groups about halfway along tapering branches which radiate from the sporangiophore below the sporangium; the branch tips of the latter give the fertile portion of the sporangiophore a bristly appearance. _helicostylum_ (fig. ) e.g. spores - × - µm; sporangioles on short secondary or tertiary branches; fertile region bristly with sterile branches - _h. fresenii_ spores - × µm; sporangioles reflexed, on slender primary or secondary branches; fertile region without sterile branches - _h. pyriforme_ ( ) spores formed in chains. - spores formed singly. ( ) sporangiophores regularly and repeatedly dichotomously branched. chains of - spores produced in small groups, which may be wet or dry, on deciduous heads, - µm diam. parasitic on other fungi, mostly other mucorales. _piptocephalis_ (fig. ) e.g. spores - × - µm, in pairs; heads dry - _p. lepidula_ spores - × - . µm, in chains of - ; heads dry - _p. cylindrospora_ spores - × - µm, in chains of - ; heads dry; sporangiophore without rhizoids - _p. freseniana_ spores - × - . µm, in chains of - ; heads wet; sporangiophore with rhizoids - _p. repens_ spores - × - . µm, in chains of - , heads wet; head cell lyses, to leave only a fringe at the tip of the very fine sporangiophore - _p. fimbriata_ - sporangiophores simple or irregularly branched. ( ) a large conspicuous fungus, macroscopically mucor-like, mycelium coarse. sporangiophores with a distinct terminal swelling with crowded spore chains. spores usually - in a chain, globose to ovoid, - × - µm. _syncephalastrum racemosum_ (fig. ) - sporangiophores less conspicuous, - µm high, with a 'holdfast' at the base attaching the sporangiophore to the substrate. mycelium very fine. parasitic on other mucorales. _syncephalis_ (fig. ) e.g. sporangiophores - µm high, with three 'nodes' along their length; merosporangia often forked at the basal cell; spores - × µm - _s. nodosa_ sporangiophores up to µm high; merosporangia usually subdivided at their base into several branches, each with - spores; spores - × - µm - _s. depressa_ (n.b. _oedocephalum_ spp. (fig. ), the anamorphic states of many dung fungi (esp. ascobolaceae and pezizaceae), _rhopalomyces_ (fig. ), and some _aspergillus_ spp. are superficially similar to _syncephalis_ at first sight). ( ) sporangia containing a single closely fitting elongated spore, produced in serried ranks on one side of a boat-shaped branch (sporoclade). - single-spored sporangia ('spores') globose, produced singly or if in groups not on sporoclades. ( ) sporoclades lateral. sporangiophores usually yellowish. (no parasitism has been demonstrated, but in culture grows much better in the presence of the white, garlic-smelling _mortierella_ spp.). _coemansia_ (fig. ) e.g. spores - µm long; sporoclades spirally arranged around the axis - _c. erecta_ spores - µm long; sporoclades formed on one side of the axis, causing it to curve to one side - _c. scorpoidea_ - sporoclades produced in a terminal verticil. sporangiophores shining white. _kickxella alabastrina_ (fig. ) ( ) spores produced in clusters below the apex of the final branches of a compound, often trifid, branching system which is given a bristly appearance by the projecting tips. superficially similar to _thamnidium_ or _helicostylum_. capable of parasitising, and growing much better in association with, other mucorales. _chaetocladium_ (fig. ) e.g. spores smooth, - µm diam. - _c. brefeldii_ spores echinulate, . - . µm - _c. jonesii_ - 'spores' not produced in subterminal clusters, but terminally on lateral vesicles, or over the surface of swollen fertile regions of the sporangiophore. ( ) sporangiophores up to µm high. lateral vesicles numerous, each producing a single 'spore', which is projected when mature. parasitic on tardigiades. _ballocephala_ (fig. ) - sporangiophores visible with the unaided eye. spores produced on swollen parts of the sporangiophore. ( ) sporangiophores branched, with more or less globose terminal fertile regions. spores dry and powdery, yellowish or pinkish in mass. _cunninghamella_ (fig. ) e.g. spores smooth, ovoid, - × - µm or globose, - µm diam. - _c. elegans_ spores echinulate, ovoid, - µm - _c. africana_ - sporangiophores unbranched, fertile portion - × - µm. fertile region terminal only, cylindrical. spores smooth, greyish in mass, - µm diam. _mycotypha microspora_ (fig. ) (n.b. _ostracoderma epigea_ (fig. ), the anamorph of _peziza astracoderma_, which occurs on paper and sometimes dung and highly organic substrates, was originally described as _mycotypha dichotoma_. the fertile regions are cylindrical but multiple as the result of several close dichotomous divisions at the base of the fertile portion). notes [ ] there are few reports of _ascozonus_, apart from _a. woolhopensis_. observed spore sizes of _a. woolhopensis_ suggest that measurement of renny's ( ) illustrations of spores leads to values which are too large ( - × - . µm). those in parentheses are what they might be, based on the discrepancy between observed values for _a. woolhopensis_ and renny's illustration. species and varieties their origin by mutation lectures delivered at the university of california by hugo devries professor of botany in the university of amsterdam edited by daniel trembly macdougal director department of botanical research carnegie institution of washington second edition corrected and revised chicago the open court publishing company london kegan paul, trench, trubner and co., ltd. - - - - - copyright by the open court pub. co. chicago - - - - - the origin of species the origin of species is a natural phenomenon. lamarck the origin of species is an object of inquiry. darwin the origin of species is an object of experimental investigation. devries. - - - - - preface by the author the purpose of these lectures is to point out the means and methods by which the origin of species and varieties may become an object for experimental inquiry, in the interest of agricultural and horticultural practice as well as in that of general biologic science. comparative studies have contributed all the evidence hitherto adduced for the support of the darwinian theory of descent and given us some general ideas about the main lines of the pedigree of the vegetable kingdom, but the way in which one species originates from another has not been adequately explained. the current belief assumes that species are slowly changed into new types. in contradiction to this conception the theory of mutation assumes that new species and varieties are produced from existing forms by sudden leaps. the parent-type itself remains unchanged throughout this process, and may repeatedly give birth to new forms. these may arise simultaneously and in groups or separately at more or less widely distant periods. the principal features of the theory of mutation have been dealt with at length in my book "die mutationstheorie" (vol. i., , vol. ii., . leipsic, veit & co.), in which i have endeavored to present as completely as possible the detailed evidence obtained from trustworthy historical records, and from my own experimental researches, upon which the theory is based. the university of california invited me to deliver a series of lectures on this subject, at berkeley, during the [vii] summer of , and these lectures are offered in this form to a public now thoroughly interested in the progress of modern ideas on evolution. some of my experiments and pedigree-cultures are described here in a manner similar to that used in the "mutationstheorie," but partly abridged and partly elaborated, in order to give a clear conception of their extent and scope. new experiments and observations have been added, and a wider choice of the material afforded by the more recent current literature has been made in the interest of a clear representation of the leading ideas, leaving the exact and detailed proofs thereof to the students of the larger book. scientific demonstration is often long and encumbered with difficult points of minor importance. in these lectures i have tried to devote attention to the more important phases of the subject and have avoided the details of lesser interest to the general reader. considerable care has been bestowed upon the indication of the lacunae in our knowledge of the subject and the methods by which they may be filled. many interesting observations bearing upon the little known parts of the subject may be made with limited facilities, either in the garden or upon the wild flora. accuracy and perseverance, and a warm love for nature's children are here the chief requirements in such investigations. in his admirable treatise on evolution and adaptation (new york, macmillan & co., ), thomas hunt morgan has dealt in a critical manner with many of the speculations upon problems subsidiary to the theory of descent, in so convincing and complete a manner, that i think myself justified in neglecting these questions here. his book gives an accurate survey of them all, and is easily understood by the general reader. in concluding i have to offer my thanks to dr. d.t. macdougal and miss a.m. vail of the new york botanical garden for their painstaking work in the preparation of the manuscript for the press. dr. macdougal, by [viii] his publications, has introduced my results to his american colleagues, and moreover by his cultures of the mutative species of the great evening-primrose has contributed additional proof of the validity of my views, which will go far to obviate the difficulties, which are still in the way of a more universal acceptation of the theory of mutation. my work claims to be in full accord with the principles laid down by darwin, and to give a thorough and sharp analysis of some of the ideas of variability, inheritance, selection, and mutation, which were necessarily vague at his time. it is only just to state, that darwin established so broad a basis for scientific research upon these subjects, that after half a century many problems of major interest remain to be taken up. the work now demanding our attention is manifestly that of the experimental observation and control of the origin of species. the principal object of these lectures is to secure a more general appreciation of this kind of work. hugo de vries. amsterdam, october, . [ix] preface by the editor professor de vries has rendered an additional service to all naturalists by the preparation of the lectures on mutation published in the present volume. a perusal of the lectures will show that the subject matter of "die mutationstheorie" has been presented in a somewhat condensed form, and that the time which has elapsed since the original was prepared has given opportunity for the acquisition of additional facts, and a re-examination of some of the more important conclusions with the result that a notable gain has been made in the treatment of some complicated problems. it is hoped that the appearance of this english version of the theory of mutation will do much to stimulate investigation of the various phases of the subject. this volume, however, is by no means intended to replace, as a work of reference, the larger book with its detailed recital of facts and its comprehensive records, but it may prove a substitute for the use of the general reader. the revision of the lectures has been a task attended with no little pleasure, especially since it has given the editor the opportunity for an advance consideration of some of the more recent results, thus materially facilitating investigations which have been in progress at the new york botanical garden for some time. so far as the ground has been covered the researches in question corroborate the conclusions of de vries in all important particulars. the preparation of the manuscript for the printer has consisted chiefly in the adaptation of oral [xii] discussions and demonstrations to a form suitable for permanent record, together with certain other alterations which have been duly submitted to the author. the original phraseology has been preserved as far as possible. the editor wishes to acknowledge material assistance in this work from miss a.m. vail, librarian of the new york botanical garden. d.t. macdougal. new york botanical garden, october, . preface to the second edition. the constantly increasing interest in all phases of evolution has made necessary the preparation of a second edition of this book within a few months after the first appeared. the opportunity has been used to eliminate typographical errors, and to make alterations in the form of a few sentences for the sake of clearness and smoothness. the subject matter remains practically unchanged. an explanatory note has been added on page in order to avoid confusion as to the identity of some of the plants which figure prominently in the experimental investigations in amsterdam and new york. the portrait which forms the frontispiece is a reproduction of a photograph taken by professor f.e. lloyd and dr. w.a. cannon during the visit of professor de vries at the desert botanical laboratory of the carnegie institution, at tucson, arizona, in june, . d. t. macdougal. december , . contents a. introduction. lecture page i. descent: theories of evolution and methods of investigation. the theory of descent and of natural selection. evolution and adaptation. elementary species and varieties. methods of scientific pedigree-culture. b. elementary species. ii. elementary species in nature. _viola tricolor_, _draba verna_, _primula acaulis_, and other examples. _euphorbia pecacuanha_. _prunus maritima_. _taraxacum_ and _hieracium_. iii. elementary species of cultivated plants. beets, apples, pears, clover, flax and coconut. iv. selection of elementary species. cereals. le couteur. running out of varieties. rimpau and risler, _avena fatua_. meadows. old egyptian cereals. selection by the romans. shirreff. hays. c. retrograde varieties. v. characters of retrograde varieties. seed varieties of pure, not hybrid origin. differences from elementary species. latent characters. ray-florets of composites. [xiii] progressive red varieties. apparent losses. _xanthium canadense_. correlative variability. laciniate leaves and petals. compound characters. vi. stability and real atavism. constancy of retrograde varieties. atavism in _ribes sanguineum albidum_, in conifers, in _iris pallida_. seedlings of _acacia_. reversion by buds. vii. ordinary or false atavism. vicinism or variation under the influence of pollination by neighboring individuals. vicinism in nurseries. purifying new and old varieties. a case of running out of corn in germany. viii. latent characters. leaves of seedlings, adventitious buds, systematic latency and retrogressive evolution. degressive evolution. latency of specific and varietal characters in wheat-ear carnation, in the green dahlias, in white campanulas and others. systematic latency of flower colors. ix. crossing of species and varieties. balanced and unbalanced, or species and variety crosses. constant hybrids of _oenothera muricata_ and _o. biennis_. _aegilops_, _medicago_, brambles and other instances. x. mendel's law of balanced crosses. pairs of antagonistic characters, one active and one latent. _papaver somniferum_. [xiv] _mephisto danebrog_. mendel's laws. unit-characters. d. eversporting varieties. xi. striped flowers. _antirrhinum majus luteum rubro-striatum_ with pedigree. striped flowers, fruits and radishes. double stocks. xii. "five leaved" clover. origin of this variety. periodicity of the anomaly. pedigree-cultures. ascidia. xiii. polycephalic poppies. permanency and high variability. sensitive period of the anomaly. dependency on external conditions. xiv. monstrosities. inheritance of monstrosities. half races and middle races. hereditary value of atavists. twisted stems and fasciations. middle races of tricotyls and syncotyls. selection by the hereditary percentage among the offspring. xv. double adaptations. analogy between double adaptations and anomalous middle races. _polygonum amphibium_. alpine plants. _othonna crassifolia_. leaves in sunshine and shadow. giants and dwarfs. figs and ivy. leaves of seedlings. e. mutations. xvi. origin of the peloric toad-flax. sudden and frequent origin in the wild state. origin in the experiment-garden. law of repeated mutations. probable origin of other pelories. [xv] xvii. the production of double flowers. sudden appearance of double flowers in horticulture. historical evidence. experimental origin of _chrysanthemum segetum plenum_. dependency upon nourishment. petalody of stamens. xviii new species of _oenothera_. mutations of _oenothera lamarckiana_ in the wild state near hilversum. new varieties of _o. laevifolia_, _o. brevistylis_, and _o. nanella_. new elementary species, _o. gigas_, _o. rubrinervis_, _albida_, and _oblonga_. _o. lata_, a pistillate form. inconstancy of _o. scintillans_. xix. experimental pedigree-cultures. pedigree of the mutative products of _oenothera lamarckiana_ in the botanical garden at amsterdam. laws of mutability. sudden and repeated leaps from an unchanging main strain. constancy of the new forms. mutations in all directions. xx. origin of wild species and varieties. problems to solve. _capsella heegeri_. _oenothera biennis cruciata_. _epilobium hirsutum cruciatum_. _hibiscus moscheutos_. purple beech. monophyllous strawberries. chances of success with new mutations. xxi. mutations in horticulture. _chelidonium majus lacinatum_. dwarf and spineless varieties. laciniate leaves. monophyllous and broom-like varieties. [xvi] purple leaves. _celosia_. italian poplar. cactus dahlia. mutative origin of _dahlia fistulosa_, and _geranium praetense_ in the experiment-garden. xxii. systematic atavism. reappearance of ancestral characters. _primula acaulis umbellata_. bracts of crucifers. _zea mays cryptosperma_. equisetum, _dipsacus sylvestris torsus_. tomatoes. xxiii. taxonomic anomalies. specific characters occurring in other cases as casual anomalies. _papaver bracteatum monopetalum_. _desmodium gyrans_ and monophyllous varieties. peltate leaves and ascidia. flowers on leaves. leaves. _hordeum trifurcatum_. xxiv. hypothesis of periodical mutations. discovering mutable strains. periods of mutability and constancy. periods of mutations. genealogical trees. limited life-time of the organic kingdom. f. fluctuations. xxv. general laws of fluctuations. fluctuating variability. quetelet's law. individual and partial fluctuations. linear variability. influence of nutrition. periodicity curves. xxvi. asexual multiplication of extremes. selection between species and intra-specific selection. excluding individual [xvii] embryonic variability. sugar-canes. flowering cannas. double lilacs. other instances. burbank's method of selection. xxvii. inconstancy of improved races larger variability in the case of propagation by seed, progression and regression after a single selection, and after repeated selections. selection experiments with corn. advantages and effect of repeated selection. xxviii. artificial and natural selection. conclusions. specific and intra-specific selection. natural selection in the field. acclimatization. improvement-selection of sugar-beets by various methods. rye. hereditary percentage and centgener power as marks by which intraspecific selection may be guided. index [ ] a. introduction lecture i descent: theories of evolution and methods of investigation newton convinced his contemporaries that natural laws rule the whole universe. lyell showed, by his principle of slow and gradual evolution, that natural laws have reigned since the beginning of time. to darwin we owe the almost universal acceptance of the theory of descent. this doctrine is one of the most noted landmarks in the advance of science. it teaches the validity of natural laws of life in its broadest sense, and crowns the philosophy founded by newton and lyell. lamarck proposed the hypothesis of a common origin of all living beings and this ingenious and thoroughly philosophical conception was warmly welcomed by his partisans, but was not widely accepted owing to lack of supporting evidence. to darwin was reserved the task of [ ] bringing the theory of common descent to its present high rank in scientific and social philosophy. two main features in his work have contributed to this early and unexpected victory. one of them is the almost unlimited amount of comparative evidence, the other is his demonstration of the possibility of a physiological explanation of the process of descent itself. the universal belief in the independent creation of living organisms was revised by linnaeus and was put upon a new foundation. before him the genera were supposed to be created, the species and minor forms having arisen from them through the agency of external conditions. in his first book linnaeus adhered to this belief, but later changed his mind and maintained the principle of the separate creation of species. the weight of his authority soon brought this conception to universal acceptance, and up to the present time the prevailing conception of a species has been chiefly based on the definition given by linnaeus. his species comprised subspecies and varieties, which were in their turn, supposed to have evolved from species by the common method. darwin tried to show that the links which bind species to genera are of the same nature as those which determine the relationship of [ ] subspecies and varieties. if an origin by natural laws is conceded for the latter, it must on this ground be granted for the first also. in this discussion he simply returned to the pre-linnean attitude. but his material was such as to allow him to go one step further, and this step was an important and decisive one. he showed that the relation between the various genera of a family does not exhibit any features of a nature other than that between the species of a genus. what has been conceded for the one must needs be accepted for the other. the same holds good for the large groups. the conviction of the common origin of closely allied forms necessarily leads to the conception of a similar descent even in remote relationships. the origin of subspecies and varieties as found in nature was not proved, but only generally recognized as evident. a broader knowledge has brought about the same state of opinion for greater groups of relationships. systematic affinities find their one possible explanation by the aid of this principle; without it, all similarity is only apparent and accidental. geographic and paleontologic facts, brought together by darwin and others on a previously unequalled scale, point clearly in the same direction. the vast amount of evidence of all [ ] comparative sciences compels us to accept the idea. to deny it, is to give up all opportunity of conceiving nature in her true form. the general features of the theory of descent are now accepted as the basis of all biological science. half a century of discussion and investigation has cleared up the minor points and brought out an abundance of facts; but they have not changed the principle. descent with modification is now universally accepted as the chief law of nature in the organic world. in honor of him, who with unsurpassed genius, and by unlimited labor has made it the basis of modern thought, this law is called the "darwinian theory of descent." darwin's second contribution to this attainment was his proof of the possibility of a physiological explanation of the process of descent itself. of this possibility he fully convinced his contemporaries, but in indicating the particular means by which the change of species has been brought about, he has not succeeded in securing universal acceptation. quite on the contrary, objections have been raised from the very outset, and with such force as to compel darwin himself to change his views in his later writings. this however, was of no avail, and objections and criticisms have since steadily accumulated. physiologic facts concerning the origin of [ ] species in nature were unknown in the time of darwin. it was a happy idea to choose the experience of the breeders in the production of new varieties, as a basis on which to build an explanation of the processes of nature. in my opinion darwin was quite right, and he has succeeded in giving the desired proof. but the basis was a frail one, and would not stand too close an examination. of this darwin was always well aware. he has been prudent to the utmost, leaving many points undecided, and among them especially the range of validity of his several arguments. unfortunately this prudence has not been adopted by his followers. without sufficient warrant they have laid stress on one phase of the problem, quite overlooking the others. wallace has even gone so far in his zeal and ardent veneration for darwin, as to describe as darwinism some things, which in my opinion, had never been a part of darwin's conceptions. the experience of the breeders was quite inadequate to the use which darwin made of it. it was neither scientific, nor critically accurate. laws of variation were barely conjectured; the different types of variability were only imperfectly distinguished. the breeders' conception was fairly sufficient for practical purposes, but science needed a clear understanding of the [ ] factors in the general process of variation. repeatedly darwin tried to formulate these causes, but the evidence available did not meet his requirements. quetelet's law of variation had not yet been published. mendel's claim of hereditary units for the explanation of certain laws of hybrids discovered by him, was not yet made. the clear distinction between spontaneous and sudden changes, as compared with the ever-present fluctuating variations, is only of late coming into recognition by agriculturists. innumerable minor points which go to elucidate the breeders' experience, and with which we are now quite familiar, were unknown in darwin's time. no wonder that he made mistakes, and laid stress on modes of descent, which have since been proved to be of minor importance or even of doubtful validity. notwithstanding all these apparently unsurmountable difficulties, darwin discovered the great principle which rules the evolution of organisms. it is the principle of natural selection. it is the sifting out of all organisms of minor worth through the struggle for life. it is only a sieve, and not a force of nature, not a direct cause of improvement, as many of darwin's adversaries, and unfortunately many of his followers also, have so often asserted. it is [ ] only a sieve, which decides what is to live, and what is to die. but evolutionary lines are of great length, and the evolution of a flower, or of an insectivorous plant is a way with many sidepaths. it is the sieve that keeps evolution on the main line, killing all, or nearly all that try to go in other directions. by this means natural selection is the one directing cause of the broad lines of evolution. of course, with the single steps of evolution it has nothing to do. only after the step has been taken, the sieve acts, eliminating the unfit. the problem, as to the manner in which the individual steps are brought about, is quite another side of the question. on this point darwin has recognized two possibilities. one means of change lies in the sudden and spontaneous production of new forms from the old stock. the other method is the gradual accumulation of those always present and ever fluctuating variations which are indicated by the common assertion that no two individuals of a given race are exactly alike. the first changes are what we now call "mutations," the second are designated as "individual variations," or as this term is often used in another sense, as "fluctuations." darwin recognized both lines of evolution; wallace disregarded the sudden changes and proposed fluctuations [ ] as the exclusive factor. of late, however, this point of view has been abandoned by many investigators, especially in america. the actual occurrence of mutations is recognized, and the battle rages about the question, as to whether they are be regarded as the principal means of evolution, or whether slow and gradual changes have not also played a large and important part. the defenders of the theory of evolution by slow accumulation of slight fluctuations are divided into two camps. one group is called the neo-lamarckians; they assume a direct modifying agency of the environment, producing a corresponding and useful change in the organization. the other group call themselves darwinians or selectionists, but to my mind with no other right beyond the arbitrary restriction of the darwinian principles by wallace. they assume fluctuating variations in all directions and leave the choice between them to the sieve of natural selection. of course we are far from a decision between these views, on the sole ground of the facts as known at present. mutations under observation are as yet very rare; enough to indicate the possible and most probable ways, but no more. on the other hand the accumulation of fluctuations does not transgress relatively narrow [ ] limits as far as the present methods of selection go. but the question remains to be solved, whether our methods are truly the right ones, and whether by the use of new principles, new results might not cause the balance of opinion to favor the opposite side. of late, a thorough and detailed discussion of the opposing views has been given by morgan in his valuable book on evolution and adaptation. he has subjected all the proposed theories to a severe criticism both on the ground of facts and on that of their innate possibility and logical value. he decides in favor of the mutation theory. his arguments are incisive and complete and wholly adapted to the comprehension of all intelligent readers, so that his book relieves me entirely of the necessity of discussing these general questions, as it could not be done in a better or in a clearer way. i intend to give a review of the facts obtained from plants which go to prove the assertion, that species and varieties have originated by mutation, and are, at present, not known to originate in any other way. this review consists of two parts. one is a critical survey of the facts of agricultural and horticultural breeding, as they have accumulated since the time of darwin. this body of evidence is to be combined with some corresponding experiments [ ] concerning the real nature of species in the wild state. the other part rests on my own observations and experiments, made in the botanical garden of the university of amsterdam. for many years past i have tried to elucidate the hereditary conditions of species and varieties, and the occasional occurrence of mutations, that suddenly produce new forms. the present discussion has a double purpose. on one side it will give the justification of the theory of mutations, as derived from the facts now at hand. on the other hand it will point out the deficiencies of available evidence, and indicate the ways by which the lacunae may gradually be filled. experimental work on heredity does not require vast installments or costly laboratory equipment. it demands chiefly assiduity and exactitude. any one who has these two qualities, and who has a small garden at his disposal is requested to take part in this line of investigation. in order to observe directly the birth of new forms it is necessary, in the first place, to be fully clear concerning the question as to what forms are to be expected to arise from others, and before proceeding to a demonstration of the origin of species, it is pertinent to raise the question as to what constitutes a species. species is a word, which always has had a [ ] double meaning. one is the systematic species, which is the unit of our system. but these units are by no means indivisible. long ago linnaeus knew them to be compound in a great number of instances, and increasing knowledge has shown that the same rule prevails in other instances. today the vast majority of the old systematic species are known to consist of minor units. these minor entities are called varieties in systematic works. however, there are many objections to this usage. first, the term variety is applied in horticulture and agriculture to things so widely divergent as to convey no clear idea at all. secondly, the subdivisions of species are by no means all of the same nature, and the systematic varieties include units the real value of which is widely different in different cases. some of these varieties are in reality as good as species, and have been "elevated," as it is called by some writers, to this rank. this conception of the elementary species would be quite justifiable, and would at once get rid of all difficulties, were it not for one practical obstacle. the number of the species in all genera would be doubled and tripled, and as these numbers are already cumbersome in many cases, the distinction of the native species of any given country would lose most of its charm and interest. [ ] in order to meet this difficulty we must recognize two sorts of species. the systematic species are the practical units of the systematists and florists, and all friends of wild nature should do their utmost to preserve them as linnaeus has proposed them. these units however, are not really existing entities; they have as little claim to be regarded as such as genera and families. the real units are the elementary species; their limits often apparently overlap and can only in rare cases be determined on the sole ground of field observations. pedigree-culture is the method required and any form which remains constant and distinct from its allies in the garden is to be considered as an elementary species. in the following lectures we shall consider this point at length, to show the compound nature of systematic species in wild and in cultivated plants. in both cases, the principle is becoming of great importance, and many papers published recently indicate its almost universal acceptation. among the systematic subdivisions of species, not all have the same claim to the title of elementary species. in the first place the cases in which the differences may occur between parts of the same individual are to be excluded. dividing an alpine plant into two halves and [ ] planting one in a garden, varietal differences at once arise and are often designated in systematic works under different varietal names. secondly all individual differences which are of a fluctuating nature are to be combined into a group. but with these we shall deal later. apart from these minor points the subdivisions of the systematic species exhibit two widely different features. i will now try to make this clear in a few words, but will return in another lecture to a fuller discussion of this most interesting contrast. linnaeus himself knew that in some cases all subdivisions of a species are of equal rank, together constituting the group called species. no one of them outranks the others; it is not a species with varieties, but a group, consisting only of varieties. a closer inquiry into the cases treated in this manner by the great master of systematic science, shows that here his varieties were exactly what we now call elementary species. in other cases the varieties are of a derivative nature. the species constitutes a type that is pure in a race which ordinarily is still growing somewhere, though in some cases it may have died out. from this type the varieties are derived, and the way of this derivation is usually quite manifest to the botanist. it is ordinarily [ ] by the disappearance of some superficial character that a variety is distinguished from its species, as by the lack of color in the flowers, of hairs on stems and foliage, of the spines and thorns, &c. such varieties are, strictly speaking, not to be treated in the same way as elementary species, though they often are. we shall designate them by the term of "retrograde varieties," which clearly indicates the nature of their relationship to the species from which they are assumed to have sprung. in order to lay more stress on the contrast between elementary species and retrograde varieties, it should be stated at once, that the first are considered to have originated from their parent-form in a progressive way. they have succeeded in attaining something quite new for themselves, while retrograde varieties have only thrown off some peculiarity, previously acquired by their ancestors. the whole vegetable kingdom exhibits a constant struggle between progression and retrogression. of course, the great lines of the general pedigree are due to progression, many single steps in this direction leading together to the great superiority of the flowering plants over their cryptogamous ancestors. but progression is nearly always accompanied by retrogression in the principal lines of evolution, [ ] as well as in the collateral branches of the genealogical tree. sometimes it prevails, and the monocotyledons are obviously a reduced branch of the primitive dicotyledons. in orchids and aroids, in grasses and sedges, reduction plays a most important part, leaving its traces on the flowers as well as on the embryo of the seed. many instances could be given to prove that progression and retrogression are the two main principles of evolution at large. hence the conclusion, that our analysis must dissect the complicated phenomena of evolution so far as to show the separate functions of these two contrasting principles. hundreds of steps were needed to evolve the family of the orchids, but the experimenter must take the single steps for the object of his inquiry. he finds that some are progressive and others retrogressive and so his investigation falls under two heads, the origin of progressive characters, and the subsequent loss of the same. progressive steps are the marks of elementary species, while retrograde varieties are distinguished by apparent losses. they have equal claim to our interest and our study. as already stated i propose to deal first with the elementary species and afterwards with the retrograde varieties. i shall try to depict them to you in the first place as they are seen in [ ] nature and in culture, leaving the question of their origin to a subsequent experimental treatment. the question of the experimental origin of new species and varieties has to be taken up from two widely separated starting points. this may be inferred from what we have already seen concerning the two opposing theories, derived and isolated from darwin's original broad conception. one of them considers mutations as the origin of new forms, while the other assumes fluctuations to be the source of all evolution. as mentioned above, my own experience has led me to accept the first view. therefore i shall have to show that mutations do yield new and constant forms, while fluctuations are not adequate to do so. retrograde varieties and elementary species may both be seen to be produced by sudden mutations. varieties have often been observed to appear at once and quite unexpectedly in horticulture and agriculture, and a survey of these historical facts will be the subject of one of my lectures. in some instances i have succeeded in repeating these observations in my garden under the strict conditions of a scientific experiment, and these instances teach us the real nature of the process of mutation in all its visible features. new elementary [ ] species are far more rare, but i have discovered in the great evening-primrose, or _oenothera lamarckiana_ a strain which is producing them yearly in the wild state as well as in my garden. these observations and pedigree-experiments will be dealt with at due length in subsequent lectures. having proved the existence and importance of mutations, it remains to inquire how far the improvements may go which are due only to fluctuating variability. as the term indicates, this variability is fluctuating to and fro, oscillating around an average type. it never fails nor does it, under ordinary circumstances, depart far from the fixed average. but the deviation may be enlarged by a choice of extremes. in sowing their seed, the average of the strain is seen to be changed, and in repeating the experiment the change may be considerable. it is not clear, whether theoretically by such an accumulation, deviations might be reached which could not be attained at once in a single sowing. this question is hardly susceptible of an experimental answer, as it would require such an enormous amount of seed from a few mother plants as can scarcely ever be produced. the whole character of the fluctuations shows them to be of an opposite nature, contrasting [ ] manifestly with specific and varietal characters. by this method they may be proved to be inadequate ever to make a single step along the great lines of evolution, in regard to progressive as well as to retrograde development. first of all fluctuations are linear, amplifying or lessening the existing qualities, but not really changing their nature. they are not observed to produce anything quite new, and evolution of course, is not restricted to the increase of the already existing peculiarities, but depends chiefly on the continuous addition of new characters to the stock. fluctuations always oscillate around an average, and if removed from this for some time, they show a tendency to return to it. this tendency, called retrogression, has never been observed to fail, as it should, in order to free the new strain from the links with the average, while new species and new varieties are seen to be quite free from their ancestors and not linked to them by intermediates. the last few lectures will be devoted to questions concerning the great problem of the analogy between natural and artificial selection. as already stated, darwin made this analogy the foundation stone of his theory of descent, and he met with the severest objections and criticisms precisely on this point. but i hope to [ ] show that he was quite right, and that the cause of the divergence of opinions is due simply to the very incomplete state of knowledge concerning both processes. if both are critically analyzed they may be seen to comprise the same factors, and further discussion may be limited to the appreciation of the part which each of them has played in nature and among cultivated plants. both natural and artificial selection are partly specific, and partly intra-specific or individual. nature of course, and intelligent men first chose the best elementary species from among the swarms. in cultivation this is the process of variety-testing. in nature it is the survival of the fittest species, or, as morgan designates it, the survival of species in the struggle for existence. the species are not changed by this struggle, they are only weighed against each other, the weak being thrown aside. within the chosen elementary species there is also a struggle. it is obvious, that the fluctuating variability adapts some to the given circumstances, while it lessens the chances of others. a choice results, and this choice is what is often exclusively called selection, either natural or artificial. in cultivation it produces the improved and the local races; in nature little is known about improvement in this way, but [ ] local adaptations with slight changes of the average character in separate localities, seem to be of quite normal occurrence. a new method of individual selection has been used in recent years in america, especially by w.m. hays. it consists in judging the hereditary worth of a plant by the average condition of its offspring, instead of by its own visible characters. if this determination of the "centgener power," as hays calls it, should prove to be the true principle of selection, then indeed the analogy between natural and artificial selection would lose a large part of its importance. we will reserve this question for the last lecture, as it pertains more to the future, than to our present stock of knowledge. something should be said here concerning hybrids and hybridism. this problem has of late reached such large proportions that it cannot be dealt with adequately in a short survey of the phenomena of heredity in general. it requires a separate treatment. for this reason i shall limit myself to a single phase of the problem, which seems to be indispensable for a true and at the same time easy distinction between elementary species and retrograde varieties. according to accepted terminology, some crosses are to be considered as unsymmetrical, while others are symmetrical. the first are one-sided, [ ] some peculiarity being found in one of the parents and lacking in the other. the second are balanced, as all the characters are present in both parents, but are found in a different condition. active in one of them, they are concealed or inactive in the other. hence pairs of contrasting units result, while in unbalanced crosses no pairing of the particular character under consideration is possible. this leads to the principal difference between species and varieties, and to an experimental method of deciding between them in difficult and doubtful cases. having thus indicated the general outlines of the subjects i shall deal with, something now may be said as to methods of investigation. there are two points in which scientific investigation differs from ordinary pedigree-culture in practice. first the isolation of the individuals and the study of individual inheritance, instead of averages. next comes the task of keeping records. every individual must be entered, its ancestry must be known as completely as possible, and all its relations must be noted in such a form, that the most complete reference is always possible. mutations may come unexpectedly, and when once arisen, their parents and grand-parents should be known. records must be available which will allow of a most complete knowledge of the whole ancestral [ ] line. this, and approximately this only, is the essential difference between experimental and accidental observation. mutations are occurring from time to time in the wild state as well as in horticulture and agriculture. a selection of the most interesting instances will be given later. but in all such cases the experimental proof is wanting. the observations as a rule, only began when the mutation had made its appearance. a more or less vague remembrance about the previous state of the plants in question might be available, though even this is generally absent. but on doubtful points, concerning possible crosses or possible introduction of foreign strains, mere recollection is insufficient. the fact of the mutation may be very probable, but the full proof is, of course, wanting. such is the case with the mutative origin of _xanthium commune_ wootoni from new mexico and of _oenothera biennis cruciata_ from holland. the same doubt exists as to the origin of the _capsella heegeri_ of solms-laubach, and of the oldest recorded mutation, that of _chelidonium laciniatum_ in heidelberg about . first, we have doubts about the fact itself. these, however, gradually lose their importance in the increasing accumulation of evidence. secondly, the impossibility of a closer [ ] inquiry into the real nature of the change. for experimental purposes a single mutation does not suffice; it must be studied repeatedly, and be produced more or less arbitrarily, according to the nature of the problems to be solved. and in order to do this, it is evidently not enough to have in hand the mutated individual, but it is indispensable to have also the mutable parents, or the mutable strain from which it sprang. all conditions previous to the mutation are to be considered as of far higher importance than all those subsequent to it. now mutations come unexpectedly, and if the ancestry of an accidental mutation is to be known, it is of course necessary to keep accounts of all the strains cultivated. it is evident that the required knowledge concerning the ancestry of a supposed mutation, must necessarily nearly all be acquired from the plants in the experimental garden. obviously this rule is as simple in theory, as it is difficult to carry out in practice. first of all comes the book-keeping. the parents, grandparents and previous ancestors must be known individually. accounts of them must be kept under two headings. a full description of their individual character and peculiarities must always be available on the one hand, and on the other, all facts concerning their hereditary [ ] qualities. these are to be deduced from the composition of the progeny, and in order to obtain complete evidence on this point, two successive generations are often required. the investigation must ascertain the average condition of this offspring and the occurrence of any deviating specimens, and for both purposes it is necessary to cultivate them in relatively large numbers. it is obvious that, properly speaking, the whole family of a mutated individual, including all its nearer and more remote relatives, should be known and recorded. hence pedigree-book-keeping must become the general rule. subordinate to this are two further points, which should likewise be stated here. one pertains to the pure or hybrid nature of the original strain, and the other to the life-conditions and all other external influences. it is manifest that a complete understanding of a mutation depends upon full information upon these points. all experiments must have a beginning. the starting-point may be a single individual, or a small group of plants, or a lot of seeds. in many cases the whole previous history is obscure, but sometimes a little historical evidence is at hand. often it is evident that the initial material belongs to a pure species, but with respect to the question of elementary species it is [ ] not rarely open to doubt. large numbers of hybrid plants and hybrid races are in existence, concerning the origin of which it is impossible to decide. it is impossible in many instances to ascertain whether they are of hybrid or of pure origin. often there is only one way of determining the matter; it is to guess at the probable parents in case of a cross and to repeat the cross. this is a point which always requires great care in the interpretation of unusual facts. three cases are to be distinguished as to heredity. many plants are so constituted as to be fertilized with their own pollen. in this case the visits of insects have simply to be excluded, which may be done by covering plants with iron gauze or with bags of prepared paper. sometimes they fertilize themselves without any aid, as for instance, the common evening-primrose; in other cases the pollen has to be placed on the stigma artificially, as with lamarck's evening-primrose and its derivatives. other plants need cross-fertilization in order to produce a normal yield of seeds. here two individuals have always to be combined, and the pedigree becomes a more complicated one. such is the case with the toad-flax, which is nearly sterile with its own pollen. but even in these cases the visits of insects bringing pollen [ ] from other plants, must be carefully excluded. a special lecture will be devoted to this very interesting source of impurity and of uncertainty in ordinary cultures. of course, crosses may lie in the proposed line of work, and this is the third point to be alluded to. they must be surrounded with the same careful isolation and protection against bees, as any other fertilizations. and not only the seed-parent, but also the pollen must be kept pure from all possible foreign admixtures. a pure and accurately recorded ancestry is thus to be considered as the most important condition of success in experimental plant breeding. next to this comes the gathering of the seeds of each individual separately. fifty or sixty, and often more, bags of seeds are by no means uncommon for a single experiment, and in ordinary years the harvest of my garden is preserved in over a thousand separate lots. complying with these conditions, the origin of species may be seen as easily as any other phenomenon. it is only necessary to have a plant in a mutable condition. not all species are in such a state at present, and therefore i have begun by ascertaining which were stable and which were not. these attempts, of course, had to be made in the experimental garden, and large quantities of seed had to be procured and [ ] sown. cultivated plants of course, had only a small chance to exhibit new qualities, as they have been so strictly controlled during so many years. moreover their purity of origin is in many cases doubtful. among wild plants only those could be expected to reward the investigator which were of easy cultivation. for this reason i have limited myself to the trial of wild plants of holland, and have had the good fortune to find among them at least one species in a state of mutability. it was not really a native plant, but one that had been introduced from america and belongs to an american genus. i refer to the great evening-primrose or the evening-primrose of lamarck. a strain of this beautiful species is growing in an abandoned field in the vicinity of hilversum, at a short distance from amsterdam. here it has escaped from a park and multiplied. in doing so it has produced and is still producing quite a number of new types, some of which may be considered as retrograde varieties, while others evidently are of the nature of progressive elementary species. this interesting plant has afforded me the means of observing directly how new species originate, and of studying the laws of these changes. my researches have followed a double line of inquiry. on one side, i have limited [ ] myself to direct field observations, and to tests of seed, collected from the wild plants in their native locality. obviously the mutations are decided within the seed, and the culture of young plants from them had no other aim than that of ascertaining what had occurred in the field. and then the many chances of destruction that threaten young plants in a wild state, could be avoided in the garden, where environmental factors can be controlled. my second line of inquiry was an experimental repetition of the phenomena which were only partly discerned at the native locality. it was not my aim to intrude into the process, nor to try to bring out new features. my only object was to submit to the precepts just given concerning pure treatment, individual seed gathering, exclusion of crosses and accurate recording of all the facts. the result has been a pedigree which now permits of stating the relation between all the descendants of my original introduced plant. this pedigree at once exhibits the laws followed by the mutating species. the main fact is, that it does not change itself gradually, but remains unaffected during all succeeding generations. it only throws off new forms, which are sharply contrasted with the parent, and which are from the very beginning as perfect and as constant, as narrowly [ ] defined and as pure of type as might be expected of any species. these new species are not produced once or in single individuals, but yearly and in large numbers. the whole phenomenon conveys the idea of a close group of mutations, all belonging to one single condition of mutability. of course this mutable state must have had a beginning, as it must sometime come to an end. it is to be considered as a period within the life-time of the species and probably it is only a small part of it. the detailed description of this experiment, however, i must delay to a subsequent lecture, but i may be allowed to state, that the discovery of this period of mutability is of a definite theoretical importance. one of the greatest objections to the darwinian theory of descent arose from the length of time it would require, if all evolution was to be explained on the theory of slow and nearly invisible changes. this difficulty is at once met and fully surmounted by the hypothesis of periodical but sudden and quite noticeable steps. this assumption requires only a limited number of mutative periods, which might well occur within the time allowed by physicists and geologists for the existence of animal and vegetable life on the earth. [ ] summing up the main points of these introductory remarks, i propose to deal with the subjects mentioned above at some length, devoting to each of them, if possible at least an entire lecture. the decisive facts and discussions upon which the conclusions are based will be given in every case. likewise i hope to point out the weak places and the lacunae in our present knowledge, and to show the way in which each of you may try to contribute his part towards the advancement of science in this subject. lastly i shall try to prove that sudden mutation is the normal way in which nature produces new species and new varieties. these mutations are more readily accessible to observation and experiment than the slow and gradual changes surmised by wallace and his followers, which are entirely beyond our present and future experience. the theory of mutations is a starting-point for direct investigation, while the general belief in slow changes has held back science from such investigations during half a century. coming now to the subdivisions and headings under which my material is to be presented, i propose describing first the real nature of the elementary species and retrograde varieties, both in normal form and in hybridizations. a discussion of other types of varieties, including [ ] monstrosities will complete the general plan. the second subdivision will deal with the origin of species and varieties as taught by experiment and observation, treating separately the sudden variations which to my mind do produce new forms, and subsequently the fluctuations which i hold to be not adequate to this purpose. [ ] b. elementary species lecture ii elementary species in nature what are species? species are considered as the true units of nature by the vast majority of biologists. they have gained this high rank in our estimation principally through the influence of linnaeus. they have supplanted the genera which were the accepted units before linnaeus. they are now to be replaced in their turn, by smaller types, for reasons which do not rest upon comparative studies but upon direct experimental evidence. biological studies and practical interests alike make new demands upon systematic botany. species are not only the subject-material of herbaria and collections, but they are living entities, and their life-history and life-conditions command a gradually increasing interest. one phase of the question is to determine the easiest manner to deal with the collected forms of a country, and another feature is the problem [ ] as to what groups are real units and will remain constant and unchanged through all the years of our observations. before linnaeus, the genera were the real units of the system. de candolle pointed out that the old common names of plants, such as roses and clover, poplars and oaks, nearly all refer to genera. the type of the clovers is rich in color, and the shape of the flower-heads and the single flowers escape ordinary observation; but notwithstanding this, clovers are easily recognized, even if new types come to hand. white and red clovers and many other species are distinguished simply by adjectives, the generic name remaining the same for all. tournefort, who lived in the second half of the th century ( - ), is generally considered as the author of genera in systematic botany. he adopted, what was at that time the general conception and applied it throughout the vegetable kingdom. he grouped the new and the rare and the previously overlooked forms in the same manner in which the more conspicuous plants were already arranged by universal consent. species were distinguished by minor marks and often indicated by short descriptions, but they were considered of secondary importance. based on the idea of a direct creation of all [ ] living beings, the genera were then accepted as the created forms. they were therefore regarded as the real existing types, and it was generally surmised that species and varieties owed their origin to subsequent changes under the influence of external conditions. even linnaeus agreed with this view in his first treatises and in his "philosophical botany" he still kept to the idea that all genera had been created at once with the beginning of life. afterwards linnaeus changed his opinion on this important point, and adopted species as the units of the system. he declared them to be the created forms, and by this decree, at once reduced the genera to the rank of artificial groups. linnaeus was well aware that this conception was wholly arbitrary, and that even the species are not real indivisible entities. but he simply forbade the study of lesser subdivisions. at his time he was quite justified in doing so, because the first task of the systematic botanists was the clearing up of the chaos of forms and the bringing of them into connection with their real allies. linnaeus himself designated the subdivisions of the species as varieties, but in doing so he followed two clearly distinct principles. in some cases his species were real plants, and the varieties seemed to be derived from them by [ ] some simple changes. they were subordinated to the parent-species. in other cases his species were groups of lesser forms of equal value, and it was not possible to discern which was the primary and which were the derivatives. these two methods of subdivision seem in the main, and notwithstanding their relatively imperfect application in many single examples, to correspond with two really distinct cases. the derivative varieties are distinguished from the parent-species by some single, but striking mark, and often this attribute manifests itself as the loss of some apparent quality. the loss of spines and of hairs and the loss of blue and red flower-colors are the most notorious, but in rarer cases many single peculiarities may disappear, thereby constituting a variety. this relation of varieties to the parent-species is gradually increasing in importance in the estimation of botanists, sharply contrasting with those cases, in which such dependency is not to be met with. if among the subdivisions of a species, no single one can be pointed out as playing a primary part, and the others can not be traced back to it, the relation between these lesser units is of course of another character. they are to be considered of equal importance. they are distinguished from each other by more than [ ] one character, often by slight differences in nearly all their organs and qualities. such forms have come to be designated as "elementary species." they are only varieties in a broad and vague systematic significance of the word, not in the sense accorded to this term in horticultural usage, nor in a sharper and more scientific conception. genera and species are, at the present time, for a large part artificial, or stated more correctly, conventional groups. every systematist is free to delimit them in a wider or in a narrower sense, according to his judgment. the greater authorities have as a rule preferred larger genera, others of late have elevated innumerable subgenera to the rank of genera. this would work no real harm, if unfortunately, the names of the plants had not to be changed each time, according to current ideas concerning genera. quite the same inconstancy is observed with species. in the handbook of the british flora, bentham and hooker describe the forms of brambles under species, while babington in his manual of british botany makes species out of the same material. so also in other cases. for instance, the willows which have species in one and species in the other of these manuals, and the hawkweeds for which the figures are and [ ] respectively. other authors have made still greater numbers of species in the same groups. it is very difficult to estimate systematic differences on the ground of comparative studies alone. all sorts of variability occur, and no individual or small group of specimens can really be considered as a reliable representative of the supposed type. many original diagnoses of new species have been founded on divergent specimens and of course, the type can afterwards neither be derived from this individual, nor from the diagnosis given. this chaotic state of things has brought some botanists to the conviction that even in systematic studies only direct experimental evidence can be relied upon. this conception has induced them to test the constancy of species and varieties, and to admit as real units only such groups of individuals as prove to be uniform and constant throughout succeeding generations. the late alexis jordan, of lyons in france, made extensive cultures in this direction. in doing so, he discovered that systematic species, as a rule, comprise some lesser forms, which often cannot easily be distinguished when grown in different regions, or by comparing dried material. this fact was, of course, most distasteful to the systematists of his time and even for a long period afterwards [ ] they attempted to discredit it. milde and many others have opposed these new ideas with some temporary success. only of late has the school of jordan received due recognition, after thuret, de bary, rosen and others tested its practices and openly pronounced for them. of late wittrock of sweden has joined them, making extensive experimental studies concerning the real units of some of the larger species of his country. from the evidence given by these eminent authorities, we may conclude that systematic species, as they are accepted nowadays, are as a rule compound groups. sometimes they consist of two or three, or a few elementary types, but in other cases they comprise twenty, or fifty, or even hundreds of constant and well differentiated forms. the inner constitution of these groups is however, not at all the same in all cases. this will be seen by the description of some of the more interesting of them. the european heartsease, from which our garden-pansies have been chiefly derived, will serve as an example. the garden-pansies are a hybrid race, won by crossing the _viola tricolor_ with the large flowered and bright yellow _v. lutea_. they combine, as everyone knows, in their wide range of [ ] varieties, the attributes of the latter with the peculiarities of the former species. besides the _lutea_, there are some other species, nearly allied to tricolor, as for instance, _cornuta_, _calcarata_, and _altaica_, which are combined with it under the head of _melanium_ as a subgenus, and which together constitute a systematic unity of undoubted value, but ranging between the common conceptions of genus and species. these forms are so nearly allied to the heartsease that they have of late been made use of in crosses, in order to widen the range of variability of garden-pansies. _viola tricolor_ is a common european weed. it is widely dispersed and very abundant, growing in many localities in large numbers. it is an annual and ripens its seeds freely, and if opportunity is afforded, it multiplies rapidly. _viola tricolor_ has three subspecies, which have been elevated to the rank of species by some authors, and which may here be called, for brevity's sake, by their binary names. one is the typical _v. tricolor_, with broad flowers, variously colored and veined with yellow, purple and white. it occurs in waste places on sandy soil. the second is called _v. arvensis_ or the field-pansy; it has small inconspicuous flowers, with pale-yellowish petals which are shorter than the sepals. it pollinates itself without the [ ] aid of insects, and is widely dispersed in cultivated fields. the third form, _v. alpestris_, grows in the alps, but is of lesser importance for our present discussion. anywhere throughout the central part of europe _v. tricolor_ and _v. arvensis_ may be seen, each occupying its own locality. they may be considered as ranging among the most common native plants of the particular regions they inhabit. they vary in the color of the flowers, branching of the stems, in the foliage and other parts, but not to such an extent as to constitute distinct strains. they have been brought into cultivation by jordan, wittrock and others, but throughout europe each of them constitutes a single type. these types must be very old and constant, fluctuating always within the same distinct and narrow limits. no slow, gradual changes can have taken place. in different countries their various habitats are as old as the historical records, and probably many centuries older. they are quite independent of one another, the distance being in numerous cases far too great for the exchange of pollen or of seeds. if slow and gradual changes were the rule, the types could not have remained so uniform throughout the whole range of these two species. they would necessarily have split up into thousands [ ] and thousands of minor races, which would show their peculiar characteristics if tested by cultures in adjacent beds. this however, is not what happens. as a matter of fact _v. tricolor_ and _v. arvensis_ are widely distributed but wholly constant types. besides these, there occur distinct types in numerous localities. some of them evidently have had time and opportunity to spread more or less widely and now occupy larger regions or even whole countries. others are narrowly limited, being restricted to a single locality. wittrock collected seeds or plants from as many localities as possible in different parts of sweden and neighboring states and sowed them in his garden near stockholm. he secured seeds from his plants, and grew from them a second, and in many cases a third generation in order to estimate the amount of variability. as a rule the forms introduced into his garden proved constant, notwithstanding the new and abnormal conditions under which they were propagated. first of all we may mention three perennial forms called by him _viola tricolor ammotropha_, _v. tricolor coniophila_ and _v. stenochila_. the typical _v. tricolor_ is an annual plant; sowing itself in summer and germinating soon afterwards. the young plants thrive throughout [ ] the latter part of the summer and during the fall, reaching an advanced stage of development of the branched stems before winter. early in the spring the flowers begin to open, but after the ripening of the seeds the whole plant dies. the three perennial species just mentioned develop in the same manner in the first year. during their flowering period, however, and afterwards, they produce new shoots from the lower parts of the stem. they prefer dry and sandy soils, often becoming covered with the sand that is blown on them by the winds. they are prepared for such seemingly adverse circumstances by the accumulation of food in the older stems and by the capacity of the new shoots to thrive on this food till they have become long enough to reach the light. _v. tricolor ammotropha_ is native near ystad in sweden, and the other two forms on gotland. all three have narrowly limited habitats. the typical tricolored heartsease has remained annual in all its other subspecies. it may be divided into two types in the first place, _v. tricolor genuina_ and _v. tricolor versicolor_. both of them have a wide distribution and seem to be the prototypes from which the rarer forms must have been derived. among these latter wittrock describes seven local types, which [ ] proved to be constant in his pedigree-cultures. some of them have produced other forms, related to them in the way of varieties. they all have nearly the same general habit and do not exhibit any marked differences in their growth, in the structure and branching of the stems, or in the character of their foliage. differentiating points are to be found mainly in the colors and patterns of the flowers. the veins, which radiate from the centre of the corolla are branched in some and undivided in others; in one elementary species they are wholly lacking. the purple color may be absent, leaving the flowers of a pale or a deep yellow. or the purple may be reddish or bluish. of the petals all five may have the purple hue on their tips, or this attribute may be limited to the two upper ones. contrasting with this wide variability is the stability of the yellow spot in the centre, which is always present and becomes inconspicuous only, when the whole petals are of the same hue. it is a general conception that colors and color-markings are liable to great variability and do not constitute reliable standards. but the cultures of wittrock have proved the contrary, at least in the case of the violets. no pattern, however quaint, appears changeable, if one elementary species only is considered. hundreds of plants from seeds [ ] from one locality may be grown, and all will exhibit exactly the same markings. most of these forms are of very local occurrence. the most beautiful of all, the _ornatissima_, is found only in jemtland, the _aurobadia_ only in sodermanland, the anopetala_ in other localities in the same country, the _roseola_ near stockholm, and the yellow _lutescens_ in finmarken. the researches of wittrock included only a small number of elementary species, but every one who has observed the violets in the central parts of europe must be convinced that many dozens of constant forms of the typical _viola tricolor_ might easily be found and isolated. we now come to the field pansy, the _viola arvensis_, a very common weed in the grain-fields of central europe. i have already mentioned its small corolla, surpassed by the lobes of the calyx and its capacity of self-fertilization. it has still other curious differentiating characters; the pollen grains, which are square in _v. tricolor_, are five-sided in _v. arvensis_. some transgressive fluctuating variability may occur in both cases through the admixture of pollen-grains. even three-angled pollen grains are seen sometimes. other marks are observed in the form of the anthers and the spur. there seem to be very many local subspecies [ ] of the field-pansy. jordan has described some from the vicinity of lyons, and wittrock others from the northern parts of europe. they diverge from their common prototype in nearly all attributes, the flowers not showing the essential differentiating characters as in the _v. tricolor_. some have their flower-stalks erect, and in others the flowers are held nearly at right angles to the stem. _v. pallescens_ is a small, almost unbranched species with small pale flowers. _v. segetalis_ is a stouter species with two dark blue spots on the tips of the upper petals. _v. agrestis_ is a tall and branched, hairy form. _v. nemausensis_ attains a height of only cm., has rounded leaves and long flower-stalks. even the seeds afford characters which may be made use of in isolating the various species. the above-mentioned elementary forms belong to the flora of southern france, and wittrock has isolated and cultivated a number of others from the fields of sweden. a species from stockholm is called _viola patens_; _v. arvensis curtisepala_ occurs in gotland, and _v. arvensis striolata_ is a distinct form, which has appeared in his cultures without its true origin being ascertained. the alpine violets comprise a more widespread type with some local elementary species [ ] derived exactly in the same way as the tricolored field pansies. summarizing the general result of this description we see that the original species _viola tricolor_ may be split up into larger and lesser groups of separate forms. these last prove to be constant in pedigree-cultures, and therefore are to be considered as really existent units. they are very numerous, comprising many dozens in each of the two larger subdivisions. all systematic grouping of these forms, and their combination into subspecies and species rests on the comparative study of their characters. the result of such studies must necessarily depend on principles which underlie them. according to the choice of these principles, the construction of the groups will be found to be different. wittrock trusts in the first place to morphologic characters, and considers the development as passing from the more simple to the more complex types. on the other hand the geographic distribution may be considered as an indication of the direction of evolution, the wide-spread forms being regarded as the common parents of the minor local species. however, such considerations are only of secondary importance. it must be borne in mind that an ordinary systematic species may include [ ] many dozens of elementary forms, each of which remains constant and unchanged in successive generations, even if cultivated in the same garden and under similar external conditions. leaving the violets, we may take the vernal whitlow-grass or _draba verna_ for a second illustration. this little annual cruciferous plant is common in the fields of many parts of the united states, though originally introduced from europe. it has small basal rosettes which develop during summer and winter, and produce numerous leafless flowering stems early in the spring. it is a native of central europe and western asia, and may be considered as one of the most common plants, occurring anywhere in immense numbers on sandy soils. jordan was the first to point out that it is not the same throughout its entire range. although a hasty survey does not reveal differences, they show themselves on closer inspection. de bary, thuret, rosen and many others confirmed this result, and repeated the pedigree-cultures of jordan. every type is constant and remains unchanged in successive generations. the anthers open in the flower-buds and pollinate the stigmas before the expansion of the flowers, thus assuring self-fertilization. moreover, these inconspicuous little flowers are only sparingly visited by insects. dozens of subspecies [ ] may be cultivated in the same garden without any real danger of their intercrossing. they remain as pure as under perfect isolation. it is very interesting to observe the aspect of such types, when growing near each other. hundreds of rosettes exhibit one type, and are undoubtedly similar. the alternative group is distinguishable at first sight, though the differentiating marks are often so slight as to be traceable with difficulty. two elementary species occur in holland, one with narrow leaves in the western provinces and one with broader foliage in the northern parts. i have cultivated them side by side, and was as much struck with the uniformity within each group, as with the contrast between the two sets. nearly all organs show differences. the most marked are those of the leaves, which may be small or large, linear or elliptic or oblong and even rhomboidal in shape, more or less hairy with simple or with stellate branched hairs, and finally of a pure green or of a glaucous color. the petals are as a rule obcordate, but this type may be combined with others having more or less broad emarginations at the summit, and with differences in breadth which vary from almost linear types to others which touch along their margins. the pods are short and broad, or long and narrow, or varying in sundry other [ ] ways. all in all there are constant differences which are so great that it has been possible to distinguish and to describe large numbers of types. many of them have been tested as to their constancy from seed. jordan made numerous cultures, some of which lasted ten or twelve years; thuret has verified the assertion concerning their constancy by cultures extending over seven years in some instances; villars and de bary made numerous trials of shorter duration. all agree as to the main points. the local races are uniform and come true from seed; the variability of the species is not of a fluctuating, but of a polymorphous nature. a given elementary species keeps within its limits and cannot vary beyond them, but the whole group gives the impression of variability by its wide range of distinct, but nearly allied forms. the geographic distribution of these elementary species of the whitlow-grass is quite distinct from that of the violets. here predominant species are limited to restricted localities. most of them occupy one or more departments of france, and in holland two of them are spread over several provinces. an important number are native in the centre of europe, and from the vicinity of lyons, jordan succeeded in establishing about fifty elementary [ ] species in his garden. in this region they are crowded together and not rarely two or even more quite distinct forms are observed to grow side by side on the same spot. farther away from this center they are more widely dispersed, each holding its own in its habitat. in all, jordan has distinguished about two hundred species of _draba verna_ from europe and western asia. subsequent authors have added new types to the already existing number from time to time. the constancy of these elementary species is directly proven by the experiments quoted above, and moreover it may be deduced from the uniformity of each type within its own domain. these are so large that most of the localities are practically isolated from one another, and must have been so for centuries. if the types were slowly changing such localities would often, though of course not always, exhibit slighter differences, and on the geographic limits of neighboring species intermediates would be found. such however, are not on record. hence the elementary species must be regarded as old and constant types. the question naturally arises how these groups of nearly allied forms may originally have been produced. granting a common origin for all of them, the changes may have been [ ] simultaneous or successive. according to the geographic distribution, the place of common origin must probably be sought in the southern part of central europe, perhaps even in the vicinity of lyons. here we may assume that the old _draba verna_ has produced a host or a swarm of new types. thence they must have spread over europe, but whether in doing so they have remained constant, or whether some or many of them have repeatedly undergone specific mutations, is of course unknown. the main fact is, that such a small species as _draba verna_ is not at all a uniform type, but comprises over two hundred well distinguished and constant forms. it is readily granted that violets and whitlowgrasses are extreme instances of systematic variability. such great numbers of elementary species are not often included in single species of the system. but the numbers are of secondary importance, and the fact that systematic species consist, as a rule, of more than one independent and constant subspecies, retains its almost universal validity. in some cases the systematic species are manifest groups, sharply differentiated from one another. in other instances the groups of elementary forms as they are shown by direct observation, have been adjudged by many authors [ ] to be too large to constitute species. hence the polymorphous genera, concerning the systematic subdivisions of which hardly two authors agree. brambles and roses are widely known instances, but oaks, elms, apples, and pears, _mentha_, _prunu_s, _vitis_, _lactuca_, _cucumis_, _cucurbita_ and numerous others are in the same condition. in some instances the existence of elementary species is so obvious, that they have been described by taxonomists as systematic varieties or even as good species. the primroses afford a widely known example. linnaeus called them _primula veris_, and recognized three types as pertaining to this species, but jacquin and others have elevated these subspecies to the full rank of species. they now bear the names of _primula elatior_ with larger, _p. officinalis_ with smaller flowers, and _p. acaulis_. in the last named the common flower-stalk is lacking and the flowers of the umbel seem to be borne in the arils of the basal leaves. in other genera such nearly allied species are more or less universally recognized. _galium mollugo_ has been divided into _g. elatum_ with a long and weak stem, and _g. erectum_ with shorter and erect stems; _cochlearia danica_, _anglica_ and _officinalis_ are so nearly allied as to be hardly distinguishable. _sagina apetala_ and _patula_, [ ] _spergula media_ and _salina_ and many other pairs of allied species have differentiating characters of the same value as those of the elementary species of _draba verna_. _filago_, _plantago_, _carex_, _ficaria_ and a long series of other genera afford proofs of the same close relation between smaller and larger groups of species. the european frost-weeds or _helianthemum_ include a group of species which are so closely allied, that ordinary botanical descriptions are not adequate to give any idea of their differentiating features. it is almost impossible to determine them by means of the common analytical keys. they have to be gathered from their various native localities and cultivated side by side in the garden to bring out their differences. among the species of france, according to jordan, _helianthemum polifolium_, _h. apenninum_, _h. pilosum_ and _h. pulverulentum_ are of this character. a species of cinquefoil, _potentilla tormentilla_, which is distinguished by its quaternate flowers, occurs in holland in two distinct types, which have proved constant in my cultural experiments. one of them has, broad petals, meeting together at the edges, and constituting rounded saucer without breaks. the other has narrow petals, which are strikingly separated from one another and show the sepals between them. [ ] in the same manner bluebells vary in the size and shape of the corolla, which may be wide or narrow, bell-shaped or conical, with the tips turned downwards, sidewards or backwards. as a rule all of the more striking elementary types have been described by local botanists under distinct specific names, while they are thrown together into the larger systematic species by other authors, who study the distribution of plants over larger portions of the world. everything depends on the point of view taken. large floras require large species. but the study of local floras yields the best results if the many forms of the region are distinguished and described as completely as possible. and the easiest way is to give to each of them a specific name. if two or more elementary species are united in the same district, they are often treated in this way, but if each region had its own type of some given species, commonly the part is taken for the whole, and the sundry forms are described under the same name, without further distinctions. of course these questions are all of a practical and conventional nature, but involve the different methods in which different authors deal with the same general fact. the fact is that systematic species are compound groups, exactly like the genera and that their real units [ ] can only be recognized by comparative experimental studies. though the evidence already given might be esteemed to be sufficient for our purpose, i should like to introduce a few more examples; two of them pertain to american plants. the ipecac spurge or _euphorbia ipecacuanha_ occurs from connecticut to florida, mainly near the coast, preferring dry and sandy soil. it is often found by the roadsides. according to britton and brown's "illustrated flora" it is glabrous or pubescent, with several or many stems, ascending or nearly erect; with green or red leaves, which are wonderfully variable in outline, from linear to orbicular, mostly opposite, the upper sometimes whorled, the lower often alternate. the glands of the involucres are elliptic or oblong, and even the seeds vary in shape. such a wide range of variability evidently points to the existence of some minor types. dr. john harshberger has made a study of those which occur in the vicinity of whitings in new jersey. his types agree with the description given above. others were gathered by him at brown's mills in the pinelands, new jersey, where they grew in almost pure sand in the bright sunlight. he observed still other differentiating characters. the amount of seed [ ] produced and the time of flowering were variable to a remarkable degree. dr. harshberger had the kindness to send me some dried specimens of the most interesting of these types. they show that the peculiarities are individual, and that each specimen has its own characters. it is very probable that a comparative experimental study will prove the existence of a large number of elementary species, differing in many points; they will probably also show differences in the amount of the active chemical substances, especially of emetine, which is usually recorded as present in about %, but which will undoubtedly be found in larger quantities in some, and in smaller quantities in other elementary species. in this way the close and careful distinction of the really existing units might perhaps prove of practical importance. macfarlane has studied the beach-plum or _prunus maritima_, which is abundant along the coast regions of the eastern states from virginia to new brunswick. it often covers areas from two to two hundred acres in extent, sometimes to the exclusion of other plants. it is most prolific on soft drifting sand near the sea or along the shore, where it may at times be washed with ocean-spray. the fruit usually become ripe about the middle of august, and show extreme [ ] variations in size, shape, color, taste, consistency and maturation period, indicating the existence of separate races or elementary species, with widely differing qualities. the earlier varieties begin to ripen from august to , and a continuous supply can be had till september , while a few good varieties continue to ripen till september . but even late in october some other types are still found maturing their fruits. exact studies were made of fruit and stone variations, and their characteristics as to color, weight, size, shape and consistency were fully described. similar variations have been observed, as is well known, in the cultivated plums. fine blue-black fruits were seen on some shrubs and purplish or yellow fruits on others. some exhibit a firmer texture and others a more watery pulp. even the stones show differences which are suggestive of distinct races. recently mr. luther burbank of santa rosa, california, has made use of the beach-plum to produce useful new varieties. he observed that it is a very hardy species, and never fails to bear, growing under the most trying conditions of dry and sandy, or of rocky and even of heavy soil. the fruits of the wild shrubs are utterly worthless for anything but preserving. [ ] but by means of crossing with other species and especially with the japanese plums, the hardy qualities of the beach-plum have been united with the size, flavor and other valuable qualities of the fruit, and a group of new plums have been produced with bright colors, ovoid and globular forms which are never flattened and have no suture. the experiments were not finished, when i visited mr. burbank in july, , and still more startling improvements were said to have been secured. i may perhaps be allowed to avail myself of this opportunity to point out a practical side of the study of elementary species. this always appears whenever wild plants are subjected to cultivation, either in order to reproduce them as pure strains, or to cross them with other already cultivated species. the latter practice is as a rule made use of whenever a wild species is found to be in possession of some quality which is considered as desirable for the cultivated forms. in the case of the beach-plum it is the hardiness and the great abundance of fruits of the wild species which might profitably be combined with the recognized qualities of the ordinary plums. now it is manifest, that in order to make crosses, distinct individual plants are to be chosen, and that the variability of the wild species may be of very great importance. [ ] among the range of elementary species those should be used which not only possess the desired advantages in the highest degree, but which promise the best results in other respects or their earliest attainment. the fuller our knowledge of the elementary species constituting the systematic groups, the easier and the more reliable will be the choice for the breeder. many californian wild flowers with bright colors seem to consist of large numbers of constant elementary forms, as for instance, the lilies, godetias, eschscholtias and others. they have been brought into cultivation many times, but the minutest distinction of their elementary forms is required to attain the highest success. in concluding, i will point out a very interesting difficulty, which in some cases impedes the clear understanding of elementary species. it is the lack of self-fertilization. it occurs in widely distant families, but has a special interest for us in two genera, which are generally known as very polymorphous groups. one of them is the hawkweed or _hieracium_, and the other is the dandelion or _taraxacum officinale_. hawkweeds are known as a genus in which the delimitation of the species is almost impossible, thousands of forms may be cultivated side by side in botanical gardens, exhibiting [ ] slight but undoubted differentiating features, and reproduce themselves truly by seed. descriptions were formerly difficult and so complicated that the ablest writers on this genus, fries and nageli are said not to have been able to recognize the separate species by the descriptions given by each other. are these types to be considered as elementary species, or only as individual differences? the decision of course, would depend upon their behavior in cultures. such tests have been made by various experimenters. in the dandelion the bracts of the involucre give the best characters. the inner ones may be linear or linear-lanceolate, with or without appendages below the tip; the outer ones may be similar and only shorter, or noticeably larger, erect, spreading or even reflexed, and the color of the involucre may be a pure green or glaucous; the leaves may be nearly entire or pinnatifid, or sinuate-dentate, or very deeply runcinate-pinnatifid, or even pinnately divided, the whole plant being more or less glabrous. raunkiaer, who has studied experimentally a dozen types from denmark, found them constant, but observed that some of them have no pollen at all, while in others the pollen, though present, is impotent. it does not germinate on the stigma, cannot produce the ordinary tube, [ ] and hence has no fertilizing power. but the young ovaries do not need such fertilization. they are sufficient unto themselves. one may cut off all the flowers of a head before the opening of the anthers, and leave the ovaries untouched, and the head will ripen its seeds quite as well. the same thing occurs in the hawkweeds. here, therefore, we have no fertilization and the extensive widening of the variability, which generally accompanies this process is, of course, wanting. only partial or vegetative variability is present. unfertilized eggs when developing into embryos are equivalent to buds, separated from the parent-plant and planted for themselves. they repeat both the specific and the individual characters of the parent. in the case of the hawkweed and the dandelion there is at present no means of distinguishing between these two contrasting causes of variability. but like the garden varieties which are always propagated in the vegetative way, their constancy and uniformity are only apparent and afford no real indication of hereditary qualities. in addition to these and other exceptional cases, seed-cultures are henceforth to be considered as the sole means of recognizing the really existing systematic units of nature. all other groups, including systematic species and [ ] genera, are equally artificial or conventional. in other words we may state "that current misconceptions as to the extreme range of fluctuating variability of many native species have generally arisen from a failure to recognize the composite nature of the forms in question," as has been demonstrated by macdougal in the case of the common evening-primrose, _oenothera biennis_. "it is evident that to study the behavior of the characters of plants we must have them in their simplest combinations; to investigate the origin and movements of species we must deal with them singly and uncomplicated." [ ] lecture iii elementary species of cultivated plants recalling the results of the last lecture, we see that the species of the systematists are not in reality units, though in the ordinary course of floristic studies they may, as a rule, seem to be so. in some cases representatives of the same species from different countries or regions, when compared with one another do not exactly agree. many species of ferns afford instances of this rule, and lindley and other great systematists have frequently been puzzled by the wide range of differences between the individuals of a single species. in other cases the differing forms are observed to grow near each other, sometimes in neighboring provinces, sometimes in the same locality, growing and flowering in mixtures of two or three or even more elementary types. the violets exhibit widespread ancient types, from which the local species may be taken to have arisen. the common ancestors of the whitlow-grasses are probably not to be found [ ] among existing forms, but numerous types are crowded together in the southern part of central europe and more thinly scattered elsewhere, even as far as western asia. there can be little doubt that their common origin is to be sought in the center of their geographic distribution. numerous other cases exhibit smaller numbers of elementary units within a systematic species; in fact purely uniform species seem to be relatively rare. but with small numbers there are of course no indications to be expected concerning their common origin or the starting point of their distribution. it is manifest that these experiences with wild species must find a parallel among cultivated plants. of course cultivated plants were originally wild and must have come under the general law. hence we may conclude that when first observed and taken up by man, they must already have consisted of sundry elementary subspecies. and we may confidently assert that some must have been rich and others poor in such types. granting this state of things as the only probable one, we can easily imagine what must have been the consequences. if a wild species had been taken into cultivation only once, the cultivated form would have been a single elementary [ ] type. but it is not very likely that such partiality would occur often. the conception that different tribes at different times and in distant countries would have used the wild plants of their native regions seems far more natural than that all should have obtained plants for cultivation from the same source or locality. if this theory may be relied upon, the origin of many of the more widely cultivated agricultural plants must have been multiple, and the number of the original elementary species of the cultivated types must have been so much the larger, the more widely distributed and variable the plants under consideration were before the first period of cultivation. further it would seem only natural to explain the wide variability of many of our larger agricultural and horticultural stocks by such an incipient multiformity of the species themselves. through commercial intercourse the various types might have become mixed so as to make it quite impossible to point out the native localities for each of them. unfortunately historical evidence on this point is almost wholly lacking. the differences in question could not have been appreciated at that remote period, and interest the common observer but little even today. the history of most of the cultivated plants is very obscure, [ ] and even the most skillful historians, by sifting the evidence afforded by the older writers, and that obtained by comparative linguistic investigations have been able to do little more than frame the most general outline of the cultural history of the most common and most widely used plants. some authors assume that cultivation itself might have been the principal cause of variability, but it is not proved, nor even probable, that cultivated plants are intrinsically more variable than their wild prototypes. appearances in this case are very deceptive. of course widely distributed plants are as a rule richer in subspecies than forms with limited distribution, and the former must have had a better chance to be taken into cultivation than the latter. in many cases, especially with the more recent cultivated species, man has deliberately chosen variable forms, because of their greater promise. thirdly, wide variability is the most efficient means of acclimatization, and only species with many elementary units would have offered the adequate material for introduction into new countries. from this discussion it would seem that it is more reasonable to assert that variability is one of the causes of the success of cultivation, than to assume that cultivation is a cause of variability [ ] at large. and this assumption would be equally sufficient to explain the existing conditions among cultivated plants. of course i do not pretend to say that cultivated plants should be expected to be less variable than in the wild state, or that swarms of elementary species might not be produced during cultivation quite as well as before. however the chance of such an event, as is easily seen, cannot be very great, and we shall have to be content with a few examples of which the coconut is a notable one. leaving this general discussion of the subject, we may take up the example of the beets. the sugar-beet is only one type from among a horde of others, and though the origin of all the single types is not historically known, the plant is frequently found in the wild state even at the present time, and the native types may be compared with the corresponding cultivated varieties. the cultivation of beets for sugar is not of very ancient date. the romans knew the beets and used them as vegetables, both the roots and the leaves. they distinguished a variety with white and one with red flesh, but whether they cultivated them, or only collected them from where they grew spontaneously, appears to be unknown. [ ] beets are even now found in large quantities along the shores of italy. they prefer the vicinity of the sea, as do so many other members of the beet family, and are not limited to italy, but are found growing elsewhere on the littoral of the mediterranean, in the canary islands and through persia and babylonia to india. in most of their native localities they occur in great abundance. the color of the foliage and the size of the roots are extremely variable. some have red leafstalks and veins, others a uniform red or green foliage, some have red or white or yellow roots, or exhibit alternating rings of a red and of a white tinge on cut surfaces. it seems only natural to consider the white and the red, and even the variegated types as distinct varieties, which in nature do not transgress their limits nor change into one another. in a subsequent lecture i will show that this at least is the rule with the corresponding color-varieties in other genera. the fleshiness or pulpiness of the roots is still more variable. some are as thick as the arm and edible, others are not thicker than a finger and of a woody composition, and the structure of this woody variety is very interesting. the sugar-beet consists, as is generally known, of concentric layers of sugar-tissue and of vascular [ ] strands; the larger the first and the smaller the latter, the greater is, as a rule, the average amount of sugar of the race. through the kindness of the late mr. rimpau, a well known german breeder of sugar-beet varieties, i obtained specimens from seed of a native wild locality near bukharest. the plants produced quite woody roots, showing almost no sugar tissue at all. woody layers of strongly developed fibrovascular strands were seen to be separated one from another only by very thin layers of parenchymatous cells. even the number of layers is variable; it was observed to be five in my plants; but in larger roots double this number and even more may easily be met with. some authors have distinguished specific types among these wild forms. while the cultivated beets are collected under the head of _beta vulgaris_, separate types with more or less woody roots have been described as _beta maritima_ and _beta patula_. these show differences in the habit of the stems and the foliage. some have a strong tendency to become annual, others to become biennial. the first of course do not store a large quantity of food in their roots, and remain thin, even at the time of flowering. the biennial types occur in all sizes of roots. in the annuals the stems may vary from [ ] erect to ascending, and the name _patula_ indicates stems which are densely branching from the base with widely spreading branches throughout. mr. em. von proskowetz of kwassitz, austria, kindly sent me seeds of this _beta patula_, the variability of which was so great in my cultures as to range from nearly typical sugar-beets to the thin woody type of bukharest. broad and narrow leaves are considered to be differentiating marks between _beta vulgaris_ and _beta patula_, but even here a wide range of forms seem to occur. rimpau, proskowetz, schindler and others have made cultures of beets from wild localities in order to discover a hypothetical common ancestor of all the present cultivated types. these researches point to the _b. patula_ as the probable ancestor, but of course they were not made to decide the question as to whether the origination of the several now existing types had taken place before or during culture. from a general point of view the variability of the wild species is parallel to that of the cultivated forms to such a degree as to suggest the multiple origin of the former. but a close investigation of this highly important problem has still to be made. the varieties of the cultivated beets are commonly [ ] included in four subspecies. the two smallest are the salad-beets and the ornamental forms, the first being used as food, and ordinarily cultivated in red varieties, the second being used as ornamental plants during the fall, when they fill the beds left empty by summer flowers, with a bright foliage that is exceedingly rich in form and color. of the remaining subspecies, one comprises the numerous sorts cultivated as forage-crops and the other the true sugar-beets. both of them vary widely as to the shape and the size of the roots, the quality of the tissue, the foliage and other characteristics. some of these forms, no doubt, have originated during culture. most of them have been improved by selection, and no beet found in the wild state ever rivals any cultivated variety. but the improvement chiefly affects the size, the amount of sugar and nutrient substances and some other qualities which recur in most of the varieties. the varietal attributes themselves however, are more or less of a specific nature, and have no relation to the real industrial value of the race. the short-rooted and the horn-shaped varieties might best be cited as examples. the assertion that the sundry varieties of forage-beets are not the result of artificial selection, [ ] is supported in a large measure by the historic fact that the most of them are far older than the method of conscious selection of plants itself. this method is due to louis vilmorin and dates from the middle of the last century. but in the sixteenth century most of our present varieties of beets were already in cultivation. caspar bauhin gives a list of the beets of his time and it is not difficult to recognize in it a large series of subspecies and varieties and even of special forms, which are still cultivated. a more complete list was published towards the close of the same century by olivier de serres in his world-renowned "theatre d'agriculture" (paris, ). the red forage-beets which are now cultivated on so large a scale, had been introduced from italy into france only a short time before. from this historic evidence, the period during which the beets were cultivated from the time of the romans or perhaps much later, up to the time of bauhin and de serres, would seem far too short for the production by the unguided selection of man of all the now existing types. on the other hand, the parallelism between the characters of some wild and some cultivated varieties goes to make it very probable that other varieties have been found in the same way, some in this country and others in that, [ ] and have been taken into cultivation separately. afterwards of course all must have been improved in the direction required by the needs of man. quite the same conclusion is afforded by apples. the facts are to some extent of another character, and the rule of the derivation of the present cultivated varieties from original wild forms can be illustrated in this case in a more direct way. of course we must limit ourselves to the varieties of pure ancestry and leave aside all those which are of hybrid or presumably hybrid origin. before considering their present state of culture, something must be, said about the earlier history and the wild state of the apples. the apple-tree is a common shrub in woods throughout all parts of europe, with the only exception of the extreme north. its distribution extends to anatolia, the caucasus and ghilan in persia. it is found in nearly all forests of any extent and often in relatively large numbers of individuals. it exhibits varietal characters, which have led to the recognition of several spontaneous forms, especially in france and in germany. the differentiating qualities relate to the shape and indumentum of the leaves. nothing is known botanically as to differences between [ ] the fruits of these varieties, but as a matter of fact the wild apples of different countries are not at all the same. alphonse de candolle, who made a profound study of the probable origin of most of our cultivated plants, comes to the conclusion that the apple tree must have had this wide distribution in prehistoric times, and that its cultivation began in ancient times everywhere. this very important conclusion by so high an authority throws considerable light on the relation between cultivated and wild varieties at large. if the historic facts go to prove a multiple origin for the cultivation of some of the more important useful plants, the probability that different varieties or elementary species have been the starting points for different lines of culture, evidently becomes stronger. unfortunately, this historic evidence is scanty. the most interesting facts are those concerning the use of apples by the romans and by their contemporaries of the swiss and middle european lake-dwellings. oswald heer has collected large numbers of the relics of this prehistoric period. apples were found in large quantities, ordinarily cut into halves and with the signs of having been dried. heer distinguished two varieties, one with large and one with small fruits. the first about and [ ] the other about . - cm. in diameter. both are therefore very small compared with our present ordinary varieties, but of the same general size as the wild forms of the present day. like these, they must have been of a more woody and less fleshy tissue. they would scarcely have been tasteful to us, but in ancient times no better varieties were known and therefore no comparison was possible. there is no evidence concerning the question, as to whether during the periods mentioned apples were cultivated or only collected in the wild state. the very large numbers which are found, have induced some writers to believe in their culture, but then there is no reason why they should not have been collected in quantity from wild shrubs. the main fact is that the apple was not a uniform species in prehistoric times but showed even then at least some amount of variability. at the present day the wild apples are very rich in elementary species. those of versailles are not the same as those of belgium, and still others are growing in england and in germany. the botanical differences derived from the blossoms and the leaves are slight, but the flavor, size and shape of the fruits diverge widely. two opinions have been advanced to explain this high degree of variability, but [ ] neither of them conveys a real explanation; their aim is chiefly to support different views as to the causes of variability, and the origin of elementary species at large. one opinion, advocated by de candolle, darwin and others, claims that the varieties owe their origin to the direct influence of cultivation, and that the corresponding forms found in the wild state, are not at all original, but have escaped from cultivation and apparently become wild. of course this possibility cannot be denied, at least in any single instance, but it seems too sweeping an assertion to make for the whole range of observed forms. the alternative theory is that of van mons, the belgian originator of commercial varieties of apples, who has published his experiments in a large work called "arbres fruitiers ou pomonomie belge." most of the more remarkable apples of the first half of the last century were produced by van mons, but his greatest merit is not the direct production of a number of good varieties, but the foundation of the method, by which new varieties may be obtained and improved. according to van mons, the production of a new variety consists chiefly of two parts. the first is the discovery of a subspecies with new desirable qualities. the second is the transformation [ ] of the original small and woody apple into a large, fleshy and palatable variety. subspecies, or what we now call elementary species were not produced by man; nature alone creates new forms, as van mons has it. he examined with great care the wild apples of his country, and especially those of the ardennes, and found among them a number of species with different flavors. for the flavor is the one great point, which must be found ready in nature and which may be improved, but can never be created by artificial selection. the numerous differences in flavor are quite original; all of them may be found in the wild state and most of them even in so limited a region as the ardennes mountains. of course van mons preferred not to start from the wild types themselves, when the same flavor could be met with in some cultivated variety. his general method was, to search for a new flavor and to try to bring the bearer of it up to the desired standard of size and edibility. the latter improvement, though it always makes the impression of an achievement, is only the last stone to be added to the building up of the commercial value of the variety. without it, the best flavored apple remains a crab; with it, it becomes a conquest. according to the method of van mons it may be reached within [ ] two or three generations, and a man's life is wholly sufficient to produce in this way many new types of the very best sorts, as van mons himself has done. it is done in the usual way, sowing on a large scale and selecting the best, which are in their turn brought to an early maturation of their fruit by grafting, because thereby the life from seed to seed may be reduced to a few years. form, taste, color, flavor and other valuable marks of new varieties are the products of nature, says van mons, only texture, fleshiness and size are added by man. and this is done in each new variety by the same method and according to the same laws. the richness of the cultivated apples of the present day was already present in the large range of original wild elementary species, though unobserved and requiring improvement. an interesting proof of this principle is afforded by the experience of mr. peter m. gideon, as related by bailey. gideon sowed large quantities of apple-seeds, and one seed produced a new and valuable variety called by him the "wealthy" apple. he first planted a bushel of apple-seeds, and then every year, for nine years, planted enough seeds to produce a thousand trees. at the end of ten years all seedlings had perished except one hardy seedling [ ] crab. this experiment was made in minnesota, and failed wholly. then he bought a small lot of seeds of apples and crab-apples in maine and from these the "wealthy" came. there were only about fifty seeds in the lot of crab-apple seed which produced the "wealthy," but before this variety was obtained, more than a bushel of seed had been sown. chance afforded a species with an unknown taste; but the growing of many thousands of seedlings of known varieties was not the best means to get something really new. pears are more difficult to improve than apples. they often require six or more generations to be brought from the wild woody state to the ordinary edible condition. but the varieties each seem to have a separate origin, as with apples, and the wide range of form and of taste must have been present in the wild state, long before cultivation. only recently has the improvement of cherries, plums, currants and gooseberries been undertaken with success by mr. burbank, and the difference between the wild and cultivated forms has hitherto been very small. all indications point to the existence, before the era of cultivation, of larger or smaller numbers of elementary species. the same holds good with many of the larger forage crops and other plants of great industrial [ ] value. clover exhibits many varieties, which have been cultivated indiscriminately, and often in motley mixtures. the flower heads may be red or white, large or small, cylindric or rounded, the leaves are broader or narrower, with or without white spots of a curious pattern. they may be more or less hairy and so forth. even the seeds exhibit differences in size, shape or color, and of late martinet has shown, that by the simple means of picking out seeds of the same pattern, pure strains of clover may be obtained, which are of varying cultural value. in this way the best subspecies or varieties may be sought out for separate cultivation. even the white spots on the leaflets have proved to be constant characters corresponding with noticeable differences in yield. flax is another instance. it was already cultivated, or at least made use of during the period of the lake-dwellers, but at that time it was a species referred to as _linum angustifolium_, and not the _linum usitatissimum_, which is our present day flax. there are now many subspecies, elementary species, and varieties under cultivation. the oldest of them is known as the "springing flax," in opposition to the ordinary "threshing flax." it has capsules which open of themselves, in order to disseminate the seeds, while the ordinary heads of the [ ] flax remain closed until the seeds are liberated by threshing. it seems probable that the first form or _linum crepitans_ might thrive in the wild state as well as any other plant, while in the common species those qualities are lacking which are required for a normal dissemination of the seeds. white or blue flowers, high or dwarf stems, more or less branching at the base and sundry other qualities distinguish the varieties, aside from the special industrial difference of the fibres. even the life-history varies from annual and biennial, to perennial. it would take us too long to consider other instances. it is well known that corn, though considered as a single botanical species, is represented by different subspecies and varieties in nearly every region in which it is grown. of course its history is unknown and it is impossible to decide whether all the tall and dwarf forms, or starchy and sweet varieties, dented or rounded kernels, and hundreds of others are older than culture or have come into existence during historic times, or as some assume, through the agency of man. but our main point now is not the origin, but only the existence of constant and sharply differentiated forms within botanical species. nearly every cultivated plant affords instances of such diversity. some include a few types only, while [ ] others show, a large number of forms clearly separated to a greater or lesser degree. in some few instances it is obvious that this variability is of later date than culture. the most conspicuous case is that of the coconut. this valuable palm is found on nearly all tropical coasts, in america, as well as in asia, but in africa and australia there are many hundreds of miles of shore line, where it is not found. its importance is not at all the same everywhere. on the shores and islands of the indian ocean and the malay archipelago, man is chiefly dependent upon it, but in america it is only of subordinate usefulness. in connection with these facts, it abounds in subspecies and varieties in the east indian regions, but on the continent of america little attention has as yet been given to its diverging qualities. in the malayan region it affords nearly all that is required by the inhabitants. the value of its fruit as food, and the delicious beverage which it yields, are well known. the fibrous rind is not less useful; it is manufactured into a kind of cordage, mats and floor-cloths. an excellent oil is obtained from the kernel by compression. the hard covering of the stem is converted into drums and used in the construction of huts; the lower part is so hard as to take on a beautiful polish [ ] when it resembles agate. finally the unexpanded terminal bud is a delicate article of food. many other uses could be mentioned, but these may suffice to indicate how closely the life of the inhabitants is bound up with the culture of this palm, and how sharply, in consequence, its qualities must have been watched by early man. any divergence from the ordinary type must have been noted; those which were injurious must have been rejected, but the useful ones must have been appreciated and propagated. in a word any degree of variability afforded by nature must have been noticed and cultivated. more than fifty different sorts of the coconut are described from the indian shores and islands, with distinct local and botanical names. miquel, who was one of the best systematists of tropical plants, of the last century, described a large number of them, and since, more have been added. nearly all useful qualities vary in a higher or lesser degree in the different varieties. the fibrous strands of the rind of the nut are developed in some forms to such a length and strength as to yield the industrial product known as the coir-fibre. only three of them are mentioned by miquel that have this quality, the _cocos nucifera rutila_, _cupuliformis_ and _stupposa_. among them the _rutila_ [ ] yields the best and most supple fibres, while those of the _stupposa_ are stiff and almost unbending. the varieties also differ greatly in size, color, shape and quality, and the trees have also peculiar characteristics. one variety exhibits leaves which are nearly entire, the divisions being only imperfectly separated, as often occurs in the very first leaves of the seedlings of other varieties. the flavor of the flesh, oil and milk likewise yield many good varietal marks. in short, the coconut-palm comes under the general rule, that botanical species are built up of a number of sharply distinguishable types, which prove their constancy and relative independence by their wide distribution in culture. in systematic works all these forms are called varieties, and a closer investigation of their real systematic value has not yet been made. but the question as to the origin of the varieties and of the coconut itself has engrossed the attention of many botanists, among whom are de candolle in the middle of the last century, and cook at its close. both questions are closely connected. de candolle claimed an asiatic origin for the whole species, while cook's studies go to prove that its original habitat is to be sought in the northern countries of south america. numerous [ ] varieties are growing in asia and have as yet not been observed to occur in america, where the coconut is only of subordinate importance, being one of many useful plants, and not the only one relied upon by the natives for their subsistence. if therefore, de candolle's opinion is the right one, the question as to whether the varieties are older or younger than the cultivated forms of the species, must always remain obscure. but if the proofs of an american origin should be forthcoming, the possibility, and even the probability that the varieties are of later date than the beginning of their culture, and have originated while in this condition must at once be granted. an important point in the controversy is the manner in which the coconuts were disseminated from shore to shore, from island to island. de candolle, darwin and most of the european writers claim that the dispersal was by natural agencies, such as ocean-currents. they point out that the fibrous rind or husk would keep the fruits afloat, and uninjured, for many days or even many weeks, while being carried from one country to another in a manner that would explain their geographic distribution. but the probability of the nuts being thrown upon the strand, and far enough from the shore to find suitable conditions for their germination, is a very small one. to insure [ ] healthy and vigorous seedlings the nuts must be fully ripe, after which planting cannot be safely delayed for more than a few weeks. if kept too moist the nuts rot. if once on the shore, and allowed to lie in the sun, they become overheated and are thereby destroyed; if thrown in the shade of other shrubs and trees, the seedlings do not find the required conditions for a vigorous growth. some authors have taken the fibrous rind to be especially adapted to transport by sea, but if this were so, this would argue that water is the normal or at least the very frequent medium of dissemination, which of course it is not. we may, claim with quite as much right that the thick husk is necessary to enable the heavy fruit to drop from tall trees with safety. but even for this purpose the protection is not sufficient, as the nuts often suffer from falling to such a degree as to be badly injured as to their germinating qualities. it is well known that nuts, which are destined for propagation, are as a rule not allowed to fall off, but are taken from the trees with great care. summing up his arguments, cook concludes that there is little in the way of known facts to support the poetic theory of the coconut palm dropping its fruits into the sea to float away to barren islands and prepare them for [ ] human habitation. shipwrecks might furnish a successful method of launching viable coconuts, and such have no doubt sometimes contributed to their distribution. but this assumption implies a dissemination of the nuts by man, and if this principal fact is granted, it is far more natural to believe in a conscious intelligent dissemination. the coconut is a cultivated tree. it may be met with in some spots distant from human dwellings, but whenever such cases have been subjected to a closer scrutiny, it appears that evidently, or at least probably, huts had formerly existed in their neighborhood, but having been destroyed by some accident, had left the palm trees uninjured. even in south america, where it may be found in forests at great distances from the sea-shore, it is not at all certain that true native localities occur, and it seems to be quite lost in its natural condition. granting the cultivated state of the palms as the only really important one, and considering the impossibility or at least great improbability of its dissemination by natural means, the distribution by man himself, according to his wants, assumes the rank of an hypothesis fully adequate to the explanation of all the facts concerning the life-history of the tree. we now have to inquire into the main question, [ ] whether it is probable that the coconut is of american or of asiatic origin, leaving aside the historic evidence which goes to prove that nothing is known about the period in which its dissemination from one hemisphere to another took place, we will now consider only the botanic and geographic evidence, brought forward by cook. he states that the whole family of coconut-palms, consisting of about genera and species, are all strictly american with the exception of the rather aberrant african oilpalm, which has, however, an american relative referred to the same genus. the coconut is the sole representative of this group which is connected with asia and the malayan region, but there is no manifest reason why other members of the same group could not have established themselves there, and maintained an existence under conditions, which are not at all unfavorable to them. the only obvious reason is the assumption already made, that the distribution was brought about by man, and thus only affected the species, chosen by him for cultivation. that the coconut cannot have been imported from asia into america seems to be the most obvious conclusion from the arguments given. it should be briefly noted, that it was known and widely distributed in tropical america at the time of the discovery of that continent [ ] by columbus, according to accounts of oviedo and other contemporary spanish writers. concluding we may state that according to the whole evidence as it has been discussed by de candolle and especially by cook, the coconut-palm is of american origin and has been distributed as a cultivated tree by man through the whole of its wide range. this must have happened in a prehistoric era, thus affording time enough for the subsequent development of the fifty and more known varieties. but the possibility that at least some of them have originated before culture and have been deliberately chosen by man for distribution, of course remains unsettled. coconuts are not very well adapted for natural dispersal on land, and this would rather induce us to suppose an origin within the period of cultivation for the whole group. there are a large number of cultivated varieties of different species which by some peculiarity do not seem adapted for the conditions of life in the wild state. these last have often been used to prove the origin of varietal forms during culture. one of the oldest instances is the variety or rather subspecies of the opium-poppy, which lacks the ability to burst open its capsules. the seeds, which are thrown out by the wind, in the common forms, through the apertures underneath [ ] the stigma, remain enclosed. this is manifestly a very useful adaptation for a cultivated plant, as by this means no seeds are lost. it would be quite a disadvantage for a wild species, and is therefore claimed to have been connected from the beginning with the cultivated form. the large kernels of corn and grain, of beans and peas, and even of the lupines were considered by darwin and others to be unable to cope with natural conditions of life. many valuable fruits are quite sterile, or produce extremely few seeds. this is notoriously the case with some of the best pears and grapes, with the pine-apples, bananas, bread-fruits, pomegranate and some members of the orange tribe. it is open to discussion as to what may be the immediate cause of this sterility, but it is quite evident, that all such sterile varieties must have originated in a cultivated condition. otherwise they would surely have been lost. in horticulture and agriculture the fact that new varieties arise from time to time is beyond all doubt, and it is not this question with which we are now concerned. our arguments were only intended to prove that cultivated species, as a rule, are derived from wild species, which obey the laws discussed in a previous lecture. the botanic units are compound entities, and [ ] the real systematic units in elementary species play the same part as in ordinary wild species. the inference that the origin of the cultivated plants is multiple, in most cases, and that more than one, often many separate elementary forms of the same species must originally have been taken into cultivation, throws much light upon many highly important problems of cultivation and selection. this aspect of the question will therefore be the subject of the next lecture. [ ] lecture iv selection of elementary species the improvement of cultivated plants must obviously begin with already existing forms. this is true of old cultivated sorts as well as for recent introductions. in either case the starting-point is as important as the improvement, or rather the results depend in a far higher degree on the adequate choice of the initial material than on the methodical and careful treatment of the chosen varieties. this however, has not always been appreciated as it deserves, nor is its importance at present universally recognized. the method of selecting plants for the improvement of the race was discovered by louis vilmorin about the middle of the last century. before his time selection was applied to domestic animals, but vilmorin was the first to apply this principle to plants. as is well known, he used this method to increase the amount of sugar in beets and thus to raise their value as forage-crops, with such success, that his plants have since been used for the production [ ] of sugar. he must have made some choice among the numerous available sorts of beets, or chance must have placed in his hands one of the most appropriate forms. on this point however, no evidence is at hand. since the work of vilmorin the selection-principle has increased enormously in importance, for practical purposes as well as for the theoretical aspect of the subject. it is now being applied on a large scale to nearly all ornamental plants. it is the one great principle now in universal practice as well as one of preeminent scientific value. of course, the main arguments of the evolution theory rest upon morphologic, systematic, geographic and paleontologic evidence. but the question as to how we can coordinate the relation between existing species and their supposed ancestors is of course one of a physiologic nature. direct observation or experiments were not available for darwin and so he found himself constrained to make use of the experience of breeders. this he did on a broad scale, and with such success that it was precisely this side of his arguments that played the major part in convincing his contemporaries. the work of the breeders previous to darwin's time had not been very critically performed. recent analyses of the evidence obtained [ ] from them show that numerous types of variability were usually thrown together. what type in each case afforded the material, which the breeder in reality made use of, has only been inquired into in the last few decades. among those who have opened the way for thorough and more scientific treatment are to be mentioned rimpau and von rumker of germany and w.m. hays of america. von rumker is to be considered as the first writer, who sharply distinguished between two phases of methodical breeding-selection. one side he calls the production of new forms, the other the improvement of the breed. he dealt with both methods extensively. new forms are considered as spontaneous variations occurring or originating without human aid. they have only to be selected and isolated, and their progeny at once yields a constant and pure race. this race retains its character as long as it is protected against the admixture of other minor varieties, either by cross-pollination, or by accidental seeds. improvement, on the other hand, is the work of man. new varieties of course can only be isolated if chance offers them; the improvement is not incumbent on chance. it does not create really anything new, but develops characters, which were already existing. it brings [ ] the race above its average, and must guard constantly against the regression towards this average which usually takes place. hays has repeatedly insisted upon the principle of the choice of the most favorable varieties as the foundation for all experiments in improving races. he asserts that half the battle is won by choosing the variety which is to serve as a foundation stock, while the other half depends upon the selection of parent-plants within the chosen variety. thus the choice of the variety is the first principle to be applied in every single case; the so-called artificial selection takes only a secondary place. calling all minor units within the botanic species by the common name of varieties, without regard to the distinction between elementary species and retrograde varieties, the principle is designated by the term of "variety-testing." this testing of varieties is now, as is universally known, one of the most important lines of work of the agricultural experiment stations. every state and every region, in some instances even the larger farms, require a separate variety of corn, or wheat, or other crops. they must be segregated from among the hundreds of generally cultivated forms, within each single botanic species. once found, the type may be ameliorated according to the local conditions [ ] and needs, and this is a question of improvement. the fact that our cultivated plants are commonly mixtures of different sorts, has not always been known. the first to recognize it seems to have been the spanish professor of botany, mariano lagasca, who published a number of spanish papers dealing with useful plants and botanical subjects between and , among them a catalogue of plants cultivated in the madrid botanical garden. once when he was on a visit to colonel le couteur on his farm in jersey, one of the channel islands off the coast of france, in discussing the value of the fields of wheat, he pointed out to his host, that they were not really pure and uniform, as was thought at that time, and suggested the idea that some of the constituents might form a larger part in the harvest than others. in a single field he succeeded in distinguishing no less than varieties, all growing together. colonel le couteur took the hint, and saved the seeds of a single plant of each supposed variety separately. these he cultivated and multiplied till he got large lots of each and could compare their value. from among them he then chose the variety producing the greatest amount of the finest, whitest and most nutritious flour. this he eventually placed in the [ ] market under the name of "talavera de bellevue." it is a tall, white variety, with long and slender white heads, almost without awns, and with fine white pointed kernels. it was introduced into commerce about , and is still one of the most generally cultivated french wheats. it was highly prized in the magnificent collection of drawings and descriptions of wheats, published by vilmorin under the title "les meilleurs bles" and is said to have quite a number of valuable qualities, branching freely and producing an abundance of good grain and straw. it is however, sensitive to cold winters in some degree and thereby limited in its distribution. hallett, the celebrated english wheat-breeder, tried in vain to improve the peculiar qualities of this valuable production of le couteur's. le couteur worked during many years along this line, long before the time when vilmorin conceived the idea of improvement by race selections, and he used only the simple principle of distinguishing and isolating the members of his different fields. later he published his results in a work on the varieties, peculiarities and classification of wheat ( ), which though now very rare, has been the basis and origin of the principle of variety-testing. the discovery of lagasca and le couteur was [ ] of course not applicable to the wheat of jersey alone. the common cultivated sorts of wheat and other grains were mixtures then as they are even now. improved varieties are, or at least should be, in most cases pure and uniform, but ordinary sorts, as a rule, are mixtures. wheat, barley and oats are self-fertile and do not mix in the field through cross-pollination. every member of the assemblage propagates itself, and is only checked by its own greater or less adaptation to the given conditions of life. rimpau has dealt at large with the phenomenon as it occurs in the northern and middle parts of germany. even rivett's "bearded wheat," which was introduced from england as a fine improved variety, and has become widely distributed throughout germany, cannot keep itself pure. it is found mingled almost anywhere with the old local varieties, which it was destined to supplant. any lot of seed exhibits such impurities, as i have had the opportunity of observing myself in sowings in the experimental-garden. but the impurities are only mixtures, and all the plants of rivett's "bearded wheat," which of course constitute the large majority, are of pure blood. this may be confirmed when the seeds are collected and sown separately in cultures that can be carefully guarded. [ ] in order to get a closer insight into the causes of this confused condition of ordinary races, rimpau made some observations on rivett's wheat. he found that it suffers from frost during winter more than the local german varieties, and that from various causes, alien seeds may accidentally, and not rarely, become mixed with it. the threshing-machines are not always as clean as they should be and may be the cause of an accidental mixture. the manure comes from stables, where straw and the dust from many varieties are thrown together, and consequently living kernels may become mixed with the dung. such stray grains will easily germinate in the fields, where they find more congenial conditions than does the improved variety. if winter arrives and kills quantities of this latter, the accidental local races will find ample space to develop. once started, they will be able to multiply so rapidly, that in one or two following generations they will constitute a very considerable portion of the whole harvest. in this way the awnless german wheat often prevails over the introduced english variety, if the latter is not kept pure by continuous selection. the swiss wheat-breeder risler made an experiment which goes to prove the certainty of the explanation given by rimpau. he observed on his farm at saleves near the lake of geneva that after a lapse of time the "galland wheat" deteriorated and assumed, as was generally believed, the characters of the local sorts. in order to ascertain the real cause of this apparent change, he sowed in alternate rows in a field, the "galland" and one of the local varieties. the "galland" is a race with obvious characters and was easily distinguished from the other at the time when the heads were ripe. they are bearded when flowering, but afterwards throw off the awns. the kernels are very large and yield an extraordinarily good, white flour. during the first summer all the heads of the "galland" rows had the deciduous awns but the following year these were only seen on half of the plants, the remainder having smooth heads, and the third year the "galland" had nearly disappeared, being supplanted by the competing local race. the cause of this rapid change was found to be twofold. first the "galland," as an improved variety, suffers from the winter in a far higher degree than the native swiss sorts, and secondly it ripens its kernels one or two weeks later. at the time of harvest it may not have become fully ripe, while the varieties mixed with it had reached maturity. the wild oat, _avena fatua_, is very common in [ ] europe from whence it has been introduced in the united states. in summers which are unfavorable to the development of the cultivated oats it may be observed to multiply with an almost incredible rapidity. it does not contribute to the harvest, and is quite useless. if no selection were made, or if selection were discontinued, it would readily supplant the cultivated varieties. from these several observations and experiments it may be seen, that it is not at all easy to keep the common varieties of cereals pure and that even the best are subject to the encroachment of impurities. hence it is only natural that races of cereals, when cultivated without the utmost care, or even when selected without an exact knowledge of their single constituents, are always observed to be more or less in a mixed condition. here, as everywhere with cultivated and wild plants, the systematic species consist of a number of minor types, which pertain to different countries and climates, and are growing together in the same climate and under the same external conditions. they do not mingle, nor are their differentiating characters destroyed by intercrossing. they each remain pure, and may be isolated whenever and wherever the desirability for such a proceeding should arise. the purity of [ ] the races is a condition implanted in them by man, and nature always strives against this arbitrary and one-sided improvement. numerous slight differences in characters and numerous external influences benefit the minor types and bring them into competition with the better ones. sometimes they tend to supplant the latter wholly, but ordinarily sooner or later a state of equilibrium is reached, in which henceforth the different sorts may live together. some are favored by warm and others by cool summers, some are injured by hard winters while others thrive then and are therefore relatively at an advantage. the mixed condition is the rule, purity is the exception. different sorts of cereals are not always easily distinguishable by the layman and therefore i will draw your attention to conditions in meadows, where a corresponding phenomenon can be observed in a much simpler way. only artificial pasture-grounds are seen to consist of a single species of grass or clover. the natural condition in meadows is the occurrence of clumps of grasses and some clovers, mixed up with perhaps twenty or more species of other genera and families. the numerical proportion of these constituents is of great interest, and has been studied at rothamstead in england and on a number of other farms. it is [ ] always changing. no two successive years show exactly the same proportions. at one time one species prevails, at another time one or two or more other species. the weather during the spring and summer benefits some and hurts others, the winter may be too cold for some, but again harmless for others, the rainfall may partly drown some species, while others remain uninjured. some weeds may be seen flowering profusely during some years, while in other summers they are scarcely to be found in the same meadow. the whole population is in a fluctuating state, some thriving and others deteriorating. it is a continuous response to the ever changing conditions of the weather. rarely a species is wholly annihilated, though it may apparently be so for years; but either from seeds or from rootstocks, or even from neighboring lands, it may sooner or later regain its foothold in the general struggle for life. this phenomenon is a very curious and interesting one. the struggle for life, which plays so considerable a part in the modern theories of evolution, may be seen directly at work. it does not alter the species themselves, as is commonly supposed, but it is always changing their numerical proportion. any lasting change in the external conditions will of course alter the average oscillation and the influence [ ] of such alterations will manifest itself in most cases simply in new numerical proportions. only extremes have extreme effects, and the chance for the weaker sorts to be completely overthrown is therefore very small. any one, who has the opportunity of observing a waste field during a series of years, should make notes concerning the numerical proportions of its inhabitants. exact figures are not at all required; approximate estimates will ordinarily prove to be sufficient, if only the standard remains the same during the succeeding years. the entire mass of historic evidence goes to prove that the same conditions have always prevailed, from the very beginning of cultivation up to the present time. the origin of the cultivation of cereals is to be sought in central asia. the recent researches of solms laubach show it to be highly probable that the historic origin of the wheat cultivated in china, is the same as that of the wheat of egypt and europe. remains of cereals are found in the graves of egyptian mummies, in the mounds of waste material of the lake-dwellings of central europe, and figures of cereals are to be seen on old roman coins. in the sepulchre of king ra-n-woser of the fifth dynasty of egypt, who lived about years b.c., two [ ] tombs have recently been opened by the german oriental society. in them were found quantities of the tares of the _triticum dicoccum_, one of the more primitive forms of wheat. in other temples and pyramids and among the stones of the walls of dashur and el kab studied by unger, different species and varieties of cereals were discovered in large quantities, that showed their identity with the present prevailing cultivated races of egypt. the inhabitants of the lake-dwellings in switzerland possessed some varieties of cereals, which have entirely disappeared. they are distinguished by heer under special names. the small barley and the small wheat of the lake-dwellers are among them. all in all there were ten well distinguished varieties of cereals, the panicum and the setaria or millet being of the number. oats were evidently introduced only toward the very last of the lake-dwelling period, and rye is of far later introduction into western europe. similar results are attained by the examination of the cereals figured by the romans of the same period. all these are archaeologic facts, and give but slight indications concerning the methods of cultivation or the real condition of the cultivated races of that time. virgil has left us some knowledge of the requirements of methodical [ ] culture of cereals of his time. in his poem _georgics_ (i. ) the following lines are found: _vidi lecta din, et multo spectata labore degenerare tamen, ni vis humana quotannis maxima quaeque manu legeret_. (the chosen seed, through years and labor improved, was seen to run back, unless yearly man selected by hand the largest and fullest of ears.) elsewhere virgil and also some lines of columella and varro go to prove in the same way that selection was applied by the romans to their cereals, and that it was absolutely necessary to keep their races pure. there is little doubt, but that it was the same principle as that which has led, after many centuries, to the complete isolation and improvement of the very best races of the mixed varieties. it further proves that the mixed conditions of the cereals was known to man at that time, although distinct ideas of specific marks and differences were of course still wholly lacking. it is proof also that cultivated cereals from the earliest times must have been built up of numerous elementary forms. moreover it is very probable, that in the lapse of centuries a goodly number of such types must have disappeared. [ ] among the vanished forms are the special barley and wheat of the lake-dwellings, the remains of which have been accidentally preserved, but most of the forms must have disappeared without leaving any trace. this inference is supported by the researches of solms-laubach, who found that in abyssinia numerous primitive types of cereals are still in culture. they are not adequate to compete with our present varieties, and would no doubt also have disappeared, had they not been preserved by such quite accidental and almost primitive isolation. closing this somewhat long digression into history we will now resume our discussion concerning the origin of the method of selecting cereals for isolation and segregate-cultivation. some decades after le couteur, this method was taken up by the celebrated breeder patrick sheriff of haddington in scotland. his belief, which was general at that time, was "that cultivation has not been found to change well defined kinds, and that improvement can be best attained by selecting new and superior varieties, which nature occasionally produces, as if inviting the husbandman to stretch forth his hand and cultivate them." before going into the details of sheriff's work it is as well to say something concerning [ ] the use of the word "selection." this word was used by sheriff as seen in the quotation given, and it was obviously designed to convey the same idea as the word "lecta" in the quotation from virgil. it was a choice of the best plants from among known mixed fields, but the chosen individuals were considered to be representatives of pure and constant races, which could only be isolated, but not ameliorated. selection therefore, in the primitive sense of the word, is the choice of elementary species and varieties, with no other purpose than that of keeping them as pure as possible from the admixture of minor sorts. the romans attained this end only imperfectly, simply because the laws governing the struggle for life and the competition of numerous sorts in the fields were unsuspected by them. le couteur and sheriff succeeded in the solution of the problem, because they had discovered the importance of isolation. the combination of a careful choice with subsequent isolation was all they knew about it, and it was one of the great achievements to which modern agriculture owes its success. the other great principle was that of vilmorin. it was the improvement within the race, or the "amelioration of the race" as it was termed by him. it was introduced into [ ] england by f.f. hallett of brighton in sussex, who at once called it "pedigree-culture," and produced his first new variety under the very name of "pedigree-wheat." this principle, which yields improved strains, that are not constant but dependent on the continued and careful choice of the best plants in each succeeding generation, is now generally called "selection." but it should always be remembered that according to the historic evolution of the idea, the word has the double significance of the distinction and isolation of constant races from mixtures, and that of the choice of the best representatives of a race during all the years of its existence. even sugar-beets, the oldest "selected" agricultural plants, are far from having freed themselves from the necessity of continuous improvement. without this they would not remain constant, but would retrograde with great rapidity. the double meaning of the word selection still prevailed when darwin published his "origin of species." this was in the year , and at that time shirreff was the highest authority and the most successful breeder of cereals. vilmorin's method had been applied only to beets, and hallett had commenced his pedigree-cultures only a few years before and his first publication of the "pedigree-wheat" [ ] appeared some years later at the international exhibition of london in . hence, whenever darwin speaks of selection, shirreff's use of the word may as well be meant as that of vilmorin. however, before going deeper into such theoretical questions, we will first consider the facts, as given by shirreff himself. during the best part of his life, in fact during the largest part of the first half of the nineteenth century, shirreff worked according to a very simple principle. when quite young he had noticed that sometimes single plants having better qualities than the average were seen in the fields. he saved the grains, or sometimes the whole heads of such plants separately, and tried to multiply them in such manner as to avoid intermixtures. his first result was the "mungoswell's wheat." in the spring of he observed quite accidentally in a field of the farm of that name, a single plant which attracted his attention by a deeper green and by being more heavily headed out. without going into further details, he at once chose this specimen as the starting point of a new race. he destroyed the surrounding plants so as to give it more space, applied manure to its roots, and tended it with special care. it yielded heads and nearly [ ] grains. all of these were sown the following fall, and likewise in the succeeding years the whole harvest was sown in separate lots. after two years of rapid multiplication it proved to be a good new variety and was brought into commerce. it has become one of the prominent varieties of wheat in east lothian, that county of scotland of which haddington is the principal borough. the grains of "mungoswell's wheat" are whiter than those of the allied "hunter's wheat," more rounded but otherwise of the same size acid weight. the straw is taller and stronger, and each plant produces more culms and more heads. shirreff assumed, that the original plant of this variety was a sport from the race in which he had found it, and that it was the only instance of this sport. he gives no details about this most interesting side of the question, omitting even to tell the name of the parent variety. he only asserts that it was seen to be better, and afterwards proved so by the appreciation of other breeders and its success in trade. he observed it to be quite constant from the beginning, no subsequent selection being needed. this important feature was simply assumed by him to be true as a matter of course. [ ] some years afterwards, in the summer of , he observed a large specimen of oats in one of the fields of the same farm. being at that time occupied in making a standard collection of oats for a closer comparison of the varieties, he saved the seeds of that plant and sowed them in a row in his experiment-field. it yielded the largest culms of the whole collection and bore long and heavy kernels with a red streak on the concave side and it excelled all other sorts by the fine qualities of its very white meal. in the unequal length of its stalks it has however a drawback, as the field appears thinner and more meager than it is in reality. "hopetown oats," as it is called, has found its way into culture extensively in scotland and has even been introduced with success into england, denmark and the united states. it has been one of the best scottish oats for more than half a century. the next eight years no single plant judged worthy of selection on his own farm attracted shirreff's attention. but in the fall of he saw a beautiful plant of wheat on a neighboring farm and he secured a head of it with about grains. from this he produced the "hopetown wheat." after careful separation from the kernels this original ear was preserved, and was afterwards exhibited at the stirling agricultural [ ] museum. the "hopetown wheat" has proved to be a constant variety, excelling the ordinary "hunter's wheat" by larger grains and longer heads; it yields likewise a straw of superior quality and has become quite popular in large districts of england and scotland, where it is known by the name of "white hunter's" from its origin and the brilliant whiteness of its heads. in the same way shirreff's oats were discovered in a single plant in a field where it was isolated in order to be brought into commerce after multiplication. it has won the surname of "make-him-rich." nothing is on record about the details of its origin. four valuable new varieties of wheat and oats were obtained in this way in less than forty years. then shirreff changed his ideas and his method of working. striking specimens appeared to be too rare, and the expectation of a profitable result too small. therefore he began work on a larger scale. he sought and selected during the summer of seventy heads of wheat, each from a single plant showing some marked and presumably favorable peculiarity. these were not gathered on one field, but were brought together from all the fields to which he had access in his vicinity. the grains of each of these selected heads were [ ] sown separately, and the lots compared during their whole life-period and chiefly at harvest time. three of the lots were judged of high excellence, and they alone were propagated, and proving to be constant new varieties from the outset were given to the trade under the names of "shirreff's bearded white," "shirreff's bearded red," and "pringle's wheat." they have found wide acceptance, and the first two of them are still considered by vilmorin as belonging to the best wheats of france. this second method of shirreff evidently is quite analogous to the principle of lagasca and le couteur. the previous assumption that new varieties with striking features were being produced by nature from time to time, was abandoned, and a systematic inquiry into the worth of all the divergent constituents of the fields was begun. every single ear at once proved to belong to a constant and pure race, but most of these were only of average value. some few however, excelled to a degree, which made them worth multiplying, and to be introduced into trade as separate varieties. once started, this new method of comparison, selection and isolated multiplication was of course capable of many improvements. the culture in the experiment-field was improved, so as to insure a fuller and more rapid growth. [ ] the ripe heads had to be measured and counted and compared with respect to their size and the number of their kernels. qualities of grain and of meal had to be considered, and the influence of climate and soil could not be overlooked. concerning the real origin of his new types shirreff seems never to have been very inquisitive. he remarks that only the best cultivated varieties have a chance to yield still better types, and that it is useless to select and sow the best heads of minor sorts. he further remarks that it is not probable that he found a new sport every time; on the contrary he assumes that his selections had been present in the field before, and during a series of succeeding generations. how many years old they were, was of course impossible to determine. but there is no reason to believe that the conditions in the fields of scotland were different from those observed on the isle of jersey by le couteur. in the year shirreff devoted himself to the selection of oats, searching for the best panicles from the whole country, and comparing their offspring in his experimental garden. "early fellow," "fine fellow," "longfellow" and "early angus" are very notable varieties introduced into trade in this way. [ ] some years later patrick shirreff described his experiments and results in a paper entitled, "on the improvement of cereals," but the descriptions are very short, and give few details of systematic value. the leading principle, however, is clearly indicated, and anyone who studies with care his method of working, may confidently attempt to improve the varieties of his own locality in the same way. this great principle of "variety-testing," as it has been founded by le couteur and patrick shirreff, has increased in importance ever since. two main features are to be considered here. one is the production of local races, the other the choice of the best starting-point for hybridizing experiments, as is shown in california by the work of luther burbank in crossing different elementary species of _lilium pardalinum_ and others. every region and locality has its own conditions of climate and soil. any ordinary mixed race will contain some elementary forms which are better adapted to a given district, while others are more suitable to divergent conditions. hence it can readily be inferred that the choice cannot be the same for different regions. every region should select its own type from among the various forms, and variety testing therefore becomes a task which every [ ] one must undertake under his own conditions. some varieties will prove, after isolation, to be profitable for large districts and perhaps for whole states. others will be found to be of more local value, but in such localities to excel all others. as an example we may take one of the varieties of wheat originated by the minnesota experiment station. hays described it as follows. it was originated from a single plant. from among plants of "blue stem" several of the best were chosen, each growing separately, a foot apart in every direction. each of the selected plants yielded or more grains of wheat, weighing or more grams. the seeds from these selected plants were raised for a few years until sufficient was obtained to sow a plot. then for several years the new strains were grown in a field beside the parent-variety. one of them was so much superior that all others were discarded. it was the one named "minnesota no. ." for a large area of minnesota this wheat seems capable of yielding at least or bushels more grain per acre than its parent variety, which is the best kind commonly and almost universally found on the farms in southern and central minnesota. it would be quite superfluous for our present purpose to give more instances. the fact of [ ] the compound nature of so-called species of cultivated plants seems to be beyond all doubt, and its practical importance is quite obvious. acclimatization is another process, which is largely dependent on the choice of adequate varieties. this is shown on a large scale by the slow and gradual dispersion of the varieties of corn in this country. the largest types are limited to temperate and subtropical regions, while the varieties capable of cultivation in more northern latitudes are smaller in size and stature and require a smaller number of days to reach their full development from seed to seed. northern varieties are small and short lived, but the "forty-day-corn" or "quarantino maize" is recorded to have existed in tropical america at the time of columbus. in preference, or rather to the entire exclusion of taller varieties, it has thriven on the northern boundaries of the corn-growing states of europe since the very beginning of its cultivation. according to naudin, the same rule prevails with melons, cucumbers and gherkins, and other instances could easily be given. referring now to the inferences that may be drawn from the experience of the breeders in order to elucidate the natural processes, we will return to the whitlow-grasses and pansies. [ ] nature has constituted them as groups of slightly different constant forms, quite in the same way as wheat and oats and corn. assuming that this happened ages ago somewhere in central europe, it is of course probable that the same differences in respect to the influence of climatic conditions will have prevailed as with cereals. subsequent to the period which has produced the numerous elementary species of the whitlow-grass came a period of widespread distribution. the process must have been wholly comparable with that of acclimatization. some species must have been more adapted to northern climates, others to the soils of western or eastern regions and so on. these qualities must have decided the general lines of the distribution, and the species must have been segregated according to their respective climatic qualities, and their adaptability to soil and weather. a struggle for life and a natural selection must have accompanied and guided the distribution, but there is no reason to assume that the various forms were changed by this process, and that we see them now endowed with other qualities than they had at the outset. natural selection must have played, in this and in a large number of other cases, quite the same part as the artificial method of variety testing. [ ] indeed it may be surmised that this has been its chief and prominent function. taking up again our metaphor of the sieve we can assert that in such cases climate and soil exercise sifting action and in this way the application of the metaphor becomes more definite. of course, next to the climate and soil in importance, come ecological conditions, the vegetable and animal enemies of the plants and other influences of the same nature. in conclusion it is to be pointed out that this side of the problem of natural selection and the struggle for life appears to offer the best prospects for experimental, or for continued statistical inquiry. direct observations are possible and any comparison of numerical proportions of species in succeeding years affords clear proof of the part it plays. and above all, such observations can be made quite independently of doubtful theoretical considerations about presumed changes of character. the fact of natural selection is plain and it should be studied in its most simple conditions. [ ] c. retrograde varieties lecture v characters of retrograde varieties every one admires the luxuriance of garden-flowers, and their diversity of color and form. all parts of the world have contributed to their number and every taste can find its preference among them. new forms produced by the skill of the breeder are introduced every year. this has been done mostly by crossing and intermingling the characters of introduced species of the same genus. in some of the cases the history of our flowers is so old that their hybrid origin is forgotten, as in the case of the pansies. hybridizations are still going on in other groups on a large scale, and new forms are openly claimed to be of hybrid origin. breeders and amateurs generally have more interest in the results than in the way in which they have been brought about. excellent flowers and fruit recommend themselves and there seems to be no reason for inquiring [ ] about their origin. in some cases the name of the originator may be so widely known that it adds weight to the value of the new form, and therefore may advantageously be coupled with it. the origin and history of the greater part of our garden-flowers, fruits and vegetables are obscure; we see them as they are, and do not know from whence they came. the original habitat for a whole genus or for a species at large, may be known, but questions as to the origin of the single forms, of which it is built up, ordinarily remain unanswered. for these reasons we are restricted in most cases to the comparison of the forms before us. this comparison has led to the general use of the term "variety" in opposition to "species." the larger groups of forms, which are known to have been introduced as such are called species. all forms which by their characters belong to such a species are designated as varieties, irrespective of their systematic relation to the form, considered as the ancestor of the group. hence, we distinguish between "hybrid varieties" and "pure varieties" according to their origin from different parents or from a single line of ancestors. moreover, in both groups the forms may be propagated by seeds, or in the vegetative way by buds, by grafting or [ ] by cutting, and this leads to the distinction of "seed-varieties" and "vegetative varieties." in the first case the inheritance of the special characters through the seeds decides the status of the variety, in the latter case this point is left wholly out of consideration. leaving aside all these different types, we are concerned here only with the "seed-varieties" of pure origin, or at least with those, that are supposed to be so. hybridization and vegetative multiplication of the hybrids no doubt occur in nature, but they are very rare, when compared with the ordinary method of propagation by seed. "seed-varieties" may further be divided into constant and inconstant ones. the difference is very essential, but the test is not always easy to apply. constant varieties are as sharply defined and as narrowly limited as are the best wild species, while inconstant types are cultivated chiefly on account of their wide range of form and color. this diversity is repeated yearly, even from the purest seed. we will now discuss the constant seed-varieties, leaving the inconstant and eversporting types to a subsequent lecture. in this way we may make an exact inquiry into the departures from the species which are ordinarily considered to constitute the essential character of such a constant and pure seed-variety [ ] and need only compare these differences with those that distinguish the elementary species of one and the same group from each other. two points are very striking. by far the greatest part of the ordinary garden-varieties differ from their species by a single sharp character only. in derivative cases two, three or even more such characters may be combined in one variety, for instance, a dwarfed variety of the larkspur may at the same time bear white flowers, or even double white flowers, but the individuality of the single characters is not in the least obscured by such combinations. the second point is the almost general occurrence of the same variety in extended series of species. white and double flowers, variegated leaves, dwarfs and many other instances may be cited. it is precisely this universal repetition of the same character that strikes us as the essential feature of a variety. and again these two characteristics may now be considered separately. let us begin with the sharpness of the varietal characters. in this respect varieties differ most obviously from elementary species. these are distinguished from their nearest allies in almost all organs. there is no prominent distinctive feature between the single forms of _draba_ [ ] _verna_, _helianthemum_ or of _taraxacum_; all characters are almost equally concerned. the elementary species of _draba_ are characterized, as we have seen, by the forms and the hairiness of the leaves, the number and height of the flower-stalks, the breadth and incision of the petals, the forms of the fruits, and so on. every one of the two hundred forms included in this collective species has its own type, which it is impossible to express by a single term. their names are chosen arbitrarily. quite the contrary is the case with most of the varieties, for which one word ordinarily suffices to express the whole difference. white varieties of species with red or blue flowers are the most common instances. if the species has a compound color and if only one of the constituents is lost, partially colored types arise as in _agrostemma coronaria bicolor_. or the spots may disappear and the color become uniform as in _gentiana punctata concolor_ and the spotless arum or _arum maculatum immaculatum_. absence of hairs produces forms as _biscutella laevigata glabra_; lack of prickles gives the varieties known as _inermis, as for instance, _ranunculus arvensis inermis_. _cytisus prostratus_ has a variety _ciliata_, and _solanum dulcamara_, or the bitter-sweet, has a variety called _tomentosum_. the curious monophyllous [ ] variety of the strawberry and many other forms will be discussed later. to enlarge this list it would only be necessary to extract from a flora, or from a catalogue of horticultural plants, the names of the varieties enumerated therein. in nearly every instance, where true varieties and not elementary species are concerned, a single term expresses the whole character. such a list would also serve to illustrate the second point since the same names would recur frequently. long lists of varieties are called alba, or inermis, or canescens or lutea, and many genera contain the same appellations. in some instances the systematists use a diversity of names to convey exactly the same idea, as if to conceal the monotony of the character, as for instance in the case of the lack of hairs, which is expressed by the varietal names of _papaver dubium glabrum_, _arabis ciliata glabrata_, _arabis hirsuta glaberrima_, _veronica spicata nitens_, _amygdalus persica laevis_, _paeonia corallina leiocarpa_, &c. on the contrary we find elementary species in different genera based on the greatest possible diversity of features. the forms of _taraxacum_ or _helianthemum_ do not repeat those of _draba_ or _viola_. in roses and brambles the distinguishing features are characteristic of the type, as [ ] they are evidently derived from it and limited to it. and this is so true that nobody claims the grade of elementary species for white roses or white brambles, but everyone recognizes that forms diverging from the nearest species by a single character only, are to be regarded as varieties. this general conviction is the basis on which we may build up a more sharply defined distinction between elementary species and varieties. it is an old rule in systematic botany, that no form is to be constituted a species upon the basis of a single character. all authors agree on this point; specific differences are derived from the totality of the attributes, not from one organ or one quality. this rule is intimately connected with the idea that varieties are derived from species. the species is the typical, really existing form from which the variety has originated by a definite change. in enumerating the different forms the species is distinguished by the term of genuine or typical, often only indicated as _a_ or the first; then follow the varieties sometimes in order of their degree of difference, sometimes simply in alphabetical order. in the case of elementary species there is no real type; no one of them predominates because all are considered to be equal in rank, and the systematic species to which they [ ] are referred is not a really existing form, but is the abstraction of the common type of all, just as it is in the case of a genus or of a family. summarizing the main points of this discussion, we find that elementary species are of equal rank and together build up the collective or systematic ideal species. varieties on the other hand are derived from a real and commonly, still existing type. i hope that i have succeeded in showing that the difference between elementary species, or, as they are often called, smaller or subspecies, on the one hand and varieties on the other, is quite a marked one. however, in order to recognize this principle it is necessary to limit the term variety, to those propagating themselves by seed and are of pure and not of hybrid origin. but the principle as stated here, does not involve an absolute contrast between two groups of characters. it is more a difference in our knowledge and appreciation of them than a difference in the things themselves. the characters of elementary species are, as a rule, new to us, while those of varieties are old and familiar. it seems to me that this is the essential point. and what is it that makes us familiar with them? obviously the continuous recurrence of the same changes, because by a constant repetition they must of course lose their novelty. [ ] presently we shall look into these characters more in detail and then we shall find that they are not so simple as might be supposed at first sight; but precisely because we are so familiar with them, we readily see that their different features really belong to a single character; while in elementary species everything is so new that it is impossible for us to discern the unities of the new attributes. if we bear in mind all these difficulties we cannot wonder at the confusion on this question that seems to prevail everywhere. some authors following linnaeus simply call all the subdivisions of species, varieties; others follow jordan and avoid the difficulty by designating all smaller forms directly as species. the ablest systematists prefer to consider the ordinary species as collective groups, calling their constituents "the elements of the species," as was done by a.p. de candolle, alph. de candolle and lindley. by this method they clearly point out the difference between the subdivisions of wild species as they ordinarily occur, and the varieties in our gardens, which would be very rare, were they not singled out and preserved. our familiarity with a character and our grounds for calling it an old acquaintance may result from two causes, which in judging a new [ ] variety are essentially different. the character in question may be present in the given species or it may be lacking, but present in the other group. in the first case a variety can only be formed by the loss of the character, in the second case it arises by the addition of a new one. the first mode may be called a negative process, while the second is then to be designated as positive. and as it is more easy to lose what one has than to obtain something new, negative varieties are much more common than are positive ones. let us now take an instance of a character that is apt to vary in both ways, for this is obviously the best way of making clear what is meant by a negative and a positive change. in the family of the composites we find a group of genera with two forms of florets on each flower-head. the hermaphrodite ones are tubular with , or rarely , equal teeth, and occupy the center of the head. these are often called the flosculous florets or disk-florets. those of the circumference are ligulate and ordinarily unisexual, without stamens. in many cases they are sterile, having only an imperfect ovary. they are large and brightly colored and are generally designated as ray-florets. as instances we may cite the camomile (_anthemis nobilis_), the wild camomile (_matricaria chamomilla_), [ ] the yarrow (_achillea millefolium_), the daisies, the dahlia and many others. species occur in this group of plants from time to time that lack the ray-florets, as in the tansy (_tanacetum vulgare_) and some _artemisias_. and the genus of the marigolds or _bidens_ is noted for containing both of these types. the smaller and the three-toothed marigold (_b. cernua_ and _b. tripartita_) are very common plants of wet soil and swamps, ordinarily lacking the ray-florets, and in some countries they are very abundant and wholly constant in this respect, never forming radiate flower-heads. on the other hand the white-flowered and the purple marigold (_b. leucantha_ and _b. atropurpurea_) are cultivated species of our gardens, prized for their showy flower-heads with large white or deeply colored, nearly black-purple florets. here we have opportunity to observe positive and negative varieties of the same character. the smaller, and the three-toothed marigold occur from time to time, provided with ray florets, showing a positive variation. and the white marigold has produced in our gardens a variety without rays. such varieties are quite constant, never returning to the old species. positive and negative varieties of this kind are by no means rare among the compositae. [ ] in systematic works the positive ones are as a rule called "radiate," and the negative ones "discoid." discoid forms of the ordinary camomile, of the daisy, of some asters (_aster tripolium_), and of some centauries have been described. radiate forms have been observed in the tansy (_tanacetum vulgare_), the common horse-weed or canada fleabane (_erigeron canadensis_) and the common groundsel (_senecio vulgaris_). taken broadly the negative varieties seem to be somewhat more numerous than the positive ones, but it is very difficult to come to a definite conclusion on this point. quite the contrary is the case with regard to the color-varieties of red and blue flowers. here the loss of color is so common that every one could give long lists of examples of it. linnaeus himself supposed that no blue or red-colored wild species would be without a white variety. it is well known that he founded his often criticized prescript never to trust to color in recognizing or describing a species, on this belief. on the other hand there are some red varieties of white-flowered species. but they are very rare, and little is known about their characters or constancy. blue varieties of white species are not found. the yarrow (_achillea millefolium_) has a red-flowered form, which occurs [ ] from time to time in sunny and sandy localities. i have isolated it and cultivated it during a series of years and during many generations. it is quite true to its character, but the degree of its coloring fluctuates between pink and white and is extremely variable. perhaps it can be considered as an inconstant variety. a redflowered form of the common _begonia semperflorens_ is cultivated under the name of "vernon," the white hawthorn (_crataegus oxyacantha_) is often seen with red flowers, and a pink-flowered variety of the "silverchain" or "bastard acacia" (_robinia pseud-acacia_) is not rarely cultivated. the "crown" variety of the yellow wall-flower and the black varieties, are also to be considered as positive color variations, the black being due in the latter cases to a very great amount of the red pigment. among fruits there are also some positive red varieties of greenish or yellowish species, as for instance the red gooseberry (_ribes grossularia_) and the red oranges. the red hue is far more common in leaves, as seen among herbs, in cultivated varieties of _coleus_ and in the brown leaved form of the ordinary white clover, among trees and shrubs in the hazelnut (_corylus_), the beech (_fagus_), the birch (_betula_), the barberry (_berberis_) and many others. but though most of these forms are very ornamental and abundant [ ] in parks and gardens, little is as yet known concerning the origin of their varietal attributes and their constancy, when propagated by seeds. besides the ray-florets and the colors, there are of course a great many other characters in which varieties may differ from their species. in most of the cases it is easy to discern whether the new character is a positive or a negative one. and it is not at all necessary to scrutinize very narrowly the list of forms to become convinced that the negative form is the one which prevails nearly everywhere, and that positive aberrations are in a general sense so rare that they might even be taken for exceptions to the rule. many organs and many qualities may be lost in the origination of a variety. in some instances the petals may disappear, as in _nigella_, or the stamens, as in the guelder-rose (_viburnum opulus_) and the _hortensia_ and in some bulbs even the whole flowers may be wanting, as in the beautiful "plumosa" form of the cultivated grape-hyacinth or _muscari comosum_. fruits of the pineapples and bananas without seeds are on record as well as some varieties of apples and pears, of raisins and oranges. and some years ago mr. riviere of algeria described a date growing in his garden that forms fruit without pits. the stoneless plum of mr. [ ] burbank of santa rosa, california, is also a very curious variety, the kernel of which is fully developed but naked, no hard substance intervening between it and the pulp. more curious still are the unbranched varieties consisting of a single stem, as may be seen sometimes in the corn or maize and in the fir. fir-trees of some three or four meters in height without a single branch, wholly naked and bearing leaves only on the shoots of the last year's growth at the apex of the tree, may be seen. of course they cannot bear seed, and so it is with the sterile maize, which never produces any seed-spikes or staminate flowers. other seedless varieties can be propagated by buds; their origin is in most cases unknown, and we are not sure as to whether they should be classified with the constant or with the inconstant varieties. a very curious loss is that of starch in the grains of the sugar-corn and the sugar-peas. it is replaced by sugar or some allied substance (dextrine). equally remarkable is the loss of the runners in the so-called "gaillon" strawberries. among trees the pendulous or weeping, and the broomlike or fastigiate forms are very marked varieties, which occur in species belonging to quite different orders. the ash, the beach, some willows, many other trees and some [ ] finer species of garden-plants, as _sophora japonica_, have given rise to weeping varieties, and the yew-tree or _taxus_ has a fastigiate form which is much valued because of its ascending branches and pyramidal habit. so it is with the pyramidal varieties of oaks, elms, the bastard-acacia and some others. it is generally acknowledged that these forms are to be considered as varieties on the ground of their occurrence in so wide a range of species, and because they always bear the same attributes. the pendulous forms owe their peculiarity to a lengthening of the branches and a loss of their habit of growing upwards; they are too weak to retain a vertical position and the response to gravity, which is ordinarily the cause of the upright growth, is lacking in them. as far as we know, the cause of this weeping habit is the same in all instances. the fastigiate trees and shrubs are a counterpart of the weeping forms. here the tendency to grow in a horizontal direction is lacking, and with it the bilateral and symmetric structure of the branches has disappeared. in the ordinary yew-tree the upright stem bears its needles equally distributed around its circumference, but on the branches the needles are inserted in two rows, one to the left and one to the right. all the needles turn their upper surfaces upwards, [ ] and their lower surfaces downwards, and all of them are by this means placed in a single horizontal plane, and branching takes place in the same plane. evidently this general arrangement is another response to gravity, and it is the failure of this reaction which induces the branches to grow upwards and to behave like stems. both weeping and fastigiate characters are therefore to be regarded as steps in a negative direction, and it is highly important that even such marked departures occur without transitions or intermediate forms. if these should occur, though ever so rarely, they would probably have been brought to notice, on account of the great prospect the numerous instances would offer. the fact that they are lacking, proves that the steps, though apparently great, are in reality to be considered as covering single units, that cannot be divided into smaller parts. unfortunately we are still in the dark as to the question of the inheritance of these forms, since in most cases it is difficult to obtain pure seed. we now consider the cases of the loss of superficial organs, of which the nectarines are example. these are smooth peaches, lacking the soft hairy down, that is a marked peculiarity of the true peaches. they occur in different [ ] races of the peach. as early as the beginning of the past century, gallesio described no less than eight subvarieties of nectarines, each related to a definite race of peach. most of them reproduce themselves truly from seed, as is well known in this country concerning the clingstones, freestones and some other types. nectarines have often varied, giving rise to new sorts, as in the case of the white nectarine and many others differing greatly in appearance and flavor. on the other hand it is to be remarked, that the trees do not differ in other respects and cannot be distinguished while young, the varietal mark being limited to the loss of the down on the fruit. peaches have been known to produce nectarines, and nectarines to yield true peaches. here we have another instance of positive and negative steps with reference to the same character, but i cannot withhold an expression of some doubt as to the possibility of crossing and subsequently splitting up of the hybrids as a more probable explanation of at least some of the cases quoted by various writers. smooth or glabrous varieties often occur, and some of them have already been cited as instances of the multiplication of varietal names. positive aberrations are rather rare, and are mostly restricted to a greater density of the [ ] pubescence in some hairy species, as in _galeopsis ladanum canescens_, _lotus corniculatus hirsutus_ and so on. but _veronica scutellata_ is smooth and has a pubescent variety, and cytisus prostratus and _c. spinescens_ are each recorded to have a ciliate form. comparable with the occurrence and the lack of hairs, is the existence or deficiency of the glaucous effect in leaves, as is well known in the common _ricinus_. here the glaucous appearance is due to wax distributed in fine particles over the surface of the leaves, and in the green variety this wax is lacking. other instances could be given as in the green varieties of _papaver alpinum_ and _rumex scutatus_. no positive instances are recorded in this case. spines and prickles may often disappear and give rise to unarmed and defenceless types. of the thorn-apples both species, the whiteflowered _datura stramonium_ and the purple _d. tatula_ have such varieties. spinach has a variety called the "dutch," which lacks the prickles of the fruit; it is a very old form and absolutely constant, as are also the thornless thorn-apples. last year a very curious instance of a partial loss of prickles was discovered by mr. cockerell of east las vegas in new mexico. it is a variety of the american cocklebur, often called sea-burdock, or the [ ] hedgehog-burweed, a stout and common weed of the western states. its latin name is _xanthium canadense_ or _x. commune_ and the form referred to is named by mr. cockerell, _x. wootoni_, in honor of professor e.o. wooton who described the first collected specimens. the burs of the common species are densely covered with long prickles, which are slightly hooked at the apex. in the new form, which is similar in all other respects to the common cocklebur, the burs are more slender and the prickles much less numerous, about to the bur and mostly stouter at the base. it occurs abundantly in new mexico, always growing with the common species, and seems to be quite constant from seed. mr. cockerell kindly sent me some burs of both forms, and from these i raised in my garden last year a nice lot of the common, as well as of the _wootoni_ plants. spineless varieties are recorded for the bastard-acacia, the holly and the garden gooseberry (_ribes grossularia_, or _r. uva-crispa_). a spineless sport of the prickly broom (_ulex europaeus_) has been seen from time to time, but it has not been propagated. summarizing the foregoing facts, we have excellent evidence of varieties being produced either by the loss of some marked peculiarity or by the acquisition of others that are already [ ] present in allied species. there are a great many cases however, in which the morphologic cause of the dissimilarity is not so easily discerned. but there is no reason to doubt that most of them will be found to conform to the rule on closer investigation. therefore we can consider the following as the principal difference between elementary species and varieties; that the first arise by the acquisition of entirely new characters, and the latter by the loss of existing qualities or by the gain of such peculiarities as may already be seen in other allied species. if we suppose elementary species and varieties originated by sudden leaps or mutations, then the elementary species have mutated in the line of progression, some varieties have mutated in the line of retrogression, while others have diverged from their parental types in a line of depression, or in the way of repetition. this conception agrees quite well with the current idea that in the building up of the vegetable kingdom according to the theory of descent, it is species that form the links of the chain from the lower forms to the more highly organized later derivatives. otherwise expressed, the system is built up of species, and varieties are only local and lateral, but never of real importance for the whole structure. [ ] heretofore we have generally assumed, that varieties differ from the parent-species in a single character only, or at least that only one need be considered. we now come to the study of those varieties, which differ in more than one character. of these there are two types. in the first the points of dissimilarity are intimately connected with one another, in the second they are more or less independent. the mutually related peculiarities may be termed correlative, and we therefore speak, in such cases, of correlative variability. this phenomenon is of the highest importance and is of general occurrence. but before describing some examples, it is as well to note that in the lecture on fluctuating variability, cases of a totally different nature will be dealt with, which unfortunately are designated by the same term. such merely fluctuating variations are therefore to be left out of the present discussion. the purple thorn-apple, which is considered by some writers as a variety of the white-flowered species or _datura stramonium_, and by others as a separate species, _d. tatula_, will serve as an illustration. but as its distinguishing attributes, as far as we are concerned with them here, are of the nature described above as characteristic of varietal peculiarities no objection [ ] can be made to our using them as a case of correlative variability. the essential character of the purple thornapple lies in the color of the flowers, which are of a very beautiful pale blue. but this color is not limited to the corolla. it is also to be seen in the stems and in the stalks and veins of the leaves, which are stained with a deep purple, the blue color being added to the original green. even on the surface of the leaves it may spread into a purplish hue. on the stems it is to be met with everywhere, and even the young seedlings show it. this is of some importance, as the young plants when unfolding their cotyledons and primary leaves, may be distinguished by this means from the seedlings of the white flowered species. in crossing experiments it is therefore possible to distinguish the whites and the blues, even in young seedlings, and experience shows that the correlation is quite constant. the color can always be relied upon; if lacking in the seedlings, it will be lacking in the stems and flowers also; but if the axis of the young plant is ever so slightly tinged, the color will show itself in its beauty in the later stages of the life of the plant. this is what we term correlation. the colors of the different organs are always in agreement. it is true that they require the concurrence of [ ] light for development, and that in the dark or in a faint light the seedlings are apt to remain green when they should become purple, but aside from such consideration all organs always come true to their color, whether pure green and white, or whether these are combined with the blue tinge. this constancy is so absolute that the colors of the different organs convey the suggestion, that they are only separate marks of a single character. it is on this suggestion that we must work, as it indicates the cause of the correlation. once present, the faculty of producing the anthocyan, the color in question, will come into activity wherever and whenever opportunity presents itself. it is the cell-sap of the ordinary cell tissue or parenchyma, which is colored by the anthocyan, and for this reason all organs possessing this tissue, may exhibit the color in question. thus the color is not a character belonging to any single organ or cell, nor is it bound to a morphologic unit; it is a free, physiologic quality. it is not localized, but belongs to the entire plant. if we wish to assume for its basis material representative particles, these particles must be supposed to be diffused throughout the whole body of the plant. this conception of a physiologic unit as the [ ] cause of colors and other qualities is evidently opposed to the current idea of the cells and tissues as the morphologic units of the plants. but i do not doubt, that in the long run it will recommend itself as much to the scientist as to the breeder. for the breeder, when desiring to keep his varieties up to their standard, or when breeding to a definite idea, obviously keeps his standard and his ideal for the whole plant, even if he breeds only for flowers or for fruit. i have chosen the color of the purple thornapple as a first example, but the colors of other plants show so many diverging aspects, all pointing so clearly to the same conclusion, that it would be well to take a more extensive view of this interesting subject. first we must consider the correlation in the colors of flowers and fruits. if both are colored in the species, whether red or brown or purple or nearly black, and a variety lacking this hue is known, it will be lacking in both organs. if the color is pure, the flowers and berries will become white, but such cases are rare. ordinarily a yellowish or greenish tinge underlies the ornamental color, and if this latter disappears, the yellowish ground will become manifest. so for instance in the belladonna, a beautiful perennial herb with great shiny black, but very poisonous, fruits. its flowers are brown, but in [ ] some woods a variety with greenish flowers and bright yellow berries occurs, which is also frequently seen in botanic gardens. the anthocyan dye is lacking in both organs, and the same is the case with the stems and the leaves. the lady's laurel or _daphne mezereum_ has red corollas, purple leaves and red fruits; its white flowered variety may be distinguished by lack of the red hue in the stems and leaves, and by their beautiful yellow berries. many other instances could be given, since the loss of color in berries is a very common occurrence, so common that for instance, in the heath-family or ericaceae, with only a few exceptions, all berry-bearing species have white-fruited varieties. the same correlation is observed in the seeds. the white-flowered flax may be seen to yield yellow and not brown seeds as in the blue species. many varieties of flowers may be recognized by the color of their seeds, as in the poppies, stocks and others. other white-flowered varieties may be distinguished when germinating, their young axes being of a pure instead of a purplish green. it is a test ordinarily used by gardeners, to purify their flower beds long before the blooming time, when thinning or weeding them. even in wild plants, as in _erodium_, _calluna_, _brunella_ and others, a botanist may recognize the rare white-flowered [ ] variety by the pure green color of the leaves, at times when it is not in flower. some sorts of peas bear colored flowers and a red mark on the stipules of their leaves. among bulbous plants many varieties may be recognized even in the dry bulbs by the different tinges of the outer scales. leaving the colors, we come now to another instance of correlation, which is still more astonishing. for it is as rare, as color-varieties are common. it is afforded by some plants the leaves of which, instead of being entire or only divided into large parts, are cleft to a greater extent by repeated fissures of the marginal lobes. such foliar variations are often seen in gardens, where they are cultivated for their beauty or singularity, as the laciniated alders, fern-leaved, beeches and limes, oakleaved laburnums, etc. many of them are described under the varietal name of _laciniata_. in some cases this fissure extends to the petals of the flowers, and changes them in a way quite analogous to the aberrancy of the leaves. this is known to occur with a variety of brambles, and is often seen in botanic gardens in one of the oldest and most interesting of all anomalies, the laciniated variety of the greater celandine or _chelidonium majus_. many other instances could be given. most of them belong to the [ ] group of negative variations, as we have defined them. but the same thing occurs also with positive varieties, though of course, such cases are very rare. the best known instance is that of the ever-flowering begonia, _begonia semperflorens_, which has green leaves and white flowers, but which has produced garden varieties with a brown foliage and pink flowers. here also the new quality manifests itself in different organs. enough has now been said on correlative changes, to convince us that they are as a rule to be considered as the expression of some general internal or physiologic quality, which is not limited to a single organ, but affects all parts of the organism, provided they are capable of undergoing the change. such characters are therefore to be considered as units, and should be referred to the group of single characters. opposed to these are the true compound characters, which consist of different units. these may be segregated by the production of varieties, and thereby betray the separate factors of the complex group. the most beautiful instances of such complex characters are offered by the colors of some of the most prized garden-flowers. rarely these are of a single hue, often two or three shades contribute to the effect, and in some cases special [ ] spots or lines or tracings are to be seen on a white or on a colored background. that such spots and lines are separate units is obvious and is demonstrated by the fact that sometimes spotless varieties occur, which in all other respects have kept the colors of the species. the complexity of the color is equally evident, whenever it is built up of constituents of the anthocyan and of the yellow group. the anthocyan dye is limited to the sap-cavity of the cells, while the yellow and pure orange colors are fixed in special organs of the protoplasm. the observation under the microscope shows at once the different units, which though lying in the same cell and in almost immediate vicinity of each other are always wholly separated from one another by the wall of the vacuole or sapfilled cell-cavity. the combination of red and yellow gives a brown tinge, as in the cultivated wall-flower, or those bright hues of a dark orange-red, which are so much sought in tulips. by putting such flowers for a short time in boiling water, the cells die and release the red pigment, which becomes diffused in the surrounding fluids and the petals are left behind with their yellow tinge. in this way it is easy to separate the constituents, and demonstrate the compound nature of the original colors. [ ] but the diversity of the color patterns is far from being exhausted with these simple instances. apart from them, or joined to them, other complications are frequently seen, which it is impossible to analyze in such an artificial way. here we have to return to our former principle, the comparison of different varieties. assuming that single units may be lost, irrespective of the others, we may expect to find them segregated by variation, wherever a sufficiently wide range of color-varieties is in cultivation. in fact, in most cases a high degree of dissimilarity may be reached in the simplest way by such a separation of the components, and by their combination into most diverse smaller groups. a very nice instance of such an analysis of flower-colors is afforded by the ordinary snapdragon. the beautiful brown red color of this common garden-plant is composed on one side of yellow elements, on the other of red units. of the yellow there are two, one staining the whole corolla with a light hue, as is to be seen in the pure yellow variety called _luteum. this form has been produced by the loss of the whole group of the red constituents. if the yellow tinge is also lost, there arises a white variety, but this is not absolutely colorless, but shows the other yellow constituent. this last stains only some small parts [ ] of the lips of the flower around the throat, brightening, as it seems, the entrance for the visiting insects. in many of the red or reddish varieties this one yellow patch remains, while the general yellow hue fails. in the variety called "brilliant" the yellow ground makes the red color more shiny, and if it is absent the pure carmine tinge predominates. it is readily seen, that in the ordinary form the lips are of a darker red than the tube. this evident dissimilarity indicates some complexity. and in fact we have two varieties which exhibit the two causes of this attribute separately. one of them is called "delila," and has the red color limited to the lips, whilst the tube is pure white. the other is called "fleshy," and is of a pale pink throughout the whole corolla. adding these two units to one another, we get the original dark red of the wild type, and it may be briefly stated here, that the way of effecting such an addition is given us in the crossing of the "fleshy" and the "delila" variety, the hybrid showing the two colors and returning thereby to the old prototype. other cases of compound flower colors or of color patterns might be given as in the _mimulus_ and the poppy, and in most of these cases some varieties are to be seen in our gardens which show only the single constituents of the group. [ ] many dark flowers have an intermediate bright hued form besides the white variety, as in the case of roses, asters, _nicandra_ and so on. intermediate forms with respect to stature may also be seen. the opium-poppy, the snapdragon, peas, the _nicandra_, and many other garden-plants have not only dwarf varieties, but also some of intermediate height. these, though they are intermediate between the tall and dwarf types, cannot be considered as transitions, as between them and the extremes, intermediates are, as a rule wholly lacking. instances of the same occurrence of three types may be seen in the seeds of maize ("cuzco," "horse-dent" and "gracillima") of beans and some other plants. the _xanthium wootoni_, above referred to, with only part of the prickles of xanthium commune is also a very curious instance of the demonstration of the compound nature of a character. summarizing the conclusions that may be drawn from the evidence given in this lecture, we have seen that varieties differ from elementary species in that they do not possess anything really new. they originate for the greater part in a negative way, by the apparent loss of some quality, and rarely in a positive manner by acquiring a character, already seen in allied species. these characters are not of the nature of [ ] morphologic entities, but are to be considered as physiologic units, present in all parts of the organisms, and manifesting themselves where ever occasion is afforded. they are units in the sense that they may appear and disappear singly. but very often they are combined to yield compound characters, which are capable of analysis. opportunities for such an analysis are afforded by these groups of cultivated varieties, of which some members show a single distinguishing quality, or a number of them. [ ] lecture vi stability and real atavism it is generally believed that varieties are principally distinguished from species by their inconstancy. this conception is derived from some special cases and transferred to others, and in its common form this belief must have originated from the confusion which exists as to the meaning of the term variety. it is true that vegetative varieties as a rule run back, when propagated by seeds; they are an obvious instance of inconstancy. in the second place we have considered the group of inconstant or sporting varieties, which of course we must exclude when studying the stability of other types. however, even these sporting varieties are unstable only to a certain degree, and in a broader sense will prove to be as true to their character as the most constant types. having separated these two groups, which include also the wide range of hybrid forms, we may next consider only those varieties of pure origin, and ordinarily propagated by seeds, [ ] which have been discussed in former chapters. their general character lies in their fidelity to type, and in the fact that this is single, and not double, as in the sporting varieties. but the current belief is, that they are only true to their peculiarities to a certain degree, and that from time to time, and not rarely, they revert to the type from which they have arisen. such reversion is supposed to prove that they are mere varieties, and at the same time to indicate empirically the species from which they have sprung. in the next lecture we shall examine critically the evidence on which this assumption rests. before doing so however, it will be necessary to collate the cases in which there is no reversion at all, or in which the reversion is absent at least in experimental and pure sowings. in the present state of our knowledge it is very difficult to decide, whether or not true reversion occurs in constant varieties. if it does occur, it surely does so very rarely and only under unusual circumstances, or in particular individuals. however when such individuals are multiplied by buds and especially when they are the only representatives of their type, the reversion, though theoretically rare, will be shown by nearly every specimen of the variety. examples of this will be given below. [ ] they are generally called atavists or reversionists, but even these terms are sometimes used in a different sense. lastly it is to be said that the empirical and experimental evidence as to the question of constancy is not as extensive as it should be. the experimental conditions are seldom described, and it is only recently that an interest in the matter has been awakened. much remains to be done. among other things the innumerable varieties of trees, shrubs and perennial herbs should be tested as to their constancy when grown from purely fertilized seeds. many of them may be included among the number that sport constantly. leaving aside the doubtful or insufficiently studied cases, we may now turn our attention to the facts that prove the absolute stability of a large number of varieties, at least as far as such completeness can be attained by experiment or observation. the best proof is afforded by the varieties which grow wild in localities where they are quite isolated from the species, and where for this reason, no possibility of crossing disturbs the significance of the proof. as one instance the rayless form of the wild camomile, or the _matricaria chamomilla discoidea_ may be mentioned. many systematists have been so strongly [ ] impressed with its absolute constancy and its behavior as an ordinary species, that they have elevated it, as it is called, to the rank of a species. as such it is described under the name of _matricaria discoidea_ dc. it is remarkable for its rapid and widespread distribution, as of late years it has become naturalized in different parts of america and of europe, where it is to be seen especially in france and in norway. experimentally i raised in succeeding years between and seedlings, but observed no trace of reversion, either in the strongest or in the numerous very small and weak individuals which appeared in the cultures. the tansy-ragwort or _senecio jacobaea_ may be chosen as a second instance. it is a perennial herb with short rootstocks and stout stems bearing numerous short-peduncled heads in large compact corymb; it multiplies itself abundantly by seeds and is very common on the sand dunes of holland. it has two forms, differing only in the occurrence or the lack of the ray florets. but these two varieties occupy different localities and are even limited to different provinces. as far as i have been able to ascertain on numerous excursions during a series of years, they never sport, and are only intermingled on the outskirts of their habitats. the rayless form is generally considered as the [ ] variety but it is quite as stable as the radiate species. the radiate varieties of marigold, quoted in a former lecture, seem to be equally constant, when growing far away from their prototypes. i sowed the seeds of a single plant of the radiate form of _bidens cernua_, and found all of the seedlings came true, and in the next year i had from their seed between , and , flowering individuals, all equally radiate. many species of composites have been tried, and they are all constant. on the other hand rare sports of this kind have been observed by murr and other authors. many kinds of vegetables and of fruits give instances of stability. white strawberries, green grapes, white currants, crisped lettuce, crisped parsley and some other crisped forms may be cited. the spinage without prickles is a widely known instance. white-flowered flax never reverts to the blue prototype, if kept pure. sugar-peas and sugar-corn afford further instances. strawberries without runners have come true from seed ever since their first appearance, over a hundred years ago. many garden-varieties, the stability of which under ordinary circumstances is doubtful, because of their being sown too close to other varieties of the same species, have been tested in [ ] respect to their stability by different writers and at different times. in doing this it is plain that it is very essential to be sure of the purity of the seed. specimens must be grown in positions isolated from their allies, and if possible be pollinated artificially with the exclusion of the visits of insects. this may be done in different ways. if it is a rare species, not cultivated in the neighborhood, it is often sufficient to make sure of this fact. pollen may be conveyed by bees from distances of some ten or twenty meters, or in rare cases from some hundred meters and more, but a greater distance is ordinarily sufficient for isolation. if the flowers fertilize themselves, as is more often the case than is generally supposed, or if it is easy to pollinate them artificially, with their own pollen or in small groups of similar individuals, the best way is to isolate them by means of close coverings. when flowering, the plants are as a rule too large to be put under bell-glasses, and moreover such coverings would keep the air moist, and cause the flower-buds to be thrown off. the best coverings are of netting, or of canvas of sufficiently wide mesh, although after a long experience i greatly prefer cages of fine iron-wire, which are put around and over the whole plant or group of plants, and fastened securely and tightly to the ground. [ ] paper bags also may be made use of. they are slipped over the flowering branches, and bound together around the twigs, thus enclosing the flowers. it is necessary to use prepared papers, in order that they may resist rain and wind. the best sort, and the one that i use almost exclusively in my fertilization-experiments, is made of parchment-paper. this is a wood-pulp preparation, freed artificially from the so-called wood-substance or lignin. having covered the flowers with care, and having gathered the seeds free from intermixtures and if possible separately for each single individual, it only remains to sow them in quantities that will yield the greatest possible number of individuals. reversions are supposed to be rare and small groups of seedlings of course would not suffice to bring them to light. only sowings of many hundreds or thousands of individuals are decisive. such sowings can be made in one year, or can be extended over a series of years and of generations. hildebrand and hoffman have preferred the last method, and so did hofmeister and many others. hildebrand sowed the white hyacinth, and the white varieties of the larkspur, the stock and the sweet pea. hoffman cultivated the white flax and many other varieties and hofmeister extended his sowings [ ] over thirty years with the white variety of the yellow foxglove (_digitalis parviflora_). white-flowered varieties of perennial garden plants were used in my own experiments. i bought the plants, flowered them under isolation in the way described above, gathered the seeds from each individual separately and sowed them in isolated groups, keeping many hundreds and in some cases above a thousand plants up to the time of flowering. among them i found only one inconstant variety, the white form of the yellow columbine, _aquilegia chrysantha_. it evidently belonged to the group of sporting varieties already referred to. all others came absolutely true to type without any exception. the species experimented with, were _campanula persicifolia_, _hyssopus officinalis_, _lobelia syphilitica_, _lychnis chalcedonica_, _polemonium dissectum_, _salvia sylvestris_ and some others. tested in the same way i found the white varieties of the following annual plants also quite true: _chrysanthemum coronarium_, _godetia amoena_, _linum usitatissimum_, _phlox drummondi_, and _silene armeria_. to these may be added the white hemlock stork's-bill (_erodium cicutarium album_) which grows very abundantly in some parts of my fatherland, and is easily recognizable by its pure green leaves and stems, even when not flowering. i cultivated it, in large numbers [ ] during five succeeding generations, but was never able to find even the slightest indication of a reversion to the red prototype. the scarlet pimpernel or _anagallis arvensis_ has a blue variety which is absolutely constant. even in britton and brown's "flora," which rarely enumerates varieties, it is mentioned as being probably a distinct species. eight hundred blooming seedlings were obtained from isolated parents, all of the same blue color. the new zealand spinage (_tetragonia expansa_) has a greenish and a brownish variety, the red color extending over the whole foliage, including the stems and the branches. i have tried both of them during several years, and they never sported into each other. i raised more than , seedlings, from the different seeds of one lot of the green variety in succeeding years, but neither those germinating in the first year, nor the others coming into activity after two, three or four years of repose gave any sign of the red color of the original species. it is an old custom to designate intermediate forms as hybrids, especially when both the types are widely known and the intermediates rare. many persons believe that in doing so, they are giving an explanation of the rarer forms. but since the laws of hybridism are coming to be known we shall have to break with [ ] all such usages. so for instance there are numerous flowers which are of a dark red or a dark blue color, and which, besides a white variety, have a pink or a pale blue form. such pale varieties are of exactly the same value as others, and on testing they are found to be equally stable. so for instance the pink variety of the sweet william (_silene armeria rosea_), the _clarkia pulchella carnea_ and the pale variety of the corn-cockle, called usually _agrostemma githago nicaeensis_ or even simply _a. nicaeensis_. the latter variety i found pure during ten succeeding generations. another notable stable intermediate form is the poppy bearing the danish flag (_papaver somniferum danebrog_). it is an old variety, and absolutely pure when cultivated separately. a long list of other instances might easily be given. many garden-varieties, that are still universally prized and cultivated are very old. it is curious to note how often such forms have been introduced as novelties. the common foxglove is one of the best examples. it has a monstrous variety, which is very showy because it bears on the summit of its raceme and branches, large erect cup-shaped flowers, which have quite a different aspect from the normal thimbleshaped side-blossoms. these flowers are ordinarily described as belonging to the anomaly [ ] known as "peloria," or regular form of a normally symmetric type; they are large and irregular on the stems and the vigorous branches but slender and quinate on the weaker twigs. their beauty and highly interesting anomalous character has been the cause of their being described many times, and nearly always as a novelty; they have been recently re-introduced into horticulture as such, though they were already cultivated before the middle of the last century. about that time very good descriptions with plates were published in the journal "flora" by vrolik, but afterwards they seem to have been forgotten. the peloric variety of the foxglove always comes true from seed, though in the strict sense of the word which we have chosen for our discussion, it does not seem to be a constant and pure variety. it is very interesting to compare old botanical books, or even old drawings and engravings containing figures of anomalous plants. the celebrated pinacothec of munich contains an old picture by holbein ( - ) representing st. sebastian in a flower-garden. of the plants many are clearly recognizable, and among others there is one of the "one-leaved" variety of the strawberry, which may still be met with in botanical gardens. in the year a dutch botanist, abraham munting published [ ] a large volume on garden-plants, containing a great number of very good engravings. most of them of course show normal plants, but intermixed with these are varieties, that are still in cultivation and therefore must be at least two centuries old. others, though not figured, are easily recognized by their names and descriptions. the cockscomb is the most widely known, but many white or double flowered varieties were already cultivated at that time. the striped jalappa, the crested sedum, the fasciated crown-imperial, white strawberries, red gooseberries and many others were known to munting. some varieties are as old as culture itself, and it is generally known that the romans cultivated the white form of the opium-poppy and used the foliage of the red variety of the sugarbeet as a vegetable. in our time flowers and fruits are changing nearly as rapidly as the fancies and tastes of men. every year new forms are introduced and usurp the place of older ones. many are soon forgotten. but if we look at old country gardens, a goodly number of fine and valued old sorts are still to be found. it would be worth while to make special collections of living plants of old varieties, which surely would be a good and interesting work and bring about a conviction [ ] of the stability of pure strains. coming now to the other side of the question, we may consider those cases of reversion which have been recorded from time to time, and which always have been considered as direct proofs of the varietal character of the reverting form. reversion means the falling back or returning to another type, and the word itself expresses the idea that this latter type is the form from which the variety has arisen. some instances of atavism of this kind are well known, as they are often repeated by individuals that are multiplied by buds or by grafting. before looking attentively into the different features of the many cases of rare reversions it will be advisable to quote a few examples. the flowering-currant of the pacific coast or north american scarlet ribes (_ribes sanguineum_), a very popular ornamental shrub, will serve as a good example. it is prized because of its brilliant red racemes of flowers which blossom early in the spring, before the appearance of the leaves. from this species a white form has arisen, which is an old and widely cultivated one, but not so highly prized because of its pale flowers. these are not of a pure white, but have retained a faint reddish hue. the young twigs and the stalks of the [ ] leaves afford an instance of correlated variability since in the species the red color shows itself clearly mixed with the green, while in the variety this tinge is wholly wanting. occasionally this white-flowered currant reverts back to the original red type and the reversion takes place in the bud. one or two buds on a shrub bearing perhaps a thousand bunches of white flowers produce twigs and leaves in which the red pigment is noticeable and the flowers of which become brightly colored. if such a twig is left on the shrub, it may grow further, ramify and evolve into a larger group of branches. all of them keep true to the old type. once reverted, the branches remain forever atavistic. it is a very curious sight, these small groups of red branches among the many white ones. and for this reason attention is often called to it, and more than once i myself have had the opportunity of noting its peculiarities. it seems quite certain that by planting such shrubs in a garden, we may rely upon seeing sooner or later some new buds reverting to the prototype. very little attention seems hitherto to have been given to this curious phenomenon, though in many respects it deserves a closer investigation. the variety is said to have originated from seed in scotland, many years ago, and [ ] seems to be propagated only by cuttings or by grafting. if this is true, all specimens must be considered as constituting together only one individual, notwithstanding their wide distribution in the gardens and parks of so many countries. this induces me to suppose, that the tendency to reversion is not a character of the variety as such, but rather a peculiarity of this one individual. in other words it seems probable that when the whitish variety arises a second time from the red species, it is not at all necessary that it should exhibit this same tendency to revert. or to put it still in another way, i think that we may suppose that a variety, which might be produced repeatedly from the same original stock, would only in rare individuals have a tendency to revert, and in most cases would be as absolutely constant as the species itself. such a conception would give us a distinct insight into the cause of the rarity of these reversions. many varieties of shrubs and trees have originated but once or twice. most of them must therefore, if our supposition is correct, be expected to be stable and only a few may be expected to be liable to reversions. among the conifers many very good cases of reversions by buds are to be found in gardens and glasshouses. they behave exactly like the whitish currant. but as the varietal characters [ ] are chiefly found in the foliage and in the branches, these aberrations are to be seen on the plants during the whole year. moreover they are in some cases much more numerous than in the first instance. the _cryptomeria_ of japan has a variety with twigs resembling ropes. this is not caused by a twisting, but only by a curvature of the needles in such a way that they seem to grow in spiral lines around the twigs. this variety often reverts to the type with widely spread, straight needles. and on many a specimen four, five, or more reverted branches may be seen on different parts of the same shrub. still more widely cultivated is the shrub called _cephalotaxus pedunculata fastigiata_, and more commonly known under its old name of _podocarpus koraiana_. it is the broomlike variety of a species, nearly allied to the common american and european species of yew, (_taxus minor_ and _t. baccata_). it is a low shrub, with broadly linear leaves of a clear green. in the species the leaves are arranged in two rows, one to the left and one to the right of the horizontally growing and widely spreading branches. in the variety the branches are erect and the leaves inserted on all sides. when sporting, it returns to the bilateral prototype and flat wings of fan-shaped twigs are produced laterally on its dense broom-like tufts. [ ] wherever this variety is cultivated the same reversion may be seen; it is produced abundantly, and even under seemingly normal circumstances. but as in the case of the _ribes_ all the specimens are derived by buds from a single original plant. the variety was introduced from japan about the year , but is probably much older. nothing is known as to its real origin. it never bears flowers or fruits. it is curious to note that the analogous variety of the european yew, _taxus baccata fastigiata_, though much more commonly cultivated than the _cephalotaxus_, never reverts, at least as far as i have been able to ascertain. this clearly corroborates the explanation given above. after considering these rare instances of more widely known reversions, we may now examine the question of atavism from a broader point of view. but in doing so it should once more be remembered, that all cases of hybridism and also all varieties sporting annually or frequently, are to be wholly excluded. only the very rare occurrence of instances of atavism in varieties that are for the rest known to be absolutely constant, is to be considered. atavism or reversion is the falling back to a prototype. but what is a prototype? we may take the word in a physiologic or in a systematic sense. physiologically the signification is a [ ] very narrowly restricted one; and includes only those ancestors from which a form is known to have been derived. but such evidence is of course historic. if a variety has been observed to spring from a definite species, and if the circumstances have been sufficiently ascertained not to leave the slightest doubt as to its pure origin, and if moreover all the evidence has been duly recorded, we may say that the origin of the variety is historically known. in most cases we must be content with the testimony, given somewhat later, and recorded after the new variety had the opportunity of showing its greater merits. if it now happens that such a variety of recorded origin should occasionally revert to its parent-species, we have all we can wish for, in the way of a thoroughly proved case of atavism. but such instances are very rare, as the birth of most varieties has only been very imperfectly controlled. next to this comes the systematic relation of a variety to its species. the historic origin of the variety may be obscure, or may simply be forgotten. but the distinguishing marks are of the order described in our last lecture, either in the positive or in the negative direction, and on this ground the rarer form is considered to be a variety of the more wide-spread one. if [ ] now the presumed variety sports and runs over to the presumed type, the probability of the supposed relation is evidently enhanced. but it is manifest that the explanation rests upon the results of comparative studies, and not upon direct observations of the phenomena themselves. the nearer the relations between the two types in question, the less exposed to doubt and criticism are the conclusions. but the domain of atavism is not restricted to the cases described. quite on the contrary the facts that strike us most forcibly as being reversions are those that are apt to give us an insight into the systematic affinity of a higher degree. we are disposed to make use of them in our attempts to perfect the natural system and to remould it in such a way as to become a pedigree of the related groups. such cases of atavism no doubt occur, but the anomalies referred to them must be interpreted merely on the ground of our assumptions as to the relative places in the system to be assigned to the different forms. though such instances cannot be considered as belonging strictly to the subject we are dealing with, i think it may be as well to give an example, especially as it affords an occasion for referring to the highly important researches of heinricher on the variability and atavistic [ ] tendencies of the pale blue flag or _iris pallida_. the flowers of the blue flags have a perianth of six segments united below into a tube. the three outer parts are dilated and spreading, or reflexed, while the three inner usually stand erect, but in most species are broad and colored like the outer ones. corresponding to the outer, perianth-segments are the three stamens and the three, petal-like divisions of the style, each bearing a transverse stigma immediately above the anther. they are pollinated by bumble-bees, and in some instances by flies of the genus _rhingia_, which search for the honey, brush the pollen out of the anthers and afterwards deposit it on the stigma. according to systematic views of the monocotyledons the original prototype of the genus _iris_ must have had a whorl of six equal, or nearly equal perianth-segments and six stamens, such as are now seen in the more primitive types of the family of the lilies, as for instance in the lilies themselves, the tulips, hyacinths and others. as to the perianth this view is supported by the existence of one species, the _iris falcifolia_, the perianth of which consists of six equal parts. but species with six stamens are wholly lacking. heinricher however, in cultivating some anomalous forms of _iris pallida_, succeeded in filling out this gap and in producing [ ] flowers with a uniform perianth and six stamens, recalling thereby the supposed ancestral type. the way in which he got these was as follows: he started from some slight deviations observed in the flowers of the pale species, sowed the seeds in large numbers and selected from the seedlings only those which clearly showed anomalies in the expected atavistic direction. by repeating this during several generations he at last reached his goal and was able to give reality to the prototype, which formerly was only a hypothetical one. the _iris kaempferi_, a large-flowered japanese species much cultivated in gardens, is very variable in the number of the different parts of its flowers, and may in some instances be seen even with six stamens. if studied in the same way as heinricher's iris, it no doubt will yield highly interesting and confirmatory results. many other instances of such systematic atavism could be given, and every botanist can easily add some from memory. many anomalies, occurring spontaneously, are evidently due to the same principle, but it would take too long to describe them. reversion may occur either by buds or by seeds. it is highly probable that it occurs more readily by sexual than by asexual propagation. but if we restrict the discussion to the limits [ ] hitherto observed, seed-reversions must be said to be extremely rare. or rather cases which are sufficiently certain to be relied upon, are very rare, and perhaps wholly lacking. most of the instances, recorded by various writers, are open to question. doubts exist as to the purity of the seeds and the possibility of some unobserved cross disturbing the results. in the next lecture we shall deal in general with the ordinary causes and results of such crosses. we shall then see that they are so common and occur so regularly under ordinary circumstances that we can never rely on the absolute purity of any seeds, if the impossibility of an occasional cross has not been wholly excluded, either by the circumstances themselves, or by experimental precautions taken during the flowering period. for these reasons cases of atavism given without recording the circumstances, or the precautions that guarantee the purity of the fertilization, should always be disregarded. and moreover another proof should always be demanded. the parent which yielded the seeds might be itself a hybrid and liable to reversions by the ordinary laws of the splitting up of hybrids. such cases should likewise be discarded, since they bring in confusing elements. if we review the long list of recorded cases by these [ ] strict methods of criticism very few instances will be found that satisfy legitimate demands. on this ground it is by far safer in the present state of our knowledge, to accept bud-variations only as direct proofs of true atavism. and even these may not always be relied on, as some hybrids are liable to split up in a vegetative way, and in doing so to give rise to bud-variations that are in many respects apparently similar to cases of atavism. but fortunately such instances are as yet very rare. after this discussion it would be bold indeed to give instances of seed-atavism, and i believe that it will be better to refrain wholly from doing so. many instances of so-called atavism are of purely morphologic nature. the most interesting cases are those furnished by the forms which some plants bear only while young, and which evidently connect them with allied species, in which the same features may be seen in the adult state. some species of the genus _acacia_ bear bipinnate leaves, while others have no leaves at all, but bear broadened and flattened petioles instead. the second type is presumed to be descended from the first by the loss of the leaflets and the modification of the stalks into flat and simple phyllodes. but many of them are liable to recall this primitive form [ ] when very young, in the first two or three, or sometimes in eight or ten primary leaves. these leaves are small because of the weakness of the young plant and therefore often more or less reduced in structure. but they are usually strictly bipinnate and thereby give testimony as to their descent from species which bear such leaves throughout their life. other similar cases could be given, but this will suffice. they once more show how necessary it is to separate the different cases, thrown together until now, under this general name of atavism. it would be far better to give them all special names, and as long as these are not available we must be cautious not to be misguided by the name, and especially not to confuse different phenomena with one another, because at the present time they bear the same names. taking into consideration the relatively numerous restrictions resulting from this discussion, we will now make a hasty survey of some of the more notable and generally acknowledged cases of atavism by bud-propagation. but it should be repeated once more that most of the highly cultivated plants, grown as vegetables, or for their fruit or flowers, have so many crosses in their ancestry, that it seems better to exclude them from all considerations, in which purity of [ ] descent is a requisite. by so doing, we exclude most of the facts which were until now generally relied upon. for the roses, the hyacinths, the tulips, the chrysanthemums always have furnished the largest contributions to the demonstrations of bud-variation. but they have been crossed so often, that doubt as to the purity of the descent of any single form may recur, and may destroy the usefulness of their many recorded cases of bud-variation for the demonstration of real atavism. the same assertion holds good in many other cases, as with _azalea_ and _camellia_. and the striped varieties of these genera belong to the group of ever-sporting forms, and therefore will be considered later on. so it is with carnations and pinks, which occasionally vary by layering, and of which some kinds are so uncertain in character that they are called by floriculturists "catch-flowers." on the other hand there is a larger group of cases of reversion by buds, which is probably not of hybrid nature, nor due to innate inconstancy of the variety, but must be considered as pure atavism. i refer to the bud-variations of so many of our cultivated varieties of shrubs and trees. many of them are cultivated because of their foliage. they are propagated by grafting, and in most cases it is probable that all the numerous specimens [ ] of the same variety have been derived in this way from one primitive, aberrant individual. we may disregard variegated leaves, spotted or marked with white or yellow, because they are too inconstant types. we may next turn our attention to the varieties of trees with cut leaves, as the oakleaved _laburnum_, the parsley-leaved vine and the fern-leaved birch. here the margin of the leaves is deeply cut and divided by many incisions, which sometimes change only the outer parts of the blade, but in other cases may go farther and reach, or nearly reach, the midvein, and change the simple leaf into a seemingly compound structure. the anomaly may even lead to the almost complete loss of all the chorophyll-tissue and the greater part of the lateral veins, as in the case of the cut-leaved beech or _fagus sylvatica pectinata_. such varieties are often apt to revert by buds to the common forms. the cut-leaved beech sometimes reverts partially only, and the branches often display the different forms of cut-leaved, fern-like, oak-leaved and other variously shaped leaves on the same twigs. but this is merely due to the wide variability of the degree of fissure and is to be considered only as a fluctuation between somewhat widely distant extremes, which may even apparently include [ ] the form of the common beech-leaves. it is not a bud-variation at all, and it is to be met with quite commonly while the true reversions by buds are very rare and are of the nature of sports appearing suddenly and remaining constant on the same twig. analogous phenomena of wide variability with true reversion may be seen in the variety of the european hornbeam called _carpinus betulus heterophylla_. the leaves of this tree generally show the greatest diversity in form. some other cases have been brought together by darwin. in the first place a subvariety of the weeping-willow with leaves rolled up into a spiral coil. a tree of this kind kept true for twenty-five years and then threw out a single upright shoot bearing flat leaves. the barberry (_berberis_) offers another case; it has a well known variety with seedless fruit, which can be propagated by cuttings or layers, but its runners are said always to revert to the common form, and to produce ordinary berries with seeds. most of the cases referred to by darwin, however, seem to be doubtful and cannot be considered as true proofs of atavism until more is known about the circumstances under which they were produced. red or brown-leaved varieties of trees and shrubs also occasionally produce green-leaved branches, and in this way revert to the type [ ] from which they must evidently have arisen. instances are on record of the hazel, _corylus avellana_, of the allied _corylus tubulosa_, of the red beech, the brown birch and of some other purple varieties. even the red bananas, which bear fruits without seeds and therefore have no other way of being propagated than by buds, have produced a green variety with yellow fruits. the _hortensia_ of our gardens is another instance of a sterile form which has been observed to throw out a branch with cymes bearing in their center the usual small staminate and pistillate flowers instead of the large radiate and neutral corollas of the variety, thereby returning to the original wild type. crisped weeping-willows, crisped parsley and others have reverted in a similar manner. all such cases are badly in need of a closer investigation. and as they occur only occasionally, or as it is commonly stated, by accident, the student of nature should be prepared to examine carefully any case which might present itself to him. many phases of this difficult problem could no doubt be solved in this way. first of all the question arises as to whether the case is one of real atavism, or is only seemingly so, being due to hybrid or otherwise impure descent of the varying individual, and secondly whether it may be only an instance of the regularly [ ] occurring so-called atavism of the sporting varieties with which we shall deal in a later lecture. if it proves to be real atavism and rare, the case should be accurately described and figured, or photographed if possible; and the exact position of the reverting bud should be ascertained. very likely the so-called dormant or resting buds are more liable to reversions than the primary ones in the arils of the leaves of young twigs. then the characters of the atavistic branches should be minutely compared with those of the presumed ancestor; they may be quite identical with them or slightly divergent, as has been asserted in some instances. the atavism may be complete in one case, but more or less incomplete in others. by far the most interesting point is the question, as to what is to be expected from the seeds of such an atavistic branch. will they keep true to the reverted character, or return to the characters of the plant which bears the retrograde branch? will all of them do so, or only part of them, and how large a part? it is very astonishing that this question should still be unsolved where so many individual trees bear atavistic branches that remain on them through long series of years. but then many such branches do not flower at all, or if they flower and bear seed, no care is taken to prevent [ ] cross-fertilization with the other flowers of the same plant, and the results have no scientific value. for anyone who cares to work with the precautions prescribed by science, a wide field is here open for investigation, because old reverted branches may be met with much less rarely than new ones. finally the possibility is always to be considered that the tendency to bud-reversions may be a special feature of some individuals, and may not be met with in others of the same variety. i have spoken of this before. for the practical student it indicates that a specimen, once observed to produce atavistic buds, may be expected to do the same thing again. and then there is a very good chance that by combining this view with the idea that dormant buds are more apt to revert than young ones, we may get at a method for further investigation, if we recur to the practice of pruning. by cutting away the young twigs in the vicinity of dormant buds, we may incite these to action. evidently we are not to expect that in so doing they will all become atavistic. for this result is not at all assured; on the contrary, all that we might hope to attain would be the possibility of some of them being induced to sport in the desired direction. many questions in scientific research can only [ ] be answered by long and arduous work in well equipped laboratories; they are not to be attempted by every one. but there are other problems which the most complete of institutions are not able to study if opportunity is not offered them, and such opportunities are apt to occur more often in fields, gardens, parks, woods and plains, than in the relatively small experimental gardens of even the largest institution. therefore, whosoever has the good fortune to find such sports, should never allow the occasion to pass without making an investigation that may bring results of very great importance to science. [ ] lecture vii false atavism or vicinism about the middle of the last century louis de vilmorin showed that it was possible to subject plants to the methods of amelioration of races then in use for domestic animals, and since that time atavism has played a large part in all breeding-processes. it was considered to be the greatest enemy of the breeder, and was generally spoken of as a definite force, working against and protracting the endeavors of the horticulturist. no clear conception as to its true nature had been formulated, and even the propriety of designating the observed phenomena by the term atavism seemed doubtful. duchesne used this word some decades ago to designate those cases in which species or varieties revert spontaneously, or from unknown internal causes, to some long-lost characters of their ancestors. duchesne's definition was evidently a sharp and useful one, since it developed for the first time the idea of latent or dormant qualities, [ ] formerly active, and awaiting probably through centuries an occasion to awaken, and to display the lost characters. cases of apparent reversion were often seen in nurseries, especially in flower culture, which under ordinary circumstances are rarely wholly pure, but always sport more or less into the colors and forms of allied varieties. such sporting individuals have to be extirpated regularly, otherwise the whole variety would soon lose its type and its uniformity and run over to some other form in cultivation in the vicinity. for this reason atavism in nurseries causes much care and labor, and consequently is to be dealt with as a very important factor. from time to time the idea has suggested itself to some of the best authorities on the amelioration of plants, that this atavism was not due to an innate tendency, but, in many cases at least, was produced by crosses between neighboring varieties. it is especially owing to verlot that this side of the question was brought forward. but breeders as a rule have not attached much importance to this supposition, chiefly because of the great practical difficulties attending any attempt to guard the species of the larger cultures against intermixture with other varieties. bees and humble-bees fly from bud to bud, and carry the pollen from one [ ] sort to another, and separation by great distances would be required to avoid this source of impurity. unfortunately the arrangements and necessities of large cultures make it impossible to isolate the allied varieties from each other. from a theoretical point of view the origin of these impurities is a highly important question. if the breeders' atavism is due to crosses, and only to this cause, it has no bearing at all on the question of the constancy of varieties. and the general belief, that varieties are distinguished from true species by their repeated reversion and that even such reversibility is the real distinction of a variety, would not hold. for this reason i have taken much trouble in ascertaining the circumstances which attend this form of atavism. i have visited a number of the leading nurseries of europe, tested their products in various ways, and made some experiments on the unavoidable conditions of hybridizing and on their effect on the ensuing generations. these investigations have led me to the conclusion, that atavism, as it is generally described, always or nearly always is due to hybridization, and therefore it is to be considered as untrue or false atavism. true atavism, or reversion caused by an innate latent tendency, seems to be very rare, [ ] and limited to such cases as we have spoken of under our last heading. and since the definition, given to this term by its author, duchesne, is generally accepted in scientific works, it seems better not to use it in another sense, but rather to replace it in such cases by another term. for this purpose i propose the word vicinism, derived from the latin vicinus or neighbor, as indicating the sporting of a variety under the influence of others in its vicinity. used in this way, this term has the same bearing as the word atavism of the breeders, but it has the advantage of indicating the true cause thereof. it is well known that the term variability is commonly employed in the broadest possible sense. no single phenomenon can be designated by this name, unless some primary restriction be given. atavism and vicinism are both cases of variability, but in wholly different sense. for this reason it may be as well, to insert here a short survey of the general meanings to be conveyed by the term variation. it implies in the first place the occurrence of a wide range of forms and types, irrespective of their origin, and in the second place the process of the change in such forms. in the first signification it is nearly identical with polymorphy, or richness of types, especially so when these [ ] types are themselves quite stable, or when it is not at all intended to raise the question of their stability. in scientific works it is commonly used to designate the occurrence of subspecies or varieties, and the same is the case in the ordinary use of the term when dealing with cultivated plants. a species may consist of larger or smaller groups of such units, and they may be absolutely constant, never sporting if hybridization is precluded, and nevertheless it may be called highly variable. the opium-poppy affords a good instance. it "varies" in height, in color of foliage and flowers; the last are often double or laciniated; it may have white or bluish seeds, the capsules may open themselves or remain closed and so on. but every single variety is absolutely constant, and never runs into another, when the flowers are artificially pollinated and the visits of insects excluded. so it is with many other species. they are at the same time wholly stable and very variable. the terms variation and variety are used frequently when speaking of hybrids. by crossing forms, which are already variable in the sense just mentioned, it is easy to multiply the number of the types, and even in crossing pure forms the different characters may be combined in different ways, the resulting combinations [ ] yielding new, and very often, valuable varieties. but it is manifest that this form of variation is of quite another nature from the variations of pure races. many hybrid varieties are quite constant, and remain true to their type if no further crosses are made; many others are artificially propagated only in a vegetative way, and for this reason are always found true. hybrid varieties as a rule were formerly confused with pure varieties, and in many instances our knowledge as to their origin is quite insufficient for sharp distinctions. to every student of nature it is obvious, that crossing and pure variability are wholly distinct groups of phenomena, which should never be treated under the same head, or under the same name. leaving aside polymorphy, we may now discuss those cases of variability, in which the changes themselves, and not only their final results play a part. of such changes two types exist. first, the ever-recurring variability, never absent in any large group of individuals, and determining the differences which are always to be seen between parents and their children, or between the children themselves. this type is commonly called "individual variability" and since this term also has still other meanings, it has of late become customary to use instead the term "fluctuating variability." [ ] and to avoid the repetition of the latter word it is called "fluctuation." in contrast to these fluctuations are the so-called sports or single varieties, not rarely denominated spontaneous variations, and for which i propose to use the term "mutations." they are of very rare occurrence and are to be considered as sudden and definite steps. lastly, we have to consider those varieties, which vary in a much wider range than the ordinary ones, and seem to fluctuate between two opposite extremes, as for instance variegated leaves, cultivated varieties with variegated or striped flowers, double flowers and some other anomalies. they are eversporting and ever-returning from one type to the other. if however, we take the group of these extremes and their intermediates as a whole, this group remains constant during the succeeding generations. here we find once more an instance of the seemingly contradictory combination of high variability and absolute constancy. it means that the range of variability has quite definite limits, which in the common course of things, are never transgressed. we may infer therefore that the word variability has such a wide range of meanings that it ought never be used without explanation. [ ] nothing indeed, is more variable than the signification of the term variable itself. for this reason, we will furthermore designate all variations under the influence of neighbors with the new and special term "vicinism." it always indicates the result of crossing. leaving this somewhat lengthy terminological discussion, we now come to the description of the phenomenon itself. in visiting the plantations of the seedsmen in summer and examining the large fields of garden-flowers from which seed is to be gathered, it is very rare to find a plot quite pure. on the contrary, occasional impurities are the rule. every plot shows anomalous individuals, red or white flowers among a field of blue, normal among laciniated, single among double and so on. the most curious instance is afforded by dwarf varieties, where in the midst of hundreds and thousands of small individuals of the same height, some specimens show twice their size. so for instance, among the dwarfs of the larkspur, _delphinium ajacis_. everywhere gardeners are occupied in destroying these "atavists," as they call them. when in full bloom the plants are pulled up and thrown aside. sometimes the degree of impurity is so high, that great piles of discarded plants of the same species lie about the [ ] paths, as i have seen at erfurt in the ease of numerous varieties of the indian cress or _tropaeolum_. each variety is purified at the time when it shows its characters most clearly. with vegetables, this is done long before flowering, but with flowers only when in full bloom, and with fruits, usually after fertilization has been accomplished. it needs no demonstration to show that this difference in method must result in very diverging degrees of purity. we will confine ourselves to a consideration of the flowers, and ask what degree of purity may be expected as the result of the elimination of the anomalous plants during the period of blooming. now it is evident that the colors and forms of the flowers can only be clearly distinguished, when they are fully displayed. furthermore it is impossible to destroy every single aberrant specimen as soon as it is seen. on the contrary, the gardener must wait until all or nearly all the individuals of the same variety have displayed their characters, as only in this way can all diverging specimens be eliminated by a single inspection. unfortunately the insects do not wait for this selection. they fertilize the flowers from the beginning, and the damage will have been done [ ] long before the day of inspection comes around. crosses are unavoidable and hybrid seeds will unavoidably come into the harvest. their number may be limited by an early eradication of the vicinists, or by the elimination of the first ripe seeds before the beginning of the regular harvest, or by other devices. but some degree of impurity will remain under ordinary circumstances. it seems quite superfluous to give more details. in any case in which the selection is not done before the blooming period, some impurities must result. even if it is done before that time, errors may occur, and among hundreds and thousands of individuals a single anomalous one may escape observation. the conclusion is, that flower seeds as they are offered in commerce, are seldom found absolutely pure. every gardener knows that he will have to weed out aberrant plants in order to be sure of the purity of his beds. i tested a large number of samples of seeds for purity, bought directly from the best seed growers. most of them were found to contain admixtures and wholly pure samples were very rare. i will now give some illustrative examples. from seeds of a yellow snapdragon, i got one red-flowered specimen among half a hundred [ ] yellow ones, and from the variety "delila" of the same species two red ones, a single white and two belonging to another variety called "firefly." _calliopsis tinctoria_ has three varieties, the ordinary type, a brown-flowered one and one with tubular rays. seeds of each of these three sorts ordinarily contain a few belonging to the others. _iberis umbellata rosea_ often gives some white and violet examples. the "swan" variety of the opium-poppy, a dwarfish double-flowered form of a pure white, contained some single-flowered and some red-flowered plants, when sown from commercial seed are said to be pure. but these were only occasional admixtures, since after artificial fertilization of the typical specimens the strain at once became absolutely pure, and remained so for a series of generations, as long as the experiment was continued. seeds of trees often contain large quantities of impurities, and the laciniated varieties of birch, elder and walnut have often been observed to come true only in a small number of seedlings. in the case of new or young varieties, seed merchants often warn their customers as to the probable degree of purity of the seeds offered, in order to avoid complaints. for example the snow-white variety of the double daisy, _bellis perennis plena_, was offered at the start as containing [ ] as much as % of red-flowered specimens. many fine varieties are recorded to come true from seed, as in the case of the holly with yellow fruits, tested by darwin. others have been found untrue to a relatively high degree, as is notorious in the case of the purple beech. seeds of the laciniated beech gave only % of laciniated plants in experiments made by strasburger; seeds of the monophyllous acacia, _robinia pseud-acacia monophylla_, were found to be true in only % of the seedlings. weeping ashes often revert to the upright type, red may-thorns (_crataegus_) sometimes revert nearly entirely to the white species and the yellow cornel berry is recorded to have reverted in the same way to the red berries of the _cornus mas_. varieties have to be freed by selection from all such impurities, since isolation is a means which is quite impracticable under ordinary circumstances. isolation is a scientific requirement that should never be neglected in experiments, indeed it may be said to be the first and most important requisite for all exact research in questions of variability and inheritance. but in cultivating large fields of allied varieties for commercial purposes, it is impossible to grow them at such distances from each other [ ] as to prevent cross-pollination by the visits of bees. this purification must be done in nearly every generation. the oldest varieties are to be subjected to it as well as the latest. there is no regular amelioration, no slow progression in the direction of becoming free from these admixtures. continuous selection is indispensable to maintain the races in the degree of purity which is required in commerce, but it does not lead to any improvement. nor does it go so far as to become unnecessary in the future. this shows that there must be a continuous source of impurities, which in itself is not neutralized by selection, but of which selection can only eliminate the deteriorating elements. the same selection is usually applied to new varieties, when they occasionally arise. in this case it is called "fixing," as gardeners generally believe that through selection the varieties are brought to the required degree of purity. this belief seems to rest mainly on observations made in practice, where, as we have seen, isolation is of very rare application. most varieties would no doubt be absolutely pure from the first moment of their existence, if it were only possible to have them purely fertilized. but in practice this is seldom to be obtained. ordinarily the breeder is content with such slow [ ] improvement as may be obtained with a minimum of cost, and this mostly implies a culture in the same part of the nursery with older varieties of the same species. three, four or five years are required to purify the novelty, and as this same length of time is also required to produce sufficient quantities of seed for commercial purposes, there is no strong desire to shorten the period of selection and fixation. i had occasion to see this process going on with sundry novelties at erfurt in germany. among them a chamois-colored variety of the common stock, a bluish _clarkia elegans_ and a curiously colored opium-poppy may be mentioned. in some cases the crossfertilization is so overwhelming, that in the next generation the novelty seems entirely to have disappeared. the examples given may suffice to convey a general idea of the phenomenon, ordinarily called atavism by gardeners, and considered mostly to be the effect of some innate tendency to revert to the ancestral form. it is on this conception that the almost universal belief rests, that varieties are distinguished, as such, from species by their inconstancy. now i do not deny the phenomenon itself. the impurity of seeds and cultures is so general and so manifest, and may so easily be tested by every one [ ] that it cannot reasonably be subjected to any doubt. it must be conceded to be a fact, that varieties as a rule revert to their species under the ordinary circumstances of commercial culture. and i cannot see any reason why this fact should not be considered as stating a principal difference between varieties and species, since true species never sport into one another. my objection only refers to the explanation of the observed facts. according to my view nearly all these ordinary reversions are due to crosses, and it is for this reason that i proposed to call them by a separate name, that of "vicinists." varieties then, by means of such spontaneous intercrossing sport into one another, while species either do not cross, or when crossing produce hybrids that are otherwise constituted and do not give the impression of atavistic reversion. i must not be content with proposing this new conception, but must give the facts on which this assumption rests. these facts are the results of simple experiments, which nevertheless are by no means easy to carry out, as they require the utmost care to secure the absolute purity of the seeds that are employed. this can only be guaranteed by previous cultures of isolated plants or groups of plants, or by artificial pollination. [ ] once sure of this preliminary condition, the experiment simply consists in growing a variety at a given distance from its species and allowing the insects to transfer the pollen. after harvesting the seed thus subjected to the presumed cause of the impurities, it must be sown in quantities, large enough to bring to light any slight anomaly, and to be examined during the period of blooming. the wild seashore aster, _aster tripolium_, will serve as an example. it has pale violet or bluish rays, but has given rise to a white variety, which on testing, i have found pure from seed. four specimens of this white variety were cultivated at a distance of nearly meters from a large lot of plants of the bluish species. i left fertilization to the bees, harvested the seeds of the four whites separately and had from them the following year more than a thousand flowering plants. all of them were of the purest white, with only one exception, which was a plant with the bluish rays of the species, wholly reverting to its general type. as the variety does not give such reversions when cultivated in isolation, this sport was obviously due to some cross in the former year. in the same way i tried the white jacob's ladder, _polemonium coeruleum_ album in the neighborhood of the blue-flowered species, the distance [ ] in this case being only meters. of two hundred seeds one became a blue atavist, or rather vicinist, while all others remained true to the white type. the same was observed in the white creeping thyme, or _thymus serpyllum album_, and the white self-heal, _brunella vulgaris alba_, gave even so much as % seedlings with purple corollas out of some specimens, after being cultivated in close proximity to its parent-species. i have tried many other species, but always with the same result. such atavists only arise by cultivation in the proximity of allied varieties, never in isolation. they are not real atavists, but only vicinists. in order to show this yet more clearly, i made another experiment with the white selfheal. i had a lot of the pinnate-leaved variety with purple flowers and somewhat stouter stems, and cultivated single plants of the whiteflowering sort at distances that varied from - meters. the seeds of each plant were collected and sown separately, those of the nearest gave up to or hybrids from the seeds of one parent, while those of the farthest gave only one purple-flowered plant for each parent. evidently the chance of the pollen being carried by bees is much greater on short than on longer distances. true hybrids between species may arise in quite the same way, and since it is obviously impossible to attribute them to an innate tendency to reversion, they afford an absolutely irrefutable proof of the assertion that pollen is often brought by insects from one lot of plants to another. in this way i obtained a hybrid between the common jacob's ladder and the allied species _polemonium dissectum_. with a distance of meters between them i had two hybrid seeds among a hundred of pure ones. at a similar distance pollen was carried over from the wild radish, _raphanus raphanistrum_, to the allied _raphanus caudatus_, and i observed the following year some very nice hybrids among my seedlings. a hybrid-bean between _phaseolus nanus_ and _p. multiflorus_, and some hybrids between the yellow daisy, _chrysanthemum segetum_ and the allied _chrysanthemum coronarium_ or ox-eye daisy which also arose spontaneously in my garden between parents cultivated at recorded distances, might further be noted. further details of these experiments need not be given. suffice to say, that occasional crosses between species do occur, and not even rarely, that they are easily recognized as such and cannot be confused with cases of atavism, and that therefore they give proof to the assumption that in the same way crosses ordinarily occur also between varieties [ ] of the same species, if cultivated at small distances apart, say - meters or even more. vicinism therefore, may play a part in all such cultures, enough to account for all the impurities observed in the nurseries or in commercial seed-samples. of course this whole discussion is limited to such species as are not only as a rule visited by insects, but are dependent on these visits for their fertilization. most of our garden-flowers are included in this category. if not then we may expect to find the cultures and seeds pure, irrespective of the distances between allied varieties, as for instance with peas, which are known to be self-fertilizing. another instance is given by the barley. one of the most curious anomalous varieties of this cereal, is the "nepaul-barley," with its small adventitious flowers on the palets or inner scales. it is a very old, widely cultivated sort, which always comes true from seed, and which has been tested in repeated experiments in my garden. the spikelets of this curious plant are oneflowered and provided with two linear glumes or outer scales. of the inner scales or palets, the outer one is three-lobed at the summit, hence the varietal name of _hordeum vulgare trifurcatum_. the central lobe is oblong and hollow, covering a small supernumerary floret inserted [ ] at its base. the two lateral lobes are narrower, sometimes linear, and are often prolonged into an awn, which is generally turned away from the center of the spike. the central lobe sometimes bears two florets at its base, although but one is usually present and it may be incomplete. i might give one more instance from my own experience. a variety of the evening-primrose with small linear petals was once found by one of my sons growing wild near amsterdam. it was represented by only one individual, flowering among a great many of the ordinary type with broad petals. but the evening-primroses open their anthers in the morning, fertilize themselves during the day, and only display their beautiful flowers in the evening, after the pollination has been accomplished. they then allure evening moths, such as _agrotis_ and _plusia_, by their bright color, their sweet honeysmell and their nectar. since the fertilization is accomplished many hours before opening, crosses are effected only in rare instances, and the seeds commonly remain true to the parent type. the seeds of this one plant, when sown separately in my garden, produced exclusively flowers with the small linear petals of their parent. although i had a hundred individuals bearing many thousands of flowers, there was not an instance of reversion. and such would [ ] immediately have been observed, had it occurred, because the hybrids between the cruciate and the normal flowers are not intermediate, but bear the broad petals of the _o. biennis_. we may now take up another phase of the question, that of the running out of new varieties, shortly after their introduction into a new country, or later. the most widely known instance of this is that of the american corn in baden, recorded by metzger and quoted by darwin as a remarkable instance of the direct and prompt action of climate on a plant. it has since been considered as a reversion to the old type. such reversions invariably occur, according to wallace, in cases of new varieties, which have been produced quickly. but as we now know, such reversions are due to spontaneous crosses with the old form, and to the rule, that the hybrids of such origin are not intermediate, but assume the features of the older of the two parents. in the light of this experience, metzger's observation becomes a typical instance of vicinism. it relates to the "tuscarora" corn of st. louis, a variety with broad and flat white seeds. about the year , this corn was introduced into baden in germany, and cultivated by metzger. in the first year it came true to type, and [ ] attained a height of feet, but the season did not allow its seeds to ripen normally. only a few kernels were developed before the winter. from this seed plants of a wholly different type came the next year, of smaller stature, and with more brownish and rounded kernels. they also flowered earlier and ripened a large number of seeds. the depression on the outer side of the seed had almost disappeared, and the original white had become darker. some of the seeds had even become yellow and in their rounded form they approached the common european maize. obviously they were hybrids, assuming the character of their pollen-parent, which evidently was the ordinary corn, cultivated all around. the observation of the next year showed this clearly, for in the third generation nearly all resemblance to the original and very distinct american species was lost. if we assume that only those seeds ripened which reverted to the early-ripening european type, and that those that remained true to the very late american variety could not reach maturity, the case seems to be wholly comprehensible, without supposing any other factors to have been at work than those of vicinism, which though unknown at the period of metzger's and darwin's writings, seems now to be fully understood. no innate tendency to run out and no changing influence of the climate are required for an adequate explanation of the facts. in the observation quoted, what astonishes us most, is the great rapidity of the change, and the short time necessary for the offspring of the accidental crosses to completely supplant the introduced type. in the lecture on the selection of elementary species, closely analogous cases were described. one of them was the wild oat or _avena fatua_ which rapidly supplants the cultivated oats in bad years in parts of the fields. other instances were the experiments of risler with the "galland" wheat and the observation of rimpau on "rivett's bearded" wheat. before leaving the question of vicinism and its bearing on the general belief of the instability of varieties, which when tested with due care, prove to be quite stable, it may be as well to consider the phenomena from another point of view. our present knowledge of the effects of crosses between varieties enables us to formulate some general rules, which may be used to calculate, and in some way to predict, the nature of the impurities which necessarily attend the cultivation of allied species in close vicinity. and this mode of cultivation being in almost universal use in the larger nurseries, [ ] we may, by this discussion, arrive at a more scientific estimation of the phenomena of vicinism, hitherto described. the simplest case that may be given, is when an ordinary retrograde variety is cultivated with the species to which it belongs. for instance, if dwarfs are cultivated next to the taller type, or a white variety next to the red or blue-flowering species, or thornless forms in neighboring beds with the armed species. bees and bumble-bees, butterflies and moths are seen flying from flower to flower, collecting the honey and carrying pollen. i frequently saw them cross the limits of the neighboring beds. loaded with the pollen of the variety they visit the flowers of the different species and impregnate the stigma with it. and returning to the variety they bring about similar crosses in the flowers of the latter. hybrid seeds will develop in both cases and become mixed with the crop. we now have to ask the question, what sort of plants will arise from these hybrid seeds. as a general rule we may state, first, that the hybrids of either form of cross are practically the same, secondly that they are not intermediate, but that the character of one parent prevails to the almost absolute exclusion of the other and in the third place that the older character dominates the younger. [ ] the hybrid offspring will therefore, in the main, have the character of the species and be indistinguishable from it, or show only such differences as escape ordinary observation. when occurring in the seeds of the variety they betray themselves as soon as the differential characters are displayed. between the thousands of flowering plants of a white variety the hybrids will instantly catch the eye by their red or blue corollas. quite the contrary effect results from the admixture of hybrids with the seeds of the species itself. here no difference will show itself, even in the fullest bloom. the effect of the spontaneous crosses will pass unobserved. the strain, if pure in the first year, will seem to be still in the same condition. or in other terms, the unavoidable spontaneous crosses will disturb the purity of the variety in the second year, while they do not seem to interfere at all with the uniformity of the species. the direct effect of the visits of the insects is evident in the first case, but passes unobserved in the latter. from this it would seem, that spontaneous crosses are hurtful to varieties, but are innocuous to true species. certainly this would be so, were there no selection. but it is easily seen, that through this operation the effect becomes quite the opposite. for when the fields [ ] are inspected at the time of the fullest display of the varietal characters, the obvious hybrids will be eliminated, but the hidden ones will of necessity be spared, as they are concealed among the species by the similarity of their type. hence, the harvest of the variety may be rendered pure or nearly so, while the harvest of the species will retain the seeds of the hybrids. moreover it will contain seeds originated by the spontaneous but numerous crosses of the true plants with the sparsely intermingled hybrids. this brings us to the question, as to what will be the visible consequences of the occurrence of such invisible hybrids in the following generation. in opposition to the direct effects just described, we may call them indirect. to judge of their influence, we must know how hybrid seeds of the first generation behave. in one of our lectures we will deal with the laws that show the numerical relations known as the laws of mendel. but for our present purpose, these numerical relations are only of subordinate importance. what interests us here is the fact that hybrids of varieties do not remain constant in the second generation but usually split as it is said, remaining hybrid only in part of their offspring, the other portion returning to the parental types. this however, will show itself only in those individuals [ ] which reassume the character of the varietal parent, all the others apparently remaining true to the type of the species. now it is easy to foresee what must happen in the second generation if the first generation after the cross is supposed to be kept free from new vicinistic influences, or from crosses with neighboring varieties. we may limit ourselves in the first place to the seeds of the unobserved hybrids. for the greater part they will repeat the character of their parents and still remain concealed. but a small number will display the varietal marks, as for example showing white flowers in a field of blue ones. hence, the indirect consequence of the spontaneous crosses will be the same in the species, as was the direct effect in the variety, only that it appears a year later. it will then be eliminated in the process of selection. obviously, this elimination conduces only to a partial purification. the conspicuous plants will be destroyed, but a greater number of hybrids will remain, still concealed by their resemblance to the general type and will be spared to repeat the same process next year. so while the variety may be freed every year from the impurities brought into it in the preceeding summer, the admixtures of the species [ ] will continue during a number of years, and it may not be possible to get rid of them at all. it is an often recurring assertion that white varieties of colored species are the most stable of all horticultural races. they are often said to be at least as constant as the species itself, and even to surpass it in this quality. with our present state of knowledge, the explanation of this general experience is easily given. for selection removes the effect of spontaneous crosses from the variety in each year, and renders it practically pure, while it is wholly inadequate to produce the same effects on the species, because of the concealed hybrids. the explanation given in this simple instance may be applied to the case of different varieties of the same species, when growing together and crossed naturally by insects. it would take too long to go into all the details that present themselves here to the student of nature and of gardens. i will only state, that since varieties differ principally from their species by the lack of some sharp character, one variety may be characterized by the lack of color of the flowers, another by the lack of pubescence, a third by being dwarfed, and so on. every character must be studied separately in its effects on the offspring [ ] of the crosses. and it is therefore easily seen, that the hybrids of two varieties may resemble neither of them, but revert to the species itself. this is necessarily and commonly the case, since it is always the older or positive characters that prevail in the hybrids and the younger or negative that lie hidden. so for instance, a blue dwarf larkspur, crossed with a tall white variety, must give a tall blue hybrid, reassuming in both characters the essentials of the species. keeping this rule in view, it will be easy to calculate what may be expected from spontaneous crosses for a wide range of occurrences, and thus to find an explanation of innumerable cases of apparent variability and reversion in the principle of vicinism. students have only to recollect that specific characters prevail over varietal ones, and that every character competes only with its own antagonist. or to give a sharper distinction: whiteness of flowers cannot be expected to be interchanged with pubescence of leaves. in concluding i will point out another danger which in the principle of vicinism may be avoided. if you see a plant in a garden with all the characteristics of its species, how can you be sure that it is truly a representative of the species, and not a hybrid? the prevailing [ ] characters are in either case the same. perhaps on close inspection you may find in some cases a slight difference, some character being not as fully developed in the hybrid as in the species. but when such is not the case, or where the opportunity for such a closer examination is wanting, a hybrid may easily be taken for a specimen of the pure race. now take the seeds of your plant and sow them. if you had not supposed it to be hybrid you will be astonished at finding among its progeny some of a wholly different type. you will be led to conclude that you are observing a sudden change in structure such as is usually called a sport. or in other words you may think that you are assisting at the origination of a new variety. if you are familiar with the principle of vicinism, you will refrain from such an inference and consider the supposition of a hybrid origin. but in former times, when this principle was still unknown and not even guessed at, it is evident that many mistakes must have been made, and that many an instance, which until now has been considered reliable proof of a so-called single variation, is in fact only a case of vicinism. in reading the sparse literature on sports, numerous cases will be found, which cannot stand this test. in many instances crossing must be looked to as an explanation, [ ] and in other cases the evidence relied upon does not suffice to exclude this assumption. many an old argument has of late lost its force by this test. returning to our starting point we may now state that regular reversions to a specific type characterize a form as a variety of that species. these reversions, however, are not due to an innate tendency, but to unobserved spontaneous crosses. [ ] lecture viii latent characters no organism exhibits all of its qualities at any one time. many of them are generally dormant and await a period of activity. for some of them this period comes regularly, while in others the awakening depends upon external influences, and consequently occurs very irregularly. those of the first group correspond to the differences in age; the second constitute the responses of the plant to stimuli including wound-injuries. some illustrative examples may be quoted in order to give a precise idea of this general conception of dormant or latent characters. seed leaves are only developed in the seed and the seedling; afterwards, during the entire lifetime of the plant, the faculty of producing them is not made use of. every new generation of seeds however, bears the same kind of seed leaves, and hence it is manifest that it is the same quality, which shows itself from time to time. the primary leaves, following the seed-leaves, are different in many species, from the later ones, and the difference is extremely pronounced in some cases of reduction. often, when leaves are lacking in the adult plant, being replaced by flattened stalks as in the case of the acacias, or by thorns, or green stems and twigs as in the prickly broom or _ulex europaeus_, the first leaves of the young plant may be more highly differentiated, being pinnate in the first case and bearing three leaflets in the second instance. this curious behavior which is very common, brings the plants, when young, nearer to their allies than in the adult state, and manifestly implies that the more perfect state of the leaves is latent throughout the life of the plant, with the exception of the early juvenile period. _eucalyptus globulus_, the australian gum tree, has opposite and broadly sessile leaves during the first years of its life. later these disappear and are replaced by long sickle-shaped foliage organs, which seem to be scattered irregularly along the branches. the juvenile characters manifestly lie dormant during the adult period, and that this is so, may be shown artificially by cutting off the whole crown of the tree, when the stem responds by producing numerous new branches, which assume the [ ] shape proper to the young trees, bearing sessile and opposite leaves. it seems quite unnecessary to give further instances. they are familiar to every student. it is almost safe to say that every character has its periods of activity and of inactivity, and numbers of flowers and fruits can be mentioned as illustrations. one fact may be added to show that nearly every part of the plant must have the power of producing all or nearly all the characters of the individual to which it belongs. this proof is given by the formation of adventitious buds. these, when once formed, may grow out into twigs, with leaves and flowers and roots. they may even be separated from the plants and used as cuttings to reproduce the whole. hence we may conclude that all tissues, which possess the power of producing adventitious buds, must conceal in a latent state, all the numerous characters required for the full development of the whole individual. adventitious buds may proceed from specialized cells, as on the margin of the leaves of _bryophyllum calycinum_; or from the cells of special tissues, as in the epidermis of the begonias; or they may be provoked by wounds in nearly every part of the plant, provided it be able to heal the wound by swelling tissues or [ ] callus. the best instance is afforded by elms and by the horse-chestnut. if the whole tree is hewn down the trunk tries to repair the injury by producing small granulations of tissue between the wood and the bark, which gradually coalesce while becoming larger. from this new ring of living matter innumerable buds arise, that expand into leafy branches, showing clearly that the old trunk possesses, in a latent state, all the qualities of the whole crown. indeed, such injured stumps may be used for the production of copses and hedges. all the hitherto recorded cases of latency have this in common, that they may become active during the life-time of any given individual once, or oftener. this may be called the ordinary type of latency. besides this there is another form of latent characters, in which this awakening power is extremely limited, or wholly absent. it is the systematic latency, which may be said to belong to species and varieties in the same way as the ordinary latency belongs to individuals. as this individual latency may show itself from time to time during the life of a given plant, the first may only become active from time to time during the whole existence of the variety or the species. it has no regular period of activity, nor may it be incited by artificial stimulation. [ ] it emerges from concealment only very rarely and only on its own initiative. such instances of atavism have been described in previous lectures, and their existence has been proved beyond doubt. systematic latency explains the innumerable instances in which species are seen to lack definite characteristics which ordinarily do not fail, either in plants at large, or in the group or family to which the plant belongs. if we take for instance the broom-rape or _orobanche_, or some other pale parasite, we explain their occurrence in families of plants with green leaves, by the loss of the leaves and of the green color. but evidently this loss is not a true one, but only the latency of those characters. and even this latency is not a complete one, as little scales remind us of the leaves, and traces of chlorophyll still exist in the tissues. numerous other cases will present themselves to every practical botanist. taking for granted that characters, having once been acquired, may become latent, and that this process is of universal occurrence throughout the whole vegetable and animal kingdom, we may now come to a more precise and clear conception of the existing differences between species and varieties. for this purpose we must take a somewhat [ ] broader view of the whole evolution of the vegetable kingdom. it is manifest that highly developed plants have a larger number of characters than the lower groups. these must have been acquired in some way, during preceding times. such evolution must evidently be called a process of improvement, or a progressive evolution. contrasted to this is the loss, or the latency of characters, and this may be designated retrogressive or retrograde evolution. but there is still a third possibility. for a latent character may reassume its activity, return to the active state, and become once more an important part of the whole organization. this process may be designated as degressive evolution; it obviously completes the series of the general types of evolution. advancement in general in living nature depends on progressive evolution. in different parts of the vegetable kingdom, and even in different families this progression takes place on different lines. by this means it results in an ever increasing divergency between the several groups. every step is an advance, and many a step must have been taken to produce flowering plants from the simplest unicellular algae. but related to, and very intimately connected with this advancement is the retrogressive [ ] evolution. it is equally universal, perhaps never failing. no great changes have been attained, without acquiring new qualities on one side, and reducing others to latency. everywhere such retrogressions may be seen. the polypetalous genera _pyrola_, _ledum_, and _monotropa_ among the sympetalous heaths, are a remarkable instance of this. the whole evolution of the monocotyledons from the lowest orders of dicotyledons implies the seeming loss of cambial growth and many other qualities. in the order of aroids, from the calamus-root or sweet flag, with its small but complete flowers, up to the reduced duckweeds (_lemna_), almost an unbroken line of intermediate steps may be traced showing everywhere the concurrence of progressive and retrogressive evolution. degressive evolution is not so common by far, and is not so easy to recognize, but no doubt it occurs very frequently. it is generally called atavism, or better, systematic atavism, and the clearest cases are those in which a quality which is latent in the greater part of a family or group, becomes manifest in one of its members. bracts in the inflorescence of crucifers are ordinarily wanting, but may be seen in some genera, _erucastrum pollichii_ being perhaps the [ ] most widely known instance, although other cases might easily be cited. for our special purpose we may take up only the more simple cases that may be available for experimental work. the great lines of evolution of whole families and even of genera and of many larger species obviously lie outside the limits of experimental observation. they are the outcome of the history of the ancestors of the present types, and a repetition of their history is far beyond human powers. we must limit ourselves to the most recent steps, to the consideration of the smallest differences. but it is obvious that these may be included under the same heads as the larger and older ones. for the larger movements are manifestly to be considered only as groups of smaller steps, going in the same direction. hence we conclude, that even the smallest steps in the evolution of plants which we are able to observe, may be divided into progressive, retrogressive and degressive ones. the acquisition of a single new quality is the most simple step in the progressive line, the becoming latent and the reactivating of this same quality are the prototypes of the two other classes. having taken this theoretical point of view, it remains to inquire, how it concurs with the [ ] various facts, given in former lectures and how it may be of use in our further discussions. it is obvious that the differences between elementary species and varieties on the one hand, and between the positive and negative varieties as distinguished above, are quite comparable with our theoretical views. for we have seen that varieties can always be considered as having originated by an apparent loss of some quality of the species, or by the resumption of a quality which in allied species is present and visible. in our exposition of the facts we have of course limited ourselves to the observable features of the phenomena without searching for a further explanation. for a more competent inquiry however, and for an understanding of wider ranges of facts, it is necessary to penetrate deeper into the true nature of the implied causes. therefore we must try to show that elementary species are distinguished from each other by the acquisition of new qualities, and that varieties are derived from their species either by the reduction of one or more characteristics to the latent state, or by the energizing of dormant characters. here we meet with a great difficulty. hitherto varieties and subspecies have never been clearly defined, or when they have been, it was [ ] not by physiological, but only by morphological research. and the claims of these two great lines of inquiry are obviously very diverging. morphological or comparative studies need a material standard, by which it may be readily decided whether certain groups of animals and plants are to be described or de-nominated as species, as subspecies or as varieties. to get at the inner nature of the differences is in most cases impossible, but a decision must be made. the physiological line of inquiry has more time at its disposal; it calls for no haste. its experiments ordinarily cover years, and a conclusion is only to be reached after long and often weary trials. there is no making a decision on any matter until all doubtful points have been cleared up. of course, large groups of facts remain uncertain, awaiting a closer inquiry, and the teacher is constrained to rely on the few known instances of thoroughly investigated cases. these alone are safe guides, and it seems far better to trust to them and to make use of them for the construction of sharp conceptions, which may help us to point out the lines of inquiry which are still open. leaving aside all such divisions and definitions, as were stamped with the name of provisional species and varieties by the great systematist, [ ] alphonse de candolle, we may now try to give the proofs of our assertion, by using only those instances that have been thoroughly tested in every way. we may at once proceed to the retrogressive or negative varieties. the arguments for the assumption that elementary species owe their origin to the acquisition of new qualities may well be left for later lectures when we shall deal with the experimental proofs in this matter. there are three larger groups of facts, on which the assumption of latent characters in ordinary varieties rests. these are true atavism, incomplete loss of characters, and systematic affinity. before dealing with each of these separately, it may be as well to recall once more that in former lectures we have treated the apparent losses only as modifications in a negative way, without contemplating the underlying causes. let us recall the cases of bud-atavism given by the whitish variety of the scarlet _ribes_, by peaches and nectarines, and by conifers, including _cephalotaxus_ and _cryptomeria_. these and many other analogous facts go to prove the relation of the variety to the species. two assumptions are allowable. in one the variety differs from the species by the total loss of the [ ] distinctive character. in the other this character is simply reduced to an inactive or dormant state. the fact of its recurrence from time to time, accompanied by secondary characters previously exhibited, is a manifest proof of the existence of some relation between the lost and the resumed peculiarity. evidently this relation cannot be accounted for on the assumption of an absolute disappearance; something must remain from which the old features may be restored. this lengthy discussion may be closed by the citation of the cases, in which plants not only show developmental features of a former state, but also reproduce the special features they formerly had, but seemingly have lost. two good illustrative examples may be given. one is afforded by the wheat-ear carnation, the other by the green dahlias, and both have occurred of late in my own cultures. a very curious anomaly may from time to time be observed in large beds of carnations. it bears no flowers, but instead of them small green ears, which recall the ears of wheat. thence the name of "wheat-ear" carnation. on closer inspection it is easily seen how they originate. the normal flowers of the carnations are preceded by a small group of bracts, [ ] which are arranged in opposite pairs and therefore constitute four rows. in this variety the flower is suppressed and this loss is attended by a corresponding increase of the number of the pairs of bracts. this malformation results in square spikes or somewhat elongated heads consisting only of the greenish bracts. as there are no flowers, the variety is quite sterile, and as it is not regarded by horticulturists as an improvement on the ordinary bright carnations, it is seldom multiplied by layering. notwithstanding this, it appears from time to time and has been seen in different countries and at different periods, and, what is of great importance for us, in different strains of carnations. though sterile, and obviously dying out as often as it springs into existence, it is nearly two centuries old. it was described in the beginning of the th century by volckamer, and afterwards by jaeger, de candolle, weber, masters, magnus and many other botanists. i have had it twice, at different times and from different growers. so far as i have been able to ascertain reversions of this curious carnation to normal flowers have not yet been recorded. such a modification occurred last summer in my garden on a plant which had not been divided or layered, but on which the slender branches had [ ] been left on the stem. some of them remained true to the varietal type and bore only green spikes. others reverted wholly or partially to the production of normal flowers. some branches bore these only, others had spikes and flowers on neighboring twigs, and in still other instances little spikes had been modified in such manner that a more or less well developed flower was preceded by some part of an ear. the proof that this retrograde modification was due to the existence of a character in the latent state was given by the color of the flowers. if the reverted bud had only lost the power of producing spikes, they would evidently simply have returned to the characteristics of the ordinary species, and their color would have been a pale pink. instead of this, all flowers displayed corollas of a deep brown. they obviously reverted to their special progenitor, the chance variety from which they had sprung, and not to the common prototype of the species. of course it was not possible to ascertain from which variety the plant had really originated, but the reproduction of any one clearly defined varietal mark is in itself proof enough of their origin, and of the latency of the dark brown flower-color in this special case. a still better proof is afforded by a new type of green dahlia. the ordinary green dahlia [ ] has large tufts of green bracts instead of flowering heads, the scales of the receptacle having assumed the texture and venation of leaves, and being in some measure as fleshy. but the green heads retain the form of the ordinary flower-heads, and as they have no real florets that may fade away, they remain unchanged on the plants, and increase in number through the whole summer. the new types of green dahlia however, with which i have now to deal, are distinguished by the elongation of the axis of the head, which is thereby changed into a long leafy stalk, attaining a length of several inches. these stalks continue growing for a very long time, and for the most part die without producing anything else than green fleshy scales. this long-headed green dahlia originated at haarlem some years ago, in the nursery of messrs. zocher & co. it was seen to arise twice, from different varieties. both of these were double-flowered, one a deep carmine with white tips on the rays, the other of a pale orange tint, known by the name of "surprise." as they did not bear any florets or seeds, they were quite sterile. the strain arising from the carmine variety was kindly given to me by messrs. zocher & co., and was propagated in my garden, while the other was kept in the nursery. in the earlier cultures both remained true to [ ] their types, never producing true florets. no mark of the original difference was to be seen between them. but last summer ( ) both reverted to their prototypes, bearing relatively large numbers of ordinary double flowerheads among the great mass of green stalks. some intermediate forms also occurred consisting of green-scaled stalks ending in small heads with colored florets. thus far we have an ordinary case of reversion. but the important side of the phenomenon was, that each plant exactly "recollected" from which parent it had sprung. all of those in my garden reverted to the carmine florets with white tips, and all of those in the nursery to the pale orange color and the other characteristics of the "surprise" variety. it seems absolutely evident, that no simple loss can account for this difference. something of the character of the parent-varieties must have remained in the plant. and whatever conception we may formulate of these vestigial characters it is clear that the simplest and most obvious idea is their preservation in a dormant or latent state. assuming that the distinguishing marks have only become inactive by virescence, it is manifest that on returning each will show its own peculiarities, as recorded above. our second point was the incomplete loss of [ ] the distinguishing quality in some varieties. it is of general occurrence, though often overlooked. many white varieties of colored flowers give striking instances, among them many of the most stable and most prized garden-flowers. if you look at them separately or in little bouquets they seem to be of irreproachable purity. but if you examine large beds a pale hue will become visible. in many cases this tinge is so slight as to be only noticeable in a certain illumination, or by looking in an oblique direction across the bed; in others it is at once evident as soon as it has been pointed out. it always reminds the observer of the color of the species to which the variety belongs, being bluish in violets and harebells, reddish in godetias and phloxes, in _silene armeria_ and many others. it proves that the original color quality of the species has not wholly, but only partly disappeared. it is dormant, but not entirely obliterated; latent, but not totally concealed; inactive, but only partially so. our terminology is an awkward one; it practically assumes, as it so often does in other cases, a conventional understanding, not exactly corresponding to the simple meaning of the words. but it would be cumbrous to speak always of partial inactivity, incomplete latency or half awakening qualities. even such words as sub-latent, [ ] which would about express the real state of things, would have little chance of coming into general use. such sub-latent colors are often seen on special parts in white varieties of flowers. in many cases it is the outer side of the petals which recalls the specific color, as in some white roses. in violets it is often on the spur that the remains of the original pigment are to be seen. in many instances it is on the tips of the petals or of the segments of the corolla, and a large number of white or yellow flowers betray their affinity to colored species by becoming red or bluish at the edges or on the outer side. the reality of such very slight hues, and their relation to the original pigment of the species may in some cases be proved by direct experiment. if it is granted that latency is not an absolute quality, then it will be readily accepted, that even latency must be subjected to the laws of gradual variation or fluctuating variability. we will deal with these laws in a later lecture but every one knows that greater deviations than the ordinary may be attained by sowing very large numbers and by selecting from among them the extreme individuals and sowing anew from their seed. in this way the slightest tinge of any latent color may be [ ] strengthened, not indeed to the restoration of the tinge of the species, but at least so far as to leave no doubt as to the identity of the visible color of the species and the latent or sublatent one of the variety. i made such an experiment with the peach leaved harebell or _campanula persicifolia_. the white variety of this species, which is often met with in our gardens, shows a very pale bluish hue when cultivated in large quantities, which however is subject to individual variations. i selected some plants with a decided tinge, flowered them separately, sowed their seeds, and repeated this during two generations. the result was an increase of the color on the tips of the segments of the corolla in a few individuals, most of them remaining as purely white as the original strain. but in those few plants the color was very manifest, individually variable in degree, but always of the same blue as in the species itself. many other instances could be given. smooth varieties are seldom absolutely so, and if scattering hairs are found on the leaves or only on some more or less concealed parts, they correspond in their character to those of the species. so it is with prickles, and even the thornless thorn-apple has fruits with surfaces far from smooth. the thornless horse-chestnut [ ] has in some instances such evident protuberances on the valves of its fruits, that it may seem doubtful whether it is a pure and stable variety. systematic latency may betray itself in different ways, either by normal systematic marks, or by atavism. with the latter i shall deal at length on another occasion, and therefore i will give here only one very clear and beautiful example. it is afforded by the common red clover. obviously the clovers, with their three leaflets in each leaf, stand in the midst of the great family of papilionaceous plants, the leaves of which are generally pinnate. systematic affinity suggests that the "three leaved" forms must have been derived from pinnate ancestors, evidently by the reduction of the number of the leaflets. in some species of clover the middle of the three is more or less stalked, as is ordinarily the case in pinnate leaves; in others it is as sessile as are its neighbors. in a subsequent chapter i will describe a very fine variety, which sometimes occurs in the wild state and may easily be isolated and cultivated. it is an ordinary red clover with five leaflets instead of three, and with this number varying between three and seven, instead of being nearly wholly stable as in the common form. it produces from time to time pinnate leaves, [ ] very few indeed, and only rarely, but then often two or three or even more on the same individual. intermediate stages are not wanting, but are of no consequence here. the pinnate leaves obviously constitute a reversion to some prototype, to some ancestor with ordinary papilionaceous leaves. they give proof of the presence of the common character of the family, concealed here in a latent state. any other explanation of this curious anomaly would evidently be artificial. on the other hand nothing is really known about the ancestors of clover, and the whole conception rests only on the prevailing views of the systematic relationships in this family. but, as i have already said, further proof must be left for a subsequent occasion. many instances, noted in our former lectures, could be quoted here. the systematic distribution of rayed and rayless species and varieties among the daisy-group of the composites affords a long series of examples. accidental variations in both directions occur. the canada fleabane or _erigeron canadensis_, the tansy or _tanacetum vulgare_ and some others may at times be seen with ray-florets, and according to murr, they may sometimes be wanting in _aster tripolium_, _bellis perennis_, some species of _anthemis_, _arnica montana_ and in a number [ ] of other well-known rayed species. another instance may be quoted; it has been pointed out by grant allen, and refers to the dead-nettle or lamium album. systematically placed in a genus with red-flowering species, we may regard its white color as due to the latency of the general red pigment. but if the flower of this plant is carefully examined, it will be found in most cases not to be purely white, but to have some dusky lines and markings on its lower lip. similar devices are observed on the lip of the allied _lamium maculatum_, and in a less degree on the somewhat distant _lamium purpureum_. with _lamium maculatum_ or spotted dead-nettle, the affinity is so close that even bentham united the two in a single species, considering the ordinary dead-nettle only as a variety of the dappled purple type. for the support of this conception of a specific or varietal retrograde change many other facts are afforded by the distribution of the characteristic color and of the several patterns of the lips of other labiates, and our general understanding of the relationships of the species and genera in this family may in a broad sense be based on the comparison of these seemingly subordinate characteristics. the same holds good in many other cases, and systematists have often become uncertain [ ] as to the true value of some form, by its relationship to the allied types in the way of retrogressive modification. color-differences are so showy, that they easily overshadow other characters. the white and the blue thorn-apple, the white and the red campion (_lychnis vespertina_ and _diurna_) and many other illustrative cases could be given, in which two forms are specifically separated by some authors, but combined by others on the ground of the retrograde nature of some differentiating mark. hitherto we have dealt with negative characters and tried to prove that the conception of latency of the opposite positive characteristics is a more natural explanation of the phenomenon than the idea of a complete loss. we have now to consider the positive varieties, and to show that it is quite improbable that here the species have struck out for themselves a wholly new character. in some instances such may have been the case, but then i should prefer to treat these rather as elementary species. but in the main we will have to assume the latency of the character in the species and its reassumption by the variety when originating, as the most probable explanation. great stress is laid upon this conception by the fact, that positive varieties are so excessively rare when compared with the common occurrence [ ] of negative ones. indeed, if we put aside the radiate and the color-varieties of flowers and foliage, hardly any cases can be cited. we have dealt with this question in a former lecture, and may now limit ourselves to the positive color-varieties. the latency of the faculty of producing the red pigment in leaves must obviously be accepted for nearly the whole vegetable kingdom. oaks and elms, the beautiful climbing species of ampelopsis, many conifers, as for instance _cryptomeria japonica_, some brambles, the guelder-rose (_viburnum opulus_) and many other trees and shrubs assume a more or less bright red color in the fall. during summer this tendency must have been dormant, and that this is so, is shown by the young leaves of oaks and others, which, when unfolding in the spring show a similar but paler hue. moreover, there is a way of awakening the concealed powers at any time. we have only to inflict small wounds on the leaves, or to cut through the nerves or to injure them by a slight bruising, and the leaves frequently respond with an intense reddening of the living tissues around and especially above the wounds. _azolla caroliniana_, a minute mosslike floating plant allied to the ferns, responds to light and cold with a reddish tinge, and to shade or warmth with a pure green. the foliage [ ] of many other plants behaves likewise, as also do apples and peaches on the insolated sides of the fruits. it is quite impossible to state these groups of facts in a more simple way than by the statement that the tendency to become red is almost generally present, though latent in leaves and stems, and that it comes into activity whenever a stimulus provokes it. now it must be granted that the energizing of such a propensity under ordinary circumstances is quite another thing from the origination of a positive variety by the evolution of the same character. in the variety the activity has become independent of outer influences or dependent upon them in a far lesser degree. the power of producing the red pigments is shown to be latent by the facts given above, and we see that in the variety it is no longer latent but is in perfect and lasting activity throughout the whole life of the plant. red varieties of white flowers are much more rare. here the latency of the red pigment may be deduced partly from general arguments like those just given, partly from the special systematic relations in the given cases. hildebrand has clearly worked out this mode of proof. he showed by the critical examination of a large number of instances that the occurrence of the red-flowered varieties is contingent upon the [ ] existence of red species in the same genus, or in some rare cases, in nearly allied genera. colors that are not systematically present in the group to which a white species belongs are only produced in its varieties in extremely rare cases. we may quote some special rules, indicated by hildebrand. blue species are n the main very rare, and so are blue varieties of white species also. carnations, asiatic or cultivated buttercups (_ranunculus asiaticus_), _mirabilis_, poppies, _gladiolus_, _dahlia_, and some other highly cultivated or very old garden-plants have not been able to produce true blue flowers. but the garden-anemone (_anemone coronaria_) has allies with very fine blue flowers. the common stock has bluish varieties and is allied to _aubretia_ and _hesperis_, and gooseberries have a red form, recalling the ordinary currant. in nearly all other instances of blue or red varieties every botanist will be able to point out some allied red or blue species, as an indication of the probable source of the varietal character. dark spots on the lower parts of the petals of some plants afford another instance, as in poppies and in the allied _glaucium_, where they sometimes occur as varietal and in other cases as specific marks. the yellow fails in many highly developed [ ] flowers, which are not liable to produce yellow variations, as in _salvia_, _aster_, _centaurea_, _vinca_, _polygala_ and many others. even the rare pale yellowish species of some of these genera have no tendency in this direction. the hyacinths are the most remarkable, if not the sole known instance of a species having red and blue and white and yellow varieties, but here the yellow is not the bright golden color of the buttercups. the existence of varietal colors in allied species obviously points to a common cause, and this cause can be no other than the latency of the pigment in the species that do not show it. the conception of latency of characters as the common source of the origination of varieties, either in the positive or in the negative way, leads to some rules on variability, which are known under the names given to them by darwin. they are the rules of repeated, homologous, parallel and analogous variability. each of them is quite general, and may be recognized in instances from the most widely distant families. each of them is quite evident and easily understood on the principle of latency. by the term of repeated variability is meant the well-known phenomenon, that the same variety has sprung at different times and in different [ ] countries from the same species. the repetition obviously indicates a common internal cause. the white varieties of blue- and red-flowered plants occur in the wild state so often, and in most of the instances in so few individuals that a common pedigree is absolutely improbable. in horticulture this tendency is widely and vexatiously known, since the repetition of an old variety does not bring any advantage to the breeder. the old name of "conquests," given by the breeders of hyacinths, tulips and other flower-bulbs to any novelty, in disregard of the common occurrence of repetitions, is an indication of the same experience in the repeated appearance of certain varieties. the rule of parallel variations demands that the same character occasionally makes its appearance in the several varieties or races, descended from the same species, and even in widely distinct species. this is a rule, which is very important for the general conception of the meaning of the term variety as contrasted with elementary species. for the recurrence of the same deviation always impresses us as a varietal mark. laciniated leaves are perhaps the most beautiful instance, since they occur in so many trees and shrubs, as the walnut tree, the beech, the birch, the hazelnut, and even in [ ] brambles and some garden-varieties of the turnip (_brassica_). in such cases of parallel variations the single instances obviously follow the same rules and are therefore to be designated as analogous. pitchers or ascidia, formed by the union of the margins of a leaf, are perhaps the best proof. they were classified by morren under two heads, according to their formation from one or more leaves. monophyllous pitchers obey the same law, viz.: that the upper side of the leaf has become the inner side of the pitcher. only one exception to this rule is known to me. it is afforded by the pitchers of the banyan or holy fig-tree, _ficus religiosus_, but it does not seem to belong to the same class as other pitchers, since as far as it has been possible to ascertain the facts, these pitchers are not formed by a few leaves as in all other cases, but by all the leaves of the tree. in some cases pitchers are only built up of part of the leaf-blade. such partial malformations obey a rule, that is common to them and to other foliar enations, viz.: that the side of the leaf from which they emerge, is always their outer side. the inner surface of these enations corresponds to the opposite side of the leaf, both in color and in anatomical structure. the last of the four rules above mentioned is [ ] that of the homologous variability. it asserts that the same deviation may occur in different, but homologous parts of the same plant. we have already dealt with some instances, as the occurrence of the same pigment in the flowers and foliage, in the fruits and seeds of the same plant, as also illustrated by the loss of the red or blue tinge by flowers and berries. other instances are afforded by the curious fact that the division of the leaves into numerous and small segments is repeated by the petals, as in the common celandine and some sorts of brambles. it would take too long to make a closer examination of the numerous cases which afford proof of these statements. suffice it to say that everywhere the results of close inspection point to the general rule, that the failure of definite qualities both in species and in varieties must, in a great number of cases, be considered as only apparent. hidden from view, occasionally reappearing, or only imperfectly concealed, the same character must be assumed to be present though latent. in the case of negative or retrogressive varieties it is the transition from the active into a dormant state to which is due the origin of the variety. positive varieties on the contrary owe their origin to the presence of some character [ ] in the species in the latent state, and to the occasional re-energizing thereof. specific or varietal latency is not the same thing as the ordinary latency of characters that only await their period of activity, or the external influence which will awake them. they are permanently latent, and could well be designated by the word perlatent. they spring into activity only by some sudden leap, and then at once become independent of ordinary external stimulation. [ ] lecture ix crosses of species and varieties in the foregoing lectures i have tried to show that there is a real difference between elementary species and varieties. the first are of equal rank, and together constitute the collective or systematic species. the latter are usually derived from real and still existing types. elementary species are in a sense independent of each other, while varieties are of a derivative nature. furthermore i have tried to show that the ways in which elementary or minor species must have originated from their common ancestor must be quite different from the mode of origin of the varieties. we have assumed that the first come into existence by the production of something new, by the acquirement of a character hitherto unnoticed in the line of their ancestors. on the contrary, varieties, in most cases, evidently owe their origin to the loss of an already existing character, or in other less frequent cases, to the re-assumption of a quality [ ] formerly lost. some may originate in a negative, others in a positive manner, but in both cases nothing really new is acquired. this distinction holds good for all cases in which the relationship between the forms in question is well known. it seems entirely justifiable therefore to apply it also to cases in which the systematic affinity is doubtful, as well as to instances in which it is impossible to arrive at any taxonomic conclusions. the extreme application of the principle would no doubt disturb the limits between many species and varieties as now recognized. it is not to be forgotten however that all taxonomic distinctions, which have not been confirmed by physiologic tests are only provisional, a view acknowledged by the best systematists. of course the description of newly discovered forms can not await the results of physiologic inquiries; but it is absolutely impossible to reach definite conclusions on purely morphologic evidence. this is well illustrated by the numerous discords of opinion of different authors on the systematic worth of many forms. assuming the above mentioned principle as established, and disregarding doubtful cases as indicated, the term progressive evolution is used to designate the method in which elementary species must have originated. it is the [ ] manner in which all advance in the animal and vegetable kingdoms must have taken place, continuously adding new characters to the already existing number. contrasted with this method of growing differentiation, are the retrogressive modifications, which simply retrace a step, and the degressive changes in which a backward step is retraced and old characters revived. no doubt both of these methods have been operative on a large scale, but they are evidently not in the line of general advancement. in all of these directions we see that the differentiating marks show more or less clearly that they are built up of units. allied forms are separated from each other without intermediates. transitions are wholly wanting, although fallaciously apparent in some instances owing to the wide range of fluctuating variability of the forms concerned, or to the occurrence of hybrids and subvarieties. these physiologic units, which in the end must be the basis for the distinction of the systematic units, may best be designated by the term of "unit-characters." their internal nature is as yet unknown to us, and we will not now look into the theories, which have been propounded as to the probable material basis underlying them. for our present purpose the empirical evidence of the general occurrence of [ ] sharp limits between nearly related characters must suffice. as bateson has put it, species are discontinuous, and we must assume that their characters are discontinuous also. moreover there is as yet no reason for trying to make a complete analysis of all the characters of a plant. no doubt, if attained, such an analysis would give us a deep insight into the real internal construction of the intricate properties of organisms in general. but taxonomic studies in this direction are only in their infancy and do not give us the material required for such an analysis. quite on the contrary, they compel us to confine our study to the most recently acquired, or youngest characters, which constitute the differentiating marks between nearly allied forms. obviously this is especially the case in the realm of the hybrids, since only nearly related forms are able to give hybrid offspring. in dealing with this subject we must leave aside all questions concerning more remote relationships. it is not my purpose to treat of the doctrine of hybridization at any length. experience is so rapidly increasing both in a practical and in a purely scientific direction that it would take an entire volume to give only a brief survey of the facts and of all the proposed theories. [ ] for our present purposes we are to deal with hybrids only in so far as they afford the means of a still better distinction between elementary species and varieties. i will try to show that these two contrasting groups behave in quite a different manner, when subjected to crossing experiments, and that the hope is justified that some day crosses may become the means of deciding in any given instance, what is to be called a species, and what a variety, on physiologic grounds. it is readily granted that the labor required for such experiments, is perhaps too great for the results to be attained, but then it may be possible to deduce rules from a small series of experiments, which may lead us to a decision in wider ranges of cases. to reach such a point of view it is necessary to compare the evidence given by hybrids, with the conclusions already attained by the comparison of the differentiating characteristics of allied forms. on this ground we first have to inquire what may be expected respecting the internal nature and the outcome of the process of crossing in the various cases cited in our former discussion. we must always distinguish the qualities, which are the same in both parents, from those that constitute the differentiating marks in every single cross. in respect to the first [ ] group the cross is not at all distinguished from a normal fertilization, and ordinarily these characters are simply left out of consideration. but it should never be forgotten that they constitute the enormous majority, amounting to hundreds and thousands, whereas the differentiating marks in each case are only one or two or a few at most. the whole discussion is to be limited to these last-named exceptions. we must consider first what would be the nature of a cross when species are symmetrically combined, and what must be the case when varieties are subjected to the same treatment. in so doing, i intend to limit the discussion to the most typical cases. we may take the crosses between elementary species of the same or of very narrowly allied systematic species on the one side, and on the other, limit treatment to the crossing of varieties with the species, from which they are supposed to have sprung by a retrograde modification. crosses of different varieties of the same species with one another obviously constitute a derivative case, and should only be discussed secondarily. and crosses of varieties with positive or depressive characters have as yet so rarely been made that we may well disregard them. elementary species differ from their nearest allies by progressive changes, that is by the acquirement [ ] of some new character. the derivative species has one unit more than the parent. all other qualities are the same as in the parent. whenever such a derivative is combined with its parent the result for these qualities will be exactly as in a normal fertilization. in such ordinary cases it is obvious that each character of the pollen-parent is combined with the same character of the pistil-parent. there may be slight individual differences, but each unit character will become opposed to, and united with, the same unit-character in the other parent. in the offspring the units will thus be paired, each pair consisting of two equivalent units. as to their character the units of each single pair are the same, only they may exhibit slight differences as to the degree of development of this character. now we may apply this conception to the sexual combination of two different elementary species, assuming one to be the derivative of the other. the differentiating mark is only present in one of the parents and wanting in the other. while all other units are paired in the hybrid, this one is not. it meets with no mate, and must therefore remain unpaired. the hybrid of two such elementary species is in some way incomplete and unnatural. in the ordinary course of things all individuals derive [ ] their qualities from both parents; for each single mark they possess at least two units. practically but not absolutely equal, these two opponents always work together and give to the offspring a likeness to both parents. no unpaired qualities occur in normal offspring; these constitute the essential features of the hybrids of species and are at the same time the cause of their wide deviations from the ordinary rules. turning now to the varieties, we likewise need discuss their differentiating marks only. in the negative types, these consist of the apparent loss of some quality which was active in the species. but it was pointed out in our last lecture that such a change is an apparent loss. on a closer inquiry we are led to the assumption of a latent or dormant state. the presumably lost characters have not absolutely, or at least not permanently disappeared. they show their presence by some slight indication of the quality they represent, or by occasional reversions. they are not wanting, but only latent. basing our discussion concerning the process of crossing on this conception, and still limiting the discussion to one differentiating mark, we come to the inference, that this mark is present and active in the species, and present but dormant in the variety. thus it is present in both, and as all other characters not differentiating [ ] find their mates in the cross, so these two will also meet one another. they will unite just as well as though they were both active or both dormant. for essentially they are the same, only differing in their degree of activity. from this we can infer, that in the crossing of varieties, no unpaired remainder is left, all units combining in pairs exactly as in ordinary fertilization. setting aside the contrast between activity and latency in this single pair, the procedure in the inter-crossing of varieties is the same as in ordinary normal fertilization. summarizing this discussion we may conclude that in normal fertilization and in the inter-crossing of varieties all characters are paired, while in crosses between elementary species the differentiating marks are not mated. in order to distinguish these two great types of fertilization we will use the term bisexual for the one and unisexual for the other. the term balanced crosses then conveys the idea of complete bisexuality, all unit-characters combining in pairs. unbalanced crosses are those in which one or more units do not find their mates and therefore remain unpaired. this distinction was proposed by macfarlane when studying the minute structure of plant-hybrids in comparison with that of their parents ( ). [ ] in the first place it shows that a species hybrid may inherit the distinguishing marks of both parents. in this way it may become intermediate between them, having some characters in common with the pollen-parent and others with the pistil-parent. as far as these characters do not interfere with each other, they may be fully developed side by side, and in the main this is the way in which hybrid characters are evolved. but in most cases our existing knowledge of the units is far too slender to give a complete analysis, even of these distinguishing marks alone. we recognize the parental marks more or less clearly, but are not prepared for exact delimitations. leaving these theoretical considerations, we will pass to the description of some illustrative examples. in the first place i will describe a hybrid between two species of _oenothera_, which i made some years ago. the parents were the common evening-primrose or _oenothera biennis_ and of its small-flowered congener, _oenothera muricata_. these two forms were distinguished by linnaeus as different species, but have been considered by subsequent writers as elementary species or so-called systematic varieties of one species designated with the name of the presumably older type, the _o. biennis_. varietal differences in a physiologic sense they [ ] do not possess, and for this reason afford a pure instance of unbalanced union, though differing in more than one point. i have made reciprocal crosses, taking at one time the small-flowered and at the other the common species as pistillate parent. these crosses do not lead to the same hybrid as is ordinarily observed in analogous cases; quite on the contrary, the two types are different in most features, both resembling the pollen-parent far more than the pistil-parent. the same curious result was reached in sundry other reciprocal crosses between species of this genus. but i will limit myself here to one of the two hybrids. in the summer of i castrated some flowers of _o. muricata_, and pollinated them with _o. biennis_, surrounding the flowers with paper bags so as to exclude the visits of insects. i sowed the seeds in and the hybrids were biennial and flowered abundantly the next year and were artificially fertilized with their own pollen, but gave only a very small harvest. many capsules failed, and the remaining contained only some few ripe seeds. from these i had in the following year the second hybrid generation, and in the same way i cultivated also the third and fourth. these were as imperfectly fertile as the first, and in [ ] some years did not give any seed at all, so that the operation had to be repeated in order to continue the experiment. last summer ( ) i had a nice lot of some biennial specimens blooming abundantly. all in all i have grown some hybrids, and of these about specimens flowered. these plants were all of the same type, resembling in most points the pollen-parent, and in some others the pistil-parent of the original cross. the most obvious characteristic marks are afforded by the flowers, which in _o. muricata_ are not half so large as in _biennis_, though borne by a calyx-tube of the same length. in this respect the hybrid is like the _biennis_ bearing the larger flowers. these may at times seem to deviate a little in the direction of the other parent, being somewhat smaller and of a slightly paler color. but it is very difficult to distinguish between them, and if _biennis_ and hybrid flowers were separated from the plants and thrown together, it is very doubtful whether one would succeed in separating them. the next point is offered by the foliage. the leaves of _o. biennis_ are broad, those of _o. muricata_ narrow. the hybrid has the broad leaves of _o. biennis_ during most of its life and at the time of flowering. yet small deviations in the [ ] direction of the other parent are not wanting, and in winter the leaves of the hybrid rosettes are often much narrower than those of _o. biennis_, and easily distinguishable from both parents. a third distinction consists in the density of the spike. the distance between the insertion of the flowers of _o. biennis_ is great when compared with that of _o. muricata_. hence the flowers of the latter species are more crowded and those of _o. biennis_ more dispersed, the spikes of the first being densely crowned with flowers and flower-buds while those of _o. biennis_ are more elongated and slender. as a further consequence the _o. biennis_ opens on the same evening only one, two or three flowers on the same spike, whereas _o. muricata_ bears often eight or ten or more flowers at a time. in this respect the hybrid is similar to the pistil-parent, and the crowding of the broad flowers at the top of the spikes causes the hybrids to be much more showy than either of the parent types. other distinguishing marks are not recorded by the systematists, or are not so sharply separated as to allow of the corresponding qualities of the hybrids being compared with them. this hybrid remains true to the description given. in some years i cultivated two generations [ ] so as to be able to compare them with one another, but did not find any difference. the most interesting point however, is the likeness between the first generation, which obviously must combine in its internal structure the units of both parents, and the second and later generations which are only of a derivative nature. next to this stands the fact that in each generation all individuals are alike. no reversion to the parental forms either in the whole type or in the single characteristics has ever been observed, though the leaves of some hundreds, and the spikes and flowers of some individual plants have been carefully examined. no segregation or splitting up takes place. here we have a clear, undoubted and relatively simple, case of a true and pure species hybrid. no occurrence of possible varietal characteristics obscures the result, and in this respect this hybrid stands out much more clearly than all those between garden-plants, where varietal marks nearly always play a most important part. from the breeder's point of view our hybrid _oenothera_ would be a distinct gain, were it not for the difficulty of its propagation. but to enlarge the range of the varieties this simple and stable form would need to be treated anew, by [ ] crossing it with the parent-types. such experiments however, have miscarried owing to the too stable nature of the unit-characters. this stability and this absence of the splitting shown by varietal marks in the offspring of hybrids is one of the best proofs of unisexual unions. it is often obscured by the accompanying varietal marks, or overlooked for this reason. only in rare cases it is to be met with in a pure state and some examples are given of this below. before doing so, i must call your attention to another feature of the unbalanced unions. this is the diminution of the fertility, a phenomenon universally known as occurring in hybridizations. it has two phases. first, the diminished chance of the crosses themselves of giving full crops of seed, as compared with the pure fertilization of either parent. and, secondly, the fertility of the hybrids themselves. seemingly, all grades of diminished fertility occur and the oldest authors on hybrids have pointed out that a very definite relation exists between the differences of the parents and the degree of sterility, both of the cross and of the hybrid offspring. in a broad sense these two factors are proportionate to each other, the sterility being the greater, the lesser the affinity between the parents. many writers have [ ] tried to trace this rule in the single cases, but have met with nearly unsurmountable difficulties, owing chiefly to our ignorance of the units which form the differences between the parents in the observed cases. in the case of _oenothera muricata x biennis_ the differentiating units reduce the fertility to a low degree, threatening the offspring with almost complete infertility and extinction. but then we do not know whether these characters are really units, or perhaps only seemingly so and are in reality composed of smaller entities which as yet we are not able to segregate. and as long as we are devoid of empirical means of deciding such questions, it seems useless to go farther into the details of the question of the sterility. it should be stated here however, that pure varietal crosses, when not accompanied by unbalanced characters, have never showed any tendency to diminished fertility. hence there can be little doubt that the unpaired units are the cause of this decrease in reproductive power. the genus _oenothera_ is to a large degree devoid of varietal characteristics, especially in the subgenus _onagra_, to which _biennis_, _muricata_, _lamarckiana_ and some others belong. on the other hand it seems to be rich in elementary species, but an adequate study of [ ] them has as yet not been made. unfortunately many of the better systematists are in the habit of throwing all these interesting forms together, and of omitting their descriptive study. i have made a large number of crosses between such undescribed types and as a rule got constant hybrid races. only one or two exceptions could be quoted, as for instance the _oenothera brevistylis_, which in its crosses always behaves as a pure retrogressive variety. instead of giving an exhaustive survey of hybrids, i simply cite my crosses between _lamarckiana_ and _biennis_, as having nearly the aspect of the last named species, and remaining true to this in the second generation without any sign of reversion or of splitting. i have crossed another elementary species, the _oenothera hirtella_ with some of my new and with some older linnean species, and got several constant hybrid races. among these the offspring of a cross between _muricata_ and _hirtella_ is still in cultivation. the cross was made in the summer of and last year ( ) i grew the fourth generation of the hybrids. these had the characters of the _muricata_ in their narrow leaves, but the elongated spikes and relatively large flowers of the _hirtella_ parent, and remained true to this type, showing only slight fluctuations and never reverting or segregating [ ] the mixed characters. both parents bear large capsules with an abundance of seed, but in the hybrids the capsules remain narrow and weak, ripening not more than one-tenth the usual quantity of seed. both parents are easily cultivated in annual generations and the same holds good for the hybrid. but whereas the hybrid of muricata and biennis is a stout plant, this type is weak with badly developed foliage, and very long strict spikes. perhaps it was not able to withstand the bad weather of the last few years. a goodly number of constant hybrids are described in literature, or cultivated in fields and gardens. in such cases the essential question is not whether they are now constant, but whether they have been so from the beginning, or whether they prove to be constant whenever the original cross is repeated. for constant hybrids may also be the issue of incipient splittings, as we shall soon see. among other examples we may begin with the hybrid alfalfa or hybrid lucerne (_medicago media_). it often originates spontaneously between the common purple lucerne or alfalfa and its wild ally with yellow flowers and procumbent stems, the _medicago falcata_. this hybrid is cultivated in some parts of germany on a large scale, as it is more productive than [ ] the ordinary lucerne. it always comes true from seed and may be seen in a wild state in parks and on lawns. it is one of the oldest hybrids with a pure and known lineage. the original cross has been repeated by urban, who found the hybrid race to be constant from the beginning. another very notorious constant hybrid race is the _aegilops speltaeformis_. it has been cultivated in botanic gardens for more than half a century, mostly in annual or biennial generations. it is sufficiently fertile and always comes true. numerous records have been made of it, since formerly it was believed by fabre and others to be a spontaneous transition from some wild species of grass to the ordinary wheat, not a cross. godron, however, showed that it can be produced artificially, and how it has probably sprung into existence wherever it is found wild. the hybrid between _aegilops ovata_, a small weed, and the common wheat is of itself sterile, producing no good pollen. but it may be fertilized by the pollen of wheat and then gives rise to a secondary hybrid, which is no other than the _aegilops speltaeformis_. this remained constant in godron's experiments during a number of generations, and has been constant up to the present time. [ ] constant hybrids have been raised by millardet between several species of strawberries. he combined the old cultivated forms with newly discovered types from american localities. they ordinarily showed only the characteristics of one of their parents and did not exhibit any new combination of qualities, but they came true to this type in the second and later generations. in the genus _anemone_, janczewski obtained the same results. some characters of course may split, but others remain constant, and when only such are present, hybrid races result with new combinations of characters, which are as constant as the best species of the same genus. the hybrids of janczewski were quite fertile, and he points out that there is no good reason why they should not be considered as good new species. if they had not been produced artificially, but found in the wild state, their origin would have been unknown, and there can be no doubt that they would have been described by the best systematists as species of the same value as their parents. such is especially the case with a hybrid between _anemone magellanica_ and the common _anemone sylvestris_. starting from similar considerations kerner von marilaun pointed out the fact long ago that many so-called species, of rare occurrence, [ ] standing between two allied types, may be considered to have originated by a cross. surely a wide field for abuse is opened by such an assertion, and it is quite a common habit to consider intermediate forms as hybrids, on the grounds afforded by their external characters alone, and without any exact knowledge of their real origin and often without knowing anything as to their constancy from seed. all such apparent explanations are now slowly becoming antiquated and obsolete, but the cases adduced by kerner seem to stand this test. kerner designates a willow, _salix ehrhartiana_ as a constant hybrid between _salix alba_ and _s. pentandra_. _rhododendron intermedium_ is an intermediate form between the hairy and the rusty species from the swiss alps, _r. hirsutum_ and _r. ferrugineum_, the former growing on chalky, and the other on silicious soils. wherever both these types of soil occur in the same valley and these two species approach one another, the hybrid _r. intermedium_ is produced, and is often seen to be propagating itself abundantly. as is indicated by the name, it combines the essential characters of both parents. _linaria italica_ is a hybrid toad-flax between _l. genistifolia_ and _l. vulgaris_, a cross which i have repeated in my garden. _drosera obovata_ [ ] is a hybrid sundew between _d. anglica_ and _d. rotundifolia_. _primula variabilis_ is a hybrid between the two common primroses, _p. officinalis_ and _p. grandiflora_. the willow-herb (_epilobium_), the self-heal (_brunella_) and the yellow pond-lilies (nuphar) afford other instances of constant wild hybrids. macfarlane has discovered a natural hybrid between two species of sundew in the swamps near atco, n.j. the parents, _d. intermedia_ and _d. filiformis_, were growing abundantly all around, but of the hybrid only a group of eleven plants was found. a detailed comparison of the hybrid with its parents demonstrated a minute blending of the anatomical peculiarities of the parental species. luther burbank of santa rosa, california, has produced a great many hybrid brambles, the qualities of which in many respects surpass those of the wild species. most of them are only propagated by cuttings and layers, not being stable from seed. but some crosses between the blackberry and the raspberry (_r. fruticosus_ and _r. idaeus_) which bear good fruit and have become quite popular, are so fixed in their type as to reproduce their composite characters from seed with as much regularity as the species of _rubus_ found in nature. among them are the "phenomenal" and the [ ] "primus." the latter is a cross between the californian dewberry and the siberian raspberry and is certainly to be regarded as a good stable species, artificially produced. bell salter crossed the willow-herbs _epilobium tetragonum_ and _e. montanum_, and secured intermediate hybrids which remained true to their type during four successive generations. other instances might be given. many of them are to be found in horticultural and botanical journals which describe their systematic and anatomical details. the question of stability is generally dealt with in an incidental manner, and in many cases it is difficult to reach conclusions from the facts given. especially disturbing is the circumstance that from a horticultural point of view it is quite sufficient that a new type should repeat itself in some of its offspring to be called stable, and that for this reason absolute constancy is rarely proved. the range of constant hybrids would be larger by far were it not for two facts. the first is the absolute sterility of so many beautiful hybrids, and the second is the common occurrence of retrogressive characters among cultivated plants. to describe the importance of both these groups of facts would take too much [ ] time, and therefore it seems best to give some illustrative examples instead. among the species of _ribes_ or currant, which are cultivated in our gardens, the most beautiful are without doubt the californian and the missouri currant, or _ribes sanguineum_ and _r. aureum_. a third form, often met with, is "gordon's currant," which is considered to be a hybrid between the two. it has some peculiarities of both parents. the leaves have the general form of the californian parent, but are as smooth as the missouri species. the racemes or flower-spikes are densely flowered as in the red species, but the flowers themselves are of a yellow tinge, with only a flesh-red hue on the outer side of the calyx. it grows vigorously and is easily multiplied by cuttings, but it never bears any fruit. whether it would be constant, if fertile, is therefore impossible to decide. _berberis ilicifolia_ is considered as a hybrid between the european barberry (_b. vulgaris_) and the cultivated shrub _mahonia aquifolia_. the latter has pinnate leaves, the former undivided ones. the hybrid has undivided leaves which are more spiny than those of the european parent, and which are not deciduous like them, but persist during the winter, a peculiarity inherited from the _mahonia_. as far as i [ ] have been able to ascertain, this hybrid never produces seed. another instance of an absolutely sterile hybrid is the often quoted _cytisus adami_. it is a cross between the common laburnum (_cytisus laburnum_) and another species of the same genus, _c. purpureus_, and has some traits of both. but since the number of differentiating marks is very great in this case, most of the organs have become intermediate. it is absolutely sterile. but it has the curious peculiarity of splitting in a vegetative way. it has been multiplied on a large scale by grafting and was widely found in the parks and gardens of europe during the last century. nearly all these specimens reverted from time to time to the presumable parents. not rarely a bud of adam's laburnum assumed all the qualities of the common laburnum, its larger leaves, richer flowered racemes, large and brightly yellow flowers and its complete fertility. other buds on the same tree reverted to the purple parent, with its solitary small flowers, its dense shrublike branches and very small leaves. these too are fertile, though not producing their seeds as abundantly as the _c. laburnum_ reversions. many a botanist has sown the seeds of the latter and obtained only pure common _c. laburnum_ plants. i had a lot of nearly a hundred seedlings [ ] myself, many of which have already flowered, bearing the leaves and flowers of the common species. seeds of the purple reversions have also been sown, and also yielded the parental type only. why this most curious hybrid sports so regularly and why others always remain true to their type is as yet an open question. but recalling our former consideration of this subject the supposition seems allowable that the tendency to revert is not connected with the type of the hybrid, but is apt to occur in some rare individuals of every type. but since most of the sterile hybrids are only known to us in a single individual and its vegetative offspring, this surmise offers an explanation of the rare occurrence of sports. finally, we must consider some of the so called hybrid races or strains of garden-plants. _dahlia_, _gladiolus_, _amaryllis_, _fuchsia_, _pelargonium_ and many other common flowers afford the best known instances. immeasurable variability seems here to be the result of crossing. but on a closer inspection the range of characters is not so very much wider in these hybrid races than in the groups of parent species which have contributed to the origin of the hybrids. our tuberous begonias owe their variability to at least seven original parent species, [ ] and to the almost incredible number of combinations which are possible between their characters. the first of these crosses was made in the nursery of veitch and sons near london by seden, and the first hybrid is accordingly known as _begonia sedeni_ and is still to be met with. it has been superseded by subsequent crosses between the _sedeni_ itself and the _veitchi_ and _rosiflora_, the _davisii_, the _clarkii_ and others. each of them contributed its advantageous qualities, such as round flowers, rosy color, erect flower stalks, elevation of the flowers above the foliage and others. new crosses are being made continuously, partly between the already existing hybrids and partly with newly introduced wild species. only rarely is it possible to get pure seeds, and i have not yet been able to ascertain whether the hybrids would come true from seed. specific and varietal characters may occur together in many of the several forms, but nothing is as yet accurately known as to their behavior in pure fertilizations. constancy and segregation are thrown together in such a manner that extreme variability results, and numerous beautiful types may be had, and others may be expected from further crosses. for a scientific analysis, however, the large range of recorded facts and the written history, which at first sight [ ] seems to have no lacunae, are not sufficient. most of the questions remain open and need investigation. it would be a capital idea to try to repeat the history of the begonias or any other hybrid race, making all the described crosses and then recording the results in a manner requisite for complete and careful scientific investigations. many large genera of hybrid garden-flowers owe their origin to species rich in varieties or in elementary subspecies. such is the case with the gladiolus and the tulips. in other cases the original types have not been obtained from the wild state but from the cultures of other countries. the dahlias were cultivated in mexico when first discovered by europeans, and the chrysanthemums have been introduced from the old gardens of japan. both of them consisted of various types, which afterwards have been increased chiefly by repeated intercrossing. the history of many hybrid races is obscure, or recorded by different authorities in a different way. some have derived their evidence from one nursery, some from another, and the crosses evidently may have been different in different places. the early history of the gladiolus is an instance. the first crosses are recorded to have been made between _gladiolus_ [ ] _psittacinus_ and _g. cardinalis_, and between their hybrid, which is still known under the name of gandavensis_ and the _purpureo-auratus_. but other authors give other lines of descent. so it is with _amaryllis_, which is said by de graaff to owe its stripes to _a. vittata_, its fine form to _a. brasiliensis_, the large petals to _a. psittacina_, the giant flowers to _a. leopoldi_, and the piebald patterns to _a. pardina_. but here, too, other authors give other derivations. summarizing the results of our inquiry we see in the first place how very much remains to be done. many old crosses must be repeated and studied anew, taking care of the purity of the cross as well as of the harvesting of the seeds. many supposed facts will be shown to be of doubtful validity. new facts have to be gathered, and in doing so the distinction between specific and varietal marks must be taken strictly into account. the first have originated as progressive mutations; they give unbalanced crosses with a constant offspring, as far as experience now goes. the second are chiefly due to retrograde modifications, and will be the subject of the next lecture. [ ] lecture x mendel's law of balanced crosses in the scientific study of the result of crosses, the most essential point is the distinction of the several characters of the parents in their combination in the hybrids and their offspring. from a theoretical point of view it would be best to choose parents which would differ only in a single point. the behavior of the differentiating character might then easily be seen. unfortunately, such simple cases do not readily occur. most species, and even many elementary species are distinguished by more than one quality. varieties deviating only in one unit-character from the species, are more common. but a closer inspection often reveals some secondary characters which may be overlooked in comparative or descriptive studies, but which reassume their importance in experimental crossings. in a former lecture we have dealt with the qualities which must be considered as being due to the acquisition of new characters. if we [ ] compare the new form in this case with the type from which it has originated, it may be seen that the new character does not find its mate, or its opposite, and it will be unpaired in the hybrid. in the case of retrogressive changes the visible modification is due, at least in the best known instances, to the reduction of an active quality to a state of inactivity or latency. now if we make a cross between a species and its variety, the differentiating character will be due to the same internal unit, with no other difference than that it is active in the species and latent in the variety. in the hybrid these two corresponding units will make a pair. but while all other pairs in the same hybrid individuals consist of like antagonists, only this pair consists of slightly unlike opponents. this conception of varietal crosses leads to three assertions, which seem justifiable by actual experience. first, there is no reason for a diminution of the fertility, as all characters are paired in the hybrid, and no disturbance whatever ensues in its internal structure. secondly, it is quite indifferent, how the two types are combined, or which of them is chosen as pistillate and which as staminate parent. the deviating pair will have the same constitution in both cases, being [ ] built up of one active and one dormant unit. thirdly this deviating pair will exhibit the active unit which it contains, and the hybrid will show the aspect of the parent in which the character was active and not that of the parent in which it was dormant. now the active quality was that of the species, and its latent state was found in the variety. hence the inference that hybrids between a species and its retrograde variety will bear the aspect of the species. this attribute may be fully developed, and then the hybrid will not be distinguishable from the pure species in its outer appearance. or the character may be incompletely evolved, owing to the failure of cooperation of the dormant unit. in this case the hybrid will be in some sense intermediate between its parents, but these instances are more rare than the alternate ones, though presumably they may play an important part in the variability of many hybrid garden-flowers. all of these three rules are supported by a large amount of evidence. the complete fertility of varietal hybrids is so universally acknowledged that it is not worth while to give special instances. with many prominent systematists it has become a test between species and varieties, and from our present point of view this assumption is correct. only the test is of little use in practice, as fertility may be diminished [ ] in unbalanced unions in all possible degrees, according to the amount of difference between the parents. if this amount is slight, if for instance, only one unit-character causes the difference, the injury to fertility may, be so small as to be practically nothing. hence we see that this test would not enable us to judge of the doubtful cases, although it is quite sufficient as a proof in cases of wider differences. our second assertion related to the reciprocal crosses. this is the name given to two sexual combinations between the same parents, but with interchanged places as to which furnishes the pollen. in unbalanced crosses of the genus _oenothera_ the hybrids of such reciprocal unions are often different, as we have previously shown. sometimes both resemble the pollen parent more, in other instances the pistil-parent. in varietal crosses no such divergence is as yet known. it would be quite superfluous to adduce single cases as proofs for this rule, which was formerly conceived to hold good for hybrids in general. the work of the older hybridists, such as koelreuter and gaertner affords numerous instances. our third rule is of a wholly different nature. formerly the distinction between elementary species and varieties was not insisted upon, and the principle which stamps retrograde changes [ ] as the true character of varieties is a new one. therefore it is necessary to cite a considerable amount of evidence in order to prove the assertion that a hybrid bears the active character of its parent-species and not the inactive character of the variety chosen for the cross. we may put this assertion in a briefer form, stating that the active character prevails in the hybrid over its dormant antagonist. or as it is equally often put, the one dominates and the other is recessive. in this terminology the character of the species is dominant in the hybrid while that of the variety is recessive. hence it follows that in the hybrid the latent or dormant unit is recessive, but it does not follow that these three terms have the same meaning, as we shall see presently. the term recessive only applies to the peculiar state into which the latent character has come in the hybrid by its pairing with the antagonistic active unit. in the first place it is of the highest importance to consider crosses between varieties of recorded origin and the species from which they have sprung. when dealing with mutations of celandine we shall see that the laciniated form originated from the common celandine in a garden at heidelberg about the year . among my _oenotheras_ one of the eldest of the recent productions is the _o. brevistylis_ or short [ ] styled species which was seen for the first time in the year . the third example offered is a hairless variety of the evening campion, _lychnis vespertina_, found the same year, which hitherto had not been observed. for these three cases i have made the crosses of the variety with the parent-species, and in each case the hybrid was like the species, and not like the variety. nor was it intermediate. here it is proved that the older character dominates the younger one. in most cases of wild, and of garden-varieties, the relation between them and the parent-species rests upon comparative evidence. often the variety is known to be younger, in other cases it may be only of local occurrence, but ordinarily the historic facts about its origin have never been known or have long since been forgotten. the easiest and most widely known varietal crosses are those between varieties with white flowers and the red- or blue-flowered species. here the color prevails in the hybrid over the lack of pigment, and as a rule the hybrid is as deeply tinted as the species itself, and cannot be distinguished from it, without an investigation of its hereditary qualities. instances may be cited of the white varieties of the snapdragon, of the red clover, the long-spurred violet (_viola_ [ ] _cornuta_) the sea-shore aster (_aster tripolium_), corn-rose (_agrostemma githago_), the sweet william (_silene armeria_), and many garden flowers, as for instance, the _clarkia pulchella_, the _polemonium coeruleum_, the _veronica longifolia_, the gloxinias and others. if the red hue is combined with a yellow ground-color in the species, the variety will be yellow and the hybrid will have the red and yellow mixture of the species as for instance, in the genus _geum_. the toad-flax has an orange-colored palate, and a variety occurs in which the palate is of the same yellow tinge as the remaining parts of the corolla. the hybrid between them is in all respects like the parent-species. other instances could be given. in berries the same rule prevails. the black nightshade has a variety with yellow berries, and the black color returns in the hybrid. even the foliage of some garden-plants may afford instances, as for instance, the purplish amaranth (_amaranthus caudatus_). it has a green variety, but the hybrid between the two has the red foliage of the species. special marks in leaves and in flowers follow the same rule. some varieties of the opium poppy have large black patches at the basal end of the petals, while in others this pattern is entirely white. in crossing two such varieties, [ ] for instance, the dark "mephisto" with the white-hearted "danebrog," the hybrid shows the active character of the dark pattern. hairy species crossed with their smooth varieties produce hairy hybrids, as in some wheats, in the campion (_lychnis_), in _biscutella_ and others. the same holds good for the crosses between spiny species and their unarmed derivatives, as in the thorn-apple, the corn-crowfoot (_ranunculus arvensis_) and others. lack of starch in seeds is observed in some varieties of corn and of peas. when such derivatives are crossed with ordinary starch-producing types, the starch prevails in the hybrid. it would take too much time to give further examples. but there is still one point which should be insisted upon. it is not the systematic relation of the two parents of a cross, that is decisive, but only the occurrence of the same quality, in the one in an active, and in the other in an inactive condition. hence, whenever this relation occurs between the parents of a cross, the active quality prevails in the hybrid, even when the parents differ from each other in other respects so as to be distinguished as systematic species. the white and red campions give a red hybrid, the black and pale henbane (_hyoscyamus niger_ and _h. pallidus_) give a hybrid [ ] with the purple veins and center in the corolla of the former, the white and blue thornapple produce a blue hybrid, and so on. instances of this sort are common in cultivated plants. having given this long list of examples of the rule of the dominancy of the active character over the opposite dormant unit, the question naturally arises as to how the antagonistic units are combined in the hybrid. this question is of paramount importance in the consideration of the offspring of the hybrids. but before taking it up it is as well to learn the real signification of recessiveness in the hybrids themselves. recessive characters are shown by those rare cases, in which hybrids revert to the varietal parent in the vegetative way. in other words by bud-variations or sports, analogous to the splitting of adam's laburnum into its parents, by means of bud-variation already described. but here the wide range of differentiating characters of the parents of this most curious hybrid fail. the illustrative examples are extremely simple, and are limited to the active and inactive condition of only one quality. an instance is given by the long-leaved veronica (_veronica longifolia_), which has bluish flowers in long spikes. the hybrid between [ ] this species and its white variety has a blue corolla. but occasionally it produces some purely white flowers, showing its power of separating the parental heritages, combined in its internal structures. this reversion is not common, but in thousands of flowering spikes one may expect to find at least one of them. sometimes it is a whole stem springing from the underground system and bearing only white flowers on all its spikes. in other instances it is only a side branch which reverts and forms white flowers on a stem, the other spikes of which remain bluish. sometimes a spike even differentiates longitudinally, bearing on one side blue and on the other white corollas, and the white stripe running over the spike may be seen to be long and large, or narrow and short in various degrees. in such cases it is evident that the heritages of the parents remain uninfluenced by each other during the whole life of the hybrid, working side by side, but the active element always prevails over its latent opponent which is ready to break free whenever an opportunity is offered. it is now generally assumed that this incomplete mixture of the parental qualities in a hybrid, this uncertain and limited combination is the true cause of the many deviations, exhibited by varietal hybrids when compared with their [ ] parents. partial departures are rare in the hybrids themselves, but in their offspring the divergence becomes the rule. segregation seems to be a very difficult process in the vegetative way, but it must be very easy in sexual reproduction, indeed so easy as to show itself in nearly every single instance. leaving this first generation, the original hybrids, we now come to a discussion of their offspring. hybrids should be fertilized either by their own pollen, or by that of other individuals born from the same cross. only in this case can the offspring be considered as a means of arriving at a decision as to the internal nature of the hybrids themselves. breeders generally prefer to fertilize hybrids with the pollen of their parents. but this operation is to be considered as a new cross, and consequently is wholly excluded from our present discussion. hence it follows that a clear insight into the heredity of hybrids may be expected only from scientific experiments. furthermore some of the diversity observed as a result of ordinary crosses, may be due to the instability of the parents themselves or at least of one of them, since breeders ordinarily choose for their crosses some already very variable strain. combining such a strain with the desirable qualities of some newly imported species, a new strain may [ ] result, having the new attribute in addition to all the variability of the old types. in scientific experiments made for the purpose of investigating the general laws of hybridity, such complex cases are therefore to be wholly excluded. the hereditary purity of the parents must be considered as one of the first conditions of success. moreover the progeny must be numerous, since neither constancy, nor the exact proportions in the case of instability, can be determined with a small lot of plants. finally, and in order to come to a definite choice of research material, we should keep in mind that the chief object is to ascertain the relation of the offspring to their parents. now in nearly all cases the seeds are separated from the fruits and from one another, before it becomes possible to judge of their qualities. one may open a fruit and count the seeds, but ordinarily nothing is noted as to their characters. in this respect no other plant equals the corn or maize, as the kernels remain together on the spike, and as it has more than one variety characterized by the color, or constitution, or other qualities of the grains. a corn-grain, however, is not a seed, but a fruit containing a seed. hence the outer parts pertain to the parent plant and only the innermost ones to the [ ] seedling and therefore to the following generation. fruit-characters thus do not offer the qualities we need, only the qualities resulting from fertilizations are characteristic of the new generation. such attributes are afforded in some cases by the color, in others by the chemical constitution. we will choose the latter, and take the sugarcorn in comparison with the ordinary or starch producing forms for our starting point. both sugar- and starch-corns have smooth fruits when ripening. no difference is to be seen in the young ripe spikes. only the taste, or a direct chemical analysis might reveal the dissimilarity. but as soon as the spikes are dried, a diversity is apparent. the starchy grains remain smooth, but the sugary kernels lose so much water that they become wrinkled. the former becomes opaque, the latter more or less transparent. every single kernel may instantly be recognized as belonging to either of the types in question, even if but a single grain of the opposite quality might be met with on a spike. kernels can be counted on the spike, and since ordinary spikes may bear from - grains and often more, the numerical relation of the different types may be deduced with great accuracy. coming now to our experiment, both starchy [ ] and sugary varieties are in this respect wholly constant, when cultivated separately. no change is to be seen in the spikes. furthermore it is very easy to make the crosses. the best way is to cultivate both types in alternate rows and to cut off the staminate panicles a few days before they open their first flowers. if this operation is done on all the individuals of one variety, sparing all the panicles of the other, it is manifest that all the plants will become fertilized by the latter, and hence that the castrated plants will only bear hybrid seeds. the experiment may be made in two ways; by castrating the sugary or the starchy variety. in both cases the hybrid kernels are the same. as to their composition they repeat the active character of the starchy variety. the sugar is only accumulated as a result of an incapacity of changing it into starch, and the lack of this capacity is to be considered as a retrogressive varietal mark. the starch-producing unit character, which is active in the ordinary sorts of corns, is therefore latent in sugar-corn. in order to obtain the second generation, the hybrid grains are sown under ordinary conditions, but sufficiently distant from any other variety of corn to insure pure fertilization. the several individuals may be left to pollinate [ ] each other, or they may be artificially pollinated with their own pollen. the outcome of the experiments is shown by the spikes, as soon as they dry. each spike bears two sorts of kernels irregularly dispersed over its surface. in this point all the spikes are alike. on each of them one may see on the first inspection that the majority of the kernels are starch-containing seeds, while a minor part becomes wrinkled and transparent according to the rule for sugary seeds. this fact shows at once that the hybrid race is not stable, but has differentiated the parental characters, bringing those of the varietal parent to perfect purity and isolation. whether the same holds good for the starchy parent, it is impossible to judge from the inspection of the spikes, since it has been seen in the first generation that the hybrid kernels are not visibly distinguished from those of the pure starch-producing grains. it is very easy to count the number of both sorts of grains in the spike of such a hybrid. in doing so we find, that the proportion is nearly the same on all the spikes, and only slight variations would be found in hundreds of them. one-fourth of the seeds are wrinkled and three-fourths are always smooth. the number may vary in single instances and be a little more or a little less than %, ranging, for [ ] instance, from to %, but as a rule, the average is found nearly equal to %. the sugary kernels, when separated from the hybrid spikes and sown separately, give rise to pure sugary race, in no degree inferior in purity to the original variety. but the starchy kernels are of different types, some of them being internally like the hybrids of the first generation and others like the original parent. to decide between these two possibilities, it is necessary to examine their progeny. for the study of this third hybrid generation we will now take another example, the opium poppies. they usually have a dark center in the flowers, the inferior parts of the four petals being stained a deep purple, or often nearly black. many varieties exhibit this mark as a large black cross in the center of the flower. in other varieties the pigment is wanting, the cross being of a pure white. obviously it is only reduced to a latent condition, as in so many other cases of loss of color, since it reappears in a hybrid with the parent-species. for my crosses i have taken the dark-centered "mephisto" and the "danebrog," or danish flag, with a white cross on a red field. the second year the hybrids were all true to the type of "mephisto." from the seeds of each artificially self-fertilized capsule, one-fourth ( . %) [ ] in each instance reverted to the varietal mark of the white cross, and three-fourths ( . %) retained the dark heart. once more the flowers were self-pollinated and the visits of insects excluded. the recessives now gave only recessives, and hence we may conclude that the varietal marks had returned to stability. the dark hearted or dominants behaved in two different ways. some of them remained true to their type, all their offspring being dark-hearted. evidently they had returned to the parent with the active mark, and had reassumed this type as purely as the recessives had reached theirs. but others kept true to the hybrid character of the former generation, repeating in their progeny exactly the same mixture as their parents, the hybrids of the first generation, had given. this third generation therefore gives evidence, that the second though apparently showing only two types, really consists of three different groups. two of them have reassumed the stability of their original grandparents, and the third has retained the instability of the hybrid parents. the question now arises as to the numerical relation of these groups. our experiments gave the following results: [ ] cross . generation . generation . generation mephisto - % mephisto | / | / | . % dom. | / \ > --all mephisto \ | \ - all hybrids with - % | . % rec. dominants and - % | recessives. % danebrog. danebrog examining these figures we find one-fourth of constant recessives, as has already been said, further one-fourth of constant dominants, and the rest or one half as unstable hybrids. both of the pure groups have therefore reappeared [ ] in the same numbers. calling a the specimens with the pure active mark, l those with the latent mark, and h the hybrids, these proportions may be expressed as follows: a+ h+ l. this simple law for the constitution of the second generation of varietal hybrids with a single differentiating mark in their parents is called the law of mendel. mendel published it in , but his paper remained nearly unknown to scientific hybridists. it is only of late years that it has assumed a high place in scientific literature, and attained the first rank as an investigation on fundamental questions of heredity. [ ] read in the light of modern ideas on unit characters it is now one of the most important works on heredity and has already widespread and abiding influence on the philosophy of hybridism in general. but from its very nature and from the choice of the material made by mendel, it is restricted to balanced or varietal crosses. it assumes pairs of characters and calls the active unit of the pair dominant, and the latent recessive, without further investigations of the question of latency. it was worked out by mendel for a large group of varieties of peas, but it holds good, with only apparent exceptions, for a wide range of cases of crosses of varietal characters. recently many instances have been tested, and even in many cases third and later generations have been counted, and whenever the evidence was complete enough to be trusted, mendel's prophecy has been found to be right. according to this law of mendel's the pairs of antagonistic characters in the hybrid split up in their progeny, some individuals reverting to the pure parental types, some crossing with each other anew, and so giving rise to a new generation of hybrids. mendel has given a very suggestive and simple explanation of his formula. putting this in the terminology of to-day, and limiting it to the occurrence of only [ ] one differential unit in the parents, we may give it in the following manner. in fertilization, the characters of both parents are not uniformly mixed, but remain separated though most intimately combined in the hybrid throughout life. they are so combined as to work together nearly always, and to have nearly equal influence on all the processes of the whole individual evolution. but when the time arrives to produce progeny, or rather to produce the sexual cells through the combination of which the offspring arises, the two parental characters leave each other, and enter separately into the sexual cells. from this it may be seen that one-half of the pollen-cells will have the quality of one parent, and the other the quality of the other. and the same holds good for [ ] the egg-cells. obviously the qualities lie latent in the pollen and in the egg, but ready to be evolved after fertilization has taken place. granting these premises, we may now ask as to the results of the fertilization of hybrids, when this is brought about by their own pollen. we assume that numerous pollen grains fertilize numerous egg cells. this assumption at once allows of applying the law of probability, and to infer that of each kind of pollen grains one-half will reach egg-cells with the same quality [ ] and the other half ovules with the opposite character. calling p pollen and o ovules, and representing the active mark by p and o, the latent qualities by p' and o', they would combine as follows: p + giving uniform pairs with the active mark, p + ' giving unequal pairs, p' + giving unequal pairs, p' + ' giving uniform pairs with the latent mark. in this combination the four groups are obviously of the same size, each containing one-fourth of the offspring. manifestly they correspond exactly to the direct results of the experiments, p + o representing the individuals which reverted to the specific mark, p' + o' those who reassumed the varietal quality and p + o' and p + o' those who hybridized [ ] for the second time. these considerations lead us to the following form of mendel's, p + o = / active or a, p + o' > = / hybrid or h, p' + o p' + o' = / latent or l, which is evidently the same as mendel's empirical law given above. to give the proof of these assumptions mendel has devised a very simple crossing experiment, [ ] which he has effected with his varieties of peas. i have repeated it with the sugar-corn, which gives far better material for demonstration. it starts from the inference that if dissimilarity among the pollen grains is excluded, the diversity of the ovules must at once became manifest and vice versa. in other terms, if a hybrid of the first generation is not allowed to fertilize itself, but is pollinated by one of its parents, the result will be in accordance with the mendelian formula. in order to see an effect on the spikes produced in this way, it is of course necessary to fertilize them with the pollen of the variety, and not with that of the specific type. the latter would give partly pure starchy grains and partly hybrid kernels, but these would assume the same type. but if we pollinate the hybrid with pollen of a pure sugar-corn, we may predict the result as follows. if the spike of the hybrid contains dormant paternal marks in one-half of its flowers and in the other half maternal latent qualities, the sugar-corn pollen will combine with one-half of the ovules to give hybrids, and with the other half so as to give pure sugar-grains. hence we see that it will be possible to count out directly the two groups of ovules on inspecting the ripe and dry spikes. experience teaches us [ ] that both are present, and in nearly equal numbers; one-half of the grains remaining smooth, and the other half becoming wrinkled. the corresponding experiment could be made with plants of a pure sugar-race by pollination with hybrid pollen. the spikes would show exactly the same mixture as in the above case, but now this may be considered as conclusive proof that half the pollen-grains represent the quality of one parent and the other half the quality of the other. another corollary of mendel's law is the following. in each generation two groups return to purity, and one-half remains hybrid. these last will repeat the same phenomenon of splitting in their progeny, and it is easily seen that the same rule will hold good for all succeeding generations. according to mendel's principle, in each year there is a new hybridization, differing in no respect from the first and original one. if the hybrids only are propagated, each year will show one-fourth of the offspring returning to the specific character, one-fourth assuming the type of the variety and one-half remaining hybrid. i have tested this with a hybrid between the ordinary nightshade with black berries, and its variety, _solanum nigrum chlorocarpum_, with pale yellow fruits. eight generations of the hybrids were cultivated, [ ] disregarding always the reverting offspring. at the end i counted the progeny of the sixth and seventh generations and found figures for their three groups of descendants, which exactly correspond to mendel's formula. until now we have limited ourselves to the consideration of single differentiating units. this discussion gives a clear insight into the fundamental phenomena of hybrid fertilization. it at once shows the correctness of the assumption of unit-characters, and of their pairing in the sexual combinations. but mendel's law is not at all restricted to these simple cases. quite on the contrary, it explains the most intricate questions of hybridization, providing they do not transgress the limits of symmetrical unions. but in this realm nearly all results may be calculated beforehand, on the ground of the principle of probability. only one more assumption need be discussed. the several pairs of antagonistic characters must be independent from, and uninfluenced by, one another. this premise seems to hold good in the vast majority of cases, though rare exceptions seem to be not entirely wanting. hence the necessity of taking all predictions from mendel's law only as probabilities, which will prove true in most, but not necessarily in all cases. [ ] but here we will limit ourselves to normal cases. the first example to be considered is obviously the assumption that the parents of a cross differ from each other in respect to two characters. a good illustrative example is afforded by the thorn-apple. i have crossed the blue flowered thorny form, usually known as _datura tatula_, with the white thornless type, designated as _d. stramonium inermis_. thorns and blue pigment are obviously active qualities, as they are dominant in the hybrids. in the second generation both pairs of characters are resolved into their constituents and paired anew according to mendel's law. after isolating my hybrids during the period of flowering, i counted among their progeny: individuals with blue flowers and thorns individuals with blue flowers and without thorns individuals with white flowers and thorns individuals with white flowers and without thorns ---- the significance of these numbers may easily be seen, when we calculate what was to be expected on the assumption that both characters follow mendel's law, and that both are independent from each other. then we would have three-fourths blue offspring and one-fourth individuals with white flowers. each of these [ ] two groups would consist of thorn-bearing and thornless plants, in the same numerical relation. thus, we come to the four groups observed in our experiment, and are able to calculate their relative size in the following way: proportion blue with thorns / x / = / = . % blue, unarmed / x / = / = . % white with thorns / x / = / = . % white, unarmed / x / = / = . % in order to compare this inference from mendel's law and the assumption of independency, with the results of our experiments, we must calculate the figures of the latter in percentages. in this way we find: found calculated blue with thorns = % . % blue unarmed = % . % white with thorns = % . % white unarmed = % . % the agreement of the experimental and the theoretical figures is as close as might be expected. this experiment is to be considered only as an illustrative example of a rule of wide application. the rule obviously will hold good in all such cases as comply with the two conditions already premised, viz.: that each character agrees with mendel's law, and that both are wholly independent of each other. it is clear that our figures show the numerical composition [ ] of the hybrid offspring for any single instance, irrespective of the morphological nature of the qualities involved. mendel has proved the correctness of these deductions by his experiments with peas, and by combining their color (yellow or green) with the chemical composition (starch or sugar) and other pairs of characters. i will now give two further illustrations afforded by crosses of the ordinary campion. i used the red-flowered or day-campion, which is a perennial herb, and a smooth variety of the white evening-campion, which flowers as a rule in the first summer. the combination of flower-color and pubescence gave the following composition for the second hybrid generation: number % calculation hairy and red . % hairy and white . % smooth and red . % smooth and white . % for the combination of pubescence and the capacity of flowering in the first year i found: number % calculated hairy, flowering . % hairy, without stem . % smooth, flowering . % smooth, without stem . % many other cases have been tested by different writers and the general result is the [ ] applicability of mendel's formula to all cases complying with the given conditions. intentionally i have chosen for the last example two pairs of antagonisms, relating to the same pair of plants, and which may be tested in one experiment and combined in one calculation. for the latter we need only assume the same conditions as mentioned before, but now for three different qualities. it is easily seen that the third quality would split each of our four groups into two smaller ones in the proportion of / : / . we would then get eight groups of the following composition: / x / = / or . % / x / = / " . % / x / = / " . % / x / = / " . % / x / = / " . % / x / = / " . % / x / = / " . % / x / = / " . % the characters chosen for our experiment include the absence of stem and flowers in the first year, and therefore would require a second year to determine the flower-color on the perennial specimens. instead of doing so i have taken another character, shown by the teeth of the capsules when opening. these curve outwards [ ] in the red campion, but lack this capacity in the evening-campion, diverging only until an upright position is reached. the combination of hairs, colors and teeth gives eight groups, and the counting of their respective numbers of individuals gave the following: teeth hairs flowers of capsules number % calculated hairy red curved . % hairy red straight . . % hairy white curved . % hairy white straight . . % smooth red curved . % smooth red straight . . % smooth white curved . . % smooth white straight . % the agreement is as comprehensive as might be expected from an experiment with about plants, and there can be no doubt that a repetition on a larger scale would give still closer agreement. in the same way we might proceed to crosses with four or more differentiating characters. but each new character will double the number of the groups. four characters will combine into groups, five into , six into , seven into , etc. hence it is easily seen that the size of the experiments must be made larger and larger in the same ratio, if we intend to expect numbers equally trustworthy. for [ ] seven differentiating marks , individuals are required for a complete series. and in this set the group with the seven attributes all in a latent condition would contain only a single individual. unfortunately the practical value of these calculations is not very great. they indicate the size of the cultures required to get all the possible combinations, and show that in ordinary cases many thousands of individuals have to be cultivated, in order to exhaust the whole range of possibilities. they further show that among all these thousands, only very few are constant in all their characters; in fact, it may easily be seen that with seven differentiating points among the , named above, only one individual will have all the seven qualities in pure active, and only one will have them all in a purely dormant condition. then there will be some with some attributes active and others latent, but their numbers will also be very small. all others will split up in the succeeding generation in regard to one or more of their apparently active marks. and since only in very rare cases the stable hybrids can be distinguished by external characters from the unstable ones, the stability of each individual bearing a desired combination of characters would have to be established by experiment [ ] after pure fertilization. mendel's law teaches us to predict the difficulties, but hardly shows any way to avoid them. it lays great stress on the old prescript of isolation and pure fertilization, but it will have to be worked out and applied to a large number of practical cases before it will gain a preeminent influence in horticultural practice. or, as bailey states it, we are only beginning to find a pathway through the bewildering maze of hybridization. this pathway is to be laid out with regard to the following considerations. we are not to cross species or varieties, or even accidental plants. we must cross unit-characters, and consider the plants only as the bearers of these units. we may assume that these units are represented in the hereditary substance of the cell-nucleus by definite bodies of too small a size to be seen, but constituting together the chromosomes. we may call these innermost representatives of the unit-characters pangenes, in accordance with darwin's hypothesis of pangenesis, or give them any other name, or we may even wholly abstain from such theoretical discussion, and limit ourselves to the conception of the visible character-units. these units then may be present, or lacking and in the first case active, or latent. [ ] true elementary species differ from each other in a number of unit-characters, which do not contrast. they have arisen by progressive mutation. one species has one kind of unit, another species has another kind. on combining these, there can be no interchange. mendelism assumes such an interchange between units of the same character, but in a different condition. activity and latency are such conditions, and therefore mendel's law obviously applies to them. they require pairs of antagonistic qualities, and have no connection whatever with those qualities, which do not find an opponent in the other parent. now, only pure varieties afford such pure conditions. when undergoing further modifications, some of them may be in the progressive line and others in the retrogressive. progressive modifications give new units, which are not in contrast with any other, retrograde changes turn active units into the latent condition and so give rise to pairs. ordinary species generally originate in this way, and hence differ from each other partly in specific, partly in varietal characters. as to the first, they give in their hybrids stable peculiarities, while as to the latter, they split up according to mendel's law. unpaired or unbalanced characters lie side by side with paired or balanced qualities, and they [ ] do so in nearly all the crosses made for practical purposes, and in very many scientific experiments. even mendel's peas were not pure in this respect, much less do the campions noted above differ only in mendelian characters. comparative and systematic studies must be made to ascertain the true nature of every unit in every single plant, and crossing experiments must be based on these distinctions in order to decide what laws are applicable in any case. [ ] d. ever-sporting varieties lecture xi striped flowers terminology is an awkward thing. it is as disagreeable to be compelled to make new names, as to be constrained to use the old faulty ones. different readers may associate different ideas with the same terms, and unfortunately this is the case with much of the terminology of the science of heredity and variability. what are species and what are varieties? how many different conceptions are conveyed by the terms constancy and variability? we are compelled to use them, but we are not at all sure that we are rightly understood when we do so. gradually new terms arise and make their way. they have a more limited applicability than the old ones, and are more narrowly circumscribed. they are not to supplant the older terms, but permit their use in a more general way. [ ] one of these doubtful terms is the word _sport_. it often means bud-variation, while in other cases it conveys the same idea as the old botanical term of mutation. but then all sorts of seemingly sudden variations are occasionally designated by the same term by one writer or another, and even accidental anomalies, such as teratological ascidia, are often said to arise by sports. if we compare all these different conceptions, we will find that their most general feature is the suddenness and the rarity of the phenomenon. they convey the idea of something unexpected, something not always or not regularly occurring. but even this demarcation is not universal, and there are processes that are regularly repeated and nevertheless are called sports. these at least should be designated by another name. in order to avoid confusion as far as possible, with the least change in existing terminology, i shall use the term "ever-sporting varieties" for such forms as are regularly propagated by seed, and of pure and not hybrid origin, but which sport in nearly every generation. the term is a new one, but the facts are for the most part new, and require to be considered in a new light. its meaning will become clearer at once when the illustrations afforded by [ ] striped flowers are introduced. in the following discussion it will be found most convenient to give a summary of what is known concerning them, and follow this by a consideration of the detailed evidence obtained experimentally, which supports the usage cited. the striped variety of the larkspur of our gardens is known to produce monochromatic flowers, in addition to striped ones. they may be borne by the same racemes, or on different branches, or some seedlings from the same parent-plant may bear monochromatic flowers while others may be striped. such deviations are usually called sports. but they occur yearly and regularly and may be observed invariably when the cultures are large enough. such a variety i shall call "ever-sporting." the striped larkspur is one of the oldest garden varieties. it has kept its capacity of sporting through centuries, and therefore may in some sense be said to be quite stable. its changes are limited to a rather narrow circle, and this circle is as constant as the peculiarities of any other constant species or variety. but within this circle it is always changing from small stripes to broad streaks, and from them to pure colors. here the variability is a thing of absolute constancy, while the constancy consists in eternal changes. such apparent [ ] contradictions are unavoidable, when we apply the old term to such unusual though not at all new cases. combining the stability and the qualities of sports in one word, we may evidently best express it by the new term of eversporting variety. we will now discuss the exact nature of such varieties, and of the laws of heredity which govern them. but before doing so, i might point out, that this new type is a very common one. it embraces most of the so-called variable types in horticulture, and besides these a wide range of anomalies. every ever-sporting variety has at least two different types, around and between which it varies in numerous grades, but to which it is absolutely limited. variegated leaves fluctuate between green and white, or green and yellow, and display these colors in nearly all possible patterns. but there variability ends, and even the patterns are ordinarily narrowly prescribed in the single varieties. double flowers afford a similar instance. on one side the single type, on the other the nearly wholly double model are the extreme limits, between which the variability is confined. so it is also with monstrosities. the race consists of anomalous and normal individuals, and displays between them all possible combinations of normal and monstrous [ ] parts. but its variability is restricted to this group. and large as the group may seem on first inspection, it is in reality very narrow. many monstrosities, such as fasciated branches, pitchers, split leaves, peloric flowers, and others constitute such ever-sporting varieties, repeating their anomalies year by year and generation after generation, changing as much as possible, but remaining absolutely true within their limits as long as the variety exists. it must be a very curious combination of the unit-characters which causes such a state of continuous variability. the pure quality of the species must be combined with the peculiarity of the variety in such a way, that the one excludes the other, or modifies it to some extent, although both never fully display themselves in the same part of the same plant. a corolla cannot be at once monochromatic and striped, nor can the same part of a stem be twisted and straight. but neighboring organs may show the opposite attributes side by side. in order to look closer into the real mechanism of this form of variability, and of this constant tendency to occasional reversions, it will be best to limit ourselves first to a single case, and to try to gather all the evidence, which can be obtained by an examination of the hereditary relations of its sundry constituents. [ ] this may best be done by determining the degree of inheritance for the various constituents of the race during a series of years. it is only necessary to apply the two precautions of excluding all cross-fertilization, and of gathering the seeds of each individual separately. we do not need to ascertain whether the variety as such is permanent; this is already clear from the simple fact of its antiquity in so many cases. we wish to learn what part each individual, or each group of individuals with similar characters, play in the common line of inheritance. in other words, we must build up a genealogical tree, embracing several generations and a complete set of the single cases occurring within the variety, in order to allow of its being considered as a part of the genealogy of the whole. it should convey to us an idea of the hereditary relations during the life-time of the variety. it is manifest that the construction of such a genealogical tree requires a number of separate experiments. these should be extended over a series of years. each should include a number of individuals large enough to allow the determination of the proportion of the different types among the offspring of a single plant. a species which is easily fertilized by its own pollen, and which bears capsules with [ ] large quantities of seeds, obviously affords the best opportunities. as such, i have chosen the common snapdragon of the gardens, _antirrhinum majus_. it has many striped varieties, some tall, others of middle height, or of dwarfed stature. in some the ground-color of the flowers is yellow, in others it is white, the yellow disappearing, with the exception of a large mark in the throat. on these ground-colors the red pigment is seen lying in streaks of pure carmine, with white intervals where the yellow fails, but combined with yellow to make a fiery red, and with yellow intervals when that color is present. this yellow color is quite constant and does not vary in any marked degree, notwithstanding the fact that it seems to make narrower and broader stripes, according to the parts of the corolla left free by the red pigment. but it is easily seen that this appearance is only a fallacious one. the variety of snapdragon chosen was of medium height and with the yellow ground-color, and is known by horticulturists as _a. majus luteum rubro-striatum_. as the yellow tinge showed itself to be invariable; i may limit my description to the red stripes. some flowers of this race are striped, others are not. on a hasty survey there seem to be three types, pure yellow, pure red, and stripes [ ] with all their intermediate links of narrower and broader, fewer and more numerous streaks. but on a close inspection one does not succeed in finding pure yellow racemes. little lines of red may be found on nearly every flower. they are the extreme type on this side of the range of variability. from them an almost endless range of patterns passes over to the broadest stripes and even to whole sections of a pure red. but then, between these and the wholly red flowers we observe a gap, which may be narrower by the choice of numerous broad striped individuals, but which is never wholly filled up. hence we see that the red flowers are a separate type within the striped variety. this red type springs yearly from the striped form, and yearly reverts to it. this is what in the usual descriptions of this snapdragon, is called its sporting. the breadth of the streaks is considered to be an ordinary case of variability, but the red flowers appear suddenly, without the expected links. therefore they are to be considered as sports. similarly the red forms may suddenly produce striped ones, and this too is to be taken as a sport, according to the usual conception of the word. such sports may occur in different ways. either by seeds, or by buds, or even within the single spikes. both opposite reversions, [ ] from striped to red and from red to stripes, occur by seed, even by the strictest exclusion of cross-fertilization. as far as my experiments go, they are the rule, and parent-plants that do not give such reversions, at least in some of their offspring, are very rare, if not wholly wanting. bud-variations and variations within the spike i have as yet only observed on the striped individuals, and never on the red ones, though i am confident that they might appear in larger series of experiments. both cases are more common on individuals with broad stripes than on plants bearing only the narrower red lines, as might be expected, but even on the almost purely yellow individuals they may be seen from time to time. bud-variations produce branches with spikes of uniform red flowers. every bud of the plant seems to have equal chances to be transformed in this way. some striped racemes bear a few red flowers, which ordinarily are inserted on one side of the spike only. as they often cover a sharply defined section of the raceme, this circumstance has given rise to the term of sectional variability to cover such cases. sometimes the section is demarcated on the axis of the flower-spike by a brownish or reddish color, sharply contrasting with the green hue of the remaining parts. sectional variation may be looked at as a [ ] special type of bud-variation, and from this point of view we may simplify our inquiry and limit ourselves to the inheritance of three types, the striped plants, the red plants and the red asexual variants of the striped individuals. in each case the heredity should be observed not only for one, but at least for two successive generations. leaving these introductory remarks i now come at once to the genealogical tree, as it may be deduced from my experiments: year % striped % red | | striped individual red indiv. \ / % striped % red | | striped branches. red branches. \ / % striped % red | | % striped indiv. % red indiv. \ / striped individual this experiment was begun in the year with one individual out of a large lot of striped plants grown from seeds which i had purchased from a firm in erfurt. the capsules were gathered separately from this individual and about flowering plants were obtained from the seeds in the following year. most of them had neatly striped flowers, some displayed broader stripes and spare flowers were seen with one [ ] half wholly red. four individuals were found with only uniform red flowers. these were isolated and artificially pollinated, and the same was done with some of the best striped individuals. the seeds from every parent were sown separately, so as to allow the determination of the proportion of uniform red individuals in the progeny. neither group was constant in its offspring. but as might be expected, the type of the parent plant prevailed in both groups, and more strongly so in the instances with the striped, than with the red ones. or, in other words seed-reversions were more numerous among the already reverted reds than among the striped type itself. i counted % reversion in the latter case, but % from the red parents. among the striped plants from the striped parents, i found some that produced bud variations. i succeeded in isolating these red flowering branches in paper bags and in pollinating them with their own pollen, and subjected the striped spikes of the same individuals to a similar treatment. three individuals gave a sufficient harvest from both types, and these six lots of seeds were sown separately. the striped flowers repeated their character in % of their offspring, the red twigs in only %, the [ ] remaining individuals sporting into the opposite group. in the following year i continued the experiment with the seeds of the offspring of the red bud-variations. the striped individuals gave %, but in the red ones only % of the progeny remained true to the parent type. from these figures it is manifest that the red and striped types differ from one another not only in their visible attributes, but also in the degree of their heredity. the striped individuals repeat their peculiarity in - % of their progeny, - % sporting into the uniform red color. on the other hand the red individuals are constant in - % of their offspring, while - % go over to the striped type. or, briefly, both types are inherited to a high degree, but the striped type is more strictly inherited than the red one. moreover the figures show that the degree of inheritance is not contingent upon the question as to how the sport may have arisen. bud-sports show the same degree of inheritance as seed-sports. sexual and asexual variability therefore seem to be one and the same process in this instance. but the deeper meaning of this and other special features of our genealogical tree are still awaiting further investigation. it seems that much important evidence might [ ] come from an extension of this line of work. perhaps it might even throw some light on the intimate nature of the bud-variations of ever-sporting varieties in general. sectional variations remain to be tested as to the degree of inheritance exhibited, and the different occurrences as to the breadth of the streaks require similar treatment. in ordinary horticultural practice it is desirable to give some guarantee as to what may be expected to come from the seeds of brightly striped flowers. neither the pure red type, nor the nearly yellow racemes are the object of the culture, as both of them may be had pure from their, own separate varieties. in order to insure proper striping, both extremes are usually rejected and should be rooted out as soon as the flowering period begins. similarly the broad-striped ones should be rejected, as they give a too large amount of uniform red flowers. clearly, but not broadly striped individuals always yield the most reliable seed. summing up once more the results of our pedigree-experiment, we may assert that the striped variety of the snapdragon is wholly permanent, including the two opposite types of uniform color and of stripes. it must have been so since it first originated from the invariable uniform [ ] varieties, about the middle of the last century, in the nursery of messrs. vilmorin, and probably it will remain so as long as popular taste supports its cultivation. it has never been observed to transgress its limits or to sport into varieties without reversions or sports. it fluctuates from one extreme to the other yearly, always recurring in the following year, or even in the same summer by single buds. highly variable within its limits, it is absolutely constant or permanent, when considered as a definite group. similar cases occur not rarely among cultivated plants. in the wild state they seem to be wholly wanting. neither are they met with as occasional anomalies nor as distinct varieties. on the contrary, many garden-flowers that are colored in the species, and besides this have a white or yellow variety, have also striped sorts. the oldest instance is probably the marvel of peru, _mirabilis jalappa_, which already had more than one striped variety at the time of its introduction from peru into the european gardens, about the beginning of the seventeenth century. stocks, liver-leaf (_hepatica_), dame's violet (_hesperis_), sweet william (_dianthus barbatus_), and periwinkles (_vinca minor_) seem to be in the same condition, as their striped varieties were already quoted [ ] by the writers of the same century. tulips, hyacinths, _cyclamen_, _azalea_, _camellia_, and even such types of garden-plants as the meadow crane's-bill (_geranium pratensev) have striped varieties. it is always the red or blue color which occurs in stripes, the underlying ground being white or yellow, according to the presence or absence of the yellow in the original color mixture. all these varieties are known to be permanent, coming true during long series of successive generations. but very little is known concerning the more minute details of their hereditary qualities. they come from seed, when this is taken from striped individuals, and thence revert from time to time to the corresponding monochromatic type. but whether they would do so when self-fertilized, and whether the reversionary individuals are always bound to return towards the center of the group or towards the opposite limit, remains to be investigated. presumably there is nowhere a real transgression of the limits, and never or only very rarely and at long intervals of time a true production of another race with other hereditary qualities. in order to satisfy myself on these points, i made some pedigree-cultures with the striped forms of dame's violet (_hesperis matronalis_) [ ] and of _clarkia pulchella_. both of them are ever-sporting varieties. the experiments were conducted during five generations with the violet, and during four with the striped clarkia, including the progeny of the striped and of the monochromatic red offspring of a primitive striped plant. i need not give the figures here for the numerical relations between the different types of each group, and shall limit myself to the statement that they behaved in exactly the same manner as the snapdragon. it is worth while to dwell a moment on the capacity of the individuals with red flowers to reproduce the striped type among their offspring. for it is manifest that this latter quality must have lain dormant in them during their whole life. darwin has already pointed out that when a character of a grandparent, which is wanting in the progeny, reappears in the second generation, this quality must always be assumed to have been present though latent in the intermediate generation. to the many instances given by him of such alternative inheritance, the monochromatic reversionists of the striped varieties are to be added as a new type. it is moreover, a very suggestive type, since the latency is manifestly of quite another character than for instance in the case of mendelian hybrids, and probably more allied to those instances, [ ] where secondary sexual marks, which are as a rule only evolved by one sex, are transferred to the offspring through the other. stripes are by no means limited to flowers. they may affect the whole foliage, or the fruits and the seeds, and even the roots. but all such cases occur much more rarely than the striped flowers. an interesting instance of striped roots is afforded by radishes. white and red varieties of different shapes are cultivated. besides them sometimes a curious motley sort may be seen in the markets, which is white with red spots, which are few and narrow in some samples, and more numerous and broader in others. but what is very peculiar and striking is the circumstance, that these stripes do not extend in a longitudinal, but in a transverse direction. obviously this must be the effect of the very notable growth in thickness. assuming that the colored regions were small in the beginning, they must have been drawn out during the process of thickening of the root, and changed into transverse lines. rarely a streak may have had its greatest extension in a transverse direction from the beginning, in which case it would only be broadened and not definitely changed in its direction. this variety being a very fine one, and more agreeable to the eye than the uniform colors, is [ ] being more largely cultivated in some countries. it has one great drawback: it never comes wholly true from seed. it may be grown in full isolation, and carefully selected, all red or nearly monochromatic samples being rooted out long before blooming, but nevertheless the seed will always produce some red roots. the most careful selection, pursued through a number of years, has not been sufficient to get rid of this regular occurrence of reversionary individuals. seed-growers receive many complaints from their clients on this account, but they are not able to remove the difficulty. this experience is in full agreement with the experimental evidence given by the snapdragon, and it would certainly be very interesting to make a complete pedigree-culture with the radishes to test definitely their compliance with the rules observed for striped flowers. horticulturists in such cases are in the habit of limiting themselves to the sale of so-called mixed seeds. from these no client expects purity, and the normal and hereditary diversity of types is here in some sense concealed under the impurities included in the mixture from lack of selection. such cases invite scrutiny, and would, no doubt, with the methods of isolation, artificial pollination, and the sowing of the seeds separately from each parent, yield [ ] results of great scientific value. any one who has a garden, and sufficient perseverance to make pure cultures during a series of years might make important contributions to scientific knowledge in this way. choice might be made from among a wide range of different types. a variety of corn called "harlequin" shows stripes on its kernels, and one ear may offer nearly white and nearly red seeds and all the possible intermediate steps between them. from these seeds the next generation will repeat the motley ears, but some specimens will produce ears of uniform kernels of a dark purple, showing thus the ordinary way of reversion. some varieties of beans have spotted seeds, and among a lot of them one may be sure to find some purely red ones. it remains to be investigated what will be their offspring, and whether they are due to partial or to individual variation. the cockscomb (_celosia cristata_) has varieties of nearly all colors from white and yellow to red and orange, and besides them some striped varieties occur in our gardens, with the stripes going from the lower parts of the stem up to the very crest of the comb. they are on sale as constant varieties, but nothing has as yet been recorded concerning their peculiar behavior in the inheritance of the stripes. [ ] striped grapes, apples and other fruits might be mentioned in this connection. before leaving the striped varieties, attention is called to an interesting deduction, which probably gives an explanation of one of the most widely known instances of ever-sporting garden plants. striped races always include two types. both of them are fertile, and each of them reproduces in its offspring both its own and the alternate type. it is like a game of ball, in which the opposing parties always return the ball. but now suppose that only one of the types were fertile and the other for some reason wholly sterile, and assume the reversionary, or primitive monochromatic individuals to be fertile, and the derivative striped specimens to bloom without seed. if this were the case, knowledge concerning the hereditary qualities would be greatly limited. in fact the whole pedigree would be reduced to a monochromatic strain, which would in each generation sport in some individuals into the striped variety. but, being sterile, they would not be able to propagate themselves. such seems to be the case with the double flowered stocks. their double flowers produce neither stamens nor pistils, and as each individual is either double or single in all its flowers, the doubles are wholly destitute of seed. [ ] nevertheless, they are only reproduced by seed from single flowers, being an annual or biennial species. stocks are a large family, and include a wonderful variety of colors, ranging from white and yellow to purple and red, and with some variations toward blue. they exhibit also diversity in the habit of growth. some are annuals, including the ten-week and pyramidal forms; others are intermediates and are suitable for pot-culture; and the biennial sorts include the well-known "brompton" and "queen" varieties. some are large and others are small or dwarf. for their brightness, durability and fragrance, they are deservedly popular. there are even some striped varieties. horticulturists and amateurs generally know that seed can be obtained from single stocks only, and that the double flowers never produce any. it is not difficult to choose single plants that will produce a large percentage of double blossoms in the following generation. but only a percentage, for the experiments of the most skilled growers have never enabled them to save seed, which would result entirely in double flowering plants. each generation in its turn is a motley assembly of singles and doubles. before looking closer into the hereditary peculiarities of this old and interesting ever-sporting [ ] variety, it may be as well to give a short description of the plants with double flowers. generally speaking there are two principal types of doubles. one is by the conversion of stamens into petals, and the other is an anomaly, known under the name of _petalomany_. the change of stamens into petals is a gradual modification. all intermediate steps are easily to be found. in some flowers all stamens may be enlarged, in others only part of them. often the broadened filaments bear one or two fertile anthers. the fertility is no doubt diminished, but not wholly destroyed. individual specimens may occur, which cannot produce any seed, but then others of the same lot may be as fertile as can be desired. as a whole, such double varieties are regularly propagated by seed. petalomany is the tendency of the axis of some flowers never to make any stamens or pistils, not even in altered or rudimentary form. instead of these, they simply continue producing petals, going on with this production without any other limit than the supply of available food. numerous petals fill the entire space within the outer rays, and in the heart of the flower innumerable young ones are developed half-way, not obtaining food enough to attain [ ] full size. absolute sterility is the natural consequence of this state of things. hence it is impossible to have races of petalomanous types. if the abnormality happens to show itself in a species, which normally propagates itself in an asexual way, the type may become a vegetative variety, and be multiplied by bulbs, buds or cuttings, etc. some cultivated anemones and crowfoots (_ranunculus_) are of this character, and even the marsh-marigold (_caltha palustris_) has a petalomanous variety. i once found in a meadow such a form of the meadow-buttercup (_ranunculus_ acris_), and succeeded in keeping it in my garden for several years, but it did not make seeds and finally died. camellias are known to have both types of double flowers. the petalomanous type is highly regular in structure, so much so as to be too uniform in all its parts to be pleasing, while the conversion of stamens into petals in the alternative varieties gives to these flowers a more lively diversity of structure. lilies have a variety called _lilium candidum flore pleno_, in which the flowers seem to be converted into a long spike of bright, white narrow bracts, crowded on an axis which never seems to cease their production. it is manifestly impossible to decide how all such sterile double flowers have originated. [ ] perhaps each of them originally had a congruent single-flowered form, from which it was produced by seed in the same way as the double stocks now are yearly. if this assumption is right, the corresponding fertile line is now lost; it has perhaps died out, or been masked. but it is not absolutely impossible that such strains might one day be discovered for one or another of these now sterile varieties. returning to the stocks we are led to the conception that some varieties are absolutely single, while others consist of both single-flowered and double-flowered individuals. the single varieties are in respect to this character true to the original wild type. they never give seed which results in doubles, providing all intercrossing is excluded. the other varieties are ever-sporting, in the sense of this term previously assumed, but with the restriction that the sports are exclusively one-sided, and never return, owing to their absolute sterility. the oldest double varieties of stocks have attained an age of a century and more. during all this time they have had a continuous pedigree of fertile and single-flowered individuals, throwing off in each generation a definite number of doubles. this ratio is not at all dependent on chance or accident, nor is it even variable to a remarkable degree. quite on the contrary [ ] it is always the same, or nearly the same, and it is to be considered as an inherent quality of the race. if left to themselves, the single individuals always produce singles and doubles in the same quantity; if cultivated after some special method, the proportion may be slightly changed, bringing the proportion of doubles up to % or even more. ordinarily the single and double members of such a race are quite equal in the remainder of their attributes, especially in the color of their flowers. but this is not always the case. the colors of such a race may repeat for themselves the peculiarities of the ever-sporting characters. it often happens that one color is more or less strictly allied to the doubles, and another to the singles. this sometimes makes it difficult to keep the various colors true. there are certain sorts, which invariably exhibit a difference in color between the single and the double flowers. the sulphur-yellow varieties may be adduced as illustrative examples, because in them the single flowers always come white. hence in saving seed, it is impossible so to select the plant, that an occasional white does not also appear among the double flowers, agreeing in this deviation with the general rule of the eversporting varieties. i commend all the above instances to those [ ] who wish to make pedigree-cultures. the cooperation of many is needed to bring about any notable advancement, since the best way to secure isolation is to restrict one's self to the culture of one strain, so as to avoid the intermixture of others. so many facts remain doubtful and open to investigation, that almost any lot of purchased seed may become the starting point for interesting researches. among these the sulphur-yellow varieties should be considered in the first place. in respect to the great questions of heredity, the stocks offer many points of interest. some of these features i will now try to describe, in order to show what still remains to be done, and in what manner the stocks may clear the way for the study of the ever-sporting varieties. the first point, is the question, which seeds become double-flowered and which single-flowered plants? beyond all doubt, the determination has taken place before the ripening of the seed. but though the color of the seed is often indicative of the color of the flowers, as in some red or purple varieties, and though in balsams and some other instances the most "highly doubled" flowers are to be obtained from the biggest and plumpest seeds, no such rule seems to exist respecting the double stocks. now if one half of the seeds gives doubles, and [ ] the other half singles, the question arises, where are the singles and the doubles to be found on the parent-plant? the answer is partly given by the following experiment. starting from the general rule of the great influence of nutrition on variability, it may be assumed that those seeds will give most doubles, that are best fed. now it is manifest that the stem and larger branches are, in a better condition than the smaller twigs, and that likewise the first fruits have better chances than the ones formed later. even in the same pod the uppermost seeds will be in a comparatively disadvantageous position. this conception leads to an experiment which is the basis of a practical method much used in france in order to get a higher percentage of seeds of double-flowering plants. this method consists in cutting off, in the first place the upper parts of all the larger spikes, in the second place, the upper third part of each pod, and lastly all the small and weak twigs. in doing so the percentage is claimed to go up to - %, and in some instances even higher. this operation is to be performed as soon as the required number of flowers have ceased blossoming. all the nutrient materials, destined for the seeds, are now forced to flow into these relatively few embryos, and it is clear that [ ] they will be far better nourished than if no operation were made. in order to control this experiment some breeders have made the operation on the fruits when ripe, instead of on the young pods, and have saved the seeds from the upper parts separately. this seed, produced in abundance, was found to be very poor in double flowers, containing only some - %. on the contrary the percentage of doubles in the seed of the lower parts was somewhat augmented, and the average of both would have given the normal proportion of %. opposed to the french method is the german practice of cultivating stocks, as i have seen it used on a very large scale at erfurt and at other places. the stocks are grown in pots on small scaffolds, and not put on or into the earth. the obvious aim of this practice is to keep the earth in the pots dry, and accordingly they are only scantily watered. in consequence they cannot develop as fully as they would have done when planted directly in the beds, and they produce only small racemes and no weak twigs, eliminating thereby without further operation the weaker seeds as by the french method. the effect is increased by planting from - separate plants in each pot. it would be very interesting to make comparative [ ] trials of both methods, in order to discover the true relation between the practice and the results reached. bath should also be compared with cultures on open plots, which are said to give only % of doubles. this last method of culture is practiced wherever it is desired to produce great quantities of seeds at a low cost. such trials would no doubt give an insight into the relations of hereditary characters to the distribution of the food within the plant. a second point is the proportional increase of the double-flowering seeds with age. if seed is kept for two or three years, the greater part of the grains will gradually die, and among the remainder there is found on sowing, a higher percentage of double ones. hence we may infer that the single-flowered seeds are shorter lived than the doubles, and this obviously points to a greater weakness of the first. it is quite evident that there is some common cause for these facts and for the above cited experience, that the first and best pods give more doubles. much, however, remains to be investigated before a satisfactory answer can be made to these questions. a third point is the curious practice, called by the french "esimpler," and which consists in pulling out the singles when very young. it seems to be done at an age when the flower-buds [ ] are not yet visible, or at least are not far enough developed to show the real distinctive marks. children may be employed to choose and destroy the singles. there are some slight differences in the fullness and roundness of the buds and the pubescence of the young leaves. moreover the buds of the doubles are said to be sweeter to the taste than those of the singles. but as yet i have not been able to ascertain, whether any scientific investigation of this process has ever been made, though according to some communications made to me by the late mr. cornu, the practice seems to be very general in the environs of paris. in summer large fields may be seen, bearing exclusively double flowers, owing to the weeding out of the singles long before flowering. bud-variation is the last point to be taken up. it seems to be very rare with stocks, but some instances have been recorded in literature. darwin mentions a double stock with a branch bearing single flowers, and other cases are known to have occurred. but in no instance does the seed of such a bud-variant seem to have been saved. occasionally other reversions also occur. from time to time specimens appear with more luxurious growth and with divergent instead of erect pods. they are called, in erfurt, "generals" on account [ ] of their stiff and erect appearance, and they are marked by more divergent horns crowning the pods. they are said to produce only a relatively small number of doubles from their seeds, and even this small number might be due to fertilization with pollen of their neighbors. i saw some of these reversionary types; when inspecting the nurseries of erfurt, but as they are, as a rule, thrown out before ripening their seed, nothing is exactly known about their real hereditary qualities. much remains to be cleared up, but it seems that one of the best means to find a way through the bewildering maze of the phenomena of inheritance, is to make groups of related forms and to draw conclusions from a comparison of the members of such groups. such comparisons must obviously give rise to questions, which in their turn will directly lead to experimental investigation. [ ] lecture xii five-leaved clover every one knows the "four-leaved" clover. it is occasionally found on lawns, in pastures and by the roadsides. specimens with five leaflets may be found now and then in the same place, or on the same plant, but these are rarer. i have often seen isolated plants with quaternate leaves, but only rarely have i observed individuals with more than one such leaf. the two cases are essentially dissimilar. they may appear to differ but little morphologically, but from the point of view of heredity they are quite different. isolated quaternate leaves are of but little interest, while the occurrence of many on the same individual indicates a distinct variety. in making experiments upon this point it is necessary to transplant the divergent individuals to a garden in order to furnish them proper cultural conditions and to keep them under constant observation. when a plant bearing a quaternate leaf is thus transplanted however, it rarely repeats the [ ] anomaly. but when plants with two or more quaternate leaves on the same individual are chosen it indicates that it belongs to a definite race, which under suitable conditions may prove to become very rich in the anomalies in question. obviously it is not always easy to decide definitely whether a given individual belongs to such a race or not. many trials may be necessary to secure the special race. i had the good fortune to find two plants of clover, bearing one quinate and several quaternate leaves, on an excursion in the neighborhood of loosdrecht in holland. after transplanting them into my garden, i cultivated them during three years and observed a slowly increasing number of anomalous leaves. this number in one summer amounted to quaternate and quinate leaves, and it was evident that i had secured an instance of the rare "five-leaved" race which i am about to describe. before doing so it seems desirable to look somewhat closer into the morphological features of the problem. pinnate and palmate leaves often vary in the number of their parts. this variability is generally of the nature of a common fluctuation, the deviations grouping themselves around an average type in the ordinary way. ash leaves bear five pairs, and [ ] the mountain-ash (_sorbus aucuparia_) has six pairs of leaflets in addition to the terminal one. but this number varies slightly, the weaker leaves having less, the stronger more pairs than the average. such however, is not the case, with ternate leaves, which seem to be quite constant. four leaflets occur so very rarely that one seems justified in regarding them rather as an anomaly than, as a fluctuation. and this is confirmed by the almost universal absence of two-bladed clover-leaves. considering the deviation as an anomaly, we may look into its nature. such an inquiry shows that the supernumerary leaflets owe their origin to a splitting of one or more of the normal ones. this splitting is not terminal, as is often the case with other species, and as it may be seen sometimes in the clover. it is for the most part lateral. one of the lateral nerves grows out becoming a median nerve of the new leaflet. intermediate steps are not wanting, though rare, and they show a gradual separation of some lateral part of a leaflet, until this division reaches the base and divides the leaflet into two almost equal parts. if this splitting occurs in one leaflet we get the "four-leaved" clover, if it occurs in two there will be five leaflets. and if, besides this, the terminal leaflet produces a derivative on one or both of its sides, [ ] we obtain a crown of six or seven leaflets on one stalk. such were often met with in the race i had under cultivation, but as a rule it did not exceed this limit. the same phenomenon of a lateral doubling of leaflets may of course be met with in other instances. the common laburnum has a variety which often produces quaternate and quinate leaves, and in strawberries i have also seen instances of this abnormality. it occurs also in pinnate leaves, and complete sets of all the intermediate links may often be found on the false or bastard-acacia (_robinia pseud_acacia_). opposed to this increase of the number of leaflets, and still more rare and more curious is the occurrence of "single-leaved" varieties among trees and herbs with pinnate or ternate leaves. only very few instances have been described, and are cultivated in gardens. the ashes and the bastard-acacia may be quoted among trees, and the "one-leaved" strawberry among herbs. here it seems that several leaflets have been combined into one, since this one is, as a rule, much larger than the terminal leaflet of an ordinary leaf of the same species. these monophyllous varieties are interesting also on account of their continuous but often incomplete reversion to the normal type. [ ] pinnate and palmate leaves are no doubt derivative types. they must have originated from the ordinary simple leaf. the monophylly may therefore be considered as a reversion to a more primitive state and the monophyllous varieties may be called atavistic. on the other hand we have seen that these atavistic varieties may revert to their nearest progenitors, and this leads to the curious conception of positive and negative atavism. for if the change of compound leaves into single ones is a retrograde or negative step, the conversion of single or ternate leaves into pinnate and palmate ones must evidently be considered in this case as positive atavism. this discussion seems to throw some light on the increase of leaflets in the clover. the pea family, or the group of papilionaceous plants, has pinnate leaves ordinarily, which, according to our premises, must be considered as a derivative type. in the clovers and their allies this type reverts halfway to the single form, producing only three leaflets on each stalk. if now the clover increases its number of leaflets, this may be considered as a reversion to its nearest progenitors, the papilionaceous plants with pinnate leaves. hence a halfway returning and therefore positive atavism. and as i have already mentioned in a former lecture, pinnate [ ] leaves are also sometimes produced by my new race of clover. returning to the original plants of this race, it is evidently impossible to decide whether they were really the beginning of a new strain, and had originated themselves by some sudden change from the common type, or whether they belonged to an old variety, which had propagated itself perhaps during centuries, unobserved by man. but the same difficulty generally arises when new varieties are discovered. even the behavior of the plants themselves or of their progeny does not afford any means of deciding the question. the simplest way of stating the matter therefore, is to say that i accidentally found two individuals of the "five-leaved" race. by transplanting them into my garden, i have isolated them and kept them free from cross-fertilization with the ordinary type. moreover, i have brought them under such conditions as are necessary for the full development of their characters. and last but not least, i have tried to improve this character as far as possible by a very rigid and careful selection. the result of all this effort has been a rapid improvement of my strain. i saved the seed of the original plants in and cultivated the second generation in the following year. it [ ] showed some increase of the anomaly, but not to a very remarkable degree. in the flowering period i selected four plants with the largest number of quaternate and quinate leaves and destroyed all the others. i counted in the average anomalous organs on each of them. from their seed i raised the third generation of my culture in the year . this generation included some plants, on which above , leaves were counted. more than , were quaternate or quinate, the ternate leaves being still in the majority. but the experiment clearly showed that "four-leaved" clovers may be produced in any desired quantity, provided that the seed of the variety is available. in the summer only three, four and five leaflets on one stalk were seen, but towards the fall, and after the selection of the best individuals, this number increased and came up to six and seven in some rare instances. the selection in this year was by no means easy. nearly all the individuals produced at least some quaternate leaves, and thereby showed the variety to be quite pure. i counted the abnormal organs on a large group of the best plants, and selected excellent specimens from them, with more than one-third of all their leaves changed in the desired manner. having brought my race up to this point, i [ ] was able to introduce a new and far more easy mark, afforded by the seedlings, for my selections. this mark has since remained constant, and has brought about a rapid continuance of the improvement, without necessitating such large cultures. this seedling in the various species of clover usually begins with a first leaf above the cotyledons of a different structure from those that follow. it has only one blade instead of three. but in my variety the increase of the number of the leaflets may extend to these primary organs, and make them binate or even ternate. now it is obvious that an individual, which begins with a divided primary leaf, will have a greater tendency to produce a large number of supernumerary leaflets than a plant which commences in the ordinary way. or in other words, the primary leaves afford a sure criterion for the selection, and this selection may be made in the seed-pans. in consequence, no young individual with an undivided primary leaf was planted out. choosing the or best specimens in the seed-pan, no further selection was required, and the whole lot could be left to cross-fertilization by insects. the observation of this distinguishing mark in the young seedlings has led to the discovery of another quality as a starting-paint for further [ ] selection. according to the general rule of pedigree-culture, the seeds of each individual plant are always saved and sowed separately. this is done even with such species as the clover, which are infertile when self-pollinated, and which are incapable of artificial pollination on the required scale, since each flower produces only one seed. my clover was always left free to be pollinated by insects. obviously this must have led to a diminution of the differentiating characters of the individual plants. but this does not go far enough to obliterate the differences, and the selection made among the seedlings will always throw out at least a large part of those that have suffered from the cross. leaving this discussion, we may inquire closer into the nature of the new criterion afforded by the seedlings. two methods present themselves. first, the choice of the best seedlings. in the second place it becomes possible to compare the parent-plants by counting the number of deviating seedlings. this leads to the establishment of a percentage for every single parent, and gives data for comparisons. two or three hundreds of seeds from a parent may easily be grown in one pan, and in this way a sufficiently high degree of accuracy may be reached. only those parents that give [ ] the highest percentage are chosen, and among their progeny only the seedlings with trifoliolate primary leaves are planted out. the whole procedure of the selection is by this means confined to the glasshouse during the spring, and the beds need not be large, nor do they require any special care during the summer. by this method i brought my strain within two years up to an average of nearly % of the seedlings with a divided primary leaf. around this average the real numbers fluctuated between the maximum of % and the minimum of % or thereabouts. this condition was reached by the sixth generation in the year , and has since proved to be the limit, the group of figures remaining practically the same during all the succeeding generations. such selected plants are very rich in leaves with four, five and six blades. excluding the small leaves at the tops of the branches, and those on the numerous weaker side-branches, these three groups include the large majority of all the stronger leaves. in summer the range is wider, and besides many trifoliolate leaves the curiously shaped seven-bladed ones are not at all rare. in the fall and in the winter the range of variability is narrowed, and at first sight the plants often seem to bear only quinquefoliolate leaves. [ ] i have cultivated a new generation of this race nearly every year since , using always the strictest selection. this has led to a uniform type, but has not been adequate to produce any further improvement. obviously the extreme limit, under the conditions of climate and soil, has been reached. this extreme type is always dependent upon repeated selection. no constant variety, in the older sense, has been obtained, nor was any indication afforded that such a type might ever be produced. on the contrary, it is manifest that the new form belongs to the group of ever-sporting varieties. it is never quite free from the old atavistic type of the trifoliolate leaves, and invariably, when external conditions become less favorable, this atavistic form is apt to gain dominion over the more refined varietal character. reversions always occur, both partial and individual. some instances of these reversions may now be given. they are not of such a striking character as those of the snapdragon. intermediate steps are always occurring, both in the leaves themselves, and in the percentages of deviating seedlings of the several parent plants. on normal plants of my variety the quinquefoliolate leaves usually compose the majority, when there are no weak lateral branches, or when they are left out of consideration. next [ ] to these come the fours and the sixes, while the trifoliolate and seven-bladed types are nearly equal in number. but out of a lot of plants, grown from seed of the same parent, it is often possible to choose some in which one extreme prevails, and others with a preponderating number of leaves with the other extreme number of leaflets. if seed from these extremes are saved separately, one strain, that with numerous seven-bladed leaves will remain true to the type, but the other will diverge more or less, producing leaves with a varying number of subdivisions. very few generations of such opposite selection are required to reduce the race to an utterly poor one. in three years i was able to nearly obliterate the type of my variety. i chose the seedlings with an undivided primary leaf, cultivated them and counted their offspring separately after the sowing. i found some parents with only - % of seedlings with divided primary leaves. and by a repeated selection in this retrograde direction i succeeded in getting a great number of plants, which during the whole summer made only very few leaves with more than three blades. but an absolute reversion could no more be reached in this direction than in the normal one. any sowing without selection would be [ ] liable to reduce the strain to an average condition. the production of varietal and of atavistic leaves is dependent to a high degree on external conditions. it agrees with the general rule, that favorable circumstances strengthen the varietal peculiarities, while unfavorable conditions increase the number of the parts with the atavistic attribute. these influences may be seen to have their effect on the single individuals, as well as on the generations growing from their seed. i cannot cite here all the experimental material, but a single illustrative example may be given. i divided a strong individual into two parts, planted one in rich soil and the other in poor sand, and had both pollinated by bees with the pollen of some normal individuals of my variety growing between them. the seeds of both were saved and sown separately, and the two lots of offspring cultivated close to each other under the same external conditions. in the beginning no difference was seen, but as soon as the young plants had unfolded three or four leaves, the progeny of the better nourished half of the parent plant showed a manifest advance. this difference increased rapidly and was easily seen in the beds, even before the flowering period. this experience probably gives an explanation [ ] why the quinquefoliolate variety is so seldom met with in the wild state. for even if it did occur more often, the plants would hardly find circumstances favorable enough for the full development of their varietal character. they must often be so poor in anomalous leaves as to be overlooked, or to be taken for instances of the commonly occurring quadrifoliolate leaves and therefore as not indicating the true variety. in the beginning of my discussion i have asserted the existence of two different races of "four-leaved" clovers, a poor one and a rich one, and have insisted on a sharp distinction between them. this distinction partly depends on experiments with clover, but in great part on tests with other plants. the previously mentioned circumstance, that clover cannot be pollinated on a sufficiently large scale otherwise than by insects, prevents trials in more than one direction at the same time and in the same garden. for this reason i have chosen another species of clover to be able to give proof or disproof of the assertion quoted. this species is the italian, or crimson clover, which is sometimes also called scarlet clover (_trifolium incarnatum_). it is commonly used in europe as a crop on less fertile soils than are required by the red clover. it is annual [ ] and erect and more or less hairy, and has stouter leaves than other kinds of clover. it has oblong or cylindrical heads with bright crimson flowers, and may be considered as one of the most showy types. as an annual it has some manifest advantages over the perennial species, especially in giving its harvest of hay at other seasons of the year. i found some stray quaternate leaves of this plant some years ago, and tried to win from them, through culture and selection, a race that would be as rich in these anomalies as the red clover. but the utmost care and the most rigid selection, and all the attention i could afford, failed to produce any result. it is now ten years since i commenced this experiment, and more than once i have been willing to give it up. last year ( ) i cultivated some hundreds of selected plants, but though they yielded a few more instances of the desired anomaly than in the beginning, no trace of a truly rich race could be discovered. the experimental evidence of this failure shows at least that stray "four-leaves" may occur, which do not indicate the existence of a true "four-" or "five-leaved" variety. this conception seems destined to become of great value in the appreciation of anomalies, as they are usually found, either in the wild state [ ] or in gardens. and before describing the details of my unsuccessful pedigree-culture, it may be as well to give some more instances of what occurs in nature. stray anomalies are of course rare, but not so rare that they might not be found in large numbers when perseveringly sought for. pitcher-like leaves may be found on many trees and shrubs and herbs, but ordinarily one or only two of them are seen in the course of many years on the same plant, or in the same strain. in some few instances they occur annually or nearly so, as in some individuals of the european lime-tree (_tilia parvifolia_) and of the common magnolia (_magnolia obovata_). many of our older cultivated plants are very rich in anomalies of all kinds, and _cyclamen_, _fuchsia_, _pelargonium_ and some others are notorious sources of teratologic phenomena. deviations in flowers may often be seen, consisting of changes in the normal number of the several organs, or alterations in their shape and color. leaves may have two tips, instead of one, the mid-vein being split near the apex, and the fissure extending more or less towards the base. rays of the umbels of umbelliferous plants may grow together and become united in groups of two or more, and in the same way the fruits of [ ] the composites may be united into groups. many other instances could easily be given. if we select some of these anomalies for breeding-experiments, our results will not agree throughout, but will tend to group themselves under two heads. in some cases the isolation of the deviating individuals will at once show the existence of a distinct variety, which is capable of producing the anomaly in any desired number of instances; only dependent on a favorable treatment and a judicious selection. in other cases no treatment and no selection are adequate to give a similar result, and the anomaly remains refractory despite all our endeavors to breed it. the cockscomb and the peloric fox-glove are widely known instances of permanent anomalies, and others will be dealt with in future lectures. on the other hand i have often tried in vain to win an anomalous race from an accidental deviation, or to isolate a teratologic variety out of more common aberrations. two illustrative examples may be quoted. in our next lecture we shall deal with a curious phenomenon in poppies, consisting in the change of the stamens into pistils and giving rise to a bright crown of secondary capsules around the central one. similar anomalies may be occasionally met with in other species of the same genus. but they are rare, and may show [ ] the conversion of only a single stamen in the described manner. i observed this anomaly in a poppy called _papaver commutatum_, and subjected it during several years to a rigid selection of the richest individuals. no amelioration was to be gained and the culture had to be given up. in the same way i found on the bulbous buttercup (_ranunculus bulbosus_) a strain varying largely in the number of the petals, amounting often to - , and in some flowers even yet to higher figures. during five succeeding years i cultivated five generations, often in large numbers, selecting always those which had the highest number of petals, throwing out the remainder and saving the seed only from the very best plants. i got a strain of selected plants with an average number of nine petals in every flower, and found among , flowers four having petals or more, coming up even to in one instance. but such rare instances had no influence whatever on the selection, since they were not indicative of individual qualities, but occurred quite accidentally on flowers of plants having only the average number of petals. now double flowers are widely known to occur in other species of the buttercups, both in the cultivated varieties and in some wild forms. for this reason it might be expected that through a continuous selection of [ ] the individuals with the largest numbers a tendency to become double would be evolved. such, however, was not the case. no propensity to vary in any definite direction could be observed. quite on the contrary, an average condition was quickly reached, and then remained constant, strongly counteracting all selection. such experiences clearly show that the same anomaly may occur in different species, and no doubt in strains of the same species from different localities, according to at least two different standards. the one is to be called the poor, and the other the rich variety. the first always produces relatively few instances of the deviation, the last is apt to give as many of them as desired. the first is only half-way a variety, and therefore would deserve the name of a half-race; the second is not yet a full constant variety, but always fluctuates to and fro between the varietal and the specific mark, ever-sporting in both directions. it holds a middle position between a half-race and a variety, and therefore might be called a "middle-race." but the term ever-sporting variety seems more adequate to convey a right idea of the nature of this curious type of inheritance. from this discussion it will be seen that the behavior of the crimson clover is not to be considered [ ] as an exception, but as a widely occurring type of phenomenon, occurring perhaps in all sorts of teratologic deviations, and in wide ranges of species and genera. hence it may be considered worth while to give some more details of this extended experiment. ten years ago ( - ) i bought and sowed about a pound of seed of the crimson clover. among many thousands of normal seedlings i found two with three and one with four cotyledons. trusting to the empirical rules of correlation, i transplanted these three individuals in order to isolate them in the flowering period. one of them produced during the ensuing summer one four-bladed and one five-bladed leaf. the seeds were saved separately and sown the following spring and the expected result could soon be seen. among some individual plants i counted with one or two deviations, and with from three to nine four- or five-bladed leaves. proportions nearly similar have been observed repeatedly. better nourished individuals have produced more deviating leaves on one plant, partly owing to the larger number of stems and branches, and poor or average specimens have mostly been without any aberration or with only one or two abnormal leaves. no further improvement could be attained. quadrifoliolate leaves were always rare, never [ ] attaining a number that would put its stamp on a whole bed. i have endeavored to get some six- and seven-bladed crimson clover leaves, but in vain; selection, culture of many hundreds of individuals, manure, and the best possible treatment has not been adequate to produce them. of course i am quite convinced that a repetition of my experiment on a far larger scale would yield the desired types, but then only in such rare instances that they would have no influence whatever on the average, or on the improvement of the race. the eighth generation in the year has not been noticeably better than the second and third generations after the first selection. in comparing this statement with the results gained in the experiment with the red clover, the difference is at once striking. in one case a rich variety was isolated, and, by better treatment and sharp methods of selection, was brought up in a few years to its highest pitch of development. in the other case a very weak race was shown to exist, and no amount of work and perseverance was adequate to improve it to any noticeable degree. i wish to point out that the decision of what is to be expected from deviating specimens may become manifest within one or two generations. even the generation grown from the seeds of [ ] the first observed aberrant-individuals, if gathered after sufficient isolation during the period of blossoming, may show which type of inheritance is present, whether it is an unpromising half-race, or a richly endowed sporting variety. i have kept such strains repeatedly after the first isolation, and a special case, that of cotyledoneous aberrations, will be dealt with later. the first generation always gave a final decision, provided that a suitable method of cultivation for the species under observation was found at the beginning. this however, is a condition, which it is not at all easy to comply with, when new sorts are introduced into a garden. especially so when they had been collected in the wild state. often one or two years, sometimes more, are necessary to find the proper method of sowing, manuring, transplanting and, other cultural methods satisfactory to the plants. many wild species require more care and more manure in gardens than the finest garden flowers. and a large number are known to be dependent on very particular conditions of soil. one of the most curious features of anomalies, which has been learned from accumulated instances, is the fact that they obey definite laws as to their occurrence on the different parts of the plant. obviously such laws are [ ] not apparent as long as each plant produces only one or two, or, at most, a few instances of the same deviation. on the contrary, any existing regularity must betray itself, as soon as a larger number of instances is produced. a rule of periodicity becomes most clearly manifest in such cases. this rule is shown by no other race in a more undoubted and evident manner than by the "five-leaved" clover. evidently the several degrees of deviation, going from three to seven leaflets, may be regarded as responses to different degrees of variation, and their distribution over the stems and branches, or over the whole plant, may be considered as the manifestation of the ever-changing internal tendency to vary. considered from this point of view, my plants always showed a definite periodicity in this distribution, which is the same for the whole plant. each of them, and each of the larger branches, begin with atavistic leaves or with slight deviations. these are succeeded by greater deviations, but only the strongest axes show as many as seven leaflets on a stalk. this ordinarily does not occur before the height of development is reached, and often only towards its close. then the deviation diminishes rapidly, returning often to atavistic leaves at the summit of the stem or branch. i give the numbers of the [ ] leaves of a branch, in their order from the base to the top. they were as follows: . . . . . . . . but this is a selected case, and such regular examples of the expected periodicity are rarely found. often one or more of the various steps are lacking, or even leaves with smaller numbers may be interspersed among those with larger numbers of leaflets. but while the regularity of the periodicity is in some degree diminished by such occurrences, yet the rule always holds good, when taken broadly. it may be expressed by stating that the bases and apices have on the average fewer leaflets on each leaf than the middle parts of the stem and branches, and that the number of leaflets gradually increases from the base toward a maximum, which is reached in organs on the middle or upper part of the axis, and then diminishes from this toward the apex. this periodicity is not limited to the stems and branches, considered singly, but also holds good in a comparison made between the branches of a single stem, in regard to their relative places on that stem. so it is also for the whole plant. the first stems, produced by the subterranean axis, ordinarily show only a low maximum deviation: the next succeeding being [ ] more divergent and the last ones returning to less differentiated forms. it is evident that on a given stem the group of deviating leaves will be extended upward and downward, with the increase of the number of these organs. this shows that a stem, or even a plant, promises a higher degree of differentiation if it commences with its aberration earlier. hence it becomes possible to discern the most promising individuals in early youth, and this conclusion leads to a very easy and reliable method of selection, which may be expressed simply as follows: the seedlings which commence earliest with the production of four- and five-foliolate leaves are the best and should be selected for the continuance of the race. and it is easily seen that this rule agrees with that given above, and which was followed in my pedigree-culture. furthermore it is seen that there is a complete agreement between the law of periodicity and the responses of the deviations to nourishment and other conditions of life. weak plants only produce low degrees of deviation, the stronger the individual becomes, the higher it reaches in the scale of differentiation, and the more often it develops leaves with five or more blades. whether weakness or strength are derived from outer causes, or from the internal [ ] succession of the periods of life, is evidently of no consequence, and in this way the law of periodicity may be regarded as a special instance of the more general law of response to external conditions. the validity of this law of periodicity is of course not limited to our "five-leaved" clover. quite on the contrary it is universal in eversporting varieties. moreover it may be ascertained and studied in connection with the most widely different morphologic abnormalities, and therefore affords easily accessible material for statistical inquiry. i will now give some further instances, but wish to insist first upon the necessity of an inquiry on a far larger scale, as the evidence as yet is very scanty. the great celandine (_chelidonium majus_) has a very curious double variety. its flowers are simpler and much more variable than in ordinary garden-varieties. the process of doubling consists mainly in a change of stamens into petals. this change is dependent on the season. on each stem the earliest flowers are single. these are succeeded by blossoms with one or two converted stamens, and towards the summer this number increases gradually, attaining - and in some instances even more altered filaments. each year the same succession may be seen repeating itself on the stems of [ ] the old roots. double tuberous begonias are ordinarily absolutely sterile throughout the summer, but towards autumn the new flowers become less and less altered, producing some normal stamens and pistils among the majority of metamorphosed organs. from these flowers the seeds are saved. sometimes similar flowers occur at the beginning of the flowering-period. double garden-camomiles (_chrysanthemum inodorum plenissimum_) and many other double varieties of garden-plants among the great family of the composites are very sensitive to external agencies, and their flower-heads are fuller the more favorable the external conditions. towards the autumn many of them produce fewer and fewer converted heads and often only these are fertile and yield seeds. ascidia afford another instance of this periodicity, though ordinarily they are by far too rare to show any regularity in their distribution. however, it is easy to observe that on lime-trees they prefer the lower parts of each twig, while on magnolias the terminal leaves of the branches are often pitcher-bearing. ascidia of the white clover have been found in numbers, in my own experiment-garden, but always in the springtime. the thickleaved saxifrage (_saxifraga crassifolia_) is often very productive of ascidia, especially in [ ] the latter part of the season, and as these organs may be developed to very different degrees, they afford fine material for the study of the law of periodicity. on a garden-cytisus (_cytisus candicans attleyanus_) i once had the good fortune to observe a branch with ascidia, which ordinarily are very rare in this species. it had produced seven ascidia in all, each formed by the conversion of one leaflet on the trifoliolate leaves. the first six leaves were destitute of this malformation and were quite normal. then followed a group of five leaves, constituting the maximum of the period. the first bore one small pitcher-like blade, the second and third, each one highly modified organ, the fourth, two ascidia, and the last, one leaflet with slightly connate margins. the whole upper part of the branch was normal, with the exception of the seventeenth leaf, which showed a slight change in the same direction. all in all, the tendency to produce ascidia increased from the beginning to the tenth leaf, and decreased from this upward. the european venus' looking-glass was observed in my garden to produce some quaternate and some quinate flowers on the same specimens. the quinate were placed at the end of the branches, those with four petals and sepals lower down. the peloric fox-glove shows the [ ] highest degree of metamorphy in the terminal flowers of the stem itself, the weaker branches having but little tendency towards the formation of the anomaly. the european pine or _pinus sylvestris_ ordinarily has two needles in each sheath, but trifoliolate sheaths occur on the stems and stronger branches, where they prefer, as a rule, the upper parts of the single annual shoots. _camellia japonica_ is often striped in the fall and during the winter, but when flowering in the spring it returns to the monochromatic type. peloric flowers are terminal in some cases, but occur in the lower parts of the flower-spikes in others. some varieties of gladiolus commence on each spike with more or less double flowers, which, higher up, are replaced by single ones. a wide range of bulbs and perennial garden-plants develop their varietal characters only partly when grown from seed and flowering for the first time. the annual garden-forget-me-not of the azores (_myosotis azorica_) has a variety with curiously enlarged flowers, often producing or more corolla-segments in one flower. but this number gradually diminishes as the season advances. it would be quite superfluous to give further proof of the general validity of the law of periodicity in ever-sporting varieties. [ ] lecture xiii pistillody in poppies one of the most curious anomalies that may be met with in ornamental garden-plants is the conversion of stamens into pistils. it is neither common nor rare, but in most cases the change is so slight comparatively that it is ordinarily overlooked. in the opium-poppy, on the contrary, it is very showy, and heightens the ornamental effect of the young fruits after the fading of the flowers. here the central capsule is surrounded by a large crown of metamorphosed stamens. this peculiarity has attracted the attention both of horticulturists and of botanists. as a rule not all the stamens are changed in this way but only those of the innermost rows. the outer stamens remain normal and fertile, and the flowers, when pollinated with their own pollen, bear as rich a harvest of seeds as other opium-poppies. the change affects both the filament and the anther, the former of which is dilated into a sheath. within this sheath perfect [ ] and more or less numerous ovules may be produced. the anthers become rudimentary and in their place broad leafy flaps are developed, which protrude laterally from the tip and constitute the stigmas. ordinarily these altered organs are sterile, but in some instances a very small quantity of seed is produced, and when testing their viability i succeeded in raising a few plants from them. the same anomaly occurs in other plants. the common wall-flower (_cheiranthus cheiri_) and the houseleek (_sempervivum tectorum_) are the best known instances. both have repeatedly been described by various investigators. in compiling the literature of this subject it is very interesting to observe the two contrasting views respecting the nature of this anomaly. some writers, and among them masters in his "vegetable teratology" consider the deviations to be merely accidental. according to them some species are more subject to this anomaly than others, and the houseleek is said to be very prone to this change. goeppert, hofmeister and others occasionally found the pistilloid poppies in fields or gardens, and sowed their seeds in order to ascertain whether the accidental peculiarity was inheritable or not. on the other hand de candolle in his "prodromus" mentions the pistilloid wall-flowers as a distinct [ ] variety, under the name of _cheiranthus cheiri gynantherus_, and the analogous form of the opium-poppy is not at all an accidental anomaly, but an old true horticultural variety, which can be bought everywhere under the names of _papaver somniferum monstruosum_ or _polycephalum_. since it is an annual plant, only the seeds are for sale, and this at once gives a sufficient proof of its heredity. in all cases, where it was met with accidentally by botanists, it is to be assumed that stray seeds had been casually mixed with those of other varieties, or that the habit had been transmitted by a spontaneous cross. wherever opportunity led to experiments on heredity, distinct races were found to be in possession of this quality, while others were not. it is of no use to cultivate large numbers of wall-flowers in the hope of one day seeing the anomaly arise; the only means is to secure the strain from those who have got it. with poppies the various varieties are so often intercrossed by bees, that the appearance of an accidental change may sometimes be produced, and in the houseleek the pistilloid warily seems to be the ordinary one, the normal strain being very rare or perhaps wholly wanting. our three illustrative examples are good and permanent races, producing their peculiar qualities [ ] regularly and abundantly. in this respect they are however very variable and dependent on external circumstances. such a regularity is not met with in other instances. often pedigree-experiments lead to poor races, betraying their tendency to deviate only from time to time and in rare cases. such instances constitute what we have called in a former lecture, "half races," and their occurrence indicates that the casual observation of an anomaly is not in itself adequate to give an opinion as to the chance of repetition in sowing experiments. a large number of species seem to belong to this case, and their names may be found in the above mentioned work by masters and elsewhere. but no effort has yet been made to separate thoroughly the pistilloid half-races from the corresponding ever-sporting varieties. some plants are recorded as being more liable to this peculiarity than others. stamens are sometimes replaced by open carpels with naked ovules arising from their edges and even from their whole inner surfaces. this may be seen in distinct strains of the cultivated bulbous begonia, and more rarely in primroses. here the apex of the carpellary leaf is sometimes drawn out into a long style, terminated by a flattened spatulate stigma. the pistillody of the stamens is frequently [ ] combined with another deviation in the poppies. this is the growing together of some of the altered stamens so as to constitute smaller or larger connate groups. often two are united, sometimes three, four or more. flowers with numerous altered stamens are seldom wholly free from this most undesirable secondary anomaly. i call it undesirable with respect to experiments on the variability of the character. for it may easily be seen that while it is feasible to count the stamens even when converted into pistils, it is not possible when groups of them are more or less intimately united into single bodies. this combination makes all enumeration difficult and inaccurate and often wholly unreliable. in such cases the observation is limited to a computation of the degree of the change, rather than to a strict numerical inquiry. happily the responses to the experimental influences are so marked and distinct that even this method of describing them has proved to be wholly sufficient. in extreme instances i have seen all the changed stamens of a flower of the opium-poppy united into a single body, so as to form a close sheath all around the central ovary. lesser sheaths, surrounding one-half or one-third of the capsule are of course less rarely met with. leaving this description of the outer appearance [ ] of our anomaly, we may now consider it from the double point of view of inheritance and variability. the fact of inheritance is shown by the experience of many authors, and by the circumstance already quoted, that the variety has been propagated from seed for more than half a century, and may be obtained from various seed merchants. in respect to the variability, the variety belongs to the ever-sporting group, constituting a type which is more closely related to the "five-leaved" clover than to the striped flowers or even the double stocks. it fluctuates around an average type with half filled crowns, going as far as possible in both directions, but never transgressing either limit. it is even doubtful whether the presumable limits are, under ordinary circumstances, ever reached. obviously one extreme would be the conversion of all the stamens, and the other the absolute deficiency of any marked tendency to such a change. both may occur, and will probably be met with from time to time. but they must be extremely rare, since in my own extensive experiments, which were strictly controlled, i never was able to find a single instance of either of them. some of the outer stamens have always remained unchanged, yielding enough pollen for the artificial pollination of [ ] the central ovary, and on the other hand some rudiments of hardened filaments were always left, even if they were reduced to small protuberances on the thalamus of the flower. between these extremes all grades occur. from single, partially or wholly changed stamens upwards to and over, all steps may be seen. it is a true fluctuating variability. there is an average of between and , constituting a nearly filled crown around the central capsule. around this average the smaller deviations are most numerous and the larger ones more rare. the inspection of any bed of the variety suffices to show that, taken broadly, the ordinary laws of fluctuating variability are applicable. no counting of the single individuals is required to dispel all doubts on this point. moreover all intermediate steps respecting the conversion of the single stamens may nearly always be seen. rarely all are changed into normal secondary ovaries with a stigma and with a cavity filled with ovules. often the stigma is incomplete or even almost wanting, in other instances the ovules are lacking or the cavity itself is only partially developed. not rarely some stamens are reduced and converted into thin hard stalks, without any appearance of an ovary at their tip. but then the demarcation [ ] between them and the thalamus fails, so that they cannot be thrown off when the flower fades away, but remain as small stumps around the base of the more fully converted filaments. this fact would frequently render the enumeration of the altered organs quite unreliable. for these reasons i have chosen a group of arbitrary stages in order to express the degree of deviation for a given lot of plants. the limits were chosen so as to be sufficiently trustworthy and easy to ascertain. in each group the members could be counted, and a series of figures was reached by this means which allowed of a further comparison of the competing sets of plants. it should be stated that in such experiments and especially in the case of such a showy criterion as the pistilloid heads afford after the time of flowering is over, the inspection of the controlling beds at once indicates the result of the experiment. even a hasty survey is in most cases sufficient to get a definite conclusion. where this is not the case, the counting of the individuals of the various groups often does not add to the evidence, and the result remains uncertain. on the other hand, the impression made by the groups of plants on the experimenter and on his casual visitors, cannot well be conveyed to the readers of his account by [ ] other means than by figures. for this reason the result of the experiments is expressed in this way. i made six groups. the first includes the cases where the whole circle is reduced to small rudiments. the second shows - secondary capsules. the two following constitute half a crown around the central fruit, the third going up to this limit, the fourth going from this limit to a nearly filled circle. wholly filled circles of secondary capsules without gaps give the two last degrees, the fifth requiring only continuity of the circle, the sixth displaying a large and bright crown all around the central head. the fifth group ordinarily includes from - altered stamens, while the sixth has from - of these deviating parts. in ordinary cultures the third and fourth group, with their interrupted crowns, predominate. large crowns are rare and flowers which at first sight seem to be wholly normal, occur only under circumstances definitely known to be unfavorable to growth, and to the development of the anomaly. having reached by this means a very simple and easy method of stating the facts shown by equal lots under contrasting influences, we will now make use of it to inquire into the relation [ ] of this exceptionally high degree of variability to the inner and outer conditions of life. as a rule, all experiments show the existence of such a relation. unfavorable conditions reduce the numbers of altered stamens, favorable circumstances raise it to its highest point. this holds true for lots including hundreds of specimens, but also for the sundry heads of one bed, and often for one single plant. we may compare the terminal flower with those of the lateral branches on a plant, and when no special influences disturb the experiment, the terminal head ordinarily bears the richest crown. if the first has more than metamorphosed parts, the latter have often less than on the same plant. in poor soil, terminal heads are often reduced to - monstrous organs, and in such cases i found the lateral flowers of the same plants ordinarily with less than altered stamens. in some cases i allowed the branches of the third and fourth degree, in other words, the side twigs of the first branches of my selected plants to grow out and produce flowers in the fall. they were ordinarily weak, sometimes very small, having only - stigmas on their central fruit. secondary capsules were not seen on such flowers, even when the experiment was repeated on a [ ] somewhat larger scale and during a series of years. among the same lot of plants individual differences almost always occur. they are partly due to inequalities already existing in the seeds, and partly to the diversity of the various parts of the same bed. some of the plants become stout and have large terminal heads. others remain very weak, with a slender stem, small leaves and undersized flowers. the height and thickness of the stem, the growth of the foliage and of the axillary buds are the most obvious measures of the individual strength of the plant. the development of the terminal flower and the size of its ovary manifestly depends largely on this individual strength, as may be seen at once by the inspection of any bed of opium-poppies. now this size of the head can easily be measured, either by its height or circumference, or by its weight. moreover we can arrange them into a series according to their size. if we do this with the polycephalous variety, the relation between individual strength and degree of metamorphosis at once becomes manifest. the largest heads have the brightest crowns, and the number of supernumerary carpels diminishes in nearly exact proportion to the size of the fruits. fruits with less than altered stamens weighed on an average grams, [ ] those with - such organs grams and those with a bright crown grams, the appendices being removed before the weighing. corresponding results have been reached by the comparison of the height of the capsules with their abnormal surroundings. the degree of development of the monstrosity is shown by this observation to be directly dependent on, and in a sense proportionate to the individual strength of the plant. the differences between the specimens grown from a single lot of seeds, for instance from the seeds of one self-fertilized capsule are, as i have said, partly due to the divergences which are always present in a bed, even if the utmost care has been taken to make it as uniform as possible. these local differences are ordinarily underrated and overlooked, and it is often considered to be sufficient to cultivate small lots of plants under apparently similar conditions on neighboring beds, to be justified in imputing all the observed deviations of the plants to hereditary inequalities. this of course is true for large lots, whenever the averages only are compared. in smaller experiments the external conditions of the single individuals should always be considered carefully. lots of one or two square meters suffice for such comparisons, but smaller lots are always subject to chances and [ ] possibilities, which should never be left out of consideration. therefore i will now point out some circumstances, which are ordinarily different on various parts of one and the same bed. in the first place comes the inequality of the seeds themselves. some of them will germinate earlier and others later. those that display their cotyledons on a sunny day will be able to begin at once with the production of organic food. others appear in bad weather, and will thus be retarded in their development. these effects are of a cumulative nature as the young plants must profit by every hour of sunshine, according to the size of the cotyledons. any inequality between two young seedlings is apt to be increased by this cumulative effect. the same holds good for the soil of the bed. it is simply impossible to mix the manure so equally that all individuals receive the same amount of it from the very beginning. i am in the habit of using manures in a dry and pulverized condition, of giving definite quantities to each square meter, and of taking the utmost care to get equal distribution and mixture with the soil, always being present myself during this most important operation. nevertheless it is impossible to make the nourishment exactly equal for all the plants of even a small bed. [ ] any inequality from this cause will increase the difference in the size of the young leaves, augment the inequality of their production of organic matter and for this reason go on in an ever increasing rate. rain and spraying, or on the other hand dryness of the soil, have still greater consequences. the slightest unevenness of the surface will cause some spots to dry rapidly and others to retain moisture during hours and even sometimes during days. seeds, germinating in such little moist depressions grow regularly and rapidly, while those on the dryer elevations may be retarded for hours and days, before fully unfurling their seed-leaves. after heavy rains these differences may be observed to increase continually, and in some instances i found that plants were produced only on the wet spots, while the dry places remained perfectly bare. from this the wet spots seem to be the most favorable, but on the other hand, seeds may come to germinate there too numerously and so closely that the young plants will be crowded together and find neither space nor light enough, for a free and perfect development. the advantage may change to disadvantage in this way unless the superfluous individuals are weeded out in due time. [ ] from all these and other reasons some plants will be favored by the external conditions from the beginning, while others will be retarded, and the effects will gradually increase until at last they become sufficient to account for a considerable amount of individual variability. there is no doubt that the difference in the strength of the plant and in the size of the capsules, going from - grams for a single fruit, are for the most part due to these unavoidable circumstances. i have tried all conceivable means to find remedies for these difficulties, but only by sowing my seeds in pans in a glass-house have i been able to reach more constant and equal conditions. but unfortunately such a method requires the planting out of the young seedlings in the beginning of the summer, and this operation is not without danger for opium-poppies, and especially not without important influence on the monstrosity of the pistilloid variety. consequently my sowings of this plant have nearly always been made in the beds. in order to show how great the influence of all these little things may become, we only have to make two sowings on neighboring beds and under conditions which have carefully been made as equal as possible. if we use for these controlling experiments seeds from one and the same capsule, it will soon become evident that [ ] no exact similarity between the two lots may be expected. such differences as may be seen in these cases are therefore never to be considered of value when comparing two lots of seeds of different origin, or under varying conditions. no amount of accuracy in the estimation of the results of a trial, or in the counting out of the several degrees of the anomaly, is adequate to overcome the inaccuracy resulting from these differences. it is certainly of great importance to have a correct conception in regard to the influence of the surrounding conditions on the growth of a plant and on the development of the attribute we are to deal with. no less important is the question of the sensibility of the plants to these factors. obviously this sensibility must not be expected to remain the same during the entire life-period, and periods of stronger and of weaker responses may be discerned. in the first place it is evident that external or inner influences are able to change the direction of the development of an organ only so long as this development is not yet fully finished. in the young flower-bud of the pistilloid poppy there must evidently be some moment in which it is definitely decided whether the young stamens will grow out normally or become metamorphosed into secondary pistils. from this [ ] moment no further change of external conditions is able to produce a corresponding change in the degree of the anomaly. the individual strength of the whole plant may still be affected in a more or less manifest degree, but the number of converted stamens of the flower has been definitely fixed. the sensitive period has terminated. in order to determine the exact moment of this termination of the period of sensibility, i have followed the development of the flower buds during the first weeks of the life of the young plants. the terminal flower may already be seen in young plants only seven weeks old, with a stem not exceeding - cm. in height and a flower-bud with a diameter of nearly mm., in which the stamens and secondary pistils are already discernible, but still in the condition of small rounded protuberances on the thalamus. though it is not possible at that time to observe any difference between the future normal and converted stamens, it does not seem doubtful that the development is so far advanced, that in the inner tissues the decision has already definitely been taken. in the next few days this decision rapidly becomes visible, and the different parts of the normal stamens and the metamorphosed carpels soon become apparent. from this observation it [ ] can be inferred that the sensitive period of the anomaly is limited for the terminal flower-head, to the first few weeks of the life of the young plants. the secondary heads manifestly leave this period at a somewhat later stage. in order to prove the accuracy of this conclusion i have tried to injure the anomalies after the expiration of the first six or seven weeks. i deprived them of their leaves, and damaged them in different ways. i succeeded in making them very weak and slender, without being able to diminish the number of the supernumerary carpels. the proportionality of the size of the central fruit and the development of the surrounding crown can often be modified or even destroyed by this means, and the apparent exceptions from this rule, which are often observed, may find their explanation in this way. in the second place i have tried to change the development of the anomaly during the period of sensibility, and even in the last part of it. this experiment succeeded fully when carried out within the fifth or sixth week after the beginning of the germination. as means of injury i transplanted the young plants. to this end i sowed my seeds in pans in unmanured soil, planted them out in little pots with richly prepared earth, grew them in these during a few weeks and afterwards transferred them to the [ ] beds, taking care that the pats were removed, but the balls of earth not broken. in consequence of this treatment the plants became very large and strong, with luxuriant foliage and relatively numerous large flowers and fruits. but almost without exception they were poor in anomalous stamens, at least so on the terminal heads. on a lot of some plants more than had less than half a crown of secondary capsules, while from the same packet of seed the control-plants gave in an equal number more than half of filled crowns on all plants with the exception of five weak specimens. it is curious to compare such artificially injured plants with the ordinary cultures. strong stems and heavy fruits, which otherwise are always indicative of showy crowns, now bear fruits wholly or nearly destitute of any anomalous change. the commonly prevailing rule seems to be reversed, showing thereby the possibility of abolishing the correlation between individual strength and anomaly by an artificial encroachment upon the normal conditions. aside from these considerations the experiments clearly give proof of the existence of a period of sensibility limited to the first weeks of the life of the plant for the terminal flower. this knowledge enables us to explain many apparent [ ] parent abnormalities, which may occur in the experiments. we now may take a broader view of the period of sensibility. evidently the response to external influences will be greater the younger the organ. sensibility will gradually diminish, and the phenomena observed in the last part of this period may be considered as the last remainder of a reaction which previously must have been much stronger and much readier, providing that it would be possible to isolate them from, and contrast them with, the other responses of the same plant. with the light thus cast upon the question, we may conclude that the sensitive period commences not only at the beginning of the germination, but must also be considered to include the life of the seed itself. from the moment of fertilization and the formation of the young embryo the development must be subjected to the influence of external agencies which determine the direction it will take and the degree of development it will finally be able to acquire. probably the time of growth of the embryo and of the ripening of the seed correspond exactly to the period of highest sensibility. this period is only interrupted during the resting stage of the seed, to be repeated in germination. afterwards the sensibility [ ] slowly and gradually decreases, to end with the definite decision of all further growth sometime before the outer form of the organ becomes visible under the microscope. the last period of life includes only an expansion of the tissues, which may still have some influence on their final size, but not on their form. this has been definitely arrested before the end of the sensitive period, and ordinarily before the commencement of that rapid development, which is usually designated by the name of growth, as contrasted with evolution. within the seed the evolution of the young plant manifestly depends upon the qualities and life-conditions of the parent-plant. the stronger this is, and the more favorable circumstances it is placed under, the more food will be available for the seed, and the healthier will be the development of the embryo. only well-nourished plants give well-nourished seeds, and the qualities of each plant are for this reason at least, partly dependent on the properties of its parents and even of its grandparents. from these considerations the inference is forced upon us that the apparently hereditary differences, which are observed to exist among the seeds of a species or a variety and even of a single strain or a single parent-plant, may for a large part, and perhaps wholly, be the result [ ] of the life-conditions of their parents and grandparents. within the race all ssvariability would in this way be reduced to the effects of external circumstances. among these nourishment is no doubt the most momentous, and this to such a degree that older writers designated the external conditions by the term nourishment. according to knight nutrition reigns supreme in the whole realm of variability, the kind of food and the method of nourishment coming into consideration only in a secondary way. the amount of useful nutrition is the all-important factor. if this is so, and if nutrition decides the degree of deviation of any given character, the widest deviating individuals are the best nourished ones. the best nourished not only during the period of sensibility of the attribute under consideration, but also in the broadest sense of the word. this discussion casts a curious light upon the whole question of selection. not of course upon the choice of elementary species or varieties out of the original motley assembly which nature and old cultures offer us, but upon the selection of the best individuals for isolation and for the improvement of the race. these are, according to my views, only the best nourished ones. their external conditions have been the [ ] most favorable, not only from the beginning of their own life in the field, but also during their embryonic stages, and even during the preparation of these latter in the life of their parents and perhaps even their grandparents. selection then, would only be the choice of the best nourished individuals. in connection with the foregoing arguments i have tried to separate the choicest of the poppies with the largest crown of pistilloid stamens, from the most vigorous individuals. as we have already seen, these two attributes are as a rule proportional to one another. exceptions occur, but they may be explained by some later changes in the external circumstances, as i have also pointed out. as a rule, these exceptions are large fruits with comparatively too few converted stamens; they are exactly the contrary from what is required for a selection. or plants, which from the beginning were robust, may have become crowded together by further growth, and for these reasons become weaker than their congeners, though retaining the full development of the staminodal crown, which was fixed during the sensitive period and before the crowding. i have searched my beds yearly for several years in vain to find individuals which might recommend themselves for selection without having the stamp of permanent, [ ] or at least temporarily better, nourishment. no starting-point for such an independent selection has ever been met with. summing up the consequences of this somewhat extended discussion, we may state it as a rule that a general proportion between the individual strength and the degree of development of the anomaly exists. and from this point of view it is easy to see that all external causes which are known to affect the one, must be expected to influence the other also. it will therefore hardly be necessary to give a full description of all my experiments on the relations of the monstrosity to external conditions. a hasty survey will suffice. this survey is not only intended to convey an idea of the relations of pistilloid poppies to their environment, but may serve as an example of the principle involved. according to my experience with a large range of other anomalies, the same rule prevails everywhere. and this rule is so simple that exact knowledge of one instance may be considered as sufficient to enable us to calculate from analogy what is to be expected from a given treatment of any other anomaly. our appreciation of observed facts and the conditions to be chosen for intended cultures are largely dependent on such calculations. what i am now going to describe [ ] is to be considered therefore as an experimental basis for such expectations. first of all comes the question how many individuals are to be grown in a given place. when sowing plants for experimental purposes it is always best to sow in rows, and to give as few seeds to each row as possible, so as to insure all necessary space to the young plants. on the other hand the seeds do not all germinate, and after sowing too thinly, gaps may appear in the rows. this would cause not only a loss of space, but an inequality between the plants in later life, as those nearest the gaps would have more space and more light, and a larger area for their roots than those growing in the unbroken rows. hence the necessity of using large quantities of seed and of weeding out a majority of young plants on the spots where the greatest numbers germinate. crowded cultures as a rule, will give weak plants with thin stems, mostly unbranched and bearing only small capsules. according to the rule, these will produce imperfect crowns of secondary pistils. the result of any culture will thus be dependent to a high degree on the number of individuals per square meter. i have sown two similar and neighboring beds with the thoroughly mixed seeds of parent-plants of the same strain and culture, using as much [ ] as . cu. cm. per square meter. on one of the beds i left all the germinating plants untouched and nearly of them flowered, but among them were almost without pistillody, and only had full crowns. in the other bed i weeded away more than half of the young plants, leaving only some individuals and got with a full crown, nearly with half crowns and only apparently without monstrosity. these figures are very striking. from the same quantity of seed, in equal spaces, by similar exposure and treatment i got fully developed instances in one and in the other case. the weeding out of supernumerary individuals had not only increased the percentage of bright crowns, but also their absolute number per square meter. so the greatest number of anomalies upon a given space may be obtained by taking care that not too many plants are grown upon it: any increase of the number beyond a certain limit will diminish the probability of obtaining these structures. the most successful cultures may be made after the maximum number of individuals per unit of area has been determined. a control-experiment was made under the same conditions and with the same seed, but allowing much less for the same space. i sowed only cu. cm. on my bed of square meters, and thereby avoided [ ] nearly all weeding out. i got plants, and among them with full crowns of converted stamens, practically the same number as after the weeding out in the first experiment. this shows that smaller quantities of seed give an equal chance for a greater number of large crowns, and should therefore always be preferred, as it saves both seed and labor. weeding out is a somewhat dangerous operation in a comparative trial. any one who has done it often, knows that there is a strong propensity to root out the weaker plants and to spare the stronger ones. obviously this is the best way for ordinary purposes, but for comparisons evidently one should not discriminate. this rule is very difficult in practice, and for this reason one should never sow more than is absolutely required to meet all requirements. our second point is the manuring of the soil. this is always of the highest importance, both for normal and for anomalous attributes. the conversion of the stamens into pistils is in a large measure dependent upon the conditions of the soil. i made a trial with some flowering plants, using one sample of seed, but sowing one-third on richly manured soil, one-third on an unprepared bed of my garden, and one-third on nearly pure sand. in all other respects the three groups were treated in the same way. of [ ] the manured plants one-half gave full crowns, of the non-manured only one-fifth, and on the sandy soil a still smaller proportion. other trials led to the same results. i have often made use of steamed and ground horn, which is a manure very rich in nitrogenous substances. one-eighth of a kilo per square meter is an ample amount. and its effect was to increase the number of full crowns to an exceptional degree. in the controlling trial and under ordinary circumstances this figure reached some %, but with ground horn it came up as high as %. we may state this result by the very striking assertion that the number of large crowns in a given culture may be nearly doubled by rich manure. all other external conditions act in a similar manner. the best treatment is required to attain the best result. a sunny exposure is one of the most essential requisites, and in some attempts to cultivate my poppies in the shade, i found the pistillody strongly reduced, not a single full crown being found in the whole lot. often the weather may be hurtful, especially during the earlier stages of the plants. i protected my beds during several trials by covering them with glass for a few weeks, until the young plants reached the glass covering. i got a normal number of full crowns, some %, at a time [ ] when the weather was so bad as to reduce the number in the control experiments to %. it would be quite superfluous to give more details or to describe additional experiments. suffice to say, that the results all point in the same direction, and that pistillody of the poppies always clearly responds to the treatment, especially to external conditions during the first few weeks, that is, during the period of sensitiveness. the healthier and the stronger the plants the more fully they will develop their anomaly. in conclusion something is to be said about the choice of the seed. obviously it is possible to compare seeds of different origin by sowing and treating them in the same way, giving attention to all the points above mentioned. in doing so the first question will be, whether there is a difference between the seeds of strong plants with a bright crown around the head and those of weaker individuals with lesser development of the anomaly. it is evident that such a difference must be expected, since the nutrition of the seed takes place during the period of the greatest sensitiveness. but the experiments will show whether this effect holds good against the influences which tend to change the direction of the development of the anomaly during the time of germination. [ ] the result of my attempt has shown that the choice of the seeds has a manifest influence upon the ultimate development of the monstrosity, but that this influence is not strong enough to overwhelm all other factors. the choice of the fullest or smallest crowns may be repeated during succeeding generations, and each time compared with a culture under average conditions. by this means we come to true selection-experiments, and these result in a notable and rapid change of the whole strain. by selecting the brightest crowns i have come up in three years from to and ultimately to converted stamens in the best flower of my culture, and in selecting the smallest crowns i was able in three years to exclude nearly all good crowns, and to make cultures in which heads with less than half-filled crowns constituted the majority. but such selected strains always remain very sensitive to treatment, and by changing the conditions the effect may be wholly lost in a single year, or even turned in the contrary direction. in other words, the anomaly is more dependent on external conditions during the germinating period than on the choice of the seeds, providing these belong to the pistilloid variety and have not deteriorated by some crossing with other sorts. at the beginning of this lecture i stated that [ ] no selection is adequate to produce either a pure strain of brightly crowned flower-heads without atavism, or to conduce to an absolute and permanent loss of the anomaly. during a series of years i have tested my plants in both directions, but without the least effect. limits are soon reached on both sides, and to transgress these seems quite impossible. taking these limits as the marks of the variety, and considering all fluctuations between them as responses to external influences working during the life of the individual or governing the ripening of the seeds, we get a clear picture of a permanent ever-sporting type. the limits are absolutely permanent during the whole existence of this already old variety. they never change. but they include so wide a range of variability, that the extremes may be said to sport into one another, so much the more so as one of the extremes is to be considered morphologically as the type of the variation, while the other extreme can hardly be distinguished from the normal form of the species. [ ] lecture xiv monstrosities i have previously dealt with the question of the hereditary tendencies that cause monstrosities. these tendencies are not always identical for the same anomaly. two different types may generally, be distinguished. one of them constitutes a poor variety, the other a rich one. but this latter is abundant and the first one is poor in instances of exactly the same conformation. therefore the difference only lies in the frequency of the anomaly, and not in its visible features. in discovering an instance of any anomaly it is therefore impossible to tell whether it belongs to a poor or to a rich race. this important question can only be answered by direct sowing-experiments to determine the degree of heredity. monstrosities are often considered as accidents, and rightfully so, at least as long as they are considered from a morphological point of view. physiology of course excludes all accidentality. and in our present ease it shows [ ] that some internal hereditary quality is present, though often latent, and that the observed anomalies are to be regarded as responses of this innate tendency to external conditions. our two types differ in the frequency of these responses. rare in the poor race, they are numerous in the rich variety. the external conditions being the same for both, the hereditary factor must be different. the tendency is weak in the one and strong in the other. in both cases, according to my experience, it may be weakened or strengthened by selection and by treatment. often to a very remarkable degree, but not so far as to transgress the limits between the two races. such transgression may apparently be met with from time to time, but then the next generation generally shows the fallacy of the conclusion, as it returns more or less directly to the type from which the strain had been derived. monstrosities should always be studied by physiologists from this point of view. poor and rich strains of the same anomaly seem at first sight to be so nearly allied that it might be thought to be very easy to change the one into the other. nevertheless such changes are not on record, and although i have made several attempts in this line, i never succeeded in passing the limit. i am quite convinced that sometime [ ] a method will be discovered of arbitrarily producing such conversions, and perhaps the easiest way to attain artificial mutations may lie concealed here. but as yet not the slightest indication of this possibility is to be found, save the fallacious conclusions drawn from too superficial observations. unfortunately the poor strains are not very interesting. their chance of producing beautiful instances of the anomaly for which they are cultivated is too small. exceptions to this rule are only afforded by those curious and rare anomalies, which command general attention, and of which, therefore, instances are always welcome. in such cases they are searched for with perseverance, and the fact of their rarity impresses itself strongly on our mind. twisted stems are selected as a first example. this monstrosity, called _biastrepsis_, consists of strongly marked torsions as are seen in many species with decussate leaves, though as a rule it is very rare. two instances are the most generally known, those of the wild valerian (_valeriana officinalis_) and those of cultivated and wild sorts of teasels (_dipsacus fullonum_, _d. sylvestris_, and others). both of these i have cultivated during upwards of fifteen years, but with contradictory results. the valerian is a perennial herb, multiplying itself yearly by [ ] slender rootstocks or runners producing at their tips new rosettes of leaves and in the center of these the flowering stem. my original plant has since been propagated in this manner, and during several years i preserved large beds with hundreds of stems, in others i was compelled to keep my culture within more restricted limits. this plant has produced twisted stems of the curious shape, with a nearly straight flag of leaves on one side, described by de candolle and other observers, nearly every year. but only one or two instances of abnormal stems occurred in each year, and no treatment has been found that proved adequate to increase this number in any appreciable manner. i have sown the seeds of this plant repeatedly, either from normal or from twisted stems, but without better results. it was highly desirable to be able to offer instances of this rare and interesting peculiarity to other universities and museums, but no improvement of the race could be reached and i have been constrained to give it up. my twisted valerian is a poor race, and hardly anything can be done with it. perhaps, in other countries the corresponding rich race may be hidden somewhere, but i have never had the good fortune of finding it. this good fortune however, i did have with the wild teasel or _dipsacus sylvestris_. [ ] stems of this and of allied species are often met with and have been described by several writers, but they were always considered as accidents and nobody had ever tried to cultivate them. in the summer of i saw among a lot of normal wild teasels, two nicely twisted stems in the botanical garden of amsterdam. i at once proposed to ascertain whether they would yield a hereditary race and had all the normal individuals thrown away before the flowering time. my two plants flowered in this isolated condition and were richly pollinated by insects. of course, at that time, i knew nothing of the dependency of monstrosities on external conditions, and made the mistake of sowing the seeds and cultivating the next generation in too great numbers on a small space. but nevertheless the anomaly was repeated, and the aberrant individuals were once more isolated before flowering. the third generation repeated the second, but produced sixty twisted stems on some , individuals. the result was very striking and quite sufficient for all further researches, but the normal condition of the race was not reached. this was the case only after i had discovered the bad effects of growing too many plants in a limited space. in the fourth generation i restricted my whole culture to about individuals, and by this simple [ ] means at once got up to % of twisted stems. this proportion has since remained practically the same. i have selected and isolated my plants during five succeeding generations, but without any further result, the percentage of twisted stems fluctuating between and about according to the size of the cultures and the favorableness or unfavorableness of the weather. it is very interesting to note that all depends on the question whether one has the good fortune of finding a rich race or not, as this pedigree-culture shows. afterwards everything depends on treatment and very little on selection. as soon as the treatment becomes adequate, the full strength of the race at once displays itself, but afterwards no selection is able to improve it to any appreciable amount. of course, in the long run, the responses will be the same as those of the pistilloid poppies on the average, and some influence of selection will show itself on closer scrutiny. compared with the polycephalous poppies my race of twisted teasels is much richer in atavists. they are never absent, and always constitute a large part of each generation and each bed, comprising somewhat more than half of the individuals. intermediate stages between them and the wholly twisted stems are not wanting, [ ] and a whole series of steps may easily be observed from sufficiently large cultures. but they are always relatively rare, and any lot of plants conveys the idea of a dimorphous race, the small twisted stems contrasting strongly with the tall straight ones. a sharper contrast between good representatives of a race and their atavists is perhaps to be seen in no other instance. all the details contribute to the differentiation in appearance. the whole stature of the plants is affected by the varietal mark. the atavists are not, as in the case of the poppies, obviously allied with the type by a full range of intermediate steps, but quite distant from it by their rarity. there seems to be a gap in the same way as between the striped flowers of the snapdragon and their uniform red atavists, while with the poppies the atavists may be viewed as being only the extremes of a series of variations fluctuating around some average type. from this reason it is as interesting to appreciate the hereditary position of the atavists of twisted varieties as it was for the red-flowered descendants of the striped flowers. in order to ascertain this relation it is only necessary to isolate some of them during the blooming-period. i made this experiment in the summer of with the eighth generation of my race, and contrived [ ] to isolate three groups of plants by the use of parchment bags, covering them alternately, so the flowers of only one group were accessible to insects, at a time. i made three groups, because the atavists show two different types. some specimens have decussate stems, others bear all their leaves in whorls of three, but in respect to the hereditary tendency of the twisting character this difference does not seem to be of any importance. in this way i got three lots of seeds and sowed enough of them to have three groups of plants each containing about - well developed stems. among these i counted the twisted individuals, and found nearly the same numbers for all three. the twisted parents gave as many as % twisted children, but the decussate atavists gave even somewhat more, viz., %, while the ternate specimens gave %. obviously the divergences between these figures are too slight to be dwelt upon, but the fact that the atavists are as true or nearly as true inheritors of the twisted race as the best selected individuals is clearly proved by this experience. it is evident that here we have a double race, including two types, which may be combined in different degrees. these combinations determine a wide range of changes in the stature of the plants, and it seems hardly right to use the [ ] same term for such changes as for common variations. it is more a contention of opposite characters than a true phenomenon of simple variability. or perhaps we might say that it is the effect of the cooperation of a very variable mark, the twisting, with a scarcely varying attribute of the normal structure of the stem. between the two types an endless diversity prevails, but outwardly there are limits which are never transgressed. the double race is as permanent, and in this sense as constant, as any ordinary simple variety, both in external form, and in its intimate hereditary qualities. i have succeeded in discovering some other rich races of twisted plants. one of them is the sweet william (_dianthus barbatus_), which yielded, after isolation, in the second generation, % of individuals with twisted stems, and as each individual produces often and more stems, i had a harvest of more than half a thousand of instances of this curious, and ordinarily very rare anomaly. my other race is a twisted variety of _viscaria oculata_, which is still in cultivation, as it has the very consistent quality of being an annual. it yielded last summer ( ) as high a percentage as of twisted individuals, many of them repeating the monstrosity on several branches. after some occasional observations _gypsophila paniculata_ [ ] seems to promise similar results. on the other hand i have sowed in vain the seeds of twisted specimens of the soapwort and the cleavewort (_saponaria officinalis_ and _galium aparine_). these and some others seem to belong to the same group as the valerian and to constitute only poor or so-called half-races. next to the torsions come the fasciated stems. this is one of the most common of all malformations, and consists, in its ordinary form, of a flat ribbon-like expansion of the stems or branches. below they are cylindrical, but they gradually lose this form and assume a flattened condition. sometimes the rate of growth is unequal on different portions or on the opposite sides of the ribbon, and curvatures are produced and these often give to the fasciation a form that might be compared with a shepherd's crook. it is a common thing for fasciated branches and stems to divide at the summit into a number of subdivisions, and ordinarily this splitting occurs in the lower part, sometimes dividing the entire fasciated portion. in biennial species the rosette of the root-leaves of the first year may become changed by the monstrosity, the heart stretching in a transverse direction so as to become linear. in the next year this line becomes the base from which the stem grows. in such cases the fasciated stems [ ] are broadened and flattened from the very beginning, and often retain the incipient breadth throughout their further development. species of primroses (_primula japonica_ and others), of buttercups (_ranunculus bulbosus_), the rough hawksbeard (_crepis biennis_), the aster _tripolium_, and many others could be given as instances. some of these are so rare as to be considered as poor races, and in cultural trials do not produce the anomaly except in a very few instances. heads of rye are found in a cleft condition from time to time, single at their base and double at the top, but this anomaly is only exceptionally repeated from seed. flattened stems of _rubia tinctorum_ are not unfrequently met with on the fields, but they seem to have as little hereditary tendency as the split rye (_secale cereale_). many other instances could be given. both in the native localities and in pedigree-cultures such ribboned stems are only seen from time to time, in successive years, in annual and biennial as well as in perennial species. the purple pedicularis (_pedicularis palustris_) in the wild state, and the sunflower among cultivated plants, may be cited instead of giving a long list of analogous instances. on the other hand rich races of flattened stems are not entirely lacking. they easily betray [ ] themselves by the frequency of the anomaly, and therefore may be found, and tried in the garden. under adequate cultivation they are here as rich in aberrant individuals as the twisted races quoted above, producing in good years from - % and often more instances. i have cultivated such rich races of the dandelion (_taraxacum officinale_), of _thrincia hirta_, of the dame's violet (_hesperis matronalis_), of the hawkweed (_picris hieracioides_), of the rough hawksbeard (_crepis biennis_), and others. respecting the hereditary tendencies these rich varieties with flattened stems may be put in the same category with the twisted races. two points however, seem to be of especial interest and to deserve a separate treatment. the common cockscomb or _celosia cristata_, one of the oldest and most widely cultivated fasciated varieties may be used to illustrate the first point. in beds it is often to be seen in quite uniform lots of large and beautiful crests, but this uniformity is only secured by careful culture and selection of the best individuals. in experimental trials such selection must be avoided, and in doing so a wide range of variability at once shows itself. tall, branched stems with fan-shaped tops arise, constituting a series of steps towards complete atavism. this last [ ] however, is not to be reached easily. it often requires several successive generations grown from seed collected from the most atavistic specimens. and even such selected strains are always reverting to the crested type. there is no transgression, no springing over into a purely atavistic form, such as may be supposed to have once been the ancestor of the present cockscomb. the variety includes crests and atavists, and may be perpetuated from both. obviously every gardener would select the seeds of the brightest crests, but with care the full crests may be recovered, even from the worst reversionists in two or three generations. it is a double race of quite the same constitution as the twisted teasels. my second point is a direct proof of this assertion, but made with a fasciated variety of a wild species. i took for my experiment the rough hawksbeard. in the summer of i isolated some atavists of the fifth generation of my race, which, by ordinary selection, gave in the average from - % of fasciated stems. my isolated atavists bore abundant fruit, and from these i had the next year a set of some plants, out of which about % had broadened and linear rosettes. this proportion corresponds with the degree of inheritance which is shown in many years by the largest and strongest [ ] fasciated stems. it strengthens our conclusion as to the innermost constitution of the double races or ever-sporting varieties. twisted stems and fasciations are very striking monstrosities. but they are not very good for further investigation. they require too much space and too much care. the calculation of a single percentage requires the counting of some hundreds of individuals, taking many square meters for their cultivation, and this, as my best races are biennial, during two years. for this reason the countings must always be very limited, and selection is restrained to the most perfect specimens. now the question arises, whether this mark is the best upon which to found selection. this seems to be quite doubtful. in the experiments on the heredity of the atavists, we have seen that they are, at least often, in no manner inferior to even the best inheritors of the race. this suggests the idea that it is not at all certain that the visible characters of a given individual are a trustworthy measure of its value as to the transmission of the same character to the offspring. in other words, we are confronted with the existence of two widely different groups of characters in estimating the hereditary tendency. one is the visible quality of the individuals and the other is the direct observation [ ] of the degree in which the attribute is transmitted. these are by no means parallel, and seem in some sense to be nearly independent of each other. the fact that the worst atavists may have the highest percentage of varietal units seems to leave no room for another explanation. developing this line of thought, we gradually arrive at the conclusion that the visible attribute of a varying individual is perhaps the most untrustworthy and the most unreliable character for selection, even if it seems in many cases practically to be the only available one. the direct determination of the degree of heredity itself is obviously preferable by far. this degree is expressed by the proportion of its inheritors among the offspring, and this figure therefore should be elevated to the highest rank, as a measure of the hereditary qualities. henceforward we will designate it by the name of hereditary percentage. in scientific experiments this figure must be determined for every plant of a pedigree-culture singly, and the selection should be founded exclusively or at least mainly on it. it is easily seen that this method requires large numbers of individuals to be grown and counted. some two or three hundred progeny of one plant are needed to give the decisive figure for this one [ ] individual, and selection requires the comparison of at least fifty or more individuals. this brings the total amount of specimens to be counted up to some tens of thousands. in practice, where important interests depend upon the experiments, such numbers are usually employed and often exceeded, but for the culture of monstrosities, other methods are to be sought in order to avoid these difficulties. the idea suggests itself here that the younger the plants are, when showing their distinguishing marks, the more of them may be grown on a small space. hence the best way is to choose such attributes, as may already be seen in the young seedlings, in the very first few weeks of their lives. fortunately the seed-leaves themselves afford such distinctive marks, and by this means the plants may be counted in the pans, requiring no culture at all in the garden. only the selected individuals need be grown to ripen their seeds, and the whole selection may be made in the spring, in the glasshouse. instead of being very troublesome, the determination of the hereditary percentages becomes a definite reduction of the size of the experiments. moreover it may easily be effected by any one who cares for experimental studies, but has not the means required for cultures on a larger scale. and lastly, there are [ ] a number of questions about heredity, periodicity, dependency on nourishment and other life conditions, and even about hybridizing, which may be answered by this new method. seed-leaves show many deviations from the ordinary shape, especially in dicotyledonous plants. a very common aberration is the multiplication of their number, and three seed-leaves in a whorl are not rarely met with. the whorl may even consist of four, and in rare cases of five or more cotyledons. cleft cotyledons are also to be met with, and the fissure may extend varying distances from the tips. often all these deviations may be seen among the seedlings of one lot, and then it is obvious that together they constitute a scale of cleavages, the ternate and quaternate whorls being only cases where the cleaving has reached its greatest development. all in all it is manifest that here we are met by one type of monstrosity, but that this type allows of a wide range of fluctuating variability. for brevity's sake all these cleft and ternate, double cleft and quaternate cotyledons and even the higher grades are combined under one common name and indicated as tricotyls. a second aberration of young seed-plants is exactly opposite to this. it consists of the union of the two seed-leaves into a single organ. this ordinarily betrays its origin by [ ] having two separate apices, but not always. such seedlings are called syncotyledonous or syncotyls. other monstrosities have been observed from time to time, but need not be mentioned here. it is evident that the determination of the hereditary percentage is very easy in tricotylous or syncotylous cultures. the parent plants must be carefully isolated while blooming. many species pollinate themselves in the absence of bees; from these the insects are to be excluded. others have the stamens and stigmas widely separated and have to be pollinated artificially. still others do not lend themselves to such operations, but have to be left free to the visits of bees and of humble-bees, this being the only means of securing seed from every plant. at the time of the harvest the seeds should be gathered separately from each plant, and this precaution should also be observed in studies of the hereditary percentage at large, and in all scientific pedigree-cultures. every lot of seeds is to be sown in a separate pan, and care must be taken to sow such quantities the three to four hundred seedlings will arise from each. as soon as they display their cotyledons, they are counted, and the number is the criterion of the parent-plant. only parent-plants with the highest percentages are selected, and out of [ ] their seedlings some fifty or a hundred of the best ones are chosen to furnish the seeds for the next generation. this description of the method shows that the selection is a double one. the first feature is the hereditary percentage. but then not all the seedlings of the selected parents can be planted out, and a choice has to be made. this second selection may favor the finest tricotyls, or the strongest individuals, or rely on some other character, but is unavoidable. we now come to the description of the cultures. starting points are the stray tricotyls which are occasionally found in ordinary sowings. in order to increase the chance of finding them, thousands of seeds of the same species must be inspected, and the range of species must be widened as much as possible. material for beginning such experiments is easily obtained, and almost any large sample of seeds will be found suitable. some tricotyls will be found among every thousand seedlings in many species, while in others ten or a hundred times, as many plants must be examined to secure them, but species with absolutely pure dicotylous seeds are very rare. the second phase of the experiment, however, is not so promising. some species are rich, and others are poor in this anomaly. this difference [ ] often indicates what can be expected from further culture. stray tricotyls point to poor species or half-races, while more frequent deviations suggest rich or double-races. in both cases however, the trial must be made, and this requires the isolation of the aberrant individuals and the determination of their hereditary percentage. in some instances the degree of their inheritance is only a very small one. the isolated tricotyls yield or % of inheritors, in some cases even less, or upwards up to or %. if the experiment is repeated, no amelioration is observed, and this result remains the same during a series of successive generations. in the case of _polygonum convolvulus_, the black bindweed, i have tried as many as six generations without ever obtaining more than %. with other species i have limited myself to four successive years with the same negative result, as with spinage, the moldavian dragon-head, (_dracocephalum moldavicum_), and two species of corn catch-fly (_silene conica_ and _s. conoidea_). such poor races hardly afford a desirable material for further inquiries. happily the rich races, though rare, may be discovered also from time to time. they seem to be more common among cultivated plants and horticultural as well as agricultural species may be used. hemp [ ] and mercury (_mercurialis annua_) among the first, snapdragon, poppies, _phacelia_, _helichrysum_, and _clarkia_ among garden-flowers may be given as instances of species containing the rich tricotylous double races. it is very interesting to note how strong the difference is between such cases and those which only yield poor races. the rich type at once betrays itself. no repeated selection is required. the stray tricotyls themselves, that are sought out from among the original samples, give hereditary percentages of a much higher type after isolation than those quoted above. they come up to - % and in some cases even to %. as may be expected, individual differences occur, and it must even be supposed that some of the original tricotyls may not be pure, but hybrids between tricotylous and dicotylous parents. these are at once eliminated by selection, and if only the tricotyls which have the highest percentages are chosen for the continuance of the new race, the second generation comes up with equal numbers of dicotyls and tricotyls among the seedlings. the figures have been observed to range from - % in the majority of the cases, and average %, rarely diverging somewhat more from this average. here we have the true type of an ever-sporting variety. every year it produces in the [ ] same way heirs and atavists. every plant, if fertilized with its own pollen, gives rise to both types. the parent itself may be tricotylous or dicotylous, or show any amount of multiplication and cleavage in its seed-leaves, but it always gives the entire range among its progeny of the variation. one may even select the atavists, pollinate them purely and repeat this in a succeeding generation without any chance of changing the result. on an average the atavists may give lower hereditary figures, but the difference will be only slight. such tricotylous double races offer highly interesting material for inquiries into questions of heredity, as they have such a wide range of variability. there is little danger in asserting that they go upwards to nearly %, and downwards to %, diverging symmetrically on both sides of their average ( - %). these limits they obviously cannot transgress, and are not even able to reach them. samples of seed consisting only of tricotyls are very rare, and when they are met with the presumption is that they are too few to betray the rare aberrants they might otherwise contain. experimental evidence can only be reached by the culture of a succeeding generation, and this always discloses the hidden qualities, showing that the double [ ] type was only temporarily lost, but bound to return as soon as new trials are made. this wide range of variability between definite limits is coupled with a high degree of sensibility and adequateness to the most diverging experiments. our tricotylous double races are perhaps more sensitive to selection than any other variety, and equally dependent on outer circumstances. here, however, i will limit myself to a discussion of the former point. in the second generation after the isolation of stray tricotylous seedlings the average condition of the race is usually reached, but only by some of the strongest individuals, and if we continue the race, sowing or planting only from their offspring, the next generation will show the ordinary type of variability, going upwards in some and downwards in other instances. with the _phacelia_ and the mercury and some others i had the good luck in this one generation to reach as high as nearly % of tricotylous seedlings, a figure indicating that the normal dicotylous type had already become rare in the race. in other cases % or nearly % was easily attained. any further divergence from the average would have required very much larger sowings, the effect of selection between a limited number of parents being only to retain the high degree once [ ] reached; so for instance with the mercury, i had three succeeding generations of selection after reaching the average of %, but their extremes gave no increasing advance, remaining at , and %. if we compare these results with the effects of selection in twisted and fasciated races, we observe a marked contrast. here they reached their height at - %, and no number of generations had the power of making any further improvement. the tricotyls come up in two generations to a proportion of about %, which shows itself to correspond to the average type. and as soon as this is reached, only one generation is required to obtain a very considerable improvement, going up to or even %. it is evident that the cause of this difference does not lie in the nature of the monstrosity, but is due to the criterion upon which the selection is made. selection of the apparently best individuals is one method, and it gives admirable results. selection on the ground of the hereditary percentages is another method and gives results which are far more advantageous than the former. in the lecture on the pistillody of the poppies we limited ourselves to the selection of the finest individuals and showed that there is always a manifest correlation between the individual [ ] strength of the plant and the degree of development of its anomaly. the same holds good with other monstrosities, and badly nourished specimens of rich races with twisted or fasciated stems always tend to reversion. this reversion, however, is not necessarily correlated with the hereditary percentage and therefore does not always indicate a lessening of the degree of inheritance. this shows that even in those cases an improvement may be expected, if only the means can be found to subject the twisted and the fasciated races to the same sharp test as the tricotylous varieties. much remains to be done, and the principle of the selection of parents according to the average constitution of their progeny seems to be one of the most promising in the whole realm of variability. besides tricotylous, the syncotylous seedlings may be used in the same way. they are more rarely met with, and in most instances seem to belong only to the unpromising half-races. the black bindweed (_polygonum convolvulus_), the jointed charlock (raphanus raphanistrum), the glaucous evening-primrose (_oenothera glauca_) and many other plants seem to contain such half-races. on the other hand i found a plant of _centranthus macrosiphon_ yielding as much as % of syncotylous children [ ] and thereby evidently betraying the nature of a rich or double race. likewise the mercury was rich in such deviations. but the best of all was the russian sunflower, and this was chosen for closer experiments. in the year of i had the good luck to isolate some syncotylous seedlings and of finding among them one with % of inheritors among its seeds. the following generation at once surpassed the ordinary average and came up in three individuals to , and even %. my race was at once isolated and ameliorated by selection. i have tried to improve it further and selected the parents with the highest percentages during seven more generations; but without any remarkable result. i got figures of % and above, coming even in one instance up to the apparent purity of %. these, however, always remained extremes, the averages fluctuating yearly between - % or thereabouts, and the other extremes going nearly every year downwards to %, the value which would be attained, if no selection were made. contra-selection is as easily made as normal selection. according to our present principle it means the choice of the parents with the smallest hereditary percentage. one might easily imagine that by this means the dicotylous seedlings could be rendered pure. this, however, [ ] is not at all the case. it is easy to return from so highly selected figures as for instance % to the average about of %, as regression to mediocrity is always an easy matter. but to transgress this average on the lower side seems to be as difficult as it is on the upper side. i continued the experiment during four succeeding generations, but was not able to go lower than about %, and could not even exclude the high figures from my strain. parents with - % of syncotylous seedlings returned in each generation, notwithstanding the most careful contra-selection. the attribute is inherent in the race, and is not to be eliminated by so simple a means as selection, nor even by a selection on the ground of hereditary percentages. we have dealt with torsions and fasciations and with seedling variations at some length, in order to point out the phases needing investigation according to recent views. it would be quite superfluous to consider other anomalies in a similar manner, as they all obey the same laws. a hasty survey may suffice to show what prospects they offer to the student of nature. first of all come the variegated leaves. they are perhaps the most variable of all variations. they are evidently dependent on external circumstances, and by adequate nutrition the leaves may even become absolutely white or [ ] yellowish, with only scarcely perceptible traces of green along the veins. some are very old cultivated varieties, as the wintercress, or _barbarea vulgaris_. they continuously sport into green, or return from this normal color, both by seeds and by buds. sports of this kind are very often seen on shrubs or low trees, and they may remain there and develop during a long series of years. bud-sports of variegated holly, elms, chestnuts, beeches and others might be cited. one-sided variegation on leaves or twigs with the opposite side wholly green are by no means rare. it is very curious to note that variegation is perhaps the most universally known anomaly, while its hereditary tendencies are least known. cristate and plumose ferns are another instance. half races or rare accidental cleavages seem to be as common with ferns as cultivated double races, which are very rich in beautiful crests. but much depends on cultivation. it seems that the spores of crested leaves are more apt to reproduce the variety than those of normal leaves, or even of normal parts of the same leaves. but the experiments on which this assertion is made are old and should be repeated. other cases of cleft leaves should also be tested. ascidia are far more common than is usually believed. rare instances point [ ] to poor races, but the magnolias and lime-trees are often so productive of ascidia as to suggest the idea of ever-sporting varieties. i have seen many hundred ascidia on one lime-tree, and far above a hundred on the magnolia. they differ widely in size and shape, including in some cases two leaves instead of one, or are composed of only half a leaf or of even still a smaller part of the summit. rich ascidia-bearing varieties seem to offer notable opportunities for scientific pedigree-cultures. union of the neighboring fruits and flowers on flower-heads, of the rays of the umbellifers or of the successive flowers of the racemes of cabbages and allied genera, seem to be rare. the same holds good for the adhesion of foliar to axial organs, of branches to stems and other cases of union. many of these cases return regularly in each generation, or may at least be seen from time to time in the same strains. proliferation of the inflorescence is very common and changes in the position of staminate and pistillate flowers are not rare. we find starting points for new investigations in almost any teratological structure. half-races and double-races are to be distinguished and isolated in all cases, and their hereditary qualities, the periodicity of the recurrence of the anomaly, the dependency on external circumstances [ ] and many other questions have to be answered. here is a wide field for garden experiments easily made, which might ultimately yield much valuable information on many questions of heredity of universal interest. [ ] lecture xv double adaptations the chief object of all experimentation is to obtain explanations of natural phenomena. experiments are a repetition of things occurring in nature with the conditions so guarded and so closely followed that it is possible to make a clear analysis of facts and their causes, it being rightfully assumed that the laws are the same in both cases. experiments on heredity and the experience of the breeder find their analogy in the succession of generations in the wild state. the stability of elementary species and of retrograde varieties is quite the same under both conditions. progression and retrogression are narrowly linked everywhere, and the same laws govern the abundance of forms in cultivated and in wild plants. elementary species and retrograde varieties are easily recognizable. ever-sporting varieties on the contrary are far less obvious, and in many cases their hereditary relations have [ ] had to be studied anew. a clear analogy between them and corresponding types of wild plants has yet to be pointed out. there can be no doubt that such analogy exists; the conception that they should be limited to cultivated plants is not probable. striped flowers and variegated leaves, changes of stamens into carpels or into petals may be extremely rare in the wild state, but the "five-leaved" clover and a large number of monstrosities cannot be said to be typical of the cultivated condition. these, however, are of rare occurrence, and do not play any important part in the economy of nature. in order to attain a better solution of the problem we must take a broader view of the facts. the wide range of variability of ever-sporting varieties is due to the presence of two antagonistic characters which cannot be evolved at the same time and in the same organ, because they exclude one another. whenever one is active, the other must be latent. but latency is not absolute inactivity and may often only operate to encumber the evolution of the antagonistic character, and to produce large numbers of lesser grades of its development. the antagonism however, is not such in the exact meaning of the word; it is rather a mutual exclusion, because one of the opponents simply takes the place of the other when absent, or supplements [ ] it to the extent that it may be only imperfectly developed. this completion ordinarily occurs in all possible degrees and thus causes the wide range of the variability. nevertheless it may be wanting, and in the case of the double stocks only the two extremes are present. it is rather difficult to get a clear conception of the substitution, and it seems necessary to designate the peculiar relationship between the two characters forming such a pair by a simple name. they might be termed alternating, if only it were clearly understood that the alternation may be complete, or incomplete in all degrees. complete alternation would result in the extremes, the incomplete condition in the intermediate states. in some cases as with the stocks, the first prevails, while in other cases, as with the poppies, the very extremes are only rarely met with. taking such an alternation as a real character of the ever-sporting varieties, a wide range of analogous cases is at once revealed among the normal qualities of wild plants. alternation is here almost universal. it is the capacity of young organs to develop in two diverging directions. the definitive choice must be made in extreme youth, or often at a relatively late period of development. once made, this [ ] choice is final, and a further change does not occur in the normal course of things. the most curious and most suggestive instance of such an alternation is the case of the water-persicaria or _polygonum amphibium_. it is known to occur in two forms, one aquatic and the other terrestrial. these are recorded in systematic works as varieties, and are described under the names of _p. amphibium_ var. _natans_ moench, and _p. amphibium_ var. _terrestre_ leers or _p. amphibium_ var. _terrestris_ moench. such authorities as koch in his german flora, and grenier and godron in their french flora agree in the conception of the two forms as varieties. notwithstanding this, the two varieties may often be observed to sport into one another. they are only branches of the same plant, grown under different conditions. the aquatic form has floating or submerged stems with oblong or elliptic leaves, which are glabrous and have long petioles. the terrestrial plants are erect, nearly simple, more or less hispid throughout, with lanceolate leaves and short petioles, often nearly sessile. the aquatic form flowers regularly, producing its peduncle at right angles from the floating stems, but the terrestrial specimens are ordinarily seen without flower-spikes, which are but rarely met with, at least as far as my own experience goes. intermediate [ ] forms are very rare, perhaps wholly wanting, though in swamps the terrestrial plants may often vary widely in the direction of the floating type. that both types sport into each other has long been recognized in field-observations, and has been the ground for the specific name of _amphibium_, though in this respect herbarium material seems usually to be scant. the matter has recently been subjected to critical and experimental studies by the belgian botanist massart, who has shown that by transplanting the forms into the alternate conditions, the change may always be brought about artificially. if floating plants are established on the shore they make ascending hairy stems, and if the terrestrial shoots are submerged, their buds grow into long and slack, aquatic stems. even in such experiments, intermediates are rare, both types agreeing completely with the corresponding models in the wild state. among all the previously described cases of horticultural plants and monstrosities there is no clearer case of an ever-sporting variety than this one of the water-persicaria. the var. _terrestris_ sports into the var. _natans_, and as often as the changing life conditions may require it. it is-true that ordinary sports occur without our discerning the cause and without [ ] any relation to adaptation. this however is partly due to our lack of knowledge, and partly to the general rule that in nature only such sports as are useful are spared by natural selection, and what is useful we ordinarily term adaptive. another side of the question remains to be considered. the word variety, as is now becoming generally recognized, has no special meaning whatever. but here it is assumed in the clearly defined sense of a systematic variety, which includes all subdivisions of species. such subdivisions may be, from a biological point of view, elementary species and also be eversporting varieties. they may be retrograde varieties, and the two alternating types may be described as separate varieties. it is readily granted that many writers would not willingly accept this conclusion. but it is simply impossible to avoid it. the two forms of the water-persicaria must remain varieties, though they are only types of the different branches of a single plant. if not, hundreds and perhaps thousands of analogous cases are at once exposed to doubt, and the whole conception of systematic varieties would have to be thrown over. biologists of course would have no objection to this, but the student of the flora of any given country [ ] or region requires the systematic subdivisions and should always use his utmost efforts to keep them as they are. there is no intrinsic difficulty in the statement that different parts of the same plant should constitute different varieties. in some cases different branches of the same plant have been described as species. so for instance with the climbing forms of figs. under the name of _ficus repens_ a fine little plant is quite commonly cultivated as a climber in flower baskets. it is never seen bearing figs. on the other hand a shrub of our hothouses called _ficus stipulata_, is cultivated in pots and makes a small tree which produces quite large, though non-edible figs. now these two species are simply branches of the same plant. if the _repens_ is allowed to climb up high along the walls of the hothouses, it will at last produce stipulate branches with the corresponding fruits. _ficus radicans_ is another climbing form, corresponding to the shrub _ficus ulmifolia_ of our glasshouses. and quite the same thing occurs with ivy, the climbing stems of which never flower, but always first produce erect and free branches with rhombic leaves. these branches have often been used as cuttings and yield little erect and richly flowering shrubs, which are known in [ ] horticulture under the varietal name of _hedera helix arborea_. manifestly this classification is as nearly right as that of the two varieties of the water-persicaria. going one step further, we meet with the very interesting case of alpine plants. the vegetation of the higher regions of mountains is commonly called alpine, and the plants show a large number of common features, differentiating them from the flora of lower stations. the mountain plants have small and dense foliage, with large and brightly-colored flowers. the corresponding forms of the lowlands have longer and weaker stems, bearing their leaves at greater distances, the leaves themselves being more numerous. the alpine forms, if perennial, have thick, strongly developed and densely branched rootstocks with heavy roots, in which a large amount of food material is stored up during the short summer, and is available during the long winter months of the year. some species are peculiar to such high altitudes, while many forms from the lowlands have no corresponding type on the mountains. but a large number of species are common to both regions, and here the difference of course is most striking. _lotus corniculatus_ and _calamintha acinos_, _calluna vulgaris_ and _campanula_ [ ] _rotundifolia_ may be quoted as instances, and every botanist who has visited alpine regions may add other examples. even the edelweiss of the swiss alps, _gnaphalium leontopodium_, loses its alpine characters, if cultivated in lowland gardens. between such lowland and alpine forms intermediates regularly occur. they may be met with whenever the range of the species extends from the plains upward to the limit of eternal snow. in this case the systematists formerly enumerated the alpine plants as _forma alpestris_, but whenever the intermediate is lacking the term _varietas alpestris_ was often made use of. it is simply impossible to decide concerning the real relation between the alpine and lowland types without experiments. about the middle of the last century it was quite a common thing to collect plants not only for herbarium-material, but also for the purpose of planting them in gardens and thus to observe their behavior under new conditions. this was done with the acknowledged purpose of investigating the systematic significance of observed divergencies. whenever these held good in the garden they were considered to be reliable, but if they disappeared they were regarded as the results of climatic conditions, or of the influence of soil or nourishment. between [ ] these two alternatives, many writers have tried to decide, by transplanting their specimens after some time in the garden, into arid or sandy soil, in order to see whether they would resume their alpine character. among the systematists who tested plants in this way, nageli especially, directed his attention to the hawkweeds or _hieracium_. on the swiss alps they are very small and exhibit all the characters of the pure alpine type. thousands of single plants were cultivated by him in the botanical garden of munich, partly from seed and partly from introduced rootstocks. here they at once assumed the tall stature of lowland forms. the identical individual, which formerly bore small rosettes of basal leaves, with short and unbranched flower-stalks, became richly leaved and often produced quite a profusion of flower-heads on branched stems. if then they were transplanted to arid sand, though remaining in the same garden and also under the same climatic conditions they resumed their alpine characters. this proved nutrition to be the cause of the change and not the climate. the latest and most exact researches on this subject are due to bonnier, who has gone into all the details of the morphologic as well as of the physiologic side of the problem. [ ] his purpose was the study of partial variability under the influence of climate and soil. in every experiment he started from a single individual, divided it into two parts and planted one half on a mountain and the other half on the plain. the garden cultures were made chiefly at paris and fontainebleau, the alpine cultures partly in the alps, partly in the pyrenees. from time to time the halved plants were compared with each other, and the cultures lasted, as a rule, during the lifetime of the individual, often covering many years. the common european frostweed or _helianthemum vulgare_ will serve to illustrate his results. a large plant growing in the pyrenees in an altitude of , meters was divided. one half was replanted on the same spot, and the other near cadeac, at the base of the mountain range ( m.). in order to exclude the effect of a change of soil, a quantity of the earth from the original locality was brought into the garden and the plant put therein. further control experiments were made at paris. as soon as the two halved individuals commenced to grow and produced new shoots, the influence of the different climates made itself felt. on the mountain, the underground portions remained strong and dense, the leaves and internodes small and hairy, the flowering stems nearly [ ] procumbent, the flowers being large and of a deep yellow. at cadeac and at paris the whole plant changed at once, the shoots becoming elongated and loose, with broad and flattened, rather smooth leaves and numerous pale-hued flowers. the anatomical structure exhibited corresponding differences, the intercellular spaces being small in the alpine plant and large in the one grown in the lowlands, the wood-tissues strong in the first and weak in the second case. the milfoil (_achillea millefolium_) served as a second example, and the experiments were carried on in the same localities. the long and thick rootstocks of the alpine plant bearing short stems only with a few dense corymbs contrasted markedly with the slender stems, loose foliage and rich groups of flowerheads of the lowland plant. the same differences, in inner and outer structures were observed in numerous instances, showing that the alpine type in these cases is dependent on the climate, and that the capacity for assuming the antagonistic characters is present in every individual of the species. the external conditions decide which of them becomes active and which remains inactive, and the case seems to be exactly parallel to that of the water-persicaria. in the experiments of bonnier the influence of the soil was, as a rule, excluded by transplanting [ ] part of the original earth with the transplanted half of the plant. from this he concluded that the observed changes were due to the inequality of the climate. this involved three main factors, light, moisture and temperature. on the mountains the light is more intense, the air drier and cooler. control-experiments were made on the mountains, depriving the plants of part of the light. in various ways they were more or less shaded, and as a rule responded to this treatment in the same way as to transplantation to the plain below. bonnier concluded that, though more than one factor takes part in inciting the morphologic changes, light is to be considered as the chief agency. the response is to be considered as a useful one, as the whole structure of the alpine varieties is fitted to produce a large amount of organic material in a short time, which enables the plants to thrive during the short summers and long winters of their elevated stations. in connection with these studies on the influences of alpine climates, bonnier has investigated the internal structure of arctic plants, and made a series of experiments on growth in continuous electric light. the arctic climate is cold, but wet, and the structure of the leaves is correspondingly loose, though the plants become [ ] as small as on the alps. continuous electric light had very curious effects; the plants became etiolated, as if growing in darkness, with the exception that they assumed a deep green tinge. they showed more analogy with the arctic than with the alpine type. the influence of the soil often produces changes similar to that of climate. this was shown by the above cited experiments of nageli with the hawkweeds, and may easily be controlled in other cases. the ground-honeysuckle or _lotus corniculatus_ grows in holland partly on the dry and sandy soil of the dunes, and occasionally in meadows. it is small and dense in the first case, with orange and often very darkly colored petals, while it is loose and green in the meadows, with yellower flowers. numerous analogous cases might be given. on mountain slopes in south africa, and especially in natal, a species of composite is found, which has been introduced into culture and is used as a hanging plant. it is called _othonna crassifolia_ and has fleshy, nearly cylindrical leaves, and exactly mimics some of the crassulaceous species. on dry soil the leaves become shorter and thicker and assume a reddish tinge, the stems remain short and woody and bear their leaves in dense rosettes. on moist and rich garden-soil this aspect becomes [ ] changed at once, the stems grow longer and of a deeper green. intermediates occur, but notwithstanding this the two extremes constitute clearly antagonistic types. the flora of the deserts is known to exhibit a similar divergent type. or rather two types, one adapted to paucity of water, and the other to a storage of fluid at one season in order to make use of it at other times, as is the case with the cactuses. limiting ourselves to the alternate group, we observe a rich and dense branching, small and compact leaves and extraordinarily long roots. here the analogy with the alpine varieties is manifest, and the dryness of the soil evidently affects the plants in a similar way, as do the conditions of life in alpine regions. the question at once comes up as to whether here too we have only instances of partial variability, and whether many of the typical desert-species would lose their peculiar character by cultivation under ordinary conditions. the varieties of _monardella macrantha_, described by hall, from the san jacinto mountain, cal., are suggestive of such an intimate analogy with the cases studied by bonnier, that it seems probable that they might yield similar results, if tested by the same method. leaving now the description of these special [ ] cases, we may resume our theoretical discussion of the subject, and try to get a clearer insight into the analogy of ever-sporting varieties and the wild species quoted. all of them may be characterized by the general term of dimorphism. two types are always present, though not in the same individual or in the same organ. they exclude one another, and during their juvenile stage a decision is taken in one direction or in the other. now, according to the theory of natural selection, wild species can only retain useful or at least innocuous qualities, since all mutations in a wrong direction must perish sooner or later. cultivated species on the other hand are known to be largely endowed with qualities, which would be detrimental in the wild condition. monstrosities are equally injurious and could not hold their own if left to themselves. these same principles may be applied to ever-sporting or antagonistic pairs of characters. according to the theory of mutations such pairs may be either useful or useless. but only the useful will stand further test, and if they find suitable conditions will become specific or varietal characters. on this conclusion it becomes at once clear, why natural dimorphism is, as a rule, a very useful quality, while the cultivated dimorphous varieties [ ] strike us as something unnatural. the relation between cause and effect, is in truth other than it might seem to be at first view, but nevertheless it exists, and is of the highest importance. from this same conclusion we may further deduce some explanation of the hereditary races characterized by monstrosities. it is quite evident that the twisted teasels are inadequate for the struggle with their tall congeners, or with the surrounding plants. hence the conclusion that a pure and exclusively twisted race would soon die out. the fact that such races are not in existence finds its explanation in this circumstance, and therefore it does not prove the impossibility or even the improbability that some time a pure twisted race might arise. if chance should put such an accidental race in the hands of an experimenter, it could be protected and preserved, and having no straight atavistic branches, but being twisted in all its organs, might yield the most curious conceivable monstrosity, surpassing even the celebrated dwarf twisted shrubs of japanese horticulturists. such varieties however, do not exist at present. the ordinary twisted races on the other hand, are found in the wild state and have only to be isolated and cultivated to yield large numbers [ ] of twisted individuals. in nature they are able to maintain themselves during long centuries, quite as well as normal species and varieties. but they owe this quality entirely to their dimorphous character. a twisted race of teasels might consist of successive generations of tall atavistic individuals, and produce yearly some twisted specimens, which might be destroyed every time before ripening their seeds. reasoning from the evidence available, and from analogous cases, the variety would, even under such extreme circumstances, be able to last as long as any other good variety or elementary species. and it seems to me that this explanation makes clear how it is possible that varieties, which are potentially rich in their peculiar monstrosity, are discovered from time to time among plants when tested by experimental methods. granting these conclusions, monstrosities on the one side, and dimorphous wild species on the other, constitute the most striking examples of the inheritance of latent characters. the bearing of the phenomena of dimorphism upon the principles of evolution formulated by lamarck, and modified by his followers to constitute neo-lamarckianism, remains to be considered. lamarck assumed that the external conditions directly affected the organisms in [ ] such a way as to make them better adapted to life, under prevailing circumstances. nageli gave to this conception the name "theory of direct causation" (theorie der directen bewirkung), and it has received the approval of von wettstein, strasburger and other german investigators. according to this conception a plant, when migrating from lowlands into the mountains would slowly be changed and gradually assume alpine habits. once acquired this habit would become fixed and attain the rank of specific characters. in testing this theory by field-observations and culture-experiments, the defenders of the nagelian principle could easily produce evidence upon the first point. the change of lowland-plants into alpine varieties can be brought about in numerous cases, and corresponding changes under the influence of soil, or climate, or life-conditions are on record for the most various characters and qualities. the second point, however, is as difficult to prove as the first is of easy treatment. if after hundreds and thousands of years of exposure to alpine or other extreme conditions a fixed change is proved to have taken place, the question remains unanswered, whether the change has been a gradual or a sudden one. darwin pointed out that long periods of life afford a [ ] chance for a sudden change in the desired direction, as well as for the slow accumulation of slight deviations. any mutations in a wrong direction would at once be destroyed, but an accidental change in a useful way would be preserved, and multiply itself. if in the course of centuries this occurred, they would be nearly sure to become established, however rare at the outset. hence the positive assertion is scarcely capable of direct proof. on the other hand the negative assertion must be granted full significance. if the alpine climate has done no more than produce a transitory change, it is clear that thousands of years do not, necessarily, cause constant and specific alterations. this requirement is one of the indispensable supports of the lamarckian theory. the matter is capable of disproof however, and such disproof seems to be afforded by the direct evidence of the present condition of the alpine varieties at large, and by many other similar cases. among these the observations of holtermann on some desert-plants of ceylon are of the highest value. moreover they touch questions which are of wide importance for the study of the biology of american deserts. for this reason i may be allowed to introduce them here at some length. [ ] the desert of kaits, in northern ceylon, nourishes on its dry and torrid sands some species, represented by a large number of individuals, together with some rarer plants. the commonest forms are _erigeron asteroides_, _vernonia cinerea_, _laurea pinnatifida_, _vicoa auriculata_, _heylandia latebrosa_ and _chrysopogon montanus_. in direct contrast with the ordinary desert-types they have a thin epidermis, with exposed stomata, features that ordinarily were characteristic of species of moister regions. they are annuals, growing rapidly, blooming and ripening their seeds before the height of the dry season. evidently they are to be considered as the remainder of the flora of a previous period, when the soil had not yet become arid. they might be called relics. of course they are small and dwarf-like, when compared with allied forms. these curious little desert-plants disprove the nagelian views in two important points. first, they show that extreme conditions do not necessarily change the organisms subjected to them, in a desirable direction. during the many centuries that these plants must have existed in the desert in annual generations, no single feature in the anatomical structure has become changed. hence the conclusion that small leaves, abundant rootstocks and short [ ] stems, a dense foliage, a strongly cuticularized epidermis, few and narrow air-cavities in the tissues and all the long range of characteristics of typical desert-plants are not a simple result of the influence of climate and soil. there is no direct influence in this sense. the second point, in which nageli's idea is broken down by holtermann's observations, results from the behavior of the plants of the kaits desert when grown or sown on garden soil. when treated in this way they at once lose the only peculiarity which might be considered as a consequence of the desert-life of their ancestors, their dwarf stature. they behave exactly like the alpine plants in bonnier's experiments, and with even more striking differences. in the desert they attain a height of a few centimeters, but in the garden they attain half a meter and more in height. nothing in the way of stability has resulted from the action of the dry soil, not even in such a minor point as the height of the stems. from the facts and discussions we may conclude that double adaptation is not induced by external influences, at least not in any way in which it might be of use to the plant. it may arise by some unknown cause, or may not be incited at all. in the first case the plant becomes capable of living under the alternating [ ] circumstances, and if growing near the limits of such regions it will overlap and get into the new area. all other species, which did not acquire the double habit, are of course excluded, with such curious exceptions as those of kaits. the typical vegetation under such extreme conditions however, finds explanation quite as well by the one as by the other view. leaving these obvious cases of double adaptation, there still remains one point to be considered. it is the dwarf stature of so many desert and alpine plants. are these dwarfs only the extremes of the normal fluctuating variability, or is their stature to be regarded as the expression of some peculiar adaptive but latent quality? it is as yet difficult to decide this question, because statistical studies of this form of variability are still wanting. the capacity of ripening the seed on individuals of dwarf stature however, is not at all a universal accompaniment of a variable height. hence it cannot be considered as a necessary consequence of it. on the other hand the dwarf varieties of numerous garden-plants, as for instance: of larkspurs, snapdragon, opium-poppies and others are quite stable and thence are obviously due to peculiar characteristics. such characteristics, if combined with tall stature into a pair of antagonists, would yield a double [ ] adaptation, and on such a base a hypothetical explanation could no doubt be rested. instead of discussing this problem from the theoretical side, i prefer to compare those species which are capable of assuming a dwarf stature under less uncommon conditions than those of alpine and desert-plants. many weeds of our gardens and many wild species have this capacity. they become very tall, with large leaves, richly branched stems and numerous flowers in moist and rich soil. on bad soil, or if germinating too late, when the season is drier, they remain very small, producing only a few leaves and often limiting themselves to one flower-head. this is often seen with thorn-apples and amaranths, and even with oats and rye, and is notoriously the case with buckwheat. gauchery has observed that the extremes differ often as much from one another as : . in the case of the canadian horseweed or _erigeron canadensis_, which is widely naturalized in europe, the tallest specimens are often twenty-five times as tall as the smallest, the difference increasing to greater extremes, if besides the main stem, the length of the numerous branches of the tall plants are taken into consideration. other instances studied by the french investigator are _erythraea pulchella_ and _calamintha acinos_. [ ] dimorphism is of universal occurrence in the whole vegetable kingdom. in some cases it is typical, and may easily be discerned from extreme fluctuating variability. in others the contrast is not at all obvious, and a closer investigation is needed to decide between the two possibilities. sometimes the adaptive quality is evident, in other cases it is not. a large number of plants bear two kinds of leaves linked with one another by intermediate forms. often the first leaves of a shoot, or those of accidentally strong shoots, exhibit deviating shapes, and the usefulness of such occurrences seems to be quite doubtful. the elongation of stems and linear leaves, and the reduction of lateral organs in darkness, is manifestly an adaptation. many plants have stolons with double adaptations which enable them to retain their character of underground stems with bracts or to exchange it for the characteristics of erect stems with green leaves according to the outer circumstances. in some shrubs and trees the capacity of a number of buds to produce either flowers or shoots with leaves seems to be in the same condition. the capacity of producing spines is also a double adaptation, active on dry and arid soil and latent in a moist climate or under cultivation, as with the wild and cultivated apple, and in the experiments of lothelier [ ] with _berberis_, _lycium_ and other species, which lose their spines in damp air. in some conifers the evolution of horizontal branches may be modified by simply turning the buds upside down. or the lateral branches can be induced to become erect stems by cutting off the normal summit of a tree. numerous organs and functions lie dormant until aroused by external agencies, and many other cases could be cited, showing the wide occurrence of double adaptation. there are, however, two points, which should not be passed over without some mention. one of them is the influence of sun and shade on leaves, and the other the atavistic forms, often exhibited during the juvenile period. the leaves of many plants, and especially those of some shrubs and trees, have the capacity of adapting themselves either to intense or to diffuse light. on the circumference of the crown of a tree the light is stronger and the leaves a small and thick, with a dense tissue. in the inner parts of the crown the light is weak and the leaves are broader in order to get as much of it as possible. they become larger but thinner, consisting often of a small number of cell layers. the definitive formation is made in extreme youth, often even during the previous summer, at the time of the [ ] very first evolution of the young organs within the buds. _iris_, and _lactuca scariola_ or the prickly lettuce, and many other plants afford similar instances. as the definitive decision must be made in these cases long before the direct influence of the conditions which would make the change useful is felt, it is hardly conceivable how they could be ascribed to this cause. it is universally known that many plants show deviating features when very young, and that these often remind us of the characters of their probable ancestors. many plants that must have been derived from their nearest systematic relatives, chiefly by reductions, are constantly betraying this relation by a repetition of the ancestral marks during their youth. there can be hardly a doubt that the general law of natural selection prevails in such cases as it does in others. or stated otherwise, it is very probable, that in most cases the atavistic characters have been retained during youth because of their temporary usefulness. unfortunately, our knowledge of utility of qualities is as yet, very incomplete. here we must assume that what is ordinarily spared by natural selection is to be considered as useful, [ ] until direct experimental investigations have been made. so it is for instance with the submerged leaves of water-plants. as a rule they are linear, or if compound, are reduced to densely branching filiform threads. hence we may conclude that this structure is of some use to them. now two european and some corresponding american species of water-parsnip, the _sium latifolium_ and _berula angustifolia_ with their allies, are umbellifers, which bear pinnate instead of bi- or tri-pinnate leaves. but the young plants and even the young shoots when developing from the rootstocks under water comply with the above rule, producing very compound, finely and pectinately dissected leaves. from a systematic point of view these leaves indicate the origin of the water-parsnips from ordinary umbellifers, which generally have bi- and tripinnate leaves. similar cases of double adaptation, dependent on external conditions at different periods of the evolution of the plant are very numerous. they are most marked among leguminous plants, as shown by the trifoliolate leaves of the thorn-broom and allies, which in the adult state have green twigs destitute of leaves. as an additional instance of dimorphism and probable double adaptation to unrecognized external [ ] conditions i might point to the genus _acacia_. as we have seen in a previous lecture some of the numerous species of this genus bear bi-pinnate leaves, while others have only flattened leaf-stalks. according to the prevailing systematic conceptions, the last must have been derived from the first by the loss of the blades and the corresponding increase of size and superficial extension of the stalk. in proof of this view they exhibit, as we have described, the ancestral characters in the young plantlets, and this production of bi-pinnate leaves has probably been retained at the period of the corresponding negative mutations, because of some distinct, though still unknown use. summarizing the results of this discussion, we may state that useful dimorphism, or double adaptation, is a substitution of characters quite analogous to the useless dimorphism of cultivated ever-sporting varieties and the stray occurrence of hereditary monstrosities. the same laws and conditions prevail in both cases. [ ] e. mutations lecture xvi the origin of the peloric toad-flax i have tried to show previously that species, in the ordinary sense of the word, consist of distinct groups of units. in systematic works these groups are all designated by the name of varieties, but it is usually granted that the units of the system are not always of the same value. hence we have distinguished between elementary species and varieties proper. the first are combined into species whose common original type is now lost or unknown, and from their characters is derived an hypothetical image of what the common ancestor is supposed to have been. the varieties proper are derived in most cases from still existing types, and therefore are subjoined to them. a closer investigation has shown that this derivation is ordinarily produced by the loss of some definite attribute, or by the re-acquisition of an apparently [ ] lost character. the elementary species, on the other hand, must have arisen by the production of new qualities, each new acquisition constituting the origin of a new elementary form. moreover we have seen, that such improvements and such losses constitute sharp limits between the single unit-forms. every type, of course, varies around an average, and the extremes of one form may sometimes reach or even overlap those of the nearest allies, but the offspring of the extremes always return to the type. the transgression is only temporary and a real transition of one form to another does not come within ordinary features of fluctuating variability. even in the cases of eversporting varieties, where two opposite types are united within one race, and where the succeeding individuals are continually swinging from one extreme to the other, passing through a wide range of intermediate steps, the limits of the variety are as sharply defined and as free from real transgression as in any other form. in a complete systematic enumeration of the real units of nature, the elementary species and varieties are thus observed to be discontinuous and separated by definite gaps. every unit may have its youth, may lead a long life in the adult state and may finally die. but through [ ] the whole period of its existence it remains the same, at the end as sharply defined from its nearest allies as in the beginning. should some of the units die out, the gaps between the neighboring ones will become wider, as must often have been the case. such segregations, however important and useful for systematic distinctions, are evidently only of secondary value, when considering the real nature of the units themselves. we may now take up the other side of the problem. the question arises as to how species and varieties have originated. according to the darwinian theory they have been produced from one another, the more highly differentiated ones from the simpler, in a graduated series from the most simple forms to the most complicated and most highly organized existing types. this evolution of course must have been regular and continuous, diverging from time to time into new directions, and linking all organisms together into one common pedigree. all lacunae in our present system are explained by darwin as due to the extinction of the forms, which previously filled them. since lamarck first propounded the conception of a common origin for all living beings, much has been done to clear up our ideas as to the real nature of this process. the broader [ ] aspect of the subject, including the general pedigree of the animal and vegetable kingdom, may be said to have been outlined by darwin and his followers, but this phase of the subject lies beyond the limits of our present discussion. the other phase of the problem is concerned with the manner in which the single elementary species and varieties have sprung from one another. there is no reason to suppose that the world is reaching the end of its development, and so we are to infer that the production of new species and varieties is still going on. in reality, new forms are observed to originate from time to time, both wild and in cultivation, and such facts do not leave any doubt as to their origin from other allied types, and according to natural and general laws. in the wild state however, and even with cultivated plants of the field and garden, the conditions, though allowing of the immediate observation of the origination of new forms, are by no means favorable for a closer inquiry into the real nature of the process. therefore i shall postpone the discussion of the facts till another lecture, as their bearing will be more easily understood after having dealt with more complete cases. these can only be obtained by direct experimentation. comparative studies, of course, [ ] are valuable for the elucidation of general problems and broad features of the whole pedigree, but the narrower and more practical question as to the genetic relation of the single forms to one another must be studied in another way, by direct experiment. the exact methods of the laboratory must be used, and in this case the garden is the laboratory. the cultures must be guarded with the strictest care and every precaution taken to exclude opportunities for error. the parents and grandparents and their offspring must be kept pure and under control, and all facts bearing upon the birth or origin of the new types should be carefully recorded. two great difficulties have of late stood in the way of such experimental investigation. one of them is of a theoretical, the, other of a practical nature. one is the general belief in the supposed slowness of the process, the other is the choice of adequate material for experimental purposes. darwin's hypothesis of natural selection as the means by which new types arise, is now being generally interpreted as stating the slow transformation of ordinary fluctuating divergencies from the average type into specific differences. but in doing so it is overlooked that quetelet's law of fluctuating variability was not yet discovered at the time, when darwin propounded his theory. so there [ ] is no real and intimate connection between these two great conceptions. darwin frequently pointed out that a long period of time might be needed for slow improvements, and was also a condition for the occurrence of rare sports. in any case those writers have been in error, according to my opinion, who have refrained from experimental work on the origin of species, on account of this narrow interpretation of darwin's views. the choice of the material is quite another question, and obviously all depends upon this choice. promising instances must be sought for, but as a rule the best way is to test as many plants as possible. many of them may show nothing of interest, but some might lead to the desired end. for to-day's lecture i have chosen an instance, in which the grounds upon which the choice was based are very evident. it is the origin of the peloric toad-flax (_linaria vulgaris peloria_). the ground for this choice lies simply in the fact that the peloric toad-flax is known to have originated from the ordinary type at different times and in different countries, under more or less divergent conditions. it had arisen from time to time, and hence i presumed that there was a chance to see it arise again. if this should happen under experimental circumstances [ ] the desired evidence might easily be gathered. or, to put it in other words, we must try to arrange things so as to be present at the time when nature produces another of these rare changes. there was still another reason for choosing this plant for observational work. the step from the ordinary toad-flax to the peloric form is short, and it appears as if it might be produced by slow conversion. the ordinary species produces from time to time stray peloric flowers. these occur at the base of the raceme, or rarely in the midst of it. in other species they are often seen at the summit. terminal pelories are usually regular, having five equal spurs. lateral pelories are generally of zygomorphic structure, though of course in a less degree than the normal bilabiate flowers, but they have unequal spurs, the middle one being of the ordinary length, the two neighboring being shorter, and those standing next to the opposite side of the flower being the shortest of all. this curious remainder of the original, symmetrical structure of the flower seems to have been overlooked hitherto by the investigators of peloric toad-flaxes. the peloric variety of this plant is characterized by its producing only peloric flowers. no single bilabiate or one-spurred flower remains. [ ] i once had a lot of nearly a hundred specimens of this fine variety, and it was a most curious and beautiful sight to observe the many thousands of nearly regular flowers blooming at the same time. some degree of variability was of course present, even in a large measure. the number of the spurs varied between four and six, transgressing these limits in some instances, but never so far as to produce really one-spurred flowers. comparing this variety with the ordinary type, two ways of passing over from the one to the other might be imagined. one would entail a slow increase of the number of the peloric flowers on each plant, combined with a decrease of the number of the normal ones, the other a sudden leap from one extreme to the other without any intermediate steps. the latter might easily be overlooked in field observations and their failure may not have the value of direct proof. they could never be overlooked, on the other hand, in experimental culture. the first record of the peloric toad-flax is that of zioberg, a student of linnaeus, who found it in the neighborhood of upsala. this curious discovery was described by rudberg in his dissertation in the year . soon afterwards other localities were discovered by link near gottingen in germany about and afterwards [ ] in the vicinity of berlin, as stated by ratzeburg, . many other localities have since been indicated for it in europe, and in my own country some have been noted of late, as for instance near zandvoort in and near oldenzaal in . in both these last named cases the peloric form arose spontaneously in places which had often been visited by botanists before the recorded appearance, and therefore, without any doubt, they must have been produced directly and independently by the ordinary species which grows in the locality. the same holds good for other occurrences of it. in many instances the variety has been recorded to disappear after a certain lapse of time, the original specimens dying out and no new ones being produced. _linaria_ is a perennial herb, multiplying itself easily by buds growing on the roots, but even with this means of propagation its duration seems to have definite limits. there is one other important point arguing strongly for the independent appearance of the peloric form in its several localities. it is the difficulty of fertilization and the high degree of sterility, even if artificially pollinated. bees and bumble-bees are unable to crawl into the narrow tubular flowers, and to bring the fertilizing pollen to the stigma. ripe capsules with seeds [ ] have never been seen in the wild state. the only writer who succeeded in sowing seeds of the peloric variety was wildenow and he got only very few seedlings. but even in artificial pollination the result is the same, the anthers seeming to be seriously affected by the change. i tried both self-fertilization and cross-pollination, and only with utmost care did i succeed in saving barely a hundred seeds. in order to obtain them i was compelled to operate on more than a thousand flowers on about a dozen peloric plants. the variety being wholly barren in nature, the assumption that the plants in the different recorded localities might have a common origin is at once excluded. there must have been at least nearly as many mutations as localities. this strengthens the hope of seeing such a mutation happen in one's own garden. it should also be remembered that peloric flowers are known to have originated in quite a number of different species of _linaria_, and also with many of the allied species within the range of the labiatiflorae. i will now give the description of my own experiment. of course this did not give the expected result in the first year. on the contrary, it was only after eight years' work that i had the good fortune of observing the mutation. [ ] but as the whole life-history of the preceding generations had been carefully observed and recorded, the exact interpretation of the fact was readily made. my culture commenced in the year . i chose some plants of the normal type with one or two peloric flowers besides the bilabiate majority which i found on a locality in the neighborhood of hilversum in holland. i planted the roots in my garden and from them had the first flowering generation in the following summer. from their seeds i grew the second generation in three following years. they flowered profusely and produced in only one, and in only two peloric structures. i saved the seeds in and had in - the third generation. these plants likewise flowered only in the second year, and gave among some thousands of symmetrical blossoms, only one five-spurred flower. i pollinated this flower myself, and it produced abundant fruit with enough seeds for the entire culture in , and they only were sown. until this year my generations required two years each, owing to the perennial habit of the plants. in this way the prospects of the culture began to decrease, and i proposed to try to heighten my chances by having a new generation yearly. with this intention i sowed the [ ] selected seeds in a pan in the glasshouse of my laboratory and planted them out as soon as the young stems had reached a length of some few centimeters. each seedling was put in a separate pot, in heavily manured soil. the pots were kept under glass until the beginning of june, and the young plants produced during this period a number of secondary stems from the curious hypocotylous buds which are so characteristic of the species. these stems grew rapidly and as soon as they were strong enough, the plants were put into the beds. they all, at least nearly all, some twenty specimens, flowered in the following month. i observed only one peloric flower among the large number present. i took the plant bearing this flower and one more for the culture of the following year, and destroyed all others. these two plants grew on the same spot, and were allowed to fertilize each other by the agency of the bees, but were kept isolated from any other congener. they flowered abundantly, but produced only one-spurred bilabiate flowers during the whole summer. they matured more than cu. cm. of seeds. it is from this pair of plants that my peloric race has sprung. and as they are the ancestors of the first closely observed case of peloric mutation, [ ] it seems worth while to give some details regarding their fertilization. isolated plants of _linaria vulgaris_ do not produce seed, even if freely pollinated by bees. pollen from other plants is required. this requirement is not at all restricted to the genus _linaria_, as many instances are known to occur in different families. it is generally assumed that the pollen of any other individual of the same species is capable of producing fertilization, although it is to be said that a critical examination has been made in but few instances. this, however, is not the case, at least not in the present instance. i have pollinated a number of plants, grown from seed of the same strain and combined them in pairs, and excluded the visits of insects, and pollen other than that of the plant itself and that of the specimen with which it was paired. the result was that some pairs were fertile and others barren. counting these two groups of pairs, i found them nearly equal in number, indicating thereby that for any given individual the pollen of half of the others is potent, but that of the other half impotent. from these facts we may conclude the presence of a curious case of dimorphy, analogous to that proposed for the primroses, but without visible differentiating marks in the flowers. at least such opposite characters [ ] have as yet not been ascertained in the case of our toad-flax. in order to save seed from isolated plants it is necessary, for this reason, to have at least two individuals, and these must belong to the two physiologically different types. now in the year , as in other years, my plants, though separated at the outset by distances of about cm. from each other, threw out roots of far greater length, growing in such a way as to abolish the strict isolation of the individuals. any plot may produce several stems from such roots, and it is manifestly impossible to decide whether they all belong to one original plant or to the mixed roots of several individuals. no other strains were grown on the same bed with my plants however, and so i considered all the stems of the little group as belonging to one plant. but their perfect fertility showed, according to the experience described, that there must have been at least two specimens mingled together. returning now to the seeds of this pair of plants, i had, of course, not the least occasion to ascribe to it any higher value than the harvest of former years. the consequence was that i had no reason to make large sowings, and grew only enough young plants to have about in bloom in the summer of . among [ ] these, stray peloric flowers were observed in somewhat larger number than in the previous generations, plants bearing one or two, or even three such abnormalities. this however, could not be considered as a real advance, since such plants may occur in varying, though ordinarily small numbers in every generation. besides them a single plant was seen to bear only peloric flowers; it produced racemes on several stems and their branches. all were peloric without exception. i kept it through the winter, taking care to preserve a complete isolation of its roots. the other plants were wholly destroyed. such annihilation must include both the stems and roots and the latter of course requires considerable labor. the following year, however, gave proof of the success of the operation, since my plant bloomed luxuriously for the second time and remained true to the type of the first year, producing peloric flowers exclusively. here we have the first experimental mutation of a normal into a peloric race. two facts were clear and simple. the ancestry was known for over a period of four generations, living under the ordinary care and conditions of an experimental garden, isolated from other toad-flaxes, but freely fertilized by bees or at times by myself. this ancestry was quite constant as to [ ] the peloric peculiarity, remaining true to the wild type as it occurs everywhere in my country, and showing in no respect any tendency to the production of a new variety. the mutation took place at once. it was a sudden leap from the normal plants with very rare peloric flowers to a type exclusively peloric. no intermediate steps were observed. the parents themselves had borne thousands of flowers during two summers, and these were inspected nearly every day, in the hope of finding some pelories and of saving their seed separately. only one such flower was seen. if there had been more, say a few in every hundred flowers, it might be allowable to consider them as previous stages, showing a preparation of the impending change. but nothing of this kind was observed. there was simply no visible preparation for the sudden leap. this leap, on the other hand, was full and complete. no reminiscence of the former condition remained. not a single flower on the mutated plant reverted to the previous type. all were thoroughly affected by the new attribute, and showed the abnormally augmented number of spurs, the tubular structure of the corolla and the round and narrow entrance of its throat. the whole plant departed absolutely from the old type of its progenitors. [ ] three ways were open to continue my experiment. the first was indicated by the abundant harvest from the parent-plants of the mutation. it seemed possible to compare the numerical proportion of the mutated seeds with those of normal plants. in order to ascertain this proportion i sowed the greatest part of my cu. cm. of seed and planted some , young plants in little pots with well-manured soil. i got some , flowering plants and observed among them wholly peloric individuals. the numerical proportion of the mutation was therefore in this instance to be calculated equal to about % of the whole crop. this figure is of some importance. for it shows that the chance of finding mutations requires the cultivation of large groups of individuals. one plant in each hundred may mutate, and cultures of less than a hundred specimens must therefore be entirely dependent on chance for the appearance of new forms, even if such should accidentally have been produced and lay dormant in the seed. in other cases mutations may be more numerous, or on the contrary, more rare. but the chance of mutative changes in larger numbers is manifestly much reduced by this experiment, and they may be expected to form a very small proportion of the culture. [ ] the second question which arose from the above result was this. could the mutation be repeated? was it to be ascribed to some latent cause which might be operative more than once? was there some hidden tendency to mutation, which, ordinarily weak, was strengthened in my cultures by some unknown influence? was the observed mutation to be explained by a common cause with the other cases recorded by field-observations? to answer this question i had only to continue my experiment, excluding the mutated individuals from any intercrossing with their brethren. to this end i saved the seeds from duly isolated groups in different years and sowed them at different times. for various causes i was not prepared to have large cultures from these seeds, but notwithstanding this, the mutation repeated itself. in one instance i obtained two, in another, one peloric plant with exclusively many-spurred flowers. as is easily understood, these were related as "nieces" to the first observed mutants. they originated in quite the same way, by a sudden leap, without any preparation and without any intermediate steps. mutation is proved by this experience to be of an iterative nature. it is the expression of some concealed condition, or as it is generally [ ] called, of some hidden tendency. the real nature of this state of the hereditary qualities is as yet wholly unknown. it would not be safe to formulate further conclusions before the evidence offered by the evening-primroses is considered. thirdly, the question arises, whether the mutation is complete, not only as to the morphologic character, but also as to the hereditary constitution of the mutated individuals. but here unfortunately the high degree of sterility of the peloric plants, as previously noted, makes the experimental evidence a thing of great difficulty. during the course of several years i isolated and planted together the peloric individuals already mentioned, all in all some twenty plants. each individual was nearly absolutely sterile when treated with its own pollen, and the aid of insects was of no avail. i intercrossed my plants artificially, and pollinated more than a thousand flowers. not a single one gave a normal fruit, but some small and nearly rudimentary capsules were produced, bearing a few seeds. from these i had flowering plants, out of which were peloric and one-spurred. the great majority, some %, were thus shown to be true to their new type. whether the % reverting ones were truly atavists, or whether they were [ ] only vicinists, caused by stray pollen grains from another culture, cannot of course be decided with sufficient certitude. here i might refer to the observations concerning the invisible dimorphous state of the flowers of the normal toad-flax. individuals of the same type, when fertilized with each other, are nearly, but not absolutely, sterile. the yield of seeds of my peloric plants agrees fairly well with the harvest which i have obtained from some of the nearly sterile pairs of individuals in my former trial. hence the suggestion is forced upon us that perhaps, owing to some unknown cause, all the peloric individuals of my experiment belonged to one and the same type, and were sterile for this reason only. if this is true, then it is to be presumed that all previous investigators have met the same condition, each having at hand only one of the two required types. and this discussion has the further advantage of showing the way, in which perhaps a full and constant race of peloric toad-flaxes may be obtained. two individuals of different type are required to start from. they seem as yet never to have arisen from one group of mutations. but if it were possible to combine the products of two mutations obtained in different countries and under different conditions, there would be a chance [ ] that they might belong to the supposed opposite types, and thus be fertile with one another. my peloric plants are still available, and the occurrence of this form elsewhere would give material for a successful experiment. the probability thereof is enhanced by the experience that my peloric plants bear large capsules and a rich harvest of seeds when fertilized from plants of the normal one-spurred race, while they remain nearly wholly barren by artificial fertilization with others. i suppose that they are infertile with the normal toad-flaxes of their own sexual disposition, but fertile with those of the opposite constitution. at all events the fact that they may bear abundant seed when properly pollinated is an indication of successful experiments on the possibility of gaining a hereditary race with exclusively peloric flowers. and such a race would be a distinct gain for sundry physiologic inquiries, and perhaps not wholly destitute of value from an horticultural point of view. returning now to the often recorded occurrence of peloric toad-flaxes in the wild state and recalling our discussion about the improbability of a dispersion from one locality to another by seed, and the probability of independent origin for most of these cases, we are confronted with the conception that a latent [ ] tendency to mutation must be universally present in the whole species. another observation, although it is of a negative character, gains in importance from this point of view. i refer to the total lack of intermediate steps between normal and peloric individuals. if such links had ordinarily been produced previous to the purely peloric state they would no doubt have been observed from time to time. this is so much the more probable as _linaria_ is a perennial herb, and the ancestors of a mutation might still be in a flowering condition together with their divergent offspring. but no such intermediates are on record. the peloric toad-flaxes are, as a rule, found surrounded by the normal type, but without intergrading forms. this discontinuity has already been insisted upon by hofmeister and others, even at the time when the theory of descent was most under discussion, and any link would surely have been produced as a proof of a slow and continuous change. but no such proof has been found, and the conclusion seems admissible that the mutation of toad-flaxes ordinarily, if not universally, takes place by a sudden step. our experiment may simply be considered as a thoroughly controlled instance of an often recurring phenomenon. it teaches us how, in the [ ] main, the peloric mutations must be assumed to proceed. this conception may still be broadened. we may include in it all similar occurrences, in allied and other species. there is hardly a limit to the possibilities which are opened up by this experience. but it will be well to refrain from hazardous theorizing, and consider only those cases which may be regarded as exact repetitions of the same phenomenon and of which our culture is one of the most recent instances on record. we will limit ourselves to the probable origin of peloric variations at large, of which little is known, but some evidence may be derived from the recorded facts. only one case can be said to be directly analogous to our observations. this refers to the peloric race of the common snapdragon, or _antirrhinum majus_ of our gardens. it is known to produce peloric races from time to time in the same way as does the toadflax. but the snapdragon is self-fertile and so is its peloric variety. some cases are relatively old, and some of them have been recorded and in part observed by darwin. whence they have sprung and in what manner they were produced, seems never to have been noted. others are of later origin, and among these one or two varieties have been accidentally produced [ ] in the nursery of mr. chr. lorenz in erfurt, and are now for sale, the seeds being guaranteed to yield a large proportion of peloric individuals. the peloric form in this case appeared at once, but was not isolated, and was left free to visiting insects, which of course crossed it with the surrounding varieties. without doubt the existence of two color-varieties of the peloric type, one of a very dark red, indicating the "black prince" variety as the pollen-parent, and the other with a white tube of the corolla, recalling the form known as "delila," is due to these crossings. i had last year ( ) a large lot of plants, partly normal and partly peloric, but evidently of hybrid origin, from seeds from this nursery, showing moreover all intermediate steps between nearly wholly peloric individuals and apparently normal ones. i have saved the seeds of the isolated types and before seeing the flowers of their offspring, nothing can be said about the purity and constancy of the type, when freed from hybrid admixtures. the peloric snapdragon has five small unequal spurs at the base of its long tube, and in this respect agrees with the peloric toad-flax. other pelories are terminal and quite regular, and occur in some species of _linaria_, where i observed them in _linaria dalmatica_. the [ ] terminal flowers of many branches were large and beautifully peloric, bearing five long and equal spurs. about their origin and inheritance nothing is known. a most curious terminal pelory is that of the common foxglove or _digitalis purpurea_. as we have seen in a previous lecture, it is an old variety. it was described and figured for the first time by vrolik of amsterdam, and the original specimens of his plates are still to be seen in the collections of the botanic garden of that university. since his time it has been propagated by seed as a commercial variety, and may be easily obtained. the terminal flower of the central stem and those of the branches only are affected, all other flowers being wholly normal. almost always it is accompanied by other deviations, among which a marked increase of the number of the parts of the corolla and other whorls is the most striking. likewise supernumerary petals on the outer side of the corolla, and a production of a bud in the center of the capsule may be often met with. this bud as a rule grows out after the fading away of the flower, bursting through the green carpels of the unripe fruit, and producing ordinarily a secondary raceme of flowers. this raceme is a weak but exact repetition of the first, bearing symmetrical foxgloves all [ ] along and terminating in a peloric structure. on the branches these anomalies are more or less reduced, according to the strength of the branch, and conforming to the rule of periodicity, given in our lecture on the "five-leaved" clover. through all this diminution the peloric type remains unchanged and therefore becomes so much the purer, the weaker the branches on which it stands. i am not sure whether such peloric flowers have ever been purely pollinated and their seed saved separately, but i have often observed that the race comes pure from the seed of the zygomorphic flowers. it is as yet doubtful whether it is a half race or a double race, and whether it might be purified and strengthened by artificial selection. perhaps the determination of the hereditary percentage described when dealing with the tricotyls might give the clue to the acquisition of a higher specialized race. the variety is old and widely disseminated, but must be subjected to quite a number of additional experiments before it can be said to be sufficiently understood. the most widespread peloric variety is that of _gloxinia_. it has erect instead of drooping flowers; and with the changed position the structure is also changed. like other pelories it has five equal stamens instead of four unequal [ ] ones, and a corolla with five equal segments instead of an upper and a lower lip. it shows the peloric condition in all of its flowers and is often combined with a small increase of the number of the parts of the whorls. it is for sale under the name of _erecta_, and may be had in a wide range of color-types. it seems to be quite constant from seed. many other instances of peloric flowers are on record. indian cress or _tropaeolum majus_ loses the spur in some double varieties and with it most of its symmetrical structure; it seems to be considered justly as a peloric malformation. other species produce such anomalies only from time to time and nothing is known about their hereditary tendency. one of the most curious instances is the terminal flower of the raceme of the common laburnum, which loses its whole papilionaceous character and becomes as regularly quinate as a common buttercup. some families are more liable to pelorism than others. obviously all the groups, the flowers of which are not symmetrical, are to be excluded. but then we find that labiates and their allies among the dicotyledonous plants, and orchids among the monocotyledonous ones are especially subjected to this alteration. in both groups many genera and a long list of species [ ] could be quoted as proof. the family of the labiates seems to be essentially rich in terminal pelories, as for instance in the wild sage or _salvia_ and the dead-nettle or _lamium_. here the pelories have long and straight corolla-tubes, which are terminated by a whorl of four or five segments. such forms often occur in the wild state and seem to have a geographic distribution as narrowly circumscribed as in the case of many small species. those of the labiates chiefly belong to southern europe and are unknown at least in some parts of the other countries. on the contrary terminal pelories of _scrophularia nodosa_ are met with from time to time in holland. such facts clearly point to a common origin, and as only the terminal flowers are affected by the malformation, the fertility of the whole plant is evidently not seriously infringed upon. before leaving the labiates, we may cite a curious instance of pelorism in the toad-flax, which is quite different from the ordinary peloric variety. this latter may be considered from a morphologic standpoint to be owing to a five-fold repetition of the middle part of the underlip. this conception would at once explain the occurrence of five spurs and of the orange border all around the corolla-tube. we might readily imagine that any other of the five [ ] parts of the corolla could be repeated five-fold, in which case there would be no spur, and no orange hue on the upper corolla-ring. such forms really occur, though they seem to be more rare than the five-spurred pelories. very little is known about their frequency and hereditary qualities. orchids include a large number of peloric monstrosities and moreover a wild pelory which is systematically described not only as a separate species but even as a new genus. it bears the name of _uropedium lindenii_, and is so closely related to _cypripedium caudatum_ that many authors take it for the peloric variety of this plant. it occurs in the wild state in some parts of mexico, where the _cypripedium_ also grows. its claims to be a separate genus are lessened by the somewhat monstrous condition of the sexual organs, which are described as quite abnormal. but here also, intermediates are lacking, and this fact points to a sudden origin. many cases of pelorism afford promising material for further studies of experimental mutations. the peloric toad-flax is only the prototype of what may be expected in other cases. no opportunity should be lost to increase the as yet too scanty, evidence on this point. [ ] lecture xvii the production of double flowers mutations occur as often among cultivated plants as among those in the wild state. garden flowers are known to vary markedly. much of their variability, however, is due to hybridism, and the combination of characters previously separate has a value for the breeder nearly equal the production of really new qualities. nevertheless there is no doubt that some new characters appear from time to time. in a previous lecture we have seen that varietal characters have many features in common. one of them is their frequent recurrence both in the same and in other, often very distantly related, species. this recurrence is an important factor in the choice of the material for an experimental investigation of the nature of mutations. some varieties are reputed to occur more often and more readily than others. white-colored varieties, though so very common, seem for the most part to be of ancient date, but only few [ ] have a known origin, however. without any doubt many of them have been found in a wild state and were introduced into culture. on the other hand double flowers are exceedingly rare in the wild state, and even a slight indication of a tendency towards doubling, the stray petaloid stamens, are only rarely observed growing wild. in cultivation, however, double flowers are of frequent occurrence; hence the conclusion that they have been produced in gardens and nurseries more frequently than perhaps any other type of variety. in the beginning of my experimental work i cherished the hope of being able to produce a white variety. my experiments, however, have not been successful, and so i have given them up temporarily. much better chances for a new double variety seemed to exist, and my endeavors in this direction have finally been crowned with success. for this reason i propose to deal now with the production of double flowers, to inquire what is on record about them in horticultural literature, and to give a full description of the origin thereof in an instance which it was my good fortune to observe in my garden. of course the historical part is only a hasty survey of the question and will only give such evidence as may enable us to get an idea of the [ ] chances of success for the experimental worker. in the second half of the seventeenth century ( ), my countryman, abraham munting, published a large book on garden plants with many beautiful figures. it is called "waare oeffeninge der planters," or "true exercises with plants." the descriptions pertain to ordinary typical species in greater part, but garden varieties receive special attention. among these a long list of double flowers are to be seen. double varieties of poppies, liverleaf (hepatica), wallflowers (_cheiranthus_), violets, _caltha_, _althaea_, _colchicum_, and periwinkles (_vinca_), and a great many other common flowers were already in cultivation at that time. other double forms have been since added. many have been introduced from japan, especially the japanese marigold, _chrysanthemum indicum_. others have been derived from mexico, as for instance the double zinnias. the single dahlias only seem to have been originally known to the inhabitants of mexico. they were introduced into spain at about , and the first double ones were produced in louvain, belgium, in . the method of their origin has not been described, and probably escaped the originators themselves. but in historical records we find the curious statement that it took place after three years' work. this indicates [ ] a distinct plan, and the possibility of carrying it to a practical conclusion within a few years' time. something more is known about other cases. garden anemones, _anemone coronaria_, are said to have become double in the first half of the last century in an english nursery. the owner, williamson, observing in his beds a flower with a single broadened stamen, saved its seeds separately, and in the next generations procured beautifully filled flowers. these he afterwards had crossed by bees with a number of colored varieties, and in this way succeeded in producing many new double types of anemone. the first double petunia is known to have suddenly and accidentally arisen from ordinary seed in a private garden at lyons about . from this one plant all double races and-varieties have been derived by natural and partly by artificial crosses. carriere, who reported this fact, added that likewise other species were known at that time to produce new double varieties rapidly. the double fuchsias originated about the same time ( ) and ten years later the range of double varieties of this plant had become so large that carriere found it impossible to enumerate all of them. double carnations seem to be relatively old, double corn-flowers and double blue-bells being [ ] of a later period. a long list could easily be made, to show that during the whole history of horticulture double varieties have arisen from time to time. as far as we can judge, such appearances have been isolated and sudden. sometimes they sprang into existence in the full display of their beauty, but most commonly they showed themselves for the first time, exhibiting only spare supernumerary petals. whenever such sports were worked up, a few years sufficed to reach the entire development of the new varietal attribute. from this superficial survey of historical facts, the inference is forced upon us that the chance of producing a new double variety is good enough to justify the attempt. it has frequently succeeded for practical purposes, why should it not succeed as well for purely scientific investigation? at all events the type recommends itself to the student of nature, both on account of its frequency, and of the apparent insignificance of the first step, combined with the possibility of rapidly working up from this small beginning of one superfluous petal towards the highest degree of duplication. compared with the tedious experimental production of the peloric toad-flax, the attempt to produce a double flower has a distinct attraction. the peloric toad-flax is nothing new; the [ ] experiment was only a repetition of what presumably takes place often within the same species. to attempt to produce a double variety we may choose any species, and of course should select one which as yet has not been known to produce double flowers. by doing so we will, if we succeed, produce something new. of course, it does not matter whether the new variety has an horticultural interest or not, and it seems preferable to choose a wild or little cultivated species, to be quite sure that the variety in question is not already in existence. finally the prospect of success seems to be enhanced if a species is chosen, the nearest allies of which are known to have produced double flowers. for these reasons and others i chose for my experiment the corn-marigold, or _chrysanthemum segetum_. it is also called the golden cornflower. in the wheat and rye fields of central europe it associates with the blue-bottle or blue corn-flower. it is sometimes cultivated and the seeds are offered for sale by many nurserymen. it has a cultivated variety, called _grandiflorum_, which is esteemed for its brilliancy and long succession of golden bloom. this variety has larger flower-heads, surrounded with a fuller border of ray-florets. the species belongs to a genus many species of which have produced [ ] double varieties. one of them is the japanese marigold, others are the _carinatum_ and the _imbricatum_ species. nearly allied are quite a number of garden-plants with double flower-heads, among which are the double camomiles. my attention was first drawn to the structure of the heads and especially to the number of the ray-florets of the corn-marigold. the species appertains to that group of composites which have a head of small tubular florets surrounded by a broad border of rays. these rays, when counted, are observed to occur in definite numbers, which are connected with each other by a formula, known as "the series" of braun and schimper. in this formula, which commences with and , each number is equal to the sum of the two foregoing figures. thus , and are very frequent occurrences, and the following number, , is a most general one for apparently full rays, such as in daisies, camomiles, _arnica_ and many other wild and cultivated species. these numbers are not at all constant. they are only the averages, around which the real numbers fluctuate. there may even be an overlapping of the extremes, since the fluctuation around may even go beyond and , and so on. but such extremes are only found in stray flowers, occurring on the same [ ] individuals with the lesser degrees of deviation. now the marigold averages , and the _grandiflorum_ rays. the wild species is pure in this respect, but the garden-variety is not. the seeds which are offered for sale usually contain a mixture of both forms and their hybrids. so i had to isolate the pure types from this mixture and to ascertain their constancy and mutual independency. to this end i isolated from the mixture first the -rayed, and afterwards the -rayed types. as the marigolds are not sufficiently self-fertile, and are not easily pollinated artificially, it seemed impossible to carry on these two experiments at the same time and in the same garden. i devoted the first three years to the lower form, isolated some individuals with - rays out of the mixture of and counted the ray-florets on the terminal head of every plant of the ensuing generation next year. i cultivated and counted in this way above individuals and found an average of exactly with comparatively few individuals displaying or only rays, and with the remainder of the plants grouped symmetrically around this average. i continued the experiment for still another year and found the same group of figures. i was then satisfied as to the purity of the isolated strain. next year i sowed a new mixture in [ ] order to isolate the reputed pure _grandiflorum_ type. during the beginning of the flowering period i ruthlessly threw away all plants displaying less than rays in the first or terminal head. but this selection was not to be considered as complete, because the -rayed race may eventually transgress its boundary and come over to the and more. this made a second selection necessary. on the selected plants all the secondary heads were inspected and their ray-florets counted. some individuals showed an average of about and were destroyed. others gave doubtful figures and were likewise eliminated, and only out of a lot of nearly flowering plants reached an average of for all of the flowers. our summer is a short one, compared with the long and beautiful summer of california, and it was too late to cut off the faded and the open flowers, and await new ones, which might be purely fertilized after the destruction of all minor plants. so i had to gather the seed from flowers, which might have been partially fertilized by the wrong pollen. this however, is not so great a drawback in selection experiments as might be supposed at first sight. the selection of the following year is sure to eliminate the offspring of such impure parentage. [ ] a far more important principle is that of the hereditary percentage, already discussed in our lecture on the selection of monstrosities. in our present case it had to be applied only to the six selected plants of . to this end the seeds of each of them were sown separately, the ray-florets of the terminal heads of each of the new generation were counted, and curves and averages were made up for the six groups. five of them gave proof of still being mixtures and were wholly rejected. the children of the sixth parent, however, formed a group of uniform constitution, all fluctuating around the desired average of . all in all the terminal heads of over , plants have been subjected to the somewhat tedious work of counting their ray-florets. and this not in the laboratory, but in the garden, without cutting them off. otherwise it would obviously have been impossible to recognize the best plants for preservation. i chose only two plants which in addition recommended themselves by the average number of rays on their secondary heads, sowed their seeds next year separately and compared the numerical constitution of their offspring. both groups averaged and were distributed very symmetrically around this mean. this result [ ] showed that no further selection could be of any avail, and that i had succeeded in purifying the -rayed _grandiflorum_ variety. it is from this _grandiflorum_ that i have finally produced my double variety. in the year i selected from among the above quoted , plants, with terminal heads bearing or more rays. on these i counted the rays of all the secondary heads about the middle of august ( ) and found that they had, as a rule, retrograded to lower figures. on many thousands of heads only two were found having rays. all others had the average number of or even less. i isolated the individual which bore these two heads, allowed them to be fertilized by insects with the pollen of some of the best plants of the same group, but destroyed the remainder. this single exceptional plant has been the starting point of my double variety. it was not remarkable for its terminal head, which exhibited the average number of rays of the -rayed race. nor was it distinguished by the average figure for all its heads. it was only selected because it was the one plant which had some secondary heads with one ray more than all the others. this indication was very slight, and could not have been detected save by the counting of the rays of thousands of heads. [ ] but the rarity of the anomaly was exactly the indication wanted, and the same deviation would have had no signification whatever, had it occurred in a group fluctuating symmetrically around the average figure. on the other hand, the observed anomaly was only an indication, and no guarantee of future developments. here it should be remarked that the indication alluded to was not the appearance of the expected character of doubling in ever so slight a measure. it was only a guide to be followed in further work. the real character of double flower-heads among composites lies in the production of rays on the disk. no increase of the number of the outer rays can have the same significance. a hasty inspection of double flower heads may convey the idea that all rays are arranged around a little central cluster of disk-florets, the remainder of the original disk-florets but a closer investigation will always reveal the fallacy of this conclusion. hidden between the inner rays, and covered by them, lie the little tubular and fertile florets everywhere on the disk. they may not be easily seen, but if the supernumerary rays are pulled out, the disk may be seen to bear numerous small florets at intervals. but these intervals are not at all numerous, showing thereby that only a relatively small number of tubes has been [ ] converted into rays. this conversion is obviously the true mark of the doubling, and before traces of it are found, no assertion whatever can be given as to the issue of the pedigree experiment. three more years were required before this first, but decisive trace was discovered. during these years i subjected my strain to the same sharp selection as has already been described. the chosen ancestor of the race had flowered in , and the next year i sowed its seeds only. from this generation i chose the one plant with the largest number of rays in its terminal head, and repeated this in the following year. the consequence was that the average number of rays increased rapidly, and with it the absolute maximum of the whole strain. the average came up from to . brighter and brighter crowns of the yellow rays improved my race, until it became difficult and very time consuming to count all the large rays of the borders. the largest numbers determined in the succeeding generations increased by leaps from to in the first year, and thence to and in the two succeeding summers. every year i was able to save enough seed from the very best plant and to use it only for the continuance of the race. before the selected plants were allowed to open the flowers from which the seed [ ] was to be gathered, nearly the whole remaining culture was exterminated, excepting only some of the best examples, in order to have the required material for cross-pollination by insects. each new generation was thereby as sharply selected as possible with regard to both parents. all flower-heads were of course closely inspected. not the slightest indication of real doubling was discovered, even in the summer of in the fourth generation of my selected race. but among the best the new character suddenly made its appearance. it was at the commencement of september ( ), too late to admit of the seeds ripening before winter. an inspection of the younger heads was made, which revealed three heads with some few rays in the midst of the disk on one plant, the result of the efforts of four years. had the germ of the mutation lain hidden through all this time? had it been present, though dormant in the original sample of seed? or had an entirely new creation taken place during my continuous endeavors? perhaps as their more or less immediate result? it is obviously impossible to answer these questions, before further and similar experiments shall have been performed, bringing to light other details that will enable us to reach a more definite conclusion. [ ] the fact that the origination of such forms is accessible to direct investigation is proven quite independently of all further considerations. the new variety came into existence at once. the leap may have been made by the ancestor of the year , or by the plant of , which showed the first central rays, or the sport may have been gradually built up during those four years. in each case there was a leap, contrasting with the view which claims a very long succession of years for the development of every new character. having discovered this first trace of doubling, it was to be expected that the new variety would be at once as pure and as rich as other double composites usually are. some effect of the crossing with the other seed-bearing individuals might still disturb this uniformity in the following year, but another year's work would eliminate even this source of impurity. these two years have given the expected result. the average number of the rays, which had already arisen from to now at once came up to and , the last figure being the sum of and and therefore the probable uttermost limit to be reached before absolute doubling. the maximum numbers came as high as in , and reached even in . such heads are as completely double as are the [ ] brightest heads of the most beautiful double commercial varieties of composites. even the best white camomiles (_chrysanthemum inodorum_) and the gold-flowers or garden-marigolds (_calendula officinalis_) do not come nearer to purity since they always have scores of little tubular florets between the rays on their disks. real atavists or real reversionists were seen no more after the first purification of the race. i have continued my culture and secured last summer ( ) as many and as completely doubled heads as previously. the race has at once become permanent and constant. it has of course a wide range of fluctuating variability, but the lower limit has been worked up to about rays, a figure never reached by the _grandiflorum_ parent, from which my new variety is thus sharply separated. unfortunately the best flowers and even the best individuals of my race are wholly barren. selection has reached its practical limit. seeds must be saved from less dense heads, and no way has been found of avoiding it. the ray-florets are sterile, even in the wild species, and when growing in somewhat large numbers on the disk, they conceal the fertile flowers from the visiting insects, and cause them also to be sterile. the same is the case with the best cultivated forms. their showiest individuals are [ ] barren, and incapable of the reproduction of the race. this last is therefore, of necessity, always continued by means of individuals whose deviation from the mean average is the least. but in many cases the varieties are so highly differentiated that selection has become quite superfluous for practical purposes. i have already discussed the question as to the actual moment, in which the change of the _grandiflorum_ variety into the new _plenum_ form must be assumed to have taken place. in this respect some stress is to be laid on the fact that the improvement through selection has been gradual and continuous, though very rapid from the first moment. but with the appearance of the first stray rays within the disk, this continuity suddenly changed. all the children of this original mutated plant showed the new character, the rays within the disk, without exception. not on all the heads, nor even on the majority of the heads on some individuals, but on some heads all gave clear proof of the possession of the new attribute. this was present in all the representatives of the new race, and had never been seen in any of their parents and grandparents. here there was evidently a sudden leap, at least in the external form of the plants. and it seems to me to be the most simple conception, [ ] that this visible leap directly corresponded to that inner change, which brought about the complete inheritability of the new peculiarity. it is very interesting to observe how completely my experience agrees with the results of the observations of breeders at large. no doubt a comparison is difficult, and the circumstances are not adequate to a close study. isolation and selection have been applied commonly only so far as was consistent with the requirements of practical horticulture, and of course a determination of the hereditary percentage was never made. the disregard of this feature made necessary a greater length of time and a larger number of generations to bring about the desired changes. notwithstanding this, however, it has been seen that double varieties are produced suddenly. this may have occurred unexpectedly or after a few years' effort toward the end desired. whether this sudden appearance is the consequence of a single internal differentiating step, or of the rapid succession of lesser changes, cannot yet be made out. the extreme variability of double flowers and the chance of their appearance with only slight indications of the previous petaloid alterations of a few stamens may often result in their origin being overlooked, while subsequent generations may come in for full notice. [ ] in the greater number of cases recorded it remains doubtful whether the work said to be done to obtain a new double variety was done before the appearance of these preliminary indications or afterward. in the first case, it would correspond with our selection of large numbers of florets in the outer rays, in the second however, with the ordinary purification of new races from hybrid mixtures. in scientific selection-experiments such crosses are of course avoided, and the process of purification is unnecessary, even as in the _chrysanthemum_ culture. the first generation succeeding the original plant with disk-rays was in this respect wholly uniform and true to the new type. in practice the work does not start from such slight indications, and is done with no other purpose in view than to produce double flowers in species in which they did not already exist. therefore it is of the highest importance to know the methods used and the chances of success. unfortunately the evidence is very scanty on both points. lindley and other writers, on horticultural theory and practice assert that a large amount of nourishment tends to produce double flowers, while a culture under normal conditions, [ ] even if the plants are very strong and healthy, has no such effect. but even here it remains doubtful whether it applies to the period before or after the internal mutation. on the other hand success is not at all to be relied upon, nor is the work to be regarded as easy. the instances of double flowers said to be obtainable at will, are too rare in comparison with the number of cases, where the first indication of them was found accidentally. leaving all these doubtful points, which will have to be cleared up by further scientific investigation, the high degree of variability requires further discussion. it may be considered from three different points of view according to the limit of the deviation from the average, to the dependency on external conditions and to periodicity. it seems best to take up the last two points first. on a visit to a nursery at erfurt i once inspected an experiment with a new double variety of the common blue-bottle or blue corn-flower. the plants were dependent on the weather to a high degree. bad weather increased the number of poorly filled flower-heads, while warm and sunny days were productive of beautiful double flowers. the heads that are borne by strong branches have a greater tendency to become double than those of the weaker ones, [ ] and towards the autumn, when all those of the first group are faded away, and only a weak though large section of the heads is still flowering, the whole aspect of the variety gradually retrogrades. the same law of dependency and periodicity is prevalent everywhere. in my own cultures of the improved field-marigold i have observed it frequently. the number of the ray-florets may be considered as a direct response to nourishment, both when this is determined by external circumstances, and when it depends on the particular strength of the branch, which bears the head in question. it is a case exactly similar to that of the supernumerary carpels of the pistilloid poppy, and the deductions arrived at with that variety may be applied directly to double flowers. this dependency upon nourishment is of high practical importance in combination with the usual effect of the doubling which makes the flowers sterile. it is a general rule that the most perfect flowers do not produce seed. at the height of the flowering period the external circumstances are the most favorable, and the flowering branches still constitute the stronger axes of the plants. hence we may infer that sterility will prevail precisely in this period. many varieties are known to yield only seeds from the very last flowers, as for instance some [ ] double begonias. others bear only seed on their weaker lateral branches, as the double camomile, or become fertile only towards the fall, as is often the case with the above quoted erfurt variety of the blue-bottle. as far as i have been able to ascertain, such seeds are quite adequate for the reproduction and perpetuation of the double varieties, but the question whether there are differences between the seeds of the more or less double flowers of the same plants still remains open. it is very probable, from a theoretical point of view, that such differences exist, but perhaps they are so slight, as to have practically no bearing on the question. on the ground of their wide range of variability, the double varieties must be regarded as pertaining to the group of ever-sporting forms. on one side they fluctuate in the direction towards such petalomanous flowers as are borne by the stocks and others, which we have previously discussed. here no trace of the fertile organs is left. but this extreme is never reached by petaloid double flowers. a gap remains which, often overlooked, always exists, and which sharply separates the two types. on the other hand the alteration of the stamens gradually relapses to perfectly single flowers. here the analogy with the pistillody of the poppies and with the "five-leaved" clover is obvious. [ ] this conception of the inner nature of double flowers explains the fact that the varietal mark is seldom seen to be complete throughout larger groups of individuals, providing these have not been already selected by this character. _tagetes africana_ is liable to produce some poorly filled specimens, and some double varieties of carnations are offered for sale with the note that the seed yields only % of doubles. with _chrysanthemum coronarium_ and blue-bottles this figure is often announced to be only about %. no doubt it is partly due to impurities, caused by vicinism, but it is obviously improbable that the effect of these impurities should be so large. some cases of partial reversion may be interpreted in the same way. among the garden anemones, _anemone coronaria_, there is a variety called the "bride," on account of its pure white dowers. it is for sale with single and with double flowers, and these two forms are known to sport into one another, although they are multiplied in the vegetative way. such cases are known to be of quite ordinary occurrence. of course such sports must be considered as partial, and the same stem may bear both types of flowers. it even happens that some particular flower is partly double and partly single. mr. krelage, of haarlem, had the kindness to [ ] send me such a curious flower. one half of it was completely double, while the other half was entirely single, bearing normal and fertile stamens in the ordinary number. the same halfway doubling is recorded to occur among composites sometimes, and from the same source i possess in my collection a head of _pyrethrum roseum_, bearing on half of its disk elongated corolla tubes, and on the other half the small disk-florets of the typical species. it is a current belief, that varieties are improved by continued culture. i have never been able to ascertain the grounds on which this conviction rests. it may be referred either to the purity of the race or to the complete development of the varietal character. in the first case it is a question of hybrid mixtures from which many young varieties must be freed before being placed on the market. but as we have already seen in a former lecture, this requires only three or four years, and afterwards the degree of purity is kept up to the point which proves to be the most suitable for practical purposes. the complete development of the varietal character is a question restricted to ever-sporting varieties, since in white flowers and other constant varieties this degree is variable in a very small and unimportant measure. [ ] hence the double flowers seem to afford a very good example for this discussion. it can be decided by two facts. first by a consideration of the oldest double varieties, and secondly by that of the very youngest. are the older ones now in a better condition than at the outset? have they really been gradually improved during the centuries of their existence? obviously this can only be answered by a comparison of the figures given by older writers, with the varieties as they are now in culture. munting's drawings and descriptions are now nearly two centuries and a half old, but i do not find any real difference between his double varieties and their present representatives. so it is in other cases in which improvements by crossing or the introduction of new forms does not vitiate the evidence. double varieties, as a rule, are exactly the same now, as they were at the time of their first introduction. if this were otherwise one would expect that young double varieties should in the main display only slight grades of the anomaly, and that they would require centuries to reach their full development. nothing of the kind is on record. on the contrary the newest double sorts are said to be not only equal to their predecessors, but to excel them. as a rule such claims may be exaggerated, but not to any great extent. [ ] this is proven in the simplest way by the result of our own experiment. in the double field-marigold we have the very first generation of a variety of pure and not hybrid origin. it shows the new attribute in its full development. it has flower-heads nearly as completely filled as the best double varieties of allied cultivated composites. in the second generation it reached heads with rays each, and much larger numbers will seldom be seen in older species on heads of equal size. i have compared my novelty with the choicest double camomiles and others, but failed to discover any real difference. improvement of the variety developed in the experiments carried on by myself seems to be excluded by the fact that it comes into conflict with the same difficulty that confronts the older cultivated species, viz.: the increasing sterility of the race. it is perfectly evident that this double marigold is now quite constant. continuously varying about a fixed average it may live through centuries, but the mean and the limits will always remain the same, as in the case of the ever-sporting varieties. throughout this lecture i have spoken of double flowers and double flower-heads of composites as of one single group. they are as nearly related from the hereditary point of [ ] view, as they are divergent in other respects. it would be superfluous to dwell any longer upon the difference between heads and flowers. but it is as well to point out, that the term double flowers indicates a motley assemblage of different phenomena. the hen-and-chicken daisy, and the corresponding variety of the garden cineraria (_cineraria cruenta_), are extremes on one side. the hen-and-chicken type occurs even in other families and is known to produce most curious anomalies, as with _scabiosa_, the supernumerary heads of which may be produced on long stalks and become branched themselves in the same manner. petalody of the stamens is well known to be the ordinary type of doubling. but it is often accompanied by a multiplication of the organs, both of the altered stamens and of the petals themselves. this proliferation may consist in median or in lateral cleavages, and in both cases the process may be repeated one or more times. it would be quite superfluous to give more details, which may be gathered from any morphologic treatise on double flowers. but from the physiologic point of view all these cases are to be considered as one large group, complying with previously given definitions of the ever-sporting varieties. they are very variable and wholly permanent. obviously this [ ] permanency agrees perfectly with the conception of their sudden origin. [ ] lecture xviii new species of _oenothera_ in our experiments on the origin of peloric varieties and double flowers we were guided in the choice of our material by a survey of the evidence already at hand. we chose the types known to be most commonly produced anew, either in the wild state or under the conditions of cultivation. in both instances our novelty was a variety in the ordinary sense of the word. our pedigree-culture was mainly an experimental demonstration of the validity of conclusions, which had previously been deduced from such observations as can be made after the accidental birth of new forms. from these facts, and even from these pedigree-experiments, it is scarcely allowable to draw conclusions as to the origin of real species. if we want to know how species originate, it is obviously necessary to have recourse to direct observation. the question is of the highest importance, both for the theory of descent, and for our conception of the real nature of [ ] systematic affinities at large. many authors have tried to solve it on the ground of comparative studies and of speculations upon the biologic relations of plants and animals. but in vain. contradiction and doubt still reign supreme. all our hopes now rest on the result of experiments. unfortunately such experiments seemed simply impossible a few years ago. what is to guide us in the choice of the material? the answer may only be expected from a consideration of elementary species. for it is obvious that they only can be observed to originate, and that the systematic species, because they are only artificial groups of lower unities, can never become the subject of successful experimental inquiry. in previous lectures we tried to clear up the differences existing between nearly related elementary species. we have seen that they affect all of the attributes of the plants, each of them changing in some measure all of the organs. nevertheless they were due to distinct unities and of the lowest possible degree. such unit-steps may therefore be expected to become visible some time or other by artificial means. on the other hand, mutations as a rule make their appearance in groups, and there are many systematic species which on close inspection [ ] have been shown to be in reality composite assemblages. roses and brambles, hawkweeds and willows are the best known examples. violets and _draba verna_, dandelions and helianthemums and many other instances were dealt with in previous lectures. even wheat and barley and corn afford instances of large groups of elementary species. formerly mixed in the fields, they became separated during the last century, and now constitute constant races, which, for brevity's sake, are dealt with under the name of varieties. in such groups of nearly allied forms the single members must evidently be of common origin. it is not necessary for them to have originated all in the same place or at the same time. in some cases, as with _draba verna_, the present geographic distribution points to a common birthplace, from whence the various forms may about the same period have radiated in all directions. the violets on the other hand seem to include widely diffused original forms, from which branches have started at different times and in different localities. the origin of such groups of allied forms must therefore be the object of our research. perhaps we might find a whole group, perhaps only part of it. in my opinion we have the right to assume that if _draba_ and violets and [ ] others have formerly mutated in this way, other species must at present be in the same changeable condition. and if mutations in groups, or such periodic mutations should be the rule, it is to be premised that these periods recur from time to time, and that many species must even now be in mutating condition, while others are not. it is readily granted that the constant condition of species is the normal one, and that mutating periods must be the exception. this fact does not tend to increase our prospect of discovering a species in a state of mutability. many species will have to be tested before finding an instance. on the other hand, a direct trial seems to be the only way to reach the goal. no such special guides as those that led us to the choice of pelories and double flowers are available. the only indication of value is the presumption that a condition of mutability might be combined with a general state of variability at large, and that groups of plants of very uniform features might be supposed to be constant in this respect too. on the contrary, anomalies and deviations if existent in the members of one strain, or found together in one native locality of a species, might be considered as an indication in the desired direction. few plants vary in the wild state in such a [ ] measure as to give distinct indications. all have to be given a trial in the garden under conditions as similar as possible to their natural environments. cultivated plants are of course to be excluded. practically they have already undergone the experience in question and can not be expected to change their habits soon enough. moreover they are often of hybrid origin. the best way is to experiment with the native plants of one's own country. i have made such experiments with some hundred species that grow wild in holland. some were very variable, as for instance, the jointed charlock (_raphanus raphanistrum_) and the narrow-leaved plantain (_plantago lanceolata_). others seemed more uniform, but many species, collected without showing any malformation, subsequently produced them in my garden, either on the introduced plants themselves or among their offspring. from this initial material i have procured a long series of hereditary races, each with some peculiar anomaly for its special character. but this result was only a secondary gain, a meager consolation for the negative fact that no real mutability could be discovered. my plants were mostly annuals or biennials, or such perennials as under adequate treatment might produce flowers and seeds during their [ ] first summer. it would be of no special use to enumerate them. the negative result does not apply to the species as such, but only to the individual strain, which i collected and cultivated. many species, which are quite constant with us, may be expected to be mutable in other parts of their range. only one of all my tests met my expectations. this species proved to be in a state of mutation, producing new elementary forms continually, and it soon became the chief member of my experimental garden. it was one of the evening primroses. several evening-primroses have at different times been introduced into european gardens from america. from thence they have spread into the vicinity, becoming common and exhibiting the behavior of indigenous types. _oenothera biennis_ was introduced about from virginia, or nearly three centuries ago. _o. muricata_, with small corollas and narrow leaves, was introduced in the year by john hunneman, and _o. suaveolens_, or sweet-scented primrose, a form very similar to the _biennis_, about the same time, in , by john fothergill. this form is met with in different parts of france, while the _biennis_ and _muricata_ are very common in the sandy regions of holland, where i have observed them for [ ] more than years. they are very constant and have proven so in my experiments. besides these three species, the large-flowered evening-primrose, or _oenothera lamarckiana_, is found in some localities in holland and elsewhere. we know little concerning its origin. it is supposed to have come from america in the same way as its congeners, but as yet i have not been able to ascertain on what grounds this supposition rests. as far as i know, it has not been seen growing wild in this country, though it may have been overlooked. the fact that the species of this group are subject to many systematic controversies and are combined by different writers into systematic species in different ways, being often considered as varieties of one or two types, easily accounts for it having been overlooked. however, it would be of great interest to ascertain whether _o. lamarckiana_ yet grows in america, and whether it is in the same state of mutability here as it is in holland. the large-flowered evening-primrose was also cultivated about the beginning of the last century in the gardens of the museum d'histoire naturelle, at paris, where it was noticed by lamarck, who at once distinguished it as an undescribed species. he wrote a complete description [ ] of it and his type specimens are still preserved in the herbarium of the museum, where i have compared them with the plants of my own culture. shortly afterwards it was renamed by seringe, in honor of its eminent discoverer, whose name it now bears. so lamarck unconsciously discovered and described himself the plant, which after a century, was to become the means of an empirical demonstration of his far-reaching views on the common origin of all living beings. _oenothera lamarckiana_ is considered in europe as a garden-plant, much prized for parks and ornamental planting. it is cultivated by seed-merchants and offered for sale. it has escaped from gardens, and having abundant means for rapid multiplication, has become wild in many places. as far as i know its known localities are small, and it is to be presumed that in each of them the plant has escaped separately from culture. it was in this state that i first met with this beautiful species. lamarck's evening-primrose is a stately plant, with a stout stem, attaining often a height of . meters and more. when not crowded the main stem is surrounded by a large circle of smaller branches, growing upwards from its base so as often to form a dense bush. these branches in their turn have numerous lateral [ ] branches. most of them are crowned with flowers in summer, which regularly succeed each other, leaving behind them long spikes of young fruits. the flowers are large and of a bright yellow color, attracting immediate attention, even from a distance. they open towards evening, as the name indicates, and are pollinated by humble-bees and moths. on bright days their duration is confined to one evening, but during cloudy weather they may still be found open on the following morning. contrary to their congeners they are dependent on visiting insects for pollination. _o. biennis_ and _o. muricata_ have their stigmas in immediate contact with the anthers within the flower-buds, and as the anthers open in the morning preceding the evening of the display of the petals, fecundation is usually accomplished before the insects are let in. but in _o. lamarckiana_ no such self-fertilization takes place. the stigmas are above the anthers in the bud, and as the style increases in length at the time of the opening of the corolla, they are elevated above the anthers and do not receive the pollen. ordinarily the flowers remained sterile if not visited by insects or pollinated by myself, although rare instances of self-fertilization were seen. in falling off, the flowers leave behind them a stout ovary with four cells and a large number [ ] of young seeds. the capsule when ripe, opens at its summit with four valves, and contains often from two to three hundred seeds. a hundred capsules on the main stem is an average estimate, and the lateral branches may ripen even still more fruits, by which a very rapid dissemination is ensured. this striking species was found in a locality near hilvers, in the vicinity of amsterdam, where it grew in some thousands of individuals. ordinarily biennial, it produces rosettes in the first, and stems in the second year. both the stems and the rosettes were at once seen to be highly variable, and soon distinct varieties could be distinguished among them. the first discovery of this locality was made in . afterwards i visited it many times, often weekly or even daily during the first few years, and always at least once a year up to the present time. this stately plant showed the long-sought peculiarity of producing a number of new species every year. some of them were observed directly on the field, either as stems or as rosettes. the latter could be transplanted into my garden for further observation, and the stems yielded seeds to be sown under like control. others were too weak to live a sufficiently long time in the field. they were discovered by sowing seed from indifferent plants [ ] of the wild locality in the garden. a third and last method of getting still more new species from the original strain, was the repetition of the sowing process, by saving and sowing the seed which ripened on the introduced plants. these various methods have led to the discovery of over a dozen new types, never previously observed or described. leaving the physiologic side of the relations of these new forms for the next lecture, it would be profitable to give a short description of the several novelties. to this end they may be combined under five different heads, according to their systematic value. the first head includes those which are evidently to be considered as varieties, in the narrower sense of the word, as previously given. the second and third heads indicate the real progressive elementary species, first those which are as strong as the parent-species, and secondly a group of weaker types, apparently not destined to be successful. under the fourth head i shall include some inconstant forms, and under the last head those that are organically incomplete. of varieties with a negative attribute, or real retrograde varieties, i have found three, all of them in a flowering condition in the field. i have given them the names of _laevifolia_, _brevistylis_ and _nanella_. [ ] the _laevifolia_, or smooth-leaved variety, was one of the very first deviating types found in the original field. this was in the summer of , seventeen years ago. it formed a little group of plants growing at some distance from the main body, in the same field. i found some rosettes and some flowering stems and sowed some seed in the fall. the variety has been quite constant in the field, neither increasing in number of individual plants nor changing its place, though now closely surrounded by other _lamarckiana_s. in my garden it has proved to be constant from seed, never reverting to the original _lamarckiana_, provided intercrossing was excluded. it is chiefly distinguished from lamarck's evening-primrose by its smooth leaves, as the name indicates. the leaves of the original form show numerous sinuosities in their blades, not at the edge, but anywhere between the veins. the blade shows numbers of convexities on either surface, the whole surface being undulated in this manner; it lacks also the brightness of the ordinary evening-primrose or _oenothera biennis_. these undulations are lacking or at least very rare on the leaves of the new _laevifolia_. ordinarily they are wholly wanting, but at times single leaves with slight manifestations of this [ ] character may make their appearance. they warn us that the capacity for such sinuosities is not wholly lost, but only lies dormant in the new variety. it is reduced to a latent state, exactly as are the apparently lost characters of so many ordinary horticultural varieties. lacking the undulations, the _laevifolia_ leaves are smooth and bright. they are a little narrower and more slender than those of the _lamarckiana_. the convexities and concavities of leaves are said to be useful in dry seasons, but during wet summers, such as those of the last few years, they must be considered as very harmful, as they retain some of the water which falls on the plants, prolonging the action of the water on the leaves. this is considered by some writers to be of some utility after slight showers, but was observed to be a source of weakness during wet weather in my garden, preventing the leaves from drying. whether the _laevifolia_ would do better under such circumstances, remains to be tested. the flowers of the _laevifolia_ are also in a slight degree different from those of _lamarckiana_. the yellow color is paler and the petals are smoother. later, in the fall, on the weaker side branches these differences increase. the _laevifolia_ petals become smaller and are often not emarginated at the apex, becoming ovate [ ] instead of obcordate. this shape is often the most easily recognized and most striking mark of the variety. in respect to the reproductive organs, the fertility and abundance of good seed, the _laevifolia_ is by no means inferior or superior to the original species. _o. brevistylis_, or the short-styled evening primrose, is the most curious of all my new forms. it has very short styles, which bring the stigmas only up to the throat of the calyx tube, instead of upwards of the anthers. the stigmas themselves are of a different shape, more flattened and not cylindrical. the pollen falls from the anthers abundantly on them, and germinates in the ordinary manner. the ovary which in _lamarckiana_ and in all other new forms is wholly underneath the calyx-tube, is here only partially so. this tube is inserted at some distance under its summit. the insertion divides the ovary into two parts: an upper and a lower one. the upper part is much reduced in breadth and somewhat attenuated, simulating a prolongation of the base of the style. the lower part is also reduced, but in another manner. at the time of flowering it is like the ovary of _lamarckiana_, neither smaller nor larger. but it is reached by only a very few pollen-tubes, and is therefore always incompletely fertilized. it does [ ] not fall off after the fading away of the flower, as unfertilized ovaries usually do; neither does it grow out, nor assume the upright position of normal capsules. it is checked in its development, and at the time of ripening it is nearly of the same length as in the beginning. many of them contain no good seeds at all; from others i have succeeded in saving only a hundred seeds from thousands of capsules. these seeds, if purely pollinated, and with the exclusion of the visits of insects, reproduce the variety, entirely and without any reversion to the _lamarckiana_ type. correlated with the detailed structures is the form of the flower-buds. they lack the high stigma placed above the anthers, which in the _lamarckiana_, by the vigorous growth of the style, extends the calyx and renders the flower bud thinner and more slender. those of the _brevistylis_ are therefore broader and more swollen. it is quite easy to distinguish the individuals by this striking character alone, although it differs from the parent in other particulars. the leaves of the _o. brevistylis_ are more rounded at the tip, but the difference is only pronounced at times, slightly in the adult rosettes, but more clearly on the growing summits of the stems and branches. by this character, the plants [ ] may be discerned among the others, some weeks before the flowers begin to show themselves. but the character by which the plants may be most easily recognized from a distance in the field is the failure of the fruits. they were found there nearly every year in varying, but always small numbers. leaving the short-styled primrose, we come now to the last of our group of retrograde varieties. this is the _o. nanella_, or the dwarf, and is a most attractive little plant. it is very short of stature, reaching often a height of only - cm., or less than one-fourth of that of the parent. it commences flowering at a height of - cm., while the parent-form often measures nearly a meter at this stage of its development. being so very dwarfed the large flowers are all the more striking. they are hardly inferior to those of the _lamarckiana_, and agree with them in structure. when they fade away the spike is rapidly lengthened, and often becomes much longer than the lower or vegetative part of the stem. the dwarfs are one of the most common mutations in my garden, and were observed in the native locality and also grown from seeds saved there. once produced they are absolutely constant. i have tried many thousands of seeds from various dwarf mutants, and never observed [ ] any trace of reversion to the _lamarckiana_ type. i have also cultivated them in successive generations with the same result. in a former lecture we have seen that contrary to the general run of horticultural belief, varieties are as constant as the best species, if kept free from hybrid admixtures. this is a general rule, and the exceptions, or cases of atavism are extremely rare. in this respect it is of great interest to observe that this constancy is not an acquired quality, but is to be considered as innate, because it is already fully developed at the very moment when the original mutation takes place. from its first leaves to the rosette period, and through this to the lengthening of the stem, the dwarfs are easily distinguished from any other of their congeners. the most remarkable feature is the shape of the leaves. they are broader and shorter, and especially at the base they are broadened in such a way as to become apparently sessile. the stalk is very brittle, and any rough treatment may cause the leaves to break off. the young seedlings are recognizable by the shape of the first two or three leaves, and when more of them are produced, the rosettes become dense and strikingly different from others. later leaves are more nearly like the parent-type, but the petioles remain short. the bases of the blades are frequently [ ] almost cordate, the laminae themselves varying from oblong-ovate to ovate in outline. the stems are often quite unbranched, or branched only at the base of the spike. strong secondary stems are a striking attribute of the _lamarckiana_ parent, but they are lacking, or almost so in the dwarfs. the stem is straight and short, and this, combined with the large crown of bright flowers, makes the dwarfs eminently suitable for bed or border plants. unfortunately they are very sensitive, especially to wet weather. _oenothera gigas_ and _o. rubrinervis_, or the giant, and the red-veined evening-primroses, are the names given to two robust and stout species, which seem to be equal in vigor to the parent-plant, while diverging from it in striking characters. both are true elementary species, differentiated from _lamarckiana_ in nearly all their organs and qualities, but not showing any preponderating character of a retrograde nature. their differences may be compared with those of the elementary species of other genera, as for instance, of _draba_, or of violets, as will be seen by their description. the giant evening-primrose, though not taller in stature than _o. lamarckiana_, deserves its name because it is so much stouter in all respects. [ ] the stems are robust, often with twice the diameter of _lamarckiana_ throughout. the internodes are shorter, and the leaves more numerous, covering the stems with a denser foliage. this shortness of the internodes extends itself to the spike, and for this reason the flowers and fruits grow closer together than on the parent-plant. hence the crown of bright flowers, opening each evening, is more dense and more strikingly brilliant, so much the more so as the individual flowers are markedly larger than those of the parents. in connection with these characters, the flower-buds are seen to be much stouter than those of _lamarckiana_. the fruits attain only half the normal size, but are broader and contain fewer, but larger seeds. the _rubrinervis_ is in many respects a counterpart to the _gigasv, but its stature is more slender. the spikes and flowers are those of the _lamarckianav, but the bracts are narrower. red veins and red streaks on the fruits afford a striking differentiating mark, though they are not absolutely lacking in the parent-species. a red hue may be seen on the calyx, and even the yellow color of the petals is somewhat deepened in the same way. young plants are often marked by the pale red tinge of the mid-veins, but in adult rosettes, or from lack of sunshine, this hue is often very faint. [ ] the leaves are narrow, and a curious feature of this species is the great brittleness of the leaves and stems, especially in annual individuals, especially in those that make their stem and flowers in the first year. high turgidity and weak development of the mechanical and supporting tissues are the anatomical cause of this deficiency, the bast-fibers showing thinner walls than those of the parent-type under the microscope. young stems of _rubrinervis_ may be broken off by a sharp stroke, and show a smooth rupture across all the tissues, while those of _lamarckiana_ are very tough and strong. both the giant and the red-veined species are easily recognized in the rosette-stage. even the very young seedlings of the latter are clearly differentiated from the _lamarckiana_, but often a dozen leaves are required, before the difference may be seen. under such circumstances the young plants must reach an age of about two months before it is possible to discern their characters, or at least before these characters have become reliable enough to enable us to judge of each individual without doubt. but the divergencies rapidly become greater. the leaves of _o. gigas_ are broader, of a deeper green, the blade more sharply set off against the stalk, all the rosettes [ ] becoming stout and crowded with leaves. those of _o. rubrinervis_ on the contrary are thin, of a paler green and with a silvery white surface; the blades are elliptic, often being only cm. or less in width. they are acute at the apex and gradually narrowed into the petiole. it is quite evident that such pale narrow leaves must produce smaller quantities of organic food than the darker green and broad organs of the _gigas_. perhaps this fact is accountable partly, at least, for the more robust growth of the giant in the second year. perhaps also some relation exists between this difference in chemical activity and the tendency to become annual or biennial. the _gigas_, as a rule, produces far more, and the _rubrinervis_ far less biennial plants than the _lamarckiana_. annual culture for the one is as unreliable as biennial culture for the other. _rubrinervis_ may be annual in apparently all specimens, in sunny seasons, but _gigas_ will ordinarily remain in the state of rosettes during the entire first summer. it would be very interesting to obtain a fuller insight into the relation of the length of life to other qualities, but as yet the facts can only be detailed as they stand. both of these stout species have been found [ ] quite constant from the very first moment of their appearance. i have cultivated them from seed in large numbers, and they have never reverted to the _lamarckiana_. from this they have inherited the mutability or the capacity of producing at their turn new mutants. but they seem to have done so incompletely, changing in the direction of more absolute constancy. this was especially observed in the case of _rubrinervis_, which is not of such rare occurrence as _o. gigas_, and which it has been possible to study in large numbers of individuals. so for instance, the "red-veins" have never produced any dwarfs, notwithstanding they are produced very often by the parent-type. and in crossing experiments also the red-veins gave proof of the absence of a mutative capacity for their production. leaving the robust novelties, we may now take up a couple of forms, which are equally constants and differentiated from the parent species in exactly the same manner, though by other characters, but which are so obviously weak as to have no manifest chance of self maintenance in the wild state. these are the whitish and the oblong-leaved evening-primroses or the _oenothera albida_ and _oblonga_. _oenothera albida_ is a very weak species, with whitish, narrow leaves, which are evidently incapable [ ] of producing sufficient quantities of organic food. the young seedling-plants are soon seen to lag behind, and if no care is taken of them they are overgrown by their neighbors. it is necessary to take them out, to transplant them into pots with richly manured soil, and to give them all the care that should be given to weak and sickly plants. if this is done fully grown rosettes may be produced, which are strong enough to keep through the winter. in this case the individual leaves become stronger and broader, with oblong blades and long stalks, but retain their characteristic whitish color. in the second year the stems become relatively stout. not that they become equal to those of _lamarckiana_, but they become taller than might have been expected from the weakness of the plants in the previous stages. the flowers and racemes are nearly as large as those of the parent-form, the fruits only a little thinner and containing a smaller quantity of seed. from these seeds i have grown a second and a third generation, and observed that the plants remain true to their type. _o. oblonga_ may be grown either as an annual, or as a biennial. in the first case it is very slender and weak, bearing only small fruits and few seeds. in the alternative case however, it [ ] becomes densely branched, bearing flowers on quite a number of racemes and yielding a full harvest of seeds. but it always remains a small plant, reaching about half the height of that of _lamarckiana_. when very young it has broader leaves, but in the adult rosettes the leaves become very narrow, but fleshy and of a bright green color. they are so crowded as to leave no space between them unoccupied. the flowering spikes of the second year bear long leaf-like bracts under the first few flowers, but those arising later are much shorter. numerous little capsules cover the axis of the spike after the fading away of the petals, constituting a very striking differentiating mark. this species also was found to be quite constant, if grown from pure seed. we have now given the descriptions of seven new forms, which diverge in different ways from the parent-type. all were absolutely constant from seed. hundreds or thousands of seedlings may have arisen, but they always come true and never revert to the original _o. lamarckiana_ type. from this they have inherited the condition of mutability, either completely or partly, and according to this they may be able to produce new forms themselves. but this occurs only rarely, and combinations of more than one [ ] type in one single plant seem to be limited to the admixture of the dwarf stature with the characters of the other new species. these seven novelties do not comprise the whole range of the new productions of my _o. lamarckiana_. but they are the most interesting ones. others, as the _o. semilata_ and the _o. leptocarpa_ are quite as constant and quite as distinct, but have no special claims for a closer description. others again were sterile, or too weak to reach the adult stage and to yield seeds, and no reliable description or appreciation can be given on the ground of the appearance of a single individual. contrasted with these groups of constant forms are three inconstant types which we now take up. they belong to two different groups, according to the cause of their inconstancy. in one species which i call _o. lata_, the question of stability or instability must remain wholly unsolved, as only pistillate flowers are produced, and no seed can be fertilized save by the use of the pollen of another form, and therefore by hybridization. the other head comprises two fertile forms, _o. scintillans_ and _o. elliptica_, which may easily be fertilized with their own pollen, but which gave a progeny only partly similar to the parents. the _oenothera lata_ is a very distinct form [ ] which was found more than once in the field, and recently ( ) in a luxuriant flowering specimen. it has likewise been raised from seeds collected in different years at the original station. it is also wholly pistillate. apparently the anthers are robust, but they are dry, wrinkled and nearly devoid of contents. the inner wall of cells around the groups of pollen grow out instead of being resorbed, partly filling the cavity which is left free by the miscarriage of the pollen-grains. this miscarriage does not affect all the grains in the same degree, and under the microscope a few of them with an apparently normal structure may be seen. but the contents are not normally developed, and i have tried in vain to obtain fertilization with a large number of flowers. only by cross-fertilization does _o. lata_ produce seeds, and then as freely as the other species when self-fertilized. of course its chance of ever founding a wild type is precluded by this defect. _o. lata_ is a low plant, with a limp stem, bent tips and branches, all very brittle, but with dense foliage and luxuriant growth. it has bright yellow flowers and thick flower-buds. but for an unknown reason the petals are apt to unfold only partially and to remain wrinkled throughout the flowering time. the stigmas are slightly divergent from the normal type, [ ] also being partly united with one another, and laterally with the summit of the style, but without detriment to their function. young seedlings of _lata_ may be recognized by the very first leaves. they have a nearly orbicular shape and are very sharply set off against their stalk. the surface is very uneven, with convexities and concavities on both sides. this difference is lessened in the later leaves, but remains visible throughout the whole life of the plant, even during the flowering season. broad, sinuate leaves with rounded tips are a sure mark of _o. lata_. on the summits of the stems and branches they are crowded so as to form rosettes. concerning inheritance of these characteristics nothing can be directly asserted because of the lack of pollen. the new type can only be perpetuated by crosses, either with the parent form or some other mutant. i have fertilized it, as a rule, with _lamarckiana_ pollen, but have often also used that from _nanella_ and others. in doing so, the _lata_ repeats its character in part of its offspring. this part seems to be independent of the nature of the pollen used, but is very variable according to external circumstances. on the average one-fourth of the offspring become _lata_, the others assuming the type of the pollen-parent, if this was a _lamarckiana_ or [ ] partly this type and partly that of any other of the new species derived from _lamarckiana_, that might have been used as the pollen-parent. this average seems to be a general rule, recurring in all experiments, and remaining unchanged through a long series of successive generations. the fluctuations around this mean go up to nearly % and down nearly to %, but, as in other cases, such extreme deviations from the average are met with only exceptionally. the second category includes the inconstant but perfectly fertile species. i have already given the names of the only two forms, which deserve to be mentioned here. one of them is called _scintillans_ or the shiny evening-primrose, because its leaves are of a deep green color with smooth surfaces, glistening in the sunshine. on the young rosettes these leaves are somewhat broader, and afterwards somewhat narrower than those of _o. lamarckiana_ at the corresponding ages. the plants themselves always remain small, never reaching the stature of the ancestral type. they are likewise much less branched. they can easily be cultivated in annual generations, but then do not become as fully developed and as fertile, as when flowering in the second year. the flowers have the same structure as those of the _lamarckiana_, but are of a smaller size. [ ] fertilizing the flowers artificially with their own pollen, excluding the visiting insects by means of paper bags, and saving and sowing the seed of each individual separately, furnishes all the requisites for the estimation of the degree of stability of this species. in the first few weeks the seed-pans do not show any unequality, and often the young plants must be replanted at wider intervals, before anything can be made out with certainty. but as soon as the rosettes begin to fill it becomes manifest that some of them are more backward than others in size. soon the smaller ones show their deeper green and broader leaves, and thereby display the attributes of the _scintillans_. the other grow faster and stronger and exhibit all the characteristics of ordinary _lamarckiana_s. the numerical proportion of these two groups has been found different on different occasions. some plants give about one-third _scintillans_ and two-thirds _lamarckiana_, while the progeny of individuals of another strain show exactly the reverse proportion. two points deserve to be noticed. first the progeny of the _scintillans_ appears to be mutable in a large degree, exceeding even the _lamarckiana_. the same forms that are produced most often by the parent-family are also most ordinarily [ ] met with among the offspring of the shiny evening-primrose. they are _oblonga_, _lata_ and _nanella_. _oblonga_ was observed at times to constitute as much as % or more of the sowings of _scintillans_, while _lata_ and _nanella_ were commonly seen only in a few scattering individuals, although seldom lacking in experiments of a sufficient size. secondly the instability seems to be a constant quality, although the words themselves are at first sight, contradictory. i mean to convey the conception that the degree of instability remains unchanged during successive generations. this is a very curious fact, and strongly reminds us of the hereditary conditions of striped-flower varieties. but, on the contrary, the atavists, which are here the individuals with the stature and the characteristics of the _lamarckiana_, have become _lamarckiana_s in their hereditary qualities, too. if their seed is saved and sown, their progeny does not contain any _scintillans_, or at least no more than might arise by ordinary mutations. one other inconstant new species is to be noted, but as it was very rare both in the field and in my cultures, and as it was difficult of cultivation, little can as yet be said about it. it is the _oenothera elliptica_, with narrow elliptical leaves and also with elliptical petals. it repeats [ ] its type only in a very small proportion of its seed. all in all we thus have a group of a dozen new types, springing from an original form in one restricted locality, and seen to grow there, or arising in the garden from seeds collected from the original locality. without any doubt the germs of the new types are fully developed within the seed, ready to be evolved at the time of germination. more favorable conditions in the field would no doubt allow all of the described new species to unfold their attributes there, and to come into competition with each other and with the common parents. but obviously this is only of secondary importance, and has no influence on the fact that a number of new types, analogous to the older swarms of _draba_, _viola_ and of many other polymorphous species, have been seen to arise directly in the wild state. [ ] lecture xix experimental pedigree-cultures the observation of the production of mutants in the field at hilversum, and the subsequent cultivation of the new types in the garden at amsterdam, gives ample proof of the mutability of plants. furthermore it furnishes an analogy with the hypothetical origin of the swarms of species of _draba_ and _viola_. last but not least important it affords material for a complete systematic and morphologic study of the newly arisen group of forms. the physiologic laws, however, which govern this process are only very imperfectly revealed by such a study. the instances are too few. moreover the seeds from which the mutants spring, escape observation. it is simply impossible to tell from which individual plants they have been derived. the laevifolia and the brevistylis have been found almost every year, the first always recurring on the same spot, the second on various parts of the original field. it is therefore allowable to assume a common [ ] origin for all the observed individuals of either strain. but whether, besides this, similar strains are produced anew by the old _lamarckiana_ group, it is impossible to decide on the sole ground of these field-observations. the same holds good with the other novelties. even if one of them should germinate repeatedly, without ever opening its flowers, the possibility could not be excluded that the seeds might have come originally from the same capsule but lain dormant in the earth during periods of unequal length. other objections might be cited that can only be met by direct and fully controlled experiments. next to the native locality comes the experimental garden. here the rule prevails that every plant must be fertilized with pollen of its own, or with pollen of other individuals of known and recorded origin. the visits of insects must be guarded against, and no seeds should be saved from flowers which have been allowed to open without this precaution. then the seeds of each individual must be saved and sown separately, so as to admit of an appreciation, and if necessary, a numerical determination of the nature of its progeny. and last but not least the experiments should be conducted in a similar manner during a series of successive years. [ ] i have made four such experiments, each comprising the handling of many thousands of individual plants, and lasting through five to nine generations. at the beginning the plants were biennial, as in the native locality, but later i learned to cultivate them in annual generations. they have been started from different plants and seeds, introduced from the original field into my garden at amsterdam. it seems sufficient to describe here one of these pedigree-cultures, as the results of all four were similar. in the fall of i took nine large rosettes from the field, planted them together on an isolated spot in the garden, and harvested their seeds the next year. these nine original plants are therefore to be considered as constituting the first generation of my race. the second generation was sown in and flowered in . it at once yielded the expected result. , seedlings were tested and examined, and among them showed diverging characters. they were properly protected, and proved to belong to two new types. of them were _lata_ and _nanella_. they flowered next year and displayed all the characters as described in our preceding lecture. intermediates between them and the general type were not found, and no indication of their appearance was noted in their parents. [ ] they came into existence at once, fully equipped, without preparation or intermediate steps. no series of generations, no selection, no struggle for existence was needed. it was a sudden leap into another type, a sport in the best acceptation of the word. it fulfilled my hopes, and at once gave proof of the possibility of the direct observation of the origin of species, and of the experimental control thereof. the third generation was in the main a repetition of the second. i tried some , seedlings and found three _lata_ and three _nanella_, or nearly the same proportion as in the first instance. but besides these a _rubrinervis_ made its appearance and flowered the following year. this fact at once revealed the possibility that the instability of _lamarckiana_ might not be restricted to the three new types now under observation. hence the question arose how it would be possible to obtain other types or to find them if they were present. it was necessary to have better methods of cultivation and examination of the young plants. accordingly i devoted the three succeeding years to working on this problem. i found that it was not at all necessary to sow any larger quantities of seed, but that the young plants must have room enough to develop into full and free rosettes. moreover i observed [ ] that the attributes of _lata_ and _nanella_, which i now studied in the offspring of my first mutants, were clearly discernible in extreme youth, while those of _rubrinervis_ remained concealed some weeks longer. hence i concluded that the young plants should be examined from time to time until they proved clearly to be only normal _lamarckiana_. individuals exhibiting any deviation from the type, or even giving only a slight indication of it, were forthwith taken out of the beds and planted separately, under circumstances as favorable as possible. they were established in pots with well-manured soil and kept under glass, but fully exposed to sunshine. as a rule they grew very fast, and could be planted out early in june. some of them, of course, proved to have been erroneously taken for mutants, but many exhibited new characters. all in all i had young plants which did not agree with the parental type. as i examined some , seedlings altogether, the result was estimated at about . %. this proportion is much larger than in the yields of the two first generations and illustrates the value of improved methods. no doubt many good mutations had been overlooked in the earlier observations. as was to be expected, _lata_ and _nanella_ [ ] were repeated in this third generation ( ). i was sure to get nearly all of them, without any important exceptions, as i now knew how to detect them at almost any age. in fact, i found many of them; as many as _nanella_ and _lata_, or nearly % of each. _rubrinervis_ also recurred, and was seen in specimens. it was much more rare than the two first-named types. but the most curious fact in that year was the appearance of _oblonga_. no doubt i had often seen it in former years, but had not attached any value to the very slight differences from the type, as they then seemed to me. i knew now that any divergence was to be esteemed as important, and should be isolated for further observation. this showed that among the selected specimens not less than , or more than % belonged to the _oblonga_ type. this type was at that time quite new to me, and it had to be kept through the winter, to obtain stems and flowers. it proved to be as uniform as its three predecessors, and especially as sharply contrasted with _lamarckiana_. the opportunity for the discovery of any intermediates was as favorable as could be, because the distinguishing marks were hardly beyond doubt at the time of the selection and removal of the young plants. but no connecting links were found. [ ] the same holds good for _albida_, which appeared in specimens, or in . %, of the whole culture. by careful cultivation these plants proved not to be sickly, but to belong to a new, though weak type. it was evident that i had already seen them in former years, but having failed to recognize them had allowed them to be destroyed at an early age, not knowing how to protect them against adverse circumstances. even this time i did not succeed in getting them strong enough to keep through the winter. besides these, two new types were observed, completing the range of all that have since been recorded to regularly occur in this family. they were _scintillans_ and _gigas_. the first was obtained in the way just described. the other hardly escaped being destroyed, not having showed itself early enough, and being left in the bed after the end of the selection. but as it was necessary to keep some rosettes through the winter in order to have biennial flowering plants to furnish seeds, i selected in august about of the most vigorous plants, planted them on another bed and gave them sufficient room for their stems and branches in the following summer. most of them sent up robust shoots, but no difference was noted till the first flowers opened. one plant had a much larger crown of bright blossoms than any of the others. [ ] as soon as these flowers faded away, and the young fruits grew out, it became clear that a new type was showing itself. on that indication i removed all the already fertilized flowers and young fruits, and protected the buds from the visits of insects. thus the isolated flowers were fertilized with their own pollen only, and i could rely upon the purity of the seed saved. this lot of seeds was sown in the spring of and yielded a uniform crop of nearly young _gigas_ plants. having found how much depends upon the treatment, i could gradually decrease the size of my cultures. evidently the chance of discovering new types would be lessened thereby, but the question as to the repeated production of the same new forms could more easily and more clearly be answered in this way. in the following year ( ) i sowed half as many seeds as formerly, and the result proved quite the same. with the exception of _gigas_ all the described forms sprang anew from the purely fertilized ancestry of normal _lamarckiana_s. it was now the fifth generation of my pedigree, and thus i was absolutely sure that the descendants of the mutants of this year had been pure and without deviation for at least four successive generations. owing partly to improved methods of selection, [ ] partly no doubt to chance, even more mutants were found this year than in the former. out of some , seedlings i counted deviating ones, or nearly %, which is a high proportion. most of them were _oblonga_ and _lata_, the same types that had constituted the majority in the former year. _albida_, _nanella_ and _rubrinervis_ appeared in large numbers, and even _scintillans_, of which i had but a single plant in the previous generation, was repeated sixfold. new forms did not arise, and the capacity of my strain seemed exhausted. this conclusion was strengthened by the results of the next three generations, which were made on a much smaller scale and yielded the same, or at least the mutants most commonly seen in previous years. instead of giving the figures for these last two years separately, i will now summarize my whole experiment in the form of a pedigree. in this the normal _lamarckiana_ was the main line, and seeds were only sown from plants after sufficient isolation either of the plants themselves, or in the latter years by means of paper bags enclosing the inflorescences. i have given the number of seedlings of _lamarckiana_ which were examined each year in the table below. of course by far the largest number of them were [ ] thrown away as soon as they showed their differentiating characters in order to make room for the remaining ones. at last only a few plants were left to blossom in order to perpetuate the race. i have indicated for each generation the number of mutants of each of the observed forms, placing them in vertical columns underneath their respective heads. the three first generations were biennial, but the five last annual. pedigree of a mutating family of _oenothera lamarckiana_ in the experimental garden at amsterdam gener: o.gig. albida obl. rubrin. lam. nanella lata. scint. viii. vii. vi. v. iv. iii. ii. i. it is most striking that the various mutations of the evening-primrose display a great degree of regularity. there is no chaos of forms, no indefinite varying in all degrees and in all directions. quite on the contrary, it is at once evident that very simple rules govern the whole phenomenon. i shall now attempt to deduce these laws from [ ] my experiment. obviously they apply not only to our evening-primroses, but may be expected to be of general validity. this is at once manifest, if we compare the group of new mutants with the swarms of elementary forms which compose some of the youngest systematic species, and which, as we have seen before, are to be considered as the results of previous mutations. the difference lies in the fact that the evening-primroses have been seen to spring from their ancestors and that the _drabas_ have not. hence the conclusion that in comparing the two we must leave out the pedigree of the evening-primroses and consider only the group of forms as they finally show themselves. if in doing so we find sufficient similarity, we are justified in the conclusion that the _drabas_ and others have probably originated in the same way as the evening-primroses. minor points of course will differ, but the main lines cannot have complied with wholly different laws. all so-called swarms of elementary species obviously pertain to a single type, and this type includes our evening-primroses as the only controlled case. formulating the laws of mutability for the evening-primroses we therefore assume that they hold good for numerous other corresponding cases. [ ] i. the first law is, that new elementary species appear suddenly, without intermediate steps. this is a striking point, and the one that is in the most immediate contradiction to current scientific belief. the ordinary conception assumes very slow changes, in fact so slow that centuries are supposed to be required to make the differences appreciable. if this were true, all chance of ever seeing a new species arise would be hopelessly small. fortunately the evening-primroses exhibit contrary tendencies. one of the great points of pedigree-culture is the fact that the ancestors of every mutant have been controlled and recorded. those of the last year have seven generations of known _lamarckiana_ parents preceding them. if there had been any visible preparation towards the coming mutation, it could not have escaped observation. moreover, if visible preparation were the rule, it could hardly go on at the same time and in the same individuals in five or six diverging directions, producing from one parent, _gigas_ and _nanella_, _lata_ and _rubrinervis_, _oblonga_ and _albida_ and even _scintillans_. on the other hand the mutants, that constitute the first representatives of their race, exhibit all the attributes of the new type in full display at once. no series of generations, no selection, [ ] no struggle for existence are needed to reach this end. in previous lectures i have mentioned that i have saved the seeds of the mutants whenever possible, and have always obtained repetitions of the prototype only. reversions are as absolutely lacking as is also a further development of the new type. even in the case of the inconstant forms, where part of the progeny yearly return to the stature of _lamarckiana_, intermediates are not found. so it is also with _lata_, which is pistillate and can only be propagated by cross-fertilization. but though the current belief would expect intermediates at least in this case, they do not occur. i made a pedigree-culture of lata during eight successive generations, pollinating them in different ways, and always obtained cultures which were partly constituted of _lata_ and partly of _lamarckiana_ specimens. but the _lata_s remained _lata_ in all the various and most noticeable characters, never showing any tendency to gradually revert into the original form. intermediate forms, if not occurring in the direct line from one species to another, might be expected to appear perhaps on lateral branches. in this case the mutants of one type, appearing in the same year, would not be a pure type, but would exhibit different degrees of deviation from the parent. the best would then have to [ ] be chosen in order to get the new type in its pure condition. nothing of the kind, however, was observed. all the _oblonga_-mutants were pure _oblongas_. the pedigree shows hundreds of them in the succeeding years, but no difference was seen and no material for selection was afforded. all were as nearly equal as the individuals of old elementary species. ii. new forms spring laterally from the main stem. the current conception concerning the origin of species assumes that species are slowly converted into others. the conversion is assumed to affect all the individuals in the same direction and in the same degree. the whole group changes its character, acquiring new attributes. by inter-crossing they maintain a common line of progress, one individual never being able to proceed much ahead of the others. the birth of the new species necessarily seemed to involve the death of the old one. this last conclusion, however, is hard to understand. it may be justifiable to assume that all the individuals of one locality are ordinarily intercrossed, and are moreover subjected to the same external conditions. they might be supposed to vary in the same direction if these conditions were changed slowly. but this could of course have no possible influence on the plants of the [ ] same species growing in distant localities, and it would be improbable they should be affected in the same way. hence we should conclude that when a species is converted into a new type in one locality this is only to be considered as one of numerous possible ones, and its alteration would not in the least change the aspect of the remainder of the species. but even with this restriction the general belief is not supported by the evidence of the evening-primroses. there is neither a slow nor a sudden change of all the individuals. on the contrary, the vast majority remain unchanged; thousands are seen exactly repeating the original prototype yearly, both in the native field and in my garden. there is no danger that _lamarckiana_ might die out from the act of mutating, nor that the mutating strain itself would be exposed to ultimate destruction from this cause. in older swarms, such as _draba_ or _helianthemum_, no such center, around which the various forms are grouped, is known. are we to conclude therefore that the main strain has died out? or is it perhaps concealed among the throng, being distinguished by no peculiar character? if our _gigas_ and _rubrinervis_ were growing in equal numbers with the _lamarckiana_ in the native field, would it be possible to decide [ ] which of them was the progenitor of the others? of course this could be done by long and tedious crossing experiments, showing atavism in the progeny, and thereby indicating the common ancestor. but even this capacity seems to be doubtful and connected only with the state of mutability and to be lost afterwards. therefore if this period of mutation were ended, probably there would be no way to decide concerning the mutual relationship of the single species. hence the lack of a recognizable main stem in swarms of elementary species makes it impossible to answer the question concerning their common origin. another phase of the opposition between the prevailing view and my own results seems far more important. according to the current belief the conversion of a group of plants growing in any locality and flowering simultaneously would be restricted to one type. in my own experiments several new species arose from the parental form at once, giving a wide range of new forms at the same time and under the same conditions. iii. new elementary species attain their full constancy at once. constancy is not the result of selection or of improvement. it is a quality of its own. it can neither be constrained by selection if it is absent [ ] from the beginning, nor does it need any natural or artificial aid if it is present. most of my new species have proved constant from the first. whenever possible, the original mutants have been isolated during the flowering period and artificially self-fertilized. such plants have always given a uniform progeny, all children exhibiting the type of the parent. no atavism was observed and therefore no selection was needed or even practicable. briefly considering the different forms, we may state that the full experimental proof has been given for the origin of _gigas_ and _rubrinervis_, for _albida_ and _oblonga_, and even for _nanella_, which is to be considered as of a varietal nature; with _lata_ the decisive experiment is excluded by its unisexuality. _laevifolia_ and _brevistylis_ were found originally in the field, and never appeared in my cultures. no observations were made as to their origin, and seeds have only been sown from later generations. but these have yielded uniform crops, thereby showing that there is no ground for the assumption that these two older varieties might behave otherwise than the more recent derivatives. _scintillans_ and _elliptica_ constitute exceptions to the rule given. they repeat their character, from pure seed, only in part of the offspring. i have tried to deliver the _scintillans_ from this [ ] incompleteness of heredity, but in vain. the succeeding generations, if produced from true representatives of the new type, and with pure fertilization, have repeated the splitting in the same numerical proportions. the instability seems to be here as permanent a quality as the stability in other instances. even here no selection has been adequate to change the original form. iv. some of the new strains are evidently elementary species, while others are to be considered as retrograde varieties. it is often difficult to decide whether a given form belongs to one or another of these two groups. i have tried to show that the best and strictest conception of varieties limits them to those forms that have probably originated by retrograde or degressive steps. elementary species are assumed to have been produced in a progressive way, adding one new element to the store. varieties differ from their species clearly in one point, and this is either a distinct loss, or the assumption of a character, which may be met with in other species and genera. _laevifolia_ is distinguished by the loss of the crinkling of the leaves, _brevistylis_ by the partial loss of the epigynous qualities of the flowers, and _nanella_ is a dwarf. these three new forms are therefore [ ] considered to constitute only retrograde steps, and no advance. this conclusion has been fully justified by some crossing experiments with _brevistylis_, which wholly complies with mendel's law, and in one instance with _nanella_, which behaves in the same manner, if crossed with _rubrinervis_. on the other hand, _gigas_ and _rubrinervis_, _oblonga_ and _albida_ obviously bear the characters of progressive elementary species. they are not differentiated from _lamarckiana_ by one or two main features. they diverge from it in nearly all organs, and in all in a definite though small degree. they may be recognized as soon as they have developed their first leaves and remain discernible throughout life. their characters refer chiefly to the foliage, but no less to the stature, and even the seeds have peculiarities. there can be little doubt but that all the attributes of every new species are derived from one principal change. but why this should affect the foliage in one manner, the flowers in another and the fruits in a third direction, remains obscure. to gain ever so little an insight into the nature of these changes, we may best compare the differences of our evening-primroses with those between the two hundred elementary species of _draba_ and other similar instances. in doing so we find the same main [ ] feature, the minute differences in nearly all points. v. the same new species are produced in a large number of individuals. this is a very curious fact. it embraces two minor points, viz: the multitude of similar mutants in the same year, and the repetition thereof in succeeding generations. obviously there must be some common cause. this cause must be assumed to lie dormant in the _lamarckiana_s of my strain, and probably in all of them, as no single parent-plant proved ever to be wholly destitute of mutability. furthermore the different causes for the sundry mutations must lie latent together in the same parent-plant. they obey the same general laws, become active under similar conditions, some of them being more easily awakened than others. the germs of the _oblonga_, _lata_ and _nanella_ are especially irritable, and are ready to spring into activity at the least summons, while those of _gigas_, _rubrinervis_ and _scintillans_ are far more difficult to arouse. these germs must be assumed to lie dormant during many successive generations. this is especially evident in the case of _lata_ and _nanella__, which appeared in the first year of the pedigree culture and which since have been repeated yearly, and have been seen to arise by mutation [ ] also during the last season ( ). only _gigas_ appeared but once, but then there is every reason to assume that in larger sowings or by a prolongation of the experiments it might have made a second appearance. is the number of such germs to be supposed to be limited or unlimited? my experiment has produced about a dozen new forms. without doubt i could easily have succeeded in getting more, if i had had any definite reason to search for them. but such figures are far from favoring the assumption of indefinite mutability. the group of possible new forms is no doubt sharply circumscribed. partly so by the morphologic peculiarities of _lamarckiana_, which seem to exclude red flowers, composite leaves, etc. no doubt there are more direct reasons for these limits, some changes having taken place initially and others later, while the present mutations are only repetitions of previous ones, and do not contribute new lines of development to those already existing. this leads us to the supposition of some common original cause, which produced a number of changes, but which itself is no longer at work, but has left the affected qualities, and only these, in the state of mutability. in nature, repeated mutations must be of far greater significance than isolated ones. how [ ] great is the chance for a single individual to be destroyed in the struggle for life? hundreds of thousands of seeds are produced by _lamarckiana_ annually in the field, and only some slow increase of the number of specimens can be observed. many seeds do not find the proper circumstances for germination, or the young seedlings are destroyed by lack of water, of air, or of space. thousands of them are so crowded when becoming rosettes that only a few succeed in producing stems. any weakness would have destroyed them. as a matter of fact they are much oftener produced in the seed than seen in the field with the usual unfavorable conditions; the careful sowing of collected seeds has given proof of this fact many times. the experimental proof of this frequency in the origin of new types, seems to overcome many difficulties offered by the current theories on the probable origin of species at large. vi. the relation between mutability and fluctuating variability has always been one of the chief difficulties of the followers of darwin. the majority assumed that species arise by the slow accumulation of slight fluctuating deviations, and the mutations were only to be considered as extreme fluctuations, obtained, in the main, by a continuous selection of small differences in a constant direction. [ ] my cultures show that quite the opposite is to be regarded as fact. all organs and all qualities of _lamarckiana_ fluctuate and vary in a more or less evident manner, and those which i had the opportunity of examining more closely were found to comply with the general laws of fluctuation. but such oscillating changes have nothing in common with the mutations. their essential character is the heaping up of slight deviations around a mean, and the occurrence of continuous lines of increasing deviations, linking the extremes with this group. nothing of the kind is observed in the case of mutations. there is no mean for them to be grouped around and the extreme only is to be seen, and it is wholly unconnected with the original type. it might be supposed that on closer inspection each mutation might be brought into connection with some feature of the fluctuating variability. but this is not the case. the dwarfs are not at all the extreme variants of structure, as the fluctuation of the height of the _lamarckiana_ never decreases or even approaches that of the dwarfs. there is always a gap. the smallest specimens of the tall type are commonly the weakest, according to the general rule of the relationship between nourishment and variation, but the tallest dwarfs are of course the most robust specimens of their group. [ ] fluctuating variability, as a rule, is subject to reversion. the seeds of the extremes do not produce an offspring which fluctuates around their parents as a center, but around some point on the line which combines their attributes with the corresponding characteristic of their ancestors, as vilmorin has put it. no reversion accompanies mutation, and this fact is perhaps the completest contrast in which these two great types of variability are opposed to each other. the offspring of my mutants are, of course, subject to the general laws of fluctuating variability. they vary, however, around their own mean, and this mean is simply the type of the new elementary species. vii. the mutations take place in nearly all directions. many authors assume that the origin of species is directed by unknown causes. these causes are assumed to work in each single case for the improvement of the animals and plants, changing them in a manner corresponding in a useful way to the changes that take place in their environment. it is not easy to imagine the nature of these influences nor how they would bring about the desired effect. this difficulty was strongly felt by darwin, and one of the chief purposes of his selection theory may be said to have been the attempt [ ] to surmount it. darwin tried to replace the unknown cause by natural agencies, which lie under our immediate observation. on this point darwin was superior to his predecessors, and it is chiefly due to the clear conception of this point that his theory has gained its deserved general acceptance. according to darwin, changes occur in all directions, quite independently of the prevailing circumstances. some may be favorable, others detrimental, many of them without significance, neither useful nor injurious. some of them will sooner or later be destroyed, while others will survive, but which of them will survive, is obviously dependent upon whether their particular changes agree with the existing environic conditions or not. this is what darwin has called the struggle for life. it is a large sieve, and it only acts as such. some fall through and are annihilated, others remain above and are selected, as the phrase goes. many are selected, but more are destroyed; daily observation does not leave any doubt upon this point. how the differences originate is quite another question. it has nothing to do with the theory of natural selection nor with the struggle for life. these have an active part only in the accumulation of useful qualities, and only in so [ ] far as they protect the bearers of such characters against being crowded out by their more poorly constituted competitors. however, the differentiating characteristics of elementary species are only very small. how widely distant they are from the beautiful adaptative organizations of orchids, of insectivorous plants and of so many others! here the difference lies in the accumulation of numerous elementary characters, which all contribute to the same end. chance must have produced them, and this would seem absolutely improbable, even impossible, were it not for darwin's ingenious theory. chance there is, but no more than anywhere else. it is not by mere chance that the variations move in the required direction. they do go, according to darwin's view, in all directions, or at least in many. if these include the useful ones, and if this is repeated a number of times, cumulation is possible; if not, there is simply no progression, and the type remains stable through the ages. natural selection is continually acting as a sieve, throwing out the useless changes and retaining the real improvements. hence the accumulation in apparently predisposed directions, and hence the increasing adaptations to the more specialized conditions of life. it must be obvious to any one who can free himself from the current ideas, [ ] that this theory of natural selection leaves the question as to how the changes themselves are brought about, quite undecided. there are two possibilities, and both have been propounded by darwin. one is the accumulation of the slight deviations of fluctuating variability, the other consists of successive sports or leaps taking place in the same direction. in further lectures a critical comparison of the two views will be given. today i have only to show that the mutations of the evening-primroses, though sudden, comply with the demands made by darwin as to the form of variability which is to be accepted as the cause of evolution and as the origin of species. some of my new types are stouter and others weaker than their parents, as shown by _gigas_ and _albida_. some have broader leaves and some narrower, _lata_ and _oblonga_. some have larger flowers (_gigas_) or deeper yellow ones (_rubrinervis_), or smaller blossoms (_scintillans_), or of a paler hue (_albida_). in some the capsules are longer (_rubrinervis_), or thicker (_gigas_), or more rounded (_lata_), or small (_oblonga_), and nearly destitute of seeds (_brevistylis_). the unevenness of the surface of the leaves may increase as in _lata_, or decrease as in _laevifolia_. the tendency to become annual prevails in _rubrinervis_, but _gigas_ tends to become [ ] biennial. some are rich in pollen, while _scintillans_ is poor. some have large seeds, others small. _lata_ has become pistillate, while _brevistylis_ has nearly lost the faculty to produce seeds. some undescribed forms were quite sterile, and some i observed which produced no flowers at all. from this statement it may be seen that nearly all qualities vary in opposite directions and that our group of mutants affords wide material for the sifting process of natural selection. on the original field the _laevifolia_ and _brevistylis_ have held their own during sixteen years and probably more, without, however, being able to increase their numbers to any noticeable extent. others perish as soon as they make their appearance, or a few individuals are allowed to bloom, but probably leave no progeny. but perhaps the circumstances may change, or the whole strain may be dispersed and spread to new localities with different conditions. some of the latter might be found to be favorable to the robust _gigas_, or to _rubrinervis_, which requires a drier air, with rainfall in the springtime and sunshine during the summer. it would be worth while to see whether the climate of california, where neither _o. lamarckiana_ nor _o. biennis_ are found wild, would not exactly [ ] suit the requirements of the new species _rubrinervis_ and _gigas_. note. _oenothera_s are native to america and all of the species growing in europe have escaped from gardens directly, or may have arisen by mutation, or by hybridization of introduced species. a fixed hybrid between _o. cruciata_ and _o. biennis_ constituting a species has been in cultivation for many years. the form known as _o. biennis_ in europe, and used by de vries in all of the experiments described in these lectures, has not yet been found growing wild in america and is not identical with the species bearing that name among american botanists. concerning this matter professor de vries writes under date of sept. , : "the '_biennis_' which i collected in america has proved to be a motley collection of forms, which at that time i had no means of distinguishing. no one of them, so far as they are now growing in my garden is identical with our _biennis_ of the sand dunes." the same appears to be the case with _o. muricata_. plants from the northeastern american seaboard, identifiable with the species do not entirely agree with those raised from seed received from holland. _o. lamarckiana_ has not been found growing wild in america in recent years although the evidence at hand seems to favor the conclusion that it was seen and collected in the southern states in the last century. (see macdougal, vail, shull, and small: mutants and hybrids of the _oenotheras_. publication . carnegie institution. washington, d.c., .) editor. [ ] lecture xx the origin of wild species and varieties new species and varieties occur from time to time in the wild state. setting aside all theoretical conceptions as to the common origin of species at large, the undoubted fact remains that new forms are sometimes met with. in the case of the peloric toad-flax the mutations are so numerous that they seem to be quite regular. the production of new species of evening-primroses was observed on the field and afterwards duplicated in the garden. there is no reason to think that these cases are isolated instances. quite on the contrary they seem to be the prototypes of repeated occurrences in nature. if this conception is granted, the question at once arises, how are we to deal with analogous cases, when fortune offers them, and what can we expect to learn from them? a critical study of the existing evidence seems to be of great importance in order to ascertain the best way of dealing with new facts, and of estimating the value of the factors concerned. [ ] it is manifest that we must be very careful and conservative in dealing with new facts that are brought to our attention, and every effort should be made to bring additional evidence to light. many vegetable anomalies are so rare that they are met with only by the purest chance, and are then believed to be wholly new. when a white variety of some common plant is met with for the first time we generally assume that it originated on that very spot and only a short time previously. the discovery of a second locality for the same variety at once raises the question as to a common origin in the two instances. could not the plants of the second locality have arisen from seeds transported from the first? white varieties of many species of blue-bells and gentians are found not rarely, white-flowering plants of heather, both of _erica tetralix_ and _calluna vulgaris_ occur on european heaths; white flowers of _brunella vulgaris_, _ononis repens_, _thymus vulgaris_ and others may be seen in many localities in the habitats of the colored species. pelories of labiates seem to occur often in austria, but are rare in holland; white bilberries (_vaccinium myrtillus_) have many known localities throughout europe, and nearly all the berry-bearing species in the large heath family are recorded as having white varieties. [ ] are we to assume a single origin for all the representatives of such a variety, as we have done customarily for all the representatives of a wild species? or can the same mutation have been repeated at different times and in distant localities? if a distinct mutation from a given species is once possible, why should it not occur twice or thrice? a variety which seems to be new to us may only appear so, because the spot where it grows had hitherto escaped observation. _lychnis preslii_ is a smooth variety of _lychnis diurna_ and was observed for the first time in the year by sekera. it grew abundantly in a grove near munchengratz in southern hungary. it was accompanied by the ordinary hairy type of the species. since then it has been observed to be quite constant in the same locality, and some specimens have been collected for me there lately by dr. nemec, of prague. no other native localities of this variety have been discovered, and there can be no doubt that it must have arisen from the ordinary campion near the spot where it still grows. but this change may have taken place some years before the first discovery, or perhaps one or more centuries ago. this could only be known if it could be proved that the locality had been satisfactorily investigated previously, and that the variety had not [ ] been met with. even in this case only something would be discovered about the time of the change, but nothing about its real nature. so it is in many cases. if a variety is observed in a number of specimens at the time of its first discovery, and at a locality not studied previously, it takes the aspect of an old form of limited distribution, and little can be learned as to the circumstances under which it arose. if on the contrary it occurs in very small numbers or perhaps even in a single individual, and if the spot where it is found is located so that it could hardly have escaped previous observation, then the presumption of a recent origin seems justified. what has to be ascertained on such occasions to give them scientific value? three points strike me as being of the highest importance. first, the constancy of the new type; secondly, the occurrence or lack of intermediates, and last, but not least, the direct observation of a repeated production. the first two points are easily ascertained. whether the new type is linked with its more common supposed ancestor by intermediate steps is a query which at once strikes the botanist. it is usually recorded in such cases, and we may state at once that the general result is, that such intermediates do not occur. this is [ ] of the highest importance and admits of only two explanations. one is that intermediates may be assumed to have preceded the existent developed form, and to have died out afterwards. but why should they have done so, especially in cases of recent changes? on the other hand the intermediates may be lacking because they have never existed, the change having taken place by a sudden leap, such as the mutations described in our former lectures. it is manifest that the assumption of hypothetical intermediates could only gain some probability if they had been found in some instance. since they do not occur, the hypothesis seems wholly unsupported. the second point is the constancy of the new type. seeds should be saved and sown. if the plant fertilizes itself without the aid of insects, as do some evening-primroses, the seed saved from the native locality may prove wholly pure, and if it does give rise to a uniform progeny the constancy of the race may be assumed to be proved, provided that repeated trials do not bring to light any exceptions. if the offspring shows more than one type, cross-fertilization is always to be looked to as the most probable cause, and should be excluded, in order to sow pure seeds. garden-experiments of this kind, and repeated trials, should always be combined [ ] with the discovery of a presumed mutation. in many instances the authors have realized the importance of this point, and new types have been found constant from the very beginning. many cases are known which show no reversions and even no partial reversions. this fact throws a distinct light on our first point, as it makes the hypothesis of a slow and gradual development still more improbable. my third point is of quite another nature and has not as yet been dealt with. but as it appeals to me as the very soul of the problem, it seems necessary to describe it in some detail. it does not refer to the new type itself, nor to any of its morphologic or hereditary attributes, but directly concerns the presumed ancestors themselves. the peloric toad-flax in my experiment was seen to arise thrice from the same strain. three different individuals of my original race showed a tendency to produce peloric mutations, and they did so in a number of their seeds, exactly as the mutations of the evening-primroses were repeated nearly every year. hence the inference, that whenever we find a novelty which is really of very recent date, the parent-strain which has produced it might still be in existence on the same spot. in the case of shrubs or perennials the very parents might yet be found. [ ] but it seems probable, and is especially proved in the case of the evening-primroses, that all or the majority of the representatives of the whole strain have the same tendency to mutate. if this were a general rule, it would suffice to take some pure seeds from specimens of the presumed parents and to sow and multiply the individuals to such an extent that the mutation might have a chance to be repeated. unfortunately, this has not as yet been done, but in my opinion it should be the first effort of any one who has the good luck to discover a new wild mutation. specimens of the parents should be transplanted into a garden and fertilized under isolated conditions. seeds saved from the wild plant would have little worth, as they might have been partly fertilized by the new type itself. after this somewhat lengthy discussion of the value of observations surrounding the discovery of new wild mutations, we now come to the description of some of the more interesting cases. as a first example, i will take the globular fruited shepherd's purse, described by solms laubach as _capsella heegeri_. professor heeger discovered one plant with deviating fruits, in a group of common shepherd's purses in the market-place near landau in germany, in the fall of . they were nearly spherical, [ ] instead of flat and purse-shaped. their valves were thick and fleshy, while those of the ordinary form are membranaceous and dry. the capsules hardly opened and therefore differed in this point from the shepherd's purse, which readily loosens both its valves as soon as it is ripe. only one plant was observed; whence it came could not be determined, nor whether it had arisen from the neighboring stock of c_apsella_ or not. the discoverer took some seed to his garden and sent some to the botanical garden at strassburg, of which solms-laubach is the director. the majority of the seeds of course were sowed naturally on the original spot. the following year some of the seeds germinated and repeated the novelty. the leaves, stems and flowers were those of the common shepherd's purse, but no decision could be reached concerning the type of this generation before the first flowers had faded and the rounded capsules had developed. then it was seen that the _heegeri_ came true from seed. it did so both in the gardens and on the market-place, where it was observed to have multiplied and spread in some small measure. the same was noted the following year, but then the place was covered with gravel and all the plants destroyed. it is not recorded to have been seen wild since. [ ] intermediate forms have not been met with. some slight reversions may occur in the autumn on the smallest and weakest lateral branches. such reversions, however, seem to be very rare, as i have tried in vain to produce them on large and richly branched individuals, by applying all possible inducements in the form of manure and of cutting, to stimulate the production of successive generations of weaker side branches. this constancy was proved by the experiments of solms-laubach, which i have repeated in my own garden during several years with seed received from him. no atavists or deviating specimens have been found among many hundreds of flowering plants. it is important to note that within the family of the crucifers the form of the capsule and the attributes of the valves and seeds are usually considered to furnish the characteristics of genera, and this point has been elucidated at some length by solms-laubach. there is, however, no sufficient reason to construe a new genus on the ground of heeger's globular fruited shepherd's purse; but as a true elementary species, and even as a good systematic species it has proved itself, and as such it is described by solms-laubach, who named it in honor of its discoverer. exactly analogous discoveries have been [ ] instead of displaying a bright yellow cup. _o. cruciata_ grows in the adirondack mountains, in the states of new york and vermont, and seems to be abundant there. it has been introduced into botanical gardens and yielded a number of hybrids, especially with _o. biennis and _o. lamarckiana_, and the narrow petals of the parent-species may be met with in combination with the stature and vegetative characteristics of these last named species. _o. cruciata_ has a purple foliage, while _biennis_ and _lamarckiana_ are green, and many of the hybrids may instantly be recognized by their purple color. the curious attribute of the petals is not to be considered simply as a reduction in size. on anatomical inquiry it has been found that these narrow petals bear some characteristics which, on the normal plants, are limited to the calyx. stomata and hairs, and the whole structure of the surface and inner tissues on some parts of these petals are exactly similar to those of the calyx, while on others they have retained the characteristics of petals. sometimes there may even be seen by the naked eye green longitudinal stripes of calyx-like structure alternating with bright yellow petaloid parts. for these reasons the cruciata character may be considered as a case of sepalody of the petals, or of the petals being partly converted into sepals. [ ] it is worth while to note that as a monstrosity this occurrence is extremely rare throughout the whole vegetable kingdom, and only very few instances have been recorded. two cases of sudden mutations have come to my knowledge, producing this same anomaly in allied species. one has been already alluded to; it pertains to the common evening-primrose or _oenothera biennis_, and one is a species belonging to another genus of the same family, the great hairy willow-herb or _epilobium _hirsutum_. i propose to designate both new forms by the varietal name of _cruciata_, or _cruciatum_. _oenothera biennis cruciata_ was found in a native locality of the _o. biennis itself. it consisted of only one plant, showing in all its flowers the _cruciata_ marks. in all other respects it resembled wholly the _biennis_, especially in the pure green color of its foliage, which at once excluded all suspicion of hybrid origin with the purple _o. cruciata_. moreover in our country this last occurs only in the cultivated state in botanical gardens. intermediates were not seen, and as the plant bore some pods, it was possible to test its constancy. i raised about plants from its seeds, out of which more than flowered in the first year. the others were partly kept through the winter and flowered next year. seeds saved in [ ] both seasons were sown on a large scale. both the first and the succeeding generations of the offspring of the original plant came true without any exception. intermediates are often found in hybrid cultures, and in them the character is a very variable one, but as yet they were not met with in progeny of this mutant. all these plants were exactly like _o. biennis_, with the single exception of their petals. _epilobium hirsutum cruciatum_ was discovered by john rasor near woolpit, bury st. edmunds, in england. it flowered in one spot, producing about a dozen stems, among large quantities of the parent-species, which is very common there, as it is elsewhere in europe. this species is a perennial, multiplying itself by underground runners, and the stems of the new variety were observed to stand so close to each other that they might be considered as the shoots of one individual. in this case this specimen might probably be the original mutant, as the variety had not been seen on that spot in previous years, even as it has not been found elsewhere in the vicinity. intermediates were not observed, though the difference is a very striking one. in the cruciate flowers the broad and bright purple petals seem at first sight to be wholly wanting. they are too weak to expand and to reflex the calyx [ ] as in the normal flowers of the species. the sepals adhere to one another, and are only opened at their summit by the protruding pistils. even the stamens hardly come to light. at the period of full bloom the flowers convey only the idea of closed buds crowned by the conspicuous white cross of the stigma. any intermediate form would have at once betrayed itself by larger colored petals, coming out of the calyx-sheath. the cruciate petals are small and linear and greenish, recalling thereby the color of the sepals. mr. rasor having sent me some flowers and some ripe capsules of his novelty, i sowed the latter in my experimental garden, where the plant flowered in large numbers and with many thousands of flowers both in and . all of these plants and all of these flowers repeated the cruciate type exactly, and not the slightest impurity or tendency to partial reversion has been observed. thus true and constant cruciate varieties have been produced from accidentally observed initial plants, and because of their very curious characters they will no doubt be kept in botanical gardens, even if they should eventually become lost in their native localities. at this point i might note another observation made on the wild species of _oenothera cruciata_ [ ] from the adirondacks. through the kindness of dr. macdougal, of the new york botanical garden, i received seeds from sandy hill near lake george. when the plants, grown from these seeds, flowered, they were not a uniform lot, but exhibited two distinct types. some had linear petals and thin flower-buds, and in others the petals were a little broader and the buds more swollen. the difference was small, but constant on all the flowers, each single plant clearly belonging to one or the other of the two types. probably two elementary species were intermixed here, but whether one is the systematic type and the other a mutation, remains to be seen. nor seem these two types to exhaust the range of variability of _oenothera cruciata_. dr. b.l. robinson of cambridge, mass., had the kindness to send me seeds from another locality in the same region. the seeds were collected in new hampshire and in my garden produced a true and constant _cruciata_, but with quite different secondary characters from both the aforesaid varieties. the stems and flower-spikes and even the whole foliage were much more slender, and the calyx-tubes of the flowers were noticeably more elongated. it seems not improbable that _oenothera cruciata_ includes a group of lesser unities, and may prove to comprise a [ ] swarm of elementary species, while the original strain might even now be still in a condition of mutability. a close scrutiny in the native region is likely to reveal many unexpected features. a very interesting novelty has already been described in a former lecture. it is the _xanthium wootoni_, discovered in the region about las vegas, new mexico, by t.d.a. cockerell. it is similar in all respects to _x. commune_, but the burrs are more slender and the prickles much less numerous, and mostly stouter at their base. it grows in the same localities as the _x. commune_, and is not recorded to occur elsewhere. whether it is an old variety or a recent mutation it is of course impossible to decide. in a culture made in my garden from the seed sent me by mr. cockerell, i observed ( ) that both forms had a subvariety with brownish foliage, and, besides this, one of a pure green. possibly this species, too, is still in a mutable condition. perhaps the same may be asserted concerning the beautiful shrub, _hibiscus moscheutos_, observed in quite a number of divergent types by john w. harshberger. they grew in a small meadow at seaside park, new jersey, in a locality which had been undisturbed for years. they differed from each other in nearly all the [ ] organs, in size, in the diameter of the stems, which were woody in some and more fleshy in others, in the shape of the foliage and in the flowers. more than twenty types could be distinguished and seeds were saved from a number of them, in order to ascertain whether they are constant, or whether perhaps a main stem in a mutating condition might be found among them. if this should prove to be the case, the relations between the observed forms would probably be analogous to those between the _o. lamarckiana_ and its derivatives. many other varieties have sprung from the type-species under similar conditions from time to time. a fern-leaved mercury, _mercurialis annua laciniata_, was discovered in the year by marchant. the type was quite new at the time and maintained itself during a series of years. the yellow deadly nightshade or _atropa belladonna lutea_ was found about in the black forest in germany in a single spot, and has since been multiplied by seeds. it is now dispersed in botanical gardens, and seems to be quite constant. a dwarf variety of a bean, _phaseolus lunatus_, was observed to spring from the ordinary type by a sudden leap about by w.w. tracy, and many similar cases could be given. the annual habit is not very favorable for [ ] the discovery of new forms in the wild state. new varieties may appear, but may be crowded out the first year. the chances are much greater with perennials, and still greater with shrubs or trees. a single aberrant specimen may live for years and even for centuries, and under such conditions is pretty sure to be discovered sooner or later. hence it is no wonder that many such cases are on record. they have this in common that the original plant of the variety has been found among a vast majority of representatives of the corresponding species. nothing of course is directly known about its origin. intermediate links have as a rule been wanting, and the seeds, which have often been sown, have not yielded reliable results, as no care was taken to preserve the blossoms from intercrossing with their parent-forms. stress should be laid upon one feature of these curious occurrences. relatively often the same novelty has been found twice or thrice, or even more frequently, and under conditions which make it very improbable that any relation between such occurrences might exist. the same mutation must have taken place more than once from the same main stem. the most interesting of these facts are connected with the origin of the purple beech, which [ ] is now so universally cultivated. i take the following statements from an interesting historical essay of prof. jaggi. he describes three original localities. one is near the swiss village, buch am irchel, and is located on the stammberg. during the th century five purple beeches are recorded to have grown on this spot. four of them have died, but one is still alive. seedlings have germinated around this little group, and have been mostly dug up and transplanted into neighboring gardens. nothing is known about the real origin of these plants, but according to an old document, it seems that about the year the purple beeches of buch were already enjoying some renown, and attracting large numbers of pilgrims, owing to some old legend. the church of embrach is said to have been built in connection with this legend, and was a goal for pilgrimages during many centuries. a second native locality of the purple beech is found in a forest near sondershausen in thuringen, germany, where a fine group of these trees is to be seen. they were mentioned for the first time in the latter half of the eighteenth century, but must have been old specimens long before that time. the third locality seems to be of much later origin. it is a forest near roveredo in south tyrol, where a new [ ] university is being erected. it is only a century ago that the first specimens of the purple beech were discovered there. as it is very improbable that the two last named localities should have received their purple beeches from the first named forest, it seems reasonable to assume that the variety must have been produced at least thrice. the purple beech is now exceedingly common in cultivation. but jaggi succeeded in showing that all the plants owe their origin to the original trees mentioned above, and are, including nearly all cultivated specimens with the sole exception of the vicinity of buch, probably derived from the trees in thuringen. they are easily multiplied by grafting, and come true from seed, at least often, and in a high proportion. whether the original trees would yield a pure progeny if fertilized by their own pollen has as yet not been tested. the young seedlings have purple seed-leaves, and may easily be selected by this character, but they seem to be always subjected in a large measure to vicinism. many other instances of trees and shrubs, found in accidental specimens constituting a new variety in the wild state, might be given. the oak-leaved beech has been found in a forest of lippe-detmold in germany and near versailles, [ ] whence it was introduced into horticulture by carriere. similarly divided and cleft leaves seem to have occurred more often in the wild state, and cut-leaved hazels are recorded from rouen in france, birches and alders from sweden and lapland, where both are said to have been met with in several forests. the purple barberry was found about by bertin, near versailles. weeping varieties of ashes were found wild in england and in germany, and broom-like oaks, _quercus pedunculata fastigiata_, are recorded from hessen-darmstadt, calabria, the pyrenees and other localities. about the real origin of all these varieties nothing is definitely known. the "single-leaved" strawberry is a variety often seen in botanical gardens, as it is easily propagated by its runners. it was discovered wild in lapland at the time of linnaeus, and appeared afterwards unexpectedly in a nursery near versailles. this happened about the year and duchesne tested it from seeds and found it constant. this strain, however, seems to have died out before the end of the th century. in a picture painted by holbein ( - ), strawberry leaves can be seen agreeing exactly with the monophyllous type. the variety may thus be assumed to have arisen independently [ ] at least thrice, at different periods and in distant localities. from all these statements and a good many others which can be found in horticultural and botanical literature, it may be inferred that mutations are not so very rare in nature as is often supposed. moreover we may conclude that it is a general rule that they are neither preceded nor accompanied by intermediate steps, and that they are ordinarily constant from seed from the first. why then are they not met with more often? in my opinion it is the struggle for life which is the cause of this apparent rarity; which is nothing else than the premature death of all the individuals that so vary from the common type of their species as to be incapable of development under prevailing circumstances. it is obviously without consequence whether these deviations are of a fluctuating or of a mutating nature. hence we may conclude that useless mutations will soon die out and will disappear without leaving any progeny. even if they are produced again and again by the same strain, but under the same unfavorable conditions, there will be no appreciable result. thousands of mutations may perhaps take place yearly among the plants of our immediate vicinity without any chance of being discovered. [ ] we are trained to the appreciation of the differentiating marks of systematic species. when we have succeeded in discerning these as given by our local flora lists, we rest content. meeting them again we are in the habit of greeting them with their proper names. such is the satisfaction ensuing from this knowledge that we do not feel any inclination for further inquiry. striking deviations, such as many varietal characters, may be remarked, but then they are considered as being of only secondary interest. our minds are turned from the delicately shaded features which differentiate elementary species. even in the native field of the evening-primroses, no botanist would have discovered the rosettes with smaller or paler leaves, constituting the first signs of the new species. only by the guidance of a distinct theoretical idea were they discovered, and having once been pointed out a closer inspection soon disclosed their number. variability seems to us to be very general, but very limited. the limits however, are distinctly drawn by the struggle for existence. of course the chance for useful mutations is a very small one. we have seen that the same mutations are as a rule repeated from time to time by the same species. now, if a useful mutation, [ ] or even a wholly indifferent one, might easily be produced, it would have been so, long ago, and would at the present time simply exist as a systematic variety. if produced anew somewhere the botanist, would take it for the old variety and would omit to make any inquiry as to its local origin. thousands of seeds with perhaps wide circles of variability are ripened each year, but only those that belong to the existing old narrow circles survive. how different would nature appear to us if she were free to evolve all her potentialities! darwin himself was struck with this lack of harmony between common observations and the probable real state of things. he discussed it in connection with the cranesbill of the pyrenees (_geranium pyrenaicum_). he described how this fine little plant, which has never been extensively cultivated, had escaped from a garden in staffordshire and had succeeded in multiplying itself so as to occupy a large area. in doing so it had evidently found place for an uncommonly large number of plantlets from its seeds and correspondingly it had commenced to vary in almost all organs and qualities and nearly in all imaginable directions. it displayed under these exceptional circumstances a capacity which never had been exceeded and [ ] which of course would have remained concealed if its multiplication had been checked in the ordinary way. many species have had occasion to invade new regions and cover them with hundreds of thousands of individuals. first are to be cited those species which have been introduced from america into europe since the time of columbus, or from europe into this country. some of them have become very common. in my own country the evening-primroses and canada fleabane or are examples, and many others could be given. they should be expected to vary under these circumstances in a larger degree. have they done so? manifestly they have not struck out useful new characters that would enable their bearers to found new elementary species. at least none have been observed. but poor types might have been produced, and periods of mutability might have been gone through similar to that which is now under observation for lamarck's evening primrose in holland. from this discussion we may infer that the chances of discovering new mutating species are great enough to justify the utmost efforts to secure them. it is only necessary to observe large numbers of plants, grown under circumstances which allow the best opportunities for [ ] all the seeds. and as nature affords such opportunities only at rare intervals, we should make use of artificial methods. large quantities of seed should be gathered from wild plants and sowed under very favorable conditions, giving all the nourishment and space required to the young seedlings. it is recommended that they be sown under glass, either in a glass-house or protected against cold and rain by glass-frames. the same lot of seed will be seen to yield twice or thrice as many seedlings if thus protected, compared with what it would have produced when sown in the field or in the garden. i have nearly wholly given up sowing seeds in my garden, as circumstances can be controlled and determined with greater exactitude when the sowing is done in a glasshouse. the best proof perhaps, of the unfavorable influence of external conditions for slightly deteriorated deviations is afforded by variegated leaves. many beautiful varieties are seen in our gardens and parks, and even corn has a variety with striped leaves. they are easily reproduced, both by buds and by seeds, and they are the most ordinary of all varietal deviations. they may be expected to occur wild also. but no real variegated species, nor even good varieties with this attribute occurs in nature. [ ] on the other hand occasional specimens with a single variegated leaf, or with some few of them, are actually met with, and if attention is once drawn to this question, perhaps a dozen or so instances might be brought together in a summer. but they never seem to be capable of further evolution, or of reproducing themselves sufficiently and of repeating their peculiarity in their progeny. they make their appearance, are seen during a season, and then disappear. even this slight incompleteness of some spots on one or two leaves may be enough to be their doom. it is a common belief that new varieties owe their origin to the direct action of external conditions and moreover it is often assumed that similar deviations must have similar causes, and that these causes may act repeatedly in the same species, or in allied, or even systematically distant genera. no doubt in the end all things must have their causes, and the same causes will lead under the same circumstances to the same results. but we are not justified in deducing a direct relation between the external conditions and the internal changes of plants. these relations may be of so remote a nature that they cannot as yet be guessed at. therefore only direct experience may be our guide. summing up the result of our facts and discussions [ ] we may state that wild new elementary species and varieties are recorded to have appeared from time to time. invariably this happened by sudden leaps and without intermediates. the mutants are constant when propagated by seed, and at once constitute a new race. in rare instances this may be of sufficient superiority to win a place for itself in nature, but more often it has qualities which have led to its introduction into gardens as an ornamental plant or into botanical gardens by reason of the interest afforded by their novelty, or by their anomaly. many more mutations may be supposed to be taking place all around us, but artificial sowings on a large scale, combined with a close examination of the seedlings and a keen appreciation of the slightest indications of deviation seem required to bring them to light. [ ] lecture xxi mutations in horticulture it is well known that darwin based his theory of natural selection to a large extent upon the experience of breeders. natural and artificial selection exhibit the same general features, yet it was impossible in darwin's time to make a critical and comparative analysis of the two processes. in accordance with our present conception there is selection of species and selection within the species. the struggle for life determines which of a group of elementary species shall survive and which shall disappear. in agricultural practice the corresponding process is usually designated by the name of variety-testing. within the species, or within the variety, the sieve of natural selection is constantly eliminating poor specimens and preserving those that are best adapted to live under the given conditions. some amelioration and some local races are the result, but this does not appear to be of much importance. on the contrary, the selection [ ] within the race holds a prominent place in agriculture, where it is known by the imposing term, race-breeding. experience and methods in horticulture differ from those in agriculture in many points. garden varieties have been tested and separated for a long time, but neither vegetables nor flowers are known to exhibit such motley groups of types as may be seen in large forage crops. new varieties which appear from time to time may be ornamental or otherwise in flowers, and more or less profitable than their parents in vegetables and fruits. in either case the difference is usually striking, or if not, its culture would be unprofitable. the recognition of useful new varieties being thus made easy, the whole attention of the breeder is reduced to isolating the seeds of the mutants that are to be saved and sown separately, and this process must be repeated during a few years, in order to produce the quantity of seed that is needed for a profitable introduction of the variety into commerce. in proportion to the abundance of the harvest of each year this period is shorter for some and longer for other species. isolation in practice is not so simple nor so easy an affair as it is in the experimental garden. hence we have constant and nearly unavoidable [ ] cross-fertilizations with the parent form or with neighboring varieties, and consequent impurity of the new strain. this impurity we have called vicinism, and in a previous lecture have shown its effects upon the horticultural races on one hand, and on the other, on the scientific value that can be ascribed to the experience of the breeder. we have established the general rule that stability is seldom met with, but that the observed instability is always open to the objection of being the result of vicinism. often this last agency is its sole cause; or it may be complicated with other factors without our being able to discern them. though our assertion that the practice of the horticulturist in producing new varieties is limited to isolation, whenever chance affords them, is theoretically valid, it is not always so. we may discern between the two chief groups of varieties. the retrograde varieties are constant, the individuals not differing more from one another than those of any ordinary species. the highly variable varieties play an important part in horticulture. double flowers, striped flowers, variegated leaves and some others yield the most striking instances. such forms have been included in previous lectures among the ever-sporting varieties, because their peculiar characters oscillate between two extremes, viz: [ ] the new one of the variety and the corresponding character of the original species. in such cases isolation is usually accompanied by selection: rarely has the first of a double, striped or variegated race well filled or richly striped flowers or highly spotted leaves. usually minor degrees of the anomaly are seen first, and the breeder expects the novelty to develop its features more completely and more beautifully in subsequent generations. some varieties need selection only in the beginning, in others the most perfect specimens must be chosen every year as seed-bearers. for striped flowers, it has been prescribed by vilmorin, that seeds should be taken only from those with the smallest stripes, because there is always reversion. mixed seed or seed from medium types would soon yield plants with too broad stripes, and therefore less diversified flowers. in horticulture, new varieties, both retrograde and ever-sporting, are known to occur almost yearly. nevertheless, not every novelty of the gardener is to be considered as a mutation in the scientific sense of the word. first of all, the novelties of perennial and woody species are to be excluded. any extreme case of fluctuating variability may be preserved and multiplied in the vegetative way. such types are designated [ ] in horticulture as varieties, though obviously they are of quite another nature than the varieties reproduced by seed. secondly, a large number, no doubt the greater number of novelties, are of hybrid origin. here we may discern two cases. hybrids may be produced by the crossing of old types, either of two old cultivated forms or newly introduced species, or ordinarily between an old and an introduced variety. such novelties are excluded from our present discussion. secondly, hybrids may be produced between a true, new mutation and some of the already existing varieties of the same species. examples of this obvious and usual practice will be given further on, but it must be pointed out now that by such crosses a single mutation may produce as many novelties as there are available varieties of the same species. summarizing these introductory remarks we must lay stress on the fact that only a small part of the horticultural novelties are real mutations, although they do occur from time to time. if useful, they are as a rule isolated and multiplied, and if necessary, improved by selection. they are in many instances, as constant from seed as the unavoidable influence of vicinism allows them to be. exact observations on the origin, or on the degree of constancy, are usually lacking, [ ] the notes being ordinarily made for commercial purposes, and often only at the date of introduction into trade, when the preceding stages of the novelty may have been partly forgotten. with this necessary prelude i will now give a condensed survey of the historical facts relating to the origin of new horticultural varieties. an ample description has been given recently by korshinsky, a russian writer, who has brought together considerable historical material as evidence of the sudden appearance of novelties throughout the whole realm of garden plants. the oldest known, and at the same time one of the most accurately described mutations is the origin of the cut-leaved variety of the greater celandine or _chelidonium majus_. this variety has been described either as such, or as a distinct species, called _chelidonium laciniatum_ miller. it is distinguished from the ordinary species, by the leaves being cut into narrow lobes, with almost linear tips, a character which is, as we have seen on a previous occasion, repeated in the petals. it is at present nearly as commonly cultivated in botanical gardens as the _c. majus_, and has escaped in many localities and is observed to thrive as readily as the native wild [ ] plants. it was not known until a few years before the close of the th century. its history has been described by the french botanist, rose. it was seen for the first time in the garden of sprenger, an apothecary of heidelberg, where the _c. majus_ had been cultivated for many years. sprenger discovered it in the year , and was struck by its peculiar and sharply deviating characters. he was anxious to know whether it was a new plant and sent specimens to clusius and to plater, the last of whom transmitted them to caspar bauhin. these botanists recognized the type as quite new and bauhin described it some years afterwards in his phytopinax under the name of _chelidonium majus foliis quernis_, or oak-leaved celandine. the new variety soon provoked general interest and was introduced into most of the botanical gardens of europe. it was recognized as quite new, and repeated search has been made for it in a wild state, but in vain. no other origin has been discovered than that of sprenger's garden. afterwards it became naturalized in england and elsewhere, but there is not the least doubt as to its derivation in all the observed cases. hence its origin at heidelberg is to be considered as historically proven, and it is of course only legitimate to assume that it originated in [ ] the year from the seeds of the _c. majus_. nevertheless, this was not ascertained by sprenger, and some doubt as to a possible introduction from elsewhere might arise. if not, then the mutation must have been sudden, occurring without visible preparation and without the appearance of intermediates. from the very first, the cut-leaved celandine has been constant from seed. or at least it has been propagated by seed largely and without difficulty. nothing, however, is known about it in the first few years of its existence. later careful tests were made by miller, rose and others and later by myself, which have shown its stability to be absolute and without reversion, and it has probably been so from the beginning. the fact of its constancy has led to its specific distinction by miller, as varieties were in his time universally, and up to the present time not rarely, though erroneously, believed to be less stable than true species. before leaving the laciniate celandine it is to be noted that in crosses with _c. majus_ it follows the law of mendel, and for this reason should be considered as a retrograde variety, the more so, as it is also treated as such from a morphological point of view by stahl and others. we now come to an enumeration of those cases in which the date of the first appearance [ ] of a new horticultural variety has been recorded, and i must apologize for the necessity of again quoting many variations, which have previously been dealt with from another point of view. in such cases i shall limit myself as closely as possible to historical facts. they have been recorded chiefly by verlot and carriere, who wrote in paris shortly after the middle of the past century, and afterwards by darwin, korshinsky, and others. it is from their writings and from horticultural literature at large that the following evidence is brought together. a very well-known instance is that of the dwarf variety of _tagetes signata_, which arose in the nursery of vilmorin in the year . it was observed for the first time in a single individual among a lot of the ordinary _tagetes signata_. it was found impossible to isolate it, but the seeds were saved separately. the majority of the offspring returned to the parental type, but two plants were true dwarfs. from these the requisite degree of purity for commercial purposes was reached, the vicinists not being more numerous than % of the entire number. the same mutation had been observed a year earlier in the same nursery in a lot of _saponaria calabrica_. the seeds of this dwarf repeated the variety in the next generation, but in the third none were observed. then the variety was [ ] thought to be lost, and the culture was given up, as the mendelian law of the splitting of varietal hybrids was not known. according to our present knowledge we might expect the atavistic descendants of the first dwarf to be hybrids, and to be liable to split in their progeny into one-fourth dwarfs and three-fourths normal specimens. from this it is obvious that the dwarfs would have appeared a second time if the strain had been continued by means of the seeds of the vicinistic progeny. in order to avoid a return to this phase of the question, another use of the vicinists should at once be pointed out. it is the possibility of increasing the yield of the new variety. if space admits of sowing the seeds of the vicinists, a quarter of the progeny may be expected to come true to the new type, and if they were partly pollinated by the dwarfs, even a larger number would do so. hence it should be made a rule to sow these seeds also, at least when those of the true representatives of the novelty do not give seed enough for a rapid multiplication. other dwarfs are recorded to have sprung from species in the same sudden and unexpected manner, as for instance _ageratum coeruleum_ of the same nursery, further _clematis viticella nana_ and _acer campestre nanum_. _prunus mahaleb nana_ was discovered in in one [ ] specimen near orleans by mme. lebrun in a large culture of mahaleb. _lonicera tatarica nana_ appeared in at fontenay-aux roses. a tall variety of the strawberry is called "giant of zuidwijk" and originated at boskoop in holland in the nursery of mr. van de water, in a lot of seedlings of the ordinary strawberry. it was very large, but produced few runners, and was propagated with much difficulty, for after six years only plants were available. it proved to be a late variety with abundant large fruit, and was sold at a high price. for a long time it was prominent in cultures in holland only. varieties without prickles are known to have originated all of a sudden in sundry cases. _gleditschia sinensis_, introduced in from china, gave two seedlings without spines in the year , in the nursery of caumzet. it is curious in being one of the rare instances where a simultaneous mutation in two specimens is acknowledged, because as a rule, such records comply with the prevailing, though inexact, belief that horticultural mutations always appear in single individuals. from korshinsky's survey of varieties with cut leaves or laciniate forms the following cases may be quoted. in the year a nurseryman named jacques had sown a large lot of elms, [ ] _ulmus pedunculata_. one of the seedlings had cut leaves. he multiplied it by grafting and gave it to the trade under the name of _u. pedunculata urticaefolia_. it has since been lost. laciniate alders seem to have been produced by mutation at sundry times. mirbel says that the _alnus glutinosa laciniata_ is found wild in normandy and in the forests of montmorency near paris. a similar variety has been met with in a nursery near orleans in the year . in connection with this discovery some discussion has arisen concerning the question whether it was probable that the orleans strain was a new mutation, or derived in some way from the trees cited by mirbel. of course, as always in such cases, any doubt, once pronounced, affects the importance of the observation for all time, since it is impossible to gather sufficient historical evidence to fully decide the point. the same variety had appeared under similar circumstances in a nursery at lyons previously ( ). laciniated maples are said to be of relatively frequent occurrence in nurseries, among seedlings of the typical species. loudon says that once laciniated seedlings were seen to originate from seed of some normal trees. but in this case it is rather probable that the presumed [ ] normal parents were in reality hybrids between the type and the laciniated form, and simply split according to mendel's law. this hypothesis is partly founded on general considerations and partly on experiments made by myself with the cut-leaved celandine, previously alluded to, which i crossed with the type. the hybrids repeated the features of the species and showed no signs of their internal hybrid constitution. but the following year one-fourth of their progeny returned to the cut-leaved form. if the same thing has taken place in the case of loudon's maples, but without their hybrid origin being known, the result would have been precisely what he observed. _broussonetia papyriffera dissecta_ originated about at lyons, and a second time in at fontenay-aux-roses. the cut-leaved hazelnuts, birches, beeches and others have mostly been found in the wild state, as i have already pointed out in a previous lecture. a similar variety of the elder, _sambucus nigra laciniata_, and its near ally, _sambucus racemosa laciniata_, are often to be seen in our gardens. they have been on record since and come true from seed, but their exact origin seems to have been forgotten. cut-leaved walnuts have been known since ; they come true from seed, but are extremely liable to vicinism, a nuisance which is [ ] ascribed by some authors to the fact that often on the same tree the male catkins flower and fall off several weeks before the ripening of the pistils of the other form of flowers. weeping varieties afford similar instances. _sophora japonica pendula_ originated about , and _gleditschia triacanthos pendula_ some time later in a nursery at chateau-thierry (aisne, france). in the year the bird's cherry, or _prunus padus_, produced a weeping variety, and in the same mutation was observed for the allied _prunus mahaleb_. numerous other instances of the sudden origin of weeping trees, both of conifers and of others, have been brought together in korshinsky's paper. this striking type of variation includes perhaps the best examples of the whole historical evidence. as a rule they appear in large sowings, only one, or only a few at a time. many of them have not been observed during their youth, but only after having been planted out in parks and forests, since the weeping characters show only after several years. the monophyllous bastard-acacia originated in the same way. its peculiarities will be dealt with on another occasion, but the circumstances of its birth may as well be given here. in in the nursery of deniau, at brain-sur-l'authion (maine et loire), it appeared in a lot of [ ] seedlings of the typical species in a single individual. this was transplanted into the jardin des plantes at paris, where it flowered and bore seeds in . it must have been partly pollinated by the surrounding normal representatives of the species, since the seeds yielded only one-fourth of true offspring. this proportion, however, has varied in succeeding years. briot remarks that the monophyllous bastard acacia is liable to petaloid alterations of its stamens, which deficiency may encroach upon its fertility and accordingly upon the purity of its offspring. broom-like varieties often occur among trees, and some are known for their very striking reversions by buds, as we have seen on a previous occasion. they are ordinarily called pyramidal or fastigiate forms, and as far as their history goes, they arise suddenly in large sowings of the normal species. the fastigiate birch was produced in this way by baumann, the _abies concolor fastigiata_ by thibault and keteleer at paris, the pyramidal cedar by paillat, the analogous form of _wellingtonia_ by otin. other instances could easily be added, though of course some of the most highly prized broom-like trees are so old that nothing is known about their origin. this, for instance, is the case with the pyramidal yew-tree, _taxus baccata fastigiata_. [ ] others have been found wild, as already mentioned in a former lecture. an analogous case is afforded by the purpleleaved plums, of which the most known form is prunus pissardi. it is said to be a purple variety of _prunus cerasifera_, and was introduced at the close of the seventies from persia, where it is said to have been found in tabris. a similar variety arose independently and unexpectedly in the nursery of spath, near berlin, about , but it seems to differ in some minor points from the persian prototype. a white variety of _cyclamen vernum_ made its appearance in the year in holland. a single individual was observed for the first time among a large lot of seedlings, in a nursery near haarlem. it yielded a satisfactory amount of seed, and the progeny was true to the new type. such plants propagate slowly, and it was only twenty-seven years later ( ) that the bulbs were offered for sale by the haarlem firm of krelage & son. the price of each bulb was $ . in that year, but soon afterwards was reduced to $ . each, which was about thrice the ordinary price of the red variety. the firm of messrs. krelage & son has brought into commerce a wide range of new bulb-varieties, all due to occasional mutations, some by seed and others by buds, or to the accidental [ ] transference of new qualities into the already existing varieties by cross-pollination through the agency of insects. instead of giving long lists of these novelties, i may cite the black tulips, which cost during the first few years of their introduction about $ . apiece. horticultural mutations are as a rule very rare, especially in genera or species which have not yet been brought to a high degree of variability. in these the wide range of varieties and the large scale in which they are multiplied of course give a greater chance for new varieties. but then the possibilities of crossing are likewise much larger, and apparent changes due to this cause may easily be taken for original mutations. the rarity of the mutations is often proved by the lapse of time between the introduction of a species and its first sport. some instances may be given. they afford a proof of the length of the period during which the species remained unaltered, although some of these alterations may be due to a cross with an allied form. _erythrina crista-galli_ was introduced about , and produced its first sport in , after more than a century of cultivation. _begonia semperflorens_ has been cultivated since , and for half a century before it commenced sporting. the same length of time has elapsed [ ] between the first culture and the first variation of _crambe maritima_. other cases are on record in which the variability exhibited itself much sooner, perhaps within a few years after the original discovery of the species. but such instances seem, as a rule, to be subject to doubt as to the concurrence of hybridization. so for instance the _iris lortetii_, introduced in the year from the lebanon, which produced a white variety from its very first seeds. if by chance the introduced plants were natural hybrids between the species and the white variety, this apparent and rather improbable mutation would find a very simple explanation. the length of the period preceding the first signs of variability is largely, of course, due to divergent methods of culture. such species as _erythrina_, which are perennial and only sown on a small scale, should not be expected to show varieties very soon. annual species, which are cultivated yearly in thousands or even hundreds of thousands of individuals, have a much better chance. perhaps the observed differences are largely due to this cause. monstrosities have, from time to time, given rise to cultivated races. the cockscomb or _celosia_ is one of the most notorious instances. cauliflowers, turnips and varieties of cabbages are recorded by de candolle to have arisen in [ ] culture, more than a century ago, as isolated monstrous individuals. they come true from seed, but show deviations from time to time which seem to be intimately linked with their abnormal characters. apetalous flowers may be considered as another form of monstrosity, and in _salpiglossis sinuata_ such a variety without a corolla made its appearance in the year in the nursery of vilmorin. it appeared suddenly, yielded a good crop of seed and was constant from the outset, without any sign of vicinism or impurity. in several cases the origin of a variety is obscure, while the subsequent historical evidence is such as to make an original sudden appearance quite probable. although these instances offer but indirect evidence, and will sooner or later lose their importance, it seems desirable to lay some stress on them here, because most of these cases are very obvious and more striking than purely historical facts. sterile varieties belong to this heading. sometimes they bear fruit without kernels, sometimes flowers without sexual organs, or even no flowers at all. instances have been given in the lecture on retrograde varieties; they are ordinarily assumed to have originated by a leap, because it is not quite clear how a loss of the capacity for the formation of seeds could have been slowly accumulated [ ] in preceding generations. an interesting case is afforded by a sterile variety of corn, which originated some time ago in my own pedigree-cultures made for another purpose, and which had begun with an ear of . the first generation from the original seeds showed nothing particular, but the second at once produced quite a number of sterile plants. the sterility was caused by the total lack of branches, including those bearing the pistillate flowers. the terminal spikes themselves were reduced to naked spindles, without branches, without flowers and even almost without bracts. in some individuals, however, this negative character was seen to give way at the tip, showing a few small naked branches. of course it was impossible to propagate this curious form, but my observations showed that it sprang into existence from known ancestors by a single step or sudden leap. this leap, however, was not confined to a single specimen; on the contrary it affected plants out of a culture of individuals. the same phenomenon was repeated from the seeds of the normal plants in the following year, but afterwards the monstrosity disappeared. the italian poplar affords another instance. it is considered by some authors as a distinct species, _populus italica_, and by others as a [ ] broom-like variety of the _populus nigra_, from which it is distinguished by its erect branches and other characters of minor importance. it is often called the pyramidal or fastigiate poplar. its origin is absolutely unknown and it occurs only in the cultivated state. in italy it seems to have been cultivated from the earliest historical times, but it was not introduced into other countries till the eighteenth century. in it was brought into france, and in into england, and to day it may be seen along roads throughout central europe and in a large part of asia. but the most curious fact is that it is only observed in staminate specimens; pistillate trees have not been found, although often sought for. this circumstance makes it very probable that the origin of the broom-like poplar was a sudden mutation, producing only one individual. this being staminate, it has been propagated exclusively by cuttings. it is to be admitted, however, that no material evidence is at hand to prove that it is not an original wild species, the pistillate form of which has been lost by vegetative multiplication. one form only of many dioecious plants is to be found in cultivation, as, for instance some south american species of _ribes_. total lack of historical evidence concerning [ ] the origin of a variety has sometimes been considered as sufficient proof of a sudden origin. the best known instance is that of the renowned cactus-dahlia with its recurved instead of incurved ray-florets. it was introduced from mexico into the netherlands by van den berg of jutphaas, under the following remarkable circumstances. in the autumn of one of his friends had sent him a small case, containing seeds, bulbs and roots from mexico. from one of these roots a _dahlia_ shoot developed. it was cultivated with great care and bloomed next year. it surprised all who saw it by the unexpected peculiarity of its large rich crimson flowers, the rays of which were reversed tubular. the margins of the narrow rays were curved backwards, showing the bright color of the upper surface. it was a very showy novelty, rapidly multiplied by cuttings, and was soon introduced into commerce. it has since been crossed with nearly all other available varieties of the _dahlia_, giving a large and rich group of forms, bound together by the curious curling of the petals. it has never been observed to grow in mexico, either wild or in gardens, and thus the introduced individual has come to be considered as the first of its race. i have already mentioned that the rapid production of large numbers of new varieties, by [ ] means of the crossing of the offspring of a single mutant with previously existing sorts, is a very common feature in horticultural practice. it warns us that only a small part of the novelties introduced yearly are due to real mutations. further instances of novelties with such a common origin are the purple-leaved dahlias, the gooseberries without prickles, the double petunias, erect gloxinias and many others. accumulation of characters, acquired in different races of a species, may easily be effected in this way; in fact it is one of the important factors in the breeding of horticultural novelties. i have alluded more than once in this lecture to the question, whether it is probable that mutations occur in one individual or in more. the common belief among horticulturists is that, as a rule, they appear in a single plant. this belief is so widespread that whenever a novelty is seen for the first time in two or more specimens it is at once suggested that it might have originated and been overlooked in a previous generation. not caring to confess a lack of close observation, the number of mutants in such cases is usually kept secret. at least this statement has been made to me by some of the horticulturists at erfurt, whom i visited some years ago in order to learn as much as [ ] possible about the methods of production of their novelties. hence it is simply impossible to decide the question on the basis of the experience of the breeders. even in the case of the same novelty arising in sundry varieties of the same species, the question as to common origin, by means of crossing, is often hard to decide, as for instance in moss-roses and nectarines. on the other hand, instances are on record where the same novelty has appeared at different times, often at long intervals. such is the case with the butterfly-cyclamen, a form with wide-spreading petals which originated in martin's nursery in england. the first time it was seen it was thought to be of no value, and was thrown away, but when appearing for a second time it was multiplied and eventually placed on the market. other varieties of _cyclamen_, as for instance the crested forms, are also known to have originated repeatedly. in concluding this series of examples of horticultural mutations, i might mention two cases, which have occurred in my own experimental garden. the first refers to a tubular _dahlia_. it has ray-florets, the ligules of which have their margins grown together so as to form tubes, with the outer surface corresponding to the pale under-surface of the corolla. this novelty originated in a single plant in a [ ] culture from the seed of the dwarf variety "jules chretien." the seeds were taken from introduced plants in my garden, and as the sport has no ornamental value it is uncertain whether this was the first instance or whether it had previously occurred in the nursery at lyons, from whence the bulbs were secured. afterwards it proved true from seed, but was very variable, exhibiting rather the features of an ever-sporting variety. another novelty was seen the first time in several individuals. it was a pink sport of the european cranesbill, _geranium pratense_. it arose quite unexpectedly in the summer of from a striped variety of the blue species. it was seen in seven specimens out of a lot of about a hundred plants. this strain was introduced into my garden in , when i bought two plants under the name of _geranium pratense album_, which however proved to belong to the striped variety. from their seeds i sowed in a first generation, of which a hundred plants flowered the next year, and from their seeds i sowed in the lot which produced the sport. neither the introduced plants nor their offspring had exhibited the least sign of a color-variation, besides the blue and white stripes. hence it is very probable that my novelty was a true first mutation, the more probably [ ] so since a pink variety would without doubt have a certain horticultural value and would have been preserved if it had occurred. but as far as i have been able to ascertain, it is as yet unknown, nor has it been described until today. summing up the results of this long, though very incomplete, list of horticultural novelties with a more or less well-known origin, we see that sudden appearances are the rule. having once sprung into existence the new varieties are ordinarily constant, except as affected by vicinism. details concerning the process are mostly unavailable or at least are of very doubtful value. and to this it should be added that really progressive mutations have hardly been observed in horticulture. hence the theoretical value of the facts is far less than might have been expected. [ ] lecture xxii systematic atavism the steady cooperation of progression and retrogression is one of the important principles of organic evolution. i have dwelt upon this point more than once in previous lectures. i have tried to show that both in the more important lines of the general pedigree of the vegetable kingdom, and in the numerous lateral branches ending in the genera and species within the families, progression and retrogression are nearly always at work together. your attention has been directed to the monocotyledons as an example, where retrogression is everywhere so active that it can almost be said to be the prevailing movement. reduction in the vegetative and generative organs, in the anatomical structure and growth of the stems, and in sundry other ways is the method by which the monocotyledons have originated as a group from their supposed ancestors among the lower dicotyledonous families. retrogression is the leading idea in the larger families of the group, [ ] as for instance in the aroids and the grasses. retrograde evolution is also typical in the highest and most highly differentiated family of the monocotyledons, the orchids, which have but one or two stamens. in the second place i have had occasion more than once to assert that retrogression, though seemingly consisting in the disappearance of some quality, need not, as a rule, be considered as a complete loss. quite on the contrary, it is very probable that real losses are extremely rare, if not wholly lacking. ordinarily the loss is only apparent, the capacity becomes inactive only, but is not destroyed. the character has become latent, as it is commonly stated, and therefore may return to activity and to the full display of its peculiarity, whenever occasion offers. such a return to activity was formerly called atavism. but as we have seen, when dealing with the phenomena of latency at large, sundry cases of latency are to be distinguished, in order to get a clear insight into these difficult processes. so it is with atavism, too. if any plant reverts to a known ancestor, we have a positive and simple case. but ancestors with alternate specific marks are as a rule neither historically nor experimentally manifest. they are only reputed to be such, and the presumption rests [ ] upon the systematic affinity between the derivative species and its nearest probable allies. such reversions are now to be examined at some length and may be adequately treated under the head of systematic atavism. to this form of atavism pertain, on the basis of our definition, those phenomena by which species assume one or more characters of allies, from which they are understood to have descended by the loss of the character under discussion. the phenomena themselves consist in the production of anomalies and varieties, and as the genetic relation of the latter is often hardly beyond doubt, the anomalies seem to afford the best instances for the study of systematic atavism. this study has for its chief aim the demonstration of the presence of the latent characters, and to show that they return to activity suddenly and not by a slow and gradual recovery of the former features. it supports the assertion that the visible elementary characters are essentially an external display of qualities carried by the bearers of heredity, and that these bearers are separate entities, which may be mingled together, but are not fused into a chaotic primitive life-substance. systematic atavism by this means leads us to a closer examination of the internal and concealed causes, which rule the affinities and divergencies of [ ] allied species. it brings before us and emphasizes the importance of the conception of the so-called unit-characters. the primrose will serve as an example. in the second lecture we have seen that the old species of linnaeus, the _primula veris_, was split up by jacquin into three smaller ones, which are called _p. officinalis_, _p. elatior_ and _p. acaulis_. from this systematic treatment we can infer that these three forms are assumed to be derived from a common ancestor. now two of them bear their flowers in bracted whorls, condensed into umbels at the summits of a scape. the scapes themselves are inserted in the axils of the basal leaves, and produce the flowers above them. in the third species, _primula acaulis_, this scape is lacking and the flowers are inserted singly in the axils on long slender stalks. for this reason the species is called acaulescent, indicating that it has no other stem than the subterranean rootstock. but on closer inspection we observe that the flower stalks are combined into little groups, each group occupying the aril of one of the basal leaves. this fact at once points to an analogy with the umbellate allies, and induces us to examine the insertion of the flowers more critically. in doing so we find that they are united at their base so as to constitute a sessile umbel. [ ] the scapes are not absolutely lacking, but only reduced to almost invisible rudiments. relying upon this conclusion we infer that all of the three elementary species have umbels, some pedunculate and the others not. on this point they agree with the majority of the allied species in the genus and in other genera, as for instance in _androsace_. hence the conclusion that the common ancestors were perennial plants with a rootstock bearing their flowers in umbels or whorls on scapes. lacking in the _primula veris_, these scapes must obviously have been lost at the time of the evolution of this form. proceeding on this line of speculation we at once see that a very adequate opportunity for systematic atavism is offered here. according to our general conception the apparent loss of a scape is no proof of a corresponding internal loss, but might as well be caused simply by the reduction of the scape-growing capacity to a latent or inactive state. it might be awakened afterwards by some unknown agency, and return to activity. now this is exactly what happens from time to time. in holland the acaulescent primrose is quite a common plant, filling the woods in the spring with thousands of clusters of bright yellow flowers. it is a very uniform type, but in [ ] some years it is seen to return to atavistic conditions in some rare individuals. more than once i have observed such cases myself, and found that the variation is only a partial one, producing one or rarely two umbels on the same plant, and liable to fail of repetition when the varying specimens are transplanted into the garden for further observation. but the fact remains that scapes occur. the scapes themselves are of varying length, often very short, and seldom long, and their umbels display the involucre of bracts in a manner quite analogous to that of the _primula officinalis_ and _p. elatior_. to my mind this curious anomaly strongly supports the view of the latent condition of the scape in the acaulescent species, and that such a dormant character must be due to a descent from ancestors with active scapes, seems to be in no need of further reiteration. returning to activity the scapes at once show a full development, in no way inferior to that of the allied forms, and only unstable in respect to their length. a second example is afforded by the bracts of the crucifers. this group is easily distinguished by its cruciform petals and the grouping of the flowers into long racemes. in other families each flower of such an inflorescence would be subtended by a bract, according to the [ ] general rule that in the higher plants side branches are situated in the arils of leaves. bracts are reduced leaves, but the spikes of the cruciferous plants are generally devoid of them. the flower-stalks, with naked bases, seem to arise from the common axis at indefinite points. hence the inference that crucifers are an exception to a general rule, and that they must have originated from other types which did comply with this rule, and accordingly were in the possession of floral bracts. or, in other words, that the bracts must have been lost during the original evolution of the whole family. this conclusion being accepted, the accidental re-apparition of bracts within the family must be considered as a case of systematic atavism, quite analogous to the re-appearance of the scapes in the acaulescent primrose. the systematic importance of this phenomenon, however, is far greater than in the first case, in which we had only to deal with a specific character, while the abolition of the bracts has become a feature of a whole family. this reversion is observed to take place according to two widely different principles. on one hand, bracts may be met with in a few stray species, assuming the rank of a specific character. on the other hand they may be seen [ ] to occur as an anomaly, incompletely developed, often very rare and with all the appearance of an accidental variation, but sometimes so common as to seem nearly normal. coming now to particular instances, we may turn our attention in the first place to the genus _sisymbrium_. this is a group of about species, of wide geographic distribution, among which the hedge mustard (_s. officinalis_) is perhaps the most common of weeds. two species are reputed to have bracts, _sisymbrium hirsutum_ and _s. supinum_. each flower-stalk of their long racemes is situated in the aril of such a bract, and the peculiarity is quite a natural one, corresponding exactly to what is seen in the inflorescence of other families. besides the _sisymbrium some six other genera afford similar structures. _erucastrum pollichii_ has been already alluded to in a former lecture when dealing with the same problem from another point of view. as previously stated, it is one of the most manifest and most easily accessible examples of a latent character becoming active through systematic atavism. in fact, its bracts are found so often as to be considered by some authors as of quite normal occurrence. contrasted with those of the above mentioned species of _sisymbrium_, they are not seen at the base of all the flower [ ] stalks, but are limited to the lowermost part of the raceme, adorning a few, often ten or twelve, and rarely more flower-stalks. moreover they exhibit a feature which is indicative of the presence of an abnormality. they are not all of the same size, but decrease in length from the base of the raceme upward, and finally slowly disappear. besides these rare cases there are quite a number of cruciferous species on record, which have been observed to bear bracts. penzig in his valuable work on teratology gives a list of such genera, many of them repeating the anomaly in more than one species. ordinary cabbages are perhaps the best known instance, and any unusual abundance of nourishment, or anomalous cause of growth seems to be liable to incite the development of bracts. the hedge garlic or garlic mustard (_alliaria_), the shepherd's purse, the wormseed or _erysimum cheiranthoides_ and many others afford instances. in my cultures of heeger's shepherd's purse, the new species derived at landau in germany from the common shepherd's purse, the anomaly was observed to occur more than once, showing that the mutation, which changed the fruits, had not in the least affected this subordinate anomalous peculiarity. in all these cases the bracts behave as with the erucastrum, [ ] being limited to the base of the spike, and decreasing in size from the lower flowers upward. connected with these atavistic bracts is a feature of minor importance, which however, by its almost universal accompaniment of the bracts, deserves our attention, as it is indicative of another latent character. as a rule, the bracts are grown together with their axillary flower-stalk. this cohesion is not complete, nor is it always developed in the same degree. sometimes it extends over a large part of the two organs, leaving only their tips free, but on other occasions it is limited to a small part of the base. but it is very interesting that this same cohesion is to be seen in the shepherd's purse, in the wormseed and in the cabbage, as well as in the case of the _erucastrum_ and most of the other observed cases of atavistic bracts. this fact suggests the idea of a common origin for these anomalies, and would lead to the hypothesis that the original ancestors of the whole family, before losing the bracts, exhibited this peculiar mode of cohesion. bracts and analogous organs afford similar cases of systematic atavism in quite a number of other families. aroids sometimes produce long bracts from various places on their spadix, as may be seen in the cultivated greenhouse species, _anthurium scherzerianum_. [ ] poppies have been recorded to bear bracts analogous to the little scales on the flower-stalks of the pansies, on the middle of their flower stalks. a similar case is shown by the yellow foxglove or _digitalis parviflora_. the foxgloves as a rule have naked flower-stalks, without the two little opposite leafy organs seen in so many other instances. the yellow species, however, has been seen to produce such scales from time to time. the honeysuckle genus is, as a rule, devoid of the stipules at the base of the petiole, but _lonicera etrusca_ has been observed to develop such organs, which were seen to be free in some, but in other specimens were adnate to the base of the leaf, and even connate with those of the opposite leaf. other instances could be given proving that bracts and stipules, when systematically lacking, are liable to reappear as anomalies. in doing so, they generally assume the peculiar characters that would be expected of them by comparison with allied genera in which they are of normal occurrence. there can be no doubt that their absence is due to an apparent loss, resulting from the reduction of a formerly active quality to inactivity. resuming this effective state, the case attains the value and significance accorded to systematic atavism. a very curious instance of reduced bracts, developing [ ] to unusual size, is afforded by a variety of corn, which is called _zea mays cryptosperma_, or _zea mays tunicata_. in ordinary corn the kernels are surrounded by small and thin, inconspicuous and membranaceous scales. invisible on the integrate spikes, when ripe, they are easily detected by pulling the kernels out. in _cryptosperma_ they are so strongly developed as to completely hide the kernels. obviously they constitute a case of reversion to the characters of some unknown ancestor, since the corn is the only member of the grass-family with naked kernels. the var. _tunicata_, for this same reason, has been considered to be the original wild form, from which the other varieties of corn have originated. but as no historical evidence on this point is at hand, we must leave it as it is, notwithstanding the high degree of attractiveness attached to the suggestion. the horsetail-family may be taken as a further support of our assertion. some species have stems of two kinds, the fertile being brownish and appearing in early spring before the green or sterile ones. in others the stems are all alike, green and crowned with a conelike spike of sporangia-bearing scales. manifestly the dimorphous cases are to be considered as the younger ones, partly because they are obvious exceptions to the common rule, and [ ] partly because the division of labor is indicative of a higher degree of evolution. but sometimes these dimorphic species are seen to revert to the primary condition, developing a fertile cone at the summit of the green summer-stem. i have had the opportunity of collecting an instance of this anomaly on the tall _equisetum telmateja_ in switzerland, and other cases are on record in teratological literature. it is an obvious example of systematic atavism, occurring suddenly and with the full development of all the qualities needed for the normal production of sporangia and spores. all of these must be concealed in a latent condition within the young tissues of the green stems. more than once i have had occasion to deal with the phenomenon of torsions, as exhibited by the teasels and some other plants. this anomaly has been shown to be analogous to the cases described as double adaptations. the capacity of evolving antagonistic characters is prominent in both. the antagonists are assumed to lie quietly together while inactive. but as soon as evolution calls them into activity they become mutually exclusive, because only one of them can come to full display in the same organ. external influences decide which of the two becomes dominant and which remains dormant. this decision must take place separately [ ] for each stem and each branch, but as a rule, the stronger ages are more liable to furnish anomalies than the weaker. exactly the same thing is true of double adaptations. every bud of the water-persicaria may develop either into an erect or into a floating stem, according as it is surrounded by water or by relatively dry soil. in other cases utility is often less manifest, but some use may either be proved, or shown to be very probable. at all events the term adaptation includes the idea of utility, and obviously useless contrivances could hardly be brought under the same head. we have also dealt with the question of heredity. it is obvious that from the flowers of the floating and erect stems of the water-persicaria seeds will result, each capable of yielding both forms. quite the same thing was the case with the teasels. some % of the progeny produce beautifully twisted stems, but whether the seed was saved from the most completely twisted specimens or from the straight plants of the race was of no importance. this phenomenon of twisting may now be considered from quite another point of view. it is a case of systematic atavism, or of the reacquirement of some ancient and long-lost quality. this quality is the alternate position of [ ] the leaves, which has been replaced in the teasel family by a grouping in pairs. in order to prove the validity of this assertion, it will be necessary to discuss two points separately, viz.: relative positions of the leaves, and the manner in which the alternate position causes the stems to become twisted. leaves are affixed to their stems and branches in various ways. among them one is of wide occurrence throughout the whole realm of the higher plants, while all the others are more rare. moreover these subordinate arrangements are, as a rule, confined to definite systematic groups. such groups may be large, as for instance, the monocotyledons, that have their leaves arranged in two opposite rows in many families, or small, as genera or subdivisions of genera. apart from these special cases the main stem and the greater part of the branches of the pedigree of the higher plants exhibit a spiral condition or a screw arrangement, all leaves being inserted at different points and on different sides of the stem. this condition is assumed to be the original one, from which the more specialized types have been derived. as is usual with characters in general, it is seen to vary around an average, the spiral becoming narrower and looser. a narrow spiral condenses the leaves, while a [ ] loose one disperses them. according to such fluctuating deviations the number of leaves, inserted upon a given number of spiral circuits, is different in different species. in a vast majority of cases leaves are found on circuits, and as we have only to deal with this proportion in the teasels we will not consider others. in the teasels this screw-arrangement has disappeared, and has been replaced by a decussate grouping. the leaves are combined into pairs, each pair occupying the opposite sides of one node. the succeeding pairs alternate with one another, so as to place their leaves at right angles. the leaves are thus arranged on the whole stem in four equidistant rows. on the normal stem of a teasel the two members of a pair are tied to one another in a comparatively complicated way. the leaves are broadly sessile and their bases are united so as to constitute a sort of cup. the margins of these cups are bent upward, thereby enabling them to hold water, and after a rainfall they may be seen filled to the brim. it is believed that these little reservoirs are useful to the plant during the flowering period, because they keep the ants away from the honey. considering the internal structure of the stem at the base of these cups we find that the vascular bundles of the two opposite leaves are strongly connected [ ] with one another, constituting a ring which narrowly surrounds the stem, and which would impede an increase in thickness, if such were in the nature of the plant. but since the stems end their existence during the summer of their development, this structure is of no real harm. the grouping of the leaves in alternate pairs may be seen within the bud as well as on the adult stems. in order to do this, it is necessary to make transverse sections through the heart of the rosette of the leaves of the first year. if cut through the base, the pair exhibit connate wings, corresponding to the water-cups; if cut above these, the leaves seem to be free from one another. in order to compare the position of leaves of the twisted plants with this normal arrangement, the best way is to make a corresponding section through the heart of the rosette of the first year. it is not necessary to make a microscopic preparation. in the fall the changed disposition may at once be seen to affect the central leaves of the group. all the rosettes of the whole race commence with opposite leaves; those that are to produce straight stems remain in this condition, but the preparation for twisting begins at the end of the first year as shown by a special arrangement of the leaves. this [ ] disposition may then be seen to extend to the very center of the rosette, by use of microscopical sections. examining sections made in the spring, the original arrangement of the leaves of the stem is observed to continue until the beginning of the growth of the shoot. it is easy to estimate the number of leaves corresponding to a given number of spiral circuits in these sections and the proportion is found to indicate leaves on turns. these figures are the same as those given above for the ordinary arrangement of alternate leaves in the main lines of the pedigree of the vegetable kingdom. leaving aside for the moment the subsequent changes of this spiral arrangement, it becomes at once clear that here we have a case of systematic atavism. the twisted teasels lose their decussation, but in doing so the leaves are not left in a disorderly dispersion, but a distinct new arrangement takes its place, which is to be assumed as the normal one for the ancestors of the teasel family. the case is to be considered as one of atavism. obviously no other explanation is possible, than the supposition that the - spiral is still latent, though not displayed by the teasels. but in the very moment when the faculty of decussation disappears, it resumes its place, and becomes [ ] as prominent as it must once have been in the ancestors, and is still in that part of their offspring, which has not become changed in this respect. thus the proof of our assertion of systematic atavism is, in this case, not obtained by the inspection of the adult, but by the investigation of the conditions in an early stage. it remains to be explained how the twisting may finally be caused by this incipient grouping of the leaves. before doing so, it may be as well to state that the case of the teasel is not an isolated one, and that the same conclusions are supported by the valerian, and a large number of other examples. in early spring some rosettes show a special condition of the leaves, indicating thereby at once their atavism and their tendency to become twisted as soon as they begin to expand. the sweet william or _dianthus barbatus_ affords another instance; it is very interesting because a twisted race is available, which may produce thousands of instances developed in all imaginable degrees, in a single lot of plants. _viscaria oculata_ is another instance belonging to the same family. the bedstraw (_galium_) also includes many species which from time to time produce twisted stems. i have found them myself in holland on _galium verum_ and _g. aparine_. both seem [ ] to be of rare occurrence, as i have not succeeded in getting any repetition by prolonged culture. species, which generally bear their leaves in whorls, are also subjected to casual atavisms of this kind, as for instance the tall european horsetail, _equisetum telmateja_, which occasionally bears cones on its green summer stems. its whorls are changed on the twisted parts into clearly visible spirals. the ironwood or _casuarina quadrivalvis_ is sometimes observed to produce the same anomaly on its smaller lateral branches. coming now to the discussion of the way in which the twisting is the result of the spiral disposition of the leaves, we may consider this arrangement on stems in the adult state. these at once show the spiral line and it is easy to follow this line from the base up to the apex. in the most marked cases it continues without interruption, not rarely however, ending in a whorl of three leaves and a subsequent straight internode, of which there may even be two or three. the spiral exhibits the basal parts of the leaves, with the axillary lateral branches. the direction of the screw is opposed to that of the twisting, and the spiral ribs are seen to cross the line of insertion of the leaves at nearly right angles. on this line the leaves are nearer [ ] to one another than would correspond to the original proportion of turns for leaves. in fact, or even leaves may not rarely be counted on a single turn. or the twist may become so strong locally as to change the spiral into a longitudinal line. on this line all inserted leaves extend themselves in the same direction, resembling an extended flag. the spiral on the stem is simply the continuation of the spiral line from within the rosettes of the first year. accordingly it is seen to become gradually less steep at the base. for this reason it must be one and the same with this line, and in extreme youth it must have produced its leaves at the same mutual distances as this line. transverse sections of the growing summits of the stems support this conclusion. from these several facts we may infer that the steepness of the spiral line increases on the stem, as it is gradually changed into a screw. originally turns were needed for leaves, but this number diminishes and or or even turns may take the same number of foliar organs, until the screw itself is changed into a straight line. this change consists in an unwinding of the whole spiral, and in order to effect this the stem must become wound up in the opposite direction. the winding of the foliar screw must [ ] curve the longitudinal ribs. the straighter and steeper the screw becomes, the more the ribs will become twisted. that this happens in the opposite direction is obvious, without further discussion. the twisting is the inevitable consequence of the reversal of the screw. two points remain to be dealt with. one is the direct proof of the reversal of the screw, the other the discussion of its cause. the first may be observed by a simple experiment. of course it proceeds only slowly, but all that is necessary is to mark the position of one of the younger leaves of a growing stem of a twisting individual and to observe the change in its position in a few hours. it will be seen to have turned some way around the stem, and finally may be seen to make a complete revolution in the direction opposite to the screw, and thereby demonstrating the fact of its uncurling. the cause of this phenomenon is to be sought in the intimate connection of the basal parts of the leaves, which we have detailed above. the fibrovascular strands constitute a strong rope, which is twisted around the stem along the line on which the leaves are inserted. the strengthening of the internodes may stretch this rope to some extent, but it is too strong to be rent asunder. hence it opposes the normal growth, and the only manner in which the internodes [ ] may adjust themselves to the forces which tend to cause their expansion is by straightening the rope. in doing so they may find the required space, by growing out in an unusual direction, bending their axes and twisting the ribs. to prove the validity of this explanation, a simple experiment may be given. if the fibrovascular rope is the mechanical impediment which hinders the normal growth, we may try the effect of cutting through this rope. by this means the hindrance may at least locally be removed. now, of course, the operation must be made in an early stage before, or at the beginning of the period of growth, in every case before the uncurling of the rope begins. wounds made at this time are apt to give rise to malformations, but notwithstanding this difficulty i have succeeded in giving the necessary proof. stems operated upon become straight where the rope is cut through, though above and under the wounded part they go on twisting in the usual way. sometimes the plants themselves succeed in tearing the rope asunder, and long straight internodes divide the twisted stems in two or more parts in a very striking manner. a line of torn leaf-bases connects the two parts of the screw and gives testimony of what has passed within [ ] the tissues. at other times the straightening may have taken place directly internal to a leaf, and it is torn and may be seen to be attached to the stem by two distinct bases. summing up this description of the hereditary qualities of our twisted teasels and of their mechanical consequences, we may say that the loss of the normal decussation is the cause of all the observed changes. this special adaptation, which places the leaves in alternating pairs, replaced and concealed the old and universal arrangement on a screw line. in disappearing, it leaves the latter free, and according to the rule of systematic atavism, this now becomes active and takes its place. if the fibrovascular connection of the leaf-bases were lost at the same time the stems would grow and become straight and tall. this change however, does not occur, and the bases of the leaves now constitute a continuous rope instead of separate rings, and thereby impede the stretching of the internodes. these in their turn avoid the difficulty by twisting themselves in a direction opposite to that of the spiral of the leaves. as a last example of systematic atavism i will refer to the reversionary changes, afforded by the tomatoes. though the culture of this plant is a recent one, it seems to be at present in a state of mutability, producing new strains, or [ ] assuming the features of their presumable ancestors. in his work "the survival of the unlike," bailey has given a detailed description of these various types. moreover, he has closely studied the causes of the changes, and shown the great tendency of the tomatoes to vicinism. by far the larger part of the observed cases of running out of varieties are caused by accidental crosses through the agency of insects. even improvements are not rarely due to this cause. besides these common and often unavoidable changes, others of greater importance occur from time to time. two of them deserve to be mentioned. they are called the "upright" and the "mikado" types, and differ as much or even more from their parents than the latter do from any one of their wild congeners. their characters come true from seed. the "mikado" race or the _lycopersicum grandifolium_ (_l. latifolium_) has larger and fewer leaflets than the slender and somewhat flimsy foliage of the common form. flat or plane blades with decurrent margins constitute another character. this variety, however, does not concern our present discussion. the upright type has stiff and self-sustaining stems and branches, resembling rather a potato-plant than a tomato. hence the name _lycopersicum solanopsis_ or _l. validum_, under which it is usually described. [ ] the foliage of the plant is so distinct as to yield botanical characters of sufficient importance to justify this specific designation. the leaflets are reduced in numbers and greatly modified, and the flowers in the inflorescence are reduced to two or three. this curious race came in suddenly, without any premonition, and the locality and date of its mutation are still on record. until some years ago it had not made its appearance for a second time. obviously it is to be considered as a reversionary form. the limp stems of the common tomatoes are in all respects indicative of the cultivated condition. they cannot hold themselves erect, but must be tied up to supports. the color of the leaves is a paler green than should be expected from a wild plant. considering other species of the genus _solanum_, of which the _lycopersicum_ is a subdivision, the stems are as a rule erect and self-supporting, with some few exceptions. these, however, are special adaptations as shown by the winding stems of the bitter-sweet. from this discussion we seem justified in concluding that the original appearance of the upright type was of the nature of systematic atavism. it differs however, from the already detailed cases in that it is not a monstrosity, nor an ever-sporting race, but is as constant a form [ ] as the best variety or species. even on this ground it must be considered as a representative of a separate group of instances of the universal rule of systematic reversions. of late the same mutation has occurred in the garden of c.a. white at washington. the parent form in this case was the "acme," of the ordinary weak and spreading habit of growth. it is known as one of the best and most stable of the varieties and was grown by mr. white for many years, and had not given any sign of a tendency towards change. seeds from some of the best plants in were sown the following spring, and the young seedlings unexpectedly exhibited a marked difference from their parents. from the very outset they were more strong and erect, more compact and of a darker green than the "acme." when they reached the fruiting stage they had developed into typical representatives of the _lycopersicum solanopsis_ or upright division. the whole lot of plants comprised only some specimens, and this number, of course, is too small to base far-reaching conclusions upon. but all of the lot showed this type, no true "acme" being seen among them. the fruit differed in flavor, consistency and color from that of the parent, and it also ripened earlier than the latter. no seed was saved from [ ] these plants, but the following year the "acme" was sown again and found true to its type. seeds saved from this generation in have, however, repeated the mutation, giving rise to exactly the same new upright form in . this was called by its originator "the washington." seeds from this second mutation were kindly sent to me by mr. white, and proved true to their type when sown in my garden. obviously it is to be assumed in the case of the tomatoes as well as in instances from other genera cited, that characters of ancestors, which are not displayed in their progeny, have not been entirely lost, but are still present, though in a latent condition. they may resume their activity unexpectedly, and at once develop all the features which they formerly had borne. latency, from this point of view, must be one of the most common things in nature. all organisms are to be considered as internally formed of a host of units, partly active and partly inactive. extremely minute and almost inconceivably numerous, these units must have their material representatives within the most intimate parts of the cells. [ ] lecture xxiii taxonomic anomalies the theory of descent is founded mainly on comparative studies, which have the advantage of affording a broad base and the convincing effect of concurrent evidence brought together from widely different sources. the theory of mutation on the other hand rests directly upon experimental investigations, and facts concerning the actual descent of one form from another are as yet exceedingly rare. it is always difficult to estimate the validity of conclusions drawn from isolated instances selected from the whole range of contingent phenomena, and this is especially true of the present case. systematic and physiologic facts seem to indicate the existence of universal laws, and it is not probable that the process of production of new species would be different in the various parts of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. moreover the principle of unit-characters, the preeminent significance of which has come to be more fully recognized of late, is in full harmony [ ] with the theory of sudden mutations. together these two conceptions go to strengthen the probability of the sudden origin of all specific characters. experimental researches are limited in their extent, and the number of cases of direct observation of the process of mutation will probably never become large enough to cover the whole field of the theory of descent. therefore it will always be necessary to show that the similarity between observed and other cases is such as to lift above all doubt the assertion of their resulting from the same causes. besides the direct comparison of the mutations described in our former lectures, with the analogous cases of the horticultural and natural production of species and varieties at large, another way is open to obtain the required proof. it is the study of the phenomena, designated by casimir de candolle by the name of taxonomic anomalies. it is the assertion that characters, which are specific in one case, may be observed to arise as anomalies or as varieties in other instances. if they can be shown to be identical or nearly so in both, it is obviously allowable to assume the same origin for the specific character and for the anomaly. in other terms, the specific marks may be considered as having originated according to the laws [ ] that govern the production of anomalies, and we may assume them to lie within reach of our experiments. the experimental treatment of the origin of species may also be looked upon as a method within our grasp. the validity and the significance of these considerations will at once become clear, if we choose a definite example. the broadest and most convincing one appears to me to be afforded by the cohesion of the petals in gamopetalous flowers. according to the current views the families with the petals of their flowers united are regarded as one or two main branches of the whole pedigree of the vegetable kingdom. eichler and others assume them to constitute one branch, and therefore one large subdivision of the system. bessey, on the other hand, has shown the probability of a separate origin for those groups which have inferior ovaries. apart from such divergencies the connation of the petals is universally recognized as one of the most important systematic characters. how may this character have originated? the heath-family or the ericaceae and their nearest allies are usually considered to be the lowest of the gamopetalous plants. in them the cohesion of the petals is still subject to reversionary exceptions. such cases of atavism may [ ] be observed either as specific marks, or in the way of anomalies. _ledum_, _monotropa_ and _pyrola_, or the labrador tea, the indian pipe and wintergreen are instances of reversionary gamopetalism with free petals. in heaths (_erica tetralix_) and in rhododendrons the same deviation is observed to occur from time to time as an anomaly, and even the common _rhododendron ponticum_ of our gardens has a variety in which the corolla is more or less split. sometimes it exhibits five free petals, while at other times only one or two are entirely free, the remaining four being incompletely loosened. such cases of atavism make it probable that the coherence of the petals has originally arisen by the same method, but by action in the opposite direction. the direct proof of this conclusion is afforded by a curious observation, made by vilmorin upon the bright and large-flowered garden-poppy, _papaver bracteatum_. like all poppies it has four petals, which are free from one another. in the fields of messrs. vilmorin, where it is largely cultivated for its seeds, individuals occur from time to time which are anomalous in this respect. they exhibit a tendency to produce connate petals. their flowers become monopetalous, and the whole strain is designated by the name of _papaver_ [ ] _bracteatum monopetalum_. henry de vilmorin had the kindness to send me some of these plants, and they have flowered in my garden during several years. the anomaly is highly variable. some flowers are quite normal, exhibiting no sign of connation; others are wholly gamopetalous, the four petals being united from their base to the very margin of the cup formed. in consequence of the broadness of the petals however, this cup is so wide as to be very shallow. intermediate states occur, and not infrequently. sometimes only two or three petals are united, or the connation does not extend the entire length of the petals. these cases are quite analogous to the imperfect splitting of the corolla of the rhododendron. giving free rein to our imagination, we may for a moment assume the possibility of a new subdivision of the vegetable kingdom, arising from vilmorin's poppy and having gamopetalous flowers for its chief character. if the character became fixed, so as to lose its present state of variability, such a group of supposititious gamopetalous plants might be quite analogous to the corresponding real gamopetalous families. hence there can be no objection to the view, that the heaths have arisen in an analogous manner from their polypetalous ancestors. other species of [ ] the same genus have also been recorded to produce gamopetalous flowers, as for instance, _papaver hybridum_, by hoffmann. poppies are not the sole example of accidental gamopetaly. linnaeus observed the same deviation long ago for _saponaria officinalis_, and since, it has been seen in _clematis vitalba_ by jaeger, in _peltaria alliacea_ by schimper, in _silene annulata_ by boreau and in other instances. no doubt it is not at all of rare occurrence, and the origin of the present gamopetalous families is to be considered as nothing extraordinary. it is, as a matter of fact, remarkable that it has not taken place in more numerous instances, and the mallows show that such opportunities have been available at least more than once. other instances of taxonomic anomalies are afforded by leaves. many genera, the species of which mainly bear pinnate or palmate leaves, have stray types with undivided leaves. among the brambles, _rubus odoratus_ and _r. flexuosus_ may be cited, among the aralias, _aralia crassifolia_ and _a. papyrifera_, and among the jasmines, the deliciously scented sambac (_jasminum sambac_). but the most curious instance is that of the telegraph-plant, or _desmodium gyrans_, each complete leaf of which consists of a large terminal leaflet and two little lateral ones. these latter keep up, [ ] night and day, an irregular jerking movement, which has been compared to the movements of a semaphore. _desmodium_ is a papilionaceous plant and closely allied to the genus _hedysarum_, which has pinnate leaves with numerous pairs of leaflets. its place in the system leaves no doubt concerning its origin from pinnate-leaved ancestors. at the time of its origination its leaves must have become reduced as to the number of the blades, while the size of the terminal leaflet was correspondingly increased. it might seem difficult to imagine this great change taking place suddenly. however, we are compelled to familiarize ourselves with such hypothetical assumptions. strange as they may seem to those who are accustomed to the conception of continuous slow improvements, they are nevertheless in complete agreement with what really occurs. fortunately the direct proof of this assertion can be given, and in a case which is narrowly related, and quite parallel to that of the _desmodium_, since it affects a plant of the same family. it is the case of the monophyllous variety of the bastard-acacia or _robinia pseud-acacia_. in a previous lecture we have seen that it originated suddenly in a french nursery in the year . it can be propagated by seed, and exhibits a curious degree [ ] of variability of its leaves. in some instances these are one-bladed, the blade reaching a length of cm., and hardly resembling those of the common bastard-acacia. other leaves produce one or two small leaflets at the base of the large terminal one, and by this contrivance are seen to be very similar to those of the _desmodium_, repeating its chief characters nearly exactly, and only differing somewhat in the relative size of the various parts. lastly real intermediates are seen between the monophyllous and the pinnate types. as far as i have been able to ascertain, these are produced on weak twigs under unfavorable conditions; the size of the terminal leaflet decreases and the number of the lateral blades increases, showing thereby the presence of the original pinnate type in a latent condition. the sudden origin of this "one-leaved" acacia in a nursery may be taken as a prototype of the ancient origin of _desmodium_. of course the comparison only relates to a single character, and the movements of the leaflets are not affected by it. but the monophylly, or rather the size of the terminal blade and the reduction of the lateral ones, may be held to be sufficiently illustrated by the bastard-acacia. it is worth while to state, that analogous varieties have also arisen in other genera. the "one-leaved" [ ] strawberry has already been referred to. it originated from the ordinary type in norway and at paris. the walnut likewise, has its monophyllous variety. it was mentioned for the first time as a cultivated tree about , but its origin is unknown. a similar variety of the walnut, with "one-bladed" leaves but of varying shapes, was found wild in a forest near dieppe in france some years ago, and appeared to be due to a sudden mutation. something more is known concerning the "one-bladed" ashes, varieties of which are often seen in our parks and gardens. the common form has broad and deeply serrate leaves, which are far more rounded than the leaflets of the ordinary ash. the majority of the leaves are simple, but some produce one or two smaller leaflets at their base, closely corresponding in this respect to the variations of the "one-bladed" bastard-acacia, and evidently indicating the same latent and atavistic character. in some instances this analogy goes still further, and incompletely pinnate leaves are produced with two or more pairs of leaflets. besides this variable type another has been described by willdenow. it has single leaves exclusively, never producing smaller lateral leaflets, and it is said to be absolutely constant from seed, while the more variable types [ ] seem to be also more inconstant when propagated sexually. the difference is so striking and affords such a reliable feature that koch proposed to make two distinct varieties of them, calling the pure type _fraxinus excelsior monophylla_, and the varying trees _f. excelsior exheterophylla_. some writers, and among them willdenow, have preferred to separate the "one-leaved" forms from the species, and to call them _fraxinus simplicifolia_. according to smith and to loudon, the "one-leaved" ashes are found wild in different districts in-england. intermediate forms have not been recorded from these localities. this mode of origin is that already detailed for the laciniate varieties of alders and so many other trees. hence it may be assumed that the "one-leaved" ashes have sprung suddenly but frequently from the original pinnate species. the pure type of willdenow should, in this case, be considered as due to a slightly different mutation, perhaps as a pure retrograde variety, while the varying strains may only be eversporting forms. this would likewise explain part of their observed inconstancy. in this respect the historic dates, as collected by korshinsky, are not very convincing. vicinism has of course, almost never been excluded, and part of the multiformity of the offspring [ ] must obviously be due to this most universal agency. indirect vicinism also plays some part, and probably affords the explanation of some reputed mutative productions of the variety. so, for instance, in the case of sinning, who after sowing the seeds of the common ash, got as large a proportion as % of monophyllous trees in a culture of some thousand plants. it is probable that his seeds were taken partly from normal plants, and partly from hybrids between the normal and the "one-bladed" type, assuming that these hybrids have pinnate leaves like their specific parent, and bear the characters of the other parent only in a latent condition. our third example relates to peltate leaves. they have the stalk inserted in the middle of the blade, a contrivance produced by the connation of the two basal lobes. the water-lilies are a well known instance, exhibiting sagittate leaves in the juvenile stage and changing in many species, into nearly circular peltate forms, of which _victoria regia_ is a very good example, although its younger stages do not always excite all the interest they deserve. the indian cress (_tropaeolum_), the marsh pennywort or _hydrocotyle_, and many other instances could be quoted. sometimes the peltate leaves are not at all orbicular, but are elongated, oblong or elliptic, and with only the lobes [ ] at the base united. the lemon-scented _eucalyptus citriodora_ is one of the most widely known cases. in other instances the peltate leaves become more or less hollow, constituting broad ascidia as in the case of the crassulaceous genus _umbilicus_. this connation of the basal lobes is universally considered as a good and normal specific character. nevertheless it has its manifest analogy in the realm of the anomalies. this is the pitcher or ascidium. on some trees it is of quite common occurrence, as on the lime-tree (_tilia parvifolia_) and the magnolia (_magnolia obovata_ and its hybrids). it is probable that both these forms have varieties with, and others without, ascidia. of the lime-tree, instances are known of single trees which produce hundreds of such anomalous leaves yearly, and one such a tree is growing in the neighborhood of amsterdam at lage vuursche. i have alluded to these cases more than once, but on this occasion a closer inspection of the structure of the ascidium is required. for this purpose we may take the lime-tree as an example. take the shape of the normal leaves in the first place. these are cordate at their base and mainly inequilateral, but the general shape varies to a considerable extent. this variation is closely related to the position of the leaves on the twigs, and shows [ ] distinct indications of complying with the general law of periodicity. the first leaves are smaller, with more rounded lobes, the subsequent leaves attain a larger size, and their lobes slightly change their forms. in the first leaves the lobes are so broad as to touch one another along a large part of their margins, but in organs formed later this contact gradually diminishes and the typical leaves have the lobes widely separated. now it is easily understood that the contact or the separation of the lobes must play a part in the construction of the ascidia, as soon as the margins grow together. leaves which touch one-another, may be affected by the connation without any further malformation. they remain flat, become peltate and exhibit a shape which in some way holds a middle position between the pennyworts and the lemon-scented eucalyptus. here we have the repetition of the specific characters of these plants by the anomaly of another. whenever the margins are not in contact, and become connate, notwithstanding their separation, the blade must be folded together in some slight degree, in order to produce the required contact. this is the origin of the ascidium. it is quite superfluous to insist upon the fact that their width or narrowness must depend upon the corresponding normal form. the more distant the [ ] lobes, the deeper the ascidium will become. it should be added that this explanation of the different shapes of ascidia is of general validity. ascidia of the snake-plantain or _plantago lanceolata_ are narrow tubes, because the leaves are oblong or lanceolate, while those of the broad leaved species of arrowhead, as for instance, the _sagittaria japonica_, are of a conical shape. from the evidence of the lime-tree we may conclude that normal peltate leaves may have originated in the same way. and from the fact that pitchers are one of the most frequent anomalies, we may conclude that the chance of producing peltate leaves must have been a very great one, and wholly sufficient to account for all observed cases. in every instance the previously existing shape of the leaf must have decided whether peltate or pitcher-like leaves would be formed. as far as we can judge peltate anomalies are quite uninjurious, while ascidia are forms which must impede the effect of the light on the leaf, as they conceal quite an important part of the upper surface. in this way it is easily conceivable that peltate leaves are a frequent specific character, while ascidia are not, as they only appear in the special cases of limited adaptation, as in the instances of the so called pitcher-plants. the genera _nepenthes_, [ ] _sarracenia_ and some others are very well known and perhaps even the bladderworts or _utricularia_ might be included here. the reproduction of specific characters by anomalous ascidia is not at all limited to the general case as described above. more minute details may be seen to be duplicated in the same way. proofs are afforded on one side by incomplete ascidia, and on the other by the double cups. incomplete ascidia are those of the _nepenthes_. the leaf is divided into three parts, a blade, a tendril and the pitcher. or in other words, the limb produces a tendril at its summit, by means of which the plant is enabled to fasten itself to surrounding shrubs and to climb between their branches. but the end of this tendril bears a well-formed urn, which however, is produced only after the revolving and grasping movements of the tendril have been made. some species have more rounded and some more elongated ascidia and often the shape is seen to change with the development of the stem. the mouth of the urn is strengthened by a thick rim and covered with a lid. numerous curious contrivances in these structures to catch ants and other insects have been described, but as they have no relation to our present discussion, we shall abstain from dealing with them. [ ] likewise we must refrain from a consideration of the physiologic qualities of the tendril, and confine our attention to the combination of a limb, a naked midvein and an ascidium. this combination is to be the basis of our discussion. it is liable to be produced all of a sudden. this assertion is proved by its occurrence as a varietal mark in one of our most ordinary cultivated plants. it is the group known as _croton_, belonging to the genus _codiaeum_. a variety is called _interruptum_ and another _appendiculatum_, and these names both relate to the interruption of the leaves by a naked midvein. the leaves are seen to be built up of three parts. the lower half retains the aspect of a limb; it is crowned by a vein without lateral nerves or blade-like expansions, and this stalk in its turn bears a short limb on its summit. the base of this apical limb exhibits two connate lobes, forming together a wide cup or ascidium. it should be stated that these _interruptum_ varieties are highly variable, especially in the relative size of the three principal parts of the leaf. though it is of course conceded that the ascidium of _nepenthes_ has many secondary devices which are lacking in _croton_, it seems hardly allowable to deny the possibility of an analogous origin for both. those of the _croton_, according to our knowledge regarding similar cases, must [ ] have arisen at once, and hence the conclusion that the ascidia of _nepenthes_ are also originally due to a sudden mutation. interrupted leaves, with an ascidium on a naked prolongation of the midvein, are by no means limited to the _croton_ varieties. as stray anomalies they have often been observed, and i myself had the opportunity of collecting them on magnolia, on clover and on some other species. they are additional evidence in support of the explanation given above. in the same way double ascidia may be made use of to explain the foliar cups of the teasels and some other plants, as for instance, some european snakeroots (_eryngium maritimum_ and _e. campestre_), or the floral leaves of the honeysuckle. the leaves on the stems of the teasels are disposed in pairs, and the bases of the two leaves of each pair are connate so as to constitute large cups. we have already mentioned these cups, and recall them in the present connection to use them as a prototype of the double ascidia. these are constituted of two opposite leaves, accidentally connated at their base or along some part of their margins. if the leaves are sessile, the analogy with the teasels is complete, as shown, for instance, in a case of _cotyledon_, a crassulaceous plant which is [ ] known to produce such cups from time to time. they are narrower than those of the teasel, but this depends, as we have seen for the "one-leaved" ascidium, on the shape of the original leaf. in other respects they exactly imitate the teasel cups showing thereby how these cups may probably have originated. in numerous cases of anomalies some accidental structures are parallel to specific characters, while others are not, being obviously injurious to their bearers. so it is also with the double ascidia. in the case of stalked leaves the two opposite stalks must, of course, constitute a long and very narrow tube, when growing together. this tube must bear at its summit the conical ascidium produced by the two connate limbs. at its base however, it includes the terminal bud of the stem, and frequently the tube is so narrow as to impede its further development. by this contrivance the double ascidium assumes a terminal position. instances have been observed on magnolia, in _boehmeria_ and in other cases. flowers on leaves are of rare occurrence. notwithstanding this, they constitute specific characters in some instances, accidental anomalies in others. _helwingia rusciflora flora_ is the most curious and best known instance. it is a little shrub, belonging to the cornaceae, and [ ] has broad elliptical undivided leaves. on the middle of the midvein these leaves are seen to bear small clusters of flowers; indeed this is the only place where flowers are produced. each cluster has from - flowers, of which some are staminate and borne on stalks, while others are pistillate and nearly sessile. these flowers are small and of a pale greenish color and yield small stone-fruits, with a thin coating of pulpy tissue. as the name indicates, this mode of flowering is closely similar to that of _ruscus_, which however, does not bear its flowers and berries on real leaves, but on leaflike expansions of the twigs. _phyllonoma ruscifolia_, a saxifragaceous plant, bears the same specific name, indicating a similar origin of the flowers. other instances have been collected by casimir de candolle, but their number is very small. as a varietal mark, flowers on leaves likewise rarely occur. one instance however, is very remarkable, and we have already dealt with it, when treating of constant varieties, and of the lack of vicinism in the case of species with exclusive self-fertilization. it is the "nepaul-barley" or _hordeum trifurcatum_. the leaves, which in this case bear the adventitious flowers, are the inner scales of the spikelets, and not on green leaves as in the [ ] cases already alluded to. but this of course makes no real difference. the character is variable to a high degree, and this fact indicates its varietal nature, though it should be recalled that at least with the _helwingia_, the majority of the leaves are destitute of flowers, and that in this way some degree of variability is present in this normal case too. all in all there are three sorts of "nepaul-barley." they have the same varietal mark, but belong to different species of barley. these are differentiated according to the number of the rows in which the grains are seen on the spikes. these numbers may be two, four or six, giving rise to the specific names of _hordeum distichum_, _tetrastichum_ and _hexastichum_. whether these three varieties are of independent, but parallel origin, or are to be considered as due to a single mutation and subsequent crosses is not known, all of them being of ancient origin. historic evidence concerning their birth is wholly wanting. from analogy it would seem probable that the character had arisen by a mutation in one of the three named species, and had been transferred to others by means of accidental crosses, even as it has been artificially transmitted of late to quite a number of other sorts. but however admissible this conception may seem, there is of course no real objection [ ] to the assumption of independent and parallel mutations. for the purpose of a comparison with the _helwingia_ type we are however, not at all concerned with the species to which the _trifurcatum_ variety belongs, but only with the varietal mark itself. the spikelets may be one-, two- or three-flowered, according to the species. if we choose for further consideration the _hexastichum_ type, each spikelet produces three normal flowers and afterwards three normal grains. morphologically however, the spikelet is not homologous to those parts of other grasses which have the same name. it is constituted of three real spikelets, and thus deserves the name of a triple construction. each of these three little organs has its normal pair of outer scales or glumae. these are linear and short, ending in a long and narrow spine. those of the middle-most spikelets stand on its outer side, while those of the lateral part are placed transversely. in this way they form a kind of involucre around the central parts. the latter consist of the inner and outer palets or scales, each two of which include one of the flowers. the outer palet is to be considered as the metamorphosed leaf, in the aril of which the flower is produced. in the common sorts of barley it bears a long awn, giving thereby its typical aspect to the [ ] whole spike. the axillary flower is protected on the opposite side by a two-keeled inner palet. each flower exhibits three stamens and an ovary. in the six-rowed barley all the three flowers of a triple spikelet are fertile, and each of them has a long awn on the top of the outer palet. but in the two-rowed species only the middle-most flower is normal and has an awn, the two remaining being sterile and more or less rudimentary and with only very short awns. from this description it is easily seen that the species of barley may be distinguished from one another, even at a casual glance, by the number of the rows of the awns, and therefore by the shape of the entire spikes. this striking feature, however, does not exist in the "nepaul-barley." the awns are replaced by curiously shaped appendices, which are three-lobed. the central lobe is oblong and hollow, and forms a kind of hood, which covers a small supernumerary floret. the two lateral lobes are narrower, often linear and extended into a smaller or longer awn. these awns are mostly turned away from the center of the spike. the central lobe may sometimes bear two small florets, but ordinarily only one is to be found, and this is often incomplete, having only one or two stamens, or is different in some other way. [ ] these narrow lateral lobes heighten the abnormal aspect of the whole spike. they are only produced at a somewhat advanced stage of the development of the palet, are united to one another and to the central part by strong veins, which form transversal anastomoses at their insertion. the length of these awns is very variable, and this quality is perhaps the most striking of the whole variety. often they reach only - mm., or the majority may become longer and attain even cm., while here and there, between them, longer ones are inserted, extending in some instances even as far as cm. from the spike. their transverse position in such cases is strikingly contrasted with the ordinary erect type of the awns. these lateral lobes are to be regarded, from the morphologic point of view, as differentiated parts of the blade of the leaf. before they are formed, or coincidently with the beginning of their development, the summit of the central lobe becomes hollow, and the development of the supernumerary flower commences. in different varieties, and especially in the most recent crosses of them, this development is excessively variable. the accidental flower arises at some distance beneath the summit of the scale, on its middle [ ] vein. the development begins with the protrusion of a little scale, and the flower itself is situated beneath this scale, and is to be protected by it and by the primary scale, but is turned upside down at the same time. opposite to this organ, which represents the outer palet of the adventitious flower, two little swollen bodies are evolved. in the normal flowers of barley and other grains and grasses their function is to open the flowers by swelling, and afterwards collapse and allow them to close. in the adventitious flowers of the "nepaul-barley," however, this function is quite superfluous. the stamens occur in varying numbers; typically there are three, but not rarely less, or more, are seen. in some instances the complete double whorl of six, corresponding to the ancestral monocotyledonous type, has been found. this is a very curious case of systematic atavism, quite analogous to the _iris pallida abavia_, previously alluded to, which likewise has six stamens, and to the cases given in a previous lecture. but for our present discussion it is of no further interest. the ovary is situated in the middle of the flower, and in some instances two have been observed. this is also to be considered as a case of atavism. all these parts of the adventitious flower are more or less subject to arrest of development, [ ] in a later stage. they may even sometimes become abnormal. stamens may unite into pairs, or carpels bear four stigmas. the pollen-sacs are as a rule barren, the mother-cells undergoing atrophy, while normal grains are seen but rarely. likewise the ovaries are rudimentary, but wittmack has observed the occasional production of ripe grains from these abnormal florets. the scale is seldom seen to extend any farther upwards than the supernumerary flower. but in the rare instances where it does prolong its growth, it may repeat the abnormality and bear a second floret above the first. this of course is generally much weaker, and more rudimentary. raciborsky, who has lately given a full and very accurate description of this anomaly, lays great stress upon the fact that it is quite useless. it is perhaps the most obviously useless structure in the whole vegetable kingdom. notwithstanding this, it has come to be as completely hereditary as any of the most beautiful adaptations in nature. therefore it is one of the most serious objections to the hypothesis of slow and gradual improvements on the sole ground of their usefulness. the struggle for life and natural selection are manifestly inadequate to give even the slightest indication of [ ] an explanation of this case. it is simply impossible to imagine the causes that might have produced such a character. the only way out of this difficulty is to assume that it has arisen at once, in its present apparently differentiated and very variable condition, and that, being quite uninjurious and since it does not decrease the fertility of the race, it has never been subjected to natural selection, and so has saved itself from destruction. but if we once grant the probability of the origin of the "nepaul-barley" by a sudden mutation, we obviously must assume the same in the case of the _helwingia_ and other normal instances. in this way we gain a further support for our assertion, that even the strangest specific characters may have arisen suddenly. after having detailed at some length those proofs which seem to be the most striking, and which had not been previously described with sufficient detail, we may now take a hasty survey of other contingent cases. in the first place the cruciate flowers of some onagraceous plants should be remembered. small linear petals occur as a specific character in _oenothera cruciata_ of the adirondacks, but have been seen to arise as sudden mutations in the common evening-primrose (_o. biennis_) in holland, and in the willow-herb (_epilobium hirsutum_) in england. [ ] leaves placed in whorls of three are very rare. the oleander, juniper and some few other plants have ternate whorls as a specific character. as an anomaly, ternate whorls are far more common, and perhaps any plant with opposite leaves may from time to time produce them. races rich in this abnormality are found in the wild state in the yellow loosestrife or _lysimachia vulgaris_, in which it is a very variable specific character, the whorls varying from two to four leaves. in the cultivated state it is met with in the myrtle or _myrtus communis_, where it has come to be of some importance in israelitic ritual. crisped leaves are known in a mallow, _malva crispa_, and as a variety in cabbages, parsley, lettuce and others. the orbicular fruits of heeger's shepherd's purse (_capsella heegeri_) recall similar fruits of other cruciferous genera, as for instance, _camelina_. screw-like stems with wide spirals are specific in the flower-stalks of _cyclamen_ and _vallisneria_, varietal in _juncus effusus spiralis_ and accidental in _scirpus lacustris_. dormant buds or small bulbs in inflorescences are normal for wild onions, _polygonum viviparum_ and others, varietal in _poa alpina vivipara_ and perhaps in _agave vivipara_, and accidental in plantains (_plantago lanceolata_), _saxifraga umbrosa_ and others. [ ] cleft leaves, one of the most general anomalies, are typical in _boehmeria biloba_. the adnation of the peduncles of the inflorescences to the stem is typical in _solanum_ and accidental in many other cases. it seems quite superfluous to add further proof. it is a very general phenomenon that specific characters occur in other genera as anomalies, and under such circumstances that the idea of a slow evolution on the ground of utility is absolutely excluded. no other explanation remains than that of a sudden mutation, and once granted for the abnormal cases, this explanation must obviously likewise be granted for the analogous specific characters. our whole discussion shows that mutations, once observed in definite instances, afford the most probable basis for the explanation of specific characters at large. [ ] lecture xxiv the hypothesis of periodic mutations the prevailing belief that slow and gradual, nearly invisible changes constitute the process of evolution in the animal and vegetable kingdom, did not offer a strong stimulus for experimental research. no appreciable response to any external agency was of course to be expected. responses were supposed to be produced, but the corresponding outward changes would be too small to betray themselves to the investigator. the direct observation of the mutations of the evening-primrose has changed the whole aspect of the problem at once. it is no longer a matter dealing with purely hypothetical conditions. instead of the vague notions, uncertain hopes, and a priori conceptions, that have hitherto confused the investigator, methods of observation have been formulated, suitable for the attainment of definite results, the general nature of which is already known. to my mind the real value of the discovery [ ] of the mutability of the evening-primrose lies in its usefulness as a guide for further work. the view that it might be an isolated case, lying outside of the usual procedure of nature, can hardly be sustained. on such a supposition it would be far too rare to be disclosed by the investigation of a small number of plants from a limited area. its appearance within the limited field of inquiry of a single man would have been almost a miracle. the assumption seems justified that analogous cases will be met with, perhaps even in larger numbers, when similar methods of observation are used in the investigation of plants of other regions. the mutable condition may not be predicated of the evening-primroses alone. it must be a universal phenomenon, although affecting a small proportion of the inhabitants of any region at one time: perhaps not more than one in a hundred species, or perhaps not more than one in a thousand, or even fewer may be expected to exhibit it. the exact proportion is immaterial, because the number of mutable instances among the many thousands of species in existence must be far too large for all of them to be submitted to close scrutiny. it is evident from the above discussion that next in importance to the discovery of the prototype of mutation is the formulation of methods [ ] for bringing additional instances to light. these methods may direct effort toward two different modes of investigation. we may search for mutable plants in nature, or we may hope to induce species to become mutable by artificial methods. the first promises to yield results most quickly, but the scope of the second is much greater and it may yield results of far more importance. indeed, if it should once become possible to bring plants to mutate at our will and perhaps even in arbitrarily chosen directions, there is no limit to the power we may finally hope to gain over nature. what is to guide us in this new line of work? is it the minute inspection of the features of the process in the case of the evening-primroses? or are we to base our hopes and our methods on broader conceptions of nature's laws? is it the systematic study of species and varieties, and the biologic inquiry into their real hereditary units? or is the theory of descent to be our starting-point? are we to rest our conceptions on the experience of the breeder, or is perhaps the geologic pedigree of all organic life to open to us better prospects of success? the answer to all such questions is a very simple one. all possibilities must be considered, and no line of investigation ignored. for myself i have based my field-researches and my [ ] testing of native plants on the hypothesis of unit-characters as deduced from darwin's _pangenesis_. this conception led to the expectation of two different kinds of variability, one slow and one sudden. the sudden ones known at the time were considered as sports, and seemed limited to retrograde changes, or to cases of minor importance. the idea that sudden steps might be taken as the principal method of evolution could be derived from the hypothesis of unit characters, but the evidence might be too remote for a starting point for experimental investigation. the success of my test has given proof to the contrary. hence the assertion that no evidence is to be considered as inadequate for the purpose under discussion. sometime a method of discovering, or of producing, mutable plants may be found, but until this is done, all facts of whatever nature or direction must be made use of. a very slight indication may change forever the whole aspect of the problem. the probabilities are now greatly in favor of our finding out the causes of evolution by a close scrutiny of what really happens in nature. a persistent study of the physiologic factors of this evolution is the chief condition of success. to this study field-observations may contribute as well as direct experiments, [ ] microscopical investigations as well as extended pedigree-cultures. the cooperation of many workers is required to cover the field. somewhere no doubt the desired principle lies hidden, but until it is discovered, all methods must be tried. with this conception as the best starting point for further investigation, we may now make a brief survey of the other phase of the problem. we shall try to connect our observations on the evening-primroses with the theory of descent at large. we start with two main facts. one is the mutability of lamarck's primrose, and the second is the immutable condition of quite a number of other species. among them are some of its near allies, the common and the small flowered evening-primrose, or _oenothera biennis_ and _o. muricata_. from these facts, a very important question arises in connection with the theory of descent. is the mutability of our evening-primroses temporary, or is it a permanent condition? a discussion of this problem will give us the means of reaching a definite idea as to the scope of our inquiries. let us consider the present first. if mutability is a permanent condition, it has of course no beginning, and moreover is not due to the [ ] agency of external circumstances. should this be granted for the evening-primrose, it would have to be predicated for other species found in a mutable state. then, of course, it would be useless to investigate the causes of mutability at large, and we should have to limit ourselves to the testing of large numbers of plants in order to ascertain which are mutable and which not. if, on the other hand, mutability is not a permanent feature, it must once have had a beginning, and this beginning itself must have had an external cause. the amount of mutability and its possible directions may be assumed to be due to internal causes. the determination of the moment at which they will become active can never be the result of internal causes. it must be assigned to some external factor, and as soon as this is discovered the way for experimental investigation is open. in the second place we must consider the past. on the supposition of permanency all the ancestors of the evening-primrose must have been mutable. by the alternative view mutability must have been a periodic phenomenon, producing at times new qualities, and at other times leaving the plants unchanged during long successions of generations. the present mutable state must then have been preceded by an immutable [ ] condition, but of course thousands of mutations must have been required to produce the evening-primroses from their most remote ancestors. if we take the species into consideration that are not mutable at present, we may ask how we are to harmonize them with each of the two theories proposed. if mutability is permanent, it is manifest that the whole pedigree of the animal and vegetable kingdom is to be considered as built up of main mutable lines, and that the thousands of constant species can only be taken to represent lateral branches of the genealogic tree. these lateral branches would have lost the capacity of mutating, possessed by all their ancestors. and as the principle of the hypothesis under discussion does not allow a resumption of this habit, they would be doomed to eternal constancy until they finally die out. loss of mutability, under this conception, means loss of the capacity for all further development. only those lines of the main pedigree which have retained this capacity would have a future; all others would die out without any chance of progression. if, on the other hand, mutability is not permanent, but a periodic condition, all lines of the genealogic tree must be assumed to show alternatively [ ] mutating and constant species. some lines may be mutating at the present moment; others may momentarily be constant. the mutating lines will probably sooner or later revert to the inactive state, while the powers of development now dormant may then become awakened on other branches. the view of permanency represents life as being surrounded with unavoidable death, the principle of periodicity, on the contrary, follows the idea of resurrection, granting the possibility of future progression for all living beings. at the same time it yields a more hopeful prospect for experimental inquiry. experience must decide between the two main theories. it demonstrates the existence of polymorphous genera, such as _draba_ and _viola_ and hundreds of others. they clearly indicate a previous state of mutability. their systematic relation is exactly what would be expected, if they were the result of such a period. perhaps mutability has not wholly ceased in them, but, might be found to survive in some of their members. such very rich genera however, are not the rule, but are exceptional cases, indicating the rarity of powerful mutative changes. on the other hand, species may remain in a state of constancy during long, apparently during indefinite, ages. [ ] many facts plead in favor of the constancy of species. this principle has always been recognized by systematists. temporarily the current form of the theory of natural selection has assumed species to be inconstant, ever changing and continuously being improved and adapted to the requirements of the life-conditions. the followers of the theory of descent believed that this conclusion was unavoidable, and were induced to deny the manifest fact that species are constant entities. the mutation theory gives a clew to the final combination of the two contending ideas. reducing the changeability of the species to distinct and probably short periods, it at once explains how the stability of species perfectly agrees with the principle of descent through modification. on the other hand, the hypothesis of mutative periods is by no means irreconcilable with the observed facts of constancy. such casual changes can be proved by observations such as those upon the evening-primrose, but it is obvious that a disproof can never be given. the principle grants the present constancy of the vast majority of living forms, and only claims the exceptional occurrence of definite changes. proofs of the constancy of species have been given in different ways. the high degree of similarity of the individuals of most of our [ ] species has never been denied. it is observed throughout extended localities, and during long series of years. other proofs are afforded by those plants which have been transported to distant localities some time since, but do not exhibit any change as a result of this migration. widely dispersed plants remain the same throughout their range, provided that they belong to a single elementary species. many species have been introduced from america into europe and have spread rapidly and widely. the canadian horsetail (_erigeron canadensis_), the evening-primrose and many other instances could be given. they have not developed any special european features after their introduction. though exposed to other environmental conditions and to competition with other species, they have not succeeded in developing a new character. such species as proved adequate to the new environment have succeeded, while those which did not have succumbed. much farther back is the separation of the species which now live both in arctic regions and on the summits of our highest mountaintops. if we compare the alpine flora with the arctic plants, a high degree of similarity at once strikes us. some forms are quite identical; others are slightly different, manifestly representing elementary species of the same systematic [ ] type. still others are more distant or even belong to different genera. the latter, and even the diverging, though nearly allied, elementary species, do not yield adequate evidence in any direction. they may as well have lived together in the long ages before the separation of the now widely distant floras, or have sprung from a common ancestor living at that time, and subsequently have changed their habits. after excluding these unreliable instances, a good number of species remain, which are quite the same in the arctic and alpine regions and on the summits of distant mountain ranges. as no transportation over such large distances can have brought them from one locality to the other, no other explanation is left than that they have been wholly constant and unchanged ever since the glacial period which separated them. obviously they must have been subjected to widely changing conditions. the fact of their stability through all these outward changes is the best proof that the ordinary external conditions do not necessarily have an influence on specific evolution. they may have such a result in some instances, in others they obviously have not. many arctic forms bearing the specific name of _alpinus_ justify this conclusion. _astragalus alpinus_, _phleum alpinum_, _hieracium alpinum_ and [ ] others from the northern parts of norway may be cited as examples. thus primula imperialis has been found in the himalayas, and many other plants of the high mountains of java, ceylon and northern india are identical forms. some species from the cameroons and from abyssinia have been found on the mountains of madagascar. some peculiar australian types are represented on the summit of kini balu in borneo. none of these species, of course, are found in the intervening lowlands, and the only possible explanation of their identity is the conception of a common post-glacial origin, coupled with complete stability. this stability is all the more remarkable as nearly allied but slightly divergent forms have also been reported from almost all of these localities. other evidence is obtained by the comparison of ancient plants with their living representatives. the remains in tombs of ancient egypt have always afforded strong support of the views of the adherents of the theory of stability, and to my mind they still do so. the cereals and fruits and even the flowers and leaves in the funeral wreaths of rameses and amen-hotep are the same that are still now cultivated in egypt. nearly a hundred or more species have been identified. flowers of _acacia_, leaves of _mimusops_, [ ] petals of _nymphaea_ may be cited as instances, and they are as perfectly preserved as the best herbarium-specimens of the present time. the petals and stamens retain their original colors, displaying them as brightly as is consistent with their dry state. paleontologic evidence points to the same conclusion. of course the remains are incomplete, and rarely adequate for a close comparison. the range of fluctuating variability should be examined first, but the test of elementary species given by their constancy from seed cannot, of course, be applied. apart from these difficulties, paleontologists agree in recognizing the very great age of large numbers of species. it would require a too close survey of geologic facts to go into details on this point. suffice it to say that in more recent tertiary deposits many species have been identified with living forms. in the miocene period especially, the similarity of the types of phanerogamic plants with their present offspring, becomes so striking that in a large number of cases specific distinctions rest in greater part on theoretical conceptions rather than on real facts. for a long time the idea prevailed that the same species could not have existed through more than one geologic period. many distinctions founded on this belief have since had to be abandoned. [ ] species of algae belonging to the well-preserved group of the diatoms, are said to have remained unchanged from the carboniferous period up to the present time. summing up the results of this very hasty survey, we may assert that species remain unchanged for indefinite periods, while at times they are in the alternative condition. then at once they produce new forms often in large numbers, giving rise to swarms of subspecies. all facts point to the conclusion that these periods of stability and mutability alternate more or less regularly with one another. of course a direct proof of this view cannot, as yet, be given, but this conclusion is forced upon us by a consideration of known facts bearing on the principle of constancy and evolution. if we are right in this general conception, we may ask further, what is to be the exact place of our group of new evening-primroses in this theory? in order to give an adequate answer, we must consider the whole range of the observations from a broader point of view. first of all it is evident that the real mutating period must be assumed to be much longer than the time covered by my observations. neither the beginning nor the end have been seen. it is quite obvious that _oenothera lamarckiana_ was in a mutating condition when i first [ ] saw it, seventeen years ago. how long had it been so? had it commenced to mutate after its introduction into europe, some time ago, or was it already previously in this state? it is as yet impossible to decide this point. perhaps the mutable state is very old, and dates from the time of the first importation of the species into europe. apart from all such considerations the period of the direct observations, and the possible duration of the mutability through even more than a century, would constitute only a moment, if compared with the whole geologic time. starting from this conception the pedigree of our mutations must be considered as only one small group. instead of figuring a fan of mutants for each year, we must condense all the succeeding swarms into one single fan, as might be done also for _draba verna_ and other polymorphous species. in _oenothera_ the main stem is prolonged upwards beyond the fan; in the others the main stem is lacking or at least undiscernable, but this feature manifestly is only of secondary importance. we might even prefer the image of a fan, adjusted laterally to a stem, which itself is not interrupted by this branch. on this principle two further considerations are to be discussed. first the structure of the [ ] fan itself, and secondly the combination of succeeding fans into a common genealogic tree. the composition of the fan as a whole includes more than is directly indicated by the facts concerning the birth of new species. they arise in considerable quantities, and each of them in large numbers of individuals, either in the same or in succeeding years. this multiple origin must obviously have the effect of strengthening the new types, and of heightening their chances in the struggle for life. arising in a single specimen they would have little chance of success, since in the field among thousands of seeds perhaps one only survives and attains complete development. thousands or at least hundreds of mutated seeds are thus required to produce one mutated individual, and then, how small are its chances of surviving! the mutations proceed in all directions, as i have pointed out in a former lecture. some are useful, others might become so if the circumstances were accidentally changed in definite directions, or if a migration from the original locality might take place. many others are without any real worth, or even injurious. harmless or even slightly useless ones have been seen to maintain themselves in the field during the seventeen years of my research, as proved by _oenothera laevifolia_ and _oenothera_ [ ] _brevistylis_. most of the others quickly disappear. this failure of a large part of the productions of nature deserves to be considered at some length. it may be elevated to a principle, and may be made use of to explain many difficult points of the theory of descent. if, in order to secure one good novelty, nature must produce ten or twenty or perhaps more bad ones at the same time, the possibility of improvements coming by pure chance must be granted at once. all hypotheses concerning the direct causes of adaptation at once become superfluous, and the great principle enunciated by darwin once more reigns supreme. in this way too, the mutation-period of the evening-primrose is to be considered as a prototype. assuming it as such provisionally, it may aid us in arranging the facts of descent so as to allow of a deeper insight and a closer scrutiny. all swarms of elementary species are the remains of far larger initial groups. all species containing only a few subspecies may be supposed to have thrown off at the outset far more numerous lateral branches, out of which however, the greater part have been lost, being unfit for the surrounding conditions. it is the principle of the struggle for life between elementary species, followed by the survival of the [ ] fittest, the law of the selection of species, which we have already laid stress upon more than once. our second consideration is also based upon the frequent repetition of the several mutations. obviously a common cause must prevail. the faculty of producing _nanella_ or _lata_ remains the same through all the years. this faculty must be one and the same for all the hundreds of mutative productions of the same form. when and how did it originate? at the outset it must have been produced in a latent condition, and even yet it must be assumed to be continuously present in this state, and only to become active at distant intervals. but it is manifest that the original production of the characters of _oenothera gigas_ was a phenomenon of far greater importance than the subsequent accidental transition of this quality into the active state. hence the conclusion that at the beginning of each series of analogous mutations there must have been one greater and more intrinsic mutation, which opened the possibility to all its successors. this was the origination of the new character itself, and it is easily seen that this incipient change is to be considered as the real one. all others are only its visible expressions. considering the mutative period of our evening-primrose [ ] as one unit-stride section in the great genealogic tree, this period includes two nearly related, but not identical changes. one is the production of new specific characters in the latent condition, and the other is the bringing of them to light and putting them into active existence. these two main factors are consequently to be assumed in all hypothetic conceptions of previous mutative periods. are all mutations to be considered as limited to such periods? of course not. stray mutations may occur as well. our knowledge concerning this point is inadequate for any definite statement. swarms of variable species are easily recognized, if the remnants are not too few. but if only one or two new species have survived, how can we tell whether they have originated-alone or together with others. this difficulty is still more pronounced in regard to paleontologic facts, as the remains of geologic swarms are often found, but the absence of numerous mutations can hardly be proved in any case. i have more than once found occasion to lay stress on the importance of a distinction between progressive and retrograde mutations in previous lectures. all improvement is, of course, by the first of these modes of evolution, but apparent losses of organs or qualities are [ ] perhaps of still more universal occurrence. progression and regression are seen to go hand in hand everywhere. no large group and probably even no genus or large species has been evolved without the joint agency of these two great principles. in the mutation-period of the evening-primroses the observed facts give direct support to this conclusion, since some of the new species proved, on closer inspection, to be retrograde varieties, while others manifestly owe their origin to progressive steps. such steps may be small and in a wrong direction; notwithstanding this they may be due to the acquisition of a wholly new character and therefore belong to the process of progression at large. between them however, there is a definite contrast, which possibly is in intimate connection with the question of periodic and stray mutations. obviously each progressive change is dependent upon the production of a new character, for whenever this is lacking, no such mutation is possible. retrograde changes, on the other hand, do not require such elaborate preliminary work. each character may be converted into the latent condition, and for all we know, a special preparation for this purpose is not at all necessary. it is readily granted that such special preparation may occur, because the [ ] great numbers in which our dwarf variety of the _oenothera_ are yearly produced are suggestive of such a condition. on the other hand, the _laevifolia_ and _brevistylis_ mutations have not been repeated, at least not in a visible way. from this discussion we may infer that it is quite possible that a large part of the progressive changes, and a smaller part of the retrograde mutations, are combined into groups, owing their origin to common external agencies. the periods in which such groups occur would constitute the mutative periods. besides them the majority of the retrograde changes and some progressive steps might occur separately, each being due to some special cause. degressive mutations, or those which arise by the return of latent qualities to activity, would of course belong with the latter group. this assumption of a stray and isolated production of varieties is to a large degree supported by experience in horticulture. here there are no real swarms of mutations. sudden leaps in variability are not rare, but then they are due to hybridization. apart from this mixture of characters, varieties as a rule appear separately, often with intervals of dozens of years, and without the least suggestion of a common cause. it is quite superfluous to go into details, as we have dealt with the horticultural [ ] mutations at sufficient length on a previous occasion. only the instance of the peloric toadflax might be recalled here, because the historic and geographic evidence, combined with the results of our pedigree-experiment, plainly show that peloric mutations are quite independent of any periodic condition. they may occur anywhere in the wide range of the toad-flax, and the capacity of repeatedly producing them has lasted some centuries at least, and is perhaps even as old as the species itself. leaving aside such stray mutations, we may now consider the probable constitution of the great lines of the genealogic tree of the evening primroses, and of the whole vegetable and animal kingdom at large. the idea of drawing up a pedigree for the chief groups of living organisms is originally due to haeckel, who used this graphic method to support the darwinian theory of descent. of course, haeckel's genealogic trees are of a purely hypothetic nature, and have no other purpose than to convey a clear conception of the notion of descent, and of the great lines of evolution at large. obviously all details are subject to doubt, and many have accordingly been changed by his successors. these changes may be considered as partial improvements, and the somewhat picturesque form of haeckel's pedigree might well be replaced by [ ] more simple plans. but the changes have by no means removed the doubts, nor have they been able to supplant the general impression of distinct groups, united by broad lines. this feature is very essential, and it is easily seen to correspond with the conception of swarms, as we have deduced it from the study of the lesser groups. genealogic trees are the result of comparative studies; they are far removed from the results of experimental inquiry concerning the origin of species. what are the links which bind them together? obviously they must be sought in the mutative periods, which have immediately preceded the present one. in the case of the evening-primrose the systematic arrangement of the allied species readily guides us in the delimitations of such periods. for manifestly the species of the large genus of _oenothera_ are grouped in swarms, the youngest or most recent of which we have under observation. its immediate predecessor must have been the subgenus _onagra_, which is considered by some authors as consisting of a single systematic species, _oenothera biennis_. its multifarious forms point to a common origin, not only morphologically but also historically. following this line backward or downward we reach another apparent mutation-period, which includes the origin of [ ] the group called _oenothera_, with a large number of species of the same general type as the _onagra-forms, still farther downward comes the old genus _oenothera_ itself, with numerous subgenera diverging in sundry characters and directions. proceeding still farther we might easily construct a main stem with numerous succeeding fans of lateral branches, and thus reach, from our new empirical point of view, the theoretical conclusion already formulated. paleontologic facts readily agree with this conception. the swarms of species and varieties are found to succeed one another like so many stories. the same images are repeated, and the single stories seem to be connected by the main stems, which in each tier produce the whole number of allied forms. only a few prevailing lines are prolonged through numerous geologic periods; the vast majority of the lateral branches are limited each to its own storey. it is simply the extension of the pedigree of the evening-primroses backward through ages, with the same construction and the same leading features. there can be no doubt that we are quite justified in assuming that evolution has followed the same general laws through the whole duration of life on earth. only a moment of their lifetime is disclosed to us, but it [ ] is quite sufficient to enable us to discern the laws and to conjecture the outlines of the whole scheme of evolution. a grave objection which has, often, and from the very outset, been urged against darwin's conception of very slow and nearly imperceptible changes, is the enormously long time required. if evolution does not proceed any faster than what we can see at present, and if the process must be assumed to have gone on in the same slow manner always, thousands of millions of years would have been needed to develop the higher types of animals and plants from their earliest ancestors. now it is not at all probable that the duration of life on earth includes such an incredibly long time. quite on the contrary the lifetime of the earth seems to be limited to a few millions of years. the researches of lord kelvin and other eminent physicists seem to leave no doubt on this point. of course all estimates of this kind are only vague and approximate, but for our present purposes they may be considered as sufficiently exact. in a paper published in sir william thomson (now lord kelvin) first endeavored to show that great limitation had to be put upon the enormous demand for time made by lyell, darwin and other biologists. from a consideration [ ] of the secular cooling of the earth, as deduced from the increasing temperature in deep mines, he concluded that the entire age of the earth must have been more than twenty and less than forty millions of years, and probably much nearer twenty than forty. his views have been much criticised by other physicists, but in the main they have gained an ever-increasing support in the way of evidence. new mines of greater depth have been bored, and their temperatures have proved that the figures of lord kelvin are strikingly near the truth. george darwin has calculated that the separation of the moon from the earth must have taken place some fifty-six millions of years ago. geikie has estimated the existence of the solid crust of the earth at the most as a hundred million years. the first appearance of the crust must soon have been succeeded by the formation of the seas, and a long time does not seem to have been required to cool the seas to such a degree that life became possible. it is very probable that life originally commenced in the great seas, and that the forms which are now usually included in the plankton or floating-life included the very first living beings. according to brooks, life must have existed in this floating condition during long primeval epochs, and evolved nearly all the main branches of the animal and vegetable kingdom [ ] before sinking to the bottom of the sea, and later producing the vast number of diverse forms which now adorn the sea and land. all these evolutions, however, must have been very rapid, especially at the beginning, and together cannot have taken more time than the figures given above. the agency of the larger streams, and the deposits which they bring into the seas, afford further evidence. the amount of dissolved salts, especially of sodium chloride, has been made the subject of a calculation by joly, and the amount of lime has been estimated by eugene dubois. joly found fifty-five and dubois thirty-six millions of years as the probable duration of the age of the rivers, and both figures correspond to the above dates as closely as might be expected from the discussion of evidence so very incomplete and limited. all in all it seems evident that the duration of life does not comply with the demands of the conception of very slow and continuous evolution. now it is easily seen, that the idea of successive mutations is quite independent of this difficulty. even assuming that some thousands of characters must have been acquired in order to produce the higher animals and plants of the present time, no valid objection is raised. the demands of the biologists and the results of [ ] the physicists are harmonized on the ground of the theory of mutation. the steps may be surmised to have never been essentially larger than in the mutations now going on under our eyes, and some thousands of them may be estimated as sufficient to account for the entire organization of the higher forms. granting between twenty and forty millions of years since the beginning of life, the intervals between two successive mutations may have been centuries and even thousands of years. as yet there has been no objection cited against this assumption, and hence we see that the lack of harmony between the demands of biologists and the results of the physicists disappears in the light of the theory of mutation. summing up the results of this discussion, we may justifiably assert that the conclusions derived from the observations and experiments made with evening-primroses and other plants in the main agree satisfactorily with the inferences drawn from paleontologic, geologic and systematic evidence. obviously these experiments are wonderfully supported by the whole of our knowledge concerning evolution. for this reason the laws discovered in the experimental garden may be considered of great importance, and they may guide us in our further inquiries. without doubt many minor [ ] points are in need of correction and elaboration, but such improvements of our knowledge will gradually increase our means of discovering new instances and, new proofs. the conception of mutation periods producing swarms of species from time to time, among which only a few have a chance of survival, promises to become the basis for speculative pedigree-diagrams, as well as for experimental investigations. [ ] lecture xxv general laws of fluctuation the principle of unit-characters and of elementary species leads at once to the recognition of two kinds of variability. the changes of wider amplitude consist of the acquisition of new units, or the loss of already existing ones. the lesser variations are due to the degree of activity of the units themselves. facts illustrative of these distinctions were almost wholly lacking at the time of the first publication of darwin's theories. it was a bold conception to point out the necessity for such distinction on purely theoretical grounds. of course some sports were well known and fluctuations were evident, but no exact analysis of the details was possible, a fact that was of great importance in the demonstration of the theory of descent. the lack of more definite knowledge upon this matter was keenly felt by darwin, [ ] and exercised much influence upon his views at various times. quetelet's famous discovery of the law of fluctuating variability changed the entire situation and cleared up many difficulties. while a clear conception of fluctuations was thus gained, mutations were excluded from consideration, being considered as very rare, or non-existent. they seemed wholly superfluous for the theory of descent, and very little importance was attached to their study. current scientific belief in the matter has changed only in recent years. mendel's law of varietal hybrids is based upon the principle of unit-characters, and the validity of this conception has thus been brought home to many investigators. a study of fluctuating or individual variability, as it was formerly called, is now carried on chiefly by mathematical methods. it is not my purpose to go into details, as it would require a separate course of lectures. i shall consider the limits between fluctuation and mutation only, and attempt to set forth an adequate idea of the principles of the first as far as they touch these limits. the mathematical treatment of the facts is no doubt of very great value, but the violent discussions now going on between mathematicians such as pearson, kapteyn and others should warn biologists to abstain [ ] from the use of methods which are not necessary for the furtherance of experimental work. fortunately, quetelet's law is a very clear and simple one, and quite sufficient for our considerations. it claims that for biologic phenomena the deviations from the average comply with the same laws as the deviations from the average in any other case, if ruled by chance only. the meaning of this assertion will become clear by a further discussion of the facts. first of all, fluctuating variability is an almost universal phenomenon. every organ and every quality may exhibit it. some are very variable, while others seem quite constant. shape and size vary almost indefinitely, and the chemical composition is subject to the same law, as is well known for the amount of sugar in sugar-beets. numbers are of course less liable to changes, but the numbers of the rays of umbels, or ray-florets in the composites, of pairs of blades in pinnate leaves, and even of stamens and carpels are known to be often exceedingly variable. the smaller numbers however, are more constant, and deviations from the quinate structure of flowers are rare. complicated structures are generally capable of only slight deviations. from a broad point of view, fluctuating variability [ ] falls under two heads. they obey quite the same laws and are therefore easily confused, but with respect to questions of heredity they should be carefully separated. they are designated by the terms individual and partial fluctuation. individual variability indicates the differences between individuals, while partial variability is limited to the deviations shown by the parts of one organism from the average structure. the same qualities in some cases vary individually and in others partially. even stature, which is as markedly individual for annual and biennial plants as it is for man, becomes partially variant in the case of perennial herbs with numbers of stems. often a character is only developed once in the whole course of evolution, as for instance, the degree of connation of the seed-leaves in tricotyls and in numerous cases it is impossible to tell whether a character is individual or partial. consequently such minute details are generally considered to have no real importance for the hereditary transmission of the character under discussion. fluctuations are observed to take place only in two directions. the quality may increase or decrease, but is not seen to vary in any other way. this rule is now widely established by numerous investigations, and is fundamental to [ ] the whole method of statistical investigation. it is equally important for the discussion of the contrast between fluctuations and mutations, and for the appreciation of their part in the general progress of organization. mutations are going on in all directions, producing, if they are progressive, something quite new every time. fluctuations are limited to increase and decrease of what is already available. they may produce plants with higher stems, more petals in the flowers, larger and more palatable fruits, but obviously the first petal and the first berry, cannot have originated by the simple increase of some older quality. intermediates may be found, and they may mark the limit, but the demonstration of the absence of a limit is quite another question. it would require the two extremes to be shown to belong to one unit, complying with the simple law of quetelet. nourishment is the potent factor of fluctuating variability. of course in thousands of cases our knowledge is not sufficient to allow us to analyze this relation, and a number of phases of the phenomenon have been discovered only quite recently. but the fact itself is thoroughly manifest, and its appreciation is as old as horticultural science. knight, who lived at the beginning of the last century, has laid great stress upon it, and it has since influenced practice in a [ ] large measure. moreover, knight pointed out more than once that it is the amount of nourishment, not the quality of the various factors, that exercises the determinative influence. nourishment is to be taken in the widest sense of the word, including all favorable and injurious elements. light and temperature, soil and space, water and salts are equally active, and it is the harmonious cooperation of them all that rules growth. we treated this important question at some length, when dealing with the anomalies of the opium-poppies, consisting of the conversion of stamens into supernumerary pistils. the dependency upon external influences which this change exhibited is quite the same as that shown by fluctuating variability at large. we inquired into the influence of good and bad soil, of sunlight and moisture and of other concurrent factors. especial emphasis was laid upon the great differences to which the various individuals of the same lot may be exposed, if moisture and manure differ on different portions of the same bed in a way unavoidable even by the most careful preparation. some seeds germinate on moist and rich spots, while their neighbors are impeded by local dryness, or by distance from manure. some come to light on a sunny day, and increase their first leaves rapidly, while on [ ] the following day the weather may be unfavorable and greatly retard growth. the individual differences seem to be due, at least in a very great measure, to such apparent trifles. on the other hand partial differences are often manifestly due to similar causes. considering the various stems of plants, which multiply themselves by runners or by buds on the roots, the assertion is in no need of further proof. the same holds good for all cases of artificial multiplication by cuttings, or by other vegetative methods. but even if we limit ourselves to the leaves of a single tree, or the branches of a shrub, or the flowers on a plant, the same rule prevails. the development of the leaves is dependent on their position, whether inserted on strong or weak branches, exposed to more or less light, or nourished by strong or weak roots. the vigor of the axillary buds and of the branches which they may produce is dependent upon the growth and activity of the leaves to which the buds are axillary. this dependency on local nutrition leads to the general law of periodicity, which, broadly speaking, governs the occurrence of the fluctuating deviations of the organs. this law of periodicity involves the general principle that every axis, as a rule, increases in strength when [ ] growing, but sooner or later reaches a maximum and may afterwards decrease. this periodic augmentation and declination is often boldly manifest, though in other cases it may be hidden by the effect of alternate influences. pinnate leaves generally have their lower blades smaller than the upper ones, the longest being seen sometimes near the apex and sometimes at a distance from it. branches bearing their leaves in two rows often afford quite as obvious examples, and shoots in general comply with the same rule. germinating plants are very easy of observation on this point. when they are very weak they produce only small leaves. but their strength gradually increases and the subsequent organs reach fuller dimensions until the maximum is attained. the phenomenon is so common that its importance is usually overlooked. it should be considered as only one instance of a rule, which holds good for all stems and all branches, and which is everywhere dependent on the relation of growth to nutrition. the rule of periodicity not only affects the size of the organs, but also their number, whenever these are largely variable. umbellate plants have numerous rays on the umbels of strong stems, but the number is seen to decrease and to become very small on the weakest lateral [ ] branches. the same holds good for the number of ray-florets in the flower-heads of the composites, even for the number of stigmas on the ovaries of the poppies, which on weak branches may be reduced to as few as three or four. many other instances could be given. one of the best authenticated cases is the dependency of partial fluctuation on the season and on the weather. flowers decline when the season comes to an end, become smaller and less brightly colored. the number of ray-florets in the flower-heads is seen to decrease towards the fall. extremes become rarer, and often the deviations from the average seem nearly to disappear. double flowers comply with this rule very closely, and many other cases will easily occur to any student of nature. of course, the relation to nourishment is different for individual and partial fluctuations. concerning the first, the period of development of the germ within the seed is decisive. even the sexual cells may be in widely different conditions at the moment of fusion, and perhaps this state of the sexual cells includes the whole matter of the decision for the average characters of the new individual. partial fluctuation commences as soon as the leaves and buds begin to form, and all later changes in nutrition can only cause partial differences. all leaves, [ ] buds, branches, and flowers must come under the influence of external conditions during the juvenile period, and so are liable to attain a development determined in part by the action of these factors. before leaving these general considerations, we must direct our attention to the question of utility. obviously, fluctuating variability is a very useful contrivance, in many cases at least. it appears all the more so, as its relation to nutrition becomes manifest. here two aspects are intimately combined. more nutrient matter produces larger leaves and these are in their turn more fit to profit by the abundance of nourishment. so it is with the number of flowers and flower-groups, and even with the numbers of their constituent organs. better nourishment produces more of them, and thereby makes the plant adequate to make a fuller use of the available nutrient substances. without fluctuation such an adjustment would hardly be possible, and from all our notions of usefulness in nature, we therefore must recognize the efficiency of this form of variability. in other respects the fluctuations often strike us as quite useless or even as injurious. the numbers of stamens, or of carpels are dependent on nutrition, but their fluctuation is not known to have any attraction for the visiting insects. [ ] if the deviations become greater, they might even become detrimental. the flowers of the st. johnswort, or _hypericum perforatum_, usually have five petals, but the number varies from three to eight or more. bees could hardly be misled by such deviations. the carpels of buttercups and columbines, the cells in the capsules of cotton and many other plants are variable in number. the number of seeds is thereby regulated in accordance with the available nourishment, but whether any other useful purpose is served, remains an open question. variations in the honey-guides or in the pattern of color-designs might easily become injurious by deceiving insects, and such instances as the great variability of the spots on the corolla of some cultivated species of monkey-flowers, for instance, the _mimulus quinquevulnerus_, could hardly be expected to occur in wild plants. for here the dark brown spots vary between nearly complete deficiency up to such predominancy as almost to hide the pale yellow ground-color. after this hasty survey of the causes of fluctuating variability, we now come to a discussion of quetelet's law. it asserts that the deviations from the average obey the law of probability. they behave as if they were dependent on chance only. everyone knows that the law of quetelet can [ ] be demonstrated the most readily by placing a sufficient number of adult men in a row, arranging them according to their size. the line passing over their heads proves to be identical with that given by the law of probability. quite in the same way, stems and branches, leaves and petals and even fruits can be arranged, and they will in the main exhibit the same line of variability. such groups are very striking, and at the first glance show that the large majority of the specimens deviate from the mean only to a very small extent. wider deviations are far more rare, and their number lessens, the greater the deviation, as is shown by the curvature of the line. it is almost straight and horizontal in the middle portion, while at the ends it rapidly declines, going sharply downward at one extreme and upward at the other. it is obvious however, that in these groups the leaves and other organs could conveniently be replaced by simple lines, indicating their size. the result would be quite the same, and the lines could be placed at arbitrary, but equal distances. or the sizes could be expressed by figures, the compliance of which with the general law could be demonstrated by simple methods of calculation. in this manner the variability of different organs can easily be compared. another method of demonstration consists in [ ] grouping the deviations into previously fixed divisions. for this purpose the variations are measured by standard units, and all the instances that fall between two limits are considered to constitute one group. seeds and small fruits, berries and many other organs may conveniently be dealt with in this way. as an example we take ordinary beans and select them according to their size. this can be done in different ways. on a small piece of board a long wedge-shaped slit is made, into which seeds are pushed as far as possible. the margin of the wedge is calibrated in such a manner that the figures indicate the width of the wedge at the corresponding place. by this device the figure up to which a bean is pushed at once shows its length. fractions of millimeters are neglected, and the beans, after having been measured, are thrown into cylindrical glasses of the same width, each glass receiving only beans of equal length. it is clear that by this method the height to which beans fill the glasses is approximately a measure of their number. if now the glasses are put in a row in the proper sequence, they at once exhibit the shape of a line which corresponds to the law of chance. in this case however, the line is drawn in a different manner from the first. it is to be pointed out that the glasses may be replaced by lines indicating [ ] the height of their contents, and that, in order to reach a more easy and correct statement, the length of the lines may simply be made proportionate to the number of the beans in each glass. if such lines are erected on a common base and at equal distances, the line which unites their upper ends will be the expression of the fluctuating variability of the character under discussion. the same inquiry may be made with other seeds, with fruits, or other organs. it is quite superfluous to arrange the objects themselves, and it is sufficient to arrange the figures indicating their value. in order to do this a basal line is divided into equal parts, the demarcations corresponding to the standard-units chosen for the test. the observed values are then written above this line, each finding its place between the two demarcations, which include its value. it is very interesting and stimulating to construct such a group. the first figures may fall here and there, but very soon the vertical rows on the middle part of the basal line begin to increase. sometimes ten or twenty measurements will suffice to make the line of chance appear, but often indentations will remain. with the increasing number of the observations the irregularities gradually [ ] disappear, and the line becomes smoother and more uniformly curved. this method of arranging the figures directly on a basal line is very convenient, whenever observations are made in the field or garden. very few instances need be recorded to obtain an appreciation of the mean value, and to show what may be expected from a continuance of the test. the method is so simple and so striking, and so wholly independent of any mathematical development that it should be applied in all cases in which it is desired to ascertain the average value of any organ, and the measure of the attendant deviations. i cite an instance, secured by counting the ray-florets on the flower-heads of the corn-marigold or _chrysanthemum segetum_. it was that, by which i was enabled to select the plant, which afterwards showed the first signs of a double head. i noted them in this way; __ of course the figures might be replaced in this work by equidistant dots or by lines, but experience teaches that the chance of making mistakes is noticeably lessened by writing down [ ] the figures themselves. whenever decimals are made use of it is obviously the best plan to keep the figures themselves. for afterwards it often becomes necessary to arrange them according to a somewhat different standard. uniting the heads of the vertical rows of figures by a line, the form corresponding to quetelet's law is easily seen. in the main it is always the same as the line shown by the measurements of beans and seeds. it proves a dense crowding of the single instances around the average, and on both sides of the mass of the observations, a few wide deviations. these become more rare in proportion to the amount of their divergency. on both sides of the average the line begins by falling very rapidly, but then bends slowly so as to assume a nearly horizontal direction. it reaches the basal line only beyond the extreme instances. it is quite evident that all qualities, which can be expressed by figures, may be treated in this way. first, of all the organs occurring in varying numbers, as for instance the ray-florets of composites, the rays of umbels, the blades of pinnate and palmate leaves, the numbers of veins, etc., are easily shown to comply with the same general rule. likewise the amount of chemical substances can be expressed in percentage numbers, as is done on a large [ ] scale with sugar in beets and sugar-cane, with starch in potatoes and in other instances. these figures are also found to follow the same law. all qualities which are seen to increase and to decrease may be dealt with in the same manner, if a standard unit for their measurement can be fixed. even the colors of flowers may not escape our inquiry. if we now compare the lines, compiled from the most divergent cases, they will be found to exhibit the same features in the main. ordinarily the curve is symmetrical, the line sloping down on both sides after the same manner. but it is not at all rare that the inclination is steep on one side and gradual on the other. this is noticeably the case if the observations relate to numbers, the average of which is near zero. here of course the allowance for variation is only small on one side, while it may increase with out distinct limits on the alternate slope. so it is for instance with the numbers of ray-florets in the example given on p. . such divergent cases, however, are to be considered as exceptions to the rule, due to some unknown cause. heretofore we have discussed the empirical side of the problem only. for the purpose of experimental study of questions of heredity this is ordinarily quite sufficient. the inquiry [ ] into the phenomenon of regression, or of the relation of the degree of deviation of the progeny to that of their parents, and the selection of extreme instances for multiplication are obviously independent of mathematical considerations. on the other hand an important inquiry lies in the statistical treatment of these phenomena, and such treatment requires the use of mathematical methods. statistics however, are not included in the object of these lectures, and therefore i shall refrain from an explanation of the method of their preparation and limit myself to a general comparison of the observed lines with the law of chance. before going into the details, it should be repeated once more that the empirical result is quite the same for individual and for partial fluctuations. as a rule, the latter occur in far greater number, and are thus more easily investigated, but individual or personal averages have also been studied. newton discovered that the law of chance can be expressed by very simple mathematical calculations. without going into details, we may at once state that these calculations are based upon his binomium. if the form (a + b) is calculated for some value of the exponent, and if the values of the coefficients after development are alone considered, they yield the basis [ ] for the construction of what is called the line or curve of probability. for this construction the coefficients are used as ordinates, the length of which is to be made proportionate to their value. if this is done, and the ordinates are arranged at equal distances, the line which unites their summits is the desired curve. at first glance it exhibits a form quite analogous to the curves of fluctuating variability, obtained by the measurements of beans and in other instances. both lines are symmetrical and slope rapidly down in the region of the average, while with increasing distance they gradually lose their steep inclination, becoming nearly parallel to the base at their termination. this similarity between such empirical and theoretical lines is in itself an empirical fact. the causes of chance are assumed to be innumerable, and the whole calculation is based on this assumption. the causes of the fluctuations of biological phenomena have not as yet been critically examined to such an extent as to allow of definite conceptions. the term nourishment manifestly includes quite a number of separate factors, as light, space, temperature, moisture, the physical and chemical conditions of the soil and the changes of the weather. without doubt the single factors are very numerous, but whether they are numerous enough to be treated [ ] as innumerable, and thereby to explain the laws of fluctuations, remains uncertain. of course the easiest way is to assume that they combine in the same manner as the causes of chance, and that this is the ground of the similarity of the curves. on the other hand, it is manifestly of the highest importance to inquire into the part the several factors play in the determination of the curves. it is not at all improbable that some of them have a larger influence on individual, and others on partial, fluctuations. if this were the case, their importance with respect to questions of heredity might be widely different. in the present state of our knowledge the fluctuation-curves do not contribute in any large measure to an elucidation of the causes. where these are obvious, they are so without statistics, exactly as they were, previous to quetelet's discovery. in behalf of a large number of questions concerning heredity and selection, it is very desirable to have a somewhat closer knowledge of these curves. therefore i shall try to point out their more essential features, as far as this can be done without mathematical calculations. at a first glance three points strike us, the average or the summit of the curve, and the extremes. if the general shape is once denoted by the results of observations or by the coefficients [ ] of the binomium, all further details seem to depend upon them. in respect to the average this is no doubt the case; it is an empirical value without need of any further discussion. the more the number of the observations increases, the more assured and the more correct is this mean value, but generally it is the same for smaller and for larger groups of observations. this however, is not the case with the extremes. it is quite evident that small groups have a chance of containing neither of them. the more the number of the observations increases, the larger is the chance of extremes. as a rule, and excluding exceptional cases, the extreme deviations will increase in proportion to the number of cases examined. in a hundred thousand beans the smallest one and the largest one may be expected to differ more widely from one another than in a few hundred beans of the same sample. hence the conclusion that extremes are not a safe criterion for the discussion of the curves, and not at all adequate for calculations, which must be based upon more definite values. a real standard is afforded by the steepness of the slope. this may be unequal on the two sides of one curve, and likewise it may differ for different cases. this steepness is usually measured by means of a point on the half curve and [ ] for this purpose a point is chosen which lies exactly half way between the average and the extreme. not however half way with respect to the amplitude of the extreme deviation, for on this ground it would partake of the uncertainty of the extreme itself. it is the point on the curve which is surpassed by half the number, and not reached by the other half of the number of the observations included in the half of the curve. this point corresponds to the important value called the probable error, and was designated by galton as the quartile. for it is evident that the average and the two quartiles divide the whole of the observations into four equal parts. choosing the quartiles as the basis for calculations we are independent of all the secondary causes of error, which necessarily are inherent in the extremes. at a casual examination, or for demonstrative purposes, the extremes may be prominent, but for all further considerations the quartiles are the real values upon which to rest calculations. moreover if the agreement with the law of probability is once conceded, the whole curve is defined by the average and the quartiles, and the result of hundreds of measurements or countings may be summed up in three, or, in [ ] the case of symmetrical curves, perhaps in two figures. also in comparing different curves with one another, the quartiles are of great importance. whenever an empirical fluctuation-curve is to be compared with the theoretical form, or when two or more cases of variability are to be considered under one head, the lines are to be drawn on the same base. it is manifest that the averages must be brought upon the same ordinate, but as to the steepness of the line, much depends on the manner of plotting. here we must remember that the mutual distance of the ordinates has been a wholly arbitrary one in all our previous considerations. and so it is, as long as only one curve is considered at a time. but as soon as two are to be compared, it is obvious that free choice is no longer allowed. the comparison must be made on a common basis, and to this effect the quartiles must be brought together. they are to lie on the same ordinates. if this is done, each division of the base corresponds to the same proportionate number of individuals, and a complete comparison is made possible. on the ground of such a comparison we may thus assert that, fluctuations, however different the organs or qualities observed, are the same whenever their curves are seen to overlap one [ ] another. furthermore, whenever an empirical curve agrees in this manner with the theoretical one, the fluctuation complies with quetelet's law, and may be ascribed to quite ordinary and universal causes. but if it seems to diverge from this line, the cause of this divergence should be inquired into. such abnormal curves occur from time to time, but are rare. unsymmetrical instances have already been alluded to, and seem to be quite frequent. another deviation from the rule is the presence of more than one summit. this case falls under two headings. if the ray florets of a composite are counted, and the figures brought into a curve, a prominent summit usually corresponds to the average. but next to this, and on both sides, smaller summits are to be seen. on a close inspection these summits are observed to fall on the same ordinates, on which, in the case of allied species, the main apex lies. the specific character of one form is thus repeated as a secondary character on an allied species. ludwig discovered that these secondary summits comply with the rule discovered by braun and schimper, stating the relation of the subsequent figures of the series. this series gives the terms of the disposition of leaves in general, and of the bracts and flowers on the composite flower [ ] heads in our particular case. it is the series to which we have already alluded when dealing with the arrangement of the leaves on the twisted teasels. it commences with and and each following figure is equal to the sum of its two precedents. the most common figures are , , , , , , higher cases seldom coming under observation. now the secondary summits of the ray-curves of the composites are seen to agree, as a rule, with these figures. other instances could readily be given. our second heading includes those cases which exhibit two summits of equal or nearly equal height. such cases occur when different races are mixed, each retaining its own average and its own curve-summit. we have already demonstrated such a case when dealing with the origin of our double corn-chrysanthemum. the wild species culminates with rays, and the grandiflorum variety with . often the latter is found to be impure, being mixed with the typical species to a varying extent. this is not easily ascertained by a casual inspection of the cultures, but the true condition will promptly betray itself, if curves are constructed. in this way curves may in many instances be made use of to discover mixed races. double curves may also result from the investigation [ ] of true double races, or ever-sporting varieties. the striped snapdragon shows a curve of its stripes with two summits, one corresponding to the average striped flowers, and the other to the pure red ones. such cases may be discovered by means of curves, but the constituents cannot be separated by culture-experiments. a curious peculiarity is afforded by half curves. the number of petals is often seen to vary only in one direction from what should be expected to be the mean condition. with buttercups and brambles and many others there is only an increase above the typical five; quaternate flowers are wanting or at least are very rare. with weigelias and many others the number of the tips of the corolla varies downwards, going from five to four and three. hundreds of flowers show the typical five, and determine the summit of the curve. this drops down on one side only, indicating unilateral variability, which in many cases is due to a very intimate connection of a concealed secondary summit and the main one. in the case of the bulbous buttercup, _ranunculus bulbosus_, i have succeeded in isolating this secondary summit, although not in a separate variety, but only in a form corresponding to the type of ever-sporting varieties. [ ] recapitulating the results of this too condensed discussion, we may state that fluctuations are linear, being limited to an increase and to a decrease of the characters. these changes are mainly due to differences in nourishment, either of the whole organism or of its parts. in the first case, the deviations from the mean are called individual; they are of great importance for the hereditary characters of the offspring. in the second case the deviations are far more universal and far more striking, but of lesser importance. they are called partial fluctuations. all these fluctuations comply, in the main, with the law of probability, and behave as if their causes were influenced only by chance. [ ] lecture xxvi asexual multiplication of extremes fluctuating variability may be regarded from two different points of view. the multiformity of a bed of flowers is often a desirable feature, and all means which widen the range of fluctuation are therefore used to enhance this feature, and variability affords specimens, which surpass the average, by yielding a better or larger product. in the case of fruits and other cultivated forms, it is of course profitable to propagate from the better specimens only, and if possible only from the very best. obviously the best are the extremes of the whole range of diverging forms, and moreover the extremes on one side of the group. almost always the best for practical purposes is that in which some quality is strengthened. cases occur however, in which it is desirable to diminish an injurious peculiarity as far as possible, and in these instances the opposite extreme is the most profitable one. these considerations lead us to a discussion [ ] of the results of the choice of extremes, which it may be easily seen is a matter of the greatest practical importance. this choice is generally designated as selection, but as with most of the terms in the domain of variability, the word selection has come to have more than one meaning. facts have accumulated enormously since the time of darwin, a more thorough knowledge has brought about distinctions, and divisions at a rapidly increasing rate, with which terminology has not kept pace. selection includes all kinds of choice. darwin distinguished between natural and artificial selection, but proper subdivisions of these conceptions are needed. in the fourth lecture we dealt with this same question, and saw that selection must, in the first place, make a choice between the elementary species of the same systematic form. this selection of species or species-selection was the work of le couteur and patrick shirreff, and is now in general use in practice where it has received the name of variety-testing. this clear and unequivocal term however, can hardly be included under the head of natural selection. the poetic terminology of selection by nature has already brought about many difficulties that should be avoided in the future. on the other hand, the designation of the process as a natural [ ] selection of species complies as closely as possible with existing terminology, and does not seem liable to any misunderstanding. it is a selection between species. opposed to it is the selection within the species. manifestly the first should precede the second, and if this sequence is not conscientiously followed it will result in confusion. this is evident when it is considered that fluctuations can only appear with their pure and normal type in pure strains, and that each admixture of other units is liable to be shown by the form of the curves. more over, selection chooses single individuals, and a single plant, if it is not a hybrid, can scarcely pertain to two different species. the first choice therefore is apt to make the strain pure. in contrasting selection between species with that within the species, of course elementary species are meant, including varieties. the terms would be of no consequence if only rightly understood. for the sake of clearness we might designate the last named process with the term of intra-specific selection, and it is obvious that this term is applicable both to natural and to artificial selection. having previously dealt with species-selection at sufficient length, we may now confine ourselves to the consideration of the intra-specific [ ] selection process. in practice it is of secondary importance, and in nature it takes a very subordinate position. for this reason it will be best to confine further discussions to the experience of the breeders. two different ways are open to make fluctuating variability profitable. both consist in the multiplication of the chosen extremes, and this increase may be attained in a vegetative manner, or by the use of seeds. asexual and sexual propagation are different in many respects, and so they are also in the domain of variability. in order to obtain a clear comprehension of this difference, it is necessary to start from the distinction between individual and partial fluctuations, as given in the last lecture. this distinction may be discussed more understandingly if the causes of the variability are taken into consideration. we have dealt with them at some length, and are now aware that inner conditions only, determine averages, while some fluctuation around them is allowable, as influenced by external conditions. these outward influences act throughout life. at the very first they impress their stamp on the whole organism, and incite a lasting change in distinct directions. this is the period of the development of the germ within the seed; it begins with the fusion of the sexual cells, and each of them may be influenced [ ] to a noticeable degree before this union. this is the period of the determination of individual variability. as soon as ramifications begin, the external conditions act separately on every part, influencing some to a greater and others to a lesser degree. here we have the beginning of partial variability. at the outset all parts may be affected in the same way and in the same measure, but the chances of such an agreement, of course, rapidly diminish. this is partly due to differences in exposure, but mainly to alterations of the sensibility of the organs themselves. it is difficult to gain a clear conception of the contrast between individual and partial variability, and neither is it easy to appreciate their cooperation rightly. perhaps the best way is to consider their activity as a gradual narrowing of possibilities. at the outset the plant may develop its qualities in any measure, nothing being as yet fixed. gradually however, the development takes a definite direction, for better or for worse. is a direction once taken, then it becomes the average, around which the remaining possibilities are grouped. the plant or the organ goes on in this way, until finally it reaches maturity with one of the thousands of degrees of development, between which at the beginning it had a free choice. [ ] putting this discussion in other terms, we find every individual and every organ in the adult state corresponding with a single ordinate of the curve. the curve indicates the range of possibilities, the ordinate shows the choice that has been made. now it is clear at once that this choice has not been made suddenly but gradually. halfway of the development, the choice is halfway determined, but the other half is still undefined. the first half is the same for all the organs of the plant, and is therefore termed individual; the second differs in the separate members, and consequently is known as partial. which of the two halves is the greater and which the lesser, of course depends on the cases considered. finally we may describe a single example, the length of the capsules of the evening-primrose. this is highly variable, the longest reaching more than twice the length of the smallest. many capsules are borne on the same spike, and they are easily seen to be of unequal size. they vary according to their position, the size diminishing in the main from the base upwards, especially on the higher parts. likewise the fruits of weaker lateral branches are smaller. curves are easily made by measuring a few hundred capsules from corresponding parts of different plants, or even by limiting the [ ] inquiry to a single individual. these curves give the partial variability, and are found to comply with quetelet's law. besides this limited study, we may compare the numerous individuals of one locality or of a large plot of cultivated plants with one another. in doing so, we are struck with the fact that some plants have large and others small fruits. we now limit ourselves to the main spike of each plant, and perhaps to its lower parts, so as to avoid as far as possible the impression made by the partial fluctuations. the differences remain, and are sufficient to furnish an easy comparison with the general law. in order to do this, we take from each plant a definite number of capsules and measure their average length. in some experiments i took the twenty lowermost capsules of the main spikes. in this way one average was obtained for each plant, and combining these into a curve, it was found that these fluctuations also came under quetelet's law. thus the individual averages, and the fluctuations around each of them, follow the same rule. the first are a measure for the whole plant, the second only for its parts. as a general resume we can assert that, as a rule, a quality is determined in some degree during the earlier stages of the organism, and that this determination is valid throughout its [ ] life. afterwards only the minor points remain to be regulated. this makes it at once clear that the range of individual and partial variability together must be wider than that of either of them, taken alone. partial fluctuations cannot, of course, be excluded. thus our comparison is limited to individual and partial variability on one side, and partial fluctuations alone on the other side. intra-specific selection is thus seen to fall under two heads: a selection between the individuals, and a choice within each of them. the first affords a wider and the latter a narrower field. individual variability, considered as the result of outward influences operative during extreme youth, can be excluded in a very simple manner. obviously it suffices to exclude extreme youth, in other words, to exclude the use of seeds. multiplication in a vegetative way, by grafting and budding, by runners or roots, or by simple division of rootstocks and bulbs is the way in which to limit variability to the partial half. this is all we may hope to attain, but experience shows that it is a very efficient means of limitation. partial fluctuations are generally far smaller than individual and partial fluctuations together. individual variability in the vegetable kingdom [ ] might be called seed-variation, as opposed to partial or bud-fluctuation. and perhaps these terms are more apt to convey a clear conception of the distinction than any other. the germ within the unripe seed is easily understood to be far more sensitive to external conditions than a bud. multiplication of extremes by seed is thus always counteracted by individual variability, which at once reopens all, or nearly all, the initial possibilities. multiplication by buds is exempt from this danger and thus leads to a high degree of uniformity. and this uniformity is in many cases exactly what the breeder endeavors to obtain. we will treat of this reopening of previous possibilities under the head of regression in the next lecture. it is not at all absolute, at least not in one generation. part of the improvement remains, and favors the next generation. this part may be estimated approximately as being about one-third or one-half of the improvement attained. hence the conclusion that vegetative multiplication gives rise to varieties which are as a rule twice or thrice as good as selected varieties of plants propagated by seeds. hence, likewise the inference that breeders generally prefer vegetative multiplication of improved forms, and apply it in all possible cases. [ ] of course the application is limited, and forage crops and the greater number of vegetables will always necessarily be propagated by seed. nature ordinarily prefers the sexual way. asexual multiplications, although very common with perennial plants, appear not to offer important material for selection. hence it follows that in comparing the work of nature with that of man, the results of selection followed by vegetative propagation should always be carefully excluded. our large bulb-flowers and delicious fruits have nothing in common with natural products, and do not yield a standard by which to judge nature's work. it is very difficult for a botanist to give a survey of what practice has attained by the asexual multiplication of extremes. nearly all of the large and more palatable fruits are due to such efforts. some flowers and garden-plants afford further instances. by far the greatest majority of improved asexual varieties, however, are not the result of pure intra-specific selection. they are due largely to the choice of the best existing elementary species, and to some extent to crosses between them, or between distinct systematic species. in practice selection and hybridization go hand in hand and it is often difficult to ascertain what part of [ ] the result is due to the one, and what to the other factor. the scientist, on the contrary, has nothing to do with the industrial product. his task is the analysis of the methods, in order to reach a clear appreciation of the influence of all the competing factors. this study of the working causes leads to a better understanding of the practical processes, and may become the basis of improvement in methods. starting from these considerations, we will now give some illustrative examples, and for the first, choose one in which hybridization is almost completely excluded. sugar-canes have long been considered to be plants without seed. their numerous varieties are propagated only in a vegetative way. the stems are cut into pieces, each bearing one or two or more nodes with their buds. an entire variety, though it may be cultivated in large districts and even in various countries, behaves with respect to variability as a single individual. its individual fluctuability has been limited to the earliest period of its life, when it arose from an unknown seed. the personal characters that have been stamped on this one seed, partly by its descent, and partly in the development of its germ during the period of ripening, have become the indelible characters [ ] of the variety, and only the partial fluctuability, due to the effect of later influences, can now be studied statistically. this study has for its main object the production of sugar in the stems, and the curves, which indicate the percentage of this important substance in different stems of the same variety, comply with quetelet's law. each variety has its own average, and around this the data of the majority of the stems are densely crowded, while deviations on both sides are rare and become the rarer the wider they are. the "cheribon" cane is the richest variety cultivated in java, and has an average of % sugar, while it fluctuates between % and %. "chunnic" averages %, "black manilla" % and "white manilla" %; their highest and lowest extremes diverge in the same manner, being for the last named variety % and %. this partial variability is of high practical interest, because on it a selection may be founded. according to the conceptions described in a previous lecture, fluctuating variability is the result of those outward factors that determine the strength of development of the plant or the organ. the inconstancy of the degree of sensibility, combined with the ever-varying weather conditions preclude any close proportionality, but apart from this difficulty there is, in the [ ] main, a distinct relation between organic strength and the development of single qualities. this correlation has not escaped observation in the case of the sugar-cane, and it is known that the best grown stocks are generally the richest in sugar. now it is evident that the best grown and richest stems will have the greater chance of transmitting these qualities to the lateral-buds. this at once gives, a basis for vegetative selection, upon which it is not necessary to choose a small number of very excellent stems, but simply to avoid the planting of all those that are below the average. by this means the yield of the cultures has often noticeably been enhanced. as far as experience goes, this sort of selection, however profitable, does not conduce to the production of improved races. only temporary ameliorations are obtained, and the selection must be made in the same manner every year. moreover the improvement is very limited and does not give any promise of further increase. in order to reach this, one has to recur to the individual fluctuability, and therefore to seed. nearly half a century ago, parris discovered, on the island of barbados, that seeds might occasionally be gathered from the canes. these, however, yielded only grass-like plants of no real value. the same observation was made [ ] shortly afterwards in java and in other sugar producing countries. in the year , soltwedel, the director of one of the experiment stations for the culture of sugar-cane in java, conceived the idea of making use of seedlings for the production of improved races. this idea is a very practical one, precisely because of the possibility of vegetative propagation. if individuals would show the same range as that of partial fluctuability, then the choice of the extremes would at once bring the average up to the richness of the best stocks. once attained, this average would be fixed, without further efforts. unfortunately there is one great drawback. this is the infertility of the best variety, that of the "cheribon" cane. it flowers abundantly in some years, but it has never been known to produce ripe seeds. for this reason soltwedel had to start from the second best sort, and chose the "hawaii" cane. this variety usually yields about % sugar, and soltwedel found among his seedlings one that showed %. this fact was quite unexpected at that time, and excited widespread interest in the new method, and since then it has been applied to numerous varieties, and many thousands of seedlings have been raised and tested as to their sugar-production. [ ] from a scientific point of view the results are quite striking. from the practical standpoint, however, the question is, whether the "hawaii" and other fertile varieties are adequate to yield seedlings, which will surpass the infertile "cheribon" cane. now "hawaii" averages % and "cheribon" %, and it is easily understood that a "hawaii" seedling with more than % can be expected only from very large sowings. hundreds of thousands of seedlings must be cultivated, and their juice tested, before this improvement can be reached. even then, it may have no significance for practical purposes. next to the amount of sugar comes the resistance to the disease called "sereh," and the new race requires to be ameliorated in this important direction, too. other qualities must also be considered, and any casual deterioration in other characters would make all progress illusory. for these reasons much time is required to attain distinct improvements. these great difficulties in the way of selecting extremes for vegetative propagation are of course met with everywhere. they impede the work of the breeder to such a degree, that but few men are able to surmount them. breeding new varieties necessitates the bending of every effort to this purpose, and a clear conception of [ ] the manifold aspects of this intricate problem. these fall under two heads, the exigencies of practice, and the physiologic laws of variability. of course, only the latter heading comes within the limits of our discussion which includes two main points. first comes the general law of fluctuation that, though slight deviations from the average may be found by thousands, or rather in nearly every individual, larger and therefore important deviations are very rare. thousands of seedlings must be examined carefully in order to find one or two from which it might be profitable to start a new race. this point is the same for practical and for scientific investigation. in the second place however, a digression is met with. the practical man must take into consideration all the varying qualities of his improved strains. some of them must be increased and others be decreased, and their common dependency on external conditions often makes it very difficult to discover the desired combinations. it is obvious, however, that the neglect of one quality may make all improvement of other characters wholly useless. no augmentation of sugar-percentage, of size and flavor of fruits can counterbalance an increase in sensitiveness to disease, and so it is with other qualities also. [ ] improved races for scientific investigation can be kept free from infection, and protected against numerous other injuries. in the experimental garden they may find conditions which cannot be realized elsewhere. they may show a luxuriant growth, and prove to be excellent material for research, but have features which, having been overlooked at the period of selection, would at once condemn them if left to ordinary conditions, or to the competition of other species. considering all these obstacles, it is only natural that breeders should use every means to reach their goal. only in very rare instances do they follow methods analogous to scientific processes, which tend to simplify the questions as much as possible. as a rule, the practical way is the combination of as many causes of variability as possible. now the three great sources of variability are, as has been pointed out on several occasions, the original multiformity of the species, fluctuating variability, and hybridization. hence, in practical experiments, all three are combined. together they yield results of the highest value, and burbank's improved fruits and flowers give testimony to the practical significance of this combination. from a scientific point of view however, it is [ ] ordinarily difficult, if not impossible, to discern the part which each of the three great branches of variability has taken in the origination of the product. a full analysis is rarely possible, and the treatment of one of the three factors must necessarily remain incomplete. notwithstanding these considerations, i will now give some examples in order to show that fluctuating variability plays a prominent part in these improvements. of course it is the third in importance in the series. first comes the choice of the material from the assemblage of species, elementary species and varieties. hybridization comes next in importance. but even the hybrids of the best parents may be improved, because they are no less subject to quetelet's law than any other strain. any large number of hybrids of the same ancestry will prove this, and often the excellency of a hybrid variety depends chiefly, or at least definitely, on the selection of the best individuals. being propagated only in a vegetative way, they retain their original good qualities through all further culture and multiplication. as an illustrative example i will take the genus _canna_. originally cultivated for its large and bright foliage only, it has since become a flowering plant of value. our garden strains have originated by the crossing of [ ] a number of introduced wild species, among which the _canna indica_ is the oldest, now giving its name to the whole group. it has tall stems and spikes with rather inconspicuous flowers with narrow petals. it has been crossed with _c. nepalensis_ and _c. warczewiczii_, and the available historic evidence points to the year as that of the first cross. this was made by annee between the _indica_ and the _nepalensis_; it took ten years to multiply them to the required degree for introduction into commerce. these first hybrids had bright foliage and were tall plants, but their flowers were by no means remarkable. once begun, hybridization was widely practiced. about the year crozy exhibited at paris the first beautifully flowering form, which he named for his wife, "madame crozy." since that time he and many others, have improved the flowers in the shape and size, as well as in color and its patterns. in the main, these ameliorations have been due to the discovery and introduction of new wild species possessing the required characters. this is illustrated by the following incident. in the year i visited mr. crozy at lyons. he showed me his nursery and numerous acquisitions, those of former years as well as those that were quite new, and which were in the process of rapid [ ] multiplication, previous to being given to the trade. i wondered, and asked, why no pure white variety was present. his answer was "because no white species had been found up to the present time, and there is no other means of producing white varieties than by crossing the existing forms with a new white type." comparing the varieties produced in successive periods, it is very easy to appreciate their gradual improvement. on most points this is not readily put into words, but the size of the petals can be measured, and the figures may convey at least some idea of the real state of things. leaving aside the types with small flowers and cultivated exclusively for their foliage, the oldest flowers of _canna_ had petals of mm. length and mm. breadth. the ordinary types at the time of my visit had reached by mm., and the "madame crozy" showed by mm. it had however, already been surpassed by a few commercial varieties, which had the same length but a breadth of mm. and the latest production, which required some years of propagation before being put on the market, measured by mm. thus in the lapse of some thirty years the length had been doubled and the breadth tripled, giving flowers with broad corollas and with petals [ ] joined all around, resembling the best types of lilies and _amaryllis_. striking as this result unquestionably is, it remains doubtful as to what part of it is due to the discovery and introduction of new large flowered species, and what to the selection of the extremes of fluctuating variability. as far as i have been able to ascertain however, and according to the evidence given to me by mr. crozy, selection has had the largest part in regard to the size, while the color-patterns are introduced qualities. the scientific analysis of other intricate examples is still more difficult. to the practical breeder they often seem very simple, but the student of heredity, who wishes to discern the different factors, is often quite puzzled by this apparent simplicity. so it is in the case of the double lilacs, a large number of varieties of which have recently been originated and introduced into commerce by lemoine of nancy. in the main they owe their origin to the crossing and recrossing of a single plant of the old double variety with the numerous existing single-flowered sorts. this double variety seems to be as old as the culture of the lilacs. it was already known to munting, who described it in the year . two centuries afterwards, in , a new description [ ] was given by morren, and though more than one varietal name is recorded in his paper, it appears from the facts given that even at that time only one variety existed. it was commonly called _syringa vulgaris azurea plena_, and seems to have been very rare and without real ornamental value. lemoine, however, conceived the desirability of a combination of the doubling with the bright colors and large flower-racemes of other lilacs, and performed a series of crosses. the "_azurea plena_" has no stamens, and therefore must be used in all crosses as the pistil-parent; its ovary is narrowly inclosed in the tube of the flower, and difficult to fertilize. on the other hand, new crosses could be made every year, and the total number of hybrids with different pollen-parents was rapidly increased. after five years the hybrids began to flower and could be used for new crosses, yielding a series of compound hybrids, which however, were not kept separate from the products of the first crosses. gradually the number of the flowering specimens increased, and the character of doubling was observed to be variable to a high degree. sometimes only one supernumerary petal was produced, sometimes a whole new typical corolla was extruded from within the first. in the same [ ] way the color and the number of the flowers on each raceme were seen to vary. thousands of hybrids were produced, and only those which exhibited real advantages were selected for trade. these were multiplied by grafting, and each variety at present consists only of the buds of one original individual and their products. no constancy from seed is assumed, many varieties are even quite sterile. of course, no description was given of the rejected forms. it is only stated that many of them bore either single or poorly filled flowers, or were objectionable in some other way. the range of variability, from which the choices were made, is obscure and only the fact of the selection is prominent. what part is due to the combination of the parental features and what to the individual fluctuation of the hybrid itself cannot be ascertained. so it is in numerous other instances. the dahlias have been derived from three or more original species, and been subjected to cultivation and hybridization in an ever-increasing scale for a century. the best varieties are only propagated in the vegetative way, by the roots and buds, or by grafting and cutting. each of them is, with regard to its hereditary qualities, only one individual, and the individual characters were selected at the same time with the [ ] varietal and hybrid characters. most of them are very inconstant from seed and as a rule, only mixtures are offered for sale in seed-lists. which of their ornamental features are due to fluctuating deviation from an average is of course unknown. _amaryllis_ and _gladiolus_ are surrounded with the same scientific uncertainties. eight or ten, or even more, species have been combined into one large and multiform strain, each bringing its peculiar qualities into the mixed mass. every hybrid variety is one individual, being propagated by bulbs only. colors and color-patterns, shape of petals and other marks, have been derived from the wild ancestors, but the large size of many of the best varieties is probably due to the selection of the extremes of fluctuating variability. so it is with the begonias of our gardens, which are also composite hybrids, but are usually sown on a very large scale. flowers of cm. diameter are very showy, but there can be no doubt about the manner in which they are produced, as the wild species fall far short of this size. among vegetables the potatoes afford another instance. originally quite a number of good species were in culture, most of them having small tubers. our present varieties are due to hybridization and selection, each of them being propagated only in the vegetative way. [ ] selection is founded upon different qualities, according to the use to be made of the new sort. potatoes for the factory have even been selected for their amount of starch, and in this case at least, fluctuating variability has played a very important part in the improvement of the race. vegetative propagation has the great advantage of exempting the varieties from regression to mediocrity, which always follows multiplication by seeds. it affords the possibility of keeping the extremes constant, and this is not its only advantage. another, likewise highly interesting, side of the question is the uniformity of the whole strain. this is especially important in the case of fruits, though ordinarily it is regarded as a matter of course, but there are some exceptions which give proof of the real importance of the usual condition. for example, the walnut-tree. thousands of acres of walnut-orchards consist of seedling trees grown from nuts of unknown parentage. the result is a great diversity in the types of trees and in the size and shape of the nuts, and this diversity is an obvious disadvantage to the industry. the cause lies in the enormous difficulties attached to grafting or budding of these trees, which make this method very expensive and to a high degree uncertain and unsatisfactory. [ ] after this hasty survey of the more reliable facts of the practice of an asexual multiplication of the extremes of fluctuating variability, we may now return to the previously mentioned theoretical considerations. these are concerned with an estimation of the chances of the occurrence of deviations, large enough to exhibit commercial value. this chance may be calculated on the basis of quetelet's law, whenever the agreement of the fluctuation of the quality under consideration has been empirically determined. in the discussion of the methods of comparing two curves, we have pointed to the quartiles as the decisive points, and to the necessity of drawing the curves so that these points are made to overlie one another, on each side of the average. if now we calculate the binomium of newton for different values of the exponent, the sum of the coefficients is doubled for each higher unit of the exponent, and at the same time the extreme limit of the curve is extended one step farther. hence it is possible to calculate a relation between the value of the extreme and the number of cases required. it would take us too long to give this calculation in detail, but it is easily seen that for each succeeding step the number of individuals must be doubled, though the length of the steps, or the amount of increase of the quality [ ] remains the same. the result is that many thousands of seedlings are required to go beyond the ordinary range of variations, and that every further improvement requires the doubling of the whole culture. if ten thousand do not give a profitable deviation, the next step requires twenty thousand, the following forty thousand, and so on. and all this work would be necessary for the improvement of a single quality, while practice requires the examination and amelioration of nearly all the variable characters of the strain. hence the rule that great results can only be obtained by the use of large numbers, but it is of no avail to state this conclusion from a scientific point of view. scientific experimenters will rarely be able to sacrifice fifty thousand plants to a single selection. the problem is to introduce the principle into practice and to prove its direct usefulness and reliability. it is to luther burbank that we owe this great achievement. his principles are in full harmony with the teachings of science. his methods are hybridization and selection in the broadest sense and on the largest scale. one very illustrative example of his methods must suffice to convey an idea of the work necessary to produce a new race of superlative excellency. forty thousand blackberry and raspberry [ ] hybrids were produced and grown until the fruit matured. then from the whole lot a single variety was chosen as the best. it is now known under the name of "paradox." all others were uprooted with their crop of ripening berries, heaped up into a pile twelve feet wide, fourteen feet high and twenty-two feet long, and burned. nothing remained of that expensive and lengthy experiment, except the one parent-plant of the new variety. similar selections and similar amount of work have produced the famous plums, the brambles and the blackberries, the shasta daisy, the peach almond, the improved blueberries, the hybrid lilies, and the many other valuable fruits and garden-flowers that have made the fame of burbank and the glory of horticultural california. [ ] lecture xxvii inconstancy of improved races the greater advantages of the asexual multiplication of extremes are of course restricted to perennial and woody plants. annual and biennial species cannot as a rule, be propagated in this way, and even with some perennials horticulturists prefer the sale of seeds to that of roots and bulbs. in all these cases it is clear that the exclusion of the individual variability, which was shown to be an important point in the last lecture, must be sacrificed. seed-propagation is subject to individual as well as to fluctuating variability. the first could perhaps be designated by another term, embryonic variability, since it indicates the fluctuations occurring during the period of development of the germ. this period begins with the fusion of the male and female elements and is largely dependent upon the vigor of these cells at the moment, and on the varying qualities they may have acquired. it comprises in the main the time of the ripening of the seed, and [ ] might perhaps best be considered to end with the beginning of the resting stage of the ripe seed. hence it is clear that the variability of seed-propagated annual races has a wider range than that of perennials, shrubs and trees. at present it is difficult to discern exactly the part each of these two main factors plays in the process. many indications are found however, that make it probable that embryonic variability is wider, and perhaps of far greater importance than the subsequent partial fluctuations. the high degree of similarity between the single specimens of a vegetative variety, and the large amount of variability in seed-races strongly supports this view. the propagation and multiplication of the extremes of fluctuating variability by means of seeds requires a close consideration of the relation between seedling and parent. the easiest way to get a clear conception of this relation is to make use of the ideas concerning the dependency of variability upon nourishment. assuming these to be correct in the main, and leaving aside all minor questions, we may conclude that the chosen extreme individual is one of the best nourished and intrinsically most vigorous of the whole culture. on account of these very qualities it is capable of nourishing all of its organs better and also its seeds. in other words, the seeds [ ] of the extreme individuals have exceptional chances of becoming better nourished than the average of the seeds of the race. applying the same rule to them, it is easily understood that they will vary, by reason of this better nourishment, in a direction corresponding to that of their parent. this discussion gives a very simple explanation of the acknowledged fact that the seeds of the extremes are in the main the best for the propagation of the race. it does not include however, all the causes for this preferment. some are of older date and due to previous influences. a second point in our discussion is the appreciation of the fact that a single individual may be chosen to gather the seed from, and that these seeds, and the young plants they yield, are as a rule, numerous. hence it follows that we are to compare their average and their extremes with the qualities of the parents. both are of practical as well as of theoretical interest. the average of the progeny is to be considered as the chief result of the selection in the previous generation, while the extremes, at least those which depart in the same direction, are obviously the means of further improvement of the race. thus our discussion should be divided into [ ] two heads. one of these comprises the relation of the average of the progeny to the exceptional qualities of the chosen parent, and the other the relation of exceptional offspring to the exceptional parents. let us consider the averages first. are they to be expected to be equal to the unique quality of the parent, or perhaps to be the same as the average of the whole unselected race? neither of these cases occur. experience is clear and definite on this important point. vilmorin, when making the first selections to improve the amount of sugar in beets, was struck with the fact that the average of the progeny lies between that of the original strain and the quality of the chosen parent. he expressed his observation by stating that the progeny are grouped around and diverge in all directions from some point, placed on the line which unites their parent with the type from which it sprang. all breeders agree on this point, and in scientific experiments it has often been confirmed. we shall take up some illustrative examples presently, but in order to make them clear, it is necessary to give a closer consideration to the results of vilmorin. from his experience it follows that the average of the progeny is higher than that of the race at large, but lower than the chosen parent. [ ] in other words, there is a progression and a regression. a progression in relation to the whole race, and a regression in comparison with the parent. the significance of this becomes clear at once, if we recall the constancy of the variety which could be obtained from the selected extreme in the case of vegetative multiplication. the progression is what the breeder wants, the regression what he detests. regression is the permanency of part of the mediocrity which the selection was invoked to overcome. manifestly it is of the highest interest that the progression should be as large, and the regression as small as possible. in order to attain this goal the first question is to know the exact measure of progression and regression as they are exhibiting themselves in the given cases, and the second is to inquire into the influences, on which this proportion may be incumbent. at present our notions concerning the first point are still very limited and those concerning the second extremely vague. statistical inquiries have led to some definite ideas about the importance of regression, and these furnish a basis for experimental researches concerning the causes of the phenomenon. very advantageous material for the study of progression and regression in the realm of fluctuating variability is afforded by the [ ] ears of corn or maize. the kernels are arranged in longitudinal rows, and these rows are observed to occur in varying, but always even, numbers. this latter circumstance is due to the fact that each two neighboring rows contain the lateral branches of a single row of spikelets, the ages of which however, are included in the fleshy body of the ear. the variation of the number of the rows is easily seen to comply with quetelet's law, and often or ears suffice to give a trustworthy curve. fritz muller made some experiments upon the inheritance of the number of the rows, in brazil. he chose a race which averaged rows, selected ears with , and rows, etc., and sowed their kernels separately. in each of-these cultures he counted the rows of the seeds on the ears of all the plants when ripe, and calculated their average. this average, of course, does not necessarily correspond to a whole number, and fractions should not be neglected. according to vilmorin's rule he always found some progression of the average and some regression. both were the larger, the more the parent-ear differed from the general average, but the proportion between both remained the same, and seems independent of the amount of the deviation. putting the deviation at , the progression calculated from his figures is [ ] and the regression . in other words the average of the progeny has gained over the average of the original variety slightly more than one-third, and slightly less than one-half of the parental deviation. i have repeated this experiment of fritz miller's and obtained nearly the same regression of three-fifths, though working with another variety, and under widely different climatic conditions. the figures of fritz muller were, as given below, in one experiment. in the last column i put the improvement calculated for a proportion of two-fifths above the initial average of . rows on average of rows + / of parent ears of progeny difference . . . . . . . . . . galton, in his work on natural inheritance, describes an experiment with the seeds of the sweet pea or _lathyrus odoratus_. he determined the average size in a lot of purchased seeds, and selected groups of seeds of different, but for each group constant, sizes. these were sown, and the average of the seeds was determined anew in the subsequent harvest they yielded. these figures agreed with the rule of vilmorin and were calculated in the manner [ ] given for the test of the corn. the progression and regression were found to be proportionate to the amount of the deviation. the progression of the average was one-third, and the regression in consequence two-thirds of the total deviation. the amelioration is thus seen to be nearly, though not exactly, the same as in the previous case. from the evidence of the other corresponding experiments, and from various statistical inquiries it seems that the value of the progression is nearly the same in most cases, irrespective of the species used and the quality considered. it may be said to be from one-third to one-half of the parental deviation, and in this form the statement is obviously of wide and easy applicability. our figures also demonstrate the great preeminence of vegetative varieties above the improved strains multiplied by seeds. they have a definite relation. asexually multiplied strains may be said to be generally two times or even three times superior to the common offspring. this is a difference of great practical importance, and should never be lost sight of in theoretical considerations of the productive capacity of selection. multiplication by seed however, has one great advantage over the asexual method; it may be repeated. the [ ] selection is not limited to a single choice, but may be applied in two or more succeeding generations. obviously such a repetition affords a better chance of increasing the progression of the average and of ameliorating the race to a greater degree than would be possible by a single choice. this principle of repeated selection is at present the prominent feature of race improvement. next to variety-testing and hybridizing it is the great source of the steady progression of agricultural crops. from a practical standpoint the method is clear and as perfect as might be expected, but this is not the side of the problem with which we are concerned here. the theoretical analysis and explanation of the results obtained, however, is subject to much doubt, and to a great divergence of conceptions. so it is also with the application of the practical processes to those occurring in nature. some assume that here repeated selection is only of subordinate importance, while others declare that the whole process of evolution is due to this agency. this very important point however, will be reserved for the next lecture, and only the facts available at present will be considered here. as a first example we may take the ray-florets of the composites. on a former occasion we have dealt with their fluctuation in number and [ ] found that it is highly variable and complies in the main with quetelet's law. _madia elegans_, a garden species, has on the average rays on each head, fluctuating between and or more. i saved the seeds of a plant with only rays on the terminal head, and got from them a culture which averaged rays, which is the mean between and . in this second generation i observed the extremes to be and , and selected a plant with rays as the parent for a continuation of the experiment. the plants, which i got from its seeds, averaged and showed and as extremes. the total progression of the average was thus, in two generations, from to , and the total regression from to , and the proportion is thus seen to diminish by the repetition rather than to increase. this experiment, however, is of course too imperfect upon which to found general conclusions. it only proves the important fact that the improved average of the second generation is not the starting-point for the further improvement. but the second generation allows a choice of an extreme, which diverges noticeably more from the mean than any individual of the first culture, and thereby gives a larger amount of absolute progression, even if the proportion between progression and regression remains [ ] the same. the repetition is only an easy method of getting more widely deviating extremes; whether it has, besides this, another effect, remains doubtful. in order to be able to decide this question, it is necessary to repeat the selection during a series of generations. in this way the individual faults may be removed as far as possible. i chose an experiment of fritz muller, relating to the number of rows of grains on the ears exactly as in the case above referred to, and which i have repeated in my experimental garden at amsterdam. i started from a variety known to fructify fairly regularly in our climate, and exhibiting in the mean - rows, but varying between and as exceptional cases. i chose an ear with rows and sowed its seeds in . a number of plants were obtained, from each of which, one ear was chosen in order to count its rows. an average of rows was found with variations complying with quetelet's law. one ear reached rows, but had not been fertilized, some others had rows, and the best of these was chosen for the continuation of the experiment. i repeated the sowing during subsequent generations in the same way, choosing each time the most beautiful ear from among those with the greatest number of rows. unfortunately with the increase of the number the [ ] size of the grains decreases, the total amount of nourishment available for all of them remaining about the same. thus the kernels and consequently the new plants became smaller and weaker, and the chance of fertilization was diminished in the ears with the highest number of rows. consequently the choice was limited, and after having twice chosen a spike with and once one with rows, i finally preferred those with the intermediate number of . this repeated choice has brought the average of my race up from to , and thus to the extreme limit of the original variety. seven years were required to attain this result, or on an average the progression was one row in a year. this augmentation was accompanied by an accompanying movement of the whole group in the same direction. the extreme on the side of the small numbers came up from to rows, and cobs with or rows did not appear in my race later than the third generation. on the other side the extreme reached , a figure never reached by the original variety as cultivated with us, and ears with and rows have been seen during the four last generations in increasing numbers. this slow and gradual amelioration was partly due to the mode of pollination of the corn. [ ] the pollen falls from the male spikes on the ears of the same plant, but also is easily blown on surrounding spikes. in order to get the required amount of seed it is necessary in our climate to encroach as little as possible upon free pollination, aiding the self-pollination, but taking no precautions against intercrossing. it is assumed that the choice of the best ears indicates the plants which have had the best pollen-parents as well as the best pistil parents, and that selection here, as in other cases, corrects the faults of free intercrossing. but it is granted that this correction is only a slow one, and accounts in a great degree for the slowness of the progression. under better climatic conditions and with a more entire isolation of the individuals, it seems very probable that the same result could have been reached in fewer generations. however this may be, the fact is that by repeated selection the strain can be ameliorated to a greater extent than by a single choice. this result completely agrees with the general experience of breeders and the example given is only an instance of a universal rule. it has the advantage of being capable of being recorded in a numerical way, and of allowing a detailed and definite description of all the succeeding generations. the entire harvest of all [ ] of them has been counted and the figures combined into curves, which at once show the whole course of the pedigree-experiment. these curves have in the main taken the same shape, and have only gradually been moved in the chosen direction. three points are now to be considered in connection with this experiment. the first is the size of the cultures required for the resulting amelioration. in other words, would it have been possible to attain an average of rows in a single experiment? this is a matter of calculation, and the calculation must be based upon the experience related above, that the progression in the case of maize is equal to two-fifths of the parental deviation. a cob with rows means a deviation of from the average of , the incipient value of my race. to reach such an average at once, an ear would be required with x / = - / rows above the average, or an ear with - rows. these never occur, but the rule given in a previous lecture gives a method of calculating the probability of their occurrence, or in other words, the number of ears required to give a chance of finding such an ear. it would take too long to give this calculation here, but i find that approximately , ears would be required to give one with rows, which was the highest number attained in [ ] my experiment, while , ears would afford a chance of one with rows*. had i been able to secure and inspect this number of ears, perhaps i would have needed only a year to get an average of rows. this however, not being the case, i have worked for seven years, but on the other hand have cultivated all in all only about one thousand individuals for the entire experiment. obviously this reduction of the size of the experiment is of importance. one hundred thousand ears of corn could of course, be secured directly from trade or from some industrial culture, but corn is cultivated only to a small extent in holland, and in most cases the requisite number of individuals would be larger than that afforded by any single plantation. repeated selection is thereby seen to be the means of reducing the size of the required cultures to possible measures, not only in the experimental-garden, but also for industrial purposes. a selection from among , - , individuals may be within reach of burbank, but of few others. as a rule they prefer a longer time with a smaller lot of plants. this * on about ears the variability ranges from - rows, and this leads approximately to one row more by each doubling of the numbers of instances. one ear with rows in would thus lead to the expectation of one ear with rows in , ears. [ ] is exactly what is gained by repeated selections. to my mind this reduction of the size of the cultures is probably the sole effect of the repetition. but experience is lacking on this point, and exact comparisons should be made whenever possible, between the descendants of a unique but extreme choice, and a repeated but smaller selection. the effect of the repetition on the nourishment of the chosen representatives should be studied, for it is clear that a plant with rows, the parents and grandparents of which had the same number, indicates a better condition of internal qualities than one with the same number of rows, produced accidentally from the common race. in this way it may perhaps be possible to explain, why in my experiment an ear with rows gave an average offspring with , while the calculation, founded on the regression alone would require a parental ear with rows. however, as already stated, this discussion is only intended to convey some general idea as to the reduction of the cultures by means of repeated selections, as the material at hand is wholly inadequate for any closer calculation. this important point of the reduction may be illustrated in still another manner. the sowing of very large numbers is only required because it is impossible to tell from the [ ] inspection of the seeds which of them will yield the desired individual. but what is impossible in the inspection of the seeds may be feasible, at least in important measure, in the inspection of the plants which bear the seeds. whenever such an inspection demonstrates differences, in manifest connection with the quality under consideration, any one will readily grant that it would be useless to sow the seeds of the worst plants, and that even the whole average might be thrown over, if it were only possible to point out a number of the best. but it is clear that by this inspection of the parent plants the principle of repeated selection is introduced for two succeeding generations, and that its application to a larger series of generations is only a question of secondary importance. summing up our discussion of this first point we may assert that repeated selection is only selection on a small and practical scale, while a single choice would require numbers of individuals higher than are ordinarily available. a second discussion in connection with our pedigree-culture of corn is the question whether the amelioration obtained was of a durable nature, or only temporary. in other words, whether the progeny of the race would remain constant, if cultivated after cessation of the selection. in order to ascertain this, [ ] i continued the culture during several generations, choosing ears with less than the average number of rows. the excellence of the race at once disappeared, and the ordinary average of the variety from which i had started seven years before, returned within two or three seasons. this shows that the attained improvement is neither fixed nor assured and is dependent on continued selection. this result only confirms the universal experience of breeders, which teaches the general dependency of improved races on continued selection. here a striking contrast with elementary species or true varieties is obvious. the strains which nature affords are true to their type; their average condition remains the same during all the succeeding generations, and even if it should be slightly altered by changes in the external conditions, it returns to the type, as soon as these changes come to an end. it is a real average, being the sum of the contribution of all the members of the strain. improved races have only an apparent average, which is in fact biased by the exclusion of whole groups of individuals. if left to themselves, their appearance changes, and the real average soon returns. this is the common experience of breeders. a third point is to be discussed in connection [ ] with the detailed pedigree-cultures. it is the question as to what might be expected from a continuation of improvement selection. would it be possible to obtain any imaginable deviation from the original type, and to reach independency from further selection? this point has not until now attracted any practical interest, and from a practical point of view and within the limits of ordinary cultures, it seems impossible to obtain a positive answer. but in the theoretical discussion of the problems of descent it has become of the highest importance, and therefore requires a separate treatment, which will be reserved for the next lecture. here we come upon another equally difficult problem. it relates to the proportion of embryonic or individual fluctuation, to partial variation as involved in the process of selection. probably all qualities which may be subjected to selection vary according to both principles, the embryonic decision giving only a more definite average, around which the parts of the individual are still allowed to oscillate. it is so with the corn, and whenever two or more ears are ripening or even only flowering on the same plant, differences of a partial nature may be seen in the number of their rows. these fluctuations are only small however, ordinarily not exceeding two and rarely four [ ] rows. choosing always the principal ear, the figures may be taken to indicate the degree of personal deviation from the average of the race. but whenever we make a mistake, and perchance sow from an ear, the deviation of which was largely due to partial variation, the regression should be expected to become considerably larger. hence it must be conceded that exact calculations of the phenomena of inheritance are subject to much uncertainty, resulting from our very imperfect knowledge concerning the real proportion of the contributing factors, and the difficulty of ascertaining their influence in any given case. here also we encounter more doubts than real facts, and much remains to be done before exact calculations may become of real scientific value. returning to the question of the effects of selection in the long run, two essentially different cases are to be considered. extremes may be selected from among the variants of ordinary fluctuating variability, or from ever-sporting varieties. these last we have shown to be double races. their peculiar and wide range of variability is due to the substitution of two characters, which exclude one another, or if combined, are diminished in various degrees. striped flowers and stocks, "five-leaved" clover, pistilloid opium-poppies and numerous other [ ] monstrosities have been dealt with as instances of such ever-sporting varieties. now the question may be put, what would be the effect of selection if in long series of years one of the two characters of such a double race were preferred continuously, to the complete exclusion of the other. would the race become changed thereby? could it be affected to such a degree as to gradually lose the inactive quality, and cease to be a double race? here manifestly we have a means by which to determine what selection is able to accomplish. physiologic experiments may be said to be too short to give any definite evidence. but cases may be cited where nature has selected during long centuries and with absolute constancy in her choice. moreover unconscious selections by man have often worked in an analogous manner, and many cultivated plants may be put to the test concerning the evidence they might give on this point. stating beforehand the result of this inquiry, we may assert that long-continued selection has absolutely no appreciable effect. of course i do not deny the splendid results of selection during the first few years, nor the necessity of continued selection to keep the improved races to the height of their ameliorated qualities. i only wish to state that the work [ ] of selection here finds its limit and that centuries and perhaps geologic periods of continued effort in the same direction are not capable of adding anything more to the initial effect. some illustrative examples may suffice to prove the validity of this assertion. every botanist who has studied the agricultural practice of plant-breeding, or the causes of the geographic distribution of plants, will easily recall to his mind numerous similar cases. perhaps the most striking instance is afforded by cultivated biennial plants. the most important of them are forage-beets and sugar-beets. they are, of course, cultivated only as biennials, but some annual specimens may be seen each year and in nearly every field. they arise from the same seed as the normal individuals, and their number is obviously dependent on external conditions, and especially on the time of sowing. ordinary cultures often show as much as % of these useless plants, but the exigencies of time and available labor often compel the cultivator to have a large part of his fields sown before spring. in central europe, where the climate is unfavorable at this season, the beets respond by the production of far larger proportions of annual specimens, their number coming often up to % or more, thus constituting noticeable losses in the product [ ] of the whole field. rimpau, who has made a thorough study of this evil and has shown its dependency on various external conditions, has also tried to find methods of selection with the aim of overcoming it, or at least of reducing it to uninjurious proportions. but in these efforts he has reached no practical result. the annuals are simply inexterminable. coming to the alternative side of the problem it is clear that annuals have always been excluded in the selection. their seeds cannot be mixed with the good harvest, not even accidentally, since they have ripened in a previous year. in order to bear seeds in the second year beets must be taken from the field, and kept free from frost through the winter. the following spring they are planted out, and it is obvious that even the most careless farmer is not liable to mix them with annual specimens. hence we may conclude that a strict and unexcelled process of selection has been applied to the destruction of this tendency, not only for sugar-beets, since vilmorin's time, when selection had become a well understood process, but also for forage-beets since the beginning of beet culture. although unconscious, the selection of biennials must have been uninterrupted and strict throughout many centuries. it has had no effect at all. annuals are seen [ ] to return every year. they are ineradicable. every individual is in the possession of this latent quality and liable to convert it into activity as soon as the circumstances provoke its appearance, as proved by the increase of annuals in the early sowings. hence the conclusion that selection in the long run is not adequate to deliver plants from injurious qualities. other proofs could be given by other biennials, and among them the stray annual plants of common carrots are perhaps the most notorious. in my own cultures of evening-primroses i have preferred the annuals and excluded the biennials, but without being able to produce a pure annual race. as soon as circumstances are favorable, the biennials return in large numbers. cereals give analogous proofs. summer and winter varieties have been cultivated separately for centuries, but in trials it is often easy to convert the one into the other. no real and definite isolation has resulted from the effect of the long continued unconscious selection. striped flowers, striped fruits, and especially striped radishes afford further examples. it would be quite superfluous to dwell upon them. selection always tends to exclude the monochromatic specimens, but does not prevent their return in every generation. numerous [ ] rare monstrosities are in the same category, especially when they are of so rare occurrence as not to give any noticeable contribution to the seed-production, or even if they render their bearers incapable of reproduction. in such cases the selection of normal plants is very severe or even absolute, but the anomalies are by no means exterminated. any favorable circumstances, or experimental selection in their behalf shows them to be still capable of full development. numerous cases of such subordinate hereditary characters constitute the greater part of the science of vegetable teratology. if it should be objected that all these cases cover too short a time to be decisive, or at least fail in giving evidence relative to former times, alpine plants afford a proof which one can hardly expect to be surpassed. during the whole present geologic epoch they have been subjected to the never failing selection of their climate and other external conditions. they exhibit a full and striking adaptation to these conditions, but also possess the latent capacity for assuming lowland characters as soon as they are transported into such environment. obviously this capacity never becomes active on the mountains, and is always counteracted by selection. this agency is evidently without any effect, for as we have seen when dealing [ ] with the experiments of nageli, bonnier and others, each single individual may change its habits and its aspect in response to transplantation. the climate has an exceedingly great influence on each individual, but the continuance of this influence is without permanent result. so much concerning ever-sporting varieties and double adaptations. we now come to the effects of a continuous selection of simple characters. here the sugar-beets stand preeminent. since vilmorin's time they have been selected according to the amount of sugar in their roots, and the result has been the most striking that has ever been attained, if considered from the standpoint of practice. but if critically examined, with no other aim than a scientific appreciation of the improvement in comparison with other processes of selection, the support of the evidence for the theory of accumulative influence proves to be very small. the amount of sugar is expressed by percentage-figures. these however, are dependent on various causes, besides the real quantity of sugar produced. one of these causes is the quantity of watery fluid in the tissues, and this in its turn is dependent on the culture in dryer or moister soil, and on the amount of moisture in the air, and the same variety of sugar-beets [ ] yields higher percentage-figures in a dry region than in a wet one. this is seen when comparing, for instance, the results of the analyses from the sandy provinces of holland with those from the clay-meadows, and it is very well known that californian beets average as high as % or more, while the best european beets remain at about %. as far as i have been able to ascertain, these figures however, are not indicative of any difference of race, but simply direct responses to the conditions of climate and of soil. apart from these considerations the improvement reached in half a century or in about twenty to thirty generations is not suggestive of anything absolute. everything is fluctuating now, even as it was at the outset, and equally dependent on continual care. vilmorin has given some figures for the beets of the first generations from which he started his race. he quotes % as a recommendable amount, and and as the extreme instances of his analyses. however incorrect these figures may be, they coincide to a striking degree with the present condition of the best european races. of course minor values are excluded each year by the selection, and in consequence the average value has increased. for the year we find a standard of - % considered as normal, [ ] bad years giving %, good years from % to % in the average. extreme instances exceeded %. from that time the practice of the polarization of the juice for the estimate of the sugar has rapidly spread throughout europe, and a definite increase of the average value soon resulted. this however, often does not exceed %, and beets selected in the field for the purpose of polarization come up to an average of to %, varying downward to less than % and upward to and %. in the main the figures are the same as those of vilmorin, the range of variability has not been reduced, and higher extremes are not reached. an average increase of % is of great practical importance, and nothing can excel the industry and care displayed in the improvement of the beet-races. notwithstanding this a lasting influence has not been exercised; the methods of selection have been improved, and the number of polarized beets has been brought up to some hundreds of thousands in single factories, but the improvement is still as dependent upon continuous selection as it was half a century ago. the process is practically very successful, but the support afforded by it to the selection theory vanishes on critical examination. [ ] lecture xxviii artificial and natural selection the comparison of artificial and natural selection has furnished material support for the theory of descent, and in turn been the object of constant criticism since the time of darwin. the criticisms, in greater part, have arisen chiefly from an imperfect knowledge of both processes. by the aid of distinctions recently made possible, the contrast between elementary species and improved races has become much more vivid, and promises to yield better results on which to base comparisons of artificial and natural selection. elementary species, as we have seen in earlier lectures, occur in wild and in cultivated plants. in older genera and systematic species they are often present in small numbers only, but many of the more recent wild types and also many of the cultivated forms are very rich in this respect. in agriculture the choice of the most adequate elementary forms for any special purpose is acknowledged [ ] as the first step in the way of selection, and is designated by the name of variety-testing, applying the term variety to all the subdivisions of systematic species indiscriminately. in natural processes it bears the title of survival of species. the fact that recent types show large numbers, and in some instances even hundreds of minor constant forms, while the older genera are considerably reduced in this respect, is commonly explained by the assumption of extinction of species on a correspondingly large scale. this extinction is considered to affect the unfit in a higher measure than the fit. consequently the former vanish, often without leaving any trace of their existence, and only those that prove to be sufficiently adapted to the surrounding external conditions, resist and survive. this selection exhibits far-reaching analogies between the artificial and the natural processes, and is in both cases of the very highest importance. in nature the dying out of unfit mutations is the result of the great struggle for life. in a previous lecture we have compared its agency with that of a sieve. all elements which are too small or too weak fall through, and only those are preserved which resist the sifting process. reduced in number they thrive and multiply and are thus enabled to [ ] strike out new mutative changes. these are again submitted to the sifting tests, and the frequent repetition of this process is considered to give a good explanation of the manifold, highly complicated, and admirable structures which strike the beginner as the only real adaptations in nature. exactly in the same way artificial selection isolates and preserves some elementary species, while it destroys others. of course the time is not sufficient to secure new mutations, or at least these are only rare at present, and their occurrence is doubtful in historic periods. apart from this unavoidable difference the analogy between natural and artificial selection appears to me to be very striking. this form of selection may be termed selection between species. opposed to it stands the selection within the elementary species or variety. it has of late, alone come to be known as selection, though in reality it does not deserve this distinction. i have already detailed the historical evidence which gives preference to selection between species. the process can best be designated by the name of intraspecific selection, if it is understood that the term intraspecific is meant to apply to the conception of small or elementary species. i do not wish to propose new terms, but [ ] i think that the principal differences might better become understood by the introduction of the word election into the discussion of questions of heredity. election meant formerly the preferential choice of single individuals, while the derivation of the word selection points to a segregation of assemblies into their larger parts. or to state it in a shorter way, individual selection is exactly what is usually termed election. choosing one man from among thousands is to elect him, but a select party is a group of chosen persons. there would be no great difficulty in the introduction of the word election, as breeders are already in the habit of calling their choice individuals "elite," at least in the case of beets and of cereals. this intraspecific selection affords a second point for the comparison between natural and artificial processes. this case is readily granted to be more difficult than the first, but there can be no doubt that the similarity is due to strictly comparable causes. in practice this process is scarcely second in importance to the selection between species, and in numerous cases it rests upon it, and crowns it, bringing the isolated forms up to their highest possible degree of usefulness. in nature it does quite the same, adapting strains of individuals to the local conditions of their environment. improved [ ] races do not generally last very long in practice; sooner or later they are surpassed by new selections. exactly so we may imagine the agency of natural intraspecific selection. it produces the local races, the marks of which disappear as soon as the special external conditions cease to act. it is responsible only for the smallest lateral branches of the pedigree, but has nothing in common with the evolution on the main stems. it is of very subordinate importance. these assertions of course, are directly opposed to the current run of scientific belief, but they are supported by facts. a considerable part of the evidence has already been dealt with and for our closing discussion only an exact comparison remains to be made between the two detailed types of intraspecific selection. in coming to this i will first dwell upon some intermediate types and conclude with a critical discussion of the features of artificial selection, which to my mind prove the invalidity of the conclusions drawn from it in behalf of an explanation of the processes of nature. natural selection occurs not only in the wild state, but is also active in cultivated fields. here it regulates the struggle of the selected varieties and improved races with the older types, and even with the wild species. in a previous [ ] lecture i have detailed the rapid increase of the wild oats in certain years, and described the experiments of risler and rimpau in the running out of select varieties. the agency is always the same. the preferred forms, which give a larger harvest, are generally more sensitive to injurious influences, more dependent on rich manure and on adequate treatment. the native varieties have therefore the advantage, when climatic or cultural conditions are unfavorable for the fields at large. they suffer in a minor degree, and are thereby enabled to propagate themselves afterwards more rapidly and to defeat the finer types. this struggle for life is a constant one, and can easily be followed, whenever the composition of a strain is noted in successive years. it is well appreciated by breeders and farmers, because it is always liable to counteract their endeavors and to claim their utmost efforts to keep their races pure. there can be no doubt that exactly the same struggle exempt from man's intrusion is fought out in the wild state. local races of wild plants have not been the object for field observations recently. some facts however, are known concerning them. on the east friesian islands in the north sea the flowers are strikingly larger and brighter colored than those of the same species on the [ ] neighboring continent. this local difference is ascribed by behrens to a more severe selection by the pollinating insects in consequence of their lesser frequency on these very windy isles. seeds of the pines from the himalayas yield cold-resisting young plants if gathered from trees in a high altitude, while the seeds of the same species from lower regions yield more sensitive seedlings. similar instances are afforded by _rhododendron_ and other mountain species. according to cieslar corresponding differences are shown by seeds of firs and larches from alpine and lowland provinces. such changes are directly dependent on external influences. this is especially manifest in experiments extending the cultures in higher or in more northern regions. the shorter summer is a natural agent of selection; it excludes all individuals which cannot ripen their seeds during so short a period. only the short lived ones survive. schubeler made very striking experiments with corn and other different cereals, and has succeeded in making their culture possible in regions of norway where it formerly failed. in the district of christiania, corn had within some few years reduced its lifetime from to days, yielding smaller stems and fewer kernels, but still sufficient to make its culture profitable under the existing conditions. [ ] this change was not permanent, but was observed to diminish rapidly and to disappear entirely, whenever the norwegian strain was cultivated in the southern part of germany. it was a typical improved race, dependent on continual selection by the short summers which had produced it. similar results have been reached by von wettstein in the comparison of kinds of flax from different countries. the analogy between such cultivated local races and the local races of nature is quite striking. the practice of seed exchange rests for a large part on the experience that the characters, acquired under the definite climatic and cultural conditions of some select regions, hold good for one or two, and sometimes even more generations, before they decrease to practical uselessness. the probstei, the hanna and other districts owe their wealth to this temporary superiority of their wheat and other cereals. leaving these intermediate forms of selection, we now come to our principal point. it has already been discussed at some length in the previous lecture, but needs further consideration. it is the question whether intraspecific selection may be regarded as a cause of lasting and ever-increasing improvement. this is assumed by biologists who consider fluctuating variability as the main source of progression [ ] in the organic world. but the experience of the breeders does not support this view, since the results of practice prove that selection according to a constant standard soon reaches a limit which it is not capable of transgressing. in order to attain further improvements the method of selection itself must be improved. a better and sharper method assures the choice of more valuable representatives of the race, even if these must be sought for in far larger numbers of individuals, as is indicated by the law of quetelet. continuous or even prolonged improvement of a cultivated race is not the result of frequently repeated selection, but of the improvement of the standard of appreciation. nature, as far as we know, changes her standard from time to time only in consequence of the migrations of the species, or of local changes of climate. afterwards the new standard remains unchanged for centuries. selection, according to a constant standard, reaches its results in few generations. the experience of van mons and other breeders of apples shows that the limit of size and lusciousness may be soon attained. vilmorin's experiments with wild carrots and those of carriere with radishes lead to the same conclusion as regards roots. improvements of flowers in [ ] size and color are usually easy and rapid in the beginning, but an impassable limit is soon reached. numerous other instances could be given. contrasted with these simple cases is the method of selecting sugar beets. more than once i have alluded to this splendid example of the influence of man upon domestic races, and tried to point out how little support it affords to the current scientific opinion concerning the power of natural selection. for this reason it is interesting to see how a gradual development of the methods of selection has been, from the very outset, one of the chief aims of the breeders. none of them doubts that an improvement of the method alone is adequate to obtain results. this result, in the main, is the securing of a few percent more of sugar, a change hardly comparable with that progress in evolution, which our theories are destined to explain. vilmorin's original method was a very simple one. polarization was still undiscovered in his time. he determined the specific weight of his beets, either by weighing them as a whole, or by using a piece cut from the base of the roots and deprived of its bark, in order to test only the sugar tissues. the pieces were floated in solutions of salt, which were diluted until the pieces [ ] began to sink. their specific weight at that moment was determined and considered to be a measure of the corresponding value of the beet. this principle was afterwards improved in two ways. the first was a selection after the salt solution method, but performed on a large scale. after some few determinations, a solution was made of such strength as to allow the greater number of the beets to float, and only the best to sink down. in large vessels thousands of beets could be tested in this way, to select a few of the very heaviest. the other improvement was the determination of the specific weight of the sap, pressed out from the tissue. it was more tedious and more expensive, but more direct, as the influence of the air cavities of the tissue was excluded. it prepared the way for polarization. this was introduced about the year in germany, and soon became generally accepted. it allowed the amount of sugar to be measured directly, and with but slight trouble. thousands of beets could be tested yearly by this method, and the best selected for the production of seed. in some factories a standard percentage is determined by previous inquiries, and the mass of the beets is tested only by it. in others the methods of taking samples and clearing the sap have been improved so far as to allow the [ ] exact determination of three hundred thousand polarization values of beets within a few weeks. such figures give the richest material for statistical studies, and at once indicate the best roots, while they enable the breeder to change his standard in accordance with the results at any time. furthermore they allow the mass of the beets to be divided into groups of different quality, and to produce, besides the seeds for the continuation of the race, a first class and second-class product and so on. in the factory of messrs. kuhn & co., at naarden, holland, the grinding machine has been markedly improved, so as to tear all cell walls asunder, open all cells, and secure the whole of the sap within less than a minute, and without heating. it would take too long to go into further details, or to describe the simultaneous changes that have been applied to the culture of the elite strains. the detailed features suffice to show that the chief care of the breeder in this case is a continuous amelioration of the method of selecting. it is manifest that the progression of the race is in the main due to great technical improvements, and not solely to the repetition of the selection. similar facts may be seen on all the great lines of industrial selection. an increasing appreciation [ ] of all the qualities of the selected plants is the common feature. morphological characters, and the capacity of yielding the desired products, are the first points that strike the breeder. the relation to climate and the dependence on manure soon follow; but the physiological and chemical sides of the problem are usually slow of recognition in the methods of selection. when visiting mr. de vilmorin at paris some years ago, i inspected his laboratory for the selection of potatoes. in the method in use, the tubers were rubbed to pulp and the starch was extracted and measured. a starch percentage figure was determined for each plant, and the selection of the tubers for planting was founded upon this result. in the same way wheat has been selected by dippe at quedlinburg, first by a determination of its nitrogenous contents in general, and secondly by the amount of the substances which determine its value for baking purposes. the celebrated rye of schlanstedt was produced by the late mr. rimpau in a similar manner and was put on the market between and and was received with great favor throughout central europe, especially in germany and in france. it is a tall variety, with vigorous stems and very long heads, the kernels of which are nearly double the size of those of the [ ] ordinary rye, and are seen protruding, when ripe, from between the scales of the spikelets. it is unfit for poor soils, but is one of the very best varieties for soils of medium fertility in a temperate climate. it is equal in the production of grain to the best french sorts, but far surpassing them in its amount of straw. it was perfected at the farm of schlanstedt very slowly, according to the current conceptions of the period. the experiment was started in the year , at which time rimpau collected the most beautiful heads from among his fields, and sowed their kernels in his experiment garden. from this first culture the whole race was derived. every year the best ears of the strain were chosen for repeated culture, under experimental care, while the remainder was multiplied in a field to furnish the seeds for large and continually increasing areas of his farms. two or three years were required to produce the quantity of seed of each kind required for all the fields of schlanstedt. the experiment garden, which through the kindness of mr. rimpau i had the good fortune of visiting more than once between and , was situated in the middle of his farm, at some distance from the dwellings. of course it was treated with more care, and especially kept [ ] in better conditions of fertility than was possible for the fields at large. a continued study of the qualities and exigencies of the elite plants accompanied this selection, and gave the means of gradually increasing the standard. resistance against disease was observed and other qualities were ameliorated in the same manner. mr. rimpau repeatedly told me that he was most anxious not to overlook any single character, because he feared that if any of them might become selected in the wrong way, perchance unconsciously, the whole strain might suffer to such a degree as to make all the other ameliorations quite useless. with this purpose the number of plants per acre was kept nearly the same as those in the fields, and the size of the culture was large enough every year to include the best kernels of quite a number of heads. these were never separated, and exact individual pedigrees were not included in the plan. this mixture seemed to have the advantage of keeping up an average value of the larger number of the characters, which either from their nature or from their apparent unimportance had necessarily to be neglected. after ten years of continuous labor, the rye of rimpau caught the attention of his neighbors, being manifestly better than that of ordinary [ ] sowings. originally he had made his cultures for the improvement of his own fields only. gradually however, he began to sell his product as seed to others, though he found the difference still very slight. after ten years more, about , he was able to sell all his rye as seed, thereby making of course large profits. it is now acknowledged as one of the best sorts, though in his last letter mr. rimpau announced to me that the profits began to decline as other selected varieties of rye became known. the limit of productiveness was reached, and to surmount this, selection had to be begun again from some new and better starting point. this new starting point invokes quite another principle of selection, a principle which threatens to make the contrast between artificial and natural selection still greater. in fact it is nothing new, being in use formerly in the selection of domestic animals, and having been applied by vilmorin to his sugar beets more than half a century ago. why it should ever have been overlooked and neglected in the selection of sugar beets now is not clear. the principle in itself is very simple. it agrees that the visible characters of an animal or a plant are only an imperfect measure for its hereditary qualities, instead of being the real criterion to be relied upon, as is the current belief. [ ] it further reasons that a direct appreciation of the capacity of inheritance can only be derived from the observation of the inheritance itself. hence it concludes that the average value of the offspring is the only real standard by which to judge the representatives of a race and to found selection upon. these statements are so directly opposed to views prevalent among plant breeders, that it seems necessary to deal with them from the theoretical and experimental, as well as from the practical side. the theoretical arguments rest on the division of the fluctuating variability into the two large classes of individual or embryonic, and of partial deviations. we have dealt with this division at some length in the previous lecture. it will be apparent at once, if we choose a definite example. let us ask what is the real significance of the percentage figure of a single plant in sugar beets. this value depends in the first place, on the strain or family from which the beet has been derived, but this primary point may be neglected here, because it is the same for all the beets of any lot, and determines the average, around which all are fluctuating. the deviation of the percentage figure of a single beet depends on two main groups of external [ ] causes. first come those that have influenced the young germs of the plant during its most sensitive period, when still an embryo within the ripening seed. they give a new limitation to the average condition, which once and forever becomes fixed for this special individual. in the second place the young seedling is affected during the development of its crown of leaves, and of its roots, by numerous factors, which cannot change this average, but may induce deviations from it, increasing or decreasing the amount of sugar, which will eventually be laid down in the root. the best young beet may be injured in many ways during periods of its lifetime, and produce less sugar than could reasonably be expected from it. it may be surpassed by beets of inferior constitution, but growing under more favorable circumstances. considered from this point of view the result of the polarization test is not a single value, but consists of at least two different factors. it may be equal to the algebraic sum of these, or to their difference, according to whether the external conditions on the field were locally and individually favorable or unfavorable. a large amount of sugar may be due to high individual value, with slight subsequent deviation from it, [ ] or to a less prominent character combined with an extreme subordinate deviation. hence it is manifest that even the results of such a highly improved technical method do not deserve the confidence usually put in them. they are open to doubt, and the highest figures do not really indicate the best representatives of the race. in order to convey this conception to you in a still stronger manner, let us consider the partial variability as it usually shows itself. the various leaves of a plant may noticeably vary in size, the flowers in color, the fruits in flavor. they fluctuate around an average, which is assumed to represent the approximate value of the whole plant. but if we were allowed to measure only one leaf, or to estimate only one flower or fruit, and be compelled to conclude from it the worth of the whole plant, what mistakes we could make! we might indeed hit upon an average case, but we might as easily get an extreme, either in the way of increase or of decrease. in both cases our judgment would be badly founded. now who can assure us that the single root of a given beet is an average representative of the partial variability? the fact that there is only one main root does not prove anything. an annual plant has only one stem, but a perennial species has many. the average height of the last is a [ ] reliable character, but the casual height of the former is very uncertain. so it is with the beets. a beet may be divided by its buds and give quite a number of roots, belonging to the same individual. these secondary roots have been tested for the amount of sugar, and found to exhibit a manifest degree of variability. if the first root corresponded to their average, it might be considered as reliable, but if not anyone will grant that an average is more reliable than a single determination. deviations have as a fact been observed, proving the validity of our assertion. these considerations at once explain the disappointment so often experienced by breeders. some facts may be quoted from the belgian professor of agriculture at gembloux, the late mr. laurent. he selected two beets, from a strain, with the exceptional amount of % sugar, but kept their offspring separate and analyzed some of each. in both groups the average was only - %, the extremes not surpassing - %. evidently the choice was a bad one, notwithstanding the high polarization value of the parent. analogous cases are often observed, and my countrymen, messrs. kuhn & co., go so far as to doubt all excessive variants, and to prefer beets with high, but less extraordinary percentages. such are to be had in larger numbers [ ] and their average has a good chance of exemption from a considerable portion of the doubts adhering to single excessive cases. it is curious to note here what louis de vilmorin taught concerning this point in the year . i quote his own words: "i have observed that in experiments on heredity it is necessary to individualize as much as possible. so i have taken to the habit of saving and sowing separately the seeds of every individual beet, and i have always found that among the chosen parent plants some had an offspring with a better average yield than others. at the end i have come to consider this character only, as a standard for amelioration." the words are clear and their author is the originator of the whole method of plant breeding selection. yet the principle has been abandoned, and nearly forgotten under the impression that polarization alone was the supreme guide to be relied upon. however, if i understand the signs rightly, the time is soon coming when vilmorin's experience will become once more the foundation for progress in breeding. leaving the theoretical and historical aspects of the problem, we will now recall the experimental evidence, given in a former lecture, dealing with the inheritance of monstrosities. i have shown that in many instances monstrosities [ ] constitute double races, consisting of monstrous and of normal individuals. at first sight one might be induced to surmise that the monstrous ones are the true representatives of the race, and that their seeds should be exclusively sown, in order to keep the strain up to its normal standard. one might even suppose that the normal individuals, or the so-called atavists, had really reverted to the original type of the species and that their progeny would remain true to this. my experiments, however, have shown that quite the contrary is the case. no doubt, the seeds of the monstrous specimens are trustworthy, but the seeds of the atavists are not less so. fasciated hawkweeds and twisted teasels gave the same average constitution of the offspring from highly monstrous, and from apparently wholly normal individuals. in other words the fullest development of the visible characteristic was not in the slightest degree an indication of better hereditary tendencies. in unfavorable years a whole generation of a fasciated race may exhibit exclusively normal plants, without transmitting a trace of this deficiency to the following generation. as soon as the suitable conditions return, the monstrosity reassumes its full development. the accordance of these facts with the experience [ ] of breeders of domestic animals, and of louis de vilmorin, and with the result of the theoretical considerations concerning the factors of fluctuation has led me to suggest the method of selecting, which i have made use of in my experiments with tricotyls and syncotyls. seedling variations afford a means of counting many hundreds of individuals in a single germinating pan. if seed from one parent plant is sown only in each pan, a percentage figure for the amount of deviating seedlings may be obtained. these figures we have called the hereditary percentages. i have been able to select the parent plants after their death on the sole ground of these values. and the result has been that from varieties which, on an average, exhibited - % deviating seedlings, after one or two years of selection this proportion in the offspring was brought up to about % in most of the cases. _phacelia_ and mercury with tricotylous seedlings, and the russian sunflower with connate seed leaves, may be cited as instances. besides these tests, others were performed, based only on the visible characters of the seedlings. the result was that this characteristic was almost useless as a criterion. the atavists gave, in the main, nearly the same hereditary percentages as the tricotyls and syncotyls, and [ ] their extremes were in each case far better constituted than the average of the chosen type. hence, for selection purposes, the atavists must be considered to be in no way inferior to the typical specimens. if it had been possible to apply this principle to twisted and fasciated plants, and perhaps even to other monstrosities, i think that it will readily be granted that the chance of bringing even these races up to a percentage of % would have been large enough. but the large size of the cultures required for the counting of numerous groups of offspring in the adult state has deterred me from making such trials. recently however, i have discovered a species, _viscaria oculata_ which allows of counting twisted specimens in the pans, and i may soon be able to obtain proofs of this assertion. the validity of the hereditary percentage as a standard of selection has, within the last few years, been recognized and defended by two eminent breeders, w.a. hays in this country and von lochow in germany. both of them have started from the experience of breeders of domestic animals. von lochow applied the principle to rye. he first showed how fallacious the visible characters often are. for instance the size of the kernels is often dependent on their number in the head, and if this number is [ ] reduced by the injurious varietal mark of lacunae (luckigkeit), the whole harvest will rapidly deteriorate by the selection of the largest kernels from varieties which are not quite free from this hereditary deficiency. in order to estimate the value of his rye plants, he gathers the seed of each one separately and sows them in rows. each row corresponds to a parent plant and receives or seeds, according to the available quantity. in this way from to parent plants are tested yearly. each row is harvested separately. the number of plants gives the average measure of resistance to frost, this being the only important cause of loss. then the yield in grain and straw is determined and calculated, and other qualities are taken into consideration. finally one or more groups stand prominent above all others and are chosen for the continuation of the race. all other groups are wholly excluded from the "elite," but among them the best groups and the very best individuals from lesser groups are considered adequate for further cultivation, in order to produce the commercial product of the race. as a matter of fact the rye of von lochow is now one of the best varieties, and even surpasses the celebrated variety of schlanstedt. it was only after obtaining proof of the validity [ ] of his method that von lochow decided to give it to the public. w.m. hays has made experiments with wheat at the minnesota agricultural experiment station. he chose a hundred grains as a proper number for the appreciation of each parent plant, and hence has adopted the name of "centgener power" for the hereditary percentage. the average of the hundred offspring is the standard to judge the parent by. experience shows at once that this average is not at all proportional to the visible qualities of the parent. hence the conclusion that the yield of the parent plant is a very uncertain indication of its value as a parent for the succeeding generation. only the parents with the largest power in the centgener of offspring are chosen, while all others are wholly discarded. afterwards the seeds of the chosen groups are propagated in the field until the required quantities of seed are obtained. this centgener power, or breeding ability, is tested and compared for the various parent plants as to yield, grade, and percentage of nitrogenous content in the grain, and as to the ability of the plant to stand erect, resist rust, and other important qualities. it is evident that by this test of a hundred specimens a far better [ ] and much more reliable determination can be made than on the ground of the minutest examination of one single plant. from this point of view the method of hays commands attention. but the chief advantage lies in the fact that it is a direct proof of that which it is desired to prove, while the visible marks give only very indirect information. thus the results of the men of practice are in full accordance with those of theory and scientific experiment, and there can be little doubt that they open the way for a rapid and important improvement. once attained, progress however, will be dependent on the selection principle, and the hereditary percentage, or centgener power or breeding ability, must be determined in each generation anew. without this the race would soon regress to its former condition. to return to our starting point, the comparison of artificial and natural selection. here we are at once struck by the fact that it is hardly imaginable, how nature can make use of this principle. in some measure the members of the best centgener will manifestly be at an advantage, because they contain more fit specimens than the other groups. but the struggle for existence goes on between individuals, and not between groups of brethren against groups of [ ] cousins. in every group the best adapted individuals will survive, and soon the breeding differences between the parents must vanish altogether. manifestly they can, as a rule, have no lasting result on the issue of the struggle far existence. if now we remember that in darwin's time this principle, breeding ability, enjoyed a far more general appreciation than at present, and that darwin must have given it full consideration, it becomes at once clear that this old, but recently revived principle, is not adequate to support the current comparison between artificial and natural selection. in conclusion, summing up all our arguments, we may state that there is a broad analogy between breeding selection in the widest sense of the word, including variety testing, race improvement and the trial of the breeding ability on one side, and natural selection on the other. this analogy however, points to the importance of the selection between elementary species, and the very subordinate role of intraspecific selection in nature. it strongly supports our view of the origin of species by mutation instead of continuous selection. or, to put it in the terms chosen lately by mr. arthur harris in a friendly criticism of my views: "natural selection may explain the survival [ ] of the fittest, but it cannot explain the arrival of the fittest." a _abies concolor fastigiata_, _acacia_, , , , , bastard, , , , , , _acer compestre nanum_, _achillea millefolium_, , , adaptation, double, , , , , , , , _aegilops ovata_, _speltaeformis_, _agave vivipara_, _ageratum coeruleum_, _agrostemma coronaries bicolor_, _githago_, _nicaeensis_, _agrotis_, alder, cut-leaved, , alfalfa, algae, allen, grant, _alliaria_, _alnus glutinosa laciniata_, alpine plants, , , _althaea_, amaranth, , _amaranthus caudatus_, _amaryllis_, , , brasiliensis_, leopoldi_, pardina_, psittacina_, vittata_, amen-hotep, _ampelopsis_, _amygdalus persica laevis_, _anagallis arvensis_, _androsace_, _anemone_, , _coronaria_, , var. "bride," _magellanica_, _sylvestris_, _anemone_, garden, annee, anomalies, taxonomic, , _anthemis_, _nobilis_, _anthurium scherzerianum_, _antirrhinum majus_, _luteum rubro-striatum_, apetalous flowers, apples, , , , , elementary species, method of cultivating, origin of cultivated varieties, use by the romans, "wealthy," , wild, , , , _aquilegia chrysantha_, _arabis ciliata glabrata_ _hirsuta glaberrima_, _aralia crassifolia_, arbres fruitiers ou pomonomie belge, _aralia papyrifera_, arctic flora, _arnica_, _montana_, aroids, , , artemisias, artificial selection, , , , , , , , , first employed, , nature of, _arum maculatum immaculatum_, ascidia, , , , , , , , , , , , ash, , one-bladed, , weeping, , ashe, aster, , , seashore, , _aster tripolium_, , , , , _astragalus alpinus_, atavism, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , bud, , definition of, , false, , negative, positive, seed, systematic, , , - atavists, , heredity of, _atropa belladonna lutea_, _aubretia_, _avena fatua_, , _azalea_, , _azolla caroliniana_, b babington, _manual of british botany_, , bailey, , , balsams, bananas, , banyan, barberry, , european, purple, _barbarea vulgaris_, barley, , , , , , "nepaul," , , , , , bastard-acacia, , , bateson, bauhin, caspar, , baumann, beans, , , , , bedstraw, beech, , , cut-leaved, , , laciniated, oak-leaved, purple, , , beeches, fern-leaved, beets, , , , , , , , , , californian, european, forage, , , salad, beet-sugar, , , , , , , , , , , , _begonia_, , , , ever-flowering, tuberous, _clarkii_, _davisii_, _rosiflora_, _sedeni_, _semperflorens_, , , _begonia_ bulbous, _veitchi_, behrens, belladonna, _bellis perennis_, _perennis plena_, bentham, bentham & hooker, _handbook of british flora_, _berberis_, , , _ilicifolia_, _vulgaris_, bertin, _berula angustifolia_, bessey, _beta maritima_, _patula_, , _vulgaris_, , _betula_, between-race, bewirkung, theorie der directen (nageli), _biastrepsis_, _bidens_, _atropurpurea_, _cernua_, , _leucantha_, _tripartite_, bilberries, bindweed, binomium, of newton, birch, , cut-leaved, , fastigiate, fern-leaved, _bisoutella_, _laevigata glabra_, bitter-sweet, blackberry, , "paradox," blue-bells, variation in, , , blueberries, blue-bottle, , , , blueflag, atavism of, _boehmeria_, _bilboa_, bonnier, , , , , , boreau, brambles, , , , , , , , , , _brassica_, braun, braun and schimper, bread-fruits, briot, britton and brown's flora, brooks, broom, prickly, broom-rape, _broussonetia papyifera dissecta_, _brunella_, , _vulgaris_, _vulgaris alba_, _bryophyllum calycinum_, buckwheat, bud-variation, buds, adventitious, burbank, luther, , , , , , , , , buttercup, , , , , asiatic, c cabbages, , atavism in, origin of varieties, cactuses, cactus-dahlia, _calamintha acinos_, , calamus root, _calendula officinalis_, _calliopsis tinctoria_, _calluna_, _vulgaris_, , _caltha_, _palustris_, _camelina_, _camellia_, , _japonica_, camellias, camomile, , , , , , , , _campanula persicifolia_, , _rotundifolia_, campion, , , evening, red, _canna_, , , _indica_, "madame crozy," , _nepalensis_, _warczewiczii_, _capsella bursa-pastoris apetala_, _heegeri_, , , , _carex_, carnation, , , wheat-ear, _carpinus betulus heterophylla_, carriere, , , , carrots, catch-fly, carboniferous period, _casuarina quadrivalvis_, cauliflowers, origin of, caumzet, causation, theory of direct, (nageli), cedar, pyramidal, celandine, , , , oak-leaved, , , _celosia_, _celosia cristata_, , _centaurea_, centgener power, , _centranthus macrosiphon_, _cephalotaxus_, , _pedunculata fastigiata_, cereals, , , , , , origin of cultivation, character-units, charlock, _cheiranthus_, _cheiri_, _cheiri gynantherus_, _chelidonium laciniatum_, , _majus_, , , , , _majus foliis quernis_, cherries, cherry, bird's, chestnuts, chromosomes, _chrysanthemum_, , corn, _chrysanthemum carinatum_, _coronarium_, , , _grandiflorum_, _imbricatum_, _indicum_, _inodorum_, _inodorum plenissimum_, new double, _segetum_, , , , _segetum_, var. _grandiflorum_, , , , , _chrysopogon montanus_, cieslar, _cineraria cruenta_, cinquefoil, _clarkia_, _elegans_, _pulchella_, _pulchella carnea_, _clematis vitalba_, _viticella nana_, clover, , , crimson (italian), , , , five-leaved, , , , , , four-leaved, , , red, , white, , clusius, _cochlearia anglica_, _danica_, _officinalis_, coconut, , , , , , dispersal of, , geographic origin of, , coconut-palm, , cockerell, t.d.a., , , cocklebur, cockscomb, , , , , _cocos nucifera stupposa_, , _cupuliformis_, _rutila_, _codiaeum appendicularum_, _colchicum_, _coleus_, columbine, yellow, columbus, , columella, composites, , , , , conifers, , , , weeping, connation, of petals, , "conquests," contra-selection, cook, , , , corn, , , , , , , , , , , , american, corn-cockle, corn-chrysanthemum, corn-flowers, , corn, "forty-day," "harlequin," sterile variety of, sugar, , "tuscarora," corn-marigold, , cornel berry, yellow, cornaceae, _cornu_, _cornus mas_, correlation, _corylus_, _avellana_, _tubulosa_, cotton, cotyledon, variation in, _crambe maritima_, cranesbill, european, meadow, _crataegus_, _oxyacantha_, crowfoot, corn, _crepis biennis_, , cress, indian, crosses bisexual, , , , reciprocal, unisexual, , varietal (see hybrids) _croton_, , crozy, , crucifers, , _cryptomeria_, , _japonica_, cucumbers, _cucumis_, _cucurbita_, cultivated plants, , elementary species of, improvement of, mixed nature of, , origin of, currants, californian, flowering, "gordon's," missouri, white, white-flowered, cuttings, _cyclamen_, , , , butterfly, _vernum_, _cypripedium caudatum_, _cytisus adami_, _candicans attleyanus_, _laburnum_, _prostratus_, _prostratus ciliata_, _purpureus_, _spinescens_, d _dahlia_, , , , cactus, "jules chretien," purple-leaved, "surprise," tubular, [sic] , , first double ones, green, , , daisies, , , double, hen-and-chicken, ox-eye, shasta, yellow, dandelion, parthenogenesis, variations in, daphne mezereum, darwin, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , darwin, george, darwinian theory, basis of, date, _datura stramonium_, , _stramonium inermis_, _tatula_, , , dead-nettle, de bary, , , de candolle, , , , , , , , alphonse, , , a.p., casimir, , de graaff, _delphinium ajacis_, deniau, descent, theory of, , , , , , de serres, olivier, _desmodium gyrans_, , , , , dewberry, california, _dianthus barbatus_, , twisted variety, diatoms, dictoyledons ancestors of monocotyledons, _digitalis parviflora_, , _purpurea_, pelorism of, dimorphism, , , , , dippe, _dipsacus fullonum_, sylvestris_, , dominant character, double flowers poppies production of, types of, double races (see also ever-sporting varieties), , , dubois, eugene, duchesne, , , duckweed, _draba_, , verna, , , , , , , , , , , _dracocephalum moldavicum_, dragon-head, _drosera anglica_, _filiformis_, _intermedia_, _obovata_, _rotundifolia_, e earth, age of, edelweiss, eichler, election, electric light, growth in, elementary species, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , apples, coconut, corn, cultivated plants, definition of, , , flax, how produced, , hybrids of, , mutation of, origin of, , origin of, how studied, selection of, varieties vs., , , , , , , , , elm, , , , _epilobium_, _hirsutum_, _hirsutum cruciatum_, _montanum_, _tetragonum_, _equisetum telmateja_, , _erica tetralix_, , ericaceae, , _erigeron _asteroides_, _canadensis_, , , , , _erodium_, _cicutarium album_, _erucastrum_, , , _pollichii_, , _eryngium campestre_, _maritimum_, _erysimum cheiranthoides_, _erythraea pulchella_, _erythrina_, _crista-galli_, eschcholtzias, esimpler, _eucalyptus citriodora_, _globulus_, _euphorbia ipecacuanha_, evening-primrose, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , evolution, , , , , , , , , , degressive, , , progression in, progressive, , , , regression in, regressive, , ; , retrograde, , extremes, asexual multiplication of, , f fabre, _fagus_, _fagus sylvatica pectinata_, fan, genealogical, fasciated stems, , ferns, cristate, plumose, _ficaria_, _ficus radicans_, _religiosus_, _repens_, _stipulata_, _ulmifolia_, figs, _filago_, fir, , fittest, survival of, flax, , springing, threshing, white-flowered, , fleabane, canada, , flowers, gamopetalous, fluctuability embryonic, see fluctuation, individual fluctuation, , , , , , , , curves of, , defined, individual, , , , , , , mutation vs. , , partial, , , , , , , , inadequate for evolution, in elementary species, nature of, specific and varietal characters vs. forget-me-not, fothergill, john, foxglove, peloric, , , yellow, , _fraxinus excelsior monophylla_, _exheterophylla_, _simplici folio_, french flora (grenier and godron), fries on _hieracium_, frostweed, species of, _fuchsia_, , fuchsias, g gaertner, _galeopsis ladanum canescens_, _galium_, _aparine_, , _elatum_, _erectum_, _mollugo_, _verum_, gallesio, galton, , gamopetaly, garden-pansy, origin of, garlic, gauchery, geikie, genera artificial character of, polymorphous, _gentiana punctata concolor_, gentians, georgics (vergil), _geranium pratense_, , _album_, _pyreniacum_, german flora (koth), geum, gherkins, gideon, peter m., glacial period, _gladiolus_, , , , , _cardinalis_, _gandavensis_, _psittacinus_, _purpureo-auratus_, _glaucium_, _gleditschia sinensis_, _triacanthos pendula_, _gloxinia_, , erect, _gloxinia erecta_, peloric variety, _gnaphalium leontopodium_, _godetia amoena_, godetias, , godron, , goeppert, gooseberry, , , red, , , grapes, , , grape-hyacinth, _plumosa_, grasses, , , grenier, groundsel, growth, nutrition and, , , guelder-rose, , gum-tree, australian, _gypsophila paniculata_ twisted variety, h haeckel, half-races, , , , , , , hall, hallet, f.f., harebell, peach-leaved, harris, arthur, harshberger, john w., on _euphorbia_ in new jersey, hawksbeard, , , hawkweed, , , , hawkweeds seeding without fertilization, hawthorn, white, hays, w.m. on individual selection, , , , , , , hazelnut, , , hazels, cut-leaved, ,- heath family, , , heaths, origin of, heather, _hedera helix arborea_, hedgehog burweed, _hedys_arum_, heeger, heer, oswald, , heinricher, , , _helianthemum_, , , , _apenninum_, _pilosum_, _polifolium_, _pulverulentum_, _vulgare_, _helichrysum_, _helwingia_, , , _rusciflora_, hemp, henbane, _hepatica_, , heredity, , , bearers of, in teasels, _hesperis_, , _matronalis_, , _heylandia latebrosa_, _hibiscus moscheutos_, _hieracium_, , _alpinum_, hildebrand, , , hoffman, , hofmeister, , , holbein, , holly, , holtermann, , hollyhock, honeysuckle, ground, _hordeum distichum_, _hexastichum_, , _tetrastichum_, _trifurcatum_, , _vulgare trifurcatum_, hornbeam, european, horse-chestnut, thornless, horsetail, canadian, european, horsetail, family, horse-weed, canadian, _hortensia_, , horticulture, mutations in, houseleek, , hunneman, john, hyacinths, , white, hybrids, , , , , , between elementary species, constant, , , , , , , law of varietal, mendelian, nature of, species, , splitting of, varietal, , , , , , , , , , hybridization, , , , , , _hydrocotyle_, _hyoscyamus niger_, _pallidus_, _hypericum perforatum_, _hyssopus officinalis_, i _iberis umbellata rosea_, improved races, inconstancy of - indian cress, pelorism of, indian pipe, ipecac spurge, _iris_, _falcifolis_, _kaempferi_, _lortetii_, _pallida_, _pallida abavia_, isolation, ivy, j jacob's ladder, , jacques, jacquin, , jaggi, , jaeger, , jalappa, janczewski, japanese plum, _jasminum sambac_, joly, jordan, alexis, , , , , experiments with species, , _juncus effusus spiralis_, juniper, k kapteyn, kelvin, lord, , kerner von marilaun, , keteleer, knight, , , koch, , koelreuter, korshinsky, , , , , krelage, , kuhn & co., messrs., , , l _labiates_, pelories of, _labiatiflorae_, pelorism of, labrador tea, _laburnum_, , , oak-leaved , pelorism of, _lactuca_, _scariola_, lagasca, mariano, , , lamarck, , , , , lamarckism objections to, _lamium album_, _maculatum_, pelorism of, _purpureum_, larch, larkspur, , , , hybrid, white, latency, individual, specific, systematic, , , varietal, latent characters, _lathyrus odoratus_, _laurea pinnatifida_, laurel, lady's, laurent, leaves, cleft, variegated, , lebrun, mme., le couteur, , , , , , , , _ledum_, , _lemna_, lemoine, , lettuce, crisped, prickly, life, struggle for, , , lilacs, , double, _lilium candidum flore pleno_, _pardalium_, lime-tree, , , , fern-leaved, _linaria_, , , _dalmatica_, _genistifolia_, _italica_, _vulgaris_, , _vulgaris peloria_, lindley, , , linnaeus, , , , , , on the idea of species, , on origin of species, , on primroses, _linum angustifolium_, _crepitans_, _usitatissimum_, , link, liver-leaf, _lobelia syphilitica_, _lonicera etrusca_, _tartarica nana_, lorenz, chr., lothelier, _lotus corniculatus_, _corniculatus hirsutus_, london, , , lucerne, ludwig, lupines, _lychnis_, _chalcedonica_, _diurna_, , _preslii_, _vespertina_, , , _lycium_, _lycopersicum_, _grandifolium_, _latifolium_ (see _l. grandifolium_). _solanopsis_, , _validum_ (see _l. solanopsis_). lyell, , _lysimachia vulgaris_, m macdougal, d.t., , , macfarlane, , , _madia elegans_, _magnolia_, , , , , _obovata_, , _magnus_, _mahonia aquifolia_, maize, , "cuzco," european, "gracillima," "horse-dent," "quarantino," mallow, , _malva crispa_, maples, laciniate, marchant, marigold, , corn, field, , , garden, japanese, , , marsh-marigold, martinet, measart, masters, , , _matricaria chamomilla_, _chamomilla discoidea_, matricaria discoidea, d.c., may-thorn, red, _medicago media_, _falcata_, _melanium_, melons, mendel, , , , , , mendel's law, , , , , , , , , , , , mendelism, mentha, _mercurialis annua_, _annua laciniata_, mercury, , , , methods of investigation, metzger, , milde, milfoil, millardet, miller, millet, _mimulus_, _quinquevulnerus_, _mimusops_, miocene period, miquel, _mirabilis_, _jalappa_, mirbel, _monardella macrantha_, monstrosities, , , , , monkey-flower, monocotyledons ancestry of, , regression in, _monotropa_, , morphologic units, , monstrosities, morgan on mutation-theory, morren, , mountain-ash, muller, fritz, , , multiplication, vegetative (see asexual propagation) munting, abraham, , , , munting's drawings, murr, , _muscari comosam_, museum d'histoire naturelle, paris, mutability vs. fluctuating variability, mutation, , , , , , , , , absence of intermediate steps in, , conditions for observing, decided within the seed, definition of, easily observed, experimental, few observations of, fluctuation vs., , , influence of on variability, iterative nature of, , , laws of, , , , , , , , limited in time, observation of, in _oenothera_, , , oldest known, oldest recorded, periodic, , , perodicity of, progressive, repetition of, in _saponaria calabrica_, simultaneous, in tomato, mutations, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , artificial, chance for useful, defined, frequency of, in garden-flowers, in horticulture, , latent, mode of appearance, numerical proportion of, original production of, peloric, periodic, , progressive, retrograde, stray, , , synonyms of, mutation-period, _myosotis azorica_, _myrtus communis_, n nageli, , , , , nagelian principle, , , natural selection, , , , , , , , , , , - basis, nature of, , naudin, nectarines, , , , nemec, neo-lamarckians principle of, neo-lamarckism _nepenthes_, , , , newton, , , _nicandra_, _nigella_, nightshade, black, nourishment meaning of, variability and _nuphar_, nutrition and growth, , _nymphaea_, o oats, , , , , , , , , , "early angus," "early fellow," "fine fellow," "hopetown," "longfellow," "make-him-rich," wild, , oak, , _oenothera_, , , , , , , european species, source of, mutation in, , , , , new species of, - _albida_, , , , , , _biennia_, , , , , ; , , , , , , , , , , , , , _biennis cruciata_, , _brevistylis_, , , , , , , , , , , , , _cruciata_, , , , , , _elliptica_, , , , _gigas_, , , , ; , , , , , , , , , _glauca_, _hirtella_, _laevifolia_, , , , , , , , , , _lamarckiana_, , , , , , , , ,, , , , , , pollination of, _lata_, , , , , , , , , , , , , , _leptocarpa_, _muricata_, , , , , , , , , , pollination of, _nanella_, , , , , , , , , , , , _oblonga_, , , , , , , , _rubrinervis_, , , , , , , , , , , , , _scintillans_, , , , , , , , mutability of, _semilata_, _suaveolens_, _oleander_, _onagra_, , , onions, wild, _ononis repens_, orange, , , orchids, origin of species (darwin), _orobanche_, _othonna crassifolia_, otin, oviedo, p _paeonia corallina leiocarpa_, paillat, pangenes, pangenesis, , _panicum_, pansies, pansy, , _papaver alpinum_, _bracteatum_, _bracteatum monopetalum_, _commutatum_, _dubium glabrum_, hybridism, _somniferum danebrog, _somniferum monstruosum_, _somniferum polycephalum_, parris, parsley crisped, , parsnip, water, pea-family, peach, , , peach-almond, pears, , , , , , , pearson, karl, peas, sugar, , _pedicularis_, _palustris_, pedigree-culture, experimental, _pelargonium_, , peloria, definition of, peloric toad-flax first record of, origin of, , , sterility of, pelorism _antirrhinum majus_ (see snapdragon) _digitalis purpurea_, _gloxinia_, , labiates, _laburnum_, _lamium_, . _linaria_, see toad-flax _linaria dalmatica_, _linaria vulgaris_, orchids, , , _salvia_, _scrophularia nodosa_, snapdragon, toad-flax, - _tropaeolum majus_, _uropedium lindenii_, wild sage, _peltaria alliacea_, pennywort, marsh, penzig, periodicity, law of, , , , periods, mutative, , periwinkles, persicaria, water, , , , petalomany, petunia, , _phacelia_, , , _phaseolus lunatus_, _multiflorus_, _nanus_, _phleum alpinum_, _phlox_, _drummondi_, _phyllonoma ruscifolia_, physiologic units, , , _picris hieraoioides_, pimpernel, scarlet, pinacothec, munich, pine, , pine-apples, , pinks, _pinus sylvestris_, pistillody in poppies, , , pitcher-plants, plankton, _plantago_, lanceolata_, , , plantain, plater, plum, , , beach, japanese, purple-leaved, _plusia_, _poa alpina vivipara_, _podocarpus koraiana_, _polemonium coeruleum_, _coeruleum album_, _dissectum_, , _polygala_, _polygonum amphibium_, var. _natans_ moench, , var. _terrestris_ wench, , _convolvulus_, , _viviparum_, polymorphy, pomegranate, pond-lily, yellow, poplar, fastigiate, , italian, _populus italica_, _nigra_, poppy, , , , , , , , , "danebrog," , garden, "mephisto," , opium, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , pistillody in, pistilloid, polycephalous, potatoes, , _potentilla tormentilla_, pre-linnean attitude, primrose, , , evening (see evening-primrose). _primula acaulis_, , _elatior_, , , _grandiflora_, _imperialis_, _japonica_, _officinalis_, , , , _variabilis_, _veris_, , , prodromus (de candolle) progression, , , , , , , in evolution, propagation asexual, , , , , , , sexual, , vegetative (see asexual) proskowetz, em. von, prototype definition of, _prunus_, _cerasifera_, _mahaleb_, _nana_, _maritima_, _padus_, _pissardi_, variation in, _pyrethrum roseum_, _pyrola_, , q quartile, , , _quercus pedunculata fastigata_, quetelet's law, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , r races, inconstancy of improved, - raciborsky, radishes, , ragwort, tansy, raisins, rameses, _ranunculus_, _acris_, _arvensis_, _arvensis inermis_, _asiaticus_, , _bulbosus_, , , ra-n-woser, king, _raphanus raphanistrum_, , , _caudatus_, rasor, john, , raspberry, , "phenomenal," "primus," siberian, ratzeburg, raunkiaer on variation in _taraxacum_, recessive character, sports, , , bud, s sprenger, , stability, stahl, _stellaria holostea apetala_, stocks, , , , , , , , , stock "brompton," chamois-colored, "queen," white, stork's-bill, white hemlock, strasburger, , strawberry, , , "gaillon," "giant of zuidwijk," one-leaved, , , white, , striped flowers, , , , , races, types of, struggle for life, , , , , , , , st. johnswort, st. sebastian, sub-species (see also elementary species), , sugar-beets (see beets, sugar) sugar-cane, , "black manilla," "cheribon," , , "chunnic," "hawaii," , seeds of, "white manilla," sundew, sunflower, , , sweet-flag, sweet-pea, , sweet william, , , , twisted variety, , syncotyls, , _syringa vulgaris axurea plena_, systematic species, , , , nature of, , systematic units, , t _tagetes africana_, _signata_, "talavera de bellevue," _tanacetum vulgare_, , , tansy, , , _taraxacum_, , officinale, , _tares_, _taxus_, _baccata_, _baccata fastigiata_, , _minor_, teasels, , , , , twisted, , , , , , , , , _tetragonia expansa_, theatre d'agriculture, thibault, thomson, sir william (see kelvin, lord) thorn-apples, , , , , , , , thornless, thorn-broom, _thrincia hirta_, thuret, , , thyme, white creeping, _thymus serphyllum album_, _vulgaris_, _tilia parvifolia_, , toad-flax, , , cross pollination of, experiment with, described, invisible dimorphous state of, , , latent tendency to mutation in, peloric, see peloric toad flax sterility of mutants, unusual pelorism, tomato, "acme," , "mikado," mutation of, upright, "washington," tournefort author of genera, tracy, w.w. trees, genealogic, , tricotyls, , , _trifolium incarnatum_, _triticum dicoccum_, _tropaeolum_, , _majus_, pelorism of, "true exercises with plants" (hunting), tulips, , , , black, turnip, , twisted stems, , , , twisted varieties atavists of, u _ulex europaeus_, , _ulmus pedunculata_, _pedunculata urticaefolia_, umbellifers, _umbilicus_, unger, unit-characters, , , , , , , , , urban, _uropedium lindenii_, utility, , utricularia, v _vaccinium myrtillus_, valerian, , , twisted, _valeriana officinalis_, _vallisneria_, . van den berg, van de water, van mons, , , , variability (see also fluctuation ), , , analogous, apple, asexual, correlative, , , , cultivated plants, embryonic, , , ever-recurring, fluctuating (see also individual), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , fluctuating vs. mutability homologous, individual (see also fluctuating), , , , , , , influence of mutation on, kinds of, nutrition and, , , , parallel, partial, , , , , , , , repeated, restricted, sectional, sexual, sources of, variation bud, , , , , , , , , , definition of, partial, , seed, spontaneous, use of term, variegation, , varietal marks, origin of, varieties, , , , , , , , broom-like, , constancy of, constant, crosses of species with, , , , elementary species vs. ever-sporting, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , fasciated (see fasciated stems). groups of, horticultural, , hybrid, , , hybrids of, , , inconstant, , ; , mutation of, negative (retrogressive), , , , , , , , positive, , , , , , pure, , retrograde, , , , , , , , , , retrogressive (see negative). seed, single, spontaneous crosses, sporting (see inconstant) stability of, sterile, types of, variable, vegetative, weeping, variety, definition of, , elementary species vs. , , , , , , origin of, , , use of term, , variety-testing, , , , , , , varro, veitch & sons, venus' looking-glass, verlot, , vernon, _vernonia cinerea_, _veronica longifolia_, , _scutellata_, _spicata nitens_, _viburnum opulus_, , vicinism, , , , , , , , definition of, , , vicinist, , _vicoa aurioulata_, _victoria regia_, villars on _draba verna_, vilmorin, , , , , , , , , ; , , , , , , , , , vilmorin, louis de, , , , , , , , , , vilmorin, messrs., _vinca_, , _minor_, vine, parsley-leaved, _viola_, , , , _agrestis_, _alpestris_, _altaica_, _anopetala_, _arvensis_, , , , _curtisepala_, _striolata_, _aurobadia_, _caloarata_, _cornuta_, , _lutea_, _lutescens_, _nemausensis_, _ornatissima_, _palescens_, _patens_, _roseola_, _segetatis_, _stenochila_, _tricolor_, , , , , _ammotropha_, _coniophila_, _genuina_, _versicolor_, violets, , , , violet, dame's, , , long-spurred, virgil, , , _viscaria oculata_, , , twisted variety, _vitis_, volckamer, von lochow, , , von rumker, von wettstein, , vrolik, , w "waare oeffeninge der planten" (munting), wallace, , , , , wall-flower, , walnut, , cut-leaved, one-bladed, water-lilies, weber, weeping-willow, crisped, weigelias, _wellingtonia_, wheat, , , , , , , , bearded, "blue-stem," "galland," , "hopetown," , "hunter's," , "minnesota no. ," "mungoswell's," , "pedigree," "pringle's," "rivett's bearded," "sheriff's bearded red," "sheriff's bearded white," "white hunter's," wheat-ear carnation, white, c.a., , white varieties, whitlow-grasses, , , whorls, ternate, wild sage (see salvia) willdenow, , , williamson, willows, , willow weeping (see weeping-willow) willow-herb, , , wintercress, wintergreen, wittmack, wittrock, , , , , , , , wooton, e.o., wormseed, x _xanthium canadense_, _commune_, , , _commune wootoni_, wootoni, , , y yarrow, , yew, , pyramidal, z _zea mays cryptosperma_, _tunicata_, _zinnia_, zioberg, zocher & co., the folk-lore of plants by t.f. thiselton-dyer preface. apart from botanical science, there is perhaps no subject of inquiry connected with plants of wider interest than that suggested by the study of folk-lore. this field of research has been largely worked of late years, and has obtained considerable popularity in this country, and on the continent. much has already been written on the folk-lore of plants, a fact which has induced me to give, in the present volume, a brief systematic summary--with a few illustrations in each case--of the many branches into which the subject naturally subdivides itself. it is hoped, therefore, that this little work will serve as a useful handbook for those desirous of gaining some information, in a brief concise form, of the folk-lore which, in one form or another, has clustered round the vegetable kingdom. t.f. thiselton-dyer. november , . contents. i. plant life ii. primitive and savage notions respecting plants iii. plant worship iv. lightning plants v. plants in witchcraft vi. plants in demonology vii. plants in fairy-lore viii. love-charms ix. dream-plants x. plants and the weather xi. plant proverbs xii. plants and their ceremonial use xiii. plant names xiv. plant language xv. fabulous plants xvi. doctrine of signatures xvii. plants and the calendar xviii. children's rhymes and games xix. sacred plants xx. plant superstitions xxi. plants in folk-medicine xxii. plants and their legendary history xxiii. mystic plants chapter i. plant life. the fact that plants, in common with man and the lower animals, possess the phenomena of life and death, naturally suggested in primitive times the notion of their having a similar kind of existence. in both cases there is a gradual development which is only reached by certain progressive stages of growth, a circumstance which was not without its practical lessons to the early naturalist. this similarity, too, was held all the more striking when it was observed how the life of plants, like that of the higher organisms, was subject to disease, accident, and other hostile influences, and so liable at any moment to be cut off by an untimely end.[ ] on this account a personality was ascribed to the products of the vegetable kingdom, survivals of which are still of frequent occurrence at the present day. it was partly this conception which invested trees with that mystic or sacred character whereby they were regarded with a superstitious fear which found expression in sundry acts of sacrifice and worship. according to mr. tylor,[ ] there is reason to believe that, "the doctrine of the spirits of plants lay deep in the intellectual history of south-east asia, but was in great measure superseded under buddhist influence. the buddhist books show that in the early days of their religion it was matter of controversy whether trees had souls, and therefore whether they might lawfully be injured. orthodox buddhism decided against the tree souls, and consequently against the scruple to harm them, declaring trees to have no mind nor sentient principle, though admitting that certain dewas or spirits do reside in the body of trees, and speak from within them." anyhow, the notion of its being wrong to injure or mutilate a tree for fear of putting it to unnecessary pain was a widespread belief. thus, the ojibways imagined that trees had souls, and seldom cut them down, thinking that if they did so they would hear "the wailing of the trees when they suffered in this way."[ ] in sumatra[ ] certain trees have special honours paid to them as being the embodiment of the spirits of the woods, and the fijians[ ] believe that "if an animal or a plant die, its soul immediately goes to bolotoo." the dayaks of borneo[ ] assert that rice has a living principle or spirit, and hold feasts to retain its soul lest the crops should decay. and the karens affirm,[ ] too, that plants as well as men and animals have their "la" or spirit. the iroquois acknowledge the existence of spirits in trees and plants, and say that the spirit of corn, the spirit of beans, and the spirit of squashes are supposed to have the forms of three beautiful maidens. according to a tradition current among the miamis, one year when there was an unusual abundance of corn, the spirit of the corn was very angry because the children had thrown corn-cobs at each other in play, pretending to have suffered serious bodily injury in consequence of their sport[ ]. similarly, when the wind blows the long grass or waving corn, the german peasant will say, "the grass-wolf," or "the corn-wolf" is abroad. according to mr. ralston, in some places, "the last sheaf of rye is left as a shelter to the _roggenwolf_ or rye-wolf during the winter's cold, and in many a summer or autumn festive rite that being is represented by a rustic, who assumes a wolf-like appearance. the corn spirit was, however, often symbolised under a human form." indeed, under a variety of forms this animistic conception is found among the lower races, and in certain cases explains the strong prejudice to certain herbs as articles of food. the society islanders ascribed a "varua" or surviving soul to plants, and the negroes of congo adored a sacred tree called "mirrone," one being generally planted near the house, as if it were the tutelar god of the dwelling. it is customary, also, to place calabashes of palm wine at the feet of these trees, in case they should be thirsty. in modern folk-lore there are many curious survivals of this tree-soul doctrine. in westphalia,[ ] the peasantry announce formally to the nearest oak any death that may have occurred in the family, and occasionally this formula is employed--"the master is dead, the master is dead." even recently, writes sir john lubbock[ ], an oak copse at loch siant, in the isle of skye, was held so sacred that no persons would venture to cut the smallest branch from it. the wallachians, "have a superstition that every flower has a soul, and that the water-lily is the sinless and scentless flower of the lake, which blossoms at the gates of paradise to judge the rest, and that she will inquire strictly what they have done with their odours."[ ] it is noteworthy, also, that the indian belief which describes the holes in trees as doors through which the special spirits of those trees pass, reappears in the german superstition that the holes in the oak are the pathways for elves;[ ] and that various diseases may be cured by contact with these holes. hence some trees are regarded with special veneration--particularly the lime and pine[ ]--and persons of a superstitious turn of mind, "may often be seen carrying sickly children to a forest for the purpose of dragging them through such holes." this practice formerly prevailed in our own country, a well-known illustration of which we may quote from white's "history of selborne:" "in a farmyard near the middle of the village," he writes, "stands at this day a row of pollard ashes, which by the seams and long cicatrices down their sides, manifestly show that in former times they had been cleft asunder. these trees, when young and flexible, were severed and held open by wedges, while ruptured children, stripped naked, were pushed through the apertures."[ ] in somersetshire the superstition still lingers on, and in cornwall the ceremony to be of value must be performed before sunrise; but the practice does not seem to have been confined to any special locality. it should also be added, as mr. conway[ ] has pointed out, that in all saxon countries in the middle ages a hole formed by two branches of a tree growing together was esteemed of highly efficacious value. on the other hand, we must not confound the spiritual vitality ascribed to trees with the animistic conception of their being inhabited by certain spirits, although, as mr. tylor[ ] remarks, it is difficult at times to distinguish between the two notions. instances of these tree spirits lie thickly scattered throughout the folk-lore of most countries, survivals of which remain even amongst cultured races. it is interesting, moreover, to trace the same idea in greek and roman mythology. thus ovid[ ] tells a beautiful story of erisicthon's impious attack on the grove of ceres, and it may be remembered how the greek dryads and hamadryads had their life linked to a tree, and, "as this withers and dies, they themselves fall away and cease to be; any injury to bough or twig is felt as a wound, and a wholesale hewing down puts an end to them at once--a cry of anguish escapes them when the cruel axe comes near." in "apollonius rhodius" we find one of these hamadryads imploring a woodman to spare a tree to which her existence is attached: "loud through the air resounds the woodman's stroke, when, lo! a voice breaks from the groaning oak, 'spare, spare my life! a trembling virgin spare! oh, listen to the hamadryad's prayer! no longer let that fearful axe resound; preserve the tree to which my life is bound. see, from the bark my blood in torrents flows; i faint, i sink, i perish from your blows.'" aubrey, referring to this old superstition, says: "i cannot omit taking notice of the great misfortune in the family of the earl of winchelsea, who at eastwell, in kent, felled down a most curious grove of oaks, near his own noble seat, and gave the first blow with his own hands. shortly after his countess died in her bed suddenly, and his eldest son, the lord maidstone, was killed at sea by a cannon bullet." modern european folk-lore still provides us with a curious variety of these spirit-haunted trees, and hence when the alder is hewn, "it bleeds, weeps, and begins to speak.[ ]" an old tree in the rugaard forest must not be felled for an elf dwells within, and another, on the heinzenberg, near zell, "uttered a complaint when the woodman cut it down, for in it was our lady, whose chapel now stands upon the spot."[ ] an austrian märchen tells of a stately fir, in which there sits a fairy maiden waited on by dwarfs, rewarding the innocent and plaguing the guilty; and there is the german song of the maiden in the pine, whose bark the boy splits with a gold and silver horn. stories again are circulated in sweden, among the peasantry, of persons who by cutting a branch from a habitation tree have been struck with death. such a tree was the "klinta tall" in westmanland, under which a mermaid was said to dwell. to this tree might occasionally be seen snow-white cattle driven up from the neighbouring lake across the meadows. another swedish legend tells us how, when a man was on the point of cutting down a juniper tree in a wood, a voice was heard from the ground, saying, "friend, hew me not." but he gave another stroke, when to his horror blood gushed from the root[ ]. then there is the danish tradition[ ] relating to the lonely thorn, occasionally seen in a field, but which never grows larger. trees of this kind are always bewitched, and care should be taken not to approach them in the night time, "as there comes a fiery wheel forth from the bush, which, if a person cannot escape from, will destroy him." in modern greece certain trees have their "stichios," a being which has been described as a spectre, a wandering soul, a vague phantom, sometimes invisible, at others assuming the most widely varied forms. it is further added that when a tree is "stichimonious" it is dangerous for a man, "to sleep beneath its shade, and the woodcutters employed to cut it down will lie upon the ground and hide themselves, motionless, and holding their breath, at the moment when it is about to fall, dreading lest the stichio at whose life the blow is aimed with each stroke of the axe, should avenge itself at the precise moment when it is dislodged."[ ] turning to primitive ideas on this subject, mr. schoolcraft mentions an indian tradition of a hollow tree, from the recesses of which there issued on a calm day a sound like the voice of a spirit. hence it was considered to be the residence of some powerful spirit, and was accordingly deemed sacred. among rude tribes trees of this kind are held sacred, it being forbidden to cut them. some of the siamese in the same way offer cakes and rice to the trees before felling them, and the talein of burmah will pray to the spirit of the tree before they begin to cut the tree down[ ]. likewise in the australian bush demons whistle in the branches, and in a variety of other eccentric ways make their presence manifest--reminding us of ariel's imprisonment:[ ] "into a cloven pine; within which rift imprison'd, thou didst painfully remain, a dozen years; ... ... where thou didst vent thy groans, as fast as mill-wheels strike." similarly miss emerson, in her "indian myths" ( , p. ), quotes the story of "the two branches": "one day there was a great noise in a tree under which manabozho was taking a nap. it grew louder, and, at length exasperated, he leaped into the tree, caught the two branches whose war was the occasion of the din, and pulled them asunder. but with a spring on either hand, the two branches caught and pinioned manabozho between them. three days the god remained imprisoned, during which his outcries and lamentations were the subject of derision from every quarter--from the birds of the air, and from the animals of the woods and plains. to complete his sad case, the wolves ate the breakfast he had left beneath the tree. at length a good bear came to his rescue and released him, when the god disclosed his divine intuitions, for he returned home, and without delay beat his two wives." furthermore, we are told of the west indian tribes, how, if any person going through a wood perceived a motion in the trees which he regarded as supernatural, frightened at the prodigy, he would address himself to that tree which shook the most. but such trees, however, did not condescend to converse, but ordered him to go to a boie, or priest, who would order him to sacrifice to their new deity.[ ] from the same source we also learn[ ] how among savage tribes those plants that produce great terrors, excitement, or a lethargic state, are supposed to contain a supernatural being. hence in peru, tobacco is known as the sacred herb, and from its invigorating effect superstitious veneration is paid to the weed. many other plants have similar respect shown to them, and are used as talismans. poisonous plants, again, from their deadly properties, have been held in the same repute;[ ] and it is a very common practice among american indians to hang a small bag containing poisonous herbs around the neck of a child, "as a talisman against diseases or attacks from wild beasts." it is commonly supposed that a child so protected is proof against every hurtful influence, from the fact of its being under the protection of the special spirits associated with the plant it wears. again, closely allied to beliefs of this kind is the notion of plants as the habitation of the departing soul, founded on the old doctrine of transmigration. hence, referring to bygone times, we are told by empedocles that "there are two destinies for the souls of highest virtue --to pass either into trees or into the bodies of lions."[ ] amongst the numerous illustrations of this mythological conception may be noticed the story told by ovid,[ ] who relates how baucis and philemon were rewarded in this manner for their charity to zeus, who came a poor wanderer to their home. it appears that they not only lived to an extreme old age, but at the last were transformed into trees. ovid, also, tells how the gods listened to the prayer of penitent myrrha, and eventually turned her into a tree. although, as mr. keary remarks, "she has lost understanding with her former shape, she still weeps, and the drops which fall from her bark (_i.e._, the myrrh) preserve the story of their mistress, so that she will be forgotten in no age to come." the sisters of phaëthon, bewailing his death on the shores of eridanus, were changed into poplars. we may, too, compare the story of daphne and syrinx, who, when they could no longer elude the pursuit of apollo and pan, change themselves into a laurel and a reed. in modern times, tasso and spenser have given us graphic pictures based on this primitive phase of belief; and it may be remembered how dante passed through that leafless wood, in the bark of every tree of which was imprisoned a suicide. in german folk-lore[ ] the soul is supposed to take the form of a flower, as a lily or white rose; and according to a popular belief, one of these flowers appears on the chairs of those about to die. in the same way, from the grave of one unjustly executed white lilies are said to spring as a token of the person's innocence; and from that of a maiden, three lilies which no one save her lover must gather. the sex, moreover, it may be noted, is kept up even in this species of metempsychosis[ ]. thus, in a servian folk-song, there grows out of the youth's body a green fir, out of the maiden's a red rose, which entwine together. amongst further instances quoted by grimm, we are told how, "a child carries home a bud which the angel had given him in the wood, when the rose blooms the child is dead. the lay of eunzifal makes a blackthorn shoot out of the bodies of slain heathens, a white flower by the heads of fallen christians." it is to this notion that shakespeare alludes in "hamlet," where laertes wishes that violets may spring from the grave of ophelia (v. i): "lay her in the earth, and from her fair and unpolluted flesh may violets spring." a passage which is almost identical to one in the "satires" of persius (i. ): "e tumulo fortunataque favilla, nascentur violae;" and an idea, too, which tennyson seems to have borrowed: "and from his ashes may be made, the violet of his native land." again, in the well-known story of "tristram and ysonde," a further reference occurs: "from his grave there grew an eglantine which twined about the statue, a marvel for all men to see; and though three times they cut it down, it grew again, and ever wound its arms about the image of the fair ysonde[ ]." in the scottish ballad of "fair margaret and sweet william," it is related-- "out of her breast there sprang a rose, and out of his a briar; they grew till they grew unto the church top, and there they tied in a true lovers' knot." the same idea has prevailed to a large extent among savage races. thus, some of the north-western indians believed that those who died a natural death would be compelled to dwell among the branches of tall trees. the brazilians have a mythological character called mani--a child who died and was buried in the house of her mother. soon a plant sprang out of the grave, which grew, flourished, and bore fruit. this plant, says mr. dorman,[ ] was the mandioca, named from _mani_, and _oca_, house. by the mexicans marigolds are known as "death-flowers," from a legend that they sprang up on the ground stained by, "the life-blood of those who fell victims to the love of gold and cruelty of the early spanish settlers in america." among the virginian tribes, too, red clover was supposed to have sprung from and to be coloured by the blood of the red men slain in battle, with which may be compared the well-known legend connected with the lily of the valley formerly current in st. leonard's forest, sussex. it is reported to have sprung from the blood of st. leonard, who once encountered a mighty worm, or "fire-drake," in the forest, engaging with it for three successive days. eventually the saint came off victorious, but not without being seriously wounded; and wherever his blood was shed there sprang up lilies of the valley in profusion. after the battle of towton a certain kind of wild rose is reported to have sprung up in the field where the yorkists and lancastrians fell, only there to be found: "there still wild roses growing, frail tokens of the fray; and the hedgerow green bears witness of towton field that day."[ ] in fact, there are numerous legends of this kind; and it may be remembered how defoe, in his "tour through great britain," speaks of a certain camp called barrow hill, adding, "they say this was a danish camp, and everything hereabout is attributed to the danes, because of the neighbouring daventry, which they suppose to be built by them. the road hereabouts too, being overgrown with dane-weed, they fancy it sprung from the blood of danes slain in battle, and that if cut upon a certain day in the year, it bleeds."[ ] similarly, the red poppies which followed the ploughing of the field of waterloo after the duke of wellington's victory were said to have sprung from the blood of the troops who fell during the engagement;[ ] and the fruit of the mulberry, which was originally white, tradition tells us became empurpled through human blood, a notion which in germany explains the colour of the heather. once more, the mandrake, according to a superstition current in france and germany, sprang up where the presence of a criminal had polluted the ground, and hence the old belief that it was generally found near a gallows. in iceland it is commonly said that when innocent persons are put to death the sorb or mountain ash will spring up over their graves. similar traditions cluster round numerous other plants, which, apart from being a revival of a very early primitive belief, form one of the prettiest chapters of our legendary tales. although found under a variety of forms, and in some cases sadly corrupted from the dress they originally wore, yet in their main features they have not lost their individuality, but still retain their distinctive character. in connection with the myths of plant life may be noticed that curious species of exotic plants, commonly known as "sensitive plants," and which have generally attracted considerable interest from their irritability when touched. shelley has immortalised this curious freak of plant life in his charming poem, wherein he relates how, "the sensitive plant was the earliest, up-gathered into the bosom of rest; a sweet child weary of its delight, the feeblest and yet the favourite, cradled within the embrace of night." who can wonder, on gazing at one of these wonderful plants, that primitive and uncultured tribes should have regarded such mysterious and inexplicable movements as indications of a distinct personal life. hence, as darwin in his "movements of plants" remarks: "why a touch, slight pressure, or any other irritant, such as electricity, heat, or the absorption of animal matter, should modify the turgescence of the affected cells in such a manner as to cause movement, we do not know. but a touch acts in this manner so often, and on such widely distinct plants, that the tendency seems to be a very general one; and, if beneficial, it might be increased to any extent." if, therefore, one of the most eminent of recent scientific botanists confessed his inability to explain this strange peculiarity, we may excuse the savage if he regard it as another proof of a distinct personality in plant life. thus, some years ago, a correspondent of the _botanical register_, describing the toad orchis (_megaclinium bufo_), amusingly spoke as follows of its eccentric movements: "let the reader imagine a green snake to be pressed flat like a dried flower, and then to have a road of toads, or some such speckled reptiles, drawn up along the middle in single file, their backs set up, their forelegs sprawling right and left, and their mouths wide open, with a large purple tongue wagging about convulsively, and a pretty considerable approach will be gained to an idea of this plant, which, if pythagoras had but known of it, would have rendered all arguments about the transmigration of souls superfluous." but, apart from the vein of jocularity running through these remarks, such striking vegetable phenomena are scientifically as great a puzzle to the botanist as their movements are to the savage, the latter regarding them as the outward visible expression of a real inward personal existence. but, to quote another kind of sympathy between human beings and certain plants, the cingalese have a notion that the cocoa-nut plant withers away when beyond the reach of a human voice, and that the vervain and borage will only thrive near man's dwellings. once more, the south sea islanders affirm that the scent is the spirit of a flower, and that the dead may be sustained by their fragrance, they cover their newly-made graves with many a sweet smelling blossom. footnotes: . see tylor's "primitive culture," , i. - ; also dorman's "primitive superstitions," , p. . . "primitive culture," i. - . . jones's "ojibways," p. . . marsden's "history of sumatra," p. . . mariner's "tonga islands," ii. . . st. john, "far east," i. . . see tylor's "primitive culture," i. . . dorman's "primitive superstitions," p. ; also schoolcraft's "indian tribes." . see thorpe's "northern mythology," iii. . . "origin of civilisation," , p. . see leslie forbes' "early races of scotland," i. . . folkard's "plant-lore, legends, and lyrics," p. . . conway's "mystic trees and flowers," _blackwood's magazine_, , p. . . thorpe's "northern mythology," i. . . see black's "folk-medicine." . "mystic trees and flowers," p. . . "primitive culture," ii. . . metam., viii. - ; also grimm's teut. myth., , ii. - . grimm's teut. myth., ii. . . quoted in tylor's "primitive culture," ii. . . thorpe's "northern mythology," ii. , . . ibid., p. . . "superstitions of modern greece," by m. le baron d'estournelles, in _nineteenth, century_, april , pp. , . . see dorman's "primitive superstitions," p. . . "the tempest," act i. sc. . . dorman's "primitive superstitions," p. . . _ibid.,_ p. . . see chapter on demonology. . see keary's "outlines of primitive belief," , pp. - . . metam., viii. :-- "frondere philemona baucis, baucida conspexit senior frondere philemon. ... 'valeque, o conjux!' dixere simul, simul abdita texit ora frutex." . thorpe's "northern mythology," i. , iii. . . grimm's "teut. mythology," ii. . . cox and jones' "popular romances of the middle ages," , p. . smith's "brazil," p. ; "primitive superstitions," p. . . see folkard's "plant-lore, legends, and lyrics," p. . . see the _gardeners' chronicle_, , p. . . according to another legend, forget-me-nots sprang up. chapter ii. primitive and savage notions respecting plants the descent of the human race from a tree--however whimsical such a notion may seem--was a belief once received as sober fact, and even now-a-days can be traced amongst the traditions of many races.[ ] this primitive idea of man's creation probably originated in the myth of yggdrasil, the tree of the universe,[ ] around which so much legendary lore has clustered, and for a full explanation of which an immense amount of learning has been expended, although the student of mythology has never yet been able to arrive at any definite solution on this deeply intricate subject. without entering into the many theories proposed in connection with this mythical tree, it no doubt represented the life-giving forces of nature. it is generally supposed to have been an ash tree, but, as mr. conway[ ] points out, "there is reason to think that through the confluence of traditions other sacred trees blended with it. thus, while the ash bears no fruit, the eddas describe the stars as the fruit of yggdrasil." mr. thorpe,[ ] again, considers it identical with the "robur jovis," or sacred oak of geismar, destroyed by boniface, and the irminsul of the saxons, the _columna universalis_, "the terrestrial tree of offerings, an emblem of the whole world." at any rate the tree of the world, and the greatest of all trees, has long been identified in the northern mythology as the ash tree,[ ] a fact which accounts for the weird character assigned to it amongst all the teutonic and scandinavian nations, frequent illustrations of which will occur in the present volume. referring to the descent of man from the tree, we may quote the edda, according to which all mankind are descended from the ash and the elm. the story runs that as odhinn and his two brothers were journeying over the earth they discovered these two stocks "void of future," and breathed into them the power of life[ ]: "spirit they owned not, sense they had not, blood nor vigour, nor colour fair. spirit gave odhinn, thought gave hoenir, blood gave lodr and colour fair." this notion of tree-descent appears to have been popularly believed in olden days in italy and greece, illustrations of which occur in the literature of that period. thus virgil writes in the _aeneid_[ ]: "these woods were first the seat of sylvan powers, of nymphs and fauns, and savage men who took their birth from trunks of trees and stubborn oak." romulus and remus had been found under the famous _ficus ruminalis_, which seems to suggest a connection with a tree parentage. it is true, as mr. keary remarks,[ ] that, "in the legend which we have received it is in this instance only a case of finding; but if we could go back to an earlier tradition, we should probably see that the relation between the mythical times and the tree had been more intimate." juvenal, it may be remembered, gives a further allusion to tree descent in his sixth satire[ ]: "for when the world was new, the race that broke unfathered, from the soil or opening oak, lived most unlike the men of later times." in greece the oak as well as the ash was accounted a tree whence men had sprung; hence in the "odyssey," the disguised hero is asked to state his pedigree, since he must necessarily have one; "for," says the interrogator, "belike you are not come of the oak told of in old times, nor of the rock."[ ] hesiod tells us how jove made the third or brazen race out of ash trees, and hesychius speaks of "the fruit of the ash the race of men." phoroneus, again, according to the grecian legend, was born of the ash, and we know, too, how among the greeks certain families kept up the idea of a tree parentage; the pelopidae having been said to be descended from the plane. among the persians the achaemenidae had the same tradition respecting the origin of their house.[ ] from the numerous instances illustrative of tree-descent, it is evident, as mr. keary points out, that, "there was once a fuller meaning than metaphor in the language which spoke of the roots and branches of a family, or in such expressions as the pathetic "ah, woe, beloved shoot!" of euripides."[ ] furthermore, as he adds, "even when the literal notion of the descent from a tree had been lost sight of, the close connection between the prosperity of the tribe and the life of its fetish was often strictly held. the village tree of the german races was originally a tribal tree, with whose existence the life of the village was involved; and when we read of christian saints and confessors, that they made a point of cutting down these half idols, we cannot wonder at the rage they called forth, nor that they often paid the penalty of their courage." similarly we can understand the veneration bestowed on the forest tree from associations of this kind. consequently, as it has been remarked,[ ] "at a time when rude beginnings were all that were of the builder's art, the human mind must have been roused to a higher devotion by the sight of lofty trees under an open sky, than it could feel inside the stunted structures reared by unskilled hands. when long afterwards the architecture peculiar to the teutonic reached its perfection, did it not in its boldest creations still aim at reproducing the soaring trees of the forest? would not the abortion of miserably carved or chiselled images lag far behind the form of the god which the youthful imagination of antiquity pictured to itself throned on the bowery summit of a sacred tree." it has been asked whether the idea of the yggdrasil and the tree-descent may not be connected with the "tree of life" of genesis. without, however, entering into a discussion on this complex point, it is worthy of note that in several of the primitive mythologies we find distinct counterparts of the biblical account of the tree of life; and it seems quite possible that these corrupt forms of the mosaic history of creation may, in a measure, have suggested the conception of the world tree, and the descent of mankind from a tree. on this subject the late mr. r.j. king[ ] has given us the following interesting remarks in his paper on "sacred trees and flowers": "how far the religious systems of the great nations of antiquity were affected by the record of the creation and fall preserved in the opening chapters of genesis, it is not, perhaps, possible to determine. there are certain points of resemblance which are at least remarkable, but which we may assign, if we please, either to independent tradition, or to a natural development of the earliest or primeval period. the trees of life and of knowledge are at once suggested by the mysterious sacred tree which appears in the most ancient sculptures and paintings of egypt and assyria, and in those of the remoter east. in the symbolism of these nations the sacred tree sometimes figures as a type of the universe, and represents the whole system of created things, but more frequently as a tree of life, by whose fruit the votaries of the gods (and in some cases the gods themselves) are nourished with divine strength, and are prepared for the joys of immortality. the most ancient types of this mystical tree of life are the date palm, the fig, and the pine or cedar." by way of illustration, it may be noted that the ancient egyptians had their legend of the "tree of life". it is mentioned in their sacred books that osiris ordered the names of souls to be written on this tree of life, the fruit of which made those who ate it become as gods.[ ] among the most ancient traditions of the hindoos is that of the tree of life--called soma in sanskrit--the juice of which imparted immortality; this marvellous tree being guarded by spirits. coming down to later times, virgil speaks of a sacred tree in a manner which grimm[ ] considers highly suggestive of the yggdrasil: "jove's own tree, high as his topmost boughs to heaven ascend, so low his roots to hell's dominions tend." as already mentioned, numerous legendary stories have become interwoven with the myth of the yggdrasil, the following sacred one combining the idea of tree-descent. according to a _trouvere_ of the thirteenth century,[ ] "the tree of life was, a thousand years after the sin of the first man, transplanted from the garden of eden to the garden of abraham, and an angel came from heaven to tell the patriarch that upon this tree should hang the freedom of mankind. but first from the same tree of life jesus should be born, and in the following wise. first was to be born a knight, fanouel, who, through the scent merely of the flower of that living tree, should be engendered in the womb of a virgin; and this knight again, without knowing woman, should give birth to st. anne, the mother of the virgin mary. both these wonders fell out as they were foretold. a virgin bore fanouel by smelling the tree; and fanouel having once come unawares to that tree of life, and cut a fruit from it, wiped his knife against his thigh, in which he inflicted a slight wound, and thus let in some of the juice. presently his thigh began to swell, and eventually st. anne was born therefrom." but turning to survivals of this form of animism among uncultured tribes, we may quote the damaras, a south african race, with whom "a tree is supposed to be the universal progenitor, two of which divide the honour."[ ] according to their creed, "in the beginning of things there was a tree, and out of this tree came damaras, bushmen, oxen, and zebras. the damaras lit a fire which frightened away the bushmen and the oxen, but the zebras remained." hence it is that bushmen and wild beasts live together in all sorts of inaccessible places, while the damaras and oxen possess the land. the tree gave birth to everything else that lives. the natives of the philippines, writes mr. marsden in his "history of sumatra," have a curious tradition of tree-descent, and in accordance with their belief, "the world at first consisted only of sky and water, and between these two a glede; which, weary with flying about, and finding no place to rest, set the water at variance with the sky, which, in order to keep it in bounds, and that it should not get uppermost, loaded the water with a number of islands, in which the glede might settle and leave them at peace. mankind, they said, sprang out of a large cane with two joints, that, floating about in the water, was at length thrown by the waves against the feet of the glede as it stood on shore, which opened it with its bill; the man came out of one joint, the woman out of the other. these were soon after married by the consent of their god, bathala meycapal, which caused the first trembling of the earth,[ ] and from thence are descended the different nations of the world." several interesting instances are given by mr. dorman, who tells us how the natives about saginaw had a tradition of a boy who sprang from a tree within which was buried one of their tribe. the founders of the miztec monarchy are said to be descended from two majestic trees that stood in a gorge of the mountain of apoala. the chiapanecas had a tradition that they sprang from the roots of a silk cotton tree; while the zapotecas attributed their origin to trees, their cypresses and palms often receiving offerings of incense and other gifts. the tamanaquas of south america have a tradition that the human race sprang from the fruits of the date palm after the mexican age of water.[ ] again, our english nursery fable of the parsley-bed, in which little strangers are discovered, is perhaps, "a remnant of a fuller tradition, like that of the woodpecker among the romans, and that of the stork among our continental kinsmen."[ ] both these birds having had a mystic celebrity, the former as the fire-singing bird and guardian genius of children, the latter as the baby-bringer.[ ] in saterland it is said "infants are fetched out of the cabbage," and in the walloon part of belgium they are supposed "to make their appearance in the parson's garden." once more, a hollow tree overhanging a pool is known in many places, both in north and south germany, as the first abode of unborn infants, variations of this primitive belief being found in different localities. similar stories are very numerous, and under various forms are found in the legendary lore and folk-tales of most countries. footnotes: . see keary's "outlines of primitive belief," , pp. - . . see grimm's "teutonic mythology," , ii. - ; _quarterly review_, cxiv. ; thorpe's "northern mythology," i. ; "asgard and the gods," edited by w. s. w. anson, , pp. , . . _fraser's magazine_, , p. . . "northern mythology," i. - . . see max miller's "chips from a german workshop." . see keary's "outlines of primitive belief," p. . . book viii. p. . . "outlines of primitive belief," p. . . gifford. . kelly's "indo-european folk-lore," p. . . keary's "outlines of primitive belief," p. ; fiske, "myth and myth makers," , pp. - . . "primitive belief," p. . . grimm's "teutonic mythology," i. . . _quarterly review_, , cxiv. - . . see bunsen's "the keys of st peter," &c., , p. . . "teutonic mythology." . quoted by mr. keary from leroux de lincy, "le livre des légendes," p. . . gallon's "south africa," p. . . "primitive superstitions," p. . . folkard's "plant lore," p. . . "indo-european folk-lore," p. . . grimm's "teutonic mythology," ii. - . chapter iii. plant-worship. a form of religion which seems to have been widely-distributed amongst most races of mankind at a certain stage of their mental culture is plant-worship. hence it holds a prominent place in the history of primitive belief, and at the present day prevails largely among rude and uncivilised races, survivals of which even linger on in our own country. to trace back the history of plant-worship would necessitate an inquiry into the origin and development of the nature-worshipping phase of religious belief. such a subject of research would introduce us to those pre-historic days when human intelligence had succeeded only in selecting for worship the grand and imposing objects of sight and sense. hence, as mr. keary observes,[ ] "the gods of the early world are the rock and the mountain, the tree, the river, the sea;" and mr. fergusson[ ] is of opinion that tree-worship, in association with serpent-worship, must be reckoned as the primitive faith of mankind. in the previous chapter we have already pointed out how the animistic theory which invested the tree and grove with a conscious personality accounts for much of the worship and homage originally ascribed to them--identified, too, as they were later on, with the habitations of certain spirits. whether viewed, therefore, in the light of past or modern inquiry, we find scattered throughout most countries various phases of plant-worship, a striking proof of its universality in days gone by.[ ] according to mr. fergusson, tree-worship has sprung from a perception of the beauty and utility of trees. "with all their poetry," he argues, "and all their usefulness, we can hardly feel astonished that the primitive races of mankind should have considered trees as the choicest gifts of the gods to men, and should have believed that their spirits still delighted to dwell among their branches, or spoke oracles through the rustling of their leaves." but mr. mclennan[ ] does not consider that this is conclusive, adding that such a view of the subject, "does not at all meet the case of the shrubs, creepers, marsh-plants, and weeds that have been worshipped." he would rather connect it with totemism,[ ] urging that the primitive stages of religious evolution go to show that, "the ancient nations came, in pre-historic times, through the totem stage, having animals, and plants, and the heavenly bodies conceived as animals, for gods before the anthropomorphic gods appeared;" while mr. herbert spencer[ ] again considers that, "plant-worship, like the worship of idols and animals, is an aberrant species of ancestor-worship--a species somewhat more disguised externally, but having the same internal nature." anyhow the subject is one concerning which the comparative mythologist has, at different times, drawn opposite theories; but of this there can be no doubt, that plant-worship was a primitive faith of mankind, a fact in connection with which we may quote sir john lubbock's words,[ ] how, "by man in this stage of progress everything was regarded as having life, and being more or less a deity." indeed, sacred rivers appear in the very earliest mythologies which have been recovered, and lingered among the last vestiges of heathenism long after the advent of a purer creed. as, too, it has been remarked,[ ] "either as direct objects of worship, or as forming the temple under whose solemn shadow other and remoter deities might be adored, there is no part of the world in which trees have not been regarded with especial reverence. 'in such green palaces the first kings reigned; slept in their shade, and angels entertained. with such old counsellors they did advise, and by frequenting sacred shades grew wise.' even paradise itself, says evelyn, was but a kind of 'nemorous temple or sacred grove,' planted by god himself, and given to man _tanquam primo sacerdoti_; and he goes on to suggest that the groves which the patriarchs are recorded to have planted in different parts of palestine may have been memorials of that first tree-shaded paradise from which adam was expelled." briefly noticing the antecedent history of plant-worship, it would seem to have lain at the foundation of the old celtic creed, although few records on this point have come down to us.[ ] at any rate we have abundant evidence that this form of belief held a prominent place in the religion of these people, allusions to which are given by many of the early classical writers. thus the very name of druidism is a proof of the celtic addiction to tree-worship, and de brosses,[ ] as a further evidence that this was so, would derive the word kirk, now softened into church, from _quercus_, an oak; that species having been peculiarly sacred. similarly, in reviewing the old teutonic beliefs, we come across the same references to tree-worship, in many respects displaying little or no distinction from that of the celts. in explanation of this circumstance, mr. keary[ ] suggests that, "the nature of the teutonic beliefs would apply, with only some slight changes, to the creed of the predecessors of the germans in northern and western europe. undoubtedly, in prehistoric days, the germans and celts merged so much one into the other that their histories cannot well be distinguished." mr. fergusson in his elaborate researches has traced many indications of tree-adoration in germany, noticing their continuance in the christian period, as proved by grimm, whose opinion is that, "the festal universal religion of the people had its abode in woods," while the christmas tree of present german celebration in all families is "almost undoubtedly a remnant of the tree-worship of their ancestors." according to mr. fergusson, one of the last and best-known examples of the veneration of groves and trees by the germans after their conversion to christianity, is that of the "stock am eisen" in vienna, "the sacred tree into which every apprentice, down to recent times, before setting out on his "wanderjahre", drove a nail for luck. it now stands in the centre of that great capital, the last remaining vestige of the sacred grove, round which the city has grown up, and in sight of the proud cathedral, which has superseded and replaced its more venerable shade." equally undoubted is the evidence of tree-worship in greece--particular trees having been sacred to many of the gods. thus we have the oak tree or beech of jupiter, the laurel of apollo, the vine of bacchus. the olive is the well-known tree of minerva. the myrtle was sacred to aphrodite, and the apple of the hesperides belonged to juno.[ ] as a writer too in the _edinburgh review_[ ] remarks, "the oak grove at dodona is sufficiently evident to all classic readers to need no detailed mention of its oracles, or its highly sacred character. the sacrifice of agamemnon in aulis, as told in the opening of the 'iliad,' connects the tree and serpent worship together, and the wood of the sacred plane tree under which the sacrifice was made was preserved in the temple of diana as a holy relic so late, according to pausanias, as the second century of the christian era." the same writer further adds that in italy traces of tree-worship, if not so distinct and prominent as in greece, are nevertheless existent. romulus, for instance, is described as hanging the arms and weapons of acron, king of cenina, upon an oak tree held sacred by the people, which became the site of the famous temple of jupiter. then, again, turning to bible history,[ ] the denunciations of tree-worship are very frequent and minute, not only in connection with the worship of baal, but as mentioned in kings ix.: "and they (the children of israel) set themselves up images and groves in every high hill, and under every green tree." these acts, it has been remarked, "may be attributable more to heretical idolatrous practices into which the jews had temporarily fallen in imitation of the heathen around them, but at the same time they furnish ample proof of the existence of tree and grove worship by the heathen nations of syria as one of their most solemn rites." but, from the period of king hezekiah down to the christian era, mr. fergusson finds no traces of tree-worship in judea. in assyria tree-worship was a common form of idolatrous veneration, as proved by lord aberdeen's black-stone, and many of the plates in the works of layard and botta.[ ] turning to india, tree-worship probably has always belonged to aryan hinduism, and as tree-worship did not belong to the aboriginal races of india, and was not adopted from them, "it must have formed part of the pantheistic worship of the vedic system which endowed all created things with a spirit and life--a doctrine which modern hinduism largely extended[ ]." thus when food is cooked, an oblation is made by the hindu to trees, with an appropriate invocation before the food is eaten. the bo tree is extensively worshipped in india, and the toolsee plant (basil) is held sacred to all gods--no oblation being considered sacred without its leaves. certain of the chittagong hill tribes worship the bamboo,[ ] and sir john lubbock, quoting from thompson's "travels in the himalaya," tells us that in the simla hills the _cupressus toridosa_ is regarded as a sacred tree. further instances might be enumerated, so general is this form of religious belief. in an interesting and valuable paper by a bengal civilian--intimately acquainted with the country and people[ ]--the writer says:--"the contrast between the acknowledged hatred of trees as a rule by the bygas,[ ] and their deep veneration for certain others in particular, is very curious. i have seen the hillsides swept clear of forests for miles with but here and there a solitary tree left standing. these remain now the objects of the deepest veneration. so far from being injured they are carefully preserved, and receive offerings of food, clothes, and flowers from the passing bygas, who firmly believe that tree to be the home of a spirit." to give another illustration[ ], it appears that in beerbhoom once a year the whole capital repairs to a shrine in the jungle, and makes simple offerings to a ghost who dwells in the bela tree. the shrine consists of three trees--a bela tree on the left, in which the ghost resides, and which is marked at the foot with blood; in the middle is a kachmula tree, and on the right a saura tree. in spite of the trees being at least seventy years old, the common people claim the greatest antiquity for the shrine, and tradition says that the three trees that now mark the spot neither grow thicker nor increase in height, but remain the same for ever. a few years ago dr. george birwood contributed to the _athenaeum_ some interesting remarks on persian flower-worship. speaking of the victoria gardens at bombay, he says:--"a true persian in flowing robe of blue, and on his head his sheep-skin hat--black, glossy, curled, the fleece of kar-kal--would saunter in, and stand and meditate over every flower he saw, and always as if half in vision. and when the vision was fulfilled, and the ideal flower he was seeking found, he would spread his mat and sit before it until the setting of the sun, and then pray before it, and fold up his mat again and go home. and the next night, and night after night, until that particular flower faded away, he would return to it, and bring his friends in ever-increasing troops to it, and sit and play the guitar or lute before it, and they would all together pray there, and after prayer still sit before it sipping sherbet, and talking the most hilarious and shocking scandal, late into the moonlight; and so again and again every evening until the flower died. sometimes, by way of a grand finale, the whole company would suddenly rise before the flower and serenade it, together with an ode from hafiz, and depart." tree-worship too has been more or less prevalent among the american indians, abundant illustrations of which have been given by travellers at different periods. in many cases a striking similarity is noticeable, showing a common origin, a circumstance which is important to the student of comparative mythology when tracing the distribution of religious beliefs. the dacotahs worship the medicine-wood, so called from a belief that it was a genius which protected or punished them according to their merits or demerits.[ ] darwin[ ] mentions a tree near siena de la ventana to which the indians paid homage as the altar of walleechu; offerings of cigars, bread, and meat having been suspended upon it by threads. the tree was surrounded by bleached bones of horses that had been sacrificed. mr. tylor[ ] speaks of an ancient cypress existing in mexico, which he thus describes:--"all over its branches were fastened votive offerings of the indians, hundreds of locks of coarse black hair, teeth, bits of coloured cloth, rags, and morsels of ribbon. the tree was many centuries old, and had probably had some mysterious influence ascribed to it, and been decorated with such simple offerings long before the discovery of america." once more, the calchaquis of brazil[ ] have been in the habit of worshipping certain trees which were frequently decorated by the indians with feathers; and charlevoix narrates another interesting instance of tree-worship:--"formerly the indians in the neighbourhood of acadia had in their country, near the sea-shore, a tree extremely ancient, of which they relate many wonders, and which was always laden with offerings. after the sea had laid open its whole root, it then supported itself a long time almost in the air against the violence of the winds and waves, which confirmed those indians in the notion that the tree must be the abode of some powerful spirit; nor was its fall even capable of undeceiving them, so that as long as the smallest part of its branches appeared above the water, they paid it the same honours as whilst it stood." in north america, according to franklin,[ ] the crees used to hang strips of buffalo flesh and pieces of cloth on their sacred tree; and in nicaragua maize and beans were worshipped. by the natives of carolina the tea-plant was formerly held in veneration above all other plants, and indeed similar phases of superstition are very numerous. traces of tree-worship occur in africa, and sir john lubbock[ ] mentions the sacred groves of the marghi--a dense part of the forest surrounded with a ditch--where in the most luxuriant and widest spreading tree their god, zumbri, is worshipped. in his valuable work on ceylon, sir j. emerson tennent gives some interesting details about the consecration of trees to different demons to insure their safety, and of the ceremonies performed by the kattadias or devil-priests. it appears that whenever the assistance of a devil-dancer is required in extreme cases of sickness, various formalities are observed after the following fashion. an altar is erected, profusely adorned with garlands and flowers, within sight of the dying man, who is ordered to touch and dedicate to the evil spirit the wild flowers, rice, and flesh laid upon it. traces of plant-worship are still found in europe. before sunrise on good friday the bohemians are in the habit of going into their gardens, and after falling on their knees before a tree, to say, "i pray, o green tree, that god may make thee good," a formula which mr. ralston[ ] considers has probably been altered under the influence of christianity "from a direct prayer to the tree to a prayer for it." at night they run about the garden exclaiming, "bud, o trees, bud! or i will flog you." on the following day they shake the trees, and clank their keys, while the church bells are ringing, under the impression that the more noise they make the more fruit will they get. traces, too, of tree-worship, adds mr. ralston,[ ] may be found in the song which the russian girls sing as they go out into the woods to fetch the birch tree at whitsuntide, and to gather flowers for wreaths and garlands: "rejoice not, oaks; rejoice not, green oaks. not to you go the maidens; not to you do they bring pies, cakes, omelettes. so, so, semik and troitsa [trinity]! rejoice, birch trees, rejoice, green ones! to you go the maidens! to you they bring pies, cakes, omelettes." the eatables here mentioned probably refer to the sacrifices offered in olden days to the birch--the tree of the spring. with this practice we may compare one long observed in our own country, and known as "wassailing." at certain seasons it has long been customary in devonshire for the farmer, on the eve of twelfth-day, to go into the orchard after supper with a large milk pail of cider with roasted apples pressed into it. out of this each person in the company takes what is called a clome--i.e., earthenware cup--full of liquor, and standing under the more fruitful apple trees, address them in these words: "health to thee, good apple tree, well to bear pocket fulls, hat fulls, peck fulls, bushel bag fulls." after the formula has been repeated, the contents of the cup are thrown at the trees.[ ] there are numerous allusions to this form of tree-worship in the literature of the past; and tusser, among his many pieces of advice to the husbandman, has not omitted to remind him that he should, "wassail the trees, that they may bear you many a plum and many a pear; for more or less fruit they will bring, as you do them wassailing." survivals of this kind show how tenaciously old superstitious rites struggle for existence even when they have ceased to be recognised as worthy of belief. footnotes: . "outlines of primitive belief," , p. . . "tree and serpent worship." . see sir john lubbock's "origin of civilisation," pp. - . . _fortnightly review_, "the worship of animals and plants," , vii. . . _ibid._, , vi. . . "principles of sociology," , i. p. . . "the origin of civilisation and primitive condition of man." . _quarterly review_, cxiv. . . keary's "primitive brlief," pp. - ; _edinburgh review_, cxxx. - . . "du culte des dieux fetiches," p. . . "primitive belief," pp. - . . fergusson's "tree and serpent worship," p. . . cxxx. ; see tacitus' "germania," ix. . see _edinburgh review_, cxxx. - . . _edinburgh review_, cxxx. . . mr. fergusson's "tree and serpent worship." see _edinburgh review_, cxxx. . . see lewin's "hill tracts of chittagong," p. . . _cornhill magazine_, november , p. . . an important tribe in central india. . see sherring's "sacred city of the hindus," , p. . . dorman's "primitive superstitions," p. . . see "researches in geology and natural history," p. . . "anahuac," , . . dorman's "primitive superstitions." p. . . "journeys to the polar sea." i. . . "the origin of civilisation." . "songs of the russian people." p. . . _ibid._, p. . . see my "british popular customs." p. . chapter iv. lightning plants. amongst the legends of the ancient world few subjects occupy a more prominent place than lightning, associated as it is with those myths of the origin of fire which are of such wide distribution.[ ] in examining these survivals of primitive culture we are confronted with some of the most elaborate problems of primeval philosophy, many of which are not only highly complicated, but have given rise to various conjectures. thus, although it is easy to understand the reasons which led our ancestors, in their childlike ignorance, to speak of the lightning as a worm, serpent, trident, arrow, or forked wand, yet the contrary is the case when we inquire why it was occasionally symbolised as a flower or leaf, or when, as mr. fiske[ ] remarks, "we seek to ascertain why certain trees, such as the ash, hazel, white thorn, and mistletoe, were supposed to be in a certain sense embodiments of it." indeed, however satisfactory our explanations may apparently seem, in many cases they can only be regarded as ingenious theories based on the most probable theories which the science of comparative folk-lore may have suggested. in analysing, too, the evidence for determining the possible association of ideas which induced our primitive forefathers to form those mythical conceptions that we find embodied in the folk-tales of most races, it is necessary to unravel from the relics of the past the one common notion that underlies them. respecting the origin of fire, for instance, the leading idea--as handed down to us in myths of this kind--would make us believe that it was originally stolen. stories which point to this conclusion are not limited to any one country, but are shared by races widely remote from one another. this circumstance is important, as helping to explain the relation of particular plants to lightning, and accounts for the superstitious reverence so frequently paid to them by most aryan tribes. hence, the way by which the veda argues the existence of the palasa--a mystic tree with the hindus--is founded on the following tradition:--the demons had stolen the heavenly soma, or drink of the gods, and cellared it in some mythical rock or cloud. when the thirsty deities were pining for their much-prized liquor, the falcon undertook to restore it to them, although he succeeded at the cost of a claw and a plume, of which he was deprived by the graze of an arrow shot by one of the demons. both fell to the earth and took root; the claw becoming a species of thorn, which dr. kuhn identifies as the "_mimosa catechu_," and the feather a "palasa tree," which has a red sap and scarlet blossoms. with such a divine origin--for the falcon was nothing less than a lightning god[ ]--the trees naturally were incorporations,[ ] "not only of the heavenly fire, but also of the soma, with which the claw and feather were impregnated." it is not surprising, therefore, that extraordinary virtues were ascribed to these lightning plants, qualities which, in no small degree, distinguish their representatives at the present day. thus we are told how in india the mimosa is known as the imperial tree on account of its remarkable properties, being credited as an efficacious charm against all sorts of malignant influences, such as the evil eye. not unlike in colour to the blossom of the indian palasa are the red berries of the rowan or mountain-ash (_pyrus aucuparia_), a tree which has acquired european renown from the aryan tradition of its being an embodiment of the lightning from which it was sprung. it has acquired, therefore, a mystic character, evidences of which are numerously represented throughout europe, where its leaves are reverenced as being the most potent talisman against the darker powers. at the present day we still find the highland milkmaid carrying with her a rowan-cross against unforeseen danger, just as in many a german village twigs are put over stables to keep out witches. illustrations of this kind support its widespread reputation for supernatural virtues, besides showing how closely allied is much of the folk-lore of our own with that of continental countries. at the same time, we feel inclined to agree with mr. farrer that the red berries of the mountain-ash probably singled it out from among trees for worship long before our ancestors had arrived at any idea of abstract divinities. the beauty of its berries, added to their brilliant red colour, would naturally excite feelings of admiration and awe, and hence it would in process of time become invested with a sacred significance. it must be remembered, too, that all over the world there is a regard for things red, this colour having been once held sacred to thor, and grimm suggests that it was on this account the robin acquired its sacred character. similarly, the highland women tie a piece of red worsted thread round their cows' tails previous to turning them out to grass for the first time in spring, for, in accordance with an old adage: "rowan-ash, and red thread, keep the devils from their speed." in the same way the mothers in esthonia put some red thread in their babies' cradles as a preservative against danger, and in china something red is tied round children's wrists as a safeguard against evil spirits. by the aid of comparative folk-lore it is interesting, as in this case, to trace the same notion in different countries, although it is by no means possible to account for such undesigned resemblance. the common ash (_fraxinus excelsior_), too, is a lightning plant, and, according to an old couplet: "avoid an ash, it counts the flash." another tree held sacred to thor was the hazel (_corylus avellana_), which, like the mountain-ash, was considered an actual embodiment of the lightning. indeed, "so deep was the faith of the people in the relation of this tree to the thunder god," says mr. conway,[ ] "that the catholics adopted and sanctioned it by a legend one may hear in bavaria, that on their flight into egypt the holy family took refuge under it from a storm." its supposed immunity from all damage by lightning has long caused special reverence to be attached to it, and given rise to sundry superstitious usages. thus, in germany, a twig is cut by the farm-labourer, in spring, and on the first thunderstorm a cross is made with it over every heap of grain, whereby, it is supposed, the corn will remain good for many years. occasionally, too, one may see hazel twigs placed in the window frames during a heavy shower, and the tyroleans regard it as an excellent lightning conductor. as a promoter of fruitfulness it has long been held in high repute--a character which it probably derived from its mythic associations--and hence the important part it plays in love divinations. according to a bohemian belief, the presence of a large number of hazel-nuts betokens the birth of many illegitimate children; and in the black forest it is customary for the leader of a marriage procession to carry a hazel wand. for the same reason, in many parts of germany, a few nuts are mingled with the seed corn to insure its being prolific. but leaving the hazel with its host of superstitions, we may notice the white-thorn, which according to aryan tradition was also originally sprung from the lightning. hence it has acquired a wide reverence, and been invested with supernatural properties. like, too, the hazel, it was associated with marriage rites. thus the grecian bride was and is still decked with its blossoms, whereas its wood formed the torch which lighted the roman bridal couple to their nuptial chamber on the wedding day. it is evident, therefore, that the white-thorn was considered a sacred tree long before christian tradition identified it as forming the crown of thorns; a medieval belief which further enhanced the sanctity attached to it. it is not surprising, therefore, that the irish consider it unlucky to cut down this holy tree, especially as it is said to be under the protection of the fairies, who resent any injury done to it. a legend current in county donegal, for instance, tells us how a fairy had tried to steal one joe m'donough's baby, but the poor mother argued that she had never affronted the fairy tribe to her knowledge. the only cause she could assign was that joe, "had helped mr. todd's gardener to cut down the old hawthorn tree on the lawn; and there's them that says that's a very bad thing to do;" adding how she "fleeched him not to touch it, but the master he offered him six shillings if he'd help in the job, for the other men refused." the same belief prevails in brittany, where it is also "held unsafe to gather even a leaf from certain old and solitary thorns, which grow in sheltered hollows of the moorland, and are the fairies' trysting-places."[ ] then there is the mistletoe, which, like the hazel and the white-thorn, was also supposed to be the embodiment of lightning; and in consequence of its mythical character held an exalted place in the botanical world. as a lightning-plant, we seem to have the key to its symbolical nature, in the circumstance that its branch is forked. on the same principle, it is worthy of note, as mr. fiske remarks[ ] that, "the hindu commentators of the veda certainly lay great stress on the fact that the palasa is trident-leaved." we have already pointed out, too, how the red colour of a flower, as in the case of the berries of the mountain-ash, was apparently sufficient to determine the association of ideas. the swiss name for mistletoe, _donnerbesen_, "thunder besom," illustrates its divine origin, on account of which it was supposed to protect the homestead from fire, and hence in sweden it has long been suspended in farm-houses, like the mountain-ash in scotland. but its virtues are by no means limited, for like all lightning-plants its potency is displayed in a variety of ways, its healing properties having from a remote period been in the highest repute. for purposes also of sorcery it has been reckoned of considerable importance, and as a preventive of nightmare and other night scares it is still in favour on the continent. one reason which no doubt has obtained for it a marked degree of honour is its parasitical manner of growth, which was in primitive times ascribed to the intervention of the gods. according to one of its traditionary origins, its seed was said to be deposited on certain trees by birds, the messengers of the gods, if not the gods themselves in disguise, by which this plant established itself in the branch of a tree. the mode of procedure, say the old botanists, was through the "mistletoe thrush." this bird, it was asserted, by feeding on the berries, surrounded its beak with the viscid mucus they contain, to rid itself of which it rubbed its beak, in the course of flying, against the branches of trees, and thereby inserted the seed which gave birth to the new plant. when the mistletoe was found growing on the oak, its presence was attributed specially to the gods, and as such was treated with the deepest reverence. it was not, too, by accident that the oak was selected, as this tree was honoured by aryan tradition with being of lightning origin. hence when the mistletoe was found on its branches, the occurrence was considered as deeply significant, and all the more so as its existence in such a locality was held to be very rare[ ]. speaking of the oak, it may be noted, that as sacred to thor, it was under his immediate protection, and hence it was considered an act of sacrilege to mutilate it in ever so small a degree. indeed, "it was a law of the ostrogoths that anybody might hew down what trees he pleased in the common wood, except oaks and hazels; those trees had peace,_ i.e._, they were not to be felled[ ]." that profanity of this kind was not treated with immunity was formerly fully believed, an illustration of which is given us by aubrey,[ ] who says that, "to cut oakwood is unfortunate. there was at norwood one oak that had mistletoe, a timber tree, which was felled about . some persons cut this mistletoe for some apothecaries in london, and sold them a quantity for ten shillings each time, and left only one branch remaining for more to sprout out. one fell lame shortly after; soon after each of the others lost an eye, and he that felled the tree, though warned of these misfortunes of the other men, would, notwithstanding, adventure to do it, and shortly afterwards broke his leg; as if the hamadryads had resolved to take an ample revenge for the injury done to their venerable and sacred oak." we can understand, then, how the custom originated of planting the oak on the boundaries of lands, a survival of which still remains in the so-called gospel oaks of many of our english parishes. with thor's tree thus standing our forefathers felt a sense of security which materially added to the peace and comfort of their daily life. but its sacred attributes were not limited to this country, many a legend on the continent testifying to the safety afforded by its sheltering branches. indeed, so great are its virtues that, according to a westphalian tradition, the wandering jew can only rest where he shall happen to find two oaks growing in the form of a cross. a further proof of its exalted character may be gathered from the fact that around its roots scandinavian mythology has gathered fairyland, and hence in germany the holes in its trunk are the pathways for elves. but the connection between lightning and plants extends over a wide area, and germany is rich in legends relative to this species of folk-lore. thus there is the magic springwort, around which have clustered so many curious lightning myths and talismanic properties. by reason of its celestial origin this much-coveted plant, when buried in the ground at the summit of a mountain, has the reputation of drawing down the lightning and dividing the storm. it is difficult, however, to procure, especially as there is no certainty as to the exact species of plants to which it belongs, although grimm identifies it with the _euphorbia lathyris_. at any rate, it is chiefly procurable by the woodpecker--a lightning-bearer; and to secure this much-prized treasure, its nest must be stopped up, access to which it will quickly gain by touching it with the springwort. but if one have in readiness a pan of water, a fire, or a red cloth, the bird will let the plant fall, which otherwise it would be a difficult work to obtain, "the notion, no doubt, being that the bird must return the mystic plant to the element from which it springs, that being either the water of the clouds or the lightning fire enclosed therein."[ ] professor gubernatis, referring to the symbolical nature of this tradition, remarks that, "this herb may be the moon itself, which opens the hiding-place of the night, or the thunderbolt, which opens the hiding-places of the cloud." according to the swiss version of the story it is the hoopoe that brings the spring-wort, a bird also endowed with mystic virtues,[ ] while in iceland, normandy, and ancient greece it is an eagle, a swallow, or an ostrich. analogous to the talismanic properties of the springwort are those of the famous luck or key-flower of german folk-lore, by the discovery of which the fortunate possessor effects an entrance into otherwise inaccessible fairy haunts, where unlimited treasures are offered for his acceptance. there then, again, the luck-flower is no doubt intended to denote the lightning, which reveals strange treasures, giving water to the parched and thirsty land, and, as mr. fiske remarks, "making plain what is doing under cover of darkness."[ ] the lightning-flash, too, which now and then, as a lesson of warning, instantly strikes dead those who either rashly or presumptuously essay to enter its awe-inspiring portals, is exemplified in another version of the same legend. a shepherd, while leading his flock over the ilsentein, pauses to rest, but immediately the mountain opens by reason of the springwort or luck-flower in the staff on which he leans. within the cavern a white lady appears, who invites him to accept as much of her wealth as he choses. thereupon he fills his pockets, and hastening to quit her mysterious domains, he heeds not her enigmatical warning, "forget not the best," the result being that as he passes through the door he is severed in twain amidst the crashing of thunder. stories of this kind, however, are the exception, legendary lore generally regarding the lightning as a benefactor rather than a destroyer. "the lightning-flash," to quote mr. baring-gould's words, "reaches the barren, dead, and thirsty land; forth gush the waters of heaven, and the parched vegetation bursts once more into the vigour of life restored after suspended animation." that this is the case we have ample proof in the myths relating to plants, in many of which the life-giving properties of the lightning are clearly depicted. hence, also, the extraordinary healing properties which are ascribed to the various lightning plants. ash rods, for instance, are still used in many parts of england for the cure of diseased sheep, cows, and horses, and in cornwall, as a remedy for hernia, children are passed through holes in ash trees. the mistletoe has the reputation of being an antidote for poisons and a specific against epilepsy. culpepper speaks of it as a sure panacea for apoplexy, palsy, and falling sickness, a belief current in sweden, where finger rings are made of its wood. an old-fashioned charm for the bite of an adder was to place a cross formed of hazel-wood on the wound, and the burning of a thorn-bush has long been considered a sure preventive of mildew in wheat. without multiplying further illustrations, there can be no doubt that the therapeutic virtues of these so-called lightning plants may be traced to, in very many cases, their mythical origin. it is not surprising too that plants of this stamp should have been extensively used as charms against the influences of occult powers, their symbolical nature investing them with a potency such as was possessed by no ordinary plant. footnotes: . see an article on "myths of the fire stealer," _saturday review_, june , , p. ; tylor's "primitive culture." . "myths and myth makers," p. . . see keary's "outlines of primitive belief," , p. . . "indo-european tradition and folk-lore," p. . . "mystic trees and shrubs," _fraser's magazine_, nov. , p. . . "sacred trees and flowers," _quarterly review_, july , pp. , . . "myths and myth makers," p. . . see "flower lore," pp. , . . kelly's "indo-european folk-lore," p. . . "natural history and antiquities of surrey," ii. . . kelly's "indo-european folk-lore," p. ; grimm's "teutonic mythology," , chap, xxxii.; gubernatis' "zoological mythology," ii. - . see albertus magnus, "de mirab. mundi," , p. . . gubernatis' "zoological mythology," ii. . . "myths and mythmakers," p. . see baring-gould's "curious myths of the middle ages," , pp. - . . folkard's "plant-lore legends and lyrics," p. . . see kelly's "indo-european folk-lore," pp. - . chapter v. plants in witchcraft. the vast proportions which the great witchcraft movement assumed in bygone years explains the magic properties which we find ascribed to so many plants in most countries. in the nefarious trade carried on by the representatives of this cruel system of sorcery certain plants were largely employed for working marvels, hence the mystic character which they have ever since retained. it was necessary, however, that these should be plucked at certain phases of the moon or seasons of the year, or from some spot where the sun was supposed not to have shone on it.[ ] hence shakespeare makes one of his witches speak of "root of hemlock digg'd i' the dark," and of "slips of yew sliver'd in the moon's eclipse," a practice which was long kept up. the plants, too, which formed the witches' pharmacopoeia, were generally selected either from their legendary associations or by reason of their poisonous and soporific qualities. thus, two of those most frequently used as ingredients in the mystic cauldron were the vervain and the rue, these plants having been specially credited with supernatural virtues. the former probably derived its notoriety from the fact of its being sacred to thor, an honour which marked it out, like other lightning plants, as peculiarly adapted for occult uses. it was, moreover, among the sacred plants of the druids, and was only gathered by them, "when the dog-star arose, from unsunned spots." at the same time, it is noteworthy that many of the plants which were in repute with witches for working their marvels were reckoned as counter-charms, a fact which is not surprising, as materials used by wizards and others for magical purposes have generally been regarded as equally efficacious if employed against their charms and spells.[ ] although vervain, therefore, as the "enchanters' plant," was gathered by witches to do mischief in their incantations, yet, as aubrey says, it "hinders witches from their will," a circumstance to which drayton further refers when he speaks of the vervain as "'gainst witchcraft much avayling." rue, likewise, which entered so largely into magic rites, was once much in request as an antidote against such practices; and nowadays, when worn on the person in conjunction with agrimony, maiden-hair, broom-straw, and ground ivy, it is said in the tyrol to confer fine vision, and to point out the presence of witches. it is still an undecided question as to why rue should out of all other plants have gained its widespread reputation with witches, but m. maury supposes that it was on account of its being a narcotic and causing hallucinations. at any rate, it seems to have acquired at an early period in this country a superstitious reverence, for, as mr. conway says,[ ] "we find the missionaries sprinkling holy water from brushes made of it, whence it was called 'herb of grace'." respecting the rendezvous of witches, it may be noted that they very frequently resorted to hills and mountains, their meetings taking place "on the mead, on the oak sward, under the lime, under the oak, at the pear tree." thus the fairy rings which are often to be met with on the sussex downs are known as hag-tracks,[ ] from the belief that "they are caused by hags and witches, who dance there at midnight."[ ] their love for sequestered and romantic localities is widely illustrated on the continent, instances of which have been collected together by grimm, who remarks how "the fame of particular witch mountains extends over wide kingdoms." according to a tradition current in friesland,[ ] no woman is to be found at home on a friday, because on that day they hold their meetings and have dances on a barren heath. occasionally, too, they show a strong predilection for certain trees, to approach which as night-time draws near is considered highly dangerous. the judas tree (_cercis siliquastrum_) was one of their favourite retreats, perhaps on account of its traditionary association with the apostle. the neapolitan witches held their tryst under a walnut tree near benevento,[ ] and at bologna the peasantry tell how these evil workers hold a midnight meeting beneath the walnut trees on st. john's eve. the elder tree is another haunt under whose branches witches are fond of lurking, and on this account caution must be taken not to tamper with it after dark.[ ] again, in the netherlands, experienced shepherds are careful not to let their flocks feed after sunset, for there are wicked elves that prepare poison in certain plants--nightwort being one of these. nor does any man dare to sleep in a meadow or pasture after sunset, for, as the shepherds say, he would have everything to fear. a tyrolese legend[ ] relates how a boy who had climbed a tree, "overlooked the ghastly doings of certain witches beneath its boughs. they tore in pieces the corpse of a woman, and threw the portions in the air. the boy caught one, and kept it by him; but the witches, on counting the pieces, found that one was missing, and so replaced it by a scrap of alderwood, when instantly the dead came to life again." similarly, also, they had their favourite flowers, one having been the foxglove, nicknamed "witches' bells," from their decorating their fingers with its blossoms; while in some localities the hare-bell is designated the "witches' thimble." on the other hand, flowers of a yellow or greenish hue were distasteful to them.[ ] in the witchcraft movement it would seem that certain plants were in requisition for particular purposes, these workers of darkness having utilised the properties of herbs to special ends. a plant was not indiscriminately selected, but on account of possessing some virtue as to render it suitable for any design that the witches might have in view. considering, too, how multitudinous and varied were their actions, they had constant need of applying to the vegetable world for materials with which to carry out their plans. but foremost amongst their requirements was the power of locomotion wherewith to enable them with supernatural rapidity to travel from one locality to another. accordingly, one of their most favourite vehicles was a besom or broom, an implement which, it has been suggested, from its being a type of the winds, is an appropriate utensil "in the hands of the witches, who are windmakers and workers in that element.[ ]" according to the _asiatic register_ for , the eastern as well as the european witches "practise their spells by dancing at midnight, and the principal instrument they use on such occasions is a broom." hence, in hamburg, sailors, after long toiling against a contrary wind, on meeting another ship sailing in an opposite direction, throw an old broom before the vessel, believing thereby to reverse the wind.[ ] as, too, in the case of vervain and rue, the besom, although dearly loved by witches, is still extensively used as a counter-charm against their machinations--it being a well-known belief both in england and germany that no individual of this stamp can step over a besom laid inside the threshold. hence, also, in westphalia, at shrovetide, white besoms with white handles are tied to the cows' horns; and, in the rites connected with the midsummer fires kept up in different parts of the country, the besom holds a prominent place. in bohemia, for instance, the young men collect for some weeks beforehand as many worn-out brooms as they can lay their hands on. these, after dipping in tar, they light--running with them from one bonfire to another--and when burnt out they are placed in the fields as charms against blight.[ ] the large ragwort--known in ireland as the "fairies' horse"--has long been sought for by witches when taking their midnight journeys. burns, in his "address to the deil," makes his witches "skim the muirs and dizzy crags" on "rag-bred nags" with "wicked speed." the same legendary belief prevails in cornwall, in connection with the castle peak, a high rock to the south of the logan stone. here, writes mr. hunt,[ ] "many a man, and woman too, now quietly sleeping in the churchyard of st. levan, would, had they the power, attest to have seen the witches flying into the castle peak on moonlight nights, mounted on the stems of the ragwort." amongst other plants used for a similar purpose were the bulrush and reed, in connection with-which may be quoted the irish tale of the rushes and cornstalks that "turn into horses the moment you bestride them[ ]." in germany[ ] witches were said to use hay for transporting themselves through the air. when engaged in their various occupations they often considered it expedient to escape detection by assuming invisibility, and for this object sought the assistance of certain plants, such as the fern-seed[ ]. in sweden, hazel-nuts were supposed to have the power of making invisible, and it may be remembered how in one of andersen's stories the elfin princess has the faculty of vanishing at will, by putting a wand in her mouth.[ ] but these were not the only plants supposed to confer invisibility, for german folk-lore tells us how the far-famed luck-flower was endowed with the same wonderful property; and by the ancients the heliotrope was credited with a similar virtue, but which boccaccio, in his humorous tale of calandrino in the "decameron," applies to the so-called stone. "heliotrope is a stone of such extraordinary virtue that the bearer of it is effectually concealed from the sight of all present." dante in his "inferno," xxiv. , further alludes to it: "amid this dread exuberance of woe ran naked spirits winged with horrid fear, nor hope had they of crevice where to hide, or heliotrope to charm them out of view." in the same way the agate was said to render a person invisible, and to turn the swords of foes against themselves.[ ] the swiss peasants affirm that the ascension day wreaths of the amaranth make the wearer invisible, and in the tyrol the mistletoe is credited with this property. but some plants, as we have already pointed out, were credited with the magic property of revealing the presence of witches, and of exposing them engaged in the pursuit of plying their nefarious calling. in this respect the st. john's wort was in great request, and hence it was extensively worn as an amulet, especially in germany on st. john's eve, a time when not only witches by common report peopled the air, but evil spirits wandered about on no friendly errand. thus the italian name of "devil-chaser," from the circumstance of its scaring away the workers of darkness, by bringing their hidden deeds to light. this, moreover, accounts for the custom so prevalent in most european countries of decorating doorways and windows with its blossoms on st. john's eve. in our own country stowe[ ] speaks of it as its having been placed over the doors together with green birch, fennel, orpine, and white lilies, whereas in france the peasantry still reverence it as dispersing every kind of unseen evil influence. the elder was invested with similar properties, which seem to have been more potent than even those attributed to the st. john's wort. according to an old tradition, any baptized person whose eyes were anointed with the green juice of its inner bark could see witches in any part of the world. hence the tree was extremely obnoxious to witches, a fact which probably accounts for its having been so often planted near cottages. its magic influence has also caused it to be introduced into various rites, as in styria on bertha night (january th), when the devil goes about in great force.[ ] as a safeguard, persons are recommended to make a magic circle, in the centre of which they should stand with elder-berries gathered on st. john's night. by so doing the mystic fern seed may be obtained, which possesses the strength of thirty or forty men. in germany, too, a species of wild radish is said to reveal witches, as also is the ivy, and saxifrage enables its bearer to see witches on walpurgis night. but, in spite of plants of this kind, witches somehow or other contrived to escape detection by the employment of the most subtle charms and spells. they generally, too, took the precaution of avoiding such plants as were antagonistic to them, displaying a cunning ingenuity in most of their designs which it was by no means easy to forestall. hence in the composition of their philtres and potions they infused the juices of the most deadly herbs, such as that of the nightshade or monkshood; and to add to the potency of these baleful draughts they considered it necessary to add as many as seven or nine of the most poisonous plants they could obtain, such, for instance, as those enumerated by one of the witches in ben jonson's "masque of queens," who says:-- "and i ha' been plucking plants among hemlock, henbane, adder's tongue; nightshade, moonwort, libbard's bane, and twice, by the dogs, was like to be ta'en." another plant used by witches in their incantations was the sea or horned poppy, known in mediaeval times as _ficus infernolis_; hence it is further noticed by ben jonson in the "witches' song": "yes, i have brought to help our vows, horned poppy, cypress boughs, the fig tree wild that grows on tombs, and juice that from the larch tree comes." then, of course, there was the wondrous moonwort (_botrychium lunaria_), which was doubly valuable from its mystic virtue, for, as culpepper[ ] tells us, it was believed to open locks and possess other magic virtues. the mullein, popularly termed the hag-taper, was also in request, and the honesty (_lunaria biennis_), "in sorceries excelling," was equally employed. by scotch witches the woodbine was a favourite plant,[ ] who, in effecting magical cures, passed their patients nine times through a girth or garland of green woodbine. again, a popular means employed by witches of injuring their enemies was by the briony. coles, in his "art of simpling," for instance, informs us how, "they take likewise the roots of mandrake, according to some, or, as i rather suppose, the roots of briony, which simple folk take for the true mandrake, and make thereof an ugly image, by which they represent the person on whom they intend to exercise their witchcraft." and lord bacon, speaking of the mandrake, says--"some plants there are, but rare, that have a mossie or downy root, and likewise that have a number of threads, like beards, as mandrakes, whereof witches and impostours make an ugly image, giving it the form of a face at the top of the root, and leave those strings to make a broad beard down to the foot." the witchcraft literature of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries contains numerous allusions to the diabolical practice--a superstition immortalised by shakespeare. the mandrake, from its supposed mysterious character, was intimately associated with witches, and ben jonson, in his "masque of queens," makes one of the hags who has been gathering this plant say, "i last night lay all alone on the ground, to hear the mandrake groan; and plucked him up, though he grew full low, and, as i had done, the cock did crow." we have already incidentally spoken of the vervain, st. john's wort, elder, and rue as antagonistic to witchcraft, but to these may be added many other well-known plants, such as the juniper, mistletoe, and blackthorn. indeed, the list might be greatly extended--the vegetable kingdom having supplied in most parts of the world almost countless charms to counteract the evil designs of these malevolent beings. in our own country the little pimpernel, herb-paris, and cyclamen were formerly gathered for this purpose, and the angelica was thought to be specially noisome to witches. the snapdragon and the herb-betony had the reputation of averting the most subtle forms of witchcraft, and dill and flax were worn as talismans against sorcery. holly is said to be antagonistic to witches, for, as mr. folkard[ ] says, "in its name they see but another form of the word 'holy,' and its thorny foliage and blood-red berries are suggestive of the most christian associations." then there is the rowan-tree or mountain-ash, which has long been considered one of the most powerful antidotes against works of darkness of every kind, probably from its sacred associations with the worship of the druids. hence it is much valued in scotland, and the following couplet, of which there are several versions, still embodies the popular faith: "rowan-tree and red thread, put the witches to their speed." but its fame has not been confined to any one locality, and as far south as cornwall the peasant, when he suspects that his cow has been "overlooked," twists an ashen twig round its horns. indeed, so potent is the ash as a counter charm to sorcery, that even the smallest twig renders their actions impotent; and hence, in an old ballad entitled "laidley wood," in the "northumberland garland," it is said: "the spells were vain, the hag returned to the queen in sorrowful mood, crying that witches have no power, where there is row'n-tree wood." hence persons carry an ashen twig in their pocket, and according to a yorkshire proverb: "if your whipsticks made of row'n, you may ride your nag through any town;" but, on the other hand, "woe to the lad without a rowan-tree gall." possessed of such virtues, it is not surprising that the mystic ash should have been held in the highest repute, in illustration of which we find many an amusing anecdote. thus, according to a herefordshire tradition, some years ago two hogsheads full of money were concealed in an underground cellar belonging to the castle of penyard, where they were kept by supernatural force. a farmer, however, made up his mind to get them out, and employed for the purpose twenty steers to draw down the iron door of the vault. on the door being slightly opened, a jackdaw was seen sitting on one of the casks, but the door immediately closed with a bang--a voice being heard to say, "had it not been for your quicken tree goad, and your yew tree pin, you and your cattle had all been drawn in." another anecdote current in yorkshire is interesting, showing how fully superstitions of this kind are believed[ ]:--"a woman was lately in my shop, and in pulling out her purse brought out also a piece of stick a few inches long. i asked her why she carried that in her pocket. 'oh,' she replied, 'i must not lose that, or i shall be done for.' 'why so?' i inquired. 'well,' she answered, 'i carry that to keep off the witches; while i have that about me, they cannot hurt me.' on my adding that there were no witches nowadays, she instantly replied, 'oh, yes! there are thirteen at this very time in the town, but so long as i have my rowan-tree safe in my pocket they cannot hurt me.'" occasionally when the dairymaid churned for a long time without making butter, she would stir the cream with a twig of mountain ash, and beat the cow with another, thus breaking the witch's spell. but, to prevent accidents of this kind, it has long been customary in the northern countries to make the churn-staff of ash. for the same reason herd-boys employ an ash-twig for driving cattle, and one may often see a mountain-ash growing near a house. on the continent the tree is in equal repute, and in norway and denmark rowan branches are usually put over stable doors to keep out witches, a similar notion prevailing in germany. no tree, perhaps, holds such a prominent place in witchcraft-lore as the mountain-ash, its mystic power having rarely failed to render fruitless the evil influence of these enemies of mankind. in our northern counties witches are said to dislike the bracken fern, "because it bears on its root the initial c, which may be seen on cutting the root horizontally."[ ] and in most places equally distasteful to them is the yew, perhaps for no better reason than its having formerly been much planted in churchyards. the herb-bennett (_geum urbanum_), like the clover, from its trefoiled leaf, renders witches powerless, and the hazel has similar virtues. among some of the plants considered antagonistic to sorcery on the continent may be mentioned the water-lily, which is gathered in the rhine district with a certain formula. in tuscany, the lavender counteracts the evil eye, and a german antidote against the hurtful effects of any malicious influence was an ointment made of the leaves of the marsh-mallow. in italy, an olive branch which has been blessed keeps the witch from the dwelling, and in some parts of the continent the plum-tree is used. kolb, writes mr. black,[ ] who became one of the first "wonder-doctors" of the tyrol, "when he was called to assist any bewitched person, made exactly at midnight the smoke of five different sorts of herbs, and while they were burning the bewitched was gently beaten with a martyr-thorn birch, which had to be got the same night. this beating the patient with thorn was thought to be really beating the hag who had caused the evil." some seasons, too, have been supposed to be closely associated with the witches, as in germany, where all flax must be spun before twelfth night, for one who spins afterwards is liable to be bewitched. lastly, to counteract the spell of the evil eye, from which many innocent persons were believed to suffer in the witchcraft period, many flowers have been in requisition among the numerous charms used. thus, the russian maidens still hang round the stem of the birch-tree red ribbon, the brahmans gather rice, and in italy rue is in demand. the scotch peasantry pluck twigs of the ash, the highland women the groundsel, and the german folk wear the radish. in early times the ringwort was recommended by apuleius, and later on the fern was regarded as a preservative against this baneful influence. the chinese put faith in the garlic; and, in short, every country has its own special plants. it would seem, too, that after a witch was dead and buried, precautionary measures were taken to frustrate her baneful influence. thus, in russia, aspen is laid on a witch's grave, the dead sorceress being then prevented from riding abroad. footnotes: . see moncure conway's "demonology and devil lore," , ii. . . see friend's "flower lore," ii. - . . "demonology and devil lore," ii. . . grimm, "teutonic mythology," , iii. . . folkard's "plant lore, legends, and lyrics," , p. . . thorpe's "northern mythology," iii. . . grimm's "teutonic mythology," iii. . . see thorpe's "northern mythology," iii. . . see folkard's "plant lore, legends, and lyrics," p. . . _ibid._, p. . . see kelly's "indo-european folk-lore," pp. - . . see hardwick's "traditions, superstitions, and folk-lore," p. ; also grimm's "teutonic mythology," , iii. . . see thorpe's "northern mythology," , iii. , . . "popular romances of the west of england," , p. . . grimm's "teutonic mythology," iii. . . see thorpe's "northern mythology," iii. - . . see chap. "doctrine of signatures." . see yardley's "supernatural in romantic fiction," , pp. - . . see fiske, "myths and mythmakers," p. ; also baring-gould's "curious myths of the middle ages," , p. . . "survey of london." see mason's "folk-lore of british plants" in _dublin university magazine_, september , p. - . . mr. conway's "mystic trees and flowers," _fraser's magazine_, , . . "british herbal." . see folkard's "plant-lore legends and lyrics," p. . . "plant-lore legends and lyrics," p. . . henderson's "folk-lore of northern counties," , p. . . "folk-lore of northern counties," . . "folk-medicine," p. . chapter vi. plants in demonology. the association of certain plants with the devil forms an extensive and important division in their folk-lore, and in many respects is closely connected with their mystic history. it is by no means easy always to account for some of our most beautiful flowers having satanic surroundings, although frequently the explanation must be sought in their poisonous and deadly qualities. in some cases, too, the student of comparative mythology may trace their evil reputation to those early traditions which were the expressions of certain primitive beliefs, the survivals of which nowadays are found in many an apparently meaningless superstition. anyhow, the subject is a very wide one, and is equally represented in most countries. it should be remembered, moreover, that rudimentary forms of dualism--the antagonism of a good and evil deity[ ]--have from a remote period occupied men's minds, a system of belief known even among the lower races of mankind. hence, just as some plants would in process of time acquire a sacred character, others would do the reverse. amongst the legendary stories and folktales of most countries we find frequent allusion to the devil as an active agent in utilising various flowers for his mischievous pursuits; and on the continent we are told of a certain evil spirit named kleure who transforms himself into a tree to escape notice, a superstition which under a variety of forms still lingers here and there.[ ] it would seem, too, that in some of our old legends and superstitions the terms puck and devil are synonymous, a circumstance which explains the meaning, otherwise unintelligible, of many items of plant-lore in our own and other countries. thus the word "puck" has been identified with _pogge_--toad, under which form the devil was supposed to be personified; and hence probably originated such expressions as toadstools, paddock-stools, &c. the thorns of the eglantine are said to point downwards, because when the devil was excluded from heaven he tried to regain his lost position by means of a ladder composed of its thorns. but when the eglantine was only allowed to grow as a bush, out of spite he placed its thorns in their present eccentric position. the seed of the parsley, "is apt to come up only partially, according as the devil takes his tithe of it."[ ] in germany "devil's oaks" are of frequent occurrence, and "one of these at gotha is held in great regard."[ ] and gerarde, describing the vervain, with its manifold mystic virtues, says that "the devil did reveal it as a secret and divine medicine." belladonna, writes mr. conway, is esteemed in bohemia a favourite plant of the devil, who watches it, but may be drawn from it on walpurgis night by letting loose a black hen, after which he will run. then there is the sow-thistle, which in russia is said to belong to the devil; and loki, the evil spirit in northern mythology, is occasionally spoken of as sowing weeds among the good seed; from whence, it has been suggested, originated the popular phrase of "sowing one's wild oats."[ ] the german peasantry have their "rye-wolf," a malignant spirit infesting the rye-fields; and in some parts of the continent orchards are said to be infested by evil demons, who, until driven away by various incantations, are liable to do much harm to the fruit. the italians, again, affirm that in each leaf of the fig-tree an evil spirit dwells; and throughout the continent there are various other demons who are believed to haunt the crops. evil spirits were once said to lurk in lettuce-beds, and a certain species was regarded with ill favour by mothers, a circumstance which, mr. folkard rightly suggests,[ ] may account for a surrey saying, "o'er much lettuce in the garden will stop a young wife's bearing." among similar legends of the kind it is said that, in swabia, fern-seed brought by the devil between eleven and twelve o'clock on christmas night enables the bearer to do as much work as twenty or thirty ordinary men. according to a popular piece of superstition current in our southern counties, the devil is generally supposed to put his cloven foot upon the blackberries on michaelmas day, and hence after this date it is considered unlucky to gather them during the remainder of the year. an interesting instance of this superstition is given by mrs. latham in her "west sussex superstitions," which happened to a farmer's wife residing in the neighbourhood of arundel. it appears that she was in the habit of making a large quantity of blackberry jam, and finding that less fruit had been brought to her than she required, she said to the charwoman, "i wish you would send some of your children to gather me three or four pints more." "ma'am," exclaimed the woman in astonishment, "don't you know this is the th october?" "yes," she replied. "bless me, ma'am! and you ask me to let my children go out blackberrying! why, i thought every one knew that the devil went round on the th october, and spat on all the blackberries, and that if any person were to eat on the th, he or some one belonging to him would either die or fall into great trouble before the year was out." in scotland the devil is said to but throw his cloak over the blackberries and render them unwholesome, while in ireland he is said to stamp on them. among further stories of this kind may be quoted one current in devonshire respecting st. dunstan, who, it is said, bought up a quantity of barley for brewing beer. the devil, knowing how anxious the saint would be to get a good sale for his beer, offered to blight the apple trees, so that there should be no cider, and hence a greater demand for beer, on condition that he sold himself to him. st. dunstan accepted the offer, and stipulated that the trees should be blighted on the th, th, and th may. should the apple-blossom be nipped by cold winds or frost about this time, many allusions are still made to st. dunstan. of the plants associated personally with the evil one may be mentioned the henbane, which is known in germany as the "devil's eye," a name applied to the stich-wort in wales. a species of ground moss is also styled in germany the "devil's claws;" one of the orchid tribe is "satan's hand;" the lady's fingers is "devil's claws," and the plantain is "devil's head." similarly the house-leek has been designated the "devil's beard," and a norfolk name for the stinkhorn is "devil's horn." of further plants related to his satanic majesty is the clematis, termed "devil's thread," the toad-flax is his ribbon, the indigo his dye, while the scandix forms his darning-needles. the tritoma, with its brilliant red blossom, is familiar in most localities as the "devil's poker," and the ground ivy has been nicknamed the "devil's candlestick," the mandrake supplying his candle. the puff-balls of the lycoperdon form the devil's snuff-box, and in ireland the nettle is his apron, and the convolvulus his garter; while at iserlohn, in germany,[ ] "the mothers, to deter their children eating the mulberries, sing to them that the devil requires them for the purpose of blacking his boots." the _arum maculatum_ is "devil's ladies and gentlemen," and the _ranunculus arvensis_ is the "devil on both sides." the vegetable kingdom also has been equally mindful of his majesty's food, the spurge having long been named "devil's milk" and the briony the "devil's cherry." a species of fungus, known with us as "witches' butter," is called in sweden "devil's butter," while one of the popular names for the mandrake is "devil's food." the hare-parsley supplies him with oatmeal, and the stichwort is termed in the west of england "devil's corn." among further plants associated with his satanic majesty may be enumerated the garden fennel, or love-in-a-mist, to which the name of "devil-in-a-bush" has been applied, while the fruit of the deadly nightshade is commonly designated "devil's berries." then there is the "devil's tree," and the "devil's dung" is one of the nicknames of the assafoetida. the hawk-weed, like the scabious, was termed "devil's bit," because the root looks as if it had been bitten off. according to an old legend, "the root was once longer, until the devil bit away the rest for spite, for he needed it not to make him sweat who is always tormented with fear of the day of judgment." gerarde further adds that, "the devil did bite it for envy, because it is an herb that hath so many great virtues, and is so beneficial to mankind." a species of ranunculus supplies his coach-wheels, and in some parts of the country ferns are said to supply his brushes. his majesty's wants, therefore, have been amply provided for by the vegetable kingdom, for even the wild garlic affords him a posy[ ]. once more, in sweden, a rose-coloured flower, known as "our lady's hand," "has two roots like hands, one white, the other black, and when both are placed in water the black one will sink, this is called 'satan's hand;' but the white one, called 'mary's hand,' will float."[ ] hence this flower is held in deep and superstitious veneration among the peasantry; and in crete the basil is considered an emblem of the devil, and is placed on most window-ledges, no doubt as a charm. some plants, again, have been used for exorcism from their reputed antagonism to all satanic influence. thus the avens or herb-bennett, when kept in a house, was believed to render the devil powerless, and the greeks of old were in the habit of placing a laurel bough over their doorways to keep away evil spirits. the thistle has been long in demand for counteracting the powers of darkness, and in esthonia it is placed on the ripening corn to drive and scare away malignant demons. in poland, the disease known among the poorer classes as "elf-lock" is supposed to be the work of wicked spirits, but tradition says it will gradually disappear if one buries thistle seed.[ ] the aloe, by the egyptians, is reputed to resist any baleful influence, and the lunary or "honesty" is by our own country people said to put every evil influence to flight. in germany the juniper disperses evil spirits, and in ancient times the black hellebore, peony, and mugwort were largely used for this purpose. according to a russian belief the elder-tree drives away evil spirits, and hence this plant is held in high respect. among further plants possessing the same quality are the nettle and milfoil, and then there is the famous st. john's wort, popularly nicknamed "devil's flight." closely allied with this part of our subject are those plants connected with serpents, here forming a very numerous class. indeed, it was only natural that our ancestors, from their dread of the serpent on account of its poisonous sting, as well as from their antipathy to it as the symbol of evil, should ascertain those plants which seemed either attractive, or antagonistic, to this much-dreaded reptile. accordingly certain plants, from being supposed to be distasteful to serpents, were much used as amulets to drive them away. foremost among these may be mentioned the ash, to escape contact with which a serpent, it has been said, would even creep into the fire, in allusion to which cowley thus writes: "but that which gave more wonder than the rest, within an ash a serpent built her nest and laid her eggs, when once to come beneath the very shadow of an ash was death." gerarde notices this curious belief, and tells us that, "the leaves of this tree are so great virtue against serpents that they dare not so much as touch the morning and evening shadows of the tree, but shun them afar off." hence ash-sap was a german remedy for serpent bites. lucan, in his "pharsalia" ( - ), has enumerated some of the plants burned for the purpose of expelling serpents: "beyond the farthest tents rich fires they build, that healthy medicinal odours yield, there foreign galbanum dissolving fries, and crackling flames from humble wallwort rise. there tamarisk, which no green leaf adorns, and there the spicy syrian costos burns; there centaury supplies the wholesome flame, that from therssalian chiron takes its name; the gummy larch tree, and the thapsos there, woundwort and maidenweed perfume the air, there the long branches of the long-lived hart with southernwood their odours strong impart, the monsters of the land, the serpents fell, fly far away and shun the hostile smell." the smoke of the juniper was equally repellent to serpents, and the juice of dittany "drives away venomous beasts, and doth astonish them." in olden times, for serpent bites, agrimony, chamomile, and the fruit of the bramble, were held efficacious, and gerarde recommends the root of the bugloss, "as it keepeth such from being stung as have drunk it before; the leaves and seeds do the same." on the other hand, some plants had the reputation of attracting serpents, one of these being the moneywort or creeping loosestrife, with which they were said to heal themselves when wounded. as far back as the time of pliny serpents were supposed to be very fond of fennel, restoring to them their youth by enabling them to cast their old skins. there is a belief in thuringia that the possession of fern seed causes the bearer to be pursued by serpents till thrown away; and, according to a curious eussian proverb, "from all old trees proceeds either an owl or a devil," in reference, no doubt, to their often bare and sterile appearance. footnotes: . see tylor's "primitive culture," ii. . . thorpe's "northern mythology," iii. . . "plant-lore legends and lyrics," p. . . mr. conway, _fraser's magazine_, , p. . . mr. conway, _fraser's magazine_, , p. . . "plant-lore legends and lyrics," p. . . folkard's "plant-lore legends and lyrics," p. . . see friend's "flower-lore," i. . . thorpe's "northern mythology," ii. . . "mystic trees and flowers," fraser's magazine. chapter vii. plants in fairy-lore. many plants have gained a notoriety from their connection with fairyland, and although the belief in this romantic source of superstition has almost died out, yet it has left its traces in the numerous legends which have survived amongst us. thus the delicate white flowers of the wood-sorrel are known in wales as "fairy bells," from a belief once current that these tiny beings were summoned to their moonlight revels and gambols by these bells. in ireland they were supposed to ride to their scenes of merrymaking on the ragwort, hence known as the "fairies' horse." cabbage-stalks, too, served them for steeds, and a story is told of a certain farmer who resided at dundaniel, near cork, and was considered to be under fairy control. for a long time he suffered from "the falling sickness," owing to the long journeys which he was forced to make, night by night, with the fairy folk on one of his own cabbage stumps. sometimes the good people made use of a straw, a blade of grass, or a fern, a further illustration of which is furnished by "the witch of fife:" "the first leet night, quhan the new moon set, quhan all was douffe and mirk, we saddled our naigis wi' the moon-fern leif, and rode fra kilmerrin kirk. some horses were of the brume-cow framit, and some of the greine bay tree; but mine was made of ane humloke schaw, and a stour stallion was he."[ ] in some folk-tales fairies are represented as employing nuts for their mode of conveyance, in allusion to which shakespeare, in "romeo and juliet," makes mercutio speak of queen mab's arrival in a nut-shell. similarly the fairies selected certain plants for their attire. although green seems to have been their popular colour, yet the fairies of the moon were often clad in heath-brown or lichen-dyed garments, whence the epithet of "elfin-grey." their petticoats, for instance, were composed of the fox-glove, a flower in demand among irish fairies for their gloves, and in some parts of that country for their caps, where it is nicknamed "lusmore," while the _cuscuta epithymum_ is known in jersey as "fairies' hair." their raiment was made of the fairy flax, and the wood-anemone, with its fragile blossoms, was supposed to afford them shelter in wet weather. shakespeare has represented ariel reclining in "a cowslip's bell," and further speaks of the small crimson drops in its blossom as "gold coats spots"--"these be rubies, fairy favours." and at the present day the cowslip is still known in lincolnshire as the "fairy cup." its popular german name is "key-flower;" and no flower has had in that country so extensive an association with preternatural wealth. a well-known legend relates how "bertha" entices some favoured child by exquisite primroses to a doorway overgrown with flowers. this is the door to an enchanted castle. when the key-flower touches it, the door gently opens, and the favoured mortal passes to a room with vessels covered over with primroses, in which are treasures of gold and jewels. when the treasure is secured the primroses must be replaced, otherwise the finder will be for ever followed by a "black dog." sometimes their mantles are made of the gossamer, the cobwebs which may be seen in large quantities on the furze bushes; and so of king oberon we are told: "a rich mantle did he wear, made of tinsel gossamer, bestarred over with a few diamond drops of morning dew." tulips are the cradles in which the fairy tribe have lulled their offspring to rest, while the _pyrus japonica_ serves them for a fire.[ ] their hat is supplied by the _peziza coccinea_; and in lincolnshire, writes mr. friend,[ ] "a kind of fungus like a cup or old-fashioned purse, with small objects inside, is called a fairy-purse." when mending their clothes, the foxglove gives them thimbles; and many other flowers might be added which are equally in request for their various needs. it should be mentioned, however, that fairies, like witches, have a strange antipathy to yellow flowers, and rarely frequent localities where they grow. in olden times, we read how in scandinavia and germany the rose was under the special protection of dwarfs and elves, who were ruled by the mighty king laurin, the lord of the rose-garden: "four portals to the garden lead, and when the gates are closed, no living might dare touch a rose, 'gainst his strict command opposed; whoe'er would break the golden gates, or cut the silken thread, or who would dare to crush the flowers down beneath his tread, soon for his pride would have to pledge a foot and hand; thus laurin, king of dwarfs, rules within his land." we may mention here that the beautiful white or yellow flowers that grow on the banks of lakes and rivers in sweden are called "neck-roses," memorials of the neck, a water-elf, and the poisonous root of the water-hemlock was known as neck-root.[ ] in brittany and in some parts of ireland the hawthorn, or, as it is popularly designated, the fairy-thorn, is a tree most specially in favour. on this account it is held highly dangerous to gather even a leaf "from certain old and solitary thorns which grow in sheltered hollows of the moorlands," for these are the trysting-places of the fairy race. a trace of the same superstition existed in scotland, as may be gathered from the subjoined extract from the "scottish statistical report" of the year , in connection with new parish:--"there is a quick thorn of a very antique appearance, for which the people have a superstitious veneration. they have a mortal dread to lop off or cut any part of it, and affirm with a religious horror that some persons who had the temerity to hurt it, were afterwards severely punished for their sacrilege." one flower which, for some reason or other, is still held in special honour by them, is the common stichwort of our country hedges, and which the devonshire peasant hesitates to pluck lest he should be pixy-led. a similar idea formerly prevailed in the isle of man in connection with the st. john's wort. if any unwary traveller happened, after sunset, to tread on this plant, it was said that a fairy-horse would suddenly appear, and carry him about all night. wild thyme is another of their favourite plants, and mr. folkard notes that in sicily rosemary is equally beloved; and that "the young fairies, under the guise of snakes, lie concealed under its branches." according to a netherlandish belief, the elf-leaf, or sorceresses' plant, is particularly grateful to them, and therefore ought not to be plucked.[ ] the four-leaved clover is a magic talisman which enables its wearer to detect the whereabouts of fairies, and was said only to grow in their haunts; in reference to which belief lover thus writes: "i'll seek a four-leaved clover in all the fairy dells, and if i find the charmed leaf, oh, how i'll weave my spells!" and according to a danish belief, any one wandering under an elder-bush at twelve o'clock on midsummer eve will see the king of fairyland pass by with all his retinue. fairies' haunts are mostly in picturesque spots (such as among the tufts of wild thyme); and the oak tree, both here and in germany, has generally been their favourite abode, and hence the superstitious reverence with which certain trees are held, care being taken not to offend their mysterious inhabitants. an immense deal of legendary lore has clustered round the so-called fairy-rings--little circles of a brighter green in old pastures--within which the fairies were supposed to dance by night. this curious phenomenon, however, is owing to the outspread propagation of a particular mushroom, the fairy-ringed fungus, by which the ground is manured for a richer following vegetation.[ ] amongst the many other conjectures as to the cause of these verdant circles, some have ascribed them to lightning, and others have maintained that they are produced by ants.[ ] in the "tempest" (v. i) prospero invokes the fairies as the "demi-puppets" that: "by moonshine do the green sour ringlets make, whereof the ewe not bites; and you, whose pastime is to make midnight mushrooms." and in the "merry wives of windsor" (v. ) mistress quickly says: "and nightly, meadow-fairies, look, you sing, like to the garter's compass, in a ring; the expressure that it bears, green let it be, more fertile-fresh than all the field to see." drayton, in his "nymphidia" ( . - ), tells how the fairies: "in their courses make that round, in meadows and in marshes found, of them so called the fayrie ground, of which they have the keeping." these fairy-rings have long been held in superstitious awe; and when in olden times may-dew was gathered by young ladies to improve their complexion, they carefully avoided even touching the grass within them, for fear of displeasing these little beings, and so losing their personal charms. at the present day, too, the peasant asserts that no sheep nor cattle will browse on the mystic patches, a natural instinct warning them of their peculiar nature. a few miles from alnwick was a fairy-ring, round which if people ran more than nine times, some evil was supposed to befall them. it is generally agreed that fairies were extremely fond of dancing around oaks, and thus in addressing the monarch of the forest a poet has exclaimed: "the fairies, from their nightly haunt, in copse or dell, or round the trunk revered of herne's moon-silvered oak, shall chase away each fog, each blight, and dedicate to peace thy classic shade." in sweden the miliary fever is said by the peasantry to be caused by the elf-mote or meeting with elves, as a remedy for which the lichen aphosus or lichen caninus is sought. the toadstools often found near these so-called fairy-rings were also thought to be their workmanship, and in some localities are styled pixy-stools, and in the north of wales "fairy-tables," while the "cheeses," or fruit of the mallow, are known in the north of england as "fairy-cheeses." a species of wood fungus found about the roots of old trees is designated "fairy-butter," because after rain, and when in a certain degree of putrefaction, it is reduced to a consistency which, together with its colour, makes it not unlike butter. the fairy-butter of the welsh is a substance found at a great depth in cavities of limestone rocks. ritson, in his "fairy tales," speaking of the fairies who frequented many parts of durham, relates how "a woman who had been in their society challenged one of the guests whom she espied in the market selling fairy-butter," an accusation, however, which was deeply resented. browne, in his "britannia's pastorals," makes the table on which they feast consist of: "a little mushroom, that was now grown thinner by being one time shaven for the dinner." fairies have always been jealous of their rights, and are said to resent any infringement of their privileges, one of these being the property of fruit out of season. any apples, too, remaining after the crop has been gathered in, they claim as their own; and hence, in the west of england, to ensure their goodwill and friendship, a few stray ones are purposely left on the trees. this may partially perhaps explain the ill-luck of plucking flowers out of season[ ]. a netherlandish piece of folk-lore informs us that certain wicked elves prepare poison in some plants. hence experienced shepherds are careful not to let their flocks feed after sunset. one of these plants, they say, is nightwort, "which belongs to the elves, and whoever touches it must die[ ]." the disease known in poland as "elf-lock" is said to be the work of evil fairies or demons, and is cured by burying thistle-seed in the ground. similarly, in iceland, says mr. conway, "the farmer guards the grass around his field lest the elves abiding in them invade his crops." likewise the globe-flower has been designated the troll-flower, from the malignant trolls or elves, on account of its poisonous qualities. on the other hand, the bavarian peasant has a notion that the elves are very fond of strawberries; and in order that they may be good-humoured and bless his cows with abundance of milk, he is careful to tie a basket of this fruit between the cow's horns. of the many legendary origins of the fairy tribe, there is a popular one abroad that mortals have frequently been transformed into these little beings through "eating of ambrosia or some peculiar kind of herb."[ ] according to a cornish tradition, the fern is in some mysterious manner connected with the fairies; and a tale is told of a young woman who, when one day listlessly breaking off the fronds of fern as she sat resting by the wayside, was suddenly confronted by a "fairy widower," who was in search of some one to attend to his little son. she accepted his offer, which was ratified by kissing a fern leaf and repeating this formula: "for a year and a day i promise to stay." soon she was an inhabitant of fairyland, and was lost to mortal gaze until she had fulfilled her stipulated engagement. in germany we find a race of elves, somewhat like the dwarfs, popularly known as the wood or moss people. they are about the same size as children, "grey and old-looking, hairy, and clad in moss." their lives, like those of the hamadryads, are attached to the trees; and "if any one causes by friction the inner bark to loosen a wood-woman dies."[ ] their great enemy is the wild huntsman, who, driving invisibly through the air, pursues and kills them. on one occasion a peasant, hearing the weird baying in a wood, joined in the cry; but on the following morning he found hanging at his stable door a quarter of a green moss-woman as his share of the game. as a spell against the wild huntsman, the moss-women sit in the middle of those trees upon which the woodcutter has placed a cross, indicating that they are to be hewn, thereby making sure of their safety. then, again, there is the old legend which tells how brandan met a man on the sea,[ ] who was, "a thumb long, and floated on a leaf, holding a little bowl in his right hand and a pointer in his left; the pointer he kept dipping into the sea and letting water drop from it into the bowl; when the bowl was full, he emptied it out and began filling it again, his doom consisting in measuring the sea until the judgment-day." this floating on the leaf is suggestive of ancient indian myths, and reminds us of brahma sitting on a lotus and floating across the sea. vishnu, when, after brahma's death, the waters have covered all the worlds, sits in the shape of a tiny infant on a leaf of the fig tree, and floats on the sea of milk sucking the toe of his right foot.[ ] another tribe of water-fairies are the nixes, who frequently assume the appearance of beautiful maidens. on fine sunny days they sit on the banks of rivers or lakes, or on the branches of trees, combing and arranging their golden locks: "know you the nixes, gay and fair? their eyes are black, and green their hair, they lurk in sedgy shores." a fairy or water-sprite that resides in the neighbourhood of the orkneys is popularly known as tangie, so-called from _tang,_, the seaweed with which he is covered. occasionally he makes his appearance as a little horse, and at other times as a man.[ ] then there are the wood and forest folk of germany, spirits inhabiting the forests, who stood in friendly relation to man, but are now so disgusted with the faithless world, that they have retired from it. hence their precept-- "peel no tree, relate no dream, _pipe_ no bread, _or_ bake no cumin in bread, so will god help thee in thy need." on one occasion a "forest-wife," who had just tasted a new baked-loaf, given as an offering, was heard screaming aloud: "they've baken for me cumin bread, that on this house brings great distress." the prosperity of the poor peasant was soon on the wane, and before long he was reduced to abject poverty.[ ] these legends, in addition to illustrating the fairy mythology of bygone years, are additionally interesting from their connection with the plants and flowers, most of which are familiar to us from our childhood. footnotes: . see crofton croker's "fairy legends and traditions of the south of ireland," , p. . . folkard's "plant-lore legends and lyrics," p. . . friend, "flowers and flower lore," p. . . thorpe's "northern mythology," ii. - . . thorpe's "northern mythology," iii. . . see "the phytologist," , p. - . . "folk-lore of shakespeare," p. . . see friend's "flower lore," i. . . thorpe's "northern mythology," iii. . . friend's "flower lore," i. . . see keightley's "fairy mythology," p. . . grimm's "teut. myth.," , ii. ; . "asiatic researches," i. . . see keightley's "fairy mythology," p. . . thorpe's "northern mythology," i. - . chapter viii. love-charms. plants have always been largely used for testing the fidelity of lovers, and at the present day are still extensively employed for this purpose by the rustic maiden. as in the case of medical charms, more virtue would often seem to reside in the mystic formula uttered while the flower is being secretly gathered, than in any particular quality of the flower itself. then, again, flowers, from their connection with certain festivals, have been consulted in love matters, and elsewhere we have alluded to the knowledge they have long been supposed to give in dreams, after the performance of certain incantations. turning to some of the well-known charm formulas, may be mentioned that known as "a clover of two," the mode of gathering it constituting the charm itself: "a clover, a clover of two, put it in your right shoe; the first young man you meet, in field, street, or lane, you'll get him, or one of his name." then there is the hempseed formula, and one founded on the luck of an apple-pip, which, when seized between the finger and thumb, is supposed to pop in the direction of the lover's abode; an illustration of which we subjoin as still used in lancashire: "pippin, pippin, paradise, tell me where my true love lies, east, west, north, and south, pilling brig, or cocker mouth." the old custom, too, of throwing an apple-peel over the head, marriage or single blessedness being foretold by its remaining whole or breaking, and of the peel so cast forming the initial of the future loved one, finds many adherents. equally popular, too, was the practice of divining by a thistle blossom. when anxious to ascertain who loved her most, a young woman would take three or four heads of thistles, cut off their points, and assign to each thistle the name of an admirer, laying them under her pillow. on the following morning the thistle which has put forth a fresh sprout will denote the man who loves her most. there are numerous charms connected with the ash-leaf, and among those employed in the north of england we may quote the following: "the even ash-leaf in my left hand, the first man i meet shall be my husband; the even ash-leaf in my glove, the first i meet shall be my love; the even ash-leaf in my breast, the first man i meet's whom i love best; the even ash-leaf in my hand, the first i meet shall be my man. even ash, even ash, i pluck thee, this night my true love for to see, neither in his rick nor in his rear, but in the clothes he does every day wear." and there is the well-known saying current throughout the country: "if you find an even ash or a four-leaved clover, rest assured you'll see your true love ere the day is over." longfellow alludes to the husking of the maize among the american colonists, an event which was always accompanied by various ceremonies, one of which he thus forcibly describes: "in the golden weather the maize was husked, and the maidens blushed at each blood-red ear, for that betokened a lover, but at the crooked laughed, and called it a thief in the corn-field: even the blood-red ear to evangeline brought not her lover." charms of this kind are common, and vary in different localities, being found extensively on the continent, where perhaps even greater importance is attached to them than in our own country. thus, a popular french one--which many of our young people also practise--is for lovers to test the sincerity of their affections by taking a daisy and plucking its leaflets off one by one, saying, "does he love me?--a little--much--passionately--not at all!" the phrase which falls to the last leaflet forming the answer to the inquiry: "la blanche et simple paquerette, que ton coeur consult surtout, dit, ton amant, tendre fillette, t'aime, un peu, beaucoup, point du tout." perhaps brown alludes to the same species of divination when he writes of: "the gentle daisy with her silver crown, worn in the breast of many a shepherd lass." in england the marigold, which is carefully excluded from the flowers with which german maidens tell their fortunes as unfavourable to love, is often used for divination, and in germany the star-flower and dandelion. among some of the ordinary flowers in use for love-divination may be mentioned the poppy, with its "prophetic leaf," and the old-fashioned "bachelor's buttons," which was credited with possessing some magical effect upon the fortunes of lovers. hence its blossoms were carried in the pocket, success in love being indicated in proportion as they lost or retained their freshness. browne alludes to the primrose, which "maidens as a true-love in their bosoms place;" and in the north of england the kemps or spikes of the ribwort plantain are used as love-charms. the mode of procedure as practised in northamptonshire is thus picturesquely given by clare in his "shepherd's calendar:": "or trying simple charms and spells, which rural superstition tells, they pull the little blossom threads from out the knotweed's button heads, and put the husk, with many a smile, in their white bosom for a while; then, if they guess aright the swain their love's sweet fancies try to gain, 'tis said that ere it lies an hour, 'twill blossom with a second flower, and from the bosom's handkerchief bloom as it ne'er had lost a leaf." then there are the downy thistle-heads, which the rustic maiden names after her lovers, in connection with which there are many old rhymes. beans have not lost their popularity; and the leaves of the laurel still reveal the hidden fortune, having been also burnt in olden times by girls to win back their errant lovers. the garden scene in "faust" is a well-known illustration of the employment of the centaury or bluebottle for testing the faith of lovers, for margaret selects it as the floral indication whence she may learn the truth respecting faust: "and that scarlet poppies around like a bower, the maiden found her mystic flower. 'now, gentle flower, i pray thee tell if my love loves, and loves me well; so may the fall of the morning dew keep the sun from fading thy tender blue; now i remember the leaves for my lot-- he loves me not--he loves me--he loves me not-- he loves me! yes, the last leaf--yes! i'll pluck thee not for that last sweet guess; he loves me!' 'yes,' a dear voice sighed; and her lover stands by margaret's side." another mode of love-divination formerly much practised among the lower orders was known as "peascod-wooing." the cook, when shelling green peas, would, if she chanced to find a pod having _nine_, lay it on the lintel of the kitchen-door, when the first man who happened to enter was believed to be her future sweetheart; an allusion to which is thus given by gay: "as peascod once i pluck'd, i chanced to see one that was closely fill'd with three times three, which, when i cropp'd, i safely home couvey'd, and o'er the door the spell in secret laid. the latch mov'd up, when who should first come in, but, in his proper person, lublerkin." on the other hand, it was customary in the north of england to rub a young woman with pease-straw should her lover prove unfaithful: "if you meet a bonnie lassie, gie her a kiss and let her gae; if you meet a dirty hussey, fie, gae rub her o'er wi' strae!" from an old spanish proverb it would seem that the rosemary has long been considered as in some way connected with love: "who passeth by the rosemarie and careth not to take a spraye, for woman's love no care has he, nor shall he though he live for aye." of flowers and plants employed as love-charms on certain festivals may be noticed the bay, rosebud, and the hempseed on st. valentine's day, nuts on st. mark's eve, and the st. john's wort on midsummer eve. in denmark[ ] many an anxious lover places the st. john's wort between the beams under the roof for the purpose of divination, the usual custom being to put one plant for herself and another for her sweetheart. should these grow together, it is an omen of an approaching wedding. in brittany young people prove the good faith of their lovers by a pretty ceremony. on st. john's eve, the men, wearing bunches of green wheat ears, and the women decorated with flax blossoms, assemble round an old historic stone and place upon it their wreaths. should these remain fresh for some time after, the lovers represented by them are to be united; but should they wither and die away, it is a certain proof that the love will as rapidly disappear. again, in sicily it is customary for young women to throw from their windows an apple into the street, which, should a woman pick up, it is a sign that the girl will not be married during the year. sometimes it happens that the apple is not touched, a circumstance which indicates that the young lady, when married, will ere long be a widow. on this festival, too, the orpine or livelong has long been in request, popularly known as "midsummer men," whereas in italy the house-leek is in demand. the moss-rose, again, in years gone by, was plucked, with sundry formalities, on midsummer eve for love-divination, an allusion to which mode of forecasting the future, as practised in our own country, occurs in the poem of "the cottage girl:" "the moss-rose that, at fall of dew, ere eve its duskier curtain drew, was freshly gathered from its stem, she values as the ruby gem; and, guarded from the piercing air, with all an anxious lover's care, she bids it, for her shepherd's sake, awake the new year's frolic wake: when faded in its altered hue, she reads--the rustic is untrue! but if its leaves the crimson paint, her sick'ning hopes no longer faint; the rose upon her bosom worn, she meets him at the peep of morn." on the continent the rose is still thought to possess mystic virtues in love matters, as in thuringia, where girls foretell their future by means of rose-leaves. a ceremony belonging to hallowe'en is observed in scotland with some trepidation, and consists in eating an apple before a looking-glass, when the face of the desired one will be seen. it is thus described by burns: "wee jenny to her granny says, 'will ye gae wi' me, granny? i'll eat the apple at the glass i gat frae uncle johnny.' she fuff't her pipe wi' sic a lunt, in wrath she was sae vap'rin, she notic't na an aizle brunt her braw new worset apron out thro' that night. 'ye little skelpie limmer's face! i daur you try sic sportin' as seek the foul thief ony place, for him to spae your fortune; nae doubt but ye may get a sight! great cause ye hae to fear it, for mony a ane has gotten a fright, and lived and died deleeret on sic a night.'" hallowe'en also is still a favourite anniversary for all kinds of nut-charms, and st. thomas was long invoked when the prophetic onion named after him was placed under the pillow. rosemary and thyme were used on st. agnes' eve with this formula: "st. agnes, that's to lovers kind, come, ease the troubles of my mind." in austria, on christmas eve, apples are used for divination. according to mr. conway, the apple must be cut in two in the dark, without being touched, the left half being placed in the bosom, and the right laid behind the door. if this latter ceremony be carefully carried out, the desired one may be looked for at midnight near the right half. he further tells us that in the erzgebirge, the maiden, having slept on st. andrew's, or christmas, night with an apple under her pillow, "takes her stand with it in her hand on the next festival of the church thereafter; and the first man whom she sees, other than a relative, will become her husband." again, in bohemia, on christmas eve, there is a pretty practice for young people to fix coloured wax-lights in the shells of the first nuts they have opened that day, and to float them in water, after silently assigning to each the name of some fancied wooer. he whose little barque is the first to approach the girl will be her future husband; but, on the other hand, should an unwelcome suitor seem likely to be the first, she blows against it, and so, by impeding its progress, allows the favoured barque to win. in very early times flowers were mcuh in request as love-philtres, various allusions to which occur in the literature of most ages. thus, in "a midsummer night's dream," oberon tells puck to place a pansy on the eyes of titania, in order that, on awaking, she may fall in love with the first object she encounters. gerarde speaks of the carrot as "serving for love matters," and adds that the root of the wild species is more effectual than that of the garden. vervain has long been in repute as a love-philtre, and in germany now-a-days endive-seed is sold for its supposed power to influence the affections. the root of the male fern was in years gone by used in love-philtres, and hence the following allusion: "'twas the maiden's matchless beauty that drew my heart a-nigh; not the fern-root potion, but the glance of her blue eye." then there is the basil with its mystic virtues, and the cumin-see and cyclamen, which from the time of theophrastus have been coveted for their magic virtues. the purslane, crocus, and periwinkle were thought to inspire love; while the agnus castus and the saraca indica (one of the sacred plants of india), a species of the willow, were supposed to drive away all feelings of love. similarly in voigtland, the common basil was regarded as a test of chastity, withering in the hands of the impure. the mandrake, which is still worn in france as a love-charm, was employed by witches in the composition of their philtres; and in bohemia, it is said that if a maiden can secretly put a sprig of the common clover into her lover's shoe ere he sets out on a journey, he will be faithful to her during his absence. as far back as the time of pliny, the water-lily was regarded as an antidote to the love-philtre, and the amaranth was used for curbing the affections. on the other hand, our lady's bedstraw and the mallow were supposed to have the reverse effect, while the myrtle not only created love, but preserved it. the sicilians still employ hemp to secure the affections of those they love, and gather it with various formalities,[ ] fully believing in its potency. indeed, charms of this kind are found throughout the world, every country having its own special plants in demand for this purpose. however whimsical they may seem, they at any rate have the sanction of antiquity, and can claim an antecedent history certainly worthy of a better cause. footnotes: . thorpe's "northern mythology." . _fraser's magazine_, , p. . chapter ix. dream-plants. the importance attached to dreams in all primitive and savage culture accounts for the significance ascribed to certain plants found by visitors to dreamland. at the outset, it may be noticed that various drugs and narcotic potions have, from time immemorial, been employed for producing dreams and visions--a process still in force amongst uncivilised tribes. thus the mundrucus of north brazil, when desirous of gaining information on any special subject, would administer to their seers narcotic drinks, so that in their dreams they might be favoured with the knowledge required. certain of the amazon tribes use narcotic plants for encouraging visions, and the californian indians, writes mr. tylor,[ ] "would give children narcotic potions, to gain from the ensuing visions information about their enemies;" whilst, he adds, "the darien indians used the seeds of the _datura sanguinca_ to bring on in children prophetic delirium, in which they revealed hidden treasure." similarly, the delaware medicine-men used to drink decoctions of an intoxicating nature, "until their minds became wildered, so that they saw extraordinary visions."[ ] the north american indians also held intoxication by tobacco to be supernatural ecstasy. it is curious to find a survival of this source of superstition in modern european folk-lore. thus, on the continent, many a lover puts the four-leaved clover under his pillow to dream of his lady-love; and in our own country, daisy-roots are used by the rustic maiden for the same purpose. the russians are familiar with a certain herb, known as the _son-trava_, a dream herb, which has been identified with the _pulsatilla patens,_ and is said to blossom in april, and to have an azure-coloured flower. when placed under the pillow, it will induce dreams, which are generally supposed to be fulfilled. it has been suggested that it was from its title of "tree of dreams" that the elm became a prophetic tree, having been selected by virgil in the aeneid (vi.) as the roosting-place of dreams in gloomy orcus: "full in the midst a spreading elm displayed his aged arms, and cast a mighty shade; each trembling leaf with some light visions teems, and leaves impregnated with airy dreams." at the present day, the yarrow or milfoil is used by love-sick maidens, who are directed to pluck the mystic plant from a young man's grave, repeating meanwhile this formula: "yarrow, sweet yarrow, the first that i have found, in the name of jesus christ i pluck it from the ground; as jesus loved sweet mary and took her for his dear, so in a dream this night i hope my true love will appear." indeed, many other plants are in demand for this species of love-divination, some of which are associated with certain days and festivals. in sweden, for instance, "if on midsummer night nine kinds of flowers are laid under the head, a youth or maiden will dream of his or her sweetheart."[ ] hence in these simple and rustic love-charms may be traced similar beliefs as prevail among rude communities. again, among many of the american indian tribes we find, according to mr. dorman,[ ] "a mythical tree or vine, which has a sacredness connected with it of peculiar significance, forming a connecting-link and medium of communication between the world of the living and the dead. it is generally used by the spirit as a ladder to pass downward and upward upon; the ojibways having possessed one of these vines, the upper end of which was twined round a star." he further adds that many traditions are told of attempts to climb these heavenly ladders; and, "if a young man has been much favoured with dreams, and the people believe he has the art of looking into futurity, the path is open to the highest honours. the future prophet puts down his dreams in pictographs, and when he has a collection of these, if they prove true in any respect, then this record of his revelations is appealed to as proof of his prophetic power." but, without enumerating further instances of these savage dream-traditions, which are closely allied with the animistic theories of primitive culture, we would turn to those plants which modern european folk-lore has connected with dreamland. these are somewhat extensive, but a brief survey of some of the most important ones will suffice to indicate their general significance. firstly, to dream of white flowers has been supposed to prognosticate death; with which may be compared the popular belief that "if a white rosebush puts forth unexpectedly, it is a sign of death to the nearest house;" dream-omens in many cases reflecting the superstitions of daily life. in scotch ballads the birch is associated with the dead, an illustration of which we find in the subjoined lines:-- "i dreamed a dreary dream last nicht; god keep us a' frae sorrow! i dreamed i pu'd the birk sae green, wi' my true love on yarrow. i'll redde your dream, my sister dear, i'll tell you a' your sorrow; you pu'd the birk wi' your true love; he's killed,--he's killed on yarrow." of the many plants which have been considered of good omen when seen in dreams, may be mentioned the palm-tree, olive, jasmine, lily, laurel, thistle, thorn, wormwood, currant, pear, &c.; whereas the greatest luck attaches to the rose. on the other hand, equally numerous are the plants which denote misfortune. among these may be included the plum, cherry, withered roses, walnut, hemp, cypress, dandelion, &c. beans are still said to produce bad dreams and to portend evil; and according to a leicestershire saying, "if you wish for awful dreams or desire to go crazy, sleep in a bean-field all night." some plants are said to foretell long life, such as the oak, apricot, apple, box, grape, and fig; and sickness is supposed to be presaged by such plants as the elder, onion, acorn, and plum. love and marriage are, as might be expected, well represented in the dream-flora; a circumstance, indeed, which has not failed to impress the young at all times. thus, foremost amongst the flowers which indicate success in love is the rose, a fact which is not surprising when it is remembered how largely this favourite of our gardens enters into love-divinations. then there is the clover, to dream of which foretells not only a happy marriage, but one productive of wealth and prosperity. in this case, too, it must be remembered the clover has long been reckoned as a mystic plant, having in most european countries been much employed for the purposes of divination. of further plants credited as auguring well for love affairs are the raspberry, pomegranate, cucumber, currant, and box; but the walnut implies unfaithfulness, and the act of cutting parsley is an omen that the person so occupied will sooner or later be crossed in love. this ill-luck attached to parsley is in some measure explained from the fact that in many respects it is an unlucky plant. it is a belief, as we have noticed elsewhere, widely spread in devonshire, that to transplant parsley is to commit a serious offence against the guardian genius who presides over parsley-beds, certain to be punished either on the offender himself or some member of his family within the course of the year. once more "to dream of cutting cabbage," writes mr. folkard,[ ] "denotes jealousy on the part of wife, husband, or lover, as the case may be. to dream of any one else cutting them portends an attempt by some person to create jealousy in the loved one's mind. to dream of eating cabbages implies sickness to loved ones and loss of money." the bramble, an important plant in folk-lore, is partly unlucky, and, "to dream of passing through places covered with brambles portends troubles; if they prick you, secret enemies will do you an injury with your friends; if they draw blood, expect heavy losses in trade." but to dream of passing through brambles unhurt denotes a triumph over enemies. to dream of being pricked with briars, says the "royal dream book,"[ ] "shows that the person dreaming has an ardent desire to something, and that young folks dreaming thus are in love, who prick themselves in striving to gather their rose." some plants are said to denote riches, such as the oak, marigold, pear and nut tree, while the gathering of nuts is said to presage the discovery of unexpected wealth. again, to dream of fruit or flowers out of season is a bad omen, a notion, indeed, with which we find various proverbs current throughout the country. thus, the northamptonshire peasant considers the blooming of the apple-tree after the fruit is ripe as a certain omen of death--a belief embodied in the following proverb: "a bloom upon the apple-tree when the apples are ripe, is a sure termination to somebody's life." and once more, according to an old sussex adage-- "fruit out of season sounds out of reason." on the other hand, to dream of fruit or any sort of crop during its proper season is still an indication of good luck.[ ] thus it is lucky to dream of daisies in spring-time or summer, but just the reverse in autumn or winter. without enumerating further instances of this kind, we may quote the subjoined rhyme relating to the onion, as a specimen of many similar ones scattered here and there in various countries:[ ] "to dream of eating onions means much strife in thy domestic scenes, secrets found out or else betrayed, and many falsehoods made and said." many plants in dream-lore have more than one meaning attached to them. thus from the, "royal dream book" we learn that yellow flowers "predict love mixed with jealousy, and that you will have more children to maintain than what justly belong to you." to dream of garlic indicates the discovery of hidden treasures, but the approach of some domestic quarrel. cherries, again, indicate inconstancy; but one would scarcely expect to find the thistle regarded as lucky; for, according to an old piece of folk-lore, to dream of being surrounded by this plant is a propitious sign, foretelling that the person will before long have some pleasing intelligence. in the same way a similar meaning in dream-lore attaches to the thorn. according to old dream-books, the dreaming of yew indicates the death of an aged person, who will leave considerable wealth behind him; while the violet is said to devote advancement in life. similarly, too, the vine foretells prosperity, "for which," says a dream interpreter, "we have the example of astyages, king of the medes, who dreamed that his daughter brought forth a vine, which was a prognostic of the grandeur, riches, and felicity of the great cyrus, who was born of her after this dream." plucking ears of corn signifies the existence of secret enemies, and mr. folkard quotes an old authority which tells us that the juniper is potent in dreams. thus, "it is unlucky to dream of the tree itself, especially if the person be sick; but to dream of gathering the berries, if it be in winter, denotes prosperity. to dream of the actual berries signifies that the dreamer will shortly arrive at great honours and become an important person. to the married it foretells the birth of a male child." again, eating almonds signifies a journey, its success or otherwise being denoted by their tasting sweet or the contrary. dreaming of grass is an auspicious omen, provided it be green and fresh; but if it be withered and decayed, it is a sign of the approach of misfortune and sickness, followed perhaps by death. woe betide, too, the person who dreams that he is cutting grass. certain plants produce dreams on particular occasions. the mugwort and plantain have long been associated with midsummer; and, according to thomas hill in his "natural and artificial conclusions," a rare coal is to be found under these plants but one hour in the day, and one day in the year. when aubrey happened to be walking behind montague house at twelve o'clock on midsummer day, he relates how he saw about twenty-two young women, most of them well dressed, and apparently all very busy weeding. on making inquiries, he was informed that they were looking for a coal under the root of a plantain, to put beneath their heads that night, when they would not fail to dream of their future husbands. but, unfortunately for this credulity, as an old author long ago pointed out, the coal is nothing but an old dead root, and that it may be found almost any day and hour when sought for. by lovers the holly has long been supposed to have mystic virtues as a dream-plant when used on the eve of any of the following festivals: christmas, new year's day, midsummer, and all hallowe'en. according to the mode of procedure practised in the northern counties, the anxious maiden, before retiring to rest, places three pails full of water in her bedroom, and then pins to her night-dress three leaves of green holly opposite to her heart, after which she goes to sleep. believing in the efficacy of the charm, she persuades herself that she will be roused from her first slumber by three yells, as if from the throats of three bears, succeeded by as many hoarse laughs. when these have died away, the form of her future husband will appear, who will show his attachment to her by changing the position of the water-pails, whereas if he have no particular affection he will disappear without even touching them. then, of course, from time immemorial all kinds of charms have been observed on st. valentine's day to produce prophetic dreams. a popular charm consisted of placing two bay leaves, after sprinkling them with rose-water, across the pillow, repeating this formula:-- "good valentine, be kind to me, in dream let me my true love see." st. luke's day was in years gone by a season for love-divination, and among some of the many directions given we may quote the subjoined, which is somewhat elaborate:-- "take marigold flowers, a sprig of marjoram, thyme, and a little wormwood; dry them before a fire, rub them to powder, then sift it through a fine piece of lawn; simmer these with a small quantity of virgin honey, in white vinegar, over a slow fire; with this anoint your stomach, breasts, and lips, lying down, and repeat these words thrice:-- 'st luke, st. luke, be kind to me, in dream let me my true love see!' this said, hasten to sleep, and in the soft slumbers of night's repose, the very man whom you shall marry shall appear before you." lastly, certain plants have been largely used by gipsies and fortune-tellers for invoking dreams, and in many a country village these are plucked and given to the anxious inquirer with various formulas. footnotes: . "primitive culture," , ii. , . . see dorman's "primitive superstition," p. . . thorpe's "northern mythology," , ii. . . "primitive superstitions," p. . . "plant-lore legends and lyrics," p. . . quoted in brand's "popular antiquities," , iii. . . see friend's "flower-lore," i. . . folkard's "plant-lore legends and lyrics," p. . chapter x. plants and the weather. the influence of the weather on plants is an agricultural belief which is firmly credited by the modern husbandman. in many instances his meteorological notions are the result of observation, although in some cases the reason assigned for certain pieces of weather-lore is far from obvious. incidental allusion has already been made to the astrological doctrine of the influence of the moon's changes on plants--a belief which still retains its hold in most agricultural districts. it appears that in years gone by "neither sowing, planting, nor grafting was ever undertaken without a scrupulous attention to the increase or waning of the moon;"[ ] and the advice given by tusser in his "five hundred points of husbandry" is not forgotten even at the present day:-- "sow peas and beans in the wane of the moon, who soweth them sooner, he soweth too soon, that they with the planet may rest and rise, and flourish with bearing, most plentiful-wise." many of the old gardening books give the same advice, although by some it has been severely ridiculed. scott, in his "discoverie of witchcraft," notes how, "the poor husbandman perceiveth that the increase of the moon maketh plants fruitful, so as in the full moone they are in best strength, decaying in the wane, and in the conjunction do entirely wither and fade." similarly the growth of mushrooms is said to be affected by the weather, and in devonshire apples "shrump up" if picked during a waning moon.[ ] one reason, perhaps, for the attention so universally paid to the moon's changes in agricultural pursuits is, writes mr. farrer, "that they are far more remarkable than any of the sun's, and more calculated to inspire dread by the nocturnal darkness they contend with, and hence are held in popular fancy nearly everywhere, to cause, portend, or accord with changes in the lot of mortals, and all things terrestrial."[ ] on this assumption may be explained the idea that the, "moon's wane makes things on earth to wane; when it is new or full it is everywhere the proper season for new crops to be sown." in the hervey islands cocoa-nuts are generally planted in the full of the moon, the size of the latter being regarded as symbolical of the ultimate fulness of the fruit. in the same way the weather of certain seasons of the year is supposed to influence the vegetable world, and in rutlandshire we are told that "a green christmas brings a heavy harvest;" but a full moon about christmas day is unlucky, hence the adage: "light christmas, light wheatsheaf, dark christmas, heavy wheatsheaf." if the weather be clear on candlemas day "corn and fruits will then be dear," and "whoever doth plant or sow on shrove tuesday, it will always remain green." according to a piece of weather-lore in sweden, there is a saying that to strew ash branches in a field on ash wednesday is equivalent to three days' rain and three days' sun. rain on easter day foretells a good harvest but poor hay crop, while thunder on all fool's day "brings good crops of corn and hay." according to the "shepherd's calendar," if, "midsummer day be never so little rainy the hazel and walnut will be scarce; corn smitten in many places; but apples, pears, and plums will not be hurt." and we are further reminded:-- "till st. james's day be come and gone, there may be hops or there may be none." speaking of hops, it is said, "plenty of ladybirds, plenty of hops." it is also a popular notion among our peasantry that if a drop of rain hang on an oat at this season there will be a good crop. another agricultural adage says:-- "no tempest, good july, lest corn come off bluely." then there is the old michaelmas rhyme:-- "at michaelmas time, or a little before, half an apple goes to the core; at christmas time, or a little after, a crab in the hedge, and thanks to the grafter." on the other hand, the blossoming of plants at certain times is said to be an indication of the coming weather, and so when the bramble blooms early in june an early harvest may be expected; and in the northern counties the peasant judges of the advance of the year by the appearance of the daisy, affirming that "spring has not arrived till you can set your foot on twelve daisies." we are also told that when many hawthorn blossoms are seen a severe winter will follow; and, according to wilsford, "the broom having plenty of blossoms is a sign of a fruitful year of corn." a surrey proverb tells us that "it's always cold when the blackthorn comes into flower;" and there is the rhyme which reminds us that:-- "if the oak is out before the ash, 'twill be a summer of wet and splash; but if the ash is before the oak, 'twill be a summer of fire and smoke." there are several versions of this piece of weather-lore, an old kentish one being "oak, smoke; ash, quash;" and according to a version given in notes and queries ( st series v. ):-- "if the oak's before the ash, then you'll only get a splash, if the ash precedes the oak, then you may expect a soak." from the "shepherd's calendar" we learn that, "if in the fall of the leaf in october many leaves wither on the boughs and hang there, it betokens a frosty winter and much snow," with which may be compared a devonshire saying:-- "if good apples you would have the leaves must go into the grave." or, in other words, "you must plant your trees in the fall of the leaf." and again, "apples, pears, hawthorn-quick, oak; set them at all-hallow-tide and command them to prosper; set them at candlemas and entreat them to grow." in germany,[ ] too, there is a rhyme which may be thus translated:-- "when the hawthorn bloom too early shows, we shall have still many snows." in the same way the fruit of trees and plants was regarded as a prognostication of the ensuing weather, and wilsford tells us that "great store of walnuts and almonds presage a plentiful year of corn, especially filberts." the notion that an abundance of haws betokens a hard winter is still much credited, and has given rise to the familiar scotch proverb:-- "mony haws, mony snaws." another variation of the same adage in kent is, "a plum year, a dumb year," and, "many nits, many pits," implying that the abundance of nuts in the autumn indicates the "pits" or graves of those who shall succumb to the hard and inclement weather of winter; but, on the other hand, "a cherry year, a merry year." a further piece of weather-lore tells us:-- "many rains, many rowans; many rowans, many yawns," the meaning being that an abundance of rowans--the fruit of the mountain-ash--denote a deficient harvest. among further sayings of this kind may be noticed one relating to the onion, which is thus:-- "onion's skin very thin, mild-winter's coming in; onion's skin thick and tough, coming winter cold and rough." again, many of our peasantry have long been accustomed to arrange their farming pursuits from the indications given them by sundry trees and plants. thus it is said-- "when the sloe tree is as white as a sheet, sow your barley whether it be dry or wet." with which may be compared another piece of weather-lore:-- "when the oak puts on his gosling grey, 'tis time to sow barley night or day." the leafing of the elm has from time immemorial been made to regulate agricultural operations, and hence the old rule:-- "when the elmen leaf is as big as a mouse's ear, then to sow barley never fear. when the elmen leaf is as big as an ox's eye, then say i, 'hie, boys, hie!'" a warwickshire variation is:-- "when elm leaves are big as a shilling, plant kidney beans, if to plant 'em you're willing. when elm leaves are as big as a penny, you _must_ plant kidney beans if you mean to have any." but if the grass grow in january, the husbandman is recommended to "lock his grain in the granary," while a further proverb informs us that:-- "on candlemas day if the thorns hang a drop, you are sure of a good pea crop." in bygone times the appearance of the berries of the elder was held to indicate the proper season for sowing wheat:-- "with purple fruit when elder branches bend, and their high hues the hips and cornels lend, ere yet chill hoar-frost comes, or sleety rain, sow with choice wheat the neatly furrowed plain." the elder is not without its teaching, and according to a popular old proverb:-- "when the elder is white, brew and bake a peck, when the elder is black, brew and bake a sack." according to an old proverb, "you must look for grass on the top of the oak tree," the meaning being, says ray, that "the grass seldom springs well before the oak begins to put forth." in the western counties it is asserted that frost ceases as soon as the mulberry tree bursts into leaf, with which may be compared the words of autolycus in the "winter's tale" (iv. ):-- "when daffodils begin to peer, with heigh! the doxy over the dale, why, then conies in the sweet o' the year." the dairyman is recommended in autumn to notice the appearance of the fern, because:-- "when the fern is as high as a ladle, you may sleep as long as you are able. when the fern begins to look red, then milk is good with brown bread." formerly certain agricultural operations were regulated by the seasons, and an old rule tells the farmer-- "upon st. david's day, put oats and barley in the clay." another version being:-- "sow peas and beans on david and chad, be the weather good or bad." a somersetshire piece of agricultural lore fixes an earlier date, and bids the farmer to "sow or set beans in candlemas waddle." in connection with the inclement weather that often prevails throughout the spring months it is commonly said, "they that go to their corn in may may come weeping away," but "they that go in june may come back with a merry tune." then there is the following familiar pretty couplet, of which there are several versions:-- "the bee doth love the sweetest flower, so doth the blossom the april shower." in connection with beans, there is a well-known adage which says:-- "be it weal or be it woe, beans should blow before may go." of the numerous other items of plant weather-lore, it is said that "march wind wakes the ether (_i. e_., adder) and blooms the whin;" and many of our peasantry maintain that:-- "a peck of march dust and a shower in may, makes the corn green and the fields gay." it should also be noted that many plants are considered good barometers. chickweed, for instance, expands its leaves fully when fine weather is to follow; but "if it should shut up, then the traveller is to put on his greatcoat."[ ] the same, too, is said to be the case with the pimpernel, convolvulus, and clover; while if the marigold does not open its petals by seven o'clock in the morning, either rain or thunder may be expected in the course of the day. according to wilsford, "tezils, or fuller's thistle, being gathered and hanged up in the house, where the air may come freely to it, upon the alteration of cold and windy weather will grow smoother, and against rain will close up its prickles." once more, according to the "shepherd's calendar," "chaff, leaves, thistle-down, or such light things whisking about and turning round foreshows tempestuous winds;" and coles, in his introduction to the "knowledge of plants," informs us that, "if the down flieth off colt's-foot, dandelion, and thistles when there is no wind, it is a sign of rain." some plants, again, have gained a notoriety from opening or shutting their flowers at the sun's bidding; in allusion to which perdita remarks in the "winter's tale" (iv. ):-- "the marigold, that goes to bed with the sun, and with him rises weeping." it was also erroneously said, like the sun-flower, to turn its blossoms to the sun, the latter being thus described by thomson:-- "the lofty follower of the sun, sad when he sets, shuts up her yellow leaves, drooping all night, and, when he warm returns, points her enamour'd bosom to his ray." another plant of this kind is the endive, which is said to open its petals at eight o'clock in the morning, and to close them at four in the afternoon. thus we are told how:-- "on upland slopes the shepherds mark the hour when, to the dial true, cichorium to the towering lark, lifts her soft eye, serenely blue." and as another floral index of the time of day may be noticed the goat's-beard, opening at sunrise and closing at noon--hence one of its popular names of "go to bed at noon." this peculiarity is described by bishop mant:-- "and goodly now the noon-tide hour, when from his high meridian tower the sun looks down in majesty, what time about, the grassy lea. the goat's-beard, prompt his rise to hail, with broad expanded disk, in veil close mantling wraps its yellow head, and goes, as peasants say, to bed." the dandelion has been nicknamed the peasant's clock, its flowers opening very early in the morning; while its feathery seed-tufts have long been in requisition as a barometer with children:-- "dandelion, with globe of down, the schoolboy's clock in every town, which the truant puffs amain to conjure lost hours back again." among other flowers possessing a similar feature may be noticed the wild succory, creeping mallow, purple sandwort, small bindweed, common nipplewort, and smooth sow-thistle. then of course there is the pimpernel, known as the shepherd's clock and poor man's weather-glass; while the small purslane and the common garden lettuce are also included in the flower-clock.[ ] among further items of weather-lore associated with may, we are told how he that "sows oats in may gets little that way," and "he who mows in may will have neither fruit nor hay." calm weather in june "sets corn in tune;" and a suffolk adage says:-- "cut your thistles before st. john, you will have two instead of one." but "midsummer rain spoils hay and grain," whereas it is commonly said that, "a leafy may, and a warm june, bring on the harvest very soon." again, boisterous wet weather during the month of july is to be deprecated, for, as the old adage runs:-- "no tempest, good july, lest the corn look surly." flowers of this kind are very numerous, and under a variety of forms prevail largely in our own and other countries, an interesting collection of which have been collected by mr. swainson in his interesting little volume on "weather folk-lore," in which he has given the parallels in foreign countries. it must be remembered, however, that a great number of these plant-sayings originated very many years ago--long before the alteration in the style of the calendar--which in numerous instances will account for their apparent contradictory character. in noticing, too, these proverbs, account must be taken of the variation of climate in different countries, for what applies to one locality does not to another. thus, for instance, according to a basque proverb, "a wet may, a fruitful year," whereas it is said in corsica, "a rainy may brings little barley and no wheat." instances of this kind are of frequent occurrence, and of course are in many cases explained by the difference of climate. but in comparing all branches of folk-lore, similar variations, as we have already observed, are noticeable, to account for which is often a task full of difficulty. of the numerous other instances of weather-lore associated with agricultural operations, it is said in relation to rain:-- "sow beans in the mud, and they'll grow like wood." and a saying in east anglia is to this effect:-- "sow in the slop (or sop), heavy at top." a further admonition advises the farmer to "sow wheat in dirt, and rye in dust;" while, according to a piece of folk-lore current in east anglia, "wheat well-sown is half-grown." the scotch have a proverb warning the farmer against premature sowing:-- "nae hurry wi' your corns, nae hurry wi' your harrows; snaw lies ahint the dyke, mair may come and fill the furrows." and according to another old adage we are told how:-- "when the aspen leaves are no bigger than your nail, is the time to look out for truff and peel."[ ] in short, it will be found that most of our counties have their items of weather-lore; many of which, whilst varying in some respect, are evidently modifications of one and the same belief. in many cases, too, it must be admitted that this species of weather-wisdom is not based altogether on idle fancy, but in accordance with recognised habits of plants under certain conditions of weather. indeed, it has been pointed out that so sensitive are various flowers to any change in the temperature or the amount of light, that it has been noticed that there is as much as one hour's difference between the time when the same flower opens at paris and upsala. it is, too, a familiar fact to students of vegetable physiology that the leaves of _porleria hygrometrica_ fold down or rise up in accordance with the state of the atmosphere. in short, it was pointed out in the _standard_, in illustration of the extreme sensitiveness of certain plants to surrounding influences, how the _haedysarums_ have been well known ever since the days of linnseus to suddenly begin to quiver without any apparent cause, and just as suddenly to stop. force cannot initiate the movement, though cold will stop it, and heat will set in motion again the suspended animation of the leaves. if artificially kept from moving they will, when released, instantly begin their task anew and with redoubled energy. similarly the leaves of the _colocasia esculenta_--the tara of the sandwich islands--will often shiver at irregular times of the day and night, and with such energy that little bells hung on the petals tinkle. and yet, curious to say, we are told that the keenest eye has not yet been able to detect any peculiarity in these plants to account for these strange motions. it has been suggested that they are due to changes in the weather of such a slight character that, "our nerves are incapable of appreciating them, or the mercury of recording their accompanying oscillations." footnotes: . tylor's "primitive culture," , i. . . see "english folk-lore," pp. , . . "primitive manners and customs," p. . . dublin university magazine, december , p. . . see swainson's "weather-lore," p. . . see "flower-lore," p. . . see _notes and queries_, st ser. ii. . chapter xi plant proverbs. a host of curious proverbs have, from the earliest period, clustered round the vegetable world, most of which--gathered from experience and observation--embody an immense amount of truth, besides in numerous instances conveying an application of a moral nature. these proverbs, too, have a very wide range, and on this account are all the more interesting from the very fact of their referring to so many conditions of life. thus, the familiar adage which tells us that "nobody is fond of fading flowers," has a far deeper signification, reminding us that everything associated with change and decay must always be a matter of regret. to take another trite proverb of the same kind, we are told how "truths and roses have thorns about them," which is absolutely true; and there is the well-known expression "to pipe in an ivy leaf," which signifies "to go and engage in some futile or idle pursuit" which cannot be productive of any good. the common proverb, "he hath sown his wild oats," needs no comment; and the inclination of evil to override good is embodied in various adages, such, as, "the weeds o'ergrow the corn," while the tenacity with which evil holds its ground is further expressed in such sayings as this--"the frost hurts not weeds." the poisonous effects, again, of evil is exemplified thus--"one ill-bred mars a whole pot of pottage," and the rapidity with which it spreads has, amongst other proverbs, been thus described, "evil weeds grow apace." speaking of weeds in their metaphorical sense, we may quote one further adage respecting them:-- "a weed that runs to seed is a seven years' weed." and the oft-quoted phrase, "it will be a nosegay to him as long as he lives," implies that disagreeable actions, instead of being lost sight of, only too frequently cling to a man in after years, or, as ray says, "stink in his nostrils." the man who abandons some good enterprise for a worthless, or insignificant, undertaking is said to "cut down an oak and plant a thistle," of which there is a further version, "to cut down an oak and set up a strawberry." the truth of the next adage needs no comment--"usurers live by the fall of heirs, as swine by the droppings of acorns." things that are slow but sure in their progress are the subject of a well-known gloucestershire saying:-- "it is as long in coming as cotswold barley." "the corn in this cold country," writes ray, "exposed to the winds, bleak and shelterless, is very backward at the first, but afterwards overtakes the forwardest in the country, if not in the barn, in the bushel, both for the quantity and goodness thereof." according to the italians, "every grain hath its bran," which corresponds with our saying, "every bean hath its black," the meaning being that nothing is without certain imperfections. a person in extreme poverty is often described as being "as bare as the birch at yule even," and an ill-natured or evil-disposed person who tries to do harm, but cannot, is commonly said to:-- "jump at it like a cock at a gooseberry." then the idea of durableness is thus expressed in a wiltshire proverb:-- "an eldern stake and a blackthorn ether [hedge], will make a hedge to last for ever"-- an elder stake being commonly said to last in the ground longer than an iron bar of the same size.[ ] a person who is always on the alert to make use of opportunities, and never allows a good thing to escape his grasp, is said to "have a ready mouth for a ripe cherry." the rich beauty, too, of the cherry, which causes it to be gathered, has had this moral application attached to it:-- "a woman and a cherry are painted for their own harm." speaking of cherries, it may be mentioned that the awkwardness of eating them on account of their stones, has given rise to sundry proverbs, as the following:-- "eat peas with the king, and cherries with the beggar," and:-- "those that eat cherries with great persons shall have their eyes squirted out with the stones." a man who makes a great show without a corresponding practice is said to be like "fig-tree fuel, much smoke and little fire," and another adage says:-- "peel a fig for your friend, and a peach for your enemy." this proverb, however, is not quite clear when applied to this country. "to peel a fig, so far as we are concerned," writes mr. hazlitt[ ], "can have no significance, except that we should not regard it as a friendly service; but, in fact, the proverb is merely a translation from the spanish, and in that language and country the phrase carries a very full meaning, as no one would probably like to eat a fig without being sure that the fruit had not been tampered with. the whole saying is, however, rather unintelligible. 'peeling a peach' would be treated anywhere as a dubious attention." of the many proverbs connected with thorns, there is the true one which tells us how, "he that goes barefoot must not plant thorns," the meaning of which is self-evident, and the person who lives in a chronic state of uneasiness is said to, "sit on thorns." then there is the oft-quoted adage:-- "while thy shoe is on thy foot, tread upon the thorns." on the other hand, that no position in life is exempt from trouble of some kind is embodied in this proverb:-- "wherever a man dwells he shall be sure to have a thorn bush near his door," which ray also explains in its literal sense, remarking that there "are few places in england where a man can dwell, but he shall have one near him." then, again, thorns are commonly said to "make the greatest crackling," and "the thorn comes forth with its point forward." many a great man has wished himself poor and obscure in his hours of adversity, a sentiment contained in the following proverb:-- "the pine wishes herself a shrub when the axe is at her root." a quaint phrase applied to those who expect events to take an unnatural turn is:-- "would you have potatoes grow by the pot-side?" amongst some of the other numerous proverbs may be mentioned a few relating to the apple; one of these reminding us that, "an apple, an egg, and a nut, you may eat after a slut." selfishness in giving is thus expressed:-- "to give an apple where there is an orchard." and the idea of worthlessness is often referred to as when it is said that "there is small choice in rotten apples," with which may be compared another which warns us of the contagious effects of bad influence:-- "the rotten apple injures its neighbour." the utter dissimilarity which often exists between two persons, or things, is jocularly enjoined in the familiar adage:-- "as like as an apple is to a lobster," and the folly of taking what one knows is paltry or bad has given rise to an instructive proverb:-- "better give an apple than eat it." the folly of expecting good results from the most unreasonable causes is the subject of the following old adage:-- "plant the crab where you will, it will never bear pippins." the crab tree has also been made the subject of several amusing rhymes, one of which is as follows:-- "the crab of the wood is sauce very good for the crab of the sea, but the wood of the crab is sauce for a drab that will not her husband obey." the coolness of the cucumber has long ago become proverbial for a person of a cold collected nature, "as cool as a cucumber," and the man who not only makes unreasonable requests, but equally expects them to be gratified, is said to "ask an elm-tree for pears." then, again, foolish persons who have no power of observation, are likened to "a blind goose that knows not a fox from a fern bush." the willow has long been a proverbial symbol of sadness, and on this account it was customary for those who were forsaken in love to wear a garland made of willow. thus in "othello," desdemona (act iv. sc. ) anticipating her death, says:-- "my mother had a maid called barbara: she was in love; and he she loved proved mad, and did forsake her: she had a song of willow; an old thing 'twas, but it expressed her fortune, and she died singing it: that song to-night will not go from my mind." according to another adage:-- "willows are weak, yet they bind other wood," the significance of which is clear. then, again, there is the not very complimentary proverbial saying, of which there are several versions:-- "a spaniel, a woman, and a walnut-tree, the more they're beaten, the better they be." another variation, given by moor in his "suffolk words" (p. ), is this:-- "three things by beating better prove: a nut, an ass, a woman; the cudgel from their back remove, and they'll be good for no man." a curious phrase current in devonshire for a young lady who jilts a man is, "she has given him turnips;" and an expressive one for those persons who in spite of every kindness are the very reverse themselves is this:-- "though you stroke the nettle ever so kindly, yet it will sting you;" with which may be compared a similar proverb equally suggestive:-- "he that handles a nettle tenderly is soonest stung." the ultimate effects of perseverance, coupled with time, is thus shown:-- "with time and patience the leaf of the mulberry tree becomes satin." a phrase current, according to ray, in gloucestershire for those "who always have a sad, severe, and terrific countenance," is, "he looks as if he lived on tewkesbury mustard"--this town having been long noted for its "mustard-balls made there, and sent to other parts." it may be remembered that in " henry iv." (act ii. sc. ) falstaff speaks of "wit as thick as tewkesbury mustard." then there is the familiar adage applied to the man who lacks steady application, "a rolling stone gathers no moss," with which may be compared another, "seldom mosseth the marble-stone that men [tread] oft upon." among the good old proverbs associated with flax may be mentioned the following, which enjoins the necessity of faith in our actions:-- "get thy spindle and thy distaff ready, and god will send the flax." a popular phrase speaks of "an owl in an ivy-bush," which perhaps was originally meant to denote the union of wisdom with conviviality, equivalent to "be merry and wise." formerly an ivy-bush was a common tavern sign, and gave rise to the familiar proverb, "good wine needs no bush," this plant having been selected probably from having been sacred to bacchus. according to an old proverb respecting the camomile, we are told that "the more it is trodden the more it will spread," an allusion to which is made by falstaff in "i henry iv." (act ii. sc. ):-- "for though the camomile, the more it is trodden on, the faster it grows; yet youth, the more it is wasted, the sooner it wears." there are many proverbs associated with the oak. referring to its growth, we are told that "the willow will buy a horse before the oak will pay for a saddle," the allusion being, of course, to the different rates at which trees grow. that occasionally some trifling event may have the most momentous issues is thus exemplified:-- "the smallest axe may fell the largest oak;" although, on the other hand, it is said that:-- "an oak is not felled at one chop." a further variation of the same idea tells us how:-- "little strokes fell great oaks," in connection with which may be quoted the words of ovid to the same effect:-- "quid magis est durum saxo? quid mollius unda? dura taneu molli saxa cavantur aqua?" then, again, it is commonly said that:-- "oaks may fall when seeds brave the storm." and to give one more illustration:-- "the greatest oaks have been little acorns." similarly, with trees in general, we find a good number of proverbs. thus one informs us that "wise men in the world are like timber trees in a hedge, here and there one." that there is some good in every one is illustrated by this saying--"there's no tree but bears some fruit." the familiar proverb, that "the tree is no sooner down but every one runs for his hatchet," explains itself, whereas "the highest tree hath the greater fall," which, in its moral application, is equally true. again, an agricultural precept enjoins the farmer to "set trees poor and they will grow rich; set them rich and they will grow poor," that is, remove them out of a more barren into a fatter soil. that success can only be gained by toil is illustrated in this proverb--"he that would have the fruit must climb the tree," and once more it is said that "he who plants trees loves others beside himself." in the midland counties there is a proverbial saying that "if there are no kegs or seeds in the ash trees, there will be no king within the twelvemonth," the ash never being wholly destitute of kegs. another proverb refers to the use of ash-wood for burning:-- "burn ash-wood green, 'tis a fire for a queen, burn ash-wood dear, 'twill make a man swear;" the meaning being that the ash when green burns well, but when dry or withered just the reverse. a form of well-wishing formerly current in yorkshire was thus:-- "may your footfall be by the root of an ash," in allusion, it has been suggested, to the fact that the ash is a capital tree for draining the soil in its vicinity. but leaving trees, an immense number of proverbs are associated with corn, many of which are very varied. thus, of those who contrive to get a good return for their meagre work or money, it is said:-- "you have made a long harvest for a little corn," with which may be compared the phrase:-- "you give me coloquintida (colocynth) for herb-john." those who reap advantage from another man's labour are said to "put their sickle into another man's corn," and the various surroundings of royalty, however insignificant they may be, are generally better, says the proverb, than the best thing of the subjects:-- "the king's chaff is better than other people's corn." among the proverbs relating to grass may be mentioned the popular one, "he does not let the grass grow under his feet;" another old version of which is, "no grass grows on his heel." another well-known adage reminds us that:-- "the higher the hill the lower the grass." and equally familiar is the following:-- "while the grass groweth the seely horse starveth." in connection with hops, the proverb runs that "hops make or break;" and no hop-grower, writes, mr. hazlitt,[ ] "will have much difficulty in appreciating this proverbial dictum. an estate has been lost or won in the course of a single season; but the hop is an expensive plant to rear, and a bad year may spoil the entire crop." actions which produce different results to what are expected are thus spoken of:-- "you set saffron and there came up wolfsbane." in devonshire it may be noted that this plant is used to denote anything of value; and it is related of a farmer near exeter who, when praising a certain farm, remarked, "'tis a very pretty little place; he'd let so dear as saffron." many, again, are the proverbial sayings associated with roses--most of these being employed to indicate what is not only sweet and lovely, but bright and joyous. thus, there are the well-known phrases, "a bed of roses," and "as sweet as a rose," and the oft-quoted popular adage:-- "the rose, called by any other name, would smell as sweet," which, as mr. hazlitt remarks, "although not originally proverbial, or in its nature, or even in the poet's intention so, has acquired that character by long custom." an old adage, which is still credited by certain of our country folk, reminds us that:-- "a parsley field will bring a man to his saddle and a woman to her grave," a warning which is not unlike one current in surrey and other southern counties:-- "where parsley's grown in the garden, there'll be a death before the year's out." in devonshire it has long been held unlucky to transplant parsley, and a poor woman in the neighbourhood of morwenstow attributed a certain stroke with which one of her children had been afflicted after whooping-cough to the unfortunate undoing of the parsley bed. in the "folk-lore record," too, an amusing instance is related of a gardener at southampton, who, for the same reason, refused to sow some parsley seed. it may be noted that from a very early period the same antipathy has existed in regard to this plant, and it is recorded how a few mules laden with parsley threw into a complete panic a greek force on its march against the enemy. but the plant no doubt acquired its ominous significance from its having been largely used to bestrew the tombs of the dead; the greek term "dehisthai selinou"--to be in need of parsley--was a common phrase employed to denote those on the point of death. there are various other superstitions attached to this plant, as in hampshire, where the peasants dislike giving any away for fear of some ill-luck befalling them. similarly, according to another proverb:-- "sowing fennel is sowing sorrow." but why this should be so it is difficult to explain, considering that by the ancients fennel was used for the victor's wreath, and, as one of the plants dedicated to st. john, it has long been placed over doors on his vigil. on the other hand, there is a common saying with respect to rosemary, which was once much cultivated in kitchen gardens:-- "where rosemary flourishes the lady rules." vetches, from being reputed a most hardy grain, have been embodied in the following adage:-- "a thetch will go through the bottom of an old shoe," which reminds us of the proverbial saying:-- "like a camomile bed, the more it is trodden the more it will spread." the common expression:-- "worth a plum," is generally said of a man who is accredited with large means, and another adage tells us that, "the higher the plum-tree, the riper the plum." to live in luxury and affluence is expressed by the proverbial phrase "to live in clover," with which may be compared the saying "do it up in lavender," applied to anything which is valuable and precious. a further similar phrase is "laid up in lavender," in allusion to the old-fashioned custom of scenting newly-washed linen with this fragrant plant. thus shenstone says:-- "lavender, whose spikes of azure bloom shall be, erewhile, in arid bundles bound, to lurk amidst the labours of her loom, and crown her kerchiefs clean with micklc rare perfume." according to gerarde, the spartans were in the habit of eating cress with their bread, from a popular notion very generally held among the ancients, that those who ate it became noted for their wit and decision of character. hence the old proverb:-- "eat cress to learn more wit." of fruit proverbs we are told that, "if you would enjoy the fruit, pluck not the flower." and again:-- "when all fruit fails, welcome haws." and "if you would have fruit, you must carry the leaf to the grave;" which ray explains, "you must transplant your trees just about the fall of the leaf," and then there is the much-quoted rhyme:-- "fruit out of season, sorrow out of reason." respecting the vine, it is said:-- "make the vine poor, and it will make you rich," that is, prune off its branches; and another adage is to this effect: "short boughs, long vintage." the constant blooming of the gorse has given rise to a popular northamptonshire proverb:-- "when gorse is out of bloom, kissing is out of season." the health-giving properties of various plants have long been in the highest repute, and have given rise to numerous well-known proverbs, which are still heard in many a home. thus old gerarde, describing the virtues of the mallow, tells us:-- "if that of health you have any special care, use french mallows, that to the body wholesome are." then there is the time-honoured adage which says that:-- "he that would live for aye must eat sage in may." and aubrey has bequeathed us the following piece of advice:-- "eat leeks in lide, and ramsines in may, and all the year after physicians may play." there are many sayings of this kind still current among our country-folk, some of which no doubt contain good advice; and of the plaintain, which from time immemorial has been used as a vulnerary, it is said:-- "plantain ribbed, that heals the reaper's wounds." in herefordshire there is a popular rhyme associated with the aul (_alnus glutinosus_):-- "when the bud of the aul is as big as the trout's eye, then that fish is in season in the river wye." a yorkshire name for the quaking grass (_briza media_) is "trembling jockies," and according to a local proverb:-- "a trimmling jock i' t' house, an' you weeant hev a mouse," this plant being, it is said, obnoxious to mice. according to a warwickshire proverb:-- "plant your sage and rue together, the sage will grow in any weather." this list of plant proverbs might easily be extended, but the illustrations quoted in the preceding pages are a fair sample of this portion of our subject. whereas many are based on truth, others are more or less meaningless. at any rate, they still thrive to a large extent among our rural community, by whom they are regarded as so many household sayings. footnotes: . see akerman's "wiltshire glossary," p. . . "english proverbs and proverbial phrases," pp. - . . "proverbs and proverbial phrases," p. . chapter xii. plants and their ceremonial use. in the earliest period of primitive society flowers seem to have been largely used for ceremonial purposes. tracing their history downwards up to the present day, we find how extensively, throughout the world, they have entered into sacred and other rites. this is not surprising when we remember how universal have been the love and admiration for these choice and lovely productions of nature's handiwork. from being used as offerings in the old heathen worship they acquired an additional veneration, and became associated with customs which had important significance. hence the great quantity of flowers required, for ceremonial purposes of various kinds, no doubt promoted and encouraged a taste for horticulture even among uncultured tribes. thus the mexicans had their famous floating gardens, and in the numerous records handed down of social life, as it existed in different countries, there is no lack of references to the habits and peculiarities of the vegetable world. again, from all parts of the world, the histories of bygone centuries have contributed their accounts of the rich assortment of flowers in demand for the worship of the gods, which are valuable as indicating how elaborate and extensive was the knowledge of plants in primitive periods, and how magnificent must have been the display of these beautiful and brilliant offerings. amongst some tribes, too, so sacred were the flowers used in religious rites held, that it was forbidden so much as to smell them, much less to handle them, except by those whose privileged duty it was to arrange them for the altar. coming down to the historic days of greece and rome, we have abundant details of the skill and care that were displayed in procuring for religious purposes the finest and choicest varieties of flowers; abundant allusions to which are found in the old classic writings. the profuseness with which flowers were used in rome during triumphal processions has long ago become proverbial, in allusion to which macaulay says:-- "on they ride to the forum, while laurel boughs, and flowers, from house-tops and from windows, fell on their crests in showers." flowers, in fact, were in demand on every conceivable occasion, a custom which was frequently productive of costly extravagance. then there was their festival of the floralia, in honour of the reappearance of spring-time, with its hosts of bright blossoms, a survival of which has long been kept up in this country on may day, when garlands and carols form the chief feature of the rustic merry-making. another grand ceremonial occasion, when flowers were specially in request, was the fontinalia, an important day in rome, for the wells and fountains were crowned with flowers:-- "fontinalia festus erat dies romae, quo in fontes coronas projiciebant, puteosque coronabant, ut a quibus pellucidos liquores at restinguendam sitim acciperent, iisdem gratiam referre hoc situ viderentur." a pretty survival of this festival has long been observed in the well-dressing of tissington on ascension day, when the wells are most beautifully decorated with leaves and flowers, arranged in fanciful devices, interwoven into certain symbols and texts. this floral rite is thus described in "the fleece":-- "with light fantastic toe, the nymphs thither assembled, thither every swain; and o'er the dimpled stream a thousand flowers, pale lilies, roses, violets and pinks, mix'd with the greens of bouret, mint, and thyme, and trefoil, sprinkled with their sportive arms, such custom holds along th' irriguous vales, from wreken's brow to rocky dolvoryn, sabrina's early haunt." with this usage may be compared one performed by the fishermen of weymouth, who on the first of may put out to sea for the purpose of scattering garlands of flowers on the waves, as a propitiatory offering to obtain food for the hungry. "this link," according to miss lambert, "is but another link in the chain that connects us with the yet more primitive practice of the red indian, who secures passage across the lake superior, or down the mississippi, by gifts of precious tobacco, which he wafts to the great spirit of the flood on the bosom of its waters." by the romans a peculiar reverence seems to have attached to their festive garlands, which were considered unsuitable for wearing in public. hence, any person appearing in one was liable to punishment, a law which was carried out with much rigour. on one occasion, lucius fulvius, a banker, having been convicted at the time of the second punic war, of looking down from the balcony of a house with a chaplet of roses on his head, was thrown into prison by order of the senate, and here kept for sixteen years, until the close of the war. a further case of extreme severity was that of p. munatius, who was condemned by the triumviri to be put in chains for having crowned himself with flowers from the statue of marsyas. allusions to such estimation of garlands in olden times are numerous in the literature of the past, and it may be remembered how montesquieu remarked that it was with two or three hundred crowns of oak that rome conquered the world. guests at feasts wore garlands of flowers tied with the bark of the linden tree, to prevent intoxication; the wreath having been framed in accordance with the position of the wearer. a poet, in his paraphrase on horace, thus illustrates this custom:-- "nay, nay, my boy, 'tis not for me this studious pomp of eastern luxury; give me no various garlands fine with linden twine; nor seek where latest lingering blows the solitary rose." not only were the guests adorned with flowers, but the waiters, drinking-cups, and room, were all profusely decorated.[ ] "in short," as the author of "flower-lore" remarks, "it would be difficult to name the occasions on which flowers were not employed; and, as almost all plants employed in making garlands had a symbolical meaning, the garland was composed in accordance with that meaning." garlands, too, were thrown to actors on the stage, a custom which has come down to the present day in an exaggerated form. indeed, many of the flowers in request nowadays for ceremonial uses in our own and other countries may be traced back to this period; the symbolical meaning attached to certain plants having survived after the lapse of many centuries. for a careful description of the flowers thus employed, we would refer the reader to two interesting papers contributed by miss lambert to the _nineteenth century_,[ ] in which she has collected together in a concise form all the principal items of information on the subject in past years. a casual perusal of these papers will suffice to show what a wonderful knowledge of botany the ancients must have possessed; and it may be doubted whether the most costly array of plants witnessed at any church festival supersedes a similar display witnessed by worshippers in the early heathen temples. in the same way, we gain an insight into the profusion of flowers employed by heathen communities in later centuries, showing how intimately associated these have been with their various forms of worship. thus, the singhalese seem to have used flowers to an almost incredible extent, and one of their old chronicles tells us how the ruanwellé dagoba-- feet high--was festooned with garlands from pedestal to pinnacle, till it had the appearance of one uniform bouquet. we are further told that in the fifteenth century a certain king offered no less than , , sweet-smelling flowers at the shrine of the tooth; and, among the regulations of the temple at dambedenia in the thirteenth century, one prescribes that "every day an offering of , blossoms, and each day a different kind of flower," should be presented. this is a striking instance, but only one of many. "with regard to greece, there are few of our trees and flowers," writes mr. moncure conway,[ ] "which were not cultivated in the gorgeous gardens of epicurus, pericles, and pisistratus." among the flowers chiefly used for garlands and chaplets in ceremonial rites we find the rose, violet, anemone, thyme, melilot, hyacinth, crocus, yellow lily, and yellow flowers generally. thucydides relates how, in the ninth year of the peloponnesian war, the temple of juno at argos was burnt down owing to the priestess chrysis having set a lighted torch too near the garlands and then fallen asleep. the garlands caught fire, and the damage was irremediable before she was conscious of the mischief. the gigantic scale on which these floral ceremonies were conducted may be gathered from the fact that in the procession of europa at corinth a huge crown of myrtle, thirty feet in circumference, was borne. at athens the myrtle was regarded as the symbol of authority, a wreath of its leaves having been worn by magistrates. on certain occasions the mitre of the jewish high priest was adorned with a chaplet of the blossoms of the henbane. of the further use of garlands, we are told that the japanese employ them very freely;[ ] both men and women wearing chaplets of fragrant blossoms. a wreath of a fragrant kind of olive is the reward of literary merit in china. in northern india the african marigold is held as a sacred flower; they adorn the trident emblem of mahádivá with garlands of it, and both men and women wear chaplets made of its flowers on his festivals. throughout polynesia garlands have been habitually worn on seasons of "religious solemnity or social rejoicing," and in tonga they were employed as a token of respect. in short, wreaths seem to have been from a primitive period adopted almost universally in ceremonial rites, having found equal favour both with civilised as well as uncivilised communities. it will probably, too, always be so. flowers have always held a prominent place in wedding ceremonies, and at the present day are everywhere extensively used. indeed, it would be no easy task to exhaust the list of flowers which have entered into the marriage customs of different countries, not to mention the many bridal emblems of which they have been made symbolical. as far back as the time of juno, we read, according to homer's graphic account, how:-- "glad earth perceives, and from her bosom pours unbidden herbs and voluntary flowers: thick, new-born violets a soft carpet spread, and clust'ring lotos swelled the rising bed; and sudden hyacinths the earth bestrow, and flamy crocus made the mountain glow." according to a very early custom the grecian bride was required to eat a quince, and the hawthorn was the flower which formed her wreath, which at the present day is still worn at greek nuptials, the altar being decked with its blossoms. among the romans the hazel held a significant position, torches having been burnt on the wedding evening to insure prosperity to the newly-married couple, and both in greece and rome young married couples were crowned with marjoram. at roman weddings, too, oaken boughs were carried during the ceremony as symbols of fecundity; and the bridal wreath was of verbena, plucked by the bride herself. holly wreaths were sent as tokens of congratulation, and wreaths of parsley and rue were given under a belief that they were effectual preservatives against evil spirits. in germany, nowadays, a wreath of vervain is presented to the newly-married bride; a plant which, on account of its mystic virtues, was formerly much used for love-philtres and charms. the bride herself wears a myrtle wreath, as also does the jewish maiden, but this wreath was never given either to a widow or a divorced woman. occasionally, too, it is customary in germany to present the bride and bridegroom with an almond at the wedding banquet, and in the nuptial ceremonies of the czechs this plant is distributed among the guests. in switzerland so much importance was in years past attached to flowers and their symbolical significance that, "a very strict law was in force prohibiting brides from wearing chaplets or garlands in the church, or at any time during the wedding feast, if they had previously in any way forfeited their rights to the privileges of maidenhood."[ ] with the swiss maiden the edelweiss is almost a sacred flower, being regarded as a proof of the devotion of her lover, by whom it is often gathered with much risk from growing in inaccessible spots. in italy, as in days of old, nuts are scattered at the marriage festival, and corn is in many cases thrown over the bridal couple, a survival of the old roman custom of making offerings of corn to the bride. a similar usage prevails at an indian wedding, where, "after the first night, the mother of the husband, with all the female relatives, comes to the young bride and places on her head a measure of corn--emblem of fertility. the husband then comes forward and takes from his bride's head some handfuls of the grain, which he scatters over himself." as a further illustration we may quote the old polish custom, which consisted of visitors throwing wheat, rye, oats, barley, rice, and beans at the door of the bride's house, as a symbol that she never would want any of these grains so long as she did her duty. in the tyrol is a fine grove of pine-trees--the result of a long-established custom for every newly united couple to plant a marriage tree, which is generally of the pine kind. garlands of wild asparagus are used by the boeotians, while with the chinese the peach-blossom is the popular emblem of a bride. in england, flowers have always been largely employed in the wedding ceremony, although they have varied at different periods, influenced by the caprice of fashion. thus, it appears that flowers were once worn by the betrothed as tokens of their engagement, and quarles in his "sheapheard's oracles," , tells us how, "love-sick swains compose rush-rings and myrtle-berry chains, and stuck with glorious kingcups, and their bonnets adorn'd with laurell slips, chaunt their love sonnets." spenser, too, in his "shepherd's calendar" for april, speaks of "coronations and sops in wine worn of paramours"--sops in wine having been a nickname for pinks (_dianthus plumarius_), although dr. prior assigns the name to _dianthus caryophyllus_. similarly willow was worn by a discarded lover. in the bridal crown, the rosemary often had a distinguished place, besides figuring at the ceremony itself, when it was, it would seem, dipped in scented water, an allusion to which we find in beaumont and fletcher's "scornful lady," where it is asked, "were the rosemary branches dipped?" another flower which was entwined in the bridal garland was the lily, to which ben jonson refers in speaking of the marriage of his friend mr. weston with the lady frances stuart:-- "see how with roses and with lilies shine, lilies and roses (flowers of either sex), the bright bride's paths." it was also customary to plant a rose-bush at the head of the grave of a deceased lover, should either of them die before the wedding. sprigs of bay were also introduced into the bridal wreath, besides ears of corn, emblematical of the plenty which might always crown the bridal couple. nowadays the bridal wreath is almost entirely composed of orange-blossom, on a background of maiden-hair fern, with a sprig of stephanotis interspersed here and there. much uncertainty exists as to why this plant was selected, the popular reason being that it was adopted as an emblem of fruitfulness. according to a correspondent of _notes and queries_, the practice may be traced to the saracens, by whom the orange-blossom was regarded as a symbol of a prosperous marriage--a circumstance which is partly to be accounted for by the fact that in the east the orange-tree bears ripe fruit and blossom at the same time. then there is the bridal bouquet, which is a very different thing from what it was in years gone by. instead of being composed of the scarcest and most costly flowers arranged in the most elaborate manner, it was a homely nosegay of mere country flowers--some of the favourite ones, says herrick, being pansy, rose, lady-smock, prick-madam, gentle-heart, and maiden-blush. a spray of gorse was generally inserted, in allusion, no doubt, to the time-honoured proverb, "when the furze is out of bloom, kissing is out of fashion." in spring-time again, violets and primroses were much in demand, probably from being in abundance at the season; although they have generally been associated with early death. among the many floral customs associated with the wedding ceremony may be mentioned the bridal-strewings, which were very prevalent in past years, a survival of which is still kept up at knutsford, in cheshire. on such an occasion, the flowers used were emblematical, and if the bride happened to be unpopular, she often encountered on her way to the church flowers of a not very complimentary meaning. the practice was not confined to this country, and we are told how in holland the threshold of the newly-married couple was strewn with flowers, the laurel being as a rule most conspicuous among the festoons. lastly, the use of flowers in paying honours to the dead has been from time immemorial most widespread. instances are so numerous that it is impossible to do more than quote some of the most important, as recorded in our own and other countries. for detailed accounts of these funereal floral rites it would be necessary to consult the literature of the past from a very early period, and the result of such inquiries would form material enough for a goodly-sized volume. therespect for the dead among the early greeks was very great, and miss lambert[ ] quotes the complaint of petala to simmalion, in the epistles of alciphron, to show how special was the dedication of flowers to the dead:--"i have a lover who is a mourner, not a lover; he sends me garlands and roses as if to deck a premature grave, and he says he weeps through the live-long night." the chief flowers used by them for strewing over graves were the polyanthus, myrtle, and amaranth; the rose, it would appear from anacreon, having been thought to possess a special virtue for the dead:-- "when pain afflicts and sickness grieves, its juice the drooping heart relieves; and after death its odours shed a pleasing fragrance o'er the dead." and electra is represented as complaining that the tomb of her father, agamemnon, had not been duly adorned with myrtle-- "with no libations, nor with myrtle boughs, were my dear father's manes gratified." the greeks also planted asphodel and mallow round their graves, as the seeds of these plants were supposed to nourish the dead. mourners, too, wore flowers at the funeral rites, and homer relates how the thessalians used crowns of amaranth at the burial of achilles. the romans were equally observant, and ovid, when writing from the land of exile, prayed his wife--"but do you perform the funeral rites for me when dead, and offer chaplets wet with your tears. although the fire shall have changed my body into ashes, yet the sad dust will be sensible of your pious affection." like the greeks, the romans set a special value on the rose as a funeral flower, and actually left directions that their graves should be planted with this favourite flower, a custom said to have been introduced by them into this country. both camden and aubrey allude to it, and at the present day in wales white roses denote the graves of young unmarried girls. coming down to modern times, we find the periwinkle, nicknamed "death's flower," scattered over the graves of children in italy--notably tuscany--and in some parts of germany the pink is in request for this purpose. in persia we read of:-- "the basil-tuft that waves its fragrant blossoms over graves;" and among the chinese, roses, the anemone, and a species of lycoris are planted over graves. the malays use a kind of basil, and in tripoli tombs are adorned with such sweet and fragrant flowers as the orange, jessamine, myrtle, and rose. in mexico the indian carnation is popularly known as the "flower of the dead," and the people of tahiti cover their dead with choice flowers. in america the freemasons place twigs of acacia on the coffins of brethren. the buddhists use flowers largely for funeral purposes, and an indian name for the tamarisk is the "messenger of yama," the indian god of death. the people of madagascar have a species of mimosa, which is frequently found growing on the tombs, and in norway the funeral plants are juniper and fir. in france the custom very largely nourishes, roses and orange-blossoms in the southern provinces being placed in the coffins of the young. indeed, so general is the practice in france that, "sceptics and believers uphold it, and statesmen, and soldiers, and princes, and scholars equally with children and maidens are the objects of it." again, in oldenburg, it is said that cornstalks must be scattered about a house in which death has entered, as a charm against further misfortune, and in the tyrol an elder bush is often planted on a newly-made grave. in our own country the practice of crowning the dead and of strewing their graves with flowers has prevailed from a very early period, a custom which has been most pathetically and with much grace described by shakespeare in "cymbeline" (act iv. sc. ):-- "with fairest flowers, whilst summer lasts, and i live here, fidele, i'll sweeten thy sad grave: thou shalt not lack the flower that's like thy face, pale primrose; nor the azured harebell, like thy veins; no, nor the leaf of eglantine, whom not to slander, out-sweeten'd not thy breath: the ruddock would, with charitable bill, o bill, sore-shaming those rich-left heirs that let their fathers lie without a monument! bring thee all this; yea, and furr'd moss besides, when flowers are none, to winter-ground thy corse." allusions to the custom are frequently to be met with in our old writers, many of which have been collected together by brand.[ ] in former years it was customary to carry sprigs of rosemary at a funeral, probably because this plant was considered emblematical of remembrance:-- "to show their love, the neighbours far and near, follow'd with wistful look the damsel's bier; spring'd rosemary the lads and lasses bore, while dismally the parson walked before." gay speaks of the flowers scattered on graves as "rosemary, daisy, butter'd flower, and endive blue," and pepys mentions a churchyard near southampton where the graves were sown with sage. another plant which has from a remote period been associated with death is the cypress, having been planted by the ancients round their graves. in our own country it was employed as a funeral flower, and coles thus refers to it, together with the rosemary and bay:-- "cypresse garlands are of great account at funerals amongst the gentler sort, but rosemary and bayes are used by the commons both at funerals and weddings. they are all plants which fade not a good while after they are gathered, and used (as i conceive) to intimate unto us that the remembrance of the present solemnity might not die presently (at once), but be kept in mind for many years." the yew has from time immemorial been planted in churchyards besides being used at funerals. paris, in "romeo and juliet", (act v. sc. ), says:-- "under yon yew trees lay thee all along, holding thine ear close to the hollow ground; so shall no foot upon the churchyard tread, being loose, unfirm, with digging up of graves, but thou shall hear it." shakespeare also refers to the custom of sticking yew in the shroud in the following song in "twelfth night" (act ii. sc. ):-- "my shroud of white, stuck all with yew, oh, prepare it; my part of death, no one so true did share it." unhappy lovers had garlands of willow, yew, and rosemary laid on their biers, an allusion to which occurs in the "maid's tragedy":-- "lay a garland on my hearse of the dismal yew; maidens, willow branches bear-- say i died true. my love was false, but i was firm from my hour of birth; upon my buried body lie lightly, gentle earth." among further funeral customs may be mentioned that of carrying a garland of flowers and sweet herbs before a maiden's coffin, and afterwards suspending it in the church. nichols, in his "history of lancashire" (vol. ii. pt. i. ), speaking of waltham in framland hundred, says: "in this church under every arch a garland is suspended, one of which is customarily placed there whenever any young unmarried woman dies." it is to this custom gay feelingly alludes:-- "to her sweet mem'ry flowing garlands strung, on her now empty seat aloft were hung." indeed, in all the ceremonial observances of life, from the cradle to the grave, flowers have formed a prominent feature, the symbolical meaning long attached to them explaining their selection on different occasions. footnotes: . see "flower-lore," p. . . "the ceremonial use of flowers." . _fraser's magazine_, , p. . . "flower-lore," pp. - . . miss lambert, _nineteenth century_, may , p. . . _nineteenth century_, september , p. . . "popular antiquities," , ii. , &c. chapter xiii. plant names. the origin and history of plant names is a subject of some magnitude, and is one that has long engaged the attention of philologists. of the many works published on plant names, that of the "english dialect society"[ ] is by far the most complete, and forms a valuable addition to this class of literature. some idea of the wide area covered by the nomenclature of plants, as seen in the gradual evolution and descent of vernacular names, may be gathered even from a cursory survey of those most widely known in our own and other countries. apart, too, from their etymological associations, it is interesting to trace the variety of sources from whence plant names have sprung, a few illustrations of which are given in the present chapter. at the outset, it is noteworthy that our english plant names can boast of a very extensive parentage, being, "derived from many languages--latin, greek, ancient british, anglo-saxon, norman, low german, swedish, danish, arabic, persian."[ ] it is not surprising, therefore, that in many cases much confusion has arisen in unravelling their meaning, which in the course of years would naturally become more or less modified by a succession of influences such as the intercommunication and change of ideas between one country and another. on the other hand, numerous plant names clearly display their origin, the lapse of years having left these unaffected, a circumstance which is especially true in the case of greek and latin names. names of french origin are frequently equally distinct, a familiar instance being dandelion, from the french _dent-de-lion_, "lion's tooth," although the reason for its being so called is by no means evident. at the same time, it is noticeable that in nearly every european language the plant bears a similar name; whereas professor de gubernatis connects the name with the sun (helios), and adds that a lion was the animal symbol of the sun, and that all plants named after him are essentially plants of the sun.[ ] one of the popular names of the st. john's wort is tutsan, a corruption of the french _toute saine_, so called from its healing properties, and the mignonette is another familiar instance. the flower-de-luce, one of the names probably of the iris, is derived from _fleur de louis_, from its having been assumed as his device by louis vii. of france. it has undergone various changes, having been in all probability contracted into fleur-de-luce, and finally into fleur-de-lys or fleur-de-lis. an immense deal of discussion has been devoted to the history of this name, and a great many curious theories proposed in explanation of it, some being of opinion that the lily and not the iris is referred to. but the weight of evidence seem to favour the iris theory, this plant having been undoubtedly famous in french history. once more, by some,[ ] the name fleur-de-lys has been derived from löys, in which manner the twelve first louis signed their names, and which was easily contracted into lys. some consider it means the flower that grows on the banks of the river lis, which separated france and artois from flanders. turning to the literature of the past, shakespeare has several allusions to the plant, as in "i henry vi," where a messenger enters and exclaims:-- "awake, awake, english nobility! let not sloth dim your honours new begot; cropp'd are the flower-de-luces in your arms; of england's coat one half is cut away." spenser mentions the plant, and distinguishes it from the lily:-- "show mee the grounde with daifadown-dillies, and cowslips, and kingcups, and loved lillies; the pretty pawnee, and the cherisaunce, shall march with the fayre flowre delice." another instance is the mignonette of our french neighbours, known also as the "love-flower." one of the names of the deadly nightshade is belladonna which reminds us of its italian appellation, and "several of our commonest plant names are obtained from the low german or dutch, as, for instance, buckwheat (_polygonum fagopyrum_), from the dutch _bockweit_." the rowan-tree (_pyrus aucuparia_) comes from the danish _röun_, swedish _rünn_, which, as dr. prior remarks, is traceable to the "old norse _runa_, a charm, from its being supposed to have power to avert evil." similarly, the adder's tongue (_ophioglossum vulgatum_) is said to be from the dutch _adder-stong_, and the word hawthorn is found in the various german dialects. as the authors of "english plant names" remark (intr. xv.), many north-country names are derived from swedish and danish sources, an interesting example occurring in the word _kemps_, a name applied to the black heads of the ribwort plantain (_plantago lanceolata_). the origin of this name is to be found in the danish _kaempe_, a warrior, and the reason for its being so called is to be found in the game which children in most parts of the kingdom play with the flower-stalks of the plantain, by endeavouring to knock off the heads of each other's mimic weapons. again, as mr. friend points out, the birch would take us back to the primeval forests of india, and among the multitudinous instances of names traceable to far-off countries may be mentioned the lilac and tulip from persia, the latter being derived from _thoulyban_, the word used in persia for a turban. lilac is equivalent to _lilag_, a persian word signifying flower, having been introduced into europe from that country early in the sixteenth century by busbeck, a german traveller. but illustrations of this land are sufficient to show from how many countries our plant names have been brought, and how by degrees they have become interwoven into our own language, their pronunciation being anglicised by english speakers. many plants, again, have been called in memory of leading characters in days gone by, and after those who discovered their whereabouts and introduced them into european countries. thus the fuchsia, a native of chili, was named after leonard fuchs, a well-known german botanist, and the magnolia was so called in honour of pierre magnol, an eminent writer on botanical subjects. the stately dahlia after andrew dahl, the swedish botanist. but, without enumerating further instances, for they are familiar to most readers, it may be noticed that plants which embody the names of animals are very numerous indeed. in many cases this has resulted from some fancied resemblance to some part of the animal named; thus from their long tongued-like leaves, the hart's-tongue, lamb's-tongue, and ox-tongue were so called, while some plants have derived their names from the snouts of certain animals, such as the swine's-snout (_lentodon taraxacum_), and calf's-snout, or, as it is more commonly termed, snapdragon (_antirrhinum majus_). the gaping corollas of various blossoms have suggested such names as dog's-mouth, rabbit's-mouth, and lion's-snap, and plants with peculiarly-shaped leaves have given rise to names like these--mouse-ear (_stachys zanaia_), cat's-ears, and bear's-ears. numerous names have been suggested by their fancied resemblance to the feet, hoofs, and tails of animals and birds; as, for instance, colt's-foot, crow-foot, bird's-foot trefoil, horse-shoe vetch, bull-foot, and the vervain, nicknamed frog's-foot. then there is the larkspur, also termed lark's-claw, and lark's-heel, the lamb's-toe being so called from its downy heads of flowers, and the horse-hoof from the shape of the leaf. among various similar names may be noticed the crane's-bill and stork's-bill, from their long beak-like seed-vessels, and the valerian, popularly designated capon's-tail, from its spreading flowers. many plant names have animal prefixes, these indeed forming a very extensive list. but in some instances, "the name of an animal prefixed has a totally different signification, denoting size, coarseness, and frequently worthlessness or spuriousness." thus the horse-parsley was so called from its coarseness as compared with smallage or celery, and the horse-mushroom from its size in distinction to a species more commonly eaten. the particular uses to which certain plants have been applied have originated their names: the horse-bean, from being grown as a food for horses; and the horse-chestnut, because used in turkey for horses that are broken or touched in the wind. parkinson, too, adds how, "horse-chestnuts are given in the east, and so through all turkey, unto horses to cure them of the cough, shortness of wind, and such other diseases." the germander is known as horse-chere, from its growing after horse-droppings; and the horse-bane, because supposed in sweden to cause a kind of palsy in horses--an effect which has been ascribed by linnaeus not so much to the noxious qualities of the plant itself, as to an insect (_curculio paraplecticus_) that breeds in its stem. the dog has suggested sundry plant names, this prefix frequently suggesting the idea of worthlessness, as in the case of the dog-violet, which lacks the sweet fragrance of the true violet, and the dog-parsley, which, whilst resembling the true plant of this name, is poisonous and worthless. in like manner there is the dog-elder, dog's-mercury, dog's-chamomile, and the dog-rose, each a spurious form of a plant quite distinct; while on the other hand we have the dog's-tooth grass, from the sharp-pointed shoots of its underground stem, and the dog-grass (_triticum caninu_), because given to dogs as an aperient. the cat has come in for its due share of plant names, as for instance the sun-spurge, which has been nicknamed cat's-milk, from its milky juice oozing in drops, as milk from the small teats of a cat; and the blossoms of the talix, designated cats-and-kittens, or kittings, probably in allusion to their soft, fur-like appearance. further names are, cat's-faces (_viola tricolor_), cat's-eyes (_veronica chamcaedrys_), cat's-tail, the catkin of the hazel or willow, and cat's-ear (_hypochaeris maculata_). the bear is another common prefix. thus there is the bear's-foot, from its digital leaf, the bear-berry, or bear's-bilberry, from its fruit being a favourite food of bears, and the bear's-garlick. there is the bear's-breech, from its roughness, a name transferred by some mistake from the acanthus to the cow-parsnip, and the bear's-wort, which it has been suggested "is rather to be derived from its use in uterine complaints than from the animal." among names in which the word cow figures may be mentioned the cow-bane, water-hemlock, from its supposed baneful effects upon cows, because, writes withering, "early in the spring, when it grows in the water, cows often eat it, and are killed by it." cockayne would derive cowslip from _cu_, cow, and _slyppe_, lip, and cow-wheat is so nicknamed from its seed resembling wheat, but being worthless as food for man. the flowers of the _arum maculatum_ are "bulls and cows;" and in yorkshire the fruit of _crataegus oxyacantha_ is bull-horns;--an old name for the horse-leek being bullock's-eye. many curious names have resulted from the prefix pig, as in sussex, where the bird's-foot trefoil is known as pig's-pettitoes; and in devonshire the fruit of the dog-rose is pig's-noses. a northamptonshire term for goose-grass (_galium aparine_) is pig-tail, and the pig-nut (_brunium flexuosum_) derived this name from its tubers being a favourite food of pigs, and resembling nuts in size and flavour. the common cyclamen is sow-head, and a popular name for the _sonchus oleraceus_ is sow-thistle. among further names also associated with the sow may be included the sow-fennel, sow-grass, and sow-foot, while the sow-bane (_chenopodium rubrum_), is so termed from being, as parkinson tells us, "found certain to kill swine." among further animal prefixes may be noticed the wolfs-bane (_aconitum napellus_), wolf's-claws (_lycopodium clavatum_), wolf's-milk (_euphorbia helioscopia_), and wolfs-thistle (_carlina acaulis_). the mouse has given us numerous names, such as mouse-ear (_hieracium pilosella_), mouse-grass (_aira caryophyllea_), mouse-ear scorpion-grass (_myosotis palustris_), mouse-tail (_myosurus minimus_), and mouse-pea. the term rat-tail has been applied to several plants having a tail-like inflorescence, such as the _plantago lanceolata_ (ribwort plantain). the term toad as a prefix, like that of dog, frequently means spurious, as in the toad-flax, a plant which, before it comes into flower, bears a tolerably close resemblance to a plant of the true flax. the frog, again, supplies names, such as frog's-lettuce, frog's-foot, frog-grass, and frog-cheese; while hedgehog gives us such names as hedgehog-parsley and hedgehog-grass. connected with the dragon we have the name dragon applied to the snake-weed (_polygonum bistorta_), and dragon's-blood is one of the popular names of the herb-robert. the water-dragon is a nickname of the _caltha palustris_, and dragon's-mouth of the _digitalis purpurea_. once more, there is scorpion-grass and scorpion-wort, both of which refer to various species of myosotis; snakes and vipers also adding to the list. thus there is viper's-bugloss, and snake-weed. in gloucestershire the fruit of the _arum maculatum_ is snake's-victuals, and snake's-head is a common name for thefritillary. there is the snake-skin willow and snake's-girdles;--snake's-tongue being a name given to the bane-wort (_ranunculus flammula_). names in which the devil figures have been noticed elsewhere, as also those in which the words fairy and witch enter. as the authors, too, of the "dictionary of plant names" have pointed out, a great number of names may be called dedicatory, and embody the names of many of the saints, and even of the deity. the latter, however, are very few in number, owing perhaps to a sense of reverence, and "god almighty's bread and cheese," "god's eye," "god's grace," "god's meat," "our lord's, or our saviour's flannel," "christ's hair," "christ's herb," "christ's ladder," "christ's thorn," "holy ghost," and "herb-trinity," make up almost the whole list. on the other hand, the virgin mary has suggested numerous names, some of which we have noticed in the chapter on sacred plants. certain of the saints, again, have perpetuated their names in our plant nomenclature, instances of which are scattered throughout the present volume. some plants, such as flea-bane and wolf's-bane, refer to the reputed property of the plant to keep off or injure the animal named,[ ] and there is a long list of plants which derived their names from their real or imaginary medicinal virtues, many of which illustrate the old doctrine of signatures. birds, again, like animals, have suggested various names, and among some of the best-known ones may be mentioned the goose-foot, goose-grass, goose-tongue. shakespeare speaks of cuckoo-buds, and there is cuckoo's-head, cuckoo-flower, and cuckoo-fruit, besides the stork's-bill and crane's-bill. bees are not without their contingent of names; a popular name of the _delphinium grandiflorum_ being the bee-larkspur, "from the resemblance of the petals, which are studded with yellow hairs, to the humble-bee whose head is buried in the recesses of the flower." there is the bee-flower (_ophrys apifera_), because the, "lip is in form and colour so like a bee, that any one unacquainted therewith would take it for a living bee sucking of the flower." in addition to the various classes of names already mentioned, there are a rich and very varied assortment found in most counties throughout the country, many of which have originated in the most amusing and eccentric way. thus "butter and eggs" and "eggs and bacon" are applied to several plants, from the two shades of yellow in the flower, and butter-churn to the _nuphar luteum_, from the shape of the fruit. a popular term for _nepeta glechoma_ is "hen and chickens," and "cocks and hens" for the _plantago lanceolata_. a gloucestershire nickname for the _plantago media_ is fire-leaves, and the hearts'-ease has been honoured with all sorts of romantic names, such as "kiss me behind the garden gate;" and "none so pretty" is one of the popular names of the saxifrage. among the names of the arum may be noticed "parson in the pulpit," "cows and calves," "lords and ladies," and "wake-robin." the potato has a variety of names, such as leather-jackets, blue-eyes, and red-eyes. a pretty name in devonshire for the _veronica chamcaedrys_ is angel's-eyes:-- "around her hat a wreath was twined of blossoms, blue as southern skies; i asked their name, and she replied, we call them angel's-eyes."[ ] in the northern counties the poplar, on account of its bitter bark, was termed the bitter-weed.[ ] "oak, ash, and elm-tree, the laird can hang for a' the three; but fir, saugh, and bitter-weed, the laird may flyte, but make naething be'et." according to the compilers of "english plant names," "this name is assigned to no particular species of poplar, nor have we met with it elsewhere." the common solomon's seal (_polygonatum multiflorum_) has been nicknamed "david's harp,"[ ] and, "appears to have arisen from the exact similarity of the outline of the bended stalk, with its pendent bill-like blossoms, to the drawings of monkish times in which king david is represented as seated before an instrument shaped like the half of a pointed arch, from which are suspended metal bells, which he strikes with two hammers." in the neighbourhood of torquay, fir-cones are designated oysters, and in sussex the arabis is called "snow-on-the-mountain," and "snow-in-summer." a devonshire name for the sweet scabriosis is the mournful-widow, and in some places the red valerian (_centranthus ruber_) is known as scarlet-lightning. a common name for _achillaea ptarmica_ is sneezewort, and the _petasites vulgaris_ has been designated "son before the father." the general name for _drosera rotundifolia_ is sun-dew, and in gloucestershire the _primula auricula_ is the tanner's-apron. the _viola tricolor_ is often known as "three faces in a hood," and the _aconitum napellus_ as "venus's chariot drawn by two doves." the _stellaria holostea_ is "lady's white petticoat," and the _scandix pecten_ is "old wife's darning-needles." one of the names of the campion is plum-pudding, and "spittle of the stars" has been applied to the _nostoc commune_. without giving further instances of these odd plant names, we would conclude by quoting the following extract from the preface of mr. earle's charming little volume on "english plant names," a remark which, indeed, most equally applies to other sections of our subject beyond that of the present chapter:--"the fascination of plant names has its foundation in two instincts, love of nature, and curiosity about language. plant names are often of the highest antiquity, and more or less common to the whole stream of related nations. could we penetrate to the original suggestive idea that called forth the name, it would bring valuable information about the first openings of the human mind towards nature; and the merest dream of such a discovery invests with a strange charm the words that could tell, if we could understand, so much of the forgotten infancy of the human race." footnotes: . "dictionary of english plant names," by j. britten and robert holland. . . "english plant names," introduction, p. xiii. . see folkard's "legends," p. ; friend's "flowers and flowerlore," ii. - . . see "flower-lore," p. . . friend's "flower-lore," ii. . . _garden_, june , . . johnston's "botany of eastern borders," , p. . . lady wilkinson's "weeds and wild flowers," p. . chapter xiv. plant language. plant language, as expressive of the various traits of human character, can boast of a world-wide and antique history. it is not surprising that flowers, the varied and lovely productions of nature's dainty handiwork, should have been employed as symbolic emblems, and most aptly indicative oftentimes of what words when even most wisely chosen can ill convey; for as tennyson remarks:-- "any man that walks the mead in bud, or blade, or bloom, may find a meaning suited to his mind." hence, whether we turn to the pages of the sacred volume, or to the early greek writings, we find the symbolism of flowers most eloquently illustrated, while persian poetry is rich in allusions of the same kind. indeed, as mr. ingram has remarked in his "flora symbolica,"[ ]--every age and every clime has promulgated its own peculiar system of floral signs, and it has been said that the language of flowers is as old as the days of adam; having, also, thousands of years ago, existed in the indian, egyptian, and chaldean civilisations which have long since passed away. he further adds how the chinese, whose, "chronicles antedate the historic records of all other nations, seem to have had a simple but complete mode of communicating ideas by means of florigraphic signs;" whereas, "the monuments of the old assyrian and egyptian races bear upon their venerable surfaces a code of floral telegraphy whose hieroglyphical meaning is veiled or but dimly guessed at in our day." the subject is an extensive one, and also enters largely into the ceremonial use of flowers, many of which were purposely selected for certain rites from their long-established symbolical character. at the same time, it must be remembered that many plants have had a meaning attached to them by poets and others, who have by a license of their own made them to represent certain sentiments and ideas for which there is no authority save their own fancy. hence in numerous instances a meaning, wholly misguiding, has been assigned to various plants, and has given rise to much confusion. this, too, it may be added, is the case in other countries as well as our own. furthermore, as m. de gubernatis observes, "there exist a great number of books which pretend to explain the language of flowers, wherein one may occasionally find a popular or traditional symbol; but, as a rule, these expressions are generally the wild fancies of the author himself." hence, in dealing with plant language, one is confronted with a host of handbooks, many of which are not only inaccurate, but misleading. but in enumerating the recognised and well-known plants that have acquired a figurative meaning, it will be found that in a variety of cases this may be traced to their connection with some particular event in years past, and not to some chance or caprice, as some would make us believe. the amaranth, for instance, which is the emblem of immortality, received its name, "never-fading," from the greeks on account of the lasting nature of its blossoms. accordingly, milton crowns with amaranth the angelic multitude assembled before the deity:-- "to the ground, with solemn adoration, down they cast their crowns, inwove with amaranth and gold. immortal amaranth, a flower which once in paradise, fast by the tree of life, began to bloom; but soon, for man's offence, to heaven removed, where first it grew, there grows and flowers aloft, shading the font of life," &c. and in some parts of the continent churches are adorned at christmas-tide with the amaranth, as a symbol "of that immortality to which their faith bids them look." grass, from its many beneficial qualities, has been made the emblem of usefulness; and the ivy, from its persistent habit of clinging to the heaviest support, has been universally adopted as the symbol of confiding love and fidelity. growing rapidly, it iron clasps:-- "the fissured stone with its entwining arms, and embowers with leaves for ever green, and berries dark." according to a cornish tradition, the beautiful iseult, unable to endure the loss of her betrothed--the brave tristran--died of a broken heart, and was buried in the same church, but, by order of the king, the two graves were placed at a distance from each other. soon, however, there burst forth from the tomb of tristran a branch of ivy, and another from the grave of iseult; these shoots gradually growing upwards, until at last the lovers, represented by the clinging ivy, were again united beneath the vaulted roof of heaven.[ ] then, again, the cypress, in floral language, denotes mourning; and, as an emblem of woe, may be traced to the familiar classical myth of cyparissus, who, sorrow-stricken at having skin his favourite stag, was transformed into a cypress tree. its ominous and sad character is the subject of constant allusion, virgil having introduced it into the funeral rites of his heroes. shelley speaks of the unwept youth whom no mourning maidens decked, "with weeping flowers, or votive cypress wreath, the love-couch of his everlasting sleep." and byron describes the cypress as, "dark tree! still sad when other's grief is fled, the only constant mourner o'er the dead." the laurel, used for classic wreaths, has long been regarded emblematical of renown, and tasso thus addresses a laurel leaf in the hair of his mistress:-- "o glad triumphant bough, that now adornest conquering chiefs, and now clippest the bows of over-ruling kings from victory to victory. thus climbing on through all the heights of story, from worth to worth, and glory unto glory, to finish all, o gentle and royal tree, thou reignest now upon that flourishing head, at whose triumphant eyes love and our souls are led." like the rose, the myrtle is the emblem of love, having been dedicated by the greeks and romans to venus, in the vicinity of whose temples myrtle-groves were planted; hence, from time immemorial, "sacred to venus is the myrtle shade." this will explain its frequent use in bridal ceremonies on the continent, and its employment for the wedding wreath of the jewish damsel. herrick, mindful of its associations, thus apostrophises venus:-- "goddess, i do love a girl, ruby lipp'd and toothed like pearl; if so be i may but prove lucky in this maid i love, i will promise there shall be myrtles offered up to thee." to the same goddess was dedicated the rose, and its world-wide reputation as "the flower of love," in which character it has been extolled by poets in ancient and modern times, needs no more than reference here. the olive indicates peace, and as an emblem was given to judith when she restored peace to the israelites by the death of holofernes.[ ] shakespeare, in "twelfth night" (act i. sc. ), makes viola say:--"i bring no overture of war, no taxation of homage; i hold the olive in my hand; my words are as full of peace as of matter." similarly, the palm, which, as the symbol of victory, was carried before the conqueror in triumphal processions, is generally regarded as denoting victory. thus, palm-branches were scattered in the path of christ upon his public entry into jerusalem; and, at the present day, a palm-branch is embroidered on the lappet of the gown of a french professor, to indicate that a university degree has been attained.[ ] some flowers have become emblematical from their curious characteristics. thus, the balsam is held to be expressive of impatience, because its seed-pods when ripe curl up at the slightest touch, and dart forth their seeds, with great violence; hence one of its popular names, "touch-me-not." the wild anemone has been considered indicative of brevity, because its fragile blossom is so quickly scattered to the wind and lost:-- "the winds forbid the flowers to flourish long, which owe to winds their name in grecian song." the poppy, from its somniferous effects, has been made symbolic of sleep and oblivion; hence virgil calls it the lethean poppy, whilst our old pastoral poet, william browne, speaks of it as "sleep-bringing poppy." the heliotrope denotes devoted attachment, from its having been supposed to turn continually towards the sun; hence its name, signifying the _sun_ and _to turn_. the classic heliotrope must not be confounded with the well-known peruvian heliotrope or "cherry-pie," a plant with small lilac-blue blossoms of a delicious fragrance. it would seem that many of the flowers which had the reputation of opening and shutting at the sun's bidding were known as heliotropes, or sunflowers, or turnesol. shakespeare alludes to the, "marigold, that goes to bed with the sun, and with him rises weeping." and moore, describing its faithful constancy, says:-- "the sunflower turns on her god when he sets the same look which she did when he rose." such a flower, writes mr. ellacombe, was to old writers "the emblem of constancy in affection and sympathy in joy and sorrow," though it was also the emblem of the fawning courtier, who can only shine when everything is right. anyhow, the so-called heliotrope was the subject of constant symbolic allusion:-- "the flower, enamoured of the sun, at his departure hangs her head and weeps, and shrouds her sweetness up, and keeps sad vigils, like a cloistered nun, till his reviving ray appears, waking her beauty as he dries her tears."[ ] the aspen, from its tremulous motion, has been made symbolical of fear. the restless movement of its leaves is "produced by the peculiar form of the foot-stalks, and, indeed, in some degree, the whole tribe of poplars are subject to have their leaves agitated by the slightest breeze."[ ] another meaning assigned to the aspen in floral language is scandal, from an old saying which affirmed that its tears were made from women's tongues--an allusion to which is made in the subjoined rhyme by p. hannay in the year :-- "the quaking aspen, light and thin, to the air quick passage gives; resembling still the trembling ill of tongues of womankind, which never rest, but still are prest to wave with every wind." the almond, again, is regarded as expressive of haste, in reference to its hasty growth and early maturity; while the evening primrose, from the time of its blossoms expanding, indicates silent love--refraining from unclosing "her cup of paly gold until her lowly sisters are rocked into a balmy slumber." the bramble, from its manner of growth, has been chosen as the type of lowliness; and "from the fierceness with which it grasps the passer-by with its straggling prickly stems, as an emblem of remorse." fennel was in olden times generally considered an inflammatory herb, and hence to eat "conger and fennel" was to eat two high and hot things together, which was an act of libertinism. thus in " henry iv." (act ii. sc. ), falstaff says of poins, "he eats conger and fennel." rosemary formerly had the reputation of strengthening the memory, and on this account was regarded as a symbol of remembrance. thus, according to an old ballad:-- "rosemary is for remembrance between us day and night, wishing that i may always have you present in my sight." and in "hamlet," where ophelia seems to be addressing laertes, she says (act iv. sc. ):-- "there's rosemary, that's for remembrance." vervain, from time immemorial, has been the floral symbol of enchantment, owing to its having been in ancient times much in request for all kinds of divinations and incantations. virgil, it may be remembered, alludes to this plant as one of the charms used by an enchantress:-- "bring running water, bind those altars round with fillets, with vervain strew the ground." parsley, according to floral language, has a double signification, denoting feasting and death. on festive occasions the greeks wore wreaths of parsley, and on many other occasions it was employed, such as at the isthmian games. on the other hand, this plant was strewn over the bodies of the dead, and decked their graves. "the weeping willow," as mr. ingram remarks, "is one of those natural emblems which bear their florigraphical meaning so palpably impressed that their signification is clear at first sight." this tree has always been regarded as the symbol of sorrow, and also of forsaken love. in china it is employed in several rites, having from a remote period been regarded as a token of immortality. as a symbol of bitterness the aloe has long been in repute, and "as bitter as aloes" is a proverbial expression, doubtless derived from the acid taste of its juice. eastern poets frequently speak of this plant as the emblem of bitterness; a meaning which most fitly coincides with its properties. the lily of the valley has had several emblems conferred upon it, each of which is equally apposite. thus in reference to the bright hopeful season of spring, in which it blossoms, it has been regarded as symbolical of the return of happiness, whilst its delicate perfume has long been indicative of sweetness, a characteristic thus beautifully described by keats:-- "no flower amid the garden fairer grows than the sweet lily of the lowly vale, the queen of flowers." its perfect snow-white flower is the emblem of purity, allusions to which we find numerously scattered in the literature of the past. one of the emblems of the white poplar in floral language is time, because its leaves appear always in motion, and "being of a dead blackish-green above, and white below," writes mr. ingram, "they were deemed by the ancients to indicate the alternation of night and day." again, the plane-tree has been from early times made the symbol of genius and magnificence; for in olden times philosophers taught beneath its branches, which acquired for it a reputation as one of the seats of learning. from its beauty and size it obtained a figurative meaning; and the arbutus or strawberry-tree (_arbutus unedo_) is the symbol of inseparable love, and the narcissus denotes self-love, from the story of narcissus, who, enamoured of his own beauty, became spell-bound to the spot, where he pined to death. shelley describes it as one of the flowers growing with the sensitive plant in that garden where:-- "the pied wind flowers and the tulip tall, and narcissi, the fairest among them all, who gaze on their eyes in the stream's recess, till they die at their own dear loveliness." the sycamore implies curiosity, from zacchaeus, who climbed up into this tree to witness the triumphal entry of christ into jerusalem; and from time immemorial the violet has been the emblem of constancy:-- "violet is for faithfulness, which in me shall abide, hoping likewise that from your heart you will not let it hide." in some cases flowers seem to have derived their symbolism from certain events associated with them. thus the periwinkle signifies "early recollections, or pleasures of memory," in connection with which rousseau tells us how, as madame warens and himself were proceeding to charmattes, she was struck by the appearance of some of these blue flowers in the hedge, and exclaimed, "here is the periwinkle still in flower." thirty years afterwards the sight of the periwinkle in flower carried his memory back to this occasion, and he inadvertently cried, "ah, there is the periwinkle." incidents of the kind have originated many of the symbols found in plant language, and at the same time invested them with a peculiar historic interest. once more, plant language, it has been remarked, is one of those binding links which connects the sentiments and feelings of one country with another; although it may be, in other respects, these communities have little in common. thus, as mr. ingram remarks in the introduction to his "flora symbolica" (p. ), "from the unlettered north american indian to the highly polished parisian; from the days of dawning among the mighty asiatic races, whose very names are buried in oblivion, down to the present times, the symbolism of flowers is everywhere and in all ages discovered permeating all strata of society. it has been, and still is, the habit of many peoples to name the different portions of the year after the most prominent changes of the vegetable kingdom." in the united states, the language of flowers is said to have more votaries than in any other part of the world, many works relative to which have been published in recent years. indeed, the subject will always be a popular one; for further details illustrative of which the reader would do well to consult mr. h.g. adams's useful work on the "moral language and poetry of flowers," not to mention the constant allusions scattered throughout the works of our old poets, such as shakespeare, chaucer, and drayton. footnotes: . introduction, p. . . folkard's "plant legends," p. . . see judith xv. . . "flower-lore," pp. - . . "plant-lore of shakespeare." . "flower-lore," p. . chapter xv. fabulous plants. the curious traditions of imaginary plants found amongst most nations have partly a purely mythological origin. frequently, too, they may be attributed to the exaggerated accounts given by old travellers, who, "influenced by a desire to make themselves famous, have gone so far as to pretend that they saw these fancied objects." anyhow, from whatever source sprung, these productions of ignorance and superstition have from a very early period been firmly credited. but, like the accounts given us of fabulous animals, they have long ago been acknowledged as survivals of popular errors, which owed their existence to the absence of botanical knowledge. we have elsewhere referred to the great world tree, and of the primitive idea of a human descent from trees. indeed, according to the early and uncultured belief of certain communities, there were various kinds of animal-producing trees, accounts of which are very curious. among these may be mentioned the vegetable lamb, concerning which olden writers have given the most marvellous description. thus sir john maundeville, who in his "voyage and travel" has recorded many marvellous sights which either came under his notice, or were reported to him during his travels, has not omitted to speak of this remarkable tree. thus, to quote his words:--"there groweth a manner of fruit as though it were gourdes; and when they be ripe men cut them in two, and men find within a little beast, in flesh, in bone, and blood--as though it were a little lamb withouten wolle--and men eat both the fruit and the beast, and that is a great marvel; of that fruit i have eaten although it were wonderful; but that i know well that god is marvellous in his works." various accounts have been given of this wondrous plant, and in parkinson's "paradisus" it is represented as one of the plants which grew in the garden of eden. its local name is the scythian or tartarian lamb; and, as it grows, it might at a short distance be taken for an animal rather than a vegetable production. it is one of the genus polypodium; root decumbent, thickly clothed with a very soft close hoal, of a deep yellow colour. it is also called by the tartars "barometz," and a chinese nickname is "rufous dog." mr. bell, in his "journey to ispahan," thus describes a specimen which he saw:--"it seemed to be made by art to imitate a lamb. it is said to eat up and devour all the grass and weeds within its reach. though it may be thought that an opinion so very absurd could never find credit with people of the meanest understanding, yet i have conversed with some who were much inclined to believe it; so very prevalent is the prodigious and absurd with some part of mankind. among the more sensible and experienced tartars, i found they laughed at it as a ridiculous fable." blood was said to flow from it when cut or injured, a superstition which probably originated in the fact that the fresh root when cut yields a tenacious gum like the blood of animals. dr. darwin, in his "loves of the plants," adopts the fable thus:-- "e'en round the pole the flames of love aspire, and icy bosoms feel the sacred fire, cradled in snow, and fanned by arctic air, shines, gentle barometz, the golden hair; rested in earth, each cloven hoof descends, and round and round her flexile neck she bends. crops of the grey coral moss, and hoary thyme, or laps with rosy tongue the melting rime, eyes with mute tenderness her distant dam, or seems to bleat a vegetable lamb." another curious fiction prevalent in olden times was that of the barnacle-tree, to which sir john maundeville also alludes:--"in our country were trees that bear a fruit that becomes flying birds; those that fell in the water lived, and those that fell on the earth died, and these be right good for man's meat." as early as the twelfth century this idea was promulgated by giraldus cambrensis in his "topographia hiberniae;" and gerarde in his "herball, or general history of plants," published in the year , narrates the following:--"there are found in the north parts of scotland, and the isles adjacent, called orcades, certain trees, whereon do grow small fishes, of a white colour, tending to russet, wherein are contained little living creatures; which shells, in time of maturity, do open, and out of them grow those little living things which, falling into the water, do become fowls, whom we call barnacles, in the north of england brant-geese, and in lancashire tree-geese; but the others that do fall upon the land perish, and do come to nothing." but, like many other popular fictions, this notion was founded on truth, and probably originated in mistaking the fleshy peduncle of the barnacle (_lepas analifera_) for the neck of a goose, the shell for its head, and the tentacula for a tuft of feather. there were many versions of this eccentric myth, and according to one modification given by boëce, the oldest scottish historian, these barnacle-geese are first produced in the form of worms in old trees, and further adds that such a tree was cast on shore in the year , when there appeared, on its being sawn asunder, a multitude of worms, "throwing themselves out of sundry holes and pores of the tree; some of them were nude, as they were new shapen; some had both head, feet, and wings, but they had no feathers; some of them were perfect shapen fowls. at last, the people having this tree each day in more admiration, brought it to the kirk of st. andrew's, beside the town of tyre, where it yet remains to our day." du bartas thus describes the various transformations of this bird:-- "so, slowe boôtes underneath him sees, in th' ycie iles, those goslings hatcht of trees; whose fruitful leaves, falling into the water, are turn'd, they say, to living fowls soon after. so, rotten sides of broken ships do change to barnacles; o transformation change, 'twas first a green tree, then a gallant hull, lately a mushroom, now a flying gull." meyer wrote a treatise on this strange "bird without father or mother," and sir robert murray, in the "philosophical transactions," says that, "these shells are hung at the tree by a neck, longer than the shell, of a filmy substance, round and hollow and creased, not unlike the windpipe of a chicken, spreading out broadest where it is fastened to the tree, from which it seems to draw and convey the matter which serves for the growth and vegetation of the shell and the little bird within it. in every shell that i opened," he adds, "i found a perfect sea-fowl; the little bill like that of a goose, the eyes marked; the head, neck, breast, wing, tail, and feet formed; the feathers everywhere perfectly shaped, and the feet like those of other water-fowl." the chinese have a tradition of certain trees, the leaves of which were finally changed into birds. with this story may be compared that of the oyster-bearing tree, which bishop fleetwood describes in his "curiosities of agriculture and gardening," written in the year . the oysters as seen, he says, by the dominican du tertre, at guadaloupe, grew on the branches of trees, and, "are not larger than the little english oysters, that is to say, about the size of a crown-piece. they stick to the branches that hang in the water of a tree called paretuvier. no doubt the seed of the oysters, which is shed in the tree when they spawn, cleaves to those branches, so that the oysters form themselves there, and grow bigger in process of time, and by their weight bend down the branches into the sea, and then are refreshed twice a day by the flux and reflux of it." kircher speaks of a tree in chili, the leaves of which brought forth a certain kind of worm, which eventually became changed into serpents; and describes a plant which grew in the molucca islands, nicknamed "catopa," on account of its leaves when falling off being transformed into butterflies. among some of the many other equally wonderful plants may be mentioned the "stony wood," which is thus described by gerarde:--"being at rugby, about such time as our fantastic people did with great concourse and multitudes repair and run headlong unto the sacred wells of newnam regis, in the edge of warwickshire, as unto the waters of life, which could cure all diseases." he visited these healing-wells, where he, "found growing over the same a fair ash-tree, whose boughs did hang over the spring of water, whereof some that were seare and rotten, and some that of purpose were broken off, fell into the water and were all turned into stone. of these, boughs, or parts of the tree, i brought into london, which, when i had broken into pieces, therein might be seen that the pith and all the rest was turned into stones, still remaining the same shape and fashion that they were of before they were in the water." similarly, sir john maundeville notices the "dead sea fruit"--fruit found on the apple-trees near the dead sea. to quote his own words:-- "there be full fair apples, and fair of colour to behold; but whoso breaketh them or cutteth them in two, he shall find within them coals and cinders, in token that by the wrath of god, the city and the land were burnt and sunken into hell." speaking of the many legendary tales connected with the apple, may be mentioned the golden apples which hera received at her marriage with zeus, and placed under the guardianship of the dragon ladon, in the garden of the hesperides. the northern iduna kept guarded the sacred apples which, by a touch, restored the aged gods to youth; and according to sir j. maundeville, the apples of pyban fed the pigmies with their smell only. this reminds us of the singing apple in the fairy romance, which would persuade by its smell alone, and enable the possessor to write poetry or prose, and to display the most accomplished wit; and of the singing tree in the "arabian nights," each leaf of which was musical, all the leaves joining together in a delightful harmony. but peculiarities of this kind are very varied, and form an extensive section in "plant-lore;"--very many curious examples being found in old travels, and related with every semblance of truth. in some instances trees have obtained a fabulous character from being connected with certain events. thus there was the "bleeding tree."[ ] it appears that one of the indictments laid to the charge of the marquis of argyll was this:--"that a tree on which thirty-six of his enemies were hanged was immediately blasted, and when hewn down, a copious stream of blood ran from it, saturating the earth, and that blood for several years was emitted from the roots." then there is the "poet's tree," which grows over the tomb of tan-sein, a musician at the court of mohammed akbar. whoever chews a leaf of this tree was long said to be inspired with sweet melody of voice, an allusion to which is made by moore, in "lalla kookh:":--"his voice was sweet, as if he had chewed the leaves of that enchanted tree which grows over the tomb of the musician tan-sein." the rare but occasional occurrence of vegetation in certain trees and shrubs, happening to take place at the period of christ's birth, gave rise to the belief that such trees threw out their leaves with a holy joy to commemorate that anniversary. an oak of the early budding species for two centuries enjoyed such a notoriety, having been said to shoot forth its leaves on old christmas day, no leaf being seen either before or after that day during winter. there was the famous glastonbury thorn, and in the same locality a walnut tree was reported never to put forth its leaves before the feast of st. barnabas, the th june. the monkish legend runs thus: joseph of arimathaea, after landing at no great distance from glastonbury, walked to a hill about a mile from the town. being weary he sat down here with his companions, the hill henceforth being nicknamed "weary-all-hill," locally abbreviated into "werral." whilst resting joseph struck his staff into the ground, which took root, grew, and blossomed every christmas day. previous to the time of charles i a branch of this famous tree was carried in procession, with much ceremony, at christmas time, but during the civil war the tree was cut down. many plants, again, as the "sesame" of the "arabian nights," had the power of opening doors and procuring an entrance into caverns and mountain sides--a survival of which we find in the primrose or key-flower of german legend. similarly, other plants, such as the golden-rod, have been renowned for pointing to hidden springs of water, and revealing treasures of gold and silver. such fabulous properties have been also assigned to the hazel-branch, popularly designated the divining-rod:-- "some sorcerers do boast they have a rod, gather'd with vows and sacrifice, and, borne aloft, will strangely nod the hidden treasure where it lies." with plants of the kind we may compare the wonder-working moonwort (_botrychium lunaria_), which was said to open locks and to unshoe horses that trod on it, a notion which du bartas thus mentions in his "divine weekes"-- "horses that, feeding on the grassy hills, tread upon moonwort with their hollow heels, though lately shod, at night go barefoot home, their maister musing where their shoes become. o moonwort! tell me where thou bid'st the smith, hammer and pinchers, thou unshodd'st them with. alas! what lock or iron engine is't, that can thy subtle secret strength resist, still the best farrier cannot set a shoe so sure, but thou (so shortly) canst undo." the blasting-root, known in germany as spring-wurzel, and by us as spring-wort, possesses similar virtues, for whatever lock is touched by it must yield. it is no easy matter to find this magic plant, but, according to a piece of popular folk-lore, it is obtained by means of the woodpecker. when this bird visits its nest, it must have been previously plugged up with wood, to remove which it goes in search of the spring-wort. on holding this before the nest the wood shoots out from the tree as if driven by the most violent force. meanwhile, a red cloth must be placed near the nest, which will so scare the woodpecker that it will let the fabulous root drop. there are several versions of this tradition. according to pliny the bird is the raven; in swabia it is the hoopoe, and in switzerland the swallow. in russia, there is a plant growing in marshy land, known as the rasir-trava, which when applied to locks causes them to open instantly. in iceland similar properties are ascribed to the herb-paris, there known as lasa-grass. according to a piece of breton lore, the selago, or "cloth of gold," cannot be cut with steel without the sky darkening and some disaster taking place:-- "the herb of gold is cut; a cloud across the sky hath spread its shroud to war." on the other hand, if properly gathered with due ceremony, it conferred the power of understanding the language of beast or bird.[ ] as far back as the time of pliny, we have directions for the gathering of this magic plant. the person plucking it was to go barefoot, with feet washed, clad in white, after having offered a sacrifice of bread and wine. another plant which had to be gathered with special formalities was the magic mandragora. it was commonly reported to shriek in such a hideous manner when pulled out of the earth that, "living mortals hearing them run mad." hence, various precautions were adopted. according to pliny, "when they intended to take up the root of this plant, they took the wind thereof, and with a sword describing three circles about it, they digged it up, looking towards the west." another old authority informs us that he "who would take it up, in common prudence should tie a dog to it to accomplish his purpose, as if he did it himself, he would shortly die." moore gives this warning:-- "the phantom shapes--oh, touch them not that appal the maiden's sight, look in the fleshy mandrake's stem, that shrieks when plucked at night." to quote one or two more illustrations, we may mention the famous lily at lauenberg, which is said to have sprung up when a poor and beautiful girl was spirited away out of the clutches of a dissolute baron. it made its appearance annually, an event which was awaited with much interest by the inhabitants of the hartz, many of whom made a pilgrimage to behold it. "they returned to their homes," it is said, "overpowered by its dazzling beauty, and asserting that its splendour was so great that it shed beams of light on the valley below." similarly, we are told how the common break-fern flowers but once a year, at midnight, on michaelmas eve, when it displays a small blue flower, which vanishes at the approach of dawn. according to a piece of folk-lore current in bohemia and the tyrol, the fern-seed shines like glittering gold at the season, so that there is no chance of missing its appearance, especially as it has its sundry mystic properties which are described elsewhere. professor mannhardt relates a strange legend current in mecklenburg to the effect that in a certain secluded and barren spot, where a murder had been committed, there grows up every day at noon a peculiarly-shaped thistle, unlike any other of its kind. on inspection there are to be seen human arms, hands, and heads, and as soon as twelve heads have appeared, the weird plant vanishes. it is further added that on one occasion a shepherd happened to pass the mysterious spot where the thistle was growing, when instantly his arms were paralysed and his staff became tinder. accounts of these fabulous trees and plants have in years gone been very numerous, and have not yet wholly died out, surviving in the legendary tales of most countries. in some instances, too, it would seem that certain trees like animals have gained a notoriety, purely fabulous, through trickery and credulity. about the middle of the last century, for instance, there was the groaning-tree at badesly, which created considerable sensation. it appears that a cottager, who lived in the village of badesly, two miles from lymington, frequently heard a strange noise behind his house, like a person in extreme agony. for about twenty months this tree was an object of astonishment, and at last the owner of the tree, in order to discover the cause of its supposed sufferings, bored a hole in the trunk. after this operation it ceased to groan, it was rooted up, but nothing appeared to account for its strange peculiarity. stories of this kind remind us of similar wonders recorded by sir john maundeville, as having been seen by him in the course of his eastern travels. thus he describes a certain table of ebony or blackwood, "that once used to turn into flesh on certain occasions, but whence now drops only oil, which, if kept above a year, becomes good flesh and bone." footnotes: . laing's "history of scotland," , ii. p. ii. . "flower-lore," p. . chapter xvi. doctrine of signatures. the old medical theory, which supposed that plants by their external character indicated the particular diseases for which nature had intended them as remedies, was simply a development of the much older notion of a real connection between object and image. thus, on this principle, it was asserted that the properties of substances were frequently denoted by their colour; hence, white was regarded as refrigerant, and red as hot. in the same way, for disorders of the blood, burnt purple, pomegranate seeds, mulberries, and other red ingredients were dissolved in the patient's drink; and for liver complaints yellow substances were recommended. but this fanciful and erroneous notion "led to serious errors in practice," [ ] and was occasionally productive of the most fatal results. although, indeed, pliny spoke of the folly of the magicians in using the catanance (greek: katanhankae, compulsion) for love-potions, on account of its shrinking "in drying into the shape of the claws of a dead kite," [ ] and so holding the patient fast; yet this primitive idea, after the lapse of centuries, was as fully credited as in the early days when it was originally started. throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, for instance, it is noticed in most medical works, and in many cases treated with a seriousness characteristic of the backward state of medical science even at a period so comparatively recent. crollius wrote a work on the subject; and langham, in his "garden of health," published in the year , accepted the doctrine. coles, in his "art of simpling" ( ), thus describes it:-- "though sin and satan have plunged mankind into an ocean of infirmities, yet the mercy of god, which is over all his workes, maketh grasse to growe upon the mountains and herbes for the use of men, and hath not only stamped upon them a distinct forme, but also given them particular signatures, whereby a man may read even in legible characters the use of them." john ray, in his treatise on "the wisdom of god in creation," was among the first to express his disbelief of this idea, and writes:--"as for the signatures of plants, or the notes impressed upon them as notices of their virtues, some lay great stress upon them, accounting them strong arguments to prove that some understanding principle is the highest original of the work of nature, as indeed they were could it be certainly made to appear that there were such marks designedly set upon them, because all that i find mentioned by authors seem to be rather fancied by men than designed by nature to signify, or point out, any such virtues, or qualities, as they would make us believe." his views, however, are somewhat contradictory, inasmuch as he goes on to say that, "the noxious and malignant plants do, many of them, discover something of their nature by the sad and melancholick visage of their leaves, flowers, or fruit. and that i may not leave that head wholly untouched, one observation i shall add relating to the virtues of plants, in which i think there is something of truth--that is, that there are of the wise dispensation of providence such species of plants produced in every country as are made proper and convenient for the meat and medicine of the men and animals that are bred and inhabit therein." indeed, however much many of the botanists of bygone centuries might try to discredit this popular delusion, they do not seem to have been wholly free from its influence themselves. some estimate, also, of the prominence which the doctrine of signatures obtained may be gathered from the frequent allusions to it in the literature of the period. thus, to take one illustration, the euphrasia or eye-bright (_euphrasia officinalis_), which was, and is, supposed to be good for the eye, owing to a black pupil-like spot in its corolla, is noticed by milton, who, it may be remembered, represents the archangel as clearing the vision of our first parents by its means:-- "then purged with euphrasy and rue his visual orbs, for he had much to see." spenser speaks of it in the same strain:-- "yet euphrasie may not be left unsung, that gives dim eyes to wander leagues around." and thomson says:-- "if she, whom i implore, urania, deign with euphrasy to purge away the mists, which, humid, dim the mirror of the mind." with reference to its use in modern times, anne pratt[ ] tells us how, "on going into a small shop in dover, she saw a quantity of the plant suspended from the ceiling, and was informed that it was gathered and dried as being good for weak eyes;" and in many of our rural districts i learn that the same value is still attached to it by the peasantry. again, it is interesting to observe how, under a variety of forms, this piece of superstition has prevailed in different parts of the world. by virtue of a similar association of ideas, for instance, the gin-seng [ ] was said by the chinese and north american indians to possess certain virtues which were deduced from the shape of the root, supposed to resemble the human body [ ]--a plant with which may be compared our mandrake. the romans of old had their rock-breaking plant called "saxifraga" or _sassafras_; [ ] and we know in later times how the granulated roots of our white meadow saxifrage (_saxifraga granulata_), resembling small stones, were supposed to indicate its efficacy in the cure of calculous complaints. hence one of its names, stonebreak. the stony seeds of the gromwell were, also, used in cases of stone--a plant formerly known as lichwale, or, as in a ms. of the fifteenth century, lythewale, stone-switch. [ ] in accordance, also, with the same principle it was once generally believed that the seeds of ferns were of an invisible sort, and hence, by a transference of properties, it came to be admitted that the possessor of fern-seed could likewise be invisible--a notion which obtained an extensive currency on the continent. as special good-luck was said to attend the individual who succeeded in obtaining this mystic seed, it was eagerly sought for--midsummer eve being one of the occasions when it could be most easily procured. thus grimm, in his "teutonic mythology," [ ] relates how a man in westphalia was looking on midsummer night for a foal he had lost, and happened to pass through a meadow just as the fern-seed was ripening, so that it fell into his shoes. in the morning he went home, walked into the sitting-room and sat down, but thought it strange that neither his wife nor any of the family took the least notice of him. "i have not found the foal," said he. thereupon everybody in the room started and looked alarmed, for they heard his voice but saw him not. his wife then called him, thinking he must have hid himself, but he only replied, "why do you call me? here i am right before you." at last he became aware that he was invisible, and, remembering how he had walked in the meadow on the preceding evening, it struck him that he might possibly have fern-seed in his shoes. so he took them off, and as he shook them the fern-seed dropped out, and he was no longer invisible. there are numerous stories of this kind; and, according to dr. kuhn, one method for obtaining the fern-seed was, at the summer solstice, to shoot at the sun when it had attained its midday height. if this were done, three drops of blood would fall, which were to be gathered up and preserved--this being the fern-seed. in bohemia, [ ] on old st. john's night (july ), one must lay a communion chalice-cloth under the fern, and collect the seed which will fall before sunrise. among some of the scattered allusions to this piece of folk-lore in the literature of our own country, may be mentioned one by shakespeare in "i henry iv." (ii. ):-- "_gadshill_. we have the receipt of fern-seed, we walk invisible----[ ] "_chamberlain_. nay, by my faith, i think you are more beholding to the night than to fern-seed for your walking invisible." in ben jonson's "new inn" (i. ), it is thus noticed:-- "i had no medicine, sir, to go invisible, no fern-seed in my pocket." brand [ ] was told by an inhabitant of heston, in middlesex, that when he was a young man he was often present at the ceremony of catching the fern-seed at midnight, on the eve of st. john baptist. the attempt was frequently unsuccessful, for the seed was to fall into a plate of its own accord, and that too without shaking the plate. it is unnecessary to add further illustrations on this point, as we have had occasion to speak elsewhere of the sundry other magical properties ascribed to the fern-seed, whereby it has been prominently classed amongst the mystic plants. but, apart from the doctrine of signatures, it would seem that the fern-seed was also supposed to derive its power of making invisible from the cloud, says mr. kelly, [ ] "that contained the heavenly fire from which the plant is sprung." whilst speaking, too, of the fern-seed's property of making people invisible, it is of interest to note that in the icelandic and pomeranian myths the schamir or "raven-stone" renders its possessor invisible; and according to a north german tradition the luck-flower is enbued with the same wonderful qualities. it is essential, however, that the flower be found by accident, for he who seeks it never finds it. in sweden hazel-nuts are reputed to have the power of making invisible, and from their reputed magical properties have been, from time immemorial, in great demand for divination. all those plants whose leaves bore a fancied resemblance to the moon were, in days of old, regarded with superstitious reverence. the moon-daisy, the type of a class of plants resembling the pictures of a full moon, were exhibited, says dr. prior, "in uterine complaints, and dedicated in pagan times to the goddess of the moon." the moonwort (_botrychium lunaria_), often confounded with the common "honesty" (_lunaria biennis_) of our gardens, so called from the semi-lunar shape of the segments of its frond, was credited with the most curious properties, the old alchemists affirming that it was good among other things for converting quicksilver into pure silver, and unshoeing such horses as trod upon it. a similar virtue was ascribed to the horse-shoe vetch (_hippocrepis comosa_), so called from the shape of the legumes, hence another of its mystic nicknames was "unshoe the horse." but referring to the doctrine of signatures in folk-medicine, a favourite garden flower is solomon's seal (_polygonatum multiflorum_). on cutting the roots transversely, some marks are apparent not unlike the characters of a seal, which to the old herbalists indicated its use as a seal for wounds. [ ] gerarde, describing it, tells us how, "the root of solomon's seal stamped, while it is fresh and greene, and applied, taketh away in one night, or two at the most, any bruise, black or blue spots, gotten by falls, or women's wilfulness in stumbling upon their hasty husbands' fists." for the same reason it was called by the french herbalists "l'herbe de la rupture." the specific name of the tutsan [ ] (_hypericum androsoemum_), derived from the two greek words signifying man and blood, in reference to the dark red juice which exudes from the capsules when bruised, was once applied to external wounds, and hence it was called "balm of the warrior's wound," or "all-heal." gerarde says, "the leaves laid upon broken skins and scabbed legs heal them, and many other hurts and griefs, whereof it took its name 'toute-saine' of healing all things." the pretty plant, herb-robert (_geranium robertianum_), was supposed to possess similar virtues, its power to arrest bleeding being indicated by the beautiful red hue assumed by the fading leaves, on account of which property it was styled "a stauncher of blood." the garden jerusalem cowslip (_pulmonaria offinalis_) owes its english name, lungwort, to the spotting of the leaves, which were said to indicate that they would be efficacious in healing diseases of the lungs. then there is the water-soldier (_stratiotes aloides_), which from its sword-shaped leaves was reckoned among the appliances for gun-shot wounds. another familiar plant which has long had a reputation as a vulnerary is the self-heal, or carpenter's herb (_prunella vulgaris_), on account of its corolla being shaped like a bill-hook. again, presumably on the doctrine of signatures, the connection between roses and blood is very curious. thus in france, germany, and italy it is a popular notion that if one is desirous of having ruddy cheeks, he must bury a drop of his blood under a rose-bush. [ ] as a charm against haemorrhage of every kind, the rose has long been a favourite remedy in germany, and in westphalia the following formula is employed: "abek, wabek, fabek; in christ's garden stand three red roses--one for the good god, the other for god's blood, the third for the angel gabriel: blood, i pray you, cease to flow." another version of this charm is the following [ ]:--"on the head of our lord god there bloom three roses: the first is his virtue, the second is his youth, the third is his will. blood, stand thou in the wound still, so that thou neither sore nor abscess givest." turning to some of the numerous plants which on the doctrine of signatures were formerly used as specifics from a fancied resemblance, in the shape of the root, leaf, or fruit, to any particular part of the human body, we are confronted with a list adapted for most of the ills to which the flesh is heir. [ ] thus, the walnut was regarded as clearly good for mental cases from its bearing the signature of the whole head; the outward green cortex answering to the pericranium, the harder shell within representing the skull, and the kernel in its figure resembling the cover of the brain. on this account the outside shell was considered good for wounds of the head, whilst the bark of the tree was regarded as a sovereign remedy for the ringworm. [ ] its leaves, too, when bruised and moistened with vinegar were used for ear-ache. for scrofulous glands, the knotty tubers attached to the kernel-wort (_scrophularia nodosa_) have been considered efficacious. the pith of the elder, when pressed with the fingers, "doth pit and receive the impress of them thereon, as the legs and feet of dropsical persons do," therefore the juice of this tree was reckoned a cure for dropsy. our lady's thistle (_cardmis marianus_), from its numerous prickles, was recommended for stitches of the side; and nettle-tea is still a common remedy with many of our peasantry for nettle-rash. the leaves of the wood-sorrel (_oxalis acetosella_) were believed to preserve the heart from many diseases, from their being "broad at the ends, cut in the middle, and sharp towards the stalk." similarly the heart-trefoil, or clover (_medicago maculata_), was so called, because, says coles in his "art of simpling," "not only is the leaf triangular like the heart of a man, but also because each leaf contains the perfect image of an heart, and that in its proper colour--a flesh colour. it defendeth the heart against the noisome vapour of the spleen." another plant which, on the same principle, was reckoned as a curative for heart-disease, is the heart's-ease, a term meaning a _cordial_, as in sir walter scott's "antiquary" (chap, xi.), "try a dram to be eilding and claise, and a supper and heart's-ease into the bargain." the knot-grass (_polygonum aviculare_), with its reddish-white flowers and trailing pointed stems, was probably so called "from some unrecorded character by the doctrine of signatures," suggests mr. ellacombe, [ ] that it would stop the growth of children. thus shakespeare, in his "midsummer night's dream" (act iii. sc. ), alludes to it as the "hindering knot-grass," and in beaumont and fletcher's "coxcomb" (act ii. sc. ) it is further mentioned:-- "we want a boy extremely for this function, kept under for a year with milk and knot-grass." according to crollius, the woody scales of which the cones of the pine-tree are composed "resemble the fore-teeth;" hence pine-leaves boiled in vinegar were used as a garlic for the relief of toothache. white-coral, from its resemblance to the teeth, was also in requisition, because "it keepeth children to heed their teeth, their gums being rubbed therewith." for improving the complexion, an ointment made of cowslip-flowers was once recommended, because, as an old writer observes, it "taketh away the spots and wrinkles of the skin, and adds beauty exceedingly." mr. burgess, in his handy little volume on "english wild flowers" ( , ), referring to the cowslip, says, "the village damsels use it as a cosmetic, and we know it adds to the beauty of the complexion of the town-immured lassie when she searches for and gathers it herself in the early spring morning." some of the old herbalists speak of moss gathered from a skull as useful for disorders of the head, and hence it was gathered and preserved. the rupture-wort (_herniaria glabra_) was so called from its fancied remedial powers, and the scabious in allusion to the scaly pappus of its seeds, which led to its use in leprous diseases. the well-known fern, spleen-wort (_asplenium_), had this name applied to it from the lobular form of the leaf, which suggested it as a remedy for diseases of the spleen. another of its nicknames is miltwaste, because:-- "the finger-ferne, which being given to swine, it makes their milt to melt away in fine--" a superstition which seems to have originated in a curious statement made by vitruvius, that in certain localities in the island of crete the flocks and herds were found without spleen from their browsing on this plant, whereas in those districts in which it did not grow the reverse was the case. [ ] the yellow bark of the berberry-tree (_berberis vulgaris_), [ ] when taken as a decoction in ale, or white wine, is said to be a purgative, and to have proved highly efficacious in the case of jaundice, hence in some parts of the country it is known as the "jaundice-berry." turmeric, too, was formerly prescribed--a plant used for making a yellow dye; [ ] and celandine, with its yellow juice, was once equally in repute. similar remedies we find recommended on the continent, and in westphalia an apple mixed with saffron is a popular curative against jaundice. [ ] rhubarb, too, we are told, by the doctrine of signatures, was the "life, soul, heart, and treacle of the liver." mr. folkard [ ] mentions a curious superstition which exists in the neighbourhood of orleans, where a seventh son without a daughter intervening is called a marcon. it is believed that, "the marcon's body is marked somewhere with a fleur-de-lis, and that if a patient suffering under king's-evil touch this fleur-de-lis, or if the marcon breathe upon him, the malady will be sure to disappear." as shaking is one of the chief characteristics of that tedious and obstinate complaint ague, so there was a prevalent notion that the quaking-grass (_briza media_), when dried and kept in the house, acted as a most powerful deterrent. for the same reason, the aspen, from its constant trembling, has been held a specific for this disease. the lesser celandine (_ranunculus ficaria_) is known in many country places as the pilewort, because its peculiar tuberous root was long thought to be efficacious as a remedial agent. and coles, in his "art of simpling," speaks of the purple marsh-wort (_comarum palustre_) as "an excellent remedy against the purples." the common tormentil (_tormentilla officinalis_), from the red colour of its root, was nicknamed the "blood-root," and was said to be efficacious in dysentery; while the bullock's-lungwort derives its name from the resemblance of its leaf to a dewlap, and was on this account held as a remedy for the pneumonia of bullocks.[ ] such is the curious old folk-lore doctrine of signatures, which in olden times was regarded with so much favour, and for a very long time was recognised, without any questioning, as worthy of men's acceptation. it is one of those popular delusions which scientific research has scattered to the winds, having in its place discovered the true medicinal properties of plants, by the aid of chemical analysis. footnotes: . pettigrew's "medical superstitions," , p. . . tylor's "researches into the early history of mankind," , p. ; chapiel's "la doctrine des signatures," paris, . . "flowering plants of great britain," iv. ; see dr. prior's "popular names of british plants," - . . tylor's "researches into the early history of mankind," p. . . see porter smith's "chinese materia medica," p. ; lockhart, "medical missionary in china," nd edition, p. ; "reports on trade at the treaty ports of china," , p. . . fiske, "myths and mythmakers," , p. . . dr. prior's "popular names of british plants," p. . . see kelly's "indo-european tradition folk-lore," , pp. - ; ralston's "russian folk-songs," , p. . . "mystic trees and flowers," mr. d. conway, _frasers magazine_, nov. , p. . . the "receipt," so called, was the formula of magic words to be employed during the process. see grindon's "shakspere flora," , p. . . "popular antiquities," , i. . . "indo-european tradition and folk-lore," p. . . see dr. prior's "popular names of british plants," p. ; phillips' "flora historica," i. . . see sowerby's "english botany," , i., p. . . see "folk-lore of british plants," _dublin university magazine_, september , p. . . see thorpe's "northern mythology," , iii. . . "sketches of imposture, deception, and credulity," , p. . . see phillips' "pomarium britannicum," , p. . . "plant-lore of shakespeare," , p. . . see dr. prior's "popular names of british plants," p. . . hogg's "vegetable kingdom," p. . . see friend's "flowers and flower-lore," ii. . . "mystic trees and flowers," _fraser's magazine_, november , p. . . "plant lore legends and lyrics," p. . . _ibid_., pp, - . chapter xvii. plants and the calendar. a goodly array of plants have cast their attractions round the festivals of the year, giving an outward beauty to the ceremonies and observances celebrated in their honour. these vary in different countries, although we frequently find the same flower almost universally adopted to commemorate a particular festival. many plants, again, have had a superstitious connection, having in this respect exercised a powerful influence among the credulous of all ages, numerous survivals of which exist at the present day. thus, in westphalia, it is said that if the sun makes its appearance on new year's day, the flax will be straight; and there is a belief current in hessia, that an apple must not be eaten on new year's day, as it will produce an abscess. according to an old adage, the laurestinus, dedicated to st. faine (january ), an irish abbess in the sixth century, may be seen in bloom:-- "whether the weather be snow or rain, we are sure to see the flower of st. faine; rain comes but seldom and often snow, and yet the viburnum is sure to blow." and james montgomery notices this cheerful plant, speaking of it as the, "fair tree of winter, fresh and flowering, when all around is dead and dry, whose ruby buds, though storms are lowering, spread their white blossoms to the sky." then there is the dead nettle, which in italy is assigned to st. vincent; and the christmas rose (_helleboris niger_), dedicated to st. agnes ( st january), is known in germany as the flower of st. agnes, and yet this flower has generally been regarded a plant of evil omen, being coupled by campbell with the hemlock, as growing "by the witches' tower," where it seems to weave, "round its dark vaults a melancholy bower, for spirits of the dead at night's enchanted hour." at candlemas it was customary, writes herrick, to replace the christmas evergreens with sprigs of box, which were kept up till easter eve:-- "down with the rosemary and bays, down with the mistletoe, instead of holly now upraise the greener box for show." the snowdrop has been nicknamed the "fair maid of february," from its blossoming about this period, when it was customary for young women dressed in white to walk in procession at the feast of the purification, and, according to the old adage:-- "the snowdrop in purest white array, first rears her head on candlemas day." the dainty crocus is said to blow "before the shrine at vernal dawn of st. valentine." and we may note here how county traditions affirm that in some mysterious way the vegetable world is affected by leap-year influences. a piece of agricultural folk-lore current throughout the country tells us how all the peas and beans grow the wrong way in their pods, the seeds being set in quite the contrary to what they are in other years. the reason assigned for this strange freak of nature is that, "it is the ladies' year, and they (the peas and beans) always lay the wrong way in leap year." the leek is associated with st. david's day, the adoption of this plant as the national device of wales having been explained in various ways. according to shakespeare it dates from the battle of cressy, while some have maintained it originated in a victory obtained by cadwallo over the saxons, , when the welsh, to distinguish themselves, wore leeks in their hats. it has also beeen suggested that welshmen "beautify their hats with verdant leek," from the custom of every farmer, in years gone by, contributing his leek to the common repast when they met at the cymortha or association, and mutually helped one another in ploughing their land. in ireland the shamrock is worn on st. patrick's day. old women, with plenteous supplies of trefoil, may be heard in every direction crying, "buy my shamrock, green shamrocks," while little children have "patrick's crosses" pinned to their sleeves, a custom which is said to have originated in the circumstance that when st. patrick was preaching the doctrine of the trinity he made use of the trefoil as a symbol of the great mystery. several plants have been identified as the shamrock; and in "contributions towards a cybele hibernica," [ ] is the following extensive note:--"_trifolium repens_, dutch clover, shamrock.--this is the plant still worn as shamrock on st. patrick's day, though _medicago lupulina_ is also sold in dublin as the shamrock. edward lhwyd, the celebrated antiquary, writing in to tancred robinson, says, after a recent visit to ireland: 'their shamrug is our common clover' (_phil. trans._, no. ). threkeld, the earliest writer on the wild plants of ireland, gives _seamar-oge_ (young trefoil) as the gaelic name for _trifolium pratense album,_ and expressly says this is the plant worn by the people in their hats on st. patrick's day." some, again, have advocated the claims of the wood-sorrel, and others those of the speedwell, whereas a correspondent of _notes and queries_ ( th ser. iii. ) says the _trifolium filiforme_ is generally worn in cork, the _trifolium minus_ also being in demand. it has been urged that the watercress was the plant gathered by the saint, but this plant has been objected to on the ground that its leaf is not trifoliate, and could not have been used by st. patrick to illustrate the doctrine of the trinity. on the other hand, it has been argued that the story is of modern date, and not to be found in any of the lives of that saint. st. patrick's cabbage also is a name for "london pride," from its growing in the west of ireland, where the saint lived. few flowers have been more popular than the daffodil or lent-lily, or, as it is sometimes called, the lent-rose. there are various corruptions of this name to be found in the west of england, such as lentils, lent-a-lily, lents, and lent-cocks; the last name doubtless referring to the custom of cock-throwing, which was allowed in lent, boys, in the absence of live cocks, having thrown sticks at the flower. according also to the old rhyme:-- "then comes the daffodil beside our lady's smock at our lady's tide." in catholic countries lent cakes were flavoured with the herb-tansy, a plant dedicated to st. athanasius. in silesia, on mid-lent sunday, pine boughs, bound with variegated paper and spangles, are carried about by children singing songs, and are hung over the stable doors to keep the animals from evil influences. palm sunday receives its english and the greater part of its foreign names from the old practice of bearing palm-branches, in place of which the early catkins of the willow or yew have been substituted, sprigs of box being used in brittany. stow, in his "survey of london," tells us that:--"in the weeke before easter had ye great shows made for the fetching in of a twisted tree or with, as they termed it, out of the wodes into the king's house, and the like into every man's house of honour of worship." this anniversary has also been nicknamed "fig sunday," from the old custom of eating figs; while in wales it is popularly known as "flowering sunday," because persons assemble in the churchyard and spread fresh flowers upon the graves of their friends and relatives. in germany, on palm sunday, the palm is credited with mystic virtues; and if as many twigs, as there are women of a family, be thrown on a fire--each with a name inscribed on it--the person whose leaf burns soonest will be the first to die. on good friday, in the north of england, an herb pudding was formerly eaten, in which the leaves of the passion-dock (_polygonum bistorta_) formed the principal ingredient. in lancashire fig-sue is made, a mixture consisting of sliced figs, nutmeg, ale, and bread. wreaths of elder are hung up in germany after sunset on good friday, as charms against lightning; and in swabia a twig of hazel cut on this day enables the possessor to strike an absent person. in the tyrol, too, the hazel must be cut on good friday to be effectual as a divining-rod. a bohemian charm against fleas is curious. during holy week a leaf of palm must be placed behind a picture of the virgin, and on easter morning taken down with this formula: "depart, all animals without bones." if this rite is observed there will be no more fleas in the house for the remainder of the year. of the flowers associated with eastertide may be mentioned the garden daffodil and the purple pasque flower, another name for the anemone (_anemone pulsatilla_), in allusion to the passover and paschal ceremonies. white broom is also in request, and indeed all white flowers are dedicated to this festival. on easter day the bavarian peasants make garlands of coltsfoot and throw them into the fire; and in the district of lechrain every household brings to the sacred fire which is lighted at easter a walnut branch, which, when partially burned, is laid on the hearth-fire during tempests as a charm against lightning. in slavonian regions the palm is supposed to specially protect the locality where it grows from inclement weather and its hurtful effects; while, in pomerania, the apple is eaten against fevers. in bareuth young girls go at midnight on easter day to a fountain silently, and taking care to escape notice, throw into the water little willow rings with their friends' names inscribed thereon, the person whose ring sinks the quickest being the first to die. in years past the milkwort (_polygala vulgaris_), from being carried in procession during rogation week, was known by such names as the rogation-flower, gang-flower, procession-flower, and cross-flower, a custom noticed by gerarde, who tells us how, "the maidens which use in the countries to walke the procession do make themselves garlands and nosegaies of the milkwort." on ascension day the swiss make wreaths of the edelweisse, hanging them over their doors and windows; another plant selected for this purpose being the amaranth, which, like the former, is considered an emblem of immortality. in our own country may be mentioned the well-dressing of tissington, near dovedale, in derbyshire, the wells in the village having for years past been most artistically decorated with the choicest flowers. [ ] formerly, on st. george's day (april ), blue coats were worn by people of fashion. hence, the harebell being in bloom, was assigned to the saint:-- "on st. george's day, when blue is worn, the blue harebells the fields adorn." flowers have always entered largely into the may day festival; and many a graphic account has been bequeathed us of the enthusiasm with which both old and young went "a-maying" soon after midnight, breaking down branches from the trees, which, decorated with nosegays and garlands of flowers, were brought home soon after sunrise and placed at the doors and windows. shakespeare ("henry viii.," v. ), alluding to the custom, says:-- "'tis as much impossible, unless we sweep them from the doors with cannons, to scatter 'em, as 'tis to make 'em sleep on may day morning." accordingly, flowers were much in demand, many being named from the month itself, as the hawthorn, known in many places as may-bloom and may-tree, whereas the lily of the valley is nicknamed may-lily. again, in cornwall lilac is termed may-flower, and the narrow-leaved elm, which is worn by the peasant in his hat or button-hole, is called may. similarly, in germany, we find the term may-bloom applied to such plants as the king-cup and lily of the valley. in north america, says the author of "flower-lore," the podophyllum is called "may-apple," and the fruit of the _passiflora incarnata_ "may-hops." the chief uses of these may-flowers were for the garlands, the decoration of the maypole, and the adornment of the home:-- "to get sweet setywall (red valerian), the honeysuckle, the harlock, the lily, and the lady-smock, to deck their summer hall." but one plant was carefully avoided--the cuckoo flower.[ ] as in other floral rites, the selection of plants varies on the continent, branches of the elder being carried about in savoy, and in austrian silesia the maypole is generally made of fir. according to an italian proverb, the universal lover is "one who hangs every door with may." various plants are associated with whitsuntide, and according to chaucer, in his "romaunt of the rose":-- "have hatte of floures fresh as may, chapelett of roses of whitsunday, for sich array be costeth but lite." in italy the festival is designated "pasqua rosata," from falling at a time when roses are in bloom, while in germany the peony is the pentecost rose. herrick tells us it was formerly the practice to use birch and spring-flowers for decorative purposes at whitsuntide:-- "when yew is out then birch comes in, and may-flowers beside, both of a fresh and fragrant kinne, to honour whitsontide." at this season, too, box-boughs were gathered to deck the large open fire-places then in fashion, and the guelder rose was dedicated to the festival. certain flower-sermons have been preached in the city at whitsuntide, as, for instance, that at st. james's church, mitre court, aldgate, and another at st. leonard's church, shoreditch, known as the fairchild lecture. turning to the continent, it is customary in hanover on whit-monday to gather the lily of the valley, and at the close of the day there is scarcely a house without a large bouquet, while in germany the broom is a favourite plant for decorations. in russia, at the completion of whitsuntide, young girls repair to the banks of the neva and cast in wreaths of flowers in token of their absent friends. certain flowers, such as the rose, lavender, woodruff, and box were formerly in request for decking churches on st. barnabas' day, the officiating clergy having worn wreaths of roses. among the allusions to the usage may be mentioned the following entries in the churchwarden's accounts of st. mary-at-hill, london, in the reigns of edward iv. and henry vii.:--"for rose garlondis and woodrolf garlondis on st. barnabe daye, xj'd." "item, for two doss (dozen?) di bocse (box) garlands for prestes and clerkes on st. barnabe day, j's. v'd." st. barnabas' thistle (_centaurea solstitialis_) derived its name from flowering at the time of the saint's festival, and we are told how:-- "when st. barnaby bright smiles night and day, poor ragged robin blooms in the hay." to trinity sunday belong the pansy, or herb-trinity and trefoil, hence the latter has been used for decorations on this anniversary. in commemoration of the restoration of charles ii., oak leaves and gilded oak apples have been worn; oak branches having been in past years placed over doors and windows. stowe, in his "survey of london," speaks of the old custom of hanging up st. john's wort over the doors of houses, along with green birch or pine, white lilies, and other plants. the same practice has existed very largely on the continent, st. john's wort being still regarded as an effective charm against witchcraft. indeed, few plants have been in greater request on any anniversary, or been invested with such mystic virtues. fennel, another of the many plants dedicated to st. john, was hung over doors and windows on his night in england, numerous allusions to which occur in the literature of the past. and in connection with this saint we are told how:-- "the scarlet lychnis, the garden's pride, flames at st. john the baptist's tyde." hemp was also in demand, many forms of divination having been practised by means of its seed. according to a belief in iceland, the trijadent (_spiraea ulmaria_) will, if put under water on this day, reveal a thief; floating if the thief be a woman, and sinking if a man. in the harz, on midsummer night, branches of the fir-tree are decorated with flowers and coloured eggs, around which the young people dance, singing rhymes. the bolognese, who regard garlic as the symbol of abundance, buy it at the festival as a charm against poverty during the coming year. the bohemian, says mr. conway, "thinks he can make himself shot-proof for twenty-four hours by finding on st. john's day pine-cones on the top of a tree, taking them home, and eating a single kernel on each day that he wishes to be invulnerable." in sicily it is customary, on midsummer eve, to fell the highest poplar, and with shouts to drag it through the village, while some beat a drum. around this poplar, says mr. folkard,[ ] "symbolising the greatest solar ascension and the decline which follows it, the crowd dance, and sing an appropriate refrain;" and he further mentions that, at the commencement of the franco-german war, he saw sprigs of pine stuck on the railway carriages bearing the german soldiers into france. in east prussia, the sap of dog-wood, absorbed in a handkerchief, will fulfil every wish; and a brandenburg remedy for fever is to lie naked under a cherry-tree on st. john's day, and to shake the dew on one's back. elsewhere we have alluded to the flowering of the fern on this anniversary, and there is the bohemian idea that its seed shines like glittering gold. corpus christi day was, in olden times, observed with much ceremony, the churches being decorated with roses and other choice garlands, while the streets through which the procession passed were strewn with flowers. in north wales, flowers were scattered before the door; and a particular fern, termed rhedyn mair, or mary's fern--probably the maiden-hair--was specially used for the purpose. we may mention here that the daisy (_bellis perennis_) was formerly known as herb-margaret or marguerite, and was erroneously supposed to have been named after the virtuous st. margaret of antioch:-- "maid margarete, that was so meek and mild;" whereas it, in all probability, derives its name from st. margaret of cortona. according to an old legend it is stated:-- "there is a double flouret, white and red, that our lasses call herb-margaret, in honour of cortona's penitent, whose contrite soul with red remorse was rent; while on her penitence kind heaven did throw the white of purity, surpassing snow; so white and red in this fair flower entwine, which maids are wont to scatter at her shrine." again, of the rainy saint, st. swithin, we are reminded that:-- "against st. swithin's hastie showers, the lily white reigns queen of the flowers"-- a festival around which so much curious lore has clustered. in former years st. margaret's day (july ) was celebrated with many curious ceremonies, and, according to a well-known couplet in allusion to the emblem of the vanquished dragon, which appears in most pictures of st. margaret:-- "poppies a sanguine mantle spread for the blood of the dragon that margaret shed." archdeacon hare says the sweet-william, designated the "painted lady," was dedicated to saint william (june ), the term "sweet" being a substitution for "saint." this seems doubtful, and some would corrupt the word "sweet" from the french _oeillet_, corrupted to willy, and thence to william. mr. king, however, considers that the small red pink (_dianthus prolifer_), found wild in the neighbourhood of rochester, "is perhaps the original saint sweet-william," for, he adds, the word "saint" has only been dropped since days which saw the demolition of st. william's shrine in the cathedral. this is but a conjecture, it being uncertain whether the masses of bright flowers which form one of the chief attractions of old-fashioned gardens commemorate st. william of rochester, st. william of york, or, likeliest perhaps of the three, st. william of aquitaine, the half soldier, half monk, whose fame was so widely spread throughout the south of europe. roses were said to fade on st. mary magdalene's day (july ), to whom we find numerous flowers dedicated, such as the maudlin, a nickname of the costmary, either in allusion to her love of scented ointment, or to its use in uterine affections, over which she presided as the patroness of unchaste women, and maudlin-wort, another name for the moon-daisy. but, as dr. prior remarks, it should, "be observed that the monks in the middle ages mixed up with the story of the magdalene that of another st. mary, whose early life was passed in a course of debauchery." a german piece of folk-lore tells us that it is dangerous to climb a cherry-tree on st. james's night, as the chance of breaking one's neck will be great, this day being held unlucky. on this day is kept st. christopher's anniversary, after whom the herb-christopher is named, a species of aconite, according to gerarde. but, as dr. prior adds, the name is applied to many plants which have no qualities in common, some of these being the meadow-sweet, fleabane, osmund-fern, herb-impious, everlasting-flower, and baneberry. throughout august, during the ingathering of the harvest, a host of customs have been kept up from time immemorial, which have been duly noticed by brand, while towards the close of the month we are reminded of st. bartholomew's day by the gaudy sunflower, which has been nicknamed st. bartholomew's star, the term "star" having been often used "as an emblematical representation of brilliant virtues or any sign of admiration." it is, too, suggested by archdeacon hare that the filbert may owe its name to st. philbert, whose festival was on the nd august. the passion-flower has been termed holy rood flower, and it is the ecclesiastical emblem of holy cross day, for, according to the familiar couplet:-- "the passion-flower long has blow'd to betoken us signs of the holy rood." then there is the michaelmas day, which:-- "among dead weeds, bloom for st. michael's valorous deeds," and the golden star lily, termed st. jerome's lily. on st. luke's day, certain flowers, as we have already noticed, have been in request for love divinations; and on the continent the chestnut is eaten on the festival of st. simon, in piedmont on all souls' day, and in france on st. martin's, when old women assemble beneath the windows and sing a long ballad. hallowe'en has its use among divinations, at which time various plants are in request, and among the observance of all souls' day was blessing the beans. it would appear, too, that in days gone by, on the eve of all saints' day, heath was specially burnt by way of a bonfire:-- "on all saints' day bare is the place where the heath is burnt; the plough is in the furrow, the ox at work." from the shape of its flower, the trumpet-flowered wood-sorrel has been called st. cecilia's flower, whose festival is kept on november . the _nigella damascena_, popularly known as love-in-a-mist, was designated st. catherine's flower, "from its persistent styles," writes dr. prior,[ ] "resembling the spokes of her wheel." there was also the catherine-pear, to which gay alludes in his "pastorals," where sparabella, on comparing herself with her rival, says:-- "her wan complexion's like the withered leek, while catherine-pears adorn my ruddy cheek." herb-barbara, or st. barbara's cress (_barbarea vulgaris_), was so called from growing and being eaten about the time of her festival (december ). coming to christmas, some of the principal evergreens used in this country for decorative purposes are the ivy, laurel, bay, arbor vitae, rosemary, and holly; mistletoe, on account of its connection with druidic rites, having been excluded from churches. speaking of the holly, mr. conway remarks that, "it was to the ancient races of the north a sign of the life which preserved nature through the desolation of winter, and was gathered into pagan temples to comfort the sylvan spirits during the general death." he further adds that "it is a singular fact that it is used by the wildest indians of the pacific coast in their ceremonies of purification. the ashen-faggot was in request for the christmas fire, the ceremonies relating to which are well known." footnotes: . by d. moore and a.g. moore, . . see "journal of the arch. assoc.," , vii. . . see "british popular customs." . "plant lore legends and lyrics," p. . . "popular names of british plants," , p. . chapter xviii. children's rhymes and games. children are more or less observers of nature, and frequently far more so than their elders. this, perhaps, is in a great measure to be accounted for from the fact that childhood is naturally inquisitive, and fond of having explained whatever seems in any way mysterious. such especially is the case in the works of nature, and in a country ramble with children their little voices are generally busy inquiring why this bird does this, or that plant grows in such a way--a variety of questions, indeed, which unmistakably prove that the young mind instinctively seeks after knowledge. hence, we find that the works of nature enter largely into children's pastimes; a few specimens of their rhymes and games associated with plants we quote below. in lincolnshire, the butter-bur (_petasites vulgaris_) is nicknamed bog-horns, because the children use the hollow stalks as horns or trumpets, and the young leaves and shoots of the common hawthorn (_cratoegus oxyacantha_), from being commonly eaten by children in spring, are known as "bread and cheese;" while the ladies-smock (_cardamine pratensis_) is termed "bread and milk," from the custom, it has been suggested, of country people having bread and milk for breakfast about the season when the flower first comes in. in the north of england this plant is known as cuckoo-spit, because almost every flower stem has deposited upon it a frothy patch not unlike human saliva, in which is enveloped a pale green insect. few north-country children will gather these flowers, believing that it is unlucky to do so, adding that the cuckoo has spit upon it when flying over. [ ] the fruits of the mallow are popularly termed by children cheeses, in allusion to which clare writes:-- "the sitting down when school was o'er, upon the threshold of the door, picking from mallows, sport to please, the crumpled seed we call a cheese." a buckinghamshire name with children for the deadly nightshade (_atropa belladonna_) is the naughty-man's cherry, an illustration of which we may quote from curtis's "flora londinensis":--"on keep hill, near high wycombe, where we observed it, there chanced to be a little boy. i asked him if he knew the plant. he answered 'yes; it was naughty-man's cherries.'" in the north of england the broad-dock (_rumex obtusifolius_), when in seed, is known by children as curly-cows, who milk it by drawing the stalks through their fingers. again, in the same locality, children speaking of the dead-man's thumb, one of the popular names of the _orchis mascula_, tell one another with mysterious awe that the root was once the thumb of some unburied murderer. in one of the "roxburghe ballads" the phrase is referred to:-- "then round the meadows did she walke, catching each flower by the stalke, suche as within the meadows grew, as dead-man's thumbs and harebell blue." it is to this plant that shakespeare doubtless alludes in "hamlet" (act iv. sc. ), where:-- "long purples that liberal shepherds give a grosser name, but our cold maids do dead-men's fingers call them." in the south of scotland, the name "doudle," says jamieson, is applied to the root of the common reed-grass (_phragmites communis_), which is found, partially decayed, in morasses, and of "which the children in the south of scotland make a sort of musical instrument, similar to the oaten pipes of the ancients." in yorkshire, the water-scrophularia (_scrophularia aquatica_), is in children's language known as "fiddle-wood," so called because the stems are by children stripped of their leaves, and scraped across each other fiddler-fashion, when they produce a squeaking sound. this juvenile music is the source of infinite amusement among children, and is carried on by them with much enthusiasm in their games. likewise, the spear-thistle (_carduus lanceolatus_) is designated marian in scotland, while children blow the pappus from the receptacle, saying:-- "marian, marian, what's the time of day, one o'clock, two o'clock--it's time we were away." in cheshire, when children first see the heads of the ribwort plantain (_plantago lanceolata_) in spring, they repeat the following rhyme:-- "chimney sweeper all in black, go to the brook and wash your back, wash it clean, or wash it none; chimney sweeper, have you done?":-- being in all probability a mode of divination for insuring good luck. another name for the same plant is "cocks," from children fighting the flower-stems one against another. the common hazel-nut (_corylus avellana_) is frequently nicknamed the "cob-nut," and was so called from being used in an old game played by children. an old name for the devil's-bit (_scabiosa succisa_), in the northern counties, and in scotland, is "curl-doddy," from the resemblance of the head of flowers to the curly pate of a boy, this nickname being often used by children who thus address the plant:-- "curly-doddy, do my biddin', soop my house, and shoal my widden'." in ireland, children twist the stalk, and as it slowly untwists in the hand, thus address it:-- "curl-doddy on the midden, turn round an' take my biddin'." in cumberland, the _primula farinosa_, commonly known as bird's-eye, is called by children "bird-een." "the lockety-gowan and bonny bird-een are the fairest flowers that ever were seen." and in many places the _leontodon taraxacum_ is designated "blow-ball," because children blow the ripe fruit from the receptacle to tell the time of day and for various purposes of divination. thus in the "sad shepherd," page , it is said:-- "her treading would not bend a blade of grass, or shake the downy blow-ball from his stalk." in scotland, one of the popular names of the _angelica sylvestris_ is "aik-skeiters," or "hear-skeiters," because children shoot oats through the hollow stems, as peas are shot through a pea-shooter. then there is the goose-grass (_galium aparine_), variously called goose-bill, beggar's-lice, scratch-weed, and which has been designated blind-tongue, because "children with the leaves practise phlebotomy upon the tongue of those playmates who are simple enough to endure it," a custom once very general in scotland. [ ] the catkins of the willow are in some counties known as "goslings," or "goslins,"--children, says halliwell, [ ] sometimes playing with them by putting them in the fire and singeing them brown, repeating verses at the same time. one of the names of the heath-pea (_lathyrus macrorrhizus_) is liquory-knots, and school-boys in berwickshire so call them, for when dried their taste is not unlike that of the real liquorice. [ ] again, a children's name of common henbane (_hyoscyamus niger_) is "loaves of bread," an allusion to which is made by clare in his "shepherd's calendar":-- "hunting from the stack-yard sod the stinking henbane's belted pod, by youth's warm fancies sweetly led to christen them his loaves of bread." a worcestershire name for a horse-chestnut is the "oblionker tree." according to a correspondent of _notes and queries_ ( th ser. x. ), in the autumn, when the chestnuts are falling from their trunks, boys thread them on string and play a "cob-nut" game with them. when the striker is taking aim, and preparing for a shot at his adversary's nut, he says:-- "oblionker! my first conker (conquer)." the word oblionker apparently being a meaningless invention to rhyme with the word conquer, which has by degrees become applied to the fruit itself. the wall peniterry (_parietaria officinalis_) is known in ireland as "peniterry," and is thus described in "father connell, by the o'hara family" (chap, xii.):-- "a weed called, locally at least, peniterry, to which the suddenly terrified [schoolboy] idler might run in his need, grasping it hard and threateningly, and repeating the following 'words of power':-- 'peniterry, peniterry, that grows by the wall, save me from a whipping, or i'll pull you roots and all.'" johnston, who has noticed so many odd superstitions, tells us that the tuberous ground-nut (_bunium flexuosum_), which has various nicknames, such as "lousy," "loozie," or "lucie arnut," is dug up by children who eat the roots, "but they are hindered from indulging to excess by a cherished belief that the luxury tends to generate vermin in the head." [ ] an old rhyme often in years past used by country children when the daffodils made their annual appearance in early spring, was as follows:-- "daff-a-down-dill has now come to town, in a yellow petticoat and a green gown." a name for the shepherd's purse is "mother's-heart," and in the eastern border district, says johnston, children have a sort of game with the seed-pouch. they hold it out to their companions, inviting them to "take a haud o' that." it immediately cracks, and then follows a triumphant shout, "you've broken your mother's heart." in northamptonshire, children pick the leaves of the herb called pick-folly, one by one, repeating each time the words, "rich man, poor man, beggar-man, thief," &c., fancying that the one which comes to be named at the last plucking will prove the conditions of their future partners. variations of this custom exist elsewhere, and a correspondent of "science gossip" ( , xi. ). writes:--"i remember when at school at birmingham that my playmates manifested a very great repugnance to this plant. very few of them would touch it, and it was known to us by the two bad names, "haughty-man's plaything," and "pick your mother's heart out." in hanover, as well as in the swiss canton of st. gall, the same plant is offered to uninitiated persons with a request to pluck one of the pods. should he do so the others exclaim, "you have stolen a purse of gold from your father and mother."" "it is interesting to find," writes mr. britten in the "folk-lore record" (i. ), "that a common tropical weed, _ageratum conyzoides_, is employed by children in venezuela in a very similar manner." the compilers of the "dictionary of plant names" consider that the double (garden) form of _saxifraga granulata_, designated "pretty maids," may be referred to in the old nursery rhyme:-- "mary, mary, quite contrary, how does your garden grow? cockle-shells, and silver bells, and pretty maids all in a row." the old-man's-beard (_clematis vitalba_) is in many places popularly known as smoke-wood, because "our village-boys smoke pieces of the wood as they do of rattan cane; hence, it is sometimes called smoke-wood, and smoking-cane." [ ] the children of galloway play at hide-and-seek with a little black-topped flower which is known by them as the davie-drap, meantime repeating the following rhyme:-- "within the bounds of this i hap my black and bonnie davie-drap: wha is he, the cunning ane, to me my davie-drap will fin'?" this plant, it has been suggested, [ ] being the cuckoo grass (_luzula campestris_), which so often figures in children's games and rhymes. once more, there are numerous games played by children in which certain flowers are introduced, as in the following, known as "the three flowers," played in scotland, and thus described in chambers's "popular rhymes," p. :--"a group of lads and lasses being assembled round the fire, two leave the party and consult together as to the names of three others, young men or girls, whom they designate as the red rose, the pink, and the gillyflower. the two young men then return, and having selected a member of the fairer group, they say to her:-- 'my mistress sent me unto thine, wi' three young flowers baith fair and fine:-- the pink, the rose, and the gillyflower, and as they here do stand, whilk will ye sink, whilk will ye swim, and whilk bring hame to land?' the maiden must choose one of the flowers named, on which she passes some approving epithet, adding, at the same time, a disapproving rejection of the other two, as in the following terms: 'i will sink the pink, swim the rose, and bring hame the gillyflower to land.' the young men then disclose the names of the parties upon whom they had fixed those appellations respectively, when it may chance she has slighted the person to whom she is most attached, and contrariwise." games of this kind are very varied, and still afford many an evening's amusement among the young people of our country villages during the winter evenings. footnotes: . _journal of horticulture_, , p. . . johnston's "botany of eastern borders." . "dictionary of archaic and provincial words." . johnston's "botany of eastern borders," p. . . "botany of eastern borders," p. . . "english botany," ed. i, iii. p. . . "dictionary of plant names" (britten and holland), p. . chapter xix. sacred plants. closely allied with plant-worship is the sacred and superstitious reverence which, from time immemorial, has been paid by various communities to certain trees and plants. in many cases this sanctity originated in the olden heathen mythology, when "every flower was the emblem of a god; every tree the abode of a nymph." from their association, too, with certain events, plants frequently acquired a sacred character, and occasionally their specific virtues enhanced their veneration. in short, the large number of sacred plants found in different countries must be attributed to a variety of causes, illustrations of which are given in the present chapter. thus going back to mythological times, it may be noticed that trees into which persons were metamorphosed became sacred. the laurel was sacred to apollo in memory of daphne, into which tree she was changed when escaping from his advances:-- "because thou canst not be my mistress, i espouse thee for my tree; be thou the prize of honour and renown, the deathless poet and the poet's crown; thou shalt the roman festivals adorn, and, after poets, be by victors won." but it is unnecessary to give further instances of such familiar stories, of which early history is full. at the same time it is noteworthy that many of these plants which acquired a sanctity from heathen mythology still retain their sacred character--a fact which has invested them with various superstitions, in addition to having caused them to be selected for ceremonial usage and homage in modern times. thus the pine, with its mythical origin and heathen associations, is an important tree on the continent, being surrounded with a host of legends, most of which, in one shape or another, are relics of early forms of belief. the sacred character of the oak still survives in modern folk-lore, and a host of flowers which grace our fields and hedges have sacred associations from their connection with the heathen gods of old. thus the anemone, poppy, and violet were dedicated to venus; and to diana "all flowers growing in untrodden dells and shady nooks, uncontaminated by the tread of man, more especially belonged." the narcissus and maidenhair were sacred to proserpina, and the willow to ceres. the pink is jove's flower, and of the flowers assigned to juno may be mentioned the lily, crocus, and asphodel. passing on to other countries, we find among the plants most conspicuous for their sacred character the well-known lotus of the east (_nelunibium speciosum_), around which so many traditions and mythological legends have clustered. according to a hindu legend, from its blossom brahma came forth:-- "a form cerulean fluttered o'er the deep; brightest of beings, greatest of the great, who, not as mortals steep their eyes in dewy sleep, but heavenly pensive on the lotus lay, that blossom'd at his touch, and shed a golden ray. hail, primal blossom! hail, empyreal gem, kemel, or pedma, [ ] or whate'er high name delight thee, say. what four-formed godhead came, with graceful stole and beamy diadem, forth from thy verdant stem." [ ] buddha, too, whose symbol is the lotus, is said to have first appeared floating on this mystic flower, and, indeed, it would seem that many of the eastern deities were fond of resting on its leaves; while in china, the god pazza is generally represented as occupying this position. hence the lotus has long been an object of worship, and as a sacred plant holds a most distinguished place, for it is the flower of the, "old hindu mythologies, wherein the lotus, attribute of ganga--embling the world's great reproductive power--was held in veneration." we may mention here that the lotus, known also as the sacred bean of egypt, and the rose-lily of the nile, as far back as four thousand years ago was held in high sanctity by the egyptian priests, still retaining its sacred character in china, japan, and asiatic russia. another famous sacred plant is the soma or moon-plant of india, the _asclepias acida_, a climbing plant with milky juice, which windischmann has identified with the "tree of life which grew in paradise." its milk juice was said to confer immortality, the plant itself never decaying; and in a hymn in the _rig veda_ the soma sacrifice is thus described:-- "we've quaffed the soma bright and are immortal grown, we've entered into light and all the gods have known. what mortal can now harm, or foeman vex us more? through thee beyond alarm, immortal god! we soar." then there is the peepul or bo-tree (_ficus religiosa_), which is held in high veneration by the followers of buddha, in the vicinity of whose temples it is generally planted. one of these trees in ceylon is said to be of very great antiquity, and according to sir j. e. tennant, "to it kings have even dedicated their dominions in testimony of their belief that it is a branch of the identical fig-tree under which gotama buddha reclined when he underwent his apotheosis." the peepul-tree is highly venerated in java, and by the buddhists of thibet is known as the bridge of safety, over which mortals pass from the shores of this world to those of the unseen one beyond. occasionally confounded with this peepul is the banyan (_ficus indica_), which is another sacred tree of the indians. under its shade vishnu is said to have been born; and by the chinese, buddha is represented as sitting beneath its leaves to receive the homage of the god brahma. another sacred tree is the deodar (_cedrus deodara_), a species of cedar, being the devadara, or tree-god of the shastras, which in so many of the ancient hindu hymns is depicted as the symbol of power and majesty. [ ] the aroka, or _saraca indica_, is said to preserve chastity, and is dedicated to kama, the indian god of love, while with the negroes of senegambia the baobab-tree is an object of worship. in borneo the nipa-palm is held in veneration, and the mexican indians have their moriche-palm (_mauritia flexuosa_). the _tamarindus indica_ is in ceylon dedicated to siva, the god of destruction; and in thibet, the jambu or rose-apple is believed to be the representative of the divine amarita-tree which bears ambrosia. the pomegranate, with its mystic origin and early sacred associations, was long reverenced by the persians and jews, an old tradition having identified it as the forbidden fruit given by eve to adam. again, as a sacred plant the basil has from time immemorial been held in high repute by the hindus, having been sacred to vishnu. indeed it is worshipped as a deity itself, and is invoked as the goddess tulasî for the protection of the human frame. it is further said that "the heart of vishnu, the husband of the tulasî, is agitated and tormented whenever the least sprig is broken of a plant of tulasî, his wife." among further flowers holding a sacred character may be mentioned the henna, the egyptian privet (_lawsonia alba_), the flower of paradise, which was pronounced by mahomet as "chief of the flowers of this world and the next," the wormwood having been dedicated to the goddess iris. by the aborigines of the canary islands, the dragon-tree (_dracoena draco_) of orotava was an object of sacred reverence; [ ] and in burmah at the present day the eugenia is held sacred. [ ] it has been remarked that the life of christ may be said to fling its shadow over the whole vegetable world. [ ] "from this time the trees and the flowers which had been associated with heathen rites and deities, began to be connected with holier names, and not unfrequently with the events of the crucifixion itself." thus, upon the virgin mary a wealth of flowers was lavished, all white ones, having been "considered typical of her purity and holiness, and consecrated to her festivals." [ ] indeed, not only, "were the finer flowers wrested from the classic juno and diana, and from the freyja and bertha of northern lands given to her, but lovely buds of every hue were laid upon her shrines." [ ] one species, for instance, of the maiden-hair fern, known also as "our lady's hair," is designated in iceland "freyja's hair," and the rose, often styled "frau rose," or "mother rose," the favourite flower of hulda, was transferred to the virgin. on the other hand, many plants bearing the name of our lady, were, writes mr. folkard, in puritan times, "replaced by the name of venus, thus recurring to the ancient nomenclature; 'our lady's comb' becoming 'venus's comb.'" but the two flowers which were specially connected with the virgin were the lily and the rose. accordingly, in italian art, a vase of lilies stands by the virgin's side, with three flowers crowning three green stems. the flower is generally the large white lily of our gardens, "the pure white petals signifying her spotless body, and the golden anthers within typifying her soul sparkling with divine light." [ ] the rose, both red and white, appears at an early period as an emblem of the virgin, "and was specially so recognised by st. dominic when he instituted the devotion of the rosary, with direct reference to her." [ ] among other flowers connected with the virgin mary may be mentioned the flowering-rod, according to which joseph was chosen for her husband, because his rod budded into flower, and a dove settled upon the top of it. in tuscany a similar legend is attached to the oleander, and elsewhere the white campanula has been known as the "little staff of st. joseph," while a german name for the white double daffodill is "joseph's staff." then there is "our lady's bed-straw," which filled the manger on which the infant jesus was laid; while of the plant said to have formed the virgin's bed may be mentioned the thyme, woodroof, and groundsel. the white-spotted green leaves of "our lady's thistle" were caused by some drops of her milk falling upon them, and in cheshire we find the same idea connected with the pulmonaria or "lady's milk sile," the word "sile" being a provincialism for "soil," or "stain." a german tradition makes the common fern (_polypodium vulgare_) to have sprung from the virgin's milk. numerous flowers have been identified with her dress, such as the marigold, termed by shakespeare "mary-bud," which she wore in her bosom. the cuckoo-flower of our meadows is "our lady's smock," which shakespeare refers to in those charming lines in "love's labour's lost," where:-- "when daisies pied and violets blue, and lady's smocks all silver white, and cuckoo-buds of yellow hue do paint the meadows with delight, the cuckoo then on every tree mocks married men, for thus sings he, cuckoo." and one of the finest of our orchids is "our lady's slipper." the ribbon grass is "our lady's garters," and the dodder supplies her "laces." in the same way many flowers have been associated with the virgin herself. thus, there is "our lady's tresses," and a popular name for the maiden-hair fern and quaking-grass is "virgin's hair." the lilies of the valley are her tears, and a german nickname for the lungwort is "our lady's milk-wort." the _anthlyllis vulneraria_ is "our lady's fingers," and the kidney-wort has been designated "lady's navel." certain orchids, from the peculiar form of their hand-shaped roots, have been popularly termed "our lady's hands," a name given in france to the dead-nettle. of the many other plants dedicated to the virgin may be mentioned the snowdrop, popularly known as the "fair maid of february," opening its floweret at the time of candlemas. according to an old monkish tradition it blooms at this time, in memory of the virgin having taken the child jesus to the temple, and there presented her offering. a further reason for the snowdrop's association with the virgin originated in the custom of removing her image from the altar on the day of the purification, and strewing over the vacant place with these emblems of purity. the bleeding nun (_cyclamen europoeum_) was consecrated to the virgin, and in france the spearmint is termed "our lady's mint." in germany the costmary (_costaminta vulgaris_) is "our lady's balsam," the white-flowered wormwood the "smock of our lady," and in olden days the iris or fleur-de-lis was held peculiarly sacred. the little pink is "lady's cushion," and the campanula is her looking-glass. then there is "our lady's comb," with its long, fragile seed-vessels resembling the teeth of a comb, while the cowslip is "our lady's bunch of keys." in france, the digitalis supplies her with gloves, and in days gone by the _convallaria polygonatum_ was the "lady's seal." according to some old writers, the black briony went by this name, and hare gives this explanation:--"'our lady's seal' (_sigillum marioe_) is among the names of the black briony, owing to the great efficacy of its roots when spread in a plaster and applied as it were to heal up a scar or bruise." formerly a species of primula was known as "lady's candlestick," and a wiltshire nickname for the common convolvulus is "lady's nightcap," canterbury bells in some places supplying this need. the harebell is "lady's thimble," and the plant which affords her a mantle is the _alchemilla vulgaris_, with its grey-green leaf covered with a soft silky hair. this is the maria stakker of iceland, which when placed under the pillow produces sleep. once more, the strawberry is one of the fruits that has been dedicated to her; and a species of nut, popularly known as the molluka bean, is in many parts called the "virgin mary's nut." the cherry-tree, too, has long been consecrated to the virgin from the following tradition:-- being desirous one day of refreshing herself with some cherries which she saw hanging upon a tree, she requested joseph to gather some for her. but he hesitated, and mockingly said, "let the father of thy child present them to you." but these words had been no sooner uttered than the branch of the cherry-tree inclined itself of its own accord to the virgin's hand. there are many other plants associated in one way or another with the virgin, but the instances already given are representative of this wide subject. in connection, too, with her various festivals, we find numerous plants; and as the author of "flower-lore" remarks, "to the madonna were assigned the white iris, blossoming almond-tree, narcissus, and white lily, all appropriate to the annunciation." the flowers appropriate to the "visitation of our lady" were, in addition to the lily, roses red and white, while to the "feast of assumption" is assigned the "virgin's bower," "worthy to be so called," writes gerarde, "by reason of the goodly shadow which the branches make with their thick bushing and climbing, as also for the beauty of the flowers, and the pleasant scent and savour of the same." many plants have been associated with st. john the baptist, from his having been the forerunner of christ. thus, the common plant which bears his name, st. john's wort, is marked with blood-like spots, known as the "blood of st. john," making their appearance on the day he was beheaded. the scarlet lychnis, popularly nicknamed the "great candlestick," was commonly said to be lighted up for his day. the carob tree has been designated "st. john's bread," from a tradition that it supplied him with food in the wilderness; and currants, from beginning to ripen at this time, have been nicknamed "berries of st. john." the artemisia was in germany "st. john's girdle," and in sicily was applied to his beard. in connection with christ's birth it may be noted that the early painters represent the angel gabriel with either a sceptre or spray of the olive tree, while in the later period of italian art he has in his hand a branch of white lilies.[ ] the star which pointed out the place of his birth has long been immortalised by the _ornithogalum umbellatum_, or star of bethlehem, which has been thought to resemble the pictures descriptive of it; in france there is a pretty legend of the rose-coloured sainfoin. when the infant jesus was lying in the manger the plant was found among the grass and herbs which composed his bed. but suddenly it opened its pretty blossom, that it might form a wreath around his head. on this account it has been held in high repute. hence the practice in italy of decking mangers at christmas time with moss, sow-thistle, cypress, and holly. [ ] near the city of on there was shown for many centuries the sacred fig-tree, under which the holy family rested during their "flight into egypt," and a bavarian tradition makes the tree under which they found shelter a hazel. a german legend, on the other hand, informs us that as they took their flight they came into a thickly-wooded forest, when, on their approach, all the trees, with the exception of the aspen, paid reverential homage. the disrespectful arrogance of the aspen, however, did not escape the notice of the holy child, who thereupon pronounced a curse against it, whereupon its leaves began to tremble, and have done so ever since:-- "once as our saviour walked with men below, his path of mercy through a forest lay; and mark how all the drooping branches show what homage best a silent tree may pay. only the aspen stood erect and free, scorning to join the voiceless worship pure, but see! he cast one look upon the tree, struck to the heart she trembles evermore." the "rose of jericho" has long been regarded with special reverence, having first blossomed at christ's birth, closed at his crucifixion, and opened again at the resurrection. at the flight into egypt it is reported to have sprung up to mark the footsteps of the sacred family, and was consequently designated mary's rose. the pine protected them from herod's soldiers, while the juniper opened its branches and offered a welcome shelter, although it afterwards, says an old legend, furnished the wood for the cross. but some trees were not so thoughtful, for "the brooms and the chick-peas rustled and crackled, and the flax bristled up." according to another old legend we are informed that by the fountain where the virgin mary washed the swaddling-clothes of her sacred infant, beautiful bushes sprang up in memory of the event. among the many further legends connected with the virgin may be mentioned the following connected with her death:--the story runs that she was extremely anxious to see her son again, and that whilst weeping, an angel appeared, and said, "hail, o mary! i bring thee here a branch of palm, gathered in paradise; command that it be carried before thy bier in the day of thy death, for in three days thy soul shall leave thy body, and thou shalt enter into paradise, where thy son awaits thy coming." the angel then departed, but the palm-branch shed a light from every leaf, and the apostles, although scattered in different parts of the world, were miraculously caught up and set down at the virgin's door. the sacred palm-branch she then assigned to the care of st. john, who carried it before her bier at the time of her burial. [ ] the trees and flowers associated with the crucifixion are widely represented, and have given rise to many a pretty legend. several plants are said to owe their dark-stained blossoms to the blood-drops which trickled from the cross; amongst these being the wood-sorrel, the spotted persicaria, the arum, the purple orchis, which is known in cheshire as "gethsemane," and the red anemone, which has been termed the "blood-drops of christ." a flemish legend, too, accounts in the same way for the crimson-spotted leaves of the rood-selken. the plant which has gained the unenviable notoriety of supplying the crown of thorns has been variously stated as the boxthorn, the bramble, the buckthorns, [ ] and barberry, while mr. conway quotes an old tradition, which tells how the drops of blood that fell from the crown of thorns, composed of the rose-briar, fell to the ground and blossomed to roses. [ ] some again maintain that the wild hyssop was employed, and one plant which was specially signalled out in olden times is the auberpine or white-thorn. in germany holly is christ-thorn, and according to an eastern tradition it was the prickly rush, but as mr. king [ ] remarks, "the belief of the east has been tolerably constant to what was possibly the real plant employed, the nabk (_zizyphus spina-christi_), a species of buckthorn." the negroes of the west indies say that, "a branch of the cashew tree was used, and that in consequence one of the bright golden petals of the flower became black and blood-stained." then again, according to a swedish legend, the dwarf birch tree afforded the rod with which christ was scourged, which accounts for its stunted appearance; while another legend tells us it was the willow with its drooping branches. rubens, together with the earlier italian painters, depict the reed-mace [ ] or bulrush (_typha latifolia_) as the rod given to him to carry; a plant still put by catholics into the hands of statues of christ. but in poland, where the plant is difficult to procure, "the flower-stalk of the leek is substituted." the mournful tree which formed the wood of the cross has always been a disputed question, and given rise to a host of curious legends. according to sir john maundeville, it was composed of cedar, cypress, palm, and olive, while some have instituted in the place of the two latter the pine and the box; the notion being that those four woods represented the four quarters of the globe. foremost amongst the other trees to which this distinction has been assigned, are the aspen, poplar, oak, elder, and mistletoe. hence is explained the gloomy shivering of the aspen leaf, the trembling of the poplar, and the popular antipathy to utilising elder twigs for fagots. but it is probable that the respect paid to the elder "has its roots in the old heathenism of the north," and to this day, in denmark, it is said to be protected by "a being called the elder-mother," so that it is not safe to damage it in any way. [ ] the mistletoe, which exists now as a mere parasite, was before the crucifixion a fine forest tree; its present condition being a lasting monument of the disgrace it incurred through its ignominious use. [ ] a further legend informs us that when the jews were in search of wood for the cross, every tree, with the exception of the oak, split itself to avoid being desecrated. on this account, grecian woodcutters avoid the oak, regarding it as an accursed tree. the bright blue blossoms of the speedwell, which enliven our wayside hedges in spring-time, are said to display in their markings a representation of the kerchief of st veronica, imprinted with the features of christ. [ ] according to an old tradition, when our lord was on his way to calvary, bearing his cross, he happened to pass by the door of veronica, who, beholding the drops of agony on his brow, wiped his face with a kerchief or napkin. the sacred features, however, remained impressed upon the linen, and from the fancied resemblance of the blossom of the speedwell to this hallowed relic, the plant was named veronica. a plant closely connected by tradition with the crucifixion is the passion-flower. as soon as the early spanish settlers in south america first glanced on it, they fancied they had discovered not only a marvellous symbol of christ's passion, but received an assurance of the ultimate triumph of christianity. jacomo bosio, who obtained his knowledge of it from certain mexican jesuits, speaks of it as "the flower of the five wounds," and has given a very minute description of it, showing how exactly every part is a picture of the mysteries of the passion. "it would seem," he adds, "as if the creator of the world had chosen it to represent the principal emblems of his son's passion; so that in due season it might assist, when its marvels should be explained to them, in the condition of the heathen people, in whose country it grew." in brittany, vervain is popularly termed the "herb of the cross," and when gathered with a certain formula is efficacious in curing wounds. [ ] in legendary lore, much uncertainty exists as to the tree on which judas hanged himself. according to sir john maundeville, there it stood in the vicinity of mount sion, "the tree of eldre, that judas henge himself upon, for despeyr," a legend which has been popularly received. shakespeare, in his "love's labour's lost," says "judas was hanged on an elder," and the story is further alluded to in piers plowman's vision:-- "judas, he japed with jewen silver, and sithen on an eller, hanged himselve." gerarde makes it the wild carob, a tree which, as already stated, was formerly known as "st. john's bread," from a popular belief that the baptist fed upon it while in the wilderness. a sicilian tradition identifies the tree as a tamarisk, and a russian proverb, in allusion to the aspen, tells us "there is an accursed tree which trembles without even a breath of wind." the fig, also, has been mentioned as the ill-fated tree, and some traditions have gone so far as to say that it was the very same one as was cursed by our lord. as might be expected, numerous plants have become interwoven with the lives of the saints, a subject on which many works have been written. hence it is unnecessary to do more than briefly note some of the more important items of sacred lore which have been embodied in many of the early christian legends. the yellow rattle has been assigned to st. peter, and the _primula veris_, from its resemblance to a bunch of keys, is st. peter's wort. many flowers, too, from the time of their blossoming, have been dedicated to certain saints, as the square st. john's wort (_hypericum quadrangulare_), which is also known as st. peter's wort; while in germany wall-barley is termed peter's corn. of the many legends connected with the cherry we are reminded that on one occasion christ gave one to st. peter, at the same time reminding him not to despise little things. st. james is associated with several plants--the st. james' wort (_senecio jacoboea_), either from its having been much used for the diseases of horses, of which the saint was the patron, or owing to its blossoming on his festival. the same name was applied to the shepherd's purse and the rag-weed. incidentally, too, in our chapter on the calendar we have alluded to many flowers associated with the saints, and spoken of the customs observed in their honour. similarly the later saints had particular flowers dedicated to their memory; and, indeed, a complete catalogue of flowers has been compiled--one for each day in the year--the flower in many cases having been selected because it flowered on the festival of that saint. thus the common bean was dedicated to st. ignatius, and the blue hyacinth to st. dorothy, while to st. hilary the barren strawberry has been assigned. st. anne is associated with the camomile, and st. margaret with the virginian dragon's head. then there is st. anthony's turnips and st. barbara's cress--the "saints' floral directory," in "hone's every-day book," giving a fuller and more extensive list. but the illustrations we have already given are sufficient to show how fully the names of the saints have been perpetuated by so many of our well-known plants not only being dedicated to, but named after them, a fact which is perhaps more abundantly the case on the continent. then, as it has been remarked, flowers have virtually become the timepieces of our religious calendar, reminding us of the various festivals, as in succession they return, in addition to immortalising the history and events which such festivals commemorate. in many cases, too, it should be remembered, the choice of flowers for dedication to certain saints originated either in their medical virtues or in some old tradition which was supposed to have specially singled them out for this honour. footnotes: . sanscrit for lotus. . hindu poem, translated by sir william jones. . "flower-lore," p. . . folkard's "plant legends," p. . . "flower-lore," p. . . _quarterly review_, cxiv. . . "flower-lore," p. . . ibid. . _quarterly review_, cxiv. . . ibid., p. . . "flower-lore." . folkard's "plant legends," p. . . folkard's "plant legends," p. . . "flower-lore," p. . . _fraser's magazine_, , p. . . "flower-lore," p. . . "flower-lore," p. . . _quarterly review_, cxiv. ; "flower-lore," p. . . see baring-gould's "myths of the middle ages." . "flower-lore," p. . . see chapter on folk-medicine. chapter xx. plant superstitions. the superstitious notions which, under one form or another, have clustered round the vegetable kingdom, hold a prominent place in the field of folk-lore. to give a full and detailed account of these survivals of bygone beliefs, would occupy a volume of no mean size, so thickly scattered are they among the traditions and legendary lore of almost every country. only too frequently, also, we find the same superstition assuming a very different appearance as it travels from one country to another, until at last it is almost completely divested of its original dress. repeated changes of this kind, whilst not escaping the notice of the student of comparative folk-lore, are apt to mislead the casual observer who, it may be, assigns to them a particular home in his own country, whereas probably they have travelled, before arriving at their modern destination, thousands of miles in the course of years. there is said to be a certain mysterious connection between certain plants and animals. thus, swine when affected with the spleen are supposed to resort to the spleen-wort, and according to coles, in his "art of simpling," the ass does likewise, for he tells us that, "if the asse be oppressed with melancholy, he eates of the herbe asplemon or mill-waste, and eases himself of the swelling of the spleen." one of the popular names of the common sow-thistle (_sonchus oleraceus_) is hare's-palace, from the shelter it is supposed to afford the hare. according to the "grete herbale," "if the hare come under it, he is sure that no beast can touch hym." topsell also, in his "natural history," alludes to this superstition:--"when hares are overcome with heat, they eat of an herb called _latuca leporina_, that is, hare's-lettuce, hare's-house, hare's-palace; and there is no disease in this beast the cure whereof she does not seek for in this herb." the hound's-tongue (_cynoglossum_) has been reputed to have the magical property of preventing dogs barking at a person, if laid beneath the feet; and gerarde says that wild goats or deer, "when they be wounded with arrows, do shake them out by eating of this plant, and heal their wounds." bacon in his "natural history" alludes to another curious idea connected with goats, and says, "there are some tears of trees, which are combed from the beards of goats; for when the goats bite and crop them, especially in the morning, the dew being on, the tear cometh forth, and hangeth upon their beards; of this sort is some kind of laudanum." the columbine was once known as _herba leonis_, from a belief that it was the lion's favourite plant, and it is said that when bears were half-starved by hybernating--having remained for days without food--they were suddenly restored by eating the arum. there is a curious tradition in piedmont, that if a hare be sprinkled with the juice of henbane, all the hares in the neighbourhood will run away as if scared by some invisible power. gerarde also alludes to an old belief that cats, "are much delighted with catmint, for the smell of it is so pleasant unto them, that they rub themselves upon it, and swallow or tumble in it, and also feed on the branches very greedily." and according to an old proverb they have a liking for the plant maram:-- "if you set it, the cats will eat it; if you sow it, the cats won't know it." equally fond, too, are cats of valerian, being said to dig up the roots and gnaw them to pieces, an allusion to which occurs in topsell's "four-footed beasts" ( - ):--"the root of the herb valerian (commonly called phu) is very like to the eye of a cat, and wheresoever it groweth, if cats come thereunto they instantly dig it up for the love thereof, as i myself have seen in mine own garden, for it smelleth moreover like a cat." then there is the moonwort, famous for drawing the nails out of horses' shoes, and hence known by the rustic name of "unshoe the horse;" while the mouse-ear was credited with preventing the horses being hurt when shod. we have already alluded to the superstitions relating to birds and plants, but may mention another relating to the celandine. one of the well-known names of this plant is swallow-wort, so termed, says gerarde, not, "because it first springeth at the coming in of the swallows, or dieth when they go away, for it may be found all the year, but because some hold opinion that with this herbe the darns restore eyesight to their young ones, when their eye be put out." coles strengthens the evidence in favour of this odd notion by adding: "it is known to such as have skill of nature, what wonderful care she hath of the smallest creatures, giving to them a knowledge of medicine to help themselves, if haply diseases annoy them. the swallow cureth her dim eyes with celandine; the wesell knoweth well the virtue of herb-grace; the dove the verven; the dogge dischargeth his mawe with a kind of grasse," &c. in italy cumin is given to pigeons for the purpose of taming them, and a curious superstition is that of the "divining-rod," with "its versatile sensibility to water, ore, treasure and thieves," and one whose history is apparently as remote as it is widespread. francis lenormant, in his "chaldean magic," mentions the divining-rods used by the magi, wherewith they foretold the future by throwing little sticks of tamarisk-wood, and adds that divination by wands was known and practised in babylon, "and that this was even the most ancient mode of divination used in the time of the accadians." among the hindus, even in the vedic period, magic wands were in use, and the practice still survives in china, where the peach-tree is in demand. tracing its antecedent history in this country, it appears that the druids were in the habit of cutting their divining-rods from the apple-tree; and various notices of this once popular fallacy occur from time to time, in the literature of bygone years. the hazel was formerly famous for its powers of discernment, and it is still held in repute by the italians. occasionally, too, as already noticed, the divining-rod was employed for the purpose of detecting the locality of water, as is still the case in wiltshire. an interesting case was quoted some years ago in the _quarterly review_ (xxii. ). a certain lady n----is here stated to have convinced dr. hutton of her possession of this remarkable gift, and by means of it to have indicated to him the existence of a spring of water in one of his fields adjoining the woolwich college, which, in consequence of the discovery, he was enabled to sell to the college at a higher price. this power lady n----repeatedly exhibited before credible witnesses, and the _quarterly review_ of that day considered the fact indisputable. the divining-rod has long been in repute among cornish miners, and pryce, in his "mineralogia cornubiensis," says that many mines have been discovered by this means; but, after giving a minute account of cutting, tying, and using it, he rejects it, because, "cornwall is so plentifully stored with tin and copper lodes, that some accident every week discovers to us a fresh vein." billingsley, in his "agricultural survey of the county of cornwall," published in the year , speaks of the belief of the mendip miners in the efficacy of the mystic rod:--"the general method of discovering the situation and direction of those seams of ore (which lie at various depths, from five to twenty fathoms, in a chasm between two inches of solid rock) is by the help of the divining-rod, vulgarly called _josing_; and a variety of strong testimonies are adduced in supporting this doctrine. so confident are the common miners of the efficacy, that they scarcely ever sink a shaft but by its direction; and those who are dexterous in the use of it, will mark on the surface the course and breadth of the vein; and after that, with the assistance of the rod, will follow the same course twenty times following blindfolded." anecdotes of the kind are very numerous, for there are few subjects in folk-lore concerning which more has been written than on the divining-rod, one of the most exhaustive being that of mr. baring-gould in his "curious myths of the middle ages." the literature, too, of the past is rich in allusions to this piece of superstition, and swift in his "virtues of sid hamet the magician's rod" ( ) thus refers to it:-- "they tell us something strange and odd about a certain magic rod that, bending down its top, divines whene'er the soil has golden mines; where there are none, it stands erect, scorning to show the least respect. as ready was the wand of sid to bend where golden mines were hid. in scottish hills found precious ore, where none e'er looked for it before; and by a gentle bow divined, how well a cully's purse was lined; to a forlorn and broken rake, stood without motion like a stake." de quincey has several amusing allusions to this fallacy, affirming that he had actually seen on more than one occasion the process applied with success, and declared that, in spite of all science or scepticism might say, most of the tea-kettles in the vale of wrington, north somersetshire, are filled by rhabdomancy. but it must be admitted that the phenomena of the divining-rod and table-turning are of precisely the same character, both being referable to an involuntary muscular action resulting from a fixedness of idea. moreover, it should be remembered that experiments with the divining-rod are generally made in a district known to be metalliferous, and therefore the chances are greatly in favour of its bending over or near a mineral lode. on the other hand, it is surprising how many people of culture have, at different times, in this and other countries, displayed a lamentable weakness in partially accepting this piece of superstition. of the many anecdotes related respecting it, we may quote an amusing one in connection with the celebrated botanist, linnaeus:--"when he was on one of his voyages, hearing his secretary highly extol the virtues of his divining-wand, he was willing to convince him of its insufficiency, and for that purpose concealed a purse of one hundred ducats under a ranunculus, which grew up by itself in a meadow, and bid the secretary find it if he could. the wand discovered nothing, and linnaeus' mark was soon trampled down by the company who were present, so that when he went to finish the experiment by fetching the gold himself, he was utterly at a loss where to find it. the man with the wand assisted him, and informed him that it could not lie in the way they were going, but quite the contrary, so pursued the direction of the wand, and actually dug out the gold. linnaeus thereupon added that such another experiment would be sufficient to make a proselyte of him." [ ] in , the jesuit, gaspard schott, tells us that this magic rod was at this period used in every town in germany, and that he had frequently had opportunities of seeing it used in the discovery of hidden treasure. he further adds:--"i searched with the greatest care into the question whether the hazel rod had any sympathy with gold and silver, and whether any natural property set it in motion. in like manner, i tried whether a ring of metal, held suspended by a thread in the midst of a tumbler, and which strikes the hours, is moved by any similar force." but many of the mysterious effects of these so-called divining-rods were no doubt due to clever imposture. in the year , plunet, a native of dauphiné, claimed a power over the divining-rod which attracted considerable attention in italy. but when carefully tested by scientific men in padua, his attempts to discover buried metals completely failed; and at florence he was detected trying to find out by night what he had secreted to test his powers on the morrow. the astrologer lilly made sundry experiments with the divining-rod, but was not always successful; and the jesuit, kircher, tried the powers of certain rods which were said to have sympathetic influences for particular metals, but they never turned on the approach of these. once more, in the "shepherd's calendar," we find a receipt to make the "mosaic wand to find hidden treasure" without the intervention of a human operator:--"cut a hazel wand forked at the upper end like a y. peel off the rind, and dry it in a moderate heat, then steep it in the juice of wake-robin or nightshade, and cut the single lower end sharp; and where you suppose any rich mine or hidden treasure is near, place a piece of the same metal you conceive is hid, or in the earth, to the top of one of the forks by a hair, and do the like to the other end; pitch the sharp single end lightly to the ground at the going down of the sun, the moon being in the increase, and in the morning at sunrise, by a natural sympathy, you will find the metal inclining, as it were pointing, to the places where the other is hid." according to a tuscany belief, the almond will discover treasures; and the golden rod has long had the reputation in england of pointing to hidden springs of water, as well as to treasures of gold and silver. similarly, the spring-wort and primrose--the key-flower--revealed the hidden recesses in mountains where treasures were concealed, and the mystic fern-seed, termed "wish-seed," was supposed in the tyrol to make known hidden gold; and, according to a lithuanian form of this superstition, one who secures treasures by this means will be pursued by adders, the guardians of the gold. plants of this kind remind us of the magic "sesame" which, at the command of ali baba, in the story of the "forty thieves," gave him immediate admission to the secret treasure-cave. once more, among further plants possessing the same mystic property may be mentioned the sow-thistle, which, when invoked, discloses hidden treasures. in sicily a branch of the pomegranate tree is considered to be a most effectual means of ascertaining the whereabouts of concealed wealth. hence it has been invested with an almost reverential awe, and has been generally employed when search has been made for some valuable lost property. in silesia, thuringia, and bohemia the mandrake is, in addition to its many mystic properties, connected with the idea of hidden treasures. numerous plants are said to be either lucky or the reverse, and hence have given rise to all kinds of odd beliefs, some of which still survive in our midst, having come down from a remote period. there is in many places a curious antipathy to uprooting the house-leek, some persons even disliking to let it blossom, and a similar prejudice seems to have existed against the cuckoo-flower, for, if found accidentally inverted in a may garland, it was at once destroyed. in prussia it is regarded as ominous for a bride to plant myrtle, although in this country it has the reputation of being a lucky plant. according to a somersetshire saying, "the flowering myrtle is the luckiest plant to have in your window, water it every morning, and be proud of it." we may note here that there are many odd beliefs connected with the myrtle. "speaking to a lady," says a correspondent of the _athenaeum_ (feb. , ), "of the difficulty which i had always found in getting a slip of myrtle to grow, she directly accounted for my failure by observing that perhaps i had not spread the tail or skirt of my dress, and looked proud during the time i was planting it. it is a popular belief in somersetshire that unless a slip of myrtle is so planted, it will never take root." the deadly nightshade is a plant of ill omen, and gerarde describing it says, "if you will follow my counsel, deal not with the same in any case, and banish it from your gardens, and the use of it also, being a plant so furious and deadly; for it bringeth such as have eaten thereof into a dead sleep, wherein many have died." there is a strong prejudice to sowing parsley, and equally a great dislike to transplanting it, the latter notion being found in south america. likewise, according to a devonshire belief, it is highly unlucky to plant a bed of lilies of the valley, as the person doing so will probably die in the course of the next twelve months. the withering of plants has long been regarded ominous, and, according to a welsh superstition, if there are faded leaves in a room where a baby is christened it will soon die. of the many omens afforded by the oak, we are told that the change of its leaves from their usual colour gave more than once "fatal premonition" of coming misfortunes during the great civil wars; and bacon mentions a tradition that "if the oak-apple, broken, be full of worms, it is a sign of a pestilent year." in olden times the decay of the bay-tree was considered an omen of disaster, and it is stated that, previous to the death of nero, though the winter was very mild, all these trees withered to the roots, and that a great pestilence in padua was preceded by the same phenomenon. [ ] shakespeare speaks of this superstition:-- "'tis thought the king is dead; we will not stay, the bay-trees in our county are all withered." lupton, in his "notable things," tells us that, "if a fir-tree be touched, withered, or burned with lightning, it signifies that the master or mistress thereof shall shortly die." it is difficult, as we have already noted in a previous chapter, to discover why some of our sweetest and fairest spring-flowers should be associated with ill-luck. in the western counties, for instance, one should never take less than a handful of primroses or violets into a farmer's house, as neglect of this rule is said to affect the success of the ducklings and chickens. a correspondent of _notes and queries_ (i. ser. vii. ) writes:--"my gravity was sorely tried by being called on to settle a quarrel between two old women, arising from one of them having given one primrose to her neighbour's child, for the purpose of making her hens hatch but one egg out of each set of eggs, and it was seriously maintained that the charm had been successful." in the same way it is held unlucky to introduce the first snowdrop of the year into a house, for, as a sussex woman once remarked, "it looks for all the world like a corpse in its shroud." we may repeat, too, again the familiar adage:-- "if you sweep the house with blossomed broom in may, you are sure to sweep the head of the house away." and there is the common superstition that where roses and violets bloom in autumn, it is indicative of some epidemic in the following year; whereas, if a white rose put forth unexpectedly, it is believed in germany to be a sign of death in the nearest house; and in some parts of essex there is a current belief that sickness or death will inevitably ensue if blossoms of the whitethorn be brought into a house; the idea in norfolk being that no one will be married from the house during the year. another ominous sign is that of plants shedding their leaves, or of their blossoms falling to pieces. thus the peasantry in some places affirm that the dropping of the leaves of a peach-tree betokens a murrain; and in italy it is held unlucky for a rose to do so. a well-known illustration of this superstition occurred many years ago in the case of the unfortunate miss bay, who was murdered at the piazza entrance of covent garden by hackman (april ), the following account of which we quote from the "life and correspondence of m. g. lewis":-- "when the carriage was announced, and she was adjusting her dress, mr. lewis happened to make some remark on a beautiful rose which miss kay wore in her bosom. just as the words were uttered the flower fell to the ground. she immediately stooped to regain it, but as she picked it up, the red leaves scattered themselves on the carpet, and the stalk alone remained in her hand. the poor girl, who had been depressed in spirits before, was evidently affected by this incident, and said, in a slightly faltering voice, 'i trust i am not to consider this as an evil omen!' but soon rallying, she expressed to mr. lewis, in a cheerful tone, her hope that they would meet again after the theatre--a hope, alas! which it was decreed should not be realised." according to a german belief, one who throws a rose into a grave will waste away. there is a notion prevalent in dorsetshire that a house wherein the plant "bergamot" is kept will never be free from sickness; and in norfolk it is said to be unlucky to take into a house a bunch of the grass called "maiden-hair," or, as it is also termed, "dudder-grass." among further plants of ill omen may be mentioned the bluebell (_campanula rotundifolia_), which in certain parts of scotland was called "the aul' man's bell," and was regarded with a sort of dread, and commonly left unpulled. in cumberland, about cockermouth, the red campion (_lychnis diurna_) is called "mother-die," and young people believe that if plucked some misfortune will happen to their parents. a similar belief attaches to the herb-robert (_geranium robertianum_) in west cumberland, where it is nicknamed "death come quickly;" and in certain parts of yorkshire there is a notion that if a child gather the germander speedwell (_veronica chamoedrys_), its mother will die during the year. herrick has a pretty allusion to the daffodil:-- "when a daffodil i see hanging down her head t'wards me, guess i may what i must be: first, i shall decline my head; secondly, i shall be dead; lastly, safely buried." in germany, the marigold is with the greatest care excluded from the flowers with which young women test their love-affairs; and in austria it is held unlucky to pluck the crocus, as it draws away the strength. an ash leaf is still frequently employed for invoking good luck, and in cornwall we find the old popular formula still in use:-- "even ash, i do thee pluck, hoping thus to meet good luck; if no good luck i get from thee, i shall wish thee on the tree." and there is the following well-known couplet:-- "with a four-leaved clover, a double-leaved ash, and a green-topped leave, you may go before the queen's daughter without asking leave." but, on the other hand, the finder of the five-leaved clover, it is said, will have bad luck. in scotland [ ] it was formerly customary to carry on the person a piece of torch-fir for good luck--a superstition which, mr. conway remarks, is found in the gold-mines of california, where the men tip a cone with the first gold they discover, and keep it as a charm to ensure good luck in future. nuts, again, have generally been credited with propitious qualities, and have accordingly been extensively used for divination. in some mysterious way, too, they are supposed to influence the population, for when plentiful, there is said to be a corresponding increase of babies. in russia the peasantry frequently carry a nut in their purses, from a belief that it will act as a charm in their efforts to make money. sternberg, in his "northamptonshire glossary" ( ), says that the discovery of a double nut, "presages well for the finder, and unless he mars his good fortune by swallowing both kernels, is considered an infallible sign of approaching 'luck.' the orthodox way in such cases consists in eating one, and throwing the other over the shoulder." the icelanders have a curious idea respecting the mountain-ash, affirming that it is an enemy of the juniper, and that if one is planted on one side of a tree, and the other on the other, they will split it. it is also asserted that if both are kept in the same house it will be burnt down; but, on the other hand, there is a belief among some sailors that if rowan-tree be used in a ship, it will sink the vessel unless juniper be found on board. in the tyrol, the _osmunda regalis_, called "the blooming fern," is placed over the door for good teeth; and mr. conway, too, in his valuable papers, to which we have been often indebted in the previous chapters, says that there are circumstances under which all flowers are injurious. "they must not be laid on the bed of a sick person, according to a silesian superstition; and in westphalia and thuringia, no child under a year old must be permitted to wreathe itself with flowers, or it will soon die. flowers, says a common german saying, must in no case be laid on the mouth of a corpse, since the dead man may chew them, which would make him a 'nachzehrer,' or one who draws his relatives to the grave after him." in hungary, the burnet saxifrage (_pimpinella saxifraga_) is a mystic plant, where it is popularly nicknamed chaba's salve, there being an old tradition that it was discovered by king chaba, who cured the wounds of fifteen thousand of his men after a bloody battle fought against his brother. in hesse, it is said that with knots tied in willow one may slay a distant enemy; and the bohemians have a belief that seven-year-old children will become beautiful by dancing in the flax. but many superstitions have clustered round the latter plant, it having in years gone by been a popular notion that it will only flower at the time of day on which it was originally sown. to spin on saturday is said in germany to bring ill fortune, and as a warning the following legend is among the household tales of the peasantry:--"two old women, good friends, were the most industrious spinners in their village, saturday finding them as engrossed in their work as on the other days of the week. at length one of them died, but on the saturday evening following she appeared to the other, who, as usual, was busy at her wheel, and showing her burning hand, said:-- 'see what i in hell have won, because on saturday eve i spun.'" flax, nevertheless, is a lucky plant, for in thuringia, when a young woman gets married, she places flax in her shoes as a charm against poverty. it is supposed, also, to have health-giving virtues; for in germany, when an infant seems weakly and thrives slowly, it is placed naked upon the turf on midsummer day, and flax-seed is sprinkled over it; the idea being that as the flax-seed grows so the infant will gradually grow stronger. of the many beliefs attached to the ash-tree, we are told in the north of england that if the first parings of a child's nails be buried beneath its roots, it will eventually turn out, to use the local phrase, a "top-singer," and there is a popular superstition that wherever the purple honesty (_lunaria biennis_) flourishes, the cultivators of the garden are noted for their honesty. the snapdragon, which in years gone by was much cultivated for its showy blossoms, was said to have a supernatural influence, and amongst other qualities to possess the power of destroying charms. many further illustrations of this class of superstition might easily be added, so thickly interwoven are they with the history of most of our familiar wild-flowers. one further superstition may be noticed, an allusion to which occurs in "henry v." (act i. sc. i):-- "the strawberry grows underneath the nettle, and wholesome berries thrive and ripen best neighbour'd by fruit of baser quality;" it having been the common notion that plants were affected by the neighbourhood of other plants to such an extent that they imbibed each other's virtues and faults. accordingly sweet flowers were planted near fruit-trees, with the idea of improving the flavour of the fruit; and, on the other hand, evil-smelling trees, like the elder, were carefully cleaned away from fruit-trees, lest they should become tainted. [ ] further superstitions have been incidentally alluded to throughout the present volume, necessarily associated as they are with most sections of plant folk-lore. it should also be noticed that in the various folk-tales which have been collected together in recent years, many curious plant superstitions are introduced, although, to suit the surroundings of the story, they have only too frequently been modified, or the reverse. at the same time, embellishments of the kind are interesting, as showing how familiar these traditionary beliefs were in olden times to the story-teller, and how ready he was to avail himself of them. footnotes: . see baring-gerald's "curious myths of the middle ages." . ingram's "florica symbolica," p. . . stewart's "popular superstitions of the highlanders." . see ellacombe's "plant-lore of shakespeare," p. . chapter xxi. plants in folk-medicine. from the earliest times plants have been most extensively used in the cure of disease, although in days of old it was not so much their inherent medicinal properties which brought them into repute as their supposed magical virtues. oftentimes, in truth, the only merit of a plant lay in the charm formula attached to it, the due utterance of which ensured relief to the patient. originally there can be no doubt that such verbal forms were prayers, "since dwindled into mystic sentences." [ ] again, before a plant could work its healing powers, due regard had to be paid to the planet under whose influence it was supposed to be; [ ] for aubrey mentions an old belief that if a plant "be not gathered according to the rules of astrology, it hath little or no virtue in it." hence, in accordance with this notion, we find numerous directions for the cutting and preparing of certain plants for medicinal purposes, a curious list of which occurs in culpepper's "british herbal and family physician." this old herbalist, who was a strong believer in astrology, tells us that such as are of this way of thinking, and none else, are fit to be physicians. but he was not the only one who had strict views on this matter, as the literature of his day proves--astrology, too, having held a prominent place in most of the gardening books of the same period. michael drayton, who has chronicled so many of the credulities of his time, referring to the longevity of antediluvian men, writes:-- "besides, in medicine, simples had the power that none need then the planetary hour to help their workinge, they so juiceful were." the adder's-tongue, if plucked during the wane of the moon, was a cure for tumours, and there is a swabian belief that one, "who on friday of the full moon pulls up the amaranth by the root, and folding it in a white cloth, wears it against his naked breast, will be made bullet-proof." [ ] consumptive patients, in olden times, were three times passed, "through a circular wreath of woodbine, cut during the increase of the march moon, and let down over the body from head to foot." [ ] in france, too, at the present day, the vervain is gathered under the different changes of the moon, with secret incantations, after which it is said to possess remarkable curative properties. in cornwall, the club-moss, if properly gathered, is considered "good against all diseases of the eye." the mode of procedure is this:--"on the third day of the moon, when the thin crescent is seen for the first time, show it the knife with which the moss is to be cut, and repeat this formula:-- 'as christ healed the issue of blood, do thou cut what thou cuttest for good.' at sundown, the operator, after carefully washing his hands, is to cut the club-moss kneeling. it is then to be wrapped in a white cloth, and subsequently boiled in water taken from the spring nearest to its place of growth. this may be used as a fomentation, or the club-moss may be made into an ointment with the butter from the milk of a new cow." [ ] some plants have, from time immemorial, been much in request from the season or period of their blooming, beyond which fact it is difficult to account for the virtues ascribed to them. thus, among the romans, the first anemone of the year, when gathered with this form of incantation, "i gather thee for a remedy against disease," was regarded as a preservative from fever; a survival of which belief still prevails in our own country:-- "the first spring-blown anemone she in his doublet wove, to keep him safe from pestilence wherever he should rove." on the other hand, in some countries there is a very strong prejudice against the wild anemone, the air being said "to be so tainted by them, that they who inhale it often incur severe sickness." [ ] similarly we may compare the notion that flowers blooming out of season have a fatal significance, as we have noted elsewhere. the sacred associations attached to many plants have invested them, at all times, with a scientific repute in the healing art, instances of which may be traced up to a very early period. thus, the peony, which, from its mythical divine origin, was an important flower in the primitive pharmacopoeia, has even in modern times retained its reputation; and to this day sussex mothers put necklaces of beads turned from the peony root around their children's necks, to prevent convulsions and to assist them in their teething. when worn on the person, it was long considered, too, a most effectual remedy for insanity, and culpepper speaks of its virtues in the cure of the falling sickness. [ ] the thistle, sacred to thor, is another plant of this kind, and indeed instances are very numerous. on the other hand, some plants, from their great virtues as "all-heals," it would seem, had such names as "angelica" and "archangel" bestowed on them. [ ] in later times many plants became connected with the name of christ, and with the events of the crucifixion itself--facts which occasionally explain their mysterious virtues. thus the vervain, known as the "holy herb," and which was one of the sacred plants of the druids, has long been held in repute, the subjoined rhyme assigning as the reason:-- "all hail, thou holy herb, vervin, growing on the ground; on the mount of calvary there wast thou found; thou helpest many a grief, and staunchest many a wound. in the name of sweet jesu, i lift thee from the ground." to quote one or two further instances, a popular recipe for preventing the prick of a thorn from festering is to repeat this formula:-- "christ was of a virgin born, and he was pricked with a thorn, and it did neither bell nor swell, and i trust in jesus this never will." in cornwall, some years ago, the following charm was much used, forms of which may occasionally be heard at the present day:-- "happy man that christ was born, he was crowned with a thorn; he was pierced through the skin, for to let the poison in. but his five wounds, so they say, closed before he passed away. in with healing, out with thorn, happy man that christ was born." another version used in the north of england is this:-- "unto the virgin mary our saviour was horn, and on his head he wore a crown of thorn; if you believe this true, and mind it well, this hurt will never fester nor swell." the _angelica sylvestris_ was popularly known as "holy ghost," from the angel-like properties therein having been considered good "against poisons, pestilent agues, or the pestilence." cockayne, in his "saxon leechdoms," mentions an old poem descriptive of the virtues of the mugwort:-- "thou hast might for three, and against thirty, for venom availest for plying vile things." so, too, certain plants of the saints acquired a notoriety for specific virtues; and hence st. john's wort, with its leaves marked with blood-like spots, which appear, according to tradition, on the anniversary of his decollation, is still "the wonderful herb" that cures all sorts of wounds. herb-bennet, popularly designated "star of the earth," a name applied to the avens, hemlock, and valerian, should properly be, says dr. prior, "st. benedict's herb, a name assigned to such plants as were supposed to be antidotes, in allusion to a legend of this saint, which represents that upon his blessing a cup of poisoned wine which a monk had given to destroy him, the glass was shivered to pieces." in the same way, herb-gerard was called from st. gerard, who was formerly invoked against gout, a complaint for which this plant was once in high repute. st. james's wort was so called from its being used for the diseases of horses, of which this great pilgrim-saint was the patron. it is curious in how many unexpected ways these odd items of folk-lore in their association with the saints meet us, showing that in numerous instances it is entirely their association with certain saints that has made them of medical repute. some trees and plants have gained a medical notoriety from the fact of their having a mystical history, and from the supernatural qualities ascribed to them. but, as bulwer-lytton has suggested in his "strange story," the wood of certain trees to which magical properties are ascribed may in truth possess virtues little understood, and deserving of careful investigation. thus, among these, the rowan would take its place, as would the common hazel, from which the miner's divining-rod is always cut. [ ] an old-fashioned charm to cure the bite of an adder was to lay a cross formed of two pieces of hazel-wood on the ground, repeating three times this formula [ ]:-- "underneath this hazelin mote, there's a braggotty worm with a speckled throat, nine double is he; now from nine double to eight double and from eight double to seven double-ell." the mystical history of the apple accounts for its popularity as a medical agent, although, of course, we must not attribute all the lingering rustic cures to this source. thus, according to an old devonshire rhyme, "eat an apple going to bed, make the doctor beg his bread." its juice has long been deemed potent against warts, and a lincolnshire cure for eyes affected by rheumatism or weakness is a poultice made of rotten apples. the oak, long famous for its supernatural strength and power, has been much employed in folk-medicine. a german cure for ague is to walk round an oak and say:-- "good evening, thou good one old; i bring thee the warm and the cold." similarly, in our own country, oak-trees planted at the junction of cross-roads were much resorted to by persons suffering from ague, for the purpose of transferring to them their complaint, [ ] and elsewhere allusion has already been made to the practice of curing sickly children by passing through a split piece of oak. a german remedy for gout is to take hold of an oak, or of a young shoot already felled, and to repeat these words:-- "oak-shoot, i to thee complain, all the torturing gout plagues me; i cannot go for it, thou canst stand it. the first bird that flies above thee, to him give it in his flight, let him take it with him in the air." another plant, which from its mystic character has been used for various complaints, is the elder. in bohemia, three spoonsful of the water which has been used to bathe an invalid are poured under an elder-tree; and a danish cure for toothache consists in placing an elder-twig in the mouth, and then sticking it in a wall, saying, "depart, thou evil spirit." the mysterious origin and surroundings of the mistletoe have invested it with a widespread importance in old folk-lore remedies, many of which are, even now-a-days, firmly credited; a reputation, too, bestowed upon it by the druids, who styled it "all-heal," as being an antidote for all diseases. culpepper speaks of it as "good for the grief of the sinew, itch, sores, and toothache, the biting of mad dogs and venomous beasts;" while sir thomas browne alludes to its virtues in cases of epilepsy. in france, amulets formed of mistletoe were much worn; and in sweden, a finger-ring made of its wood is an antidote against sickness. the mandrake, as a mystic plant, was extensively sold for medicinal purposes, and in kent may be occasionally found kept to cure barrenness; [ ] and it may be remembered that la fontaine's fable, _la mandragore_, turns upon its supposed power of producing children. how potent its effects were formerly held may be gathered from the very many allusions to its mystic properties in the literature of bygone years. columella, in his well-known lines, says:-- "whose roots show half a man, whose juice with madness strikes." shakespeare speaks of it as an opiate, and on the continent it was much used for amulets. again, certain plants seem to have been specially in high repute in olden times from the marvellous influence they were credited with exercising over the human frame; consequently they were much valued by both old and young; for who would not retain the vigour of his youth, and what woman would not desire to preserve the freshness of her beauty? one of the special virtues of rosemary, for instance, was its ability to make old folks young again. a story is told of a gouty and crooked old queen, who sighed with longing regret to think that her young dancing-days were gone, so:-- "of rosmaryn she took six pownde, and grounde it well in a stownde," and then mixed it with water, in which she bathed three times a day, taking care to anoint her head with "gode balm" afterwards. in a very short time her old flesh fell away, and she became so young, tender, and fresh, that she began to look out for a husband. [ ] the common fennel (_foeniculum vulgare_) was supposed to give strength to the constitution, and was regarded as highly restorative. longfellow, in his "goblet of life," apparently alludes to our fennel:-- "above the lowly plant it towers, the fennel, with its yellow flowers; and in an earlier age than ours was gifted with the wondrous powers lost vision to restore. it gave new strength and fearless mood, and gladiators, fierce and rude, mingled it in their daily food, and he who battled and subdued, the wreath of fennel wore." the lady's-mantle, too (_alchemilla vulgaris_), was once in great request, for, according to hoffman, it had the power of "restoring feminine beauty, however faded, to its early freshness;" and the wild tansy (_tanacetum vulgare_), laid to soak in buttermilk for nine days, had the reputation of "making the complexion very fair." [ ] similarly, also, the great burnet saxifrage was said to remove freckles; and according to the old herbalists, an infusion of the common centaury (_erythroea centaurium_) possessed the same property. [ ] the hawthorn, too, was in repute among the fair sex, for, according to an old piece of proverbial lore:-- "the fair maid who, the first of may, goes to the fields at break of day, and washes in dew from the hawthorn tree, will ever after handsome be;" and the common fumitory, "was used when gathered in wedding hours, and boiled in water, milk, and whey, as a wash for the complexion of rustic maids." [ ] in some parts of france the water-hemlock (_�nanthe crocata_), known with us as the "dead-tongue," from its paralysing effects on the organs of voice, was used to destroy moles; and the yellow toad-flax (_linaria vulgaris_) is described as "cleansing the skin wonderfully of all sorts of deformity." another plant of popular renown was the knotted figwort (_scrophularia nodosa_), for gerarde censures "divers who doe rashly teach that if it be hanged about the necke, or else carried about one, it keepeth a man in health." coles, speaking of the mugwort (_artemisia vulgaris_), says that, "if a footman take mugwort and put it in his shoes in the morning, he may go forty miles before noon and not be weary;" but as far back as the time of pliny its remarkable properties were known, for he says, "the wayfaring man that hath the herb tied about him feeleth no weariness at all, and he can never be hurt by any poisonous medicine, by any wild beast, neither yet by the sun itself." the far-famed betony was long credited with marvellous medicinal properties, and hence the old saying which recommends a person when ill "to sell his coat and buy betony." a species of thistle was once believed to have the curious virtue of driving away melancholy, and was hence termed the "melancholy thistle." according to dioscorides, "the root borne about one doth expel melancholy and remove all diseases connected therewith," but it was to be taken in wine. on the other hand, certain plants have been credited at most periods with hurtful and injurious properties. thus, there is a popular idea that during the flowering of the bean more cases of lunacy occur than at any other season. [ ] it is curious to find the apple--such a widespread curative--regarded as a bane, an illustration of which is given by mr. conway. [ ] in swabia it is said that an apple plucked from a graft on the whitethorn will, if eaten by a pregnant woman, increase her pains. on the continent, the elder, when used as a birch, is said to check boys' growth, a property ascribed to the knot-grass, as in beaumont and fletcher's "coxcomb" (act ii. sc. ):-- "we want a boy extremely for this function, kept under for a year with milk and knot-grass." the cat-mint, when chewed, created quarrelsomeness, a property said by the italians to belong to the rampion. occasionally much attention in folk-medicine has been paid to lucky numbers; a remedy, in order to prove efficacious, having to be performed in accordance with certain numerical rules. in devonshire, poultices must be made of seven different kinds of herbs, and a cure for thrush is this:--"three rushes are taken from any running stream, passed separately through the mouth of the infant, and then thrown back into the water. as the current bears them away, so, it is believed, will the thrush leave the child." similarly, in brandenburg, if a person is afflicted with dizziness, he is recommended to run after sunset, naked, three times through a field of flax; after doing so, the flax will at once "take the dizziness to itself." a sussex cure for ague is to eat sage leaves, fasting, nine mornings in succession; while flemish folk-lore enjoins any one who has the ague to go early in the morning to an old willow, make three knots in one of its branches, and say "good morrow, old one; i give thee the cold; good morrow, old one." a very common cure for warts is to tie as many knots on a hair as there are warts, and to throw the hair away; while an irish charm is to give the patient nine leaves of dandelion, three leaves being eaten on three successive mornings. indeed, the efficacy of numbers is not confined to any one locality; and mr. folkard [ ] mentions an instance in cuba where, "thirteen cloves of garlic at the end of a cord, worn round the neck for thirteen days, are considered a safeguard against jaundice." it is necessary, however, that the wearer, in the middle of the night of the thirteenth day, should proceed to the corner of two streets, take off his garlic necklet, and, flinging it behind him, run home without turning round to see what has become of it. similarly, six knots of elderwood are employed "in a yorkshire incantation to ascertain if beasts are dying from witchcraft." [ ] in thuringia, on the extraction of a tooth, the person must eat three daisies to be henceforth free from toothache. in cornwall [ ] bramble leaves are made use of in cases of scalds and inflammatory diseases. nine leaves are moistened with spring-water, and "these are applied to the burned or diseased parts." while this is being done, for every bramble leaf the following charm is repeated three times:-- "there came three angels out of the east, one brought fire and two brought frost; out fire and in frost, in the name of the father, son, and holy ghost." of the thousand and one plants used in popular folk-medicine we can but give a few illustrations, so numerous are these old cures for the ills to which flesh is heir. thus, for deafness, the juice of onion has been long recommended, and for chilblains, a derbyshire cure is to thrash them with holly, while in some places the juice of the leek mixed with cream is held in repute. to exterminate warts a host of plants have been recommended; the juice of the dandelion being in favour in the midland counties, whereas in the north, one has but to hang a snail on a thorn, and as the poor creature wastes away the warts will disappear. in leicestershire the ash is employed, and in many places the elder is considered efficacious. another old remedy is to prick the wart with a gooseberry thorn passed through a wedding-ring; and according to a cornish belief, the first blackberry seen will banish warts. watercress laid against warts was formerly said to drive them away. a rustic specific for whooping-cough in hampshire is to drink new milk out of a cup made of the variegated holly; while in sussex the excrescence found on the briar, and popularly known as "robin red-breast's cushion," is in demand. in consumption and diseases of the lungs, st. fabian's nettle, the crocus, the betony, and horehound, have long been in request, and sea-southern-wood or mugwort, occasionally corrupted into "muggons," was once a favourite prescription in scotland. a charming girl, whom consumption had brought to the brink of the grave, was lamented by her lover, whereupon a good-natured mermaid sang to him:-- "wad ye let the bonnie may die in your hand, and the mugwort flowering i' the land?" thereupon, tradition says, he administered the juice of this life-giving plant to his fair lady-love, who "arose and blessed the bestower for the return of health." water in which peas have been boiled is given for measles, and a lincolnshire recipe for cramp is cork worn on the person. a popular cure for ringworm in scotland is a decoction of sun-spurge (_euphorbia helioscopia_), or, as it is locally termed, "mare's milk." in the west of england to bite the first fern seen in spring is an antidote for toothache, and in certain parts of scotland the root of the yellow iris chopped up and chewed is said to afford relief. some, again, recommend a double hazel-nut to be carried in the pocket, [ ] and the elder, as a danish cure, has already been noticed. various plants were, in days gone by, used for the bites of mad dogs and to cure hydrophobia. angelica, madworts, and several forms of lichens were favourite remedies. the root of balaustrium, with storax, cypress-nuts, soot, olive-oil, and wine was the receipt, according to bonaventura, of cardinal richelieu. among other popular remedies were beetroot, box leaves, cabbage, cucumbers, black currants, digitalis, and euphorbia. [ ] a russian remedy was _genista sentoria_, and in greece rose-leaves were used internally and externally as a poultice. horse-radish, crane's-bill, strawberry, and herb-gerard are old remedies for gout, and in westphalia apple-juice mixed with saffron is administered for jaundice; while an old remedy for boils is dock-tea. for ague, cinquefoil and yarrow were recommended, and tansy leaves are worn in the shoe by the sussex peasantry; and in some places common groundsel has been much used as a charm. angelica was in olden times used as an antidote for poisons. the juice of the arum was considered good for the plague, and gerarde tells us that henry viii. was, "wont to drink the distilled water of broom-flowers against surfeits and diseases thereof arising." an irish recipe for sore-throat is a cabbage leaf tied round the throat, and the juice of cabbage taken with honey was formerly given as a cure for hoarseness or loss of voice. [ ] agrimony, too, was once in repute for sore throats, cancers, and ulcers; and as far back as the time of pliny the almond was given as a remedy for inebriety. for rheumatism the burdock was in request, and many of our peasantry keep a potato in their pocket as charms, some, again, carrying a chestnut, either begged or stolen. as an antidote for fevers the carnation was prescribed, and the cowslip, and the hop, have the reputation of inducing sleep. the dittany and plantain, like the golden-rod, nicknamed "wound-weed," have been used for the healing of wounds, and the application of a dock-leaf for the sting of a nettle is a well-known cure among our peasantry, having been embodied in the old familiar adage:-- "nettle out, dock in-- dock remove the nettle-sting," of which there are several versions; as in wiltshire, where the child uses this formula:-- "out 'ettle in dock. dock shall ha'a a new smock, 'ettle zbant ha' nanun." the young tops of the common nettle are still made by the peasantry into nettle-broth, and, amongst other directions enjoined in an old scotch rhyme, it is to be cut in the month of june, "ere it's in the blume":-- "cou' it by the auld wa's, cou' it where the sun ne'er fa' stoo it when the day daws, cou' the nettle early." the juice of fumitory is said to clear the sight, and the kennel-wort was once a popular specific for the king's-evil. as disinfectants, wormwood and rue were much in demand; and hence tusser says:-- "what savour is better, if physicke be true, for places infected, than wormwood and rue?" for depression, thyme was recommended, and a manx preservative against all kinds of infectious diseases is ragwort. the illustrations we have given above show in how many ways plants have been in demand as popular curatives. and although an immense amount of superstition has been interwoven with folk-medicine, there is a certain amount of truth in the many remedies which for centuries have been, with more or less success, employed by the peasantry, both at home and abroad. footnotes: . see tylor's "primitive culture," ii. . see folkard's "plant-lore legends and lyrics," p. . . "mystic trees and shrubs," p. . . folkard's "plant-lore," p. . . hunt's "popular romances of the west of england," , p. . folkard's "plant-lore legends and lyrics," p. . . see black's "folk-medicine," , p. . . _quarterly review_, cxiv. . . "sacred trees and flowers," _quarterly review_, cxiv. . . folkard's "plant legends," . . _fraser's magazine_, , p. . . "mystic trees and plants;" _fraser's magazine_, , p. . . "reliquiae antiquse," wright and halliwell, i. ; _quarterly review_, , cxiv. . . coles, "the art of simpling," . . anne pratt's "flowering plants of great britain," iv. . . black's "folk-medicine," p. . . folkard's "plant-lore legends and lyrics," p. . . _fraser's magazine_, , p. . . "plant-lore legends and lyrics," p. . . black's "folk-medicine," p. . . see hunt's "popular romances of the west of england." . black's "folk-medicine," p. . . "rabies or hydrophobia," t. m. dolan, , p. . . black's "folk-medicine," p. . chapter xxii. plants and their legendary history. many of the legends of the plant-world have been incidentally alluded to in the preceding pages. whether we review their mythological history as embodied in the traditionary stories of primitive times, or turn to the existing legends of our own and other countries in modern times, it is clear that the imagination has at all times bestowed some of its richest and most beautiful fancies on trees and flowers. even, too, the rude and ignorant savage has clothed with graceful conceptions many of the plants which, either for their grandeur or utility, have attracted his notice. the old idea, again, of metamorphosis, by which persons under certain peculiar cases were changed into plants, finds a place in many of the modern plant-legends. thus there is the well-known story of the wayside plantain, commonly termed "way-bread," which, on account of its so persistently haunting the track of man, has given rise to the german story that it was formerly a maiden who, whilst watching by the wayside for her lover, was transformed into this plant. but once in seven years it becomes a bird, either the cuckoo, or the cuckoo's servant, the "dinnick," as it is popularly called in devonshire, the german "wiedhopf" which is said to follow its master everywhere. this story of the plantain is almost identical with one told in germany of the endive or succory. a patient girl, after waiting day by day for her betrothed for many a month, at last, worn out with watching, sank exhausted by the wayside and expired. but before many days had passed, a little flower with star-like blossoms sprang up on the spot where the broken-hearted maiden had breathed her final sigh, which was henceforth known as the "wegewarte," the watcher of the road. mr. folkard quotes an ancient ballad of austrian silesia which recounts how a young girl mourned for seven years the loss of her lover, who had fallen in war. but when her friends tried to console her, and to procure for her another lover, she replied, "i shall cease to weep only when i become a wild-flower by the wayside." by the north american indians, the plantain or "way-bread" is "the white man's foot," to which longfellow, in speaking of the english settlers, alludes in his "hiawatha":-- "wheresoe'er they move, before them swarms the stinging fly, the ahmo, swarms the bee, the honey-maker; wheresoe'er they tread, beneath them springs a flower unknown among us, springs the white man's foot in blossom." between certain birds and plants there exists many curious traditions, as in the case of the nightingale and the rose. according to a piece of persian folklore, whenever the rose is plucked, the nightingale utters a plaintive cry, because it cannot endure to see the object of its love injured. in a legend told by the persian poet attar, we are told how all the birds appeared before solomon, and complained that they were unable to sleep from the nightly wailings of the nightingale. the bird, when questioned as to the truth of this statement, replied that his love for the rose was the cause of his grief. hence this supposed love of the nightingale for the rose has been frequently the subject of poetical allusion. lord byron speaks of it in the "giaour":-- "the rose o'er crag or vale, sultana of the nightingale, the maid for whom his melody, his thousand songs are heard on high, blooms blushing to her lover's tale, his queen, the garden queen, his rose, unbent by winds, unchilled by snows." thackeray, too, has given a pleasing rendering of this favourite legend:-- "under the boughs i sat and listened still, i could not have my fill. 'how comes,' i said, 'such music to his bill? tell me for whom he sings so beautiful a trill.' 'once i was dumb,' then did the bird disclose, 'but looked upon the rose, and in the garden where the loved one grows, i straightway did begin sweet music to compose.'" mrs. browning, in her "lay of the early rose," alludes to this legend, and moore in his "lalla rookh" asks:-- "though rich the spot with every flower this earth has got, what is it to the nightingale, if there his darling rose is not?" but the rose is not the only plant for which the nightingale is said to have a predilection, there being an old notion that its song is never heard except where cowslips are to be found in profusion. experience, however, only too often proves the inaccuracy of this assertion. we may also quote the following note from yarrell's "british birds" ( th ed., i. ):--"walcott, in his 'synopsis of british birds' (vol. ii. ), says that the nightingale has been observed to be met with only where the _cowslip_ grows kindly, and the assertion receives a partial approval from montagu; but whether the statement be true or false, its converse certainly cannot be maintained, for mr. watson gives the cowslip (_primula veris_) as found in all the 'provinces' into which he divides great britain, as far north as caithness and shetland, where we know that the nightingale does not occur." a correspondent of _notes and queries_ ( th ser. ix. ) says that in east sussex, on the borders of kent, "the cowslip is quite unknown, but nightingales are as common as blackberries there." a similar idea exists in connection with hops; and, according to a tradition current in yorkshire, the nightingale made its first appearance in the neighbourhood of doncaster when hops were planted. but this, of course, is purely imaginary, and in hargrove's "history of knaresborough" ( ) we read: "in the opposite wood, called birkans wood (opposite to the abbey house), during the summer evenings, the nightingale:-- 'sings darkling, and, in shadiest covert hid, tunes her nocturnal lay.'" of the numerous stories connected with the origin of the mistletoe, one is noticed by lord bacon, to the effect that a certain bird, known as the "missel-bird," fed upon a particular kind of seed, which, through its incapacity to digest, it evacuated whole, whereupon the seed, falling on the boughs of trees, vegetated and produced the mistletoe. the magic springwort, which reveals hidden treasures, has a mysterious connection with the woodpecker, to which we have already referred. among further birds which are in some way or other connected with plants is the eagle, which plucks the wild lettuce, with the juice of which it smears its eyes to improve its vision; while the hawk was supposed, for the same purpose, to pluck the hawk-bit. similarly, writes mr. folkard, [ ] pigeons and doves made use of vervain, which was termed "pigeon's-grass." once more, the cuckoo, according to an old proverbial rhyme, must eat three meals of cherries before it ceases its song; and it was formerly said that orchids sprang from the seed of the thrush and the blackbird. further illustrations might be added, whereas some of the many plants named after well-known birds are noticed elsewhere. an old alsatian belief tells us that bats possessed the power of rendering the eggs of storks unfruitful. accordingly, when once a stork's egg was touched by a bat it became sterile; and in order to preserve it from the injurious influence, the stork placed in its nest some branches of the maple, which frightened away every intruding bat. [ ] there is an amusing legend of the origin of the bramble:--the cormorant was once a wool merchant. he entered into partnership with the bramble and the bat, and they freighted a large ship with wool. she was wrecked, and the firm became bankrupt. since that disaster the bat skulks about till midnight to avoid his creditors, the cormorant is for ever diving into the deep to discover its foundered vessel, while the bramble seizes hold of every passing sheep to make up his loss by stealing the wool. returning to the rose, we may quote one or two legendary stories relating to its origin. thus sir john mandeville tells us how when a holy maiden of bethlehem, "blamed with wrong and slandered," was doomed to death by fire, "she made her prayers to our lord that he would help her, as she was not guilty of that sin;" whereupon the fire was suddenly quenched, and the burning brands became red "roseres," and the brands that were not kindled became white "roseres" full of roses. "and these were the first roseres and roses, both white and red, that ever any man soughte." henceforth, says mr. king,[ ] the rose became the flower of martyrs. "it was a basket full of roses that the martyr saint dorothea sent to the notary of theophilus from the garden of paradise; and roses, says the romance, sprang up all over the field of ronce-vaux, where roland and the douze pairs had stained the soil with their blood." the colour of the rose has been explained by various legends, the turks attributing its red colour to the blood of mohammed. herrick, referring to one of the old classic stories of its divine origin, writes:-- "tis said, as cupid danced among the gods, he down the nectar flung, which, on the white rose being shed, made it for ever after red." a pretty origin has been assigned to the moss-rose (_rosa muscosa_):-- "the angel who takes care of flowers, and sprinkles upon them the dew in the still night, slumbered on a spring day in the shade of a rosebush, and when she awoke she said, 'most beautiful of my children, i thank thee for thy refreshing odour and cooling shade; could you now ask any favour, how willingly would i grant it!' 'adorn me then with a new charm,' said the spirit of the rose-bush; and the angel adorned the loveliest of flowers with the simple moss." a further roumanian legend gives another poetic account of the rose's origin. "it is early morning, and a young princess comes down into her garden to bathe in the silver waves of the sea. the transparent whiteness of her complexion is seen through the slight veil which covers it, and shines through the blue waves like the morning star in the azure sky. she springs into the sea, and mingles with the silvery rays of the sun, which sparkle on the dimples of the laughing waves. the sun stands still to gaze upon her; he covers her with kisses, and forgets his duty. once, twice, thrice has the night advanced to take her sceptre and reign over the world; twice had she found the sun upon her way. since that day the lord of the universe has changed the princess into a rose; and this is why the rose always hangs her head and blushes when the sun gazes on her." there are a variety of rose-legends of this kind in different countries, the universal popularity of this favourite blossom having from the earliest times made it justly in repute; and according to the hindoo mythologists, pagoda sin, one of the wives of vishnu, was discovered in a rose--a not inappropriate locality. like the rose, many plants have been extensively associated with sacred legendary lore, a circumstance which frequently explains their origin. a pretty legend, for instance, tells us how an angel was sent to console eve when mourning over the barren earth. now, no flower grew in eden, and the driving snow kept falling to form a pall for earth's untimely funeral after the fall of man. but as the angel spoke, he caught a flake of falling snow, breathed on it, and bade it take a form, and bud and blow. ere it reached the ground it had turned into a beautiful flower, which eve prized more than all the other fair plants in paradise; for the angel said to her:-- "this is an earnest, eve, to thee, that sun and summer soon shall be." the angel's mission ended, he departed, but where he had stood a ring of snowdrops formed a lovely posy. this legend reminds us of one told by the poet shiraz, respecting the origin of the forget-me-not:--"it was in the golden morning of the early world, when an angel sat weeping outside the closed gates of eden. he had fallen from his high estate through loving a daughter of earth, nor was he permitted to enter again until she whom he loved had planted the flowers of the forget-me-not in every corner of the world. he returned to earth and assisted her, and they went hand in hand over the world planting the forget-me-not. when their task was ended, they entered paradise together; for the fair woman, without tasting the bitterness of death, became immortal like the angel, whose love her beauty had won, when she sat by the river twining the forget-me-not in her hair." this is a more poetic legend than the familiar one given in mill's "history of chivalry," which tells how the lover, when trying to pick some blossoms of the myosotis for his lady-love, was drowned, his last words as he threw the flowers on the bank being "forget me not." another legend, already noticed, would associate it with the magic spring-wort, which revealed treasure-caves hidden in the mountains. the traveller enters such an opening, but after filling his pockets with gold, pays no heed to the fairy's voice, "forget not the best," _i.e.,_ the spring-wort, and is severed in twain by the mountain clashing together. in speaking of the various beliefs relative to plant life in a previous chapter, we have enumerated some of the legends which would trace the origin of many plants to the shedding of human blood, a belief which is a distinct survival of a very primitive form of belief, and enters very largely into the stories told in classical mythology. the dwarf elder is said to grow where blood has been shed, and it is nicknamed in wales "plant of the blood of man," with which may be compared its english name of "death-wort." it is much associated in this country with the danes, and tradition says that wherever their blood was shed in battle, this plant afterwards sprang up; hence its names of dane-wort, dane-weed, or dane's-blood. one of the bell-flower tribe, the clustered bell-flower, has a similar legend attached to it; and according to miss pratt, "in the village of bartlow there are four remarkable hills, supposed to have been thrown up by the danes as monumental memorials of the battle fought in between canute and edmund ironside. some years ago the clustered bell-flower was largely scattered about these mounds, the presence of which the cottagers attributed to its having sprung from the dane's blood," under which name the flower was known in the neighbourhood. the rose-coloured lotus or melilot is, from the legend, said to have been sprung from the blood of a lion slain by the emperor adrian; and, in short, folk-lore is rich in stories of this kind. some legends are of a more romantic kind, as that which explains the origin of the wallflower, known in palestine as the "blood-drops of christ." in bygone days a castle stood near the river tweed, in which a fair maiden was kept prisoner, having plighted her troth and given her affection to a young heir of a hostile clan. but blood having been shed between the chiefs on either side, the deadly hatred thus engendered forbade all thoughts of a union. the lover tried various stratagems to obtain his fair one, and at last succeeded in gaining admission attired as a wandering troubadour, and eventually arranged that she should effect her escape, while he awaited her arrival with an armed force. but this plan, as told by herrick, was unsuccessful:-- "up she got upon a wall, attempted down to slide withal; but the silken twist untied, she fell, and, bruised, she died. love, in pity to the deed, and her loving luckless speed, twined her to this plant we call now the 'flower of the wall.'" the tea-tree in china, from its marked effect on the human constitution, has long been an agent of superstition, and been associated with the following legend, quoted by schleiden. it seems that a devout and pious hermit having, much against his will, been overtaken by sleep in the course of his watchings and prayers, so that his eyelids had closed, tore them from his eyes and threw them on the ground in holy wrath. but his act did not escape the notice of a certain god, who caused a tea-shrub to spring out from them, the leaves of which exhibit, "the form of an eyelid bordered with lashes, and possess the gift of hindering sleep." sir george temple, in his "excursions in the mediterranean," mentions a legend relative to the origin of the geranium. it is said that the prophet mohammed having one day washed his shirt, threw it upon a mallow plant to dry; but when it was afterwards taken away, its sacred contact with the mallow was found to have changed the plant into a fine geranium, which now for the first time came into existence. footnotes: . "plant-lore legends and lyrics." . folkard's "plant lore legends and lyrics," p. . . "sacred trees and flowers," _quarterly review_, cxiv. . chapter xxiii. mystic plants. the mystic character and history of certain plants meet us in every age and country. the gradual evolution of these curious plants of belief must, no doubt, partly be ascribed to their mythical origin, and in many cases to their sacred associations; while, in some instances, it is not surprising that, "any plant which produced a marked effect upon the human constitution should become an object of superstition." [ ] a further reason why sundry plants acquired a mystic notoriety was their peculiar manner of growth, which, through not being understood by early botanists, caused them to be invested with mystery. hence a variety of combinations have produced those mystic properties of trees and flowers which have inspired them with such superstitious veneration in our own and other countries. according to mr. conway, the apple, of all fruits, seems to have had the widest and most mystical history. thus, "aphrodite bears it in her hand as well as eve; the serpent guards it, the dragon watches it. it is the healing fruit of the arabian tribes. azrael, the angel of death, accomplishes his mission by holding it to the nostrils, and in the prose edda it is written, 'iduna keeps in a box apples which the gods, when they feel old age approaching, have only to taste to become young again.'" indeed, the legendary mythical lore connected with the apple is most extensive, a circumstance which fully explains its mystic character. further, as mr. folkard points out,[ ] in the popular tales of all countries the apple is represented as the principal magical fruit, in support of which he gives several interesting illustrations. thus, "in the german folk-tale of 'the man of iron,' a princess throws a golden apple as a prize, which the hero catches three times, and carries off and wins." and in a french tale, "a singing apple is one of the marvels which princess belle-etoile and her brothers and her cousin bring from the end of the world." the apple figures in many an italian tale, and holds a prominent place in the hungarian story of the iron ladislas.[ ] but many of these so-called mystic trees and plants have been mentioned in the preceding pages in their association with lightning, witchcraft, demonology, and other branches of folk-lore, although numerous other curious instances are worthy of notice, some of which are collected together in the present chapter. thus the nettle and milfoil, when carried about the person, were believed to drive away fear, and were, on this account, frequently worn in time of danger. the laurel preserved from misfortune, and in olden times we are told how the superstitious man, to be free from every chance of ill-luck, was wont to carry a bay leaf in his mouth from morning till night. one of the remarkable virtues of the fruit of the balm was its prolonging the lives of those who partook of it to four or five hundred years, and albertus magnus, summing up the mystic qualities of the heliotrope, gives this piece of advice:--"gather it in august, wrap it in a bay leaf with a wolf's tooth, and it will, if placed under the pillow, show a man who has been robbed where are his goods, and who has taken them. also, if placed in a church, it will keep fixed in their places all the women present who have broken their marriage vow." it was formerly supposed that the cucumber had the power of killing by its great coldness, and the larch was considered impenetrable by fire; evelyn describing it as "a goodly tree, which is of so strange a composition that 'twill hardly burn." in addition to guarding the homestead from ill, the hellebore was regarded as a wonderful antidote against madness, and as such is spoken of by burton, who introduces it among the emblems of his frontispiece, in his "anatomie of melancholy:"-- "borage and hellebore fill two scenes, sovereign plants to purge the veins of melancholy, and cheer the heart of those black fumes which make it smart; to clear the brain of misty fogs, which dull our senses and soul clogs; the best medicine that e'er god made for this malady, if well assay'd." but, as it has been observed, our forefathers, in strewing their floors with this plant, were introducing a real evil into their houses, instead of an imaginary one, the perfume having been considered highly pernicious to health. in the many curious tales related of the mystic henbane may be quoted one noticed by gerarde, who says: "the root boiled with vinegar, and the same holden hot in the mouth, easeth the pain of the teeth. the seed is used by mountebank tooth-drawers, which run about the country, to cause worms to come forth of the teeth, by burning it in a chafing-dish of coles, the party holding his mouth over the fume thereof; but some crafty companions, to gain money, convey small lute-strings into the water, persuading the patient that those small creepers came out of his mouth or other parts which he intended to cure." shakespeare, it may be remembered, alludes to this superstition in "much ado about nothing" (act iii. sc. ), where leonato reproaches don pedro for sighing for the toothache, which he adds "is but a tumour or a worm." the notion is still current in germany, where the following incantation is employed:-- "pear tree, i complain to thee three worms sting me." the henbane, too, according to a german belief, is said to attract rain, and in olden times was thought to produce sterility. some critics have suggested that it is the plant referred to in "macbeth" by banquo (act i. sc. ):-- "have we eaten of the insane root that takes the reason prisoner?" although others think it is the hemlock. anyhow, the henbane has long been in repute as a plant possessed of mysterious attributes, and douce quotes the subjoined passage:--"henbane, called insana, mad, for the use thereof is perillous, for if it be eate or dronke, it breedeth madness, or slowe lykeness of sleepe." in days gone by, when the mandrake was an object of superstitious veneration by reason of its supernatural character, the germans made little idols of its root, which were consulted as oracles. indeed, so much credence was attached to these images, that they were manufactured in very large quantities for exportation to various other countries, and realised good prices. oftentimes substituted for the mandrake was the briony, which designing people sold at a good profit. gerarde informs us, "how the idle drones, that have little or nothing to do but eat and drink, have bestowed some of their time in carving the roots of briony, forming them to the shape of men and women, which falsifying practice hath confirmed the error amongst the simple and unlearned people, who have taken them upon their report to be the true mandrakes." oftentimes, too, the root of the briony was trained to grow into certain eccentric shapes, which were used as charms. speaking of the mandrake, we may note that in france it was regarded as a species of elf, and nicknamed _main de gloire_; in connection with which saint-palaye describes a curious superstition:-- "when i asked a peasant one day why he was gathering mistletoe, he told me that at the foot of the oaks on which the mistletoe grew he had a mandrake; that this mandrake had lived in the earth from whence the mistletoe sprang; that he was a kind of mole; that he who found him was obliged to give him food--bread, meat, and some other nourishment; and that he who had once given him food was obliged to give it every day, and in the same quantity, without which the mandrake would assuredly cause the forgetful one to die. two of his countrymen, whom he named to me, had, he said, lost their lives; but, as a recompense, this _main de gloire_ returned on the morrow double what he had received the previous day. if one paid cash for the _main de gloire's_ food one day, he would find double the amount the following, and so with anything else. a certain countryman, whom he mentioned as still living, and who had become very rich, was believed to have owed his wealth to the fact that he had found one of these _mains de gloire_." many other equally curious stories are told of the mandrake, a plant which, for its mystic qualities, has perhaps been unsurpassed; and it is no wonder that it was a dread object of superstitious fear, for moore, speaking of its appearance, says:-- "such rank and deadly lustre dwells, as in those hellish fires that light the mandrake's charnel leaves at night." but these mandrake fables are mostly of foreign extraction and of very ancient date. dr. daubeny, in his "roman husbandry," has given a curious drawing from the vienna ms. of dioscorides in the fifth century, representing the goddess of discovery presenting to dioscorides the root of the mandrake (of thoroughly human shape), which she has just pulled up, while the unfortunate dog which had been employed for that purpose is depicted in the agonies of death. basil, writes lord bacon in his "natural history," if exposed too much to the sun, changes into wild thyme; and a bavarian piece of folk-lore tells us that the person who, during an eclipse of the sun, throws an offering of palm with crumbs on the fire, will never be harmed by the sun. in hesse, it is affirmed that with knots tied in willow one may slay a distant enemy; and according to a belief current in iceland, the _caltha palustris_, if taken with certain ceremonies and carried about, will prevent the bearer from having an angry word spoken to him. the virtues of the dittany were famous as far back as plutarch's time, and gerarde speaks of its marvellous efficacy in drawing forth splinters of wood, &c., and in the healing of wounds, especially those "made with envenomed weapons, arrows shot out of guns, and such like." then there is the old tradition to the effect that if boughs of oak be put into the earth, they will bring forth wild vines; and among the supernatural qualities of the holly recorded by pliny, we are told that its flowers cause water to freeze, that it repels lightning, and that if a staff of its wood be thrown at any animal, even if it fall short of touching it, the animal will be so subdued by its influence as to return and lie down by it. speaking, too, of the virtues of the peony, he thus writes:--"it hath been long received, and confirmed by divers trials, that the root of the male peony dried, tied to the necke, doth helpe the falling sickness, and likewise the incubus, which we call the mare. the cause of both these diseases, and especially of the epilepsie from the stomach, is the grossness of the vapours, which rise and enter into the cells of the brain, and therefore the working is by extreme and subtle alternation which that simple hath." worn as an amulet, the peony was a popular preservative against enchantment. footnotes: . _fraser's magazine_ , p. . . "plant lore legends and lyrics," p. . . see miss busk's "folk-lore of rome." none among the trees at elmridge by ella rodman church contents. chapter i. a spring opening. chapter ii. the maples. chapter iii. old acquaintances: the elms. chapter iv. majesty and strength: the oak. chapter v. beauty and grace: the ash. chapter vi. the olive tree. chapter vii. the useful birch. chapter viii. the poplars. chapter ix. all a-blow: the apple tree. chapter x. a fruitful family: the peach, almond, plum and cherry. chapter xi. the cherry-story. chapter xii. the mulberry family. chapter xiii. queer relations: the caoutchouc and the milk tree. chapter xiv. home and abroad: linden, camphor, beech. chapter xv. the tent and the locusts. chapter xvi. the walnut family and the ailanthus. chapter xvii. some beautiful trees: the chestnut and horse-chestnut. chapter xviii. among the pines. chapter xix. giant and nut pines. chapter xx. more winter trees: the firs and the spruces. chapter xxi. the cedars. chapter xxii. the palms. chapter i. _a spring opening._ on that bright spring afternoon when three happy, interested children went off to the woods with their governess to take their first lesson in the study of wild flowers, they saw also some other things which made a fresh series of "elmridge talks," and these things were found among the trees of the roadside and forest. "what makes it look so _yellow_ over there, miss harson?" asked clara, who was peering curiously at a clump of trees that seemed to have been touched with gold or sunlight. "and just look over here," she continued, "at these pink ones!" malcolm shouted at the idea: "yellow and pink trees! that sounds like a japanese fan. where are they, i should like to know?" "here, you perverse boy!" said his governess as she laughingly turned him around. "are you looking up into the sky for them? there is a clump of golden willows right before you, with some rosy maples on one side. what other colors can you call them?" malcolm had to confess that "yellow and pink trees" were not so wide of the mark, after all, and that they were very pretty. little edith was particularly delighted with them, and wanted to "pick the flowers" immediately. "they are too high for that, dear," was the reply, "and these blossoms--for that is what they really are, although nothing more than fringes and catkins--are much prettier massed on the trees than they would be if gathered. the still-bare twigs and branches seem, as you see, to be draped with golden and rose-colored veils, but there will be no leaves until these queer flowers have dropped. if we look closely at the twigs and branches, we shall see that they are glossy and polished, as though they had been varnished and then brightened with color by the painter's brush. it is the flowing of the sap that does this. the swelling of the bark occasioned by the flow of sap gives the whole mass a livelier hue; hence the ashen green of the poplar, the golden green of the willow and the dark crimson of the peach tree, the wild rose and the red osier are perceptibly heightened by the first warm days of spring." [illustration: male catkin of willow.] "miss harson," asked clara, with a perplexed face, "what are catkins?" "here," said her governess, reaching from the top bar of the road-fence for the lowest branch of a willow tree; "examine this catkin for yourself, and i will tell you what my _botany_ says of it: 'an ament, or catkin, is an assemblage of flowers composed of scales and stamens or pistils arranged along a common thread-like receptacle, as in the chestnut and willow. it is a kind of calyx, by some classed as a mode of inflorescence (or flowering), and each chaffy scale protects one or more of the stamens or pistils, the whole forming one aggregate flower. the ament is common to forest-trees, as the oak and chestnut, and is also found upon the willow and poplar.'" "it's funny-looking," said malcolm, when he had made himself thoroughly acquainted with the appearance of the catkin, "but it doesn't look much like a flower: it looks more like a pussy's tail." "yes, and that is the origin of its name. 'catkin' is diminutive for 'cat;' so this collection of flowers is called 'catkin,' or 'little cat.'" "i think i'll call them 'pussy-tails,'" said edith. "there is a great deal to be learned about trees," said miss harson, when all were comfortably seated in the pleasant schoolroom; "and, besides the natural history of their species, some old trees have wonderful stories connected with them, while many in tropical countries are so wonderful in themselves that they do not need stories to make them interesting. the common trees around us will be our subjects at first; for i suppose that you can scarcely tell a willow from a poplar, or a chestnut tree from either, can you?" "i can tell a chestnut tree," said malcolm, confidently. "when it is not the season for nuts?" asked his governess, smiling. there was not a very positive reply to this; and miss harson continued: "i do not think that any of us know as much as we ought to know of the trees which we see every day, and of the uses to which many of them are put, to say nothing of many familiar trees that we read about, and even depend upon for some of the necessaries of life." "like the cocoanut tree," suggested clara. "that is not exactly necessary to our comfort, dear," was the reply, "for people can manage to live without cocoanuts, although in many forms they are very agreeable to the taste, and it is only the inhabitants of the countries where they grow who look upon these trees as necessaries; but we will take them up in their turn. and first let us find out what we can about the willow, because it is the first tree, with us, to become green in the spring, and, of that large class which is called _deciduous_, the last one to lose its leaves." "and why are they called _deciduous?_" asked malcolm. "because they shed their leaves every autumn and are furnished with a new set in the spring: 'deciduous' is latin for 'falling off.' and this is the case with nearly all our native trees and plants. _persistent_, or permanent, leaves remain on the stem and branches all through the changes of season, like the leaves of the pine and box, while _evergreens_ look fresh through the entire year and are generally cone-bearing and resinous trees. 'these change their leaves annually, but, the young leaves appearing before the old ones decay, the tree is always green.'" "miss harson," said clara, "when people talk about _weeping_ willows, what do they mean? do the trees really cry? i sometimes read about 'em in stories, and i never knew what they did." "they cry dreadfully," said malcolm, "when it rains." "but only as you do when you are out in it," replied his governess--"by having the water drip from your clothes.--no, clara, the tree is called 'weeping' because it seems to 'assume the attitude of a person in tears, who bends over and appears to droop.' the sprays of this tree are particularly beautiful, and 'willowy' is often used for 'graceful,' as meaning the same thing. its language is 'sorrow,' and it is often seen in burial-grounds and in mourning-pictures. 'we remember it in sacred history, associating it with the rivers of babylon, and with the tears of the children of israel, who sat down under the shade of this tree and hung their harps upon its branches. it is distinguished by the graceful beauty of its outlines, its light-green, delicate foliage, its sorrowing attitude and its flowing drapery.'" "were those weeping willows that we saw to-day?" asked clara. "no," replied her brother, quickly; "they just stuck up straight and didn't weep a bit." "they are called _water_ willows," said miss harson, "because they are never found in dry places. they are more common than the weeping willow. the water willow has the same delicate foliage and the same habit, under an april sky, of gleaming with a drapery of golden verdure among the still-naked trees of the forest or orchard. 'when spring has closed her delicate flowers,' says a bright writer, 'and the multitudes that crowd around the footsteps of may have yielded their places to the brighter host of june, the willow scatters the golden aments that adorned it, and appears in the deeper garniture of its own green foliage.' a group of these golden willows, seen in a rainstorm, will have so bright an appearance as to make it seem as if the sun were actually shining." [illustration: the white willow (_salix alba_).] "i wish we had them all around here, then," said edith; "i like to see the sun shining when it rains." "but the sun is _not_ shining, dear," replied her governess: "it is only the reflection from the willows that makes it look so; and we can make just such sunshine ourselves when it rains, or when there is dullness of any sort, by being all the more cheerful and striving to make others happy. who loves to be called 'little sunshine'?" "i do," said the child, caressing the hand that had patted her rosy cheek. "let's all be golden willows," said malcolm, in a comical way that made them laugh. miss harson told him that he could not make a better attempt than to be one of those home-brighteners who bring the sunshine with them, but she added that such people are always considerate for others. malcolm wondered a little if this meant that _he_ was not, but he soon forgot it in hearing the many things that were to be said of the willow. "the family-name of this tree is _salix_, from a word that means 'to spring,' because a willow-branch, if planted, will take root and grow so quickly that it seems almost like magic. 'and they shall _spring up_ as among the grass, as willows by the watercourses,' says the prophet isaiah, speaking of the children of the people of god. the flowers of the willow are of two kinds--one bearing stamens, and the other pistils--and each grows upon a separate plant. when the ovary, at the base of the pistil, is ripe, it opens by two valves and lets out, as through a door, multitudes of small seeds covered with a fine down, like the seeds of the cotton-plant. this downy substance is greedily sought after by the birds as a lining for their nests, and they may be seen carrying it away in their bills. and in some parts of germany people take the trouble to collect it and use it as a wadding to their winter dresses, and even manufacture it into a coarse kind of paper." "what queer people!" exclaimed clara. "and how funny they must look in their wadded dresses!" "they are not graceful people," was the reply, "but they live in a cold climate and show their good sense by dressing as warmly as possible. it was quite a surprise, though, to me to find that the willow was of use in clothing people. the more we learn of the works of god, the better we shall understand that last verse of the first chapter of the bible: 'and god saw everything that he had made, and behold, it was very good.' the bees, too, are attracted by the willow catkins, but they do not want the down. on mild days whole swarms of them may be seen reveling in the sweets of the fresh blossoms. 'cold days will come long after the willow catkins appear, and the bees will find but few flowers venturesome enough to open their petals. they have, however, thoroughly enjoyed their feast, and the short season of plenty will often be the means of saving a hive from famine.'" "are willow baskets made of willow trees?" asked malcolm. "yes," said miss harson. "basket-making has been a great industry in england from the earliest times; the ancient britons were particularly skillful in weaving the supple wands of the willow. they even made of these slender stems little boats called 'coracles,' in which they could paddle down the small rivers, and the boats could be carried on their shoulders when they were walking on dry land." "just like our indians' birch-bark canoes," said malcolm, who was reading about the north american indians. "but isn't it strange, miss harson, that the indians and the britons didn't get drowned going out in such little light boats?" "their very lightness buoyed them up upon the waves," was the reply; "but it does seem wonderful that they could bear the weight of men. the willow, however, was also used by the romans in making their battle-shields, and even for the manufacture of ropes as well as baskets. the rims of cart-wheels, too, used to be made of willow, as now they are hooped with iron; so, you see, it is a strong wood as well as a pliant one. the kind used for basket-making is the _salix viminalis_, and the rods of this species are called 'osiers.' let us see now what this english book says of the process of basket-making: "'the quick and vigorous growth of the willow renders it easy to provide materials for this branch of industry. osier-beds are planted in every suitable place, and here the willow-cutter comes as to an ample store. autumn is the season for him to ply his trade, and he cuts the willow rods down and ties them in bundles. he then sets them up on end in standing water to the depth of a few inches. here they remain during the winter, until the shoots, in the following spring, begin to sprout, when they are in a fit state to be peeled. a machine is used in some places to compress the greatest number of rods into a bundle. [illustration: the pollard willow in winter.] "'aged or infirm people and women and children can earn money by peeling willows at so much per bundle. the operation is very simple, and so is the necessary apparatus. sometimes a wooden bench with holes in it is used, the willow-twigs being drawn through the holes. another way is to draw the rod through two pieces of iron joined together, and with one end thrust into the ground to make it stand upright. the willow-peeler sits down before his instrument and merely thrusts the rod between the two pieces of iron and draws it out again. this proceeding scrapes the bark off one end, and then he turns it and fits it in the other way; so that by a simple process the whole rod is peeled. when the rods are quite prepared, they are again tied up in bundles and sold to the basket-makers.'" "but how do they make the baskets?" asked clara and edith. "that is the nicest part." "there is little to tell about it, though," said their governess, "because it is such easy work that any one can learn to do it. you saw the indian women making baskets when papa took us to maine last summer, and you noticed how very quickly they did it, beginning with the flat bottom and working rapidly up. it is a favorite occupation for the blind, and one of the things which are taught them in asylums." "i wonder," said malcolm, "if there is anything else that can be done with the willow?" "oh yes," replied miss harson; "we have not yet come to the end of its resources. it makes the best quality of charcoal, and in many parts of england the tree is raised for this express purpose. 'the abode of the charcoal-burner,' says an english writer, 'may be known from a distance by the cloud of smoke that hovers over it, and that must make it rather unhealthy. it is sometimes a small dome-shaped hut made of green turf, and, except for the difference of the material, might remind us of the hut of the esquimaux. beside it stands a caravan like those which make their appearance at fairs, and that contains the family goods and chattels. a string of clothes hung out to dry, a water-tub and a rough, shaggy dog usually complete the picture.'" "but how can people live in the hut," asked malcolm, "if the charcoal is burned in it? ugh! i should think they'd choke." "they certainly would," said his governess; "for the charcoal-smoke is death when inhaled for any length of time. but the charcoal-burner knows this quite as well as does any one else, and he makes his fire outside of the house, puts a rude fence around it and lets it smoke away like a huge pipe. the hut is more or less enveloped in smoke, but this is not so bad as letting it rise from the inside would be. a great deal of willow charcoal is made in germany and other parts of europe." "but, miss harson," said clara, in a puzzled tone, "i don't see what they do with it all. it doesn't take much to clean people's teeth." "no, dear," was the smiling reply, "and i am afraid that the people who make it are rather careless about their teeth.--you need not laugh, malcolm, because it is 'just like a girl,' for it is quite as much like a boy not to know things which he has never been taught, and you must remember that you have two years the start of your sister in getting acquainted with the world. perhaps you will kindly tell us of some of the uses to which charcoal is applied?" "well," said the young gentleman, after an awkward silence, "it takes lots of it to kindle fires." "i do not think that kitty ever uses it in the kitchen," said miss harson, "for she is supplied with kindling-wood for that purpose. you will have to think of something else." but malcolm could not think, and his governess finally told him that a great deal of charcoal is used for making gun-powder, and still more for fuel in france and the south of europe, where a brass vessel supplies the place of a grate or stove. quantities of it are consumed in steel-and iron-works, in preserving meat and other food, and in many similar ways. the children listened with great interest, and malcolm felt sure that the next time he was asked about charcoal he would have a sensible answer. "our insect friends the aphides, or plant-lice, are very fond of the willow," continued miss harson, "and in hot, dry weather great masses of them gather on the leaves and drop a sugary juice, which the country-people call 'honey-dew,' and in some remote places, where knowledge is limited, it has been thought to come from the clouds. but we, who have learned something about these aphides[ ], know that it comes from their little green bodies, and that the ants often carry the insects off to their nests, where they feed and 'tend them for the sake of this very juice. the aphis that infests the willow is the largest of the tribe, and the branches and stems of the tree are often blackened by the honey-dew that falls upon them." [ ] see _flyers and crawlers_, by the author. presbyterian board of publication. "do willow trees grow everywhere?" asked clara. "they are certainly found in a great many different places," was the reply, "and even in the warmest countries. in one of the missionary settlements in africa there is a solitary willow that has a story attached to it. it was the only tree in the settlement--think what a place that must have been!--except those the missionary had planted in his own garden, and it would never have existed but for the laziness of its owner. nothing would have induced any of the natives to take the trouble to plant a tree, and therefore the willow had not been planted. but it happened, a long-time ago, that a native had fetched a log of wood from a distance, to make into a bowl when he should feel in the humor to do so. he threw the log into a pool of water, and soon forgot all about it. weeks and months passed, and he never felt in the humor to work. but the log of wood set to work of its own accord. it had been cut from a willow, and it took root at the bottom of the pool and began to grow. in the end it became a handsome and flourishing tree." this story was approved by the young audience, except that it was too short; but their governess laughingly said that, as there was nothing more to tell, it could not very well be any longer. [illustration: the weeping willow (_salix babylonica_).] "the weeping willow," continued miss harson, "was first planted in england in not so lazy a way, but almost as accidentally. many years ago a basket of figs was sent from turkey to the poet pope, and the basket was made of willow. willows and their cousins the poplars are natives of the east; you remember that the one hundred and thirty-seventh psalm says of the captive jews, 'by the rivers of babylon, there we sat down, yea, we wept, when we remembered zion. we hanged our harps upon the willows in the midst thereof.' 'the poet valued highly the small slender twigs, as associated with so much that was interesting, and he untwisted the basket and planted one of the branches in the ground. it had some tiny buds upon it, and he hoped he might be able to rear it, as none of this species of willow was known in england. happily, the willow is very quick to take root and grow. the little branch soon became a tree, and drooped gracefully over the river in the same manner that its race had done over the waters of babylon. from that one branch all the weeping willows in england are descended.'" "and then they were brought over here," said malcolm. "but what odd leaves they have, miss harson!--so narrow and long. they don't look like the leaves of other trees." "the leaf is somewhat like that of the olive, only that of the olive is broader. the willow is a native of babylon, and the weeping willow is called _salix babylonica_. it was considered one of the handsomest trees of the east, and is particularly mentioned among those which god commanded the israelites to select for branches to bear in their hands at the feast of tabernacles. read the verse, malcolm--the fortieth of the twenty-third chapter of leviticus." malcolm read: "'and ye shall take you on the first day the boughs of goodly trees, branches of palm trees, and the boughs of thick trees, and _willows of the brook;_ and ye shall rejoice before the lord your god seven days.'" [illustration: leaf of weeping willow.] "a place called the 'brook of the willows,'" added his governess, "is mentioned in isaiah xv. , and this brook, according to travelers in palestine, flows into the south-eastern extremity of the dead sea. the willow has always been considered by the poets as an emblem of woe and desertion, and this idea probably came from the weeping of the captive jews under the willows of babylon. the branches of the _salix babylonica_ often droop so low as to touch the ground, and because of this sweeping habit, and of its association with watercourses in the bible, it has been considered a very suitable tree to plant beside ponds and fountains in ornamental grounds, as well as in cemeteries as an emblem of mourning." "how much there is to remember about the willow!" said clara, thoughtfully. "i wonder if all the trees will be so interesting?" "they are not all _bible_ trees," replied miss harson. "but the wise king of israel found them interesting, for he 'spake of trees, from the cedar tree that is in lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall.'" chapter ii. _the maples._ "the pink trees next, i suppose," said malcolm, "since we have had the yellow ones?" "_real_ pink trees?" asked edith, with very wide-open eyes. "no, dear;" replied her governess; "there are no pink trees, except when they are covered with bloom like the peach trees. malcolm only means the maples that we saw in blossom yesterday and thought of such a pretty color. there are many varieties of the maple, which is always a beautiful and useful tree, but the red, or scarlet, maple is the very queen of the family. it is not so large as are most of the others; but when a very young tree, its grace and beauty are noticeable among its companions. it is often found in low, moist places, but it thrives just as well in high, dry ground; and it is therefore a most convenient tree. here is a very pretty description, malcolm, in one of papa's large books, that you can read to us." malcolm read remarkably well for a boy of his age, and he always enjoyed being called upon in this way. [illustration: the red maple.] miss harson pointed to these lines: "coming forth in the spring, like morning in the east, arrayed in crimson and purple; bearing itself, not proudly but gracefully in modest green, among the more stately trees in summer; and ere it bids adieu to the season stepping forth in robes of gold, vermilion, crimson and variegated scarlet,--stands the queen of the american forest, the pride of all eyes and the delight of every picturesque observer of nature, the red maple." "why, i never saw such a tree as that!" exclaimed clara, in great surprise. "yes, dear," replied her governess; "you have seen it, but you never thought of describing it to yourself in just this way. when you saw it yesterday, it was coming forth in the spring, like morning in the east, arrayed in crimson and purple,' but you just called it a pink tree. it is much nearer red, however, than it is pink." "i've seen all the rest of the colors, too," said malcolm, "when we went out after nuts." "that is its autumn dress," said miss harson, "although a small tree is often seen with no color on it but brilliant red. but first we must see what it is like in spring and summer. it is also called the scarlet, the white, the soft and the swamp maple, and the flowers, as you see from this specimen, are in whorls, or pairs, of bright crimson, in crowded bunches on the purple branches. the leaves are in three or five lobes, with deep notches between, and some of them are very broad, while others are long and narrow. the trunk of the red maple is a clear ashy gray, often mottled with patches of white lichens; and when the tree is old, the bark cracks and can be peeled off in long, narrow strips." "is anything done with the bark?" asked clara. "yes, it is used, with other substances, for dyeing, and also for making ink. the sap, too, can be boiled down to sugar, but it is not nearly so rich as that of the proper sugar-maple. the wood, which is very light-colored with a tinge of rose in it, is often made into common furniture, as it takes a fine polish and is easy to work with. it is used, too, for building-purposes. the early-summer foliage of the red maple is of a beautiful yellow green, and the young leaves are very delicate and airy-looking; but the graceful tree is in such a hurry to display her gay autumn colors that she will often put on a scarlet or crimson streamer in july or august. one brilliantly-colored branch will be seen on a green tree, or the leaves of an entire tree will turn red while all the other trees around it are clothed in summer greenness." "don't you remember, miss harson," said edith, "the little tree that i thought was on fire and how frightened i was?" "yes, dear, i remember it very well--an innocent little red maple that _would_ put on its flame-colored dress when it should have been all in green, like its sisters; but it was too green at heart to be in a blaze. this tree is often used for fuel, but it has to be cut down and dried first. the reddening of the leaf generally begins at the veins and spreads out from them until the whole is tinted. sometimes it appears in spots, almost like drops of blood, on the green surface; but, come as it will, it is always beautiful. it is said of the red maple that 'it stands among the occupants of the forest like venus among the planets--the brightest in the midst of brightness and the most beautiful in a constellation of beauty,'" "is there such a thing as a silver tree?" asked clara. [illustration: the silver-leaf maple.] "there is a tree called 'the silver maple,'" was the reply, "and there is also the silver poplar. the silver maple is considered the most graceful of the large and handsome maple family. i have not told you, i think, that the name of the family is _acer_, which means 'sharp' or 'hard,' and it was supposed to have been given in old english times when the wood of the maple was used for javelins. the silver maple gets its name from the whitish under-surface of its leaves, and it is a favorite shade-tree; it has a slender trunk and long, drooping branches. the foliage is light and rather dull-looking, and it is not a very bright tree in autumn. the leaves are so deeply notched that they have a fringe-like appearance, and this, with its slender form and bending, swaying habit, gives it a very graceful look." little edith wished to know "if the wood was like silver," and malcolm asked her how she expected it to grow if it was. but miss harson replied kindly, "the silver, dear, is all in the leaves, and there is not much of it there. the wood is white and of little use, as it is soft and perishable; but the beauty of the finely-cut foliage, the contrast between the green of the upper surface of the leaves and the silver color of the lower, and the magnificent spread of the limbs of the white maple, recommend it as an ornamental tree; and this is the purpose for which it is intended. it is used very largely in the cities for shade and beauty. it is often called the 'river maple,' because it is so frequently seen on the banks of streams." "and now," said malcolm, "i hope there is ever so much about the maple-sugar tree. can't we get some this spring, miss harson, before it's all gone?" "we can certainly buy the sugar in town, malcolm, if that is what you mean; but it does not grow on the trees in cakes, and we shall scarcely be able to tap the trunks and go through with the process of preparing the sap, even if it were not too late for that. we will do what we can, though, to become acquainted with the rock maple, that we may be able to recognize it when we see it. when young, it is a beautiful, neat and shapely tree with a rich, full leafy head of a great variety of forms. it is the largest and strongest of the maples, and gives the best shade. it can be distinguished from the other members of the family by its leaves, in which the notch between the lobes is round instead of being sharp, and also by their appearing at the same time with the blossoms, which are of a yellowish-green color. the green tint of the leaves is darker on some trees than it is on others, and in autumn they become, often before the first touch of the frost, of a splendid orange or gold, sometimes of a bright scarlet or crimson, color, each tree commonly retaining from year to year the same color or colors, and differing somewhat from every other. the most beautiful and valuable maple-wood is taken from this tree. it is known as 'curled maple' and 'bird's-eye maple,' and the common variety looks like satin-wood. in the curled maple the fibres are in waves instead of in straight lines, and the surface seems to change with alternate light and shade; in the bird's-eye, irregular snarls of fibres look like roundish projections rising from hollow places, each one resembling the eye of a bird. buckets, tubs and many useful things are made of the straight variety, and for lasts it is considered better than any other kind of wood. the curled and the bird's-eye are largely used for furniture." "but isn't it a shame," said clara, "to spoil the maple-sugar by making the trees into chairs and things?" "you would not think so," replied her governess, "if you needed the 'chairs and things' more than you need the sugar. but the supply of trees seems to be sufficient for both purposes." "does the sugar come right out of the tree when people tap on it with a hammer?" asked edith, whose ideas of sugar-making were rather crude. "you blessed baby!" cried malcolm, with a shout of laughter. let's take our hammers and go after some maple-sugar right away." "no, edie," said miss harson as she took her much-loved little pupil on her lap; "we'll stay at home and learn just how the sugar is made. to _tap_ a tree, dear, means to make cuts in the trunk for the sap to flow out, and in the sugar-maple this sap is more like water than sugar. from the middle of february to the second week in march, according to the warmth or the coldness of the locality, is the time for tapping the trees; and when the holes are bored, spouts of elder or sumac from which the pith has been taken are put into them at one end, while the other goes down to the bucket which receives the sap. 'several holes are so bored that their spouts shall lead to the same bucket, and high enough to allow the bucket to hang two or three feet from the ground, to prevent leaves and dirt from being blown in.' the next thing is to boil the sap, and this is done in great iron kettles, over immense wood-fires, out there among the trees, with plenty of snow on the ground, and only two or three rude little cabins for the men and boys to sleep in. this is called 'the sugar-camp,' and the sap-season lasts five or six weeks." "and why is it boiled?" "boiling drives the water off in vapor, and leaves the sugar behind in the pot." "and do they stay in the woods there all the time?" asked malcolm, with great interest. "what lots of fun they must have, with the big fires and the snow and as much maple-sugar as ever they want to eat! _i'd_ like to stay in a sugar-camp in the woods." [illustration: making maple sugar.] "perhaps not, after trying it and finding how much hard work there is in sugar-making," replied his governess. "'the kettles must be carefully watched and plenty of wood brought to keep them boiling, and during the process the sap, or syrup, is strained; lime or salaeratus is added, to neutralize the free acid; and the white of egg, isinglass or milk, to cause foreign substances to rise in a scum to the surface. when it has been sufficiently boiled, the syrup is poured into moulds or casks to harden.' the sugar with which the most pains have been taken is very light-colored, and i have seen it almost white." "have you ever been to a sugar-camp, miss harson?" asked clara, who was wishing, like malcolm, that she could go to one herself. "yes," said miss harson; "i did go once, in vermont, when the family with whom i was staying took me to see the 'sugaring off.' this is putting it into the pans and buckets to harden after it has been sufficiently boiled and clarified; and we younger ones, by way of amusement, were allowed to make jack-wax." "oh!" exclaimed three voices at once; "what is that? is it good to eat?" "i thought it particularly good," was the reply, "and i am quite sure that you would agree with me. to make it, we poured a small quantity of hot syrup on the snow to cool; and when it was fit to eat, it was just like wax, instead of being hard like the cakes in moulds. it took only a few minutes, too, to make it, and it seemed a great deal nicer because we did it ourselves. i remember that it was the last of march and very cold, but there were big fires to get warmed at, and we had a delightful time." "were there any indians there, miss harson?" asked little edith, after being quiet for some time. vermont was such a long way off on the map, besides being up almost at the top, that indians and bears and all sorts of wild things seemed to have a right to live there. "no," said her governess, smiling at the question; "i did not see one, even at the sugar-camp. yet the indians made maple-sugar long before we knew anything about it, and from them the white people learned how to do it." "well, that's the funniest thing!" exclaimed malcolm. "i thought that indians were always scalping people instead of making maple-sugar." "they did a great many other things, though, besides fighting, and their life was spent so much out of doors that they studied the nature of every plant and living thing about them. the healing-properties of some of our most valuable herbs were first discovered by the indians, and, as they never had any grocery-stores, the presence of trees that would supply them with sugar was a blessing not likely to be neglected. the devoted missionary john brainerd first heard of this tree-sugar from them, and it is said that he used to preach to them when they were thus peacefully employed, and obtained a better hearing than at other times." "have we any maple-sugar trees?" asked clara. "no," replied miss harson; "there are none at elmridge, and i have seen none anywhere near here. they seem to flourish best in the northern and north-eastern states, while in western canada the tree is found in groves of from five to twenty acres. these are called 'sugar-bushes,' and few farmers in that part of america are without them. in england the maple trees are called 'sycamores,' and the sap is used as a sweet drink. i will read to you from a little english book called _voices from the woodlands_ a simple account of a country festival where maple sap was the choicest refreshment: "'"take care of that young tree," said farmer robinson to his laborer, who was diligently employed in clearing away a rambling company of brambles which had grown unmolested during the time of the last tenant; "the soil is good, and in a very few years we shall have pasturage for our bees, and plenty of maple-wine." "'the farmer spoke true; before his young laborer had attained middle age the sapling had grown into a fine tree. its branches spread wide and high, and bees came from all parts to gather their honey-harvests among the flowers; beneath its shade lambkins were wont in spring to sleep beside their dams; and when the time of shearing came, and the sheep were disburdened of their fleeces, you might see them hastening to the sycamore tree for shelter. "'a kind of rustic festival was held about the same time in honor of the maple-wine. hither came the farmer and his dame, with their children and young neighbors, each carrying bunches of flowers. older people came in their holiday dresses, some with baskets containing cakes, others tea and sugar, with which the farmer and his wife had plentifully supplied them; and joyfully did they rest a while on the green sward while young men gathered sticks, and, a bright fire having been kindled, the kettle sent up its bubbling steam. "'when this was ended, and few of the piled-up cakes remained--when, also, the young children had emptied their cans and rinsed them at the old stone trough into which rushed a full stream--tiny hands joyfully held up the small cans and bright eyes looked anxiously to the stem of the tall tree while the farmer warily cut an incision in the bark. "'what joy when a sweet watery juice began to trickle! and the farmer filled one small cup, then another, till all were satisfied and a portion sent to the older people, who were contentedly looking on from the grassy slope where they had seated themselves. the farmer's wife knew naught concerning the process for obtaining sugar, or else she might have sweetened her children's puddings from the watery liquid yielded by the sycamore, or greater maple--an art well known to the aboriginal tribes of north america.'" "does that mean indians, miss harson?" asked malcolm, with a wry face at the long word. "yes," was the reply; "and i hope that you will feel properly grateful to these aborigines whenever you eat maple-sugar." chapter iii. _old acquaintances: the elms._ miss harson had admonished her little flock that they must use their own eyes and be able to tell her things instead of depending altogether on her to tell them; so now they were all peering curiously among the trees to see which were putting on their new spring suits. the yellow trees and the pink trees had been readily distinguished, but, although the others had not been idle, it was not so easy for little people to discern their leaf-buds. clara soon made a discovery, however, of what her governess had noticed for a day or two, and the wonder was found on their own home-elms, those stately trees which had shaded the house ever since it was built, and from which the place got its pretty name--elmridge. "well, dear," said miss harson, coming to the upper window from which an eager head was thrust, "what is it that you wish me to see?" "those funny flowers on the bare elm trees," was the reply. "look, miss harson! didn't i see them first?" "you have certainly spoken of them first, for neither malcolm nor edith has said anything about them. but they must both come up here now, where they can see them, and malcolm and i can manage to reach some of the blossoms by getting out of the broad window on to the little balcony." up came the two children kangaroo-fashion in a series of jumps, and presently miss harson was holding a cluster of dark maroon-colored flowers in her hand. "how queer and dark they make the trees look!" said malcolm; "and they're so thick that they 'most cover up the branches. they're like fringe." "a very good description," replied his governess. "and now i wish you all to examine the trees very thoroughly and tell me afterward what you have noticed about them; then we will go down to the schoolroom and see what the books will tell us in our talk about the american elm and its cousin of england." the books had a great deal to tell about them, but miss harson preferred to hear the children first. "what did my little edith see when she looked out of the window?" she asked. "stems of trees," was the reply, "with flowers on 'em." "a very good general idea," continued miss harson, "but perhaps clara can tell us something more particular about the elms?" "they are very tall," said clara, hesitatingly, "and they make it nice and shady in summer; and some of the branches bend over in such a lovely way! papa calls one of them 'the plume.'" "and now malcolm?" "the trunk--or big 'stem,' as edie would call it--is very thick, and the branches begin low down, near the ground." "some of them do," said his governess, "but many of the elms on your father's grounds are seventy feet high before the branches begin. sometimes two or three trunks shoot up together and spread out at the top in light, feathery plumes like palm trees. the elm has a great variety of shapes; sometimes it is a parasol, when a number of branches rise together to a great height and spread out suddenly in the shape of an umbrella. this makes a very regular-looking and beautiful tree. for about three-quarters of the way up, the 'plume' of which clara speaks has one straight trunk, which then bends over droopingly. small twigs cluster around the trunk all the way from bottom to top and give the tree the appearance of having a vine twining about it. i think that the plume-shape is the prettiest and most odd-looking of all the elms. another strange shape is the vase, which seems to rest on the roots that stand out above the ground. 'the straight trunk is the neck of the vase, and the middle consists of the lower part of the branches as they swell outward with a graceful curve, then gradually diverge until they bend over at their extremities and form the lip of the vase by a circle of terminal sprays.'" "have we any trees that look like vases, miss harson?" asked clara. "yes," was the reply; "not far from hemlock lodge there is one which we will look at when the leaves are all out. but you must not expect to find a perfect vase-shape, for it is only an approach to it. the dome-shaped elm has a broad, round head, which is formed by the shooting forth of branches of nearly equal length from the same part of the trunk, which gradually spread outward with a graceful curve into the roof or dome that crowns the tree." "i know something else about our elms," said malcolm: "some of the roots are on top of the ground. isn't that very queer, miss harson?" [illustration: wych-elm leaves.] "not for old elm trees, as this is quite a habit with them. indeed, in many ways, the elm is so entirely different from other trees that it can be recognized at a great distance. it is both graceful and majestic, and is the most drooping of the drooping trees, except the willow, which it greatly surpasses in grandeur and in the variety of its forms. the green leaves are broad, ovate, heart-shaped, from two to four or five inches long. you can see their exact shape in this illustration. their summer tint is very bright and vivid, but it turns in autumn to a sober brown, sometimes touched with a bright golden yellow, and now," continued miss harson, "we will examine the flowers which we have here, and we see that each blossom is on a green, slender thread less than half an inch long, and that it consists of a brown cup parted into seven or eight divisions, rounded at the border and containing about eight brown stamens and a long compressed ovary surmounted by two short styles. this ripens into a flattened seed-vessel before the leaves are fully out, and the seeds, being small and chaffy, are wafted in all directions and carried to great distances by the wind." "where does slippery elm come from?" asked clara. "from another american species, dear, which is very much like the white elm that we have been considering. the slippery elm is a smaller tree, does not droop so much, and the trunk is smoother and darker. the leaves are thicker and very rough on the upper side. the inner bark contains a great deal of mucilage--that, i suppose, is the reason for its being called 'slippery'--and it has been extensively used as a medicine. the wood is very strong and preferred to that of the white elm for building-purposes, although the latter is considered the best native wood for hubs of wheels. there is a great elm tree on boston common which is over two hundred years old, and another in cambridge called the 'washington elm,' because near it or beneath its shade general washington is said to have first drawn his sword on taking command of the american army. in the celebrated george whitefield preached beneath this tree." "i'm glad we have elm trees here," said malcolm, "though i s'pose nobody ever did anything in particular under ours." "you mean," replied his governess, laughing, "that they are not _historical_ trees; but they are certainly very fine ones. there is another species of elm, the english, which is often seen in this country too. it is a very large and stately tree, but not so graceful as our own elm. it is distinguished from the american elm by its bark, which is darker and much more broken; by having one principal stem, which soars upward to a great height; and by its branches, which are thrown out more boldly and abruptly and at a larger angle. its limbs stretch out horizontally or tend upward with an appearance of strength to the very extremity; in the american elm they are almost universally drooping at the end. its leaves are closer, smaller, more numerous and of a darker color. in england this tree is a great favorite with those black and solemn birds the rooks. the poet hood writes of it as "'the tall, abounding elm that grows in hedgerows up and down, in field and forest, copse and park, and in the peopled town, with colonies of noisy rooks that nestle on its crown.' "some of these english elms are very ancient and of an immense size; one of them, known as the 'chequer elm,' measures thirty-one feet around the trunk, of which only the shell is left. it was planted seven hundred years ago. the chipstead elm is fifteen feet around; the crawley elm, thirty-five. a writer says, 'the ample branches of the crawley elm shelter mayday gambols while troops of rustics celebrate the opening of green leaves and flowers. yet not alone beneath its shade, but within the capacious hollow which time has wrought in the old tree, young children with their posies and weak and aged people find shelter during the rustic _fêtes_.'" "does that mean that people can sit inside the tree?" asked clara. "i wish we had one to play house in where hemlock lodge is." "that is one of the things, clara," replied miss harson, "that people can have only in the place where they grow. in the south of england there is another great elm tree with a hollow trunk which has fitted into it a door fastened by a lock and key. a dozen people can be comfortably accommodated inside, and there is a story told of a woman and her infant who lived there for a time." "what a funny house!" said malcolm. "just like a woodpecker's." "another great elm, near london, has a winding staircase cut within it, and a turret at the top where at least twenty persons can stand. one species of this tree, called the _wych-_, or _witch-_, elm, was believed by ignorant people to possess magical powers and to defend from the malice of witches the place on which it grew. even now it is said that in remote parts of england the dairymaid flies to it as a resource on the days when she churns her butter. she gathers a twig from the tree and puts it into a little hole in the churn. if this practice were neglected, she confidently believes that she might go on churning all day without getting any butter." "isn't that silly?" exclaimed clara. "very silly indeed," replied her governess; "but we must remember that the poor ignorant girl knows no better. the wood of the european elm is stronger than ours; it is hard and fine-grained, and brownish in color, and is much used in the building of ships, for hubs of wheels, axletrees and many other purposes. in france the leaves and shoots are used to feed cattle. in russia the leaves of one variety are made into tea. the inner bark is in some places made into mats, and in norway they kiln-dry it and grind it with corn as an ingredient in bread. so that the elm tree is almost as useful as it is beautiful." [illustration] chapter iv. _majesty and strength: the oak_. "here," said miss harson, "is a small branch from an oak tree containing the young leaves and the catkins, which come out together; for the oak belongs, like the willow and the maple, to the division of _amentaceous_ plants." "oh dear!" sighed clara at the hard name. but malcolm repeated: "_amentaceous_--_ament_. i know, miss harson: it's _catkins_" "yes, it means trees which produce their flowers in catkins, or looking as if strung on long drooping stems; and the oak is the monarch of this family, and in great britain of all the forest-trees. it is especially an english tree, although our woods contain several varieties. but they do not hold the pre-eminence in our forests that the oaks do in those of england. the oak ordinarily runs more to breadth than to height, and spreads itself out to a vast distance with an air of strength and grandeur. this is its striking character and what gives it its peculiar appearance. oaks do not always go straight out, but crook and bend to right and left, upward and downward, abruptly or with a gentle sweep. [illustration: male catkin of the oak.] [illustration: the oak] "the white oak is the handsomest species, and takes its name from the very light color of the bark on the trunk, by which it is easily known. the leaves are long in proportion to the width and deeply divided into lobes, of which there are three or four on each side. there is a great variety in the shape of oak-leaves, those of our white oak being long and slender, while the red oak has very broad ones, and the foliage of the scarlet oak is almost skeleton-like. the chestnut oak has leaves almost exactly like those of the chestnut. the acorns of the different varieties, too, differ in size and shape. [illustration: white-oak leaf.] "there is so much to be said of the oak," continued miss harson, "it is such an ancient and venerable tree and has so many stories attached to it, that it is not easy to begin an account of it. the blossoms, perhaps, will be the best starting-point: and i should like to have you examine this branch and tell me if you see any difference in the blossoms." "they are nearly all alike," said malcolm, "but here at the ends of the twigs are one or two that look like buds."' "that is just what i wanted you to notice," replied his governess, "for the flowers are of two kinds, one bearing the stamens, and the other the pistils. the flowers that bear the stamens grow on loose scaly catkins, as you may see in this branch. those with the pistils are also in catkins, but very small, like a bud. the bud spreads into a little branchlet and bears the flowers at the tip. the calyx is not seen at first; it is a mere membrane covering the ovary. by degrees the ovary swells into the acorn and the membrane becomes part of the shell." "i like acorns," said little edith, "they're so nice to play with." "but they're not nice to eat," said clara. [illustration: squirrel and acorn] "some animals think they are," continued miss harson. "if you should come here in october, you would find the squirrels feasting on them. in old times in england the oaks were valued highly on account of their acorns, and great herds of swine were driven into the forests to feed upon them. in the time of the saxons a crop of acorns often formed a part of the dowry bestowed upon the saxon queens, and the king himself would be glad to accept a gift or grant of acorns; and the failure of the crop would be considered as a kind of famine. in those days laws were made to protect the oaks from being felled or injured, and a man who cut down a tree under the shadow of which thirty hogs could stand was fined three pounds. the herds of swine were placed under the care of a swineherd, whose sole employment was to keep them together, and they formed a staple part of the riches of the country. but when the norman kings began to rule, they brought with them a passionate love of hunting and took possession of the forests as preserves for their favorite sport. the herds of swine were forbidden to roam about as heretofore, and their owners were reduced to poverty in consequence." "wasn't that wicked, miss harson?" asked malcolm. "yes; it was both unjust and cruel, and it was one of the great grievances of the nation. even at this day the laws for the protection of game are one of the grounds of ill-feeling on the part of the poor toward the nobles. in spain the acorns have the taste of nuts, and are sold in the markets as an article of food. they grow abundantly in the woods and forests. once, in time of war, a foreign army subsisted almost entirely on them. herds of swine range the forests in spain and feed luxuriously upon acorns, and the salted meats of malaga, that are famous for their delicate flavor, are thought to owe it to this cause. some of our american indians depend upon acorns and fish for their winter food; and when the acorns drop from the tree, they are buried in sand and soaked in water to draw out the bitter taste." "i shouldn't like them," said clara, with a wry face at the thought of such food. "well, dear," replied her governess, laughing, "as you are not an indian, you will probably not be called upon to like them; but it would be better to eat acorns than to starve. you may have noticed the trunk and branches of the oak are often gnarled and knotted, and this helps to give the tree its appearance of great strength. it is just as strong as it looks, and for building-purposes it lasts longer than any other wood. beams and rafters of oak are found in old english houses, showing among the brick-work, and many of these half-timbered houses, as they are called, were built hundreds of years ago. "bedsteads and other articles of furniture, too, were 'built' in those days, rather than made, for they were not expected to be moved about; and a heavy oak bedstead is still in existence which is said to have belonged to king richard iii. it is curiously carved, and the king rested upon it the night before the battle of bosworth field, where he was killed. clumsy as the bedstead was, he took it about with him from place to place; but after the fatal battle it passed into the hands of various owners, and nothing remarkable was discovered about it until the king had been dead a hundred years. by that time the bedstead had come into the possession of a woman who found a fortune in it. one morning, says the story, as she was making the bed, she heard a chinking sound, and saw, to her great delight, a piece of money drop on the floor. of course she at once set about examining the bedstead, and found that the lower part of it was hollow and contained a treasure. three hundred pounds--a fortune in those days--was brought to light, having remained hidden all those years. as king richard was not there to claim his gold, the woman quickly possessed herself of it. but, as it happened, she had better have remained in ignorance and poverty. as soon as the matter became known one of her servants robbed her of the gold, and even caused her death. thus it was said in the neighborhood that 'king richard's gold' did nobody any good." the children were very much pleased with this story, and malcolm said that he always liked to hear about people who found gold and things. "i think that i do, myself," replied miss harson, "although, as in this poor woman's case and in many others, gold is not the best thing to find. it often brings with it so much sorrow and sin as to be a curse to its owner. the only safe treasure is that laid up in heaven, where 'neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor steal,' "from the very earliest times the oak has been used for shipbuilding. the saxons, we are told, kept a formidable fleet of vessels with curved bottoms and the prow and poop adorned with representations of the head and tail of some grotesque and fabulous creature. king alfred had many vessels that carried sixty oars and were entirely of oak. a vessel supposed to be of his time has been discovered in the bed of a river in kent, and after the lapse of so many centuries it is as sound as ever and as hard as iron." "do oak trees ever have apples on 'em?" asked clara. "in a story that i read there was something about 'oak-apples.'" [illustration: the oak-gall insect (_cynips_).] "they are not apples such as we eat, or fruit in any sense," said her governess. "they are the work of a species of fly called _cynips_, which is very apt to attack the oak. 'the female insect is armed with a sharp weapon called an _ovipositor_, which she plunges into a leaf and makes a wound. here she lays her eggs; and when she has done so, she flies away and we hear no more of her. but the wound she has made disturbs the circulation of the sap. it flows round and round the eggs as though it had met with some foreign body it would fain remove. very soon the eggs are in the midst of a ball-like and fleshy chamber--the most suitable provision for them, and one which the parent-insect had provided by means of puncturing the leaf. as the eggs are hatched the grubs will find themselves safely housed and in the midst of an abundance of food.'" [illustration: oak-apples.] "well," exclaimed malcolm, in great disgust, "_apple_ is a queer name for a ball full of little flies!" "it's a very pretty ball, though," said miss harson, "with a smooth skin and tinged with red or yellow, like a ripe apple. if it is cut open, a number of granules are seen, each containing a grub embedded in a fruit-like substance. the grub undergoes its transformation, and in due course emerges a perfect insect. these pretty pink-and-white apples used to be gathered by english boys on the twenty-ninth of may, which was called 'oak-apple day.'" "did they eat 'em?" asked edith. "i do not see how they could, dear," was the reply; "they were probably gathered just to look at. yet 'may-apples,' which grow, you will remember, on the wild azalea and the swamp honeysuckle, are often eaten, and they are formed in the same way; so we will not be too positive about the oak-apples." "what are oak-_galls_, miss harson?" asked malcolm. "are they the same as oak-apples?" "not quite the same," was the reply, although both are produced by the same insect. this is what one of our english books says of them: 'when the acorn itself is wounded, it becomes a kind of monstrosity, and remains on the stalk like an irregularly-shaped ball. it is called a "nut-gall," and is found principally on a small oak, a native of the southern and central parts of europe. all these oak-apples and nut-galls are of importance, but the latter more especially, and they form an important article of commerce. a substance called "gallic acid" resides in the oak; and when the puncture is made by the cynips, it flows in great abundance to the wound. gallic acid is one of the ingredients used in dyeing stuffs and cloths, and therefore the supply yielded by the nut-gall is highly welcome. the nut-galls are carefully collected from the small oak on which they are found, the pyreneean oak. it is easily known by the dense covering of down on the young leaves, that appear some weeks later than the leaves of the common oak. the galls are pounded and boiled, and into the infusion thus made the stuffs about to be dyed are dipped,'" "i should think," said clara, "that people would plant oak trees everywhere, when they are so useful. is anything done with the bark?" "yes," said her governess; "the bark, which is very rough, is valuable for tanning leather and for medicine. the element which has the effect of turning raw hide or skin into leather is called _tannin_; it is also found in the bark of some other trees and in tropical plants." "didn't people use to worship oak trees," asked malcolm--"people who lived ever so long ago?" "you are thinking of the druids, who lived in old times in britain and gaul," replied miss harson, "and whose strange heathen rites were practiced in oak-groves; and they really did consider the tree sacred. these druids have left their traces in some parts of england and france in rows of huge stones set upright; and wherever an immense stone was found lying on two others, in the shape of a table, there had been a druid altar, where the priest offered sacrifices, often of human beings. so horrible may be a so-called religion that men themselves devise, and that has not come from the true god. [illustration: druidic sacrifice.] "it was an article in the druids' creed, and one to which they strictly adhered, that no temple with a covered roof was to be built in honor of the gods. all the places appointed for public worship were in the open air, and generally on some eminence from which the moon and stars might be observed; for to the heavenly bodies much adoration was offered. but to afford shelter from wind or rain, and also to ensure privacy and shut out all external objects, the place fixed upon, either for teaching their disciples or for carrying out the rites of their idolatrous worship, was in the recess of some grove or wood. an oak-grove was supposed to be the favorite of the gods whom they ignorantly worshiped, and therefore the druids declared the oak to be a sacred tree. the druid priest always bound a wreath of oak-leaves on his forehead before he would perform any religious ceremony. one of these ceremonies was to go in search of the mistletoe, which sometimes grows on the oak and was considered as sacred as the tree itself, being much used in their worship. one priest would climb to the branch on which the misletoe was growing and cut it with a golden knife, while another priest stood below and held out his white robe to receive it. "these sacred groves were all cut down by the romans, who waged fierce war against the druids, and nothing is left of them now but the circles of stones that formed their temples. at a place called stonehenge, 'cromlechs,' or altar-tables, are still standing, and very ancient oaks stood in a circle round these stones for many centuries after the druids were swept away." "miss harson," said clara when all had expressed their horror of the druids and rejoiced that they _were_ swept away, "are there any oak trees in the bible?" "look and see," was the reply; "and first you may find genesis xxxv. ." clara read: "'and they gave unto jacob all the strange gods which were in their hands, and all their earrings which were in their ears; and jacob hid them under the _oak_ which was by shechem.'" "in the eighth verse of the same chapter," said miss harson, "we read that rebekah's nurse was buried under an oak at bethel. we are told in the book of joshua[ ] that 'joshua took a great stone and set it up there under an _oak_, that was by the sanctuary of the lord;' and in judges[ ], 'there came an angel of the lord and sat under an _oak_ which was in ophrah.'--malcolm, you may read second samuel, eighteenth chapter, ninth verse." [ ] josh. xxiv. . [ ] judg. vi. ii. malcolm read: "'and absalom met the servants of david. and absalom rode upon a mule, and the mule went under the thick boughs of a great _oak_, and his head caught hold of the oak, and he was taken up between the heaven and the earth; and the mule that was under him went away.'" "poor absalom!" said edith, softly. "wasn't that dreadful?" "yes, dear," replied her governess, "it _was_ dreadful; but it is still more dreadful that absalom was such a wicked man. in isaiah[ ] we read of the oaks of bashan, that, like the cedars of lebanon, were 'high and lifted up,' and the oaks of bashan are mentioned again in zechariah[ ]. several varieties of the oak are found in palestine. [ ] isa. ii. . [ ] zech. xi. . [illustration: abraham's oak, near hebron.] "in his _ride through palestine_, dr. dulles tells of a great oak near hebron known as 'abraham's oak,' supposed to occupy the ground where the patriarch pitched his tent under the oaks of mamre. it is an aged tree, and a grand one. here is a picture of it, from the _ride_[ ]. the crests and sides of the hills beyond the jordan are still clothed, as in ancient times, with magnificent oaks. [ ] see page "we get a good idea of the strength and durability of this wood from the fact that there is an old wooden church near ongar, in essex, the nave of which is composed of half logs of oak roughly fastened by wooden pegs. the ancient fabric dates back to the time of king edmund, who was slain by the robber leolf in the year a.d. . the oaken church was hurriedly put together--according to report--in order to make a temporary receptacle for the body of the murdered prince on its way to burial. be that as it may, it was afterward used as a parish church, and, though the oaken logs are corroded by the weather, they are still sound, and, having been beaten by the storms of a thousand winters, bid fair to defy those of a thousand more." "i should think, then," said malcolm, "that people would always build their houses with oak if it lasts so long." "yet they do not do this even in england," was the reply, "where the trees grow to such an immense size and the ancient buildings still in existence prove the great endurance of the oak. now brick and stone and iron are used, which outlast any wood. and now," continued miss harson, "i am going to tell you something about a foreign species of this tree which i am sure will surprise you. it is found in the south of europe and in algeria, and is called the _cork oak_." "'the _cork_ oak'!" exclaimed clara, quite as much surprised as she was expected to be. "do the corks that come in bottles grow on it?" "not just in that shape, dear, but they are made from its bark. the outside bark, or _epidermis_, consists of a thin, transparent, tissue-like substance, which covers not only the bark, but the whole of the tree, stem, leaves and branches, and beneath the epidermis is found a layer of cellular tissue, generally green. it covers the trunk and branches, fills up the spaces between the veins of the leaves and contains the sap, which flows in canals arranged for it in the most beautiful and wonderful manner. in one species of oak this layer--which is called the _suber_--assumes a peculiar character and is of remarkable thickness. when the tree is some five years old, its whole energy is directed toward the increase of the suber. a mass of cells is formed with great rapidity, and layer upon layer is added, until that part of the trunk grows so unwieldy that it would crack and split of its own accord. but such a thing is rarely allowed to happen: the suber is of too much value to man. after it is taken from the tree and has undergone due preparation, it appears in our shops and houses under the name of _cork_" "i should like to see how they get it," said malcolm. "the trunk is regularly marked around in deep cuts, which begin close to the branches and go down almost to the roots. a ladder is used to mount to the upper part of the trunk, and the cuts, or incisions, are made with a long knife or with an axe. then they strip off the sheets of cork between the circles. this operation is a very delicate one, and requires much care and skill lest the inner part should be injured. if the operation is carried out successfully, the cork-like substance will grow again and become as abundant as ever. "the next thing to be done to the pieces of bark is partially to burn, or char, them, and also to make them quite flat, as they come from the trunk in a rounded shape. the burning makes the pores close up, so that the liquid in a vessel for which it is used as a stopper cannot come through; and this is done over a brisk fire, in what is called a _burning-yard_. another process, called _rounding_, removes every trace of the fire, unless the cork has been too much burned, and then, having already been flattened by the pressure of heavy stones, it is ready for the cork-maker, who cuts the material first into strips and then into squares according to the size of corks wanted. "cork is very light and elastic, and can be used successfully in contrivances for the rescue of men from the perils of the deep. the cork jacket and the lifeboat have been the means of saving many lives, for cork will float on the surface of the water and bear up the person wearing the jacket and the shipwrecked people in the lifeboat. 'the shallowness of the boat and the bulk of cork within allow but little room for water; so that even when filled it is in no danger of overturning or sinking, like other crafts. also, the lifeboat can move across the waves with perfect safety, and can make its way from one object to another in a broken sea as easily as an ordinary boat can pass from one ship to another.'" the children declared that the cork-oak was the best tree of all, but they agreed with their governess that the entire oak family was made up of grand and useful trees. "our american oaks," said miss harson, "are very handsome in autumn because of their brilliant foliage; the _scarlet oak_, which turns to a deep crimson and keeps its leaves longer than any of the other forest trees, is the most showy of the species. but we have no cork oaks, and no oaks that we know to be a thousand years old. there was once a famous oak in this country, called the 'charter oak,' which fell to the ground in august, , before any of us were born. i wonder if you would like to hear the story about it?" this question was thought extremely funny by three such devourers of stories as the little kyles, and they eagerly assured their governess that they would like it. "if that is really the case," continued miss harson, smiling at the excited faces, "i must tell you the history of "the charter oak. "this tree grew in hartford, connecticut, and it is said that before the english governor wyllis went there to live his steward, whom he had sent on before to get a house ready for him, came near cutting down this very oak. he was clearing away the trees around it on the hillside when a party of indians appeared and begged him to leave that particular tree, because, they said, 'it had been the guide of their ancestors for centuries.' so the oak was spared; even then it was old and hollow. "king charles ii. granted the people of connecticut a very liberal charter of rights, which was publicly read in the assembly at hartford and declared to belong for ever to them and their successors. a committee was appointed to take charge of it, under a solemn oath that they would preserve this palladium of the rights of the people. "when james ii., the tyrannical brother of charles ii., came to the throne, he changed the government of new england and ordered the people of connecticut to give up their charter. this they refused to do; and when a third command from the king had been sent to them, they called a special meeting of the assembly, under their own governor, treat, and resolved to hold on to the charter which had been given them. "on the st of october, , sir edmund andros, attended by members of his council and a bodyguard of sixty soldiers, entered hartford to take the charter by force. the general assembly was in session; he was received with courtesy, but with coldness. he entered the assembly-room and publicly demanded the charter. remonstrances were made, and the session was protracted till evening. the governor and his associates appeared to yield. the charter was brought in and laid upon the table. sir edmund thought that he had succeeded, when suddenly the lights were all put out, and total darkness followed. there was no noise, no conflict, but all was quiet. when the candles were again lighted, _the charter was gone_! sir edmund was disconcerted. he declared the government of connecticut to be in his own hands, and that the colony was annexed to massachusetts and the other new england colonies, and proceeded to appoint officers. captain jeremiah wadsworth, a patriot of those times, had hidden the charter in the hollow of wyllis's oak, whence it was afterward known as the charter oak." "then the english governor couldn't get it!" exclaimed malcolm, delightedly. "wasn't that splendid?" "it was a grand hiding-place, certainly, for no one would think of looking inside a tree for such a thing as that, and they were grand men who preserved their country's liberties in those trying times. but more peaceful years were at hand. about eighteen months after the charter had disappeared so mysteriously, the tyrant james ii. was compelled to give up his throne to his daughter and son-in-law, the prince and princess of orange, and governor treat and his associates again took the government of connecticut under the old charter, which the hollow oak had faithfully kept from harm. no tree in our whole country has received more attention than this historic hartford oak; and when, at last, its mere shell of a trunk was laid low by a storm, it seemed as if a large part of the city had been swept away. "ancient oaks are apt to be almost entirely without branches; the huge trunk, with an opening at the top, and often with one also at the bottom, stands like a maimed giant, just tottering, perhaps, to its fall, because of the decay going on within, while outside all seems fair and sound. it was so with the charter oak; and when this monarch of the forest was unexpectedly laid low, rich and poor, great and small, were gathered to mourn its loss. a dirge was played and all the bells in the city were tolled at sundown, for this monument of the past was a link gone that could not be replaced." "thank you, miss harson," said clara; "_true_ stories are so nice! but i wish i had seen the charter oak before it was blown down." "you could not have done that, dear," was the reply, "unless you had been born about thirty years sooner." chapter v. _beauty and grace: the ash_. "what tree comes next, miss harson?" asked clara, on an april day that was mild enough for the piazza. "you told us so many interesting things about the oak that i suppose we needn't expect to hear of another tree like that." "no," was the reply; "not just like that, perhaps, for the oak is grand and venerable above all our familiar trees, but the ash, which is more especially an american tree, belongs to a large and interesting family, and i am quite sure that you will very much like to hear something about it. i have put it next to the oak because there is a sort of rivalry between the two as to which can get on its spring dress the soonest, and an old english rhyme says, "'if the oak's before the ash, then you may expect a splash; but if the ash is 'fore the oak, then you must beware a soak.'" "that must mean," said malcolm, after considering this rather puzzling verse, "that it'll rain any way." "i think it does," replied miss harson, with a smile at malcolm's air of deep thought, "and it is quite safe to say that in england. but, as 'a soak' sounds more serious than 'a splash,' it is to be hoped that the ash will not get ahead of the oak. i do not know what they are doing in england this year, but here the oak is a day or two ahead. the foliage of the ash is entirely different, as it has _pinnate_ leaves, which means leaves arranged in two rows, one on each side of a common stem, or _petiole_, like--what, clara?" "rose-leaves," was the prompt reply. "and leaves of the locust trees on the other side of the road," added malcolm. [illustration: the common ash.] "and the sumac," said their governess, "and a number of others that might be mentioned. this kind of foliage is always graceful, and the ash is one of our largest and handsomest trees. it is said to be more common in america than in any other part of the globe. in europe, because of its beauty, it is called the painter's tree. it is a particularly neat and regular-looking tree, and its smooth gray trunk is higher than that of most trees before any branches appear. where is there a tree on the grounds answering this description, malcolm?" "down at the end of the vegetable-garden," was the reply, "and close beside the laundry." [illustration: american white ash.] "yes; you are really learning to distinguish trees very well. there are several species--the white, red, black and mountain ash. the white ash is a graceful tree, rising in the forest to the height of seventy or eighty feet, with a straight trunk and a diameter of three feet or more at the base. on an open plain it throws out its branches, with a gentle double curvature, to a distance on every side, and forms a broad, round head of great beauty. the flowers of the ash are greenish white in color and appear with the leaves in loose clusters. 'the trunk of our largest american ash is covered with a whitish bark which in very young trees is nearly smooth; on older trees it is broken by deep furrows into irregular plates, and on very old stems it becomes smooth again, from the rough plates scaling off. the branches are grayish green dotted with gray or white.' now who can tell _me_ something about this tree?" "i know that furniture is made of the wood," said clara, "because that pretty set in the large spare-room is ash. and it is very light-colored." "the wood is used for a great many things," replied miss harson, "and the ash has been called the husbandman's tree because the timber is so much in demand for farming-implements, and for articles that need to be both strong and light. it does not last so long as the oak, but it is more elastic and can better resist sudden shocks and jerks; it is therefore particularly desirable for the spokes of wheels and ladders and the beams of floors. staircases were made of it in olden times, and they may still be found in some english halls and abbeys. the forest ash makes better oars than any other wood, and the tree has so many good qualities that an old english poet spoke of it as "'the ash for nothing ill.' "but malcolm looks as if he had something to say, and i shall be very happy to hear it." "it is only about the red berries that they bear in autumn, miss harson; it looks queer to see berries growing on a tree." "the mountain ash is the only one that has berries," replied his governess, "and the bloom is in clusters of white flowers. the berries are sometimes dark red and often of a bright scarlet, and they remain on the tree during the winter, to the great delight of the birds. we should find them very sour, although pretty to look at; but the little feathered wanderers eat them with great relish when the snows of winter make bird-food scarce and the bright-red berries gleam out most invitingly. in some parts of europe the berries are dried and ground into flour. the rowan, or roan, tree is the english name of the mountain ash, and in some parts of great britain it is called _witchen_, because of its supposed power against witches and evil spirits and all their spells. in old times branches of it were hung about houses and stables and cow-sheds, for it was thought that "'witches have no power where there is roan-tree wood.'" "but that isn't true, is it?" asked edith. "no, dear, not true of either the witches or the wood. but ignorant people believe a great many foolish things, and the leaves and twigs of the ash tree were thought to have peculiar virtue. in some places it was once the practice to pluck an ash-leaf in every case where the leaflets were of even number, and to say, "'even ash, i do thee pluck, hoping thus to meet good luck; if no luck i get from thee, better far be on the tree.'" "it sounds like what children say on finding a four-leafed clover," said clara. "it is on the same principle," was the reply, "for clover-leaves grow naturally in threes and ash-leaves in sevens. both rhymes are equally silly where luck is concerned, and those who believe god's words--that even 'the hairs of our head are all numbered'--will have no faith in 'luck.' in old times the ash was believed to perform wonderful cures of various kinds, and in remote parts of england a little mouse called the shrew-mouse bore a very bad character. if a horse or cow had pains in its limbs, they were said to be caused by a shrew-mouse running over it. our forefathers provided themselves with what they called a shrew-ash, in order to meet the case. the shrew-ash was nothing more than an ash tree in the trunk of which a hole had been bored and a poor little shrew-mouse put in, with many charms and incantations happily long since forgotten." "and couldn't the poor little mouse get out again?" asked edith. "i am afraid not, dear; and we can only rejoice that we did not live in those dark days. among other beliefs in its virtues, the leaves and wood of the ash were regarded throughout northern europe as a protection from all manner of snakes, and in harvest-time children were suspended in their cradles from the branches of tall ash trees while their mothers were working in the harvest-field below. even now serpents are said to dislike the tree so much that they will not come near it, and the leaf is considered a cure for the bite of a poisonous snake. i have been told that an ash-leaf rubbed on a mosquito-bite will at once take out the sting and itching, and no better remedy can be found for the sting of a bee or a wasp." "it's ever so much nicer than mud," said clara, who had rather a talent for getting into hornets' nests. "but the mud, you see, is always to be had," replied miss harson, "while ash-leaves do not grow everywhere; and i do not know that they have any power to cure the sting. "the other species of ash found in this country are not so important as the white, but the black ash is remarkable as the slenderest deciduous tree of its height to be found in the forest. it is often seventy or eighty feet tall, with a trunk not more than a foot around. the color of the trunk is a dark granite-gray and the bark is rough. the wood is remarkable for its toughness, and for making baskets the indians prefer it to any other, except the trunk of a young white oak. "the red ash is very much like the white, but the wood is less valuable. it is a spreading, broad-headed tree, and the trunk is erect and branching. it is not so tall as the black ash, yet its trunk is three times as thick. "a species of ash grows in sicily that yields a substance called _manna_ which used to be valuable as a medicine, and this manna is obtained in the same way as maple-sap--by making holes or incisions in the bark of the tree. at the proper season the persons whose business it is to collect manna begin to make incisions, one after the other, up the stem. the manna flows out like clear water, but it soon congeals and becomes a solid substance. it has a sweet taste, and while in a liquid state runs into a leaf of the tree that has been inserted in the wound. afterward it flows into a vessel placed below, from which it is carried away and shipped off to other countries." "is there any story about the ash?" asked malcolm. "not much of a story, dear," was the reply--"only a little legend of the manna trees; but, such as it is, you shall have it: "the king of naples, it is said, fenced a number of trees round and forbade any to collect the store they yielded unless they paid a tribute. by this means the royal revenue would be largely increased. but, according to the story, the manna trees, as if they disapproved of this ungenerous arrangement, refused to yield any manna, and suddenly became bare and barren. upon this the king, finding his scheme a failure, revoked the tax and took away the fence. then the trees poured out their manna, as usual, in the greatest abundance; so that it was said, 'when the king found he could not make a gain of what providence had freely bestowed, he gave up the attempt and left the manna as free as god had given it.' [illustration: the swing.] "there, now!" said miss harson; "after this long talk, you had better run off and see if there is not a tree somewhere on the grounds, with two ropes attached to it, that will bear better fruit than any tree we have studied yet." the trio laughed and raced for the swing, which was first reached by clara, who seated herself all ready for the push which malcolm would not grudge, for he pronounced his sister sweeter than apple or peach; and so she was. chapter vi. _the olive tree_. "the ash," said miss harson, "has some relations of which, i think, you will be rather surprised to hear. these relations are both trees and shrubs, and the lilac, for instance, is one of them." "why, they don't look a bit alike," exclaimed clara. "no, they certainly do not; for, although this fragrant shrub often grows as large as a tree, it is quite different from the ash tree. yet both belong to the olive family." "the kind of olives that papa likes to eat at dinner, and that you and i _don't_ like, miss harson?" asked malcolm. "the very same," replied his governess; "only that we are speaking now of the tree on which the olives grow. it is well said that the very name of 'olive' suggests the idea of palestine and the sunny lands of the east. the olive tree is one of the most prominent trees of the bible. it is mentioned in the very earliest part of the scriptures, in the book of genesis. i wonder if some one can tell me about it?" "i remember: a dove found a leaf when it was raining and brought it to noah in the ark," said little edith, quickly. "the rain had stopped falling, dear, after the deluge, and the waters were receding, or falling, when noah sent forth the dove a second time to see what it would find. here is the verse: 'and the dove came in to him in the evening; and lo, in her mouth was an olive leaf pluckt off; so noah knew that the waters were abated from off the earth[ ].' for this reason the olive-branch is a common emblem of peace. the olive tree is often mentioned in other parts of the bible, and was considered one of the most valuable trees of palestine, which is described as 'a land of oil-olive and honey.' it is not nearly so handsome as some other trees of the holy land, nor is it grand-looking or graceful. the leaves, which are long for the width, and smooth, are dark green on the upper side and silvery beneath; they generally grow in pairs. the fruit is shaped like a plum; it is green when first formed, then paler in color; and when quite ripe, it is black." [ ] gen. viii. . "but those that papa eats are olive-color," said clara. "yes," replied miss harson, smiling, "but all these hues i have mentioned are olive-color in some stage of the fruit; and it is in the green stage, before it is quite ripe, that it is gathered for preserving." "but that isn't _preserves_, is it?" asked malcolm, drawing up his mouth at the recollection of an olive he had once tried to eat. "i thought preserves were always sweet." "that is the shape in which you are accustomed to them, malcolm; but to preserve a thing means to keep it from decay, and salt and vinegar will do this as well as sugar. preserves of this kind are what _you_ call 'puckery.'--as to the color, clara, 'olive-green' is a color by itself, because of its peculiar tint. it is a gray green instead of a blue or yellow green, and it has a very dull effect. the fruit is produced only once in two years, and in bearing-season the tree is loaded with white blossoms that drop to the ground like flakes of snow. it is said that not one in a hundred of these numerous flowers becomes an olive. here," continued miss harson, pointing to a page of a book in her hand, "is a representation of an olive-branch with some of the plum-shaped fruit. the branch, you see, is hard and stiff-looking." [illustration: olive-branch with fruit.] "i should think the tree would be prettier when all those white flowers are on it," said little edith. "it is--much prettier," replied her governess--"but not so useful. the fruit of the olive is so valuable that numbers of people depend upon it for their support. the wood, too, is very hard and durable, and, as it takes a fine polish, it is used for making many ornamental articles." "and where does the olive-oil come from?" asked clara. "do they make holes in the tree for it, as they do for maple-sap?" malcolm was about to exclaim at this idea, but he remembered just in time that, should miss harson happen to question him, he himself could not tell where the oil came from. "the oil is pressed from the olives," was the reply; "a large, vigorous tree is said to yield a thousand pounds of it. it is such an important article of commerce in the regions where it is prepared that every one desires to get as much as he can out of his olive trees, but those who are too greedy of gain will spoil the quality of the oil to make a larger quantity. the small olive of syria is considered the most delicate, and italian olives also are very fine; those of spain are larger and coarser. the best olive-oil comes from the south-eastern portion of france and is a clear, pure liquid; it is obtained from the first pressing of the fruit. this must be only a gentle squeeze, to get the purest oil: the quality usually sold is made by a heavier pressure; and then, when the olives are worked over again, come the dregs, which are not fit for table-use." "do they mash 'em, like making apples into cider?" asked malcolm. "something like that; and the olive-farmers take the most anxious care of their orchards, for they know that the more olives the more oil. this with the italians means a living, and one of their proverbs says, 'if you wish to leave a competency to your grandchildren, plant an olive.' the poorest of the fruit is eaten in their own families, 'to save it,' and, as it does not taste so well, it will go much farther. they do not eat olives, though, as we see them eaten--one or two as a relish; but a respectable dishful is provided for each person, instead of the bread and potatoes which they do not have." "i'd rather have the bread and potatoes," said clara, "and i'm glad that i don't have to eat a whole plate of olives." "if you had always been accustomed to having olives, as the italians are," replied miss harson, "you would think them very nice. i do not suppose that their children ever think how much more inviting are the olives that are kept for sale. olives intended for exportation are gathered while still green, usually in the month of october. they are soaked for some hours in the strongest lye, to get rid of their bitterness, and are afterward allowed to stand for a fortnight in frequently-changed fresh water, in order to be perfectly purified of the lye. it only then remains to preserve them in common salt and water, when they are ready for export." "that's what they taste of," exclaimed malcolm--"salt; and i don't like salt things." "i think," said his governess, with a smile, "that i have seen a boy whom i know enjoying sliced ham and tongue very much indeed." "so i do, miss harson," was the eager reply; "but ham and tongue, you know, don't taste like olives." "no, because they are ham and tongue. but they certainly taste salty, and that is what you object to. it is generally found that sweeping assertions are not very safe ones. but to come back to our olive tree: it is an evergreen, and it grows very easily. the readiness with which a twig will take root reminds us of the willow. a fine grove of olive trees at messa, in morocco, was accidentally planted. it is said that one of the kings of the dynasty of saddia, being on a military expedition, encamped here with his army. the pegs with which the cavalry picketed their horses were cut from olive trees in the neighborhood, and, some sudden cause of alarm leading to the abandonment of the position, the pegs were left in the ground. making the best of the situation, the pegs developed into the handsomest group of olive trees in the district." the children wondered if any trees had ever been planted in such a strange way before, and little edith said thoughtfully, "but, miss harson, why don't good people go around and plant trees wherever there aren't any? it would be so nice!" "some good people do plant trees, dear, wherever they can," replied her governess, "thinking, as they say, of those who are to come after them; a great many roadside trees have grown in this way. but no one is allowed to meddle with other people's property; waste-places might easily be beautified with trees if the owners cared for anything but for their own present interests. but here is something you will like to hear about the olives of palestine: 'they are all planted together in the grove like the trees in a forest, and it would seem scarcely possible for the owners to distinguish their own property. but when the fruit is getting ripe, watchmen are appointed to guard the grove and prevent a single olive from being touched even by the person who has a right to the tree.'--you do not look as if you would like that, malcolm." [illustration: olive tree.--gathering the fruit.] "indeed i wouldn't!" replied the boy. "i rather think i'd take my own olives whenever i wanted 'em." "not if you lived where all were agreed on this point, as they seem to be in palestine.--'days pass on, and the autumn is at hand before the governor of the district issues the wished-for proclamation; then the watchmen are removed. immediately the scene becomes a most animated one. the grove is alive with an eager throng of men, women and children shaking down the precious fruit. it is, however, scarcely possible to bring every berry down, nor would it seem desirable, since after this great harvest comes the gleaning-time, when the poor, who have no olive trees, are permitted to come into the grove and shake down what is left.'" "isn't there something about that in the bible, miss harson?" asked clara. "yes; it is in the book of the prophet isaiah, 'yet gleaning grapes shall be left in it, as the shaking of an olive tree, two or three berries in the top of the uppermost bough, four or five in the outmost fruitful branches thereof, saith the lord god of israel[ ].' this is a prophecy about god's people, but the jews were told by god to leave something, when they were harvesting, for the poor to glean. does it not seem wonderful that the mighty ruler of the universe should condescend to such small things? but nothing is small with him, and we see that his loving care extends to the poorest and the meanest." [ ] isa. xvii. . "miss harson," asked edith, with great earnestness, "has each of our hairs got a number on it? i couldn't find any." the young lady could scarcely keep from smiling, but she was obliged to call malcolm to order, and even clara seemed amused at her little sister's queer interpretation of the loving words, "the very hairs of your head are all numbered." miss harson took her youngest pupil on her knee and explained to her the meaning of our saviour's words in luke xii. , where it is added, "fear not,", because the heavenly father's loving care is always around us. "it was a natural mistake," she continued, "for a very little girl to make; but we must not try to find amusement in mistakes about god's word. many grown people are irreverent in this way without knowing it: perhaps they were not properly taught when they were children. but _my_ children must not have this excuse, and i want them all to promise me that they will never utter nor listen to words from the bible in any other but a reverent manner." all promised, malcolm with a flushed face and subdued tone; and edith felt that one of the great puzzles of her small existence had been solved. "oil is the most important product of the olive tree," said miss harson, "and it has well been called its richness and fatness. the great demand for it in europe and asia prevents the best quality from being sent abroad, and it is said that even the most wealthy foreigners seldom get it pure. it is a most important article of food, taking the place held by butter and lard with us. innumerable lamps, too, are kept burning by means of this oil, and so varied are its uses in the east that it was a greater thing than we can understand for the prophet habakkuk to say, 'although the labor of the olive shall fail, ... yet will i rejoice in the lord, i will joy in the god of my salvation.' job says, 'the rock poured me out rivers of oil[ ];' this means the oil of the olive, which will thrive on the sides and tops of rocky hills where there is scarcely any earth. it is a very long-lived tree, as well as an evergreen; the psalmist says, 'i am like a green olive tree in the house of god.'" [ ] job xxiii. . "what does a _wild_ olive tree mean, miss harson?" asked clara. "it means, dear, one that has grown without being cultivated, like our wild cherry and plum trees. the wild olive is smaller than the other, and inferior to it in every way. there are a great many olive trees in palestine, and a place where they must have been very plentiful is called by a name which we often see in the bible.--what is it, malcolm?" "is it 'the mount of olives'?" said malcolm. "yes, and it is sometimes called 'olivet.' it is mentioned in the old testament as well as in the new. in second samuel it is written: 'and david went up by the ascent of mount olivet, and wept as he went up, and had his head covered, and he went barefoot: and all the people that was with him covered every man his head, and they went up, weeping as they went up[ ].'" [ ] sam. xv. . "what was the matter?" asked edith. "king david's wicked son absalom had risen up against his father because he wished to be king in his stead. you remember how he was caught by the head in the boughs of an oak during the very battle that he was fighting for this purpose; so we know that he did not succeed in his wicked plan, but lost his life instead.--the mount of olives is described as 'a ridge running north and south on the east side of jerusalem, its summit about half a mile from the city wall and separated from it by the valley of the kidron. it is composed of a chalky limestone, the rocks everywhere showing themselves. the olive trees that formerly covered it and gave it its name are now represented by a few trees and clumps of trees. there are three prominent summits on the ridge; of these, the southernmost, which is lower than the other two, is now known as 'the mount of offence,' originally 'the mount of corruption,' because solomon defiled it with idolatrous worship. over this ridge passes the road to bethany, the most frequented route to jericho and the jordan. the side of the mount of olives toward the west contains many tombs cut in the rock. the central summit rises two hundred feet above jerusalem and presents a fine view of the city, and, indeed, of the whole region, including the mountains of ephraim on the north, the valley of the jordan on the east, a part of the dead sea on the south-east, and beyond it kerak, in the mountains of moab. perhaps no spot on earth unites so fine a view with so many memorials of the most solemn and important events. over this hill the saviour often climbed in his journeys to and from the holy city. gethsemane lay at its foot on the west, and bethany on its eastern slope.'" during the reading of this description of the mount of olives, miss harson showed the children pictures of the different spots mentioned, and thus they were not likely soon to forget what had been told them. "who can repeat some words from the new testament about this mountain?" asked miss harson. "'jesus went unto the mount of olives,'" said clara, who had learned this verse in her sunday lesson, "and it is the first verse of the eighth chapter of st. john." "and the verse just before it, at the end of the seventh chapter," replied her governess, "says that 'every man went unto his own house,' but 'jesus went unto the mount of olives.' in another place it is said that 'at night he went out and abode in the mount of olives,' and in still another that he 'continued all night in prayer to god,' probably on the same mountain." "and can people really go and see the very same mount of olives now?" asked malcolm, eagerly. "the very same," was the reply, "except, as i just read to you, many of the olive trees that gave it its name are no longer there. the garden of gethsemane, too, the most sacred spot near the mountain, is much changed, and a traveler who saw it lately says: "'at the foot of the mount of olives is a garden enclosed by a wall. there are paths and there are plots of flowers, the work of loving hands in recent years. the flowers speak of to-day, but there are olive trees in the garden that testify of the history of far-away years. their venerable trunks, gnarled and rugged, are like the rough, marred binding of old books, shutting in a history going back to a far-off date. "'on one side of this garden slope upward the terraces of the mount of olives--terraces that are cultivated to-day even as the slopes of olivet have been cultivated for generations and centuries. the other side of the garden looks toward the eastern wall of jerusalem. deep down in its shadowy bed, between the wall and the garden, lies the ravine of the kedron. [illustration: garden of gethsemane.] "'if you visit that garden and look upon its old olive trees, the keeper of the place will tell you that you are in gethsemane, the spot of our saviour's betrayal. he will point out the "grotto of the agony," the place where the disciples slumbered, and that where judas, before his brethren, ceased publicly to be a follower and became the betrayer of jesus. some things you very naturally may question as the guardian of the enclosure tells his story. whether any one of the venerable olive trees ever threw its shadow across the prostrate form of jesus is more than doubtful, but that these trees are burdened with the history of centuries all must concede. "gethsemane" means "oil-press," and olive trees long ago gave olivet its name. that somewhere in this neighborhood the saviour suffered cannot be doubted, and within that closed wall may have been the very spot where he bowed in his agony, and where he heard the tongue of judas utter his treacherous "rabbi!" and where he felt the serpent-breath of the traitor as that traitor kissed him.'" miss harson read of this solemn spot in a low, reverent tone; and the little audience were very quiet, until at last clara said, "whenever we see an ash tree or olives, how much there will be to think of!" chapter vii. _the useful birch_. "oh, miss harson!" called out clara, in great excitement, as she caught up with her governess on a run; "hasn't edie poisoned herself? she has been eating this twig." edith, of course, at once began to cry. "you are not poisoned, dear," said miss harson, very quickly, after trying the twig herself; "for this is birch-wood, and it cannot possibly hurt you. but remember, edie, that this must not happen again; _never_ put anything to your mouth unless you know it to be harmless. the birds and squirrels and other animals that are obliged to pick up their own living as soon as they are able to use their limbs have the faculty given them of knowing what is good for them to eat, but little girls are not intended to live in the woods, and they cannot tell whether or not the things they find there are fit to eat." "i took only a little bit," sobbed edith; "clara snatched it away as soon as it tasted good." malcolm laughingly tossed his little sister into a sort of evergreen cradle where the branches grew low--for they were enjoying an afternoon in the woods--and held her there securely, while their governess replied, "'a little bit' is too much of a thing that might be harmful. you must remember to 'touch not, taste not, handle not,' until you have asked permission. but i am going to let you all chew as many birch-shoots as you want, and i too shall chew some; for when i was a little girl, i used to think they were 'puffickly d'licious.'" the children were much amazed to think that miss harson had ever talked like edith--indeed, the two older ones could scarcely believe that they once did so themselves; but all soon had their hands full of birch-twigs, and they began gnawing like so many squirrels. all approved of the "birchskin," as edith called it, and malcolm declared that "it would be grand fun to live in the woods all the time." "couldn't we have a tent, miss harson," asked clara, "and try it?" "i have no doubt," was the reply, "that your indulgent papa would have a tent put up here for you if he thought it would make you happier, but i have my doubts as to whether it would do so. in the first place, i should object very much to living in the tent with you, and how could you possibly live there alone?" clara and edith were quite sure that they could not get along without their friend and governess, but malcolm thought he would like to try being a hermit or an indian, he was not quite ready to say which. "while you are deciding," said miss harson, with a smile, "it may be as well for us to go on as usual; but i think that a little tent could be put up here somewhere, which we might enjoy for an hour or so on pleasant days. i will see about it." the little girls were delighted, and malcolm finally condescended to be pleased with the idea. "this is a very young birch," continued their governess, "and you see how slender and graceful it is; also that the bark, or 'skin,' is very dark. for this reason it is called the black, or cherry, birch, and also because the tree is very much like the black cherry. it is also called sweet birch and mahogany birch; the _sweet_ part you can probably understand, and it gets its other name from the color of the wood, which often resembles mahogany and at one time was much used for furniture. there are larger trees of the same kind all around us, and i should like to know if anything else has been noticed besides the twigs of this little one." "_i_ see something," replied malcolm: "there are flowers--purple and yellow." "and what is the particular name for these tree-blossoms?" asked miss harson. "isn't it _catkins_?" inquired clara, timidly. "yes, catkins, or aments. they hang, as you see, like long tassels of purple and gold, and are as fragrant as the bark. bryant's line, "'the fragrant birch above him hung her tassels in the sky,' "was written of this same black birch. some of these trees are sixty or seventy feet high, and all are very graceful, this species being considered the most beautiful of the numerous birch family. the leaves, which are just coming out, are two or three inches long and about half as wide; they taper to a point and have serrate, or sawlike, edges. the wood is firm and durable, and is much used for cattle-yokes as well as for bedsteads and chairs. the large trees yield a great quantity of sweetish sap, which makes a pleasant drink. the trees are tapped just as the sugar-maples are, and in some parts of the country gathering this sap, which is sometimes used to make vinegar, is quite an important event." "oh! oh! _oh_!" screamed edith, and began to run. "oh! oh! oh!" echoed clara; and malcolm declared that she was just like "jill," who "came tumbling after." "what is the matter, children?" asked their governess, in dismay; but she stood perfectly still. "only a poor little garter-snake," said malcolm, "putting his head out to see if it's warm enough for him yet. but he has gone back into his hole frightened to death at such dreadful noises. hello! what's the matter with edie now?" the little sister had fallen, tripped up by some rough roots, and, expecting the poor startled garter-snake to come and make a meal off her, she was calling loudly for help. miss harson had her in her arms in a moment, and it was soon found that one foot had quite a bad bruise. "if only you had not run away!" said her governess. "he was such an innocent little snake to make all this fuss about, and very pretty too, if you had stopped to look at him." "are snakes ever pretty?" asked edith, in great surprise. "certainly they are, dear, and this one had lovely stripes. i wish you could have seen him." the little girl began to wish so too, it was so funny to think of a snake being pretty, and she felt quite ashamed that she had scampered away in such a silly fashion. "what a goose i was!" said clara, doing her thinking aloud. "but i thought it must be something dreadful, when edie screamed so." "how much better it would have been to have found out before you screamed!" replied miss harson.--"but come, edith; see what a nice cane malcolm has just cut to help your lame foot with. he is offering you his arm, too, on the other side, and between the two i think you will get along finely." edith thought the same thing, and enjoyed being helped home in this fashion. her foot was quite painful, though, and considerably swollen; and clara bathed it with arnica when the little girl had been comfortably established on the schoolroom sofa. "perhaps," said miss harson, "our little invalid will not care to hear about trees this evening?" but the little invalid did care, and it was decided to take a further ramble among the birches. "i want to hear about birch-bark," said malcolm--"not the kind we've been eating, but the kind that canoes and things are made of." [illustration: the cut-leaved white birch.] "you have already heard about the black birch," replied his governess, "and, besides this, we have the white, or gray, birch, the bark of which is white, chalky and dotted with black; the red birch, with bark of a reddish or chocolate color; the yellow birch, bark yellowish, with a silvery lustre; and the canoe birch, which has a white bark with a pearly lustre. there is also a dwarf, or shrub, birch. the list, you see, is quite a long one." "what kind grow in _our_ woods?" asked clara. "you certainly know of one kind," was the reply--"the black, or sweet, birch, which we have all tried and like so well. besides this, there is the white, or little gray, birch, which is seldom over twenty-five or thirty feet high. it is, however, a graceful and beautiful object, enjoying to an eminent decree the lightness and airiness of the birch family, and spreading out its glistening leaves on the ends of a very slender and often pensile spray with an indescribable softness. an english poet has called this tree the "'most beautiful of forest-trees, the lady of the woods.'" the children laughed at the idea of calling a tree a _lady_, it seemed so comical; but miss harson said that she thought this was a very good description of a slender, graceful tree. [illustration: white-birch leaf.] "four or five inches," she continued, "will span its waist, or trunk, and this seems a very good reason for calling it _little_. another name for this tree is poplar birch, because the triangular-shaped leaves, which taper to a very long, slender point, have a habit of trembling like those of the poplars. the branches are of a dark chocolate color which contrasts very prettily with the grayish-white trunk, and their extreme slenderness causes them to droop somewhat like those of the willow. the white birch will spring up in the poorest kind of soil, and it is found in the highest latitude in which any tree can live. its leaf is 'deltoid' in shape and indented at the edge. the bark of this species is said to be more durable than any other vegetable substance, and a piece of birch-wood was once found changed into stone, while the outer bark, white and shining, remained in its natural state," "i don't see how it could," said malcolm. "what kept it from turning into stone too?" "its peculiar nature," was the reply, "which is a thing that we cannot explain, and we shall have to take the story just as it is. we certainly know that the wood has been proved to be very strong, and it is much used for timber." "is the red birch really red, miss harson?" asked clara, who thought that this promised to be the prettiest member of the family. "the bark has a reddish tinge, and it is so loose and ragged-looking that it has been said to roll up its bark in coarse ringlets, which are whitish with a stain of crimson. the red birch, which is more rare than any of the other kinds, is a much larger tree than the white birch, but, like all its relations, it is very graceful. the wood is white and hard and makes very good fuel, while the twigs are made into brooms for sweeping streets and courtyards." "but there isn't very much red about it, after all," said malcolm. "it wasn't red," murmured edith; "it was green;" and the next moment "the baby" was fast asleep, but miss harson was afraid that she had taken the snake with her to the land of nod, so restless was her sleep. "i hope the yellow birch is yellow," said clara again. "we will see what is said of its color," replied her governess, "and here it is: 'distinguished by its yellowish bark, of a soft silken texture and silvery or pearly lustre,' it is a large tree, and has been named _excelsa_--'lofty'--because of its height. the slender, flowing branches are very graceful, and the tree is often as symmetrical as a fine elm, but droops less. the roots of the yellow birch seem to enjoy getting above the ground and twisting themselves in a very fantastic manner, and, taken altogether, it is a strikingly handsome and ornamental tree. the wood was at one time much liked for fuel, and many of the logs were of immense size." "now," said malcolm, gleefully, "the canoe birch has _got_ to come next, because there isn't anything else to come." "that is an excellent reason," replied miss harson, "and the canoe birch it shall be. there is more to be said of it than of any of the others, and it also grows in greater quantities. thick woods of it are found in maine and new hampshire--for it loves a cold climate--and in other northern portions of the country. the tall trunks of the trees resemble pillars of polished marble supporting a canopy of bright-green foliage. the leaves are something of a heart-shape, and their vivid summer green turns to golden tints in autumn. the bark of the canoe birch is almost snowy white on the outside, and very prettily marked with fine brown stripes two or three inches long, which go around the trunk. this bark is very smooth and soft, and it is easily separated into very thin sheets. for this reason the tree is often called the paper birch, and the smooth, thin layers of bark make very good writing-paper when none other can be had." "oh, miss harson!" exclaimed clara; "did you ever see any that was written on?" "yes," was the reply; "i once wrote a letter on some myself." "did you _really_?" cried two eager voices. "how _could_ you? oh, do tell us about it!" "i was making a visit at a village in maine," said their governess, "where the beautiful trees are to be seen in all their perfection, and i thought it would be appropriate to write a letter from there on birch bark. so i split my bark very thin and got a respectable sheet of it ready; then i cut another piece, to form an envelope, and gummed it together. i had quite a struggle to write on it decently with a steel pen, because the pen would go through the paper; but i persevered, and finally i accomplished my letter. it seemed odd to put a postage-stamp on birch bark, and i smiled to think how surprised the home-people would be to get such a letter. they _were_ surprised, and they told me afterward that the postman laughed when he delivered it." the children thought this very interesting, and they wished that there were canoe-birch trees growing at elmridge, that they might be enabled to try the experiment for themselves. "now," continued miss harson, "i am going to read you an account of canoe-making, and of some other uses to which the bark is put: "'in canada and in the district of maine the country-people place large pieces of the bark immediately below the shingles of the roof, to form a more impenetrable covering for their houses. baskets, boxes and portfolios are made of it, which are sometimes embroidered with silk of different colors. divided into very thin sheets, it forms a substitute for paper, and placed between the soles of the shoes and in the crown of the hat it is a defence against dampness. but the most important purpose to which it is applied, and one in which it is replaced by the bark of no other tree, is in the construction of canoes. to procure proper pieces, the largest and smoothest trunks are selected. in the spring two circular incisions are made, several feet apart, and two longitudinal ones on opposite sides of the tree; after which, by introducing a wooden wedge, the bark is easily detached. these plates are usually ten or twelve feet long and two feet nine inches broad. to form the canoe, they are stitched together with fibrous roots of the white spruce about the size of a quill, which are deprived of the bark, split and suppled in water. the seams are coated with resin of the balm of gilead. "'great use is made of these canoes by the savages and by the french canadians in their long journeys into the interior of the country; they are very light, and are easily transported on the shoulders from one lake or river to another, which is called the _portage_. a canoe calculated for four persons, with their baggage, weighs from forty to fifty pounds; some of them are made to carry fifteen passengers.' "and now let me show you a picture of the kentucky pioneer in a birch-bark canoe." "why, miss harson, the indians are trying to kill him!" exclaimed malcolm. "yes," she replied; "when you read the history of the united states, you will find that not only daniel boone, but the most of the early settlers of these western lands, had trouble with the indians. nor is this strange. these pioneers were often rough men, and were looked upon by the natives as invaders of their country and treated as enemies. but to come back to the uses of the bark of the birch: "'in the settlements of the hudson bay company tents are made of the bark of this tree, which for that purpose is cut into pieces twelve feet long and four feet wide. these are sewed together by threads made of the white-spruce roots; and so rapidly is a tent put up that a circular one twenty feet in diameter and ten feet high does not occupy more than half an hour in pitching. every traveler and hunter in canada enjoys these "rind-tents," as they are called, which are used only during the hot summer months, when they are found particularly comfortable.'" [illustration: in the birch-bark canoe] "well, that's the funniest thing yet!" exclaimed malcolm. "'rind-tents'! i wish i could see one. did they have any in maine where you were, miss harson?" "no," was the reply, "i did not even hear of such a thing there, and to see it you would probably have to go far to the north. the english birch, which is found also in many parts of europe, is put to a great many uses; the leaves produce a yellow dye, and the wood, when mixed with copperas, will color red, black and brown. an old birch tree that is supposed to be giving an account of itself says, "'how many are the uses of my bark! thrifty men who sit beside the blazing hearth when my branches throw up a clear bright flame, and follow the example of their fathers in making their own shoes and those of their families, tan the hides with my bark. kamschadales construct from it both hats and vessels for holding milk, and the swedish fisherman his shoes. the norwegian covers with it his low-roofed hut and spreads upon the surface layers of moss at least three or four inches thick, and, having twisted long strips together, he obtains excellent torches with which to cheer the darkness of his long nights. fishermen, in like manner, make great use of them in alluring their finny prey. for this purpose they fit a portion of blazing birch in a cleft stick and spear the fish when attracted by its flickering light.'" the children exclaimed at this queer way of fishing, but malcolm was very much taken with the idea of doing it by night with blazing torches, and he thought that he would like to be a norwegian fisherman even better than a hermit or an indian. "the old tree goes on to say," continued miss harson, "that 'finland mothers form of the dried leaves soft, elastic beds for their children, and from me is prepared the _mona_, their sole medicine in all diseases. my buds in spring exhale a delicious fragrance after showers, and the bark, when burnt, seems to purify the air in confined dwellings.' "in lapland the twigs of the birch, covered with reindeer-skins, are used for beds, but they cannot be so comfortable, i should think, as the leaves. the fragrant wood of the tree makes the fires which have to be kept up inside the huts even in summer to drive away the mosquitoes, and the people of those northern regions would find it hard to get along without the useful birch." "i like to hear about it," said clara. "can you tell us something more that is done with it, miss harson?" "there is just one thing more," replied her governess, with a smile, "which i will read out of an old book; and i desire you all to pay particular attention to it." little edith was wide awake again by this time, and her great blue eyes looked as if she were ready to devour every word. "birch rods," continued miss harson, "are quite different from birch _twigs_, and the uses to which they were put were not altogether agreeable to the boys who ran away from school or did not get their lessons. 'my branches,' says the birch, 'gently waving in the wind, awakened in those days no feelings of dread with truant urchins--for _all_ might be truants then, if so it pleased them--but at length a scribe arose who thus wrote concerning my ductile twigs: "the civil uses whereunto the birch serveth are many, as for the punishment of children both at home and abroad; for it hath an admirable influence upon them to quiet them when they wax unruly, and therefore some call the tree _make-peace_"'" malcolm and clara both laughed, and asked their young governess when the birch rods were coming; but edith did not feel quite so easy, and, with her bruised foot and all, it took a great deal of petting that night to get her comfortably to bed. chapter viii. _the poplars_. the bruised foot was not comfortable to walk on for two or three days, and edith was settled in the great easy arm-chair with dolls and toys and picture-books in a pile that seemed as if it would not stop growing until every article belonging to herself and clara had been gathered there. "we can go on with our trees," said miss harson, "even if we do not see them just yet; and this evening i should like to tell you something about the poplar, a large tree with alternate leaves which is often found in dusty towns, where it seems to flourish as well as in its favorite situation by a running stream. an old english writer calls the poplars 'hospitable trees, for anything thrives under their shade.' they are not handsomely-shaped trees, but the foliage is thick and pretty. in the latter part of this month--april--the trees are so covered with their olive-green catkins that large portions of the forests seem to be colored by them." [illustration: in the easy chair] "are there any poplars at elmridge?" asked malcolm. "not nearer than the woods," was the reply, "where we must go and look for them when edith's foot is quite well again, though there are a good many in the city. the poplar is often planted by the roadside because it grows so rapidly and makes a good shade. the _abele_, or silver poplar, is an especial favorite for this purpose. "the balm of gilead, or canada poplar, is the largest of the species, and really a handsome tree, often growing to the height of fifty or sixty feet, with a trunk of proportionate size. it has large leaves of a bright, glossy green, which grow loosely on long branches, a peculiarity of this tree is that before the leaves begin to expand the buds are covered with a yellow, glutinous balsam that diffuses a penetrating but very agreeable odor unlike any other. the balsam is gathered as a healing anodyne, and for many ailments it is a favorite remedy in domestic medicine. all the poplars produce more or less of this substance. "the river poplaris found on the banks of rivers and brooks and in wet places, and is a noble and graceful tree. the trunk is light gray in color, and the young trees have a smooth, leather-like bark. the broad leaves, of a very rich green, grow on stems nearly as long as themselves, and the flowering aments are of a light-red color. the leaf-stalks and young branches are also brightly tinted. another of these trees has a very singular name: it is called the necklace poplar." [illustration: lombardy poplar.] "do the flowers grow like real necklaces?" asked clara. "not quite," replied her governess, "but the reason given is something like it. the tree is so called from the resemblance of the long ament, before opening, to the beads of a necklace. in europe it is known as the swiss poplar and the black italian poplar. its timber is much valued there for building. there are also the black poplar and that queer, stiff-looking tree the lombardy poplar. cannot one of you tell me where there are some tall, narrow trees that look almost as if they had been cut out of wood and stuck there?" "i know where there are some," said malcolm: "right in front of mrs. bush's old house; and i think they're miserable-looking trees." "when old and rusty, they are not in the least cheerful," replied miss harson; "and it is so long since lombardy poplars were admired that few are found except about old places. the tree is shaped like a tall spire, and in hot, calm weather drops of clear water trickle from its leaves like a slight shower of rain. it was once a favorite shade-tree, and a century ago great numbers of lombardy poplars were planted by village waysides, in front of dwelling-houses, on the borders of public grounds, and particularly in avenues leading to houses that stand at some distance from the high-road. [illustration: a group of poplars in cashmere] "the poplar is found in many lands. the lombardy poplar, as its name indicates, was brought from italy, where it grows luxuriantly beside the orange and the myrtle; but after one of our cold winters many of its small branches will decay, and this gives it a forlorn appearance. when fresh and green, the lombardy poplar is quite handsome. some one wrote of it long ago: 'there is no other tree that so pleasantly adorns the sides of narrow lanes and avenues, and so neatly accommodates itself to limited enclosures. its foliage is dense and of the liveliest verdure, making delicate music to the soft touch of every breeze. its terebinthine odors scent the vernal gales that enter our open windows with the morning sun. its branches, always turning upward and closely gathered together, afford a harbor to the singing-birds that make them a favorite resort, and its long, tapering spire that points to heaven gives an air of cheerfulness and religious tranquillity to village scenery.'" "i wish we had some," said edith, "with singing-birds in 'em." "why, my dear child," replied her governess, "have we not the beautiful elms, in which the birds build their nests and where they fly in and out continually? they are the very same birds that build in the lombardy poplars." "i thought that singing-birds always lived in cages," said the little queen in the easy-chair. "and did you think they were hung all over the lombardy poplars?" asked malcolm, in a broad grin. edith laughed too, and miss harson said smilingly. "i thought that the birds about elmridge did a great deal of singing, and the blue-birds and robins kept it up all day. but i should not like to see the old lombardy poplars hung with gilded cages, and the birds which should happen to be prisoners in the cages would like it still less." "well," said edith, contentedly, as she settled herself again to listen. "the poplar," continued miss harson, "has a great many insect enemies, and the lombardy is not often seen now, because a great many of these trees were destroyed on account of a worm, or caterpillar, by which they were infested. poplar-wood is soft, light and generally of a pale-yellow color; it is much used for toy-making and for boarded floors, 'for which last purpose it is well adapted from its whiteness and the facility with which it is scoured, and also from the difficulty with which it catches fire and the slowness with which it burns. a red-hot poker falling on a board of poplar would burn its way without causing more combustion than the hole through which it passed.'" "i should think, then," said malcolm, "that all wooden things would be made of poplar." "it is generally thought not to be durable," was the reply, "but it is said that if kept dry the wood will last as long as that of any tree. says the poplar plank, "'though heart of oak be ne'er so stout, keep me dry and i'll see him out.' "the poplar has been highly praised, for every part of this tree answers some good purpose. the bark, being light, like cork, serves to support the nets of fishermen; the inner bark is used by the kamschadales as a material for bread; brooms are made from the twigs, and paper from the cottony down of the seeds. horses, cows and sheep browse upon it. "and now," said miss harson, when the children were wondering if that were the end, "we have come to the most interesting tree of the whole species--the aspen, or trembling poplar. it is a small, graceful tree with rounded leaves having a wavy, toothed border, covered with soft silk when young, which remains only as a fringe on the edge at maturity, supported by a very slender footstalk about as long as the leaf, and compressed laterally from near the base. they are thus agitated by the slightest breath of wind with that quivering, restless motion characteristic of all the poplars, but in none so striking as this. 'to quiver like an aspen-leaf has become a proverb. the foliage appears lighter than that of most other trees, from continually displaying the under side of the leaves. "the aspen has been called a very poetical tree, because it is the only one whose leaves tremble when the wind is apparently calm. it is said, however, to suggest fickleness and caprice, levity and irresolution--a bad character for any tree. the small american aspen, which is quite common, has a smooth, pale-green bark, which gets whitish and rough as the tree grows old. the foliage is thin, but a single leaf will be found, when examined, uncommonly beautiful. a spray of the small aspen, when in leaf, is very light and airy-looking, and the leaves produce a constant rustling sound. 'legends of no ordinary interest linger around this tree. ask the italian peasant who pastures his sheep beside a grove of _abele_ why the leaves of these trees are always trembling in even the hottest weather when not a breeze is stirring, and he will tell you that the wood of the trembling-poplar formed the cross on which our saviour suffered.'" "oh, miss harson!" said clara, in a low tone. "is that _true_?" "we do not know that it is, dear, nor do we know that it is not. here are some verses about it which i like very much: "'the tremulousness began, as legends tell, when he, the meek one, bowed his head to death e'en on an aspen cross, when some near dell was visited by men whose every breath that sufferer gave them. hastening to the wood-- the wood of aspens--they with ruffian power did hew the fair, pale tree, which trembling stood as if awestruck; and from that fearful hour aspens have quivered as with conscious dread of that foul crime which bowed the meek redeemer's head. "'far distant from those days, oh let not man, boastful of reason, check with scornful speech those legends pure; for who the heart may scan or say what hallowed thoughts such legends teach to those who may perchance their scant flocks keep on hill or plain, to whom the quivering tree hinteth a thought which, holy, solemn, deep, sinks in the heart, bidding their spirits flee all thoughts of vice, that dread and hateful thing which troubleth of each joy the pure and gushing spring?'" chapter ix. _all a-blow: the apple tree_. it certainly was a beautiful sight, and the children exclaimed over it in ectasy. it was now past the middle of april, and miss harson had taken her little flock to visit an apple-orchard at some distance from elmridge, and the whole place seemed to be one mass of pink-and-white bloom. "and how deliciously _sweet_ it is!" said malcolm as he sniffed the fragrant air. "oh!" exclaimed edith, turning up her funny little nose to get the full benefit of all this fragrance; "i can't breathe half enough at once." "that is just my case," said her governess, laughing, "but i did not think to say it in that way. get all you can of this deliciousness, children; i wish that we could carry some of it away with us." "and so you shall," replied a hearty voice as mr. grove, the owner of the orchard, came up with a knife in his hand and began cutting off small branches of apple--blossoms. "i like to see folks enjoy things." "i hope you don't mind our trespassing on your grounds?" said miss harson. "i can engage that my little friends will do no injury, and i particularly wished them to see your beautiful orchard in bloom; it is almost equal to a field of roses." "don't mind it at all, miss," was the reply--"quite the contrary; and i think, myself, it's a pretty sight. smells good, too. now, here's a nosegay big enough for you three young ladies, and bub there can carry it." malcolm, who was quite proud of his name, felt so indignant at being called "bub" that he almost forgot the farmer's generosity; but his governess acknowledged it, very much to the worthy man's satisfaction. edith, however, was rather shocked. "i thought it was wicked," said she, "to cut off flowers from fruit trees? won't these make apples?" "not them particular ones, sis," replied mr. grove, with a laugh; "they're done for now. but it ain't wicked to cut off your own apple blows when there's too many on the tree to make good apples, and there's plenty to spare yet." he was very much amused at the little girl's serious face over this wholesale destruction of infant apples, and he invited them all to come to the house and get a drink of fresh milk. the children thought this a very pleasant invitation, and miss harson was quite willing to gratify them. the farmer led his guests into a very cheerful and wonderfully clean kitchen, where mrs. groves was busy with her baking, and the loaves of fresh bread looked very inviting. she was as pleasant and hospitable as her husband, and after shaking up a funny-looking patchwork cushion in a rocking-chair for the young lady to sit down on she told the little girls that she would get them a couple of crickets if they would wait a minute, and disappeared into the next room. the two little sisters looked at each other in dismay and wondered what they could do with these insects, but before they could consult miss harson good mrs. grove had returned carrying in each hand a small flat footstool. the girls sat down very carefully, for they were not accustomed to such low seats; but the whole party were tired with their walk and glad to rest for a short time. malcolm, being a boy, was expected to sit where he could, and he speedily established himself in the corner of a wooden settle. in spite of the apple-blossoms, the kitchen fire was very comfortable; and, as the baking was just coming to an end, mrs. grove said that "she would be ready to visit with them in a minute:" she did not seem to allow herself more than a "minute" for anything. besides the milk, some very nice seed-cakes in the shape of hearts were produced, and edith thought them the most delightful little cakes she had ever tasted. clara and malcolm, too, were quite hungry, and miss harson enjoyed her glass of milk and seed-cake as well as did the young people. the farmer and his wife seemed really sorry to part with their guests when they rose to go, but miss harson said that it was time for them to be at home, and the children were obedient on the instant. "well," said the worthy couple, "you know now where to come when you want more apple-blows and a drink of milk." malcolm was quite laden with the mass of rosy flowers which mr. grove piled up in his arms, and he enjoyed the delicious scent all the way home. "i must get out the big jar," said miss harson as she surveyed their treasures, "and there are so many buds that i think we may be able to keep them for some days.--what would you say, edith, if i told you that people cut off not only the blossoms, but even the fruit itself, while it is green, to make what is left on the tree handsomer and better?" edith looked her surprise, and the other children could not understand why all the fruit that formed should not be left on the tree to ripen. "it is very often left," replied their governess, "but, although the crop is a large one, it will be of inferior quality; and those who understand fruit-raising thin it out, so that the tree may not have more fruit than it can well nourish. but now it is time for papa to come, and after dinner we will have a regular apple-talk." "how nice it was at mrs. grove's to-day!" said clara, when they were gathered for the talk. "i think that kitchens are pleasanter to sit in than parlors and school-rooms." "so do i," chimed in edith; "but i was afraid about the crickets at first. i thought we'd have to hold 'em in our hands, and i didn't like that." why _would_ people always laugh when there was nothing to laugh at? the little girl thought she had a very funny brother and sister, and miss harson, too, was funny sometimes. "have you so soon forgotten about the real insect-crickets, dear?" asked her governess, kindly. "why, it will be months yet before we see one. besides, i thought i told you that in some places a little bench is called a 'cricket'?--do you know, clara, why you thought mrs. grove's kitchen so pleasant? it is larger and better furnished than kitchens usually are, there were pleasant people in it, and you were tired and hungry and ready to enjoy rest and refreshments; but i am quite sure that, on the whole, you would like your own quarters best, because you are better fitted for them, as mrs. grove is for hers. we had a very pleasant visit, though, and some day we may repeat it--perhaps when the apples are ripe." "good! good!" cried the children, clapping their hands; and malcolm added that he "would like to be let loose in that apple-orchard." "perhaps you would like it better than farmer grove would," was the reply. "but we haven't got to the apples yet; we must first find out a little about the tree. we learn in the beginning that it was one of the very earliest trees planted in this country by the settlers, because it is both hardy and useful. there is a wild species called the virginia crab-apple, which bears beautiful pink flowers as fragrant as roses, but its small apples are intensely sour. the blossoms of the cultivated apple tree are more beautiful than those of any other fruit; they are delicious to both sight and scent." "and do look, miss harson," said clara, "at these lovely half-open buds! they are just like tiny roses, and _so_ sweet!" down went clara's head among the clustered blossoms, and then edith had to come too; and malcolm declared that between the two they would smell them to death. "it seems," continued miss harson, "that the apple tree grows wild in every part of europe except in the frigid zone and in western asia, china and japan. it is thought to have been planted in britain by the romans; and when it was brought here, it seemed to do better than it had done anywhere else. it is said that 'not only the indians, but many indigenous insects, birds and quadrupeds, welcomed the apple tree to these shores. the butterfly of the tent-caterpillar saddled her eggs on the very first twig that was formed, and it has since shared her affections with the wild cherry; and the canker-worm also, in a measure, abandoned the elm to feed on it. as it grew apace the bluebird, robin, cherry-bird, king-bird, and many more, came with haste and built their nests and warbled in its boughs, and so became orchard-birds and multiplied more than ever. it was an era in the history of their race in america. the downy woodpecker found such a savory morsel under its bark that he perforated it in a ring quite round the tree before he left it. it did not take the partridge long to find out how sweet its buds were, and every winter eve she flew, and still flies, from the wood to pluck them, much to the farmer's sorrow. the rabbit, too, was not slow to learn the taste of its twigs and bark; and when the fruit was ripe, the squirrel half rolled, half carried, it to his hole. even the musquash crept up the bank from the brook at evening, and greedily devoured it, until he had worn a path in the grass there; and when it was frozen and thawed, the crow and the jay were glad to taste it occasionally. the owl crept into the first apple tree that became hollow, and fairly hooted with delight, finding it just the place for him; so, settling down into it, he has remained there ever since.' "speaking of these buds, clara," said her governess, "i think i forgot to tell you that the apple tree belongs to the family rosaceae, and therefore the half-opened blossoms have a right to look like roses. the tree is not a handsome one, being a small edition of the oak in its sturdy outline, but it is less graceful or picturesque-looking, being often broader than it is high and resembling in shape a half globe. the leaves are not pretty except when first unfolded, and their color is then a beautiful light tint known as apple-green. but the foliage soon becomes dusty and shabby-looking. an old apple tree, with its gnarled, and often hollow, trunk, is generally handsomer than a young one, unless in the time of blossoms; for only a young apple-orchard is covered with such a profusion of bloom as that we saw to-day." "i am glad," said clara, "that it belongs to the rose family, for now the dear little buds seem prettier than ever." "the apples are prettier yet," observed malcolm; "if there's anything i like, it's apples." "i am afraid that you eat too many of them for your good," replied his governess; "i shall have to limit you to so many a day." "i have eaten only six to-day," was the modest reply, "and they were little russets, too." "oh, malcolm, malcolm!" said miss harson, laughing; "what shall i do with you? why, you would soon make an apple-famine in most places. three apples a day must be your allowance for the present; and if at any time we go to live in an orchard, you may have six." "why, _we_ have only one," exclaimed little edith, "and we don't want any more.--do we, clara?" [illustration: apple blossoms.] "if you don't want 'em," said malcolm, "there's no sense in eating 'em.--but i'll remember, miss harson. i suppose three at one time ought to be enough." malcolm's expression, as he said this, was so doleful that every one laughed at him; and his governess continued: "the apple tree is said to produce a greater variety of beautiful fruit than any other tree that is known, and apples are liked by almost every one. they are a very wholesome fruit and nearly as valuable as bread and potatoes for food, because they can be used in so many different ways, and the poorer qualities make very nourishing food for nearly all animals." "rex fairly snatches the apple out of my hand when i go to give him one," said malcolm. "so does regina," added clara, who trembled in her shoes whenever she offered these dainties to the handsome carriage-horses. edith had not dared to venture on such a feat yet, and therefore she had nothing to say. "all horses are fond of apples," said miss harson, "and the fruit is very thoroughly appreciated. ancient britain was celebrated for her apple-orchards, and the tree was reverenced by the druids because the mistletoe grew abundantly on it. in saxon times, when england became a christian country, the rite of coronation, or crowning of a king, was in such words as these: 'may the almighty lord give thee, o king, from the dew of heaven and the fatness of the earth, abundance of corn and wine and oil! be thou the lord of thy brothers, and let the sons of thy mother bow down before thee. let the people serve thee and the tribes adore thee. may the almighty bless thee with the blessings of heaven above, and the mountains and the valleys with the blessings of the deep below, with the blessings of grapes and _apples_! bless, o lord, the courage of this prince, and prosper the work of his hands; and by thy blessing may his land be filled with _apples_, with the fruit and dew of heaven from the top of the ancient mountains, from the _apples_ of the eternal hills, from the fruit of the earth and its fullness!' you will see from this how highly apples were valued in england in those ancient times." "i should like to pick them up when they are ripe," said clara, and malcolm expressed a desire to hire himself out by the day to mr. grove when that time arrived. "an apple-orchard in autumn," continued their governess, "is often a merry scene. ladders are put against the trees, and the finest apples are carefully picked off, but such as are to be used for cider-making are shaken to the ground. men and boys are at work, and even women and children are there with baskets and aprons spread out to catch the fruit; and they run back and forth wherever the apples fall thickest, with much laughter at the unexpected showers that come down upon their heads and necks. large baskets filled with these apples are carried to the mill, where, after being laid in heaps a while to mellow, they are crushed and pressed till their juice is extracted; and this, being fermented, becomes cider. from this cider, by a second fermentation, the best vinegar is made." [illustration: the apple-harvest.] "miss harson," asked edith, as the talk seemed to have come to an end, "isn't there any more about apple trees? i like 'em." "yes, dear," was the reply; "there is more. i was just looking over, in this little book, some queer superstitions about apple trees in england, and here is a strange performance which is said to take place in some very retired parts of the country: "'scarcely have the merry bells ushered in the morning of christmas than a troop of people may be seen entering the apple-orchard, often when the trees are powdered with hoarfrost and snow lies deep upon the ground. one of the company carries a large flask filled with cider and tastefully decorated with holly-branches; and when every one has advanced about ten paces from the choicest tree, rustic pipes made from the hollow boughs of elder are played upon by young men, while echo repeats the strain, and it seems as if fairy-musicians responded in low, sweet tones from some neighboring wood or hill. then bursts forth a chorus of loud and sonorous voices while the cider-flask is being emptied of its contents around the tree, and all sing some such words as these: "'"here's to thee, old apple tree! long mayest thou grow. and long mayest thou blow, and ripen the apples that hang on thy bough! "'"this full can of apple wine, old tree, be thine: it will cheer thee and warm thee amid the deep snow; "'"till the goldfinch--fond bird!-- in the orchard is heard singing blithe 'mid the blossoms that whiten thy bough."'" "but what did they do it for?" asked malcolm, who enjoyed the account as much as the others. "there doesn't seem to be any sense in it." "there _is_ no sense in it," replied his governess, "but these ignorant people had inherited the custom from their fathers and grandfathers, and they really believed--and perhaps still believe--that this attention would be sure to bring a fine crop of apples. we are distinctly told, though, that 'it is god that giveth the increase;' and to him alone belong the fruits of the earth. sometimes the crop is so great that the trees fairly bend over with the weight of the fruit, and there is an old english saying: 'the more apples the tree bears, the more she bows to the folk.'" "how funny!" laughed edith. "does the apple tree move its head, miss harson?" "it cannot go quite so far as that," was the reply; "it just stays bent over like a person carrying a heavy burden. the branches of overladen fruit trees are sometimes propped up with long poles to keep them from breaking. there is another strange custom, which used to be practiced on new year's eve. it was called 'apple-howling,' and a troop of boys visited the different orchards--which would scarcely have been desirable when the apples were ripe--and, forming a ring around the trees, repeated these words: "'stand fast, root! bear well, top! pray god send us a good howling crop-- every twig, apples big; every bough, apples enow.' "all then shouted in chorus, while one of the party played on a cow's horn, and the trees were well rapped with the sticks which they carried. this ceremony is thought to have been a relic of some heathen sacrifice, and it is quite absurd enough to be that." "what is 'a howling crop,' miss harson?" asked clara. "that name sounds so queer!" "i don't know what it can be," replied her governess, "unless it refers to the strange expression sometimes used, 'howling with delight.' we hear more commonly of 'howling with pain,' but 'a howling crop' must be one that makes the owner scream, as well as dance for joy." "why, _i_ scream only when i'm frightened," said edith, who began to think that there were much sillier people in the world than herself. "at garter-snakes," added malcolm, giving his sister a sly pinch; but edith did not mind his pinches, because he always took good care not to hurt her. miss harson said that the best way was not to scream at all, as it was both a silly and a troublesome habit, and the sooner her charges broke themselves of it the better she should like it. clara and edith both promised to try--just as they had promised before, when the ants were so troublesome; but they were nine months older now, and seemed to be getting a little ashamed of the habit. "are apples mentioned anywhere in the bible?" asked miss harson, presently. clara and malcolm were busy thinking, but nothing came of it, until their governess said, "turn to the book of proverbs, clara, and find the twenty-fifth chapter and the eleventh verse." clara read very carefully: "'a word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in pictures of silver.' but what does it mean?" she asked. "it probably means 'framed in silver' or 'in silver frames[ ],'" was the reply; "and then it is easy to understand how important our words are, and that 'fitly-spoken' ones are as valuable and lasting as golden apples framed in silver. the apple tree is mentioned in joel, where it is said that 'all the trees of the field are withered[ ],' and both apple trees and apples are mentioned in several places of the old testament. but, to tell the whole truth, scholars are not agreed as to whether the hebrew word denotes the apple or some other fruit that grew in the land of israel." [ ] the revised version renders the phrase "in baskets of silver." [ ] joel i. . the children had all enjoyed the "apple-talk," and they felt that the fruit which they were so accustomed to seeing would now have a new meaning for them. chapter x. _a fruitful family: the peach, almond, plum and cherry_. snowdrops, crocuses, hyacinths and tulips were blooming out of doors and in-doors; the grass looked green and velvety, and the fruit trees were, as john expressed it, "all a-blow." the peach trees, without a sign of a leaf, looked, as every one said of them, like immense bouquets of pink flowers, while pear, cherry and plum trees seemed as if they were dressed in white. one cloudy, windy day, when the petals fell off in showers and strewed the ground, edith declared that it was snowing; but she soon saw her mistake, and then began to worry because there would be no blossoms left for fruit. "if the flowers stayed on, there would be no fruit," said miss harson. "let me show you just where the little green germ is." "why, of course!" said malcolm; "it's in the part that stays on the tree." edith listened intently while her governess showed her the ovary of a blossom safe on the twig where it grew, and explained to her that it was this which, nourished by the sap of the tree, with the aid of the sun and air, would ripen into fruit, while the petals were merely a fringe or ornament to the true blossom. at elmridge, scattered here and there through garden and grounds, as mr. kyle liked to have them, there were some fruit trees of every kind that would flourish in that part of the country, but there was no orchard; and for this reason miss harson had taken the children to see the grand apple-blossoming at farmer grove's. two very large pear trees stood one on either side of the lawn, and there were dwarf pear trees in the garden. "i think pears are nicer than apples," said clara as they stood looking at the fine trees, now perfectly covered with their snowy blossoms. but malcolm, who found it hard work to be happy on three apples a day, stoutly disagreed with his sister on this point, and declared that nothing was so good as apples. "how about ice-cream?" asked his governess, when she heard this sweeping assertion. the young gentleman was silent, for his exploits with this frozen luxury were a constant subject of wonder to his friends and relatives. "you will notice," said miss harson, "that the shape of these trees is much more graceful than that of the apple tree. they are tall and slender, forming what is called an imperfect pyramid. standard pear trees, like these, give a good shade, and the long, slender branches are well clothed with leaves of a bright, glossy green. this rich color lasts late into the autumn, and it is then varied with yellow, and often with red and black, spots; so that pear-leaves are not to be despised in gathering autumn-leaf treasures. the pear is not so useful a fruit as the apple, nor so showy in color; but it has a more delicate and spicy flavor, and often is of an immense size." "yes, indeed!" said clara. "don't you remember, miss harson, that sometimes edith and i can have only one pear divided between us at dessert because they are so large?" "yes, dear; and i think that half a duchess pear is as much as can be comfortably managed at once." "well," observed malcolm, "i don't want half an apple.--but, miss harson, do they ever have 'pear-howlings' in england?" "i have never read of any," was the reply, "and i think that strange custom is confined to apple trees. and there is no mention made of either pears or pear trees in the scriptures." "what are prickly-pears?" asked clara. "do they have thorns on 'em?" "there is a plant by this name," replied her governess, "with large yellow flowers, and the fruit is full of small seeds and has a crimson pulp. it grows in sandy places near the salt water; it is abundant in north africa and syria, and is considered quite good to eat; but neither plant nor fruit bears any resemblance to our pear trees: it is a cactus." "won't you have a story for us this evening, miss harson?" asked edith, rather wistfully. "perhaps so, dear--i have been thinking of it--but it will not be about pear trees." "oh, i don't care," with a very bright face; "i'd as soon have it about cherry trees, or--'most anything!" miss harson laughed, and said, "well, then, i think it will be about cherries; so you must rest on that. this morning we will go around among the fruit trees and see what we can learn from seeing them." of course it was saturday morning and there were no lessons, or they would not have been roaming around "promiscuous," as jane called it; for the young governess was very careful not to let the getting of one kind of knowledge interfere with the getting of another. "how do you like these pretty quince trees?" asked miss harson as they came to some large bushes with great pinkish flowers. "i like 'em," replied edith, "because they're so little. and oh what pretty flowers!" "some more relations of the rose," said her governess. "and do you notice how fragrant they are? the tree is always low and crooked, just as you see it, and the branches straggle not very gracefully. the under part of the dark-green leaves is whitish and downy-looking, and the flowers are handsome enough to warrant the cultivation of the tree just for their sake, but the large golden fruit is much prized for preserves, and in the autumn a small tree laden down with it is quite an ornamental object. the quince is more like a pear than an apple. as the book says, 'it has the same tender and mucilaginous core; the seeds are not enclosed in a dry hull, like those of the apple; and the pulp of the quince, like that of the pear, is granulated, while that of the apple displays in its texture a firmer and finer organization.' the fruit, however, is so hard, even when ripe, that it cannot be eaten without cooking. it is said to be a native of hedges and rocky places in the south of europe." [illustration: peach-blossom.] "these peach trees," said clara, "look like sticks with pink flowers all over 'em." "they are remarkably bare of leaves when in bloom," was the reply: "the leaves burst forth from their envelopes as the blossoms pass away; but how beautiful the blossoms are! from the deepest pink to that delicate tint which is called peach-color. but do you know that we have left the apple and rose family now, and have come to the almond family?" the children were very much surprised to hear this, and they looked at the peach trees with fresh interest. "yes," continued miss harson, "the family consists of the almond tree, the peach tree, the apricot tree, the plum tree and the cherry tree; and one thing that distinguishes them from the other families is the gum which is found on their trunks.--look around, malcolm, at the peach, plum and cherry trees, which are the only members of the family that we have at elmridge, and you will find gum oozing from the bark, especially where there are knotholes." malcolm not only found the gum, but succeeded in helping himself to some of it, which he shared with his sisters. it had a rather sweet taste, and the children seemed to like it, having first obtained permission of their governess to eat it. "that is another of the things that i thought 'puffickly d'licious' when i was a child," said the young lady, laughing. "but there is another peculiarity of this family of trees which is not so innocent, and that is that in the fruit-kernel, and also in the leaves, there is a deadly poison called prussic acid." "o--h!" exclaimed the children, drawing back from the trees as though they expected to be poisoned on the spot. "but, as we do not eat either the kernels or the leaves," continued their governess, "we need not feel uneasy, for the fruit never yet poisoned any one. here are the cherry trees, so covered with blossoms that they look like masses of snow; and the smaller plum trees are also attired in white. we will begin this evening with the almond tree, and see what we can find out about the family." "do almond trees and peach trees look alike?" asked clara, when they were fairly settled by the schoolroom fire; for the evenings were too cool yet for the piazza. "very much alike," was the reply; "only the almond tree is larger and it has white instead of pink blossoms. then it is the _fruit_ of the peach we eat, but of the almond we eat the kernel of the stem. i will read you a little account of it: "'the common almond is a native of barbary, but has long been cultivated in the south of europe and the temperate parts of asia. the fruit is produced in very large quantities and exported in to northern countries; it is also pressed for oil and used for various domestic purposes. there are numerous varieties of this species, but the two chief kinds are the bitter almond and the sweet almond. the sweet almond affords a favorite article for dessert, but it contains little nourishment, and of all nuts is the most difficult of digestion. the tree has been cultivated in england for about three centuries for the sake of its beautiful foliage, as the fruit will not ripen without a greater degree of heat than is found in that climate. the distilled water of the bitter almond is highly injurious to the human species, and, taken in a large dose, produces almost instant death.' the prussic acid which can be obtained from the kernel of the peach is found also in the bitter almond." [illustration: the almond.--branch and fruit.] "but what do they want to find it for," asked malcolm, "when it kills people?" "because," replied his governess, "like some other noxious things, it can be made valuable when used moderately and in the right way. but it is often employed to give a flavor to intoxicating liquors, and this is _not_ a right way, as it makes them even more dangerous than before. but we will leave the prussic acid and return to our almond tree. it flourishes in palestine, where it blooms in january, and in march the ripe fruit can be gathered." this seemed wonderfully strange to the children--flowers in january and fruit in march; and miss harson explained to them that in that part of the world they do not often have our bitter cold weather with its ice and snow to kill the tender buds. "this tree," continued miss harson, "is occasionally mentioned in the old testament. in jeremiah the prophet says, 'i see a rod of an almond tree[ ];' also in ecclesiastes it is said that 'the almond tree shall flourish[ ].'" [ ] jer. i. ii. [ ] eccl. xii. . "are there ever many peach trees growing in one place," asked clara, "like the apple trees in mr. grove's orchard?" "yes," was the reply, "for in some places there are immense peach-orchards, covering many acres of ground; and when the trees in these are in blossom, the spring landscape seems to be pink with them. these great peach-fields are found in delaware and maryland, where the fruit grows in such perfection, and also in some of the western states. we all know how delicious it is, but, unfortunately, so does a certain green worm, who curls up in the leaves which he gnaws in spite of the prussic acid. this insect will often attack the finest peaches and lay its eggs in them when the fruit is but half grown. in this way the young grubs find food and lodging provided for them all in one, and they thrive, while the peach decays." "what a shame it is," exclaimed malcolm, in great indignation, "to have our best peaches eaten by wretched little worms who might just as well eat grass and leave the peaches for us!" "perhaps they think it a shame that they are so often shaken to the ground or washed off the trees," replied miss harson; "and, as to their eating grass, they evidently prefer peaches. 'insects as well as human beings have discriminating tastes, and the poor plum tree suffers even more than the peach from their attentions. in some parts of the country it has been entirely given up to their depredations, and farmers will not try to raise this fruit because of these active enemies. the whole almond family are liable to the attacks of insects. canker-worms of one or of several species often strip them of their leaves; the tent-caterpillars pitch their tents among the branches and carry on their dangerous depredations; the slug-worms, the offspring of a fly called _selandria cerasi_, reduce the leaves to skeletons, and thus destroy them; the cherry-weevils penetrate their bark, cover their branches with warts and cause them to decay; and borers gnaw galleries in their trunks and devour the inner bark and sap-wood.' so you see that, with such an army of destroyers, we may be thankful to get any fruit at all." "i'm glad to know the name of that fly," said malcolm, who considered it an additional grievance that it should have such a long name, "but i won't try to call him by it if i meet him anywhere." "i think it's pretty," said clara, beginning to repeat it, and making a decided failure. "fortunately," continued their governess, after reading it again for them, "there are other things much more important for you to remember just now, and i could not have said it myself without the book. and now let us see what else we can learn about the plum. it is a native, it seems, of north america, europe and asia, and many of the wild species are thorny. the cultivated plums, damsons and gages are varieties of the _prunus domestica_, the cultivated plum tree. these have no thorns; the leaves are oval in shape, and the flowers grow singly. the most highly-valued cultivated plum trees came originally from the east, where they have been known from time immemorial. in many countries of eastern europe domestic animals are fattened on their fruits, and an alcoholic liquor is obtained from them; they also yield a white, crystallizable sugar. the prunes which we import from france are the dried fruit of varieties of the plum which contain a sufficient quantity of sugar to preserve the fruit from decay." "do prunes really grow on trees, miss harson?" asked edith, who was rather disposed to think that they grew in pretty boxes. "yes, dear," was the reply; "they grow just as our plums do, only they are dried and packed in layers before they reach this country. we have two species of wild plum in north america--the beach-plum, a low shrub found in new england, the fruit of which is dark blue and about the size of damsons; while the other is quite a large tree, and very showy when covered with its scarlet fruit. in maine it is called plum-granate, probably from its red color," "i know what's coming next," said clara--"cherries; because all the rest have been used up. and then we're to have the story." "but they're all interesting," replied malcolm, gallantly, "because miss harson makes them so." "i hope that is not the only reason," said his governess, laughing, "for trees are always beautiful and interesting and it is a privilege to be able to learn something of their habits and history.--like most fruit trees, the cherry has many varieties, but it is always a handsome tree, and less spoiled by insects than others of the almond family. the black cherry is the most common species in the united states, and is both wild and cultivated. the garden cherry has broad, ovate, rough and serrate leaves, growing thickly on the branches, and this, with the height of the tree, makes a fine shade. some old cherry trees have huge trunks, and their thick branches spread to a great distance. the branches of the wild cherry are too straggling to make a beautiful tree, and the leaves are small and narrow. the blossoms of the cultivated cherry are in umbels, while those of the wild cherry are borne in racemes." "i remember that, miss harson," said clara, pleased with her knowledge. "'umbel' means 'like an umbrella,' and 'raceme' means 'growing along a stem.'" "very well indeed!" was the reply; "i am glad you have not forgotten it.--of our cultivated cherries, we have here at elmridge, besides the large black ones, which are so very sweet about the first of july, the great ox-hearts, which look like painted wax and ripen in june, and those very acid red ones, often called pie-cherries, which are used for pies and preserves. the cherry is a beautiful fruit, and one that is popular with birds as well as with boys. the great northern cherry of europe, which was named by linnaeus the 'bird-cherry,' is encouraged in great britain and on the continent for the benefit of the birds, which are regarded as the most important checks to the over-multiplication of insects. the fact not yet properly understood in america--that the birds which are the most mischievous consumers of fruit are the most useful as destroyers of insects--is well known by all farmers in europe; and while we destroy the birds to save the fruit, and sometimes cut down the fruit-trees to starve the birds, the europeans more wisely plant them for the food and accommodation of the birds." "isn't it wicked to kill the poor little birds?" asked edith. "yes, dear; it is cruel to kill them just for sport, as is often done, and very foolish, as we have just seen, to destroy them for the sake of the fruit, which the insects make way with in much greater quantities than the birds do." "miss harson," asked clara, "do people cut down real cherry trees to make the pretty red furniture like that in your room?" "it is the wood of the wild cherry," replied her governess, "that is used for this purpose. it is of a light-red or fresh mahogany color, growing darker and richer with age. it is very close-grained, compact, takes a good polish, and when perfectly seasoned is not liable to shrink or warp. it is therefore particularly suitable, and much employed, for tables, chests of drawers, and other cabinet-work, and when polished and varnished is not less beautiful for such articles than are inferior kinds of mahogany." "'cherry' sounds pretty to say," continued clara. "i wonder how the tree got that name?" "that wonder is easily explained," said miss harson, "for i have been reading about it, and i was just going to tell you. 'cherry comes from 'cerasus,' the name of a town on the black sea from whence the tree is supposed to have been introduced into italy, and it designates a genus of about forty species, natives of all the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. they are trees or shrubs with smooth serrated leaves, which are folded together when young, and white or reddish flowers growing in bunches, like umbels, and preceding the leaves or in terminal racemes accompanying or following the leaves. a few species, with numerous varieties, produce valuable fruits; nearly all are remarkable for the abundance of their early flowers, sometimes rendered double by cultivation. and now," added the young lady, "we have arrived at the story, which is translated from the german; and in germany the cherries are particularly fine. a plateful of this beautiful fruit was, as you will see, the cause of some remarkable changes." chapter xi. _the cherry-story._ on the banks of the rhine, in the pleasant little village of rebenheim, lived ehrenberg, the village mayor. he was much respected for his virtues, and his wife was greatly beloved for her charity to the poor. they had an only daughter--the little caroline--who gave early promise of a superior mind and a benevolent heart. she was the idol of her parents, who devoted their whole care to giving her a sound religious education. not far from the house, and close to the orchard and kitchen-garden, there was another little garden, planted exclusively with flowers. the day that caroline was born her father planted a cherry tree in the middle of the flower-garden. he had chosen a tree with a short trunk, in order that his little daughter could more easily admire the blossoms and pluck the cherries when they were ripe. when the tree bloomed for the first time and was so covered with blossoms that it looked like a single bunch of white flowers, the father and mother came out one morning to enjoy the sight. little caroline was in her mother's arms. the infant smiled, and, stretching out her little hands for the blossoms, endeavored at the same time to speak her joy, but in such a way as no one but a mother could understand: "flowers! flowers! pretty! pretty!" the child engaged more of the parents' thoughts than all the cherry-blossoms and gardens and orchards, and all they were worth. they resolved to educate her well; they prayed to god to bless their care and attention by making caroline worthy of him and the joy and consolation of her parents. as soon as the little girl was old enough to understand, her mother told her lovingly of that kind father in heaven who makes the flowers bloom and the trees bud and the cherries and apples grow ruddy and ripe; she told her also of the blessed son of god, once an infant like herself, who died for all the world. the cherry tree in the middle of the garden was given to caroline for her own, and it was a greater treasure to her than were all the flowers. she watched and admired it every day, from the moment the first bud appeared until the cherries were ripe. she grieved when she saw the white blossoms turn yellow and drop to the earth, but her grief was changed into joy when the cherries appeared, green at first and smaller than peas, and then daily growing larger and larger, until the rich red skin of the ripe cherry at last blushed among the interstices of the green leaves. "thus it is," said her father; "youth and beauty fade like the blossoms, but virtue is the fruit which we expect from the tree. this whole world is, as it were, a large garden, in which god has appointed to every man a place, that he may bring forth abundant and good fruit. as god sends rain and sunshine on the trees, so does he send down grace on men to make them grow in virtue, if they will but do their part." in the course of time war approached the quiet village which had hitherto been the abode of peace and domestic bliss, and the battle raged fearfully. balls and shells whizzed about, and several houses caught fire. as soon as the danger would permit, the mayor tried to extinguish the flames, while his wife and little daughter were praying earnestly for themselves and for their neighbors. in the afternoon a ring was heard at the door, and, looking out of the window, madame ehrenberg saw an officer of hussars standing before her. fortunately, he was a german, and mother and daughter ran to open the door. "do not be alarmed," said the officer, in a friendly tone, when he saw the frightened faces; "the danger is over, and you are quite safe. the fire in the village, too, is almost quenched, and the mayor will soon be here. i beg you for some refreshment, if it is only a morsel of bread and a drink of water. it was sharp work," he added, wiping the perspiration from his brow, "but, thank god, we have conquered," provisions were scarce, for the village had been plundered by the enemy, but the good lady brought forth a flask of wine and some rye bread, with many regrets that she had nothing better to offer. but the visitor, as he ate the bread with a hearty relish, declared that it was enough, for it was the first morsel he had tasted that day. caroline ran and brought in on a porcelain plate some of the ripest cherries from her own tree. "cherries!" exclaimed the officer. "they are a rarity in this district. how did they escape the enemy? all the trees in the country around are stripped." "the cherries," said the mother, "are from a little tree which was planted in caroline's flower-garden on her birthday. it is but a few days since they became ripe; the enemy, perhaps, did not notice the little tree." "and is it for me you intend the cherries, my dear child?" asked the officer. "oh no; you must keep them. it were a pity to take one of them from you." "how could we refuse a few cherries," said caroline, "to the man that sheds his blood in our defence? you must eat them all," said she, while the tears streamed down her cheeks. "do, i entreat you! eat them all." he took some of the cherries and laid them on the table, near his wine-glass; but he had scarcely placed the glass to his lips when the trumpet sounded. he sprang up and girded on his sword. "that is the signal to march," said he. "i cannot wait one instant." caroline wrapped the cherries in a roll of white paper and insisted that he should put them in his pocket. "the weather is very warm," said she, "and even cherries will be some refreshment." "oh," said the officer, with emotion, "what a happiness it is for a soldier, who is often obliged to snatch each morsel from unwilling hands, to meet with a generous and benevolent family! i wish it were in my power, my dear child, to give you some pledge of my gratitude, but i have nothing--not so much as a single groat. you must be content with my simple thanks." with these words, and once more bidding caroline and her mother an affectionate farewell, he took his departure, and walked rapidly out of sight. the joy of the good family for their happy deliverance was, alas! of short continuance. some weeks after, a dreadful battle was fought near the village, which was reduced to a heap of ruins. the mayor's house was burned to the ground and all his property destroyed. alas for the horrors of cruel war! father, mother and daughter fled away on foot, and wept bitterly when they looked back on their once happy village, now but a mass of blazing ruins. the family retired to a distant town, and lived there in very great distress. the mayor endeavored to obtain a livelihood as a scrivener, or clerk; his wife worked at dressmaking and millinery, and caroline, who soon became skillful in such matters, faithfully assisted her. a lady in town--the countess von buchenhaim--gave them much employment, and one day caroline went to this lady's house to carry home a bonnet. she was taken to the garden, where the countess was sitting in the summer-house with her sister and nieces, who had come to visit her. the young ladies were delighted with the bonnet, and their mother gave orders for three more, particularly praising the blue flowers, which were the work of caroline's own hands. the countess von buchenhaim spoke very kindly of the young girl to her sister, and related the sad story of the worthy family's misfortunes. the count was standing with his brother-in-law, the colonel, at some little distance from the door of the summer-house, and the colonel, a fine-looking man in a hussar's uniform and with a star on his breast, overheard the conversation. coming up, he looked closely at caroline. "is it possible," said he, "that you are the daughter of the mayor of rebenheim? how tall you have grown! i should scarcely have recognized you, though we are old acquaintances." caroline stood there abashed, looking full in the face of the stranger, her cheeks covered with blushes. taking her by the hand, the colonel conducted her to his wife, who was sitting near the countess. "see, amelia," said he; "this is the young lady who saved my life ten years ago, when she was only a child." "how can that be possible?" asked caroline, in amazement. "it must indeed appear incomprehensible to you," answered the colonel, "but do you remember the hussar-officer that one day, after a battle, stood knocking at the door of your father's house in rebenheim? do you remember the cherries which you so kindly gave him?" "oh, was it you?" exclaimed caroline, while her face beamed with a smile of recognition. "thank god you are alive! but how i could have done anything toward saving your life i cannot understand." "in truth, it would be impossible for you to guess the great service you did me," said he, "but my wife and daughters know it well; i wrote to them of it at once. and i look upon it as one of the most remarkable occurrences of my life." "and one that i ought to remember better than any other event of the war," said his lady, rising and affectionately embracing caroline. "well," said the countess, "neither i nor my husband ever heard the story. please give us a full account of it." "oh, it is easily told," said the colonel. "hungry and thirsty, i entered the house in which caroline and her parents dwelt, and, to tell the plain truth, i begged for some bread and water. they gave me a share of the best they had, and did not hesitate to do so, though their village and themselves were in the greatest distress. caroline robbed every bough on her cherry tree to refresh me. fine cherries they were--the only ones, probably, in the whole country. but the enemy did not give me time to eat them; i was obliged to depart in a hurry. caroline insisted, with the kindest hospitality, that i should take them with me, but that was no easy matter: my horse had been shot under me the day before. i took from my knapsack whatever articles i could in a hurry, and, thrusting them into my pockets, i fought on foot until a hussar gave me his horse. all that i was worth was in my pockets, so that to make room for the cherries i was obliged to take the pocket-book out of my pocket and place it here beneath my vest. the enemy, who had been driven back, made a feint of advancing on us, and i led down my hussars in gallant style. but suddenly we found ourselves in front of a body of infantry concealed behind a hedge. one of them fired at me, and the fellow had taken good aim, for the ball struck me here on the breast. but it rebounded from the pocket-book; otherwise, i should have been shot through the body and fallen dead on the spot. tell me," said he, in a tone of deep emotion; "was not that little child an instrument in the hand of god to save me from death? am i right or not when i give caroline the credit, under god, of having saved my life? her must i thank that my amelia is not a widow and my daughters orphans." all agreed with him. his wife, who had caroline's hand locked in her own during the whole narrative, now pressed it affectionately and with tears in her eyes. "you, then," said she, "were the good angel that averted such a terrible misfortune from our family?" her two daughters also gazed with pleasure at caroline. "every time we ate cherries," said the younger, "we spoke of you without knowing you." all had kind and grateful words for the young girl, but the colonel soon bade her farewell for the present, and said that he had some business to attend to with his brother-in-law. this business was to urge the count to appoint ehrenberg his steward in place of the one who had died a few months before. a better man, he said, could not be found; for when he had visited rebenheim to make inquiries for the family, although none could tell where they had gone, all were loud in their praise, and the mayor was pronounced a pattern of justice, honor and charity. the count drew out the order, signed it, and gave it to his brother-in-law, who wished himself to take it to mr. ehrenberg; and he went at once to the house and saluted him as "master-steward of buchenhaim." "read that," he said to the astonished man as he handed him the paper in which he was duly appointed steward of buchenhaim, with a good salary of a thousand thalers and several valuable perquisites. "and you," said the colonel to caroline and her mother, "must prepare to remove at once. your lodgings are so confined! but you will find it very different in the house which you are to occupy in buchenhaim. the dwelling is large and commodious, with a fine garden attached, well stocked with cherry trees. next monday you will be there, and this very day you must start. what a happy feast we shall have there!--not like the hasty meal you gave the hussar-officer amid the thunder of cannon and the blazing roofs of rebenheim. do not forget to have cherries, dear caroline, for dessert; i think they will be fully ripe by that time." with these words the colonel hurried away to escape the thanks of this good family, and, in truth, to conceal his own tears. so rapidly did he disappear that ehrenberg could scarcely accompany him down the steps. "oh, caroline," said the happy father when he returned, "who could have imagined that the little cherry tree i planted in the flower-garden the day you were born would ever produce such good fruit?" "it was the providence of god," exclaimed the mother, clasping her hands. "i remember distinctly the first time the blossoms appeared on that tree, when you and i went out to look at it, and little caroline, then an infant in my arms, was so much delighted with the white flowers. we resolved then to educate our daughter piously, and prayed fervently to god that she, who was then as full of promise as the blossoms on the tree, might by his grace one day be the prop of our old age. that prayer is now fulfilled beyond our fondest anticipations. praise for ever be to the name of god!" edith declared that this was one of the very sweetest stories miss harson had ever told them, and clara and malcolm were equally well pleased with it. "were those cherries like ours?" asked clara. "they were larger and finer than ours generally are, i think," was the reply, "being the great northern cherry, or bird-cherry, of europe, which grows in germany to great perfection. and the little german girl's plate of cherries, which she so generously urged upon a stranger when food of any kind was so scarce, is a beautiful illustration of the first verse of the eleventh chapter of proverbs: 'cast thy bread upon the waters; for thou shalt find it after many days.'" chapter xii. _the mulberry family_. "there is a fruit tree," said miss harson, "belonging to an entirely different family, which we have not considered yet; and, although it is not a common tree with us, one specimen of it is to be found in mrs. bush's garden, where you have all enjoyed the fruit very much. what is it?" "mulberry," said clara, promptly, while malcolm was wondering what it could be. "oh yes," said edith, very innocently; "i like to go and see mrs. bush when there are mulberries." mrs. bush was not a cheerful person to visit, as she was quite old and rather hard of hearing, and she lived alone in the gloomy old house with the lombardy poplars in front, where everything looked dark and shut up. a queer woman in a sunbonnet, nearly as old as mrs. bush, lived close by, and "kept an eye on her," as she said. mrs. bush's great enjoyment was to have visitors of all ages, to whom she talked a great deal, and cried as she talked, about a daughter who had died a few years ago. the little kyles did not care to go there except when, as edith said, there were ripe mulberries; but mrs. bush liked very much to have them, and miss harson took her little charges there occasionally, because, as she explained to them, it gave pleasure to a lonely old woman, and such visits were just as much charity, though of a different kind, as giving food and clothes to those who need them. the children delighted in the mulberries just because they did not have them at home, although they had fruit that was very much nicer; but miss harson never wished even to taste them, although she too had liked them when a little girl. "the mulberry tree," continued their governess, "belongs to the bread-fruit family, but the other members of this remarkable family, except the osage orange, are found only in foreign countries. the bread-fruit tree itself, the fig, the indian fig, or banyan tree, and the deadly upas tree, are all relations of the mulberry." "well, trees are queer things," exclaimed malcolm, "to belong to families that are not a bit alike." "they are alike in important points, when we examine them carefully," was the reply. "the bread-fruit genus consists, with a single exception, of trees and shrubs with alternate, toothed or lobed or entire leaves and milky juice. this reminds me that the famous cow tree of south america, which yields a large supply of rich and wholesome milk, is one of the members; and you see what a number of famous trees we have on hand now. there are several kinds of mulberries--the red, black, white and paper mulberry, which are all occasionally found in this country, and they were once quite popular here for their shade. the fruit is unusually small for tree-fruit, and very soft when ripe, as you all know; it is not unlike a long, narrow blackberry, and forms, like it, a compound fruit, as though many small berries had grown together. the tree in mrs. bush's garden is the black mulberry, as any one might know by the stained lips and hands that sometimes come from there; and it has been cultivated from ancient times for its fine appearance and shade. it is found wild in the forests of persia, and is thought to have been taken from there to europe. the tree is more beautiful than useful, for the silkworms do not thrive well on the leaves and the wood is neither strong nor durable." "why, i thought," said clara, "that silkworms always lived on mulberry-leaves?" "the white mulberry is their favorite food; and another species, called the _morus multicaulis_--for _morus_ is the scientific name of the family--has more delicate leaves than any other, and produces a finer quality of silk. these trees are natives of china, and the white mulberry grows very rapidly to the height of thirty or forty feet. the paper mulberry is so called because in china and japan--of which it is a native--its bark is manufactured into paper. in the south-sea islands, where it is also found, the bark is made into the curious dresses which we sometimes see imported thence. it is a low, thick-branched tree with large light-colored downy leaves and dark-scarlet fruit." "i wonder," said malcolm, "if the bark is like birch-bark?" "it does not look like it," replied miss harson, "but it seems to be very much of the same nature. the red mulberry and black mulberry are the most hardy of these trees, and the red mulberry will thrive farther north than any of the family. the wood is valuable for many purposes for which timber is used, and especially in boat-building. and now, as we learned something about silkworms and their cocoons in our talks about insects[ ], there is little more to be said of the mulberry tree which any but learned people would care to know." [ ] see _flyers and crawlers_. presbyterian board of publication. "i want to hear about the bread tree," said little edith, "and how the loaves of bread grow on it." "do they, miss harson?" asked clara, not exactly seeing how this could be. "i don't believe they're very hot," remarked malcolm, who was puzzled over the bread-fruit tree himself, but who laughed at his little sister's idea in a very knowing way. it was not an ill-natured laugh, though, and a glance from his governess always quieted him. "no, dear," replied miss harson, answering clara; "loaves of bread do not grow on any tree. but i will tell you about the bread-fruit presently; let us finish the _morus_ family and their kindred in our own country before we go to their foreign relations. the osage orange is so much used in the united states, and in this part of it, for hedges, on account of its rapid growth and ornamental appearance, that we really ought to know something about it. 'it is a beautiful low, spreading, round-headed tree with the port and splendor of an orange tree. its oval, entire, polished leaves have the shining green of natives of warmer regions, and its curiously-tesselated, succulent compound fruit the size and golden color of an orange. it was first found in the country of the osage indians, from whom it gets its name, and it has since been cultivated in many parts of this country and in europe. the osages belonged to the sioux, or dacotah, tribe of indians, and their home was in the south-western part of the old united states. the osage orange--a tree from thirty to forty feet high with leaves even more bright and glossy than those of the ordinary orange--was first found growing wild near one of their villages." "but what a very high hedge it would make!" said malcolm. "yes, if left to its natural growth, it would be a very absurd fence indeed. but this is not the case; the branches spread out very widely, and by cutting off the tops and trimming the remainder twice in a season a very handsome thickset hedge is produced, with lustrous leaves and sharp, straight thorns. another name for this tree is yellow-wood, or bow-wood, because the wood is of a bright-yellow color, and the grain is so fine and elastic that the southern indians have been in the habit of using it to make their bows. the experiment of feeding silkworms upon the leaves has been tried, but it was not very successful." "i suppose the worms didn't know that it belonged to the mulberry family," said clara, "and i don't see now why it does." for reply, her governess read: "'the sap of the young wood and of the leaves is _milky_ and contains a large proportion of caoutchouc.'" "oh!" exclaimed malcolm; "that sounds just like sneezing. what is it, miss harson?" "something that you wear on your feet and over your shoulders in wet weather; so now guess." "overshoes!" replied clara, in a great hurry. "how many of them do you wear over your shoulders at once?" asked her brother. "and it must be a queer kind of sap that has overshoes in it. why couldn't you say 'india-rubber'?" "and why couldn't _you_ say it before clara put it into your head by saying 'overshoes?" asked miss harson. "clara has the right idea, only she did not express it in the clearest way. the sap of the caoutchouc, or india-rubber, tree is the most valuable yet discovered, and, as it is of a milky nature, it can very properly be brought into the present class of trees." "is _that_ a mulberry too?" asked clara, who thought that the size of the family was getting beyond all bounds. "it is not really set down as belonging to the bread-fruit family," was the reply, "but it certainly has the peculiarity of their milky sap. however, as i know that you are all eager to hear about the bread-fruit tree, we will take that next. this tree is found in various tropical regions, but principally in the south-sea islands, where it is about forty feet high. the immense leaves are half a yard long and over a quarter wide, and are deeply divided into sharp lobes. the fruit looks like a very large green berry, being about the size of a cocoanut or melon, and the proper time for gathering it is about a week before it is ripe. when baked, it is not very unlike bread. it is cooked by being cut into several pieces, which are baked in an oven in the ground. it is often eaten with orange-juice and cocoanut-milk. some of the south-sea islanders depend very much upon it for their food. the large seeds, when roasted, are said to taste like the best chestnuts. the pulp, which is the bread-part, is said to resemble a baked potato and is very white and tender, but, unless eaten soon after the fruit is gathered, it grows hard and choky." [illustration: the bread-fruit.] "so edie's 'loaves of bread' are green?" said malcolm, rather teasingly. "that's because they grow on a tree," replied clara. "our loaves of bread are raw dough before they're baked, and they are grains of wheat before they are dough." "that is quite true, dear," replied her governess, laughing, "and we must teach malcolm not to be quite so critical.--the bread-fruit is a wonderful tree, and it certainly does bear uncooked loaves of bread, at least, for they require no kneading to be ready for the oven. the fruit is to be found on the tree for eight months of the year--which is very different from any of our fruits--and two or three bread-fruit trees will supply one man with food all the year round." "put what does he do when there is no fresh fruit on them?" asked malcolm. "you told us that it was not good to eat unless it was fresh." "we should not think it good, but the native makes it into a sour paste called _mahé_, and the people of the islands eat this during the four months when the fresh fruit is not to be had. the bread-fruit is said to be very nourishing, and it can be prepared in various ways. the timber of this tree, though soft, is found useful in building houses and boats; the flowers, when dried, serve for tinder; the viscid, milky juice answers for birdlime and glue; the leaves, for towels and packing; and the inner bark, beaten together, makes one species of the south-sea cloth." "what a very useful tree!" exclaimed clara. "it is indeed," replied miss harson; "and this is the case with many of the trees found in these warm countries, where the inhabitants know little of the arts and manufactures, and would almost starve rather than exert themselves very greatly. there is another species of bread-fruit, called the jaca, or jack, tree, found on the mainland of asia, which produces its fruit on different parts of the tree, according to its age. when the tree is young, the fruit grows from the twigs; in middle age it grows from the trunk; and when the tree gets old, it grows from the roots." [illustration: jack-fruit tree.] there was a picture of the jack tree with fruit growing out of the trunk and great branches like melons, and the children crowded eagerly around to look at it. all agreed that it was the very queerest tree they had yet heard of. "the fruit is even larger than that of the island bread-fruit," continued their governess, "but it is not so pleasant to our taste, nor is it so nourishing. it often weighs over thirty pounds and has two or three hundred seeds, each of which is four times as large as an almond and is surrounded by a pulp which is greatly relished by the natives of india. the seeds, or nuts, are roasted, like those of smaller fruit, and make very good chestnuts. the fruit has a strong odor not very agreeable to noses not educated to it." "miss harson," said malcolm, "what is the upas tree like, and why is it called _deadly_?" "it is a tree eighty feet high, with white and slightly-furrowed bark; the branches, which are very thick, grow nearly at the top, dividing into smaller ones, which form an irregular sort of crown to the tall, straight trunk. there is no reason for calling it _deadly_ except a foolish notion and the fact that a very strong poison is prepared from the milky sap. the tree grows in the island of java, and for a long time many fabulous stories were told of its dangerous nature. travelers in that region would send home the wildest and most improbable stories of the poison tree, until the very name of the upas was enough to make people shudder. it is said that a dutch surgeon stationed on the island did much to keep up the impression. he wrote an account of the valley in which the upas was said to be growing alone, for no tree nor shrub was to be found near it. and he declared that neither animal nor bird could breathe the noxious effluvia from the tree without instant death. in fact, he called this fatal spot 'the valley of death.'" "and wasn't it true, miss harson?" "not all true, clara; some one who had spent many years in java proved these stories to be entirely false. instead of growing in a dismal valley by itself, the graceful-looking upas tree is found in the most fertile spots, among other trees, and very often climbing plants are twisted round its trunk, while birds nestle in the branches. it can be handled, too, like any other tree; and all this is as unlike the dutch surgeon's account as possible. one of his stories was that the criminals on the island were employed to collect the poison from the trunk of the tree; that they were permitted to choose whether to die by the hand of the executioner or to go to the upas for a box of its fatal juice; and that the ground all about the tree was strewed with the dead bodies of those who had perished on this errand." "oh," exclaimed edith, "wasn't that dreadful?" "the story was dreadful, dear, but it was only a story, you know: the upas tree did not kill people at all; and to turn the milky juice into a dangerous poison took a great deal of time and trouble. it was mixed with various spices and fermented; when ready for use, it was poured into the hollow joints of bamboo and carefully kept from the air. both for war and for the chase arrows are dipped in this fatal preparation, and the effect has been witnessed by naturalists on animals, and also on man. the instant it touches the blood it is carried through the whole system, so that it may be felt in all the veins and causes a burning sensation, especially in the head, which is followed by sickness and death." "well," said clara, drawing a long breath, "i'm glad that i don't live in java." "the poisoned arrows are not constantly flying about in java, dear," replied her governess, with a smile, "and i do not think you would be in any danger from them; but there are a great many other reasons why it is not pleasant, except for natives, to live in java. there are a number of dutch settlers there, because the island was conquered by the dutch nation, but while war with the natives was going on they suffered terribly from these poisoned arrows; so that the very name of upas caused them to tremble. the word 'upas,' in the language of the natives, means poison, and there is in the island a valley called the upas, or poison, valley. it has nothing, however, to do with the tree, which does not grow anywhere in the neighborhood. that valley may literally be called 'the valley of death.' we are told that it came to exist in this way: the largest mountain in java was once partly buried in a very dreadful manner. in the middle of a summer night the people in the neighborhood perceived a luminous cloud that seemed wholly to envelop the mountain. they were extremely alarmed and took to flight, but ere they could escape a terrific noise was heard, like the discharge of cannon, and part of the mountain fell in and disappeared. at the same moment quantities of stones and lava were thrown to the distance of several miles. fifteen miles of ground covered with villages and plantations were swallowed up or buried under the lava from the mountain; and when all was over and people tried to visit the scene of the disaster, they could not approach it on account of the heat of the stones and other substances piled upon one another. and yet as much as six weeks had elapsed since the catastrophe. this upas valley is about half a mile in circumference, and the vapor that escapes through the cracks and fissures is fatal to every living thing. here, indeed, are to be seen the bones of animals and birds, and even the skeletons of human beings who were unfortunate enough to enter and were overpowered by the deadly vapor. and now," added miss harson, "i have given you this account to make you understand that the famous upas valley of java is not a valley of upas trees, but one of poisonous vapors." "and the deadly upas," said malcolm, "is not deadly, after all! i think i shall remember that." "and i too," said clara and edith, who had listened with great interest to the description. "shall we have some figs now, by way of variety?" was a question that caused three pairs of eyes to turn rather expectantly on the speaker; for figs were very popular with the small people of elmridge. [illustration: the banyan tree.] "not in the way of refreshments, just at present," continued their governess, "but only as belonging to the mulberry family; and we will begin with that curious tree the banyan, or indian fig. this stately and beautiful tree is found on the banks of the river ganges and in many parts of india, and is a tree much valued and venerated by the hindu. he plants it near the temple of his idol; and if the village in which he resides does not possess any such edifice, he uses the banyan for a temple and places the idol beneath it. here, every morning and evening, he performs the rites of his heathen worship. and, more than this, he considers the tree, with its out-stretched and far-sheltering arms, an emblem of the creator of all things." "is that only one tree?" asked malcolm as miss harson displayed a picture that was more like a small grove. "why, it looks like two or three trees together." "does it grow up from the ground or down from the air?" asked clara. "just look at these queer branches with one end fast to the tree and the other end fast to the ground!" edith thought that the branches which had not reached the ground looked like snakes, but, for all that, it was certainly a grand tree. "the peculiar growth of the banyan," continued miss harson, "renders it an object of beauty and produces those column-like stems that cause it to become a grove in itself. it may be said to grow, not from the seed, but from the branches. they spread out horizontally, and each branch sends out a number of rootlets that at first hang from it like slender cords and wave about in the wind.--those are your 'snakes,' edith.--but by degrees they reach the ground and root themselves into it; then the cord tightens and thickens and becomes a stem, acting like a prop to the widespreading branch of the parent plant. indeed, column on column is added in this manner, the books tell us, so long as the mother-tree can support its numerous progeny." "how very strange!" said clara. "the mulberry seems to have some very funny relations." "such a great tree ought to bear very large figs," added malcolm. "on the contrary," replied his governess, "it bears uncommonly small ones--no larger than a hazel-nut, and of a red color. they are not considered eatable by the natives, but birds and animals feed upon them, and in the leafy bower of the banyan are found the peacock, the monkey and the squirrel. here, too, are a myriad of pigeons as green as the leaf and with eyes and feet of a brilliant red. they are so like the foliage in color that they can be seen only by the practiced eye of the hunter, and even he would fail to detect them were it not for their restless movements. as they flutter about from branch to branch they are apt to fall victims to his skill in shooting his arrows." "if they would only keep still!" exclaimed edith, who felt a strong sympathy for the green pigeons. "poor pretty things! why don't they, miss harson, instead of getting killed?" "they do not know their danger until it is too late, and it is quite as hard for them to keep still as it is for little girls." edith wondered if that meant her; she was a little girl, but she did not think she was so very restless. however, miss harson didn't tell her, and she soon forgot it in listening to what was said of the queer tree with branches like snakes. "the leaves of the banyan tree are large and soft and of a very bright green, and the deep shade and pillared walks are so welcome to the hindu that he even tries to improve on nature and coax the shoots to grow just where he wishes them. he binds wet clay and moss on the branch to make the rootlet sprout." "will it grow then?" asked malcolm. "yes, just as a cutting planted in the earth will grow, although it seems a very odd style of gardening.--the sacred fig tree of india--_ficus religiosa_--is a near relative of the banyan, and very much like it in general appearance; but the leaves are on such slender stalks that they tremble like those of the aspen. it is known as the bo tree of ceylon, and is said to have been placed in charge of the priests long before the present race of inhabitants had appeared in the island." "where do the real figs grow?" asked clara. "in a great many moderately warm or sub-tropical countries," was the reply, "but smyrna figs are the most celebrated. immense quantities of the fruit are dried and packed in asiatic turkey for exportation from this city, and it is said that in the fig season nothing else is talked about there." "i didn't know that they were dried," said malcolm, in great surprise; "i thought they were just packed tight in boxes and then sent off." [illustration: leaf and fruit of the fig tree.] "'in its native country,'" read miss harson, "'and when growing on the tree, the fig presents a different appearance from the dried and packed specimens we see in this country. it is a firm and fleshy fruit, and has a delicious honey-drop hanging from the point.' and here," she added, "is a small branch from the fig tree, with fruit growing on it." "why, it's shaped like a pear!" exclaimed malcolm. "and what large, pretty leaves it has!" said clara. "'the fig tree is common in palestine and the east,'" miss harson continued to read, "'and flourishes with the greatest luxuriance in those barren and stony situations, where little else will grow. its large size and its abundance of five-lobed leaves render it a pleasant shade-tree, and its fruit furnishes a wholesome food very much used in all the lands of the bible.' figs were among the fruits mentioned in the 'land that flowed with milk and honey,' and it was a symbol of peace and plenty, as you will find, malcolm, by reading to us from first kings, fourth chapter, twenty-fifth verse." "'and judah and israel dwelt safely, every man under his vine and under his fig tree, from dan even to beersheba, all the days of solomon.'--that's what it means, then!" said malcolm, when he had finished reading the verse. "i've heard people say, 'under your own vine and fig tree,' and i couldn't tell what they meant." "yes," replied his governess, "some persons make very free with the words of holy scripture and twist them to suit meanings for which they were not intended. having a house of one's own is usually meant by this quotation, and almost the same words are repeated in other parts of the old testament. the fig is often mentioned in the bible, and two kinds are spoken of--the very early fig, and the one that ripens late in the summer. the early fig was considered the best; and i think that clara will tell us what is said of it by the prophet jeremiah." clara read slowly: "'one basket had very good figs, _even like the figs that are first ripe_; and the other basket had very naughty figs, which could not be eaten, they were so bad[ ].'" [ ] jer. xxiv. . "but can figs be naughty, miss harson?" asked edith, with very wide-open eyes. "i thought that only children were naughty," "there are 'naughty' grown people as well as naughty children," was the reply, "and inanimate things like figs in old times were called naughty too, in the sense of being bad.--the fruit of the fig tree appears not only before the leaves, but without any sign of blossoms, the flowers being small and hidden in the little buttons which first shoot out from the points of the sterns, and around which the outer and firm part of the fig grows. the leaves come out so late in the season that our saviour said, 'now learn a parable of the fig tree; when his branch is yet tender, and putteth forth leaves, ye know that summer is nigh[ ].' did not our lord say something else about a fig tree?" [ ] matt. xxiv. . "yes," replied clara; "the one that was withered away because it had no figs on it." "the barren fig tree which was withered at our saviour's word, as an awful warning to unfruitful professors of religion, seems to have spent itself in leaves. it stood by the wayside, free to all, and, as the time for stripping the trees of their fruit had not come--for in mark we are told that 'the time of figs was not yet[ ]'--it was reasonable to expect to find it covered with figs in various stages of growth. yet there was 'nothing thereon, but leaves only.' find the nineteenth verse of the twenty-first chapter of matthew, malcolm, and read what is said there." [ ] mark xi. . "'and when he saw a fig tree in the way, he came to it, and found nothing thereon, but leaves only, and said unto it, let no fruit grow on thee henceforward for ever. and presently the fig tree withered away.'" "a fig tree having leaves," said miss harson, "should also have figs, for these, as i have already told you, appear before the leaves, and both are on the tree at the same time; so that, although unripe figs are seen without leaves, leaves should not be seen without figs; and if it was not yet the season for figs, it was not the season for leaves either. the barren fig tree has often been compared to people who make a show of goodness in words, but leave the doing of good works to others; and when anything is expected of them, there is sure to be disappointment. 'nothing but leaves' has become a proverb; and when it can be used to express the barren condition of those who profess to follow the teachings of our lord, it is sad indeed." "do fig trees grow wild?" asked clara, presently. "yes," was the reply, "and very curious-looking things they are. 'their roots twist into all kinds of whimsical contortions, so as to look more like a mass of snakes than the roots of a tree. they unite themselves so closely to the substances that come in their way, such as the face of rocks, or even the stems of other trees, that nothing can pull them away. and in some parts of india these strong, tough roots are made to serve the purpose of bridges and twisted over some stream or cataract. the wild fig is often a dangerous parasite, and does not attain perfection without completing some work of destruction among its neighbors in the forest. a slender rootlet may sometimes be seen hanging from the crown of a palm. the seed was carried there by some bird that had fed upon the fruit of a wild fig, and it rooted itself with surprising facility. the rootlet, as it descends, envelops the column-like stem of the palm with a woody network, and at length reaches the ground. meanwhile, the true stem of the parasite shoots upward from the crown of the palm. it sends out numberless rootlets, each of which, as soon as it reaches the ground, takes root; and between them the palm is stifled and perishes, leaving the fig in undisturbed possession. the parasite does not, however, long survive the decline; for, no longer fed by the juices of the palm, it also, in process of time, begins to languish and decline.'" "what a mean thing it is!" exclaimed malcolm--"as mean as the cuckoo, that lays its eggs in other birds' nests. and i'm glad it dies when it has killed the palm tree; it just serves it right. but don't figs ever grow in this country, miss harson?" "yes," replied his governess; "they are cultivated in the southern states and in california, like many other semi-tropical fruits, and are principally eaten fresh, but for drying they are not equal to the imported ones. no doubt the cultivation of figs in california will become a prosperous trade, for the climate and circumstances there are much like those of syria." [illustration: dwarf fig tree in a pot.] chapter xiii. _queer relations: the caoutchouc and the milk tree_. "what dark, strange-looking trees!" exclaimed the children while looking at an illustration of caoutchouc trees in brazil. "how thick and strong they are! and what funny tops!--like pointed umbrellas." "the india-rubber tree is not likely to be mistaken for any other," said their governess, "and it does not look very dark and gloomy in that forest, where everything seems to be crowded close and in a tangle, because south american vegetation grows so thickly and rapidly. this is the country which supplies the largest quantity of india-rubber. immense cargoes are shipped from the town of para, on the river amazon, and obtained from the _siphonia elastica_." "are the stems all made of india-rubber?" asked edith, who thought that was exactly what they looked like. "are the stems of the maple trees made of maple-sugar?" replied miss harson. "the india-rubber is got from its tree as the sugar is from the maple tree. it is taken from the trunk in the shape of a very thick milky fluid, and it is said that no other vital fluid, whether in animal or in plant, contains so much solid material within it; and it is a matter of surprise that the sap, thus encumbered, can circulate through all the delicate vessels of the tree. tropical heat is required to form the caoutchouc; for when the tree is cultivated in hothouses, the substance of the sap is quite different. the full-grown trees are very handsome, with round column-like trunks about sixty feet high, and the crown of foliage is said to resemble that of the ash." "did people always know about india-rubber?" asked clara. "no indeed! it is not more than a hundred and fifty years--perhaps not so long--since it was a great curiosity; so that a piece half an inch square would sell in london for nearly a dollar of our money, but now it comes in shiploads, and a pound of it costs less than quarter of that sum. it is used for so many purposes that it seems as if the world could never have gone on without it. all sorts of outside garments to keep out the rain are made of it. waterproof cloaks are called macintoshes in england because this was the name of the person who invented them. india-rubber is also used for tents and many other things, and, as water cannot get through it, there is a great saving of trouble and expense." "it must be splendid for tents," said malcolm; "no one need care, when snug under cover, whether or not it rained in the woods." "people do care, though," was the reply, "for they expect, when in the woods, to live out of doors; but the india-rubber is certainly a great improvement on tents that get soaked through." "i like it," said edith, "because it rubs things out. when i draw a house and it's all wrong, my piece of india-rubber will take it away, and then i can make another one on the paper." "that is the very smallest of its uses," replied miss harson, smiling at the little girl's earnestness, "and yet we find it a great convenience. an english writer, speaking of it when it was first known in england, said that he had seen a substance that would efface from paper the marks of a black-lead pencil, and he thought it must be of use to those who practiced drawing." "how funny that sounds!" exclaimed malcolm. "why, i couldn't get along without my india-rubber when i make mistakes," "you might," said his governess, "if you had some stale bread to rub with; for people _have_ gotten along without a great many things which they now think necessary." "miss harson," said clara, "won't you tell us, please, how they get the caoutch--whatever it is--and make it into india-rubber?" "i will," was the laughing reply, "when you can say the word properly. c-a-o-u-t-c-h-o-u-c--koochook." as clara said, miss harson made things so easy to understand! and in a very short time the hard word was mastered. "as i have never seen the sap gathered," continued the young lady, "i shall have to read you an account of it, instead of telling you from my own experience; but the description is so plain that i think we shall all be able to understand it very well: 'at certain seasons of the year the natives visit some islands in the river amazon that for many months are covered with water. as soon as the water subsides and a footing can be obtained the indians arrive in parties, to seek for the trees. the indian who comes every morning to collect the juice from the trunk has a number of trees allotted to him, and goes the round of the whole. the previous night he has made a long, deep cut in the bark of each and hung an earthen vessel beneath, to receive the thick, creamlike substance that trickles down. the vessel is filled by morning, and he pours the contents into one much larger and carries it to his hut. he is provided with a number of moulds of different shapes and sizes, and he dips them into the juice and puts them aside to dry. they are then dipped again, and the process is continued until the coat of india-rubber on the mould is of sufficient thickness. it is made black by passing it through the smoke of burning palm-nuts. the moulds are broken and taken out, leaving the india-rubber ready for sale, and pretty much as we used to see it in the shops before the people of this country had learned how to work it.'" "that seems easy enough," said malcolm, "but how do they make it into gutta-percha?" "gutta-percha is not made," replied his governess, "and it is taken from an entirely different tree, the _icosandra gutta_, which grows in southern asia. the milky fluid is procured in the same way, but it is placed in vessels to evaporate, and the solid substance left at the bottom is the gutta-percha. it is not elastic, like india-rubber, and is called 'vegetable leather' because of its toughness and leathery appearance. it was discovered by an english traveler a long time before it was supposed to have any useful properties, but now it is considered a very valuable material. the wonderful submarine telegraph could not convey its messages between the old world and the new were not its wires protected from injury by a coating of gutta-percha. its unyielding nature and its not being elastic render it the very material needed. the long straps used in working machines are also made of gutta-percha, and this is another instance where its non-elasticity gives it the preference over india-rubber." "and what is vulcanite?" asked clara. "it is caoutchouc mixed with sulphur. unless a small quantity of brimstone is added in the manufacture of overshoes, they become soft when exposed to heat and hardened when exposed to cold; but it was discovered that the sulphur will keep them from being affected by changes in temperature. when a large amount of sulphur is used, the india-rubber, becomes as hard as horn or wood, and this is the substance called vulcanite. now the gum is imported in masses, to be wrought over by our skillful mechanics." the children were very much pleased to find that they had learned the nature of three important articles--india-rubber, gutta-percha and vulcanite--and they thought it would be quite easy to remember the differences between them. "and now," said miss harson, "the last of these useful trees--the cow tree, or milk tree--is the most curious one of all. like the caoutchouc, it is a native of south america; but the sap is a rich fluid that answers for food, like milk. it is a fine-looking tree with oblong, pointed leaves about ten inches in length and a fleshy fruit containing one or two nuts. the sap is the most valuable part; and when incisions are made in the trunk of the tree, there is an abundant flow of thick milk-like sap, which is described as having an agreeable and balmv smell. the german traveler humboldt drank it from the shell of a calabash, and the natives dip their bread of maize or cassava in it. this milk is said to be very fattening; and when exposed to the air, it thickens into a substance which the people call cheese." "milk and cheese from a tree!" exclaimed malcolm. "do you think we'd like them as well as ours, miss harson?" "no," was the reply, "i do not think we should; but if we had never known any other kind, it would be quite a different matter, and the traveler says that both smell and taste are agreeable. the sap, it seems, is like curdled milk, and the natives say that they can tell, from the thickness and color of the foliage, the trunks that yield the most juice. this wonderful tree will be found growing on the side of a barren rock, and its large, woody roots can scarcely penetrate into the stone. for several months of the year not a single shower moistens its foliage. its branches then appear dead and dried; but when the trunk is pierced, there flows from it a sweet and nourishing milk. it is at the rising of the sun that this vegetable fountain is most abundant. the negroes and natives are then seen hastening from all quarters, furnished with large bowls to receive the milk, which grows yellow and thickens at its surface. some empty their bowls while under the tree itself; others carry the juice home to their children." "isn't it funny," said edith, laughing, "to go and get their breakfasts from a _tree_? i wish we had some milk trees here." "but you would not find it pleasant," replied their governess, "to have some other things that are always found where the milk tree grows. the intense heat and the swarms of mosquitoes and biting flies, the serpents and jaguars and other disagreeable and dangerous creatures, make life in that region anything but pleasant, and the curious vegetation and delicious fruits are not worth the suffering inflicted by all these torments." on hearing of these drawbacks the children soon decided that their own dear home was the best, and no longer envied the possessors even of the cow tree. chapter xiv. _home and abroad: linden, camphor, beech_. "now," said miss harson to her expectant flock, "it is to be hoped that our foreign wanderings among such wonderful trees have not spoiled you for home trees, as there are still a number of them which we have not yet examined." "no indeed!" they assured her; "they liked to hear about them all, and they were going to try and remember everything she told them about the trees." their governess said that would be too much to expect, and if they remembered the most important things she would be quite satisfied, "we will take the linden, lime, or basswood, tree--for it has all three of these names--this evening," she continued, "and there are nine or ten species of the tree, which are found in america, europe and western asia. it is a very handsome, regular-looking tree with rich, thick masses of foliage that make a deep shade. the leaves are heart-shaped and very finely veined, have sharply-serrated edges and are four or five inches long. the leaf-stalk is half the length of the leaf. it blooms in july and august, and the flowers are yellowish white and very fragrant; when an avenue of limes is in blossom, the whole atmosphere is filled with a delightful perfume which can hardly be described." [illustration: the linden or lime tree (_tilia_).] "there are no lime trees here, are there?" asked clara. "no," was the reply, "i do not think there are any in this neighborhood; but they grow abundantly not many miles away. our native trees are not so pretty as the english lime, which, clothed with softer foliage, has a smaller leaf and a neater and more elegant spray. ours bears larger and more conspicuous flowers, in heavier clusters, but of inferior sweetness. both species are remarkable for their size and longevity. the young leaves of the lime are of a bright fresh tint that contrasts strongly with the very dark color of the branches; and these branches are so finely divided that their beauty is seen to the greatest advantage when winter has stripped them bare of leaves. "'the linden has in all ages been celebrated for the fragrance of its flowers and the excellence of the honey made from them. the famous mount hybla was covered with lime trees. the aroma from its flowers is like that of mignonette; it perfumes the whole atmosphere, and is perceptible to the inhabitants of all the beehives within a circuit of a mile. the real linden honey is of a greenish color and delicious taste when taken from the hive immediately after the trees have been in blossom, and is often sold for more than the ordinary kind. there is a forest in lithuania that abounds in lime trees, and here swarms of wild bees live in the hollow trunks and collect their honey from the lime.'" [illustration: leaf and flower of lime tree _(tilia)._] "what fun it would be, if we were there, to go and get it!" exclaimed malcolm. "but don't bees make honey from the lime trees that grow in this country, too, miss harson?" "certainly they do; and the beekeepers look anxiously forward to the blossoming of the trees, because they provide such abundant supplies for the busy swarms. the flowers have other uses, too, besides the making of honey: the swiss are said to obtain a favorite beverage from them, and in the south of france an infusion of the blossoms is taken for colds and hoarseness, and also for fever. 'active boys climb to the topmost branches and gather the fragrant flowers, which their mothers catch in their aprons for that purpose. an avenue of limes has been ravaged and torn in pieces by the eagerness of the people to gather the blossoms, and they are often made into tea which is a soft sugary beverage in taste a little like licorice.'" "how queer," said clara, "to make tea from flowers!" "is it any queerer," asked her governess, "than to make it from leaves? i should think that the flowers might even be better, and yet i should scarcely like lime-tea that tastes like licorice." the children, though, seemed to think that they would like it, and miss harson had very little doubt that such would be the case. "both the bark and the wood of the lime tree are valuable," she continued. "the fibres of the bark are strong and firm, and make excellent ropes and cordage. in sweden and russia they are made into a kind of matting that is very useful for packing-purposes and in protecting delicate plants from the frost. 'the manufacture of this useful material is carried on in the summer, close by the woods and forests where the lime trees grow in abundance. as soon as the sap begins to ascend freely the bark parts from the wood and can be taken away with ease. great strips are then peeled off and steeped in water until they separate into layers; the layers are still further divided into smaller strips or ribbons, and are hung up in the shade of the wood, generally on the very tree itself from which they have been taken. after a time they are woven into the matting and sent to market for sale. the swedish fishermen also manufacture it into a coarse thread for fishing-nets, and from the fibres of the young shoots the russian peasant makes the strong shoes he wears, using the outer bark for the soles. in italy the garments of the poorer people are often made of cloth woven from this material." "why, people can fairly _live_ on trees," said malcolm. "i didn't know that they were good for anything but shade--except the trees that have fruit and nuts on 'em." "there is a great deal for us all to learn of the works of the creator," replied miss harson, "and the blessing of trees is not half known. the wood of the lime is said never to be worm-eaten; it is very soft and smooth and of a pale-yellow color. it is used for the famous tunbridge ware, and is called the carver's tree, because, as the poet says, "'smooth linden best obeys the carver's chisel--best his curious work displays in nicest touches.' "the fruits and flowers carved for the choir of st. paul's cathedral in london are done in lime-wood. "so numerous are the purposes to which the bark, wood, leaves and blossoms of the lime, or linden, tree can be applied that centuries ago it was called the tree of a thousand uses. linden is the name by which it is always known on the continent of europe, and there it is indeed a magnificent tree, forming the most delightful avenues and branching colonnades. one of the principal streets in berlin is called 'unter den linden.' in the middle ages, when the swiss and the flemings were always struggling for liberty, it was their custom to plant a lime tree on the field of battle, and many of these old trees still remain and have been the subject of ballads and poetical effusions: "'the stately lime, smooth, gentle, straight and fair.'" "is there any story about it, miss harson?" "no," was the reply, "not much of a story; only descriptions of some very large and very ancient trees. one of these, the old linden tree of soleure, in switzerland, was spoken of by an english traveler two hundred years ago as 'right noble and wondrous to behold. a bower composed of its branches is capable of holding three hundred persons sitting at ease; it has also a fountain set about with many tables formed solely of the boughs, to which men ascend by steps; and all is kept so accurately and thick that the sun never looks into it.'" "it is just like a tent," said malcolm, "it must be pleasant to sit by the fountain. wouldn't you like it, miss harson?" "i am sure i should," replied his governess; "and i should also like to see the famous lime tree of zurich, the boughs of which will shelter five hundred persons. at augsburg, in germany, feasts and weddings have often been celebrated under the shade of some venerable limes that branch out to an immense distance. in early times divine honors were paid to them as emblems of immortality. and now," said miss harson, "the last of these famous trees is a noble lime tree which grew on the farm belonging to the ancestors of linnaeus, the great naturalist, beneath the shade of which he played in childhood, and from which his ancestors derived their surname. that noble tree still blossoms from year to year, beautiful in every change of seasons." "lime, linden and basswood," said clara--"three names to remember for one tree. but didn't you say, miss harson, that it's always called basswood in our country?" "often, but not always. the name linden is quite common with us, and it will be well for you to remember that it is also called lime, so that when you go to europe you will know what is meant by _lime_ and _linden_." the children laughed at this idea, for it seemed very funny to think of a little girl like clara going to europe, but, as their governess told them, little girls did go constantly; besides, this was the time to learn what would be of use to them when they were grown. "the fragrant lime," said miss harson, "has a relative in asia whose acquaintance i wish you to make, and you know it already in one of its products, which is common in every household. it is also very fragrant--or rather, i should say, it has a strong aromatic odor which is very reviving in cases of faintness or illness, although it has quite a contrary effect on insects, particularly on mosquitoes. i should like to have some one tell me what this white, powerful substance is." this was quite a conundrum, and for a little while the children were extremely puzzled over its solution; but presently clara asked, "do the moths hate it too, miss harson? and isn't it camphor?" "camphor doesn't grow on a _tree_," said malcolm, in a superior tone; "it is dug out of the earth." "i have never read of any camphor-mines," replied his governess, laughing, "and i think you will find that camphor--which is just what i meant--is obtained from the trunk of a tree." "like india-rubber?" asked edith. "no, dear, not like india-rubber, for it grows in even a more curious way than that, masses of it being found in the trunk of the camphor tree--not in the form of sap, but in lumps, as we use it." "i thought it was like water," said edith, in a puzzled tone. "so it is when dissolved in alcohol, as we generally have it; but it is also used in lumps to drive away moths and for various other purposes. but i will tell you all about the tree, which grows in the islands of sumatra and borneo and bears the botanical name _dryobalanops camphora_. the camphor is also called _barus_ camphor, to distinguish it from the _laurus_, of which i will tell you afterward, and it is of a better quality and more easily obtained. the tree grows in the forests of these east indian islands and is remarkable for its majestic size, dense foliage and magnolia-like flowers. the trunk rises as high as ninety feet without a single branch, and within it are cavities, sometimes a foot and a half long, which cannot be perceived until the bark is split open. these cavities contain the camphor in clear crystalline masses, and with it an oil known as camphor oil, that is thought by some to be camphor in an immature form. but the oil, even when crystallized by artificial means, does not produce such good camphor as that already solidified in the tree." "to think," exclaimed clara, "of camphor growing in that way! but how do they get it out, miss harson? do they cut great holes in the trunk of the tree?" "no, dear; i have just read to you that the camphor cannot be seen until the bark is split open, and the grand trees have to be cut down. but to do this is no easy matter. the hard, close-grained timber requires days of hewing and sawing to get it severed. the masses of roots are as unyielding as iron, and run twisting through the soil to the distance of sixty yards. even at their farthest extremity they are as thick as a man's thigh." "i shouldn't think the camphor was worth all that trouble," said malcolm; "it don't seem to amount to much, any wary." "it is more valuable than you suppose," replied miss harson; "for, besides preserving furs and woolen fabrics from the devouring moth, it protects the contents of cabinets and museums from the attacks of the minute creatures that prey upon the dried specimens of the naturalist. not any of the insect tribe can endure the powerful scent of the camphor, and they either retreat before it or are killed by it. but its principal value is in medicine. it is used both internally and externally. it acts as a nervous stimulant, and is a favorite domestic remedy.--so you see, malcolm, that camphor really amounts to a great deal, and we could not very well do without it." "how can people tell when there is any camphor inside the tree?" asked clara. "they cannot tell," was the reply, "until the trunk is split open, although a tribe of men in sumatra say that they know before-hand, by a kind of magic, which is the right tree to cut down. but the beautiful, stately tree is often wasted in vain, and after all their hard work the camphor-seekers find the cavities of the split-up trunk filled with a thick black substance like pitch instead of the pure white camphor." "poor things!" said edith, pityingly; "that's too bad." "camphor is found in many trees and shrubs," continued her governess, "but in all others except the camphor tree of sumatra and borneo it has to be distilled from the wood and roots. the camphor-laurel, which is about the size of an english oak, is the most important of these trees. it grows abundantly in the chinese island of formosa, and 'camphor mandarin' is the title of a rich chinaman who pays the government for the privilege of extracting all the camphor, which he sends to other countries at a large profit. every part of this tree is full of camphor, and the tree gives out, when bruised, a strong perfume. "the european bay tree, which is more like an immense shrub, is also a member of this singular tribe, and its leaves have the strong family flavor. they were used in medicine, as well as the berries, before the camphor-laurel became known in europe; in the time of queen elizabeth the floors of the better sort of houses were strewed with bay-leaves instead of being carpeted as now. the bay was an emblem of victory in old roman times, and victorious generals were crowned with it. a wreath of this laurel, with the berries on, was placed on the head of a favorite poet in the middle ages, and in this way came the title 'poet-laureate'--_laureatus_,' crowned with laurel.' "do you remember," continued miss harson, "the tall, straight tree that i showed you yesterday when we were out in the woods--the one with a fluted trunk? what was its name?" "i know!" said malcolm, quite excited. "think of the seashore! beach! that's what i told myself to remember." [illustration: american beech.] "a very good idea," replied his governess, laughing; "only you must not spell it with an _a_, like the seashore, for it is _b-e-e-c-h._--the fluted, or ribbed, shaft of this grand-looking tree is often sixty or seventy feet high, and, although it is found in its greatest perfection in england, it is a common tree in most of the woods in this country. for depth of shade no tree is equal to the beech, and its long beautiful leaves, with their close ridges and serrated edges, are very much like those of the chestnut. the leaves are of a light, fresh green and very neat and perfect, because they are so seldom attacked by insects; they remain longer on the branches than those of any deciduous tree, and give a cheerful air to the wood in winter. in the autumn they change to a light yellow-brown, which makes a pretty contrast to the reds and greens and purples of other trees. the branches start out almost straight from the tree, but they very soon curve and turn regularly upward. every small twig turns in the same direction, making the long leaf-buds at the end look like so many little spears. i showed you these 'stuck-up' buds when we were looking at the tree, and you noticed how different they were from the other trees." yes, the children remembered it; and it always seemed to them particularly nice to have part of the talk out of doors and the rest in the house. "doesn't the beech tree have nuts?" asked malcolm. "john says it does." "yes," replied miss harson; "it has tiny three-cornered nuts which seem particularly small for so large a tree. but these nuts are eagerly devoured by pigeons, partridges and squirrels. bears are said to be very fond of them, and swine fatten very rapidly upon them. most varieties are so small as not to repay the trouble of gathering, drying and opening them. fortunately, this is not the case with all, as it is a delicious nut. in france the beech-nut is much used for making oil, which is highly valued for burning in lamps and for cooking. in parts of the same country the nuts, roasted, serve as a substitute for coffee." "i'd like to find some when they're ripe," said clara, "if they _are_ little." "we will have a search for them, then," was the reply, "when the time comes.--the flowers which produce these little nuts are very showy and grow in roundish tassels, or heads, which hang by thread-like, silky stalks, one or two inches long, from the midst of the young leaves of a newly-opened bud. a traveler says of these leaves, 'we used always to think that the most luxurious and refreshing bed was that which prevails universally in italy, and which consists entirely of a pile of mattresses filled with the luxuriant spathe of the indian corn; which beds have the advantage of being soft as well as elastic, and we have always found the sleep enjoyed on them to be particularly sound and restorative. but the beds made of beech-leaves are really no whit behind them in these qualities, whilst the fragrant smell of green tea, which the leaves retain, is most gratifying. the objection to them is the slight crackling noise which the leaves occasion as the individual turns in bed, but this is no inconvenience at all; or if so in any degree, it is an inconvenience which is overbalanced by the advantages of this most luxurious couch." "but how funny," said malcolm, "to sleep on leaves! that's what the babes in the wood did." "no," replied clara, very earnestly, "they didn't sleep _on_ leaves, you know; but when they had laid down and gone to sleep, the robins came and covered them with leaves." "yes," chimed in little edith; "i like that way best, because they'd be so cold in the woods." "and that really was the case," said miss harson, after listening with a smile to this discussion, "although there were probably leaves on the ground for the children to lie upon. a bed of leaves is not a bad thing where there are no mattresses, and such a bed is often used as a matter of course. you will remember my reading to you about the beds which the finland mothers make for their children of the leaves of the canoe-birch. 'leafy beds' are no strange thing--not mere poetry." chapter xv. _the tent and the locusts_. there came a bright balmy day in may when the children found a delightful surprise awaiting them. the tent in the woods, which had been proposed on the day when birch-twigs were found to be eatable, was almost forgotten--or if thought of, it was as a thing that could not possibly be--when, on the day in question, miss harson took her charges out as usual, and led them to a very pretty cleared space with a fringe of rocks and trees all around it. but on this spot, which hitherto had been quite bare, there now stood some sort of a little house different from other houses and quite pretty. "it's a tent!" exclaimed malcolm. "who put it there, i should like to know, on _our_ land?" "are there gypsies here, miss harson?" whispered clara, rather fearfully. but the young lady walked deliberately up to the entrance of the tent and invited her little flock to come inside. "i know the gentleman who had it put here," she said, "and he is quite willing that we should use it; but he will not give any one else this liberty." "i think i know him too," said malcolm as he walked in after miss harson. "and i!"--"and i!" exclaimed the little girls. "it is our own papa. how very kind of him!" "yes," replied their governess; "he said, when i spoke of a tent, that it would be a good thing for the wood-ramblers to have a place of shelter when they were over-taken by a sudden shower, and also a place in which to rest comfortably when they were tired; and this pretty tent, you see, is all ready for us at any time." it was a very nice tent indeed, having a long cushioned seat inside, two little rocking-chairs that were at once appropriated, a small table, and a bracket with books on it. on the table there was a round basket of oranges, which made every one thirsty at once. "i do believe," said malcolm, suddenly, "that it's made of india-rubber." "not the orange, i hope?" replied miss harson, while the little sisters looked up in surprise. an india-rubber orange was a thing to be laughed at, though not to be eaten, and the children were in such a state of glee over this pleasant surprise that they were ready to laugh almost at nothing. presently their governess said, "malcolm means the tent, of course; and he is quite right, for the covering is india-rubber cloth." "but why isn't it dark and ugly, like the waterproofs?" was the next question. "simply because it need not be so, and it is prettier to have it white or of this pale gray. but these shades are too conspicuous for overshoes or waterproof cloaks, so the latter are made as dark as possible. the caoutchoue, you know, is naturally white or very light colored." "how do they make the cloth?" asked malcolm. "it is first made as cloth," was the reply; "then a thin coating of india-rubber is spread over two layers of it. the cloth is then put together and pressed between rollers, so that the two pieces firmly adhere, with the caoutchoue between them. no rain can penetrate such a screen as this," it was delightful to know that they would be safe and dry in case of a shower, and the children thought it must be just the prettiest tent that ever was made. the cushioned seat was covered with scarlet, and so were the little chairs, which clara and edith knew were meant for them; the edges of the cloth were scalloped with the same bright color, and there was even a rug to match spread in front of the "divan," as miss harson laughingly said the cushioned seat must be called. "haven't we 'most come to the end of the trees?" asked clara. "i never thought that there were so many different kinds," "look around and see if you feel acquainted with them all," replied her governess. they had left the tent after quite a long "sitting," and were now on their way to the house. clara's first glance, on doing as she had been directed, fell on three trees by the side of a fence, that were different from any they had yet studied. "what do you notice about them?" continued miss harson; "for i wish you to use your own eyes and thoughts as much as possible." "why, the trunk is dark gray, and it isn't smooth, but it looks as if some one had dug out long, thin pieces of bark." "we will call it 'deeply furrowed,'" said her governess, "as that is a better expression; but your description is very good indeed." "the leaves are ever so pretty," said malcolm--"so many of 'em on one stem!--and the green looks as if it was just made." "you mean by that, i suppose," replied miss harson, "that it is a very fresh tint; and we are seeing it in its first beauty now. this is the locust tree, and may is its time for leafing out in the tenderest of greens. the pinnate--from _pinna_, latin for feather'--leaves are composed of from nine to twenty-five leaflets, which are egg-shaped, with a short point, very smooth, light green above and still lighter beneath. these leaves are much liked by cattle, and they are said to be very nutritious to them." [illustration: foliage of honey-locust.] "how can you remember everything so, miss harson?" asked malcolm, lost in wonder, as the young lady, looking up at the trees, said these things as if they had been written there. john had declared that she talked like a book, and this seemed more like it than ever. "oh no," was the laughing reply; "i do not remember _everything_, malcolm, and perhaps it is just as well that i do not. but i will not tax my memory any more about the locust just now; we can take it up again this evening." "i should like to know," exclaimed clara, after some thought, "why a tree is called _locust_, when a locust is such a disagreeable insect?" "i am afraid that i cannot tell you," replied miss harson, "unless the color of the leaves is similar to that of the 'disagreeable insect,' which is really very handsome, or unless the insects are very partial to the tree; i have seen no explanation of it. but the tree itself is very much admired, with its profusion of pinnate leaves and racemes of flowers that fill the air with the most agreeable odors." "what color are the flowers, miss harson?" asked malcolm. "this description will tell you," was the reply. "the tree is not pretty in winter, and has no promise of beauty until 'may hangs on these withered boughs a green drapery that hides all their deformity; she infuses into their foliage a perfection of verdure that no other tree can rival, and a beauty in the forms of its leaves that renders it one of the chief ornaments of the groves and waysides. june weaves into this green foliage pendent clusters of flowers of mingled brown and white, filling the air with fragrance and enticing the bee with odors as sweet as from groves of citron and myrtle.'" "that sounds pretty," said clara, who liked imposing sentences, "but brown and white are not very handsome colors for flowers." "the white is certainly prettier without the mixture of brown," replied her governess, "but we have to take our flowers ready-made, and can hardly expect them to be beautiful and fragrant too. the separate blossoms are shaped like those of the pea and bean; they hang in long clusters somewhat resembling bunches of grapes. the leaves--or, rather, leaflets--are very sensitive and have a habit of folding over one another in wet and dull weather, and also in the night--a habit that is peculiar to all the members of the acacia family, to which the locust belongs." "i should think it ought to belong to the pea family," said malcolm, "if the flowers are shaped like pea-blossoms." "so it does," replied miss harson--"or, rather, to the bean family, of which the pea is a member, on account of its blossoms; but the acacia, like many others, is a brother, or sister, on account of its leaves as well as its blossoms. the peculiar distinction of this family is that its flowers are butterfly-shaped or its fruit in pods, and it often possesses both these characters. by one or the other all the plants of the family are known, and the butterfly-shaped flowers are of a character not to be mistaken, as they are found in no other family. it includes herbs, shrubs and trees--an immense and perfectly natural family, distributed throughout almost every part of the globe. there are at present in all not less than thirty-seven hundred species. so you see that the locust tree is certainly rich in relations." the children thought that it must have some family claim on almost every plant in the world. [illustration: carob tree and fruit.] "do you remember that in the story of the prodigal son, told by our lord, it is said that the bad son became so poor that he wanted to eat the 'husks' that the swine ate? those 'husks' were the fruit of a syrian member of this family. the tree is the carob tree, of which you have here a picture--a fine large tree bearing a sweet pod containing the seeds. i have seen these pods for sale in this country, and foolishly called st. john's bread, as if the 'locusts' eaten by john the baptist were pods of a locust tree, and not insect locusts." "yes," said malcolm, "i have tasted those pods, and they are real sweet; but i wouldn't care to make a breakfast from them." "i like calling the flowers 'butterfly-shaped,'" said clara, "because that is just what the pea and bean-blossoms look like; though kitty calls 'em 'little ladies in hoods.' isn't that funny, miss harson?" "it is very quaint, i think, but i do not dislike it: it is like seeing faces in pansies; and some people are full of these odd imaginations. there is a kind of locust, called the clammy-barked, found in the southern parts of the united states, which is a smaller tree than the common locust and has large pale-pink flowers, while the rose acacia is a very beautiful flowering shrub. the sweet, or honey, locust is another variety, which is also called the three-thorned acacia, because the thorns consist of one long spine with two shorter ones projecting out of it, like little branches, near its base. this is said to display much of the elegance of the tropical acacia in the minute division and symmetry of its compound leaves. these are of a light and brilliant green and lie flat upon the branches, giving them a fan-like appearance such as we observe in the hemlock." "but why is it called honey-locust?" asked malcolm. "do the bees make honey in the trunk?" "no," replied his governess; "the name comes from the sweetness of the pulp around the seeds, which ripen in large flat pods, and of which boys and girls are fond. but the flowers of this species are only small greenish aments. locust-wood is very durable, and, as it will bear exposure to all kinds of weather, it is much used in shipbuilding and as posts for gates. it is thought that the shittah and shittim wood of the bible, of which moses made the greater part of the tables, altars and planks of the tabernacle, was the same as the black acacia found in the deserts of arabia and about mount sinai and the mountains which border on the red sea, and is so hard and solid as to be almost incorruptible. "and now," added miss harson, "reading of the numerous relations of the locust, considering that 'the acacia, not less valued for its airy foliage and elegant blossoms than for its hard and durable wood; the braziletto, logwood and rosewoods of commerce; the laburnum; the furze and the broom, both the pride of the otherwise dreary heaths of europe; the bean, the pea, the vetch, the clover, the trefoil, the lucerne--all staple articles of culture by the farmer--are so many species of leguminosae, and that the gums arabic and senegal, kino and various precious medicinal drugs, not to mention indigo, the most useful of all dyes, are products of other species,--it will be perceived that it would be difficult to point out an order with greater claims upon the attention.'" chapter xvi. _the walnut family and the ailanthus_. "the walnut family," said miss harson, "with the ugly name _juglandaceae_, are distinguished by pinnate, or compound, leaves, which have an aromatic odor when crushed, and by blossoms in catkins. of these trees, the black walnut is one of the handsomest and most highly prized." "are there any of them here?" asked malcolm. [illustration: the walnut tree.] "no," was the reply; "i do not think you have ever seen one. they are more common in the western part of the middle states and in the western states; in ohio particularly they grow to a very large size. solitary trees are sometimes seen in this part of the country, and the branches, extending themselves horizontally to a great distance, spread out into a spacious head, which gives them a very majestic appearance. the trunk is rough and furrowed, and the leaves have from six to ten pairs of leaflets and an odd one. they are smooth, strongly serrated and rather pointed; the color is a light, bright green. the catkins are green, from four to seven inches long, and hang from the axils of the last year's leaves. the leaves are much longer than those of the locust, and the leaf-stalk is downy. the nut, which is very oily, is shaped like an english walnut, but resembles it in no other way, as the shell is very thick and dark-colored. when thoroughly dried, the black walnut is very much liked--as i think some witnesses here could testify--and is used in making candy." "and just the nicest kind of candy, too," said the children, with one voice. their governess smiled, for this was very much her own opinion. "you do not know," she continued, "how strangely these nuts grow. they have an outer husk, or rind, which when green is hard and has a very pleasant smell; the tree then seems to be covered with green balls. as the nuts ripen this outer part becomes so dark that it is almost black and grows soft and spongy. a rich brown dye is made from it. black-walnut wood has long been famous for its beauty, and it grows deeper and darker with age. it is handsomely shaded and takes a fine polish, and this, with its durability, makes it very valuable for furniture. posts made of it will last a long time, and it can be put to almost any use for which hard-wood is available. "the walnut tree has a great variety of good qualities in addition to its fine appearance and generous shade. from the kernel a valuable oil may be obtained for use in cookery and in lamps. bread has also been made from the kernels. the spongy husk of the nuts is used as dyestuff. it thus unites almost all the qualities desirable in a tree--beauty, gracefulness and richness of foliage in every period of its growth; bark and husks which may be employed in an important art; fruit valuable as food; wood unsurpassed in durability and in elegance." "i like english walnuts," said clara, "they have such thin, pretty shells; and papa, you know, can open them in just two halves with a knife." "once," said miss harson, "i had a little bag sent to me made of two very large walnut shells with blue silk between, and in this bag there was a pair of kid gloves rolled up very tight." "oh!" exclaimed the children. it sounded like a fairy-tale, but they knew that it was true, because miss harson said that it had really happened. they were very much surprised, though, that a bag could be made of nutshells, and that a pair of gloves could be crowded into so small a compass. "did it come from england?" asked malcolm. "no," replied his governess; "it was sent to me from the island of madeira, where these nuts grow so abundantly that they have often been called madeira-nuts. it also grows abundantly in europe, and the nuts are used for dessert, pickling, and many other purposes, while the poorer classes often depend largely on them for food." "do they eat 'em instead of bread?" asked edith. "i'd like that; they're ever so much nicer!" "perhaps you would not think so if you had hardly anything else to eat; you would get tired of them then. in many places on the continent of europe the roads are lined with walnut trees for miles together, and in the proper season the people may feast upon the fruit as much as they like. a person, it is said, once traveled from florence to geneva and ate nothing by the way but walnuts; but i must say that i should not like to do it. one species bears a nut as large as an egg; but if kept any time, it will shrink to half its natural size. the shell of this great walnut, we are told, is sometimes used for making little ornamental boxes to hold gloves and small fancy-articles; so you see that mine was not the only glove-bag made of two walnut-shells." "how pretty they must be!" said clara. "i should like to see one." "i think that i can make one when i get a large nut, and i shall be glad to show you how it is done." this was a delightful prospect, and the children volunteered to save for that especial purpose all the large nuts they could find. "the english walnut tree," continued miss harson, "is a native of persia or the north of china, and the long pinnated leaves seem to mark its oriental origin; but it has taken very kindly to its european home. in some parts of germany the walnut trees were considered to be such a valuable possession that no young man was allowed to marry until he owned a certain number; and if one tree was cut down, another was always planted." "don't they grow in this country?" asked malcolm. "not very often in our more northern states," was the reply, "for the climate here is too cold for them; but at a house where i visited there was an english walnut tree in the garden, and it seemed to do very well. the nuts were always gathered while they were green, and made into pickles." this was considered quite dreadful, for ripe nuts were certainly a great deal better than pickles. "but there was a great deal of uncertainty about having the ripe nuts, for there were bad boys all around who would not have hesitated to rob the tree. besides, pickled walnuts are considered a great delicacy by those who eat such things. there are some other ways, too, of using the nuts, which you would not like any better. one of these is to make them into oil, as the people do in the south of europe; this oil is used to burn in their lamps and as an article of food. 'in piedmont, among the light-hearted peasantry, cracking the walnuts and taking them from the shell is a holiday proceeding. the peasants, with their wives and children, assemble in the evening, after their day's work is over, in the kitchen of some château where the walnuts have been gathered, and where their services are required. they sit round a table, and at each end is a man with a small mallet, who cracks the walnuts and passes them on; the rest of the party take them out of their shells. at supper-time the table is cleared, and a repast of dried fruit, vegetables and wine is set out. the remainder of the evening is spent in singing and dancing. the crushing and pressing of the nuts, for oil, take place when the whole harvest is in.'" "but don't walnuts come from california? our grocer said he had california nuts," remarked malcolm. "yes; that wonderful country is beginning to supply us with english walnuts." "are you going to tell us a story, miss harson?" asked edith, hopefully. "i have no story, dear," was the reply, "but there is something here which you may like about birds stealing the nuts." of course they would like this; for if there was to be no story, birds and stealing promised to furnish a good substitute. "'birds are as fond of walnuts as we are,'" read miss harson, "'and rob the trees without any mercy. not only the little titmouse, but the grave and solemn rook'--a kind of crow, you remember--'is not above paying a visit to the walnut tree and stealing all he can find. there is a walnut tree growing in a garden the owner of which may be said to have planted it for the benefit of the rooks. not that he had any such purpose, but, as it happens, he cannot help himself. the rooks begin a series of robberies as soon as the fruit is ripe, and carry them on with an adroitness that would be amusing but for the result. as many as fifty rooks come, one after the other, and each will carry off a walnut. the old ones are the most at home in the process, and the most daring. the bird approaches the tree and floats for a second in the air, as if occupied in finding out which of the walnuts will be the easiest to obtain; then, with a bold stroke, he darts at the one selected, and rarely misses his aim. "'the young rooks are much more timid and not so successful. they settle on the branch and knock down a great many walnuts in their clumsy attempts to secure one. even when the walnut has been obtained, the young rook is not sure of his prize: one of his older and stronger brethren is very likely to attack him and knock the walnut out of his bill. then, by a dextrous swoop, the robber catches it up before it reaches the ground, and carries it off in triumph. the feasting ground of the rooks is the next field, and here they come to eat their walnuts. they crack the shell with their beaks and devour the kernel with great relish. then, when one walnut is finished, they fly back to the tree for another. there is no chance for the owner of the garden, who does not think it worth while even to shake his tree: he knows there will not be a single walnut left.'" "i should think not, with those greedy creatures," exclaimed malcolm. "why doesn't the man shoot 'em?" "he probably thinks it would be of little use, when there are such numbers of the birds; besides, he may prefer losing his walnuts to disturbing them, for rooks are treated with great consideration in england, and there is no such wholesale destruction of birds as is seen here." the rooks were certainly very comical, and the children thought this little account of their antics over the walnut tree the next best thing to a story. "another fine shade-tree," continued miss harson, "and one very much like the black walnut, is the butternut, or oil-nut, tree. it is low and broad-headed, spreading into several large branches; the leaves are pinnate, like those of the walnut, but have not so many leaflets. the nut has an entirely different taste, and is even more oily. to many persons it is not at all agreeable. it is a great favorite, though, with country-boys, and in october, when the kernel is ripe, they may be seen with deeply-stained hands and faces, as the thin, leathery husks when handled leave plentiful traces. the butternut is not round like the walnut, but oblong, and pointed at the end; it is about two inches in length and marked by deep furrows and sharp irregular ridges. it is very pretty when sawn across in slices, and looks like scroll-saw work.--we shall have to get some, malcolm, for you to practice on with your saw." [illustration: the butternut tree.] as his scroll-saw was just then the delight of malcolm's heart, he felt particularly interested in butternuts, and immediately mapped out in his mind something very beautiful to be wrought with them for his governess. "the bark and the nutshells have long been used to give a brown color to wool, and the shakers dye a rich purple with it. the bark of the trunk will give a black and that of the root a fawn-colored dye, while an inferior sugar has been made from the sap. the young half-grown nuts are much used for pickles. butternut-wood is exceedingly handsome, of a pale, reddish tint, and durable when exposed to heat and moisture. it makes beautiful fronts for drawers and excellent light, tough and durable wooden bowls. it is also used for the panels of carriages, as well as for posts and rails. it is a more common tree than the walnut in our part of the country; there is a large one in front of a house a few miles from here which i will show you on our next drive." "i am glad of it," said clara, "for i can remember about the trees so much better when i have seen them. i wish we could see every one of the trees you have told us of, miss harson." "perhaps you will some day," replied her governess, "and you will then find that a little knowledge of them before-hand is a great help." "are there any more of the walnut family?" asked malcolm. "yes, the hickory belongs to it; and this is a tree which is peculiar to america. the european walnut is more like it than any other. it is always a stately and elegant tree and very valuable for its timber. there are several varieties, which are much alike, the principal difference being in the nuts. you have all seen most of the trees and gathered the nuts. they are: " . the shellbark, with five large leaflets, a large nut, of which the husk is deeply grooved at the seams, and a rough, scaly trunk. " . the mocker-nut, with seven or nine leaflets, a hard, thick-shelled nut, and leaflets and twigs very downy when young, and strongly odorous. " . the pignut, with three, five or seven narrow leaflets, small, thin-shelled fruit and a pretty hard nut. " . the bitternut, with seven, nine or eleven small, narrow, serrated leaves, small fruit with long, prominent seams, bitter and thin-shelled nuts and very yellow buds. "the shellbark is often called 'shagbark,' and it is the finest of the hickories and one that is seldom mistaken for any of the others. it may readily be distinguished by the shaggy bark of its trunk, the excellence of its globular fruit, its leaves, which are large and have five leaflets, and by its ovate, half-covered buds. it is a tall, slender tree with irregular branches, and the foliage seems to lie in masses of dense, dark green. but in october, when the nuts ripen, the leaves turn to orange-brown, and finally to the color of a russet apple; so that they do not add greatly to the beauty of the forest." "but the nuts are good," said malcolm. "didn't we have fine times picking 'em up?" "we did indeed," replied miss harson, "and i hope we shall again." "how long will it be before they are ripe?" asked the little girls. "just about five months, i think." "oh dear!" was the reply; "that's _so_ long to wait!" "but you needn't wait," said their governess; "you can enjoy each season as it comes, and all the good things that our heavenly father sends with it. remember that, as you cannot expect ripe nuts in may or june, neither can you look for strawberries and roses in october. tents are of very little use then, too." "oh!" exclaimed the children, to whom the tent was still a delightful novelty; and they decided not to wish just yet for nutting-time to come. "the nut, as you have so often seen, is covered with a brown husk that is very thick and marked with four furrows, by which it separates into as many distinct pieces, one being larger than the rest. the nuts differ very much in size and shape, and also in hardness, but the best kinds have thin shells and soft kernels; they are also rounder and fuller than the poorer sorts. there is a peculiar sweetness in the taste of this nut when in its best condition, and it is quite equal to the european walnut. the wood of this tree is particularly valuable for fuel, and in old times, when wood-fires were the only kind known, a good hickory back-log was sure to be found on every hearth. it is the heaviest of our native woods, and the wise men say that it yields, pound for pound or cord for cord, more heat than any other, in any shape in which it may be consumed." "but what a pity," said clara, "to burn up trees that bear nuts! why can't they take those that don't?" "they are not so desirable for fuel," was the reply; "and when people own trees which they are willing to turn into money, they generally consider in what way they can get the most for them. nuts which grow in the woods and fields are a very uncertain crop, of which every one seems to gather more than the owner, and it is therefore more profitable for him to cut his trees down and sell them for their wood, which the people in the cities and towns are so glad to get." "what's the use," asked malcolm, "of calling a tree such a name as _mocker-nut_? what does it mean?" "that is just what i have not been able to find out," replied miss harson, "but it has an indian sound, and it seems that the indians used to make a black dye from the bark; so we will give them the credit for it. the name is not often used, for the tree is generally known as the white walnut. the nut is the largest of the hickories, being often from four to six inches around, and it is shaped somewhat like a pear. one variety, however, is known as the square nut. the shell is very thick and hard, but the kernel is sweet when once it is gotten out. this tree is as stately and finely-shaped as the shagbark. it varies from the other hickories in the number of its leaflets, which are seven or nine, the down on its leaves and recent shoots, the hardness of the husk and thickness of the nut, the roundness of its large covered buds, and the strong resinous odor in leaves, buds and husks. in its general appearance it resembles the shellbark, as well as in the fullness of its foliage and the size of its leaves. 'white-heart hickory' is a name often given to this species, because the wood is supposed, when young, to be whiter than that of any of the others," "_pignut_ is another beautiful name," said malcolm, who was disposed to be critical. "do pigs ever eat the nuts, miss harson?" "i dare say that they do when they have the chance," was the reply, "as they delight in nuts; but that is said not to be the proper name for the species. some of the nuts are shaped like a fresh fig, and 'fig-nut' seems to be the name originally intended. but there is a great variety in the shape of the nuts, as some are nearly round and others very irregular. they are alike, however, in having very hard, tough shells, and the kernel is not pleasant enough to repay the trouble of getting at it. these nuts are very apt to grow in pairs, and several bushels of them can be gathered from one tree." "aren't they good to eat?" asked clara. "not at all good," replied her governess, "except to those who are not particular about what they eat; and this may be the reason for calling them 'pignuts,'" "_bitternut_ doesn't sound much better," said malcolm, again. "i wonder what that species has to say for itself?" "not very much, i am afraid, for it is sometimes called the bitter pignut, and even boys will not eat it, while squirrels refuse to feed on it when any other nut can be found. the shell of this nut is so thin that it can be broken in the fingers, but, as no one cares to break it, it is safer than many a thicker shell. it is intensely bitter, and well deserves its name. the tree, however, is handsome and the most graceful of all the hickories; the small, slender leaves give it the look of an ash, and the trunk is smoother than that of most large trees. in summer the finely-cut foliage is of a bright green, and in autumn it changes to a rich orange, which lasts after the other species have become russet and brown." "is there anything more about hickory trees?" said clara. "only to speak of the great value of the wood," replied miss harson. "its uses are almost endless. great numbers of walking-sticks are made of it, as for this purpose no other native wood equals it in beauty and strength. it is next in value to white oak for making hoops; it makes the best screws, the smoothest and most durable handles for chisels, augurs, gimlets, axes, and many other common tools. as fuel, hickory is preferred to every other wood, burning freely, making a pleasant, brilliant fire and throwing out great heat. charcoal made from it is heavier than that made from any other wood, but it is not considered more valuable than that of birch or alder. the ashes of hickories abound in alkali, and are considered better for the purpose of making soap than any other of the native woods, being next to those of the apple tree." "there, clara!" said malcolm; "you see now why people cut down hickory trees. the nuts are nowhere, with all these other things." "we have finished the walnut family," said miss harson, "but there is a tree that i wish to speak of here because of its long pinnate leaves, which appear to connect it with the walnuts and hickories. this is the ailanthus, a large tree which you have often seen in the village, and which used to be popular as a shade-tree. it is very clean-looking, for the only insect that will eat its leaves is the silkworm." "oh, miss harson!" exclaimed the children. "are there real silkworms on 'em? and can we see 'em?" "why, do you not remember our talk about silkworms?" replied their governess. "i am sure i told you that they would not live here in the open air, but they do in china; and the ailanthus is a chinese tree. it was planted in great britain over a hundred years ago for the express purpose of feeding silkworms, because a species of silkworm which was known to be hardy and capable of forming its cocoons in the english climate is attached to this tree and feeds upon its leaves. it was not successful, however, for silkworms, but as a stately and ornamental tree with tropical-looking foliage it was much admired. the ailanthus is quite common in this country as a wayside tree. it possesses a good deal of beauty, from the size and graceful sweep of its large compound leaves, that retain their brightness and verdure after midsummer, when our native trees have become dull. these leaves have nine or ten leaflets as large as a beech-leaf." "isn't that the tree that smells so in summer?" asked clara, with a disgusted face. "yes; the greenish flowers have a particularly disagreeable odor, which is very strong and penetrating, and this is probably the reason why the tree has lost favor in so many places. but this is only during the season of blossoming, and for several months it is a beautiful oriental-looking tree with every leaf perfect, while nearly all other foliage is more or less ravaged by insects." chapter xvii. _some beautiful trees: the chestnut and horse-chestnut._ the nearest trees to the tent, and standing just back of it, were two magnificent chestnuts, now in full leaf-beauty; and miss harson and her little flock stood admiring their majestic size and beautiful color. "these are the handsomest trees yet," said malcolm. "i almost think so myself," replied his governess, gazing up into the rich green depths, "and i wish you particularly to notice these radiated--or star-like--tufts of foliage. the leaves, you see, are long, lengthened to a tapering point, serrated--or notched like a saw--at the edge, and of a bright and nearly pure green. though arranged alternately, like those of the beech, on the recent branches, they are clustered in stars containing from five to seven leaves on the fruitful branches that grow out from the perfected wood. now stand off a little and see how the foliage seems to be all in tufts, each composed of several long, pointed leaves drooping from the centre. the aments, too, with their light silvery-green tint, glisten beautifully on the darker leaves." "how high do you think these trees are, miss harson?" asked clara. "it makes me dizzy to look up to the top." [illustration: leaf of the chestnut.] "they can be scarcely less than ninety feet," was the reply, "and they are very fine specimens of the family; but the great chestnut which is the only tree in the field on the left of the house is broader. it spreads out like an apple tree, because it has abundance of room, and it is nearly as broad as it is high." "and aren't its chestnuts just splendid?" exclaimed malcolm--"the biggest we find anywhere." [illustration: the chestnut tree.] "the bark, you see," continued his governess, "is very dark-colored, hard and rugged, with long, deep clefts. in smaller and younger trees it is smooth. i suppose i need not tell you that the fruit is within a burr covered with sharp, stiff bristles which are not handled with impunity. it opens by four valves more than halfway down when ripe, and contains the nuts, from one to three in number, in a downy cup. these green burrs are very ornamental to the tree; and when they are ripe, the green takes on a yellow tinge." "you didn't say anything about the cunning little tails of the nuts, miss harson," said edith, in a disappointed tone. "i think they're the prettiest part, and they stick up in the burr like little mice-tails." "well, dear," was the smiling reply, "_you_ have told us about them, and i think you have given a very good description. that is just what they always reminded me of when i was about your age--little mice-tails." edith looked pleased and shy, and she did not mind malcolm's laughing at her "little tails," because miss harson used to think the same as she did about them. "this beautiful tree came from asia, and it belongs to the _castanea_ family, the greeks having given it that name from a town in pontus where they obtained it. it was transplanted into the north and west, and is now found in most temperate regions. the wood of the chestnut is very valuable, as it is strong, elastic and durable, and is often used as a substitute for oak and pine. it makes very beautiful furniture." "what kind of chestnuts," asked clara, "are those great big ones, like horse-chestnuts, that they have in some of the stores? are they good to eat?" "yes," replied miss harson; "they are particularly good, and many people in the southern countries of europe almost live on them. they are three or four times larger than our nuts, these spanish and italian chestnuts, and they are eaten instead of bread and potatoes by the peasantry of spain and italy. the spanish chestnut is one of the most stately of european trees, and sometimes it is found growing in our own country, but never in the woods. it is carefully planted and cultivated as an ornamental tree for private grounds. and now," added the young lady, "as we have sufficiently examined our american chestnut trees and it is rather damp and cool to-day for tent-life, suppose we return to the house and get better acquainted with the foreign chestnuts?" edith asked if there was to be a story, but she did not complain when miss harson thought not, only an account of a very large tree; for the children always felt quite sure that there would be something which they would like to hear. * * * * * the evening was damp, and clara said that, the schoolroom looked like a mixture of summer and winter. the fire was both pleasant and comfortable, but there were lilacs and tulips and hyacinths and plenty of wild flowers in vases and baskets; the leaves were all out on the trees by the windows, and the grass was like velvet. "one of the largest trees in the world, if not the largest," said miss harson, "is a chestnut tree on the side of mount etna, in sicily, which abounds with chestnut trees of giant proportions and remarkable beauty. it is called 'the chestnut tree of a hundred horses,' and this title is said to have originated in a report that a queen of aragon once took shelter under its branches attended by her principal nobility, all of whom found refuge from a violent storm under the spreading boughs of the tree. at one time it was supposed that the tree really consisted of a clump of several united, but this is not the case; for on digging away the earth the root was found entire, and at no great depth. five enormous branches rise from the trunk, the outside surface of each being covered with bark, while on the inside is none. the verdure and the support of the tree thus depend on the outer bark alone. the intervals between the branches are of various extent, one of them being sufficient to allow two carriages to drive abreast. in the middle cavity--or what is called the hollow--of the tree a hut has been built for the use of persons employed in collecting and preserving the fruit. they dry the chestnuts in an oven, and then make them into various conserves for sale. a whole caravan of men and animals were once accommodated in the enclosure, and also a flock of sheep folded there. the age of this prodigious tree must be very great indeed. it belongs to the tribe which bears sweet, or edible, chestnuts, that form an agreeable article of food. the foliage is rich, shadowy and beautiful. "the wood of the chestnut is much used in england for hop-poles, and old houses in london are floored or wainscoted with it. the beautiful roof of westminster abbey is made of chestnut wood. "there are magnificent forests of spanish chestnuts in the apennines, and it was the favorite tree of the great painter salvator rosa, who spent much time studying the beautiful play of light and shade on its foliage. the peasants make a gala-time of gathering and preparing the nuts. a traveler, having penetrated the extensive forest which covers the vallombrosan apennines for nearly five miles, came unexpectedly upon those festive scenes, which are not unfrequent among the chestnut-range. it was a holiday, and a group of peasants dressed in the gay and picturesque attire of the neighborhood of the arno were dancing in an open and level space covered with smooth turf and surrounded with magnificent chestnuts, while the inmost recesses of the forest resounded with their mirth and minstrelsy. some beat down the chestnuts with sticks and filled baskets with them, which they emptied from time to time; others, stretched listlessly upon the turf, picked out the contents of the bristling capsules in which the kernels were entrenched, for these, when newly gathered, are sweet and nutritious; others again, and especially young peasant-girls, pelted their companions with the fruit." "like snowballing," said malcolm; "only the prickers must have stung. what grand times they had with their chestnuting!" "these gay, thoughtless people," replied his governess, "almost live in the open air and enjoy the present moment. it is not easy to tell what they would do without these bountiful chestnut-harvests, for their principal article of food is a thick porridge called _polenta_, which they make from the ground nuts. in france a kind of cake is made from the same material, and the chestnuts are prepared by drying them in smoke. another dish is like mashed potatoes, and large quantities are exported in the shape of sweetmeats, made by dipping them, after boiling, into clarified sugar and drying them." "miss harson," asked clara, "why are horse-chestnuts _called_ 'horse-chestnuts '? do horses like 'em?" "not usually," was the reply. "the nuts are sometimes ground and given to horses, but, as sheep, deer and other cattle eat them in their natural state, it would seem more reasonable to name them after some of those animals, if that was the reason. it is likely that because they look like chestnuts, but are much larger, they were called 'horse-chestnuts,' the tree is not in any respect a chestnut; and when it was first planted in england, some centuries ago, it was called 'a rare foreign tree,' and was much admired. it is supposed to have come from india. the large nuts are like chestnuts in appearance.--except, edith, that they have no 'cunning little tails.'--in the month of may there is not a more beautiful tree to be found than the horse-chestnut, with its large, deeply-cut leaves of a bright-green color and its long, tapering spikes of variegated flowers, which turn upward from the dense foliage. the tree at this time has been compared to a huge chandelier, and the erect blossoms to so many wax lights. the bitter nuts ripen early in the autumn and fall from the tree, but long before this the beautiful foliage has turned rusty in our northern states, and is no longer ornamental. the overshadowing branches, which give such a pleasant shade in summer, early in autumn begin to show the ravages of the insects or the natural decay of the leaves." "then," said malcolm, "it isn't a nice tree to have, and i'm glad that there are elms here instead." "i should like to have some of all the trees," replied clara, "because then we could study about them better.--wouldn't you, miss harson?" "i think so," said her governess, "if they were not undesirable to have, as some trees are. if it were always may, i should want horse-chestnut trees; for i think there is scarcely anything so pretty as those fresh leaves and blossoms. the branches, too, begin low down, and that gives the tree a generous spreading look which is very attractive in the way of shade. in more southern states they have a longer season of beauty than those in the north." "do people ever eat the horse-chestnut?" asked edith. "not often, dear--it is too bitter; but an old writer who lived in the days when it was first seen in england says that he planted it in his orchard as a fruit tree, between his mulberry and his walnut, and that he roasted the chestnuts and ate them. it is like the bitternut-hickory, which even boys will not eat." "i should think that somebody or something ought to eat it," said clara, thoughtfully; "it seems like such a waste." everyone laughed at her wise air, and she was asked if she intended to set the example. she was not quite ready, though, to do that; and miss harson continued: "a naturalist once took from the tree a tiny flower-bud and proceeded to dissect it. after the external covering, which consisted of seventeen scales, he came upon the down which protects the flower. on removing this he could perceive four branchlets surrounding the spike of flowers, and the flowers themselves, though so minute, were as distinct as possible, and he could not only count their number, but discern the stamens, and even the pollen." "oh!" exclaimed the children; "how very curious!" "yes," replied their governess; "it shows how perfect and wonderful, from the beginning, are all the works of god." chapter xviii. _among the pines_. "how good it smells here!" exclaimed edith, with her small nose in the air to inhale what she called "a good sniff" in the fragrant pine-woods. miss harson had taken the children in the carriage to a pine-grove some miles from elmridge, and thomas and the horses waited by the roadside while the little party walked about or stood gazing up at the tall slender trees that seemed to tower to the very skies. thomas was not fond of waiting, but he thought that he had the best of it in this case: it was more cheerful to sit in the carriage and "flick" the flies from rex and regina than to go poking about in the gloomy pine-woods. yet, notwithstanding the darkness of its interior and the sombre character of its dense masses of evergreen foliage as seen from without--whence the name of "black timber," which has been applied to it--the shade and shelter it affords and the sentiment of grandeur it inspires cause it to become allied with the most profound and agreeable sensations; and it was something of this feeling, though they could not express it in words, which possessed the young tree-hunters as they stood in the pine-grove. "it's nice to breathe here," said clara. "it is delicious," replied her governess, enthusiastically, her eyes kindling as she repeated the lines: "'his praise, ye winds, that from four quarter blow, breathe soft and loud; and wave your tops, ye pines, with every plant, in sign of worship. wave!'" "what a queer brown color--almost like red--the ground is!" said malcolm. "and look, miss harson! it's made of lots of little sharp sticks." "the sharp sticks are pine-needles," was the reply--"the dead pine-leaves of last year; and when the new growth of leaves have been put forth, they cover the ground with a smooth brown matting as comfortable as a gravel-walk, and yet a carpet of nature's making. 'the foliage of the pine is so hard and durable that in summer we always find the last year's crop lying upon the ground in a state of perfect soundness, and under it that of the preceding year only partially decayed.'" "it's kind of slippery in some places," continued malcolm, taking a slide as he spoke. "and see those queer-looking roots sprouting out of the ground!" "i see the roots," said miss harson, "but no sprouts. that is the white pine, the roots of which are often seen above the ground, spreading to some distance from the trunk. generally the roots of pine trees are small, compared with the size of the trunks, and spread horizontally instead of descending far into the ground. for this reason pines are often uprooted by high winds, which break off the deciduous trees near the ground. but i wish you particularly to notice the trunks of these trees and tell me if you can see any difference in them." those particular trees had probably never been stared at so hard before, and the three children exclaimed almost together: "some are rough, and some are smooth, and the rough ones have little bunches of leaves on 'em." "these are the pitch-pines," replied their governess. "they are the roughest of all our forest-trees, and they have a rounder head than any of the other american evergreens. the branches, you see, turn in various directions and are curved downward at the ends. this tree has also the peculiar habit of sending out little branchlets full of leaves along the stem from the root upward, and this has a very pretty effect, like that of some elm trees. it is the pitch-pine that produces the fragrance we are all enjoying so much. what do you notice about the smoother trees?" "they are very tall and big," replied clara--"ever so much handsomer than the rough ones." [illustration: the white pine.] "the white pine," said miss harson, "is one of the loftiest and most valuable of north american trees. its top can be seen at a great distance, looking like a spire as it towers above the heads of the trees around it. you see that it has widespread branches and silken-looking, tufted foliage. the leaves are in fives and not so stiff as those of the other pines, and you will notice that the branches are in whorls, like a series of stages one above another. the foliage has a tasseled effect with those long silky tufts at the ends of the branches, and the whole outline of the tree is very pleasing." "this isn't a pine tree, is it?" asked malcolm, touching a small tree with very slender branches, some of them as slight as willow-withes and covered with grayish-red bark, while that on the main stem was bluish gray. [illustration: the larch.] "it is a species of pine," was the reply, "because it belongs to the coniferae, or cone-producing, family; but it is not an evergreen, although it ranks as such. this is the larch--generally called in new england by its indian name of _hacmatack_--and it differs from the other pines in its crowded tufts of leaves, which, after turning to a soft leather-color, fall, in new england, early in november. the cones, too, are very small." "what's the use of cones, any way?" asked malcolm as he picked up some very large ones under the white and pitch pines. "their principal use," replied his governess, "is to contain the seeds of future trees: they are the fruit of the pine; but they have a number of uses besides, which you shall hear about this evening." "the little cones at hemlock lodge are pretty," said edith, "and clara and me play with 'em. we play they're a orphan-'sylum." [illustration: foliage of the larch (_larix americana_).] "'clara and i,' dear," corrected miss harson, smiling at the "orphan-'sylum," while malcolm said he had never thought of that before, and it must be what they were meant for. edith could not quite understand whether this was fun or earnest, but miss harson shook her head at malcolm and called him "naughty boy." "the spruce and hemlock," continued their governess, "and many of the other evergreens, we have at elmridge, but i brought you here to-day for our drive that you might examine these magnificent pine trees, and so be better able to understand whatever we can find out about them this evening. thomas is probably tired of waiting by this time; so we will leave the fragrant pine-woods for the present, and promise ourselves some future visits." every green thing was now in full summer beauty, and daisies and buttercups gemmed the fields, while the garden at elmridge was all aglow with blossoms, the children remembered their flower-studies of last year, and took fresh pleasure in the woods because of them; but the trees now seemed quite as interesting as the flowers had been. * * * * * "the trees known as evergreens," said miss harson, "are not so bright and cheerful-looking as those which are deciduous, or leaf-shedding, but they have the advantage of being clothed with foliage, although of a sober hue, all the year round. they consist of pines, firs, junipers, cypresses, spruces, larches, yews and hemlocks, with some foreign trees, and form a distinct and striking natural group. 'this family has claims to our particular attention from the importance of its products in naval, and especially in civil and domestic, architecture, and in many other arts, and, in some instances, in medicine. some of the species in this country are of more rapid growth, attain to a larger size and rise to a loftier height than any other trees known. the white pine is much the tallest of our native trees.'" "how high does it grow, miss harson?" asked clara. "from one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet," was replied, "and on the north-west coast of america one called the 'douglas's pine' is the loftiest tree known; it is said to measure over three hundred feet. 'from the pines are obtained the best masts and much of the most valuable ship-timber, and in the building and finishing of houses they are of almost indispensable utility. the bark of some of them, as the hemlock and larch, is of great value in tanning, and from others are obtained the various kinds of pitch, tar, turpentine, resin and balsams,' the pines and firs have circles of branches in imperfect whorls around the trunk, and, as one of these whorls is formed each year, it is easy to calculate the age of young trees. in thick woods the lower whorls of branches soon decay for want of light and air, and this leaves a smooth trunk, which rises without a branch, like a beautiful shaft, for a hundred feet or more. "these trees are found everywhere except in the hot regions around the equator. the white pine is the most common, but in the evergreen woods of our own country it is mixed with pitch-pine and fir trees. in our southern states there are thin forests, called pine-barrens, through which one can travel for miles on horseback. the white pine is easily distinguished by its leaves being in fives, by its very long cones, composed of loosely-arranged scales, and when young by the smoothness and delicate light-green color of the bark. it is known throughout new england by the name 'white pine,' which is given it on account of the whiteness of the wood. in england it is called the weymouth pine. "many very large trees are found in maine, on the penobscot river, but most of the largest and most valuable timber trees have been cut down. the lumberers, as they are called, are constantly hewing down the grand old trees for timber, white pine being the principal timber of new england and canada." "and they float it down the rivers on rafts, don't they?" said malcolm. "won't you tell us about that, miss harson?" "yes," was the reply.--"but do not look so expectant, edie; it is not a story, dear, only a description of pine-cutting in the forests of maine and canada. but i should like you to know how these great trees are turned into timber, and you will see that, like many other necessary things, it is neither easy nor pleasant. we do not get much without hard work on the part of somebody: remember that. now i will read: "'the business of procuring trees suitable for masts of ships is difficult and fatiguing. the pines which grew in the neighborhood of the rivers and in the most accessible places have all been cut down. paths have now to be cleared with immense labor to the recesses of the forest, in order to obtain a fresh supply. this arduous employment is called "lumbering," and those who engage in it are "lumberers." the word "lumber," in its general sense, applies to all kinds of timber. but though many different trees, such as oak, ash and maple, are cut down, yet the main business is with the pines. and when a suitable plot of ground has been chosen for erecting a saw-mill,' to prepare the boards, 'it is called "pine-land," or a spot where the pine trees predominate. "'a body of wood-cutters unite to form what is called a "lumbering-party," and they are in the employ of a master-lumberman, who pays them wages and finds them in provisions. the provisions are obtained on credit and under promise of payment when the timber has been cut down and sold. if the timber meets with any accident in its passage down the river, the master-lumberman cannot make good the loss, and the shopkeeper loses his money. "'when the lumbering-party are ready to start, they take with them a supply of necessaries, and also what tools they will require, and proceed up the river to the heart of the forest. when they reach a suitable spot where the giant trees which are to serve for masts grow thick and dark, they get all their supplies on shore--their axes, their cooking-utensils and the casks of molasses'--and too often of whisky or rum, too, i am sorry to say--'that will be used lavishly. the molasses is used instead of sugar to sweeten the great draughts of tea--made, not from the product of china, but from the tops of the hemlock. "'the first thing to be done is to build some kind of shelter, for they must remain in the forest until spring, and the cold of those northern winters is terrible. their cabin--for it cannot be called by any better name--is built of logs of wood cut down on purpose and put together as rudely as possible. it is only five feet high, and the roof is covered with boards. there is a great blazing fire kept up day and night, for the frost is intense, and the provisions have to be kept in a deep place made in the ground under the cabin. the smoke of the fire goes out through a hole in the roof, and the floor is strewn with branches of fir, the only couch the poor hardworking lumberers have to rest upon. when night comes, they turn into the cabin to sleep, and lie with their feet to the fire. if a man chances to awaken, he instantly jumps up and throws fresh logs on the fire; for it is of the utmost importance not to let it go out. one of the men is the cook for the whole party, and his duty is to have breakfast ready before it is light in the morning. he prepares a meal of boiled meat and the hemlock tea sweetened with molasses, and the rest of the party partake heartily of both, and in some camps also of rum, under the mistaken notion that it helps them to bear the severe toil. when breakfast is over, they divide into several gangs. one gang cuts down the trees, another saws them in pieces, and the third gang is occupied in conveying them, by means of oxen, to the bank of the nearest stream, which is now frozen over. "'it is a hard winter for the lumbermen. the snow covers the ground until the middle of may, and the frost is often intense. but they toil through it, felling, sawing and conveying until a quantity of trees have been laid prostrate and made available for the market. then, at last, the weather changes; the snow begins to melt and the streams and rills are set at liberty. the rivers flow briskly on and are much swollen with the melting snow, and the men say that the freshets have come down. "'hard as their toil has been, the most difficult and fatiguing has yet to be encountered. the timber is collected on the banks of the river, and has now to be thrown into the water and made into rafts, so that it can be floated down to the nearest market-town. the water, filled with melting snow, is deadly cold and can scarcely be endured, but the men are in it from morning till night constructing the rafts, which are put together as simply as possible, and the smallest outlay made to suffice. the rafts are of different sizes, according to the breadth of the stream; and when all is ready, they are launched, and the convoy fairly sets out on its voyage. "'the great ugly masses of floating timber move slowly along under the care of a pilot, and the lumberers ride upon the rafts, often without shelter or protection from the weather. they guide themselves by long and powerful poles fixed on pivots, and which act as rudders. as they journey down the stream they sing and shout and make the utmost noise and riot. if there comes a storm or a change of weather, the pilot steers his convoy into some safe creek for the night, and secures it as best he can. "'thus by degrees the raft reaches the place of destination, occasionally with some loss and damage to the timber. in this case the master-lumberer bears the loss, and is obliged to refund the expenses incurred as best he can. at any rate, the men are now paid off, and set out on foot for their homes.'" malcolm was particularly delighted with this narrative of stirring activity, and even the little girls seemed very much interested in it. they were so sorry for the poor lumbermen who had such dreary winters off there in the northern woods, and clara wondered if they couldn't have warm comforters and mittens. "they probably have those things when they go into camp," said miss harson, "but they are likely to find them in the way of working, and to cast them aside.--great ships are not built for nothing: even to get the timber in readiness costs heavy labor, but, after all, no doubt, the men get interested in it and enjoy its excitement. fortunately for the many uses to which its timber is put, the white pine grows very rapidly, gaining from fifteen inches to three feet every year. in deep and damp old woods it is slower of growth; it is then almost without sap-wood and has a yellowish color like the flesh of the pumpkin. for this reason it is called 'pumpkin-pine.' the bark of young trees of the white-pine species is very smooth and of a reddish, bottle-green color. it is covered in summer with a pearly gloss. on old trunks the bark is less rough than that of any other pine. this tree has the spreading habit of the cedar of lebanon. in addition to its grand and picturesque character, the white pine, says a lover of trees, may be 'regarded as a true symbol of benevolence. under its outspread roof numerous small animals, nestling in the bed of dry leaves that cover the ground, find shelter and repose. the squirrel feeds upon the kernels obtained from its cones; the hare browses upon the trefoil'--clover--'and the spicy foliage of the _hypericum_'--st. john's wort--'which are protected in its shade; and the fawn reposes on its brown couch of leaves unmolested by the outer tempest. from its green arbors the quails are often roused in midwinter, where they feed upon the berries of the _mitchella_ and the spicy wintergreen. nature, indeed, seems to have specially designed this tree to protect her living creatures both in summer and in winter.'" "hurrah for the white pine," said malcolm, with great energy, "the grand old _american_ tree!" "i'm glad that the little birds and animals have such a nice home under it in winter," said clara. "i'm glad too," added edith, "but i wish we could find some and see how they look in their soft bed. don't they ever put their heads out the least bit, miss harson?" "not when they suspect that there is any one around, dear, and the little creatures are very sharp to find this out. our heavenly father, you know, takes thought for sparrows and all such helpless things, and they are fed and cared for without any thought of their own.--the white pine," she continued, "is truly a magnificent tree, but i think we shall find that the pitch-pine is also very useful." "that's the rough one," said malcolm; "i remember how it looks, with little tufts sticking out along the trunk." "yes," replied his governess, "and out authority says this tree is distinguished by its leaves being in threes--the white pine, you know, has them in _fives_--by the rigidity and sharpness of the scales of its cones, by the roughness of its bark, and by the denseness of the brushes of its stiff, crowded leaves. its usual height is from forty to fifty feet, but it is sometimes much taller. the trunk is not only rough, but very dark in color; and from this circumstance the species is frequently called black pine. the wood is very hard and firm, and contains a quantity of resin. this is much more abundant in the branches than in the trunk, and the boards and other lumber of this wood are usually full of pitch-knots." "what are pitch-knots?" asked clara. "'when a growing branch,'" read miss harson, "'is broken off, the remaining portion becomes charged with resin,' which is deposited by the resin-bearing sap of the tree, 'forming what is called a pitch-knot, extending sometimes to the heart. the same thing takes place through the whole heart of a tree when, full of juice, its life is suddenly destroyed.' 'resin' is another name for turpentine, but is used of it commonly when hardened into a solid form. the tar is obtained by slowly burning splintered pine, both trunk and root, with a smothered flame, and collecting the black liquid, which is expelled by the heat and caught in cavities beneath the burning pile. pitch is thickened tar, and is used in calking ships and for like purposes." "i am going to remember that," said malcolm; "i could never make out what all those different things meant." "what are you thinking about so seriously, clara?" asked her governess. "if it is a puzzle, let me see if i cannot solve it for you." "well, miss harson, i was thinking of those brown leaves, or 'needles,' in the pine-woods, and it seems strange to say that the leaves of evergreens never fall off." "it would not only be strange, dear, but quite untrue, to say that; for the same leaves do not, of course, remain for ever on the tree. the deciduous trees lose their leaves in the autumn and are entirely bare until the next spring, but the evergreens, although they renew their leaves, too, are never left without verdure of some sort. late in october you may see the yellow or brown foliage of the pines, then ready to fall, surrounding the branches of the previous year's growth, forming a whorl of brown fringe surmounted by a tuft of green leaves of the present year's growth. their leaves always turn yellow before the fall." chapter xix. _giant and nut pines_. great was the surprise of edith when miss harson gave the little sleeper a gentle shake and told her that it was time to be up. but the birds without the window told the same story, and the little maiden was soon at the breakfast-table and ready for the day's duties and enjoyments, including their "tree-talk." "are there any more kinds of pine trees?" asked malcolm. [illustration: "awake, little one!"] "yes, indeed!--more than we can take up this summer," replied miss harson. "there is the norway pine, or red pine, which in maine and new hampshire is often seen in forests of white and pitch pine. it has a tall trunk of eighty feet or so, and a smooth reddish bark. the leaves are in twos, six or eight inches long, and form large tufts or brushes at the end of the branchlets. the wood is strong and resembles that of the pitch-pine, but it contains no resin. the giant pines of california belong to a different species from any that we have been considering, and the genus, or order, in which they have been arranged is called _sequoia_[ ]. they are generally known, however, as the 'big trees.' in one grove there are a hundred and three of them, which cover a space of fifty acres, called 'mammoth-tree grove.' one of the giants has been felled--a task which occupied twenty-two days. it was impossible to cut it down, in the ordinary sense of the term, and the men had to bore into it with augers until it was at last severed in twain. even then the amazing bulk of the tree prevented it from falling, and it still kept its upright position. two more days were employed in driving wedges into the severed part on one side, thus to compel the giant to totter and fall. the trunk was no less than three hundred and two feet in height and ninety-six in circumference. the stump, which was left standing, presented such a large surface that a party of thirty couples have danced with ease upon it and still left abundant room for lookers-on." [ ] _sequoia gigantea_. when the children had sufficiently exclaimed over the size of this huge tree, their governess continued: "it is thought that these trees must have been growing for more than two thousand years, which would make them probably two hundred years old at the birth of our saviour. does it not seem wonderful to think of? there are other groups of giant pines scattered on the mountains and in the forests, and some youthful giants about five hundred years old." "i suppose they are the babies of the family," said clara; and this idea amused edith very much. "there is still another kind of pine," said miss harson--"the italian, or stone, pine. it is shaped almost exactly like an umbrella with a very long handle. the _pinus pinea_ bears large cones, the seed of which is not only eatable, but considered a delicious nut. the cone is three years in ripening; it is then about four inches long and three wide, and has a reddish hue. each scale of which the cone is formed is hollow at the base and contains a seed much larger than that of any other species. when the cone is ripe, it is gathered by the owners of the forest; and when thoroughly dried on the roof or thrown for a few minutes into the fire, it separates into many compartments, from each of which drops a smooth white nut in shape like the seed of the date. the shell is very hard, and within it is the fruit, which is much used in making sweetmeats. the stone-pine is found also in palestine, and is supposed to be the cypress of the bible. the author of _the ride through palestine_[ ] speaks of passing through a fine grove of the stone-pine, 'tall and umbrella-topped,' with dry sticks rising oddly here and there from the very tops of the trees. these sticks were covered with birdlime, to snare the poor bird which might be tempted to set foot on such treacherous supports; and if the cones were ripe, they would be quite sure to do it. here is the picture, from the book just mentioned. italian pine is a prettier name than stone-pine, and this is the name by which it is known to artists, who put it into almost every picture of italian scenery. "'much they admire that old religious tree with shaft above the rest upshooting free, and shaking, when its dark locks feel the wind, its wealthy fruit with rough and massive rind.'" [ ] presbyterian board of publication. [illustration: stone-pine--"fir" _(pinus maritima_)]. "but how queer it sounds to call fruit _wealthy_!" said malcolm. "it is odd," replied his governess, "only because the word is not now used in that sense; but the fruit is wealthy both because of its abundance and because it can be put to so many uses. let us see what is said of it: "'the kernels, or seeds, from the cones of the stone-pine have always been esteemed as a delicacy. in the old days of rome and greece they were preserved in honey, and some of the larders of the ill-fated city of pompeii were amply stored with jars of this agreeable conserve, which were found intact after all those years. the kernels are also sugared over and used as _bonbons_. they enter into many dishes of italian cookery, but great care has to be taken not to expose them to the air. they are usually kept in the cones until they are wanted, and will then retain their freshness for some years. the squirrels eagerly seek after the fruit of this pine and almost subsist upon it. they take the cone in their paws and dash out the seeds, thus scattering many of them and helping to propagate the tree. "'there is a bird called the crossbill that makes its nest in the pine. it fixes its nest in place by means of the resin of the tree and coats it with the same material, so as to render it impervious to the rain. the seeds from the cones form its chief food, and it extracts them with its curious bill, the two parts of which cross each other. it grasps the cone with its foot, after the fashion of a parrot, and digs into it with the upper part of its bill, which is like a hook, and forces out the seed with a jerk.'" [illustration: pine-cone (_pinus sylvestris_.)] the children enjoyed this account very much, and they thought that stone-pine nuts--which they had never seen, and perhaps never would see--must be the most delicious nuts that ever grew. "what nice times the birds have," said clara, "helping themselves to all the good things that other people can't reach!" "they are not exactly 'people,'" replied miss harson, laughing; "and, in spite of all these 'nice times,' you would not be quite willing to change with them, i think." no, on the whole, clara was quite sure that she would not. chapter xx. _more winter trees: the firs and the spruces_. there were some beautiful evergreens on the lawn at elmridge, and, although the foliage seemed dark in summer, it gave the place a very cheerful look in winter, when other trees were quite bare, while the birds flew in and out of them so constantly that spring seemed to have come long before it really did arrive. "this balsam-fir," said miss harson as they stood near a tall, beautiful tree that tapered to a point, "has, you see, a straight, smooth trunk and tapers regularly and rapidly to the top. you will notice, too, that the leaves, which are needle-shaped and nearly flat, do not grow in clusters, but singly, and that their color is peculiar. there are faint white lines on the upper part and a silvery-blue tinge beneath, and this silvery look is produced by many lines of small, shining resinous dots. the deep-green bark, striped with gray, is full of balsam, or resin, known as balm of gilead or canada balsam, and highly valued as a cure for diseases of the lungs. the long cones are erect, or standing, and grow thickly near the ends of the upper branches. they have round, bluish-purple scales, and the soft color has a very pretty effect on the tree. they ripen every year, and the lively little squirrel, as he is called, feasts upon them, as the crossbill does on the cones of the stone-pine. but the mischievous little animal also barks the boughs and gnaws off the tops of the leading shoots, so that many trees are injured and defaced by his depredations." [illustration: american white spruce.] "he _is_ a lively little squirrel," observed malcolm. "how he does race! but he doesn't gnaw our trees, does he?" "no, i think not, for he prefers staying in the woods and fields; but fir-woods are his especial delight. our balsam-fir is the american sister of the silver fir of europe, both having bluish-green foliage with a silvery under surface, in a single row on either side of the branches, which curve gracefully upward at the ends. the tree has a peculiarly light, airy appearance until it is old, when there is little foliage except at the ends of the branches. the silver fir is one of the tallest trees on the continent of europe, and it is remarkable for the beauty of its form and foliage and the value of its timber." "i know what this tree is," said clara, turning to an evergreen of stately form and graceful, drooping branches that almost touched the ground: "it's norway spruce. papa told me this morning." [illustration: the norway pine.] "yes," replied her governess, "and a beautiful tree it is, like the fir in many respects, but the bark is rougher and the cones droop. the branches, too, are lower and more sweeping. but the fir and the spruce are more alike than many sisters and brothers. the scotch fir, about which there are many interesting things to be learned, is more rugged-looking, and the norway spruce, which will bear studying too, is more grand and majestic." [illustration: the hemlock spruce.] "i know this one, miss harson," said little edith as they came to a sweeping hemlock near the bay-window of the dining-room. "yes, dear," was the reply; "hemlock lodge has made you feel very well acquainted with the tree after which it is named. it is one of the most beautiful of the evergreens, with its widely-spreading branches and their delicate, fringe-like foliage; but, although the branches are ornamental for church and house decoration, they are very perishable, and drop their small needles almost immediately when placed in a heated room. and now," continued the young lady, "we have come back to warm piazza-days again, and can have our talk in the open air." so on the piazza they speedily established themselves, with miss harson in the low, comfortable chair and her audience on the crimson cushions that had been piled up in a corner. "we shall find a great deal about the fir tree," said miss harson, "as it is very hardy and rugged, and as common in all northern regions as the white birch--quite as useful, too, as we shall soon see. this rugged species--which is generally called the scotch fir--is not so smooth and handsome as our balsam-fir, but it is a tree which the people who live near the great northern forests of europe could not easily do without. it belongs to the great pine family and is often called a pine, but in the countries of great britain especially it is called the scotch fir. although well shaped, it is not a particularly elegant-looking tree. the branches are generally gnarled and broken, and the style of the tree is more sturdy than graceful. the scotch fir often grows to the height of a hundred feet, and the bark is of a reddish tinge. 'it is one of the most useful of the tribe, and, like the bountiful palm, confers the greatest blessing on the inhabitants of the country where it grows. it serves the peasants of the bleak, barren parts of sweden and lapland for food: their scanty supply of meal often runs short, and they go to the pine to eke it out. they choose the oldest and least resinous of the branches and take out the inner bark. they first grind it in a mill, and then mix it with their store of meal; after this it is worked into dough and made into cakes like pancakes. the bark-bread is a valuable addition to their slender resources, and sometimes the young shoots are used as well as the bark. indeed, so largely is this store of food drawn upon that many trees have been destroyed, and in some places the forest is actually thinned." "they're as bad as the squirrels," said malcolm. "but how i should hate to eat such stuff!" "it may not be so very bad," replied his governess. "some people think that only white bread is fit to eat, but i think that kitty's brown bread is rather liked in this family." the children all laughed, for didn't papa declare--with _such_ a sober face!--that they were eating him out of house and home in brown bread alone? kitty, too, pretended to grumble because the plump loaves disappeared so fast, but she said to herself at the same time, "bless their hearts! let 'em eat: it's better than a doctor's bill." "a great many other things besides pancakes are made from the tree," continued miss harson, "and the fresh green tops furnish very nice carpets." there was a faint "_oh!_" at this, but, after all, it was not so surprising as the cakes had been. "they are scattered on the floors of houses as rushes used to be in old times in england, and thus they serve as carpet and prevent the mud and dirt that stick to the shoes of the peasants from staining the floor; and when trodden on, the leaves give out a most agreeable aromatic perfume." "i'd like that part," said clara. [illustration: the blue spruce.] "but you cannot have one part without taking it all; almost everything, you see, has a pleasant side.--'the peasant finds no limit to the use of the pine. of its bark he makes the little canoe which is to carry him along the river; it is simple in its construction, and as light as possible. when he comes within safe distance of one of those gushing, foaming cataracts that he meets with in his course, he pushes his canoe to land and carries it on his shoulders until the danger is past; then he launches it again, and paddles merrily onward. not a single nail is used in his canoe: the planks are tightly secured together by a natural cordage made of the roots of the pine. he splits them of the right thickness, and with very little preparation they form exactly the material he needs.'" malcolm evidently had some idea of making a canoe of this kind, but he became discouraged when his governess reminded him that he could not cut down trees, and that his father would prefer having them left standing. it did not seem necessary to speak of any difficulties in the way of putting the boat together. "another use for the fir is to light up the poor hut of the peasant. 'he splits up the branches into laths and makes them into torches. if he wants a light, he takes one of the laths and kindles it at the fire; then he fixes it in a rude frame, which serves him for a candlestick. the light is very brilliant while it lasts, but is soon spent, and he is in darkness again. the same use is made of the pine. it is no unusual circumstance, in the scotch pine-woods, to come upon a tree with the trunk scooped out from each side and carried away: the cottager has been to fetch material for his candles. but this somewhat rough usage does not hurt the tree, and it continues green and healthy.' in our southern states pine-fat with resin is called lightwood, and is used for the same purpose." "that's an easy way of getting candles," said clara. "easy, perhaps, compared with the trouble of moulding them," replied miss harson, "but i do not think we should fancy either way of preparing them." "is there anything to tell about the spruce tree?" asked malcolm. "it is too much like the fir," replied his governess, "to have any very distinct character; but there are species here, known as the white and black spruce, besides the hemlock." but the children thought that hemlock was hemlock: how did it come to be spruce? "because it has the family features--leaves solitary and very short; cones pendulous, or hanging, with the scales thin at the edge; and the fruit ripens in a single year. the hemlock-spruce, as it is sometimes called, is, i think, the most beautiful of the family. 'it is distinguished from all the other pines by the softness and delicacy of its tufted foliage, from the spruce by its slender, tapering branchlets and the smoothness of its limbs, and from the balsam-fir by its small terminal cones, by the irregularity of its branches and the gracefulness of its whole appearance.' the delicate green of the young trees forms a rich mass of verdure, and at this season each twig has on the end a tuft of new leaves yellowish-green in color and making a beautiful contrast to the darker hue of last year's foliage. the bark of the trunk is reddish, and that of the smooth branches and small twigs is light gray. the branchlets are very small, light and slender, and are set irregularly on the sides of the small branches; so that they form a flat surface. this arrangement renders them singularly well adapted to the making of brooms--a use of the hemlock familiar to housekeepers in the country towns throughout new england. the leaves, which are extremely delicate and of a silvery whiteness on the under side, are arranged in a row on each side of the branchlets. the slender, thread-like stems on which they grow make them move easily with the slightest breath of wind, and this, with the silvery hue underneath, gives to the foliage a glittering look that is very pretty. but i think you all can tell me when the hemlock is prettiest?" "after a snow-storm," said clara. "don't we all look, almost the first thing, at the tree by the dining-room window?" "yes," replied miss harson; "it is a beautiful sight with the snow lying on it in masses and the dark green of the leaves peeping through. 'the branches put forth irregularly from all parts of the trunk, and lie one above another, each bending over at its extremities upon the surface of those below, like the feathers upon the wings of a bird,' and soft, downy plumes they look, with the snow resting on them and making them more feathery than ever." "so they are like feathers?" said malcolm, to whom this was a new idea, "i'll look for 'em the next time it snows; yet--" he was going to add that he wished it would snow to-morrow; but remembering that it was only the beginning of june, and that miss harson had shown them how each season has its pleasures, he stopped just in time. "the pretty little cones of the hemlock, which grow very thickly on the tree, have a crimson tinge at first, and turn to a light brown. they are found hanging on the ends of the small branches, and they fall during the autumn and winter. this tree is a native of the coldest parts of north america, where it is found in whole forests, and it flourishes on granite rocks on the sides of hills exposed to the most violent storms. the wood is firm and contains very little resin; it is much used for building-purposes. a great quantity of tannin is obtained from the bark; and when mixed with that of the oak, it is valuable for preparing leather. "we have taken the prettiest of the spruces first," continued miss harson, "and now we must see what are the differences between them. 'the two species of american spruce, the black and the white--or, as they are more commonly called, the double and the single--are distinguished from the fir and the hemlock in every stage of growth by the roughness of the bark on their branches, produced by little ridges running down from the base of each leaf, and by the disposition of the leaves, which are arranged in spirals equally on every side of the young shoots. the double is distinguished from the single spruce by the darker color of the foliage--whence its name of black spruce--by the greater thickness, in proportion to the length, of the cones, and by the looseness of its scales, which are jagged, or toothed, on the edge.' it is a well-proportioned tree, but stiff-looking, and the dark foliage, which never seems to change, gives it a gloomy aspect. the leaves are closely arranged in spiral lines. the black spruce is never a very large tree, but the wood is light, elastic and durable, and is valuable in shipbuilding, for making ladders and for shingles. the young shoots are much in demand for making spruce-beer. the white spruce is more slender and tapering, and the bark and leaves are lighter. the root is very tough, and the canadian indians make threads from the fibres, with which they sew together the birch-bark for their canoes. the wood is as valuable as that of the black spruce." "does the norway spruce come from norway?" asked clara. "yes; that is its native land, where it presents its most grand and beautiful appearance. there it 'rivals the palm in stature, and even attains the height of one hundred and eighty feet. its handsome branches spread out on every side and clothe the trunk to its base, while the summit of the tree ends in an arrow-like point. in very old trees the branches droop at the extremities, and not only rest upon the ground, but actually take root in it and grow. thus a number of young trees are often seen clustering around the trunk of an old one.'" "why, that's like the banyan tree," said malcolm. "only there is a difference in the manner of growth, for the branches of the banyan are some distance from the ground and send forth rootlets without touching it. the norway spruce is also the great tree of the alps, where it seems to match the majestic scenery. the timber is valuable for building; and when sawed into planks, it is called white deal, while that of the scotch fir is red deal. "and now," said miss harson, "before we leave the firs, let us see what is said about them in the bible. they were used for shipbuilding in the city of tyre; for the prophet ezekiel says, 'they have made all thy ship boards of fir trees of senir[ ],' and it is written that 'david and all the house of israel played before the lord on all manner of instruments made of firwood[ ].' the same wood was used then in building houses, as you will find, malcolm, by turning to the song of solomon, seventh chapter, seventeenth verse." [ ] ezek. xxvii. . [ ] sam. vi. . "'the beams of our house are cedar, and our rafters of fir,'" read malcolm. "in kings it is said, 'so hiram gave solomon cedar trees and fir trees, according to his desire[ ],' and these trees were to be used for the very house, or palace, of which the jewish king speaks in his song. evergreens are often mentioned in the bible, and in that beautiful christmas chapter, the sixtieth of isaiah, you will find the fir tree again.--read the thirteenth verse, clara." [ ] i kings v. . "'the glory of lebanon shall come unto thee, the fir tree, the pine tree, and the box together, to beautify the place of my sanctuary; and i will make the place of my feet glorious.'--what is 'the glory of lebanon,' miss harson?" "the cedar of lebanon, dear; and we will now turn our attention to that and the other cedars." chapter xxi. _the cedars_. "the cypress tribe," said miss harson, "differ from the pines, or coniferae, by not having their fruit in a true cone, but in a roundish head which consists of a small number of scales, sometimes forming a sort of berry. one of the most common of this family is the arbor vitae, or tree of life--a tree so small as to look like a pointed shrub, and more used for fences than for ornament. an arbor-vitae hedge, you know, divides our flower garden from the kitchen-garden and goes all the way down to the brook." "i like the smell of it," said clara. "don't you, miss harson?" [illustration: siberian arbor vitae] "yes," was the reply, "there is something very fresh and pleasant about it; and when well kept, as john is sure to keep ours, it makes a beautiful hedge. as a tree it has been known to reach forty or fifty feet in height, with a trunk ten feet in circumference. the leaves are arranged in four rows, in alternately opposite pairs, and seem to make up the fan-like branchlets. these branchlets look like parts of a large compound, flat leaf. the bark is slightly furrowed, smooth to the touch, and very white when the tree stands exposed. the wood is reddish, somewhat odorous, very light, soft and fine-grained. in the northern part of the united states and in canada it holds the first place for durability." "i thought the cypress was a flower," said malcolm. "so one kind of cypress is," replied his governess--"the blossom of an airy-looking and beautiful creeper; but the name also belongs to a family of trees. the white cedar, or cypress, is a very graceful tree which generally grows in swamps. 'it is entirely free from the stiffness of the pines, and to the spiry top of the poplar it unites the airy lightness of the hemlock. the trunk is straight and tall, tapering very gradually, and toward the top there are short irregular branches, forming a small but beautiful head, above which the leading shoot waves like a slender plume.' the leaves are very small and scale-like, with sharp points, and grow in four rows on the ends of the branchlets, giving them the appearance of large compound leaves. the wood is very durable, and is used for many building-purposes. it is generally of a faint rose-color, and always keeps its aromatic odor." [illustration: irish juniper.] "is that what our cedar-chests are made of to keep the moths from our winter clothes?" asked clara. "yes," replied miss harson, "but the name 'cedar' is; not correct, though it is one commonly given to this tree. the wood of the european cypress is also used for many purposes where strength and durability are required, for it really seems never to wear out. this tree is described as tapering and cone-like, with upright branches growing close to the trunk, and in its general appearance a little resembling a poplar. its frond-like branches are closely covered with very small sharp-pointed leaves of a yellow-green color, smooth and shining, and they remain on the tree five or six years. the cypress is often seen in burying-grounds in europe, and in turkey it often stands at each end of a grave. the oldest tree in europe is thought to be an italian cypress said to have been planted in the year of our saviour's birth; it is an object of great reverence in the neighborhood. this ancient tree is a hundred and twenty feet high and twenty-three feet around the trunk. "the juniper--or red cedar, as it is improperly called--is not a handsome tree, but it is a very useful one. it has a scraggy, stunted look, and the foliage is apt to be rusty; but it will grow in rocky, sandy places where no other tree would even try to hold up its head, and the wood, when made into timber, lasts for a great many years. posts for fences are made of the juniper or red cedar, and the shipbuilder, boatbuilder, carpenter, cabinet-maker and turner are all steady customers for it. the 'cedar-apples' found on this tree are one phase of the life of a very curious fungus. they are covered with a reddish-brown bark; and when fresh, they are tough and fleshy, somewhat like an unripe apple. when dry they become of a woody nature." "they pucker up your mouth awfully," said malcolm, who had made several attempts to eat them; but, do what he would, he could not even "make believe" they were nice. "i have no doubt of it," was the reply, "remembering the dreadful faces i have seen on some of our rambles. but the birds like them, as they do everything of the kind that is not poisonous." * * * * * "isn't it beautiful?" exclaimed the children, in delight. they were admiring a magnificent cedar of lebanon in one of the pictures which miss harson had collected for their benefit, and it seemed no wonder that the grand spreading tree should be called "the glory of lebanon." "it is indeed beautiful," replied their governess; "and think of seeing a whole mountain covered with such trees! a traveler speaks of them as the most solemnly impressive trees in the world, and says that their massive trunks, clothed with a scaly texture almost like the skin of living animals and contorted with all the irregularities of age, may well have suggested those ideas of royal, almost divine, strength and solidity which the sacred writers ascribe to them.--turn to the ninety-second psalm, clara, and read the twelfth verse." "'the righteous shall flourish like the palm tree; he shall grow like a cedar in lebanon.'" "in the thirty-first chapter of ezekiel," continued miss harson, "it is written, 'behold, the assyrian was a cedar in lebanon with fair branches, and with a shadowing shroud, and of an high stature; and his top was among the thick boughs. the waters made him great, the deep set him up on high with her rivers running round about his plants, and sent out her little rivers unto all the trees of the field. therefore his height was exalted above all the trees of the field and his boughs were multiplied, and his branches became long because of the multitude of waters, when he shot forth. all the fowls of heaven made their nests in his boughs, and under his branches did all the beasts of the field bring forth their young, and under his shadow dwelt all great nations.'" [illustration: cedar of lebanon.] "are the leaves like those of our cedar trees?" asked malcolm, who was studying the picture quite intently. "the tree doesn't look like 'em." "they are somewhat like them," replied his governess, "being slender and straight and about an inch long. they grow in tufts, and in the centre of some of the tufts there is a small cone which is very pretty and often brought to this country by travelers for their friends at home. in _the land and the book_ there is a picture of small branches with cones, and the author says of the cedar: 'there is a striking peculiarity in the shape of this tree which i have not seen any notice of in books of travel. the branches are thrown out horizontally from the parent trunk. these again part into limbs, which preserve the same horizontal direction, and so on down to the minutest twigs; and even the arrangement of the clustered leaves has the same general tendency. climb into one, and you are delighted with a succession of verdant floors spread around the trunk and gradually narrowing as you ascend. the beautiful cones seem to stand upon or rise out of this green flooring.' the same writer says that by examining the different growths of wood inside the trunk of one of the trees these ancient cedars of lebanon have been proved to be three thousand five hundred years old." "oh, miss harson!" exclaimed her audience; "could any tree be as old as that?" "it is possible. the circle of growing wood which is made each year is a pretty good method of telling the age of a tree, and these cedars of lebanon are considered the oldest trees in the world. travelers have always spoken of the beauty and symmetry of these trees, with their widespreading branches and cone-like tops. all through the middle ages a visit to the cedars of lebanon was regarded by many persons in the light of a pilgrimage. some of the trees were thought to have been planted by king solomon himself, and were looked upon as sacred relics. indeed, the visitors took away so many pieces from the bark that it was feared the trees would be destroyed. the cedars stand in a valley a considerable way up the mountain, where the snow renders it inaccessible for part of the year." "are the trees just in one particular place, then?" asked malcolm. "i thought they grew all over that country?" "the principal and best-known grove of very large and ancient cedars of lebanon is found in one place," replied his governess, "but there are other groves now known to exist. the famous grove was fast disappearing, until there were but few of them left. the pilgrims who went to visit them in such numbers in olden times were accompanied by monks from a monastery about four miles below, who would beseech them not to injure a single leaf. but the greatest care could not preserve the trees. some of them have been struck down by lightning, some broken by enormous loads of snow, and others torn to fragments by tempests. some have even been cut down with axes like any common tree. but better care is now taken of them; so that we may hope that the grove will live and increase." "but why weren't they saved," asked clara, "when people thought so much of them?" "it seems to be a part of the general desolation of the land of god's chosen but rebellious people. in the third chapter of the prophet isaiah, verses eleven and twelve, it is said, 'for the day of the lord of hosts shall be upon every one that is proud and lofty, and upon every one that is lifted up; and he shall be brought low; and upon all the cedars of lebanon, that are high and lifted up, and upon all the oaks of bashan.' the same prophet says, in the tenth chapter and nineteenth verse, 'and the rest of the trees of his forest shall be few, that a child may write them.' these words have been particularly applied to the stately cedars of lebanon, for 'the once magnificent grove is but a speck on the mountain-side. many persons have taken it in the distance for a wood of fir trees, but on approaching nearer and taking a closer view the cedars resume somewhat of their ancient majesty. the space they cover is not more than half a mile, but, once amidst them, the beautiful fan-like branches overhead, the exquisite green of the younger trees and the colossal size of the older ones fill the mind with interest and admiration. within the grove all is hushed as in a land of the past. where once the tyrian workman plied his axe and the sound of many voices came upon the ear, there are now the silence and solitude of desertion and decay.'--malcolm," added his governess, "you may read us what is written in the sixth verse of the fourteenth chapter of hosea." "'his branches,'" read malcolm, "'shall spread, and his beauty shall be as the olive tree, and his smell as lebanon.' what does that mean, miss harson?" "it means the fragrant resin which exudes from both the trunk and the cones of the beautiful cedar. it is soft, and its fragrance is like that of the balsam of mecca. 'everything about this tree has a strong balsamic odor, and hence the whole grove is so pleasant and fragrant that it is delightful to walk in it. the wood is peculiarly adapted for building, because it is not subject to decay, nor is it eaten of worms. it was much used for rafters and for boards with which to cover houses and form the floors and ceilings of rooms. it was of a red color, beautiful, solid and free from knots. the palace of persepolis, the temple of jerusalem and solomon's palace were all in this way built with cedar, and the house of the forest of lebanon was perhaps so called from the quantity of this wood used in its construction.' we are told in first kings that solomon 'built also the house of the forest of lebanon[ ],' and that 'he made three hundred shields of beaten gold' and 'put them in the house of the forest of lebanon[ ].' all the drinking-vessels, too, of this wonderful palace, which is always spoken of as 'the house of the forest of lebanon,' were of pure gold, and its magnificence shows how highly the beautiful cedar-wood was valued." [ ] i kings vii. . [ ] i kings x. . chapter xxii. _the palms_. "there is a wonderful evergreen," said miss harson, "which grows in tropical countries, and also in some sub-tropical countries, such as the holy land, and is said to have nearly as many uses as there are days in a year. you must tell me what it is when you have seen the picture." [illustration: palm tree.] malcolm and clara both pronounced it a palm tree, and clara asked if there were any such trees growing in this country. "some of its relations are found on our southern seacoast," replied their governess; "south carolina, you know, is called 'the palmetto state.' there is a member of the family called the cabbage-palmetto, the unexpanded leaves of which are used as a table vegetable, which you may see in florida. its young leaves are all in a mass at the top, and when boiled make a dish something like cabbage. the leaves of the palmetto are also used, when perfect, in the manufacture of hats, baskets and mats, and for many other purposes. but its stately and majestic cousin, the date-palm of the east, with its tall, slender stalk and magnificent crown of feathery leaves, has had its praises sung in every age and clime. 'besides its great importance as a fruit-producer, it has a special beauty of its own when the clusters of dates are hanging in golden ripeness under its coronal of dark-green leaves. its well-known fruit affords sustenance to the dwellers on the borders of the great african desert; it is as necessary to them as is the camel, and in many cases they may be said to owe their existence to it alone. the tree rears its column-like stem to the height of ninety feet, and its crown consists of fifty leaves about twelve feet in length and fringed at the edges like a feather. between the leaf and the stem there issue several horny spathes, or sheaths, out of which spring clusters of panicles that bear small white flowers,' these flowers are followed by the dates, which grow in a dense bunch that hangs down several feet." "but how do people manage to climb such a tree as that," asked malcolm, "to get the dates? it goes straight up in the air without any branches, and looks as if it would snap in two if any one tried it." "it does not snap, though, for it is very strong; and the climbing is easier than you imagine, even when the tree is a hundred feet high, as it sometimes is. the trunk, you see, is full of rugged knots. these projections are the remains of decayed leaves which have dropped off when their work was done. as the older leaves decay the stalk advances in height. it has not true wood, like most trees, but the stem has bundles of fibres that are closely pressed together on the outer part. toward the root these are so entwined that they become as hard as iron and are very difficult to cut. the tree grows very slowly, but it lives for centuries. i have a persian fable in rhyme for you, called "'the gourd and the palm. "'"how old art thou?" said the garrulous gourd as o'er the palm tree's crest it poured its spreading leaves and tendrils fine, and hung a-bloom in the morning shine. "a hundred years," the palm tree sighed.-- "and i," the saucy gourd replied, "am at the most a hundred hours, and overtop thee in the bowers." "'through all the palm tree's leaves there went a tremor as of self-content. "i live my life," it whispering said, "see what i see, and count the dead; and every year of all i've known a gourd above my head has grown and made a boast like thine to-day, yet here i stand; but where are they?"'" the children were very much pleased with the fable, and they began to feel quite an affection for the venerable and useful palm tree. "the date tree," continued their governess, "as this species of palm is often called, blossoms in april, and the fruit ripens in october. each tree produces from ten to twelve bunches, and the usual weight of a bunch is about fifteen pounds. it is esteemed a crime to fell a date tree or to supply an axe intended for that purpose, even though the tree may belong to an enemy. the date-harvest is expected with as much anxiety by the arab in the oasis as the gathering in of the wheat and corn in temperate regions. if it were to fail, the arabs would be in danger of famine. the blessings of the date-palm are without limit to the arab. its leaves give a refreshing shade in a region where the beams of the sun are almost insupportable; men, and also camels, feed upon the fruit; the wood of the tree is used for fuel and for building the native huts; and ropes, mats, baskets, beds, and all kinds of articles, are manufactured from the fibres of the leaves. the arab cannot imagine how a nation can exist without date-palms, and he may well regard it as the greatest injury that he can inflict upon his enemy to cut down his trees." "miss harson," asked edith, very earnestly, "isn't the palm tree in the bible?" [illustration: date-palm at jericho.] "it certainly is, dear," replied her governess, "and it is one of the trees most frequently mentioned. in deuteronomy, thirty-fourth chapter, third verse, jericho is called the 'city of palm trees.' travelers still speak of these trees as yet growing in palestine, but they are not nearly so abundant as they once were; near jericho only one or two can be found. there are many allusions to the palm in the scriptures. king david, in the ninety-second psalm, says that the righteous shall flourish like the palm tree: 'those that be planted in the house of the lord shall flourish in the courts of our god. they shall bring forth fruit in old age.' the palm is always upright, in spite of rain or wind. 'there it stands, looking calmly down upon the world below, and patiently yielding its large clusters of golden fruit from generation to generation. it brings forth fruit in old age.' the allusion to being planted in the house of the lord is probably drawn from the custom of planting beautiful and long-lived trees in the courts of temples and palaces. solomon covered all the walls of the holy of holies round about with golden palm trees.--you will find this, clara, in first kings." clara read: "'and he carved all the walls of the house round about with carved figures of cherubim and palm trees and open flowers, within and without[ ].'" [ ] i kings vi. . "in the thirty-second verse," continued miss harson, "it is written that he overlaid them with gold, 'and spread gold upon the cherubim, and upon the palm trees.' 'they were thus planted, as it were, within the very house of the lord; and their presence there was not only ornamental, but appropriate and highly suggestive--the very best emblem not only of patience in well-doing, but of the rewards of the righteous, a fat and flourishing old age, a peaceful end, a glorious immortality.'" "what does a 'palmer' mean, miss harson?" asked malcolm. "is it a man who has palm trees or who sells dates? i saw the word in a book i was reading, but i couldn't understand what it meant." "in olden times," replied his governess, "when people made so many pilgrimages, some of the pilgrims went to the holy land and some to rome and other places; but those who went to palestine were thought to be the most devout, both because it was so much farther off and because there were so many sacred spots to visit there. these pilgrims always brought home with them branches of palm, to show that they had really been to the land where the tree grew; and so they were called _palmers_. to say that such-a-one was a palmer was far more than to say that he was a pilgrim." "miss harson," said clara, holding up one of the books, "here is a picture called 'the cocoanut-palm,' but i didn't know that cocoanuts grew on palm trees. will you tell us something about it?" [illustration: cocoanut-palm trees in south-eastern africa.] "certainly i will, dear," was the reply. "i fully intended to do so, for the cocoanut-palm is too valuable a member of the family to be passed over. this species does not grow in palestine, and it is not one of the trees of the bible; its home is in the warmest countries, and it grows most luxuriantly in the islands of the tropics or near the seacoast on the main-lands. although its general form is similar to that of the date-palm, the foliage and fruit are quite different. the leaves are very much broader, and they have not the light, airy look of the foliage of the date-palm. but 'the cocoanut-palm is the most valuable of nature's gifts to the inhabitants of those parts of the tropics where it grows, and its hundred uses, as they are not inaptly called, extend beyond the tropics over the civilized world. the beautiful islands of the southern seas are fringed with cocoanut-palms that encircle them as with a green and feathery belt. the ripe nuts drop into the sea, but, protected by their husks, they float away until the tide washes them on to the shore of some neighboring island, where they can take root and grow.'" "wouldn't it be nice," said edith, "if some would float here?" "a great many cocoanuts float here in ships," replied miss harson, "but they would not take root and grow, because the climate is not suited to them; it is too cold for them. we cannot have tropical fruit without tropical heat, and i am sure that none of us would want such a change as that. you may sometimes see small cocoanut trees in hothouses or horticultural gardens, where they are shielded from our cold air. the island of ceylon, in the east indies, is full of cocoanut-palm trees, for they are carefully cultivated by the inhabitants, and the feathery groves stretch mile after mile. the tree shoots up a column-like stem to the height of a hundred feet, and is crowned with a tuft of broad leaves about twelve feet long. the flowers are yellowish white and grow in clusters, and the seed ripens into a hard nut which in its fibrous husk is about the size of an infant's head." "i've seen the nut in its husk," said malcolm, "when papa took me down to the wharf where the ships come in. there were lots of cocoanuts, and some of 'em had their coats on." "this brown husk," continued his governess, "is a valuable part of the nut, for the toughest ropes and cables are made of its fibres, as well as the useful brown matting so generally used to cover offices and passages. brushes, nets and other domestic articles are also manufactured from the husk. scarcely any other tree in the world is so useful to man or contributes so much to his comfort as the cocoanut-palm. food and drink are alike obtained from it. the kernel of the nut is an article of diet, and can be prepared in many ways. the native is almost sustained by it, and in ceylon it forms a part of nearly every dish. the spathe that encloses the yet-unopened flowers is made to yield a favorite beverage called palm-wine, or, more familiarly, 'toddy.' when the fresh juice is used, it is an innocent and refreshing drink; but when left to ferment, it intoxicates, and is the one evil result from the bountiful gifts of the tree. oil is prepared in great quantities from the nuts and used for various purposes." "are there any more kinds of palm trees?" asked the children. "yes," was the reply; "there are a great many members of this most useful family, but the one that will interest you most, after the date-and cocoanut-palm, is, i think, the sago-palm." [illustration: young cocoanut tree in pot (_cocos nucifera_).] "why, miss harson!" exclaimed clara, in surprise; "does sago really grow on a tree?" "it really grows _in_ a tree--for it is a kind of starch secreted by the tree for the use of its flowers and fruit--and in order to obtain it the tree has to be cut down. the pith is then taken out and cut in slices, soaked in water and roasted; and when it assumes the shape of the small globules in which we see it, it is ready for exportation." "well!" said malcolm; "i never knew _that_ before. we've learned ever so many things, miss harson." "there is one thing about the palm," said miss harson, "which i have purposely left for the last--especially as it is the last also of our trees for the present--and that is the sacred associations which its branches have for both jews and christians. the jews were commanded on the first day of the feast of tabernacles to 'take the boughs of goodly trees, branches of palm trees, and the boughs of thick trees, and willows of the brook, to rejoice before the lord their god.' the palm was a symbol of victory, and branches of it were strewn in the path of conquerors, more especially of those who had fought for religious truth. it is the emblem of the martyr, as a conqueror through christ. the sunday before easter is called palm sunday because in the ancient churches leaves of palm were carried that day by worshipers in memory of those strewn in the way on the triumphal entry of the king of zion into jerusalem. you will find it, malcolm, in john." malcolm read very reverently: "'on the next day, much people that were come to the feast, when they heard that jesus was coming to jerusalem, took branches of palm trees, and went forth to meet him, and cried, hosanna; blessed is the king of israel that cometh in the name of the lord[ ].'" [ ] john xii. , . "here," said miss harson, "is a little hymn written on these very verses: "'see a small procession slowly toward the temple wind its way; in the midst rides, meek and lowly, one whom angel-hosts obey. "'how the shouting crowd adore him, now, for once, they know their king; some their garments cast before him, green palm-branches others bring. "'calmly, yet with holy sorrow, christ permits the sacrifice. knowing well that on the morrow changed will be those fickle cries. * * * * * "'children, when in prayers and praises loudly we with lips adore, while the heart no anthem raises, are not we like those of yore? "'o lord jesus, let us never lift the voice in heartless songs; help us to remember ever all that to thy name belongs.'" file was produced from images generously made available by biodiversity heritage library.) transcriber's note: text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). * * * * * a monograph of odontoglossum. by james bateman, esq., f.r.s., f.l.s., etc., author of "the orchidaceÆ of mexico and guatemala." [illustration] london: l. reeve & co., , henrietta street, covent garden. . london: savill, edwards and co., printers, chandos street, covent garden. to her royal highness alexandra, princess of wales, this monograph of a favourite section of a charming family, commenced on the eve of her royal highness' arrival in this her adopted country, is with permission dedicated, by her royal highness' loyal and obedient servant, james bateman. introduction. at the time ( ) when this monograph was commenced, the successful application of the system of cool treatment to orchids accustomed to a moderate temperature in their native haunts gave a fresh impulse to the cultivation of that charming tribe of plants. by its means, what might almost be regarded as a new orchid-world, teeming with interest and beauty, was suddenly brought within our reach. a fresh field was opened to the enterprise of collectors, the spirits of cultivators revived, and the hopes of botanists mounted high. foremost among the spoils that we sought to secure, stood the various members of the genus odontoglossum, which from the days of humboldt[ ] and lexarza, was known to abound in species pre-eminent for the loveliness and delicacy of their flowers but which had hitherto mocked the utmost efforts of our most skilful growers. for although (thanks to the labours of warczewitz and lobb) the horticultural society and messrs. veitch had more than once received large consignments of orchids--among which were many _odontoglossa_--from the mountain ranges of new grenada and peru, they had invariably succumbed under the stifling atmosphere to which, in common with the denizens of india, guiana, or madagascar, they were remorselessly consigned. here and there, indeed, an accidental success was achieved in a greenhouse, but the hint was turned to no account, and as a rule--notwithstanding the repeated warnings and remonstrances of mr. skinner, warczewitz, and others--for thirty years we persisted in the incredible folly of growing "cool" orchids in "hot" stoves; so deeply rooted in the minds of horticulturists was the original prejudice! but it yielded at last, and no sooner had a few houses--constructed and managed on the cool-culture system--made it clear that the orchids of temperate regions were prepared to submit to the skill of the cultivator, than a general raid was made upon the more accessible countries in which they were known to abound--more especially certain districts in mexico and new grenada. to the latter country, collectors were simultaneously sent off by the horticultural society, who despatched mr. weir; by mr. linden, of brussels; and by messrs. low, of the clapton nursery; and all these rival envoys, much to their own mortification and chagrin, found themselves sailing for the same destination in the same steamer on the same errand! it was now that the idea occurred to me of devoting a work of adequate dimensions to the illustration of the particular genus, which from the dried specimens in our herbaria, the plates in _pescatorea_, the figures of humboldt, and the descriptions of travellers was evidently destined to hold the first place among all the numerous company of cool orchids; and thus began the present monograph. i had expected that after the work of importation had fairly commenced, not only would the species described by lindley and reichenbach be easily obtained, but that along with these a multitude of others entirely new to science would likewise be received. in this respect, however, the results have scarcely come up to expectations; a circumstance that is partly to be accounted for by the difficulty attendant on their importation,[ ] but which is owing, i grieve to say, in a far greater degree to the untimely deaths of those zealous collectors, bowman and pearse, who, when in the very heart of the cool orchid regions of ecuador and peru, succumbed under the pressure of their arduous labours. in mexico, from which much novelty was expected, little has been added to the number of _odontoglossa_ previously known, and the same may be said of costa rica, notwithstanding the vigorous exertions of mr. endries. but in these countries it is evident that the genus is not so fully developed as in the mountain ranges of new grenada, quito, and peru. from the latter country little indeed has yet been received, although the eastern slopes of its andean chain are probably richer in species of unknown or unimported orchids than any other portion of the globe. but we must await further improvements in the navigation of the affluents of the mighty amazon, before we can hope to receive any large instalment of these much-coveted treasures. a combination of the various causes referred to above, by limiting the choice of materials, has seriously delayed the publication of this work, which i had hoped would by this time have reckoned at least a dozen parts. but as there seems to be no immediate prospect of these hindrances to more rapid progress being taken out of the way, and as the sands of my life are fast running out, i have thought it best in the interests of my subscribers, to make the present number the last. the six parts now published will, however, form a volume of convenient size, and one which may, as i trust, serve to show how rich new grenada is in the members of this glorious genus. what wealth of _odontoglossa_ peru may possess, i must leave some future botanist to unfold. he will have a pleasant task, and will probably have doubled the roll of the genus as now known, before his work is done. during the progress of this monograph a curious incident has occurred, which may deserve a brief notice. when the publication was commenced, the introduction of two particular plants--more perhaps than of any others known to orchidists--was earnestly desired by growers, these two being the _odontoglossum crispum_ of lindley, and the _cuitlauzina pendula_ of lexarza. the finding, or rather the re-finding of the former--so magnificent were the specimens in the lindleyan herbarium--was declared to be worth a king's ransom; while for the latter--described as a native of oaxaca--more than one collector had scoured that province in vain. _strange to say, they were already in our grasp_: the _o. crispum_ being none other than my _o. alexandræ_, while--as explained under plate viii.--the _cuitlauzina_ proves to be identical with the long previously introduced _odontoglossum citrosmum_ of lindley. whether all the botanical pressure that can be brought to bear upon our cultivators may suffice to convert _o. alexandræ_ into _o. crispum_, or change _o. citrosmum_ into _o. pendulum_, is an extremely doubtful question, so strong is the hold that the erroneous names have already secured on the public mind. in the parallel case of _wellingtonia_, that popular conifer--though now almost universally admitted to be a _sequoia_--remains _wellingtonia_ still, and seems likely to do so for all time to come. the range of the genus _odontoglossum_, as may be gathered from the descriptions attached to the various plates, is of a peculiar character, being at once restricted and extensive. it is restricted, for it never leaves the andes, and it is extensive, for it is found in all parts of that vast mountain-chain, from the confines of florida to the frontiers of chili. as yet no species has ever been met with at a lower elevation than feet above the sea-level, nor, with the exception of _o. hastilabium_, has any _odontoglossum_ been known to descend so low;--the most usual altitude being - feet, though a higher point is often reached. like the humming-birds which frequent the same mountains, and vie with them in beauty, nearly all the _odontoglossa_ are exceedingly local, and in this way two of the most beautiful species, _e.g._, _o. vexillarium_ and _o. roezlii_, eluded discovery for many years, even in a region supposed to be well explored by collectors. as to the botanical limits of the genus, i must needs confess that they are exceedingly difficult to fix. it is as true now as when professor lindley first made the observation to me, that "the more we build up the partition walls between _odontoglossum_, _oncidium_, &c., the more the species break them down." certainly no one at first sight would suppose _odontoglossum cariniferum_ was anything but an _oncidium_, nor _oncidium macranthum_ other than an _odontoglossum_. indeed, i must own to a suspicion that ultimately both these genera, together with _miltonia_, _mesospinidium_, _aspasia_, and possibly one or two others, may come to be regarded merely as _sub_-genera, but this difficult question is safest left in professor reichenbach's far abler hands. at the same time, it is not to be denied that there is such a peculiar look about the _odontoglossa_, that even a non-scientific observer has seldom any difficulty in at once referring most of the species to their true position. one other matter remains to which i must very briefly advert. mr. darwin's fascinating work on the "fertilization" of orchids has led many persons to suppose that this beautiful tribe lends an exceptional amount of support to the theory with which that ingenious writer's name is so prominently associated, but there could scarcely be a greater mistake. not only is the theory in question utterly rejected by professor reichenbach, the _facile princeps_ of living orchidists, but the greater our knowledge of the order, the less countenance does it seem to yield to the darwinian view. we have now become perfectly well acquainted with all the genera--we might almost say with all the species--that belong to particular countries, but it is in these that the limits of variation between the different forms are most distinctly defined; in these, too, the great principle of unity in diversity is most conspicuous--the genera holding aloof from each other, and even the species keeping themselves distinct, although the orchid mark is unmistakeably stamped upon all alike. mr. gould has remarked, in his great work on the "_trochilidæ_," that the darwinian theory derives no support from _them_, and the same may be safely affirmed of orchids, which--we are now speaking of america--are the humming-birds' constant associates. neither, while we contemplate the marvellous and inexhaustible variety of form by which the order is distinguished above all its fellows, can any plead that this result is due to its ancient lineage, nor yet to the vast periods through which endless transformations are assumed to have been continually taking place, because orchids--according to geologic reckoning--are but a thing of yesterday, and have never been found in a fossil state. yet their constant companions the ferns, trace back their pedigree to the earliest vegetation of the primeval world! to the believer, however, the problem is not hard to solve. ferns and other flowerless plants came early in the divine programme, because the coal, into which they were to be ultimately converted, had need to be long accumulating for the future comfort and civilization of our race; while the genesis of orchids was postponed until the time drew near when man, who was to be soothed by the gentle influence of their beauty, or charmed by the marvellous variety of their structure, was about to appear upon the scene. there are multitudes who could bear witness how amply, in their own experience, this gracious purpose has been fulfilled; while the writer--in whose breast a love of orchids prevailed from his youth up--can only exclaim with the psalmist, "thou, oh lord, hast made me glad through thy works, and i will rejoice in giving thanks for the operation of thy hand." j. b. knypersley hall, _april th, _. list of plates. . o. nebulosum. . o. uro-skinneri. . o. phalænopsis. . o. insleayii. . o. pescatorei. . o. pendulum. . o. hastilabium. . o. grande. . o. nævium. . o. cariniferum. . o. lindleyanum. . o. gloriosum. . (fig. .) o. warnerianum. . (fig. .) o. stellatum. . o. alexandræ. . o. reichenheimii. . o. læve. . o. luteo-purpureum. . o. bictonense. . o. alexandræ. . o. maculatum. . o. hallii. . o. roseum. . o. triumphans. . o. krameri. . o. cordatum. . o. angustatum. . o. coronarium. . o. blandum. . o. vexillarium. . o. roezlii. alphabetical index of species figured in this work, with synonyms marked in italics. o. angustatum plate _o. ramosissimum, lindl._ o. bictonense " _cyrtochilum bictoniense, bateman._ o. blandum " o. cariniferum " o. cordatum " o. coronarium " o. crispum plate , " _o. alexandræ, bateman._ _o. bluntii, rchb. fil._ o. gloriosum " o. grande " o. hallii " o. hastilabium " o. insleayii " o. læve " o. lindleyanum " o. luteo-purpureum " _o. hystrix, bateman._ _o. radiatum, rehb. fil._ o. maculatum " o. nævium " o. nebulosum " o. pendulum " _o. citrosmum, lindl._ _cuitlauzina pendula, la llave._ o. pescatorei " o. phalænopsis " o. reichenheimii " o. roezlii " o. roseum " o. stellatum " o. triumphans " o. uro-skinneri " o. vexillarium " o. warnerianum " plate i [illustration: odontoglossum nebulosum.] plate i. odontoglossum nebulosum, _lindley_. clouded odontoglossum. o. (leucoglossum, _lindl._) pseudobulbis ovatis compressis - -phyllis, foliis oblongis acutis basi conduplicatis pedunculo radicali erecto (apice) nutante - -floro brevioribus, bracteis scariosis amplexicaulibus ovario duplo brevioribus, sepalis petalisque latioribus membranaceis oblongis undulatis apiculis recurvis, labelli ungue cucullato carnoso, lamellis duabus erectis dentibusque totidem anticis, limbo ovato acuto dentato subpubescente, columnâ apterâ elongatâ. (_lindl. quibusdam mutatis_.) odontoglossum nebulosum, _lindl. fol. orch._ odontoglossum maxillare, _lemaire (nec lindley), illustration horticole_ ( ), _t._ . habitat in mexico, prope oaxaca (_karwinski_, _galeotti_, etc.), _circiter ft._ description. pseudobulbs _ to inches long, smooth, ovate, somewhat compressed, - or -leaved_. leaves _ or at the apex of the pseudobulbs, oblong, acute, shorter than the_ scape, _which, rising from the base of the pseudobulbs, is bent down at its upper extremity by the weight of from to large and handsome_ flowers. bracts _only half the length of the ovary, embracing the flower-stem_. sepals _ ½ inches long_. petals _much wider than the sepals, and like them of an oblong form, waved at the margin, and a little recurved at the end, which is sharply pointed; both sepals and petals are of clear membranous white, clouded (as the name implies) by a profusion of spots or blotches of a reddish-brown colour, which extend to nearly half their length_. lip _of the same texture and colour as the sepals, only that the brown blotches are broader, and that there is a patch of yellow on the claw; its upper portion is of an ovate form, acute, with the margins very much torn; its fleshy dish is hooded, or gathered into erect plates, with a pair of teeth attached in front_. column _very long, destitute of wings_. it was at munich, in the year , that i first became acquainted with this fine _odontoglossum_ having, through the kindness of professor von martius, been allowed to examine the rich collection of dried specimens that baron karwinski had then recently brought home with him from mexico. two years afterwards living plants were sent to me from oaxaca, which happening to arrive in the midst of that remarkably severe winter - , i naturally expected would have been destroyed on their way; so far, however, from this being the case, they appeared to have sustained little or no injury from the cold, and on being placed in a stove they soon began to push both roots and leaves. all went well so long as the temperature of the house did not exceed °, but when the winter had passed away and they had to face the intense heat at which the orchid-houses of that period were ordinarily maintained, they then quickly lost their vigour and before a twelvemonth had passed were all gone, victims--like a multitude of other invaluable plants--to our then ignorance of the conditions under which alone the orchids of _cool_ countries could be expected to thrive! i am not aware that this plant ever flowered in this country until within the last year or two, certainly no figure of it has ever been published in any english botanical periodical; i have, however, found in a french work (the _illustration horticole_), under the name of _o. maxillare_, what is obviously the same as the plant represented in the plate. i should myself have probably fallen into the same mistake as professor lemaire, had i not enjoyed the opportunity--which he unfortunately had not--of examining the original specimens in dr. lindley's herbarium, and from which that able botanist drew up his description (in the _folia orchidacea_) of the two species. _o. maxillare_, of which dr. lindley only examined a single flower--though he made a most careful drawing--is shown by a glance at the latter, to be a totally different thing; it has moreover, i fear, long since disappeared from our collections. in dr. lindley's description the flower-scape is said to be terminal, which in nature it never is, although from the way in which karwinski's wild specimen was glued together, it certainly presents that appearance in the herbarium. the column moreover, and the base of the sepals and petals, are said to be pubescent, though nothing of the kind is visible to the naked eye when the flowers are fresh. with a powerful magnifying glass pubescence may certainly be seen. _odontoglossum nebulosum_ flowers at different seasons of the year, always sending up its scape at the same time as the young growth. it is of the easiest culture.[ ] the figure was derived from a beautiful specimen that flowered last november in the collection of j. day, esq., of tottenham, who grows this and many other _odontoglossa_ in high perfection. dissections.-- . lip, seen in front; . ditto, seen sideways: _both magnified_. plate ii [illustration: odontoglossum uro-skinneri.] plate ii. odontoglossum uro-skinneri, _lindl_. mr. skinner's odontoglossum. o. (leucoglossum, _lindl_.) pseudobulbis ovato-oblongis ancipitibus compressis guttulatis - -phyllis, foliis oblongis acuminatis scapo multifloro simplici vel subpaniculato multo brevioribus, bracteis membranaceis cymbiformibus acuminatis ovario -plo brevioribus, petalis sepalisque subæqualibus late-ovatis acuminatis, labelli ungue bilamellato limbo cordato maculato acuminato undulato, columnæ alis ovatis deflexis. odontoglossum uro-skinneri, _gardeners' chronicle_, vol. , pp. , . habitat in guatemala, prope santa catarina de los altos, - _ft_., _skinner_. description. pseudobulbs _or_ _inches long by nearly as many wide, much flattened, and very sharp at the edges, always powdered with minute brown dots, which do not appear until the second year_. leaves _oblong, broad, and stiff, acuminate at their extremities, much shorter than the scape_. scape _generally simple, but sometimes slightly panicled, about a yard high, and bearing from_ _to_ _agreeably scented_ flowers. _bracts_ _of a delicate texture, boat-shaped, scarcely more than one-third the length of the ovary_. sepals _and_ petals _nearly equal, broadly ovate, about an inch long, of a green colour, covered with rich reddish-brown spots_. lip _broad and spreading, heart-shaped, acuminate, and turned inwards at the apex, its disk white, but covered with round blue spots, which cease at the foot of the isthmus (claw), where two upright and nearly parallel lamellæ (plates) are stationed_. column _furnished with ovate, decurved, round-headed wings_. this is a robust and stately plant, nearly allied to _o. bictoniense_ to which at one time dr. lindley was disposed to refer it, but far larger and handsomer in all its parts. its broad pseudobulbs which become covered in their second year with a multitude of small reddish dots, its wide sepals and petals, the spotting of its lip, and its general resemblance to _zygopetalum mackaii_ will, however, sufficiently distinguish it. being found at a higher elevation than _o. bictoniense_, it requires to be kept more cool, and as it affects dark and wet banks in its native wilds, it is better to place it in a north house where it can be more readily protected from the sun. treated in this way it grows luxuriantly and flowers abundantly at knypersley, whence the specimen figured in the plate was derived. its flowering season seems to vary, for while with me it is now (may) coming into bloom, about london november is the more usual month. _o. uro-skinneri_ was the latest discovery of my indefatigable friend mr. skinner (after whom it was named by dr. lindley), and who, though now settled in england, is as much devoted to his favourite tribe as when, while resident in guatemala, he was wont to delight the orchidists of europe by the multitude of new and beautiful plants that he was constantly dispatching across the main. dissection.-- . side view of lip and column: _magnified_. plate iii [illustration: odontoglossum phalænopsis.] plate iii. odontoglossum phalÆnopsis, _rchb. fil_. moth-like odontoglossum. o. (leucoglossum, _lindl_.) pseudobulbis ovatis obtuse ancipitibus - -phyllis, foliis linearibus acutissimis racemis bi- vel trifloris spithamæis longioribus, sepalis oblongo-ligulatis acutis, petalis latioribus obovatis obtusis; labelli ampli pandurati emarginati bilamelligeri disco velutino, columnæ alis abbreviatis membranaceis. odontoglossum phalÆnopsis, _rchb. fil. in seemann bonplandia_, ii. ; _pescatorea, linden et rchb. fil_. ii. . miltonia pulchella, _hort_. habitat in n. granada, prope aspasica, alt. - ft., _schlim_. description. _terrestrial_. pseudobulbs _nearly two inches long, ovate, bearing one, or more frequently two, narrow linear, very acute_ leaves, _less than a foot long, and usually withered at the extremities_. raceme _nodding, shorter than the leaves, furnished with a few small acute_ bracts, _and bearing two, or occasionally three, very large and handsome flowers, which, the markings of the lip excepted, are of a uniform white_. sepals _oblong, sharp-pointed, about an inch long_. petals _broader than the sepals, obtuse_. lip _fiddle-shaped, its front portion deeply emarginate, spread out nearly flat, very broad, its side portions much smaller, rounded, and with two continuous upright lamellæ on its velvety disk; the lip has two large irregular pale-crimson blotches on its anterior portion, with concentric lines of the same colour on its lower portion, with a small patch of yellow on either side the isthmus_ (i.e. _point of junction between the upper and lower divisions of the lip_). column _short, with membranous wings much abbreviated_. this most charming _odontoglossum_ was discovered in the year by m. schlim at that time engaged in exploring the higher regions of new granada in the service of m. linden to whose well-known horticultural establishment at brussels he had the honour of introducing it. the species was seen in flower for the first time in the year when it appeared at some horticultural exhibitions both on the continent and in london and, as may readily be conceived, attracted universal admiration. since that time its lovely blossoms have been rarely produced, owing no doubt to its cultivation having been imperfectly understood. it has however, i believe, bloomed occasionally in the collection of the lord chancellor of ireland, and more recently in that of e. mcmorland, esq., of haverstock hill, with whom it thrives amazingly, and to whose kindness i am indebted for the opportunity of figuring it. in its native country it is found in a mild climate growing on the ground, or upon rocks in moist and shady situations, and by simply imitating these conditions mr. mcmorland cultivates it with the most perfect success. his plants are kept in pots, with living moss on the surface, and their base resting in pans of water the evaporation from which cannot fail to be highly beneficial. the temperature of the house in which they are grown is that of an ordinary greenhouse, but the air is always humid, and water is freely given because, in consequence of the _open potting_, it can pass as freely away. the plants seem to grow and flower almost all the year round, though their proper and principal flowering-season is in may and june. _o. phalænopsis_ is entirely distinct from any species of the genus yet in cultivation, but it is allied to a still finer plant detected by warszewicz in costa rica, and called in honour of its discoverer _o. warszewiczii_ by professor reichenbach. dissections.-- . lip. seen sideways; and . front view of lip: _both magnified_. plate iv [illustration: odontoglossum insleayii.] plate iv. odontoglossum insleayi, _lindl_. insleay's odontoglossum. o. (euodontoglossum, _lindl_.) pseudobulbis ovatis compressis diphyllis, foliis coriaceis oblongo-ensiformibus subundulatis apice recurvis racemo - -floro erecto rigido brevioribus, sepalis petalisque oblongis subæqualibus undulatis infimis connatis, labello angusto obovato retuso basi auriculato, disci cristâ apice bilobâ dilatatâ utrinque in medio dente refracto auctâ, columnæ alis incurvis cirrhatis. (_lindl. fol. orch._) oncidium insleayi, _barker in bot. reg._ , _misc._ ; _bateman, orchid. mex. et guat. t. _; _van houtte, flore des serres,_ , _t._ . habitat in mexico, _barker_; oaxaca, _loddiges_; - _ft._ description. pseudobulbs _ovate, slightly furrowed, compressed, bearing leathery, sword-shaped, sharp-pointed_ leaves, _which are less than a foot long, and like the rest of the plant of a glaucous hue_. scape _upright, longer than the leaves, bearing from to flowers, usually from to inches in diameter, but sometimes considerably more_. bracts _few, about an inch long, occurring at intervals somewhat longer than themselves, and fitting tightly to the stem_. sepals _and_ petals _nearly equal, oblong, waved, the two lateral ones attached at their base, of a pale yellowish-green tint, crossed throughout their entire length by broad bands of reddish-brown_. lip _narrow, obovate, turned a little back, of a bright yellow colour, bordered by a belt of red blotches; on its disk are a group of tubercles, mounting two teeth on either side, and with cleft callus in front_. column-wings _bent inwards, and resembling in form the antennæ of an insect_. this _odontoglossum_ was originally introduced from mexico by the late mr. barker, of birmingham, after whose gardener it was named by dr. lindley. it flowered with mr. barker somewhere about the year , when a figure was prepared for the 'orchidaceæ of mexico and guatemala,' but i had not then the opportunity of examining the plant, nor indeed did i ever actually see it in flower until the autumn of last year ( ) when i happened to meet with the specimen from which the illustration is derived, growing and blooming vigorously in the collection of dr. cauty, of liverpool. the species had, in fact, virtually disappeared from collections during an interregnum of twenty years, and its reappearance is entirely due to the adoption of the rational system of cool treatment now happily prevailing, and under which it may be cultivated with the greatest ease. in habit _o. insleayi_ is quite indistinguishable from _o. grande_; and although its flowers are far inferior in beauty to those of that glorious species, they bear a certain sort of resemblance to them in their colouring and general arrangement. the structure is however entirely different, for while _o. grande_ has no bristle-like appendages to its column, and therefore belongs to the section of the genus which has been called xanthoglossum by dr. lindley, the processes in question are clearly present (see dissections) in the case of _o. insleayi_, thereby bringing it under the preceding section, to which the title of euodontoglossum has been given by the same authority. the time and mode of flowering are also different in the two plants, for while in _o. grande_ the flower-scapes appear almost simultaneously with the leaves, and are usually in perfection in july, those of _o. insleayi_ are not produced until long after the pseudobulbs have been matured, nor do they expand their blossoms until late in the autumn. as is the case with most of its congeners, there are many varieties of _o. insleayi_, some of which are much less attractive in their colouring than the one represented in the plate, while others have much larger flowers, as in the example given in the vignette which is copied from an old woodcut in the journal of the horticultural society. unfortunately this latter variety has, i greatly fear, been lost to the country, but collectors should endeavour to reintroduce it. i have already referred to dr. cauty's success in the treatment of the subject of the present plate, but his skill and care are equally conspicuous in the management of a miscellaneous collection of orchids, which he contrives to grow under circumstances such as would have deterred most men from attempting to grow any plants at all. the house in which he lives is in the very centre of liverpool, and has in its rear a small back court, such as is usually devoted to dustbins and coal-holes, but where dr. cauty has found space for three little orchid-houses of different temperatures in which the orchids of different climes are perfectly at home. i can really see no reason why in all large towns--in london more especially--dr. cauty's example should not be extensively followed, and the luxury of an orchid-house be thus brought within the reach of many who now consider it quite beyond their grasp. dissections.-- . lip, seen sideways; . ditto, seen in front: _both magnified_. [illustration: flower (_nat. size_) of a large variety of _o. insleayi_.] plate v [illustration: odontoglossum pescatorei.] plate v. odontoglossum pescatorei, _lindley_. m. pescatore's odontoglossum. o. (isanthium, _lindl._) pseudobulbis ovatis lævigatis nebulosis diphyllis, foliis loratis planis basi angustatis paniculâ amplâ erectâ multiflorâ -plo brevioribus, bracteis minutis, floribus membranaceis, sepalis ovato-oblongis apiculatis leviter undulatis, petalis conformibus latioribus, labello cuspidato subpandurato basi denticulato, cristæ lamellis lateralibus distantibus cartilagineis laceris lineis duabus divergentibus apice denticulatis interjectis, columnæ brevis alis brevibus cuneatis laceris. (_lindl. fol. orch., quibusdam mutatis._) odontoglossum pescatorei, _lindley, in paxton's flower garden, iii. t. _; _pescatorea, t. _; _warner's select orchidaceous plants, t. ._ odontoglossum nobile, _reichenbach fil. in linnæa_, , . habitat in new granada, province of pamplona, at the height of from to feet, _funck and schlim_. description. pseudobulbs _from to inches long, of an ovate form, glossy, and mottled with dark brown, usually bearing lorate_ leaves, _which are from inches to a foot long, narrowed at the base and sharp at the end, much shorter than the tall upright branched_ panicle, _which sometimes rises to the height of feet, and bears from to membranous_ flowers _of a peculiarly delicate texture_. bracts _very small_. sepals _ovate-oblong, apiculate, slightly waved at the edges, an inch long, white with streaks of rose-colour_. petals _similar in form and texture to the sepals, but broader and more curled at the edges, of the purest white_. lip _inclining to fiddle-shape, pointed, but with the point invisible when looked at in front; towards the base are two short upright tubercles that pass forward into plates diverging from each other, and toothed in front. on either side are two pseudo-wings, irregularly indented, and, like the plates, of a beautiful gold colour, streaked with red. the rest of the lip is white, with the exception of a few irregular blotches of crimson, the number and size and disposition of which vary considerably in different individuals_. column _short, with short wedge-shaped_ wings, _a little indented at the edges_. this lovely plant was discovered in the year by mm. funck and schlim when on a botanical mission to new granada, in the service of m. linden. according to its discoverers, it is not unfrequently met with in the provinces of pamplona and ocaña, at an elevation above the sea-level of about feet, inhabiting the oak forests which--where the climate is mild--clothe the eastern slopes of the glorious cordillera. _o. pescatorei_ flowered with m. linden for the first time in , and attracted, as well it might, universal admiration. nothing indeed, even in the beautiful family to which it belongs, can surpass the delicacy of its blossoms, with their charming mixture of rose and white, relieved by a few deep-crimson stains scattered irregularly over the lip. its habit too is good, and its stately panicle of flowers well-proportioned to the size of the bulbs and leaves. it blooms abundantly in the spring months, and its blossoms continue at least six weeks in perfection. we need not wonder that a plant with such a rare combination of good qualities should have been selected by m. linden to do honour to his patron the late m. pescatore, after whom he named it, and in whose sumptuous work ('pescatorea') it forms the first plate. although the species, owing to the difficulty of importing it alive, is still exceedingly rare in this country, it has already flowered in many of the principal collections, especially in those of mr. rucker, mr. basset, mr. day, and mr. dawson, of meadow bank near edinburgh. with the last-named gentleman a panicle, with sixty flowers upon it, is now (april, ) in full beauty. mr. fitch's drawing was taken from an exquisite variety, of which mr. day is the fortunate possessor, and which he kindly placed at my disposal for the purpose of being figured in this work. in the plate the flower-spike is represented as panicled because such--as in the case of all the other varieties--is no doubt its normal state; as yet however racemes only have been produced. the treatment recommended for other _odontoglossa_ (see under plate i.) will suit _o. pescatorei_, which is as easily managed as any of the genus. dissections.-- . lip, seen sideways; . lip, front view: _magnified_. [illustration] plate vi [illustration: odontoglossum pendulum.] plate vi. odontoglossum pendulum. pendent-flowered odontoglossum. o. (trymenium) pseudobulbis subrotundis compressis lævibus diphyllis, foliis oblongo-ligulatis obtusis racemo pendulo multifloro paulo brevioribus, sepalis oblongis obtusis petalisque conformibus subæqualibus, labello unguiculato reniformi basi excavato marginibus callosis, clinandrii alis lateralibus subtruncatis dorsalique rotundato denticulatis. odontoglossum citrosmum, _lindl. bot. reg._ , _misc._ ; , _t._ ; _fol. orch. n._ ; _warner's select orchidaceous plants_, _t._ ; _lemaire_, _jard. fl._ _t._ . cuitlauzina pendula, _la llace et lexarza_, _orch. mex._ ; _reichenbach, fil._, _bonplandia_, iii. , . habitat in mexico, _lexarza_, _karwinski_, _barker_. description. pseudobulbs _clustered together, to inches long, compressed, ovate or almost round, smooth and glossy, -leaved_. leaves _ inches to a foot long, leathery, oblong-ligulate, obtuse, rather shorter than the raceme_. raceme _issuing at an early stage from the young growth, pendulous, many-flowered, rarely branched, longer than the leaves_. sepals _and_ petals _similar in form, pure white, or in some varieties of a faint blush or rose-colour, frequently sprinkled with minute red dots, oblong, obtuse, about an inch long_. lip _unguiculate, kidney-shaped, channelled (with the solid edges turned up) along its base, on which there is a patch of yellow, with a few bright dots in the position where a crest (here entirely wanting) is usually placed; the colour of the disk of the lip varies in different specimens, being sometimes entirely white and sometimes tipped with faint rose-colour or deep-crimson_. column _with upper and lower wings (all of which are toothed), that on the back being rounded and the others truncated_. early in the present century, two spaniards--la llave and lexarza by name--settled at the mexican town of valladolid, in the fertile province of mechoacan. they were both attached to botany, but the younger of the two, lexarza, was so attracted by the beauty of the numerous orchids of the district that to these he devoted himself with an ardour that would have done honour even to the lindleys and reichenbachs of our own day. as the result of his labours a little work--'orchidianum opusculum' he modestly styled it--presently made its appearance, wherein about fifty species, all at that time new to science, were described with remarkable accuracy and skill. among the number there was a plant,--_cuitlauzina pendula_ he called it,--said to be of surpassing loveliness and to form an undoubtedly new genus the distinctive characters of which were minutely given. as time went on and the rage for orchids developed itself in europe, a keen desire was naturally felt by cultivators to add so fine a plant to their lists; but although many collectors visited valladolid and laid hands upon nearly all the other desirable orchids described by lexarza, still nothing was heard of the _cuitlauzina_, and on the cover of the latest number of dr. lindley's 'folia orchidacea' its name may be found in the list of genera "unknown to the author." about the same time i myself addressed a letter to the 'gardeners' chronicle' urging some adventurous traveller to take ship for new spain, mainly with the object of instituting another search for the tantalizing plant that had hitherto eluded our grasp. yet all this while _cuitlauzina pendula_ was amongst us, and indeed had been an established favourite for upwards of twenty years! but if so, it may well be asked, how came it to pass that it was never recognized? for a full reply to this very natural inquiry i must refer the reader to a most ingenious article in 'bonplandia' (jahrg. iii. no. , ), by the younger reichenbach, to whom all the credit is due of having solved a great botanical puzzle, and proved to demonstration that the _cuitlauzina pendula_ of lexarza is none other than the _odontoglossum citrosmum_ of lindley.[ ] under these circumstances, however undesirable the meddling with established names, i scarcely see how, in common justice to lexarza, we can do otherwise than adopt his specific name of _pendula_, more especially as it happens that the plant to which he originally gave it remains to this day the only one out of nearly a hundred _odontoglossa_ that has flower-stems which are strictly _pendulous_. our gardens contain many varieties of _o. pendulum_, of which, though all are beautiful, some are far superior to others. that represented in the plate, and which forms a part of mr. rucker's collection, is among the best. mr. rucker keeps it in his coolest house, where it is perfectly at home, and produces a profusion of its lovely drooping racemes in may and june. it should always be grown in a pot. dissections.-- . front view of lip and column; . side view of ditto: _magnified_. plate vii [illustration: odontoglossum hastilabium.] plate vii. odontoglossum hastilabium, _lindley_. halbert-lipped odontoglossum. o. (isanthium, _lindl._) pseudobulbis ovatis compressis - -phyllis, foliis oblongis coriaceis, paniculæ exaltatæ ramis spicatis, bracteis cymbiformibus acuminatis ovario æqualibus, sepalis petalisque lineari-lanceolatis acuminatis undulatis, labello apice subrotundo-ovato acuto basi auriculis acutis lanceolatis porrectis aucto, lamellis elevatis, columnæ alis obsolete undulatis, margine versus basin membranaceo dilatato. odontoglossum hastilabium, _lindley_, _orchid. linden._ _n._ ; _hooker_, _bot. mag._ _t._ ; _pescatorea_, _t._ . habitat in nov. granada: tesqua, in the province of pamplona, at the elevation of feet, april, _linden_; on the road from santa martha to the sierra nevada, _purdie_; ocaña, january, - feet, _schlim_, _wagener_, _blunt_. description. pseudobulbs _compressed, ovate, to inches long, bearing or oblong, leathery_ leaves, _not more than a third the length of the scape_. bracts _boat-shaped, acuminate, equal in length to the ovary_. scape _very robust, from to feet high, panicled, bearing from to flowers_. sepals _and_ petals _ ½ to inches long, linear-lanceolate, acuminate, slightly waved at the margin, of a pale-green, barred with numerous lines of dark-red or purple_. lip _halbert-shaped, purple at the base, but white in its upper portion, which is of a roundish-ovate form, pointed at the extremity; its crest consists of outer and interior plates, the taller stretching forward beyond the former, with a linear-oval callosity in the centre_. column _expanding at its base on either side into an inflexed membrane_. as this stately _odontoglossum_ is met with at a much lower elevation than any of its congeners, it is constitutionally less impatient of heat, and has therefore been able to accommodate itself to artificial conditions under which others of its race in former years have pined and died. but although in some parts of new granada it descends as low as feet, its more frequent range is feet higher up the mountains, and it is in such situations that it attains its greatest luxuriance and beauty. some imported specimens that i was fortunate enough to see last year ( ) at the clapton nursery, whither they had been sent by mr. blunt, had flower-stems half an inch thick and fully feet high. these were gathered at an elevation of at least feet above the sea-level and, as they arrived in excellent condition and have been extensively distributed, i have little doubt we shall ere long see cultivated specimens that may vie with the wild ones in stature and magnificence. its flowering season is the spring or early summer. the figure was taken in may last from a plant in mr. rucker's collection where it is grown at the coolest end of the cattleya-house. dissection.-- . front view of lip and column; . side view of ditto: _magnified_. plate viii [illustration: odontoglossum grande.] plate viii. odontoglossum grande, _lindley_. great odontoglossum. o. (xanthoglossum) pseudobulbis ovatis compressis diphyllis, foliis coriaceis oblongo-ensiformibus scapo simplici brevioribus, sepalis lanceolatis lateralibus convexis falcatis petalisque oblongis obtusiusculis latioribus subundulatis, labello subrotundo basi auriculato sepalis plus duplo breviore, disci cristâ apice truncatâ bituberculatâ utrinque in medio dente calloque auctâ, columnæ tomentosæ auriculis rotundatis convexis incurvis. odontoglossum grande, _lindl. in bot. reg._ , _misc._ ; _bateman_, _orchid. mex._ _t._ ; _morren. ann. gand._ i. _t._ . habitat in guatemala, _skinner_, _hartweg_. description. pseudobulbs _compressed, broadly ovate, or inches long, bearing or more frequently_ _leathery, oblong-ensiform_ leaves, _which, as well as the pseudobulbs, have always more or less of a pale-glaucous hue_. scape _twice the length of the leaves, - -flowered_. bracts _sheathing, acute, half the length of the ovary_. flowers _very large, in some varieties inches or more from the tip of expanded petals_. sepals _lanceolate, the lateral ones convex and falcate_. petals _wider than the sepals, and, like them, of a rich yellow colour, marked with large deep-cinnamon bands and blotches, oblong, somewhat obtuse at their extremities, and slightly waved at the margin_. lip _not half the length of the sepals, nearly round, whitish, with a few crimson stains near the crest, which is of rich orange-yellow, marked with deep-orange spots, and is seated on the disk of the lip; it consists of large truncate processes in front, with or small teeth at its base; its auricles turn their edges down until they meet under the disk of the lip, and there grow together_. column _downy, with a rounded, incurved, convex auricle on either side_. mr. skinner was the fortunate discoverer of this noble _odontoglossum_ which to this day remains unsurpassed, even among all the fine additions that have of late years been made to the genus. mr. skinner found it in a "barranca" (or dark ravine) in the environs of the city of guatemala, and so closely had it lain concealed that even his quick eye failed to detect it until long after he had, as he thought, exhausted the district of all its finest orchids. it was afterwards met with in other localities, but invariably in a climate of which the ordinary range of temperature lay between ° and °, and in situations where it was secure of abundant moisture and constant shade. in these peculiarities of its natural habitat the conditions of its successful cultivation are clearly pointed out; yet, strange to say, they were unheeded for twenty years, during which the plants in our orchid-houses were always in a feeble and sickly state, rarely producing more than two or three flowers on a scape, while the imported specimens showed that at least double that number was the proper quota. now, however, the case is different, for with a mild temperature and moderate shade they are found to be managed with the most perfect ease and to grow with a vigour that could never have been exceeded in their native wilds. in proof of this we need only turn to the vignette, which is copied from a beautiful photograph kindly sent to me by joshua saunders, esq., and which represents a specimen of _o. grande_ as it appeared when flowering in his collection at clifton. as a further evidence of the ease with which the plant may be grown i may mention that under the care of major trevor clarke it has been induced to bloom in the open air during the summer months. this, however, must only be looked upon as an interesting experiment and is not recommended for imitation. _o. grande_ usually flowers in july or august, when the season's growth is nearly completed; after this it should be allowed to rest. mr. fitch's drawing was taken from a handsome variety that flowered last year ( ) in a north house at knypersley, and which had been given me by mr. skinner.[ ] dissections.-- . front view of column and labellum; . side view of ditto: _slightly magnified_. [illustration: plant of _odontoglossum grande_ in the collection of joshua saunders, esq., copied from a photograph taken by himself.] plate ix [illustration: odontoglossum nævium.] plate ix. odontoglossum nÆvium, _lindley_. speckled odontoglossum. o. (euodontoglossum) pseudobulbis ovatis compressis, foliis tenuibus lanceolatis basi angustatis scapo racemoso vel subpaniculato multifloro nutante subæqualibus vel longioribus, sepalis petalisque angustis ovato-lanceolatis acuminatis undulatis, labello subconformi pubescente vix hastato, cristæ dentibus grossis bi- vel subtrilobis pubescentibus, columnæ cirrhis subulatis patulis. odontoglossum nÆvium, _lindley in paxton's flower garden_, i. _t._ ; _flore des serres_, vi. ; _pescatorea_, _t._ ; _warner's select orchidaceous plants_, _t._ ; _reichenbach fil. in bonplandia_, ii. . habitat in venezuela, _funck and schlim_ ( ), in the province of truxillo, near s. lazaro and la peña, feet; new granada, in the province of pamplona, flowering in august, feet, _linden_ ( ). description. pseudobulbs _ovate, compressed, somewhat bluntly ribbed, bearing or narrow-oblong_ leaves, _tapering at the base, about equal in length to or more frequently shorter than the many-flowered flower-scape_. flowers _arranged on a nodding raceme (occasionally a panicle is formed), pure white, speckled everywhere with rich crimson or brown_. bracts _very short, scale-like_. sepals _and_ petals _ovate, linear-lanceolate, acuminate, spreading equally, much waved, from ½ to (in some varieties) or ½ inches long_. lip _shorter than the petals, but nearly of the same form and colour, except that there is a yellow crest with a large crimson blotch in its front; at its base the edges of the claw clasp the column_. teeth _of the crest yellow, small, distinct, with or unequal blunt lobes to each, downy_. column _downy, narrowed to the base, with a pair of awl-shaped ears near the summit, below the anther-bed_. this brilliant _odontoglossum_ was first discovered by the late sir robert schomburgk, and having been shipped with his other collections from demerara, has long been supposed to be a native of the latter colony. i am, however, satisfied that, beyond the circumstance alluded to, there is not the slightest reason for regarding it as a demerara plant, for no other collector has ever found it there, nor would its constitution endure so hot a climate. as sir robert, in his memorable expedition into the interior of guiana ( - ), reached an elevation of feet, on the fourth parallel of latitude, and among the southern affluents of the orinoco, i have little doubt that it was in this region that he discovered _o. nævium,_ along with _maxillaria eburnea_, _diothonea imbricata_, and other treasures that have never yet found their way to us in a living state.[ ] _o. nævium_ and its varieties appear to be extensively distributed, having been met with in many localities, both in venezuela and new granada, always, however, at a very considerable elevation, and hence the necessity of cool treatment. if this be conceded, the plant is of the easiest culture and will flower abundantly in may or june. the figure was taken from a splendid specimen in mr. rucker's collection. i do not think it necessary to adhere any longer to dr. lindley's distinction (as noted in the 'folia orchidacea') of a "major" variety, for this is now found to pass insensibly into the ordinary type. the former has sometimes been confounded with the _o. gloriosum_ of reichenbach, but this is a perfectly independent form, and as such will shortly be figured in this work. dissections.-- . front view of lip and column; . side view of ditto: _magnified_. [illustration] plate x [illustration: odontoglossum carinatum.] plate x. odontoglossum cariniferum, _reichb. fil._ keel-petaled odontoglossum. o. (xanthoglossum) pseudobulbis oblongis - -phyllis, foliis loratis scapo paniculato brevioribus, sepalis petalisque oblongis acutiusculis basi subcuneatis dorso carinâ crassâ auctis pergameneis, labello membranaceo sessili ligulato dimidio anteriori subito in laminam reniformem denticulatam medio antice apiculatam extenso, lamellis rhombeis extrorsum biquadridentatis supinis utrinque in ligulâ labelli basilari, raphi utriusque lamellæ carinatâ antrorsum in tres digitos excurrente, columnâ elongatâ, alis elongatis crenulatis hyalinis inferioribus utrinque obtusatis, crassioribus columnâ vix marginatâ. (_reichb. fil. in bot. zeitung_, , _p._ .) odontoglossum cariniferum, _lindl. fol. orch._ habitat in america centrali, _reichenbach_. description. pseudobulbs _ or inches long, oblong, smooth, bearing broadish, leathery, sharp-pointed_ leaves. scape _longer than the leaf, panicled with zigzag branches_. bracts _triangular, short_. sepals _and_ petals _ inch long, greenish outside, but of a purplish-brown inside, distinctly keeled at the back_. lip _yellowish-white, sessile, ligulate at its base, but suddenly changing into a broad reniform plate, which is apiculate in front, and at its base adjoins the crest, which consists of nearly prostrate, irregularly toothed, rhomboid lobes on either side, with finger-like processes in front_. column _elongated, with transparent crenulate wings, its anther-bed scarcely margined_. for the opportunity of figuring this pretty _odontoglossum_ i am indebted to the kindness of the bishop of winchester, in whose collection at farnham castle it flowered profusely in november last. a fortnight afterwards i also received specimens from mr. rucker, but the flowers of his variety were scarcely so bright in their colouring as those of the bishop's plant. _o. cariniferum_, although now figured for the first time, appears to have been introduced several years ago to german collections, and from some of these it has, no doubt, found its way to england. it is a native of central america, where it probably affects a high elevation, as it succeeds perfectly under cool treatment, both at farnham castle and at west hill. its flowers continue in perfection for many weeks. dissections.-- . front view of lip and column; . side view of ditto: _magnified_. plate xi [illustration: odontoglossum lindleyanum.] plate xi. odontoglossum lindleyanum. dr. lindley's odontoglossum. o. (euodontoglossum, _lindl._) pseudobulbis ovato-oblongis compressis diphyllis, foliis lanceolatis subcoriaceis acutis scapo racemoso multi-( - )floro vix brevioribus, sepalis petalisque lineari-lanceolatis acuminatis subæqualibus, labello angusto unguiculato hastato utroque latere angulato in disco bifalcigero basi per carinam cum columnâ connato. columna tomentosa, auriculis erectis angustis acuminatis. odontoglossum lindleyanum, _reichenbach fil._: _warsz. bonpl._ ii. ; _reichenbach_, _xenia orch._ _t._ ; _walpers_, _annales._ vi. _fasc._ . odontoglossum epidendroides, _lindl. fil._ (_non hb. kth. n.g._). habitat in pamplona (in sylvis humidis), ft., _linden_; ocaña, ft., _schlim_; ocaña (_floribus majoribus_), _wagener_; bogotá, _weir_. description. pseudobulbs _about inches long, ovate-oblong, compressed, -leaved, sometimes a little spotted_. leaves _lanceolate, from a span to a foot long, rather leathery, sharp-pointed_. raceme _rather longer than the leaves, bearing from half-a-dozen to a dozen flowers_. bracts _oblong, acute, about one-third the length of the ovary_. sepals _and_ petals _nearly equal, an inch or more long, linear-lanceolate, acuminate, of a yellowish-green, with a few large chestnut blotches, the arrangement of which varies in different specimens_. lip _shorter than the petals, narrow, unguiculate, hastate, -lobed; the lateral lobes forming two blunt angles, the middle lobe longer, linear-lanceolate, deflexed, with two large upright slightly-curved horns placed on either side of the disk; at its base the lip is keeled and united with the column after the fashion of the trichopilias; its colour is usually a pale yellow or yellowish-white with large chestnut bands_. column _downy, furnished near the summit with two narrow erect upright acuminate auricles_. the name of this plant, associated as it is with the memory of the distinguished botanist who has lately passed from among us, is to me suggestive of the most melancholy reflections. mourn indeed i must, the loss of one who had been my steady friend for five-and-thirty years, and by whose labours among the members of my favourite tribe, i have been enabled to follow a pursuit that has never ceased to be a joy and solace amid all the cares and vicissitudes of life![ ] _o. lindleyanum_ was so named by professor reichenbach, in honour of the great orchidist whose mantle seems now to have fallen upon himself. it is closely allied to the _o. epidendroides_ of humboldt and kunth, from which indeed dr. lindley failed to distinguish it, but if the characters of the two species, as represented in the 'xenia,' prove to be constant, no doubt the german professor was right in separating them. several travellers, including schlim, wagener, warszewicz, and weir, appear to have met with the plant in various localities in new granada, but always at a great elevation, hence it must of course be classed among the coolest section of orchids. it has flowered in the gardens of the horticultural society, to which it was sent by their zealous collector mr. weir, and also in the collection of mr. rucker, where mr. fitch made his drawing in the spring of last year ( ). dissections.-- . lip and column, seen sideways; . ditto seen in front: _magnified_. plate xii [illustration: odontoglossum gloriosum.] plate xii. odontoglossum gloriosum. fine odontoglossum. o. (euodontoglossum, _lindl._) pseudobulbis ovatis confertis diphyllis, foliis lato-lanceolatis acutis scapo valido paniculato multifloro brevioribus, sepalis petalisque oblongo-ligulatis acuminatis stellatis, labello a basi cordatâ ligulato acuminato, basin versus utrinque angulato, ceterum hinc illinc denticulato, callo depresso quadrilobulo nunc quadridentato ante basin, columnâ clavatâ apice utrinque cirrho setaceo medio inferne unidentato. odontoglossum gloriosum, _reichenbach fil._ _bonpl._ ii. ; _idem in gardeners' chronicle_ (_new plants_, _n._ , ), _et in walpers_, _annales_, vi. _fasc._ . habitat in n. granada, soto. - p., _schlim_; ocaña, p., _wagener_; bogotá, _weir_. description. pseudobulbs _ovate, -leaved, growing closely together, or inches long, turning to a dark colour when old_. leaves _broadly-lanceolate, acute, shorter than the stout much-branched many-flowered panicle_. flowers _exceedingly variable in size and form and colour; the example in the plate representing one of the largest varieties, and the vignette one of the least. usually they are about inches across, of a pale ochrish or greenish-yellow, blotched, or sometimes minutely spotted, with dark-chestnut_. sepals _and_ petals _nearly equal, lanceolate, acute (often narrower than in the figure), slightly waved_. lip _ligulate, smooth (not crisp) at the margin, very much attenuated in front, but heart-shaped at the base, towards which it is abruptly carinate, and furnished with upright large sharp double teeth_. column _clavate, with hairy cirrhi on either side near its apex, and a solitary tooth near the middle_. this remarkable _odontoglossum_ was long since discovered in new granada by schlim and wagener, in whose herbaria its stately many-flowered panicles formed so striking a feature that professor reichenbach did not hesitate to give the plant the name of _gloriosum_; an epithet which--now that we have the plant amongst us in a living state--may perhaps be thought to be somewhat beyond its merits. it must indeed be admitted that the fresh blossoms, which are of a faint yellowish-green, scarcely realize the expectations which the rich colour and profusion of flowers in the dried specimens had very naturally raised. nor are all the varieties of equal merit, some being much smaller and paler than others. the species has lately been imported in large quantities, both by messrs. h. low and co., of clapton, and by the horticultural society, who received it in from mr. weir, by whom it was gathered in the neighbourhood of bogotá. it flowers freely, and at all seasons of the year; nor does it appear to care so much as many of its congeners for a few degrees more or less of heat or cold. i believe it has already bloomed in almost every collection of note; though the spikes, as was of course to be expected, are as yet far from equal to the wild specimens.[ ] the figure was taken from a plant in mr. day's garden, where i saw, in november last, nearly a dozen distinct varieties in blow, some of them rivalling the example given in the plate, while others were as insignificant as that which is shown in the vignette. the blossoms continue fresh for at least a fortnight, and emit a pleasant honey-like scent. [illustration] dissections.-- . lip (_magnified_), seen sideways; . ditto, seen in front. plate xiii [illustration: odontoglossum warneri.] [illustration: odontoglossum stellatum.] plate xiii. fig. . odontoglossum warnerianum, mr. warner's odontoglossum. o. (leucoglossum, _lindl._) pseudobulbis subelongatis compressis monophyllis, foliis membranaceis oblongis in petiolum canaliculatum angustatis scapo - -floro brevioribus, bracteis uncialibus acuminatis, sepalis lineari-lanceolatis acutis, petalis latioribus undulatis, labelli callo cuneato ovato, antice abrupte trilobo, lobis lateralibus angulatis, lobo medio forcipato bicruri, longiori, lateribus calli a basi versus apicem involutis, laminâ cordato-triangulâ obtusâ, margine minute crispulâ crenulatâ, columnâ gracili clavatâ apterâ. odontoglossum warnerianum, _reichenbach fil. in mohl and schl. bot. zeit._ , ; _idem in gardeners' chronicle_, , _new plants_, _n._ . habitat in mexico (?). description. pseudobulbs _rather long and narrow, compressed, about inches in length_. leaves, _one on each pseudobulb, less than a span long, membranous, sharp-pointed, narrowed at the base into a channelled petiole_. bracts _about an inch long, scariose, very acuminate_. scape _longer than the leaves, only partially covered by the bracts, bearing from to half-a-dozen flowers of a very delicate texture, and of snowy whiteness with the exception of the yellow crest on the lip and a few brown blotches on the lower half of the sepals and (though in a less degree) of the petals also_. sepals _rather narrow, oblong, acute_. petals _broader than the sepals and waved at the margin_. lip _with a heart-shaped crenulate plate (occasionally suffused with a rosy tint), and a yellow -lobed callus at its base, the front portion of which is longer than the lateral ones (which are turned inwards from the base upwards), and split into two divergent members_. column _slender, clavate, wingless_. this pretty species was first described by professor reichenbach, from materials derived from the collection of mr. warner, of broomfield, in compliment to whom he named it. it also flowered with the late mr. cauty, of liverpool, who kindly sent me the specimens from which the figure was prepared, but these were smaller and less rich in their colouring than those of mr. warner. we have no precise information as to the locality where _o. warnerianum_ grows wild, but there can be no doubt that it comes from some part of mexico, whence we have other species, _e.g._ _o. rossii_, _o. ehrenbergii_, and _o. nebulosum_, to all of which it is nearly allied. it flowers in the later autumn and winter months, but like most of the other members of its section (_leucoglossum_), is of a delicate habit, and requires to be very carefully handled. it seems to prefer a moderate heat and perhaps a slightly drier atmosphere than that in which the new granada and peruvian odontoglossa evidently delight; the compost or materials in which the roots grow, should on no account be allowed to become sodden. dissections.-- . lip and column (_magnified_), seen in front; . ditto, seen sideways. plate xiii. fig. . odontoglossum stellatum. stellate odontoglossum. o. (leucoglossum, _lindl._) pseudobulbis ovalibus compressis, foliis solitariis lanceolatis recurvis, scapis erectis - -floris brevioribus, bracteis ovarii triquetri medium non attingentibus, sepalis petalisque æqualibus linearibus acuminatis herbaceis, labello rhomboideo subrotundo grosse dentato appendice unguis truncatâ quadridentatâ apice liberâ. odontoglossum stellatum, _lindl. in bot. reg._ , _misc._ ; _fol. orch._ _n._ . odontoglossum erosum, _reichenbach fil. bonpl._ ii. ; _a. rich. gal. in ann. sc. nat._ jan. . habitat in guatemala, _skinner_; mexico, _hartweg_; veraguas, _warszewicz_. description. pseudobulbs _oval, compressed, about an inch long, glossy, bearing solitary lanceolate somewhat recurved_ leaves, _which are shorter than the upright -(rarely -)flowered_ scapes. bracts _not half so long as the three-cornered ovary_. sepals _and_ petals _equal, linear, acuminate, of a dull olive-green, with a few faint transverse streaks of brown on their inner side_. lip _white, rhomboidal, subrotund, with its edges eroded, and its unguis, or claw, hollow, truncate, free, and divided at top into two, or rather into four lobes, the two foremost of which resemble teeth_. column _slender, wingless_. there is an air of quaintness about this little _odontoglossum_ which, insignificant though it be, is spread over a range of territory far more extensive than is occupied by any other member of the genus; for it has been found in mexico by hartweg, in guatemala (on the volcan del fuego) by skinner, and in veraguas by warszewicz! at knypersley, where the figure was taken, the species flowers freely in the winter and spring, and is managed (in a cool house) without the slightest difficulty. dissections.-- . column and lip (_magnified_), seen sideways; . ditto, ditto, in front. plate xiv [illustration: odontoglossum alexandræ.] plate xiv. odontoglossum alexandrÆ. princess of wales' odontoglossum (blunt's variety). o. (isanthium, _lindl._) pseudobulbis ovatis compressis - vel -phyllis, racemo simplici multifloro foliis subæquali, bracteis minoribus cochleatis acutis, floribus membranaceis pedicellis æquantibus, sepalis petalisque sæpius subæqualibus (interdum petalis multo latioribus), sepalis lanceolatis acuminatis petalis ovato-lanceolatis acutis undulato-laceris, labello breviore unguiculato formâ diversissimâ, nunc sepalis conformi nunc subpanduriformi, apice emarginato (sæpius mucrone adjecto) margine undulato integro vel sæpius dentato acuto apice recurvo, disco maculato, cristâ simplici bilamellatâ. columna arcuata clavata, alata, alis laceris. odontoglossum alexandrÆ, _bateman in gardeners' chronicle_, ; _et in proceedings r. hort. soc._ _p._ ( ). odontoglossum bluntii, _reichenbach fil._ habitat in nov. granada, prope pacho, - p., _weir_, _blunt_. description. _an epiphyte._ pseudobulbs _smooth, slightly compressed, sometimes broadly ovate, but occasionally tapering, to inches long, and bearing or linear lanceolate-pointed_ leaves, _which are from a few inches to a foot long, and frequently of rather lax character; a reddish tint is also sometimes met with both in the leaves and pseudobulbs_. racemes _always simple, about the length of--sometimes longer than--the leaves, and carrying from two or three to a dozen or more large membranous and beautiful_ flowers, _which vary exceedingly both in size, form, and colouring. usually they are from to inches in diameter, and about equal to the pedicels_. bracts _about half an inch long, pointed, fitting close to the stem_. sepals _lanceolate acuminate, white or rosy-white, with sometimes one or more brown or purple spots on each_. petals _usually--though not invariably--wider than the sepals, and resembling them in form and colour, but destitute of spots; both in the sepals and petals the edges are usually more or less curled or waved_. lip _recurved at the apex, exceedingly variable in its outline; in some examples almost exactly resembling the sepals, in others taking more or less a panduriform shape (in which case the apex, instead of pointed, is round, emarginate, with a point or mucro); the edges too, which are sometimes entire, are much more frequently jagged or toothed; the short unguis, or claw, is longitudinally callose; and where it expands into the disk, ends in two straight pointed and diverging teeth, which, like the claw, are yellow, the rest of the lip being white, with or without spots of the same character as those found in the sepals; there are a few red or brown lines which radiate or spread out like a fan on either side of the teeth composing the crest, but they do not, as in_ o. pescatorei, _form a detached flap_. column _short, arched, club-shaped, with broad truncate wings that are more or less jagged or fringed_. this most charming _odontoglossum_ was discovered in by mr. weir, at an elevation of from to feet, in the gloomy forests that clothe the slopes of the lofty mountain-ranges at the rear of the city of santa fé de bogotá. as the wild specimens of the flowers that he sent home to the horticultural society indicated not only a new species, but one of surpassing beauty, i did not hesitate at once to dedicate it to the illustrious princess whose name it will henceforth bear. since the first description of the plant appeared in the 'gardeners' chronicle' many living plants have been received both by the royal horticultural society and by messrs. hugh low and co., of clapton, several of which have bloomed and, even in their first feeble attempts to flower, have more than justified the very high expectations formed of the plant which, as it gathers strength, cannot fail to become an established favourite with all orchid-lovers. it proves to be a most variable species, and i am not surprised that my accomplished friend professor reichenbach should have considered the first examples sent to him from clapton to differ so materially from those of _o. alexandræ_, as described by myself, as to justify his regarding them as a distinct form, to which, in honour of messrs. low's very zealous collector, he gave the designation of _bluntii_. since then, however, so many intermediate varieties have made their appearance that it is clearly impossible to regard the two supposed species as really distinct. specimens of the plant have been sent to me by messrs. low, mr. w. w. buller, mr. rucker, mr. day, and mr. paterson; it has also flowered at knypersley, but as yet no two specimens have been alike for, while some were beautifully spotted on the lip and petals with brown or crimson, others, with the exception of the golden crest on the labellum, were of the purest white. to the last-named class belonged the specimens grown by mr. buller and mr. paterson, the latter of which were so eminently lovely that they will form the subject of a separate plate. mr. blunt's name may very properly be associated with the spotted variety now figured, and which was taken from a plant that he sent to his employers at clapton. _o. alexandræ_ is nearly allied to _o. crispum_ and _o. pescatorei_; but, independently of the structure of its flowers, differs from both in its invariably producing simple racemes instead of branched panicles. it flowers freely in the winter and spring months, and may apparently be cultivated with the greatest ease. of course, coming as it does from a great elevation, it must not be kept too warm. dissections.-- . lip and column (_magnified_), seen in front. . ditto, ditto, seen sideways. plate xv [illustration: odontoglossum reichenheimii.] plate xv. odontoglossum reichenheimii. m. reichenheim's odontoglossum. o. (isanthium, _lindl._) pseudobulbis oblongis aggregatis diphyllis vix sulcatis, foliis oblongo-lanceolatis acutis scapo maculato laxe paniculato -plo brevioribus, bracteis brevibus membranaceis, sepalis petalisque subæqualibus oblongo-lanceolatis apiculatis, labello oblongo basi cordato apice obtusato lobulato, callo tumido utrinque ante basin, carinâ geminâ in imâ basi. odontoglossum reichenheimii, _reichenbach fil. in bonpl._ iii. ; _idem in pescatorea_, _sub t._ ; _walpers_, _annales_, vi. _fasc._ . _lemaire in illustr. hortic. pl._ . habitat in mexico, _ghiesbreght_. description. _an epiphyte._ pseudobulbs _oblong, slightly furrowed, from to inches long, clustered together_. leaves _ on each pseudobulb, shining and leathery, oblong-lanceolate, pointed, about a foot long, much shorter than the scape_. scape _upright or nodding, from feet to a yard high, spotted, loosely panicled, bearing from to sometimes probably flowers_. bracts _few, short, and membranous, fitting close to the stem_. sepals _and_ petals _nearly equal, oblong-lanceolate, apiculate, about an inch long, greenish-yellow, barred with dark purplish-brown_. lip _purple in some varieties, in others white, with a horseshoe-shaped band of purple on its disk, oblong, rather blunt, and slightly lobed at the apex, somewhat heart-shaped at the base, where there is a callosity on either side, and a double carina_. column _very slightly winged_. this pretty species is well figured in 'pescatorea,' where it is stated to be a native of mexico, whence it was introduced by m. linden, of brussels. it was from his establishment that i derived the plant that is represented on the other side, and which flowered at knypersley in may last ( ). it appears to be very easily managed, requiring the same temperature and treatment as _o. læve_, to which it is nearly allied, and which forms the subject of the following plate. it is also very closely related to _o. karwinskii_; and i do not feel certain that the two may not eventually have to be united. at present, however, so few plants of either kind exist in the collections of this country, that the materials necessary for an extensive comparison are not forthcoming. the specific name was given by professor reichenbach in honour of m. reichenheim, of berlin, whose collection of orchids and other plants has long been celebrated. dissections.-- . side view (_magnified_) of lip and column; . front view of ditto. [illustration] plate xvi [illustration: odontoglossum læve.] plate xvi. odontoglossum lÆve. smooth-lipped odontoglossum. o. (isanthium) pseudobulbis subcompressis sulcatis diphyllis, foliis oblongo-ensiformibus obtuse acutis apice obliquis, scapis multifloris brevioribus, floribus laxe racemoso-paniculatis, bracteis brevibus membranaceis, sepalis petalisque oblongo-linearibus acutis planis, labelli limbo panduriformi apiculato ungui lævi obsoletissime bidentato, columnæ alis apice rotundatis crispis basi planis. _lindl._ odontoglossum lÆve, _lindl. in bot. reg._ ( ), _t._ ; _l. fol. orch._ _n._ . habitat in guatemala, _skinner_. description. pseudobulbs _from to inches long, ovate, subcompressed, furrowed, -leaved_. leaves _sword-shaped, obtuse, or obtusely-acute, sometimes slightly oblique at their extremities, a foot or more long, shorter than the many-flowered flower-stems_. flower-stems _loosely branched, to feet long, rather drooping, bearing from to (sometimes) _ flowers. bracts _from half an inch to an inch long, sharp-pointed, clipping tightly hold of the stem_. sepals _and_ petals _nearly equal, oblong-linear, acute, plane at the edges, usually about an inch long, light green, transversely banded with brown_. lip _with a fiddle-shaped, apiculate limb doubled back on its unguis or claw, white, changing into purple at its base, where it is sometimes very obscurely bidentate_. wings _of_ column _crisp at the edges, plane at the base_. this is not one of the most attractive species, but its stately appearance, the profuseness with which its flowers are produced and their pleasant aroma, will secure it a place in most collections. it is common in guatemala, where mr. skinner originally discovered it, and it probably extends as far as mexico, where the nearly allied species (_o. reichenheimii_), figured in the preceding plate, is found. as it is only met with at a great elevation, it must be treated as a very "cool" orchid, under which _régime_ it will flower abundantly in the spring months. the chief danger to be guarded against is that of its exhausting itself--like many species of _phalænopsis_--by over-much flowering, and to prevent which it is of course only necessary to break off some of the scapes. dissections.-- . lip, seen in front; . lip and column, seen sideways: _magnified_. plate xvii [illustration: odontoglossum atropurpureum.] plate xvii. odontoglossum luteo-purpureum. yellow and brown odontoglossum. o. (euodontoglossum) pseudobulbis ovatis subcompressis diphyllis, foliis ensiformibus racemis multifloris nutantibus subæqualibus, bracteis ovatis acutis squamæformibus, pedicellis internodiis æquantibus, sepalis petalisque subæqualibus oblongo-lanceolatis acuminatis, labelli breviter unguiculati lateribus planis, limbo subpanduriformi antice lacero-serrulato, cristâ ad basin multidigitatâ, columnæ petalis triplo brevioris vix arcuatæ alis multifidis crinitis. odontoglossum luteo-purpureum, _lindl. orch. linden._ _n._ ; _fol. orch._ _n._ . odontoglossum radiatum, _rchb. gard. chron._ ( , _new plants_, _n._ .) odontoglossom hystrix, _bateman in gard. chron._ , _new plants_, _n._ . habitat in n. granada, prope quindiu, alt. p., _linden_; prope santa fé de bogotá, _weir_, _blunt_. description. pseudobulbs _about or inches long, somewhat compressed, ovale, -leaved_. leaves _sword-shaped, sharp-pointed, a foot or more long, about the same length as the many-flowered nodding_ racemes. bracts _ovate, acute, scaly_. pedicels _equalling in length the average spaces between the_ flowers. sepals _and_ petals _nearly equal, oblong-lanceolate (the petals sometimes unguiculate), acuminate, of a rich chocolate-brown inside, with edges and tips of a greenish-yellow_. lip _with a very short claw, fiddle-shaped, at its side-edges plane, its centre-lobe minutely serrate and apiculate, with a multitude of finger-like processes (varying in different individuals) seated on the claw, and with their bristles all more or less inclining forwards. the upper portion of the lip is white, with a brown base, which again is banded with white beneath the series of bristles, which are of a rich golden-yellow_. column _only one-third the length of the petals, slightly arched, with lacerated, hairy wings nearly concealing the anther_. the vicissitudes which the name of this species has had to undergo within the last three years are full of instruction both to botanists and the public. it was first described by lindley from wild specimens gathered by linden in the neighbourhood of quindiu. mr. weir was the next to meet with it, and he succeeded in sending to the horticultural society several living plants that had been obtained about miles to the south of bogotá. he also sent wild specimens in admirable condition which, not agreeing with lindley's description, and being profusely furnished both at the base of the lip and in the apex of the column with long bristle-like appendages, led to my calling it _o. hystrix_ (_i. e._ the porcupine odontoglossum). messrs. low also received the plant, through their collector mr. blunt, from the same locality as that where weir met with it, and one of their plants produced flowers which--neither agreeing with lindley's _o. luteo-purpureum_ nor with my _o. hystrix_--received from professor reichenbach the name of _o. radiatum_. subsequently many specimens flowered, no two of which were alike, though they all maintained a sort of distant family resemblance to _o. luteo-purpureum_ of which--as the professor himself was the first to point out--there can now be no doubt that they are all varieties. the figure is taken from a plant that flowered in mr. day's collection in the autumn of , the flowers of which were twice the size of those of a plant that flowered with me,--but still larger varieties have since appeared in the collections of lord egerton of tatton and mr. wentworth buller. the species, being found at an elevation of feet or more, requires very "cool" treatment, and should be referred to what--for reasons stated under plate xx.--i propose to call the "peruvian house." in this it is very easily grown, and flowers freely. the markings in the dried specimens being much deeper than in the fresh flowers, led dr. lindley to give it a name (_o. luteo-purpureum_) which is scarcely applicable to any variety that has yet appeared,--no _purple_ tints having been observed. dissections.-- . front view of lip and column; . side view of ditto: _magnified_. plate xviii [illustration: odontoglossum bictoniense.] plate xviii. odontoglossum bictoniense. the bicton odontoglossum. (variety with leafy flower-stems.) o. (leucoglossum) pseudobulbis oblongis compressis - -phyllis, foliis ensiformibus undulatis patentibus scapo racemoso duplo brevioribus, bracteis herbaceis lanceolatis acuminatis ovario duplo brevioribus, sepalis petalisque subæqualibus lineari-lanceolatis maculatis, labelli ungue bilamellato limbo cordato acuminato undulato, columnæ alis transverse oblongis integris. cyrtochilum bictoniense, _bateman_, _orch. mex. et gua._ _t._ . zygopetalum africanum, _bot. mag._ _t._ . habitat in guatemala, _skinner_; circa - ped. alt. description. pseudobulbs _oblong, to inches long, somewhat compressed, bearing or _ leaves, _which are sword-shaped, spread open, much shorter than the upright purple many-flowered_ scape. _the latter, in its normal state, is unbranched, and destitute of leaves, but in the variety represented in the plate has numerous branches, and is leafy at the extremities_. bracts _herbaceous, lanceolate, acuminate, not half the length of the ovary_. sepals _and_ petals _nearly equal, linear-lanceolate, light-green spotted, or banded with brown_. lip _with a bilamellate claw and a heart-shaped, acuminate limb, waved at the margin. in most cases the lip is white or nearly so, in others it has more or less of a rosy or purplish tint_. column-wings _transversely oblong, entire_. the plate represents a remarkable state of this now well-known plant, which i have observed only in the collection of mr. aspinall turner, of pendlebury house, near manchester. in its normal or ordinary condition _o. bictoniense_ produces--in the winter months--simple, upright flower-stems, but in mr. turner's plant the stems are branched, and, what is still more extraordinary, are _leafy_ at their extremities! nor was this peculiarity confined to the growth of a single season, for it has already reappeared at least three years in succession! it produces a very singular effect, though it can hardly be said to add to the beauty of the plant. _o. bictoniense_, so called after lady rolle, of bicton, in devonshire, was the earliest species of this popular genus that ever reached england alive. it also formed a portion of the first box of orchids that i ever received from guatemala, whence they were sent to me in by my invaluable friend george ure skinner, now ( ) alas!--most suddenly and unexpectedly--numbered with the dead! this is not the place for a memoir of that generous and enthusiastic spirit;--let it suffice to state that mr. skinner was on his way to guatemala for a final visit, when he was attacked by yellow-fever early in february last on the isthmus of panama, and carried off after three days' illness! he was collecting plants on the saturday before his death, and on the wednesday he was a corpse! he was in his rd year, and had he but been permitted to return to england, would have crossed the atlantic exactly forty times! he was the discoverer of _o. grande_ and _o. uro-skinneri_, already figured in this work, and of at least fifty other orchids, including the well-known _lycaste skinneri_ perhaps the most useful and popular of its tribe. dissections.-- . lip and column, seen sideways; . ditto ditto, seen in front: _magnified_. plate xix [illustration: odontoglossum alexandræ. (_weirs variety_)] plate xix. odontoglossum alexandrÆ. princess of wales' odontoglossum (white, or weir's variety). of this charming odontoglossum, which i had the honour to dedicate to h.r.h. the princess of wales, there appear to be innumerable varieties. of these some--like the one figured at plate xiv.--have crimson spots, others again are spotted with brown, while a third section--like the one represented in the plate--have flowers of the purest white, relieved only by the rich golden crest of the lip. an excellent example of the latter variety was sent to me nearly two years ago by mr. paterson, of ashville, partrickhill, near glasgow, and from this mr. fitch's drawing was obtained. since then, other specimens of the same kind have been communicated to me, especially by mr. wentworth buller, mr. jones, of whalley range, near manchester, mr. bull, and mr. dawson of meadow bank. the last was an admirable specimen bearing as it did on a curved stalk about a dozen perfect flowers, all of which faced the same way, so as to form a sort of natural tiara exactly suited to a lady's head and which--especially when worn on dark hair--could not fail to produce a most beautiful effect. this variety has also flowered at the royal gardens, kew, a fact that is not a little creditable to mr. smith's (the curator's) energy and skill, he being compelled to grow his orchids in houses that are very ill adapted to such a purpose. surely the government of this wealthy country might afford to devote a few hundred pounds to the construction of houses in which these most popular and marvellous plants might be worthily grown! as the first specimens of the _white_ variety of _o. alexandræ_ were collected by mr. weir, it is only fitting that his name should be associated with it, just as the name of his rival mr. blunt has been connected with the variety distinguished by its crimson spots. plants of both frequently acquire a reddish tint both in their bulbs and leaves, a tint which, wherever it occurs, is a sure criterion by which _o. alexandræ_ may be distinguished from other odontoglossa that closely resemble it in habit. _o. alexandræ_ proves to be a slow grower, and to require the coolest compartment of the peruvian house. if this condition be attended to, it gives no trouble whatever, and produces its exceedingly durable flowers very freely indeed. dr. triana met with it on the trunks of very large trees with dense foliage, ten leagues from bogotá, and also at pacho. dissections.-- . lip and column, seen in front; . ditto, seen sideways: _magnified_. plate xx [illustration: odontoglossum maculatum.] plate xx. odontoglossum maculatum. spotted odontoglossum. o. (xanthoglossum) pseudobulbis oblongis compressis monophyllis, foliis oblongis nervosis acutiusculis, racemis subpendulis multifloris brevioribus, bracteis navicularibus herbaceis ovario brevioribus, sepalis lineari-lanceolatis acuminatis discoloribus, petalis oblongis undulatis acuminatis, labello cordato acuminato subcrenato, appendice unguis bivalvi concavâ cochleari apice liberâ bidentatâ per medium argute serrulatâ, columnâ pubescente subapterâ. _lindl._ odontoglossum maculatum, _llave_, _orch. mex._ , ; _bot. reg._ , _t._ ; _pescatorea_, _t._ ; _lindl. fol. orch._ habitat in mexico, _lexarza_, _barker_, _karwinski_. description. pseudobulbs _narrow, oblong, much compressed, from to inches long, -leaved_. leaves _lanceolate-oblong, nervose, more or less sharp-pointed, shorter than the flower-scapes_. bracts _boat-shaped, acuminate, the lower ones shorter than the upper ones, nearly as long as the ovary_. racemes _nodding, sometimes pendulous, - to -flowered, about a foot long_. flowers _variable in size and colour, which is sometimes a brightish at other times only a greenish-yellow, spotted with brown_. sepals _brown inside, linear-lanceolate, acuminate_. petals _rather wide, oblong, waved, acuminate_. lip _heart-shaped, acuminate, slightly crenate, with a two-cleft process forming a pair of blunt teeth at the upper end of the claw_. column _pubescent, clavate, wingless_. this plant is common in many parts of mexico, especially on the irapæan mountains in the neighbourhood of valladolid, where it was originally discovered and described by lexarza, that earliest of orchid-devotees! it was also one of the earliest species of the extensive genus to which it belongs that ever produced flowers in england. the credit of introducing it belongs to the late mr. barker, of birmingham, with whom it bloomed about the year , but it soon disappeared, like nearly the whole of the invaluable collection of mexican orchids that i remember having seen in the most splendid condition, shortly after their arrival, in his stoves. fifteen years afterwards it was reintroduced by m. linden, from whose establishment the figure in _'pescatorea'_ was obtained, but it seems to have again been lost. last spring ( ) i had the pleasure of seeing the species in the best possible health in mr. dawson's rich and admirably-managed collection at meadow bank near glasgow, and from his plant, which flowered in april, mr. fitch's drawing was prepared. i also received specimens about the same time from mr. turner. still more recently, messrs. hugh low and co. have imported it in large quantities and excellent condition, and many good varieties have already appeared, though none that i have yet seen are so fine or so richly coloured as that of mr. dawson. one that is now flowering at knypersley is a dull yellowish-green. in its native country it flowers in march, which is about the time of its flowering with us. as to treatment it will naturally be found more at home in the mexican house, where a cool and comparatively dry atmosphere should be maintained, than in the peruvian house, which should be suited to the species that are accustomed to a damper and--not unfrequently--still cooler climate. i have no doubt that this distinction will be found of much practical utility, for although "cool treatment" as opposed to "warm" marks a very important division still, just as among "warm" plants it is necessary to separate the east indian aerides from the brazilian cattleyas, so among "cool" plants it will be advisable to separate the mexican lælias from the peruvian odontoglossa. nay, i apprehend that what i call the "peruvian house" will itself have to be subdivided into two portions, one of which, _i. e._ the warm portion, will contain such plants as the trichopilias, the anguloas, and such odontoglossa as are met with below feet, while the other or cooler portion will be suited to an innumerable multitude of glorious orchids that are met with at a still higher elevation. already cultivators have discovered that _o. phalænopsis_ and _o. nævium_ cannot be made to thrive in the same house, for though both are "cool" plants the former--coming as it does from a lower level--requires a decidedly warmer climate than the latter, and so it will be in many other cases which are not yet so distinctly understood. dissections.-- . lip and column, seen sideways; . front view of ditto: _magnified_. plate [illustration: odontoglossum hallii.] plate xxi. odontoglossum hallii. colonel hall's odontoglossum. o. (euodontoglossum, _lindl._) pseudobulbis ovatis, ancipitibus - -phyllis, foliis ensiformibus in basin angustatis, racemo multifloro (raro sub-paniculato), sepalis petalisque ovato-lanceolatis unguiculatis labello oblongo acuminato lacero, cristâ baseos lamellatâ multifidâ, columnæ alis dente superiore aristato. odontoglossum hallii, _lindl. in bot. reg. sub t._ , _et folia orchid._; _reichenbach fil._ xenia, i. ; _walpers annales_, vi. p. . habitat in peru (western declivity of pichincha), _hartweg_; valley of lloa, at elevation of ft., _col. hall_; n. grenada in forests of pamplona, ft., _linden_. description. pseudobulbs _ovate, to inches long, compressed, -edged, bearing generally one, occasionally two, lanceolate_ leaves, _a foot or more long_. raceme _many ( - ) flowered, occasionally though rarely branched, to feet long_. sepals _and_ petals _nearly equal, ovate-lanceolate, exceedingly unguiculate, from an inch to (in some varieties) an inch and a half or even inches long, yellow with large, often very dark, blotches of purplish-brown_. lip _white, with a few rich spots, oblong-acuminate, jagged at the edges, with a large and handsome yellow_ crest, _consisting of a multitude of flattened but sharp-pointed teeth, pointing sideways and downwards_. column _white, winged, the wings broken into teeth or cirrhi, of which the uppermost is much the largest_. this fine _odontoglossum_ was one of the earliest known though one of the latest to reach us alive. it is now ( ) plentiful enough, and forms a most attractive object in our spring orchid-shows. there are many varieties differing greatly in the size and marking of their flowers, but all maintaining the unguiculate sepals and petals which chiefly distinguish it from _o. luteo-purpureum_ (pl. ), to which it is indeed very nearly allied. _o. hallii_ is abundant in new grenada and peru, but is seldom met with at a lower elevation than feet, hence it is quite at home in the coolest part of the "cool orchid-house," in which it grows and flowers very freely indeed. in the woodcut, a solitary flower of a larger variety of the species is represented, natural size. [illustration] plate [illustration: odontoglossum roseum.] plate xxii. odontoglossum roseum. rosy odontoglossum. o. pseudobulbis ovatis ancipitibus -phyllis, foliis oblongo-lanceolatis racemo gracili multifloro duplo brevioribus, bracteis ovatis concavis subangulatis pedicellis duplo brevioribus, sepalis petalisque lanceolatis, labello trilobo basi bilamellato: lobis lateralibus nanis rotundatis intermedio obcuneato acuto, columnâ elongatâ apice alis membranaceis integris auctâ. odontoglossum roseum, _lindl. in bentham plant. hartweg_, p. . _reichenbach fil. in garden. chron. april , ._ habitat in peru, _backhouse_, nuebrada de los juntas, _hartweg_. description. pseudobulbs _ovate, two-edged, much compressed, dark-coloured, from one to two inches long, carrying a short solitary oblong-lanceolate leaf_. leaves _very sharp-pointed linear-lanceolate, not half the length of the slender nodding graceful many-flowered_ racemes. bracts _ovate, slightly angular, much shorter than the_ pedicels. sepals _and_ petals _nearly equal, lanceolate, acuminate, linear, two-thirds of an inch long, of a beautiful bright rose colour_. lip _about same length as the petals, pale whitish rose, three-lobed, bilamellate at the base, side-lobes rounded, very small, intermediate lobe sharp-pointed, obcuneate_. column _standing forward, rounded, provided at its apex with three membranous wings_. a charming little species long known by the specimens in the lindleyan herbarium. it was introduced--though in very limited quantities--by the messrs. backhouse several years ago, since which time it has always continued scarce. in lindley's herbarium the racemes are about the length of those represented in the figure, but in a specimen exhibited in by mr. linden the pseudobulbs, leaves, and racemes were nearly twice as large and as long as those in the plate. the precise treatment that it affects has not yet been distinctly ascertained, but there can be no doubt that, being a denizen of high places on the mountain ranges in peru, it prefers the coldest house. plate [illustration: odontoglossum triumphans.] plate xxiii. odontoglossum triumphans. splendid odontoglossum. o. (xanthoglossum, _lindl._) pseudobulbis ovatis - -phyllis foliis lato lanceolatis acutis, basi attenuatis, racemo multifloro, bracteis triangularibus ovario pedicellato - plo brevioribus, sepalis oblongo-acutis basi bene attenuatis, petalis subæqualibus latioribus, magis acuminatis, utrinque hinc illinc lobulatis, labello unguiculato basi bifalci, utrinque bicalloso laminâ panduratâ apiculatâ, columnæ alis rhombeis ascendentibus margine externo erosulis. odontoglossum triumphans, _reichenbach fil. bonpl._ ii. ; _walpers annales_, vi. p. ; _pescatorea_, _t._ . habitat in n. grenada, _warscewicz_. ocana, - feet, _schlim_, _wagener_. description. pseudobulbs _ovate, very similar to those of_ o. hallii, _bearing generally two stout sharp-pointed_ leaves _a foot or more long_. raceme _many-( - ) flowered, half a yard or feet long, rather drooping_. bracts _small and triangular, or times shorter than the ovary_. sepals _ ½ to inches long, oblong-acute, narrowed at the base_. petals _about the same size as the sepals, but broader and more acuminate, sometimes diversely lobed on either side like the sepals, nearly covered with rich chestnut blotches on a bright yellow ground_. lip _white with deep reddish blotches at apex, shorter than petals, unguiculate, pandurate, partially connate with the column, toothed at the edges, bicarinate at base, provided with_ crest _consisting of two sets of falcate teeth, extending about one-third of its own length_. column _white, half the length of the lip, furnished with upright rhomb-like wings the edges of which are indented_. this is a very fine species indeed, although it scarcely realizes the expectations excited by the figure in _pescatorea_, whether as regards the size of the individual blossoms or their colour. in the fresh flowers the prevailing tone is a bright yellow, which serves as a foil to the rich brown or chestnut marking with which the sepals and petals are profusely covered, and which, though to a lesser degree, cover also the lip. but in _pescatorea_ the lip is represented as white, and as bearing at its upper extremity a rich blotch of bright purple which affords a beautiful contrast to the yellow and brown tints of the other parts of the flower. probably the figure referred to may have been prepared from dried specimens and hence the mistake as to the colouring. there are many varieties of this species, some of the best of which were exhibited by mr. marshall of enfield at a meeting of the royal horticultural society as early as april, . _o. triumphans_ does not appear to be so plentiful in its native habitats as _o. hallii_, _o. luteo-purpureum_, and many other n. grenada kinds that now swarm in our collections. the range of elevation within which it grows is nearly identical with that of _o. hallii_, hence the same treatment is suitable to both. it is easily grown and flowers freely. [illustration: . front view of lip and column; . side view of ditto: _magnified_.] plate [illustration: odontoglossum krameri.] plate xxiv. odontoglossum krameri. kramer's odontoglossum. o. pseudobulbis suborbicularibus valde compressis ancipitibus -phyllis, foliis oblongo-lanceolatis, scapis ascendentibus vel sub-pendulis foliis brevioribus pauci-( - ) floris, sepalis petalisque oblongis acutis subæqualibus, labelli ungue -calloso laminâ subquadratâ -lobâ pallide-roseo-violaceâ plagâ basi utrinque semilunari albâ aureo et purpureo maculatâ. odontoglossum krameri, _reichenbach fil. in gard. chron._ , p. . _floral mag._ _t._ (_sub o. krameri_). _hooker in bot. mag._ _t._ . habitat in costa-rica. description. pseudobulbs _nearly round, flattened, -edged, -leaved_; leaves _oblong-lanceolate, leas than a foot long, by about an inch wide, longer than the_ scapes _which bear from to flowers_. peduncles _with the ovary one to one and a half inches long_. flowers _one to one and a half inches in diameter_. sepals _and_ petals _subequal oblong-acute, pale violet-red in the centre with broad white margins_. lip _one-third of an inch wide, neck short, broad, deeply hollowed in front with two erect calli; limb subquadrate, two-lobed at the apex, angles rounded, the basal lateral lobes small, reflexed, pale violet-red with two confluent semilunar white patches at the base, on each of which is a concentric red-brown band, and a few spots of the same colour on a golden yellow ground_. column _short, thick, without wings or appendages_. (hooker, l. c.) this though not a striking is a very distinct plant. it is a native of costa-rica, where it seems to be plentiful enough though it long eluded detection. it was first exhibited in by mr. veitch at one of the shows at s. kensington, but appeared almost simultaneously in the collection of mr. day, by whose direction a careful drawing was prepared. like other costa-rica plants, though not requiring a high temperature, it is scarcely content with the small amount of heat that is now allotted to the great majority of cool orchids. its proper place would be in the mexican house. it is a free bloomer. plate [illustration: odontoglossum cordatum.] plate xxv. odontoglossum cordatum. heart-lipped odontoglossum. o. (euodontoglossum) pseudobulbis oblongis compressis monophyllis, foliis lato-oblongis planis acutis scapo squamis carinatis vaginato brevioribus, racemo simplici vel paniculato, bracteis navicularibus acuminatis membranaceis, ovario multo brevioribus, sepalis petalisque lineari-lanceolatis acuminatissimis, labello cordato acuminatissimo integerrimo, appendice unguis carnosâ apice bilobâ basi utrinque dente unico auctâ, columnâ pubescente clavatâ subapterâ. odontoglossum cordatum, _lindl. in bot. reg._, , _misc._ ; _knowles and westcott_, _floral cabinet_, _t._ ; _paxton's mag._, xiii. ; _regel. garten-flora_, , ; _pescatorea_, i. . habitat in mexico, _barker_. guatemala, _hartweg_, _skinner_. description. pseudobulbs _oblong, very much compressed and very sharp at the edges, ½ to inches long_. leaves _one (rarely if ever two) on each pseudobulb and broadly-oblong acute shorter than the scape_. scape _and_ raceme _sheathed at intervals with long keel-shaped membranaceous_ bracts, _few or many flowered, simple or (more rarely) branched, from one to two feet high_. sepals _and_ petals _nearly equal, linear-lanceolate, extremely acuminate, an inch or more long, greenish-yellow richly blotched with brown_. lip _shorter than the sepals heart-shaped, with a very acuminate slightly recurved apex, white with dark brown spots and a purplish -lobed callus at the base_. column _pubescent, club-shaped, almost wingless_. though scarcely to be classed among the more attractive species, _o. cordatum_ is occasionally seen at our shows with branching scapes feet high and flowers much more richly coloured than those in the plate. it is found both in mexico and guatemala (whence plants were sent to me by my lamented friend skinner), but always at high elevations. it flowers in the early summer without any special treatment, except that it is perhaps more impatient of water than some of its congeners. plate xxvi [illustration: odontoglossum angustatum.] plate xxvi. odontoglossum angustatum. narrow-petalled odontoglossum. o. (isanthium) pseudobulbis ovato-oblongis compressis, foliis longis lato-lanceolatis erectis acutis paniculâ ramosâ elatâ brevioribus, bracteis carinatis acutis ovario multò brevioribus, sepalis petalisque subæqualibus undulatis unguiculatis, labello ovato-lanceolato acuminato reflexo, cristæ lamellis lateralibus membranaceis trifidis, digitis anterioribus majoribus, callo obtuso interposito, columnâ apterâ. odontoglossum angustatum, _lindl. in bot. reg._ _sub_ t. , _folia orchid._, ; _rchb. fil._; _walper's annales_, vi. p. . habitat in peru, (alt. ft.,) _hall_, _hartweg_, _linden_. description. _a very stately plant._ pseudobulbs _ovate-oblong compressed, or inches long, (or ? ) leaved_. leaves _one to one and a half feet long, linear-lanceolate acute, shorter than the upright branching zigzag many-flowered_ panicles. bracts _keeled, acute, much shorter than the ovaries_. sepals _and_ petals _nearly equal, unguiculate, acuminate, undulated, white with beautiful purple spots on their lower portions_. lip _white, or nearly so, shorter than the petals, ovate-lanceolate, the apex acuminate and exceedingly recurved, having at its sides two membranous lamellæ, divided into three unequal parts, those in front the larger and projecting forwards like horns or fingers with a blunt callus lying between them_. column _not half the length of the lip, and destitute of wings_. this is a very distinct species, as remarkable among _odontoglossa_ with its white and purple flowers, as is _oncidium incurvum_, with blossoms of similar hues, among the innumerable members of that still more extensive genus. although originally discovered by colonel hall more than a quarter of a century ago, no genuine plants--there have been impostors in plenty--seem to have reached europe alive before the year , when it was introduced by m. linden; by whom also, in the following spring, flowering specimens were exhibited at south kensington and universally admired. according to lindley, the species is nearly allied to his _o. ramosissimum_, from which, indeed, he at one time failed to distinguish it. m. linden's plant, which is faithfully rendered in mr. fitch's drawing, does not exactly answer to the descriptions in the folia orchidacea either of _o. angustatum_ or _o. ramosissimum_, but is apparently a connecting link between the two, whence i infer the probability that both the above supposed species will eventually be found to be one and the same. the plant is still exceedingly scarce, and as it is indistinguishable in habit from many other _odontoglossa_ derived from the same rich country (peru), i would warn cultivators against purchasing any specimens that have not actually proved themselves to be true. it belongs to the cooler sections of its race, and must be treated accordingly. plate xxvii [illustration: odontoglossum coronarium.] plate xxvii. odontoglossum coronarium. royal odontoglossum. o. (trymenium) rhizomate caulescente, pseudobulbis brunneis ovalibus compressis monophyllis, foliis rigidis coriaceis basi canaliculatis acutis racemo multifloro dense racemoso subæqualibus vel longioribus, bracteis linearibus canaliculatis ovario triplô brevioribus, sepalis petalisque subrotundis unguiculatis planis margine crispis, labello longê cuneato retuso basi auriculis unidentatis subfalcatis obtusis subtus in unam connatis acuto, inter auriculas tuberculis duobus hoc didymo illo inferiore simplici; clinandrio subserrato lobis rotundatis (_lindl._) odontoglossum coronarium, _lindl. folia orchid._; _linden_, _pescatorea_, t. . habitat in n. grenada, _propè_ la baja, pamplona, (alt. ft.,) _schlim_. description. _a stout and rigid plant._ pseudobulbs _oval, compressed, or more inches long, of a brownish hue, placed at intervals on a stiff caulescent_ rhizome. leaves _one on each pseudobulb, leathery, sharp-pointed, channelled near the base, a foot or more long, equal to or longer than the flower-scapes_. bracts _linear channelled, only one third the length of the ovary_. racemes _about a foot high, upright, bearing from a dozen to twenty flowers in a dense mass_. sepals _and_ petals _equal, subrotund, unguiculate, smooth, with their margins crisp or curled, about an inch long, of a rich reddish coppery brown on the upper surface, shining as if they had been varnished, yellowish underneath_. lip _yellow, retuse, about same length as the petals, obovate, rounded at apex, narrowed and wedge-shaped at the base, where the sides arrange themselves into two narrow blunt falcate horns which are united on the under side_. crest _consisting of three processes_. column _slightly curved with two truncate rounded wings_. this species has been long known, but it was slow in making its appearance, and slow likewise in flowering after it had reached us. during the last four years both messrs. veitch and m. linden have succeeded in importing it alive, but it has only produced flowers in two or three instances; the finest specimens i have seen being those exhibited by lord londesborough during the present spring ( ). even in its native country it seems to be a shy flowerer. as it is never met with lower than feet on the mountains of pamplona, it of course requires a cooler treatment than many of its congeners which affect a lower level. the shining surface of the sepals and petals is very remarkable, and has the appearance of being due to a coat of the best varnish. another species, _o. brevifolium_, found in lofty mountains in peru, is closely allied to this, if indeed, which i greatly doubt, it be anything more than a very high-level variety of it. plate xxviii [illustration: odontoglossum blandum.] plate xxviii. odontoglossum blandum. pleasant odontoglossum. o. (euodontoglossum) pseudobulbis ovatis - -phyllis, foliis lineari-lanceolatis acutis racemis multifloris subæqualibus, sepalis petalisque cuneato-lanceis acuminatis; labelli ungue bilamellato, lamellis oblongis antice obtusangulis, laminâ ab ungue cuneato velutino ampliato ovatâ acuminatâ crispulâ, cornubus brevibus geminis ante lamellas, antepositis falcibus geminis, tumore parvo interjecto; cirrhis columnæ basi angulatæ bifidis setaceis. odontoglossum blandum, _rchb. fil. in gardeners' chronicle_, p. ( ). habitat in ocaÑa, _blunt_, _roezl_. description. plant _about a span across, in a compact mass_. pseudobulbs _ovate, somewhat compressed, about an inch long, bearing (rarely ) narrow lanceolate_ leaves _of about the same length as the slender nodding many-flowered_ racemes. _the_ flowers, _of which there are from six to twelve (or more) crowded together on the racemes, are all expanded at the same time, and emit a pleasant honey-like smell_. sepals _and_ petals _nearly equal, less than an inch long, lanceolate, acuminate, of a creamy white sprinkled over with numerous crimson dots_. lip _about the same length as the sepals, and of the same hue, but destitute of spots except at the apex, the central portion bearing a large crimson mark nearly in the form of the letter_ w; _the lip's base is formed of two parallel blunt lamellæ out of which springs the main limb which is broadly ovate, curled and jagged at the edges and recurved and acuminate at its extremity; at the point of junction with the unguis or claw occur two horned falcate processes, between which a small tumour is interposed, at foot of which are two short and blunt horns_. column _short, bifid, angular with three or four straggling cirrhi or filaments on either side_. this pretty little _odontoglossum_ comes from ocaña, where it was first discovered by mr. low's collector many years ago. at that time none of the plants reached england alive, but some dried specimens that found their way to professor reichenbach, enabled the great german orchidist to name and describe the species; which turns out to be nearly allied to _o. nævium_. it has been met with by m. roezl and other collectors, but is still a rare plant, as its constitution is apt to succumb under a long journey by sea and land. the specimens from which mr. fitch prepared his drawing, flowered in the spring of , in the collection of the royal horticultural society;--the plants having been purchased at one of stevens' sales, among a "miscellaneous lot" of doubtful things. the species is a free-flowerer, and sends out an agreeable honey-like odour, but in point of beauty is scarcely a rival for _o. nævium_. it seems to require rather more heat than the latter species, which is one of the coolest of cool orchids. plate xxix [illustration: odontoglossum vexillarium.] plate xxix. odontoglossum vexillarium. broad-lipped odontoglossum. o. (phalÆnopsidea) pseudobulbis ovato-oblongis compressis - -phyllis; foliis pedalibus subglaucescentibus carinatis lanceolatis acutis pedunculis gracilibus - -floris subæqualibus; bracteis triangulis minutis; floribus maximis roseo suffusis; sepalis oblongo-ligulatis apiculatis; petalis conformibus vel paulò latioribus subacutis vel obtusis; labello maximio flabellato orbiculari bilobo, in unguem brevem hastatum contracto, carinis quinis abruptis in basi; columnâ brevissimâ exalatâ. odontoglossum vexillarium, _rchb. fil. in gard. chron._ , ; _ibid._ , p. , _cum xylo_; , p. , , _cum xylo_, ; _hooker in bot. mag._ t. ; _illustration horticole_, , pl. cxiii. habitat in n. grenada, _bowman_, _wallis_, _roezl_, _chesterton_. description. pseudobulbs _flattened, ovate-oblong, an inch or inch and a half long, bearing one or two keeled sharp-ended lanceolate_ leaves _from six inches to a foot long, by an inch or more wide, with a glaucous tint, especially on their upper surface_. scapes _slender, nodding, about the same length as the leaves, two to six-flowered, clasped at intervals by small triangular_ bracts. flowers _flat, the largest in the genus, tinted more or less deeply with lovely rose_. sepals _and_ petals _somewhat variable in their relative forms, in most cases nearly the same size, oblong or obovate apiculate or obtuse, about an inch long, the former nearly white, the latter of the same hue as the lip_. lip _generally of a rich rosy tint, expanding from a narrow sagittate claw into a round and ample, -lobed disk, more than double the size of the petals, with five dwarf calli and some yellow streaks at its base_. column _very short with rarely a trace of wings_. this is the handsomest of known _odontoglossa_. in the year mr. low showed me a solitary flower, which had been sent to him by his collector (bowman, i believe), but a discreet silence was observed as to the locality where the prodigy had been found, nor, alas, did living plants ever make their way to the clapton nursery. subsequently the species was met with by wallis--when collecting for mr. linden--and later still by roezl; but although in each case a large number of specimens were packed up and despatched to europe, they either died on the passage, or shortly after their arrival. indeed, cultivators were almost beginning to despair, when, early in the spring of last year ( ), the arrival was announced of a small cargo of the beauteous novelty in most excellent condition at the establishment of messrs. veitch; to whom it had been forwarded by mr. henry chesterton. once safe in the chelsea collection, it did not put the patience of orchid-growers to any severe strain, for within little more than three months of its arrival vigorous flower-spikes were produced, and the plant itself exhibited--both in regent's park and at south kensington--to the envy and admiration of all beholders. it seems to be very easy to manage, and produces its flower-scapes with the utmost profusion. like all its congeners, it must be relegated to the cool orchid-house, though probably it will be found to prefer the warmest end. professor reichenbach has written several articles in the _gardeners' chronicle_ about this plant, in one of which he deplores, and most justly, the wanton waste and havoc committed by collectors; who, instead of contenting themselves with a moderate number of specimens, gather them by hundreds, or even by thousands, thus imperilling the very existence of species which, like the present, are believed to possess only a very restricted habitat. nor does this recklessness often benefit their employers, for in most cases, the larger the consignment, the smaller the chance of its prospering on its way. the woodcut is copied from a photograph of a small specimen of _o. vexillarium_, taken in new grenada, in the act of flowering. [illustration] plate xxx [illustration: odontoglossum roezlii.] plate xxx. odontoglossum roezlii. roezl's odontoglossum. o. (phalÆnopsidea) affine o. vexillario, pseudobulbis ovato-oblongis ancipitibus compressis - -phyllis, foliis lineari-ligulatis inferne striatis pedunculis - -floris longioribus; sepalis oblongo-ligulatis acutis, petalis sublatioribus; labello a basi angustâ sagittatâ cuneato flabellato obtuse bilobo; carinis ternis in imâ basi; prepositâ lamellâ transversâ seu callis parvis geminis; columnâ apterâ. odontoglossum roezlii, _rchb. fil. xenia orchidacea_, ii.; _idem in gard. chron._ p. , (_cum xylo_) . habitat in n. grenada, _roezl_; _backhouse in gard. chron._ p. , ( ). description. _a compact plant, of which the_ pseudobulbs _are ovate-oblong, - inches long and much compressed; these bear one or two bright green linear acute_ leaves, _which are remarkable for their parallel streaks--nine in number--on the under side, and are from six to ten inches long, and about ½ inch wide. the_ scapes _or_ peduncles _are shorter than the leaves, and bear from one to three (possibly more) large and beautiful flowers, which with the exception of some markings at the base of the petals and on the lip are of snowy whiteness_. sepals _oblong-ligulate pointed at the extremity, fully an inch long_. petals _rather wider than the sepals and with a rich crimson blotch at their base_. lip _wedge-shaped, expanding from a narrow sagittate base into a broad two-lobed disk, an inch and a half wide, white with some bright yellow markings near the foot and in the region of the_ crest; _the latter being formed by three slightly raised "carinæ" or ridges near the base on either side, traversed by two moderate sized calli placed in front_. column _wingless_. this is a most charming _odontoglossum_, allied to the preceding and to _o. phalænopsis_, but perfectly distinct from either. its bright green narrow leaves--streaked like those of _saccolabium blumei_, at once distinguish the plant, even when out of flower, from its fascinating rival _o. vexillarium_; which always bears a glaucous hue, and which has larger and broader foliage, and produces double the number of flowers on a scape. the first rumours that reached us of the plant led to a suspicion that it might, after all, be only a variety of _o. vexillarium_, but these unworthy fears were at once dispelled by the flowering of the plant itself at mr. bull's nursery in the early part of last september, when mr. fitch prepared his drawing, and professor reichenbach obtained materials for the description which appeared in the _gardeners' chronicle_ of september , . the professor has also given, in his _xenia_, a characteristic representation of the wild plant constructed from the specimens supplied to him by its fortunate discoverer, mr. roezl; in whose honour the species is very properly named. it is a native of new grenada, and, like _o. vexillarium_, appears to be exceedingly rare; we must not, therefore, murmur if the precise locality--of which the knowledge is a fortune in itself--should be for awhile withheld. but there would have been no harm in telling us the approximate elevation of the native habitat, as the same is always important as a clue to culture; especially in the case of plants with a limited range. in this instance i apprehend that both _o. roezlii_ and _o. vexillarium_ are not found at a _very_ high level and that therefore--though happily entitled to rank among "cool" orchids--they must be placed in the warmer division of the "cool" orchid-house. the woodcut represents, for purposes of comparison, two nearly allied _odontoglossa_, viz., _o. pulchellum_ and _o. egertonianum_; they both come from the same country (guatemala) and closely resemble each other in habit--only that the pseudobulbs of the latter have much the sharper edges--but the flowers are very different. the spikes of _o. egertonianum_ ( ) are a sort of orchid-imitation of the racemes of the "lily of the valley," though unfortunately they have no perfume, while those of _o. pulchellum_ ( ) emit a delicious, almond-like odour, not very unlike that of _gardenia radicans_; they are, moreover, very chaste and beautiful, and are freely produced during the winter months. under these circumstances the species has long since become, what it well deserved to be, an established popular favourite. yet on its introduction some five-and-thirty years ago--i had then just received the plant from my lamented friend mr. g. u. skinner--its first feeble attempts to flower left such an impression of its insignificance upon my mind, that i churlishly refused it a place among the magnates of its family in "the orchidaceæ of mexico and guatemala" on which i was then engaged! but greater discrimination in the treatment of our plants--in other words the recognition of the system of "cool-orchid-growing"--has led to a more just appreciation of its merits. [illustration] notes. [ ] the mention of the illustrious traveller's name reminds me of the obligations under which he laid me when i first visited berlin, in the spring of ; for, young as i was, he deigned to pour into my delighted ears all the stores of orchid-lore collected during his memorable wanderings among the andes of new grenada and peru. here, he said, the greatest store of beauteous orchids was to be found, and we are now beginning to realize the truth of his remark. [ ] cool orchids from the interior of south america, have either to be carried across the andes, where the intense cold of the passes is often fatal to them, or to be conveyed by a tedious voyage down the great rivers, where the heat is greater than their constitution--often delicate--can endure. in this way whole importations have been lost, including, i am sorry to say, one or two cargoes of the exquisite _odontoglossum warczewitzii_ (figured in reichenbach's "xenia") which still unhappily remains a desideratum. [ ] as most of the _odontoglossa_ require to be treated in the same way, i transcribe, from the 'guide to cool-orchid growing' (reeve, ), the following instructions for the culture of the genus:--"they will all succeed perfectly in a low lean-to house facing the north, the mean temperature of which need not exceed °. they should stand on a shelf of slate or stone, near the glass, but should always be protected from the direct rays of the sun. constant humidity should be maintained by damping the shelves and floors, but the plants themselves will only require water in moderation, and what is given to them should pass away freely, for if it stagnates, or if the compost in which they grow becomes sodden, the roots will immediately decay. a gentle evaporation is greatly assisted by placing layers of moss--to be kept damp of course--on the shelves whereon the plants stand. _odontoglossa_ cannot endure wooden blocks, but will thrive in a compost of which one-half consists of small broken potsherds, the remainder being a mixture of shredded sphagnum (dusted with fine sand) and fibrous peat. about one-third of the entire depth of the pots may be filled with this mixture, the other two-thirds containing nothing but large pieces of broken pots, so as to admit as much air as possible to the roots. the pots in which the plants are grown should stand on other pots (inverted) placed in saucers of water, in order to secure humidity and protect them from wood-lice. nearly all the species flower during the winter or spring months, a circumstance that greatly enhances their value. many, _e. g._ _o. pulchellum_, are deliciously fragrant, and the flowers of nearly all the species remain in perfection for weeks, whether left on the plants or cut for bouquets. in so vast a genus we shall, no doubt, meet with many idiosyncrasies, but nine-tenths of the species will flourish under the treatment indicated above, and which may be regarded as suitable to the majority of cool orchids. most _odontoglossa_ are, like the _masdevallias_, very impatient of the knife, and cannot therefore be rapidly multiplied. they have also a peculiar aversion to fumigation by tobacco, which causes their leaves to fall off." [ ] the idea that _cuitlauzina pendula_ might possibly be identical with _odontoglossum citrosmum_ had more than once occurred to myself, but lexarza's character of the flower-scape,--which he described as "_bracteis destitutus_,"--had always proved an insuperable difficulty. it seems, however, that the scapes of the other _odontoglossa_ that he met with happened to be entirely clothed with large inflated bracts; our present plant therefore, in which they occur only at long intervals and are exceedingly minute, may in comparison be said to be almost "destitute" of them. [ ] mr. skinner has lately received from guatemala some magnificent specimens of _o. grande_, which are incorporated with _masses of fern_ and other shade-loving plants. cultivators might make a good practical use of the well-known maxim "_noscitur a sociis_" in this case. [ ] i copy sir robert's description of the locality in which these plants were found, in the hope that some collector may be induced to visit so interesting a region:--"the _diothonea_ was met with on the high mountain-chain between the sixty-fifth and sixty-sixth meridian and the fourth parallel of latitude, at an elevation of - feet above the sea-level. the summits of those elevations are thickly covered with two species of lichen, the white colour of which conveys the supposition that the ground is covered with snow. the thermometer stood frequently in the morning at ° f., which, connected with the snow-white lichens, powerfully reminded us of a winter landscape. indeed, the stunted trees, with grey tortuous branches, would have assisted to make the picture complete, if numerous _orchidaceæ_, conjointly with green mosses, had not clothed them. indeed, it was the _orchidaceæ_ alone that gave the vegetation a tropical aspect.... we discovered the _maxillaria_ near mount maravaca."--_lindl. sert. orch._ _sub t._ xl. [ ] i allude of course to those remarkable works of dr. lindley, the _orchidearum genera et species_ and the _folia orchidacea_ (the latter of which he was not destined to complete), with which the science of orchidology may be said to have arisen, and which will continue its text-books for all time to come. [ ] it may be well, once for all, to state that in the case of species that have not been long imported, and which have therefore not had time to acquire their full strength, the number and arrangement of flowers in the figures is taken from native specimens where such are available. it sometimes happens that the "wild" standard is never reached in cultivation, but it is more frequently exceeded. student's hand-book of mushrooms of america edible and poisonous. by thomas taylor, m. d. author of food products, etc. published in serial form--=no. =--price, c. per number. washington, d. c.: a. r. taylor, publisher, mass. ave. n.e. . [illustration: plate a. hymenomycetes. agaricus (psalliota) campester. t. taylor, del.] plate a. in plate a is presented a sketch of the common field mushroom, agaricus campester. fig. represents the mature plant; fig. , a sectional view of the same; fig. , the basidia, club-shaped cells from the summit of which proceed the slender tubes called sterigmata, which support the spores--highly magnified; fig. , the sterigmata; fig. , the mycelium, highly magnified, supporting immature mushrooms; fig. , the spores as shed from an inverted mushroom cap; fig. , spores magnified. [illustration: plate b. hymenomycetes. types of the six orders of hymenomycetes. t. taylor, del.] plate b. in plate b is represented a leading type of each of the six orders of the family hymenomycetes: fig. . cap with radiating gills beneath. agaricini. fig. . cap with spines or teeth beneath. hydnei. fig. . cap with pores or tubes beneath. polyporei. fig. . cap with the under or spore-bearing surface even. thelephorei. fig. . whole plant, club-shaped, or bush-like and branched. clavarei. fig. . whole plant irregularly expanded, substance gelatinous. tremellini. copyright, , by thomas taylor, m. d., and a. r. taylor. introduction. in the year , as microscopist of the department of agriculture, i prepared, as a part of the exhibit of my division at the centennial exhibition at philadelphia, a large collection of water-color drawings representing leading types of the edible and poisonous mushrooms of the united states, together with representations of about nine hundred species of microscopic fungi detrimental to vegetation. in the preparation of the first collection i had the valuable assistance of prof. charles h. peck, state botanist of new york, and in the second the hearty co-operation of rev. m. j. berkeley and dr. m. c. cook, the eminent british mycologists. the popular character of this exhibit attracted the attention of the general public, and many letters were received at the department showing an awakening interest in the study of fungi, particularly with regard to the mushroom family, as to methods of cultivation, the means of determining the good from the unwholesome varieties, etc. my first published paper on the subject of edible mushrooms, entitled "twelve edible mushrooms of the u. s.," appeared in the annual report of the department of agriculture for . this was followed by others to the number of five, and as the demand for these reports increased, reprints were made and issued, by order of the secretary of agriculture, in pamphlet form, under the general title of "food products." numerous editions of these reprints were issued by the department up to . during the year , and the first half of , , of these reports were sent out by the department, and the supply was exhausted. they have been out of print for more than two years. it is in view of this fact, and in response to a great and constant demand for these publications, that i have undertaken to publish a series of five pamphlets on the edible and poisonous mushrooms of the united states, which shall embody the substance of the five pamphlets on "food products" above alluded to, supplemented by new matter relating to classification, general and specific, analytical tables of standard authors, and a continuation of the chapters on structure, etc. additional plates, representing leading types of edible and poisonous mushrooms, will also be inserted in each number. in the compilation and extension of this work i have the assistance of my daughter, miss a. robena taylor, who has given considerable attention to the study of fungi, and who has been my faithful coadjutor in the work of collecting specimens, etc., for a number of years. for valuable suggestions as to structural characteristics and methods of classification i am especially indebted to prof. chas. h. peck, of albany, new york, dr. m. c. cooke, of england, and prof. p. a. saccardo, of italy. the colored plates in pamphlet no. , together with a few of those which will appear in the succeeding numbers of this series, are reproductions of those prepared, under my direct supervision, for the pamphlets entitled "food products" published by the department of agriculture and referred to above. thomas taylor, m. d. may , . cryptogams. the cryptogamic or flowerless plants, _i. e._, those having neither stamens nor pistils, and which are propagated by spores, are divided, according to dr. hooper, into the following four classes:--pteridophyta or vascular acrogens, represented by the ferns, club-mosses, etc.; bryophyta or cellular acrogens, represented by the musci, scale-mosses, etc.; algæ, represented by the "red seaweeds," diatomacæ, etc.; fungi or amphigens, which include the molds, mildews, mushrooms, etc. the lichens, according to the "schwendener hypotheses," consist of ascigerous fungi parasitic on algæ. fungi. botanists unite in describing the plants of this class as being destitute of chlorophyll and of starch. these plants assume an infinite variety of forms, and are propagated by spores which are individually so minute as to be scarcely perceptible to the naked eye. they are entirely cellular, and belong to the class amphigens, which for the most part have no determinate axe, and develop in every direction, in contradistinction to the acrogens, which develop from the summit, possessing an axe, leaves, vessels, etc. fungi are divided by systematists into two great classes: . sporifera, in which the spores are free, naked, or soon exposed. . sporidifera, in which the spores are not exposed, but instead are enclosed in minute cells or sacs, called asci. these classes are again subdivided, according to the disposition of the spores and of the spore bearing surface, called the hymenium, into various families. the sporiferous fungi are arranged into four families, viz: . _hymenomycetes_, in which the hymenium is free, mostly naked, or soon exposed. _example, "common meadow mushroom."_ . _gasteromycetes_, in which the hymenium is enclosed in a second case or wrapper, called a peridium, which ruptures when mature, thus releasing the spores. _example, common puff ball._ . _coniomycetes_, in which the spores are naked, mostly terminal on inconspicuous threads, free or enclosed in a perithecium. dust-like fungi. _example, rust of wheat._ . _hyphomycetes_, in which the spores are naked on conspicuous threads, rarely compacted, thread-like fungi. _example, blue mold._ of these four subdivisions of the sporifera, only the hymenomycetes and the gasteromycetes contain plants of the mushroom family, and these two together constitute the class known as the basidiomycetes. the chief distinction of the basidiomycetes is that the naked spores are borne on the summits of certain supporting bodies, termed basidia. these basides are swollen, club-shaped cells, surmounted by four minute tubes or spore-bearers, called sterigmata, each of which carries a spore. see figs. and , plate a. these basides together with a series of elongated cells, termed paraphyses, packed closely together side by side, and intermixed with other sterile cells, called cystidia, constitute the spore-bearing surface or hymenium of the plant. to the naked eye this hymenium appears simply as a very thin smooth membrane, but when a small portion of it is viewed through a microscope with high powers its complex structure is readily observed and can be carefully studied. the _sporidiferous_ fungi are represented by the families physomycetes and ascomycetes. the first of these consists wholly of microscopic fungi. _ascomycetes._--in the plants of this family the spores are not supported upon basidia, but instead are enclosed in minute sacs or asci formed from the fertile cells of a hymenium. in this connection it would be well to state that saccardo does not recognize the divisions _sporifera_ and _sporidifera_ by those names. they are nearly the equivalent of basidiomycetes and ascomycetes. what cooke names physomycetes, saccardo calls phycomyceteæ, introducing it in his work between gasteromyceteæ and myxomyceteæ, which some mycologists consider somewhat out of place. saccardo calls its asci (sacs which contain the spores) sporangia. he does not regard them as genuine asci, but as corresponding more to the peridium of the _gasteromyceteæ_ and _myxomyceteæ._ peck says that this group seems to present characters of both hyphomycetes and ascomycetes, with a preponderance towards hyphomycetes. it is a small group, however, and since it consists wholly of microscopic fungi, need not be farther considered in this work. in the ascomycetes are included the sub-families discomycetes, pyrenomycetes, and tuberacei. of these the discomycetes and the tuberacei are the only groups which contain any of the mushrooms, and but few of these are large enough or sufficiently tender to possess value as esculents. a good example of the first (discomycetes) is found in the morel, and of the second (tuberacei) in the truffle. in the discomycetes or "disk fungi," the spores are produced in minute membraneous sacs, each sac usually containing eight spores. these spore sacs are imbedded in the flesh of the exterior and upper surface of the mushroom cap. in the four classes, hymenomycetes, gasteromycetes, discomycetes, and tuberacei, therefore, are included all of the plants which are here designated under the generic term of "mushrooms." some idea of the relative numerical value of these classes may be obtained from the following figures given by the distinguished british mycologist, m. c. cooke: "hymenomyceteæ--total number of described species , gasteromycetæ-- " " " " " discomyceteæ-- " " " known " , " (the tuberacei comprise a very small group of subterranean fungi, and comparatively few of the species are described.) saccardo in his sylloge gives a total of , described species of fungi of all classes, including the most minute. of these the hymenomycetes include by far the largest number of edible mushrooms. the family hymenomycetes is divided into the following six orders: agaricini, polyporei, hydnei, thelephorei, clavarei, tremellini. in the order agaricini the hymenium is found on the under surface of the mushroom cap, covering pleats or gills, technically called lamellæ. these gills vary in character in the different genera, being "persistent in such as the agaricus, russula, and lentinus, deliquescent (melting) in coprinus, bolbitius, etc. the edge of the gills is acute in agaricus, marasmius, etc., but obtuse and vein-like in cantharellus, longitudinally channelled in trogia, and splitting in schyzophyllum." in the polyporei, pore-bearing mushrooms, the gills are replaced by tubes or pores. the tubes are little cylinders, long or short, pressed one against another, forming by their union a layer on the under surface of the cap, and the sporiferous membrane or hymenium lines their inner walls. their upper end is always closed, while the lower extremity is open to permit the outward passage of the spores. the tubes are generally joined together and are not easily disunited. they are free, _i. e._, separable, in the sole genus _fistulina_. as regards their attachment to the cap, the tubes may be firmly adherent as in the genus polyporus or easily detached in a single mass as in boletus, the fleshy form of the order polyporei. they frequently leave a circular space of greater or less dimensions around the stem, or they adhere to or are prolonged upon it in such a manner that the orifices rise in tiers one above another. the color of the tubes, although not offering as characteristic varieties as that of the gills, changes nevertheless according to species and according to the age of the plant. the tubes may sometimes be of a different color from their orifices, as in _boletus luridus_. in some of the boleti the color of the flesh is changed on exposure to the air and the tubes often assume the same tints. the tubes, generally called pores, are sometimes closely adherent to the substance of the cap, which is often hard, corky, or coriaceous, as seen in most of the _polyporei_. in the hydnei, spine-bearing mushrooms, the hymenium is seen covering the spines or needle-like processes which take the place of gills in this order, and which project from the under surface of the cap. these spines may be divided or entire, simple or ramified, and are formed of the substance of the cap. in the early stages of development they appear like small projecting points or papillæ, those on the margin of the cap and at the apex of the stem being always less developed, frequently remaining in this rudimentary state. they are rounded in the species hydnum imbricatum, sometimes compressed in hydnum repandum, sometimes terminating in hairs or filaments, as in hydnum barba jovis, or very much divided, as in hydnum fimbriatum. in the clavarei, the whole plant consists of solid fleshy masses without any stem of a distinct substance, sometimes club-shaped, sometimes branched with the hymenium smoothly covering the entire surface, never incrusting or coriaceous. in the thelephorei, the lower surface of the cap presents neither gills, pores, nor spines, but instead the hymenium covers an uneven or slightly wrinkled surface, partially striate, sometimes obscurely papillose. the plants of this order assume a great variety of shape, from that of a perfect cup with a central stem to an irregularly and much branched frond. they are generally dry and tough. very few are recommended as edible. prof. peck says of this order that probably no edible species will be found in any of its genera outside of the genus craterellus. in the order tremellini we have a great departure from the character of the substance, external appearance, and internal structure of the other orders of the hymenomycetes. the substance is gelatinous; the form is lobed, folded, or convolute, often resembling the brain of some animal. it is uniformly composed throughout of a colorless mucilage, with no appreciable texture, in which are distributed very fine, diversely branched, and anastomosing filaments. towards the surface the ultimate branches of this filamentous network give birth to globular cells, both at their summits and laterally, which attain a comparatively large size. these cells are filled with a protoplasm, to which the plant owes its color. the fertile threads are not compacted into a true hymenium. representative types of the above-described orders of the hymenomycetes are shown in plate b. the various genera, and species of these orders, will be described more in detail in connection with the species illustrated. classification. owing to the fact that botanists of various countries, writing in diverse languages, have for more than a century been engaged in describing the fungi of their respective countries, with their work frequently unknown to one another, it is not surprising that there has been constant revision, or that many changes have been made in the way of classification and nomenclature which to the amateur student are often confusing. the classification by the pioneer mycologist, elias fries, as presented in his several works on fungi, ignored all microscopical characters, and saccardo's classification, as presented in his _sylloge fungorum_, was the first complete system offered in its place. saccardo, in , commenced his sylloge, of which not less than twelve volumes have been published. in saccardo's system of classification the six orders of the hymenomycetes are not essentially different in their arrangement from that of fries, although saccardo has raised all the subgenera of agaricus to the rank of genera, and then altered their sequence so as to bring them into four sections, distinguished by the color of their spores. having raised the old subgenera of fries to generic rank, saccardo found it necessary to limit the application of the term agaricus to the group of fungi to which it was originally applied by linnæus, viz., the common field mushroom agaricus campester, and its allies, represented by agaricus arvensis, agaricus rodmani, etc., or, as prof. peck more definitely states it, "to those of the gilled mushrooms which have brown spores, free gills, a stem bearing a ring, gills generally pink-colored in the early stage, and brownish black when fully matured." m. c. cooke, the distinguished english mycologist, prefers to retain the _genus agaricus_ with its original subgenera intact, succeeded by the other genera of agaricini, as in the hymenomycetes europei of fries, giving as his reason the belief "that for purposes of classification features should be taken which are present and evident in the specimens themselves, and are not dependent on any of their life-history which cannot be presented in the herbarium." in a work such as the present, which is designed to be popular in character rather than purely technical, it is deemed advisable to select as a basis for classification that system which is most accessible to reference by the general reading public. saccardo's sylloge, while exhaustive in character and of inestimable value to the mycologist, is written in latin, and is, moreover, a very expensive work--facts which render it practically unavailable to the general public. in the compilation of this series of pamphlets i have adopted the classification of m. c. cooke, which, as regards the hymenomycetes, the family containing most of the fleshy fungi, is, with exceptions noted, in accord with that of saccardo. m. c. cooke's hand-book of fungi is of convenient size and form for ready reference. for the convenience, however, of those who may wish to familiarize themselves with both systems, a synopsis of _saccardo's genera_ of hymenomycetes will be given later. structural characteristics of the agaricini. by far the greater number of the agaricini have both cap and stem. the form of the cap, as well as that of the stem, varies somewhat in the different genera and species. those which are terrestrial in habit are generally of an umbrella-like shape, while those which grow upon trees and decayed tree-stumps are apt to be one-sided or semi-spherical. in many of the parasitical mushrooms the stem is absent. where the stem is present it is either an interrupted continuation of the hymenophore or fleshy substance of the cap, or else is supported separately as a pillar on which the cap rests, a more or less distinct line of demarcation showing where the fibers terminate. sometimes it is quite easily detached from the cap socket, as in the lepiota procerus. it may be hollow or stuffed, solid or fibrillose. it varies in length and thickness. in some species it is smooth and polished, in others rough and hairy, reticulated, etc., sometimes tapering, sometimes distinctly bulbous at the base. the spores of the species differ in color and are usually globular or oblong in shape. all of these characteristics assist in determining the species. mushroom gills. mushroom gills, or lamellæ, anatomically considered, are composed, first, of a central portion, a prolongation of the hymenophore or flesh of the cap, more or less dense, sometimes so thin as to be scarcely perceptible; second, the hymenium or spore-bearing membrane covering the surfaces of this prolonged hymenophore. they are vertical, simple, equal, respectively, or more frequently alternating with shorter gills. they are often evanescent and putrescent, sometimes liquefying altogether. their color is usually different from the upper surface of the cap, not always similar to that of the spores borne upon them, at least in youth; with age, however, they usually assume the color of the mature spore. the change of color of the gills according to the age of the plant is very important in the study of the agaricini; it accounts for the white gills of certain species in youth, the pink in maturity, and the brown when aged. the end of the gill nearest the stalk of the plant is termed the posterior extremity; the opposite end, the anterior extremity. in most of the agaricini the gills are unequal. some extend from the margin to about half the space between it and the stem; others are still shorter. the volva. the volva is a membrane which envelops the entire plant in embryo, giving it the appearance of an egg. it originates at the base of the mushroom and furnishes it, during its foetal life, with the means of support and nourishment. its texture is so delicate that it generally disappears, leaving very little trace of its existence on the adult plant. in many of the volvate species this organ exists only so long as they are under ground, and some mycologists restrict the term "volvati" to such only as retain it afterwards. as the young plant expands it breaks through the top of this volva or wrapper, and, emerging, carries with it patches of the membrane on the upper surface of the cap. these are more or less prominent, numerous, and thick, sometimes irregularly disposed, sometimes regularly in the form of plates, warts, etc. at the base of the stem of the mushroom the remains of the volva are seen in the form of a sort of wrapper. this is more or less ample, thick, and ascending. it is called _free_ when it is loose or easily detached from the stem, and _congenital_ when it cannot be separated from it without laceration. in some species it is distinctly membranous, and in others floccose, and friable in character, sometimes appearing in ridges as a mere border, at others broken up into scales, and, as the plant matures, wholly disappearing. the volva is a feature of great importance in the study of the agaricini, of the subgenera amanita, volvaria, etc. the mushroom veil. the veil is not a constant feature in the agaricini, at least it is not always visible. when present it consists of a membrane which extends from the margin of the cap to the stem, veiling or protecting the gills. this membrane, called the cortina, has given its name to a numerous and important class of mushrooms (the _cortinarias_). it is generally white, soft, slightly spongy, cottony, at times fibrillose or even slightly fibrous, again in texture comparable to the spider's web, and may be even powdery or glutinous. it exists intact only in the youth of the plant. it is not visible in the developing mushroom, at least while the cap is closely pressed against the stem, but as the cap expands the membrane extends and finally breaks, leaving in some species its remnants upon the margin of the cap and upon the stem in the usual form of a ring or a mere zone. when the stem is not ringed the veil rises high upon the stalk, stretches across to meet the edges of the cap, and is afterwards reflected back over its whole surface. mushroom spores and mycelium. the spore is the reproductive organ of the mushroom. it differs from the seed of the flowering plant in being destitute of an apparent embryo. a seed contains a plantlet which develops as such. a spore is a minute cell containing a nucleus or living germ, the reproductive cell germ called by some authors the germinating granule. this in turn throws out a highly elongated process consisting of a series of thread-like cells branching longitudinally and laterally, at length bifurcating and anastomosing the mass, forming the vegetative process known as mycelium or mushroom spawn. on this mycelium, at intervals, appear knob-like bodies, called tubercles, from which the mushrooms spring and from which they derive their nourishment. see fig. , plate a. where the conditions have been unfavorable this mycelium has been known to grow for years without bearing fruit. mushroom spores are very variable in size, shape, and color, but are generally constant at maturity in the same genus. their shape, almost always spherical in the young plant, becomes ovate, ellipsoidal, fusiform, reniform, smooth, stellate, sometimes tuberculate, or remains globose. this feature, varying thus with the age of the plant, should be studied in the mature plant. mycelium. de leveille has thus defined mycelium: "filaments at first simple, then more or less complicated, resulting from the vegetation of the spores and serving as roots to the mushroom." the mycelium of mushrooms or the mushroom spawn is usually white, but is also found yellow, and even red. it is distinguished by some writers as nematoid, fibrous, hymenoid, scleroid or tuberculous, and malacoid. the nematoid mycelium is the most common. creeping along on the surface of the earth, penetrating it to a greater or less depth, developing in manure among the débris of leaves or decayed branches, always protected from the light, it presently consists of very delicate filamentous cells more or less loosely interwoven, divided, anastomosing in every direction and often of considerable extent. its presence is sometimes difficult to detect without the use of the microscope, either on account of its delicacy or because of its being intermingled with the organic tissues in which it has developed. sometimes mycelium unites in bundles more or less thick and branched. this has been called the fibrous mycelium. where the filaments intercross closely, are felted, and inclined to form a membrane, it is hymenoid mycelium. where the filaments are so small and close that they form very compact bodies, constituting those solid irregular products called sclerotium, it is scleroid or tuberculous mycelium. with malacoid mycelium we have nothing to do in this paper. it is a soft, pulpy, fleshy mycelium. systematists have divided the agaricini into groups according to the color of their spores. these groups are defined as follows by various authors: according to-- elias fries, groups: _leucosporus_, white; _hyporhodius_, pink; _cortinaria_, ochraceous; _derminus_, rust; _pratella_, purplish black. rev. j. m. berkeley, groups: very frequently pure white, but presenting also pink, various tints of brown, from yellowish and rufous to dark bister, purple-black, and finally black; _leucospori_, white; _hyporhodii_, salmon; _dermini_, ferruginous; _pratellæ_, brown; _coprinarius_, black. dr. badham, groups: pure white or a yellow tinge on drying; brown; yellow; pink; purple; purple-black; some pass successively from pink to purple and from purple to purple-black. mrs. hussey, shades: white; rose; pale ocher; olivaceous-ocher; reddish-ocher; ochraceous; yellowish olive-green; dull brown; scarcely ferruginous; snuff-color; very dark brown. hogg & johnson, groups: _leucosporei_, white; _hyporhodii_, salmon; _dermini_, rusty; _pratellæ_, purplish-brown; _coprinarii_, black. c. gillet, shades: white; pink; ochraceous; yellow; ferruginous; black or purplish black; round, ovate, elongated, or fusiform, smooth, tuberculate or irregular, simple or composite, transparent or nebulous, etc. jules bel, groups: white; pink; red; brown; black. dr. gautier, shades: white; pink; brown; purplish-brown; black. constantin & dufour, groups: white; pink; ochraceous; brownish-purple; black. j. p. barla, groups: _leucosporii_, white; _hyporhodii_, pink; _cortinariæ_, ochraceous; _dermini_, rust; _pratellæ_, purplish-black; _coprinarii_, blackish; _coprini_ and _gomphi_, dense black. l. boyer, groups, shades: white to cream yellow; pale pink to ochraceous yellow; bay or red brown to brown or blackish bister; rust color, cinnamon or light yellow. w. d. hay, groups: white; pink; brown; purple; black. c. h. peck, groups: _leucosporii_, white; _hyporhodii_, salmon; _dermini_, rust; _pratellæ_, brown; _coprinarii_, black. saccardo divides the agaricini into four sections, according to the color of their spores, as follows: spores brown, purplish brown or black, _melanosporæ_; spores ochraceous or rusty ochraceous, _ochrosporæ_; spores rosy or pinkish, _rhodosporæ_; spores white, whitish or pale yellow, _leucosporæ_. dr. m. c. cooke, groups: _leucospori_, white or yellowish; _hyporhodii_, rosy or salmon color; _dermini_, brown, sometimes reddish or yellowish brown; _pratellæ_, purple, sometimes brownish purple, dark purple, or dark brown; _coprinarii_, black or nearly so. these shades are somewhat different from the colors of the mushrooms' gills, so that, when it is of importance to determine exactly the color of the spore in the identification of a species, we may without recourse to the microscope cut off the stem of an adult plant on a level with the gills and place the under surface of the cap upon a leaf of white paper if a dark-spored species, and upon a sheet of black paper if the spores are light. at the expiration of a few hours we will find, on lifting the cap, a bed of the shed spores which will represent their exact shade. these may be removed to a glass slide and their size and form determined by means of the microscope. in the present work dr. m. c. cooke's grouping of the spore series is adopted. etymology of the word "mushroom." various opinions have been offered as to the derivation of the word "mushroom." according to hay, it probably had its origin in a combination of the two welsh words _maes_, a field, and _rhum_, a knob, which by gradual corruption have become _mushroom_. some writers on the other hand regard it as a corruption of _mousseron_, a name specifically applied by the french to those mushrooms which are found growing in mossy places. but it seems to be of older usage than such a derivation would imply, and therefore the first explanation seems the more likely to be correct. in england the term "mushroom" has been most commonly applied to the "meadow mushroom," that being the one best known; but english-speaking mycologists now apply it generically very much as the french do the term "champignon," while the name "champignon" is restricted in england to the marasmius oreades, or "fairy ring" mushroom. berkeley says the french word "champignon" was originally scarcely of wider signification than our word "mushroom," though now classical in the sense of fleshy fungi generally. the german word _pilz_ (a corruption of boletus) is used to denote the softer kinds by some german authors. constant and dufour, in their recently published atlas des champignons, include types of a great variety of mushrooms. hay contends that the pernicious nick-name "toad-stool" has not the derivation supposed, but that the first part of the word is the saxon or old english "tod," meaning a bunch, cluster, or bush, the form of many terrestrial fungi suggesting it. the second syllable, "stool," is easily supplied. "the erroneous idea of connecting toads with these plants," says hay, "seems to be due to spenser, or to some poet, possibly, before his time." spenser speaks of the loathed paddocks, "paddock" then being the name given in england to the frog, afterwards corrupted to "paddic," and once received, readily converted by the scotch into "puddick-stool." it would seem, therefore, from the foregoing, that the term "toad-stool" can have no proper relation to mushrooms, whether edible or poisonous. the three mushrooms illustrated and described in this pamphlet, plates i, ii, and iii, are of the order agaricini or gilled mushrooms. they are well-defined types and of wide geographical distribution. food value of mushrooms. rollrausch and siegel, who claim to have made exhaustive investigations into the food values of mushrooms, state that "many species deserve to be placed beside meat as sources of nitrogenous nutriment," and their analysis, if correct, fully bears out the statement. they find in parts of dried _morchella esculenta_ . per cent. of protein; in _helvella esculenta_, . per cent. of protein, from to per cent. of potassium salts and phosphoric acid, . per cent. of fatty matter, and a considerable quantity of sugar. the _boletus edulis_ they represent as containing in parts of the dried substance . per cent. of protein. the nitrogenous values of different foods as compared with the mushroom are stated as follows: "protein substances calculated for parts of bread, . ; of oatmeal, . ; of barley bread, . ; of leguminous fruits, . ; of potatoes, . ; of mushrooms, . ." according to schlossberger and depping, in grams of dried mushrooms they found the following proportions of nitrogenous substances: -----------------------+-------- varieties. | grains. | chanterelles | . certain russulas | . lactarius deliciosus | . boletus edulis | . meadow mushroom | . -----------------------+-------- but all chemists are not agreed as to these proportions. for instance, lefort has found . grains of nitrogenous matter in the cap of _agaricus campestris_, . grains in the gills and only . of a grain in the stem. payen has found . grains in _agaricus campestris_, . grains in the common morel (_morchella esculenta_), . grains in the white truffle, and . grains in the black. a much larger proportion of the various kinds of mushrooms are edible than is generally supposed, but a prejudice has grown up concerning them in this country which it will take some time to eradicate. notwithstanding the occurrence of occasional fatal accidents through the inadvertent eating of poisonous species, fungi are largely consumed both by savage and civilized man in all parts of the world, and while they contribute so considerable a portion of the food product of the world we may be sure their value will not be permanently overlooked in the united states, especially when we consider our large accessions of population from countries in which the mushroom is a familiar and much prized edible. in italy the value of the mushroom as an article of diet has long been understood and appreciated. pliny, galen, and dioscorides mention various esculent species, notably varieties of the truffle, the boletus and the puff-ball, and vittadini writes enthusiastically of the gastronomic qualities of a large number of species. of late years large quantities have been sold in the italian markets. quantities of mushrooms are also consumed in germany, hungary, russia, france, and austria. darwin speaks of terra del fuego as the only country where cryptogamic plants form a staple article of food. a bright-yellow fungus allied to _bulgarin_ forms, with shellfish, the staple food of the fuegians. in england the common meadow mushroom _agaricus campestris_ is quite well known and used to a considerable extent among the people, but there is not that general knowledge of and use of other species which obtains in continental europe. in the english-speaking countries much has been done by the rev. m. j. berkeley, dr. m. c. cooke, worthington g. smith, rev. john stevenson, prof. hay, prof. chas. h. peck, prof. w. j. farlow, and others, including the various mushroom clubs, to disseminate a more general knowledge on this subject. late investigations show that nearly all the species common to the countries of continental europe, and of great britain, are found in different localities in the united states, and a number of species have been found which have not been described in european works. the geographical distribution of many species of the mushroom family is very wide. we have had specimens of the _morel_, for instance, sent to us from california and washington, on the pacific coast, and as far north as maine, on the atlantic, as well as from the southern and the midwestern states, and the same is true of other species. the season of their appearance varies somewhat according to the latitude and altitude of place of growth. mushrooms are rarely seen after the first heavy frosts, although an exception is noted in this latitude in the species hypholoma sublatertium, which has been found growing under the snow, at the roots of trees in sheltered woods. frozen mushrooms of this and closely allied species have revived when thawed, and proved quite palatable when cooked. at the present time only two species, agaricus campester and agaricus arvensis, are cultivated in america. some attempts have been made by an amateur mushroom club in ohio to cultivate the morel, but the results have not, so far, been reported. in the meantime, however, it is well to utilize the wild mushrooms as fast as the collector can satisfactorily identify them. the woods of all moist regions of this country abound with edible varieties. prof. curtis, of north carolina, gives a list of over one hundred edible species found in that state alone, and nearly all of these occur in our northern states as well. it is not contended that this list includes all the species which may be eaten, nor have all of these equal value from a gastronomic point of view. some are insipid as to flavor, and others are too tough or too slimy to please the popular taste. cautionary suggestions. before collecting for the table mushrooms found growing in the woods or fields, it would be well for inexperienced persons to consult carefully some work on the subject in which the characteristics of edible and poisonous varieties are described and illustrated. considering that an opinion seems to prevail that the discoloration of the silver spoon or small white onions when brought into contact with mushrooms during the culinary process is an infallible test of the poisonous species, i quote from a french author on mushrooms the following in relation to this supposed test: * * * we may not dispute the fact that a silver spoon or article of brass, or onions, may not become discolored on contact with the poisonous principle, but this discoloration is not reliable as a test for deciding the good or bad quality of mushrooms. in fact, we know that in the decomposition of albuminoids sulphureted hydrogen is liberated which of itself discolors silver, brass, and onions. i have deemed it advisable to publish this as one of the best means of answering those correspondents who have made inquiries as to the reliability of this test. it is by some supposed that high colors and viscidity are indications of non-edible species, but there are numerous exceptions here. _russula alutacea_--the pileus of which is often a purplish red--_amanita cæsarea_, and other species of brilliant coloring are known to be edible. as to viscidity, two very viscid species, when young, are among the highly prized esculents by those who know them, viz., _fistulina hepatica_, or the ox tongue, and _hygrophorus eburneus_, the ivory mushroom. the method of deciding the character of mushrooms by their odor and flavor is not to be relied upon. edible mushrooms are usually characterized by a pleasant flavor and odor; non-edible varieties have sometimes an unpleasant odor, and produce a biting, burning sensation on the tongue and throat, even in very small quantities, but several of the _amanitas_ have only a slight odor and taste, and certain species of mushrooms, acrid otherwise, become edible when cooked. in fact there is no general rule by which the edible species can be distinguished from the unwholesome or poisonous ones. the safest as well as the most sensible plan, therefore, is to apply the same rule as that which we adopt in the case of the esculents among the flowering plants, viz., to learn to know the characteristics of each individual species so as to distinguish it from all others. with regard to the mushrooms which have been designated as poisonous, it should be remembered that the term "poisonous" is used relatively. while some are only slightly poisonous, producing severe gastric irritation and nervous derangement, but without fatal results, others, if eaten in even very small quantity, may cause death. happily, however, the most dangerous species are not numerous as compared with the number that are edible, and with careful attention on the part of the collector they may be avoided. since the amanita group is made responsible by competent authority for most of the recorded cases of fatal poisoning, we would recommend the amateur mycophagist to give special study to this group in order to learn to separate the species authentically recorded as edible from the poisonous ones. some writers, as a measure of precaution, counsel the rejection of all species of amanita. but this is, of course, a matter for individual preference. there would seem to be no good reason why the observant student should not learn to discriminate between the edible and the poisonous species of the amanita as of any other group, and they should not be eaten until this discriminating knowledge is acquired. saccardo describes fifteen edible species of this group of mushrooms. we have tested three of this number, which, on account of their abundance in our locality and their good flavor, we would be loth to discard, viz., a. rubescens, a. cæsarea, and a. strobiliformis. a type of the amanita group, which is named first in the genera of the order agaricini, is shown in fig. , plate b. by reference to this figure some of the special characteristics of the group can be observed. there are mushrooms in other genera which show a volva or sheath at the base of the stem, and which contain edible species, but in these the stem is ringless. the volvariæ, for instance, show a conspicuous volva, a stem that is ringless, and pinkish spores. the amanitopsis vaginata carries a volva, but no ring. the spores are white, as in the amanita. in gathering mushrooms either for the table or for the herbarium, care should be taken not to leave any portion of the plant in the ground, so that no feature shall be lost that will aid in characterizing the species. in the careless pulling up of the plant the volva in the volvate species is often left behind. agaricini. fries. leucospori (spores white, or yellowish). _genus russula_ fr. the _russulæ_ bear some resemblance to the _lactars_, their nearest allies, but are at once distinguished from them by their want of milk. they are very abundant in the forests and open woods. the genus is cited by some authors as the most natural of the agarics, but, as many of the species very closely resemble each other, it requires careful analysis to determine them. the plants of this genus are not volvate, and have neither veil nor ring. the hymenophore is not separate from the trama of the gills. although some are pure white, the caps are usually brilliant in coloring, but the color is very susceptible to atmospheric changes, and after heavy rains the bright hues fade, sometimes only leaving a slight trace of the original coloring in the central depression of the cap. the cap in youth is somewhat hemispherical, afterwards expanding, becoming slightly depressed in the centre, somewhat brittle in texture; gills rigid, fragile, with acute edge; stem thick, blunt, and polished, usually short. the spores are globose, or nearly so, slightly rough, white or yellowish, according to the species. in r. virescens the spores are white, while in r. alutacea the spores are an ochraceous yellow in tint. a number of the species are of pleasant flavor, others peppery or acrid. out of seventy-two described by cooke, twenty-four are recorded as acrid. with some of these the acridity is said to disappear in cooking, and a few mycophagists claim to have eaten all varieties with impunity. we have recorded, however, some well authenticated cases of serious gastric disturbance, accompanied by acute inflammation of the mucous membrane, caused by the more acrid of these, notably _r. emetica_ and _r. foetens_, and in view of this fact it would seem a wise precaution for the _amateur_ collector to discard or at least to use very sparingly all those which have an acrid or peppery taste, until well assured as to their wholesomeness. the _genus russula_ has been divided into the following tribes or groups:--compactæ, furcatæ, rigidæ, heterophylla, and fragiles. the species _russula (rigidæ) virescens_, illustrated in plate i, belongs to the tribe rigidæ. in the plants of this group, the cap is absolutely dry and rigid, destitute of a viscid pellicle; the cuticle commonly breaking up into flocci or granules; the flesh thick, compact, and firm, vanishing near the margin, which is never involute, and shows no striations. the gills are irregular in length, some few reaching half way to the stem, the others divided, dilated, and extending into a broad rounded end, stem solid. [illustration: plate i. russula virescens fr. (edible) the verdette from nature collected in the district of columbia report of microscopist, u. s. department of agriculture l. krieger, pinx. avil. co. lith. phila.] plate i. =russula virescens= fries. "_the verdette_" _or_ "_greenish russula_." edible. the cap of this species is fleshy and dry, the skin breaking into thin patches. the margin is usually even, but specimens occur which show striations. the color varies from a light green to a grayish or moldy green, sometimes tinged with yellow; gills white, free from the stem or nearly so, unequal, rather crowded; stem white, stout, solid, smooth, at first hard, then spongy; spores white, nearly globose. one writer speaks of the "warts" of the cap, but the term warts, used in this connection, refers merely to the patches resulting from the splitting or breaking up of the epidermis of the cap, and not to such excrescences called warts, as are commonly observed on the cap of amanita muscaria, for instance, which are remnants of the volva. the _r. virescens_ is not as common as some others of the russulæ, in some localities, and hitherto seems to have attracted but little attention as an edible species in this country, although highly esteemed in europe. it has been found growing in thin woods in maryland and in virginia from june to november, and we have had reports of its growth from new york and massachusetts. the peasants in italy are in the habit of toasting these mushrooms over wood embers, eating them afterwards with a little salt. vittadini, roques, and cordier speak highly of its esculent qualities and good flavor. we have eaten quantities of the virescens gathered in washington, d. c., and its suburbs, and found it juicy and of good flavor when cooked. explanation of plate i. plate i exhibits four views of this mushroom (_r. virescens_) drawn and colored from nature. fig. , the immature plant; fig. , advanced stage of growth, cap expanded or plane; fig. , section showing the unequal length of the gills and manner of their attachment to the stem; fig. , surface view of the cap showing the epidermis split in characteristic irregular patches; fig. , spores, white. agaricini. coprinarii (spores black or nearly so). genus _coprinus_ fries. hymenophore distinct from the stem. gills membranaceous, at first coherent from the pressure, then dissolving into a black fluid. trama obsolete. spores, oval, even, black. m. c. cooke. the plants of this genus have been divided into two tribes, viz., _pelliculosi_ and _veliformis_. in the _pelliculosi_ the gills of the mushrooms are covered with a fleshy or membranaceous cuticle, hence the cap is not furrowed along the lines of the gills, but is torn and revolute. in this tribe are included the _comati_, _atramentarii_, _picacei_, _tomentosi_, _micacio_ and _glabrati_. in the tribe _veliformis_ the plants are generally very small, and the cap much thinner than in those of the _pelliculosi_, soon showing distinct furrows along the back of the gills, which quickly melt into very thin lines. the stem is thin and fistulose. cordier states that all the species of _coprinus_ are edible when young and fresh. this is probably true, but most of them have so little substance and are so ephemeral as to be of small value for food purposes. _c. comatus_, _c. atramentarius_, _c. micaceus_, and _c. ovatus_ have the preference with most mycophagists, but even these soon melt, and should be gathered promptly and cooked immediately to be of use for the table. [illustration: plate ii. coprinus comatus fr. (edible) the maned mushroom from nature collected in the district of columbia report of microscopist, u. s. department of agriculture l. krieger, pinx. avil. co. lith. phila.] plate ii. =coprinus comatus= fries. _maned or shaggy coprinus_. edible. cap at first oblong or cylindrical, then campanulate, the cuticle breaking into shaggy fibrous scales, color whitish, the scales generally yellow or yellowish, margin revolute and lacerated, soon becoming black. gills linear, free, and close together, at first white, then pink or purplish, turning to black. stem hollow or slightly stuffed, nearly equal, somewhat fibrillose, with bulb solid; the ring movable or very slightly adherent, generally disappearing as the plant matures. spores oval, black, . to . in. long. this species is found in abundance in different parts of the united states, generally in rich soil, in pastures, by roadsides, in dumping lots, etc. of late years quantities have been gathered in the lawn surrounding the capitol grounds, and in the parks of the district of columbia, as well as in the débris of the wooden block pavements used for surface soiling gardens in vicinity of the capital. they have been offered for sale in open market as low as cents per pound. a correspondent from rochester, new york, states that in a patch of his grounds which had been quarried out and filled with street sweepings the coprinus comatus appeared in such quantities as to make it impossible to walk over the space without stepping upon them, and that he was able to gather from this small space from one to two bushels at a time in the spring and the fall. in flavor the c. comatus resembles the cultivated mushroom, though perhaps more delicate. the _coprinus ovatus_, "_oval coprinus_," a closely allied species, is similar to the comatus, but smaller, more ovate in shape and delicate in flavor, less deliquescent; stem usually / of an inch long. the _coprinus atramentarius_ has a mouse-gray or brownish cap with irregular margin, slightly striated. it is not shaggy, but is spotted with minute, innate punctate scales. the stem is hollow, somewhat ringed when young. spores elliptical, black. _coprinus micaceus_ is a very common species, and is found generally in clusters on old tree stumps or on decaying wood. the cap is thin and of a reddish buff or ochraceous tint, often showing a sprinkling of glistening micaceous scales or granules; gills crowded, whitish. it is at first ovate or bell-shaped, then expanding; striated. the stem is white, slender, and hollow, not ringed. the spores in this species are a very dark brown, which is unusual in the genus _coprinus_. it is generally found in decaying wood or old tree-stumps, growing in dense clusters. prof. peck says: "european writers do not record the '_glistening coprinus_' among the edible species, perhaps because of its small size. but it compensates for its lack of size by its frequency and abundance. in tenderness and delicacy it does not appear to be at all inferior to the '_shaggy coprinus_.'" explanation of plate ii. =coprinus comatus= fr. _the shaggy maned mushroom_. fig. . a young plant. fig. . a plant partly expanded, exposing the tender pink of the gills. fig. . a mature plant, bell-shaped and shaggy, with movable ring detached from the cap, and with stem unequal and rooting. fig. . a sectional view, showing hollow stem, thin cap, and broad, free, linear gill. fig. . spores black. agaricini. leucospori (spores white, or yellowish.) genus _marasmius_ fries.--tough dry shrivelling fungi--not putrescent, reviving when moistened; veil none. stem cartilaginous or horny. gills tough, rather distant, edge acute and entire. m. c. cooke. a characteristic of the species of this genus is their tendency to wither with drought and revive with moisture. this biological characteristic is of great importance in determining the true marasmii. the plants are usually small and of little substance. cooke divides the marasmii into three tribes, and these again into several subdivisions. in the division scortei of this genus are classed three species which are described in the works of most of the continental writers; the marasmius oreades, which has recognized value as an esculent, marasmius urens and marasmius peronatus, which have the reputation of being acrid and unwholesome. [illustration: plate iii. marasmius oreades fr. (edible) the fairy ring mushroom. report of microscopist, u. s. department of agriculture l. k. after gillet. avil. co. lith. phila.] plate iii. =marasmius oreades= fries. "_fairy ring mushroom_." edible. cap fleshy, convex at first, then nearly plane, pale yellowish red, or tawny red when young, fading to yellow or buff as the plant matures, slightly umbonate, flesh white; gills broad, wide apart, rounded or deeply notched at the inner extremity, slightly attached to or at length free from the stem, unequal in length, whitish or creamy yellow in color; stem slender, solid and tough, whitish, generally one to two inches in length and one-fourth of an inch in thickness, showing a whitish down, easily removed, not strigose or villose, as in the marasmius urens. spores white. this species is usually found in open grassy places, sometimes in rings, or in parts of rings, often in clusters, and writers generally agree as to its agreeable taste and odor. when properly cooked its toughness disappears. prof. peck describes two mushrooms which are somewhat similar in appearance to the "_fairy ring_," and which might be taken for it by careless observers, viz., the naucoria semi-orbicularis, sometimes growing in company with it, and the _collybia dryophila_, a wood variety which is sometimes found in open places. the first of these may be distinguished from the _oreades_, by the rusty brown color of the gills, its smooth stem and rusty colored spores. in the second the gills are much narrower and the stem is very smooth and hollow. the _marasmius urens_ as described by european authors has a pale buff cap, not umbonate but flat, and at length depressed in the centre, from one to two inches across. the gills are unequal, free, very crowded; cream color, becoming brownish. the stem is solid and fibrous, densely covered with white down at the base. it is very acrid to the taste. in habit of growth it is subcæspitose; sometimes found growing in company with the m. oreades. prof. peck says of _m. urens_ that he has not yet seen an american specimen which he could refer to that species with satisfaction. our experience, so far, is the same as that of prof. peck. _marasmius peronatus_ has a reddish buff cap, with crowded thin gills, creamy, turning to reddish brown; the stem solid and fibrous, with yellowish filaments at the base. it is acrid in taste and is usually found among fallen leaves in woods. explanation of plate iii. in plate iii, fig. represents an immature plant; fig. , cap expanding with growth; fig. , cap further expanded and slightly umbonate; fig. , mature specimen, cap plane or fully expanded, margin irregular and smooth, stem equal, smooth and ringless; fig. , section showing gills broad, free, ventricose, unequal, and flesh white; fig. , spores white. appendix a. preserving and cooking mushrooms. in europe several species of mushrooms are preserved by boiling and afterwards placing them in earthern jars or tubs filled with water, which is renewed from time to time. this simple and economical method of keeping mushrooms affords the people considerable provision. with regard to the preparation of fresh mushrooms for table use, dr. roques, an eminent writer on fungi, gives the following excellent suggestions: "after selecting good mushrooms, remove the skin or epidermis, cutting away the gills, and in some cases the stem, which is usually of not so fine a texture. "it is important to collect for use only young and well-preserved specimens, because a mushroom of excellent quality may, nevertheless, when overmature or near its decline, become dangerous for food. it then acts as does every other food substance which incipient decomposition has rendered acrid, irritating and indigestible. it is, moreover, rarely the case that mushrooms in their decline are not changed by the presence of larvæ." in geneva a very lucrative trade is carried on in the exportation of the "_edible boletus_," which is preserved for use in various ways, the simplest of which consists in cutting the caps in slices and stringing them, after which they are placed on hurdles in the shade to dry. they may also be dried in a stove or oven, but the former method is preferable, as the mushroom then retains more of its flavor or perfume. when the slices are perfectly dried they are put into sacks and suspended in a dry, airy place. sometimes before the mushrooms are sliced they are plunged into boiling water for an instant, which treatment is said to preserve them from the ravages of insects. several kinds of mushrooms are preserved in the following manner: after they have been properly washed and cleansed, they are boiled in salted water and afterwards wiped dry. they are then placed in layers, in jars, sprinkled with salt and pepper, and covered with pure olive oil or vinegar. _lactarius deliciosus_, _cantharellus cibarius_, _morchellas_, _clavarias_, etc., are thus preserved. before using the dried mushrooms they are soaked in tepid water for some time and afterwards prepared as if fresh, with the usual seasoning. receipts. _broiled procerus._--remove the scales and stalks from the agarics, and broil lightly on both sides over a clear fire for a few minutes; arrange them on a dish over freshly made, well-buttered toast; sprinkle with pepper and salt and put a small piece of butter on each; set before a brisk fire to melt the butter, and serve quickly. bacon toasted over mushrooms improves the flavor and saves the butter. _agarics delicately stewed._--remove the stalks and scales from the young half-grown agarics, and throw each one as you do so into a basin of fresh water slightly acidulated with the juice of a lemon or a little good vinegar. when all are prepared, remove them from the water and put them in a stewpan with a very small piece of fresh butter. sprinkle with pepper and salt and add a little lemon juice; cover up closely and stew for half an hour; then add a spoonful of flour with sufficient cream or cream and milk, till the whole has the thickness of cream. season to taste, and stew again until the agarics are perfectly tender. remove all the butter from the surface and serve in a hot dish garnished with slices of lemon. a little mace or nutmeg or catsup may be added, but some think that spice spoils the flavor. _cottager's procerus pie._--cut fresh agarics in small pieces; pepper, salt, and place them on small shreds of bacon, in the bottom of a pie dish; then put in a layer of mashed potatoes, and so fill the dish, layer by layer, with a cover of mashed potatoes for the crust. bake well for half an hour and brown before a quick fire. _a la provencale._--steep for two hours in some salt, pepper, and a little garlic; then toss them into a small stewpan over a brisk fire with parsley chopped and a little lemon juice. _agaric catsup._--place the agarics of as large a size as you can procure, layer by layer, in a deep pan, sprinkling each layer as it is put in with a little salt. then next day stir them several times well so as to mash and extract their juice. on the third day strain off the liquor, measure and boil for ten minutes, and then to every pint of liquor add half an ounce of black pepper, a quarter of an ounce of bruised ginger root, a blade of mace, a clove or two, and a teaspoonful of mustard seed. boil again for half an hour; put in two or three bay leaves and set aside until quite cold. pass through a strainer and bottle; cork well and dip salt on the gills. lay them top downwards on a gridiron over a moderate fire for five or six minutes at the most. _to stew mushrooms._--trim and rub clean half a pint of large button mushrooms. put into a stewpan ounces of butter; shake it over a fire until thoroughly melted; put in the mushrooms, a teaspoonful of salt, half as much pepper, and a blade of mace pounded; stew until the mushrooms are tender, then serve on a hot dish. this is usually a breakfast dish. _mushrooms à la crême._--trim and rub half a pint of button mushrooms; dissolve in a stewpan ounces of butter rolled in flour; put in the mushrooms, a bunch of parsley, a teaspoonful of salt, half a teaspoonful each of white pepper and of powdered sugar; shake the pan for ten minutes; then beat up the yolks of two eggs with two tablespoonfuls of cream, and add by degrees to the mushrooms; in two or three minutes you can serve them in sauce. _mushrooms on toast._--put a pint of mushrooms into a stewpan with two ounces of butter rolled in flour; add a teaspoonful of salt, half a teaspoonful of white pepper, a blade of powdered mace, and a half a teaspoonful of grated lemon; stew until the butter is all absorbed; then serve on toast as soon as the mushrooms are tender. appendix b. glossary of terms used in describing mushrooms. _abortive_, imperfectly developed. _acaulescent_, _acaulous_, having a very short stem or none. _acetabuliform_, cup-shaped. _acicular_, needle-shaped. _aculeate_, slender pointed. _acuminate_, terminating in a point. _acute_, sharp pointed. _adnate_, gills firmly attached to the stem. _adnexed_, gills just reaching the stem. _adpressed_, pressed in close contact, as applied to gills. _Æruginous_, verdigris-green. _agglutinated_, glued to the surface. _aggregated_, collected together. _alveolate_, socketed or honeycombed. _amphigenous_, when the hymenium is not restricted to a particular surface. _analogy_, superficial or general resemblance without structural agreement. _anastomosing_, branching, joining of one vein with another. _annular_, ring-shaped. _annulate_, having a ring. _annulus_, ring round the stem of agarics. _apex_, in mushrooms the extremity of the stem nearest the gill. _apical_, close to the apex. _apiculate_, terminating in a small point. _appendiculate_, hanging in small fragments. _approximate_, of gills which approach the stem but do not reach it. _arachnoid_, cobweb-like. _arboreal_, _arboricle_, tree-inhabiting. _arcuate_, bow-shaped. _areolate_, divided into little areas or patches. _argillaceous_, clayey, like clay. _ascending_, directed upward. _asci_, _ascidia_, spore-cases of certain mushrooms. _attenuated_, tapering gradually to a point upward or downward. _band_, a broad bar of color. _banded_, marked with bands. _barbed_, furnished with fibrils or hairs. _basidia_, cellular processes of certain mushroom-bearing spores. _bibliography_, condensed history of the literature of a subject. _bifurcated_, divided into two, as in the gills of certain agarics. _booted_, applied to the stem of a mushroom when inclosed in a sheath or volva. _boss_, a knob or short rounded protuberance. _bossed_, _bullate_, furnished with a boss or knob. _branched_, dividing from the sides; also styled furcate and forked. _brick_, trade term for a mass of mushroom spawn, in dimensions the size of a brick of masonry. _broad_, wide or deep vertically. _bulbous_, having the structure of a bulb. _cæspitose_, growing in tufts. _calcareous_, chalky, chalk-like. _calyptra_, applied to the portion of volva covering the pileus. _campanulate_, bell-shaped. _canaliculate_, channelled. _cancellate_, latticed, marked both longitudinally and transversely. _cap_, the expanded, umbrella-like receptacle of the common mushroom. _capillitium_, spore-bearing threads, variable in thickness and color, sometimes continuous with the sterile base, sometimes free, dense, and persistent, or lax and evanescent, often branched; found in the lycoperdons. _carious_, decayed. _carneous_, fleshy. _cartilaginous_, hard and tough. _castaneous_, chestnut color. _ceraceous_, wax-like. _channelled_, hollowed out like a gutter. _chlorosis_, loss of color. _cilia_, marginal hair-like processes. _ciliate_, fringed with hair-like processes. _cinerous_, ash-colored. _circinate_, rounded. _clathrate_, latticed. _clavate_, club-shaped, gradually thickened upward. _close_, packed closely side by side; also styled crowded. _columella_, a sterile tissue rising column-like in the midst of the capillitium, serving as a point of insertion for the threads which connect it with the peridium in the form of a net-work. _concentric_, having a common center, as a series of rings one within another. _connate_, united by growing, as when two or more caps become united. _concolored_, of a uniform color. _confervoid_, from the finely branched threads. _continuous_, without a break, of a surface which is not cracked, or of one part which runs into another without interruption. _cordate_, heart-shaped. _coriaceous_, of a leathery texture. _corrugated_, drawn into wrinkles or folds. _corticated_, furnished with a bark-like covering. _cortina_, a partial veil formed not of continuous tissue but of slender threads, which in certain mushrooms when young unite the stem with the margin of the cap. this membrane remains later as a filamentous ring on the stem, or threads hanging to the margin of cap. applied to the peculiar veil of the cortinarias. _cratera_, a cup-shaped receptacle. _crenate_, _crenulate_, notched at the edge, the notches blunt or rounded, not sharp as in a serrated edge, serratures convex. _cribrose_, pierced with holes. _cryptogamia_, applied to the division of nonflowering plants. _cupreous_, copper-colored. _cuspidate_, with a sharp, spear-like point. _cyathiform_, cup-shaped. _cystidia_, sterile cells of the hymenium, generally larger than the basidia cells, with which they are found. _deciduous_, temporary falling off. _decurrent_, as when the gills of a mushroom are prolonged down the stem. _dehiscent_, a closed organ opening of itself at maturity, or when it has attained a certain development. _deliquescent_, relating to mushrooms which at maturity become liquid. _dentate_, toothed, with concave serratures. _denticulate_, finely dentate. _dermini_, brown or rust colored spores. _determinate_, ending definitely; having a distinctly defined outline. _diaphanous_, transparent. _dichotomous_, paired by twos; regularly forked. _dimidiate_, applied to some gills of mushrooms which reach only halfway to the stem. _disciform_, of a circular, flat form. _dissepiments_, dividing walls. _distant_, applied to gills which have a wide distance between them. _divaricate_, separating at an obtuse angle. _echinate_, furnished with stiff bristles. _echinulate_, with minute bristles. _effused_, spread over without regular form. _elongate_, lengthened. _emarginate_, applied to gills which are notched or scooped out suddenly before they reach the stem. _embryo_, the mushroom before leaving its volva or egg stage; also any early stage of mushrooms which may have no volva. _entire_, the edge quite devoid of serrature or notch. _epidermis_, the external or outer layer of the plant. _epiphytal_, growing upon another plant. _equal_, all gills of the same, or nearly the same length from back to front. _eroded_, the edge ragged, as if torn. _etiolated_, whitened, bleached. _even_, distinguished from smooth: a surface quite plane as contrasted with one which is striate, pitted, etc. _excentric_, out of center. the stems of some mushrooms are always excentric. _exotic_, foreign. _family_, a systematic group in scientific classification embracing a greater or less number of genera which agree in certain characters not shared by others of the same order. _farinaceous_, mealy. _farinose_, covered with a white, mealy powder. _fascia_, a band or bar. _fasciate_, zoned with bands. _fasciculate_, growing in small bundles. _fastigiate_, bundled together like a sheath. _favose_, honeycombed. _ferruginous_, rust-colored. _fibrillose_, clothed with small fibers. _fibrous_, composed of fibers. _filiform_, thread-like. _fimbriated_, fringed. _fissile_, capable of being split. _fistular_, _fistulose_, tubular. _flabelliform_, fan-shaped. _flavescent_, yellowish, or turning yellow. _flexuose_, wavy. _flocci_, threads as of mold. _floccose_, downy. _flocculose_, covered with flocci. _foveolate_, pitted. _free_, in relation to the gills of mushrooms reaching the stem but not attached to it. _fringe_, a lacerated marginal membrane. _fructification_, reproducing power of a plant. _fugacious_, disappearing rapidly. _furcate_, forked. _fuliginous_, blackish or sooty. _fulvous_, tawny; a rather indefinite brownish yellow. _furfuraceous_, with branny scales or scurf. _fuscous_, brownish, but dingy; not pure. _fusiform_, spindle-shaped. _genera_, plural of genus. _generic_, pertaining to a genus. _genus_, a group of species having one or more characteristics in common; the union of several genera presenting the same features constitutes a tribe. _gibbous_, in the form of a swelling; of a pileus which is more convex or tumid on one side than the other. _gills_, vertical plates radiating from the stem on the under surface of the mushroom cap. _glabrous_, smooth. _glaucescent_, inclining to glaucose. _glaucose_, covered with a whitish-green bloom or fine white powder easily rubbed off. _globose_, nearly spherical. _granular_, with roughened surface. _greaved_, of a stem clothed like a leg in armor. _gregarious_, of mushrooms not solitary but growing in numbers in the same locality. _grumous_, clotted; composed of little clustered grains. _guttate_, marked with tear-like spots. _gyrose_, circling in wavy folds. _habitat_, natural abode of a vegetable species. _hepatic_, pertaining to the liver; hence, liver-colored. _heterogeneous_, of a structure which is different from adjacent ones. _hibernal_, pertaining to winter. _hirsute_, hairy. _homogeneous_, similar in structure. _hyaline_, transparent. _hygrophanous_, looking watery when moist and opaque when dry. _hymenium_, the fructifying surface of the mushroom; the part on which the spores are borne. _hymenophore_, the structure which bears the hymenium. _hypogæous_, subterranean. _identification_, the determination of the species to which a given specimen belongs. _identify_, to determine the systematic name of a specimen. _imbricate_, overlapped like tiles. _immarginate_, without a distinct border. _immersed_, sunk into the matrix. _incised_, cut out; cut away. _indehiscent_, not opening. _indigenous_, native of a country. _inferior_, growing below; of the ring of an agaric, which is far down on the stem. _infundibuliform_, funnel-shaped. _innate_, adhering by growing into. _inserted_, growing like a graft from its stock. _involute_, edges rolled inward. _laciniate_, divided into flaps. _lactescent_, milk-bearing. _lacunose_, pitted or having cavities. _lamellæ_, gills of mushrooms. _lanceolate_, lance-shaped; tapering to both ends. _lateral_, attached to one side. _latex_, the viscid fluid contained in some mushrooms. _laticiferous_, applied to the tubes conveying latex, as in the lactarias. _lepidote_, scurfy with minute scales. _leucospore_, white spore. _ligneous_, woody consistency. _linear_, narrow and straight. _linguiform_, tongue-shaped. authorities consulted. fries, saccardo, kromholtz, cooke and berkeley, m. c. cooke, peck, stevenson, badham, gillet, boyer, gibson, roques, hussey, hay, bel, paulet and leveille, constantin and dufour, barla, roze, w. g. smith, vittadini. student's hand-book of mushrooms of america edible and poisonous. by thomas taylor, m. d. author of food products, etc. published in serial form--=no. =--price, c. per number. washington, d. c.: a. r. taylor, publisher, mass. ave. n.e. . the ten mushrooms illustrated in the five plates contained in the first number of this series belong to the family hymenomycetes. in the present number are presented illustrations representing three additional specimens of the hymenomycetal fungi (plates v, vi, and vii). there are also presented, in plates c and d, illustrations of nine species comprised in four genera of the sub family discomycetes, of the family ascomycetes. copyright, , by thomas taylor, m. d., and a. r. taylor. ascomycetes. fruit, consisting of sporidia, mostly definite, contained in asci, springing from a naked or enclosed stratum of fructifying cells, and forming a hymenium.--cooke and berkeley. prof. j. de seyne states that the three elements which form the hymenium in the families hymenomycetes and gasteromycetes are ( ) the normal basidium, that is, the fruitful club-shaped cell which supports the naked spores, ( ) the cystidium or sterile cell, an aborted or atrophied basidium, and ( ) the paraphyses, hypertrophied basidium, the one organ, the basidium, being the basis of it all, according as it experiences an arrest of development, as it grows and fructifies, or as it becomes hypertrophied. in the family ascomycetes a minute ascus or spore case envelops the sporidia, and takes the place of the basidium, and the hymenium consists of ( ) the asci containing the sporidia, ( ) the paraphyses, and ( ) a colorless or yellowish mucilage which envelops the paraphyses and asci. the asci are present in all species. in some species, however, the paraphyses are rare, and the mucilaginous substance is entirely wanting. the asci differ in shape and size, according to the species. the paraphyses, when present, are at first very short, but they rapidly elongate, and are wholly developed before the appearance of the asci. they are linear, simple or branched according to the species of plant, usually containing oily granules. there is some difference of opinion among mycologists as to the special functions of the paraphyses, some considering them as abortive asci, and others, like boudier, as excitatory organs for the dehiscence of the asci, by which the spores are liberated. the family ascomycetes is rich in genera and species. it consists largely of microscopic fungi, however, and the only group which will be considered here is that which includes plants of the mushroom family which are edible and indigenous to this country, viz., the sub-family discomycetes. discomycetes. the name discomycetes, "disk-like fungi," does not give an accurate idea of the distinguishing characteristics of this sub-family, the discoid form only belonging to the plants of one of its groups. in the discomyceteæ the hymenium is superior, that is, disposed upon the upper or exterior surface of the mushroom cap. the sporidia are produced in membraneous asci, usually four or eight, or some multiple of that number, in each ascus; cooke says "rarely four, most commonly eight." the sporidia are usually hyaline, transparent; colored sporidia are rare. the asci are so minute as to be imperceptible to the naked eye; but if a small portion of the upper surface of the cap is removed with a pen knife and placed under a microscope having a magnifying power of from to diameters, the asci, or spore sacks, can be separated and their structure studied. of the genera included in the discomycetes the genus peziza comprises by far the largest number of described species. the plants in this genus are generally small, thin, and tough. a few of them have been recorded as edible by european authors, but not specially commended; one form, peziza _cochleata_, has been spoken of by berkeley as being gathered in basketfuls in one county in england, where it is used as a substitute, though a very indifferent one, for the morel. vittadini says the verpa _digitaliformis_ persoon, a small brownish-colored mushroom, is sold in italian markets for soups, but that, "although sold in the markets, it is only to be recommended when no other fungus offers, which is sometimes the case in the spring." p. _aurantia_ vahl., a small peziza growing in clusters in the grass, is reported as edible by a member of the boston mycological club, who speaks well of it. the genera morchella, gyromitra, helvella, and mitrula contain, however, what may be considered the most desirable edible species. types of these four groups are represented in figs. , , , , and , plate c. the plants of these genera have a stem and cap. the cap, however, differs very much from that of the ordinary mushroom. in the genus morchella the cap is deeply pitted and ridged so that it presents a honeycombed appearance. in gyromitra the cap is convolutely lobed but not pitted. in helvella the cap is very irregular and reflexed, and in mitrula the cap is ovate or club shaped and smooth. in all four of these genera the hymenium is superior, _i. e._, it is on the upper and outer surface of the cap, the interior surface being barren. in plates c and d are figured types of edible fungi included in the family ascomycetes, sub-family discomycetes. [illustration: plate c. ascomycetes sub-family discomycetes types of four of the leading genera of discomycetes, in which occur edible species t. taylor, del. the norris peters co., photo-litho., washington, d. c.] plate c. fig. . =morchella esculenta= pers. "_common morel_." edible. _genus morchella_ dill. receptacle pileate or clavate, impervious in the centre, stipitate, covered with hymenium, which is deeply folded and pitted.--cooke. in this genus the species have a general resemblance to each other in size, color, form, texture, and flavor. the cap is usually a dull yellow, sometimes slightly olive-tinted, darkening with age to a brownish leather tinge. the stems are stout and hollow, white or whitish. this genus has a very wide geographical distribution, but the species are not numerous. cooke describes twenty-four, some of them found in india, java, great britain, central and northern europe, australia, and north america. peck describes six species found in new york state. the lines of demarcation between species are not very decided; but as none of the species are known to be poisonous, it may be considered a safe genus to experiment with. in the morchella esculenta the cap is ovate, in one variety rotund, the margin attaching itself to the stem; ribs firm and anastomosing, forming deep hollows or pits; color yellowish tan, olivaceous; spores hyaline, colorless; asci very long. the morel, though rare in some localities, is found in large quantities in some of the midwestern states, sometimes in the woods along the borders of streams, often in peach orchards, at the roots of decaying trees. i am informed by correspondents who have collected and eaten them that the morels can be gathered in abundance in the springtime along the banks of the missouri and tributary streams. a lieutenant in the united states army informs me that he found fine specimens of this species in the mountains of california, five or six thousand feet above sea-level. a correspondent, mr. h. w. henshaw, writes that he has made many excellent meals of them, finding them on the banks of chico creek, sacramento valley, california, on gen. bidwell's ranch, in april. a correspondent in minnesota writes: "the morel grows abundantly in some places here, but so prejudiced are many of the natives against 'toad-stools' that i had to eat the morel alone for a whole season before i could induce any one else to taste it." mr. hollis webster, of the boston mycological club, reports the morchella _conica_ as appearing in abundance in eastern massachusetts in may of this year. a correspondent in west virginia reports that quantities of a large-sized morel are found in the mountain regions there. i have reports also of the appearance of the morel in western new york, and on the coast of maine and of oregon. a miner writes to me from montana that he and several other miners, having lost their way in the mountains of that state during the spring of the year, subsisted entirely for five days on morels which they collected. the specimen represented in plate c, fig. , is figured from a morchella _esculenta_ which grew in the vicinity of falls church, va., less than ten miles from the district of columbia. the reports which i have received from correspondents in twenty states show that the morel is not so rare in this country as was formerly supposed. the advantages which this mushroom possesses over some others are ( ) the readiness with which it can be distinguished, ( ) its keeping qualities, and ( ) its agreeable taste. it is easily dried, and in that condition can be kept a long time without losing its flavor. though it has not the rich flavor of the common field mushroom, it is very palatable when cooked, and when dried it is often used in soups. it is very generally esteemed as an esculent among mycophagists. fig. represents the sporidia enclosed in the ascus, or spore sack, with accompanying paraphyses. fig. . =gyromitra= _esculenta_ fries. "_esculent gyromitra_." _genus gyromitra_ fries. this genus contains very few species, but all are considered edible, though differing somewhat in flavor and digestibility. five or six species are figured by cooke. peck speaks of several species found in new york. one of these, g. curtipes fries, is also figured by cooke as found in north carolina. this species cooke regards as equal in flavor to g. esculenta. g. esculenta has a rounded, inflated cap, irregularly lobed and hollow, smooth and brittle in texture, reddish brown. it falls over the stem in heavy convolutions, touching it at various points. the stem is stout, stuffed, at length hollow, whitish or cinereous; spores elliptical with two nuclei, yellowish, translucent. the plant is usually from two to four inches in height, but larger specimens are found. fig. represents the spore sack with enclosed sporidia. mr. charles l. fox, of portland, maine, records the gyromitra _esculenta_, of which he sent me a very good specimen last spring, as quite abundant during may in the open woods near the city named. speaking of this species, he says: "from the point of view of their edibility, we have classed them under two heads--the light and the dark varieties. these differ in the locality in which they are found, in their color and in the convolutions of their surface. both grow large. "the _light gyromitra_ is the more easily digested of the two. its height varies from three to five inches, cap three to five inches in diameter. its cap is inflated, very irregular, and twisted in large convolutions. these convolutions are almost smooth on the surface, sometimes showing small depressions; margin generally attached to the stem in parts. it is a transparent yellow in color. this variety does not grow dark brown with age. stem white or very light buff, smooth, and hollow. it grows best on slopes facing the south, in scant woods of birch, maple, and pine. we have found no specimens in open places or on the borders of woods. "the _dark gyromitra_ is more common than the light variety. its color is generally of dark lake brown, even in the young plant, though it is sometimes of a light warm yellow, which grows darker with age. stem flesh-colored or pallid, but not white, nor so light as in the first variety. its cap is similar in its large convolutions to that of the light variety, but it is covered with many intricate vermiform ridges, sometimes in high relief or even strongly undercut. grows in mossy places, in light sandy soil, on borders of pine woods. its flesh is brittle, but not so tender as that of the first variety. both varieties dry readily. we should advise eating the _dark gyromitra_ only in moderate amounts, as, if eaten in quantity, or if old specimens are used, indigestion or nausea is liable to follow. in regard to both varieties, i would advise that only young specimens should be eaten at first, as they are more tender and less pronounced in flavor than the older plants. we have eaten, however, a considerable quantity of the _light gyromitra_ with no unpleasant results. the flavor of the gyromitras is quite strong, and some have found it too much so to be agreeable on the first eating. the general opinion here, however, is favorable to the gyromitra as an excellent addition to the table." some german authorities speak well of the flavor of the g. esculenta, and it is sold in the german markets. cordier records it as agreeable in taste when cooked. peck says that he has repeatedly eaten it without experiencing any evil results, but does not consider its flavor equal to that of a first-class mushroom. he advises also that it should be eaten with moderation, and that only perfectly fresh specimens should be used, sickness having resulted from eating freely of specimens that had been kept twenty-four hours before being cooked. i have not been fortunate in securing a sufficient quantity of fresh specimens to test its edible qualities personally, but the testimony received from those who have eaten it seems to point to the necessity for moderation in eating and care in securing fresh specimens to cook. fig. . =helvella crispa=. "_crisp helvella_." _genus helvella_ linn. the plants of this genus are usually small, though a few of the species are of good size. they are not plentiful, but they are very generally regarded as edible, the flavor bearing a resemblance to that of the morel. the cap has a smooth, not polished, surface, and is very irregular, revolute, and deflexed, not honeycombed like the morel, nor showing the brain-like convolutions of the gyromitras. color brownish pale tan, or whitish. the stem in the larger species is stout, and sometimes deeply furrowed in longitudinal grooves, usually white or whitish. the species helvella crispa is white or pallid throughout, cap very irregular, sometimes deeply concave in the centre, with margin at first erect, then drooping; again it is undulating, much divided and deflexed; in fact, so irregular is the shape that scarcely two specimens will show the cap the same in outline; stem stout and deeply channelled. spores elliptical, transparent. habitat woods, growing singly or in groups, but not cæspitose. fig. , the ascus or spore sack and paraphyses. _genus mitrula_ fries. soft and fleshy, simple capitate, stem distinct, hymenium surrounding the inflated cap; head ovate, obtuse, inflated.--m. c. cooke. cooke says of this genus that it is scarcely so well characterized as many with which it is associated, and that some of the species are evidently so closely allied to some of the species of the genus geoglossum that it is difficult to draw the line of demarcation between them, particularly so with the species mitrula _pistillaris_ b. from louisiana. the plants are very small, and though none are recorded as poisonous, only one or two have any value as esculents. fig. . =mitrula sclerotipes= boudier. the cap in this species is small, and the stem long and slender. the spores are transparent, the asci club-shaped. the plants of this species are always found springing from an oblong sclerotium; hence the name sclerotipes. fig. represents the sporidia enclosed in their asci with paraphyses and individual spores, the latter magnified diameters. fig. , sectional view of mature plant. fig. . =mitrula vitellina= sacc., var. _irregularis_ peck. saccardo, in his sylloge fungorum, includes in this genus those having a club-shaped cap, which brings into it, with others, the species mitrula _vitellina_ sacc., formerly classed in the genus geoglossum, and its variety _irregularis_ peck. the latter was first described in , in peck's thirty-second report, under the name geoglossum _irregulare_. prof. peck now gives preference to the name assigned to it by saccardo, and it is so recorded in peck's later reports. prof. peck records this species as edible, and recommends it as having tender flesh and an agreeable flavor. it sometimes grows in profusion in wet mossy places, in woods, or swampy ground. it is bright yellow in color, clean and attractive. the cap is much longer than the stem, often deeply lobed, extremely irregular in outline, and tapers to a short yellowish or whitish stem. the spores are narrowly elliptical and transparent. the specimen illustrated is from a small one figured by peck. the plants sometimes reach two inches in height. they are most abundant in temperate climates. [illustration: plate d. four types of the genus morchella. t. taylor, del. the norris peters co., photo-litho., washington, d. c.] plate d. in plate d are represented four species of the genus morchella, viz., m. _semilibera_, m. _bispora_, m. _conica_, and m. _deliciosa_. morchella _esculenta_ is figured in plate c. fig. . =morchella semilibera= de candolle. "_half free morel_." edible. cap conical but half free from the stem as the name of the species indicates. the ribs are longitudinal, forming oblong pits; stem hollow, much longer than the cap, white; spores elliptical. peck says that this species has been described by persoon under the name morchella _hybrida_, and this name is adopted in saccardo's sylloge fungorum, but most english writers prefer the first. fig. . sectional view of morchella _semilibera_. fig. . sporidia of same inclosed in ascus with accompanying paraphyses. fig. . sectional view of =morchella bispora= sorokin. "_two-spored morel_." edible. cap free from the stem to the top, somewhat resembling that of m. _semilibera_, but blunt at its summit instead of conical, the outward surface deeply pitted, inner surface smooth and barren. a characteristic of this species which distinguishes it from others of the same genus is found in the number of its sporidia, spores as seen in the ascus or spore sack. in the plants of the genus morchella the spore sacks, with one or two exceptions, contain eight spores. in the species m. _bispora_ the spore sacks contain but two spores and these are much larger than the sporidia of those which contain eight. this characteristic, however, can only be determined by the aid of the microscope. cooke figures a specimen taken from those published by sorokin in thumen's exsiccata, and calls it a variety of morchella _bohemica_ kromb. he says that it is not unusual to find m. _bohemica_ with two or four sporidia in some of the asci, mixed with others containing more, some specimens being entirely tetrasporous, and some, as the variety _bispora_, usually containing but two sporidia. cooke contends that m. bispora is simply a bisporous form of morchella _bohemica_, and calls it m. _bohemica_ var. _bispora_. it is not as common as other species. fig. represents asci of m. bispora showing the two spores in each ascus. fig. . =morchella conica.= "_conical morel_." edible. cap conical or oblong-conical, margin adhering to the stem, the prominent ridges longitudinal and irregularly bisected with shorter ones; the whole plant hollow throughout; color pale tan or ochraceous yellow, growing dingy and darker with age; stem white; spores elliptical. this species is quite plentiful in some localities; the flavor is like that of m. _esculenta_. fig. . sectional view of m. _conica_. fig. . ascus, sporidia and paraphyses. fig. . =morchella deliciosa= fries. "_delicious morel_." cap nearly cylindrical, blunt at the top, and usually much longer than the stem, adnate. plant hollow throughout. stem white. spores elliptical. fig. . sectional view of m. _deliciosa_. fig. . ascus, sporidia, and paraphyses. the morchella _deliciosa_ is highly esteemed as an esculent wherever eaten. split open and stuffed with bread crumbs seasoned with pepper, salt, and butter and a pinch of thyme or onion, steamed in a hot oven, and served with butter sauce, this mushroom makes a very savory dish. _note._--small specimens have been selected for illustration in this plate in order to utilize as much as possible the plate space. [illustration: plate iv. the norris peters co., photo-litho., washington, d. c.] plate iv. structure of the agaricini, gill-bearing mushrooms. fig. . cap or pileus umbonate, _a_; stem or stipe fistulose, tubular, _b_; gills or lamellæ adnate, and slightly emarginate. fig. . gills remote, _i. e._, distant from the stem. (see _a_.) fig. . gills adnexed, partly attached to the stem at their inner extremity, _a_. fig. . gills emarginate, with a tooth, as at _a_; stem stuffed. fig. . cap obtuse, _e_; gills free, _i. e._, reaching the stem but not attached thereto (see _a_); _b_ stem stuffed. fig. . cap umbilicate, slightly depressed in the centre, _b_; gills decurrent, _i. e._, running down the stem. (see _a_.) fig. . basidium, cell _a_, borne on the hymenium, or spore-bearing surface of the gills; _b_, stigmata; _c_, spores. fig. . gills adnate, _i. e._, firmly attached to the stem at their inner extremity, as at _a_. fig. . cap, with border involute, _i. e._, rolled inward. (see _a_.) fig. . lamellæ or gills dentated or toothed. (see _a_.) fig. . cap with border revolute, _i. e._, rolled backward. (see _a_.) agaricini. fries. leucospori (spores white or yellowish). _genus lactarius_ fries. the plants of this genus have neither veil nor volva. they somewhat resemble the _russulæ_, but can be readily distinguished from them by the greater fleshiness of the stem and by the milky juice which exudes from the flesh. the latter is a characteristic feature of the _lactars_, giving to the group its name. the species were originally arranged by fries into groups according to the color and quality of the milk, and of the naked or pruinose character of the gills. prof. peck, however, considering the latter character not sufficiently constant or obvious to be satisfactory, in his early reports makes the color of the milk alone the basis of the primary grouping of the american species. saccardo, in his sylloge, follows fries in his classification of the species of the genus lactarius. in some species the milk is at first bright colored and continues unchanged; in others it is always white or whitish, and in others again it is at first white, changing to different hues on exposure to the air, becoming pinkish, pale violet, or yellow. in one species (c. indigo) both plant and milk are of indigo blue. the taste of the milk varies, as does that of the flesh, according to species. sometimes it is mild or very slightly acrid, and again it resembles cayenne pepper in its hot, biting acridity. it is somewhat viscid or sticky in character, and permeates to some extent the whole flesh of the mushroom, but is most profuse in the gills, where in fresh young specimens it is seen exuding on the slightest pressure. in old or wilted specimens it does not flow so freely, but may be found by breaking off portions of the cap. the plants usually present a fleshy cap, the flesh quite brittle, and breaking in clean, even fractures. in a number of the species the upper surface of the cap shows bands or zones of warm coloring, not found in any of the species of the allied genus russula. the gills are sometimes even, more often forked, acute on the edge, color white or whitish, but changing to yellowish or reddish tints as the plants mature, or when cut or bruised. while they are at first adnate they become, with the expansion of the cap, somewhat decurrent, showing in this particular a resemblance to the plants of the genus clitocybe. the stem is central, except in a few species, where it is eccentric or lateral, notably the latter in l. _obliquus_; spores white or yellowish, according to species; cooke says, "rarely turning yellow." they are globose, or nearly so, and slightly rough. this genus is a large one, and contains many acrid species. out of fifty-three described and figured by cooke, more than half are given as having the milk more or less acrid. more than forty species have been recorded as growing in this country, and many of these are extremely acrid in taste. a number of the species are edible, while others have been recorded as deleterious, poisonous, etc. l. torminosus, l. piperatus, and l. insulsus are species about which there seems to be difference of opinion among authors as to their wholesomeness or edibility, some contending that, in spite of their extreme acridity, they are edible when cooked, and others that they are deleterious in their effects. l. _deliciosus_ and l. _volemus_ have a good reputation in this country as well as abroad, and are quite abundant in some localities. they are more frequent in temperate climates than in northern latitudes or in the tropics. [illustration: plate v. lactarious deliciosus. general form. section. spores.] plate v. =lactarius deliciosus= fries. "_delicious lactarius_" _or_ "_orange milk mushroom_." edible. cap fleshy, viscid, at first convex, then nearly plane, becoming much depressed in the centre, funnel-shaped, marked in the adult plant with rings or rust-colored zones. color of the cap dull orange, turning paler, and grayish or greenish yellow when old or dried; margin at first turned inwards; flesh whitish or tinged with yellow; gills decurrent, crowded rather thick, sometimes slightly forked at the base, pale yellow, sometimes a saffron yellow, exuding when bruised a saffron-red or orange-colored liquid, hence the popular name of "orange milk mushroom;" stem smooth, somewhat spotted, stout, stuffed with a yellowish pith, eventually becoming hollow; color about the same as that of the cap. spores subglobose, yellowish. taste mild or very slightly acrid when raw. mycophagists generally concur in the opinion that it is of very pleasant flavor when cooked, and some speak very enthusiastically of its esculent qualities. over-cooking is apt to make it tough. i find steaming in the oven with butter, pepper, and salt, and a very small quantity of water, as oysters are steamed, a very good method of preserving the juices and flavor. it is found in maryland, under the pines and sometimes in mossy and swampy places. prof. underwood, president of the new york mycological club, reports it as fairly abundant in connecticut. lactarius _volemus_ fries, the "orange-brown lactar," somewhat resembles the l. _deliciosus_ in shape and size, but the cap is dry and glabrous and the skin is apt to crack in patches in somewhat the same manner as does that of the russula _virescens_. it is a warm orange-brown in color, varying slightly with age, and is not zoned. the gills are white or yellowish and crowded, adnate in the young specimens, and decurrent in the mature, exuding a white milk when bruised. the spores are globose, and white. it is found in open woods. the flavor is much like that of l. _deliciosus_, although perhaps not so rich. one author states it as his experience that the lactars which have _bright_-colored milk, unchanging, are usually edible and have a mild taste. l. _indigo_ schwein has been recorded as less abundant than some other species, but edible. the plant is a deep blue throughout, the milk of the same color and unchanging. the taste of both flesh and milk is mild. specimens of this species were sent to me from western new york several years ago by a correspondent who found it growing in quantities in a corn field. he had cooked several dishes of it, and reported its flavor as very agreeable. l. _vellereus_ and l. _piperatus_ are very common in fir woods. the plants are large and stout, white throughout, the milk white and excessively acrid; gills decurrent, unequal and narrow. the milk in _vellereus_ is apt to be scanty but copious in _piperatus_. of l. _piperatus_, worthington smith says: "so strongly acrid is the milk that if it be allowed to trickle over tender hands it will sting like the contact of nettles; and if a drop be placed on the lips or tongue the sensation will be like the scalding of boiling water." he records it as "poisonous." fries and curtis say that, "notwithstanding its intense acridity, it is edible when cooked." cordier, while recording it as edible, says that the milk, and butter made from the milk of cows fed with it, are bitter and nauseous, although cows eat it with avidity. gibson, while quoting one or two authors as to its edibility when cooked, says: "its decidedly ardent tang warns me not to dwell too enthusiastically upon its merits in a limited selection of desirable esculents." the secretary of the boston mycological club, writing in the club bulletin, says "it has been eaten as a sort of duty after the acridity was cooked out," but does not commend it. it is spoken of as "an unattractive fungus which usurps in the woods the place that might well be occupied by something better." in this opinion i fully concur. l. _torminosus_, "_wooly lactarius_," sometimes called the "_colic lactarius_," has been termed acrid and poisonous by badham. cordier and letellier, on the other hand, say that it can be eaten with impunity when cooked. gillet declares it deleterious and even dangerous in the raw state, constituting a very strong and drastic purgative. one author states that, although it does not constitute an agreeable article of food, it is eaten in some parts of france and in russia. considering the differences of opinion which exist with regard to this and other extremely acrid species, it would seem the part of prudence for persons with delicate stomachs to avoid the use of very acrid species, for, though the acridity may be expelled by cooking, there would seem to be no necessity for risking unpleasant or dangerous results while the range of unquestionably wholesome and agreeable species is sufficiently wide to satisfy the most enthusiastic mycophagist. agaricini. leucospori (spores white or yellowish). armillaria fries. cooke places armillaria in the order agaricini, _genus agaricus_, making of it a _sub_-genus. saccardo, in taking it out of agaricus, elevates it to the position of a separate genus. the name armillaria is derived from a greek word, meaning a ring or bracelet, referring to its ringed stem. in the plants of the armillaria the veil is partial in infancy, attaching the edge of the cap to the upper part of the stem; the stem furnished with a ring. below the ring the veil is concrete with the stem, forming scurfy scales upon it. the gills are broadly adnexed. in abnormal specimens the ring is sometimes absent, or appearing only in scales, running down the stem. spores white. the species are few; eight are recorded as growing in the united states. cooke describes twelve species found in great britain. [illustration: plate vi. agaricus (armillaria) melleus. group from hynesboro park, md., u. s. k. mayo, del.] plate vi. =ag. (armillaria) melleus= vahl. "_honey-colored armillaria._" edible. cap fleshy, rather thin at the margin, at first subconical, then slightly rounded, or nearly plane, clothed with minute hairy tufts; margin sometimes striate, color varying, usually a pale-yellowish or honey color or light reddish brown; flesh whitish. gills whitish or paler than the cap, growing mealy with the shedding of the profuse white spores, and often spotted with reddish-brown stains, adnate, ending with decurrent tooth. stem fibrillose, elastic, stuffed or hollow, ringed, and adorned with floccose scales which often disappear with age; in some varieties distinctly bulbous at the base, in others showing tapering root. specimens occur in which the ring is wanting or only traces of it appear in the form of scales encircling the stem. veil usually firm, membraneous, and encircling the stem in a well-pronounced ring or collar, but sometimes filmy as a spider's web, in very young specimens hiding the gills, but breaking apart as the cap expands. manner of growth cæspitose, generally on decayed tree stumps, although the group figured in the plate was found growing on moist sand, mixed with clay, on a roadside in hynesbury park. authors differ widely as to the value of this species as an esculent. i have only eaten the very young and small specimens when cooked, and found them very palatable. a boston mycophagist records it as "very good," fried after five minutes' boiling in salted water. prof. peck, having tried it, considers it "a perfectly safe species, but not of first-rate quality." it is very common in maryland and virginia, and in the mountain districts prolific. i have talked with bohemians and with germans who have gathered it in basketfuls in the vicinity of the district of columbia, who speak well of it, considering it a valuable addition to the table. its prolific growth makes it valuable to those who like it. there are no species recorded as dangerous in this group. ag. (armillaria) robustus, a very stout species, with a fleshy, compact, smooth cap, bay color or tawny, occurs in the maryland woods, and in the open woods of the massachusetts coast. agaricini. fries. _genus cantharellus_ adans. in the plants of this genus the hymenophore or fleshy substance of the cap is continuous with the stem. they are fleshy, membranaceous, and putrescent, having neither veil, ring, nor volva. the stem is central, except in a few species, where it is lateral. a characteristic of the genus which separates it from other genera of the agaricini is the vein-like appearance of the gills. they are very shallow and so obtuse on the edges as to present the appearance of a network of swollen branching veins. they are usually decurrent and anastomosing. it is a small genus. cooke figures nineteen species. among the described species c. cibarius is the only one whose edible qualities have been highly recommended. c. umbonatus, a very small plant, found in eastern massachusetts is commended by those who have eaten it. they are usually found in woods, and amongst moss. one species, _c. carbonatus_, is found upon charred ground. [illustration: plate vii. cantharellus cibarius fr. , , , various stages of growth. a section. spores. spores and basidia. from hynesbury, md., u. s. sackett & wilhelms lithographing co., new york.] plate vii. =cantharellus cibarius= fries. "_the edible chantarelle_." edible. cap a rich golden yellow, like the yolk of an egg; at first convex, later concave and turbinated; margin sinuous, undulate, smooth, shining, and more or less lobed; diameter from two to four inches; flesh pale yellow or whitish; veins or gills rather thick and wiry, remarkably decurrent, usually very much bifurcated and of the same golden yellow as the cap; stem solid or stuffed, slightly attenuated downwards, yellow; spores white or pale yellowish, elliptical. european authors esteem it very highly, and some speak of the odor as like that of ripe apricots. the plant as found in maryland and virginia has a slightly pungent but agreeable taste when raw, and a pleasant odor when cooked. it is ranked as one of the best of the wood mushrooms by those who have eaten it in this locality (district of columbia). it is found here in abundance, after light rains, in fir woods. berkeley states that it is somewhat rare in england, where it is held as a delicacy, but quite common on the continent. we have had specimens from various localities throughout the states. cooke says the spores are white. peck and gibson record them as yellow. i find them white, sometimes slightly tinted with yellow. the _chantarelle_ takes its name from a greek word signifying a cup or vase, referring to its shape and possibly also to its rich golden color; _cibarius_ refers to its esculent qualities. the variety _rufipes_ gillet closely resembles c. _cibarius_, but is darker, with the stem _rufous_, reddish, at the base. c. _aurantiacus_ fries bears a sufficient resemblance to c. _cibarius_ to be sometimes taken for it, although the cap is tomentose and of a much deeper orange in tint, the gills more crowded, darker than the cap, and the stem less stout. in the variety _pallidus_ the whole plant is very light or buff yellow, and the gills nearly white. c. aurantiacus has been recorded as poisonous or unwholesome by some of the earlier authors, others say that they have eaten it, but do not commend it. receipts for cooking. _stuffed morels._--choose the freshest and lightest colored morels, open the stalk at the base, fill with minced veal and bread-crumbs, secure the ends of the stalk and place between thin slices of bacon. the morel should not be gathered immediately after heavy rains, as it becomes insipid with much moisture. the flavor is said to grow stronger in drying. _escalloped mushrooms._--(from mr. frank caywood, fredericktown, ohio, november , .) season as directed in the usual methods for mushrooms and add a small quantity of vinegar to hasten the cooking. cook slowly until tender; rapid boiling evaporates the flavor. when done, put in from a pint to a quart of sweet milk and heat. take a pudding dish and put in a layer of broken crackers; light milk crackers are the best. put lumps of butter and pepper and salt over the crackers. next a layer of the tender mushrooms with some of the hot gravy and milk. continue these layers until the dish is full, having a layer of crackers on top. place the dish in the oven and bake slowly until the crackers are browned. _mushroom fritters._--take nice large tops, season, and dip into batter and fry in hot butter as other fritters. _mushrooms en ragout._--put into a stewpan a little "stock," a small quantity of vinegar, parsley, and green onions chopped up, salt and spices. when this is about to boil, the cleaned mushrooms are put in. when done remove them from the fire and thicken with yolks of eggs. the lactarius _deliciosus_ may be served with a white sauce or fried. badham says the best way to cook them is to season first with pepper, salt, and small pieces of butter, and bake in a closely covered pie dish for about three quarters of an hour. the cantharellus, being somewhat dry, requires more fluid sauce in cooking than the juicier mushrooms, and is best minced and slowly stewed until quite tender. some advise soaking it in milk a few hours before cooking. the italians dry or pickle it or keep it in oil for winter use. persoon gives the following recipes for cooking the morel: st. wash and cleanse thoroughly, as the earth is apt to collect between the ridges; dry and put them in a saucepan with pepper, salt, and parsley, adding or not a piece of bacon; stew for an hour, pouring in occasionally a little broth to prevent burning; when sufficiently done, bind with the yolks of two or three eggs, and serve on buttered toast. . _morelles à l'italienne._--having washed and dried, divide them across, put them on the fire with some parsley, scallion, chives, tarragon, a little salt, and two spoonfuls of fine oil. stew till the juice runs out, then thicken with a little flour; serve with bread crumbs and a squeeze of lemon. mushroom growing.[a] [a] a part of the matter presented under this caption was contributed by the author to the health magazine and appeared in the march number ( ) of that periodical. to france is due the credit of being the first country to cultivate mushrooms on a large scale, and france still supplies the markets of the world with canned mushrooms. the mushroom which is cultivated in the caves and quarries of france, to the exclusion of all others, is the agaricus arvensis (the "snowball"), a species of field mushroom. of late years france has found a formidable competitor in the culture of mushrooms in great britain. the english market gardeners find their moist, equable climate favorable to outdoor culture, and abundant crops are grown by them in the open air, chiefly, however, for the home market. that mushroom growing can be made a lucrative business is shown by the experience of a well-known english grower, mr. j. f. barter, who on one acre of ground has produced in the open air, without the aid of glass, an average of from ten to twelve thousand pounds of mushrooms annually; the price obtained for them varying according to the season, but averaging ten pence, or twenty cents, per pound for the whole year. the value of twelve thousand pounds of mushrooms at ten pence per pound would be £ sterling or $ , . for the purposes of comparison the following are quoted from the pall mall gazette, as exceptional prices realized in england for other fruits and vegetables in recent years: pounds sterling per statute acre: very early gooseberries, ; onions, ; early lettuces, ; plums, ; potatoes, ; strawberries, ; black currants, ; filberts, . it will be seen that onions and filberts head the list, but the product of an acre of mushrooms has been shown to be worth more than double that of either filberts or onions. in the localities specially favorable to hop growing cwt. of hops to the acre is considered exceptional, while the average price has been quoted at pounds sterling, or about one-fifth of the sum obtained from mr. barter's acre of mushrooms. three months in the year the weather does not favor outdoor culture, and these months mr. barter spends in manufacturing brick spawn, which he exports to this and other countries. among those who have been very successful in indoor culture are mr. william robinson, editor of the "london garden," and mr. horace cox, manager of the "field." in america, where mushroom culture is still comparatively in its infancy, there have already been obtained very encouraging results by painstaking growers. most of the cultivation has been in the northern and midwestern states, where the climatic conditions seemed most favorable to indoor culture. a few figures as to the revenue obtained in this way may be interesting to readers. an experienced pennsylvania grower states that from a total area of , square feet of beds, made up in two mushroom houses, he obtained a crop of , pounds of mushrooms in one season, or about one pound to the square foot. these sold at an average of a little over cents per pound. a third house, with , square feet of beds, produced , pounds, or one and one-half pounds to the square foot. this house yielded a net profit of one thousand dollars. this, however, can be quoted only as showing the possibilities of careful culture by experienced growers under very favorable circumstances. amateurs could scarcely expect such good results. three-fourths of a pound to the square foot would probably come nearer the average. a philadelphia grower gives the average price secured from fifty shipments of mushrooms in one season at cents per pound. new york dealers report higher rates than this. a washington florist who utilizes the lower shelves of his propagating houses for the purpose of mushroom growing informed me that during two seasons he received cents per pound wholesale, shipping to new york, and that he sold one thousand dollars worth in one season. mr. denton, a market gardener of long island, who cultivates in houses built for the purpose, markets from , to , pounds per year. thus far the market is in the hands of a comparatively few dealers in the neighborhood of large cities, but there is certainly no good reason why the growing of mushrooms should not be more generally undertaken by the farming community. certainly no one has better facilities than are at the command of the enterprising american farmer. on most farms the conditions are favorable or could easily be made so for mushroom culture, on a moderate scale, at least. generally there are disused sheds, old barns, etc., which with a small outlay could be transformed into mushroom houses, and where timber is plentiful the cost of building a small mushroom house would be repaid by the profits accruing from the business. in the culture of mushrooms there are open, to the enterprising with small capital, four sources of profit: first, the sale of the fresh mushrooms; second, the manufacture of mushroom catsup; third, the canning of the small button mushroom for exportation; and, fourth, the manufacture of spawn. it is well in this, as in all new industries, to begin in a small way, and if success is attained it is easy to extend operations on a larger scale. my advice to amateurs is to begin with one or two beds in a well-drained cellar or shed where good ventilation and even temperature can be secured at moderate cost. in the underground cellar economy is secured by the saving in fuel. the beds can be made on the floor, flat, ridged or banked against the wall, ten or twelve inches deep in a warm cellar, and from fifteen to twenty inches in a cool cellar. the boxing for the sides and ends may be built six or eight inches higher than the beds to give the mushrooms plenty of head room. directions for preparing the compost for the beds. procure not less than a cartload of clean, fresh stable manure. place it under cover, to protect it from rain and drain water, mix well and heap up the whole mass into a mound three feet high then beat the mound firmly down to prevent undue heating. repeat this operation every other day until its rank smell is gone, taking care that on each turning the outside dry manure is placed in the centre of the mound. by this means the stable odor is dissipated while its heating properties are equally distributed. add to this from one-fourth to one-fifth of clean, rich garden mould. mix well. after this careful handling, the mass may be considered fit for bedding purposes. when placed in the beds the mass should be compacted again by beating with the back of a spade or trowel. the bed surface should appear moist but not wet, smooth and of firm consistence. from day to day it will be necessary to test its general temperature by means of a thermometer. to this end make at various places at different depths openings sufficiently large to admit the use of a thermometer. it will be found that the temperature is highest nearest the bottom. test at various points. at first the temperature will run high; ° to ° fahrenheit is probably as high as it will reach, but in a few days it will fall to ° or ° fahrenheit. at this point spawn the bed. for this purpose make holes in the top of the bed about six inches apart and two inches deep with a blunt dibble or broom handle. place in these holes or openings a piece of brick spawn about the size of a hen's egg, and cover the holes with manure; finish by packing the same, keeping the surface of the bed smooth and moist. the spawn should be slightly moistened before using. should the surface of the bed become dry, use water from a fine sprinkling pan. the temperature of the cellar or house in which the bed may be placed should range between ° and °, and should not be lower than °. if the spawn is good and all conditions attended to, the white filaments should appear spreading through the bed within eight or ten days after spawning. when the white spawn is observed on or near the surface, cover the whole surface with from one to two inches of garden loam well pulverized. a good general rule for spawning the bed is to wait until the heat of the bed is on the decline and has fallen to at least ° fahrenheit. if the heat in the middle of the bed runs too high the spawn is killed. the experience of a number of growers has shown that a bed spawned at ° to ° and kept at ° after the mushrooms appear gives better results than one spawned at °. the quality of the manure makes some difference in its temperature. that obtained from stables where horses are grass fed will be of lower normal temperature and will chill quicker than that obtained from corn or oat fed stock. a solution of saltpeter in proportion of about fifteen grains to a quart of water, occasionally spread over the bed with a fine hose, helps to accelerate the growth of the mushrooms. the proper condition of the manure as regards dryness or moistness can be readily ascertained by squeezing it in the hand; it should be unctuous enough to hold together in a lump, and so dry that you cannot squeeze a drop of water out of it. excessive moisture in the manure has been often a cause of failure. it should be remembered also that when the heat of the manure is on the decline it falls rapidly, five, often ten degrees a day, till it reaches about °, and between that and ° it may rest for weeks. one of the principal causes of the failure of mushroom culture in this country is the use of old or poor spawn. good spawn should have a fresh, mushroomy odor, and a bluish-white appearance on the surface. in buying spawn one should always go to reliable seedsmen. compost for mushroom beds. sawdust has been used in england for mushroom beds, after having been used for stable bedding, with very good results. it has also been used successfully in the district of columbia. in fact, the very large models of cultivated mushrooms exhibited by the division of microscopy of the department of agriculture at the world's fair in chicago were moulded from mushrooms which were grown on the writer's premises, in a composition of sawdust stable bedding, combined with about one-fourth garden mould, but i am confident, at the same time, that much depends on the kind of timber the sawdust is made from. in this case the sawdust came from spruce. mushroom culture in canada. a canadian correspondent informs me that he, with others, has been very successful in growing mushrooms in the open air during the summer months in canada, and gives the following directions for preparing the beds in the colder latitudes: place under a shed such amount of clean stable manure as may be required for the beds, turning it over and over until all free ammonia has escaped and the tendency of undue fermentation and evolution of high temperature has greatly modified. to effect this, it is necessary to heap up the manure each time in a mound, say three feet high after turning, and beat it firmly down (the exclusion of free air prevents overheating). to put the manure in proper condition for use in the beds, from two to four weeks' treatment may be required, but much depends on the quality of the manure and temperature of the atmosphere. before making the beds, and several days after the last turning, test the internal temperature of the mound in the following manner: make a hole with a broomstick through the mound from top to bottom, and suspend a thermometer half way down in the hole for, say, an hour. the temperature may be as high as ° f. after the lapse of the time stated, beat the mound more firmly down to prevent rise of temperature. test again two days after in the same manner. if the temperature has risen several degrees the mound must be again taken down, turned over, and remade. if, on the other hand, the temperature has fallen to ° f., the permanent bed may be made. if indoor growth is desired, such as a cellar, outbuilding, or cave, the atmosphere must not fall below ° f., nor be over ° f. air drafts cannot be permitted. the floor must be dry and the atmosphere moist. the cellar may be dark, or moderately light. growers differ in opinion in this respect. growers generally add to the manure about one-fourth or one-fifth garden soil, but success has been attained without the use of garden soil, except as surface dressing after spawning the bed; an excessive use of loam, in any case, tends to lower the temperature too rapidly. having prepared a box or frame-work for the bed twelve inches deep, fill it up to within two inches of the top; beat gently down with a board, or a brick, until it is even and compact. on the following day make holes in the bed, with a dibble, ten inches deep, in which suspend a thermometer half way down for an hour. should the temperature have fallen to ° f., cover lightly with straw and test on the following day. should the temperature prove to be going down, say to ° f., or ° f., it is safe to plant the spawn; but should the temperature be on the rise, wait until it is falling. one grower has stated that his greatest success has been when the spawn was planted at the temperature of ° f. should the temperature fall too quickly and the surface be too dry, sprinkle with water at blood heat, using a very fine hose, and cover the bed with straw. the spawn brick should be cut into pieces, about the size of an egg, and planted in holes made in the bed, about two inches deep and about six inches apart. the holes are then filled up and about two inches of garden soil sifted over the surface of the bed. tamp the bed surface gently with the back of a spade. mushrooms may be expected for table use in about six or seven weeks, provided the spawn is good and the temperature has not fallen below ° f. in outdoor culture the beds must be well covered with straw or canvas, and had better be under a shed roof with southern exposure. the spawn used by this grower is the "brick" spawn, imported from carter & holborn, london, england. cultivation of mushrooms in japan. the japanese are very successful in cultivating a mushroom which they call "shiitake" or "lepiota shiitake." china also produces the same mushroom, but of an inferior quality. the chinese therefore prefer the mushroom cultivated by the japanese, which they import from japan in large quantities. it is cultivated on a variety of trees, but is said to grow best on the "shiinoki," a species of oak (quercus cuspidata). there are three varieties of "shiitake," the spring, summer, and autumn crops differing somewhat in quality. the method of growing the "shiitake" is given by the japanese commissioner of agriculture as follows: "trees of from twenty to fifty years' growth are cut down at the approach of winter when the sap has ceased to run, and after the lapse of twenty or thirty days, according to the condition of the drying of the wood, are sawed into logs of or feet in length. into each of these logs incisions are made with a hatchet, at intervals of about inches, and they are piled regularly upon a frame-work erected at a height of about foot above the ground, under the trees. the location of the ground selected for piling the logs should be the slopes of a forest, facing southeast or southwest. after keeping the logs as above described for from two to three years, they are immersed in water for twenty-four hours in the middle of november, and again laid one upon another for about four days; if it is in a cold district, the pile is covered with straw or mats. at the expiration of the fourth day the logs are obliquely tilted against poles fixed horizontally to the trees at a height of about feet in a well-ventilated and sunny situation. the mushrooms soon appear in quantity, and, after twenty or thirty days' growth, are ready for harvesting." recent reports of the japanese agricultural department show the total value of the annual export of "shiitake" to be nearly five hundred thousand "yen" (silver). manufacture of spawn. as many tons of artificial spawn are yearly imported into this country, it would seem that the manufacture of spawn in the united states might prove a profitable form of investment. "brick spawn." for commercial purposes the english method of making the spawn into bricks has some advantages over the french "flake" process. its compact and uniform shape makes the brick more convenient for storage and general handling, and greatly facilitates its transportation to long distances. brick spawn is made in the following manner: clean horse droppings, cow manure, loam, and road sweepings are beaten up in a mortar-like consistency and then formed into bricks, moulds being used, slightly differing in shape with different makers, but usually thinner and wider than common building bricks. the following proportions are given: ( ) horse droppings the chief part; one-fourth cow dung; remainder loam. ( ) fresh horse droppings mixed with short litter for the greater part; cow dung, one third; and the rest mould or loam. ( ) horse dung, cow dung, and loam, in equal parts. when about half dry, depressions are made in the bricks, sometimes in the centre, and sometimes in each corner, and small pieces of good spawn are placed in these depressions, and plastered over with the material of the brick. the cakes are then laid out to dry, standing on their edges, and when nearly dry are piled in pairs with the spawn-larded surfaces face to face. the bricks are then stacked away, and covered with sweet fermenting litter, sufficiently to cause a heat of ° f. it should not be over ° f. one spawn manufacturer says that the most rapid and successful growth of the mycelium is attained when the temperature is from ° f. to ° f. the bricks are examined frequently during the process, and when the mycelium of the old spawn has permeated the whole mass like a fine white mould, the bricks are taken out and dried in a well-ventilated dark place. they are then placed in a cool, dark storehouse, where they are not subject to dampness and where the temperature is about ° f., not over ° or below ° f. slight ventilation is necessary, but not enough to make the bricks dust-dry. keeping the spawn dry merely suspends its growth; as soon as it is again submitted to favorable conditions of moisture and heat, its pristine activity returns. dampness, combined with heat, stimulates the growth of mycelium; frost also destroys the vitality of the spawn. it is evident, therefore, that these conditions should not exist in the store-room. one manufacturer advocates piling the bricks, after spawning, on a clay floor, packing closely four bricks deep, and covering them with sifted loam. by this method it is claimed that danger of "fire fang" will be avoided, as the bricks will be kept at a perfectly uniform temperature of about ° or °, which causes the spawn to run quickly and uniformly. in from four to six weeks they are ready to take out and dry for use or storage. the french or "flake" spawn comes in light masses of loose, dry litter. it is obtained in the following way: a bed is made up as if for mushrooms in the ordinary way, and spawned with "virgin" spawn, and when the bed is thoroughly impregnated with spawn, it is broken up and set aside to dry. this spawn is usually sold in small boxes, containing from two to five pounds, but it also can be obtained in bulk when it is purchased by weight. the french or "flake" spawn is much more expensive than the english or "brick" spawn. it is claimed by some very successful growers, who have tried both, that the brick spawn produces heavier and fleshier mushrooms than the french "flake." "mill track" spawn. "mill track" spawn was formerly considered the best in england, but since horse power has given place to steam power in the mills there is now no further supply of mill track, and it is practically superseded by the "brick" spawn. the real "mill track" is the natural spawn that has spread through the thoroughly amalgamated horse droppings in mill tracks, or the sweepings from mill tracks. spawn produced in a manure heap. during the past year i have made some experiments in the pine and oak woods of hynesboro' park, maryland, with relation to spawn culture, an account of which may prove of interest to students in this line of investigation. several loads of stable manure and oak-leaf bedding were well mixed and formed into a mound about three feet in height, having a diameter of six feet, and tapering to about four inches in depth at the outer edge. the mass was quite moist and slightly tamped to give it general consistency. it was exposed to the open air, without protection, during the months of september, october, and november. in the meantime, frequent rains occurred. on examination it was found that the rains did not penetrate to a depth of more than four inches. on opening up the centre of the mound, it was observed that the portion thus exposed consisted of highly decomposed leaves, and presented a white mass of matted, "burned" mycelium. it was evident that the temperature at that point had risen considerably above ° fahr. the mycelium was, doubtless, produced in abundance before the temperature reached fahr. and became scorched as the temperature increased. on examining the outer edges, where the depth was only twelve inches, i found an abundance of mycelium which did not show any appearance of having been scorched by undue temperature. since no mycelium had been added to the mound, it is evident that the spores which produced it must have been present, although unobserved, and awaiting only the proper conditions for development, _i. e._, for budding and the production of mycelium. at the end of the third month, groups of the common meadow mushroom, agaricus campestris, together with some fine examples of tricholoma terreum, an edible mushroom, common to these woods, appeared on the edges of the mound. appendix a. continuation of glossary of terms used in describing mushrooms. _maculate_, spotted. _marginate_, having a distinct border. _matrix_, the substance upon which a mushroom grows. _medial_, at the middle; of the ring of a mushroom which is between superior or near the apex of the stem, and distant or far removed from the apex. _merismoid_, having a branched or laciniate pileus. _moniliform_, contracted at intervals in the length, like a string of beads. _multifid_, having many divisions. _multipartite_, divided into many parts. _mycelium_, the delicate threads proceeding from the germinating spores, usually white and popularly termed spawn. _narrow_, of very slight vertical width. _netted_, covered with projecting reticulated lines. _nucleus_, the reproductive germ in the spore. _obconic_, inversely conical. _obcordate_, like an inverted heart. _oblique_, slanting. _oblong_, longer than broad. _obovate_, inversely egg-shaped, broadest at the apex. _obtuse_, blunt or rounded. _ochrospore_, ochre-colored spore. _orbicular_, having the form of an orb. _order_, group of a classification intermediate between tribe and family. _ostiole_, _ostiolum_, mouth of the perithecium; orifice through which the spores are discharged. _ovate_, egg-shaped. _pallid_, pale, undecided color. _papillate_, _papillose_, covered with soft tubercles. _paraphyses_, sterile cells found with the reproductive cells of some plants. _parasitic_, growing on and deriving support from another plant. _partial_, of a veil clothing the stem and reaching to the edge of the cap but not extending beyond it. _patent_, spreading. _pectinate_, toothed like a comb. _pedicel_, foot-stock. _pedicillate_, having a pedicel. _pelliculose_, furnished with a pellicle or distinct skin. _penciled_, with pencil-like hairs either on the tip or border. _peridium_, general covering of a puff-ball, simple or double, dehiscent or indehiscent at maturity. _perithecia_, bottle-like receptacles containing asci. _peronate_, used when the stem has a distinct stocking-like coat. _persistent_, inclined to hold firm, tenacious. _pervious_, forming an open tube-like passage. _pileate_, having a cap. _pileoli_, secondary pilei; arising from a division of the primary pileus. _pileus_, the cap, receptacle, or one part of a mushroom; other parts are the stem and gills. _pilose_, covered with hairs. _pits_, depressions in cells or tubes resembling pores, applied also to hollow depressions in the surface of the cap of the morel. _plumose_, feathery. _pore_, orifice of the tubes of polypores. _poriform_, in the form of pores. _porous_, having pores. _powdery_, covered with bloom or powder. _projecting_, the anterior end jutting out beyond the margin. _proliferous_, applied to an organ which gives rise to secondary ones of the same kind. _pruinose_, covered with frost-like bloom. _pruniform_, plum-shaped. _pubescent_, downy. _pulverulent_, covered with dust. _pulvinate_, cushion-shaped. _punctate_, dotted with points. _pyriform_, pear-shaped. _quaternate_, arranged in groups of four. _receptacle_, a part of the mushroom extremely varied in form, consistency, and size, inclosing the organs of reproduction. _remote_, when the margin of the gill comes to an end before reaching the stem. _reniform_, kidney-shaped. _repand_, bent backwards. _resupinate_, of mushrooms spread over the matrix without any stem and with the hymenium upwards; inverted by twisting of the stalk. _reticulate_, marked with cross lines like the meshes of a net. _revolute_, rolled backwards; of the margin of a cap, the opposite of involute. _rhodospore_, rose or pink spore. _rimose_, cracked. _ring_, a part of the veil adhering to the stem of a mushroom in the shape of a ring. _rivulose_, marked with lines like rivulets. _rubiginous_, rust colored. _rufescent_, reddish in color. _rugose_, wrinkled. appendix b. through the courtesy of mr. hollis webster, secretary of the boston mycological club, the following list of mushrooms, which have been collected and eaten by members of that club during the past year, has been supplied to me: amanita. a. _cæsarea_ scop., "true orange." a. _rubescens_ persoon. a. _vaginata_ bull. lepiota. l. _procera_ scop., "parasol mushroom." l. _rachodes_ vilt. l. _americana_ pk. l. _naucinoides_. armillaria. a. _mellea_ vahl, "honey mushroom." tricholoma. t. _equestre_ l. t. _sejunctum_ low, "yellow blusher." t. _portentosum_ fr. t. _coryphacum_ fr. t. _russula_ schaeff. t. _columbetta_ fr. t. _gambosum_ fr., "st. george's mushroom." t. _personatum_. t. _nudum_. hygrophorus. h. _virgineus_ fr. h. _fuligineus_ frost. h. _flavo discus_ frost, "yellow sweet-bread." h. _hypothejus_ fr. h. _puniceus_ fr. lactarius. l. _piperatus_ fr. l. _deliciosus_ fr. l. _volemus_ fr. russula. r. _virescens_ fr. r. _lepida_ fr. r. _punctata_ gt. r. _aurata_ fr. r. _ochracea_ fr. r. _alutacea_ fr. cantharellus. c. _cibarius_ fr. c. _umbonatus_ fr. marasmius. m. _oreades_ fr., "fairy ring." m. _scorodonius_ fr. m. _alliaceus_ fr. hypholoma. h. _sublateritium_ schaeff. h. _candolleanum_ fr. h. _perplexum._ h. _appendiculatum_ bull. coprinus. c. _comatus_ fr., "shaggy mane." c. _ovatus_ fr. c. _atramentarius_. c. _micaceus_ fr. c. _fimetarius_ fr. cortinarius. c. _turmalis_ fr. c. _sebaceus_ fr. c. _cærulescens_ fr. c. _collinitus_ fr. c. _violaceus_ fr. c. _albo violaceus_ pers. c. _cinnamomeus_ fr. c. _cinnamomeus_ var. _semi-sanguineus_ fr. clitocybe. c. _clavipes_ fr. c. _odora_ fr. c. _dealbata_ low. c. _laccata_ scop. c. _multiceps_ pk. c. _infundibuliformis_ schaeff. collybia. c. _dryophila_ bull. c. _velutipes_ curt. pleurotus. p. _ostreatus_ fr. p. _sapidus_ kalch. p. _ulmarius_ fr., elm-tree mushroom. p. _pluteus cervinus_ schaeff. clitopilus. c. _prunulus_ scop. c. _orcella_ bull. c. _unitinctus_ pk. c. _seymourianus_ pk. pholiota. p. _caperata_ pers., "the gypsy." p. _præcox_ (when too old is bitter). p. _adiposa_. agaricus (psalliota). a. _arvensis_. a. _cretaceus_ fr. a. _campester_ l. a. _silvicola_ vilt. sparassis. s. _crispa_ fr. clavaria. (any and all clavarias found are generally eaten by us without identification). c. _botrytes_ pers. c. _amethystina_ bull. c. _coralloides_ l. c. _cinerea_ bull. c. _aurea_ schaeff. c. _rugosa_ bull. c. _pistillaris_ l. lycoperdon. l. _cyathiforme_ bose. l. _giganteum_ batsch. l. _pyriforme_ schaeff. l. _saccatum_ fr. morchella. m. _esculenta_ bull. m. _conica_ pers. peziza. p. _aurantia_ vahl. strobilomyces. s. _strobilaceus_ berk. fistulina. f. _hepatica_ fr., "beef steak mushroom." polyporus. p. _betulinus_ fr. (coriaceous when old). p. _sulphureus_ fr. hydnum. h. _imbricatum_ l. h. _repandum_ l. h. _caput-medusæ_ bull. also thirteen of the boleti. student's hand-book of mushrooms of america edible and poisonous. by thomas taylor, m. d. author of food products, etc. published in serial form--=no. =--price, c. per number. washington, d. c.: a. r. taylor, publisher, mass. ave. n.e. . [illustration: plate e. the norris peters co., photo-litho., washington, d. c.] plate e. plate e illustrates various forms and positions of the annulus or ring characteristic of certain species of mushrooms, together with the cortina or veil of which the ring, if present, is the remnant, in some species, either as it appears entire or as a fringe on the margin of the cap, contrasting these forms with a sectional view of a species in which the veil or ring is always wanting. fig. . ring broad, reflexed or deflexed, or both; situated high up on the stem, as in _armillaria mellea_. fig. . ring situated about midway of the stem, deflexed and pendulous as in _amanita muscaria_. fig. . ring about half midway of the stem, split, and radiating outwards, as in _agaricus arvensis_. fig. . ring drooping. fig. . ring persistent, movable, wholly detached, in age, from the tall and slender stem, upon which it easily slips up and down. a species of great beauty, _lepiota procera_. fig. . ring narrow, scarcely perceptible above the middle of the stem; remnants of the veil adhering to the margin of the cap as a fugacious web. fig. . ring generally wanting--_tricholoma nudum_. remnants of the veil seen on the margin of the cap. fig. . remnants of the veil appearing on the margin of the cap as a fringe, and particularly on the stem as a mere fibrillose zone of a darker color as in the _cortinarii_. fig. . plant exhibiting the cortina unbroken, the extremities of its delicate arachnoid threads attached to cap and stem, respectively. fig. . section of a russula, in which genus the ring is always wanting; veil none. [illustration: plate f. the norris peters co., photo-litho., washington, d. c.] plate f. plate f illustrates by section or otherwise various forms of these gill-like processes characteristic of species, considered either with regard to marginal outline or position of their posterior extremity: fig. . gills distant. fig. . gills crowded. fig. . gills flexuose. fig. . gills unequal. fig. . bifurcated. fig. . anastomosing veins. fig. a. sectional view. fig. . gills narrow. fig. . gills broad. fig. . lanceolate. fig. . ventricose. fig. . anteriorly rounded. fig. . posteriorly rounded. fig. . emarginate. fig. . emarginate and denticulate. copyright, , by thomas taylor, m. d., and a. r. taylor. agaricini. _subgenus hypholoma_. hymenophore continuous with the stem, veil woven into a fugacious web, which adheres to the margin of the pileus. gills adnate or sinuate; spores brownish purple, sometimes intense purple, almost black.--m. c. cooke. this subgenus has been divided into the following five groups: . fasciculares.--pileus smooth, tough, bright colored when dry, not hygrophanous. examples, ag. (hypholoma) _sublateritius_ and ag. (hypholoma) _fascicularis_. . viscidi.--pileus naked, viscid. example, ag. (hypholoma) _oedipus_. . velutini.--pileus silky, with innate fibrils. example, ag. (hypholoma) _velutinus_. . flocculosi.--pileus clad with floccose superficial evanescent scales. example, ag. (hypholoma) _cascus_. . appendiculati.--pileus smooth and hygrophanous. example, ag. (hypholoma) _candollianus_. the species are not numerous. they are generally either gregarious or cæspitose, and are often found in clusters upon tree stumps, or springing from the buried roots of stumps. a few species are found in short grass in open places; but few are recorded as edible, and one, h. _fascicularis_, has been classed as deleterious by berkeley, cooke, and some of the earlier authors. i find, however, no authenticated case of poisoning by this species, and, indeed, have as yet found no species of hypholoma which could be satisfactorily identified as h. fascicularis. the few species of hypholoma which i have tested have been palatable, and one or two are of very delicate flavor. [illustration: plate viii. edible agaricus (hypholoma) _sublateritius_ fries (hypholoma sublatertium) "brick top." group from seabrooke woods, md. t. taylor, del.] plate viii. =ag. (hypholoma) sublateritius= schaeff. "_red tuft_." (=hypholoma sublateritium=) "_the brick top_." edible. the cap of this species is fleshy and obtuse, convexo-plane, sometimes showing a superficial whitish cloudiness upon the margin coming from the veil, which soon disappears, leaving it smooth and dry; color tawny brick red, with pale straw margin; flesh compact and whitish, turning yellow when wilted. stem stuffed and fibrillose, tapering downward. near its attachment to the cap the color is very light yellow; lower down and towards the root it is covered with patches and lines of burnt sienna color. it bears no distinct ring. in very young plants the filmy veil is sometimes perceived, reaching from the margin of the cap to the stem. this disappears as the cap expands, sometimes leaving the stem obscurely annulate. gills adnate in full-grown specimens, slightly decurrent, somewhat crowded, dingy white or cinereous, turning to dark olive, never yellow; in old or wilted specimens changing to a dark brown. in old specimens the cap is a reddish brown and the gills are sometimes stained with the purplish brown of the spores. this is a very common species and very abundant in pine and oak woods. i have seen an oak stump in prince george's county, md., measuring from to feet in height, literally covered with mushrooms of this species. this mushroom has been recorded as suspicious by some writers, probably owing to its slightly bitter taste, but i have thoroughly tested its edible qualities, both uncooked and prepared in various ways for the table, using the caps only. it keeps well when dried, and when ground into powder, with the addition of boiling water and a little pepper and salt, makes a very pleasant and nutritious beverage. it is most abundant in the early autumn, and is gathered in this latitude well into the winter, even when the snow is on the ground. our american plant is less heavy and more graceful in aspect than the same species in england, as figured in english works, but the general characteristics are the same. ag. (hypholoma) _fascicularis_ hudson, recorded as deleterious, is figured in "cooke's illustrations." dr. berkeley thus distinguishes these two species from each other. cap of _sublateritius_ is obtuse, discoid; that of _fascicularis_, subumbonate. flesh of the former, compact, dingy-white; that of the latter, yellow. stem in _sublateritius_ is "stuffed," attenuated downwards, ferruginous; stem of _fascicularis_ hollow, thin, flexuose. the gills in both species are adnate, crowded; but in _fascicularis_ they are also linear and deliquescent, and are _yellow_ in color. note.--in the friesian arrangement of the genera of the order agaricini, which is adopted by m. c. cooke, hypholoma finds place as a subgenus of the genus agaricus, spore series pratelli. saccardo in his sylloge elevates hypholoma to the rank of a separate genus and places it in his spore series melanosporæ. [illustration: plate ix. edible agaricus (hypholoma) _candollianus_, fries., variety _incertus_ peck figured from specimens collected in the district of columbia t. taylor, del.] plate ix. =agaricus (hypholoma) incertus= peck. (_hypholoma incertum_.) edible. cap fleshy but fragile, smooth and hygrophanous, moist; at first convex, then expanding; color creamy white. gills adnate, narrow, crowded, whitish in young specimens, turning to a pinkish dun color, later to a rosy cinnamon, sometimes showing when mature a slightly purplish tint. stem smooth, slender, long and hollow, with slight striations near the apex, white. specimens occur in which the stem is obscurely annulate arising from the attachment to it of fragments of the veil, but usually it is ringless. the typical species of hypholoma have the fleshy part of the cap confluent with the stem, but in h. _incertum_ the stem is not confluent and is easily separated from the cap as in the lepiotas. this mushroom was first recorded by peck in his early reports as the variety "_incertus_" of the species agaricus (hypholoma) candollianus, but has since been recorded by saccardo as a distinct species, hypholoma incertum. two species of hypholoma have the same habit and sufficiently resemble _incertum_ to be taken for it, if not carefully examined as to points of difference. these are h. _candollianum_, named in honor of a. de candolle, and h. _appendiculatum_. in the first named of these two species the cap is whitish, the gills at first violet in color, changing to dark cinnamon brown. in h. appendiculatum the pileus is rugose when dry, and sprinkled with atoms. it is darker in color than that of h. incertum; cooke says tawny or pale ochre; massee says bay, then tawny. the gills are sub-adnate, in color resembling those of h. incertum; stem slender, smooth, and white. from the foregoing it will be seen that h. _incertum_ agrees more nearly with h. _candollianum_ in the color of the cap, but more nearly with h. _appendiculatum_ in the color of the gills. saccardo recognizes the three as "distinct species of the _genus hypholoma_." as all are edible, the slight differences observed are interesting chiefly to the mycologist. the mycophagist will find them equally valuable from a gastronomic point of view. in taste they resemble the common mushroom. they are more fragile, however, and require less cooking than the cultivated mushroom. broiled on toast or cooked for ten minutes in a chafing dish, they make a very acceptable addition to the lunch menu. the specimens figured in plate ix were selected from a crop of thirty or more growing in the author's garden, in very rich soil at the base of a plum-tree stump. for several seasons past small crops have been gathered from the same spot, as well as around the base of a flourishing peach tree. quantities of all three species have been gathered in the short grass of the capitol grounds for a number of seasons, and in the various parks of the district of columbia. specimens have been received from western new york and massachusetts. those growing upon soil very heavily fertilized are apt to be somewhat stouter and shorter stemmed than those coming up through the short grass in the parks. analytical table. the following compendious analytical table showing prominent characteristics of the leading genera and subgenera of the order agaricini, according to fries, worthington smith, and other botanists, which appears in cooke's hand book, revised edition, will be found helpful to the collector in determining the genus to which a specimen may belong. order agaricini i. spores white or very slightly tinted--leucospori . plant fleshy, more or less firm, putrescent (neither deliquescent nor coriaceous) . hymenophore free . pileus bearing warts or patches free from the cuticle (volvate) _amanita_ . pileus scaly, scales concrete with the cuticle (not volvate) _lepiota_ . hymenophore confluent . without cartilaginous bark . stem central . with a ring _armillaria_ . ringless . gills sinuate _tricholoma_ . gills decurrent . edge acute _clitocybe_ . edge swollen obtuse cantharellus . gills adnate . parasitic on other agarics nyctalis . not parasitic . milky lactarius . not milky . rigid and brittle russula . waxy hygrophorus . stem lateral or absent _pleurotus_ . with cartilaginous bark . gills adnate _collybia_ . gills sinuate _mycena_ . gills decurrent _omphalia_ . plant tough, coriaceous or woody . stem central. . gills simple marasmius . gills branched xerotus . stem lateral or wanting . gills toothed lentinus . gills not toothed panus . gills channelled longitudinally or crisped trogia . gills splitting longitudinally schizophyllum . gills anastomosing lenzites ii. spores rosy or salmon color--hyporhodii . without cartilaginous bark . hymenophore free . with a volva _volvaria_ . without a volva . with a ring _annularia_ . ringless _pluteus_ . hymenophore confluent, not free . stem central . gills adnate or sinuate _entoloma_ . gills decurrent _clitopilus_ . stem lateral or absent _claudopus_ . with cartilaginous bark . gills decurrent _eccilia_ . gills not decurrent . pileus torn into scales _leptonia_ . pileus papillose, sub-campanulate. . gills membranaceous, persistent _nolanea_ . gills sub-deliquescent bolbitius iii. spores brownish, sometimes rusty, reddish or yellowish brown.--dermini. . without cartilaginous bark. . stem central. . with a ring. . ring continuous _pholiota_ . ring arachnoid, like a spider's web filamentous or evanescent. . gills adnate terrestrial cortinarius . gills decurrent, or acutely adnate, mostly epiphytal, _flammula_ . without a ring. . with rudimentary volva _acetabularia_ . without a volva. . gills adhering to the hymenophore, and sinuate. . cuticle fibrillose or silky _inocybe_ . cuticle smooth viscid _hebeloma_ . gills separating from the hymenophore, and decurrent, paxillus . stem lateral or absent _crepidotus_ . with cartilaginous bark. . gills decurrent _tubaria_ . gills not decurrent. . margin of pileus at first incurved _naucoria_ . margin of pileus always straight. . hymenophore free _pluteolus_ . hymenophore confluent _galera_ iv. spores purple, sometimes brownish purple, dark purple, or dark brown.--pratellæ. . without cartilaginous bark. . hymenophore free. . with a volva _chitonia_ . without a volva _psalliota_ . hymenophore confluent. . veil normally ring shaped on the stem _stropharia_ . veil normally adhering to the margin of the pileus _hypholoma_ . with cartilaginous bark. . gills decurrent _deconica_ . gills not decurrent. . margin of pileus at first incurved _psilocybe_ . margin of pileus at first straight _psathyra_ v. spores black or nearly so.--coprinarii. . gills deliquescent coprinus . gills not deliquescent. . gills decurrent gomphidius . gills not decurrent. . pileus striate _psathyrella_ . pileus not striate _panæolus_ in the friesian classification which, with modifications, has prevailed for many years among mycologists, the _genus agaricus_ included in its _subgenera_ the greater part of the species of the order _agaricini_. the subgenera, printed in the above table in italics, were included in this genus. the genera are printed in capitals. in the saccardian system, all the _subgenera_ of _agaricus_ having been elevated to _generic_ rank, the term agaricus is limited to a very small group which includes the _subgenus psalliota_ of fries, the species being characterized by fleshy caps, free gills, ringed stem, and dark brown or purplish brown spores. as restricted, it naturally falls into the spore series _melanosporeæ._ in the white-spored section, leucospori, the recorded edible species occur in the following genera: marasmius, cantharellus, lactarius, russula, hygrophorus, collybia, pleurotus, clitocybe, tricholoma, armillaria, lepiota, and amanita. the plants of marasmius are usually thin and dry, reviving with moisture. cantharellus is characterized by the obtuseness of the edges of the lamellæ, lactarius by the copious milky or sticky fluid which exudes from the plants when cut or bruised. russula is closely allied to lactarius, and the plants bear some resemblance in external appearance to those of that genus, but they are never milky, and the gills are usually rigid and brittle. in hygrophorus the plants are moist, not very large, often bright colored, and the gills have a waxy appearance. the collybias are usually cæspitose, the stems exteriorly cartilaginous, in some species swelling and splitting open in the centre. in pleurotus the stem is lateral or absent. the plants are epiphytal, usually springing from the decaying bark of trees and old stumps. in clitocybe the plants are characterized by a deeply depressed, often narrow cap, with the gills acutely adnate, or running far down the stem, which is elastic, with a fibrous outer coat covered with minute fibers. many of the species have a fragrant odor. the tricholomas are stout and fleshy, somewhat resembling the russulas, but distinguished from them by the sinuate character of the gills, which show a slight notched or toothed depression just before reaching the stem (represented in fig. , plate iv). typical species of armillaria show a well-defined ring and scales upon the stem, the remains of the partial veil, and the plants are usually large, and cæspitose. the lepiotas are recognized by the soft, thready character of the fleshy portion of the cap, and the fringed scales formed by the breaking of the cuticle. the ease with which the ringed stem is removed from its socket in the cap is another characteristic which distinguishes the plants from those of other genera. the amanitas are distinguished by the volva, which sheathes the somewhat bulbous stem at its base and the ring and veil which in the young plant are very distinct features, the whole plant in embryo being enveloped in the volva. the amanita group, besides containing some very good edible species, is also credited with containing the most dangerous species of all the mushroom family, and some which are undoubtedly fatal in their effects.[a] [a] a more detailed description of this group will appear in no. of this series. the nyctali are minute mushrooms parasitic on other mushrooms. in omphalia, the plants are quite small, with membranaceous caps, gills truly decurrent, and cartilaginous stems. the myceneæ are generally very small, slender, and fragile, usually cæspitose, with bell-shaped caps, sinuate gills, not decurrent, and cartilaginous stems. in some species the plants exude a milky juice. in the genera panus, lentinus, lenzites, schizophyllum, xerotus, and trogia, the plants are leathery or coriaceous, dry and tough, and though none are recorded as poisonous, they are too tough to be edible. the mushrooms having pink or salmon colored spores, section rhodosporii, form the smallest of the four primary groups of agaricini, the number of known species not exceeding , and most of these are tasteless, or of disagreeable odor, while some are recorded as unwholesome. the species are pink-gilled when mature, though often white or whitish when very young. the recorded edible species are found in volvaria, clitopilus, and pluteus. the volvariæ are characterized by the very large and perfect volva which wraps the base of the stem in loose folds, the ringless stem, and the pink, soft, liquescent gills, which are free and rounded behind. the cap is not warted; in some species it is viscid, and in _bombycinus_, recorded by several authors as edible, and by some as doubtful, it is covered with a silky down. in clitopilus the odor of the edible species is more or less mealy. the cap is fleshy, and the margin at first involute. two edible species which closely resemble each other--viz., clitopilus _prunulus_, "plum mushroom," and clitopilus _orcella_, "sweetbread mushroom,"--are highly recommended for their delicacy of flavor. in leptonia most of the species are small, thin, and brittle, corresponding with mycena in the white-spored series, and with psathyra and psathyrella in the dark-spored series. eccilia corresponds with omphalia. claudopus corresponds with pleurotus in its habit of growth and lateral stem, differing in the color of the spores. annularia includes only a few small species having a ringed stem, no volva, and free pink gills. cooke says of this subgenus that no british species are known. the recorded species of pluteus have their habitat on tree stumps, sawdust, or upon fallen timber. one species, pluteus _cervinus_, is recorded as edible, but not specially commended. of entoloma, worthington smith says, "it is allied to tricholoma, though most of the species are thinner and often brittle. it agrees also in structure with hebeloma and hypholoma." none of the species are recorded as having value as esculents. the genus bolbitius is described by cooke as a small genus intermediate between agaricus and coprinus on the one side, and coprinus and cortinarius on the other. the species are small and ephemeral. saccardo places bolbitius in his division melanosporæ, although the spores are ochraceous. in the section pratelli psalliota and hypholoma contain mushrooms which are of exceptionally fine flavor. in the first of these is found the common field mushroom agaricus campester and its allies. the black-spored section coprinarii contains two genera which include a few recorded edible species, viz., coprinus and gomphidius. the psathyrellas correspond in size to the mycenas in the white-spored series and to the psathyras in the purple-spored section; the gills are free or adnate and turn black when mature. none of the species are edible. in paneolus the plants are somewhat viscid when moist, the gills are described as "clouded, never becoming purple or brown." they are usually found on manure heaps near cities. none are edible. saccardo in his sylloge combines the pratellæ and coprinarii, making of them one section which he calls _melanosporeæ_. g. massee, the british mycologist, makes of the black-spored and the purple and purplish-brown spored series two divisions, calling them, respectively, _porphyrosporeæ_ and _melanosporeæ_. the recorded edible species of the spore section dermini are found in pholiota, cortinarius, and paxillus. the larger proportion of the pholiotas grow upon tree stumps. they have a fugacious, persistent friable ring, and are liable to be confused with the cortinarii, unless attention is paid to the spidery veil and the iron-rust tint of the spores of the latter. only a few of the species are recorded as edible, but none are known to be poisonous. cortinarius is a large genus. it contains a larger proportion of edible species than pholiota, and none are recorded as poisonous. the cobweb-like veil which extends from stem to margin of cap in the young species, and the rust-colored spores which dust the gills as the species mature, distinguish the genus from all others. a characteristic feature of paxillus, and one which makes it easily distinguishable from others of the same group, is the ease with which the gills as a whole can be separated from the substance or fleshy portion of the cap. there is an exception to this in the species paxillus involutus, recorded by peck as edible. polyporei. hymenium lining the cavity of tubes or pores which are sometimes broken up into teeth or concentric plates.--berkeley's outlines. the plants of this second primary group or order of the family hymenomycetes exhibit a greater dissimilarity of form and texture than do those of the agaricini. some of its genera consist almost wholly of coriaceous or woody plants. a few contain fleshy ones. some of the species have a distinct stem, while others are stemless. with regard to the receptacle in the plants of the genera _boletus_, _strobilomyces_, etc., it forms a perfect cap, like that of the common agaric, a cushion of tubes taking the place of gills on the under surface of the cap, the hymenium in this case lining the inner surface of the tubes from which the spores drop when mature. in some species, such as those of the genus poria, the receptacle is reduced to a single thin fibrous stratum, adhering closely to the matrix and exposing a surface of crowded pores, and in others it consists of fibrous strata formed in concentric layers. a number of groups, each of which was treated in the original friesian classification as a single genus, have more recently been recognized as comprising several distinct genera. in the saccardian system the genera trametes, dædalea, merulius, porothelium, and fistulina still retain the generic rank assigned to them by fries, but the old genus boletus is subdivided into four genera, boletus, strobilomyces, boletinus, and gyrodon, while polyporus, originally a very large genus, is subdivided into the genera polyporus, fomes, polystictus, and poria. this arrangement was in part suggested by fries in his later works, and is accepted by m. c. cooke, as indicated in his latest work on fungi. quoting m. c. cooke, "_strobilomyces_ is _boletus_ with a rough warty and scaly pileus; _boletinus_ is _boletus_ with short, large radiating pores; and _gyrodon_ is _boletus_ with elongated sinuate irregular pores, all fleshy, firm fungi of robust habit, possessing stem and cap." the species of the genus polyporus as now restricted are somewhat fleshy in the young stage, shrinking as they mature and dry, and becoming indurated with age. in fomes the species, of woody consistency from the first, have no room for shrinkage, and are quite rigid; the tubes being in strata, and the strata growing yearly, the species are virtually perennial. the pileus of the plant shows a rigid polished crust resulting from resinous exudations. in polystictus the plants are usually small, thin, tough, and irregular in outline, the tubes exceedingly short, with thin walls, which easily split up, giving the pores at times a toothed or fringed appearance. the surface is velvety, or hairy, and zoned in varying colors. they are very common upon decaying tree stumps, often covering the surface of the stump in gaily colored layers. not esculent. poria is composed of resupinate species with the pores normally in a single series, the whole stratum spread over, and adhering to the matrix. the species are coriaceous or woody. not esculent. the plants of the genus trametes allied to fomes are epiphytal, with the trama the same in substance and color as the hymenophore. the tubes do not form in regular strata, but are sunk into the substance of the pileus. the plants are coriaceous, and none are edible. dædalea closely resembles _trametes_ with the tubes forming deep labyrinthiform depressions. whole plant woody, sessile. hexagonia, allied by its characteristics to polystictus, has large hexagonal pores, with firm, entire dissepiments. in favolus the plants are slightly fleshy and substipitate with the pores angular, and radiating from the stem. not edible. the species of the genus laschia are recognized by the shallow irregular pores and the vein like character of their dissepiments (or pore walls). substance slightly gelatinous. in the plants of porothelium, irregular papillæ take the place of tubes, and the plants are sub-membranaceous and resupinate, having the habit of those of poria. the genus merulius has been termed the lowest and most imperfect of the genera of polyporei. it presents a soft, waxy spore-bearing surface, reticulated with obtuse folds. solenia, by early authors placed in discomycetes, thence transferred to auricularini, and by some authors associated with cyphella in theleporei, now finds place as one of the genera of polyporei as given by saccardo. the above-mentioned genera, together with myriadoporus, ceriomyces, bresadolia, theleporus, gloeporus, and cyclomyces, constitute the polyporeæ of the saccardian system. _myriadoporus_ is a north american genus. it is a form of the genus polyporus, but with pores in the _interior_ as well as on the _exterior_ surface. _ceriomyces_ is generally regarded as a spurious genus. it is similar to _myriadoporus_, but with internal pores and only spurious pores externally. of _bresadolia_ cooke says "there is only one described species, and of this only one specimen has been found." _theleporus_ is an african genus of which only one species is known. _gloeporus_ is a form of resupinate polyporus, except that the hymenium or pore-bearing surface is gelatinous instead of being firm. _cyclomyces_ is a genus with some features of lenzites; it is leathery. all of these are more or less coriaceous. none are edible. _campbellia_ is a new genus. it is _merulius_ with a pileus and central stem. the edible polyporeæ are found in the genera boletus, strobilomyces, gyrodon, boletinus, polyporus, and fistulina. of these, the first four genera contain most of the edible species as well as a few which have been regarded as unwholesome or poisonous. in the genus polyporus as now restricted, the species polyporus _sulphureus_ fries is perhaps the one most likely to be selected for table use, the others becoming very quickly indurated or tough, and this should be gathered when very young, as in maturity it loses its fleshy consistency and becomes dry and tough. it is common on old tree stumps and is often found on the dead wood of living trees, the bright yellow and vivid orange red tints which characterize the young plant making it very conspicuous. it is easily recognized by its irregular, closely overlapping frond-like caps, white flesh, and the very small sulphur-yellow tubes. the spores are white, elliptical. the flesh of young specimens is somewhat juicy. the geographical distribution is wide, and in places where a moist, warm temperature prevails plants of this species often attain very large proportions, sometimes completely encircling the trunk of a tree at its base. the bright colors fade as the plant matures, and the plant becomes indurated and friable, when very old crumbling readily in the hands. to prepare for the table, very thin slices of young specimens should be cut and either allowed to slowly simmer on the back of the range, or soaked in milk and then fried in butter. of the genus fistulina but one species, fistulina hepatica, figured in plate x, is recorded as edible and indigenous to this country. [illustration: plate x. fistulina hepatica specimen, upper view. same, under view. specimen, upper view. same, under view. spores. k. mayo, del.] plate x. =fistulina hepatica= bull. "_beefsteak mushroom_," "_liver fungus_." edible. _genus fistulina_ bull. hymenophore fleshy, hymenium inferior, that is, on the under surface of the cap, at first papillose; the papillæ at length elongated, and forming distinct tubes. besides fistulina _hepatica_, five species of this genus are recorded in saccardo's sylloge, viz., f. _radicata_ schw., f. _spathulata_ b. & c., f. _pallida_ b. & r., f. _rosea_ mont., and f. _antarctica_ speg.; the last indigenous to patagonia. f. _hepatica_ is the only species with which i am familiar. the plants of this species are very irregular in form, rootless, epiphytal, often stemless, and sometimes attached to the matrix by a very short stem. this fungus is frequently found upon old oak, chestnut, and ash trees, developing in the rotting bark. it appears first as a rosy pimple, or in a series of red granules. in a very short time it becomes tongue-shaped, sometimes kidney shaped, assuming the color of a beet root. as it increases in size it changes form again, becoming broad in proportion to its length, and changing in color to a deep blood red, and finally to a dull liver tint. its lower surface is often paler than its upper, it being tinged with yellow and pinkish hues. one author states that it requires about two weeks to attain its highest development, after which it gradually decays. it varies in size from a few inches to several feet in circumference. rev. m. j. berkeley mentions one which weighed thirty pounds. it has been styled, the "_poor man's fungus_," and in flavor resembles meat more than any other. the substance is fleshy and juicy in the early stage. the pileus is papillose, the papillæ elongated, and forming distinct tubes as the pileus expands. these tubes are separable from each other, and with age become approximate and jagged at their orifices. the tubes are at first yellowish, with a pink tinge, becoming dingy with age. the fleshy substance, or hymenophore, is often veined in light and dark red streaks. the juice is pellucid, red, and slightly acid. spores at first nearly round, becoming elliptical, salmon color. this fungus is esteemed in europe, where it is eaten prepared in a variety of ways. when young and tender it can be sliced and broiled or minced and stewed, making a delicious dish. when too old the stock is rather tough for good eating, but the gravy taken from it forms a rich flavoring for a vegetable stew or a meat ragout. the following recipe for cooking this mushroom has been recommended: slice and macerate it, add pepper and salt, a little lemon, and chopped onions or garlic; then strain and boil the liquid, which makes most excellent gravy, resembling that of good beefsteak. the fistulina hepatica is well known in europe, and is found in different parts of the united states, in some places growing abundantly. i have gathered some fine specimens in maryland and virginia, but none as large as that described by dr. berkeley. recipes for cooking mushrooms. _to pot mushrooms._--the small open mushrooms suit best for potting. trim and rub them; put into a stewpan a quart of mushrooms, ounces of butter, teaspoonfuls of salt, and half a teaspoonful of cayenne and mace, mixed, and stew for ten or fifteen minutes, or till the mushrooms are tender; take them carefully out and drain them perfectly on a sloping dish, and when cold press them into small pots and pour clarified butter over them, in which state they will keep for a week or two. writing-paper placed over the butter, and over that melted suet, will effectually preserve them for weeks in a dry, cool place. _to pickle mushrooms._--select a number of sound, small pasture mushrooms, as nearly alike as possible in size. throw them for a few minutes into cold water, then drain them, cut off the stalks, and gently rub off the outer skin with a moist flannel dipped in salt; then boil the vinegar, adding to each quart two ounces of salt, half a nutmeg grated, a dram of mace, and an ounce of white pepper corns. put the mushrooms into the vinegar for ten minutes over the fire; then pour the whole into small jars, taking care that the spices are equally divided; let them stand a day, then cover them. _baked mushrooms._--peel the tops of twenty mushrooms; cut off a portion of the stalks and wipe them carefully with a piece of flannel dipped in salt. lay the mushrooms in a tin dish, put a small piece of butter on the top of each, and season with pepper and salt. set the dish in the oven and bake them from twenty minutes to half an hour. when done, arrange them high in the centre of a very hot dish, pour the sauce around them, and serve quickly and as hot as you possibly can. _mushrooms with bacon._--take some full-grown mushrooms, and, having cleaned them, procure a few rashers of nice streaky bacon and fry them in the usual manner. when nearly done add a dozen or so of mushrooms and fry them slowly until they are cooked. in this process they will absorb all the fat of the bacon, and with the addition of a little salt and pepper will form a most appetizing breakfast relish. _mushroom pie._--a very good mushroom pie is made in the following manner: chop a quart of mushrooms into small pieces, season to taste, and add one pound of round steak chopped fine and seasoned with a small piece of onion. if the steak is lean, add a small piece of suet, unless butter is preferred to give flavor. put the chopped steak and mushrooms in deep saucepan with cover, and stew slowly until tender. make a crust as for beefsteak pie and put in a deep earthern dish, lightly browning the under crust before adding the stew, and cover with a crust lightly punctured. in some parts of russia mushrooms form an important part of the diet of the people, especially during the lenten season, when the fast of the greek church is very strictly kept, and meat, fish, eggs, and butter are forbidden. provision is made for this season in the securing of quantities of dried and salted mushrooms, which are cut up in strips and made into salads with a dressing of olive oil and vinegar. the poorer classes to whom the olive oil is unattainable use the rape seed and other vegetable oils in the cooking of their mushrooms. the following recipes are translated from a recently published russian work on the subject of mushrooms, cultivated and wild: select fresh, sound boleti, cut off the caps, and, after wiping clean with a napkin, place them in a sieve, pouring over them scalding water; when thoroughly drained, leave them where there is a free current of air until perfectly dry. next string them upon stout twine, leaving spaces between to allow of free circulation of air. if convenient, they can be dried artificially by placing in a not too hot oven with the door open. dried by either method, they can be kept all winter. before using, they should be soaked in water or milk until soft. in this condition they make very good flavoring for soup or gravy, and can also be used as filling for pies. _mushrooms cooked in butter._--wipe the mushrooms clean and dip in dry flour. heat a quantity of butter to boiling temperature in a saucepan, seasoning with a small piece of onion. drop the flour-covered mushrooms into the boiling butter, shaking the pan constantly over the fire. when the mushrooms are cooked add sour cream to taste. before serving, sprinkle with grated muscat nut. _mushroom pickle._--select only young button mushrooms. put them for a few moments in boiling water lightly salted and vinegared. boil vinegar (only the best should be used), spicing it according to taste. allow the vinegar to cool. put the mushrooms in layers in a jar and pour over them enough spiced vinegar to cover. seal tightly. _salted piperites._--only the caps are taken of the lactarius piperites. they are placed first in salted scalding water for several minutes. the water is then gently pressed out with a napkin, the mushrooms are placed on sieves and cold water poured over them. they are then placed in layers in a jar, each layer sprinkled with salt, and whole pepper and minced onion scattered over the layer. when the jar is full a thin round board is placed upon the top layer and pressed down with weights, and as the mass gives way mushrooms are added until the jar is compactly filled. the jar is then covered with parchment or otherwise tightly sealed. eight gallons of mushrooms require from one to one and a half glasses of salt. this makes a good salad when treated with oil. note.--l. piperites is an extremely acrid mushroom when in the raw state, and the russians do not stew it, but prepare it in the above way, taking the precaution to scald thoroughly with salted water before putting away. the precaution of scalding through several waters is a wise one to use in the preparation of all mushrooms inasmuch as the poisonous principle of most mushrooms is soluble in scalding water. dilute vinegar is frequently used in the same manner. vinegar should not be used in metal vessels unless porcelain-lined. list of the genera of hymenomycetes. the following list of the genera of hymenomycetes, summarized from kellerman's synopsis of saccardo's sylloge fungorum, will be found useful for reference: i.--agaricaceÆ. _leucosporeæ._ (spores white or slightly tinted yellowish.) genera. amanita pers. amanitopsis roze. lepiota fries. schulzeria bres. armillaria fries. tricholoma fries. clitocybe fries. collybia fries. mycena fries. hiatula fries. omphalia fries. pleurotus fries. hygrophorus fries. lactarius fries. russula pers. cantharellus adans. arrhenia fries. nyctalis fries. stylobates fries. marasmius fries. heliomyces lev. lentinus fries. panus fries. xerotus fries. trogia fries. lenzites fries. tilotus kalch. hymenogramme b. & mont. oudemansiella speg. pterophyllus lev. rachophyllus berk. schizophyllum fries. _rhodosporæ_ (spores pink or salmon color), corresponding to the hyporhodii of fries. genera. volvaria fr. annularia schulz. pluteus fries. entoloma fries. clitopilus fries. leptonia fries. nolanea fries. eccilia fries. claudopus worth. smith. _ochrosporæ_ (spores tawny ochraceous, or light rusty tint of brown), corresponding to the dermini of fries. genera. pholiota fries. locillina gill. inocybe fries. hebeloma fries. flammula fries. naucoria fries. pluteolus fries. galera fries. tubaria worth. smith. crepidotus fries. cortinarius fries. paxillus fries. _melanosporæ_ (spores black, dark-brown or purplish-brown), combining the attributes of both the coprinarii and the pratelli of fries. genera. chitonia fries. agaricus linn. pilosace fries. stropharia fries. hypholoma fries. psilocybe fries. deconica worth. smith. psathyra fries. bolbitius fries. coprinus pers. panæolus fries. annellaria karsh. psathyrella fries. gomphidius fries. anthracophyllum ces. montagnites fries. ii.--polyporaceÆ (polyporei). genera. boletus dill. strobilomyces berkeley. boletinus kalchbr. gyrodon opatowski. fistulina bull. polyporus mich. fomes fries. polystictus fries. poria pers. trametes fries. hexagonia fries. dædalea pers. myriadoporus peck. ceriomyces corda. bresadolia speg. cyclomyces kunz. favolus fries. gloeoporus mont. laschia fries. merulius hall. theleporus fries. porothelium fries. solenia hoffm. iii.--hydnaceÆ (hydnei). genera. hydnum linn. caldesiella lace. hericium pers. tremellodon pers. sistotrema pers. irpex fries. radulum fries. plebia fries. lopharia k. & m. ow. grandinia fries. grammothele b. & c. odontia pers. kneiffia fries. mucronella fries. iv.--thelephoraceÆ (thelephorei). genera. craterellus fries. hypolyssus pers. thelephora ehrh. cladoderris pers. beccariella ces. stereum pers. hymenochæte lev. skepperia berk. corticium fries. peniophora cooke. coniophora d. c. michenera b. & c. matula mass. hypochnus fries. exobasidium weron. helicobasidium pat. cyphella fries. friesula speg. cora fries. rhipidonema matt. v.--clavariaceÆ (clavariei). genera. sparassis fries. acartis fries. clavaria vaill. calocera fries. lachnocladium lev. pterula fries. ptifula pers. pistallaria fries. physalacria peck. vi.--tremellaceÆ (tremellini) genera. auricularia bull. hirneola fries. platygloea schroet. exidia fries. ulocolla bref. craterocolla bref. femsjonia fries. tremella dill. næmatelia fries. gyrocephalus pers. delortia pat. & gail. arrhytidia berk. ceracea cragin. guepinia fries. dacryomitra pul. collyria fries. genera minus certa. hormonyces bon. ditiola fries. apyrenium fries. brefield's classification of fungi. a system of classification of fungi which is receiving attention from mycologists is that recently presented by the distinguished german author dr. oscar brefield. dr. brefield's exhaustive investigations into the life-history of fungi in general have been such as to entitle his views to consideration, although the system presents some inconsistencies which may prevent its adoption in its entirety. according to the brefield system, as summarized by his colleague dr. von tavel, fungi are divided into two primary classes: ( ) the _phycomycetes,_ or lower fungi nearest like the algæ, _consisting of a one-celled thallus with sexual as well as non-sexual modes of reproduction_, and ( ) the mesomycetes and the mycomycetes, _having a divided or many celled thallus, propagated by non-sexually formed spores_. the phycomycetes are further divided into two large sections, based on their methods of reproduction, termed, respectively, zygomycetes and oomycetes. these include the old typical mucors, the peronosporeæ or "rotting moulds," once classed with the hyphomycetes, the saprolegniaceæ, "fish moulds," of aquatic habit, the entomophthoraceæ, "insect moulds," together with some minor groups. the mesomycetes connect the phycomycetes with the mycomycetes. the class mycomycetes is primarily divided into two sections, viz., ascomycetes and basidiomycetes, with the ustilagineæ, "smut fungi," in mesomycetes, forming a transitional group between phycomycetes and the basidiomycetal group of the higher fungi. the ascomycetes are primarily subdivided into _exoasci_ and _carpoasci,_ groups based on the character of the asci. in the first, _exoasci,_ the asci are naked and borne directly on the mycelium; in the second, _carpoasci,_ they are enclosed in a wrapper composed of fertile hyphæ and sterile threads, having also accessory fruit forms. the first includes endomycetes and taphrineæ. in the second are included the groups gymnoasci, perisporaceæ, pyrenomycetes, hysteriaceæ, discomycetes, and helvellaceæ. the basidiomycetes characterized by the possession of basidia are arranged in two groups, based on the character of the basidia: ( ) the protobasidiomycetes, in which the basidia are septate, divided, and ( ) the autobasidiomycetes, in which the basidia are not divided, and bear a definite number of spores. the first of these (protobasidiomycetes) includes the following distinct groups: ( ) the uredineæ, "rust fungi," which have horizontally divided basidia, always free, never enclosed; ( ) the auricularieæ, having basidia somewhat resembling those of the uredineæ, but which are borne in fruit bodies with open hymenia; ( ) pileacreæ, having horizontal septate basidia in closed receptacles; and ( ) tremellineæ, having vertically divided basidia borne in gymnocarpous receptacles--that is, those in which the hymenium is exposed while the spores are growing. the autobasidiomycetes are characterized by undivided basidia, bearing spores only at the apex. this group is subdivided into three sections: ( ) dacryomycetes, which includes the lowest of the tremelloid forms, with club-shaped basidia, nearly approaching the true hymenomycetal type, together with several groups of minor import; ( ) gasteromycetes; and ( ) hymenomycetes, with phalloideæ placed in the group as a subsection of gasteromycetes. the above can only be considered as a very brief abstract of the system of classification proposed by dr. brefield, but it will serve to give some idea of the principle on which the system is based, which is sufficient for our present purpose. those who wish to study the system in detail will find it treated in a comprehensive manner in dr. von tavel's summary as it appears in the _vergleichende morphologie der pilze_, jena, . coniomycetes and hyphomycetes. in the original classification of fries two of the primary divisions of the sporiferous fungi were termed, respectively, _coniomycetes_ and _hyphomycetes_. this arrangement was accepted by berkeley, the term _coniomycetes_ being applied to all fungi in which the naked spores, appearing like an impalpable dust, were the principal feature of the plant, and the term _hyphomycetes_ to fungi in which the threads or hyphæ bearing the spores were the most conspicuous feature. coniomycetes, as broadly interpreted by berkeley and other mycologists of his day, included the uredineæ or "rust fungi," the ustilagines or "smut fungi," the sphæropsideæ, and the melanconieæ. this arrangement was very unsatisfactory on account of the distinctively different character of the methods of reproduction of the respective groups, and they have since been disassociated and by some authors ranked as distinct orders or families. others combine uredinei and ustilaginei in one group under the name hypodermei. familiar examples of uredinei are seen in the rust of the barberry leaf, etc., and of the ustilaginei in the "smut" of corn and the "bunt" of wheat. some authors combine the sphæropsideæ with the closely allied melanconieæ. m. c. cooke contends that the _sphæropsideæ_ should be considered apart from the _melanconieæ,_ on the fundamental basis that the former possess a distinct perithecium, while the latter do not. the _sphæropsideæ_ as recently defined by cooke are "fungi _possessed of a perithecium, but without asci_, ... sporules or stylospores being produced internally at the apex of more or less distinct supporting hyphæ or pedicels, termed sporophores." the sphæropsideæ somewhat resemble the pyrenomyceteæ in external characteristics, but differ from them in the absence of asci and paraphyses. saccardo retains all the species in his sylloge, but relegates them to an inferior position as imperfect fungi. the group _pyrenomycetes_, or _sphæriacei_, as at first recognized by _fries_, included not only the _sphæriacei_ and the _perisporacei_, but also the _sphæropsidei_ and _melanconiaceæ_. later, when ascigerous fungi were separated from stylosporous fungi, this group was revised, the ascigerous species only being retained. as at present limited, the pyrenomycetes are "_ascigerous_ fungi having the fructification enclosed within a perithecium." they constitute a very large group, the described species, according to cooke's census of fungi, numbering not less than , , or at least , more than all the recorded species of hymenomycetes. the plants are microscopic in size, and grow upon vegetable or animal substances. hyphomycetes. with regard to the hyphomycetes, cooke takes the ground that in their internal relations to each other, and their external relations to the remaining orders, the hyphomycetes are undoubtedly a well-defined and natural group, and should have place as such in a systematic work. it is a large order, containing nearly , species, mostly parasitic on dead animals and vegetable matter. the spores, termed conidia, are free, as in hymenomycetes. the species are microscopic in size, and the hyphæ are strongly developed. they have no hymenium and no true basidia, and are non-sexual in their reproduction. the four primary sections are the mucedineæ, or "white moulds;" the dematieæ, or "black moulds;" the stilbea, with the hyphæ or thread-like filaments pallid or brown, and densely cohering, and the tubercularieæ, with the hyphæ densely compacted in wart-like pustules of somewhat gelatinous consistency. the divisions called melanconieæ, sphæropsideæ, and hyphomyceteæ are not recognized in the brefield system of classification as distinct groups. massee and cooke, with other mycologists, take exception to this omission and its implication, in their discussion of the subject, giving consistent reasons for the retention of these groups in systematic works. phycomycetes or physomycetes. as originally defined by berkeley, this group was composed chiefly of the old typical mucors and their allies, and was then termed physomycetes. in the newer system of classification its original definition has been extended so as to include a number of groups somewhat dissimilar in their habits and characteristics, but "united under the conservating bond of a dimorphic reproduction," and the name has been changed to phycomycetes. as at present recognized "the phycomycetes are characterized by a unicellular mycelium, often parasitic on plants or animals, sometimes saprophytic, developed in the air or in water. reproduction sexual or asexual." as thus interpreted, phycomycetes includes the mucoracei; the peronosporaceæ, or "rotting moulds;" the cystopi, or "white rusts;" the saprolegniaceæ, or "fish moulds;" the entomophthoraceæ, or "insect moulds," together with a few minor groups of doubtful natural affinity. bibliography. saccardo, p. a. "sylloge sphæropsidearum et melanconiearum," in sylloge fungorum. vol. iii. imp. vo. padua, . l. a. crie. _recherches sur les pyrenomycetes inferieurs du group de depazées._ vo. paris, . j. c. corda. _icones fungorum._ fol. vol. prague, -' . bonorden. _zur kenntniss der coniomyceten u. cryptomyceten._ to. halle, . m. c. cooke. _the hyphomycetous fungi of the united states._ vo. . p. a. saccardo. _sylloge fungorum._ vol. iv.--"hyphomyceteæ." padua, . de toni, j. b. "sylloge ustilaginearum et uredinearum," in saccardo, _sylloge fungorum._ imp. vo. vol. vii, pt. ii. padua, . geo. winter in rabenhorst's _kryptogamen florader pilze_. vo. cuts. . geo. massee. _british fungi--phycomycetes and ustilagineæ._ vo. cuts. london, . o. brefield. _bot. untersuch. ü. hefenpilze._ leipzig, . tulasne. "memoire sur les ustilaginées comparées aux uredinées." ann. des sci. nat., d series, vol. vii. paris, . m. woronin. beitrag zur kenntniss der ustilagineen. . m. c. cooke. rust, smut, mildew, and mould. mo. col. plates. london, . c. b. plowright. _a monograph of the british uredineæ and ustilagineæ._ vo. london, . w. c. smith. _diseases of field and garden crops._ mo. cuts. london, . d. d. cunningham. _conidial fructification in the mucorini._ r. thaxter. "the entomophthoreæ of the united states." memoirs of boston society of natural history. vol. iv, to. plates. . l. mangin. _sur le structure des peronosporées._ paris, . k. lindstedt. _synopsis d. saprolegniaceen._ vo. four plates. berlin, . m. cornu. "monographie des saprolegniées." ann. des sci. nat., th series. vol. xv. paris, . m. c. cooke. _synopsis pyrenomycetum._ parts. vo. london, -' . a. de zaczewski. "classification naturelle des pyrenomycetes." bull. soc. myc. de france, vol. x. . j. b. ellis and b. m. everhart. _the north american pyrenomycetes._ m. c. cooke. _mycographia,_ vol. i. "discomycetes." col. plates. imp. vo. london, . w. phillips. _a manual of british discomycetes._ im. vo. plates. london, . p. a. saccardo. "sylloge discomycetum," in _sylloge fungorum_. vol. viii. padua, . r. hartig. _text book of diseases of trees._ roy. vo. london, . geo. massee. the evolution of plant life, lower forms. mo. london, . marshall ward. diseases of plants. mo. cuts. london, . a. de bary. _recherches sur le developpement de quelques champignons parasites._ vo. plates. berlin, -' . appendix. _superior_, the upper surface; applied to the ring when near the apex of the stem. _tetraspore_, _tetra_ gr. four; spores. _theca_, cell-mother, the protoplasm of which originates by segmentation; a certain number of spores, usually eight, held in suspension in the protoplasm of the theca without being attached to each other or to the cell walls. _thecaspore_, the spore thus encased. _tomentose_, downy, with short hairs. _torsive_, spirally twisted. _torulose_, a cylindrical body swollen and restricted alternately. _toxic_, poisonous. _trama_, the substance proceeding from the hymenophore, intermediate between the plates (central in) of the gills of agarics. _transverse_, crosswise. _tremelloid_, jelly-like. _truncate_, ending abruptly, as if cut short; cut squarely off. _tubæform_, trumpet-shaped. _tubercle_, a small wart-like excrescence. _tubular_, hollow and cylindrical. _turbinate_, top-shaped. _typical_, agreeing closely with the characters assigned to a group or species. _umbilicate_, having a central depression. _umbo_, the boss of a shield; applied to the central elevation of the cap of some mushrooms. _umbonate_, having a central boss-like elevation. _uncinate_, hooked. _unequal_, short imperfect gills interspersed among the others. _universal_, used in relation to the veil or volva which entirely envelops the mushroom when young. _variety_, an individual of a species differing from the rest in external form, size, color, and other secondary features, without perpetuating these differences only under exceptional circumstances. _veil_, in mushrooms a partial covering of the stem or margin of the pileus. _veliform_, a thin veil-like covering. _venate_, _veined_, intersected by swollen wrinkles below and on the sides. _ventricose_, swollen in the middle. _vernicose_, shining as if varnished. _verrucæ_, warts or glandular elevations. _verrucose_, covered with warts. _villose_, _villous_, covered with long, weak hairs. _virescent_, greenish. _virgate_, streaked. _viscid_, covered with a shiny liquid which adheres to the fingers when touched. _viscous_, gluey. _volute_, rolled up in any direction. _volva_, a substance covering the mushroom, sometimes membranous, sometimes gelatinous; the universal veil. _walnut brown_, a deep brown like that of some varieties of wood. (raw umber, and burnt sienna and white.) _wart_, an excrescence found on the cap of some mushrooms; the remains of the volva in form of irregular or polygonal excrescences, more or less adherent, numerous, and persistent. _zone_, a broad band encircling a mushroom. _zoned_, furnished with one or more concentric circles. although some writers apply the terms spore, sporidia, sporophore, sporules, and conidia somewhat indiscriminately to all spore bodies, in order to avoid confusion, it is now recommended by the best authorities that certain distinctive limitations should be adhered to in the use of these terms. saccardo, in defining the terms which he employs, accepts the term spores as applicable exclusively to the naked spores supported on basidia, as found in the basidiomyceteæ. the term sporidia he limits to spores produced or enclosed in an ascus, as in the ascomyceteæ. the term sporules he applies to the spores of imperfect fungi, where they are enclosed in perithecia (microscopic cups or cells), such as the sphæropsidea. the term conidia he uses to designate the spores of imperfect fungi without perithecia or asci, such as the hyphomyceteæ and the melanconieæ. this arrangement is in accordance with m. c. cooke's published views on the subject, except in the case of the spore bodies of the melanconieæ, which he prefers, for well-defined reasons, to call sporules. in accordance with these limitations, the terms _spermatia_, _stylospores_, and _clinospores_ are merged in _sporule_. other terms appropriate to their development are employed to designate the spores of uredineæ, phycomyceteæ, etc. student's hand-book of mushrooms of america edible and poisonous. by thomas taylor, m. d. author of food products, etc. published in serial form--=no. =--price, c. per number. washington, d. c.: a. r. taylor, publisher, mass. ave. n.e. . copyright, , by thomas taylor, m. d., and a. r. taylor. gasteromycetes. hymenium more or less permanently concealed, consisting in most cases of closely packed cells of which the fertile ones (the basidia) bear naked spores on distinct spicules, exposed only by the rupture or decay of the investing coat or peridium. berkeley's outlines. this family has been subjected to numerous revisions since the days of fries, when its structural characteristics were not so well understood as at present. montagne and berkeley are credited with being the first to show the true structure of the hymenium in the puff-balls, as well as to demonstrate the presence of basidia. this important discovery led to the correlating of the gasteromycetes with the hymenomycetes under the common title basidiomycetes, both having the spores borne upon basidia. the two families still remained distinct, however, not only because of the dissimilarity in their external features but principally on account of the difference in the disposition and character of the hymenium. in the hymenomycetes the hymenium is exposed to the light from the first, and the spores drop from the basidia as they mature; whereas in the gasteromycetes the hymenial pulp, or gleba, consisting of the spores with the supporting basidia and the hyphæ, is enclosed within the substance of the fungus, and the spores are exposed only on the decay of the investing coat. the basidia of the gasteromycetes, though resembling those of the hymenomycetes, are more variable in form and the number of the spores not so constant. they perform the same functions and bear spicules, sometimes in pairs, sometimes quaternate, each spicule being surmounted by a spore. they dissolve away as the spores mature and can, therefore, only be observed in the very young stage of the plant. the spores of the gasteromycetes are usually colored and, except in the subterranean species, globose. as seen through the microscope they have often a rough warty appearance, sometimes spinulose. paraphyses may be present as aborted basidia, but cystidia are rarely distinguished. a characteristic of a large proportion of the plants is the drying up of the hymenial substance, so that the cavity of the receptacle becomes at length filled with a dusty mass composed of spores and delicate threads, the remains of the shriveled hyphæ. the following table will serve to show the distinctive features of the four primary divisions of the gasteromycetes: _lycoperdaceæ_.--hymenium fugitive, drying in a dusty mass of threads and spores, dispersed by an opening or by fissures of the peridium. terrestrial. _phalloideæ_.--hymenium deliquescent and slimy; receptacle pileate; volva universal. foetid fleshy fungi. _hypogæi_, or _hymenogastreæ_.--hymenium permanent, not becoming dusty or deliquescent except when decayed. capillitium wanting. subterranean. _nidulariaceæ_.--receptacle cup-shaped or globose; spores produced on sporophores or short basidia enclosed in globose or disciform bodies (sporangia) contained within a distinct peridium. terrestrial. the section lycoperdaceæ contains upwards of species or more than two-thirds of the whole number of recorded species of the gasteromycetes. lycoperdon, bovista, and geaster, its most conspicuous genera, are said to contain the largest number of well-known species. a few are edible. the phalloideæ include about species. the plants are usually ill-smelling and unwholesome. some are stipitate, others are latticed, etc. some are conspicuous for their bright coloring. in the young stage they are enclosed in an egg-shaped volva having a gelatinous inner stratum. the plants of the nidulariaceæ are very minute, tough, and widely distributed. the species cyathus, the "bird's-nest fungus," is quite common in some localities, and is interesting because of its peculiar form. the individual plant is very small, not more than two centimeters high. it resembles an inverted bell, or a miniature wine-glass. a delicate white membrane covers the top at first. this disappears as the plant matures, revealing lentil-shaped bodies packed closely together like eggs in a nest. these oval bodies are the peridiola containing the spores. they are usually found upon rotten wood or sticks on the ground. sixty-five species are recorded, but none are edible. the plants of the division hypogæi or hymenogastreæ are subterranean in habit, preferring a sandy soil. they are usually somewhat globose in form, having a thick outer coat or peridium, though in some of the genera the outer coat is very thin or obsolete. they are dingy in color. in the young plants the interior substance somewhat resembles that of the truffle, but is streaked and mottled. when old the gleba consists of a dusty mass of threads and spores. they are known under various appellations, such as "underground puff-balls," "false truffles," etc. the hypogæi are analogous to the tuberacei, except that the spores are not contained in asci as in the latter. cooke says they appear to be the link which unites the basidiomycetes to the ascomycetes by means of the tuberacei or genuine truffles. in the young stage the basidia in the hypogæi are easily distinguished by the aid of the microscope. in external features and habit of growth the species of elaphomyces, a genus of tuberacei, closely resemble the hypogæi, and in old age, when the _asci_ have disappeared, it is difficult to distinguish the plants of this genus from the hypogæi. the genus _melanogaster_ contains an edible species, _m. variegatus_, tulasne, commonly known in europe as the "red truffle" or "false truffle." _m. variegatus_ is usually gregarious and subterranean in habit. the exterior is minutely granular, tawny yellow or reddish rust color; the interior soft, bluish-black, streaked with yellow, the spore mass in maturity becoming pubescent. the odor is pleasantly aromatic, and the taste sweet. under trees in woods. the variety _broomeianus_ berk. is paler in the marbling, which shows reddish instead of yellow streaks. the pulpy mass is at first white, changing to a yellowish, smoky hue. lycoperdaceÆ and phalloideÆ. the plants figured in plates g and h belong to the lycoperdaceæ and phalloideæ. lycoperdaceÆ. massee, who has given the puff-ball group very close study, says that in the gleba of the lycoperdaceæ, "at a very early period two sets of hyphæ are present. one, thin-walled, colorless, septate and rich in protoplasm, gives origin to the trama, and elements of the hymenium, and usually disappears entirely after the formation of the spores; the second type consists of long thick-walled aseptate or sparsely septate, often colored hyphæ, which are persistent and form the capillitium. the latter are branches of the hyphæ forming the hymenium." genera lycoperdon and bovista. to the genera lycoperdon and bovista belong most of the "puff-balls" and all of the species figured in plate g. in the plants of these two genera the peridium is more or less distinctly double, and the hyphæ, or delicate threads which are seen mixed with the dusty mass of spores in the mature plant, forming what is called the capillitium, are an important element in classification. _genus lycoperdon_ tourn. in this genus the investing coat or peridium is membranaceous, vanishing above or becoming flaccid; bark or outer shell adnate, sub-persistent, breaking up into scales or warts; capillitium soft, dense, and attached to the peridium, base spongy and sterile. [illustration: plate g. gasteromycetes. six types of the "puff-ball" group. edible.] plate g. edible puff-balls. fig. .--=lycoperdon cælatum= fries. "_collapsing puff-ball_." peridium flaccid above, with mealy coating, obtuse, at length collapsing, the sterile stratum cellulose. inner peridium distinct from the outer all round; capillitium nearly free, collapsing when mature, threads long and brittle; spores dingy olive, turning brown; base stem-like, broad and blunt, with root, obconical, somewhat spongy. common in pastures and open woods. edible when young, but not much commended. plant pale cream color. figs. and .--=lycoperdon gemmatum= batsch. "_warted puff-ball_," "_studded puff-ball_." plant sub-globular, with a stem-like base; white or cinereous, turning to light greyish-brown, the surface warty, the warts unequal, the larger ones somewhat pointed, the smaller granular. as the warts fall off they leave the surface of the denuded peridium somewhat dotted or slightly reticulated. flesh, when young, firm and whitish. the plants of this species are small, variable in form, sometimes turbinated, sometimes nearly globose, or depressed globose, but usually the basal portion is narrower than the upper portion. the stem varies in thickness and length; sometimes it is quite elongated, in some instances absent. capillitium and spores yellowish-green, turning dark olive or brown. columella present. when the spores are fully ripe the peridium opens by a small apical aperture for their dispersion. the plants are sometimes densely cæspitose, and crowd together on the ground or on decaying wood in large patches after warm rains. they are found both in fields and open woods during summer and autumn. they are edible when young, but not specially well flavored. there are several varieties. plants sometimes oval or lens-shaped. in var. _hirtum_ the plant is turbinate, subsessile, and hairy, with slender, spinous warts. the variety _papulatum_ is subrotund, sessile, papillose and pulverulent, the warts being nearly uniform in size. plants from one to two inches in height. figs. and .--=lycoperdon pyriforme= schaeffer. "_pear-shaped puff-ball_." plant dingy white or brownish yellow; pear-shaped, or obovate pyriforme, sometimes approaching l. gemmatum in size and shape, but easily distinguished from that species by the surface features of the peridium and the internal hyphæ. the persistent warts which cover the surface of the peridium are so minute as to appear to the naked eye like scales. in some instances the peridium is almost smooth, and sometimes cracks in areas, inner peridium thin and tough. the hyphæ are thicker than the spores and branched, continuous with the slightly cellular base, and forming a columella inside the peridium. spores greenish-yellow, then brownish-olive, smooth and globose. the short stem-like base of the plant terminates in fiber-like rootlets, creeping under the soil and branching, thus attaching large clusters of the young plants together. they are often found in quantity on the mossy trunks of fallen trees. fig. .--=lycoperdon giganteum= batsch. "_giant puff-ball_." the giant puff-ball, so generally neglected, is one of the most valuable of the edible mushrooms. it is readily distinguished from other puff-balls and allied fungi by its large size. it is subglobose in form, often flattened at the top and usually wider than deep. the peridium or rind is membranaceous, smooth, or very slightly floccose, and creamy white at first, turning to pale yellowish-brown when the plant is old. when young it is filled with a white, seemingly homogeneous fleshy substance of pleasant flavor. this substance changes, when mature, to an elastic, yellowish or olivaceous brown, cottony but dusty mass of filaments and spores. the peridium is very fragile above, cracking into areæ in the mature plant and breaking up and falling away in fragments, thus allowing the dispersion of the spores. the capillitium and spores are at first greenish-yellow, turning to dingy olive. the plants vary in size, but average from ten to twenty inches in diameter. in the columns of the _country gentleman_ some years ago there appeared a description of a puff-ball of this species which weighed forty seven pounds and measured a little over eight feet in circumference. it was found in a low, moist corner of a public park. specimens weighing from twenty to thirty pounds are recorded as being found in different parts of the country; but specimens of such large dimensions are unusual. this species is found in many parts of the united states. it is the l. _bovista_ of linn. sacc. a correspondent writes that he has found the giant puff-ball in great abundance growing on the genessee flats, livingstone co., new york. another writes from nebraska that it is quite abundant on the prairies there in summer. a third writes from missouri, "since the late rains we have had puff-balls in abundance, and find them delicious made into fritters." the puff-balls should be gathered young. if the substance within is white and pulpy, it is in good condition for cooking, but if marked with yellow stains it should be rejected. vittadini says: "when the giant puff-ball is conveniently situated you should only take one slice at a time, cutting it horizontally and using great care not to disturb its growth, to prevent decay, and thus one may have a fritter every day for a week." different authors write with enthusiasm of the merits of the giant puff-ball as an esculent. mrs. hussey, an english botanist, gives the following receipt for "puff-ball omelet:" first, remove the outer skin; cut in slices half an inch thick; have ready some chopped herbs, pepper, and salt; dip the slices in the yolk of an egg, and sprinkle the herbs upon them; fry in fresh butter, and eat immediately. i have tested fine specimens of the giant puff-ball gathered in the public parks of washington, d. c., finding it delicious eating when fried in batter. figs. and .--=lycoperdon cyathiforme= bose. "_cup-shaped puff-ball_." synonyms--l. fragile vitt. l. albopurpureum frost. plant nearly globose, with a short, thick, stem-like base, color varying, cinereous, brown, tinged with violet. rind or peridium smooth, or minutely floccose, scaly in the mature plant, cracking into somewhat angular areas, the upper portion finally falling away in fragments, leaving a wide cup-shaped base, with irregular margin, which remains long after the dispersion of the spores and capillitium. this basal portion is often tinged with the purplish hue of the spores. spores rough, purplish-brown. capillitium same color as the spores. lycoperdon _cyathiforme_ is a more common species than l. _giganteum_, and is deemed quite equal to the latter in flavor. the plants are of good size, being from to inches in diameter. they are frequently found in open fields and grassy places after electric storms. when sliced and fried in egg batter, they taste much like the _giganteum_ or _giant puff-ball_. a puff-ball which is not inferior to either of the two last-named species, though not as large, and perhaps not as abundant as either, is the lycoperdon _saccatum_ of fries, sometimes called the "long-stemmed puff-ball," because of its elongated stem. the plants of this species are attractive in appearance, usually hemispherical, or lentiform in shape, with cylindrical stem-like base. the peridium is thin and delicate, breaking into fragments; creamy white in the young stage, and clothed with delicate warts, so minute as to give the surface a soft mealy appearance, the under surface somewhat plicate. capillitium sub-persistent and dense. both spores and capillitium brown. lycoperdaceÆ. _genus bovista_ dill. peridium papery (or sometimes corky), persistent; the outer rind, sometimes called the bark, quite distinct from the inner, at length shelling off. capillitium sub-compact, equal, adnate to the peridium on all sides; spores pedicillate, brownish. figs. and .--=bovista plumbea= pers. _lead-colored bovista_. plant small, spherical, having a double shell or peridium, the inner one white and the outer one smooth and greyish lead-color or bluish-grey, and shelling off at maturity. when young the interior is filled with a creamy white substance. this soon begins to disintegrate, and, as the spores mature, changes to a mass of dusty brown spores and threads. when the spores are ready for dissemination a small aperture appears in the top of the peridium, through which they push their way outwards like a little puff of smoke. when young, and while the flesh is white throughout, the plant is edible, although so small that it would take a quantity to make a good dish. it is found chiefly in pastures in the autumn. sometimes found growing in company with agaricus campestris. of pleasant flavor when young. fig. . basidium and spores of a lycoperdon highly magnified. an english author states that inflammation of the throat and swelling of the tongue have been known to ensue from eating some of the small species of lycoperdon in the raw state. it would be a wise precaution, therefore, to cook all of the smaller species well before eating. the genus scleroderma is allied to lycoperdon, but differs from it in the absence of a capillitium, and in the thick indehiscent outer skin, or peridium, which bursts irregularly on the maturity of the spore-mass, the flocci adhering on all sides to the peridium and forming distinct veins in the central mass. the species scleroderma _vulgare_ is very common in woods, and has sometimes been mistaken for a form of truffle. the plants are not very attractive, and the odor is rank. they are subsessile and irregular in shape, with a hard outer skin, the larger form of a yellowish or greenish brown hue, and covered with large warts or scales, the smaller very minutely warty, and of a darker brown hue. the internal mass is of a bluish-black hue, threaded through with white or greyish flocci. spores dingy. the interior becomes pulverulent when the plant matures. this species has been eaten in its young state when cooked, but the flavor is by no means equal to that of the large puff-balls. it is sometimes attacked by a fungus larger than itself, called boletus _parasiticus_, and this parasite is again attacked by a species of hypomyces, one of the genera of the pyrenomycetes, which grows in patches upon dead fungi. phalloideÆ or phallaceÆ. the phalloideæ, sometimes called the "stink-horn" fungi on account of their foetid odor, are not numerous, the whole number of described species being about eighty. the plants are watery, quick in growth, and decay very rapidly. they are varied in form and are quite unlike the ordinary mushroom types. in some of the genera the plants are columnar and phalloid, in other clathrate or latticed, in others again the disk is stellate, and in one genus it is coralloid, but they are all enclosed, in the early stage, in a volva which is at first hidden or partially hidden beneath the surface of the ground. a gelatinous stratum is contained within the firmer outside membrane. _genus ithyphallus_. in this genus the cap is perforated at the top, free from the stem and reticulate. no veil. the mature plants are columnar in form with the remains of the volva enclosing the column-like stem at the base; the cap in its deeply pitted reticulations somewhat resembling that of the _morel_, although of different texture. [illustration: plate h. gasteromycetes. phalloideæ. figs. to , ithyphallus impudicus, linn. "foetid mushroom." fig. , clathrus cancellatus, fr. "latticed mushroom." unwholesome.] plate h. figs. to .--=ithyphallus= _impudicus_ linn. "_foetid wood witch_." in the embryonic stage the plant is enclosed in a volva which is composed of three layers, the outer one firm, the intermediate one gelatinous, and the inner one consisting of a thin membrane. the gleba, or spore-bearing portion, in the early stage forms a conical honeycombed cap within the inner shell or membrane, concealing the stem to which it is attached. the stem at this stage is very short, cylindrical, and composed of small cells filled with a gelatinous substance. the volva is about the size of a hen's egg. on maturity it ruptures at the apex. the stem rapidly expands and, elongating, elevates the cap into the air. the stem becomes open and spongy, owing to the drying of the gelatinous matter and its quick expansion. the whole plant attains a height of from four to ten inches in a few hours. the hymenial surface is on the outside of the cap, the spores being embedded in its glutinous coated ridges and depressions. the hymenium is at first firm but rapidly deliquesces, holding the spores in the liquid mass. the cap is greenish or greenish-gray in color, changing to a dark bottle-green. in its deliquescent state the odor is very repulsive. while enclosed in the volva the unpleasant odor is not so perceptible, and it has been eaten in that condition without unpleasant effects, but in its mature stage it is considered unwholesome, and certainly its offensive odor would be quite sufficient to deter most persons from attempting to test its edible qualities. flies, however, are very fond of the fluid, and consume it greedily and with impunity. it is found in gardens and woods, its presence being detected several rods away by the offensive odor. specimens occur in which the color of the cap is white or reddish. in the allied genus _mutinus_ the pileus is adnate and is not perforated at the apex. mutinus _caninus_ resembles _impudicus_ in form, but the cap is continuous with, not free from the stem, and is crimson in color, covered with a greenish-brown, odorless mucus. the stem is hollow, whitish, tinted with a pale yellow or orange color. not common. _genus clathrus_ mich. in this genus the receptacle is sessile, and formed of an obovate globular net-work. at first wholly enclosed in a volva which becomes torn at the apex and falls away, leaving a calyx-like base at its point of contact with the stem. fig. .--=clathrus cancellatus= tourn. unwholesome. receptacle bright vermillion or orange red, covered at first with a greenish mucus which holds the colorless spores. volva white or pale fawn color. odor strongly foetid. myxomycetes or myxogasters.--"_slime fungi_." in their early history the myxomycetes, or "slime moulds," were classed with the gasteromycetal fungi, and by fries grouped as a sub-order of the gasteromycetes, under the name myxogasters. from this connection they were severed in by link, who, recognizing certain distinctive features which entitled them to consideration as an entirely separate group, ranked the myxogasters, as a separate order, under the title _myxomycetes_, _slime moulds_. de bary, in a monograph on the subject written some years later, questioned the right of this group to the place assigned it in the vegetable world, claiming that the myxogasters were as nearly related to the animal as to the vegetable kingdom, and changing the name to mycetozoa. massee assailed this position in his "monograph of the myxogasters," pointing out that de bary derived his reasons and deductions from the early or vegetative stage of the fungi, without taking sufficiently into account the characteristics of the later or reproductive stage in which the great disparity between these organisms and those of the lower animals becomes apparent. dr. rostafinski, the polish botanist, and pupil of de bary, adopts the name given the group by de bary, but applies it in a more restricted sense, classifying on a botanical basis. both de bary and massee have their earnest disciples. m. c. cooke takes the ground that the myxomycetes are entitled to mention as "_fungi_ which produce their fructification enclosed within a peridium," although considering them as an aberrant group which, on account of certain peculiarities of their early or vegetative stage, should no longer be classed as having affinity with gasteromycetes. without further discussion of the subject, it is sufficient, for our present purpose, to state that mycologists now very generally agree in regarding this group as quite distinct from the gasteromycetes. the species are minute, rarely exceeding a millimeter in diameter, at first pulpy, then dry. in the early or vegetative stage the "slime mould" is plasmoidal, consisting of a mass of protoplasm without cell wall, and prefers damp surfaces, such as rotting leaves, moist logs, etc. the whole substance is slippery or slimy and presents different hues, red, orange, violet, brown, etc., according to species, but never green. it is in the reproductive or fruiting stage that their resemblance to microscopic puff-balls appears, the sporangium in many species exhibiting a distinct peridium or outer coat which encloses the spores together with the hair-like threads called the capillitium. on the ripening of the spores this peridium ruptures, allowing their escape, the capillitium lending valuable aid in their dissemination. genera of gasteromycetes, according to saccardo. i.--phallaceÆ, or phalloideÆ. dictyophora, desvaugh. ithyphallus, fr. mutinus, fr. kalchbrennera, berk. simblum, klotzsch. clathrus, mich. colus, cav. & sech. lysurus, fr. anthurus, kalchbr. calathiscus, mont. aseroë, la bill. staurophallus. (?) ii.--nidulariaceÆ. nidularia, fr. & nordh. cyathus, hall. crucibulum, tul. thelebolus, tode. dacryobolus, fr. sphærobolus, tode. polyangium, link. } genera delenda. atractobolus, tode. } iii.--lycoperdaceÆ. gyrophragmium, mont. secotium, kunze. polyplocium, berk. cycloderma, klotzsch. mesophellia, berk. cauloglossum, grev. podaxon (desv.) fr. sphæriceps, welw. & curr. tylostoma, pers. queletia, fr. battarrea, pers. husseya, berk. mitremyces, nees. geaster, mich. diplocystis, b. & c. diploderma, link. trichaster, czern. broomeja, berk. coilomyces, b. & c. lanophila, fr. eriosphæra, reich. bovista, dill. calvatia, fr. lycoperdon, tourn. hippoperdon, mont. scleroderma, pers. castoreum, c. & m. xylopodium, mont. areolaria, forquigu. phellorina, berk. favillea, fr. polygaster, fr. polysaccum, d. c. testicularia, klotzsch. arachnion, schw. scoleciocarpus, berk. paurocotylis, berk. iv.--hymenogastraceÆ (hypogÆi). hysterangium, vitt. octaviania, vitt. rhizopagon, fr. melanogaster, corda. hymenogaster, vitt. hydnangium, walk. gautieria, vitt. macowanites, kalchbr. bibliography. e. fischer, etc. "gasteromycetæ," saccardo, _sylloge fungorum_. vol. vii, part i. padua, . chas. h. peck. "united states species of lycoperdon." geo. massee. "monograph of the british gasteromycetes." _annals of botany,_ nov., . "monograph of the genus lycoperdon" in _journal royal micro. soc._ london, . c. bambeke. _morphologie du phallus impudicus._ gand, . a. p. morgan. "north american geasters" in _american naturalist_. roy. vo. . l. and c. tulasne. "essai d'une monographie des nidulariees." ann. des sci. nat. vo. paris, . m. c. cooke. _the myxomycetes of great britain._ plates. vo. london, . _the myxomycetes of the united states_, by the same author. new york, . geo. massee. _a monograph of the myxogasters._ col. plates. roy. vo. london, . a. de bary. "die mycetozoon" (_schleimpilz_). plates. vo. leipzig, . j. rostafinski. _sluzowce, mycetozoa monografia._ plates. to. paris, . geo. a. rex. new american myxomycetes. proc. acad. nat. sci. phila., part iii, dec. , , pp. - . balliet letson. "slime molds." the ornithologist and botanist. vol. i. binghamton, n. y., nov., , p. . col. thos. h. mcbride. "the myxomycetes of eastern iowa." bulletin from the laboratories of natural history of the state university of iowa. iowa city, iowa, . agaricini. _subgenus lepiota_ fries. veil universal and concrete, with the cuticle of the pileus breaking up in the form of scales. gills typically free, often remote, not sinuate or decurrent. stem generally distinct from the hymenophore. volva absent. habitat terrestrial, mostly found on rich soil or in grassy places. (in saccardo's _sylloge_, lepiota is given generic rank.) the lepiotas have a wide geographical distribution. no less than species have been recorded as found in different parts of the world. these are pretty evenly divided between the torrid and temperate zones. they are generally smaller than the amanitas, less fleshy and somewhat dry and tough. the flesh is soft and thready, not brittle. in the plants of most of the species the cap is rough, the cuticle being broken up into tufts or scales. these tufts are readily distinguished from the warts which characterize certain species of amanita, being formed from the breaking up of the cuticle with the concrete veil, while the wart-like excrescences seen upon amanita _muscaria_, for example, are composed of fragments of the volva, which is always found enclosing the very young plants of the genus amanita. a few of the species are characterized by a smooth cap; in some instances it is granulose or mealy. usually the cuticle is dry, but in a few of the species it is viscid. the stem is generally long and hollow, and, being of different texture from the flesh of the cap, is easily separated from it, often leaving a distinct socket at the junction of stem and cap. it is sometimes smooth, sometimes floccose. in some species it is bulbous at the base, in others not. the ring which encircles the stem is at first continuous with the cuticle of the cap, breaking apart with its expansion. it is sometimes movable, sometimes evanescent. the species generally are considered edible, or innoxious. none are recorded as dangerous. a mycophagist from augusta, ga., reports, however, that the members of a family in that vicinity were made quite ill from eating the lepiota _morgani_, a greenish-spored species of lepiota, while he himself ate of the same dish, experiencing no unpleasant effects. i have had no personal experience with this species. two edible species of lepiota, which are widely commended as of good quality, and which are sufficiently abundant to have value as esculents, are figured in plate xi. a third, ag. (lepiota) cepæstipes, var. cretaceus--lepiota _cretacea_, figured in plate xi½, is an exotic species found in greenhouses. it is of very delicate flavor. [illustration: plate xi. edible figs. to agaricus (lepiota) procerus, fries (lepiota procera) "_parasol mushroom_." figs. to lepiota naucinoides peck. (agaricus naucinus fries) "_smooth white lepiota_." t. taylor, del.] plate xi. figs. to .--=ag. (lepiota) procerus= scop. (=lepiota procera=). "_parasol mushroom_." edible. cap at first ovate, then expanded, showing distinct umbo, cuticle thick, torn into evanescent scales; gills remote from the stem, free, white, or yellowish-white; stem long, slender, variegated with brownish scales, hollow or slightly stuffed, bulbous at the base, and bearing a well-defined thickish ring, which in the mature plant is movable. spores white, elliptical. the color of the cap varies from a light tan or ochraceous yellow to a dark reddish-brown. the surface showing beneath the lacerated cuticle is of a lighter hue than the cuticle, and is silky and fibrillose, giving the cap a somewhat shaded or spotted appearance. the flesh is dry, soft and thready, white. taste and odor pleasant. cap from to inches broad; stem from to inches high. this species is commonly found in pastures and in open grassy places; sometimes in open woods near cultivated fields, usually solitary or in very small clusters. it is a favorite among mycophagists. lepiota _racodes_ closely resembles lepiota _procera_, and by some botanists the two are regarded as forms of the same species. in l. _racodes_ the pileus is at first globose, expanded, and finally depressed in the centre; the cuticle is thin and broken into persistent scales; the whole plant smaller than l. procera. flesh slightly reddish when bruised. edible. there is also a white variety (_puellaris_) with a floccose squamose cap. plate xi. figs. to .--=ag. (lepiota) naucinus= fries (=lepiota naucinoides= peck). "_smooth white lepiota_." edible. cap at first sub-globose, then curved, the surface smooth and satiny when dry, creamy white; gills close and slightly rounded at the inner extremity towards the stem, free from the stem, white; stem white, smooth, hollow, and bulbous at the base; ring thick, distinct, movable, white. the gills, soon after gathering, become suffused with a faint pinkish or fleshy tint. the spores are white, sub-elliptical. specimens occur in which there is a slight granulation in the centre of the cap, but they are rare. the variety _squamosa_ shows the surface of the cap, somewhat broken into thick scales. l. _naucinoides_ is a very clean and attractive looking mushroom, usually symmetrical in shape. it is a fleshier mushroom than l. _procera_, and is found in grassy places, in lawns, sometimes in gardens, or by roadsides, especially where the soil is rich. the specimens figured in plate xi were gathered in a rose garden, growing in loamy soil. specimens have been received from different states, some of them much larger than those here illustrated. this mushroom is recorded by some authors as equal in flavor to the parasol mushroom. when stewed with butter it makes a very appetizing dish. there is a fatally poisonous mushroom to which it bears some resemblance, and which might be taken for it, viz., amanita _verna_, or "spring mushroom." it is therefore necessary, in order to guard against such a mistake, to give particular attention to the characteristics of these two mushrooms. they are both white throughout, and both have white spores and ringed stem. amanita _verna_, however, carries a white volva or cup-shaped sheath at the base of the stem, and the gills do not show a pinkish or flesh colored tinge at any stage. in lepiota _naucinoides_, as in all the lepiotas, the volva is wanting. amanita _verna_ is apt to be moist and clammy to the touch, and is tasteless. l. _naucinoides_ is dry, and has a pleasant flavor. the first is found _wholly_ in _woods_; the second prefers pastures, open grassy places, and gardens, though sometimes found in light woods. i have never found an amanita in a lawn, pasture, or garden. an edible mushroom, agaricus (psalliota) _cretaceus_, found in pastures, bears a slight resemblance to l. _naucinoides_, when the color of the spores and gills are not taken into consideration. in the former the gills very quickly change from their early stage of rosy pink to a dark purplish-brown color, like that of the common mushroom. the spores are purplish-brown, while in l. _naucinoides_ the pinkish hue which tinges the fading plant is very faint, and changes to a very light tan color with age. the spores being white, the gills retain their white color for a long time, never changing to dark brown. l. _americana_ pk. a. & s., l. _excoriata_ schaeff., and l. _rubrotincta_ pk. have been tested and are of good flavor. l. _americana_ has a reddish or reddish-brown cap, umbonate, with close adpressed scales and white flesh. the gills are broad and free from the stem, sometimes anastomosing near it, white; stem white, hollow, tapering towards the cap, annulate. when dried the whole plant has a brownish-red hue. when cut or bruised it sometimes exudes a reddish juice. miss banning reports specimens found in druid hill park, baltimore. i have gathered very beautiful specimens in montgomery county, md. this mushroom sometimes grows to a very large size. l. _excoriata_ has a pale fawn-colored cap, slightly umbonate, with thin cuticle, breaking into scales; gills remote, white; stem white, hollow, and short, nearly cylindrical. odor faint, pleasant. l. _rubrotincta_ pk. "_red-tinted agaric_." cap reddish or pinkish, broadly umbonate and clothed with adpressed scales; gills whitish, free, and close; stem nearly equal or slightly thickened at the base, with a well-developed persistent white or pinkish ring. spores white, sub-elliptical. l. _holosericeus_ fries has a fleshy white cap, soft, silky, and fibrillose, a solid bulbous stem, with persistent broad, reflexed ring, and free ventricose, white gills. edible. it is found in gardens and cultivated places. l. _acutesquamosa_ wein, found in greenhouses and soil in gardens, is a heavy but not very tall species. the cap is obtuse, and fleshy, at first floccose. as the cap expands it bristles with erect pointed tufts or scales. the gills are white or yellowish, lanceolate and simple, free from the stem. stem bulbous, somewhat stuffed, rough or silky below the ring, and downy above. ring persistent. color of cap whitish or light brown, with darker scales. l. _granulosus_ batsch. cap thin, wrinkled or corrugated, granulose, mealy; gills white, _reaching the stem_, sometimes free. plants very small and varying in color--pink, yellow, and white, according to variety. l. _amiantha_. plants very small, ochraceous in color, with yellow flesh and white gills _adnate_ and crowded. l. _cepæstipes_ sow. cap thin, broad, sub-membranaceous, broadly umbonate, adorned with mealy evanescent scales, margin irregular; gills white, at length remote. stem hollow and floccose, narrow at top, ventricose; ring evanescent. generally found in hothouses. cap to inches broad. stem to inches high. spores white. l. _cristata_ is a common species found on lawns and in fields where the grass is short. the plants are small, the cap from ½ to ½ inches in width. not very fleshy. the cuticle of the cap is at first continuous and smooth but soon breaks into reddish scales. the stem is fistulose, slender and equal; gills free. odor and taste somewhat strong and unpleasant. [illustration: plate xi½. agaricus (lepiota) cepæstipes--var. cretaceus, peck. (lepiota cretacea.) edible. from nature.] plate xi½. =ag. (lepiota) cepæstipes=, variety =cretaceus= peck (=lepiota cretacea=). edible. this very delicate and beautiful agaric is found on tan and leaves in hothouses. the specimens here delineated were gathered in one of the hothouses of the agricultural department and first described and figured in _food products_, no. , of the report of the division of microscopy. the plants are a pure white throughout, and both stem and pileus are covered with small chalk-white mealy tufts. berkeley says, "this species is probably of exotic origin, as it never grows in the open air." it is also met with in the hothouses of europe. specimens have been received from contributors who gathered them in greenhouses in different localities. this species should not be confounded with the purplish-brown spored mushroom agaricus (psalliota) cretaceus, which has pink gills turning to dark brown and is allied to the common meadow mushroom. lepiota _cretacea_ is a delicious mushroom when broiled, or cooked in a chafing dish, and served on hot buttered toast. it has a pleasant taste when raw. lepiota _morgani_ peck, the "_green-spored lepiota_," is an exception to the general type of lepiotas in the color of its gills and spores. it is western and southern in its range. this species is described by peck in the botanical gazette of march, , p. , as follows: "pileus fleshy, soft, at first sub-globose, then expanded, or depressed, white, the brownish or alutaceous cuticle breaking up into scales except on the disk; lamellæ close, lanceolate, remote, white, then green; stem firm, equal, or tapering upwards, sub-bulbous, smooth, webby-stuffed, whitish, tinged with brown, annulus rather large, movable; flesh both of the pileus and stem white, changing to reddish, and then to yellowish hue when cut or bruised; spores ovate, sub-elliptical, mostly uninucleate, . to . inches long, . to . broad, sordid green. "plant to inches high, pileus to inches broad, stem to lines thick. open dry grassy places. dayton, ohio. a. p. morgan." agaricini. _genus cortinarius_ fries. this genus is distinguished by a cob-web-like veil, dry persistent gills, which in the mature plants become discolored, and pulverulent with the rusty or ochraceous colored spores. the veil is very delicate, resembling a spider's web. it is not concrete with the cuticle of the cap, but extends from its margin to the stem, in the young plants sometimes concealing the gills, but disappearing as the cap expands. sometimes a few filaments are seen depending from the margin of the cap or encircling the stem. in the young plants of this genus the gills vary very much in color. they are whitish, clay-color, violet, dark purple, blood-red, etc., according to species, but, as the plants mature, the gills become dusted with the rust-colored falling spores, and with age usually become a rusty ochraceous, or cinnamon color. the stem in some of the species is distinctly bulbous and in others equal, cylindrical, or tapering. in identifying the species it is necessary, in order to ascertain the true color of the gills, to examine the plants at different periods of growth. the genus cortinarius is a large one, and contains many beautiful species. it is mainly confined to temperate regions. not a single species has been recorded as found in ceylon, the west indies, or africa, but one tropical species is found in brazil. nearly four hundred species have been described, and over three hundred and seventy of these belong to the united states and europe. a few are found in the extreme southern or temperate portion of south america, and several are reported from a temperate elevation among the himalayas. sweden and great britain, with their temperate climates, claim a large proportion of the european species. not many of the cortinarii have been recorded as edible, and none as dangerous. the rev. m. j. berkeley records, however, a case of poisoning by one of the species, c. (inoloma) _bolaris_ pers., which though not fatal was somewhat alarming, the symptoms being great oppression of the chest, profuse perspiration, and the enlargement for two days of the salivary glands of the patient. i have seen no other statements relating to the poisonous properties of this species, and the results alluded to may have been owing to some individual idiosyncrasy. berkeley, in his "outlines," gives the following description of this mushroom: "pileus fleshy, obsoletely umbonate, growing pale, variegated with _saffron-red, adpressed, innate_ scales; stem stuffed, then hollow, nearly equal, squamose, of the same color as the cap; gills subdecurrent, crowded, watery, cinnamon color. cap to inches broad. stem to inches long." in beech woods in september and october. the genus cortinarius has been divided by some authors into the following six groups: ( ) _phlegmacium_, in which the cap is fleshy and viscid, the veil partial, and the stem firm and dry; ( ) _myxacium_, in which the veil is universal and glutinous, hence the cap and stem both viscid; cap thin and the gills adnate or decurrent; ( ) _inoloma_, in which the cap is fleshy, dry, and at first silky with innate fibrils; veil simple and stem slightly bulbous; ( ) dermocybe, in which the pileus is thinly fleshy, dry, and at first downy, becoming smooth; the veil single and fibrillose; flesh watery, colored when moist, stem equal or attenuated downwards; ( ) telamonia, in which the cap is moist, at first smooth or dotted with the superficial fragments of the veil, the stem ringed below, or peronately scaly from the remains of the universal veil; ( ) hydrocybe, in which the cap is thin and moist, not viscid, smooth, or covered with superficial white fibrils; stem rigid, not scaly, veil thin, occasionally collapsed in an irregular ring. these subdivisions have been designated as _tribes_ by some botanists and _subgenera_ by others, etc. to the divisions inoloma and phlegmacium, respectively, belong the two species illustrated in plate xii. [illustration: plate xii. edible figs. to cortinarius (inoloma) violaceus, linn. "_violet cortinarius_." figs. to cortinarius (phlegmacium) cærulescens, fries. t. taylor, del.] plate xii. figs. to .--=cortinarius (inoloma) violaceus= fr. "_violet cortinarius_." edible. cap fleshy, at first convex, then nearly plane, dotted with hairy tufts or scales, margin at first involute, color purple or dark violet, flesh soft, purplish; gills distant, broad, adnate, somewhat rounded near the stem, at first purplish violet, changing to an ochraceous or brownish cinnamon color as the plant matures; stem solid, somewhat bulbous at the base, purple; cortina or veil white or tinged with violet, sometimes bluish. this is a handsome species, and though it is somewhat rare in many localities, its pretty and unusual coloring does not allow it to be easily overlooked. it is edible, and has a mushroomy taste when raw. agaricus _nudus_ bull, a purple species with white spores, is sometimes confounded with it. there are other purple species of cortinarius not so pleasant to the taste, which bear some resemblance to c. _violaceus_. the specimens figured in plate xii were gathered near dedham, mass., on open ground on the border of a stretch of pine woods. figs. to .--=cortinarius (phlegmacium) cærulescens=. edible. cap fleshy, at first convex, then plane, surface even, viscid; color bluish or violet; gills adnexed and crowded, at first bluish, changing to violet or purplish hues; stem solid, short, and thick, with a broadly bulbous base, same color as the cap; veil filmy, single. in woods and on the borders of woods. this mushroom varies in color, the bluish or purplish tints being quite susceptible to atmospheric changes. when growing in the shade or well-sheltered places, it is much darker in hue than when exposed unsheltered to the bright sunlight. the specimen figured in plate xii was gathered on low ground near a pine grove in essex county, mass. cortinarius (phlegmacium) _purpurascens_ fr. bears a slight resemblance to _cærulescens_, but can be distinguished from it by the spotted or zoned character of the cap and the broadly emarginate gills. cortinarius _turmalis_, an edible autumnal species, having an ochraceous or brownish-yellow cap with emarginate or decurrent gills, the latter at first whitish, then reddish clay color, is found in abundance in some parts of maryland. the gills are never tinged with purple or blue. the flesh is white. the plants are easily discovered by those familiar with their habitat, as they grow under pine needles in groups, forming small mounds extending over large spaces, and in these hiding places, in the autumnal months, they are free from insects and dust. i have collected a bushel of them in less than an hour in fresh condition in october. some of the french authors do not class this species as edible. gillet, in his hymenomycetes of france, enumerates fifty-three edible species of cortinarius, but places _turmalis_ among the suspects. i find this mushroom not only edible, but very valuable, because of its abundance in the localities where found. it is often densely cæspitose. the plant, when mature, is from to inches high. c. _sebæceus_, found also in pine woods, is recorded as edible. the plant is tall, white-stemmed, with broad tan-colored, somewhat viscid cap; emarginate gills, clay color at first, at last cinnamon color; stem solid, stout, fibrillose, and equal. cortinarius _collinitus_, smeared cortinarius, and cortinarius _cinnamomeus_, with its variety semi-sanguinea, have also been tested, and found edible. the first of these is somewhat common. the plants when fresh are covered with a glutinous substance, and this should be removed before cooking. cap smooth under the glutinous coat, light brown or tawny yellow in color, flesh white; gills whitish or light gray when young, cinnamon-hued in the matured plant. stem solid, nearly equal, cylindrical, yellowish, and somewhat scaly. c. _cinnamomeus_ belongs to the division dermocybe. the cap is thin at first, silky with innate fibrids, becoming smooth, and varies from light brown to a dark cinnamon color. the gills are yellowish, then cinnamon; stem downy or silky, yellow. the variety _semi-sanguinea_ has the lamellæ red, almost as in the preceding species. c. (phlegmacium) _varius_, "variable cortinarius," edible, has a compact fleshy viscid, even cap, brownish in color, gills at first violet, changing to cinnamon, stout solid stem, white or whitish, adorned with adpressed flocci, flesh white. cortinarius (telamonia) _armillatus_ fries is given in m. c. cooke's list of edible cortinarii. cap fleshy but not thick, fibrillose and slightly scaly, bright bay color, thin uneven margin; stem solid, dingy, rufescent, showing irregular red zones or bands elongated and slightly bulbous at the base; gills distant, broad, pallid in color at first, changing to dark cinnamon. c. (telamonia) _hæmatochelis_ bull. (edible), somewhat resembles the former in color and size, though not so bright a brown. cap thin, silky-fibrillose; gills adnate, narrow and crowded, light cinnamon; stem long, solid, dingy, with a reddish zone. c. (hydrocybe) _castaneus_ bull., _chestnut cortinarius_ (edible), is found in woods and gardens. the plants of this species are usually small. cap at first campanulate, expanding, sometimes slightly umbonate in the centre, chestnut color; gills ventricose, crowded, purplish, changing to rust color; stem short, hollow or stuffed, cartilaginous, equal, pallid, reddish brown, or tinged with violet; veil white. _subgenus collybia_ fries. cap at first convex, then expanded, not depressed, with an involute margin; gills reaching the stem, but not decurrent, sometimes emarginate; stem hollow, with cartilaginous bark of a different substance from the hymenophore, but confluent with it; often swollen and splitting in the middle; spores white. the plants are usually found growing upon dead tree stumps; some grow upon the ground; a few are parasitic on other fungi or springing from _sclerotia_, small impacted masses of mycelium. the species are generally small and firm and of slow growth. a few are edible, some few have an unpleasant odor. on account of the cartilaginous stem and the dryness of their substance, some of the smaller species are apt to be taken for marasmii. note: saccardo in his sylloge gives collybia generic rank. [illustration: plate xiii. edible figs. to agaricus (collybia) fusipes, bull. "_spindle foot collybia_." figs. to agaricus (collybia) maculatus, a. & s. "_spotted white collybia_." figs. to agaricus (collybia) velutipes, curt. "_velvet footed collybia_." t. taylor, del.] plate xiii. figs. to .--=ag. (collybia) fusipes= bull. "_spindle-foot collybia_." edible. cap fleshy, somewhat tough, convex, then plane, smooth, even or slightly cracked in places, umbo evanescent, reddish brown; gills adnexed, nearly free, broad, distant, at length separating near the stem, firm, white, changing to fawn color, or pale brown often spotted; stem long, stuffed, then hollow, externally cartilaginous, contorted, swollen in the middle, cracking in longitudinal slits, fusiform, tapering narrowly to a rooted base, reddish brown. on stumps in woods in the autumn. cap to inches broad; stem to inches long. this species is densely cæspitose. it is very generally recorded among authors as edible, although the flesh is somewhat tough. it requires long and slow cooking. an english author recommends it for pickling. only the caps should be used for this purpose. figs. to .--=ag. (collybia) maculatus= a. & s. (=collybia maculata=). "_spotted white collybia_." cap fleshy and compact, convexo-plane, obtuse, smooth, even, margin thin, at first involute, turned inwards, white; stem long and stout, externally cartilaginous, ventricose, sometimes striate, tapering towards the base; gills free, or nearly so, narrow, crowded, somewhat linear, white, becoming spotted. taste slightly acid. the whole plant is creamy white, becoming spotted and stained throughout with rusty-brown or foxy-red tints. the plants are usually large, long stemmed, and grow in irregular clusters on decayed tree stumps in woods. specimens of a large size have been gathered in the fir woods near mattapoisett, massachusetts. cap to inches broad; stem to inches long. the variety _immaculatus_ differs from the typical form in not becoming spotted and in the broader gills, which are serrated. figs. to .--=ag. (collybia) velutipes= curt. "_velvet-footed collybia_." cap fleshy, thin, at first convex, then plane, obtuse, smooth, viscid, tawny or brownish yellow, turning dark; flesh yellowish and soft; gills slightly adnexed, pale yellow; stem tough, stuffed, externally cartilaginous, sometimes slender, but usually thick, covered with a brown velvety down, dark bay color. this is a very common species in some localities. it is densely cæspitose, growing in heavy clusters on old logs and tree trunks in parks, woods, and gardens. the plants are quite gelatinous when cooked. group figured from illustration by m. c. cooke. collybia _radicata_ rehl. is recorded as an edible species. the plants have a thin, slightly fleshy cap, slightly umbonate, wrinkled, and glutinous at maturity; distant, white, adnexed gills, and tall, slender, rigid stem. the latter is often twisted and usually attenuated upwards, color pale brown. it has a long tapering root entering deeply into the soil. this species is solitary in habit, and is commonly found in grass, or near decayed stumps. cap from to inches in diameter, stem inches to inches in length. collybia _esculenta_ jacq., a small species found in pine woods as well as in pastures in the spring, is recorded as edible by a number of authors. in this species the cap is nearly plane, obtuse, and smooth, brownish; gills adnate, whitish; stem very slender, fistulose, equal, tough, smooth, reddish clay color, deeply rooting. appendix. as chief of the division of microscopy, u. s. department of agriculture, the author prepared for the world's columbian exposition at chicago a collection of models of edible and poisonous mushrooms, for which a medal and diploma were there awarded. the same collection, which now belongs to the museum of the department of agriculture, was exhibited at the atlanta cotton exposition in , where a diploma was again awarded for it, and has since been exhibited at the exposition of in nashville, tenn. the models composing this collection, about one thousand in number, were made from actual specimens and colored to nature, the same species being generally represented by numerous specimens so as to illustrate the various stages in the life of the plant, habit of growth, etc. the following is a list of the mushrooms represented in this collection, among which there are types of most of the genera in which species recorded as edible occur: amanita _cæsarea_ schaeff. "orange amanita." edible. amanita _rubescens_ pers. "the blusher." "reddish-brown amanita." edible. amanita _strobiliformis_ vitt. "fir-cone" or "pine-cone amanita." edible. amanita _pantherinus_ d. c. "panther mushroom." poisonous. amanita _phalloides_ fr. "poison amanita." poisonous. amanita _muscaria_ linn. "fly amanita." "false orange." poisonous. amanita _verna_ bull. "spring mushroom." "vernal amanita." poisonous. amanitopsis _vaginata_ roze. "the _grizette."_ "sheathed amanitopsis." edible. lepiota _procera_ scop. "parasol mushroom." "tall lepiota." edible. lepiota _racodes_ vitt. "ragged lepiota." edible. armillaria _mellea_ fr. "honey mushroom." edible. tricholoma _terreum_ schaeff. "the gray cap." edible. clitocybe _illudens_ schw. "giant clitocybe." unwholesome. clitocybe _odora_ bull. "odorous clitocybe." edible. clitocybe _laccata_ scop. edible. collybia _fusipes_ bull. "spindle-foot collybia." edible. pleurotus _ostreatus_ jacq. "oyster mushroom." edible. pleurotus _ulmarius_ jacq. "elm pleurotus." edible. volvaria _bombycina_ schaeff. "silky volvaria." this species has been recorded by some authors as poisonous. hays, after testing it, speaks well of it, and states that is eaten on the continent. volvaria _speciosa_ fr. not commended. pholiota _caperata_ pers. edible. agaricus _campester_. "field mushroom." edible. agaricus _arvensis_ schaeff. "horse mushroom." edible. hypholoma _sublateritium_. "brick top." edible. hypholoma _candolliana_. edible. coprinus _comatus_ fr. "shaggy mane mushroom." edible. coprinus _atramentarius_. "inky coprinus." edible. cortinarius _turmalis_ fr. edible. cortinarius _cærulescens_ fr. edible. hygrophorus _conicus_ fr. conical mushroom. has been recorded by a number of authors as poisonous. some later writers speak of it as edible. hygrophorus _puniceus_ fr. "purplish hygrophorus." edible. hygrophorus _ceraceus_ fr. "waxen hygrophorus." edible. lactarius _deliciosus_ fr. "delicious lactarius." edible. lactarius _volemus_ fr. "orange-brown lactarius." edible. lactarius _torminosus_ fr. this mushroom is said to contain an acrid juice which acts seriously on the stomach and alimentary canal. lactarius _rufus_ fr. intensely acrid. lactarius _vellereus_ fr. extremely acrid. lactarius _piperatus_. "fiery milk mushroom." extremely acrid when raw. the russians parboil it, throwing away the liquid, before preparing for pickling. a noted german chemist reports it "not very safe." russula _alutacea_ fr. yellow-gilled russula. edible. russula _virescens_ fr. edible. russula _cyanoxantha_ schaeff. "variable russula." edible. russula _emetica_ fr. this mushroom is extremely acrid when raw; by some authors it is recorded as poisonous, by others as edible. chemical analysis has shown that it contains a varying proportion of muscarin, as well as cholin, etc. cantharellus _cibarius_ fr. "the chantarelle." edible. marasmius _oreades_ bolt. "the fairy ring mushroom." edible. boletus _edulis_ bull. edible. boletus _scaber_ fr. edible. boletus _granulatus_ linn. edible. boletus _brevipes_ pk. edible. boletus _luteus_ linn. edible. boletus _pachypus_ fr. edible. boletus _americanus_ pk. edible. boletus _subtomentosus_ linn. edible. boletus _castaneus_ bull. edible. boletus _satanus_ lenz. "white-topped boletus." recorded as poisonous. boletus _luridus_ schaeff. "red-pored boletus." recorded as poisonous. strobilomyces _strobilaceus_ bull. edible. fistulina _hepatica_ fr. "beefsteak fungus." edible. polyporus _sulfureus_ bull. edible. hydnum _repandum_ linn. edible. hydnum _erinaceum_ bull. edible. sparassis _crispa_ wulf. edible. clavaria _cinerea_ bull. edible. clavaria _rugosa_. edible. lycoperdon _gemmatum_ fr. edible. lycoperdon _giganteum_ fr. "giant puff-ball." edible. lycoperdon _pyriforme_ schaeff. "pear-shaped puff-ball." edible. scleroderma _vulgare_ fr. morchella _esculenta_ pers. edible. morchella _conica_ bull. edible. hirneola _auricula judæ_ bull. edible. ithyphallus _impudicus_ linn. unwholesome. clathrus _cancellatus_ linn. unwholesome. note.--in addition to the above there were also represented a number of coriaceous or woody species which grow upon trees, old stumps, etc. student's hand-book of mushrooms of america edible and poisonous. by thomas taylor, m. d. author of food products, etc. _fellow of the a. a. a. s.; hon. member of the mic. section royal inst., liverpool, england; member of honor of the international medical society of hygiene, brussels; member of the american and washington chemical societies; french chemical society, paris; of the american textile society; medical society of washington, d. c.; cor. member academy of arts and sciences of brooklyn, n. y.; cor. member mic. societies of new york, buffalo, etc., etc._ published in serial form--=no. =--price, c. per number. washington, d. c.: a. r. taylor, publisher, mass. ave. n.e. . publisher's note. it has not been possible to represent all the genera of mushrooms which contain species having value as esculents within the compass of this series of five pamphlets, but the demand for these promises to justify the publication, at a future date, of a second series, which the author now has in preparation. a. r. t. copyright, , by thomas taylor, m. d., and a. r. taylor. agaricini. leucospori--(spores white). subgenus _pleurotus_ fries. the pleuroti are similar in some respects to the tricholomas and clitocybes, some of the species having notched gills near the stem, and others, again, having the gills decurrent, or running down the stem. most of the species grow upon dead wood or from decaying portions of live trees. very few grow upon the ground. the stem is mostly eccentric, lateral, or wanting; when present it is homogeneous or confluent with the substance of the cap; the substance may be compact, spongy, slightly fleshy, or membranaceous. veil evanescent or absent. the spores are white or slightly tinted. m. c. cooke figures over thirty species of pleurotus found in great britain, and describes species found in australia. with few exceptions, all of these grow upon wood. very few have value as esculents. [illustration: plate j. agaricus (pleurotus) ostreatus, jacq. edible. _t. taylor, del._] plate j. =ag. (pleurotus) ostreatus= jacq. "_oyster mushroom_." edible. cap soft, fleshy, smooth, shell-shaped, white or cinereous, turning brownish or yellowish with age. flesh white, somewhat fibrous. gills white, broad and decurrent, anastamosing at the base. stem usually not well defined, lateral, or absent. spores elliptical, white. the caps are sometimes thickly clustered and closely overlapping, and sometimes wide apart. this mushroom has long been known as edible both raw and cooked. it has a pleasant but not decided flavor and must be cooked slowly and carefully to be tender and easily digestible. old specimens are apt to be tough. it is found on decaying wood and often on fallen logs in moist places or upon decaying tree-trunks. it is frequently recurrent on the same tree. i have gathered great quantities of the oyster mushroom during several seasons past from a fallen birch tree which spanned a small stream. the lower end of the tree rested on the moist ground at the edge of the stream. specimens have been found on the willow, ash and poplar trees, and upon the apple and the laburnum. pleurotus _sapidus_ kalchb. _sapid pleurotus_. edible. this species closely resembles the oyster mushroom in form and habit of growth, and is by some considered only a variety of _p. ostreatus_. it grows usually in tufts with the caps closely overlapping, varying in color white, ashy, grayish or brownish. flesh white. the stems are white, smooth and short, mostly springing from a common base. the gills are white and very broad, and decurrent. the spores assume a very pale lilac tint on exposure to the atmosphere. pleurotus _ulmarius_ bull. "_elm pleurotus_." edible. the elm pleurotus is quite conspicuous by reason of its large size and light color. the cap is smooth and compact, usually whitish with a dull yellowish tinge in the center. flesh white. the skin cracks very easily, giving it a scaly appearance. the gills are broad, and toothed or notched near their point of attachment to the stem as in the tricholomas, white in color, turning yellowish with age. the stem is firm and smooth, solid and rather eccentric, thick and sometimes slightly downy near the base, from two to four inches in length. although this mushroom seems to prefer the elm and is most frequently found on trees of that species, it is found also upon other trees, but principally the maple, the ash, the willow, and the poplar. it grows upon live trees, usually where the branches have been cut away, and upon stumps as well. most authors recommend it as an esculent, although it has not the rich flavor of some other mushrooms. it dries well and can be kept thus for winter use. this species has a wide range and grows most abundantly in the autumn. its resistance to cold has been frequently remarked. agaricini. subgenus _amanita_. the amanitas are usually large and somewhat watery, the flesh brittle rather than tough. the very young plants are enveloped in a membranous wrapper, which breaks apart with the expansion of the plant, leaving a more or less persistent sheath at the base of the stem. the universal veil is distinct and free from the cuticle of the cap. the cap is convex at first, then expanded; in some species naked and smooth; in others, clothed with membranaceous patches of the volva. the stem is distinct from the fleshy substance of the cap, ringed and furnished with a volva or sheath. in some of the species this sheath is connate with the base of the stem, firm and persistent. in others, it is friable, at length nearly obsolete. the ring is usually persistent, deflexed, more or less prominent, in rare cases pressed close against the stem, and sometimes scarcely distinguishable from it. the gills in most of the species are free from the stems, but there are exceptions to this rule. spores white. as to geographical distribution, according to m. c. cooke, seven-eighths of the species are distinctly located in the temperate zone, one-twentieth at a temperate elevation, and only one-twentieth presumably tropical. out of the eighty species, about sixty are north american and european, and one species is found on the slopes of the andes, in south america. as heretofore stated, this group among mushrooms is made responsible for most of the well authenticated cases of fatal poisoning by mushrooms. it would be judicious, therefore, for those who are not thoroughly familiar with the characteristics of the edible amanitas to defer making experiments with them for table use until that familiarity is acquired. saccardo in his _sylloge_ describes no less than fifteen edible species of amanita as found in different parts of the world. of those i have personally been able to identify but three which are common in this country, and which have been well tested. specimens of these three species are illustrated in plates xiv and xiv½ of this pamphlet. they are each and all found in varying abundance in different parts of the united states. [illustration: plate xiv. edible amanitas. figs. to ag. (amanita) cæsareus, scop. (amanita cæsarea) "orange amanita." figs. to ag. (amanita) rubescens. pers. "the blusher." "reddish brown amanita." edible. t. taylor, del.] plate xiv. figs. to . =ag. (amanita) cæsareus= scop. (=amanita cæsarea=). "_orange amanita_," "_true orange_." edible. cap at first convex, afterwards well expanded; _smooth_, free from warts, striate on the margin; color orange-red or bright lemon-yellow, with red disk; gills lemon-yellow, rounded near the stem, and free from it; stem equal or slightly tapering upwards, stuffed with cottony fibrils, or hollow (color clear lemon-yellow), bearing a yellowish ring near the top and sheathed at the base with large, loose, membranous, white volva. odor faint but agreeable. spores white, elliptical. the whole plant is symmetrical in form, brilliant in coloring, clean and attractive in appearance. the american plant seems to differ in some slight respects from the european as figured and described in european works. in europe the pileus or cap is said to vary in color, being sometimes white, pale yellow, red or even copper color, although it is usually orange-yellow. my own observation of the american plant of this species agrees with that of prof. peck in that the cap is uniform in color, being at first bright reddish-orange or even brilliant red, fading with age to yellow, either wholly or only on the margin. no white specimens have been as yet recorded in this country. the red color disappears in the dried specimens. the striations of the margin are usually quite deep and long and almost as distant as in the edible species amanitopsis _vaginata_. some european writers have described the flesh or substance of the cap as yellowish. in our plant the flesh is white, but stained with yellow or red immediately under the cuticle. amanita _cæsarea_ is the only one of the amanitas which has yellow gills. berkeley, in his "outlines of british fungi," describes a. cæsarea as it is found in some parts of continental europe, but states that up to the date of his writing it had not been found in great britain. it is not recorded in the more recent lists of british fungi by m. c. cooke nor in that of australian fungi by the same author. the species has a wide range in this country, and though not very common in the north, in some localities, as in the pine and oak woods of north carolina, it is found in great abundance. dufour states that it is much esteemed as an esculent in france, and though rare in the northern part of that country, it is common in the center and the south of france in autumn. it is well known in different portions of continental europe, and is frequently figured in contrast with its very poisonous congener, amanita muscaria, or "false orange," commonly known as the "fly amanita," or "fly-killer." a careless observer might mistake one for the other, but with a little attention to well-defined details the edible form can be readily distinguished from the poisonous one. in analyzing the species the attention should be directed to the following characteristics of the two mushrooms: in a. _cæsarea_ the cap is _smooth_, the stem, gills and ring _lemon-yellow_, and the cup-shaped wrapper or volva which sheathes the base of the stem is white and _persistently membranous_. in a. _muscaria_ the cap is _warty_ or shows the traces or remains of warts; the gills _white_, stem _white_, or only very slightly yellowish, and the wrapper or volva is evanescent, breaking up into ridge-like patches adhering to the base of the stem. the amanita cæsarea has long been esteemed as an esculent in foreign countries, and was known in ancient times to the greeks and romans. it is known under the following names: "orange," "cæsar's mushroom," "imperial mushroom," "yellow-egg," "kaiserling," etc. mycologists who have tested it agree as to its edibility and delicate flavor. the specimens figured in plate xiv represent the average size of those which i have gathered in the vicinity of the district of columbia. much larger ones have been gathered in the woody portions of druid hill park, baltimore, md. dufour writes: "this mushroom, the "true oronge," is cooked in a variety of ways, and it always constitutes an exquisite dish." this author gives the following recipes for cooking the _cæsarea_, which he calls the "oronge:" _oronge à la bordelaise._--the stem is minced with fine herbs, bread-crumbs, and garlic, and seasoned with pepper and salt. this hash is placed in the concavity of the caps, and all is put to bake with good oil in a pan steamed in a chafing dish. _oronge à l'italienne._--stew gently with a little butter and salt, then serve with a sauce composed of oil seasoned with the juice of lemon, pepper, garlic, and extract of sweet almond. the spanish are fond of this mushroom, and it is said to enter into their national dish, olla podrida, a mixture of meat, vegetables, and spices, whenever it can be obtained. it is sometimes fried in butter or olive oil and seasoned with sugar. plate xiv. figs. to .--=ag. (amanita) rubescens= pers. (=amanita rubescens=). "_the blusher_," "_reddish brown amanita_." edible. cap at first convex then expanded, margin even or very slightly striated, usually reddish-brown or reddish-fawn color, covered with mealy, more or loss persistent warts; flesh white, changing to a reddish or pinkish tinge, where cut or bruised, the reddish tinge most intense in the bulbous portion of the base of the stem; _gills reaching the stem and forming decurrent lines upon it_, white, becoming spotted with rusty or wine red stains when bruised or attacked by insects; stem ringed, whitish or dingy white, becoming brownish or spotted, with reddish-brown stains. the base of the stem is usually bulbous, the bulb sometimes tapering to a point at the root, and in some instances ending abruptly. the ring or collar which encircles the stem near the top is membranous, and usually well defined. the volva which completely envelops the young plant is very friable and soon disappears. fragments of the volva may be seen in the shape of scales or small particles upon the mushroom stem, and in wart-like patches upon the cap. in the representations of this mushroom which appear in european works the cap is a deeper reddish-brown tint than i have found it here. the color of the cap is usually a light reddish brown or reddish gray, sometimes almost white. this species is found usually in light open woods. in a warm moist climate it appears early in the season, and can be gathered until the frosts come. taste very pleasant. there is a poisonous species, amanita _pantherinus_, rare, which has a viscid brown warted cap bearing a slight resemblance to that of the _rubescens_, but the gills do not turn red when bruised, and the volva at the base of the stem is well defined and persistent. the _rubescens_ is very plentiful in the woods of maryland and virginia, and specimens have been received from different parts of the country. i have frequently eaten it stewed with butter, and found it very good eating. hay speaks of it as being eaten in england, where it is called the "blusher." cooke says it is pleasant both in taste and odor. it is spoken of by french authors as of delicate flavor, and as well known in some parts of france. in preparing for the table bring the mushroom to a quick boil and pour off the first water, then stew with flavoring to suit the taste. the specimens of this species represented in plate xiv were collected in the woods of forest glen, maryland. they are often found of much larger size and much lighter in coloring, with the stains upon the gills redder in color. the very young plants as they burst through the surface of the soil show a distinct volva at the base of the stem. in the mature plant this disappears, often leaving the slightly bulbous base quite smooth. [illustration: plate xiv½. agaricus (amanita) strobiliformis, vitt. "fir-cone mushroom." edible. from nature. _t. taylor, del._] plate xiv½. =ag. (amanita) strobiliformis= fries (=amanita strobiliformis=). "_fir-cone mushroom_." edible. cap fleshy, convex at first, then expanded, covered with persistent white warts, margin even, white; flesh white, firm and compact; gills rounded behind and free from the stem, white; stem solid, the bulbous base tapering, furrowed with concentric and longitudinal channels at the root, and extending well into the ground, white; ring large, soon splitting; volva breaking up and appearing in concentric ridges upon the stem. spores white. this mushroom is very pleasant to the taste when raw as well as when cooked. it is found in light woods or on the borders of woods where the soil is somewhat friable, generally solitary, but sometimes two or three are found clustered together. the plants are sometimes so large that two or three of them would make a very good meal. specimens have been found with the cap measuring to inches across when expanded, the stem varying from to inches in height, and from to inches in thickness. when young the plants are generally snowy white throughout, changing with age to a dingy white or cinereous hue. the specimens figured in the plate formed one of a cluster of three mushrooms of this species found growing in the fir woods of the district of columbia. during some seasons i have found the _strobiliformis_, or "fir-cone mushroom," fairly plentiful in some parts of maryland, and in other seasons it has been rare. the whole plant when young is enclosed in a white membranous wrapper. although this species is very generally recognized by mycologists as edible, i would advise great caution in selecting specimens for table use, since there is a dangerous species which might be mistaken for it by one not familiar with the characteristics of both species; i refer to a form of amanita muscaria with ochraceous yellow cap which, when faded or bleached by the sun and rain, sometimes approaches, in tint, the dingy white of old or faded specimens of the _strobiliformis_. both species have _white gills_, _white stems_, and _white flocculent veil_. the volva is evanescent in both, leaving traces of its existence in concentric ridges at the base, and part way up the stem. in the species _strobiliformis_, the flesh of the cap is white throughout, as well as the cuticle. in the yellowish _muscaria_, the flesh _immediately_ beneath the cuticle of the upper surface of the cap is yellowish, frequently deepening at the disk to orange hue. the cap of amanita _muscaria_ is very attractive to flies, but proves to them, as also to roaches and to some other insects, a deadly poison. the juice of _strobiliformis_ is not poisonous to flies. this fact may aid in identifying the species. subgenus _amanitopsis_ roze. the species of this subgenus were formerly included in amanita. the characteristic which separates it from amanita is the _absence of a ring on the stem_. the gills are free from the stem, the spores are white, and the whole plant in youth is encased in an egg-shaped volva.[a] [a] although this subgenus is not included in m. c. cooke's analytical key to the order of agaricini, published with his kind permission in no. of this series, he now includes it as one of the subgenera which should have a place in that list. amanitopsis _vaginata_ roze. edible. this species is very common in pine and oak forests. the plant, as a whole, has a graceful aspect and grows singly or scattered through open places in the woods. it is somewhat fragile and easily broken. the cap in this species is usually a mouse-gray, sometimes slaty gray or brownish, generally umbonate in the center and distinctly striated on the margin. the stem is white, equal, and slender in proportion to the width of the cap, and sheathed quite far up with a loose white membranous wrapper. this sheath is so slightly attached to the base of the stem that it is often left in the ground if the plant is carelessly pulled. the gills are white, or whitish, free from the stem and rounded at the outer extremity. there is a white variety, (variety _alba_) a. _nivalis_, in which the whole plant is white, and a tawny variety (a. _fulva_ schaeff.) in which the cap is a pale ochraceous yellow, with the gills and stem white or whitish. in the variety a. _livida_ or a. _spadicea_ grev. the cap is brown, while the stem and gills are tinged a smoky brown. these are all edible and of fairly good flavor. except in the absence of the ring upon the stem, the light varieties might be mistaken for small forms of the poisonous species amanita _verna_ or of _phalloides_. great caution should therefore be observed, in gathering for the table, to be sure of the species. [illustration: plate xv. figs. to . ag. (amanita) muscarius, linn. (amanita muscaria) "fly mushroom." fig. . ag. (amanita) phalloides, fries. fig. . ag. (amanita) mappa batsch. poisonous. t. taylor, del.] plate xv. figs. to .--=ag. (amanita) muscarius= linn. (=amanita muscaria=). "_fly mushroom_," "_false orange_." poisonous. cap warty, margin striate; gills white, reaching the stem, and often forming decurrent lines upon it; stem white, stuffed, annulate, bulbous at the base, concentrically ridged or scaly at the base, and sometimes part way up, with fragments of the ruptured wrapper. spores widely elliptical, white, . to . of an inch in length. the plants of this species vary very much in size and in the color of the cap. the latter is sometimes a bright scarlet and again it is orange color, more frequently ochraceous yellow, fading to a very pale yellow tint. in the variety _albus_ it is white. the stem is stuffed with webby fibrils and varies very much in thickness: sometimes in young specimens it is very stout, with a thick ovate bulb reaching well up towards the cap, and again it is comparatively slender and nearly equal from the cap down to a very slight bulb at the base. the very young plant is completely enveloped in a white or yellowish egg-shaped wrapper or volva, which, being friable, generally breaks up into scales, forming warts upon the upper surface of the cap. when the plant is young and moist the cap is slightly sticky. a thickish white veil extends from the stem to the inner margin of the cap. this breaks away with the growth and expansion of the plant and falls in lax folds, forming a deflexed ring round the upper portion of the stem. this mushroom is very common in woods and forests in summer and autumn, and has a wide geographical range. it is recorded by all mycologists as poisonous. one author states that when eaten in very small quantities it acts as a cathartic, but that it causes death when eaten freely. flies find in it a deadly poison, and the poisonous alkaloids are not destroyed by drying. although cases are cited where this mushroom has been eaten without injury, its fatally poisonous effects have been too well and too often tested to allow of any doubt as to the danger of eating it, even in small quantities. amanita frostiana, frost's amanita, is a much smaller species than a. muscaria. it bears a very close resemblance to the fly amanita, and might easily be taken for a small form of the same. the cap is yellowish and warted, and specimens occur in which the stem and gills are slightly tinged with yellow. it is poisonous. plate xv. fig. .--=ag. (amanita) phalloides= fries (=amanita phalloides=) =a. vernalis= bolt., =a. verrucosus= curtis. "_poisonous amanita_," "_death cup_." poisonous. cap bell-shaped or ovate at first, then expanded, smooth, obtuse, viscid, margin even, creamy-white, brown, or greenish, without warts; flesh white; stem white, hollow or stuffed, bulbous at the base, annulate; gills rounded and ventricose, coarse, and persistently white, free from the stem; volva conspicuous, large, loose, adhering to the base, but free from the stem at the top, with the margin irregularly notched. in the white forms there is frequently a greenish or yellow tinge at the disk or centre of the cap. the white form is most common, but the brownish is often found in this country. i have not yet found the green-capped variety sometimes figured in european works. in the brown variety the stem and ring are often tinged with brown, as also the volva. the cap is usually from to inches broad, and the stem from to inches long. the whole plant is symmetrical in shape and clean looking, though somewhat clammy to the touch when moist. it is very common in mixed woods, in some localities, and is universally considered as fatally poisonous. the white form of a. _phalloides_, although in reality bearing very little resemblance to the common field mushroom, has been mistaken for it as also for the _smooth white lepiota_, and in some instances has been eaten with fatal results by those who gathered it. the distinction between this most poisonous amanita and the common field mushroom is well marked. in the common mushroom the _gills_ are _pink, becoming dark brown_, the _spores purplish brown_, and the whole mushroom is stout and short stemmed, the stem being shorter than the diameter of the cap, and having no volva, or wrapper at its base. in the species a. _phalloides_ the _gills_ are _persistently white_ and the bulb is distinct and broad at the base, the white cup-shaped wrapper sheathing the base of the stem like the calyx of a flower. the _smooth white lepiota_ shows neither volva nor trace of one, and has other distinct characteristics which distinguish it from a. _phalloides_. see page , no. of this series. the specimen figured in plate xv grew in maryland, where it is quite common. plate xv. fig. .--=ag. (amanita) mappa (amanita mappa)= linn., =amanita citrina=, =a. virosa.= poisonous. cap at first convex, then expanded, dry, without a separable cuticle, not warty but showing white, yellowish, or brownish scales or patches on its upper surface; gills white, adnexed; flesh white, sometimes slightly yellowish under the skin; stem stuffed, then hollow, cylindrical, yellowish white, nearly smooth, with a distinctly bulbous base; volva white or brownish. odor pleasant. spores spheroidal. the cap in this species is somewhat variable in color, but those having a white cap are most common. the plant is not so tall as those of the species _phalloides_. it is solitary in habit, and is found usually in open woods. curtis and lowerby figure _mappa_ and _phalloides_ under the same name. [illustration: plate xvi. fig. . ag. (amanita) vernus, bull. (amanita verna.) "spring mushroom." fig. . represents section of mature plant. fig. . spores; fig. . young plant. poisonous. t. taylor, del.] plate xvi. figs. to .--=ag. (amanita) vernus= bull. =(amanita verna)= linn., =amanita bulbosa=, =ag. solitarius.= "_vernal mushroom_," "_spring mushroom_," etc. poisonous. cap at first ovate, then expanded, becoming at length slightly depressed, viscid, white; margin smooth; flesh white; gills white, free; stem white, equal, stuffed or hollow, easily splitting, floccose, with bulbous base; volva white, closely embracing the stem, but free from it at the margin; ring reflexed; spores globose, . in. broad. the plant is creamy white throughout and does not seem to be easily distinguishable from the white forms of a. _phalloides_. fries and some others consider this species merely a variety of amanita _phalloides_, and it is regarded as equally poisonous, the poisonous principle being the same as that of a. _phalloides_. it is very common in mixed woods from early spring to frosty weather. alkaloids of the poisonous mushrooms. schrader, after some experiments made in , stated that the poisonous principle of the "fly mushroom," amanita muscaria, seemed to be combined with its red coloring matter and might be extracted by water or aqueous alcohol, but that it was not soluble in ether. vaquelin, as the result of more extended investigations made in , expressed the opinion that this poison was not confined to the coloring matter of the mushroom, but that it was an integral part of the fatty constituents not only of _muscaria_ but of several species of mushrooms. in and , and again in , important investigations were made and published by letellier relating to the medical and poisonous properties of mushrooms growing around paris. letellier's early investigations led him to the conclusion that there were two poisons contained in certain fungi--( ) an acrid principle easily destroyed by drying or boiling or by maceration in alcohol or in alkaline solution, and ( ) a peculiar poisonous alkaloid found only in certain of the amanita group. letellier in named this latter alkaloid _amanitin_. he then considered it to be the active poison of amanita _muscaria_, amanita _phalloides_, and amanita _verna_, but a subsequent analysis by the german chemists schmiedeberg and koppe showed the _amanitin_ of letellier to be identical with _cholin_, a substance found in bile. kobert says that _amanitin_ is non-poisonous in itself, but states that it may be changed on decay of the mushroom to the muscarin-like acting _neurin_, which is highly poisonous. he thinks it highly probable that nearly all of the edible and non-edible mushrooms contain pure _amanitin_ (cholin) partly in primitive condition and partly in a more intricate organic connection, as _lecithin_. it has been demonstrated that amanitin separates very readily from lecithin during the _decay or careless drying_ of mushrooms and changes into the _poisonous neurin_; hence the necessity of using mushrooms only when _perfectly fresh_ or when _quickly dried_. muscarin.[a] [a] the earliest account of the separation of the poisonous principles of the mushrooms of the genus amanita dates back to the experiments of apoiger in . harnack's researches were published in and those of huseman in . to the eminent german chemists schmiedeberg and koppe is due the credit of isolating the active poisonous principle of the fly mushroom (_muscarin_). these authors published in a series of interesting experiments made with _muscarin_, having relation to its effect upon the heart, respiration, secretions and digestive organs, etc., and this was supplemented by other experiments made by their pupils, prof. r. boehm and e. harnack. schmiedeberg and koppe's work relates to the effect of this poison on man as well as upon the lower animals. dr. j. l. prevost in reviewed the investigations made by schmiedeberg and koppe in a paper read before the biological society of geneva, adding some confirmatory observations of his own relative to experiments made with muscarin upon the lower animals. the experiments made by these authors demonstrated "that muscarin arrests the action of a frog's heart, that a muscarined frog's heart began to beat immediately under the influence of atropin, and further that it was impossible to muscarine a frog's heart while under the influence of atropin." schmiedeberg subjected cats and dogs to doses of muscarin, large enough to produce death, and when the animals were about to succumb, injected hypodermically from one to two milligrams of sulphate of _atropin_, after which the toxic symptoms disappeared and the animals completely revived. prof. boehm found that _digitalin_ likewise re-established heart action when suspended by the action of muscarin. in man the fatal termination, in cases of mushroom poisoning, where the antidote is not used, may take place in from to hours or not for two or three days. according to prof. e. kobert's recent chemical analysis, the "fly mushroom," amanita muscaria, contains not only the very poisonous alkaloid _muscarin_ and the _amanitin_ of letellier (_cholin_), but also a third alkaloid, _pilz atropin_. the pilz-atropin (mushroom atropin) was discovered by schmiedeberg in a _commercial_ preparation of _muscarin_, and later prof. kobert discovered it in varying proportions in fresh mushrooms of different species. the effect of this third alkaloid, it is claimed, is to neutralize to a greater or less extent the effect of the poisonous one. under its influence, when present in quantity, the poison is almost entirely neutralized. contraction of the pupils changes to dilation, and slowing of the pulse may disappear. only through the presence of this natural antidote in the fly mushroom, says kobert, is it possible, as in some parts of france and russia, to eat without danger this mushroom, which contains % of sugar (trehalose or mycose) in a fermented and unfermented condition. he states also that delirium, intoxication, and other symptoms which, according to prof. dittmer of kamschatka and various scientific travellers, are reported effects of the fly mushroom in the extreme north, are not experienced in the same degree in southern russia. this difference in action, he thinks, may be very properly attributed to the varying proportion of the above-mentioned atropin in the mushroom or to the presence of substances which develop only in the extreme north. the symptoms of _muscarin_ poisoning, apart from vomiting and purging, are slowing of the pulse, cerebral disturbance, contraction of the pupils, salivation and sweating. in case of death, which is caused by suffocation or a suspension of heart action, the lungs are found to be filled with air, and there is a transfusion of blood in the alimentary canal. prof. r. kobert, in a lecture delivered before the university of dorpat in , states that _muscarin_ is found equally in the fly mushroom (a. muscaria), the panther mushroom (a. pantherinus), boletus luridus, and in varying quantities in russula emetica. he states also that though highly poisonous to vertebrates, _muscarin_ is not so to flies, and that the noxious principle in a. muscaria which kills the flies is not as yet determined. it has been shown that the lower animals, such as sheep and geese, as well as man, have been severely poisoned by feeding on the "fly mushroom," and that in the case of the horse, experiments have demonstrated that even . of a gramme, . of a grain, have caused marked symptoms of poisoning. for _muscarin_ as for _neurin_ poisoning the antidote is atropin administered internally or by subcutaneous injection. phallin. the toxic alkaloid of amanita _phalloides_ fries (amanita _bulbosa_) was examined by boudier, who named it "_bulbosin_," and by oré, who named it "_phalloidin_," but their examinations, it is claimed, proved little beyond the fact that it seemed to be in the nature of an alkaloid, identical neither with _muscarin_ nor _helvellic_ acid. oré affirmed that the _phalloidin_ of the amanita phalloides was very nearly related to, and perhaps identical with, strychnine. from this view kobert and others dissent. the poisonous principle of amanita _phalloides_ has recently been subjected to very careful analysis by prof. kobert. as a result of a large number of experiments and post-mortem examinations held on persons poisoned by a. _phalloides_, kobert states that the symptoms can be explained uniformly by the action of a poison, to which he gives the provisional name of "_phallin_." this is an albuminous substance which dissolves the corpuscles of the blood, resembling in this and other respects in a remarkable degree the action of _helvellic_ acid. according to kobert _phallin_ has so far only been found in amanita _phalloides_ and in its varieties _verna_, _mappa_, etc. he finds also in this mushroom muscarin and an atropin-like alkaloid. the symptoms of the phalloides poisoning are complex. vomiting is accompanied by diarrhoea, cold sweats, fainting at times, convulsions, ending in coma. there is also fever and a quickening of the pulse. all these symptoms, which follow in succession, according to one author, are dependent on two different poisonous substances. the first may be an acrid and fixed poison, for it is found after repeated dryings, as well in the aqueous as in the alcoholic extract. the second acts by absorption, and is purely narcotic. phallin has some of the properties of the toxalbumin of poisonous spiders, and is a vegetable toxalbumin. it has been remarked that in cases of poisoning by a. _phalloides_, the mushroom has tasted very good, and those poisoned felt well for several hours after eating. phalloides poisoning is said to bear a marked resemblance to phosphorus poisoning and to acute jaundice. there is no known antidote to the poisonous alkaloid _phallin_. according to prof. kobert's analyses, the proportion of phallin in the dried mushroom amounts to less than %, but its effect on account of its concentration is the more intensive. extensive experiments made by kobert with ox blood in regard to the comparative action of different substances in their power of dissolving the red blood corpuscles demonstrate that _phallin_ in this respect exceeds all known substances. kobert states that "if _phallin_ be added to a mixture of blood with a % solution of common salt, using the blood of man, cattle, dogs, or pigeons, the blood corpuscles will be entirely dissolved by the poison diluted to - , ." prof. kobert states that he has examined the species boletus edulis, agaricus campester, and amanita cæsarea a number of times, but could never detect the action of phallin in them. neither has he found it in a. muscaria. the poisonous alkaloid of gyromitra esculenta fries (helvella esculenta pers.) helvellic acid. prof. kobert writes of a number of cases of poisoning in the baltic provinces of russia by the mushroom helvella _esculenta_ persoon, sometimes called the lorchel. it should be here stated that the _helvella esculenta_ of persoon is the _gyromitra esculenta_ of fries. this mushroom is described as edible and placed in the edible lists by dr. m. c. cooke, prof. peck, and other distinguished mycologists, who have tested it and found it edible when perfectly fresh. the poisonous principle of this mushroom was isolated and analyzed by prof. r. boehm, of russia, in . it was by him designated as "_helvellic acid_," and found to be soluble in hot water. profs. eugene bostroem and e. ponfick, after giving some study to the effects of this mushroom poison, agreed in their report concerning it, which is to the effect that the _quickly dried_ h. _esculenta_ (gyromitra _esculenta_) is not poisonous, and that the poisonous acid of the fresh ones may be extracted by means of hot water, so that while the decoction is poisonous the mushroom is not at all so, after the liquid is pressed out. experiments with this mushroom were made by both authors on dogs, which ate them greedily, but without exception the dogs were very sick afterwards. the symptoms were nausea, vomiting, jaundice, stoppage of the kidneys, and hæmaglobinuria. the symptoms observed in man correspond to those manifested by the lower animals. dissection showed the dissolution of innumerable blood corpuscles. prof. kobert, commenting on the experiments made by bostroem and ponfick, states that he himself had been furnished yearly with fresh specimens of "h. _esculenta_" (g. _esculenta_) specially gathered for him at dorpat, and after making various experiments with the freshly expressed juice he became convinced that the poisonous principle greatly varies, the juice sometimes operating as very poisonous, and sometimes as only slightly so. he states also that the proportion of poison in the mushroom varies with the weather, location, and age of the mushroom. the inhabitants of russia do not eat this mushroom, but in germany it is eaten dried or when perfectly fresh, after cooking, and after the first water in which it is boiled is removed. helvellic acid is not found in morchella _esculenta_ (the true morel), nor is it known to exist in any other species except g. _esculenta_. it has been stated that there is no antidote for helvellic poisoning after the symptoms have appeared. a specimen of gyromitra esculenta was forwarded to me from portland, maine, by a member of a mycological club of that city, who stated that this mushroom was quite abundant in the early spring in the woods near portland and that the plants were eaten by the members of the club, _care being taken to use them only when perfectly fresh_. indigestion and nausea followed the eating of old specimens, but the general opinion was "favorable to the gyromitra as an addition to the table." (see page , part , of this series.) prof. chas. h. peck, of albany, while placing this mushroom in his edible list as one which he had repeatedly tested, advises that it should be eaten only when perfectly fresh, as nausea and sickness had been known to result from the eating of specimens which had been kept twenty-four hours before cooking. i forwarded a number of drawings of the american species of g. _esculenta_, together with a dried specimen of the same received from maine, to prof. kobert, who identified both drawings and specimen as the _gyromitra esculenta_ of fries, synonymous with the _helvella esculenta_ of persoon. prof. kobert also informs me that he finds the fresh g. _esculenta_ perfectly harmless when freed of the water of the first boiling. he says: "my wife and i eat it very often, when in fresh condition, and after the first water in which it is boiled is poured off." the active poisonous principle of this mushroom is the _helvellic acid_, which is soluble in hot water. when the mushroom is gathered fresh and _quickly dried_ it is then also innoxious. in this respect it differs from the species _a. muscaria_, in which the poisonous alkaloid _muscarin_ is not destroyed in the drying, but remains unchanged for years in the dried mushroom. the fact that there have been seemingly well-authenticated cases of fatal poisoning in the eating of this mushroom shows that if used at all it should be eaten _only when the conditions essential to safety are most carefully observed_, and as these mushrooms show varying qualities, according to local conditions of soil and climate, etc., amateurs finding it in localities where it has not been heretofore used should proceed tentatively and with much care before venturing to eat it freely. poisonous and deleterious mushrooms of the lactar, russula, and boletus groups. lactarius _torminosus_ fries contains in its milky juice an acrid resin which causes inflammation of the stomach and of the alimentary canal. when parboiled and the first water removed, it has been eaten without injurious effects. lactarius _plumbeus_ bull., lactarius _uvidus_ fries, lactarius _turpis_ weinn., and lactarius _pyrogalus_ bull., all acrid mushrooms, according to kobert, are similarly poisonous. of the "erdschieber" (lactarius _vellereus_) and the "pfefferling" (lactarius piperatus scop.) kobert says they are eaten in parts of russia and in some places in germany, but that neither is very safe. there is a species of _russula_ (r. _emetica_) very common in woods, easily recognized by its smooth scarlet top, white gills, and white stem and by its biting acridity, which, though recorded as poisonous by some authors, is considered edible by others. this mushroom, r. _emetica_, has been subjected to chemical analysis by kobert, who finds in it _muscarin_, _cholin_, and _pilz-atropin_ in varying proportions. kobert states that in germany it is "_rightly_" considered poisonous, though eaten in russia, and ascribes the fact that it is not deemed poisonous in the latter country to the manner in which it is there prepared, the poisonous alkaloid being in greater part eliminated by parboiling the mushrooms, and not merely pouring off the water, but carefully squeezing it out of the parboiled fungi. to the presence in this mushroom of the neutralizing alkaloid "pilz-atropin" in varying proportions may also be attributed in some measure the safety with which it has been eaten under certain conditions. r. foetens and other acrid russulas, as well as lactars, have been known to produce severe gastro-enteritis. considering the foregoing, it would seem the part of prudence at least to avoid such of the lactars and russulas as have an acrid or peppery taste. i think it would be a wise precaution to pour off the water of the first boiling in the case of all mushrooms about which there is a particle of doubt, whether _recorded_ as poisonous or not. lactarius _torminosus_ fries. cap fleshy, at first convex, then expanded, at length depressed in the center, slightly zoned, margin turned inwards, pale ochraceous yellow, with flesh-colored mottlings; _downy_ or _hairy_; gills whitish, changing to pinkish yellow, narrow and close together; stem equal, stuffed or hollow, pallid or whitish; milk persistently _white and acrid_. in woods and fields. specimens have been collected in new york, massachusetts, maryland, and virginia. cap to inches, stem ½ to inches. lactarius _pyrogalus_. cap fleshy, slightly zoned, _smooth_, even, and moist, depressed in the center, grayish, or cinereous; gills white or yellowish, thin, not crowded; stem short, stout, stuffed, or hollow, sometimes slightly attenuated towards the root, pallid; flesh white or whitish; milk _white_ and _extremely acrid_, copious. borders of woods and meadows. this mushroom is sometimes called the "fiery milk mushroom." lactarius _uvidus_ fries. cap thin, convex, then plane, and slightly depressed in the center, sometimes showing slight umbo, viscid, _zoneless_, smooth, dingy gray or pallid brown, margin turned inwards; gills narrow and close together, white or yellowish, when cut or bruised turning a purplish hue; stem stuffed or hollow, viscid, smooth, equal or slightly tapering towards the cap, white; milk white, changing to lilac, acrid. height to inches. cap to inches broad. in woods. lactarius _turpis_ fries. cap viscid, compact, _zoneless_, greenish umber, margin clothed with yellowish down; gills thin, paler than the cap; stem hollow or stuffed, stoutish, short, viscid, olive color, slightly attenuated towards the base; milk _white_, _acrid_. fir woods. lactarius _plumbeus_ fries. cap fleshy, firm, dry, somewhat hairy, varying in color, usually some shade of brown; gills yellowish, thin, and close together; stem solid, equal, lighter in color than the cap; flesh white; milk _white_ and _acrid_. lactarius _vellereus_ fries. _fleecy lactarius_. cap compact, convex or umbilicate, zoneless, _minutely downy_; margin reflexed, gills white, _distant_, arcuate; stem short, solid, pubescent; milk _white_, _acrid_, somewhat scanty. in woods. whole plant white. lactarius _piperatus_ scop. _peppery lactarius_. cap fleshy, compact, convex and slightly umbilicate, at last deeply depressed, becoming funnel-formed, smooth and even; gills decurrent, very narrow, thin, even and close together, dichotonous, white; flesh white; milk _white_, _extremely acrid_, copious; stem very short, stout, solid. whole plant white. lactarius _blennius_ fries. cap depressed, slimy or glutinous, greenish-gray; margin incurved and somewhat downy. gills narrow, white or whitish; stem stuffed or hollow, viscid, and of same color as the cap or paler; milk white and very acrid. m. c. cooke divides the genus lactarius into "tribes": ( ) piperites, in which the stem is central, gills _unchangeable_, naked, neither discolored nor _pruinose_, milk at first _white_ and _commonly acrid_; ( ) dapetes, in which the stem is central, gills naked, _milk from the first deeply colored_; ( ) russulares, in which the stem is central, gills pallid, _then discolored_, becoming darker, changing when turned to the light, at length _pruinose_, with milk at _first white_ and _mild_ and _sometimes becoming acrid_; ( ) pleuropos, in which the stem is concentric or lateral. to the first of these subdivisions, _piperites_, belong all of the lactars enumerated above. the russians eat the piperites only after the water of the first boiling has been taken off. lactarius _rufus_ scop., a very acrid species of large size, having reddish ochraceous gills and zoneless cap of reddish yellow with white milk, belongs to the subdivision russulares. common in fir woods. dangerous. lactarius _volemus_ fries, a tawny yellow-capped mushroom with white gills changing to a yellowish hue, and copious _sweet_ white milk, belongs also to the latter subdivision. edible. russula (fragiles) _emetica_ fries. cap fleshy, at first convex, then expanded or depressed, smooth, polished, red, margin sulcate; gills free, equal and broad, white; stem solid but somewhat spongy in the center, smooth, short, stoutish, white or stained reddish; flesh white, sometimes slightly tinted red, under the thin red cuticle. the cap of this mushroom varies from a deep rich crimson to a pale pinkish red, being very subject to atmospheric changes. specimens are often found with the cap washed almost white after heavy rains, or with but a slight red spot in the center. the gills and spores are pure white, and the flesh peppery to the taste. if tasted when raw the juice should not be swallowed. the variety _clusii_ has a blood-red cap, pallid yellowish gills, adnexed, becoming adnate. spores white. in woods. acrid. the variety _fallax_ is fragile, with dingy reddish pileus and adnexed, distant, whitish gills. besides the above mentioned, there are other acrid russulas and lactars which are regarded with suspicion, though not as yet satisfactorily tested. poisonous boleti. several of the boleti have the reputation of being poisonous or deleterious, among them boletus _luridus_, boletus _satanas_, and boletus _felleus._ kobert's analysis of b. _luridus_ shows the presence of the poisonous alkaloid muscarin in this mushroom, while the bitterness of b. _felleus_ should make one chary of eating it in quantity, if at all. schmiedeberg and koppe describe experiments made with boletus satanas, in which the symptoms experienced closely resemble those of muscarin poisoning. a correspondent living in georgia, who is quite familiar with the species, writes that he has frequently eaten the yellow form of the _muscaria_, when cooked, without serious inconvenience. another correspondent writes that he has eaten the species boletus luridus and boletus satanas, as well as several other mushrooms of poisonous repute, with perfect impunity. without calling in question the testimony of persons who state that they have with impunity eaten mushrooms generally found to be poisonous, it must be said that even if, through local conditions of soil or climate, the poisonous constituents of such mushrooms sometimes exist in comparatively minute proportions, or are _neutralized_ by an unusual proportion of _mushroom atropin_ in the plant, or eliminated by some process used in its preparation for the table, or, finally, if constitutional idiosyncrasies should enable some persons safely to eat what is poisonous to others, the rule that such are to be avoided should never be disregarded by the ordinary collector, nor should it be departed from even by experts, except upon the clearest evidence that in the given case the departure is safe. it is certainly the part of discretion, when in doubt, to take no risks. recent instances of mushroom poisoning. about a year ago a physician in vineland, new jersey, furnished the following in regard to his personal experience of the effects of mushroom poisoning: "my wife, daughter, and self selected, according to an article in the encyclopedia britannica, what we thought were a nice lot of mushrooms, cooked them in milk, and ate them for dinner with relish. in a few hours we were vomiting, laughing, and staggering about the house. we could not control ourselves from the elbows to the finger tips, nor our legs from the knee to the ends of our toes. in other words, we were drunk on mushrooms. the mushrooms grew within the shade of norway spruce and other ornamental trees on the lawn in front of our house. they were pure white inside and out; smooth shiny tops that easily peeled off. the caps were about two or three inches in diameter, and had a stem of the same length. on the day before, my wife and a friend ate some of these mushrooms raw and experienced no bad effects. the next day at noon we ate them cooked in milk with a little butter, and they were very good. about two o'clock our food did not seem to digest well, and soon my daughter, sixteen years of age, vomited all her dinner. then my wife began to feel the effects, and took hot water freely, sweet oil, currant wine, and at last an overdose of tartar-emetic. of course, she was the sickest of all. i was cool and happy and amused at the situation, and drunk from my head down. i did not vomit, and my mushrooms remained with me for at least hours. i took nothing but hot water and sweet oil. a friend of my daughter's of her own age partook of the mess and had not a single bad symptom." a physician from west grove, pennsylvania, writes: "i determined to risk a test of the amanita muscaria. accordingly, two good-sized specimens were steamed in butter. i ate one, and another member of my family ate the other, feeling that the consequences could not be serious from so small an amount. about an hour after eating, a sensation of nausea and faintness was experienced in both cases, followed by nervous tingling, some cold perspiration and accelerated and weakened action of the heart. considerable prostration ensued within two hours. knowing that sulphate of atropin has proved the most successful remedy for the active principle of the fly agaric, amanita muscaria, a small dose, one-sixtieth of a grain, was taken by each. considerable relief was experienced within minutes, and all unpleasant symptoms had disappeared within hours, without repeating the medicine." another case, wherein the antagonism of atropin for muscarin was demonstrated, was brought to our notice during the month of september of the past year. an entire party of people were badly poisoned by eating mushrooms, and, although a doctor was called in very late, most of them were saved by the use of sulphate of atropin. it would seem from the foregoing cases that the intensity and action of the mushroom poison must depend in some degree on the constitution of the individual, as well as on the quality and quantity of the mushrooms eaten. the first treatment should be to get rid of the poison immediately and by every possible means, so as to prevent or at least arrest the progress of inflammation of the alimentary canal, and at the same time to prevent the absorption of the poison. in a majority of cases the recovery of the victim depends solely upon the promptness with which vomiting is excited. vertigo, convulsions, spasms, and other grave nervous symptoms, which ordinarily follow the cessation of the most important functions, yield, ordinarily, to the action of an emetic without the necessity of ulterior remedies, if taken in time, while the substance is yet in the stomach; when it has entered the lower bowels purgation is necessary. sweet oil should always be taken in combination with castor oil, or such other purgatives as are used. enemas of cassia, senna, and sulphate of magnesia have also been used with good effect. the fatal poisoning of count achilles de vecchj, in november, , by eating the amanita muscaria, is so fresh in the public recollection, and the details in regard to it were so widely published through the newspaper press, that it is unnecessary to take up space in recapitulating the circumstances. the death of chung yu ting, in , was occasioned by eating mushrooms which he had collected in a patch of woods near washington, d. c., and which i identified at the time as amanita phalloides, sometimes called the "death cup." he had eaten very freely of this mushroom and died after great suffering, although ten hours had elapsed before the toxic effects began to show themselves. since it has been shown that vinegar and the solution of common salt have the power to dissolve the alkaloids of the poisonous mushrooms, it follows that the liquor thus formed must be extremely injurious. it should, therefore, be obvious that vinegar and salt should not be introduced into the stomach after poisonous mushrooms have been eaten. the result would only be to hasten death. ether and volatile alkali are also attended with danger. a physician should in all cases be promptly called, and, if muscarin poisoning is suspected, hypodermic injections of the sulphate of atropin, the only chemical antidote known to be efficacious, should be administered, the dose being from / up to / of a grain. small doses of atropin can also be taken internally, to accelerate heart action. to relieve the pains and irritation in the abdomen sweet oil and mucilaginous drinks should be given. bibliography--fungi. north america. berkeley, m. j. "fungi of arctic expedition, -' ." linn. journ., xvii. . ---- "decades of fungi," viii-x, in hook. journ., vol. iv. london. . ---- "decades of fungi," xii-xiv. "ohio fungi," hook. journ., vol. vi. london. . ---- "decades of fungi," xxi-xxii. "north and south carolina." hook. journ., vol. i. . berkeley, m. j., and curtis, m. a. "north american fungi" in _grevillea_, vols. i-iv. london. -' . bessey, c. e. the erysiphei. (monograph.) michigan. curtis, m. a. "contributions to the mycology of north america," silliman journal. vo. . ---- "catalogue of the plants of north carolina." vo. raleigh. . cooke, m. c. "fungi of texas." linn. journ., vol. xvii. ---- and ellis, j. b. "new jersey fungi," in _grevillea_. -' . ellis, j. b. "canadian fungi." journ. mycol., vol. . manhattan. . farlow, w. g. list of fungi found in the vicinity of boston. _bulletin of the bussey inst_., vol. . gibson, hamilton wm. our edible toadstools and mushrooms. harper bros., new york. harkness, h. w. pacific coast fungi, i, iv. san francisco. -' . peck, c. h. reports of the new york museum of natural history. albany. -' . albany, n. y. ravenel. "fungi carolinia," fasc.: v. . schweinitz, l. de _synopsis fungorum_ in _amer. boreali media degentium_. to. philadelphia. . taylor, thomas. _mildew of the native grape vine_. _peronospora viticola_. ---- _erysiphei of the european grape vine_. ---- _fungoid diseases of the peach tree_. ---- _mildew of the lilac_. illustrated. an. report of the u. s. dept. of agriculture, , pages to , inclusive. ---- _black-knot on plum and cherry trees_. illustrated. ---- _blight and rot of the potato_, "_peronospora infestans_." illustrated. ---- _blight and smut in onions_. illustrated. an. report of the u. s. dept. of agriculture, , pages to , inclusive. ---- _potato blight and rot_. pages to and - . ---- _new fungus of the hawthorn_. _roestelia aurantiaca_. pages - . illustrated. ---- _rust of the orange_. pages - . an. report of dept. of agriculture, . taylor, thomas. _fungoid disease of the cherry._ page . ---- _grape-vine disease._ page . ---- cranberry scald and rot. page . illustrated. an. report of dept. of agriculture, . ---- _fungoid diseases of the cranberry._ page . ---- _fungoid diseases of the plum and cherry trees._ pages and . an. report dept. of agriculture, . ---- food product reports, mushrooms, edible and poisonous. annual reports of u. s. dept. agriculture, - . ---- student's handbook of mushrooms of america, edible and poisonous. watt, d. a. p. provisional catalogue of canadian cryptogams. bulletins of the boston, new york, and philadelphia mycological societies. published in boston, mass., new york, n. y., and philadelphia, penn., respectively. bibliography. toxicology of mushrooms. boudier, emile. _gazette des hop._ paris. . ---- mushrooms toxicologically considered. paris. . t. husemann und a. husemann. "handb. der toxicologie." berlin. . letellier and speneux. "experiences nouvelles sur les champignons vénenéux etc." paris. . mcilvaine, chas. article on amanita poisonings, therapeutic mag. philadelphia, . schmiedeberg and koppe. "das muscarin das giftige alkaloid des fliegenpilzes." leipzig. verlag von f. c. w. vogel. . kobert, rudolph. "sitzungsberichte der naturforscher-gesellschafft." dorpat, russia. -' . ---- lehrbuch der intoxication. stuttgard, germany. index to illustrations. no. . plate a. agaricus (psalliota) campester. edible. plate b. types of the six orders of hymenomycetes. plate i. russula virescens fries. edible. plate ii. coprinus comatus fries. edible. plate iii. marasmius oreades fries. edible. no. . plate c. types of four of the leading genera of discomycetes, in which occur edible species. plate d. four types of the genus morchella. edible. plate iv. outline sketches showing structure of the agaricini. plate v. lactarius deliciosus fries. edible. plate vi. agaricus (armillaria) melleus vahl. edible. plate vii. cantharellus cibarius fries. edible. no. . plate e. outline sketches of various mushrooms. plate f. outline sketches showing characteristics of the lamellæ or gills of mushrooms. plate viii. ag. (hypholoma) sublateritius fries. edible. plate ix. ag. (hypholoma) incertus (hypholoma incertum) peck. edible. plate x. fistulina hepatica bull. edible. no. . plate g. six types of the puff-ball group. edible. plate h. two types of the subdivision phalloideæ. unwholesome. plate xi. ag. (lepiota) procerus fries. (lepiota procera.) edible. plate xi. ag. (lepiota) naucinoides peck. edible. plate xi½. ag. (lepiota) cepæstipes--var. cretaceus peck (lepiota cretacea). edible. plate xii. cortinarius (inoloma) violaceus. linn. plate xii. cortinarius (phlegmacium) cærulescens fries. plate xiii. figs. to , ag. (collybia fusipes) bull. edible. plate xiii. figs. to , ag. (collybia maculatus) a. & s. (collybia maculata). (after cooke.) edible. plate xiii. figs. to , ag. (collybia) velutipes curt. (after cooke.) no. . plate j. ag. (pleurotus) ostreatus jacq. edible. plate xiv. figs. to , ag. (amanita) cæsareus scop. (amanita cæsarea). edible. plate xiv. figs. to , ag. (amanita) rubescens pers. edible. plate xiv½. ag. (amanita) strobiliformis vitt. edible. plate xv. figs. to , ag. (amanita) muscarius linn. (amanita muscaria). poisonous. plate xv. fig. , ag. (amanita) phalloides fries. poisonous. plate xv. fig. , ag. (amanita) mappa batsch. poisonous. correction of plates. part . plate b. fig. should read fig. , fig. should read fig. . part . plate d. fig. , the exposed inner surface of the cap, should be _smooth_, not _ridged_, as the straight lines in the engraving might suggest. plate v. for lactarious read lactarius. part . plate viii. the red on the upper surface of the cap is too bright in tint. it should be a dull brick-red. plate ix. fig. . the spores should be a deeper tint or brownish purple. the spores as delineated on the plates represent a magnification of from to diameters. transcriber's notes. to avoid confusion, corrections noted above were not made to the plates or their captions. "membranaceous," "membraneous" and "membranous" all appear multiple times; i left them as is. similarly for "hynesboro" and "hynesbury," "sebaceus" and "sebæceus," "subglobose" and "sub-globose," "center" and "centre," "net-work" and "network." both "huseman" and "husemann" appear; perhaps they refer to the same person, but i couldn't be sure, so i left them as is. there is little consistency about when names are italicized or placed in quotes. except where noted below, i left them as typeset in the original. changed "filamentose" to "filamentous" on page of part : "filamentous network." changed "sub generas" to "subgenera" on page of part : "of the subgenera." changed "pratelæ" to "pratellæ" on page of part , in dr. m. c. cooke's subdivisions. changed "puffball" to "puff-ball" on page of part : "and the puff-ball." changed "ii" to "i" on page of part to match the illustrations: "illustrated in plate i." changed "mycophogists" to "mycophagists" on page of part : "with most mycophagists." changed "micaceous" to "micaceus" on page of part : "coprinus micaceus." changed "plain" to "plane" on page of part : "then nearly plane." changed "parsely" to "parsley" on page of part : "with parsley chopped." changed "channeled" to "channelled" on page of part : "_canaliculate_, channelled." changed "channeled" to "channelled" on page of part : "_channelled_, hollowed out like a gutter." changed "clustured" to "clustered" on page of part : "little clustered grains." changed "charactertistics" to "characteristics" on page of part : "the distinguishing characteristics." changed "mushroon" to "mushroom" on page of part : "common field mushroom." changed "paraphesis" to "paraphyses" on page of part : "spore sack and paraphyses." changed "saac." to "sacc." on page of part : "mitrula vitellina sacc." changed "tetrasporus" to "tetrasporous" on page of part : "being entirely tetrasporous." changed "agaricus" to "agaricus" on page of part : "agaricus arvensis." changed "mid-western" to "midwestern" on page of part : "and midwestern states." the arithmetic doesn't work out right for the third house of the pennsylvania grower on page of part . perhaps it produced , pounds rather than , . however, i left it as it was. removed duplicate word "the" on page of part : "add to the manure." changed "surfare" to "surface" on page of part : "surface be too dry." changed "polyporous" to "polyporus" on page of part . changed "deletereous" to "deleterious" on page of part : "classed as deleterious." changed "yellew" to "yellow" on page of part : "never yellow." changed "flexuous" to "flexuose" on page of part : "thin, flexuose." the analytic table starting on page of part was changed to use numeric codes to identify the branches in the tree rather than the special characters, for clarity and elimination of non-latin- characters. "massée" appeared on pages , and of part ; they were all changed to "massee." changed "psilosybe" to "psilocybe" in the table on page of part . changed "fibres" to "fibers" on page of part : "with minute fibers." changed "rhodosporhii" to "rhodosporii" on page of part : "section rhodosporii." "pleurotos" appeared on pages and of part and page of part ; they were all changed to "pleurotus" for consistency. changed "epyphytal" to "epiphytal" on page of part : "epiphytal, often stemless." changed "mushroooms" to "mushrooms" on page of part : "mushrooms with bacon." changed "importatnt" to "important" on page of part : "an important part." changed "hymenomycetefs" to "hymenomycetes" on page of part : "the genera of hymenomycetes." both "gloeoporus" and "gloeporus" appear. i left both spellings, since i couldn't determine the author's intention. changed "basidyomycetes" to "basidiomycetes" on page of part : "ascomycetes and basidiomycetes." changed "myceluim" to "mycelium" on page of part : "directly on the mycelium." changed "dacyromycetes" to "dacryomycetes" on page of part : "( ) dacryomycetes." some text was dropped on page of part . i inserted an ellipsis as a place-holder: "without asci, ... sporules or stylospores." moved semi-colon inside quote three times on page of part , for grammatical consistency: 'or "rotting moulds;" the cystopi, or "white rusts;" the saprolegniaceæ, or "fish moulds;".' changed "entomothoraceæ" to "entomophthoraceæ" on page of part . changed "uutersuch." to "untersuch." on page of part : "bot. untersuch." changed "mongraphie" to "monographie" on page of part : "monographie des saprolegniées." changed "spois" to "spores" on page of part , in the entry for tetraspore. changed "perethecia" to "perithecia" twice on page of part : "enclosed in perithecia" and "fungi without perithecia." changed "hyphomecetea" to "hyphomyceteæ" on page of part : "such as the hyphomyceteæ." changed "rotton" to "rotten" on page of part : "rotten wood or sticks." changed "puff ball" to "puff-ball" in caption to plate g. changed "globuse" to "globose" on page of part : "sometimes nearly globose." changed "fetid" to "foetid" on page of part , for consistency: "their foetid odor." also in the caption to plate h. changed "disc" to "disk" on page of part : "the disk is stellate." changed "phalloideae" to "phalloideæ" in the caption to plate h. changed "lycoperadaceæ" to "lycoperdaceæ" on page of part : "iii.--lycoperdaceæ." italicized "lepiota" on page of part , for consistency: "_subgenus lepiota_ fries." changed "cepaestipes" to "cepæstipes" in the caption to plate xi½: "agaricus (lepiota) cepæstipes." changed "coerulescems" to "cærulescens" in the caption to plate xii. removed italics from "scop." on page of part : "clitocybe _laccata_ scop." changed "satanus" to "satanus" on page of part : "boletus _satanus_ lenz." changed "beef-steak" to "beefsteak" on page of part : "beefsteak fungus." one of the plates was labeled with script letter i, to differentiate it from roman numeral i. i changed script letter i to upper case letter j. changed "caesareus" and "caesarea" to "cæsareus" and "cæsarea", respectively, in the caption to plate xiv: "ag. (amanita) cæsareus, scop. (amanita cæsarea)." removed italics from "roze" on page of part , twice: "subgenus _amanitopsis_ roze", "amanitopsis _vaginata_ roze." changed "mappá" to "mappa" in caption to plate xv: "ag. (amanita) mappa batsch." the footnote on page of part had no anchor in the text. i attached it where i thought it made the most sense. changed "washington, d. d." to "washington, d. c." on page of part . removed italics from "linn." on page of part : "linn. journ." italicized "grevillea" on page of part : '"north american fungi" in _grevillea_.' added closing quote on page of part to bibliography entry for letellier. changed "psaliota" to "psalliota" on page of part : "agaricus (psalliota) campester." plate xvi is omitted from the index to illustrations; since i wasn't sure how the author would have wanted to describe it, i left it out. for the latin- version, i replaced the oe-ligature with the two separate characters: "oe." by the internet archive. transcriber note text emphasis is denoted as: _italics_ and =bold=. poison-_ivy_ poison-_oak_ and poison _sumac_ identification precautions eradication farmers' bulletin no. u. s. department of agriculture poison-ivy, poison-oak, and poison sumac remind most people of painful experiences to be avoided, yet many do not know any one of the offending plants or their equally poisonous relatives. learning to recognize them on sight is relatively easy, especially by examining the distinctive identifying characters described in the pictures and legends of this bulletin. there is then a good chance to avoid them or, if one must work among them, to take preventive measures to escape poisoning. these plants are very common throughout the united states. they are found in fields and woods, along fence rows, rock walls, and hedges, in lawns and gardens, and even sometimes vining on houses. usually in any one locality it is necessary to be certain of the identity of only two or three of them. maps show at a glance where they are likely to be found. frequent observation and recognition of the plants as they are encountered almost daily is the best way to become poison-oak or poison-ivy conscious. nonpoisonous sumacs are easily distinguished from the poisonous species by the seed heads and leaves. the old proverb, "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure," is good advice to everyone, particularly as regards ivy-poisoning. previous escape is not proof of immunity when conditions are right, and after poisoning occurs there is no quick cure known. some relief may be obtained and recovery hastened by use of some of the tested remedies. in case of severe poisoning a physician should be consulted. poison-ivy and other poisonous plants growing in grounds frequented by people should be eradicated. in some places this can be done by careful grubbing. in others weed-killing chemicals may be better and more certainly would avert poisoning for most of us. this bulletin supersedes farmers' bulletin , poison ivy and poison sumac and their eradication. washington, d. c. issued august poison-ivy, poison-oak, and poison sumac: identification, precautions, eradication by donald m. crooks, _principal horticulturist, division of tobacco, medicinal, and special crops_, and leonard w. kephart, _senior agronomist, division of cereal crops and diseases, bureau of plant industry, soils and agricultural engineering, agricultural research administration_ contents page a widespread menace to health forms of poison-ivy and poison-oak common poison-ivy oakleaf poison-ivy western poison-oak poison sumac confusion of poisonous and harmless sumacs introduced poisonous sumac and related species poisoning precautions against poisoning treatment for poisoning eradication of plants chemical weed killers eradication by mechanical means a widespread menace to health every year sees many adults, and especially children, accidentally poisoned from contact with plants that they did not know were harmful. had the sufferers known how to detect poisonous plants they could have avoided them and escaped the painful experience of severe skin inflammations and water blisters. very few persons have a sufficient degree of immunity to protect them from poisonous plants, and many do not recognize them in the various forms that they assume in different parts of the country. one or more kinds of poison-ivy--common poison-ivy, oakleaf poison-ivy, and western poison-oak--occur in abundance in almost every part of the united states. poison sumac is of more limited distribution and occurs chiefly east of the mississippi river, usually in swampy regions. poisoning by these plants is largely preventable. a knowledge sufficient to identify them in their various forms is easily gained by anyone who will make a study of pictures and general descriptions and train himself by a little diligent practice to observe the plants in his locality. it is important to become poison-oak or poison-ivy conscious. this can be accomplished only by learning to know the plants by repeated experience in observing them in their various forms. persons who learn both to know and to avoid the plants can save themselves much inconvenience and discomfort. the simple means of learning to recognize them will pay big dividends. it is the first step to the prevention of poisoning and to the eradication of the pests from private grounds and public places. the most effective method of prevention is to eradicate the plants, and wherever possible this should be done. they should not be allowed to grow in lawns or gardens, with ornamental shrubbery, or on houses. communities should not countenance the growth of poison-ivy or poison-oak in school grounds, on public roadways, or in parks, especially those frequented by children. the cost of medical aid for one season in treating pupils using an ivy-infested schoolyard is likely to be more than that of eradicating the plants, to say nothing of the suffering and inconvenience they may cause. forms of poison-ivy and poison-oak poison-ivy and poison-oak are known by a number of local names, and several different kinds of plants are called by these names. the plants exhibit a good deal of variation throughout the united states, so much so that even technical botanists cannot agree on the number of species and names that should be applied to them. they grow in the form of ( ) woody vines attached to trees or objects for support, ( ) trailing shrubs mostly on the ground, or ( ) erect woody shrubs entirely without support. they may flourish in the deep woods, where soil moisture is plentiful, or they may be found in very dry soil on the most exposed hillsides. the plants are most frequently abundant along old fence rows and edges of paths and roadways, and they ramble over rock walls and climb posts or trees to considerable heights. they often grow with other shrubs or vines in such ways as to escape notice. the leaf forms among plants or even on the same plant are as variable as the habit of growth; however, the leaves always consist of three leaflets. the old saying, "leaflets three, let it be," is a reminder of this consistent leaf character but may lead to undue suspicion of some harmless plant. only one three-parted leaf leads off from each node on the stem. the leaves never occur in pairs along the stem. the wide range in habit of growth of plants and leaf types may be noted from a glance at the several pictures of plants and leaves. the flowers and fruit are always in clusters on slender stems that originate in the axis of the leaves along the side of the smaller branches. the fruits usually have a white, waxy appearance and ordinarily are not hairy, but may be so in some forms. the plants do not always flower and bear fruit. the white or cream-colored clusters of fruit, when they occur, are significant identifying characters, especially at the season after the leaves have fallen. for convenience, these plants are discussed in this bulletin under three divisions: ( ) common poison-ivy, ( ) oakleaf poison-ivy, and ( ) western poison-oak. a technical botanist would recognize many species of plants in what are included as the common poison-ivy, and anyone will recognize that various forms occur within this grouping. common poison-ivy some form of the common poison-ivy may be found in almost every part of the country but the extreme west. the shaded area on the map in figure shows the extensive range where some form of poison-ivy is likely to be found. the plant is known by various local names--poison-ivy, threeleaf ivy, poison creeper, climbing sumac, poison-oak, markweed, piery, and mercury. the most widespread form is classified by botanists under the botanical name of _rhus radicans_ or varieties of it; however, many of the variations are sometimes given other botanical names. the common poison-ivy may be considered as a vine in its most typical growth habit. _figure ._--the shaded part shows the extensive area where some form of the common poison-ivy is likely to be found. other forms also may occur in parts of the same region. _figure ._--large poison-ivy vine growing on a tree for support. this is the usual form of the common poison-ivy in wooded areas. _figure ._--_a_, common poison-ivy growing in a hedge and on a shade tree on the edge of a lawn. _b_, typical vine, showing leaves and the roots that attach it to the tree. the vining type most often occurs in wooded areas (fig. ), where it depends upon trees for support. vines often grow for many years, becoming several inches in diameter and quite woody. slender vines may run along the ground, mixed with shrubbery, or take support from a large or small tree. that a plant growing along the edge of a lawn and into the shrubbery may be quite inconspicuous as compared with a vine climbing on a lawn tree is shown in figure . the vine readily develops roots when in contact with the ground or with any object that will support it. when the vines grow on trees these aerial roots attach the vine securely ( fig. . b). a rank growth of these roots often causes the vines on trees to have the general appearance of a "fuzzy" rope, which sometimes serves a good purpose for identification. the vines and roots apparently do not cause injury to the tree except where growth may be sufficient to cover the supporting plant and exclude sunlight or break the plant from excessive weight. the vining nature of the plant makes it well adapted to climbing over stone walls or on brick and stone houses. the fact that poison-ivy often becomes mixed in with ornamental shrubbery and vines often results in its cultivation as an ornamental vine by people who do not recognize the plant. an ivy plant growing on a house, as is shown in figure , is often prized by an unsuspecting owner. the vine is attractive and quite effective as an ornamental, but such use should not be tolerated, as it most certainly will result in cases of accidental poisoning and serve as propagating stock for more poison-ivy in the vicinity. _figure ._--common poison-ivy growing on side of house with ornamental shrubs. this accidental or intentional use of the attractive vine may lead to many cases of accidental poisoning. _figure ._--common poison-ivy growing along fence row. in open sunlight and over some large areas it is more of a shrub than a vine. _figure ._--common poison-ivy growing on side of house with ornamental shrubs. this accidental or intentional use of the attractive vine may lead to many cases of accidental poisoning. when poison-ivy becomes mixed in with other vines it is quite difficult to detect except by one who has carefully trained himself in observing and recognizing the plant. also, some other vines and young plants resemble poison-ivy in many respects. the virginia creeper and some forms of the boston ivy are often confused with it. the virginia creeper can always be recognized by its five leaflets radiating from one point of attachment, as compared with the three leaflets of poison-ivy arranged in the same manner. the boston ivy with three leaflets is sometimes difficult to detect; however, as a rule not all the leaves on the plant will be divided into three leaflets. by studying a large number of the leaves it is usually possible to detect on every boston ivy plant some leaves that have only one deeply lobed blade or leaflet, while the poison-ivy always has the three leaflets. a number of other plants are easily confused with poison-ivy. no specific rule can be observed that will easily rule out all possibility of confusion. the best policy is to learn through practiced observation to know poison-ivy on sight and then to make the determination from observation of all parts of the plant, and never to judge from a single leaf or part. _figure ._--leaves of common poison-ivy, about half natural size. these may occur on the same or different plants: _a_, _b_, _c_ and _f_, less common; _d_, with even margins, the most common and generally recognized form; _e_, with lobed margins, nearly nearly as often seen as the shape in _d_. _figure ._--common poison-ivy vine with clusters of flowers in the axis of each leaf. common poison-ivy in full sunlight along fence rows or in open fields grows more in the form of a shrub than a vine. in some localities the common form is a low-growing shrub from to inches in height. this form, as well as the vining type, usually has a rather extensive horizontal system of rootstocks or stems at or just below the ground level. the vining form under some conditions later becomes a shrub. plants of this type are shown in figure , where the vine, supported on the fence, has extended upright stems that are shrublike. in some localities the growth form over a wide range is consistently either a vine or a shrub type, while in others what seems to be the same species may produce either vines or shrubs. the leaves of the common poison-ivy are extremely variable, the three leaflets being the only constant character. it is impossible to describe the great range of variation in the shape or lobing of the leaflets. a study of the leaf patterns, especially the six shown in figure , will give a fair range of types, although other forms may be found. one plant may have a large variety of forms of leaves or it may have all leaves of about the same general character. the most common type of leaf having leaflets with even margins is shown in figure , _d_, and one with leaflets having slightly lobed margins is shown in figure , _e_. the other forms shown in figure are not quite so widespread, but may be the usual type throughout some areas. _figure ._--common poison-ivy, about natural size: _a_, flowers; _b_, mature fruit. most of the vines or shrubs of poison-ivy produce some flowers that are always in clusters arising on the side of the stem immediately above a leaf. the flowers are rather inconspicuous among the leaves, as may be noted in figure , but they are in quite distinct clusters, as shown in figure , _a_. frequently the flowers do not develop or are abortive and no fruit is produced. when fruits do develop they serve as a positive way of identifying the plant. the berries are not easily confused with the fruits of other plants. they are white and waxy in appearance and have rather distinct lines marking the outer surface, as the segments appear in a peeled orange. these lines may be noted in figure , _b_, which shows dense clusters of mature fruit about natural size. some forms of the poison-ivy have the fruit covered with fine hair, giving it a kind of downy appearance; however, in the more common form the fruits are entirely smooth. the fruit is especially helpful in identifying plants late in fall, in winter, and early in spring, when the leaves are not present. _figure ._--the shaded area is the region where the eastern oakleaf form of poison-ivy is likely to occur. other forms also may be in the same region. oakleaf poison-ivy of the several kinds of poison-ivy, the oakleaf form occurring in the eastern and southern states is more distinctive than some other types. some people know it as oakleaf ivy while others call it poison-oak, a name more commonly used for the western species discussed later. botanists have not always agreed upon the scientific name to be applied to this form; however, they now use the name _rhus toxicodendron_. some botanists have used the latin names _r. quercifolia_, while others used the name _toxicodendron quercifolium_, both of which are more descriptive of the oakleaf form, as the generic name of the oak is _quercus_. the area where the oakleaf form may occur, from new jersey to texas, is outlined in the map shown in figure . the common poison-ivy also occurs in some form throughout many parts of this same area. the oakleaf poison-ivy usually does not climb as a vine, but occurs as a low-growing shrub. stems are usually upright in their general growth habit, as they appear in figure . the shrubs usually have rather slender branches, often covered with a fine pubescence that gives the plant a kind of downy appearance. the leaflets occur in threes, as in other ivy, but are lobed, somewhat on the general plan of the leaves of some kinds of oak. the middle leaflet usually is lobed somewhat alike on both margins and very much resembles a small oak leaf, while the two lateral leaflets are often irregularly lobed. the leaves shown in figure are a common form. the lighter color on the under side of one of the leaves (fig. , _a_) is due to the pubescence, or fine hairs, on the surface. the range in size of leaves varies considerably, even on the same plant; the leaf shown in figure , _b_, however, is about natural size. the fruit of oakleaf poison-ivy has the same general appearance as the fruit of common poison-ivy shown in figure , although the individual fruits and stems are often pubescent, while most of the other forms have a waxy, smooth, cream-colored fruit. _figure ._--eastern oakleaf poison-ivy shrub. the upright growth as a low shrub is common. the three parts of each leaf somewhat resembles an oak leaf. the gall formations that cause wartlike protuberances are common on all species. _figure ._--eastern oakleaf poison-ivy: _a_, leaves, showing upper deep green surface and lower lighter colored surface. _b_, single leaf, about natural size. the terminal leaflet more nearly resembles an oak leaf than the two lateral leaflets. western poison-oak the western poison-oak (_rhus diversiloba_) of the pacific coast states is usually known as poison-oak, but is occasionally referred to as poison-ivy or yeara. it is likely to be found in the region designated by shading in figure , and from central oregon northward through washington may be growing intermixed with common poison-ivy. the term "poison-oak" is a misnomer, as this species is in no way related to the oak but is related to poison-ivy. anyone familiar with either of these plants in their several forms will likely recognize the other, both as plants to be avoided. _figure ._--the shaded area is the region where the western poison-oak is likely to occur. other forms may also be in the same region. the most common growth habit of the western poison-oak is in the form of a rank upright shrub with many small woody stems rising from the ground. it frequently grows in great abundance along roadsides (see fig. ) and in uncultivated fields or on abandoned land. sometimes western poison-oak attaches itself to upright objects for support and takes more or less the form of a vine. a plant of this type is shown in figure , where it is growing on a telephone pole by the roadside. it may be noted even in this case that the tendency is for individual branches to continue an upright growth rather than become entirely dependent upon other objects for support. in some areas, especially in woodland, poison-oak may grow principally as a vine. areas have been noted where to percent of the trees leaves and flowers. in a wooded area support vines running more than or feet in height, although the most common form of the plant is the shrub. _figure ._--western poison-oak on a telephone pole. this vine form is not uncommon, especially on trees in woods. _figure ._--western poison-oak: upright shrub, with fruit, growing in open pasture field. _figure ._--western poison-oak, showing common leaf types: _a_, the more common leaves with irregular margins; _b_, less typical, although not uncommon, leaves with even margins. _figure ._--western poison-oak growing alongside roadside. this rank shrubby growth is typical for most localities. _figure ._--western poison-oak, showing common leaf types: _a_, leaves with thick leathery appearance; _b_, leaves irregular in shape with much-curled or distorted surfaces; _c_, branch, with leaves and flowers. in open pasture fields western poison-oak usually grows in spreading clumps from a few feet to several feet tall (figs. and ). where it develops extensively it greatly reduces the area for grazing and becomes a serious menace to most people who frequent the area or attend cattle that come in contact with the plants while grazing. _figure ._--western poison-oak: _a_, top of shrub, with leaves and fruit; _b_, clusters of fruit after leaves have fallen. low-growing plants, especially those exposed to full sunlight, are often quite woody and show no tendency for vining. low-growing plants with woody stems are common in pasture areas or along roadsides. livestock in grazing do not invade the poison-ivy shrub, and as a rule these plants continue to spread both by root-stock and seed. as in other ivy the leaves consist of three leaflets with much irregularity in the manner of lobing, especially of the two lateral leaflets. the latin name _dirersiloba_ refers to the irregularity occurring in the shapes of the leaves on different plants and on the same plant or even irregularity in the lobing of leaflets of the same leaf. sometimes lobes occur on both sides of a leaflet, thus giving it somewhat the semblance of an oak leaf. the middle or terminal leaflet is more likely to be lobed on both sides and resembles an oak leaf more than the other two. a study of the leaves shown in figures and shows the variation in lobing. some plants may have leaflets with an even margin and no lobing whatsoever, as those in figure , _b_. the surface of the leaves is usually glossy and uneven, so that they have a thick leathery appearance. _figure ._--a large poison sumac shrub about feet tall, growing on the edge of a swamp. the flowers are borne in clusters on slender stems diverging from the axis of the leaf, as may be noted in figure , _c_. the individual flowers are greenish white and about one-fourth inch across. the cluster of flowers matures into greenish or creamy-white berrylike fruits about mid-october. these are about the size of small currants and are much like other poison-ivy fruits, having a smooth greenish-white glossy surface striped somewhat like the segments of a peeled orange. many plants bear no fruit, although others produce it in abundance, as shown in figure , _a_. the fruits are not always spherical, but sometimes have a somewhat flattened appearance, as is shown in figure , _b_. they remain on the plants throughout fall and winter and are quite helpful in identifying poison-oak in seasons after the leaves have fallen. _figure ._--the shaded area shows the region where poison sumac is likely to occur in bogs or swamps, although isolated plants are sometimes found in dry soil. poison sumac poison sumac grows as a coarse woody shrub or small tree (fig. ) and never in the vinelike form of its poison-ivy relatives. this plant is known also as swamp sumac, poison elder, poison ash, poison dogwood, and thunderwood. it does not have variable forms, such as occur in poison-oak or poison-ivy, and botanists agree to call it _rhus vernix_. the area in the eastern states where it is likely to be found is chiefly eastward from eastern minnesota, northeastern illinois, indiana, central kentucky and tennessee, and southeastern texas, as shown on the shaded area of the map, figure . this shrub is usually associated with swamps and bogs, and the most typical growth occurs along the margin of an area of wet acid soil. _figure ._--small branch of poison sumac with six compound leaves. _figure ._--fruit of poison sumac, one-third natural size. these fruits somewhat resemble those of poison-ivy. they are always on drooping slender stems attached at the side of the small branches and are never terminal as in the species of sumac that are not poisonous. the plants range in height from or feet to small trees that may attain a height of feet. the poison sumac shrub shown in figure is growing on the edge of a swamp and is quite typical of the general appearance of the larger shrubs, which approach a treelike form. as a rule the shrubs do not have a symmetrical upright treelike appearance. they are more or less inclined to lean and have branched stems with about the same diameter from the ground level to the middle height of the shrub. occasional isolated plants are found outside of swampy regions. apparently these plants are started from seed distributed by birds. the plants in dry soil usually do not become more than a few feet tall. they are likely to cause poisoning to unsuspecting individuals, as single isolated plants are not readily recognized, especially out of their usual region. the leaves of the poison sumac are divided into to leaflets, arranged in pairs with a single leaflet at the end of the midrib (fig. ). _figure ._--_a_, smooth sumac and dwarf sumac growing in a mixed stand. these plants are not poisonous. _b_, terminal fruiting spike of smooth sumac, about one-seventh natural size. this form of terminal fruiting spike is typical of all the species of sumac that are not poisonous. the leaflets are an elongated oval shape without teeth or serrations on the margins. they are to inches long and to inches wide, with a smooth velvetlike texture and bright orange color when they first appear in spring. later they become dark green and glossy on the upper surface and pale green on the lower and have scarlet midribs. early in fall they turn to a brilliant red-orange or russet shade. the small yellowish-green flowers are borne in clusters in slender stems arising from the axis of leaves along the smaller branches. the slender clusters of flowers have much the general appearance of the poison-ivy flower, but hang in much longer clusters. the flowers mature into ivory-white or green-colored fruits resembling those of poison-oak or poison-ivy, except that they are usually less compact and hang in loose clusters that may be to inches in length (fig. ). confusion of poisonous and harmless sumacs because of the same general appearance of several common species of sumac and the poison sumac, considerable confusion has occurred as to which one is poisonous. throughout most of the range where poison sumac grows, three other species are the only ones that are likely to be confused. these are the smooth sumac (_rhus glabra_), staghorn sumac (_r. typhina_), and dwarf sumac (_r. copallina_). all the nonpoisonous species have red fruits that together form a distinctive terminal seed head, as shown in figure . these are easily distinguished from the slender hanging clusters of white fruit of the poison sumac, as shown in figure . sometimes more than one species of the harmless sumac grow together, as shown in figure , _a_. when seed heads or flower heads occur on the plants it is easy to distinguish the poisonous from the harmless plants; however, in many clumps of either kind, flowers or fruit may not develop. fortunately, the leaves have some rather distinct characteristics, which can be easily observed. figure shows leaves of the three harmless species as compared with poison sumac. the leaves of the smooth sumac (fig. , _a_) and of the staghorn sumac (fig. , _b_) have many leaflets, which are slender lance-shaped with a toothed margin. in these species there are usually more than leaflets. the leaves of the dwarf sumac (fig. , _c_) and the poison sumac (fig. , _d_) have fewer leaflets, and these are more oval-shaped, with smooth or even margins. the dwarf sumac, however, may be readily distinguished from the poisonous sumac by the winged midrib of the leaf (fig. , _e_). there is considerable variation in the size of the wing margin along the midrib, which in some cases may be reduced almost to a line between the leaflets. the winged midrib is more prominent near the terminal leaflet and can always be detected. the midrib of the poison sumac is never winged. a little study of the fruit and the leaf characteristics of the poisonous and harmless species will make it possible to avoid the poisonous one and utilize the other, which has considerable value as an ornamental plant, as a source of commercial tannin, and for controlling erosion on waste hillsides. _figure ._--leaves of species of sumac that are often confused: _a_, smooth sumac; _b_, staghorn sumac; _c_, dwarf sumac; _d_, poison sumac; _e_, enlarged portion of dwarf sumac leaf from _c_, showing the wing margin of the midrib. poison sumac does not have the winged midrib. introduced poisonous sumac and related species the small japanese lacquer-tree, although uncommon in the united states, is an introduced species of sumac (_rhus verniciflua_) that is quite similar to the native poison sumac. it is native to japan and china and is the source of japanese black lacquer. cases of poisoning hare been traced to contact with lacquered articles. because of its poisonous properties, this tree should never be planted. a native shrub or small tree called poison-wood, doctor gum, or coral sumac is commonly found in the pinelands and hummocks of extreme southern florida, the keys, and the west indies. it is much like the poison sumac and closely related to it. most botanists name it _metopium toxiferum_, although previously it was named _rhus metopium_, and sometimes metopium is used as its common name. the small tree, or shrub, has the same general appearance as poison sumac. the leaves have the same general appearance, except that there are usually only three to seven leaflets, which are more rounded. the fruits are borne in clusters in the same manner as those of poison sumac (fig. ), but individual fruits are two or three times as large and orange-colored. all parts of the plant are exceedingly poisonous to the touch and cause the same kind of skin irritation as poison-ivy or poison sumac. poisoning through experience, many people know that they are susceptible to poisoning by poison-ivy, poison-oak, or poison sumac, while some others either have escaped contamination or have a certain degree of immunity. the extent of immunity appears only relative, and absolute immunity to the toxic principle apparently does not exist. persons who have shown a degree of immunity upon repeated contact with the plants may develop poisoning on subsequent exposure. the skin irritant of poison-ivy, poison-oak, and poison sumac is the same toxic agent. it is a nonvolatile phenolic substance called urushiol and is found in all parts of the plant, including roots and fruit. it occurs in great abundance in the plant sap. the danger of poisoning is greatest in spring and summer, when the sap is abundant, and least late in fall or in winter. poisoning is usually caused by contact with some part of the plant. a very small quantity of the poisonous substance is capable of producing severe inflammation of the skin and can easily be transferred from one object to another. clothing may become contaminated and is often a source of such prolonged infection that it is likely to be judged as a case of poisoning difficult to cure. dogs and cats frequently touch the plants and transmit the poison to unsuspecting persons. the poison may remain on the fur of animals for a considerable period after they have walked or run through poison-ivy plants. smoke from burning plants will carry the toxin and has been reported to cause severe cases of poisoning. cases of poisoning of children from eating the fruit have been reported. a local belief that eating a few leaves of these plants will develop immunity in the individual is unfounded. it never should be attempted. no part of the plant should ever be taken internally, as it is a violent irritant and poisonous to man. cattle, horses, sheep, hogs, and other livestock apparently do not suffer from skin irritation caused by these plants, although they have been observed to graze upon the foliage occasionally. bees collect honey from the flowers, though no reports are on record of any ill effects from the use of the honey. the time between contamination of the skin and the first symptoms varies greatly with individuals and probably with conditions. the first symptoms of itching or burning sensation may develop in a few hours or after days or even more. the delay in development of symptoms is often confusing in attempting to determine the time or location when contamination occurred. the itching sensation and subsequent inflammation, which usually develops into water blisters under the skin, may continue for several days from a single contamination. persistence of symptoms over a long period is likely to be due to new contacts with plants or with previously contaminated clothing or animals. severe infection may produce more serious symptoms, which result in much pain through abscesses, enlarged glands, fever, or complicated constitutional malfunction. secondary infections are always a possibility in any break in the skin, such as is produced by breaking vesicles that have formed as large water blisters. precautions against poisoning the most effective way to prevent poisoning from the plants is to avoid contact with them. if it is necessary to work among them, some measure of prevention can be gained by wearing protective clothing, but it is necessary to remember that the active poisonous principle can easily be transferred. some protection also may be obtained in advance by the use of protective creams or lotions. they prevent the poison from touching the skin, or make the active principle easily removed, or neutralize it to a certain degree. various formulas containing ferric chloride and glycerin have been used more or less effectively as a preventive measure, although there may be some danger of pigmentation of the skin from the ferric chloride. a common formula is ferric chloride, parts; glycerin, parts; alcohol, parts; water. parts. a lotion of this formula applied to the exposed skin prior to contact with poisonous plants gives effective protection for many people. it is especially effective if followed by thorough washing with soap and water. such washing, even if no protective lotion has been used, is often effective in preventing poisoning. proper precaution should be taken by repeated lathering with a strong alkali soap, followed by thorough rinsing and repeating the process several times. the water should be frequently changed, and a shower or flowing water bath is preferable. the soap probably only emulsifies the active principle, and thorough rinsing is necessary to avoid spreading the poison to other parts of the body. the united states public health service reports successful chemical protection against ivy poisoning by use of an oxidizing agent--sodium perborate prepared and used fresh as an ointment. following is a formula given for the ointment: cetyl alcohol, . percent; stearyl alcohol, . ; ceresin, . ; castor oil. . ; mineral oil, . ; duponol wa pure, . ; sodium perborate. . ; and boric acid, . percent. a more recent less oily formula recommended for both mechanical and chemical protection is given as follows: shellac, parts; isopropanol, ; linseed oil, ; titanium oxide, ; sodium perborate, ; talcum, ; and carbitol, parts. sometimes cottonseed oil, olive oil, or petrolatum is applied as a protective ointment when contamination is anticipated. later the oil must be completely removed by repeated washing. clothing, wearing apparel, and tools that have been contaminated are often difficult to handle without further danger of poisoning. some who are more or less immune to poisoning often contaminate others by carelessness. contamination on automobile door handles or on a steering wheel after a trip to the woods often causes prolonged cases of poisoning of persons who have not been near the plants. one of the most effective ways for decontaminating articles is by thorough washing through several changes of strong soap and water. contaminated clothing should not be worn again until thoroughly washed. it should not be washed with other clothes, and care should be taken to rinse thoroughly any implements used in washing. dogs and cats can be decontaminated in the same manner; precaution should be taken, however, to avoid being poisoned in doing the washing. it is likely that most "dry cleaning" processes will remove any contaminant; but there is always danger that clothing sent to commercial cleaners may cause poisoning to unsuspecting employees. certain prophylactic inoculations for the prevention of ivy poisoning have been developed and used with limited success; such treatment, however, should be administered by a physician only. the theory that eating a few leaves of these poisonous plants will confer immunity is without foundation; it should not be attempted even as an experiment, because very serious poisoning is likely to result. treatment for poisoning[ ] [ ] for a fuller description of treatments for poisoning see: united states public health service, ivy and sumac poisoning. pub. health rpts. sup. (rev.), pp., . for sale by the superintendent of documents, government printing office, washington , d. c. price, cents. there seems to be no absolute quick cure for ivy poisoning for all individuals, even though many studies have been made to devise effective remedies. remedies may be helpful in removing the poisonous principle or rendering it inactive and for giving some relief from the irritation. mild poisoning usually subsides within a few days, but if the inflammation is severe or extensive a physician should be consulted. self-treatment also has other dangers, as the symptoms of ivy poisoning may be confused with those of other conditions and harm may be done by improper treatment. in all cases the safest procedure is to consult a physician. some tried remedies are effective on certain individuals and ineffective on others. sometimes a person will find one remedy effective and later, to his surprise, get very little relief from it. a large number of patent medicine remedies of doubtful value are commonly offered for sale. the following are more or less standard measures that have been advocated by different individuals and found helpful in certain cases. the united states public health service recommends a percent alcoholic solution of tannic acid applied as a lotion. it is stated that in using it the tops of the blisters should be rubbed off with sterile gauze saturated with the solution and that any large blisters should be opened with a sterile instrument. the treatment should be repeated three or four times at -hour intervals. a modified form of this treatment recommends vigorous rubbing of the lesions with alcohol-soaked gauze to remove the tops of blisters, followed by application of a percent aqueous solution of tannic acid as a lotion. any treatment involving opening of blisters and the application of alcohol is severe, and many cases requiring such treatment should be handled by physicians. one of the oldest well-established remedies is a fresh solution of one -grain tablet of potassium permanganate dissolved in quart of water; concentrations as much as percent, however, have been used. the potassium permanganate is apparently active in neutralizing any poison that may remain on the surface of the skin and it has some therapeutic properties. this solution may be applied freely to the irritated or contaminated skin, but the skin should be rinsed with water a few minutes after the stronger solutions are used. applications should be repeated every hour or two. the brown stain it causes on the skin will in time wear off, or it may be removed with lemon juice. it more or less permanently stains clothing. ferric chloride in combination with several other substances has been used effectively by many people. one of the most common formulas is that given under the discussion of precautions against poisoning (p. ). to this formula to percent of phenol is frequently added to reduce the itching; however, not more than percent of phenol should ever be used without the advice of a physician, on account of the danger of systemic absorption and poisoning. the solution should be freely applied to the irritated or contaminated skin every hour or two. some instances of persistence of the brown discoloration of the skin have been reported. for this reason its use is limited, but for most individuals the discoloration completely disappears after a few days. stain on clothing is usually permanent. photographer's hypo solution has been used with good results in many cases. this is a -percent solution of sodium thiosulfate in water. the irritated or contaminated skin should be bathed in it every hour or two. it does not stain skin or clothing. a calamine lotion with the addition of about percent of phenol is often used and in many cases is effective. frequent applications are necessary. for some people it is effective in relieving the itching. the pink stain is not permanent. it is better to leave inflamed areas exposed to the air rather than cover them with dressings. if poisoning is so severe that dressings appear necessary, a physician should be consulted before any home remedies are applied. eradication of plants poison-ivy[ ] can be killed either by mechanical means, such as digging, or by applying chemical herbicides. the best modern herbicides are so deadly to plants that a single treatment kills all the leaves and percent or more of the roots. this is the easiest and least dangerous way to destroy these poisonous pests. there are places, however, where chemicals cannot be used, as in hedges and shrubbery where the poison-ivy is closely mixed with the valuable plants. in such situations, hand-pulling is the only satisfactory method. at times also chemicals and spraying equipment are not available, and then the mattock, scythe, or plow must be resorted to. even with these simple tools some timing and handling methods are better than others. [ ] for brevity, the single designation poison-ivy is used under this heading to apply equally to all poison-ivies and to poison sumac. chemical weed killers by using care poison-ivy can be destroyed with chemicals without danger of poisoning to the operator. except in very heavy growth, one may stand at a distance from the plants and apply the herbicide without touching the leaves. most chemicals are applied as a spray solution, and many sprayers can be equipped with extension nozzles feet or more in length. the greatest danger of ivy poisoning occurs from careless handling of gloves, shoes, and clothing after finishing the work. garments should be worn that can either be destroyed after use or washed thoroughly in hot soda solution and soapsuds. the chemicals thus far found most satisfactory on poison-ivy are, in approximate order of effectiveness, ammonium sulfamate, , -d ( , -dichlorophenoxyacetic acid), ammonium thiocyanate, borax, carbon disulfide, coal-tar creosote oil, fuel oil and similar petroleum distillates, sodium chlorate, and sodium arsenite. less effective chemicals include common salt, kerosene, gasoline, calcium cyanamide, ammonium sulfate, and iron sulfate. chemicals other than borax are best applied as a spray to the foliage. borax is scattered dry on the soil around the plants. any field or garden spray machine or even a sprinkling can is useful for applying the liquids, but a common knapsack sprayer holding about gallons is convenient and does not waste the solution, application should be as a fine spray under moderate pressure rather than a driving mist, since the object is to wet the leaves of the poison-ivy and avoid wetting the leaves of desirable plants. most chemicals used on poison-ivy are injurious to the foliage of all kinds of plants and must be applied with caution if the surrounding vegetation is valuable. during the early part of the growing season the leaves of the poisonous plants usually tend to stand conspicuously apart from those of adjacent plants and can be treated separately if sprayed with care. later the leaves become intermingled and injury to adjacent species is unavoidable. chemicals other than oil are not injurious to the thick bark of an old tree, and poison-ivy clinging to the trunk can be safely sprayed with them. chemical sprays can be used at any time when poison-ivy is in full leaf, june and july being perhaps the best months. ordinarily treatments should begin not later than august , as poison-ivy then begins to go dormant and sprays are ineffective. best results are obtained both with sprays and with dry chemicals when the soil is moist but not wet at time of treatment. borax can well be applied just before a rain, but sprayed chemicals are likely to be washed off if rain falls within hours. one gallon of spray solution is sufficient to cover all the leaves on square rod ( square feet) of dense poison-ivy, or to square rods of a scattered stand. sprays give best results when applied in early morning or late afternoon when the air is cool and moist. spraying in the middle of a dry, hot day is likely to be disappointing unless the plants are in deep shade. no method of chemical eradication can be depended upon to kill all the plants in a stand of poison-ivy with one application. three to four light retreatments made as soon as the new leaves are fully expanded are always necessary ( ) to destroy plants missed the first time, ( ) to treat new growth from the old roots, and ( ) to destroy seedlings. at least three and sometimes four treatments at intervals of to weeks are necessary before all plants are dead. these followup treatments do not require much time or material, but neglect of them may easily lead to serious reinfestation. poison-ivy has an annoying habit of "playing possum." plants believed dead sometimes revive after many months. thus an area under treatment must be watched closely for at least a year if complete eradication is to be assured. dead foliage and steins remaining after the plants have been killed with chemicals are only slightly poisonous, but to avoid difficulty the dead stems should be cut off and burned. =ammonium sulfamate.=--this chemical, under a proprietory name, has come on the market recently as a weed killer and has proved especially useful against poison-ivy. ammonium sulfamate is not dangerous to use under ordinary conditions, is not harmful to the soil, and is not flammable. it is slowly corrosive to metals, and spray equipment should be washed thoroughly with a solution of lime or soda immediately after use. like salt, ammonium sulfamate absorbs moisture from the air and must be stored in a dry place. ammonium sulfamate is dissolved in water at the rate of ounces per gallon and sprayed on the leaves until they are wet but not dripping. the foliage begins to wilt within hours, but the action is slow, and a week or more may elapse before the leaves die. some new growth may be expected after to weeks, and this should be sprayed as soon as the new leaves are fully expanded. two or occasionally three such retreatments are needed before the kill is complete. = , -d ( , -dichlorophenoxyacetic acid).=--this chemical under the abbreviated name , -d, or dcp, is a recent addition to the list of effective weed killers and may become an important weapon for use against poison-ivy. it should not be confused with ddt or dd, two other new agricultural chemicals, the first an insecticide and the second used as a soil fumigant. under wartime restrictions the use of , -d was very limited, but its prospective value is so great that those interested in the control of poison-ivy should be informed about it. the chemical , -d is one of the so-called "plant hormones," or "growth regulators." in minute quantities it stimulates some of the plant functions, but in slightly larger dosage it is toxic. a solution consisting of one-seventh ounce in gallon of water sprayed on poison-ivy foliage kills all leaves hit and may kill the roots. in the concentration used in weed killing , -d is not believed to be harmful to animal life, but until this point can be thoroughly clarified the chemical should be used with reasonable caution to avoid poisoning. , -d is not flammable and is not corrosive to spray machinery. if the sprayer is used also for insecticides and fungicides it must be washed very thoroughly to remove the slightest trace of the , -d. this is very difficult, however; it is safer to use another sprayer. to make a spray solution , -d must be combined with other chemicals, as it is not soluble in water. a number of substances, including polyethelene glycols and naphthenic soaps, have been used for this purpose, but the best solvent has not yet been determined. commercial weed killers containing , -d are of varying composition. =ammonium thiocyanate.=--this byproduct of the coal-gas industry is one of the newer herbicides. the crude commercial chemical is a pink or reddish salt, very soluble in water. it does not keep well, tends to disintegrate into a red, sludgy mass, and is difficult and disagreeable to handle. a purer form in clean white crystals is available and is well worth the slight extra cost. in either form ammonium thiocyanate is injurious to the skin and to leather articles, and in time it corrodes metals. the spray solution is made by dissolving to ½ pounds of ammonium thiocyanate in gallon of water. most annual, plants and some perennials are killed by a single application of ammonium thiocyanate. poison-ivy usually requires three or four treatments. ammonium thiocyanate has a high content of nitrogen, much of which remains in the soil and eventually becomes a fertilizer. thus an area treated with this chemical is likely to produce a profuse growth of annual weeds a month or two after treatment. =borax.=--common borax scattered on the soil is deadly to the roots of many plants. spread dry at the rate of to pounds per square rod, it kills poison-ivy slowly over a period of to weeks. a second somewhat lighter treatment to months later is usually necessary to kill all plants completely. borax is easy to handle, nonpoisonous, and nonflammable, readily obtainable, and not expensive. it is one of the best chemicals to use around stone walls, rocky ledges, fences, and other inaccessible places. plants differ greatly in their resistance to borax. some species, as virginia creeper and deep-rooted trees, do not seem to be injured, but others, notably dogwood, are very sensitive to it. until more complete information is available as to the effect of borax on other plants, it should be employed on poison-ivy only where possible damage to surrounding vegetation is not objectionable. =carbon disulfide.=--the fumes of this pungent, volatile liquid are very poisonous to plants, and the chemical is widely used in the west to kill deep-rooted perennial weeds. when poison-oak, particularly, is growing in a mixture with wild morning-glory (bind-weed) or similar noxious weeds, both plants may often be killed at one operation by treating the soil with carbon disulfide. holes ordinarily inches deep and inches apart in all directions are punched in the soil with a -inch iron bar, and ounces of carbon disulfide are poured in each hole. the openings are closed immediately with a wooden club. this dosage equals pounds of the chemical per square rod. carbon disulfide is likely to be less effective on shallow-rooted than on deep-rooted plants and is therefore of limited value against poison-ivy, which is surface-rooted. =carbon disulfide is poisonous, and as it is also highly flammable it should be handled as carefully as gasoline.= =coal-tar creosote oil.=--in the fractional distillation of coal, many oils and oillike substances are obtained, some of which are very toxic to plants. the most common and usually the cheapest is the creosote used for wood preservation. this substance has great penetrating power and is an excellent herbicide on woody plants like poison-ivy. ordinarily creosote oil is too expensive to use alone and is therefore mixed with some kind of petroleum oil. a mixture of percent fuel oil and percent creosote oil is almost as effective as straight creosote and is made at one-third the cost. two applications of this mixture at an interval of about weeks usually kill a high percentage of poison-ivy. creosote is not selective and kills all plants alike. _fuel oil (diesel and similar oils)._--crude petroleum is refined into many kinds of oil, and those corresponding to fuel oil. diesel oil, stovetop oil, and orchard-heating oil are more injurious to plants than crude oil itself or the higher distillates, such as gasoline and kerosene. fuel oils are widely used for destroying vegetation, particularly by highway departments in states having oil resources. when sprayed on poison-ivy, fuel oil brings about a slow but fairly sure death of the plants. two or three applications may be necessary before the roots are killed. fuel oil, like creosote, must be used with care around valuable trees and shrubs because it penetrates the bark and kills or injures all species. as used for poison-ivy spraying there is no injury to the soil. the oil-soaked vegetation is flammable. =sodium chlorate.=--sodium chlorate is the standard herbicide for killing deep-rooted perennial weeds like bindweed, but when used as a spray, it is a dangerous fire hazard, and when applied dry, it sterilizes the soil for to years. where sterilization of the soil is desirable or not objectionable, one application of the dry chemical, evenly at the rate of to pounds per square rod, is sufficient for a complete kill. if used as a foliage spray on poison-ivy, the chemical is dissolved in water at the rate of to ounces per gallon. the leaves are killed within a few hours, but the plants are likely to make a strong new growth and may require as many as six treatments before they cease to produce new leaves. =sodium chlorate mixed with wood, cloth, or other organic materials is highly combustible and easily ignited. shoes and clothing on which chlorate solution has been allowed to dry are especially dangerous, for they will ignite and burn with explosive fury. contaminated clothing should be kept wet until thoroughly washed in a large volume of water. chlorate should be stored only in original metal containers, as any admixture of chlorate, wet or dry, with straw, wood, dust, cloth, or leather has properties similar to those of gunpowder or matches.= =sodium arsenite.=--sodium arsenite is one of the most powerful plant poisons known and is widely used for sterilizing soil on railroads, roadways, and other places where no vegetation of any kind is desired. it is relatively inexpensive. in normal times sodium arsenite is obtainable in both powder and liquid form. in weak solution ( to ounces per gallon of water) the chemical can be used as a spray to destroy poison-ivy. like sodium chlorate spray, it kills the leaves but not the roots, and five or six treatments may be required. the solution kills the leaves of all plants impartially and will also kill the young tender bark of shrubs and trees. this may be either an advantage or a disadvantage, depending upon circumstances. =all compounds containing arsenic are deadly poisons if taken internally. arsenical sprays and chemicals should not be used where there is any possibility that materials sprayed with them will be eaten by animals or man. in some communities special permission must be obtained before arsenical weed killers may be used.= eradication by mechanical means poison-ivy can be grubbed out by hand quite readily early in spring and late in fall. when the ground is soft after rains the roots come out in long pieces. grubbing when the soil is dry and hard is almost futile, since the roots break off in the ground, leaving large pieces that later sprout vigorously. eradication by grubbing is permanent if well done. because of his close contact with the plants, the person doing the grubbing should have a high degree of immunity to ivy-poisoning. many people are not so immune as they believe, and it is common sense to wear leather gloves with gauntlets and a shirt with long sleeves. if care is taken to prevent the poison-ivy from touching the face, and if the clothes, including the gloves, are burned or thoroughly washed after use, severe poisoning may be avoided. poison-ivy vines climbing on trees should be severed at the base and as much of the vine as possible pulled away from the tree. often the roots of the tree and weed are so intertwined that grubbing is impossible without injury to the tree. close mowing of the poison-ivy shoots at frequent intervals is the only remedy. roots and stems removed in grubbing should be burned or otherwise destroyed, since the dry material is almost as poisonous as the fresh. care must be taken to keep out of the smoke. old plants of poison-ivy produce an abundance of seeds, and these are freely disseminated, especially by birds. a poison-ivy seedling months old usually has a root that one mowing will not kill. seedling plants at the end of the first year have well-established underground runners that only grubbing or chemicals will kill. seedlings are a constant threat as long as old poison-ivy is in the neighborhood. plowing is of little value in combating poison-ivy unless followed by persistent stirring with a cultivator or harrow, to keep all roots loosened from the soil. otherwise plowing merely propagates the weed. mowing with a scythe or sickle is a common method of attacking poison-ivy, but it has little effect on the roots unless frequently repeated. the number of cuttings required to kill depends upon the age of the plants and the size of the roots, but is seldom less than four. new shoots should be cut as soon as the first leaf on each stem is full size. cutting either earlier or later delays eradication. weed burners are implements resembling oversize blowtorches. two types are manufactured, one producing a short, hot, blue flame and the other a long smoky-yellow flame. both are useful for destroying foliage. neither is likely to kill perennial plants like poison-ivy at one operation, even though the flame is held on the weeds for a minute or more until leaves and stems are completely incinerated. the roots are not injured by this, and new leafy shoots soon develop. a better plan is to "sear" the plants by passing the flame slowly over the vines just long enough to sear or wilt the leaves, but not long enough to burn them. the roots appear to be injured more by "searing" than completely burning the leaves, and the operation is quicker and cheaper. three to four searings when the leaves reach full size usually kill the roots. u. s. government printing office: -- for sale by the superintendent of documents, u. s. government printing office, washington , d. c. * * * * * transcriber notes all illustrations were moved so as to not split paragraphs. the botanical magazine; or, flower-garden displayed: in which the most ornamental foreign plants, cultivated in the open ground, the greenhouse, and the stove, are accurately represented in their natural colours. to which are added, their names, class, order, generic and specific characters, according to the celebrated linnæus; their places of growth, and times of flowering: together with the most approved methods of culture. a work intended for the use of such ladies, gentlemen, and gardeners, as wish to become scientifically acquainted with the plants they cultivate. by _william curtis_, author of the flora londinensis. vol. ix. "but softer tasks divide florella's hours; "to watch the buds just op'ning on the day; "with welcome shade to screen the languid flowers, "that sicken in the summer's parching ray. "oft will she stoop amidst her evening walk, "with tender hand each bruised plant to rear; "to bind the drooping lily's broken stalk, "and nurse the blossoms of the infant year." mrs. barbauld. _london_: printed by stephen couchman, for w. curtis, n^o , _st. george's crescent_, black-friars-road; and sold by the principal booksellers in great-britain and ireland. m dcc xcv. [ ] convolvulus linearis. narrow-leaved convolvulus. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ campanulata, plicata. _stigmata_ . _caps._ -locularis: loculis dispermis. _specific character._ convolvulus _linearis_ caulibus erectis fruticosis, foliis linearibus acutis piloso-sericeis, floribus terminalibus umbellato-paniculatis, calycibus pilosis. [illustration: n^o. ] the plant here represented has long been cultivated as a greenhouse plant in this country under the name of _convolvulus cantabrica_, but it differs so essentially from that plant, as figured and described by prof. jacquin in his _flora austr._ and accords so little with the other species described by linnæus, that we have been induced to regard it as a perfectly distinct species; in most points it agrees with _convolvulus cneorum_, but differs in having leaves much narrower, more pointed, and less silky. it strikes most readily from cuttings, is a hardy greenhouse plant, and flowers during most of the summer, qualities which many of the modern and more shewy greenhouse plants cannot boast. the precise time of its introduction here, together with its particular place of growth, we have not as yet been able satisfactorily to ascertain. [ ] amaryllis lutea. yellow amaryllis. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ hexapetaloidea, irregularis. _filamenta_ fauci tubi inserta, declinata, inæqualia proportione vel directione. _linn. fil._ _specific character and synonyms._ amaryllis _lutea_ spatha indivisa obtusa, flore sessili, corolla campanulata erecta basi breve tubulosa, staminibus erectis, alternis brevioribus. _linn. fil. ait. kew. v. . p. ._ colchicum luteum majus. _bauh. pin. p. ._ narcissus autumnalis major. the greater autumne or winter daffodill. _park. parad. p. . . f. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] the amaryllis lutea is a hardy perennial bulbous plant, a native of spain, and other of the more southern parts of europe, and was cultivated in our gardens in the time of gerard, and parkinson. flora, who commences her revolutionary reign, by enlivening the flower border with the spring crocus, and its numerous varieties, terminates it with flowers equally pleasing, and of similar hues; thus we have the present plant, the saffron crocus, and the colchicum, flowering nearly at the same time, from the end of september, through october, and sometimes part of november. similar as the amaryllis is to the yellow spring crocus, in the colour, and form of its flowers, it differs obviously in the number of its stamina, the breadth of its leaves, and the size and colour of its root. authors describe it as varying in size, in the breadth of its leaves, the height of its flowers, and multiplication of the corolla. the dutch florists export it under the title of yellow colchicum, following the name of some of the old writers. it succeeds best in a soil moderately moist, in which it increases considerably by offsets, and flowers to the most advantage when the roots have remained for some few years undisturbed in the same spot. [ ] capparis spinosa. the caper shrub. _class and order._ polyandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus, coriaceus. _petala_ . _stamina_ longa. _bacca_ corticosa, unilocularis, pedunculata. _specific character and synonyms._ capparis _spinosa_ pedunculis unifloris solitariis, stipulis spinosis, foliis annuis, capsulis ovalibus. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ capparis _spinosa_ fructu minore, folio rotundo. _bauh. pin. p. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] we are happy in having it in our power to lay before our readers a representation of the caper shrub, whose blossoms are rarely seen in this country, though its flower-buds are in very general use as a pickle; indeed, so great is their consumption, that they form a very considerable article of commerce. the plant grows spontaneously in the more southern parts of europe, especially in italy and the levant; in its wild state it forms a shrub of low growth, having numerous, spreading, spinous branches, somewhat thickly beset with smooth roundish leaves; the blossoms grow alternately on the branches, and when the plant begins to flower, one opens generally every other morning, but so delicate are its parts, that on a hot summer's day it fades before noon: the petals are white; the filaments, which are extremely numerous, are white below, and of a rich purple above; in these the beauty of the flower chiefly consists, as in the pistillum or pointal does its great singularity; at first view, one would be led to conclude, that the part so conspicuous in the centre of the flower was the style terminated by the stigma in the usual way; but if we trace this part of the flower to a more advanced state, we shall perceive, that what we took for the style, was merely an elongation of the flower-stalk, and what we took for the stigma, was in reality the germen placed on it, crowned with a minute stigma, without any intervening style; this germen swells, turns downward, and ultimately becomes the seed-vessel, rarely ripening in this country. miller observes, that these plants are with difficulty preserved in england, for they delight to grow in crevices of rocks, and the joints of old walls and ruins, and always thrive best in an horizontal position; so that when they are planted either in pots or the full ground, they rarely thrive, though they may be kept alive for many years. it flowers in may and june, and is usually raised from seeds. mr. aiton regards it as a greenhouse plant, and informs us that it was cultivated by gerard in . [ ] passerina grandiflora. great-flowered passerina. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ . _cor._ -fida. _stamina_ tubo imposita. _sem._ . corticatum. _specific character and synonyms._ passerina _grandiflora_ glaberrima, foliis oblongis acutis concavis extrinsecus rugosis, floribus terminalibus sessilibus solitariis. _linn. suppl. pl. p. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] the _passerina_ here figured, distinguished from all the other known species by the largeness of its flowers, is described in the _suppl. pl._ of the younger linnæus, but not enumerated in the _hortus kewensis_ of mr. aiton: it is indeed a plant recently introduced to this country from the cape; we saw it last summer in great perfection, at messrs. lee and kennedy's, hammersmith; it forms a small neat shrub, somewhat like the _phylica ericoides_, is a hardy greenhouse plant, flowering in may and june, and increased without difficulty from cuttings. [ ] catananche cærulea. blue catananche. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia Æqualis. _generic character._ _recept._ paleaceum. _cal._ imbricatus. _pappus_ aristatus, caliculo seto. _specific character and synonyms._ catananche cærulea squamis calicis inferioribus ovatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ chondrilla cærulea cyani capitulo. _bauh. pin. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] the _catananche cærulea_ is a native of the south of france, where it grows in hilly situations that are stony: it is a perennial herbaceous plant, moderately hardy, and has long been cultivated in our gardens, mr. aiton says, by parkinson in : miller, who treats of it in his dictionary, describes it as a pretty ornament to a garden, and one that is easily kept within bounds; there is certainly much about it to excite our admiration, more especially in the structure of the calyx, and the florets: the flowers, which are of a pale blue colour with a dark eye, make their appearance from july to october. it is propagated by seeds, which miller recommends to be sown in the spring; the seedlings should be transplanted in the autumn, into the borders where they are to remain; it may also be increased by slips: the plant requires a situation moderately dry, and is most productive of flowers and seeds when it stands long in one spot. in the th _edit._ of the _systema vegetab._ of prof. murray, mention is made of a variety with double flowers, which we believe has not been seen in this country. [ ] amaryllis sarniensis. guernsey amaryllis. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ hexapetaloidea irregularis. _filamenta_ fauci tubi inserta declinata inæqualia proportione vel directione. _linn. fil. ait. kew. p. ._ _specific character and synonyms._ amaryllis _sarniensis_, petalis linearibus planis, staminibus pistilloque rectiusculis corolla longioribus, stigmatibus partitis revolutis. _linn. fil. ait. kew. v. . p. . thunb. jap. p. ._ lilium sarniense. _dougl. monogr. t. , ._ narcissus japonicus rutilo flore. _corn. canad. kæmpf. amæn. p. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] the guernsey lily, as it is most commonly called, is originally a native of japan; where it is described to grow by kæmpfer and thunberg, who visited that island, the latter says on the hills about nagasaki, from thence roots are said to have been introduced to the garden of johannes morinus at paris, in which it flowered, october : its introduction to this country, which was subsequent to that date, as dr. douglass relates in his _monographia_ on this plant, "happened by a very singular melancholy accident, of which dr. morison, who no doubt had it from some persons then residing in guernsey, gives us the following account: a dutch or english ship, it is uncertain which, coming from japan, with some of the roots of this flower on board, was cast away on the island of guernsey; the roots were thrown upon a sandy shore, and so by the force of the winds and waves, were soon buried in sand; there they remained for some years, and afterwards, to the great surprise and admiration of the inhabitants, the flowers appeared in all their pomp and beauty." some of these soon made their appearance in this country: mr. aiton relates, that the plant was cultivated here in , by general lambert, at wimbledon. fatal as guernsey proved to the unfortunate mariners, it afforded the roots of our plant a soil and situation apparently congenial to their own; in that island they have flourished ever since, there they are propagated in the open borders of the flower-garden with the least possible trouble, flowering most readily, but we believe never producing any ripe seeds; from thence most of the roots which flower with the curious here, are yearly imported in the autumn. in guernsey, the cold of the winter is far less intense than with us; many of those plants which we keep in our greenhouses, stand with them in the open ground; the superior mildness of the climate enables them to cultivate this plant with more success than we can do, even perhaps with all the expence and trouble to which we might subject ourselves; to such, however, whose situations may be favourable, and who may be fond of making experiments, we recommend the perusal of fairchild's directions, a practical gardener of great ingenuity, and who appears to have had much experience in the culture of this plant[a]. it is usual to plant the imported bulbs in pots of sand, or light loam, as soon as they arrive, and place them in the parlour window, or greenhouse; they blossom in september and october; the flowers, which continue about a month in perfection, are inodorous, but make up for that deficiency by the superior splendour of their colours: dr. douglass thus describes them, each flower when in its prime looks like a fine gold tissue wrought on a rose-coloured ground, but when it begins to fade and decay, it looks more like a silver tissue, or what they call a pink colour: when we look upon the flower in full sun-shine, each leaf appears to be studded with thousands of little diamonds, sparkling and glittering with a most surprising and agreeable lustre; but if we view the same by candle-light, these numerous specks or spangles look more like fine gold dust. both kæmpfer and thunberg agree, that the japanese regard the root as poisonous. [footnote a: "they love a light earth, made with dung and sand, and a little lime rubbish with it does very well, it keeps the roots sound; for if the earth be too stiff or wet, you may keep them for many years before they blow. if they are in pots, they should be put in the house in winter, to keep them from the severe frosts, which are apt to rot the roots. the time of moving them is when they have no leaves on the root, that is from june to august: those that come with six leaves this year, seldom fail blowing the next year: they need not be put in fresh earth above once in two or three years: by this method of management i have had the same roots blow again in four years time. the many miscarriages that happen to the guernsey lily, are by letting the leaves be killed by the fierceness of the frost in winter, or by cutting them off, as some people do, when they are green, which will so much weaken the plants, that they may keep them twenty years and not have them blow; by the above management, where there is a stock, there will be continually some blowing. "miller recommends for these roots the following compost: take a third-part of fresh virgin earth from a pasture-ground which is light, then put near an equal part of sea-sand, to which you should add rotten dung and sifted lime rubbish, of each an equal quantity." the great business in the culture of this flower, next to a proper soil and situation, seems to consist in giving the plant as much air as possible, and in preserving the foliage in the winter from the injury of frost.] [ ] agrostemma c[oe]li rosa. smooth-leav'd cockle, or rose campion. _class and order._ decandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus, coriaceus. _petala_ unguiculata: limbo obtuso indiviso. _caps._ locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ agrostemma _coeli rosa_ glabra, foliis lineari-lanceolatis, petalis emarginatis coronatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ lychnis segetum, nigellastrum minus glabrum dicta, flore eleganter rubello. _moris. hist. . p. . s. . t. . f. ._ lychnis pseudomelanthiis similis africana glabra angustifolia. _herm. leyd. . t. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] mr. aiton informs us in his _hortus kewensis_, that the charming annual here figured, the liveliness of whose colours no paint can express, was cultivated by miller in ; seeing it is a plant of such beauty, and honoured with so distinguished an appellation, it is singular that it should not by this time have made its way more generally into our gardens. the cockle of our corn-fields is an ornamental plant, the present species resembles it; but while the plant itself is much smaller, its flowers are proportionably larger, and their colours more vivid. it is an annual of ready growth, a native of sicily and the levant, flowering in july and august, and ripening its seeds in september and october. it appears to most advantage when several plants of it grow together; the best mode, therefore, is to sow about a dozen seeds early in april on the several spots of the flower-border where you intend they shall remain; no other care is necessary than to keep the plants free from weeds and vermin. the _agr. coeli rosa_ of _miller's gard. dict. ed. to._ is the _coronaria_. [ ] sempervivum tortuosum. gouty houseleek. _class and order._ dodecandria dodecagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -partitus. _petala_ . _capsulæ_ polyspermæ. _specific character._ sempervivum _tortuosum_ foliis obovatis subtus gibbis villosis, nectariis bilobis. _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] we know of no figure of this plant, the first and only account of which is to be found in the _hort. kew._ of mr. aiton; there it is specifically described, and from thence we discover that it was introduced from the canary islands, where it is a native, by mr. masson, in . it is a shrubby plant of low growth, producing numerous fleshy leaves growing thickly together, which being evergreen, and making a pretty appearance the year through, render the plant worthy a place in all general collections at least, of greenhouse plants; and though it cannot vie with many of the more shewy high-priced novelties, it is an abiding plant, not subject to casualties, while many of those are here to day and gone to morrow. it throws up its flowering stems, supporting numerous, starry, stonecrop-like flowers, in july and august, and is most readily propagated by cuttings. it is one of those species of houseleek which connect the genera _sedum_ & _sempervivum_. [ ] dianthus superbus. superb pink. _class and order._ decandria digynia. _generic character._ _cal._ cylindricus, -phyllus: basi squamis . _petala_ unguiculata. _caps._ cylindrica, -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ dianthus _superbus_ floribus paniculatis: squamis calycinis brevibus acuminatis, corollis multifido-capillaribus, caule erecto. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . murr. p. ._ caryophyllus simplex alter, flore laciniato odoratissimo. _bauh. pin. ._ caryophyllus plumarius austriacus sive superba austriaca. the feathered pinke of austria. _park. parad. p. . ._ [illustration: n^o. ] many of the plants of this genus diffuse an agreeable odour, which renders them most desirable objects for the flower-garden: this quality the present species possesses in a superior degree to most others; a few of its flowers communicate to a nosegay a delicate and most delicious smell, or placed in a vial of water they will even scent a small apartment[b]: it is to be regretted, however, that the blossoms, unless placed in water, from their extreme delicacy, flag soon after they are gathered. it may be doubted whether the _dianthus superbus_ of _miller's dict. ed. . to._ be our plant; if it be, the description is not drawn up with that accuracy which distinguishes his descriptions in general; the mode of culture, however, which he recommends is strictly applicable to it, as the plant rarely continues in vigour more than two years, and as it is in its greatest beauty the first year of its flowering, he recommends that young plants should be annually raised for succession from seeds, which are plentifully produced; the seeds of this plant ought therefore to be kept in the shops with annuals and biennials. the _dianthus superbus_ is a native of germany, switzerland, france, and denmark: clusius found it growing in the moist meadows about vienna, and on the borders of woods adjoining to such, with some of its flowers white, others purplish; parkinson describes them of these two colours, but says the most ordinary with us are pure white, which is contrary to what we now find them: they are rarely produced before august, from which period they will continue frequently to blossom till october. the spring is the best time for sowing its seeds; the plants require no very nice or particular treatment. [footnote b: this fragrance has been noticed by all the old authors who have treated of the plant: clusius describes the flowers as _suavissimi odoris et è longinquo nares ferientis_, of which words parkinson's are almost a literal translation "of a most fragrant sent, comforting the spirits and senses afarre off."] [ ] origanum dictamnus. dittany of crete. _class and order._ didynamia gymnospermia. _generic character._ _strobilus_ tetragonus, spicatus, calyces colligens. _specific character and synonyms._ origanum _dictamnus_ foliis inferioribus tomentosis, spicis nutantibus. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. p. ._ dittany of candia. dictamnus creticus. _bauh. pin. p. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] by the name of dittany of crete, the species of origanum here figured, has long been known in this country as a medicinal plant; to the purposes of physic it still indeed continues to be applied, as imported in a dried state from the levant: when bruised, the whole plant gives forth an aromatic fragrance, highly grateful; as an ornamental plant, it has also been long, and is now, very generally cultivated in this country. turner, whose herbal was printed in , writes thus concerning it, "i have sene it growynge in england in maister riches gardin naturally, but it groweth no where ellis that i know of, saving only in candy." as at this period no idea was entertained of a greenhouse, the plant must have been cultivated in the open ground, where it would doubtless grow readily, if secured from the severity of the weather, it being more hardy than many plants usually kept in greenhouses. this plant is at all times ornamental, but more particularly so when in flower, in which state it appears during most of the summer and autumnal months. it is usually increased by cuttings, which strike readily. [ ] hermannia alnifolia. alder-leaved hermannia. _class and order._ monadelphia pentandria. _generic character._ pentagyna. _caps._ -locularis. _petala_ basi semitubulata, obliqua. _specific character and synonyms._ hermannia _alnifolia_ foliis cuneiformibus lineatis plicatis crenato-emarginatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ arbuscula africana tricapsularis ononidis vernæ singulari folio. _pluk. mant. . t. . f. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] _hermannia_ is a genus of plants named in honour of dr. paul herman, a dutch botanist of great celebrity, author of the _paradisus batavus_, and other valuable works: twenty-six species are enumerated in the th edition of the _syst. naturæ_ of linnæus by prof. gmelin, and eight in the _hortus kewensis_ of mr. aiton; most of those in the latter work are cultivated in the nurseries near town: they form a set of the more hardy greenhouse plants, grow readily, and flower freely; their blossoms are for the most part yellow, and have a considerable affinity with those of the _mahernia_. the present species flowers very early in the spring, from february to may, producing a great profusion of bloom during that period; is a native of the cape, and was cultivated by mr. miller, in . it rarely ripens its seeds with us, but is readily increased by cuttings. the nurserymen near town regard this plant as the _grossularifolia_ of linnæus, calling another, equally common species, with longer and narrower leaves, _alnifolia_, and which does not appear to be described by linnæus or mentioned by mr. aiton; our plant accords exactly with the linnæan description of _alnifolia_, and there is we think no doubt of its being the _alnifolia_ of the _hortus kewensis_, and mr. miller's _dictionary_. [ ] gnaphalium eximium. giant cudweed. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia superflua. _generic character._ _recept._ nudum. _pappus_ plumosus vel capillaris. _cal._ imbricatus, squamis marginalibus rotundatis, scariosis, coloratis. _specific character and synonyms._ gnaphalium _eximium_ foliis sessilibus ovatis confertis erectis tomentosis, corymbo sessili. _linn. mant. pl. p. ._ _syst. nat. ed. . gmel._ elychrysum africanum foliis lanceolatis integris tomentosis decurrentibus, capitulus congestis ex rubello aureis. _edw. av. t. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] in the summer of , towards the end of july, the gnaphalium here figured, the most magnificent and shewy of all the species hitherto introduced to this country, flowered in great perfection at messrs. lee and kennedy's, hammersmith: mr. lee informs me, that he raised it from seeds given him by capt. william paterson, author of a narrative of four journeys into the country of the hottentots, and caffraria, and who has most laudably exerted himself in introducing many new and interesting plants to this country; this gentleman assured mr. lee, that the plant was found in a wild state, five hundred miles from the cape, on the borders of the caffre country, from whence the natives bring bundles of the dried plant to the cape as presents; in the state the plant has long since been imported from that fertile coast: if we mistake not, a specimen of this sort is figured in petiver's works, and a coloured representation is given of it in edwards's history of birds, taken from a dried plant, brought from the cape, by capt. isaac worth, in . the plants we saw were about a foot and a half high, the stalks shrubby, and but little branched; the foliage and flowers as represented on the plate. several of the gnaphaliums it is well known are liable to be killed by moisture, especially in the winter season; during that time, this plant in particular, should be kept as dry as possible, and, if convenient, on a shelf, separate from the other plants of the greenhouse; when it is necessary to give it water, it should never come in contact with the foliage or flowers: with these precautions it may be kept very well in a good greenhouse, in which it should remain, even during summer. it may be raised from seeds, and also from cuttings. [ ] melianthus minor. small melianthus, or honey-flower. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus: folio inferiore gibbo. _petala_ : nectario infra infima. _caps._ -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ melianthus _minor_ stipulis geminis distinctis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ melianthus africanus minor foetidus. _comm. rar. . t. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] there are few flowers that do not secrete from some kind of a glandular substance, honey, or nectar, to a greater or smaller amount; in those of the present genus, this liquid is particularly abundant, even dropping from the flowers of the _major_, in considerable quantity; in the present species it flows not so copiously, but is retained in the lower part of the blossom, and is of a dark brown colour, an unusual phenomenon. there are only two species of this genus described, the _major_ and the _minor_, both of which are cultivated in our nurseries; the _major_ is by far the most common, the most hardy, and the most ornamental plant; its foliage indeed is peculiarly elegant: this species will succeed in the open border, especially if placed at the foot of a wall with a south or south-west aspect, taking care to cover the root to a considerable depth with rotten tan in severe frosts: the _minor_ is always kept in the greenhouse, in which, when it has acquired a certain age, it flowers regularly in the spring, and constantly so, as far as we have observed of the plants in chelsea garden; mr. aiton says in august, and commelin the summer through. the _melianthus minor_ grows to the height of three, four, or five feet; its stem, which is shrubby, during the flowering season is apt to exhibit a naked appearance, having fewer leaves on it at that period, and those not of their full size; but this, perhaps, may in some degree be owing to the plant's being placed at the back of others. the foliage when bruised has an unpleasant smell. it is a native of the cape, and, according to mr. aiton, was cultivated by the duchess of beaufort, in ; is propagated readily by cuttings. [ ] mimosa myrtifolia. myrtle-leaved mimosa. _class and order._ polyandria monogynia. _generic character._ _flores_ mere masculi reliquis intersiti. _cal._ -dentatus. _cor._ -fida aut . _stamina_ -locularis. _legumen. linn. syst. nat. ed. . gmel._ _specific character._ mimosa _myrtifolia_ foliis ovato-lanceolatis obliquis undulatis acuminatis margine cartilagineis: primordialibus pinnatis. _smith trans. linn. soc. v. . p. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] the seeds of this species of mimosa having been sent over in plenty, with some of the first vegetable productions of new south-wales, and growing readily, the plant has been raised by many cultivators in this country; mr. hoy, gardener to the duke of northumberland, produced a specimen of it in flower at a meeting of the linnean society in ; it is a shrub of quick growth, and a ready blower: a plant of it in the stove of chelsea-garden has this year (may , ) produced ripe pods, and perfect seeds. in the greenhouse, where it flowers from february to april, the blossoms go off without shewing any tendency to produce fruit. it is first described by dr. smith, in the transactions of the linnean society; the leaves in the plants that have fallen under our notice have not accorded exactly with those he has described, having neither been of a glaucous green colour, according to the usual acceptation of that term, nor very much undulated; and though those of an individual plant may have presented such an appearance, we are persuaded they do not do so generally when growing and in good health. the foliage is usually edged with red, and the flowers are fragrant. [ ] erica ampullacea. flask heath. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _cor._ -fida. _filamenta_ receptaculo inserta. _antheræ_ apice bifidæ, pertusæ. _caps._ -locularis, -valvis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ erica _ampullacea_ foliis ciliatis mucronatis, bractæis coloratis, floribus umbellatis subquaternis erecto-patentibus, stylo exserto. [illustration: n^o. ] the erica here figured has some affinity in the form of its flowers to the _e. ventricosa_, as these in their shape resemble a flask or bottle, especially of that kind in which water is usually kept, we have named it _ampullacea_; it is of very modern introduction. on the th of june , we had the pleasure to see a small plant of this species in flower, with mr. williams, nurseryman, turnham-green, an unwearied and ingenious cultivator of this beautiful tribe of plants in particular, the richness of whose collection will appear in the subsequent list; by him it was raised from cape seeds, though not more than the height of ten inches, it produced eighteen branches, most of which put forth flowers at their summits; we counted sixty-six blossoms on this small plant. the leaves are short, linear, somewhat triangular, rigid, edged with fine crooked hairs, very visible when magnified, and terminating in a mucro or point, on the older branches recurved and mostly eight-rowed; each branch is usually terminated by four or five flowers, at first growing closely together, and covered so strongly with a glutinous substance, as to look as if varnished, and which is so adhesive as to catch ants and small flies; as the flowering advances, they separate more widely from each other, and finally a young branch grows out of the centre from betwixt them; the true calyx is composed of four lanceolate leaves, sitting close to and glued as it were to the corolla; besides these, there are several other leaves, which might be mistaken for those of the calyx, but which may with more propriety be called bracteæ or floral-leaves; some of these, like the calyx, are wholly red, others red and green mixed together, and broader than the leaves of the plant; the flowers are about an inch and a quarter in length, inflated below, and contracted above into a long narrow neck, dilating again so as to form a kind of knob, in which the antheræ are contained, just below the limb, which divides into four somewhat ovate obtuse segments, the upper side of these segments is of a very pale flesh colour, the under side of them as well as the dilated part just below them bright red, the body of the flower flesh colour, marked with eight longitudinal stripes, of a deeper hue; filaments eight, antheræ within the tube; style projecting about the eighth of an inch beyond the corolla; stigma, a round glutinous head. the flowers as they decay become of a deeper red colour, and finally pale brown, still retaining their form and appearing to advantage;--hitherto the plant has produced no seeds here, is increased with difficulty either by cuttings or layers, but with most certainty in the latter way. * * * * * a catalogue of heaths, cultivated and sold by richard williams, at his nursery, _turnham-green, middlesex_. erica. * abietina. albens. * ampullacea. arborea. ---- var. squarrosa. articularis. australis. baccans. * banksii. canescens. capitata. caffra. cernua. * cerinthoides. cinerea. ---- var. fl. albo. ciliaris. * coccinea. comosa. ---- var. fl. rubro. * conspicua. corifolia. * cruenta. cubica. * curviflora. denticulata. * discolor. * elata. empetrifolia. * fascicularis. * formosa. fucata. * grandiflora. * halicacaba. herbacea. incarnata. incana. lateralis. lutea. * mammosa. ---- var. fl. purp. margaritacea. ---- var. fl. rubro. marifolia. mediterranea. * massoni. minima. * monadelphia. * monsoniana. mucosa. multiflora. ---- var. fl. albo. * muscari. * nudiflora. parviflora. * pattersoni. persoluta. ---- var. fl. rubro. * petiveri. physodes. * pinifolia. planifolia. * plukenetii. pubescens. pyramidalis. quadriflora. ramentacea. regerminans. scoparia. * sessiliflora. * simpliciflora. * sparrmanni. * spicata. stricta. taxifolia. tetralix. ---- var. fl. albo. thymifolia. triflora. ---- var. fl. albo. * tubiflora. umbellata. urceolaris. vagans. * ventricosa. * versicolor. * verticillata. * vestita. virgata. vulgaris. ---- var. fl. albo. n.b. _those marked with an asterisk have tubular flowers._ [ ] hermannia lavendulifolia. lavender-leaved hermannia. _class and order._ monadelphia pentandria. _generic character._ pentagyna. _caps._ -locularis. _petala_ basi semitubulata, obliqua. _specific character and synonyms._ hermannia _lavendulifolia_ foliis lanceolatis obtusis integerrimis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ hermannia frutescens folio lavendulæ latiore et obtuso flore parvo aureo boerh. _dill. hort. elth. t. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] the _hermannia_ here figured is a plant of humble growth, forming a small bushy shrub, a foot or a foot and a half in height, and producing numerous flowers thinly scattered over the branches, the greatest part of the summer; it is this disposition which it has of flowering so freely, that renders it a desirable plant for the greenhouse, in which it is commonly kept, and of which it is an old inhabitant. dillenius has figured it in his admirable work the _hortus elthamensis_, published in ; hence we learn that it was cultivated in mr. sherard's celebrated garden at eltham prior to that date. it is a native of the cape, and is readily increased by cuttings. [ ] amaryllis equestris. barbadoes amaryllis, or lily. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ hexapetaloidea, irregularis. _filamenta_ fauci tubi inserta, declinata, inæqualia proportione vel directione. _linn. fil._ _specific character and synonyms._ amaryllis _equestris_ spatha subbiflora, pedicellis erectis spatha brevioribus, tubo siliformi horizontali, limbo oblique patulo sursum curvo, fauce, pilosa. _linn. fil. ait. kew. v. . p. ._ amaryllis dubia _linn. am. ac. . p. _. lilium americanum puniceo flore belladonna dictum. _herm. par. bat. p. . cum fig._ [illustration: n^o. ] mr. aiton, in his _hortus kewensis_, has inserted this species of amaryllis, as named and described by the younger linnæus; he informs us, that it is a native of the west-indies, and was introduced by dr. william pitcairn, in : as its time of flowering is not mentioned, we may presume, that it had not blossomed in the royal garden when the publication before mentioned first made its appearance; it no doubt has since, as we have seen it in that state in the collections of several nurserymen, particularly those of mr. grimwood and mr. colvill. it flowers towards the end of april. the flowering stem rises above the foliage, to the height of about a foot or more, produces from one to three flowers, similar to, but not quite so large as those of the mexican amaryllis, to which it is nearly related; it differs however from that plant essentially in this, that the lower part of the flower projects further than the upper, which gives to its mouth that obliquity which linnæus describes. the spatha is composed of two leaves, which standing up at a certain period of the plant's flowering like ears, give to the whole flower a fancied resemblance of a horse's head; whether linnæus derived his name of _equestris_ from this circumstance or not, he does not condescend to inform us. mr. aiton regards it as a greenhouse plant; like those of many of the ixias, however, the bulbs are of the more tender kind. it is propagated by offsets, but not very readily. [ ] othonna pectinata. wormwood-leaved othonna. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia necessaria. _generic character._ _recept._ nudum. _pappus_ subnullus, _cal._ -phyllus multifidus subcylindricus. _specific character and synonyms._ othonna _pectinata_ foliis pinnatifidis: laciniis linearibus parallelis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ jacobÆa africana frutescens, foliis absinthii umbelliferi incanis. _comm. hort. . p. . t. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] the _othonna pectinata_ is a native of africa, a long-established and common plant in greenhouses, having been cultivated by mr. miller, in ; it recommends itself chiefly on account of its foliage, which forms a pleasing contrast to the darker greens of other plants. it flowers in may and june, is moderately hardy, and readily increased by cuttings. in many collections we meet with old plants of it three or four feet high; formerly, when greenhouse plants were few in numbers and the houses large, it might be proper to keep such; but now there is not that necessity, especially since the vast accession of plants from the cape and new-holland, made within these few years. [ ] hermannia althæifolia. marsh-mallow-leaved hermannia. _class and order._ monadelphia pentandria. _generic character._ pentagyna. _caps._ -locularis. _petala_ basi semitubulata, obliqua. _specific character and synonyms._ hermannia _althæifolia_ foliis ovatis crenatis plicatis tomentosis, calycibus florentibus campanulatis angulatis, stipulis oblongis foliaceis. _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ hermannia _althæifolia_ foliis ovatis plicatis crenatis tomentosis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ hermannia capensis althææ folio. _pet. gaz. . t. . f. ._ ketmia africana frutescens foliis mollibus et incanis. _comm. hort. . p. . t. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] the _hermannia althæifolia_, a native of the cape, is a plant of much larger growth than the _lavendulifolia_, rising to the height, if suffered to do so, of three, four, or more feet; its blossoms are proportionably large, and of a deep yellow colour, inclined to orange. it is a plant of free growth, much disposed to produce flowers during most of the summer months; hence it is kept very generally in collections of greenhouse plants: is propagated readily by cuttings. was cultivated by mr. miller, in . _ait. kew._ our readers will see, that the specific description of linnæus has been altered in the _hortus kewensis_, and that it now comprizes all the striking features of the plant. [ ] verbena aubletia. rose vervain. _class and order._ diandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ infundibuliformis subæqualis curva. _calycis_ unico dente truncato. _semina_ s. nuda (_stam._ s. .) _specific character and synonyms._ verbena _aubletia_ tetrandra, spicis laxis solitariis, foliis trifidis incisis. _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ verbena _aubletia_ tetrandra, spicis solitariis, coroliis fasciculatis, foliis cordatis inciso-serratis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _suppl. pl. p. ._ buchnera canadensis _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. . p. ._ verbena _aubletia_. _jacq. hort. v. . p. . t. ._ obletia _journ. de rozier introd. . p. . t. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] it has fallen to the lot of this plant to have an unusual degree of attention bestowed on it by various botanists, and after being regarded as a distinct genus by several, to be finally classed with the _verbena_; in the _supplementum plantarum_ of the younger linnæus it is minutely described. we learn from the _hortus kewensis_ of mr. aiton that it is a native of north-america, introduced by mons. richard in , and that it flowers in june and july. the extreme brilliancy of its colours renders it a very ornamental greenhouse plant, it seldom grows above the height of two feet; in favourable seasons ripens its seeds readily, by which it is usually propagated, being a biennial. [ ] pelargonium echinatum. prickly-stalked geranium. _class and order._ monadelphia heptandria. _generic character._ _cal._ -partitus: lacinia suprema definente in tubulum capillarem nectariferum secus pendunculum decurrentem. _cor._ petala irregularis. _filamenta_ , inæqualia, quorum raro castrata. _fructus_ coccus, rostratus: _rostra_ spiralia, introrsum barbata. _specific character._ perlargonium _echinatum_ caule carnoso, stipulis spinescentibus, foliis cordato-subrotundis - lobis, floribus umbellatis, umbellis subseptemfloris. [illustration: n^o. ] this singular and most beautiful species of pelargonium, recently introduced to this country, this summer flowered with mr. colvill, nurseryman, in the king's-road, chelsea, from one of whose plants our figure and description have been taken. stalk green, surface smooth and somewhat glossy, fleshy, beset with spines which bend back and terminate in brownish somewhat weak points; these appear to have been primarily the stipulæ, which become thus fleshy and rigid, and from this circumstance not altogether peculiar to this species, it takes the name of _echinatum_; the leaves stand on long footstalks, are somewhat heart-shaped, mostly roundish, divided into three or five lobes, veiny, soft, and downy, especially on the under side, which is of a much lighter colour than the upper, the flowering stem proceeds from the summit of the stalk, and is a foot or more in height; as it advances it throws out its branches, or peduncles, ultimately about five in number, each of which has a leaf at its base, similar to the other leaves of the plant, but smaller, and terminates in an umbel of seven or eight flowers; as the umbels blossom in succession, a period of several months usually intervenes betwixt the blowing of the first and the last; when the flower is expanded, the hindmost leaf of the calyx continues upright, the others are reflexed as in other species of this genus, they are all beset with fine long hairs; the three lowermost petals are pure white, with a little gibbosity at the base of each, the two uppermost are marked each with three irregular spots, of a rich purple colour, inclining to carmine, the two lowermost spots narrowest and of the deepest colour; of the stamina there are six filaments which have antheræ, and four of which have none; stigma red, divided into five parts, and a little longer than the fertile filaments. in its habit this plant resembles somewhat the _pelargonium cordifolium_, is a native of the cape, flowers from may to september, in favourable seasons has produced seeds here, but is more usually increased by cuttings. varies with petals of a rich purple colour, in which the spots are similar, though not so conspicuous. [ ] erinus alpinus. alpine erinus. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _cor._ limbus -fidus æqualis. _caps._ -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ erinus _alpinus_ floribus racemosis, foliis spathulatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ ageratum serratum alpinum. _bauh. pin. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] the _erinus alpinus_ is a native of switzerland, germany, and france; inhabiting the more mountainous parts of those countries. it is a very desirable little plant for the decoration of rock work, growing in close tufts, and producing numerous flowers of a lively purple colour during most of the summer months. is increased without difficulty by parting its roots in autumn, or from seed; in the winter some plants of it should be kept in pots under a frame or hand-glass, as it is liable to be injured by wet and frost. was cultivated here by mr. miller in . [ ] robinia hispida. rough-stalk'd robinia, or rose acacia. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus. legumen gibbum elongatum. _specific character and synonyms._ robinia _hispida_ racemis axillaribus, foliis impari pinnatis, caule inermi hispido. _linn. mant. p. . ait. kew. v. . p. ._ robinia racemis axillaribus, pedicellis unifloris, foliis impari pinnatis, caule inermi. _jacq. amer. . t. . f. ._ pseudo acacia hispida floribus roseis. _catesb. carol. . p. . t. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] there are few trees or shrubs which have contributed more to adorn our plantations, and shrubberies, than those of this genus, nine species of which are enumerated in the _hort. kew._ of mr. aiton, most of these are natives either of north-america, or siberia: the present species, an inhabitant of carolina, is perhaps the most ornamental of the whole: its large pendant bunches of rose-coloured flowers load the branches in may and june, and sometimes a second crop will be produced late in the season, these with us usually fall off without producing any seed-vessels. this shrub is not disposed to grow very tall in america, it is most prudent indeed to keep it humble, to the height of four or five feet, and to plant it in a sheltered part of the garden, as its branches are liable to be broken by high winds: marshall (_arb. amer._) describes it as spreading much from its running roots; we have not observed it to do so in any great degree here; it is propagated by layers, by cuttings of the roots, and by grafting; it is of ready growth, disposed to blow even when young, and not nice as to soil, or situation; the flowers afford a good example of the class diadelphia, they are large and beautiful, but without scent. was cultivated by mr. miller in . _ait. kew._ [ ] linum flavum. yellow flax. _class and order._ pentandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _petala_ . _caps._ -valvis locularis. _sem._ solitaria. _specific character and synonyms._ linum _flavum_ calycibus subserrato-scabris lanceolatis subsessilibus, panicula ramis dichotomis. _linn. sp. pl. v. . ed. . p. ._ _mant. p. ._ _syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _jacq. fl. austr. v. . t. ._ linum sylvestre latifolium luteum. _bauh. pin. ._ linum sylvestre iii. latifolium. _clus. hist. . p. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] there is a considerable similarity betwixt the representation of the present plant and that of the _linum arboreum_ figured on the th plate of this work, they are nevertheless two species widely differing, the _flavum_ being a hardy herbaceous perennial, a native of germany, the _arboreum_ a greenhouse shrub from the levant, both possessing considerable beauty, and highly worthy a place in all collections of ornamental plants. the _linum flavum_ is not mentioned either in the dictionary of mr. miller, or the hortus kewensis of mr. aiton, and as far as our knowledge extends was a stranger in this country, till we raised it the year before last from seeds sent us by mr. daval, of orbe in switzerland; clusius gives us a representation of it in flower, and prof. jacquin another much superior; according to the latter, it grows by the sides of hedges and among shrubs in mountainous situations, and rarely exceeds a foot in height. from the little experience we have had of this plant, it appears to be easy of culture, and to succeed best in a soil moderately stiff and moist; the flowers expand most in a morning when the sun shines, and continue in succession during june, july, and part of august; it appears as if it would ripen its seeds in my garden; these vegetate freely: the plant may also be increased by parting its roots in autumn, or by cuttings of the young shoots. [ ] daphne cneorum. trailing daphne. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ . _cor._ -fida corallacea marcescens stamina includens, _bacca_ -sperma. _specific character and synonyms._ daphne _cneorum_ floribus congestis terminalibus sessilibus, foliis lanceolatis nudis mucronatis. _linn. syst. veget. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ thymeleÆ affinis facie externa. _bauh. pin. ._ cneorum. _matth. hist. ._ _clus. hist. , . f. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] this charming little shrub is a native of switzerland and austria: clusius informs us that it grows in great abundance on many of the mountains near vienna, so much so that women gather it when in flower and sell it in the markets; its beautiful and fragrant blossoms come forth in april and may, the principal season for its flowering, but it frequently blows during most of the summer, and even in the autumn; it varies with white blossoms. it is extremely hardy, thrives remarkably well in road sand in almost any situation; is propagated by seeds, which very rarely ripen with us, by layers, and by grafting it on the stock of the mezereon, whereby it acquires an elevation superior to what it has naturally. [ ] genista triquetra. triangular-stalk'd genista. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ -labiatus: / . _vexillum_ oblongum a pistillo staminibusque deorsum reflexum. _specific character._ genista _triquetra_ foliis ternatis, summis simplicibus, ramis triquetris procumbentibus. _l'herit. stirp. nov. t. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] mons. l'heritier, author of many modern publications in botany, distinguished for their accuracy and elegance, was the first who described and figured this species of genista, a native of corsica, and cultivated here by john ord, esq. as long since as the year . it is a hardy, evergreen, trailing shrub, producing a vast profusion of bloom; which renders it eminently conspicuous in may and june; its flowers are rarely succeeded by seed-vessels, so that it is usually propagated by layers. when tied up properly, and carefully trained to stake, it may vie with most of our ornamental shrubs: for covering a wall, or paling, where the situation is not too shady, it probably would succeed very well, at least it is deserving of trial. [ ] pelargonium ceratophyllum. horn-leaved crane's bill. _class and order._ monadelphia heptandria. _generic character._ _cal._ -partitus: lacinia suprema definente in tubulum capillarem, nectariferum, secus pendunculum decurrentem. _cor._ -petala, irregularis. _filam._ inæqualia, quorum raro castrata. _fructus_ -coccus, rostratus, rostra spiralia introrsum barbata. _specific character and synonyms._ pelargonium _ceratophyllum_ umbellis multifloris, foliis remote pinnatis carnosis teretibus, laciniis canaliculatis obsolete trifidis. _l'herit. geran. n. . t. ._ _ait. kew. v. p. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] mr. aiton informs us that this species of pelargonium, which is one of the more fleshy kinds, is a native of the south-west coast of africa, and was introduced to the royal garden at kew by mr. anthony hove in . it flowers during most of the summer months, and ripens its seeds, by which it may be increased, as also by cuttings; it is found to be more tender than many others, and more liable to be injured by damps, and hence it will require a treatment more applicable to a dry stove plant. [ ] polygala chamæbuxus. box-leaved milk-wort. _class and order._ diadelphia octandria. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus: foliolis majoribus alæformibus, ante maturitatem seminis coloratis. _caps._ obcordata, -locularis. _sem._ solitaria. _specific character and synonyms._ polygala _chamæbuxus_ floribus sparsis: carinæ apice subrotundo, foliis lanceolatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ _jacq. fl. austr. v. . p. . t. ._ chamÆbuxus flore coluteæ. _bauh. pin. ._ anonymos flore coluteæ. _clus. hist. p. . f._ polygaloides procumbens foliis duris ovatis nervo aristato. _hall. hist. n. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] clusius, in his _hist. pl. rar._ gives an accurate description and good figure of the present plant, before unnoticed (as he observes) by any author; it has since been particularly described by haller and jacquin; the former makes a distinct genus of it, by the name of _polygaloides_. it is an elegant little evergreen shrub of low growth, rarely exceeding a foot in height, with leaves like those of box, producing flowers from may to october, but most plentifully in may and june; each flower stands on a peduncle proceeding from a kind of triphyllous cup, formed of floral leaves, the true calyx is composed of three leaves, which are nearly white; the two outermost petals, similar to the wings of a papilionaceous flower, are also white, or nearly so; the third petal which forms a kind of tube and contains the eight stamina with the pistillum, is white at the base, but yellow towards the extremity, where it changes by degrees to a bright bay colour: both clusius and jacquin observed a variety of this plant, in which the calyx and wings were of a beautiful purple; this variety, we believe, has not yet been introduced to this country: the common sort was cultivated in the garden at oxford, in . miller describes it as a plant difficult of cultivation; it is not now regarded as such; both clusius and jacquin describe it as having creeping roots; such plants are generally increased without difficulty, and so is this; planted in bog earth on a shady border, it thrives extremely well, and spawns much, so that there is no necessity for having recourse to its seeds. it grows spontaneously on the alps of austria and switzerland. [ ] ononis fruticosa. shrubby rest-harrow. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ -partitus: laciniis linearibus. _vexillum_ striatum. _legumen_ turgidum sessile. _filamenta_ connata absque fissura. _specific character and synonyms._ ononis _fruticosa_ foliis sessilibus ternatis lanceolatis serratis, stipulis vaginalibus, pedunculis subtrifloris. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. ._ ononis purpurea verna præcox frutescens, flore rubro amplo. _moris. hist. . p. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] this charming little shrub, highly deserving of being more generally known, is a native of the south of france; and was cultivated here by miller in . in favourable situations, it produces blossoms in great profusion during most of the summer, and ripens seed in abundance: the situation it affects is dry and sandy, but it is a shrub by no means nice, as to soil or place of growth, and so hardy as to have borne the severity of last winter, , without injury. in the collections about town we frequently find it in pots, kept with greenhouse plants. it is said to vary with white flowers. the best mode of raising it is from seed. [ ] anthericum liliastrum. savoy anthericum, or st. bruno's lily. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ -petala, patens. _caps._ ovata. _specific character and synonyms._ anthericum _liliastrum_ foliis planis, scapo simplicissimo, corollis campanulatis, staminibus declinatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ hemerocallis floribus patulis secundis. _hall. hist. n. ._ phalangium magno flore. _bauh. pin. ._ phalangium allobrogicum majus. _clus. cur. app. alt._ phalangium allobrogicum. the savoye spider-wort. _park. parad. p. . tab. . f. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] botanists are divided in their opinions respecting the genus of this plant; linnæus considers it as an _anthericum_, haller and miller make it an _hemerocallis_. it is a native of switzerland, where, haller informs us, it grows abundantly in the alpine meadows, and even on the summits of the mountains; with us it flowers in may and june. it is a plant of great elegance, producing on an unbranched stem about a foot and a half high, numerous flowers of a delicate white colour, much smaller but resembling in form those of the common white lily, possessing a considerable degree of fragrance, their beauty is heightened by the rich orange colour of their antheræ; unfortunately they are but of short duration. miller describes two varieties of it differing merely in size. a loamy soil, a situation moderately moist, with an eastern or western exposure, suits this plant best; so situated, it will increase by its roots, though not very fast, and by parting of these in the autumn, it is usually propagated. parkinson describes and figures it in his _parad. terrest._ observing that "divers allured by the beauty of its flowers, had brought it into these parts." [ ] anagallis monelli. italian pimpernel. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ rotata. _caps._ circumscissa -locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ anagallis _monelli_, foliis lanceolatis caule erecto. _linn. syst. veget. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ anagallis coerulea foliis binis ternisve ex adverso nascentibus. _bauh. pin. ._ anagallis tenuifolia monnelli. _clus. app. alt._ [illustration: n^o. ] in italy and spain, where this plant grows spontaneously, it is an annual, producing seed in abundance; with us (as far at least as we have observed) it produces no seed, but like the _senecio elegans_, and some other annuals, is renewed, and rendered perennial by cuttings, which strike freely, and by which the plant requires to be renovated once or twice in a season; though described as growing with an upright stem, it requires to be tied up to a stick; and if this be neatly and dexterously done, its brilliant azure flowers springing from every side of the stem, render it a charming ornament for the greenhouse or window: it flowers during most of the year. clusius called it _anagallis monnelli_, the first knowledge he had of the plant being from his friend johannes monnellus. on the same plant we find the leaves grow two, three, or four together, with flowers corresponding. [ ] lobelia cardinalis. scarlet lobelia, or cardinal's flower. _class and order._ syngenesia monogamia. _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus. _cor._ -petala, irregularis. _caps._ infera , s. -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ lobelia _cardinalis_ caule erecto, foliis lato-lanceolatis serratis, racemo terminali secundo. _linn. syst. veg. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ rapuntium galeatum virginianum, coccineo flore majore. _moris. hist. . p. . s. . t. . f. ._ trachelium americarum flore ruberrimo, sive planta cardinalis. the rich crimson cardinal's flower. _park. parad. p. . t. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] this species of _lobelia_, so eminently distinguished for the richness of its scarlet blossoms, is a native of the colder as well as warmer parts of north-america. parkinson, who cultivated it in , informs us that he received plants of it from france for his garden, and that "it groweth neere the river of canada, where the french plantation in america is seated." it is a hardy herbaceous plant, growing in favourable situations to the height of three or four feet; the main spike of flowers which terminates the stalk, is often a foot in length; by the time that most of its flowers are blown, side branches shoot out, and flower; so that the plant continues in bloom six weeks or two months: if the autumn prove favourable, the plant with us produces plenty of seed in the open ground; to insure its ripening, some place pots of it, when blowing, in the greenhouse or stove. beautiful and hardy as this plant is, and long as it has been introduced to this country, we do not find it generally in gardens; we attribute this to its having, in a greater degree than many other plants, a partiality for a particular soil; in certain districts, where the soil is stiff and moist, it grows as freely as any weed, in other soils it is perpetually going off: it is also one of those plants whose roots require to be often parted; if this be done every autumn, and they be planted in a stiff loam, the situation somewhat moist and shady, this very desirable plant may be had to grow and blossom in perfection. it flowers from the latter end of july to october. is increased by parting its roots, by cuttings of the stalk and from seed. [ ] cotyledon orbiculata. round-leaved navel-wort. _class and order._ decandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus. _cor._ -petala. _squamæ_ nectariferæ ad basin germinis. _caps._ . _specific character and synonyms._ cotyledon _orbiculata_ foliis orbiculatis carnosis planis integerrimis, caule fruticoso. _linn. syst. veg. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. var. [delta] v. . p. ._ cotyledon africanum frutescens incanum orbiculatis foliis. _herm. lugd. . t. ._ _moris. hist. . p. . s. . t. f. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] the _cotyledon orbiculata_ is one of our oldest succulents, being introduced as long since as , by mr. bentick[c]: it still retains a place in most collections, deservedly indeed, for it has every claim to our notice; its appearance is magnificent, the glaucous colour of its foliage highly pleasing, its flowers large and of long duration; it blows freely, grows rapidly, is easily increased by cuttings, and will succeed in a house or window, with the common treatment of an african geranium. when suffered to grow, it will become a shrub of considerable size; but this is not necessary for its flowering, as young and small plants are disposed to throw out blossoms, which is not the case with a plant extremely similar to, and often confounded with it, viz. the _crassula cotyledon_, whose foliage indeed scarcely differs from our plant but in being finely dotted. it is a native of the cape, and flowers from june or july to september. in the _hort. kew._ of mr. aiton, four varieties are enumerated, differing chiefly in the form of their foliage. [footnote c: ait. kew.] [ ] manulea tomentosa. woolly manulea. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _cal._ -partitus. _cor._ limbo -partito, subulato: laciniis superioribus magis connexis. _caps._ -locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ manulea _tomentosa_ foliis tomentosis, caulibus foliosis, pedunculis multifloris. _linn. mant. . syst. veget. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ selago _tomentosa_ foliis obovatis crenatis, caule prostrato, racemis ramosis. _linn. amoen. acad. v. . p. ._ _sp. pl. ed. . p. ._ planta _pluk. phyt. . f. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] linnæus describes this plant in the _amoenitates academicæ_ under the name of _selago tomentosa_, by which name he continues to call it in the third edition of the _spec. pl._ in his _mantissa_ he describes it more minutely, and changes it to the genus _manulea_, first established by him in the said work; he observes, that in this species the corolla is more regular than in the others. mr. aiton regards it as a biennial, its stalk is a foot or a foot and a half high, and woolly, its branches are opposite, not alternate as linnæus describes them; in this perhaps they may vary; leaves opposite, sessile, obovate, narrowing to the base, toothed on the edge, edge rolled back a little in the young leaves, flowers grow in a long thyrsus, from two to five proceed from one common short peduncle; they are at first lemon-coloured, or greenish yellow, finally deep orange; linnæus says the whole of the plant except the corolla is woolly, the tube of that even is hairy, the segments are smooth, with their edges rolled back, the upper part of the tube in which the stamina are included is dilated somewhat, as is also the lower part, so that it is narrowest in the middle. the flowers which make their appearance from may to november are usually succeeded by seeds, by which the plant is propagated. it is a native of the cape, and, according to mr. aiton, was introduced by mr. masson, in . the blossoms have a singular but unpleasant smell, not perceivable at a distance. the variety of pleasant colours so conspicuous in the flowers, renders this rare plant desirable to such as aim at a general collection. [ ] rubus odoratus. flowering raspberry. _class and order._ icosandria polygynia. _generic character._ _cal._ -fidus. _petala_ . _bacca_ composita acinis monospermis. _specific character and synonyms._ rubus _odoratus_ foliis simplicibus palmatis, caule inermi multifolio multifloro. _linn. syst. veg. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew. v. . p. ._ rubus odoratus. _corn. canad. . t. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] botanists and gardeners have given to this species of rubus the name of _flowering_, not because it is the only one which produces flowers, but from its being regarded for its flowers merely; they indeed are so shewy, and so plentifully produced, that the plant has long been thought to merit a place in most shrubberies; to the various inhabitants of which, both in the largeness and elegant form of its leaves, and the colour of its blossoms, it forms a pleasing contrast. it is extremely hardy, and easily propagated by suckers; the only care which it requires, is to keep it within proper bounds: young plants of it produce the largest and finest flowers. it blossoms from june to september, is a native of different and distant parts of north-america, and was cultivated here by mr. miller, in . cornutus, who first figured and described this plant, gave it the name of _odoratus_, on account of the fragrance of its foliage; his words are "elegantissimi hujus folia fragrantissima sunt, paremque agrimonio odorato spirant odorem;" the fruit, rarely produced with us, he observes, is like the common raspberry, but not so pleasant. [ ] antirrhinum triphyllum. three-leaved toad-flax. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _cal._ -phyllus. _cor._ basis deorsum prominens nectarifera. _caps._ -locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ antirrhinum _triphyllum_ foliis ternis ovatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. ._ _murr. p. ._ _ait. kew._ linaria triphylla minor lutea. _bauh. pin. ._ linaria triphylla coerulea. _bauh. pin. ._ linaria hispanica. _clus. hist. . p. ._ linaria valentina. tode flaxe of valentia. _park. par. p. ._ [illustration: n^o. ] the _antirrhinum triphyllum_, so called from the leaves growing by threes on the stalk (a character, by the bye, not very constant) was cultivated by parkinson, and described by him in his _parad. terr._ he appears to have been a stranger to the particoloured variety now so generally cultivated as an ornamental annual in our gardens; in its wild state the flowers of this _antirrhinum_ are of a yellow hue, with little or no purple in them, such indeed are frequently produced from seeds sown in our gardens. it is a hardy annual, a native of spain and sicily, a plant of ready growth, requiring the common treatment of annuals sown in the spring, and much disposed indeed to come up spontaneously where it has once grown; in sowing its seeds, care should be taken to preserve the produce of such flowers as have the most purple in them. index. in which the latin names of the plants contained in the _ninth volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ agrostemma coeli rosa. amaryllis lutea. ---- sarniensis. ---- equestris. anagallis monelli. antirrhinum triphyllum. anthericum liliastrum. catananche coerulea. capparis spinosa. cotyledon orbiculata. convolvulus linearis. daphne cneorum. dianthus superbus. erica ampullacea. erinus alpinus. genista triquetra. gnaphalium eximium. hermannia alnifolia. ---- lavendulifolia. ---- althæifolia. linum flavum. lobelia cardinalis. manulea tomentosa. melianthus minor. mimosa myrtifolia. ononis fruticosa. origanum dictamnus. othonna pectinata. passerina grandiflora. pelargonium echinatum. ---- ceratophyllum. polygala chamæbuxus. robinia hispida. rubus odoratus. sempervivum tortuosum. verbena aubletia. index. in which the english names of the plants contained in the _ninth volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ amaryllis yellow. ---- guernsey. ---- barbadoes. anthericum savoy. caper shrub. catananche blue. cockle smooth-leaved. convolvulus narrow-leaved. crane's-bill horn-leaved. cudweed giant. daphne trailing. dittany of crete. erinus alpine. flax yellow. heath flask. hermannia alder-leaved. ---- lavender-leaved. ---- marshmallow-leaved. houseleek gouty. genista triangular-stalked. geranium prickly-stalked. lobelia scarlet. manulea woolly. melianthus small. milk-wort box-leaved. mimosa myrtle-leaved. navel-wort round-leaved. othonna wormwood-leaved. passerina great-flowered. pimpernel italian. pink superb. raspberry flowering. rest-harrow shrubby. robinia rough-stalked. toad-flax three-leaved. vervain rose. texas agricultural experiment stations. bulletin no. . january -------------------------- department of entomology. college station, texas. [photograph: honey bee on horse-mint] _honey bee on horse-mint_ texas honey plants. c. e. sanborn, u. s. cooperative entomologist and acting state entomologist. e. e. scholl, assistant state entomologist and apiarist. -------------------------- postoffice, college station, brazos county, texas. * * * * * texas agricultural experiment stations -------------------------- officers. -------------------------- governing board. (board of directors a. & m. college.) k. k. leggett, president abilene t. d. rowell, vice president jefferson a. haidusek la grange j. m. green yoakum walton peteet dallas r. t. milner austin l. l. mcinnis bryan w. b. sebastian breckenridge station officers. h. h. harrington ll. d., president of the college and director j. w. carson assistant to director and state feed inspector w. g. welborn vice director and agriculturist m. francis veterinarian e. j. kyle horticulturist john c. burns animal husbandry r. l. bennett cotton specialist o. m. ball botanist g. s. fraps chemist c. e. sanborn co-operative entomologist n. c. hamner assistant chemist e. c. carlyle assistant chemist l. mclennan deputy feed inspector a. t. potts deputy feed inspector j. h. rodgers deputy peed inspector h. e. hanna deputy feed inspector c. w. crisler chief clerk w. l. boyett clerk feed control f. r. navaille stenographer a. s. ware stenographer state sub-stations. w. s. hotchkiss, superintendent troupe, smith county s. a. waschka, superintendent beeville, bee county note--the main station is located on the grounds of the agricultural and mechanical college, in brazos county. the postoffice address is college station, texas. reports and bulletins are sent free upon application to the director. preface. this preliminary bulletin on texas honey plants represents work of the department of entomology dating through the office tenures of professors mally, newell, sanderson and conradi. they each have authorized and aided in the collection of the flora and data contained in this publication. to mr. louis h. scholl, of new braunfels, texas, assistant and apiarist from until , the department is directly indebted for the material contained herein, except as is otherwise designated. mr. ernest scholl, now assistant and apiarist, has furnished material as shown herein. he is now working on a continuation of the subject. mr. d. c. milam, of uvalde, formerly foul brood inspector, has also contributed, as is shown. the main body of the work, however, has been accomplished through the services of mr. louis h. scholl, and much credit is due him, since he has done more in this department, and perhaps more than any other person in helping to build up the bee industry of texas. his data are followed by this mark * introduction. this publication treats of many of the texas honey plants in a brief technical manner. in addition, wherever possible, the common name is used in connection with the description. the sequence followed by coulter in his botany of south west texas is herein mainly followed. in some instances quotations from small's botany of texas were used, as is shown in the publication. the plants are discussed by families. not only is the honey producing qualities of the plants mentioned, but frequent mention is also made of the respective quality and yield of pollen and propolis. data are included in many instances concerning the weather conditions and its effects upon the yield of certain plants. it is hoped that this will be a great help to apiarists in selecting locations for bees, since the value of bees depends entirely on the environment under which they may be placed. again it may help in selecting certain plants to be planted that might prove to be very beneficial to an established apiary. the geographical distribution is given in a general brief way, so that one is less apt to be confused concerning the abundance in nature of certain plants. in this connection it must be remembered, however, that on account of extended cultivation in texas, some of the common wild plants are becoming less numerous than formerly, while cultivated varieties are becoming more common. two indices are contained in this bulletin. the first contains all the common or vernacular names, and the second contains the latin or technical names. the latter is complete, since some plants are known only by the technical appellation. ***** triple-leafed barberry. berberis trifoliata moric. barberry family. berberideae. "on gravelly slopes and foothills from the gulf coast to the limpia mountains." (coulter). hunter, gravelly hills; honey yield abundant, also pollen; fine for early brood rearing. january and february.* prickly poppy. argemone platyceras (link. and otto.) poppy family. papaveraceae. "abundant in valleys and along dry hillsides." (coulter). roadsides, waste fields and prairies. honey yield unimportant, but abundance of pollen during the dearth of summer. may and july.* "this plant is abundant along the brazos valley. bees work heavily on it in june, carrying heavy loads of pollen, which they store in nearly every comb, thus making it disagreeable in the honey combs sometimes." (e. scholl). poppy. papaver rhoeas l. poppy family. papaveraceae. cultivated in flower gardens. honey yield not important and plants few. may.* peppergrass. pepperwort. lepidium virginicum l. mustard family. cruciferae. "in all situations, quebec to minnesota, kansas, florida, texas and mexico. naturalized in europe." (small). found in all kinds of places; honey yield not important; some pollen. june to august.* greggia. greggia camporum gray. mustard family. cruciferae. "mountains of western texas." (coulter). honey yield early but not abundant; also pollen helps early brood rearing. hunter; waste fields and fertile prairies. honey yield early, but not abundant; also pollen; helps early brood rearing. february.* common turnip. brassica rapa l. mustard family. cruciferae. cultivated and sometimes escaped; bees work on the blossoms, honey and pollen. june and july.* black mustard. brassica nigra koch. mustard family. cruciferae. cultivated and escaped; bees sometimes busy on it. june and july.* mignonette. reseda odorata l. mignonette family. resedaceae. college: cultivated on apiary experimental plats. honey yield good; plants not plentiful enough for surplus. june and july.* portulaca. portulaca grandiflora hook. purslane family. portulaceae. cultivated in ornamental flower beds. honey yield good as it comes during time when few others in bloom; also abundance of highly colored pollen, red, orange and yellows. june until frost.* salt cedar. tamarix gallica l. tamarisc family. tamariscineae. "a common european mediterranean shrub which seems to have escaped in many places in texas." (coulter). "on roadsides, in thickets and waste places; warmer parts of southern united states, naturalized from southern europe." (small). college station; cultivated ornamental shrub bees worked well on it, but number of trees scarce. may and june.* fringed poppy mallow. callirrhoe digitata nutt. mallow family. malvaceae. "common on prairies and in valleys." (coulter). hunter; prairies and lowlands. honey yield not important; some pollen. may and june. a good pollen yielder during may at college station.* spanish apple. malvaviscus drummondii. torr & gray. mallow family. malvaceae. "from rio grande to the colorado and northeastward." (coulter). in lowlands and along streams. june and july.* "plentiful along comal and guadalupe rivers, new braunfels, texas. not important." (e. scholl). rose of sharon. shrubby althaea. hibiscus syriacus l. mallow family. malvaceae. "in various situations new jersey and pennsylvania to florida and texas." (small). cultivated ornamental, in gardens and parks; honey yield not important and plants few, but bees work busily on it; honey and pollen. may to sept.* spring sida. sida spinosa l. mallow family. malvaceae. "in cultivated grounds, waste places on roadsides, new york to iowa, florida and texas. widely distributed in the tropics." (small). waste places, fields and along roads; some honey and pollen; not important. june to august.* narrow-leafed sida. sida angustifolia lam. mallow family. malvaceae. "in dry soil texas to arizona; also in mexico and tropical america." (small). in dry soils; bees found upon it; yields pollen. june to august.* cotton. gossypium herbaceum l. mallow family. malvaceae. cultivated staple crop in the fields for fibre. honey yield good, steady flow till frost, honey white and of good quality. main source throughout cotton belt. nectar glands on ribs of leaves and on bracts of buds, blooms and bolls. june to frost.* japanese varnish tree. firmiana platinifolia (l.) r. br. chocolate family. buettneriaceae. hbk. college station: cultivated ornamental tree on campus; honey yield very heavy but of short duration some seasons longer. may and june.* basswood. american linden. tilia americana l. linden family. tiliaceae. "a large and handsome tree of the atlantic states, extending in texas to the valley of the san antonio river." (coulter). on forests of eastern texas, yields large quantities of excellent honey. may and june.* large-flowered caltrop. tribulus cistoides l. bean-caper family. zygophylleae. hunter: in fields and waste lands; honey yield good until noon when flowers close; also much pollen. april, august.* greater caltrop. kallstroemia maxima (l) t. & g. bean-caper family. zygophylleae. "tribulus maxima." (coulter). "common in dry soil throughout southern and western texas." (coulter). hunter: in fields and waste lands. honey yield good in morning, blossoms closing by noon except in cool weather; good as it comes in the dearth of summer; also abundance of pollen. april to august.* yellow wood sorrel. oxalis stricta l. geranium family. geraniaceae. "eastern and southern texas." (coulter). waste soils and open woodlands; not plentiful for bee forage. may, august.* tooth-ache tree. prickly ash. sea ash. pepperwood. xanthoxylum clava-herculis l. rue family. rutaceae. "colorado to rio grande." (coulter). "along or near the coast, virginia to florida, arkansas and texas." (small). hunter: woodland prairies; honey yield good; bees work busily on it. april, june.* hop tree. ptelea trifoliata l. rue family. rutaceae. "throughout southern and western texas." (coulter). in woodlands and along rivers and creeks. honey yield good; very good in favorable seasons where abundant. may and july.* hardy orange. citrus trifoliata l. rue family. rutaceae. college: planted for hedges, scarce; honey yield fair for early brood. bees worked on it abundantly. march.* tree of heaven. ailanthus glandulosus desf. quassia family. simarubaceae. "in waste places and along streams, more or less extensively naturalized in the united states and southern british america. native of china." (small). hunter: cultivated for shade and escaped. honey yield fair in good seasons, pollen; also nectar glands on leaf blades. april.* umbrella china tree. melia azedarach l. melia family. meliaceae. "a favorite shade tree and extensively naturalized in central and southern texas." (coulter). cultivated ornamental shade tree and escaped. honey yield helps early brood rearing. february, march.* possum haw. bear berry. ilex decidua walt. holly family. ilicineae. "a species of southern states and extending in texas to the valley of the san antonio." (coulter). college; along lowlands, creeks and streams. honey yield good but short; in warm spring early and valuable for early brood. march, may.* youpon. ilex caroliniana trelease. holly family. ilicineae. "a species of the gulf states and extending into texas. limit uncertain." (coulter). hunter: low woodland thickets; not important. march, april.* brasil wood. logwood. condalia obovata hook. buckthorn family. rhamneae. "from the guadalupe to the rio grande and west of new mexico." (coulter). hunter: in woodlands, dry soils; honey yield not very important but comes well in dearth of summer. july, august.* "abundant along carter's creek. honey yield good during may." (e. scholl). rattan vine. berchemia scandens trelease. buckthorn family. rhamneae. "a species of the southern states extending into texas where its western limit is uncertain." (coulter). along ravines and low woodlands; honey yield good, giving surplus in favorable years but dark amber colored, used in manufacturing-houses. april.* columbrina texensis. gray. buckthorn family. rhamneae. "from the colorado to the rio grande westward to new mexico." (coulter). floresville, slopes, adobe hills. honey yield good but not enough for surplus. also some pollen. april.* cultivated wine grapes. vitis (?) (varieties). vine family. ampelidaceae. cultivated in orchards; good for pollen. april, may.* mountain grape. vitis monticola buckley. vine family. ampelidaceae. "peculiar to the hilly limestone regions of western texas, not extending to the low country nor to the granite mountains." (coulter.) hunter: in woods and forests; honey yield fairly good and pollen valuable for brood rearing. march.* cow itch. cissus incisa desmoul. vine family. ampelidaceae. "in shady places from the colorado to the rio grande and westward. an ornamental vine known as "yerba del buey." (coulter). hunter: along fences and edge of thickets; honey yield keeps bees out of mischief during dearth. surplus where plentiful. april, to august.* soapberry. wild china. sapindus marginatus willd. soapberry family. sapindaceae. "common along creeks throughout texas from louisiana to new mexico and mexico. smaller west of the colorado river." (coulter). along rivers and creeks and sometimes along uplands; honey yield good, heavy flow in favorable seasons gives surplus. june.* evergreen shrub, blooms in april; yields quantities of honey and pollen where enough bushes." (milam, uvalde). common balloon vine. cardiospermum halicacabum l. soapberry family. sapindaceae. "guadalupe to rio grande." (coulter). "in thickets and waste places new jersey, missouri, florida, texas and tropical america; summer and fall." (small). hunter: in creek bottoms; honey yield fair but plants not abundant. april, july.* mexican buckeye. ungnadia speciosa endl. soapberry family. sapindaceae. "common along rocky valleys and in the mountains from the valley of the trinity through western texas to new mexico." (coulter). hunter: "mountainous woodlands. honey yield good in dearth but not plentiful. july." dwarf sumach. rhus copallina l. sumach family. anacardiaceae. "a sumach of the atlantic states extending through eastern and southern texas to the rio grande." (coulter). hunter: small shrubby tree rocky hillsides and woodland prairies. honey yield good giving surplus in favorable seasons depending upon rains. reported as a honey plant in most of the beekeepers reports received. august.* green sumach. rhus virens lindh. sumach family. anacardiaceae. "from the colorado to the rio grande and westward." (coulter). in stony, hilly woodlands. bees are some seasons busy on it. october.* blue lupine. bluebonnet. lupinus subcarnosus hook. pulse family. leguminosae. "common lupine of southern and western texas, 'covering fertile slopes with a carpet of purple blue.' (harvard), as early as march." (coulter). hunter: places in open woodlands. honey yield good; also pollen of very bright and orange colors. march, april.* alfalfa or lucerne. medicago sativa l. pulse family. leguminosae. "an extensively cultivated forage plant which has long been an introduced plant in southern and western texas." (coulter). cultivated for hay crops; honey yield fair; early summer and fall; better in irrigated regions. may, august.* "large number of bees were seen on it at new braunfels, texas. june th, . a good thing in north texas." (e. scholl). medick. burr clover. medicago denticulata willd. pulse family. leguminosae. "naturalized in western texas." (coulter). college: abundant on campus lawns. honey yield sparingly in summer, not important. february to may.* sweet clover. melilotus alba desv. pulse family. leguminosae. distribution not definite. cultivated and along fence rows; honey yield good and of fine quality; scarce and should be cultivated for honey. may to october.* "an important honey plant in north texas." (e. scholl). yellow sweet clover. melilotus officinalis (l) lam. pulse family. leguminosae. colorado along roadsides, escaped. honey yield good; claimed to be superior to and earlier than m. alba by beemen. should be cultivated on the poor soils of texas. april to september.* red clover. trifolium pratense l. pulse family. leguminosae. college station: cultivated on experimental plats. blooms in summer; not important, not much grown and deep corollas. june.* white clover. trifolium repens l. pulse family. leguminosae. "may be found wild in texas." (coulter). along roadsides and on lawns. cultivated at college, but did not grow as conditions were too dry. honey yield good and one of main sources in states north of texas. june, july.* eysenhardtia. eysenhardtia amorphoides. h b k. pulse family. leguminosae. "throughout southern and western texas, south of the colorado." (coulter). hunter: on light soils and woodlands and known as "rock brush" by beemen. honey yield abundant. blooming after heavy rains. honey fine quality. march, may.* black locust. robinia pseudacacia l. pulse family. leguminosae. "native from pennsylvania to iowa, georgia and indian territory. also naturalized in the northeastern part of north america." (small). college: cultivated on campus; honey yield good if no cold weather; bees work on it abundantly. march, april.* cassia. daubentonia longifolia (cav.) dc. pulse family. leguminosae. low and damp places; sandy soils; bees on it frequently but apparently of little value. july, september.* mexican ground-plum. astragalus mexicanus. a. dc. pulse family. leguminosae. "prairies throughout texas." (coulter). hunter: in open prairies honey yield abundant when season is favorable; drouth injures it. june.* cow pea. vigna (sp.) pulse family. leguminosae. honey yield good; fair quality, light color. cultivated for forage crops and for enriching soils. june, august.* cow pea. vigna sinensis (l) endl. (var. ?). pulse family. leguminosae. cultivated for forage crops and for enriching soils; honey yield good; fair quality, light color. june, august.* japanese delchos. dolichos lablab l. pulse family. leguminosae. cultivated in apiary experimental plats; no bees on it; other plants in bloom. june, august.* garden pea. pisum sativum l. pulse family. leguminosae. hunter: cultivated widely; honey yield unimportant, some pollen; not visited much by bees. march, april.* red bud. cercis occidentalis torr. pulse family. leguminosae. "far western and north mexican species extending into western texas." (coulter). aids early brood rearing. march.* red bud. judas tree. cercis canadensis l. pulse family. leguminosae. "in rich soil ontario to minnesota, new jersey, florida and texas." (small). hunter: in woodlands. honey yield fair, aiding in early brood rearing. march, april.* retama. parkinsonia aculeata l. pulse family. leguminosae. "throughout southern and western texas." (coulter). in sandy soils and low swamps. blooms spring and throughout summer; bees work on it more or less all summer. may, sept.* honey locust. gleditschia triacanthos l. pulse family. leguminosae. "an atlantic species extending at least to the valley of the brazos river and common in cultivation." (coulter). college station: along ravines and valleys; very heavy honey yield but of short duration. april.* mezquit tree. screw bean. prosopis juliflora dc. pulse family. leguminosae. "the chief woody plant of the wooded table-lands and high valleys throughout southern and western texas, often forming impenetrable thickets." (coulter) hunter: throughout the black land prairies; honey yield abundant, main source in state, good light honey. april, and again in june.* neptunia lutea benth. pulse family. leguminosae. "in eastern and southern texas, extending as far up the rio grande as eagle pass." (coulter). college, open prairies; not plentiful, bees rarely found on it; some pollen. may.* sensitive briar. schrankia angustata torr. and gray. pulse family. leguminosae. "found in texas as far as san diego and probably in the san antonio region." (coulter). hunter: open prairies; honey yield not important; plants scarce; pollen. april to september.* huisache. acacia farnesiana willd. pulse family. leguminosae. "from san antonio to the gulf coast and lower rio grande." (coulter). very plentiful in richer soil of southwest texas; honey yield good for stimulating early brood rearing; also pollen. february, april.* huajilli. acacia berlandiera benth. pulse family. leguminosae. "from the nueces to the rio grande and west to devil's river. common on the bluffs of the lower rio grande." (coulter). on dry and rocky hills in solid masses generally. honey yield very heavy and main surplus in southwest texas; fine quality, white; considered the best honey in texas in quality. april.* paradise flower. catsclaw. devils claws. acacia greggii gray. pulse family. leguminosae. "in dry or rocky soil, texas, new mexico." (small). floresville: all over southwest texas. honey yield very abundant, a main yielder of fine quality honey. april.* round-flowered catsclaw. acacia roemeriana schlecht. pulse family. leguminosae. "throughout texas south of the colorado and west to el paso." (coulter). hunter: in brushy woodlands; honey yield is heavy, of fine quality, but plants not abundant. april and may.* acacia amentacea dc. pulse family. leguminosae. "from the guadalupe to the lower rio grande and west to the pecos." (coulter). very plentiful throughout southwest texas, on prairies. honey yield of no importance. bees gather pollen from it occasionally in early summer.* plum. prunus domestica l. rose family. rosaceae. hunter: in orchards and escaped. honey yield good with "fruit bloom." helps to build up colonies of bees. february.* wild plum. prunus (sp.) rose family. rosaceae. college station: planted on campus. honey yield good but of short duration. march.* peach. amygdalus persica l. rose family. rosaceae. "in waste places and cultivated grounds throughout the united states." (small). cultivated in orchards; honey yield good; with "fruit bloom" builds up colonies in spring. january to april.* bridal wreath. spiraea virginiana britt. rose family. rosaceae. cultivated ornamental shrub. honey yield unimportant; bees sometimes busy on it. march.* dew-berry. rubus trivialis michx. rose family. rosaceae. "a southern blackberry, apparently common in eastern, southern and western texas." (coulter). common wild, little cultivated; bees on it busy; honey and pollen. february, april.* rose. rosa tourn. cultivated widely; honey yield unimportant; pollen gathered from it sometimes. spring, summer and fall.* apple. malus malus (l) britt. rose family. rosaceae. cultivated in orchards; honey yield early; helps in brood rearing; good where abundant. march, april.* pear. pyrus communis l. rose family. rosaceae. a much cultivated fruit tree, important for early honey and pollen. february, march.* hawthorn. white thorn. crataegus spathulata michx. rose family. rosaceae. "a species of the gulf states and extending to the lower colorado in texas." (coulter). in woodlands and creeks; good for honey and pollen. april.* hawthorn. white thorn. crataegus arborescens ell. rose family. rosaceae. "a species of the gulf states and extending to the lower colorado in texas." (coulter). college station; in woodlands and creek banks; honey yield good, bees found busily on it; also pollen. april.* crepe myrtle. lagerstroemia indica l. loose strife family. lythraceae. "in waste places in and near gardens; widely cultivated and sparingly naturalized from maryland, florida and texas." (small). cultivated ornamental on campus; honey yield occasionally good and visited much by bees. june, october.* jussiaea. jussiaea repens l. evening primrose family. onagrarieae. "in streams from the san antonio northward and eastward." (coulter). in water edge of rivers and lakes. not affected by drouth; it is important for bees during dearth. june to september.* jussiaea. jussiaea diffusa forskl. evening primrose family. onagrarieae. "in and about ponds, kentucky to kansas, florida and texas, also in tropical america and asia." (small) in water edge of pasture tanks and pools. honey yield good; important as it is not affected by drouths but better after rains. june, august.* gaura filiformis small. evening primrose family. onagrarieae. sandy soils and along creeks; honey yield good; sometimes yielding surplus in spurts when favorable season and rains prevail. june, october.* musk melon. cucumis melo l. gourd family. cucurbitaceae. hunter: cultivated. honey yield good; abundant during dewy mornings. also pollen. early summer to fall. important in melon growing sections, south texas. july and september.* cucumber. cucumis sativa. gourd family. cucurbitaceae. cultivated; honey yield very good; short duration; pollen; but plants not abundant. april, july.* watermelon. citrullus citrullus (l) small. gourd family. cucurbitaceae. cultivated; honey yield good; abundant during dewy mornings, also pollen; from early summer to frosts in late autumn. may to october.* "successful in honey plant plot at college in ." (e. scholl). wild gourd. cucurbita foetidissima hbk. gourd family. cucurbitaceae. "abundant in the valleys of southern and western texas." (coulter). hunter: in a variety of places. honey yield not important; plants scattered and few, good for pollen. april, july.* common pumpkin. cucurbita pepo l. gourd family. cucurbitaceae. cultivated: not important for honey, but much pollen. may, june.* common cactus or prickly pear. opuntia englemannii salm. & dyk. cactus family. cactaceae. "common throughout southern and western texas. this seems to be common "prickly pear" of texas, though all the flat-jointed opuntias bear that name. the joints are commonly spoken of as "leaves" and form an important food for grazing of animals, under the name of "nopal." the "nopal leaf" is also much used for poultices, etc." (coulter). hunter: over entire southwestern texas; honey yield abundant; sometimes surplus; honey of rank flavor when first stored. may, june.* dogwood. cornus asperifolia michx. dogwood family. cornaceae. "an eastern species extending to central texas where the variety drummondii is the common form." (coulter). lowlands and along banks; honey yield good and bees fairly roam over blossoms, but species not plentiful. march, april.* elder. sambucus canadensis l. honey suckle family. caprifoliaceae. "moist grounds throughout texas." (coulter). along rivers and wet places; honey yield good but not plentiful. april, may.* black haw. virburnum prunifolium l. honey suckle family. caprifoliaceae. "an atlantic species, extending westward into texas as far as the valley of the guadalupe and probably the san antonio." (coulter). hunter: in woodlands and forests. honey yield good, early, valuable for brood rearing. march, april.* coral berry. indian currant. symphoricarpos symphorlcarpos (l) macm. honey suckle family. caprifoliaceae. "an atlantic species extending into texas. near new braunfels. (lindheimer)." (coulter). in woodlands along rivers and rocky soil. honey yield good and of long duration. july, september.* bush honeysuckle. lonicera fragrantissima lindle. honey suckle family. caprifoliaceae. shrubby vine; cultivated species on campus; honey yield extremely early, valuable to stimulate bees if weather is favorable; also pollen. january.* white-flowered honeysuckle. lonicera albiflora torn. & gray. honey suckle family. caprifoliaceae. "abundant throughout western texas and especially in the mountains west of the pecos." (coulter). hunter: cultivated for ornamental purposes. honey yield good, but few plants. may, july.* houstonia. houstonia angustifolia michx. madder family. rubiaceae. "throughout texas." (coulter). college station: on dry soils and prairies. bees work on it well but plants not abundant. may, july.* button bush. cephalanthus occidentalis l. madder family. rubiaceae. "swamps and along streams throughout texas." (coulter). hunter: along rivers and creeks. bees work on it. july.* button weed. diodia teres walt. madder family. rubiaceae. "sandy soil, low grounds of texas to mouth of rio grande." (coulter). low sandy soils; honey yield good and valuable as it comes during drouth. no surplus. july, august.* broomweed. gutierrezia texana t. & g. composite family. compositae. "sterile plains throughout texas." (coulter). in open prairies; honey yield good in fall for winter stores; dark amber and strong flavor. september, october.* goldenrod. solidago sp. (?). composite family. compositae. occurs in all parts of texas. september. see a. b. c. . parthenium hysterophorus l. composite family. compositae. "throughout eastern and central texas. dr. harvard remarks that it is one of the commonest weeds about the streets of san antonio." (coulter). hunter: in waste places and open town lots of which it takes possession. honey yield good in favorable seasons when not too dry. white pollen. april, november.* roman wormwood. ambrosia artemisiaefolia l. composite family. compositae. "a common weed of waste grounds, extremely variable." (coulter). dry upland soils and waste places; probably pollen only. july, august.* tall ragweed. ambrosia aptera dc. composite family. compositae. "low grounds in southern and western texas." (coulter). hunter: along field fences and low places. some honey but more pollen of a resinous nature. july and august.* great ragweed. ambrosia trifida l. composite family. compositae. "moist river banks throughout eastern and central texas." (coulter). college: in low moist creeks and along brazos river. honey yield not important, but yields much pollen. july and august.* cockle-burr. clot burr. xanthium canadense mill. composite family. compositae. "alluvial shores and waste ground." (coulter). hunter: along creeks, in pastures and fields; not important; furnishes pollen late in the fall. september, october.* cone flower. nigger head. rudbeckia hirta l. composite family. compositae. "dry and open ground throughout texas." (coulter). waysides and prairies; of no importance; bees gather propolis from resinous heads sometimes. may, june.* cone flower. nigger head. rudbeckia bicolor nutt. composite family. compositae. "pine woods or sandy soil, eastern and southern texas." (coulter). "in woods and sandy soil, arkansas to alabama and texas." (small). waysides and prairies; of no importance; bees gather propolis from resinous heads sometimes. may, june.* common sunflower. helianthus annuus l. composite family. compositae. "abundant in all valleys." (coulter). hunter: along roadsides and in waste fields. honey yield sometimes good in the fall but strong in flavor. much propolis gathered from the large composite heads of the flower and stems and leaves of the plant. may, september.* virginian crown-beard. verbesina virginica l. composite family. compositae. "rich dry soil from the mississippi and gulf states through texas to mexico." (coulter). in rich soils, lowlands and woodlands; honey yield very abundant, depending upon seasons; fine quality of honey. october.* sneeze weed. bitter weed. helenium tenuifolium nutt. composite family. compositae. "river bottoms, etc., extending from the gulf and mississippi states to western texas." (coulter). college: abundant on open woodland prairies and plains of eastern texas. honey yield good in favorable seasons; pollen; honey golden yellow, heavy body but very bitter, as if per cent quinine and some pepper was added. june to october.* marigold. gaillardia pulchella foug. composite family. compositae. "extending from plains of arkansas and louisiana through texas to those of arizona and mexico." (coulter). hunter: waysides and prairies. honey yield of good quality, dark amber colored. a main yielder of surplus. may, june.* blue thistle. cnicus altissimus willd. composite family. compositae. "borders of woods and open ground. common in the atlantic states and extending into texas." (coulter). hunter: scattered over open prairies; honey yield unimportant; some pollen. july, august.* "bees working heavily on it in june, along guadalupe river, new braunfels, texas, where some of the pastures were literally covered with it." (e. scholl). american knapweed. centaurea americana nutt. composite family. compositae. "extending from the plains of arkansas and louisiana through texas to arizona and adjacent mexico." (coulter). hunter: open prairies and pastures. not important. july, august.* dandelion. taraxacum officinale weber. composite family. compositae. "common everywhere; an introduction from europe." (coulter). see a. b. c. of bee culture. february.* marigold. tagetes patalus l. composite family. compositae. cultivated in flower gardens; honey yield not important; bees only occasionally visiting it. july.* narrow-leafed iron wood. bumelia angustifolia nutt. appodilla family. sapotaceae. "valley of the lower rio grande." (coulter). specimen sent from the nueces river. (cotulla). june.* mexican persimmon. diospyros texana scheele. ebony family. ebenaceae. "woods along streams, matagorda bay to the concho river and southward." (coulter). "mexicans call it "chapote," also known as "black persimmon." often found on rocky mesas but thrives best in canyons and on the edges of ravines." (harvard). hunter: in woodlands: honey yield abundant, not harmed by showers on account of bell-shaped flowers. april.* persimmon (common). diospyros virginiana l. ebony family. ebenaceae. "a common tree of the atlantic states. extending into texas to the valley of the colorado." (coulter). throughout east texas; honey yield good, not long and trees not abundant. bell-shaped blossoms are protected in rain. april.* california privet. ligustrum vulgare l. olive family. oleaceae. "thickets and on roadsides, ontario to pennsylvania and north carolina." (small). ornamental shrub cultivated for hedges, etc., honey yield good; flowering trees scarce, trimmed and kept down in hedges. april, may.* "a good flow at college station in ." (e. scholl). silver berry. elaeagnus argentia, pursh. oleaster family. elaeagnaceae. college station; cultivated ornamental on campus. honey yield abundant in narrowly funnel-shaped blossoms hanging downward. nectar runs to mouth of flower. protected from rains. corolla mm. deep. long-tongue bees would be of advantage. october, november.* sweet olive. elaeagnus angustifolia l. oleaster family. elaeagnaceae. college station: cultivated ornamental shrub on campus; honey yield good; bees work on blossom. april.* silk weed. asclepias sp. milk weed family. asclepiadeae. beeville; on plains and prairies. honey yield good but pollen attaches to bee's feet and cripples them. march.* dense-flowered phacelia. phacelia congesta hook. water-leaf family. hydrophyllaceae. "throughout texas." (coulter). rich places and moist woods; honey yield sparing. april, june.* phacelia glabra nutt. water-leaf family. hydrophyllaceae. "low prairies arkansas and east texas." (coulter). on prairies eastern texas. march, april.* borage. borage officinalis l. borage family. boragineae. college: cultivated; honey yield good; bees working busily on it during june. old stalks die down in july and large lower leaves protect root stock during severe drouth and sprout out for bees to work on bloom in august. june, july.* morning glory. ipomoea caroliniana pursh. convolvulus family. convolvulaceae. most common in cultivated fields. honey yield light, pollen. june to november.* night-shade. solanum rostratum dunal. night-shade family. solanaceae. "plains throughout texas." (coulter). hunter: waste lands, prairies and roadsides. honey very little; some pollen. may, october.* trumpet creeper. trumpet flower. campsis radicans (l) seem. bigonia family. bignoniaceae. "moist soil, extending from atlantic and gulf states into texas and common in cultivation." (coulter). cultivated and along river bottoms: honey yield of little importance; external nectar glands; pollen from flowers. july to october.* large-flowered verbena. verbena urticaefolia l. vervain family. verbenaceae. "waste or open grounds, extending from the atlantic regions through texas to tropical america." (coulter). college station: in waste open ground. april, august.* blue vervain. verbena xutha lehm. vervain family. verbenaceae. "extending from louisiana through texas to southern california and mexico." (coulter). college: in sandy soils, honey yield sparing and scattering throughout its season. april, august.* spatulate-leafed fog-fruit. lippia nodiflora michx. vervain family. verbenaceae. "low ground extending from the gulf states to western texas." (coulter). in moist places, rivers and creeks; honey yield very light and of little importance. july.* white brush. lippia ligustrina britt. vervain family. verbenaceae. "common on rocky slopes throughout texas." (coulter). "foliage eaten by cattle, sheep and goats." (harvard). all over southwest texas; honey yield very heavy of fine quality but very short duration, only a few days; blooms after each rain during season. may to november.* lantana. lantana camara l. vervain family. verbenaceae. "extending from the gulf states through southeastern texas to tropical america." (coulter). on light soils of southwest texas; unimportant; bees seldom on it. april, october.* french mulberry. callicarpa americana l. vervain family. verbenaceae. "rich or moist grounds, extending from gulf states to southern texas." (coulter). brazos bottoms, college; rich soil in woods, abundant: honey yield only fair. may.* roemer's sage. salvia roemeriana scheele. mint family. labiatae. "in light fertile soils, western texas." (coulter). hunter: rich soils in forests. unimportant as a honey plant; not abundant; deep corollas. may, june.* blue sage. salvia azurea lam. mint family. labiatae. "from gulf states to extreme western texas." (coulter). hunter: dry soil and waste places; corolla deep and visited much more frequently by bumble bees than honey bees. april, october.* catnip. nepeta cataria l. mint family. labiatae. cultivated on apiary experimental plats, ; only a few plants grew and bloomed. a few bees visited it. soon died. july.* wild bergamont. monarda fistulosa l. mint family. labiatae. "dry soil throughout texas, etc." (coulter). college: along banks of ravines. honey yield good but plants not abundant. may, july.* horse-mint. monarda clinopodioides gray. mint family. labiatae. "eastern and southern texas." (coulter). prairies and waste land; honey yield abundant; one of the main yielders; honey compared to bass-wood in flavor. may, june.* horse-mint. monarda punctata l. (see frontis-piece). mint family. labiatae. "sandy ground extending from the atlantic regions to southern and western texas." (coulter). in open prairies and waste land; honey yield abundant; one of the main crop yielders; honey compared with basswood. may, july.* "a good yielder in brazos bottoms. college station, texas, in , june." (e. scholl). drummond's skull-cap. scutellaria drummondii benth. mint family. labiatae. "common throughout texas in damp rich soil." (coulter). "on prairies, kansas to texas." (small). hunter: waste places in fields and prairies. honey yield abundant in spring; much visited by bees. april, may.* common hoarhound. marrubium vulgare l. mint family. labiatae. "a common escape in waste or open ground." (coulter). hunter: most all parts of the south; fertile places; fence corners and pens; honey yield abundant; steady flow; dark amber colored. claimed bitter by some. february, july.* coleus. coleus blumei benth. mint family. labiatae. college; ornament for borders, etc. honey yield of no importance. bees gather pollen from it only occasionally. july.* common pigweed. amaranthus retroflexus l. amaranth family. amaranthaceae. "throughout texas." (coulter). waste lands and fields; honey yield of no importance; some pollen. july, september.* thorny amaranth. amaranthus spinosus l. amaranth family. amaranthaceae. "from tom green county to laredo." (coulter). annual weedy herbs. in waste places and cultivated soils presumably pollen only; not important. august.* madeira vine. anredera scandens (l). moq. goosefoot family. chenopodiaceae. "from the upper pecos to the lower rio grande, (ringgold)." (coulter). hunter. texas; cultivated for shade on verandas; honey yield fair, bees work on it industriously, but the plants are scarce. may, september.* japanese buckwheat. fagopyrum fagopyrum (l) karst. buckwheat family. polygonaceae. cultivated in fields in a small way; honey yield good on favorable moist mornings, not in dry weather. honey very dark and strong in flavor; not important for bees in texas. june, july.* "a good yielder to bridge over from early spring flower to cotton bloom at college station, texas." (e. scholl). american mistletoe. phoradendron flavescens nutt. mistletoe family. loranthaceae. "from eagle pass to central texas. reported on ulmus, prosopis, quercus, etc." (coulter). honey yield abundant and also pollen, very valuable for early brood rearing. the first source for bees in the season. december, january.* "blooms in january and february if weather is not too cold, yields pollen and honey." (milam, d. c, uvalde, texas). spurge. euphorbia marginata pursh. spurge family. euphorbiaceae. "throughout the valleys of the pecos and rio grande." (coulter). along valleys and lowlands; honey yield of no importance. june, october.* sonora croton. croton sonorae torr. spurge family. euphorbiaceae. "on rocky bluffs of the upper llano." (coulter). hunter: open places in woodland bluffs; honey yield only light, but comes in dearth and good if rains; pollen. july, august.* croton capitatus michx. spurge family. euphorbiaceae. "from the pecos to southern and central texas." (coulter). roadsides and prairies; unimportant; some pollen when no other bloom. july, september.* "plenty of pollen at college station in august, ." (e. scholl). texas croton. croton texensis muell. spurge family. euphorbiaceae. "from the staked plains to corpus christi." (coulter). hunter: roadsides and fields; honey yield very light, not important. june, august.* one-seeded croton. croton monanthogynus michx. spurge family. euphorbiaceae. "central and southern texas." (coulter). hunter: open prairies and pastures; honey yield fair, but unimportant. may, june. castor-oil plant. ricinus communis l. spurge family. euphorbiaceae. "cultivated extensively for ornament and sparingly escaped in missouri and southwestward to central mexico." (coulter). planted for ornamental purposes; honey yield good in favorable seasons; pollen; has glands at base of leaves. march, april.* american or white elm. ulmus americana l. nettle family. urticaceae. "extending westward to the streams of southern and central texas." (coulter). college: along moist creeks and streams; honey yield good but not very plentiful. august.* winged elm or wahoo. ulmus alata michx. nettle family. urticaceae. "on streams extending to the valley of the trinity." (coulter). tree with corky winged branches, along streams and low soils in woods; honey yield good sometimes giving surplus; much pollen; honey of amber color and strong characteristic aroma. august, september.* granjeno. celtis pallida torr. nettle family. urticaceae. "very common on all mesas and foot-hills of western and southern texas." (coulter). beekeepers value it as an important plant in southwest texas. march, april.* hackberry. celtis mississippiensis bosc. nettle family. urticaceae. "extending to central texas." (coulter). in woodlands; much planted for shade; honey yield fair, valuable for pollen in the spring. march, april.* hackberry. celtis occidentalis l. nettle family. urticaceae. "very common in the valleys of western and southwestern texas, 'palo blanco'" (coulter). in woods and valleys, planted for shade; honey yield fair, much pollen, valuable for early brood rearing. march, april.* osage orange. toxylon pomiferum raf. nettle family. urticaceae. "near waters from eastern to central and southern texas. extensively used for hedges." (coulter). planted for hedges and timber; honey yield not important on account of scarcity of trees. april.* pecan-nut. hicoria pecan (marsh) britt. walnut family. juglandeae. "extending from the mississippi states to the streams of central and southwestern texas as far west as fort concho." (coulter). along rivers and creeks; honey yield where plentiful; valuable for brood rearing on account of its pollen. march.* mockernut. whiteheart hickory. hicoria alba (l) britt. walnut family. juglandeae. "extending to the valley of the brazos." (coulter). college station, brazos river. abundant in the sandy valley land; some honey and pollen. march.* black walnut. juglans nigra l. walnut family. juglandeae. "extending from the east to the valley of the colorado and san antonio." (coulter). in forests, along creeks and rivers; some honey, more pollen; good to stimulate bees. march.* post oak. quercus minor (marsh) sarg. oak family. cupuliferae. "sandy or sterile soils, extending from the atlantic states to central texas." (coulter). in sandy land sections of the country; honey yield inferior but with large amount of pollen; good for early brood rearing. march, april.* live oak. quercus virginiana mill. oak family. cupuliferae. "common along water courses extending from the gulf states through southern and western texas to the mountains of new mexico." (coulter). hunter: in forests, honey yield good, poor in quality, dark; valuable for early brood rearing; much pollen. march.* red oak. quercus rubra l. oak family. cupuliferae. "extending to the valleys of the colorado and san antonio. not abundant and timber poor." (coulter). along creeks and low-lands; scarce; pollen. march, april.* swamp, spanish, or pin oak. quercus palustris du roi. oak family. cupuliferae. "low grounds extending to the valley of the colorado." (coulter). forests; good honey yield and also pollen; valuable for brood rearing, march, april.* water oak. quercus aquatica walt. oak family. cupuliferae. "wet grounds extending from the south atlantic states to the valley of the colorado." (coulter). college: along creeks and streams; scarce and scattering; pollen. march.* black jack or barren oak. quercus nigra l. oak family. cupuliferae. "extending to the valleys of the colorado and nueces." (coulter). in post oak woods in sandy sections of the country; early pollen. march, april.* black willow. salix nigra marsh. willow family. salicineae. "on banks bending over the water of most streams of western texas." (coulter). along rivers and creeks; honey yield good and valuable for brood rearing, and for abundance of pollen. february to april.* cottonwood. necklace poplar. populus monilifera ait. willow family. salicineae. "extending into the mountains of western texas." (coulter). lowlands and along streams; some honey but more pollen; valuable for early brood rearing. march.* green briar. cat briar. smilax bona-nox l. lily family. liliaceae. "abundant along the rio grande and pecos." (coulter). "in thickets massachusetts to florida and texas. stretch berry." (small). in thickets; honey yield fair; bees work on it well, but of short duration. april.* asparagus. asparagus officinalis linn. lily family. liliaceae. "in waste places and salt marshes. new brunswick to georgia and louisiana. naturalized from europe." (small). cultivated for its young shoots for food; honey yield of no importance, but good for pollen. march, april.* virginian spiderwort. commelina virginica l. spiderwort family. commelinaceae. "moist thickets and borders of rivers southern and southwestern texas." (coulter). hunter: moist fence corners and open woods; honey yield unimportant, valuable for pollen. april, may.* spiderwort. tradescantia gigantea rose. spiderwort family. commelinaceae. "on plains or prairies, texas." (small). new braunfels; in and about hedges of woodlands; honey yield unimportant but good for early pollen. march, may.* sorghum. sorghum vulgare pers. grass family. gramineae. hunter: cultivated for hay crops, etc., valuable for abundant yield of pollen; some honey. june, august.* indian corn. zea mays l. grass family. gramineae. "cultivated in fields for grain; honey yield not positively known; valuable for its pollen in abundance. may, june.* index latin or technical names. acacia amentacea acacia berlandiera acacia farnesiana acacia greggii acacia roemeriana ailanthus glandulosus amaranthaceae amaranthus retroflexus amaranthus spinosus ambrosia aptera ambrosia artemisiaefolia ambrosia trifida ampelidaceae amygdalus persica anacardiaceae anredera scandens argemone platyceras asclepiadeae asclepias sp asparagus officinalis astragalus mexicanus berberideae berberis trifoliata bignoniaceae berchemia scandens borage officinalis boragineae brassica nigra brassica rapa bumelia angustifolia callicarpa americana callirrhoe digitata cactaceae campsis radicans caprifoliaceae cardiospermum halicacabum celtis pallida celtis occidentalis celtis mississippiensis centaurea americana cephalanthus occidentalis cercis canadensis cercis occidentalis chenopodiaceae cissus incisa citrullus citrullus citrus trifoliata cnicus altissimus coleus blumei columbrina texensis commelinaceae commelina virginica compositae condalia obovata convolvulaceae cornaceae cornus asperifolia crataegus arborescens crataegus spathulata croton capitatus croton monanthogynus croton sonorae croton texensis cruciferae cucumis melo cucumis sativa cucurbitaceae cucurbita foetidissima cucurbita pepo cupuliferae daubentonia longifolia diodia teres diospyros texana diospyros virginiana dolichos lablab ebenaceae elaeagnaceae elaeagnus angustifolia elaeagnus argentia euphorbiaceae euphorbia marginata eysenhardtia amorphoides firmiana platinifolia fagopyrum fagopyrum gaillardia pulchella gaura filiformis geraniaceae gleditschia triacanthos gossypium herbaceum gramineae greggia camporum gutierrezia texana helenium tenuifolium helianthus annuus hibiscus syriacus hicoria alba hicoria pecan houstonia angustifolia hydrophyllaceae ilex caroliniana ilex decidua ilicineae ipomoea caroliniana juglandeae juglans nigra jussiaea diffusa jussiaea repens kallstroemia maxima labiatae lagerstroemia indica lantana camara leguminosae lepidium virginicum ligustrum vulgare liliaceae lippia ligustrina lippia nodiflora lonicera albiflora lonicera fragrantissima loranthaceae lupinus subcarnosus lythraceae malus malus malvaceae malvaviscus drummondii marrubium vulgare medicago denticulata medicago sativa meliaceae melia azedarach melilotus alba melilotus officinalis monarda clinopodioides monarda fistulosa monarda punctata nepeta cataria neptunia lutea oleaceae onagrarieae opuntia englemannii oxalis stricta papaveraceae papaver rhoeas parkinsonia aculeata parthenium hysterophorus phacelia congesta phacelia glabra phoradendron flavescens pisum sativum polygonaceae populus monilifera portulaceae portulaca grandiflora prosopis juliflora prunus (sp.) prunus domestica ptelea trifoliata pyrus communis quercus aquatica quercus minor quercus nigra quercus palustris quercus rubra quercus virginiana reseda odorata resedaceae rhamneae rhus copallina rhus virens ricinus communis robinia pseudacacia rosa rosaceae rudbeckia bicolor rudbeckia hirta rubiaceae rubus trivialis rutaceae salicineae salix nigra salvia azurea salvia roemeriana sambucus canadensis sapindaceae sapindus marginatus sapotaceae schrankia angustata scutellaria drummondii sida spinosa sida angustifolia simarubaceae smilax bona-nox solanaceae solanum rostratum solidago sp. (?) sorghum vulgare spiraea virginiana symphoricarpos symphorlcarpos tagetes patalus tamariscineae tamarix gallica taraxacum officinale tilia americana tiliaceae toxylon pomiferum tradescantia gigantea tribulus cistoides trifolium pratense trifolium repens ulmus americana ulmus alata ungnadia speciosa urticaceae verbenaceae verbena urticaefolia verbena xutha verbesina virginica vigna sinensis (var. ?) vigna (sp). virburnum prunifolium vitis monticola vitis (?) (varieties) xanthium canadense xanthoxylum clava-herculis zea mays zygophylleae index vernacular or common names. alfalfa or lucerne amaranth family american knapweed american mistletoe american or white elm apple appodilla family asparagus barberry family basswood. american linden bean-caper family bigonia family black haw black jack or barren oak black locust black walnut black willow blue lupine. bluebonnet blue sage blue thistle blue vervain borage borage family brasil wood bridal wreath broomweed buckthorn family buckwheat family bush honeysuckle button bush button weed cactus family california privet cassia castor-oil plant catnip catsclaw cockle-burr. clot-burr coleus common balloon vine common cactus or prickly pear common hoarhound common pigweed common pumpkin common sunflower common turnip composite family cone flower. nigger head convolvulus family coral berry. indian currant cotton cottonwood. necklace poplar cow itch crepe myrtle cucumber cultivated wine grapes cow pea dandelion dense-flowered phacelia devils claws dew-berry dogwood family drummond's skull-cap dwarf sumach ebony family elder evening primrose family eysenhardtia french mulberry fringed poppy mallow garden pea geranium family goldenrod goosefoot family gourd family grass family granjeno greater caltrop great ragweed green briar. cat briar green sumach greggia hardy orange hackberry hawthorn. white thorn holly family honey locust honey suckle family hop tree horse-mint houstonia huajilla huisache indian corn japanese buckwheat japanese delchos japanese varnish tree jussiaea lantana large-flowered caltrop large-flowered verbena lily family linden family live oak loose strife family madder family madeira vine mallow family marigold medick. burr clover melia family mezquit tree. screw bean mexican buckeye mexican ground plum mexican persimmon mignonette mignonette family milk weed family mint family mistletoe family mockernut. whiteheart hickory morning glory mountain grape musk melon mustard family narrow-leafed iron wood narrow-leafed sida nettle family night-shade night-shade family oak family oleaster family olive family one-seeded croton osage orange paradise flower peach pear pecan-nut persimmon (common) peppergrass. pepperwort plum poppy family portulaca possum haw. bear berry post oak prickly poppy pulse family purslane family quassia family rattan vine red bud red bud. judas tree red clover red oak retama roemer's sage roman wormwood rose rose family rose of sharon. shrubby althaea round-flowered catsclaw rue family salt cedar sensitive briar silk weed silver berry sneeze weed. bitter weed soapberry. wild china soapberry family sonora croton sorgum spanish apple spatulate-leafed fog-fruit spiderwort family spring sida spurge spurge family sumach family swamp, spanish, or pin oak sweet clover sweet olive tall ragweed tamarisc family texas croton thorny amaranth tooth-ache tree. prickly ash. sea ash. pepperwood tree of heaven triple-leafed barberry trumpet creeper. trumpet flower umbrella china tree vervain family vine family virginian crown-beard virginian spiderwort walnut family water-leaf family watermelon water oak white brush white clover white-flowered honey suckle willow family wild bergamont wild gourd wild plum winged elm or wahoo yellow wood sorrel yellow sweet clover youpon ---------------------------------------------------------------------- [transcriber's note: electronic version produced by frank zago - april nd, . notes about this edition: only the obvious typos were fixed; and several missing opening or closing quotes were added. otherwise no other change was made. the original book used is freely available from texas a&m university at: http://repository.tamu.edu/handle/ . / ] note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h.zip) transcriber's note: words enclosed between equal signs were in bold face (=bold=). a list of corrections is at the end of the book. the ray society. instituted mdcccxliv. [illustration] _this volume is issued to the subscribers to the_ ray society _for the year_ . london: mdccclxix. vegetable teratology, an account of the principal deviations from the usual construction of plants by maxwell t. masters, m.d., f.l.s. with numerous illustrations by e. m. williams. london: published for the ray society by robert hardwicke, . piccadilly. mdccclxix. to joseph dalton hooker, m.d., d.c.l., ll.d., f.r.s., f.l.s., etc. etc. director of the royal gardens, kew, this volume is gratefully inscribed. table of contents. page introduction xxi book i. deviations from ordinary arrangement part i.--union of organs chapter i. cohesion cohesion between axes of same plant, --fasciation, --cohesion of foliar organs, --of margins of single organs, --tubular petals, --cohesion of several organs by their margins, --of the sepals, --of the petals, --of the stamens, --of the pistils, --ascidia or pitchers, . chapter ii. adhesion adhesion of foliar organs, --of leaves by their surfaces, --of foliar to axile organs, --of sepals to petals, --of stamens to petals, --of stamens to pistils, --miscellaneous adhesions, --of fruit to branch, --synanthy, --syncarpy, --synspermy, --between axes of different plants of same species, --and of different species, --synophty. part ii.--independence of organs chapter i. fission fission of axile organs, --of foliar organs, --of petals, --of stamens, --of carpels, . chapter ii. dialysis dialysis of margins of individual parts, --of margins of parts of same whorl-calyx, --of corolla, --of stamens, --of carpels, . chapter iii. solution solution of calyx from ovary, --of stamens from petals, . part iii.--alterations of position chapter i. displacement displacement of bulbs, --of inflorescence, --of leaves, --of parts of flowers, --of carpels, --of placentas and ovules, . chapter ii. prolification prolification of the inflorescence, --median foliar, --median floral, --lateral foliar, --lateral floral, --prolification of the flower, --median foliar, --median floral, --axillary prolification, --foliar, --floral, --complicated prolification, --of embryo, . chapter iii. heterotaxy formation of adventitious roots, --of shoots below the cotyledons, --adventitious leaves, --on scapes, --production of leaves or scales in place of flower-buds, --viviparous plants, --formation of buds on leaves, --in pith, --on bulbs, --production of gemmæ in place of spores, --of flowers on leaves, --of flower-buds in place of leaf-buds, --of flowers on spines, --of flower-buds on petals, --on fruits, --in ovaries, --of stamens in ovaries, --of pollen in ovules, --homomorphic flowers of compositæ, --heterotaxy affecting the inflorescence, --supra-soriferous ferns, . chapter iv. heterogamy change in the position of male and female flowers, --from monoecious to dioecious condition, --from dioecious to monoecious, --from hermaphroditism to unisexuality, --from unisexuality to hermaphroditism, --pollen replaced by ovules, . chapter v. alterations in the direction of organs fastigiation, --eversion, --altered direction of leaves, --altered direction of flower, --reflexion, --gymnaxony, . book ii. deviations from ordinary form part i.--stasimorphy chapter i. persistence of juvenile forms stasimorphy in leaves of conifers, --regular peloria, . part ii.--pleiomorphy chapter i. irregular peloria part iii.--metamorphy chapter i. phyllody phyllody of bracts, --in inflorescence of conifers, --of calyx, --of corolla, --of stamens, --of pistils, --of ovules, --changes in nucleus of ovule, --phyllody of accessory organs, --chloranthy, --general remarks on, . chapter ii. metamorphy of floral organs sepalody of petals, --petalody of calyx, calycanthemy, --petalody of stamens, --of anther, --of connective, --compound stamens, --petalody of pistils, --of ovules, --of accessory organs, --staminody of the bracts, --of sepals and petals, --of pistils, --of accessory organs, --pistillody of perianth, --of sepals, --of stamens, --of ovules, . part iv.--heteromorphy chapter i. deformities formation of tubes, --in flower, --spurs, --contortion, --spiral torsion, --of leaf, --adventitious tendrils, --interrupted growth, --cornute leaves, --flattening, . chapter ii. polymorphy heterophylly, --dimorphism, --sports or bud-variations, . chapter iii. alterations of colour albinism, --virescence, --chromatism, . book iii. deviations from ordinary number part i.--increased number of organs chapter i. multiplication of axile organs--inflorescence multiplication of branches, --plica, --polyclady, --multiplication of branches of inflorescence, --of bulbs, --of florets, . chapter ii. multiplication of foliar organs pleiophylly, --multiplication of stipules, bracts, &c., --polyphylly, --increased number of leaves in a whorl, --polyphylly of bracts, --of calyx, --of corolla, --of androecium, --of gynoecium, --of flower in general, --increased number of ovules and seeds, --of embryos, --of cotyledons, --pleiotaxy, or multiplication of whorls, --pleiotaxy of bracts, --of calyx, --of perianth, --of corolla (hose in hose), --androecium, --androecium of orchids, --pleiotaxy of gynoecium, --increased number of flowers in an inflorescence, . part ii.--diminished number of organs chapter i. suppression of axile organs acaulosia, --non-development of peduncle, --nature of calyx-tube (casimir de candolle), --suppression of columella, . chapter ii. suppression of foliar organs aphylly, --meiophylly, --of calyx or perianth, --of corolla, --of androecium, --of gynoecium, --of flower, --meiotaxy, --of calyx, --of corolla, --of androecium, --of gynoecium, --of ovules or seeds, --of flower, --general remarks on suppression, . book iv. deviations from ordinary size and consistence part i--hypertrophy chapter i. enlargement of axile organs, --knaurs, --enlargement of buds, --of flower-stalk, --in pears, --of placenta, --of leaves, --development of parts usually abortive, --enlargement of perianth, --of androecium, --of gynoecium, --of fruit, --alterations of consistence, . chapter ii. elongation elongation of root, --of inflorescence, --of flower-stalks, --of leaves, --of parts of flower, --of thalamus and placenta, --apostasis, . chapter iii. enation excrescences from axile organs, warts, --enation from leaves, --from sepals, --from petals, --catacorolla, --enation from stamens, --from carpels, . part ii.--atrophy chapter i. abortion abortion of axile organs, --of receptacle, --of leaves, --of perianth, calyx, and corolla, --of stamens, --of pollen, --of pistil, fruit, &c., --of ovules, --depauperated ferns, --general remarks, . chapter ii. degeneration formation of scales, --of hairs, --of glands, --of tendrils, . general conclusions. general morphology of the leaf and axis, .--homology, --special morphology, --calyx-tube, --androecium, --inferior ovary, --placentation, --structure of the ovule, --leaves of conifers, --relative position of organs, --law of alternation, --co-relation, --compensation, --teratology and classification, . appendix. double flowers, varieties of, --causes of production, --relation to variegated foliage, --list of plants producing, . note index to subjects index of names of plants list of illustrations. fig. page . diagram of regular pentamerous flower . cohesion of branch _dipsacus sylvestris_ . fasciated lettuce ('gard. chron.') . fasciation in _asparagus_ . fasciation in _pinus pinaster_ . fasciation and spiral torsion in _asparagus_ ('gard. chron.') . fasciation in scape of dandelion . pitcher on leaf of _pelargonium_ . transition from flat to tubular segments of the perianth in _eranthis_ . pitcher of _crassula arborescens_ (c. morren) . gamopetalous corolla, _papaver bracteatum_ . adhesion of petaloid stamen to segment of perianth, _crocus_ . adhesion of petal, stamen and carpel, _cheiranthus cheiri_ . synanthy. _campanula medium_ ('gard. chron.') , . synanthic flowers of _calanthe vestita_ . synanthy in _digitalis purpurea_ ('gard. chron.') . synanthy in _calceolaria_ , . syncarpic apples . adhesion of two stems of oak ('gard. chron.') . adhesion of branches of elm ('gard. chron.') . adhesion of two roots of carrot, one white, the other red ('gard. chron.') . section through inverted and adherent mushrooms . bifurcated male catkin, _cedrus libani_ . bifurcated leaf, _lamium album_ . bifurcated leaf, _pelargonium_ . bifurcated frond, _scolopendrium_ . three-lobed lip of _oncidium_ . dialysis of corolla in _correa_ . dialysis of corolla in _campanula_ (de candolle) . anomalous form of orange , . disjoined carpels of orange (maout) . proliferous rose (bell salter) , . apple flower, with detached calyx, &c. . flower of _oenanthe crocata_, with detached calyx, &c. . anomalous bulbs of tulip . displaced leaf of _gesnera_ (c. morren) . leaves of _pinus pinea_ . deranged leaves of yew . cohesion of sepals and displacement of parts of _oncidium cucullatum_ . malformed flower of _cypripedium_ . diagram of the same . diagram of natural structure in _cypripedium_ . diagram of malformed flower of _lycaste skinneri_ . diagram of malformed flower of _dendrobium nobile_ . natural arrangement in same flower . diagram of malformed violet . monstrous flower of _cerastium_ ('gard. chron.') . inflorescence of _polyanthus_, with tufts of leaves at the summit . lateral prolification in inflorescence of _pelargonium_ . paniculate inflorescence of _plantago major_ . branched spike and leafy bracts of the same . inflorescence of _plantago lanceolata_, with leaves and secondary flower-stalks at its summit . branched inflorescence of _reseda luteola_ . thalamus of strawberry prolonged into a leafy branch ('american agriculturist') . flower of _verbascum_, with dialysis of calyx and corolla and prolonged thalamus . median floral prolification of _dianthus_ . leafy carpels and prolification of _daucus carota_ . median floral prolification of _delphinium_ . median prolification, &c., of _orchis pyramidalis_ . proliferous rose (bell salter) . axillary floral prolification of _nymphæa lotus_ ('gard. chron.') . axillary floral prolification of _dianthus_ . proliferous rose . proliferous rose ('gard. chron.') . diagram of prolified orchid . diagram of prolified orchis . adventitious roots from petiole of celery . germinating plant of mango , . adventitious roots from leaves . hip of rose bearing leaf . leaves proceeding from the ovary of _nymphæa_ sp. . flower-stalk of dandelion, with leaves . tuft of leaves in place of flowers in _valeriana_ sp. . scale-bearing spikelets of _willdenovia_ . "rose willow" . viviparous flowers of _aira vivipara_ . formation of shoot on leaf of _episcia bicolor_ . adventitious buds on root of sea-kale , . production of adventitious bulbs in hyacinth ('gard. chron.') . adventitious buds on hyacinth ('gard. chron ') - . nepaul barley , . formation of buds on fruit of _opuntia_ . flower-bud in the pod of _sinapis_ *, . adventitious pod in silique of _cheiranthus_ , . grapes, with adventitious fruits in interior . stamens in ovary of _bæckea diosmifolia_ . pollen in ovule of passion flower (s. j. salter) . female flowers at the summit of the inflorescence of _carex acuta_ . monoecious hop ('gard. chron.') . superior ovary, &c, of fuchsia . hermaphrodite flower of _carica_ . ovuliferous anthers of _cucurbita_ sp. , . prolonged inflorescence of fig . hollow turnip, with inverted leaves . normal flower of _gloxinia_ . regular peloria of _gloxinia_ , . structural details of erect _gloxinia_ . reflected corolla of azalea , . enlarged and erect placenta of _cuphea miniata_ (c. morren) . dimorphic leaves of _juniperus sinensis_ . regular peloria of _delphinium_ . structural details of the preceding . regular peloria of violet . double-flowered regular violet . regular peloria of _eccremocarpus scaber_ . regular peloria of _cattleya_ . peloria of _calceolaria_ . peloric flower of _aristolochia_ , . peloric flowers of _corydalis_ . rose plantain . leafy bracts in _plantago major_ . leafy scales of _dahlia_ . leafy sepals of rose . leafy sepals of fuchsia ('gard. chron.') . leafy calyx of primrose . leafy calyx of melon . leafy sepals and petals of _geranium_ . leafy stamens of _petunia_ , . leafy anthers of _jatropha_ (müller) . proliferous rose, with leafy carpels, &c. (bell salter) . cucumber, with adventitious leaf attached (s. j. salter) . leafy carpels in flower of _triumfetta_ . leafy ovules of _sinapis_ , . leafy ovules of _trifolium repens_ (caspary) . portion of leafy carpel of _delphinium_, with ovules (cramer) , . enlarged view of section of leafy carpel, &c., of _delphinium_ (cramer) . placentæ of _dianthus_, bearing ovules and carpels ('gard. chron.') . ovules passing into carpels, _dianthus_ ('gard. chron.') . leafy shoot in place of ovule of _gaillardia_ , . leafy sepals, petals, &c., of _epilobium_ . leafy carpel of rose, with deformed ovules . flower of st. valery apple . petaloid calyx of _mimulus_ . double stellate columbine . four-winged filaments of rhododendron . diagram of malformed flower of _catasetum_ . petaloid stamen of _viola_ . double columbine . petaloid stamens of _hibiscus_ . displaced coloured leaf, &c., of tulip . supernumerary carpels in orange (maout) . pistilloid stamens of poppy . pistilloid stamens of wallflower, &c. . passage of stamen to carpel in lily . transition of stamens to carpels, _sempervivum tectorum_ . ascidia of cabbage . stalked pitcher on lettuce leaf . tubular petal of _primula sinensis_ . spurs on flower of _calceolaria_ . contorted stem of _juncus_ . contorted branch of _cratægus_ . spirally-twisted stem of teazel . spirally-twisted stem _galium_ . spirally-twisted root ('gard. chron.') . interrupted growth of radish (american agriculturist) . interrupted growth in apple . polymorphous leaves of lilac . adventitious growth on frond of _pteris quadriaurita_ , . coloured flower-stalks of feather hyacinth (c. morren) , . multiplication of catkins, _corylus_ . branched inflorescence of broccoli ('gard. chron.') , . supernumerary leaf of elm , . supernumerary leaf of hazel . multiplication of parts of flower in a plum ('gard. chron.') . wheat-ear carnation . multiplication of bracts in _delphinium consolida_ . multiplication of bracts in _pelargonium_ . double white lily . double flower of _campanula rotundifolia_ . diagram of usual arrangement of parts in _orchis_ (darwin) . diagram of malformed flower of _ophrys aranifera_ . malformed flower of _ophrys aranifera_ . diagram of malformed flower of _orchis mascula_ (cramer) . multiplication of carpels, tulip . section of st. valery apple . regular dimerous flower of _calanthe vestita_ . regular dimerous flower of _odontoglossum alexandræ_ . hypertrophied branch of _pelargonium_ . tubers in the axils of leaves of the potato . hypertrophied pedicels of ash , . hypertrophy and elongation of flower-stalk, &c., in pears , . hypertrophied perianth, _cocos nucifera_ . elongation of flower-stalk, _ranunculus acris_ . linear leaf-lobes of parsley . passage of pinnate to palmate leaves in horse-chestnut . elongation of thalamus, apostasis, &c., in flower of _delphinium_ (cramer) . adventitious growths from cabbage leaf . crested fronds of _nephrodium molle_ . supernumerary petals, &c., _datura fastuosa_ . supernumerary petaloid segments in flower of _gloxinia_ . catacorolla of _gloxinia_ (e. morren) . atrophied leaves of cabbage . abortion of petals, pansy . flower of _oncidium abortivum_ . bladder plum introduction. till within a comparatively recent period but little study was given to exceptional formations. they were considered as monsters to be shunned, as lawless deviations from the ordinary rule, unworthy the attention of botanists, or at best as objects of mere curiosity. by those whose notions of structure and conformation did not extend beyond the details necessary to distinguish one species from another, or to describe the salient features of a plant in technical language; whose acquaintance with botanical science might almost be said to consist in the conventional application of a number of arbitrary terms, or in the recollection of a number of names, teratology was regarded as a chaos whose meaningless confusion it were vain to attempt to render intelligible,--as a barren field not worth the labour of tillage. the older botanists, it is true, often made them the basis of satirical allusions to the political or religious questions of the day, especially about the time of the reformation, and the artists drew largely upon their polemical sympathies in their representations of these anomalies. linnæus treated of them to some extent in his 'philosophia,' but it is mainly to angustin pyramus de candolle that the credit is due of calling attention to the importance of vegetable teratology. this great botanist, not only indirectly, but from his personal research into the nature of monstrosities, did more than any of his predecessors to rescue them from the utter disregard, or at best the contemptuous indifference, of the majority of botanists. de candolle gave a special impetus to morphology in general by giving in his adhesion to the morphological hypotheses of goethe. these were no mere figments of the poet's imagination, as they were to a large extent based on the actual investigation of normal and abnormal organisation by goethe both alone, and also in conjunction with batsch and jaeger. de candolle's example was contagious. scarcely a botanist of any eminence since his time but has contributed his quota to the records of vegetable teratology, in proof of which the names of humboldt, robert brown, the de jussieus, the saint hilaires, of moquin-tandon, of lindley, and many others, not to mention botanists still living, may be cited. to students and amateurs the subject seems always to have presented special attractions, probably from the singularity of the appearances presented, and from the fact that in many cases the examination of individual instances of malformation can be carried on, to a large extent, without the lengthened or continuous investigation and critical comparative study required by other departments of botanical science. be this as it may, teratology owes a very large number of its records to this class of observers. while the number of scattered papers on vegetable teratology in various european languages is so great as to preclude the possibility of collating them all, there is no general treatise on the subject in the english language, with the exception of hopkirk's 'flora anomala,' a book now rarely met with, and withal very imperfect; and this notwithstanding that robert brown early lent his sanction to the doctrines of goethe, and himself illustrated them by teratological observations. in france, besides important papers of turpin, geoffroy de saint hilaire, brongniart, kirschleger and others, to which frequent allusion is made in the following pages, there is the classic work of moquin-tandon, which was translated into german by schauer. germany has also given us the monographs of batsch, jæger, roeper, engelmann, schimper, braun, fleischer, wigand, and many others. switzerland has furnished the treatises of the de candolles, and of cramer; belgium, those of morren, &c., all of which, as well as many others that might be mentioned, are, with the exception of moquin-tandon's 'eléments,' to be considered as referring to limited portions only and not to the whole subject.[ ] in the compilation of the present volume great use has been made of the facts recorded in the works just cited, and especially in those of moquin-tandon, engelmann, and morren. a very large number of communications on teratological subjects in the various european scientific publications have also been laid under contribution. in most cases reference has been given to, and due acknowledgment made of, the sources whence information has been gathered. should any such reference be omitted, the neglect must be attributed to inadvertence, not to design. in selecting illustrations from the immense number of recorded facts, the principle followed has been to choose those which seemed either intrinsically the most important, or those which are recorded with the most care. in addition to these public sources of information, the author has availed himself of every opportunity that has offered itself of examining cases of unusual conformation in plants. for many such opportunities the author has to thank his friends and correspondents. nor has he less reason to be grateful for the suggestions that they have made, and the information they have supplied. in particular the writer is desirous of acknowledging his obligations to the society, under whose auspices this work is published, and to mr. s. j. salter, to whom the book in some degree owes its origin. the drawings, where not otherwise stated, have been executed either from the author's own rough sketches, or from the actual specimens, by mr. e. m. williams. a large number of woodcuts have also been kindly placed at the disposal of the author by the proprietors of the 'gardeners' chronicle.'[ ] as it is impossible to frame any but a purely arbitrary definition of teratology or to trace the limits between variation and malformation, it may suffice to say that vegetable teratology comprises the history of the irregularities of growth and development in plants, and of the causes producing them. these irregularities differ from variations mainly in their wider deviation from the customary structure, in their more frequent and more obvious dependence on external causes rather than on inherent tendency, in their more sudden appearance, and lastly in their smaller liability to be transmitted by inheritance. what may be termed normal morphology includes the study of the form, arrangement, size and other characteristic attributes of the several parts of plants, their internal structure, and the precise relation one form bears to another. in order the more thoroughly to investigate these matters it is necessary to consider the mode of growth, and specially the plan of evolution or development of each organ. this is the more needful owing to the common origin of things ultimately very different one from the other, and to the presence of organs which, in the adult state, are identical or nearly so in aspect, but which nevertheless are very unlike in the early stages of their existence.[ ] following goethe, these changes in the course of development are sometimes called metamorphoses. in this way agardh[ ] admits three kinds of metamorphosis, which he characterises as: st. successive metamorphoses, or those changes in the course of evolution which each individual organ undergoes in its passage from the embryonic to the adult condition, or from the simple and incomplete to the complex and perfect. . ascending metamorphoses, including those changes of form manifested in the same adult organism by the several parts of which it consists--those parts being typically identical or homologous, such as the parts of the flower, or, in animals, the vertebræ, &c. . collateral metamorphoses, comprising those permutations of form and function manifested in homologous organs in the different groups of organisms, classes, orders, genera, species, &c. thus, in the first instance, we have a comparative examination of the form of each or any separate part of the same individual at different epochs in its life-history; in the second we have a similar comparison instituted between the several parts of the same organism which originally were identical in appearance, but which have in course of evolution altered in character. in the third form we have the comparative view not of one organ at different times, nor of the several parts of one organism, but of the constituent elements pertaining to those aggregates of individuals to which naturalists apply the terms classes, orders, &c. in successive metamorphosis we have a measure of the amount of change and of the perfection of structure to which each separate organ attains. in ascending metamorphosis we have a gauge of the extent of alteration that may take place in the several homologous organs under existing circumstances. in collateral metamorphosis, in the same way, we have an illustration of the degree of change possible in aggregates of organisms under existing circumstances. now it is clear that from an investigation of all three classes just mentioned, we shall be able to gain an idea of those points which are common to all parts, to all individuals or to all aggregates, and those that are peculiar to some of them, and, by eliminating the one from the other, we shall arrive at conclusions which will be more or less generally accurate or applicable, according to the ability of the student and the extent to which the comparative analysis is earned. it is thus that morphologists have been enabled to frame types or standards of reference, and systematists to collocate the organisms they deal with into groups. these standards and groups are more or less artificial (none can be entirely natural) in proportion to the amount of knowledge possessed by their framers, and the use they make of it. from this point of view teratological metamorphosis of all three kinds demands as much attention as that which is called normal. we can have no thorough knowledge of an organ, of an individual which is an aggregate of organs, or of an aggregate of individuals of whatever degree, unless we know approximately, at least, what are the limits of each. it is not possible to trace these limits accurately in the case of natural science, but the larger our knowledge and the wider our generalisations, the closer will be our approach to the truth. the most satisfactory classification of malformations would be one founded upon the nature of the causes inducing the several changes. thus, in all organised beings, there is a process of growth, mere increase in bulk as it were, and a process of evolution or metamorphosis, in accordance with which certain parts assume a different form from the rest, in order the better to fit them for the performance of different offices. should growth and development be uniform and regular, that is in accordance with what is habitual in any particular species, there is no monstrosity, but if either growth or development be in any way irregular, malformation results. hence, theoretically, the best way of grouping cases of malformation would be according as they are the consequences of:-- st. arrest of growth; ndly. excessive growth; rdly. arrest of development; thly, of excessive or irregular development. in practice, however, there are so many objections to this plan that it has not been found practicable to carry it out. the inability arises to a great extent from our ignorance of what should be attributed to arrest of growth, what to excess of development, and so on. moreover, a student with a malformed plant before him must necessarily ascertain in what way it is malformed before he can understand how it became so, and for this purpose any scheme that will enable him readily to detect the kind of monstrosity he is examining, even though it be confessedly artificial and imperfect will be better than a more philosophical arrangement which circumstances prevent him from employing. the plan followed in this volume is a slight modification of that adopted by moquin-tandon, and with several additions. in it the aim is to place before the student certain salient and easily recognisable points by reference to which the desired information can readily be found. under each subdivision will be found general explanatory remarks, illustrative details, and usually a summary of the more important facts and the inferences to be derived from them. bibliographical references and lists of the plants most frequently affected with particular malformations are also given. in reference to both these points it must be remembered that absolute completeness is not aimed at; had such fullness of detail been possible of attainment it would have necessitated for its publication a much larger volume than the present.[ ] it is hoped that both the lists of books and of plants are sufficiently full for all general purposes.[ ] in the enumeration of plants affected with various malformations the ! denotes that the writer has himself seen examples of the deviation in question in the particular plant named, while the prefix of the * indicates that the malformation occurs with special frequency in the particular plant to which the sign is attached. teratological alterations are rarely isolated phenomena, far more generally they are associated with other and often compensatory changes. hence it is often necessary, in studying any given malformation, to refer to two or more subdivisions, and in this way a certain amount of repetition becomes unavoidable. the details of the several cases of malformation given in these pages are generally arranged according to their apparent degree of importance. thus, in a case of prolification associated with multiplication of the petals, the former change is a greater deviation from the customary form than the latter, hence reference should be made, in the first instance, to the sections treating on prolification, and afterwards to those on multiplication. to facilitate such research, numerous cross references are supplied. in the investigation of teratological phenomena constant reference must be made to the normal condition, and _vice versâ_, else neither the one nor the other can be thoroughly understood. it cannot, however, be overlooked that the form and arrangement called normal are often merely those which are the most common, while the abnormal or unusual arrangement is often more in consonance with that considered to be typical than the ordinary one. thus, too, it is often found that the structural arrangements, which in one flower are normal, are in another abnormal, in so far that they are not usual in that particular instance. for purposes of reference, a standard of comparison is required; and this standard, so long as its nature is not overlooked, may, indeed must be, to some extent, an arbitrary one. thus in the phanerogamous plants there is assumed to exist, in all cases, an axis (stem, branches, roots, thalamus, &c.), bearing leaves and flowers. these latter consist of four whorls, calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistils, each whorl consisting of so many separate pieces in determinate position and numbers, and of regular proportionate size. a very close approach to such a flower occurs normally in _limnanthes_ and _crassula_, and, indeed, in a large proportion of all flowers in an early stage of development. to a standard type, such as just mentioned, all the varied forms that are met with, either in normal or abnormal morphology, may be referred by bearing in mind the different modifications and adaptations that the organs have to undergo in the course of their development. some parts after a time may cease to grow, others may grow in an inordinate degree, and so on; and thus, great as may be the ultimate divergences from the assumed standard, they may all readily be explained by the operation, simply or conjointly, of some of the four principal causes of malformation before alluded to. the fact that so many and such varied changes can thus readily be explained is not only a matter of convenience, but may be taken as evidence that the standard of reference is not wholly arbitrary and artificial, but that it is a close approximation to the truth. it has already been said that an arrangement like that here considered as typical is natural to some flowers in their adult state, and to a vast number in their immature condition. it would be no extravagant hypothesis to surmise that this was the primitive structure of the flower in the higher plants. variations from it may have arisen in course of time, owing to the action of an inherent tendency to vary, or from external circumstances and varied requirements which may have induced corresponding adaptations, and which may have been transmitted in accordance with the principle of hereditary transmission. this hypothesis necessarily implies a prior simplicity of organisation, of which, indeed, there is sufficient proof; many cases of malformation can thus be considered as so many reversions to the ancestral form. thus, teratology often serves as an aid in the study of morphology in general, and also in that of special groups of plants, and hence may even be of assistance in the determination of affinities. in any case the data supplied by teratology require to be used with caution and in conjunction with those derived from the study of development and from analogy. it is even possible that some malformations, especially when they acquire a permanent nature and become capable of reproducing themselves by seed, may be the starting-point of new species, as they assuredly are of new races, and between a race and a species he would be a bold man who would undertake to draw a hard and fast line.[ ] discredit has been cast on teratology because it has been incautiously used. at one time it was made to prove almost everything; what wonder that by some, now-a-days, it is held to prove nothing. true the evidence it affords is sometimes negative, often conflicting, but it is so rather from imperfect interpretation than from any intrinsic worthlessness. if misused the fault lies with the disciple, not with nature. teratology as a guide to the solution of morphological problems has been especially disparaged in contrast with organogeny, but unfairly so. there is no reason to exalt or to disparage either at the expense of the other. both should receive the attention they demand. the study of development shows the primitive condition and gradual evolution of parts in any given individual or species; it carries us back some stages further in the history of particular organisms, but so also does teratology. many cases of arrest of development show the mode of growth and evolution more distinctly, and with much greater ease to the observer, than does the investigation of the evolution of organs under natural circumstances. organogeny by no means necessarily, or always, gives us an insight into the principles regulating the construction of flowers in general. it gives us no archetype except in those comparatively rare cases where primordial symmetry and regularity exist. when an explanation of the irregularity of development in these early stages of the plant's history is required, recourse must be had to the inferences and deductions drawn from teratological investigations and from the comparative study of allied forms precisely as in the case of adult flowers. the study of development is of the highest importance in the examination of plants as individuals, but in regard to comparative anatomy and morphology, and specially in its relation to the study of vegetable homology it has no superiority over teratology. those who hold the contrary opinion do so, apparently, because they overlook the fact that there is no distinction, save of degree, to be drawn between the laws regulating normal organisation, and those by which so-called abnormal formations are regulated. it is sometimes said, and not wholly without truth, that teratology, as it stands at present, is little more than a record of facts, but in proportion as the laws that regulate normal growth are better understood, so will the knowledge of those that govern the so-called monstrous formations increase. sufficient has been already said to prove that there is no intrinsic difference between the laws of growth in the two cases. as our knowledge increases we shall be enabled to ascertain approximately of what extent of variation a given form is capable, under given conditions, and to refer all formations now considered anomalous to a few well-defined forms. already teratology has done much towards showing the erroneous nature of many morphological statements that still pass current in our text-books, though their fallacy has been demonstrated again and again. thus organs are said to be fused which were never separate, disjunctions and separations are assigned to parts that were never joined, adhesions and cohesions are spoken of in cases where, from the nature of things, neither adhesion nor cohesion could have existed. some organs are said to be atrophied which were never larger and more fully developed than they now are, and so on. so long as these expressions are used in a merely conventional sense and for purposes of artificial classification or convenience, well and good, but let us not delude ourselves that we are thus contributing to the philosophical study either of the conformation of plants or of the affinities existing between them. what hope is there that we shall ever gain clear conceptions as to the former, as long as we tie ourselves down to formulas which are the expressions of facts as they appear to be, rather than as they really are? what chance is there of our attaining to comprehensive and accurate views of the genealogy and affinities of plants as long as we are restricted by false notions as to the conformation and mutual relation of their parts?[ ] that teratology may serve the purposes of systematic botany to a greater extent than might at first be supposed becomes obvious from a consideration of such facts as are mentioned under the head of peloria, while the presence of rudimentary organs, or the occasional appearance of additional parts, or other changes, may, and often do, afford a clue to the relationship existing between plants--a relationship that might otherwise be unsuspected. so, too, some of the alterations met with appear susceptible of no other explanations than that they are reversions to some pre-existing form, or, at any rate, that they are manifestations of a phase of the plant affected different from that which is habitual, and due, as it were, to a sort of allotropism. the mutations and perversions of form, associated as they commonly are with corresponding changes of function, show the connection between teratology and physiology--a connection which is seen to be the more intimate when viewed in the light afforded by the writings and experiments of gærtner, sprengel, and st. hilaire, and, in our own times, especially by the writings and experiments of mr. darwin, whose works on the 'origin of species,' and particularly on the 'variation of animals and plants under domestication' comprise so large a collection of facts for the use of students in most departments of biology. it will suffice to allude, in support of these statements, to the writings of mr. darwin on such subjects as rudimentary organs, the use or disuse of certain parts according to circumstances, the frequently observed tendency of some flowers to become structurally unisexual, the liability of other flowers perfectly organised to become functionally imperfect, at least so far as any reciprocal action of the organs of the same flower is concerned, reversions, classification, general morphology, and other subjects handled at once with such comprehensive breadth and minute accuracy of detail by our great physiologist. in the following pages alterations of function, unless attended by corresponding alterations of form, are either only incidentally alluded to, or are wholly passed over; such, for instance, as alterations in the period of flowering, in the duration of the several organs, and so forth.[ ] pathological changes, lesions caused by insect puncture or other causes, also find no place in this book, unless the changes are of such a character as to admit of definite comparison with normal conformation. usually such changes are entirely heteromorphous, and, as it were, foreign to the natural organisation. the practical applications of teratology deserve the attention of those cultivators who are concerned in the embellishment of our gardens and the supply of our tables. the florist lays down a certain arbitrary standard of perfection, and attempts to make flowers conform to that model. whether it be in good taste or not to value all flowers, in proportion as they accord with an artificial and comparatively inelastic standard of this kind, we need not stop to enquire; suffice it to say, that taking the matter in its broadest sense, the aim of the florist is to produce large, symmetrical flowers, brightly and purely coloured, or if parti-coloured, the colours must be distinct, harmonious, or contrasted. when all this is done, the flower, in most instances, becomes 'monstrous' of the eyes in the botanist, though all the more interesting to the student of morphology on that account. in like manner the double flowers, the "breaks," the "sports" which the florist cultivates so anxiously, are all of them greater or less deviations from the ordinary form, while the broccolies, the cabbages, and many other products of our kitchen gardens and fields owe the estimation in which they are held entirely to those peculiarities which, by an unhappy application of words, are called monstrous by botanists. grafting, layering, the "striking" of cuttings, the formation of adventitious roots and buds, processes on which the cultivator so greatly relies for the propagation and extension of his plants, are also matters with which teratology concerns itself. again the difficulty experienced occasionally in getting vines, strawberries, &c., to set properly, may sometimes be accounted for by that inherent tendency which some plants possess of exchanging an hermaphrodite for a unisexual condition. for reasons then of direct practical utility, no less than on purely scientific grounds, it is desirable to study these irregularities of growth, their nature, limits, and inducing causes; and to this end it is hoped the present work may, in some degree, contribute. footnotes: [ ] an excellent summary of the history of vegetable teratology is given in kirschleger's 'essai historique de la tératologie végétale,' strasburg, . [ ] in some instances diagrams and formulæ are given in explanation of the conformation of monstrous flowers; in general these require no further explanation than is given in the text, unless it be to state that the horizontal line--is intended to indicate the cohesion of the parts over which it is placed, while the vertical line | signifies the adhesion of the organs by whose side it is placed. the formula s s s s s ------------------------ | p p p p p | | st st st st st shows that the sepals (s) are distinct, the petals (p) coherent, and the stamens (st) adherent to the petals. [ ] wolff was the first to call attention to the great importance of the study of development. he was followed by turpin, mirbel, schleiden, payer, and others, and its value is now fully recognised by botanists. [ ] agardh, "theoria syst. plant.," p. xxiii. [ ] in the memoirs of hopkirk, kirschleger, cramer, hallier, and others, malformations are arranged primarily according to the organs affected, an arrangement which has only convenience to justify it. it is hoped that the index and the headings to the paragraphs in the present volume will suit the convenience of the reader as well as if the more artificial plan just alluded to had been adopted. [ ] cryptogamous plants are only incidentally alluded to in these pages, owing to their wide difference in structure from flowering plants. attention may, also, here be called to a paper of m. de seynes in a recent number of the bulletin of the botanical society of france, vol. xiv, p. , tab. et , in which numerous cases of malformation among agarics are recorded. see also same publication, vol. iv, p. ; vol. v, p. ; vol. vi, p. . [ ] on this subject see a paper of m. naudin in the 'comptes rendus,' , t. , pp. - . [ ] it is probable that many terms and expressions calculated to mislead in the way above mentioned are made use of in the following pages. the inconsistency manifested by their use may be excused on the ground of ignorance of the true structure, and by the circumstance that in many cases facts alone are recorded without an explanation of them being offered. moreover, it is desirable to act in conformity with the usual practice of botanical writers, and not to change established terminology, even if suspected to convey false ideas, until the true condition of affairs be thoroughly well ascertained by organogenetic research or other means. [ ] a curious illustration of the latter class of alterations came under the writer's notice last summer ( ), and which he has reason to believe has not been previously recorded, viz. the persistence in an unwithered state of the petals at the base of the ripe fruit, in a strawberry. all the fruits on the particular plants alluded to were thus provided as it were with a white frill. whether this be a constant occurrence in the particular variety is not known. vegetable teratology. book i. deviations from the ordinary arrangement of organs. as full details relating to the disposition or arrangement of the general organs of flowering plants are given in all the ordinary text-books, it is only necessary in this place to allude to the main facts at present known, and which serve as the standard of comparison with which all morphological changes are compared. even in the case of the roots, which appear to be very irregular in their ramification, it has been found that, in the first instance at least, the rootlets or fibrils are arranged in regular order one over another, in a certain determinate number of vertical ranks, generally either in two or in four, sometimes in three or in five series. this regularity of arrangement (rhizotaxy), first carefully studied by m. clos, is connected with the disposition of the fibro-vascular bundles in the body of the root. this primitive regularity is soon lost as the plant grows. in the case of the leaves there are two principal modes of arrangement, dependent, as it would seem, on their simultaneous or on their successive development; thus, if two leaves on opposite sides of the stem are developed at the same time, we have the arrangement called opposite; if there are more than two, the disposition is then called verticillate or whorled. on the other hand, if the leaves are developed in succession, one after the other, they are found to emerge from the stem in a spiral direction. in either case the leaves are arranged in a certain regular manner, according to what are called the laws of phyllotaxis, which need not be entered into fully here; but in order the better to estimate the teratological changes which take place, it may be well to allude to the following circumstances relating to the alternation of parts. the effect of this alternation is such, that no two adjacent leaves stand directly over or in front one of the other, but a little to one side or a little higher up. now, in the alternate arrangement the successive leaves of each spiral cycle alternate one with another till the coil is completed. for the sake of clearness this may be illustrated thus:--suppose the spiral cycle to comprise five leaves, numbered , , , , , then would intervene between and , and so on, while the sixth leaf would be the commencement of a new series, and would be placed exactly over . this arrangement may be thus formularised: in the verticillate or simultaneous arrangement of leaves the case is somewhat different. let us suppose a whorl of eight leaves, surmounted by a similar whorl of eight. in such a case it will generally be found that the whorls alternate one with another, as may be represented by this symbol: the simplest illustration of this arrangement is seen in the case of decussate leaves, where those organs are placed in pairs, and the pairs cross one another at right angles. this may be expressed by the following symbol: thus, while in both the annular and the spiral modes of development the individual members of each complete series necessarily alternate one with another, in the former case the series themselves alternate, while in the successive arrangement they are placed directly one over the other. there are, of course, exceptions, but the rule is as has been stated, and the effect is to prevent one leaf from interfering with the development and growth of its neighbours. in the case of the whorled or simultaneous arrangement the conditions of growth must be uniform on all sides, but in the successive or spiral disposition the conditions influencing growth act with unequal force, on different sides of the stem, at the same time. in the whorl there is an illustration of radiating symmetry, while in the spiral arrangement there is a transition to the bilateral symmetry. there are frequent passages from one to the other even under normal circumstances; thus, while the one arrangement obtains in the ordinary leaves, the parts of the flower may be disposed according to the other method. in the annular disposition it generally happens that the rings are separated one from the other by the development of the stem between them, the internodes between the constituent leaves themselves of course being undeveloped; on the other hand, in the spiral or successive arrangement there is no such alternate growth and arrest of growth of the stem between the leaves, or between successive cycles, but the growth is, under favorable conditions, continuous--leaf is separated from leaf, and cycle from cycle, by the continually elongating stem. thus, the two modes of growth correspond precisely with those observed in the case of definite and indefinite inflorescence respectively. [illustration: fig. .--diagram showing the arrangement of parts in a complete, regular, pentamerous flower: _s_, sepals; _p_, petals; _st_, stamens; _o_, ovaries.] the same arrangements, that are observed in the disposition of the leaves, apply equally well to the several parts of the flower; thus, in what is for convenience considered the typical flower, there is a calyx of five or more distinct sepals, equal in size, and arranged in a whorl, a corolla of a similar number of petals alternating with the sepals, five stamens placed in the same position with reference to the petals, and five carpels alternating with the stamens. throughout this book this arrangement is taken as the standard of reference. nevertheless the spiral order does occur in the floral leaves as well as in those of the stem; it often happens, especially when the organs are numerous, that they form spiral series; and the same holds good very generally, when the parts of the flower are uneven in number, as in the very common quincuncial arrangement of the sepals, &c. to these general remarks, intended to show the agreement between the disposition of the leaves of the stem and those of the flower, it is merely necessary to add that the arrangement of the placentas, as well as that of the ovules borne on them, is also definite, and takes place according to methods explained in all the text-books, and on which, therefore, it is not necessary to dilate in this place. the branches of the stem or axis correspond for the most part in disposition with that of the leaves from the axils of which they originate, subject, however, to numerous disturbing causes, and to alterations from the usual or typical order brought about by the development of buds. these latter organs, as it seems, may be found in almost any situation, though their ordinary position is in the axil of a leaf or at the end of a stem or branch. the points just mentioned are of primary importance in structural botany, and as such are seized on not only by the morphologist, but by the systematic botanist, who finds in them the characters by which he may separate one group from another. thanks to the labours of those observers who have devoted their attention to that difficult but most important branch of study, organogeny, or the investigation of the development of the various organs, and to the researches of the students of comparative anatomy or morphology, the main principles regulating the arrangement and form of the organs of flowering plants seem to be fairly well established, though in matters of detail much remains to be cleared up, even in such important points as the share which the axis takes in the construction of the flower and fruit, the nature of the placenta, the construction of the ovules, and other points. the facts already known justify the adoption of a standard or typical arrangement as just mentioned. the intrinsic value of this type is shown by the facility with which all varieties of form or arrangement may be explained by reference to certain modifications of it. it must, however, be considered as an abstraction, and should be looked on in the light rather of a scaffolding, which enables us to see the building and its several parts, than of the edifice itself, but which latter, from our imperfect knowledge and limited powers, we could not see without some such assistance. the typical form may be, hypothetically at least, considered as the primitive one transmitted by hereditary descent from generation to generation, and modified to suit the requirements of the individual, or in accordance with circumstances. if it be borne in mind that it is but an artificial contrivance, more or less true--a means to an end, and not the end itself--no harm will arise from its employment; and as knowledge increases, or as circumstances demand, the hypothetical type can be replaced by another more in accordance with the actual state of science. teratological changes in the arrangement of organs depend upon arrest of growth, as when parts usually spirally arranged remain verticillate, owing to the non-development of the internodes, or to excessive growth, or development; but in many instances it is impossible, without studying the development of the malformed flower, to ascertain whether the altered arrangement is due to an excessive or to a diminished action. practically, however, it is of comparatively little importance to know whether, say, the isolation of parts, that are usually combined together, is congenital (_i.e._ the result of an arrest of growth preventing their union), or whether it be due to a separation of parts primitively undivided; the effect remains the same, though the cause may have been very different. the principal alterations to be mentioned under this head may therefore be conveniently arranged under the following categories:--union, independence, displacement, prolification, heterotaxy, and heterogamy. part i. union of organs. the union of parts, usually separate in their adult condition, is of very common occurrence as a malformation. the instances of its manifestation admit of being grouped under the heads of cohesion, where parts of the same whorl, or of the same organ, are united together; and of adhesion, where the union takes place between members of different whorls, or between two or more ordinarily wholly detached and distinct parts. in either case, the apparent union may be congenital (that is, the result of a primitive integrity or a lack of separation), or it may really consist in a coalition of parts originally distinct and separate. in practice it is not always easy to distinguish between these two different conditions. indeed, in most cases it cannot be done without tracing the development of the flower throughout all its stages. it is needless to make more than a passing allusion to the frequency with which both congenital integrity or subsequent coalescence of organs exist under ordinary circumstances. considered as a teratological phenomenon, union admits of being grouped into several subdivisions, such as cohesion, adhesion, synanthy, syncarpy, synophty, &c. each of these subdivisions will be separately treated, but it maybe here said that, in all or any case, the degree of fusion may be very slight, or it may be so perfect that there may be a complete amalgamation of two or more parts, while to all outward appearance the organ may be single. the column of orchids may be referred to as an illustration under natural circumstances of the complete union of many usually distinct parts. in the uncertainty that exists in many cases as to the real nature of the occurrence, it would be idle to attempt to explain the causes of fusions. it is clear, however, that an arrest of development will tend towards the maintenance of primordial integrity (congenital fusion), and that pressure will induce the coalition of organs primarily distinct. chapter i. cohesion. following augustin pyranius de candolle, botanists have applied the term cohesion to the coalescence of parts of the same organ or of members of the same whorl; for instance, to the union of the sepals in a gamosepalous calyx, or of the petals in a gamopetalous corolla. it may arise either from a union between organs originally distinct, or more frequently from a want of separation between parts, which under general circumstances become divided during their development. nothing is more common as a normal occurrence, while viewed as a teratological phenomenon it is also very frequent. for the purposes of convenience it admits of subdivision into those cases wherein the union takes place between the branches of the same plant, or between the margins of the same leaf-organ, or between those of different members of the same whorl. =cohesion between the axes of the same plant.=--this cohesion may occur in various manners. firstly. the branches of the main stem may become united one to the other. secondly. two or more stems become joined together. thirdly. the branches become united to the stem; or, lastly, the roots may become fused one with another. [illustration: fig. --cohesion of two branches in _dipsacus sylvestris_.] the first of these is most commonly met with, doubtless owing to the number of the branches and the facilities for their union. an illustration of it is afforded by the figure (fig. ), showing cohesion affecting the branches of a teazle (_dipsacus sylvestris_). union of the branches may be the result of an original cohesion of the buds, while in other cases the fusion does not take place until after development has proceeded to some extent. of this latter kind illustrations are common where the branches are in close approximation; if the bark be removed by friction the two surfaces are very likely to become united (natural grafting). such a union of the branches is very common in the ivy, the elder, the beech, and other plants. it may take place in various directions, lengthwise, obliquely, or transversely, according to circumstances. this mode of union belongs, perhaps, rather to the domain of pathology than of teratology. some of the instances that have been recorded of very large trees, such as the chestnut of mount Ætna, are really cases where fusion has taken place between several of the branches, or suckers, thrown out from the same original stem.[ ] the same process of grafting occurs sometimes in the roots, as in _taxus baccata_ mentioned by moquin, and also in the aerial roots of many of the tropical climbing plants, such as _clusia rosea_, &c. [illustration: fig. .--fasciation in lettuce.] =fasciation.=--in the preceding instances of union between the branches, &c., the actual number of the fused parts is not increased; but if it happen that an unusual number of buds be formed in close apposition, so that they are liable to be compressed during their growth, union is very likely to take place, the more so from the softness of the young tissues. in this way it is probable that what is termed fasciation is brought about. this is one of the most common of all malformations, and seems to affect certain plants more frequently than others. in its simplest form it consists of a flat, ribbon-like expansion of the stem or branch; cylindrical below, the branches gradually lose their pristine form, and assume the flattened condition. [illustration: fig. .--fasciation in _asparagus_.] [illustration: fig. .--fasciated branch of _pinus pinaster_.] very generally the surface is striated by the prominence of the woody fibres which, running parallel for a time, converge or diverge at the summit according to the shape of the branch. if the rate of growth be equal, or nearly so, on both sides, the stem retains its straight direction, but it more generally happens that the growth on one side is more rapid and more vigorous than on the other, and hence arises that curvature of the fasciated branch so commonly met with, _e.g._ in the ash (_fraxinus_), wherein it has been likened to a shepherd's crook. it is probable that almost any plant may present this change. it occurs alike in herbaceous and in woody plants, originating in the latter case while the branches are still soft. it may be remarked that, in the case of herbaceous plants, the fasciation always affects the principal stem, while, on the other hand, in the case of trees and shrubs the deformity occurs most frequently in the branches; thus, while in the former it may be said that the whole of the stem is more or less affected, in the latter it is rare to see more than one or two branches of the same tree thus deformed. it is a common thing for the fasciated branch to divide at the summit into a number of subdivisions. these latter may be deformed like the parent branch, or they may resume the ordinary aspect of the twigs. [illustration: fig. .--fasciation and spiral torsion in the stem of _asparagus_.] sometimes the flattened stem is destitute of buds, at other times, these organs are scattered irregularly over its surface or are crowded together in a sort of crest along the apex. when, as often happens, the deformity is accompanied with a twisting of the branch spirally, the buds may be placed irregularly, or in other cases along the free edge of the spiral curve. in a specimen of _bupleurum falcatum_ mentioned by moquin the spiral arrangement of the leaves was replaced by a series of perfect whorls, each consisting of five, six, seven, or eight segments, and there was a flower-stalk in the axil of each leaf. when flowers are borne on these fasciated stems they are generally altered in structure; sometimes the thalamus itself becomes more or less fasciated or flattened, and the different organs of the flower are arranged on an elliptical axis. a case of this nature is described by schlechtendal ('bot. zeit.,' , p. ), in _cytisus nigricans_, and m. moquin-tandon describes an instance in the vine in one flower of which sepals, petals, stamens, and ovary were abortive, while the receptacle was hypertrophied and fasciated, and bore on its surface a few adventitious buds.[ ] the pedicels of _streptocarpus rexii_ have also been observed in a fasciated state.[ ] it has been occasionally observed that the fasciated condition is hereditary; thus, moquin relates that some seeds of a fasciated _cirsium_ reproduced the same condition in the seedlings,[ ] while a similar tendency is inherited in the case of the cockscomb (_celosia_). with reference to the nature of the deformity in question there is a difference of opinion; while most authors consider it to be due to the causes before mentioned, moquin was of opinion that fasciation was due to a flattening of a single stem or branch. linnæus, on the other hand, considered such stems to be the result of the formation of an unusual number of buds, the shoots resulting from which became coherent as growth proceeded:--"_fasciata dici solet planta cum plures caules connascuntur, ut unus ex plurimis instar fasciæ evadat et compressus_" (linn., 'phil. bot.,' ). a similar opinion was held by j. d. major in a singular book entitled 'de plantâ, monstrosa, gottorpiensi,' schleswig, , wherein the stem of a _chrysanthemum_ is depicted in the fasciated condition. [illustration: fig. .--fasciation in the scape of the dandelion (_leontodon taraxacum_).] the striæ, which these stems almost invariably present, exhibit the lines of junction, and the spiral or other curvatures and contraction, which are so often met with, may be accounted for by the unequal growth of one portion of the stem as contrasted with that of another. against this view moquin cites the instances of one-stemmed plants, such as _androsace maxima_, but, on the other hand, those herbaceous plants having usually but a single stem not unfrequently produce several which may remain distinct, but not uncommonly become united together. prof. hincks[ ] cites cases of this kind in _primula vulgaris_, _hieracium aureum_, and _ranunculus bulbosus_. i have myself met with several cases of the kind in _primula veris_, in the polyanthus, in the daisy, and in the _leontodon taraxacum_, in which latter a fusion of two or more flower-stems bearing at the top a composite flower, and made up of two, three, four, or more flowers combined together, and containing all the organs that would be present in the same flowers if separate, is very common. moquin's second objection is founded upon the fact that, in certain fasciated stems, the branches are not increased in number or altered in arrangement from what is usual; but however true this may be in particular cases, it is quite certain that in the majority of instances a large increase in the number of leaves and buds is a prominent characteristic of fasciated stems. another argument used by the distinguished french botanist to show that fasciated stems are not due to cohesion of two or more stems, is founded on the fact that a transverse section of a fasciated stem generally shows an elliptical outline with but a single central canal. on the other hand, if two branches become united and a transverse section be made, the form of the cut surface would be more or less like that of the figure [symbol: turned °], although in old stems this may give place to an elliptical outline, but even then traces of two medullary canals may be found. this argument is very deceptive, for the appearance of the transverse section must depend, not only on the intimacy of their union, but also on the internal structure of the stems themselves. when two flowers cohere without much pressure they exhibit uniting circles somewhat resembling the figure of [symbol: turned °], but when more completely combined they have an outline of a very elongated figure, and something similar is to be expected in herbaceous stems. even the elongated pith of a transversely cut, woody, fasciated stem only marks the intimate union of several branches, and prof. hincks, whose views the writer entirely shares, has noticed instances of the union of two, and of only two, stems where the internal appearance was the same as in other fasciations. moquin, moreover, raises the objection that it is unlikely that several branches should become united lengthwise in one plane only, and, further, that in the greater number of fasciations all the other branches which should be present are to be found--not one is wanting, not one has disappeared, as might have been anticipated had fusion taken place. in raising this objection, moquin seems not sufficiently to have considered the circumstance that the buds in these cases are in one plane from the first, and are all about equal in point of age and size. the last objection that moquin raises to the opinion that fasciation is the result of a grafting process is, that in such a case, examples should be found wherein the branches are incompletely fused, and where on a transverse section traces of the medullary canals belonging to each branch should be visible. the arrangement of leaves or buds on the surface should also in such a case indicate a fusion of several spiral cycles or whorls. to this it may be replied that such cases are met with very frequently indeed. a figure is given by de candolle[ ] of a stem of _spartium junceum_ having several branches only imperfectly fasciated. fasciated stems, then, seem to be best explained, as is stated by prof. hincks, "on the principle of adhesion arising in cases where from superabundant nourishment, especially if accompanied by some check or injury, numerous buds have been produced in close proximity, and the supposition that these growths are produced by the dilatation of a single stem is founded on a false analogy between fasciated stems and certain other anomalous growths." it will not, of course, be forgotten that this fasciated condition occurs so frequently in some plants as almost to constitute their natural state, _e.g._ _sedum cristatum_, _celosia_, &c. this condition may be induced by the art of the gardener--"_fit idem arte, si plures caules enascentes cogantur penetrare coarctatum spatium et parturiri tanquam ex angusto utero, sic sæpe in ranunculo, beta, asparago, hesperide pinu, celosiâ, tragopogone, scorzonerâ cotula foetida_," linnæus op. cit. plot, in his 'history of oxfordshire,' considers fasciation to arise from the ascent of too much nourishment for one stalk and not enough for two, "which accident of plants," says plot, the german virtuosi ('misc. curios. med. physic. acad. nat. cur.,' ann. i, observ. ,) "think only to happen after hard and late winters, by reason whereof, indeed, the sap, being restrained somewhat longer than ordinary, upon sudden thaws may probably be sent up more forcibly, and so produce these fasciated stalks, whereas the natural and graduated ascent would have produced them but single." prof. hincks' explanation is, however, more near to the truth, and his opinion is borne out by the frequency with which this change is met with in certain plants which are frequently forced on during their growth, as lettuce, asparagus, endive, &c., all of which are very subject to this change. in the 'transactions of the horticultural society of london,' vol. iv, p. , mr. knight gives an account of the cultivation of the cockscomb, so as to ensure the production of the very large flower-stalks for which this plant is admired. the principal points in the culture were the application of a large quantity of stimulating manure and the maintenance of a high temperature. one of them so grown measured eighteen inches in width. the list which is appended is intended to show those plants in which fasciation has been most frequently observed. it makes no pretension to be complete, but is sufficiently so for the purpose indicated: the * denotes the especial frequency of the change in question; the ! indicates that the writer has himself seen the plant, so marked, affected in this way. the remainder have been copied from various sources. exogens. [greek: alpha]. _herbaceous._ ranunculus tripartitus. * bulbosus! philonotis. delphinium elatum. * sp.! hesperis matronalis. *cheiranthus cheiri! *matthiola incana! *brassica oleracea! var. pl. inflor. linum usitatissimum! althæa rosea! lavatera trimestris. geranii sp. tropæolum majus! viola odorata inflor.! reseda odorata! fragaria vesca. ervum lens. trifolium resupinatum. repens! pratense! saxifraga mutata. irrigua. bupleurum falcatum. bunium flexuosum. *sedum reflexum! cristatum! epilobium augustifolium! momordica elaterium! gaura biennis. cotula foetida. barkhausia taraxacifolia. carlina vulgaris! apargia autumnalis. *leontodon taraxacum inflor.! centaurea scabiosa. *cichorium intybus! hieracium pilosella. aureum. umbellatum. *chrysanthemum leucanthemum. indicum! anthemis nobilis. arvensis. cirsium lanceolatum. conyza squarrosa! inula dysenterica! tragopogon porrifolium. cnicus palustris. carduus arvensis! helianthus tuberosus! annuus. cineraria palustris. helianthus sp.! dahlia variabilis. bellis perennis inflor.! coreopsis sp.! crepis virens. lactuca sativa! zinnia elegans. *campanula medium! rapunculoides. thyrsoidea. dipsacus pilosus. fullonum. silvestris. knautia arvensis. phyteuma orbiculare. jasione montana. *linaria purpurea! antirrhinum majus! veronica amethystea. veronica maritima. sp. russellia juncea! digitalis purpurea! ajuga pyramidalis. hyssopus officinalis. dracocephalum moldavicum. myosotis scorpioides. echium pyrenaicum. simplex. stapeliæ sp. lysimachia vulgaris! androsace maxima. primula veris inflor.! denticulata inflor.! polemonium coeruleum. convolvulus sepium! arvensis! plantago media. *euphorbia characias. exigua. * cyparissias. suæda maritima. *celosia sp. beta vulgaris inflor.! phytolacca sp. [greek: beta]. _woody._ berberis vulgaris. hibiscus syriacus! acer pseudo-platanus! dodonæa viscosa. sterculia platanifolia. euonymus japonicus! vitis vinifera inflor.! spartium scoparium! spartium junceum! cytisus laburnum. nigricans. chorozema ilicifolium. amorpha sp. phaseolus sp. prunus sylvestris. laurocerasus! rosa sp.! spiræa sp.! cotoneaster microphylla! ailanthus glandulosus. *fraxinus ornus! * excelsior! melia azedarach. xanthoxylum sp.! sambucus nigra.! aucuba japonica. erica sp. cult. jasminum nudiflorum! officinale! olea europoea. punica granatum. ilex aquifolium! daphne indica. daphne odora. suæda fruticosa. ulmus campestris. alnus incana. salix vitellina, &c.! thuja orientalis. pinus pinaster! sylvestris! abies excelsa! taxus baccata. larix europoea. endogens. lilium martagon. candidum! *fritillaria imperialis! asparagus officinalis! hyacinthus orientalis! tamus communis! narcissi sp.! gladiolus sp. zea mays. filices. see also--moquin-tandon, 'elem. ter. veget.,' p. ; c. o. weber, 'verhandl. nat. hist.,' vereins, f. d. preuss., rheinl. und westphal., , p. , tab. vii; hallier, 'phytopathol.,' p. ; boehmer, 'de plantis fasciatis,' wittenb., . =cohesion of foliar organs.=--this takes place in several ways, and in very various degrees; the simplest case is that characterised by the cohesion of the margins of the same organ, as in the condition called perfoliate in descriptive works, and which is due either to a cohesion of the margins of the basal lobes of the leaf, or to the development of the leaf in a sheathing or tubular manner. as an abnormal occurrence, i have met with this perfoliation in a leaf of _goodenia ovata_. the condition in question is often loosely confounded with connation, or the union of two leaves by their bases. in other cases the union takes place between the margins of two or more leaves. =cohesion of margins of single organs.=--the leaves of hazels may often be found with their margins coherent at the base, so as to become peltate, while in other cases, the disc of the leaf is so depressed that a true pitcher is formed. this happens also in the lime _tilia_, in which genus pitcher- or hood-like leaves (_folia cucullata_) may frequently be met with. there are trees with leaves of this character in the cemetery of a cistercian monastery at sedlitz, on which it is said that certain monks were once hung: hence the legend has arisen, that the peculiar form of the leaf was given in order to perpetuate the memory of the martyred monks. ('bayer. monogr. _tiliæ_,' berlin, .) it is also stated that this condition is not perpetuated by grafting. [illustration: fig. .--pitcher-shaped leaf of _pelargonium_.] i have in my possession a leaf of _antirrhinum majus_, and also a specimen of _pelargonium_, wherein the blade of the leaf is funnel-like, and the petiole is cylindrical, not compressed, and grooved on the upper surface, as is usually the case. a comparison of the leaves of _pelargonium peltatum_ with those of _p. cucullatum_ ('cav. diss.,' tab., ) will show how easy the passage is from a peltate to a tubular leaf. in these cases the tubular form may rather be due to dilatation than to cohesion. m. kickx[ ] mentions an instance of the kind in the leaves of a species of _nicotiana_, and also figures the leaf of a rose in which two opposite leaflets presented themselves in the form of stalked cups. schlechtendal[ ] notices something of the same kind in the leaf of _amorpha fruticosa_; treviranus[ ] in that of _aristolochia sipho_. m. puel[ ] describes a leaf of _polygonatum multiflorum_, the margins of which were so completely united together, as only to leave a circular aperture at the top, through which passed the ends of the leaves. the rev. mr. hincks, at the meeting of the british association at newcastle ( ), showed a leaf of a tulip, whose margins were so united that the whole leaf served as a hood, and was carried upwards by the growing flower like the calyptra of a moss. the margins of the stipules are also occasionally united, so as to form a little horn-shaped tube. i have met with instances of this kind in the common white clover, _trifolium repens_, where on each side of the base of the petiole the stipules had the form just indicated. that the bracts also may assume this condition, may be inferred from the peculiar horn-like structures of _marcgraavia_, which appear to originate from the union of the margins of the reflected leaf. =tubular petals= occur normally in some flowers, as _helleborus_, _epimedium_, _viola_, &c., and as an exceptional occurrence i have seen them in _ranunculus repens_, while in _eranthis hyemalis_ transitions may frequently be seen between the flat outer segments of the perianth and the tubular petals. to dr. sankey, of sandywell park, i am indebted for the flower of a pelargonium, in which one of the petals had the form of a cup supported on a long stalk. this cup-shaped organ was placed at the back of the flower, and had the dark colour proper to the petals in that situation. i have seen a petal of clarkia similarly tubular, while some of the cultivated varieties of _primula sinensis_ exhibit tubular petals so perfect in shape as closely to resemble perfect corollas. [illustration: fig. .--_eranthis hyemalis_. transition from flat sepal to tubular petal.] like the petals, the stamens, and even the styles, assume a hollow tubular form. this change of form in the case of the stamens is, of course, usually attended by the petaloid expansion of the filament, or anther, and the more or less complete obliteration of the pollen sacs, as in fuchsias, and in some double-flowered antirrhinums.[ ] so also in some semi-double varieties of _narcissus poeticus_, and in _aquilegia_. by the late professor charles morren, this affection of the stamens and pistils was called _solenaidie_,[ ] but as a similar condition exists in other organs, it hardly seems worth while to adopt a special term for the phenomenon, as it presents itself in one set of organs. in many of these cases it is difficult to say whether the cup-like or tubular form is due to a dilatation or hollowing out of the organ affected, or to a fusion of its edges. the arrangement of the veins will in some cases supply the clue, and in others the regularity of form will indicate the nature of the malformation, for in those instances where the cup is the result of expansion, its margin is more likely to be regular and even than in those where the hollow form is the result of fusion. =cohesion of several organs by their margins:--leaves, &c.=--the union of the margins of two or more different organs is of more common occurrence than the preceding, the leaves being frequently subjected to this change. occasionally, the leaflets of a compound leaf have been observed united by their margins, as in the strawberry, the white trefoil, and others. sometimes the union takes place by means of the stalks only. i have an instance of this in a pelargonium, in _tropæolum majus_, and _strelitzia regina_; in other cases, the whole extent of the leaf becomes joined to its neighbour, the leaves thus becoming completely united by their edges, as in those of _justicia_, _oxyphylla_.[ ] m. clos[ ] has observed the same thing in the leaves of the lentil _ervum lens_, conjoined with fasciation of the stem, and many other examples might be given. some of the recorded cases are probably really due to fission of one leaf into two rather than to fusion. although usually the lower portions of the leaf are united together, leaving the upper parts more or less detached, there are some instances in which the margins of the leaf at their upper portion have been noticed to be coherent, while their lower portions, with their stalks, were completely free.[ ] cohesion of the leaves frequently accompanies the union of the branches and fasciation as might have been anticipated. moquin cites the fenestrated leaves of _dracontium pertusum_, as well as some cases of a similar kind that are occasionally met with, as instances of the cohesion of the margins at the base and apex of the leaf, which thus appears perforated. this appearance, however, is probably due to some other cause. when the leaves are verticillate and numerous, and they become coherent by their margins, they form a foliaceous tube around the stem. when there are but two opposite leaves, and these become united by their margins, we have a state of things precisely resembling that to which the term connate is applied. fusion of the edges of the cotyledons also occasionally takes place, as in _ebenus cretica_.[ ] it has also been observed in _tithonia_, and is of constant occurrence in the seed leaves of some _mesembryanthema_. this condition must be carefully distinguished from the very similar appearance produced by quite a different cause, viz., the splitting of one cotyledon into two, which gives rise to the appearance as if two were partially united together. some of the ascidia or pitcher-like formations are due to the cohesion of the margins of two leaves, as in a specimen of _crassula arborescens_, observed by c. morren. [illustration: fig. .--two-leaved pitcher of _crassula arborescens_, after c. morren.] the stipules may also be fused together in different ways; their edges sometimes cohere between the leaf and the stem, and thus form a solitary intra-axillary stipule. at other times they become united in such a manner as to produce a single notched stipule opposite to the leaf. again, in other cases, they are so united on each side of the stem, that in place of four there seem only to exist two, common to the two leaves as in the hop. to the rev. m. j. berkeley i am indebted for specimens of a curious pitcher-like formation in the garden pea. the structure in question consisted of a stalked foliaceous cup proceeding from the inflorescence. on examination of the ordinary inflorescence, there will be seen at the base of the upper of two flowers a small rudimentary bract, having a swollen circular or ring-like base, from which proceeds a small awl-shaped process, representing the midrib of an abortive leaf. in some of mr. berkeley's specimens, the stipules were developed as leafy appendages at the base of the leaf-stalk or midrib, the latter retaining its shortened form, while, in others, the two stipules had become connate into a cup, and all trace of the midrib was lost. the cup in question would thus seem to have been formed from the connation of two stipules which are ordinarily abortive. cohesion of the bracts by their edges, so as to form a tubular involucre, or by their surfaces, so as to form a cupule, is not of uncommon occurrence, under natural conditions, and may be met with in plants which ordinarily do not exhibit this appearance. =cohesion of the sepals= in a normally polypetalous calyx renders the latter gamosepalous, and is not of uncommon occurrence, to a partial extent, though rarely met with complete. i have observed a junction of the sepals to be one of the commonest malformations among orchids, indeed such a state of things occurs normally in _masdevallia cypripedium_, &c. an illustration of this occurrence is given by mr. j. t. moggridge in _ophrys insectifera_, in 'seemann's journal of botany,' , p. , tab. . in orchids, this cohesion of sepals is very often co-existent with other more important changes, such as absence of the labellum, dislocation of the parts of the flower, &c. [illustration: fig. .--gamopetalous flower of _papaver bracteatum_.] =cohesion of the petals.=--linnæus mentions the occurrence of cohesion of the petals in _saponaria.[ ]_ moquin notices a rose in which the petals were united into a long tube, their upper portions were free and bent downwards, forming a sort of irregular limb. an instance of the polypetalous regular perianth of _clematis viticella_ being changed into a monopetalous irregular one, like the corolla of labiates, is recorded by jaeger.[ ] there is in cultivation a variety of _papaver bracteatum_, in which the petals are united by their margins so as to form a large cup. under normal circumstances, the petals become fused together by their edges along their whole extent, at the base only, at the apex only, as in the vine, or at the base and apex, leaving the central portions detached. indications of the junction of the petals may generally be traced by the arrangement of the veins, or by the notches or lobes left by imperfect union. in crocuses i have frequently met with cohesion of the segments of the perianth, by means of their surfaces, but the union was confined to the centre of the segment, leaving the rest of the surfaces free. =cohesion of the stamens.=--under natural circumstances, cohesion of the stamens is said to take place either by the union of their filaments, so as to form one, two, or more parcels (monadelphia, diadelphia, polyadelphia); at other times, by the cohesion of the anthers (syngenesia), in which latter case the union is generally very slight. it must be remembered, however, that the so-called cohesion of the filaments is in many cases due rather to the formation of compound stamens, _i.e._ to the formation from one original staminal tubercle of numerous secondary ones, so that the process is rather one of over development than of fusion or of disjunction. these conditions may be met with as accidental occurrences in plants or in flowers, not usually showing this arrangement. thus, for instance, professor andersson, of stockholm, describes a monstrosity of _salix calyculata_, in which the stamens were so united together as to form a tube open at the top like a follicle.[ ] this is an exaggerated degree of that fusion which exists normally in _salix monandra_, in cucurbits and other plants. =cohesion of the pistils= is also of very frequent occurrence in plants, under ordinary circumstances, but is less commonly met with than might have been expected as a teratological phenomenon. further details relating to cohesion of the various parts of the flower are cited in moquin-tandon, 'el. ter. veg.,' p. ; 'weber. verhandl. nat. hist. vereins f. d. preuss. rheinl. und westphal.,' , p. , tabs. et . =formation of ascidia or pitchers.=--in the preceding paragraphs, the formation of tubular or horn-like structures, from the union of the margins of one organ, or from the coalescence, or it may be from the want of separation of various organs, has been alluded to, so that it seems only necessary now, by way of summary, to mention the classification of ascidia proposed by professor charles morren[ ], who divides the structures in question into two heads, according as they are formed from one or more leaves. the following list is arranged according to the views of the belgian savant, and comprises a few additional illustrations. those to which the ! is affixed have been seen by the writer himself; the * indicates the more frequent occurrence of the phenomenon in some than in other plants. those plants, such as _nepenthes_, &c., which occur normally and constantly, are not here included. possibly some of the cases would be more properly classed under dilatation or excavation. ascidia. a. _monophyllous_. . sarracenia-like pitchers, formed by a single leaf, the edges of which are united for the greater portion of their length, but are disunited near the top, so as to leave an oblique aperture. *brassica oleracea (several of the cultivated varieties)! *tilia europæa! pelargonium inquinans! staphylea pinnata. amorpha fruticosa. pisum sativum! lathyrus tuberosus. vicia sp. gleditschia sp. ceratonia siliqua. trifolium repens! cassia marylandica. mimosa lophantha. rosa centifolia. gallica. begonia sp. bellis perennis! nicotiana sp. goodenia ovata! antirrhinum majus! vinca rosea. polygonum orientale. aristolochia sipho? codiæum variegatum var.! spinacia oleracea. corylus avellana! polygonatum multiflorum. xanthosoma appendiculatum! . calyptriform or hood-like pitchers, formed by the complete union of the margins, and falling off by a transverse fissure (as in the calyx of escholtzia). tulipa gesneriana. b. _polyphyllous._ . diphyllous, formed by the union of two leaves into a single cup, tube, or funnel, &c. pisum sativum (stipules)! crassula arborescens. polygonatum multiflorum. . triphyllous, formed by the union of three leaves. paris quadrifolia var. besides the above varieties of ascidia formed from the union of one or more leaves, there are others which seem to be the result of a peculiar excrescence or hypertrophy of the leaf. such are some of the curious pitcher-like structures met with occasionally in the leaves of cabbages, lettuces, aristolochia, &c. see hypertrophy, cup-like deformities, &c. in addition to other publications previously mentioned, reference may be made to the following treatises on the subject of ascidia:--bonnet, 'rech. us. feuilles,' p. , tab. xxvi, f. , _brassica_; de candolle, 'trans. hort. soc.,' t. v, pl. , _brassica_; id., 'org. veget.,' i, ; 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' i, p. , _polygonatum_; 'bull. acad. belg.,' , p. , _rosa_; hoffmann, 'tijdschrift v. natuur. geschied.,' vol. viii, p. , tab. , _ceratonia_; c. mulder, 'tijdschrift, &c.,' vol. vi, p. , tab. , , _trifolium_, _mimosa_, _staphylea_;' molkenboer,' p. , t. , _brassica_. footnotes: [ ] see a curious instance of this kind in the branches of _pinus_. 'regel. garten flora,' vol. , tab. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. france,' , p. . [ ] ibid., , p. . [ ] ibid., , p. . [ ] 'proc. linn. soc.,' april , . [ ] 'organ. végét.,' pl. iii, fig. . [ ] 'bull. acad. roy. bruxelles,' t. xviii, p. i and p. . [ ] 'linnæa,' tom. , p. . [ ] 'verhandl. nat. hist. vereins,' , bonn, tom. xvi, tab. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' vol. i, p. . [ ] 'report of internat. bot. congress,' london, , p. , tab. vii, figs. - . [ ] 'bull. acad. roy. belg.,' t. xviii, nd part, p. . [ ] d. c., 'organ. végét.,' pl. xvii, fig. , and pl. xlviii, fig. . [ ] 'mém. acad. toulouse,' . [ ] bonnet, 'recherches us. feuill.,' pl. xxi, fig. . [ ] de candolle, 'mém. lég.,' pl. v, fig. . [ ] 'phil. bot.,' § . [ ] 'nov. act. acad. nat. cur.,' , p. , t. xxxvii. [ ] 'journal of the linn. soc. bot.,' vol. iv, p. . [ ] 'bull. acad. roy. bruxelles,' , t. v, p. . 'bull. acad. roy. belg.,' , t. xix, part iii, p. . chapter ii. adhesion. adhesion, so called, occurs either from actual union of originally distinct members of different whorls or from the non-occurrence of that separation which usually takes place between them. it is thus in some degree a graver deviation than cohesion, and is generally a consequence of, or at least is coexistent with, more serious changes; thus if two leaves of the same whorl are coherent the change is not very great, but if two leaves belonging to different whorls, or two leaves in the same spiral cycle are adherent, a deformation in the axis or a certain amount of dislocation must almost necessarily exist. adhesion as a normal occurrence is usually the result of a lack of separation rather than of union of parts primitively separate. instances of adhesion between different organs is seen under ordinary circumstances in the bract of the lime tree, which adheres to the peduncle, also in _neuropeltis_, while in _erythrochiton hypophyllanthus_ the cymose peduncles are adherent to the under surface of the leaf. adhesion between the axes of the same plant is sufficiently treated of under the head of cohesion, from which it is in this instance impossible to make a distinction. adhesion of the inflorescence is necessarily a frequent accompaniment of fasciation and cohesion of the branches. =adhesion of foliar organs= may occur either between the margins or between the surfaces of the affected parts; in the former case there is almost necessarily more or less displacement and change of direction, such as a twisting of the stem and a vertical rather than a horizontal attachment of the foliar organ to it; hence it generally forms but a part of other and more important deviations. =adhesion of leaves by their surfaces.=--the union of leaves by their surfaces is not of very frequent occurrence, many of the instances cited being truly referable to other conditions. bonnet describes the union of two lettuce leaves, and turpin that of two leaves of _agave americana_, in which latter the upper surface of one leaf was adherent to the lower surface of the leaf next above it, and i have myself met with similar instances in the wallflower and in lettuce and cabbage leaves; other instances have been mentioned in _saxifraga_, _gesnera_, _&c._[ ] in these cases, owing to the non-development of the internodes, the nascent leaves are closely packed, and the conditions for adhesion are favorable, but in most of the so-called cases of adhesion of leaf to leaf by the surface, a preferable explanation is afforded either by an exuberant development (hypertrophy) or by chorisis (see sections on those subjects). thus, when a leaf of this kind is apparently so united, that the lower surface of one is adherent to the corresponding surface of another, the phenomenon is probably due rather to extra development or to fission. there is an exception to this, however, in the case of two vertically-erect leaves on opposite sides of the stem; here the two upper or inner surfaces may become adherent, as in an orange, where two leaves were thus united, the terminal bud between them being suppressed or abortive. adhesion between the membranous bract of _narcissus poeticus_ and the upper surface of the leaf is described by moquin.[ ] the same author mentions having seen a remarkable example of adhesion in the involucels of _caucalis leptophylla_, the bracts of which were soldered to the outer surface of the flowers. m. bureau[ ] mentions an instance wherein the spathe of _narcissus biflorus_ was partially twisted in such a manner that the lower surface of its median nerve was adherent to the corresponding surface of one of the sepals, mid-rib to mid-rib, thus apparently confirming a law of g. de hilaire, that when two parts of the same individual unite, they generally do so by the corresponding surfaces or edges, but the rule is probably not so general in its application as has been supposed. =adhesion of foliar to axile organs.=--the appendicular organs may likewise be found united to the axile ones. this union takes place in many ways; sometimes the leaves do not become detached from the stem for a considerable distance, as in the so-called decurrent leaves, at other times the leaves are prolonged at their base into lobes, which are directed along the stem, and are united with it. turpin records a tendril of a vine which was fused with the stem for some distance, and bore leaves and other tendrils. union of the leaf or bract with the flower-stalk is not uncommon. it occurs normally in the lime and other plants. =adhesion of the sepals to the petals= is spoken of by morren as calyphyomy, [greek: kalyx phyomai.][ ] moquin cites an instance in _geranium nodosum_, in which one petal was united by its lower surface to one of the segments of the calyx. a similar circumstance has been observed in _petunia violacea_ by morren. duchartre describes an instance wherein one of the outer sepals of _cattleya forbesii_ was adherent to the labellum.[ ] =adhesion of the stamens to the petals= is of common occurrence under natural circumstances. cassini has described a malformation of _centaurea collina_, in which two of the five stamens were completely grafted with the corolla, the three others remaining perfectly free. adhesion of the petals to the column is not of infrequent occurrence among orchids. i have observed cases of the adhesion of the segments of the perianth to the stamen in _ophrys aranifera_, _odontoglossum_, _sp_. &c. it is the ordinary condition in _gongora_ and some other genera. i have seen it also in _lilium lancifolium_. some forms of _crocus_, occasionally met with, present a very singular appearance, owing to the adhesion of the stamens to the outer segments of the perianth, the former, moreover, being partially petaloid in aspect. m. de la vaud[ ] speaks of a similar union in _tigridia pavonia_. morren[ ] describes a malformation of _fuchsia_ wherein the petals were so completely adherent to the stamens, that the former were dragged out of their ordinary position, so as to become opposite to the sepals; the fusion was here so complete that, no trace of it could be seen externally. it should be remarked that it was the outer series of stamens that were thus fused.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--_crocus._ adhesion of petaloid stamens to perianth.] =adhesion of stamens to pistils.=--the stamens also may be united to the pistils, as in gynandrous plants. moquin speaks of such a case in a _scabious_; m. clos in _verbascum australe_.[ ] i have seen cases of the same kind in the wallflower, cowslip (_primula veris_), tulip, orange, in the garden azalea and other plants. =miscellaneous adhesions.=--sometimes organs, comparatively speaking, widely separated one from the other, become united together. miquel has recorded the union of a stigma with the middle lobe of the lower lip of the corolla of _salvia pratensis_.[ ] in the accompanying figure [fig. ], taken from a double wallflower, there is shown an adhesion between a petal and an open carpel on the one side, and a stamen on the other. moquin speaks of some pears, which were united, at an early stage, with one or two small leaves borne by the peduncle and grafted to the fruit by the whole of their upper surface. as the pear increased in size the leaves became detached from it, leaving on the surface of the fruit an impression of the same form as the leaf, and differing in colour from the rest of the surface of the fruit. traces of the principal nerves were seen on the pear. [illustration: fig. .--_cheiranthus cheiri_. adhesion of petal to stamen and open carpel.] it is curious to notice how very rare it is for the calyx to adhere to the ovary in flowers where that organ is normally superior. the "_calyx inferus_" seems scarcely ever to become "_calyx superus_," while, on the other hand, the "_calyx normaliter superus_" frequently becomes inferior from detachment from, or from want of union with the surface of the ovary. =adhesion of fruit to branch.=--of this mr. berkeley[ ] cites an instance in a vegetable marrow (_cucumis_), where a female flower had become confluent with the branch, at whose base it was placed, and also with two or more flowers at the upper part of the same branch, so as to make an oblique scar running down from the apex of the fruit to the branch. =synanthy.=--adhesion of two or more flowers takes place in various ways; sometimes merely the stalks are united together, so that we have a single peduncle, bearing at its extremity two flowers placed in approximation very slightly adherent one to the other. in this manner i have seen three flowers of the vegetable marrow on a common stalk, the flowers themselves being only united at the extreme base. occasionally cases may be met with wherein the pedicels of a stalked flower become adherent to the side of a sessile flower. i have noticed this commonly in _umbelliferæ_. union of this kind occurs frequently in the common cornel (_cornus_), wherein one of the lower flowers becomes adherent to one of the upper ones. in de candolle's 'organographie végétale,' plates and , are figured cases of fusion of the flower stems of the hyacinth and of a _centaurea_. in other cases the union involves not only the stalk but the flowers themselves; thus fusion of the flowers is a common accompaniment of fasciation, as was the case in the _campanula_ figured in the cut (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--synanthic flowers of _campanula medium_.] synanthy may take place without much derangement of the structure of either flower, or the union may be attended with abortion or suppression of some of the parts of one or both flowers. occasionally this union is carried to such an extent that a bloom appears to be single, when it is, in reality, composed of two or more, the parts of which have become not only fused, but, as it were, thrust into and completely incorporated one with another, and in such a manner as to occupy the place of some parts of the flower which have been suppressed. it must not be overlooked that this adhesion of one flower to another is a very common occurrence under natural circumstances, as in _lonicera_, in the common tomato, in _pomax_, _opercularia_, _symphyomyrtus_, &c., while the large size of some of the cultivated sunflowers is in like manner due to the union of two or more flower-heads. one of the simplest instances of synanthy is that mentioned by m. duchartre,[ ] in which two flowers of a hyacinth were united together simply by means of two segments of the perianth one from each flower. a similar occurrence has been cited by m. gay in _narcissus chrysanthus_. in like manner the blossoms of fuchsias or loniceras occasionally become adherent merely by their surface, without involving any other change in the conformation of the flowers. m. maugin alludes to a case of this kind in _aristolochia clematitis_.[ ] but it is more usual for some of the organs to be suppressed, so that the number of existing parts is less than would be the case in two or more uncombined flowers. a few illustrations will exemplify this. in two flowers of _matthiola incana_, that i observed to be joined together, there were eight sepals, eight petals, and ten perfect stamens, eight long and two short, instead of twelve. closer examination showed that the point of union between the two flowers occurred just where, under ordinary circumstances, the two short stamens would be. in this instance but little suppression had occurred. in similar flowers of _narcissus incomparabilis_ i remarked a ten-parted perianth, ten stamens within a single cup, two styles, and a five-celled ovary. here, then, it would appear that two segments of the perianth, two stamens, and one carpel were suppressed. in a polyanthus there were nine sepals, nine petals, nine stamens, and a double ovary. [illustration: fig. .--union of three flowers of _calanthe vestita_.] [illustration: fig. .--shows the abortion of the central spur in synanthic flowers of _calanthe vestita_.] as an illustration of a more complicated nature reference may be made to three flowers of _aconitum napellus_, figured by a. de chamisso, 'linnæa,' vol. vii, , p. , tab. vii, figs. , . in this specimen the two outer blossoms had each four sepals present, namely, the upper hooded one, one of the lateral sepals, and both of the inferior ones; the central flower had only the upper sepal and one other, probably one of the lower sepals; thus there were but ten sepals instead of fifteen. the nectary-like petals, the stamens, and pistils were all present in the lateral flowers, but were completely suppressed in the middle one. a less degree of suppression was exemplified in a triple flower of _calanthe vestita_ sent me by dr. moore, of glasnevin, in which all the parts usually existing in three separate flowers were to be found, with the exception of the spur belonging to the labellum of the middle flower (figs. , ). one of the most common malformations in the foxglove (_digitalis_) results from the fusion of several of the terminal flowers into one. in these cases the number of parts is very variable in different instances; the sepals are more or less blended together, and the corollas as well as the stamens are usually free and distinct, the latter often of equal length, so that the blossom, although truly complex, is, as to its external form, less irregular than under natural circumstances. the centre of these flowers is occupied by a two to five-celled pistil, between the carpels of which, not unfrequently, the stem of the plant projects, bearing on its sides bracts and rudimentary flowers. (see prolification.) an instance of this nature is figured in the 'gardeners' chronicle,' , p. , from which the cut (fig. ) is borrowed. [illustration: fig. .--synanthy and other changes in a foxglove.] one of the most singular recorded instances of changes connected with fusion of the flowers is that cited by reinsch,[ ] where two female flowers of _salix cinerea_ were so united with a male one as to produce an hermaphrodite blossom. it follows, from what has been said, that the number of parts that are met with in these fused flowers varies according to the number of blossoms and of the organs which have been suppressed. comparatively rarely do we find all the organs present; but when two flowers are united together we find every possible variety between the number of parts naturally belonging to the two flowers and that belonging to a single one. sometimes instances are met with wherein the calyx does not present the normal number of parts, while the other parts of the flower are in excess. i have seen in a _calceolaria_ a single calyx, with the ordinary number of sepals, enclosing two corollas, adherent simply by their upper lips, and containing stamens and pistils in the usual way. in this instance, then, the sepals of one flower must have been suppressed, while no such suppression took place in the other parts of the flower. professor charles morren paid special attention to the various methods in which the flowers of calceolarias may become fused, and to the complications that ensue from the suppression of some parts, the complete amalgamation of others, &c. referring the reader to the belgian savant's papers for the full details of the changes observed, it is only necessary to allude to a few of the most salient features. [illustration: fig. .--synanthic flowers of calceolaria in which, with two upper lips, there was but a single lower one.] sometimes the upper lips of two flowers are fused into one, the two lower remaining distinct. in other cases, the upper lip disappears altogether, while there are two lower lips placed opposite one another;, of the stamens, sometimes the outermost, at other times the innermost disappear.[ ] occasionally there appears to be, as it were, a transference of the parts of one flower to another. one of the simplest and most intelligible cases of this kind is recorded by wigand in the 'flora' for , in a compound flower of _polygonatum anceps_, in which within a twelve-parted perianth there were twelve stamens and two pistils, one four-celled, the other two-celled; hence it would appear as if a carpel belonging to one flower had become united to those constituting the pistil of the adjacent one. among orchids this fusion of some of the elements of different flowers, together with the suppression of others, is carried to such an extent as to render the real structure difficult to decipher. sometimes flowers of _ophrys aranifera_, at first sight seeming normal as to the number, and almost so as regards the arrangement of their parts, have yet, on examination, proved to be the result of a confluence of two flowers. mr. moggridge has observed similar phenomena in the same species at mentone. sometimes the fusion affects flowers belonging to different branches of the same inflorescence, as in _centranthus ruber_, described by buchenau, 'flora,' , p. , and even a blossom of one generation of axes may be united with a flower belonging to another generation. thus m. michalet[ ] speaks of a case wherein the terminal flower of _betonica alopecuros_ was affected with peloria, and fused with an adjacent one belonging to a secondary axis of inflorescence, and not yet expanded. this latter flower had no calyx, but in its place were three bracts, surrounding the corolla; this again was united to the calyx of the terminal bloom in a most singular manner, the limb of the corolla and that of the calyx being so joined one to the other as to form but a single tube. it is not uncommon, as has been before stated, to find two corollas enclosed within one calyx, but this is probably the only recorded instance of the fusion of the calyx and corolla of two different flowers belonging to two different axes. from the preceding details, as well as from others which it is not necessary to give in this place, it would appear that synanthy is more liable to occur where the flowers are naturally crowded together[ ] than where they are remote; so too, the upper or younger portions of the inflorescence are those most subject to this change. in like manner the derangements consequent on the coalescence of flowers are often more grave in the central organs, which are most exposed to pressure, and have the least opportunities of resisting the effects of that agency, than they are in the outer portions of the flowers where growth is less restricted. morren in his papers on synanthic _calceolarias_, before referred to, considers that the direction in which fusion acts is centripetal, _e.g._ from the circumference towards the centre of the flower, thus reversing the natural order of things. he considers that there is a radical antagonism between the normal organizing forces and the teratological disorganizing forces, and explains in this way the frequent sterility of monsters from an imperfect formation of stamens, or pistils, or both. the greater tendency in synanthic flowers of parts of one whorl to adhere to the corresponding organs in another flower has often been remarked, though the dislocation of parts may be so great as to prevent this from being carried out in all cases. it appears also that synanthy is more frequently met with among flowers which have an inferior ovary than in those in which the relative position of the organ in question is reversed. this remark applies particularly to individual cases; the proportion as regards the genera may not be so large. the explanation of this must of course depend on the circumstances of each particular case; and it would be wrong to attempt to lay down a general rule, when organogenists have not yet fully decided in what plants the inferior ovary is an axial structure, and in what others the appearance is due to the adhesion of the base of the calyx to the carpels. the list which follows is not intended as a complete one, but it may serve to show what plants are more particularly subject to this anomaly; the * indicates unusual frequency of occurrence, the ! signifies that the writer has himself seen instances in the plants named. many of the recorded cases of synanthy are really cases of adhesion of the inflorescence rather than of the flowers. ranunculus lingua. bulbosus! aconitum napellus. delphinium sp.! matthiola incana! arabis sagittata. silene sp. reseda odorata! vitis vinifera. citrus aurantium. *fuchsia var. hort.! oenothera sp. saxifraga sp. podalyria myrtillifolia. prunus armeniaca. spinosa. pyrus malus. persica vulgaris. cratægus monogyna. robinia pseudacacia. gleditschia triacanthos. syringa persica. cornus sanguinea. viburnum sp. *lonicera sp. plur! centranthus ruber! valantia cruciata. centaurea moschata. jacea. zinnia elegans. zinnia revoluta. helianthus sp.! spilanthes oleracea. dahlia. *leontodon taraxacum! senecio doria. cichorium intybus. lactuca sativa. anthemis retusa. *campanula medium! persicifolia. azalea indica! vinca minor. atropa belladonna. *solanum lycopersicum! *petunia violacea! galeopsis ochroleuca. betonica alopecuros. *digitalis purpurea! *antirrhinum majus! *linaria purpurea! *pedicularis sylvatica! *calceolaria var. hort.! scrophularia nodosa. salpiglossis straminea. streptocarpus rexii. *gesnera var. hort.! Æschynanthus sp.! thyrsacanthus rutilans! anagallis collina. *primula veris! auricula. *primula acaulis, var. umbellata! elatior? * sinensis! aristolochia clematitis. blitum sp. chenopodium sp. rumex sp. salix cinerea. *hyacinthus orientalis! lilium bulbiferum! croceum, et sp. alix, pl. tulipa, sp. polygonatum anceps. fritillaria imperalis! agave americana. iris versicolor. sambucina. crocus, sp. colchicum autumnale. narcissus incomparabilis! tazetta. biflorus. chrysanthus. *ophrys aranifera! calanthe vestita! oncidium bicolor. ornithorhyncum. &c. &c. in addition to the works before cited, additional information on this subject may be gained from the following:--jaeger, 'missbilld.,' p. . v. schlechtend, 'bot. zeit.,' , _robinia_. weber, 'verhandl. nat. hist. vereins. preuss. rheinl.,' , p. , _primula_. hincks, 'rep. brit. assoc. newcastle,' , _salpiglossis_. clos, 'mém. acad. toulouse,' vol. vi, , _anagallis_. wigand, 'flora,' , tab. , _pedicularis_. henfrey, 'botan. gazette,' i, p. , _reseda_. p. reinsch, 'flora,' , tab. , _petasites_. weber, verhandl. nat. hist. vereins. f.d. preuss. rheinl. u. westphal.,' , p. , tabs. et , _prunus_, _persica_, _campanula_, _taraxacum_, _saxifraga_, _silene_, _hyacinthus_, _&c._ miquel, 'linnæa,' xi, p. , _colchicum_. michel, 'traité du citronnier,' tab. , _citrus_. =syncarpy.=--in the preceding section it has been shown that the carpels, like other parts of the flower, are subject to be united together. this union may either take place between the carpels of a single flower or between the pistils of different flowers. in the latter case the other floral whorls are generally more or less altered. where, however, the ovary is, as it is called, inferior, it may happen that the pistils of different flowers may coalesce more or less without much alteration in the other parts of the flower, as happens normally in many _caprifoliaceæ_, _rubiaceæ_, &c. &c. in some of these cases it must be remembered that the real structure of the apparent fruit is not made out beyond dispute, the main points of controversy being as to what, if any, share the dilated fruit-stalk or axis takes in the formation of such organs. again, it will be borne in mind that in some cases the so-called fruit is made up of a number of flowers all fused together, as in the mulberry or the pineapple, in which plants what is, in ordinary language, called the fruit really consists of the whole mass of flowers constituting the inflorescence fused together. union of the fruits may also in some cases take place between the carpels after the fall of the other floral whorls, particularly when the outer layers of the pericarp assume a succulent condition, so that under the general head of syncarpy really different conditions are almost necessarily grouped together, and, in seeking to investigate the causes of the phenomenon, the particular circumstances of each individual case must be taken into account. syncarpy takes place in various degrees; sometimes only the stalks are joined; at other times the whole extent of the fruit, as in cherries, &c. this peculiarity did not escape the observant mind of shakespeare-- "a double cherry seeming parted. but yet a union in partition, two lovely berries moulded on one stem." 'midsummer night's dream,' act iii, sc. . a similar union has been observed in peaches, gooseberries, gourds, melons, and a great many other fruits. in the barbarossa grape i have frequently seen a fusion of two, three, four or more berries quite at the end of the bunch, so that the clusters were terminated by a compound grape. seringe has remarked sometimes two, sometimes three, fruits of _ranunculus tripartitus_ soldered together. he has also seen three melons similarly joined.[ ] turpin mentions having seen a complete union between the three smooth and leathery pericarps which are naturally separate and enclosed within the spiny cupule of the chestnut.[ ] poiteau and turpin have figured and described in their treatise on fruit trees, under the name of néfle de correa, four or five medlars, joined together and surmounted by all the persistent leaflets of the calyces.[ ] a very remarkable example of syncarpy has been recorded by e. koenig in which nine strawberries were borne on one stem (_fragaria botryformis_),[ ] and a similar malformation has been observed in the pineapple. when two fruits are united together they may be of about equal size, while in other cases one of the two is much smaller than the other. this was the case in two cucumbers given to me by mr. james salter. these were united together along their whole length excepting at the very tips; the upper one of the two was much larger than the lower, and contained three cells, the lower fruit was one-celled by suppression. both fruits were curved, the curvature being evidently due to the more rapid growth of the upper as compared with the lower one. [illustration: fig. .--adhesion of two apples.] [illustration: fig. .--section of united apples.] in many of these cases, where the fruits are united by their bases, the summits become separated one from the other, so as to resemble the letter v. such divergence is of frequent occurrence where fruits are united by their stalks, because, as growth goes on, the tendency must necessarily be towards separation and divergence of the tips of the fruit. in some cases of syncarpy the fusion and interpenetration of the carpels is carried to such an extent that it is very difficult to trace on the outer surface the lines of union. the fruit in these cases resembles a single one of much larger size than usual. moquin mentions a double apple in which the connection was so close that the fruit was not very different in form from what is customary, and a similar thing happens with the tomato. in the case of stone-fruits it sometimes happens, not only that the outer portions are adherent, but that the stones are so likewise. m. roeper has observed two apples grafted together, one of which had its stalk broken, and seemed evidently borne and nourished by the other apple;[ ] and a similar occurrence happens not infrequently in the cucumber. moquin has seen three united cherries having only a single stalk jointed to the central fruit, the lateral cherries having each a slight depression or cicatrix marking the situation of the suppressed stalks. schlotterbec has figured three apples presenting precisely similar appearances.[ ] fusion of two or more nuts (_corylus_) is not uncommon; i have seen as many as five so united.[ ] in these cases the fruits may be united together in a ring or in linear series. in some _leguminosæ_, contrary to the general rule in the order, more than one carpel is found; thus peas, french beans, and other similar plants, are occasionally met with having two or more pods within the same calyx, and in _gleditschia triacanthos_ and _cæsalpinia digyna_ this is so commonly the case as to be considered almost the normal state. (de cand. 'mem. leg.,' pl. , fig. ; pl. , fig. .) at times these carpels become fused together, and it becomes difficult, when the traces of the flower have disappeared, to ascertain whether these carpels were formed in one flower, or whether they were the result of the fusion of several blossoms. i have seen an instance of this kind in a plum in which there were two carpels in the same flower, the one being partially fused to the other. the nature of such cases may usually be determined by an inspection of the peduncle which shows no traces of fusion. (see chapter on multiplication.) when, however, the fruits are sessile, and they become grafted together, the kind of syncarpy is difficult to distinguish. it, may, nevertheless, be said as a general rule that the union brought about by the approximation of two fruits, after the fall of the floral whorls, is never so complete or so intimate as that determined by synanthy; and also that in those cases where there are supernumerary carpels in the flower, and those carpels become united together, they are rarely so completely fused that their individuality is lost. an analogous phenomenon takes place not uncommonly in mosses, the spore capsules of which become united together in various ways and degrees. schimper[ ] cites the following species as subject to this anomaly:--_buxbaumia indusiata_, _leskea sericea_, _hypnum lutescens_, _anomodon alternatus_, _clinacium dendroides_, _bryum cæspititium_, _brachythecium plumosum_, _mnium serratum_, _splachnum vasculosum_. it has also been observed in _trichostomum rigidulum_ and _hypnum triquetrum_. in addition to the authorities already mentioned, the reader may consult moquin-tandon, 'el. ter. veg.,' p. . turpin. 'mém. greffe. ann. sc. nat.,' ser. i, t. xxiv, p. . de candolle, 'organ. veget.,' t. i. duhamel, 'phys. des arbres,' t. i, p. , tab. xiii, xiv. weber. 'verhandl. nat. hist. vereina f. d. preuss. rheinl. u. westphal.,' , p. , tab. vi. et vii. =synspermy, or union of the seeds.=--seeds may be united together in various degrees, either by their integuments,[ ] or by their inner parts. such union of the seeds, however, is of rare occurrence. it takes place normally, to a slight extent, in certain cultivated forms of cotton, wherein the seeds are aggregated together into a reniform mass, whence the term kidney cotton. union of the parts of the embryo is treated under another head (see synophty). =adhesion between the axes of different plants.=--under this head may be classed the union that takes place between the stems, branches, or roots of different plants of the same species, and that which occurs between individuals of different species; the first is not very different in its nature from cohesion of the branches of the same plant (figs. , ). it finds its parallel, under natural circumstances, among the lower cryptogams, in which it often happens that several individual plants, originally distinct, become inseparably blended together into one mass. in the gardening operations of inarching, and to some extent in budding, this adhesion of axis to axis occurs, the union taking place the more readily in proportion as the contact between the younger growing portions of the two axes respectively is close. the huge size of some trees has been, in some cases, attributed to the adnation of different stems. this is said to be the case with the famous plane trees of bujukdere, near constantinople, and in which nine trunks are more or less united together.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--adhesion of two distinct stems of oak, or possibly cohesion of branches of the same tree. 'gard. chron.,' , p. .] a similar anastomosis may take place in the roots. lindley cites a case wherein two carrots, of the white belgian and the red surrey varieties respectively, had grown so close to each other that each twisted half round the other, so that they ultimately became soldered together; the most singular thing with reference to this union was, that the red carrot (fig. , _b_), with its small overgrown part above the junction, took the colour and large dimensions of the white belgian (_d_), which, in like manner, with its larger head above the joining (_a_), took the colour and small dimensions of the red one at and below the union (_e d_). the respective qualities of the two roots were thus transposed, while the upper portions or crowns were unaffected: the root of one, naturally weak, became distended and enlarged by the abundant matter poured into it by its new crown; and in like manner the root of the other, naturally vigorous, was starved by insufficient food derived from the new crown, and became diminutive and shrunken (see synophty). [illustration: fig. .--adhesion of the branches of two elms. 'gard. chron.,' , p. .] the explanation of the fact that the stumps of felled fir trees occasionally continue to grow, and to deposit fresh zones of wood over the stump, depends on similar facts. in _abies pectinata_, says goeppert,[ ] the roots of different individuals frequently unite; hence if one be cut down, its stump may continue to live, being supplied with nourishment from the adjacent trees to which it is adherent by means of its roots. [illustration: fig. .--adhesion of two roots of carrot. 'gard. chron.,' , p. .] a not uncommon malformation in mushrooms arises from the confluence of their stalks (fig. ), and when the union takes place by means of the pilei, it sometimes happens, during growth, that the one fungus is detached from its attachment to the ground, and is borne up with the other, sometimes, even, being found in an inverted position on the top of its fellow.[ ] the garden operations of budding, grafting and inarching have already been alluded to as furnishing illustrations of adhesion, but it may be well to refer briefly to certain other interesting examples of adhesion induced artificially; thus, the employment of the root as a stock, "root-grafting," is now largely practised with some plants, as affording a quicker means of propagation than by cuttings; and a still more curious illustration may be cited in the fact that it has also been found possible to graft a scion on the leaf in the orange.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--section through two adherent mushrooms, the upper one inverted.] mr. darwin, in his work on the 'variation of animals and plants,' vol. i, p. , alludes to the two following remarkable cases of fusion:--"the author of 'des jacinthes' (amsterdam, , p. ) says that bulbs of blue and red hyacinths may be cut in two, and that they will grow together, and throw up a united stem (and this mr. darwin has himself seen), with flowers of the two colours on the opposite sides. but the remarkable point is, that flowers are sometimes produced with the two colours blended together." in the second case related by mr. trail, about sixty blue and white potatoes were cut in halves through the eyes or buds, and the halves were then joined, the other buds being destroyed. union took place, and some of the united tubers produced white, others blue, while some produced tubers partly white and partly blue. =adhesion of the axes of plants belonging to different species is a= more singular occurrence than the former, and is of some interest as connected with the operation of grafting. as a general rule horticulturists are of opinion, and their opinion is borne out by facts, that the operation of grafting, to be successful, must be practised on plants of close botanical affinity. on the other hand, it is equally true that some plants very closely allied cannot be propagated in this manner. contact between the younger growing tissues is essential to successful grafting as practised by the gardener, and is probably quite as necessary in those cases where the process takes place naturally. although there is little doubt but that some of the recorded instances of natural or artificial grafting of plants of distant botanical affinities are untrustworthy, yet the instances of adhesion between widely different plants are too numerous and too well attested to allow of doubt. moreover, when parasitical plants are considered, such as the orobanches, the cuscutas, and specially the mistleto (_viscum_), which may be found growing on plants of very varied botanical relationship, the occurrence of occasional adhesion between plants of distant affinity is not so much to be wondered at. union between the haulms of wheat and rye, and other grasses, has been recorded[ ]. moquin-tandon[ ] relates a case wherein, by accident, a branch of a species of _sophora_ passed through the fork, made by two diverging branches of an elder (_sambucus_), growing in the jardin des plantes of toulouse. the branch of the _sophora_ contracted a firm adhesion to the elder, and what is remarkable is that, although the latter has much softer wood than the former, yet the branch of the harder wooded tree was flattened, as if subjected to great pressure[ ]. it is possible that some of the cases similar to those spoken of by columella, virgil[ ], and other classical writers, may have originated in the accidental admission of seeds into the crevices of trees; in time the seeds grew, and as they did so, the young plants contracted an adhesion to the supporting tree. some of the instances recorded by classical writers may be attributed to intentional or accidental fallacy, as in the so-called "greffe des charlatans" of more modern days. adhesion of the roots of different species has been effected artificially, as between the carrot and the beet root, while dr. maclean succeeded in engrafting, on a red beet, a scion of the white silesian variety of the same species. in all these cases, even in the most successful grafts, the amount of adhesion is very slight; the union in no degree warrants the term fusion, it is little but simple contact of similar tissues, while new growing matter is formed all round the cut surfaces, so that the latter become gradually imbedded in the newly formed matter. =synophty or adhesion of the embryo.=--this often occurs partially in the embryo plants of the common mistleto (_viscum_), but is not of common occurrence in other plants, even in such cases as the orange (_citrus_), the _cycadeæ_, _coniferæ_, &c., where there is frequently more than one embryo in the seed. alphonse de candolle has described and figured an instance of the kind in _euphorbia helioscopia_, wherein two embryo plants were completely grafted together throughout the whole length of their axes, leaving merely the four cotyledons separate. a similar adnation has been observed by the same botanist in _lepidium sativum_ and _sinapis ramosa_, as well as in other plants.[ ] i have met with corresponding instances in _antirrhinum majus_ and in _cratægus oxyacantha_, in the latter case complicated with the partial atrophy of one of the four cotyledons. it is necessary to distinguish between such cases and the fallacious appearances arising from a division of the cotyledons. m. morren has figured and described the union of two roots of carrot (_daucus_), which were also spirally twisted. he attributes this union to the blending of two radicles, and applies the term "rhizocollesy" to this union of the roots.[ ] mr. thwaites cites a case wherein two embryos were contained in one seed in a _fuchsia_, and had become adherent. what is still more remarkable, the two embryos were different, a circumstance attributable to their hybrid origin, the seed containing them being the result of the fertilisation of _fuchsia coccinea_ (quere _f. magellanica?_) by the pollen of _f. fulgens_. footnotes: [ ] wydler, 'flora,' , p. , tab. ix. [ ] 'el. ter. veg.,' p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' , p. . [ ] 'bull. acad. belg.,' vol. xix, part ii, p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' , p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' , p. . [ ] 'bull. acad. belg.,' vol. xviii, part ii, p. . [ ] see also prillieux, 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' , p. . [ ] 'mém. acad. toulouse,' th series, vol. iii. [ ] linnæa, vol. ii. p. . [ ] 'journal roy. hort. soc.,' new ser., vol. i. , p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' , p. . [ ] ibid., , p. . [ ] 'flora,' , p. , tab. ii. [ ] c. morren. 'bull. acad. belg.,' vol. xv (fuchsia, p. ); vol. xviii, p. . (lobelia, p. ); vol. xix, p. ; vol. xx, p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' vol. vii, p. . [ ] cramer, 'bildungsabweichungen,' p. , tab. vii, fig. , figures a case wherein the two central flowers of the capitulum of _centaurea jacea_ were united together. [ ] 'bull. bot.' tab. iii, figs. - . [ ] 'mém. greffe ann. science nat.,' ser. i, t. xxiv, p. . [ ] "mespilus portentosa." poit. et turp., 'pomol. franc.,' liv, xxxi, p. , pl. . [ ] duchesne, 'hist. nat. frais.,' p. . [ ] de cand., 'phys. végét.,' tom. ii, p. . [ ] sched. de monstr. plant. 'act. helv.,' tab. i, fig. . [ ] 'mém. greffe,' loc. cit., tab. xxiv, p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. franc.,' , pp. and , tab. ii; and röse. 'bot. zeit.,' x, p. . [ ] _nymphæa lutea_, _Æsculus hippocastanum_, &c. see moquin, 'el. ter. veg.,' p. . [ ] c. martins, 'promenade botanique,' p. . [ ] 'ann. sc. nat.,' t. xix, , p. , tab. iv. [ ] 'ann. nat. hist.,' ser. , vol. ix, tab. xvi. 'phytologist,' . p. , &c. [ ] quoted from the 'revue hortic.' in 'gard. chron.,' , p. . [ ] senebier, 'phys végét.,' t. iv, p. . the same author also cites romer as having found two plants of _ranunculus_, from the stem of which emerged a daisy. as it is not an uncommon practice to stick a daisy on a buttercup, it is to be hoped no hoax was played off on m. romer. [ ] 'el. ter. veg.,' p. . [ ] an instance of this kind is cited in dr. robson's memoir of the late charles waterton, from which it appears that two trees, a spruce fir and an elm, were originally planted side by side, and had been annually twisted round each other, so that they had in places grown one into the other, with the result of stunting the growth of both trees, thus illustrating, according to the opinion of the eccentric naturalist above cited, the incongruous union of church and state! [ ] see daubeny, 'lectures on roman husbandry,' p. . [ ] a. p. de candolle, 'organ végét.,' t. ii, p. , tab. liv, fig. . [ ] 'bull. acad. belg.,' t. xx, part i, , p. . part ii. independence or separation of organs. under this head are included all those instances wherein organs usually entire, or more or less united, are, or appear to be, split or disunited. it thus includes such cases as the division of an ordinarily entire leaf into a lobed or partite one, as well as those characterised by the separation of organs usually joined together. union, as has been stated in a previous chapter, is the result either of persistent integrity or of a junction of originally separate organs, after their formation; so in like manner, the separation or disjunction of parts may arise from the absence of that process of union which is habitual in some cases, or from an actual _bonâ fide_ separation of parts originally united together. in the former case, the isolation of parts arises from arrest of development, while in the latter it is due rather to luxuriant growth. a knowledge, as well of the ordinary as of the unusual course, of development in any particular flower is thus required in order to ascertain with accuracy the true nature of the separation of parts. the late professor morren[ ] proposed the general term monosy ([greek: monôsis]) for all these cases of abnormal isolation, subdividing the group into two, as follows-- , adesmy ([greek: a-desmos]), including those cases where the separation is congenital; and , dialysis ([greek: dialyô]), comprising those instances where the isolation is truly a result of the separation of parts previously joined together. adesmy, moreover, was by the belgian savant said to be homologous when it occurred between members of the same whorl, _e.g._ between the sepals of an ordinary monosepalous calyx, or heterologous when the separation took place between members of different whorls, as when the calyx is detached from the ovary, &c. the former case would thus be the converse of cohesion, the latter of adhesion. to the adoption of these words there is this great objection, that we can but rarely, in the present state of our knowledge, tell in which group any particular illustration should be placed. the terms adopted in the present work are, for the most part, not necessarily intended to convey any idea as to the organogenetic history of the parts affected. where a single organ, that is usually entire, becomes divided the term fission is used; in cases where parts of the same whorl become isolated, the word dialysis is employed, and in the same sense in which it is generally used by descriptive botanists, and where the various whorls become detached one from the other, the occurrence is distinguished by the application of the term solution. footnotes: [ ] 'bull. acad. belg.,' t. xix, part iii, , p. . chapter i. fission. when an organ becomes divided it receives at the hands of descriptive botanists the appellations cleft, partite, or sect, according to the depth of the division; hence in considering the teratological instances of this nature, the term fission has suggested itself as an appropriate one to be applied to the subdivision of an habitually entire or undivided organ. it thus corresponds pretty nearly in its application with the term chorisis or "dédoublement," or with the "disjonctions qui divisent les organes" of moquin-tandon.[ ] it is usually, but not always, a concomitant with hypertrophy, and dependent on luxuriance of growth. it must be understood therefore that the term, as generally applied, does not so much indicate the cleavage of a persistent organ, as it does the formation and development of two or more growing points instead of one, whence results a branching or forking (di-tri-chotomy) of the affected organ. in some instances it seems rather to be due to the relative deficiency of cellular, as contrasted with fibro-vascular tissue. =fission of axile organs.=--this condition is scarcely to be distinguished from multiplication of the axile organs (which see). a little attention, however, will generally show whether the unusual number of branches is a consequence of the development of a large number of distinct shoots, as happens, for instance, when a tree is pollarded, or of a division of one. m. fournier[ ] gives as an illustration the case of a specimen of _ruscus aculeatus_ in which there occurred a division of the foliaceous branches into two segments, reaching as far as the insertion of the flower, but no further. he also mentions lateral cleavage effected by a notching of the margin, the notch being anterior to the flowers and always directed towards their insertion. in the allied genus _danaë_, webb, 'phyt. canar.,' p. , describes the fascicles of flowers as in "crenulis brevibus ad marginem ramulorum dispositis." sometimes, on the other hand, _danaë_ has a fascicle of flowers inserted on the middle of the upper surface, as in _ruscus_. wigand mentions an instance in _digitalis lutea_, where the upper part of the stem was divided into six or seven racemes; possibly this was a case of fasciation, but such a division of the inflorescence is by no means uncommon in the spicate species of _veronica_. i have also seen it in _plantago lanceolata_, _reseda luteola_, _campanula medium_, _epacris impressa_, and a bifurcation of the axis of the spikelet within the outer glumes in _lolium perenne_[ ] and _anthoxanthum odoratum_. in the kew museum is preserved a cone of _abies excelsa_,[ ] dividing into two divisions, each bearing bracts and scales. a similar thing frequently occurs in the male catkins of _cedrus libani_ (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--bifurcated male inflorescence, _cedrus libani_.] this subdivision of axial organs is not unfrequently the result of some injury or mutilation, thus duval jouve alludes to the frequency with which branched stems are produced in the various species of _equisetum_, as a consequence of injuries to the main stem, but this is rather to be considered as a multiplication of parts than as a subdivision of one. [illustration: fig. .--bifurcated leaf of _lamium album_, &c.] =fission of foliar organs.=--many leaves exhibit constantly the process of fission, such as the _salisburia adiantifolia_, and which is due perhaps as much to the absence or relatively small proportion of cellular as compared with vascular tissue, as to absolute fission. in the same way we have laciniated leaves of the persian lilac, _syringa persica_, and moquin mentions instances in a species of _mercurialis_ in which the leaves were deeply slashed. in _chenopodium quinoa_ the leaves were so numerous and the clefts so deep, that the species was hardly recognisable, while on a branch of _rhus cotinus_ observed by de candolle the lobes were so narrow and so fine as to give the plant the aspect of an _umbellifer_. wigand ('flora,' , p. ) speaks of the leaves of _dipsacus fullonum_ with bi-partite leaves; moquin mentions the occurrence of a leaf of an oleander bi-lobed at the summit, so as to give the appearance of a fusion of two leaves. steinheil has recorded an instance in _scabiosa atropurpurea_ in which one of the stem leaves presented the following peculiarities. it was simple below, but divided above into two equal lobes, provided each with a median nerve.[ ] steinheil has also recorded a _cerastium_ in which one of the leaves was provided with two midribs; above this leaf was a group of ternate leaves. i have seen similar instances in the common elm, _ulmus campestris_, and also in the common nettle, _urtica dioica_, the leaves of which latter thus resembled those of _urtica biloba_, which are habitually bilobed at the summit. m. clos[ ] mentions an instance where the terminal leaf and first bract of _orchis sambucina_ were divided into two segments. the same author also mentions the leaves of _anemiopsis californica_, which were divided in their upper halves each into two lobes--also leaves of a lentil springing from a fasciated stem and completely divided into two segments, but with only a single bud in the axil. the axillary branches in like manner showed traces of cleavage. fig. represents a case of this kind in _lamium album_, conjoined with suppression of the flowers on one side of the stem. i have also in my herbarium a leaf of _arum maculatum_, with a stalk single at the base, but dividing into two separate stalks, each bearing a hastate lamina, the form of which is so perfect that were it not from the venation of the sheath it would be considered that there was here a union of two leaves rather than a bifurcation of one. a garden pelargonium presented the same appearance. [illustration: fig. .--bifurcated leaf of _pelargonium_.] fern fronds are particularly liable to this kind of subdivision, and they exhibit it in almost every degree, from a simple bifurcation of the frond to the formation of large tufts of small lobes all formed on the same plan by the repeated forking of the pinnules. these may be considered as cases of hypertrophy. moquin-tandon, at a meeting of the botanical society of france (april rd, ) exhibited a leaf of _cerasus lauro-cerasus_ divided in such a manner as to resemble a leaf of _citrus_ or of _phyllarthron_. in this case, therefore, the disunion must have taken place laterally, and not from apex towards base, as is most common. the leaves of the common horse-radish, _cochlearia armoracia_, are very subject to this pinnated subdivision of the margin, and numerous other illustrations might be given. [illustration: fig. .--bifurcated frond, _scolopendrium vulgare_.] a. braun describes a singular case in a leaf of _irina glabra_ wherein the blade of the leaf on one side was deeply and irregularly laciniated, the other side remaining entire. (verhandl., d. , naturforscherversammlung, tab. .) laciniate varieties of plants are of frequent occurrence in gardens where they are often cultivated for their beauty or singularity; thus, there are laciniated alders, fern-leaved beeches and limes, oak-leaved laburnums, &c. a list of several of these is subjoined. a similar fission takes place constantly in the cotyledons of some plants, sometimes, as in _coniferæ_, to such an extent as to give an appearance as if there were several cotyledons.[ ] it is not always easy to recognise, at a first glance, whether the division be the result of disunion or of an incomplete union of two leaves, but we may be guided by the number of leaves in the cycle or the whorl. the number is complete in cases of partial disjunction, while in cases of fusion it is incomplete. again, in instances of disjunction, there is only one point of origin, but, when two leaves are grafted together, two such points may generally be detected at the base of the leaf, or a transverse section of the leaf-stalk will show indications of fusion. the number and position of the midribs will also serve as a guide, as in cases of fusion there are generally two or more midribs, according to the number of fused leaves; but as moquin well remarks, this latter character cannot be always depended upon, for the median nerve may divide without any corresponding separation of the cellular portions of the leaf. the author just quoted cites examples of this kind in _cardamine pratensis_, _hedera helix_, _plantago major_, _geranium nodosum_. the following list of plants commonly producing leaves that are cleft or divided, to a greater extent than is usual in the species, is mainly taken from one given by schlechtendal, 'bot. zeit.,' , p. , with additions from other sources. the ! indicates that the author has himself met with the deviation in question. many are cultivated as garden varieties under the names here given. trollius europæus dissectus. chelidonium majus laciniatum! glaucium luteum. brassica oleracea! tilia parvifolia laciniata. asplenifolia! acer platanoides laciniatum. crispum. Æsculus hippocastanum incisum! asplenifolium. vitis vinifera apiifolia! laciniosa. ilex aquifolium! rhus toxicodendron quercifolium. cotinus. ervum lens. cytisus laburnum quercifolium! incisum. rubus fraticosus laciniatus! pyrcis communis. cerasus lauro-cerasus. apium graveolens! pimpinella magna. saxifraga. cratægus oxyacantha laciniata. quercifolia! ribes nigrum. sambucus nigra laciniata! racemosa laciniata. dipsacus fullonum. scabiosa atropurpurea! symphoricarpus racemosus. helianthus sp.! lonicera periclymenum quercifolia! syringa persica laciniata! syringa vulgaris! nerium oleander! lamium purpureum. album! salvia officinalis. solanum dulcamara! fraxinus excelsior crispa. veronica austriaca. polemonium cæruleum. juglans regia laciniata! heterophylla. filicifolia. anemiopsis californica. chenopodium quinoa. ulmus americana incisa. fagus sylvatica heterophylla! laciniata! aspleniifolia! incisa. salicifolia! mercurialis perennis. urtica dioica. quercus cerris laciniata! pubescens filicina. betula populifolia laciniata. alba dalecarlica. alnus incana laciniata! glutinosa laciniata! quercifolia. oxyacanthifolia. corylus avellana heterophylla! laciniata! urticifolia. carpinus betulus incisa! quercifolia. heterophylla. castanea vesca heterophylla. quercifolia. incisa. populus alba acerifolia. palmata. quercifolia. balsamifera. orchis sambucina. arum maculatum. filices sp. pl. see also schlechtendal, 'bot. zeit.,' tom. xiii, p. . a. braun, loc. supra citat. for ferns too numerous for insertion, see moore, 'nature-printed ferns,' vo ed., vols. clos, 'mém. acad. toulouse,' , p. . =fission of the petals, &c.=--the floral leaves are subject to a similar process of cleavage to that which has just been mentioned as taking place in the leaves. this, indeed, occurs very often as a normal occurrence as in the petals of mignonette (_reseda_), or those of _alsine media_ and many other plants. here, however, we have only to allude to those instances in which the cleavage occurs in flowers whose sepals or petals are usually entire. under this category moquin mentions a petal of _brassica oleracea_ completely split into two. linné in his 'flora lapponica' (pp. and ) mentions quadrifid petals of _lychnis dioica_, and much divided petals of _rubus arcticus_. among other plants subject to this division of sepals or petals may be mentioned as having come within the writer's personal observation, _ranunculus lingua_, _r. acris_, _papaver somniferum_, and others of this genus, _saponaria sp._, _dianthus_, _narcissus_, &c. in some of the garden varieties of _cyclamen_ the corolla looks at first sight as if double, and the plan of the flower is oblong or elliptical, instead of circular. in these flowers each lobe of the corolla is divided almost to the base into two lobes, so that there appear to be ten lobes to the corolla instead of five, as usual. the stamens are normal in form and number in these flowers. in the paroquet tulips of gardeners the segments of the perianth are deeply and irregularly gashed, the segments occasionally becoming rolled up and their margins coherent so as to form little tubular spurs. i have also noticed the segments of the perianth in _crocus_ and _colchicum_ deeply cleft, so much so sometimes, as to equal in this particular the stigmas. in the flowers of a species of _oncidium_, communicated to me by mr. currey, the lip was divided into three segments perfectly distinct one from the other, but confluent with the column; the two side pieces had callosities at the upper edge close to the base, the central piece had a similar wartlike process in its centre. in these flowers the ovary, the stigma, and the anther were all in a rudimentary condition. some verbenas raised by mr. wills offer a curious illustration of this condition. it will be remembered that some of the lobes or petals of a verbena are normally divided at the base to a slight degree, but in the flowers in question this is carried to such an extent that the enlarged lobes are pushed into the centre of the flower and simulate, at a first glance, a distinct and separate organ, though in reality it is but an enlargement of what occurs normally.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--flower of _oncidium sp._ seen from the back. the lip is divided into three unequal segments.] moquin mentions having seen the stamens of _matthiola incana_ and _silene conica_ completely divided, each section bearing half an anther, exactly as happens in _polygalaceæ_. in tulips and lilies the same author mentions division of the anther only, the filament remaining entire, as happens naturally in many species of _vaccinium_. a division of the individual carpels occurs very frequently when those organs become more or less leafy, as in _trifolium repens_, and other plants to be hereafter mentioned. the instances given in this chapter have all been cases wherein the division or the accessory growth has taken place in one plane only and that plane the same as that of the affected organ, but there are other examples, probably equally due to fissiparous division, where the new growth is either parallel to, or even at angle with the primary organ. of such nature are some of those instances wherein two leaves appear to be placed back to back. these partake of the nature of excrescences or of exaggerated developments, and hence will be more fully treated of under the head of hypertrophy. it must be remembered that in some of these cases the fission may be a resumption of characters proper to the species under natural conditions, but lost by cultivation or otherwise. thus, mr. buckman accounts for "finger-and-toe" in root-crops on the principle of reversion to the wild form. footnotes: [ ] loc. cit., p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. france,' , p. . [ ] masters, 'jourl. linn. soc.,' vol. vii, p. . [ ] cramer, 'bildungsabweichungen,' p. , tab. vi, fig. , figures a case of the same kind in _pinus cembra_. [ ] 'ann. des science nat.,' nd series, t. iv, p. , tab. v, figs. and . [ ] 'mém. acad. scien. toulouse,' th series, vol. iii. [ ] duchartre, 'ann. sc. nat.,' rd series, , vol. x, p. . [ ] masters, 'rep. bot. congress,' london, , p. , tab. , f. , . chapter ii. dialysis. this term is here made use of in the same sense as in descriptive botany, to indicate the isolation of parts of the same whorl; it is thus the opposite of cohesion. morren, as has been previously stated, employed the word in a different sense, while moquin-tandon[ ] included cases of this description under the category of "disjonctions qui isolent les organes." dialysis, as here understood, may be the result of an arrest of development, in consequence of which parts that under ordinary circumstances would become fused, do not do so; or, on the other hand, it may be the result of an actual separation between parts primitively undivided. as it is not possible in every case to distinguish between the effects of these two diverse causes, no attempt is here made to do so. =dialysis of the margins of individual foliar organs.=--in cases where the leaf or leaf-like organ is ordinarily tubular or horn-like in form, owing to the cohesion of its edges, it may happen either from lack of union or from actual separation of the previously united edges, that the tubular shape is replaced by the ordinary flattened expansion. thus, in _eranthis hyemalis_, wherein the petals (nectaries) are tubular and the sepals flat, i have met with numerous instances of transition from the one form to the other, as shown in fig. , p. . it is, however, in the carpels that this separation occurs most frequently. when these organs appear under the guise of leaves, as they often do, their margins are disunited, so that the carpel becomes flat or open. this happens in the strawberry (_fragaria_), the columbine (_aquilegia_), in _trifolium repens_, _ranunculus ficaria_, &c.[ ] =dialysis of the parts of the same whorl:--calyx.=--the separation of an ordinarily coherent series into its constituent parts is necessarily of more common occurrence than the foregoing. as here understood, it is the precise converse of cohesion, and it may be represented diagrammatically by a dotted line above the letters denoting the sepals, petals, &c. when this change happens in the calyx we have the gamosepalous condition replaced by the polysepalous one, as thus represented: ............. s s s s s instead of _____________ s s s s s as in a calyx of five coherent sepals. detachment of this kind occurs not unfrequently, as in _primula vulgaris_, _trifolium repens_, &c. in _rosaceæ_ and _pomaceæ_ this separation of the calyx is of the more moment, as it has reference to the structure of the inferior ovary, as will be more fully mentioned hereafter. here, however, a case recorded by m. j. e. planchon may be alluded to[ ] wherein a quince fruit (_cydonia_) was surmounted by five leaves, the surface of the pome being marked by as many prominences, which apparently corresponded to the five stalks of the calycine leaves. in this specimen, then, the inferior position of the ovary appeared to be not so much due to an expansion of the fruit stalk, as to the fusion of the hypertrophied stalks of the sepals. some of the malformations among cucurbits point to a similar structure. it is probable that in many of these cases the so-called inferior ovary is partly axial partly foliar, _i.e._, sepaline, and partly carpellary in its nature. dialysis of the sepals in calyces that are usually gamosepalous has been most frequently observed in _rosaceæ_, _pomaceæ_, _umbelliferæ_, less commonly in _leguminosæ_, also in the following genera:--_primula_, _symphytum_, _gentiana_, _campanula_, &c. [illustration: fig. .--dialysis of the sepals and petals in _correa_.] =dialysis of the corolla= is likewise of frequent occurrence, either partially or to such an extent as to render the corolla truly polypetalous. among _labiatæ_ the upper lip of the corolla may be often met with partially cleft, as it is constantly in _phlomis biloba_, or more markedly among the _lobeliaceæ_. in the _compositæ_, a similar separation of the petals is not infrequent, thus showing frequent transitional stages between the labiatifloral and tubulifloral divisions respectively. the ligulate corollas also may often be found in chrysanthemums, dahlias, &c., more or less deeply divided into their component parts. a more complete separation occurs not unfrequently in _campanula_, _rhododendron_, _phlox_, _&c._ figs. and illustrate dialysis of the corolla; the first in _correa_, the second in _campanula_. [illustration: fig. .--dialysis of the corolla in _campanula sp._, after de candolle.] in the last-named genus, _c. rotundifolia_ has been found with polypetalous flowers in a wild state in the mountains of canton neufchatel, switzerland, and gave rise to the creation of a new genus. this form is now introduced into gardens. it must be remembered that in some genera, where this separation of the petals has been met with, there are species in which a similar isolation occurs normally, as in _rhododendron_. _r. linearilobum_, a japanese species, offers a good illustration of this. the following list contains the names of the genera in which this separation of the petals of an ordinarily gamopetalous flower takes place most frequently. correa. campanula! sp. pl. polemonium. phlox! coboea! rhododendron! erica! rhodora. azalea! compositæ! sp. pl. lonicera! convolvulus! pharbitis. antirrhinum! verbascum! mimulus. digitalis! orobanche. solanum. nicotiana. gentiana! anagallis. primula! lamium! convallaria! lilium! colchicum! &c. &c. this list does not include those very numerous cases in which this change is associated with more or less complete frondescence or leafy condition of the petals. =dialysis of the stamens.=--a similar isolation of the stamens occurs occasionally; for instance, when mallows (_malvaceæ_) become double, one of the first stages of the process is often the disjunction of the stamens, and a similar dissociation occurs in _leguminosæ_ and _compositæ_, as in _tragopogon_, as related by kirschleger, in _hypochæris_ by wigand, and in _coreopsis_ by schlechtendal. =dialysis of the carpels.=--in the case of the carpels this disunion is more frequent than in the stamens. m. seringe[ ] figures carpels of _diplotaxis tenuifolia_ more or less completely separated one from the other; indeed, this separation is very common amongst _cruciferæ_ and _umbelliferæ_. generally speaking, the disunion is complicated with frondescence--but not always so. i have, in my herbarium, specimens of _convallaria majalis_, _commelyna sp._, and of _lilium auratum_, in all of which the three carpels are completely disjoined, and present three styles, three stigmas, &c., without any other change. engelmann[ ] speaks of three classes of this malformation. st, that in which the carpels separate one from the other without opening, as in the lily just alluded to; nd, that in which the ovary remains closed, but loses its internal partitions, as in a case mentioned by moquin in _stachys sylvatica_, in which, owing to imperfect disjunction, the two bi-lobed carpels were changed into a nearly one-celled capsule;[ ] and rd, those cases in which the carpels are open and foliaceous. [illustration: fig. .--anomalous form of orange.] disjunction is more frequent in dry fruits than in fleshy ones. in the latter instance it happens at an early stage of existence, and the pericarp becomes more or less leafy, losing its faculty of becoming fleshy, as in _prunus cerasus_ and _amygdalus persica_; nevertheless, fleshy fruits sometimes become disunited. i have seen a case similar to that mentioned by m. alphonse de candolle in _solanum esculentum_, in which the pericarp became ruptured, and the placentas protruded. a like occurrence has also been observed in a species of _melastoma_.[ ] this is analogous to what happens in _caulophyllum_ and _slateria_. disjunction of the carpels is not rare in oranges. sometimes this takes place regularly, at other times irregularly; occasionally in such a manner as to give the appearance of a hand and fingers to the fruit. of one of these, ferrari,[ ] in the curious volume below cited, speaks thus: "arbor profusissima, quia dat utraque manu; imo quia vere manus dat in poma conversis; utque magis munifica sit poma ipsa convertit in manus." m. duchartre[ ] mentions a semi-double flower of orange with eight to ten distinct carpels in a whorl, and occasionally several whorls one above another. de candolle[ ] considers the rind of the orange as a production from the receptacle, and this view is confirmed by the specimens of duchartre, in which the carpels were quite naked or had a common envelope truncated, and open above to allow of the passage of the styles and stigmas. [illustration: fig. .--orange. showing disjunction of carpels, after maout.] [illustration: fig. .--section of orange shown in fig. after maout.] it frequently happens in conjunction with this separation of the carpels one from the other, that a lack of union manifests itself between the margins of the individual carpels themselves. very numerous cases of this kind have been recorded, and the double tulips of gardens may be referred to as showing this condition very frequently. in connection with this detachment of the carpels, a change in the mode of placentation is often to be observed, or two or more kinds may be seen in the same pistil, as in double-flowered saponarias, many crucifers, &c., as alluded to under the head of displacements of the placenta. footnotes: [ ] _loc. cit._, p. . [ ] masters in seemann's 'journal of botany,' , p. . [ ] bull. soc. bot. france,' t. xiii, , p. . [ ] 'bull. bot.,' pl. i, figs. - . [ ] 'de anthol.,' p. . [ ] moquin, loc. cit., p. . [ ] 'neue denkschr. der allg. schweiz. gesell.,' band v, pl. ii. p. . [ ] 'hesperides,' auctore ferrario. rome, , fig. , pp. and . see also michel, 'traité du citronnier.' [ ] 'ann. des science nat.,' rd series, , vol. i, p. . [ ] 'org. véget.,' vol. ii., p. . chapter iii. solution. the isolation or separation of different whorls that are ordinarily adherent together is by no means of rare occurrence. were it not that the isolation is often congenital, the word detachment would be an expressive one to apply to these cases, but as the change in question occurs quite as often from a want of union, an arrest or stasis of development, as from a _bonâ fide_ separation, the word solution seems to be, on the whole, the best. it corresponds in application to the word _liber_ (_calyx liber_, &c.), in general use by descriptive botanists. as here employed, the term nearly corresponds with the "adesmie hetérologue" of morren. moquin tandon does not make any special subdivision for the class of cases here grouped together, but places them all under "disjonctions qui isolent les organes." it seems, however, desirable to have a separate word to express the converse condition of adhesion, and for this purpose the term solution, as above stated, is here employed. diagrammatically, the condition may be expressed by placing a dotted line at the side of the letters thus: : s s s s s : : c c c c c : would indicate the disjunction of the sepals from the carpels (c), in contradistinction to adhesion, which may be represented by the unbroken line thus: | s s s s s | | c c c c c | =solution of the calyx from the ovary.=--of all the instances of adhesion which take place under ordinary circumstances, that between the calyx and the ovary is perhaps the most common. the _calyx adhærens_ or _superus_ is a structural characteristic to which all botanists attach considerable importance; so that when exceptional cases occur in which the calyx becomes detached from the ovary, becomes, that is, _inferus_ or _liber_, a proportionate degree of interest attaches to the irregularity. it is not within the scope of the present work to inquire whether this detachment be real or merely apparent, arising from a want of union between parts ordinarily united together. this point must be left to the organogenists to decide in each particular case. so also the question as to what share, if any, the expanded and dilated flower-stalk may take in what are usually called inferior ovaries, can be here only incidentally touched upon. among _rosaceæ_, the change in question is very common, especially in conjunction with an elongation of the axis of the flower (apostasis) and with prolification, though it is by no means always co-existent with these malformations. when this alteration in the apparent relative position of calyx and carpels occurs in roses (_rosa_) the appearances are generally such as to indicate that the "hip" of the rose is a dilatation of the peduncle, continuous above with the coherent bases of the sepals; this inference seems also to be borne out by what happens in the _pomaceæ_. in some cases in this sub-order, the calyx becomes detached from the carpels, so that the latter organs become more or less "superior," and distinct one from the other. this happens constantly in the double-flowered thorn, _cratægus oxyacantha_, in some blossoms of which the hollowed end of the peduncle still invests the base of the carpels, leaving the upper portions detached. in apples flowers are occasionally met with of greater size than usual and on longer stalks, so that the whole looks more like a rose than an apple blossom. in these cases it will usually be found that the calyx consists of distinct sepals, without a trace of the ordinary swelling beneath the flower. the petals are often more numerous than usual; the stamens variously changed, and the carpels sometimes absent; at other times, as in the instance figured in the adjacent woodcuts, figs. , , consisting of separate, superior ovaries, sometimes destitute of ovules, or, at other times, having two of these bodies.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--proliferous rose. showing an absence of the usual dilatation of the flower-stalk, and other changes.] this condition accords precisely with the account of the development of the flowers in _pomaceæ_ as given by payer, caspary, and others, so that the flowers above described would owe their deficiency of the swollen receptacle to an arrest of development. m. germain de saint pierre, among other malformations of the rose, presented to the botanical society of france in [ ] two specimens which are of special interest as relating to this contested point. in the one, the swollen portion beneath the flower was surmounted by five perfect leaves, as, indeed, is not infrequent in such malformations; here, then, the calyx could have had little or no share in the production of the swelling in question. in the other, the swollen portion was actually above the insertion of the sepals here represented by five perfect leaves. [illustration: fig. .--section through apple blossom, showing detachment of calyx from ovaries, absence of dilated flower-stalk, &c.] [illustration: fig. .--calyx detached from carpels in apple.] on the other hand, m. planchon's specimen of the quince before alluded to, not to mention other instances, tends to show that the bases of the sepals do sometimes enter into the composition of the pome. and, indeed, in many of these cases it would be impossible to say where the axial or receptacular portion ended, and the foliar portion began. as both from normal organogeny as well as from unusual conformation contradictory inferences may be drawn, it would obviously be unsafe to attempt the explanation of the so-called calyx-tube in general from any particular instances; so far as _rosaceæ_ are concerned, there is so much variation in the relative position of calyx and carpels under ordinary circumstances, that it is no matter for surprise that similar diversities should exist in teratological cases. a similar remark will apply to _saxifragaceæ_, _cucurbitaceæ_, _myrtaceæ_, _bruniaceæ_, _rubiaceæ_, and other families of like conformation. [illustration: fig. .--flower of _oenanthe crocata_, in which the five sepals were completely detached from the ovaries, here three in number and destitute of stylopods.] in _umbelliferæ_, a detachment of the calyx from the ovaries frequently occurs, sometimes without any other change; at other times attended by more serious alterations. so far as can be judged from exceptional occurrences of this kind, it would appear that in this order the axis or flower-stalk does not, in any material degree, enter into the composition of the fruit. in the rubiaceous genus _bikkhia_, as mentioned by duchartre, the ovary is completely inferior, but when the fruit arrives at maturity four small leaves are detached from its surface which had previously adhered to it, and which it seems reasonable to consider as the sepals. in _campanulaceæ_ a similar separation of calyx from the ovary may be occasionally met with. on the other hand, the occasional formation of a leaf on the inferior ovary of those plants would indicate the axial nature of the fruit. in _campanumæa_ and _cyclodon_ the calyx is inferior, while the corolla is superior. in the last-named genus this peculiarity "is carried to the highest degree, the sepals being, in _c. parviflorum_, placed on the peduncle of the flower far removed from the base of the corolla and ovary, whilst in _c. truncatum_ and in _campanumæa_ they adhere to the base of the tube of the corolla."[ ] in this order, then, as in _saxifragaceæ_, _bruniaceæ_, &c., no hasty conclusion should be drawn as to the nature of the fruit. in _brunia microphylla_ the ovary is superior, enclosed within but not adnate to the cup-like calyx, to which latter, however, the petals and stamens are attached. in _onagraceæ_ (_jussieua_), as also in _cactaceæ_ (_opuntia_), buds have been observed on the surface and edges of the inferior ovary. indeed, in the former genus, they have been produced artificially, but as buds may be formed on foliar as well as on axial organs, the fact cannot be made great use of in support either of the foliar or axial nature of the inferior ovary. in _epilobium_, i have met with four perfect leaves at the summit of the ovary, in the place usually occupied by the sepals. this would also favour the notion that the axis entered into the constitution of the fruit in this genus. mr. b. clarke, in his 'new arrangement of phanerogamous plants,' p. , cites a case wherein the perianth was completely detached from the surface of the ovary in _cannabis sativa_. it must be borne in mind that some of the recorded instances of change in the relative position of the calyx and pistil ought more properly to be referred to a substitution of carpels for stamens, as in _begonia_, _fuchsia_, &c. among _cucurbitaceæ_, examples have been recorded, both of the detachment of the calyx from the ovary,[ ] and of the partial conversion of some of the anthers of the male flower to carpels. the very singular mode of germination of _sechium edule_ in which the fruit, instead of rotting, becomes thickened into a kind of rhizome or tuber, is a fact that should not be overlooked in investigating the true nature of the fruit in this order. the following are the genera in which the change has been most frequently observed: *rosa! *pyrus! *cratægus! *daucus! pastinaca. torilis. apium. oenanthe! heracleum, athamanta. selinum. carum. imperatoria. rudbeckia! *campanula! lonicera! cucumis! cannabis. =solution of the stamens from the petals.=--a separation of the stamens from the petals in flowers, wherein those organs are usually adherent one to the other does not often occur unattended by other changes. it has been observed in _cobæa scandens_ (turpin), in _antirrhinum majus_, and in many double flowers. partial detachment of the stamens from the styles occurs frequently in semi-double flowers of _orchis_.[ ] footnotes: [ ] 'gard. chron.,' , p. ; , p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.' , p. . [ ] hook et thoms, 'præcurs. ad flor. ind.,' journ. linn. soc., vol. ii, , p. . [ ] lindley, 'veget. kingd.,' p. . [ ] masters, 'journal of linnean society,' , vol. viii, p. . on the subject of this chapter the reader should also consult moquin-tandon, . c., p. . engelmann, 'de antholysi,' p. , tab. v. c. morren, 'bull. acad. belg.,' xix, part , p. . cramer, 'bildungsabweichungen,' p. . fleischer, 'missbild. cultur. pflanzen.' as to the nature of inferior ovaries, see also payer, 'bull. soc. bot. fr.' i, , p. . germain de saint pierre, _ibid._, p. . caspary, 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' t. vi, , p. . schleiden, 'principles of botany,' english translation, p. . duchartre, 'elements de botanique,' p. . le maout et decaisne, 'traité général de botanique,' p. . bentham, 'journ. linn. soc.,' vol. x, p. (structure of _myrtaceæ_), and other treatises on organography. part iii. alterations of position. necessarily connected with changes in the arrangement of organs are similar alterations in their position; so closely, indeed, that but for convenience sake, it would be unnecessary to treat them separately. there are, however, some anomalous developments affecting the relative position of organs that could hardly be treated of under any of the preceding paragraphs. there are, also, certain rare instances where an organ is not so much displaced as misplaced; that is to say, it is developed on or from a portion of the plant, which under usual circumstances does not produce such an organ. in the former instance, the altered position is due to or coexistent with other changes, but in the latter case the new growth may spring from organs otherwise in nowise different from ordinary. the word displacement is here used to signify the unusual position of an organ; while heterotaxy may serve to include those cases where a new growth makes its appearance in an unwonted situation, as, for instance, a leaf-bud on a root, &c. prolification is also included under this heading, the unusual position of the buds in these cases being of graver import than the mere increase in number. alterations in the position of the sexual organs are spoken of under the head of heterogamy. chapter i. displacement. real or apparent displacement of organs from their usual position is an almost necessary consequence of, or is, at least, coexistent with a large number of teratological phenomena. it is obvious that abnormal unions or disunions, suppressions, hypertrophies, &c., are very liable to bring about or to be accompanied with changes in the position, either of the parts directly affected or of adjoining organs. in this place, then, it is merely necessary to allude to some of the more important displacements, and to refer for further details to the sections relating to those irregularities of growth on which the displacement depends. =displacement of bulbs.=--i owe to the kindness of mr. james salter a tulip bulb which had been dug up after flowering, and from the base of which were suspended several small bulbs; and i have since seen another specimen showing the same unusual arrangement. the explanation of these formations seems to be that they correspond to the bulbils ordinarily found in the axils of the scales of the parent organ, and which, in some way or another, have been displaced and thrust into the ground. professor de vriese figures something of the same kind in _ixia carminosa_.[ ] of somewhat different nature to those above described was an anomaly described by m. gay at a meeting of the botanical society of france, april th, . the plant affected was _leucoium æstivum_, and the changes observed were apparently attributable to a simple separation of two leaves that are usually contiguous. "suppose," says m. gay in describing this malformation, "the first leaf of the terminal bud separated by a long internode from the other leaves, which remain closely packed; and further, suppose an evident thickening of the upper portion of the lengthened internode, and there will be not only a single bulb, bearing with the leaves of the present year all the remnants of the leaves of the two preceding years, but two bulbs placed one above another, on the same axis, separated by the length of the internode." [illustration: fig. .--unusual position of bulbs of tulip; the parent-bulb cut open.] the formation of bulbs in the axils of the leaves, as happens occasionally in tulips, is further alluded to under the head of hypertrophy. =displacements affecting the inflorescence.=--these are, for the most part, dependent on hypertrophy, elongation, atrophy, spiral torsion, &c., but there are a few instances of a different nature, which may here be alluded to as not being coincident with any of the phenomena just mentioned. sometimes these deviations from the ordinary position have the more interest as affecting characters used to distinguish genera; thus one of the distinctions between rye-grass (_lolium_) and wheat (_triticum_) resides in the relative position of the spikelets and the main stem; in _triticum_ the spikelets are placed with their backs against the rachis, in _lolium_ with one edge against it; but in a specimen of rye-grass that has come under my own observation, the arrangement was that of _triticum_. m. kirschleger relates having found a specimen of _leucanthemum pratense_, in which the ligulate female flowers were growing singly in the axils of the upper leaves of the stem.[ ] the ordinary capitulum would here seem to have been replaced by a spike or a raceme. a less degree of this change wherein a few flowers may be found, as it were, detached from the ordinary capitulum may often be observed in _compositæ_, _dipsacaceæ_, &c. i have also met with specimens of _lamium album_ in which some of the fascicles or clusters of flowers in place of being placed at the same level on opposite sides of the stem were placed alternately one above another. caspary[ ] mentions a flower of _aldrovanda vesiculosa_, which was elevated on a stalk that was adherent to the stem for a certain distance, and then separated from it. this flower, with the leaf to which it was axillary, evidently belonged to the whorl beneath, where there was a corresponding deficiency. another flower of the same plant bore on its pedicel a small leaf, which was doubtless the bract raised above its ordinary position. m. fournier mentions an instance in _pelargonium grandiflorum_, where, owing to the lengthening of the axis, the pedicels, instead of being umbellate, had become racemose; and i owe to the kindness of dr. sankey a somewhat similar specimen, but in a less perfect condition. here there was but a single flower, and that rudimentary, placed at the extremity of the axis. there were several bracts beneath this flower disposed spirally in the / arrangement, all being empty, excepting the terminal one. in like manner, a head of flowers becomes sometimes converted into an umbel. =displacement of leaves.=--a cohesion of parts will sometimes give rise to an apparent displacement, but the true nature of the malformation can, in general, be readily made out. steinheil[ ] found a specimen of _salvia verbenaca_, the leaves of which presented very curious examples of displacement arising from cohesion. two of these leaves placed at the base of a branch were completely fused in their lower thirds, and divided into two distinct lobes at the upper part; each of these lobes seemed to be as large as the limb of an ordinary leaf. above these was another very broad one, apparently entire, but evidently produced by a complete cohesion of two. this completely fused leaf alternated in position with the imperfectly fused one below it; the alternation is explained by supposing that the opposite leaves of each pair were directed one towards the other, and became fused, and that thus resulted the displacement. the dislocation of the organs took place in one direction for one pair of leaves, and in another direction for the other pair, hence the alternation. thus, leaves normally opposite and decussate may, by fusion, become alternate. a similar instance occurred to the writer in _lysimachia vulgaris_, wherein the changes arising from fusion and suppression of parts, &c., were very considerable; as far as the leaves were concerned they presented the following arrangement in succession from below upwards:--first verticillate, then opposite, then spirally alternate, lastly opposite.[ ] the term "diremption" has sometimes been applied to cases where leaves are thus apparently dragged out of position. in _tradescantia virginica_ i have met with opposite connate leaves; the altered position, however, being due to the union of two stems. [illustration: fig. .--large-coloured leaf occupying the position of the inflorescence in _gesnera_, after morren.] [illustration: fig. .--ordinary arrangement of leaves in fascicles of three in _pinus pinea_ and unusual arrangement of leaves of same plant in spires.] twisting of the stem is a frequent cause of the displacement of leaves (see spiral torsion), as also hypertrophy, whether that excess of development take place laterally or lengthwise (see elongation). atrophy or suppression will also frequently bring about an alteration in the position of leaves; sometimes in such a manner that the place of the suppressed organ is occupied by another one. one of the most curious instances of displacement of leaves arising from suppression is that mentioned by morren,[ ] where, in _gesnera geroltiana_, a large leaf apparently occupied the extremity of the axis, a position which, under ordinary circumstances, no leaf could assume. the explanation given by the belgian professor is, that the axis in this case, instead of throwing off a pair of leaves, one on each side, had from some cause or another produced only one; this one not only being much larger than ordinary, but brightly coloured, thus assuming some of the characteristics as well as the position of the inflorescence. alterations in the usual arrangement of leaves, however, are not always dependent on or coexistent with other teratological changes, but may simply depend on a natural elongation of the internodes, or on fission or multiplication; for instance, in some conifers, such as the larch, (_abies larix_) or _pinus pinea_, there may be found at different stages in the growth of the branches leaves in crowded fascicles or tufts; while, when growth is more rapid, the leaves may be disposed in a spiral or alternate manner. in the yew (_taxus_) the leaves at the ends of the shoots not unfrequently lose their usual distichous arrangement and become arranged in a close spiral manner, the elongation of the shoot being arrested. this appears to be the result of the injury effected by some insect. [illustration: fig. .--altered arrangement of leaves of yew, _taxus baccata_.] so, too, the alteration from verticillate to spiral, or _vice versâ_, may take place without any other notable change.[ ] this may frequently be seen in rhododendrons. =displacement of the parts of the flower.=--this subject is partly touched on in the chapters on solution, adhesion, and in those on hypertrophy, elongation, prolification, &c., so that in this place it is only requisite to offer a few general remarks, and to refer to other sections for further details. morren, in referring to displacement of the floral organs, mentions an instance in a _fuchsia_, wherein the four petals in place of being alternate with the sepals were placed in front of them, owing to the adhesion that had taken place between the petals and the stamens. he speaks of this transposition as metaphery.[ ] the same author also gives an account of the displacement of several of the organs of the flower in _cypripedium insigne_, the displacement being consequent, apparently, on a spiral torsion proceeding from right to left, and involving the complete or partial suppression of several of the organs of the flower. the dislocation of organs in a spiral direction led morren to apply the term "speiranthie" to similar deviations from the usual construction. changes of this kind among _orchidaceæ_ are by no means uncommon; the following may be cited by way of illustration. in a specimen of _oncidium cucullatum_ furnished me by mr. anderson, well known for his success as a cultivator of these plants, there was, associated with a cohesion of one sepal with another, and probably dependent on the same cause, a displacement of the sepals and petals--so that all were dragged out of place. this dislocation may be better appreciated by the accompanying formula than even by the woodcut. let the usual arrangement be thus represented: s p st p l s s s standing for sepal, p for petal, l for lip, st for stamen; then the dislocated form may be represented thus: s p p t s s_s l [illustration: fig. .--flower of _oncidium cucullatum_, showing union of two lower sepals, displacement of column and lip, &c.] in a specimen of _cypripedium_ also furnished by mr. anderson the appearance was as represented in the accompanying figure and diagrams, figs. , . referring to the plan of the natural arrangement at fig. , it will be seen that an explanation of the peculiar appearance of the flower may be arrived at by supposing a disunion and lateral displacement of the upper segment of the outer perianth together with the complete absence of the lower one. in the second or inner whorl of the perianth the lip is merely a little oblique on one side, but the lateral petals are distorted, displaced, and adherent one to the other and to the column, while the posterior shield-like rudimentary anther is completely wanting. [illustration: fig. .--malformed flower of _cypripedium_.] [illustration: fig. .--diagram of malformed _cypripedium_. _o_, outer segments; _i_, inner segments of perianth; _e_, lip; _s_, stigma; _a_, anther.] [illustration: fig. --- diagram showing ordinary arrangement in _cypripedium_. _o_, outer, _i_, inner segments of perianth; _e_, lip, _a_, anther, _a'_, abortive stamen; _s_, stigma.] [illustration: fig. .--plan of flower of _lycaste skinneri_ showing displacement of organs.] in a specimen of _lycaste skinneri_ similar changes were observed, as shown in the plan, fig. . here the posterior sepal was deficient, the two lateral ones were present, one of them with a long tubular spur, _o o_; of the two lateral petals, _i i_, one was twisted out of place, so as partially to occupy the place of the deficient sepal; the lip was represented by two three-lobed segments, _l_, one above and within the other. the column and ovary of this flower were in their normal condition. cohesion of two or more segments of the perianth is frequently associated with displacements of this nature: thus, in a flower of _dendrobium nobile_, a diagram of which is given at fig. , the uppermost sepal was coherent with one of the lateral ones, and at the same time diminished in size, and, as it were, dragged out of position. all the other organs of the flower are also more or less displaced, forming a minor degree of the change already alluded to, and which morren termed speiranthy. the changes will be better appreciated by comparing them with fig. , a diagram showing the natural arrangement of parts in this species. [illustration: fig. .--plan of malformed flower of _dendrobium nobile_.] [illustration: fig. .--plan of natural arrangement in _dendrobium nobile_. the x x represent processes of the column, perhaps rudiments of stamens.] sometimes the displacement seems consequent on hypertrophy of one of the parts of the flower, the disproportionate size of one organ pushing the others out of place. this was the case in a violet, fig. , in which one of the sepals _s_ was greatly thickened, and the petals and stamens were displaced in consequence. [illustration: fig. .--plan of flower of violet showing displacement of petals, &c. at _b_ was a rudiment of a stamen.] it is curious to observe in many of these cases that the transposed organ not only occupies the place of a suppressed or abortive organ, but frequently assumes its colour, and, to some extent, its function. this has been alluded to in the case of the leaf of _gesnera_ (see p. ) and in orchids this replacement seems to be very common; thus, in addition to the cases before mentioned, in a flower of an odontoglossum, for which i am indebted to professor oliver, the two lateral sepals were united together and occupied the position of the labellum, which was absent. a similar occurrence happens occasionally in _lycaste skinneri_, thus recalling the structure of _masdevallia_, where the labellum is normally very small. the arrangement in lycaste may thus be symbolised: s p st p + s s ___ [transcriber's note: the underscores represent a horizontal curly brace in the original.] the + indicating the position of the absent labellum. cases of this kind are the more interesting from their relation to the fertilization of these flowers by insects; it seems as though, when the labellum, which performs so important an office in attracting and guiding insects, is deficient, its place is supplied by other means. displacement of the parts of the flower from elongation of the receptacle is a not infrequent teratological occurrence, resulting sometimes in the conversion of the verticillate into the spiral arrangement. instances of this are cited under elongation, prolification, &c. in this place it is merely necessary to refer to a curious circumstance that is met with in some double flowers, owing to this separation of some parts of the flower and the cohesion or adhesion of others. thus, in some double flowers of _primula sinensis_ and in the pea (_pisum sativum_), i have seen a gradual passage of sepals to petals, so that the calyx and corolla formed one continuous sheet, winding spirally around the central axis of the flower, after the fashion of a spiral tube.[ ] =displacement of the carpels= arises from one or other of the causes above alluded to, and when suppression takes place in this whorl it generally happens that the place of the suppressed organ is occupied by one of the remaining ones, which thus becomes partially dislocated. =displacement of the placentas and ovules= is a necessary result of many of the changes to which the carpels are subject. the disjunction or dialysis of the carpels, for instance, frequently renders axile placentation marginal. moreover, it frequently happens, when the carpels become foliaceous and their margins are disconnected, that the ovules, in place of being placed on the suture, or rather on the margins of the altered carpel, are placed on the surface of the expanded carpel. thus, in some double flowers of _ranunculus ficaria_ that came under the writer's notice the carpels were open, _i.e._ disunited at the margins, and each bore two imperfect ovules upon its inner surface a little way above the base, and midway between the edges of the carpel and the midrib, the ovules being partly enclosed within a little depression or pouch, similar to the pit on the petals. on closer examination the ovules were found to spring from the two lateral divisions of the midrib, the vascular cords of which were prolonged under the form of barred or spiral fusiform tubes into the outer coating of the ovule. in this instance, then, the ovules did not originate from the margins of the leaf, nor from a prolonged axis, but they seemed to spring, in the guise of little buds, from the inner surface of the carpellary leaf.[ ] the occurrence, also, of different forms of placentation in different flowers on the same plant is no unusual thing in malformed flowers; thus, in double flowers of _saponaria officinalis_ i have met with sutural, parietal, and free central placentation in the same plant.[ ] professor babington describes in the 'gardeners' chronicle,' , p. , a curious flower of _cerastium_, in which, in addition to other changes, the five carpellary leaves "were partially turned in without touching the placenta, which bears a cluster of ovules, and is perfectly clear of all connection with those partitions" (fig. ). see also lindley, 'veg. kingdom,' p. . [illustration: fig. .-- . monstrous flower of a _cerastium_; sepals and petals leafy. . stamens and pistils separate. . ovary cut open to show the imperfect dissepiments and the attachment of the ovules. . a deformed ovule.] m. baillon[ ] records flowers of _bunias_, some with ovules on the margins of the carpels, others with a central branch bearing the ovules; hence he concludes very justly that no fair inference can be drawn from these facts as to the normal placentation of cruciferæ. the same excellent observer has recorded the occurrence of free central placentation in malformed flowers of _trifolium repens_.[ ] in malformed flowers of _digitalis_ the change from axile to parietal placentation may often be seen. mr. berkeley describes an instance of this nature where the placentas were strictly parietal, and therefore receded from the distinctive characters of the order, and approximated to those of _gesneraceæ_. the same author alludes to certain changes in the same flower where two open carpels "were soldered together laterally, as was clear by the rudiments of two styles, the placenta being produced only at the two united edges, the outer margins remaining in the normal condition. this may possibly tend to the explanation of some cases of anomalous placentation, for the only indication of the true nature of the placentation is afforded by the two rudimentary styles, in the absence of which the spongy receptacle of the seeds must have been supposed to spring from the medial nerve." in other cases the placentas were parietal above, but axile at the base of the capsule, a striking instance of the facility with which axile placentation becomes parietal, the change being here effected by the prolongation of the axis, and the formation on it of a second whorl of carpellary leaves. in double flowers of _primulaceæ_ similar alterations in the placentation may often be observed. i have seen in _primula sinensis_ sutural, parietal, axile, and free central placentation all on the same plant; nay, even in the same capsule the ovules may be attached in various ways, and transitions from one form of placentation to another are not infrequent. the late professor e. forbes describes[ ] an instance of true foliar and true axile placentation in the same flower in _vinca minor_. these and many similar changes, which it is not necessary further to allude to, are not so much to be wondered at when it is borne in mind how slight an alteration suffices to produce a change in the mode of placentation, and how frequent is the production of adventitious buds or of foliar outgrowths, as may be seen in the sections relating to those subjects and to substitutions. it will be remembered, also, how, in certain natural orders, under ordinary circumstances, considerable diversity in placentation exists, according as the margins of the carpels are merely valvate or are infolded so as to reach the centre. often this diversity is due merely to the changes that take place during growth; thus, the placentation of _caryophylleæ_, _cucurbitaceæ_, _papaveraceæ_, and many other orders, varies according to the age of the carpel, and if any stasis or arrest of development occurs the placentation becomes altered accordingly. it is not necessary, in this place, to enter into the question whether the placenta is, in all cases whatsoever, a dependence of the axis, as payer, schleiden, and others, have maintained, or whether it be foliar in some cases, axial in others. this question must be decided by the organogenists; teratologically, however, there can be no doubt that ovules may be formed from both foliar and axial organs, and, moreover, that, owing to the variability above referred to, both in what are called natural and in what are deemed abnormal conditions, it can rarely happen that any safe inferences as to the normal or typical placentation of any family of plants can be drawn from exceptional or monstrous formations. on the subject of placentation the following authors may be consulted: r. brown, 'ann. nat. hist.,' , vol. xi, . brongniart, 'ann. sc. nat.,' , sér. . i, p. . alph. de candolle, 'neue denkschrift der allg. schweizer gesellsch.,' band v. , p. . duchartre, 'ann. sc. nat.,' rd ser., , vol. ii, p. . ibid., 'elem. bot.,' p. ; 'rev. bot.,' - , p. . babington, 'gard. chron.,' , p. . lindley, 'elements,' p. ; 'veg. king.,' pp. , , &c. berkeley, 'gard. chron.,' , p. . unger, 'nov. act. acad. nat. cur.,' ; and in henfrey's, 'bot. gazette,' , p. . schleiden, 'principles,' english edit., p. . payer, 'elem. bot.,' pp. , , . baillon, 'adansonia.' iii, p. . tab. iv. cramer, 'bildungsabweichungen,' p. , &c. clos, 'ann. sc. nat.,' th ser., iii, , as well as any of the general treatises on botany. reference may also be made to the chapters on prolification and substitutions (in the case of the carpels and ovules), and to the authorities therein cited. footnotes: [ ] 'tijdschr. voor. nat. gesch.,' viii, . tab. ii, p. . [ ] communication to the internat. bot. congress, paris, . [ ] 'bot. zeit.,' , p. , tab. v. [ ] 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser. , vol. iv, , p. . tab. v. [ ] see kirschleger, 'flora.' . p. (_scabiosa_). [ ] 'bull. acad. belg.,' t. xvii. part ii, p. . [ ] 'clos. mem. acad. toulouse,' th ser., t. vi. pp. , . [ ] 'bull. acad. roy. belg.,' xviii. part ii, p. , and vol. xvii, part i, p. , and vol. xix. part i. p. . [ ] see also schlechtendal, 'bot. zeit.,' iv, p. . _primula veris, partibus perigonii spiræ in modum confluentibus._ [ ] seemann's 'journal of botany,' vol. v, , p. . [ ] 'journ. linn. soc.,' i, , p. . _c. xylog._ [ ] 'adansonia,' ii, . [ ] 'adansonia,' iv, p. , t. i. [ ] henfrey's 'bot. gazette,' i, . chapter ii. prolification. moquin-tandon and other writers have classed the production of buds in unwonted situations under the head of multiplication, but, as the altered arrangement is of graver import than the mere increase in number, it seems preferable to place these cases under this heading rather than under that of alterations of number. the adventitious bud may be a leaf-bud or a flower-bud; it may occupy the centre of a flower, thus terminating the axis, or it may be axillary to some or other of its component parts, or, again, it may be extra-floral. in this last case the prolification is of the inflorescence, and is hardly distinguishable from multiplication or subdivision of the common flower-stalk. in accordance with these differences we have median, axillary, and extra-floral prolification, each admitting of subdivision into a leafy or a floral variety, according to the nature of the adventitious bud. under the head of each variety certain special peculiarities are noticed, but it may here be advisable to add a few general remarks on the subject. axillary prolification is a much less frequent malformation than the median form. if only the number of orders and genera be reckoned, the truth of this statement will be scarcely recognised; but if individual cases could be estimated, the difference in frequency between the two would be very much more obvious. this may, perhaps, be explained by the fact that the branch has a greater tendency to grow in length than it has to develop buds from the axils of the leaves. the flower is admitted to be homologous with the branch, and it is also known that, up to a certain time, the branch-bud or leaf-bud and the flower-bud do not essentially differ.[ ] at a later stage the difference between the two is manifested, not only in the altered form of the lateral organs in the flower-bud, but in the tendency to an arrest of growth, thus limiting the length of the central axial portion. now, in prolified flowers the functions and, to a considerable extent, the appearance of a leaf-bud or of a branch are assumed, and with them the tendency to grow in length is developed. median prolification, therefore, in this sense, is a further step in retrograde metamorphosis than is the axillary form. to grow in length, and to produce axillary buds, are alike attributes of the branch; but the former is much more frequently called into play than the latter; for the same reason, median prolification is more common than the axillary form. this is borne out by the frequency with which apostasis, or the separation of the floral whorls one from another, to a greater degree than usual, is met with in prolified flowers. in both forms the adventitious growth is much more frequently a flower-bud or an inflorescence than a leaf-bud or a branch. this may be due to the position of the flowers on a portion of the stem of the plant especially devoted to the formation of flower-buds, to the more or less complete exclusion of leaf-buds, _i.e._ on the inflorescence. this conjecture is borne out by the comparative rarity with which prolification has been observed in flowers that are solitary in the axils of the ordinary leaves of the plant. if the lists of genera appended hereto be perused, it will be seen that nearly all the cases occur in genera where the inflorescence is distinctly separated from the other branches of the stem. in direct proportion, then, to the degree in which one region of the axis or certain branches of a plant are devoted to the formation of flower-buds to the exclusion of leaf-buds, is the frequency with which those flowers become affected with floral prolification. flowers produced upon indefinite inflorescences are liable to be affected with either form of prolification more frequently than those borne upon definite inflorescences. prolification in both varieties is also more frequently met with in branched inflorescences than in those in which the flowers are sessile; but the degree of branching seems less material, inasmuch as this malformation is more commonly recorded as occurring in racemes than in the more branched panicles, &c. from the similar arrest of growth in length, in the case of the flower, to that which occurs in the stem in the case of definite inflorescence, it might have been expected that axillary prolification would be more frequent in plants having a cymose arrangement of their flowers than in those whose inflorescence is indefinite; such, however, is not the case. the reason for this may be sought for in the lengthening of the floral axis, so common in prolified flowers--a condition the reverse of that which happens in the case of definite inflorescence. median prolification occurs frequently in double flowers; the axillary variety, on the other hand, is most common in flowers whose lateral organs have assumed more or less of the condition of leaves. the other coincident changes are alluded to elsewhere or do not present useful points of comparison, and may therefore be passed over. =prolification of the inflorescence.=--this consists in the formation of leaf-buds or of an undue number of flower-buds on the inflorescence. it must be distinguished from virescence, or the mere green colour of the floral organs, and from chloranthy, in which all or the greater portion of the parts of the flower are replaced by leaves. prolification is, in fact, a formation of supernumerary buds, leafy or floral, as the case may be, these buds being sessile or stalked, the ordinary buds being not necessarily changed. prolification of the inflorescence, like the other varieties, admits of subdivision, not only according to the foliar or floral nature of the bud, but according to its position, terminal or median and lateral. terminal prolification of the inflorescence, whether leafy or floral, is hardly to be looked upon in the light of a malformation[ ] seeing that a similar condition is so commonly met with normally, as in _epacris_, _metrosideros_, _bromelia_, _eucomis_, &c., wherein the leafy axis projects beyond the inflorescence proper; or as in _primula imperialis_, in which plant, as also in luxuriant forms of _p. sinensis_, tier after tier of flowers are placed in succession above the primary umbel. nevertheless, when we meet with such conditions in plants which, under ordinary circumstances, do not manifest them, we must consider them as coming under the domain of teratology. =median foliar prolification of the inflorescence= is frequently met with in _coniferæ_, and has of late attracted unwonted attention from the researches of caspary, baillon, and others, on the morphology of these plants. the scales and bracts of the cone in these abnormal specimens frequently afford transitional forms of the greatest value in enabling morphologists to comprehend the real nature of the floral structure. it would be irrelevant here to enter into this subject; suffice it merely to say that an examination of very numerous specimens of this kind, in the common larch and in _cryptomeria japonica_, has enabled me to verify nearly the whole of caspary's observations. a similar prolongation of the axis occurred in some of the male catkins of _castanea vesca_, each of which had a tuft of small leaves at their extremity. in the common marigold and in _lotus corniculatus_ i have also seen instances of this kind. kirschleger[ ] describes a tuft of leaves as occurring on the apex of the flowering spike after the maturation of the fruit in _plantago_, and a similar growth frequently takes place in the common wallflower, in _antirrhinum majus_, &c. in cases where a renewal of growth in the axis of inflorescence has taken place after the ripening of the fruit, the french botanists use the term recrudescence, but the growth in question by no means always occurs after the ripening of the fruit, but frequently before. professor braun cites the case of a specimen of _plantago lanceolata_, in which the spike was surmounted by a tuft of leaves and roots, as well as a still more singular instance in _eryngium viviparum_, in which not only did particular branches terminate in rosettes of leaves provided with roots, but similar growths proceeded from the heads of flowers themselves. baron de mélicoq[ ] gives a case in _primula variabilis_, in which at the top of the flower-stalk, in the centre of six flowers, was placed a complete plant in miniature, having three leaves, from the axil of one of which proceeded a rudimentary flower. mr. w. b. jeffries also forwarded me a polyanthus (fig. ) in which the peduncle was surmounted by a small plant, forming a crown above the ordinary flower-stalk, just as the crown of the pineapple surmounts that fruit. a similar instance was exhibited at the scientific committee of the horticultural society on july th, , by mr. wilson saunders; the species in this case was _p. cortusoides_. to mr. r. dean i am indebted for a similar proliferous cyclamen, which seems similar to one mentioned by schlechtendal.[ ] this author alludes to an analogous circumstance in the inflorescence of _cytisus nigricans_, where, however, the change was not so great as in the preceding cases. the instances just cited all occur in plants having an indefinite form of inflorescence; but the production of a tuft of leaves or of a leafy shoot above or beyond the inflorescence is not confined to plants with this habit of growth, for jacquin figures and describes an instance of this nature in the cymose flower-stems of a sempervivum. "_hi racemi_," says he, "_ultra flores producuntur in ramos, foliosos duo bifidos qui tandem trium unciarum longitudinem adepti fuerunt_."[ ] [illustration: fig. .--inflorescence of _polyanthus_, bearing a tuft of leaves at the top of the scape intermixed with the flowers.] =median floral prolification of the inflorescence=, wherein a new inflorescence projects beyond the primary one, is not uncommon in plants having their flowers arranged in close heads or umbels, as in the common wild celery and other _umbelliferæ_.[ ] i have also met with it in _trifolium repens_, in the umbellate variety of the common primrose, and in the scarlet geranium. engelmann cites it in _triticum repens_, roëper in _euphorbia palustris_.[ ] =lateral foliar prolification of the inflorescence= is of more common occurrence than the preceding. i have met with it, amongst other plants, frequently in _brassica oleracea_, _pelargonium zonale_, scabiosa, bellis, and many other composites, also in _leguminosæ_, e.g. _lupinus_, _trifolium_, _coronilla_, &c. prof. oliver forwarded me a specimen of _euphorbia geniculata_ in which, in addition to other changes, there was a series of stalked buds bearing tufts of green scales, but without any trace of stamens or pistil; these adventitious buds occurred within the ordinary involucre of the plant, between it and the stamens. the pistil was unaffected in some cases, while in some others it was entirely wanting, the gynophore being surmounted by a cup-like involucre, divided into three acutely pointed lobes, each with a midrib; these encircled a series of stalked involucels, as before, and among which were scattered a few stamens, some perfect, others partially frondescent. in a specimen of _scrophularia nodosa_ examined by me one of the lateral buds on each of the cymes was represented, not by a flower, but by a tuft of leaves, the other buds being unchanged. as the inflorescence was much contracted in size, the appearance of the whole plant was greatly changed. many of the instances of so-called viviparous plants, _e.g._, _polygonum viviparum_, may be cited under this head.[ ] many species of _allium_, _lilium_, _saxifraga_, _begonia_, _achimenes_, normally produce leaf-buds or bulbs in the inflorescence; so, too, leafy shoots are sometimes found in _alisma natans_, _juncus uliginosus_, _chlorophytum sternbergianum_, &c. as an accidental occurrence, a similar thing has been noticed in _lychnis coronaria_, _phaius grandifolius_, _oncidium cebolleta_, _epidendrum elongatum_,[ ] &c. &c. here, too, may be mentioned those cases wherein a leaf-bud is found upon the surface of the so-called inferior ovary; generally a leaf only is found, but a leaf-bud may also originate in this situation, and in either case the inference is that the ovary is, in part at least, made of the dilated and hollowed axis. leaves may occasionally be found in this way on the so-called calyx-tube or on the inferior ovaries of roses, pears, apples, _pereskia_, _cratægus tanacetifolia_, &c. the fruits of _opuntia salmania_ and of _o. fragilis_ ('bull. soc. bot. france,' vol. i, p. ; vol. v, p. ) have been observed to form small fruit-like branches around their summits. this circumstance is more fully treated of in the succeeding chapter relating to heterotaxy. =lateral floral prolification of the inflorescence.=--this, which is termed by engelmann ecblastesis foliorum sub floralium,[ ] is much the most common of all these deviations, and it is met with in every degree, from the presence of a single supernumerary flower in the axil of a bract to the existence of a small cluster or panicle of such flowers. [illustration: fig. .--lateral prolification in inflorescence of _pelargonium_.] it is common in the _anemone coronaria_ and _hortensis_, also in the common scarlet _pelargonium_ (fig. ). it has been frequently recorded in _poterium sanguisorba_, and in _sanguisorba officinalis_, and is especially common in _umbelliferæ_, _dipsacaceæ_, and _compositæ_; a familiar illustration in the latter order is afforded by the hen-and-chicken daisy. in some species of compositæ, indeed, it is a normal and constant occurrence, while in other cases, such as _filago germanica_, usually described as proliferous, there is not, strictly speaking, any prolification, for the branching of the stalk takes place below the inflorescence, and the branches originate from the axils of ordinary leaves, not from the floral leaves or bracts. _convolvulus sepium_ is very commonly subject to the production of flower-buds from the axils of the floral leaves. the several species of plantain (_plantago_) seem very liable to this and similar changes. schlechtendal[ ] gives a summary of the various kinds of malformation affecting the inflorescence in _plantago_, and divides them into five groups, as follows:-- st, bracteate, wherein the inferior bracts are quite leaf-like, as is frequently seen in _plantago major_. nd, roseate; bracts leafy in tufts or rosettes, without flowers, as in the so-called rose plantain, common in old-fashioned gardens in this country. rd, polystachyate; spike-branched, bearing other spikes in the axils of the bracts, as in _p. lanceolata_, _p. maritima_, &c. th, proliferous, where the flower-stalk bears a rosette, a spike, or a head with other rosettes. th, paniculate, in which the inflorescence has become a much-branched pyramidal panicle, covered with little bracts, and with very rudimentary flowers.[ ] the first two groups belong rather to frondescence of the bracts; but with regard to the whole of them it will easily be surmised that intermediate forms occur, linking one group to the other, and defying exact allocation in either. thus, in the borders of richly cultivated fields in the neighbourhood of london i have frequently gathered specimens of _plantago major_ with a branched spike provided with large leafy bracts, the branches of the spike being but little less in diameter than the ordinary single spike. these specimens would therefore seem to be intermediate between schlechtendal's bracteate and polystachyate divisions. wigand[ ] also describes an anomalous specimen of _plantago major_ similar to those just mentioned, but having small lateral spikes in place of large ones. the instance quoted from professor braun would fall under the roseate section, as would also that of kirschleger, though we are expressly told that the tuft of leaves in this last case was not developed until after the ripening of the seed-vessel. one of the characters of the roseate group, according to schlechtendal, is the absence of flowers, but most persons who have had the opportunity of watching the growth of the rose plantain must have observed the occasional production of flowers, sometimes stalked, in the axils of the leafy bracts, and at the same time have noticed that the internodes become elongated, so that an approach is made to the ordinary spike-like form of the inflorescence. the proliferous group would include such specimens as that of _p. lanceolata_ mentioned by dr. johnston,[ ] wherein were several spikes, some sessile, others stalked and pendent, the whole intermixed with leaves and disposed in a rose-like manner. i have myself gathered specimens of this nature, occurring in the same plant, at shanklin, isle of wight (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--_plantago major_, with panicled inflorescence.] [illustration: fig. .--inflorescence of _plantago major_, with bracts partly replaced by leaves and spike branched.] [illustration: fig. .--inflorescence of _plantago lanceolata_, bearing a tuft of leaves and flowers at the end of the flower-scape.] it is rather singular that each species of _plantago_ seems to have its own perverse mode of growth; for instance, the bracteate, polystachyate and paniculate forms are almost exclusively confined to _p. major_, the roseate form to _p. media_, the proliferous form to _p. lanceolata_. the instances wherein flower-buds originate from the surface of an inferior ovary, as in those cases where the top of the stem is dilated so as to form part of the fruit, would be properly classed under the head of prolification of the inflorescence. as, however, there is still some difference of opinion as to the correct morphological interpretation to be put on some of these cases, it has been thought better to include them under the head of heterotaxy than of prolification. [illustration: fig. .--branched inflorescence of _reseda luteola_.] some of the cases of prolification of the inflorescence resulting in a branching of an ordinarily simple inflorescence, as in _reseda luteola_ (fig. ), might equally well be placed with fission or multiplication of the axile organs. branched spikes of this character are not so common among orchids as might be expected. professor reichenbach enumerates a few instances in the report of the international botanical congress of london, , p. , and the same author gives an illustration in his 'orchidographia europoea,' tab. . in grasses, as indeed in other plants with a spicate inflorescence, this change occurs not unfrequently. the common ray grass (_lolium_) is especially subject to the change in question, and among cultivated cereals, maize and wheat occasionally show this tendency to subdivision. one variety of the latter grain is cultivated in hot countries under the name of egyptian wheat--_triticum vulgare_, var. _compositum_. prolification of the inflorescence has been most frequently observed in the following genera: _leafy_. _floral_. ranunculaceæ ranunculus. ranunculus! anemone. anemone. cruciferæ. *brassica! caryophyllaceæ. lychnis! dianthus! geraniaceæ. *pelargonium! *pelargonium! leguminosæ. *trifolium! trifolium! lotus! lotus! coronilla! cytisus. cytisus. rosaceæ. poterium. *pyrus! *pyrus! *cratægus! cratægus! *rosa. rosa! sanguisorba. philadelphaceæ. philadelphus. crassulaceæ. sempervivum. echeveria. crassula. ficoideæ. ?tetragonia. cactaceæ. opuntia. opuntia. pereskia. saxifragaceæ. saxifraga! umbelliferæ. seseli. *apium! cnidium. chærophyllum. eryngium. eryngium. silaus. heracleum! heracleum! hydrocotyle. hydrocotyle. daucus. carum. selinum. angelica! conium. astrantia. oenanthe. oenanthe. begoniaceæ. begonia! valerianaceæ. valeriana. dipsacaceæ. *scabiosa! *scabiosa! knautia! knautia! compositæ. *bellis! centaurea. calendula. calendula. anthemis. coreopsis. apargia. lampsana. carlina. arnoseris. tragopogon! tragopogon! rudbeckia! senecio! carlina. bidens! pyrethrum. filago. hedypnois. cirsium. lactuca. campanulaceæ. prismatocarpus. lobeliaceæ. jasione. ericaceæ. azalea! convolvulaceæ. convolvulus! convolvulus! calystegia! scrophulariaceæ. scrophularia! antirrhinum! gesneraceæ. achimenes! primulaceæ. primula! primula! cyclamen! cyclamen! plumbaginaceæ. armeria. plantaginaceæ. *plantago! *plantago! polygonaceæ. polygonum! euphorbiaceæ. euphorbia! urticaceæ. ficus. amentaceæ. corylus! castanea! castanea. coniferæ. *larix! *cryptomeria! taxodium! pinus. orchidaceæ. phaius! ophrys! epidendrum! oncidium! liliaceæ. *allium! *ornithogalum! *lilium! amaryllidaceæ. fourcroya alismaceæ. alisma! palmaceæ. cocos. juncaceæ. *juncus! restiaceæ. restio! restio! elegia! elegia! willdenovia! willdenovia! cyperaceæ. carex. graminaceæ. dactylis. *lolium! festuca. *zea! *triticum! *hordeum! secale. phleum. in addition to the papers already cited the following works may be consulted with reference to prolification of the inflorescence: moquin-tandon. 'el. ter. veg.,' p. . engelmann, 'de antholysi,' §§ - . fleischer, 'missbild. versch. cultur. pflanz.' for figures of hen and chicken daisy (_bellis prolifera_). see lobel, 'ic.,' . sweert, 'florileg.,' pl. , f. . 'hort. eystett. plant. vern.,' fol. iv, f. i. &c. for similar malformations in marigold (_calendula_), see lobel, 'ic.,' . 'act. acad. nat. cur.,' vol. x, p. . jaeger, 'missbilld.,' - . 'hort. eystett.,' pl. æstiv. fol. iii, f. i. klinsmann, 'linnæa,' t. x, p. . for monstrous plantains, in addition to previous citations, see camerarius, 'epist.,' p. , _p. rosea_. matthioli, 'krauterb,' . lobel, 'stirp. advers. nov.,' p. , _p. major paniculata._ j. bauhin, 'hist. plant.,' i, p. _b_. ibid., p. , _a_, _c_, _p. major rosea_, _bracteata paniculata_, _prolifera_, &c. 'hort. eystett.,' pl. æstiv., t. vii, f. , _p. rosea_ et _p. bracteata_. lobel, 'stirp. hist.,' p. . dodonæus, 'pempt.,' - , cap. xxiii, p. major spica multiplex, _i.e._ paniculata. gerard, 'herbal.' clusius, 'plant. rar. hist.,' lib. v, p. - , _plantago augustifolia gareti prolifera_. marchand, 'adansonia,' iv, p. . _coniferæ._--richard, 'mem. conif.,' tab. xiii, f. . a. braun, 'das individ.,' , p. . de cand., 'organogr.,' tab. xxxvi. wigand, 'bot. untersuch.,' . schlechtendal, 'bot. zeit.,' , p. . caspary, 'de abiet. flor. fem. struct. morphol.' parlatore, 'ann. sc. nat.,' , vol. xvi, p. . cramer, 'bildungsabweich.,' p. , &c., &c. _gramineæ._--bauhin, 'pinax.,' . morison, 'hist. plant.,' t. i. winckler, 'ephem. nat. cur.,' dec. i, ann. , , p. . irmisch, 'flora,' , p. , &c. see also under chloranthy, viviparous plants, &c. =prolification of the flower.=--in the preceding sections the formation of adventitious buds of a leafy or floral nature on the inflorescence has been considered. a similar production of buds may take place in the flower itself, either from its centre or from the axil of some of its constituent parts. prolification of the flower is therefore median or axillary, and the adventitious bud itself may be of a leafy or a floral nature. =median leafy prolification.=--in this malformation the centre of the flower is occupied by a bud or a branch; the growing point or termination of the axis which ordinarily ceases to grow after the formation of the carpels, takes on new growth. this is well shown in the accompanying illustration (fig. ), representing the thalamus of a strawberry prolonged beyond the fruits into a small leaf-bearing branch. [illustration: fig. .--receptacle of strawberry prolonged into a leafy branch. from the 'american agriculturist.'] [illustration: fig. .--flower of _verbascum_ with five disunited sepals, five similar green petals, and a prolonged branch in the centre of the flower.] in other cases the carpels are entirely absent and their place is supplied by a leafy shoot as in a species of _verbascum_, which came under my own observation. in this case the petals were virescent, and the stamens and pistils were entirely absent, hence in truth, the so-called flower more nearly resembled a branch. in a flower of a may duke cherry, for which i am indebted to mr. salter, there was a gradual change from the floral to the foliar condition; thus there were five distinct lanceolate sepals, the arrangement of whose veins betokened that they were leaf-sheaths rather than perfect leaves, ten petals partly foliaceous and sheath-like as to their venation, one of them funnel-shaped, but whether from dilatation or cohesion of the margins could not be determined. the stamens were eight or ten in number, their connectives prolonged into foliaceous or petaloid appendages, so that the filament represented the stalk of the leaf. the pistil was entirely absent and its place was supplied by a branch with numerous perfectly formed stipulate leaves. some flowers of _anagallis arvensis_ described by dr. marchand[ ] are so interesting and show so well the gradual stages by which this malformation is arrived at, that it is desirable to cite the summary of dr. marchand's researches as given in the 'gardeners' chronicle' by mr. berkeley, taking that instance first in which the parts of the flower departed least from the normal condition, and then the others in their proper order. in all the parts there was a greater or less tendency to assume a green tint; in some they were entirely green, in others the brighter colours were confined to the more recently developed parts. " . in the first case then, the sepals and petals were in their normal position, though rather more dilated than usual; the anthers were fertile, the principal change existing in the ovary, the upper part of which was wanting, so that the ovules were exposed seated on the central placenta. . in the next step the calyx, more developed than usual, was separated from the corolla by a long peduncle, and the ovary, which was ovate, contained instead of a placenta a sort of plumule or young shoot. . in this case the corolla and calyx were distant from each other; there was no trace of stamens, but the axis was continued from the centre of the corolla, and ended in a leaf-bud. . the calyx and corolla nearly as before, but instead of stamens a whorl of little leaves was developed, in the centre of which the axis was continued, bearing at its tip two whorls of leaflets, alternately three and three. . in this case two out of the five stamens were normal, the other three changed into leaves, showing clearly the origin of the leaflets, in the last case, which took the place of the stamens. . the ovary varied in different flowers. in some the placenta was crowned with ovules; in others the ovules were replaced by a single whorl of leaflets; in others there was every shade of change from ordinary ovules to perfect leaflets; while in others, again, every ovule was converted into a leaf with a long petiole. . in these flowers shoots were developed in the axils of the sepals, or on the face of the petals between the point of their insertion and that of the stamens, and, what is most curious, in the interior of the ovaries round the foot of the placenta. . here, again, a very singular condition presented itself: the calyx and corolla separated from each other, the stamens partly developed, the axis continued beyond the corolla, branched and bearing normal leaves so as exactly to resemble an ordinary stem, while in consequence of the calyx and corolla being bent down to the ground, adventitious roots were developed from the axis on the under side above each of them. in another case, where the calyx and corolla were approximated, the ovary was open above, and sent out six shoots from within, perfectly developed, clearly representing the central placenta and five axile buds, and each giving out a number of adventitious roots at its base." in other genera of the same order (_primulaceæ_) an extension of the placenta into a leafy branch has been observed, as in _lysimachia_, where in one case the prolonged placenta was removed and struck as a cutting.[ ] in _ericaceæ_ too, the axile placenta has been seen ovuliferous at the base and prolonged above into a leafy branch.[ ] =median floral prolification.=--this is of more frequent occurrence than the preceding. the prolonged axis is more frequently terminated by a flower-bud than by a leaf-bud, though it must be remarked, that the lengthened and protruded stem frequently bears leaves upon its sides, even if it terminate in a flower, and thus the new growth partakes of a mixed leafy and floral nature. instances of this kind have long been familiar to observers, and have always excited attention from the singularity of their appearance. in one of the old stained-glass windows, apparently of dutch manufacture, in the bodleian picture gallery at oxford, is a representation of a _ranunculus_ affected with median floral prolification.[ ] in pinks the affection is not unfrequently met with. fig. shows an instance of the kind copied from schotterbec. a singular instance of prolification in the central flower of one of the verticillasters of _phlomis fruticosa_ fell under my own notice; it was a case wherein the calyx was torn on one side, and one of its lobes had become petaloid. between the calyx and the corolla were three or four spathulate, hairy, bract-like organs; the corolla and stamens were unchanged; but in place of the usual four-lobed ovary there was a single carpel with a basilar style, terminated by a forked stigma. occupying the place of the other lobes of the pistil was an oblong woolly flower-bud, consisting of calyx, corolla, and stamens, but with no trace of pistil. i have been unable to find recorded any instance of malformation among labiates or borages at all similar to this. it differed from most other examples of prolification in that the axis was not prolonged, the adventitious bud occupying precisely the position of the three lobes of the ovary that were absent. the sole remaining carpel had a style and a stigma as perfect in appearance as though the pistil had been complete. [illustration: fig. .--flower of _dianthus_ affected with median floral prolification.] in a flower of _conostephium_ (_epacridaceæ_) forwarded to me by mr. bentham, there was a similar adventitious bud placed by the side of the pistil, but as the latter contained the usual number of cells it is probable that the supernumerary bud in this case originated rather from the side than the end of the axis. certain families of plants present this deviation from their ordinary structure with greater frequency than others: the following orders seem to be the most frequently affected by it: _ranunculaceæ_, _caryophyllaceæ_, _rosaceæ_; while it is commonly met with in _scrophulariaceæ_, _primulaceæ_ and _umbelliferæ_. of genera which seem peculiarly liable to it may be mentioned the following: _anemone_, _ranunculus_, _cheiranthus_, _dianthus_, _dictamnus_, _daucus_, _rosa_, _geum_, _pyrus_, _trifolium_, _antirrhinum_, _digitalis_, _primula_. a reference to the subjoined list of genera affected by this malformation, and the knowledge of its comparatively greater frequency in some than in others of them, will show that it is more often met with in plants having an indefinite form of inflorescence than in those having a definite one. the change may affect some only, or the whole of the flowers constituting an inflorescence; and though it is by no means a constant occurrence, it very frequently happens that the central or terminal flower in a definite inflorescence is alone affected, the others remaining in their ordinary condition, as in pinks (_dianthus_); and in the indefinite forms of inflorescence, it is equally common that the uppermost flower or flowers are the most liable to be thus affected. in those plants which present this deviation from the ordinary condition with the greatest frequency, it often happens that the axis is normally more or less prolonged, either between the various whorls of the flower, as in the case of the gynophore, &c., or into the cavity of the carpels, as in the instances of free central placentation. to bear out this assertion, the following instances taken from those genera having definite inflorescence, and which are very commonly affected with prolification, may be cited; thus, in _anemone_ and _ranunculus_ the thalamus is prolonged to bear the numerous carpels; in _dianthus_ there is a marked internode separating the carpels from the other parts of the flower; in _primulaceæ_ central prolification is very common, and this is one of the orders where the placenta seems from the researches of duchartre and others, to be truly a production of the axis within the carpels;[ ] in _thesium_ also, another genus with free central placenta, this malformation has been found. so also among plants with indefinite inflorescence, prolification seems very frequently to affect those wherein the axis is normally prolonged; thus it is common in _dictamnus_, which plant has an internode supporting the pistil; it is frequent among _umbelliferæ_, where the carpophore may be truly considered an axile production; it is common among _rosaceæ_ and _ranunculaceæ_, in many of which the axis or thalamus is well-marked, and it is by no means infrequent in the flowers of the orange, where the floral internodes are also slightly elongated; on the other hand, there is no case on record in _magnoliaceæ_, and some other orders where the floral part of the axis is at some point or other elongated; still, on the whole, there can be but little doubt that there is a real relation between prolification and the normal extension of the floral internodes. under these circumstances, those instances wherein the parts of the flower become separated one from the other by the elongation of the internodes (apostatis), constitute a lesser degree of the same change, which operates most completely in the formation of a new bud at the extremity of the prolonged axis. some specimens of _geum rivale_ (a plant very liable to become prolified) in my possession show this very clearly. in the wild plant the thalamus is elevated on a short stalk; in the abnormal ones the thalamus is simply upon a longer stalk than usual, or in a more advanced stage of the deviation the lengthened thalamus takes the form of a branch provided with leaves and terminated by a flower; it is noticeable, also, in these specimens, that the sepals of the lower flower have assumed entirely the dimensions and appearance of leaves. median prolification has occasionally been recorded in flowers that have, in their ordinary condition, but one carpel, as in _leguminosæ_ and in _santalaceæ_. in _leguminosæ_, as also in _amygdalus_, it would seem as if the adventitious bud were strictly a lateral and axillary production, and moreover that the carpel itself is not strictly terminal but lateral in position, though apparently terminal from the abortion of other carpels. in the only recorded instance that i am aware of, of this malformation affecting the genus _thesium_, the pistil was altogether absent, and occupying its place was the new bud or branch.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--_daucus carota_, showing leafly carpels, prolification, &c.] as the carpels are not unfrequently absent in cases of median prolification, it has been thought that the pistil in such cases was metamorphosed into a stem bearing leaves or flowers. setting aside the physiological difficulties in the way of accepting such an opinion, an examination of any number of cases is sufficient to refute it; for, as moquin well remarks, the carpels may frequently be found either in an unaltered condition or more or less modified. if the pistil be normally syncarpous, its constituent carpels, if present at all in the prolified flower, become disjoined one from the other to allow of the passage between them of the prolonged axis; thus in some malformed flowers of _daucus carota_ gathered in switzerland (fig. ), not only was the calyx partially detached from the pistil, but the carpels themselves were leaf-like, disjoined, and unprovided with ovules; between them rose a central prolongation of the axis, which almost immediately divided into two branches, each terminated by a small umbel of perfect flowers, surrounded by minute bracts.[ ] not only are the carpels thus frequently separated one from the other by the prolonged axis, but they undergo commonly a still further change in becoming more or less completely foliaceous, as in the _daucus_ just mentioned, where the carpels were prolonged into two lance-shaped leaves, whose margins in some cases were slightly incurved at the apex, forcibly calling to mind the long "beaks" that some umbelliferous genera have terminating their fruits--for instance, _scandix_. dr. norman, in the fourth series of the 'annales des sciences,' vol. ix, has described a prolification of the flower of _anchusa ochroleuca_, in which the pistil consisted of two leaves, situated antero-posteriorly on a long internode, with a small terminal flower-bud between them; and numerous similar instances might be cited. in this place may also be noticed those instances wherein the placenta elongates so much that the pericarp becomes ruptured to allow of the protrusion of the placenta, although this prolongation is not attended by the formation of new buds. cases of this kind occurring in _melastoma_ and _solanum_ have been put on record by m. alph. de candolle.[ ] this is a change analogous with that which occurs in some species of _leontice_ or _caulophyllum_, as commented on by robert brown. see 'miscellaneous botanical works' of this author, ray society, vol. i, p. . if the pistil be apocarpous, and the carpels arranged spirally on an elevated thalamus, it then frequently happens that the carpels, especially the upper ones, become carried up with the prolonged axis, more widely separated one from the other than below, and particularly liable to undergo various petalloid or foliaceous changes as in proliferous _roses_, _potentilla_, &c. [illustration: fig. .--median floral prolification, &c., in flower of _delphinium_.] fig. , copied from cramer, shows an instance of this kind in _delphinium elatum_, where not only is the thalamus prolonged, and the carpels separated, but from the axils of some of the latter which have assumed from the disunion of their margins somewhat of the appearance of leaves, other flowering branches proceed--axillary prolification. if, on the other hand, the carpels be few in number, and placed in a verticillate manner, the axis then generally passes upwards without any change in the form or position of the carpels being apparent, as in a proliferous columbine, figured in the 'linnean transactions,' vol. xxiii, tab. , fig. . when a flower with the ovary naturally inferior or adherent to the calyx becomes prolified, a change in the relative position of the calyx and ovary almost necessarily takes place, the latter becoming superior or detached from the calyx; this has been already alluded to in _umbelliferæ_. in a species of _campanula_ examined by me, the calyx was free, the corolla double, the stamens with petaloid filaments, and in the place of the pistil there was a bud consisting of several series of green bracts, arranged in threes, and enclosing quite in the centre three carpellary leaves detached from one another and the other parts of the flower, and open along their margins, where the ovules were placed. in other similar instances in the same species of _campanula_, the styles were present, forming below an imperfect tube which surrounded the adventitious bud; in another, contrary to what occurs usually in such cases, the ovary was present in its usual position, but surmounted by a bud of leafy scales, enclosed within the base of a tube formed by the union of the styles. a similar relative change in the position of the calyx and the ovary takes place when the _compositæ_ are affected with central prolification, or even in that lesser degree of change which merely consists in the separation and disunion of the parts of the flower, but which in these flowers appear to be, as it were, the first stage towards prolification. i owe to the kindness of professor oliver a sketch of a species of _rudbeckia_? showing this detachment of the calyx from the ovary. in a monstrous _fuchsia_ that i have had the opportunity of recently examining, the calyx was similarly detached from the ovary simultaneously with the extension of the axis. here the petals were increased in number and variously modified, the stamens also; while in the centre and at the top of the flower, conjoined at the base with some imperfect stamens, was a carpel open along its ovuliferous margins. such instances as these seem to be the first stages of a change which, carried out more perfectly, would result in the formation of a new bud on the extremity of the prolonged axis. in _orchidaceæ_, among which family i have now met with several instances of prolification, the ovary seems usually to be absent. fig. shows a prolified flower of _orchis pyramidalis_ in which the perianth was nearly regular, the central portions of the flower absent, and their place supplied by a new miniature raceme. this specimen was forwarded to me by dr. moore, of glasnevin. [illustration: fig. .--median prolification in _orchis pyramidalis_, the outer segments of the perianth regular and reflexed.] as might be expected, it very rarely happens that median prolification occurs without some other deviation in one or more parts of the flower being simultaneously manifested. some of these changes have been already mentioned, but others are commonly met with, as, for instance, the multiplication or doubling, as it is termed, of the petals; others, though less frequent, are of more interest. fusion of two or more flowers in association with prolification is especially common in cultivated specimens of _digitalis purpurea_; the uppermost flowers of the raceme become fused together so as to form one large, regular, erect, cup-shaped corolla, to the tube of which the stamens are attached, in greater number than ordinary, and all of equal length; the bracts and sepals are confusedly arranged on the exterior of the flower; while in the centre, in the place usually occupied by the pistil, there rises a conical prolongation of the axis, bearing at its outer or lower portion a number of open carpels, provided, it may be, with styles and ovules; these enclose an inner series of scale-like bracts, from whose axils proceed more or less perfect florets; so that in the most highly developed stage a perfect raceme of flowers may be seen to spring from the centre of a cup-shaped regular flower, whose lobes show its compound character. all intermediate stages of this malformation may be found from cases where there is a simple fusion of two flowers with a second verticil of carpels within the outer, up to such cases as those which have been just mentioned. it is worthy of special remark, that in all these cases the flowers at the uppermost part of the raceme are alone affected, and that, in addition to the prolification, there is fusion of two or more flowers, and regularity in the form of the compound corolla and stamens. the calyx of a prolified flower is either unchanged, or it is modified in harmony with the changes in the central part of the flower. if the ovary be normally superior or free from the calyx, then the latter is comparatively rarely altered; for instance, in proliferous pinks (_dianthus_) the calyx is seldom affected, except, indeed, in those instances where the floral axis is prolonged, and produces from its side a successive series of sepals, as in what is called the wheat-ear carnation; but though these instances may be, as i believe, an imperfect degree of prolification, they do not affect the general truth of the above opinion, that the calyx, if it be free from the ovary, is but rarely changed in a prolified flower; but that this is not a universal rule is shown by proliferous flowers of _geum rivale_, where the sepals are usually large and leaf-like, as they likewise are frequently in proliferous roses and pears. [illustration: fig. .--proliferous rose. hip absent, sepals leafy, stamens wanting, axis prolonged bearing supplementary flower, &c. (bell salter).] proliferous roses have a special interest, inasmuch as they show very conclusively that the so-called calyx-tube of these plants is merely a concave and inverted thalamus, which, in prolified specimens, becomes elongated (fig. ) after the fashion of _geum rivale_, &c.[ ] occasionally from the middle of the outer surface of the urn-shaped thalamus proceeds a perfect leaf, which could hardly be produced from the united sepals or calyx-tube; a similar occurrence in a pear is figured in keith's 'physiological botany,' plate ix, fig. . the change which the calyx undergoes when flowers with an habitually adherent ovary become prolified, and wherein the calyx is disjoined from the ovary, has been before mentioned, but it may also be stated that, under such circumstances, the constituent sepals are frequently separated one from the other, and not rarely assume more or less of the appearance of leaves, as in proliferous flowers of _umbelliferæ_, _campanulaceæ_, _compositæ_, &c. as to the corolla, it was long since noticed that prolification was especially liable to occur in double flowers; indeed, dr. hill, who published a treatise on this subject, setting forth the method of artificially producing prolified flowers, deemed the doubling to be an almost necessary precursor of prolification;[ ] but, though frequently so, it is not invariably the case that the flower so affected is double--_e.g._ _geum_. if double, the doubling may arise from actual multiplication of the petals, or from the substitution of petals for stamens and pistils, according to the particular plant affected. occasionally in prolified flowers the parts of the corolla, like those of the calyx, become foliaceous, and in the case of proliferous pears fleshy and succulent. there is in cultivation a kind of _cheiranthus_? in which there is a constant repetition of the calyx and corolla, conjoined with an entire absence of the stamens and pistils; a short internode separates each flower from the one above it, and thus frequently ten or a dozen of these imperfect flowers may be seen on the end of a flower-stalk, giving an appearance as if they were strung like beads, at regular intervals, on a common stalk. i have seen a similar instance in a less degree in a species of _helianthemum_. the stamens are subject to various changes in prolified flowers; they assume, for instance, a leaf-like or petal-like condition, or take on them more or less of a carpellary form, or they may be entirely absent; but none of these changes seem to be at all necessarily connected with the proliferous state of the flower. of more interest is the alteration in the position of these organs which sometimes necessarily accrues from the elongation of the axis and the disjunction of the calyx; thus, in proliferous roses the stamens become strictly hypogynous, instead of remaining perigynous. in _umbelliferæ_ the epigynous condition is changed for the perigynous, &c. the condition of the pistillary organs in prolified flowers has already been alluded to. hitherto those instances have been considered in which either the carpels were absent, or the new bud proceeded from between the carpels. there is also an interesting class of cases where the prolification is strictly intra-carpellary; the axis is so slightly prolonged that it does not protrude beyond the carpels, does not separate them in any way, but is wholly enclosed within their cavity. doubtless, in many cases, this is merely a less perfect development of that change in which the axis protrudes beyond the carpels. this intra-carpellary prolification occurs most frequently in plants having a free central placenta, though it is not confined to them, as it is recorded among _boragineæ_. a remarkable instance of this is described by mr. h. c. watson in the first volume of henfrey's 'botanical gazette,' p. . in this specimen a raceme of small flowers was included within the enlarged pericarp of a species of _anchusa_. but the most curious instances of this form of prolification are, no doubt, those which are met with among _primulaceæ_ and other orders with free central placentation. duchartre, in his memoir on the organogeny of plants with a free central placenta, in the 'ann. des sc. nat.,' sér., , p. , among other similar instances, mentions two flowers of _cortusa matthioli_, wherein the placenta was ovuliferous at the base; but the upper portion, instead of simply elongating itself into a sterile cone, had produced a little flower with its parts slightly different from those of the normal flowers. m. alph. de candolle has likewise described somewhat similar deviations, and one in particular in _primula auricula_, where the elongated placenta gave off long and dilated funiculi bearing ovules, while other funiculi were destitute of these bodies, but were much dilated and foliaceous in appearance.[ ] in some flowers of _rhododendron_ i have observed a similar condition of the ovules, which, moreover, in the primary flowers, were attached to the walls of the carpels--parietal placentation. in speaking of these as cases of intra-carpellary prolification, it is, of course, impossible to overlook the fact that they differ in degree only from those cases where the lengthened axis projects beyond the cavity of the carpels; nevertheless they seem to demand special notice, because in these particular plants the placenta or its prolongation appears never to protrude beyond the carpels, or at least very rarely. there are, however, numerous instances of such an extension of the placenta and of prolification occurring among _primulaceæ_ in conjunction with the more or less complete arrest of growth of the carpels.[ ] an instance of this kind has come under my own notice in a monstrosity of the chinese primrose, in which the carpels were reduced to a hardly discernible rim surrounding an umbel of five rays, each terminated by a small normally constituted flower-bud. the ovules of a prolified flower are either unaffected, or they occur in a rudimentary form, or, lastly, they may be present in the guise of small leaves. under the term prolification of the fruit two or three distinct kinds of malformation appear to have been included. the term seems usually to be applied to those cases where from the centre of one fruit a branch bearing leaves, flowers, or another fruit, is seen to project, as happens occasionally in pears. now, in many instances, not only the fruit, is repeated, but also the outer portions of the flower, which wither and fall away as the adventitious fruit ripens; so that at length the phenomenon of one fruit projecting from another is produced. it is obvious that this form of prolification in no wise differs from ordinary central prolification. sometimes some of the whorls of the adventitious flower are suppressed; thus, m. duchartre describes some orange blossoms as presenting alternating series of stamens and pistils one above another, while the calyces and corollas belonging to each series of stamens and pistils were entirely suppressed.[ ] in other cases, doubtless, the carpellary whorl is alone repeated, the other whorls of the adventitious flower being completely absent. another condition, apparently sometimes mistaken for prolification of the fruit, is that in which the carpellary whorl becomes multiplied; so that there is a second or even a third series within the outer whorl of carpels. if the axis be at all prolonged, then these whorls are separated one from the other, and produce in this way an appearance of prolification. this happens frequently in oranges, as in the variety called mellarose.[ ] moquin has given an explanation of the st. valery apples, wherein the petals are sepaloid, the stamens absent, and where there is a double row of carpels, by supposing these peculiarities to be due to "a prolification combined with penetration and fusion of two or more flowers," but it is surely more reasonable to conceive a second row of carpels placed above the first by the prolongation of the central part of the axis. supposing this view to be correct, the inner calyx-like whorl might be considered either as a repetition of the calycine whorl, or it might be inferred that the corolla was present in the guise of a second calyx. moquin-tandon suggests another explanation--namely, that though the stamens are absent in these curious flowers, at least in their ordinary shape, they are represented by the lower row of carpels, which become, in process of development, fused with the upper or true carpels. if this were so, surely some intermediate conditions between stamen and carpel would occasionally be present; but such does not appear to be the case.[ ] in some of the instances of so-called proliferous pears the carpels would seem to be entirely absent, and the dilated portion of the axis to be alone repeated. thus, the axis dilates to form the lower fruit without any true carpels being produced, but at its summit a whorl of leaves (sepals) is formed; above these another swelling of the axis takes place also without the formation of carpels, and this, it may be, is terminated in its turn by a branch producing leaves. in these cases there is no true prolification, but simply an extension of the axis. that the outer portion (so-called calyx-tube) of these fruits is really an axile product there can now be little doubt; and, as if to show their axile nature, they occasionally produce leaves from their sides, as before mentioned. moquin, in the tenth volume of the 'bulletin of the botanical society of france,' p. , says that when the case is one of prolification the lower fruit is larger and is formed of a fleshy mass; moreover, the line of demarcation between the fruits is more distinct, and there are traces of the seed-bearing cavity in the interior, and of calycine lobes at the top. on the other hand, if the case be one of hypertrophy merely, the lowermost fruit is the smallest, and there is no trace of seed-bearing cavity nor of sepals. see also under hypertrophy. some other malformations usually referred to prolification of the fruit seem due to branching of the inflorescence, as in _plantago_, wheat, maize; or to a simple extension of the axis beyond its ordinary limit, as in some cones of firs, &c. it is obvious that the true fruits in these cases are in no wise affected. from these considerations it would appear better to abandon the use of the expression prolification of the fruit, as unnecessary where it is really applicable, and as delusive in the numerous other cases where it is employed. median prolification of one or other kind has been met with in the following genera: _leafy_. _floral_. ranunculaceæ. clematis. anemone! *anemone! ranunculus! *ranunculus! delphinium. caltha. aquilegia! cruciferæ. bunias. *cheiranthus! erucago. *matthiola! sisymbrium! brassica! nasturtium. hesperis. sinapis! diplotaxis. lunaria. erysimum. alyssum. peltaria. cardamine! cleome. cistaceæ. helianthemum! caryophylleæ. dianthus! *dianthus! silene! lychnis! violaceæ. viola! tiliaceæ. triumfetta! geraniaceæ. geranium! sapindaceæ. pavia! pavia! malvaceæ. paritium. hibiscus! malpighiaceæ. byrsonima! rutaceæ. genera not specified. *dictamnus! resedaceæ. reseda. caylussa! aurantiaceæ. *citrus! vitaceæ. vitis. vitis. umbelliferæ. heracleum. angelica. thysselinum. *athamanta. *daucus! *torilis. rosaceæ. *rosa! *rosa! *geum! *geum! agrimonia. amygdalus. prunus! spiræa! spiræa! rubus. *pyrus! *pyrus! ?leguminosæ trifolium! medicago! melilotus. pisum! cucurbitaceæ. cucumis. passifloraceæ. passiflora. philadelphaceæ. philadelphus. onagraceæ. epilobium! epacridaceæ. epacris! ericaceæ. *erica. rhododendron! convolvulaceæ. convolvulus. gentianaceæ. gentiana. gentiana. apocynaceæ. vinca. jasminaceæ. jasminum! scrophulariaceæ. verbascum! antirrhinum! *digitalis! *linaria! veronica. orobanchaceæ. orobanche. labiatæ. genera not specified. stachys. phlomis! hydrophyllaceæ. hydrophyllum. boraginaceæ. anchusa. symphytum. primulaceæ. *dodecatheon. *cortusa. *anagallis! *anagallis! *primula. dipsacaceæ. scabiosa. compositæ. hieracium! hieracium! cirsium. cirsium. hypochæris. calendula! spilanthes. carthamus. coreopsis. campanulaceæ. campanula. *campanula! polygonaceæ. genera not specified. rumex. santalaceæ. thesium. liliaceæ. genera not specified. tulipa! hemerocallis! asphodelus. hyacinthus! iridaceæ. iris. amaryllidaceæ. narcissus! leucojum. orchidaceæ. orchis! habenaria. cyperaceæ. carex. gramineæ. phleum. =axillary prolification= is the term applied to those cases wherein one or more adventitious buds spring from the axils of one or more of the parts of the flower. engelmann makes use of the word ecblastesis to denote the same condition. both terms are open to the objection that they do not clearly enable us to distinguish prolification occurring within the flower from a similar state originating outside the flower, within the bracts of the inflorescence. this latter condition, called by moquin-tandon lateral prolification (see prolification of the inflorescence), is as truly axillary as that to which the name is restricted. in consequence of certain peculiarities in the structure of some flowers, to be hereafter alluded to, it is not in all cases easy to decide whether the new growth springs from the interior of the flower, or from the inflorescence beneath the flower. the accessory bud presents itself as a leaf-bud, a branch, a flower-bud, or a miniature inflorescence; it may be sessile, but is far more frequently stalked, and in more than half the number of cases it is a flower-bud or an inflorescence. there may be one or more of these buds; if two only, then they are usually placed directly opposite one to the other, on the opposite sides of the flower. it will be seen, from the appended list, that the orders and genera in which this description of adventitious growth occurs most frequently are the following:--_cruciferæ_, especially the genus _brassica_; _caryophyllaceæ_, e.g. _dianthus_; _resedaceæ_; _leguminosæ_, e.g. _melilotus_, _trifolium_, &c.; _rosaceæ_, e.g. _rosa_, _potentilla_, &c.; _umbelliferæ_, and _campanulaceæ_. for the most part, these are groups also peculiarly liable to central prolification. all the parts of the flower may be thus affected; but, as might have been anticipated from the foliaceous nature of the sepals, the new bud usually arises from within the axil of one of those organs. next in frequency to the calyx, the pistil is subjected to this change--the carpels in such a case being disunited and leaf-like. the petals rank next, and lastly the stamens; these latter, indeed, are usually, but not invariably, absent, the new growth occupying their position. hence it may well be that when such is the case, there is no real axillary prolification, but rather the substitution of a bud for a stamen. generally, however, the position of the accessory bud is such that it may properly be referred to the axil of an undeveloped or rudimentary stamen. the largest number of instances of this malformation, not merely generically, but also individually, occurs in plants the members of whose floral whorls are not united one to the other; thus, it is far more common in polypetalous plants than in gamopetalous ones. in the prolified flowers belonging to the latter group, the sepals, if not actually uncombined, are only united for a short distance. the same relationship, but in a much less degree, exists in the case of median prolification, as that aberration is likewise most commonly met with in polypetalous flowers. another feature of interest is the rarity with which axillary prolification is found in irregular gamopetalous blooms. it may be that the irregular and comparatively excessive growth in some parts of these flowers, as compared with others, may operate in checking any luxuriant tendency in other directions. as in the case of median prolification, plants having an indefinite inflorescence are more liable to be affected with ecblastesis than those having a definite one. the degree of branching of the inflorescence may be noticed, as this deformity is far more common in plants whose peduncles are branched than in those which have either a solitary flower or an unbranched flower-stalk. more than two thirds of the entire number of genera cited as the subjects of this malformation have a branched inflorescence of some form or other; and about two thirds of the cases occur in genera having some form of indefinite inflorescence. if individual instances could be accurately computed, the proportion would be even higher. fully three fourths of the entire number of genera recorded as occasionally the subjects of this irregularity possess in their usual state some peculiarity of the thalamus; for instance, in about a third of the whole number of genera the thalamus is more or less prolonged between some or other of the floral whorl, e.g. _caryophyllaceæ_, _potentilla_, _anemone_, _dictamnus_, _umbelliferæ_, &c. about one fourth of the genera have numerous stamens or numerous carpels, or both, springing naturally from the thalamus. in others (about one sixth) the thalamus is enlarged into a disc, or else presents one or more glandular swellings, _e.g._ _reseda_, _nymphæa_, _cruciferæ_. in the last-named family, as has been already remarked, prolification is very common. it would be interesting to ascertain precisely what part of an inflorescence is most liable to this affection; but as information on this point is but rarely given in the records of these cases, i can only give the results of my own observations, which go to show that, in a many-flowered inflorescence, those flowers at the outside, or at the lower portion, seem to be more frequently the subjects of this change than those situated elsewhere. this may probably be accounted for by the fact that the malformation is met with most generally in plants with an indefinite form of inflorescence, and therefore the lowermost or outermost flowers are most fully nourished; the upper flowers being in a less advanced condition, the change is more likely to be overlooked in them; or it may be that from the unusual luxuriance in the lower flowers, the upper ones may be either present in their ordinary condition, or may be (as indeed frequently happens) stunted in the size and proportion of their several parts. =axillary foliar prolification of the flower.=--the formation of an adventitious leaf-bud in the axil of any of the parts of the flower is not of such common occurrence as the development of a flower-bud in similar situations, nor is it so frequent as median foliar prolification. i have seen leafy shoots proceeding from the axils of the sepals in the flowers of _brassica_, and a similar occurrence has been noticed in _caltha palustris_, _herreria parviflora_, and other plants. dr. marchand's flowers of _anagallis_, previously referred to at p. , showed good illustrations of this occurrence, as also some specimens described by kirschleger in _a. phoenicea_.[ ] steinheil has figured and described[ ] a flower of _scabiosa_ in which there was an adventitious formation of leafy shoots in the axil of the outer calyx. in some flowers, such as _convolvulus_, _anemone_, &c., the exact nature of the sub-floral leaves is uncertain, _i.e._ it is open to doubt whether the organs in question are bracts or leaves pertaining to the inflorescence, or whether they are really parts of the flower. when leafy shoots are formed in the axils of such organs, the adventitious growth may be referred to extra-floral prolification, prolification of the inflorescence that is, or to axillary prolification, according to the view taken of the real nature of the sub-floral leaves. so far as the mere occurrence of prolification is concerned, it is not very material which view be adopted. the same remark applies to cases where leaf-buds occur on the outer surface of inferior ovaries, as in _rosaceæ_, _pomaceæ_, _philadelphus_, or _tetragonia expansa_, as elsewhere mentioned. it would seem more consistent with the general arrangements of parts, that the adventitious buds should be formed more frequently outside than within the flower proper. knight[ ] figures and describes the occurrence of small tubers or fleshy leaf-buds in the axils of the sepals of a potato, a curious illustration of the real morphological nature of the tuber. =axillary floral prolification of the flower.=--as already stated, this is of more common occurrence than the formation of a leaf-bud in a similar situation. any of the parts of the flower may thus subtend a flower-bud, though probably the new buds more frequently originate in the axils of the sepals than in the other whorls. in _cruciferæ_ the change in question is, relatively speaking, very common. in cauliflowers and broccoli i have frequently met with stalked flowers proceeding from the axils of the sepals, so also in some fuchsias i have seen a ring of stalked flower-buds alternating with the petals, which, together with the stamens and pistil, remained unaffected. the number of parts in the supernumerary structures is generally less than the normal flowers. in mr. herbert spencer's 'principles of biology,' part iv, p. , are figured and described some monstrous inflorescences in _angelica_ and other _umbelliferæ_, from which, amongst other things, the author draws the conclusion that there is no absolute distinction between leaf and branch. without staying for the moment to discuss this matter, it may here be said that the umbellifers in question apparently owe their peculiarities rather to axillary prolification within the flower, or to prolification of the inflorescence, than to an actual transformation of a flower or any portion of a flower into an umbellule.[ ] in the 'gardeners' chronicle,' , p. , an instance is figured of the production of a supernumerary flower proceeding from the axil of a stamen in a species of _nymphæa_ (fig. ). the ovary in this case was wanting, but in its place was a tuft of small leaves. it is curious that among dr. kirk's drawings of east tropical african plants now at kew, there should be one representing a precisely similar state of things. the species in both instances was _nymphæa lotus_, or a cultivated variety of it. m. wesmael[ ] describes a very singular case of what appears to have been referable to axillary prolification in the flowers of _carex acuta_. the rachillus is described as prolonged through the utricle by the side of the stigmas, bearing on its side a bract, then a secondary utricle, from the axil of which sprung a short stem surmounted by an ovary. wigand, 'flora,' , mentions a similar change in _carex glauca_. in this instance the base of the female inflorescence bore lateral spikes, which projected from the utricles; some of these adventitious spikes were female, others female below and male above, others, again, wholly male. [illustration: fig. .--flower of _nymphæa lotus_, var., showing axillary floral prolification. the section also shows the tuft of leaves that occupied the place of the ovary.] various changes in the form and arrangement of the several floral whorls accompany axillary prolification; some of these affect the particular organ or organs implicated, and these only, while in other cases some other parts of the flower likewise undergo modification. the changes most commonly met with are such as may be classed under goethe's theory of retrograde metamorphosis; for instance, if a supplementary bud be developed in the axil of a sepal, that sepal is likely to be more than ordinarily leaf-like in appearance. the dislocation of the affected sepal from its fellows is a very frequent occurrence; in cases of this kind the detached sepal is placed below the others, thus approximating, in position as well as in function, to the bracts. in some of the instances of proliferous pears, on which i shall have occasion to comment, the sepals are described as sharing in the succulent character of the fruit. the petals, under such circumstances, often exist in the guise of sepals or of small leaves; and instances are recorded wherein the place of the calyx and corolla was supplied by a succession of overlapping green scales, from the axils of which the new buds arose. m. germain de saint pierre records such a case in _trifolium repens_, wherein the calyx and corolla were replaced by overlapping scales, in the axils of each one of which arose a flower; above there was a row of stamens, and in the centre a pistil in the guise of a trifoliate leaf.[ ] such instances seem to afford an extreme degree of a more common change, viz., the diminished size and contracted appearance of the sepals and petals when affected with axillary prolification. they have also a close relationship to such developments as we see in the wheat-ear carnation, in certain species of the genus _mæsa_ and others, wherein the calyx is repeated over and again, to the partial or complete suppression of the other parts of the flower. all these cases may be in part explained by the operation of the principle of compensation. so far as the androecium is concerned, the stamens either remain unaltered, or they are present in a more or less petal-like condition; but it far more frequently happens that the stamens are entirely suppressed, the adventitious bud supplying their place; thus was it in the _dianthus_ represented in the adjoining woodcut, fig. , where the stamens were entirely absent, and their places supplied by flower-bearing branches. this _dianthus_ has the more interest from its similarity to the one described by goethe, metam. der pflanzen, cap. , sect. ; but in that instance median prolification also existed. for my specimens i am indebted to mr. t. moore. [illustration: fig. .--flower of _dianthus_ sp., calyx removed; petals turned down so as to show the stalked flower-buds springing from their axils.] the pistil, too, is necessarily subject to very grave alterations when affected with this malformation. it is separated into its constituent carpels; and these assume a leaf-like aspect, and are in the great majority of instances destitute of ovules. indeed, virescence or chloranthy is very intimately connected with this aberration, as might have been anticipated, for if the parts of the flower assume more or less of the condition of stem-leaves or bracts, it is quite natural to expect that they will partake likewise of the attributes of leaves, even at the expense of their own peculiar functions. it occasionally happens that an adventitious bud arises from the axil of a monocarpellary pistil. this takes place sometimes in _leguminosæ_, and seems to have been more frequently met with in _trifolium repens_ than in other plants. the species named is, as is well known, particularly subject to a reversion of the outer whorls of the flower to leaves, and even to a leaf-like condition of the pistil. there are on record instances wherein a leaf-bud has been placed in the axil of a more or less leaf-like carpel; while at other times a second imperfect carpel has been met with in the axil of the first.[ ] i have myself seen numerous imperfectly developed cases of this kind. it may be asked whether such cases are not more properly referable to central prolification--whether the axis is not in such flowers terminated by two, rather than by one carpel? it is, however, generally admitted by morphologists that the solitary carpel of _leguminosæ_ is not terminal, but is the sole existing member of a whorl of carpels, all the other members of which are suppressed as a general rule, though exceptional instances of the presence of two and even of five carpels have been described.[ ] again, the adventitious bud or carpel is placed, not laterally to the primary one, or opposite to it, on the same level, but slightly higher up--in fact, in the axil of the primary carpellary leaf. griffith figures and describes[ ] an instance of the kind in a species of _melilotus_. the stalk of the ovary is mentioned as having a sheathing base, bearing in its axil a prolongation of the axis of inflorescence, in the form of a short spike with hairy bracts and imperfect flowers, the latter having a well-formed calyx and rudimentary petals and stamens. griffith infers, from this specimen, that the legume is not to be considered as a terminal leaf. _list of genera in which axillary prolification has been observed._ order genus. leaf-bud flower-bud or from what organ. or branch inflorescence ranunculaceæ clematis flower-bud sepals. caltha ditto ditto. aconitum ditto. delphinium ditto sepals, carpels, &c. anemone! ditto involucre? nymphæaceæ nymphæa! fruit? nymphæa flower petal. cruciferæ *brassica! leaf-bud flower-bud sepals and petals. brassica! ditto stamens. brassica! ditto ditto pistil. cardamine! ditto sepals. matthiola! ditto sepals and petals. cheiranthus! ditto sepals. erysimum ditto sepals and pistils. lepidium! ditto petals and stamens. arabis ditto sepals. diplotaxis flower, pistil, calyx inflorescence and corolla. capsella capparidaceæ cleome flower-bud sepals. resedaceæ *reseda ditto ditto. caryophyllaceæ arenaria branch ditto. agrostemma leaf-bud ditto. *lychnis ditto stellaria ditto silene ditto *gypsophila ditto ditto sepals and stamens. *dianthus! ditto ditto sepals. dianthus! ditto inflorescence petals and stamens. cucubalus sepals saponaria! sepals and petals. malvaceæ alcea flower-bud stamen. aurantiaceæ citrus! ditto ditto. rutaceæ dictamnus! ditto pistil leafy. tropæolaceæ tropæolum! ditto petals. celastraceæ celastrus ditto sepals. leguminosæ *melilotus! inflorescence sepals and petals. medicago flower-bud sepals. coronilla ditto ditto. trifolium! ditto second carpel pistil. axillary to first melilotus! ditto ditto trifolium! flower-bud sepals and petals. rosaceæ pyrus! fruit? fruit? cerasus! flower-bud petals and stamens. potentilla! ditto leafy carpels. cratægus! ditto petals. *rosa! ditto ditto sepals, petals, stamens and pistil. myrtaceæ lecythis ditto fruit? tetragoniaceæ tetragonia? ditto ditto. cactaceæ opuntia! fruit-like tufts of spines. branch pereskia ditto sepals? echinocactus ditto ditto. philadelphaceæ philadelphus ditto sepals. umbelliferæ *athamanta ditto calyx. *daucus! ditto calyx and pistil. bupleurum ditto calyx and pistil. torilis ditto calyx and pistil. apium flower-bud calyx and pistil. pastinaca ditto ditto ditto. heracleum! ditto ditto ditto. angelica! umbel ditto ditto. campanulaceæ *campanula! branch sepals. prismatocarpus ditto fruit sepals, &c. gentianaceæ gentiana! flower-bud sepals. convolvulaceæ *convolvulus! ditto outer calyx. solanaceæ solanum! ditto sepals. solanum tubers sepals and petals. scrophulariaceæ *digitalis! ditto petals, &c. veronica raceme calyx. primulaceæ anagallis! branch ditto petals. primula ditto petals and carpels. polygonaceæ rumex ditto sepals. santalaceæ thesium leaf-bud in place of stamens and pistils, both absent. euphorbiaceæ? euphorbia? ditto outer bracts? orchidaceæ orchis! flower-bud perianth. amaryllidaceæ leucoium ditto ditto. iridaceæ iris ditto pistil. liliaceæ herreria ditto sepals. hyacinthus flower and perianth. raceme convallaria flower-bud ditto. allium ditto ditto. cyperaceæ carex inflorescence utricle. [illustration: fig. .--proliferous rose. calyx leafy; petals normal, some reflexed; stamens and pistil absent; in their places a branch with leaves and flowers.] [illustration: fig. .--rose exhibiting median, axillary, lateral, floral, and leafy prolification in same flower.] =complicated prolification.=--from what has been before stated it may be seen that prolification of two or more kinds may coexist in the same flower. mixed leafy and floral prolification is not unfrequent in proliferous roses, where a shoot is, as it were, prolonged through the centre of the original flower and terminated by a second flower, or even by a cluster, as is well shown in the accompanying figure (fig. ). median and axillary prolification, also, not unfrequently coexist in the same flower; thus, in a proliferous rose forwarded to me by mr. w. thomson (fig. ), the following changes were observed:--the swollen portion below the calyx, the "hip," was entirely absent; the sepals were leaf-like in aspect, the petals unaffected; above the petals the axis was prolonged for a short distance and then bore a circlet of miniature, sessile roses, destitute, indeed, of calyx, but provided with numerous petals, stamens, and pistils. above these lateral flowers, the prolonged axis bore a number of scales in many rows. the scales were in their turn surmounted by a whorl of five perfect leaves, beyond which, again, the axis was prolonged into a leafy shoot terminated by a flower bud, the whole constituting a remarkably complicated admixture of elements belonging to the flower, the bud, the inflorescence, and the leafshoot.[ ] proliferous flowers of orchids also occasionally present great complexity in the arrangement of their parts. an instance of this kind was described by myself from specimens furnished by dr. moore, of glasnevin, in the 'journal of the linnean society,' vol. ix, p. , tabs. x, xi, and from which the following summary is extracted: [illustration: fig. .--proliferous orchis. diagram showing the arrangement of the several organs in the seven outer circles of the flower. each whorl is numbered, and the position of the axillary buds shown by the small circles.] the primary flowers were composed of five distinct whorls, and of at least two others less perfectly developed. these primary flowers did not give rise to median formations, but they produced secondary buds in the axils of the segments of the perianth. these latter buds were themselves the subject of tertiary prolification of both kinds, median and axillary. the tertiary median growths, like the primary flower, did not develop median buds, but only lateral ones--quaternary axillary prolification. the accompanying diagrams are intended to show the plan of arrangement in these flowers. fig. shows the disposition of parts in the primary flower and the situation of the axillary buds. fig. shows the primary flower without any central prolongation, but giving off axillary buds, two of which are shown in the diagram, , ; these are, each of them, the subject of both median, , , and axillary prolification, ', '. [illustration: fig. .--diagram to explain the construction of the double-flowered _orchis_. . the primary flower, with no median bud, the position of which, had it been present, is shown by the dotted line. . two axillary buds proceeding from , and themselves giving origin to , . median buds, and ', ', axillary buds. ' '. axillary buds, proceeding from . no median bud is produced from ; its situation, had it been present, is indicated by the dotted line.] in _narcissus major_ a similar combination of both forms of prolification exists, as described by morren.[ ] on the general subject of prolification in flowers, in addition to the authorities already cited, the reader may refer to the following among many others: linnæus, 'prolepsis,' §§ vi et vii. goethe, 'versuch. metamorph.,' cap. xv and xvi §§ - . moquin-tandon,' el. ter. veg.,' p. , &c. engelmann, 'de antholys.,' §§ - , &c. cramer, 'bildungsabweichungen,' &c. _orchidaceæ_, _umbelliferæ_, _compositæ_, _leguminosæ_, _primulaceæ_, _ranunculaceæ_. fleischer, 'missbild. cultur gewachs.' schlechtendal, 'linnæa,' xv, p. , _rosa_. 'bot. zeit.' vol. xx, , p. , _cyclamen_. 'bot. zeit.,' vol. xx, p. , _asphodelus_; et _lilium_. seringe, 'bull. bot.,' i, t. xi, f. , , _arabis_, _diplotaxis_. clos, 'mem. acad. toulouse,' th sér., , _papaver_. wigand, 'flora,' , p. , _hypochæris_; et 'bot. untersuch.,' p. . buchenau,' flora,' , p. , _reseda_. roeper, 'bot. zeit.,' , p. , _orchis_. presl., 'linnæa,' vi, p. , tab. ix, figs. - , _sisymbrium_, vrolik., 'flora,' , p. , t. i et ii, id. , t. i, _digitalis_. see also schlechtendal, 'bot. zeit.,' vol. ix, , p. . klinsmann, 'linnæa,' x, p. , t. v, _hesperis_. fuckel, 'flora,' , p. . _melilotus_. de candolle, 'organogr.,' i, , t. . turpin, 'atlas de goethe,' p. , t. , figs. , . fenzl. 'sitzungsbericht d. k. akad. d. wissensch. wien.,' heft, iii, tabs. , , _rosa_. kirschleger, 'flora,' , , _dianthus_, _rosa_. 'institut.,' , no. , p. , _tragopogon_. baron de melicoq., 'ann. sc. nat.,' rd ser., vol. v. , p. , _antirrhinum_. reichenbach, 'icon. fl. germ.,' tab. , _reseda_--"monstrosa anticipatio euphorbiacearum et capparidearum." duhamel, 'phys. arbres.,' liv. iii, cap. , p. , pl. xii, f. , _rosa_. caspary, 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' vol. vi, , p. , rev. bibl., _pyrus_. eichler, 'flora,' , tab. ix, _cleome_. lindley, 'elements of botany,' p. , &c., _rosa_, _epacris_, _anagallis_, _pyrus_. irmish, 'flora,' , p. , _pyrus_; and 'bot. zeit.,' xix, , p. , _hyacinthus_. duchartre, 'bull. soc. bot. france,' , p. , _rosa_. weber, 'verhandl. nat. hist. verein. rhein. preuss., &c.' et . landrin, 'mem. soc. sc. nat. seine et oise,' ?[ ] masters, 'trans. linn. soc.,' vol. xxiii, p. , tab. and p. , tab. . =prolification of the embryo.=--this term was applied by moquin-tandon to a peculiar condition of the almond (_amygdalus_), in which, indeed, it is not of unfrequent occurrence. in these cases one almond encloses within its cotyledons a second embryo, and this, again, in some instances, a third, the little plants being thus packed like so many boxes one within the other. the supplementary embryos are, in the ripe state at least, quite separate and detached one from another. these cases differ from the ordinary instances wherein there is an increased number of embryos in one seed in their position. in the latter case, as often happens in the seeds of the orange, the new products are placed by the side one of another.[ ] for other cases of prolification or the adventitious formation of buds on leaves, roots, &c., see under heterotaxy. footnotes: [ ] linn., 'prolepsis,' § vii; goethe, 'metamorph.,' §§ , , . [ ] "diaphysis inflorescentiarum." engelmann, 'de anthol.,' § . [ ] 'flora,' , p. . [ ] 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser. , vol. v, , p. . [ ] 'bot zeit.,' vol. xx, p. . [ ] 'miscel. austriac. bot.,' vol. i, vindob, , p. . [ ] "_umbellati dum prolificantur, augent umbellulam, ut ex umbellula simplici altera exeat_." 'linn. phil. bot.,' § . [ ] 'en. euphorb.,' p. . [ ] meisner. 'mon. gen. _polygoni_ prodrom.,' p. , tab. v, considers the bulbils of this plant to be modifications of the pedicels of the flower. [ ] see a. braun. 'ann. scienc. nat.,' th series, , vol. xiv, p. . [ ] "_prolificatio e latere ex calyci communi proles plurimos pedunculatos emittens, fit in compositis aggregatis proprie dictis._" 'linn. phil. bot.,' § . [ ] 'bot. zeit.,' , p. . see also 'verhandl. nat. hist. vereins. preuss. rheinl. u. westphal.,' , t. ix. [ ] "pannicula spicatim sparsa onusta innumera foetura herbaceorum flosculorum racematim cohærentium," 'lobel. stirp. hist.,' p. . this is the "besome plantain, or plantain with spoky tufts," of ray, 'synopsis,' p. . gerard's 'herbal,' ed. johnson, p. . parkinson, 'theat. bot.,' p. . baxter, 'loudon. mag. nat. hist.,' vol. ix. p. , and vol. iii, p. . fig. . [ ] 'flora.' . p. . [ ] 'flora of berwick-on-tweed,' vol. i. p. . [ ] 'adansonia,' vol. iv. , p. , tab. vii. 'gard. chron.,' november th, . [ ] 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser. , tom. ii, p. ; and 'adansonia,' iii, tab. iv; see also bureau, in 'bull. soc. bot. france,' x, p. . [ ] baillon, 'adansonia,' i, . [ ] see also figure in 'hort. eystett. ic. plant. vern.,' fol. , fig. . _ranunculus asiaticus_. [ ] duchartre, 'ann. des sc. nat.,' me série, vol. ii, , p. . [ ] reissek, 'linnæa,' vol. xvii, , p. , tab. xix. [ ] the tube of the calyx in these specimens was traversed by ten ribs, apparently corresponding to the primary ridges of the normal fruit; these ribs were destitute of spines, and the bristly secondary ridges were entirely absent. those portions of the carpels which were detached from the calyx had each three ribs, a central and two lateral ones, which appeared to be continuous with the ribs of the calyx below,--although in the case of the calyx there were ten, in the case of the carpels six ribs, three to each. this diversity in number is thus explained:--a circle of vascular tissue ran round the interior of the calyx-tube, at its junction with the limb, and at the point of insertion of the petals and stamens. the vascular circle seemed to be formed from the confluence of the ten ribs from below. of the five ribs in each half of the calyx, the three central ones were joined together just at the point of confluence with the vascular circle, above which they formed but a single rib--that traversing the centre of the carpellary leaf; the two lateral ribs of each half of the calyx seemed to be continuous, above the vascular rim, with the lateral ribs of the carpel; these lateral ribs were connected on either side with the central one by short branches of communication. the disposition of the ten ribs may be thus represented:-- the lower line of figures represents the calycine ribs, the middle row shows how each of these ribs is divided at the vascular rim, and the uppermost row shows their distribution above the rim. from this it will be seen that six of the calycine ribs divide into three branches, one prolonged upwards as a lateral or median rib into the carpellary leaf, the other running horizontally to join with similar branches sent out from the neighbouring rib; the four intermediate calycine ribs divide into two branches only, which join the side branches of the first mentioned, but have no direct upward prolongation into the carpel. the ten ridges are placed opposite to the sepals and petals. [ ] 'neue denkschriften der allgemeine schweizerischen gesellschaft,' band . . tab. . [ ] bell salter, 'gard. chron.,' march th, , and 'ann. nat. hist.,' , vol. xix, p. . &c. [ ] 'the origin and production of proliferous flowers, with the culture at large for raising double flowers from single, and proliferous from the double.' by j. hill, m.d. london, . [ ] a. de candolle, 'neue denkschriften,' op. cit., p. ; also unger as cited in 'botanical gazette,' may, . p. . [ ] duchartre, op. cit. [ ] 'ann. sc. nat.,' , vol. i, p. . [ ] maout, 'leçons elémentaires de botanique,' vol. ii. p. ; ferrari. 'hesperides.' pls. , , . [ ] moquin-tandon, loc. cit., p. , &c.; see also trécul, in the 'bull. soc. bot. france,' tom. i, p, . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' , vol. x, p. . [ ] 'ann. sc. nat.,' , p. . see also le maout, 'leçons element.,' vol. ii, p. . [ ] 'proc. hort. soc.,' vol. i, p. , fig. . [ ] see also 'nat. hist. review,' , p. . [ ] 'acad. roy. belg.,' april th. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' tom. iii, , p. . [ ] 'linnæa,' vol. xv, p. , _c. ic._ caspary, 'schriften d. physik.-oek. gesell. zu königsberg,' bd. ii, p. , tab. iii, fig. , &c. [ ] lindley, 'veg. king.,' p. ; also clarke on the position of carpels, linn. soc.,' december, . 'proc. linn. soc.,' ii, p. . [ ] 'notulæ,' vol. i, dicot. p. . 'atlas,' pl. xliii. [ ] moquin-tandon gives the following references to cases of proliferous roses, but some i have not been able to verify. 'journ. des sav.,' mai . hottinger, 'ephem. nat. cur.,' dec. ann. et , p. . marchant, 'mem. acad. scienc. paris.' , p. . preussius, 'ephem. nat. cur.,' cent. et . app. p. . schuster, 'act. acad. nat. cur.,' vol. vi, p. . spadoni, 'mem. soc. ital.,' t. v, p. . see also at the end of this section for numerous other references. [ ] 'bull. acad. belg.,' t. xx, part ii, p. . see also bellynck, 'bull. soc. bot. belg.,' t. vi, ex. 'bull. soc. bot. france,' t. xiv, , rev. bibl., p. . _orchis ustulata_. [ ] i have not been able to meet with this, but it is said to contain a paper on prolification, with numerous bibliographical references. [ ] 'el. ter. veg.,' p. , adnot. chapter iii. heterotaxy. under this category are here included a variety of deviations from the ordinary arrangement and position of parts which cannot conveniently be classed under the preceding or under other headings. the term heterotaxy is intended to apply to the production of organs in situations where, under usual circumstances, they would not be formed. it thus does not include cases of substitution, where one part is replaced by another, or more or less metamorphosed, nor cases of multiplication, nor of prolification which are characterised not only by the production of members in unwonted situations, but also in unwonted numbers. from the very nature of the anomalies, and specially from the scanty knowledge we possess concerning their mode of development, it is not possible to allocate them in all cases correctly, and moreover many of them might as well be placed in one group as in another. =formation of adventitious roots.=--this is of exceedingly common occurrence in a vast number of plants, so much so that in most cases it cannot be considered as in any way abnormal; there are, however, a few instances where the formation of these organs may be considered to come within the scope of teratology, or, at least, where their production is the result of injury or of some unfavorable condition to which the plant is exposed. thus the production of adventitious roots on the stem of the vine is considered to be due to untoward circumstances impairing the proper action of the ordinary subterranean roots. so, too, the formation of roots on the upper portions of stems that are more or less decayed below, as in old willows, is to be considered as an attempt to obtain fresh supplies through a more vigorous and healthy channel. a similar occurrence often arises as a consequence of some injury. virgil had this circumstance in view when he wrote "_quin et, caudicibus sectis, mirabile dictu, truditur e sicco radix oleagina ligno._"--'georg.' bk. ii. i have seen many specimens of adventitious roots produced on the olive in the way just mentioned. in the 'gardeners' chronicle,' january th, , p. , is described a curious formation of roots in the fissure between two divisions of a laburnum stem. in the same journal, january st, , p. , mr. booth mentions the case of a cornish elm, the trunk of which was divided at the top into two main divisions, and from the force of the wind or from some other cause the stem was split down for several feet below the fork. around the edges of the fracture, layers of new bark were formed, from which numerous roots issued, some measuring an inch in diameter and descending into the cleft portion of the tree: similar instances must be familiar to all observers. it may happen that these roots sent down into the cavity of a decaying trunk may, after a time, become completely concealed within it, by the gradual formation and extension of new wood over the orifice of the cavity formed by the death and decay of the old wood. such is presumed to be the explanation of a specimen of this kind in the possession of the writer, and taken from a cavity in an apparently solid block of rosewood; externally there were no marks to indicate the existence of a central space, but when the block was sawn up for the use of the cabinet-maker, this root-like structure was found in the centre and attached to one end of the cavity. the production of roots which ultimately serve as props to support the branches, or as buttresses to compensate for the increasing weight of branches and foliage, is also a familiar occurrence. the huge gnaurs and burrs met with occasionally on some trees often produce great quantities, not only of adventitious buds, but of roots also. [illustration: fig. .--production of adventitious roots from leaf stalk of celery.] the leaves, equally with the stems, have the power of emitting roots under certain conditions, as when the leaves are in close contact with moist soil or as the result of injury. this happens in some plants more readily than in others--_bryophyllum calycinum_ is a well-known instance. mr. berkeley has described the formation of roots from the fractured leaves of celery,[ ] and also in a cabbage where a snail "having gnawed a hole into the middle of a leaf at its junction with the stem, a fascicle of roots was formed, bursting through the tissue lining the cavity, and covered with abundant delicate hairs after the fashion of ordinary radicles." [illustration: fig. .--germinating plant of mango, showing production of roots from one of the cotyledons (from the kew museum).] the production of adventitious roots is not limited to the ordinary leaves of the plant, but may be manifested on the cotyledons; thus irmisch describes cases of this kind in the cotyledons of _bunium creticum_ and _carum bulbocastanum_.[ ] i have figured and described an analogous case in the cotyledons of the mango (fig. ).[ ] to this formation of adventitious roots the gardener owes the power he has of propagating plants by cuttings, _i.e._, small portions of the stem with a bud or buds attached, or in some cases from portions of the leaves, of the roots themselves, or even of the fruit, as in the case of the cactus (baillon). care also has to be exercised in grafting certain fruit trees not to allow the grafted portion to be too close to the ground, else the scion throws out roots into the soil, and the object of the cultivator is defeated. [illustration: figs. and show formation of roots from leaves induced by the art of the gardener.] layering is another garden operation dependent on the formation of these organs, and advantage is also sometimes taken of this tendency of some plants to produce roots when injured to reduce the dimensions of a plant when getting too large for the house in which it is growing. by gradually inducing the production of new roots from the central or upper portions of the stem, it becomes possible, after a time, to sever the connection between the original roots and the upper portion of the trunk, and thus secure a shortened plant. on the subject of adventitious roots, &c., reference may be made to trécul, 'ann. sc. nat.,' , t. v, p. , et vi, p. . duchartre, 'elements de botanique,' p. . lindley, 'theory and practice of horticulture.' thomson's 'gardener's assistant,' pp. , _et seq._; and any of the ordinary botanical text-books. =formation of adventitious buds on roots.=--one of the characteristics by which roots are distinguished from stems in a general way consists in the absence of buds; but, as is well known, they may be formed on the roots under certain circumstances, and in certain plants, e.g., _pyrus japonica_, _anemone japonica_, &c. what are termed suckers, owe their origin to buds formed in this situation. if roots be exposed or injured, they will frequently emit buds. the well-known experiment of duhamel, in which a willow was placed with the branches in the soil and the roots in the air, and emitted new buds from the latter and new roots from the former, depended on this production of adventitious organs of either kind. gardeners often avail themselves of the power that the roots have of producing buds to propagate plants by cuttings of the roots, but in many of these cases the organ "parted" or cut is really an underground stem and not a true root. m. claas mulder has figured and described a case in the turnip-radish of the unusual formation of a leafy shoot from the root, apparently after injury.[ ] from the figure it appears as if the lower portion of the root had been split almost to the extremity, while the upper portion seems to have a central cavity passing through it. from the angle, formed by the split segments below, proceeds a tuft of leaves, some of which appear to have traversed the central cavity and to have emerged from the summit, mingling with the other leaves in that situation. the production of a flower-bud has even been noticed on the root of a species of _impatiens_. =formation of shoots beneath the cotyledons.=--the tigellar or axial portion of the embryo plant, as contrasted with the radicle proper, is very variously developed in different cases; sometimes it is a mere "collar" bearing the cotyledons, while at other times it is of considerable size. generally it does not give origin to shoots or leaves other than the seed-leaves, but occasionally shoots may be seen projecting from it below the level of the cotyledons. this happens frequently in seedling plants of _anagallis arvensis_, _euphorbia_ _peplus_, and other species, _linaria vulgaris_, some _umbelliferæ_, &c.[ ] =adventitious formation of leaves.=--the term phyllomania has been vaguely applied both to the production of an unwonted number of leaves and to their development in unusual situations. under the present heading the latter class of cases are alone included. the extraordinary tendency in some begonias to develop leaves or leafy excrescences from their surfaces is elsewhere alluded to, and is, in reality, a species of hypertrophy or over-luxuriant growth. in some flowers where the inferior ovary is supposed to be, in part at least, formed by a dilatation of the top of the flower-stalk, leaves have been met with proceeding from the surface of the ovary or fruit, as in _cratægus tanacetifolia_, roses, pears, gooseberries, &c. in a specimen of _nymphæa alba_ i have met with scale-like leaves projecting from the surface of the fruit (or torus?), and which did not appear to be metamorphosed stamens or styles (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--leaf proceeding from hip of the rose.] [illustration: fig. .--leaves proceeding from the ovary of _nymphæa_.] for other illustrations of increased leaf-formation, see multiplication of foliar organs. [illustration: fig. .--_leontodon_. scape with two leaves; the bracts of the involucre are also leafy.] =production of leaves on a usually leafless inflorescence.=--the development of the bracts of an inflorescence to such an extent that they resemble ordinary leaves is elsewhere alluded to as of common occurrence. it happens far less frequently that leaves are developed on an inflorescence usually destitute of them, without any metamorphosis or substitution, and without any formation of adventitious buds, such as happens in prolification. such a partial change from a floriferous to a foliiferous branch may be seen in a specimen of _sambucus nigra_ in the smithian herbarium in the linnean society, where the ultimate branches of the cyme bear small leaves. my attention was directed to this specimen by the rev. w. newbould. jacquin figures an analogous case in _sempervivum sediforme_,[ ] in which the branches of the inflorescence were prolonged into leafy shoots. sometimes from the side of a flower-stalk or scape, which usually does not bear leaves, those organs are produced. the common dandelion, _taraxacum_, sometimes offers an illustration of this, and also the daisy (_bellis_).[ ] in a specimen of fasciated cowslip given me by mr. edgeworth there was a similar formation of leaves on the flattened stalk. =production of leaves or scales in place of flower-buds.=--the position of the leaf and of the flower-buds respectively is, in most plants, well defined, but occasionally it happens that the former is formed where, under ordinary circumstances, the latter organ should be. this may happen without the formation of any transitional organs between the two, and without actual increase in the number of the buds. where there is evidently a passage from leaf-bud to flower-bud, or _vice versâ_, the case would be one of metamorphy. if the number of buds be augmented, or they be mixed with the flower-buds, then it would be referable to leafy prolification of the inflorescence. there remains a class of cases wherein there is a complete substitution of one structure for the other, it may be without the slightest indication of transition between the two, and without any admixture of leaf-buds among flower-buds, or any absolute increase in the number of organs, as in prolification. such a case is represented in fig. , which shows a portion of the stem of a species of _valeriana_, bearing at the summit, not an inflorescence, but a tuft of leaves without the slightest indication of flowers. drs. hooker and thomson relate that in northern india the flowers of _anemone rivularis_ are very generally absent, and their place supplied by tufts or umbels of leaves.[ ] in the collection of the late mr. n. b. ward was a specimen of lupin in which the flowers were all absent, and their place supplied by tufts of leaves. [illustration: fig. .--tuft of leaves replacing the inflorescence in a species of _valeriana_.] a similar appearance has been noticed in _compositæ_, and i owe to the kindness of professor oliver the communication of a specimen of a species of _bidens_ from peru, in which the capitula, instead of consisting of florets, as usual, contained tufts of linear ciliolated bracts within the involucre, without a trace of flowers. in the eleventh volume of the 'linnæa,' , p. , von cesati figures and describes an analogous case in _carduus crispus_. the same author[ ] records a similar instance in the umbel of _seseli coloratum_, where the place of the flowers was occupied by stalked tufts of leaves. in the 'gardeners' chronicle,' october th, , p. , is mentioned an instance where the blossoms of the pea were entirely absent, and their place supplied by accumulations of small, ovate, green scales, thus presenting an appearance similar to that brought about by the inordinate multiplication of the sepals in the "wheat-ear carnation," and in the sweet william, and not unlike the condition met with in _bryophyllum proliferum_. in _digitalis purpurea_ a similar anomaly is sometimes met with. in the apple i have observed leafy shoots bearing terminal tufts of leaves where the flower should have been, so that what, under ordinary circumstances would be a corymb of flowers, is here represented by a series of tufts of leaves. in the cultivated azaleas also, leafy shoots occupying the position of the flower may occasionally be met with. in _bouchea hyderabadensis_ i have seen the inflorescence more than usually branched and covered with little tufts of bracts, without a trace of true flower. a similar condition seems not infrequent in _gentiana amarella_, as i have not only met with the plant myself in this condition, but have been favoured with specimens by mr. pamplin, mr. darwin, and others. in _phyteuma spicatum_ an analogous appearance has been recorded. among griffith's collections from affghanistan is a species of willow (_salix_) in which the inflorescence replaced by a much branched panicle, bearing a quantity of minute bracts, in the axils of which nestle numerous small buds. in another specimen the inflorescence preserves its usual catkin-like shape, but the flowers are replaced by little tufts of leaves. m. germain de saint pierre mentions a case wherein the flowers of _alisma parnassifolia_ were completely replaced by leaf-buds.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--spikelets of _willedenovia_, composed entirely of scales to the exclusion of flowers.] [illustration: fig. .--rose willow, _salix_, sp.] here, also, may be mentioned the curious aggregations of scales which occur in some grasses, in _restiaceæ_, _juncaceæ_, and other orders, in which the inflorescence is made up of collections of scales or bracts with no trace of floral structure. fig. shows this in a species of _willdenovia_, and a very good example is figured in a bamboo, _pseudostachyum polymorphum_, by general munro.[ ] "rose willows" (fig. ) owe their peculiar appearance to a similar cause, the scales of the catkin being here replaced by closely crowded leaves. these aggregations of scales or leaves are not confined to the inflorescence, but may be found in other parts of the plant, and may be frequently met with in the willow, birch, oak, &c., generally as the result of insect puncture. on the other hand, the production of leaves or leaf-buds in place of flowers is, as is well known, generally the consequence of an excess of nutrition, and of the continuance rather than of the arrest of vegetative development.[ ] it has even been asserted that a flower-bud may be transformed into a leaf-bud by removing the pistil at a very early stage of development, but this statement requires further confirmation.[ ] =viviparous plants.=--the spikelets of certain grasses are frequently found with some of their constituent parts completely replaced by leaves, like those of the stem, while the true flowers are usually entirely absent. a shoot, in fact, is formed in place of a series of flowers. in these cases it generally happens that the outermost glumes are changed, sometimes, however, even the outer and inner paleæ are wholly unchanged, while there is no trace of squamulæ or of stamens and pistils within them, but in their place is a small shoot with miniature leaves arranged in the ordinary manner. the grasses most commonly affected in this manner are _dactylis glomerata!_, _poa bulbosa!_, _poa annua!_, _p. trivialis!_, _pratensis!_, _alpina!_, _angustifolia_, and _laxa_, _cynosurus cristatus_, _festuca nemoralis_, _f. ovina!_, _glyceria fluitans!_, _gl. aquatica_, _aira alpina!_, _cæspitosa!_, _phleum phalaroides_, _lolium perenne!_, _alopecurus pratensis!_, _agrostis alba_, _holcus mollis!_ [illustration: fig. .--portion of panicle of _aira vivipara_ and separate floret.] from an examination of the structure of viviparous grasses von mohl was led to the conclusion that the lower palea is to be considered as a bract, and not a perianthial leaf, because the base of the palea surrounds the stem or axis of the spikelet entirely, and both its margins cohere towards its lower extremity.[ ] a similar condition occurs not infrequently in _polygonum viviparum_, and in _juncaceæ_, _cyperaceæ_, &c. in the genus _allium_ an analogous formation of little buds or bulbils takes place in lieu of flowers; this is specially the case with _a. vineale_, the flowers of which are rarely seen. other illustrations of a similar character, where the adventitious leaf-buds are mixed in amongst the flower-buds, are cited under the head of prolification of the inflorescence. =formation of buds on leaves.=--the formation of little bulbs upon the surfaces or edges of leaves, forming what are called viviparous leaves, has long been familiar to botanists amongst alliums. professor alexander braun,[ ] who has paid much attention to this subject, divides cases of this kind according to the position of the buds; thus, for instance, they are sometimes formed upon the upper portion of the leaf or petiole, as in many ferns, in _nymphæa guineensis_, some _arads_, &c. the same condition has been met with as a teratological occurrence in the leaves of _cardamine pratensis_, _hyacinthus pouzolzii_, _drosera intermedia_,[ ] _arabis pumila_, _chelidonium majus_, _chirita sinensis_,[ ] _episcia bicolor_,[ ] _zamia_, &c.[ ] many species of _begonia_ possess the power of emitting buds from the petioles and veins of the leaf; the little ramenta or scales which so plentifully beset the surface of some of these plants likewise, in some instances, pass gradually into leaves. _b. phyllomaniaca_, mart., is the species best known as manifesting this tendency, but others have it also.[ ] buds are also very often formed upon the margins of the leaf, the best known instance of which occurs in _bryophyllum calycinum_; weinmann[ ] figures an instance of this kind in _alchemilla minima_, or they may occur upon the lower surface of the leaf, as in _ornithogalum scilloides_ and _longe-bracteatum_. m. duchartre[ ] mentions a case in the tomato in which the leaves gave origin to small leaf-bearing branches, which, of course, must have originated from buds, just in the same way as in the _drosera_ before mentioned. [illustration: fig. .--formation of shoot on leaf of _episcia bicolor_.] gardeners occasionally avail themselves of this formation of buds from leaves to propagate plants, _e.g._ _hoya_, _gesnera_, _gloxinia_, &c. =formation of buds in the pith.=--this is said to be a normal condition in the curious _stangeria paradoxa_,[ ] and mr. berkeley records an instance of this in sea-kale[ ] (fig. ) where the crown had been injured, and buds were seen sprouting from its centre. [illustration: fig. .--adventitious buds in sea kale.] [illustration: fig. .--hyacinth bulb cut across to induce the formation of new bulbs.] [illustration: fig. .--showing the formation of new bulbs on the cut edges of an old hyacinth bulb.] it will be remarked that the adventitious production of buds, like that of roots, is very often consequent on decay or injury. the dutch bulb-growers have availed themselves of this latter circumstance in the propagation of hyacinths. mr. fortune, who published some articles on this subject in the 'gardener's chronicle,'[ ] describes two special modes as adopted by these skilful horticulturists--the one to make two or three deep cuts at the base of the bulb, destroying the nascent flower-stalk when, after a time, small bulbs are formed along the edges of the cut surfaces (figs. , ). the other method is effected by scooping out the interior of the base of the bulb, thus leaving exposed the cut ends of the sheathing leaves arranged concentrically; along these lines the new bulbs are, after some time, formed in great numbers (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--showing the production of small bulbs on the inner surface of the scooped-out bulb of hyacinth.] for the formation of supernumerary leaves on the surface of the normal one, see multiplication and hypertrophy. =production of gemmæ in place of spores.=--an instance of this is recorded by dr. montagne[ ] in the case of a moss, _encamptodon perichætialis_, in which, in the interior of the capsule, in lieu of spores numerous minute gemmæ of the same nature as those in the cup of _marchantia_ were seen. =formation of flowers on leaves.=--it is very doubtful whether a flower-bud has ever been found actually on a leaf. mere adhesion of the pedicels of the leaf, such as happens in _ruscus_, in _helwingia_, _erythrochiton hypophyllanthus_, and a few other plants, is, of course, not really to be considered in the light of an actual growth from the leaf, and it is very doubtful in the present state of our knowledge whether the case of the nepaul barley should find a place here, but for convenience sake it is placed in this section, as it is uncertain at present where it properly belongs. [illustration: fig. .--three-lobed end of outer palea of nepaul barley bearing supplementary florets.] [illustration: fig. .--three spikelets of nepaul barley.] [illustration: fig. .--lip of outer palea of nepaul barley.] [illustration: fig. .--supplementary rachillus or outer palea of nepaul barley bearing florets.] [illustration: fig. .--diagram showing arrangement of supplementary rachillus and florets.] [illustration: fig. .--supplementary floret of nepaul barley; palea removed.] this curious plant has been described and figured by irmisch in the th volume of the 'linnæa,' p. , t. iv; also by professor henslow, 'hooker's journal of botany,' , vol. i, p. , tabs. , . the lower palea of this plant forms an inverted flower-bud upon its midrib. in some fresh specimens which i have lately examined i find the structure to be as follows:--on each notch of the rachis there are three spikelets (fig. ), each one-flowered, and each provided with two linear glumes; the outer palea in all cases is three-lobed at the summit, the central lobe being oblong and hollow, forming a kind of hood (figs. - ), and covered with hairs, which are directed downwards towards the centre of the plant. the two lateral lobes are more pointed than the central one; like it they are provided with hairs, but the hairs, in this case, are turned away from the centre of the plant. the cavity of the side lobes is generally empty, but that of the central lobe is occupied by a very slender stalk, which is apparently the termination of the midrib, but which is bent inwards at an acute angle, so as to occupy the hollow space (figs. - ). on this slender axis are developed two florets, more or less imperfect in their structure. only one of the florets that i have seen contained a perfect ovary. the tips of the lateral lobes of the paleæ in the primary flower are sometimes extended into a long awn. a similar awn may also be occasionally found on the tips of the paleæ of the rudimentary florets. the occurrence of an adventitious axial structure with rudimentary flowers has been adduced in support of the opinion that the lower paleæ is, at least so far as its midrib is concerned, an axial rather than a foliar structure, but in the present uncertain state of our knowledge as to the morphology of grasses it is hazardous to risk any explanation founded on so exceptional a case as that of the nepaul barley.[ ] =production of flower-buds in place of leaf-buds.=--under natural circumstances this does not appear to be of so common occurrence as the change above alluded to, but by the art of the gardener the change is often effected. in rhododendrons and in peach trees and roses i have met with this change occurring without human agency. the means adopted by the gardener are such as check the luxuriance of the leaf-shoots,[ ] and this is effected in various ways, as by continuous "pinching" or removal of the leaf-buds, by pruning, ringing the bark, confining the roots, limiting the supply of nutriment, and other means all based on the same principle. some of the cape bulbs (_cyrtanthus_) are known not to produce their flowers till their leaves have received, in some manner, a check. fires which often destroy the herbage thus have the effect of throwing the plant into bloom. a very remarkable instance is recorded of the production of flower-buds after an injury to the leaf-buds in the 'bulletin of the botanical society of france,' vol. ix, p. . it appears that during the war of the french against the arabs in algiers, the latter planted several hundreds of agaves with a view to obstruct the passage of the french cavalry. the soldiers hacked these plants with their sabres, and cut out the central tuft of leaves, or the heart, as gardeners call it. the following season almost every one of these agaves sent up their large handsome flower-spikes. it is well known that, under ordinary circumstances, these plants do not flower except at long intervals of time. =presence of flowers on spines.=--that the spine, as a contracted branch, should occasionally produce flowers is not to be wondered at, though the occurrence is by no means common. m. baillon showed at a meeting of the botanical society of france ('bulletin,' vol. v, , p. ) a branched spine of _gleditschia_ bearing a flower at the end of each of the sub divisions. this was, therefore, strictly analogous with those cases in which the peduncle is normally spiney. =formation of flower-bud on the petals.=--an instance of this, it is believed, the only one on record, is cited in the 'gardeners' chronicle' for , p. , by the rev. m. j. berkeley, who describes the formation of a flower-bud on the surface of a petal of _clarkia elegans_. reasoning from analogy there seems no reason why buds should not be formed on the petals as well as on the leaves. =formation of buds on fruits.=--this is a point of some moment with reference to the share which the axis takes in the production of "inferior" fruits. a very frequent malformation in pears is one wherein a second pear proceeds from the centre of the first, and even a third from the centre of the second.[ ] pears are occasionally also observed arising either from the axils of the sepals of the primary pear or from the axil of leaves originating on the outer surface of the fruits--using the term fruit in its popular sense. these cases afford strong confirmation of the view that the outer portion of the so-called fruit in these plants is rather to be considered as an expansion and hollowing-out of the flower-stalk, than as formed from the calyx-tube. it is noteworthy that the true carpels and seeds are frequently entirely absent in these cases.[ ] further reference to these fruits will be made under the head of hypertrophy. m. trécul has described and figured an instance in a species of _prismatocarpus_, in which a second flower proceeded from the axil of a bract attached to the side of the fruit of the first flower.[ ] a similar growth was observed in the fruit of _philadelphus speciosus_ by m. a. gris, who observed that the so-called calyx-tube was provided with two small bracts, from the axil of one of which proceeded a small flower-bud.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--small buds projecting from the edges of the fruit in _opuntia_.] the fruits of _opuntia salmiana_, _o. fragilis_,[ ] _o. monacantha_, and of some species of _echinocactus_, have been observed to form small fruit-like branches around their summits. m. napoléon doumet describes the fruit as ripening as usual, but as being destitute of seeds in the interior; after a little while the fruit begins to wither, and then a circle of small buds, like those of the stem, may be seen at the top of the fruit, each bud springing from the axil of a little tuft of wool and spines found on the fruit. these little buds elongate into long shoots, produce flowers the following year, which flowers exhibit the same peculiarity. gasparini and tenore are said to have recorded the same fact as long since as . the specimen from which the figure (fig. ) was taken produced its fruits in the royal gardens at kew, and is now preserved in the museum of that establishment. the adventitious growth in these cases appears to arise from the tufts of spines, which, it has been suggested, are the homologues of the sepals. there can, however, be little doubt that the outer and lower portion of the fruit of _opuntia_ and its allies is a dilatation of the flower-stalk. this is borne out by the fruits of _pereskia_, which bear leaves on their surface arranged spirally; indeed, the fruits of _pereskia bleo_ are mentioned as producing buds from their summits, in the same way as the _opuntia_ just cited. _p. bleo_ is said, by m. delavaud,[ ] to present this anomaly as a constant occurrence. on the summit of the primary fruit, arising apparently from the axils of the sepals, or of small leafy bracts in that situation, are a series of fruit-like branches, which, in their turn, are surmounted by others, even to the fourth generation. the fruits of _tetragonia expansa_ frequently have attached to their side a secondary flower or fruit in such a position as to lead to the inference that it springs from the upper portion of the peduncle which is dilated to invest the true carpels. in other instances it is due to an adhesion of the pedicel to the side of the fruit. in either case the production of an adventitious bud might be considered as an illustration of prolification of the inflorescence, though not as was supposed by moquin and others of axillary prolification.[ ] buds have also been produced artificially on the surface of some of the fruits in the construction of which the axis is supposed to share; thus, the unripe fruits of some species of _lecythis_ were stated by von martius, at a meeting of the german naturalists at carlsruhe, to produce buds when placed in the earth. the fruit of these plants is probably of the same nature as that of the _pomaceæ_, and baillon[ ] succeeded in producing buds on the surface of the inferior ovary of _jussiæa_. some of the cases just mentioned have been considered to be instances of prolification of the fruit, but the fruit has little to do with the appearances in question. =formation of adventitious flowers and fruits within the ovary.=--this generally arises either from substitution of a flower-bud for an ovule or from prolification; there are certain cases, however, where the new growth seems not to be either due to metamorphosis or to prolification strictly. the cut, fig. , represents a case where, in the dilated upper portion of the ovary of _sinapis arvensis_, two flower-buds were found projecting from a raised central line, corresponding, as it would seem, to the midrib, and not to the margins of the carpel. similar cases have occurred in _nasturtium amphibium_, _brassica rapa_, and _passiflora quadrangularis_. [illustration: fig. .--distended pod of _sinapis arvensis_ bearing in the interior stalked flower buds.] in bromfield's 'flora vectensis,' p. , the following account is given of an abnormal development in _cardamine pratensis_: "on the lower part of the corymb were several seed vessels on pedicels changed from their usual linear to an ovate elliptical figure, so as to resemble a silicula. these, on being opened, were found to contain petals of the usual colour, which in the pods above had burst from their confinement and appeared as semi-double flowers; the valves of the pod answering to the true calyx. * * * from their verticillate arrangement it is evident that these petaloid expansions were not transformed seeds, but simply a development of the common axis within the ovary into an abortive whorl of floral organs, besides which there were evident rudiments both of stamens and germens in the centre of the bundle." baillon[ ] also records a case of the same nature in _sinapis arvensis_. [illustration: fig. *.--portion of the interior of the silicle in _cheiranthus cheiri_, showing adventitious pod in the place of an ovule.] [illustration: fig. .--adventitious pod from fig. , enlarged.] here, too, may also be mentioned the presence of an adventitious siliqua within the ordinary one attached along the same line as the ovules, and partially divided by a replum into two cavities. in this case there was nothing to indicate the presence of floral envelopes (figs. , ). a similar occurrence has been brought under my notice in some grapes which were observed to be cracking before they were perfectly ripe, and in which adventitious fruits were found within the parent grape, occupying the position of seeds (figs. , ). similar anomalous growths are noticed under the heads of substitution and prolification. =formation of stamens within the cavity of the ovary.=--the only instance of this that has come under the author's observation occurred in some flowers of _bæckea diosmæfolia_, rudge, for an examination of which he is indebted to mr. bentham. [illustration: fig. .--section of barbarossa grape showing adventitious grape in the position of a seed.] [illustration: fig. .--grape with supplementary fruit in the interior] in the normal flower there is a turbinate hollow calyx, whose limb is divided into five serrated lobes; alternating with these latter, and springing from the throat of the calyx, are the petals. originating from the same annular disk as the petals are the stamens, seven or eight in number. the ovary is partially adherent, is surmounted by a style, and has two or three loculi with an axile placenta, to which several small curved ovules are attached. the malformed flowers did not present anything peculiar in their outer parts, nor did the ovary, partially immersed within the expanded top of the flower-stalk and the calyx-tube, which is continuous with that organ, show externally any indication of the change within. on cutting it across, however, in any direction, numerous perfect stamens (filaments and anthers) were seen projecting from the walls of the cavity (fig. ). in most of the flowers the ovary was one-celled; but in a few there was the usual axile placenta; yet even in these latter cases the stamens originated from the walls of the cavity, and not from the placenta. the stamens presented different degrees of development; in some cases they were fully formed, the anther-lobes open, and the pollen exposed; while in other instances the filaments were involute or circinate, just as the ordinary stamens are in the unexpanded flower-bud. in some cases imperfect stamens were found, mere barren filaments, with or without rudimentary anthers at the top. in no instance was there a perfect ovule, or, indeed, any trace of ovules. the stamens appeared to be arranged irregularly on the walls of the ovarian cavity; and while they were certainly more numerous at the lower portion (that now generally considered to be formed by the cup-like end of the pedicel), they were not wanting in the upper half of the ovary (or that which is probably formed from the carpellary leaves). [illustration: fig. .-- . vertical section of flower of _bæckea diosmæfolia_, showing stamens within the ovary; magnified ten times. . transverse section of ovary. . stamen. . imperfect stamen.] this case differs from most that have been recorded, and in which there has been a more or less complete substitution of anther for carpel, or where the tissues of the carpel have produced pollen, and so taken upon themselves the appearance and functions of anthers. instances of this latter kind are not uncommon; but in the _bæckea_ there were perfect stamens proceeding from perfect and completely closed ovaries. moquin-tandon[ ] cites from agardh an instance which seems more closely to resemble the state of things in the _bæckea_, and which occurred in a double hyacinth, wherein both anthers and ovules were borne on the same placenta. probably, though the fact is not stated, the ovary of the hyacinth was open; and we are told that the flower was double--that it was, in fact, modified and changed in more organs than one; while in the _bæckea_ nothing at all unusual was observed till the ovary was cut open. the style was present even in those flowers where there was no axile placenta; hence in these cases it could not be, as lindley stated it to be in the closely allied _babingtonia_, a prolongation of the placenta.[ ] =formation of pollen within the ovules.=--this has now been recorded in two instances by mr. s. j. a. salter in _passiflora cærulea_ and in _p. palmata_,[ ] and by the author in _rosa arvensis_.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--pollen within the ovule of _passiflora_ (after salter).] in the case of the passion-flower there were various malformations in the ovaries, which were all more or less split open at the distal end, indicating a tendency towards dialysis. the pollen-bearing ovules were borne on the edges of these ovaries, and presented various intermediate conditions between anthers and ovules, commencing at the distal extremity of the carpel with a bi-lobed anther, and passing in series to the base of the ovary, an antheroid body of ovule-like form, a modified ovule containing pollen, an ovule departing from a perfectly natural condition only in the development of a few grains of pollen in its nucleus, and, finally, a perfect, normal ovule. in the flowers of the rose the stamens exhibited almost every conceivable gradation between their ordinary form and that of the carpels, while some of the ovules contained pollen in greater or less abundance. speaking generally, the most common state of things in these flowers was the occurrence on the throat of the calyx, in the position ordinarily occupied by the stamens, and sometimes mingled with those organs, of twisted, ribbon-like filaments, which bore about the centre one or more pendulous, anatropous ovules on their margins. immediately above the latter organs were the anther-lobes, more or less perfectly developed, and surmounting these a long style, terminating in a fringed, funnel-shaped stigma. sometimes the ovules were perfect, at other times the nucleus protruded through the foramen, while in a third set the nucleus was included within the tegument, the ovules having in all respects their natural external conformation, containing, however, not only pollen-grains, but also a layer of those peculiar spheroidal cells, including a fibrous deposit, which are among the normal constituents of the anther. in one case, where the coat of the ovule was imperfect, and allowed the nucleus to protrude, the pollen was evidently contained within the central mass of the structure. in this instance the fibrous cells were not detected, these being only found in cases where the investment of the ovule was perfect; and hence it seems likely that the fibrous cells were part of the coat of the ovule, while the pollen was formed within the nucleus. in no case was any trace of embryo sac to be seen. the main interest, as mr. salter remarks, in these cases is physiological; so far as structure alone is concerned, there does not appear any reason why pollen-grains should not be developed in any portion of the plant; the mother cells in which the pollen is formed not differing, to all outward appearance, from any other cells, unless it be in size. the fundamental unity of construction in all the organs of plants could hardly be better illustrated than by these cases; while, in spite of their exceptional nature, they must be of great interest physiologically, as showing the wide limits of possible variation which thus may even involve the sex, "for an ovule to develop pollen within its interior," says mr. salter, "is equivalent to an ovum in an animal being converted into a capsule of spermatozoa. it is a conversion of germ into sperm, the most complete violation of individuality and unity of sex. * * * * the occurrence of an antheroid ovule and a normal ovule on the same carpellary leaf realises the simplest and the most absolute form of hermaphroditism." it must, however, be remarked that the term substitution would be preferable to conversion. there is, at present, no evidence to show that the germinal vesicles were present in these cases; on the other hand, it seems most probable that they were not, so that the presence of the pollen-cells must be considered as simply adventitious. it can hardly be that they were, in the first instance, germinal vesicles, which, in course of time, became so modified as to assume the appearance of pollen-grains. between the nucleus of the ovule and the tubercle of cellular tissue constituting the primordial anther, there is little or no difference, so that it may be said that, for a time, there is no distinction of sex in the nascent flower, but as development goes on, the difference becomes perceptible. it cannot at present be stated what precise circumstances induce the one mass to form mother-cells and pollen-grains, and the other to develop an embryo sac and germinal vesicles. position and external circumstances may have some indirect effect, and it may, perhaps, be significant that in all the instances of polliniferous ovules, the ovular structures have been exposed on an open carpel or otherwise, in place of being confined within the cavity of a closed ovary, as under ordinary circumstances. even among conifers the ovuligerous scales are so closely packed that there is little or no exposure of the ovules. but, apart from all speculative notions as to the relation between the structure and functions of the anther and of the ovule respectively, and of the possibility or the reverse of parthenogenesis, it will clearly be necessary in any future alleged occurrence of the latter phenomenon to ascertain whether any or all of the apparent ovules are, or are not, anthers in disguise. =homomorphic flowers of "compositæ."=--in a large section of the _compositæ_ there is, as is well known, a distinction between the florets of the "disc" and those of the "ray," the latter being ligulate, the former tubular. in what are erroneously called double flowers in this order, _e.g._ in the chrysanthemum, dahlia, &c. &c., the florets are all ligulate. this change is sometimes classed with peloria, but there is no abnormal regularity in these cases. on the other hand, were the ligulate florets to be all replaced by tubular ones, the term peloria would be more strictly applicable. it will be remembered that in the sub-order _ligulifloræ_, the florets are naturally all ligulate, so that the change above mentioned is not in itself a very grave one. =heterotaxy affecting the inflorescence.=--under the head of prolification, heterogamy, &c., various deviations from the normal inflorescence are alluded to. in this place, therefore, it is only necessary to mention certain rare deviations from the customary arrangement of the inflorescence, such as the change from a definite centrifugal form of inflorescence to an indefinite centripetal one. this occurs occasionally in roses, where the shoot, instead of terminating in a flower-bud, lengthens and bears the flower-bud on its sides as in a raceme. in the hyacinth, the inflorescence of which is properly indefinite, the terminal flower may frequently be found to expand first, though in order of development it may have been the last formed. it occasionally happens that certain plants will, contrary to their usual custom, bloom twice in the same season; this usually arises from the premature development of buds which, under ordinary circumstances, would not unfold till the following spring. in these instances of what the french term "fleuraison anticipée," the position of inflorescence is not changed, but there are other cases where the position of the inflorescence is altered, as in the laburnum, where, in some seasons, racemes may be seen springing from short lateral "spurs" along the sides of the branches, as well as from the extremities of long shoots. of a similar nature are those cases wherein stems or branches usually sterile become fertile; this happens in _equisetaceæ_,[ ] in _restiaceæ_, and other orders. in the equisetums, the condition in question has been specially noticed to occur after prolonged drought. _equisetaceæ_ are likewise subject to an anomaly called by duval jouve interruption of the spike, and wherein the scales bearing the spore cases are separated by whorls of branches instead of forming one compact unbroken spike as usual. this alternation of the organs of vegetation and reproduction may also be seen occasionally in _typha_, and other plants. kirschleger describes a case in which the male catkins of _salix cinerea_ were placed at the ends of the branches instead of being lateral productions; moreover the usual articulation was not formed, so that the catkin was persistent instead of deciduous.[ ] =supra-soriferous ferns.=--in the great majority of ferns the sori or clusters of spore cases are placed on the under surface of the fronds; nevertheless, a few cases are on record where the fructification is produced on the upper as well as on the lower surface, and sometimes abundantly so. this occasionally happens from the elongation of the normally placed sorus, which thus extends to the margin, and returns on the upper side, when the sori chance to be placed opposite to the marginal crenatures. but it is also frequently the case that the sori are produced on the upper side, distinctly within the margin, and where there are no corresponding sori beneath. those varieties which have the margin crenated or lobed seem most liable to assume this abnormal supra-soriferous condition. among the ferns in which this condition has been observed are the following: _scolopendrium vulgare_, _polypodium anomalum_, hook., _asplenium trichomanes_, _cionidium moorei_.[ ] footnotes: [ ] 'gard. chron.' , p. . [ ] 'flora.' , pp. - . [ ] 'journ. linn. soc.,' vol. vi; "botany," , p. . [ ] 'tijdschrift voor natuur. geschied,' , vol. iii, tab. vii, p. . [ ] roeper, 'enum. euphorb.,' p. . bernhardi, 'linnæa,' vii, p. , tab. xiv, f. . wydler, "subcotyled. sprossbildung," 'flora,' , p. . hooker, 'trans. linn. soc.,' vol. xxiv, p. (_welwitschia_). [ ] 'misc. austriac. ad bot.,' vol. i, p. , t. . [ ] see also carrière, 'revue horticole,' , p. ; and as to pears, radlkofer in 'bericht über die thätigkert der baierischen gartenbau gesellschaft,' , p. , t. i. [ ] 'flora indica,' p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' , p. . [ ] 'trans. linn. soc.' xxvi, p. , tab. iv, b. [ ] "si arbusculam, quæ in ollâ antea posita, quotannis floruit et fructus protulit, deinde deponamus in uberiori terra calidi caldarii, proferet illa per plures annos multos ac frondosos ramos, sine ullo fructu. id quod argumento est, folia inde crescere, unde prius enati sunt flores; quemadmodum vicissim, quod in folia nunc succrescit, id, naturâ ita moderante, in flores mutatur, si eadem arbor iterum in ollâ seritur."--linnæus, 'prolepsis,' § iii. [ ] 'rev. hortic.' may, , 'gardeners' chronicle,' , pp. , . [ ] cited in 'annals nat. hist.,' , vol. xv, p. . [ ] 'ann. scienc. nat.,' vol. xiv, , p. . [ ] naudin, 'ann. sc. nat.,' nd ser., , vol. xiv, p. , fig. , pl. i (_drosera_). st. hilaire, 'comptes rendus,' ix, p. . [ ] hance, 'hook. journ. botany,' , vol. i, p. , pl. v. [ ] booth, 'gard. chron.,' jan. st, , p. . [ ] lindley, 'theory of horticulture,' ed. , p. . [ ] 'hook. journ. of botany,' , iv, p. . see also the curious _begonia gemmipara_, 'hook. fil. illust. himal. plant.,' t. xiv. [ ] 'phytanth.,' n. , _d._ [ ] 'ann. scienc. nat.,' rd series. . vol. xix, p. , tab. . [ ] carrière, 'revue horticole.' , p. . [ ] 'gard. chron.,' , p. . [ ] , p. , &c. [ ] 'ann. nat. hist.,' , vol. xvi, p. . [ ] see also lindley, 'veg. kingd.,' p. et _a_, where the views of raspail, r. brown, mohl, henslow, and others, are discussed. [ ] it has been observed that if a plant is supplied with copious nourishment the flowering-period is delayed; but that moderate or even scanty nourishment accelerates it. goethe, 'metam.,' § . see also wolff, 'theoria generationis,' ; linn. 'prolepsis,' §§ and . [ ] moquin-tandon, p. ; also lindl., 'elements of botany,' p. , fig. ; "theory of horticulture," p. . 'gard. chron.,' , p. ; irmish, 'flora,' , p. , &c. [ ] caspary, 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' vol. vi, , p. ; also payer, ibid., vol. i, . p. . [ ] trécul, 'ann. sc. nat.,' nd ser., vol. xx, p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' vol. vii, , p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' vol. i. p. , vol. v, p. . 'illustr. hortic.,' xii, , misc. . 'rev. horticole,' p. , et p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' , p. . [ ] the structure of this flower is discussed at some length in a paper by the author on axillary prolification. 'trans. linn. soc.,' vol. xxiii, p. , t. liv. fig. . see also 'clos. bull. soc. bot. fr.,' vol. v, , p. . seringe et heyland, 'bull. bot.,' i, p. . 'pallas enum. plant. hort. demidoff,' append, c, ic. [ ] 'adansonia,' i, . [ ] 'adansonia.' vol. iii, p. , tab. xii. [ ] 'elém. térat. végét.,' p, . [ ] masters, 'journ. linn. soc.,' vol. ix, , p. . [ ] 'trans. linn. soc.,' vol. xxiv, p. . tab. xxiv. [ ] 'brit. assoc. report,' dundee, ; and seemann's 'journal of botany,' , p. , tab. lxxii, figs. b - . [ ] duval jouve, 'hist. equiset. france.' , p. . [ ] 'flora,' t. xxiv, , p. . [ ] moore, 'nature-printed british ferns,' vo edition, vol. ii. p. . tab. lxxxv, b, &c. chapter iv. heterogamy. this term is here intended to apply to all those cases in which the arrangement of the sexual organs is different from what it is habitually. it is evident that in many instances there is no malformation, no monstrosity, but rather a restoration of organs habitually suppressed, a tendency towards structural completeness rather than the reverse. it must be also understood that the following remarks apply to structural points only, and are not intended to include the question of function. the occurrence of heteromorphic unions renders it necessary to keep in mind that plants hermaphrodite as to structure are by no means necessarily so as to function. the simplest case of this alteration in the relative position of the sexes is that which occurs in monoecious plants, where the male and female flowers have a definite position, but which in exceptional instances is altered. =change in the relative position of male and female flowers= may thus occur in any monoecious plant. cultivated maize, _zea mays_, frequently exhibits alterations of this kind; under ordinary circumstances, the male inflorescence is a compound spike, occupying the extremity of the stem, while the female flowers are borne in simple spikes at a lower level, but specimens may now and then be found where the sexes are mixed in the same inflorescence; the upper branching panicle usually containing male flowers only, under these circumstances, bears female flowers also.[ ] in like manner, but less frequently, the female inflorescence occasionally produces male flowers as well. among the species of _carex_ it is a common thing for the terminal spike to consist of male flowers at the top, and female flowers at the base; the converse of this, where the female flowers are at the summit of the spike, is much more uncommon. an illustration of this occurrence is given in the figure (fig. ). among the _coniferæ_ numerous instances have been recorded of the presence of male and female flowers on the same spike, thus mr. now professor alexander dickson exhibited at the botanical society of edinburgh in july, , some malformed cones of _abies excelsa_, in which the inferior part of the axis was covered with stamens, whilst the terminal portion produced bracts and scales like an ordinary female cone. the stamens of the lower division were serially continuous with the bracts above. some of the lower scales of the female portion were in the axils of the uppermost stamens, which last were somewhat modified, the anther cells being diminished, whilst the scale-like crest had become more elongated and pointed, in fact, more or less resembling the ordinary bracts.[ ] mohl, schleiden, and a. braun have observed similar cones in _pinus alba_, and cramer figures and describes androgynous cones in _larix microcarpa_. c. a. meyer ('bull. phys. math.,' t. x, ) also describes some catkins of _alnus fruticosa_ which bore male flowers at the top, and female flowers at the base. [illustration: fig. .--spike of _carex acuta_, with female flowers at the summit.] on the subject of this section the reader may consult a. braun,. 'das individ.,' , p. . caspary, 'de abietin. flor. fem. struct. morphol.' schleiden. 'principles,' english edition, p. . mohl, 'verm. schrift.,' p. . meyen in 'wiegm. archiv.,' , p. . cramer, 'bildungsabweich,' p. , tab. v, figs. - . parlatore, 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser. iv, vol. xvi, p. , tab. a. see also under the head of prolification, substitutions, &c. =change from the monoecious to the dioecious condition.=--this is of less frequent occurrence than might have been anticipated. in the 'gardeners' chronicle,' , pp. and , several instances are noted of walnut trees bearing female flowers to the exclusion of males. the mulberry tree has also been noticed to produce female blossoms only, while in other plants male flowers only are developed. it seems probable that the age of the plant may have something to do with this production of flowers of one sex to the exclusion of the other. =change from the dioecious to the monoecious condition.--androgynism.=-- this is of far more common occurrence than the preceding. [illustration: fig. .--monoecious inflorescence of hop.] in the hop (_humulus lupulus_), when monoecious, the female catkins are usually borne on the ends of the branches as shown in the cut (fig. ), and a similar thing has been noticed in _urtica dioica_ by clos, 'bull. soc. bot. france,' vol. , p. . baillon ('etudes du groupe des euphorbiacées,' p. ) mentions the following species of that order as having been seen by him with monoecious inflorescence: _schismatopera distichophylla_, _mozinna peltata_, _hermesia castaneifolia_. oliver mentions ('hook. icon. plant.,' t. ) that in _leitneria floridana_ the upper scales of the male catkin occasionally subtend an ovary. it would seem that external conditions have some effect in determining the formation of one sex, as in some species of _carex_, while in the case of _salix repens_, hampe[ ] says that when grown partially or for a time under water, those twigs which are thrust up above the surface bear female flowers, while those twigs that blossom after the water is dried up, produce male flowers only. carrière[ ] says that a plant of _stauntonia latifolia_ which for some years produced stamens only, now produces flowers of both sexes; it was dioecious, but is now monoecious. the same author alludes to a similar occurrence in _juniperus virginiana_. the hops is also said to vary in sexual characteristics from time to time.[ ] in addition to the genera, already named, in which this production of flowers of both sexes has been observed may be mentioned _taxus! gunnera! urtica! mercurialis! restio! cannabis! salix! humulus!_ as well as others in which the change is less frequent. among cryptogams a similar change occurs. as an illustration may be cited _leucobryum giganteum_, as quoted from müller in henfrey's 'botanical gazette,' i, p. . as to androgynous willows, in addition to the references given under the head of substitution of stamens for pistils, see schlechtendal, 'flora berol.,' ii. p. . tausch, 'bot. zeit.,' , i. p. . koch, 'synops. flor. germ.,' . host, 'flor. aust,.' ii, p. (_s. mirabilis_). see also hegelmaier, 'württemberg naturwissenshaft jahreshefte,' , p. . other references to less accessible works are given in 'linnæa,' xiv, p. . =change from hermaphroditism to unisexuality.=--many flowers ordinarily hermaphrodite as to structure, become unisexual by the abortion or suppression of their stamens, or of their carpels, as the case may be. this phenomenon is lessened in interest since the demonstration of the fact by darwin and others, that many plants, structurally hermaphrodite, require for the full and perfect performance of their functions the cooperation of the stamens and pistils, belonging to different individuals of the same species. some of the _ranunculaceæ_ constantly exhibit a tendency towards the dioecious condition, and the rarity with which perfect seeds of _ranunculus ficaria_ are formed is to be attributed, in great measure, to the deficiency of pollen in the anthers of these flowers. _ranunculus auricomus_ also is frequently sterile. specimens of _ranunculus bulbosus_ may be met with in which every flower is furnished with carpels, most of which have evidently been fertilised, although there are no perfect stamens in the flowers. knight and other vegetable physiologists have been of opinion that a high temperature favours the production of stamens, while a lower degree of heat is considered more favorable to the production of pistils, and in this way the occurrence of "blind" strawberries has been accounted for. mr. r. thompson, writing on this subject, speaks of a plantation of hautbois strawberries which in one season were wholly sterile, and accounts for the circumstance as follows: the plants were taken from the bearing beds the year previous, and were planted in a rich well-manured border, in which they started rapidly into too great luxuriance, the growth being to leaves rather than to fruit. the following season these same plants bore a most abundant crop, hence these plants were accidentally prevented from perfecting their female organs.[ ] mr. darwin[ ] cites from various sources the following details relating to strawberries which it may be useful to insert in this place, as throwing some light upon the production of unisexual flowers. "several english varieties, which in this country are free from any such tendency, when cultivated in rich soils under the climate of north america commonly produce plants with separate sexes. thus, a whole acre of keen's seedlings in the united states has been observed to be almost sterile in the absence of male flowers; but the more general rule is, that the male plants over-run the females.... the most successful cultivators in ohio plant, for every seven rows of pistillate flowers, one row of hermaphrodites, which afford pollen for both kinds; but the hermaphrodites, owing to their expenditure in the production of pollen, bear less fruit than the female plants." _stratiotes aloides_ has been said to produce its carpels with greater abundance towards the northern limits of its geographical distribution, and its stamens, on the other hand, are stated to be more frequently developed in more southern districts. _honckenya peploides_ affords another illustration of the sexual arrangements in the flower being altered as it would seem by climatal conditions. thus, in the united states, according to professor asa gray, the flowers are frequently hermaphrodite, while in this country they are usually sub-dioecious.[ ] treviranus[ ] says that the flowers of _hippuris_ and _callitriche_ are apt to be hermaphrodite in summer, but female only at a later period. for further remarks on this subject, see sections relating to suppression of stamens and pistils. =change from unisexuality to hermaphroditism.=--this occurrence depends on one of two causes, either organs are developed (stamens or pistils as the case may be), which are habitually absent in the particular flower; or some of the stamens may be more or less completely converted into or replaced by pistils, or _vice versâ_. the first condition is the opposite of suppression; it is, as it were, a restoration of symmetry, and might be included under the head of regular peloria, inasmuch as certain organs which habitually undergo suppression at a certain stage in their development, by exception, go on growing, and produce a perfect, instead of an imperfect flower. in teratological records it is not always stated clearly to which of the two above-named causes the unusual hermaphroditism belongs, though it is generally easy to ascertain this point. very many, perhaps all, diclinous flowers may, under certain conditions, become perfect, at least structurally. i have myself seen hermaphrodite flowers in _cucurbita_,[ ] _mercurialis_, _cannabis_, _zea mays_, and _aucuba japonica_, as well as in many _restiaceæ_, notably _cannamois virgata_ and _lepyrodia hermaphrodita_. _spinacia oleracea_, _rhodiola rosea_, _cachrys taurica_, and _empetrum nigrum_ are also occasionally hermaphrodite. gubler[ ] alludes to a similar occurrence in _pistacia lentiscus_, wherein, however, he adds that there was a deficiency of pollen in the flowers. schnizlein[ ] observed hermaphrodite flowers in the beech, _fagus sylvatica_, the ovaries being smaller than usual, and the stamens epigynous. baillon[ ] enumerates the following _euphorbiaceæ_ as having exceptionally produced hermaphrodite flowers, _crozophora tinctoria_, _suregada_ sp., _phyllanthus longifolius_, _breynia_ sp., _philyra brasiliensis_, _ricinus communis_, _conceveiba macrophylla_, _cluytia semperflorens_, _wall_, non _roxb_. _mercurialis annua_ and _cleistanthus polystachyus_. in some of these cases the hermaphroditism is due to the development of anthers on the usually barren staminodes, though, in other cases, the stamens would seem to be separate, independent formations, as they do not occupy the same relative position that the ordinary stamens would do if developed.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--flower of _fuchsia_ in which the calyx was leafy, the petals normal (reflexed in the figure), the stamens partially converted into ovaries, the ordinary inferior ovary being absent. see substitution.] robert brown[ ] observed stamens within the utricle of _carex acuta_, and gay is stated by moquin ('el. ter. veg.,' p. ) to have observed a similar occurrence in _carex glauca_. paasch[ ] observed a similar occurrence in _c. cæspitosa_, and schauer, in _c. paludosa_,[ ] though in the latter instance the case seems to have been one of transformation or substitution rather than one of hermaphroditism. the second cause of this pseudo-hermaphroditism is due either to the more or less perfect mutation of male and female organs, or it may be to the complete absence of one and its replacement by another, as when out of many stamens, one or more are deficient, and their places occupied by carpels. this happens very frequently in willows and poplars, and has been seen in the beech.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--hermaphrodite flower of _carica papaya_.] in _begonia frigida_[ ] the anomaly is increased by the position of the ovaries above, the perianth, a position due, not to any solution or detachment of the latter from the former, but simply to the presence of ovaries where, under ordinary circumstances, stamens only are formed, as happened also in a garden variety of a _fuchsia_, wherein, however, the change was less perfect than in the _begonia_, and in which, as the flower is naturally hermaphrodite, the alteration is of the less importance. [illustration fig. .--ovuliferous anthers--_cucurbita_.] in hermaphrodite flowers of _carica papaya_ (fig. ) there is a single row of five stamens instead of two rows of five each as in the normal male flowers, the position of the second or inner row of stamens being occupied by five carpels, which, however, are not adherent to the corolla as the stamens are, thus, supposing the arrangement of parts in the normal male flowers to be as follows: --------------------------- s s s s s --------------------------- | p p p p p | st st st st st | st st st st st | that of the hermaphrodite blossoms would be, in brief, as follows: | s |------------ | p | st | c | one of the most curious cases of this kind recorded is one mentioned by mr. berkeley,[ ] wherein a large white-seeded gourd presented a majority of flowers in which the pollen was replaced by ovules. it would seem probable from the appearances presented by the figure that these ovules were, some of them, polliniferous, like those of the _passiflora_, &c., described at p. , but nothing is stated on the subject. see also section on regular peloria, substitution, pistillody of the stamens, &c. footnotes: [ ] see also clos., 'mem. acad. toulouse,' sixth ser., t. iii, pp. - . scott, 'trans. bot. soc. edinburgh,' t. viii, p. . wigand, 'flora,' , p. . [ ] professor dickson concludes from the examination of these structures that the male cone, consisting of simple stamens developed on one common axis, must be regarded as a simple male flower, while the axillary scales of the female cone are by him compared with the flattened shoots of _ruscus_. [ ] 'linnæa,' xiv, . [ ] rev. hortic.,' january, . [ ] see royle, 'man. materia medica,' ed. , p. . [ ] thomson, 'gardener's assistant,' p. . [ ] 'variation of animals and plants,' i, . [ ] babington, 'ann. nat. hist.,' vol. ix, , p. . [ ] 'phys. der gewächse,' ii, p. . [ ] see also schlechtendal, 'linnæa,' viii, p. , and lindley, 'veg. kingd.,' p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. france,' vol. ix, p. . [ ] cited in henfrey, 'bot. gazette.' , p. . [ ] baillon. 'etudes du groupe des euphorbiacées,' p. , tab. xv, fig. , tab. xix, fig. . [ ] see also guillemin, 'mém. soc. nat. hist. paris,' i, p. ; hermaphrodite flowers in _euphorbia esula_. [ ] 'prod. flor. n. holl.,' p. . [ ] 'bot. zeit.,' , p. . [ ] 'pflanz, terat.,' von moquin-tandon, p. . [ ] schnizlein, loc. cit. [ ] 'bot. mag.,' tab. , fig. . see also 'gard. chron.,' , pp. , ; , p. . [ ] 'gard. chron.,' , p. . chapter v. alterations in the direction of organs. the deviations from the ordinary direction of organs partake for the most part more of the nature of variations than of absolute malposition or displacement. it must also be borne in mind how frequently the direction of the leaves, or of the flower, varies according to the stage of development which it has arrived at, to unequal or disproportionate growth of some parts, or to the presence of some impediment either accidental or resulting from the natural growth of the plant. these and other causes tend to alter the direction of parts very materially. =change in the direction of axile organs, roots, stems, &c.=--the roots frequently exhibit good illustrations of the effect of the causes above mentioned in altering the natural direction. the roots are put out of their course by meeting with any obstacle in their way. almost the only exception to the rule in accordance with which roots descend under natural circumstances, is that furnished by _trapa natans_, the roots of which in germination are directed upwards towards the surface of the water. so in _sechium edule_, the seed of which germinates while still in the fruit, the roots are necessarily, owing to the inverted position of the embryo, directed upwards in the first instance. a downward direction of the stem or branches occurs in many weak-stemmed plants growing upon rocks or walls, or in trees with very long slender branches as in _salix babylonica_, and the condition may often be produced artificially as in the weeping ash. the opposite change occurs in what are termed fastigiate varieties, where the branches, in place of assuming more or less of a horizontal direction, become erect and nearly parallel with the main stem as in the lombardy poplar, which is supposed to be merely a form of the black italian poplar. m. de selys-longchamps has described a similar occurrence in another species of poplar (_p. virginiana_ desf.), and amongst a number of seedling plants fastigiate varieties may frequently be found, which may be perpetuated by cuttings or grafts, or sometimes even by seed; hence the origin of fastigiate varieties of elms, oaks, thorns, chestnuts, and other plants which may be met with in the nurseries. sometimes when the top of the main stem is destroyed by disease or accident, one of the heretofore lateral shoots takes its place, and continues the development of the tree in the original direction. it is often an object with the gardener to restore the symmetry of an injured tree so that its beauty may ultimately not be impaired.[ ] climate appears sometimes to have some influence on the direction of branches, thus dr. falconer, as quoted by darwin,[ ] relates that in the hotter parts of india "the english ribston-pippin apple, a himalayan oak, a prunus and a pyrus all assume a fastigiate or pyramidal habit, and this fact is the more interesting as a chinese tropical species of _pyrus_ naturally has this habit of growth. nevertheless many of the fastigiate varieties seen in gardens have originated in this country by variation of seeds or buds." m. carrière has also recorded a curious circumstance with reference to the fastigiate variety of the false acacia _robinia pseudacacia_; he states that if a cutting or a graft be taken from the upper portion of the tree, the fastigiate habit will be reproduced, and the branches will be furrowed and covered with short prickles; but if the plant be multiplied by detaching portions of the root-stock, then instead of getting a pyramidal tree with erect branches, a spreading bushy shrub is produced, with more or less horizontal, cylindrical branches, destitute of prickles.[ ] =eversion of the axis.=--in the case of the fig, the peculiar inflorescence is usually explained on the supposition that the termination of the axis becomes concave, during growth, bearing the true flowers in the hollow thus formed. the cavity in this case would probably be due not to any real process of excavation, but to a disproportionate growth of the outer as contrasted with the central parts of the fig. some species of _sempervivum_ have a similar mode of growth, so that ultimately a kind of tube is formed, lined by the leaves, the central and innermost being the youngest. the hip of the rose may be explained in a similar manner by the greater proportionate growth of the outer as contrasted with the central portions of the apex of the flower-stalk. in cases of median prolification, already referred to, the process is reversed, the central portions then elongate into a shoot and no cavity is formed. a fig observed by zuccarini (figs. , ) appears to have been formed in a similar manner, the flower-bearing summit of the stalk not being contracted as usual, the flowers projected beyond the orifice of the fig. if this view be correct the case would be one rather of lengthening of the axis than of absolute eversion since it was never inverted. [illustration: fig. .--fig showing prolonged inflorescence and projecting flowers.] [illustration: fig. .--section of the same.] =altered direction of leaves.=--the leaves partake more or less of the altered direction of the axis, as in fastigiate elms, but this is not universally the case, for though the stem is bent downwards the leaves may be placed in the opposite direction; thus in some specimens of _galium aparine_ growing on the side of a cliff from which there had been a fall of chalk, the stems, owing apparently to the landslip, were pendent, but the leaves were abruptly bent upwards. one of the most singular instances of an inverted direction of the leaves is that presented by a turnip (fig. ) presented to the museum of king's college, london, by the late professor edward forbes. the turnip is hollow in the interior and the majority of the leaves springing from its apex instead of ascending into the light and air become bent downwards so as to occupy the cavity, and in such a manner as to bring to mind the position of an inverted embryo in a seed. [illustration: fig. .--hollow turnip, showing some of the leaves inverted and occupying the cavity.] =altered direction of the flower and its parts.=--the changes which take place in the relative position either of the flower as a whole or of its several parts during growth are well known, as also are the relations which some of these movements bear to the process of fertilisation, so that but little space need here be given to the subject beyond what is necessary to point out the frequent changes of direction which necessarily accompany various deviations from the ordinary form and arrangement of parts. in cases where an habitually irregular flower becomes regular, the change in form is frequently associated with an alteration in direction both of the flower as a whole and, to a greater or less extent, of its individual members, for instance of _gloxinia_, the normal flowers of which are irregular and pendent, there is now in common cultivation a peloriate race in which the flowers are regular in form and erect in position. [illustration: fig. .--flower of normal _gloxinia_.] [illustration: fig. .--flower of _gloxinia_, erect and regular (regular _peloria_).] fig. shows the usual irregular form of _gloxinia_, with which may be contrasted figs. , and . fig. shows the regular erect form; fig. the calyx of the same flower; while in fig. are shown the stamens and style of the two plants respectively. in the upper figure the style of the peloriate variety is shown as nearly straight, and the stamens undergo a corresponding change. no doubt the relative fertility and capacity for impregnation of the two varieties is affected in proportion to the change of form. the gloxinia affords an instance of regular congenital peloria in which the regularity of form and the erect direction are due to an arrest, not of growth, but of development, in consequence of which the changes that ordinarily ensue during the progress of the flower from its juvenile to its fully formed condition do not take place. [illustration: fig. .--calyx of erect _gloxinia_.] [illustration: fig. .--stamens of erect regular, and of pendent irregular-flowered _gloxinia_.] a similar alteration accompanies this form of peloria in other flowers (see peloria). a change in direction may result also from other circumstances than those just alluded to. abortion or suppression of organs will induce such an alteration; thus in a flower of _pelargonium_ now before me three of the five carpels, from some cause or other, are abortive and much smaller than usual, and the style and the beak-like torus are bent downwards towards the stunted carpels instead of being, as they usually are, straight. amongst orchids, where the pedicel of the flower or the ovary is normally twisted, so that the labellum occupies the anterior or inferior part of the flower, it frequently happens, in cases of peloria and other changes, that the primitive position is retained, the twist does not take place, and so with other resupinate flowers. in azaleas a curious deflexion of the parts of the flower may occasionally be met with. fig. shows an instance of this in which the corolla, the stamens and the style were abruptly bent downwards: as young flowers of this singular variety have not been examined it is difficult to form an opinion as to the cause of this variation. in one plant the change occurred in connection with the suppression of all the flowers but one in the cluster, or rather the place of the flowers was occupied by an equal number of leafy shoots. [illustration: fig. .--flower of _azalea_, showing the corolla reflected.] moquin[ ] mentions a flower of _rosa alpina_ in which two of the petals were erect, while the remaining ones were much larger and expanded horizontally. the same author quotes from m. desmoulins the case of a species of _orobanche_, in which a disjunction of the petals constituting the upper lip took place, thus liberating the style and allowing it to assume a vertical direction. [illustration: fig. .--flower of _cuphea miniata_ enlarged, showing protrusion and hypertrophy of an erect placenta, after morren.] [illustration: fig. .--placenta from the flower shown at fig. ; the ovary is membranous and torn, the placenta, erect and ovuliferous, after morren.] m. carrière[ ] has described an instance wherein two apples were joined together, a larger and a smaller one; the former was directed away from the centre of the tree as usual, while the smaller one was pointed in exactly the opposite direction. the larger fruit had the customary parchment-like carpels, the smaller was destitute of them. sometimes the direction assumed by one flower as an abnormal occurrence is the same as that which is proper to an allied species or genus under natural circumstances; thus flowers of the vine (_vitis_) have been met with in which the petals were spreading like a star (_fleurs avalidouires_), as in the genus _cissus_.[ ] morren describes a curious condition in some flowers of _cuphea miniata_, in which the placenta protruded through an orifice in the ovary, and losing the horizontal direction became erect (figs. , ). a similar occurrence happened in _lobelia erinus_. to this condition the belgian savant gave the name of gymnaxony.[ ] footnotes: [ ] the following details as to the method pursued by mr. mcnab, of the edinburgh botanic garden, may not be uninteresting in this place. they are from the pen of mr. anderson, and originally appeared in the 'gardeners' chronicle.' "the mode of inducing leaders to proceed from laterals is a matter of comparatively little concern among the generality of deciduous trees, for they are often provided with subsidiary branches around the leader, at an angle of elevation scarcely less perpendicular, but the laterals of all conifers stand, as nearly as possible, at right angles. imagine the consternation of most people when the leader of, say, _picea nobilis_, _p. nordmanniana_, or _p. lowii_ is destroyed." in a specimen of the latter plant the leader had been mischievously destroyed, to remedy which mr. mcnab adopted means which mr. anderson goes on to describe. "looking from the leader downward to the first tier of laterals, there appeared to have been a number of adventitious leaf-buds created, owing to the coronal bud being destroyed. these were allowed to plump up unmolested until the return of spring, when every one was scarified or rubbed off but the one nearest the extremity. to assist its development and restrain the action of the numerous laterals, every one was cut back in autumn, and this restraint upon the sap acted so favorably upon the incipient leader as to give it the strength and stamina of the original leader, so that nothing detrimental was evident twelve months after the accident had happened, and only a practical eye could detect that there had been any mishap at all. this beautifully simple process saved the baby tree. "another example of retrieving lost leaders may be quoted as illustrative of many in similar circumstances. _pícea webbiana_ had its leader completely destroyed down to the first tier of laterals. there was no such provision left for inducing leaf-buds as was the case with _p. lowii_ above referred to. resort must, therefore, be had to one of the best favoured laterals, but how is it to be coaxed from the horizontal position of a lateral to the perpendicular position of a leader? the uninitiated in these matters, and, in fact, practical gardeners generally, would at once reply, by supporting to a stake with the all-powerful cuba or bast-matting. but no. a far simpler method than that, namely, by fore-shortening all the laterals of the upper tier but the one selected for a leader. nature becomes the handmaid of art here; for without the slightest prop the lateral gradually raises itself erect, and takes the place of the lost leader. all that the operator requires to attend to is the amputation of the laterals until this adventitious fellow has gained a supremacy. singular provision in nature this, which, thanks to the undivided attention of a careful observer, has been fully appreciated and utilized." [ ] 'variation of animals and plants,' ii, p. . [ ] quoted in 'gard. chron.,' , p. . [ ] loc. cit., p. . [ ] 'rev. hortic.,' , p. . [ ] planchon and marès, 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser., tom. vi, , p. , tab. xii. [ ] 'bull. acad. belg.,' xviii, part ii, p. . book ii. deviations from the ordinary form of organs. in a morphological point of view the form of the various parts or organs of plants and the changes to which they are subjected during their development are only second in importance to the diversities of arrangement and, indeed, in some cases, do not in any degree hold a second place. taken together, the arrangement, form, and number of the several parts of the flower, make up what has been termed the symmetry of the flower.[ ] referring to the assumed standard of comparison, see p. , it will be seen that in the typically regular flower all the various organs are supposed to be regular in their dimensions and form. at one time it was even supposed that all flowers, no matter how irregular they subsequently became, began by being strictly symmetrical or regular, and that subsequent alterations were produced by inequality of growth or development. the researches of organogenists have, however, dispelled this idea of unvarying primordial regularity, by showing that in many cases flowers are irregular from the very first, that some begin by being irregular, and subsequently become regular, and even in some cases resume their original condition during the course of their development.[ ] under these circumstances an artificial standard of comparison becomes almost an absolute necessity for the time being. changes of form very generally, but not always, are accompanied with a change in regularity: thus a flower habitually bi-lateral may assume the characters of radiating symmetry and _vice versâ_. increase or decrease of size very frequently also are co-existent with an alteration in the usual form. in the case of the arrangement of organs it is often difficult or impossible, in the present state of our knowledge, to determine whether a given arrangement is congenital or acquired subsequently to the first development, whether for instance an isolation of parts be due to primordial separation or to a subsequent disunion of originally combined organs, see p. . with reference to the changes in the form of organs, however, it is in general more easy to ascertain the proximate cause of the appearance, and thus teratological changes of form may be grouped according as they are due to, , arrest of development; , undue or excessive development; , perverted development; and , irregular development; hence the use of the following terms--stasimorphy, pleiomorphy, metamorphy, and heteromorphy--to include teratological changes really or apparently due to one or other of the causes above mentioned. the classification here adopted is of course to a considerable extent an arbitrary one and subject to correction or modification, as the knowledge of the development of the flowers in the various genera of plants advances. footnotes: [ ] the word symmetry has been used in very different senses by different botanists, sometimes as synonymous with "regularity," at other times to express the assumed typical form of a flower. payer understands it to be that arrangement of parts which permits of the whole flower being divided vertically into two symmetrical halves (bi-lateral symmetry). others, again, have applied the term symmetry to the number of the parts of the flower, reserving the terms "regularity" or "irregularity" for the form. it is here used in a general sense to express the plan of the flower, and thus includes the arrangement, form, and number of its component elements. [ ] see baillon, 'adansonia,' v, . part i. stasimorphy.[ ] deviations from the ordinary form of organs arising from stasis or arrest of development are included under this heading. there are many cases in which the forms proper to a juvenile condition of the plant are retained for a much longer period than ordinary, or even throughout the life of the individual growth goes on, but "development" is checked. such conditions may even be propagated by seed or bud. it is a very general thing for botanists to consider these cases as reversions to a simpler, primitive type, and this may be so; but on the other hand, they may be degenerations from a complex type, or they may have no direct relation to any antecedent condition. stasimorphic changes affecting principally the relative size of organs--such, for instance, as the non-development of internodes, or the atrophy or suppression of parts will be found mentioned in the sections relating to those subjects. in the present part those alterations which affect the form of organs principally are treated of. footnotes: [ ] [greek: stasis-morphôsis]. chapter i. persistence of juvenile forms. the retention in adult life of a form characteristic of an early stage of development, and therefore usually transient, may be manifested in any of the organs of the plant. as these cases are for the most part treated under separate headings, it is here only necessary to allude to a few, which it is difficult to allocate satisfactorily, while the reader may be referred for other instances of like nature to the sections on peloria, atrophy, suppression, dimorphy, substitutions, &c. [illustration: fig. .--_juniperus sinensis_. two forms of leaves on branches of the same shrub.] =stasimorphy in the leaves of conifers.=--in many conifers the leaves produced in the young state of the plant are different, both in arrangement and form, from those subsequently developed (see pp. , ). but it occasionally happens that the plant continues to form throughout its existence leaves such as are usually produced only in a young state; thus m. gubler ('bull. soc. bot., fr.,' vol. viii, , p. ) describes a plant of _pinus pinea_ in which the primordial, usually transitory, foliage was permanent, leaves of the ordinary shape not being developed at all. it more often happens that some only of the leaves retain their young form while others assume other shapes, see fig. . this happens frequently in the larch and constantly in the chinese juniper when it has arrived at a considerable age. in _cupressus funebris_ two forms of leaves may often be found on the same plant, the one representing the juvenile state, the other the more developed condition. what is very singular, is that a cutting taken from the branch with leaves of the young form grows up into a shrub bearing leaves of no other shape, so that an ordinary observer unacquainted with the history of the plant would imagine that he had to deal with two distinct species. this fact is the more interesting when compared with the alternation of generations which takes place among the lower animals. the regular development of all the parts of the flower in a plant habitually producing irregular flowers is referred to under the head of peloria, but it still remains to consider those examples in which some only of the parts of the flower are affected in this manner.[ ] most of these cases are elsewhere referred to in this volume under the particular form of malformation assumed; but the following case may here be noticed as not coming under any of the previous heads. it is an instance recorded by professor babington ('phytologist,' august, ), and in which the pod of _medicago maculata_, which is usually rolled up like a snail shell and provided with spines, was sickle-shaped and unarmed. footnotes: [ ] see a paper of professor c. morren's on "floral stesomy" in 'bull. acad. belg.,' t. xix, part ii, p. . chapter ii. regular peloria. [illustration: fig. .--regular peloria, _delphinium_.] [illustration: fig. .--sepal, petal, &c., of regular-flowered _delphinium_.] [illustration: fig. --regular peloria, _viola_.] [illustration: fig. --double violet, flower regular, petals multiplied, stamens and pistils petaloid.] when an habitually irregular flower becomes regular, it does so in one of two ways; either by the non-development of the irregular portions, or by the formation of irregular parts in increased number, so that the symmetry of the flower is rendered perfect, as in the original peloria of linnæus, and which may be called irregular peloria, while the former case may be called regular peloria. this latter appearance is therefore congenital, and due to an arrest of development.[ ] as the true nature of these cases has not been in all cases recognised (even moquin places them under the head of deformities--they being less entitled to rank in that class than are the usual flowers), it may be well to cite a few instances taken from various families. in _delphinium peregrinum_ i have met with perfectly regular flowers having five sepals and five oblong stalked petals, and a similar occurrence has been noted in other species of this genus. baillon,[ ] in referring to these flowers, points out the resemblance that they bear to the double varieties of _nigella_. in the stellate columbines (_aquilegia_) of gardens the tubular petals are replaced by flat ones often in increased numbers. in violets both forms of peloria occur, that in which there is an unusual number of spurs, and that in which there are no spurs (var. anectaria). in the more perfect forms of regular peloria occurring in the last-named genus the following changes may be noticed: , an alteration in the direction of the flower so that it remains in an erect position, and is not bent downwards as usual; , equality of proportion in the sepals and petals; , absence of spurs, as also of hairs on the lateral petals; , equal stamens whose anthers are sometimes entirely destitute of the prolonged crest which forms so prominent a feature under ordinary circumstances; , erect, not curved styles, and the stigmas not prolonged into a beak, but having a more or less capitate form; ovary with three or five cells, ovules normal. these are cases where the change in question is most strongly marked, the bi-lateral is completely replaced by the radiating symmetry. the absence of the usual nectary, and of hairs on the side petals, the alterations in the form of the style, etc., all show how much the process of fertilisation must be altered from that which occurs under ordinary circumstances. in some of the double violets now cultivated in gardens, a similar regularity of proportion in the parts of the flower may be seen combined with the substitution of petals for stamens and pistils, and with the development of an increased number of petal-like organs.[ ] between these cases and the ordinary spurred forms as well as those with an increased number of spurs, many intermediate forms may be met with. that such regularity should occur in this family is not to be wondered at seeing that there is a whole subdivision of the order (_alsodeiæ_) in which regular flowers are the rule. in cultivated pelargoniums the central flower of the umbel or "truss" frequently retains its regularity of proportion, so as closely to approximate to the normal condition in the allied genus _geranium_; this resemblance is rendered greater by the fact that, under such circumstances, the patches of darker colour characteristic of the ordinary flower are completely wanting; the flower is as uniform in colour as in shape. even the nectary which is adherent to the upper surface of the pedicel in the normal flower disappears--sometimes completely, at other tunes partially. the direction of the stamens and style, and even that of the whole flower, becomes altered from the inclined to the vertical position. in addition to these changes, which are those most commonly met with, the number of the parts of the flower is sometimes augmented, and a tendency to pass from the verticillate to the spiral arrangement manifested. schlechtendal mentions some flowers of _tropæolum majus_ in which the flowers were perfectly regular and devoid of spurs[ ], while in the double varieties, now commonly grown in greenhouses, the condition of parts is precisely the same as in the double violet before alluded to. among the _papilionaceæ_ the laburnum and others have been noticed to produce occasionally a perfectly regular flower in the centre, or at the extremity of the inflorescence, though the peloria in this flower is usually irregular. in the gentianaceous genus _halenia_, _h. heterantha_ is remarkable for the absence of spurs. amongst _gesneraceæ_, _bignoniaceæ_, _scrophulariaceæ_, and other families of like structure, regular peloria is not uncommon. fig. represents a case of this kind in _eccremocarpus scaber_, conjoined, as is frequently the case, with dialysis or separation of the petals.[ ] many of the cultivated gloxinias also show erect, regular, five stamened flowers, but these are probably cases of irregular peloria. [illustration: fig. .--regular peloria, _eccremocarpus scaber_.] a solitary flower of _pedicularis sylvatica_ was found by the marquis of stafford near dunrobin castle in sutherlandshire, in which the usual ringent form of the corolla was replaced by the form called salver-shaped. there were six stamens, four long and two short. sir w. hooker and mr. borrer are stated to have found a similar flower in the same locality in .[ ] the passage of ligulate to tubular corollas among _compositæ_ is not of such common occurrence as is the converse change. i owe to mr. berkeley the communication of a capitulum of a species of _bidens_, in which there was a transition from the form of ligulate corollas to those that were deeply divided into three, four, or five oblong lobes. these then were instances of regular peloria. [illustration: fig. .--flower of _cattleya marginata_. lip replaced by a flat petal.] in _orchidaceæ_ a similar change is not by any means infrequent; in a few, indeed, a regular flower is the normal character, as in _dendrobium normale_, _oncidium heteranthum_, _thelymitra_, etc. fig. , reduced from a cut in the 'gardeners' chronicle,' , p. , represents an instance of this kind in _cattleya marginata_. from the same journal the following account of a case of peloria in _phalænopsis schilleriana_ is also cited as a good illustration of this peculiar change. the terminal flower differed entirely from all the others; instead of the peculiar labellum there were three petals all exactly alike, and three sepals also exactly alike; the petals resembled those of the other flowers of the spike, and the upper sepal also; but the two lower sepals had no spots, and were not reflexed as in the ordinary way: thus, these six parts of the flower were all in one plane, and being close together at their edges, made almost a full round flower; the column and pollen-glands were unaffected. professor reichenbach also exhibited at the amsterdam botanical congress, of , a flower of _selenipedium caudatum_ with a flat lip. m. gris[ ] has placed on record some interesting cases of peloria of this kind in _zingiber zerumbet_; in the more complete forms the androecium or staminal series was composed of six distinct pieces, the three inner of which were fertile, while in the ordinary flower the androecium is composed of two pieces, "a lip" and a fertile stamen. "is it not a matter of regret," says m. gris, "to be obliged to call the latter the normal flower?" under this head may likewise be mentioned those cases in which the normal, or at least the typical symmetry of the flower is restored by the formation of parts usually suppressed; thus moquin cites an abnormal flower of _atriplex[ ] hortensis_ described by m. fenzl as having a true calyx within the two bracts that usually alone encircle the stamens. adanson, also cited by moquin, found a specimen of _bocconia_ with a corolla. _arum maculatum_ has likewise been met with provided with a genuine perianth as in _acorus_ and other orontiads. the unusual development of the sexual organs in diclinous flowers has been alluded to under the head of heterogamy, and other cases where the symmetry of the flower is rendered regular, by the development of parts ordinarily suppressed, will be found in the chapters relating to deviations from the usual number of organs. this change, or rather this persistence of a form that is usually transient, is generally accompanied by some other alterations. change of direction, as has been already mentioned, is one of the most common of these; separation of the petals (_antirrhinum_, _verbascum_, &c.), and even their appearance in leaf-like guise, are not infrequent (_delphinium_, _antirrhinum_, _verbascum_, &c.) at other times multiplication or increased number of the whorls of petals takes place, often, but not always, at the expense of the sexual organs of the flower. perhaps even more frequent is the increased number of parts in the same whorl in cases of regular peloria; thus, in the pelargoniums before alluded to, the parts of the flower are frequently regulated by the number six instead of five. this form of peloria is most generally met with in flowers that are placed at the end or in the centre of the inflorescence, or in such flowers as occur singly at the end of the flower-stalk, as in _tropæolum_, _viola_, &c. it would hence seem as if the freedom from pressure or restriction on one side allowed the flower to develop equally in all directions, and thus to produce regularity of form. it is obvious, from what has been before said, that the process of fertilisation is in many cases interfered with and altered by the change in the conformation or the flower. from overlooking the occasional existence of this form of peloria, new genera have sometimes been formed on insufficient grounds. the genus _aceranthus_, for instance, consists of species of _epimedium_ in which the customary spurs are not formed.[ ] the occurrence both of regular and irregular peloria on the same plant has frequently been observed in _linaria_. it has also been remarked that the seedlings raised from these forms are not always constant; thus, the late mr. crocker, formerly foreman in the royal gardens, kew, informed me that he fertilised some flowers of a drooping gloxinia with their own pollen, and that when the seedlings blossomed a large number of them produced the erect regular flowers. from what has been already said it will be seen that regular peloria is closely allied to what morren called epanody, or a return to the normal condition. the reversion of a monstrous form to the normal one, as, for instance, when the fern-leaved beech reverts to the normal type, was called by the same author epistrophy.[ ] the following are the genera in which regular peloria has been most often observed. it must, however, be remarked that in some of the flowers recorded as peloric there is no indication as to which form of peloria the case should be referred to. for other illustrations refer to chapters on heterogamy, number, irregular peloria, &c. *delphinium peregrinum! *nigella damascena! *aquilegia vulgaris! *viola odorata! hirta. epimedium, sp. *pelargonium zonale! * inquinans! tropæolum majus! *wistaria sinensis. lupinus. *cytisus laburnum! trifolium repens! *compositæ, gen. pl.! lonicera periclymenum! streptocarpus rexii. *digitalis purpurea. *scrophularia aquatica. *pentstemon. *linaria vulgaris! *antirrhinum majus! verbascum nigrum! columnea schiedeana. halenia heterantha. galeobdolon luteum. prunella vulgaris! salvia, sp.! teucrium campanulatum. betonica alopecuros. eccremocarpus scaber. pedicularis sylvatica. zingiber zerumbet. phalænopsis amabilis! phalænopsis schilleriana. habenaria. *orchis morio. mascula. *dendrobium, sp. atriplex, sp. cattleya mossiæ! marginata. calanthe vestita! oncidium, sp.! selenipedium caudatum. arum maculatum. in addition to the references already given, further information on this subject may be gained from consulting the following publications. see also irregular peloria. giraud, 'bot. soc. edinb.,' dec. , , _antirrhinum_. dareste, 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser. , , xviii, p. , _delphinium_. c. morren, 'fuchsia,' p. , _calceolaria_, 'bull. acad. belg.,' xx, part ii, p. ; and e. morren, 'bull. acad. belg.,' nd ser., xix. p. , _gloxinia_. richard, 'mém. soc. d'hist. nat.,' ii, p. , tab. . lindley, 'journ. linn. soc.,' iii, p. , _dendrobium_. michalet, 'bull. soc, bot. france,' vii, p. , _betonica_. gubler, 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' ix, , 'des anomalies aberrantes et regularisantes.' reichenbach fil. 'de pollinis orchid. genesi ac structura,' , _oncidium_. clos, 'mém. acad. toulouse,' vi, , _salvia_. caspary, 'verhandl. phys. oekon. gesell. königsberg,' , i, , _columnea_. bureau, 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' , vol. viii, p. , _streptocarpus_. darwin, 'variation of animals and plants,' ii, pp. and . godron, 'ex. bull. bot. soc. fr.,' xiv, p. , 'rev. bibl.,' _wistaria_. marchand, 'adansonia,' iv, p. , _lonicera_. baillon, 'adansonia,' v, p. , 'sur la regularité transitoire de quelques fleurs irreg.,' shows that during the development of some flowers which begin and end by being irregular, there is an intermediate state when all the parts are regular. helye, 'revue horticole,' sept., , p. . in this last paper, published as this sheet is going through the press, the author states that he has raised from seed three generations of plants of _antirrhinum_ with regular spur-less flowers. the original wild plant was only partially peloric, but all the flowers produced on its descendants were regular. footnotes: [ ] "on the existence of two forms of peloria," by m. t. masters. 'nat. hist. review,' april, . [ ] baillon, 'adansonia,' iv. p. . [ ] similar cases are figured in 'hort. eystettens. ic. pl. vern.' fol. , f. , . _viola martia_ multiplici flore. [ ] 'linnæa,' , p. . [ ] m. bureau, 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' ix, p. , describes two genera of _bignoniaceæ_ in which the flowers are _normally_ regular and six parted. [ ] see 'trans. linn. soc.,' vol. x. p. . [ ] 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser. , . tom. xi, p. , tab. . [ ] 'el. ter. veg.,' p. . [ ] marchand, 'adansonia,' vol. iv, p. . [ ] 'bull. acad. belg.,' xvii. p. . "fuchsia," p. . part ii. pleiomorphy.[ ] most irregular flowers owe their irregularity to an unequal development of some of their organs as compared with that of others. when such flowers become exceptionally regular they do so either because development does not keep pace with growth, and a regular flower is thus the result of an arrest of the former process (regular peloria), or because the comparatively excessive development, which usually occurs in a few parts is, in exceptional cases manifested by all, hence the flower becomes regular from the increase in number of its irregular elements. these latter cases, then, are due to an excess of development, hence the application of the term pleiomorphy. it must be understood that mere increase in the number of the organs of a flower is not included under this head, but under that of deviations from the ordinary number of parts. footnotes: [ ] [greek: pleios-morphôsis]. chapter i. irregular peloria. the term peloria was originally given by linné to a malformation of _linaria vulgaris_, with five spurs and five stamens, which was first found in near upsal. this was considered so marvellous a circumstance that the term peloria, from the greek [greek: pelôr], a prodigy, was applied to it.[ ] after a time other irregular flowers were found in like condition, and so the term peloria became applied to all cases wherein, on a plant habitually producing irregular flowers, regular ones were formed. the fact that this regularity might arise from two totally different causes was overlooked, or at least not fully recognised, even by moquin-tandon himself. where a flower retains throughout life the same relative size in its parts that it had when those parts first originated the result is, of course, a regular flower, as happens in violets and other plants. this kind of peloria may for distinction sake be called regular or congenital peloria (see chapter on that subject); but where a flower becomes regular by the increase in number of its irregular portions, as in the _linaria_ already alluded to, where not only one petal is spurred, but all five of them are furnished with such appendages, and which are the result of an irregular development of those organs, the peloria is evidently not congenital, but occurs at a more or less advanced stage of development. to this latter form of peloria it is proposed to give the distinctive epithet of irregular. peloria is either complete or incomplete; it is complete when the flower appears perfectly symmetrical, it is incomplete when only a portion of the flower is thus rendered regular. it is very common, for instance, to find violets or linarias with two or three spurs, and these intermediate stages are very interesting, as they serve to show in what way the irregularity is brought about. in _antirrhinum_, _linaria_, &c., intermediate forms show very clearly that it is to the repetition of the form usually assumed by the petals of the lower lip that the condition is due. this is also obvious in peloric flowers of the _calceolaria_. the perfect peloria of this flower is in general erect, with five regular sepals, a regular corolla contracted at the base and at the apex, but distended in the centre so as to resemble a lady's sleeve, tight at the shoulder and wrist, and puffed in the centre! [illustration: fig. .--peloric flower of _calceolaria_.] morren[ ] describes a form intermediate between the ordinary slipper-shaped corolla and the perfect peloria just described, and which he calls sigmoid peloria. this flower is intermediate in direction between the erect peloria and the ordinary reflected flower. the tube is curved like a swan's neck and is dilated in front into two hollow bosses, such as we see in the lower lip of an ordinary flower; beyond these it is contracted and is prolonged into a slender beak terminating in two hollow teeth, between which is the narrow orifice of the corolla. the colour at the base of the tube inside is as in the perfect peloria; while round the summit of the tube, in both cases, the intensity of colour is greatest on the outside. now, in a normal flower the deepest colour is within just opposite the orifice of the corolla; this deep colour is also seen outside of the central and most elevated portions of the lower lip. in the peloria the deep colour at the base of the tube represents that which is near the orifice under ordinary circumstances, while the outer patch of colour at the apex corresponds to that formed on the upper surface of the lower lip. on the other hand, in peloric flowers of _cytisus laburnum_, _clitoria ternatea_, _trifolium repens_, and other papilionaceæ, it is the "standard," the form of which is repeated. in the case of peloric aconites[ ] the lateral and sometimes the inferior coloured sepals assume the hooded form usually peculiar to the upper sepal only, the number of the petals or nectaries being correspondingly increased. balsams become peloric by the augmentation in the number of spurs.[ ] so when orchids are affected with irregular peloria it is the form of the labellum that is repeated, the accessory lips being sometimes the representatives of stamens, which are usually suppressed in these flowers,[ ] but at other times the appearance is due simply to the fact that all three petals assume the form usually confined to the lip, the staminal column being unaffected, except that its direction and relative position with reference to the other parts of the flower is different from ordinary. this was the case in some flowers of _phalænopsis equestris_ sent to me by mr. wentworth buller. fig. represents a flower of _aristolochia caudata_ with two lips, for which i am indebted to mr. w. h. baxter. from these cases it is evident that the flowers in question become regular by the repetition of the irregular parts. [illustration: fig. .--two-lipped flower of _aristolochia caudata_.] it is probable that peloria may occur in any habitually irregular flower, and that, if more attention were directed to the subject, illustrations might be obtained from a larger number of natural families than can be done at present. it is, however, necessary to exercise discrimination, and not to attribute to peloria all the cases that at first sight appear to be so referable. thus, professor dickson exhibited at the botanical society of edinburgh, december th, , four abnormal flowers of the common indian cress (_tropæolum majus_), each presenting a supernumerary spur. on these he remarked that "in _tropæolum_ the posterior part of the receptacle between the insertion of the petals and that of the stamens is dilated so as to form the spur which is so characteristic in the genus. the position of the spur in a line with the posterior sepal has led many botanists to consider it as a process of that sepal, but the fact of its being situated within the insertion of the petals is conclusive as to its receptacular origin. in the flowers exhibited the supernumerary spur (as if to show its want of connection with any sepal) was placed exactly between a lateral sepal and one of the anterior sepals, sometimes on the one side of the flower and sometimes on the other. these additional spurs were precisely similar to the normal ones, except that they were a little shorter. this abnormality, although at first sight seeming to indicate a pelorian tendency, is no approximation to regularity, from the fact of the extra spur being differently placed, with regard to the sepals, from the normal one." peloria of this kind, when perfect, is very often associated with other alterations. change of direction is one of the most common of these; the usually drooping flower becomes erect, the stamens and style also are changed in direction, while, not unfrequently, either the one or the other (most often the stamens) are entirely suppressed. with this suppression an increase in the size of the flower very generally coincides. the number of parts is also frequently increased; thus, in _antirrhinum majus_ the corolla, when subjected to peloria, is very generally six-parted, and has six stamens. fusion of one or more flowers is also a common accompaniment of peloria, as in _digitalis purpurea_, in which plant prolification often adds increased complexity to the flower. it has been stated by moquin and others that the uppermost flower of an inflorescence is the most subject to peloria; the uppermost flower of _teucrium campanulatum_, for instance, is very generally regular. in _calceolaria_ it is the central terminal flower which is usually peloriated; on the other hand, in _linaria_ and _antirrhinum_ the lower flowers, or those on the secondary branches, are quite as often affected as the primary ones. cassini considered that the spur of _linaria_ was developed from the lower petal rather than from the upper ones, because there is more room on the side of the flower farthest from the stem than on the opposite side. with reference to this point, m. godron remarks that in habitually irregular flowers the apex of the peduncle is oblique, and hence the flowers are bent downwards or spread horizontally, but if the receptacle be quite flat and level then the flower is regular. the oblique position causes some of the organs to press on others, and hence induces abortion and suppression of some parts and increased growth in others that are not subjected to pressure. in a terminal peloriated flower of aconite, described by this naturalist, the flower was removed so far from the nearest bracts that all its parts had the chance of growing regularly. in ordinary cases m. godron considers that the compression of the lateral bracts is the cause of the irregularity of the androecium and of the receptacle.[ ] it has also been somewhat too generally stated that peloria occurs principally on luxuriant vigorous plants. it seems quite as often to happen in plants characterised by their deficiencies in this respect. on this point m. de melicoq[ ] says, referring to _linaria vulgaris_ affected with peloria, that on the weakest plants the peloriated flower was at the top of the stem; while in stronger plants, with more numerous flowers and larger foliage, the peloriated flowers were principally to be found in the centre and at the base of the inflorescence, and their pedicels were much longer than usual. linné, as has been already stated, considered these flowers to be sterile, and only capable of multiplication by division of the root, but willdenow obtained seeds from the _linaria_ which reproduced the anomaly when sown in rich soil. baron melicoq obtained similar results.[ ] mr. darwin[ ] raised sixteen seedling plants of a peloric _antirrhinum_, artificially fertilised by its own pollen, all of which were as perfectly peloric as the parent plant. on the other hand, the same observer alludes to the tendency that these peloric plants have to revert to the usual form, as shown by the fact that when the peloric flowers were crossed with pollen from flowers of the ordinary shape, and _vice versâ_, not one of the seedlings, in either case, bore peloric flowers. hence, says mr. darwin, there is in these flowers "a strong latent tendency to become peloric, and there is also a still greater tendency in all peloric plants to reacquire their normal irregular structure." so that there are two opposed latent tendencies in the same plant. a similar remark has been made with reference to malformations in general by other observers. it would be very interesting if some competent naturalist would collect information as to whether any variations in degree of fertility exist in the three forms of flowers in _linaria_, viz. the ordinary one-spurred form, which is intermediate between the spur-less and the five-spurred form. it must be remembered, however, that in the latter cases the stamens are often deficient. in the _compositæ_, where there are regular flowers in the disc and irregular ones in the ray, sexual differences, as is well known, accompany the diversities in form. to mr. darwin the author is indebted for the communication of some flowers of _corydalis tuberosa_ (figs. , ), provided with two spurs of nearly equal size. to these flowers allusion is made in the work already quoted[ ] in the following terms:--"_corydalis tuberosa_ properly has one of its two nectaries colourless, destitute of nectar, only half the size of the other, and therefore to a certain extent in a rudimentary state; the pistil is curved towards the perfect nectary, and the hood formed of the inner petals slips off the pistil and stamens in one direction alone, so that when a bee sucks the perfect nectary the stigma and stamens are exposed and rubbed against the insect's body. in several closely allied genera, as in _dielytra_, there are two perfect nectaries; the pistil is straight, and the hood slips off on either side, according as the bee sucks either nectary." in the flowers of _corydalis_, which were provided with two perfect nectaries containing nectar, mr. darwin considers that there has been a redevelopment of a partially aborted organ, accompanied by a change in the direction of the pistil, which becomes straight, while the hood formed by the petals slips off in either direction, "so that these flowers have acquired the perfect structure, so well adapted for insect agency, of _dielytra_ and its allies." [illustration: fig. .--two-spurred flowers of _corydalis_.] [illustration: fig. .--section through two-spurred flowers of _corydalis_, magnified.] peloria, then, is especially interesting physiologically as well as morphologically; it is also of value in a systematic point of view, as showing how closely the deviations from the ordinary form of one plant represent the ordinary condition of another; thus, the peloric calceolarias resemble the flowers of _fabiana_, and de candolle,[ ] comparing the peloric flowers of _scrophulariaceæ_ with those of _solanaceæ_, concluded that the former natural order was only an habitual alteration from the type of the latter. peloric flowers of _papilionaceæ_ in this way are indistinguishable from those of _rosaceæ_. in like manner we may trace an analogy between the normal one-spurred _delphinium_ and the five-spurred columbine (_aquilegia_), an analogy strengthened by such a case as that of the five-spurred flower of _delphinium elatum_ described by godron.[ ] the _corydalis_, before referred to, is another illustration of the same fact, the structure being the same as in _dielytra_, &c. the ordinary irregular flowers may possibly be degenerated descendants of a more completely organized ancestor, and some of the cases of peloria may therefore be instances of reversion; some ancient _linaria_ may, perhaps, have had all its petals spur-shaped, and the cases of irregular peloria now found may be reversions to that original form. when both regular and irregular forms of peloria occur on the same plant, as they frequently do in _linaria_, the one may be perhaps considered as a reversion to a very early condition, the other to a later state, when all the petals were irregularly formed. but before we can assert the truth of this surmise we must have better evidence as to what the original condition really was than we have at present. the proximate cause of irregular peloria has been considered to be excess of nourishment, but evidence as to this point is very conflicting. willdenow states that "radices peloriæ, solo sterili plantatæ, degenerant in linariam," ('sp. plant.,' iii, p. ); but this opinion is counterbalanced by that of others, while the frequent existence of both forms on the same plant, at the same time, seems to negative the supposition of any direct effect from external circumstances. the following are the plants in which irregular peloria has been most often observed: aconitum napellus. delphinium elatum! corydalis tuberosa. *viola odorata! hirta. impatiens balsamina. clitoria ternatea. cytisus laburnum! trifolium repens! lupinus polyphyllus! *gloxinia, var. cult.! *linaria vulgaris! spuria. elatine. triphylla. æruginea. triornithophora. pilosa. chalepensis. cymbalaria! purpurea! decumbens. pelisseriana. origanifolia. digitalis orientalis. * purpurea! calceolaria crenatiflora. rugosa. * var. cult.! chelone barbata. *antirrhinum majus! rhinanthus crista galli. pedicularis sylvatica. pedicularis euphrasioides. scrophularia aquatica! sesamum indicum. lamium. mentha. sideritis. nepeta diffusa. galeopsis ladanum. tetrahit. galeobdolon luteum. teucrium campanulatum! plectranthus fruticosus. cleonia lusitanica. dracocephalum austriacum. phlomis fruticosa! vitex incisa. aristolochia, sp.! ophrys aranifera! orchis simia. pyramidalis! latifolia! morio! papilionacea. mascula. latiflora. conopsea. habenaria bifolia. corallorhiza innata. aceras anthropophora. cattleya moasiæ! phalænopsis equestris! pogonia ophioglossoides! the literature of peloria is very extensive. the following are the principal papers, not already mentioned, which relate to the subject, arranged under the genera, placing those first which are most subject to this anomaly (see also regular peloria). _linaria_.--adanson, 'fam. plant.,' t. i, p. . jussien, 'gen. plant.,' p. . poiret, 'encycl. method, suppl.,' t. iii, jaeger, 'missbilld. der gewachs.,' pp. , , and . cassini, 'op. phytol.,' t. ii, p. . ratzebourg, 'animadv. ad pelor. spectand.,' . turpin. 'ic. veget.,' tab. xx, f. . curtis, 'flor. londin.,' i, . hopkirk, 'flora anom.,' pl. vii, figs. , , . haller, 'act. helvet.,' , p. , t. iv. de candolle, 'flore franc.,' t. iii, p. . sowerby, 'engl. bot.,' iv, , ed. syme, tab. . chavannes, 'mon. antirrhin.' delavaud, 'bull. soc. bot. france,' , p. ; id., , p. . heufler, 'linnæa,' xvii, tab. ii. weber, 'verhandl. des nat. hist. vereins. f. d. rh. preuss.,' , tab. i, figs. - . 'verh. nat. hist. ver. rh. preus.,' , vol. vi, p. , tab. xiii.--_antirrhinum_, clos, 'mém. acad. toulous.,' vi, . chavannes, 'mon. antirrh.,' p. . fresenius, 'mus. senkenb.,' ii, t. iv, fig. . 'bot. soc. edinb.,' , july .--_calceolaria_, chamisso, 'linnæa,' t. vii, p. . guillemin, 'archiv. bot.,' t. ii, p. et . schlechtendal, 'linnæa,' xii, p. . ernst meyer, 'linnæa,' xvi, , tab. iii. morren, 'bull. acad. belg.,' t. xv, n. , et t. xviii, p. . 'gard. chron.,' , p. ; ibid., , p. .--_viola_, leers, 'flor. herborn.,' p. . de candolle, 'organ. veget.,' t. i, p. , pl. xlv. forbes, 'proc. linn. soc.,' june , , p. . hildebrand, 'bot. zeit.,' , vol. xx, tab. viii.--_orchidaceæ_, his, 'jourl. phys.,' , p. . wydler, 'arch. bot.,' t. ii, p. , tab. xvi. r. brown, 'obs. organ. orchid.,' p. . a. richard, 'mém. soc. d'hist. nat.,' t. i, p. . greville, 'flora edinens.,' p. (_corallorhiza_). curtis, 'flora londinensis,' t. lxxxii. morren, c., 'bull. acad. roy. belg.,' t. xix, part ii, p. . clos, 'mém. acad. sc. toulous.,' ser., vol. iii. caspary, 'schrift. k. gesellsch. königsberg,' , i, . masters, 'jourl. linn. soc.,' vol. viii, p. (_ophrys_, _pogonia_). duchartre, 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' vol. vii, , p. , _cattleya_. cramer, 'bildungsabweich.'--_limosella_, baillon, 'adansonia,' i, p. . (flower normally irregular, becoming regular "à force d'irregularité.")--_chelone_, chamisso, 'linnæa,' vii, p. ,--_clitoria_, bonavia, 'gard. chron.,' , p. . in this latter communication, published as this sheet is passing through the press, the author gives an interesting account of the transitional stages between the ordinary papilionaceous condition and the regular form which is like that of a rosaceous plant. the peloric form is stated to be transmitted by seed. for other references see moq.-tandon, 'el. terat. veget.,' p. . hallier, 'phytopathol.,' p. . footnotes: [ ] 'amoen. acad.,' i, p. , t. iii ( ):--the following note refers to linné's notion that these forms were due to hybridization. it is extracted from gmelin's edition of the 'systema naturæ,' , p. . "_linariæ_ proles hybrida, ejusdemque qualitatis et constans, radicibus infinite sese multiplicans charactere fructificationis diversissima, corolla regulari, quinque-corniculata, pentandra, ut genus proprium absolute constitueret et distinctissimum, nisi fructus frequentissime abortiret. naturæ prodigium. ita quidem a linné. verisimilor autem videtur ea opinio, quæ peloriam pro peculiari degeneratione monstrosa floris habet, in quam inclinare hoc genus (linaria) præ aliis, similis a forma deflexio in aliis speciebus, e.g. _spurio elatine_, _cymbalaria_, observata, ... merk., 'goett. gel. anz.,' , n. . linck, 'annal. naturg.,' i, p. ." [ ] 'bull. acad. belg.,' xviii, part i, p. . lobelia, p. . [ ] see also seringe, 'esquisse d'une monogr. du genre _aconitum_,' p. . [ ] schlotterbec, 'act. helvet.,' t. ii, pl. i, roeper. balsam, p. , note. [ ] masters. "peloria, &c., _ophrys aranifera_," 'journ. linn. soc.,' viii, p. . [ ] godron, "mém. sur les fumarieès à fl. irreg.," 'ann. sc. nat.,' sér. , vol. ii, tab. xvii, p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. france,' vol. v, , p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. france,' vol. vi, , p. . [ ] 'variation of anim. and plants,' ii, p. . [ ] loc. cit., p. . [ ] 'théor. elém.,' ed. , p. . [ ] cited in 'bull. soc. bot. france,' vol. xiii (rev. bibl.), p. . part iii. metamorphy. much of the objection with which goethe's famous essay on the 'metamorphosis of plants' was met on its publication may be traced to a misapprehension of the sense in which goethe employed the word. as used by him, it had nearly the same signification as now applied to the word development by organogenists. it does not necessarily imply that there has been a change in any particular organ, but rather that there has been, to some extent, a change in the plan of construction, in accordance with which a deviation from the customary form results. the particular organ was never anything else than what it is; it has not been metamorphosed in the ordinary sense of the word; for instance, in a double flower, where the stamens are, as it is said, changed or metamorphosed into petals, no absolute change really has taken place--the petal was never a stamen, although it occupies the position of the latter, and may be considered a substitute for it. the term metamorphosis, then, really implies an alteration in the organizing force, taking effect at a very early period of the life of the flower, at or before the period when the primitive aggregation of cells, of which it is at that time composed, becomes separated or "differentiated" into the several parts of the flower. in other words, the "development" of the flower pursues a different course from what is usual. in the preceding sections the effects of arrest and of excess in this process have been partly treated of; other deviations arising from similar causes will be mentioned elsewhere, but, under the present heading, are specially included cases not of merely diminished or increased, but of perverted development; the natural process is here not necessarily checked or enhanced, but it is changed. hence, in the present work, the term metamorphy is employed to distinguish cases where the ordinary course of development has been perverted or changed. as it is applied solely for teratological purposes, the ordinary acceptation of the term, as nearly synonymous with "development," is not interfered with. in order to avoid other possible misapprehensions, the terms retrograde and progressive metamorphosis employed by goethe are not herein used, their place being, to a great extent, supplied by the more intelligible expressions arrest or excess of development.[ ] footnotes: [ ] see goethe, 'versuch. der metam. der pflanzen,' . english translation by emily m. cox, in seemann's 'journal of botany,' vol. i, , p. . for a brief sketch of the origin and progress of the theory of vegetable morphology, prior to the publications of wolff, linné, and goethe, as well as for an attempt to show what share each of these authors had in the establishment of the doctrine, the reader is referred to an article in the 'brit. and for. medico-chirurgical review,' january, , entitled "vegetable morphology: its history and present condition," by maxwell t. masters. chapter i. phyllody. this condition, wherein true leaves are substituted for some other organs,[ ] must be distinguished from virescence, q. v., in which the parts affected have simply the green colour of leaves, without their form or structure. the appearance of perfect leaves, in place of other organs, is frequently looked on as due to retrograde metamorphosis, or to an arrest of development. but this is not strictly correct; for instance, suppose a petal, which is very generally merely the sheath of a leaf, with the addition of colouring matter, to be replaced by a perfect leaf, one in which all three constituent parts, sheath, stalk, and blade, are present, it surely can hardly be said that there has been any retrogression or arrest of development in the formation of a complete in place of an incomplete organ. the term retrograde here is used in a purely theoretical sense, and cannot be held to imply any actual degradation. morphologically, as has been stated, the case is one of advance rather than the reverse, and hence the assignment of instances of this nature to a perversion of development, rather than to a diminution or to an exaltation of that process, seems most consistent with truth. the affected organs have really undergone no actual change, simply the direction of the organising force has been altered at a very early state, so that the usual differentiation of parts has not taken place. [illustration: fig. .--'rose plantain,' _plantago media var._, spike contracted; bracts leafy.] =phyllody of the bracts.=--as bracts are very generally imperfect organs, so their replacement by perfect leaves is not attributable to arrest of development or retrograde metamorphosis, but the reverse. the bracts of some species of _plantago_[ ] are very subject to this change. thus, in the rose plantain of gardens, _p. media_ (fig. ), the bracts are leafy and the axis depressed or not elongated, so that it is surmounted by a rosette of small leafy organs. a similar condition of the bracts, unattended with arrest of growth in the axis, is common in _p. major_ (fig. ) and in _p. lanceolata_ (see p. ). it also occurs in the bracts of _corydalis solida_, _amorpha fruticosa_, _ajuga reptans_, _parthenium inodorum_, _centaurea jacea_, in the involucral bracts of the dandelion, the daisy, and many other composites. in the 'gardeners chronicle,' , p. , is figured a dahlia in which the bracts of the involucre and the scales of the receptacle had all assumed the form, texture, and venation of leaves.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--leaf-like bracts in _plantago major_.] [illustration: fig. .--dahlia. scales of receptacle leafy.] in _umbelliferæ_ the substitution of leaves for involucral bracts is not infrequent. it has been observed among other plants in _angelica razoulzii_, _carum carui_, _daucus carota_, &c. the scales of the hop (_humulus lupulus_) not infrequently manifest this change, as do also the bracts of many amentaceous plants, _e.g._ in the male catkins of the walnut, the female catkins of the alder,[ ] of some willows,[ ] &c. the bracts of some _euphorbiaceæ_, as _e. pusilla_, _e. lathyris_, _e. cyparissias_, have been observed to undergo a similar alteration.[ ] amongst monocotyledons an analogous change occurs not unfrequently, as in some commelynaceous plants, _e.g._ _tradescantia_, in _musa_, &c. the spathe of _arum maculatum_ is sometimes represented by a stalked leaf similar to that which occurs, under ordinary circumstances, in _spathiphyllum_, but in which genus the spadix is more or less adherent to the leaf-like spathe.[ ] in _schoenus cephalotes_ a similar exaggerated development of the bracts is figured by rottboell.[ ] =phyllody in inflorescence of conifers.=--this demands passing notice by reason of the interest attaching to the morphological construction of these plants. the elongation of the axis which occurs in the female cones has been already alluded to under the head of prolification of the inflorescence. this change is frequently associated with a more or less foliaceous condition of the bracts, which, indeed, may be seen to be serially continuous, both above and below, with the ordinary leaves. the scales, too, become notched and bipartite, and show, between the lobes, the rudiment of a bud, which in a further stage becomes developed into a shoot bearing leaves. such a change has been described by parlatore in _abies brunoniana_, and examples may frequently be met with in the larch (_larix europæa_), and specially in _cryptomeria japonica_.[ ] the scales of the male catkins of conifers likewise occasionally assume the appearance of leaves; this may be seen in monstrous catkins of _araucaria_, as also in _podocarpeæ_ and _cupressineæ_ (eichler). =phyllody of the calyx.=--sepals under ordinary circumstances are so like leaves, that it is not wonderful that they are often replaced by those organs.[ ] a singular instance of this has been mentioned as occurring in _cakile maritima_, wherein the sepals were found by m. fournier to be pinnatifid like the ordinary leaves of the plant.[ ] the sepals of _ranunculaceæ_ and _rosaceæ_, for example, _rosa_, _geum_, are particularly liable to this change. [illustration: fig. .--flower of rose, sepals replaced by five perfect leaves; axis prolonged through the flower in the form of a leafy branch.] in a species of _geranium_ recently examined the sepals presented themselves in the form of three-lobed leaflets; so in fuchsias and in _epilobium hirsutum_ the sepals occasionally are not distinguishable from ordinary leaves (fig. ). in roses, the change in question is a very frequent accompaniment of prolification (fig. ). in the peach also this replacement of the sepals is sometimes carried to such an extent, that five perfect, bistipulate leaves occur in the place of the calyx, but when this is the case it usually happens that the pistil is abortive. [illustration: fig. .--fuchsia, with one of the sepals leaf-like.] de candolle[ ] figures a curious instance wherein the pappus of _podospermum laciniatum_ was replaced by five linear, foliaceous lobes. a similar change has been noticed in other composites, as in _tragopogon pratense_. engelmann mentions as subject to this hypertrophy of the pappus, as it may be termed, _scorzonera octangularis_ and _senecio vulgaris_. wigand has observed a similar transformation in a species of _centranthus_ (_valerianaceæ_). in some cases the phyllody of the sepals has a special interest, as bearing on the question whether what is termed calyx-tube is or is not a portion of the calyx, and whether the sepals are modifications of the blade or of the sheath of the leaf. thus in the primrose the phyllodic sepals seem to show clearly that the sepals are in that plant of a laminar nature (fig. ). the so-called calyx-tube of roses is elsewhere alluded to. the leaf-like organs sometimes seen at the apex of a cucumber would seem to support the view that there was really a calyx-tube in _cucurbitaceæ_ adherent to the carpels. it is also shown in the cut, fig. , borrowed from the 'gardeners' chronicle,' , p. . [illustration: fig. .--primrose. calyx of foliaceous segments.] [illustration: fig. .--leafy calyx of melon.] under ordinary circumstances, the sepals may be considered as the representatives of the sheath of the leaf (cataphyllary) or of the blade (euphyllary), the arrangement of the veins being different in the two cases; thus, in the vagina or sheath, there are generally several large veins of about equal size, either convergent towards the apex, or divergent; on the other hand, in the blade, there is usually but one central vein, the midrib, larger than the rest, and the smaller veins come off at a less acute angle, and are more reticulated.[ ] now, when phyllomorphy occurs in sepals which ordinarily are vaginal, it is obvious that the case is one, not merely of increased relative growth, but also of the appearance or development of an organ habitually suppressed; on the other hand, when phyllomorphy occurs in sepals which usually are laminar in form and nervation, the case is one of unusual growth or hypertrophy, and not of the development of an organ habitually suppressed, so that the amount of change is greater in the former than in the latter instance. under normal circumstances it will be found that laminar venation is most common in gamosepalous and vaginal venation in polysepalous calyces. and the same holds good in cases where the calyx is abnormally leafy. the complete leaf development shows itself more frequently among the monosepalous plants than in the polysepalous ones, as shown even in the subjoined list of species. this statement would be more fully verified were it possible to state the frequency with which the condition occurred in _individual plants_, when it would be found that phyllody of the calyx occurs much more often in individual gamosepalous plants than in polysepalous ones. phyllody of the calyx has been most often observed in the following plants: ranunculus acris! delphinium ajacis. caltha palustris. anemone pulsatilla. sylvestris! nemorosa! hortensis! coronaria! *papaver orientale. escholtzia crocea. cakile maritima. diplotaxis tenuifolia. thlaspi arvense. cheiranthus cheiri. incanus. sinapis arvensis. brassica oleracea! peltaria alliacea. *sisymbrium officinale. caryophyllaceæ,[ ] sp. pl. geranium, sp.! *fuchsia, var. hort.! epilobium hirsutum! cucurbita pepo! *rosa, var. hort.! potentilla nepalensis. fragaria sp. geum rivale. amygdalus communis. persica vulgaris. cerasus! pyrus malus. daucus carota. athamanta cervaria. *trifolium repens! centranthus macrosiphon. tragopogon pratense. orientale. scorzonera octangularis. hypochæris radicata. *senecio vulgaris! podospermum laciniatum. cirsium arvense. carduus heterophyllus tataricus. campanula, sp. convolvulus sepium. *primula officinalis, var. cult! acaulis. elatior. gentiana campestris. *petunia violacea! lycium europæum. laurus sassafras. tulipa gesneriana. convallaria maialis. colchicum autumnale! (virescent?) consult also turpin, 'atlas de goethe,' t. iv, f. , _lycium_. engelmann, 'de anthol.,' § , p. . this author figures phyllodic sepals in _senecio vulgaris_, tab. v, figs. - ; _campanula_, tab. iii, f. , ; _athamanta cervaria_, tab. v, f. . lindley, 'elements of botany,' , pp. , , &c. 'gard. chron.,' , p. ; , p. , _cucurbita_. petunnikoff, 'bull. soc. imp. moscow,' , _cirsium_. braun, 'rejuvenescence,' ray society's transl. see succeeding paragraphs. =phyllody of the corolla.=--the petals also are frequently replaced by leaves, though in many of the recorded instances the change has been one of colour only; these latter are strictly cases of virescence. m. seringe[ ] speaks of a flower of _peltaria alliacea_ in which the calyx was petal-like, while the corolla was leafy as if there had been transposition of the two organs, a very rare, if not unparalleled, instance. in a flower of _campanula medium_, provided, as is often the case, with a double corolla, the outer corolla was slit down on one side, the edges of the cleft being leafy. [illustration: fig. .--sepals and petals to leaves. _geranium_.] the frondescent petals are very often completely disjoined, as in _verbascum nigrum_, and _lonicera periclymenum_, in which, moreover, median prolification generally coexists. in the case of _tropæolum majus_, the ordinary leaves of which are peltate and orbicular, the petals when frondescent have not the peltate arrangement, but are spathulate, and provided with very long, narrow stalks, so that, in some cases, they are, more properly speaking, enlarged virescent petals than true leaves; in other instances, however, the arrangement of the veins is more like that of the true leaves than that of the petals. as might be expected, frondescence of the petals is frequently accompanied by other changes of a similar nature in other parts of the flower, and sometimes by the abortion of the sexual organs. thus, in _actæa spicata_, as observed by fresenius, the petals were replaced by true petiolate, palminerved, lobed leaves, the stamens and pistils being abortive. in _ranunculus_ the leaves that appear in the place of the petals have no scale at their base, and in _tropæolum_ the calyx (or receptacle) is free from the usual spur. the absolute frequency of this occurrence seems to be greatest in those flowers which are normally polypetalous. the petals of these flowers, as a general rule, are more like the leaf-sheaths than the leaf-blades as to their venation, hence it would seem that the phyllomorphic condition in these petals is a manifestation of a greater degree of organizing force than that which occurs in those cases where the petals are normally present in the form of contracted blades or laminæ. (see the remarks in the preceding section.) frondescence of the petals has been observed most frequently in the following cases; some, perhaps, were cases merely of virescence, q. v.; see also under chloranthy, prolification. ranunculus repens! delphinium ajacis. crassicaule. aquilegia vulgaris. actæa spicata. *brassica oleracea! diplotaxis muralis. hesperis matronalis. thlaspi bursa pastoris. sisymbrium tenuifolium. turritis glabra. raphanus sativus. peltaria alliacea. alyssum incanum. erysimum barbarea. officinale! cheiranthoides. cheiranthus cheiri. *dictamnus fraxinella! lychnis sylvestris. dioica! alsine media. cerastium vulgatum! triviale. reseda lutea. phyteuma. malva sylvestris. *tropæolum majus! geranium, sp.! triumfetta, sp.! epilobium hirsutum! oenothera striata. rubus, sp. *rosa, var. cult.! *trifolium repens! spiræa oblongifolia. amygdalus communis. *rosa! cerasus vulgaris! persica vulgaris! potentilla nepalensis. geum rivale. daucus carota! heracleum sphondylium. torilis anthriscus. echinophora maritima. campanula rapunculoides. glomerata. phyteuma spicatum. calendula officinalis. cirsium tricephalodes. senecio vulgaris. scabiosa columbaria. agrestis. lonicera xylosteum. periclymenum. gentiana amarella. gilia glomeriflora. *symphytum officinale. petunia violacea! verbascum, sp. antirrhinum majus! stachys sylvatica. *anagallis phoenicea? primula sinensis! polemonium coeruleum. see moquin-tandon, 'el. terat. veg.,' p. . engelmann, 'de anthol.,' § _et seq._; tab. ii, figs. - , _gilia_; tab. v, - , _senecio_; tab. v, f. - , _torilis_; tab. iv, f. , _erysimum_. 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' vol. ii, , p. , _primula sinensis_. giraud, 'edinb. phil. magazine,' , _antirrhinum_. jaeger, 'act. acad. cæs. nat. cur.,' vol. xiii, , p. , tab. xli, _tropæolum_. bischoff, 'lehrbuch,' , , p. , _note_, _tropæolum_. fresenius, 'mus. senkenb.,' ii, , tab. , fig. , _actæa_. see also succeeding paragraphs and sections in chloranthy, virescence, &c. =phyllody of the stamens= happens less frequently than the corresponding condition in the neighbouring organs. the structure of the anther is so much removed from that of the leaf, that the change of the stamen from its ordinary condition to that of a leaf must be regarded as indicating a greater degree of perverted development than that which occurs in those cases where less highly differentiated organs, such as the sepals, petals, and pistils, are thus altered.[ ] in all cases it is desirable to ascertain, if possible, what parts of the stamen are thus transformed. in some petunias the filaments are unchanged, but in place of the anther is a small lamina, representing precisely the blade of an ordinary leaf. sometimes the connective only is replaced by a leaf. one of the most interesting cases of this kind that has fallen under the writer's observation was in _euphorbia geniculata_, in which, in addition to other changes mentioned under prolification of the inflorescence, some of the stamens were partly frondescent, half the anther being perfect, the other half leaf-like. another filament bore just above the usual joint three leaflets, two lateral ones, somewhat conduplicate, and a third central one, half anther, half leaflet. [illustration: fig. .--flower of a _petunia_, opened to show the stamens partially replaced by stalked leaves.] in the case of frondescent flowers of _tropæolum majus_ the stamens are usually absent or atrophied, but in other instances the filament is present as usual, representing the stalk of the leaf, and surmounted by a small lamina, but this latter, in place of being nearly flat, is pinched up in the centre from back to front, and surmounted by a two-lobed anther, so that the general appearance of the whole structure is that of a central anther, supported at the base on each side by two concave leaf-lobes, or it might be compared with a three-lobed leaf, the terminal lobe represented by the anther. in _jatropha pohliana_, müll. (_adenorophium luxurians_, pohl.), a singular condition has been observed by m. müller (argov.). in this flower the anther, in place of being represented by the flat blade of a single leaf, had the appearance as if two such blades were present and coherent one with the other by their midribs, along their upper or inner surfaces, which were directed towards the centre of the flower (fig. ), thus resembling the cases of adhesion of leaves by their surfaces already referred to (p. ). in other cases, in the same plant, the anther appeared as if formed by two collateral leaves, the faces looking towards the circumference of the flower, and their margins so folded together as to represent an open anther lobe (fig. ). these cases are apparently due, not to the formation and adhesion of two leaves, but rather to the exuberant development of one leaf into two blades.[ ] the bearings of these and other similar malformations on the morphology of the anther are alluded to under the head of petalody of the anther. [illustration: fig. .--phylloid anther of _jatropha_, after müller (arg.).] [illustration: fig. .--leaf-like anther of _jatropha pohliana_, after müller.] phyllody of the stamens has been most often observed in the following plants: anemone nemorosa. coronaria. delphinium crassicaule. nymphæa dentata. tropæolum majus! dictamnus albus. *trifolium repens! torilis anthriscus. heracleum sphondylium. daucus carota epilobium hirsutum! *rosa, var. cult.! lonicera periclymenum. anagallis arvensis. primula sinensis! petunia, var. cult. jatropha pohliana. euphorbia goniculata. in addition to the foregoing there are very numerous instances of similar substitution in chloranthic flowers. in the above list only those cases are given wherein the leafy change is confined to the stamens, or, at least, to a few only of the other parts of the flower. =phyllody of the pistils.=[ ]--this is of more common occurrence than is the corresponding change in the case of the stamens. it is of interest, as it sometimes serves to illustrate the morphological nature of the pistil. of this the double-flowering cherry is a well-known illustration, the pistil being here represented by two small foliar laminæ, whose midribs are prolonged with a short style, terminated by an imperfect stigma. it is usually the basal portion of the pistil, the ovary, which is thus specially affected, the margins being also often disunited so as to expose the ovules. these latter organs may be absent or they may themselves be the subjects of foliaceous development. moquin[ ] relates having found in the neighbourhood of montpellier a flower of a tulip the ovary of which was represented by true leaves, which bore on their margins the ovules, and thus presented a striking analogy with the carpels of those sterculias, like _s. platanifolia_, which are foliaceous in texture and open very early in the course of their development. a similar occurrence has also been frequently noticed in the columbine and also in _cruciferæ_ and _umbelliferæ_. m. germain de st. pierre mentions an instance wherein the carpels of _salix babylonica_ were converted into two leaves, provided with stipules. all the flowers of the catkins were similarly changed, so that it became permanent, and resembled a branch. [illustration: fig. .--rose, in which the axial portion of the flower was elongated and the carpels were more or less replaced by leaves.] substitutions of this kind form the green "eyes" or centres of certain varieties of _ranunculus_ and _anemone_. in proliferous roses, or in cases where the central axis of the flower is prolonged, it frequently happens that the pistils are more or less replaced by leaves. fig. , from a specimen of dr. bell salter's, given in the 'gardeners' chronicle,' shows the passage, from below upwards, of the ordinary carpels to perfect leaves; the so-called calyx-tube being completely deficient and the ovaries entirely superior. like most similar specimens, this one bears out the notion that what is called the calyx-tube in roses is really an expansion and dilatation of the top of the flower-stalk. [illustration: fig. .--cucumber with leaf attached.] fig. , for which i am indebted to mr. s. j. salter, represents a very singular conformation in the cucumber, described by that gentleman in 'henfrey's botanical gazette,' i, p. , and considered by him to be due to the foliaceous condition of one of the three carpels of which the fruit is composed. the portion near the peduncle was binary, while the distal extremity of the fruit was ternary. the main difficulties attending the acceptance of this explanation reside in the peculiar reversed position of the leaf, and in the fact that the fruit of the _cucurbitaceæ_ is probably of axial nature, the dilated and succulent end of the peduncle adhering to and usually concealing the carpels; in some cases, however, these latter project beyond the axial portion, leaving no doubt as to the true nature of the structure in these particular instances. admitting the axial nature of the fruit, it might be supposed that in mr. salter's cucumber an adventitious leaf had been given off from the axis, but even on that supposition the reversed position offers a difficulty, and there still remains to be explained the fact that the proximal part of the fruit was binary in its constitution, the distal end ternary. m. norman[ ] mentions a case wherein the carpels of _anchusa ochroleuca_ were replaced by two leaves; from this he draws the inference that the pistil of borages and labiates is really composed of two leaves, placed fore and aft, the margins of the leaves being congenitally fused. this tallies well with the account given of the development of these plants by payer, germain de st. pierre, and others. in an indian species of _triumfetta_, not only were the petals virescent, but the ovary also was much enlarged, and in some flowers it was divided half way down into five lanceolate leaves (fig. ), the sepals and stamens being in their normal condition. in the preceding instances the foliaceous condition has pervaded the entire pistil, or at any rate the basal portion or ovary, and it may be noticed that the ovary is thus shown to consist in some cases of the sheath of the leaf, as in _aquilegia_; in other cases of the blade, as in _cerasus_, _daucus_, &c. [illustration: fig. .--flower of _triumfetta_, sp., carpels represented by five leaves.] there are cases, however, in which a part only of the pistillary structure thus becomes foliaceous. linnæus, 'prolepsis,' § , mentions some flowers of _carduus heterophyllus_ and _c. tataricus_ in which the style had grown into two green leaflets, and in which the calyx and corolla were also leaf-like. a very singular instance is recorded by baillon,[ ] wherein the pistil of _trifolium repens_ consisted of three carpels, either separate, or combined so as to form a one-celled ovary with three parietal, pluri-ovulate placentæ; the ovary in these flowers was formed of the basal vaginiform part of the leaf; the three styles were formed by the petioles, while the stigmas were represented by trifoliolate leaves. the back of the leaf in these cases is usually directed away from the centre of the flower. when this change occurs it is commonly attended by an increased number of parts, as in the trefoil just mentioned, or in the double cherry, where usually two foliaceous carpels may be met with, and sometimes more. the change is also of interest when it affects such orders as the _umbelliferæ_, which have their ovaries inferior under ordinary circumstances; but when these organs assume a leafy condition they become superior also, _i.e._ they are detached from the calyx. as regards the position of the ovules in these foliaceous pistils, they may be placed, as in _aquilegia_, _delphinium_, &c., on the edges of the carpel or on the surface, as in some flowers of _ranunculus repens_ and _r. ficaria_. a similar position of the ovules is recorded in the case of the vine (_vitis_), where the pistil consisted of leaves bearing the ovules on their inner surface.[ ] the supposed causes of this and other similar malformations are alluded to under the head of chloranthy, but it may be here remarked that semi-double flowers, fertilised by the pollen of similar flowers, are said to produce flowers with a centre of small green leaves, this central tuft resulting from the expansion and frondescence of the pistils. as this condition rarely occurs without corresponding changes in other parts of the flower, further remarks on this subject will be found in the chapter relating to chloranthy. phyllody of the pistil has been most frequently recorded in the following plants: pæonia officinalis. ranunculus repens! *aquilegia vulgaris! delphinium elatum. crassicaule. ajacis. amænum. nymphæa dentata. sinapis arvensis! diplotaxis tenuifolia. *brassica oleracea! *sisymbrium officinale! dianthus. sp reseda phyteuma. triumfetta, sp.! lychnis dioica. cerastium, sp.! *dictamnus fraxinella! cerasus avium. vulgaris! *rosa, var. cult.! *daucus carota! heracleum, sp. epilobium hirsutum! lathyrus latifolius. *trifolium repens! hybridum. melilotus, sp. medicago, sp. lonicera periclymenum. carduus heterophyllus. tataricus. scrophularia aquatica. symphytum officinale. anchusa ochroleuca. paniculata. *primula sinensis! salix babylonica. hyacinthus, sp. tulipa, sp. some of the above are probably cases of mere virescence rather than of phyllody. for further illustrations, references to authorities, &c., see under chloranthy, virescence, prolification, &c. =phyllody of the ovules.=--pending the settlement of the existing differences of opinion with reference to the morphological nature of the ovule and its component parts, much interest attaches to the malformations to which they are occasionally subject. considered purely in a teratological point of view, it seems clear that the ovular coats are usually, if not always, of foliar nature, while the central nucleus is an axial organ; but if this be so there still remains the question whether the leafy coats of the ovule are processes of the carpel itself, or distinct independent formations, like the scales of a leaf-bud; as to this latter point, the evidence is at present very conflicting. prof. al. braun, who has devoted much attention to the subject, describes and figures ovules of _nigella_ and _adonis_, wherein the outer coat of the ovule was converted into a leafy, lobed mass, like the ordinary leaves, and these he considers to be a portion, not of the carpel, but of the ovular bud; he, however, hesitates to pronounce an opinion on the nature of the pedicel of the ovule. in _primulaceæ_, wherein ovular changes are very common, the leafy coat of the ovule would seem, from the nature of the placenta, to be independent of the carpel. morren, who studied the changes in the ovules of _primula sinensis_, applied the term lepyrophylly ([greek: lepyron], a scale) to the foliaceous condition of the testa in this plant. unger[ ] describes a series of malformations in _primula sinensis_, consisting chiefly of reversions of the part of the flower to leaves. the carpels were entirely absent in this case, and the place of the free central placenta was occupied by a circle of leaves, sometimes bearing imperfect ovules on their edges. an instance of a similar kind has been described by a. de candolle.[ ] in these flowers the placenta seemed to be composed of several funiculi soldered together, and bearing imperfect ovules. in other cases no traces of ovules are visible, but the funiculi are in a foliaceous condition. moquin also alludes to a case of the same nature in _cortusa mathioli_, in which the funiculi bore little rounded leaves. brongniart has described some malformations of _primula sinensis_ in which the ovules were transformed wholly or partially into small leaves with three to five lobes.[ ] dr. marchand[ ] mentions similar changes in _anagallis arvensis_ and _lonicera periclymenum_. cramer[ ] figures ovules of _primula sinensis_ in the form of stalked leaves, often becoming infolded at the margins, and giving origin to a small nucleus on their inner surface. m. tassi[ ] records an instance in _symphytum officinale_ wherein the ovules were replaced by two small linear leaves arising entirely from the axis, and not from the carpels. in most of the foregoing illustrations the foliar portion of the ovule must have been independent of the carpel; this independence is less manifest, though probably as real in the cases now to be mentioned. in _sinapis_ and in _brassica oleracea_ foliaceous ovules may occasionally be seen, attached to the placenta by long stalks. no trace of the nucleus is visible in these specimens. [illustration: fig. .--_sinapis_, replum and ovules; the dotted line shows the position of the carpels.] griffith, in alluding to a similar case in _sinapis_,[ ] describes the ovules as foliaceous, and having their backs turned away from the axis, the raphe being next to the axis and representing the midrib the funicle corresponding to the petiole. the outer tegument of the ovule, according to griffith, is a leaf united along its margins, but always more or less open at its apex. no inversion can, therefore, really take place in anatropous ovules, but the blade of the leaf is bent back on the funicle, with which its margins also cohere. caspary, in an elaborate paper on phyllomorphy occurring in _trifolium repens_, figures foliaceous ovules springing from the edge of an open, leafy carpel. the nucleus of the ovule, in these cases, appears to originate as a little bud from the surface of the leafy ovule (figs. , ). [illustration: fig. .--leafy ovules, &c., _trifolium repens_.] in a species of _triumfetta_ (see p. ), of which i examined dried specimens, the ovary was open and partly foliaceous; it bore on its infolded margins ten erect leaflets, representing so many ovules; each leaflet was conduplicate, the back being turned towards the placenta. [illustration: fig. .--leafy ovules of _trifolium repens_, showing formation of nucleus, &c. after caspary.] on the other hand, there are cases in which the leafy coat of the ovule, in place of being a distinct organ, seems to originate from the margin of the carpellary leaf itself--to be, as it were, a lobule or small process of the carpel, and not an absolutely new growth. thus, planchon[ ], from an examination of some monstrous flowers of _drosera intermedia_, was led to the inference that the ovules are analogous to hairs on the margins of the leaves. this acute botanist was enabled to trace all the gradations between the simple cup formed by the confluence of four glanduliferous hairs and the concave leaf and the perfect ovule. brongniart[ ] records ovules of _delphinium elatum_ existing in the form of marginal lobes of the carpellary leaf itself; so that each ovule corresponds to a lobe or large tooth of this leaf, the funiculus, as well as the raphe, being formed by the median nerve of the lateral lobe. m. clos[ ] mentions a similar instance in _aquilegia skinneri_; and another is figured in lindley's 'elements of botany,' p. , f. . [illustration: fig. .--portion of an open foliaceous carpel of _delphinium_, with ovules on the lobules.] cramer[ ], from an examination of several ovular malformations, as well as from the investigation of the mode of evolution of the ovules, is led to a similar conclusion with reference to the production of ovules from the modified lobes of the carpellary leaf. figs. - , copied from cramer, show how the nucleus of the ovule is formed as a new growth from the surface of the lobes of the leaf in _delphinium elatum_. [illustration: fig. .--section through marginal lobe of carpel (_delphinium_), showing the nucleus (_n_).] [illustration: fig. .--section through marginal lobe of carpel, showing nucleus and tegument (_delphinium_).] [illustration: fig. .-- . placenta of _dianthus_, bearing ovules and carpels. . one of the ovaries separated.] [illustration: fig. .--ovules of _dianthus_ passing into carpels.] one of the most singular instances of ovular malformation in record is that cited by the rev. m. j. berkeley, in the 'gardener's chronicle,' september th, , p. . the plant was a carnation, and its placenta bore, not only ovules, but also carpels (fig. ), the latter originating in a perverted development of the former, so that many intermediate stages could be traced between the ordinary ovule and the ovary (fig. , , _a_, , _b_). some of these carpels, thus derived from the ovules, themselves bore secondary ovules on a marginal placenta, as shown in the sections at _c_, _d_, _e_. could such a change occur in the animal kingdom, there would be the unfertilised ovum converted into an ovary, and this again bearing graafian vesicles! in mr. berkeley's carnation the change was not so great, seeing that the nucleus of the ovule was not developed, and sufficient evidence has been above given as to the foliar nature of the primine, while for a leaf to be folded up so as to form a carpel is an ordinary occurrence. it is worthy of remark that in these foliaceous ovules there is never more than one coat, the secondine and other integuments do not make their appearance in these cases, and that very generally the change in question accompanies a similar foliaceous condition in the carpel, the margins of which are more or less disunited. prof. a. braun remarks that up to this date no such change has been observed in the ovules of monocotyledons. =changes in the nucleus of the ovule.=--the preceding remarks have had reference especially to the ovular coats, but it is desirable also to allude to certain points connected with the nucleus. very frequently, when the coat of the ovule is phylloid, as before described, the nucleus is altogether wanting, though sometimes it is present as a small cellular papilla; very rarely is it to be found in its perfect state. occasionally the nucleus is present in the guise of a small elongated branch. wigand cites ovular buds in every stage of progress into a branch, sometimes even bearing indications of anthers. wydler has observed a similar occurrence in ovules of _alliaria officinalis_, and schimper has described and figured specimens of _nigella damascena_ in which the outer coats of the ovule were but little changed, while the nucleus was replaced by a leafy shoot. on one of the leaves of this latter was found an imperfect ovule--an ovule on an ovule! fig. shows a floret of a species of _gaillardia_, in which the ovule was replaced by a leafy shoot which had made its way through a chink in the ovary. in this specimen, however, there was no evidence to show whether the shoot in question was a perverted development of the nucleus, or whether it was wholly independent of the ovule. [illustration: fig. .--floret of _gaillardia_, showing leafy shoot occupying the place of the ovule.] from this occasional elongation of the nucleus, as well as from the foliar nature of the ovular coats, prof. alex. braun arrives at the conclusion that the ovule is to be looked on as a bud, the ovular coatings, so often variable in number, representing the scales of the bud, the nucleus corresponding to the end of the axis or growing point. griffith had previously expressed the same opinion from his observations on malformed ovules of _sinapis_ and _lonicera_, while caspary's conclusions from the foliaceous ovules of _trifolum repens_ are somewhat similar. the latter observer considers that the funiculus, with the integuments, is the equivalent of a leaflet, the petiolule or midrib of which answers to the funiculus, and its hollow expansion to the integument. the nucleus itself is considered to be a new formation analogous to a shoot. m. van tieghem's conclusion[ ] from the examination, of flowers of _tropæolum majus_, in which the ovules were replaced by perfect peltate leaves, is that the ovules are foliar productions springing, not directly from a prolonged floral axis, as in _primulaceæ_, but from branches of the axis arising from the axils of the carpellary leaves. phyllody of the ovules has been met with most often in the following species: *aquilegia vulgaris! skinneri. delphinium crassicaule. elatum. dictyocarpum. ajacis. nigella damascena. adonis autumnalis. cheiranthus cheiri! nasturtium, sp. sisymbrium officinale! brassica napus! * olcracea! *alliaria officinalis! sinapis arvensis! turritis, sp. thlaspi arvense. erucastrum pollichii. stellaria media. *reseda lutea. drosera intermedia. agrostemma githago. stellaria media. triumfetta, sp.! tropæolum majus! dictamnus albus. fraxinella! caram carui pastinaca sativa. torilis anthriscus. thysselinum palustre. epilobium palustre. rosa, sp. fragaria alpina. *trifolium repens! medicago maculata. desmodium canadense. melilotus macrorhiza. lonicera, sp. gaillardia! crepis, sp. phyteuma odorata. symphytum zeyheri. * officinale. stachys sylvatica. anagallia arvensis. phoenicea. lysimachia ephemerum. *primula sinensis! auricula. prænitens. gilia glomeruliflora. rumex arifolius. scutatus. salix capræa. the following list of publications relating to ovular malformations is copied from a. braun, 'ueber polyembryonie und keimung von cælobogyne' (appendix),[ ] to which are also added some others not alluded to by that author and not specially referred to in the preceding pages: jaeger, 'missbilld. d. gewächse,' p. , , f. . roeper, 'enum. euphorb.,' . p. , _delphinium_.--schimper, 'flora,' , pp. - , et 'mag. fur pharmacie de geiger,' - , pl. iv-vi, text wanting, _primula_, _reseda_, _cheiranthus_.--engelmann, 'de antholysi,' .--valentin, 'act. acad. nat. cur.,' , p. , _lysimachia_.--unger, 'act. acad. nat. cur.,' xxii, , , p. , t. b, _primula_.--'flora (b. z.)', , p. , t. ii, _trifolium_.--brongniart, 'ann. sc. nat.,' , ii, p. ; also 'archives mus. d'hist. nat.,' , t. iv, p. , pl. iv, v, _primula_.--reissek, 'linnæa,' xvii, , _alliaria_.--wydler, 'denkshrift. d. regensb. bot. gesell.,' , iv, s. , t. vii, _alliaria_.--wigand. 'grundlegung der pflanzen teratol.,' , p. , _turritis_.--wigand, 'bot. untersuchungen,' , p. , _rosa_, _turritis_, _crepis_.--germain de st. pierre, 'l'lnstitut,' , n. , p. .--rossmann, "entwicklung der eiknospen aus dem fruchtblatte," &c., 'flora,' , pp. and .--dareste, 'ann. sc. nat.,' , p. , _delphinium_.--fresenius, 'mus. senkenb.,' ii, p. , t. iv, f. , _primula_.--schultz, 'flora o. d. bot. zeit.,' , xvii, p. , _nasturtium_.--seringe and heyland, 'bull. bot.,' - , _diplotaxis_.--clos, 'mem. acad. toulouse,' vi, , _delphinium_.--morren, c., 'bull. acad. belg.,' xix, part ii, p. , _primula_.--caspary, 'schrift. d. physik. oek. gesell. zu königsberg,' band ii, p. , tabs. ii, iii. fleischer, 'ueber missbildungen verschiedener cultur pflanzen.,' &c., esslingen, . cramer, 'bildungsabweich,' p. , &c. &c., _trifolium._--moquin-tandon, 'el. terat. veg.,' p. , _cortusa_.--guillard, 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' , vol. iv, p. , _stellaria_.--moelkenboer, 'tijdschrift v. natuurl. geschied.,' , p. , t. vi, vii, _primula_.--van tieghem, 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' , p, , _tropæolum_. =phyllody in accessory organs.=--in addition to the ordinary organs of the plant, what are termed the accessory organs, such as hairs, spines, &c., sometimes become foliaceous. it is not to be wondered at that spines, when they represent the framework of a leaf, become sometimes clothed with cellular tissue, and thus become indeed true leaves. this happens occasionally in _berberis;_ a similar thing occurs in the stipules of some _leguminosæ_; the scales of some begonias; the tendrils of _bignonia_, _cobæa_, &c. the presence of two small green laminæ on the outer side of the two posterior stamens in _antirrhinum majus_ has also been met with. the adventitious organs appeared as if they were developments from the thalamus--a kind of foliaceous disc, in fact. [illustration: fig. .--leafy petal of _epilobium_.] [illustration: fig. .--chloranthy, &c. _epilobium hirsutum_.] =chloranthy.=--the term phyllomorphy is applied to the individual parts of the flower which assume the form and appearance of leaves. by chloranthy it is to be understood that all, or the great majority of the organs of the flower assume these conditions.[ ] in chloranthy, as here defined, there is no unusual number of buds, as there is in prolification, but the appearance of the flower-bud is so changed as to make it resemble more closely a leaf-bud than a flower-bud. there is not necessarily any increase in the number, or any alteration in the position of the buds, but the form and appearance of the latter differ from what is usual. chloranthy, then, is a more complete form of frondescence. owing to the vagueness with which the word has been applied by various authors, it becomes very difficult to ascertain whether the recorded instances of chloranthy were really illustrations of what is here meant by that term, or whether they were cases of mere virescence (green colour, without other perceptible change), or of prolification (formation of adventitious buds). it is, therefore, quite possible that some of the instances to be now mentioned were not strictly cases of chloranthy. [illustration: fig. .--_a._ open leafy carpel of "green rose," with two deformed ovules. _b._ ovule separate. _c._ primine removed. _d._ secondine and nucleus, with the bulbous end that projects through the micropyle.] seringe[ ] has described a malformation in _diplotaxis tenuifolia_ in which all the floral organs were replaced by sixteen distinct leaflets which had preserved their proper relative position. the _cruciferæ_, of which family the last-named plant is a member, are particularly liable to this malformation, as also are the _rosaceæ_, as will be seen from the following illustrations. roses indeed often exhibit alterations of this kind as the commencement of prolification. there is also in cultivation a rose[ ] called the green rose, "rose bengale à fleurs vertes," in which all the parts of the flower are represented by leaves. one of the most remarkable features in this plant is, that the carpels have often two ovules on their margins. now, payer, in his "organogénie," has shown that at a certain period of the development of the ordinary rose flower the ovary contains two collateral ovules, of which one becomes in process of time suppressed.[ ] _geum coccineum_ has been found by wigand with its flowers in this condition.[ ] lindley[ ] figures a very interesting illustration in _potentilla nepalensis_, in which some of the flowers have their component parts leafy, in others the receptacle lengthens, till in extreme cases the whole of the floral apparatus is represented by a branch bearing a rosette of leaves. a particular variety of the alpine strawberry is also described as occasionally subject to this transformation. in these flowers the calyx remains normal, while all the other parts of the flower, even to the coating of the ovule, assume a leaf-like condition.[ ] among _leguminosæ_ a partial leafy condition (frondescence), or a more complete degree of the same change, (chloranthy) is not infrequent, particularly in _trifolium repens_. in this species the changes are so common, so various and important, that they may be alluded to in some little detail. m. germain de saint pierre,[ ] in commenting on the frequency with which the flowers of this plant are more or less frondescent, remarks that although all the flowers on one plant may be affected, they are all changed in the same manner, but on different specimens different degrees of transformation are found. in all the corolla and stamens are comparatively little removed from the ordinary form, the calyx and pistil, however, have a particular tendency to assume a foliar condition. the author just cited arranges the malformations of this plant under three heads, as follows: . calyx-teeth larger than usual, sometimes dentate at the margin; petals more or less regular and disposed to run away from the papilionaceous form; filaments free; anthers normal; carpel transformed into a true leaf with a long stalk provided at the base, with two stipules, terminal leaflet, solitary, green, with no trace of ovules. sometimes a second carpellary leaf, similar to the first, is formed; in other cases the central axis of the flower is occasionally prolonged into a head of young flowers--median prolification. in some few instances the calyx is not at all altered, but the carpellary leaf is trifoliolate, or even quinquefoliolate, the corolla being then absent. the heads of flowers in this first form have the aspect of little tufts of leaves. . each of the teeth of the calyx is represented by a long stalk, terminated by a single articulated leaflet, the bi-labiate form of the calyx is still recognisable; the two upper petals are united, the three lower separate; the tube of the calyx is not deformed and seems to be formed of the petioles of the sepals united by their stipules. in this second class of cases the corolla is papilionaceous, the filaments free, the carpellary leaf on a long stalk provided with stipules, its blade more or less like the usual carpel, with its margins disunited or more commonly united with the ovules in the interior, sometimes represented by a foliaceous, dentate primine only. in one case the carpel was closed above, gaping below, where it gave origin to several leaflets, the lower ones oval, dentate, like ordinary leaflets, the upper ones merely lanceolate, leafy lobes, representing the primine reduced to a foliaceous condition. inflorescence--a head with leafy flowers on long stalks, which are longer at the circumference than in the centre. . calyx-teeth lance-shaped, acuminate; corolla more or less regular, arrested in its development and scarcely exceeding the tube of the calyx within which it is crumpled up; stamens but little changed; carpellary leaf on a short stalk, not exceeding the calyx tube, but the ovarian portion very long, and provided with abortive ovules. these three groups will be found to include most of the forms under which frondescence of the clover blossoms occurs, but there are, of course, intermediate forms not readily to be grouped under either of the above heads. such are the cases brought under the notice of the british association at birmingham in by mr. r. austen, in some of which the petals and stamens even were represented by leaves. although, on the whole, chloranthy is most frequent in the families already alluded to, yet it is by no means confined to them, as the examples now to be given amply show. specimens of _nymphæa lotus_ have been seen in which all the parts of the flower, even to the stigmas, were leafy, while the ovules were entirely wanting. planchon[ ] figures and describes a flower of _drosera intermedia_ that had passed into a chloranthic condition, excepting the calyx, which was unchanged; the petals, like the valves of the ovary, were provided with stipules, and were circinate in vernation. m. a. viaud-grand-marais[ ] records an interesting example of chloranthy, in which the sepals, petals, pistils, and ovules of _anagallis arvensis_ were all foliaceous. similar changes have not unfrequently been met with in _dictamnus fraxinella_. m. germain de saint pierre has also recorded the following deviations in the flowers of _rumex arifolius_ and _r. scutatus_; in these specimens the calyx was normal, the petals large, foliaceous, shaped like the stem-leaves, the stamens were absent, the three carpels fused into a triangular leafy pod, as long again as the perianth, the stigmas normal or wanting, the ovule represented by a thick funicle, terminated by a foliaceous appendage analogous to the primine.[ ] in grasses it frequently happens that the flowers are replaced by leaf-buds; this condition is alluded to elsewhere under the head of viviparous grasses, but in this place may be mentioned a less degree of change, and which seems to have been a genuine case of chloranthy in _glyceria fluitans_, the spikelet of which, as observed by wigand,[ ] consisted below of the ordinary unchanged glumes, but the remaining paleæ as well as the lodicles and stamens were represented by ligulate leaves. the plant, it is stated, was affected by a parasitic fungus. on the other hand, general munro, in his valuable monograph of the _bambusaceæ_,[ ] refers to an illustration in which "the lowest glumes generally, and the lowest paleæ occasionally, had the appearance of miniature leaves, with vaginæ, ligules and cilia, enveloping, however, perfect fertile spiculæ; as progress is made towards the top of the spike, the ligule first, then the cilia, and finally, the leaf-like extension disappears, and the uppermost glumes assume the ordinary shape and form of those organs." =general remarks on chloranthy and frondescence.=--moquin remarks with justice that the position of the flowers on the axis is of importance with reference to the existence of chloranthy. terminal flowers are more subject to it than lateral ones, and if the latter, by accident, become terminal, they seem peculiarly liable to assume a foliaceous condition. kirschleger says, that in _rubus_ there are two sorts of chloranthy, according as the anomaly affects the ordinary flowering branches, or the leafy shoots of the year, the summits of which, instead of developing in the customary manner, terminate each in one vast and long inflorescence, very loose and indeterminate, and with axillary flowers.[ ] on the whole, taking in consideration cases of partial frondescence, as well as those in which most of the parts of the flower are affected, phyllody would seem to be most common in the petals and carpels, least so in the case of the stamens and sepals. it is more common among polysepalous and polypetalous plants than in those in which the sepals or petals are united together. the causes assigned for these phenomena are chiefly those of a nature to debilitate or injure the plant; thus it has been frequently observed to follow the puncture of an insect. m. guillard[ ] gives an instance in _stellaria media_ where the condition appeared to be due to the attacks of an insect _thrips fasciata_. still more commonly it arises from the attacks of parasitic fungi, _e.g._ _uredo candida_, in crucifers, &c. in other cases it has been observed when the plants have been growing in very damp places, or in very wet seasons, or in the shade, or where the plant has been much trampled on. this happens frequently with _trifolium repens_. the frequency with which the change is encountered in this particular species is very remarkable; it is difficult to see why one species should be so much more subject to the kind of change than another of nearly identical conformation. it might at first be supposed that the same causes that bring about the complete substitution of leaf-buds for flower-buds (see heterotaxy) would operate also in the partial substitution of leaves for other parts of the flower, but it will be seen that the inducing cause, whether similar or not in the two cases respectively, acts at different times; in the one case, it is not brought into play until the rudiments of the flower are already formed, whereas in the other the influence is exerted prior to the formation of the flower. so that while the formation of leaf-buds in place of flower-buds may be and generally is due to an excess of nutrition, inducing over activity of the vegetative organs, the production of phyllomorphic or chloranthic flowers may be owing rather to a perversion of development arising from injury or from some debilitating agency. the discrepancies in the assigned causes for the conditions above mentioned may, therefore, in great measure, be attributed to the different periods at which the causes in question operate. the following list may serve as a guide to the plants most frequently the subjects of chloranthy, but reference should also be made to preceding and subsequent sections, and to that relating to prolification of the inflorescence. aquilegia vulgaris. chelidonium majus. corydalis aurea. nymphæa lotus! *brassica oleracea! bunias. hesperis matronalis. *sinapis arvensis! sisymbrium officinale. erucastrum canariense. diplotaxis tenuifolia. lychnis dioica! cerastium glomeratum! triviale. stellaria media. poterium polygamum. torilis anthriscus. seseli, sp. selinum caruifolium. epilobium hirsutum! begonia fuchsioides. gomphia, sp. scabiosa columbaria. dipsacus fullonum. matricaria parthenium. calendula officinalis. campanula pyramidalis. reseda odorata! vitis vinifera. dictamnus fraxinella! triumfetta, sp.! *tropæolum majus! rhamnus frangula. *trifolium repens! lupinus, sp. rosa diversifolia! potentilla nepalensis. argentea. fragaria vesca! geum rivale. rubus fruticosus. cæsius. saxifraga foliosa. verbascum phlomoides. scrophularia nodosa. aquatica! *primula sinensis! lysimachia ephemerum. anagallis arvensis. webbiana. nicotiana rustica. anchusa ochroleuca. myosotis cæspitosa. stachys sylvatica. gilia capitata. euphorbia segetalis. rumex arifolius. scutatus. juncus lampocarpus. uliginosus. in addition to the publications before cited the following may be named as containing valuable information on the subject of this chapter. jæger, 'missbild. gewächs.,' , p. , _trifolium repens_. for other accounts of similar malformations in the same plant, see schmitz, 'linnæa,' xv, p. . unger, 'flora' (b. z.) xxv, p. . caspary, 'schrift. der. physik. ökon. gesellsch. zu königsberg,' , , p. , tabs. ii, iii. fleischer, 'missbilld. verschied. cult. pflanz.,' , p. , &c., t. v, vii, &c. for _primula_ see brongniart, 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser. , t. i, p. . a. p. and alph. de candolle in 'neue denkschrift.' morren, c., 'bull. acad. roy. belg.,' xix, part , p. . molkenboer, 'tijdschr. voor natuurl. geschied.,' , p. , tabs. vi, vii. marchand, 'adansonia,' iv, p. and p. . _anagallis_, p. , _lonicera_, p. , _juncus_. for other plants see fresenius, 'mus. senk.,' , p. , &c. norman, 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser. , , vol. ix, p. . christ, 'flora' (b. z.) , p. , tabs. v, vi, _stachys_. cramer, 'bildungsabweich.,' p. , &c. baillon, 'adansonia,' ii, p. . moquin-tandon, 'el. ter. veg.,' p. . schauer's translation, p. . hallier, 'phytopathologie,' p. . footnotes: [ ] engelmann makes use of the word frondescence in the same cases. 'de anthol.,' p. , § , while morren adopts the term phyllomorphy, 'lobelia,' p. . [ ] see schlechtendal, 'bot. zeit.,' vol. xv, , p. ; also marchand, 'adansonia,' iv, p. . [ ] for instances of similar changes in _composites_, see de candolle, 'prod.,' t. vi, p. , _centaurea jacea phyllocephala_. clos, 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser. iii, tom. xvi, , p. . 'science gossip,' , p. , &c. [ ] kickx, 'bull. acad. belg.,' t. xviii, part , p. . [ ] weber, 'verhandl. nat. hist. vereins. f. preuss.,' &c., , p. . [ ] weber, loc. cit. [ ] sauter, 'flora v. bot. zeit.,' , p. . [ ] 'descr. et icon. plant.' tab. . [ ] for references see p. ; see also to eichler, 'excurs. morpholog. de format. flor. gymnosperm.,' in "mart. flor. brasil," abstracted in english in 'natural history review,' april, . [ ] "calyx tunc plane non differt a foliis proxime ipsi præcedentibus." wolff, 'theor. gener.,' § . linn., 'proleps.,' § . goethe, 'versuch.,' §§ - . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. france,' vol. viii, , p. . [ ] 'organ. véget.,' t. i, p. , pl. xxxii, f. . [ ] this distinction between laminar and vaginal venation is well seen in cases like _mussaenda_, _calycophyllum_, or _dipterocarpus_, where the enlarged calycine segment has a strictly vaginal arrangement of its veins, very different from that which occurs in the true leaf-blades. these are cases, therefore, where the sheath of the leaf is unusually enlarged, and are not to be referred, as is often done, to metamorphosis of one or more sepals to perfect leaves. prolified roses, cherries, &c., furnish frequently parallel cases. with reference to _mussaenda_, c. morren held the view that the petal-like sepal was really a bract adherent to the calyx, and incorporating with itself one of the calycine lobes--"soudée au calice et ayant dévorée, en englobant dans sa propre masse, un lobe calicinal." the belgian _savant_ considers this somewhat improbable explanation as supported by a case wherein there were five calyx lobes of uniform size, and a detached feather-veined leaf proceeding from the side of the ovary lower down ('bull. acad. belg.,' xvii, p. , _fuchsia_, p. ). [ ] in this order _agrostemma githago_ offers an illustration of a normally leafy calyx. [ ] 'bull. bot.,' i, p. . [ ] wolff's original opinion was that the stamens were equivalent to so many buds placed in the axil of the petals or sepals (see 'theoria generationis,' , § )--an opinion which more recently has received the support of agardh and endlicher. wolff himself, however, seems to have abandoned his original notion, for in his memoir, "de formatione intestinorum præcipue tum et de amnio spurio aliisque partibus embryonis gallinacei, nondum visis," &c., in 'comm. acad. petrop.,' xii, p. , anno , he considers the stamens as essentially leaves. see also linn. 'prolepsis,' § viii; goethe, 'metam.,' § . [ ] müller (argov.), in 'mém. soc. phys. et d'hist. nat. genev.,' t. xvii. [ ] "if we keep in view the observations which have now been made, we shall not fail to recognise the leaf in all seed-vessels, notwithstanding their manifold forms, their variable structure, and different combinations."--(goethe, 'metam.,' § .) wolff, 'n. comm. acad. petrop.,' , xii, p. , expresses precisely the same opinion as to the nature of the seed-vessel. [ ] 'el. terat. veg.,' p. . [ ] 'ann. sc. nat.,' th series, vol. ix, p. . [ ] 'adansonia,' iv, p. . a similar deviation has been observed by m. van tieghem in the ovary of _tropæolum majus_, 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' , p. . [ ] planchon et marès, 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser. , vol. vi, , p. , tab. xii. [ ] 'act. acad. nat. cur.,' , . , p. , t. v, vi. [ ] 'neue denkschrift der allg. schweiz. gesellsch.,' band v. p. , tab. , . [ ] 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser., vol. i, p. , pl. ix, c. [ ] 'adansonia,' vol. iv, pp. , . [ ] 'bildungsabweichungen,' &c., tab. iv, figs. , , , , , &c. [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. france,' viii, p. . [ ] 'notulæ,' p. , atlas, pl. xxxv; and 'journals of travels,' , p. , _lonicera_. [ ] 'ann. science nat.,' rd ser., vol. ix, p. , tabs. , . [ ] 'comptes rendus,' vol. xviii, march th, , and 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser., vol. ii, p. . [ ] 'mém. acad. sc. toulous.,' ser. , vol. iii. [ ] 'bildungsabweich. pflanz. famil.,' p. , tab. xi. [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' , p. . [ ] translated in 'ann. sc. nat.,' th series, t. xiv, p. . [ ] the calyx is not unfrequently excepted. [ ] 'bull. bot.,' t. i, p. . [ ] lindley, 'theor. horticult.,' ed. , p. , f. . [ ] gris, 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' , vol. v, p. , and 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser. , vol. ix, p. . planchon, 'flore des serres,' vol. i, , p. . [ ] 'flora,' , p. . [ ] 'theory of horticult.,' ed. , p. , f. . [ ] as considerable interest attaches to the "plymouth strawberry," and very little is known of it in this country, or on the continent, the author gladly avails himself of this opportunity of inserting an account of it, for which he is indebted to the kindness of dr. robert hogg.--the plymouth strawberry (_fragaria vesca fructu hispido_) is a sort of botanical dodo upon which many have written, and which few have seen. many years have elapsed since it was first discovered; and although a century and a half have passed since there was any evidence of its existence, it serves still as an illustration for students in morphology of one of those strange abnormal structures with which the vegetable kingdom abounds. it is to old john tradescant we are indebted for the earliest record of this plant. johnson, in his edition of 'gerard,' says; "mr. john tradescant hath told me that he was the first that tooke notice of this strawberry, and that in a woman's garden at plimouth, whose daughter had gathered and set the roots in her garden, in stead of the common strawberry; but she, finding the fruit not to answer her expectation, intended to throw it away; which labour he spared her in taking it and bestowing it among the louers of such varieties, in whose garden it is yet preserved." doubtless one of those "lovers" was his friend john parkinson, who, in the year , thus wrote concerning it: "one strawberry more i promised to shew you, which, although it be a wilde kinde, and of no vse for meate, yet i would not let this discourse passe without giuing you the knowledge of it. it is in leafe much like vnto the ordinary, but differeth in that the flower, if it haue any, is greene, or rather it beareth a small head of greene leaues, many set thicke together like vnto a double ruffe, in the midst whereof standeth the fruit, which, when it is ripe, sheweth to be soft and somewhat reddish, like vnto a strawberry, but with many small harmlesse prickles on them which may be eaten and chewed in the mouth without any maner of offence and is somewhat pleasant as a strawberry; it is no great bearer, but those it doth beare, are set at the toppes of the stalks close together, pleasant to behold, and fit for a gentlewoman to weare on her arme, &c., as a rairitie in stead of a flower." merret, in his 'pinax.' published in , says he found it growing in the woods of hyde park and hampstead, and zanoni was the first to figure it (with the exception of parkinson's rude woodcut) in his 'istoria botanica,' published in . it is mentioned by morison and also by ray, the latter of whom inserts it in his synopsis, but without any habitat; though in his 'historia plantarum' he says: "cantabrigiæ in horto per aliquot annos colui." from this time henceforth the plymouth strawberry has become a botanical dodo, nothing more having been seen or heard of it except the mere record of the name. in , m. duchesne informed the world of the generosity of "m. monti, docteur de philosophie et de médecine à boulogne en italie," who divided with him a dried specimen taken from his own herbarium, "ce présent prétieux m'ôte toute incertitude sur la nature de ce fraisier et sur ses caractères monstrueux. il paroît ne pas avoir aujourd'hui plus d'existence." [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. france,' , vol. iii, p. . [ ] 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser., vol. ix, p. , tabs. v, vi. [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. france,' vol. viii, , p. . [ ] ibid., vol. iii, , p. . [ ] 'flora,' , p. . [ ] 'trans. linn. soc.,' vol. xxvi, p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. france,' , vol. ix, p. , tab. i, and also p. . [ ] ibid., , vol. iv, p. . chapter ii. metamorphy of the floral organs. one of the main arguments adduced by goethe and others in support of the now generally received doctrine of the essential morphological identity of the various whorls of the flower is derived from the frequent appearance of one organ in the guise of another. the several parts of the flower become, as it is said, metamorphosed; sometimes the change is complete, while at other times there may be every conceivable intermediate condition between one form and another. the sense in which the terms metamorphosis, substitution, transformation, and the like, are herein used has already been explained. for the convenience of arrangement, metamorphosis of the parts of the flower may be divided into several subdivisions, according to the particular organ affected, and according to the special kind or degree of change manifested, the main subdivisions being here classed as sepalody, petalody, staminody, and pistillody. =sepalody of the petals.=--this change, spoken of by most authors as retrograde metamorphosis of the petals into sepals, or as a substitution of sepals for petals, is obviously a condition that is in most cases hardly distinguishable from virescence of the corolla, or from multiplication of the sepals. nor is this of much consequence unless there are some special structural features which render the discrimination a matter of importance, in which case the difficulty is generally easily surmounted. the flower of the saint-valèry apple may perhaps be cited under this head. in the flower in question there are neither stamens nor petals, unless the second or inner of sepals be considered as sepaloid petals (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--flower of st. valèry apple, with sepaloid petals.] m. alph. de candolle[ ] describes an instance in _primula auricula_ in which the corolla had assumed the appearance of the calyx, but neither calyx nor corolla in this case possessed perfect stomata. this malformation is much less common than the converse one of calycanthemy. many of the recorded instances of so-called metamorphosis of the parts of the flower to sepals have occurred in monocotyledonous plants, or others in which the calyx and corolla are of the same colour, and constitute what is frequently termed the perianth; and as this is usually brightly coloured (not green) it is more convenient to group the metamorphoses in question under the general term petalody, which thus includes all those cases in which the organs of the flower appear in the form of coloured petal-like organs, whether they be true petals or segments of a coloured perianth. as the morphological difference between the organs is one of position merely, there is little objection to be raised to this course, the less so as the term petalody merely conveys an idea of resemblance and not of absolute identity. petaloid coloration of the ordinary leaves, or of the bracts, is mentioned under the chapter relating to colour. =petalody of the calyx--calycanthemy.=--as with the bracts, so the calyx in certain instances is naturally coloured, as in _delphinium_, _tropæolum_, and others. in _mussænda_, _calycophyllum_, _usteria_, &c., one or more of the calyx lobes become enlarged normally. considered teratologically, petaloid coloration of the sepals is either general or partial; in the latter case the nerves retain their green colour longest. there is in cultivation a variety of the primrose called _primula calycanthema_, in which the upper part of the calyx becomes coloured, so that the flower seems to have two corollas placed one within the other; a similar thing happens in _mimulus_, in which plant, as the calyx is permanent while the corolla is deciduous, the coloured calyx is a great advantage in a horticultural point of view. morren[ ] says that in order to produce the fine colour of the calyx of _primula officinalis_ (var. _smaragdina_) the belgian gardeners cut away the corolla in a very early stage, and that in consequence the colouring matter proper to the corolla is developed in the tube of the calyx, the edges of the limb remaining green, the middle of the limb being purple (_primula tricolor_). [illustration: fig. .--flower of _mimulus_, with petaloid calyx.] under this head may be mentioned the occurrence of tubular sepals in place of the ordinary flat ones in _helleborus olympicus_; only two of the sepals were thus affected in a specimen recently observed--a third exhibited an intermediate condition. the normal coloration of the calyx occurs most frequently in polysepalous calyces; teratological coloration, on the other hand, occurs especially in gamosepalous flowers. this assertion is borne out by the frequency of the change in the plants already mentioned, and also in the following:--_campanula persicifolia_, _anagallis arvensis_, _gloxinia_, _syringa persica_,[ ] _calceolaria_, _&c. &c_. in the last-named plant one or more of the lobes of the calyx may frequently be seen replaced by a slipper-like petal. among polysepalous plants petaloid sepals have been observed in _ranunculus auricomus_, _rubus cæsius_, _&c._ fleischer also describes a case of this kind in _carum carui_.[ ] it will be seen from the above that in the majority of cases there is no real metamorphosis or substitution of petal for calyx, but simply an alteration in colour; nevertheless, a change in form may accompany a change of colour: this happens especially if there has been any displacement of organs. thus, if, in an orchidaceous plant, a sepal be displaced from any cause, or a petal be twisted out of its natural position to occupy the place of an absent sepal, that petal will be sepal-like in form, and _vice versâ_. =petalody of the stamens.=--a petaloid condition of the stamens is one of the commonest of all malformations. a large number of so-called double flowers (flores pleni)[ ] owe their peculiar appearance to this circumstance. it is necessary to distinguish carefully this petaloid development of the stamens from the corresponding condition of the pistils, and from that kind of doubling which is a result of multiplication of the corolla, as in _datura_, _campanula_, _primula_, &c. (flores duplices, triplices, &c.), or from that produced by true median prolification (flores geminati, &c.). in cases of true petaloid development of the stamens there are usually numerous intermediate forms between that of the true petals and that of the perfect stamens; indeed, in _nymphæa_, _canna_, and in some other plants, such a transition occurs normally. petalody of the stamens may occur either without material change in the flower or it may exist in combination or in conjunction with an increased development of parts (multiplication), or with a similar change in the carpels, and it is either partial or complete. among the flowers in which petaloid development of the stamens happens most frequently may be mentioned those in which the calyx is normally coloured, as in _nigella damascena_, _aguilegia_, and _delphinium_. m. alph. de candolle, in the 'neue denkschriften,' , described and figured a singular form of _viola odorata_, known under the name of "bruneau," in switzerland, in which the stamens are absent, and their place supplied by a second row of petals, within which is a third series of petals, representing, says m. de candolle, the inner row of stamens that theory suggests should exist in the natural condition. moreover, the carpels in this variety are five in number instead of three. in _erica tetralix_ the corolla may not unfrequently be found divided to the base into its constituent petals, and the place of the stamens occupied by a series of petal-like structures entirely destitute of anther. in monocotyledonous flowers, especially those with a coloured perianth, the substitution of segments of the perianth for stamens occurs not unfrequently. m. seringe has observed this in the stamens of _lilium martagon_, and there is in cultivation a variety of the white lily, _lilium candidum_, sometimes called the double white lily, in which the segments of the perianth, in place of being arranged in two rows, are greatly increased in number, and disposed in a spiral manner. in these flowers, not only are the stamens and pistils thus modified, but also the upper leaves of the stem. in so-called double tulips there is likewise a replacement of stamens by coloured segments of the perianth, but this happens generally in connection with an increase in the number of organs. moquin-tandon remarks having seen in a garden in the environs of montpelier a tulip, the stamens of which showed all possible stages of transition between the form proper to them and that of the perianth. the pistil in this case was transformed into several small leaves. similar appearances have been observed in iris, hyacinths, narcissus, colchicum, and crocus. m. fournier[ ] describes a flower of _narcissus tazetta_ from within the normal perianth of which sprang a second one, equally provided with a cup and occupying the space usually filled by the stamens. flowers of _narcissus poeticus_ may also be met with in which the stamens are replaced by six distinct segments exactly resembling those of the perianth in miniature.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--double columbine, _aquilegia_--petalody of the filament.] from an examination of these flowers it becomes evident that petalification is brought about in different flowers in different ways; sometimes it is the filament which becomes petaloid, sometimes the anther-lobes, while at other times it is the connective which assumes the appearance of petals.[ ] for instance, in _solanum tuberosum_, _s. dulcamara_, in _anagallis_, in _fuchsia_, and some other plants, the anther-lobes themselves become petaloid, while the filament remains unchanged. in gardens two distinct varieties of columbine are cultivated, the one in which the filaments are dilated into the form of flat petals almost entirely or quite destitute of anthers, while in the other the filament is present in its usual form, but the anther is developed in the shape of a tubular hood or spur. de candolle[ ] observes that in the _ranunculaceæ_ the species of _clematis_ become double by the expansion of the filament, those of _ranunculus_ by the dilatation of the anther, and those of _helleborus_ by the petal-like development of both filament and anther. in some cases even on the same plant all three modifications may be seen, as in camellias, some of which may be found with petaloid filaments with anthers on the top, others with the filaments unchanged, but supporting petaloid anthers, while in others it is the connective alone which is petal-like. where the flower naturally contains a large number of stamens, as in mallows, roses, magnolias, &c., petaloid expansion of the filament is most common, though it is by no means confined to such flowers, the change occurring in _allamanda cathartica_, _jasminum grandiflorum_, and many other flowers with few stamens. a similar change in the anther and connective takes place more frequently in flowers where the number of stamens is smaller, but there are of course numerous exceptions to this rule. in those cases where there is more than one row of stamens, the outermost are most liable to this change: thus in _saxifraga decipiens_, as shown by ch. morren,[ ] the outer series of stamens--those opposite to the sepals--become first affected, and, at a more advanced stage, the inner row also; and this is the case in most flowers that have their stamens in two rows. occasionally it happens that an outer series of stamens is abortive, or wholly suppressed, while the inner row becomes petalodic; this was the case in some flowers of _lilium auratum_ lately exhibited by messrs. veitch. those flowers in which only a portion of the stamens undergo this change are called semi-double, while in other cases that will be hereafter mentioned, not only are the stamens thus rendered petaloid, but their number is also augmented, as in most double roses, pinks, anemones, poppies, &c. in some double flowers, in which the stamens assume more or less completely the appearance of petals, a singular appearance is afforded by the presence of four wing-like processes emanating from the central filaments, two on each side, so that the arrangement may be compared to two sheets of paper folded in the centre and adherent in that situation, though perfectly separate elsewhere, except sometimes at the top, where they form a sort of hood. this change results from an imperfect petalody of the anther; the two wings on each side of the central vascular cord represent the front and back walls of an anther lobe, or rather of that portion of the anther which, under ordinary circumstances, produces pollen. in the malformed flowers no pollen is formed, at least in the more complete states of the malformation, but the walls of the anther lobe become preternaturally enlarged, and petaloid in texture and appearance. this change occurs in some semi-double rhododendrons and azaleas, in crocuses, and in a species of violet found at mentone by mr. j. t. moggridge. there are numerous intermediate forms wherein the wing-like processes may be traced all the way along the filament till they ultimately lose themselves in the anther-lobes, with which they become continuous. in some cases, as in _crocus_ and _rhododendron_, this is shown even more clearly by the existence of two perfect pollen-sacs or quarter-anthers, the remaining portions being petaloid and continuous with the dilated filament. not unfrequently these semi-petaloid stamens adhere to the fronts of the petals, and then it appears, at a first glance, as if three organs were stuck together, one in front of another, while in reality there are but two.[ ] (see _antè_, p. , fig. .) [illustration: fig. .--four-winged filaments of _rhododendron_.] the change in the anther, above alluded to, must not be mistaken for that far more common one in which only a small portion of the anther becomes petaloid, forming a sort of lateral wing or appendage to the polliniferous portion, as happens normally in _pterandra_, and is common in some double fuchsias. in this latter instance there is but a single wing, and the nature of the case is obvious. double flowers of _orchidaceæ_ generally arise from petalification of the filaments, with or without other coincident changes. what makes double flowers in this order the more interesting is the development, in a petaloid condition, of some or all of those stamens which under ordinary circumstances are wholly suppressed, so that the morphological structure of the flower, at first a matter of theory, becomes actually realised. fig. is a diagram showing the presence of two additional labella within the ordinary one in a species of _catasetum_, and representing two petaloid stamens, thus evidently completing the outer staminal whorl, of which there is usually but a single representative (see peloria, multiplication, prolification). in some of these double orchids it is, however, necessary not to confound a petaloid condition of the existing column with the development of usually suppressed stamens in a petaloid form. thus, in _lycaste skinneri_ the column is frequently provided with two petal-like wings, which might readily be supposed to be two stamens of the inner whorl adherent to the column; a little attention, however, to the relative position of these adventitious wings is generally sufficient to enable the observer to ascertain the true nature of the appearance.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--diagram of flower of _catasetum_, with two labella.] some forms of duplicate or hose in hose corollas are apparently due, not so much to the formation of a second corolla within the first, as to the presence of an inner series of petal-like stamens, which, by their cohesion, form a second pseudo-corolla within the first. the staminal nature of this pseudo-corolla is inferred from the occasional presence of anthers on it.[ ] in _datura fastuosa_, as well as in _gloxinia_, a pseudo-corolla of this kind sometimes occurs with the addition of a series of petaloid stamens attached to its outer surface.[ ] when the petalody specially affects the anther-lobes, as in _arbutus_, _petunia_, _fuchsia_, _&c._, the venation of the petal-like portion is very frequently laminar, thus tending to show that the anther is in such cases really a modification of the blade of the leaf; but as, on the other hand, we often find petal-like filaments bearing pollen-sacs on their sides, it is clear that we must not attribute the formation of pollen to the blade of the leaf only, but we must admit that it may be formed in the filament as well.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--portion of a double columbine (_aquilegia_), showing petalody of the connective.] [illustration: fig. .--petaloid stamens, _hibiscus_.] petalody of the connective is of less frequent occurrence than the corresponding change in the other portions of the stamen. it may be seen in some forms of double columbine,[ ] in which the connective forms a tubular petal or nectary, and in double petunias and fuchsias. when it occurs, the true anther-lobes are usually atrophied, and little or no pollen is formed. an occurrence of this nature in _tacsonia pinnatistipula_, in conjunction with the partial detachment of the stamens from the gynophore, led karsten to establish a genus which he called _poggendorffia_.[ ] from the subjoined list of genera in which petalody of the stamens, in some form or other, has been observed, it will be seen that it happens more often in plants with numerous distinct organs (polypetalæ, polyandria, polygynia, &c.) than in other plants with a smaller number of parts, and which are more or less adherent one to the other. the tendency to petalification is, moreover, greater among those plants which have their floral elements arranged in spiral series, than among those where the verticillate arrangement exists; and in any given flower, if the stamens are spirally arranged while the carpels are grouped in whorls, the former will be more liable to petalody than the latter, and _vice versâ_. it has been before remarked, that this condition is far more common in plants whose petals, &c., have straight veins, like those in the sheath of a leaf, than in those the venation of which is reticulate, as in the blade of the leaf. it must also be remembered that in the same genus, even in the same species, different kinds of doubling occur. familiar illustrations of this are afforded in the case of anemones, columbines, fuchsias, and other plants. the existence of "compound stamens" in some flowers, as pointed out by payer, and others, and the researches of dr. alexander dickson, confer additional importance on the subject of petalody, and necessitate the examination of double flowers with special reference to these compound stamens, and to the order of their development.[ ] the presence of these compound stamens affords a satisfactory explanation of the appearance in some double _malvaceæ_, wherein the tufts of adventitious petals are very liable to be mistaken for buds, produced by axillary prolification in the axils of the petals, but which are in reality compound and petaloid stamens. at other times, however, true axillary prolification exists in these flowers; but then the supplemental florets have always a calyx, which is wanting in the other instances. petalody of the stamens has been met with most frequently in the following genera: *ranunculus! *anemone! *papaver! *clematis! *hepatica! *ficaria! thalictrum. *caltha! *trollius! *nigella! *aquilegia! *delphinium! *adonis! *pæonia! *nelumbium! *nymphæa! *berberis! *papaver! *chelidonium! sanguinaria. podophyllum. *mathiola! *cheiranthus! *iberis! *cardamine! *hesperis. *barbarea! *sinapis! *brassica! *helianthemum! *viola! *dianthus! *saponaria! *lychnis! *silene! *sagina! *hibiscus! *althæa! *malva! Æsculus! *geranium! *pelargonium. *tropæolum! oxalis! *impatiens! *camellia! thea! trifolium! medicago! *ulex! spartianthus. clitoria. pisum! orobus! genista! spartium! cytisus! anthyllis. coronilla. lotus! *rosa! *kerria! *spiræa! *fragaria! *potentilla! *cratægus! cydonia. *pyrus! eriobotrya! *amygdalus! *prunus! *myrtus! *punica! *philadelphus! *deutzia! *fuchsia! godetia! clarkia! portulaca! ribes! saxifraga! daucus. ixora. serissa! gardenia! lonicera! sambucus. viburnum. scabiosa. *campanula! platycodon! calluna! azalea! rhododendron! *arbutus! *erica! *anagallis! *primula! *jasminum! syringa! *vinca! *nerium! allamanda! tabernæmontana. *calystegia! convolvulus! ipomoea. *datura! *petunia! solanum! orobanche. gentiana. mimulus. *antirrhinum! gratiola! *digitalis! *linaria! veronica! calceolaria! achimenes. gloxinia! clerodendron! bignonia. cyclamen! mirabilis. laurus! gladiolus! crocus! iris! *galanthus! leucojum! sternbergia! hippeastrum. *narcissus! *orchis! catasetum! hydrocharis. asphodelus. *tulipa! scilla. *convallaria! fritillaria! *lilium! *hyacinthus! *polianthes! *hemerocallis! *colchicum! *sagittaria! *tradescantia! commelyna! tofieldia. =petalody of the pistils.=--taken by itself, this is much less common than the corresponding change in the stamens. it generally affects the style and stigma only, as happens normally in _petalostylis_, _iris_, &c., but this is by no means always necessarily the case. in some of the cultivated varieties of _anemone_ and _ranunculus_ all the parts of the flower remain in their normal state, except the pistils, which latter assume a petaloid appearance. many of the double flowers owe their peculiar appearance to the combination of the following appearances--a petal-like form of the stamens, increase in the number of these organs and similar changes affecting the pistils, and is applied to several distinct conditions. if in any given flower all the stamens and all the pistils become wholly petaloid, no pollen is formed, and of course no seeds can be produced, but this very rarely happens, as usually some pollen is produced, and some ovules capable of being fertilised are developed. in double flowers of _primula sinensis_ it frequently happens that the capsule is either partially leafy or partly petal-like; in either case the fruit is open at the extremity, and often destitute of the style and stigma. it is, however, doubtful if the ovules can be fertilised in these flowers. the following list comprises the names of those genera in which this change has been most frequently observed, independently of corresponding alterations in the stamens, but it is more usual for both sets of organs to be similarly affected. *ranunculus! *anemone! nigella. *papaver! *dianthus! saponaria! viola! camellia! alcea. hibiscus! amygdalus! lonicera! scabiosa. Æschynanthus! primula! =petalody of the ovules.=--the principal changes which occur in the ovule have already been alluded to at pp. - ; it may here be stated, however, that the ovules are occasionally represented by small stalked petal-like structures. this happens with especial frequency among _cruciferæ_.[ ] =petalody of the accessory organs.=--a petaloid condition of the disc, of the scales, or other excrescences from the axis or from the lateral portions of the flower, is of frequent occurrence, though it is but rarely that the change is of any great importance in a morphological point of view. c. morren has given the name adenopetaly to a case wherein one of the glands at the base of the petals in _lopezia_ was replaced by a petal.[ ] a similar change may be seen in the double oleander. =staminody of the bracts.=--an instance of this has been already alluded to in _abies excelsa_, as observed by prof. dickson, and in which some of the bracts were seen assuming the form and characteristic of the stamens see _ante_: p. . signor licopoli met with a similar substitution of anthers for bracts in _melianthus major_.[ ] =staminody of the sepals and petals.=--in the first named this is of very rare occurrence. m. gris has recorded an instance in _philadelphus speciosus_[ ] which appears to be the only case on record. the corresponding change in the case of the petals is far more common. de candolle cites in illustration of this occurrence flowers of the common haricot, in which the alæ and carina of the corolla were thus changed.[ ] there is in cultivation a form of _saxifraga granulata_ wherein the petals are replaced by stamens, so that there are fifteen stamens. a similar change has been observed in _capsella bursa-pastoris_. cramer figures and describes a stamen occupying the place of a petal in _daucus carota_.[ ] turpin[ ] describes a similar occurrence in _monarda fistulosa_, in which the lower lip terminated in an anther, but this may have been a case of adhesion. moquin cites from chamisso, _digitalis purpurea_, and from jussieu, _asphodelus ramosus_, as having presented this change, and wiegmann[ ] has seen anthers developed on the awns of _avena chinensis_. in semi-double flowers of _ophrys aranifera_ and _orchis mascula_, the lateral petals are occasionally partially antheroid, and others occur in which two of the outer series of stamens, which are ordinarily suppressed, are present, but in a petaloid state. reichenbach[ ] figures an illustration of this change, and also moggridge.[ ] =staminody of the pistils.=--the existence of this change has been denied by several authors, nevertheless, it is of sufficiently common occurrence. alexander braun notices the transformation of pistils into stamens in chives (_allium scorodoprasum_), and in which three stamens appeared in the place of as many pistils, and had extrorse anthers, while the six normal anthers are introrse. in the horse-radish (_armoracia rusticana_), two of the carpels are frequently converted into stamens, while two other organs absent from the normal flower make their appearance as carpels. roeper has observed this phenomenon in _euphorbia palustris_,[ ] and in _gentiana campestris_.[ ] in these examples one of the carpels was apparently absent, and its place supplied by an anther. roeper has also mentioned a balsam with a supernumerary stamen occupying exactly the position of a carpel.[ ] agardh has observed a similar thing in a hyacinth, one half of the fruit of which contained seeds, and the other half, anthers. b. clarke mentions an instance in _mathiola incana_ in which the carpels were disunited, and antheriferous at the margin.[ ] the passage of pistils to stamens in willows has been frequently remarked, as in _salix babylonica_, _silesiaca_, _cinerea_, _caprea_ and _nigricans_. one of the most curious illustrations of this transformation in this genus is given by henry and macquart (erst. jahrb. des bot. vereines am m. et n. rhein., ). in the flowers in question the series of changes were as follows:--first, the ovary opened by a slit, and then expanded into a cup; next, anther-cells were developed on the margin of the cup, with stigmas alternating with them, the ovules at the same time disappearing; lastly, the margin became divided, and bore three perfect anthers, which in the more perfect states were raised on three filaments. _campanula persicifolia_, _c. rapunculoides_, and _c. glomerata_ have been observed to present an anther surmounting the pistil.[ ] double tulips often present this change, and a like appearance has been observed in _galanthus nivalis_, and _narcissus tazetta_. moquin mentions the existence of this condition in a female plant of maize, some of the pistils of which were wholly or partially converted into anther-like organs. mohl has recorded an analogous malformation in _chamærops humilis_, and in which the three carpels were normally formed, and only differed from natural ovaries in this, that along the two edges of the ventral suture there was a yellow thickening, which a cross section of the ovary showed to be an anther-lobe filled with pollen.[ ] in _tofieldia calyculata_ a similar substitution of a stamen for a carpel has been observed by klotsch,[ ] and weber[ ] gives other instances in _prunus_ and _pæonia_. corresponding alterations may be met with in cultivated tulips, in the cowslip and other plants. in most of the above cases the transmutation has been perfect, but in quite an equal number of cases a portion only of the carpel is thus changed, generally the style or the stigma; thus baillon describes the stigmas of _ricinus communis_ as having been in one instance antheriferous.[ ] moggridge figures a flower of _ophrys insectifera_ in which the rostellate process was replaced by an anther.[ ] mohl remarks that the change of pistils into stamens is more common in monocarpellary pistils than it is in those which are made up of several carpels. it seems clear that in this transformation the lobes of the anther and the development of pollen have no relation to the production of ovules. =staminody of the accessory organs of the flower.=--the scales that are met with in some plants, either as excrescences from the petals, or as imperfect representatives of stamens or other organs, are occasionally staminoid; thus the scales of _saponaria officinalis_, of _silene_, _nerium oleander_, the rays of _passiflora_, the corona of _narcissus_, have all been observed occasionally to bear anthers.[ ] in the case of _narcissus_ the loose spongy tissue of the corona seems to have the nearest analogy to the anther-lobes, while the prolonged connective is more like the ordinary segments of the perianth in texture. the species in which this change may most frequently be observed are, _n. poeticus_, _n. incomparabilis_, and _n. montanus_. m. bureau found in some flowers of _antirrhinum majus_ two petal-like bodies standing up in front of, or opposite to the two petals of the upper lip,[ ] and similar developments in which each of the two adventitious segments are surmounted by an anther may be met with frequently. it does not follow because these organs bear anthers that they are morphologically true stamens. they are really scales, &c., taking on themselves accidentally the characters proper to stamens. =pistillody of the perianth.=--the passage of the segments of the perianth into carpels has been observed frequently in _tulipa gesneriana_, the change in question being generally attended by a partial virescence. m. gay is said by moquin to have observed a flower of _crocus nudiflorus_ in which the segments of the perianth were cleft and fringed at the same time, so that they presented the appearance of the stigmas. [illustration: fig. .--flower of tulip, allowing vertical attachment of a leaf, and also the existence of ovules on the margins of the segments of the perianth. some of the parts are removed.] =pistillody of the sepals.=--in some double flowers of the garden pea communicated by mr. laxton, among other peculiarities was a supernumerary - -leaved calyx, some of the segments of which were of a carpellary nature, and bore imperfect ovules on their margins, while at their extremities they were drawn out into styles.[ ] =pistillody of the stamens.=--this change whereby the stamens assume more or less the appearance of pistils is more commonly met with than is the metamorphosis of the envelopes of the flower into carpels. in some cases the whole of the stamen appears to be changed, while in others it is the filament alone that is altered, the anther being deficient, or rudimentary; while, in a third class of cases, the filament is unaffected, and the anther undergoes the change in question. in those instances in which the filament appears to be the portion most implicated, it becomes dilated so as to resemble a leaf-sheath rather than a leaf-stalk, as it does usually. one of the most curious cases of this kind is that recorded in the 'botanical magazine,' (tab. , f. ) as having occurred in _begonia frigida_ already alluded to, and in which, in the centre of a male flower, were four free ovoid ovaries alternating with as many stamens. in the normal flowers of this plant, as is well known, the male flowers have several stamens, while in the female flowers the ovary is strictly inferior, so that, in the singular flower just described, the perianth was inferior instead of being superior, as it is usually. it should be added also that the perianth in these malformed flowers was precisely like that which occurs ordinarily in the male flowers. [illustration: fig. .--supernumerary carpels in the orange, arising from substitution of pistils for stamens.] in some varieties of the orange, called by the french "bigarades cornues," the thalamus of the flower, which is usually short, and terminated by a glandular ring-like disc, is prolonged into a little stalk or gynophore, bearing a ring of supernumerary carpels. these carpels are isolated one from another, and are formed by the transformation of the filaments of the stamens.[ ] the additional carpels in the case of the apple of st. valéry, in which the petals are of a green colour, like the sepals, are by some attributed to the transformation of the stamens into carpels. these adventitious carpels frequently contain imperfect ovules and form a whorl above the normal ones. (see _pyrus dioica_ of willdenow.)[ ] a similar change occasionally happens in the stamens of _magnolia fuscata_, while in double tulips this phenomenon is very frequent, and among them may be found all stages of transition between stamens and pistils, and many of the parts combining the characters of both.[ ] dunal and campdera have described flowers of _rumex crispus_, with seven pistils, occupying the place of as many stamens. [illustration: fig. .--substitution of carpels for stamens in _papaver_.] in _papaver bracteatum_ a considerable number of the stamens sometimes become developed into pistils, especially those which are nearest to the centre of the flower, and in these flowers the filaments are said to become the ovaries, while the anthers are curled so as to resemble stigmas. a similar change is not infrequent _papaver somniferum_. goeppert, who found numerous instances of the kind in a field near breslau, says the peculiarity was reproduced by seed for two years in succession.[ ] wigand ('flora,' , p. ) has noticed among other changes the pistil of _gentiana amarella_ bearing two sessile anthers. _polemonium cæruleum_ is another plant very subject to this change. brongniart[ ] describes a flower of this species in which the stamens were represented by a circle of carpels united to each other so as to form a sheath around the central ovary. by artificial fertilization m. brongniart obtained fertile seeds from the central normal ovary as well as from the surrounding metamorphosed stamens. _cheiranthus cheiri_ has long been known as one of the plants most subject to this anomaly. de candolle even mentions it in his 'prodromus' as a distinct variety, under the name of _gynantherus_. brongniart (loc. cit.) thus refers to the _cheiranthus_:--"sometimes these six carpellary leaves are perfectly free, and in this case they spread open, presenting two rows of ovules along their inner edges, or these edges maybe soldered together, forming a kind of follicle like that of the columbine; at other times, these staminal pistils are fused into two lateral bundles of three in each bundle, or into a single cylinder which encircles the true pistil. in a third set of cases these outer carpels are only four in number, two lateral and two antero-posterior, all fused in such a manner as to form around the normal pistil a prism-shaped sheath, with four sides presenting four parietal placentæ, corresponding to the lines of junction of the staminal carpels." in the accompanying figures (fig. , _a-d_) the nature of this change is illustrated. in some of the specimens it is easy to see that the two shorter stamens undergo the change into carpels later and less perfectly than the four longer ones, and not infrequently the outer pair are altogether absent. in most of the flowers of this variety the petals are smaller and less perfectly developed than usual.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--_cheiranthus cheiri_, var. _gynantherus_. _a._ sepals and petals removed to show carpellodic stamens. _b._ the same laid open. _c._ transverse section. _d._ plan of flower with four carpel-like stamens, &c.] in _lilium tigrinum_, some specimens of which were gathered by mr. j. salter, in addition to various degrees of synanthy and other changes, some of the stamens were developed in the form of carpels, adherent by their edges so as to form an imperfect tube or sheath around the normal pistil. fig. shows one of the intermediate organs from these flowers, in which half the structure seems devoted to the formation of ovules, while the other half bears a one-celled anther. lindley[ ] has also described a case of this kind in a species of _amaryllis_. [illustration: fig. .--structure half anther, half carpel, _lilium_.] in _saxifraga crassifolia_ it sometimes happens that mixed with the stamens, and originating with them, are a number of distinct and perfectly formed carpels, wholly separated from the normal carpels, in the centre of the flower. in this particular instance there is usually no intermediate condition between the stamen and the pistil. guillemin[ ] also describes a transformation of the stamens into carpels in _euphorbia esula_. when the anther is involved it may be only partially so, or almost the whole organ may be transformed. as instances of very partial change may be cited the passage of the connective into a stigma in _thalictrum minus_, or the passage of the points of the anthers into imperfect styles in some species of bamboo.[ ] in _rosa arvensis_ similar transformations have been observed of a slightly more complex character than those just mentioned, and passing into more important changes, especially to the formation of pollen within ovules, formed on the edges of an open carpellodic anther (see p. ). mr. berkeley has recorded an analogous case in a gourd in which the stamens bore numerous ovules (p. ), and baillon describes another gourd in which certain fleshy appendages surrounding the androecium were provided with ovules.[ ] payer, in his 'organogénie,' p. , mentions a stamen of _dionæa_ bearing not only an anther, but likewise an ovule. _sempervivum tectorum_ and _s. montanum_, have long been noticed as being very prone to present this change. mohl[ ] remarks that, in the transformation of the stamens to the pistil in the common houseleek, the filament of the stamen generally preserves its form, the anthers alone undergoing change. at other times, however, the transformation takes place at the same time, both in the filament and in the anther. when the stamens are numerous some of them remain in their normal state, while others, and especially the inner ones, undergo a change. sometimes all the stamens are changed simultaneously, while at other times some of these organs may be found in which the anther is partially filled with ovules, and partially with pollen. in the accompanying figures (fig. , _a-h_) a series of intermediate stages is shown between the ordinary stamen of _sempervivum tectorum_ and the ordinary carpel, from which it will be seen that the filament is little, if at all, affected, and that in those cases where there is a combination of the attributes of the stamen and of the pistil in the same organ the pollen is formed in the upper or inner surface of the leaf-organ, while the ovules arise from the opposite surface from the free edge, (_b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, _f_, _g_). in a drawing made by the rev. g. e. smith of a malformed flower of _primula acaulis_, and which the writer has had the opportunity of examining, the stamens are represented as detached from the corolla, and their anthers replaced by open carpels, with ovules arising, not only from their edges, but also from their surfaces, while the apex of the carpellary leaf was drawn out into a long style, terminated by a flattened spathulate stigma. _delphinium elatum_ is one of the plants in which this change has been most frequently noticed.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--_sempervivum tecotorum._ _a._ normal stamen. _h._ normal carpel. _b_, _c_, _e_, _f_, _g_. structure partly staminal, partly carpellary. _d._ transverse section through _c_, showing pollen internally, ovules externally.] in willows the change of pistils into staminal organs has been frequently observed. in _salix babylonica_ prof. schnizlein has described various transition stages between the carpels and the stamens, and in one instance, in addition to this change, a perfect cup-shaped perianth was present, as happens normally in _populus_[ ]. mr. lowe also records the conversion of stamens into ovaries in _salix andersoniana_, and this by every conceivable intermediate gradation.[ ] the following list will serve to show what plants are most subject to this anomaly. it is difficult to draw any accurate inference from this enumeration, but attention may be called to the frequency of this occurrence in certain plants, such as the _sempervivum_, the wallflower, the poppy, and the heath. why these plants should specially be subject to these changes cannot be at present stated. by the student of animal physiology such a change as above described--equivalent to the substitution of an ovary or a uterus for a testis--would be looked on as next to impossible; the simpler and less specialised structure of plants renders such a change in them far more easy of comprehension. thalictrum minus. delphinium elatum. magnolia fuscata. bocconia cordata. *papaver bracteatum! * somniferum! nudicaule. dionæa muscipula! barbarea vulgaris. *cheiranthus cheiri! cochlearia armoracia. tropæolum majus. citrus aurantium. *sempervivum tectorum! montanum. begonia frigida! cucumis, sp. cucurbita pepo. pyrus malus. rosa arvensis! saxifraga crassifolia! myrtus, sp. campanula rapunculoides. polemonium cæruleum. gentiana amarella. *erica tetralix. stachys germanica. primula acaulis. rumex crispus. *salix, sp. plur.! euphorbia esula. glochidion. asphodelus ramosus. amaryllis. lilium tigrinum! longiflorum. *tulipa gesneriana! var. cult. plurim.! hemerocallis. zea mays. bambusa, sp. =pistillody of the ovule.=--an instance of this extraordinary transformation in the carnation, as observed by the rev. mr. berkeley, is given at p. . footnotes: [ ] 'neue denkschrift. schweiz. gesellsch.,' band v, p. . [ ] 'bull. acad. belg.,' xix, part , p. . [ ] schlechtendal, 'linnæa,' ix, p. . [ ] misbilld., 'cult. gewachs.,' p. . [ ] linn., 'phil. botan.,' § . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. france,' , vol. vi, p. . [ ] seemann's 'journal of botany,' vol. iii, p. ; also morren, 'bull. acad. belg.,' vol. xx, part , p. . [ ] morren, 'bull. belg.,' xviii, p. . [ ] 'organ. vég.,' t. i, p. . [ ] 'bull. acad. roy. belg.,' tome xvii; and lobelia, p. . [ ] masters, "on double flowers," 'rep. internat. bot. congress,' london, . p. . [ ] see also c. morren, "sur les vraies fleurs doubles chez les orchidées," 'bull. acad. roy. belg.,' vol. xix, part ii, . p. . [ ] c. morren, 'bull. acad. belg.,' vol. xx, , part ii, p. (_syringa_). [ ] 'rep. bot. congress,' london, , p. , t. vii, f. . [ ] although it is generally admitted that the filament of the stamen corresponds to the stalk of the leaf, and the anther to the leaf-blade, yet there are some points on which uncertainty still rests. one of these is as to the sutures of the anther. do these chinks through which the pollen escapes correspond (as would at first sight seem probable) to the margins of the antheral leaf, or do they answer to the lines that separate the two pollen-cavities on each half of the anther one from the other? professor oliver, 'trans. linn. soc.,' vol. xxiii, , p. , in alluding to the views held by others on this subject, concludes, from an examination of some geranium flowers in which the stamens were more or less petaloid, that bischoff's notion as to the sutures of the anther is correct, viz., that they are the equivalents of the septa of untransformed tissue between the pollen-sacs. some double fuchsias ('gard. chron.,' , p. ) add confirmation to this opinion. in these flowers the petals were present as usual, but the stamens were more or less petaloid, the filaments were unchanged, but the anthers existed in the form of a petal-like cup from the centre of which projected two imperfect pollen-lobes (the other two lobes being petaloid). now, in this case, the margins of the anther were coherent to form the cup, and the pollen was emitted along a line separating the polliniferous from the petaloid portion of the anther. this view is also borne out by the double-flowered _arbutus unedo_, and also by what occurs in some double violets, wherein the anther exists in the guise of a broad lancet-shaped expansion, from the surface of which project four plates (fig. ), representing apparently the walls of the pollen-sacs, but destitute of pollen; the chink left between these plates corresponds thus to the suture of the normal anther. [illustration: fig. .--petaloid stamen of _viola_, with four projecting plates.] the inner or upper portion of the anther-leaf is that which is most intimately concerned in the formation of pollen; it comparatively rarely (query ever) happens that the back or lower surface of the antheral leaf is specially devoted to the formation of pollen. on the other hand, in cases like those of the common houseleek, where we meet with petaloid organs combining the attributes of anthers and of carpels, we find the inner layers devoted to the production of pollen, the outer to the formation of ovules. that the pollen-lobes are not to be taken as halves of a staminal leaf, but rather as specialised portions of it, not necessarily occupying half its surface, is shown also in the case of double-flowered _malvaceæ_, in which the stamens are frequently partly petal-like, partly divided into numerous separate filaments, each bearing a one-, or it may be even a two-lobed anther. this circumstance is confirmatory of the opinion held by payer, duchartre, dickson, and other organogenists, as to the compound nature of the stamens in these plants. the stamens are here analogues not of a simple entire leaf, but of a lobed, digitate, or compound leaf, each subdivision bearing its separate anther. on this subject the reader may consult m. müller's paper on the anther of _jatropha pohliana_, _&c._, referred to at page . [ ] see c. morren, "on spur-shaped nectarines," &c., 'ann. nat. hist.,' march, , p. . tab. . [ ] karsten, 'flor. columb. spec.,' tab. xxix. [ ] see dickson, "on diplostemonous flowers," 'trans. bot. soc. edin.,' vol. viii, p. ; and on the androecium of _mentzelia_, _&c_., in seemann's 'journal of botany,' vol. iii, p. , and vol. iv ( ) p. (_potentilla_, _&c._). [ ] see baillon, 'adansonia,' iii, p. , tab. , _sinapis_. [ ] 'bull. acad. belg.,' xvii, part i, p. , c. tab., and '_lobelia_,' p. . [ ] cited in 'bull. soc. bot. france,' xiv, p. ('rev. bibl.'). [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' , p. . [ ] 'mem. legum.,' p. . [ ] 'bildungsabweich, 'pflanz. fam.,' tab. , f. . [ ] 'atlas de göthe' p. , t. , f. . [ ] wiegmann, 'bot. zeit.,' , p. , tab. i. [ ] 'ic. flor. germ.,' xiii, tab. , cccclxiv, f. . [ ] seemann's 'journal of botany,' , p. , t. , a (_ophrys_). [ ] 'enum. euphorb.' p. . [ ] 'linnæa.' i, p. . [ ] 'de balsam,' p. . [ ] b. clarke, 'arrangement of phænog. plants,' p. . [ ] see 'engelmann,' p. , tab. , f. , , . [ ] 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser. , t. viii, , p. . [ ] 'bot. zeit.,' , , . [ ] 'verhandl. nat. hist. ver. preuss. rheinl. und westph.,' , , p. . cramer also, 'bildungsabweich,' p. , cites a case in _pæonia_ where the carpel was open and petaloid, and bore an anther on one margin, and four ovules on the other. [ ] 'euphorbiaceæ,' p. . [ ] seemann's 'journ. bot.,' iv, p. , tab. , f. . [ ] moquin-tandon, l. c., , _passiflora_. masters, 'journ. linn. soc.,' , p. , _saponaria_. seemann's 'journ. botany,' vol. iii, p. , _narcissus_. [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' , p. . [ ] 'gardeners' chronicle,' , p. . [ ] maout, 'leçons element.,' vol. ii, p. . [ ] poiteau and turpin, 'arb. fruit,' t. , and trécul, 'bull soc. bot. france,' vol. i. p. . [ ] clos, 'mem. acad. toulouse,' ser., vol. iii. [ ] 'bot. zeit.,' , t. viii, pp. , . 'flora,' (b. z.) , t. xv, p. ; also cited in 'ann. des serres et des jardins,' vi, pp. - . see also schlechtendal, 'bot. zeit.,' , t. , p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. france,' t. viii, p. . [ ] see also allmann, 'rep. brit. assoc.,' july, . [ ] 'theory of horticulture,' ed. , p. . [ ] 'mém. soc. hist. nat. paris.' i, . [ ] gen. munro, 'trans. linn. soc.,' xxvii, p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' , p. . [ ] 'ann. scienc. nat.,' t. viii, , p. , and 'bot. zeit.' (r.), , t. xix, p. , &c. see also mm. sourd dussiples and g. bergeron, 'bull. soc. bot. france,' viii, p. ; von schmidel, 'icon. plant. et anal. part.' , p. , fig. . [ ] godron, 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' xiii, p. , rev. bibl. [ ] cited in henfrey, 'bot. gazette,' iii, p. . [ ] 'ann. nat. hist.,' september, , p. . see also kirschleger, 'flora (bot. zeit.),' xxiv, , p. , _salix alba_. henschel, 'flora (bot. zeit.),' , t. xv, p. , _s. cinerea_. hartmann, 'flora (bot. zeit.),' xxiv, p. , _s. nigricans_. meyer, c. a., 'bull. phys. math.,' t. x, _s. alba_. part iv. heteromorphy. there are certain malformations that have little in common beyond this, that they cannot readily be allocated in either of the great groups proposed by writers on teratology. there are also deformities which, unlike the majority of deviations from the ordinary structure, are absolute and not relative. while the latter are due to an exaggeration, or to an imperfection of development, or, it may be, to a partial perversion in organization, the former differ from the normal standard, not merely in degree, but absolutely. this is often the case when disease or injury affects the plant; for instance, in the case of galls arising from insect-puncture the structure is rather a new growth altogether, than dependent on mere hypertrophy of the original tissues. these absolute deformities arising from the causes just mentioned belong rather to pathology than to teratology strictly so called; but, under the head of deformities, may be mentioned sundry deviations not elsewhere alluded to. chapter i. deformities. the special meaning here attached to the term deformity is sufficiently explained in the preceding paragraph; it remains to give a few illustrations, and to refer to other headings, such as heterotaxy, hypertrophy, atrophy, &c., for malformations capable of more rigid classification than those here alluded to. [illustration: fig. .--portion of the under surface of a cabbage-leaf, with horn-like excrescences projecting from it.] =formation of tubes.=--the production of ascidia or pitchers from the cohesion of the margins of one or more leaves has been already alluded to (see pp. , ), but there is another class of cases in which the tubular formation is due, not so much to the union of the margins of a leaf as to the disproportionate growth of some portions as contrasted with others, whence arises either a depressed cavity, as in the case of a leaf, or an expanded and excavated structure, when the stem or some portion of it is affected. the fruit of the rose, the apple, the fig, and many others, is now generally admitted to be composed externally of the dilated end of the flower-stalk in which the true carpels become imbedded. between such cases and that of a peltate leaf with a depressed centre, such as often occurs, to some extent, in _nelumbium_, there is but little difference. in cabbages and lettuces there not unfrequently occurs a production of leaf-like processes projecting from the primary blade at a right angle (see enation). sometimes these are developed in a tubular form, so as to form a series of little horn-like tubes, or shallow troughs, as in _aristolochia sipho_. at other times the nerves or ribs of the leaf project beyond the blade, and bear at their extremities structures similar to those just described. [illustration: fig. .--lettuce leaf, bearing on the back a stalked cup, arising from the dilatation of the stalk (?).] in a variety of _codiæum variegatum_ a similar formation may be seen to a minor extent. even the common _scolopendrium vulgare_ occasionally produces small pitchers of this character, as in the varieties named _perafero-corautum_, moore, and _peraferum_, woll.[ ] in carnations leaves may sometimes be seen from both surfaces, from which project long, sharp-pointed tubular spurs at irregular intervals. a very singular illustration of this is figured by trattinick,[ ], in which the leaves, epicalyx, sepals, and petals, were all provided with tubular spurs. in _cephalotus follicularis_ rudimentary or imperfect pitchers may be frequently met with, in which the stalk of the leaf is tubular and bears at its extremity a very small rudimentary leaf-blade. it is not in all cases easy to trace the origin and true nature of the ascidium, as the venation is sometimes obscure. if there be a single well-marked midrib the probability is that the case is one of cohesion of the margins of the leaf; but if the veins are all of about equal size, and radiate from a common stalk, the pouch-like formation is probably due to dilatation and hollowing of the petiole. again, when the result of a union of the margins of the leaf, the pitcher is generally less regular than when formed from the hollowed end of a leaf-stalk. further information is especially needed as to the mode of development and formation of these tubular organs, so as to ascertain clearly when they are the result of a true cupping process, and when of cohesion of the margins of one or more leaves. (see cohesion, p. . for bibliographical references consult also a. braun, 'flora v. bot. zeit.,' , t. xviii, p. , _aristolochia_.) =tubular formations in the flower.=--a similar formation of tubes happens in some double flowers; for instance, it is not infrequent in double flowers of _primula sinensis_, in which tubular petal-like structures are attached to the inner surface of the corolla; sometimes these petaloid tubes replace the stamens, while at other times they appear to have no relation to those organs. in the particular flowers now alluded to the tubular form seems due to a dilatation, and not to a cohesion of the margins. (see cohesion, p. .) these tubular petals resemble in form and colour almost precisely the normal corolla in miniature, but are not surrounded by a calyx, nor do they contain stamens, while the less perfect forms show clearly their origin from a single tube-like organ. [illustration: fig. .--corolla of _primula sinensis_ turned back to show a tubular petal springing from it. one only is shown for the sake of clearness; they are generally numerous.] the formation of spurs or spur-like tubes in a quasi-regular manner has been spoken of under the head of irregular peloria, p. , but we occasionally meet with tubular processes which seem to occur in an irregular manner, and to have no reference to the symmetrical plan of the flower, and which are due probably to the same causes as those which induce hypertrophy. such spurs have frequently been seen on the corolla of _digitalis purpurea_, _antirrhinum majus_,[ ] _tulipa gesneriana_, and occasionally on the sepals of _fuchsia_. they are very frequent in some seasons in the corolla of certain calceolarias (_c. floribunda_). by morren this production of adventitious spurs was called "ceratomanie." [illustration: fig. .--corolla of _calceolaria_, showing irregular tubular spurs projecting from the lower lip.] similar processes may sometimes be seen in the capsules of _linaria vulgaris_, as also in the fruits of some of the solanums, quite without reference to the arrangement of the carpels, so that their production seems to be purely irregular. morren, as previously remarked, gave the name "solenaidie" to tubular deformities affecting the stamens, a term which has not been generally adopted; the deformity in question is by no means of uncommon occurrence in some double or partially pelorised flowers, as _antirrhinum_, _linaria_, &c. a similar formation of conical out-growths may frequently be met with in the fruits quite irrespectively of any disjunction of the carpels. =contortion.=--an irregular twisting or bending of the stem or branches is by no means of uncommon occurrence, the inducing causes being often some restriction to growth in certain directions, or the undue or disproportionate growth in one direction, as contrasted with that in another. hence it may arise from insect-puncture, parasitic growth, or any obstacle to the natural development. frequently it exists in conjunction with fasciation, the ends of the branches being curved round like a shepherd's crook, from the growth on one side being so much greater than on the other. sometimes it is a mere exaggeration of a normal condition; thus, in what are termed flexuose stems the stem twists alternately to one side or another, frequently in association with an oblique form of the leaf. this state is sometimes present to an extreme degree, as in some varieties of shrubs (_cratægus_, _robinia_, &c.) cultivated for their singularly tortuous branches. [illustration: fig. .--portion of the culm of a _juncus_, bent irregularly.] [illustration: fig. .--portion of a branch of _cratægus oxyacantha_, var. _tortuosa_.] such cases as those just mentioned, however, are but slightly irregular compared to others in which the deformity exists to such an extent that the traces of the ordinary mode of growth are almost obliterated. m. moquin-tandon[ ] alludes to a case of this kind in a species of pine (_pinus_), in which a branch ended in four unequal divisions, which were strongly curved from without inwards, then became united in pairs, these latter in their turn blending into a single mass. in the case of some beeches growing in the forest of verzy, near rheims, the trunks of the trees are contorted in every direction, and, at a height of from fifteen to twenty feet, a number of branches are also given off, also much contorted, and occasionally intergrafted, so that it seems as if a heavy weight had been placed on the trees and literally flattened them. similar malformations may occasionally be met with in the branches of the oak, and commonly in the weeping ash. m. fournier[ ] mentions the stems of _ruscus aculeatus_ rolled in a circle, others twisted spirally. the phenomenon is not confined to woody plants, but has been met with in chicory, in _antirrhinum_, and other herbaceous species. it is very difficult in some cases to separate these instances of irregular torsion from those in which the twisting takes place in a more or less regular spiral direction. in the former case the fibres of the plant are only indirectly involved, but in the latter the fibres themselves are coiled spirally from right to left, or _vice versâ_ (spiral torsion), while not unfrequently both conditions may be met with at the same time. the leaves also are subject to similar deformities, of which a notable illustration has been recorded in the case of the date palm, _phoenix dactylifera_, originally observed by goethe, and figured and described by jaeger;[ ] the leaves are folded and twisted in every direction, in consequence of the fibrous band or cord which surrounds the leaves, and which generally breaks as the leaflets increase in size, remaining from some cause or other unbroken, and thus serving to restrain the growth. a similar irregularity of growth occurs, not unfrequently, in the case of crocus leaves, when in the course of their growth, as they push their way through the soil, their progress becomes checked either by a stone or even by frost. =spiral torsion.=--growth in a spiral direction, and the arrangement of the various organs of the plant in a spiral manner, are among the most common of natural phenomena in plants.[ ] fibres are coiled spirally in the minute vessels of flowering plants, and are not wholly wanting even among fungi. the leaf-organs are very generally spirally arranged; the leaf-stalks are often so twisted as to bring leaves on one plane which otherwise would occupy several. in the leaf itself we have a spiral twist taking place constantly in _alstroemeria_, in _avena_, and other plants. a similar tendency is manifested in the flower-stalks, as in _cyclamen_ and _vallisneria_, and the whole inflorescence, as in _spiranthes_. even the bark and wood of trees is often disposed spirally. this is very noticeable in some firs, and in the bark of the sweet chestnut (_castanea_), of _thuja occidentalis_, and other trees. the knaurs or excrescences which are sometimes found on the roots or stems of trees afford other illustrations of this universal tendency. these bodies consist of a number of embryo buds, which, from some cause or other, are incapable of lengthening. on examination every rudimentary or undeveloped bud may be seen to be surrounded by densely crowded fibres arranged spirally. the axes of nearly all twining plants are themselves twisted, and twisted in a direction corresponding to the spontaneous revolving movement exhibited by these plants, as in the hop, the convolvulus, passion flower, &c., the degree of twisting being dependent to a great extent on the roughness of the surface around which the stem twines[ ]. considered as an exceptional occurrence, it occurs frequently in certain plants, and, when it affects the stem or branches, necessarily causes some changes in the arrangement of the parts attached to them; thus, spiral torsion of the axial organs is generally accompanied by displacement of the leaves, whorled leaves becoming alternate, and opposite or whorled leaves becoming arranged on one side of the stem only. frequently also this condition is associated with fasciation, or, at least, with a distended or dilated state. an illustration of this in _asparagus_ has been figured at p. . very often the leaves are produced in a spiral line round the stem, as in a specimen of _dracocephalum speciosum_ described and figured by c. morren. the leaves of this plant are naturally rectiserial and decussate, but, in the twisted stem the leaves were curviserial, and arranged according to the / plan. now, referring to the ordinary notation of alternate leaves, we shall have the first leaf covered by the fifth, with two turns of the spiral; since decussate leaves result from two conjugate lines, the formula will be necessarily / . the fraction / hence comes regularly into the / series ( / , / , / ). thus, the leaves in assuming a new phyllotaxy, take one quite analogous to the normal one. one of the most curious instances that have fallen under the writer's own observation occurred in the stem of _dipsacus fullonum_. (see 'proceedings of the linnean society,' march , , vol. ii, p. ). the stem was distended, and hollow, and twisted on itself; its fibres, moreover, were arranged in an oblique or spiral direction; the branches or leaf-stalks, which usually are arranged in an opposite and decussate manner, were, in this case, disposed in a linear series, one over the other, following the line of curvature of the stem. when the course of the fibres was traced from the base of one of the stalks, upward around the stem, a spiral was found to be completed at the base of the second stalk, above that which was made the starting point. now, if opposite leaves depend on the shortened condition of the internode between the two leaves, then, in the teazel-stem just described, each turn of the spiral would represent a lengthened internode; and, if the fibres of this specimen could be untwisted, and made to assume the vertical direction, and, at the same time, the internodes were shortened, the result would be the opposition of the branches and the decussation of the pairs; this explanation is borne out by the similar twisting which takes place so frequently in the species of _galium_ and other _rubiaceæ_. [illustration: fig. .--twisted stem of _dipsacus fullonum_.] g. franc[ ] was one of the first to notice this twisting in _galium_, and m. duchartre,[ ] in mentioning a similar instance, gives the following explanation of the appearance which will be found to apply to most of these cases. in the normal stem of _galium mollugo_ the branches are opposite in each verticil and crossed in the two successive ones. the stem is four-angled, each angle having a nerve. each of these nerves, springing from the origin of a branch in one whorl, terminates in the interval which separates the point of origin of the two branches in the whorl next above it. in the deformed stem one of the nerves corresponds to the insertion of a branch, its neighbour is in the adjoining vacant space; hence it results that four nerves correspond to two branches and to two consecutive interspaces, and hence the analogy between a single normal internode provided with its two branches and its four nerves. what confirms this inference is that the nerve, which begins at the point of origin of a branch, after making one spiral turn round the stem, terminates in the interval that separates the two following branches, just as in a branch of the normal stem it ends in the upper whorl between the two next branches. the torsion, then, in this _galium_ caused the separation of the two opposite branches of the same verticil, and placed them one above another, and this being reproduced in all the whorls, all the branches come to be arranged on the same longitudinal line. the leaves are susceptible of the same explanation; they are inserted in groups of three or four in one arc round the origin of each branch. in the malformation each series or group of four leaves, with its central branch, is equivalent to half a whorl of the natural plant with its axillary branch. in other words, the malformation consists in a torsion of the stem, which separates each whorl into two distinct halves; these half-whorls, with their axillary branches, are placed on a single longitudinal series one above another. this case is quoted at some length, as it is an admirable example of a very common form of malformation in these plants. in some parts of holland where madder is cultivated a similar deformation is particularly frequent. the leaves, however, are not always grouped in the way in which they were described by m. duchartre, but more commonly form a single continuous line; when arranged in leaf-whorls it generally happens that some of the leaves are turned downwards, while others are erect. it has been said that this condition occurs particularly frequently in plants growing in damp places. it is certainly true that spiral torsion of the stem is specially frequent in the species of _equisetum_, most of which grow in such spots. in these plants either the whole of the upper part of the stem is thus twisted, or a portion only: thus reinsch[ ] cites a case in _equisetum telmateia_, where the upper and lower portions of the stem were normal, while the intermediate portion was twisted spirally. in this instance the whorl next beneath the spiral had twenty-eight branchlets, and that immediately above it thirty. along the course of the spire there were two hundred and three; dividing this latter number by the mean of the two preceding, it was seen that the spire included the constituents of seven ordinary verticils. [illustration: fig. .--stem of _galium_ spirally twisted. from a specimen communicated by mr. darwin.] here also may be mentioned a curious bamboo, the stem of which is preserved in the british museum, and in which the internodes, on the exterior, and the corresponding diaphragms and cavities within are spiral or oblique in direction. the root is also subject to the same malformation, the inducing cause being usually some obstruction to downward growth, as when a plant has been grown in a small pot, and becomes, as gardeners say, pot-bound. [illustration: fig. .--showing "pot-bound" root twisted spirally (from the 'gard. chron.,' ).] the axial portion of the flower, the thalamus, is also occasionally twisted in a spiral direction, the lateral parts of the flower being in consequence displaced. morren spoke of this displacement of the floral organs as "speiranthie."[ ] morren draws a distinction between spiral-torsion or spiralism and the less regular torsion spoken of in the preceding section; in the former case not only is the axis twisted, but its constituent fibres also. the condition in question in some cases seems to be inherited in the seedling plants. the following is a list of the plants in which spiral torsion of the stem or branches has been most frequently observed. (see also under fasciation and contortion.) hesperis matronalis. dianthus barbatus. pyrus malus. torminalis. cercis siliquastrum! punica granatum. robinia pseudacacia! rubia tinctorum. dipsacus fullonum! pilosus. gmelini. scabiosa arvensis. *valeriana officinalis! dioica! galium aparine! * mollugo! verum! hippuris vulgaris! veronica spicata. longifolia. hyssopus officinalis. thymus serpyllum. lamium purpureum! dracocephalum speciosum. mentha aquatica. mentha viridis. fraxinus vulgaris! sambucus nigra. zinnia. phylica. beta. rumex, sp. ulmus campestris. casuarina rigida. abies excelsa! lilium martagon! candidum. *asparagus officinalis! sagittaria sagittifolia. epipactis palustris. triticum repens! lolium perenne! phleum pratense. juncus conglomeratus! scirpus lacustris. equisetum telmateia. limosum. fluviatile. arvense! among the more important papers relating to this subject may be mentioned: moquin-tandon, 'el. ter. veg.,' p. . kros, 'de spira in plantis conspicua.' morren, 'bull. acad. roy. belg.,' , tom. xviii, part i, p. . milde, 'nov. act. acad. leop. carol. nat. cur., . ibid., vol. xxvi, part ii, p. , _equisetum_. irmisch, 'flora,' , t. ii, _equisetum_. vrolik, 'nouv. mem. instit. amsterdam,' _lilium_. schlechtendal, 'bot. zeit.,' xiv, p. , et v, p. . de candolle, 'organ. veget., t. i, p. , tab. xxxvi, _mentha_, _&c._ alph. de candolle, 'neue denkschr. allg. schweiz. gesellschft.,' band v, tab. vi, _valeriana_. duchartre, 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser. , vol. i, p. . 'gardeners' chronicle,' july , , p. , _c. ic. xylogr._, spiral branches from guatemala--tree not known. =spiral twisting of the leaf= is scarcely of so common occurrence as the corresponding condition in the stem. in _alstroemeria_ it occurs normally, as also in some grasses. in the variety _annularis_ of _salix babylonica_ the leaf is constantly coiled round spirally. a similar contortion occurs in a variety of _codiæum variegatum_ lately introduced from the islands of the south seas by mr. j. g. veitch. fern fronds are occasionally found twisted in the same manner, _e.g._ _scolopendrium vulgare_ var. _spirale_.[ ] =adventitious tendrils.=--under ordinary circumstances tendrils may be described as modifications of the leaf, the stipule, the branch, or of the flower stalk, so that it is not a matter of surprise to find tendrils occasionally springing from the sepals or petals, as indeed happens normally in _hodgsonia_, _strophanthus_, _&c._ m. decaisne[ ] found a flower of the melon in which one of the segments of the calyx was prolonged into a tendril, and kirschleger records a similar instance in the cucumber, while mr. holland ('science gossip,' , p. ) mentions a case in which one of the prickles on the fruit of a cucumber had grown out into a tendril. in _cobæa scandens_ the foliar nature of the tendril is shown by the occasional presence of a small leaflet on one of the branches of the tendril, and a similar appearance may frequently be seen in _eccremocarpus scaber_. on the other hand, in the vine, the axial nature of the tendril is revealed by the not infrequent presence of flowers or berries on them, as also in _modecca_ and some _passifloraceæ_. darwin, speaking of the tendrils of _bignonia capreolata_, says it is a highly remarkable fact that a leaf should be metamorphosed into a branched organ, which turns from the light, and which can, by its extremities, either crawl like a root into crevices, or seize hold of minute projecting points, these extremities subsequently forming cellular masses, which envelope by their growth the first fibres and secrete an adhesive cement. =interrupted growth.=--this term is here used in the same sense as in ordinary descriptive botany, as when an "interruptedly pinnate" leaf is spoken of. a similar alternation may be observed occasionally as a teratological occurrence, though it is not easy to account for it. [illustration: fig. .--interrupted growth of radish (from the 'american agriculturist.')] [illustration: fig. .--interrupted growth in apple.] fig. shows an instance of the kind in a radish, and fig. a similar deformity in the case of an apple, the dilatation of the flower-stalk below the ordinary fruit producing an appearance as if there were two fruits one above another. in leaves this peculiar irregularity of development is more common. in some varieties of _codiæum variegatum_ the leaves resemble those of _nepenthes_, as the basal portion is broad, and terminates in a projecting midrib destitute of cellular covering, and this again terminates in a small pouch or pitcher. somewhat similar variations may be found in ferns, especially _scolopendrium vulgare_. instead of the pouch there is formed sometimes in the plant last mentioned a supplementary four-lobed lamina, the four lobes being in two different planes, and diverging from the midrib, so that the section would resemble [symbol: sideways x], the point of intersection of the x representing the position of the midrib. this four-winged lamina is thus very similar to the four-winged filaments described and figured at p. , and to the leaf-like anther of _jatropha_ described by m. müller, p. . =cornute leaves= (_folia cornuta_).--the condition to which this term applies is that in which the midrib, after running for a certain distance, generally nearly to the point of the leaf, suddenly projects, often in a plane different from that of the leaf, and thus forms a small spine-like out-growth. should this happen to be terminated by a second laminar portion, an interrupted leaf would be formed. in _scolopendrium vulgare_ and other ferns this condition has been noticed, as also in some of the varieties of _codiæum variegatum_ already referred to. =flattening.=--there are some plants whose stem or branches, instead of assuming the ordinary cylindrical form, are compressed or flattened; such are some species of _epiphyllum_, _coccoloba_, _bauhinia_, &c. the same thing occurs in the leaf-like branches of _ruscus_, the flower-stalks of _xylophylla_, _phyllanthus_, _pterisanthes_. martins proposes to apply the word 'cladodium' to such expansions, just as the term phyllodium is applied to the similar dilatation of the leaf-stalks. if we exclude instances of fasciation, _i.e._ where several branches are fused together and flattened, we must admit that this flattening does not occur very often as a teratological appearance. mr. rennie figures and describes a root of a tree which had become greatly flattened in its passage between the stones at the bottom of a stream, and had become, as it were, moulded to the stones with which it came into contact.[ ] the spadix of _arum_, as also of the cocoa-nut palm, has been observed flattened out, apparently without increase in the number of organs. when the blade of the leaf is suppressed it often happens that the stalk of the leaf is flattened, as it were, by compensation, and the petiole has then much the appearance of a flat ribbon (phyllode). this happens constantly in certain species of _acacia_, _oxalis_, &c., and has been attributed, but doubtless erroneously, to the fusion of the leaflets in an early state of development and in the position of rest.[ ] in some water plants, as _sagittaria_, _alisma_, _potamogeton_, &c., the leaf-stalks are apt to get flattened out into ribbon-like bodies; and olivier has figured and described a _cyclamen_, called by him _c. linearifolium_, in which, owing to the suppression of the lamina, the petiole had become dilated into a ribbon-like expansion--déformation rubanée of moquin. footnotes: [ ] moore, 'nature printed ferns,' vo edition, vol. ii, p. , et p. . [ ] 'flora (b. z.),' , vol. iv, p. , c. tab. [ ] chavannes, 'mon. antirrh.' [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. france,' t. vii, , p. . [ ] ibid., t. iv, , p. . [ ] jaeger, "de monstrosa folii _phoenicis dactyliferæ_ conformatione a goetheo olim observata," 'act. acad. leop. car. nat. cur.,' vol. xvii, suppl., p. , c. tab. color. iv. [ ] see goethe, 'ueber die spiral tendenz.' [ ] see darwin "on climbing plants," 'journ. linn. soc. botany,' vol. ix, p. . [ ] 'ephem. nat. cur.,' dec. , ann. , , p. , fig. . [ ] 'ann. des scienc. nat.,' third series, vol. i, , p. . [ ] 'flora' feb. , , p. , tab. ii, f. , and also 'flora,' , p. , tab. vii, f. . [ ] 'bull. acad, belg.,' t. xvii, p. , "lobelia," p. , c. tab. [ ] moore, 'nature-printed ferns,' vo edition, vol. ii, p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' , vol. vii, p. . see also naudin, 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser., t. iv, p. . clos, 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' t. iii, p. . [ ] london's 'magazine nat. hist.,' vol. ii, p. . [ ] c. morren, 'bull. acad. belg.,' , t. xix, part iii, p. . chapter ii. polymorphy. usually the several organs of the same individual plant do not differ to any great extent one from another. one adult leaf has nearly the same appearance and dimensions as another; one flower resembles very closely another flower of the same age and so on. nevertheless it occasionally happens that there is a very considerable difference in form in the same organs, not only at different times, but it may also be at the same time. descriptive botanists recognise this occurrence in the case of leaves, and apply the epithet heterophyllous to plants possessed of these variable foliar characters. in the case of the flower, where similar diversity of form occasionally exists, the term dimorphism is used. as these phenomena appear constantly in particular plants, they are hardly to be looked on, under such circumstances, as abnormal, but where they occur in plants not usually polymorphic, they may be considered as coming within the scope of teratology. =heterophylly.=--as a general rule, the leaves or leaf-organs in each portion of a plant, from the rhizome or underground axis, where it exists, to the carpellary leaf, have their own special configuration, subject only to slight variations, dependent upon age, conditions of growth, &c. the cotyledons are very uniform in shape in each plant, and are scarcely ever subject to variation. the leaves near the base of the stem, the root-leaves as they are not unfrequently called, sometimes differ in form from the stem-leaves; these again differ from the bracts or leaves in proximity to the flower. the floral envelopes themselves, as well as the bud-scales, all have their own allotted form in particular plants, a form by which they may, in most cases, be readily recognised. hence, then, in the majority of plants there is naturally very considerable difference in the form of the leaf-organs, according to the place they occupy and the functions they have to fulfil; but, in addition to this, it not unfrequently happens that the leaf-organs in the same portion of the stem are subject to great variation in form. this is the condition to which the term heterophylly properly applies. the variation in form is usually dependent on a greater or less degree of lobing of the margin of the leaf; thus, in the yellow jasmine, almost every intermediate stage may be traced from an ovate entire leaf to one very deeply and irregularly stalked. _broussonettia papyrifera_, and _laurus sassafras_, and the species of _panax_, may be mentioned as presenting this condition. sometimes in the last-named genus, as also in _pteridophyllum_, every gradation between simple and compound leaves may be traced. the horse-radish (_cochlearia armoracia_) may also be instanced as a common illustration of polymorphism in the leaves. in ferns it is likewise of frequent occurrence, markedly so in _scolopendrium d'urvillei_, in which plant every gradation from a simple oblong frond to an exceedingly divided one may be found springing from the same rhizome at the same time. [illustration: fig. .--_syringa persica laciniata_, showing polymorphous leaves.] a similar protean state, but little less remarkable, occurs in many of our british ferns, notably in _scolopendrium vulgare_, of which mr. moore enumerates no fewer than varieties,[ ] many of the forms occurring on the same plant at the same time. cultivators have availed themselves of this tendency to produce multiform foliage, not only for the purposes of decoration or curiosity, as in the many cut-leaved or crisped-leaved varieties, but also for more material uses, as, for instance, the many varieties of cabbages, of lettuces, &c. most of these variations are mentioned under the head of the particular morphological change of which they are illustrations. the effect of a change in the conditions of growth in producing diversity in the form of the leaf may be here alluded to. _ficus stipulata_, a plant used to cover the walls of plant-stoves in this country, and growing naturally on walls in india, like ivy, produces leaves of very different form, size, and texture, when grown as a standard, from what it does when adhering to a wall. _marcgraavia umbellata_ furnishes another example of a similar nature, as indeed, to a less extent, does the common ivy. allusion has been already made to the occasional persistence of forms in adult life, which are commonly confined to a young state, as in the case of some conifers which present on the same plant, at the same time, two different forms of leaves. mention has also been made of the presence of adventitious buds on leaves and in other situations. the leaves that spring from these buds are usually of the same form as the other leaves of the plant, but now and then they differ. of this a remarkable illustration is afforded by a fern, _pteris quadriaurita_, in which the fronds emerging from an adventitious bud are very different from the ordinary fronds. [illustration: fig. .--portion of a frond of _pteris quadriaurita_, with an adventitious bud, the form of the constituent foliage of which is very different from that of the parent frond.] =dimorphism.=--this term, applied specially to the varied form which the flowers or some of their constituent elements assume on the same plant, is an analogous phenomenon to what has been above spoken of as heterophylly, and, like it, it cannot, except under special circumstances, be considered as of teratological importance. a few illustrative cases, however, may here be cited. sir george mackenzie describes a variety of the potato[ ] (_solanum tuberosum_), which produces first double and sterile flowers, and subsequently single fertile ones; the other portions of the plant do not differ much. _stackhousia juncea_, according to clarke, has mixed with its perfect flowers a number of apetalous blossoms destitute of anthers.[ ] this peculiarity is well exemplified in the tribe _gaudichaudieæ_ of the order _malpighiaceæ_. a. de jussieu, in his monograph, speaks of these flowers as being very small, green, destitute of petals, or nearly so, with a single, generally imperfect anther; the carpels also are more or less imperfect, but not sufficiently so to prevent some seeds from being formed. a similar production of imperfect flowers has been noticed in many other orders, _e.g._ _violaceæ_, _campanulaceæ_, &c. in some cases these supplementary blossoms are more fertile and prolific in good seeds than are the normally constructed flowers. m. durieu de maisonneuve alludes to a case where flowers of this description are produced below the surface of the ground. the plant in question is _scrophularia arguta_, and it appears that towards the end of the summer the lowest branches springing from the stem bend downwards, and penetrate the soil; the branches immediately above the lowest ones also bend downwards, but do not always enter the earth. these branches bear fertile flowers: those which are completely below the soil are completely destitute of petals; those which are on the surface have a four-lobed corolla whose divisions are nearly equal, like those of _veronica_.[ ] to sprengel, and specially to darwin, physiologists are indebted for the demonstration of the relation of di- and trimorphic flowers to fertilisation. in certain genera of orchids, such as _catasetum_, &c., flowers of such different form are produced that botanists, without hesitation, considered them as belonging to different genera, until the fact of their occasional production on the same plant showed that they were not of even specific importance. it was reserved for mr. darwin to show experimentally that these very different flowers are really sexual forms of one and the same species, ordinarily occurring on different plants, i.e. dioecious, but occasionally formed on the same spike. the same excellent observer has demonstrated that the di- and trimorphic forms of _primula_, of _linum_, _lythrum_, and other plants--forms differing mainly in the relative length of the stamens and styles, are also connected with striking differences in the number of perfect seeds produced. the most perfect degree of fertility is obtained when the stigma of one form is fertilised by the pollen taken from stamens of a corresponding height. on the other hand, when the union is, as mr. darwin states, illegitimate, that is, when the pollen is taken from stamens not corresponding in length to the style, more or less complete sterility ensues in the progeny, sometimes even utter infertility, such as happens when two distinct species are crossed, so that, in point of fact, the offspring of these illegitimate unions correspond almost precisely to hybrids.[ ] mere variations of form arising from hybridisation or other causes hardly fall within the limits of this work, though it is quite impossible to say where variations end and malformations begin. there are, however, two or three cases cited by mr. darwin[ ] from gallesio and risso to which it is desirable to allude. gallesio impregnated an orange with pollen from a lemon, and the fruit borne on the mother tree had a raised stripe of peel like that of a lemon both in colour and taste, but the pulp was like that of an orange, and included only imperfect seeds. risso describes a variety of the common orange which produces "rounded-oval leaves, spotted with yellow, borne on petioles, with heart-shaped wings; when these leaves fall off they are succeeded by longer and narrower leaves, with undulated margins, of a pale green colour, embroidered with yellow, borne on foot-stalks without wings. the fruit whilst young is pear-shaped, yellow, longitudinally striated and sweet; but, as it ripens, it becomes spherical, of a reddish-yellow, and bitter." =sports or bud variations.=--these curious departures from the normal form can only be mentioned incidentally in this place, as they pertain more to variation than to malformation. the occasional production of shoots bearing leaves, flowers, or fruits of a different character from those found on the normal plant, is a fact of which gardeners have largely availed themselves in the cultivation of new varieties. the productions in question have been attributed to various causes, such as cross-breeding, grafting, budding, dissociation of hybrid characters, or reversion to some ancestral form, all of which explanations may be true in certain cases, but none of them supply the clue to the reason why one particular branch should be so affected, and the rest not; or why the same plant, at the same time, as often happens in pelargoniums, should produce two, three, or more "sports" of a different character. these bud variations may be perpetuated by grafts or by cuttings, sometimes even by seed. with reference to cuttings a curious circumstance has been observed, viz., that if taken from the lower part of the stem, near the root, the peculiarity is not transmitted, but the young plant reverts to the characters of the typical form (carrière). this circumstance, however, is not of universal occurrence. for further particulars on this interesting subject the reader is referred to darwin's 'variation of animals and plants,' i, p. , where numerous references are given, and wherein certain well-known and highly remarkable instances, such as the _cytisus adami_, the trifacial orange, &c., are discussed. footnotes: [ ] 'nature-printed ferns,' vo edition, vol. ii, p. . [ ] 'gard. chron.,' . p. . [ ] 'a new arrangement of phænog. plants,' p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. france,' , t. iii, p. . [ ] the reader will find an abstract of mr. darwin's views in his work on the 'variation of animals and plants,' vol. ii, p. . [ ] loc. cit., i, . chapter iii. alterations of colour.[ ] changes in the colour of the several organs of plants are more often either pathological or the result of variation than of malformation properly so called. alterations in colour arise from a diminished or an increased amount of colouring matter, or from an unusual distribution of the solid or fluid matters on which the colour depends. the superposition of cells containing colouring material of different tints produces naturally a very different set of hues from those which are manifested when the colours are not blended. referring the reader to the ordinary text-books on vegetable physiology and chemistry for details as to the nature and disposition of colouring materials in plants under natural circumstances, it will only be necessary to cite a few instances of deviation from the general colour of plants or their organs. =albinism.=--this change is due to the deficient formation of green colouring matter or chlorophyll, and is more a pathological condition than a deformity. it seems necessary to draw a distinction between this state and ordinary blanching or etiolation. in the former case chlorophyll seems never to be formed in the affected parts, even if they be exposed to light, while an etiolated organ, when placed under favorable circumstances, speedily assumes a green colour. in _richardia æthiopica_ one or more leaves become occasionally as white as the spathe is usually. =virescence.=--engelmann[ ] pointed out that, so far as flowers were concerned, there are two ways in which they assume a green colour, either by a simple development of chlorophyll in place of the colouring matter proper to the flower, or by an actual development of leaf-like organs in the room of the petals--frondescence. morren[ ] judiciously proposed to keep these two conditions separate, calling the one virescence, the other frondescence (see p. ). many of the cases recorded as reversions of the parts of the flower to leaves are simply instances of virescence; indeed, it is not in all cases easy to distinguish between the two states. the examination of the arrangement of the veins is often of assistance in determining this point; for instance, if, under ordinary circumstances, the venation of the petal be such as is characteristic of the sheath of the leaf, while in the green-coloured flower of the same species the venation is more like that which belongs to the blade of the leaf, the inference would, of course, be that the green colour was due to frondescence or phyllody. the persistence or duration of petals is often increased when they are subject to this change; instead of falling off speedily they become persistent when so affected. some flowers are more liable to virescence than others. the common honeysuckle, _lonicera periclymenum_, is one of these, and it is noticeable in this plant that the calyx remains unaffected--a circumstance which morren says shows the distinctness of virescence from frondescence; for, in this instance, we have the most foliaceous portion of the flower remaining unchanged, while the corolla and other organs, usually less leaf-like in their nature, assume a green colour; but this may rather be attributed to the axial nature of the so-called adherent calyx. the stamens in these green-flowered honeysuckles are usually green also, but with abortive anthers, and the pistil also is in a rudimentary condition. _umbelliferæ_ are not unfrequently subject to this change, _e.g._, _torilis anthriscus_, _daucus carota_, _heracleum sphondylium_, _carum carui_, &c. _primulaceæ_, again, are frequently subject to virescence. among _compositæ_ the following species are recorded as having had green flowers--_cirsium tricephalodes_, _senecio vulgaris_, _calendula officinalis_, _pyrethrum parthenium_, _carduus crispus_, _hypochæris radicata_, _hieracium prealtum_, _cirsium arvense_, _coreopsis drummondi_.[ ] in _ranunculaceæ_ virescence has been observed in _delphinium elatum_, _crassicaule_ and _ajacis_, _anemone hortensis_ and _nemorosa_, _aquilegia vulgaris_, _ranunculus philonotis_. many of these cases, and others that might be cited, are probably instances of frondescence or phyllody (see p. ). =chromatism.=--this term is here intended to apply specially to those cases in which any organ of a plant assumes a colour approximating to that of the petals, or in which the normal green is replaced by tints of some other colour. to a certain extent the change in question is the same as that spoken of under the head of petalody (see p. ), but there are cases in which, while the ordinary situation and form are those of leaves, the coloration is that of the petals. such was the case in the _gesnera_ mentioned by morren (see p. ), and in which a leaf occupied the position of an inflorescence, and became brightly coloured. in tulips the presence of a highly coloured leaf on the flower-stalk, below the flower, is not uncommon. so also the bracts or leaves below the perianth in _anemone coronaria_ and _hortensis_ not unfrequently assume the coloration usually confined to the parts of the perianth. a similar illustration has presented itself, as this sheet is passing through the press, in which two of the leaflets of the compound leaf of a rose were brightly coloured like the petals, the others being of their ordinary green colour. the occurrence of coloured bracts, as in _poinsettia_, _bougainvillea_, &c., is very common under natural conditions, and need not here be further alluded to. increased intensity of colour often accompanies teratological changes; an instance has just been alluded to in the _gesnera_; the feather hyacinth, _muscari comosum_, furnishes another illustration, the adventitious pedicels being brightly coloured. in fasciated stems, also, of herbaceous plants, it not unfrequently happens that the upper portions of the stem are brightly coloured. the occurrence of flowers or fruits of different colours on the same plant, or even in the same cluster, is a phenomenon which does not come within the scope of the present book; the reader may, however, be referred to the excellent summary on this subject published by mr. darwin in his work on the 'variation of animals and plants under domestication.' footnotes: [ ] these deviations are treated of under the head of alterations of form, because they are not, in a teratological point of view, of sufficient importance to demand a specific heading, while they appeal to the sight in the same way as the deviations from the customary forms of organs. [ ] 'de antholys,' p. , § . [ ] 'bull. acad. belg.,' xvii, part , p. , c. tab. [ ] see cramer, 'bildungsabweich,' pp. , , , . see also lucas, 'verhandl. des bot. vereins. brandenb.,' heft , , _anchusa_. christ, 'flora,' . pp. , tab. , , _stachys_. book iii. deviations from the ordinary number of organs. to a certain extent the number of the organs of a plant is of even greater consequence for purposes of classification than either their form or their arrangement; for instance, the number of cotyledons in the embryo is made the chief basis of separation between the two great groups of flowering plants, the monocotyledons and the dicotyledons. in the one group, moreover, the parts of the flower are arranged in groups or whorls of five; in the other the arrangement is ternary. in mosses the teeth of the peristome are arranged in fours, or in some multiple of that number. so far as the larger groups are concerned, and also in cases where the actual number of parts is small, the numerical relations above described are very constant; on the other hand, in the minor subdivisions, and especially where the absolute number of parts is large, considerable variation may occur, so that descriptive botanists frequently make use of the term indefinite, and apply it to cases where the number of parts is large and variable, or, at any rate, not easy to be estimated. considered teratologically, the changes, as regards the number of organs, are readily grouped into those consequent on a decreased and into those resulting from an increased development. the alteration may be absolute or relative. there may be an actual deficiency in the number of parts or an increase in their number, but in either case the change may be simply a restoration of the primitive number, a species of peloria, in fact. an increased number of parts, moreover, may depend not so much on the formation of additional parts as on the subdivision of one. it seems also desirable to treat separately those cases in which there is an increased number of buds either leaf-buds or flower-buds, as the case may be, as happens in what is termed prolification. this formation of buds occurring, as it does, often in unwonted situations is treated of under the head of alterations of arrangement, the mere increase in number being considered of subordinate importance as contrasted with the altered disposition (see p. ). part i. increased number of organs. an augmentation in the number of parts may arise from several causes, and may sometimes be more apparent than real. true multiplication exists simply as a result of over-development; the affected organs are repeated sometimes over and over again each in their proper relative position, and without any transmutation of form. metamorphy, on the other hand, often gives rise to the impression that parts are increased in number, when it may be that the stamens and pistils, one or both, are not so much increased in number as altered in appearance. the double anemones and ranunculus of gardens, amongst many other analogous illustrations, may be mentioned. in these flowers, owing to the petalody of the stamens and pistils, one or both, an impression of exaggerated number is produced, which is by no means necessarily a true one. fission or lateral subdivision also gives rise to an apparent increase in number; thus, some so-called double flowers, the elements of which appeared to be increased in numbers, owe the appearance merely to the laciniation or subdivision of their petals. the french botanists, following dunal and moquin, attribute an increase in the number of whorls in the corolla, and other parts of the flower, to a process which they call chorisis, and they consider the augmentation to be due to the splitting of one petal, for instance, into several;--somewhat in the same manner as one may separate successive layers of talc one from the other. english botanists, on the other hand, have been slow to admit any such process, because, in most instances, no alteration in the law of alternation takes place in these double flowers, and in those few cases where the law is apparently infringed, the deviation is explained by the probable suppression of parts, which were they present would restore the natural arrangement of the flower; and, that this is no imaginary or purely theoretical explanation, is shown by some of the _primulaceæ_, wherein a second row of stamens is occasionally present in the adult condition, and renders the floral symmetry perfect. the double daffodil, where there are from forty to fifty petaloid organs instead of fifteen, and wherein each piece exhibits a more or less perfect coronal lobe at the junction of the claw and the limb, has been cited as an objection to chorisis, though it is difficult to see on what grounds. in _delphinium_, as shown by braun,[ ] the stamens and carpels are members of a continuous spiral series, and in the double balsam an extra corolline whorl is produced, without the suppression of the stamens, in the following manner: the ordinary stamens are replaced by petals, the carpels by stamens, while an additional whorl of carpels is produced at the summit of the axis. in this instance, therefore, the doubling is distinctly referrible to an absolute increase in the number of whorls, and not to chorisis.[ ] on the other hand, it must be admitted that there are many cases which are not to be explained in any other way than that suggested by the french botanists before alluded to. probably, the main difficulty in the way of accepting the doctrine of chorisis is the unfortunate selection of the word used to designate the process; this naturally suggests a splitting of an organ already perfectly formed into two or more portions, either in the same plane as the original organs, "parallel chorisis;" or at right angles to it "collateral chorisis." indeed, before so much attention had been paid to the way in which the floral organs are developed, it was thought that an actual splitting and dilamination did really take place; dunal and moquin both assert as much. the truth would rather seem to be that, in the so-called parallel chorisis at least, the process is one of hypertrophy and over-development rather than of splitting. the adventitious petal or scale is an excrescence or an outgrowth from the primary organ, and formed subsequently to it. in the case of "compound stamens" the original stamens are first developed each from its own cellular "mamelon," or growing point; and, after a time, other secondary growing points emerge from the primary one, and in this way the stamens are increased in number, without reference, necessarily, to the so-called law of alternation. outgrowths from leaves, multiplying the laminar surface, are alluded to under the head of hypertrophy, and it is probable that some of the cases of duplication of the flower, or of the formation of adventitious segments outside the ordinary corolla as alluded to in succeeding paragraphs (see pleiotaxy of the corolla), are due to a similar process.[ ] the formation of parts in unwonted numbers may be merely a reversion to what is supposed to have been the original form, and in this way there may be a restoration of parts that are usually undeveloped or suppressed. there can be little or no doubt that there are in reality six stamens in _orchidaceæ_, of which one only, under ordinary circumstances, is developed. when the numerical symmetry is restored, as it sometimes is, it is obvious that the augmentation that occurs is of a different character from that arising from a repetition or renewed development of organs. when the increased number arises from multiplication proper, or from repetition, the ordinary laws of alternation are not interfered with, but if from chorisis or "dédoublement," it may happen that the normal arrangement is disturbed. without studying the mode of development, it is not in all cases possible to tell under which of the above categories any particular instance should be placed; hence, in the following sections, except where otherwise stated, the cases are grouped according to the appearance presented in the adult condition, rather than to the way in which the changes from the typical condition are brought about. with reference to the foliar organs it is necessary to distinguish those cases in which there is, from any cause, an augmentation in the number of component parts of a whorl, from those in which the increase takes place in the numbers of the whorls themselves. footnotes: [ ] braun, 'pringsheim jahrbuch f. wiss. bot.,' , , p. , tab. , . [ ] henfrey, 'jour. linn. soc. bot.,' vol. iii, p. . [ ] on the subject of chorisis or dédoublement the reader may profitably consult moquin-tandon, 'ess. sur les dédoublements,' and the same author in 'ann. sc. nat.,' t. xxvii, p. . and 'el. ter. veget.,' p. . dunal, 'consid. org. fleur.,' montpell., , p. , note . a. de st. hilaire in 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser. , t. iii, p. , adnot. lindley, 'elements of botany,' p. . asa gray. 'botanical text book.' chapter i. multiplication of axile organs, inflorescence, etc. by linné an undue number of branches was designated as "plica," from the analogy with the disease of the hair known as plica polonica: "_plicata dicitur planta, cum arbor vel ramus excrescit minimis intertextis ramulis, tanquam plica polonica ex pilis, ceu instar nidi picæ, quod vulgo a genio ortum arbitratur; frequens apud nos in betula, præsertim norlandiæ, in carpino scaniæ, nec infrequens in pinu._"[ ] by some of the older authors this condition was called polyclady. in some cases, it would seem to be due to fungi as in the witches' brooms (hexenbesen) of the german forests; in other instances, it is a result of mutilation as after the operation of pollarding. moquin-tandon[ ] mentions a case in a grafted ash in the botanic garden of toulouse, where below the graft there was a large swelling, from which proceeded more than a thousand densely-packed, interlacing branches. this must have been similar to the condition so commonly met with in the birch, and frequently in the hornbeam and the thorn, and which has prompted so many a schoolboy to climb the tree in quest of the apparent nest. it is probable that some of the large "gnaurs" or "burrs," met with in elms, &c., also in certain varieties of apples, are clusters of adventitious buds, some of which might, and sometimes do, lengthen out into branches. an increased number of branches also necessarily arises when the flower-buds are replaced by leaf-buds. [illustration: fig. .--flower stalks of _bellevalia comosa_, nat. size, after morren.] occasionally, a great increase in the number of pedicels, or flower-stalks, may be met with in conjunction with a decreased number of flowers, as in the wig-plant (_rhus cotinus_), or the feather-hyacinth (_bellevalia comosa_). in these cases the supernumerary pedicels are often brightly coloured. to this condition morren gave the name mischomany, from [greek: mischos], a pedicel, a term which has not generally been adopted.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--tuft of branches at the end of the inflorescence of _bellevalia comosa_, enlarged after morren.] m. fournier[ ] describes a case in the butcher's broom (_ruscus aculeatus_), wherein from the axil of the minute leaf subtending the flower a secondary flattened branch proceeded. duchartre[ ] cites the case of a hyacinth which, in addition to the usual scape, had a second smaller one by its side terminated by a solitary flower; indeed, such an occurrence is not uncommon. some tulips occasionally present three or four, or more, flowers on one inflorescence, but whether from a branching of the primary scape, or from the premature development of some of the axillary bulbils into flowering stems which become adherent to the primary flower-stalk, cannot, in all cases, be determined. certainly, in some cases examined by me the latter was the case.[ ] under this head, too, may be included those cases wherein an ordinarily spicate inflorescence becomes paniculate owing to the branching of the axis and the formation of an unwonted number of secondary buds. instances of this kind may be met with in willows, hazels, alders, and other amentaceous plants. in the case of the hazel the unusual development of male catkins sometimes coincides with an alteration in their position, instead of being placed near the axil of a leaf; they become terminal. jaeger figures and describes a bunch of _pinus sylvestris_ bearing in one case seventy minute cones, and in another fifty-nine. these cones preserved the same spiral arrangement among themselves which is proper to the leaves. these latter, indeed, replaced the strobili above.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--increased number of male catkins in the hazel _corylus avellana_.] m. reichardt describes an analogous case in the same species, and attributes the inordinate number of cones to a fungus (_peridermium pini_). in this case there were no less than cones, but each one half the size of the ordinary cones.[ ] of a similar character is the many-headed pineapple. among grasses such a branching of the inflorescence is exceedingly common,--which is the more readily understood as the normal inflorescence is in so many cases paniculate. cultivators have, in some instances, availed themselves of this peculiarity, as in the egyptian wheat or corn of abundance (_triticum compositum_), certain varieties of maize, etc. similar exuberant growths occur in _orchidaceæ_, in _cyperaceæ_, e.g. _carex_, in _restiaceæ_, and indeed they may be found in any plant with a similar form of inflorescence. in all these cases the branching begins at the lower part of the spike, and extends from below upwards in an indefinite manner, even although the primary inflorescence be definite. among the _equisetaceæ_ a similar plurality of spikes occurs often as a result of mutilation.[ ] the deviation in question might in some instances be turned to good account, as in the _triticum_ before mentioned or as in the broccoli shown at fig. , though it must be added that the apparent advantages are often counterpoised by some undesirable qualities or by some circumstance which prevents us availing ourselves of the new condition. =multiplication of bulbs.=--this occurrence has been briefly alluded to previously (see p. ). the most curious cases are those in which one bulb is placed on the top of another as happened in some bulbs of _leucoium æstivum_ described by m. gay.[ ] irmisch described a similar phenomenon in _l. vernum_; and mr. moggridge has communicated drawings of a similar formation in the same species grown in the neighbourhood of mentone. from the instances cited it is clear that branching of the inflorescence occurs most frequently in those plants naturally characterised by a dense compact mode of growth, whether that be definite or indefinite, as in spikes, umbels, capitula, &c.; so that compound spikes, umbels, &c., are formed in the place of simple ones (see also prolification of the inflorescence, p. ). [illustration: fig. .--broccoli, with six perfect heads on one stalk ('gard. chron.,' , oct. ).] =increased number of florets= in the individual spikelets of grasses is also met with under some circumstances. i have seen this in _hordeum_ and _lolium_, and an instance is figured in _avena_ by dr. wiegmann.[ ] m. duval jouve[ ] records a similar occurrence in _catabrosa aquatica_, the spikelets of which contained from two to seven flowers.[ ] footnotes: [ ] 'phil bot.,' § . [ ] 'el. ter. veget.,' p. . [ ] 'bull. acad. belg.,' xvii, part ii, p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' vol. iv, . p. . [ ] ibid., vol. viii, , p. . [ ] see 'gard. chron.,' july, , p. , and clusius, 'plant. rar.,' lib. , p. , _tulipa serotina_ [greek: polykladês], _minor_, _&c._ hort. eysttett. plant. vern.,' fol. . [ ] 'jaeger de pini sylvestris monstrositate,' stuttgardt, . [ ] cited in 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' xiv, p. . [ ] duval jouve, 'hist. nat. equiset. fr.,' tab. , also milde, 'nov. act. acad. nat. cur.,' t. xxvi, part . for branched inflorescence of orchids, see 'reichenbach proc. lond. bot. congress,' , p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' vi, , vii, . irmisch, 'knollen und zwiebelgew.,' tab. , figs. , . [ ] 'flora,' , p. , tab. i; see also hanstein, 'flora,' , p. . schlechtendal, 'bot. zeit.,' xviii, p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' ix, p. . [ ] it will be seen, from what has been just said, that in some of the cases where the axile organs, branches, &c., appear to be multiplied, the increased number is due to subdivision rather than to renewed formation (see fission). of this last description is an instance which came under the writer's notice after the section relating to that subject was in print, and which may therefore here be alluded to. the instance is that of the subdivision of the leaf-like organs of _sciadopitys verticillata_. in one instance the pseudo leaf divided, and from the division proceeded a little axis, bearing at its summit a verticil of pseudo leaves. this division and formation of new axes and verticils affords ample confirmation of the opinion thrown out by professor alexander dickson, that the apparent leaves of this plant were really branches: see 'revue horticole,' , and 'report. bot. congress,' london, , p. . chapter ii. multiplication of foliar organs. the cases referrible to this head may be ranged under two sections according as the increase is due to plurality of ordinarily single organs, or to an increase in the number of verticils or whorls. when, in place of a single leaf organ two or more are really or in appearance present the occurrence may be due to one of several causes; among them may be mentioned an actual formation of parts in unwonted number, hypertrophy or enation, chorisis or fission, disjunction, adhesion of one leaf to another or to the stem, as in some of the leaves called "geminate," wherein the two leaves, though apparently in juxtaposition, yet originate from different parts of the stem, but by coalescence or lack of separation produce the impression as if they sprang from the same node. in the adult state it is not always possible to ascertain with certainty to which of these causes the increase in the number of leaves is due, though a clue to the real state of things may be gained from attention to the distribution of the veins, to the arrangement or phyllotaxy of the leaves, the size and position of the supernumerary organs, &c. the term "phyllomania," as ordinarily used, is applied to an unwonted development of leafy tissue, as in some begonias where the scales or ramenta are replaced by small leaflets, or as in some cabbage leaves, from the surface of which project, at right angles to the primary plane, other secondary leafy plates; but these are, strictly speaking, cases of hypertrophy (see hypertrophy). those instances in which the actual number of leaves is increased, so that in place of one there are more leaflets, may be included under the term "pleiophylly," which may serve to designate both the appearance of two or more leaves in the place usually occupied by a single one, and also those normally compound leaves in which the number of leaflets is greater than usual. the increased number of leaves in a whorl may well be designated as "polyphylly," using the word in the same sense as in ordinary descriptive botany, while "pleiotaxy" may be applied to those cases in which the number of whorls is increased. [illustration: fig. .--supernumerary leaflet, _ulmus campestris_.] =pleiophylly.=--as above stated, this term is proposed to designate those cases in which there is an absolute increase in the number of leaves starting from one particular point, as well as those in which the number of leaflets in a compound leaf is preternaturally increased. the simplest cases are such as are figured in the adjacent cuts, wherein, in place of a single leaf, two are produced in the elm. in the one case the new leaflet springs from the apex of the petiole and partially fills the space consequent on the obliquity of the base of the leaf. in the other it would seem as if two distinct leaves emerged from the stem in juxtaposition. this is probably due to a lateral chorisis or subdivision of the primitive tubercle or growing point, followed by a like subdivision of the vascular bundle supplying it. there are certain varieties of elm that very generally present this anomaly on their rank, coarse, growing shoots. in these cases the new growths have the same direction as the primary one, but in other cases the supplementary production is exactly reversed in direction. thus, in the common hazel (_corylus_) a second smaller leaf proceeding from the end of the leaf-stalk at the base of the primary one may frequently be seen. m. germain de saint pierre records an instance in a mulberry leaf, from the base of which proceeded a large leafy expansion divided into two tubular, horn-like projections, and in the centre a thread-like process representing the midrib and terminated by a small two-lipped limb.[ ] dr. ferdinand müller speaks of a leaf of _pomaderris elliptica_ as bearing a secondary leaf on its under surface.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--supernumerary leaf, _ulmus montana_.] [illustration: fig. .--supernumerary leaf of hazel.] the leaves of _heterocentron macrodon_ have likewise been observed occasionally to produce leaflets from their upper surface. to this production of leaves from leaves the late professor morren applied the term "autophyllogeny."[ ] the belgian botanist figures a small perfect leaf springing from the nerves of the upper surface of the primary leaf in a species of _miconia_. as in the hazel, the direction of the adventitious leaf is inversely that of the primary one, the upper surface of the supernumerary leaflet being turned towards the corresponding surface of the normal leaf. a similar occurrence took place in _gesnera zebrina_, but the new growth in this case sprang from the lower face of the leaf. morren explains the appearances in question by supposing that the supplementary leaf is one of a pair belonging to a bud borne on a slender stalk. this stalk and one of the bud-leaves are supposed to be inseparably united with the primary leaf. but there is no reason at all for supposing the existence of adhesion in these cases; no trace of any such union is to be seen. a much more natural explanation is that, from some cause or another, development at the apex of the petiole or on the surface of the nerves, instead of taking place in one plane only, as usual, takes place in more than one, thus showing the close relationship, if not the intrinsic identity, between the leaf-stalk and its continuation, the midrib, with the branch and its subdivisions. the form of the leaf-stalk and the arrangement of the vascular bundles in a circle in the case of the hazel, before alluded to, bear out this notion. such cases are significant in reference to the notion propounded by m. casimir de candolle, that the leaf is the equivalent of a branch in which the upper portion of the vascular circle is abortive.[ ] compound leaves, as has been stated, occasionally produce an extra number of leaflets; one of the most familiar illustrations of this is in the case of the four-leaved shamrock (_trifolium repens_), which was gathered at night-time during the full moon by sorceresses, who mixed it with vervain and other ingredients, while young girls in search of a token of perfect happiness made quest of the plant by day. linné, who in this matter, at any rate, had less than his usual feeling for romance, says of the four-leaved trefoil that it differs no more from the ordinary trefoil than a man with six fingers differs from one provided with the ordinary number. it should be stated that five and six adventitious leaflets are found almost as frequently as four. walpers describes a case where the leaf of _t. repens_ bore seven leaflets. schlechtendal alludes to a similar increase in number in _cytisus laburnum_, and many other instances might be cited. for figures or descriptions of four-leaved shamrocks the reader is referred to lobel, 'stirp. advers.,' nov., p. . tabernæmontanus 'krauterbuch,' s. . schlechtendal, 'bot. zeit.,' ix, p. , xiv, p. . maugin, 'bull. soc bot. fr.,' , t. xiii, p. . see also cramer, 'bildungsabweich,' p. . walpers, 'linnæa,' , p. ( -leaved). schlechtendal, 'bot. zeit.,' , p. , _cytisus_. wigand, 'flora,' , p. . frondiferous leaves have much the appearance of branches provided with leaves, and they may be compared with those instances in which an adventitious bud is placed on the surface or edges of the leaves, as in _gesnera_, _cardamine_, &c. in truth, the two conditions merge one into the other, as in some begonias, where the ramenta often become leaf-like and bear small bulbils in the axil. when frondiferous leaves die the appendages die also, but when a true bud has been formed on a leaf it does not of necessity die with the leaf that bears it, but separates from it and continues to grow independently. =increased number of stipules, spathes, &c.=--seringe relates the occasional presence of two or three additional stipules upon the leaf-stalks of _salix fragilis_, and even makes a variety (_salix pendula_, var. _multistipulata_). an increase in the number of the spathes has been often noticed in arads[ ]. prof. alex. braun has studied this subject in some detail[ ]. in _calla palustris_ the shoot which continues the growth of the plant proceeds from the axil of the last leaf but one; the very last leaf producing no bud, but if accidentally a shoot is developed in this latter situation it produces flowers at once. no leaves are formed, but, on the contrary, two or three spathes surround the spadix, so that the presence of an increased number of spathes in this plant is associated with the development of a side shoot from the axil of the last leaf, the situation whence, under natural circumstances, no shoot at all issues. the supernumerary spathes are not always on the same level, but may be separated by a considerable interval. they vary very much in size, and sometimes assume the form and appearance of leaves. similar anomalies occur in other arads as _arum maculatum_, _richardia æthiopica_, and _anthurium scherzerianum_, frequently combined with a leaf-like appearance of the spathes and sometimes with a subdivision of the spadix into two or three branches. engelmann relates the occurrence of an increased number of glumes in _bromus velutinus_ associated with suppression of the flowers. =polyphylly.=--as previously explained, this term is here applied to those cases in which the members of any particular whorl are increased in number, the whorls themselves not necessarily being augmented. the simplest cases of this kind are those in which we meet with an unusual number of leaves in a whorl. =increased number of leaves in a whorl.=--this may arise from actual multiplication, or from lateral chorisis, or fission. the true nature of the case may usually be ascertained by an examination of the distribution of the veins of the leaves, or of the fibrous cords of the stem, by the relative position of the supernumerary organs, &c. among plants with normally opposite leaves the following occasionally produce them in whorls of three:--_lonicera brachypoda_, _l. xylosteum_, _weigela rosea_, _cornus mas_, _vinca minor_, &c. _paris quadrifolia_ may frequently be met with five leaves in its whorl, or even six.[ ] =increased number of bracts.=--this is not of infrequent occurrence; one of the most curious instances is that recorded by mr. edwards[ ] in _cerastium glomeratum_, where, in place of the usual pair of bracts at the base of the head of flowers, there was a whorl of six or eight, forming an involucre. the flowers in this case were apetalous and imperfect. =polyphylly of the calyx.=--this may occur without any other perceptible change, while at other times the number of the other parts of the flower is proportionately increased. in a flower of a plum six sepals in place of five sometimes exist; a precisely similar occurrence in the flowers of the elder (_sambucus_), the _fuchsia_, and of _oenanthe crocata_, may occasionally be met with. in the latter case, indeed, there are sometimes as many as ten segments to the calyx, and this without the other parts of the flower being correspondingly augmented. among monocotyledons a similar increase is not uncommon, as in _tulipa_, _allium_, _iris_, _narcissus_, &c. in some plants there seems to exist normally much variation in the number of parts; thus in some species of _lacistema_ in adjacent flowers the calyx may be found with four, five, or six segments. most of these cases of polyphylly affecting the calyx may be explained by lateral chorisis or fission. =polyphylly of the corolla.=--this may happen in connection with similar alterations in the calyx and stamens, or sometimes as an isolated occurrence. in the latter case it may be due to lateral chorisis, to substitution, or to the development of organs usually suppressed; thus, when in aconites we meet with four or five horn-like nectaries (petals) instead of two only, as usual, the supernumerary ones are accounted for by the inordinate development of parts which ordinarily are in an abortive or rudimentary state only. this is borne out by what happens in _balsamineæ_. in the common garden balsam the fifth petal is occasionally present, while in _hydrocera triflora_ this petal is always present. in a flower of a _cyclamen_ recently examined there were ten petals in one series, the additional five being evidently due to the subdivision of the five primary ones; the natural circular plan of the flower was here replaced by an elliptical one. a similar occurrence takes place in the flowers of maples (_acer_), which sometimes show an increased number of parts in their floral whorls and an elliptical outline. whether the additional organs in this last case are the result of complete lateral chorisis or of multiplication proper i do not know. orchids are very subject to an increase in the number of their labella. as illustrations may be cited an instance recorded by mr. j. t. moggridge in a flower of _ophrys insectifera_, and in which there were two labella without any other visible deviation from the ordinary conformation.[ ] i am indebted to mr. hemsley for the communication of a similar specimen in _o. apifera_, in which there were two divergent lips, each with the same peculiar markings. one of the sepals in this flower was adherent to one of the lateral petals. this augmentation of the labella depends sometimes on the separation, one from the other, of the elements of which the lip is composed, at other times on the development, in the guise of lips, of stamens which are usually suppressed (see p. ). the following enumeration will suffice to show the genera in which an increased number of petals or perianth-segments in any given whorl most frequently occurs. anemone! ranunculus! aconitum! raphanus. bunias. saponaria. dianthus! pelargonium! hibiscus. fuchsia. sarothamnus! lotus! ulex! prunus! trifolium. oenanthe and umbellif. pl.! sambucus! bryonia. campanula. solanum. veronica. cyclamen! primula! anagallis! plumbago. jasminum. syringa! tradescantia. iris. tigridia. narcissus. tulipa. convallaria! paris! hyacinthus! allium! ornithogalum. orchideæ, sp. pl.! for other illustrations see multiplication of whorls, petalody; see also moquin, loc. cit., p. . engelmann, loc. cit., p. , § . cramer, loc. cit., p. . =polyphylly of the androecium.=--an increased number of stamens frequently accompanies the corresponding alterations in other whorls, and seems, if anything, to be more frequent among monocotyledonous plants than among dicotyledonous ones; thus, we occasionally find tetramerous flowers in _crocus_, _hyacinthus_, _tulipa_, _iris_, _tigridia_, &c., and more rarely in _yucca_ (_y. flexilis_[ ]). the increased number of stamens in a single whorl may result from a development of organs usually suppressed, and constitute a form of regular peloria as in _linaria_, wherein a fifth stamen is occasionally met with. among normally didynamous plants such numerical restitution, so to speak, is not unusual; thus, in _veronica_ four and five stamens occur. fresenius has seen five stamens in _lamium_, _mentha_, _chelone_;[ ] bentham in _melittis_, and other instances are cited under the head of peloria. chorisis may also serve to account for some of these cases; thus, eichler[ ] figures a flower of _matthiola annua_ with five long stamens instead of four; one of the long pairs of stamens has here undergone a greater degree of repetition than usual. de candolle[ ] cites and figures a curious form of _capsella bursa-pastoris_ sent him by jacquin, and which was to some extent reproduced by seed. in the flowers of this variety there were no petals, but ten stamens; hence de candolle inferred that the petals were here replaced by stamens, but moquin[ ] objects, and with justice, to this view, as the ten stamens are all on the same line; he considers the additional stamens to be the result of chorisis. buchenau[ ] mentions the presence of seven stamens in another crucifer, _ionopsidium acaule_. here the supernumerary organ was placed between two of the long stamens. the effect of chorisis in producing an augmentation of parts is well seen in some plants that have some of their flowers provided with staminodes or abortive stamens, and others with clusters or phalanges of perfect stamens. thus, in the female flowers of _liquidambar_ there are five small staminodes without anthers, whereas in the male flower the stamens are numerous and grouped together in phalanges, so that the relation of simple to compound stamens is in this case readily seen, as also in many _malvaceæ_, _sterculiaceæ_, _byttneriaceæ_, _tiliaceæ_, and _myrtaceæ_. it is probably the idea of splitting or dilamination involved in the word chorisis that has led many english botanists to hesitate about accepting the notion. had they looked upon the process as identical with that by which a branched inflorescence replaces an unbranched one, or a compound leaf takes the place of a simple one, the objections would not have been raised with such force. the process consists, in most cases, not so much in actual cleavage of a pre-existing organ as in the development of new-growing points from the old ones. an illustration given by moquin from dunal[ ] goes far to support the notion here adopted. the majority of the stamens of laurels (_laurus_) have, says m. dunal, on each side of the base of their filaments a small glandular bifid appendage; these excrescences are liable to be changed into small stamens. the male flowers have a four-leaved calyx, and sometimes eight stamens, each with two glands, four in one row, opposite to the sepals, four in a second series alternating with the first. more generally two of the stamens are destitute of glands, but have in their place a perfectly developed stamen, so that in these latter flowers there are twelve stamens. m. clos[ ] mentions a flower of rue (_ruta_) wherein there were two stamens joined together below and placed in front of a petal, as in _peganum_. buchenau[ ] mentions a flower of _lotus uliginosus_ in which there were eleven stamens, namely, two free and nine monadelphous; and hildebrand describes an analogous increase in a flower of _sarothamnus scoparius_ in which, in conjunction with a seven-toothed calyx, there were two carinas and fourteen stamens. it would seem probable in this case that there was a coalescence of two flowers at an early date and consequent suppression of some of the parts of the flower. whether this was the case or not in this particular illustration, it is nevertheless certain that many of the recorded instances of increased number in the organs of a flower are really the results of a fusion of two or more flowers, though frequently in the adult state but few traces of the coalescence are to be seen. =polyphylly of the gynoecium.=--moquin[ ] remarks that, as the pistils are, generally speaking, more or less subject to pressure, owing to their central position, and it may be added owing to their later development, than the other parts of the flower, they are more subject to suppression than to multiplication; nevertheless, augmentation in the number of carpels does occasionally take place, especially when the other parts of the flower are also augmented in number. sometimes this increase in the number of carpels is due to pure multiplication, without any other change. at other times the increase is due to a substitution of stamens or other organs for carpels (see substitutions). in other cases the augmentation seems to be due to the development of parts usually suppressed; for instance, in _antirrhinum_, where there are usually only two carpels present, but where, under peculiar circumstances, five may be found--thus rendering the symmetry complete.[ ] in _papilionaceæ_, wherein usually only one carpel is developed, we occasionally find two, or even more, as in _wistaria_, _gleditschia_, _trifolium_, &c. in _prunus_ and _amygdalus_ from two to five carpels are occasionally to be found,[ ] in _mimosa_ five, in _umbelliferæ_ three to five; in some composites, _e.g._ _spilanthes_, five carpels have also been noticed; in _cruciferæ_ three and four, in grasses three.[ ] the double cocoa-nut affords an illustration of the development of two carpels out of three, one only generally arriving at perfection. triple nuts (_corylus_) also owe their peculiarity to the equal development of all three carpels which exist in the original flower, but of which, under ordinary circumstances, two become abortive. it is necessary, however, to distinguish these cases from those in which two embryos are developed in one seed. the following list may serve to show in what genera this change has been most frequently noticed, and it may be said in general terms that _cruciferæ_, _umbelliferæ_, and _liliaceæ_, are the orders most frequently affected. cases of peloria are not included in the subjoined list. nigella. aquilegia. pæonia! delphinium! iberis. diplotaxis. lunaria. ricotiana. octadenia. draba! lepidium. *cheiranthus! dianthus. brassica! parnassia. *acer! ptelea. citrus! philadelphus. prunus! amygdalus! cratægus! fuchsia! trapa! cassia. cercis. medicago. *phaseolus! wistaria. gleditschia. affonsea. trifolium! archidendron. mimosa. robinia. diphaca. coesalpinia. vicia. anthyllis. cucurbita. passiflora! sambucus! *oenanthe! daucus! angelica! heracleum! silaus. carum. thysselinum. campanula! spilanthes. chrysanthemum. anagallis. primula! fraxinus! lycium. cobæa. datura! solanum! sesamum. sideritis. coleus. veronica! *digitalis! antirrhinum! linaria. gloxinia! symphytum. anchusa. polygonum. euphorbia. cneorum. mercurialis! chenopodium. suæda. beta. corylus! lambertia. cocos! tigridia. tulipa! iris! narcissus! allium! ornithogalum. gagea! tradescantia! schoenodon. bambuseæ. a few additional references may here be given to papers where an increased number of carpels is described:--engelmann, 'de antholys,' § , p. . bernhardi, 'flora,' , p. . schkuhr., 'bot. handb.,' t. . godron, 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser. , vol. ii, p. , tab. xviii, _pluricarpellary crucifers_. weber, 'verhandl. nat. hist. vereins. rhein. pruss.,' &c., , _cerasus_, &c., &c. baillon, 'adansonia,' iv, p. , _trifolium_. schlechtendal, 'bot. zeit.,' xv, p. , _datura_, three-celled fruit; 'bot. zeit.,' xiii, p. , _phaseolus_, double pistil--a common case. cramer, 'bildungsabweich,' p. , reference to several leguminous plants with polycarpellary pistils. munro, gen., 'linn. trans.,' vol. xxvi, p. , _bambuseæ_. alph. de candolle, 'neue denkschrift,' _cheiranthus_. schimper, 'flora,' , ii, p. . wigand, 'bot. untersuch.' fleischer, 'missbild. cultur pfl.' cramer, 'bildungsabweich,' p. , _umbelliferæ_. =polyphylly of the flower in general.=--although, for the sake of convenience, multiplication has here been treated of as it affects the members of individual whorls of the flower, yet it must be remembered that, in general, the augmentation is not confined to one whorl, but affects several; thus, if the sepals are increased, the petals are likely to be so likewise, and so forth. one of the most curious illustrations of this is that recorded by mr. berkeley[ ] in a plum, wherein there was an increased number of sepals, a corresponding augmentation in the petals, while the pistil was composed of two and sometimes three carpels distinct from the calyx and from each other. in the flowers there did not appear to be any definite relation in the position of the parts either with reference one to another or to the axis. [illustration: fig. .--plum. increased number of parts in the calycine, corolline, and carpellary whorls respectively.] in _primulaceæ_ this general augmentation has been frequently noticed.[ ] among _orchideæ_ the instance related by dr. seubert is worth alluding to here. this botanist observed and figured a flower of _orchis palustris_ with tetramerous arrangement of parts, that is to say there were four outer segments to the perianth, four petals, of which two were lip-like, four stamens, three of which were rudimentary, and an ovary with four parietal placentæ.[ ] the following list will serve to show in what plants this general augmentation of parts has been observed most frequently: ranunculus. clematis! delphinium. brassica! ruta. acer! prunus! rosa! rubus. philadelphus! chrysosplenium. umbelliferæ, sp. pl.! *fuchsia! oenothera. adoxa. bryonia. cucumis! campanula! sambucus! *primula! anagallis! lycium. solanum. symphytum. syringa! linaria. chenopodium. *paris! convallaria! allium. *lilium! *tulipa! ornithogalum. *gagea! tradescantia! orchideæ, sp. pl.! =increased number of ovules or seeds.=--this appears not to be of very frequent occurrence, at least in those plants where the number of these organs is normally small; where, as in _primula_, the ovules and seeds are produced in large quantities, it is not practicable to ascertain whether the number be augmented or not in any particular case. very probably, the attachment or source of origin of the ovules determines, in some measure, their number. thus, in the case of marginal placentation the number must be limited by the narrow space from which they proceed, whereas in parietal and free central placentation the ovules are generally numerous. in the latter case, however, it will be remembered that solitary ovules are not rare. an increased number of ovules is generally remarked in conjunction with some other change, such as a foliaceous condition of the carpel, in which the margins are disunited. in such cases the ovules may occupy the margin or may be placed a short distance within it, as in the case of some open carpels of _ranunculus ficaria_,[ ] and in which two ovules were borne in shallow depressions on the upper or inner surface of the open carpel and supplied with vascular cords from the central bundle or midrib. the outer coating of the ovule here contained barred or spiral fusiform vessels derived from the source just indicated. in the very common cases where the pistil of _trifolium repens_ becomes foliaceous (see frondescence), the outer ovules are generally two or more instead of being solitary. so, also, in the rose with polliniferous ovules (see p. ). among _umbelliferæ_ affected with frondescence of the pistil a similar increase in the number of ovules takes place. it will be borne in mind that in most, if not all, these cases the structure of the ovule is itself imperfect.[ ] what are called in popular parlance double almonds or double nuts (_corylus_) are cases where two seeds are developed in place of one. in the 'revue horticole,' , p. , mention is made of a bush which produces these double nuts each year--in fact, it never produces any single-seeded fruit. the plant was a chance seedling, perhaps itself the offspring of a double-seeded parent. it would be interesting to observe if the character be retained by the original plant, and whether it can be perpetuated by seed or by grafting. it is necessary to distinguish in the case of the nut between additional seeds or ovules, as just described, and the double, triple, or fourfold nuts that are occasionally met with, and which are the result either of actual multiplication of the carpels or of the continued development of some of the carpels which, under ordinary circumstances cease to grow (see _ante_, p. ). in the case of a ripe nut with two seeds it might be impossible to tell whether the adventitious seed were the product of multiplication, or whether it belonged, in the first instance, to the same carpel as that producing the fellow-seed, or to a different and now obliterated ovary. in all probability, however, the second seed would be accounted for by the development of two seeds in one carpellary cavity. there is still another condition occasionally met with in the almond, and which must be discriminated from the more common multiplication of the seed, and which is the multiplication of the embryos within the seed, and which furnishes the subject of the succeeding paragraph. =increased number of embryos.=--a ripe seed usually contains but a single embryo, although in the ovular state preparation is commonly made for more; and, indeed, in certain natural orders plurality of embryos in the same seed does occur, as in _cycadeæ_ and _coniferæ_. in the seeds of the orange (_citrus_), in those of some _euphorbiaceæ_, &c., there are frequently two or more additional embryos. a similar occurrence has been recorded in the mango, for a specimen of which i am indebted to the rev. mr. parish, of moulmein.[ ] plurality of embryos has also been observed in-- raphanus sativus. *citrus aurantium! diosma, sp. hypericum perforatum. triphasia aurantiaca. *Æsculus hippocastanum! euonymus latifolius. *mangifera indica! eugenia jambos. amygdalus vulgaris! vicia, sp. cassia, sp. *viscum album! daucus carota. ardisia serrulata! cynanchum nigrum. fuscatum. euphorbia rosea. coelebogyne ilicifolia. allium fragrans. funckia, sp. carex maritima. zea mays. see schauer's translation of moquin-tandon, 'el. terat. veget.,' p. , adnot., and 'al. braun polyembryonie.' =increased number of the cotyledons.=--although the presence of one or of two cotyledons in the embryo is generally accepted as a valuable means of separating flowering plants into two primary groups, yet, like all other means of discrimination, it occasionally fails, and, indeed, almost always requires to be taken in conjunction with some other character. there are cases among flowering plants where the embryo is homogeneous in its structure, there are others in which the number of the cotyledons is more than two. thus, in some seeds of _cola acuminata_ the cotyledons vary in number from two to five. i have not been able to ascertain precisely whether this multiplication of the cotyledons is characteristic of all the seeds of particular trees, or whether some only are thus affected. some fruits that i examined bore out the latter view, as in the same pod were seeds with two, three, and four cotyledons respectively. i have also seen three cotyledons present in embryo-plants of _correa_, _cratægus oxyacantha_, _dianthus sinensis_, _daucus carota_, _cerasus lauro-cerasus_. de candolle alludes to a case of the kind in the bean, and figures a species of _solanum_ with three cotyledons.[ ] jaeger alludes to a similar instance in _apium petroselinum_;[ ] ehrenberg to one in the marigold (_calendula_);[ ] reinsch to an analogous appearance in the beech (_fagus_), associated with a union of the margins of two out of the three cotyledons, and of those of two out of the three leaves next adjacent.[ ] this fusion seems frequently to accompany increase in the number of cotyledons. it was so in the _correa_, and in the _cratægus_ previously mentioned. some of these cases may be accounted for by chorisis or by a cleavage of the original cotyledons, as happens, according to duchartre,[ ] in some coniferæ, which he considers to be improperly termed polycotyledonous. whether this holds good in the loranths, where (_nuytsia_, _psittacanthus_) an appearance of polycotyledony exists, is not stated. in the case of the rue (_ruta_) figured by m. a. de jussieu[ ] this splitting of one cotyledon into two is sufficiently evident, as is also the case in the sycamore (_acer pseudo-platanus_), seedlings of which may often be met with divided cotyledons. in other instances a fusion of two embryo plants may give rise to a similar appearance, as in the _euphorbia_ and _sinapis_ found by m. alph. de candolle (see _ante_, p. ). =pleiotaxy or multiplication of whorls.=--in the preceding section notice has been taken of the increased number of parts in a single whorl, but an augmentation of the number of distinct whorls is still more frequently met with. many of the so-called double flowers owe their peculiarity to this condition. the distinction between the two modes in which the parts of the flower are increased in number has been pointed out by engelmann, moquin, and others, and the two seem to require distinctive epithets; hence the application of the terms polyphylly and pleiotaxy, as here proposed. =pleiotaxy in the bracts.=--an increase in the number of bracts has been met with very constantly in a species of _mæsa_, and in a peculiar variety of carnation, called the wheat-ear carnation.[ ] in some of these cases the increase in the number of bracts is attended by a corresponding suppression in the other parts of the flower. such a condition has been frequently met with in _gentiana amarella_, where the bracts are increased in number, coloured purple, and destitute of any true floral organs. a similar condition exists in some varieties of _plantago major_ (var. _paniculata_), as has been previously stated, p. . [illustration: fig. .--wheat-ear carnation. the appearance is due to the multiplication of the bracts and the suppression of the other parts of the flower.] it has been noticed also in the common pea, _pisum sativum_, and m. lortet[ ] records a case of the kind in _erica multiflora_, the flowers of which, under ordinary circumstances, are arranged in clusters, but in this case the pedicels were more closely crowded than usual, and were covered for their whole length with small rose-coloured bracts arranged in irregular whorls, the upper ones sometimes enclosing imperfect flowers. in the 'gardeners' chronicle,' , p. , is figured a corresponding instance of _delphinium consolida_, in which the bracts were greatly increased in number, petaloid, and, at the same time, the central organs of the flower were wholly wanting. [illustration: fig. .--_delphinium consolida_. multiplication of bracts at the expense of the other parts of the flower.] [illustration: fig. .--multiplication of bracts, &c., _pelargonium_.] in flowers of _pelargonium_ may occasionally be seen a repetition of the whorls of bracts, in conjunction with suppression and diminished size of some of the other portions of the flower (fig. ). the common foxglove (_digitalis purpurea_) has likewise occasionally been observed subject to a similar malformation. _cornus mas_ and _c. suecica_ sometimes show a triple involucre.[ ] irmish[ ] records an analogous case in _anemone hepatica_, wherein the involucre was doubled. similar augmentation occurs in cultivated anemone. in addition to the plants already mentioned, engelmann[ ] mentions as having produced bracts in unwonted numbers, _lythrum salicaria_, _plantago major_, _veronica spicata_, _echium vulgare_, _melilotus arvensis_, and _rubus fruticosus_. it must here be remarked that this great number of the bracts occurs naturally in such plants as _godoya_, in which the bracts, or, as some consider them, the segments of the calyx, are very numerous, and arranged in several overlapping segments. in some of the cultivated double varieties of _nigella_ the finely divided involucral bracts are repeated over and over again, but on a diminished scale, to the exclusion of all the other parts of the flower. =pleiotaxy or repetition of the calyx.=--the true calyx is very seldom affected in this manner, unless such organs as the epicalyx of mallows, _potentilla_, &c., be considered as really parts of the calyx. in _linaria vulgaris_ roeper observed a calyx consisting of a double series, each of five sepals, in conjunction with other changes.[ ] it is also common in double columbines, delphiniums, nigellas, &c. in the 'revue horticole,' , p. , fig. , is described and figured by m. b. verlot a curious variety of vine grown for years in the botanic garden at grenoble, under the name of the double-flowered vine. the place of the flower is occupied by a large number of successive whorls of sepals disposed in regular order, and without any trace of the other portions of the flower. it is, in fact, more like a leaf-bud than a flower. the outermost whorls of this flower open at the time when the ordinary flowers of vines do; the second series are gradually produced, and expand about the time when the ovaries of the normal flowers begin to swell; a third series then gradually forms, and so on, until frost puts a stop to the growth. this malformation, it appears, is produced annually in certain varieties of vine, and may be perpetuated by cuttings. the flower of the st. valèry apple, already alluded to under the head of sepalody, might equally well be placed here. it is not very material whether the second whorl of organs be regarded as a repetition of the calyx or as a row of petals in the guise of sepals. engelmann[ ] cites the following plants as occasionally presenting a repetition of the calyx, in most cases with a suppression of the other floral whorls:--_stachys lanata_, _myosotis palustris_, _veronica media_, _aquilegia vulgaris_, _nigella damascena_, _campanula rapunculoides_. =pleiotaxy in the perianth.=--increase in the number of whorls in the perianth is common in lilies, narcissus, hyacinths, &c. it may be also met with occasionally among orchids. the lily of the valley (_convallaria maialis_) seems also to be particularly subject to an increase in the number of parts of which its perianth consists, the augmentation being due partly to repetition or pleiotaxy, partly to the substitution of petaloid segments for stamens and pistils.[ ] in this place may also be mentioned the curious deviation from the ordinary structure occasionally met with in _lilium candidum_, and known in english gardens as the double white lily. in this case there are no true flowers, but a large number of petal-like segments disposed in an irregular spiral manner at the extremity of the stem, some of the uppermost being occasionally verticillate.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--double white lily. multiplication of perianth-segments and other changes.] =pleiotaxy of the corolla.=--with reference to double flowers, it was remarked by linné that polypetalous flowers were, as he said, multiplied, while monopetalous flowers were duplicated, or triplicated, as the case may be,[ ] a statement that is true in the main, though it requires modification. in the case of polypetalous, or rather dialypetalous flowers, the petals may be very largely increased by multiplication, as in roses, anemones, pinks, &c. in the last-named genus the number is often so much increased that the calyx splits from the tension exercised on it by the increasing mass within. this multiplication may happen without any metamorphy or substitution of petals for stamens, though, in the majority of cases, it is associated with such a change. it is curious to observe in some of these flowers that the total number of parts is not greatly increased; thus, in some of the double-flowered _leguminosæ_, such as _ulex europæus_ and _lotus corniculatus_, the petals are repeated once or twice, the stamens are petalodic, but reduced in number, while the carpels are usually entirely wanting. thus, owing to the diminished number of parts in the inner whorls of the flower, these very double-looking blooms do not contain any greatly increased number of parts.[ ] flowers that, under ordinary circumstances, are gamopetalous, become, in some instances, multiplied by the formation of additional segments, just as in the case of polypetalous corollas; but in these cases the corollas become polypetalous, their petals do not cohere one with another. among double flowers of this character may be mentioned _campanula rotundifolia_, _gardenia_ sp., _nerium oleander_, _serissa_ sp., _arbutus unedo_, &c. the change is associated with petalody of the stamens and pistils. a more frequent change among the monopetalous orders is the duplication or triplication of the corolla, in consequence of which there appear to be a series of corollas enclosed one within the other, the lobes of which generally alternate with one another, but which sometimes are superposed. this happens occasionally in the primrose (_primula acaulis_), and constitutes the variety called by the gardeners "hose in hose." the same condition occurs frequently in some species of _datura_ and _campanula_. [illustration: fig. .--_campanula rotundifolia_. "double flowers" resulting from dialysis and multiplication of the petals.] in _antirrhinum majus_ double flowers of this character sometimes occur; the outermost corolla is normal, the succeeding ones usually have their petals separate one from the other; the stamens are sometimes present, sometimes absent, and at other times petalodic. similar occurrences may be met with in labiates and jasmines, and in _erica hyemalis_. mr. w. b. hemsley has kindly furnished me with flowers of a similar kind occurring in wild specimens of _epacris impressa_,[ ] and there are analogous phenomena in the common honeysuckle (_lonicera periclymenum_), in which three corollas and no stamens often occur. this duplication may either be accounted for on the theory of chorisis above alluded to, or by supposing that the extra corolline whorl is due to a series of confluent petalodic stamens; that the latter is the true explanation, in certain cases at least, is shown by some flowers of _datura fastuosa_, in which the second corolla was partially staminal in its appearance, and bore nearly perfect anthers, in addition to the five ordinary stamens, which were unaltered either in form or position. some partially virescent honeysuckle flowers have a similar structure. there are other cases of apparent multiplication or duplication, due, probably, rather to the formation of outgrowths from the petals than to actual augmentation of their number. these excrescences occur sometimes on the inner surface of the petals, or of the corolla; at other times on the outer surface, as in some gloxinias, &c. this matter will be more fully treated of under the head of hypertrophy and enation. =pleiotaxy of the androecium.=--an increase in the number of whorls in the stamens is very common, especially in cases where the number of circles of stamens is naturally large. the augmentation of the number of stamens is still more frequent where these organs are arranged, not in verticils, but in one continuous spiral line. in _cruciferæ_ there is always an indication of two whorls of stamens, and this indication is rendered even more apparent in some varieties accidentally met with. so in _saponaria_, in _dianthus_, and other _caryophylleæ_, three and four verticils of stamens have been met with. in _lonicera periclymenum_ a second whorl of stamens more or less petalodic sometimes occurs. moquin mentions a variety of _rubus fruticosus_ in which nearly petaloid organs existed in the place of the twenty-five or thirty stamens natural to the plant, the other organs of the flower being in their ordinary condition, with the exception of the pistil, which did not attain its full size. baillon records the occasional existence of two rows of stamens in _ditaxis lancifolia_. =increased number of stamens in orchids, &c.=--various deviations from the ordinary type of orchid structure have been already alluded to under the head of displacement, fusion, peloria, substitution, &c., but the alterations presented by the androecium in this family are so important in reference to what is considered its natural conformation, that it seems desirable, in this place, to enter upon the teratological appearances presented by the androecium in this order, in somewhat greater detail than usual. the ordinary structure of the flower with its three sepals, two petals, labellum, column; and inferior ovary, is well known. such a conformation would be wholly anomalous and inexplicable were it not that the real number and arrangement of parts have been revealed by various workers labouring to the same end in different fields. thus, robert brown, link, bauer, darwin, and others, paid special attention to the minute anatomy and mode of distribution of the vessels; irmisch, crueger, payer, and others, to the evolution of the flower; lindley, st. hilaire, and reichenbach, to the comparison of the completed structures in the various genera and species; while the teratological observers have been numerous, as will be seen from the selected references cited at the end of this paragraph and in other places. the result of this manifold study has been a pretty general agreement that the structure of the order (omitting minor details) is as follows:--a six-parted perianth in two rows, the outer three (sepals) generally regular and equal in shape; of the inner three (petals or tepals) two are regular, and one, the labellum very irregular, consisting not only of a petal, but of two abortive stamens incorporated with it. the column is considered to be made up of one perfect and three abortive stamens, in inseparable connection with three styles. by some, however, it is supposed that all the stamens are confluent with the column and none with the lip. [illustration: fig. .--diagram showing the arrangement of parts in an orchid flower. according to crüger, the stamens a , a , should be distinct from the lip. the uppermost figure should have been . (see text.)] in either case it is admitted that there are six stamens in two rows. the first row consists of one posterior stamen, which is generally perfect, and two abortive stamens incorporated with the labellum. the second row also consists of three stamens, all of which are usually abortive and inseparable from the column. traces of them may occasionally be met with in the form of tubercles or wing-like processes from the column. in _cypripedium_, while the ordinary stamen of the outer row is deficient, two of the inner series are present. the diagram, fig. , will serve to show the arrangement of the parts as above described. + represents the situation of the stem or axis; on the opposite side is the bract; between these are placed the sepals, one posterior or next the axis (incorrectly numbered in the plan), two lateral , ; next in order follow the petals, , , , two lateral and somewhat posterior, one larger (the lip), anterior; the outer series of stamens are represented by a , a , a , the two latter being fused with the labellum; _a_ , _a_ , _a_ represent the position of the inner verticil of stamens, while s, s, s denote the three carpels. it is foreign to the purpose of this book to detail the varied evidence in support of this explanation of the homologies of orchid flowers.[ ] all that can be done in these pages is to set forth the evidence furnished by teratology as to this matter--evidence for the most part accumulated and recorded without any special reference to any theory of orchid structure. the following details all refer to flowers in which the number of stamens in orchidaceous plants was increased beyond what is necessary. they are arranged with reference to the number of adventitious organs, beginning with those in which the number was smallest, and proceeding thence to those in which it was greatest. in some cases it has not been possible to ascertain whether the adventitious organs were really restorations of the numerical symmetry, substitutions of one part for another, stamen for petal, &c., or wholly adventitious productions. unless otherwise stated, the interpretation put upon the facts thus recorded is that of the present writer, and not necessarily that of the original observer. mr. j. t. moggridge has described and figured a flower of _ophrys insectifera_ in which there was a vestige of a second stamen present, probably one of the inner series fig. (_a_^ ).[ ] the same observer also records the presence of a second anther between the lobes of the normal one. this can hardly be referred to either of the typical stamens, but would seem to be a perverted development of the rostellum.[ ] roeper is stated by cramer[ ] to have seen a specimen of _orchis morio_ with two stamens. in a flower of _habenaria chlorantha_, described by the late professor henslow,[ ] the outer three stamens are suppressed, while two of the inner group are present, as happens normally in _cypripedium_. a flower of _cattleya violacea_ afforded a similar illustration; but in this case only one of the inner stamens was developed, and this in the form of a small petal, partly adherent to the column. in _dendrobium normale_, falconer, not only is the perianth regular, but the column is triandrous,[ ] the three stamens (according to the diagram of its structure given by lindley) pertaining to the outer row. in a specimen of _dendrobium hoemoglossum_ kindly forwarded from ceylon by mr. thwaites there were three stamens present, of which one posterior belonged to the outer series a , and two lateral to the inner _a_ , _a_ , fig. . m. his observed, several years in succession, some flowers of a species of _ophrys_ with three sepals, no lateral petals, one lip, and three perfect stamens. in this case probably the two supernumerary stamens were petals which had assumed an anther-like character. wydler describes a flower of _ophrys aranifera_ in which one outer and two inner stamens were present.[ ] i have myself met with three such flowers in the same species. the stamens present were a , _a_ , _a_ . dr. j. e. gray exhibited at the botanical society of london, in august, , a specimen of _ophrys apifera_ with a triandrous column, the supernumerary anthers belonging, apparently, to the inner whorl. in his 'catalogue of the plants of south kent,' p. , tab. iv, f. , the rev. g. e. smith describes and figures a flower of _o. aranifera_ with a triandrous column, seemingly of the same kind as that spoken of by dr. gray. mr. moggridge met with a triandrous flower in the same species, and refers the appearance to "a fusion of two flowers, accompanied by suppression and modification."[ ] as, however, no details are given in support of this opinion, it may be conjectured that the two additional stamens were members of the inner whorl _a_ , _a_ , and thus the conformation would be the same as in the flowers just mentioned. the figures given by mr. moggridge bear out this latter view, while they lend no support to the hypothesis advanced by him. nevertheless, no decided opinion can be pronounced by those who have not had the opportunity of examining the flowers in question. alphonse de candolle[ ] figures a flower of _maxillaria_ in exactly the same condition, so far as the stamens are concerned, as in the ophrys flowers just mentioned. it is curious to observe that in many of these cases the two lateral petals are suppressed. von martius mentions the occurrence of three anthers (_naturaliter conformatæ_) in _orchis morio_.[ ] richard, as cited by moquin-tandon, lindley, and others, describes and figures a peloria of _orchis latifolia_ with regular triandrous flowers.[ ] the writer has examined, in the royal gardens at kew, a flower of _cattleya crispa_ in which were three stamens, the central one normal; the two lateral ones, belonging probably to the inner whorl, were in appearance like the lateral petals, and one of them was adherent to the central perfect column. duchartre[ ] mentions a flower of _cattleya forbesii_ in which there were two labella in addition to the ordinary one, the column being in its normal condition. from the analogy of other cases it would appear as if the additional labella in this instance were the representatives of two stamens of the outer whorl. beer likewise has put on record the existence of a triandrous _cattleya_.[ ] a specimen of _catasetum eburneum_ forwarded by mr. wilson saunders was normal so far as the sepals and two lateral petals were concerned, but the anterior petal or labellum was flat and in form quite like the two lateral ones; the column was normal and in the situation of the two anterior stamens of the outer series a , a , were two labella of the usual form (fig. , p. ). perhaps the _oncidium_ represented at p. , fig. , may also be explained on the supposition that the two lateral lobes of the labellum in this flower were the representatives of stamens. in fig. is shown the arrangement of parts in a flower of _ophrys aranifera_. here there were three sepals, two lateral petals, one of which was adherent to the side of the column; the central labellum was seemingly deficient, but there were two pseudo-labella placed laterally in the position of the two antero-lateral stamens of the outer series (a , a ). within these was another perfect stamen occupying the position of the anterior stamen of the inner series (_a_ ). in another flower of the same species, gathered at the same time (fig. ), there were three sepals not at all different from those of the normal flower. the three petals next in succession were also, in form and position, in their ordinary state. in colour, however, the two upper lateral petals differed from what is customary, in having the same purplish-brown tint which characterises the lip. within these petals, at the upper part of the flower, there was the ordinary column, and at the opposite side, alternating with the petals before mentioned, two additional lip-like petals, one provided with a half-anther containing a single perfectly formed pollen-mass (a , a ). it is, perhaps, worthy of notice that the arrangement of the coloured spots on the true labellum, and that on the adventitious lips, replacing the two lower of the outer stamens, were not of a similar character. the supernumerary lips had the [greek: pi]-shaped marking which is so common in this species, while the true lip was, as to its spots, much more like _o. apifera_. alternating with this last whorl were three columns, all apparently perfectly formed and differing only from the ordinary one in their smaller size and corresponding to _a_ , _a_ , _a_ . the ovary in this flower was two-celled, with four parietal placentas, thus giving an appearance as though there had been a fusion of two or more flowers associated with suppression and other changes. the position of the supernumerary organs and the absence of any positive sign of fusion in the bracts or other part of the flower, seemed, however, to negative the idea of fusion.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--diagram showing the arrangement of parts in a malformed flower of _ophrys aranifera_ (see p. ).] [illustration: fig. .--malformed flower of _ophrys aranifera_ with two supernumerary lips and three additional stamens.] a similar illustration, for a knowledge of which the writer is indebted to the kindness of professor asa gray and mr. darwin, occurred in some specimens of _pogonia ophioglossoides_ collected by dr. j. h. paine in a bog near utica, new york. it will be seen from the following description that these flowers presented an almost precisely similar condition to those of the _ophrys aranifera_ just mentioned. "the peculiarities of these flowers," writes professor gray, "are that they have three labella, and that the column is resolved into small petaloid organs. the blossom is normal as to the proper perianth, except that the labellum is unusually papillose, bearded almost to the base. the points of interest are, first, that the two accessory labella are just in the position of the two suppressed stamens of the outer series, viz. of a and a , as represented in the diagram, fig. ; and there is a small petaloid body on the other side of the flower, answering to the other stamen, a . secondly, in one of the blossoms, and less distinctly in another, two lateral stamens of the inner series (_a_ and _a_ ) are represented each by a slender naked filament. there are remaining petaloid bodies enough to answer for the third stamen of the inner series and for the stigmas, but their order is not well to be made out in the dried specimens." it may here be mentioned that _isochilus_ is normally triandrous. a tetrandrous flower of _cypripedium_ has also been recorded. in _isochilus_, according to cruger, there are often five stamens, and there are several, besides those already mentioned, in which six more or less perfect stamens have been seen--of these the following may be taken as illustrations. a hexandrous flower of _orchis militaris_ has been recorded by kirschleger,[ ] and in the accompanying diagram (fig. ), from cramer,[ ] of a monstrous flower of _orchis mascula_, there is one perfect stamen of the outer row and two lip-like stamens of the same series, while the inner verticil comprises one perfect and two abortive stamens. [illustration: fig. .--diagram of flower of _orchis mascula_ with two additional lips, two perfect and two imperfect stamens (after cramer).] morren[ ] describes some flowers of _orchis morio_ in which there were three sepals, three petals, and within the latter two other ternary series of petals; this would seem to be a case of petalody of all six stamens. morren, however, seems to have considered the additional segments as repetitions of the corolline whorl, though he describes a central mass as the column bearing a "_souvenir_ of the anther." nevertheless, there is no decisive evidence either in his figure or his description in support of his opinion as to the nature of the central mass, which might be a distorted condition of the styles, or, as is more probable, a rudimentary and irregular flower. morren also describes another flower of the same plant in which there were three sepals, two lateral petals partially lip-like in aspect, a third labellum normal, two additional labella representing the two anterior stamens of the outer whorl, while more or less developed rudiments of the remaining four stamens also exist. while, in most cases, the supernumerary stamens can, by reason of their relative position, their complete or partial antheriferous nature, be safely referred to one or other of the six stamens, making up a typical orchid flower, there are other specimens in which the additional stamens are altogether adventitious, and do not admit of reference to the homologue. thus it was in a specimen of _odontoglossum alexandræ_ examined by the writer, and in which, within a normally constructed perianth, there were six columns, all polliniferous, but arranged in so confused and complicated a manner that it was impossible to make out any definite relation in their position. there was nothing to indicate a fusion of flowers, but rather an extension of the centre of the flower, and consequent displacement of the stamens, &c. again, the existence of adventitious stamens does not necessarily imply the development of organs usually suppressed, inasmuch as they may result from the assumption by the lateral petals of staminal characteristics. nevertheless, as far as teratology is concerned, specimens may be found in which some or all of the usually suppressed stamens of _orchidaceæ_ may be found. these stamens may be all perfect (polliniferous), or, as is more frequently the case, more or less petal-like. moreover, when the stamens are petalodic, the form assumed is usually that of the labellum. the presence of stamens in undue numbers in orchids is very generally, but not always, attended by some coincident malformation, of which the most frequent is cohesion of two or more sepals, and consequent displacement or adhesion of one petal to the side of the column. petalody of the styles and median prolification are also sometimes found in association with an augmented number of stamens. [illustration: fig. .--increased number of carpels, tulip.] [illustration: fig. .--fruit of st. valery apple cut lengthwise.] =pleiotaxy of the gynoecium.=--an increase in the number of whorls of which the pistil consists is not of very frequent occurrence. generally after the formation of the whorl of carpels, the energy of the growing point ceases, or if by chance it be continued, the result is more generally the production of a new flower-bud (median prolification) than the repetition of the carpellary series. it is necessary also to distinguish between the veritable augmentation of the pistil and the semblance of it, brought about by the substitution of carpels for some other organs, as pistillody of the stamens, and even of the segments of the perianth, is not very unfrequent, as has already been stated under the head of substitution. again, the increased number of carpels which is sometimes met with in such flowers, as _magnolia_ or _delphinium_, where the ovaries are arranged in spiral series, is not strictly referable to the present category. the orange is one of the plants most frequently subject to an augmentation in the number of carpellary whorls; sometimes this is due to the stamens assuming the guise of carpels, but at other times the increase occurs without any alteration in the stamens or other organs. if the adventitious carpels be exposed, they are covered with yellow rind, while those portions that are covered by the primary carpels are destitute of rind. some varieties of the double tulip are very subject to a similar change, but, in this case, the petals and the stamens very frequently become more or less carpellary in their nature. fig. represents an increased number of whorls of carpels in the variety called "rex rubrorum," the segments of the perianth having been removed. in the st. valery apple, already referred to, there is a second whorl of carpels above the first, a fact which has been made use of to explain the similar structure of the pomegranate. the tomato (_lycopersicum esculentum_) is another plant in which an adventitious series is frequently produced, and generally in combination with the primary series. in the chinese primrose (_primula sinensis_) a supernumerary whorl is frequently met with, generally associated with other changes in the construction and arrangement of the parts of the flower. m. de candolle[ ] mentions a flower of _gentiana purpurea_ with four carpels in one series, and five others in the circle immediately above them. wigand[ ] alludes to an instance wherein there was a second pair of carpels above the first in _vinca herbacea_. dr. sankey has forwarded flowers of a _pelargonium_ having a double series of carpels, eight in the outer row, five in the inner, and this condition is stated to exist in the flowers of the same plant for two years consecutively. in _aquilegia_ i have met with a similar increase in the whorls of carpels.[ ] meissner records a similar augmentation in _polygonum orientale_.[ ] wigand[ ] describes and figures a flower of _vinca minor_, in which there were two carpels intervening between the ordinary pair, and a similar illustration has been observed by the writer in _allamanda cathartica_. eichler[ ] has put on record a similar case in a capparid. marchand[ ] mentions a polycarpellary berberid (_epimedium musschianum_). the supernumerary carpels in this flower were placed on a short axis, which originated in the axils of the stamens, and as these latter organs were present in their usual number and position, the adventitious carpels could not be considered as resulting from a transformation, or substitution of carpels for stamens. lastly, the instance cited by dr. allman[ ] in _saxifraga geum_ may be alluded to. here there was a row of adventitious carpels between the stamens and pistils, the backs of the carpels being turned towards the axis of the flowers. dr. allman explains the presence of the supernumerary parts by the supposed production of a whorl of secondary axes between the stamens and the centre of the flower. these axes are further supposed to bear imperfect flowers, of which the additional carpels are the only traces, but this explanation seems forced. in addition to the references already cited the following may be given: duchartre, 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser., vii, p. (tulip). ferrari, 'hesperides,' pp. , , . duchartre, 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser., , vol. i, p. . maout, 'leçons elément.,' vol. ii, pp. - . clos, 'ann. sc. nat.,' , p. (_citrus aurantium_). clos, 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' vol. xiii; 'rev. bibl.,' p. . pasquale, 'reddicont accad. sc. fis. e math. napoli.' octr. (_solanum lycopersicum_). on the general subject of multiplication, in addition to previous citations, the reader may be referred to a. p. de candolle, 'théorie elément. bot.,' ed. , p. . =increased number of flowers in an inflorescence.=--this happens generally as a result of over luxuriant growth, and scarcely demands notice here, being rather referable to variation than to malformation. the increased number of florets in the spikelets of some grasses has already been alluded to (p. ). thus spikelets of wheat occasionally produce more than the three florets which are proper to them.[ ] it will be remembered that in this as in many other grasses there are rudimentary florets, and it is no matter for surprise that these florets should occasionally be fully developed. footnotes: [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' vol. vii, , p. . [ ] 'fragment. phyt. austral.,' part xx, p. . [ ] 'bull. acad. belg.,' xvi, pt. i, p. , "fuchsia," p. , c. ic. [ ] "théorie de la feuille," 'arch. des sciences bibl. univers.,' . [ ] see engelmann, 'de antholysi,' p. , section . [ ] verhandl. des botanisch. vereins brandenburg,' , heft. [ ] see henslow. 'mag. nat, hist.' , vol. v, p. . [ ] 'phytologist,' september, . [ ] seemann's 'journal of botany,' iv, p. , t. , f. . [ ] 'illust. hortic.,' , misc., p. . [ ] see fresenius, 'mus. senkenb.,' bd. , p. . schlechtendal, 'bot. zeit.,' iv, pp. , , _veronica tetrandra_. [ ] 'flora,' , tab. , fig. . [ ] 'org. veget.,' t. i, p. , pl. , f. . [ ] 'el. ter. veg.,' p. . [ ] cited in "rev. bibl." of 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' , p. . [ ] loc. cit., . [ ] 'mém. acad. toulous.,' vi, , ex 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' "rev. bibl.," vol. ix, . p. . [ ] 'flora.' . p. . [ ] l. c., p. . [ ] giraud, 'ed. phil. mag.,' dec., . [ ] see _cerasus caproniana_, d. c. 'plant. rar. hort. genev.,' tab. . [ ] nees, 'linnæa,' v, p. , tab. (_schoenodorus_). [ ] 'gard. chron.,' , p. . [ ] see cramer, 'bildungsabweich.' pp. , . [ ] 'linnæa,' , p. , c. ic. [ ] seemann's 'journal of botany,' , vol. v, p. . [ ] cramer, 'bildungsabweich,' p. , _astrantia major_, _eryngium_, to which may be added _daucus_, _heracleum_, &c. [ ] see also reinwardt, 'nov. act. acad. nat. cur.,' , , ; and masters, 'journ. linn. soc.,' vi, p. . [ ] 'organog. veget.,' tab. . [ ] 'missbild.,' p. . [ ] ehrenberg, 'flora,' , p. . [ ] 'flora,' , tab. . [ ] 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser., t. x, p. . [ ] 'mem. mus.,' xii. t. . [ ] 'nov. act. acad. nat. cur.,' xv, tab. xxviii, f. ; 'bot. mag.,' t. . "caryophyllus spicam frumenti referens." a similar malformation in _dianthus barbatus_ is not uncommon. it has lately been introduced into gardens under the name of _dianthus_ "_mousseux_," but is not likely to find favour with gardeners. [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. france,' t. vi, . p. . [ ] weber, 'verhandl. nat. hist. vereins. rhein. pruss.,' . [ ] 'bot. zeit.,' , p. . [ ] 'de anthol.,' p. , § . [ ] 'linnæa,' vol. ii, , p. . [ ] 'de antholysi,' p. , tab. iii, f. , ; weinmann, 'phytanth. iconogr.,' nro. . [ ] see hildebrand, 'bot. zeit.,' , p. , tab. viii; cramer, 'bildungsabweich.,' p. , tab. xiii; engelmann, 'de antholysi,' p. , &c. for similar changes in _gagea arvensis_ see wirtgen, 'flora,' , t. xxi. p. , and 'flora.' , p. . some of these are cases of synanthy. [ ] schlechtendal, 'bot. zeit.,' xx, , p. . [ ] 'phil. bot.,' § . [ ] c. morren, 'bull. acad. belg.,' xix, part ii, p. . [ ] 'seemann's journal of botany,' iii, p. . [ ] on this point the reader will find an excellent summary in lindley's 'vegetable kingdom,' cd. iii, p. _a_, and in darwin, 'fertilisation of orchids,' p. . see also crüger,'journ. linn. soc.,' t. viii, p. . [ ] 'seemann's journal of botany,' vol. iv, p. , tab. . [ ] ibid., t. iv. , p. , t. xlvii, f. . [ ] 'bildungsabweich,' p. ; see also 'bot. zeit.,' , p. . [ ] 'journ. linn. soc.,' t. ii, p. . tab. , fig. b. [ ] lindl., "orchid. ind.," 'jour. linn. soc.,' iii, p. . [ ] 'arch. bot.,' ii, p. , tab. xvi, f. . [ ] 'seemann's journal of botany,' v, p. , tab. lxxii, figs. a , _a_. [ ] "monstr. veg.," in 'neue denkschrift,' p. , tab. vii. [ ] 'flora,' t. viii, , p. . [ ] 'mem. soc. d'hist. nat.,' ii, , p. , tab. iii. [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' t. vii, , p. . [ ] 'beitr. morphol. und biol. orchid.,' quoted by cramer; 'bildungsabweich,' p. . [ ] masters, 'journ. linn. soc.,' viii, p. . see also rodigas, 'bull. soc. bot. belg.,' iv, p. , for similar changes in _cypripedium hookeræ_. [ ] kirschleger, 'flora,' , p. . [ ] 'bildungsabweich,' p. , tab. xiv, f. . [ ] 'bull. acad. roy. belg.,' t. xix, part , p. . [ ] 'organogr. végét.,' t. i, p. , tab. , figs. , . [ ] 'flora,' , p. . [ ] 'linn. trans.,' t. xxiii, p. , tab. , fig. . [ ] 'monog. polygon,' pl. , k. f. . [ ] 'flora,' , tab. viii. [ ] ibid., , tab. ix, f. . [ ] 'adansonia,' vol. iv, , p. . [ ] 'ann. nat. hist.,' , vol. xvi, p. . [ ] see schlechtendal, 'bot. zeit.,' t. xviii, p. (_triticum_); also 'flora,' t. xiv, , p. (_avena_). part ii. diminished number of organs. a diminution in the number of parts is generally due to suppression, using that word as the equivalent of non-development. it corresponds thus in meaning with the _fehlschlagen_ of the germans, the _avortement complète_ of moquin and other french writers. it differs from atrophy, or partial abortion, inasmuch as the latter terms apply to instances wherein there has been a partial development, and in which evolution has gone on to a certain extent, but has, from some cause or other, been checked. these cases will be found under the head of diminished size of organs. as the word abortion is used by different authors in different ways, it is the more necessary to be as precise as possible in the application of the term. in the present work abortion is used to apply to cases wherein parts have been formed, but wherein growth has been arrested at a certain stage, and which, therefore, have either remained _in statu quo_, while the surrounding parts have increased, or have, from pressure or other causes, actually diminished in size. in practice, however, it is not always possible to discriminate between those instances in which there has been a true suppression, an absolute non-development of any particular organ, and those in which it has been formed, and has grown for a time, but has afterwards ceased to do so, and has been gradually obliterated by the pressure exercised by the constantly increasing bulk of adjacent parts, or possibly has become incorporated with them. in the adult flower the appearances are the same, though the causes may have been different. chapter i. suppression of axile organs. absolute suppression of the main axis is tantamount to the non-existence of the plant, so that the terms "acaulescent," "acaulosia," etc, must be considered relatively only, and must be taken to signify an atrophied or diminished size of the stem, arising from the non-development of the internodes. the absence of lateral branches or divisions of the axis is of frequent occurrence, and is dependent on such causes as the following:--deficient supply of nutriment, position against a wall or other obstacle, close crowding of individual plants, too great or too little light, too rich or too poor a soil, &c. probably the absence of the swollen portion below the flower in the case of many proliferous roses, double-flowered apples, as already referred to, may be dependent on the non-development of the extremity of the peduncle or flower-stalk. thus, in a double-flowered apple recently examined, there was a sort of involucel of five perfect leaves, then five sepals surrounding an equal number of petals, numerous stamens, and five styles, but not a trace of an expanded axis, nor of any portion of the carpels, except the styles. the views taken as to the nature of this and similar malformations must depend on the opinion held as to the nature of inferior pistils, and on the share, if any, that the expanded axis takes in their production. as elsewhere said, the evidence furnished by teratology is conflicting, but there seems little or nothing to invalidate the notion that the end of the flower-stalk and the base of the calyx may, to a varying extent, in different cases, jointly be concerned in the formation of the so-called calyx-tube and of the inferior ovary. obviously it is not proper to apply to all cases where there is an inferior ovary the same explanation as to how it is brought about. as these pages are passing through the press, m. casimir de candolle has published a different explanation as to the nature of the hip of the rose, having been led to his opinion by the conclusion that he has arrived at, that the leaf is to be considered in the light of a flattened branch, whose upper or posterior surface is more or less completely atrophied. according to m. de candolle, the calyx-tube, in the case of the rose, is neither a whorl of leaves, nor a concave axis in the ordinary sense in which those terms are used, but is rather to be considered as a ring-like projection from an axis arrested in its ulterior development. the secondary projections from the original one correspond to an equal number of vascular bundles, and develope into the sepals, petals, stamens, and ovaries. if these organs remained in a rudimentary condition, the tube of the calyx would be reduced to the condition of a sheathing leaf. the rose flower, then, according to m. de candolle, may be considered as a sheathing leaf, whose fibro-vascular system is complete, and from which all possible primary projections are developed.[ ] if, as m. de candolle considers, the leaf and the branch differ merely in the fact that the vascular system is complete in the latter, and partly atrophied in the former, it would surely be better to consider the "calyx-tube" of the rose as a concave axis rather than as a leaf, seeing that he admits the fibro-vascular system to be complete in the case of the rose. with reference to this point the reader is referred to mr. bentham's account of the morphology and homologies of the _myrtaceæ_ in the 'journal of the linnean society,' vol. x, p. . see also _ante_, pp. , . some doubts also exist as to the nature of the beak or columella of such fruits as those of _geraniaceæ_, _malvaceæ_, _umbelliferæ_, _euphorbiaceæ_, &c. the nature of the organ in question may probably be different in the several orders named; at any rate the subject cannot be discussed in this place, and it is mentioned here because, now and then, it happens that the organ in question is completely wanting, and hence affords an illustration of suppression. footnotes: [ ] 'théorie de la feuille.' p. . chapter ii. suppression of foliar organs. this subject may be considered, according as the separate leaves of the stem or of the flower are affected, and according as either the number of members of distinct whorls, or that of the whorls themselves, is diminished. the terms aphylly, meiophylly, and meiotaxy may be employed, according as the individual leaves are altogether wanting, or with reference to the diminished number of parts in a whorl, or a decrease in the verticils. =aphylly.=--entire suppression of the leaves is a rare phenomenon. under ordinary circumstances it occurs in most _cactaceæ_, in some of the succulent euphorbias, and other similar plants, where the epidermal layers of the stem fulfil the functions of leaves. but even in these plants leaf-like organs are present in some stage or another of the plant's life. partial suppression of the leaf occurs sometimes in compound leaves, some or other of the leaflets of which are occasionally suppressed. sometimes, as moquin remarks, it is the terminal leaflet which is wanting, when the appearance is that of _cliffortia_, at other times the lateral leaflets are deficient, as in _citrus_ or _phyllarthron_. _ononis monophylla_ and _fragaria monophylla_ may be cited as instances of the suppression of the lateral leaflets. if the blade of the leaf disappears entirely, we have then an analogous condition to that of the phyllodineous acacias. with reference to the strawberry just mentioned, duchesne, 'hist. nat. frais.,' p. , says that this was a seedling raised from the _fraisier des bois_, and the characters of which were reproduced by seed, and have now become fixed. the monophyllous condition has been considered to be the result of fusion of two or more leaflets, but however true this may be in some cases, it is not the case with this strawberry. m. paillot states that he has found the variety in a wild state.[ ] in like manner varieties of the following plants occur with simple leaves, _rosa berberifolia_ (_lowea_), _rubus idæus_, _robinia pseudacacia_, _fraxinus excelsior_, _sambucus nigra_, _juglans nigra_, &c. in one instance seen by the writer every portion of the leaf of a rose was deficient, except the stipules and a small portion of the petiole. (see abortion.) =meiophylly.=--a diminished number of leaves in a whorl occasionally takes place; thus, in some of the _stellatæ_, and frequently in _paris quadrifolia_, the number of leaves in the verticil is reduced. care must be exercised in such instances that an apparent diminution arising from a fusion of two or more leaves be not confounded with suppression. =meiophylly of the calyx or perianth.=--a lessened number of sepals is not a very common occurrence among dicotyledonous plants. seringe figures a proliferous flower of _arabis alpina_ with two sepals only, and a similar occurrence has been noticed in _diplotaxis tenuifolia_. in _cattleya violacea_ the writer has met with a flower in which the uppermost sepal was entirely wanting, while two of the lateral petals were fused together. moquin records that in some of the flowers of _chenopodiaceæ_, in which the inflorescence is dense, a suppression of two or three sepals sometimes occurs. the species mentioned are _ambrina ambrosioides_, _chenopodium glaucum_, and _blitum polymorphum_. =meiophylly of the corolla.=--suppression of one or more petals is of more frequent occurrence than the corresponding deficiency in the case of the sepals. among _caryophyllaceæ_ imperfection as regards the numerical symmetry of the flower is not uncommon, as in species of _cerastium_, _sagina_, _dianthus_, &c. in _ranunculaceæ_ the petals are likewise not unfrequently partially or wholly suppressed. a familiar illustration of this is afforded by _ranunculus auricomus_, in which it is the exception to find the corolla perfect.[ ] some varieties of _corchorus acutangulus_ in west tropical africa are likewise subject to the same peculiarity. amongst _papilionaceæ_ absence of the carina or of the alæ is not uncommon, as in _trifolium repens_, _faba vulgaris_, &c. moquin relates a case of the kind in the haricot bean, in which the carina was entirely absent, and another in the pea, where both carina and alæ were missing, thus reducing the flower to the condition that is normal in _amorpha_ and _afzelia_. suppression of the upper lip in such flowers as _calceolaria_ has been termed by morren "apilary." in _orchidaceæ_ entire absence of the labellum, frequently without any other perceptible change, is of common occurrence. the writer has seen numerous specimens of the kind in _ophrys apifera_ and _o. aranifera_; also in _dendrobium nobile_, _Ærides odoratum_, _cypripedium villosum_, _listera ovata_, &c. morren[ ] mentions analogous deficiencies in _zygopetalum maxillare_, _calanthe_ sp., and _cattleya forbesii_. in most of these there was also a fusion of the two lower sepals, which were so twisted out of place as to occupy the situation usually held by the labellum. at the same time the column was partially atrophied. to this deficiency of the lip the author just quoted proposed to apply the term acheilary, [greek: a-cheilarion]. mr. moggridge has communicated to the author an account of certain flowers of _ophrys aranifera_, in which the petals were deficient, sometimes completely, at other times one or two only were present. =meiophylly of the androecium.=--suppression of one or more stamens, independently of like defects in other whorls, is not uncommon, even as a normal occurrence, _e.g._ in _carlemannia_, where the flower, though regular, has only two stamens, and other similar deficiencies are common in dilleniads. seringe relates the occurrence of suppression of some of the stamens in _diplotaxis tenuifolia_,[ ] st. hilaire in _cardamine hirsuta_, others in _c. sylvatica_. in _caryophyllaceæ_ suppression of one or more stamens has been observed in _mollugo cerviana_, _arenaria tetraquetra_, _cerastium_, &c.[ ] among violets the writer has observed numerous flowers in which two or three stamens were suppressed. chatin[ ] alludes to a similar reduction in _tropæolum_, while in flowers that are usually didynamous absence of two or more of the stamens is not unfrequent, _e.g._ in _antirrhinum_, _digitalis_, while in a flower of _catalpa_ a solitary perfect stamen, and a complete absence of the sterile ones usually present, have been observed. this might have been anticipated from the frequent deficiencies in the staminal whorl in these plants under what are considered to be normal conditions. reduction of the staminal whorl is also not unfrequent in _trifolium repens_ and _t. hybridum_, and has been seen in _delphinium_, &c.[ ] =meiophylly of the gynoecium.=--numerical inequality in the case of the pistil, as compared with the other whorls of the flower, is of such common occurrence, under ordinary circumstances, that in some text-books it is looked on as the normal condition, and a flower which is isomerous in the outer whorls is by some writers not considered numerically irregular if the number of the carpels does not coincide with that of the other organs. but in this place it is only necessary to allude to deviations from the number of carpels that are ordinarily found in the particular species under observation. as illustrations the following may be cited:--_arenaria tetraqueta_, which has normally three styles, and a six-valved capsule, has been seen with two styles, and a four or five-valved capsule. moquin relates an instance in _polygala vulgaris_ where there was but a single carpel, a condition analogous to that which occurs normally in the allied genus _mozinna_. _reseda luteola_ occasionally occurs with two carpels only, while aconites, delphiniums, nigellas, and pæonies frequently experience a like diminution in their pistil. in a flower of _papaver rhæas_ the writer has recently met with an ovary with four stigmas and four parietal placentæ only, and to mr. worthington smith he is indebted for sketches of crocus blooms with two, and in one instance only a solitary carpel. moquin cites the fruit of a wild bramble (_rubus_) in which all the little drupes which go to make up the ordinary fruit were absent, except one, which thus resembled a small cherry. in _cratægus_ the pistil is similarly reduced to a single carpel, as in _c. monogyna_. the writer has on more than one occasion met with walnuts (_juglans_) with a single valve and a single suture.[ ] if the ovary of _juglans_ normally consisted of two valvate carpels, the instances just alluded to might possibly be explained by the suppression of one carpel, but the ovary in _juglans_ is at first one-celled according to m. casimir de candolle. among monocotyledons _convallaria majalis_ may be mentioned as very liable to suffer diminution in the number of its carpels, either separately or in association with other changes.[ ] =meiophylly of the flower as a whole.=--in the preceding sections a reduction in the parts of each individual whorl has been considered without reference to similar diminution in neighbouring verticils. it more commonly happens, nevertheless, that a defect in one series is attended by a corresponding imperfection in adjoining ones. thus trimerous fuchsias and tetramerous jasmines may frequently be met with, and turpin describes a tetramerous flower of _cobæa scandens_. perhaps monocotyledonous plants are more subject to this numerical reduction of the parts of several verticils than are other flowering plants. thus, in both _lilium lancifolium_ and _l. auratum_ the writer has frequently met with pentamerous flowers. in _convallaria maialis_ a like deviation not unfrequently occurs.[ ] m. delavaud has recorded a similar occurrence in a tulip.[ ] dimerous crocuses may also sometimes be met with. in one flower of this nature the segments of the perianth were arranged in decussating pairs, and the four stamens were united by their filaments so as to form two pairs. m. fournier mentions something of the same kind in the flower of an _iris_.[ ] orchids seem peculiarly liable to the decrease in the number of their floral organs. prillieux[ ] mentions a flower of _cattleya amethystina_ wherein each whorl of the perianth consisted of two opposite segments. the same observer has put on record instances of a similar kind in _epidendrum stamfordianum_. in one flower of the last-named species the perianth consisted of one sepal only, and one lip-like petal placed opposite to it.[ ] morren[ ] describes a flower of _cypripedium insigne_, in which there were two sepals and two petals. of a similar character was the flower found by mr. j. a. paine, and described in the following terms by professor asa gray in the 'american journal of science,' july, :--"the plant" (_cypripedium candidum_) "bears two flowers: the axillary one is normal; the terminal one exhibits the following peculiarities. the lower part of the bract forms a sheath which encloses the ovary. the labellum is wanting; and there are two sterile stamens, the supernumerary one being opposite the other, _i.e._ on the side of the style where the labellum belongs. accordingly the first impression would be that the labellum is here transformed into a sterile stamen. the latter, however, agrees with the normal sterile stamen in its insertion as well as in shape, being equally adnate to the base of the style. moreover, the anteposed sepal is exactly like the other, has a good midrib and an entire point. as the two sterile stamens are anteposed to the two sepals, so are the two fertile stamens to the two petals, and the latter are adnate to the style a little higher than the former. the style is longer than usual, is straight and erect; the broad, disciform stigma therefore faces upwards; it is oval and symmetrical, and a light groove across its middle shows it to be dimerous. the placentæ, accordingly, are only two. the groove on the stigma and the placentæ are in line with the fertile stamens. here, therefore, is a symmetrical and complete, regular, but dimerous orchideous flower, the first verticil of stamens not antheriferous, the second antheriferous, the carpels alternate with these; and here we have clear (and perhaps the first direct) demonstration that the orchideous type of flower has two stamineal verticils, as brown always insisted." [illustration: fig. .--regular dimerous flower of _calanthe vestita_.] [illustration: fig. .--regular dimerous flower of _odontoglossum alexandræ_.] dr. moore, of glasnevin, kindly forwarded to the writer a flower of _calanthe vestita_ (fig. ), in which there were two sepals only, anterior and posterior, and two petals at right angles to the two sepals. the lip was entirely wanting, but the column and ovary were in their usual condition. in _odontoglossum alexandræ_ a similar reduction of parts has been observed by the author (fig. ). it is curious to observe in these flowers how precisely one sepal occupies the position of the labellum, and how the lateral petals are displaced from the position they usually occupy, so as to form a regular flower, the segments of which decussate, thus giving rise to a species of regular peloria. the genus _mælenia_ was established on a malformed flower of _orchis_ of similar character to those above mentioned. =meiotaxy of the calyx.=--as already mentioned, this term is here employed to denote those illustrations in which entire whorls are suppressed. complete deficiency of the calyx in a dichlamydeous flower seems seldom or ever to occur; the nearest approach to it would be in those cases where the calyx is, as it is termed, "obsolete," but here it is chiefly the limb of the calyx which is atrophied, the lower portion being more or less adherent to the ovary. in what are termed monochlamydeous flowers both calyx and corolla are wanting, as in _salicineæ_ and many other orders. =meiotaxy of the corolla.=--deficiency of the entire corolla occurs in conjunction with similar reductions in other organs, or as an isolated phenomenon in the many apetalous varieties of plants recorded in books. deficiency of the corolla was observed in _campanula perfoliata_ and _ruellia clandestina_ by linné, who calls such blooms _flores mutilati_.[ ] drs. hooker and thomson relate a similar occurrence in _campanula canescens_ and _c. colorata_. some plants seem as a normal occurrence to produce flowers of different construction, and are hence termed dimorphic, as in many _malpighiaceæ_, _violaceæ_, _oxalidaceæ_, in some of the flowers of which the petals are altogether wanting, while in others the corolla is developed as usual. this deficiency of the corolla is frequently, but not invariably, associated with an increased fertility. thus, in some violets the flowers produced in summer, and in which the petals are either entirely suppressed or are more or less atrophied, are always fertile, while the blossoms developed in spring, and in which the petals are always present, are much less fertile. in _oxalis acetosella_ there are two forms of flower, the one with, the other without, petals, but both seem equally fertile. linné remarks that many plants which, in warm latitudes, produce a corolla, do not do so when grown in colder climates. thus, certain species of _helianthemum_ are apetalous in lapland. in the pyrenees, according to bentham, the flowers of _ajuga iva_ are constantly deprived of their corolla.[ ] apetalous flowers have been noted most frequently in the following plants: aconitum, sp. pl.! cardamine impatiens. cheiranthus cheiri! viola odorata! cerastium vulgatum! alsine media. stellaria. lychnis dioica! dianthus barbatus, and other caryophylleæ. helianthemum, sp.! oxalis acetosella. balsamineæ. malpighiaceæ. rosa centifolia. arvensis! cratægus! medicago lupulina. melilotus officinalis. ononis minutissima. saxifraga longifolia. verbascum thapsus. ajuga iva. teucrium botrys. lamium purpureum! amplexicaule. polemonium cæruleum. campanula, sp. pl.! ruellia clandestina. lonicera periclymenum! tradescantia, sp.! hymenocallis. the following references apply some to apetalous and others to dimorphic flowers, but it must be remembered that the latter plants are not necessarily wanting in petals or stamens, &c., though the functional activity of the parts may be impaired: a. de jussien, 'monogr. malpigh.,' pp. , . torrey, 'fl. new york,' i, p. . hooker and thomson, 'journ. linn. soc.,' ii, p. , guillemin, 'archiv. de botan.,' i, p. . michalet, 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' vii. p. . müller, 'bot. zeit.,' , p. . 'natural history review,' july, , p. . =meiotaxy of the androecium.=--complete suppression of the stamens occurs normally in the female flowers of unisexual plants, and, as an accidental occurrence, is not very uncommon. _erica tetralix_ is one of the plants in which this is said to happen. the variety _anandra_ is said to have been known in france since . cornuti speaks of it in his 'enchiridion.' in m. du parquet discovered it in peaty woods near nangis (seine et marne). many _umbelliferæ_, such as _trinia vulgaris_, present a like deficiency, while it is of common occurrence among _rosaceæ_ and _pomaceæ_. in the latter group the st. valery apple, so often referred to, is an illustration. to obtain fruits from this variety it is necessary to apply pollen from another flower, a proceeding made the occasion of festivity and rejoicing by the villagers in some parts of france. in some of the _artemisias_, especially in _artemisia tournefortiana_, all the florets have been noticed to be female, owing to the suppression of the stamens, and this suppression is associated with a change in the form of florets.[ ] mr. moggridge has communicated to the author flowers of _thymus serpyllum_ from a plant in which all the stamens were deficient, the flower being otherwise normal. m. dupont has given a list of nineteen species of _chenopodiaceæ_ in which female flowers are occasionally produced, owing to the entire suppression of the staminal whorl.[ ] flowers the subjects either of regular or irregular peloria, _q. v._, are often destitute of some or all their stamens, _e.g._ _calceolaria_, _linaria_, _viola_, &c., while in cases of synanthy suppression of some of the parts of the flower, and specially of the stamens, is of very common occurrence. suppression of the androecium as a teratological occurrence has been most frequently noticed in the following plants, omitting members of those families whose floral construction is normally incomplete in the majority of instances, and exclusive also of cases of substitution. see also under heterogamy. ranunculus ficaria! auricomus! bulbosus! cruciferæ, sp. pl. violaceæ, sp. pl. honckenya peploides. stellaria. caryophyllaceæ, sp. pl. malpighiaceæ, sp. pl. tropæolum majus! fragaria vesca! rubus, sp. pyrus malus. agrimonia vulgaris. rosaceæ, sp. pl. trifolium hybridum. repens. umbelliferæ, sp. pl. onagraceæ, sp. pl. hippuris vulgaris. callitriche vernalis. autumnalis. lonicera periclymenum. erica tetralix. thymus serpyllum. calceolaria. compositæ, sp. pl. chenopodiaceæ, sp. pl. stratiotes aloides. =meiotaxy of the gynoecium.=--complete suppression of the pistil is of more frequent occurrence than that of the stamens, hence more flowers become accidentally unisexual by suppression of the pistil than by deficiency of the stamens. in many _umbelliferæ_, e.g. _torilis anthriscus_, _cicuta virosa_, the central flowers are often male, owing to the suppression of the pistil. in many double flowers, owing to the excessive multiplication of petaloid stamens, the pistil is suppressed, in which cases it often happens that the flower is depressed in the centre, as in some garden varieties of _ranunculus_. schlechtendal, in describing a flower of _colchicum autumnale_, in which the perianth was virescent, says that, although the stamens were present, the pistil was absent. in proliferous flowers the pistil is often completely defective, its place being occupied by the adventitious bud or axis. as in other cases of like nature, suppression of the pistil is very frequently consequent on fusion of flowers or other changes. thus morren relates an instance of synanthy in the flowers of _torenia scabra_, accompanied by resorption or disappearance of some parts and spiral torsion of others. the pistil was entirely absent in this instance.[ ] m. gaetano licopoli places on record an instance where the petals and carpels of _melianthus major_ were suppressed.[ ] on the whole, the pistil seems less subject to changes of this character than the androecium. suppression of the pistil has been most frequently recorded in flowers (normally bisexual) of-- ranunculus! aconitium! delphinium! pæonia. caryophylleæ! umbelliferæ. trifolium repens. hybridum. compositæ, sp. pl. datura. torenia asiatica. colchicum autumnale. =suppression of ovules,--abortion of seeds.=--the two cases are taken together, as the effects are similar, though it must be remembered that in the one case the ovules at any rate have been formed, but their development has been arrested, while in the other they have never existed. the precise cause that has determined the absence of seed cannot in all cases be ascertained in the adult condition, hence it is convenient to treat the two phenomena under one head. many plants in other than their native climates either produce no fruit at all, or the fruits that are produced are destitute of seed, _e.g._ _musa_, _artocarpus_, &c. some of the cultivated varieties of the grape and of the berberry produce no seeds. suppression or abortion of the seed is frequently associated with the excessive development either in size or number of other portions of the plant, or with an altered condition, as when carpels become foliaceous and their margins detached. hybridisation and cross fertilisation are also well-known agents in diminishing the number and size of seeds. =meiotaxy of the parts of the flower in general.=--in the preceding sections suppression has been considered as it affected individual members of a whorl or separate whorls. it rarely happens, however, that the suppression is limited in this way. more generally several of the parts of the flower are simultaneously affected in the same manner. a few illustrations are all that is necessary to give as to this point. one of the most familiar instances is that of the cauliflower or broccoli, where the common flower-stalk is inordinately thickened and fleshy, while the corolla and inner parts of the flower are usually entirely suppressed; the four sepals can, however, generally be detected. maximowicz describes a _stellaria_ (_kraschenikovia_) in which the upper flowers are male only, while the lower ones, which ultimately become buried in the soil, have neither petals, stamens, nor styles, but the walls of the capsule are fleshy, and enclose numerous seeds.[ ] kirschleger[ ] mentions a variety of _lonicera caprifolium_, which was not only destitute of petals but of stamens also. in some species of _muscari_ and _bellevalia_ the uppermost flowers of the raceme show more or less complete suppression of almost all the part of which the flower normally consists. in those cases where an imperfect perianth exists, but in which the stamens and pistils are entirely suppressed, morren applies the term cenanthy, [greek: kenos], empty. =complete suppression of the flower.=--it is not necessary in this place to allude to that deficient production of flowers characteristic of what is termed by gardeners a "sky bloomer." in such plants often the requisite conditions are not complied with, and the skill of the gardener is shown in his attempt to discover and allow the plant to avail itself of the necessary requirements. we need here only allude to those instances in which provision is made for the production of flowers, and yet they are not produced. a good illustration of this is afforded by the feather-hyacinth, _hyacinthus comosus_, in which the flowers are almost entirely suppressed, while the pedicels are inordinately increased in number, and their colour heightened. something similar occurs in several allied species, and in _bowiea volubilis_. the wig plant (_rhus cotinus_) affords another illustration of the same thing. some tendrils also owe their appearance to the absence of flowers, being modified peduncles; proofs of this may frequently be met with in the case of the vine. in _lamium album_ i have seen one of the verticillasters on one side of the stem completely wanting, the adjacent leaf being, however, as fully formed as usual. =general remarks on suppression.=--on comparing together the various whorls of the flower in reference to suppression, and, it may be added, to atrophy, we find that these phenomena occur most rarely in the calyx, more frequently in the corolla, and very often in the sexual organs and seeds; hence it would seem as if the uppermost and most central organs, those most subject to pressure and latest in date of development--formed, that is, when the formative energies of the plant are most liable to be exhausted--are the most prone to be suppressed or arrested in their development. when the plants in which these occurrences happen most frequently are compared together, it may be seen that partial or entire suppression of the floral envelopes, calyx, and corolla, is far more commonly met with in the polypetalous and hypogynous groups than in the gamopetalous or epigynous series. the orders in which suppression (speaking generally) occurs most often as a teratological occurrence are the following:--_ranunculaceæ_, _cruciferæ_, _caryophyllaceæ_, _violaceæ_, _leguminosæ_, _onagraceæ_, _jasminaceæ_, _orchidaceæ_. it will be observed that these are all orders wherein suppression of the whole or part of the outer floral whorls takes place in certain genera as a constant occurrence. again, it may be remarked that many of these orders show a tendency towards a regular diminution of the assumed normal number of their parts; thus, among _onagraceæ_, _circeia_ and _lopezia_ may be referred to, the former normally dimerous, the latter having only one perfect petal. so in fuchsias, a very common deviation consists in a trimerous and rarely a dimerous symmetry of the flower. although, if the absolute number of genera or orders be counted, there appears to be little difference in the frequency of the occurrence of suppression in irregular flowers as contrasted with regular flowers, yet if the individual instances could be counted in the two groups respectively it would be found that suppression is more common among irregular than in regular flowers. thus, the number of individual instances of flowers in which the perianth is defective is comparatively large among _violaceæ_, _leguminosæ_, and _orchidaceæ_. this statement hardly admits of precise statistical proof; still, it is believed that any observer who pays attention to the subject must come to the same conclusion. this is but another illustration of the fact that conditions which are abnormal in one plant constitute the natural arrangement in others. as to the suppressions that occur in the case of the sexual organs, and the relations they bear to dimorphism, diclinism, &c., but little stress has been laid on them in this place, because their chief interest is in a physiological point of view, and is treated of in the writings of mohl, sprengel, darwin, hildebrand, and others. all that need be said here is, that teratology affords very numerous illustrations of those intermediate conditions which are also found, under natural circumstances, between the absolutely unisexual flowers, male or female, and the structurally hermaphrodite ones. rudimentary stamens or pistils are of very common occurrence in monstrous flowers. see chapter on heterogamy, &c. footnotes: [ ] 'rev. hortic.,' , p. . [ ] de rochebrune, 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' ix, p. . the author points out seven grades between complete absence of petals and their presence in the normal number in this plant. see also gaudin, in 'koch. fl. helv.;' koch. 'synops. fl. germ.;' cramer, 'bildungsabweich,' p. . [ ] 'bull. acad. belg.,' t. xix, part , p. . [ ] 'bull. bot.,' i, p. , tab. i, f. . [ ] see gay, 'ann. sc. nat.,' iii, p. . [ ] 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser., v, p. . [ ] cramer, 'bildungsabweich,' p. . [ ] see also clos, 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' xiii, p. , adnot. [ ] see cramer, 'bildungsabweich,' p. . hildebrand, 'bot. zeit.,' xx, , p. . [ ] see hildebrand, 'bot. zeit.,' xx, , p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' viii, p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' vol. viii, , p. . [ ] ibid., ix, p. . [ ] ibid., , vol. viii, p. . [ ] 'lobelia,' p. . [ ] 'phil. bot.,' p. . [ ] 'cat. plant. pyr,' p. . [ ] moquin-tandon, loc. cit., p. . [ ] for other instances see chatin in 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser., vol. v, p. . [ ] see also morren. 'bull. acad. belg.,' xv, fuchsia, p. . [ ] cited in 'bull. soc. bot., france,' t. xiv ("rev. bibl."), p. . [ ] 'primit. flor. amurens.' p. . [ ] 'flora.' . p. . book iv. deviations from the ordinary size and consistence of organs. in the animal kingdom the entire adult organism, as well as each of its separate parts, has certain dimensions, beyond which, under ordinary circumstances, it does not pass, either in the one direction or the other. it may not be easy or possible to state what the limits are, but, practically, this inability to frame a precise limitation is productive of no inconvenience. it is universally admitted that a certain animal attains such and such dimensions, and that one organ has a certain proportionate size as contrasted with another. the same rules hold good in the case of plants, though in them it is vastly more difficult to ascertain what may be called the normal dimensions or proportions. nevertheless observation and experience soon show what may be termed the average size of each plant, and any disproportion between the several organs is speedily detected. when there is a general reduction in size throughout all the organs of a plant, or throughout all the nutritive organs, stem, leaves, &c., and the several portions participate in this diminished size, we have what are generally termed "dwarf varieties," dwarf in comparison, that is, with the ordinary condition of the plants; on the other hand, if the entire plant, or, at least, if the whole of one set of organs be increased in size beyond the recognised average, we have large varieties, often qualified by such terms as _macrophylla_, _longifolia_, _macrantha_, &c. &c. in all these cases either the entire plant or whole series of organs are alike increased or diminished beyond average limits; and such variations are often very constant, and are transmitted by hereditary transmission. it may be supposed that such deviations may have originated, in the first instance, either from excessive use, or from disuse, or from the agency of certain conditions promoting or checking growth, as the case may be; but whether or no, it is certain that these variations often persist under different conditions, and that they often retain their distinctive characters side by side with plants presenting the normal average dimensions. in other cases the variations in size are of a less general character, and affect certain organs of a whorl in a relative manner, as, for instance, in the case of didynamous or tetradynamous stamens, where two or four stamens are longer than their fellows, the long or short stamens and styles of di- and tri-morphic flowers, &c. these differences are sometimes connected with the development of parts in succession, and not simultaneously. teratological deviations of size differ from those of which mention has just been made chiefly in this, that they are more limited in their manifestations. it is not, as a rule, the whole plant, or the whole series of nutritive or of reproductive organs, that are affected, but it is certain parts only; the alteration in size is more a relative change than an absolute one. for convenience sake the teratological alterations of size may be divided into those which are the result of increased growth and those which arise from diminished action. it will be seen, therefore, that in these instances it is the bulk of the organs that is increased, not their number; moreover, their development or metamorphosis is not necessarily altered. in connection with increased size an alteration of consistence is so frequent that the two phenomena are here taken together. it will be borne in mind that the changes of consistence from membranous to succulent or woody are very frequent in the ordinary course of development. they may also occur as accidental phenomena, or the normal conditions of any particular flower or fruit may be exactly reversed, the usually succulent fruit becoming dry and capsular, and so forth. part i. hypertrophy. the term hypertrophy may serve as a general one to comprise all the instances of excessive growth and increased size of organs, whether the increase be general or in one direction merely. general hypertrophy is more a variation than a deformity, unless indeed it be caused by insect puncture or the presence of a fungus, in which case the excessive size results from a diseased condition. for our present purpose hypertrophy may be considered as it affects the axile or the foliar organs, and also according to the way in which the increased size is manifested, as by increased thickness or swelling--intumescence, or by augmented length-elongation, by expansion or flattening, or, lastly, by the formation of excrescences or outgrowths, which may be classed under the head of luxuriance or enation. as size must be considered in this place relatively, it is not possible to lay down any precise line separating what are considered to be the normal dimensions from those which are abnormal. in practice no inconvenience will be found to accrue from this inability to establish a fixed rule, and we may say that an hypertrophied organ is one which, from some cause or other, attains dimensions which are not habitual to the plant in its usual, healthy, well-formed state. it will be seen that under this general head of hypertrophy, increase of size, however brought about, is included; thus, not only increase in length, but also in thickness; alterations of substance or consistence, no less than of dimensions, are here grouped together. the alterations of consistence resulting from an inordinate development of cellular, fibrous, or ligneous tissue, are, of course, strictly homologous with the similar changes which occur, under ordinary circumstances, during the ripening of fruits or otherwise. hypertrophy, whatever form it may assume, may be so slight as not perceptibly to interfere with the functions of the part affected, or it may exist to such an extent as to impair the due exercise of its office. it may affect any or all parts of the plant, and is generally coexistent with, if not actually dependent on, some other malformation. thus, the inordinate growth of some parts is most generally attended by deficiency in the size and number of others, as in the peripheral florets of _viburnum_ or _hydrangea_, where the corollas are relatively very large, and the stamens and pistils abortive. chapter i. enlargement. a swollen or thickened condition (_renflement_) is usually the result of a disproportionate formation of the cellular tissue as contrasted with the woody framework of the plant. we see marked instances of it in cultivated carrots and turnips, the normal condition of the roots or root-stocks in these plants being one of considerable hardness and toughness, and their form slender, tapering, and more or less branched. the disproportionate development of cellular tissue is also seen in tubers and bulbs, and in the swollen stems of such plants as _echinocactus_, _adenium obesum_, some species of _vitis_, &c. so, too, the upper portion of the flower-stalk occasionally becomes much dilated, so as ultimately to form a portion of the fruit. but it is not necessary to give farther illustrations of this common tendency in some organs to become hypertrophied. as a result of injury from insects or fungi, galls and excrescences of various kinds are very common, but their consideration lies beyond the scope of the present work. [illustration: fig. .--_pelargonium_, one branch of which was hypertrophied.] =enlargement of axile organs.=--all the species of _pelargonium_, _geranium_, _mirabilis,_ as well as those of _caryophylleæ_ and other orders, have tumid nodes as a normal occurrence. in the genus _pelargonium_ this swelling is sometimes not confined to the nodes, but extends to the interspaces between them, _e.g._ _p. spinosum_. this condition, which happens as a natural feature in the species just named, may also occur as an exceptional thing in others. the author is indebted to dr. sankey for a branch of _pelargonium_ which was thus thickened, the remaining branches not being in any way affected. the leaves on the swollen branch were smaller than the others, and their stalks more flattened. there was, in this instance, no trace of fungus or insect to account for the swelling of a single branch, which might, therefore, be due to bud-variation, perhaps to reversion to some ancestral form. the repeated cross fertilisations to which pelargoniums have been subjected render this hypothesis not an improbable one. as an accompaniment to a spiral torsion of the woody fibres, this distension of the stem is frequently met with, as in _valeriana_, _dipsacus,_ &c. (see spiral torsion.) =knaurs.=--on certain trees, such as the oak, the hornbeam, some species of _cratægus_, &c., hard woody lumps may occasionally be seen projecting, varying greatly in size, from that of a pea to that of a cocoa-nut. they are covered with bark, and consist in the interior of very hard layers of wood disposed irregularly, so as to form objects of beauty for cabinet-makers' purposes. from the frequent presence of small atrophied leaf-buds on their surface, it would seem as if the structures in question were shortened branches, in which the woody layers had become inordinately developed, as if by compensation for the curtailment in length.[ ] the cause of their formation is not known, but it has been ascertained that they are not due to insect agency. knaurs may occasionally be used for purposes of propagation, as in the case of the "uovoli of the olive" and the "burrs" that are formed on some varieties of apple, from which both roots and leaf-shoots are produced in abundance. a distinction must be drawn between those instances in which the swelling is solid throughout from the excessive formation of cellular tissue, and those wherein it is hollow from the more rapid growth of the outer as contrasted with the inner portions. these latter cases might be classed under the head of distension. [illustration: fig. .--formation of tubers or hypertrophied buds in the axils of leaves in the potato.] =enlargement of the buds= may be seen in the case of bulbs and tubers. occasionally these organs are developed in the axils of leaves, when their nature becomes apparent. a swollen bud or bulbil in this situation is not uncommon in some cultivated tulips and lilies. the presence of small tubers in the axils of the leaves in the potato, as shown in fig. , is also not unfrequent. [illustration: fig. .--inflorescence of ash (_fraxinus_), with hypertrophied pedicels, flowers absent.] =enlargement of the flower-stalk.=--the cauliflower and broccoli afford familiar illustrations of hypertrophy of the flower-stalk, accompanied by a corresponding defective development of the flowers. in the case of the ash the terminal pedicels occasionally become swollen and distorted, while the flowers are completely deficient, as shown in the adjacent cut (fig. ). in grapes a similar condition may occasionally be met with in which the terminal pedicels become greatly swollen and fused into a solid mass. it would seem probable that this change is due to insect puncture, or to the effect of fungus growth at an early stage of development, but as to this point there is at present no evidence.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--monstrous pear, showing extension and ramification of the succulent floral axis. the bases of the sepals are also succulent.] in the apple a dilatation of the flower-stalk below the ordinary fruit may occasionally be observed, thus giving rise to the appearance of two fruits superposed and separated one from the other by a constriction. (see fig. , p. .) the lower swelling is entirely axial in these cases, as no trace of carpels is to be seen. m. carrière[ ] mentions an instance wherein from the base of one apple projected a second smaller one, destitute of carpels, but surmounted by calyx-lobes as usual. the direction of this supernumerary apple was the exact opposite of that of the primary fruit. [illustration: fig. .--monstrous pear, showing extension and swelling of axis, &c.] in pears, quinces, and apples, a not uncommon deviation is one in which the axis is prolonged beyond the ordinary fruit, like which it is much swollen. occasionally the axis is not only prolonged, but even ramifies, the branches partaking of the succulent character of the ordinary pome. such instances are frequently classed under the head of prolification, but they have in general no claim to be considered in this light, for the reasons already given in the chapter relating to that subject. (see p. .)[ ] a very curious illustration of hypertrophy of the flower-stalk is recorded and figured by m. carrière[ ] in the cherry. the calyx in these fruits was completely superior, the succulent portion of the fruit being made up of the dilated extremity of the peduncle, and possibly in part of the base of the calyx. the general appearance was thus that of a crab-apple. there was no stone in the interior, but simply a rudimentary kernel or seed.[ ] moquin-tandon records an instance in which the stamens of each individual flower in the inflorescence of a vine were hypertrophied, the sepals, petals, and other organs of the flower, being proportionately diminished.[ ] in this place may also be mentioned the hypertrophied condition of the placenta observed by alphonse de candolle in a species of _solanum_, and also in a species of _melastoma_. not only was the placenta unusually large in these flowers, but it also protruded beyond the ovary.[ ] a similar state of things in _lobelia_ and _cuphea_ has already been alluded to under the head of alterations of direction (p. ). the following singular growth in a tomato is described by the rev. m. j. berkeley in the 'gardeners' chronicle' for , p. , and appears to have been an extension of the placenta:--"on the first glance it seemed as if an unusually large grape-stone had accidentally fallen on the upper surface of the fruit, and was attached by the narrow base. the process was, however, five lines long, and much narrowed below, besides which, though it was pale green above, the base was coral-red, like the tomato itself. it grew on a narrow and shallow crack on the surface of the fruit, and was found below to communicate directly with a fibro-vascular bundle, which entered into the composition of a portion of the placenta. on making a vertical section, instead of being succulent, as i expected, it was white and spongy within, with several lacunae, and one or two irregular fibro-vascular bundles, with highly developed spiral vessels threading the centre. these vessels, moreover, were tinged with brown, as in many cases of diseased tissues. there was not the slightest appearance of placentæ or anything indicating an abortive fruit. on closer examination the cuticle was found to consist of thick-walled cells, exactly like those of the tomato, while the spongy mass consisted of a similar tissue to the fleshy portion of the fruit, but with far less wrinkled walls, and more indistinct intercellular spaces. the most striking point, however, was the immense quantity of very irregular and unequal starch-grains with which they were gorged, which gave a peculiar sparkling appearance to them when seen _en masse_. i am inclined to regard the body rather as an abortive axis than an undeveloped fruit. in almost all, if not all, these cases of abnormal growth, whether from leaves, petioles, fruit, or other portions of the plant, we find an immediate connection with one or more spiral vessels, which if not existent at first are developed sooner or later. in the present case the connection of the fibro-vascular tissue of the fruit and abnormal growth was plain enough, but whether it existed when the body was first given off i am unable to say, as it was fully developed when the fruit was brought to me." =enlargement of the leaves.=--increase in the size or substance of leaves takes places in several ways, and affects the whole or only certain portions of them. the simplest form of this malformation is met with in our cabbages, which, by the art of the gardener, have been made to produce leaves of greater size and thickness than those which are developed in the wild form. in such instances the whole substance of the leaf is increased in bulk, and the increase affects the fibrous framework of the leaves as well as the cellular portions, though the exaggerated development of the latter is out of proportion to that of the former. in some species of _podocarpus_ there may occasionally be seen at the base of the branchlets a dozen or more fleshy scales, of a rose colour, passing gradually into the ordinary leaves of the plant, and evidently analogous to the three fleshy confluent bracts which surround the ripe fruit. in other instances, while the fibrous framework of the leaf retains its usual degree of development, the cellular parenchyma is developed in excess, and, if the increase is so arranged that the number of superposed layers of the cellular tissue is not increased, or their thickness exaggerated, then we get such leaves as those of the "kail," or of the "savoys" leaves, which are technically called by descriptive botanists "folia bullata." in such leaves the disc of the leaf, rather than the margin, is increased and its surface is thrown up into little conical projections, which are hollow on the under side. but leaves may increase beyond their usual size without such grave alterations of form as those to which allusion has just been made. it is well known that if a tree be cut down and new shoots be sent out from the stump, the leaves formed on these shoots very often greatly exceed the ordinary ones in dimensions. such cases as this hardly come under the head of malformations. but where one part only of the leaf is excessively developed, the other portion remaining in its ordinary condition, there can be no hesitation in ranking the phenomenon as teratological. thus, moquin says that the median nerve may be prolonged beyond the blade of the leaf in the form of a short strap or ribbon-like excrescence, while, at other times, the lateral parts of the leaf are subjected to undue development. he refers to a case cited by schlotterbec[ ] in which each side of the leaves of a yellow "violier" (wallflower) was dilated into a kind of projecting lobe on either side of the true apex of the leaf, thus rendering it in appearance three-lobed. m. delavaud[ ] puts on record a case of hypertrophy in the leaves of the common elm, resulting in the formation of an additional lobe and a return to the tricostate type. a leaf so affected is stated to have presented the appearance of a fusion of two leaves. (see also multiplication of leaves, p. .) the hypertrophied and coloured leaf of _gesnera_ occupying the place of the absent inflorescence has been previously alluded to under the head of displacement (p. ). in some instances hypertrophy is the opposite of suppression; as in the case previously mentioned, where the stipule in the inflorescence of a pea, which is usually undeveloped and rudimentary, was developed in the form of a leafy cup or pitcher. another instance of the development of parts usually suppressed, is afforded by the bud-scales of _magnolia fuscata_, which may sometimes be found with small but perfect leaves projecting from them, the leaf in this case being the lamina which is ordinarily abortive, while the scales are the representatives of the stipules. this condition is said by hooker and thomson ('flora indica,' p. ) to be constant in _magnolia campbelli_. =enlargement of the perianth, &c.=--one or all the segments of the perianth may be subjected to hypertrophy; thus, the utricle of _carex vulpina_ may frequently be observed to attain four or five times its usual size, the contained ovary remaining unaffected. this condition is generally the result of insect puncture. the growth of parasitic fungi will produce a similar result, as is often seen in the common shepherd's purse, _thlaspi bursa pastoris_, and other _cruciferæ_. the perianth of _rumex aquaticus_ has been also observed to be occasionally hypertrophied in conjunction with a similar condition of the pistil and with atrophy of the ovules. moquin relates having found flowers of _salsola kali_ and of _chenopodium murale_ in which some of the segments of the perianth were five or six times larger than they should be. [illustration: fig. .--hypertrophy of the perianth in _cocos nucifera_.] the adjoining woodcut represents a singular condition of some cocoa-nuts in the kew museum, the appearance of which is due apparently to an hypertrophied condition of the segments of the perianth, which have not only increased in length as the central nut has ripened, but have developed in their tissues that fibrous tissue which ordinarily is found in the pericarp only. this view of the structure of these nuts is borne out by the fact that, under normal circumstances, the base of the perianth contains a considerable amount of fibrous material. in the present case this has increased to such an extent that the fruit appears surrounded by a double husk, by an inner one as usual, and by an outer six-parted one. it will be remembered that in some of the _cinchonaceæ_, e.g. _mussænda_, _pinckneya_, _calycophyllum_, one or more of the calycine lobes are normally dilated and petaloid, the others remaining small and comparatively inconspicuous. inequality in size is, indeed, a common occurrence in the sepals of many natural orders--_polygalaceæ_, _leguminosæ_, _labiatæ_, &c. the flowers of a rose are mentioned by moquin as having presented an enlargement of the calyx without any other alterations in form. schlechtendal has noticed the same thing in _papaver rhoeas_, reichenbach in _campanula persicifolia_, and a. de candolle in _c. rapunculus_. m. brongniart also has recorded[ ] a remarkable variety of _primula sinensis_ cultivated in the jardin des plantes at paris, wherein the calyx is enormously developed. mm. fournier and bonnet have described flowers of _rubus_ with hypertrophied calyx in conjunction with atrophy and virescence of the petals and other changes.[ ] the corolla may be hypertrophied in some cases, though the change is more rare than in most other organs. moquin-tandon mentions as subject to this anomaly species of _galeopsis_, _prunella_, _scabiosa_, and _dipsacus_, and also mentions a remarkable variety of _viola odorata_ cultivated in the neighbourhood of toulouse. the same learned author also alludes to the so-called double composites, viz. those in which the usually tubular florets of the disc assume the form and proportions of those of the ray, but these are hardly cases of hypertrophy. =enlargement of the androecium.=--dunal[ ] alludes to a curious instance in a species of _verbascum_, the lower flowers of which had hairy stamens as usual, but the filaments of the topmost flower were quite destitute of hairs, and dilated like a flat ribbon. moquin relates having found in the neighbourhood of toulouse a plant of _solanum dulcamara_ in which all the upper flowers had two or three stamens of larger dimensions than the others. this happens habitually in _solanum tridynamum_ and _s. amazonicum_, and to a less extent in _s. vespertilio_ and _s. cornutum_; also in some species of _hyoscyamus_. these cases show the close affinity between the _solanaceæ_ and the _scrophulariaceæ_. =enlargement of the gynoecium.=--in some flowers which have become accidentally female the pistil becomes unusually large, and even to such an extent as to prevent the passage of the pollen. moquin remarks having seen this enlargement in the pistils of _suæda fruticosa_ and _kochia scoparia_. the flowers of these chenopods, under these circumstances, resemble the female flowers of some nettles. the styles of _anemone_ are also much enlarged as the result of cultivation, and from their petaloid appearance resemble those of the _iris_ (goethe). mm. seringe and heyland[ ] have figured some anomalous flowers of _diplotaxis tenuifolia_ in which the pistil, more or less distended and deformed, was considerably elongated below, so that it seemed to be borne upon a long stalk, analogous to that of fruits of capparids. dr. klinsman[ ] mentions an instance of a similar kind combined with hypertrophy of the sepals and pistils; indeed, the alteration is not uncommon among crucifers. _pyrethrum inodorum_ is very subject to hypertrophy. the styles of its radial florets become elongated without any other alteration; at the same time the small corollas become green, and show a tendency to assume a foliaceous condition. sometimes the hypertrophy affects also the styles of the central florets, and these also become enlarged to double or treble their usual dimensions. linné has remarked that the ovary of _tragopogon_ sometimes assumes very large dimensions, as also does the pappus. he mentions a double-flowered variety, the ovaries of which become ten or twelve times larger than ordinary. m. clos[ ] records an instance in _rumex scutatus_ wherein the pistil was hypertrophied or club-shaped, and open at the top, or in other cases funnel-shaped, three-lobed at the summit, each lobe terminated by a style. one of the most frequent causes tending to the hypertrophy of the pistil is attributable to the puncture of insects; thus, when the ovary of _juncus articulatus_ is thus punctured, it acquires a size two or three times larger than ordinary, becoming at the same time sterile.[ ] occasionally the enlargement may be due to a fusion or incorporation of other elements; thus, m. lemaire describes an instance in which the style of _sinningia purpurea_ was much larger than ordinary, tubular, bearing three small lobes, and altogether bearing much resemblance to the column or "gynosteme" of orchids. this appearance was due to the cohesion and intimate union of the styles with three abortive stamens.[ ] =enlargement of the fruit.=--most cultivated fruits are in a state of true hypertrophy. girod de chantrans, after many trials, succeeded in producing a peculiar variety of pea with pods double the ordinary size.[ ] m. clos[ ] mentions a case wherein the carpels of _delphinium dictyocarpum_ were hypertrophied. the change in size may or may not be attended by a difference in form; thus, in certain _leguminosæ_, as _medicago lupulina_, _melilotus leucantha_, the carpels are sometimes hypertrophied and elongated, so as to resemble a claw or hook.[ ] the fruit of the common groundsel (_senecio vulgaris_) is in its normal condition two or three times shorter than the involucre, and cylindrical for its whole length, but it frequently happens that the fruits become as long as the involucre itself, and taper from the base upwards, so as to become beaked. under this head may also be mentioned the fleshy bulbils that are found in the capsules of _crinum_, _amaryllis_, and _agave_. these are true seeds enormously dilated.[ ] in these seeds the outer coating becomes very thick and fleshy, and is traversed by spiral vessels. it is obvious that very important results in a practical point of view may be and have been arrived at by cultivators availing themselves of this tendency of plants to increase in dimensions under certain circumstances. it is needless to do more than refer to the many fruits, vegetables, and cereals, which have thus become enlarged and improved by careful selection and rearing. =alterations of consistence= often accompany changes in size. the change may be one whereby the tissues become unusually hardened, by the excessive formation of secondary woody deposits, or softer and more succulent than ordinary, from the formation of an inordinate amount of loose cellular tissue. generally speaking, the appearances presented in such cases are not sufficiently striking to demand notice other than as regards their size. one illustration, however, may be cited from its singularity. this was the case of a dahlia, in which the centre of the flower was occupied by a projecting knob as large as a walnut, brown in colour, and very hard in texture. this knob was nothing but the enlarged and indurated extremity of the common receptacle, destitute of the scales and florets which usually spring from it. no insect-puncture could be detected, and no other reason for this peculiarity could be ascertained. footnotes: [ ] on the subject of knaurs, the reader is referred to trécul, 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser., vol. xx, p. ; lindley, 'theory of horticulture;' rev. m. j. berkeley, 'gardeners' chronicle,' , p. . [ ] jaeger, 'flora.' . p. , tab. i. [ ] 'revue horticole,' , p. , figs. , . [ ] the reader may also refer for further information on the subject of malformed pears to irmisch. 'flora,' , p. , tab. i; lindley, 'theory of horticulture'; caspary, 'bull. soc. bot. france,' vol. vi, (rev. bibl.), p. ; duhamel, 'phys. arbr.,' liv. iii, cap. . p. , fig. ; bonnet, 'recherch. us. feuilles,' tab. xxvi, fig. ; moquin-tandon, 'el. ter. veg.,' p. , &c. some of the cases recorded are, however, instances of true prolification. [ ] 'revue horticole' , p. . [ ] the interest of this accident is great, as showing how an habitually superior ovary may become inferior--a change so rare in its occurrence that its existence has been denied, and thus forming a marked contrast with the frequency with which the converse change of an inferior ovary to a superior one, from want of union with the calyx or from imperfect development of the peduncle, may be observed. it is also interesting as showing how the peduncle may become swollen, and at the same time how the woody deposit of the endocarp may, as if by compensation, be deficient. and, again, the malformation is not without significance in regard to the relationship between the drupaceous and the pomaceous subdivisions of _rosaceæ_. the case would fitly be included under alterations of position, but the sheets relating to that subject were printed off before the publication of m. carrière's notice. [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. france,' , vol. vii, p. . [ ] "monstr. veget.," in 'neue denkschrift.' [ ] "sched. de monst. plant." in 'act. helvet.,' t. ii, pl. ii, f. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. france,' vol. viii, , p. . [ ] 'ann. sc. nat.,' sér. , t. i, p. , pl. ix _c_, fig. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. france,' , t. ix, p. . [ ] 'consid. org. fleur.,' montpell., , , , pl. ii, f. and . [ ] 'bull. bot.,' t. i, p. , tab. . [ ] 'linnæa,' vol. x, p. , tab. . [ ] 'mém. acad. sc. toulouse,' ser., vol. iii. [ ] 'ré. nosol. végét.,' pp. . [ ] 'illustr. hortic.,' , misc., p. . [ ] 'ann. soc. linn.,' paris, t. i, p. . [ ] 'mém. acad. toulouse,' t. , . [ ] 'd. c. prod.,' ii, pp. , . [ ] richard, "obs. sur les bulbilles des crinum;" 'ann. sc. nat.,' t. ii, p. . pl. i, fig. , . see also a. braun, "mémoire sur les graines charnues des amaryllidèes," &c.; 'ann. sc. nat.,' , vol. xiv, p. , tab. . chapter ii. elongation. the class of cases coming under this head are sufficiently indicated by the name. there are many instances of this phenomenon occurring under different conditions, which, though unusual, can hardly be called abnormal, such, for instance, as the great lengthening of roots in their search for water, the excessive elongation that takes place in plants when grown at a distance from the light, in their endeavour to attain to which they become, as gardeners phrase it, "drawn." a similar result is brought about in forests or plantations, where long spars are required, by allowing the trees to grow very close to each other, so as to prevent the lateral extension of the branches. when plants grow in running water their roots, stems, and sometimes their leaves, become excessively elongated, as in _ranunculus fluitans_, the flower-stalks of _valisneria spiralis_, &c. these are cases of variation rather than of malformation, but are none the less curious, or sometimes perplexing; thus, lapeyrouse described, in his 'supplement à la flore des pyrenées,' p. , under the name _potamogeton bifolium_, a plant which mr. bentham subsequently discovered to be nothing but a flowerless variety of _vicia faba_ distorted by its growth in water.[ ] =elongation of the root.=--this, as already remarked, is more often a variation than a malformation, and is usually due to the presence of water at a distance necessitating growth at the extremities of the root, or to the presence of some obstacle, such as a stone, to avoid which the root elongates till it has passed the obstruction. occasionally in crocus corms some of the fibrils may be met with much lengthened and thickened, and invested with a fleshy sheath. it is not certain, however, that these structures are roots; possibly, nay probably, they may be processes from the stem thrust downwards into the soil, similar to the formations already described in the tulip (p. , fig. ). =elongation of the inflorescence.=--under this heading it is necessary to consider lengthening of the common rachis in the case of an aggregate inflorescence, and lengthening of the individual flower-stalks, whether they be solitary or portions of a multiple inflorescence. the two phenomena may occur together, but they are quite as often independent one of the other. thus, among _umbelliferæ_ the umbels are occasionally met with supported on unusually long stalks, while the pedicels of the individual flowers may or not be increased in length; so also with some of the composites, or the heads of flowers of some _leguminosæ_, _trifolium repens_, &c. &c. another illustration of the sort is that recorded by m. fournier, wherein the usually umbellate inflorescence of _pelargonium_ was, through the lengthening of the main stalk, transformed into a raceme. among composites a similar change may sometimes be met with. mm. clos and de schönefeld have recorded the existence of a variety of the sweet chestnut (_castanea_)in which the female catkins were as long, and bore nearly as many flowers, as the male spikes. this is stated to be of constant occurrence in some localities, and to be accompanied by a diminished size of the fruits. a similar elongation has been observed in the case of the walnut, catkins of which have been seen bearing thirty to thirty-five large nuts.[ ] in the strobile of the hop, _humulus lupulus_, a like elongation may sometimes be met with, generally in association with a more or less leafy condition of some of the scales. of a similar character, but complicated with extrusion or eversion of an ordinarily concave axis, is the fig described by zuccarini,[ ] and from the appearances presented by which that author draws the inference that the peculiar appearance of the fig is due to the formation of a large number of small bracts blended together for the greater part of their length, and accompanied by the suppression of the internodes, and consequent shortening of the axis. in the monstrous fruit the axis is prolonged, and forms a kind of raceme or catkin, surrounded at the base by numerous bracts, as in many _amentaceæ_. (see p. , figs. , .) a lengthening of the axis of the female strobiles of _coniferæ_ is not of infrequent occurrence in _cryptomeria japonica_, _larie europæa_, &c., and this is usually associated, as has been before stated, with a leaf-like condition of the bracts, and sometimes even with the development of leaf-bearing shoots in place of the scales. (see under prolification of inflorescence and phyllomorphy, and for references, p. .) =elongation of the secondary flower-stalks.=--in the previous section the effect of elongation of the main rachis has been considered. a corresponding deviation occurs in the peduncles or pedicels, and sometimes alters the general character of the inflorescence very considerably, converting a spike into a raceme, a raceme into a corymb, a capitulum into an umbel, and so forth. a few such cases may here be alluded to. fig. represents a specimen of _ranunculus acris_, in which the lower and lateral flower-stalks were not only increased in number, but so much lengthened as to form a flat-topped inflorescence--a corymbose cyme. in many leguminous plants, as in _trifolium repens_, _lotus corniculatus_, &c., what is usually a compact spike, or head of flowers, becomes a raceme from the elongation of the pedicels. in _umbelliferæ_ a similar change occurs, by virtue of which sometimes the umbels themselves, and at other times the florets, are raised on unusually long stalks, as in _angelica razoulzii_, _carum carui_, _thysselinum palustre_.[ ] in _compositæ_, when affected by an analogous change, the capitulum assumes the appearance of a simple umbel, as in _hypochæris radicata_, _senecio vulgaris_, and other plants. [illustration: fig. .--inflorescence of _ranunculus acris_, with secondary peduncles lengthened.] in some of the double-flowered apples which have been previously alluded to, the flower-stalk is inordinately long when compared with the adjacent ones. possibly in some of these cases the absence of the usual swelling of the upper part of the peduncle may be connected with its increased length. one of the most striking instances of lengthened flower-stalk occurred in an apple flower, wherein there was no swelling beneath the calyx, while the latter was represented by five perfect stalked leaves. =elongation of the leaves.=--in the case of water plants this change keeps pace with the corresponding growth of the stem, _e.g._ _ranunculus fluitans_, and in terrestrial plants there are varieties termed longifoliar, from the unusual length of the leaves. a similar lengthening occurs in the involucral leaves of _umbelliferæ_ and _compositæ_, changing very materially the general aspect of the inflorescence. occasionally, also, the leaf-lobes of parsley (_apium petroselinum_) and other crested-leaved plants may be observed to lose their ordinary wavy form, and to be lengthened into flat riband-like segments, as shown in fig. . the only further illustrations that it is requisite to give of such changes in this place are those occurring in lobed or compounded leaves, which, from a lengthening of the midrib or central stalk, convert a digitate or palmate leaf into a pinnate one. in these instances the lobes or leaflets become separated one from another by a kind of apostasis. this change may be frequently seen in the horse-chestnut, particularly in the young shoots formed after the trees have been pruned or pollarded. in the adjoining cut the intermediate stages between a palmate or digitate leaf to a pinnate one may be seen. the specimens from which the drawing was made were taken from the same tree at the same time. [illustration: fig. .--portion of leaf of parsley, showing the change from short wavy to long flat leaf-lobes.] in the white clover, _trifolium repens_, a similar transition may often be observed, as also in some species of _potentilla_.[ ] =elongation of the parts of the flower.=--the only circumstance that needs especial mention under this section is the great lengthening that sometimes takes place in the carpels, sometimes as a result of injury from insects or fungus, at other times without assignable cause. [illustration: fig. .--leaves of horse-chestnut, _Æsculus_, showing passage from digitate to pinnate leaves.] in the case of inferior ovaries this lengthening is, perhaps, even more common, as in _umbelliferæ_, _compositæ_, &c. the common groundsel (_senecio vulgaris_) is especially liable to this form of enlargement of the pistil, either in association with a leafy condition of the pappus or without any such change. =elongation of the thalamus, placenta, &c.=--in some plants, as in _magnolia_ or _myosurus_, the thalamus becomes much elongated, and bears the carpels disposed spirally around it. a similar lengthening occurs in malformed flowers, usually in association with a similar change in the lower or outer part of the flower, by virtue of which the whorls become separated from each other (apostasis). elongation and protrusion of the placenta have been already alluded to at p. , and also at p. . in some of these cases the elongated placenta has taken the form of a leaf-bearing shoot.[ ] =apostasis.=--engelmann made use of this term to express the separation of parts one from another by the unusual elongation of the internodes.[ ] he drew a distinction between the separation of individual organs one from the other, and the corresponding displacement of whorls. the subject has already been, to a considerable degree, treated of in these pages under the head of dialysis, displacement, and prolification, and but little need here be added. with reference to the distance between one whorl and another, it will be remembered that, although in the majority of cases the floral whorls are packed closely together, yet in other instances the floral axis becomes elongated, and thus separates the whorls one from another, by structures such as the gynophores, androphores, &c., of _passifloreæ_, _caryophylleæ_, _capparideæ_, &c. &c. a similar elongation of the thalamus, bringing about the separation of the floral whorls, or of their constituent parts, is very commonly met with in association with median prolification. where the individual floral elements are thus thrown out of their usual verticillate arrangement, they naturally assume a spiral disposition, and are, in some cases, united by their margins, so that a spiral sheet or tube is formed, surrounding the axis. this frequently occurs in double flowers of the chinese primrose, _primula sinensis_. engelmann[ ] figures a case wherein the calyx of _anagallis phoenicea_ was separated by a rather long internode from the corolla, and a like illustration in _torilis anthriscus_. [illustration: fig. .--flower of _delphinium_, showing apostasis of carpels, from lengthening of the thalamus, &c. (cramer.)] a frequent change in crucifers is due to the formation of a long stalk bearing the pod, and thus giving rise to the appearance met as a constant occurrence in capparids. in _tropæolum majus_ a similar elevation of the pistil may occasionally be seen. the adjacent figure of a monstrous _delphinium_ taken from cramer illustrates well the elongation of the floral axis and the apostasis of the carpels. in this instance the axis is terminated by a second flower (median prolification). one of the best-marked illustrations of these changes occurs in a permanent malformation of _epilobium hirsutum_, specimens of which were originally obtained from the late professor henslow. the several floral parts are here, some virescent, others truly foliaceous, and each whorl is separated from its neighbour by a rather long internode. in _fuchsia_ and _campanula_ a like change may occasionally be observed. engelmann, in addition to those previously mentioned, cites the following plants as having manifested this change: _*convallaria majalis!_, _*tulipa gesneriana!_, _veronica chamædrys_, _orobanche gracilis_, _solanum lycopersicum_, _gentiana campestris_, _hypericum_, _helleborus fetidus_, _caltha palustris_, _brassica oleracea!_ and many _rosaceæ_, _caryophylleæ_, _cruciferæ_, and _ranunculaceæ_. (see dialysis, median prolification, &c.) apostasis of the sub-floral or involucral leaves is not of infrequent occurrence in malformations affecting _compositæ_ and _umbelliferæ_. in the following genera it has been observed with especial frequency:--_torilis anthriscus_, _eryngium_, _athamanta cervaria_, _leontodon_, _tragopogon pratense!_, _wedelia perfoliata!_ in garden anemones, also, it is a common deviation. footnotes: [ ] 'cat. plant.,' lang., p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. france,' t. i, , p. , and t. xiii, p. . [ ] 'abhandl. math. phys. class.,' band. iv, abhandl. i, tab. i. [ ] see cramer, 'bildungsabweich,' pp. - , and fleischer, 'missbild, der culturpflanzen.' [ ] schlechtendal, 'bot. zeit.,' , p. ; 'linnæa,' xi, p. , xiv, p. ; 'bot. zeit.,' , p. ; masters, 'rep. brit. assoc.,' manchester, ; coultas, 'what may be learnt from a tree,' p. . [ ] for further details refer to the chapter on displacements, p. . [ ] 'de antholysi,' p. , § . [ ] loc. cit., tab. , f. . chapter iii. enation. under the above heading are included certain forms arising from excess not of growth, but of development, and consisting in the formation of supplementary lobes or excrescences from various organs. the new formations are not due either to a repetition or to a partition of any organ, but are out-growths from others previously formed. in prolification and in multiplication the adventitious structures are of independent origin. in fission the new developments grow simultaneously with the older ones, of which, indeed, they are mere repetitions. moreover, in fission the supplementary lobes do not, in general, project a plan different from that of the original structure, at least in the first instance, though their direction may ultimately become changed. in enation the new growth projects from a previously formed organ after it has attained to considerable size, or even after its ordinary proportions have been attained, and it sprouts out from the beginning in a plane which is at a considerable angle to that of the parent organ, and it is sometimes of a different structure from it, and has different functions to fulfil. many of the instances that occur of scales projecting from petals, as in _caryophylleæ_, _sapindaceæ_, &c., the coronal filaments of passion-flowers, the cup of _narcissus_, the appendages that beset the segments of the perianth in _lilium lancifolium_, and other similar growths, may be referred to a like process. in many cases this has been proved by a study of the development of the flower, from which it appears that the growths in question are developed subsequently to the formation of the ordinary floral whorls. it is requisite, however, to be cautious in pronouncing upon the exact nature of these bodies, in the absence of a knowledge of their period and mode of formation. they may be mere outgrowths from one or other of the customary whorls, or they may represent abortive stamens or petals, &c. where circumstances prevent the course of development from being traced, something may be inferred as to their real nature from their position in regard to the other parts of the flower, from their anatomical structure, and from analogy or comparison with like organs in other plants. the period of their formation is, perhaps, of less importance than was at one time supposed, since it is well ascertained that, in some cases, the formation of the parts of the flower, _e.g._ the stamens of mallows, follows a centrifugal rather than a centripetal order. in the case of monstrous developments of this nature too much care can hardly be exercised, and the observer should rarely venture on an explanation of the nature of the case from the evidence afforded by the monstrous growth apart from that to be derived from the study of the development and organization of the normal flower and from analogous formations in allied plants. =excrescences from axile organs--warts.=--in a preceding paragraph the formation of gnaurs has been alluded to. there are other outgrowths, called warts, occasionally met with in trees, and which are more closely connected with the central tissues of the stem, while at the same time they are not provided with buds, in which two particulars warts differ from gnaurs. excrescences of this kind often attain a very large size, and may be seen on old elms and other trees, but, as their formation is probably more pathological than teratological, no further notice of these structures need here be given. no special notice need here be taken of the tubercles on the roots of so many _leguminosæ_, nor of the peculiar excrescences on the roots of _taxodium distichum_, as these appear to be normal formations. but it may be well to mention in this place an anomalous development which occurs occasionally in _ruscus aculeatus_, and in which, from the upper surface of the ordinary flattened leaf-like branch, projects at right angles a second similar branch, so that in section the appearance would be like that of the inverted letter t; thus, [symbol: inverted upper-case t]. =enation from foliar organs--leaves.=--the development of adventitious lobes from leaves may take place either from their surfaces or their margins. a few illustrations may be given of each. in cabbage leaves a formation of adventitious laminæ projecting at right angles from the primary one may frequently be observed. in the instance figured (fig. ) the new growths proceeded almost exclusively from the thick midrib, which, in the figure, is shown cut through just above the base. not only is the ordinary semilunar band of vascular tissue to be here seen, but a similar broken line of vessels exists on the upper side of the leaf-stalk; thus the whole structure resembles that of a stem or a branch as much as that of a true leaf. [illustration: fig. .--section through base of midrib of cabbage leaf, showing supplementary laminæ, &c.] the development of secondary leaves from the surfaces of primary ones (phyllomania, autophyllogeny) has already been alluded to at p. . some of the cases wherein a leaf seems to have a double lamina may be alluded to here, though possibly they would more properly be referred to fission. the appearance presented is as if four wings projected from the midrib, so that a cross section would be nearly in the form of [symbol: )o( turned degrees.]. in an orange leaf presenting this appearance the lower surface of one lamina was, as usual, dull in colour, while the upper surface of the subjacent lamina was likewise dull; hence the impression might arise that this was an instance of the adhesion of two leaves back to back, but the petioles were not twisted, as they must have been had two leaves thus been united, and neither in the petiole nor in the midrib was there the slightest indication of fusion, the vascular bundles being arranged in a circular manner, not in a horseshoe-like arrangement, as would have been the case had adhesion taken place.[ ] (see p. .) such leaves as those of the hedgehog holly, _ilex aquifolium_, var. _feroæ_, and, to a less extent, bullate leaves, may also be mentioned here as illustrations of hypertrophy or enation. [illustration: fig. .--_nephrodium molle_. ordinary frond and forked and crested varieties of the same, the crest arising from the inordinate development of the margins of the pinnules.] when the increased development occurs at the margin of the leaves, especially, the result is a wavy or crisped appearance, "folia undulata, _vel_ crispa."[ ] these conditions occur normally in such leaves as those of _rumex crispus_, _malva crispa_, &c., and are developed to an extreme degree in garden varieties of parsley, some kails, &c., as well as in many ferns, but these are probably cases rather of fission than enation as here understood.[ ] =enation from the sepals.=--the basal lobes of the calyx in _campanula medium_, under normal circumstances, may be referred to in illustration of this occurrence, while the adventitious spurs on the calyx of some monstrous flowers seem due also to a like cause. these have already been alluded to at p. . =enation from the corolla.=--the instances of this are more frequent than in the case of the calyx, and admit of classification according as they occur in polypetalous or gamopetalous flowers, on the outer or inner surface of the petals, &c. under natural circumstances the formation of scales, lobes, &c., from the petals, as in some _caryophylleæ_, _sapindaceæ_, &c. &c., may be explained, as already remarked, by this process, rather than by fission, chorisis, or by substitution of petals for stamens, &c. each case must, however, be examined on its own merits, as it is not safe to decide upon the arrangement of parts in one flower by simply referring to the analogy of others. in the following illustrations the course of development has not, in all cases, been observed, and hence the explanation here given must be taken with some reserve; for should it prove that the adventitious lobes, &c., are formed simultaneously with the ordinary petals, the case will be one of chorisis rather than of enation, as here understood. again, it may be that the supernumerary organs really represent petals or stamens in disguise, though this hypothesis demands the further assumption (in order to account for the interference with the law of alternation) that suppression of certain organs has taken place. taking first those instances in which the supplementary petals appear on the inner surface of the corolla, as being at once the most frequent, and as presenting the closest analogy, with similar conformations, under natural circumstances, certain double-flowered varieties of the chinese primrose, _primula sinensis_, may be mentioned. in these flowers the calyx is normal, the tube of the corolla is traversed by ten vascular bundles, and the limb is divided into ten fimbriated lobes. about halfway up the tube, on the inner surface, are given off five supernumerary petals, opposite to as many lobes of the corolla. some of the supplementary petals have a stamen in front of them, in the same relative position as in the normal flower. in some cases the back or outer surface of the supplementary petal is turned towards the inner or upper surface of the primary corolla, thus [symbol: ((turned degrees cw]; while, in other instances, the front of the adventitious lobe is directed towards the corresponding surface of the original petal, thus [symbol: () turned degrees]. whether these supernumerary petals are formed by chorisis or by enation cannot, with certainty, be determined without examining the early stages of development. [illustration: fig. .--_datura fastuosa._ true corolla turned back to show the supernumerary corolla with the petal-like segments attached to its outer surface (reduced).] of more interest are those instances where the adventitious growth is on the outside of the corolla; thus in a garden azalea there was intermediate between the calyx and the corolla, both of which were normal, a series of five petalodes, alternating with the sepals, and, therefore, opposite to the lobes of the corolla, and adherent with them at the very base, though elsewhere detached. these petalodes were concave on the surface looking towards the calyx, and were there brightly coloured, while the tint of the opposite surface looking towards the corolla was of a duller hue, corresponding with that of the outside of the corolla-tube. this arrangement of the colour was thus precisely similar to that which occurred in the four-winged leaves already referred to at p. . in some flowers of _datura fastuosa_ a similar series of excrescences was observed; the calyx and the corolla were normal within the latter, intervening between it and the stamens was a second corolla produced by duplication, and adherent to the inner surface of this latter were five stamens. so far there was nothing very peculiar; it remains to say, however, that on the outer surface of the second corolla were five petal-like lobes closely adherent to it below, but partially detached above. the colour of the adventitious segments was paler on the outside than on the inner surface, as in the corolla itself. the position of the several parts was such that they were opposite one to the other; hence, while the lobes of the inner corolla were opposite to those of the outer one, the intermediate petalodes were opposite to both; thus: s s s s s -------------------------- p p p p p x x x x x -------------------------- p p p p p st st st st st the x indicating the position of the petalodes. [illustration: fig. .--gloxinia, with supernumerary segments on the outside of the true corolla.] a still more singular case is that of a variety of the gloxinia, described originally by professor edouard morren,[ ] but which is now becoming common in english gardens. when first observed these flowers were observed to produce petaloid segments outside the ordinary corolla, and partially adherent to (or rather, not completely separated from it) much as in the azalea before mentioned, the outer surface being brightly coloured, like the inner surface of the corolla in ordinary gloxinias. being encouraged and tended by gardeners, in course of time, instead of a series of petalodes, more or less distinct from one another, a second corolla or "catacorolla" was formed outside the primary one, so that a hose in hose flower was produced, but, in this case, the supplementary flower was formed on the outside and not within the ordinary corolla. moreover, the disposition of the colour was reversed, for in the outermost corolla the richest hues were on the outer surface, while in the inner or true corolla they were on the inside. professor morren considers the adventitious petalodes as rudiments of so many supplementary flowers, axillary to the calyx, and adnate to the corolla; each lobe then would, in this view, represent an imperfect flower, and the completed catacorolla would be formed of a series of confluent flowers of this description. but this view involves the assumption of the suppression of all the parts of the flower, except the lobes in question. [illustration: fig. .--"catacorolla" of _gloxinia_, formed from the union of adventitious petalodes on the outside of the true corolla (after morren).] the view here propounded that the lobes in question are enations from the true petals, which become confluent, so as to form the catacorolla, is surely more simple, involves no assumptions of suppression of parts; and moreover, is borne out by the examination of some flowers, where the production of these adventitious lobes from the outside of the minute partially developed petals could be distinctly seen. =enation from the stamens.=--an illustration of this process occurred in some double-flowered rhododendrons, which presented the following arrangement of parts:--calyx and corolla normal; within the latter eight petal-like stamens, forming a pseudo-corolla. the appearance presented by the petaloid filaments and anthers was as if they were adnate to the centre of the petals, but, on closer examination, it appeared that the petaloid expansion to which the dilated filament was apparently attached, was equally a part of the stamens; in other words, that the filament was provided with four petal-like wings, two on each side [symbol: topped by (turned cw °, an o above and another ( turned cw above that]. this disposition was well seen in the anther, half of which was, in some cases, petaloid like the filament; in fact, the inner wing of the latter was directly continuous with the petal-like expansion from the anther. a section through the latter showed, going from within outwards, the cut edges of two perfect polliniferous lobes in the centre; and on either side the petaloid wing representing the remaining anther-lobe; outside these were the edges of the remaining wings, one on each side. (see p. , fig. .) =enation from the carpels.=--the only instances of this that need be referred to are such cases as those in which spur-like projections, horns, tubercles, or winged expansions, are formed from the surface of the ovary during the course of its development. the extraordinary cornute oranges described and figured by ferrari, gallesio, and other writers on the genus _citrus_, may be mentioned under this head. a similar formation occurs in the fruit of some species of _solanum_. (see p. .) footnotes: [ ] it is desirable in this place to allude to a singular case of fissiparous division of a leaf of _prunus laurocerasus_ described by prof. alexander dickson ('seemann's journ. botany,' vol. v, , p. ), and which did not come under the writer's notice till after the sheet relating to fission, p. , had been sent to press. dr. dickson thus speaks of this abnormal leaf:--"the petiole (unchanged) supported two laminæ, placed back to back, and united by their midribs (_i.e._ not separated) to within about an inch from their extremities, which were perfectly free from each other. these laminæ stood vertically, their edges being directed towards and away from the axis; and as they were placed back to back, the shining surfaces, corresponding in structure to the normal upper leaf-surface, were directed laterally outwards. in the axil of this abnormal leaf were two axillary buds. the existence of two leaf-apices and two axillary buds shows that this was not due to an accidental exuberance of development, but to fissiparous division, which, had it been complete, would have resulted in the replacement of a single leaf by two leaves. the arrangement in prof. dickson's leaf may be thus represented: [symbol: )oo( with x above]. the nature of the case may be even better seen by comparison with the normal arrangement, which would be [symbol: (ox turned degrees ccw], while in those cases where the fission of the leaf occurs in the same plane as that of the primary lamina, as where a leaf splits into two lobes at the apex, with a midrib to each, the arrangement is as follows: [symbol: ox turned degrees ccw, with arcs below forming a half circle], the x in all cases representing the position of the axis, the o that of the axillary bud, and the [symbol: ( turned degrees ccw] that of the laminæ." [ ] linn., 'phil. bot.,' § . the term "_crispa_" is surely preferable to that of ré, "phyllorhyseme." [ ] see c. morren, "consid. sur les déformations," &c., in 'bull. acad. belg.,' , tom, xix, part , p. ; and as to ferns, see moore, 'nature-printed british ferns,' vo ed., where numerous illustrations are given. [ ] 'bull. acad. belg.,' t. xix, p. , tab. i; and 'gardeners' chronicle,' , p. . part ii. atrophy. under the head of atrophy are included those cases wherein the organs affected are actually present, but in a dwarfed and stunted condition as compared with surrounding parts. the diminished size is, in such instances, obviously due to a partial development and to an arrest of growth at a certain stage, from the operation of various causes, either external or inherent to the organization itself. it may affect any part of the plant, and exists, in very varying degree, in different instances, being sometimes so slight in amount as not to preclude the exercise of the functions of the part; while in others, the structure is so incomplete that the office cannot be performed. these differences depend, of course, upon the stage of development which the organ had reached when its growth was checked. for practical purposes atrophy may be distinguished from suppression by the fact that in the latter case a certain element of the flower or plant which, under ordinary circumstances, is present, is entirely wanting, while, in the former class, it exists but in a rudimentary condition. again, atrophy is to be separated from that general diminution in the size of the whole plant or of distinct parts of that plant which is comprised under the term "nanism." thus the several dwarf varieties of plants (var. _nanæ_), or those in which the leaves or flowers are smaller than usual (var. _parvifoliæ_, v. _parvifloræ_), are truly regarded as variations, and not as malformations properly so called. atrophy is partial and special in its operation, nanism is general. under ordinary circumstances atrophy is exemplified by the presence of rudimentary or imperfect organs, as, for instance, in _pentstemon_, _scrophularia_, &c., where one stamen is atrophied. for convenience sake atrophy may be divided into abortion and degeneration, the first including cases where, from arrest of development occurring at an early stage, organs are present; but in a much smaller and more rudimentary condition than usual, their form and general appearance, except so far as regards their dimensions, not being materially altered. on the other hand, in cases of degeneration, development is not entirely checked, but rather perverted, so that not only the dimensions are lessened, but the form is altered. chapter i. abortion. the sense in which this term is here understood has been explained in the preceding paragraph. it is only necessary to say further, that cases of abortion are to be distinguished from those of suppression, on the one hand, and those of degeneration on the other. in suppression there is from the first an absolute deficiency of a particular organ. in degeneration the part is present, but in a diminished and perverted condition. in abortion it exists, but in a stunted and dwarfed, but not otherwise permuted state. =abortion of axile organs.=--when the main stem is arrested in its growth, the habit and general appearance of the plant are materially altered, as in the so-called stemless plants, _plantæ acaules_. in these the internodes are so slightly developed that the leaves are closely crowded in tufts or rosettes. when this shortening of the stem (acaulosia) occurs, without other considerable change in other organs, the deviation is classed under the head of variation rather than of monstrosity; and, indeed, in very many plants, this arrested growth of the axis is the rule rather than the exception. when occurring in an abnormal manner, atrophy of the stem is most frequently attended by other more or less grave alterations in other structures; thus moquin-tandon[ ] cites an instance of _camphorosma monspeliaca_, wherein the stems presented the form of very short, hard, woody tubercles, thickly clothed with deformed leaves, and invested by a vast number of hairs, longer and more dense than usual. a similar deformity sometimes occurs in an indian species of _artabotrys_; in these specimens the branchlets are contracted in length, and bear numerous closely packed scaly leaves, densely hairy, and much smaller than ordinary. spines and thorns may he looked on as atrophied branches, and seem to result from poorness of soil, as the same plants, which, in hungry land, produce spines, develop their branches to the full extent when grown under more favorable conditions.[ ] in the birch an arrest of development in some of the branches is of common occurrence. the branch suddenly ceases to grow in length; at the same time it thickens at the end into a large bulbous knob, from which are developed a profusion of small twigs, whose direction is sometimes exactly the reverse of that of the main branch. (see p. .) the branches of the common spruce fir, especially the lateral ones, when attacked by a particular species of aphis, are very apt to be developed into a cone-like excrescence.[ ] a shortened condition of the flower-stalks occurs occasionally, greatly altering the general character of the inflorescence. this has been observed in pelargoniums and in the chinese primrose, in both of which the effect was to replace the umbellate form of inflorescence by a capitate one. =abortion of the receptacle.=--here may be mentioned those cases of flowers with habitually inferior ovary (real or apparent), in which the receptacle fails, from some cause or other, to dilate as usual. this has already been alluded to under the head of prolification, displacements, &c. (pp. , , &c., figs. - , , &c.), and hence requires only incidental comment in this place. there are, however, certain other cases of a similar nature which may here be referred to; such as the abortive condition of the inferior ovary, or rather of the receptacle, that usually encircles the ovary in _compositæ_ and _umbelliferæ_. in the former natural order the following plants have been met with in this condition:--_*tragopogon pratense!_, *_cirsium arvense_, _hypochæris radicata_, _senecio vulgaris!_, _coreopsis drummondi_. in the latter order, _daucus carota!_ _oenanthe crocata!_ and _thysselinum palustre_, seem most frequently to have been observed in this state.[ ] in some gourds the receptacle may be seen partially developed only, and forming a kind of cup, from which the true carpels protrude. =abortion of the leaves.=--arrest of growth in the leaves occurs in different ways; sometimes the whole leaf is smaller than usual; at other times certain parts only are reduced in size; while, in a third class of cases, portions of the leaf are entirely suppressed. moquin[ ] mentions having seen the leaves of _chenopodium vulvaria_, and of _diplotaxis muralis_ reduced to a fourth of their natural size; and he alludes to other cases of the same nature, seen by other observers, in _hypericum perforatum_ and _blitum polymorphum_. _nicandra physaloides_[ ] has also been met with in a similar condition, which, indeed, is a common result of insect-puncture, and of fungous growth in plants. those instances in which the leaf is diminished in size, without any attendant malformation in other organs, may be regarded rather as variations than as monstrosities, as in the case of the entire-leaved varieties of those plants which ordinarily have cut or divided leaves, _e.g._ _plantago coronopus_, var. _integrifolia_, _papaver rhoeas integrifolia_, &c. &c. the same remark may be made of those specimens in which one part of the leaf is developed to a less extent than another, as happens in the submerged leaves of such plants as _ranunculus aquatilis_, _cabomba aquatica_, the spiney leaves of _berberis_, the fenestrated leaves of _ouvirandra_, &c. in the illustrations last cited the relative deficiency of one portion, as contrasted with another, takes place as a constant occurrence, and is uniform and regular throughout the whole leaf. when, on the other hand, the deficiency in question happens accidentally and irregularly, the change may be considered as a malformation. one side of the blade of the leaf is frequently affected in this manner, the other portions remaining unaffected. it would appear as if any plant might be thus altered, but the following species appear to be particularly subject to this change: _Æesculus hippocastanum_, _digitalis purpurea_, _morus alba_, _fagus silvatica contracta_ (hort.), _codiæum variegatum_ var. _erosum_ (hort.), _broussonettia papyrifera_, _scolopendrium vulgare_, &c. frequently this irregular diminution in proportion is coexistent with an unusual degree of cleavage or laciniation of the margin, as in _acer platanoides laciniatum_, _tilia asplenifolia_, _alnus imperialis_ (hort.), _fagus silvatica_ var. (hort.), &c. in the case of what are sometimes termed interrupted leaves, the laminar portions of the leaf are here and there deficient on both sides of the midrib, leaving small portions of the latter, as it were, denuded and connecting the segments of the laminæ one with the other. this has been observed amongst other plants in _veronica latifolia_, _broussonettia papyrifer_, _codiæum variegatum_ var. _interruptum_ (hort.), _scolopendrium vulgare_, &c.[ ] (see p. .) in some of the leaves which have been already referred to in illustration of the inordinate growth of the cellular portions, the increased development of parenchyma is associated with a contracted state of the midrib and its branches, producing a puckered appearance of the leaf, an exaggerated degree of that change which produces what are termed "folia bullata." in illustration may be cited various species of _mentha_, _perilla_, _coleus_, _fagus silvatica crispa_, _cytisus_, _laburnum_ var., and other forms, cultivated in gardens for their singularity. entire absence of the stalk of the leaf occurs normally in sessile leaves; on the other hand the blade of the leaf is only occasionally developed in the phyllodineous acacias, in some species of _oxalis_, _indigofera_, _lebeckia_, _ranunculus_, _bupleurum_, &c. de candolle,[ ] from a consideration of _strelitzia juncea_, in which the petiole alone is developed, was led to the inference that in many monocotyledonous plants the blade of the leaf was never developed, the portion present being the sheath or stalk, unprovided with limb. the correctness of this inference is shown, amongst other things, by the occasional presence of a leaf-blade in _strelitzia juncea_ itself. occasionally the laminar portions of the leaf are completely wanting, leaving only the main ribs, as in the case of _berberis_, while the adjoining figure (fig. ) represents an instance of a cabbage wherein the innermost leaves are represented by thick fleshy cylindrical bodies corresponding to the midribs of the ordinary leaves. there is in cultivation a variety of the cabbage which constantly presents this peculiarity. [illustration: fig. .--inner leaves of cabbage reduced to their midribs.] the suppression of one or more leaflets of a compound leaf has already been referred to at p. . =abortion of the perianth, calyx, and corolla.=--illustrations of partial development in these organs are not rare, under ordinary circumstances, as for instance the "obsolete" calyx of umbellifers. in the cauliflower the branches of the inflorescence are contracted in length, while their succulence is much increased; at their extremities they bear crowds of imperfect flowers, in which the calyx only is visible, and that only in a rudimentary and partially developed condition. imperfect development of the whole or of some of the constituent parts is more common in the case of the corolla than in that of the calyx. in _arenaria serpyllifolia_ the petals, especially in autumn, are only one fourth the length of the sepals. _anagallis phoenicea_, _honckenya peploides_, _arabis alpina_, _ranunculus auricomus_, _rubus fruticosus_, and _geranium columbinum_, also frequently afford illustrations of this circumstance. [illustration: fig. .--abortion of four out of five petals, _viola tricolor_, side and front views.] at fig. is represented a pansy in which four of the five petals were very small and colourless, while the lower spurred petal was of the usual size and colour. in this flower the stamens and pistils were wholly suppressed, and the flower-stalk, instead of being bent near the flower, retained its primary straight direction. similar atrophic conditions of the corolla occur habitually among _violaceæ_. the diminished size of the petals sometimes coexists with an increase in their number, as in a flower of _streptocarpus rexii_, mentioned by bureau.[ ] among monocotyledons this partial development seems to be even more frequent than in dicotyledons. in addition to the well-known cases of certain species of _bellevalia_ and _muscari_, wherein the uppermost flowers of the raceme are more or less atrophied (see p. , fig. ), a few less common illustrations may be cited. in crocuses it is not a very uncommon circumstance to find the three inner segments of the perianth smaller than natural, and generally unequal in size. this occurs without any other perceptible change in the flower. schlechtendal[ ] mentions a flower of _fritillaria imperialis_ in which the perianthial leaves were relatively very small, and destitute of the usual nectary, while the stamens, on the other hand, were of their natural size and appearance. fresenius[ ] records a similar occurrence in the same plant. morren[ ] gives details of like appearances in _hymenocallis americana_, and delavaud[ ] in _tigridia pavonia_. in certain orchids an arrested development of the perianth is habitual, as in _oncidium abortivum_ (fig. ), where, on a large branching panicle, numerous abortive, but few perfect, flowers are produced. in a similar way the petals and labellum of _odontoglossum uro-skinneri_ have been found reduced to filamentous processes. [illustration: fig. .--flower of _oncidium abortivum_, magnified.] =abortion of the stamens.=--atrophy of one or more stamens is of very common occurrence, as a general rule, in many genera of plants, _e.g._ _scrophularia_, _erodium_, many _restiaceæ_, &c. &c. as a strictly teratological condition atrophy of the stamens is more rare than complete suppression. it has been noticed in _arabis alpina_, _cerastium glomeratum_, _c. tetrandrum_, _rhamnus catharticus_, _anemone_, _hepatica_, &c. it happens frequently among orchids both wild and cultivated. in the _hymenocallis_ flowers described by the elder morren, four out of five stamens were atrophied. in other flowers, otherwise perfectly formed, one abortive stamen was found bearing a spherical indehiscent anther. all these atrophied anthers of _hymenocallis_ were found to contain pollen, differing at first sight but little from what is usual, but presenting this important peculiarity, that while the normal pollen does not burst until it comes into contact with the stigma, in the abnormal flowers the outer coat of the pollen-grains split while still within the anther, from which latter, indeed, they could not escape, owing to the indehiscent nature of the latter. again, the pollen-tube of the abnormal grains cracked, in its turn, on mere exposure to the air, and liberated the fovilla, so that the pollen of these atrophied anthers was necessarily impotent, because it opened before it could be applied to the stigma, even had that been rendered possible by the opening of the anther. an abortive condition of the stamens and of the pollen, is of very common occurrence among hybridised plants. gaertner and other writers have spoken of this defective condition as contabescence.[ ] it forms one reason for the sterility so frequently observed in the case of true hybrids. in some hybrid passion-flowers, while all other parts of the flower were apparently perfect, even to the ovules, the stamens were atrophied, and distorted, and contained little or no pollen; the few grains of the latter being smaller than usual. (see under heterogamy, pp. - , and p. .) =abortion of the pistil, fruit, &c.=--traces of the carpels occur in many male flowers of unisexual plants, _e.g._ _sterculiaceæ_, _euphorbiaceæ_, _restiaceæ_, &c. &c., and in some natural orders there appears to be a tendency towards a dioecious condition, _e.g._ _caryophylleæ_, as in _lychnis dioica_, _silene otites_, _arenaria tetraquetra_, &c. the last-named plant is stated to have, in some cases, imperfect pistils; in others, rudimentary stamens; while a third set of flowers are hermaphrodite.[ ] the ovary of aconites, according to moquin, is very subject to atrophy. [illustration: fig. .--bladder plum.] during the maturation of the pistil, and its passage to the fruit, great changes of consistence frequently take place, owing to the development of cellular tissue, or of woody matter, according as the fruit is succulent or woody. it sometimes happens that, owing to some disturbing causes, the changes that usually occur fail to do so; thus, the stone of plums is occasionally deficient, as in what are termed bladder-plums (fig. ); some of these, consisting merely of a thin bladder, are curiously like the pods of _colutea_.[ ] mm. fournier and bonnet[ ] describe a fruit of a _rubus_, with perfectly dry fruits, like those of a _geum_, and this form was considered by steudel to form a distinct species. it is, however, merely a variety in which the fruits have not become succulent.[ ] schlechtendal describes[ ] the ordinarily baccate fruit of a vine as becoming dry, and even dehiscing by valves like a capsule. in maize it occasionally happens that one or two of the longitudinal series of fruits become abortive, leaving a smooth furrow, at first of a greenish colour, but ultimately of a reddish yellow. often a second row of fruits, opposite to the first, is also atrophied, so that the whole spike changes its cylindrical form for a flattened one.[ ] see also under heterogamy, meiophylly, &c. =abortion of the ovules.=--in the case of a pluri-ovulate ovary it rarely happens that all the ovules attain to maturity, some never get fertilised, others, pressed on by their neighbours on either side, become impeded in their development, and finally disappear, or remain as rudiments.[ ] this is the case, under ordinary circumstances, and still more so in the case of hybrid plants, or of monsters. where the outer coats of the ovule become more or less leafy in appearance (see p. ), the inner investments become more or less atrophied, or are even more frequently entirely suppressed, as is also the nucleus. in other cases, a simple arrest of development takes place; the ovule, for instance, which should be anatropal, remains straight, while the integuments, checked in their development, form imperfect sheaths from which the shrivelled nucleus protrudes. =depauperated ferns.=--the preceding illustrations have been taken from flowering plants chiefly, but a similar defective development is manifested in cryptogamous plants. the contraction and imperfect development of the fronds of some varieties of ferns, hence called depauperated, may receive passing notice, as also the cases in which the sori or clusters of spore cases are denuded of their usual covering, owing to the abortion or imperfect development of the indusium, as in what are termed exindusiate varieties.[ ] =general remarks on abortion, coincident changes, &c.=--reference has already been made, while treating of hypertrophy, suppression, &c., to certain other changes affecting the flower at the same time. atrophy of one organ or set of organs, for instance, is frequently accompanied by a compensating hypertrophy or by an increased number of other parts. in the feather-hyacinth, _muscari comosum_, var., _monstrosum_, the absence of flowers is compensated for by the inordinate formation of brightly coloured threads which appear to be modified pedicels (see pp. , ); so also in the wig plant, _rhus cotinus_. so the atrophy of the stamens, in some flowers, is coincident with the hypertrophy of the pistil. thus, unger, 'denkschr. d. kais. acad. der wissensch. math. nat. classe,' mai , , p. , tab. ix, describes a case wherein the corolla and stamens of _desmodium marylandicum_ were atrophied, while the calyx and legume, on the other hand, were hypertrophied. fusion of the members of one whorl with one another, or with the components of an adjacent series, often entails atrophy or suppression, either in the united organs themselves, or in adjacent ones. a foliaceous condition of the outer portions of a flower is very generally attended by atrophy or complete suppression of the inner portions. from this point of view the observations of morren[ ] on the different degrees of atrophy up to complete suppression, observable in the flowers of _bellevalia comosa_, are of importance. according to this observer, the most highly differentiated parts, such as the stigmas, the ovules, and the anthers, are the first to disappear, the filaments often being developed without anthers. ultimately a deformed and empty perianth alone remains. in the ordinary course of things the mouth of the perianth is open, but in some of these malformations it is closed, and when that happens, the effects of atrophy are the more observable in the stamens and pistils. the impotence of the pollen in certain atrophied flowers, as noticed by the same observer, is of much interest, especially in reference to the sexual relationship between the different forms in polymorphic flowers as studied by mr. darwin. a change in direction may also be noted as a common accompaniment of atrophy or suppression; thus, in a capsule of _veronica beccabunga_, which was one-celled by the abortion of one carpel, the style was lateral instead of terminal. as to the causes of these structural deviations but little is known; certain of them have been already alluded to. in some cases atrophy and suppression maybe regarded as permanent states of a condition usually transitory, but this is clearly not always the case. among external causes anything bringing about an enfeebled condition might be supposed to lead to atrophy, or suppression of some parts. gaertner[ ] attributes the arrested development and fall of flowers to some among the following causes:-- . non-application of the pollen of the same variety, and consequent imperfect fertilisation; . any considerable injury to the calyx, &c.; . destruction of the style or stigma before the fertilisation of the ovary; . application to the stigma of imperfect or heterogeneous pollen or indifferent pulverulent matter; . defective conceptive power in the ovary. abortion of the ovules is considered by the same authority to be due to-- . deficiency of heat; . excess of moisture; . peculiar formation of the ovary; . over-luxuriant development of roots or buds; . peculiar conditions of cultivation; thus, cuttings and layers produce sterile and abortive seeds much more frequently than plants of the same species raised from seed; . abortion of the seed is often combined with luxuriant development of the walls of the fruit. temperature and climatal changes in general seem not to be without effect, as has been already mentioned in the case of _arenaria tetraquetra_, which is polygamous when growing in mountain districts. other illustrations of a similar character are mentioned under the head of heterogamy (p. ). pressure has been already alluded to as one of the most obvious of the inducing causes of atrophy and suppression. in the case of _ranunculus auricomus_ before cited, in which the petals are rarely perfect, m. de rochebrune considers that the deficiencies in question depend, in great measure, on the amount of moisture in the localities where the plant grows. in most places the flowers and carpels are apt to become more or less abortive, while the leaves are luxuriant; while, in dry places, the foliage is small, but the flowers are more perfect. this is quite consonant with other facts relating to the development of flowers or of leaves in general. but while external agencies undoubtedly play some part in bringing about these changes, it is almost certain that internal causes inherent to the organization of the plant are more important. mr. darwin[ ] accounts for the existence of rudimentary organs by the operation of the general rule of inheritance, and explains their stunted condition as the effect of disuse, not so much, of course, in the particular flower as in its predecessors. this disuse may be the result of the superior efficacy of foreign pollen as contrasted with that formed in the individual flower itself. in this way many hermaphrodite flowers tend to become dioecious, as in _caryophyllaceæ_, _orchidaceæ_, _plantaginaceæ_, _primulaceæ_ and other orders. although many of the circumstances above mentioned apply to plants whose structure is habitually rudimentary, there is no reason why they may not, under due restrictions, be applied to plants whose organs are only occasionally defective. for further remarks on the subject of abortion, the reader is referred to the sections relating to suppression, etc., also to moquin-tandon, 'el. terat. veget.,' p. ; c. morren, "de l'atrophie en général," in 'bull. acad. belg.,' t. xviii, , part i, p. . footnotes: [ ] 'el. ter. veg.,' p. . [ ] _spinosæ arbores cultura sæpius deponunt spinas in hortis_, 'linn. phil. bot.,' § . [ ] mr. selby, in his 'history of british forest trees,' p. , gives the following account of the formation of this peculiar growth:--"in the autumn the parent aphis deposits her eggs at the base of the embryo leaves, within the bud destined to produce the shoots of the following year. when these begin to burst and expand in spring, the leaves, at whose bases the eggs have been deposited, instead of increasing in length, enlarge at the base, and form a cell or cyst whose mouth is at first closed by a red velvety-looking substance. if opened in this state a nest of small greenish aphides is distinctly visible, and at a certain period, or when they have acquired maturity, which is towards the end of the summer, the mouth of the cell opens and the insects fly off to inflict a similar injury upon the nascent buds of the year. in some instances the leaves of only a portion of the circumference of a shoot are affected, in which case, though a slight distortion may take place, the branch is not prevented from elongating; but in others, where the whole of the leaves around the shoot are converted into nidi, elongation is prevented and distortion to a great extent takes place." [ ] see cramer, 'bildungsabweich.,' pp. , , for further references. [ ] 'el. ter. veg.,' p. . [ ] schlechtendal, 'bot. zeit.,' , vol. xv, p. . [ ] on the subject of this paragraph the reader may consult a. braun, "ueber abnorme blattbildung," &c., in 'verhandl.,' d. , 'naturforscherversammlung;' jaeger, 'flora,' . p. , tab. , _digitalis_. [ ] 'org. veget.,' i. p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. france, vol. viii, , p. . [ ] 'linnæa,' , vol. v, p. . [ ] 'mus. senkenb.,' ii. p. . [ ] 'bull. acad. roy. belg.,' , t. xviii. part i, p. . [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. france,' vol. viii, , p. . [ ] see darwin, 'variation of domest. anim. and plants,' ii, . [ ] gay, 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser. i, , t. iii, p. . [ ] see de candolle, 'mem. legum.,' tab. , f. ; wyville thomson, 'trans. bot. soc. edinb.,' , july th; berkeley, 'gardeners' chronicle,' june nd, , p. . a similar case is described by dr. robb, in sir w. hooker's 'journal of botany,' , vol. iii, p. , with illustrative figures. the specimens there described were produced at new brunswick, where plum trees flower very freely, but seldom produce ripe fruit. dr. robb's account is as follows:--"in the summer of i had an opportunity of watching the process of destruction among the plums, and it was as follows--before or soon after the segments of the corolla had fallen off, the ovarium had become greenish yellow, soft, and flabby. as the fruit continued to increase in magnitude, its colour grew darker and of a more ruddy yellow, and at the end of a fortnight or three weeks the size of the abortive fruit rather exceeded that of a ripe walnut. in fact, an observer might imagine himself to be walking amongst trees laden with ripe apricots, but, like the fabled fruit on the banks of the dead sea, these plums, though tempting to the eye, when examined, were found to be hollow, containing air, and consisting only of a distended skin, insipid, and tasteless. by-and-bye a greenish mould is developed on the surface of the blighted fruit; then the surface becomes black and shrivelled, and at the expiration of a month from the time of flowering the whole are rotten and decomposed. the flower appears about the beginning of june, and before august there is hardly a plum to be seen. it is curious that where two flower-stalks arise from one point of the branch, one will often go on to ripen in the normal way, while the other will become abortive, as above described." in a specimen described by mr. berkeley there were two distinct ovules of equal size close to the apex of the fruit, connected with the base by vessels running down the walls. it should be observed that there is a worthless variety of plum, kirke's stoneless, or sans noyau, in which the kernel is not surrounded by any bony deposit. [ ] 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' , vol. ix, pp. et . [ ] carl schimp, 'fl. friburg,' vii, p. ; hook, fil., 'journ. linn. soc.,' vi, p. . [ ] 'linnæa,' vol. v, , p. . [ ] moquin-tandon, 'el. ter. veg.,' p. . [ ] alph. de candolle states that the position of the abortive ovules affords a good character for discriminating between certain species of _quercus_, 'bibl. univ. genev.,' , t. xv, p. . [ ] see moore, 'nature-printed ferns,' vo, for numerous illustrations both of depauperate and exindusiate ferns. _scolopendrium vulgare_ seems to be one of the ferns most commonly affected in this way. moore, loc. cit., vol. ii, pp. , , , , &c. [ ] 'bull. acad. belg.,' t. xvii, p. , t. ; lobelia, p. . [ ] cited in 'henfrey's botanical gazette,' i, p. . [ ] 'origin of species,' p. . chapter ii. degeneration. while the terms atrophy and abortion apply in the main to a mere diminution of size, as contrasted with the ordinary standard, degeneration may be understood to apply to those cases in which not only is the absolute bulk diminished, but the whole form is altered and depauperated. degeneration, thus, is the result not so much of a deficiency in growth as of a perversion of development. under natural, _i.e._ habitual circumstances, the formation of pappus in place of a leafy calyx may be considered as an illustration of degeneration. it is evident, however, that no very decided line of demarcation can be drawn between cases of perversion and of arrest of development. =formation of scales.=--these may be mere epidermal excrescences, or they may be the abortive rudiments of leaves. of this latter nature are the "cataphyllary" leaves which invest the root stocks of so many perennial plants, the perulæ of leaf-buds, or the paleæ on the common receptacle of composite flowers. other illustrations of a like character are to be met with in the membranous scales that represent leaves in _ruscus_, _asparagus_, _pinus_, &c. similar productions are met with within the flower, where they may occur as the representatives of sepals, petals, stamens, or pistils, or as mere excrescences. (see enation.) whole families of plants, _e.g._ _sapindaceæ_, are characterised by the presence of these organs, which are often of great interest to the morphologist as indicating the true symmetry of the flower, while they have acquired fresh importance since the publication of mr. darwin's work on the 'origin of species,' wherein we are taught to regard these rudiments as, in many cases, vestiges of organs that were more completely developed in the progenitors of the present race of plants, and the exercise of whose functions, from some cause or other, having been rendered impossible, the structures become, in process of time, proportionately stunted. thus, in dioecious plants we frequently find traces of stamens in the female flowers, and rudiments of the pistil in the male flower, indicating, according to the darwinian hypothesis, that the ancestors of these plants were hermaphrodite (see heterogamy). mr. darwin has also shown that, in some cases, the utmost degree of fertility is attained, not from the action of the pollen on the stigma of the same flower, but on the influence of the male element of one blossom upon the female organs of another flower on another individual plant. hence, in such plants there is a tendency to a separation of the sexes, while, from what has been before stated, it might be expected that rudiments of the male or female organs would be found, and also as a result of the operation of the law of inheritance. on the same principles it is easy to understand the occasional presence of the perfect in place of the rudimentary organs, as in _dianthus_. in some instances the assumption of a scale-like form by any organ is attended by a change in texture, the organs becoming dry and scarious, or fleshy. moquin cites in illustration of the first phenomenon the flower of a _vicia_, in which the petals were thick and fleshy, like the scales of a bulb; and of the second the leaves of a _chrysanthemum_, which were replaced by small, glossy scales, like those which invest ordinary leaf-buds. sometimes the entire flower is replaced by accumulations of small, acute, green scales. cases of this kind, wherein the flowers of a pea and of the foxglove were replaced by collections of small ovate green scales packed one over the other till they resembled the strobile of a hop, have been already alluded to. most of these scales are represented as having had other accumulations of scales in their axils. similar collections of scales may frequently be met with in the birch and in the oak, and probably represent abortive leaf-buds. other cases of a like kind in _gentiana amarella_, where the scales are coloured, are mentioned elsewhere. in some kinds of _campanula_ a similar change is not uncommon. =formation of hairs, spines, &c.=--the adventitious production of hairs is likewise frequently due to an arrested growth, in some cases arising from pressure impeding the proper development of the organ. in other cases the formation of hair seems to accompany the diminished development of some organ, as on the barren pedicels of the wig plant, _rhus cotinus_. a similar production of hair may be noticed in many cases where the development of a branch or of a flower is arrested, and this occurs with especial frequency where the arrest in growth is due to the puncture of an insect, or to the formation of a gall. in such cases the hairs are mere excrescences from the epidermis. prickles differ but little from hairs save in their more woody texture, but true spines or thorns are modifications either of a leaf or of a branch. their presence seems often dependent on the soil in which the plants grow, or on other external circumstances. they occur normally in the sepals of _paronychia serpyllifolia_ and other plants. =formation of glands.=--under this name are associated a number of (generally) rudimentary organs very different in their morphological nature and significance, and also in their functions. some are truly glandular or secreting organs, while others have no visible office. anything like a complete account of these structures would be out of place, and reference is only made to them here on account of the occasional existence of intermediate forms, which throw light on the morphological significance of these structures. thus, in _passiflora_ and _viburnum opulus_, the so-called glands on the sides of the petiole appear to represent leaflets, and are not unfrequently developed as such. m. dunal observed a flower of _cistus vaginatus_ in which some of the stamens were replaced by an hypogynous disc.[ ] moquin has seen similar instances in the flowers of a rose, _hypericum_, and poppy. m. planchon[ ] gives an account of some very curious malformations in _drosera intermedia_, which go to show that the ovules are homologous with the glandular hairs on the margins of the leaves of these plants, an opinion corroborated by the researches of mm. grönland and trécul.[ ] dr. hooker shows that the pitcher of _nepenthes_ is due to a modification of a gland placed at the extremity of the midrib.[ ] =formation of tendrils.=--these are of very varied morphological import; sometimes they are degenerated peduncles, as in passion-flowers, or vines; at other times they are of foliar origin; or, again, they may proceed from the segments of the perianth, as in _hodgsonia_ and some other cucurbitaceous plants. from their very different origin in different plants it is necessary to study the development in each case, and not apply to the generality what may be peculiar to one. in any case this formation in question generally belongs more to general morphology than to teratology.[ ] kirschleger, however, has recorded the existence of a cirrhose sepal in _cucurbita pepo_.[ ] footnotes: [ ] 'consid. org. fleur.,' p. , pl. ii, fig. . [ ] 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser., bot. ix, pl. , ff. , . [ ] 'ann. sc. nat.,' ser., bot. , pp. , et . [ ] 'trans. linn. soc.,' xxii, p. . [ ] see darwin, "on climbing plants," 'journal of linnean society,' vol. ix, p. . [ ] 'flora,' , p. . general conclusions. at the end of many of the preceding sections, and whenever the requirements of the case demanded it, a brief summary of the main facts and of the inferences to be derived from them has been given. it may be useful to give in conclusion a few general remarks on the whole subject. it will be seen from the numerous facts herein cited, that the so-called monstrous formations (excluding morbid growths the result of disease or injury) present no peculiarities absolutely foreign to the normal organisation of plants. the difference between the natural and monstrous development is one of degree and frequency of occurrence, not of kind. deviations from the customary form have been shown to arise from excessive or diminished growth, or from arrested or exalted development. even in those instances where, for convenience' sake, the term perverted development has been used, it must be understood as applying only to the particular plant or organ under consideration, as the form assumed is perfectly in accordance with the ordinary conformation of some other plant or group of plants. the period at which malformations occur is a matter of some importance; this is, indeed, implied in the term arrest of development; evolution goes on with growth up to a certain point and is then stopped, and thus changes are brought about in the part affected of a different nature from those dependent on non-development or suppression. some malformations are congenital, therefore, while others are acquired--in the former instance the disturbance is coeval in origin, and contemporaneous in its growth and development, with those of the affected part; in the latter case the organ may have attained its ordinary degree of perfection, or at least may have advanced some way towards it, before any deviation shows itself. true chorisis or fission, for instance, is usually a congenital affection, arising at a very early period of development, while enation takes place from structures which are all but complete as to their organisation, even though they may not have attained their full dimensions. the date of appearance is also of consequence in determining the true nature of some changes; it does not always follow, for instance, that because one organ occupies the position of another, it is of the same nature as the one whose place it fills. the presence of anthers on petals or on such organs as the corona of _narcissus_ does not necessarily constitute those parts actual stamens, but rather staminodes. the true stamens are either wanting, or if present, they are in advance of their imitators as regards their development. =general morphology of the leaf and axis. homology.= since the time when goethe's generalisations were adopted by a. p. de caudolle, special attention has been given to the form and mode of development of the leaf-organ; for as it was well said by wolff, if once the course of evolution and the structure of the leaf were known, those of the parts of the flower would follow as a matter of course. it is not necessary, in this place, to pursue the subject of the development and construction of the leaf further than they are illustrated by ordinary teratological phenomena. from this point of view perhaps the most interesting circumstance is the part that the sheath of the leaf plays.[ ] in many cases of so-called metamorphosis, it is the sheath of the leaf that is represented and not the blade. in normal anatomy the sepals, petals, carpels, and even the stamens, as a general rule, correspond to the sheath rather than to the blade of the leaf, as may be seen by the arrangement of the veins. the blade of the leaf seems to be set apart for special respiratory and absorbent offices, while the sheath is in structure, if not in office, more akin to the stem. it would not be easy apart from their position to distinguish between a tubular sheathing leaf and a hollow stem. the development of adventitious growths by chorisis or enation has been frequently alluded to in the foregoing pages, and many illustrations have been given of the power that leaves have of branching in more than one plane, owing to the projection of secondary growing-points from the primary organ. these new centres of development are closely connected with the fibro-vascular system of the leaf, so that no sooner does a new growing point originate, than vessels are formed to connect the new growth with the general fibrous cord, see pp. , . this leads m. casimir de candollo to consider the entire leaf as a composite structure. the morphological unit, says he, is the cellular protrusion or growing point (_saillie_) and its corresponding fibro-vascular bundle.[ ] the identity, in a morphological point of view, of the leaves and the lateral parts of the flower is so thoroughly recognised that little need be said on that score, save to repeat that the homology of the floral organs is usually not so much with the entire leaf as with its sheath. the most singular instances of morphological identity are those relating to the sexual organs. we have seen the gradual transition of stamens to pistils, and of pistils to stamens, the development of ovules on the edges of the anther, the co-existence of pollen with ovules on an antheroid body, and, stranger still, the actual development of pollen within the tissues of the ovule itself! from such facts, in addition to what we know of the relative position, internal structure, and mode of development of the organs, it is impossible to avoid coming to the conclusion that, however distinctly these parts may, under ordinary circumstances, be set apart for the performance of distinct functions, morphologically they are homologous. these ideas may be carried yet farther--the same sort of evidence, which is adduced in support of the morphological identity of leaves with the parts of the flower, may be advanced in confirmation of the opinion, that, morphologically, there is no distinction between axis and leaf. the leaf, according to this view, is a specialised portion of the axis set apart to do certain work, just as the petals, stamens, &c., are leaves told off for distinct uses. it is unnecessary to refer to the intermediate productions linking the leaf-form to that of the axis, all that is requisite here is to point out the facts that teratology lends in support of these views. these may be summed up by the statement that almost all those attributes which morphologists recognise as peculiar to one or the other organ respectively, may be and are manifested by both. we have the stem acquiring the characters of the leaf, and the leaf those of the stem. thus we have seen leaves, leaf-buds, branches, and flower-buds springing from leaves or leaf-organs;[ ] see pp. , , , &c. the structure that we are apt to associate exclusively with one is found to pertain to the other. the arrangement of the vascular cords in the leaf-organ finds its counterpart in the axis, generally, it is true, modified to suit altered circumstances or diverse purposes. in some cases the disposition is absolutely indistinguishable in the two organs. it may then be said that the distinctions usually drawn between axis and leaf are not absolute, and that, however necessary such a separation may be for descriptive or physiological purposes, morphologically the two organs are identical. again, it may be said that leaf and axis are two phases of the same organ,--an organ capable of existing in its undifferentiated state in the form of a thallus among cryptogams, but which in the higher groups of plants becomes marked out into separate portions, each portion having its own distinct functions to fulfil for the common benefit of the whole organisation.[ ] =special morphology.=--under this heading brief reference may be made to some of the organs whose morphological nature has been, and still is, much contested. it is clear that for the due elucidation of these matters, development and the comparative investigation of similar structures in different plants must be studied. teratological data by themselves can no more be trusted to give a correct solution of any particular question, than the evidence furnished by other departments of botanical science taken separately. with this statement by way of caution, allusion may be made to some of the organs whose morphological construction is illustrated by the facts recorded in the present volume. =calyx-tube.=--in descriptive botany it is the common practice to speak of a calyx-tube, by which is meant a tubular or sheathing portion at the base of the flower, below the sepals or calyx-lobes, and distinct or inseparable from the ovary. the question morphology has to solve is whether this tubular structure is to be considered as a portion of the axis, or whether it is to be regarded as composed of the confluent bases of the sepals. mr. bentham, who has recently reviewed the evidence as to the nature of the calyx-tube in his paper on _myrtaceæ_,[ ] still holds to the notion that the "calyx-tube" or "hypanthium" is formed from the concretion of the basal portions of the sepals. he founds his conclusions upon such facts as the following: the circumstance that the point of origin of the leaf is not always the same as the point of disarticulation or separation from the axis, inasmuch as the basal portion of the leaf is often adherent to the stem for some distance, though still recognisable as foliar not axial in its nature. in the same manner, the corolla and androecium may be concrete at the base, so that the stamens are for convenience' sake described as inserted into the tube of the corolla, though it is generally admitted that both stamens and petals are really hypogynous, and it is not usual to consider the corolla-tube up to the divergence of the stamens as part of the receptacle. a similar remark applies to the carpels and placentas. mr. bentham further considers that the gradual disconnection of the various whorls, that may be traced in many plants, is a further proof of concretion, rather than of expansion of the axis, but this argument may fairly be met by the consideration that the several whorls emerge at different heights.[ ] organs originally free and distinct become ultimately combined at the base by the gradual protrusion from the receptacle of a ring or tube under them, as in the stamens of _leguminosæ_; yet, says mr. bentham, no one would propose to describe the staminal tube of monadelphous _leguminosæ_ as part of the receptacle and not of the stamens. perhaps not, for descriptive purposes, but morphologically it would not be easy to separate such a tube from the receptacle. the principal kinds of malformation which have a bearing on this subject are mentioned at pp. - and , from which it may be seen that the evidence furnished by teratology is conflicting. it would seem, indeed, that while in some families of plants there may be a real calyx-tube, in others the tubular portion is a sheath-like prolongation of the axis. in _primula_ or _pedicularis_, where the venation is clearly laminar, the tubular portion is distinctly calycine. in other cases the so-called calyx-tube seems as certainly to be an expansion of the receptacle, as in _rosaceæ_, _myrtaceæ_, _melastomaceæ_, _passiflora_,[ ] &c. where the petals and stamens are described as being inserted into the throat of the calyx, or are perigynous, it may be assumed as a general rule, subject to but few exceptions, that the so-called calyx-tube is really a portion of the receptacle.[ ] after all, this is very much a question of words, and for the following reasons,--very often the base of the calyx does evidently form a tube, and no one can say where the calyx ends and the receptacle begins. again, many leaves are known to originate in the form of a ring-like protrusion from the axis, and from this primary ring originate secondary developments. thus the asserted difference between a leaf, with such a history of development, and an axial structure becomes obliterated. from this point of view, peltate leaves like those of _tropæolum_ or _nelumbium_ become very significant. in both the leaf-stalk is cylindrical and traversed, as in the case of all cylindrical leaf-stalks, by a circle of fibro-vascular cords, as in a branch, and which radiate in all directions in the blade of the leaf. now, if (as often happens to a slight extent) the central portion of the leaf were much depressed, owing to the disproportionate growth of the peripheral, as contrasted with the central portions, we should have a funnel-like or tubular formation, precisely similar to many of the so-called calyx-tubes. and, if we further suppose new growths to originate from the sides of this funnel or tube, by chorisis or enation, we should have the homologue of a tubular calyx, to the inner surface of which are attached petals, stamens, &c. from the consideration of circumstances such as these just detailed, together with that of the arrangement of the vascular cords, m. casimir de candolle arrives at the conclusion that the calyx-tube is a ring-like projection from an axis whose further direct development is arrested. the secondary projections or growing-points correspond to the several fibro-vascular cords of the primary ring, and are ultimately developed into sepals, petals, stamens and ovaries (see pp. , ). =androecium.=--the main points of morphological interest relating to the androecium, referred to in this volume, are those concerning the structure of the anther (see p. ), the compound nature of the stamens in some orders (see pp. , ), and the nature of the androecium in orchids (see p. ). =inferior ovary.=--is the pistil always foliar in its morphological nature, or is it, in some cases, as schleiden taught, formed from the axis alone? to a great extent the reply to this question is dependent on the conclusions that may be arrived at as to the true nature of the calyx-tube. considered from a teratological point of view, there is no reason for considering the inferior ovary to be purely axial. on the contrary, the evidence derived from this source supports the ordinary opinion that the carpels are invaginated within the expanded top of the flower-stalk and more or less adherent to it. some of the gourds afford good illustrations of this, the upper part of the carpels in these fruits projecting beyond the axial portion. but this matter loses much of its importance if the morphological identity of axis and leaf-organ be conceded. the carpels in inferior ovaries seldom or never correspond to the lamina of the leaf, and between the vaginal portion of the carpellary leaf, and the axis who shall draw the distinction? =placentation.=--some botanists have considered the placentas to be portions of the carpel, and have compared the production of ovules on them to the formation of buds on the leaf of _bryophyllum_. others have been led to see in each placenta, even when it is, to all outward appearance, a portion of the carpellary leaf, a direct prolongation from the axis, adherent to the leaf. teratology shows that ovules may be formed indifferently on leaf-organs or on stem-organs. sutural, parietal, axile, free-central placentation, and, if there be more forms, all may be met with even in the same ovary (see pp. , ). now, if there were such special tendencies in the axis, as contrasted with the leaf, to produce ovules, it is hardly likely that such anomalous arrangements as those just mentioned would be as frequent as they are. but as leaves produce other leaves, from their edges or their surfaces, and as they form buds in the same situations, just as axial organs do,[ ] there is surely little ground for considering the placentas, or ovuliferous portions of the plant, to be of necessity axial. here again, much of the difficulty vanishes if the morphological identity of the leaf-form and of the stem-form be admitted. =structure of the ovule.=--the nature of the ovule and of its coverings has been a fertile source of controversy. the teratological data bearing on this subject have been given at pp. - . these data strongly support the notion of the foliar nature of the coatings, and of the axial nature of the nucleus, taking leaf and axis either in the ordinary sense, or as modifications one of the other. it has been shown that the ovular coats may themselves become carpels, and that ovules may be developed upon ovules, p. . whether the intra-carpellary siliques of _cheiranthus_, not uncommonly met with (p. ), are instances of ovular transmutation may be open to doubt. the axial nature of the nucleus has been inferred from its position, mode of growth, and from its occasionally lengthening into a leafy or even a floriferous shoot. probably it may occasionally be invested by sheathing coats, more analogous to tubular processes from the receptacle, than to foliar organs, as is the case in _welwitschia_. the discussion of this matter, however, pertains rather to normal morphology than to teratology. =morphology of conifers.=--the nature of the pseudo-leaves of _sciadopitys_, and probably of other conifers, is illustrated by teratology, as also is the true constitution of the scale of the cone (see pp. , , ), though it must be admitted that little or no light is thrown on that much-contested point--the true nature of the ovule of gymnosperms. =relative position of organs.=--when organs are considered, not separately, but in their relations to each other, the appearances presented are referable to similar causes. thus, the separation of parts usually united has been shown to depend on an excess of development, the persistent union of parts, usually separate in the adult state, has been traced to an arrest of the process of development, by no means necessarily coexistent with diminished growth. the diminished or increased number of parts is, in like manner, attributable to analogous causes, as also are the variations in arrangement and form, spoken of under the heads of displacement, peloria, substitution, &c. in the instance of displacements, it has been shown how slight a change is required to transform the so-called inferior ovary into a superior one. a defective development of the top of the flower-stalk in some cases, in others a lack of union between the tube of the receptacle or of the calyx (comprising in those terms not only the apex of the receptacle, but the base of the sepals) and the carpels, suffice to bring about this change in a character which for systematic purposes is of great value. =law of alternation.=--the circumstances that interfere with the law of alternation may be briefly alluded to. the deviations from the customary arrangement have been very generally attributed to suppression, or to chorisis. it is unquestionable that either of these affords an efficient explanation of the arrangement in question, as also does that modification of chorisis, as it may be considered, which has been treated of under the head of enation. spiral torsion of the axis would likewise bring about analogous results. still, it is quite conceivable that opposition or superposition of organs may occur without the intervention of any such operations. this will be the more readily conceded when it is remembered that the phyllotaxis of leaves not unfrequently varies on different branches of the same individual tree, and that a similar variation in the flower would at once disturb the customary alternate arrangement. coalescence of the vascular bundles in an unusual manner, and an irregular disposition of these cords have also been considered to bring about deviations from the rule of alternation, but in general the formation of the cords is subsequent to that of the growing points or mamelons. adhesions, accompanied by displacements, occasionally produce similar deviations, the nature of which is usually easily detected. =co-relation.=--the importance of this subject first prominently brought into notice by geoffroy st. hilaire gains in force daily. rarely is a malformation an isolated phenomenon, almost always it is associated, from the operations of cause or effect, with some others. instances of this co-relation have been cited in the preceding pages, and many more might have been mentioned, had the consideration of the relationship between form and function formed part of the plan of this volume. a change in itself slight, often acquires importance from its association with other alterations. this is particularly well seen in the case of the receptacle. let an ordinarily concave thalamus remain, from defective development, flat, and how great the change in the appearance of the flower. let the usually contracted receptacle be lengthened, and the whole aspect of the flowers so affected is altered to such an extent that, were their history not known, botanists would have no hesitation in assigning them to widely separate groups in their schemes of classification. peloria, too, of either form, affords excellent illustrations of the co-existence of one changed condition with another. not only is the form of one set of organs altered, but the number, the relative proportion, and the direction of the other organs of the flower are altered likewise.[ ] not only is the whole symmetry changed, but the physiological operations carried on in the flower undergo corresponding alterations. there are certain co-relations which do not appear to have hitherto attracted the attention they merit; such, for instance, is that which exists between the particular period at which an organ is developed and its position and form. in normal morphology this has, to some extent, been worked out, as in the case of definite and indefinite, centrifugal and centripetal inflorescences, and in the definite or indefinite formation of shoots, &c. other instances may be cited in the frequent co-existence of regular flowers and definite inflorescence, the terminal position of many peloriated flowers, the relationship between indefinite inflorescence and prolongation of the axis, &c. again, the simultaneous evolution of the parts of the flower and their consequent verticillate arrangement, are often associated with the production of different forms from those characteristic of organs developed in succession, and, in consequence, arranged spirally. in the case of simultaneous development we meet with a repetition of whorls, as in what are termed hose-in-hose flowers (flores duplicati, triplicati, &c.), and also with cases of peloria. in instances where the organs are formed successively in spiral order, we meet with such changes as median prolification, petalody, and phyllody. all these are alterations which we might anticipate from the activity of the growing point being checked at a certain stage in the one case, while it is continuous in the other. this relationship between the definite and indefinite modes of growth and the form of the several organs of the flower, is more constant in reality than it may appear to be from a perusal of the lists of genera in the foregoing pages, in which it was not possible to show sufficiently well the comparative frequency of any given changes in individual plants. had it been possible to give statistics setting forth the frequency of certain deviations in plants or groups having a particular organisation, as compared with the rarity of their occurrence in other plants of a different conformation, these co-relationships would have been rendered much more evident. a hundred different plants, for instance, may be named in any particular list, of which fifty shall be of one type of structure, and the remainder of another. and the co-relative changes in each fifty may appear to be evenly balanced, but so far is this from being the case, that the frequency of the occurrence of a particular change, in one species in the list, may be so great as far to exceed the instances of its manifestation in all the rest put together. this difficulty is only very partially obviated by the addition of the * to signify especial frequency of occurrence of any given malformation in the plants to whose names it is affixed. =compensation.=--but little further need be said on this head. an atrophied condition of one part is generally associated with an hypertrophied condition of another, and scarcely a change takes place in one direction, but it is associated with an inverse alteration in some other. this principle is not universal, and its application must not be unduly strained. it requires specially to be considered in reference to differences in the degree or kind of functional activity exercised by the organs implicated--points beyond the scope of the present volume. =teratology and classification.=--lastly, there remain to be mentioned the bearings of teratology on systematic botany. there are those who would entirely exclude teratology from such matters. it may be expedient to do so when the object sought is one of convenience and facility of determination only, but when broader considerations are concerned, teratology must no more be banished than variation. in most instances the one differs but in degree from the other. if variation affords aid in our speculations as to the affinities and genealogical descent of species and other groups, so does teratology, and in a far higher degree. take the characters of exogens as distinct from endogens; even under ordinary circumstances, no absolute distinction can be drawn between them. there are plants normally of an intermediate character, while, to take exceptional instances, there are exogens with the leaves and flowers of endogens, and endogens whose outward organisation, at any rate, assimilates them to exogens. diclinous or monochlamydeous plants owe their imperfect conformation to suppression, and may become structurally complete by a species of peloria. structurally hermaphrodite flowers become unisexual by suppression, or are rendered incomplete by the non-development of one or more of their floral whorls. hypogynous flowers become perigynous by adhesion, or by lack of separation; perigynous ones become hypogynous by an early detachment from the receptacle that bears them, or by the arrested development of an ordinarily cup-like receptacle. how the relative position of the carpels and the calyx may be altered has already been alluded to, as has also the circumstance that while it is common to find an habitually inferior or adherent ovary becoming superior or free, it is much more rare to find the superior ovary adherent to the receptacle or to the calyx.[ ] regular and irregular peloria, too, serve to show how slight are the boundaries, not only between different genera, but also between different families. while, therefore, teratology may be an unsafe guide in strictly artificial schemes, it is obvious that its teachings should have great weight in all philosophical systems of classification. the questions will constantly arise, does such and such a form represent the ancestral condition of certain plants? is it a reversion to that form? or is it, on the other hand, the starting point of new forms? such questions cannot receive at present any satisfactory answer, but the evidence we have seems to indicate that pre-existing forms were simpler, and less specialised in structure than those now existing, and hence if we meet with malformations of a simple kind, we may consider them as possible reversions; while, if they present features of increased complexity, and more sharply defined differentiation, we may assume them to be evidences of a progressive rather than of a retrogressive tendency. that monstrosities so called may become the starting points of new forms is proved by circumstance that, in many cases, the peculiarities are inherited so that a new "race" is produced and perpetuated: and if a new race, why not a new species? the difference is one of degree only. footnotes: [ ] see clos., 'bull. soc. bot. fr.,' , vol. iii, p. . [ ] 'théorie de la feuille,' p. . [ ] an additional illustration of this may be cited, which has been brought under the notice of the writer by dr. welwitsch recently, and in which some of the leaflets of the pinnate leaf of a species of _macrolobium_ were absent, and their place supplied by flowers arranged in cymes. [ ] the presence of a bud at the extremity once considered to be an absolute distinction between branch and leaf, which latter never forms a bud exactly at the apex--is invalidated by the case of the nepaul barley, p. . [ ] 'journ. linn. soc.,' vol. x, p. _et seq._ [ ] see also the receptacular tube (ovary?) of _bæckea_ bearing stamens, see p. . it would be natural to see stamens springing from the receptacle but not from the ovary. [ ] in _passiflora_ the organogeny of the flower clearly shows the truth of this assertion, as was indeed shown by payer and schleiden. [ ] see payer, 'organ. veget.' [ ] it must, however, be borne in mind that no true leaf-organ has yet been seen with a bud at its exact apex (unless it be the nepaul barley), while in the case of an axial organ such a position of the bud is constant. the nearest approach is in the case of impari-pinnate leaves in which the terminal leaflet is jointed to the common rachis, and in the leaves of some _meliaceæ_ which continue to push forth new leaflets even after the leaf has attained maturity. [ ] a singular instance of co-relation was shown by mr. saunders at the scientific committee of the royal horticultural society, february th, , in a hyacinth with perfectly green, long, tubular, erect, not horizontally spreading flowers. [ ] an illustration of this latter nature in the case of a cherry, which was surmounted by the calyx lobes, precisely as in the case of a pomaceous fruit, has been given at p. , _adnot._ appendix double flowers.[ ] in ordinary language, the epithet double flowers is applied to flowers of very varied structural conformation. the most common conditions rendering a flower double, in the popular acceptation of the term, are substitutions of petals or petal-like bodies for stamens and pistils, one or both. (see petalody, p. .) another very common mode of doubling is brought about by a real or apparent augmentation in the number of petals, as by multiplication, fission, or chorisis. (see pp. , , , .) sometimes even the receptacle of the flower within the outer corolla, divides, each subdivision becoming the centre of a new series of petals, as in some very luxuriant camellias and anemones. the isolation of organs which, under ordinary circumstances, are united together, is another circumstance, giving rise, in popular parlance, to the use of the term double flower. (see adesmy, solution, pp. , , .) prolification is another very frequent occurrence in the case of these flowers, while still other forms arise from laciniation of the petals, or from the formation of excrescences from the petals or stamens, in the form of supplementary petal-like lobes. (see enation, p. .) as these matters are all treated of under their respective headings, it is not necessary to allude to them again in detail. it may be well, however, to allude, in general terms, to the causes which have been assigned by various writers for their formation, and to the means which have been adopted by practical experimenters to secure the production of the flowers often so much esteemed by the florist. it must be admitted that, in spite of all that has been written on the subject, but very little is known about these matters. in the case of the stock the following means have been adopted by cultivators in order to obtain plants bearing double instead of single flowers. there is first the crossing of single flowers with double ones, effected by planting a double-flowered plant in proximity to a single-flowered one; but this, it is obvious, could lead to no important results, since the double flowers, having no pollen, could not possibly influence the seed, which is borne only by the single-flowered plants. another plan is the degustation of the buds, that is to say, the chewing of the well-formed buds; it is held that the single plants can be recognised by their sweeter taste and greater consistence, and may thus be weeded out; but there is at least the disadvantage attending this method, that the plants, single as well as double, must all be grown up to the period when these buds are tolerably well advanced. a third method which has been adopted is, that of sowing the seeds at a particular lunar epoch, great confidence being placed in the plan of planting them during the last quarter of the moon, but such confidence is found to be misplaced. the plan of removing the stamens has had its supporters, but as this must be done at an early stage of development, and could only influence the result by diverting the vital force which would be expended in the maturation of the pollen, to the perfecting of the seeds, it is obvious that the plan is impracticable for all ordinary purposes, even if in any degree efficient, which from the plasticity of vegetable development, and the faculty of doubling which is inherent in the stock family, is not at all improbable. still another mark, the presence of a fifth petal in the single or seed-bearing flower, has been held to indicate the assurance of obtaining a crop of double-flowered plants from seeds saved from flowers possessing this peculiarity. to a certain extent, doubtless, this expectation would be realised, owing to the plasticity and inherent quality just alluded to, but the proportion would be too small for any useful practical purpose. "the gardeners of erfurt," observes m. chaté, who has written a book[ ] on the subject, in which he makes known a means of obtaining double-flowered stocks founded on more than fifty years' practice in his family, "have, for a long time, to a certain extent monopolised the sale of seeds of these plants. to obtain these seeds, the erfurt gardeners cultivate the flowers in pots, and place them on shelves in large greenhouses, giving them only sufficient water to prevent them from dying. so cultivated the plants become weakened, the pods shortened, and the seeds less numerous, and better ripened; and these seeds give from to per cent. of double flowers. "the seeds from these plants are said to be mostly of an abnormal shape, which is so striking that experienced cultivators are able to separate those which would furnish double flowers from those which would produce single ones." m. chaté's method, which he calls the french one, gives still greater results, viz.: per cent. of double flowers, and these produced by very simple means. "when my seeds," he observes, "have been chosen with care, i plant them, in the month of april, in good dry mould, in a position exposed to the morning sun, this position being the most favourable. at the time of flowering i nip off some of the flowering branches, and leave only ten or twelve pods on the secondary branches, taking care to remove all the small weak branches which shoot at this time. i leave none but the principal and the secondary branches to bear the pods. all the sap is employed in nourishing the seeds thus borne, which give a result of per cent. of double flowers. the pods under this management are thicker, and their maturation is more perfect. at the time of extracting the seeds the upper portion of the pod is separated and placed aside, because it has been ascertained that the plants coming from the seeds situated in this portion of the pod, give per cent. of single flowers. they yield, however, greater variety than the others. this plan of suppressing that part of the pod which yields single flowers in the largest proportion, greatly facilitates the recognition of the single-flowered plants, because there remains to be eliminated from among the seedlings only from to per cent. this separation of the single from the double-flowered plants, m. chaté tells us is not so difficult as might be supposed. the single stocks, he explains, have deep green leaves (glabrous in certain species), rounded at the top, the heart being in the form of a shuttlecock, and the plant stout and thickset in its general aspect, while the plants yielding double flowers have very long leaves of a light green colour, hairy, and curled at the edges, the heart consisting of whitish leaves, curved so that they enclose it completely. such is the substance of m. chaté's method of securing so large a proportion of double-flowered plants, and then of separating them from the remaining single ones--a method which commends itself to the good sense of the intelligent cultivator."[ ] signor rigamonti, a great cultivator of pinks, asserted that he was able to distinguish double from single-flowered pinks, in the seedling state. according to this gentleman, those seedlings which produce three cotyledons in a whorl in place of two, form double flowers. in the case of _primula sinensis_ the same results occurred. some had three leaves in a ring, others two; most had the leaves standing one over the other as usual. these were divided into three sets, and when they flowered, the first lot were all double, the second semi-double, the third single. but these statements have not been confirmed by other observers; and the writer can safely assert that seedling pinks occasionally produce three cotyledons, and subsequently single flowers. he has never observed a double flower under these circumstances, though it is true his experience in this matter has been but small. a writer in otto's 'gartenzeitung,' considers that double flowers are a consequence of dryness of soil and atmosphere, and not of a luxurious soil, rich in nutritious matter, having arrived at this conclusion from an observation of the following circumstances: "fifty years ago we saw _kerria japonica_ in a hothouse with single flowers. twenty years later we met with it in several gardens, in the open air, but always with double flowers. at this time we were assured that single-flowered plants were no more to be found in the whole of europe, and botanists forming herbaria offered considerable sums for a branch of _k. japonica_ with single flowers. we were requested to take the plant in hand for the purpose of inducing it to produce single flowers. we were advised to plant it out in a rich soil, which was done, but, by chance, the situation was sloping, consequently it did not retain moisture, and all the flowers produced for several years in succession were double. shortly after, the captain of an english ship again brought plants bearing normal flowers from japan, which were soon spread over the continent, and of which we received one plant. after three years all the young plants raised from cuttings were double-flowered. "in the year we several times visited a garden in the neighbourhood of vienna, well known on account of its plant culture. the gardener there possessed an immense plant of _camellia japonica_ with single flowers, and some small plants raised from this by cuttings, but no other variety of camellia. he fertilised the flowers with their own pollen, harvested seeds, which he sowed, and the plants raised from them were placed in an extremely dry, lofty conservatory, where, after some years, instead of producing single flowers, they all produced double ones. the seedlings and mother plant were planted in one and the same kind of earth, and some of the flowers on the old plant also showed an inclination to become double. "this, at that time, to us, enigmatical phenomenon, was kept in mind until we had an opportunity of instituting comparisons between the climate of japan and china and our own, and we then concluded that in the case of a plant imported from thence, and exposed to such different climatical influences, the origin of the greater or less imperfection of its sexual organs was probably owing to this change, as we had experienced in _kerria_ and _camellia_; and that the sterility of many other exotic plants might be attributed to the same cause. the difference in the climatical relations of japan and europe is very considerable. in japan, previous to the new growth of _kerria_ and _camellia_, a rainy season of three months' duration prevails; in europe, on the contrary, dry winds prevail especially in the eastern part, where our plains are often transformed into deserts. is it, therefore, remarkable that a plant introduced from japan into europe, exposed to the influences of this great diversity of climate, should produce imperfect sexual organs incapable of further propagating the plant from seeds? a rich soil, with the necessary amount of moisture, will never engender double flowers."[ ] mr. darwin[ ] describes a peculiar form of _gentiana amarella_, in which the parts of the flower were more or less replaced by compact aggregations of purple scales in great numbers. a similar condition is, indeed, not uncommon in this plant, and, as mr. darwin also remarked, on hard, dry, bare, chalky banks, thus bearing out the views expressed by the writer in the 'gartenzeitung' just cited. some double flowers of _potentilla reptans_ found growing wild near york, and transmitted to the writer by a correspondent, were observed growing along a high wall, in a dry border, close to a beaten path, bordering on a gravel pit, others were found on a raised bank, which, from its elevation and exposure to the sun, was particularly dry. on the other hand, the double-flowered _cardamine pratensis_, which is occasionally found in a wild state, always grows in very wet places. of late years a remarkable double-flowered race of _primula sinensis_ has been obtained. in particular, messrs. windebank and kingsbury, of southampton, have succeeded in raising a set of plants in which the flowers are very double and very attractive in a florist's point of view. the corollas in these flowers are not merely duplicated, but from their inner surface spring, in some cases, funnel-shaped or tubular petals (p. ), so regular in form as quite to resemble a perfect corolla. these tubes are attached to the inner side of the tube of the corolla, in the same way as are the stamens, these latter organs being, it appears, absent. the carpels are present, but open at the top, and bear numerous ovules, hence it was at first surmised that these plants were obtained and perpetuated, by the application of pollen from single flowers to these double-flowered varieties. the raisers of this fine race however assert that "the double kinds are all raised from the seed obtained from _single_ flowers; the double blooms do not produce seed, as a rule, and even if they did yield seed, and it were to germinate, the plants so raised would simply produce single flowers." semi-double flowers will produce seed, but it is necessary that they should be fertilised with the pollen from the single blooms. they rarely, however, if ever, produce really double flowers when so fertilised, and the number of semi-double flowers, even, is always small, the remainder, and, consequently, the larger part, proving single. to obtain double varieties, the raiser fertilises certain fine and striking single flowers, with the pollen of other equally fine single blooms, and the desired result is obtained. this is messrs. windebank and kingsbury's _modus operandi_, the exact process or mode of accomplishment being, however, a professional secret.[ ] from what has been said, as well as from other evidence which it is not necessary to detail in this place, it may be seen that the causes assigned by physiologists, and the plans proposed by cultivators for the production of double flowers, are reducible to three heads, which may be classed under plethora, starvation, and sterility. these three seem inconsistent one with the other, but are not so much so as they at first sight appear to be. tho advocates of the plethora theory have much in their favour: for instance, the greater frequency of double flowers among cultivated plants than among wild ones. the great preponderance of double flowers in plants derived from the northern hemisphere, when contrasted with those procured from the southern, as alluded to by dr. seemann, seems also to point to the effect of cultivation in producing these flowers. now, although this is, to a large extent, due to the selection that has been for so long a period practised by gardeners, still that process will not account for the appearance of double flowers where no such selection has been exercised; as in the case of wild plants. some double peas, observed by mr. laxton, appeared suddenly; they had not been selected or sought for, but they were produced, as it would appear, as a result of high cultivation, and during the period when the plant was in greatest vigour; and as the energies of the plant failed, so the tendency to produce double flowers ceased. indeed, in reference to this subject, it is always important to bear in mind the time at which double flowers are produced; thus, an annual plant subjected to cultivation, will, it may be, produce single flowers for the firet year or two, then a few partially double flowers are formed, and from these, by careful selection and breeding, a double-flowered race may be secured. sometimes, as in the peas before alluded to, in the same season the earlier blossoms are single, while later in the year double blossoms are produced. this happens, not only in annuals, but also in perennials, and is not infrequent in the apple; an illustration of this occurrence in this tree is given in the 'gardeners' chronicle' for , p. .[ ] sometimes the flowers on a particular branch are double, while those on the rest of the plant are single.[ ] on these points, the evidence furnished by a double white hawthorn in the royal botanic gardens at edinburgh is important. professor balfour kindly wrote as follows in reply to an inquiry respecting this plant:--"a double white hawthorn in the royal botanic gardens produced double flowers in spring. it retained its leaves during autumn and winter, until the following spring. it then flowered in the second spring, but produced weak single flowers only, and has continued to do so ever since. the flowering has been always weak, since this change of flowers from double to single. mr. m'nab attributes the change in the duration of the leaves to the filling up of the ground round the tree, to the height of a foot and a half on the stem. he is now trying the effect of extra manure in giving extra vigour to the plant." here, at least, the production of single flowers would seem to be the result of debilitating causes, connected with the unusual persistence of the leaves, &c., for while the tree was healthy, double flowers were produced. a similar illustration came under the writer's own notice. some seedling balsams, of a strain which from long selection and hereditary tendency produces, year after year, double flowers were, in the spring (of ), allowed to remain in the seed-pans for many weeks after they were ready to be potted off; they were hence partly starved, and when they bloomed, they produced single flowers only. but these same plants, when more liberally treated, produced an abundance of double flowers. moreover, other seedlings of the same batch, but sown later, and potted off at the usual time, produced double flowers as usual. of a like character is the fact that the double _ranunculus asiaticus_ loses its doubleness if the roots are planted in a poor soil. on the other hand, the way in which double stocks are stated to be produced at erfurt, viz.: by giving the plants a minimum supply of water, and the other circumstances alluded to as showing the connection between the production of double flowers, and a deficiency of water, as well as the experiments of mr. monro, go to show that, so far from plethora, the inducing cause must be more nearly allied to inanition, though the impoverishing process is, to a certain extent, counteracted by only allowing a few of the seed-pods to ripen, and thus concentrating in a small number of flowers the nutriment intended for many. professor edward morren ('bull. acad. roy. belg.,' me ser., vol. xix, p. ) considers the existence of true variegation in leaves, and the production of double flowers, as antagonistic one to the other; the former is a sign of weakness, the latter of strength. but it would seem that the exceptions are so numerous--so many cases of the co-existence of variegated leaves, and double flowers are known, at least in individual plants if not in species--that no safe inferences can be drawn as to this point. since the above remarks were printed, professor morren has published a second paper on the subject, upholding his former views as to the incompatibility of variegated foliage (not mere colouration) and double flowers. in this paper he criticises the objections raised by the present writer and others, and examines some of the alleged exceptions. some of these the belgian savant finds to prove his rule, inasmuch as although there is a co-existence of variegated foliage and double flowers in these illustrations, yet the plants are weakly, the flowers ill formed, or fall off before expansion. admitting all this, there still remain cases in which double flowers and variegated foliage do exist in conjunction, and where the plants are vigorous and the flowers well developed. instances of this are known to cultivators in species of _dianthus_, _hemerocallis_, _althæa_, _pæonia_, _rosa_, _ranunculus_, _serissa_, _saponaria_, etc., and probably the art of the cultivator would speedily be successful in raising other examples, were it a matter of importance or interest to them to do so. at any rate, the existence of a few unimpeachable illustrations is sufficient to support the opinion of the present writer, and objected to so strongly by m. morren that, in the present state of our knowledge, "no safe inferences can be drawn" from the facts alluded to by the belgian professor.[ ] mr. darwin[ ] has thrown out the suggestion that the cause for the appearance of double flowers may be sought for in some previous state of things, bringing about sterility or imperfect formation, or functional activity of the genitalia of the flower, and consequent compensatory increase of the petaline element, either in the form of an increased number of bracts, petals, &c., or in the substitution of petals for stamens and pistils, &c. in considering these points the question arises whether they can be reconciled one with another. and there is little doubt but that they may be. the production of a flower is preceded by an arrest of vegetation; this is obvious: the current of the plant's life becomes changed, the growth of the leaves is checked, the lengthening of the branches is arrested as the flower-bud forms; moreover, there is a close relationship in a large majority of flowers between the outer envelopes of the flower and the scales of a leaf-bud; this is especially so in regard to the venation, and is admitted by all morphologists. so far, then, it may be said that the production of a flower, like that of a bud, is due to a diminution of vegetative action; and as in double flowers we have, for the most part, merely a repetition and exuberant formation of floral envelopes, so we may attribute their formation to a continuance of the same feeble vegetative action as that which produced the first or normal series. how, then, can a copious supply of rich food, such as is provided by cultivation, produce double flowers? to this question, according to our theory, the reply would be that the quantity of food is excessive, more than the plant can properly digest; and hence vegetative action is stopped, at least partially--pretty much as it would be if the plant were placed in the opposite condition of starvation. the effect of supplying a plant (or an animal) with an excessive supply of food, which it cannot assimilate, is in many respects similar to that which results from partially cutting off the supplies. and the same reasoning applies to sterility. if by high culture, or the supply of an undue quantity of nourishment, the constitution of the plant be impaired, or if the plant be pampered, it is no wonderful thing that sterility should ensue. hence, then, may it not be asserted as a general principle that in the production of double flowers a partial arrest of development, if not of growth, however produced, is an essential preliminary? all the attendant phenomena, such as the obliteration of the stamens, the augmentation in the number of floral whorls, the occurrence of prolification, are consistent with the supposition of a primary arrest of development, more or less complete, as the case may be: at one time permanent, at another time relaxed and intermittent, or in a third set of cases the vegetative activity or power of growth may be restored, and from the centre of the flower may spring a perfect branch with perfect leaves, the production of sheaths only being superseded by the development of leaves, in which all the parts--sheath, stalk, and blade--are present. when once the disposition to form double flowers is established, that tendency becomes hereditary: there are races of single stocks in which, out of hundreds of plants, scarcely one double-flowered form is met with; but when the tendency to produce double blooms is set up, single flowers become the exception: thus, in the balsams, before mentioned, not one in fifty now produces single flowers, and the seeds of these double balsams produce double-flowered seedlings, with scarcely a "rogue" among them. the following list of plants producing double flowers of any kind is taken from that given in 'seemann's journal of botany,' vol. ii, p. , and to which some additions have been made. miscalled double flowers, such as those of the _compositæ_, _viburnum hydrangea_, &c., are excluded. ranunculaceÆ. clematis viticella, _linn._, s. europe. florida, _thunb._, japan. fortunei, _moore_, japan. patens, _desne_, japan. anemone japonica, _sieb. et zucc._, japan. coronaria, _linn._, s. europe, asia minor. hortensis, var. _linn._, s. europe. palmata, _linn._, n. africa, spain, portugal. nemorosa, _linn._, europe, n. america, siberia. sylvestris, _linn._, s. europe, siberia. hepatica triloba, _chaix._, europe. ranunculus bulbosus, _linn._, europe, n. amer. repens, _linn._, europe, siberia, n. amer. acris, _linn._, europe, siberia. aconitifolius, _linn._, europe. gramineus, _linn._, italy, france, portugal, switzerland. bullatus, _linn._, s. europe. asiaticus, _linn._, the east. ficaria ranunculoides, _moench._, europe. thalictrum anemoides, _michæ._, n. america. caltha palustris, _linn._, europe, asia, n. america. trollius europæus, _linn._, europe. nepalensis, himalaya. nigella damascena, _linn._, mediterranean. aquilegia vulgaris, _linn._, europe. canadensis, _linn._, n. america. delphinium ajacis, _linn._, s. europe. grandiflorum, _linn._, siberia, n. america. consolida, _linn._, europe, n. america. cheilanthum, _fisch._, siberia. elegans, _d. c._, north america. adonis autumnalis, _linn._, europe. vernalis, _linn._, europe, asia. pæonia moutan, _sims_, china, japan. officinalis, _retz._, europe. tenuifolia, _linn._, tauria. albiflora, _pall._, siberia. paradoxa, _andr._, s. europe. nymphÆaceÆ. nelumbium speciosum, _willd._, africa, asia. berberidaceÆ. berberis, _sp. cult._ papaveraceÆ. papaver rhoeas, _linn._, europe. bracteatum, _lindl._, russia. somniferum, _linn._, s. europe, asia minor, egypt. chelidonium majus, _linn._, europe, asia. sanguinaria canadensis, _linn._, n. america. podophyllum peltatum, _linn._, n. america. cruciferÆ. mathiola incana, _r. br._, mediterranean. glabrata, _d. c._ annua, _sweet._, south europe, syria. cheiranthus cheiri, _linn._, europe. iberis umbellata, _linn._, europe. amara, _linn._, europe. cardamine pratensis, _linn._, europe, asia, africa, america. hesperis matronalis, _linn._, europe, siberia. barbarea vulgaris, _r. br._, europe. sinapis arvensis, _linn._, europe. brassica oleracea. _linn._, europe. cistaceÆ. helianthemum vulgare, _spach._, europe, n. africa. violaceÆ. viola odorata, _linn._, europe, siberia. grandiflora, _linn._, europe, tricolor, _linn._, europe. caryophylleÆ. dianthus barbatus, _linn._, france, germany. chinensis, _d. c._, china. poiretianus, _seringe_, ? caryophyllus, _linn._, france, italy. arboreus, _linn._, crete. hybridus (_gardens_). corymbosus, _sibth._, asia minor. plumarius, _linn._, europe, siberia, n. america. deltoides, _linn._, europe. saponaria officinalis, _linn._, europe. lychnis sylvestris, _schkr._, europe. vespertina, _linn._, europe. flos cuculi, _linn._, europe. viscaria, _linn._, europe. chalcedonica, _linn._, japan, asia minor. silene inflata, _sm._; _var._ maritima, _d. c._, europe. alsineÆ. sagina procumbens, _linn._, europe. malvaceÆ. hibiscus rosa sinensis, _linn._, e. indies. flavescens, _cav._, china. alba, _hook._, china. syriacus, _linn._, syria, carniola. althæa rosea, _cav._, caucasus, &c. malva rotundifolia, _linn._, europe. moschata, _d. c._, europe. hippocastaneÆ. Æsculus hippocastanum, _linn._, europe, n. america. geraniaceÆ. geranium pratense, _linn._, europe, siberia. sylvaticum. _linn._, europe. pelargonium zonale, _willd._, s. africa. tropæolum majus, _linn._, peru. minus, _linn._, peru. oxalis cernua, _thunb._, s. africa. impatiens balsamina, _linn._, e. ind. ternstrÖmiaceÆ. camellia reticulata, _lindl._, china. sasanqua, _thunb._, china. japonica, _linn._, japan. thea maliflora, _seem._, japan. aurantiaceÆ. citrus aurantium, _linn._, asia, south europe. papilionaceÆ. trifolium repens, _linn._, europe, s. america. medicago sp., ?., europe. ulex europæus, _link._, europe. spartianthus junceus, _linn._, s. europe. clitoria ternatea, _linn._, e. india. orobus viscoides, _d. c._, croatia, &c. vernus, _linn._, europe. genista tinctoria, _linn._, europe. sibirica, _linn._, siberia. scoparia, _lam._, europe. cytisus albus, _link._, portugal. anthyllis vulneraria, _linn._, europe. coronilla emerus, _d. c._, europe. lotus corniculatus, _linn._, europe. rosaceÆ. rosa lutea, _mill._, europe. cinnamomea, _linn._, europe, n. america. spinosissima, _linn._, central asia. carolina, _linn._, n. america. villosa, _linn._, europe, central asia. centifolia, _linn._ damascena, _linn._, syria. rubiginosa, _linn._, europe, asia, n. america. moschata, _ait._, madeira, n. africa. canina, _linn._, europe. alba, _linn._, europe, caucasus. indica, _linn._, china. nivea, _d. c._, china. eglanteria, _linn._, europe. gallica, _linn._, europe, caucasus. pimpinellifolia, _linn._, europe, central asia. banksiæ, _r. br._, china. sulphurea, _ait._, east. rubus fruticosus, _linn._, europe. rosifolius, _linn._, mauritius, e. india. corylifolius, _smith_, europe. cæsius, _linn._, europe. kerria japonica, _d. c._, japan. spiræa filipendula, _linn._, europe. ulmaria, _linn._, europe. prunifolia, _sieb. et zucc._, japan. reevesii, _lindl._, china. strobilacea, _sieb. et zucc._, japan. fragaria vesca, _linn._, europe, n. america. potentilla alpestris, _hall. f._, europe. reptans, _linn._, europe, asia. tormentilla, _schrank_, europe, asia. anserina, _linn._, europe. geum rivale, _linn._, europe. pomaceÆ. cratægus oxyacantha, _linn._, europe. crus galli, _linn._, n. america. cydonia japonica, _pers._, japan. pyrus communis, _linn._, europe. malus, _linn._, europe. eriobotrya japonica, _lindl._, japan. amygdaleÆ. amygdalus persica, _linn._, persia. communis, _linn._, mauritania. prunus domestica, _linn._, europe. spinosa, _linn._, europe, n. america. avium, _linn._, europe. cerasus, _linn._, europe. kerii, _steud._, japan. japonica, _thunb._, china, japan. insititia, _linn._, europe. triloba, _lindl._, china. myrtaceÆ. myrtus communis, _linn._, s. europe. punica granatum, _linn._, s. europe, marocco. philadelphaceÆ. philadelphus coronarius, _linn._, s. europe. deutzia crenata, _sieb. et zucc._, japan. onagraceÆ. fuchsia globosa, _lindl._ (and var. hort. pl.), mexico. epilobium tetragonum, _d.c._, europe. clarkia pulchella, _pursh._, california. elegans, _douglas_, n. america. portulacaceÆ. portulaca grandiflora, _hook_, chili. grossulariaceÆ. ribes sanguineum, _pursh._, n. america. saxifragaceÆ. saxifraga granulata, _linn._, europe. umbelliferÆ. daucus carota, _linn._, europe. rubiaceÆ. ixora grandiflora, _de cand._, e. india. serissa foetida, _comm._, china, japan. gardenia fortuniana, _hook._, china. florida, _linn._, china, e. india. radicans, _thunb._, japan. caprifoliaceÆ. lonicera periclymenum, _linn._, europe. sambucus nigra, _linn._, europe. campanulaceÆ. campanula latifolia, _linn._, europe, asia. tenorei, _morett_, naples. trachelium, _linn._, europe. vidallii, _h. c. wats._, europe. pyramidalis, _linn._, s. europe. rotundifolia, _linn._, europe, n. america. persicifolia, _linn._, europe. glomerata, _linn._, europe, asia. medium, _linn._, europe. rhomboidea, _linn._, europe. platycodon grandiflorum, _d. c._, siberia. ericaceÆ. calluna vulgaris, _linn._, europe, n. america. rhododendron indicum, _sweet._, e. india. ponticum, _linn._, asia minor. azalea nudiflora, _linn._, n. america. glauca, _lam._, n. america. arbutus unedo, _linn._, s. europe. erica tetralix, _linn._, europe. cinerea, _linn._, europe. hyemalis, gardens. epacridaceÆ. epacris impressa, _r. br._, australia. primulaceÆ. primula villosa, _jacq._, europe. auricula, _linn._, europe. denticulata, _smith_, e. india. acaulis, _jacq._, europe. clatior, _jacq._, europe. prænitens, _ker._ = sinensis, _lindl._, china. lysimachia nummularia, _roem et schult._, europe. anagallis tenella, _linn._, europe. jasminaceÆ. jasminum officinale, _linn._, s. europe. sambac., _ait._, e. india. hirsutum, _hook._, china. grandiflorum, _lindl._, s. europe. oleaceÆ. syringa persica, _linn._, persia. vulgaris, _linn._, europe, persia. apocyneÆ. vinca minor, _linn._, europe. major, _linn._, europe. nerium odorum, _ait._, e. india. oleander, _linn._, s. europe. tabernæmontana coronaria, _willd._, e. india. allamanda cathartica, _aubl._, s. america. convolvulaceÆ. calystegia sepium, _r. br._, europe, america, asia. pubescens, _lindl._, china. convolvulus tricolor, _linn._, s. europe. ipomoea pandurata, _meyer_, s. america. solanaceÆ. datura cornigera, _hook._, peru. fastuosa, _linn._, s. america, egypt. arborea, _linn._, s. america. chlorantha, _hook._ humilis, _desf._ petunia nyctaginiflora, _juss._, s. america. violacea, _hook_, s. america. solanum dulcamara, _linn._, europe. gentianaceÆ. gentiana amarella, _linn._, europe. orobanchaceÆ. orobanche sp. scrophulariaceÆ. mimulus luteus, _linn._, chili. antirrhinum majus, _linn._, s. europe. digitalis purpurea, _linn._, europe. linaria vulgaris, _mill._, europe, n. america. veronica, sp. calceolaria, var. cult. gesneraceÆ. achimenes longiflora, _d. c._, mexico. gloxinia var. hort. verbenaceÆ. clerodendron fragrans, _willd._, japan. verbena var. hort. nyctagineÆ. mirabilis jalapa, _linn._, trop. america. laurineÆ. laurus nobilis, _linn._, s. europe. sassafras, _linn._, n. america. iridaceÆ. gladiolus tristis, _linn._, cape of good hope. crocus aureus, _sibth_, europe, asia minor. susianus, _curt._, asia minor. pusillus, _tenore_, italy. vernus, _smith_, s. europe. iris sibirica, _linn._, europe. iris kæmpferi, _siebold_, japan. amaryllidaceÆ. galanthus nivalis, _linn._, europe. leucoium vernum, _linn._, europe. sternbergia lutea, _gawl._, europe, asia minor. hippeastrum equestre, _herb._, s. america. narcissus cernuus, _salisb._, s. europe. telamonius, _schult._, europe. lobularis, _schult._ concolor, _schult._, portugal. biflorus, _curt._, europe. italicus, _ker._, italy. incomparabilis, _curt._, italy. cypri, _haw._, cyprus. pseudo-narcissus, _linn._, europe. poeticus, _linn._, europe. jonquilla, _linn._, s. europe, east. tazetta, _linn._, s. europe. poculiformis, _salisb._, s. europe. orchidaceÆ. orchis morio, _linn._, europe. mascula, _linn._, europe. pyramidalis, _linn._, europe. ophrys fucifera, _linn._, europe. see also pp. , . hydrocharidaceÆ. hydrocharis morsus ranæ, _linn._, europe. asphodeleÆ. asphodelus luteus, _linn._, s. europe. liliaceÆ. tulipa gesneriana, _linn._, asia minor. sylvestris, _linn._, s. europe. scilla autumnalis, _linn._, europe. nutans, _smith_, s. europe. convallaria majalis, _linn._, europe, america. polygonatum, _linn._, europe. trillium grandiflorum, _spreng._, america. fritillaria meleagris, _linn._, europe. imperialis, _linn._, persia. lilium martagon, _linn._, europe. candidum, _linn._, syria, persia. hyacinthus orientalis, _linn._, east. polianthes tuberosa, _linn._, e. india. hemerocallis disticha, _don._, nepal. kwanso, gardens. fulva, _linn._, s. europe. colchicaceÆ. colchicum autumnale, _linn._, europe. tofieldia calyculata, _wahl._, europe. butomaceÆ. sagittaria latifolia, _willd._, n. america. sagittifolia, _linn._, europe, asia, america. commelynaceÆ. tradescantia virginica, _linn._, n. america. alba, gardens. footnotes: [ ] this appendix forms a portion of a paper published in the 'proceedings of the international botanical congress,' london, , p. , and which it has been deemed advisable to reproduce with sundry additions and modifications. [ ] 'traité des giroflées,' per e. chaté. [ ] leading article in the 'gardeners' chronicle,' p. , . [ ] otto's 'gartenzeitung,' . [ ] 'gard. chron.,' , p. . [ ] 'gard. chron.,' , p. .--art. "chinese primroses." [ ] see also p. , fig. . a similar flower is figured in 'hort. eystett. ic. arb. vern.,' fol. . "fructus nondum observatus est fortassis alimento uberius in flores refuso, nullus sperari possit." [ ] see de candolle, 'plant. rar. genev.,' , p. ; and alph. de candolle.' géog. bot.,' p. . [ ] see 'gardeners' chronicle,' , p. . [ ] ibid., , p. . note. during the progress of the foregoing pages through the press, several additional illustrations of particular malformations have come under notice. some of the more important of these may here be recorded. _fasciation_ (see p. ).--the following plants may be added to the list:--_acer eriocarpum_, _arabis albida_, _brassica oleracea_, var., _guarea_, sp., _artabotrys_ sp. in all, with the exception of the first-named, the fasciation occurred in the inflorescence. in some species of _artabotrys_, indeed, fasciation and curvation of the inflorescence are common. _synanthy_ (p. ).--several additional instances of adhesion of two or more flowers in _calanthe vestita_, _c. veitchii_, and other forms of this genus may be cited. these furnish further illustrations of the much greater liability of some plants to particular changes as compared with others. _scilla bifolia_, _gagea arvensis_, and _viola odorata_ may be added to the list of synanthic plants. _alterations of placentation, &c._ (see pp. , ).--m. casimir de candolle, in a letter to the author, dated march th, , thus writes of the existence of a double row of carpels in _pyrus spectabilis_ and _cratægus oxyacantha_, "a longitudinal section of a double flower of _pyrus spectabilis_ shows two rows of carpels, placed one above another. the arrangement of the vascular bundles shows that the upper row is external in relation to the lower series. the carpels of the latter are wholly coalescent as in a pear, while those of the upper verticil are only partially coherent or sometimes quite distinct. the placentation is constantly axile in the inferior row and parietal in the upper one. the number of ovules in each carpel of the superior row varies greatly, and they are often, but not always, inserted in two longitudinal ranks, as is constantly the case in the lower carpels. double flowers of _cratægus oxyacantha_ present the same anomalies." for analogous instances in _digitalis_, see p. . see also p. , _saxifraga_. _prolification_, p. .--a. p. de candolle, "organographie végétale," tab. , figures an instance of suppression of one lobe of the ovary in _iris chinensis_, and of the presence at the base of the flower of an adventitious and imperfect flower-bud, as in the _phlomis_, mentioned at p. . _monoecious misleto_, p. .--in this specimen, exhibited at one of the meetings of the scientific committee of the royal horticultural society in , there were both male and female flowers on the same bush. the plant was of the male sex, with numerous long slender whip-like, somewhat pendulous, branches bearing comparatively large broad yellowish leaves, and fully developed male flowers at the end. from the side of one of these male branches, near the base, protruded a tuft of short, stiff branches, bearing small, narrow, dark green leaves, ripe berries and immature female flowers. there was no evidence of grafting or parasitism, of the female branch on the male, the bark and the wood being perfectly continuous so that the only tenable supposition is that this was a case of dimorphism. _adventitious leaflet and pitcher_, see pp. and . in a species of _picrasma_, in which the leaves are impari-pinnate and spread horizontally, an adventitious leaflet was observed to project at right angles to the plane of the primary leaf. it emerged at a point nearly corresponding to that at which the normal pinnæ were given off. the appearance presented was thus like that of a whorl of three leaves, except that the shining surface of the adventitious leaflet, corresponding to the upper face of the normal leaflets, was directed towards the axis, _i.e._, away from the corresponding portion of the neighbouring pinnæ, while the dull surface, corresponding to the lower part of an ordinary leaflet, looked towards the apex of the main leaf, or away from the axis. in one instance, a stalked pitcher was given off from the same point as that from which the supernumerary leaflet emerged, the pitcher being apparently formed from the cohesion (congenital) of the margins of a leaflet. in the normal leaf of this plant there is between the bases of the pinnæ, a small reddish gland or stipel? attached to, or projecting from, the upper surface of the rachis. it appeared from some transitional forms that the adventitious leaflet, just mentioned, was due to the exaggerated development of this gland, but no clue was afforded as to the origin of the ascidium. it was not practicable to examine the arrangement of the vascular bundles in the rachis. _additional labella in phaius._--a flower of _phaius grandiflorus_ was found in the same condition as the _catasetum_, mentioned at pp. and . _tubular stem._--a species of _sempervivum_, exhibited by mr. salter, of hammersmith, at one of the summer exhibitions of flowers at the royal horticultural society in , under the name of _s. bollei_, deserves notice from its bearing on the question of such structures as the calyx-tubes, the hip of the rose and such like, see pp. , . in this plant the leaves appeared to be arranged some on the outside, others on the inside, of an erect hollow cylinder, some six inches in height. the oldest leaves were outside, the youngest within, so that the appearance presented was as if the summit of the axis had been pushed or drawn in, much as the finger of a tight glove might be invaginated in withdrawing it from the hand. the plant in question thus furnishes an actual illustration of the supposititious case mentioned at p. . _double flowers_, see pp. , et seq.--the following species may be added to those already recorded: _lychnis coronaria_, _hibiscus mutabilis_, _lotus major_, _pisum sativum_, _godetia_ sp., _ipomoea purpurea_, _convolvulus minor_, _heliotropium peruvianum_, _trillium grandiflorum_, and _phaius grandiflorus_. index to subjects. a. abortion, , of axile organs, calyx, corolla, indusium, leaves, ovules, perianth, pistil, receptacle, stamens, acaulescence, acaulosia, , acheilary, adesiny, , adhesion, of axes, , embryos, leaves, parts of flower, roots, adventitious buds, , flowers, , , gemmæ, leaves, roots, shoots, albinism, alternation, , androecium, enlargement of, meiophylly of, meiotaxy of, of orchids, pleiotaxy of, polyphylly of, androgynism, anther (see connective), contabescence of, morphology of, ovuliferous, petalody of, sutures of, apilary, apostasis, aphylly, arrangement, ascidia, , bibliography, plants with, atrophy, (see abortion) antophyllogeny, avalidouires (vines), axes, abortion of, adhesion of, , cohesion of, enation from, enlargement of, fission of, suppression of, axile organs, see axes b. barley, nepaul, bigarades cornues, bladder-plums, bracts, multiplication of, staminody of, phyllody of, buds, adventitious on fruits, on leaves, , in ovary, on petals, in pith, on roots, (see flower-buds, prolification) variations of, bulbs, displacement of, multiplication of, , burrs, , c. catacorolla, calycanthemy, calyphyomy, calyx, abortion of, dialysis of, meiophylly of, meiotaxy of, obsolete, petalody of, pleiotaxy of, polyphylly of, solution of from ovary, calyx-tube, , , carnation wheat-ear, carpels (see pistil, fruit, ovary), adventitious, dialysis of, enation from, fission of, in ovary, cauliflower, cenanthy, chloranthy, , bibliography, remarks on, plants subject to, chorisis, , parallel, collateral, chromatism, cladodes, classification, teratology in relation to, cohesion of leaves, , of petals, pistils, sepals, stamens, stems, colour, alterations of, columella, coniferæ, leaves of, , , inflorescence of, scales of, , , compensation, connective, petalody of, consistence, alterations of, contabescence, contortion, co-relation, cornute leaves, corolla, abortion of, dialysis of, duplicate, hose in hose, meiophylly of, meiotaxy of, pleiotaxy of, polyphylly of, virescence of, cotyledons, increased number of, shoots, below, cuttings, formation of, d. dédoublement, (see chorisis) deflexion, deformities, degeneration, depauperate ferns, diadelphia, dialysis, , of calyx, carpels, corolla, plants subject to, of leaves--margins of, stamens, diaphysis, dioecious plants, , dimorphism, dimorphic flowers, direction, changes of, diremption, disjunction, see dialysis, fission, solution displacement, of bulbs, carpels, flower-parts of, inflorescence, leaves, ovules, placentas, distension, e. ecblastesis, , elongation, of parts of flower, flower-stalks, inflorescence, leaves, nucleus of ovule, placenta, receptacle, root, thalamus, embryos, adhesion of, increased number of, enation, from axile organs, carpels, corolla, foliar organs, sepals, stamens, enlargement, of androecium, axile organs, buds, flower stalk, fruit, gynoecium, perianth, placenta, epanody, epistrophy, etiolation, eversion, excrescences, (see enation) f. fasciation, plants affected with, , fastigiation, ferns, crested, , depauperated, exindusiate, supra-soriferous, filaments, see stamens petaloid, -winged, finger and toe, fission, of carpels, leaf-organs, , plants, subject to, of petals, stem-organs, stamens, flattening, floral organs, displacement of, elongation of, metamorphy of, florets, increased number of, , flowers, adventitious, on fruits, on leaves, in ovary, on petals, on spines, apetalous, double, , hermaphrodite, homomorphic, increased number of, mutilated, unisexual, flower-stalk, enlargement of, flower-bud (see prolification), replaced by leaves or scales, in place of leaf-buds, foliar organs (see leaves), adhesion of, foliar organs, cohesion of, , enation from, fission of, suppression of, form, alterations of, juvenile, persistence of, frondescence, , , see phyllody, virescence fruit, adhesion of, enlargement of, g. gemmæ, formation of, glands, formation of, gnaurs, , , , grafting, , greffe des charlatans, growth interrupted, irregular, gymnaxony, gynantherus, gynoecium (see pistils) enlargement of, meiophylly of, meiotaxy of, pleiotaxy of, polyphylly of, suppression of, h. hairs, formation of, hermaphroditism, heterogamy, heteromorphy, heterophylly, heterotaxy, homology, homomorphy, hose in hose corollas, , hypertrophy, , see enlargement i. independence, indusium, abortion of, inflorescence, displacement of, elongation of, prolification of, , interrupted growth, inversion of organs, irregularity, irregular growth, k. knaurs, (see gnaurs) kail, l. laciniation, see fission layering, leaders, formation of, leaf-sheath, leaves, see foliar organs abortion of, adhesion of, by surfaces, to stem, adventitious, - , cornute, displacement of, elongation of, enlargement of, frondiferous, geminate, multiplication of, nature of, palmate-passage of to pinnate, spiral torsion of, supernumerary, lily, double white, m. meiotaxy of androecium, of calyx, corolla, gynoecium, meiophylly of androecium, of calyx, corolla, gynoecium, perianth, mellarose, metaphery, metamorphy, , calycanthemy, chloranthy, petalody, phyllody, pistillody, sepalody, staminody, mischomany, monadelphia, monoecious, , , monosy, morphology, multiplication, see pleiotaxy, pleiophylly of bracts, , bulbs, cotyledons, embryos, florets, foliar organs, whorls, n. nepaul barley, number, alterations of, increased, , diminished, o. orchids, androecium of, prolification in, organs, rudimentary, see atrophy ovary, inferior, nature of, , solution from calyx, stamens in, ovules, abortion of, increase of, in place of pollen, polliniferous, petalody of, phyllody of, pistillody of, suppression of, malformations of, bibliography of, p. parasitical plants, peduncles, elongation of, peloria, , bibliography of, , regular, plants subject to, irregular, plants, subject to, perianth, abortion of, enlargement of, meiophylly of, pistillody of, pleiotaxy of, persistence, xxxvi _adnot._, petalody, of accessory organs, anther, calyx, connective, ovules, pistils, stamens, plants, subject to, petals, cohesion of, enation from, fission of, phyllody of, staminody of, tubular, , phyllode, phyllody, (see virescence, chloranthy) of accessory organs, bracts, calyx, plants subject to, in conifers, of corolla, plants subject to, of ovules, plants subject to, pistils, plants subject to, stamens, plants subject to, phyllomania, phyllomorphy, see phyllody phyllotaxy, , pistil, abortion of, cohesion of, petalody of, staminody of, pistillody, of ovules, , perianth, sepals, stamens, plants subject to, pitchers, , , , see ascidia placentation, changes in, , bibliography, nature of, placenta, elongation of, enlargement of, pleiomorphy, pleiophylly, pleiotaxy, of androecium, bracts, calyx, corolla, gynoecium, perianth, plien, plymouth strawberry, polyadelphia, pollen in ovules, abortion of, replaced by ovules, polyclady, polycotyledony, polyembryony, polymorphy, polyphylly of androecium, of calyx, corolla, plants subject to, of flower, gynoecium, polyphylly, bibliography, plants subject to, position, changes of, relative, prolification, axillary, foliar, floral, plants affected with, bibliography of, complicated, of embryo, of flower, coincident changes, median foliar, median floral, , plants affected with, of fruit, inflorescence, bibliography, median foliar, median floral, lateral floral, lateral foliar, r. receptacle, abortion of, elongation of, , spiral torsion of, reflexion, regularity, rhizotaxy, rose willow, , roots, adventitious, elongation of, rudimentary organs, s. saint valery apple, , , , , savoys, scales, formation of, , , scape, leaves on, seeds, abortion of, union of, sepals, adhesion of, to petals, cohesion of, enation from, phyllody of, pistillody of, staminody of, sepalody, separation, sex, changes of, , shamrock, four-leaved, shoots below cotyledons, ; _see_ leaders size, alterations in, solenaidie, , solution, , bibliography, of calyx, plants subject to, of stamens, spathes, increased number of, speiranthy, , spiral torsion, plants subject to, of leaf, of receptacle, spines, sports, spurs, formation of, , stamens, see androecium abortion of, adhesion of, , cohesion of, compound, , dialysis, enation from, fission of, in ovary, petalody of, phyllody of, pistillody of, tubular, staminody, of accessory organs, of bracts, petals, pistils, sepals, stasimorphy, stem, see axes stipules, increased number of, strawberry, plymouth, blind, suppression, of androecium, flower, foliar organs, suppression of ovules, remarks on, of seeds, symmetry, synanthy, bibliography, plants subject to, , syncarpy, syngenesia, synophty, synspermy, t. tendrils, adventitious, formation of, thalamus, see receptacle thorns, torsion spiral, tubers, in axils of leaves, tubes, formation of, , (see ascidia, solenaidy, spurs) tubular petals, stamens, u. union, unisexuality, uovoli, v. varieties, dwarf, venation, virescence, viviparous plants, , w. warts, wheat-ear carnation, index of names of plants. [in the following index the names of the orders that are incidentally mentioned are printed in small capitals, those of the genera and species in ordinary type. the names are inserted as found in the several records, &c., without in general any attempt having been made to determine their accuracy. for this reason the authority for the specific name is rarely given, such citations being here unnecessary if not impracticable. it may, however, be assumed that the names made use of are those generally adopted by naturalists. this index will be found useful for statistical purposes. it will show at a glance, at least approximately, how often certain genera and species are affected with malformation, as contrasted with others. the nature of the malformation may of course be ascertained by referring to the particular page indicated by the number. the proportion of wild to cultivated plants may also be approximately ascertained, and the effects of cultivation estimated. the disproportionate frequency with which some species are affected, e.g., _trifolium repens_, &c., as contrasted with other closely allied, and perhaps equally common species, under apparently identical conditions, is also made manifest.] a. abies brunoniana, excelsa, , , , , , , larix, pectinata, acacia, aceras anthropophora, acer, , , , platanoides, , pseudo-platanus, , aceranthus, , achimenes, , , longiflora, aconitum, , , , , , , , napellus, , , acorus, actæa spicata, , adenium obesum, adenorophium luxurians, adonis, , autumnalis, vernalis, adoxa, Ærides odoratum, Æschynanthus, , Æsculus hippocastanum, , , , , , , affonsea, afzelia, agaricus, xxiii, agave, , americana, , angelica, agrimonia, , agrostemma, githago, agrostis alba, ailanthus glandulosa, aira alpina, cæspitosa, ajuga iva, pyramidalis, reptans, alcea, , alchemilla minima, aldrovanda vesiculosa, alisma, , natans, parnassifolia, alismaceÆ, allamanda, cathartica, , , allium, , , , , , , fragrans, vineale, alliaria officinalis, , almond, see _amygdalus_. alnus, fruticosa, imperialis, incana, glutinosa, , , laciniata, alopecurus pratensis, alsine media, , , alstroemeria, , althæa, rosea, , alyssum, incanum, amaryllidaceÆ, , , amaryllis, , , ambrina ambrosioides, amentaceÆ, , amorpha, , fruticosa, , , amygdaleÆ, ; see _rosaceæ_ amygdalus, , , , , , communis, , , , persica, , , anagallis, , , , , , , , , arvensis, , , , , , , , collina, , phoenicea, , , , , tenella, webbiana, anomodon alternatus, ananassa, anchusa, , , , ochroleuca, , , , paniculata, androsace maxima, , anemiopsis californica, , anemone, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , (see _hepatica_) coronaria, , , , , hortensis, , , , japonica, , nemorosa, , , , palmata, anemone pavonina, pulsatilla, rivularis, sylvestris, , angelica, , , , razoulzii, , anthemis arvensis, nobilis, retusa, anthoxanthum, odoratum, anthriscus, anthurium scherzerianum, anthyllis, antirrhinum majus, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , apargia, autumnalis, apium, , , graveolens, , petroselinum, , apocynaceÆ, apple, st. valery, , , , , aquilegia canadensis, skinneri, , vulgaris, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , arabis, , alpina, , , pumila, sagittata, araucaria, arbutus unedo, , , , , archidendron, ardisia serrulata, arenaria serpyllifolia, tetraquetra, , , , armeria, aristolochia clematitis, , , caudata, , sipho, armoracia rusticana, , arnoseris, artabotrys, , artemisia, artocarpus, arum, maculatum, , , , , asparagus officinalis, , , , , , asphodelus, , asphodelus luteus, ramosus, , asplenium trichomanes, astrantia, major, athamanta, , , cervaria, , atriplex, hortensis, atropa belladonna, aucuba, japonica, , aurantiaceÆ, , , avena, , , chinensis, azalea, , glauca, indica, , , , , , nudiflora, b. babingtonia, bæckea diosmifolia, balsamineÆ, , , balsam, see _impatiens_ bamboo, see _bambusa_ bambusa, , , , barbarea, vulgaris, , barkhausia, taraxacifolia, barley, nepaul, bauhinia, begoniaceÆ, begonia, , , , , , , frigida, , , fuchsioides, phyllomaniaca, bellevalia, , , comosa, bellis perennis, , , , , , , berberis, , , , , vulgaris, beta, , , vulgaris, betonica alopecuros, , , betula alba, , , , populifolia, bidens, , , bignoniaceÆ, bignonia, , , bikkhia, blitum, polymorphum, , bocconia, cordata, bowiea volubilis, boraginaceÆ, , bouchea hyderabadensis, bougainvillea, brachythecium plumosum, brassica, , , , , , napus, , oleracea, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , rapa, breynia, bromelia, bromus velutinus, broussonettia papyrifera, , bruniaceæ, , brunia microphylla, bryonia, , bryophyllum calycinum, , , proliferum, bryum cæspititium, bunias, , , , bunium creticum, flexuosum, bupleurum, , falcatum, , butomaceÆ, buxbaumia indusiata, byrsonima, byttneriaceÆ, c. cabomba aquatica, cactaceÆ, , , , cactus, cachrys taurica, cæsalpinia, digyna, cakile maritima, , calanthe, , , , vestita, , , , , calceolaria, , , , , , , , , , crenatifolia, floribunda, rugosa, calendula, , , , officinalis, , , calla palustris, callitriche, autumnalis, vernalis, caltha, , , palustris, , , , calluna, , calycophyllum, , , calystegia, , calystegia sepium, pubescens, camellia japonica, , , , , , reticulata, sasanqua, campanulaceÆ, , , , , , , , campanula, , , , , , , , , , , , , , canescens, colorata, glomerata, , , latifolia, medium, , , , , , , persicifolia, , , , , pyramidalis, , rapunculus, rapunculoides, , , , , rhomboidea, rotundifolia, , , tenorei, thyrsoidea, trachelium, vidallii, campanumæa, , camphorosma monspeliaca, canna, cannabis, , , sativa, cannamois virgata, capparidaceÆ, , caprifoliaceÆ, capsella bursa pastoris, , cardamine, , hirsuta, impatiens, pratensis, , , , , sylvatica, carduus arvensis, crispus, , heterophyllus, , , tataricus, , , carex, , , , , , acuta, , cæspitosa, glauca, , maritima, paludosa, vulpina, carica papaya, carlemannia, carlina, vulgaris, carpinus, betulus, carthamus, carum, , , bulbocastanum, carui, , , , , caryophyllaceÆ, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , casuarina rigida, cassia, , marylandica, castanea vesca, , , , , , catabrosa aquatica, catalpa, catasetum, , , eburneum, cattleya amethystina, forbesii, , , marginata, , mossiæ, , , violacea, , caucalis leptophylla, caulophyllum, , caylussa, cedrus libani, celastraceÆ, celastrus, celosia, , centaurea, , collina, jacea, , scabiosa, moschata, centranthus, macrosiphon, ruber, , cephalotus follicularis, cerastium, , , , , glomeratum, , , tetandrum, triviale, , vulgatum, , cerasus, , , , , , , avium, caproniana, lauro-cerasus, , , vulgaris, , ceratonia siliqua, cercis, siliquastrum, chamærops humilis, chærophyllum, cheiranthus, , , , , , cheiri, , , , , , , , , , var. gynantherus, , cheiranthus incanus, chelone, barbata, chelidonium majus, , , , , chenopodiaceÆ, , , chenopodium, , , glaucum, murale, quinoa, , vulvaria, chirita sinensis, chlorophytum sternbergianum, chorozema ilicifolium, chrysanthemum, , , indicum, , , leucanthemum, chrysosplenium, cichorium intybus, , cicuta virosa, cinchonaceÆ, cionidium moorei, cirsium, , arvense, , lanceolatum, tricephalodes, , cissus, cistaceÆ, cistus vaginatus, citrus, , , , aurantium, , , , , , , , , , , , , , clarkia, , elegans, , pulchella, cleistanthus polystachyus, clematis, , , , , florida, fortunei, patens, viticella, , cleome, , cleonia lusitanica, clerodendron fragrans, cliffortia, clinacium dendroides, clitoria ternatea, , , , clusia rosea, cluytia semperflorens, cneorum, cnicus palustris, cnidium, cobæa scandens, , , , , coccoloba platycladon, cochlearia armoracia, , , , cocos, , nucifera, codiæum variegatum, , , , , coelebogyne ilicifolia, cola acuminata, colchicum autumnale, , , , , , , , , coleus, , columnea schiedeana, columbine, see _aquilegia_ colutea, commelyna, , , commelynaceÆ, , compositÆ, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , conceveiba macrophylla, coniferÆ, , , , , , , , conium maculatum, conostephium, convallaria maialis, , , , , , , , , , polygonatum, convolvulaceÆ, , , convolvulus, , , , , , , arvensis, sepium, , , tricolor, conyza squarrosa, corallorhiza innata, circeia, corchorus acutangulus, coreopsis, , , , drummondi, cornus, , , mas, , sanguinea, suecica, coronilla, , , , emerus, correa, , , cortusa mathioli, , , corydalis aurea, solida, tuberosa, , , corylas avellana, , , , , , , , , , cotoneaster microphylla, cotula foetida, , crassulaceÆ, crassula, arborescens, , cratægus, , , , , , , crus galli, monogyna, , cratægus oxyacantha, , , , , , , tanacetifolia, , crepis, virens, crinum, crocus, , , , , , , , , , , , , aureus, nudiflorus, pusillus, vernus, crozophora tinctoria, cruciferÆ, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , cryptomeria japonica, , , , cucubalus, cucumis, , , , , , , cucurbitaceÆ, , , , , cucurbita, , , , , , , cuphea miniata, , cupressus funebris, cycadeÆ, , cyclamen, , , , , , , linearifolium, cyclodon, cydonia vulgaris, , , , japonica, cynanchum fuscatum, nigrum, cynosurus cristatus, cyperaceÆ, , , , , cypripedium, , , , candidum, hookeræ, insigne, cyrtanthus, cytisus, , , albus, laburnum, , , , , , , , , , nigricans, , d. dactylis, glomerata, dahlia, , , , , variabilis, danaë, daphne indica, odora, datura, , , , , , datura arborea, cornigera, chlorantha, fastuosa, , , , humilis, daucus carota, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , delphinium, , , , , , , , , , , , , , ajacis, , , , , , amoenum, cheilanthum, consolida, , crassicaule, , , , , dictyocarpum, , elatum, , , , , , , , , , elegans, grandiflorum, peregrinum, , dendrobium, nobile, , normale, , desmodium canadense, marylandicum, deutzia, crenata, dianthus, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , arboreus, barbatus, , , caryophyllus, corymbosus, deltoides, hybridus, plumarius, poiretianus, sinensis, , dictamnus, , , , albus, , fraxinella, , , , , dielytra, , digitalis lutea, orientalis, purpurea, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , dilleniaceÆ, dionæa, muscipula, diosma, diphaca, diplotaxis, , , muralis, , tenuifolia, , , , , , , , dipsacaceÆ, , , , dipsacus, , fullonum, , , , , , , gmelini, pilosus, , sylvestris, , dipterocarpus, ditaxis lancifolia, dodecatheon, dodonæa viscosa, draba, dracocephalum austriacum, moldavicum, speciosum, , dracontium pertusum, drosera intermedia, , , , , e. ebenus cretica, eccremocarpus scaber, , , echeveria, echinophora maritima, echium pyrenaicum, simplex, vulgare, echinocactus, , , elegia, empetrum nigrum, encamptodon perichætialis, epacridaceÆ, , epacris, , impressa, , , epidendrum, elongatum, stamfordianum, epimedium, , musschianum, epiphyllum, epipactis palustris, epilobium, , , angustifolium, hirsutum, , , , , , , palustre, tetragonum, episcia bicolor, equisetaceÆ, , equisetum, , fluviatile, limosum, telmateia, , eranthis hyemalis, , ericaceÆ, , , erica, , , , cinerea, hyemalis, , multiflora, tetralix, , , , , eriobotrya japonica, erodium, ervum lens, , , erucago, erucastrum pollichii, canariense, eryngium, , , viviparum, erysimum, , barbarea, cheiranthoides, officinale, erythrochiton hypophyllanthus, , escholtzia crocea, eucomis, eugenia jambos, euonymus japonicus, latifolius, euphorbiaceÆ, , , , euphorbia, , , , , characias, cyparissias, , esula, , , exigua, geniculata, , helioscopia, lathyris, rosea, palustris, , peplus, pusilla, segetalis, f. faba, see _vicia_ vulgaris, fabiana, fagus silvatica, , , , , , festuca, nemoralis, ovina, ficaria, (see _ranunculus ficaria_) ranunculoides, , , ficoideÆ, ficus carica, , , stipulata, filago, germanica, filices, , , fourcroya, fragaria, xxxvi _adnot._, , alpina, botryformis, monophylla, vesca, , , , , , , , fraxinus excelsior, , , , , , ornus, fritillaria imperialis, , , , , meleagris, fuchsia, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , globosa, funckia, g. gagea, , arvensis, , gaillardia, , galanthus, nivalis, , galeobdolon luteum, , galeopsis, ladanum, ochroleuca, tetrahit, galium aparine, , mollugo, , verum, gaudichaudieæ, gardenia, , florida, fortuniana, radicans, gaura biennis, genista, tinctoria, sibirica, scoparia, gentianaceÆ, , , gentiana, , , , , , amarella, , , , , campestris, , , purpurea, geraniaceÆ, , , geranium, , , , , , , , , columbinum, nodosum, , pratense, sylvaticum, gesneraceÆ, , , , gesnera, , , , , , , geroltiana, , zebrina, geum, , , coccineum, rivale, , , , , , , gilia capitata, glomeruliflora, , gladiolus, , tristis, glancium luteum, gleditschia, , , triacanthos, , glochidion, gloxinia, , , , , , , , , , , , glyceria aquatica, fluitans, , godetia, , godoya, gomphia, gongora, goodenia ovata, , graminaceÆ, , , , , gratiola, guarea, gypsophila, h. habenaria, , chlorantha, halenia, heterantha, , hedera helix, hedypnois, helianthemum, , , , vulgare, helianthus, , , annuus, tuberosus, helleborus, , foetidus, olympicus, heliotropium peruvianum, helwingia, hemerocallis, , , , disticha, fulva, hepatica, , triloba, heracleum, , , , , , , sphondylium, , , hermesia castaneifolia, herreria parviflora, , hesperis, , , matronalis, , , , , heterocentron, hibiscus, , , , , , albus, flavescens, rosa sinensis, syriacus, , hieracium, aureum, præaltum, pilosella, umbellatum, hÏppocastaneÆ, hippeastrum, equestre, hippuris, vulgaris, , hodgsonia, , holeus mollis, honckenya peploides, , , hordeum, , nepalense, , trifurcatum, , humulus lupulus, , , , hyacinthus, , , , , , , _adnot_ comosus, orientalis, , , , , , , , , , pouzolzii, hydrangea, hydrocera triflora, hydrocharidaceÆ, hydrocharis, morsus ranæ, hydrocotyle, hydrophyllaceÆ, hydrophyllum, hymenocallis, americana, , hyoscyamus, hypericum, perforatum, , hypnum triquetrum, hypochæris, , radicata, , , , hyssopus officinalis, , i. iberis, , amara, umbellata, ilex aquifolium, , , impatiens, , , , balsamina, , imperatoria, indigofera, inula, ionopsidium acaule, ipomoea, , pandurata, iridaceÆ, , irina, glabra, iris, , , , , , , , , kæmpferi, sibirica, versicolor, isochilus, ixia carminosa, ixora, grandiflora, j. jasione, , jasminaceÆ, , jasminum, , , , grandiflorum, , hirsutum, nudiflorum, officinale, , sambac, jatropha pohliana, , juglans, , nigra, regia, , juncaceÆ, , , juncus, , articulatus, conglomeratus, uliginosus, juniperus virginiana, sinensis, jussicua, , justicia oxyphylla, k. kerria, knautia arvensis, , kochia scoparia, l. labiatÆ, , laburnum (see _cylisus_), , , , , lacistema, lactuca, sativa, , , , , lambertia, lampsana, lamium, , , album, , , , , amplexicaule, purpureum, , , larix, europæa, , , , microcarpa, lathyrus latifolius, tuberosus, laurus, , nobilis, sassafras, , , lavatera trimestris, lebeckia, lecythis, , leguminosÆ, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , leitneria floridana, leontice, leontodon, , , , , , lepidium, , sativum, lepyrodia hermaphrodita, leskea sericea, leucanthemum, leucobryum giganteum, leucoium, , æstivum, , , vernum, , lilium, , , , , , , auratum, , , bulbiferum, candidum, , , , , cruentum, lancifolium, , , longiflorum, martagon, , , , tigrinum, , linaria, , , , , , , , , , æruginea, chalepensis, cymbalaria, decumbens, elatine, origanifolia, pelisseriana, pilosa, purpurea, , , spuria, triphylla, vulgaris, , , , , , , , triornithophora, linum, linum usitatissimum, liquidambar, listera ovata, lobeliaceÆ, , lobelia, , lolium, , , , perenne, , , lonicera, , , , , , , , , brachypoda, caprifolium, periclymenum, , , , , , , , , , , xylosteum, , lopezia, , lotus, , , , corniculatus, , , , uliginosus, lowea, lunaria, , lupinus, , , , polyphyllus, lycaste skinneri, , , lychnis, , , , chalcedonica, coronaria, , dioica, , , , , , flos cuculi, sylvestris, , vespertina, viscaria, lycium, , europæum, lycopersicum, see _solanum_ esculentum, lysimachia, ephemerum, , nummularia, vulgaris, , lythrum, salicaria, m. mælenia, mæsa, , magnoliaceÆ, magnolia, , , campbelli, fuscata, , , malpighiaceÆ, , , , , malus, , , , , see _pyrus_ malvaceÆ, , , , , , , malva, crispa, moschata, rotundifolia, sylvestris, mangifera, , marchantia, marcgraavia, umbellata, masdevallia, , mathiola, , , annua, , incana, , , , , , glabrata, matricaria parthenium, maxillaria, medicago, , , , , , lupulina, , maculata, , melastoma, , , melia azedairach, melianthus major, , melilotus, , , , , arvensis, leucantha, macrorhiza, officinalis, melittis, mentha, , , aquatica, viridis, mercurialis, , , annua, perennis, mesembryanthemum, metrosideros, miconia, mimosa, lophantha, mimulus, , , luteus, mnium serratum, mirabilis, , jalapa, modecca, mollugo cerviana, momordica elaterium, monarda fistulosa, morus, , , mozinna, peltata, musa, , muscari, , comosum, , musci, mussænda, , , myosotis cæspitosa, palustris, scorpioides, myosurus, myristica moschata, myrtaceÆ, , , , myrtus, , communis, n. narcissus, , , , , , , , aureus, biflorus, , , chrysanthus, , concolor, cypri, jonquilla, incomparabilis, , , , italicus, lobularis, major, montanus, poculiformis, poeticus, , , , pseudo-narcissus, tazetta, , , telamonius, nasturtium, , amphibium, nelumbium, speciosum, nepeta diffusa, nepenthes, , nephrodium molle, nerium oleander, , , , , odorum, neuropeltis, nicandra physaloides, nicotiana, , , rustica, nigella, , , , , , , damascena, , , , , , nuytsia, nymphÆaceÆ, nymphæa, , , , , , alba, dentata, , guineensis, lotus, , o. octadenia, odontoglossum alexandræ, , uro skinneri, oenanthe, , , , , crocata, , , oenothera, , striata, olea europoea, , , onagraceÆ, , , , oncidium, , , abortivum, bicolor, cebolleta, oncidium cucullatum, heteranthum, ornithorhyncum, ononis minutissima, monophylla, opercularia, ophrys, apifera, , aranifera, , , , , , , , , , insectifera, , , fucifera, opuntia, , , , fragilis, , monacantha, salmiana, , , orchidaceÆ, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - , orchis, , , , , , conopsea, latifolia, mascula, , , , , , militaris, morio, , , , , palustris, papilionacea, pyramidalis, , , sambucina, , simia, ornithogalum, , , , longebracteatum, orobanchaceÆ, orobanche, , , , , gracilis, orobus, vernus, viscosus, ouvirandra, oxalidaceÆ, oxalis, , , , acetosella, carnea, p. pæonia, , , , , moutan, officinalis, paradoxa, tenuiflora, palmaceÆ, panax, papaver, , , , bracteatum, , , , nudicaule, orientale, papaver rhoeas, , , somniferum, , , , papaveraceÆ, , papilionaceÆ, , , see _leguminosæ_ paris quadrifolia, , , , , paritium, parnassia, paronychia serpyllifolia, parthenium inodorum, passiflora, , , , , , coerulea, palmata, quadrangularis, passifloraceÆ, pastinaca, sativa, pavia, pedicularis, euphrasioides, sylvatica, , , , peganum, pelargonium, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , grandiflorum, inquinans, , zonale, , , peltaria, alliacea, , , pentstemon, , pereskia, , , bleo, perilla, persica (_amygdalus_) vulgaris, , , , petalostylis, petunia, , , , nyctaginiflora, violacea, , , , , phaius grandiflorus, , , phalænopsis, amabilis, equestris, , schilleriana, pharbitis, phaseolus, , , philadelphaceÆ, , , philadelphus, , , , , , , coronarius, speciosus, , philyra brasiliensis, phleum, , phalaroides, pratense, phlomis, biloba, fruticosa, , phlox, phoenix dactylifera, phylica, phyllanthus longifolius, phyllarthron, , phyteuma odoratum, orbiculare, spicatum, , phytolacca, picea, see _abies_ lowii, nobilis, nordmanniana, webbiana, picrasma, pimpinella magna, saxifragra, pinckneya, pinus, , , , , , , (see _abies_, _larix_, _cedrus_) alba, pinea, , pinaster, , sylvestris, , pistacia lentiscus, pisum, , sativum, , , , , , , , , , , platycodon, grandiflorum, plantaginaceÆ, plantago, , coronopus, lanceolata, , , , , , media, , major, , , , , , , maritima, platanus, plectranthus fruticosus, plumbaginaceÆ, plumbago, poa alpina, annua, bulbosa, pratensis, trivialis, podalyria myrtillifolia, podocarpus, podophyllum, peltatum, podospermum laciniatum, , poggendorffia, pogonia ophioglossoides, , poinsettia, polemonium coeruleum, , , , , , polianthes, polygala vulgaris, polygonaceÆ, , , polygonatum anceps, , multifolium, , polygonum, , orientale, , viviparum, , polypodium anomalum, pomaceÆ, , , , , , , pomaderris elliptica, pomax, populus, , alba, portulaca, potamogeton, bifolium, potentilla, , , , , , alpestris, argentea, anserina, major, nepalensis, , , , reptans, tormentilla, poterium, sanguisorba, polygamum, primula, , , , , , , , , , , acaulis (see _vulgaris_), , , , , , , auricula, , , , , denticulata, , elatior, , , calycanthema, imperialis, officinalis, , prænitens, , (see _sinensis_) sinensis, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , variabilis, veris, , , , , , , villosa, vulgaris, , , (see _acaulis_ and _officinalis_) primulaceÆ, , , , , , , , , , , prismatocarpus, , , prunella vulgaris, prunus, , , , , , , (see _cerasus_, _amygdalus_, _persica_) armeniaca, cerasus, domestica, , lauro cerasus, , spinosa, prunus sylvestris, pseudostachyum polymorphum, psittacanthus, ptelea, pterandra, pteridophyllum, pterisanthes, pteris quadriaurita, punica granatum, , , pyrethrum, inodorum, parthenium, pyrus, , , , , , , communis (pear), , , , , , , dioica, japonica, malus (apple), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , spectabilis, torminalis, q. quercus, cerris, pubescens, r. raphanus sativus, , , , , ranunculaceÆ, , , , , , , , , ranunculus, , , , , , , , , , , , aconitifolius, acris, , , , aquatilis, asiaticas, auricomus, , , , , , bulbosus, , , , , , bullatus, ficaria, , , , , , fluitans, , gramineus, lingua, , philonotis, , tripartitus, , repens, , , , resedaceÆ, , reseda, , , , lutea, , luteola, , , odorata, , , phyteuma, , restiaceÆ, , , , , restio, , rhamnus catharticus, frangula, rhinanthus crista galli, rhodiola rosea, rhodora, rhododendron, , , , , , , , , , indicum, linearilobum, rhus cotinus, , , , , , toxicodendron, ribes, nigrum, , sanguineum, richardia æthiopica, , ricinus communis, , ricotiana, robinia, pseudacacia, , , , , rosaceÆ, , , , , , , , , , , , , , rosa, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , alpina, arvensis, , , banksiæ, berberifolia, canina, centifolia, , carolina, cinnamomea, damascena, diversifolia, eglanteria, gallica, , indica, moschata, nivea, pimpinellifolia, rubiginosa, spinosissima, sulphurea, rubiaceÆ, , rubia tinctorum, , rubus, , , , , , , arcticus, cæsius, , , corylifolius, fruticosus, , , , , , idæus, rosifolius, rudbeckia, , , ruellia clandestina, , rumex, , , , arifolius, , crispus, , , scutatus, , , ruscus, , aculeatus, , , , russellia juncea, rutaceÆ, , ruta, , , s. sagina, procumbens, sagittaria, , latifolia, sagittifolia, , salisburia adiantifolia, salix, , , , , , babylonica, , , , , , calyculata, capræa, , cinerea, , , , fragilis, monandra, nigricans, pendula, repens, silesiaca, vitellina, salpiglossis straminea, salvia, officinalis, pratensis, verbenaca, sambucus, , , , , nigra, , , , , , racemosa, sanguinaria, canadensis, sanguisorba, officinalis, santalaceÆ, , , sapindaceÆ, , saponaria, , , , , , , , , officinalis, , , sarothamnus, , scoparius, saxifraga, , , , , , crassifolia, , decipiens, foliosa, granulata, , irrigua, longifolia, saxifraga mutata, saxifragaceÆ, , scabiosa, , , , , , , , agrestis, arvensis, atropurpurea, , columbaria, , scandix, schismatopera distichophylla, schoenodorus, _adnot_ schoenus cephalotes, schoenodon, sciadopitys verticillata, scilla, autumnalis, nutans, scirpus lacustris, scolopendrium d'urvillei, vulgare, , , , , , scorzonera, octangularis, , scrophularia, , , aquatica, , , , arguta, nodosa, , , scrophulariaceÆ, , , , , , secale cereale, , sechium edule, , sedum cristatum, , reflexum, selenipedium caudatum, , selinum, , caruifolium, sempervivum, , , , montanum, sediforme, tectorum, _adnot_, , senecio, , vulgaris, , , , , , , , serissa, , , sesamum, indicum, seseli, , coloratum, sideritis, , silaus, , silene, , , , , conica, otites, inflata, sinapis, , , , , arvensis, , , , , , , sinningia purpurea, sisymbrium, officinale, , , , sisymbrium tenuifolium, slateria, solanaceÆ, , , solanum, , , , , , , , , , amazonicum, dulcamara, , , , esculentum, cornutum, lycopersicum, , , , , , tridynamum, tuberosum, , , , , vespertilio, sophora, spartianthus, junceus, spartium, junceum, , scoparium, spathiphyllum, spilanthes, , oleracea, spinacia oleracea, , spiræa, , , filipendula, oblongifolia, prunifolia, reevesii, strobilacea, ulmaria, spiranthes, splachnum vasculosum, stachys, , , _adnot_ germanica, lanata, sylvatica, , , , stackhousia juncea, stangeria paradoxa, stapelia, staphylea pinnata, stauntonia latifolia, stellaria, , , media, , , stellatÆ, , sterculiaceÆ, , sterculia platanifolia, , sternbergia, lutea, stratiotes aloides, strelitzia juncea, regina, streptocarpus rexii, , , , , strophanthus, suaeda, fruticosa, maritima, , suregada, symphoricarpus racemosus, symphyomyrtus, symphytum, , , officinale, , , , zeyheri, syringa, , , persica, , , , , vulgaris, , t. tabernæmontana, coronaria, tacsonia pinnatistipula, tamus communis, taraxacum, (see _leontodon_) taxodium, distichum, taxus baccata, , , tetragonia, expansa, , tetragoniaceÆ, teucrium campanulatum, , , thalictrum, , minus, , thea, , thelymitra, thesium, , , , thlaspi arvense, , bursa-pastoris, , thuja occidentalis, orientalis, thymus serpyllum, , , thysselinum, , palustre, , tigridia, , , pavonia, , tilia asplenifolia, , europæa, , , parvifolia, tiliaceæ, , tithonia, tofieldia, calyculata, torenia scabra, torilis, , anthriscus, , , , , , , tradescantia, , , , , , virginica, , tragopogon, , , , , orientale, pratense, , , , trapa natans, , trichostomum rigidulum, trifolium, , , , , , , , , trifolium hybridum, , , , pratense, repens, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , resupinatum, trillium grandiflorum, , trinia vulgaris, triphasia aurantiaca, triticum, , , , repens, , vulgare, , triumfetta, , , , , , , , trollius europæus, , , tropÆolaceÆ, , tropæolum, , , majus, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , minus, tulipa, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , gesneriana, , , , , , sylvestris, turritis, glabra, typha, u. ulex, , europæus, , ulmus americana, campestris, , , , , , , umbelliferÆ, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , uredo candida, urticaceÆ, urtica dioica, , , usteria, v. vaccinium, valantia cruciata, valerianaceÆ, valeriana, , , dioica, officinalis, valisneria spiralis, , verbascum, , , , , , australe, nigrum, , phlomoides, thapsus, verbena, , , veronica, , , , , , , , , austriaca, beccabunga, chamædrys, latifolia, longifolia, spicata, , viburnum, , , opulus, vicia, , , , faba, vinca, , herbacea, major, minor, , , , , rosea, viola, , , , , , , , grandiflora, hirta, , odorata, , , , , , , , , , tricolor, , violaceÆ, , , , , viscum album, , , vitaceÆ, vitex incisa, vitis, vinifera, , , , , , , , , , , , , , w. wedelia perfoliata, weigela rosea, welwitschia, , _adnot_ wildenovia, , , wistaria, sinensis, x. xanthosoma appendiculatum, xanthoxylum, xylophylla, y. yucca, flexilis, z. zamia, zea mays, , , , , , , , , , zingiber zerumbet, , zinnia, elegans, zygopetalum maxillare, errata. the reader is requested to make the following corrections:-- page . fig. should be *. page . the reference applies not to the nutmeg but to the hop, figured at p. . page . fig. legend--for _sempervivun tecotorum_ read _sempervivum tectorum_. printed by j. e. adlard, bartholomew close. transcriber's notes: page xx and : . passage of pinnate to palmate leaves in horse-chesnut 'chesnut may be old spelling for chestnut?'. changed as most are spelled chestnut. page : naturforscherversammlung changed naturvorschefversamlung to naturforscherversammlung to match other occurrence. (see footnote ). page : so far as the andraecium is concerned, the stamens changed to androecium to match other occurrences. page : echinocactus changed from echinocatus to match other occurrences. page : the species mentioned are _ambrina ambrosiodes_, changed to ambrosioides to match index page. page : medicago sp., ? ., europe. the ? mark replaces a blank in original for a missing attribution. page : onagrariÆ changed to onagraceÆ to match other occurrences, especially the index referrence. footnote : 'neue denkschriften der allgemeine schweizerischen gesellschaft,' perhaps this should be: allgemeinen. unchanged. index alströmeria, , changed to alstroemeria to match referenced pages. dipsacaceÆ, , , , all dipsaceæ changed to dipsacaceæ to match index and current spelling. errata changes listed were made. inconsistent hyphenation: co-existent and coexistent lauro-cerasus and laurocerasus mid-rib and midrib outgrowth and out-growth transcriber note text emphasis denoted as _italic_ and =bold=. farmers' bulletin united states department of agriculture drug plants under cultivation [illustration] this bulletin gives general suggestions relative to the culture, harvesting, distillation, yield, marketing, and commercial prospects for drug plants. specific information is also given concerning the cultivation, handling, and yield of individual species and the demand and prices paid for the product. the market demand for many cultivated plant drugs is not large enough to justify growing them except as small minor crops. the haphazard production of crude drugs in small lots of a few pounds usually means a dissatisfied producer. a special knowledge of trade requirements is necessary in collecting, curing, preserving, and packing drugs for market. most farm products find a ready local market; a special market must be sought for plant drugs. high prices for plant drugs do not insure large profits in producing them. not the price received, but the difference between the cost of production and the selling price is the important point. contribution from the bureau of plant industry wm. a. taylor, chief issued, june, washington, d. c. revised, august, show this bulletin to a neighbor. additional copies may be obtained free from the division of publications, united states department of agriculture. drug plants under cultivation. w. w. stockberger, _physiologist in charge, drug, poisonous, and oil plant investigations_. contents. page. production of crude drugs some drug plants suitable for cultivation in the united states general cultural suggestions harvesting distillation yield marketing commercial prospects the cultivation and handling of drug plants production of crude drugs. interest in the possibility of deriving profit from the growing of drug plants is increasing yearly. the clearing of forests, the extension of the areas of land under tillage, and the activities of drug collectors threaten the extermination of a number of valuable native drug plants. annually, large sums of money are expended for crude drugs imported from countries where they are grown under conditions of soil and climate resembling those of many localities in the united states. as a means of guaranteeing the future supply of crude drugs and of lessening the dependence on importations, attention is now being turned to the cultivation of drug plants with a view to increasing domestic production. the problems presented by the cultivation of drug plants are not less difficult than those encountered in the production of many other crops. drug plants are subject to the same diseases and risks as other crops and are similarly affected by variations in soil and climatic conditions. they require a considerable outlay of labor, the same as other crops, and likewise require intelligent care and handling. they are subject to the same laws of supply and demand, and, like other products, must conform to the consumer's fancy and to definite trade requirements. a number of common medicinal plants have long been cultivated in gardens in this country, either as ornamentals or as a source of herbs used in cookery and as domestic remedies. a few of these plants, such as goldenseal, wormwood, wormseed, and peppermint, have been grown commercially for sale as crude drugs; but the acreage devoted to their production has been relatively small and for the most part restricted to certain localities. other drug plants which occur as common weeds in many places may prove to respond to cultivation; experiments should then be undertaken to determine whether it is profitable to grow them. in this connection it should be remembered that the soil type very often is an important limiting factor in propagating different kinds of plants. some plants grow best in well-drained loam, some prefer a marsh, some require soils rich in lime, while others thrive only in acid soil. the soil requirements of all plants are not understood; in fact it is not improbable that better comprehension of the soil, climatic, and cultural conditions adapted to the different kinds of plants will enable the successful propagation of species now regarded as unsuited to cultivation. in undertaking the growing of medicinal plants, therefore, it is essential to know that the species selected for cultivation will do well under the conditions of soil and climate existing where the planting is to be made. when necessary, this should be determined on small experimental plats before undertaking commercial plantings. assuming that the soil and climate of the situation selected are suitable for the growing of drug plants, it does not necessarily follow that they can be produced at a profit. the cost of production and marketing may be greater than the amount received for the crop when it is sold. some drug plants not well suited for cultivation on a large scale may be found profitable when grown on small areas as a side line. on the other hand, some may be produced more cheaply when cultivated on a scale large enough to warrant the use of labor-saving devices than when grown on small areas with the aid of hand labor alone. the value of land, the cost and availability of labor, and the possible returns from other crops are all factors to be considered carefully. on account of the variation in these factors according to locality, the same crop might prove to be profitable in one location and unprofitable in another. it is for these reasons that unqualified statements concerning the ease and profitableness of drug plant growing should not be taken too seriously. some drug plants suitable for cultivation in the united states. the number of drug plants which may be grown in the united states is large, although the same plants are not equally adapted to the conditions of soil and climate prevailing in different sections. often the most suitable plants for a particular locality can not be foretold, especially in those situations where no attempts have yet been made to grow them. in such cases it is well to select for cultivation plants which thrive elsewhere under conditions most closely resembling those of the new situation in which it is proposed to grow them. the success with which ordinary field or garden crops can be grown will in general indicate the possible suitability of a given location for growing many medicinal plants. since a number of native medicinal plants which in their wild state are restricted to certain localities have been successfully cultivated in situations far beyond their natural range, there are good reasons for believing that many such plants will thrive in sections where they are not now grown. however, good results can scarcely be expected unless the plants are placed under conditions similar to those in which they normally thrive. in suitable soil and under favorable weather conditions the following drug plants have been found to thrive well under cultivation in numerous places in the central and eastern states and will probably be found suitable for cultivation in many other situations if the difference in climatic conditions is not too great: anise. conium. elecampane. sage. belladonna. coriander. fennel. stramonium. camomile. digitalis. henbane. tansy. caraway. dill. horehound. thyme. some perennials, such as belladonna and digitalis, are only partly hardy and would be subject to winterkilling in the colder sections. such plants as aconite, arnica, lovage, poppy, seneca, valerian, and wormwood seem to thrive best in the northern half of the united states in situations where the rainfall is well distributed throughout the growing season. on the other hand, cannabis, licorice, and wormseed are better suited to the warmer climate of the southern half of the united states. aletris, althaea, angelica, calamus, orris, pinkroot, peppermint, serpentaria, and spearmint are adapted generally for situations in which the soil is rich and moist, but lavender and larkspur are partial to well-drained sandy soil. ginseng and goldenseal occur naturally on rich soil in the partial shade of forest trees and can be cultivated successfully only when planted in woodlands or in specially prepared soil under artificial shade (fig. ). general cultural suggestions. the special details of cultivation for each of the medicinal plants mentioned are given under the discussion of the individual species. suggestions which are of general application, however, are here brought together, in order to avoid unnecessary duplication. _propagation._--a number of the species considered later can be grown easily from seed, but others are best propagated from cuttings or by division. many wild medicinal plants are much more difficult to propagate from seeds than the species commonly grown in gardens. likewise, some of the species now grown abroad and suitable for cultivation in this country are not easily propagated and require special conditions if good results are to be realized. [illustration: fig. .--lath shed affording partial shade, especially well suited for growing woodland plants.] seeds of the better-known varieties of medicinal plants are regularly listed in the catalogues of numerous seed houses, and those which are less common can usually be obtained from dealers who make a specialty of one or more of these species. plants can frequently be obtained from nurseries or from dealers in hardy ornamentals. the catalogues of a number of dealers should be consulted and the varieties for propagation carefully selected. in ordering, the medicinal variety should always be called for, since many of the related ornamental forms which are listed are of doubtful, if any, medicinal value. _sowing the seed._--a relatively small number of medicinal plants can be satisfactorily grown from seed sown in the field. in many cases this method is quite uncertain and with some plants wholly inadvisable. in order to insure a good stand of thrifty plants it is frequently necessary to make the sowings in a greenhouse, hotbed, or coldframe and at a suitable time transplant the seedlings to the field. much information on seed germination, hotbeds, and coldframes can be gained by consulting farmers' bulletins , , and , entitled, respectively, "home gardening in the south," "the farm garden, in the north," and "the city home garden."[ ] [ ] these publications can be obtained free of charge upon application to the secretary of agriculture, washington, d. c. the preparation of the soil is of prime importance, whether the sowing of the seed is made in the open or under cover. many seeds, especially those which are very small, do not germinate well in heavy soils or in those which are cloddy and coarse in texture. a seed bed prepared by thoroughly mixing equal parts of garden soil, leaf mold, well-rotted manure, and clean sand will be suitable for the germination of most seeds. the depth of sowing is largely governed by the size of the seeds and the character of the soil. in general, the smaller the seed the less the depth of sowing. seed should be covered more deeply in light sandy soil than in heavy clay soil. fall-sown seeds also require a greater depth of covering than those sown in the spring. the exact quantity of seed which should be used for sowing a given area can not be definitely stated. the same kind of seed will be found to vary widely in its power to germinate; hence, the percentage of germination should be ascertained in advance of sowing and the quantity regulated accordingly. in general, the heavier the soil the larger the quantity of seed required. if the plants are to be thinned out or transplanted, or if they are especially subject to the attacks of insects, the free use of seed is usually advisable. when plantings are made in open ground it is preferable to sow the seed in rows or drills, in order that cultivation of the soil may be possible. a shallow furrow may be opened with a rake or hand hoe and the seed sown by hand. the rake or hoe may then be used to cover the seed with the required depth of soil. it is much more satisfactory to use seed drills, such as are commonly used by market gardeners, than to sow by hand, since with the drill the depth of sowing is more uniform and the soil is compacted over the seeds, thus favoring good germination. the distance between the rows is determined in part by the size which the plants attain at maturity, but depends chiefly upon the method of cultivation to be used. a spacing of to inches between the rows will readily permit hand cultivation, but the rows should be about feet apart if horse-drawn implements are employed. _cultivation._--there are no set rules for the cultivation of medicinal plants, and the grower's experience with other plants must be relied upon as a guide in many of the details of cultivation. as a general rule, the soil should be worked with the hoe or cultivator at frequent intervals and kept free from weeds. it is a good practice to cultivate after a hard rain as soon as the ground is sufficiently dry. during dry, hot weather loss of moisture from the soil will be diminished by frequent shallow cultivations. harvesting. drug roots are usually harvested in the fall or at the end of the growing season of the plant, but they may also be harvested early in the spring while still dormant. roots collected during the growing season often shrink excessively in drying and so do not form the most desirable product. on small areas either a spade or a potato fork is a suitable tool for digging most roots; but if the area is large, labor will be saved by using a plow to turn out the roots, especially with such crops as belladonna or burdock. most roots require thorough washing, and when the quantity is large this may be easily done if the roots are placed on a frame covered with wire mesh and water is applied by means of a garden hose. all roots must be thoroughly dried. large or fleshy roots are usually split or sliced, spread in thin layers on clean floors, and stirred or turned frequently. good ventilation is essential, as several weeks usually elapse before the roots are dry enough to be stored with safety. the proper point of dryness is indicated when the roots break readily on being bent. the time of drying may be reduced to a few days by the use of artificial heat. for this purpose the walls of a well-inclosed room are fitted with racks or shelves to receive the roots, or large trays with bottoms made of slats or wire screen are suspended one above the other from the ceiling. the room is heated by a stove, and the temperature maintained between ° and ° f. ventilators must be provided at the top of the room to carry away the moisture which is driven off from the roots. ordinary fruit driers have been used successfully in drying roots on, a small scale, but special drying houses or kilns will be necessary for successfully handling crops grown on an acreage basis. leaves and herbs are usually harvested when the plants are in flower. picking the leaves by hand in the field is a slow process, and time may be saved by cutting the entire plant and stripping the leaves after the plants have been brought in from the field. if the entire herb is wanted, it is preferable to top the plants, for if they are cut too close to the ground the herb will have to be picked over by hand and all the coarse stems removed. as a rule, leaves and herbs may be dried in the same manner as roots, but almost without exception they are dried without exposure to the sun, in order that the green color may be retained so far as possible. some flowers are gathered while scarcely open and others as soon after opening as possible, and in general they should be carefully dried in the shade to prevent discoloration. hand picking is very laborious, and mechanical devices similar to a cranberry scoop (fig. ) or seed stripper (fig. ) may often be used to good advantage. a homemade picker may be constructed as follows: from a stout wooden box, about inches wide, inches long, and inches deep, remove one end and connect the opposite remaining sides at the top with a stout strip, which will serve as a handle. drive long, slender wire nails through an inch strip of wood at quarter-inch intervals, thus forming a "comb" the teeth of which should be about inches long. this comb is fastened to the bottom of the box in such a manner that the teeth will project outward through the opening left by the removed end. on swinging this device, teeth forward, through the flowers, the heads will be snapped off by the comb and will fall into the box, from which they may be emptied into suitable containers. [illustration: fig. .--a berry scoop suitable for harvesting flower heads of large size.] [illustration: fig. .--a seed stripper which may be used for gathering flower heads.] seeds are harvested as soon as most of them have ripened and before the pods or seed capsules have opened. seedlike fruits, such as anise, coriander, fennel, and wormseed r are harvested a little before they are fully ripe, in order that they may retain a bright, fresh appearance, which adds to their market value. the machinery used for thrashing and cleaning ordinary seed crops will frequently serve a similar purpose for seeds of medicinal plants, provided the proper adjustments have been made. most seeds must be spread out to dry and turned at intervals until thoroughly dried before they can be stored in quantity. distillation. the volatile oil obtained from many aromatic plants by steam distillation is often their most valuable product. the equipment necessary for distilling volatile oils consists essentially of a steam boiler, a retort, and a condenser. a constant supply of cold water must also be available. a common type of retort consists of a circular wooden vat, about feet in diameter and to feet deep (fig. ), fitted with a removable cover, which can be made steam tight. metal retorts made of boiler iron three-sixteenths of an inch thick and jacketed with wood to prevent the radiation of heat are also used. a pipe leads from the steam boiler to the bottom of the retort and another from the top of the retort to the condenser, one form of which consists of a coil of tin-lined or galvanized-iron pipe inclosed in a jacket through which cold water is kept flowing when the still is in operation. [illustration: fig. .--a still used in the production of wormwood oil.] when the retort is filled with aromatic plants and steam is admitted through the pipe from the boiler, the volatile oil is extracted in the form of a vapor, which is carried over with the steam to the condenser, where both are condensed to liquid form. the oil and water together flow from the condenser into the receiver, one type of which is constructed like an ordinary milk can and is fitted with a siphon leading from the bottom, through which the water is drawn off to prevent the receiver from overflowing. many volatile oils will float on the water and may be drawn off from the top of the receiver at will. other oils, such as sassafras and wintergreen, are heavier than water, and should be collected in a receiver provided at the bottom with an outlet tap through which the oil may be drawn off. the cost of setting up a still will depend upon what facilities are already at hand and upon the size and efficiency of the apparatus installed. it may easily range from a small sum to several thousand dollars. yield. the yield that can be obtained from drug plants in different localities will naturally vary according to the suitability of the situation for the plants selected for cultivation. even in the same locality wide variations in yield will result from differences in the lay of the land and in soil, drainage, and seasonal conditions. the skill of the grower and the degree of care and attention which he bestows upon his crop are also factors affecting yield. many of the drug plants mentioned in this bulletin have not been grown on a scale large enough to give a very satisfactory basis for calculating yields. acreage yields calculated from the product of small garden plats are generally untrustworthy, since in such plats the plants are usually more favorably situated with respect to soil and are given better culture than when under field conditions. moreover, as the area increases, it becomes more difficult to maintain an approximately perfect stand and to protect the crop from the ravages of insects or other destructive agencies. the returns from small experimental areas can at most be regarded as only an indication of the yield that may be expected under favorable conditions, and the prospective grower will do well to proceed cautiously until he has determined for himself the possibilities of yield in his particular location. marketing. the commercial grower of drug plants can not give too much attention to the problem of securing a satisfactory market for his product. growers who live near the cities in which dealers in crude drugs are located or in sections where wild medicinal plants are collected may be able to find a local market, but in many situations the local marketing of crude drugs in quantity will not be possible. in such cases the grower should send samples of his product to dealers in crude drugs or to manufacturers of pharmaceutical preparations and request them to name a price at which they would purchase his crop. the material for the samples should not be specially selected or so prepared as to represent a quality higher than that of the whole lot, since this would give the purchaser just cause for making a reduction in price on delivery or for rejecting the whole shipment. it is well to send samples to a number of dealers, since their prices will be found to vary with the stock on hand and trade prospects. before selling, the state of the wholesale drug market should be learned. the prices to producers are, of course, always lower than the wholesale price; nevertheless, the grower who is informed in respect to the wholesale market will be in a position to judge of the fairness of the prices offered for his crop by dealers. under special conditions some crude drugs can be sold at a material advance over the prevailing market price. by always supplying a well-prepared, carefully selected drug of high quality some growers have built up a trade in their particular product for which they secure extra good prices. dealers and manufacturers also sometimes make contracts with reliable growers to take the entire crop of a particular drug, thus insuring to the grower a definite market and good prices for the product. commercial prospects. at the close of the year there existed a general and widespread shortage in botanical crude drugs, and prices in consequence had reached unusually high levels. the demand in other lines for unskilled labor at high wages has attracted elsewhere many persons who were formerly engaged in the collection or production of botanic drugs in this country. it is therefore probable that prices for most crude drugs will remain at a high level until the prices of other commodities undergo a general reduction and the present supply of labor greatly increases. although the average value of crude drugs, expressed in terms of money, has more than doubled since , it does not follow that their production offers a corresponding increase in profit to the producer. the prices of food and clothing, labor, and supplies of all kinds have for the most part more than doubled in the same time and the prospective producer of crude drugs will do well to consider carefully the comparative prices of the necessities of life which he must purchase before he engages in this enterprise. the unusually high prices now offered for many crude drugs are due to the underproduction, which has resulted largely from labor conditions and do not necessarily indicate any large increase in the demand for consumption. in view of the present disturbed economic conditions and the uncertainty as to the future course of prices, the general stimulation of drug growing in this country does not appear to be the best policy at this time. however desirable it may be to increase the available supply of crude drugs or to diminish the amount of money now sent to foreign countries for these products, the most important consideration for the american farmer who would grow drug plants is the probable profit to be derived from such an enterprise. many statements to the contrary notwithstanding, the commercial production of crude drugs does not normally present unusual opportunities for quick returns and large profits. knowledge respecting the cultivation and handling of medicinal-plant crops is far less widespread than in the case of such generally distributed crops as fruits, vegetables, and cereals, and certain individuals have taken advantage of this lack of information to lead the public to believe that extraordinary profits may be realized from growing medicinal plants, even in a situation no more promising than the average city back yard. such persons are interested usually only in the sale of the plants and seeds for propagation or the questionable directions for their cultivation, and the extravagant claims often set forth in their alluring advertisements are not only misleading, but frequently have little basis in fact. the market demand for any given crude drug is naturally a large factor in determining the prospects for its commercial production under cultivation. the demand for a number of drugs is quite variable or exceedingly limited, and hence insufficient to make it advisable to raise them on a large scale. in the case of other drugs, although the demand is fairly constant and steady, it could probably be fully satisfied by the product of a very few acres of good land. it is evident that the cultivation of any considerable acreage might easily result in overproduction, with a consequent decline in market price to a point where production would not be profitable. the cultivation of drug plants, to be successful in this country, will probably require the introduction of improved methods and the extensive use of machinery to replace hand labor so far as possible. growers of mints and numerous other plants yielding essential oils will find it desirable to equip themselves with a suitable distilling plant, although the latter can not be operated most economically when only a small quantity of material is available for distillation. the natural tendency will be to increase the acreage in the interest of more efficient operation, but here again there is danger of overproduction, and prospective growers should thoroughly acquaint themselves with market conditions before bringing very large areas under cultivation. very few, if any, drug plants are used in quantities sufficient to make them a promising crop for general cultivation. many of the common ones, which can be grown and prepared for market with little difficulty, bring but a few cents a pound, and their cultivation offers little prospect of profit. a number of the high-priced drug plants must be given care for two or more years before a crop can be harvested, and, since expensive equipment is usually required for their successful culture, the production of such crops offers little encouragement to inexperienced growers who are looking for quick returns and large profits from a small investment. the production of drugs of high quality requires skilled management, experience in special methods of plant culture, acquaintance with trade requirements, and a knowledge of the influence of time of collection and manner of preparation on the constituents of the drug which determine its value. small quantities of drugs produced without regard to these conditions are apt to be poor in quality and so unattractive to dealers and manufacturers that the product will not be salable at a price sufficient to make their production profitable. in general, the conditions in this country seem far more favorable to the growing of drug plants as a special industry for well-equipped cultivators than as a side crop for general farmers or those whose chief interest lies in the production of other crops. although a number of plants which yield products used as crude drugs are common farm weeds, they usually occur in scattered situations and in such small quantities that their collection would scarcely prove profitable for the farmer. even when relatively abundant it is a matter for careful consideration whether the time and labor necessary for their collection might not be otherwise employed to better advantage. moreover, it is not always easy to distinguish medicinal plants from others of similar appearance, and collectors not infrequently find that they have spent their time in gathering plants practically worthless as crude drugs. in proportion to the labor required in their collection, relatively low prices are paid for most crude drugs obtained from wild plants, and the farmer who turns to drug collecting as a source of additional revenue will probably meet with disappointment. the cultivation and handling of drug plants. the following cultural directions and suggestions regarding the handling of a number of drug plants have been compiled in part from the records of the office of drug, poisonous, and oil plant investigations and include data secured by various members of the staff of that office connected with testing gardens in several widely separated localities. the probable yields per acre are in many cases estimates calculated from smaller areas, and considerable variation from the figures given must be expected in actual practice. the prices mentioned are given merely to indicate the comparative value of the products concerned and not to fix the actual price which the grower of drug plants may expect to receive. this will depend very largely upon the state of the market at the time the crop is offered for sale. the plants mentioned in the following pages were selected for discussion because information regarding their cultivation is in constant demand. the purpose of this bulletin is not to recommend these plants for cultivation, but to give information concerning their culture which may be helpful to persons who are considering the production of drug plants on a commercial scale.[ ] [ ] for information in regard to weeds used in medicine not herein considered, see farmers' bulletin no. , which may be obtained from the superintendent of documents, government printing office, for cents. aletris. aletris, star-grass, or true unicorn root (_aletris farinosa_, fig. ) is a native perennial herb of the lily family, found occasionally on sandy soil throughout the eastern half of the united states; also frequently occurring in the pine and oak barrens of alabama and tennessee and elsewhere in the south. the root is used medicinally. [illustration: fig. .--aletris (_aletris farinosa_).] aletris is a slow-growing plant which seems to thrive best on a moist and sandy soil. it may be propagated either by division of the root stocks or from seeds. the seeds mature late in the summer, and should be sown soon after ripening, in a well-prepared and protected seed bed. in the following spring the seedlings may be transplanted to their permanent situation and set about a foot apart in rows inches or more apart. the soil about the plants should be stirred frequently and kept free from weeds. the root, consisting of a short horizontal rootstock bearing numerous small rootlets, may be harvested in the fall of the second or third year. in preparing the root for market the stem and leaves are broken off and the dirt is removed by shaking (or washing, if necessary), after which it is well dried. there are no available data on the probable yield. the prewar prices paid to collectors for aletris usually ranged from to cents a pound. the prices in june, , were about cents a pound. aconite. aconite (_aconitum napellus_) is a hardy perennial, introduced from europe and sparingly grown in this country as an ornamental garden plant. both leaves and roots are very poisonous, the latter forming the official drug. other varieties than _aconitum napellus_ are also grown in flower gardens, and several species occur wild in the united states. since the official species readily hybridizes with related varieties, often to the detriment of its medicinal properties, it is frequently difficult to secure seed which will come true to name. aconite seems to thrive best in a rather cool climate and will grow in any rich garden soil, but a well-drained gravelly loam in an elevated situation appears most suited for the cultivation of this plant. it may be grown from seed sown in the open late in the fall or early in the spring, or plants may be started in a seed bed and the seedlings later transplanted and set about a foot apart in rows feet apart. the preferable method of propagation is by division of the roots after the stems have died down in the fall, since thereby hybridization may be avoided. the plants usually flower in the second year from seed, when the roots may be harvested. it is preferable, however, to defer harvesting until the stems have died down in the fall, when all the roots should be dug, the smaller reserved for planting and the larger ones washed, sliced lengthwise, and dried. the leaves are also harvested, but are not in much demand. reliable data on yield are not available, although some estimates place the yield at about pounds of dry root per acre. the american market is supplied with imported aconite root, for which the prewar price ranged from about to cents a pound. the price in june, , ranged from to cents a pound. the quantity imported in was about , pounds. the demand for this drug is limited, and this fact, together with the probable low yield, makes its profitable cultivation in this country very doubtful. althaea. althaea, or marshmallow (_althaea officinalis_), is a perennial herb introduced from europe which now grows wild in marshy places near the sea in massachusetts and along tidal rivers in new york and pennsylvania. the root forms the official drug, but the leaves and flowers also are sometimes used medicinally. althaea will grow well in almost any loose garden soil of moderate fertility, but tends to winterkill in situations where the ground freezes to a considerable depth. the plants may be propagated from seeds or from divisions of the old roots made early in the spring. the seed may be sown in the open in shallow drills at least feet apart, and the seedlings should be thinned to stand inches apart in the row. under good conditions the plants attain a height of or feet; therefore, close planting does not give sufficient room for full development. in the second year of growth the roots are harvested, washed, peeled, cut into short lengths, and thoroughly dried. yields at the rate of to , pounds of dry root per acre have been obtained. the prewar wholesale price usually ranged from to cents a pound. the price in june, , was to cents a pound. the annual importation of this root averages about , pounds. in view of the amount of hand labor required in preparing the root, the relatively low price, and the rather limited demand, the cultivation of this plant for profit is not very attractive. angelica. angelica (_angelica officinalis_) is a european biennial plant of the parsley family, sometimes grown in this country as a culinary herb and known commonly as garden angelica. the fresh stems and leafstalks are used as a garnish and for making a candied confection. the seeds and the oil distilled from them are employed in flavoring, and the aromatic roots are sometimes used in medicine. angelica thrives best in a moderately cool climate and may be grown in any good soil, although a deep, fairly rich loam which is moist but well drained will give the best results. the soil should be deeply plowed and well prepared before planting. the plant is most readily propagated from divisions of old roots, which may be set either in the fall or spring about inches apart in rows. the seeds germinate very poorly if more than one year old, and it is best to sow them as soon as they are ripe in a seed bed, which should be kept moist by frequent watering if necessary. early in the following spring the seedlings are transplanted and set about feet apart each way in their permanent location. plants may also be obtained from seeds sown in march in a spent hotbed or in a cold frame. in order to increase the root development, the plants are often transplanted a second time, at the end of the first year's growth, and set or feet apart. for the same reason the tops are often cut back to prevent the formation of seed. during the growing seasons the soil should be kept mellow and free from weeds by frequent cultivation. the roots are usually harvested in the fall of the second year, but sometimes those of the first-year plants are marketed. after being dug, the roots are washed and dried in the open air. in order to keep out insects and to preserve the aroma it is best to store the dried root in tin containers which can be tightly closed. the root of the european or garden angelica found in our drug markets is imported largely from germany. during the past few years the wholesale price has averaged about cents a pound. the root of a native species of angelica (_angelica atropurpurea_), commonly called american angelica, also occurs in the drug markets of this country. it is collected from wild plants, and the price to collectors in former years usually ranged from to cents a pound. the prices in june, , were for the seed cents and for the root cents a pound. anise. anise (_pimpinella anisum_) is an annual herb of the parsley family, widely cultivated in europe and to a limited extent in this country, chiefly in rhode island. although this plant may be grown quite generally throughout the united states, it has been found difficult to bring the crop to maturity in northerly situations where the growing season is short or in the south where the climate is hot and dry. it is grown chiefly for its aromatic seeds (fruits), which are used medicinally, and also in baking and for flavoring confectionery. the oil distilled from the seeds is used medicinally in cordials, and also for flavoring various beverages. anise thrives best in a light, moderately rich, and well-drained loam which has been carefully prepared before planting. it is grown from seeds, which are usually sown early in the spring directly in the field, since the seedlings are unfavorably affected by transplanting. the seeds, which should not be more than years old, are sown thickly, about two to the inch, and covered one-half inch deep. since the plants develop very slowly, seed should not be sown in weedy soil. when the seedlings are to inches high they are thinned to stand inches apart in the row. the rows may be inches or feet apart, depending on the cultivation intended. an ounce of seed should sow a row feet long, and about pounds will plant an acre when the rows are feet apart. the plants should receive frequent and thorough cultivation throughout the growing season. about three months from the time of planting the plants will blossom, and a month later the seed should be matured sufficiently for harvesting. as soon as the tips of the seeds turn a grayish green color they should be harvested, for if allowed to remain exposed to the weather they quickly turn brown or blacken. the plants may be pulled by hand and stacked, tops inward, in heaps about feet high, or they may be mowed and at once built up into cocks of the same height. in about four or five days the seed will have ripened, after which it should be thrashed out and thoroughly cleaned. yields of anise seed are quite variable, since the plant is very sensitive to unfavorable weather conditions. in a good season from to pounds per acre may be reasonably expected. the prewar wholesale price usually ranged from to cents a pound. the prices in june, , ranged from to cents a pound. during the war the average annual importation of tons was reduced to about tons. arnica. arnica (_arnica montana_) is a herbaceous perennial plant of the aster family, native in northern and central europe, where it thrives in the cool climate of the mountain meadows and upland moors. the flowers, leaves, and roots are employed in medicine. arnica requires a marshy soil, abundant rainfall, and a cool climate for its best development. it is propagated by divisions of the roots or from seeds sown either in the fall or the spring. seed may also be sown in august in a seed bed and the plants transplanted the following spring to stand about inches apart in the row. the flowers may be harvested the second year and the roots after three or four years. arnica is not produced commercially in the united states, and the small quantity imported annually is apparently sufficient to meet the market demands. its cultivation presents many difficulties, and efforts to grow it in the milder portions of this country have generally proved unsuccessful. belladonna. belladonna, or deadly nightshade (_atropa belladonna_), is a large, poisonous perennial which occurs wild in europe, where it is also cultivated. both the leaves and the roots are important crude drugs. in recent years it has been cultivated to some extent in this country, but is likely to winterkill in the colder sections. belladonna may be propagated in a small way from cuttings of the young shoots rooted in moist sand in the usual manner or from divisions of the fleshy rootstocks made early in the spring, but it is most readily grown from seeds which may be thinly sown in pots or well-drained boxes in a cool greenhouse in midwinter or in a sheltered place in a garden early in the spring. when the seedlings are large enough to handle they should be transplanted singly to small pots or pricked out in flats or shallow boxes of light, rich soil, placing them about inches apart each way, as with tomato or other vegetable plants intended for field planting. in the spring, as soon as danger from frost is over, they should be transplanted to the field and set about inches apart in rows or more inches apart sowing seeds in the field or transplanting directly from the seed bed to the field has rarely given good results in this country. belladonna seeds are small, and if well handled under glass or in protected seed beds ounce should produce , or more plants, sufficient to set an acre. belladonna thrives best in deep, moist, well-drained loam containing lime, such as will under proper fertilization produce good garden vegetables. the preparation of the soil should be very thorough and consists of deep plowing, either in the fall or early spring, and repeated working with the disk or spring-tooth and smoothing harrows. weeds should be kept under control at all times and the soil stirred with a hoe or cultivator at intervals of about days, particularly after each hard rain, and shallow cultivation given in hot, dry weather to conserve the natural moisture of the soil. good commercial fertilizers, such as are commonly used in truck gardens, are beneficial. those containing per cent of phosphoric acid, per cent of nitrogen, and per cent of potash are the most desirable and should be applied at the rate of about pounds per acre. stable manure at the rate of to tons to the acre may be used if plowed under when the ground is prepared. belladonna is sometimes affected by a wilt disease, which is aggravated by wet soils and fresh animal manures, and the foliage is greedily attacked by the potato beetle. dusting with lime, spot, or road dust in the morning when the leaves are wet with dew is occasionally effective. the destructive attacks of these pests are usually confined to the seed bed or to first-year plantings, but the insects may be controlled by the careful use of insecticides. the leaves are picked when the plants are in full bloom. they should be carefully handled, to avoid bruising, and dried in the shade in order to retain their green color. a hundred pounds of fresh leaves yield about pounds when well dried. one crop only can be collected the year of planting, but two crops are gathered in each of the next two or three years, after which it appears better to market the roots and make new plantings. while only the leaves should be collected for the best pharmaceutical trade, the young growth, including the smaller sappy twigs, has medicinal value and may be sheared from the plants and dried in the same manner as the leaves. the ease of collection and increased weight of material may render the latter method more profitable. the roots alone are not as profitable as the leaves. the best roots are those of the second and third year's growth. they are harvested in the fall after frost, the tops being mowed and raked off and the roots turned out with a deep-running plow, or with a potato fork if the area be small. they are carefully washed and cut into about -inch lengths, the larger pieces being split lengthwise to aid in drying. thorough drying either in the sun or with mild artificial heat is essential; otherwise, the roots will mold when stored. the high prices paid for belladonna during the war greatly stimulated the cultivation of this crop, which had previously been grown with some success in california, michigan, indiana, pennsylvania, new jersey, and some other states. in , acres of belladonna were harvested, the total production being about tons of herb (including leaves and stems), an average of pounds per acre. from acres tons of root were harvested, an average of pounds per acre. the marketing of this crop was followed by a decline in prices, the quotations in june, , being to cents a pound for the herb and cents a pound for the root. blue flag. blue flag (_iris versicolor_) is a native perennial plant of common occurrence in swamps and marshy situations throughout the eastern half of the united states. the underground stem (rhizome) and roots are the parts of the plant used medicinally. blue flag responds readily to cultivation when placed in a rich, moist, and rather heavy soil. it is readily propagated from divisions of old plants, which may be set foot apart in rows spaced conveniently for cultivation. if the plants are set in august or september, the crop may be harvested about, the last of october in the following year. the roots may be turned out with a deep-running plow, and after being thoroughly washed and the larger clusters broken up they should be thoroughly dried. artificial drying at low heat is usually desirable. yields at the rate of or tons of dried root per acre have been obtained from small plats. the prewar price paid to collectors varied from year to year and usually ranged from to cents a pound. the price in june, , was cents a pound. this crop does not appear to be very promising, owing to the relatively small demand for the root boneset. boneset (_eupatorium perfoliatum_) is a hardy, rather long-lived perennial plant commonly found growing in low grounds throughout the eastern half of the united states. the dried leaves and flowering tops form the official drug. divisions of clumps of wild plants collected early in the fall will serve for propagation. these may be set about a foot apart in rows in well-prepared soil. during the first winter the newly set divisions should be protected with a light mulch of straw or manure. plants may also be grown from seeds, which should be collected as soon as ripe and sown in shallow drills about inches apart in a rich, moist seed bed, preferably in partial shade. when of sufficient size they may be set in the field at about the same distance as the divided clumps. the plants are cut late in the summer when in full bloom and the leaves and flowering tops stripped from the stem by hand and carefully dried without exposure to the sun. yields of well-cultivated boneset are quite large and , pounds or more per acre of dry herb may be obtained under favorable conditions. the prewar price for boneset rarely exceeded to cents a pound. the price in june, , was to cents a pound. since the demand is limited and the wild supply fairly available, the cultivation of boneset does not offer much prospect of profit. burdock. burdock (_arctium lappa_) is a large biennial plant well known as a common and troublesome weed in the eastern and central states and in some western localities. the dried root from plants of the first year's growth forms the official drug, but the seeds and leaves are also used medicinally. burdock will grow in almost any soil, but the best root development is favored by a light well-drained soil rich in humus. the seeds germinate readily and may be sown directly in the field, either late in the fall or early in the spring. the seed may be sown in drills inches or feet apart, as desired, and should be sown inch deep if in the fall, but less deeply if sown in the spring. when the seedlings are well up they should be thinned to stand about inches apart in the row. cultivation should continue as long as the size of the plants will permit. the roots are harvested at the end of the first year's growth in order to secure the most acceptable drug and also to prevent the plants from bearing seed and spreading as a weed. the tops of the plants may be cut with a mower and raked off, after which the roots can usually be turned out with a deep-running plow or with a beet lifter. in a dry and very sandy soil the roots frequently extend to a depth of or feet, making it necessary to dig them by hand. after digging, any remaining tops are removed and the roots are washed and dried, the drying being preferably by the use of low artificial heat. the roots are usually split lengthwise into two or more pieces in order to facilitate drying, although whole roots are marketable. yields at the rate of , to , pounds of dry roots per acre have been obtained. the prewar prices offered by dealers ranged from to cents a pound. the prices for the root and seed in june, , were cents a pound each. calamus. calamus, or sweet flag (_acorus calamus_), is a native perennial plant, occurring frequently along streams and in the edges of swamps throughout the eastern half of the united states. the dried root (rhizome or rootstock) is the part used as a drug. although calamus in a wild state is usually found growing in water, it may be cultivated in almost any good soil which is fairly moist. it usually does well on moderately dry upland soils which will produce fair crops of corn or potatoes. the plants are readily propagated from divisions of old roots, which should be set early in the fall foot apart in rows and well covered. during the following growing season the plants should receive frequent and thorough cultivation. the roots are harvested in the fall and may be readily dug with a spade or turned out with a plow. the tops, together with about an inch of the rootstock, are next cut off and used to make new plantings. the roots are washed and dried artificially at a moderately low degree of heat. the marketable product consists of the thick rootstocks deprived of their small rootlets often called "fibers." these may be removed before drying, but more easily afterwards, since when dry and brittle they break off readily with a little handling. roots thus treated are often called "stripped" and are more aromatic than those which have been peeled. yields at the rate of , pounds of dry roots per acre have been obtained. the prewar price for the unpeeled root usually ranged from to cents a pound. the prices in june, , were to cents a pound. the annual importation of calamus root ranges from to tons. calendula. calendula, or pot marigold (_calendula officinalis_), is a hardy annual plant native to southern europe, but frequently grown in flower gardens in this country. the dried flower heads are sometimes used in soups and stews, and the so-called petals (ligulate florets) are employed in medicine. calendula grows well on a variety of soils, but a moderately rich garden loam will give the best results. the seed may be sown in open ground early in the spring in drills inches apart. as soon as the seedlings are well established they should be thinned to stand about a foot apart in the row. in the north it is desirable to sow the seed about the first of april in coldframes or spent hotbeds and transplant the young seedlings as soon as the danger of frost is past. the plants blossom early and continue to bloom throughout the summer. the flowers are gathered at intervals of a few days and carefully dried. the petals (florets) which form the drug may be removed either before or after the flower heads are dried. the petals are removed by hand, but this process requires so much time that when the cost of the necessary labor is taken into account it is doubtful whether the price received for the drug would cover the cost of production. the dried whole flowers produced in this country were quoted in the wholesale markets in june, , at cents to $ a pound, according to quality; the petals, at $ . to $ . a pound. camomile, german. german camomile (_matricaria chamomilla_) is a european annual herb of the aster family, cultivated in this country in gardens, from which it has escaped in some localities. the dried flower heads are used in medicine. this species of camomile does well on moderately heavy soil which is rich in humus and rather moist. since the plants bloom about eight weeks after sowing the seed, a crop of camomile may be grown from seed sown either early in the spring or late in the summer, following early vegetable crops. the seed may be sown in drills and barely covered or may be broadcast, since the plants will soon occupy the ground and exclude the weeds. when the plants are in full bloom the flower heads are gathered and may be spread thinly on canvas sheets and dried in the sun. all leaves and stems should be removed, and when the flowers are thoroughly dry they should be packed for market in boxes or bales rather than in bags, since in the latter the flowers are likely to be badly broken in handling. returns from experimental areas indicate that a yield of about pounds of dry flowers per acre may be expected under favorable conditions. prewar wholesale prices usually ranged from about to cents a pound. the prices in june, , were to cents a pound. camomile, roman. roman camomile (also called english camomile, _anthemis nobilis_) is a european perennial herb of the aster family, frequently cultivated in gardens in this country and sometimes found growing wild. in america, camomile is grown chiefly as an ornamental plant, especially for use in borders, since the plants blossom from midsummer until killed by frost. the dried flower heads from cultivated plants are used in medicine. camomile grows well in almost any good, rather dry soil which has full exposure to the sun. the plants may be grown from seeds or propagated by dividing the roots early in the spring. the divisions of the root may be planted inches apart in rows spaced according to the method of cultivation to be used. when planted on a small scale the divisions, or offsets, may be set inches apart each way in carefully prepared soil. hand weeding is necessary, but since the plants soon spread and fully shade the ground, weeds usually have small chance of becoming troublesome. the flower heads are gathered just as they open, either by hand or by means of a flower picker, and are dried in the open in bright weather or, when necessary, on canvas trays in a heated room. rapid drying is essential, as it is desirable to retain the white color as far as possible. the yield is variable, but from to pounds of dried flowers per acre may be expected. the prices for roman camomile quoted in the wholesale drug markets of this country prior to the war usually ranged from about to cents a pound. the prices in june, , were to cents a pound. since this crop requires much hand labor, its cultivation in this country on a commercial scale does not promise to be very profitable. camphor. the camphor tree (_camphora officinalis_) is a large evergreen, native to asia. it is hardy in situations where the winter temperature does not fall below ° f., and for many years has been grown as an ornamental in the southern and southwestern united states. young trees suitable for planting as ornamentals may usually be obtained from the nurseries in florida and other parts of the south, or they can be easily grown from fresh seed. for culture on a commercial scale the climatic requirements of camphor are practically the same as those of citrus fruits. the tree can be grown in almost any soil, but the maximum growth is secured in soils which are rich and well drained. when planted for commercial cultivation new land is preferable. the following statements are based upon actual experiments and observations on the growing and production of camphor under conditions found in florida. camphor seeds ripen about the middle of october and should be planted while fresh, a better germination being obtained when the pulp is removed. the seed bed should be selected with care and the precaution taken to have one that will give sufficient moisture during the dry season and yet be well drained. for small seed beds of or acres or less it may be practicable to provide irrigation. excellent stands of seedlings have been obtained on slightly rolling land which originally was covered with "blackjack" oak. about the first of september, or somewhat earlier if conditions permit, the land should be well plowed and thoroughly worked down with a disk harrow. just before the seeds are planted it should again be worked over and all roots of bermuda grass or other weeds removed, since rapidly growing grasses or weeds will absorb so much moisture from the soil that the seeds can not germinate. the seeds begin to ripen during the first part of october and are usually in a fairly well ripened stage by the last of that month. from this time until the heavy frosts they can be gathered and planted with safety. seeds gathered after heavy frosts have been planted successfully, but it is not advisable to take the risk of too hard a freeze. in determining the time to gather seed a simple test is sufficient. seeds that fall into the hand when the cluster is slightly twisted are ripe enough to plant. in planting, a cotton-dropping machine, modified somewhat to meet the new requirements, may be used. the machine is set to plant the seeds or inches apart and cover them inch deep in rows far enough apart to permit horse cultivation. the plants begin to come up in about three months, but four or five months are often required for a full stand. as soon as the plants can be distinguished in the rows cultivation is begun, which at first is done by hand with either a wheel or hand hoe. later, as the plants attain size, a horse cultivator can be used, but a certain amount of handwork is necessary throughout the time the plants remain in the seed bed. when the plants are well started they should receive a good application of sheep or goat manure or of high-grade fertilizer. the first season a growth of from to inches may be expected, the irregularity of development depending on the vitality of the seed, variation in the soil, and numerous other factors. the plants are allowed to grow in the seed bed usually for a year and are then transplanted to the field. in transplanting it is customary to separate the plants into two grades, "sturdy" and "weak," planting each grade in a field by itself. by doing this the replanting is simplified, since the sturdy stock requires but few trees for replanting and the weak stock, which will require considerable replanting, is all in one section. previous to transplanting, the land is well prepared by deep plowing and thorough harrowing, and rows are laid off feet apart. the young trees are set in these rows feet apart, either by hand or with a tree-setting machine. this machine is simply a tobacco-setting machine fitted with a trench opener set to open a furrow inches deep, in which the trees are placed. the trees used for transplanting are headed back to within inch of the crown, and the lower end of the taproot and all large laterals are removed. the taproot of the tree as planted is thus reduced in length to or inches and varies in diameter according to the vitality and previous growth of the seedling. transplanting should be done in the winter months, when the trees are dormant. cultivation is begun as soon as the trees put forth shoots in the spring and continued until the rainy season of each year. after the rainy season the plants are again cultivated and all grass and weeds removed. at times cultivation is necessary during the rainy season in order to keep the trees from becoming smothered and killed by the fast-growing weeds. one-horse cultivators drawn by mules or a gang cultivator drawn by a light tractor may be used. in three or four years, after transplanting, the trees should be from to feet high. they are then trimmed by means of a special machine[ ] to form an =a=-shaped hedge and the trimmings distilled for the oil and camphor gum. trimming is carried on when the trees are in the dormant stage, which is twice each year, usually november to january and may to june. the summer dormant season is somewhat irregular and governed entirely by local conditions. [ ] a detailed description of this machine is given in u. s. dept. of agr. cir. , entitled "a machine for trimming camphor trees." . the cuttings are hauled from the field to the distilling plant, and if many large branches are present they are run through a heavy ensilage cutter. for distillation they are packed in large iron retorts, to which steam is admitted at the bottom. the outlet pipe of the retort is connected with a specially constructed condensing apparatus in which the oil and camphor carried over by the steam are condensed and partly collected. portions of oil and camphor not collected in the condenser are caught in a tub fitted with an outlet siphon which carries away the excess condensed steam but leaves the oil and camphor behind. when removed from the condenser the product is very crude, consisting of a mixture of oil, water, and camphor. this mixture is either thrown into a centrifuge and the oil and water removed or it is placed in large cylindrical vats and the oil and water allowed to drain out. the oil is then separated from the water by means of a siphon. the camphor and oil are marketed separately. the annual yield of cuttings has varied from to tons per acre, which should give approximately to pounds of marketable camphor. at present the planting of small areas does not seem advisable, in view of the heavy outlay required for the machinery necessary to produce camphor gum at a profit. an area of less than acres would probably not warrant the installation of the machinery necessary for the commercial production of camphor, and , acres or more will doubtless give a greater net return per acre. although the crop is a low-priced one, under favorable conditions it is estimated that a fair return per acre may be expected, but the data so far accumulated are not sufficient to warrant specific statements concerning the profitableness of the industry. camphor oil, or the oil from which camphor has been removed, is used in japan for illuminating purposes, and as a solvent for resins in the manufacture of lacquer. it is used in europe for its safrol content, and may probably be utilized for the same purpose in this country. there exists already in the american market a demand for the japanese oil at prices ranging from to cents per pound. camphor imports into the united states usually exceed , , pounds annually; hence, it does not seem probable that there is any danger of overproduction in the southern states. however, it is possible that at times camphor may be imported at a price so low as to render production in this country financially unprofitable. cannabis. the drug cannabis or indian hemp (_cannabis sativa_), consists of the dried flowering tops of the female plants. it grows well over a considerable portion of the united states, but the production of the active principle of this plant is believed to be favored by a warm climate. for drug purposes, therefore, this crop appears to be adapted to the southern rather than to the northern states. cannabis is propagated from seeds, which should be planted in the spring as soon as conditions are suitable, in well-prepared sandy of clayey loam at a depth of about an inch in rows or feet apart. the seeds may be dropped every two or three inches in the row or planted in hills about a foot apart in the row, to seeds being dropped into each hill. two or three pounds of seed per acre should give a good stand. about half the seeds will produce male plants, which must be removed before their flowers mature; otherwise, the female plants will set seed, thereby diminishing their value as a drug. the male plants can be recognized with certainty only by the presence of stamens in their flowers. ordinary stable or barnyard manure plowed in deeply is better for use as a fertilizer than commercial preparations and may be safely applied at the rate of tons per acre. however, good results may be obtained with commercial fertilizers, such as are used for truck crops and potatoes, when cultivated in between the rows at the rate of or pounds per acre. when the female plants reach maturity, a sticky resin forms on the heavy, compact flower clusters, and harvesting may then be begun. the tops of the plants comprising the flower clusters are cut and carefully dried in the shade to preserve the green color as far as possible. drying can best be done, especially in damp weather, by the use of artificial heat, not to exceed ° f. for several years cannabis of standard (u. s. p.) quality has been grown on a commercial scale in this country, chiefly in south carolina and virginia. after the flowering tops are harvested they are thoroughly dried under cover, then worked over by hand, and all the stems and large foliage leaves removed. this process gives a drug of high quality but greatly reduces the net or marketable yield per acre, which usually ranges from to pounds. some growers do not remove the stems and leaves, thus increasing the acreage yield but reducing the market value of their product. the quality of cannabis can be determined only by special laboratory tests, which most dealers are not equipped to make; consequently, they are usually unwilling to pay growers as high prices as they would if the low-grade cannabis were kept off the market. the market price in june, , for tested (u. s. p.) domestic cannabis was to cents; for nontested, to cents a pound. caraway. caraway (_carum carvi_) is a european biennial herb of the parsley family. it grows and fruits well over a considerable portion of the united states, especially in the north and northwest, but its cultivation in this country seems never to have assumed commercial proportions. the seeds are used medicinally, but are mainly utilized for flavoring cakes, confectionery, and similar products. on distillation with steam, the seeds yield an aromatic oil, which is more used in medicine than the seed itself. soil of a somewhat clayey nature and containing a fair proportion of humus and available plant food is particularly suited to caraway, but the plant generally grows well in any good upland soil which will produce fair crops of corn or potatoes. seeds should be sown in early spring in drills about inches apart, and from to pounds of seed are sown to the acre. frequent shallow cultivation throughout both growing seasons is desirable in order to keep the soil mellow and free from weeds, as a weedy crop at harvest time usually means a product inferior in quality. as soon as the oldest seeds ripen, which is usually in june of the second year, the crop should be harvested. the plants may be cut with a mower and should be left in the swath until they have lost most of their moisture, when they may be built up into small cocks, or they may be brought in from the field and the curing finished in a barn loft. if on handling in the field the seeds shatter extensively, the crop should be brought in in tight wagons. when drying is finished the seeds are thrashed out, cleaned, and stored in bags which contain about pounds each. returns from experimental areas indicate that a yield of about , pounds of seed per acre may be expected. one hundred pounds of seed will usually yield to pounds of oil. the average annual importation of caraway seed for several years has been about , , pounds, valued at about cents a pound. the war reduced the annual importations of oil of caraway from , to , pounds and increased the value from cents to about $ . a pound. cascara sagrada. cascara, or cascara sagrada (_rhamnus purshiana_), is a small tree to feet high, native to the western part of the united states, and found most abundantly in a narrow belt along the pacific slope from northern california to southern british columbia. the bark from the trunk and branches is the source of the drug, for which there is a constant and steady demand. plantings which have been made in the eastern states indicate that this tree may probably be grown along the atlantic slope in the piedmont or foothill belt from pennsylvania to georgia. the trees have been found to grow better in clay loam than in either sand or clay. propagation from seed is easy, but the seeds should be planted in the fall soon after they ripen or stratified in sand until used, since germination is very poor if the seeds are allowed to become dry. the seeds are sown in a seed bed under shade in drills inches apart and covered about inch deep. the seedlings reach a height of to inches the first year, and in the following spring before the leaves appear they are set in the field feet apart each way. it is advisable to cultivate frequently, in order to keep the weeds down and to maintain a shallow surface mulch. if the trees are pruned properly, a crop of bark may be harvested each year without killing the whole tree, as is done in collecting the bark from wild trees. at the time of transplanting, the trees are cut back to a straight stem about a foot high, from which all except the four uppermost buds are removed. the branches which afterwards develop from these buds are later deprived of their lower side shoots, thus causing the tree to grow a head of four long, stout branches instead of a single straight trunk. when the trees are large enough to yield a crop of bark, the longest of the four branches is cut off early in the spring flush with the trunk and a new branch is allowed to grow in its place. this process may be repeated yearly, removing only the largest branches of each tree in any one season. the bark on the cut-off branches is divided with a sharp knife into lengthwise strips of about an inch or two in width, which may be readily pulled off. it is then dried carefully at a low temperature in the shade and broken into small pieces to facilitate packing and handling. the price paid to collectors for cascara bark, which before the war usually varied from to cents a pound, in june, , was about cents a pound. so long as a supply of the wild bark continues to be available it is doubtful whether cascara can be cultivated at a profit. castor beans. the castor-oil plant or palma christi (_ricinus communis_) is a robust perennial in tropical countries which becomes an annual in regions subject to frost. the seeds of this plant, called "castor beans" or "mole beans," yield the castor oil of commerce. between and , the castor bean was an important crop in certain sections of oklahoma, kansas, missouri, and illinois, but during recent years its culture has been practically abandoned in favor of crops which are easier to handle and more profitable. for the commercial production of castor beans a warm climate and long growing season are necessary. if planted much farther north than st. louis, mo., or washington, d. c, the crop is very likely to be caught by frost. in general, any fertile soil which produces good crops of cotton or corn is suitable for castor beans, but a very fertile soil favors the growth of the plant at the expense of seed production and early maturity. the land is prepared in much the same manner as for cotton or corn; that is, plowed, disked, and harrowed level before planting, which may be done by hand or with a corn planter with specially prepared plates. the seed should be planted early in the spring, as soon as the soil is warm but still moderately moist. the time of planting varies according to locality, but in general corresponds to that of cotton. the seed is planted in hills at a depth of to inches. toward the north, the rows are usually made feet apart and the hills spaced feet apart in the row. farther south the rows should usually be made about to feet apart. on very light land the hills may be feet apart in the row; on heavier land, to feet apart. as a general rule three seeds are planted to the hill, and not less than two should be planted. one bushel of medium-sized seed should plant from to acres. when the plants are from to inches tall, the weaker ones should be removed, leaving one plant in a hill. the crop is cultivated similar to corn until the plants are large enough to shade the ground. in case the field becomes foul with weeds and grass, some hoeing may be necessary, but practically all the cultivation required can be done with a horse-drawn weeder. some varieties in which the beans pop out when the hull is fully ripe are known locally as "poppers," and after the beans begin to ripen, the field must be gone over every few days and the ripe beans collected in order to avoid loss. other varieties tend to retain the beans in the hull after they are ripe. the climate affects the popping of the beans, and a variety which shatters badly in one region may shatter very little when grown in another. in harvesting, a common method is to cut off the spikes with a knife and collect them in large sacks. they are then hauled to a shelter of some kind and allowed to dry until the pods will crush easily. various methods are used in thrashing castor beans. if the variety grown is one which "pops" or drops its seeds when they are ripe, the spikes are sometimes piled on a hard ground or plank floor fully exposed to the sun and furnished with sides of boards or cloth to feet high to catch the beans as they pop out. in some varieties mere drying does not cause the pods to open, and specially constructed machines have been used to remove the beans from the pods. after the beans have been thrashed or popped out, a fanning mill is used to separate the hulls, chaff, and dirt from the beans, which are then sacked and stored for market. the yield varies greatly and will depend much upon cultural conditions, the season, the variety grown, and the care exercised in harvesting and thrashing the seeds. in oklahoma the average yield of the popping varieties is said to be to bushels per acre. yields up to bushels per acre have been reported for favorable conditions. for some years prior to the war the farm price for castor beans was about $ a bushel. early in the war the increased demand for castor oil caused a sharp advance in the price of the beans, which has gradually declined. in june, , the wholesale market quotation was about $ a bushel. the normal market requirement in the united states for castor beans is about , , bushels annually, but during the last year of the war nearly , , bushels were imported. in the united states castor beans are used in quantity only by manufacturers of castor oil. in general, the equipment and operation of a castor-oil mill resembles that of a cottonseed-oil mill or linseed-oil mill, but special and expensive equipment is necessary for the proper extraction of the oil from castor beans. the best grade of oil is obtained from the beans by hydraulic pressure. an additional quantity of oil of lower grade is obtained by treating the press cake with naphtha or some other volatile solvent. the pomace resulting from the second extraction is used as a fertilizer for tobacco, corn, and other crops, but because of a poisonous principle can not be used for cattle feeding unless specially treated. owing to the heavy outlay required for the necessary machinery and the high cost of manufacture on a small scale, it has not been found profitable for the growers of castor beans to undertake the extraction of the oil. the castor-oil plant is not known to be poisonous, and although the leaves are not relished by farm animals they are said to be used as fodder for cattle in india. castor beans, however, contain a poisonous principle, and though harmless when handled, may cause serious if not fatal effects when eaten, especially in the case of small children. care should be taken to prevent these beans from being accidentally mixed with the grain fed to animals, since many cases have been reported in which the death of horses has been due to eating feed in which they have become mixed. catnip. catnip (_nepeta cataria_) is a european perennial plant of the mint family, which frequently occurs in this country as a weed in gardens and about dwellings. it has long had a popular use as a domestic remedy. both leaves and flowering tops find some demand in the crude-drug trade. catnip does well on almost any good soil, but thrives best on a well-drained and moderately rich garden loam. however, a more fragrant and attractive herb can be grown in sandy situations than in heavy soils. the plant may be propagated from seeds or by root division. the seed may be sown in rows either late in the fall or in early spring and covered lightly. fall-sown seed usually gives a more even stand and a heavier growth of herb. when the plants have reached a height of to inches they should be thinned to stand from to inches apart in the rows. in some localities the field sowing of seed does not give good results, in which case plants may be started in a coldframe and later transplanted to the field. shallow cultivation will favor a vigorous growth of the herb. the flowering tops are harvested when the plants are in full bloom and are dried in the shade to preserve their green color. in case the herb is grown in large quantity, it may be cut with a mowing machine, the cutter bar of which should be set high. the plants should lie in the swath until partially dry, and the curing may then be finished either in small cocks in the field or in the barn, care being taken to preserve the natural green color as far as possible. returns from experimental areas indicate that a yield of about , pounds of dried flowering tops per acre may be expected under good conditions. the herb must be carefully sorted and all the large or coarse stems removed, after which it may be made up for the market in bales of to pounds each. prewar prices to collectors ranged from to cents a pound. the prices in june, , for the herb were cents; for the leaves, cents; and for the leaves and flowers, cents a pound. chamomile. (see camomile.) conium. conium, or poison hemlock (_conium maculatum_), is a large, poisonous european biennial plant of the parsley family, naturalized in the northeastern states and in california. the full-grown but unripe seeds (fruits) and the leaves are used medicinally. conium is easily grown, and has been found to thrive in both comparatively moist clay soil and in dry sandy loam. in rich, moist land it may easily become a troublesome weed. conium grows readily from seed, which may be sown either in the fall or early in the spring in drills or more feet apart. as soon as the seedlings can be distinguished in the row, cultivation similar to that given ordinary garden crops is begun. the plants usually blossom in the second year, and when the oldest seeds are full grown but still green in color the plants are harvested and the seed at once thrashed out and dried with the least possible exposure to the light. the small and undeveloped seed should be screened out and rejected and the good seed stored in containers that will exclude light and air. the leaves are collected when the plant is in flower, quickly dried in the sun, and stored in the same manner as the seed. estimated yields at the rate of to pounds of seed per acre have been obtained, but the yield is very uncertain, since the flowering plants are especially subject to the attacks of insects which destroy the crop of seed. the prewar prices as quoted in the wholesale drug markets ranged from to cents a pound for the seed and to cents for the leaves. the prices in june, , for the seed were to cents, and for the leaves to cents a pound. coriander. coriander (_coriandrum sativum_) is an old world annual of the parsley family. for years the plant has been cultivated in gardens in the united states, and it is now reported as growing wild in many places. the aromatic seeds and the oil distilled from them have long been used medicinally. both the seed and the oil are also used for flavoring confectionery and cordials and as a condiment in bread and cake. coriander grows well on almost any good soil, but thrives best on deep and fertile garden loam. the soil should be well prepared before planting, which should be done moderately early in the spring. for field cultivation the seed is sown in rows feet apart, but if the cultivation is done by hand the distance between the rows may be reduced to inches. the seed should be sown thickly in order to insure a good stand. when well up, the plants are thinned to stand or inches apart in the row. cultivation should continue until the plants flower, which will be about two months from the time of planting. when most of the seeds are ripe the plants are cut with a scythe or mower, preferably early in the morning while moist with dew, in order to avoid shattering the seed. the plants are partially cured in small cocks in the field, the drying being finished in a barn loft or under other suitable shelter, after which the seeds are thrashed out and cleaned. the yield of seed is quite variable, but returns from experimental areas indicate that from to pounds per acre may be expected. five hundred pounds of seed will usually yield from to pounds of oil, according to the localities where grown. the annual importation of coriander seed is about , , pounds. the prewar price of the seed was about cents a pound; in june, , to cents. the wholesale price of the oil of coriander, which was $ to $ a pound before the war, in june, , ranged from $ to $ a pound. dandelion. dandelion (_taraxacum officinale_) is a well-known and troublesome perennial weed, occurring abundantly almost everywhere in this country except in the southern states. it is frequently cultivated in market gardens for the leaves, which are used for greens or salads, but the root alone is used in medicine. this plant will grow well in any good soil and has been successfully cultivated in the south, but in the colder parts of the country it may require slight mulching during the winter if the roots tend to heave out of the soil. the seeds, which are sown in the spring, are drilled in rows inches apart and covered one-half inch deep. about pounds of seeds should sow an acre. the seedlings are thinned to stand a foot apart in the row, and the crop should be well cultivated and kept free from weeds. the roots are dug in the fall of the second season after planting the seed. they should be washed and may be dried whole, or, to facilitate handling and drying, they may be cut into pierces to inches long and the larger, portions sliced. under favorable conditions, yields at the rate of , to , pounds of dry roots per acre have been obtained from second-year plants. the prices usually offered collectors for the dry root before the war ranged from to cents a pound. the price in june, , was about cents. the quantity annually imported into this country varies from year to year, but averages about tons. a serious disadvantage attending the cultivation of this crop is the danger of seeding adjacent land with a very undesirable weed. digitalis. digitalis, or foxglove (_digitalis purpurea_), is a fairly hardy european perennial, which has long been grown in flower gardens in this country as an ornamental plant. the leaves are used in medicine, those from plants of the second year's growth being required for the official drug. digitalis thrives in ordinary well-drained garden soils of open texture and reasonable fertility. sowing the seed directly in the field occasionally gives good results, but is so often unsuccessful that it can not be recommended. the seeds are exceedingly small and do not germinate well except under the most favorable conditions. they should be mixed with sand, to insure even distribution in seeding, and sown as early as february in seed pans or flats in the greenhouses or in well-protected frames. when danger of frost is past the plants should be hardened off and transplanted to the field, where they may be set about a foot apart in rows spaced conveniently for cultivation. the plants do not flower until the second year, and it is necessary to cultivate them frequently during the growing seasons of both the first and second year. in localities where the cold weather is severe it may be desirable to protect the plants during the first winter with a light mulch of straw or coarse farmyard manure. the plants usually flower in june of the second year, and the leaves may then be collected. they are carefully dried in the shade and should be stored in such a manner that they will not be exposed to light and moisture. the results of experiments indicate that yields of to pounds of dry leaves per acre may be obtained under favorable conditions. in considering digitalis culture it should be borne in mind that the crop occupies the soil for the greater part of two seasons and demands even closer attention than many truck or garden crops. in small areas of cultivated digitalis, ranging from one-half to acre in extent, were harvested in pennsylvania, south carolina, washington, california, and some other states. several tons of digitalis leaves were also collected from plants of wild growth in the general region of the coast range of mountains on the pacific coast. digitalis is of great medicinal importance, but on account of its potency is administered in very small quantities; consequently, a few thousand pounds is sufficient to meet the annual market requirements. before the war the price for digitalis leaves averaged about cents a pound; in june, , it was about cents a pound. dill. dill (_anethum graveolens_) is an old world annual or biennial herb of the parsley family. although it is a native of southern europe, it is hardy plant and may be grown in a much cooler climate if given a warm situation and a well-drained soil. the leaves are used for seasoning, and the seeds (fruits), which are greatly valued for flavoring pickles, are used as a condiment and occasionally in medicine. a volatile oil distilled from the seeds is used chiefly for perfuming soap. dill is preferably grown as an annual plant, in which case the seed should be sown about one-half inch deep very early in the spring in drills a foot apart. a half ounce of seed is sufficient to sow feet of drill, and at this rate a pound should sow an acre. when sown in the field the rows may be to inches apart, and the seedlings should be thinned to stand about a foot apart in the row. the most favorable soil is a well-prepared loam, but the plants grow well in any good garden soil. frequent cultivation and freedom from weeds are essential for good results. early in the fall, as soon as some of the older seeds are ripe, the plants are mowed and built up; into small cocks in the field, or, if sufficiently dry, the seeds may be thrashed out at once. in very dry weather it is preferable to mow the plants early in the morning while they are moist with dew, in order to avoid shattering the seed. in case the seed is very ripe, it is well to cut the plants high and to place the tops directly on large canvas sheets, in which they may be brought from the field. after thrashing, the seeds should be spread out in a thin layer and turned frequently until thoroughly dry, since they tend to become musty if closely stored before all the moisture has been removed. the yield of dill seed is quite variable and is much influenced by climatic conditions. from to pounds of seed per acre is considered a good yield. the wholesale price in june, , ranged from to cents a pound. echinacea. echinacea (_brauneria angustifolia_, fig. ) is a native perennial plant of the aster family found on the prairies of the middle west, occurring most abundantly in nebraska and kansas. the roots of the plant are used medicinally. this plant has been found to do well under, cultivation in moderately rich and well-drained loam. it grows fairly well from seeds, which may be collected when ripe and kept dry until ready for use. plants should be started in a well-prepared seed bed by sowing the seeds thinly in drills about inches apart. the plants develop slowly and may be left in the seed bed for two years and then transplanted to the field in the spring and set about inches apart in rows. thorough cultivation is essential for the best results. the roots do not reach a marketable size under three or four years from the time of sowing the seed. they are harvested in the fall, freed from any adhering soil, and dried either in the open air or by means of low artificial heat. echinacea has not been cultivated on a scale large enough to give satisfactory data on the probable yield. the prewar wholesale price ranged from to cents a pound; in june, , it was to cents a pound. [illustration: fig. .--echinacea (_brauneria angustifolia_).] elecampane. elecampane (_inula helenium_) is a european perennial plant of the aster family, now growing wild along roadsides and in fields throughout the northeastern part of the united states. the root is used in medicine. elecampane will grow in almost any soil, but thrives best in deep clay loam well supplied with moisture. the ground on which this plant is to be grown should be deeply plowed and thoroughly prepared before planting. it is preferable to use divisions of old roots for propagation, and these should be set in the fall about inches apart in rows feet apart. plants may also be grown from seeds, which may be sown in the spring in seeds beds and the seedlings transplanted later to the field and set in the same manner as the root divisions. plants grown from seed do not flower the first year. cultivation should be sufficient to keep the soil in good condition and free from weeds. the roots are dug in the fall of the second year, thoroughly cleaned, sliced, and dried in the shade. the available data on yield indicate that a ton or more of dry root per acre may be expected. the price to producers usually ranges from to cents a pound. upward of , pounds of elecampane root were annually imported into this country prior to the war. fennel. fennel (_foeniculum vulgare_) is an old world perennial plant of the parsley family, occasionally cultivated as a garden herb in the united states. the aromatic seeds (fruits) are used in medicine and for flavoring. the oil distilled from the seeds is used in perfumery and for scenting soaps. fennel grows wild in mild climates in almost any good soil and thrives in rich, well-drained loams containing lime. it is propagated from seeds, which may be sown in the open as soon as the ground is ready for planting in the spring. the seed is sown thickly in drills to feet apart and covered lightly. from to pounds of seed should sow an acre. when well established the plants may be thinned to stand to inches apart in the row. plants may also be started in a seed bed from seed sown either in drills inches apart or broadcast. when the seedlings are three or four inches high they are transplanted to the field and set to inches apart in rows. the cultivation is the same as for ordinary garden crops. frequently, very little seed is formed the first year, but full crops may be expected for one or two succeeding years. the seed is gathered in the fall before it is fully ripe and may be harvested like anise or coriander. a yield of to pounds of seed, per acre may be expected. during recent years about , pounds of seed have been imported annually. owing to the war, prices for the seed and oil have about doubled. the prices in june, , for the seed were to cents a pound; for the oil, $ . to $ a pound. gentian. the common or yellow gentian (_gentiana lutea_) is the only species recognized in american medicine, although the roots of several other species are found in the drug trade. the plant grows wild in the mountains of central and southern europe, but it has proved very poorly adapted for cultivation in situations beyond its natural range. for its best development under cultivation, partial shade, similar to that required by ginseng and goldenseal, seems necessary. the plants are said to flower when about years old; hence, several years must elapse after sowing the seed before the roots reach a marketable size. apparently there have been no attempts to cultivate gentian commercially in this country. the prewar wholesale price of imported gentian root ranged from ½ to cents a pound. the price in june. , was to cents a pound. ginseng. ginseng (_panax quinquefolium_) is a fleshy-rooted herbaceous plant native to this country and formerly of frequent occurrence in shady, well-drained situations in hardwood forests from maine to minnesota and southward to the mountains of georgia and the carolinas. it has long been valued by the chinese for medicinal use, though rarely credited with curative properties by natives of other countries. when placed under cultural conditions, ginseng should be shielded from direct sunlight by the shade of trees or by lath sheds. the soil should be fairly light and well fertilized with woods earth, rotted leaves, or fine raw bone meal, the latter applied at the rate of pound to each square yard. seed should be planted in the spring as early as the soil can be worked to advantage, placed inches apart each way in the permanent beds or by inches in seed beds, and the seedlings transplanted to stand to inches apart when years old. only cracked or partially germinated seed should be used. ginseng needs little cultivation, but the beds should at all times be kept free from weeds and grass and the surface of the soil slightly stirred whenever it shows signs of caking. a winter mulch over the crowns is usually essential, but it should not be applied until freezing weather is imminent and should be removed in the spring before the first shoots come through the soil. the roots do not reach marketable size until about the fifth or sixth year from seed. when dug they should be carefully washed or shaken free from all adhering soil, but not scraped. curing is best; effected in a well-ventilated room heated to about ° f. nearly a month is required to properly cure the larger roots, and great care must be taken in order to prevent molding or souring. overheating must also be avoided. when well cured the roots should be stored in a dry, airy place until ready for sale. a market may be found with the wholesale drug dealers, some of whom make a specialty of buying ginseng root for export. the price of cultivated ginseng roots, as quoted in wholesale drug lists, ranges from $ . to $ a pound, according to quality and freedom from disease. further details respecting the culture of ginseng are given in a farmers' bulletin now in press, entitled "ginseng culture," and in farmers' bulletin , entitled "ginseng diseases and their control." goldenseal. goldenseal (_hydrastis canadensis_) is a native perennial, formerly quite abundant in open woodlands having ample shade, natural drainage, and an abundance of leaf mold. its range is from southern new york and ontario west to minnesota and south to georgia and kentucky. when grown under cultivation the soil should be well fertilized, preferably by decaying vegetable matter, such as woods soil and rotting forest leaves, which should be well worked in to a depth of inches or more. raw bone meal and cottonseed meal are also favorable in their action. seed may be sown in october in a well-prepared seed bed. it may be scattered broadcast or dropped one-half inch apart and covered with fine leaf mold to the depth of inch. during the winter the seed bed should be protected with burlap or fertilizer sacks, and should also be guarded against encroachment of moles or mice. plants may be set to inches apart each way and the rootstocks covered to a depth of about inches. for satisfactory growth goldenseal requires about per cent of shade during the summer, which should be provided by a lath shade or by cloth, brush, or vines. the soil should be kept free from weeds and the plants liberally watered throughout the growing season, but good drainage is necessary, since goldenseal does not thrive in boggy ground. under favorable conditions goldenseal reaches its best development in about, five years from seed, or, in a year or two less when grown from root buds or by divisions of the rootstocks. the root is dug in the autumn after the tops have withered. they are washed clean of all soil, sticks, etc., and dried on lath screens in an airy place in mild sunlight or partial shade, or indoors on a clean, dry floor. when dried in the open they should be protected from rain and dew. the cured root is kept in loose masses until marketed, since close packing may cause attacks of mold. the dried leaves and stems of goldenseal, commonly known as "seal herb," are also a marketable product. the prices in june, , ranged from $ to $ a pound for the roots and from to cents a pound for the herb. henbane. henbane (_hyoscyamus niger_) is a poisonous annual or biennial herb of the nightshade family, introduced into this country from europe and occasionally found as a weed in a number of the northern states. the leaves, flowering tops, and sometimes the seeds are used medicinally. henbane is propagated from seeds, but when these are sown in the open field germination is uncertain, and a very poor stand or total failure is a frequent result. germination is usually much more certain when the seeds are sown under glass, but the plants do not readily stand transplanting and often die after they are set in the open. very good results have been secured by sowing the seed in small pots under glass in january, transferring the seedlings to -inch pots in march, and transplanting in may to the field, where the plants may be set at least inches apart in rows. in handling the plants care should be taken to disturb the soil about the roots as little as possible. the soil requirements and method of cultivation are practically the same as for belladonna. the leaves of henbane usually suffer severely from attacks of the potato beetle, especially during the first year, and the crop is very likely to be destroyed if grown within the range of this insect. ordinarily the plants blossom about august of the second year and die after ripening their seed, but individual plants started early frequently bloom and set seed the first year. the leaves and flowing tops are collected when the plants are in full bloom and are carefully dried in the shade. the american crop of henbane has never much exceeded acres. the yield under favorable conditions is estimated at about , pounds per acre. the wholesale price in june, , was to cents a pound. horehound. horehound (_marrubium vulgare_) is a hardy perennial herb of the mint family, which occurs as a common weed in many places in the united states, especially on the pacific coast, where it threatens to become a pest. the leaves and flowering tops find some demand as a crude drug. their greatest use, however, is in the manufacture of candy, although they are sometimes employed for seasoning. horehound grows well in almost any soil and thrives in light, dry soils lacking in fertility. it grows readily from seeds, which are usually sown in drills early in the spring and covered with about an inch of soil. plants may also be started in coldframes, either from seed or cuttings, and later transplanted to the field. propagation may also be effected by division of old plants. plants may stand , , or inches apart in the row; those which stand close together will have small stems, and hence will yield a crop of finer quality. the plants are harvested just before flowering and should be cured in the shade in order to preserve the green color. if the stems are small, the plants may be cut close to the ground with a scythe, or with a mower if the area is large. in case the plants are tall and large they must be cut some distance above the ground and all coarse stems removed to make the herb suitable for marketing. yields at the rate of , pounds of dry herb per acre have been obtained. the prewar wholesale prices for the herb ranged from to cents a pound. the price in june, , was to cents. the annual importation of horehound varies from year to year, sometimes reaching to tons. insect-powder flowers. insect flowers, from which pyrethrum or insect powder is prepared, are produced by several species of plants of the aster family which occur wild in the eastern mediterranean region, where they are also cultivated. the species here considered (_chrysanthemum_ [_pyrethrum_] _cinerariaefolium_) has been cultivated commercially in california for the production of insect powder. this species seems to thrive best in warm situations and should grow well in any good soil which is well drained and not too heavy. the seeds may be sown directly in the field, either early in the spring or in the fall, but it is preferable to start the plants in coldframes or well-prepared seed beds and transplant them to the field. the seed is mixed with sand and sown broadcast on the surface of the bed and lightly covered with a rake. water should be used sparingly on the seed bed, since the young seedlings and even mature plants are easily killed by a wet soil. when the seedlings are about a month old they are transplanted, during damp weather if possible, and set to inches apart in rows to feet apart. old plants may also be divided and used for propagation. the plants should be well cultivated during the growing season and will yield flowers for several years if they are well cared for. the fertility of the soil is maintained by the application of fertilizers. the time of harvesting varies from june to september, according to locality. the flower heads are gathered just as they open and may be collected by hand or by means of a flower picker. they are dried, preferably in the shade, on canvas sheets about feet square, on which they are spread in a thin layer and turned two or three times a day until dry. the average yield of dried flowers appears to be about pounds per acre. the wholesale price for these flowers in june, , was to cents a pound, which is from three to four times the prewar price. larkspur. the larkspur of the crude-drug trade is an annual plant (_delphinium consolida_), native of southern europe, which has long been cultivated in this country as an ornamental and is now occasionally found growing wild. another species of larkspur (_delphinium urceolatum_) is native to this country and is said to have properties very similar to those of the european species. larkspur seed is now used chiefly in remedies for external parasites. these larkspurs thrive best in a rich sandy or gravelly soil. in heavy soils they are likely to suffer from root-rot, which materially reduces the yield. a rather dry climate is suitable for plants of this character. they do not bear transplanting well and seeds should be sown in the fall or very early in the spring where the plants are to stand. the soil should be well fined and the seed thinly sown in drills spaced according to the method of cultivation to be used. when up, the plants should be thinned to stand inches or more apart in the rows. the necessary cultivation consists in keeping the soil between the rows and about the plants mellow and free from weeds during the growing season. when the seed capsules are fairly ripe, the seed is harvested by collecting the tops, which should be cut before the seed capsules have become so brittle as to risk the loss of seed by shattering and which can be handled best in the early morning while damp and pliable. they should be cured in a well-ventilated place, sheltered from rain, and when thoroughly dry may be thrashed out and cleaned. the wholesale price now quoted for larkspur seed is between and cents a pound. the seed of a european species of larkspur (_delphinium staphisagria_), commonly-called stavesacre, possesses medicinal properties and is recognized as an official drug. the wholesale price for stavesacre seed in june, , was about cents a pound. lavender. the true lavender (_lavandula vera_) is a small shrubby plant of the mint family, native to southern europe, and widely cultivated for its fragrant flowers and for the oil distilled from the fresh flowering tops. lavender thrives best in light and rather dry soils well supplied with lime, but may be grown in almost any well-drained loam. on low or wet land it is almost certain to winterkill. the plant is not easily grown from seed, but may be readily propagated from cuttings or by division. in cold climates the plants must be well protected during the winter, or they may be carried over in a greenhouse or coldframe. early in the spring the plants or rooted cuttings are set in well-prepared soil, to inches apart in rows spaced to suit the cultivation intended. frequent and thorough cultivation is desirable. not many blooms can be cut the first year, but full crops may be expected for each of the three following years, after which it will be best to start new plantings. the flowering tops are harvested when they are in full bloom, and if used for the production of oil are distilled at once without drying. if the dry flowers are wanted, the tops are carefully dried in the shade and the flowers later stripped from the stems by hand. on ordinary soil, yields of to , pounds per acre of fresh flowering tops have been obtained. the dry weight is about four-fifths of the green weight. the yield of oil varies widely, but from to pounds per acre may be expected under good conditions. the wholesale prices in june, , were about as follows: for "ordinary" flowers, from to cents a pound; for "select" flowers, from to cents a pound; for oil of lavender flowers, $ to $ a pound. licorice. licorice (_glycyrrhiza glabra_) is an old world plant, the culture of which has not succeeded commercially in this country, although the plant grows well in the arid southwest and in california, where in some localities it threatens to become a weed. licorice is used to some extent in medicine, and is said to be much in demand by manufacturers of tobacco. licorice is a fairly hardy plant, but it thrives best in warm regions, where the season is sufficiently long to promote strong growth. plants may be grown from seed, but propagation by means of cuttings made from the younger parts of the rhizome, or so-called root, usually gives best results. the cuttings are set perpendicularly in deep, moist, sandy, or loamy soil, and should stand about inches apart in rows so spaced as to allow for the cultivation necessary to keep the soil mellow and free from weeds. the yield under good culture is said to average about , pounds of dry root per acre at the end of every third year. the relatively low price at which, the imported root can usually be obtained has so far prevented the development of commercial licorice growing in this country. nearly , , pounds of licorice root and an average of about , pounds of licorice paste are annually imported into the united states when trade conditions are normal. prewar prices for the imported root usually ranged from to ½ cents a pound in bales. the price in june, , was to cents. lobelia. lobelia (_lobelia inflata_) is a native poisonous annual plant, occurring generally in open woods and pastures, but is most abundant in the states east of the mississippi river. the leaves, tops, and seeds are used medicinally. this plant thrives under cultivation in a rather rich, moist loam, and grows well either in the open or in partial shade. it grows readily from seeds, which are very small and must be sown on soil which has been well fined and exceptionally well prepared. the seeds are sown either in the fall or spring in rows feet apart. it is best not to cover the seeds but to sow them on the surface of the soil, which is then firmed with a float or by resting a board over the row and walking upon it. fall planting usually gives a better stand and a heavier crop. shallow cultivation should be given until the plants begin to flower. lobelia is harvested when in full flower or as soon as some of the older seed pods are full grown. the plants may be cut with a mower if the cutter bar is set high enough to avoid including the large stems. the herb should be dried in the shade, in order to preserve the green color. small areas have given yields at the rate of , pounds of dry herb per acre. the prewar price paid to collectors for the dried herb was about cents a pound. the prices in june, , were, for the herb, cents; for the seed, cents a pound. lovage. lovage (_levisticum officinale_) is a perennial plant of the parsley family, introduced into this country from europe as a garden plant and now grown as a crop in certain localities in new england and the west. the root has long been supposed to have medicinal properties and is in some demand in the drug trade. the flowering tops yield a volatile oil, for which, however, there is little demand. the seeds are used for flavoring confectionery and the leaf stems are sometimes blanched, like celery, and eaten as a salad. lovage is propagated by division or from seeds. the seeds may be planted in the fall in drills inches apart or sown in early spring in a hotbed, greenhouse, or well-prepared seed bed in a sheltered portion of the garden. they should be covered very lightly with sand or fine sifted soil, and in order to prevent the soil from drying out before the seeds germinate it is advisable to spread old burlap or sacking over the bed. the sacking may be sprinkled occasionally if the weather is dry and should be removed when the first seedlings break the soil. the plants should reach a size suitable for transplanting by the end of may, when they may be set at intervals of inches in rows far enough apart for convenient cultivation. lovage grows well in almost any deep, well-drained soil, such as will produce a fair crop of corn or potatoes, and is benefited by the liberal use of fertilizer, although heavy applications of manure tend to produce excessive top growth. the roots may be dug in october of the second or third year after setting the plants. numerous offsets will generally be found, and if these have good roots they may be used to renew the plantation without recourse to seed. such shoots should at once be reset at the usual distances apart. the freshly dug roots should be well washed, cut into slices about one-half inch thick, and carefully dried. if necessary, artificial heat, not to exceed ° f., may be used to hasten drying. returns from experimental areas indicate that a yield of about , pounds of dried root to the acre may be expected under good conditions every third year. the prices quoted for american lovage root in the wholesale drug markets range from cents to $ a pound, according to demand and quality. producers, however, usually receive much less than the wholesale price. melissa. melissa, balm, or lemon balm (_melissa officinalis_), is a perennial herb of the mint family, native to southern europe. in this country it has long been cultivated in gardens, from which it has escaped and now grows wild in many places in the eastern united states. the leaves of balm are widely used for culinary flavoring, and the leaves and flowering tops are used in medicine. the volatile oil distilled from the plant is said to be used in perfumery and also for flavoring. balm grows readily on any good garden soil and is easily propagated from seeds, cuttings, or by division. the seeds may be sown in the open early in the spring, but owing to their small size it is best to sow them in shallow flats in a greenhouse or in a hotbed. the soil should be well fined and the seeds sown thinly on the surface of the soil, which is then firmed with a float or a small board. when well up, the seedlings should be transferred to deeper flats, and when or inches high they may be transplanted to the open and set about a foot apart in rows spaced to suit the cultivation to be given. cultivation should be frequent and sufficient to keep the soil about the plants mellow and free from weeds. when the plants are in full flower the crop can be cut with a scythe, or with a mower if the herb is to be used for distillation. for preparing the crude drug only the flowering tops are collected, the coarse, stemmy portions of the herb being rejected. the leaves and tops are dried in the shade in order to preserve the green color. yields at the rate of about , pounds of dry herb per acre have been obtained, but if only the flowering tops are collected the yield will be very materially less. the prewar price paid to collectors for the leaves and tops ranged from to cents a pound. in june, , the price for the leaves was cents a pound. orris. orris (_iris florentina_) is a perennial, native to southern europe, and is cultivated chiefly in italy for its fragrant rootstocks, which yield the orris of commerce. the plant grows well in a variety of soils and flourishes in a rich, moist loam, but roots which are grown in rather dry, gravelly soil appear to be the most fragrant. orris is readily propagated by division of the old plants, which may be set either in the spring or fall about a foot apart in rows spaced conveniently for cultivation. since harvesting usually takes place only once in three years, the use of the land is required for that length of time in order to obtain one crop. after the roots are dug they are peeled and dried in the open air. the desired fragrance does not develop until after the dry roots have been stored for a number of months, during which time they are especially liable to the attacks of insects. the yield is from to tons of dry root per acre. the average annual importation of orris is normally about , pounds. the wholesale prices, which before the war ranged from to cents, in june, , were to cents a pound. the outlook for a profitable orris industry in this country does not appear promising, and it does not seem advisable for any considerable number of persons to undertake the growing of this crop. parsley. parsley (_petroselinum sativum_) is a biennial herb grown everywhere in gardens for use in garnishing and seasoning. all parts of the plant contain a volatile oil, that from the seed being especially rich in a constituent known as apiol, or "parsley camphor," which is still used to some extent in medicine. in the crude-drug trade there is a small demand for the root, leaves, and seed. a rich and rather moist soil is desirable for the growing of parsley. the seeds germinate slowly and are frequently sown early in the spring in cold frames or seed beds, from which the young plants may be removed later and set in the open in rows or more inches apart and about inches apart in the row. when the leaves are fully grown they may be collected and dried in the usual manner. the plants flower in the second year, and as soon as the seed is ripe it is harvested and carefully dried. at the end of the second growing season, late in october, the root may be dug and should be well washed and carefully dried. artificial heat may be used in drying if necessary. on small areas yields of seed at the rate of about pounds per acre have been obtained. during the past few years the wholesale price of the seed has varied from to cents a pound, according to demand and season. from to pounds of seed are required to yield pound of the oil, which in june, , was quoted at $ . to $ a pound. pennyroyal. pennyroyal (_hedeoma pulegioides_) is an annual plant, flowering from june to october, and is found in dry soils from nova scotia and quebec to dakota and southward. both the dry herb and the oil obtained therefrom by steam distillation form marketable products. pennyroyal grows well on average upland soils and is frequently abundant on sandy or gravelly slopes. in field planting the seeds should be sown in rows in the fall and covered not to exceed one-quarter of an inch, since they rarely germinate if planted at a greater depth. the plants come up early in the spring, and to secure the best results clean cultivation and freedom from weeds are essential, as with all cultivated crops. early in the summer, when the plants are in full flower, they may be mowed. to prepare the herb for market the plants are dried, preferably in the shade, and carefully packed immediately after drying. all the large stems should be removed in order to improve the quality of the product. the herb should be marketed promptly, since it deteriorates with age. for the production of the volatile oil, the plants should be harvested when in full flower and distilled without drying. returns from experimental areas indicate that a yield of about , pounds of dry herb per acre may be expected. the yield of oil varies from to pounds per acre. the price paid for the dry herb usually ranges from to cents a pound. the wholesale price of the oil ranges from about $ to $ a pound. peppermint. peppermint (_mentha piperita_) is a perennial of the mint family, frequently found growing wild in moist situations throughout the eastern half of the united states. it is cultivated on a commercial scale, chiefly on the muck lands of southern michigan and northern indiana. the volatile oil forms the principal marketable product, but there is some demand in the crude-drug trade for the dried leaves and flowering tops. peppermint is propagated from "roots," or runners, which should be set in an almost continuous row in furrows about feet apart and covered to a depth of about inches. it can be grown on any land that will produce good crops of corn, but is most successful on the muck lands of reclaimed swamps. on uplands it soon exhausts the soil and will not do well for more than two or three seasons without the rotation of crops. on rich muck lands it will grow for a number of years, the soil being plowed after the crop is harvested and the runners turned in to form a new growth the succeeding year. it is essential that the ground be kept free from weeds, since their presence in the crop at harvest would seriously injure the quality of the oil. when peppermint is grown on reclaimed swamps or muck lands fertilizers are rarely needed, but on uplands it is well to plow in or more tons per acre of rotted stable manure before planting. similar applications may be made between the rows in early spring and plowed in as the land shows signs of exhaustion. commercial truck or potato fertilizers cultivated in between the rows at the rate of pounds to the acre have proved useful in keeping up fertility, but manure is to be preferred, as it provides humus or vegetable matter as well as increases the fertility. harvesting is begun in july or august, when the plants are in full bloom. the herb is cut and cured like hay, and when fairly well dried is placed in large vats or stills having a capacity of from to tons of dry herb and distilled with steam to obtain the volatile oil. the yield of oil is exceedingly variable, but on lands well suited for the production of peppermint the average yield is not far from pounds per acre. the annual production of peppermint oil in the united states is about , pounds. for many years before the war the price of the oil varied from year to year, but averaged about $ . a pound. there is some demand for the dried leaves and tops, for which to cents a pound was paid to collectors in june, . for further information on the growing of peppermint, see farmers' bulletin , entitled "the cultivation of peppermint and spearmint." pinkroot. [illustration: fig. .--pinkroot (_spigelia marilandica_).] pinkroot (_spigelia marilandica_, fig. ) is a native perennial herb occurring in rich open woods from new jersey to wisconsin and south to florida and texas. the root is an official drug, the use of which has declined in recent years, apparently on account of the extent to which pinkroot has been adulterated with the worthless roots of another plant known as east tennessee pinkroot. prospective growers of pinkroot should obtain seeds or roots for planting from thoroughly reliable sources only. pinkroot makes a vigorous growth under conditions suitable for growing ginseng or goldenseal, and partial shade is usually necessary, although if given a rich, moist, loamy soil it may be grown without shade in situations not too hot and dry. it is propagated either from seeds or from divisions of old roots. it is best to sow the seeds as soon as they are ripe, but if mixed with moist sand and kept in a cool place sowing may be deferred until fall or the following spring. the seeds are sown in drills inches apart in well-prepared seed beds, and in the spring, when the young plants are a few inches high, they are set about a foot apart each way in the permanent beds. the old roots are divided when dormant, and each division should consist of a portion of the root with one or more buds and a number of the small rootlets. they are set in the same manner as the seedlings. thorough cultivation and freedom from weeds are essential for good results. the roots usually attain a marketable size in three years, but will give a heavier yield at the end of the fourth or fifth year. they are harvested in the fall, and after the tops are cut off the roots are well washed and thoroughly dried. little can be said regarding yield, but returns from small areas indicate that a bed by feet will yield from to pounds of dry root in four years. the prices paid to collectors of pinkroot before the war ranged from to cents a pound. the price in june, , was about cents a pound. pokeweed. pokeweed (_phytolacca americana_) is a native plant of frequent occurrence in moist, rich soil along fences and in uncultivated land throughout the eastern half of the united states. the root, which is perennial, sends up large annual stems, sometimes attaining a height of or feet. this plant bears numerous long clusters of smooth, shining purple berries, very attractive in appearance, but the seeds are said to be poisonous. both the root and the berries are used in medicine. pokeweed thrives in deep, rich soils well supplied with moisture and may be readily grown from seed sown early in the spring in rows feet apart and barely covered. the seedlings may be thinned to stand about feet apart in the rows. cultivation should be shallow, though frequent. the plant develops a long, thick, and fleshy root, which when old is not easily harvested and may have to be dug by hand. if the roots of plants grown from seed are harvested at the end of the first year, they may be turned out by means of a deep-running plow without great difficulty. as soon as they are dug the roots are cleaned by washing and are usually cut into lengthwise or transverse slices for drying. they should be thoroughly dried, and if a large quantity is to be handled the use of artificial heat will be found desirable. a yield of about pounds of dry root per acre may be expected at the end of the first year, or three or four times as much from plants of the second year's growth. in the second year several hundred pounds of berries may also be obtained from acre. before the war, collectors received from to cents a pound for the roots and berries. the price in june, , for the dry, cut root was about cents and for the dry berries cents a pound. apparently there is but a small demand for either of these products. safflower. safflower, american saffron, or false saffron (_carthamus tinctorius_) is a hardy old world annual of the aster family, cultivated in gardens in this country for its flowers, which are used in coloring or for flavoring, and sometimes as a substitute for the true saffron. safflower grows well on moist soils and may be readily propagated from seeds sown in the open early in the spring. the soil should be fine and mellow, and the seeds sown an inch or more apart in drills and well covered. about three weeks from the time of sowing the seed the plants will be well started, and cultivation should begin at once and be continued until the flower buds form. the plants bloom in july or august, when harvesting may begin. only the florets are collected, and, since these must be removed by hand, harvesting is slow and expensive. the plants continue to blossom for several weeks, and the florets must be harvested almost daily. it is best to collect them early in the morning and to dry them in the shade on trays having muslin bottoms. the florets should be turned daily until thoroughly dry and then stored in tin containers. the yield is estimated at to pounds of dry florets per acre. the price for safflower is variable and ranges from to cents a pound. saffron. the true saffron (_crocus sativus_) is a low-growing, fall-blooming, bulbous plant of the iris family, native to southern europe, where it is cultivated commercially. it was formerly grown as a small garden crop in some localities in this country, chiefly in lancaster and lebanon counties, pa. the stigmas of the flowers form the saffron of commerce. saffron is used in cookery and for coloring confectionery, and was formerly widely used in medicine. a rich, well-drained garden soil favors a vigorous growth of the plant, but a better quality of saffron is secured on land of medium fertility. it is propagated from bulbs (corms), which may be planted in august about inches apart each way and inches deep in well-prepared soil. when grown on a large scale the bulbs are often set late in the spring. the ground is laid off in rows about inches apart, and a furrow to inches deep is opened for each row. in this furrow the bulbs are set in two parallel rows about inches apart and about inches apart in the row. the furrows are then filled and the surface of the soil brought to a uniform level. thorough cultivation and freedom from weeds are essential for good results. the purplish blossoms usually appear about october, but the main leaf growth of the plant is made in the following spring. the bulbs may remain undisturbed for three or four years, or they may be taken up yearly and the clusters divided. all unsound bulbs should be rejected, as they are often attacked by a fungus which readily spreads to the sound bulbs, causing them to rot. during the blossoming period, which frequently lasts from two to three weeks, the flowers are collected daily just as they open. the orange-colored stigmas are then removed from the flowers, either by pulling them out or by cutting them off with the finger nail, after which the flowers are thrown away. the stigmas are dried immediately, a common method being to spread them in a thin layer on a sieve which is suspended over a low fire. when fully dry they are placed in linen bags and stored in a dry place. the yield of saffron is variously estimated at from to pounds per acre, according to the situation where it is grown. about , flowers are required to produce a pound of dry saffron; consequently, the amount of hand labor involved in removing the stigmas is quite large. the price usually received for saffron in normal times is not far from $ a pound, but the prices in june, , ranged from $ to $ a pound. owing to the high cost of production, it is not thought probable that saffron culture would prove profitable in the united states. sage. the common sage plant (_salvia officinalis_) is a hardy perennial of the mint family, widely cultivated in gardens, and when once established it persists for several years. the leaves are used extensively for seasoning meats and soups, and a tea made from them is an old household remedy. sage is easily cultivated and will grow in any well-drained fertile soil, but seems to thrive best in a rich clayey loam. for cultivation on a large scale the seeds are sown in early spring in rows from to feet apart, and when the plants are well up they are thinned to stand about inches apart in the row. seedling plants have a tendency to produce narrow leaves; hence, the broad-leaved varieties which do not flower readily are the most desirable, since they give a larger yield of leaves. as the plants rarely set seed, they are usually grown from cuttings, which may be obtained from seed houses having their own propagating gardens. cuttings set as early in the spring as weather conditions will permit usually give a large crop. in the north the plants should be protected in winter by a mulch of manure. sage may also be grown as a second crop after early vegetables. a fair crop of leaves may be harvested the first season and a much larger one for five or six years following. only one picking should be made the first year, after which two or three pickings may be made in a season. if a product of fine quality is desired, the leaves are picked by hand and dried in the shade. sage leaves are apt to turn black while drying unless the removal of moisture proceeds continually until they are fully dry. a cheap grade may be obtained at a smaller harvest cost by cutting the plants with a mower, the cutter bar of which is set at such a height as not to include the woody stems. the dry herb should be marketed promptly, since it loses its strength rapidly with age. returns from experimental areas indicate that on good soil a yield of , pounds or more of dried tops per acre may be expected. in case the leaves only are harvested, the yield will be proportionately less. american leaf sage usually brings a considerably higher price than that imported from europe. during the last three years the price has ranged from to cents a pound, according to supply and demand. [illustration: fig. .--seneca snakeroot (_polygala senega_).] seneca snakeroot. seneca snakeroot, known also as senega or seneca root (_polygala senega_, fig. ), is a small native perennial, occurring in rocky woods in the eastern united states and canada. seneca is not yet grown on a commercial scale, although cultivated experimentally in a number of places. the root is used in medicine. seneca can be grown in good garden soil or in rather firm, stony soil, provided it contains a fair proportion of leaf mold or very well rotted manure. shade is not essential, although the plant thrives in partial shade or under modified forest conditions. roots for propagation may be obtained from dealers or may be collected from the wild in autumn or early spring. if set inches apart in rows, the plants may be readily cultivated until they reach a marketable size. the seeds ripen in june and may then be planted, or they may be stratified by mixing with sand and buried in boxes or flower pots in moist soil until the following spring, when they may be sown in seed beds or shallow boxes of loam and leaf mold. the seedlings when old enough to be handled safely may be transplanted to the permanent beds and set in rows to facilitate cultivation. in cold situations they will probably need to be protected during the first winter after transplanting. a light covering of straw or pine needles will be sufficient to protect them from severe frost. the plant is slow in growth, but experiments thus far indicate that about four years are required to obtain marketable roots. the roots should be dug in the fall, thoroughly cleaned, and dried. there are no reliable data on the probable yield. seneca root is in constant demand, and collectors formerly received from to cents a pound. the price to collectors in june, , was cents a pound. serpentaria. serpentaria, or virginia snakeroot (_aristolochia serpentaria_), is a native perennial plant occurring in rich woods in the eastern part of the united states, and most abundantly along the allegheny mountains. the roots of this plant are used in medicine. like many other woodland plants, serpentaria requires a rich, moist loam and partial shade for its best development. it may be readily propagated from seeds, which, however, require several months for germination. the seeds are best sown in a well-prepared seed bed as soon as they are ripe. they may also be sown broadcast or in drills inches apart and lightly covered with leaf mold. a thin mulch of straw or leaves will afford the necessary winter protection. in the spring the plants may be set inches apart each way in the permanent beds. plantings have been made in the open, in which case the plants were set inches apart in rows inches apart, but the results have been less satisfactory than with plantings made under shade. the roots are collected in the fall, thoroughly cleaned, and carefully dried. satisfactory data on probable yields under cultivation are not available. the price usually ranges from to cents a pound. spearmint. spearmint (_mentha spicata_) is a well-known perennial of the mint family which is very frequently found growing wild in moist situations throughout the eastern half of the united states. it is widely used for seasoning meats, and the leaves and flowering tops, as well as the volatile oil distilled from the whole herb, form marketable drug products. spearmint is easily grown in any fertile soil which is fairly moist. its culture and the method of distilling the volatile oil are the same as for peppermint. to prepare the dry herb for market the leaves and flowering tops are collected when the first flowers appear and before the leaves begin to fall and are carefully dried in the shade. the demand for the dry herb is small, but the annual market requirement for the oil is about , pounds. on ordinary soils the yield of oil varies from to pounds per acre, according to stand and season, but on muck lands the yield is usually only a little less than that of peppermint. before the war the wholesale prices for the oil ranged from $ . to $ , averaging about $ . a pound. the price in june, , was $ a pound. the dry herb, which formerly brought from to cents, is now quoted at to cents a pound. for further information on the growing of spearmint, see farmers' bulletin , entitled "the cultivation of peppermint and spearmint." stramonium. stramonium, jamestown weed, or jimson weed (_datura stramonium_), is a poisonous annual of the nightshade family, which occurs as a common weed in almost all parts of this country except the west and north. the leaves and seeds are used medicinally. although stramonium grows wild on a variety of soils, it thrives best under cultivation in rich and rather heavy soils which are fairly well supplied with lime. it grows readily from seed, which may be sown in the open early in the spring in drills feet apart and barely covered. when the plants are well established they are thinned to stand to inches apart in the row. the plants can be readily transplanted, and gaps occurring in the rows may be filled in with the plants removed in thinning. cultivation sufficient to keep the soil free from weeds is necessary for good growth. cultivated plants are frequently attacked by leaf-eating insects, especially in the early stages of growth, and it is often necessary to use lime or other insect repellents to prevent the destruction of the crop. the leaves, which are collected when the plant is in full bloom, may be picked in the field, but time will be saved if the entire plant is cut and dried in an artificially heated curing room at a temperature of ° to ° f. when the leaves are dry they can be readily stripped from the stems, and should be baled for shipment. such seed as is ripe may be easily thrashed out of the capsules after the leaves have been removed from the stems. yields of dry leaf at the rate of , to , pounds per acre have been obtained. the yield of seed is much more variable, and is estimated to range from to , pounds per acre. the prewar price for the leaves varied from to cents and for the seed from to cents a pound. the price in june, , for the leaves was cents and for the seed cents a pound. tansy. tansy (_tanacetum vulgare_) is a european perennial plant, long cultivated in this country in gardens, from which it has escaped, and it now occurs as a weed along fence rows and roadsides. the leaves and flowering tops are in some demand for medicinal purposes. the herb also yields a volatile oil, for which there is a small market. tansy grows well on almost any good soil, but rich and rather heavy soils well supplied with moisture favor a heavy growth of herb. it may be propagated from seed, but is more readily propagated by division of the roots early in spring. the divisions are set inches apart in rows feet apart. seed may be sown very early in the spring in the open or in seed beds, and the seedlings later transplanted to the field. such cultivation as is usually given to garden crops will be sufficient. the plants are cut late in the summer when in full flower, the leaves and tops being separated from the stems and dried without exposure to the sun, as the trade desires a bright-green color. for the volatile oil the plants are allowed to lie in the field after cutting until they have lost a considerable portion of their moisture. they are then brought to the still and the oil removed by the usual method of steam distillation. a yield of about , pounds of dry leaves and flowering tops per acre may be obtained under good conditions. the yield of oil varies, but about pounds per acre is a fair average. in the united states the center of production of oil of tansy is michigan, where about , pounds are distilled annually. the price of the oil in june, , was about $ a pound. the price of the leaves and tops usually ranges from to cents a pound. thyme. thyme (_thymus vulgaris_) is a shrublike perennial plant of the mint family, native to southwestern europe. it is a common garden plant, which lives for many years under good culture. the herb, often used for seasoning and flavoring, yields the oil of thyme, which has well-recognized medicinal properties. thyme grows well from seed, which may be sown early in the spring in drills feet apart, or the plants may be started in a greenhouse or in seed beds outside and later set at intervals of about inches in rows to feet apart. thyme may also be propagated, like geraniums, from cuttings rooted in sand under glass. the plants grow well in mellow upland soil of good quality, and should be well cultivated and kept free from weeds throughout the growing season. for preparing the dry herb only the flowering tops are used, and these are cut when the plant is in full bloom and carefully dried in the shade in order to preserve the natural color. the volatile oil is obtained from the entire herb, which is preferably cut when in full flower and subjected to steam distillation without previous drying. returns from experimental areas have shown great variations in the yield, which has averaged about a ton of green herb per acre. normally the yield from a planting increases for several years, as the plants become better established, and yields at the rate of about a ton of dry herb per acre have been reported. the wholesale price in june, , for the dry herb ranged from to cents a pound; for the imported oil, from $ . to $ . a pound, according to quality. valerian. valerian (_valeriana officinalis_) is a hardy herbaceous perennial, well known under the name "garden heliotrope" and often grown as an ornamental plant. it has also been cultivated as a drug plant in new york and in parts of new england. the dried roots (rhizome and roots) form the marketable drug. valerian grows well in all ordinary soils, but thrives in a rich and rather heavy loam which is well supplied with moisture. it may be readily propagated by dividing the old roots, either in the fall or in the spring, and setting the divisions about a foot apart in rows to feet apart. if the divisions are set very early in the fall in time to become well established before frost, a good crop may usually be harvested the following autumn. plants may also be grown from seed, which are preferably sown as soon as they are ripe in well-protected seed beds in the garden. early in the spring the seedlings may be transplanted to the field and set at the same distances apart as the divisions of the root. growth will be favored by a liberal application of farmyard manure, which should be well worked into the soil before the plants are set out. thorough cultivation is essential. the roots of the plants propagated by division may be dug in the fall of the first year's growth, although the yield will probably be small. those of seedling plants do not usually reach a size suitable for harvesting before the end of the second growing season. after digging, the roots are washed, preferably in running water, until all adhering soil is removed. washing and drying will be facilitated if the thick portion of the roots is sliced lengthwise. the drying should be very thorough, and the use of artificial heat will be found advisable. under good conditions a yield of , pounds or more of dried roots per acre may reasonably be expected. the prewar price ranged from to cents a pound, depending upon the place where grown, that from england usually commanding the highest price. the wholesale price in june, , was about cents a pound. vetiver. vetiver, or cuscus grass (_vetiveria zizanioides_), is a perennial of the grass family, native to southern asia. it is occasionally cultivated in this country in the warmer portions of the gulf coast states as an ornamental and also for its aromatic roots, which are often used to impart a fragrance to clothing. in other countries an oil is distilled from the roots and used in the manufacture of perfumes. vetiver will grow in almost any soil, but light, sandy soil enriched by farmyard manure is to be preferred. propagation is effected by dividing old clumps, which may be set in the field, either in the fall or spring, about or feet apart each way. during the growing season the plants are given sufficient cultivation to keep them free from weeds. vetiver grows in close bunches from to feet high, the numerous roots spreading horizontally about feet on all sides of the plant. harvesting the roots, which usually takes place in november, is a laborious operation. the soil about the plants is opened with a stout, sharp spade in a circle large enough to include most of the roots. the earth is then dug from beneath the center of the plant and the entire clump lifted. the roots are first beaten or shaken to free them from adhering soil, then cut off close to the root crown and thoroughly washed. they may be dried in the open air, but it is preferable to dry them in a closed room at a low temperature, since they lose in fragrance if exposed to the hot sun or to a free circulation of air. yields at the rate of to , pounds of dry roots per acre have been obtained. the prices in the markets of new orleans are said to range from cents to $ a pound. the oil is not produced commercially in this country. the demand for both roots and oil is quite small, and it has not yet been shown that vetiver would be a profitable crop in the united states. wintergreen. wintergreen (_gaultheria procumbens_) is a low-growing, broad-leaved, evergreen plant with a creeping stem. the shoots from this stem grow to a height of to inches and bear solitary white flowers, which are followed by red berries. these berries are edible and are widely known as teaberries or checkerberries. wintergreen is a common plant in woods and clearings from eastern canada southward to the gulf states, but its collection in quantity is somewhat difficult. both the dry herb and the oil form marketable products. like other woodland plants, wintergreen thrives only in partial shade, and plantings should be made in a grove or under a specially constructed shade, such as is used for ginseng or goldenseal. a fairly good growth may be expected in soil which is thoroughly mixed with leaf mold to a depth of inches or more. wild plants may be used for propagation. divisions of these may be set in the fall or spring, about inches apart each way, in permanent beds. wintergreen is usually gathered in october or at the end of the growing season. the plants are carefully dried and packed in bags or boxes for marketing. for the production of the volatile oil the plants are soaked in water for about hours and then distilled with steam. over , pounds of wintergreen oil were produced in this country in and , pounds in . the prewar price of the oil distilled from the wintergreen plant as quoted in the wholesale drug markets generally ranged from $ to $ a pound. recently the lack of labor has reduced the output of oil, and in consequence the price has advanced. the oil became practically unobtainable on the markets in october, , at which time it had reached a price of $ a pound. collectors usually receive from to cents a pound for the dry herb. the results of numerous trials indicate that, on account of the small yield, wintergreen production under cultivation is not likely to be profitable at the prices quoted. wormseed, american. american wormseed, or jerusalem oak (_chenopodium ambrosioides anthelminticum_), is a coarse weed, occurring commonly in waste places and often in cultivated ground throughout the eastern and southern parts of the united states. the seeds (fruits) and the volatile oil distilled from the tops of the plant are employed in medicine. this plant grows well under cultivation in almost any soil, but a good sandy loam is preferred. it is now cultivated for oil production only in a small area in carroll county, md. the seed is sown in well-prepared beds about march , and between may and june , when the seedlings are to inches tall, they are transplanted and set about inches apart in rows about feet apart. the soil is kept entirely free from weeds by shallow cultivation throughout the growing season. harvesting is usually begun early in september or as soon as the seeds have taken on a black color, but before the plants have turned brown. if harvesting is delayed until the plants are fully mature there will be considerable loss through shattering and a diminution in the yield of oil when they are distilled. the crop is harvested with large knives or sickles, either by cutting off the entire plant at the ground or by cutting the branches separately. the latter method saves the labor of handling a quantity of useless woody material and also requires a smaller still capacity to handle the crop. after cutting, the plants are laid out on the ground in rows and allowed to cure for about three days before they are distilled. in the south wormseed has been grown successfully as a seed crop. the ground is prepared in february and laid off in rows about feet apart. a furrow is opened in each row, in which a complete fertilizer is applied at the rate of to pounds per acre. the soil on each side of the row is thrown in with a turnplow, forming a low ridge, which is then flattened with a light roller. the seeds are sown on this ridge with a drill. the plants are thinned to stand inches apart in the row and are given frequent shallow cultivation. the crop should be ready for harvesting late in july or early in august and should be cut before the tops begin to take on a brown color. the plants are cut either with a mower or old-style grain reaper and are left in the field until thoroughly dry. they may be housed and the seed thrashed out when convenient, but, since the seeds shatter easily, waste will be avoided if the plants are thrown upon large canvas sheets and the seed thrashed out in the field. the seed is light and not easily cleaned, but wire sieves of suitable mesh have proved very satisfactory for this purpose. the yield of seed per acre averages about , pounds. the yield of oil varies, but under favorable conditions about pounds per acre is regarded as a fair average. the area planted varies according to the price of the oil and may range from to acres. the average annual production of oil is estimated by producers to be , to , pounds. the prewar price of wormseed ranged from to cents a pound. the price in june, , was about cents a pound. the prewar price of the oil ranged from $ . to $ . a pound. the price in june, , was $ to $ . a pound. wormwood. wormwood (_artemisia absinthium_) is a hardy herbaceous old world perennial of the aster family, which has escaped from cultivation in this country and now occurs as a weed in many localities in the southern part of the united states. for many years it has been grown commercially on a small scale, chiefly in michigan and wisconsin. the dried leaves and tops have long been used medicinally, but the volatile oil distilled from the plant now forms the principal marketable product. wormwood will grow in almost any soil, but the best results are to be expected in deep, rich, moderately moist loams. the seeds are frequently sown broadcast early in the fall, following a grain crop; but if the plants are to be cultivated, it is best to start them from seeds sown in seed beds early in the spring or from cuttings of the young shoots taken in the spring and rooted in sand under glass or in the shade of a lath shed. the seeds are very small and should be sown on the surface of the soil in coldframes or seed beds and lightly covered with very fine sandy soil. the plants are easily handled and may be transplanted in moist weather with good results at almost any time during the growing season. they are set about inches apart in rows or feet apart and are well cultivated. the soil should be kept absolutely free from weeds, since their presence in the crop at harvest time seriously damages the quality of the oil. a fair cutting of the herb may be expected the first year after planting and full crops for two or three successive, seasons, after which new plantings will be found more satisfactory. the plants are harvested when in full bloom and may be cut with a scythe, or a reaper may be used if the area is large. while still fresh, the plants are distilled with steam to obtain the volatile oil. to prepare the leaves and flowering tops for market they are stripped from the stems by hand after the plants are cut and carefully dried in the shade without the use of artificial heat. experimental plantings have given yields at the rate of , pounds of dry tops or pounds of oil per acre. when grown on a commercial scale the yield of oil appears to average about pounds per acre. the prewar price of the dry tops was about or cents a pound. its price in june, , was to cents a pound. the oil was once used extensively in the manufacture of absinth, but when the use of this product was restricted in the demand for the oil fell off and the price declined, until in the early part of it reached the low level of $ a pound. the price in june, , was about $ a pound. the average annual production of oil of wormwood is about , pounds. owing to the limited use of this oil, there appears to be little room for further profitable expansion of this industry. additional copies of this publication may be procured from the superintendent of documents government printing office washington, d. c. at cents per copy * * * * * transcriber note illustrations relocated to avoid splitting paragraphs. minor typos may have been corrected. transcriber's note: text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). page numbers enclosed by curly braces (example: { }) have been incorporated to facilitate the use of the index. images of the original pages are available through internet archive. see https://archive.org/details/diatomaceofphi boye * * * * * [illustration: duck pond, corner of fourth and market streets (about )] the diatomaceÆ of philadelphia and vicinity by charles s. boyer, a.m., f.r.m.s. _illustrated with seven hundred drawings by the author_ press of j. b. lippincott company east washington square philadelphia preface the present contribution to the local flora is intended as an introduction to more extended research. the study is of advantage in relation to the life history of aquatic animals, the determination of ocean currents, as proved by polar discoveries, the investigation of geological strata where other fossil forms are absent, and the analysis of water supply; and, when we consider the universal distribution of diatomaceæ in the earth, the water and even in the air and the enormous deposits formed in past ages and still forming, we are able to realize the importance of a knowledge of these complicated forms and their function of purification. the absence of descriptive works of reference in available form in this country, the polyglot confusion of authorities abroad and the amount of time, patience and skill required in obtaining, preparing and examining specimens, render the study one of difficulty. the bibliography is omitted, as it is understood by those who possess the works of reference, and but few synonyms are given, having but little, except historical, value, especially when it is considered that modern investigators have no access to many of the earlier collections, when any of these exist. so far as the marine forms are concerned, it is probable that nearly all occurring north of florida are here included, and the fresh-water species described represent a large proportion of those found east of the alleghanies. all of the figures are drawn to the same scale, a magnification of eight hundred diameters, from specimens in my possession, nearly all of which were found in or near philadelphia. if the work is of any value in inducing further investigation, i hope, in the words of julien deby, that "those who follow my advice will find in the study of these wonderful little organisms as much pleasure as i myself have found." the author. { }introduction the delaware river rises in the western catskill mountains, flows southward for about three hundred and seventy-five miles, and expands into delaware bay about sixty miles from the sea. its origin is among the devonian and carboniferous rocks, and in its course it passes through silurian, triassic and cretaceous formations, finally reaching the cambrian and laurentian beds. it also drains regions of the glacial drift and beds which overlie overturned miocene strata, and are sometimes mixed with them. from the mountains, nearly four thousand feet high, to the bay, where the depth of water is not greater than seventy-five feet, the diatomaceous flora, from alpine cascades to the salt marshes of new jersey, contains a larger number of species than any other equal portion of the american coast. the city of philadelphia, about one hundred miles from the sea, lies at the junction of the schuylkill with the delaware, and much of the land near the rivers, especially southward, is flat and low, composed of recent alluvial deposits. in the central districts the ground is high, the deep sub-soil being mostly a dry gravel resting upon gneiss and schist, although it is in part composed of a bluish clay which was probably laid down in the bed of the ancient river before the last period of the glacial drift. the blue clay was not all deposited at the same time, as in the lower strata many marine forms are found which do not occur in the upper layers. this is notably the case in a deposit obtained at spreckel's sugar refinery and also at the east end of walnut street bridge, where a layer of blue clay occurs which is overlain by glacial drift. in other parts of the city mixtures of blue clay with more recent deposits are found, including fresh-water forms from numerous creeks and rivulets which traversed what is now the city proper, and especially from the vicinity of fourth and market streets, where there existed as late as the year a large pond known as the "duck pond" which was subject to tidal overflow from its outlet, dock creek. the river water at philadelphia is not noticeably brackish, although the tide extends thirty miles above the city and, before the building of fairmount dam, to the falls of the schuylkill. at certain times, when the river is low, the influx of tide water is sufficient to produce an abundance of brackish water diatoms at greenwich point. the entire absence, however, at present, of many of the marine forms obtained in dredgings in the delaware opposite the city, as at smith's island, now removed, and in certain well borings at pavonia, pensauken, gloucester and other places in new jersey, where the depth reached the old blue clay, indicates conditions quite different from those now prevalent. in the bay itself comparatively few living species are found, at least in any abundance. in the study of local forms which follows, the district included may be considered as circumscribed by the circumference of a circle having a radius of one hundred miles from philadelphia, containing the states of new jersey and delaware, the southeastern part of { }pennsylvania, a portion of maryland on the south and extending eastward to new york bay and long island sound as far as new rochelle. the greater number of fresh-water species described have been obtained from near the city along the darby, crum, ridley and brandywine creeks and from various places in new jersey, including the pine barren region of the southern part of the state. numerous collections have been made in the schuylkill and the various reservoirs and along the wissahickon, "where an alpine gorge in miniature of singular loveliness is to be found within the limits of a city." the fossil deposits are from well borings near camden, n. j., and from excavations in various parts of the city. there appears to be no relation between the miocene beds of the eastern coast and the deposits here described, all of which have been formed later than the glacial period or in an interval between two such periods. apparently no diatoms grew during the glacial era, at least in sufficient abundance to leave any perceptible traces of their existence. an examination of glacial "flour" and clays from the catskills shows an entire absence of these forms, and i have never found them in the milky flow from the glaciers of the alps nor in the constantly muddy streams in certain of our western states. the opacity of the water produces the same result as the absence of light in the deep lakes of new england, where diatoms are found only on the stalks or roots of water-plants near the shore, while in shallow ponds, such as the small lake near the summit of mt. lafayette, the growth is abundant. certain species will grow wherever there are moisture, light and heat, but the greater number require the presence, in small amounts, of substances produced by the decay of animal and vegetable life. an abundance of diatoms in fresh water is usually an indication of its potability, while their entire absence in shallow water may be due to an excess of bacteria. the specimens from which the drawings are made have been collected by the author for many years; in addition to possessing an almost complete library on the subject, he has had the advantage of examining material obtained by the late mr. lewis woolman and numerous slides furnished by a number of friends, including mr. john a. shulze, mr. frank j. keeley and mr. t. chalkley palmer, to whom i here take pleasure in expressing my thanks. the difficulties of the study are well stated by agardh in the following extract from the preface to his systema algarum: "because, indeed, in this respect, no one will wonder whether in the distinction of species and reference to synonyms we have, perchance, committed many errors. they have occurred and are bound to occur, partly from the fact that one is not permitted to see the original specimens of all authors; partly, because sometimes even the original specimens of these plants are erroneous; partly, because the figures and descriptions of authors are often lacking and imperfect.... "there is added the difficulty of the study itself of these plants, their submerged habitat, the minuteness of their structure, the rarity of their fruit, the change in the dried { }plant, the impossibility of culture, the fallacies of microscopical vision and the chaotic condition of algology itself to-day." the words of agardh, written in , are almost as true to-day. the lack of authentic specimens, which we hope will be remedied in time by the collections of the smithsonian institute, numerous incorrectly labelled slides in amateur collections, the imperfections of figures copied and recopied, without regard to relative size or correct references, and the confusion in the attempts to harmonize different descriptions, deter the student at the outset. the remaining difficulties mentioned by agardh add, however, to the remarkable interest these forms have always had, since no increase in optical perfection of the microscope serves to lessen the mystery of their structure and mode of growth. classification the few species of diatoms first discovered were included by lyngbye, dillwyn, and others in the genus _conferva_. in , the species, increased to forty-eight, were separated by agardh into eight genera distinguished partly by their mode of growth. but little change was made until heiberg, in , advocated the division into symmetrical and asymmetrical forms. without entering upon a general review of the later classifications, including pfitzer's and petit's divisions according to the number and location of the chromatophores, or the arrangement of prof. h. l. smith, because of the presence or absence of a raphe, or that of mereschkowsky into motile and immotile forms, the modification of all of these methods by schuett is here adopted, varied in accordance with certain monographs which appear to offer advantage. it is customary, especially among writers who are familiar with other classes of plants, to decry any classification of diatoms according to the markings of their siliceous envelopes. as, however, one of the chief distinctions of the class is the possession of a more or less siliceous and indestructible frustule, and as the cell and its contents are never seen except within the valves, their variety forms the only available method of identification. the cell contents, owing to the difficulty of observing their living condition, their continued change, their lack of distinct variation and their entire absence in fossil forms, render their consideration as a complete method of classification an impossibility. if, however, the cell contents can be brought into relation with the markings of their siliceous envelope, it will be a consummation for which the future student of these complicated forms ought to be grateful. that this result is one to be expected may be inferred from the fact that the arrangement of protoplasmic masses in the interior of the cell is coincident in some cases with markings on the valve, and the character of the endochrome is assuming a certain value in accentuating the difference between such forms as _pleurosigma_ and _gyrosigma_, or in the resemblance between _hantzschia_ and _nitzschia_, or between _surirella_ and _campylodiscus_. mereschkowsky, however, states that it is necessary to be careful in "establishing the relationship between diatoms based on the resemblance of their chromatophores," { }and further observes that in _hantzschia amphioxys_, _scoliotropis latestriata_ and _achnanthes brevipes_, three widely separated forms, the chromatophores are essentially the same. in one of the earliest classifications of diatoms, the individual cell received less consideration than the nature of the filament or thallus in which many species occur in the first stages of their growth. those, however, which exist in colonies at first are, sooner or later, broken up into separate frustules, either before or at the time of their maturity or previous to conjugation, while very many species are never seen except in a free state. the union of frustules, therefore, is of secondary importance and the group must be considered as filamentous or unicellular algæ. their relation to other algæ is not well determined. among the _desmidiaceæ_, a family of the order _conjugales_, of the class _chlorophyceæ_, the cells are in many forms divided by a constriction into symmetrical halves. the conjugales are starch forming, with walls of cellulose. in the diatomaceæ the starch is replaced by oil globules, while the walls of cellulose are more or less filled with a deposit of silica. the conjugales, however, reproduce by zygospores and usually contain pyrenoids, as may be seen in the parietal chromatophores of _spirogyra_. in the class _heterokontæ_ we have the reserve material in the form of oil, instead of starch, but there are no pyrenoids. to this class belongs the order _confervaceæ_, in which the cells are unicellular or filamentous, and to which all of the diatomaceæ were referred. while, therefore, diatomaceæ have a close affinity to the desmidiaceæ and to the confervaceæ, the determination of their origin, one from another, or from a common ancestral type, appears to be a matter of conjecture. { }morphology and development the cell the cell membrane is composed of two usually equal parts, each of which consists of a valve and a girdle or zone formed of cellulose modified by silica deposited in an insoluble state from a very dilute aqueous solution. the valves are more siliceous and robust than the girdle. both are in most species easily separable, or at least the bands of the girdle which may be more or less closely fastened to the valves have a motion over each other permitting the cell to enlarge at pleasure. the longitudinal diameter of the cell, or the distance between the centres of the two valves, will vary according to the convexity of the valve and the age of the frustule which may be often determined by the width or number of the girdle bands. these, owing to their diversity of form and arrangement, will be further described under the generic diagnoses. the siliceous cell-wall is covered on the outside by a layer of protoplasm called the coleoderm. this layer may be quite thin and evident only when treated with fuchsin or bismarck brown, or it may be of considerable thickness. the cell contains the cytoplasma, protoplasm, cell-sap, endochrome, pyrenoids, oil globules and nucleus, together with certain other less understood bodies. the cytoplasma is a thin skin of colorless plasma covering the entire inner surface of the cell. it is invisible in the living cell but is evident in plasmolysis. in long forms it is thickened at the ends and is condensed at the plasma bridge which frequently connects the two valves and divides the cell into two parts, each containing more or less protoplasm surrounding the vacuole in which are found the cell-sap and certain granules. in some forms, as meloseira, the cytoplasma includes the entire mass of protoplasm. the endochrome is seen in the form of one or more bands or plates, of a yellowish or brownish color, on the inner side of the valves or connective zone, or in granules or irregular masses, more or less numerous, on the inner walls, or sometimes grouped near the centre. it consists of a mixture of chlorophyll and diatomine which differ in their relative solubility in alcohol and in their spectroscopic analyses. the color varies from green to a chocolate brown in proportion to the amount of diatomine. so far as the function of the endochrome is concerned it does not appear to differ from that of ordinary chlorophyll, absorbing, under the influence of light, the carbon, and disengaging the oxygen of the carbonic anhydride in the water. diatoms do not live in absolutely pure or non-aërated water. the individual plates or granules of the endochrome are called chromatophores. their number and significance will be referred to in the description of genera. the pyrenoids.--in the chromatophores of many species are found colorless, homogeneous bodies, strongly refractive, of various shapes, usually lenticular or fusiform, which are known as pyrenoids (schmitz). they are scarcely evident in the living cell, but are distinguished by the action of hæmatoxylin and other reagents. flat forms occur in surirella and pleurosigma, lens forms in pinnularia, stauroneis, synedra, fragilaria and nitzschia, while a spherical form is found in cymbella cuspidata. the pyrenoids are always imbedded in the chromatophore. their growth is by division. schmitz considers them a part of the living chromatophore, and their substance as working material which in excess has become resolved into the nature of a crystal which its form sometimes resembles. comparisons are made between them and crystalloids found in certain monocotyledons. the pyrenoid is evidently concerned in the formation of the chromatophore, or in its division. much of the conjecture, however, is due to the behavior of pyrenoids in other plants. { }oil globules.--it has been established by pfitzer that starch and sugar, as assimilation products, are replaced by oil in the cells of diatoms ("da bekannlich staerke und zucker bei den bacillariaceen nicht nachzuweisen sind"). the oil drops are more or less numerous, of various sizes, and are found in the cytoplasma, the cell-sap, and sometimes the chromatophores. mereschkowsky describes certain globules as elæoplasts, which he divides into four kinds according to their number and position. whether all of these are oil globules is a question not yet determined. other bodies, known as "buetschli granules," or volutin, and described as "little blisters filled with a tolerably robust refractive substance," are considered by lauterborn to be a nitrogen reserve store. they are found in the cytoplasma, or in the cell-sap, and can be fixed in picric acid and stained in methylene blue. note.--for a discussion of the morphology of diatoms and a valuable résumé of the investigations of buetschli, karsten, lauterborn, mereschkowsky, mueller, pfitzer, schuett, and others, the student is referred to "der bau der diatomzelle," by dr. otto heinzerling, in "bibliotheca botanica," . cell division the growth of diatoms follows the usual method of cell division as described by sachs (text book of botany, nd ed., p. ): "the nucleus of a cell which is about to divide becomes broader, assuming the form of a biconcave lens, and its nucleolus breaks up into irregular granules which together with its other granular contents begin to form a nuclear disc in the equatorial plane. a delicate striation is now apparent in what is becoming the long axis of the nucleus, at right angles to the nuclear disc, and the characteristic nuclear spindle is gradually produced. the nuclear disc splits into two halves lying side by side, each of which travels to the corresponding pole of the nucleus; thus two nuclei are constituted which are connected by fibrillæ." the cell-wall and the chromatophore bands divide, each nucleus passes to the centre, and two new cells are formed. in the meantime, to permit of this division, the two siliceous valves separate, the girdle bands slipping over each other, and opposite the larger or enclosing valve a new valve is formed, the girdle band of which is seen later within the girdle of the mother valve. opposite the smaller valve of the original cell and adjoining the new valve, another valve is formed which also produces a girdle within the girdle of the smaller valve. as a result of division we have, therefore, the valves of the original, or mother cell, the two new valves and four girdle bands. (pl. , figs. and .) in the process of division, the continual formation of new valves, enclosed in the older girdle bands, will naturally cause a reduction in the size of the frustule. while this reduction, owing to the elasticity of the girdle, does not always occur, i believe, yet, in most cases, the diameter is so reduced that a rejuvenescence of growth is required. this is caused by the production of auxospores which may appear without conjugation. in this process, the beginning of which, in certain species, may be noticed by the increase in the size of the girdle as in reduplication, the two valves separate and within is formed a more or less spherical mass about twice the size of the original frustule and which forms on its circumference two large and often shapeless valves. these valves form others which assume the appearance of the original valves, but larger, and proceed to grow in the usual way. the reduction in size of the frustule seldom proceeds further than about half the size of the type form, so that, as a general rule, it may be stated that diatoms are not often smaller than half the larger size. reproduction the process of reproduction has been observed in many cases, but the conclusions reached are somewhat at variance with each other. the auxospore formation is simply a { }method of rejuvenescence. when, however, the auxospores are thrown off from filamentous diatoms, it is probable that two may conjugate, their contents dividing each into two daughter cells which unite into two zygospores. the usual method is the union of two frustules, which, throwing off the old valves, coalesce into a single mass of protoplasm which produces an auxospore, sometimes called a sporangial frustule. it is stated that in some cases two frustules coalesce and produce two auxospores. the existence of spores in diatoms is a much-disputed point. while they have never been seen, the inference that they exist is very great, as otherwise it becomes difficult to understand the sudden growth of species in localities and under conditions that seem to preclude the actual presence of the living frustule. it is a matter of common observation that, in examining collections of living forms, minute frustules or brownish globules appear to resemble larger diatoms. in gatherings of gomphonema, when many specimens are sessile on the same object, numerous intermediate sizes, varying from minute globules to the type, are seen, yet not positively demonstrable as the same. conjugation, the formation of auxospores, and the actual process of cell division are seldom seen, as they occur during the night or at least in darkness. it is advisable in order to observe reduplication to obtain the material about midnight and place it in very dilute alcohol. in filamentous forms, however, the cell division is easily observed at any time in its various stages. by immersing in picric acid (saturated solution), transferring to very dilute alcohol which is gradually increased in strength, and then passing through oil of cloves and finally to the mounting medium, excellent preparations can be made. by staining with gold chloride alone the nucleus is made apparent without further treatment. evolution of forms it may be assumed that diatoms originated in the sea; to deny this requires evidence of the existence of fresh-water species previous to the miocene period which is entirely marine. in those subject to fluctuations of the waves, as pelagic diatoms, their existence appears to be contingent upon the methods by which the separate frustules can cohere. various devices, including hooks, spiral bundles, horns and processes exuding threads of plasma, exist for holding together the frustules. when marine forms are found in quiet waters some of these devices, being no longer of any value, cease to grow, although free swimming diatoms are rare. they either occur in long chains or are stipitate or sessile. if it is further assumed that the fresh-water diatoms are found in greater abundance in later periods, the action of running streams makes necessary the provision of some means by which the species may continue to colonize. this may be recognized in the occurrence of linear forms chiefly in streams. circular forms, such as cyclotella which have no raphe, are found in quiet waters, such as pools or ditches, and never exist living in running streams. those forms only would be able to live in water having a more or less swift current under one of three conditions: they must, as in gomphonema, be adherent to surrounding objects by a stipe; or be enclosed in a gelatinous tube, as in homoeocladia; or have an independent motion powerful enough to overcome the influence of the current. it is true that many forms with a raphe have no apparent motion. in the case of mastogloia provision is made in a gelatinous cushion in which the frustules are preserved. in cocconeis, with a true raphe in one valve only, in epithemia, with a partial raphe, or in certain eunotiæ with a trace of one, we find species evidently degenerate and parasitic. the long synedræ, having only a median line, live in running streams, since they are attached at one end to other algae. forms with a true raphe appear to be more highly developed, since they are able to seek locations favorable to growth. given, therefore, the structure of the valve, the habitat may be inferred. { }the motion of diatoms the erratic backward and forward movement of certain diatoms, especially those of the naviculoid group, or the slow, rolling motion of surirella, has been discussed in so many ways without definite conclusions that a brief statement will be sufficient. osmosis, the amoeboid movement of the coleoderm, the protrusion of protoplasm or protoplasmic threads through the raphe, the existence of actual organs of locomotion or cilia, and the lack of synchronism in the chemical action occurring at the ends of the cell which is sometimes divided by the plasma bridge, have been offered in explanation. the chief objection to the theory of cyclosis appears to be that the resultant motion is so greatly in excess of the rotation of protoplasm in the cell. more or less motion is observed in various kinds of free cells, but the movement of diatoms is not evident in those without either a raphe or a keel upon which and apparently by which the phenomena are produced. mr. t. chalkley palmer, in various articles in the proceedings of the delaware county institute of science, especially in vols. and , gives the results of exhaustive experiments. "nothing, it would seem," he says, "could be more conclusive as to the essential sameness of the nature of motion in monads and diatoms, than the fact that both monads and diatoms require oxygen in order to perform motion, that they come to rest when oxygen becomes scarce, and that they resume their motion when oxygen is again supplied." he also thinks "that the living substance of the cell, more or less deeply overlaid with coleoderm substance of varying consistency, and itself assuming that degree of fluidity which best meets the requirements of the situation, permeates the raphes, circulates in the keels, or in some cases protrudes quite beyond the silica, and functions as the actual propulsive agent." the function of diatoms of all forms of vegetation, the diatomaceæ are, perhaps, the most ubiquitous. where-ever a sufficient amount of moisture, heat and light are found, they grow. it was during the miocene period that they first appeared, and, as marine forms, reached their greatest development, both as to size and beauty of marking, while their prevalence throughout the world in enormous quantities has been often mentioned. the miocene beds of richmond and maryland continued over the cretaceous formations of new jersey have outcropped in certain localities within our district, but are not considered in this discussion. the function of diatoms is not essentially different from that of other algæ in providing food for aquatic animals, such as salpæ and oysters, but it is, however, in other respects that they are not only important but necessary factors in the preservation of life. "full nature swarms with life; one wondrous mass of animals, or atoms organized, waiting the vital breath, when parent heaven shall bid his spirit blow. the hoary fen, in putrid streams, emits the living cloud of pestilence. thro' subterranean cells where searching sunbeams scarce can find a way, earth animated heaves." i am not certain if thomson fully understood the matter, but he has remarkably described the facts. when "the vital breath" of returning spring animates the earth, the "subterranean cells" of diatoms, the "atoms organized," through the liberation of vast quantities of oxygen, immediately begin the purification of the "putrid streams." were these streams not so purified, the accumulation of animal and vegetable débris would eventually cause an enormous bacterial growth fatal to animal life. { }diatomaceÆ unicellular or filamentous. cells either free, sessile, united in filaments, immersed in a gelatinous envelope or in fronds composed of branching tubes; microscopic, enclosed in a more or less siliceous envelope (frustule), composed of two parts (valves), usually connected by an intervening band (zone or girdle). cell contents include yellowish or brownish chlorophyll-like bodies which occur in one or several bands (placcochromatic), or as variously distributed granular masses (coccochromatic) lining the inner walls. growth by ordinary cell division or by auxospores; sexual multiplication by the formation of sporangia. valves of two kinds: (_a_) those in which the markings or parts are more or less concentric (centricæ); (_b_) those (pennatæ) in which the parts are more or less symmetrically divided by a line (pseudoraphe) or by a cleft (raphe). centricÆ valves without a dividing line or cleft; markings more or less radiate; transverse section of frustule circular, polygonal, or elliptical, sometimes irregular. divided into four groups: . _discoideæ._--frustules (cells) discoid; valves without horns or elevations (sometimes with processes). . _solenoideæ._--frustules with numerous girdle bands. . _biddulphioideæ._--frustules box-like, _i. e._, with the longitudinal axis greater than in the discoideæ. valves with two or more angles, elevations or horns. . _rutilarioideæ._--valves as if naviculoid, but with irregular or radial structure. groups and are not included in our description. no. contains plankton genera only, while no. consists of genera not yet found in this locality. discoideÆ . _coscinodisceæ._--valve not divided by rays or costæ into sectors; puncta sometimes radiate; ocelli or processes absent. . _actinodisceæ._--valve with radial striæ divided into sectors: ocelli and processes absent. . _eupodisceæ._--valve disc-shaped with mammiform processes or one or more ocelli. . coscinodisceÆ (_a_) _meloseirinæ._--frustules short, in chains. (_b_) _coscinodiscinæ._--frustules disc form, usually single, rarely in short chains. (_a_) meloseirinÆ . _meloseira._--valve punctate, with a constriction or furrow between edge of valve and girdle. . _gaillonella._--valve punctate, with a circular collar or crest near edge of valve. . _lysigonium._--valve punctate, neither keeled nor constricted. . _hyalodiscus._--valve punctate in the centre; border with decussating radial lines. . _stephanopyxis._--border of valve with a crown of thorns; valve areolate. . _pyxidicula._--valve areolate, with a border of spines. { }meloseira ag. ( ), em. de toni ( ) (melos, a limb or member, and seira, a chain) frustules globose, ellipsoidal or cylindrical, concatenate, closely joined together. valve either simply punctate or punctate and areolate. a constriction of the cell-wall, forming a furrow between the edge of the valve and the girdle, is more or less evident. the genus meloseira constituted by agardh has been variously modified by kuetzing, thwaites, wm. smith, van heurck, de toni, and others. in systema algarum agardh included certain species of conferva, of lyngbye, dillwyn and others, and limited his genus to frustules more or less globose (fila articulata ad genicula constricta), although in his conspectus criticus (p. ), he modifies the description (fila teretia articulata, articulis diametro æqualibus vel longioribus) to include m. varians. as, however, lysigonium link, gaillonella bory, and other genera enlarged by ehrenberg and kuetzing, came to be included under meloseira, thwaites suggested the division of the genus into two: orthosira, in which the frustules are not convex at the ends and aulacosira in which no central line is apparent but with two distinct sulci. wm. smith adopts the genus orthosira but rejects aulacosira, including all forms under the former genus and meloseira, suggesting that differences "exist in the formation of the sporangia" of the two genera. m. varians and m. crenulata appear to form auxospores or sporangial frustules in different ways, as will be noticed hereafter. as, however, the present state of our knowledge is so limited and as much confusion would result in further changing the nomenclature, i shall adopt, for the most part, the division made by de toni, separating gaillonella and lysigonium and employing the name meloseira as emendated in sylloge algarum, although, as stated, it omits the species of agardh. that a further division may be necessary is indicated by the differences existing between the orthosira forms and the others. analysis of species frustules cylindrical and lengthened: valves with two distinct furrows; granules small distans valves with coarse granules granulata valves denticulate on the margin crenulata valves denticulate and constricted roeseana valves with row of large puncta on the girdle side undulata frustules cylindrical and compressed: valves punctate and areolate sulcata the chromatophores consist of circular and compressed or irregular flat granules which lie along the wall of the cell. meloseira distans (ehr.) kuetz. frustules cylindrical, slender, with two furrows, one on each side of the suture; valve in zone view with fine puncta in longitudinal rows; puncta in valve view scattered. l. - µ. _meloseira nivalis_ wm. sm. _coscinodiscus minor_ wm. sm. fresh water. fossil in new england deposits. pl. , figs. and . note.--in all species of meloseira, as well as gaillonella and lysigonium, the frustules are so closely coherent that when the filaments are broken entire frustules are less frequently found than a union of two valves of contiguous frustules. { }meloseira granulata (ehr.) ralfs frustules cylindrical, robust, - µ in diam., with large granules in longitudinal, sometimes spiral, lines, variable in size and arrangement in the same filament. valve in valve view with scattered puncta. variable in relative width and length, passing to m. crenulata. _gaillonella granulata_ ehr. _orthosira punctata_ wm. sm. fresh water. fossil at coldspring, l. i. pl. , fig. . meloseira crenulata (ehr.) kuetz. frustules cylindrical, with furrows on each side of the suture, - µ in diam.; puncta in longitudinal rows. margins of valves denticulate at the junction of the frustules; valves with puncta scattered at the centre, radiate at the circumference. common in fresh water; quite variable in size. _gaillonella crenulata_ ehr. _orthosira orichalcea_ wm. sm. in part; not conferva orichalcea. mertens or gaillonella aurichalcea ehr. and bailey. pl. , figs. and . meloseira roeseana rab. frustules cylindrical, constricted toward each end, with coarse, longitudinal striæ; valve convex, striæ punctate, radiating, with several large granules at the centre. connective zone with longitudinal rows of fine puncta. diam. - µ. _orthosira spinosa_ grev. fresh water. media, pa. (palmer); not common. pl. , figs. and . meloseira roeseana var. epidendron (ehr.) grun. frustules denticulate at the margin; valve with coarse granules at the centre from which radiate lines of fine puncta. wet rocks of the wissahickon. pl. , figs. and . meloseira undulata (ehr.) kuetz. frustules single or in twos, usually broader than long, constricted near the margin. valve with six to twelve internal projections forming with the outline of the constriction of the valve a polygonal figure within the circumference. surface of the valve with radiating lines of puncta disappearing toward the centre, at which are numerous coarse puncta. _meloseira gowenii_ a. schmidt. blue clay of philadelphia, especially common at twelfth and market sts. pl. , figs. , , . meloseira sulcata kuetz. frustules quite robust, with diam. several times the length, deeply furrowed at the margin, areolate and punctate. valve with radiating striæ disappearing toward the centre, and with a double row of cells near the margin, the outer one having the appearance of a crown of teeth. _gaillonella sulcata_ ehr. _paralia sulcata_ (ehr.) cleve. _paralia marina_ heib. { }marine and brackish. common in all parts of the world, and fossil in the miocene. the philadelphia form is the var. genuina grun. pl. , figs. and . in a gathering from media of meloseira crenulata (palmer leg.), occasional filaments are noticed with much longer and narrower frustules which become enlarged in the middle and are seen to contain inner frustules in the process of still further division, as shown in fig. , pl. . meloseira dickei thwaites shows internal box-like cells placed one within the other, which were supposed by thwaites to be a method of reproduction. wm. smith doubts this, but is unable to offer any explanation. in the present form the mode of reduplication is that usually found in filamentous forms, but in this case the presence of perfect frustules enclosing others in the process of still further division has been heretofore unfamiliar to me. the swelling in the middle appears to indicate that not all filamentous diatoms are reduced in size by subdivision. in outline the valve is like that of a "truncated cone," as described by petit in referring to gaillonella granulata var. bambusina petit (diat. nouv. et rares, jour. de micrographie, ). gaillonella bory de st. vincent ( ) (named after gaillon, a botanist of dieppe) frustules ellipsoidal, united in long filaments, usually found in pairs; each valve is furnished with a circular collar or crest extending at right angles to the convex edge. valve hyaline at the centre from near which radiate lines of fine puncta, - in µ. note.--the original names of both meloseira and gaillonella are retained, as there is no good reason for contracting the greek diphthong in the first, and the second is the correct spelling. gaillonella nummuloides (dillw.) bory frustules as in the generic diagnosis. diam. µ. _conferva nummuloides_ dillwyn (brit. confervæ, p. , sup. pl. b). _meloseira nummuloides_ ag. heiberg and o'meara assign this species to _lysigonium moniliforme_ (muell.) link, which is not keeled. while dillwyn's and lyngbye's figures do not show the keel, it is probable from their descriptions that the angular outline produced by the keel was noticed. marine or brackish. coast of new jersey; hudson river (bail.). pl. , figs. and . _gaillonella moniliformis_ of bailey is this form, as he describes it as having "two minute projections of the delicate transverse ridges seen near the ends of the two globules belonging to a joint." (amer. jour. science, , p. , pl. , fig. .) lysigonium link ( ) (luo, to loose, and gonu, a joint) frustules globose, concatenate; valve simply punctate. lysigonium moniliforme (muell.) link frustules usually in twos, not keeled; valve with puncta in longitudinal lines, the puncta of the enveloping zone larger and in transverse rows. l. - µ (de toni). _conferva moniliformis_ mueller ( ). { }_conferva nummuloides_ eng. bot. pl., , not dillwyn. _meloseira borreri_ grev. _lysigonium nummuloides_ (lyngb., kuetz.) o'meara = _gaillonella nummuloides_ (dillw.) bory. see o'meara, p. . marine and brackish. long island sound and coast of new jersey. pl. , fig. . lysigonium varians (ag.) de toni frustules cylindrical, in long filaments, slightly constricted on each side of the suture; puncta in oblique rows in zone view. valves - µ in diam. (de toni), sub-plane, with fine puncta in lines radiating from the centre. under medium magnification the frustules appear smooth. very variable in size. _meloseira varians_ ag. fresh water. common in ditches and springs. pl. , figs. and . hyalodiscus ehr. ( ) (hyalos, transparent, and discus, a disc) frustules spheroidal; valve with a flattened, irregularly punctate umbilicus from which proceed radiating or decussating lines of fine puncta. analysis of species valves divided into sectors stelliger valves not divided but interrupted by short dark lines at intervals radiatus valves with very fine puncta scoticus hyalodiscus stelliger bail. valve with puncta in oblique decussating rows which, by reason of the difference in obliquity, form numerous sectors. umbilicus irregular, with scattered, coarse puncta. margin wide, striated. _podosira maculata_ wm. sm. blue clay. not common. pl. , fig. . hyalodiscus radiatus var. arctica grun. valve with radiating puncta from a rather small umbilicus, the rays interspersed with short, dark lines, having the appearance of spines, at irregular intervals. margin broad, striated. _pyxidicula radiata_ o'meara. the philadelphia form corresponds exactly to grunow's variety which has closer puncta than the type form. blue clay. rather rare. pl. , fig. . { }hyalodiscus scoticus (kuetz.) grun. valve small, with puncta about in µ, appearing hyaline. de toni remarks that it resembles a small form of h. subtilis which occurs north and south of our limits and is yet likely to be recorded. _cyclotella scotica_ kuetz. _podosira hormoides_ wm. sm. blue clay. not rare. pl. , fig. . endochrome in the form of four flaps or patches bound together about a common pyrenoid. in h. subtilis numerous rod-shaped chromatophores lie in a row and are not bound in the centre (mereschkowsky). stephanopyxis ehr. ( ) em. grun. ( ) (stephanos, a crown, and pyxis, a kind of vase or box) frustules ellipsoidal, concatenate; valves tumid, of unequal convexity, coarsely areolate, the cells in rows parallel to the longitudinal axis, not radiate, with stray spines or teeth placed concentrically more or less near the margin. according to karsten the chromatophores are round or angular discs which lie near the connective zone. stephanopyxis turris (grev.) ralfs valve cylindrical, with a crown of stout spines less than the diameter of the valve near the margin. cells hexagonal, about in µ, sometimes punctate. the valve having the greater convexity has the larger spines, though usually less of them. _creswellia turris_ grev. (gregory, diat. of the clyde, t. r. s. e., vol. , part , p. .) _stephanopyxis appendiculata_ ehr.? creswellia is incorrectly based, as stated by ralfs, on the concatenation of the valves which was not noticed by ehrenberg in the fossil forms. it had been suggested by kuetzing in systema algarum (p. ). blue clay. port penn and smith's island. pl. , figs. and . stephanopyxis corona (ehr.) grun. valve larger than in turris, sub-globose, coarsely areolate cells, - in µ. one valve furnished with a crown of teeth shaped like the letter t and united at the top into a ring above the margin of the valve; the other valve with long spines more or less concentrically arranged. blue clay. not common. fossil in the nottingham deposit. pl. , fig. . note.--the diatomaceous deposit, so often called "bermuda" or "bermuda tripoli," especially by foreign writers, is in reality the miocene stratum extending for miles along the patuxent river near the village of nottingham, md. the author is perfectly familiar with the location, having made large collections there. the mistake in the name is due to the fact that prof. bailey received material from mr. tuomey marked "bermuda hundred," which is located near petersburg, va. attempts have been made to find material there and while there is an earth containing miocene diatoms at petersburg, it does not exactly correspond to the material sent to ehrenberg by bailey, who was in doubt as to the locality. the bermuda islands are of coral formation and have no deposits of diatomaceous earth. { }pyxidicula ehr. ( ) (dim. of pyxis, a box) frustules globular, solitary or in short fasciæ. valve more or less hemispherical, areolate, destitute of spines. pyxidicula cruciata ehr. valve hemispherical, with large, hexagonal cells. an inner stratum is finely punctate. blue clay. walnut st. bridge. rare. pl. , fig. . this form is not usually described as having punctate areolæ, but it does not apparently differ from other forms of pyxidicula of ehrenberg as described by kuetzing (species algarum, pp. - ), including _p. areolata_. in fact, it differs from stephanopyxis, which is also sometimes punctate, only in the absence of spines. in fossil deposits the absence of an easily detached stratum is not significant. the difference, except in size, between it and _p. mediterranea_ grun. (v. h. s., pl. , figs. and ), i am unable to determine. although many species of meloseira are fresh-water, the habitat of the group meloseirinæ is, in general, marine. it more nearly coincides in structure and development with other algæ not diatomaceous, the siliceous envelope constituting its most distinctive feature. as we proceed in the classification, the structure both of the frustule and contents becomes more complicated. (_b_) coscinodiscinÆ . _cyclotella._--valve with two concentric divisions of different structure, one a wide border and the other a central surface. . _coscinodiscus._--valve areolate or punctate, with a narrow border of the same structure. cyclotella kuetz. ( ) (cyclos, a circle) frustules single or geminate, cylindrical, short, in zone view rectangular or with undulating sides. valve usually with smooth or punctate striæ, centre sometimes bullose, smooth, or with granules scattered or radiating. chromatophores numerous along the valves (pfitzer). cyclotella striata (kuetz.) grun. valve - µ in diam., with coarse striæ, - in µ, centre coarsely punctate and bullose. _coscinodiscus striatus_ kuetz. _cyclotella dallasiana_ wm. sm. common in the blue clay. pl. , fig. . cyclotella meneghiniana kuetz. frustule in zone view rectangular, undulated; valve, - µ in diam., marginal striæ robust and transversely punctate, centre radiately punctate. _cyclotella kuetzingiana_ wm. sm. (not thwaites). crum creek. pl. , fig. . { }cyclotella meneghiniana, var. stelligera cl. and grun. differs from the type in the coarse radiating lines at the centre. broomall lake, media. pl. , fig. . cyclotella meneghiniana, var. stellulifera cl. and grun. as in type but with the central rays granulate. broomall lake, media. pl. , fig. . cyclotella stylorum (br.?) v. h. margin striated, the alternate striæ thickened near the border, producing an appearance of subquadrate cells. centre faintly granulate, the outer border of which is encircled by - puncta, each of which is surrounded by a small hyaline space. blue clay. rare. van heurck gives this form doubtfully as a variety of _striata_, while de toni makes it synonymous with it. van heurck's figure is not that of brightwell, but as the specimen above described is, i believe, exactly the same as van heurck's, i retain his name. pl. , fig. . cyclotella comta (ehr.) kuetz. valve with marginal striæ well marked, each third or fourth costa more robust than the others. central part finely striated, the striæ punctate, radiating. fresh water. pl. , fig. . the form here figured is probably the variety _radiosa_ grun. and is from a new england specimen. it is quite likely to occur in this locality. cyclotella operculata (ag.) kuetz. frustules in zone view undulated. angles rounded. marginal costæ alternating with minute spines; centre nearly smooth, depressed, convex or flexuose. fresh water. pl. , figs. and . the figure is drawn from a specimen from boston, mass., h. l. smith type slide no. , marked equivalent to _c. minutula_ wm. sm. cyclotella antiqua wm. sm. marginal costæ alternating with thick puncta; centre finely granulate with subtriangular elevations. frustules in zone view rectangular. blue clay. pl. , fig. . the form corresponds to the original specimens of wm. smith in the deposit of stavenger, norway. the genus cyclotella comprises about seventy specific names, many of which may be referred to other genera, while some of ehrenberg's are incapable of verification on account of the small size of the figures and the lack of sufficient description. about half of the forms are marine. the fresh-water species are usually found living in more or less stagnant water or in pools contaminated with drainage, being an exception to the general rule that diatoms are more abundant in water free from deleterious matter. { }coscinodiscus ehr. ( ) (coscinon, a sieve, and discus) frustules solitary, cylindrical, compressed; valve circular or elliptical; surface flat or sometimes convex near the border; markings more or less angular, radiating, sometimes fasciculate; border usually well defined. central space, if present, hyaline, sometimes surrounded with a rosette of large cells. chromatophores round, angular or irregular discs usually without pyrenoids (karsten). rattray's classification is here followed, so far as it refers to our species. _excentrici._--valves circular; central space absent; markings angular, in oblique, decussating rows. _lineati._--central space absent; markings angular, oblique decussating rows straight. _fasciculati._--markings fasciculate, or sometimes only near the border. _radiati._--markings rounded or angular, more or less radiate. _elaborati._--valves elliptical, markings rounded. excentrici coscinodiscus excentricus ehr. valve with a hyaline excentric space from which proceed, usually in six directions, rows of polygonal markings decreasing toward the narrow, coarsely striated border, the rows appearing convex toward the centre. apiculi at unequal distances apart. quite variable in size. common in the blue clay and along the coast. pl. , figs. and . fig. is probably var. _perpusilla_ grun. (diat. fr. jos. l., pl. (d), fig. ). lineati coscinodiscus lineatus ehr. valve circular, markings hexagonal, cells in parallel rows. border narrow, cellular. blue clay and atlantic coast. not common. pl. , fig. . fasciculati coscinodiscus nitidus greg. valve flat, markings rounded, distant, radiate, decreasing toward the border which is coarsely striate. quite variable in size and in the distance between the markings. blue clay and atlantic coast. common. pl. , fig. . coscinodiscus nitidulus grun. valve usually not quite circular; markings smaller than in nitidus and fasciculate near the border. blue clay. pl. , fig. . various intermediate forms between nitidus and nitidulus occur. coscinodiscus subtilis ehr. markings polygonal, irregular at the centre, but forming numerous fasciculi radiating { }toward the border, the rows parallel to the central row of each fasciculus. border narrow with fine striæ; apiculi often present between the fasciculi. blue clay and along the coast. very common in the water supply of philadelphia and camden, where the diameter seldom exceeds µ and the markings on the semi-radius are in µ. pl. , fig. . coscinodiscus denarius schmidt markings larger than in c. subtilis, equal, forming usually ten fasciculi, each beginning near the semi-radius and containing ten parallel rows of granules. common in the blue clay and sparingly along the coast. pl. , fig. . forms are found intermediate between c. subtilis and c. denarius, as shown in fig. . coscinodiscus polyacanthus grun. markings angular, in µ, decreasing toward the border, fasciculate. apiculi large, twelve or more, usually inserted at the middle of each fasciculus, and extending into the interior of the cell. the apiculi in outline resemble the heads of horse-shoe nails, and are seen with difficulty except when the valve is examined from the inner side. border narrow, striated. diam. µ. pensauken, n. j., artesian well. pl. , fig. . rattray's description of _c. polyacanthus_ var. _intermedia_ grun., from cape wankarema, siberia, gives the diam. as µ, and there are about markings by actual count in µ in grunow's figure (diat. fr. jos. land, pl. (c), fig. ). the apiculi are more numerous, but there appears to be little doubt of the general similarity. the philadelphia form is abundant in the pensauken well deposit at a depth of ft. the apiculi become quite distinct in slides stained with silver nitrate by mr. f. j. keeley; they are distinct from small apiculi sometimes evident between the fasciculi. the specimens in the pensauken deposit are mingled with other forms which cannot be distinguished from _c. subtilis_. whether the two are identical, i am unable to determine. rattray (rev. cos., p. ) refers to h. l. smith's type slide no. , from rice-field mud, savannah, ga., as _c. subtilis_. in smith's slide, in my possession, a number of the forms show faint outlines of the large apiculi and are otherwise exactly like c. polyacanthus. radiati coscinodiscus velatus ehr. markings angular, decreasing slightly toward the coarsely striated border, covered with fine puncta. blue clay. pl. , fig. . coscinodiscus marginatus ehr. markings rounded, large, decreasing toward the broad border, which is coarsely marked with distant striæ. the cells are punctate. common in the blue clay. pl. , fig. . in the fossil forms the puncta are not evident, hence the species is usually described as not punctate. { }coscinodiscus radiatus ehr. markings polygonal, slightly decreasing toward the border where they are much smaller; border well marked, striate. quite variable in size. common in the blue clay and along the coast. pl. , fig. . fig. is probably a smaller form. coscinodiscus subaulacodiscoidalis rattr. markings small, decreasing toward the border in somewhat fasciculate rows. about one-third the distance from the border are five (rattray finds six) well-marked apiculi somewhat resembling those of aulacodiscus. border narrow, hyaline. rare in the lower stratum of the blue clay. pl. , fig. . coscinodiscus argus ehr. markings angular with central dots, increasing from the centre toward the border, where they are smaller. blue clay. pl. , fig. (a small form). coscinodiscus biangulatus schmidt central space and rosette absent, markings large, angular, not punctate, with large central papillæ, decreasing toward the border. border wide, coarsely marked with rows of granules, and with two indentations on the inner side distant from each other about two-thirds of the diameter. blue clay. pl. , fig. . distinguished from coscinodiscus asteromphalus var. omphalantha grun., which also has two constrictions, by the absence of punctate markings. coscinodiscus asteromphalus ehr. central space small, surrounded by a rosette of large polygonal cells from which radiate hexagonal cells, increasing about half way toward the border and then slightly decreasing. cells punctate. blue clay. pl. , fig. ; pl. , fig. . coscinodiscus asteromphalus var. omphalantha (ehr.) grun. central space absent, rosette evident. markings ½ in µ, somewhat smaller near the rosette and decreasing near the border, which is constricted in two places, as in c. biangulatus. blue clay. pl. , fig. . coscinodiscus oculus-iridis ehr. central space and rosette distinct; markings polygonal, not punctate, with large papillæ, smaller near the rosette, increasing toward the semi-radius, and then decreasing to the striated border which is comparatively narrow. blue clay and atlantic coast. pl. , fig. . { }elaborati coscinodiscus lewisianus grev. valves elliptical, major axis a little more than twice the minor. from a point, usually near one side, radiate rows of granules in lines nearly parallel to the major axis. border broad, with distinct striæ. great sedge island, n. j. (artesian well), and in outcrops later than the miocene, where it is usually found. pl. , fig. . . actinodisceÆ actinoptychinÆ valves divided into sectors alternately elevated and depressed. ( ) _actinoptychus._--sectors plane. ( ) _polymyxus._--sectors convex. actinoptychus ehr. ( ) em. v. h. ( ) (actis, a ray, and ptyx, a fold) frustule cylindrical, less in length than the diameter, in zone view undulated. valve divided into six or more sectors alternately raised and depressed, areolate and punctate, varying in the alternate divisions. the areolation is confined to the outer layer of the valve while the punctation is usually on an inner valve often found detached. processes on the border, three or more. umbilicus circular or angular, hyaline. analysis of species sectors, six undulatus sectors, eight or more, cellular heliopelta sectors, fourteen, punctate vulgaris actinoptychus undulatus (kuetz.) ralfs valve areolate and punctate in quincunx, divided into six equal sectors, alternately elevated or depressed, their areolations appearing different. margin well defined. umbilicus smooth, hexagonal. processes three, sometimes six, inserted within the margin of each alternate division. very variable in size and appearance. this is the actinocyclus of bailey, figured and described in amer. jour. science, , p. , pl. , fig. , but not named. kuetzing describes and names it and refers to bailey. _actinoptychus omphalopelta_ ehr. _actinoptychus cellulosa_ ehr., h. l. smith sp. typ., . quite common in marine and brackish water and in the blue clay. pl. , figs. , , and . actinoptychus vulgaris var. interrupta n. var. valve with fourteen sectors, the alternate ones divided by a smooth lanceolate space for about one-half the radius, forming with the smooth, circular umbilicus a seven pointed star. the sectors thus divided have coarser puncta in quincunx than the other sectors, ending in a smooth area near the margin, and also larger black puncta scattered from the centre to the semi-radius. near a. vulgaris var. neogradensis pant. blue clay. not common. pl. , fig. . { }actinoptychus heliopelta grun. var.? valve circular, sectors, eight, umbilicus circular, without rays; border wide, cellular, with distinct rays. inserted at a distance within the inner edge of the border are large processes, one on each of four alternate sectors, and two on each of the others. the sectors are cellulate and punctate. near a. heliopelta var. versicolor brun., which, however, in the specimen in my collection from atlantic city (artesian well), has a greater number of processes and they are situated on the edge of the border. outcrop at buckshutem, n. j. rare. pl. , fig. . it has been quite well determined, i think, that the typical forms of a. heliopelta occur at the base of the miocene. at rock hall, md., on the eastern shore of chesapeake bay, at a depth of from to ft., and at wildwood, n. j., at a depth of from to ft., diatomaceous beds occur considered by mr. lewis woolman (geol. surv. of n. j., , pp. - ) "as synchronous in age," the former being deposited in the delaware river delta and the latter in the chesapeake in post-miocene times. in each of these beds a small form of a. heliopelta is rarely found. the material at buckshutem is post-miocene, and the form here figured shows a marked variation from the miocene species and a gradual approach toward a. undulatus. polymyxus l. w. bail. ( ) valve circular, usually divided into fourteen sectors which are on the same plane at the centre, but the alternate ones are elevated into mammillated projections terminated by small processes on the margin. zone view rectangular with undulations subconical, terminated by the processes. polymyxus coronalis l. w. bail. central space hyaline, rounded or slightly stellate, from which radiate rows of fine puncta in quincunx, shown in the figure only on the alternate elevations, the depressed interspaces being out of focus. the mammillæ are stated by bailey to vary from six to ten. very rare in the blue clay (walnut st. bridge). occurs also in the wildwood deposit (bull. torrey bot. club, , p. ). pl. , fig. , and pl. , fig. . . eupodisceÆ _aulacodiscinæ._--valves with mammiform elevations near the border surmounted by nipple-like processes. aulacodiscus--the only genus as above _eupodiscinæ._--valves with ocelli. ( ) _actinocyclus._--valve with one small ocellus; striæ radial. ( ) _eupodiscus._--valve with one or more ocelli; striæ not radial. ( ) _auliscus._--valve with large, elevated ocelli. central area hyaline. markings granular and costate. ( ) _pseudauliscus._--valve with radiating granules. no central space. { }aulacodiscus ehr. ( ) em. rattr. ( ) (aulax, a furrow, and discus) valve usually circular, plane or with an elevated zone, frequently inflated beneath the processes; central space irregular or rounded, sometimes absent; markings granular, radial, sometimes in a reticulum. the genus comprises more than one hundred species most of which are fossil, and is represented in this locality by a single form, _a. argus_, included by rattray in his section "retiformes," distinguished by the presence of a reticulum. aulacodiscus argus (ehr.) schmidt frustule in zone view elliptical. valve circular, - µ in diam., closely covered with two kinds of markings, one, a mesh of large, radiating, angular cells, the outer plate, and the other, radiating rows of circular granules with hyaline spaces intervening and closer near the border, forming the inner plate which can occasionally be seen detached. central space absent. the walls of the angular cells are crossed with fine lines and are probably composed of granules compressed so closely as to produce partial opacity, the depth of which depends in a measure not only on the superposition of the two plates, but on the relative closeness and thickness of the cell-walls. in a fully-developed specimen the effect is to produce more or less triangular cells containing three or four granules. in some cases the opacity is so great as to render detail invisible. in the figure the valve is supposed to be divided into three sectors, illustrating at "a" the lower plate, at "c" the combination of the upper and lower plates, and in the other sector the cellular mesh of the upper plate. processes, usually three, quite robust and inserted at from one-fourth to one-fifth the length of the radius from the border which is striated on the inner side. a form with four processes is found in the lower blue clay. _tripodiscus argus_ ehr. _eupodiscus argus_ (ehr.) wm. sm. not uncommon in the blue clay. pl. , fig. . actinocyclus ehr. ( ) (actis, a ray, and cyclos) valve circular or elliptical; surface flat at the centre, sloping toward the border. central space usually evident, rounded or irregular. markings rounded, granular, punctiform, in radial, or nearly radial, rows, sometimes fasciculate. a nodule, more or less evident, is found near the border which is usually striate. chromatophores round discs or granules. analysis of species valve circular, rows radial, hyaline lines at the border barkleyi valve circular, rows fasciculate moniliformis valve elliptical ellipticus the nodule is generally supposed to be a thickening of the cell-wall, and, in the opinion of rattray, a projection outward, but "whether there may not be at the same time a slight inward protuberance is difficult to determine," though, as a rule, he seems to "think there is not." { }actinocyclus barkleyi var. aggregata rattr. surface flat from centre to semi-radius. central space irregular, sometimes with a few scattered granules. markings round with central dots distinct, about at the centre, decreasing in straight radial rows to in µ at the border, where they form moniliform striæ. border narrow with striæ about in µ. hyaline interspaces at the origin of the shorter rows, but not at equal intervals. at the border, linear hyaline spaces occur at somewhat irregular intervals between the moniliform striæ owing to the termination of certain radial rows before they reach the circumference. nodule small, from one-seventh to one-fourth the radius from the border. according to rattray the distinction between a. ralfsii and a. barkleyi is partly in the absence of the zone arrangement of the hyaline spaces in the latter, and to the slight differences in the number of granules. the variety aggregata differs from the type form of barkleyi mainly in the distance of the nodule from the border. i have specimens from the blue clay material at walnut st. bridge, and from smith's island, in which the distance from the border in one case is, as stated above, quite different from that in the other. in specimens from morris cove, conn., the locality referred to by rattray, variations occur. blue clay. pl. , fig. . in the figure the subulate hyaline spaces at the border are, in some instances, wider than usual. actinocyclus moniliformis ralfs surface flat, from centre to about five-sixths of the radius. central space rounded, with one or more granules. markings, in µ, round, in radial rows, fasciculate, the oblique transverse rows irregular, very slightly decreasing until near the edge of the flattened zone, and then suddenly decreasing and appearing as decussating lines oblique to the border. apiculi distinct, interfasciculate within the border. nodule quite evident, surrounded by a rather wide irregular hyaline space on the margin of the flattened zone in the middle of the fasciculus. border wide, with striæ about in µ. blue clay. port penn. not common. pl. , fig. . equivalent to actinocyclus ehrenbergii, h. l. s. type slide . in a valve from port penn, delaware bay, two nodules occur nearly opposite each other. actinocyclus ellipticus var. delawarensis n. var. valve rhombic-elliptical. markings somewhat angular, in µ at the centre where they are sub-concentric, thence decreasing in lines radiating more or less toward the border, where they suddenly become punctiform, striæ about in µ. border equal to one-fifth the radius. a nodule is found on the inner side of the border. apiculi apparently absent. the markings are larger than in the richmond forms which are associated by rattray with actinocyclus ellipticus grun. the form corresponds closely to witt's cestodiscus ovalis var.? (witt, polierschief. von archangelsk-kurojedowo, pl. , fig. ), except as to the border. it does not answer to van heurck's figure or any other. blue clay. very rare. pl. , fig. . { }eupodiscus ehr. ( ) (eu, well, pous, a foot, and discus) valve circular, - µ in diam. (de toni). central space absent, surface plane with angular cells. at the border short, circular processes or ocelli. eupodiscus radiatus bail. valve with radiating hexagonal cells, sometimes slightly curved toward the large ocelli inserted near the border which are hyaline at the centre. border wide, coarsely striate. the number of ocelli heretofore recorded is four. specimens with five processes are found in the artesian well at st. augustine, fla., and in material at twelfth and brandywine sts. mr. hugo bilgram has discovered valves with three and six ocelli. not common in the blue clay, but abundant along the southern coast of the atlantic states and the gulf of mexico. not eupodiscus radiatus wm. sm, which is biddulphia smithii (ralfs) v. h. pl. , fig. . auliscus ehr. ( ) (aulax, a furrow, referring to the grooves in certain species, according to de toni, but preferably from auliscos, a small reed, referring to the processes?) frustule cylindrical; zone with longitudinal rows of fine puncta. valve circular or elliptical, plane except near the processes; central area hyaline, usually circular. markings of two kinds, granules radiating or scattered and radiating, costate lines, prominent or indistinct. processes, two or three, large, short, cylindrical, with hyaline surface, near the ends of the major axis in a line oblique to it. auliscus is divided by rattray into fourteen sections, defined chiefly by the character and arrangement of the markings. about eighty species are described, but as many of the forms are fossil, occuring in the miocene of california, oamaru and elsewhere, and as so few species are found in this locality, i shall refer but briefly to this division. _striolati._--no transverse median areas, striæ inconspicuous punctatus _lineolati._--markings distinct, pruinose, interrupted pruinosus _costati._--transverse median areas usually distinct, sculptus markings continuous, costate cælatus auliscus punctatus bail. valve broadly elliptical, or suborbicular, covered with delicate interrupted striæ radiating in sinuous lines to the circumference, more evident on the transverse median area; puncta in µ, grouped into a rounded area on each side of the median line, elsewhere scattered. central space rounded, processes two, large, suborbicular. port penn, delaware river. rare. pl. , fig. . auliscus pruinosus bail. valve elliptical, with distinct, interrupted, pruinose, irregular markings diverging in curved lines toward the circumference in the median part and converging toward the processes, interspersed with numerous darker markings having the appearance of apiculi. central space nearly circular, sometimes with several granules. processes large near the ends of the major axis and not oblique to it, or scarcely so, the edges with a crenulate border. blue clay. rather rare. pl. , fig. . { }auliscus sculptus (wm. sm.) ralfs valve elliptical or subcircular, median areas distinct, rounded, circumscribed by coarse distant costæ radiating near the border where they are more evident, and converging toward the processes. central space rounded, sometimes indefinite. processes, two, circular. typical specimens show wide, coarse, distant costæ, but, in some cases, the median areas are indistinctly outlined. blue clay. pl. , fig. . auliscus cÆlatus bail. valve elliptical or subcircular, with radiating costæ, more evident around the median areas and at the border, converging toward the processes, with intermediate punctate radiating lines. central space rounded or irregular. processes circular. a. sculptus has coarser costæ and the interspaces are hyaline, or apparently so, while in a. cælatus the punctate striæ between the costæ are more evident. blue clay. not uncommon. pl. , fig. . fig. is a small, indefinite form intermediate between a. sculptus and a. cælatus. the numerous variations in this genus make it difficult to satisfactorily differentiate the species. the size of the four above described varies from to µ. pseudauliscus a. s. ( ) and leuduger-fortmorel ( ) valve circular or subcircular, nearly flat or depressed at the centre. central space not evident. processes circular, with narrow border, near the circumference. border narrow, striated. markings granular, radiating, sometimes interspersed with striæ and apiculi. differs from auliscus chiefly in the absence of a central space and costæ. pseudauliscus radiatus (bail.) rattr. valve circular, or nearly so, flat. central area with scattered granules radiating and increasing in size outward in diverging rows toward the border which is coarsely striated. processes, two, circular. two small apiculi are inserted at about one-fifth the radius from the border near the ends of the minor axis. blue clay. rare. pl. , fig. . the apiculi are not always figured. they appear in a number of specimens from the miocene of maryland, atlantic city, harvey cedars and newbern. pseudauliscus spinosus (christian) rattr. valve subcircular or slightly quadrangular, depressed at the centre and rising to an elevated zone near the border, the two zones separated by a distinct line. the inner zone indistinctly reticulate with fine puncta radiating from the centre and apiculi at intervals. the outer zone with smaller apiculi surrounding the inner zone and with intermingled rows of fine puncta and interrupted diverging striæ. near each end of the minor axis is a rather long, robust spine inserted at one-fourth the radius from the border which is narrow and striated. processes circular, close to the circumference. _auliscus spinosus_ christian. blue clay. rare. pl. , fig. . the genus is named by schmidt, described by leuduger-fortmorel and emendated by rattray. { }biddulphioideÆ biddulphieÆ (_a_) _triceratiinæ._--frustule cylindrical or prismatic, with three or more sides. (_b_) _biddulphiinæ._--frustule cylindroid; valve with ends elevated into round processes or long horns. (_c_) _anauleæ._--valve elliptical, lunate or triangular, with internal septa. (_d_) _euodieæ._--frustule cuneate in zone view; valve lunate. (_a_) triceratiinÆ ( ) _ditylum._--frustule imperfectly siliceous. zone with numerous divisions. valve with central spine. ( ) _trinacria._--processes with sharp spines. ditylum bail. ( ) (dis, two, and tyle, a swelling, referring to the outline of the frustule) frustule quadrangular, convex at the ends. valve triangular, with undulating sides, the angles ending in a sharp point surmounted by a bristle. surface of valve convex at centre from which projects a long stout spine. ditylum intricatum (west) grun. valve with the angles separated from the central part by lines imitating septa. surface with radiating lines of fine puncta. blue clay. rare. pl. , fig. . detached valves only have been found in the blue clay. the form is regarded as but slightly siliceous and, therefore, the zone or girdle not being found in the fossil deposits, i am unable to illustrate it from material in the vicinity. on plate , figs. and , i have sketched the zone and valve views of specimens found recently at vera cruz and labelled by h. l. smith triceratum intricatum west. i can find no difference between the recent and fossil forms of the valves. the zone is covered with fine puncta in quincunx, not visible under ordinary illumination. the form as figured in plate corresponds to the figure of lithodesmium undulatum ehr. in van heurck, and west, in describing the triceratium undulatum wm. sm. (figured as t. striolatum), thought that his t. intricatum was distinct from ehrenberg's form on the ground that the latter came from the "bermuda" (nottingham) earth and must be strongly siliceous. lithodesmium is characterized by the envelopment of the frustules by a cellular membrane which does not appear, evidently, in ditylum. d. brightwellii is distinguished by its crown of spines on the margin; otherwise it closely resembles d. intricatum. trinacria heib. ( ) (treis, three, and acra, a point) valve triangular, angles elevated into spines. cells at the margin large. trinacria pileolus (ehr.) grun. valve with concave sides. surface concave with unequal punctiform and scattered markings with central dots. cells at the margin large, rounded. at the angles, which vary in elevation, a few puncta are seen. _triceratium pileolus_ ehr. blue clay. rare. pl. , fig. . { }(_b_) biddulphiinÆ biddulphia gray ( ) em. van heurck ( ) (a genus, constituted from conferva biddulphiana of the english botany, named after a miss biddulph) frustule prismatic or subcylindrical, concatenate, filamentous, or in zig-zag, or, as usually found, free. zone well developed. valve triangular, polygonal, elliptic or subcircular, convex, more or less elevated at the angles into processes or horns. markings cellular or punctate. chromatophores, small plates of various forms. key to the species valves costate biddulphiana valves not costate: markings cellular, angles elevated into horns favus angles not elevated antediluviana markings punctate, angles with subconical processes and long spines granulata spines short rhombus spines minute smithii processes truncate, valve elliptical turgida valve orbicular lævis processes absent, valve divided by irregular lines alternans not so divided reticulum biddulphia biddulphiana (smith) frustule quadrangular with convex ends and rounded angles. valve elliptical with undulated sides, divided by septa into three or more sections. processes large, rounded, globular or subconical. zone varying in width. surface with rounded reticulations in longitudinal and transverse rows, except at the centre where they are concentric and smaller. _conferva biddulphiana_ smith (english botany, , pl. , upper figures). _diatoma biddulphianum_ ag. _biddulphia pulchella_ gray. blue clay. hoboken tunnel. along the coast. pl. , figs. , , , and . quite variable in size and number of septate divisions. fig. is an unusual form with narrow zone, having but one row of large reticulations, evidently a young frustule. biddulphia favus (ehr.) v. h. frustule quadrangular, elevated at the angles into subconical processes oblique to the longitudinal axis. valve triangular or quadrangular, plane, of two layers, the outer layer composed of large hexagonal cells in rows parallel to the sides, the inner of small puncta radiating from the centre. zone punctate in quincunx, never found open. _triceratium favus_ ehr. blue clay. common along the coast. the quadrangular form occurs only southward. pl. , fig. . at "a" a cell showing the lower punctate layer. pl. , fig. , a transverse section of a portion of the valve showing the cellular structure and the punctated lower stratum. { }biddulphia antediluviana (ehr.) v. h. frustules quadrangular, sometimes united in zig-zag chains. valve quadrangular with more or less concave sides, sometimes cruciform. surface with angular cells arranged in concentric and radiating lines increasing toward the circumference. at each angle is a large, rounded process, which, as well as the secondary layer, scarcely visible, is finely punctate. _amphitetras antediluviana_ ehr. _amphitetras tessellata_ shad. blue clay. rare. pl. , fig. . a cruciform variety occurs at pensauken, n. j., artesian well (coll. f. j. keeley). biddulphia granulata roper valve elliptical-lanceolate, convex, with diagonal rows of puncta in µ and sometimes with small scattered spurs. processes inflated at the base, obtuse at the ends, which are curved outward toward alternate sides. near each process and on opposite sides of the longitudinal axis is placed a stout spine bent or curved inward near the middle. connective zone with diagonal rows of puncta smaller than those on the valve. pavonia, n. j., artesian well. fossil in the pleistocene. along the coast. not common. pl. , fig. . biddulphia rhombus (ehr.) wm. sm. valve rhomboidal, sometimes triangular, with subconical processes. surface convex with hexagonal reticulations, - in µ, irregular at the centre and radiating to the circumference. minute spurs are scattered over the surface, and on each side are usually two or three short spines. common along the coast and fossil in the miocene and later deposits. pl. , fig. (somewhat inclined, as usually seen). biddulphia smithii (ralfs) v. h. valve orbicular, convex, with reticulations in µ radiating from the centre and decreasing toward the margin and processes which are truncate. a short spine is found on each side half way between the processes. zone narrow with fine puncta in µ in longitudinal rows. _cerataulus smithii_ ralfs. _eupodiscus radiatus_ wm. sm. blue clay. along the coast southward. pl. , fig. . biddulphia turgida (ehr.) wm. sm. valve elliptical or orbicular, surface convex. processes very large, cylindrical, placed obliquely and inclined by the torsion of the frustule. between the processes are two stout spines, one on each side, frequently forked at the ends. puncta fine, irregular at the centre and radiating toward the circumference. _cerataulus turgidus_ ehr. blue clay. along the coast. quite variable in size. pl. , fig. . { }biddulphia lÆvis ehr. valve suborbicular or triangular, with short, truncate processes. surface with fine puncta about in µ radiating in straight or curved lines toward the circumference and with fine spurs at intervals. nearer one process than the other, and about half way between centre and circumference, are two small spines, one on each side. quite variable in size. blue clay. common along the coast. pl. , fig. . fig. (magnification about diameters only) illustrates sporangial frustules discovered by mr. t. chalkley palmer at reedy island, delaware river. in frustules having a cylindrical form, the endochrome lines the cell-walls in the form of granules which become congregated toward the centre in the sporangia. biddulphia alternans (bail.) v. h. valve triangular or, rarely, quadrangular, with sides straight or slightly concave, usually unequal. angles obtuse, separated from the centre by costate lines. surface with puncta of irregular shape, large at the centre, with smaller puncta interspersed. in many valves several lines appearing like costæ extend inward from the border in various directions. angles with small puncta in transverse and longitudinal rows. _triceratium alternans_ bail. blue clay. along the coast. pl. , fig. and probably fig. . biddulphia reticulum (ehr.) frustule quadrangular. valve triangular with straight or concave sides and rounded angles. surface convex at the centre and angles. markings of unequal size, mostly larger at the centre, scattered; at the angles, small puncta in longitudinal rows. _triceratium sculptum_ shad. _triceratium punctatum_ br. _triceratium obtusum_ br. for explanation of the synonymy see "biddulphoid forms of n. a. diat.," proc. acad. nat. sci., , p. . blue clay. along the coast. pl. , fig. . (_c_) anauleÆ eunotogramma weisse ( ) (eu, well, noton, a back, and gramma) frustule quadrangular. valve elliptical or lunate divided by septa which constrict the margin. surface flat with punctate markings. eunotogramma lÆve grun. valve lunate with obtuse ends. septa, from four to eleven or more. surface with puncta in transverse and longitudinal rows, sometimes indistinct and scattered. shark river. rare. more common southward. fossil at buckshutem, n. j. pl. , fig. , and pl. , fig. . i am unable to distinguish between e. læve and e. debile, as intermediate forms occur. { }terpsinoË ehr. (terpsinoos, gladdening?) frustules quadrangular, adnate in filaments, usually free. valve elliptical or triangular, with undulating sides divided by septa into three or more sections. terpsinoË americana (bail.) ralfs valve lobed at each end or angle. central space rounded, hyaline. surface with fine puncta in radiating lines. blue clay. not common. pl. , fig. . terpsinoË novÆ-cÆsareÆ boyer valve triangular, with concave sides and broad angles equally three-lobed, separated from the central part by septa. central space small or absent. puncta delicate, radiating or scattered. l. of side µ. pleistocene clay at buckshutem, n. j. fossil at wildwood, n. j. t. americana, forma trigona pant.? (le diatomiste, vol. , p. .) pl. , fig. . (_d_) euodieÆ euodia bail. ( ) (derivation uncertain; apparently from euodia, fragrant, probably a euphemism) frustule in zone view cuneate. valve semi-lunate, coscinodiscoid. euodia gibba bail. valve with rounded markings, larger and scattered at the centre, radiating at the circumference and in indefinite straight rows at the semi-radius. delaware bay (mann). pl. , fig. . i have not seen this in the philadelphia material. the figure is drawn from a specimen from the gulf stream, s. atlantic. { }pennatÆ valve zygomorphous. structure pinnate, not concentric. valve divided either by a true raphe or cleft or by a linear space or line imitating a raphe. divided into three groups: . _fragilarioideæ._--valves without a raphe; usually with a pseudoraphe or median line. . _naviculoideæ._--either one or both valves with a true raphe. . _surirelloideæ._--valves in which the raphe is concealed near the margin on one or both sides of each valve in a more or less elevated keel or wing. fragilarioideÆ (_a_) _tabellarieæ._--valve symmetrical with respect to both the longitudinal and transverse axes; septate, not cuneate. (_b_) _meridioneæ._--valve symmetrical with respect to the longitudinal axis, asymmetrical to the transverse axis, cuneate, finely striated. (_c_) _fragilarieæ._--valve of varied shape, not cuneate; costate or with transverse rows of puncta. (_a_) tabellarieÆ frustule in zone view rectangular, in valve view linear or linear-elliptical, sometimes constricted in the middle, symmetrical to both axes, not cuneate; with two or more septa or annuli. chromatophores numerous, granular. _rhabdonema._--frustules with numerous septate partitions having one or several foramina. transverse costæ or rows of coarse puncta. _tabellaria._--frustules with two to six nearly straight septa. transverse striæ subtly punctate. _grammatophora._--frustules with two sinuate perforate curved septa. transverse striæ subtly punctate. _striatella._--frustules with alternate partitions, septate or partly so. _attheya._--frustules not septate but with numerous annuli. rhabdonema kuetz. ( ) (rhabdos, a rod, and nema, a thread) frustules quadrangular, concatenate, composed of numerous septate partitions with transverse costæ or rows of puncta. valves elliptical, with a pseudoraphe and transverse apparent costæ and punctate lines; the partitions with one or several foramina. chromatophores in rosettes of various kinds (karsten); usually parallel to the septa. rhabdonema arcuatum (lyng.) kuetz. valve hyaline at the ends, with transverse rows of puncta producing the appearance of costæ between the rows; pseudoraphe distinct; foramen single. _diatoma arcuatum_ lyngbye. common along the coast. pl. , figs. , , and ; pl. , fig. . { }according to t. h. buffham (jour. quek. m. c., series , vol. , p. ), the frustules are of two kinds, those in which the length and breadth are the same and those which are much lengthened, with a wide hyaline girdle frequently in the middle. at the time of fructification the smaller frustules are attached to a larger one which produces a sporangium at the end of the girdle from which the other end of the frustule has disappeared, or, if the two halves of the frustule remain, two sporangia are formed. rhabdonema minutum kuetz. frustules small; valve not smooth at the ends, elliptical or lanceolate-elliptical, with transverse rows of puncta; pseudoraphe distinct. foramen single, alternating above and below in adjoining partitions. common in the blue clay and along the coast. pl. , fig. and pl. , fig. . rhabdonema adriaticum kuetz. valve linear-lanceolate, with smooth angles; rows of puncta transverse, the intervals appearing as costæ, as in arcuatum. foramina, three. blue clay in the pensauken and pavonia deposits and along the coast. pl. , figs. , and . tabellaria ehr. ( ) (tabella, a tablet) frustules quadrangular, adnate in filaments, frequently found in zig-zag chains, united by a gelatinous isthmus, at length separating. valve linear, inflated in the middle and at the ends; striæ transverse. chromatophores numerous, small, along the zones. tabellaria fenestrata (lyng.) kuetz. valve elongated; pseudoraphe narrow; transverse striæ faint. in the zone view a straight septum is shown at each end of a valve. common, especially in the cedar swamps and ponds of the pine barren region, n. j. pl. , figs. and . tabellaria flocculosa (roth) kuetz. valve linear, with median inflation larger than the terminal; pseudoraphe rather broad in the middle; transverse striæ subtly punctate. in zone view the frustules are quadrangular, or nearly so, with about six sometimes curved septa at one end alternating with those on the other end. _conferva flocculosa_ roth. common especially in the pine barrens of new jersey. pl. , figs. , and . grammatophora ehr. ( ) (from gramma, a letter, and phoreo, i bear) frustules quadrangular, adnate, in zig-zag, united by an isthmus, or, usually, found free; divided by two sinuate and perforate curved septa. valve linear or oblong, sometimes with sinuate sides, and with a pseudoraphe and transverse punctate lines. chromatophores granular. { }grammatophora marina (lyng.) kuetz. valve linear-elliptical, with smooth apices. septum with a wide undulation near its origin, thence straight and incrassate at the end. striæ in quincunx, - in µ. _diatoma marinum_ lyngbye. blue clay. along the coast. pl. , figs. and . grammatophora marina var. subtilissima (bail.) v. h. valve linear, slightly constricted near the smooth apices. septum undulated near its origin and then straight, incrassate at the end. puncta in quincunx very subtle, - in µ. _grammatophora subtilissima_ bail. grammatophora oceanica var. subtilissima (bail.) v. h., according to de toni. g. marina and g. oceanica are united by some authors; the latter has more subtle striæ. along the coast. pl. , figs. and . grammatophora serpentina ralfs valve linear-elliptical, long, measuring to µ (de toni); smooth at the apices. septum with numerous undulations and hooked at the apex. puncta in quincunx, in µ. along the coast. pl. , fig. . grammatophora angulosa var. hamulifera (kuetz.) grun. frustule nearly quadrate; valve with rounded but not smooth apices. septum bent into a sharp angle near its origin and ending in a broad hook. puncta in transverse rows, in µ. along the coast. pl. , figs. and . grammatophora islandica ehr. frustule oblong; valve elliptical-lanceolate. septum robust with several undulations and hooked at the end. pseudoraphe distinct; transverse rows of puncta, in µ. reported by kuetzing in the atlantic ocean and by kain at belmar, n. j. i have not found it on our coast and i believe, in some cases, it has been confused with _g. angulosa_ var. _hamulifera_. the figure is drawn from an iceland form in h. l. smith t. s., . pl. , figs. and . striatella ag. ( ) (dim. of stria, referring to the lines on the frustule) frustules tabulate, adnate in short, stipitate filaments, scarcely siliceous, divided into partitions, septate or partly so at alternate ends. { }striatella unipunctata (lyng.) ag. frustules with numerous bent septa extending the entire length. valve lanceolate, somewhat unsymmetrical, subtly punctate, with pseudoraphe quite distinct. "the specific name is derived from the appearance of the endochrome which in the living specimen is invariably collected in a central mass with slender threads radiating in all directions toward the cell-wall" (wm. sm.). pyrenoids cuneate, in the centre of the endochrome, numerous. long island sound and along the coast. pl. , figs. and . striatella interrupta (ehr.) heib. frustules quadrangular, with robust alternate septa extending to the middle. puncta in quincunx, in µ. _tessella interrupta_ ehr. very rare along the coast. pl. , fig. . (from a form found at stonington, conn.) attheya west ( ) (named after thomas atthey) frustules quadrangular, tabulate, with numerous annuli. valve elliptical-lanceolate, with a pseudoraphe and a central punctum. extending from each end is a strong spine half as long as the valve. attheya decora west the only species. diagnosis of the genus. the valves are imperfectly siliceous, scarcely visible in balsam. very local. abundant at shark river, n. j. pl. , fig. . (_b_) meridioneÆ valve symmetrical in zone and valve view along the sagittal line, but asymmetrical to the transverse axis, cuneate. in zone view sometimes with wedge-shaped septa. valve finely striated, without central and usually without terminal nodules; a pseudoraphe present. _licmophora._--frustules cuneate in stipitate fan-shaped fascicles. _meridion._--frustules cuneate in spiral fascicles. licmophora ag. ( ) (licmos, a fan, and phoreo, i bear) frustules wedge-shaped, joined together into fan-shaped, stipitate fascicles. valve cuneate, rounded at both ends, septate. chromatophores granular, round or oval in our species. { }analysis of species (in accordance, so far as it relates to our species, with the classification of c. mereschkowsky, diagnoses of new licmophoræ, nuova notarisia, .) placatæ--valve narrow, striæ very fine, septa superficial flabellata dubiæ--valve bacilliform, septa shallow, frustule with thick walls ovulum paradoxæ--valve with lower end produced, striæ fine, paradoxa pseudoraphe distinct, septa deep gracilis tincta baileyi ? lyngbyeæ--valve narrow, attenuated at both ends, distinct, septa deep lyngbyei peristriatæ--valve broad, pseudoraphe wide, striæ robust ehrenbergii licmophora flabellata (carm.) ag. frustule elongate, narrow; valve narrow, lanceolate-cuneate, enlarged at the base; striæ very fine, in µ. _echinella flabellata_ carm. _licmophora splendida_ wm. sm. common along the coast. pl. , figs. and . licmophora ovulum mer. valve ovate, attenuated to the rounded inferior apex; pseudoraphe indistinct, striæ fine, in µ. zone view broad, cuneate, angles rounded, inferior apex broad; frustule robust, septa superficial, straight. (mereschkowsky, in part.) atlantic city. common. pl. , figs. and . licmophora paradoxa (lyng.) ag. frustule broad, with rounded angles; septa curved; valve ovate, inferior apex produced. pseudoraphe distinct; striæ varying from below to above in µ. _echinella paradoxa_ lyng. _rhipidophora paradoxa_ kuetz. along the coast. pl. , figs. and . licmophora gracilis (ehr.) grun. frustule cuneate, narrow, with sinuate margin; valve clavate, linear at the base; striæ, to in µ. new rochelle. along the coast. pl. , fig. . licmophora gracilis var. elongata (kuetz.) de toni as in the type, but more graceful and with deeper septa. _rhipidophora elongata_ kuetz. along the coast. not common. pl. , figs. and . { }licmophora tincta (ag.) grun. frustules cuneate, narrow, usually found in twos. valve clavate, hyaline, rather broad at the base; septa moderately deep; pseudoraphe indistinct; striæ, at the base, in the middle and at the apex in µ. _gomphonema tinctum_ ag. along the coast. abundant from about the middle of july to the middle of august. pl. , figs. and . licmophora baileyi (edw.) grun. frustule broadly cuneate or with convex margins, rarely almost orbicular; valve spatulate or ovate with slender, produced base; septa very deep; pseudoraphe distinct; striæ in µ. _podosphenia baileyi_ (edw.) lewis. long island sound and upper coast of new jersey. this form is placed in a doubtful position by mereschkowsky. as it corresponds more closely to the paradoxæ, it is placed here provisionally. the girdle face and apex of the valve are round, the pseudoraphe is distinct and the septa deep, but the stipe is short. pl. , fig. and pl. , figs. and . licmophora lyngbyei (kuetz.) grun. frustule cuneate, slightly rounded at the angles. valve oblanceolate; pseudoraphe distinct; septa deep; striæ, in µ below, and in µ above. _podosphenia lyngbyei_ kuetz. along the coast. pl. , figs. and . licmophora ehrenbergii (kuetz.) grun. frustule cuneate, broad. valve obovate-lanceolate; pseudoraphe wide; striæ coarse, in µ, moniliform. _podosphenia ehrenbergii_ kuetz. along the coast. pl. , fig. . meridion ag. ( ) (merizo, i divide) frustules in zone view cuneate, adnate in circular or spiral fasciæ, at length becoming free. valve symmetrical with respect to the longitudinal axis, more or less cuneate; costæ and striæ transverse. chromatophores numerous, small, elongated, in irregular rows on the zone (pfitzer). meridion circulare (grev.) ag. transverse costæ coarse, variable in number and distance apart, sometimes interrupted or indistinct; striæ interstitial, in µ. in springs and small streams of pure water. _echinella circularis_ grev. { }meridion constrictum ralfs, sometimes given as a variety of m. circulare, differs only in the constriction below the apex. the two kinds of frustules are usually found growing together and as the variation is often extremely slight they are here included under the earlier name. pl. , figs. , and . fig. represents the constricted form which is the more common. fig. is a sporangial form. the sporangial frustules vary in shape and size, some being long and slender, others clavate, but they are all more or less tumid in the middle, with costæ more indefinite than in perfect valves. all gradations occur, one end becoming shorter until the valve has the shape of the variety known as constrictum. it would seem, therefore, that the non-constricted form is a passage from the sporangial to the smaller or adult form, or is of no specific importance. all forms are found living together. the adult frustules are the smaller ones; it is from them that the sporangia are produced. meridion intermedium h. l. smith (amer. quart. mic. jour., vol. , p. ) is characterized by less evident costæ and is more delicate in general appearance. some forms are capitate and others are not. prof. smith compares the m. intermedium with peronia erinacea bréb. and arnott which he has named m. erinaceum, hitherto found only in europe, and points out the relation of the two forms to licmophora. an examination of the h. l. s. type slides of the two diatoms proves that peronia has very delicate costæ and a distinct pseudoraphe not noticeable in meridion. on the slide of peronia are frustules exactly similar to certain of the sporangial variations of m. circulare. the fan-like arrangement of licmophora, the marine form, and the circular chains of meridion, the fresh-water genus, are similar. both are stipitate at the beginning of their growth. (_c_) fragilarieÆ divided into three sections: _diatominæ._--valve circular, elliptical to linear, quadrate or cruciform, with transverse costæ; without raphe, a pseudoraphe sometimes wanting. _fragilariinæ._--valve elongate, with small central and terminal elevations, without costæ but with transverse punctate striæ; without genuine central nodule. _eunotiinæ._--valve lunate; a raphe sometimes partially formed with terminal nodules near the edges. diatominÆ _diatoma._--frustules in filaments. valve linear or elliptical, costate. _plagiogramma._--frustules in fasciæ or free. valve costate. _opephora._--valve costate, with an inner punctate stratum. diatoma de candolle ( ) em. heib. ( ) (diatemno, i cut in two) frustules oblong or quadrate, adnate in filaments, attached by alternate angles and finally separating. valve linear or elliptical, with transverse costæ and rows of puncta and a pseudoraphe. chromatophores large granules without definite arrangement. (see pl. , fig. .) { }diatoma vulgare bory. valve elliptical-lanceolate, with apices sometimes rostrate or capitate; pseudoraphe narrow; costæ, in µ. common everywhere in pure fresh water and extremely variable. pl. , figs. and . var. elongatum (ag.) = var. ehrenbergii (kuetz.)--elliptical-lanceolate, constricted near the apex. var. grande (wm. sm.) grun.--linear, elongated, constricted near the apices. pl. , fig. . both of these varieties, with numerous intermediate forms, are abundant near newtown square. varieties of grunow, known as breve, ovate-lanceolate; productum, ovate-lanceolate with produced apices; capitulatum, lanceolate with capitate extremities, are mingled together in the same gathering. diatoma anceps (ehr.) kirchn. valve linear with rostrate apices; costæ robust; striæ delicate, in µ. zone view quadrangular. common in fresh water. pl. , figs. and . fig. , pl. , shows frustules containing the nuclei and chromatophores. diatoma hiemale (lyng.) heib. valve ovate-lanceolate to lanceolate; apices obtuse, not produced. costæ not numerous, robust; striæ moniliform. zone view quadrate, the costæ as septa deeply dividing the valve into convex elevations. common in springs. pl. , figs. and . in all species of diatoma a punctum, or pore, is observed, usually at alternate ends of the two valves, by means of which a communication exists between adjoining frustules and causes them to adhere in zig-zag chains when partially separated. plagiogramma grev. ( ) (plagios, on the side, and gramma, a letter) frustules quadrangular, adnate in fasciæ, or free. valve linear, elliptical, or elliptical-lanceolate, divided by two or more median and two terminal costæ or with a central and two terminal hyaline spaces. valve with two median and two terminal costæ: linear, pseudoraphe distinct pygmæum linear, with striæ at the ends wallichianum ovate-lanceolate obesum valve without costæ but with central and terminal nodules: pseudoraphe absent tessellatum { }plagiogramma pygmÆum grev. valve linear-elliptical; pseudoraphe distinct; rows of granules transverse, usually six in each compartment, moniliform, three on each side. blue clay. not common. pl. , fig. . plagiogramma wallichianum grev. valve linear, rounded at the ends; pseudoraphe absent; transverse rows of granules, six or seven in each compartment, and two or three rows of smaller granules at each end. blue clay. not common. pl. , fig. . plagiogramma obesum grev. valve rhombic-lanceolate, the costæ scarcely visible; pseudoraphe rather wide; rows of granules, about seven in each compartment, slightly radiating. blue clay. not common. pl. , fig. . plagiogramma tessellatum grev. valve elliptical-lanceolate; central space transversely elliptical to the major axis, half the diameter of the valve; terminal spaces more or less circular or ovate. granular markings large, quadrangular, in transverse rows. pseudoraphe not distinct. as the central space does not reach the margin, it is a question whether this form is a plagiogramma or a new genus. blue clay. rare. pl. , fig. . opephora petit ( ) (ope, an opening, and phoreo) frustule rectangular. valve cuneiform, linear or elliptical-lanceolate, with broad, transverse striæ and a well-defined pseudoraphe or median area. the genus "portant des stries en forme de boutonnières," as petit remarks, is quite near fragilaria, under which the species here described were originally included. (see schmidt's atlas, pl. , where numerous forms of f. pinnata are figured.) opephora schwartzii (grun.) petit valve obovate-lanceolate or nearly linear with rounded apices; striæ transverse, broad, or in µ; median area lanceolate. an inner stratum, with puncta in transverse rows, is apparent. blue clay. not uncommon. variable in size. pl. , figs. and . opephora pacifica (grun.) petit valve linear, oblong, with rounded apices. median area linear, narrow; striæ punctate. blue clay. pl. , fig. . petit (diat. cap horn) in his diagnosis states that the valves are cuneiform, but they are not always so. { }opephora pinnata var. lanceolata n. var. valve lanceolate; costæ slightly radiate, punctate; median area broad, lanceolate. differs from o. pinnata in outline, radiation of the costæ and median area. blue clay. rare. pl. , fig. . fragilariinÆ _fragilaria._--frustules in fasciæ. valve with transverse striæ. pseudoraphe indistinct. _rhaphoneis._--striæ radiate; pseudoraphe distinct. _dimerogramma._--pseudoraphe broad. _trachysphenia._--valve cuneiform. _synedra._--valve elongate. _asterionella._--frustules in star-shaped clusters. fragilaria (lyng.) rab. (fragilis, because of the fasciæ easily breaking up) frustules rectangular, adnate in fasciæ, soon breaking up. valve lanceolate, oblong or elliptical in general outline, with convex or sinuate margins; without costæ; pseudoraphe narrow or indistinct; striæ transverse. chromatophores vary according to species. in some they consist of four bands on the valves; in others they are granular (mereschkowsky). brun divides the genus into two sections, fragilaria proper and staurosira. the former, with an indistinct pseudoraphe, includes the species virescens, arctica, undata and linearis, while the latter, with distinct pseudoraphe, includes capucina, harrisonii, construens and parasitica. fragilaria virescens ralfs frustules in long fasciæ. valve elliptical-lanceolate, obtuse at the apices; pseudoraphe indistinct; striæ, in µ, punctate. very common in springs and pure streams. the fasciæ are often a foot or more in length. pl. , figs. and . fragilaria arctica grun. valve oblong or elliptical, µ in length; striæ subtle, with coarse, short striæ at intervals on the margin and evident in zone view. marine. common at cape may, n. j. pl. , figs. and . fragilaria undata wm. sm. valve in general outline linear-elliptical, with extremities produced; striæ subtle; pseudoraphe distinct. fresh water. pl. , figs. , , , and . { }fragilaria linearis cstr. valve linear, with rounded apices; striæ subtle; pseudoraphe indistinct. marine. cape may. pl. , fig. . fig. is an indeterminate form occasionally found in the blue clay. fragilaria capucina var. mesolepta rab. valve linear, constricted at the hyaline middle; apices slightly produced; striæ, in µ. quite variable in size. schuylkill river. morrisville (keeley). pl. , fig. . fragilaria harrisonii (wm. sm.) grun. frustules rectangular, solitary or in twos. valve cruciform; pseudoraphe narrow, lanceolate; striæ robust, radiating in the middle, composed of confluent puncta, larger at the circumference. blue clay. pl. , fig. . fragilaria construens (ehr.) grun. valve in general outline lanceolate, with produced apices; pseudoraphe lanceolate, distinct or broad; striæ subtle, in µ. l. of valve, - µ. _staurosira construens_ ehr. _odontidium tabellaria_ wm. sm. blue clay. pl. , fig. . fragilaria parasitica (wm. sm.) frustules solitary or in twos. valve lanceolate, sometimes constricted in the middle; pseudoraphe wide, lanceolate; striæ subtle. parasitic on other diatoms. _odontidium parasiticum_ wm. sm. not common. media (palmer). in the constricted form it is known as f. construens var. binodis (ehr.) grun. pl. , fig. . an examination of the synonymy of the species of fragilaria will convince the student of the difficulty of determining the correct name even in well-known forms. if all of the species of fragilaria proper have granular chromatophores, and all of staurosira are placcochromatic, a satisfactory division can be made, but so long as these facts are not known in all species, and as authors have repeatedly confused the two divisions, the nomenclature will be uncertain. f. harrisonii is probably in any case to be separated from the others. de toni includes it under its original name of odontidium, which genus he places near to diatoma. the number of species in our locality is too limited to render further discussion of any value. { }rhaphoneis ehr. ( ) (rhaphis, a needle) frustule in zone view linear. valve lanceolate or elliptical-lanceolate; pseudoraphe distinct; striæ radiating, moniliform. rhaphoneis amphiceros ehr. valve lanceolate, broad, with apices produced; striæ in curved lines, moniliform, the large granules in longitudinal lines. blue clay. pl. , fig. . rhaphoneis amphiceros var. rhombica grun. valve as in type form but shorter, with larger and more remote granules. blue clay. pl. , figs. and . rhaphoneis belgica var. intermedia grun. valve lanceolate, rostrate; granules in longitudinal and nearly transverse, not radiating, lines. absecon, n. j. pl. , fig. . dimerogramma ralfs ( ) (dis, two, meros, a part, gramma, a letter) frustules quadrangular, inflated at the angles, in fasciæ. valve ovate or lanceolate; striæ moniliform, transverse or slightly radiate; median area or pseudoraphe broad, lanceolate. dimerogramma marinum (greg.) ralfs valve lanceolate or linear and inflated in the middle; striæ moniliform, transverse or slightly radiate; median area linear or lanceolate, sometimes not reaching the smooth extremities; striæ, in µ. pl. , figs. and . fig. differs in its lanceolate outline, in having four puncta on each side in a row, and in the striæ which are radiate. dimerogramma surirella (ehr.) grun. valve elliptical-lanceolate, with rounded apices; striæ moniliform, radiate; pseudoraphe narrow, lanceolate. blue clay. pl. , fig. . { }dimerogramma minus (greg.) ralfs valve rhombic-lanceolate; striæ punctate, radiate; pseudoraphe lanceolate; apices smooth. blue clay. along the coast. pl. , figs. , , . trachysphenia petit ( ) (trachys, rough, and sphen, a wedge) frustules rectangular. valve cuneiform with coarse puncta in transverse and longitudinal lines; pseudoraphe narrow, linear. one species only. trachysphenia australis petit characters of the genus. valve small; puncta, in µ. allied to dimerogramma. shark river, n. j. rare. pl. , fig. . synedra ehr. ( ) (synedrion, a sitting together) frustules adnate in small stipitate clusters or free. valve elongate, linear or linear-lanceolate; pseudoraphe distinct; costæ absent. the genus synedra has few distinctive characters. as brun remarks (diat. des alpes et du jura, p. ), the dilatation of the extremities and the pseudo-nodule are of little value in classification, as the intermediate forms are so numerous. fragilaria occurs in very long ribbons or fasciæ, synedra in short fasciæ or radiating clusters. fragilaria is seldom longer than three or four times the width, while synedra is nearly always so. the former has fine, often subtle, markings and narrow pseudoraphe, while the latter has coarser punctate striæ and a more distinct pseudoraphe. chromatophores usually consist of two bands, one on each of the valves. karsten states that in the marine forms the chromatophores are oval or polygonal discs, each of which usually encloses a pyrenoid. synedra ulna (nitzsch) ehr. frustules solitary or in twos. valve - µ in length, linear or linear-lanceolate, with rostrate apices; striæ, in µ. common in rivers and streams. pl. , figs. , and (?). frequently interrupted in the middle. the distinction made by wm. smith as to the presence or absence of the central blank space is probably not necessary, as both forms are found which are otherwise identical. fig. represents the formation of a sporangial frustule which differs from the usual form in its inflated ends prolonged into rostrate apices. figs. and are sporangial frustules. { }synedra biceps (kuetz.) schmidt valve sublanceolate, inflated at the ends, apices rounded; central space not always distinct; pseudoraphe narrow; striæ radiate at the ends. this is not kuetzing's species, if the descriptions and figures are accepted, nor is it h. l. smith's type no. , which is s. ulna var. danica, nor is it s. biceps wm. smith, but it is exactly schmidt's form (atlas, pl. , figs. - ). schuylkill river. pl. , fig. . synedra danica kuetz. valve lanceolate, suddenly constricted at the rounded apices; central space frequently absent. very common in streams. pl. , fig. . the figure represents an unusually large form. it differs from s. ulna only in its apices. synedra capitata ehr. valve long, linear, dilated into triangular acute apices; pseudoraphe distinct; striæ radiate at the ends. blue clay. pl. , fig. . synedra acus kuetz. valve very narrow, lanceolate, acicular, with obtuse apices. common in the schuylkill river. pl. , figs. and . synedra goulardi brÉb. valve constricted in the middle; apices sub-acute, sometimes slightly rostrate or capitate; central space evident. neshaminy creek (palmer). blue clay. crum creek. pl. , figs. and . synedra pulchella (ralfs) kuetz. valve lanceolate, tapering to the sub-acute, rostrate or slightly capitate apices; dilated at the central hyaline space; pseudoraphe distinct. very variable in size. crum creek. schuylkill river. rather common. pl. , figs. , , . synedra pulchella var. abnormis macchiati? valve as in type form, except that one end is curved like a beak, as in s. hamata wm. sm., which it resembles. not uncommon in the schuylkill river. pl. , fig. . synedra oxyrhynchus var. undulata grun. valve linear-lanceolate with produced rostrate apices, asymmetrical, sigmoid; pseudoraphe narrow; pseudo-nodule large. common in fresh water. pl. , fig. . { }synedra pulchella var. flexella n. var. frustule slightly attenuated at the ends, truncate, somewhat tumid in the middle and flexed. valve lanceolate, with obtuse or subcapitate apices and with two almost imperceptible constrictions at the middle producing a tumid appearance; pseudoraphe distinct; pseudo-nodule absent. l. µ; striæ, - in µ. some valves are bent and incised on one side. the outline of the valve is that of pulchella. common at newtown square. pl. , fig. . synedra radians kuetz. frustules linear, in small fasciæ. valve µ in length, linear, with apices rostrate, obtuse, sometimes slightly capitate; pseudoraphe distinct; striæ about in µ. fresh water. pl. , figs. and . there is difficulty in recognizing s. radians k. as described and figured by different authors. on plate , fig. , i have drawn a specimen from h. l. smith's type slide no. , labelled s. radians kuetz., not wm. smith, which, however, corresponds closely to smith's figure (brit. diat. , pl. , fig. ). de toni gives s. radians kuetz. as equivalent to s. tenera wm. sm. van heurck's figure of s. radians, and also the figure of ulna var., said to be synonymous with h. l. smith's s. radians, which does not correspond to the specimens on smith's slide in my possession, are confusing. in van heurck's synopsis the striæ are said to be or , while de toni describes them as subtle and from to in µ. the length is quite variable. several species of synedra resemble s. radians in the mode of growth, as they are adnate at first, in short bands, the frustules being sessile on other plants or objects, attached at the terminal nodules which, although scarcely visible in most forms, are probably present in all. the frustules are not closely connected at the free end, and soon become entirely detached. in diatoma and fragilaria, we find a punctum or pore at one end of a valve, but not in line with the pseudoraphe; in synedra, a minute pore is usually found in the position of the terminal nodule and, in some species, indications of a central nodule are observed; the median line is wider but there is no raphe. in the fresh-water synedræ, many of which are among the longest of diatoms, living in running streams, the terminal nodules are much more indistinct, while the marine forms have distinct terminal nodules, are not, as a rule, found in bands, and assume a more naviculoid outline. synedra vaucheriÆ var. parvula (kuetz.) rab. valve lanceolate, with produced or rostrate apices; pseudo-nodule wide, excentric. l. µ. crum creek. pl. , fig. . fig. represents a variety with coarser striæ from the schuylkill river. both are easily mistaken for fragilaria intermedia. { }synedra fulgens (grev.) wm. sm. frustules geminate or flabellate on a stipe. valve slightly inflated in the middle and at the apices; pseudoraphe narrow; striæ finely punctate, radiate at the ends. marine. atlantic city. pl. , fig. . synedra affinis kuetz. valve lanceolate; striæ marginal, leaving a broad lanceolate pseudoraphe. common along the coast. pl. , fig. . synedra affinis var. parva (kuetz.) v. h. valve lanceolate, slender; striæ marginal, shorter than in the type. _synedra gracilis_ kuetz. common along the coast. pl. , fig. . synedra affinis var. tabulata (ag.) v. h. valve linear-lanceolate; striæ, in µ, very short. not common. new rochelle. pl. , fig. . asterionella hassall ( ) (dim. of aster, a star) frustules linear, slightly inflated at the ends, arranged in star-shaped clusters which soon break up. valve linear, unequally inflated at the ends. asterionella formosa hass. valve clavate at the ends; striæ transverse, in µ, pseudoraphe very narrow or indistinct; an ovoid, hyaline area at each end. newark, n. j. broomall's lake, media (palmer). pl. , figs. , , . asterionella inflata heib. valve linear, capitate at each end and tumid in the middle; striæ distinctly punctate; pseudoraphe indistinct, or not apparent. l. µ. fresh water. may's landing, n. j. pl. , fig. . eunotiinÆ _eunotia._--frustules either free, in fasciæ or epiphytic. valves arcuate. _actinella._--frustules, solitary or in small clusters, cuneate. valve inflated at one end. { }eunotia ehr. ( ) em. grun. ( ) (eu, well, and noton, a back, referring to the strong, ridged dorsum) frustules free, in fasciæ or epiphytic. valve arcuate, without costæ, transversely striated; pseudoraphe absent; pseudo-nodules at each end. chromatophores laminate along the concave zone and the valves. very many species of eunotia have been created to differentiate size and number of crenæ or undulations. an examination of certain fossil deposits of new england, as well as a gathering from the blue clay of philadelphia, will show forms which vary infinitely. e. major and e. gracilis are scarcely distinguishable because of the intermediate variations. the striæ in all forms are punctate, but the puncta are frequently confluent. analysis of species eunotia is divided into two sections, himantidium and eunotia proper. in himantidium, the frustules are in fasciæ, either short or long. among those with short fasciæ are major, gracilis, and nymanniana; those with long fasciæ are pectinalis, solierolii and veneris. eunotia proper includes frustules, free or epiphytic, in which the valves are not dentate on the dorsal margin, such as lunaris, hemicyclus, biceps and prærupta; and those in which the valves are dentate or crenate on the dorsum, such as monodon, triodon, diadema and others. the resemblance between eunotia and epithemia is noticeable. in both, the epiphytic character of the valve is seen in the shape of the frustule which is arched, and, in the free forms, is adherent at the ends only. in epithemia, the median is more evident than the terminal nodules. in eunotia, there is no median nodule, but the end nodules, in some species, are quite evident, and a tendency is shown to produce a very short raphe. the arrangement of puncta in valve view is similar in both genera. section . himantidium eunotia major (wm. sm.) rab. valve arcuate, linear, subcapitate, recurved. striæ punctate, in µ l. - µ. common in fresh water. pl. , figs. and . eunotia gracilis (ehr.) rab. valve with sides parallel; apices slightly capitate and revolute; striæ, in µ. the striæ on the connective membrane more delicate than in e. major. intermediate forms occur. common in fresh water. pl. , fig. . fig. is indeterminate. eunotia nymanniana grun. valve small, curved, with parallel dorsal and ventral margins; apices truncate and recurved into dorsal elevations; striæ delicate. blue clay. not common. pl. , fig. . { }eunotia pectinalis (kuetz.) valve linear, arcuate, apices slightly rostrate; striæ distinctly punctate with puncta in longitudinal rows nearer together at the ends. _himantidium pectinale_ kuetz. common in fresh water. pl. , figs. and . the fasciæ are associated in large masses, sometimes an inch or more in diameter, and late in august are found a foot or more in length, of a beautiful chocolate color. exceedingly abundant in the cedar-swamp streams of the pine barren regions of new jersey. in winter, the dead frustules form a parchment-like coating upon the twigs, dead leaves, and other débris on the borders of streams. this species can scarcely be referred to dillwyn's conferva pectinalis, as, in his description, quoting mueller, he says that "the filaments are of a dirty green color; seldom exceeding half an inch in length." dillwyn's form is probably fragilaria virescens, which equals fragilaria pectinalis ehr., while kuetzing's species is fragilaria pectinalis ralfs. it is not impossible to confuse fragilaria virescens and eunotia pectinalis when the zone only is seen under a low power and their mode of growth is similar. eunotia pectinalis var. undulata ralfs valve as in type form, but with undulate margins. common in the cedar swamps of new jersey. pl. , figs. and . eunotia pectinalis var. solierolii (kuetz.) valve as in type, but with internal divisions as though in the process of reduplication. not common. moorestown, n. j. (palmer). pl. , fig. . eunotia pectinalis var. ventricosa grun. as in type, but with the valves tumid in the middle. may's landing, n. j. pl. , fig. . fig. is a form found in the blue clay. it differs in the coarser puncta from the var. ventricosa. in outline it resembles eunotia arcus wm. sm., which is ceratoneis arcus (ehr.) kuetz., but the central nodule is not present as in the latter form, which connects eunotia and cymbella. it may be a form of e. luna ehr. (a. s., atlas, pl. , figs. and .) eunotia veneris kuetz. valve with convex dorsal and straight ventral margins, more or less constricted near the sub-acute apices. striæ subtle, punctate. _eunotia incisa_ greg. may's landing, n. j. blue clay, pavonia, n. j. pl. , figs. and . { }eunotia (proper) eunotia lunaris (ehr.) grun. frustules sessile, solitary or in clusters. valve arcuate, narrow, attenuated toward the apices, which are sometimes slightly rostrate or rostrate-capitate; transverse striæ, in µ, punctate. very common in ditches, especially in the spring. variable in length. pl. , figs. and . eunotia hemicyclus (ehr.) ralfs valve semicircular, with obtuse apices; striæ transverse, punctate; terminal nodules minute and indistinct. hammonton pond, n. j. rare. pl. , fig. . the genus pseudo-eunotia was created by grunow for forms like eunotia, but without terminal nodules. as, however, in e. lunaris and e. hemicyclus nodules are evident, although not so large as in many species, i include these two forms as heretofore under eunotia. eunotia biceps ehr. valve linear, slightly arcuate, narrow, with rounded apices somewhat revolute; striæ, in µ. may's landing, n. j. pl. , fig. . eunotia prÆrupta ehr. valve convex on dorsal side, apices dilated and truncate; striæ distant at centre. common in the blue clay. pl. , fig. . eunotia prÆrupta var. bidens grun. valve with two undulations; otherwise as in type. _eunotia bigibba_ greg. with the type. pl. , fig. . eunotia robusta ralfs valve arcuate, with several or numerous dorsal ridges or crenæ which decrease in relative size in proportion to their number. striæ radiate, variable in distance apart, and in size of puncta. ralfs included under this one name the following species named by ehrenberg: e. diodon ( crenæ); e. triodon ( ); e. tetraodon ( ); e. pentodon ( ); e. diadema ( ); e. heptodon ( ); e. octodon ( ); e. enneadon ( ); e. decadon ( ); e. hendecadon ( ); e. duodecadon ( ); e. serra ( ); e. prioritis ( ); all more than , e. polyodon. e. scalaris, with from to crenæ, and e. icosodon with , may be added. it is probable that all of these forms occur at may's landing, n. j. the forms with more than eight crenæ are comparatively rare. in the blue clay those with from four to six are most common. pl. , figs. , , , , , , , . { }eunotia bactriana ehr. valve linear, apices revolute, acute, dentate on the dorsal margin, with one acute crena near each end. tom's river, n. j. rare. pl. , fig. . eunotia bidentula wm. sm. valve with straight ventral margin, and with two undulations on the dorsum; apices large, rounded. may's landing, n. j. rare. pl. , fig. (not schumann's form, which has angular crenæ). eunotia formica ehr. var.? valve turgid in the middle and at the apices which are unilaterally truncate. pensauken, n. j. (artesian well). pl. , fig. (not a typical form). the following are forms which appear to be indeterminate, or, in any case, are scarcely worthy of distinction by specific names, as might be said of others of the innumerable variations of this genus: fig. , pl. , probably a form of prærupta. newtown square. fig. , pl. , from the blue clay. fig. , pl. , an asymmetrical form, apparently abnormal, but not rare at may's landing, n. j. fig. , pl. . valve convex on the dorsal side, incised on the ventral; striæ about in µ, closer at the ends; l. µ. schuylkill river. fig. , pl. . valve arcuate, asymmetrical, broader at one end; terminal nodules large; striæ, in µ; l. µ. gloucester, n. j., artesian well. numerous variations of the above species are illustrated in schmidt (atlas, pls. - ). actinella lewis ( ) (dim. of actin, a ray) frustules solitary, or in small clusters, sub-cuneate or nearly linear. valve arcuate, rounded at one end and suddenly widened at the other into a cup-shaped or lychnoid inflation. actinella punctata lewis valve with fine, transverse striæ; on the margin, puncta at intervals; terminal nodules distinct. may's landing, n. j. pl. , figs. , , . fig. , from tom's river, n. j., is an approach toward a. brasiliensis grun. fig. represents the frustules geminate, a frequent occurrence. { }naviculoideÆ in discussing the naviculoid group, the general divisions of cleve are here followed, and all diatoms having a true raphe are included. i have added the genus epithemia and also rhopalodia, partly because they contain a raphe of a certain kind and partly because they resemble the markings of certain of the genus hantzschia in the following group, although in other respects there is probably no similarity. the difficulty of combining the numerous genera into groups which are naturally affiliated is avoided in the following arrangement based on superficial similarities, and is intended merely as an artificial key. to unite all forms having a raphe and which are symmetrical with valves similar and not sigmoid, under the one genus navicula, as has been the custom previous to the publication of cleve's monograph, would result in associating species differing in so many respects in relation to structure of the valve and cell contents that it seems advisable to retain the new genera, especially as the original genus is likely to be still further reduced when more is known of the structure and life history of the group. key to the genera valves dissimilar. achnantheæ symmetrical cocconeis asymmetrical to the longitudinal axis anorthoneis to the transverse axis rhoicosphenia in zone view achnanthes valves similar and asymmetrical asymmetrical to the longitudinal axis valves parallel cymbella valves not parallel amphora valves keeled, twisted (sometimes symmetrical) amphiprora valves keeled tropidoneis valves reniform and keeled auricula median line sigmoid at the ends scoliotropis asymmetrical to the transverse axis striæ punctate and costate gomphoneis striæ punctate gomphonema valves similar, symmetrical and sigmoid striæ oblique pleurosigma striæ at right angles gyrosigma valves similar, symmetrical, not sigmoid striæ punctate, nodules elongated frustulia striæ subtly punctate, central nodule forked amphipleura striæ punctate and reticulate, in two strata dictyoneis striæ punctate and alveolate, in three strata trachyneis striæ punctate, in two strata brèbissonia striæ interrupted by blank lines anomoeoneis striæ crossed by longitudinal lines caloneis striæ oblique, median fissures in opposite directions neidium striæ punctate and costate, median line with horns diploneis striæ punctate; valves separated by septate plates mastogloia striæ punctate, central area dilated into a stauros stauroneis striæ punctate, area without stauros or horns navicula striæ costate, not punctate pinnularia { }achnantheÆ frustules stipitate, free or parasitic. valves cuneate, elliptical or suborbicular, dissimilar, bent along the transverse or the longitudinal axes, the lower valve with a true raphe and central and terminal nodules, the upper valve with a pseudoraphe or median line. _rhoicosphenia._--stipitate; valves with transverse puncta, bent along the transverse axis, cuneate, with diaphragms at the ends. _anorthoneis._--free; puncta radiate; valves bent slightly along the transverse axis, suborbicular. _cocconeis._--parasitic; valves elliptical, usually bent along the longitudinal axis; striæ punctate, transverse and longitudinal. _achnanthes._--stipitate; valves lanceolate or elliptical, bent along the transverse axis; striæ transverse, punctate; costæ sometimes present. rhoicosphenia grun. ( ) (rhoicos, curved, and sphen, a wedge) frustule in zone view curved; valves cuneate, dissimilar, the upper with a pseudoraphe, the lower with a raphe. chromatophore a single plate along both valves, and one of the inner walls of the zone. conjugation as in gomphonema, with which it is generally associated in classification. rhoicosphenia curvata (kuetz.) grun. valve clavate, with rounded apex and base; lower valve with raphe, a narrow axial area and slightly radiate, punctate striæ; the upper valve with a narrow pseudoraphe and parallel striæ; a short diaphragm at the ends of each valve. length usually from to µ, but frequently of twice the size. common in crum creek. pl. , figs. , , . anorthoneis grun. ( ) (anorthos, not straight) valves dissimilar, the upper valve with an excentric axial area, the lower with an excentric raphe. anorthoneis excentrica (donk.) grun. valves orbicular, with radiating, punctate striæ, closer at the circumference, producing the appearance of a border. axial area not reaching the ends. frustules occur free on the sands of the sea-shore. l. to µ. belmar, n. j. pl. , figs. and . { }cocconeis ehr. ( ) em. grun. ( ) (coccos, a berry) valves elliptical, dissimilar, the upper valve with a pseudoraphe and the lower with a genuine raphe and nodules, usually with a rim or annulus. frustules epiphytic. cocconeis is generally considered as a degenerated form of mastogloia, as indicated by the "obsoletely loculiferous rim." the frustules are usually bent along the longitudinal axis, probably because of the attachment to the curved stems of water-plants. the cell contents of only a few species are known. in c. pediculus, a single chromatophore occurs on the inside of the upper valve. in conjugation, two cells open and secrete a gelatinous mass from which an auxospore is formed. cleve separates the forms having a loculiferous rim (cocconeis) from those without a rim (eucocconeis). as the rim is easily detachable, the distinction is often made with difficulty. cocconeis scutellum ehr. valves elliptical, the upper with a linear or lanceolate pseudoraphe and coarse puncta in transverse and radiating lines; the lower valve with much finer puncta in radiating lines, a lanceolate axial area and, sometimes, a loculiferous rim. along the coast. common, but extremely variable. pl. , fig. (upper valve). fig. , var. ? cocconeis scutellum var. ornata grun. upper valve with linear axial area, and transverse and radiating punctate lines which end at the border in a double row of finer puncta; lower valve with much finer puncta, a lanceolate axial area and a loculiferous rim. atlantic city. common. pl. , figs. and . the forms along the coast vary infinitely both in size and appearance. the var. ornata is very abundant along the entire coast. in any gathering, valves are found with or without the rim which is frequently seen detached. the upper valve is sometimes without the double row of puncta. fig. represents an upper valve more coarsely punctate than usually occurs. very many intermediate forms might be noticed. cocconeis pediculus ehr. valves rhombic-elliptical, very convex, somewhat asymmetrical; the upper valve with a linear pseudoraphe, sometimes widened near the ends, and slightly radiating, finely punctate striæ; lower valve with narrow, axial area and finely punctate, radiating striæ. not uncommon in fresh water. abundant in a ditch at paoli, pa. pl. , figs. and . cocconeis placentula ehr. valve elliptical; upper valve with a linear or lanceolate axial area, and punctate striæ in transverse and radiating rows, the puncta at equal distances; the lower valve with a lanceolate axial area, radiating rows of puncta, and a wide border of finely punctate, radiating striæ, separated from the central part of the valve by a narrow hyaline zone. common in salt, brackish and fresh water. pl. , figs. and . { }cocconeis placentula var. lineata (ehr.) v. h. as in the type, except that the upper valve has the puncta arranged in zig-zag, giving the appearance of sinuous, longitudinal lines. common along the coast. pl. , fig. . c. pediculus and c. placentula are the only species i have found in fresh water. cleve states that the former occurs also in brackish water. the following are among the species placed by cleve in a new genus, eucocconeis, distinguished by the absence of a loculiferous rim. cocconeis dirupta greg. valves elliptical, the lower with fine puncta in slightly radiating lines, a narrow axial area and a central area dilated into a lanceolate, stauriform space; the terminal fissures turned in opposite directions; the upper valve similar to the lower valve except in the absence of raphe and nodules. along the coast. new rochelle. pl. , fig. (lower valve). cocconeis pellucida grun. valves elliptical, the upper with broad axial area on each side of which are fine, longitudinal rows of short striæ; the lower valve with more numerous longitudinal rows, a marginal line and indistinct raphe; the terminal fissures small and turned in opposite directions. new rochelle. pl. , figs. and . in the var. minor grun. the median line of the lower valve is sometimes slightly sigmoid. achnanthes bory ( ) (achne, froth or down, and anthos, a flower) frustules stipitate, solitary or in short fasciæ, flexed. valves elliptical or lanceolate, naviculoid, dissimilar, the lower with a raphe and median and terminal nodules, and the upper with a pseudoraphe or median space. the genus has no apparent affinity with any other. achnanthes longipes ag. valves linear-elliptical, obtuse at the apex, sometimes slightly constricted in the middle. connective zone with transverse, subtly punctate striæ, interrupted by longitudinal lines. central nodule of lower valve dilated into a stauros reaching the margin. valves costate, the costæ alternating with double rows of fine puncta. along the coast, in estuaries. pl. , figs. and . a. longipes is the only species in our locality considered by cleve as belonging to the genus; the other forms, distinguished by the absence of costæ, are included in the genus achnanthidium of kuetzing. in a. longipes, the chromatophores consist of scattered, rounded granules, while in achnanthidium the chromatophore is a single plate along the upper valve, or a double one { }along the connective zone. it is necessary, therefore, to distinguish between a. longipes and the following group, but, because of the long continued union of all of the stipitate forms having the general appearance of a true achnanthes, i shall continue to describe the local species under the generally accepted name. achnanthes brevipes ag. valves without costæ; striæ moniliform; upper valve with excentric pseudoraphe or median line; otherwise as in a. longipes. along the coast, in estuaries. pl. , fig. . achnanthes subsessilis kuetz. valves linear-elliptical, rounded at the ends; upper valve with excentric pseudoraphe; striæ moniliform, puncta smaller than in a. brevipes. along the coast, in estuaries. pl. , figs. , , . the three species described above are named from the length of the stipe, but this varies considerably and is not of special significance. achnanthes inflata (kuetz.) grun. valves more or less inflated in the middle, usually with the stauros of the lower valve asymmetrical and wider than in a. subsessilis, with which it agrees in size and markings. gloucester, n. j. (artesian well). pl. , figs. and . achnanthes coarctata (brÉb.) grun. valves lanceolate, oblong, broad at the ends and constricted in the middle. stauros wide; pseudoraphe of the upper valve excentric; striæ slightly radiate on the lower valve; puncta small. blue clay. pl. , fig. . achnanthes lanceolata (brÉb.) grun. valves more or less elliptical; striæ radiating, in µ, punctate; on the lower valve a horse-shoe shaped hyaline space on one side of the centre; on the upper valve an irregular stauros, not reaching the margin. l. - µ. in springs. abundant at newtown square. pl. , figs. , , . achnanthes exigua grun. valves oblong-lanceolate, with rostrate ends, sometimes slightly constricted in the middle. stauros rather wide; striæ punctate, radiating, in µ. l. - µ. _stauroneis exilis_ kuetz. (not achnanthes exilis kuetz.) frequently found in aquaria where i have kept it growing continuously for years. pl. , figs. and . achnanthes linearis forma curta h. l. smith frustules solitary or geminate. valves linear-elliptical, or elliptical-lanceolate. lower valve without distinct axial area; upper valve with axial area widened in the middle; striæ slightly radiate (?). l. µ. one of the smallest of diatoms. { }this form i found in a pure gathering covering the sides of a greenhouse tank at elm, n. j. it was sent to prof. h. l. smith, who determined it as forma curta of a. linearis. pl. , figs. and . achnanthes danica (floegel) grun. valves rhombic-lanceolate, with subacute ends. striæ, in µ, radiate. lower valve with stauros widened toward the margin, and cleft into three divisions. pavonia, n. j. (artesian well). pl. , fig. . i have seen the lower valve only. cleve states that the upper valve is costate with "alternating fine lineolæ twice as close as the costæ." cymbella ag. ( ) (cymbe, a boat) frustules free, stipitate or enclosed in tubes. valve boat-shaped; median line asymmetrical, straight or curved. chromatophore single, covering the entire interior of the frustule, except the ventral part of the zone and the median lines. its longitudinal axis is on the dorsal part of the zone. a pyrenoid lies in a fold of the chromatophore on the dorsal part. the genus includes the former genera of cocconema, characterized by stipitate forms, and encyonema in which the frustules are frequently enclosed in gelatinous tubes. section .--cymbella proper. frustules free or sometimes stipitate cymbella heteropleura (ehr.) kuetz. valve nearly symmetrical, lanceolate, with rostrate, produced apices; median line nearly straight; axial area linear, widened in the middle; striæ radiate, punctate. blue clay. pl. , fig. . cymbella cuspidata kuetz. valve broad, elliptical, with rostrate, somewhat acute, apices and nearly straight, ventral margin; median line straight, axial area linear, widened in the middle; striæ radiate, punctate. blue clay. pl. , fig. . cymbella naviculiformis auerswald valve linear-elliptical, with abruptly produced apices; ventral margin straight; median line almost straight; axial area narrow, central area large, rounded; striæ distant in the middle, closer at the ends. fresh water. pl. , fig. . cymbella ehrenbergii kuetz. valve lanceolate, with ventral margin nearly straight and apices sub-rostrate; median line straight, excentric; axial area narrow; central area widened in the middle; striæ coarsely punctate. fresh water. pl. , fig. . { }cymbella affinis kuetz. valve about three times as long as broad, strongly convex on the dorsal side and straight on the ventral; apices sub-rostrate; striæ punctate; axial area narrow, not widened in the middle; median line curved; a small or indistinct punctum on the ventral side of the median line (not shown in the figure). common in ponds. abundant in east park reservoir. pl. , fig. . cymbella excisa (kuetz.) de toni valve as in affinis, but with tumid and excised ventral margin; a punctum is found on the ventral side (not shown in the figure). according to cleve this is a variety of c. affinis. common in ponds. pl. , figs. , ? cymbella parva (wm. sm.) cl. valve semi-lanceolate, with produced apices; ventral margin slightly tumid; axial area narrow; striæ coarsely but obscurely punctate. c. affinis and c. parva are quite variable, the latter differing by its lanceolate form and the absence of a punctum, which, however, is sometimes difficult to recognize. in a gathering of c. parva, it is quite possible to find numerous abnormal forms which appear to be sporangial, so that specific distinctions are difficult if based on occasional specimens. common in ponds. pl. , fig. . cymbella amphicephala nÆgeli valve unequally elliptical, with broad, rostrate apices; axial area narrow; median line straight; central area small, rounded; striæ, in µ on the dorsal, closer on the ventral, side and at the ends. kirkwood pond, n. j. pl. , fig. . cymbella sinuata greg. valve linear-elliptical, gibbous on the ventral side; axial area indistinct; central area widened on the ventral side nearly to the margin. crum creek. pl. , fig. . section .--cocconema. frustules stipitate cymbella aspera (ehr.) cl. valve large, cymbiform, arcuate on the dorsal, slightly gibbous on the ventral side; axial area linear, broad, slightly widened in the middle; no row of puncta on the ventral side. the puncta form curved longitudinal lines and the innermost row on the ventral side appears sometimes distant from the others, but not as in c. cistula. _cocconema asperum_ ehr. _cymbella gastroides_ kuetz. { }not cymbella gastroides h. l. smith, type no. , which is c. mexicana a. s., having a punctum in the middle of the central nodule; in outline it is like c. gastroides var. minor kuetz. blue clay. pl. , fig. (an unusual form, but it resembles grunow's. (diat. franz jos. land, pl. , fig. .) cymbella cymbiformis (kuetz.) brÉb. valve cymbiform, slightly gibbous on the ventral margin; apices broad, somewhat truncate; a punctum occurs on the ventral side of the median line; striæ, in µ, closely punctate. kirkwood pond, n. j. pl. , fig. . cymbella cistula (hempr.) kirchn. valve cymbiform, with gibbous ventral margin and truncate apices; a distinct row of several puncta occurs below the median line in typical forms. blue clay. pl. , fig. . cymbella lanceolata (ehr.) kirchn. valve cymbiform, with gibbous ventral margin; apices truncate; axial area very narrow, scarcely widened in the middle; striæ with fine close puncta. kirkwood pond, n. j. pl. , fig. . cymbella mexicana (ehr.) a. s. valve broad, with gibbous ventral margin and sub-rostrate, truncate apices; median line with reflexed terminal fissures; striæ with coarse puncta; a large punctum occurs in the centre of the central area. blue clay. pl. , fig. . cymbella tumida (brÉb.) v. h. valve cymbiform, with gibbous ventral margin and abruptly rostrate ends; median line arcuate; axial area narrow; central area large, orbicular; below the central nodule is a punctum; striæ punctate. crum creek. pl. , fig. . section .--encyonema. frustules in tubes cymbella ventricosa kuetz. valve lunate, with straight or slightly gibbous ventral margin; axial area indistinct; median line straight or nearly so; striæ punctate. very common, but extremely variable. the ventral margin is sometimes straight and sometimes quite gibbous. pl. , figs. , ; pl. , fig. ; pl. , fig. . { }c. ventricosa is considered by some authors to be equivalent to c. affinis var. semicircularis lagerst., encyonema prostratum (berk.) ralfs, e. cæspitosum kuetz. and e. auerswaldii rab. h. l. smith's type slide of c. ventricosa ag. is said to equal c. affinis kuetz., but the specimens appear to me to be equivalent to c. ventricosa kuetz. cleve unites many forms, including e. cæspitosum, under c. ventricosa. cymbella prostrata (berk.) cl. valve semi-elliptical, obtuse at the apices, which are sometimes prolonged and turned downwards; median line straight, terminal nodules distant from the ends; axial area narrow, central area rounded; striæ in radiating, slightly curved lines, indistinctly punctate. common in fresh water; occasional in brackish. pl. , fig. (represents a frequent variation). cymbella philadelphica n. sp. valve semi-elliptical-lanceolate, with rounded apices; ventral margin strongly gibbous; terminal nodules distant from the ends; axial area broad, central area widened on the dorsal side; striæ radiate, not curved nor of unequal length, indistinctly punctate, in µ on the dorsal, in µ on the ventral side. l. µ. this form approaches encyonema prostratum (berk.) ralfs, schmidt's atlas, pl. , fig. , but differs in the striæ and the axial and central areas. blue clay of philadelphia. rare. pl. , fig. . cymbella triangulum (ehr.) cl. valve semi-elliptical, with acute ends; median line straight; ventral side half the width of the dorsal, with straight, slightly convex or concave margin; striæ radiate, coarsely punctate. _gloeonema triangulum_ ehr. baker's run, willistown, pa. pl. , fig. . cymbella turgida (greg.) cl. valve semi-elliptical, with acute ends; ventral margin gibbous; ventral side half the width of the dorsal; median line straight; terminal fissures turned downwards; axial area broad; striæ radiate, coarsely punctate. baker's run, willistown, pa. pl. , fig. . cymbella turgida (greg.) cl. var. ? valve lunate, with gibbous ventral margin; median line straight; terminal fissures turned downwards near the ends; axial area lanceolate, striæ radiate on the dorsal side, in µ, punctate, on the ventral side, closer at the ends where they are convergent. l. µ. not a typical form. willistown, pa. pl. , fig. . cymbella rhomboidea n. sp. valve rhomboidal, with acute ends; dorsal part one and a half times the width of the ventral; median line nearly straight, with terminal fissures turned downwards near the ends; axial area broad, not widened in the middle, except slightly on the ventral side; striæ { }radiate, distant in the middle of the dorsal side where they are in µ, coarsely punctate, the puncta in longitudinal lines, in µ on the ventral side, closer at the ends. l. µ. baker's run, willistown, pa. pl. , fig. . cymbella gracilis (rab.) cl. valve semi-lanceolate, with acute ends; median line nearly straight, with terminal fissures turned downwards, distant from the ends; axial area linear; ventral margin straight or slightly gibbous in the middle. hammonton pond, n. j. pl. , fig. . cymbella lacustris (ag.) cl. valve elliptical-lanceolate, with obtuse ends, nearly symmetrical; median line straight, terminal fissures distant from the ends; striæ radiate in the middle, convergent at the ends, coarsely lineate. belmar, n. j. pl. , fig. . amphora ehr. ( ) (amphora, a jar) valves asymmetrical along the longitudinal axis, as in cymbella, but with the plane passing through the dorsal and ventral sides of one valve at an angle with that of the other. as cleve states, cymbella and amphora are forms of navicula "with both valves similar and asymmetrical along the longitudinal axis," and the difference between cymbella and amphora is in the "degree of asymmetry." if, following h. l. smith's diagrams (lens, vol. , , p. ), we assume that the usual form of the valve in navicula is elliptical or lanceolate, and the zone view is rectangular, we have in cymbella an arcuate median line and a more or less reniform valve, while the zone view remains rectangular with the valves parallel. now, if the valves are asymmetrical along the longitudinal axis, and one side of one valve is separated from the corresponding side of the opposite valve by a wider connective zone than is the case on the other side, the transverse section of the frustule will appear cuneate, as in amphora, and the connective zone will be wider on one side than the other. when, therefore, we examine an entire frustule as it is usually seen, we shall find the two raphes of the valves in focus at the same time on the ventral side, and, by changing the focus, the convex sides of the same valves are seen, the dorsal view with, usually, a wider connective zone. as an illustration, compare figs. and , on plate , fig. being the ventral, and fig. the dorsal view. as amphoræ are epiphytic or parasitic, they are considered, as cleve remarks, like achnanthes and cocconeis, as "degenerated forms." chromatophores usually single, lying on the ventral connective zone. mereschkowsky describes nine forms. cleve divides the genus into a number of groups as follows: _amphora proper._--connective zone not complex; valves with longitudinal lines on the dorsal side; coarsely punctate or costate. _diplamphora._--zone complex; otherwise as in amphora. _halamphora._--longitudinal lines absent; frustule elongate, with protracted ends. { }_oxyamphora._--zone complex; longitudinal lines absent; frustule elliptical; valve lunate, with or without a central stauros; striæ punctate. _amblyamphora._--zone complex; frustule rectangular; valve lunate; striæ punctate; axial and central areas indistinct. _psammamphora._--zone not complex; frustule rectangular; central nodule frequently dilated to a stauros; no axial or central area. _cymbamphora._--valve semi-lanceolate; median line straight, approximate to the ventral margin. amphora amphora robusta greg. frustule elliptical, truncate; valve lunate, with straight ventral margin; median line biarcuate; ventral side with coarse, radiate striæ, in µ, on both sides of the median line. along the coast. pl. , fig. . amphora proteus greg. frustule elliptical, truncate; valve lunate, with straight ventral margin; median line biarcuate; no central area. striæ on the dorsal side not interrupted, in µ. ventral side striate toward the ends. differs from a. robusta chiefly in size and coarseness of puncta. extremely variable in size. common along the coast. pl. , figs. , , and . amphora ovalis (brÉb.) kuetz. frustule elliptical, truncate; valve lunate; median line biarcuate; striæ on dorsal side - in µ. _var. libyca (ehr.) cl._--central area distinct on the dorsal side. _var. pediculus (kuetz.) cl._--central area and nodule quite distinct. striæ finer than in var. libyca. common in ponds. quite variable. pl. , fig. . amphora gigantea var. fusca a. s. frustule elliptical; valve lunate, with straight ventral margin. axial area absent on the dorsal side; dorsal striæ, in µ, punctate. ventral part hyaline except at the ends, which are obliquely striated, with short, punctate lines. l. - µ. absecon, n. j. pl. , fig. . diplamphora amphora crassa greg. valve linear-elliptical, with obtuse, incurved ends. median line biarcuate. axial and central areas indistinct on the dorsal side; striæ coarsely punctate, interrupted by a longitudinal line on the dorsal side. along the coast. pl. , fig. . { }amphora areolata grun. valve with straight ventral margin; median line straight, approximate to the ventral margin; axial area indistinct; several longitudinal lines crossed by apparent costæ which alternate with rows of fine puncta. blue clay. rare. pl. , fig. . halamphora amphora coffÆiformis (ag.) kuetz. frustule lanceolate, truncate; zone with numerous divisions. valve arcuate on the dorsal and nearly straight on the ventral side; ends protracted or slightly capitate. _a. aponina_ kuetz. _a. salina_ wm. sm. along the coast. pl. , figs. and . oxyamphora amphora lineolata ehr. frustule membranaceous, elliptical, truncate, with broad ends. zone with numerous divisions. dorsal part striated transversely; ventral side with longitudinal lines. _a. plicata_ greg. _a. hyalina_ h. l. smith, type no. . along the coast. pl. , figs. and . amphora ostrearia brÉb. frustule oblong, with rounded angles. zone with five or more divisions transversely striated. central area narrow, biarcuate; central nodule dilated to a stauros. valve narrow, with arcuate dorsal and straight ventral margin, acute at the ends. striæ transverse, finely punctate. _a. vitræa_ cl.; _a. porcellus_ kitton; _a. quadrata_ bréb.; _a. elegans_ greg. appearance varies according to the position of the valve. along the coast. pl. , figs. and . amphora lÆvis greg. frustule oblong, hyaline and membranaceous. valve linear or slightly arcuate, with ventral margin tumid in the middle; ends obtuse; central nodule dilated to a stauros; median line very narrow, biarcuate, coinciding with the dorsal margin at the ends; striæ transverse, punctate. blue clay. pl. , fig. . amphora acuta greg. valve lunate, with acute ends; ventral margin straight; ventral side very narrow. central nodule dilated to a stauros; striæ transverse, punctate. along the coast. pl. , fig. . { }amblyamphora amphora obtusa greg. frustule rectangular. valve linear, obliquely rounded at the ends, with arcuate dorsal, and straight ventral, margin; median line biarcuate; striæ, - in µ. along the coast. common. pl. , fig. . psammamphora amphora arenaria donk. frustule hyaline, rectangular, slightly tumid in the middle, with rounded angles. valve linear with broad ventral side and straight or sinuate ventral margin. striæ, - in µ (cleve). common along the coast. pl. , fig. . the distinction between a. obtusa and a. arenaria is not always evident if the valves alone are seen. the former has a complex zone, the latter a simple zone, and the valve has finer striæ. cleve's descriptions and references in regard to these two forms do not agree with the descriptions and figures of h. l. smith, or with the figures of schmidt. the valves of most amphoræ are capable of assuming various outlines according to their position. amphora ocellata var. cingulata cleve frustule rectangular. valve linear, with dorsal margin arcuate and the ventral margin straight. central nodule with a stauros on the dorsal side. squan river, n. j. pl. , figs. and . cymbamphora amphora angusta var. eulensteinii grun. valve lanceolate, acute at the ends. median line straight, approximate to the margin. axial area widened on the dorsal side, indistinct on the ventral; striæ punctate. _a. eulensteinii_ a. s. common along the coast. pl. , fig. . on pl. , figs. , , and , i have attempted, imitating h. l. smith's figures (lens, l.c.), to illustrate the difference in the transverse sections of navicula, cymbella and amphora. fig. represents the transverse section of a convex navicula, in which the valves ecg and fdh are parallel, and the median nodules c and d are central. fig. is a transverse section of cymbella in which the valves are nearly parallel and the median nodules are excentric. the girdles on one side, ea and af, are narrower than gb and bh on the other side. fig. is a transverse section of an amphora in which the valves appear in zone view with the median nodules of both valves on the same side. the girdles on the ventral side, ea and af, are narrower than gb and bh on the dorsal side. the girdles on the dorsal side are seldom as broad as gb and bh, the valve extending over a great part of the dorsal side to g' and h'. { }amphiprora ehr. ( ) (amphi, on both ends, and prora, a prow) frustule twisted in the longitudinal axis, constricted in the middle; zone complex, with numerous divisions crossed by fine striæ. valve lanceolate, acute. the raphe confined within a sigmoid keel or extension of the valve; the central and terminal nodules indistinct. striæ transverse, punctate, with coarser striæ at the junction of the keel and lower part of the valve. chromatophores single, with indented border except in a. pulchra, in which there are two chromatophores with entire borders. amphiprora alata kuetz. frustule with a row of puncta at the junction line. valve linear, acute at the ends. median line sigmoid. striæ lineate on the lower part of the valve, punctate on the keel. along the coast. not common. pl. , fig. . amphiprora pulchra bail. frustule with sigmoid connective zone. valve very convex, with sinuate keel and junction lines evident. in zone view and in valve view, one half of the frustule, owing to the elevation of the keel, is wider than the other half. striæ punctate, coarser on the keel. not uncommon along the coast. pl. , figs. and . amphiprora conspicua grev. valve linear or elliptical, with acute ends. median line sigmoid, but the junction lines not evident. striæ lineate, with coarser lines near the middle. not common. port penn, delaware river. pl. , fig. . amphiprora ornata bail. frustule membranaceous, constricted in the middle, with well-marked folds extending from the junction line in both directions. valve lanceolate, constricted in the middle and with protracted ends. keel undulate on the edge. a beautiful, transparent and delicate form, the only fresh-water species in our locality. delaware water gap, pa. pl. , figs. and . amphiprora paludosa wm. sm. frustule membranaceous, constricted, with truncate ends. valve linear, with acute ends. striæ scarcely visible. cape may (cleve). pl. , fig. . tropidoneis cleve ( ) (tropis, a keel) frustule oblong, constricted in the middle; keel not sigmoid. axial area not evident. striæ very fine, punctate, in longitudinal lines. { }tropidoneis lepidoptera (greg.) cleve valve with straight, median excentric line. keel unilateral, projecting above the median line in zone view; central area small. transverse striæ finely punctate. as usually seen, the valve is inclined. according to karsten there are two chromatophores on the connective zone, each divided into four parts, each of which contains a large oval pyrenoid. _amphiprora lepidoptera_ greg. along the coast. pl. , figs. and . auricula castracane ( ) (auricula, the ear, the shape of the valve) frustule globose. valve reniform or cymbiform, elevated into a keel which is not sigmoid. median line biarcuate. differs from amphiprora in not having a sigmoid keel. auricula mucronata (h. l. smith) peragallo in zone view, the median line deeply bisects the longitudinal axis, ending in a mucronate central nodule. connective zone complex. valve very complex, with ventral margin nearly straight and raphe excentric. central nodule near the margin, terminal nodules small. striæ, - in µ (cleve). chromatophore single, on the ventral part. _amphora mucronata_ h. l. smith. _amphora (?) insecta_ grun. _auricula insecta_ (grun.) cleve. "a rare and very curious pelagic species" (peragallo, diat. villefranche). prof. h. l. smith included this form in his first century of "species typicæ diatomacearum," which was issued prior to , the date of publication, in schmidt's atlas, of amphora insecta grun. atlantic city, n. j. rare. pl. , fig. . scoliotropis cleve ( ) (scolios, twisted, and tropis, a keel) frustule linear, oblong. median line sigmoid near the ends. valve with transverse costæ alternating with two intermediate rows of puncta in oblique lines. scoliotropis latestriata var. amphora cleve valve asymmetrical, with the median line curved. frustule sub-acute at the ends. median lines not on the same side of each valve of the frustule. abundant at cape may, n. j. not common elsewhere. pl. , figs. and . gomphoneis cleve ( ) (gomphos, a peg, and neis (naus)) valve elongated, asymmetrical to the transverse axis; axial area narrow; central area rounded, stigmatic; striæ radiating, costæ alternating with double rows of fine puncta. an indistinct, longitudinal line near the border. chromatophores and conjugation have not been determined. { }gomphoneis herculaneum (ehr.) cl. valve clavate, with rounded apex; costæ, in µ, alternating with double rows of fine puncta, in µ, in oblique rows; axial area narrow, central area rounded, with one stigma. _gomphonema capitatum_ ehr var. _herculaneum_ ehr., h. l. s., type slide no. . common in the blue clay. pl. , fig. . pl. , fig. , zone view of young frustule. gomphoneis mamilla (ehr.) cl. valve lanceolate, with rounded apex and base; striæ costate, in µ, alternating with double rows of fine puncta; axial area linear, sometimes oblique, central area small, with one or more stigmas. blue clay. rare. pl. , fig. . in one frustule i noticed one valve with one stigma and the other with four stigmas. the difference between g. mamilla and g. elegans is not very great. in the latter the central area is larger and the longitudinal lines not so near to the margin. the stigmas form a circlet. there appears to be a coincidence in the relation of gomphoneis to gomphonema, and that of the true achnanthes to the group described by cleve under achnanthidium. in gomphoneis and achnanthes the striation is both costate and punctate while in gomphonema and achnanthidium the striation is punctate only. gomphonema ag. ( ) (gomphos, a peg, and nema, a filament) valve elongated, asymmetrical with respect to the transverse axis; striæ transverse, usually radiate, punctate. chromatophore band single, the middle lying on one zone. in conjugation, according to thwaites and pfitzer, from two mother cells, which do not form a positive union, two auxospores are developed parallel to the original frustules. in plate , fig. , i have drawn a representation of the auxospore formation as i have frequently observed it in a gathering sent me by mr. t. c. palmer, containing g. angustatum, a common species in this locality. the sagittal plane of the valve of the auxospore is at right angles to the plane of the valve of the mother cell. two valves of one of the mother cells are seen separated, one on each side of the auxospore which is nearly twice the length of the original frustules. the two valves of the other mother cell are not shown as they are not usually found closely united. in the figure one valve alone of the auxospore is seen, the opposite valve not being in focus. the valves of the auxospore are usually more or less arcuate, as in cymbella, to which the genus is closely allied. grunow divides gomphonema into two groups, asymmetricæ and symmetricæ, according to the presence or absence of stigmas. cleve suggests stigmaticæ and astigmaticæ as more suitable in order to agree with the cymbellæ. the stigmaticæ are found chiefly in fresh water, sometimes in brackish. all of the marine forms belong to the astigmaticæ, which, however, include some common fresh-water forms. many species of gomphonema are stipitate, some occur in gelatinous masses, and others are free. { }gomphonema montanum schum. valve slightly biconstricted, with obtuse apex and basis, somewhat cuneate; axial area linear, widened in the middle unilaterally; stigma, one; striæ about in µ, more distant in the middle, punctate. _gomphonema subclavatum_ var. _montana_ (schum.) cl. pavonia, n. j., artesian well. rare. pl. , fig. . gomphonema geminatum lyng. valve biconstricted, with large, rounded, sub-truncate apex and broad, sub-truncate basis; striæ, in µ, radiate in the middle, alternately longer and shorter, transverse at the basis and near the apex where they again radiate, coarsely punctate, puncta, in µ. axial area linear; central area rounded, with several large stigmas in a longitudinal row; terminal fissures hook-shaped. blue clay. pl. , fig. . gomphonema lanceolatum var. insignis (greg.) cl. valve lanceolate; axial area narrow; central area unilateral with one stigma; striæ with coarse and distant puncta. common and variable. _gomphonema insigne_ greg. pl. , figs. and . fig. shows a unilateral central area. fig. is more clavate in outline with small central area. in both forms the coarse puncta are in distinct longitudinal lines in the middle. gomphonema acuminatum var. turris (ehr.) cl.? valve clavate, with cuneate, acute apex; axial area distinct; central area unilateral with one stigma. blue clay. pl. , fig. . gomphonema acuminatum var. turris (ehr.) cl. valve clavate, with cuneate apiculate apex and narrow basis; axial area narrow, with a unilateral central space; stigma opposite the short striæ; striæ more radiate in the upper part, distant in the middle. smith's island, delaware river. pl. , fig. . gomphonema acuminatum var. coronata (ehr.) cl. valve twice constricted, with broad, cuneate apex; striæ radiate in the middle, convergent near the apex and radiate at the apex. variable in size and outline. blue clay. fresh water. common. pl. , fig. . gomphonema acuminatum var. trigonocephala (ehr.) cl. valve broad, with cuneate apex; axial area narrow; central area unilateral with one stigma. pavonia, n. j., artesian well. pl. , fig. . { }gomphonema constrictum ehr. valve clavate, constricted beneath the abruptly rounded apex, gibbous in the middle, striæ alternately longer and shorter; axial area narrow, central area unilateral, with one stigma. common in fresh water. pl. , fig. . gomphonema sphÆrophorum ehr. valve clavate, with capitate or rostrate-capitate apex and narrow basis; axial area very narrow; central area small, unilateral, with one stigma. common in fresh water. pl. , figs. and . fig. appears to be a transitional form having a more distinct axial area and rostrate apex. gomphonema augur ehr. valve broadly clavate, truncate and apiculate at the apex; basis sub-acute; axial area distinct; central area small, unilateral with one stigma; striæ with distant puncta. blue clay. willistown, pa. pl. , fig. . gomphonema intricatum kuetz. valve narrow, lanceolate, slightly gibbous in the middle; axial area distinct; central area transverse with one stigma; striæ parallel. quite variable. common in fresh water. pl. , fig. . gomphonema angustatum kuetz. valve lanceolate, with sub-rostrate apex and basis; axial area indistinct; central area unilateral, with one small stigma; striæ slightly radiate, indistinctly punctate. very common in fresh water. pl. , figs. and . fig. , as stated above, represents the formation of an auxospore. gomphonema Æquale greg. valve linear-lanceolate, nearly symmetrical, with capitate apex and basis; axial area narrow; central area unilateral, with one stigma; striæ radiate in the middle, slightly convergent at the ends. _gomphonema intricatum var. æquale_ (greg.) cl. blue clay. not common. pl. , fig. . gomphonema sarcophagus greg. valve linear, irregular in outline, with rounded apex and basis; axial area distinct; central area small, unilateral, with one stigma; striæ irregular with coarse, distinct puncta. occasional in fresh water. pl. , fig. . gomphonema capitatum ehr. valve clavate, broad at the sub-truncate apex and slightly constricted, or with parallel margins; axial area linear, central area stellate, with one stigma; striæ in the middle alternately longer and shorter. blue clay. pl. , fig. . { }gomphonema parvulum var. micropus (kuetz.) cl. valve clavate, with rounded apex and basis; axial area indistinct; central area unilateral, with a small stigma; striæ distant in the middle. common. pl. , fig. . gomphonema ventricosum greg. valve clavate, with broad apex and produced, rounded basis; axial area narrow, widened in the middle; stigma one; striæ distant in the middle, finely punctate. blue clay. pl. , fig. . gomphonema olivaceum lyng. valve clavate, with broad apex and narrow basis; axial area very narrow; central area irregular, without stigma; striæ radiate, finely punctate. very common. pl. , fig. . gomphonema brasiliense var. demerarÆ grun.? valve lanceolate, with sub-cuneate apex and narrowed basis; axial area lanceolate, broad; no stigma; median fissures remote; striæ parallel, in µ, punctate, the puncta obsolescent, small or interrupted. willistown, pa. rare. pl. , fig. . pleurosigma wm. sm. ( ) (pleura, a side, and sigma, the letter s) valve lanceolate, sigmoid; axial area very narrow, central area small; striæ punctate, in transverse and oblique lines. cleve divides the forms usually known as pleurosigma into two genera, pleurosigma and gyrosigma. pleurosigma includes all forms having oblique rows of puncta, while gyrosigma includes all having longitudinal rows. both have transverse striæ. the former consists entirely of marine species, while in the latter the species are found in fresh, brackish and salt water. the endochrome in pleurosigma, according to mueller, consists of two bands which differ in the median part of each valve. mereschkowsky says that the endochrome is so divided as to form four bands, two on each valve, that their position is different in different species, and that they are not the same on valves of the same frustule. cleve prefers to classify the species of pleurosigma and gyrosigma in accordance with the outline of the valve and the flexure of the median line. i shall, however, retain the method used by peragallo and grunow and arrange the forms according to the striation. ( ) oblique striÆ about degrees, more distinct than the transverse pleurosigma formosum wm. sm. valve elongated, slender, gently sigmoid, acute at the ends; oblique striæ crossing each other at about degrees; - in µ; transverse striæ, - in µ (cleve). along the coast. pl. , fig. . { }pleurosigma obscurum wm. sm. valve linear, not sigmoid, or scarcely so; ends obtuse, subconical; raphe sigmoid, near the margin at the extremities; transverse and oblique striæ equidistant, in µ (wm. sm.). abundant at greenwich point, philadelphia. pl. , fig. . ( ) oblique striÆ closer at the ends pleurosigma naviculaceum brÉb. valve lanceolate, slightly sigmoid at the extremities; raphe strongly sigmoid near the margin at the ends; central nodule large, rounded; oblique striæ, - in the middle, closer at the ends; transverse striæ, - in µ (peragallo). long island sound. pl. , fig. . pleurosigma virginiacum h. l. smith valve slightly sigmoid, with acute ends; raphe more sigmoid than the valve, excentric near the ends; oblique striæ in different directions at the centre, in µ, closer and less distinct at the ends; central nodule small but prominent because of its thickness, producing by diffraction an apparently wide area (somewhat exaggerated in the figure). l. µ, usually larger. _p. affine_ var. _fossilis_ grun. (peragallo). _p. normanii_ var. _fossilis_ grun. (cleve). common in the blue clay. pl. , fig. . ( ) oblique striÆ degrees pleurosigma angulatum (quekett) cl. valve rhomboidal, with sub-rostrate or produced ends; central nodule rhomboidal; raphe central; transverse and oblique striæ at an angle of degrees, equidistant, - in µ. _navicula angulata_ quekett. along the coast. pl. , fig. . pleurosigma strigosum wm. sm. valve lanceolate, with sub-acute, somewhat revolute, apices; oblique striæ at an angle of about degrees, otherwise as in angulatum. along the coast. not common. pl. , fig. . pleurosigma Æstuarii brÉb. valve lanceolate, with produced apices; raphe less sigmoid than the valve and excentric; oblique striæ, - in µ, at an angle of about degrees. along the coast. common. pl. , fig. . { }( ) oblique striÆ degrees, the transverse more distant pleurosigma rigidum wm. sm. valve nearly straight or slightly sigmoid, with obtuse ends; raphe central, excentric near the ends; oblique striæ, - , transverse, - in µ. (peragallo). new rochelle, n. y. pl. , fig. (very near the var. gigantea grun.) gyrosigma hassall ( ) (gyros, curved, and sigma) valve lanceolate, sigmoid; axial area very narrow, central area small; striæ punctate, in transverse and longitudinal rows. chromatophores two, in long and narrow bands, perforated, differing from those of pleurosigma. the elæoplasts are also arranged differently in the two genera. (mereschkowsky, Études sur l'endochrome des diatomées, imperial academy of petrograd, , vol. , no. , p. et seq.) the arrangement is according to peragallo. ( ) longitudinal striÆ more distant than the transverse gyrosigma hippocampus (ehr.) valve lanceolate, sigmoid, with obtuse ends; raphe nearly central; transverse striæ - , longitudinal, - in µ. _navicula hippocampus_ ehr. _pleurosigma hippocampus_ (ehr.) wm. sm. _gyrosigma attenuatum_ (kuetz.) cl. long island sound. pl. , fig. . ( ) longitudinal and transverse striÆ nearly equal gyrosigma balticum (ehr.) cl. valve with margins parallel nearly to the extremities, which are suddenly unilaterally sub-conical and obtuse; raphe sigmoid; transverse and longitudinal striæ nearly equally distant, in µ (per.). l. - µ. _navicula baltica_ ehr. _pleurosigma balticum_ (ehr.) wm. sm. common along the coast. pl. , fig. . gyrosigma parkeri var. stauroneioides grun. valve lanceolate, slightly sigmoid, ends produced into beaks with sub-acute apices; raphe straight in the middle part; central nodule elliptical; transverse striæ, , and longitudinal, in µ (per.). an apparent stauros, variable in width, extends to the margin and, in consequence, the median transverse striæ are more evident. l. µ. schuylkill river. rather rare. pl. , fig. . { }gyrosigma simile (grun.) valve slightly sigmoid, broad, with obtuse ends; raphe sigmoid, nearly central; transverse striæ, , longitudinal, - in µ (per.). _pleurosigma simile_ grun. _gyrosigma balticum_ var. _similis_ (grun.) cl. shark river, n. j. pl. , fig. . ( ) transverse striÆ more distant gyrosigma acuminatum (kuetz.) cl. valve sigmoid, tapering to the sub-acute ends; raphe central; transverse and longitudinal striæ nearly equally distant, or in µ (per.). _frustulia acuminata_ kuetz. port penn, delaware river. pl. , fig. . gyrosigma strigilis (wm. sm.) cl. valve sigmoid, with obtuse ends; raphe doubly sigmoid; axial area rather wide; transverse striæ, , and longitudinal, about in µ. long island sound. not common. pl. , fig. . gyrosigma kuetzingii (grun.) cl. valve sigmoid, lanceolate, with sub-acute ends; raphe central, the central nodule elliptical; transverse striæ, - , and longitudinal, - in µ. _pleurosigma spencerii_ var. _acutiuscula_ grun. _pleurosigma spencerii_ var. _kuetzingii_ grun. common in fresh water. pl. , fig. . gyrosigma scalproides (rab.) cl. valve slightly sigmoid, with obtuse ends; raphe nearly straight; central nodule elliptical; transverse striæ, , slightly radiate and more distant in the middle; longitudinal striæ, in µ. l. µ. common in streams. pl. , fig. . in pl. , fig. represents a form more sigmoid. gyrosigma spencerii var. nodifera grun. valve sigmoid, with obtuse ends; raphe central; central nodule obliquely elongated; transverse striæ, - in µ, curved in the middle of the valve, longitudinal striæ, in µ. l. µ. blue clay. pl. , fig. . gyrosigma prolongatum (wm. sm.) cl. valve narrow, lanceolate, produced into beaks, curved in a contrary direction; raphe central; transverse striæ, - in µ, longitudinal closer. l. µ. along the coast, northward. pl. , fig. . i have not seen any specimens south of new england, but they will probably occur. { }( ) striÆ alike, extremities produced gyrosigma fasciola (ehr.) cl. valve lanceolate, attenuated into curved beaks turned in opposite directions; raphe central, straight, except at the beaks; transverse striæ, , longitudinal, in µ (per.). new york bay. pl. , fig. . frustulia ag. ( ); em. grun. ( ) (frustulum, a small piece) valves naviculoid, similar, usually free but sometimes enclosed in gelatinous tubes or embedded in mucus. median line between two thickened ribs. central and terminal nodules frequently elongated. surface of valve with fine puncta in longitudinal and transverse lines appearing hyaline under medium powers. chromatophores, two, extending along the girdle. they differ from those of navicula in being separated from the wall in the middle by a hemispherical mass of protoplasm. according to pfitzer, each chromatophore is divided in the middle, allowing a connection between the hemispherical mass and the central plasma mass. schmitz states that the chromatophore is thickened in the middle and contains a pyrenoid. in conjugation, two frustules form two cylindrical bodies which later become conical and from which are formed the sporangial valves twice the usual size. frustulia lewisiana (grev.) de toni valve elliptical or linear, with rounded ends; terminal nodules elongated, at a distance from the ends; striæ, in µ. port penn, delaware river. along the coast. pl. , fig. . frustulia rhomboides (ehr.) de toni valve lanceolate or rhombic-lanceolate, rounded at the ends; central and terminal nodules short; striæ, in µ, sometimes coarser. common in fresh water. pl. , fig. . frustulia rhomboides var. amphipleuroides grun. valve rhombic-lanceolate; central and terminal nodules elongated; median line somewhat excentric. blue clay. pl. , fig. . frustulia rhomboides var. saxonica (rab.) de toni valve smaller than in rhomboides, with somewhat produced ends, closer median ribs and rounded central nodule. fresh water. pl. , fig. . frustulia vulgaris (thwaites) de toni valve elliptical-lanceolate, with rounded or sometimes sub-rostrate ends; central and terminal nodules slightly elongated; striæ delicate, closer at the ends. frustules at first in gelatinous tubes. _colletonema vulgaris_ thwaites. fresh water. pl. , fig. . { }frustulia interposita (lewis) de toni valve linear-elliptical, rounded at the ends; terminal nodules short. _navicula interposita_ lewis. along the coast. port penn, delaware river. pl. , fig. . amphipleura kuetz. ( ) (amphi, on both sides, pleura, a side) frustules free, in gelatinous masses or in tubes. valve linear-lanceolate; central nodule narrow, extending half the length of the valve or more, then forking toward the ends. terminal nodules prolonged, as in frustulia, into a "porte-crayon-shaped" figure. chromatophores two, very short. amphipleura pellucida kuetz. frustules free or in mucous masses. valve fusiform; forks about one-fourth the length of the valve; striæ transverse, punctate, - in µ (j. j. woodward). occasional in the delaware river. pl. , fig. . amphipleura rutilans (trentepohl) cl. frustules enclosed in gelatinous tubes. valve linear-lanceolate, obtuse at the ends; forks about one-third the length of the valve; striæ, in µ. _conferva rutilans_ trentepohl. _schizonema dillwynii_ wm. sm. abundant at belmar, n. j. pl. , fig. . fig. represents a portion of the gelatinous tube containing frustules. dictyoneis cleve ( ) (dictyon, a net) frustules oblong. valve lanceolate, constricted in the middle (in our species); an outer layer finely punctate and an inner layer of reticulations; the margin of the valve divided into large, quadrate cells. the genus dictyoneis includes species at one time ascribed to mastogloia and navicula. the structure, however, is not like that of either, as the loculi are attached to the valve and are not separable as in mastogloia, and the cell-wall is not like that of any navicula. cleve remarks that dictyoneis is found in warm waters. lewis found one specimen at black rock harbor, l. i., and one in the delaware river blue clay. the specimens here described i found living on the new jersey coast. dictyoneis marginata var. typica cleve valve panduriform, with cuneate lobes; axial area narrow, linear, scarcely, or not at all, widened in the middle; terminal fissures in contrary directions; outer stratum finely punctate, about in µ, in parallel striæ; inner stratum coarsely reticulated. four and one-fourth times longer than broad; marginal cells, in µ, smaller or obsolescent in the middle of the valve; cells of the valve in irregular transverse rows, - in µ. l. µ. _navicula marginata_ lewis. absecon, n. j. pl. , fig. . { }dictyoneis marginata var. commutata cleve valve four and one-half times longer than broad; cells of the valve in irregular, transverse rows about in µ; marginal cells nearly equal, in µ. l. µ. absecon, n. j. pl. , fig. . dictyoneis marginata var. maxima n. var. valve with cuneate segments; marginal cells, in µ; cells of the valve, in µ, obsolescent in the middle and smaller; transverse striæ, in µ. atlantic coast. rare. pl. , fig. (from a specimen found at colon). trachyneis cleve ( ) (trachys, rough, and neis (naus), named from the chief species) valve more or less linear or linear-lanceolate. it appears to be composed of three strata, one an interior, coarsely dotted, an exterior of fine puncta in longitudinal striæ, scarcely visible, and a median of transverse anastomosing costæ forming irregular alveoli. chromatophores, two or four bands on the zone (mereschkowsky). trachyneis aspera var. intermedia grun. valve linear-elliptic; axial area a stauros widened outward and unilateral. striæ of the median layer of radiating rows of oblong alveoli. along the coast. not common. pl. , fig. . the type form and its numerous varieties are quite ubiquitous. very large specimens occur in the antarctic regions, especially in material from ross island, s. victoria land (shackleton ant. exp.). brÉbissonia grun. ( ) (named after alphonse de brébisson, the distinguished french naturalist) frustules stipitate; valve lanceolate; striæ transverse in the middle, radiate at the ends. median area narrow, central nodule elongated, terminal fissures at a distance from the ends. valve with an outer finely punctate stratum. at one end of one valve in each frustule is found a conspicuous punctum, the plasma pore of otto mueller, through which the frustule is connected with the gelatinous stipe, analogous to the pore in diatoma connecting the zig-zag frustules. chromatophore single, lying on one girdle and passing over to each valve. brÉbissonia boeckii (kuetz.) grun. valve lanceolate, with sub-acute apices; striæ, - in µ, not reaching the median line. blue clay. very rare. common in brackish water at chestertown, md. (t. c. palmer) pl. , fig. . { }brÉbissonia palmerii, n. sp. valve rhombic-lanceolate, with cuneate ends and produced apices. central nodule more elongate and terminal fissures further from the ends than in b. boeckii. pavonia, n. j. (artesian well, depth of ft.). rare. pl. , fig. . i take pleasure in naming this species after mr. t. chalkley palmer, of media, pa., the author of numerous papers on the diatomaceæ. lewis partly describes a similar form, which he does not name, as a species of navicula found in the blue clay at kaighn's point, n. j. (lewis, "new and intermediate forms," etc., p. , pl. , fig. .) anomoeoneis pfitzer ( ) (anomoios, unlike, and neis (naus), a boat) valve lanceolate, axial area narrow, central area widened; transverse striæ punctate, the puncta in longitudinal rows or interrupted by blank lines. a single chromatophore lies along one of the girdle sides and extends over the valves, each of the two parts being deeply notched or slit at the ends. according to schmitz there are two pyrenoids, but heinzerling thinks there is but one. cleve considers this genus not well founded, as it is based upon the cell contents of but one species, the structure of the other species not being known. as the forms here described are easily recognized by the interrupted puncta, the genus is, at least, convenient. anomoeoneis sphÆrophora (kuetz.) cl. valve elliptic-lanceolate, ends rostrate-capitate. axial area narrow, central area rounded, larger on one side of the median line than the other. striæ very slightly radiate, in µ, punctate, the puncta interrupted by longitudinal blank lines. pfitzer states that the central plasma mass is unequal on the two sides. _navicula sphærophora_ kuetz. fresh and brackish water. not common. pl. , fig. . anomoeoneis serians (brÉb.) cl. valve lanceolate, acute; axial area lanceolate; striæ, in µ; puncta elongate. not common in this locality, but abundant northwards; fossil in the peat deposits of new england. may's landing, n. j. pl. , fig. . forma minor--valve rhombic-lanceolate, smaller than the type. may's landing, n. j. pl. , fig. . anomoeoneis follis (ehr.) cl. valve rhomboid, tumid in the middle and obtuse at the produced ends. central area lanceolate; striæ radiate in the middle, transverse at the ends. _navicula follis_ ehr. _navicula trochus_ kuetz. { }reported by lewis as very rare in the blue clay of the delaware river. i have not seen it in this locality. the figure is drawn from a specimen in the w. bridgewater, mass., deposit. pl. , fig. . caloneis cleve ( ) (calos, beautiful) valve convex, linear or lanceolate in general outline, with transverse, smooth or finely punctate striæ crossed by one or more longitudinal lines. endochrome of two chromatophores lying one on each valve, entire in some species and deeply cleft in others. caloneis liber (wm. sm.) cl. valve linear, with parallel margins and rounded ends; axial area narrow, central area orbicular; striæ transverse in the middle, slightly divergent at the ends, in µ; terminal fissures slightly curved in the same direction; longitudinal line median. l. µ. atlantic coast, chiefly southward. pl. , fig. . caloneis silicula (ehr.) cl. valve linear, gibbous in the middle, with broad sub-cuneate ends; axial area narrow, central area rounded; longitudinal line marginal; striæ parallel or nearly so, to in µ. _navicula silicula_ ehr. _navicula limosa_ donk. blue clay. pl. , fig. (var. genuina cl.). caloneis silicula var. inflata (grun.) cl. valve gibbous in the middle, with rounded ends; central area elliptical. schuylkill river. pl. , fig. . c. silicula may be recognized by its yellow color when dry. its varieties are extremely numerous. caloneis trinodis (lewis) valve divided into three segments of equal width; ends cuneate and usually produced; axial area elliptical with a lunate marking on each side; striæ radiate in the middle, elsewhere parallel, about in µ, finely punctate; longitudinal line marginal, scarcely visible; the striæ become fainter toward the axial area. occasional in streams and in the blue clay. abundant in a water-trough at ashbourne, pa. pl. , fig. . i have retained lewis' name as specific. lewis, wrongly, i think, ascribes his species to _navicula trinodis_ wm. sm., which is not figured by smith, but is illustrated by van heurck (syn. pl. , fig. a), and is named by cleve _navicula contenta_ var. _biceps_ arnott. { }de toni includes lewis' name under _rhoiconeis trinodis_ (wm. sm.) grun. rhoiconeis is achnanthiform, with frustules arcuate, and the species is named by cleve _achnanthes trinodis_ (arnott). _caloneis schumanniana_ (grun.) cl., to which as a variety cleve unites lewis' form, appears to resemble it only in the lunate marks. fig. represents a single specimen found in the pavonia deposit and which i believe to be an abnormal form of c. trinodis, differing only in the degree of inflation and in the larger central area. _navicula trinodis_ var. _inflata_ schultze, from staten island, is the same form figured by lewis, who states that certain specimens have produced apices. caloneis permagna (bail.) cl. valve lanceolate, with produced apices; median line nearly straight; axial area lanceolate, irregular or slightly unilateral, about half the width of the valve; striæ, in µ, radiate and indistinctly punctate; longitudinal lines double. l. - µ. _pinnularia permagna_ bail. common in brackish water. pl. , fig. . caloneis permagna var. lewisiana n. var. valve lanceolate, with undulating sides and sub-cuneate apices; axial area less than one-third the width of the valve; striæ radiate, in µ, indistinctly punctate; longitudinal lines double, closer together than in the type. l. µ. lewis illustrates this variety in "new and rare species," pl. , fig. , and states that it is probably navicula esox kuetzing. this is an error, as kuetzing's species is pinnularia esox ehr., a form near p. major. rather common in the delaware river. pl. , fig. . caloneis formosa (greg.) cl. valve lanceolate, with sub-cuneate apices; axial area one-fourth to one-fifth the width of the valve, somewhat unilateral, dilated in the middle; striæ, - in µ radiate, punctate; longitudinal lines double, distinct. variable in size and outline. abundant along the shores of the delaware river. pl. , fig. . caloneis brevis var. vexans (grun.) cl. valve elliptical-lanceolate; apices obtuse; median fissures distant; axial area narrow; central area large, orbicular; longitudinal lines close together, median. shark river, n. j. pl. , fig. . caloneis wardii cl. valve linear, ends cuneate; axial area linear; central area dilated to a stauros reaching the margin; striæ parallel, radiate at the ends, in µ; longitudinal lines marginal. not uncommon in the delaware river. pl. , figs. and . { }caloneis powellii (lewis) cl. valve linear, with cuneate ends; axial area linear; central area large, quadrate, united to the wide longitudinal lines; striæ parallel, smooth, in µ. long island (lewis); smith's island, delaware river. pl. , fig. . neidium pfitzer ( ) (neidion, dim. of naus, a boat) valve linear or lanceolate; median fissures turned in opposite directions, terminal fissures appearing bifurcate (?); striæ transverse, usually oblique, finely punctate, crossed by one or several longitudinal blank lines. chromatophores, two, lying on the girdle side, in cell division each forming a partially divided pair. a large pyrenoid is said to be found in the middle of each chromatophore, but mereschkowsky states that the pyrenoids are absent, but that in n. affine four elæoplasts are always seen in the centre of the frustule. a genus easily recognized by the peculiar terminal and median fissures and by the yellowish or brownish color of the valves when dry, darker than in caloneis. neidium affine (ehr.) pfitzer valve linear, with protracted, sub-rostrate or capitate ends. _navicula affinis_ ehr. neidium affine var. genuina forma maxima cl. striæ, in µ, punctate, oblique in the middle, convergent at the ends; puncta, in µ. l. µ. pensauken, n. j. (artesian well). pl. , fig. . var. genuina forma minor cl.--l. µ; striæ, in µ. brandywine creek. pl. , fig. . neidium affine var. amphirhyncus (ehr.) cl. valve linear, with protracted capitate ends; striæ transverse, interrupted by several longitudinal lines. willistown, pa. pl. , fig. . neidium amphigomphus (ehr.) pfitzer valve with parallel margins and cuneate ends; striæ transverse, interrupted by several longitudinal lines; central area widened transversely. _navicula amphigomphus_ ehr. wissahickon. pl. , fig. . neidium productum (wm. sm.) cl. valve linear, elongate, with capitate apices; striæ slightly oblique; longitudinal lines marginal; axial area very narrow, central area small. _navicula producta_ wm. sm. newtown square. pl. , fig. . { }neidium iridis (ehr.) cl. valve linear or lanceolate-elliptical, with sub-cuneate or rounded ends; striæ oblique, about in µ; central area orbicular. _navicula iridis_ ehr. _navicula firma_ kuetz. willistown, pa.; middletown, delaware co., pa. (palmer). pl. , fig. . the form here figured is probably the variety ampliata (ehr.) cl. with less acute apices and more elliptical outline. the species occurs in many variations, the larger being found northward, especially in the peat deposits of new england. neidium hitchcockii (ehr.) cl. valve linear, with triundulate margin and cuneate ends; striæ transverse, oblique. _navicula hitchcockii_ ehr. pavonia, n. j. (artesian well); kirkwood pond, n. j. pl. , fig. . diploneis ehr. ( ) (diplos, double) valve elliptical or panduriform; median line enclosed in strongly siliceous horns corresponding to the lyre-shaped areas of navicula lyra but never punctate; central nodule, quadrate; valve costate, or striate, or both; between the horns and the outer part are thinner spaces or sulci, and, in some species, outside of the sulci are narrow spaces known as lunulæ. chromatophores, two, upon the girdle or the valves. pyrenoids have been found in one species only, d. interrupta. diploneis elliptica (kuetz.) cl. valve elliptical; central nodule large; sulci narrow, curved, close to the horns; striæ punctate, in rows radiating more and more toward the ends. variable in size and in the coarseness of puncta which are from to in µ (cleve). cleve describes d. ovalis hilse as having the central nodule rounded, but otherwise about the same as d. elliptica, and as equivalent to navicula ovalis a. schmidt (atlas, pl. , figs. to ). very common in fresh water and occasional in brackish. pl. , fig. . diploneis smithii (brÉb.) cl. valve elliptical; central nodule not broad; furrows evenly curved on the outer edge, crossed by costæ and double oblique rows of alveoli. variable in size and in the curvature of the furrows. cleve forms a new species, d. major, of the large form figured by schmidt (atlas, pl. , figs. , , and ), stating that the structure is much coarser and the form is larger with broad furrows. in the specimen here figured the size is median and the furrows are as in d. major. marine and brackish. common. pl. , fig. . { }diploneis crabro var. pandura (brÉb.) cl. valve constricted, segments tongue-shaped; central nodule small; horns narrow, nearly parallel, with a row of large puncta; costæ, in µ, convergent in the middle, radiating at the ends, alternating with a double row of puncta, in µ. pavonia, n. j. (artesian well). pl. , fig. . diploneis crabro var. expleta (a. s.) cl. valve slightly constricted, segments tongue-shaped; costæ robust, or in µ, alternating with double rows of rather coarse puncta. l. µ. port penn, delaware river. pl. , fig. . diploneis crabro var. pandurella cl.? valve constricted, the lobes elliptical; central nodule large, with horns parallel in the middle, convergent at the ends; furrows wide, with faint costæ; no lunula; costæ parallel in the middle, radiate at the ends, in µ, alternating with very fine double rows of puncta (not shown in the figure). l. µ. blue clay. pl. , fig. . diploneis crabro var.? valve constricted, segments elliptical; costæ, in µ, converging in the middle, radiating at the ends; horns narrow; furrows wide, costate; lunulæ indistinct. l. µ. resembles var. pandurella except in the convergence of the costæ and in the lunula. squan river. marine. pl. , fig. . diploneis fusca var. delicata (a. s.) cl. valve elliptical; furrows broad, crossed with rows of faint costæ and alveoli; costæ, or in µ; alveoli, in µ, in short, irregular, longitudinal rows. l. µ. port penn, delaware river. pl. , fig. . diploneis gruendleri (a. s.) cl. valve constricted, segments tongue-shaped, often unequal; horns broad, divergent in the middle; furrows narrow; costæ transverse, crossed by from to longitudinal costæ, interrupted in the middle at the border. blue clay. pl. , figs. and . diploneis puella (schum.) cl. valve elliptical, sometimes orbicular; furrows very narrow; striæ, in µ, indistinct. l. µ. _diploneis elliptica_ var. _minutissima_ grun. shark river, n. j. brackish. pl. , fig. . diploneis excentrica, n. sp. valve elliptical; central nodule quadrate; furrows of the same width throughout, nearly parallel; costæ radiating toward the ends, in µ, indistinct on the furrows, alternating with alveoli, in µ, in irregular, longitudinal lines. one side of the valve is one and a half times the width of the other. l. µ. { }i can find neither description nor figure of any species to which i can ascribe this form. it approaches d. elliptica. the alveoli are quite distinct and distant from each other. brackish water. very abundant in a gathering from squan river, n. j. pl. , fig. . diploneis oculata (brÉb.) cl. valve elliptical; striæ radiate at the ends, about in µ, coarsely punctate. l. µ. fresh water. pl. , fig. . the figure is drawn from brébisson's original material in h. l. smith's type slide no. . _navicula oculata_ bréb. reported from new jersey. i have not seen this species in this locality. navicula oculata, referred to by kain as occurring in shark river, is not this form. diploneis gemmata (grev.) cl. valve oblong-linear, with cuneate ends and parallel or slightly concave sides; central nodule large; horns parallel; furrows about one-third the width of the valve. costæ about in µ, alternating with double rows of fine puncta; short costæ occur along the borders of the horns. port penn, delaware river. pl. , fig. . diploneis campylodiscus (grun.) cl. valve suborbicular; central nodule quadrate; horns divergent; costæ, in µ, alternating with double rows of alveoli; furrows broad, costate near the horns. differs from cleve's description in having , instead of , costæ in µ. pensauken, n. j. (artesian well). rare. pl. , fig. . mastogloia thwaites ( ) (mastos, a breast, and gloios, gelatinous, referring to the "mamillate cushion" in which the frustules are often immersed) frustule rectangular. valves similar, naviculoid. central and axial areas usually narrow or indistinct; striæ punctate, parallel in the middle. on each side, between the valve and the zone, is a septate plate. analysis of species striæ interrupted by a hyaline furrow on each side of the median line kinsmanii striæ not interrupted: loculi, five, or less exigua more than five, equal, ending at distance from the ends smithii ending near the ends, distinct lanceolata indistinct elegans very numerous apiculata unequal angulata { }karsten states that there are two chromatophores, each of which extends from the middle of one valve to the end and down the middle of the other valve. mereschkowsky says, however, that there are four plates or chromatophores, sometimes on the valve, sometimes on the zone, according to the species, and that two long pyrenoids unite the two opposite chromatophores. mastogloia kinsmanii lewis valve lanceolate-elliptical, with sub-rostrate ends; loculi more numerous than in m. angulata but less than in m. apiculata, the middle ones larger. median line with a sulcus on each side; central area quadrate. _mastogloia braunii_ grun. (according to cleve). atlantic city. pl. , fig. . mastogloia exigua lewis valve elliptical- or linear-lanceolate; loculi, - , usually , larger in the middle and rounded; central space small; striæ, - in µ. along the coast. pl. , fig. . mastogloia smithii thwaites valve lanceolate, sub-rostrate; loculi forming a wide band ending at a distance from the ends; striæ transverse, with puncta forming longitudinal rows; central area rounded or transversely elliptical. along the coast. pl. , fig. . mastogloia lanceolata thwaites valve lanceolate, with sub-rostrate apices; loculi very numerous; median and central areas indistinct; striæ, in µ, punctate, convergent at the ends. along the coast. pl. , fig. . mastogloia elegans lewis valve lanceolate, acute; loculi indistinct or rudimentary, extending to the ends; central area apparently quadrate, sometimes indistinct; puncta distinct, in µ, in transverse and longitudinal rows. along the coast. common. pl. , fig. . mastogloia apiculata wm. sm. valve elliptical-lanceolate, sometimes with slightly produced apices; median line between two ribs; central space very small; loculi numerous; puncta in slightly radiating rows and in longitudinal lines. along the coast. pl. , figs. , , . mastogloia angulata lewis valve elliptical, with produced apices; loculi usually less than , unequal, the larger in the middle; striæ, in µ, puncta in decussating rows. "differs from apiculata in its more broadly elliptical shape, the smaller number of its loculi and the angular character of its striation" (lewis). { }considered by cleve as synonymous with m. apiculata grun., not wm. smith, and by de toni as synonymous with m. apiculata wm. sm. in any case, m. angulata lewis is not the same as m. apiculata wm. sm., the loculi of which are equal. atlantic city. h. l. smith t. s. no. . pl. , fig. . stauroneis ehr. ( ) (stauros, a cross, and neis (naus), a boat) frustules free, sometimes geminate; valve as in navicula but with a stauros. cell contents as in navicula. mereschkowsky, however, says that the chromatophores always contain more pyrenoids than are found in navicula. heinzerling gives the number as two to four in each chromatophore. cleve includes under naviculæ microstigmaticæ all species of stauroneis, pleurostauron, schizostauron, certain schizonemæ and naviculæ. as a matter of convenience, and because i have already included certain schizonemæ and scoliopleura under navicula, and because of the small number of species in our locality, i have arranged them under the three divisions of cleve as follows: _stauroneis._--forms having a true stauros, without diaphragms. _pleurostauron._--forms like stauroneis but with diaphragms at the ends. _schizostauron._--forms having a bifid stauros. stauroneis phoenicenteron ehr. valve lanceolate, obtuse; striæ radiate, in µ, distinctly punctate. l. usually µ but sometimes µ. common in fresh water. pl. , fig. . stauroneis anceps ehr. valve lanceolate, with rostrate or capitate ends; stauros in some cases does not reach the margin. the varieties are very numerous. _var. gracilis (ehr.) cl._--valve lanceolate, striæ very fine; margin of stauros striated. l. µ. cape may, n. j. pl. , fig. . _var. amphicephala (kuetz.) cl._--valve capitate at the ends; striæ, in µ. l. µ. fresh water. pl. , fig. . _var. ?_--valve with produced ends; striæ, or more in µ. l. µ. willistown, pa. pl. , fig. . _var. ?_--valve with produced ends; striæ, about in µ, punctate. l. µ. newtown square. pl. , fig. . _var. ?_--valve with produced ends; striæ, in µ, showing a tendency to form longitudinal rows of puncta as in stauroneis stodderi greenleaf, but the rows are not so evident. l. µ. pavonia, n. j., artesian well. pl. , fig. . stauroneis frickei var. angusta n. var. valve lanceolate, gradually tapering to the obtuse ends; terminal fissures prominent, forking at a distance of µ from the ends. frustules frequently geminate. l. µ. newtown square. rare. pl. , fig. . near stauroneis frickei a. s. (atlas, pl. , fig. ), except that the stauros is narrow at the margin. { }stauroneis salina wm. sm. valve lanceolate, obtuse; stauros narrow, with short, scattered striæ at the margin, in µ, punctate. l. µ. along the coast. common. pl. , fig. . stauroneis legumen ehr. valve elliptical-lanceolate, inflated in the middle, with produced sub-capitate or rostrate ends separated by diaphragms. stauros wide, striated at the margins; axial area very narrow; striæ radiate, about (?) in µ, punctate. l. µ. pavonia, n. j., artesian well. pl. , fig. . in cleve's description and van heurck's figure, the median inflation is "not larger than the others." in the present form the median inflation is wider. stauroneis acuta wm. sm. valve rhombic-lanceolate, obtuse; a diaphragm at each end; stauros widened outwards; striæ, or in µ, punctate. l. µ. blue clay. pl. , fig. . stauroneis americana a. s. valve elliptical-lanceolate, obtuse; striæ, in µ. l. µ. pavonia, n. j., artesian well. rare. the only specimen found is asymmetrical with respect to the transverse axis. on plate , fig. , is illustrated an abnormal form of stauroneis, apparently near s. acuta, having an elongated central nodule and radiating, curved and coarsely punctate striæ. blue clay. stauroneis smithii grun. valve lanceolate, inflated in the middle and at the ends, which have diaphragms and are produced into rostrate apices; stauros reaching the margin; striæ parallel, about in µ ( to , cleve), distinctly punctate. not uncommon in meadow pools near newtown square. pl. , fig. . stauroneis crucicula (grun.) cl. valve lanceolate, with obtuse, produced ends; stauros bifid; striæ, in µ, oblique, parallel to the branches of the stauros, closer at the ends, punctate. l. µ. newtown square. east park reservoir. rare. pl. , fig. . navicula bory ( ) (dim. of navis, a boat) valve linear to elliptical; ends acute, rounded, rostrate, capitate or truncate; axial area usually distinct; central area distinct, rounded or rarely extended into a transverse fascia; striæ transverse or radiate, punctate; central area not dilated into a transverse stauros nor into horns. { }the endochrome in the greater number of species consists of two chromatophores extending along the zone and sometimes partly over the valves. sometimes, however, as in n. hennedyi, n. lyra and n. humerosa, the bands are on the valves. certain species have four bands, others eight, and in one the endochrome is granular. (mereschkowsky, l. c., p. et seq.) pyrenoids are usually absent. on account of the diversity of the chromatophores, mereschkowsky considers the genus not homogeneous. the difficulty of arranging groups according to the cell contents, however, is so great that, for the present, the species must be described by the usual characteristics of the valves and divided as follows, according to cleve, to the extent of employing the classification of all naviculoid forms as applicable, especially to the species of navicula. van heurck's analysis includes pinnularia, trachyneis, diploneis, caloneis, neidium and anomoeoneis, which are here separated, while n. lyra and n. hennedyi are placed in different groups, although they are closely related. in other respects cleve's divisions correspond, to some extent, to those of van heurck. the genus navicula at one time included the following: dictyoneis, pleurosigma, gyrosigma, caloneis, neidium, diploneis, frustulia, trachyneis, anomoeoneis, pinnularia and stauroneis, and few forms with a raphe escaped. for this reason the diagnosis of the present genus is somewhat limited. pleurosigma and gyrosigma differ from navicula in their outline, dictyoneis in the double stratification, caloneis in the marginal lines, neidium in the median and terminal fissures, diploneis in the horns, frustulia in the terminal nodules, trachyneis in the stratification of the valve, anomoeoneis in the longitudinal arrangement of the puncta, pinnularia in the smooth costæ and stauroneis in the stauros. as the object of the present work is to aid the student of local forms in the identification of species by the briefest methods, the further discussion of the reasons for classification will be left for his gratification in referring to the authorities on the subject. punctatÆ cleve valve elliptical to lanceolate; central nodule not stauroid or continued into lyriform spaces; striæ distinctly or coarsely punctate, in radiate rows. navicula maculata (bail.) cl. valve lanceolate-elliptical, with produced or sub-rostrate ends; axial area narrow, wider near the ends and dilated to a rounded, transverse central area; striæ radiate, in µ, puncta, in µ, in irregular, longitudinal rows. l. to µ (cl.). _stauroneis maculata_ bail. _navicula fischeri_ a. s. blue clay. along the coast, especially southward. pl. , fig. . navicula latissima greg. valve oblong-elliptical or elliptical-lanceolate, with sub-cuneate ends; axial area lanceolate, widened in the middle to an orbicular space; striæ radiate, in µ, puncta, in µ, the median striæ alternating with short striæ along the sides. l. - µ (cl). blue clay. pavonia, n. j., artesian well. pl. , fig. . { }navicula latissima var. elongata (pant.) cl. valve elliptical-lanceolate, with rounded ends; striæ and puncta closer than in the type form; axial area narrow, widened in the middle; terminal fissures hook-shaped, turned in different directions. _navicula humerosa_ var. _elongata_ pant. fossil at buckshutem, n. j. pl. , fig. . navicula fuchsii pant. valve elliptical, with slightly produced apices; axial area wide, lanceolate; central area orbicular; striæ alternately longer and shorter in the middle, - in µ; puncta on the border of the axial area larger, elongated; median fissures incrassate. _navicula humerosa_ var. _fuchsii_ (pant.) cl. _navicula_ (_latissima_ var.?) _fuchsii_ pant. port penn, delaware river. pl. , fig. . navicula humerosa brÉb. valve lanceolate-elliptical or oblong-elliptical, with sub-cuneate or sub-rostrate ends; axial area narrow, lanceolate; central area rounded, somewhat transverse; terminal fissures hook-shaped, in the same direction; central pores incrassate; striæ, in µ, the middle alternately longer and shorter, closer at the ends. l. - µ. variable in size, outline and fineness of striation. n. monilifera cleve (n. granulata bréb.) differs in having coarser striæ. blue clay. along the coast. pl. , fig. . navicula pusilla wm. sm. valve ovate-elliptical, with rostrate or sub-rostrate ends; axial area narrow; central area elliptical; striæ radiate, - in µ in the middle where they are longer and shorter alternately, closer at the ends; median fissures somewhat incrassate, terminal in the same direction. l. µ. smith's island, delaware river. pl. , figs. , ? cleve gives the striæ as - in the typical form, and - in varieties. in the form here figured the striation is as stated by de toni, but is about at the ends. fig. appears to be a small form of n. pusilla, near lanceolata grun., at least according to the figure in "arctic diatoms," but not gregory's figure. it occurs rarely in fresh water at newtown square. it may be a small form of n. punctulata and, if so, is probably accidental, as the material is entirely fresh-water. navicula pusilla var. subcapitata n. var. valve elliptical with rostrate-capitate and truncate ends; striæ about in µ in the middle where they are unequal; axial area narrow, slightly widened in the middle; central pores incrassate, terminal fissures in the same direction. differs from type in outline and centre. pavonia, n. j., artesian well. rare. pl. , fig. . { }navicula delawarensis grun. valve elliptical-lanceolate, with sub-rostrate ends; axial area narrow, lanceolate, widened in the middle; striæ about in µ; in the middle, much closer at the ends; puncta in the middle, in µ, closer and much smaller at the ends. l. - µ. cleve (le diatomiste, vol. , p. ) states that this form is very near n. pusilla but is much larger. specimens from smith's island measure - µ, from wildwood, µ in length. pl. , fig. . navicula punctulata wm. sm. valve elliptical-lanceolate, with sub-rostrate ends; axial area narrow, central area rounded; striæ, in µ, closer at the ends, a few shorter in the middle; puncta, in µ. l. µ. _navicula marina_ ralfs. port penn, delaware river (brackish water). pl. , fig. . "although this species is described as marine in the synopsis of prof. smith, i have never found it in purely marine localities" (donkin). navicula punctata var. asymmetrica lagerstedt valve lanceolate, with rostrate ends; axial area narrow, central area transverse, irregular; striæ radiate, punctate, in µ. l. µ. _navicula amphibola_ cleve. blue clay. pl. , fig. . navicula brasiliensis var. bicuneata cl., forma constricta valve oblong-elliptical, slightly constricted, with cuneate-rostrate ends; axial area narrow; central area dilated transversely and unilaterally; striæ, in µ; puncta closer at the border and in irregular longitudinal rows in the middle; terminal fissures small, hook-shaped, turned in the same direction. l. µ. corresponds closely to cleve's variety except in the constriction. blue clay. pl. , fig. . navicula lacustris greg. valve lanceolate, sub-acute; axial area narrow; central area orbicular; striæ radiate, in µ, punctate, the median puncta sometimes more distant than the others. blue clay. rare. pl. , fig. . lyratÆ cl. valve elliptical or elliptical-lanceolate; striæ punctate, transverse; axial area narrow or indistinct; central area expanded on each side into lyre-shaped or horn-like blank spaces. navicula prÆtexta ehr. valve elliptical; lateral areas not regular, with scattered puncta; striæ radiate, or in µ; puncta, or in µ; along the axial area, a single or double row of puncta; at { }the middle of the border, on each side, two striæ approach each other closely with a short stria between them; terminal fissures small, in the same direction. l. µ. port penn, delaware river. pl. , fig. . while variable in size and striation, approaching n. hennedyi, this species, as here figured, is found in the miocene and later deposits and is extant in most parts of the world. navicula irrorata grev. valve oblong-elliptical, with cuneate-rostrate ends; striæ, or in µ, puncta, in µ; axial area bordered by puncta in unequal, transverse rows. l. µ. blue clay. rare. pl. , fig. . navicula hennedyi wm. sm. valve elliptical; areas semilanceolate; striæ about in µ, sometimes longer and shorter on the margin; short rows of transverse striæ along the axial area. blue clay. pl. , fig. . _var. circumsecta grun._--as in the type but with the lateral areas faintly striate or punctate. _var. manca a. s._--valve lanceolate-elliptical, the lateral areas narrow and convergent toward the ends; short rows of transverse striæ along the axial area; striæ, in µ; central pores incrassate. blue clay. pl. , fig. . navicula lyra ehr. valve elliptical, with rounded, sub-rostrate or sub-cuneate ends; lateral areas narrow; striæ, to in µ (cl.), punctate. l. - µ. _var. ehrenbergii cl._--lateral areas constricted in the middle, divergent at the ends. cleve refers to schmidt, atlas, pl. , fig. , which is not divergent at the ends. along the coast. pl. , fig. . a narrower form occurs which has the areas divergent. _var. ?_--valve elliptical, lateral areas narrow, convergent at the ends with short rows of punctate striæ; marginal striæ, in µ, punctate. l. µ. squan river, n. j. pl. , fig. . _var. dilatata a. s._--valve elliptical, rostrate; lateral areas convergent in the middle and nearly parallel or convergent at the ends. blue clay. pl. , fig. . n. lyra is exceedingly variable in outline, fineness of striation and in the lateral areas. intermediate forms occur approaching n. hennedyi and n. spectabilis. in n. hennedyi the lateral areas are broad, semilanceolate, not narrowed in the middle. in n. spectabilis the lateral areas are broad and narrowed in the middle. in n. lyra the lateral areas are narrow and either constricted or not in the middle. in many forms in { }these three species the lateral areas are more or less striated or punctate. cleve does not consider this a distinction of any importance, although certain varieties are founded upon it. all three species are very common in the blue clay and along the coast, but their varieties are too numerous to describe or figure. navicula spectabilis var. emarginata cl. valve elliptical; lateral areas broad, narrowed in the middle, delicately striated; marginal striæ, in µ. l. µ. blue clay. pl. , fig. . navicula pygmÆa kuetz. valve elliptical, appearing hyaline; axial and central areas faint; lateral areas convergent in the middle; striæ indistinct, about in µ. l. µ. brandywine creek (palmer). pl. , fig. . decussatÆ cl. valve elliptical or lanceolate; axial area narrow; central area small; striæ punctate, in transverse and oblique, curved rows. navicula placenta ehr. valve elliptical, with short, rostrate-capitate ends; axial area narrow; central area elliptical; striæ in two directions, the transverse about (to , cl.) in µ, the oblique striæ crossing in both directions in curved lines appearing "coarser than the transverse" (lewis). a very peculiar species which, as cleve remarks, seems not to be allied to any other. l. about µ, quite constant in size. it is reported from finland, scotland, hungary and new zealand. dr. lewis found it in the delaware river. it is occasional in the schuylkill river and the blue clay, and very abundant on marchantia and mosses on the wet rocks of the upper wissahickon (f. j. keeley). pl. , fig. . lineolatÆ cl. valve more or less lanceolate; axial area narrow or indistinct; striæ radiate or parallel, lineate, that is, with the puncta closer than the striæ. navicula radiosa kuetz. valve lanceolate with sub-rostrate apices; axial area indistinct; central area small; striæ radiate in the middle, from to in µ, and convergent at the ends, about in µ. l. µ. very common in fresh water. pl. , fig. ; pl. , fig. . navicula peregrina ehr. valve lanceolate, obtuse; axial area narrow; central area large, rounded or slightly irregular; striæ coarse in the middle, in µ, radiate; convergent at the ends, or in µ. abundant in brackish water. delaware river. pl. , fig. . { }navicula cyprinus (wm. sm.) valve lanceolate, slightly gibbous in the middle, sub-cuneate at the ends; axial area narrow; central area small; striæ radiate in the middle, in µ, with shorter, transverse striæ intermediate; transverse at the extreme ends. l. µ. _navicula digito-radiata_ var. _cyprinus_ (ehr. ?) wm. sm. whether the form here figured is ehrenberg's or not, it is the species known as pinnularia cyprinus ehr. of wm. smith. common in shark river, n. j. pl. , fig. . navicula reinhardtii grun. valve elliptical or elliptical-lanceolate, with broad, rounded ends; axial area narrow, widened at the ends to the width of the valve; central area widened transversely to an irregular, quadrate space; striæ coarse, in µ, distinctly lineate, alternately longer and shorter in the middle, radiate, nearly transverse at the ends. l. µ. blue clay. rare. pl. , fig. . navicula lanceolata var. arenaria (donk.) cl. valve lanceolate; axial area very narrow or indistinct; central area small, rounded; striæ radiate, in µ in the middle, closer at the ends. l. - µ. _navicula arenaria_ donk. shark river, n. j. pl. , fig. . navicula salinarum grun. valve elliptical-lanceolate with produced sub-capitate or rostrate ends; striæ radiate in the middle, longer and shorter; transverse at the ends, lineate. l. µ. atlantic city, n. j. pl. , fig. . navicula viridula var. rostellata kuetz. valve lanceolate with rostrate ends; axial area very narrow, central area orbicular; striæ radiate in the middle, about in µ, convergent at the ends and closer. l. µ. common in fresh water. pl. , fig. . navicula gracilis var. schizonemoides (ehr.) v. h. valve lanceolate, obtuse; axial area widened in the middle; striæ radiate in the middle, about in µ, transverse or slightly convergent at the ends. l. - µ. occurs in gelatinous tubes; usually found free. _colletonema neglectum_ thwaites. fresh water. pl. , fig. . navicula ramosissima (ag.) cl. valve lanceolate, sub-acute; axial area very narrow; central area scarcely widened; striæ, in µ, parallel throughout. l. µ. _micromega ramosissimum_ ag. _schizonema smithii_ kuetz. (not ag.). east river, n. y. pl. , fig. . { }navicula anglica ralfs valve elliptical, with sub-capitate or rostrate ends; axial area narrow, central area small; striæ radiate, - in µ, distinctly punctate. l. µ. fresh water. pl. , fig. . navicula gastrum ehr. valve elliptical, with rostrate ends; axial area narrow, central area transverse or irregular; striæ radiate, in µ in the middle. l. µ. the form here figured approaches n. anglica. kirkwood pond, n. j. pl. , fig. . navicula dicephala wm. sm. valve linear, with rostrate or rostrate-capitate ends; axial area narrow, central area rectangular, transverse; striæ radiate, in µ. l. µ. fresh water. pl. , fig. . navicula humilis donk. valve elliptical, with broad, rostrate ends; axial area narrow; central area small; striæ radiate and distant in the middle, convergent at the ends, coarse, appearing costate, averaging in µ. l. µ. as donkin states, the striæ are "very conspicuous." _navicula hungarica_ var. _capitata_ (ehr.) cl. _navicula globiceps_ lagerstedt, according to cleve. willistown, pa. pl. , fig. . navicula pinnata pant. ? valve lanceolate, obtuse; axial area narrow, widened in the middle; striæ coarse, in µ in the middle, radiate, in µ at the ends and transverse, indistinctly lineate. l. µ. near _navicula ardua_ mann (diat. albatross voy., cont. u. s. nat. herbarium vol. , part , p. , pl. , fig. ) which, however, is said to have "strictly unbeaded costæ." pavonia, n. j., artesian well. pl. , fig. . navicula pennata a. s. valve lanceolate, acute; axial area narrow; central area quadrate, transverse; striæ radiate, coarse, in µ, lineate. l. - µ (cleve). pavonia, n. j., artesian well. pl. , fig. . navicula inflexa greg. valve slightly elliptical-lanceolate, sub-acute, smooth at the ends; axial area narrow, widened in the middle; striæ radiate, in µ, lineate. frustule in zone view constricted in the middle. l. - µ. common along the coast. pl. , figs. and . { }navicula oblonga kuetz. valve linear-lanceolate, with broad, rounded ends; margin sometimes undulate; axial area narrow; central area large, orbicular; striæ in the middle distant, radiate, convergent at the ends and curved or sharply bent, in µ, lineate. l. - µ (cleve). blue clay. occasional in fresh water. pl. , fig. . navicula hasta pant. valve lanceolate, gently tapering to the obtuse, produced ends; axial area lanceolate, widened to an orbicular space in the middle; striæ radiate, the median coarse and quite distant, in µ, becoming closer at the ends where they are in µ, lineate. the distance between the median striæ gives the appearance of a stauros. occasional in the blue clay. pl. , fig. . navicula hasta var. punctata n. var. valve as in type but with striæ in the middle distinctly punctate and reaching the median line. greenwich point, philadelphia. pl. , fig. . navicula rhyncocephala kuetz. valve lanceolate, with produced ends; axial area indistinct; central area small, rounded; striæ radiate in the middle, convergent at the ends, - in µ, punctate. l. µ. fresh water. common. pl. , fig. . navicula cryptocephala kuetz. valve lanceolate, with rostrate ends; axial area indistinct; central area small; striæ, in µ, lineate, radiate in the middle, convergent at the ends. l. µ. common in fresh water. intermediate forms occur between n. rhyncocephala and n. cryptocephala. pl. , fig. . navicula longa (greg.) ralfs valve slender, rhombic, elongated, with acute ends; axial area indistinct; central area small; striæ, or in µ, radiate in the middle, elsewhere transverse; central pores closely approximate. l. µ. new rochelle, n. y. pl. , fig. . cleve refers this form to n. directa var. remota grun. some specimens are found in this locality showing the "generally twisted" median line mentioned by gregory. mesoleiÆ cl. valve linear or elliptical; axial area narrow; central area quadrate; striæ radiate, finely punctate. navicula mutica kuetz. valve ovate, elliptical or lanceolate; axial area narrow; central area dilated into a stauros not reaching the margin; striæ about in µ, more distant in the middle, radiate, punctate. a punctum occurs on one side of the central nodule. { }reported from new jersey in fresh water. i have not found it. the figure is from a specimen from another locality. pl. , fig. . navicula minima grun. valve broadly elliptical, - µ in length; axial area narrow; central area small but with a quadrate pseudo-stauros which is striated; striæ, about in µ, radiate. agrees closely with n. saugeri var. grun. in v. h. synopsis, pl. , fig. , said to be intermediate between n. minima and n. atomoides grun. n. minima var. atomoides grun. is smaller. common in water-troughs. pl. , fig. . navicula pupula var. bacillarioides grun. valve linear, with rounded ends; axial area linear, expanding on both sides near the ends of the valve, forming a transverse lunate space; central area small, apparently expanded into a stauros, which, however, is striated; striæ, in µ, at the middle, closer at the ends, punctate. l. µ. pavonia, n. j., artesian well. pl. , fig. . bacillares cl. valve linear or linear-elliptical, with broad ends; axial area narrow, the median line enclosed in siliceous ribs; striæ finely punctate, more distant in the middle. navicula bacillum ehr. valve linear, with rounded ends; axial area enclosed in siliceous ribs and slightly expanded on each side at the ends; terminal nodules incrassate; central area small, elliptical; striæ, in µ in the middle, transverse, distinctly punctate, closer at the ends l. µ. fresh water. pl. , fig. . cleve describes the form as having slightly radiate striæ in the middle. there is considerable difference in the descriptions of cleve, donkin, grunow and van heurck, as also in all of the figures. navicula americana ehr. valve oblong-linear, with rounded ends, sometimes slightly constricted; axial area about one-half the width of the valve, dilated in the middle; striæ parallel in the middle, radiate at the ends, - in µ. a punctum is usually found in the central nodule. l. - µ. blue clay. occasional in fresh water. pl. , fig. . decipientes cl. valve lanceolate, with obtuse ends; axial area narrow; central area orbicular; striæ radiate in the middle and more distant. navicula semen ehr. valve elliptic-lanceolate, with sub-rostrate, truncate apices; axial area narrow, { }sinuous; central area orbicular; terminal fissures small, hook-shaped; striæ robust, or in the middle, closer at the ends, indistinctly punctate or lineolate. blue clay. not common. pl. , fig. . cleve states that this form belongs to the post-glacial deposits and is found living only in the hartz mountains. navicula integra wm. sm. valve lanceolate with triundulate margins and rostrate-apiculate ends; striæ radiate, more distant in the middle, - in µ, punctate; axial area very narrow, central area rounded or elliptical. l. - µ. pavonia, n. j., artesian well. common in chester river, md. pl. , fig. . microstigmaticÆ cl. valve lanceolate; axial area narrow; central area small, rounded; striæ finely punctate, nearly parallel. (includes here only the division libellus.) navicula tumida (brÉb.) cl. valve lanceolate, with rounded ends; axial area narrow, central area elliptical; raphe slightly sigmoid; striæ, in µ, finely punctate, a few shorter in the middle. _scoliopleura tumida_ (bréb.) v. h. cape may, n. j. pl. , fig. . navicula grevillei (ag.) cl. frustules in gelatinous tubes, rectangular; zone with numerous longitudinal divisions. valve elliptical-lanceolate, obtuse; axial area narrow, central area small; striæ lineate, about in µ in the middle where they are slightly radiate and more evident, closer near the ends and transverse; median line with terminal pores distant from the ends. l. µ. _schizonema grevillei_ ag. east river, n. y. pl. , figs. and . navicula libellus greg. valve rhombic-elliptical, obtuse at the ends; axial area narrow, central rounded, small; striæ punctate, slightly radiate, about in µ; terminal fissures close to the ends, indistinct. l. µ. cleve describes this form as having acute ends, while gregory states that it is "more obtuse and broader than n. rhombica." gregory's figure apparently shows the ends acute, but he says that the valve view is "rhombic or elliptic-lanceolate, broad, with obtuse ends" (diat. of the clyde, p. , pl. ). hackensack swamp, n. j. pl. , fig. . orthostichÆ cl. valve lanceolate or elongated; axial area narrow; central area sometimes apparently dilated into a stauros; striæ punctate, the puncta in transverse and longitudinal rows. { }navicula cuspidata kuetz. valve rhombic-lanceolate, with acute ends; axial area linear, narrow, not widened in the middle; striæ transverse, - in µ (cl.). l. - µ. blue clay. not uncommon in fresh water. pl. , figs. and . fig. represents an inner valve or stratum, with strong costæ variable in size, formerly known as surirella craticula ehr. _n. cuspidata var. ambigua (ehr.) cl._--valve elliptical-lanceolate, with rostrate ends, smaller than the type and with finer striæ. crum creek. pl. , fig. . navicula spicula (hickie) cl. valve narrow, lanceolate with acute ends; axial area narrow, central area dilated into a stauros reaching the margin; transverse striæ, - in µ, longitudinal closer. l. - (cl.). sometimes confused with n. crucigera. _stauroneis spicula_ hickie. newark, n. j. pl. , fig. . navicula crucigera (wm. sm.) cl. valve lanceolate, narrow, with acute apices; central nodule a stauros reaching the margin but crossed by two or three coarser striæ; transverse striæ, in µ, punctate, the puncta about in µ. l. - µ (cl.). frustules in gelatinous tubes or free. _schizonema cruciger_ wm. sm. pl. , fig. . reported as occurring in new york bay, but i have not seen it. the figure is from a specimen from another locality. minusculÆ cl. valve lanceolate or elliptical, chiefly distinguished by the small size; axial area indistinct; central area small; striæ radiate, very finely punctate. navicula atomus nÆgeli valve elliptical, - µ in length; striæ radiate, - µ, closer near the ends; axial area linear, scarcely widened in the middle. water-troughs and ditches. probably common, but frequently not noticed because of its minuteness. a mounting medium of the highest refractive index, such as realgar, is required to resolve the striæ. in the figure the striæ are drawn a little coarser than they appear in most specimens. pl. , fig. . lÆvistriatÆ cl. valve lanceolate, axial area distinct; central area orbicular; striæ coarse, indistinctly punctate, approaching the costæ of pinnularia. { }navicula yarrensis grun. valve elliptical-lanceolate, with rounded ends; axial area lanceolate, widened in the middle; striæ, in µ. l. µ. cape may, n. j. common. pl. , fig. . fig. , a smaller form, µ in length; striæ, in µ. fig. , µ in length; striæ, in µ (near var. valida pant.). navicula elegans wm. sm. valve elliptical-lanceolate, with produced ends; axial area very narrow, central area large, orbicular; striæ strongly divergent in the middle, slightly, if at all, convergent at the ends, curved toward the margin, indistinctly lineate, in µ. l. µ. blue clay. not rare. pl. , fig. . _navicula elegans var. cuspidata cl._--valve as in type form but smaller and with rostrate apices; striæ, in µ. l. µ. belmar, n. j. pl. , fig. . cleve remarks that the type form is acute and the striæ , while the var. cuspidata has striæ in µ. in fig. , pl. , is represented a valve having striæ in µ, but not acute, while fig. , with but slight variation in striæ, is more cuspidate. it is probable there are intermediate variations. navicula palpebralis brÉb. valve elliptical-lanceolate, with acute apiculate ends; axial area broad, lanceolate; striæ radiate, lineate, about in µ. l. µ. along the coast. pl. , figs. and . on plate , fig. , is represented an abnormal form of navicula in which the central pores are in a line transverse to the longitudinal axis and each raphe is curved in a line which almost returns to the centre. the puncta are in curved lines radiating from the rounded hyaline centre. pavonia, n. j., artesian well. weissflog has described valves of navicula somewhat similar in punctation. pinnularia ehr. ( ) (pinnula, a small feather) valve linear or nearly so, with rounded ends; axial area broad; central and terminal areas large; costæ smooth, transverse or radiating, usually convergent at the ends. the costæ are channels on the inside of the valve, closed, except in the middle where elliptical foramina, opening into the interior of the valve, give rise through their terminal margins to the two longitudinal lines on each side of the valve. the raphe begins as a groove in the side of the conical central nodule and continues as a cleft at right angles to the plane of the surface of the valve, in which case the raphe forms a single line; if the raphe is inclined to the valve surface, then two lines appear in projection, the upper and lower edges of the cleft. in some forms the surface of the edge of the raphe on one side is folded or grooved for a considerable distance, and the opposite edge is elevated into a ridge or { }tongue fitting into the groove. in such cases it is possible, in projection, to see the upper or outer edges of the raphe, the lower edges and the edges of the tongue and groove, thus showing four lines; sometimes, when the tongue and groove do not meet, six lines. the so-called inner channel is the part of the raphe on the inside of the tongue, and the so-called exterior channel is the part of the raphe on the outside of the tongue. if, in addition to this formation of the raphe, the plane of cleavage changes toward the terminal nodules, the lines will cross each other and, when two are superimposed, disappear altogether. for the careful examination of the raphe it is necessary to employ large forms, and it is advisable to use nitrate of silver which remains in the raphe, and, as in slides mounted by mr. f. j. keeley, shows in a beautiful manner the entire outline of raphe and fissures. the terminal fissures owe their separation to the different directions taken by the two edges of the raphe on each side, one edge bending in a wide curve toward the end of the valve, showing two lines, the upper and lower edges of one side of the raphe when inclined to the plane of the surface, and the other edge of the raphe turning suddenly in an opposite direction and ending abruptly in a curve, giving rise to the appearance, by diffraction, of a punctum. pl. , figs. , and . endochrome consists of two chromatophores lying on the zones. pinnularia is usually divided into the majores, or larger, and the minores, or smaller forms, the latter being further divided according to their striæ. the following classification is chiefly that of cleve. _majores._--valve large, linear with parallel or slightly radiate striæ and broad axial area. _gracillimæ._--valve small, striæ parallel or nearly so; axial area very narrow. _capitatæ._--valve with capitate or rostrate ends; striæ radiate. _divergentes._--striæ strongly radiate. _brevistriatæ._--striæ short. _distantes._--striæ distant. _tabellariæ._--striæ radiate in the middle, strongly convergent at the ends. _marinæ._--marine forms. majores pinnularia major (kuetz.) wm. sm. valve linear, usually slightly gibbous in the middle and at the ends; raphe oblique; axial area less than one-third the width of valve, convergent at the ends; striæ, or in µ, radiate in the middle, convergent at the ends, crossed by a narrow band. l. ? to µ. blue clay. fresh water. abundant at middletown, delaware co. (t. c. palmer). pl. , fig. . fig. , pl. , is one of a number of smaller forms which are difficult to determine, approaching p. viridis. pinnularia major var. pulchella n. var. valve strongly gibbous in the middle and gradually widened to the rounded ends; axial area broad, less than one-third the width of the valve, widened unilaterally in the middle; striæ, in µ, crossed by a band nearly as wide as the length of the costæ and scarcely distinct. l. µ. { }the central nodule is scarcely evident, probably because it is not so thick as in other forms. the outline is near to that of n. mesogongyla and certain forms of n. nobilis, differing from the latter in the median line, striæ and band which is wider than that of p. latevittata var. domingensis cl. hammonton pond, n. j. pl. , fig. . a very beautiful form which i cannot find described or figured. it does not appear to be n. major var. turgidula cl., which has a narrow band. in the fossil deposit from hopkinton, n. h., valves occur similar in outline but smaller. pinnularia nobilis ehr. valve slightly gibbous in the middle and at the ends; median line complex; striæ, or in µ, slightly convergent or parallel at the ends, crossed by a band one-third as wide as the length of the striæ. l. ? to µ. blue clay. fresh water. pl. , fig. . pinnularia dactylus ehr. valve broad, linear, slightly gibbous in the middle; ends broad, rounded; median line not complex, sinuous; striæ, or in µ, crossed by a very broad band. l. ? to µ. _navicula gigas_ a. s. blue clay. fresh water. pl. , fig. . forms occur which are with difficulty assigned to either nobilis or dactylus. pinnularia dactylus var. dariana (a. s.) cl. valve linear-lanceolate, obtuse; axial area broad, less than one-third the width of the valve; striæ, in µ, crossed by a broad band. l. µ. absecon, n. j. pl. , fig. . pinnularia dactylus var. demerarÆ cl. valve elliptical-lanceolate, with sub-cuneate ends; axial area lanceolate, broad in the middle; median line flexuose; striæ radiate throughout, in µ. l. µ. blue clay. pl. , fig. . pinnularia gentilis (donk.) cl. valve linear, with rounded ends; axial area about one-fourth the diameter of the valve; striæ radiate in the middle, convergent at the ends, in µ, crossed by a broad indistinct band. fresh water. not common. pl. , fig. . pinnularia trigonocephala cl. valve linear, gibbous in the middle and at the cuneate ends; axial area wider between the middle and the ends, dilated to an elliptical space in the middle; striæ, in µ. l. µ. blue clay. pl. , fig. . { }pinnularia viridis nitzsch valve linear-elliptical, with rounded ends; axial area narrow, widened in the middle; striæ, to in µ, crossed by a band as wide as one-third the length of the striæ. common in fresh water. pl. , fig. . quite variable in size. approaches p. major by intermediate forms as in fig. , pl. . pinnularia viridis var. fallax cl. valve linear, with rounded ends; axial area narrow, slightly widened in the middle; striæ sometimes unilaterally interrupted, nearly parallel, in µ. elm, n. j. pl. , fig. . in fig. , pl. , a form is represented which corresponds closely to navicula viridis var. b, of wm. smith. it is given as synonymous with var. fallax; it is bilaterally interrupted. blue clay. pinnularia viridis var. ? valve linear-elliptical, with rounded ends; axial area narrow, widened in the middle to a transverse fascia which is sometimes unilateral; striæ, , in the middle, divergent, convergent at the ends and closer, crossed by a narrow band. l. - µ. fascia sometimes absent or very narrow. northbrook, pa. pl. , fig. (represents a form with wider area than usual). pinnularia viridis var. caudata n. var. valve elliptical-lanceolate, with sub-rostrate ends; axial area narrow, widened to an orbicular space in the middle; striæ radiate in the middle, - in µ, convergent and closer at the ends, crossed by a narrow band; median line with very long terminal fissures; terminal nodules noticeable because of the thickening of the edges of the terminal striæ. l. µ. fresh water, newtown square. not common. pl. , fig. . pinnularia socialis (palmer) valve linear, with rounded ends; axial area broad, one-third the width of the valve; striæ slightly radiate in the middle, convergent at the ends, elsewhere parallel, in µ, crossed by an indistinct band about one-third the length of the striæ. l. - µ. this species, discovered by mr. palmer near media, pa., is remarkable for the grouping of the frustules "held with girdle sides together by a siliceous cementing of valve edges and enclosed in a common coleoderm." the usual number included in a group is four, but sometimes six or eight are noticed. the frustules adhere near their ends and are so firmly fastened that boiling in nitric acid and bichromate of potash for fifteen minutes will not separate them. _navicula socialis_ palmer (proc. acad. nat. sci., phila., , p. , pl. ). media, pa. pl. , fig. . { }pinnularia Æstuarii cl. valve linear, with rounded ends; axial area broad, less than one-third the width of the valve; central area a transverse fascia; striæ, in µ, parallel except at the ends where they are slightly convergent; median line flexuose, with short, terminal semicircular fissures. l. µ. port penn, delaware river. rare. pl. , fig. . gracillimÆ pinnularia molaris (grun.) cl. valve very convex, linear, with sub-cuneate ends; axial area narrow, expanded in the middle to a transverse fascia reaching the margin; striæ divergent in the middle, convergent at the ends, in µ. l. µ. fresh water. pl. , fig. . pinnularia leptosoma grun. valve linear, rounded at the ends; axial area narrow; central area a broad transverse fascia; striæ slightly divergent in the middle and convergent at the ends, in µ in the middle, closer at the ends. l. µ. fresh water. not common. pl. , fig. . capitatÆ pinnularia mesolepta ehr. valve linear, with triundulate margins and capitate ends; axial area narrow, widened in the middle; striæ divergent in the middle, convergent at the ends, about in µ. l. µ. common in fresh water. pl. , fig. . pinnularia mesolepta var. stauroneiformis grun. valve triundulate, capitate; axial area narrow, widened in the middle to a transverse fascia, broader at the margin; striæ strongly divergent in the middle and convergent at the ends, - in µ. l. µ. pavonia, n. j., artesian well. fresh water. pl. , fig. . pinnularia subcapitata greg. valve linear or linear-elliptical, with sub-capitate ends; axial area distinct, widened to a transverse fascia in the middle; striæ divergent in the middle, convergent at the ends, in µ. l. µ. fresh water. pl. , fig. . { }pinnularia subcapitata var. paucistriata grun. valve linear-elliptical, with rounded ends; axial area gradually widened into a broad, transverse fascia; striæ divergent in the middle, convergent at the ends, - in µ. l. µ. fresh water. pl. , fig. . pinnularia termes (ehr.) a. s. valve linear, with concave margins and rostrate-capitate ends; axial area narrow, widened in the middle to an orbicular or sub-quadrate space; striæ divergent in the middle, scarcely, if at all, convergent at the ends, in µ. pensauken, n. j., artesian well. pl. , fig. . this is, i believe, the form figured by schmidt (atlas, pl. , fig. ). cleve refers it to pinnularia interrupta forma biceps, in which the central space is rhomboid. pinnularia termes var. stauroneiformis v. h. valve linear, with concave margins and capitate-rostrate ends; axial area narrow, widened into a rhomboidal fascia, reaching the margin; striæ, in µ, divergent in the middle, convergent at the ends. _pinnularia interrupta forma stauroneiformis_ cl. fresh water. pl. , fig. . pinnularia appendiculata (ag.) cl. valve linear, with subcapitate ends; axial area narrow; central area a transverse fascia; striæ divergent in the middle, convergent at the ends, in µ. l. µ. fresh water. marl pits, lenola, n. j. (palmer). pl. , fig. . pinnularia braunii grun. valve linear-lanceolate, with capitate ends; axial area gradually widened toward the middle and expanded into a fascia reaching the margin; striæ divergent in the middle, convergent at the ends, in µ. l. µ. pensauken, n. j., artesian well. pl. , fig. . pinnularia microstauron (ehr.) cl. valve convex, linear, tapering to sub-cuneate or sub-rostrate ends; axial area very narrow; central area a broad fascia; striæ divergent in the middle, convergent at the ends, in µ. l. µ. pavonia, n. j., artesian well. pl. , fig. . this form does not exactly correspond to cleve's diagnosis, as the ends are not broad. all species in the group capitatæ are quite variable. { }divergentes pinnularia divergens var. elliptica grun. valve linear, with rounded ends; axial area widened in the middle to a transverse fascia; striæ, in µ, divergent in the middle, convergent at the ends. l. µ. fresh water. not common in this locality. pl. , fig. . pinnularia cardinaliculus cl. valve linear, with rounded ends; axial area wide, less than one-third the width of the valve, expanded to a transverse fascia; striæ divergent in the middle and slightly convergent at the ends, in µ. l. µ. blue clay. pl. , fig. . as a rule, the median fissures in pinnularia are turned inwards on the side of the longer edge of the terminal fissures, but not always. in this specimen the median fissures are turned slightly toward the side of the shorter edge of the terminal fissures. pinnularia legumen ehr. valve linear, with more or less triundulate margins and broad, capitate ends; axial area less than one-fourth the width of valve, widened in the middle; striæ strongly divergent in the middle and convergent at the ends, in µ. l. µ. fresh water. may's landing, n. j. pl. , fig. . pinnularia legumen var. ? valve as in type, but with a transverse fascia; striæ, in µ, curved or bent near the ends. l. µ. this form is not var. florentina grun. may's landing, n. j. (with the type). pl. , fig. . pinnularia brÉbissonii (kuetz.) cl. valve linear-elliptical, with rounded ends; axial area narrow, widened into a transverse fascia which is usually broader at the ends; striæ divergent in the middle, convergent at the ends, about in µ. l. - µ (cl.). fresh water. common. pl. , fig. ; pl. , fig. . variable in outline. pinnularia mormonorum (grun.) valve linear, with rounded ends; striæ divergent in the middle, convergent at the ends, in µ; axial area rhombic-lanceolate, widened to a fascia usually reaching the border. l. µ. _navicula mormonorum_ grun. common near willistown, pa. this form is regarded by cleve as p. brébissonii, but the axial area appears to distinguish it. the valves are sometimes narrowed in the middle. pl. , fig. . { }brevistriatÆ pinnularia acrosphÆria (brÉb.) cl. valve linear, gibbous in the middle and at the ends; axial area about half the width of the valve; median line with approximate central pores; median area punctate; striæ nearly parallel, radiate at the ends, in µ. l. - µ (cl.). blue clay. recent, fresh water. pl. , fig. . pinnularia acrosphÆria var. turgidula grun. ? valve strongly gibbous in the middle; ends rounded; striæ, - in µ. l. µ. blue clay, gloucester, n. j., artesian well. pl. , fig. . pinnularia blandita n. sp. valve linear, gibbous in the middle, and with rounded ends; striæ radiate in the middle, convergent at the ends, in µ; axial area about one-fourth the width of the valve, widened in the middle; median line with small semicircular terminal fissures. l. µ. pavonia, n. j., artesian well. rare. pl. , fig. . pinnularia parva (ehr.) cl. var. ? valve linear, tapering to the subcapitate ends; axial area broad, lanceolate; median line with approximate central pores and semicircular terminal fissures; striæ slightly divergent in the middle and convergent at the ends, in µ. l. µ. differs from the type in having finer striæ. atco, n. j. pl. , fig. . pinnularia nodosa forma capitata cl. valve triundulate, with capitate ends; axial area about one-fourth the width of valve; striæ parallel, convergent at the ends, in µ, sometimes interrupted in the middle. l. µ. fresh water. common. pl. , figs. and . pinnularia polyonca (brÉb.) lewis valve with triundulate margins, more inflated in the middle, with capitate ends; axial area very broad; striæ marginal, short, in µ, divergent in the middle, convergent at the ends. l. µ. kirkwood pond, n. j. pl. , fig. . the description of kuetzing (species algarum, p. ), where he states that the margins are "triundulate, the median inflation larger, apices rounded-capitate," appears to sufficiently distinguish this species, which i believe to be the same as brun's navicula peripunctata, except that the form figured (espèces nouvelles, pl. , fig. ) is interrupted in the middle, a common variation in these forms. cleve makes navicula polyonca bréb. equal pinnularia mesolepta, but at the same time he considers lewis' form and also brun's as equivalent to navicula formica ehr., and calls it pinnularia nodosa var. formica ehr. p. mesolepta has a narrower area than nodosa. i adhere to lewis' identification, as in any case it is the form here figured and is nearly, if not quite, the same as brun's species. { }distantes pinnularia lata (brÉb.) wm. sm. valve linear-elliptical, broad; axial area broad, widened in the middle; striæ slightly radiate in the middle, in µ; median line oblique, the terminal fissures hook-shaped. l. µ. blue clay. not uncommon. pl. , fig. . pinnularia borealis ehr. valve linear, with rounded or sub-truncate ends; axial area about one-fourth the width of the valve, widened in the middle; median line with large hook-shaped terminal fissures; striæ, or in µ. l. µ. blue clay. occasional in fresh water in a smaller form. specimens occur intermediate between p. lata and p. borealis. pl. , fig. ; pl. , fig. . pinnularia borealis var. scalaris (ehr.) cl. valve narrow, linear; axial area broad, widened into a transverse fascia; striæ, in µ. l. µ. fresh water. pl. , fig. . tabellariÆ pinnularia stomatophora (grun.) cl. valve linear, with rounded ends; axial area less than one-third the width of the valve, gradually widened in the middle to a transverse fascia; on each side of the central nodule is a lunate space; striæ divergent in the middle, convergent at the ends, in µ; terminal fissures very long, bayonet shaped. l. µ. cleve describes a variety continua as not interrupted. in some forms the fascia is marked by very faint, short striæ on the margin. fresh water. newtown square. pl. , fig. . pinnularia gibba (kuetz.) v. h. valve linear, tapering to the subcapitate ends; axial area dilated in the middle; striæ, - µ, divergent in the middle, convergent at the ends. l. µ. fresh water. pl. , fig. . pinnularia mesogongyla (ehr.) cl. valve linear, gibbous in the middle, ends subcapitate; axial area narrow, widened in the middle to a large orbicular space; striæ strongly divergent in the middle, convergent at the ends, in µ. l. µ. fresh water. common. pl. , fig. . { }pinnularia stauroptera (grun.) cl. valve linear, with slightly triundulate margins tapering to the subcapitate ends; axial area more than one-third the width of the valve, slightly widened in the middle; median line with approximate central pores and semicircular terminal fissures; striæ divergent in the middle, convergent at the ends, in µ. l. µ. may's landing, n. j. pl. , fig. . some of the forms are more triundulate than the specimen figured. pinnularia stauroptera var. interrupta cl. valve linear, tapering to the subcapitate ends; axial area broad, widened in the middle to a transverse fascia; striæ divergent in the middle, convergent at the ends, in µ; median pores approximate. l. µ. schuylkill river. pl. , fig. . pinnularia tabellaria (ehr.) cl. valve linear, gibbous in the middle and tapering to the subcapitate ends; axial area about one-third the width of the valve, widened in the middle; median line with approximate central pores and bayonet-shaped terminal fissures; striæ sometimes unilaterally interrupted, divergent in the middle, strongly convergent at the ends, in µ. l. µ. blue clay. rare. pl. , fig. . the form here figured has coarser striæ than in the type which is also usually more capitate. p. legumen has triundulate margins, p. mesogongyla has an orbicular space, while p. gibba has the space widened. according to cleve, p. gibba has approximate central pores, as has also p. mesogongyla. in what i have considered to be p. legumen, the central pores are more approximate than in the other two species mentioned. in fact, all of the three resemble each other closely, and are variously named by different authors. the form of p. gibba here figured, which may be p. stauroptera, is not the typical form of wm. smith, which has a narrow area and central space. there are, however, among the typical specimens in h. l. smith's type slide no. , smaller valves which show a resemblance. marinÆ pinnularia rectangulata (greg.) cl. valve linear, with abruptly rounded ends; axial area very narrow; central area large, somewhat quadrate; striæ, - in µ. l. µ. _navicula rectangulata greg._ shark river, n. j. pl. , fig. . { }epithemia brÉb. ( ) (epithema, a cover or lid) frustules epiphytic, solitary, sometimes geminate, adherent on the ventral side at the ends; in zone view rectangular, sometimes tumid in the middle. valve arcuate, having an interior costate stratum or transverse septa extending to the girdle, often detached, and an exterior valve surface with transverse rows of puncta. central and terminal nodules not easily seen; in some species a true raphe is indicated. the resemblance between epithemia and eunotia has been already mentioned. in the shape and striation of the valves there is an approach to cymbella. the genus is divided into two groups, one in which the costæ alternate with double rows of puncta, as in e. turgida, and the other in which the rows of puncta are more than two. the endochrome usually consists of a band lying along the ventral zone and extending in two flaps on the valves. epithemia turgida (ehr.) kuetz. valve arcuate, with ends subcapitate; costæ radiate, in µ, alternating with double rows of puncta. median nodule central, the raphe curved toward the ventral edge which it closely follows. parasitic on algæ. very common in fresh water, especially in ponds. in the figure the valve is asymmetrical with respect to the transverse axis, an unusual condition. pl. , fig. . epithemia argus kuetz. valve with dorsal margin convex, and ventral margin nearly straight; ends rounded, constricted; costæ robust, alternating with more than two rows of puncta; zone view rectangular, the thickened ends of the costæ forming large nodules in a row along the edge of the valve next to the connecting zone. _cystopleura argus_ (ehr.) kunze. common in fresh water. pl. , figs. and . epithemia argus var. ? valve strongly arcuate on the dorsal side and concave on the ventral; tapering to the rounded but not produced ends; costæ at unequal distances, about in µ; granules in transverse rows, in µ. l. µ. pensauken, n. j., artesian well. pl. , fig. . epithemia muelleri a. s. ? valve broad, convex, slightly arcuate, with obtuse, somewhat constricted apices; costæ about in µ; striæ, - in µ; in zone view the outline is rectangular, slightly tumid in the middle. l. µ. blue clay. pl. , fig. . { }epithemia zebra var. proboscidea (kuetz.) grun. valve convex on the dorsal, concave on the ventral side; costæ, - in µ, slightly radiating; apices recurved, capitate. blue clay. pl. , fig. . epithemia gibberula var. producta grun. valve narrow, lunate, with produced and arcuate apices; costæ radiate, - in µ; striæ, - in µ, punctate. l. µ, usually smaller. blue clay. pl. , fig. . epithemia musculus kuetz. valve short, strongly arcuate on the dorsal, concave on the ventral side; apices slightly produced; costæ radiate, about in µ; striæ, in µ, punctate. l. - µ. shark river, n. j. pl. , fig. . epithemia musculus var. constricta (brÉb.) v. h. frustule elliptical, slightly constricted in the middle. valve convex on the dorsal, straight on the ventral side; costæ about in µ; striæ about in µ, finely punctate. l. µ. _epithemia succinta_ bréb. new rochelle, n. y. pl. , fig. . rhopalodia mueller ( ) (rhopalodes, like a war club) frustule in zone view linear, linear-elliptical (in our species), or clavate. valve reniform or lunate; a raphe, not visible in some species in the usual position of the valve, is found along the convex edge or keel. median and terminal nodules, although very small, can be determined. the name is more appropriate to the african species which are clavate. two species only are found in this locality. the chief distinction between epithemia and rhopalodia is in the position of the raphe and the nodules. in r. gibba and r. ventricosa the costæ are parallel and not radiate since the valves are not lunate. chromatophore a single band irregularly divided. rhopalodia gibba (kuetz.) mueller valve linear, arcuate on the dorsal, straight on the ventral side, reflexed at the extremities. costæ, - in µ; striæ about in µ. l. - µ. fresh water. common. pl. , fig. . in this species the raphe and nodules can be seen only when the valve is examined at right angles to its usual position. { }rhopalodia ventricosa (kuetz.) mueller valve gibbous in the middle on the dorsal side, straight on the ventral side, with reflexed apices; costæ, in µ; striæ, - in µ. l. - µ. the median nodule appears as a minute depression in the middle of the dorsal side. the two species usually occur together. _epithemia gibba_ var. _ventricosa_ kuetz. pl. , fig. . surirelloideÆ the surirelloideæ are usually understood to include the genera surirella, podocystis, cymatopleura and campylodiscus, all of which resemble each other more or less, either in having a keel or markings like the divisions of the keel in surirella and a median line, or pseudoraphe. the genus nitzschia also has a keel, but it does not border each side of the valve as in surirella, being found either near one margin or between it and the centre. certain of the surirellæ are allied to the group tryblionella of the nitzschiæ, while forms of stenopterobia are distinguished with difficulty from the group sigmata. the following arrangement, therefore, is intended to include all genera having a keel or something which resembles it. _hantzschia._--valve asymmetrical; keels of the two valves opposite each other. _nitzschia._--valve asymmetrical; keels not (usually) opposite each other. _surirella._--valve usually symmetrical; a keel on each border. _cymatopleura._--valve without an elevated keel, but with markings like those of surirella; undulated in zone view. _campylodiscus._--valves saddle-shaped. hantzschia grun. ( ) (named after c. a. hantzsch) valve arcuate, with rostrate ends; keel puncta short, prolonged into costæ or extending across the valve; median nodule rudimentary; the keels of the two valves opposite each other. distinguished from nitzschia chiefly by the position of the keels. according to mereschkowsky, however, two species of nitzschia, n. lanceolata and n. spectabilis, show the same peculiarity. chromatophores four, two on each of the zones (mereschkowsky). hantzschia amphioxys (ehr.) grun. valve slightly arcuate, with rostrate apices; keel puncta, in µ; striæ transverse, - in µ, punctate. l. µ. quite variable. fresh water. pl. , fig. . { }hantzschia amphioxys var. major grun. valve as in type, but the keel puncta are in µ and the striæ are - in µ. l. µ. h. amphioxys var. major grun. is stated to be µ in length. the present form is smaller but corresponds in puncta and striation. van heurck remarks that it approaches h. virgata. abundant in sand ripples on the beach at cape may, n. j. pl. , fig. . fig. , pl. , is drawn from an authentic specimen of wm. smith's nitzschia amphioxys, from england, and is introduced for comparison. the central nodule is not evident. fig. , pl. , is from a specimen from an unknown locality. the keel puncta are and the striæ in µ. hantzschia virgata (roper) grun. valve arcuate on the dorsal side, nearly straight on the ventral side, with rostrate, recurved apices; keel puncta prolonged to one-third the width of the valve, in µ; transverse striæ, - in µ. l. µ. shark river, n. j. (kain). i have not been able to find this form on our coast. the figure is drawn from a specimen from another locality. pl. , fig. . hantzschia marina (donk.) grun. valve with dorsal margin slightly arcuate, ventral margin straight; apices rostrate and recurved; keel puncta, in µ, prolonged into costæ across the entire valve; transverse striæ, in µ, in double rows of alternating puncta between the costæ. l. µ. _epithemia marina_ donkin. along the coast. pl. , fig. . nitzschia hassall ( ), em. grun. ( ) (named after christian l. nitzsch, of halle) frustules usually free, sometimes enclosed in tubes or united into a filament. valves keeled, the keels of the two valves usually diagonally opposite (see hantzschia); keel puncta short or prolonged. according to mereschkowsky, there are at least two endochrome plates placed transversely on the zones; sometimes there are from four to six plates, in one species twenty granules and in another no trace of any endochrome whatever. the following analysis is that of grunow as given in cleve and grunow's "arctic diatoms," and adopted and illustrated by van heurck in his "synopsis." groups . _tryblionella._--keel very excentric, valve often folded; keel puncta indistinct, usually the same in number as the striæ. . _panduriformes._--valve broad, constricted in the middle, with more or less evident fold; keel very near the edge; keel puncta quite evident or apparently wanting. { } . _apiculatæ._--keel very near the edge; valve linear or somewhat narrower in the middle; striæ on the longitudinal fold fainter than on the remaining surface, or wanting; puncta not in quincunx. . _pseudo-tryblionella._--keel more or less close to the edge; valve with a more or less deep longitudinal fold over which the striæ are spread in the same way as over the remaining surface; keel puncta always distinct. . _circumsutæ._--valve with more or less wide longitudinal fold; keel very excentric; keel puncta quite evident; surface of valve irregularly punctate and also traversed by rows of delicate puncta which belong to a different layer of the valve. . _dubiæ._--like the group pseudo-tryblionella, but the valves are not so much folded; frustules sometimes narrowed in the middle. the separation of species is difficult and, in part, doubtful. keel excentric. . _bilobatæ._--like the group dubiæ, but with more central keel and so forming a transition to the group pseudo-amphiprora; valves without longitudinal folds. . _pseudo-amphiprora._--valve with quite central, sharp keel, arcuate, without longitudinal fold; keel puncta always evident; frustule narrowed in the middle with more or less marked central nodule. includes two species not found in this locality. . _perrya._--valve arched with very sharp central keel; not narrowed in the middle; keel puncta mostly on short or long lines which are sometimes interrupted. includes six species not found in this locality. . _epithemioideæ._--keel excentric; keel puncta extended into costæ across the entire valve. . _grunowia._--as in the group epithemioideæ, except that the costæ are shorter, not extending across the valve; keel very excentric. . _scalares._--like grunowia, but with sharper, somewhat excentric keel; transverse section of frustule quadrangular. . _insignes._--like scalares, but with more central keel so that many of the forms are near the group perrya; frustule somewhat sigmoid. . _bacillaria._--keel central or nearly so; valve somewhat arched; keel sharp, as in the group insignes. . _vivaces._--keel moderately excentric; valve, according to position, semi-lanceolate, with keel puncta in short rows, or lanceolate with quite central keel. the valves have in many positions a resemblance to hantzschia, so that n. vivax frequently becomes confounded with a form of h. amphioxys. the median keel puncta are not distant and a central nodule is not evident as is the case in all species of hantzschia. . _spathulatæ._--like the group bacillaria, but usually with very delicate striated valves; keel in valve view usually bordered with two parallel lines. . _dissipatæ._--like vivaces and spathulatæ, but with smaller central keel and without parallel lines. valves usually small, very delicately striated; no central nodule. . _sigmoideæ._--keel quite central; no parallel lines; frustule sigmoid; valve without longitudinal furrow; keel puncta not extended; no central nodule evident. . _sigmata._--like sigmoideæ, but with a more excentric keel. . _obtusæ._--like sigmata, with a more or less excentric keel which has in the middle a small bending to the inside; middle keel puncta somewhat more distant than the others, and between them a central nodule evident. { } . _spectabiles._--valve large, slightly arcuate, with excentric keel; no longitudinal folds; keel puncta somewhat extended over the valve but much less than in the group insignes, and often scarcely perceptible. . _lineares._--keel somewhat excentric, but less than in spectabiles; frustule straight, sometimes a little constricted in the middle, so that a transition is shown to the groups dubiæ and bilobatæ. valve without longitudinal fold; keel puncta round or somewhat angular, scarcely extended. . _lanceolatæ._--valve lanceolate, linear-lanceolate or rarely elliptical, with very excentric keel; not folded; keel puncta not extended. . _nitzschiella._--valve with excentric keel and long, produced apices. tryblionella nitzschia tryblionella hantzsch valve elliptical-lanceolate, with subacute apices; longitudinal fold well marked; striæ coarse, transverse, in µ; indistinct puncta intermediate between the striæ. l. µ. quite variable. blue clay. pl. , fig. . nitzschia granulata grun. valve elliptical or elliptical-lanceolate; striæ in double rows, each row of three or four small puncta along the margin and rows of large puncta about in µ across the valve. l. - µ. blue clay. along the coast. pl. , fig. . nitzschia navicularis (brÉb.) grun. valve elliptical-lanceolate, with acute apices; striæ on one side a double row of large and small puncta, and on the other side radiate short rows of large puncta, in µ; middle of valve hyaline. l. - µ. blue clay. not common. pl. , fig. . nitzschia compressa (bail.) valve elliptical-lanceolate, sometimes acuminate; striæ, or in µ, coarsely punctate. l. µ. _pyxidicula compressa_ bailey. _nitzschia punctata_ (wm. sm.) grun. _tryblionella punctata_ wm. sm. common along the coast. pl. , fig. . var. minor (h. l. smith).--valve acuminate; striæ, in µ. l. µ. _pyxidicula compressa_ var. _minor_ h. l. smith, type slide no. . pl. , fig. . the smaller forms occur northward, while the larger are found southward. this is unquestionably bailey's form, as indicated by his figure and by the fact that it is found everywhere along the coast. wm. smith's t. punctata is the same species, although the puncta are smaller. { }panduriformes nitzschia panduriformis greg. valve elliptical, constricted in the middle, with sub-cuneate apices; longitudinal fold, with a punctate longitudinal line; striæ transverse and oblique, in µ; keel puncta, in µ. l. µ. along the coast. more often found southward. pl. , fig. . nitzschia panduriformis var. minor grun. valve elliptical, constricted in the middle, with cuneate apices; keel puncta, in µ; striæ in transverse and oblique lines about in µ; longitudinal fold bordered by a punctate line. l. µ. pavonia, n. j., artesian well. pl. , fig. . the var. continua grun. is reported as occurring in shark river. it varies in having the longitudinal fold punctate. it is also usually smaller than var. minor. apiculatÆ nitzschia apiculata (greg.) grun. valve oblong-linear, with cuneate-apiculate apices; striæ punctate, apparently interrupted or pervious, about in µ. l. µ. chester river, md. pl. , fig. . the puncta are continued across the valve, but are less distinct on the fold. the figure shows the entire frustule with the fold on each valve. the valves are sometimes slightly constricted. nitzschia acuminata (wm. sm.) grun. valve linear, sometimes slightly constricted in the middle, with acuminate apices; longitudinal fold entirely without or with indistinct striæ; keel puncta not evident; striæ, - in µ. l. µ. port penn, delaware river. pl. , fig. . nitzschia plana wm. sm. valve linear; apices acute, slightly constricted in the middle; longitudinal fold further from the keel than the margin, broad, with scattered puncta; striæ subtle, irregular, interrupted, about in µ; keel puncta oblong, - in µ. l. - µ. blue clay. along the coast. pl. , fig. . { }pseudo-tryblionella nitzschia litoralis var. delawarensis grun. valve linear, with obtusely rounded cuneate ends, scarcely, if at all, constricted in the middle; longitudinal fold wide; keel puncta, or in µ, sometimes confluent; striæ obscure, about in µ. l. µ. delaware river. pl. , fig. . this form is drawn from a slide of christian febiger containing an abundance of specimens from delaware city, and marked "nitzschia dubia." circumsutÆ nitzschia circumsuta (bail.) grun. valve elliptical, sometimes more than µ in length; longitudinal fold more or less conspicuous; keel puncta about in µ, the middle distant with the appearance of a nodule; striæ irregular, subtle, finely punctate, frequently interrupted. _surirella circumsuta_ bail. _tryblionella scutellum_ wm. sm. common in brackish water. pl. , fig. . dubiÆ nitzschia dubia wm. sm. valve linear, scarcely, if at all, constricted in the middle, with cuneate, produced, apiculate apices, somewhat recurved; keel very excentric; puncta sometimes partly prolonged, about in µ; striæ, - in µ. l. µ. reported from along the new jersey coast. i have not seen it. it is generally regarded as fresh-water. slides sometimes labelled n. dubia are in reality n. litoralis var. delawarensis. pl. , fig. . the figure is drawn from a specimen from another locality. bilobatÆ nitzschia bilobata wm. sm. valve linear-lanceolate, constricted in the middle, apiculate at the ends; keel puncta in µ, prolonged unequally across part of the valve, the two median sub-remote; striæ, in µ. frustule oblong, truncate, constricted in the middle. l. µ. shark river, n. j., chester river, md. pl. , figs. and . epithemioideÆ nitzschia epithemioides grun. valve linear, with cuneate, rostrate apices; slightly constricted on the keel side; keel puncta, or in µ, extending as costæ across the valve; striæ delicate, in µ. l. µ. brackish water, long island sound. pl. , fig. . { }grunowia nitzschia tabellaria grun. valve rhomboidal, inflated in the middle; apices produced; keel puncta extend in costæ across half of the valve, in µ; striæ transverse, about in µ. l. µ. _dimerogramma sinuatum_ thwaites. _nitzschia sinuata_ var. _tabellaria_ (grun.) v. h. schuylkill river. not common. pl. , fig. . scalares nitzschia scalaris (ehr.) wm. sm. valve linear, with obtusely conical apices; costæ transverse, extending more or less to one-third the width of the valve, or in µ; striæ, or in µ, punctate. length of valve quite variable, up to µ (cleve). a well-known form, abundant in salt marshes and more or less brackish water. pl. , fig. . (to the right of the figure is an outline of the valve reduced one-third.) insignes nitzschia insignis greg. valve nearly linear or linear-lanceolate; apices broad, slightly produced, obtuse; keel puncta extended into short costæ, or in µ; striæ about in µ. length variable up to µ. delaware bay. pl. , fig. . bacillaria nitzschia paxillifer (o. f. mueller) heiberg frustules united in a filament, afterwards free; valve lanceolate with nearly central keel; keel puncta, - in µ; striæ about in µ. l. µ. _vibrio paxillifer_ o. f. mueller. _bacillaria paradoxa_ gmelin. _nitzschia paradoxa_ (gmelin) grun. brackish water or streams subject to its influence. pl. , figs. and . otto frederick mueller, in , published at copenhagen a work on "infusorial animalcules," including a description of a vibrio which he named paxillifer, obviously alluding to the partially-extended frustules bearing at the end a tablet-like bundle. two years later, gmelin described the same form as bacillaria paradoxa, a name still used. heiberg, however, in , placed the form under nitzschia where it properly belongs and called it nitzschia paxillifer (o. f. mueller). i have adopted heiberg's name. perhaps the most remarkable of all diatoms. many species possess the power of motion, which, however, is evident only in the free frustule. in n. paxillifer, the movement of the frustules occurs without the loss of continuity or adherence to each other, so that, while at one time the adnate frustules form a narrow filament, like that of fragilaria, at another { }time they move laterally to their extreme length and form a thread of frustules adherent at their ends, later resuming their original position. the motion is repeated at intervals of from five to ten seconds. no satisfactory explanation of the movement has ever been made. in the filamentous form the frustules adhere to water-plants. vivaces nitzschia fluminensis grun. valve lanceolate, apices produced; keel puncta, - in µ, partly extended in short costæ; striæ transverse, - in µ, punctate; keel without a pseudo-nodule. l. µ. common at greenwich point, philadelphia. pl. , fig. . the form here figured is smaller than the type, which is from - µ in length. spathulatÆ nitzschia spathulata brÉb. frustule linear, truncate, dilated at the ends; zone with longitudinal folds; valve lanceolate, keel central; apices acute, with an elevated appendage; keel puncta, - in µ; striæ very fine. l. µ. atlantic city and cape may, n. j. (lewis). pl. , fig. . dissipatÆ nitzschia dissipata (kuetz.) grun. valve lanceolate, with sub-rostrate apices; keel excentric; keel puncta about in µ; striæ, in µ. l. - µ. fresh and brackish water. pl. , fig. . sigmoideÆ nitzschia macilenta greg. frustule sigmoid, truncate at the ends; valve linear, with sub-acute apices and nearly central keel; keel with - puncta in µ; striæ obscure, about to (?) in µ. length variable, up to µ. as the valve is usually seen when the keel is on the margin, the outline (reduced one-third, shown to the left of the figure) is, as a rule, sigmoid. delaware bay. pl. , fig. . nitzschia vermicularis (kuetz.) hantzsch valve linear, sigmoid, attenuated toward the obtuse ends; keel puncta, in µ, quite distinct; striæ very fine. l. µ. fresh-water pools. pl. , fig. ; pl. , fig. . { }sigmata nitzschia sigma (kuetz.) wm. sm. frustule linear, sigmoid; valve linear, slightly sigmoid, tapering to the sub-acute apices; keel excentric, puncta, in µ; striæ, - in µ. l. to µ. along the coast. pl. , fig. . nitzschia sigmatella greg. valve linear, sigmoid, slightly attenuated toward the obtuse apices; keel excentric, puncta, - (?) in µ; striæ delicate, - in µ. l. to µ. the keel puncta are quite obscure. _nitzschia curvula_ wm. sm. _nitzschia sigma_ var. _curvula_ (wm. sm.) de toni. fresh water. hammonton pond; may's landing, n. j. pl. , figs. and . gregory remarks that the keel puncta are seen in some specimens. in both of the forms figured i have counted striæ in µ, but, after many examinations, i have not been quite certain about the keel puncta. the general appearance of the valves in any position is that of a stenopterobia or surirella anceps, with which it occurs. nitzschia clausii hantzsch valve linear, slightly sigmoid, tapering to the sub-capitate ends; keel puncta, in µ; striæ subtle. l. µ. abundant in ridley creek, delaware co. (palmer). pl. , fig. . obtusÆ nitzschia obtusa wm. sm. frustule sigmoid, rounded at the ends; keel somewhat excentric, inflexed in the middle, the two median puncta distant; keel puncta, - in µ; striæ, in µ. l. to µ. along the coast. pl. , fig. . nitzschia obtusa var. flexella h. l. smith valve more attenuate at the ends than the type and smaller. pl. , fig. . nitzschia obtusa var. scalpelliformis grun. valve linear, with apices unilaterally truncate; keel excentric; keel puncta, in µ; striæ, in µ. l. µ. along the coast. pl. , fig. . { }spectabiles nitzschia spectabilis var. americana grun. frustule linear, slightly constricted in the middle, with sub-cuneate ends; valve linear, slightly arcuate, tapering to the sub-rostrate ends; keel excentric, keel puncta sometimes confluent, - in µ, prolonged into short costæ; striæ distinct, in the middle, at the ends in µ (but variable in different specimens). l. µ. blue clay, especially at tioga st. pl. , fig. ; pl. , fig. . this is, probably, one of the most beautiful of the nitzschiæ. it sometimes, according to de toni, reaches a length of µ. grunow states that his variety is found in the s. bridgeton deposit. in a slide of moeller labelled "bridgeton, maine," i find specimens identical in every respect with the philadelphia form. lineares nitzschia linearis (ag.) wm. sm. valve linear, slightly inflexed in the middle; keel excentric; keel puncta, - in µ, the two median distant; striæ about in µ. frustules in zone view narrowed toward the ends, truncate. l. µ. very common in fresh water. pl. , fig. . fig. , pl. , a transverse section of frustule. lanceolatÆ nitzschia palea (kuetz.) wm. sm. valve linear-lanceolate, slightly rostrate at the apices; keel puncta, in µ, the median not distant; striæ, - in µ; zone view linear, with rounded ends. l. - µ. fresh water. pl. , fig. . nitzschia amphibia grun. valve lanceolate, apices sometimes slightly produced, rounded; keel puncta, - in µ; striæ, in µ. l. - µ. fresh water. pl. , figs. and . nitzschia communis rab. frustule linear, slightly attenuated at the obtuse ends; valve elliptical-lanceolate, attenuated toward the obtuse ends; keel puncta, in µ; striæ more than in µ. l. µ. fresh water. pl. , fig. . nitzschia intermedia hantzsch valve linear-lanceolate; keel puncta, in µ; striæ about in µ. l. µ. crum creek. not common. pl. , fig. . { }nitzschiella nitzschia longissima (brÉb.) ralfs valve linear-lanceolate, with exceedingly long horns or beaks; keel puncta about in µ; striæ about in µ. l. to µ. shark river, n. j. pl. , fig. . forma parva v. h.--keel puncta, - in µ. l. µ. east park reservoir, philadelphia. pl. , fig. . differs from n. closterium (ehr.) wm. sm. in the keel puncta. the type form occurs in brackish and salt water. the occurrence of the variety in fresh water is another instance of the finding of presumably brackish forms in the water supply of the city. if these cases prove to be unusual, it may be because of one of two reasons. the schuylkill river, before the building of the dam at fairmount, was tidal as far as the falls of schuylkill, and brackish influences, while not now existent, may have caused the growth of forms which now survive. another reason may be that the opening of the locks at fairmount dam may cause a slight admission of brackish forms from tidal water below. the abundance of the brackish species appears to indicate that the first reason is the more plausible. nitzschia reversa wm. sm. valve lanceolate extended into beaks or horns curving in opposite directions; keel puncta not evident; striæ, " - " in µ. l. µ. brackish water. abundant in duck creek, delaware river. pl. , fig. . nitzschia acicularis (kuetz.) wm. sm. valve lanceolate, with beaks or horns about half the length of the median part of the valve; keel puncta, in µ; striæ exceedingly delicate, "about in µ." l. µ. fresh water. darby creek. pl. , fig. . homoeocladia ag. ( ) (homoios, like, and clados, a branch) frustules like nitzschia, but enclosed in branching or simple tubes. homoeocladia filiformis wm. sm. frustule linear, tumid in the middle, obtuse at the ends; valve linear-lanceolate, with somewhat acute apices; keel central or nearly so; keel puncta, in µ; striæ delicate. l. µ. fresh and brackish water. newark, n. j. pl. , fig. . { }surirella turpin ( ) (named after dr. suriray, a physician of havre) valve linear, elliptical or ovate; pseudoraphe linear or lanceolate; a marginal keel forming wings or alæ seen in zone view; costæ short or reaching the pseudoraphe, frequently with intercostal striæ more or less evident. the genus is divided by grunow according to the length and form of the costæ. i include stenopterobia. section .--costæ of nearly equal width throughout, reaching the pseudoraphe. section .--costæ short or marginal. section .--costæ dilated at the margin, attenuated toward the pseudoraphe. section .--valve having the appearance of nitzschia, with inconspicuous alæ (stenopterobia). the endochrome consists of two laminate chromatophores, one on each valve. the auxospores are single, originating from the union of two frustules (h. l. smith). section surirella biseriata (ehr.) brÉb. valve lanceolate, subacute at the ends; costæ robust, about in µ, parallel in the middle, radiate at the ends; pseudoraphe narrow. l. µ. _surirella bifrons_ ehr. fresh water. pl. , fig. ; pl. , fig. (smaller form). surirella linearis wm. sm. valve linear, with cuneate ends, slightly constricted in the middle; costæ parallel, - in µ. l. µ. fresh water. pl. , fig. . surirella amphioxys wm. sm. valve oblong-linear, with cuneate ends; pseudoraphe narrow; costæ, - in µ; striæ, - in µ, somewhat radiate. l. - µ. _surirella moelleriana_ grun. fresh and brackish water. common along the coast. pl. , figs. and . surirella robusta ehr. valve linear-ovate; pseudoraphe wide; alæ prominent; costæ wide, ¼ in µ. frustule in zone view clavate. l. - µ. fresh water. pl. , fig. . { }surirella splendida (ehr.) kuetz. valve ovate; costæ, ½ to in µ; pseudoraphe linear, narrow. l. - µ. fresh water. pl. , fig. . s. splendida is smaller than s. robusta and wider in proportion, but, as intermediate forms occur, it is difficult to distinguish between them. surirella elegans ehr. valve ovate, rounded at one end and acute at the other; pseudoraphe lanceolate, narrow; costæ, ½ in µ; striæ subtle, in µ. frustule in zone view cuneate. l. - µ. fresh water. pl. , fig. . surirella striatula turpin valve broad, obovate or elliptical, rounded at each end; costæ, ¼ in µ, curved at the ends; striæ, in µ. frustule in zone view cuneate; marginal alæ quite robust. l. - µ. blue clay. brackish water. pl. , fig. . in the specimen figured, the outline is exactly elliptical, although the species is usually conical at one end. surirella gemma ehr. valve ovate or ovate-elliptical, rounded at each end, sometimes asymmetrical along the longitudinal axis; pseudoraphe very narrow; costæ distant, at irregular intervals, about in µ, somewhat radiate, reaching the pseudoraphe; striæ, in µ, punctate. frustule in zone view cuneate. l. - µ. along the coast. pl. , fig. . surirella tenera greg. valve ovate; pseudoraphe narrow, well-defined; costæ indistinct, ½ in µ, their margins invisible; striæ about in µ, punctate, more evident near the margin. l. µ. _surirella diaphana_ bleisch. pavonia, n. j., artesian well. pl. , fig. . the figure is that of the var. nervosa a. s. (atlas, pl. , fig. ), which differs from the type in having the position of the costæ indicated by scattered puncta. { }section surirella guatimalensis ehr. valve ovate; pseudoraphe very narrow and indistinct; costæ short, marginal, - ½ in µ, absent from the rounded end. l. µ. _surirella cardinalis_ kitton. smith's island, delaware river. pl. , fig. . surirella ovalis brÉb. valve ovate; costæ short, marginal, radiate, - in µ, often unequal; central area ovate, indistinctly costate; striæ scarcely visible, about in µ; pseudoraphe narrow. l. - µ. _surirella davidsonii_ a. s. fresh or brackish water. pl. , fig. ; pl. , fig. . the smaller specimen is from the delaware river, and the larger from the hudson river. surirella crumena brÉb. valve nearly orbicular; costæ short, marginal, radiate; pseudoraphe narrow, indistinct; central area indistinctly costate, sometimes interrupted. on account of the extreme confusion in the names of many forms which appear to be variations of s. ovalis, i have followed van heurck in retaining the original names as specific. de toni gives s. crumena as a variety of s. ovalis. fresh and brackish water. quite common in the delaware river. pl. , fig. . surirella pinnata wm. sm. valve ovate or oblong-ovate; costæ reaching the linear pseudoraphe, about in µ. l. µ. _surirella ovalis_ var. _pinnata_ (wm. sm.) de toni. s. pinnata is the type of a number of small forms usually found together, including s. panduriformis, s. angusta and s. minuta. fresh water. media (palmer). pl. , fig. ; fig. (abnormal). var. minuta, a small form of s. pinnata, occurs with the type. surirella panduriformis wm. sm. valve linear-oblong, with rounded ends, more or less constricted in the middle; otherwise as in s. pinnata. l. µ. fresh water. pl. , fig. . { }surirella angusta kuetz. valve linear, with cuneate ends; otherwise as in s. pinnata. fresh water. pl. , fig. . s. pinnata, s. panduriformis, and s. angusta have a narrow central area, and differ from s. ovalis which has short costæ. surirella oblonga ehr. ? valve elliptical-lanceolate, with obtuse ends; costæ, marginal, ½ in µ; median area granulate; pseudoraphe narrow, lanceolate, scarcely visible; striæ about in µ. l. µ. blue clay. rare. pl. , fig. . this has the outline and appearance of s. oblonga ehr. (mik. pl. , fig. ), but the costæ are closer. surirella recedens a. s. valve ovate; costæ, - ½ in µ; pseudoraphe narrow, not reaching the ends of the valve; intercostal spaces more evident near the middle. l. µ. blue clay. not uncommon. pl. , fig. . surirella cruciata a. s. valve ovate; pseudoraphe very narrow; costæ, in µ; the outline of several of the median costæ strongly emphasized, while the other costæ are indistinct. l. µ. blue clay. pl. , fig. . surirella gracilis grun. valve linear, with sub-cuneate ends, slightly constricted in the middle; pseudoraphe very narrow; costæ, - in µ; transverse striæ about in µ, punctate. l. µ. according to de toni (p. ), this form is a nitzschia. it has, however, a narrow pseudoraphe. pavonia, n. j., artesian well. rare. pl. , fig. . section surirella fastuosa ehr. valve ovate; costæ about - in µ, dilated at the margin and contracting at about one-fourth the distance toward the middle; area, ovate-lanceolate; pseudoraphe, narrow and indistinct; intercostate striæ more evident near the margin, in µ, becoming again evident in a narrow band about one-half the distance to the pseudoraphe. l. - µ. along the coast. more common southward. pl. , fig. . { }surirella febigerii lewis valve ovate-lanceolate; costæ about ½ in µ with punctate interspaces extending half the distance toward the median hyaline area, which is divided longitudinally on each side of the narrow pseudoraphe by two longitudinal bands composed of short, transverse, irregular, punctate lines. along the coast. pl. , fig. . section (stenopterobia) surirella anceps lewis frustule linear, straight or nearly so; valve sigmoid with rounded apices; costæ marginal, nearly obsolete; striæ distinct, about in µ; pseudoraphe wide. l. to µ. hammonton pond and tom's river, n. j. pl. , fig. . surirella intermedia lewis frustule linear, straight, widened at the truncate ends; valve linear, sigmoid, tapering to the sub-acute ends; costæ about in µ; striæ about in µ. l. variable. hammonton pond, n. j. pl. , fig. ; pl. , fig. (zone view). this, perhaps, is forma sub-acuta fricke. fig. , pl. , is probably a small form of s. intermedia, from willistown, pa. it resembles a nitzschia. surirella delicatissima lewis frustule linear, rounded at the ends; valve linear-lanceolate, sometimes very slightly constricted in the middle, with acute apices; costæ, in µ; striæ about in µ; pseudoraphe well defined, lanceolate. l. to µ. fresh water. newtown square. pl. , figs. and (small forms). surirella arctissima a. s. valve linear, tapering to the sub-acute ends; costæ marginal, in µ; striæ, in µ; pseudoraphe not evident. l. µ. may's landing, n. j. pl. , fig. . fig. , pl. , is a small form from newtown square, pa., in which the length is µ, the costæ and the striæ in µ. podocystis kuetz. ( ) (pous, a foot, and cystis, a bag) frustules cuneate, similar to surirella, but attached by short stipes to other algæ; valve obovate. { }podocystis adriatica kuetz. valve nearly symmetrical, obovate, with transverse costæ about in µ, alternating with double rows of coarse puncta; median line distinct, linear. l. µ. _podocystis americana_ bail. hell gate, n. y. pl. , fig. . cymatopleura wm. sm. ( ) (cuma, a wave, and pleura, a side) valve elliptical; surface transversely undulate, with short, marginal costæ. frustule in zone view linear, with undulated sides. auxospore formation as in surirella. cymatopleura solea (brÉb.) wm. sm. valve oblong, with cuneate apices, constricted in the middle; costæ about in µ; striæ, in µ; pseudoraphe scarcely visible. l. - µ. blue clay. common in the hudson river. pl. , figs. and . cymatopleura elliptica (brÉb.) wm. sm. valve elliptical; marginal costæ short, in µ; striæ delicate, in µ; undulations four or more. l. - µ. blue clay. pl. , fig. . _forma spiralis._--valve ovate, swelled into curved ridges at the lower end, with a contraction of the valve. port penn, delaware river. pl. , fig. . cymatopleura marina lewis frustule linear, with numerous undulations, ends apiculate; valve linear-lanceolate, with acute ends; striæ transverse, punctate at unequal intervals, from - in µ. l. µ. east river, n. y. pl. , figs. and . lewis states that the ends are more or less truncate. i do not find them so. campylodiscus ehr. ( ) (campulos, curved like a saddle) valve orbicular or sub-orbicular, with costæ or punctate rays converging from the circumference toward the hyaline centre, which sometimes appears like a pseudoraphe. frustule of two saddle-shaped valves at right angles to each other. the zone view may be of almost any shape according to position. endochrome consists of two bands, each lining the inner surface of each valve. auxospore and conjugation unknown. { }campylodiscus echeneis ehr. valve sub-orbicular, saddle-shaped; costæ indistinct, short, marginal; rows of round or elongated puncta converge toward the lanceolate, hyaline median space. diam. - µ. _campylodiscus argus_ bail. blue clay. reservoir at thompson and twenty-sixth sts., phila. pl. , fig. . this form, usually considered as brackish and marine, is occasionally found in fresh water. according to deby, it is fossil in the "champlain deposit of n. a." campylodiscus hibernicus ehr. valve irregularly orbicular; costæ, - , about in µ, wide at the margin and attenuated toward the centre which is somewhat quadrate; the radials rough with minute apiculi. pensauken, n. j., artesian well. pl. , fig. . { }appendix collection and preparation of diatoms it is assumed that every student of the diatomaceæ has a general knowledge of the collection, preparation, mounting and examination of material. for the novice, however, the following methods, used by the author for many years, may be of service. _collection of fresh-water material._--the yellow film on the inside of aquaria always contains small species. stems of water-plants near the shores of ponds and the submerged roots, the brownish coating of rocks in streams and water-falls, fountains, and water-troughs, are prolific. at all times of the year, some diatoms may be found in a thin layer upon the mud of rivers or creeks. in the spring, brown patches of mud, filled with bubbles, floating near the shore in ponds, or coming down with the current in rivers, are rich in various forms. within the limits assigned to our district, i have made collections in the following localities: schuylkill river, including the region near fairmount dam, several reservoirs and the water-supply; the wissahickon and fairmount park, darby, crum and ridley creeks, the neshaminy and the brandywine; meadow pools and rivulets near the city; the upper delaware, the water gap and numerous cascades northward; the shawangunk mountains and the poconos; many parts of new jersey along the coast; the pine barren region, the hammonton, atsion and kirkwood ponds and the swamps near atco. in the collection of fresh-water material, it is well to be provided with a number of small bottles. take a handful of the water-plants or algæ, and squeeze the material into the bottles, or, lacking a bottle, wrap it in paper. with a small forceps it is possible to detach minute quantities of a pure gathering which may not need further preparation beyond burning to a red heat on the cover-glass before mounting. a malacca cane, with extending rod to which may be screwed a bottle, net, spoon or hook, is useful on a long trip. if it is impossible to separate the thin film of diatoms from the mud in the bed of streams, dip up the surface mud with one bottle, allow to settle a few minutes, then pour off the supernatant liquid, which will be comparatively free from sand, into another bottle. it must be confessed, however, that the mud in streams near philadelphia contains a large quantity of fine mica which, in some instances, it is impossible to remove. _collection of marine material._--shell scrapings, the stomachs of fish, marine algæ, especially the brown and red algæ, the hulls of vessels, mud from anchors and dredgings, are all sources which may prove valuable. in the sand ripples, after the tide recedes, a yellowish-brown deposit will be noticed. this should be taken up carefully with a spoon and placed in a bottle; the sand will settle at once and a very pure gathering will be held in suspension in the water. such collections may be made along the entire coast of new jersey on sunny days in summer. in salt meadows near absecon and hackensack, large quantities of diatoms, including pleurosigma, may be obtained in the yellow scum floating on the surface. _the blue clay deposit._--the blue clay occurs as a pre- or post-glacial deposit in the bed of the ancient delaware river, and, at depths varying usually from fifteen to forty feet below the surface, has been obtained from artesian wells at pavonia, pensauken and gloucester, n. j., also at port penn on the delaware, and especially from the dredgings { }made by the removal of smith's island opposite the city. in the city proper, it may be stated briefly that material may be found in a stratum of very light blue clay at a depth varying from twenty to sixty feet in many places south of arch st. east of broad st., and also along the beds of ancient rivulets near tioga st., at sixteenth st., and in certain other places which were probably subject to tidal overflow. one of the best collections was made along the bank of the schuylkill at the east end of walnut st. bridge, at a depth of thirteen feet below the surface. excavations for the reading terminal and the subway and several buildings, as the bingham house, have furnished numerous specimens. _cleaning the material._--some gatherings may be so pure as to be ready for mounting when treated with dilute alcohol and oil of cloves. if, when gathered, the diatoms are immersed in a saturated solution of picric acid for several days, they may be stained with carmine or methylene blue, or whatever may be required to emphasize the contents of the frustules, including the endochrome and the pyrenoids. after staining, pass as rapidly as expedient through the treatment with dilute alcohol and oil of cloves, and mount in benzol balsam, avoiding heat. a hot solution of mercuric bichloride is sometimes used for the preservation of the endochrome, although washing is needed before mounting. for the particular stain considered best for certain details of structure, it will be advisable to consult works on micro-chemistry or heinzerling (_l. c._). the stains of most importance are carmine, methylene blue, hæmatoxylin, gold chloride and bismarck brown. whatever method may be used in staining, the identification of forms is impossible, in most cases, unless the valves are carefully cleaned and the cell-contents destroyed. for this purpose provide a casserole holding from five to eight ounces, an iron tripod stand with alcohol lamp, several six-inch test-tubes, preferably those with a standard base, fitted with pure rubber corks. take the material as free from twigs, dead leaves, sand, and other matter as possible, place it in the casserole, and add about the same quantity of nitric acid. boil for twenty minutes and then add about half a teaspoonful of powdered bichromate of potash, stirring with a glass rod. then take a beaker-glass partly filled with water and pour into it slowly the liquid which has been allowed to cool a short time, whirling the casserole to cause the concentration of sand in the centre. allow the material to settle for half an hour or longer, according to the amount of diatoms and their size. pour off the water, add more water, and place in a test-tube. repeat the decantation, shaking the test-tube, closed with a rubber cork, vigorously each time. from time to time whirl the diatoms in the casserole and throw away the sand collected in the centre. by repeating the decantation, shaking and whirling, the deposit will be found to consist almost entirely of diatoms. it may be necessary to repeat the boiling in the acid and bichromate. if, however, any detritus other than sand is noted, boil in sulphuric acid and add from time to time minute pinches of powdered chlorate of potash, being careful to protect the eyes by holding a piece of glass before them; otherwise the explosions which occur are likely to throw some of the boiling acid into the eyes and destroy the sight. the material, when clean, should be white or, in the case of synedra, yellowish. it is quite easy to construct a box fitted with the proper apparatus for boiling and provided with a glass door for observation, and a method of introducing the chlorate of potash through a small aperture or tube. the box may be placed in the garden or fastened outside of a window so that the poisonous fumes may be carried off. an excellent method, in the case of larger forms, is to boil the material already cleaned by the acid in water to which a few shavings of coarse brown soap are added. the difference in density will hold in suspension any flocculent matter, and while many of the smaller { }forms will not settle, the others will be perfectly cleaned. when satisfied with the cleaning, preserve the stock material in part alcohol and, in using, pour into a smaller bottle the amount required, replace the dilute alcohol with distilled water, and mount as directed. it often happens that gatherings are made consisting almost entirely of sand. attempts at cleaning in the usual way will cause the loss of nearly all of the diatoms. in this case, after the material has been treated with acid until nothing remains but sand and a few diatoms, the mechanical finger must be used. in the cleaning of marine deposits, various methods may be required. in the case of partly siliceous species, washing in pure water repeatedly is all that can be done. the larger and heavier diatoms may be separated from the sand by elutriation or by whirling in a casserole, by rocking in a shallow dish the shape of a watch crystal, or by pouring slowly over a strip of plate-glass at least two feet in length inclined at an angle of thirty degrees. the sand will cling to the glass, while the greater portion of the diatoms will run off. where particles of shells or foraminifera are present, a preliminary boiling in hydrochloric acid is advisable. in all marine gatherings, the salt should first be washed out before proceeding with the cleaning. for hardened masses of clay and for fossil deposits, it is necessary to boil in carbonate of soda and follow with the acid treatment. citric acid and acetate of potash used alternately in boiling may be tried. soaking for a time in acetate of potash and allowing the material to deliquesce for a week before further process, has proved successful in some instances. the repetition of several methods and the gentle breaking of the harder masses with the point of a needle will disintegrate almost any diatomaceous earth, but, as a last resort for refractory deposits, boil in pure water, add a piece of caustic potash about the size of a pea, continue the boiling not more than thirty seconds longer, and pour instantly into dilute hydrochloric acid; otherwise the diatoms will be destroyed. afterwards proceed with the usual treatment. _slides and covers._--take half an ounce of no. covers, circles, and place them in a wide-mouthed bottle. add a portion of the following mixture (dr. carl seiler's formula): bichromate of potash oz. sulphuric acid fl. oz. water fl. oz. shake the bottle in order that the surfaces of the covers may be fully exposed to the action of the acid, and set aside for several hours. decant the solution, add water repeatedly until all traces of the mixture are removed, and keep the circles in the bottle in fifty-per cent. alcohol. when needed, take out a circle with forceps and dry on a linen cloth. the slides may be treated in the same way, or they may be easily prepared by immersion in a solution of washing soda, and then washed and dried. this process may be used in cleaning the balsam or styrax from old slides. _preparation of strewn mounts._--place several covers on the mounting stand. with a dipping tube, cover each circle with distilled water, and add a small drop of the prepared diatoms, being careful to avoid any vibration of the stand. heat the stand until small bubbles begin to appear, remove the lamp, and allow the water to evaporate. if the above method is carefully followed, the diatoms will be deposited in an even layer, provided the material is not too dense. take a slide, centre it, and place a small amount of styrax on the centre. invert the prepared cover, and gently place it upon the styrax. heat the slide { }on the mounting stand until the styrax bubbles and then allow to cool. if bubbles still remain, heat again until they disappear. it is well to mount several slides more than required, as some may be imperfect. _preparation of selected mounts._--take a slide, place a minute quantity of beeswax on two places at a distance apart nearly equal to the diameter of the cover used. place a cover on the wax and press it down flat, or sufficiently to keep it in position. dip a fine needle into the following cement: glacial acetic acid drachms gelatine drachms alcohol drachm this is made by adding the acid to the gelatine in a water-bath and then the alcohol, and filtering. apply the moistened needle to the centre of the cover and spread as small a quantity as possible in a thin layer. now place the slide upon the turn table, centre it with respect to the position of the gelatine, and with the finest sable brush draw a circle about a tenth of an inch in diameter around the gelatine in water-color (windsor), blue or vermilion, or in india ink. instead of the water-color, a circle of tin-foil the size of the cover and pierced with a hole in the centre may be used, but the colored circle is to be preferred, as, when brought into view, it indicates exactly the focus required for observing the diatom. the bottle containing the cleaned material, which has been kept in water and alcohol, should be refilled with distilled water and well shaken, when a small portion may be taken up with a dipping tube and evenly distributed over a portion of a slide and then dried. by the use of a mechanical finger, fitted with a small piece of finely spun glass attached by wax to the holder of the finger, when the microscope is focussed until the glass thread touches the diatom selected, it will adhere to the thread. raise the body of the microscope, remove the slide containing the spread material, or move it to another part of the stage, and place the slide with the prepared cover in the same position. now carefully lower the body-tube of the instrument until the diatom rests upon the gelatine, breathe gently upon it, remove the cover from the slide, invert it over another slide containing a drop of styrax and proceed by heating to mount as before. the size of the diatom, the amount of gelatine, and several other factors, will enter into the question of success or failure. i have, however, employed the above method and have mounted thousands of slides of selected diatoms successfully. it is necessary to avoid any air current which will cause the diatom to fall from the thread. on very cold days the glass thread sometimes becomes electrified and the diatoms will not stick; on sultry days in august in our locality the diatoms will stick too closely. by the same method, slides of arranged diatoms can be made using a glass circle properly marked with lines in the eye-piece. care should be taken to use glass threads more or less in proportion to the size of the diatoms. a cat's whisker is preferred by some to the glass thread. it has the advantage of not breaking, but unless it is quite short it is too flexible. if the point of the thread becomes covered with gelatine, lower it into a minute drop of water upon a separate slide, and by moving it about it will be cleaned. the diatom itself may be washed in the same way, if it is not too small. _instruments required._--for collecting, in order to determine the quality of the find, any simple lens of fifteen to twenty diameters is sufficient. a stanhope is quite useful { }although difficult to obtain, while an achromatic triplet of sufficient power will probably be all that is necessary. for selecting with the mechanical finger, an objective of two-thirds-inch focus is the most convenient, but for determining species a one-fifth-inch is needed, an immersion objective being essential for minute forms. no particular form of microscope is required. any instrument having standard parts, inclination of the body to the axis, a sub-stage condenser and movable stage, will prove serviceable in nearly all investigations. for critical work, measurement of striæ and location of specimens on the slide, the large models of bausch and lomb leave nothing to be desired. one smaller instrument may be used for rapid examination and for selection with the mechanical finger. if the stage is supplied with a vernier, the diatoms can be located rapidly and recorded for future reference. the zentmayer army hospital stand with mechanical stage is excellent. the continental stands, convenient for laboratory work, especially in the examination of bacteria, are not so serviceable as the larger stands of american and english make. the stand especially designed by dr. henri van heurck, the celebrated belgian naturalist, is, without doubt, admirably suited to the investigation of the diatomaceæ. in the form of the circuit stage as made by watson and sons, of london, supplied with proper condenser and mechanical stage with vernier attachment, it has been used in the preparation of the present work with much satisfaction. the drawings have all been made with an abbé camera lucida, a mm. objective and a no. eye-piece, producing a magnification of about diameters. all illustrations are from actual specimens in my cabinet or, in a few instances, from slides sent me by friends. in the measurement of striæ and puncta, the number in ten microns is stated, and will be found to be approximately correct in most of the drawings, except when the number is in excess of twenty in ten microns, in which case it is impossible to represent the markings accurately on figures of the magnification adopted. all drawings are from specimens in this locality, except in a few cases mentioned in the text. { }index (synonyms in italics) page achnanthes, brevipes ag., coarctata (bréb.) grun., danica (floegel) grun., exigua grun., inflata (kuetz.) grun., lanceolata (bréb.) grun., linearis forma curta h.l.s., longipes ag., subsessilis kuetz., actinella, punctata lewis, actinocyclus, barkleyi var. aggregata rattr., ellipticus var. delawarensis n. var., moniliformis ralfs, actinoptychus, _cellulosa_ ehr., heliopelta grun. var.?, _omphalopelta_ ehr., undulatus (kuetz.) ralfs, vulgaris var. interrupta n. var., amphipleura, pellucida kuetz., rutilans (trentepohl) cl., amphiprora, alata kuetz., conspicua grev., _lepidoptera_ greg., ornata bail., paludosa wm. sm., pulchra bail., _amphitetras_, _antediluviana_ ehr., _tessellata_ shad., amphora, acuta greg., angusta var. eulensteinii grun., _aponina_ kuetz., arenaria donk., areolata grun., coffæiformis (ag.) kuetz., crassa greg., _eulensteinii_ a.s., gigantea var. fusca a.s., _insecta_ grun., lævis greg., lineolata ehr., _mucronata_ h.l.s., obtusa greg., ocellata var. cingulata cl., ostrearia bréb., ovalis (bréb.) kuetz., var. libyca (ehr.) cl., var. pediculus (kuetz.) cl., _plicata_ greg., _porcellus_ kitton, proteus greg., _quadrata_ bréb., robusta greg., _salina_ wm. sm., _vitræa_ cl., anomoeoneis, follis (ehr.) cl., serians bréb., sphærophora (kuetz.) cl., anorthoneis, excentrica (donk.) grun., asterionella, formosa hass., inflata heib., attheya, decora west, aulacodiscus, argus (ehr.) a.s., auliscus, cælatus bail., pruinosus bail., punctatus bail., sculptus (wm. sm.) ralfs, _spinosus_ christian, auricula, _insecta_ (grun.) cl., mucronata (h.l.s.) per., _bacillaria_, _paradoxa_ gmelin, biddulphia, alternans (bail.) v. h., antediluviana (ehr.) v. h., biddulphiana (smith), favus (ehr.) v. h., granulata roper, lævis ehr., _pulchella_ gray., reticulum (ehr.), rhombus (ehr.) wm. sm., smithii (ralfs) v. h., turgida (ehr.) wm. sm., brébissonia, boeckii (kuetz.) grun., palmerii n. sp., caloneis, brevis var. vexans grun., formosa (greg.) cl., liber (wm. sm.) cl., permagna (bail.) cl., var. lewisiana n. var., powellii (lewis) cl., silicula (ehr.) cl., var. inflata (grun.) cl., trinodis (lewis), wardii cl., campylodiscus, _argus_ bail., echeneis ehr., hibernicus ehr., _cerataulus_ _smithii_ ralfs, _turgidus_ ehr., cocconeis, dirupta greg., pediculus ehr., pellucida grun., placentula ehr., var. lineata (ehr.) v. h., scutellum ehr., var. ornata grun., _cocconema_ _asperum_ ehr., _colletonema_ _neglectum_ thwaites, _vulgaris_ thwaites, _conferva_ _biddulphiana_ smith, _flocculosa_ roth, _moniliformis_ mueller, _nummuloides_ dillw., _rutilans_ trentepohl, coscinodiscus, argus ehr., asteromphalus ehr., var. omphalantha grun., biangulatus a. s., denarius a. s., excentricus ehr., var. perpusilla grun., lewisianus grev., lineatus ehr., marginatus ehr., _minor_ wm. sm., nitidulus grun., nitidus greg., oculus-iridus ehr., polyacanthus grun., radiatus ehr., _striatus_ kuetz., subaulacodiscoidalis rattr., subtilis ehr., velatus ehr., _creswellia_ _turris_ grev., cyclotella, antiqua wm. sm., comta (ehr.) kuetz., _dallasiana_ wm. sm., _kuetzingiana_ wm. sm., meneghiniana kuetz., var. stelligera cl. and grun., var. stellulifera cl. and grun., operculata (ag.) kuetz., _scotica_ kuetz., striata (kuetz.) grun., stylorum (br.?) v. h., cymatopleura, elliptica (bréb.) wm. sm., marina lewis, solea (bréb.) wm. sm., cymbella, affinis kuetz., amphicephala nægeli, aspera (ehr.) cl., cistula (hempr.) kirchn., cuspidata kuetz., cymbiformis (kuetz.) bréb., ehrenbergii kuetz., excisa (kuetz.) de toni, _gastroides_ kuetz., gracilis (rab.) cl., heteropleura (ehr.) kuetz., lacustris (ag.) cl., lanceolata (ehr.) kirchn., mexicana (ehr.) a. s., naviculiformis auerswald, parva (wm. sm.) cl., philadelphica n. sp., prostrata (berk.) cl., rhomboidea n. sp., sinuata greg., triangulum (ehr.) cl., tumida (bréb.) v. h., turgida (greg.) cl., var.?, ventricosa kuetz., diatoma, anceps (ehr.) kirchn., _arcuatum_ lyng., _biddulphianum_ ag., hiemale (lyng.) heib., _marinum_ lyng., vulgare bory., var. elongatum (ag.), var. grande (wm. sm.) grun., dictyoneis, marginata var. commutata cl., var. maxima n. var., var. typica cl., dimerogramma, marinum (greg.) ralfs, minus (greg.) ralfs, _sinuatum_ thwaites, surirella (ehr.) grun., diploneis, campylodiscus (grun.) cl., crabro ehr. var.?, var. expleta (a. s.) cl., var. pandura (bréb.) cl., var. pandurella cl.?, elliptica (kuetz.) cl., var. _minutissima_ grun., excentrica n. sp., fusca var. delicata (a. s.) cl., gemmata (grev.) cl., gruendleri (a. s.) cl., oculata (bréb.) cl., puella (schum.) cl., smithii (bréb.) cl., ditylum, intricatum (west) grun., _echinella_ _circularis_ grev., _flabellata_ carm., _paradoxa_ lyng., encyonema, epithemia, argus kuetz., var.?, _gibba_ var. _ventricosa_ kuetz., gibberula var. producta grun., _marina_ donk., muelleri a. s.?, musculus kuetz., var. constricta (bréb.) v. h., _succincta_ bréb., turgida (ehr.) kuetz., zebra var. proboscidea (kuetz.) grun., eunotia, bactriana ehr., biceps ehr., bidentula wm. sm., _bigibba_ greg., formica ehr. var.?, gracilis (ehr.) rab., hemicyclus (ehr.) ralfs, _incisa_ greg., luna ehr., lunaris (ehr.) grun., major (wm. sm.) rab., nymanniana grun., pectinalis (kuetz.), var. solierolii (kuetz.), var. undulata ralfs, var. ventricosa grun., prærupta ehr., var. bidens grun., robusta ralfs, veneris kuetz., eunotogramma, læve grun., euodia, gibba bail., eupodiscus, _argus_ (ehr.) wm. sm., radiatus bail., _radiatus_ wm. sm., fragilaria, arctica grun., capucina var. mesolepta rab., construens (ehr.) grun., harrisonii (wm. sm.) grun., linearis cstr., parasitica (wm. sm.), undata wm. sm., virescens ralfs, frustulia, _acuminata_ kuetz., interposita (lewis) de toni, lewisiana (grev.) de toni, rhomboides (ehr.) de toni, var. amphipleuroides grun., var. saxonica rab., vulgaris (thwaites) de toni, gaillonella, _crenulata_ ehr., _granulata_ ehr., _moniliformis_ bail., nummuloides (dillw.) bory., _sulcata_ ehr., _gloeonema_, _triangulum_ ehr., gomphoneis, herculaneum (ehr.) cl., mamilla (ehr.) cl., gomphonema, acuminatum, var. coronata (ehr.) cl., var. trigonocephala (ehr.) cl., var. turris (ehr.) cl., var. turris (ehr.) cl.?, æquale greg., angustatum kuetz., augur ehr., brasiliense var. demeraræ grun.?, capitatum ehr., capitatum var. herculaneum ehr., constrictum ehr., geminatum lyng., _insigne_ greg., intricatum kuetz., lanceolatum var. insignis (greg.) cl., montanum schum., olivaceum lyng., parvulum var. micropus (kuetz.) cl., sarcophagus greg., sphærophorum ehr., _subclavatum_ var. _montana_ schum., _tinctum_ ag., ventricosum greg., grammatophora, angulosa var. hamulifera (kuetz.) grun., islandica ehr., marina (lyng.) kuetz., var. subtilissima (bail.) v. h., serpentina ralfs, _subtilissima_ bail., gyrosigma, acuminatum (kuetz.) cl., _attenuatum_ (kuetz.) cl., balticum (ehr.) cl., var. _similis_ (grun.) cl., fasciola (ehr.) cl., hippocampus (ehr.), kuetzingii (grun.) cl., parkeri var. stauroneioides grun., prolongatum (wm. sm.) cl., scalproides (rab.) cl., simile (grun.), spencerii var. nodifera grun., strigilis (wm. sm.) cl., hantzschia, amphioxys (ehr.) grun., var. major grun., marina (donk.) grun., virgata (roper) grun., _himantidium_ _pectinate_ kuetz., homoeocladia, filiformis wm. sm., hyalodiscus, radiatus var. arctica grun., scoticus (kuetz.) grun., stelliger bail., subtilis bail., licmophora, baileyi (ehr.) grun., ehrenbergii (kuetz.) grun., flabellata (carm.) ag., gracilis (ehr.) grun., var. elongata (kuetz.) de toni, lyngbyei (kuetz.) grun., ovulum mer., paradoxa (lyng.) ag., _splendida_ wm. sm., tincta (ag.) grun., lysigonium, moniliforme (muell.) link, _nummuloides_ (lyng.) o'meara, varians (ag.) de toni, mastogloia, angulata lewis, apiculata wm. sm., _braunii_ grun., elegans lewis, exigua lewis, kinsmanii lewis, lanceolata thwaites, smithii thwaites, meloseira, _borreri_ grev., crenulata (ehr.) kuetz., distans (ehr.) kuetz., _gowenii_ a. s., granulata (ehr.) ralfs, _nivalis_ wm. sm., _nummuloides_ ag., roeseana rab., var. epidendron (ehr.) grun., sulcata kuetz., undulata (ehr.) kuetz., _varians_ ag., meridion, circulare (grev.) ag., _constrictum_ ralfs, _micromega_ _ramosissimum_ ag., navicula, _affinis_ ehr., americana ehr., _amphibola_ cl., _amphigomphus_ ehr., anglica ralfs, _angulata_ quek., ardua mann, _arenaria_ donk., atomus nægeli, bacillum ehr., _baltica_ ehr., brasiliensis var. bicuneata cl., forma constricta, crucigera (wm. sm.) cl., cryptocephala kuetz., cuspidata kuetz., var. ambigua (ehr.) cl., cyprinus (wm. sm.), delawarensis grun., dicephala wm. sm., _digito-radiata_ var. _cyprinus_ (ehr.?) wm. sm., elegans wm. sm., var. cuspidata cl., _firma_ kuetz., _fischeri_ a. s., _follis_ ehr., fuchsii pant., gastrum ehr., _gigas_ a. s., _globiceps_ lagerstedt, gracilis var. schizonemoides (ehr.) v. h., grevillei (ag.) cl., hasta pant., var. punctata n. var., hennedyi wm. sm., var. circumsecta grun., var. manta a. s., _hippocampus_ ehr., _hitchcockii_ ehr., humerosa bréb., var. _elongata_ pant., var. _fuchsii_ (pant.) cl., humilis donk., _hungarica_ var. _capitata_ (ehr.) cl., inflexa greg., integra wm. sm., _interposita_ lewis, _iridis_ ehr., irrorata grev., lacustris greg., lanceolata var. arenaria (donk.) cl., latissima greg., var. elongata (pant.) cl., libellus greg., _limosa_ donk., longa (greg.) ralfs, lyra ehr., var. dilatata a. s., var. ehrenbergii cl., var.?, maculata (bail.) cl., _marginata_ lewis, _marina_ ralfs, minima grun., _mormonorum_ grun., mutica kuetz., oblonga kuetz., _oculata_ bréb., palpebralis bréb., pennata a. s., peregrina ehr., pinnata pant.?, placenta ehr., prætexta ehr., _producta_ wm. sm., punctata var. asymmetrica lagerstedt, punctulata wm. sm., pupula var. bacillarioides grun., pusilla wm. sm., var. subcapitata n. var., pygmæa kuetz., radiosa kuetz., ramosissima (ag.) cl., _rectangulata_ greg., reinhardtii grun., rhyncocephala kuetz., salinarum grun., semen ehr., _silicula_ ehr., _socialis_ palmer, spectabilis var. emarginata cl., _sphærophora_ kuetz., spicula (hickie) cl., _trochus_ kuetz., tumida (bréb.) cl., viridula var. rostellata kuetz., yarrensis grun., neidium, affine (ehr.) pfitzer, var. amphirhyncus (ehr.) cl., var. genuina forma maxima cl., var. genuina forma minor cl., amphigomphus (ehr.) pfitzer, hitchcockii (ehr.) cl., iridis (ehr.) cl., productum (wm. sm.) cl., nitzschia, acicularis (kuetz.) wm. sm., acuminata (wm. sm.) grun., amphibis grun., amphioxys wm. sm., apiculata (greg.) grun., bilobata wm. sm., circumsuta (bail.) grun., clausii hantzsch, communis rab., compressa bail., var. minor h. l. s., _curvula_ wm. sm., dissipata (kuetz.) grun., dubia wm. sm., epithemioides grun., fluminensis grun., granulata grun., insignis greg., intermedia hantzsch, linearis (ag.) wm. sm., litoralis var. delawarensis grun., longissima (bréb.) ralfs, forma parva v. h., macilenta greg., navicularis (bréb.) grun., obtusa wm. sm., var. flexella h. l. s., var. scalpelliformis grun., palea (kuetz.) wm. sm., panduriformis greg., var. minor grun., _paradoxa_ (gmelin) grun., paxillifer (o. f. mueller) heib., plana wm. sm., _punctata_ (wm. sm.) grun., reversa wm. sm., scalaris (ehr.) wm. sm., sigma (kuetz.) wm. sm., var. _curvula_ (wm. sm.) de toni, sigmatella greg., _sinuata_ var. _tabellaria_ (grun.) v. h., spathulata bréb., spectabilis var. americana grun., tabellaria grun., tryblionella hantzsch, vermicularis (kuetz.) hantzsch, _odontidium_ _parasiticum_ wm. sm., _tabellaria_ wm. sm., opephora, pacifica (grun.) petit, pinnata var. lanceolata n. var., schwartzii (grun.) petit, _orthosira_ _orichalcea_ wm. sm., _punctata_ wm. sm., _spinosa_ grev., _paralia_ _marina_ heib., _sulcata_ (ehr.) cl., pinnularia, acrosphæria (bréb.) cl., var. turgidula grun.?, æstuarii cl., appendiculata (ag.) cl., blandita n. sp., borealis ehr., var. scalaris (ehr.) cl., braunii grun., brébissonii (kuetz.) cl., cardinaliculus cl., _cyprinus_ wm. sm., dactylus ehr., var. dariana (a. s.) cl., var. demeraræ cl., divergens var. elliptica grun., gentilis (donk.) cl., gibba (kuetz.) v. h., _interrupta_ forma _stauroneiformis_ cl., lata (bréb.) wm. sm., legumen ehr., var.?, leptosoma grun., major (kuetz.) wm. sm., var. pulchella n. var., mesogongyla (ehr.) cl., mesolepta ehr., var. stauroneiformis grun., microstauron (ehr.) cl., molaris (grun.) cl., mormonorum grun., nobilis ehr., nodosa forma capitata cl., parva (ehr.) cl., _permagna_ bail., polyonca (bréb.) lewis, rectangulata (greg.) cl., socialis (palmer), stauroptera (grun.) cl., var. interrupta forma stauroneiformis cl., stomatophora (grun.) cl., subcapitata greg., var. paucistriata grun., tabellaria (ehr.) cl., termes (ehr.) a. s., var. stauroneiformis v. h., trigonocephala cl., viridis nitzsch, var. caudata n. var., var. fallax cl., var.?, plagiogramma, obesum grev., pygmæum grev., tessellatum grev., wallichianum grev., pleurosigma, æstuarii bréb., _affine_ var. _fossilis_ grun., angulatum (quekett) cl., _balticum_ (ehr.) wm. sm., formosum wm. sm., _hippocampus_ (ehr.) wm. sm., naviculaceum bréb., _normanii_ var. _fossilis_ grun., obscurum wm. sm., rigidum wm. sm., _simile_ grun., _spencerii_ var. _acutiuscula_ grun., var. _kuetzingii_ grun., strigosum wm. sm., virginiacum h. l. s., podocystis, adriatica kuetz., _americana_ bail., _podosira_ _hormoides_ wm. sm., _maculata_ wm. sm., _podosphenia_ _baileyi_ (edw.) lewis, _ehrenbergii_ kuetz., _lyngbyei_ kuetz., polymyxus, coronalis l. w. bail., pseudauliscus, radiatus (bail.) rattr., spinosus (christian) rattr., pyxidicula, _compressa_ bail., var. _minor_ h. l. s., cruciata ehr., _radiata_ o'meara, rhabdonema, adriaticum kuetz., arcuatum (lyng.) kuetz., minutum kuetz., rhaphoneis, amphiceros ehr., var. rhombica grun., belgica var. intermedia grun., _rhipidophora_ _elongata_ kuetz., _paradoxa_ kuetz., rhoicosphenia, curvata (kuetz.) grun., rhopalodia, gibba (kuetz.) mueller, ventricosa (kuetz.) mueller, _schizonema_ _cruciger_ wm. sm., _dillwynii_ wm. sm., _grevillei_ ag., _smithii_ kuetz., _scoliopleura_ _tumida_ (bréb.) v. h., scoliotropis, latestriata var. amphora cl., stauroneis, acuta wm. sm., americana a. s., anceps ehr., var. amphicephala (kuetz.) cl., var. gracilis (ehr.) cl., crucicula (grun.) cl., _exilis_ kuetz., frickei var. angusta n. var., legumen ehr., _maculata_ bail., phoenicenteron ehr., salina wm. sm., smithii grun., _spicula_ hickie, _staurosira_ _construens_ ehr., stephanopyxis, _appendiculata_ ehr., corona (ehr.) grun., turris (grev.) ralfs, striatella, interrupta (ehr.) heib., unipunctata (lyng.) ag., surirella, amphioxys wm. sm., anceps lewis, angusta kuetz., arctissima a. s., _bifrons_ ehr., biseriata (ehr.) bréb., _cardinalis_ kitton, _circumsuta_ bail., cruciata a. s., crumena bréb., _davidsonii_ a. s., delicatissima lewis, _diaphana_ bleisch, elegans ehr., fastuosa ehr., febigerii lewis, gemma ehr., gracilis grun., guatimalensis ehr., intermedia lewis, linearis wm. sm., _moelleriana_ grun., oblonga ehr.?, ovalis bréb., var. _pinnata_ (wm. sm.) de toni, panduriformis wm. sm., pinnata wm. sm., var. minuta grun., recedens a. s., robusta ehr., splendida (ehr.) kuetz., striatula turpin, tenera greg., synedra, acus kuetz., affinis kuetz., var. parva (kuetz.) v. h., var. tabulata (ag.) v. h., biceps (kuetz.) a. s., capitata ehr., danica kuetz., fulgens (grev.) wm. sm., goulardi bréb., _gracilis_ kuetz., oxyrhynchus var. undulata grun., pulchella (ralfs) kuetz., var. abnormis macchiati?, var. flexella n. var., radians kuetz., ulna (nitzsch) ehr., vaucheriæ var. parvula (kuetz.) rab., tabellaria, fenestrata (lyng.), flocculosa (roth) kuetz., terpsinoë, americana (bail.) ralfs, novæ-cæsareæ boyer, _tessella_ _interrupta_ ehr., trachyneis, aspera var. intermedia grun., trachysphenia, australis petit, _triceratium_ _alternans_ bail., _favus_ ehr., _obtusum_ br., _pileotus_ ehr., _punctatum_ br., _sculptum_ shad., trinacria, pileolus (ehr.) grun., _tripodiscus_ _argus_ ehr., tropidoneis, lepidoptera (greg.) cl., _tryblionella_ _punctata_ wm. sm., _scutellum_ wm. sm., _vibrio_ _paxillifer_ o. f. mueller, plates plate meloseira - meloseira roeseana var. epidendron (ehr.) grun. - meloseira roeseana rab. - meloseira distans (ehr.) kuetz. meloseira granulata (ehr.) ralfs - meloseira sulcata kuetz. - - meloseira undulata (ehr.) kuetz. gaillonella - gaillonella nummuloides (dillw.) bory lysigonium lysigonium moniliforme (muell.) link. - lysigonium varians (ag.) de toni hyalodiscus hyalodiscus scoticus (kuetz.) grun. hyalodiscus radiatus var. arctica grun. hyalodiscus stelliger bail. note.--the figures in all of the plates, except when otherwise noted, are magnified diameters. [illustration: plate ] plate stephanopyxis - stephanopyxis turris (grev.) ralfs stephanopyxis corona (ehr.) grun. cyclotella cyclotella meneghiniana var. stelligera cl. and grun. - cyclotella operculata (ag.) kuetz. cyclotella comta (ehr.) kuetz. cyclotella meneghiniana kuetz. cyclotella striata (kuetz.) grun. cyclotella stylorum (br.?) v. h. cyclotella antiqua wm. sm. cyclotella meneghiniana var. stellulifera cl. and grun. coscinodiscus coscinodiscus denarius a. s. coscinodiscus excentricus ehr. - coscinodiscus subtilis ehr. coscinodiscus asteromphalus ehr. coscinodiscus nitidus greg. coscinodiscus nitidulus grun. coscinodiscus excentricus var. perpusilla grun. ? [illustration: plate ] plate coscinodiscus--continued - coscinodiscus radiatus ehr. coscinodiscus velatus ehr. coscinodiscus biangulatus a. s. coscinodiscus subaulacodiscoidalis rattr. coscinodiscus lewisianus grev. coscinodiscus argus ehr. coscinodiscus lineatus ehr. coscinodiscus marginatus ehr. coscinodiscus oculus-iridis ehr. actinocyclus actinocyclus ellipticus var. delawarensis n. var. [illustration: plate ] plate actinoptychus - - actinoptychus undulatus (kuetz.) ralfs. actinoptychus undulatus (inner stratum) actinoptychus heliopelta grun. var.? actinoptychus vulgaris var. interrupta n. var. polymyxus polymyxus coronalis l. w. bail. aulacodiscus aulacodiscus argus (ehr.) a. s. [illustration: plate ] plate euodia euodia gibba bail. polymyxus polymyxus coronalis l. w. bail., zone view eupodiscus eupodiscus radiatus bail. auliscus auliscus cælatus bail. auliscus sculptus (wm. sm.) ralfs auliscus punctatus bail. auliscus (intermediate form between a. cælatus and a. sculptus) auliscus pruinosus bail. pseudauliscus pseudauliscus radiatus (bail.) rattr. pseudauliscus spinosus (christian) rattr. [illustration: plate ] plate actinocyclus actinocyclus barkleyi var. aggregata rattr. actinocyclus moniliformis ralfs. biddulphia biddulphia antediluviana (ehr.) v. h. biddulphia reticulum (ehr.) biddulphia favus (ehr.) v. h. - biddulphia alternans (bail.) v. h. trinacria trinacria pileolus (ehr.) grun. ditylum ditylum intricatum (west) grun. terpsinoË terpsinoë americana (bail.) ralfs. terpsinoë novæ-cæsareæ boyer [illustration: plate ] plate biddulphia - - - biddulphia biddulphiana (smith) biddulphia rhombus (ehr.) wm. sm. biddulphia granulata roper biddulphia turgida (ehr.) wm. sm. biddulphia smithii (ralfs) v. h. biddulphia lævis ehr. biddulphia lævis ehr. sporangial frustules ( diam.) eunotogramma eunotogramma læve grun. [illustration: plate ] plate rhabdonema - - rhabdonema arcuatum (lyng.) kuetz. - - rhabdonema adriaticum kuetz. rhabdonema minutum kuetz. tabellaria - - tabellaria flocculosa (roth) kuetz. - tabellaria fenestrata (lyng.) kuetz. grammatophora - grammatophora marina var. subtilissima (bail.) v. h. - grammatophora angulosa var. hamulifera (kuetz.) grun. - grammatophora marina (lyng.) kuetz. - grammatophora islandica ehr. grammatophora serpentina ralfs. striatella - striatella unipunctata (lyng.) ag. striatella interrupta (ehr.) heib. attheya attheya decora west [illustration: plate ] plate licmophora - licmophora flabellata (carm.) ag. - licmophora lyngbyei kuetz. licmophora ehrenbergii (kuetz.) grun. - licmophora paradoxa (lyng.) ag. - licmophora ovulum mer. licmophora baileyi (edw.) grun. licmophora gracilis (ehr.) grun. - licmophora gracilis var. elongata (kuetz.) de toni - licmophora tincta (ag.) grun. [illustration: plate ] plate meridion - - meridion circulare (grev.) ag. diatoma diatoma vulgare var. grande (wm. sm.) grun. - diatoma anceps (ehr.) kirchn. - diatoma hiemale (lyng.) heib. - diatoma vulgare bory. plagiogramma plagiogramma tessellatum grev. plagiogramma obesum grev. plagiogramma pygmæum grev. plagiogramma wallichianum grev. eunotogramma eunotogramma læve grun. opephora - opephora schwartzii (grun.) petit. opephora pinnata var. lanceolata n. var. opephora pacifica (grun.) petit. fragilaria - fragilaria virescens ralfs. - fragilaria arctica grun. - - - - fragilaria undata wm. sm. fragilaria undata wm. sm., var.? fragilaria construens (ehr.) grun. fragilaria harrisonii (wm. sm.) grun. fragilaria capucina var. mesolepta rab. fragilaria parasitica (wm. sm.) fragilaria sp. ? fragilaria linearis cstr. rhaphoneis rhaphoneis amphiceros ehr. - rhaphoneis amphiceros var. rhombica grun. rhaphoneis belgica var. intermedia grun. synedra - synedra radians kuetz. [illustration: plate ] plate synedra--continued - - synedra ulna (nitzsch) ehr. sporangial synedra danica kuetz. synedra biceps (kuetz.) a. s. - - synedra ulna (nitzsch) ehr. synedra capitata ehr. - synedra acus kuetz. synedra fulgens (grev.) wm. sm. - synedra goulardi bréb. - - synedra pulchella (ralfs) kuetz. synedra pulchella var. abnormis macchiati? [illustration: plate ] plate synedra--continued synedra oxyrhynchus var. undulata grun. synedra pulchella var. flexella n. var. synedra affinis kuetz. synedra affinis var. tabulata (ag.) v. h. - synedra vaucheriæ var. parvula (kuetz.) rab. synedra affinis var. parva (kuetz.) v. h. synedra radians (kuetz.) h. l. s. dimerogramma - dimerogramma marinum (greg.) dimerogramma surirella (ehr.) grun. - - dimerogramma minus (greg.) ralfs. trachysphenia trachysphenia australis petit. actinella - - actinella punctata lewis. asterionella - - asterionella formosa hass. asterionella inflata heib. eunotia eunotia hemicyclus (ehr.) ralfs - eunotia lunaris (ehr.) grun. [illustration: plate ] plate eunotia--continued - eunotia major (wm. sm.) rab. eunotia gracilis (ehr.) rab. eunotia major (wm. sm.) rab. (intermediate form) eunotia prærupta ehr. - eunotia pectinalis (kuetz.) - eunotia pectinalis var. undulata ralfs eunotia pectinalis var. solierolii (kuetz.) eunotia luna ehr. var.? eunotia pectinalis var. ventricosa grun. eunotia robusta ralfs (e. scalaris ehr.) eunotia robusta ralfs (e. prioritis ehr.) eunotia robusta ralfs (e. decadon ehr.) eunotia robusta ralfs (e. octodon ehr.) - eunotia robusta ralfs (e. heptodon ehr.) eunotia bactriana ehr. eunotia prærupta var. bidens grun. eunotia bidentula wm. sm. eunotia robusta ralfs (e. diadema ehr.) eunotia prærupta ehr. var.? eunotia robusta ralfs (e. triodon ehr.) eunotia robusta ralfs (e. tetraodon ehr.) eunotia formica ehr. var.? eunotia biceps ehr. - eunotia sp.? - eunotia veneris kuetz. eunotia nymanniana grun. [illustration: plate ] plate amphiprora - amphiprora pulchra bail. amphiprora alata kuetz. amphiprora conspicua grev. amphiprora paludosa wm. sm. - amphiprora ornata bail. tropidoneis - tropidoneis lepidoptera (greg.) cleve. scoliotropis - scoliotropis latestriata var. amphora cleve. [illustration: plate ] plate amphora amphora robusta greg. amphora crassa greg. amphora obtusa greg. - - amphora proteus greg. amphora ovalis (bréb.) kuetz. - amphora coffæiformis (ag.) kuetz. - amphora lineolata ehr. amphora areolata grun. - amphora ostrearia bréb. amphora lævis greg. - amphora ocellata var. cingulata cleve. amphora angusta var. culensteinii grun. amphora arenaria donk. amphora acuta greg. auricula auricula mucronata (h. l. smith) peragallo [illustration: plate ] plate achnanthes - achnanthes longipes ag. achnanthes brevipes ag. - - achnanthes subsessilis kuetz. - achnanthes inflata (kuetz.) grun. achnanthes coarctata (bréb.) grun. - - achnanthes lanceolata (bréb.) grun. achnanthes danica (floegel) grun. (lower valve) - achnanthes exigua grun. - achnanthes linearis forma curta h. l. smith cocconeis cocconeis scutellum var.? - cocconeis placentula ehr. cocconeis scutellum ehr. (upper valve) cocconeis dirupta greg. (lower valve) - cocconeis pediculus ehr. - cocconeis pellucida grun. - cocconeis scutellum var. ornata grun. cocconeis placentula var. lineata (ehr.) v. h. anorthoneis - anorthoneis excentrica (donk.) grun. [illustration: plate ] plate frustulia frustulia lewisiana (grev.) de toni frustulia rhomboides (ehr.) de toni frustulia rhomboides var. amphipleuroides grun. frustulia vulgaris (thwaites) de toni frustulia interposita (lewis) de toni frustulia rhomboides var. saxonica (rab.) de toni brebissonia brébissonia boeckii (kuetz.) grun. brébissonia palmerii n. sp. amphipleura amphipleura pellucida kuetz. - amphipleura rutilans (trentepohl) cl. anomoeoneis anomoeoneis serians (bréb.) cl. anomoeoneis serians forma minor anomoeoneis follis (ehr.) cl. trachyneis trachyneis aspera var. intermedia grun. mastogloia mastogloia kinsmanii lewis mastogloia angulata lewis mastogloia lanceolata thwaites mastogloia smithii thwaites mastogloia elegans lewis - - mastogloia apiculata wm. sm. mastogloia exigua lewis [illustration: plate ] plate cymbella cymbella aspera (ehr.) cl. cymbella cymbiformis (kuetz.) bréb. cymbella cistula (hempr.) kirchn. cymbella lanceolata (ehr.) kirchn. cymbella mexicana (ehr.) a. s. cymbella naviculiformis auerswald. cymbella tumida (bréb.) v. h. cymbella philadelphica n. sp. cymbella ehrenbergii kuetz. cymbella heteropleura (ehr.) kuetz. cymbella rhomboidea n. sp. cymbella turgida (greg.) cl. var.? cymbella sinuata greg. cymbella ventricosa kuetz. - cymbella excisa (kuetz.) de toni. cymbella amphicephala nægeli. cymbella cuspidata kuetz. cymbella affinis kuetz. cymbella gracilis (rab.) cl. cymbella prostrata (berk.) cl. cymbella ventricosa kuetz.? cymbella turgida (greg.) cl. cymbella triangulum (ehr.) cl. cymbella lacustris (ag.) cl. [illustration: plate ] plate gomphoneis gomphoneis mamilla (ehr.) cl. gomphoneis herculaneum (ehr.) cl. gomphonema gomphonema montanum schum. gomphonema geminatum lyng. gomphonema acuminatum var. turris (ehr.) cl. - gomphonema lanceolatum var. insignis (greg.) cl. gomphonema acuminatum var. coronata (ehr.) cl. gomphonema constrictum ehr. - gomphonema sphærophorum ehr. gomphonema acuminatum var. turris (ehr.) cl.? gomphonema ventricosum greg. gomphonema intricatum kuetz. gomphonema æquale greg. gomphonema sarcophagus greg. gomphonema parvulum var. micropus (kuetz.) cl. - gomphonema angustatum kuetz. gomphonema acuminatum var. trigonocephala (ehr.) cl. gomphonema augur ehr. gomphonema capitatum ehr. gomphonema olivaceum lyng. gomphonema brasiliense var. demeraræ grun.? rhoicosphenia - - rhoicosphenia curvata (kuetz.) grun. [illustration: plate ] plate dictyoneis dictyoneis marginata var. maxima n. var. dictyoneis marginata var. commutata cleve. dictyoneis marginata var. typica cleve. diploneis diploneis crabro var. pandura (bréb.) cl. diploneis campylodiscus (grun.) cl. - diploneis gruendleri (a. s.) cl. diploneis crabro ehr. var.? diploneis excentrica n. sp. diploneis fusca var. delicata (a. s.) cl. diploneis puella (schum.) cl. diploneis crabro var. pandurella cl.? diploneis elliptica (kuetz.) cl. diploneis crabro var. expleta (a. s.) cl. diploneis geminata (grev.) cl. diploneis smithii (bréb.) cl. navicula navicula lyra ehr. var.? [illustration: plate ] plate caloneis caloneis permagna (bail.) cl. caloneis permagna var. lewisiana n. var. caloneis silicula (ehr.) cl. caloneis silicula var. inflata (grun.) cl. caloneis brevis var. vexans (grun.) cl. - caloneis wardii cl. caloneis trinodis (lewis) caloneis trinodis (lewis) var.? caloneis powellii (lewis) cl. caloneis formosa (greg.) cl. neidium neidium affine (ehr.) pfitzer neidium affine var. genuina forma minor cl. neidium affine var. amphirhyncus (ehr.) cl. neidium amphigomphus (ehr.) pfitzer. neidium hitchcockii (ehr.) cl. neidium productum (wm. sm.) cl. neidium iridus (ehr.) cl. [illustration: plate ] plate pleurosigma pleurosigma strigosum wm. sm. pleurosigma rigidum wm. sm. pleurosigma angulatum (quekett) cl. pleurosigma obscurum wm. sm. pleurosigma formosum wm. sm. pleurosigma naviculaceum bréb. pleurosigma æstuarii bréb. pleurosigma virginiacum h. l. smith [illustration: plate ] plate gyrosigma gyrosigma strigilis (wm. sm.) cl. gyrosigma balticum (ehr.) cl. gyrosigma hippocampus (ehr.) gyrosigma simile (grun.) gyrosigma acuminatum (kuetz.) cl. gyrosigma scalproides (rab.) cl. gyrosigma parkeri var. stauroneioides grun. gyrosigma spencerii var. nodifera grun. gyrosigma fasciola (ehr.) cl. [illustration: plate ] plate navicula navicula maculata (bail.) cl. navicula prætexta ehr. navicula latissima greg. navicula irrorata grev. navicula latissima var. elongata (pant.) cl. navicula fuchsii pant. [illustration: plate ] plate navicula navicula tumida (bréb.) cl. navicula brasiliensis var. bicuneata cl. forma constricta. navicula delawarensis grun. - navicula pusilla wm. sm. navicula humerosa bréb. navicula spectabilis var. emarginata cl. navicula pusilla var. subcapitata n. var. navicula punctulata wm. sm. navicula lyra ehr. navicula hennedyi var. manca a. s. navicula hennedyi wm. sm. navicula lyra var. dilatata a. s. navicula yarrensis grun. navicula yarrensis grun. (smaller form) navicula yarrensis grun. var.? [illustration: plate ] plate navicula - navicula cuspidata kuetz. navicula cuspidata var. ambigua (ehr.) cl. navicula spicula (hickie) cl. navicula integra wm. sm. navicula mutica kuetz. navicula americana ehr. navicula pupula var. bacillarioides grun. navicula bacillum ehr. navicula semen ehr. navicula atomus nægeli. navicula minima grun. navicula ramosissima (ag.) cl. navicula crucigera (wm. sm.) cl. navicula viridula var. rostellata kuetz. navicula radiosa kuetz. navicula gracilis var. schizonemoides (ehr.) v. h. navicula peregrina ehr. navicula cyprinus (wm. sm.) navicula reinhardtii grun. navicula lanceolata var. arenaria (donk.) cl. navicula salinarum grun. navicula gastrum ehr. navicula anglica ralfs. diploneis diploneis oculata (bréb.) cl. stauroneis stauroneis frickei var. angusta n. var. [illustration: plate ] plate stauroneis--continued stauroneis phoenicenteron ehr. stauroneis acuta wm. sm. stauroneis americana a. s. stauroneis anceps var.? stauroneis anceps var. gracilis (ehr.) cl. stauroneis salina wm. sm. stauroneis anceps var. amphicephala (kuetz.) cl. stauroneis anceps var.? stauroneis anceps var.? stauroneis crucicula (grun.) cl. stauroneis smithii grun. navicula navicula lacustris greg. navicula hasta pant. navicula hasta var. punctata n. var. navicula punctata var. asymmetrica lagerstedt navicula dicephala wm. sm. navicula placenta ehr. - navicula inflexa greg. navicula pinnata pant.? navicula oblonga kuetz. navicula pennata a. s. navicula pygmæa kuetz. navicula humilis donk. [illustration: plate ] plate pinnularia pinnularia nobilis ehr. pinnularia major var. pulchella n. var. pinnularia dactylus ehr. pinnularia major (kuetz.) wm. sm. [illustration: plate ] plate pinnularia--continued pinnularia gentilis (donk.) cl. pinnularia viridis nitzsch. pinnularia dactylus var. dariana (a. s.) cl. pinnularia viridis var. fallax cl. pinnularia socialis palmer pinnularia æstuarii cl. pinnularia rectangulata (greg.) cl. pinnularia trigonocephala cl. pinnularia major (kuetz.) wm. sm. (small form near p. viridis) pinnularia dactylus var. demeraræ cl. pinnularia mormonorum (grun.) pinnularia brébissonii (kuetz.) cl. pinnularia mesolepta ehr. pinnularia termes var. stauroneiformis v. h. pinnularia molaris (grun.) cl. pinnularia braunii grun. pinnularia termes (ehr.) a. s. pinnularia appendiculata (ag.) cl. pinnularia microstauron (ehr.) cl. var.? pinnularia subcapitata greg. [illustration: plate ] plate pinnularia--continued pinnularia cardinaliculus cl. pinnularia viridis var. fallax cl.? (var. b., wm. sm.?). pinnularia legumen ehr. pinnularia legumen var.? pinnularia gibba (kuetz.) v. h. pinnularia mesogongyla (ehr.) cl. pinnularia acrosphæria (bréb.) cl. pinnularia acrosphæria var. turgidula grun. pinnularia tabellaria (ehr.) cl. var.? pinnularia leptosoma grun. pinnularia stauroptera var. interrupta cl. pinnularia stomatophora (grun.) cl. pinnularia stauroptera (grun.) cl. pinnularia parva (ehr.) cl. var.? - pinnularia nodosa forma capitata cl. pinnularia subcapitata var. paucistriata grun. pinnularia viridis nitzsch var. pinnularia viridis var. caudata n. var. pinnularia mesolepta var. stauroneiformis grun. pinnularia polyonca (bréb.) lewis. pinnularia borealis ehr. pinnularia lata (bréb.) wm. sm. pinnularia borealis var. scalaris (ehr.) cl. pinnularia blandita n. sp. [illustration: plate ] plate navicula navicula elegans wm. sm. navicula elegans var. cuspidata cl. - navicula grevillei (ag.) cl. navicula libellus greg. - navicula palpebralis bréb. navicula rhyncocephala kuetz. navicula cryptocephala kuetz. navicula longa (greg.) ralfs. pinnularia pinnularia brébissonii (kuetz.) cl. pinnularia borealis ehr. pinnularia divergens var. elliptica grun. epithemia epithemia turgida (ehr.) kuetz. - epithemia argus kuetz. epithemia argus var.? epithemia muelleri a. s. epithemia zebra var. proboscidea (kuetz.) grun. epithemia gibberula var. producta grun. epithemia musculus kuetz. epithemia musculus var. constricta (bréb.) v. h. rhopalodia rhopalodia gibba (kuetz.) mueller rhopalodia ventricosa (kuetz.) mueller [illustration: plate ] plate nitzschia nitzschia circumsuta (bail.) grun. nitzschia plana wm. sm. nitzschia granulata grun. nitzschia navicularis (bréb.) grun. nitzschia panduriformis var. minor grun. nitzschia apiculata (greg.) grun. nitzschia tabellaria grun. nitzschia tryblionella hantzsch - nitzschia bilobata wm. sm. nitzschia litoralis var. delawarensis grun. nitzschia acuminata (wm. sm.) grun. - nitzschia amphibia grun. nitzschia palea (kuetz.) wm. sm. nitzschia fluminensis grun. nitzschia obtusa var. scalpelliformis grun. nitzschia linearis (ag.) wm. sm. nitzschia communis rab. nitzschia clausii hantzsch. nitzschia epithemioides grun. nitzschia vermicularis (kuetz.) wm. sm. hantzschia hantzschia amphioxys (ehr.) grun. hantzschia marina (donk.) grun. hantzschia virgata (roper) grun. [illustration: plate ] plate nitzschia nitzschia longissima (bréb.) ralfs nitzschia intermedia hantzsch nitzschia spectabilis var. americana grun. - nitzschia sigmatella greg. nitzschia scalaris (ehr.) wm. sm. nitzschia macilenta greg. nitzschia insignis greg. nitzschia vermicularis (kuetz.) hantzsch nitzschia longissima forma parva v. h. nitzschia reversa wm. sm. nitzschia acicularis (kuetz.) wm. sm. - nitzschia paxillifer (o. f. mueller) heib. homoeocladia homoeocladia filiformis wm. sm. [illustration: plate ] plate surirella surirella striatula turpin surirella anceps lewis surirella intermedia lewis surirella arctissima a. s. - surirella delicatissima lewis surirella intermedia lewis forma minor? cymatopleura - cymatopleura solea (bréb.) wm. sm. [illustration: plate ] plate surirella surirella fastuosa ehr. surirella biseriata (ehr.) bréb. surirella splendida (ehr.) kuetz. surirella crumena bréb. surirella ovalis bréb. surirella tenera greg. surirella recedens a. s. surirella linearis wm. sm. surirella oblonga ehr.? surirella cruciata a. s. surirella gracilis grun. - surirella amphioxys wm. sm. [illustration: plate ] plate surirella--continued surirella elegans ehr. surirella robusta ehr. surirella febigerii lewis surirella gemma ehr. surirella guatimalensis ehr. surirella panduriformis wm. sm. - surirella pinnata wm. sm. surirella angusta kuetz. [illustration: plate ] plate cymatopleura cymatopleura elliptica (bréb.) wm. sm. cymatopleura elliptica forma spiralis - cymatopleura marina lewis campylodiscus campylodiscus hibernicus ehr. campylodiscus echeneis ehr. [illustration: plate ] plate amphora gigantea var. fusca a. s. meloseira crenulata (ehr.) kuetz. - licmophora baileyi (edw.) grun. coscinodiscus polyacanthus grun. - ditylum intricatum (west) grun. pyxidicula cruciata ehr. gyrosigma scalproides (rab.) cl. coscinodiscus asteromphalus var. omphalantha (ehr.) grun. rhabdonema minutum kuetz. gyrosigma kuetzingii (grun.) cl. gyrosigma prolongatum (wm. sm.) cl. cymbella parva (wm. sm.) cl. gomphoneis herculaneum (ehr.) cl. (zone view) cymbella ventricosa kuetz. - eunotia sp. (abnormal?) [illustration: plate ] plate nitzschia spectabilis var. americana grun. (zone view) nitzschia panduriformis greg. hantzschia amphioxys (ehr.) grun. hantzschia amphioxys var. major grun. nitzschia dubia wm. sm. nitzschia amphioxys wm. sm. nitzschia compressa (bail.) nitzschia compressa var. minor h. l. smith surirella intermedia lewis (zone view) surirella arctissima a. s. forma minor surirella ovalis bréb. surirella biseriata (ehr.) bréb. nitzschia sigma (kuetz.) wm. sm. nitzschia obtusa var. flexella h. l. smith stauroneis legumen ehr. nitzschia obtusa wm. sm. [illustration: plate ] plate caloneis liber (wm. sm.) cl. anomoeoneis sphærophora (kuetz.) cl. nitzschia spathulata bréb. stauroneis ? abnormal navicula ? abnormal podocystis adriatica kuetz. nitzschia dissipata (kuetz.) grun. cymbella ventricosa kuetz. (zone view) navicula radiosa kuetz. (zone view) detail of rhabdonema arcuatum (lyng.) kuetz. diatoma anceps (ehr.) kirchn. (containing chromataphores) coscinodiscus asteromphalus ehr. (trans. section, after pelletan) - - transverse section (diagram) of pinnularia showing straight, oblique and grooved raphes transverse section (diagram) of biddulphia favus showing inner punctate stratum (after deby) transverse (ideal) section of surirella - transverse (ideal) section of pinnularia, before and after division transverse section of nitzschia linearis (ag.) wm. sm. transverse section (diagram) of navicula transverse section (diagram) of cymbella transverse section (diagram) of amphora [illustration: plate ] none volume ii, no. bulletin no. ohio biological survey the ascomycetes of ohio iv the lecideaceae by bruce fink the ascomycetes of ohio v the peltigeraceae by leafy j. corrington published by the ohio state university columbus, the ascomycetes of ohio iv[a] the lecideaceae. bruce fink. general considerations it was stated in the second paper of this series that the disposition of the _lecideaceae_ in an early paper of the series would show what slight changes are needed in treating lichens as we treat other ascomycetes. it is hoped that this paper has accomplished this in phraseology intelligible to those acquainted with the present-day language of systematic mycology. the _lecideaceae_ form a well-defined family of lichens, the affinities of which seem plainly marked. in apothecial structure, and so far as known, in structure of the sexual reproductive areas, the family seems to be closely related to the mainly non-lichen _patellariaceae_ and to such lichens as the _gyalectaceae_, the _lecanactidaceae_, the _collemaceae_, the _baeomycetaceae_, and the _cladoniaceae_. following the commonly-accepted theory that the lichens have been evolved from non-algicolous fungi, the origin of the _lecideaceae_ and related lichens from _patellaria_-like ancestors is a reasonable supposition, though the relative rank of the various related families named in the last paragraph is not easy to decide. within the _lecideaceae_, the line of evolution seems to have been in the direction of a well-developed exciple and from simpler to more complex spores. with the advance in these two directions has gone a slightly increased development of the thallus. in structure, the thallus is crustose, and the thalli vary from inconspicuous, evanescent conditions to those which are conspicuous and sometimes even subsquamulous. rarely the thallus extends upward as a veil which surrounds the apothecia laterally and suggests how the thalloid exciple of higher families probably arose. as usual in crustose forms, the thalli are composed of hyphae which are densely disposed toward the upper, exposed surface and more loosely disposed toward the lower surface (fig. ). the apothecial evolution passes from forms with weak, light-colored exciples and soft texture (fig. ) to those with strong, dark exciples, which are firm in texture (fig. ). the superficial apothecial characters are so much alike in many of the species that one cannot always feel certain even of the genus of unfamiliar forms until he has studied them microscopically. the paraphyses are commonly distinct in young apothecia, but in mature apothecia they are usually more or less gelatinized and coherent. in some of the species, they become so gelatinized that they form a homogeneous mass about the asci, in which the individual paraphyses are no longer discernible. when distinct, the paraphyses are sometimes branched, most commonly toward their apices (fig. and ). there is great diversity with respect to spore development, the whole range of spore structure, from minute, simple, hyaline spores to those which are large, brown, and muriform being found within the family (figs. , , , , , , , and ). this condition makes it appear quite possible that the family may be polygenetic. the genus, _biatorella_, contains non-lichen forms and is probably as a whole more closely related to the _patellariaceae_ than to the _lecidiaceae_. however, our two species, both of which are lichens, are herein admitted to the latter family. through one or more species with larger spores than are usually found in this genus, _biatorella_ approaches _lecidea_. starting with _lecidea_, we have a natural series in spore development with intermediate conditions difficult to place. the series runs thus: _lecidea_ with simple hyaline spores (fig. ); _biatorina_ with two-celled, hyaline spores (fig. ); _bilimbia_ with several-celled, hyaline spores, not much narrowed (fig. ); and _bacidia_ with several-celled, hyaline, acicular spores (fig. ). _buellia_ and _rhizocarpon_ are aberrant genera, brown-spored, and closely related among themselves (figs. , , and ). through _buellia_, the two genera are related to _rinodina_ of the _physciaceae_. the two aberrant genera are like other members of the _lecideaceae_ with respect to thallus development and general apothecial characters, the aberrancy being with respect to the spores, on which account the two genera are placed in another family, the _buelliaceae_, by some workers, perhaps with sufficient reason. the algal host is _pleurococcus_-like (fig. , c) in nearly all species of the _lecideaceae_; but the host cells are so hypertrophied and distorted that their generic rank is often difficult to ascertain, except by cultivation outside of the lichen thallus. the algal-host cells are few in number in some of the species and are sometimes absent during a portion of the life history of the lichen. the host is usually found throughout the superficial portions of the thallus, except near the upper surface, from which portion the algae are usually absent, except in a dead or dying condition, difficult to detect. the writer has collected the _lecideaceae_, with other fungi, in butler county for fifteen years, and has worked for the ohio biological survey in preble, warren, highland, fairfield, adams, hocking, and lake counties. besides these collections made by the writer, a few specimens were examined from champaign, hamilton, wayne, morgan, madison, muskingum, franklin, vinton, and summit counties. of the species treated in this paper, had not been reported from ohio previously. [footnote a: contributions from the botanical laboratory of miami university.--xviii] _systematic account._ lecideaceae thallus crustose, without plectenchymatous cortex (fig. , a), varying from granulose and often evanescent to conspicuous, areolate, or even subsquamulose conditions, attached to the substratum by hyphal rhizoids (fig. , d), and in a few instances extending up as a veil and surrounding the apothecia laterally, the hyphae densely interwoven toward the upper surface, but more loosely disposed below (fig. , a and b); apothecia usually minute or small, commonly rounded, the exciple weak and obscure (fig. , d), or more strongly developed when conspicuous and much darker in color (fig. , b); hypothecium varying from hyaline to dark brown (fig. , b and fig. , c); hymenium almost always lighter and commonly hyaline (figs. and , a); paraphyses usually simple, but branched forms to be found frequently (figs. and ), pale throughout or darkened toward the sometimes enlarged apex, commonly more or less coherent and indistinct at maturity; spores simple and hyaline to muriform and brown (figs. , , , , , , , , and ). key to the genera spores minute, numerous in each ascus _biatorella_, p. spores larger, usually in each ascus, spores hyaline. spores one-celled (simple) _lecidea_, p. spores more than one-celled (compound). spores -celled _biatorina_, p. spores - to several-celled. spores ellipsoid, fusiform, or dactyloid _bilimbia_, p. spores acicular _bacidia_, p. spores brown, or becoming brown. spores -celled _buellia_, p. spores -celled and becoming muriform _rhizocarpon_, p. biatorella de not. giorn. bot. ital. . . . thallus granulose to verrucose and subareolate, sometimes inconspicuous and evanescent; apothecia minute to middle-sized, adnate or more or less immersed, exciple usually prominent and persistent, but sometimes becoming covered, disk flat to convex; hypothecium and hymenium pale to brown; spores simple, hyaline, minute, numerous in each ascus. key to the species of biatorella the whole apothecium dark colored . b. _simplex_ the disk of the apothecium white-pruinose . b. _pruinosa_ . biatorella simplex (dav.) br. & rostr. bot. tidssk. : . _lichen simplex_ dav. trans. linn. soc. lond. : pl. . f. . . thallus thin and smooth or thicker and roughened, sometimes subareolate, ash-white to green-gray and darkening, rarely disappearing; apothecia minute to middle-sized, . to . mm. in diameter, adnate, scattered or crowded, rounded or variously irregular, black but usually dark red when damp, flat or slightly convex, the thin exciple raised and persistent; hypothecium light or darker brown; hymenium pale or tinged brown; paraphyses semi-distinct to coherent-indistinct; asci cylindrico-clavate; spores oblong-ellipsoid, to mic. long and to . mic. wide. collected in butler, adams, montgomery, hocking, and ross counties. on limestone. not previously reported from ohio, but probably frequent where there is limestone, though inconspicuous and easily overlooked. . biatorella pruinosa (j.e. smith) mudd man. brit. lich. . . _lichen pruinosus_ j.e. smith in sowerby, eng. bot. : pl. . thallus light colored, usually thin and smooth, rarely disappearing; apothecia minute to middle-sized, . to mm. in diameter, adnate scattered or crowded, flat or slightly convex, the disk pruinose, and the exciple persistent; hypothecium lighter or darker brown; hymenium usually pale; paraphyses coherent and becoming indistinct; asci cylindrico-clavate; spores oblong-ellipsoid, to mic. long and to . mic. wide. collected in butler and adams counties. on limestone. not previously reported from ohio, but often occurring with the last in limestone areas. lecidea ach. meth. lich. xxx. . pl. . f. , . . thallus smooth, roughened, or verrucose, in some species chinky to areolate, or even subsquamulose, rarely rudimentary and evanescent; apothecia minute to middle-sized, usually adnate, but rarely sessile or immersed, with pale to black, and flat to strongly convex disk; exciple and hypothecium from pale to dark brown in section; hymenium lighter, most commonly pale; spores simple, hyaline, in each ascus. key to the species of lecidea exciple soft, usually light colored. apothecia usually surrounded by a thalloid veil . l. _coarctata_ apothecia not surrounded by a thalloid veil. exciple becoming covered. hypothecium pale or pale yellow. apothecia always minute. spores to mic. long . l. _intropallida_ spores to mic. long . l. _varians_ apothecia reaching middle size . l. _rupestris_ hypothecium light-brown to dark brown. thallus gray-green or lighter . l. _viridescens_ thallus darker from the first or becoming so. thallus minute and evanescent . l. _humicola_ thallus well developed and persistent. thallus of raised granules . l. _uliginosa_ thallus of flat granules . l. _sylvicola_ exciple persistent . l. _flexuosa_ exciple horny, dark colored. disk usually convex, commonly on wood . l. _enteroleuca_ disk flat or less commonly convex, on rocks. disk usually white- to rusty-green-pruinose . l. _albocaerulescens_ disk black, scarcely pruinose . l. _platycarpa_ . lecidea coarctata (j.e. smith) nyl. act. soc. linn. bord. : . . _lichen coarctatus_ j.e. smith in sowerby, eng. bot. : pl. . . thallus of minute, scattered or clustered, rounded, angular, or minutely and irregularly crenate, green-gray, pale brown, or more commonly ash-white granules, sometimes passing into a subcontinuous, chinky or areolate crust; apothecia minute to small, . to . mm. in diameter, adnate, from flesh-colored to black, commonly concave or flat, sometimes difform, frequently surrounded laterally by a thalloid veil; hypothecium and hymenium pale to pale brown; paraphyses distinct; asci clavate or cylindrico-clavate; spores ovoid to ellipsoid, to mic. long and to mic. wide. collected in lake, ross, hocking, and preble counties. also examined from lawrence county. on rocks and old bricks. not previously reported from ohio. widely distributed in the state, but rare, except in lake county, where this fungus was unusually common. . lecidea intropallida sp. nov. thallus a continuous, smooth or slightly roughened, ash-gray and darkening crust; apothecia minute, . to . mm. in diameter, adnate or partly immersed, flesh-colored to yellow-brown, flat to slightly convex, the concolorous and inconspicuous exciple soon covered; hypothecium and hymenium pale; paraphyses sometimes distinct, but more commonly coherent-indistinct; asci clavate; spores simple, hyaline, ellipsoid, to mic. long and . to mic. wide. collected near painesville in lake county. on pebbles in a moist wood. the type specimen is deposited in the writer's herbarium, and a cotype may be seen in the state herbarium. . lecidea varians ach. syn. meth. lich. . . thallus of very minute, raised or flattened, green-gray to yellow-green granules, these forming a thin but continuous, smooth or granulate-rugose, often chinky crust, usually bordered and often decussated by black lines; apothecia minute, . to . mm. in diameter, often clustered or even conglomerate, adnate, from pale yellow to brown and finally black, flat with a thin exciple to convex with covered exciple; hypothecium pale to pale yellow; hymenium pale below, but often yellow or blue-violet above; paraphyses usually coherent, distinct or indistinct; asci clavate; spores oviod-ellipsoid, to mic. long and to . mic. wide. collected in adams county. on maple bark. also reported from franklin county. the plant is so minute and inconspicuous as to be very difficult to detect and is probably distributed widely in the state. . lecidea rupestris (scop.) ach. meth. lich. . . (see fig. ). _lichen rupestris_ scop. fl. carn. ed. . : , . . thallus a continuous, moderately thick, smooth or more or less roughened, often chinky to subareolate, ash-gray, yellow-green, or darkening crust; apothecia small to large, . to . mm. in diameter, at first immersed but becoming adnate, yellow to yellow or red-brown, flat to strongly convex and the exciple covered; hypothecium pale or pale yellow; hymenium pale; paraphyses coherent, semi-distinct to indistinct; asci clavate; spores ellipsoid, to mic. long and to mic. wide. collected in adams country. on calcareous rocks. not previously reported from north america. . lecidea viridescens (schrad.) ach. meth. lich. . . _lichen viridescens_ schrad. spic. fl. germ. . . thallus of very minute, smooth or deliquescent and powdery, ash-grey to grey-green granules, spread over the substratum as a thin or rarely thicker crust; apothecia minute to small, . to . mm. in diameter, adnate, frequently clustered or even conglomerate, becoming black, from flat with the thin livid or darker exciple visible to convex with the exciple covered; hypothecium pale or darker brown; hymenium pale to pale brown; paraphyses coherent, semi-distinct to indistinct; asci clavate; spores oblong-ellipsoid, to mic. long and to . mic. wide. collected on little mountain in lake county, and in hocking county. on logs in woods. not previously reported from ohio, and probably rare in the state. . lecidea humicola (ach.) comb. nov. _lecidea uliginosa humicola_ ach. meth. lich. . . thallus of very minute inconspicuous and evanescent, brown-black granules; apothecia minute, . to . mm. in diameter, adnate, dark brown to black, scattered or clustered, plain with a thin concolorous exciple visible, to convex with the exciple finally covered; hypothecium dark brown; hymenium pale brown; asci clavate; paraphyses coherent-indistinct; spores oblong-ellipsoid, to mic. long and to mic. wide. collected in hocking county. on soil in a moist wood. not previously reported from north america. . lecidea uliginosa (schrad.) ach. meth. lich. . . _lichen uliginosus_ schrad. spic. fl. germ. . . thallus of scattered, clustered, or even heaped, irregular and minute, green-olive to rust-brown, or even brown-black, somewhat raised and rarely coralloid granules, these forming a scattered or continuous crust; apothecia minute to small, . to . mm. in diameter, closely adnate or more or less immersed, often clustered, brown to black-brown, flat with the thin lighter-colored or black exciple visible, or becoming strongly convex, with the exciple finally covered; hypothecium light or darker brown; hymenium tinged yellow or brown; paraphyses closely coherent, but usually remaining distinct; asci long-clavate; spores oblong-ellipsoid, to mic. long and to mic. wide. collected in preble, butler, warren, adams, fairfield, and lake counties. on dead wood. widely distributed in ohio. . lecidea sylvicola koerb. syst. lich. . . thallus of minute, irregular, somewhat flattened or more rarely hemispherical, green-gray, olive-brown, or darker granules, these forming a thin, continuous, or rarely scattered, subleprose, verrucose, or even subareolate, wide-spread crust; apothecia minute to small, . to . mm. in diameter, adnate or rarely more or less immersed, dark brown to black, flat to convex, the black exciple soon becoming covered; hypothecium brown to black-brown; hymenium pale or tinged brown; paraphyses coherent, semi-distinct to indistinct; asci clavate; spores ellipsoid, to mic. long and . to mic. wide. collected in lake, ross, preble, hocking, and butler counties. on various rocks. not previously reported from ohio, and apparently new to america under this name. widely distributed in ohio. for possible relationship to _lecidea myriocarpoides_ nyl. see "the lichens of minnesota" (cont. nat. herb. : . ). . lecidea flexuosa (fr.) nyl. act. soc. linn. bord. . . . _biatora flexuosa_ fr. vet. akad. handl. : . . thallus of small or minute, flattened or rugose, scattered or clustered, ash-grey to green-gray granules, these bursting into sorediate heaps, or forming a moderately thick, areolate crust; apothecia minute to small, . to . mm. in diameter, adnate, black, and flat, the thin, livid or darker, persistent exciple becoming flexuous; hypothecium pale or darker brown; hymenium tinged brown; paraphyses coherent, semi-distinct to indistinct; asci cylindrico-clavate; spores oblong-ellipsoid, to mic. long and to mic. wide. collected in preble, adams, ross, and butler counties. on dead wood. not previously reported from ohio, and rare, though probably distributed widely in the state. the spores are slightly below normal size in our specimens. . lecidea enteroleuca ach. lich. univ. . . thallus thin or becoming moderately thick, smooth or more often granulate, chinky or areolate, the granules or verrucae rarely becoming heaped in the thicker forms, ash- to green-gray, occurring in rounded areas, or irregularly and often widely spread over the substratum; apothecia minute to middle-sized, . to . mm. in diameter, adnate, black, flat to more commonly convex, the frequently flexuous exciple often becoming covered; hypothecium pale to dark brown; hymenium pale below, but usually more or less colored above; paraphyses distinct, but often more or less coherent; asci clavate; spores ovoid-ellipsoid, to mic. long and to mic. wide (fig. ). collected in lake, adams, and hocking counties. on bark and rocks. not previously reported from ohio. rare, but doubtless distributed widely in the state. . lecidea albocaerulescens (wulf.) schaer. lich. helv. spic. : . . _lichen albocaerulescens_ wulf. in jacq. coll. bot. : . pl. . f. . . thallus smooth or somewhat rough, more or less chinky or becoming obscurely small-areolate, ash- to green-gray, or becoming olivaceous, spreading over the substratum as a continuous, moderately thick crust; apothecia small to large, . to . mm. in diameter, adnate or more or less immersed, usually flat, almost always white or rusty-green pruinose, the black exciple rarely becoming covered; hypothecium brown to black-brown; hymenium commonly pale; paraphyses distinct, but usually coherent; asci clavate to inflated-clavate; spores ovoid-ellipsoid, to mic. long and to mic. wide. collected in preble, hocking, and lake counties. also examined from lawrence county. on rocks other than calcareous. not previously reported from ohio. rare, but apparently distributed widely in the state. . lecidea platycarpa ach. lich. univ. . pl. . f. . . thallus a thin, obscurely or more or less plainly roughened, usually chinky to subareolate, ash- to green-gray, continuous or more or less scattered, sometimes disappearing crust; apothecia small to middle-sized or even larger, . to . mm. in diameter, commonly scattered, brown-black to black, rarely and obscurely white-pruinose, adnate to sessile, rounded to flexuous, flat or finally convex, the raised exciple sometimes becoming covered; hypothecium dark brown; hymenium pale below and colored above; paraphyses distinct or coherent-semidistinct; asci clavate; spores ovoid- to oblong-ellipsoid, to mic. long and to mic. wide. collected in ross and hocking counties. on rocks. not previously reported from ohio. biatorina mass. ric. lich. . f. - . . thallus commonly granulose, and often passing into verrucose and chinky conditions, but scarcely ever areolate, sometimes scant and evanescent; apothecia usually minute or small, and commonly adnate, exciple weak and often becoming covered; hypothecium and hymenium passing from pale through shades of brown, the former becoming darker than the latter, this rarely tinged blue or violet above; spores hyaline, -celled. key to the species of biatorina growing on another lichen . b. _heerii_ growing on wood or on rocks. on old wood . b. _prasina_ on rocks. exciple strong and seldom becoming covered . b. _chalybeia_ exciple weak and usually becoming covered . b. _lentibularis_ . biatorina heerii (hepp) fink cont. nat. herb. : . . _biatora heerii_ hepp, spore flecht. eur. pl. . f. . . thallus of very minute, rounded and frequently heaped granules, sometimes visible under a hand lens, but often seen only in sections of the substratum, rarely disappearing; apothecia minute, . to . mm. in diameter, adnate to sessile, flesh-colored and blackening, flat to slightly convex, the concolorous or darker exciple commonly persistent; hypothecium and hymenium pale to light brown; paraphyses distinct to coherent-indistinct; asci clavate; spores ellipsoid, to mic. long and to . mic. wide. collected in butler county. on the thallus of _peltigera canina_. not previously reported from ohio. so minute as to be difficult to detect. consequently nothing further is known of its distribution in the state. . biatorina prasina (fr.) fink cont. nat. herb. : . . _micarea prasina_ fr. syst. orb. veg. . . thallus of minute, closely clustered or even heaped granules, these forming a wide-spread, frequently subleprose, green-gray to dark-olive crust; apothecia minute to small, . to . mm. in diameter, adnate, commonly carneous or darkening, more or less convex and usually becoming convex with the exciple finally covered; hypothecium pale or pale brown; hymenium pale below and commonly darker above; paraphyses coherent, semi-distinct to indistinct; asci clavate; spores oblong-ellipsoid, to mic. long and . to mic. wide. collected on little mountain in lake county. on a rotten log. not previously reported from ohio, and evidently rare in the state. simple spores were seen in the specimens collected, but they were supposed to be immature. . biatorina lentibularis (ach.) koerb. syst. lich. . . _lecidea lentibularis_ ach. syn. meth. lich. . . thallus a thin, smooth or subtartareous, rarely rimose-areolate, ash-white to brown-gray, wide-spread and continuous or finally disappearing crust; apothecia minute to small, . to . mm. in diameter, adnate, black, from flat becoming convex and often irregular, the inconspicuous exciple then becoming covered; hypothecium pale to darker brown; hymenium pale or tinged brown; paraphyses distinct to coherent-indistinct; asci clavate; spores oblong-ellipsoid, to mic. long and . to mic. wide. a single collection was made in highland county. on exposed calcareous rocks. not previously reported from ohio, and doubtless rare in the state. an occasional -celled spore was seen, a transitional character previously noted by th. m. fries. the plant is closely related to the next below, from which it may not be distinct. . biatorina chalybeia (borr.) mudd, man. brit. lich. . . _lecidea chalybeia_ borr. in sowerby, eng. bot. suppl. : pl. . f. . . thallus a thin, smooth or roughened, ash-gray and darkening crust, forming a continuous layer, becoming inconspicuous and rarely disappearing; apothecia minute to small, . to . mm. in diameter, adnate to sessile, concave to slightly convex, black, the exciple concolorous, prominent, and rarely becoming covered; hypothecium dark brown; hymenium pale below and pale brown above; paraphyses wide and strong, distinct to coherent-indistinct; asci clavate; spores oblong-ellipsoid, to mic. long and . to . mic. wide (fig. ). collected in butler county. on calcareous rocks. not previously reported from ohio, and probably rare in the state. the spores are somewhat larger than in european specimens. bilimbia de not. giorn. bot. ital. : . . thallus usually composed of minute granules, these often run together to form a leprose or verrucose and rarely areolate or even subsquamulose crust, rarely disappearing; apothecia minute or small, usually adnate, with a weak and often covered exciple; hypothecium pale to dark brown; hymenium pale or tinged brown; spores hyaline, usually fusiform or dactyloid, varying from - to -celled. key to the species of bilimbia on rocks. apothecia and spores smaller . b. _microcarpa_ apothecia and spores larger . b. _trachona_ on other substrata. on mosses . b. _hypnophila_ on wood or bark. spores becoming more than -celled . b. _naegelii_ spores not more than -celled. apothecia flesh-colored to dark brown . b. _sphaeroides_ apothecia black . b. _melaena_ . bilimbia sphaeroides (dicks.) koerb. syst. lich. . . lichen sphaeroides dicks. pl. crypt. brit. : . pl. . f. . . thallus of minute, gray-green, often heaped granules, these forming a continuous, thin or thicker crust; apothecia minute to small, . to . mm. in diameter, adnate, flesh-colored to red-brown, flat to convex and subglobose, the inconspicuous, concolorous exciple soon covered; hypothecium and hymenium pale; paraphyses usually coherent-indistinct; asci clavate; spores fusiform-ellipsoid, -celled, to mic. long and to mic. wide. collected on little mountain, in lake county. on a rotten log in a wood. rare in ohio, and its distribution unknown. the plant is typical internally, but is young with small, flat or slightly convex, light-colored apothecia. . bilimbia hypnophila (ach.) th. fr. nov. act. reg. soc. sci. ups. iii. : . . _lecidea hypnophila_ ach. lich. univ. . . thallus of minute, usually crowded, sometimes confluent granules, these forming an ash- or green-gray, thin, leprose or subgranulose, sometimes scattered and disappearing crust; apothecia minute to middle-sized, . to . mm. in diameter, light brown to black, adnate to sessile, scattered or clustered, becoming strongly convex and the exciple becoming covered; hypothecium pale or darker brown; hymenium pale, or tinged brown below and more plainly brown above; paraphyses coherent, semi-distinct to indistinct; asci clavate or long-clavate; spores ellipsoid to fusiform, - to -celled, to mic. long and to mic. wide. collected in preble, hocking, and adams counties. over mosses on rocks or bases of trees; or rarely on rocks, soil, bark, or wood. not previously reported from ohio, and not a common fungus in the state. . bilimbia naegelii (hepp) zwackh. flora. : . . _biatora naegelii_ hepp, spor. flecht. eur. pl. . f. . . . thallus of usually flattened granules, these commonly running together to form a moderately thin, more or less roughened, often chinky, ash- or green-gray, or darkening, limited or rarely wide-spread crust; apothecia minute to middle-sized, . to . mm. in diameter, adnate or rarely sessile, flesh-colored to dark brown, scattered or clustered, flat with the thin exciple visible to strongly convex with the exciple covered; hypothecium pale or tinged brown; hymenium pale throughout or tinged brown above; paraphyses coherent, semi-distinct to indistinct; asci clavate; spores fusiform-ellipsoid, - to -celled, to mic. long and to mic. wide. collected in highland county. on bark. not previously reported from ohio, and doubtless rare in the state. the usual width given for the spores is to mic., and our plant is placed here provisionally. . bilimbia melaena (nyl.) th. fr. lich. scand. - . . _lecidea melaena_ nyl. bot. not. : . . thallus of minute, olive-green to black-brown granules, these forming a thin, granulose or scurfy, sometimes disappearing crust; apothecia minute to small, . to . mm. in diameter, black-brown to black, sessile, occurring singly or in clusters, strongly convex to subglobose, the exciple soon covered; hypothecium pale brown to red-brown; hymenium pale or tinged brown; paraphyses coherent, semi-distinct to indistinct; asci clavate to inflated-clavate; spores oblong-ellipsoid or dactyloid, - to -celled, to mic. long and to mic. wide. collected in lake county. on an old log in a wood. not previously reported in ohio, and rare in the state. nylander called the apothecium pale within, but forms with red-brown hypothecia are admitted by later writers. . bilimbia microcarpa th. fr. bot. not. : . . _bilimbia obscurata microcarpa_ th. fr. nov. act. soc. sci. ups. iii. : . . thallus of minute ash-gray or green-gray granules, these rarely forming a thin or moderately thick, subcontinuous, verrucose crust, but more often scattered or disappearing entirely; apothecia minute to small, . to . mm. in diameter, scattered or conglomerate, dirty brown to black, soon becoming convex and subglobose, with the pale exciple then covered; hypothecium pale to pale red-brown; hymenium pale; asci clavate to inflated-clavate; paraphyses coherent-indistinct; spores fusiform, -celled, to mic. long and to mic. wide. collected in hocking county. on shaded sandstone. not previously reported from north america. . bilimbia trachona (ach.) oliver lich. france , . . _verrucaria trachona_ ach. meth. lich. suppl. . . thallus thin and granular, passing into smooth or leprose conditions, thence to thickened and subareolate states, ash-colored to dark brown-green, usually continuous over considerable areas; apothecia minute to middle-sized, . to . mm. in diameter, from brown-black with lighter exciple to wholly black, adnate or somewhat immersed, flat or finally convex with the exciple at length covered; hypothecium pale brown to black-brown; hymenium pale or rarely pale brown; paraphyses distinct to coherent semi-distinct; asci clavate; spores fusiform-dactyloid, -celled, to mic. long and . to . mic. wide (fig. ). collected in several localities in preble, highland, and adams counties. on rocks, usually limestone. also reported from cuyahoga and ottawa counties. not common, but doubtless distributed widely in the state. bacidia de not. giorn. bot. ital. : . . thallus granulose, passing into chinky, verrucose, subareolate and subsquamulose conditions, seldom or never disappearing; apothecia minute to large, adnate or rarely immersed more or less, exciple usually weak and becoming covered; hypothecium commonly some shade of yellow or brown; hymenium pale to light brown; spores hyaline, acicular, varying from - to -celled, often curved or variously twisted, usually in each ascus. key to the species of bacidia on rocks. spores hamate or spirally twisted . b. _umbrina_ spores straight or only slightly curved. thallus ash- or green-gray . b. _inundata_ thallus olive or darker . b. _egenuloidea_ on bark. spores less than mic. in length . b. _incompta_ spores to mic. long. apothecia flesh-yellow to red-brown . b. _rubella_ apothecia brown to black. apothecia usually brown with a striate, usually pruinose margin . b. _fuscorubella_ apothecia usually black of dark brown, without striate and pruinose margin . b. _schweinitzii_ . bacidia egenuloidea sp. nov. thallus of minute, crowded granules, forming a rather thick, conspicuous, rugose and obscurely chinky, dirt-olive and darkening, wide-spread crust; apothecia minute to small, . to . mm. in diameter, yellow-brown and darkening, adnate-sessile, flat with an elevated, darker exciple; hypothecium and hymenium pale or tinged brown; paraphyses coherent, semi-distinct; asci clavate; spores hyaline obscurely several-celled, variously curved, to mic. long and . to . mic. wide. collected in preble county. on granite in a damp field near west alexandria. the type specimen is deposited in the writer's herbarium, and a cotype may be found in the state herbarium. . bacidia rubella (hoffm.) mass. ric. lich. . f. . . _verrucaria rubella_ hoffm. deutsch. fl. : . . thallus of minute, scattered or crowed granules, these frequently becoming compacted into a subleprose or more or less verrucose or chinky, ash- to green-gray, moderately thick or thinner, continuous or sometimes scattered and disappearing crust (fig. ); apothecia small to large, . to . mm. in diameter, sessile to adnate, flesh-yellow to red-brown, flat with a rather thick and lighter-colored exciple, or becoming convex with the exciple finally covered; hypothecium pale yellow to brown; hymenium pale yellow; paraphyses coherent, semi-distinct to indistinct; asci long clavate; spores about - to -celled, to mic. long and to mic. wide. collected in butler, highland, adams, and preble counties. also examined from franklin county. on bark. widely distributed in ohio, but not common. . bacidia fuscorubella (hoffm.) arn. flora : . . _verrucaria fuscorubella_ hoffm. deutsch. fl. : . . thallus of minute, crowded or scattered granules, these forming a usually conspicuous and often rugose and chinky, green-gray or darker, frequently wide-spread, rarely disappearing crust; apothecia small to large, . to . mm. in diameter, pale to darker brown and finally black, adnate or sessile, flat with an elevated, and sometimes transversely striate, and usually pruinose exciple, less frequently becoming convex with the exciple rarely becoming covered; hypothecium yellow to yellow-brown; hymenium pale yellow; paraphyses coherent, semi-distinct to indistinct; asci long-clavate; spores about - to -celled, to mic. long and to mic. wide. collected in butler and adams counties. also reported from champaign and hamilton counties. on bark. this fungus appears to be rare in ohio. in one specimen, some of the disks are partly or wholly pruinose, but the plant seemed nearer to this than to _bacidia suffusa_ (fr.) fink. . bacidia schweinitzii (tuck.) fink cont. nat. herb. : . . _biatora schweinitzii_ tuck. in darl fl. cestr. ed. . . . thallus thin and inconspicuous, or becoming thick and more prominent, composed of rounded and often crowded or even heaped granules, these frequently compacted into a continuous or scattered, verrucose and often chinky, green-gray to olivaceous crust; apothecia small to large, . to . mm. in diameter, dark brown to black, adnate or sessile, flat or slightly convex, the concolorous or lighter exciple frequently becoming flexuous; hypothecium pale yellow to dark brown; hymenium pale yellow; paraphyses coherent, distinct to semi-distinct: asci long-clavate; spores about - to -celled, to mic. long and . to . mic. wide. collected in fairfield, hocking, and adams counties. on bark. evidently a rare fungus in ohio. . bacidia inundata (fr.) koerb. syst. lich. . . _biatora inundata_ fr. vet. akad. handl. : . . thallus of minute granules, these usually compacted into a thin or rarely thicker, granulate, chinky, or subareolate, ash- or green-gray or darkening, commonly wide-spread, continuous or scattered crust; apothecia minute to middle-sized, . to . mm. in diameter, pale brown to finally black, adnate or rarely more or less immersed, usually flat and bordered by the commonly lighter colored exciple, rarely becoming convex, the exciple then finally covered; hypothecium pale to brown; hymenium pale to pale brown; paraphyses coherent, semi-distinct to indistinct; asci clavate to long-clavate, spores - to -celled, to mic. long and . to . mic. wide. collected in butler, preble, highland, adams, warren, and lake counties. on various rocks in shaded or open moist places, and also about the moist shaded bases of rocks in dry fields. also reported from cuyahoga county and doubtless common in all parts of the state. . bacidia incompta (borr.) anzi. cat. lich. sondr. . . _lecidea incompta_ borr. in sowerby, engl. bot. suppl. : pl. . . thallus of very minute granules, these forming a continuous or more or less broken, wide-spread, sometimes thick and rugose or rarely even subareolate, or again thin, smooth, more or less mealy, light or darker green-gray, rarely disappearing crust; apothecia minute to middle-sized, . to . mm. in diameter, dark brown to black, adnate to sub-sessile, flat or becoming convex, with a thin and frequently flexuous exciple; hypothecium pale brown to brown; hymenium pale below and pale brown above; paraphyses coherent, semi-distinct to indistinct; asci long-clavate; spores - to -celled, to mic. long and . to mic. wide. collected in adams county. on bark. not previously reported from ohio, and doubtless rare in the state. . bacidia umbrina (ach.) br. & rostr. bot. tidssk. : . . _lecidea umbrina_ ach. lich. univ. . . thallus a rather thick and continuous, or rarely thinner and scattered, subleprose, chinky, rugose-granulate or subareolate, green-gray to dark olive-brown, sometimes largely disappearing crust; apothecia minute to small, . to . mm. in diameter, light brown to black, adnate to somewhat immersed, at first flat with a commonly paler exciple, becoming convex with the exciple sometimes covered; hypothecium pale or darker brown; hymenium pale throughout, or tinged brown above; paraphyses coherent, semi-distinct to indistinct; asci long-clavate, or inflated-clavate; spores hamate, or more or less spirally twisted, about - to -celled, to mic. long and to mic. wide (fig. ). collected in preble, lake, hocking, and adams counties. also examined from wayne county. on various rocks. not previously reported from ohio, but evidently distributed widely in the state. buellia de not. giorn. bot. ital. : . . thallus granulose, verrucose, or areolate, rather better developed than those of the preceding genera as shown in the more frequent verrucose and areolate conditions; apothecia minute to large, sessile to immersed, the disk and the exciple usually black; hypothecium usually brown; hymenium pale to light brown; paraphyses usually distinct; spores brown, -celled. key to the species of buellia on rocks . b. _turgescentoides_ on wood, or on bark. on dead wood . b. _myriocarpa_ on bark . b. _parasema_ . buellia myriocarpa (lam. & dc.) mudd. man. brit. lich. . . _patellaria myriocarpa_ lam. & dc. fl. ed. . : . . thallus a thin and scurfy, smooth or chinky, or thicker and roughened-verrucose, ash- to green-gray, or darkening crust, irregularly spread over small areas, and rarely disappearing; apothecia minute to small, . to . mm. in diameter, often numerous, black, adnate, flat and bordered by an exciple, or becoming convex with the exciple sometimes covered; hypothecium dark brown; hymenium pale, or pale below and pale brown above; paraphyses distinct, but sometimes loosely coherent; asci clavate; spores oblong-ellipsoid, to mic. long and to . mic. wide. collected in butler and lake counties. on dead wood, especially posts and boards. also reported from cuyahoga county. an inconspicuous fungus, doubtless distributed widely in the state. . buellia parasema (ach.) koerb. syst. lich. . . _lichen parasemus_ ach. lich. suec. . . thallus usually continuous and smooth, but sometimes becoming thicker and roughened, granulate, chinky, or finally areolate, ash- to green-gray, and darkening, or even yellow-green, usually bordered wholly or in part by a black margin; apothecia small to large, . to . mm. in diameter, black, adnate to sessile, or rarely more or less immersed, flat with a prominent, concolorous, sometimes flexuous exciple, or sometimes becoming convex, with the exciple often covered (fig. ); hypothecium dark brown; hymenium pale below and pale brown above; paraphyses distinct (fig. ), but sometimes loosely coherent; asci clavate (fig. ), or rarely inflated clavate; spores oblong to ellipsoid, to mic. long and to mic. wide, rarely -celled (fig. ). collected in fairfield, lake, adams, highland, hocking, and butler counties. also examined from morgan, madison, and muskingum counties. on bark. generally distributed in ohio. . buellia turgescentoides sp. nov. thallus a thick, continuous or scattered, flat or verrucose, areolate or subareolate, dull olive-brown, and darkening crust, covering small areas or spreading widely over the substratum, the marginal areoles sometimes lobulate; apothecia minute to small, . to . mm. in diameter, immersed to adnate, scattered or clustered, black, flat with the thin concolorous exciple visible, or convex with the exciple covered; hypothecium pale or darker brown; hymenium pale; paraphyses stout, distinct, but often loosely coherent; asci clavate or inflated-clavate; spores brown, -celled, oblong to oblong-ellipsoid, to mic. long, and to mic. wide, in each ascus. collected in lake county. on exposed igneous rocks. the type specimen is deposited in the writer's herbarium, and a cotype may be found in the state herbarium. this species is a coarser plant than _buellia turgescens_ (nyl.) tuck., with much stronger, darker thallus and apothecia on the whole larger. rhizocarpon ram. in lam. & dc. fl. fr. ed. . : . . thallus usually verrucose, areolate or subareolate, tending toward squamulose conditions, better developed than in other members of the family, scarcely ever showing granulate conditions, and never disappearing entirely; apothecia also larger than in the other genera, adnate to immersed, usually black, but rarely white-pruinose; hypothecium usually dark brown; hymenium pale to light brown; spores -celled to muriform, and pale to brown, various conditions of septation and coloration sometimes appearing in the same hymenium. key to the species of rhizocarpon on bark . r. _alboatrum_ on rocks. spores smaller and -celled . r. _vernicomoideum_ spores larger and becoming muriform . r. _petraeum_ . rhizocarpon vernicomoideum sp. nov. thallus of minute, rounded, scattered or sometimes clustered, straw-colored granules, covering small areas, and usually resting on and limited wholly or in part by a black hypothallus; apothecia minute to small, . to . mm. in diameter, black, semi-immersed to adnate, at first flat with a thin somewhat raised exciple, becoming convex with the exciple finally covered; hypothecium brown; hymenium pale or tinged brown below and light brown above; paraphyses coherent, distinct or semi-distinct; asci clavate; spores brown, -celled, becoming slightly constricted at the septa, to mic. long and to mic. wide, in each ascus. collected at cantwell cave in hocking county. on shaded sandstone, intermingled with an ash-gray, crustose thallus, which appeared like a sterile _pertusaria_. the type specimen is deposited in the writer's herbarium, and a cotype may be seen in the state herbarium. the plant resembles _buellia vernicoma_ tuck. . rhizocarpon alboatrum (hoffm.) th. fr. nov. act. reg. soc. sci. ups. iii. : . . _lichen alboater_ hoffm. lich. icon. . . thallus ash-gray varying toward white, commonly spread widely over the substratum as a continuous or rarely scattered or disappearing, smooth, chinky, verrucose-areolate, or sometimes mealy crust: apothecia small to middle-sized, . to mm. in diameter, adnate or immersed, dull black and often more or less white-pruinose, flat with the black exciple visible, or convex when the exciple often becomes covered; hypothecium brown to black-brown; hymenium pale or tinged brown; paraphyses distinct, but sometimes coherent; asci clavate; spores oblong-ellipsoid, brown, -celled to muriform, to mic. long and to mic. wide (fig. ), in each ascus. collected in butler, preble, ross, and highland counties. on bark, especially elm bark. also reported from ottawa county. rare but doubtless distributed widely in the state. . rhizocarpon petraeum (wulf.) koerb. syst. lich. . . _lichen petraeus_ wulf. in jacq. coll. bot. : . pl. . f. a. . thallus an ash or green-gray crust, or varying toward brown or brown-black, smooth to more commonly roughened, chinky to areolate, continuous or scattered, of moderate thickness, often widely and irregularly disposed on the substratum; apothecia small to large, . to . mm. in diameter, immersed to adnate, black-brown to black, flat with the concolorous exciple visible, or becoming somewhat convex, with the exciple often covered; hypothecium dark brown; hymenium pale, or tinged brown, especially above; paraphyses coherent, semi-distinct; asci clavate or inflated-clavate; spores oblong-ellipsoid, -celled to muriform, hyaline to finally brown, to mic. long and to mic. wide. in each ascus (fig. ). collected in lake, hocking, and ross counties. also examined from summit, vinton, and ashtabula counties. on rocks. rare but widely distributed in the state. explanation of plate xiii fig. . five paraphyses of _rhizocarpon alboatrum_ to illustrate types of simple and branched forms found in the same hymenium. x . fig. . a section of the thallus of _bacidia rubella_ and two cells of the woody substratum: a, the upper densely interwoven portion of the thallus; b, part of the less densely interwoven portion below; c, the algal-host cells; d, one of the cells of the woody substratum and three hypal rhizoids within it. x . fig. . spores of _lecidea enteroleuca_ to illustrate the simple, hyaline type. x . fig. . spores of _biatorina chalybeia_ to illustrate the -celled, hyaline type. x . fig. . spores of _bilimbia trachona_ to illustrate the several-celled, hyaline, fusiform or dactyloid type. x . fig. . spores of _bacidia fuscorubella_ to illustrate the several-celled, hyaline, acicular type. x . fig. . spores of _bacidia umbrina_ to illustrate the several-celled, hyaline, hamate or spirally twisted type. x . fig. . spores of _rhizocarpon alboatrum_ to illustrate the several-celled to many-celled and muriform, hyaline to brown type. x . fig. . spores of _rhizocarpon petraeum_ of the same type as those shown in the last figure, but larger, and usually composed of more cells. x . fig. . a vertical section through an apothecium of _lecidea rupestris_: a, the hymenium, composed of asci and paraphyses; b, the hypothecium; c, the mycelium, the cells of the algal host, and particles of the limestone on which the plant was growing; d, the weak, light-colored, covered exciple. x . fig. . a vertical section through an apothecium of _buellia parasema_, the thallus below, and a portion of the woody substratum: a, the hymenium, composed of asci and paraphyses; b, the strongly developed, dark colored exciple; c, the dark colored hypothecium; d, the thallus, composed of interwoven hyphae, and enclosing cells of the algal host, a portion of the woody substratum. x . fig. . one branched and one unbranched paraphysis of _buellia parasema_. x . fig. . an ascus of _buella parasema_, containing spores. x . the figures were outlined with camera lucida and drawn on the table, close to the base of the microscope, mm. below the stage. they were reduced one-half in making the plate. figures , , and are partly diagrammatical. [illustration: plate xiii.] the ascomycetes of ohio v[b] the peltigeraceae. leafy j. corrington. two genera, _peltigera_ and _nephroma_, constitute the _peltigeraceae_ as represented in the flora of ohio. the thallus is plainly foliose with the margins of the lobes usually ascending and is gray-green to brown in color. the lower surface is often conspicuously veined. there are two pronounced distinctions between the two genera. _peltigera_ has a well-developed cortex on the upper side of the thallus only (fig. ), while in _nephroma_ there is a well-developed cortex on both upper and lower sides (fig. ). the position of the apothecia constitutes another distinction. in both genera the apothecia are marginal or submarginal on the lobes, which are usually narrow and somewhat extended; but in _peltigera_ they are immersed in the upper surface, while in _nephroma_ they are imbedded in the lower surface. _peltigera_ furnishes seven species for ohio, while only one species of _nephroma_ has thus far been found in the state. the algal hosts are usually _dactylococcus_ or _polycoccus_, and both hosts are sometimes found in the same thallus. the chains of cells are usually badly broken up, and the nature of the algal host is, therefore, difficult to distinguish. other algae doubtless sometimes occur in the thalli of _peltigerae_. _nephroma_ with cortex on both sides, is to be regarded higher than _peltigera_, which has the cortex on the upper side only. the family is most closely related to the _stictaceae_, from which family it is kept distinct on account of the absence of cyphellae and the difference in disposition of the apothecia. the collecting on which this paper is based was partly by bruce fink in connection with general collecting of fungi in butler county and in collecting in adams, warren, fairfield, preble, ross, highland, and lake counties for the ohio biological survey. however, a considerable amount of material found by other collectors and previously reported from ohio was examined. hence, the collecting for the ohio biological survey added little to knowledge of the _peltigeraceae_ of ohio, except in way of addition to distribution in the state. [footnote b: contributions from the botanical laboratory of miami university--xix] _systematic account._ peltigeraceae thallus foliose, with plectenchymatous cortex above (fig. ), or both above and below (fig. ), with medulla of loosely interwoven hyphae, trichomatic hyphae, usually present, attached to the substratum by compound rhizoids; apothecia of considerable size, commonly on extended lobes, usually imbedded in the tissues on the upper side, or more rarely on the lower side; exciple inconspicuous; hypothecium usually light or darker brown; hymenium usually pale below and brown or tinged brown above; paraphyses simple or branched, distinct, seldom gelatinized or coherent; spores hyaline or brown, - to several-celled, elongated. key to the genera . cortex developed on the upper side of thallus only, spores hyaline peltigera. . cortex developed on both upper and lower sides of thallus, spores brown nephroma. _peltigera willd. fl. berol. prodr. . ._ thallus foliose, usually adnate toward the center, with the lobes more or less ascending at the margins, green-gray varying toward brown, the upper surface sometimes bare, or again clothed with trichomatic hyphae, giving it a downy appearance, or bearing cephalodia or isidioid branchlets, the lower surface usually conspicuously veined, with tufted rhizoids descending from the veins, color of these light or dark; cross section showing two distinct layers, the upper plectenchymatous cortex composed of to layers of meshes, and the medulla, composed of densely interwoven and irregularly disposed hyphae; lower cortex lacking, but the hyphae of the lower portion in some instances more or less horizontally arranged and produced into hyphal rhizoids, thus serving for support and protection much like a true plectenchymatous cortex; apothecia usually orbicular, frequently revolute, imbedded in the upper surface of the lobes; exciple plectenchymatous (fig. ); hypothecium of interwoven hyphae, usually tinged brown; hymenium commonly pale below and brown above; paraphyses usually simple, but some branched ones present in all of the species, hyaline in the main, but usually enlarged and tinged brown at the apex; asci usually cylindrico-clavate; spores hyaline, fusiform to acicular, sometimes curved, to -celled, arranged parallel in the asci. the algal host cells lie in the medulla, just below the upper cortex. key to the species of peltigera upper surface of the thallus bearing cephalodia . p. aphthosa upper surface of the thallus devoid of cephalodia. thallus bearing trichomatic hyphae above. upper surface bearing isidioid branchlets or lobules . p. praetextata upper surface devoid of isidioid branchlets or lobules. orbicular sorediate areas on the upper surface of the thallus . p. sorediata soredia lacking on the upper surface. lower surface of the thallus of light color . p. canina lower surface partly or wholly dark . p. rufescens thallus devoid of trichomatic hyphae. apothecia orbicular and revolute, spores - to -celled . p. polydactyla apothecia usually transversely oblong, spores -celled . p. horizontalis . peltigera aphthosa (l.) willd. fl. berol. prodr. . . _lichen aphthosus_ l. sp. pl. . . thallus closely attached to the substratum at the center, the lobes ascending, to cm. in diameter, smooth and devoid of trichomatic hyphae above, cephalodia more or less rounded and irregularly scattered over the surface (fig. ), the lobes broad and rounded with crenate margins, brown above, the lower surface having numerous veins, these forming a dark brown nap at the center, the veins distinct and light toward the margin, dark rhizoids extending from the veins; medulla composed of thick-walled, densely interwoven hyphae, irregularly disposed; apothecia on extended lobules, orbicular and frequently revolute, the disk red-brown, to mm. in diameter, the margin entire or crenulate; hypothecium pale brown; hymenium hyaline to pale brown above; asci cylindrico-clavate; spores acicular, straight, - to -celled, to mic. long and to mic. wide (fig. , d). examined from clark county. also reported from champaign county. on earth and often on humus-covered rocks. rare in ohio. . peltigera praetextata (sommerf.) fink. proc. ind. acad. sci. : . . _peltigera ulorrhiza praetextata_ sommerf. lapp. suppl. . . thallus adnate toward the center, more or less ascending toward the margins, to cm. in diameter, the upper surface having isidioid branchlets or lobules scattered more or less thickly, the lobes broad, wavy, crenate, with frequently isidioid, lobulate margins, trichomatic hyphae often present, usually green-gray toward the center, becoming brown toward the margin, the lower surface light with numerous dark veins and bearing rhizoids of the same color, the veins and rhizoids becoming light colored toward the margin; medulla of densely interwoven and irregularly disposed hyphae; apothecia on narrow, somewhat extended lobes, the disk brown to brown-black, revolute, to mm. in diameter, hypothecium light to darker brown; hymenium pale below and brown above; asci cylindrico-clavate; spores sub-fusiform to acicular, usually straight but sometimes slightly curved, - to -celled, to mic. long and to mic. wide. examined from franklin, adams, butler, marion, jefferson, and preble counties. on soil, old logs, and moss in woods. not previously reported from ohio, but included under _peltigera canina_ and _peltigera rufescens_. evidently widely distributed and frequent in the state, but seldom fruited. . peltigera sorediata (schaer.) fink comb. nov. _peltigera canina spuria sorediata_ schaer. enum. lich. eur. . . thallus small, composed of scattered lobes, these to . cm. in length, adnate with slightly ascending rounded, and crenate margins, the upper surface usually deep gray at the center, becoming lighter toward the margin, thickly covered with trichomatic hyphae, orbicular sorediate areas scattered over the upper surface, the lower surface ash-white to cream-colored, with a network of veins of the same color, with similarly colored rhizoids extending downward; medulla of small, densely interwoven and irregularly extending hyphae; apothecia somewhat digitately clustered on the narrow lobes, small, . to mm. in diameter, orbicular, flat or semi-revolute, dark brown; hypothecium light brown; hymenium hyaline below and brown above; asci long-clavate; spores acicular, - to -celled, to mic. long and to . mic. wide (fig. , b). examined from butler and lake counties. on damp earth and mossy rocks. not previously reported from ohio, and probably not widely distributed in the state. surely rare. . peltigera canina (l.) hoffm. deutsch. fl. : . . _lichen caninus_ l. sp. pl. . . thallus closely adnate toward center, the lobes more or less ascending, to cm. in diameter, the upper surface for the most part thickly covered with trichomatic hyphae, generally giving it a downy appearance under the lens, the lobes numerous and usually broad and rounded, with entire or crenate and much crisped margins, usually green-gray but sometimes becoming brown, below almost white, netted with light brown or gray veins, these bearing rhizoids of the same color; medulla (fig. ) of densely interwoven and irregularly disposed hyphae; apothecia on narrow, extended lobes, often erect, orbicular, usually revolute, to mm. in diameter, the disk dark brown; hypothecium (fig. ) pale brown; hymenium (fig. ) pale below and brown above; asci long-clavate; spores acicular, straight or sometimes curved, - to -celled, to mic. long and to mic. wide (fig. , d). examined from butler, franklin, ashtabula, green, seneca, summit, lorain, preble, brown, and adams counties. on soil or mosses in woods. generally distributed and frequent in ohio. . peltigera rufescens (neck.) hoffm. deutsch. fl. : . . _lichen rufescens_ neck. meth. musc. . . thallus closely adnate at the center with ascending lobes, to cm. in diameter, the upper surface smooth and devoid of trichomatic hyphae for the most part, but the margins sometimes sparingly covered with them, green-gray to brown, the lobes crowded, rather small with crenate, much crisped, elevated margins, the lower surface usually becoming dark brown except at the margins, and thickly reticulated with brown veins, from these numerous rhizoids of similar color extending; medulla of densely interwoven variously disposed hyphae; apothecia numerous on narrow, extending lobes, the disk brown to black-brown, revolute, to mm. in diameter; hypothecium pale brown; hymenium hyaline to pale brown below and dark brown above; asci long-clavate; spores acicular, straight or curved, - to -celled, to mic. long and . to mic. wide. examined from butler, preble, clark, adams, and summit counties. also reported from champaign county. on earth and mosses, commonly about trees. widely distributed in ohio, but infrequent. . peltigera polydactyla (neck.) hoffm. deutsch. fl. : . . _lichen polydactylon_ neck. musc. . . thallus adnate at the center with ascendant margins of the lobes, to cm. in diameter, the upper surface smooth and shining, devoid of trichomatic hyphae, the lobes broad with crisped, crenate margins, except those bearing the apothecia, these much narrower and more elongated and usually digitately clustered, brown in color for the most part, the lower surface showing through a reticulation of dark veins as small light-colored spots, numerous dark rhizoids extending downward from the veins; medulla of densely interwoven and irregularly disposed hyphae; apothecia orbicular, and usually revolute, the disk dark brown, to mm. in diameter; hypothecium pale brown; hymenium pale below and dark brown above; asci clavate to cylindrico-clavate; spores acicular, straight or slightly curved, - to -celled, to mic. long and to mic. wide. examined from clark, fairfield, and morgan counties. on earth. rare in ohio. . peltigera horizontalis (l.) hoffm. deutsch. fl. : . . _lichen horizontalis_ l. mant. pl. : . . thallus mostly adnate, the margins scarcely ascending, to cm. in diameter, the upper surface smooth and shining, devoid of trichomatic hyphae, green-gray to brown, the lobes broad and rounded with entire or crenate margins, the lower surface covered with numerous veins, these giving a dark coloration toward the center and becoming light colored toward the margins, numerous dark rhizoids extending down from the veins; medulla of thick-walled, densely and irregularly disposed hyphae; apothecia on somewhat narrowed lobes, transversely oblong or infrequently orbicular, the disk red-brown, concave, to mm. in diameter; hypothecium light brown; hymenium pale below and dark brown toward the upper surface; asci cylindrico-clavate; spores fusiform to long-ellipsoid, straight to curved, -celled, to mic. long and to . mic. wide. (fig. a). examined from lake and fairfield counties. on earth and mossy rocks. rare in ohio. nephroma ach. lich. univ. . . pl. . f. . . thallus foliose, but smaller and thinner than that of _peltigera_, and devoid of trichomatic hyphae, more or less closely attached to the substratum by rhizoids; cortex well developed on both upper and lower sides; medulla well developed (fig. ); apothecia confined to the lower side of the thallus, marginal on narrow, slightly elongated lobes, thalloid margin persistent and crenate; hypothecium usually some shade of brown; hymenium usually pale below and brown above; paraphyses simple or branched; spores brown, -celled, in each ascus. the algal-host cells occur as in _peltigera_. . nephroma helvetica ach. lich. univ. . . thallus adnate, rather closely attached to the substratum by numerous short, hyaline, thick-walled rhizoids, irregular or sometimes orbicular in form, to cm. in diameter, green-gray to brown above, smooth or bearing tooth-like branchlets, narrowly and laciniately lobed, the margins of the lobes serrate or crenate, slightly ascending, beneath finally tomentose, and brown or black-brown; plectenchymatous cortices well developed above and below; medulla of narrow, thin-walled, densely, variously disposed hyphae; apothecia numerous, the disk red-brown to almost black, . to mm. in diameter; hypothecium of interwoven hyphae, pale brown; hymenium pale brown below and darker above; asci clavate; paraphyses simple or branched, slightly swollen and brown at the apex; spores brown, ellipsoid, -celled, to mic. long and . to mic. wide. examined from butler and champaign counties. on trunks and mossy rocks. rare and usually sterile in ohio. explanation of plate xiv fig. . a section through the thallus of _peltigera canina_, showing the cortex above and the medulla below, the medullary hyphae of the lower portion running in a somewhat horizontal direction. the algal cells shaded. x . fig. . a section through the thallus of _nephroma helvetica_, showing the cortices, upper and lower, and the mycelial medulla within. the algal cell shaded. x . fig. . a section through a cephalodium of _peltigera aphthosa_; a, the surrounding cortex; b, the internal hyphae and the cells of the algal host; c, the supporting hyphae from the thallus below. partly diagramatic. x . fig. . a small portion of a section through the exciple of _peltigera canina_, showing the plectenchymatous structure. x . [illustration: plate xiv.] explanation of plate xv fig. . a section through the cortex of _peltigera canina_, showing its relation to the medullary hyphae. x . fig. . a portion of a section of the hymenium of _peltigera canina_, showing two asci containing spores, two asci with protoplasmic contents, and five paraphyses. x . fig. . a portion of a section through an apothecium of _peltigera canina_, showing part of the hymenium of interwoven hyphae below and the bases of three paraphyses above. x . fig. . types of spores found in the _peltigeraceae_: a, -celled spores of _peltigera horizontalis_; b, - to -celled spores of _peltigera sorediata_; c, -celled spores of _peltigera aphthosa_; d, - to -celled spores of _peltigera canina_. x . the drawings were made with camera lucida and were reduced one-half in making the plates. [illustration: plate xv.] index bacidia, bacidia egenuloidea, bacidia fuscorubella, bacidia incompta, bacidia inundata, bacidia rubella, bacidia schweinitzii, bacidia umbrina, biatorella, biatorella pruinosa, biatorella simplex, biatorina, biatorina chalybeia, biatorina heerii, biatorina lentibularis, biatorina prasina, bilimbia, bilimbia hypnophila, bilimbia melaena, bilimbia microcarpa, bilimbia naegelii, bilimbia sphaeroides, bilimbia trachona, buellia, buellia myriocarpa, buellia parasema, buellia turgescentoides, lecideaceae, lecidea, lecidea albocaerulescens, lecidea coarctata, lecidea enteroleuca, lecidea flexuosa, lecidea humicola, lecidea intropallida, lecidea platycarpa, lecidea rupestris, lecidea sylvicola, lecidea uliginosa, lecidea varians, lecidea viridescens, nephroma, nephroma helvetica, peltigeraceae, peltigera aphthosa, peltigera canina, peltigera horizontalis, peltigera polydactyla, peltigera praetextata, peltigera rufescens, peltigera sorediata, rhizocarpon, rhizocarpon alboatrum, rhizocarpon petraeum, rhizocarpon vernicomoideum, bulletins ohio biological survey i. outline of biological survey plan syrphidae of ohio by c.l. metcalf $ . ii. catalog of ohio vascular plants by john h. schaffner . iii. botanical survey of the sugar grove region by r.f. griggs . iv. the euglenoidina of ohio by l.b. walton . v. the ascomycetes of ohio.--i by bruce fink the ascomycetes of ohio.--ii by bruce fink and c. audrey richards . vi. qualities and uses of the woods of ohio by wm. r. lazenby . vii. the physiographic ecology of the cincinnati region by e. lucy braun . viii. the tingitoidea of ohio by herbert osborn and carl j. drake . ix. the grasses of ohio by john h. schaffner . x. the ascomycetes of ohio.--iv and v by bruce fink and leafy j. corrington .